,transcriber ,note ,to preserve cross-references between the volumes1 both have been combined into one4 ,text emphasis denoted by ,italics4 ,whole and fractional parts of numbers displayed as #abc-d_/e4 ,,the ,medals of ,creation2 ,,or1 ,,first ,,lessons ,,in ,,geology1 ,,and ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,organic ,,remains4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,if we look with wonder upon the great remains of human works1 such as the columns of ,palmyra1 broken in the midst of the desert2 the temples of ,pstum1 beautiful in the decay of twenty centuries2 or the mutilated fragments of ,greek sculpture in the ,acropolis of ,athens1 or in our own museums1 as proofs of the genius of artists1 and power and riches of nations now past away2 with how much deeper feeling of admiration must we consider those grand monuments of nature which mark the revolutions of the ,globe2 continents broken into islands2 one land produced1 another destroyed2 the bottom of the ocean become a fertile soil2 whole races of animals extinct1 and the bones and exuvi of one class covered with the remains of another2 and upon the graves of past generations--the marble or rocky tombs1 as it were1 of a former animated world--new generations rising1 and order and harmony established1 and a system of life and beauty produced out of chaos and death2 proving the infinite power1 wisdom1 and goodness of the ,great ,cause of all things6--,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #a4 ,j4 ,dinkel del4 ,g4 ,scharf lithog4 ,printed by ,hullmandel ,walton ,,medals ,,of ,,creation ,,the ,medals of ,creation2 ,,or1 ,,first ,,lessons ,,in ,,geology1 ,,and ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,organic ,,remains4 ,,by ,,gideon ,,algernon ,,mantell1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,v4,p4,g4,s4 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,london ,,medical ,,society1 ,,etc4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,geology1 ,,etc4 ,illustration ,voil6 une nouvelle espce de mdailles1 beaucoup plus importantes1 et incomparablement plus anciennes1 que toutes celles des ,grecs et des ,remains6--,knorr1 ,monumens des ,catastrophes4 ,,in ,,two ,,vols4--,,vol4 #a4 ,,containing ,fossil ,vegetables1 ,zoophytes1 ,echinoderms1 and ,molluscs4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,entirely ,,rewritten4 ,,london3 ,,henry ,g4 ,,bohn1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 ,,mdcccliv ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 ,,to ,,my ,,sons1 ,,walter ,,mantell1 ,,of ,,wellington1 ,,new ,,zealand1 ,,and ,,reginald ,,neville ,,mantell1 ,,of ,,kentucky1 ,,united ,,states1 ,this ,work ,,my ,,last ,,attempt ,,to ,,promote ,,the ,,advancement ,,of ,,scientific ,,knowledge1 ,,is ,,most ,,affectionately ,,inscribed4 ,g4 ,a4 ,m4 ,chester ,square1 ,pimlico1 ,feb4 #c1 #ahec4 ,the above having been penned by the much-lamented author of the ,medals some months previous to his decease1 it is retained in this posthumous edition of his favourite work as an appropriate dedication1 dictated by the parental affection of one of the chief promoters of geological science in ,england1 and addressed to his absent sons1 whose works have already shown them to be enthusiastic labourers in the same field1 both at home and in distant parts of the world4 ,,prefatory ,,note ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,the untimely ,decease of the lamented ,author of the ,medals of ,creation during the progress of the present edition through the press has unavoidably delayed its publication4 ,the ,first ,volume has been wholly rewritten by the ,author4 ,the materials of the ,second ,volume had been elaborately revised and much enlarged by ,dr4 ,mantell previously to his ,decease4 ,the ,editor has laboured to carry out the intentions of the ,author in rendering this part of the ,work as complete a compendium as possible of the ,palontological history of the ,organic ,beings of which it treats1 and in adapting it to the requirements of the ,geological ,student of the present time4 ,the various sources from which palontological and zoological information has been derived have1 for the most part1 been adverted to in the text or in the footnotes4 ,the ,editor1 however1 has especially to acknowledge the kindness of ,mr4 ,j4 ,morris1 ,f4,g4,s41 in allowing him to refer to the proof-sheets of the forth-coming edition of his ,catalogue of ,british ,fossils1 and thereby affording him important assistance in making correct statements of the distribution of the ,fossil ,remains of the ,crustacea1 ,insecta1 and ,vertebrata1 in the strata of the ,british ,islands4 ,t4 ,rupert ,jones4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition4 ,in the first edition of the ,wonders of ,geology1 an intention was expressed of immediately publishing1 as a sequel to those volumes1 ,first ,lessons1 or an ,introduction to the ,study of ,petrifactions1 for persons wholly unacquainted with the nature of ,fossil ,remains2 but the completion of the contemplated work was unavoidably postponed1 from year to year1 by the long and severe indisposition of the ,author4 ,in the meanwhile several works professing the same object have issued from the press2 and an enlarged edition of ,sir ,c4 ,lyell's ,elements has also appeared1 in which the elementary principles of physical ,geology are fully illustrated1 and numerous figures given of the characteristic fossils of the several formations1 or groups of strata4 ,but that department of the science which especially treats of ,organic ,remains is necessarily considered in a cursory manner2 and a work upon the plan originally contemplated by the ,author seems still to be required1 to initiate the young and uninstructed in the study of those ,medals of ,creation--those electrotypes of nature--the mineralized remains of the plants and animals which successively flourished in the earlier ages of our planet1 in periods incalculably remote1 and long antecedent to all human history and tradition4 ,with this conviction the present volumes are offered1 with such modifications of the original plan as circumstances have rendered necessary1 as a guide for the ,student and the ,amateur ,collector of fossil remains2 for the intelligent ,observer who may desire to possess a general knowledge of the subject1 without intending to pursue ,geology as a science2 and for the ,tourist who may wish1 in the course of his travels1 to employ profitably a leisure hour in quest of those interesting memorials of the ancient physical revolutions of our globe1 which he will find everywhere presented to his observation4 ,crescent ,lodge1 ,clapham ,common1 ,may1 #ahdd4 ,,address ,,to ,,the ,,reader4 ,some books are to be tasted--others to be swallowed--and some few to be chewed and digested2 that is1 some ,books are to be read only in parts--others to be read1 but not curiously--and some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention4--,lord ,bacon's ,essays4 ,anxious that the ,courteous ,reader should derive from this work all the information it is designed to impart1 the ,author presumes to offer a few words in explanation of the plan upon which it has been constructed1 and some suggestions as to the best means of rendering its contents most available to the varied tastes and pursuits of different classes of readers4 ,in its arrangement1 a three-fold object was had in view2 namely1 in the first place1 to present such an epitome of ,palontology1 the science which treats of the fossil remains of the ancient inhabitants of the ,globe1 as shall enable the intelligent ,observer to comprehend the nature of the principal discoveries in modern ,geology1 and the method of investigation by which such highly interesting1 and unexpected results1 have been obtained44 ,secondly1 to assist the ,collector in his search for ,organic ,remains1--directing attention to those objects which possess the highest interest1 and are especially deserving of accurate examination--instructing him in the art of developing and preserving the specimens he may discover--and pointing out the means to be pursued1 for ascertaining their nature1 and their relation to existing plants or animals4 ,thirdly1 to place before the ,student a familiar exposition of the elementary principles of ,palontology1 based upon a general knowledge of the structure of vegetable and animal organization2 to excite in his mind a desire for further information1 and prepare him for the perusal and study of works of a higher order than these unpretending volumes2 and to point out the sources from which the required instruction may be derived4 ,although fully aware of the imperfect manner in which these intentions are fulfilled1 the ,author hopes that the indulgence claimed by one of the most able writers of our times may be extended to him2 and that1 if the design be good upon the whole1 the work will not be censured too severely for those faults1 from which1 in parts1 its very nature would scarcely allow it to be free4#a #a ,sir ,e4 ,b4 ,lytton--preface to the second edition of ,the ,disowned4 ,with regard to the best means of making use of these volumes1 the advice of the great founder of ,inductive ,philosophy1 on the ,study of ,books in general1 expressed in the quotation prefixed to this address1 is peculiarly applicable to the different classes of readers for whom the work is designed4 ,thus1 the ,book may be tasted1 that is1 read only in parts1 by the intelligent reader1 who requires but a general acquaintance with the subjects it embraces4 ,the perusal of the introductory and concluding remarks of each chapter1 of the general descriptions of fossil remains1 and of the circumstances under which they occur1--omitting the scientific terms and descriptions1--and a cursory examination of the illustrations1 will probably satisfy his curiosity2 and the work may be transferred to the library for occasional reference1 or taken as a travelling companion and guide to some interesting geological district4 ,but the ,book must be swallowed1 that is1 read1 but not curiously1 by the reader desirous of forming a collection of organic remains4 ,a general acquaintance with its contents1 and a careful investigation of the characters of the fossils1 and comparison with the figures and descriptions1 will be requisite to enable the amateur collector to determine the nature of the specimens he may discover4 ,by the ,student the ,book must be digested1 that is1 read wholly1 and with diligence and attention4 ,he should fully comprehend one subject before he advances to the consideration of another1 and should test the solidity of his knowledge by practical research4 ,he should visit some of the localities described2 collect specimens1 and develope them with his own hands2 examine their structure microscopically2 nor rest satisfied until he has determined their general characters1 and ascertained their generic and specific relations4 ,nor is this an arduous or irksome task2 by a moderate degree of attention1 a mind of average ability may quickly overcome the apparent difficulties1 and will find in the knowledge thus acquired1 and in the accession of mental vigour which such investigations never fail to impart1 an ample reward for any expenditure of time and trouble4 ,it is1 indeed1 within the power of every intelligent reader1 by assiduity and perseverance1 to attain the high privilege of those who walk in the midst of wonders1 in circumstances where the uninformed and uninquiring eye can perceive neither novelty nor beauty2 and of being ,even as one1 ,who by some secret gift of soul or eye1 ,in every spot beneath the smiling sun4 ,sees where the ,springs of living ,waters lie6 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,dedication1 p4 v4 ,prefatory ,note to the ,second ,edition1 vii4 ,preface to the ,first ,edition1 ix4 ,address to the ,reader1 xi4 ,table of ,contents1 xv4 ,description of the ,plates1 xix4 ,list of ,lignographs in ,vol4 ,i41 xxxi4 ,introduction1 #a4 ,preliminary ,remarks3--,on the ,plan of the ,work and the ,arrangement and ,subdivision of the subjects it embraces1 #h4 ,works of ,reference1 #h4 ,explanation of ,terms1 #aa4 ,list of subjects1 #ab4 ,,part ,i4--,stratigraphy of the ,british ,islands1 and the ,nature of ,fossils1 #ae4 ,chapter ,i4--,on the ,nature and ,arrangement of the ,british ,strata and their ,fossils1 #ae4 ,chapter ,,ii4--,synopsis of the ,british ,strata1 #bc4 ,chronological ,arrangement of the ,british ,formations2 ,modern or ,human ,epoch2 ,post-,pliocene1 #bc4 ,tertiary ,epochs1 #bd4 ,secondary ,epochs1 #be4 ,palozoic ,epochs1 #cj4 ,hypogene ,rocks1 #cd4 ,volcanic ,rocks1 #ce4 ,chapter ,,iii4--,on the ,nature of ,fossils or ,organic ,remains1 #cg4 ,incrustations1 #ch4 ,silicification1 #dj4 ,animal ,remains1 #dc4 ,hints for ,collecting ,fossil ,bones1 #de4 ,,part ,,ii4--,fossil ,botany1 #ea4 ,chapter ,,iv4--,fossil ,botany1 #ea4 ,fossil ,vegetables1 #ea4 ,on the investigation of the ,fossil ,remains of ,vegetables1 #ed4 ,endogenous ,stems1 #ef4 ,exogenous ,stems1 #ef4 ,structure of ,conifer1 #eg4 ,botanical principles1 #eh4 ,exogens1 #ei4 ,endogens1 #ei4 ,investigation of ,fossil ,stems1 #fa4 ,fossil ,leaves1 #fd4 ,on the ,microscopical ,examination of ,fossil ,vegetables1 #fe4 ,mode of preparing slices of ,fossil ,wood1 #ff4 ,chapter ,v4--,on ,peat-wood1 ,lignite1 and ,coal1 #fi4 ,submerged ,forests2 ,peat1 #gj4 ,lignite1 ,brown-coal1 ,cannel-coal1 #ga4 ,bovey-coal1 #gb4 ,jet1 #gb4 ,wealden ,coal1 #gc4 ,coal1 #gf4 ,stratification of a ,coal-field1 #hj4 ,origin and ,nature of ,coal1 #hb4 ,chapter ,,vi4--,fossil ,vegetables1 #hf4 ,fossil ,cryptogamia1 #hg4 ,recent ,diatomace1 #hh4 ,fossil ,diatomace1 #ic4 ,fossil ,conifer1 #ajj4 ,fossil ,fucoids1 #aja4 ,chondrites1 #aja4 ,moss-agates and ,mocha-stones1 #ajc4 ,equisetace1 #aje4 ,calamites1 #ajg4 ,filicites or ,fossil ,ferns1 #aji4 ,pachypteris1 #aab4 ,sphenopteris1 #aab4 ,cyclopteris1 #aad4 ,neuropteris1 #aae4 ,glossopteris1 #aae4 ,odontopteris1 #aaf4 ,anomopteris1 #aaf4 ,tniopteris1 #aag4 ,pecopteris1 #aah4 ,lonchopteris1 #aai4 ,phlebopteris1 #abj4 ,clathropteris1 #aba4 ,stems of ,arborescent ,ferns1 #abb4 ,caulopteris1 #abc4 ,psarolites1 #abc4 ,sigillari and ,stigmari1 #abe4 ,internal ,structure of ,sigillari1 #acj4 ,stigmaria1 #acb4 ,lepidodendron1 #acg4 ,lepidostrobus1 #adj4 ,triplosporite1 #adb4 ,lycopodites1 #adc4 ,halonia and ,knorria1 #adc4 ,asterophyllites1 #ade4 ,sphenophyllum1 #adg4 ,cardiocarpon1 #adg4 ,trigonocarpum1 #adh4 ,fossil ,cycadace1 #aej4 ,pterophyllum1 #aeb4 ,zamites1 #aeb4 ,trunks and ,stems of ,cycadace1 #aef4 ,mantellia1 #aeg4 ,clathraria1 #aei4 ,endogenites1 #afc4 ,fossil ,conifer1 #afd4 ,fossil ,coniferous ,wood1 #afg4 ,paloxylon1 #afg4 ,pence1 #afh4 ,araucarites1 #afh4 ,sternbergia1 #afh4 ,petrified ,forests of ,conifers1 #afi4 ,coniferous ,wood in ,oxford ,clay1 #agb4 ,coniferous ,wood in ,chalk1 #agc4 ,tertiary ,coniferous ,wood1 #age4 ,fossil ,foliage and ,fruit of ,conifer1 #age4 ,araucaria1 #age4 ,pinites1 #agf4 ,walchia1 #agg4 ,abietites1 #agh4 ,thuites1 #ahj4 ,voltzia1 #ahj4 ,taxites1 #aha4 ,nggerathia1 #aha4 ,fossil ,resins and ,amber1 #aha4 ,fossil ,palms1 #ahc4 ,fossil ,palm-leaves1 #ahe4 ,fossil ,fruits of ,palms1 #ahf4 ,fossil ,fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey1 #ahf4 ,nipadites1 #aij4 ,fossil ,fruit of ,pandanus1 #aib4 ,wood perforated by ,teredines1 #aic4 ,fossil ,liliace1 #aid4 ,fossil ,fresh-water ,plants1 #aie4 ,fossil ,fruits of ,chara1 #aie4 ,fossil ,nymphae1 #aig4 ,fossil ,flowers1 #aig4 ,fossil ,angiosperms1 #aig4 ,fossil ,flora of ningen1 #bjj4 ,carpolithes1 #bjb4 ,fossil ,dicotyledonous ,trees1 #bjc4 ,dicotyledons of the ,cretaceous ,epoch1 #bje4 ,retrospect of ,fossil ,botany1 #bjf4 ,on ,collecting ,british ,fossil ,vegetables1 #baa4 ,british localities of ,fossil ,vegetables1 #bac4 ,,part ,,iii4--,fossil ,zoology1 #baf4 ,chapter ,,vii4--,fossil ,zoophytes2 ,porifera or ,amorphozoa2 ,polypifera or ,corals2 ,bryozoa or ,molluscan ,zoophytes1 #bah4 ,fossil ,porifera1 #bai4 ,on the ,sponges in ,chalk and ,flint1 #bbb4 ,spongites1 #bbc4 ,fossil ,zoophytes of ,faringdon1 #bbf4 ,scyphia1 #bbg4 ,cnemidium1 #bbh4 ,chenendopora1 #bbh4 ,tragos1 #bbi4 ,siphonia1 #bcj4 ,choanites1 #bcc4 ,paramoudra1 #bcf4 ,clionites1 #bch4 ,spicula of ,sponges1 #bch4 ,spiniferites1 #bci4 ,ventriculites1 #bdb4 ,polype in ,flint1 #bej4 ,fossil ,polypifera1 #bea4 ,graptolites1 #bee4 ,fungia1 #bef4 ,anthophyllum1 #beg4 ,turbinolia1 #beg4 ,caryophillia1 #beg4 ,favosites1 #beh4 ,catenipora1 #bei4 ,springopora1 #bei4 ,lithostrotion1 #bfj4 ,cyathophyllum1 #bfj4 ,astra1 #bfb4 ,madrepora1 #bfd4 ,millepora1 #bfd4 ,lithodendron1 #bfd4 ,gorgonia1 #bfe4 ,fossil ,bryozoa1 #bfe4 ,flustra1 #bff4 ,crisia1 #bfi4 ,retepora1 #bfi4 ,fenestrella1 #bgj4 ,petalpora1 #bgj4 ,pustulopora1 #bgj4 ,homsolen1 #bga4 ,idmonea1 #bga4 ,verticillipora1 #bgc4 ,lunulites1 #bgc4 ,geological ,distribution of ,fossil ,zoophytes1 #bgc4 ,on ,collecting ,fossil ,corals1 #bgf4 ,british localities1 #bgh4 ,chapter ,,viii4--,fossil ,stellerid2 comprising the ,crinoidea and the ,asteriad1 #bhj4 ,crinoidea1 #bha4 ,pentacrinus1 #bhb4 ,fossil ,crinoidea1 #bhc4 ,fossil ,stems of ,crinoidea1 #bhd4 ,pulley-stones1 #bhe4 ,apiocrinus1 #bhh4 ,bourqueticrinus1 #bia4 ,encrinus1 #bib4 ,pentacrinites1 #bic4 ,actinocrinus1 #bie4 ,cyathocrinus1 #bie4 ,rhodocrinus1 #big4 ,eugeniacrinus1 #big4 ,pentremites1 #big4 ,cystidea1 #bih4 ,marsupites1 #bii4 ,fossil ,asteriad1 #cja4 ,fossil ,ossicula of ,star-,fishes1 #cjc4 ,ophiura1 #cjd4 ,goniaster1 #cjf4 ,asterias1 #cjg4 ,geological ,distribution of the ,crinoidea1 #cjh4 ,chapter ,,ix4--,fossil ,echinid1 #caa4 ,cidaritid1 #cad4 ,cidaris1 #caf4 ,diadema1 #cah4 ,echinus1 #cah4 ,salenia1 #cah4 ,spines of ,cidarites1 #cai4 ,flint ,casts of ,cidarites1 #cbj4 ,cidaritid of the ,palozoic ,rocks1 #cba4 ,clypeasterid1 #cbb4 ,galerites1 #cbb4 ,holectypus1 #cbd4 ,discoidea1 #cbd4 ,clypeide1 #cbe4 ,clypeus1 #cbe4 ,nucleolites1 #cbf4 ,spatangid1 #cbf4 ,ananchytes1 #cbg4 ,micraster1 #cbh4 ,toxaster1 #cbi4 ,holaster1 #ccj4 ,geological ,distribution of ,echinites1 #ccj4 ,on ,collecting and ,developing ,echinodermata1 #cca4 ,chapter ,x4--,fossil ,foraminifera2 and ,microscopical ,examination of ,chalk and ,flint1 #ccf4 ,foraminifera1 #cci4 ,classification of the ,foraminifera1 #cdb4 ,nummulites1 #cdd4 ,orbitoides1 #cdf4 ,siderolina1 #cdf4 ,fusulina1 #cdf4 ,nodosaria1 #cdg4 ,cristellaria1 #cdh4 ,flabellina1 #cdh4 ,polystomella1 #cdh4 ,lituola1 #cdh4 ,spirolina1 #cdi4 ,globigerina1 #cej4 ,nonionina1 #cej4 ,rotalia1 #cea4 ,rosalina1 #cea4 ,textularia1 #ceb4 ,verneuilina1 #ceb4 ,strata composed of ,foraminifera1 #ceb4 ,foraminifera of the ,chalk and ,flint1 #cee4 ,fossil ,remains of the ,soft ,parts of ,foraminifera1 #ceg4 ,foraminifera-,limestones of ,india1 #cfb4 ,foraminifera-deposit at ,charing1 #cfc4 ,foraminifera of the ,oolite1 ,lias1 c4 #cfd4 ,foraminifera-deposits of the ,united ,states1 #cfd4 ,foraminifera of the ,carboniferous ,formations1 #cfe4 ,foraminifera-,limestone of ,new ,zealand1 #cff4 ,tertiary ,foraminifera1 #cff4 ,foraminifera of the ,fens of ,lincolnshire and ,cambridgeshire1 #cfg4 ,recent ,foraminifera-deposit at ,brighton1 #cfh4 ,geological ,distribution of the ,foraminifera1 #cfi4 ,instructions for the ,microscopical ,examination of ,chalk1 ,flint1 and other ,rocks1 #cga4 ,chapter ,,xi4--,fossil ,testaceous ,mollusks1 or ,shells1 #cgd4 ,mollusca1 #cgd4 ,acephala1 #cge4 ,encephala1 #cgh4 ,fossil ,bivalve ,shells1 #cha4 ,shell-,rocks1 #chb4 ,fossil ,brachiopoda1 #chh4 ,terebratula1 #chi4 ,spirifer1 #cij4 ,rhynchonella1 #cia4 ,pentamerus1 #cia4 ,orthis1 ,leptna1 and ,productus1 #cib4 ,calceola1 #cib4 ,crania1 #cib4 ,orbicula1 #cib4 ,obolus1 #cib4 ,lingula1 #cic4 ,hippurites1 #cic4 ,fossil ,shells of the ,lamellibranchiates1 #cid4 ,monomyaria1 #cie4 ,ostrea1 #cie4 ,grypha1 #cif4 ,spondylus1 #cih4 ,plagiostoma1 #cii4 ,plicatula1 #djj4 ,pecten1 #djj4 ,inoceramus1 #dja4 ,avicula1 #djd4 ,dimyaria1 #djd4 ,venericardia1 #dje4 ,pectunculus1 #dje4 ,nucula1 #djf4 ,pinna1 #djf4 ,mytilus1 #djg4 ,modiola1 #djg4 ,pholadomya1 #djh4 ,pholas1 #djh4 ,teredo1 #daj4 ,trigonia1 #dab4 ,fossil ,fresh-water ,bivalves1 #dac4 ,unio1 #dad4 ,cyclas1 #daf4 ,fossil ,pteropoda1 #dag4 ,fossil ,gasteropoda1 #dag4 ,fresh-water ,univalves1 #dba4 ,paludina1 #dba4 ,limnus1 #dbc4 ,planorbis1 #dbc4 ,melanopsis1 #dbd4 ,marine ,univalves1 #dbd4 ,fusus1 #dbe4 ,pleurotoma1 #dbe4 ,cerithium1 #dbe4 ,potamides1 #dbe4 ,rostellaria1 #dbf4 ,dolium1 #dbf4 ,trochus1#dbf4 ,solarium1 #dbf4 ,conus1 #dbf4 ,pleurotomaria1 #dbg4 ,euomphalus1 #dbi4 ,murchisonia1 #dcj4 ,sphrulites1 #dcj4 ,molluskite1 #dcb4 ,geological ,distribution of ,bivalve and ,univalve ,mollusks1 #dcf4 ,on the ,collecting and ,arranging ,fossil ,shells1 #dda4 ,british ,localities of ,fossil ,shells1 #ddc4 ,,contents ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,description of ,frontispiece 7,plate ,,ii47 ,list of ,lignographs in ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,table of ,contents4 ,,part ,,iii4--continued4 ,chapter ,,xii4--,fossil ,cephalopoda1 #ddg4 ,chapter ,,xiii4--,fossil ,articulata1 #ejc4 ,chapter ,,xiv4--,fossil ,ichthyology2 ,sharks1 ,rays1 and other ,placoid ,fishes1 #efb4 ,chapter ,,xv4--,fossil ,ichthyology2 ,ganoid1 ,ctenoid1 and ,cycloid ,fishes1 #fjj4 ,chapter ,,xvi4--,fossil ,reptiles2 ,enaliosaurians and ,crocodiles1 #fdc4 ,chapter ,,xvii4--,fossil ,reptiles2 ,dinosaurians1 ,lacertians1 ,pterodactyles1 ,turtles1 ,serpents1 and ,batrachians1 #fhd4 ,chapter ,,xviii4--,fossil ,birds1 #gei4 ,chapter ,,xix4--,fossil ,mammals1 #gge4 ,,part ,,iv4--,geological ,excursions1 #hbg4 ,miscellaneous1 #ije4 ,general ,index1 #iji4 ,,directions ,,to ,,the ,,binder4 ,plate ,i4--,frontispiece to ,vol4 ,i4 ,plate ,,ii4 ,frontispiece to ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,plates ,,iii41 ,,iv41 ,v41 and ,,vi41 to follow the ,table of ,contents1 and be placed opposite the description of each4 ,lign4 #bdg1 to face page #ggj4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,frontispiece ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,plate ,i4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a ,fern in ,coal-shale1 from ,leicestershire4 #b4--;,a ,crustacean in ,limestone1 from ,solenhofen4 #c4--;,a ,fish 7,pycnodus rhombus7 in ,limestone2 from near ,castel-a-mare4 #d4--;,half the ,lower ,jaw of a ,hyena1 from a fissure in a sandstone rock1 near ,maidstone4 #e4--;,an ,ammonite1 from the ,isle of ,portland4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,vignette ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,a ,group of ,fossils1 containing ,ammonites ,mantellii1 from the ,chalk-marl1 ,sussex4 ,turrilites costatus1 from the ,lower ,chalk1 ,rouen4 ,chondrites ,bignoriensis1 from the ,chalk-marl1 ,sussex4 ,echinus and ,fusus1 from ,tertiary strata1 ,palermo4 ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,ii4 ,the ,frontispiece of ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,a ,fossil ,fish of the ,salmon tribe1 allied to the ,smelt2 from the ,chalk1 near ,lewes1 in ,sussex4 ,see ,vol4 ,,ii4 pages #fbf and #fbh4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #c4 ,j4 ,dinkel del4 ,g4 ,scharf lithog4 ,printed by ,hullmandel ,walton ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,iii4 ,incrustations1 and ,fossil ,plants4 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c4--,twigs of ,larch and ,hawthorn1 coated with tufa1 or travertine1 from having been exposed to the dripping of an incrusting spring2 from ,russia2 see p4 #ci4 #e4--;,a branch of recent ,chara1 with its fruit1 with a thin pellicle of incrustation4 ,matlock4 #f1 #g4--;,hazel-nuts1 from ,belfast ,lough3 fig4 #f is lined with crystals of calcareous spar2 fig4 #g is filled with a solid mass of the same mineral2 see p4 #ga4 #d1 #h4--;,impressions of ,dicotyledonous ,leaves in ,gypseous ,marlstone1 from ,stradella1 near ,pavia2 see p4 #bja4 #i4--;,eocene ,lacustrine or ,fresh-water ,limestone1 from ,east ,cliff ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight1 with stems and seeds of ,charge3 slightly magnified2 see p4 #aie4 #aj4--;,encrusted ,twigs1 from ,matlock2 the vegetable matter has perished1 and left tubular cavities2 see p4 #ci1 and p4 #hgc4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #d4 ,j4 ,dinkel del4 ,g4 ,scharf lithog4 ,printed by ,hullmandel ,walton ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,iv4 ,various species of recent ,diatomace1 to illustrate the ,fossil remains of this ,tribe of ,vegetables4 ,for detailed descriptions1 see pages #hg-ajj4 ,figs4 #a to #e4--,various kinds of ,xanthidia3 figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 found in a pond on ,clapham ,common1 and fig4 #a4 living in a pond near ,westpoint1 ,united ,states4 #a4--,xanthidium furcatum3 #a_/bd of a line in diameter4 #b4-- --------- hirsutum3 #a_/cf4 #c4-- --------- aculeatum3 #a_/bd4 #d4-- --------- fasciculatum3 #a_/bd4 #e4-- -------------------- variety of the above4 #b994--,pyxidicula operculata2 ,carlsbad1 ,bohemia3 #a_/dh of a line in diameter4 #f4--;,bacillaria vulgaris4 #a_/cf of a line in diameter4 ,pond on ,clapham ,common4 #g4--;,cocconeis scutellum3 from the ,baltic3 #a_/bd of a line4 #h4--,navicula viridis3 #a_/f of a line4 ,ponds on ,clapham ,common4 #i4--,the same2 a side view2 showing the currents produced in the water by the animal when in locomotion4 #aj4--;,gallionella lineata3 #a_/cf of a line4 ,ponds on ,clapham ,common4 #aa4--;,gallionella moniliformis3 #a_/gb of a line4 #ab4--,synhedra ulna3 #a_/i of a line3 the point a1 marks the pedicle of attachment4 ,ponds on ,clapham and ,wandsworth ,commons4 #ac4--,podosphenia gracilis3 #a_/ab of a line2 attached to a thread of ,calothria and having by self-division formed a radiating cluster4 ,common in the ditches communicating with the ,thames in ,battersea-fields4 #ad4--,navicula splendida3 #a_/ab of a line in diameter4 #ae4--,lateral view of the same4 #af4--;,eunotia turgida3 #a_/ad of a line2 the empty shell1 with sixty-five ribs1 viewed laterally4 #ag4--;,a living group of the same3 #a_/bj of a line3 a piece of ,conferva rivularis1 beset with these animalcules4 ,the smaller species are ,e4 ,westermanni4 ,all the above organisms were figured and described by ,ehrenberg as animals 7,polygastrica71 and are comprised in his family ,bacillaria2 they are now1 however1 regarded as unquestionably vegetable structures1 belonging to the family of ,alg1 termed ,diatomace4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #e4 ,j4 ,dinkel del4 ,g4 ,scharf lithog4 ,printed by ,hullmandel ,walton ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,v4 ,illustrative of the ,structure of ,fossil ,vegetables4 ,fig4 #a4--,polished transverse section of silicified ,monocotyledonous ,wood1 from ,antigua2 p4 #ahe4 #a;a4--,magnified #bj times linear4 #a;b4--,magnified #ge times linear4 #b;a4--,transverse section of silicified ,coniferous ,wood 7,abies ,benstedi7 from the ,kentish ,rag1 near ,maidstone 7,iguanodon quarry71 #abj linear2 p4 #agc4 #b;b4--,vertical or longitudinal section of the same1 #bej linear4 #c;a4--,transverse section of calcareous coniferous wood1 from ,willingdon1 ,sussex1 #hj linear2 p4 #agc4 #c;b4--,longitudinal section of the above1 #abj linear4 #d4--,slice of a transverse section of a recent ,dicotyledonous ,stem2 showing1 #ast1 ,pith or medullary column1 occupying the centre2 #b;d1 ,four bands of woody layers1 separated by condensed lines of elongated tissue in series1 and having large regular openings of vessels1 with numerous medullary rays running continuously from the central pith to the bark2 #c;d1 the bark4 7,from ,mr4 ,witham47 #e4--,slice of a transverse section of a recent gymnospermous phanerogamic stem 7of a ,cycas71 having a central pith1 with woody layers separated by a condensed line1 and consisting of elongated cellular tissue1 arranged in a regular series2 medullary rays and bark4 7,from ,mr4 ,witham47 #f4--;,bundles of vascular tissue in ,stigmaria ficoides1 #ab linear4 ,see p4 #ace4 ,the two strands of vessels that appear as if on the surface 7and are of a looser texture7 are part of the vascular tissue of the stem1 and become inflected 7that is1 bent over71 and give rise to a band of vessels 7the darker band seen between the above71 that passes towards the bark or cortical covering4 #g4--,portion of a transverse section of one of the bundles of vascular tissue of ,sigillaria elegans1 #bj linear4 7,from ,m4 ,brongniart47 ,see p4 #aca4 ,the convex portion on the left1 and which in the original stem is situated towards the centre1 is composed of the medullary vascular tissue formed of vessels irregularly disposed4 ,the longitudinal bundles are the woody fibres arranged in a radiated circle3 the smooth interspaces are medullary rays4 ,the two distinct roundish spots of vascular tissue on the right of the ligneous zone occur irregularly on the outside of the woody circle1 and are supposed to be detached bundles of the ligneous zone extending towards the leaves4 ,see p4 #aca4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #f4 ,j4 ,dinkel del4 ,g4 ,scharf lithog4 ,printed by ,hullmandel ,walton ,,description ,,of ,,plate ,,vi4 ,illustrative of the ,structure of ,fossil ,teeth4 ,fig4 #a;a4--,tooth of ,psammodus porosus1 from the ,mountain ,limestone4 ,see p4 #ehg4 #a;b4--,vertical section1 a portion #ge linear4 #a;c4--,transverse section of the same1 #ge4 #b;a4--,tooth of ,ptychodus polygurus1 from the ,chalk1 near ,lewes4 ,see p4 #ehe4 #b;b4--,portion of longitudinal section1 #bj4 #b;c4--,portion of transverse section1 #bj4 #c;b4--,tooth of the ,labyrinthodon ,jgeri1 from the ,new ,red sandstone near ,wirtemberg2 half the natural size3 the specimen presented by ,dr4 ,jger4 ,see p4 #gdb4 #c;a4--,a moiety of a transverse polished section1 #bj4 #c;b4--,portion of a vertical section near the apex1 #bj4 #c;c4--,one of the anfractuosities of fig4 #c;a 4 #d;a4--,crown or upper portion of a tooth of a young ,iguanodon1 from ,tilgate ,forest4 ,see p4 #fig4 #d;b4--,portion of a vertical section of the above1 #bj4 #d;c4--,a small portion of a transverse section of the same1 #bj4 #e4--,tooth of ,goniopholis1 ,tilgate ,forest3 half the natural size4 ,see p4 #fgh4 #f;a4--,tooth of a reptile 7probably of the ,hylosaurus71 from ,tilgate ,forest2 half the natural size4 ,see p4 #fij4 #f;b4--,portion of a vertical section of the same1 #bj4 #g;a4--,tooth of ,megalosaurus1 from ,tilgate ,forest4 ,see p4 #fhg4 #g;b4--,portion of a vertical section of the same1 #aj4 #h4--;,a small portion of a vertical section of a tooth of ,dendrodus4 ,see p4 #fah4 #i4--,portion of a transverse section of the base of a tooth of ,ichthyosaurus1 #bj4 ,see p4 #ffe4 #aj;a4--,tooth of ,lepidotus1 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,see p4 #fjf4 #aj;b4--,the upper figure is a transverse section1 and the lower a vertical section of the same1 #bj4 ,,list ,,of ,,lignographs ,,in ,,vol4 ,i4 7,illustrative of ,fossil ,botany47 ,,lign4 ,,page #a4 ,sections of ,recent ,vegetables #ee #b4 ,sections of ,fern-,stems #fb #c4 ,nodule of ,ironstone1 enclosing a ,fern ,leaf #fi #d4 ,siliceous ,frustules of ,diatomace1 and ,spicules of ,spongill #id #e4 ,fossil ,gallionell #if #f4 ,organic ,bodies in ,porcelain ,earth #ig #g4 ,microphytes from the ,tertiary deposits at ,richmond1 ,u4,s4 #ih #h4 ,confervites ,woodwardii #aja #i4 ,chondrites ,bignoriensis #ajb #aj4 ,delesserites 7,fucoides7 ,lamourouxii #ajc #aa4 ,moss and ,conferva in transparent quartz #ajd #ab4 ,equisetum ,lyellii #aje #ac4 ,equisetites columnaris #ajf #ad4 ,calamites decoratus #ajg #ae4 ,calamites in ,coal-shale #ajh #af4 ,pecopteris ,sillimani #aaj #ag4 ,pachypteris lanceolata #aab #ah4 ,sphenopteris elegans #aab #ai4 ,sphenopteris nephrocarpa #aac #bj4 ,sphenopteris ,mantellii #aac #ba4 ,cyclopteris trichomanoides #aad #bb4 ,neuropteris acuminata #aae #bc4 ,glossopteris ,phillipsii #aaf #bd4 ,odontopteris ,schlotheimii #aaf #be4 ,anomopteris ,mougeotii #aag #bf4 ,tniopteris latifolia #aah #bg4 ,fig4 #a1 ,pecopteris ,murrayana #aah #b1 ,pecopteris lonchitica #aah #bh4 ,lonchopteris ,mantellii #aai #bi4 ,fig4 #a1 ,phlebopteris ,phillipsii #abj #b1 ,phlebopteris propinqua #abj #cj4 ,clathropteris meniscoides #aba #ca4 ,caulopteris macrodiscus #abc #cb4 ,base of a ,trunk of a ,sigillaria1 with root #abf #cc4 ,sigillari1 in ,coal ,shale #abh #cd4 ,sigillaria ,saullii #abi #ce4 ,silicified ,stem of ,sigillaria elegans #acj #cf4 ,stigmaria ficoides #acc #cg4 ,transverse section of ,stigmaria ficoides #ace #ch4 ,erect ,stem of a ,sigillaria1 with ,roots #acf #ci4 ,a ,terminal ,branch of a ,lepidodendron #ach #dj4 ,lepidostrobi1 the ,fruit of ,lepidodendra #ada #da4 ,stems of ,halonia and ,knorria1 from the ,coal ,formation #add #db4 ,asterophyllites equisetiformis #adg #dc4 ,fig4 #a1 ,sphenophyllum ,schlotheimii #adh #b1 ,sphenophyllum erosum #adh #dd4 ,fossil ,fruits1 or ,seed ,vessels #adi #de4 ,foliage and upper part of the ,stem of ,cycas revoluta 7recent7 #aej #df4 ,part of a leaf of ,pterophyllum comptum #aeb #dg4 ,part of a leaf of ,zamites pectinatus #aec #dh4 ,fruit of ,zamites ,mantellii #aed #di4 ,fossil ,fruits of ,cycadeous ,plants #aef #ej4 ,mantellia nidiformis #aeg #ea4 ,mantellia cylindrica #aeh #eb4 ,clathraria ,lyellii1 inner ,axis of the ,stem of #aei #ec4 ,clathraria ,lyellii1 ,stem of #afj #ed4 ,clathraria ,lyellii1 part of ,stem of #afa #ee4 ,clathraria ,lyellii1 ,petiole of #afa #ef4 ,clathraria ,lyellii1 summit of ,stem1 with petioles #afb #eg4 ,clathraria ,lyellii1 water-worn ,stem of #afc #eh4 ,fragment of ,coniferous ,wood in ,flint #agd #ei4 ,fig4 #a1 ,part of a ,branch of ,araucaria peregrina #agf #b1 ,calamites nodosus1 with foliage #agf #fj4 ,walchia hypnoides #agh #fa4 ,abietites ,dunkeri #agi #fb4 ,thuites ,kurrianus #ahj #fc4 ,nipadites and other ,fossil ,fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey #ahh #fd4 ,fossil ,fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey #ahi #fe4 ,fossil ,wood perforated by ,teredines #aic #ff4 ,fossil ,fresh-water ,plants #aif #fg4 ,fossil ,fruits and ,flower #aih #fh4 ,imprints of ,dicotyledonous leaves in ,gypseous ,marlstone #bja 7lllustrative of ,fossil ,zoology47 #fi4 ,coral and ,spongites #bbd #gj4 ,fossil ,zoophytes #bbg #ga4 ,fossil ,sponge #bbh #gb4 ,fossil ,zoophytes #bbi #gc4 ,siphoni from the ,greensand #bca #gd4 ,polypothecia dichotoma #bcb #ge4 ,choanites ,knigi #bcd #gf4 ,paramoudra in the ,chalk #bcg #gg4 ,a group of ,spiniferites in ,flint #bci #gh4 ,spiniferites ,reginaldi #bda #gi4 ,spiniferites palmatus #bda #hj4 ,flints1 the forms of which are derived from ,zoophytes #bdc #ha4 ,ventriculites radiatus #bdd #hb4 ,portions of ,ventriculites #bde #hc4 ,ventriculites alcyonoides #bdh #hd4 ,a ,coral ,polype1 in flint #bej #he4 ,graptolites in ,wenlock ,limestone #bee #hf4 ,favosites polymorpha #beh #hg4 ,corals from the ,dudley ,limestone #bfa #hh4 ,fossil ,corals #bfb #hi4 ,corals from the ,chalk and ,mountain ,limestone #bfh #ij4 ,stems of ,encrinites and ,pentacrinites #bhd #ia4 ,recent ,comatula and ,fossil ,crinoidea #bhf #ib4 ,fossil ,crinoidea #bhi #ic4 ,apiocrinites #bia #id4 ,actinocrinites and ,pentacrinite #bid #ie4 ,cyathocrinites planus #bif #if4 ,marsupites ,milleri #cjj #ig4 ,fossil remains of ,star-fishes #cje #ih4 ,goniaster ,mantelli #cjf #ii4 ,asterias prisca #cjh #ajj4 ,fossil ,turban ,echinus with its ,spines #caa #aja4 ,cidarites from the ,oolite and ,chalk #caf #ajb4 ,fossil ,spines of ,cidarites #cai #ajc4 ,echinital remains in flint #cbj #ajd4 ,echinites from the ,chalk #cbc #aje4 ,holectypus inflatus #cbd #ajf4 ,discoidea castanea #cbe #ajg4 ,micraster cor-anguinum #cbh #ajh4 ,toxaster complanatus #cbi #aji4 ,foraminifera from the ,chalk #cdb #aaj4 ,nummulites1 or ,nummulina #cdd #aaa4 ,foraminifera from the ,chalk #cdg #aab4 ,spirolinites in flint #cdi #aac4 ,nonionina ,germanica 7recent7 #cej #aad4 ,foraminifera in ,chalk and flint #cea #aae4 ,chalk-dust1 chiefly composed of ,foraminifera #cee #aaf4 ,section of a ,rotalia in flint #cef #aag4 ,rotalia in flint1 with the fossilized body of the animal in the shell #ceh #aah4 ,soft ,bodies of ,foraminifera extracted from the ,chalk #cei #aai4 ,remains of ,foraminifera in chalk and flint #cfa #abj4 ,fossil ,oyster1 from the ,chalk #cgd #aba4 ,recent ,bivalve ,mollusc1 showing the several parts of the shell and the animal #cgg #abb4 ,turritell from ,bracklesham #chc #abc4 ,shell-,conglomerate #che #abd4 ,shell-,limestone1 from the mouth of the ,thames #chf #abe4 ,terebratula and ,rhynchonella #chh #abf4 ,terebratula and ,spirifer #cij #abg4 ,shells and ,echinite from the ,oolite and ,lias #cig #abh4 ,spondylus spinosus in ,chalk-flint #cii #abi4 ,inoceramus ,cuvieri of the ,chalk #dja #acj4 ,flint with fragments of ,inoceramus perforated by ,clionites #djc #aca4 ,unio ,valdensis #dae #acb4 ,cyclas and ,melanopsis #daf #acc4 ,fossil ,shells of ,gasteropoda #dah #acd4 ,polished ,slab of ,purbeck ,marble #dbb #ace4 ,univalves from the ,chalk of ,touraine #dbg #acf4 ,univalves from the ,mountain ,limestone #dbh #acg4 ,murchisonia bilineata #dcj #ach4 ,sphrulites from the ,chalk #dca #aci4 ,coprolites and ,molluskite #dcb ,,the ,,medals ,,of ,,creation4 ,,introduction4 ,geology1 in the magnitude and sublimity of the objects of which it treats1 ranks next to ,astronomy in the scale of the ,sciences4--,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,herschel4 ,geology1 a term signifying a discourse on the ,earth1 7from two ,greek words3 viz4 1 ge1 the earth2 and 1 logos1 a discourse17 is the science which treats of the physical structure of the planet on which we live1 and of the nature and causes of the successive changes which have taken place in the organic and inorganic kingdoms1 from the remotest period to the present time1 and is therefore intimately connected with every department of natural philosophy4 ,while in common with other scientific pursuits it yields the noblest and purest pleasures of which the human mind is susceptible1 it has peculiar claims on our attention1 since it offers inexhaustible and varied fields of intellectual research1 and its cultivation1 beyond that of any other science1 is in a great measure independent of external circumstances2 for it can be followed in whatever condition of life we maybe placed1 and wherever our fortunes may lead us4 ,the eulogium passed by a distinguished living philosopher on scientific knowledge in general1 is strikingly applicable to geological investigations4 ,the highest worldly-prosperity1 so far from being incompatible with them1 supplies additional advantages for their pursuit2 they may be alike enjoyed in the intervals of the most active business1 while the calm and dispassionate interest with which they fill the mind1 renders them a most delightful retreat from the agitations and dissensions of the world1 and from the conflict of passions1 prejudices1 and interests1 in which the man of business finds himself continually involved4#b #b ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,herschel1 ,discourse on the ,study of ,natural ,philosophy4 ,from the present advanced state of geological science1 particularly of that department which it is the more especial object of these volumes to elucidate1 namely ,palontology1#c or the study of ,organic ,remains1--it seems scarcely credible1 that but little more than a century ago it was a matter of serious question with naturalists1 whether the petrified shells imbedded in the rocks and strata were indeed shells that had been secreted by molluscous animals2 or whether these bodies1 together with the teeth1 bones1 leaves1 wood1 c4 found in a fossil state1 were not formed by what was then termed the plastic power of the earth2 in like manner as minerals1 metals1 and crystals4 #c ,palontology3 from 1 palaios1 ancient--1 onta1 beings--1 logos1 a discourse4 ,in a ,natural ,history of ,england1 published towards the end of the last century1 it is gravely observed that at ,bethersden in ,kent1 a kind of stone is found full of shells1 which is a proof that shells and the animals we find in them living1 have no necessary connexion4 ,another amusing instance of the ignorance on such subjects which prevailed at no remote period1 occurs in a ,history of the ,county of ,surrey1 in which it is stated that in a search for coal near ,guildford the borers broke1 and this was thought by ,mr4 ,peter ,lely1 the ,astrologer1 to have been the work of subterranean spirits1 who wrenched off the augers of the miners1 lest their secret haunts should be invaded4 ,but in the latter part of the seventeenth century1 there were several eminent men in ,england who were greatly in advance of the age in which they lived1 and strenuously exerted themselves to discover and promulgate the true principles of ,geology4 ,among these1 ,dr4 ,martin ,lister1 physician to ,queen ,anne1 was one of the most distinguished4 ,this accomplished naturalist1 in his great work on shells1 which remains to this day a splendid monument of his labours1 and of the talents and filial affection of his two daughters1 by whom all the plates were engraved1 figures and describes many fossil shells as real animal productions1 and carefully compares them with recent species4 ,he also recognised the distinction of strata by the organic remains they contain2 and to him the honour is due of having first suggested the construction of geological maps2#d he was likewise well acquainted with the position and extent of the ,chalk and other strata of the ,south of ,england4#e #d ,see ,notes on the ,progress of ,geology in ,england1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,fitton1 ,m4,d4 c4 ,philos4 ,mag4 vols4 i4 and ii4 for #ahcb and #ahcc4 #e ,this celebrated physician and ,british geologist died in #agab1 and was interred in the old church at ,clapham2 where a tablet to his memory is affixed to the outside of the north wall of ,st4 ,paul's ,chapel4 ,from the foreign writers1 who at an early period had obtained some correct notions of the structure of our planet1 and of the nature of the revolutions it had undergone1 ,i select the following beautiful and philosophical illustration of the physical mutations to which the surface of the earth is perpetually subjected4 ,it is from an ,arabic manuscript of the thirteenth century2#f the narrative is supposed to be related by ,rhidhz1 an allegorical personage4 #f ,quoted by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell in his ,principles of ,geology4 ,i passed one day by a very ancient and populous city1 and ,i asked one of its inhabitants how long it had been founded8 ',it is1 indeed1 a mighty city1' replied he2 'we know not how long it has existed1 and our ancestors were on this subject as ignorant as ourselves4' ,some centuries afterwards ,i passed by the same place1 but ,i could not perceive the slightest vestige of the city2 and ,i demanded of a peasant1 who was gathering herbs upon its former site1 how long it had been destroyed8 ',in sooth1 a strange question1' replied he1 'the ground here has never been different from what you now behold it4' ',was there not1' said ,i1 'of old a splendid city here8' ',never1' answered he1 'so far as we know1 and never did our fathers speak to us of any such4' ,on revisiting the spot1 after the lapse of other centuries1 ,i found the sea in the same place1 and on its shores were a party of fishermen1 of whom ,i asked how long the land had been covered by the waters8 ',is this a question1' said they1 'for a man like you8 this spot has always been what it is now4' ,i again returned ages afterwards1 and the sea had disappeared4 ,i inquired of a man who stood alone upon the ground1 how long ago the change had taken place1 and he gave me the same answer that ,i had received before4 ,lastly1 on coming back again1 after an equal lapse of time1 ,i found there a flourishing city1 more populous and more rich in buildings than the city ,i had seen the first time2 and when ,i fain would have informed myself regarding its origin1 the inhabitants answered me1 ',its rise is lost in remote antiquity--we are ignorant how long it has existed1 and our fathers were on this subject no wiser than ourselves4' ,we may smile at the ignorance of the inhabitants of the fabled cities1 but are we in a condition to give a more satisfactory reply should it be inquired of us1 ,what are the physical changes which the country you inhabit has undergone8--and yet cautious observation1 and patient and unprejudiced investigation1 are alone necessary to enable us to answer the interrogation4 ,dismissing from his mind all preconceived opinions1 the student must be prepared to learn that the earth's surface has been1 and still is1 subject to perpetual mutation1--that the sea and land are continually changing place1--that what is now dry land was once the bottom of the deep1 and that the bed of the present ocean will1 in its turn1 be elevated above the water and become land1--that all the solid materials of the globe have been in a softened1 fluid1 or gaseous state1--that the relics of countless myriads of animals and plants are entombed in the rocks and strata1--and that vast mountain-chains1 and extensive regions1 are wholly composed of the petrified remains of beings that lived and died in periods long antecedent to the creation of the human race4 ,astounding as are these propositions1 they rest upon evidence so clear and incontrovertible1 that they cannot fail to be admitted by every intelligent and unprejudiced reader1 who will bestow but a moderate share of attention to the examination of the phenomena1 of which the following pages present a familiar exposition4 ,i cannot conclude these introductory observations1 without adverting to the incalculable benefits which result from scientific pursuits in general1 and of ,geology in particular4 ,an able modern writer has justly remarked3--,it is fearfully true1 that nine-tenths of the immorality which pervades the better classes of society1 originate from the want of an interesting occupation to fill up the vacant time2 and as the study of the natural sciences is as attractive as it is beneficial1 it must necessarily exert a moral and even religious influence upon the young and inquiring mind4 ,the youth who is fond of scientific pursuits will not enter into revelry1 for frivolous or vicious excitements will have no fascination for him4 ,the overflowing cup1 the unmeaning or dishonest game1 will not entice him4 ,if any one doubts the beneficial influence of these studies on the morals and character1 ,i would ask him to point out the immoral young man who is devotedly attached to any branch of natural science3 ,i never knew such an one4 ,there may be such individuals--for religion only can change the heart--but if there be1 they are very rare exceptions2 and the loud clamours which are always raised against the man of science who errs1 prove how rarely the study of the works of the ,creator fails to exert an ennobling effect upon a well-regulated mind4 ,fortunate1 indeed1 are the youth of either sex1 who early imbibe a taste for natural knowledge1 and whose predilections are not thwarted by injudicious friends4 ,and while ,geology exerts this hallowing influence on the character1 it possesses the great advantage of presenting subjects adapted to every capacity2 on some of its investigations the highest intellectual powers and the most profound acquirements in exact science are required2 while many of its problems may be solved by any one who has eyes and will use them2 and innumerable facts illustrative of the ancient condition of our planet1 and of its inhabitants1 may be gathered by any diligent and intelligent observer4 ,but it is surely unnecessary to dwell on the interest and importance of a study1 which instructs us that every pebble we tread upon bears the impress of the ,almighty's hand1 and affords evidence of ,creative wisdom2 that every grain of sand1 every particle of dust scattered by the wind1 may be composed of the aggregated skeletons of beings1 so minute as to elude our unassisted vision1 but which possessed an organization as marvellous as our own2--a science whose discoveries have realized the wildest imaginings of the poet1--whose realities far surpass in grandeur and sublimity the most imposing fictions of romance2--a science1 whose empire is the earth1 the ocean1 the atmosphere1 the heavens2--whose speculations embrace all elements1 all space1 all time2--objects the most minute1 objects the most colossal2--carrying its researches into the smallest atom which the microscope can render accessible to our visual organs1--and comprehending all the phenomena in the boundless ,universe1 which the powers of the telescope can reveal4 ,and as no branch of natural philosophy can more strongly impress the mind with that deep sense of humility and dependence1 which the contemplation of the works of the ,eternal is calculated to inspire1 so none can more powerfully encourage our aspirations after truth and wisdom4 ,every walk we take offers subjects for profound meditation1--every pebble that attracts our notice1 matter for serious reflection2 and contemplating the incessant dissolution and renovation which are taking place around us in the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature1 we are struck with the force and beauty of the exclamation of the poet-- ,my heart is awed within me1 when ,i think ,of the great miracle which still goes on ,in silence round me--the perpetual work ,of ,thy ,creation1 finished1 yet renewed ,for ever6 ,,preliminary ,,remarks4 ,,on ,,the ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,work1 ,,and ,,the ,,arrangement ,,and ,,subdivision ,,of ,,the ,,subjects ,,it ,,embraces4 ,with the view of economizing space1 ,i would refer the reader to the following volumes for figures and descriptions of such fossils as are illustrated therein3 by this arrangement ,i hope to afford the student a comprehensive view of ,palontology1 and yet restrict this work within the limits which as a manual it would be inconvenient to exceed2 at the same time it will be complete in itself1 and afford all the information required by the amateur collector and general reader4 ,i4 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise3 #b vols4 #hvo4--,these volumes contain numerous excellent figures of organic remains2 and as the work is1 or ought to be1 found in every good public or private library in the kingdom1 it will be accessible to most of my readers4 ,,ii4 ,the ,wonders of ,geology1 or a ,familiar ,exposition of ,geological ,phenomena2 sixth edition1 in two vols1 with coloured plates1 and numerous figures2 by the ,author4 ,price #ahs4--,this work is designed to afford a general view of ,geological phenomena1 divested as much as possible of scientific language3 it is illustrated by numerous figures of organic remains4 ,,iii4 ,geological ,excursions round the ,isle of ,wight and along the adjacent ,coasts of ,hampshire and ,dorsetshire4 ,one volume1 richly illustrated4 ,by the ,author4 ,price #abs4 ,,iv4 ,petrifactions and their ,teachings2 or a ,hand-book to the ,gallery of ,organic ,remains in the ,british ,museum4 ,one vol4 with many original figures of the most interesting objects4 ,by the ,author4#g ,price #es4 #g ,the three works above named consist of four volumes uniform with the present edition of the ,medals of ,creation3 this series of six volumes comprises the popular geological works of the ,author4 ,v4 ,a ,pictorial ,atlas of ,fossil ,remains2 consisting of ,coloured ,illustrations selected from ,parkinson's ,organic ,remains of a ,former ,world1 and ,artis' ,antediluvian ,phytology4 #a vol4 #dto4 with seventy-four coloured plates1 and several lignographs1 containing nearly #ijj figures of fossils4 ,by the ,author4 ,price #bl4 #bs4 ,to the above may be added ,dana's ,mineralogy1 which treats of the various mineral substances that enter into the composition of the rocks and strata in which the fossil remains are imbedded4 ,a good geological map of ,great ,britain is indispensable4 ,the small map published by the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge1 edited by ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 price #es41 is an excellent compendium2 but ,mr4 ,knipe's large ,geological ,map of the ,british ,isles is the most complete and convenient for the traveller3 price #cl4 #cs4 ,by reference to the map1 the geological structure1 and the prevailing fossils of a district1 may be ascertained4 ,the above works are referred to as follows3 viz4 ,bd4 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,treatise4 ,wond4 ,the ,wonders of ,geology4 ,geol4 ,i4 of ,w4 ,geology of the ,isle of ,wight4 ,petrifactions4 ,petrifactions and their ,teachings4 ,pict4 ,atlas4 ,pictorial ,atlas of ,organic ,remains4 ,the following works1 to which reference will often be made1 are thus denoted3-- ,foss4 ,flor4 ,the ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain1 by ,dr4 ,lindley1 and ,w4 ,hutton1 ,esq4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,vg4 ,foss4 ,histoire des ,vgtans3 ,fossiles1 par ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart4 #a vol4 #d to4 ,geol4 ,trans4 ,transactions of the ,geological ,society of ,london4 #e vols4 #dto42 and ,new ,series1 in #e vols4 ,geol4 ,proc4 ,geological ,proceedings4 ---- ,journ4 ---------- ,quarterly ,journal4 ,sil4 ,syst4 ,the ,silurian ,system1 by ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison4 #b vols4 #dto4 with plates and map4 ,org4 ,rem4 ,parkinson's ,organic ,remains of a ,former ,world4 #c vols4 #dto4 ,oss4 ,foss4 ,ossemens ,fossiles1 par ,baron ,cuvier4 #e vols4 #dto4 #eme4 edit4 ,min4 ,conch4 ,sowerby's ,mineral ,conchology4 #f vols4 #hvo4 ,odont4 ,odontography2 a ,treatise on the ,comparative ,anatomy of the ,teeth1 by ,professor ,owen4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,brit4 ,mam4 ,british ,fossil ,mammalia2 by the same ,author4 #a vol4 #hvo4 ,brit4 ,rep4 ,reports on ,british ,fossil ,reptiles in the ,british ,association ,transactions for #ahci1 and #ahda2 by the same ,author4 ,phil4 ,york4 ,geology of ,yorkshire1 by ,professor ,john ,phillips4 #b vols4 #dto4 ,south4 ,d4 ,fossils of the ,south ,downs1 #a vol4 #dto4 #db plates by the ,author4 #ahbb4 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 ,geology of the ,south-east of ,england4 #a vol4 #hvo4 by the same4 ,tilg4 ,for4 ,fossils of ,tilgate ,forest4 #a vol4 #dto4 #bj plates2 by the same4 #ahbg4 ,poiss4 ,foss4 ,recherches sur les ,poissons ,fossiles1 par ,m4 ,agassiz4 #d vols4 #dto1 and #b vols1 folio4 ,man4 ,geol4 ,manual or ,elements of ,geology1 by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell4 #a vol4 #hvo4 ,edit4 #aheb4 ,the following abbreviations are also employed3-- #a4 ,relative to the ,rocks or ,strata4 ,drift4 ,alluvial deposits1 or ,drift4 ,tert4 ,tertiary4 ,lond4 ,c4 ,london clay4 ,cret4 ,cretaceous formation4 ,u4 ,ch4 ,upper chalk4 ,l4 ,ch4 ,lower chalk4 ,trias4 ,new ,red ,sandstone1 or ,triassic deposits4 ,carb4 ,carboniferous or ,coal formation4 ,mt4 ,l4 ,mountain or ,carboniferous limestone4 ,devon4 ,devonian or ,old ,red ,sandstone formation4 ,sil4 ,syst4 ,silurian ,system1 or formation4 #b4 ,relative to ,organic ,remains4 nat4 ,natural size4 ,magnified in diameter3 e4g4 #h1 magnified eight diameters1 c4 ,highly magnified2 the degree not accurately determined4 inv4 ,invisible to the naked eye4 -- ,less than natural3 e4g4 --#b_/c1 reduced to two-thirds the diameter of the original4 ,lign4 ,lignograph or woodcut4 ,explanation of ,terms4--,upon the occurrence of a scientific word apparently requiring explanation1 the meaning1 where practicable1 is for the most part given in a parenthesis2 for example1 ,caulopteris 7fern-stem72 ,phascotherium 7pouch-animal72 carboniferous 7coal-bearing72 except in the case of arbitrary names1 and of those whose derivation cannot be concisely expressed4#h ,with the view of rendering these volumes more generally useful1 ,english terminology is in many instances made use of1 though involving inelegance of expression4 #h ,upwards of #cjj scientific terms are explained in the ,glossary1 ,wonders1 vol4 ii4 p4 #iae-iba4 ,the work is divided into four parts3 the first is an ,introduction to the ,study of ,organic ,remains2 the second treats of ,fossil ,botany2 the third embraces ,fossil ,zoology2 and the fourth1 under the head of ,geological ,excursions1 illustrates the principles enunciated in the course of the work1 by practical observations on a few instructive ,british localities4 ,,part ,i4 #a4 ,on the ,british ,strata and their ,fossils4 #b4 ,arrangement and ,characters of the ,british ,formations4 #c4 ,on the ,nature of ,fossils or ,organic ,remains4 #d4 ,on ,mineralized ,vegetable ,remains1 and the mode of conducting their investigation4 #e4 ,on ,peat1 ,lignite1 and ,coal4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,fossil ,,botany4 ,classification of ,fossil ,vegetables4 #a4 ,on the ,fossil ,remains of ,cryptogami4 #b4 ,diatomace4 #c4 ,ferns4 #d4 ,sigillari4 #e4 ,lepidodendra4 #f4 ,cycadace4 #g4 ,conifer4 #h4 ,palms4 #i4 ,angiosperms4 ,retrospect4 ,british ,localities of ,fossil ,plants4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,fossil ,,zoology4 ,on the ,fossil ,remains of the ,animal ,kingdom4 #a4 ,zoophytes2 ,amorphozoa4 #b4 ,polypifera4 #c4 ,echinoderms2 comprising the a4 ,crinoidea1 or ,lily-shaped animals4 b4 ,asteriada1 or ,star-,fishes4 c4 ,echinida1 or ,sea-,urchins4 #d4 ,foraminifera4 #e4 ,shell-bearing ,mollusca4 #f4 ,articulated animals2 comprising a4 ,crustaceans4 b4 ,insects4 #g4 ,fishes4 #h4 ,reptiles4 #i4 ,birds4 #aj4 ,mammalia4 #aa4 ,man4 ,retrospect4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,i4 ,geological ,excursions in various parts of ,england1 illustrative of the method of observing geological phenomena1 and of collecting ,fossil ,remains4 ,,ii4 ,miscellaneous4 ,on the prices of ,fossils2 lists of ,dealers1 c4 ,,ii4 ,appendix4 ,,part ,i4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,and ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,strata1 ,,and ,,their ,,fossils4 ,to discover order and intelligence in scenes of apparent wildness and confusion is the pleasing task of the geological inquirer4--,dr4 ,paris4 ,the solid materials of which the earth is composed1 from the surface to the greatest depths within the reach of human observation1 consist of minerals and fossils4 ,minerals are inorganic substances formed by natural operations1 and are the product of chemical or electro-chemical action4 ,fossils are the durable remains of animals and vegetables which have been imbedded in the strata by natural causes in remote periods1 and subsequently more or less altered in structure and composition by mechanical and chemical agencies4 ,the soft and delicate parts of animal and vegetable organisms rapidly decompose after death2 but the firmer and denser structures1 such as the bones and teeth of the former1 and the woody fibre of the latter1 possess considerable durability1 and under certain conditions will resist decay for many years1 or even centuries2 and when deeply imbedded in the earth1 protected from atmospheric influences1 and subjected to the conservative effects of various mineral solutions1 the most perishable tissues often resist decomposition1 and becoming transformed into stone1 may endure for incalculable periods of time4 ,the calcareous and siliceous cases or frustules of numerous microscopic plants are so indestructible1 and occur in such inconceivable quantities1 that the belief of some eminent naturalists of the last century1 that every grain of flint and lime in certain rocks1 may have been elaborated by the energies of vitality1 can no longer be regarded as an extravagant hypothesis4 ,some idea may be formed of the large proportion of the solid materials of the globe that has unquestionably originated from this source1 by a reference to the list of strata which are wholly1 or in great part1 composed of animal and vegetable structures1 given in the ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #hhh4 ,there are also immense tracts of country that consist in a great measure of the remains of plants in the state of anthracite1 coal1 lignite1 c42 and districts covered with peat-bogs and subterranean forests4 ,although these relics of animal and vegetable organisms are found in almost every sedimentary deposit1 yet they occur far more abundantly1 and in a better state of preservation1 in some strata than in others3 nor are they equally distributed throughout the same bed1 but are heaped together in particular localities1 and occur but sparingly1 or are altogether absent1 in other layers of the same rock4 ,neither are the remains of the same kinds of animals and plants found indiscriminately in strata of different ages3 on the contrary1 many species are restricted to the most ancient1 others to the most recent formations2 while some genera range through the entire series of deposits1 and also appear as denizens of the existing seas4 ,hence organic remains acquire a high degree of importance1 not only from the intrinsic interest they possess as objects of natural history1 but also for the light they shed on the physical condition of our planet in the remotest ages1 and for the data they afford as to the successive physical revolutions which the surface of the earth has undergone4 ,fossils have been eloquently and appropriately termed ,medals of ,creation2 for as an accomplished numismatist1 even when the inscription of an ancient and unknown coin is illegible1 can from the half-obliterated effigy1 and from the style of art1 determine with precision the people by whom1 and the period when1 it was struck2 in like manner the geologist can decipher these natural memorials1 interpret the hieroglyphics with which they are inscribed1 and from apparently the most insignificant relics1 trace the history of beings of whom no other records are extant1 and ascertain the forms and habits of unknown types of organization whose races were swept from the face of the earth1 ere the creation of man and the creatures which are his contemporaries4 ,well might the illustrious ,bergman exclaim1 ,sunt instar nummorum memorialium1 qu de prteritis globi nostri fatis testantur1 ubi omnia silent monumenta historica4 ,to derive from these ,medals of ,creation all the information they are capable of affording1 regard therefore must be had not only to their peculiar characters1 but also to the geological relations of the strata in which they are imbedded4 ,data may be thus obtained by which the relative age of a formation or group of strata can be determined1 as well as the mode of deposition1 and the agency by which it was effected2 whether in the bed of an ocean1 or of a lake1 or estuary1--by the action of the sea1 or of rivers1 or running streams1--by the effects of icebergs or glaciers1--by slow processes through long periods of time1 or by sudden inundations or deluges1--or by the agency of volcanoes and earthquakes4 ,the discovery that particular fossils are confined to certain deposits1 was soon productive of important results1 which greatly tended to the advancement of modern ,geology2 for although ,dr4 ,lister1 more than a century before1 had obtained a glimpse of this law1 its principles were neither understood nor regarded in this country until the late ,dr4 ,william ,smith1 by his own unaided exertions1 proved by numerous observations on the ,british strata1 its value and applicability for the identification of a deposit1 in districts remote from each other4 ,this phenomenon did not escape the notice of the distinguished ,french philosophers1 ,,mm4 ,cuvier and ,brongniart1 who in their admirable work1 ,gographie ,minralogique des ,environs de ,paris1 enunciated the same principle3-- ,le moyen que nous avons employ pour reconnoitre au milieu d'un si grand nombre de lits calcaires1 un lit dj1 observ1 dans un canton trs-loign1 est pris de la nature des fossiles renferms dans chaque couche2 ces fossiles sont toujours gnralement les mmes dans les couches correspondantes1 et prsentent d'un systme de couche un autre systme1 des diffrences d'espces assez notables4 ,c'est un signe de reconnoissance qui jusqu' prsent ne nous a pas tromps4#i #i ,gog4 ,min4 ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 ii4 p4 #bff4 ,now1 though recent discoveries have shown that this rule has many exceptions1 and that its too stringent adoption has been productive of some erroneous generalizations1 yet if employed with due caution it is fraught with the most interesting results1 and is the only certain basis of our knowledge respecting the appearance1 continuance1 and extinction1 of the lost races of animals and plants1 which were once denizens of our planet4 ,sidenote3 ,,rocks ,,and ,,strata4 ,in the ,wonders of ,geology will be found a comprehensive sketch of the composition and arrangement of the several formations or groups of strata2 and a reference to that work will afford the student the necessary information on this branch of ,geology4 ,for the convenience of the general reader ,i subjoin a synoptical view of the characters and relations of the ,british fossiliferous deposits4 ,the total thickness of the entire series of rocks within the scope of human examination1 is estimated at from fifteen to twenty miles1 reckoning from the summits of the highest mountains to the greatest depths hitherto penetrated2 and as this vertical section scarcely amounts to #a_/djjth of the diameter of the globe1 it is familiarly termed the ,earth's crust4 ,the substances of which the sedimentary strata are composed have been deposited by the action of water1 and subsequently more or less modified in structure and composition by heat1 and by electro-chemical forces4 ,the superficial accumulations of water-worn detritus1 consisting of gravel1 boulders1 sand1 clay1 c4 are termed ,drift1 or ,alluvial deposits4 ,when the successive layers in which the sediments subsided are obvious1 the deposits are said to be stratified2 when the nature of the materials has been altered by igneous action or high temperature1 but the lines of stratification are not wholly effaced1 the rocks are denominated metamorphic 7transformed74 ,when all traces of organic remains and of sedimentary deposition are lost1 and the mass is crystalline1 and composed of known products of igneous action1 such rocks are named plutonic1 as granite1 sienite1 trap1 basalt1 porphyry1 and the like4 ,lastly1 rocks resembling the lavas1 scoria1 and other substances emitted by burning mountains still in activity1 are called volcanic4 ,the sedimentary origin ascribed to ancient crystalline rocks is1 of course1 hypothetical1 since all evidence of aqueous deposition is wanting1 and the minerals 7mica1 quartz1 and felspar7 of which they are so largely constituted1 are not readily soluble in water under ordinary circumstances4 ,but rocks unquestionably deposited by water1 when exposed to intense heat under great pressure1 acquire a crystalline structure 7,wond4 p4 #hfd72 and a series of changes1 from a loose earthy deposit1 to compact volcanic lava1 may be traced in numerous instances1 so as to leave but little doubt that the rocks called primitive or primary1 may have originally been either argillaceous1 siliceous1 or calcareous strata1 abounding in organic remains 7,wond4 p4 #hgc74 ,these crystalline masses have been formed at successive periods2 for granite is found of all ages1 occurring in the most ancient1 as well as in comparatively modern epochs4 ,the difference between the composition and aspect of these rocks1 and those of recent volcanoes1 is with much probability ascribed to the fact that the latter are of sub-aerial origin2 that is1 were erupted on the surface1 and the gaseous products in consequence escaped2 while the former were ejected at great depths1 either beneath the sea1 or under immense accumulations of other deposits1 and being thus subjected to great pressure1 the volatile elements were confined1 and formed new combinations3 in like manner as chalk when burnt in the open air is converted into lime1 the carbonic acid gas escaping2 but when exposed to the same degree of heat in a closed iron tube1 is transformed into granular marble 7,wond4 p4 #ajd74 ,from these ancient crystalline rocks generally underlying the sedimentary deposits1 and never appearing as if they had been ejected from a crater1 the term hypogene#aj 7nether-formed7 is employed by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell to designate the whole class2 and they are subdivided into1 #a4 plutonic1 those in which all traces of sedimentary origin are lost1 as granite2 and #b4 metamorphic1 those which still manifest traces of stratification1 as mica-schist1 c4 #aj ,nether-formed1 from 1 hypo1 under2 and 1 ginomai1 to be formed4 ,the fossiliferous rocks are1 for the convenience of study1 separated into three grand divisions4 #a4 ,the ,tertiary2 comprising the deposits between the ,chalk and the superficial ,drift and modern ,alluvium4 #b4 ,the ,secondary2 from the ,chalk to the ,trias or ,new ,red1 inclusive4 #c4 ,the ,palozoic2 from the ,permian to the ,silurian2 including the vast series of unfossiliferous slate rocks termed the ,cambrian1 in which all traces of organic remains are lost4 ,in the following arrangement the strata are enumerated as if lying in regular sequence1 one beneath the other2 but in nature such an unbroken series has never been observed4 ,a few groups only occur in a serial order1 and these but rarely in their original position4 ,the beds are for the most part disrupted1 and lie in various angles of inclination2 sometimes they are completely retroverted1 the newer strata underlying those upon which they were originally deposited4 ,the order of succession has been ascertained by careful observation of the relative superposition of the respective members of the series in different countries2 and from an immense number of facts collected by able observers in every part of the globe4 ,this synopsis presents a chronological arrangement of the rocks according to the present state of geological knowledge1 but it must not be supposed that these rigid distinctions1 these hard lines1 which are necessary to facilitate the acquisition of a general idea of the phenomena attempted to be explained1 exist in nature4 ,by whatever names we designate geological periods1 there appear to be no clearly defined boundaries between them in reference to the whole earth3 such well marked lines may be seen in particular localities1 but daily experience teaches us that there is a blending1 and a gradual and insensible passage1 from the lowest to the highest sedimentary strata1 particularly in respect of fossil remains4 ,the terms employed to designate formations can only be considered as expressing the predominance of certain characters1 to be used provisionally1 as a convenient mode of classifying and generalizing the facts collected1 whilst that knowledge is accumulating which in after times will reveal the nature and order of succession of the principal events in the earth's physical history4#aa #aa ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #hib4 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise 7,vol4 ,,ii4 frontispiece7 contains a comprehensive ,diagram of the rocks and strata of which the crust of the earth is composed2 it was drawn by the late ,mr4 ,thomas ,webster4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,strata4 ,hard lines are admissible in ,science1 whose object is not to imitate ,nature1 but to interpret her works4--,greenough4 ,the classification of the stratified rocks is based on three principal characters2 namely1 #a1 the mineral structure2 #b1 the order of superposition2 and #c1 the nature of the organic remains2 the following synopsis has been drawn up in accordance with these principles4#ab #ab ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 i4 pp4 #bjj-bjg1 for a ,synoptical ,table of the principal rocks4 ,,chronological ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,formations4 ,,commencing ,,with ,,the ,,uppermost ,,or ,,newest ,,deposits4 ,modern or ,human ,epoch4 ,alluvial ,deposits3 remains of ,man and existing species of mammalia4 ,post-,pliocene4 ,drift2 ,boulder clay2 ,till2 c4 comprising the superficial irregular accumulations of transported materials1 consisting of gravel1 boulders1 sand1 clay1 c4 ,observations4--,these beds have been formed by a variety of causes2 by land-floods and inundations1 by irruptions of the sea1 and by the agency of glaciers and icebergs4 ,they are the catacombs of the extinct colossal mammalia--of the mastodon1 mammoth1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 elk1 horse1 ox1 whale1 c4 ,they cannot be definitively separated from those of the ,modern or ,human epoch1 for the gravel beds near ,geneva1 which closely resemble the newest tertiary drift in materials and position1 abound in bones of animals1 almost all of which belong to existing species4#ac #ac ,see ,m4 ,pictet's ,palontologie4 ,tertiary ,epochs4 ,an extensive series1 comprising many isolated groups of marine and lacustrine deposits1 containing fossil remains of animals and vegetables of all classes2 the greater number of genera and species in the most ancient or lowermost beds belong to extinct types4 ,subdivisions3-- #a4 ,the ,pliocene#ad 7more new1 or recent4#ae ,wond4 p4 #bba72 strata in which the shells are for the most part of recent species1 having only about ten per cent of extinct forms4 7,norwich ,crag47 #b4 ,the ,miocene 7less recent1#af ,wond4 p4 #bba72 containing about #bj per cent of recent species of shells4 7,suffolk ,crag47 #c4 ,the ,eocene 7dawn of recent1#ag in allusion to the first appearance of recent species--,wond4 p4 #bbf72 the most ancient tertiary strata contain but very few existing species of shells2 not more than five per cent4 7,london1 ,hants1 and ,paris basins47 #ad ,in the present state of our knowledge1 this arrangement is of great utility1 but it will probably require considerable modification1 and must1 perhaps1 hereafter be abandoned2 for it cannot be doubted1 that strata in which no recent species have yet been found1 may yield them to more accurate and extended observations1 and those in which only a few recent species are associated with a large number of extinct forms1 may have these proportions reversed4 #ae ,from 1 pleion1 more2 and 1 kainos1 recent4 #af ,from 1 meion1 less1 and recent4 #ag ,from 1 eos1 the dawn or commencement1 and recent4 ,obs4--,the marine are often associated with fresh-water deposits1 and the general characters of the ,tertiary system are alternations of marine and lacustrine strata4 ,in ,england the most important ,tertiary deposits are those of the ,london basin1 the ,isle of ,sheppey1 the south-western coasts of ,sussex and ,hampshire1 the north of the ,isle of ,wight1 and the eastern coasts of ,essex1 ,norfolk1 ,suffolk4 7,wond4 p4 #bbf47 ,secondary ,epochs4 ,the ,cretaceous or ,chalk ,formation4 7,wond4 p4 #bif74 ,a marine formation1 comprising a vast series of beds of limestone1 sandstone1 marl1 and clay1 c42 characterized by remains of extinct zoophytes1 mollusks1 cephalopods1 echinoderms1 crustaceans1 fishes1 c42 lacertians1 crocodilians1 chelonians1 and other extinct reptiles2 drifted coniferous and dicotyledonous wood and foliage1 fuci1 c4 ,subdivisions3-- #a4 ,the ,maestricht beds4 ,friable coralline and shelly limestones1 with flints and chert4 #b4 ,upper ,chalk1 with flints ,craie blanche of the ,french geologists4 #c4 ,lower ,chalk1 without flints #d4 ,chalk-marl ,craie tufeau4 #e4 ,firestone1 ,malm-rock1 ,upper ,glauconie crayeuse4 ,greensand1 or ,glauconite #f4 ,galt1 or ,folkstone-marl ,glauconie sableuse4 #g4 ,shanklin1 or ,lower ,greensand4 ,formation nocomien2 which is divided into ,n4 suprieur1 the ,english upper divisions of the ,greensand or ,kentish rag2 and ,n4 infrieur1 the lower beds of sand and clay1 of the southern shore of the ,isle of ,wight1 at ,atherfield4#ah #ah ,another subdivision1 with other names 7chiefly derived from ,french localities71 has lately been proposed by ,m4 ,d',orbigny2 which ,i notice with the more regret1 since this eminent naturalist formerly repudiated the censurable practice of many modern systematists1 of changing established names of strata and fossils1 without any just cause4 ,the ,british geologist will smile to see the ,wealden ,formation--so eminently distinguished in ,england and ,germany by its extent1 thickness1 and remarkable fauna and flora1--ranked as a subordinate member of the ,formation nocomien1 of ,france4 ,obs4--,the ,maestricht beds are chiefly composed of fawn-coloured limestones of friable texture2 containing peculiar species of corals1 shells1 fishes1 reptiles1 c4 ,the ,chalk is generally white1 but in some localities is of a deep red1 in others of a yellow colour2 nodules1 layers1 and veins of flint occur in the upper1 but are seldom present in the lower chalk4 ,the ,marl is an argillaceous limestone1 which generally prevails beneath the white chalk2 it sometimes contains a large intermixture of green or chlorite sand1 and then is called ,firestone1 or ,glauconite4 ,the ,galt is a stiff1 blue or blackish clay1 abounding in shells which frequently retain their pearly lustre4 ,the ,greensand is a triple alternation of sands and sandstones with clays2 and beds of cherty limestone called ,kentish ,rag4 ,the ,wealden2 a formation1 whose fluviatile character was first observed and established by the researches of the author 7,wond4 p4 #cfj74 ,a series of clays1 sands1 sandstones and limestones1 with layers of lignite1 and extensive coal-fields2 characterized by the remains of several peculiar terrestrial reptiles1 namely1 ,iguanodon1 ,hylosaurus1 ,pelorosaurus1 ,megalosaurus2 ,crocodilians and ,chelonians2 ,enaliosaurians2 ,pterodactyles1 c42 ,fishes of fluviatile and marine genera2 ,insects of several orders2 fresh-water mollusks and crustaceans2 conifers1 cycads1 ferns1 c4 ,subdivisions3-- #a4 ,weald-clay1 with ,sussex or ,petworth marbles4 #b4 ,tilgate-grit1 and ,hastings sands4 #c4 ,ashburnham clays1 shales1 and grey limestones4 #d4 ,purbeck beds2 argillaceous and calcareous shales1 and fresh-water limestones and marbles4 ,petrified forest1 and layers of vegetable earth2 with ,cycads and ,conifers4 ,obs4--,clays and limestones1 almost wholly composed of fresh-water snail-shells1 and minute crustaceans1 generally occupy the uppermost place in the series in ,sussex2 sands and sandstones1 with shales1 and lignite1 prevail in the middle2 while in the lowermost1 argillaceous beds1 with shelly marbles or limestones1 again appear2 and1 buried beneath the whole1 is a petrified pine-forest1 with the trees still erect1 and the vegetable mould undisturbed6 ,the upper clay beds and marbles form the deep valleys or ,wealds of ,kent and ,sussex1 and the middle series constitutes the ,forest-,ridge4 ,the ,purbeck strata are obscurely seen in some of the deepest valleys of eastern ,sussex2 they emerge on the ,dorsetshire coast1 form the ,island or ,peninsula whose name they bear1 and surmount the northern brow of the ,isle of ,portland4 ,on the southern coast of the ,isle of ,wight1 the ,wealden beds emerge from beneath the ,greensand strata between ,atherfield and ,compton ,bay on the western limit1 and in ,sandown ,bay on the eastern2 and their characteristic fossils are continually being washed up on the sea-shore4 ,the ,jurassic or ,oolitic ,formation4 7,wond4 pp4 #bjb1 and #dia74 ,a marine formation of great extent and thickness1 consisting of strata of limestone and clay1 which abound in extinct species and genera of marine shells1 ,corals1 ,insects1 ,fishes1 and terrestrial and marine ,reptiles4 ,land plants of many peculiar types1 and the remains of two genera of ,mammalia4 ,subdivisions3-- ,upper ,oolite of ,portland1 ,wilts1 ,bucks1 ,berks1 c4 #a4 ,portland ,oolite4 ,limestone of an oolitic structure1 abounding in ammonites1 trigoni1 c4 and other marine exuvi4 ,green and ferruginous sands--layers of chert4 #b4 ,kimmeridge clay4 ,blue clay1 with septaria1 and bands of sandy concretions--marine shells and other organic remains--ostrea deltoidea4 ,beds of lignite4 ,middle ,oolite of ,oxford1 ,bucks1 ,yorkshire1 c4 #a4 ,coral oolite1 or ,coral rag4 ,limestone composed of corals1 with shells and echinites4 #b4 ,oxford clay2 with septaria and numerous fossils4 ,beds of calcareous grit1 called ,kelloway-rock swarming with organic remains4 ,lower ,oolite of ,gloucestershire1 ,oxfordshire1 and ,northamptonshire4 #a4 ,cornbrash--a coarse shelly limestone4 #b4 ,forest marble2 concretions of fissile arenaceous limestone--coarse shelly oolite--sand1 grit1 and blue clay4 #c4 ,great oolite--calcareous oolitic limestone and freestone2 reptiles1 corals1 c41 upper beds full of shells4 ,stonesfield slate2--terrestrial plants1 insects1 reptiles1 ,mammalia4 #d4 ,fullers earth beds2--marls and clays1 with fuller's earth--sandy limestones and shells4 #e4 ,inferior oolite--coarse limestone--conglomerated masses of terebratul and other shells--ferruginous sand1 and concretionary blocks of sandy limestone1 and shells4 ,lower ,oolite1 of ,brora in ,scotland4 #a4 ,shelly ,limestones--alternation of sandstones1 shales1 and ironstone2 land-plants4 #b4 ,ferruginous limestone1 with carbonized wood and shells4 #c4 ,sandstone and shale2 with two beds of coal4 ,lower ,oolite of the ,yorkshire coast4 #a4 ,cornbrash--a provincial term for a bluish grey rubbly limestone1 with intervening layers of clay4 #b4 ,sandstones and clays1 with land-plants1 thin beds of coal and shale--calcareous sandstone and shelly limestone4 #c4 ,sandstone--often carbonaceous1 with clays2 coal-beds1 and ironstone1 with remains of vegetables4 #d4 ,limestone2 ferruginous and concretionary sands4 ,obs4--,the difference observable between the lower beds of the ,oolite in the midland counties1 and those of ,yorkshire and ,scotland1 is a fact of considerable interest4 ,the fluvio-marine accumulations of vegetable matter in the state of coal1 with the remains of land-plants at ,scarborough and ,brora1 together with the presence of insects1 fresh-water crustaceans1 mammalia1 and terrestrial plants1 in the ,stonesfield slate1 attest the existence of neighbouring land1 and the action of rivers and currents4 ,the ,lias4 7,wond4 p4 #eba7 ,a series of clays1 shales1 and limestones1 with marine shells1 cephalopoda1 crinoidea1 and fishes in great abundance2 reptiles1 7particularly of two extinct genera1 ,plesiosaurus1 and ,ichthyosaurus17 in immense numbers4 ,drifted wood and land plants3 conifer1 cycades c4 ,subdivisions3-- #a4 ,upper ,lias shale1 full of saurian remains1 belemnites1 ammonites1 c4 intercalated with the lowermost beds of the ,oolite3 nodules and beds of limestone4 #b4 ,lias marlstone2 calcareous1 sandy1 and ferruginous strata1 very rich in terebratul and other marine shells4 #c4 ,lower ,lias clay and shale1 abounding in gryphea incurva1 and other marine shells2 intercalations of sands and clays1 with nodules of limestone4 #d4 ,lias rock2 a series of laminated limestones1 with clay partings4 ,bone-bed1 with numerous remains of fishes4 ,obs4--,the ,lias is the grand depository of those tribes of marine reptiles1 the ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri1 whose remarkable forms1 structure1 and state of preservation1 have excited the attention even of the most incurious4 ,the collection of these remains in the ,british ,museum1 principally formed by ,mr4 ,hawkins1 is unrivalled4#ai #ai ,see ,petrifactions1 p4 #ccg-cfg4 ,the ,trias2 or ,new ,red ,sandstone ,formation1#bj 7,wond4 p4 #ecc74 ,this group of rocks consists of variegated marls1 sandstones1 and conglomerates1 frequently of a red colour1 with marine shells1 crinoideans1 fishes1 and reptiles2 marine and terrestrial plants4 ,this series contains extensive deposits of rock-salt1 and brine-springs4 #bj ,called by some geologists ,poikilitic 7variegated7 group4 ,this formation comprises the ,trias1 or triple group1 viz4 the ,keuper1 ,muschelkalk1 and ,upper ,bunter ,sandstein1 of the ,german geologists4 ,subdivisions3-- #a4 ,variegated red1 blue1 and white marls1 and shales1 with gypsum and beds of rock-salt4 7,marnes irises of the ,french47 #b4 ,variegated red and white sandstones4 #c4 ,conglomerates formed of the detritus of the older rocks4 #d4 ,bed mottled sandstone1 and marls4 7,grs bigarr of the ,french47 ,obs4--,to this formation belong the principal deposits in ,leicestershire and other midland counties of ,england4 ,fossils are not generally abundant1 but some localities yield highly interesting remains4 ,the shelly limestone of ,germany1 called ,muschelkalk1 which contains the ,lily ,encrinite1 c4 does not occur in ,england4 ,remains of ,conifers allied to the ,yew and ,araucaria1 are found near ,coventry2 and peculiar reptiles 7,labyrinthodons7 near ,warwick4 ,palozoic ,epochs4 ,the ,permian ,formation4 7,wond4 p4 #ecc74 ,the separation of the strata now termed ,permian from the ,triassic1 with which they were formerly classed1 was first proposed by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 and is based on the fact that the fossils hitherto discovered are entirely distinct from any that occur in the ,trias and subsequent formations2 it is1 therefore1 inferred1 that after the deposition of the so-called ,permian strata1 a complete change took place in the faunas and floras of the lands and seas1 and the ,trias is at present regarded as the dawn of a new system of organic beings4 ,the strata comprised in this group are variegated blue and red marls and sandstones1 like those of the ,triassic2 magnesian or dolomitic limestones2 and conglomerates more or less coloured with peroxide of iron4 ,subdivisions3-- #a4 ,red and white marls4 #b4 ,yellow magnesian limestones1 and dolomitic conglomerates of ,yorkshire and ,durham4 #c4 ,marl-slate in thin layers1 containing reptiles and fishes4 ,the ,keuper schiefer or copper-schist of ,mansfeld4 #d4 ,marls and variegated sandstones1 sands1 and clays4 ,obs4--,this group includes the ,lower ,bunter1 ,zechstein1 and ,rothliegendes#ba of the ,german geologists4 ,the ,permian comprises all the deposits that intervene between the ,triassic above1 and the ,carboniferous below2 and it is believed that this formation contains but one type of animal and vegetable life4 #ba ,signifying ,red-dead-layer2 it is a ,german mining term denoting that the copper of the upper bed has died out2 this layer not being metalliferous4 ,the ,carboniferous1 or ,coal ,formation4 7,wond4 pp4 #ffj-gdh74 ,sandstones1 grits1 shales1 layers of ironstone1 and clay1 with immense beds of coal2 fresh-water limestones sparingly2 marine limestones abundantly4 ,subdivisions3-- #a4 ,the ,coal ,measures4--,sandstones1 shales1 and grits1 with numerous beds and seams of ,coal2 ironstone nodules4 ,land plants in profusion4 ,intercalations of bands of limestone with fresh-water bivalves and crustaceans in some districts2 and with marine shells in others4 #b4 ,millstone ,grit4--,sandstones1 shales1 and quartzose conglomerates and grit1 7provincially1 ,millstone-grit73 with shales and thin seams of coal1 and plants of the coal-measures in some localities4 ,the conglomerates and grits have evidently resulted from the destruction of granitic rocks4 #c4 ,carboniferous1 or ,mountain ,limestone4--,a series1 nearly #a1jjj feet in thickness1 of limestones and flagstones1 abounding in crinoideans1 corals1 and marine shells and crustaceans2 with layers and nodules of chert4 ,ores of lead1 zinc1 copper1 barytes2 fluor spar1 c4 ,limestones1 with innumerable shells of the genera ,productus1 ,spirifer1 ,goniatites1 ,orthocera1 ,bellerophon1 c4 ,several varieties of black1 bluish grey1 and variegated marbles4 ,coal occurs in the mountain limestone of some parts of ,russia4 ,obs4--,the strata comprised in the carboniferous 7coal-hearing7 system1 consist of sandstones more or less felspathic1 and of dark bituminous shales with innumerable ferns1 and other vascular cryptogami1 and conifer1 c4 ,the uppermost group is composed of numerous alternations of coal1 clay1 shale1 ironstone1 and sandstone2 the middle1 of sandstones1 shales1 clays1 and quartzose conglomerates1 generally of a dull red colour2 and the lowermost1 of crystalline limestones with occasional layers of chert1 abounding in marine shells1 corals1 crinoidea1 and other exuvi4 ,these lower limestones are the principal repositories of the lead ores of ,derbyshire4 ,the ,devonian or ,old ,red ,formation4 7,wond4 pp4 #bjd and #gea74 ,conglomerates1 quartzose grits1 sandstones1 marls1 and limestones2 the prevailing colour is a dull red4 ,shells1 corals1 and ganoid fishes1 of a very peculiar type4 ,reptiles1 7,telerpeton2 ,batrachians8 ,chelonians872 the most ancient reptilian remains hitherto discovered4 ,ferns1 ,lepidodendrons1 and other trees of the carboniferous flora2 fluviatile plants with batrachian ova7874 ,subdivisions3-- #a4 ,sandstone1 quartzose conglomerates1 and shale1 with but few fossils4 #b4 ,flagstones1 marls1 and concretionary limestones2 provincially termed corn-stones2 laminated reddish and greenish micaceous sandstones 7prov4 tilestones74 ,peculiar genera of fish2 orthocerata1 and many species of marine shells4 ,obs4--,the term ,devonian1 by which the series of strata comprehended in this formation is now generally distinguished by geologists1 was first proposed by ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 as being more precise than the name formerly applied to this group4 ,in ,scotland1 where the formation is of vast extent1 it was first characterized by its peculiar ganoid fishes 7,pterichthys1 ,coccosteus1 ,cephalaspis71 and will probably always there retain the original name of ,old ,red4#bb ,in ,devonshire it is marked by the presence of shells of a character intermediate between those of the ,silurian and ,carboniferous systems4 ,the sandstones are in various states of induration1 and when slaty1 are employed for roofing4 ,the red colour predominates in the marls1 and is derived from peroxide of iron4 ,the formation of these rocks has manifestly resulted from the waste of ancient slate rocks1 the detritus of which is cemented together into coarse conglomerates4 ,in ,south ,devonshire 7at ,torquay1 ,babbicombe1 c471 beautiful coralline marbles occur in this formation4 #bb ,see the charming volume of ,mr4 ,hugh ,miller1 entitled ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 or ,new ,walks in an ,old ,field4 ,the ,silurian ,system4 7,wond4 p4 #gfe74 ,marine limestones1 sandstones1 shales1 and calcareous flagstones1 characterized by peculiar types of corals1 crinoideans1 mollusks1 and crustaceans1 constitute this important and extensive system of rocks2 the ,grauwack1 or ,transition series of the earlier geologists4 ,subdivisions3-- ,,upper ,,silurian4 #a4 ,ludlow rocks2--slightly micaceous grey-coloured sandstones4 ,blue and grey argillaceous limestones4 ,dark-coloured shales and flagstones1 with concretions of earthy limestone1 containing marine shells1 ,orthocerata1 ,spirifers1 and ,trilobites4 ,fishes4 #b4 ,wenlock1 or ,dudley limestone2--sub-crystalline blue and grey limestone1 abounding in ,trilobites1 ,crinoidea1 ,polyparia1 ,spirifers1 ,orthocerata1 c4 #c4 ,wenlock shale2--dark grey argillaceous shale1 with nodules of sandstone4 ,,lower ,,silurian4 #a4 ,caradoc sandstone2--shelly limestones1 and finely laminated1 slightly micaceous1 greenish sandstones4 ,corals1 ,shells1 ,trilobites4 #b4 ,llandeilo flags and limestones4 ,freestone1 conglomerates1 grits1 and limestones4 ,dark-coloured flags4 ,beds of schist with abundance of ,trilobites and shells4 ,the lowermost beds are full of small bivalves1 termed ,lingul4 ,obs4--,the ,silurian ,system1 7so named by ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 from the ,silures1 the ancient ,britons who inhabited those parts of our island in which the geological relations of these strata were first recognised by him17 occupies the border counties of ,england and ,wales1 and spreads over a vast area of both ,north and ,south ,wales1 intervening between the ,carboniferous series and the ,cambrian or ancient slate-rocks of that country4#bc ,the strata are entirely of marine origin1 and many of the beds 7as the well-known ,dudley or ,wenlock limestone7 are composed of shells1 corals1 crinoideans1 and remains of that remarkable family of crustaceans termed ,trilobites1 cemented together by carbonate of lime4 ,a few remains of ,fishes occur3 ,reptiles are unknown4 ,no vegetable relics1 excepting ,fuci1 have been found in ,britain below the ,devonian or ,old ,red formation4#bd #bc ,the ,silurian ,system1 founded on ,geological ,researches in the ,border ,counties of ,england and ,wales4 ,in two parts1 royal #dto41 with map1 sections1 c41 by ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison1 ,g4,c4 ,st4,s4 c4 ,in studying the beautiful map which accompanies the work1 it must be borne in mind that ten years have elapsed since ,sir ,r4 ,murchison abrogated the boundary line that separates the ,cambrian and ,silurian rocks in this chart1 from the conviction that those deposits constitute but one natural system 7see ,wond4 p4 #hj4c74 ,for an account of the ,silurian rocks of other countries1 see ,geology of ,russia1 by the same ,author4 ,a summary of the characters of the ,silurian ,system1 by ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 is given in ,geolog4 ,journal1 vol4 viii4 pp4 #agc-ahc4 #bd ,the ,silurian ,system contains excellent figures of all the organic remains known at the period of its publication4 ,the ,cambrian ,formation4 ,this term is applied to a largely developed series of unfossiliferous slate-rocks and conglomerates1 many thousand yards in thickness4 ,obs4--,certain beds of dark-coloured schists containing a few corals1 fuci1 and shells1 are referred to the uppermost part of this formation by some eminent geologists1 but it is more consonant to the established system of classification to regard these fossiliferous beds as the lowermost of the ,silurian rocks4 ,the fineness of grain1 general aspect1 hardness1 and texture of these strata1 are well known1 from the general employment of slate for economical purposes4 ,these rocks extend over a great part of ,cumberland1 ,westmoreland1 and ,lancashire1 reaching to elevations of #c1jjj feet1 and giving rise to the grand scenery of the ,lakes1 and of ,north ,wales4 ,hypogene ,rocks4 7,wond4 p4 #hjf47 ,non-fossiliferous4 ,metamorphic 7transformed7 or stratified crystalline rocks4 ,subdivisions4-- #a4 ,mica-schist ,system4 7,wond4 p4 #hdc47 ,probably sedimentary rocks altered by high temperature4 ,mica-slate1 ,quartz-rock1 ,crystalline limestone1 ,hornblende schist1 c4 #b4 ,gneiss ,system4 ,layers of ,gneiss1 ,sienite and ,quartz-rock1 alternating with ,clay-slate1 ,mica-schist1 c4 ,plutonic ,rocks2 unstratified crystalline masses4 ,granitic ,system4 7,wond4 p4 #hdd47 ,granite--a rock composed of mica1 quartz1 and felspar2 ,porphyry2 ,serpentine2 ,trap4 ,these rocks occur in amorphous or shapeless masses1 and in dykes and veins4 ,obs4--,no fossils have been detected in these rocks3 but the intense igneous action which the masses appear to have undergone1 may have obliterated all evidence of animal and vegetable structures1 should any have been present1 as well as the lines of stratification4 ,by the aid of the microscope1 we may yet perhaps solve the mystery which shrouds the origin of these rocks1 and the student may take up the investigation with the certainty of obtaining much valuable information1 even should the search for organic structures prove abortive4 ,it is not1 however1 improbable that the siliceous frustules of diatomace may have escaped destruction1 and remain to reward the researches of some skillful and patient observer4 ,volcanic ,rocks4 7,wond4 p4 #hae47 ,the products of subterranean fire or heat1 erupted from profound depths through fissures in the ,earth's crust1 whether in ancient or modern times4 ,subdivisions4-- #a4 ,trap1 ,basalt1 ,toadstone1 ,volcanic-tuff2 the erupted materials of ancient extinct volcanoes4 #b4 ,lavas1 ,scori1 ,pumice1 ,ashes2 ejected by modern volcanoes4 ,obs4--,these igneous products are of all ages1 and they traverse alike the hypogene rocks and the older and newer sedimentary deposits4 ,their characters1 and the effects they have produced1 are considered in the work to which reference is made4 99 99 99 99 99 ,by a reference to the geological map of ,england 7,wond4 pl4 i4 vol4 i471 it will be seen1 that the several formations appear on the surface in a somewhat chronological order1 as we pass from the eastern or south-eastern part of the ,island to the west or north-west4 ,thus the principal ,tertiary deposits are situated in the eastern and south-eastern parts2 and proceeding towards the north-west1 we traverse successively the ,secondary--the ,chalk1 ,oolite1 ,lias and ,trias2 then the ,palozoic--,permian1 ,carboniferous1 and ,devonian2 next the ,silurian and ,cambrian2 and at length metamorphic and primary rocks appear4 ,it is this distribution of the strata of the respective formations that has determined the characters of the physical geography of ,england4 ,the ,alpine or mountainous districts1 which extend north and south along the western portion of ,england and ,wales1 from ,cornwall to ,cumberland1 are formed by the elevated masses of the ,silurian1 ,cambrian1 and ,metamorphic rocks4 ,these are succeeded by a band of the ,carboniferous and ,triassic deposits1 with a few intrusions of metamorphic and plutonic rocks1 that stretches from the coast of ,devonshire1 through the midland counties1 by ,leicestershire and ,derbyshire1 to ,newcastle4 ,on the south-east of this tract1 the ,oolite and ,cretaceous formations1 chiefly made up of argillaceous and calcareous strata1 constitute a diversified agricultural district1 extending from the southern shores of ,hants and ,dorset to the coast of ,yorkshire4 ,the ,wealden occupies the country lying between the ,chalk ,downs of ,sussex1 ,hants1 ,surrey1 and ,kent4 ,the ,tertiary deposits lie in basins or depressions of the upper cretaceous rocks in the south-eastern and eastern maritime districts1 and on an extensive area of these beds stands the metropolis of ,england2 lastly1 irregular accumulations of ,drift1 containing mammalian remains in some localities1 are spread over the surface of the ancient formations1 and form the immediate subsoil of the most fertile regions4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,on ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,fossils1 ,,or ,,organic ,,remains4 ,fossils2 ,petrifactions4--,it is very generally the case1 that persons who are not conversant with the nature of organic remains1 suppose that all fossils are petrifactions2 and unless a specimen has the aspect and hardness of stone1 they regard it as of modern origin1 and devoid of interest4 ,hence they are surprised to find among the choicest treasures in the cabinet of the geologist1 shells and corals as perfect in form1 as if recently collected from the sea-shore2 bones as little changed1 as if they had been interred but for a short period2 and teeth possessing their sharp edges and enamel unimpaired4 ,in my early researches ,i fell into this error1 and threw away many beautiful shells that were associated with casts of ammonites in the marl at ,hamsey1 supposing1 from their perfect state1 that they had been accidentally imbedded1 and were not genuine fossils4 ,but the state of preservation1 and the degree of change which an organic body has undergone in the mineral kingdom1 have no necessary relation to its antiquity4 ,the shells in some of the ancient secondary strata are frequently as little changed as those in modern tertiary deposits4 ,i have collected from the lowermost clays of the ,wealden1 fresh-water shells with traces of the epidermis1 and the ligament by which the valves were held together1 perfect2 and bones of reptiles from the strata of ,tilgate ,forest1 as light and porous as those of the bears and hyenas1 from the ,caverns of ,germany4 ,on the other hand1 fossil remains from the newest tertiary formations are often completely petrified1 that is1 permeated by1 or transmuted into1 stone4 ,the words fossil and petrifaction are so commonly used as synonymous terms1 even by educated persons1 that it is necessary to define the sense in which they are employed in these volumes4 ,fossils are the durable parts of animal and vegetable structures imbedded in rocks and strata by natural causes at a remote period2 thus wood in a state of lignite1 bog-wood1 and coal1 or of siliceous or calcareous stone1 is fossil wood2 and bones or shells1 whether in an earthy and decaying state1 or permeated by calc-spar1 flint1 or iron1 and converted into a hard mineral substance1 are alike fossil bones or shells4 ,petrifactions are the remains of animals and vegetables in which the original structure is converted into stone1 or1 in other words1 is petrified2 such are the silicified stems of trees from ,antigua1 and ,germany1 and the calcified bones and shells in the ,oolitic and ,wealden limestones4 ,such petrifactions may be correctly termed fossil plants1 bones1 or shells2 but similar organic remains1 though of equal antiquity1 which have not undergone such changes1 are not petrifactions in the proper meaning of that term4 ,the process by which petrifaction is effected is still involved in obscurity2 mineral solutions have permeated the original tissues1 and the organic molecules have been replaced by mineral molecules1 but how this transmutation is produced is not understood4 ,mr4 ,dana's observations and ,mr4 ,jeffery's experiments have1 however1 thrown much light on the process of silicification4#be #be ,see ,wond4 p4 #ajj4 ,incrustations4--,another prevalent error is that of considering ,incrustations to be fossils or petrifactions2 a mistake which is sanctioned by the custom of calling waters that are charged with calcareous earth 7lime71 and deposit it in considerable quantity1 petrifying springs2 as those of ,matlock1 and other places in ,derbyshire4 7,wond4 p4 #gf47 ,but incrustations are not petrifactions2 stems and branches of trees1 skulls1 bones1 shells1 c41 are simply invested with a calcareous coating or crust1 which is generally porous and friable1 but often crystalline and compact4 ,the inclosed bodies are not permeated by the stony matter2 if the mass be broken1 or the incrustation removed1 we find the twig1 or stem1 either dry and shrivelled1 as in the specimens1 figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 ,plate ,,iii42 or tubular cavities are left by the decay and removal of the vegetable structure1 as in fig4 #aj1 ,plate ,,iii4 ,but although incrustations be not petrifactions1 natural specimens1 7not the so-called petrified nests and twigs1 in which the bad taste of the guardians of the ,derbyshire springs is embodied1 and dispersed all over ,england17 are objects of considerable interest1 as illustrative of a process1 by which important changes are effected in the mineral kingdom4 ,thus springs as clear and sparkling as poet ever feigned or sung1 may transform beds of loose sand and gravel into rock1 and porous stone into solid marble1 and cover extensive tracts of country with layers of concretionary and crystalline limestone4 ,this process is effected in the following manner4 ,most fresh water holds in solution a certain proportion of carbonate of lime2 and changes of temperature1 as well as other causes1 will occasion this calcareous earth to be in part or wholly precipitated4 ,the fur1 as it is called1 that lines a kettle or boiler which has been long in use1 affords a familiar illustration of this fact4 ,at the temperature of #fj lime is soluble in #gjj times its weight of water2 and if to the solution a small portion of carbonic acid be added1 a carbonate of lime is formed1 which is thrown down in an insoluble state4 ,but if the carbonic acid be in such quantity as to supersaturate the lime1 it is again rendered soluble in water3 it is thus that carbonate of lime1 held in solution by an excess of carbonic acid1 not in actual combination with the lime1 but contained in the water1 and acting as a menstruum1 is commonly found in all waters4 ,an absorption of carbonic acid1 or a loss of that portion which exists in excess1 will therefore occasion the lime to be set free1 and precipitated on the foreign bodies in the water1 as stones1 twigs1 leaves1 c4 ,the substance thus deposited is termed tufa1 or travertine2#bf and in some parts of ,italy1 and of our own ,island1 it constitutes beds of stone of great extent1 in which bones1 shells1 and the impressions of leaves and stems1 are preserved4 ,the stalactites and stalagmites of caverns have a similar origin2 many of these caves are of incalculable antiquity1 and beneath their stalagmitic floors1 the bones and teeth of extinct carnivorous animals are found in vast quantities4 #bf ,travertine1 so called from the river ,tibur1 whose waters are loaded with calcareous earth--,tiburtina1 ,ital4 travertina4 ,silicification1 or petrifaction by ,silex or ,flint4--,silex1 or the earth of flint1 is held in solution in large proportions1 in certain thermal or boiling springs1 which1 on cooling1 deposit the siliceous matter 7in the same manner as the travertine is precipitated from incrusting streams7 on foreign substances1 and produce exquisite chalcedonic infiltrations of mosses1 c4 ,but this operation is now only known to be in activity in the immediate neighbourhood of foci of volcanic action1 as in the celebrated ,geysers of ,iceland 7,wond4 p4 #ie71 and the boiling springs of the volcano of ,tongariro1 in ,new ,zealand 7#ih74 ,we have everywhere evidence that in former periods1 the petrifaction1 as well as the incrustation of organic bodies by silex1 was carried on to an immense extent2 and1 doubtless1 far beneath the surface1 the same operation is at the present moment in constant progress1 and effecting as important changes in the consolidation of loose materials1 as in the earlier geological epochs4 ,the various states in which silex occurs have depended on its fluidity2 in quartz crystals the solution appears to have been complete2 in agate and chalcedony it was in a gelatinous state1 assuming a spheroidal or orbicular disposition1 according to the motion given to its particles4 ,its condition appears also to have been modified by the influence of organic matter4 ,in some polished slices of siliceous nodules the transition from flint to agate1 chalcedony1 and crystallized quartz1 is beautifully shown4 ,the curious fact1 that the cavities of echinites in chalk are almost invariably filled with flint1 while their crustaceous cases are changed into calc-spar1 is probably1 in many instances1 to be attributed to the animal matter having undergone silicification2 for the soft gelatinous parts are those which appear to have been most susceptible of this transmutation4 ,in some specimens1 the oyster is changed into flint1 while the shell is converted into crystallized carbonate of lime4 ,in a ,trigonia from ,tisbury1 formerly in the cabinet of the late ,miss ,benett1 of ,norton ,house1 near ,warminster1 the body of the mollusk was completely metamorphosed into a pure chalcedony1 the branchi or gills being as clearly defined as when the animal was recent4 ,in specimens of wood from ,australia 7presented to the ,british ,museum by ,sir ,thomas ,mitchell71 which are thoroughly permeated by silex1 there are on the external surface some spots of chalcedony that have apparently originated from the exudation of the liquid silex from the interior in viscid globules filled with air1 which burst1 and then collapsed1 and became solidified in their present form4 ,in silicified wood the permeation of the vegetable tissues by the mineral matter1 appears to have been effected by solutions of silex of a high temperature4 ,in some examples the mineralization is simply a replacement3 the original substance has been removed atom by atom1 and the silex substituted in its place4 ,one of the most eminent naturalists and chemists of the ,united ,states1 ,mr4 ,dana1#bg suggests that the reason why silica is so common a material in the constitution of fossil wood and shells1 as well as in pseudo-morphic crystals1#bh is the ready solution of silex in water at a high temperature 7a fact affirmed by ,bergman#bi7 under great pressure1 whenever an alkali is present1 as is seen at the present time in many volcanic regions1 and its deposition again when the water cools4 ,a mere heated aqueous solution of silica1 under high pressure1 is sufficient to explain the phenomenon of the silicification of organic structures4 ,mr4 ,dana states that a crystal of calc-spar in such a fluid being exposed to solution1 from the action of the heated water alone1 the silica deposits itself gradually on a reduction of temperature1 and takes the place of the lime1 atom by atom1 as soon as set free4 ,every silicified fossil is an example of this pseudo-morphism2 but there seems to be no union of the silica with the lime1 for silicate of lime is of rare occurrence4#cj #bg ,american ,journal of ,science for ,january #ahde4 #bh ,pseudo-morphic crystals are crystals moulded in the cavities left by other crystals which they have replaced4 ,see ,dr4 ,blum on ,pseudo-morphous minerals4 #bi ,bergman first determined the solubility of silex in simple water1 aided by heat1 and demonstrated its existence in the ,geysers and other boiling springs of ,iceland4--,parkinson1 ,org4 ,rem4 vol4 i4 p4 #cbd4 #cj ,see my ,notes on a ,microscopical ,examination of ,chalk and ,flint1 ,annals of ,natural ,history1 ,august #ahde4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i proceed to consider the various states in which the remains of animals and plants are preserved in the mineral kingdom1 and shall occasionally offer suggestions for collecting and preparing specimens2 but particular instructions on this head will be given in the sequel1 when the different kinds of fossils are respectively considered4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,animal ,,remains4 ,animal ,remains4--,of the higher orders of animals1 the more durable portions of the skeleton1 as the bones and teeth1 are almost the only parts that occur in a fossil state2 except in some remarkable instances1 in which entire carcasses of extinct species of ,elephant1 and of ,rhinoceros1 have been found imbedded in solid ice1 and frozen gravel4 7,wond4 p4 #aeb47 ,the countries of arctic regions are now the only localities in which such phenomena are likely to be met with2 it appears1 however1 that in some remote period1 the bodies of large mammalia were transported by icebergs into temperate regions1 where the ice melted1 and the animals either sunk to the bottom of the sea1 or were drifted into estuaries1 or stranded on the shore3 the soft parts then decomposed1 and the skeletons and detached bones were left imbedded in the silt1 sand1 or shingle4 ,in this manner alone can be explained the occurrence of bones and teeth of the mammoth1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 c4 so common in the alluvial or drifted deposits of this country2 for these relics1 though extremely friable1 and buried in shingle1 boulders1 and other transported materials1 are not water-worn1 but in numerous instances remain as sharp and perfect as when recent4 ,in the ancient shingle of ,brighton cliffs 7,wond4 p4 #aad71 ,i have found bones and teeth of horse1 deer1 ox1 whale1 c4 impacted with quartz and granite pebbles and boulders2 the bones1 though crumbling to pieces if not very carefully removed1 being entire1 and the whole mass held together by calcareous spar1 deposited by water that had1 during the lapse of ages1 percolated through the chalk-rubble above4 ,fossil bones are found in four different states3 #a4 ,with their animal matter1 as in the bones of the ,mastodons from ,big-bone ,lick1 ,kentucky4 #b4 ,with the animal matter removed4 #c4 ,with the earthy matter partly removed1 #d4 ,with the animal matter carbonized1 or converted into bitumen2 this change is common in the blue ,lias clay2 the bones retain their usual quantity of phosphate of lime1 but the animal matter is converted into carbon4 ,this alteration appears to have taken place unconnected with a high temperature1 and to have been a spontaneous change in a moist situation1 to which air had no access4#ca #ca ,mr4 ,smee1 ,london ,med4 ,gazette1 ,november #ahdj4 ,another1 and very remarkable condition1 is that in which the phosphate of lime has been removed by the infiltration of water charged with sulphuric or carbonic acid1 and the gelatin converted into leather by tannin2 as is the case with bones and teeth of deer1 horses1 c4 obtained from a submerged forest of oak1 larch1 c4 near ,ferry-bridge1 in ,yorkshire2 of which there are many instructive specimens in the ,york ,museum4#cb #cb ,communicated by ,professor ,john ,phillips4 ,the cancellated structure 7that is1 the little cells or pores7 of the long-bones of mammalia1 found in caverns in ,england and ,germany1 and in the breccia of ,gibraltar1 and the conglomerates of ,ava and the ,sub-,himalaya mountains1 c41 are often filled with crystallized carbonate of lime4 ,in the ,wealden deposits the osseous carapaces and plastrons of ,turtles1 and the bones and teeth of ,crocodiles1 ,lizards1 c41 are almost without exception heavy1 and of various shades of brown or umber1 from the infiltration of solutions of carbonates and oxides of iron4 ,in some instances1 bones of a jet black are imbedded in the white calciferous grit2 the phosphoric acid in the original organism having combined with iron and produced a deep blue or black phosphate of that mineral1 and left the surrounding stone uncoloured4 ,petrifaction by the infiltration of calcareous solutions is equally common2 and the medullary cavities of the bones are frequently lined or filled with white calc-spar2 brilliant pyrites also enters into the composition of these fossils1 frosting over with a golden metallic deposit the cavities and fissures4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,bones4 ,the permeation of the teeth by mineral matter1 produces beautiful examples of the tissues of those organs2 the dentine is often stained throughout with a rich sienna tint1 and sections viewed under the microscope by transmitted light1 reveal the character and distribution of the calcigerous tubes more clearly even than in recent specimens4 ,it is extremely rare that osseous structures are found petrified by flint2 among the many thousands of bones which ,i have extracted from the rocks1 or have seen in collections1 ,i know but of one instance of a silicified vertebra1 that of a ,mosasaurus1 from a chalk-pit near ,brighton2 and a few bones and scales of fishes4 ,but notwithstanding the weight and apparent solidity imparted by these modes of mineralization1 the substance is generally rendered extremely brittle1 so that the development of the bones from the stone in which they are imbedded1 and the removal of the hard ferrugino-calcareous crust investing them1 is no easy task1 but requires much tact1 experience1 and patience1 to execute successfully4 ,hints for collecting fossil bones4--,the light1 friable1 porous bones1 require great care in their removal from the deposit in which they are imbedded1 whether it be clay1 consolidated shingle1 or limestone2 if of considerable size1 they will almost invariably break to pieces1 and many examples will not admit of repair4 ,it is therefore always desirable1 before attempting to extract a large bone1 to make a sketch of it2 its form will thus be known1 should it be destroyed2 and if it crack into fragments that will admit of reunion1 the drawing will be a valuable guide for the replacement of the separated parts4 ,if only a few pieces remain1 those which show any portion of the terminations1 or joints1 should be preserved1 as they afford the most precise and important characters4 ,the faithful record even of an imperfect and unknown fossil is not without value2 and as the antiquary carefully preserves shreds of ancient manuscripts1 in the hope that other documents may one day come to light1 and enable him to interpret these now unintelligible records2 so the geologist should treasure up every fragment of an undetermined organic remain1 for the time may arrive1 as ,i have often experienced1 when specimens will be discovered that may illustrate its nature1 and prove it to be of considerable interest4 ,the broken porous bones may be easily repaired by a hot weak solution of glue2 and when the joinings are set1 the bone should be saturated with thin glue1 well brushed in1 and the surface be sponged clean with very hot water before the cement is congealed4 ,when dry1 the specimens will be found to possess considerable firmness and durability4#cc ,by this process the tusks of mammoths and elephants may be restored1 however much crushed2 time1 patience1 and a little dexterity1 only are required1 to convert a heap of mere fragments into a valuable relic of the ancient world4 #cc ,a liquid1 called ,neuber's liquid glue1 is an excellent cement for this purpose3 it is sold at ,no4 #ed1 ,new ,oxford ,street1 ,london4 ,when the bones are tolerably perfect1 but dry and friable from the loss of their animal oil1 they may be made durable by saturating them with drying oil1 and exposing them to a considerable degree of heat2 in this manner the magnificent skeletons of the sloth tribe1 the ,megatherium1 and ,mylodon1 in the ,hunterian ,museum1 were prepared4 ,when a bone appears as if cracked into numerous pieces before its removal1 but still preserves its form1 the only method by which it can be successfully extracted1 is by spreading over it a thick layer of plaster of ,paris1 which should be used of the consistence of cream2 when it sets1 7which1 if the plaster be recently prepared1 will be in the course of a few minutes17 the specimen may be carefully extricated1 and the plaster removed or not1 according to the nature of the fossil1 and the parts to be displayed4 ,the bones of the large reptiles which occur in the ,wealden and ,oolite1 may be restored in the same manner4 ,these remains are generally very brittle1 and when imbedded in hard grit cannot be extracted whole3 they will often fall to pieces on the slightest blow of the hammer or chisel4 ,when of moderate size1 it is best not to attempt their removal from the stone1 but to trim the block into a convenient shape1 and carefully chisel away the surrounding part1 so as to expose the essential characters of the bone4 ,in all cases this is an excellent method where practicable1 for such specimens have a double interest2 they are at once illustrative examples of the fossil1 and of the rock in which it was deposited4 ,but many specimens will not admit of this method2 and with large ones it is inconvenient and undesirable1 except where bones lie in juxtaposition4 ,the large examples in ,tilgate grit1 7figured in the ,fossils of ,tilgate ,forest17 were all extracted piecemeal from the rock3 and most of the gigantic bones of the ,iguanodon1 c4 now in the ,british ,museum1 were originally in many hundred pieces1 and were cemented together with glue in the manner above described2 ,i have found no other method so convenient and effective4 ,when a bone is too imperfect to be united as a whole1 it may be imbedded in ,roman cement1 or plaster of ,paris1 which when dry may be coloured of the prevailing tint of the rock4 ,for large heavy specimens1 the cement is preferable2 it is of easy application1 and the fissures and cracks of the bones may be filled up with it1 taking care first to cover the parts with thin hot glue1 or the cement1 when it dries1 will shrink and fall out4 ,a thin coating of mastic varnish will restore the colour1 and by excluding the air1 tend to preserve the specimens4 ,the teeth have generally undergone the same changes as the bones with which they are associated4 ,the teeth of elephants or mammoths that are imbedded in loose calcareous earth1 like the loam and chalk-rubble of ,brighton cliffs1 and of ,walton in ,essex1 are friable1 and apt to split and separate in the direction of the vertical plates of dentine and bone3 the pieces should be glued together1 and when set1 the tooth be thoroughly saturated with thin glue1 used very hot1 and the superfluous cement removed with a sponge wrung out as dry as possible from boiling water4 ,if there be any portion of the jaw attached to the teeth1 it must be carefully preserved2 and search should be made for fragments of the articulations1 or parts of the joints and sockets4 ,in argillaceous strata1 as the ,lias-shale1 ,london ,clay1 c41 the fossils are frequently saturated with brilliant pyrites1 or sulphuret of iron2 a mineral which decomposes upon exposure to the atmosphere1 and occasions the destruction of the specimens4 ,the fossils of the ,isle of ,sheppey are peculiarly obnoxious to this change4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,animal ,,remains4 ,the remains of vertebrated animals in the ,lias1 very often occur as skeletons more or less perfect1 the entire configuration of the original being preserved in many instances 7,bd4 pl4 #g4 ,petrifactions1 p4 #cdj74 ,but the deposit in which they lie is generally laminated1 and the shale flakes off without great care2 much time1 labour1 and practice are therefore required1 to obtain specimens of any considerable size4 ,to the late ,miss ,mary ,anning1 of ,lyme ,regis1 the merit is due1 of having first accomplished this difficult task2 ,mr4 ,hawkins has subsequently carried the art to perfection1 as may be seen in the marvellous examples of ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri1 in the ,british ,museum4#cd #cd ,petrifactions1 ,room ,,iv4 chap4 iv4 pp4 #cda1 #cgf4 ,the small specimens1 such as the detached paddles1 groups of vertebr and ribs1 c41 that are likely to come under the collector's notice in his personal researches1 are not difficult of preservation4 ,mr4 ,hawkins employed a strong watery solution of gum arabic as the cement1 and plaster of ,paris as the ground1 using shallow wooden trays of well-seasoned wood1 in which the specimens were permanently imbedded3 the bones1 scales1 c4 were then varnished with a solution of mastic1 and the ground coloured bluish grey1 to imitate the ,lias4 ,i have had considerable practice in the dissection of skeletons imbedded in ,lias1 and having found the method previously described answer every purpose1 have not employed that recommended by ,mr4 ,hawkins4 ,the scales of reptiles and fishes1 either in connected masses or detached1 are frequently met with in great perfection1 and sometimes associated with the teeth and bones4 ,in the ,lias1 even the remains of the skin and integuments 7,bd4 pl4 #aj7 have been discovered4 ,whenever any part of a skeleton is found lying in shale or stone1 the surrounding block should therefore be carefully examined1 to ascertain if there be traces of the skin or integuments1 before any part is removed by the chisel4 ,the specimen of an ,ichthyosaurian paddle1 figured in the second volume of this work1 affords a good illustration of the propriety of this caution4 ,around the bones are seen the carbonized remains of the cartilaginous fringe that supported the integuments1 and thus the perfect form of the paddle has been ascertained2 had the surrounding stone been chiselled away1 the most important characters would have been obliterated1 as probably they have been in numerous instances4 ,nodular masses of indurated clay containing fishes1 are often broken with difficulty in such a manner as will expose the enclosed fossil1 for the nodule generally splits in various directions1 and the specimen is irreparably mutilated or defaced4 ,my friend ,sir ,woodbine ,parish informs me that by subjecting such nodules to a high temperature--but not to a red heat--and then plunging them in cold water1 they may when dry1 by a properly directed blow of a hammer1 be readily fractured in a direction parallel with the plane of the imbedded fossil1 and the fish be laid bare in the most favourable position4 ,the scales of fishes1 and the integuments of marine reptiles1 are not the only vestiges of the dermal coverings of vertebrated animals that are preserved by mineralization4 ,traces of the wing-integument of flying reptiles1 and of the feathers of birds1 are sometimes manifest3 and even when every atom of the original structure has perished1 the impression may remain1 and afford satisfactory results4 ,the footmarks of unknown animals are often preserved in the rocks1 and the imprints of the feet of several species of bipeds1 presumed to be birds of colossal size1 in tracks as distinct as if but recently made1 have been discovered in the ,new ,red sandstone of ,north ,america2 in the section on fossil birds1 this highly interesting subject will be fully explained4 ,the student1 even from this brief review1 will perceive how many valuable facts may be unnoticed1 and irretrievably lost1 unless attention be paid to the various circumstances under which fossil remains are presented to his notice4 ,of the invertebrated orders1 the most durable1 and consequently the most numerous relics1 are shells and corals4 ,the integuments of the eyes1 antenn1 and wings of ,insects occur2 and the shelly coverings of ,crustaceans are not uncommon2 those of the ,echinoderms1 the ,star-fishes1 and of the ,crinoidea or ,lily-animals1 are very abundant in certain deposits4 ,instructions for the collection and arrangement of these fossils will be given in the chapters in which they are severally described4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,fossil ,,botany4 ,fossil ,vegetables4--,the remains of the vegetable kingdom are presented to the notice of the geologist in various conditions2 in some instances these relics are but little changed in their aspect1 as1 for example1 in the recent accumulations of mud and silt1 at the bottoms of lakes and rivers1 and in morasses1 and peat-bogs4 ,in tufaceous incrustations1 the imprints of wood1 and of leaves and stems1 are often sharply defined on the solid masses of concretionary and crystalline limestone4 ,in the ancient deposits1 vegetables are found in two different states4 ,in the one their substance is completely permeated by mineral matter2 it may be calcareous 7lime71 siliceous 7flint71 ferruginous 7iron71 or pyritous 7sulphuret of iron72 and yet both the external characters1 and the internal structure1 may be preserved4 ,such are the fossil trees of the ,isle of ,portland1 fragments of which so closely resemble decayed wood1 as to deceive the casual observer1 until by close examination of their texture and substance he finds that they possess the weight and hardness of stone4 ,in the silicified wood which abounds in many of the tertiary strata1 the most delicate tissues of the original are preserved1 and by microscopical examination 7see ,pl4 ,v47 may be displayed in a distinct and beautiful manner4 ,in calcareous fossil wood the structure is also retained2 and in many limestones1 leaves and seed-vessels are well preserved4 ,the ligneous coverings1 or the husks and shells1 of nuciferous fruits1 and the cones or strobili of ,firs and ,pines1 are frequently met with in an excellent state of preservation2 in some rare instances indications of flowers have been observed 7,lign4 #fg74 ,the parts of fructification in some of the fern tribe 7,lign4 #be and #bg71 occur in coal-shale1 and in the grit of ,tilgate ,forest 7,wond4 p4 #cid73 the pollen1 and the resinous secretions of pines and firs1 have been discovered in tertiary marls1 and in the ,greensand4 ,the well-known substance4 ,amber1 so much in request for ornaments1 is unquestionably of vegetable origin2 it has been found impacted in the trunks of its parent trees 7,wond4 p4 #bdb74 ,the fossil resin discovered in the ,london clay1 at ,highgate and the ,isle of ,sheppey1 is doubtless referable to the conifer found in that deposit4 ,in the ,clathrari of ,tilgate ,forest1 indications of a resinous secretion have been detected4 ,the ,diamond1 which is pure charcoal1 is probably a vegetable secretion1 that has acquired a crystalline structure by electro-chemical forces4 ,it has been converted into ,coke and ,graphite by the action of intense heat2 and the electrical properties of the substance were changed1 the ,diamond being an insulator1 and the ,coke1 a conductor of electricity4 7,wond4 p4 #gjf47 ,when the microscope is more extensively employed in investigations of this kind1 it is probable that the siliceous spines and stars which begem the foliage of many plants 7as the ,deutzia1 ,lithospermum officinale1 c71 will be discovered in a fossil state1 for they are as indestructible as the frustules of ,diatomace1 and the spicules of sponges which are so common in flint and chalcedony4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,vegetables4 ,but vegetables occur not only as petrified stems1 leaves4 and fruits1 associated with other remains in the strata1 but also in beds of great thickness and extent1 consisting wholly of plants transmuted1 by that peculiar process which vegetable matter undergoes when excluded from atmospheric influence1 and under great pressure1 into ,lignite1 and ,coal4 ,and there are intermediate stages of this process1 in which the form and structure of the trees and plants are apparent2 and a gradual transition may be traced1 from the peat-wood and submerged forests of modern epochs1 in which leaves1 fruits1 and trunks of indigenous species are preserved1 to those ancient accumulations of carbonaceous matter1 whose vegetable origin the eye of science can alone detect4 ,for the collection and preservation of fossil vegetables1 with the exception of those which are permeated with4 pyrites 7as those of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 c471 but few instructions are required4 ,the silicified and calcareous stems are generally easy of extraction1 even when imbedded in hard stone1 and if broken can be repaired with glue4 ,when the stems bear the imprints of leaf-stalks 7as in ,lign4 #ca and #ed71 the surrounding stone should be carefully examined1 with the view of detecting impressions1 or other indications of the foliage4 ,delicate leaves in clay1 or shale1 must not be washed2 a thin coat of mastic varnish1 or of gum-water1 applied with a camel-hair pencil1 will preserve them1 and render them more distinct4 ,when a leaf1 fruit1 seed-vessel1 or other fragile object is attached to clay or friable sandstone1 it is advisable to glue the specimen to a piece of thin wood or pasteboard1 of suitable proportions4 ,the ,sheppey fruits and other fossils permeated with iron pyrites1 generally decompose after a few months' exposure to the air4 ,the fruits1 especially1 are liable to decomposition2 ,mr4 ,bowerbank keeps his specimens in bottles of water2 a solution of isinglass in spirits of wine is the best varnish to preserve such fossils1 without obscuring their character and injuring their appearance3 but even this method is often unavailing4 ,the pyritified fir-cones of the ,wealden decompose in like manner3 ,i have had the misfortune to lose several unique and most instructive specimens from this cause2 boiling them in linseed oil preserves them1 but greatly impairs their appearance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,investigation ,,of ,,the ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,vegetables4 ,vegetable ,organization4--,as fragments of the stems1 trunks1 and branches1 are very often the only vestiges of fossil plants1 a knowledge of the characters by which the principal divisions of the vegetable kingdom may be distinguished by their internal structure1 is indispensable to the successful investigation of the ,flora of the ancient world4 ,although ,i have treated of this subject in the ,wonders of ,geology1 7,wond4 p4 #fid17 it will here be necessary to present the student with more ample details4 ,the excellent introductory botanical works of ,dr4 ,lindley1 and ,professor ,henslow1 convey full information on this1 and every other department of the science1 and should be consulted by those who intend to make this branch of ,geology their particular study4 ,for the general reader1 and amateur collector1 the following brief notice of a few obvious essential characters of vegetable organization1 may perhaps afford sufficient information1 to enable them to understand the principles on which the successful investigation of the nature and affinities of fossil plants must be conducted4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #a4 ,sections of ,recent ,vegetables2 illustrative of their internal organization4 7,from ,dr4 ,lindley47 ,fig4 #a4--,longitudinal ,section of ,coniferous ,wood4 a4 ,the ,ducts1 b4 ,spiral ,vessels1 c4 ,glandular vessels4 #b4--,transverse section of a dicotyledonous stem4 a4 ,pith1 or central column4 b4 ,the bark4 c4 ,medullary rays4 d4 ,vascular tissue between the medullary rays4 #c4--;,elongated cellular tissue1 forming the medullary rays4 #d4--,transverse section of a monocotyledonous stem4 ,sidenote3 ,,structure ,,of ,,vegetables4 ,every plant is essentially an aggregation of cells2#ce and the most simple forms of vegetation consist of a congeries of cells 7cellular tissue7 of the same kind1 and have no visible fructification2 such are the sea-weeds 7alg1 confer1 c471 mosses1 and lichens4 ,in the more complex tribes the cells become variously modified1 are elongated into tubes or vessels 7vascular tissue71 some of which possess a spiral structure1 and others have their sides studded with little glands4 ,the vascular tissue consists of two kinds of vessels4 #a4 ,the spiral vessels or trache3 these are membraneous tubes1 with conical extremities1 having within a coil of elastic fibre spirally twisted1 and capable of being unrolled 7,lign4 #a1 b474 #b4 ,the ducts2 which are a modification of the structure of the spiral vessel2 their extremities are rounded or conical1 and their sides marked with transverse lines1 rings1 or bars4 ,their functions appear to be different from those of the spiral vessels1 and they are found in situations where the latter never occur4 #ce ,a cell in botanical language1 means a little bag composed of membrane1 and containing a living substance capable of spontaneous growth by multiplication1 or division of its parts4 ,of such little bodies1 millions of which may be contained within the space of a cubic inch1 all the soft parts of vegetables are composed2 in sea-weeds they are often of large size4--,dr4 ,harvey's ,sea-side ,book1 with which the reader is doubtless familiar4 ,the organization of the stem in the whole class of flowering plants1 possesses characters so evident1 as to afford the most important aid in the investigation of their fossil remains4 ,without dwelling on minor modifications1 they are separable into two divisions1 namely1 the ,endogenous 7signifying to grow from within71 and the ,exogenous 7to grow from without74 ,both possess vascular tissue1 but so differently arranged in the two classes1 as to constitute distinctive characters which are seldom obliterated1 although what was once a flexible stem1 is now a mass of flint4 ,endogenous ,stems4--,as the seeds of the plants belonging to this division have but one cotyledon1 or seed-lobe1 as the ,lily1 they are also termed monocotyledonous2 the reader therefore must remember that these terms are synonymous4 ,these stems consist of an uniform mass of cellular tissue1 in which bundles of vascular or woody fibre are imbedded2 a transverse section presents a surface dotted over with spots1 produced by the division of these groups of vessels1 pretty uniformly distributed1 but more densely arranged towards the circumference 7,lign4 #a1 fig4 #d74 ,a slice of cane affords an illustration of this structure4 ,the increase of these stems is effected by the formation of new cells and bundles of vessels in the central axis1 which force their way among the old tissue1 and occasion the condensation of the latter towards the outer edge4 ,these plants have neither pith1 concentric circles of woody fibre1 nor true bark2 negative characters of the highest importance in the determination of fossil stems4 ,exogenous ,stems4--,the seeds have two cotyledons1 or seed-lobes1 as in the ,bean1 hence the plants of this class are also called dicotyledonous4 ,in these stems the cellular tissue forms a central column1 or pith 7,lign4 #a1 fig4 #b1 a471 and an external band1 or cylinder1 called the bark 7fig4 #b1 b472 the two being connected by thin vertical plates1 termed medullary rays1 which are also formed of cells 7fig4 #b1 c1 c472 the diagram1 ,lign4 #a1 exhibits this arrangement4 ,the interval between the pith and the bark1 and the interspaces of the vertical radiating plates 7fig4 #b1 d471 are filled up by woody fibre or vascular tissue1 consisting of spiral and other vessels4 ,the ligneous structure of exogenous stems consists1 therefore1 of a cylinder formed of wedge-shaped processes1 that extend between the medullary rays to the pith1 and is surrounded by the bark2 a new zone of woody fibre is added annually between the bark and the former cylinder1 and from this mode of increase the term exogenous is derived3 a transverse section of a branch of oak or ash will show this structure4 ,the rings1 or concentric circles1 are the annual zones of wood2 the fine lines radiating from the centre1 or pith1 to the circumference1 or bark1 are the medullary rays 7,lign4 #a1 fig4 #b1 c3 see also ,plate ,v4 fig4 #d74 ,the organization above described1 will be found more or less manifest in fossil wood1 stems1 and branches4 ,the monocotyledonous structure is beautifully displayed in the silicified stems of palms from ,antigua 7,plate ,v4 fig4 #a1 #a;a473 and the dicotyledonous1 in petrified trees from ,egypt4 ,the pith1 medullary rays1 vascular tissue1 and circles of growth1 are preserved in the siliceous and calcareous wood found in many parts of ,england4 ,sidenote3 ,,structure ,,of ,,conifer4 ,structure of ,conifer 7cone-bearing74--,the remains of a numerous family of dicotyledonous trees1 termed ,conifer1 as the pine1 fir1 larch1 c41 are so abundant in the stratified rocks1 that it is necessary to describe in more detail the peculiarity of structure by which their stems and branches may be recognised4 ,the most delicate woody tissue1 as we have above stated1 consists of elongated cells or tubes1 of two kinds3 in the one1 the membrane of which they are composed is smooth3 in the other1 the walls of the tubes are covered by little oval or circular bodies called glands 7,lign4 #a1 fig4 #a1 c474 ,a branch of larch or pine1 split longitudinally1 and viewed by a powerful lens1 will exhibit the appearance here described4 ,this glandular structure is so constantly and largely developed in the conifer1 that although it is also possessed by other aromatic trees1 we shall rarely err in referring fossil wood in which this organization is apparent1 to this family of vegetables 7see ,plate ,v4 figs4 #b1 #c74 ,these glands in the pines and firs1 are supposed to be the cells which secrete a colourless volatile oil1 that exudes in the state of turpentine4 ,from this general account of the vegetable structures that may be expected to occur in the mineral kingdom1 the student will in some measure be prepared for the investigation of fossil trees and plants2 but for the guidance of those who are wholly unacquainted with the principles on which the ,natural ,system of ,botany adopted in this work1 is founded1 ,i am induced to present the following concise view of the principal divisions of the vegetable kingdom1 though it involves some repetition4 ,sidenote3 ,,botanical ,,principles4 ,the following summary is given nearly in ,dr4 ,lindley's own language3-- ,botanical ,principles4--,one of the first things that strikes an inquirer into the structure of plants1 is the fact1 that while all species are capable of propagating their race1 the mode in which this function is effected is essentially different in different cases4 ,in most tribes of plants1 flowers are produced1 and these are succeeded by fruit1 containing seed1 which is shed1 or scattered abroad1 and grows into new individuals4 ,but in certain families 7the ,cryptogamia71 as ,ferns1 ,mosses1 ,mushrooms1 and the like1 neither flowers1 nor seeds properly so called1 have been detected2 but propagation is effected by the dispersion of grains or spores1 which are usually generated in the substance of the plant1 and seem to have but little analogy with true seeds4 ,hence the vegetable kingdom is separated into two distinct groups1 namely1 the flowering 7,phanerogamia71 and the flowerless 7,cryptogamia or ,agamia74 ,as the former usually possess a highly developed system of spiral and other vessels1 while the latter are either altogether destitute of them1 or have them only in a few of the highest orders1 and those in a peculiar state1 the flowering plants are termed ,vasculares1 and the flowerless ,cellulares4 ,and as all the flowering1 or vascular plants1 when they form stems1 increase by an extension of their ends1 and a distension or enlargement of their circumference1 but the flowerless or cellular plants form their stems simply by the addition of new matter to their points1 the latter are called ,acrogens1 signifying increase from the summit4 ,flowering plants are also for the most part furnished with respiratory or breathing organs 7stomata71 of which the flowerless vegetables are to a great extent destitute4 ,the flowering or vascular plants are also divisible into two well marked groups1 namely1 the ,exogens1 or ,dicotyledons1 and the ,endogens1 or ,monocotyledons4 ,the ,exogens 7growing from without71 increase by the addition of new woody matter to the outside of the stems beneath the bark2 and they are further characterized by the embryo having two or more cotyledons1 or seed-lobes1 hence they are also called ,dicotyledons2 such as the ,elm1 ,beech1 c4 ,the ,endogens1 as we have previously stated1 increase by the addition of ligneous matter to the inside of their stems near the centre2 and as the embryo in this class has but one cotyledon1 they are likewise termed monocotyledons1 as the ,cane1 ,palm1 c4 ,again1 exogenous plants have the young external wood connected with a central pith1 by medullary processes2 while endogens do not possess such a structure1 having no central pith4 ,in exogens the veins 7venation7 of the leaves1 are disposed in meshes1 like net-work1 but in endogens the veins run parallel to each other4 ,the number of parts in the flower of an exogenous plant is usually five1 or its multiples3 in the endogens it is commonly three1 or its multiples4 ,in the germination1 the young root of exogens is a mere extension of the radicle2 but in endogens it is protruded from within4 ,thus1 in the flowering or vascular plants1 we have two groups distinct from each other in their germination1 the structure of their stems and leaves1 their mode of growth1 the arrangement of the parts of the flower1 and in the structure of the embryo4 ,the vegetable kingdom is thus separated into three natural classes1--#a1 the ,exogens1 #b1 the ,endogens1 #c1 the ,acrogens2 but there are likewise other divisions1 a knowledge of which is of great importance in the study of fossil botany2 the sub-class termed ,gymnosperms especially requires notice4 ,in the strictly exogenous and endogenous plants1 the fertilizing principle is communicated to the young seeds through the medium of a stigma and style1 that terminate the case or pericarp in which the seeds are enclosed3 but in another important group of the vegetable kingdom1 the pollen is directly applied to the ovule1 without the intervention of any pericarpial apparatus2 hence these are termed ,gymnosperms1 signifying naked seeds4 ,these plants have the same relation to the other exogens1 as frogs and analogous reptiles bear to the other orders of their ,class2 they comprise the two natural orders ,conifer1 and ,cycadace4 ,the ,gymnosperms also possess peculiarities of a subordinate nature3 thus1 many kinds have more than two cotyledons1 and are therefore termed polycotyledons2 again1 the radicle usually adheres to the albumen in which the embryo lies1 hence they are sometimes named ,synorhiza4 ,the veins of the leaves 7in those whose leaves are veined71 are either simple or forked2 in which respect they approach the endogens on the one hand1 and the acrogens on the other4 ,this concise definition of the natural divisions of the vegetable kingdom will enable the reader to comprehend the botanical principles which must guide him in his attempt to explore the ancient floras1 whose fossil remains are generally found in a very fragmentary condition4 ,i need only add that ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart1 in his great work on ,fossil ,plants1 arranges the vegetable kingdom into five classes1 viz43-- #a4 ,cellular ,cryptogamia1#cf or ,amphigens4 #b4 ,vascular ,cryptogamia1#cg or ,acrogens4 #c4 ,monocotyledons4#ch #d4 ,gymnospermous ,dicotyledons4#ci #e4 ,angiospermous ,dicotyledons4#dj #cf ,plants having the fructification concealed1 and of cellular structure only4 #cg ,plants having the fructification concealed1 and with vessels1 or vascular tissue4 #ch ,flowering plants with one cotyledon2 the ,endogens4 #ci ,plants with naked seeds2 that is1 destitute of a pericarp or case4 #dj ,plants with the seeds in a receptacle or pericarp1 with a style and stigma4 ,,on ,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,investigating ,,fossil ,,remains ,,of ,,vegetables4 ,sidenote3 ,,investigation ,,of ,,fossil ,,plants4 ,the distinguished authors of the ,british ,fossil ,flora justly remark1 that a few isolated1 and very imperfect data1 exclusively afforded by the remains of the organs of vegetation1 are but too often the sole guide to the class1 order1 or genus of the fossil plants which the geologist has to examine2 hence1 in most instances1 a general idea only can be obtained of the nature of the original4#da ,to facilitate the study of ,fossil ,botany they offer some practical suggestions1 which have served as the basis of the following directions for the investigation of vegetable remains1 and which the previous remarks will1 we trust1 render intelligible4 #da ,foss4 ,flor4 vol4 ,i4 p4 xxvi4 #a4 ,the ,trunk1 or ,stem4--,examine if the wood in a transverse section be disposed in concentric circles 7as ,plate ,v4 fig #d73 if so1 it belonged to an exogenous tree3 if1 on the contrary1 the wood appears deposited irregularly in spots 7,lign4 #a1 fig4 #d71 then the original was endogenous4 ,if a transverse section show remains of sinuous1 unconnected layers1 resembling arcs with their ends directed outwards1 and of a solid structure1 and imbedded among looser tissue1 then it belonged to an arborescent fern2 see the subjoined figures 7,lign4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #b4 ,sections of ,fern-,stems4 ,transverse sections 7half the diameter7 of two stems of recent ,arborescent ,ferns1 to show the zone of woody fibre disposed in arcs4 ,this structure is seen in the silicified trunks from ,chemnitz4 ,sidenote3 ,,investigation ,,of ,,fossil ,,stems4 ,if the stem be in a state of preservation that will admit of the slicing or chipping off a piece for microscopical investigation1 the process described at the conclusion of this section should be employed4 ,the following data may be thus obtained4 ,if the structure be entirely cellular1 and it can be satisfactorily ascertained that it never possessed vascular tissue1 the original belonged to the ,cryptogamia2 i4e4 to fuci1 mosses1 and the like4 ,if it consist of parallel tubes1 and has neither pith1 nor rays passing from the centre to the circumference1 the tree or plant was endogenous1 like the ,palm4 ,if any trace be present of tissue crossing the longitudinal tubes at right angles1 and radiating from the centre to the circumference1 this will prove the existence of medullary rays1 and the original must have been exogenous1 as the ,oak1 ,elm1 c43 and if in a transverse section the tubes appear of equal size1 the tree was probably coniferous1 or cycadeous 7i4e4 related to the plants called ,cycas and ,zamia72 but if larger tubes appear among the smaller ones1 disposed in a definite manner 7see ,plate ,v4 fig4 #d71 it belonged to some other tribe of exogenous plants4 ,if the walls of the tubes be studded with glands 7,lign4 #a1 fig4 #a1 c2 ,plate ,v4 figs4 #b;b #c;b472 the fossil belongs to the ,conifer4 ,if any vestige of a central pith be discovered1 the exogenous nature of the original is undoubted1 for no other class1 as we previously stated1 possesses a central cellular column4 ,the absence or presence of a true cortical investment1 or bark1 is important1 for a distinct bark is the characteristic of the exogenous class3#db a cortical integument1 or rind1 not separable from the enclosed structure1 indicates the monocotyledons2 and the entire absence of any rind1 the cryptogamia4 #db ,an apparent exception to this rule is found in the fossil genus ,clathraria1 described hereafter1 which has a distinct hollow cortical cylinder1 that separates from the internal axis3 this is not true bark1 but is formed by the consolidation of the bases of the petioles or leaf-stalks2 see ,lign4 #ed4 ,the markings on the stems1 occasioned by the scars or cicatrices left by the separation of the petioles or leaf-stalks 7as on the stalk of a cabbage71 afford important evidence1 since they are commonly present1 even when the cylindrical trunk is compressed into a flat thin layer of coal2 as we shall often have occasion to remark4 ,in this place it need only be stated1 that by these scars may be detected the position of the leaves1 and the form of the bases of the petioles or leaf-stalks2 their probable direction1 whether they were opposite1 alternate1 verticillate or spirally disposed1 deciduous or persistent1 imbricated or remote4 ,even when no traces of the leaves remain1 the origin of the branches1 and their bifurcation1 may perhaps be determinable4 #b4 ,the ,leaves4--,in a fossil state the texture and surface of the leaves are sometimes preserved2 but in general the outline of the leaf1 its division and arrangement1 and its mode of venation1 can alone be ascertained4 ,the venation1 that is1 the form and distribution of the vascular tissue1 or vessels1 through the leaf1 is the most important character for our guidance2 and ,dr4 ,lindley offers the following suggestions on this point4 ,if the veins be all parallel1 not branched1 or only connected by little transverse bars1 and the leaves undivided 7as in the ,lily or ,hyacinth71 the plant was probably endogenous2 but if the leaf be divided or pinnated1 it may be referable to ,cycade 7,lign4 #de74 ,leaves having the veins of equal1 or nearly equal thickness1 and dichotomous 7forked71 or very fine1 and simply divided1 belong to the fern tribe2 to this division an immense proportion of the foliage found in the carboniferous strata is referable2 the genera of fossil ferns have been constructed principally from the venation4 ,if the veins of a leaf be obviously of unequal thickness1 and reticulated1 or disposed in net-like meshes1 as in the rose and apple1 the original was dicotyledonous 7,plate ,,iii1 figs4 #d1 #h74 ,leaves of a large size1 destitute of veins1 and irregularly divided1 probably belong to fuci1 or other marine plants 7,lign4 #aj74 ,such are the rules for the investigation and interpretation of the characters of stems and foliage1 which have been preserved by mineralization4 ,their application is not difficult1 and the student may by their assistance obtain some general indications as to the nature of the original trees or plants1 whose petrified remains form the subject of his examination4 ,,on ,,the ,,microscopical ,,examination ,,of ,,fossil ,,vegetables4 ,sidenote3 ,,microscopical ,,examination4 ,mr4 ,nicol1 who first suggested the method now generally adopted for preparing fossil wood1 coal1 c4 for microscopical examination1 and which was employed by ,mr4 ,witham in the illustrations of his beautiful work on the structure of fossil plants1#dc has so clearly explained the process1 that by a little practice the student will be able to prepare specimens sufficiently thin for every useful purpose4 ,several lapidaries in ,london1 7see list at the end of this work17 polish and mount fossil vegetables and other substances1 in a very superior manner2 but their charges are high1 and they frequently injure specimens by grinding them too thin1 and thus obliterating structure4 ,i would recommend that a small chip of the specimen1 if possible in a radial direction1 should be examined by reflected light1 always beginning with the lowest object-glass and eye-piece1 and ascending to the highest power2 at first without any preparation2#dd subsequently the object should be immersed in oil of turpentine1 which will render it somewhat transparent1 and it then should be examined by transmitted light4 ,by this exploration we may detect structure1 and ascertain if the specimen be worth the trouble or expense of further preparation4 #dc ,observations on ,fossil ,vegetables4 #dto4 #ahcc4 #dd ,the drawings in ,plate ,v4 figs4 #b and #c1 of fossil coniferous wood1 were from chips seen by reflected light1 and without any preparation4 ,coal may be prepared for examination1 by removing with a sharp knife a thin pellicle1 or a minute scraping2 immerse it in a drop of oil of turpentine on a piece of glass2 then add a little ,canada balsam1 and hold the glass over the flame of a lamp till the balsam is spread evenly over the specimen4 ,but without any preparation1 the surface of coal recently broken may be successfully investigated4 ,one of the most interesting examples of coniferous structure in coal that my cabinet contains1 was discovered by my son in a piece lying on the fire1 which had been cracked by the heat2 and ,i have another fragment1 showing the spiral vessels1 and coniferous glands1 which the ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,reade obtained under similar circumstances4 ,but for choice specimens1 the following method is to be employed2 and in many cases no other plan will succeed4 ,sections of teeth1 bone1 marble1 c4 may be prepared by a like process4 ,,mode ,,of ,,preparing ,,slices ,,of ,,fossil ,,wood ,,for ,,microscopical ,,examination4 ,let a thin slice be cut off from the fossil wood1 in a direction perpendicular to the length of its fibres--the slice thus obtained must be ground perfectly flat1 and polished4 ,the polished surface is then to be cemented to a piece of plate glass 7#c in4 long and #a in4 wide7 by ,canada balsam--a thin layer of balsam must be applied to the polished surface of the slice1 and also to one side of the glass--the slice and the glass are now to be laid on any thin plate of metal1 and gradually heated over a slow fire1 or a spirit lamp1 to concentrate the balsam4 ,the heat must not be so great as to throw the balsam into a state of ebullition2 for if air bubbles be formed1 it is difficult to get rid of them1 and if not removed they will prevent the complete adhesion of the two surfaces when applied to each other2 the heat of the metal should never be so great that the fingers may not be held in contact with it for a few seconds without inconvenience4 ,when air bubbles are formed1 they should be displaced by a small piece of wood tapering to a point2 when the balsam is thought to be sufficiently concentrated1 and all the air bubbles have disappeared1 the slice and glass may be taken from the heated metal1 and pressed closely together2 a slight degree of pressure will suffice to expel the super-abundant balsam1 and this will be facilitated by gently sliding the specimen to and fro on the glass2 by this kind of motion any air that may have got entangled when the two surfaces were brought in contact1 will also be removed4 ,when the whole is cooled down to the temperature of the air1 and the balsam has become solid1 that part which adheres to the surface of the glass surrounding the slice should be scraped off with the point of a penknife2 and by this operation1 it will at once be seen whether the balsam has undergone the requisite concentration2 for if it flakes off before the knife1 it will be found that the slice and glass will cohere so firmly1 that in the subsequent grinding1 there will be no risk of their separating from each other2 but if the balsam has not been sufficiently concentrated1 it will slide before the knife1 and in that case the two bodies will not adhere with requisite firmness4 ,if the layer of balsam applied to the two surfaces be not too thick1 its due concentration will be accomplished in four or five minutes1 provided the application of the heat be properly regulated4 ,the slice must now be ground to that degree of thinness which will permit its structure to be seen by the help of a microscope4 ,this will be accomplished by rubbing the slice1 by a rapid circular motion with the hand1 on a piece of sheet lead1 supplied with a little emery 7size ,no4 #a47 moistened with water2 when the emery ceases to act1 the muddy matter remaining should be removed1 and a fresh portion of emery applied2 this must be repeated until the surface of the slice is perfectly flat2 a sheet of copper must then be substituted for the lead1 and the fossil ground as smooth as possible by flower of emery1 freed from its coarser parts4 ,the surface may then be polished by friction1 with crocus or rotten stone1 on a transverse section of any soft wood4#de #de ,mr4 ,witham1 ,observations on ,fossil ,vegetables4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,on ,,peat-,,wood1 ,,lignite1 ,,and ,,coal4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #c4 ,nodule of ,ironstone inclosing a ,fern-leaf4 ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,fig4 #a4--,the nodule in its natural state4 #b1 #c4--,the same1 split open longitudinally4 ,the leaf remains attached to fig4 #b1 and the impression of its upper surface is seen on fig4 #c4 #d4--,outline of the form of the leaf1 which is a species of ,pecopteris4 ,sidenote3 ,,peat-,,wood1 ,,lignite1 ,,and ,,coal4 ,before entering upon the examination of the specific and generic characters of fossil plants1 and the natural relations of the extinct forms with those of the existing ,floras1 it will be requisite to notice those vast beds of vegetable matter1 in various states of carbonization1 which occur in the palozoic1 secondary1 and tertiary formations4 ,submerged ,forests4 ,peat4--,the phenomenon of extensive tracts of marsh-land1 with layers of prostrate trees of all ages1 lying but a few feet beneath the common alluvial soil1 is of frequent occurrence1 both inland1 and in many places along the shores of our island4 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #ah74 ,these submerged forests are generally situated below the level of the sea1 and afford unquestionable proof of subsidences of the land4 ,the trees are of the kinds indigenous to the districts in which they occur2 and leaves and seeds of the hazel1 beech1 elm1 c4 are often preserved in the silt in which the prostrate forests are imbedded4 ,on the ,sussex coast there are accumulations of this kind1 at ,bexhill1 ,pevensey levels1 ,felpham1 c4 ,the extensive subterranean forests exposed in the ,fens of ,lincolnshire by the operations carried on for draining that district1 must be familiar to those who travel by the ,great ,northern ,railway3 the protruding upright stems1 broken off at a short distance above the primitive soil1 will remind the geological observer of the petrified forest of the ,isle of ,portland4 ,the wood in these cases has undergone no change but that of being dyed black1 by an impregnation of solutions of iron2 and many trunks are in so sound a state as to be employed in building4 ,the oak timbers of the ,royal ,george1 lately raised up from off ,portsmouth1 after being immersed in silt about sixty years1 closely resemble in colour and texture the wood of the submerged forests4 ,skeletons of deer1 horse1 swine1 c4 are occasionally found imbedded in these subterranean accumulations of vegetable remains2 and sometimes canoes1 formed of the trunk of an oak1 constructed by the aboriginal inhabitants of ,britain1 with stone implements called celts1 are met with at considerable depths4 ,in the peat-bogs of ,ireland 7,wond4 p4 #ff71 large forest trees often occur1 together with the skeletons of the elk1 deer1 and other animals of the chase2 and in a few instances the bodies of the primitive hunters1 wrapped in skins1 have been discovered4 ,in ,belfast ,lough1 a bed of peat is situated beneath the ordinary level of the waters1 but is generally left bare at the ebb tides4 ,trunks and branches of trees1 with vast quantities of hazel nuts1 are imbedded in the peat2 the whole being covered by layers of sand1 and blue clay1 or silt4 ,in most cases the pericarps of the nuts are empty1 the kernels having perished2 but on the eastern side of the ,lough1 which is bounded by limestone rocks1 they contain calc-spar1 which in some examples forms a lining of delicate crystals 7,plate ,v4 fig4 #f72 while in others the kernel is transmuted into calcareous spar 7see ,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #g72 but the pericarps are unchanged1 and in the state of common dried nut-shells2 the water which deposited the spar in their cavities not having left a particle of mineral matter in the ligneous substance through which it had filtrated4 ,in a subterranean forest at ,ferry-bridge1 ,yorkshire1 hazel nuts in a similar mineralized state occur1 and the branches and stems of the trees have undergone a like change2 the central ligneous axis is petrified1 while the outer zones have undergone no lapidification1 but remain in the state of dry rotten wood4#df #df ,specimens are preserved in the ,museum at ,york4 ,sidenote3 ,,peat4--,,lignite4--,,brown ,,coal4 ,lignite1 ,brown ,coal1 or ,cannel ,coal2 these are terms employed to designate certain varieties of carbonized wood1 in which the ligneous structure is more or less distinctly preserved4 ,lignite may be regarded as an imperfect coal1 for in its chemical properties it holds an intermediate place between peat and bituminous coal4 ,it is for the most part found in tertiary formations1 but is not unfrequent in ancient secondary deposits1 and may occur in the earliest sedimentary rocks which contain vegetable remains4 ,the newer deposits of ,brown or wood-coal1 are commonly situated in depressions or basins1 as if they had been produced by the submergence of woods and forests1 in a swamp or morass2 and in many instances the ligneous structure is distinct in one part of the bed1 while in another the mass is a pure black coal1 differing in no respect from true coal1 except that it is less dense4 ,bovey ,coal4--,one of the most instructive deposits of brown coal in ,england1 is that of ,bovey ,heathfield1 near ,chudleigh in ,devonshire1 which is of considerable thickness and extent1 and presents all the characters of a true coal-field2 namely1 beds of carbonized vegetables1 alternating with layers of clay and marl4 ,the ,bovey coal is in the state of bituminized wood1 the vascular tissue 7which is coniferous in the specimens that have come under my notice7 being apparent4 ,it is easily chipped or split1 and leaves a considerable quantity of white ashes after combustion4 ,the layers of coal vary in thickness from one foot to three feet2 and there are eighteen or twenty in a depth of about #abj feet2 this coal-field extends seven or eight miles4 ,no leaves or fruits have been discovered2 bitumen occurs both in the coal and in the intermediate clays4 ,calcareous spar1 and iron pyrites1 prevail in many of the strata4 ,in some places this brown coal is covered by a bed of peat1 in which trunks and cones of firs are imbedded4 ,the whole series appears to have been a lacustrine deposit2 probably formed in a lake1 into whose basin rafts of pine forests were drifted by periodical land-floods4 7,org4 ,rem4 ,i4 p4 #cbg74 ,the brown-coal formations on the banks of the ,rhine1 present the same phenomena on a more extended scale1 and complicated with changes induced by volcanic action4 ,in ,iceland1 where at the present time forests are unknown1 there are extensive deposits of lignite of a peculiar kind1 termed surturbrand4 ,sidenote3 ,,jet4--,,wealden ,,coal4 ,jet4--,the beautiful substance called ,jet1 is a compact lignite1 and the vascular tissue may be detected even in the most solid masses2 when prepared in very thin slices1 it appears of a rich brown colour by transmitted light1 and the woody texture is visible to the naked eye4 ,jet is found in great purity and abundance in the cliffs of alum-shale on the ,yorkshire coast1 which were celebrated in the early centuries for the production of this substance4 ,at ,whitby and ,scarborough extensive manufactories of ornaments and trinkets of jet are established4 ,the sandstone cliffs near ,whitby contain masses of a very compact variety1 locally termed stone-jet4 ,in the front of the cliff1 on the north-west side of ,haiburn ,wyke1 the stump of a tree was observed in an erect position1 about three feet high1 and fifteen inches in diameter2 the roots traversed a bed of shale1 and were in the state of coarse jet1 but the trunk1 which extended into the sandstone1 was in part silicified1 while other portions were decayed and had a sooty aspect4#dg #dg ,geological ,survey of the ,yorkshire ,coast2 by ,rev4 ,g4 ,young2 #ahbh2 p4 #aig4 ,thin seams and layers1 and nodular masses1 as well as regular coal-fields of lignite1 occur in the tertiary formations4 ,at ,castle ,hill1 near ,newhaven1 in ,sussex 7,wond4 p4 #bci71 a seam of lignite resembling the surturbrand of ,iceland1 a few inches thick1 is interposed between strata of red marl in which are carbonized leaves of dicotyledonous trees4 ,at ,alum ,bay in the ,isle of ,wight1 a layer of lignite occurs between the beds of vertical gravel and sand of that interesting locality4 ,wealden ,coal4--,the ,wealden formation1 in some districts1 contains layers of lignite1 which alternate with finely laminated micaceous sandstones1 marls1 and clays1 abounding in minute carbonized fragments of fern-leaves1 with fresh-water shells1 and entomostracous crustaceans4 ,this series of strata so strikingly resembles in its general aspect the characters of a coal-field1 that some years since extensive works were undertaken in ,sussex1 in the expectation that coal might be obtained of suitable quality for economical purposes4 ,the search was unsuccessful1 but the attempt deserves not the censure that was bestowed upon it1 in the infancy of geological science2#dh for experience has since shown1 that although the true coal-measures are only found beneath the ,triassic and ,permian formations1 good combustible bituminous coal is not necessarily restricted to any period or series of strata1 but may occur wherever the local conditions were favourable to the accumulation and bituminization of vegetable matter4 ,in fact1 the coal-fields of the north of ,germany are of the ,wealden epoch2 and this coal more closely approaches in its chemical characters the black-coal of the ancient carboniferous formations1 than any of the lignites and brown-coals of the tertiary strata4 ,some of the beds are highly bituminous1 especially those of ,schaumberg1 and of the principality of ,bckeburg1 which may rank with the best ,english ,newcastle coal2 but those layers which are derived from coniferous trees and plants are more laminated1 and somewhat resemble the brown-coal4 ,these deposits have originated for the most part from carbonized conifers and cycads1 with a few ferns and lycopodiace1 or club-mosses4 #dh ,see ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,herschel's ,discourse on ,nat4 ,phil4 ,the brown-coal of ,hohen-,warte by the ,osterweld1 is chiefly formed of the ,abies ,linkii1 and ,pterophyllum ,lyellianum1 whose leaves and twigs1 closely impacted together1 are generally of a brownish colour1 have a glossy surface1 and1 when soaked in water1 are perfectly flexible4 ,the other modification of ,wealden coal appears to have undergone a greater degree of pressure1 and of exclusion from the atmosphere2 no ligneous structure is apparent1 but indistinct impressions of leaves are perceptible1 and these are chiefly of ferns and club-mosses4 ,this coal has probably resulted from an accumulation of plants of less firm texture1 and more perishable1 than those of which the former is composed4#di #di ,see ,dr4 ,bunker's ,mon4 ,norddeutsch4 ,weald4 ,many interesting facts relating to the carbonization of vegetables1 came under my observation during my researches in the ,wealden strata2 and it is a subject of regret to me1 that circumstances prevented my following up the investigation of those still imperfectly explored deposits4 ,small nodular portions of coal1 in which no structure is apparent1 often occur in the calciferous grit of ,tilgate ,forest2 and sometimes large masses of lignite1 fissured in every direction1 and having the interstices filled with white calcareous spar4#ej ,some of the sandstones are discoloured by the abundance of minute particles of lignite1 produced by the disintegration of ferns peculiar to the country of the ,iguanodon4 #ej ,a fine specimen of this kind is in the ,british ,museum4 ,the original structure and composition of a plant doubtless affected its carbonization2 for in the same layer of stone1 the stems of ,endogenites1 hereafter described1 invariably possess a thick1 outer crust1 of coal2 while those of ,clathrari1 plants allied to the ,cycads1 have not a particle of carbonaceous matter1 but are surrounded by a reddish brown earthy substance4 ,the nature of the stratum in which the plants were imbedded1 must also have influenced the process of bituminization4 ,masses of vegetables buried beneath beds of tenacious clay1 by which the escape of the gaseous elements set free by decomposition was prevented1 must have been placed under the most favourable conditions for their conversion into lignite and coal4 ,that the production of lignite is still going on there can be no doubt2 and the following instance of a bed of recent origin1 affords an instructive illustration of the subject4 ,near ,limerick1 in the district of ,maine1 one of the ,states of ,north ,america1 there are peat-bogs of considerable extent1 in which a substance similar to cannel-coal is found at the depth of three or four feet from the surface1 amidst the remains of rotten logs of wood1 and beaver-sticks3#ea the peat is twenty feet thick1 and rests upon white sand4 ,this coal was discovered on digging a ditch to drain a portion of the bog1 for the purpose of obtaining peat for manure4 ,the substance is a true bituminous coal1 containing more bitumen than is found in any other variety1,,az ,polished sections of the compact masses exhibit the peculiar structure of coniferous trees1 and prove that the coal was derived from a species allied to the ,american fir4 #ea ,pieces of wood fashioned by the beavers for the construction of their dams4 #eb ,an analysis of #ajj grains gave the following results3--,bitumen #gb2 carbon1 #ba2 oxide of iron1 #d2 silica1 #a2 oxide of manganese1 #b2 #ajj4 ,sidenote3 ,,coal4 ,coal4--,we proceed to the examination of that remarkable substance which has resulted from the perfect bituminization of the vegetables of the most ancient ,flora which geological researches have brought to light1 and to which the term ,coal is commonly restricted4 ,although ,balthazar ,klein in the sixteenth century affirmed that coal owed its formation to wood and other vegetable substances1#ec yet ,i can well remember when many eminent geologists were sceptical on this point2 and the truth in this1 as in most other questions of natural philosophy1 was established with difficulty4 ,the experiments and observations of the late ,dr4 ,macculloch1 mainly contributed to solve the problem as to the vegetable nature of this substance2 and that eminent chemist and geologist successfully traced the transition of vegetable matter from peat-wood1 brown-coal1 lignite1 and jet1 to coal1 anthracite1 graphite1 and plumbago4 ,nor must the meritorious labours of that accomplished naturalist1 and excellent man1 the late ,mr4 ,parkinson1 author of the ,organic ,remains of a ,former ,world1 in this field of research1 be forgotten4#ed ,the first volume of that work1 which treats on fossil plants1 contains much original information on the transmutation of vegetables into the various mineral substances in which the nature and original structure of the originals are altogether changed and obliterated2 it may still be consulted by the student with advantage4 #ec ,sternberg's ,flore du ,monde ,primitif4 #ed ,see my ,pictorial ,atlas of ,organic ,remains1 #ahej4 ,although the vegetable origin of all coal will not admit of question1 yet evidence of the internal organization of the plants of which it is composed1 is not always attainable2 for the most perfect coal has undergone a complete liquefaction1 and if any portions of the structure remain1 they appear under the microscope as if imbedded in a pure bituminous mass4 ,the slaty coal generally preserves traces of cellular or vascular tissue1 and the spiral vessels1 and the dotted cells of coniferous trees1 may readily be detected in chips or slices1 prepared in the manner previously pointed out 7ante1 p4 #ff74 ,in many examples the cells are filled with an amber-coloured resinous substance2 in others the organization is so well preserved1 that on the exposed surface of a piece of coal cracked by exposure to heat1 the vascular tissue1 spiral vessels1 and cells studded with glands1 may be detected4 ,even in the white ashes left after combustion1 traces of the spiral vessels are often discernible under a highly magnifying powder4 ,some beds of coal are wholly composed of minute leaves and disintegrated foliage2 and if a mass recently extracted from the mine be split asunder1 the surface is seen to be covered with flexible pellicles of carbonized leaves and fibres1 matted together2 and flake after flake may be peeled off through a thickness of many inches1 and the same structure be apparent4 ,rarely are any large trunks or branches observable in the coal2 the appearance of many beds being that of a deposit of foliage1 shed and accumulated in a forest1 7as may be observable in existing pine-districts17 and consolidated by pressure1 while undergoing that peculiar change by which vegetable matter is converted into a carbonaceous mass4 ,in fine1 a gradual transition may be traced from the peat-wood and submerged forests of modern times1 in which leaves1 fruits1 and trunks of indigenous trees and plants are preserved1 to those vast deposits of mineral coal1 formed by the bituminization of the extinct ,floras which flourished in the palozoic ages4 ,the geological position of the ancient coal1 the manner in which it is interstratified with layers of clay1 shale1 micaceous sandstone1 grit1 and ironstone--in some districts associated with beds of fresh-water shells 7,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #hd7--;in others alternating with strata containing marine remains1--are fully treated of in ,wond4 pp4 #gbi-gcc1 and ,bd4 p4 #ebe2 and it is not within the scope of the present work to dwell in detail upon what may be termed the physical geology of the carboniferous deposits4 ,but a few observations on the phenomena presented by these accumulations of bituminized vegetables and their associated strata1 are necessary to render the subsequent remarks on the habits and affinities of the plants composing the palozoic ,flora intelligible to the general reader4 ,while the essential conditions for the conversion of vegetable substances into coal appear to be the imbedding of large quantities of recent trees and plants in a deposit which shall exclude the air1 and prevent the escape of the gaseous elements when released by decomposition from their organic combination1 so1 according to the more or less perfect manner in which these conditions are fulfilled1 will result coal1 jet1 lignite1 brown-coal1 or peat-wood2 or a mass of partially carbonized vegetables1 like that observable when new-mown hay undergoes spontaneous combustion1 from bituminous fermentation in the atmosphere 7,wond4 p4 #gja4 ,org4 ,rem4 ,i4 p4 #aha74 ,the manner in which the carboniferous strata have been deposited1 has been a subject of much discussion4 ,some contend that the coal-measures were originally in the state of peat-bogs1 and that the successive layers were formed by the subsidences of forests which grew on the sites now occupied by their carbonized remains2 others suppose that the vegetable matter originated from rafts1 like those of the ,mississippi1 which floated out to sea1 and became engulfed2 while many affirm that the coal-measures were accumulated in inland seas or lakes1 the successive beds of vegetable matter being supplied by periodical land-floods2 and the supporters of each hypothesis bring numerous facts in corroboration of their respective opinions4 ,there can1 ,i think1 be no doubt that the production of coal has taken place under each of these conditions1 and that at different periods1 and in various localities1 all these causes have been in operation2 in some instances singly1 in others in combination4 ,coal may have been formed at the bottom of fresh-water lakes1 as in those instances where it is associated with fresh-water shells and crustaceans1 as at ,burdie ,house 7,wond4 p4 #fic71 and in some of the ,derbyshire and ,yorkshire deposits2 in the beds of rivers and estuaries1 as in the ,wealden1 and in the ,shrewsbury coal-field2#ee and from drifted forests1 like the rafts of the ,american rivers1 transported into the sea1 and engulfed in the abyss of the ocean2#ef and the remains of terrestrial1 lacustrine1 and marine animals1 may accordingly be found associated with it4,,be ,but though many coal-fields 7or basins1 as they are termed1 because they occupy depressions7 have evidently been produced by different1 and local agencies1 the sedimentary deposits and coal-beds comprised in the carboniferous formations1 setting aside unimportant variations1 present a remarkable uniformity of character in their nature and arrangement1 not only throughout ,great ,britain and ,europe1 but in every other part of the known world4 #ee ,in this coal-field are beds of limestone several feet thick1 abounding in cyprides1 fresh-water mollusks1 c4--,sil4 ,syst4 p1 #hd4 #ef ,the immense thicknesss of some coal-beds1 without any intercalations of earthy materials1 seems to be inexplicable on any other supposition but that of accumulations of drift-wood and plants4 ,in the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea1 there was exhibited1 on the outside of the west end of the ,crystal ,palace1 a section of the lowest bed of coal from ,tividale ,colliery in ,south ,staffordshire1 the total thickness of which was #bi feet1 with no intermixture whatever of sediment1 except some thin shaly partings3 the entire mass was composed of carbonized vegetables4 #eg ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison has treated this subject with great ability3 see ,sil4 ,syst4 chap1 xi41 and the illustrative maps opposite1 p4 #aeb4 ,sidenote3 ,,stratification ,,of ,a ,,coal-,,field4 ,stratification of a ,coal-field4--,the group of strata constituting a coal-field consists of an alternation of layers of coal and of clay1 of variable thickness1 resting1 very generally1 on grit1 or marine limestone abounding in shells1 corals1 and crinoidea4 ,my late excellent friend1 ,mr4 ,bakewell1 used to exemplify the manner in which the beds of coal are interstratified with layers of clay and shale1 by the following apt illustration2 let a series of mussel-shells be placed one within the other1 and a layer of clay be interposed between each2 the shells will represent the beds of coal1 and the partitions of clay the earthy strata intercalated between the carboniferous layers2 now1 if one side of the series of shells be raised to indicate the general rise of the strata in that direction1 and the whole be dislocated by partial cracks and fissures1 the general arrangement and subsequent displacement of the beds will be represented4 ,the principal feature which arrests attention on the examination of the section of a coal-pit1 is the uniform presence of a thick bed of clay beneath every layer of coal2 but a still more extraordinary fact remains to be mentioned1 namely1 that a common plant of the coal strata1 called ,stigmaria1 7hereafter described1 see ,lign4 #cf1 #ch17 invariably occurs1 more or less abundantly1 in this bed of under-day1 although very rarely to be met with in the coal or shale above4 ,this phenomenon1 long since noticed by ,martin1 ,macculloch1 and other authors1 but whose value was not duly estimated till the recent observations of ,mr4 ,logan1 7,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bge17 is also found to prevail throughout the ,welsh coal formation1 which is upwards of twelve thousand feet in thickness1 and contains more than sixty beds of coal1 and as many of clay with stigmari2 the ,appalachian coal-measures of the ,united ,states present the same characters4#eh ,to place this fact before the student in a clear point of view1 ,i will describe one of the triple series of beds which compose a coal-field4 #eh ,see ,prof4 ,rogers1 in the ,proceedings of the ,american ,geologists1 p4 #dec2 and ,sir ,c4 ,lyell's ,travels in ,america4 #a4 ,under-clay2 the lowermost stratum4 ,a tough argillaceous substance1 which upon drying becomes a grey friable earth3 it is occasionally black1 from the presence of carbonaceous matter4 ,it contains innumerable stems of stigmari1 which are generally of considerable length1 and have their rootlets or fibres 7see ,lign4 #ch7 attached1 and extending in every direction through the clay3 these stems commonly lie parallel with the planes of the bed1 and nearer to the top than to the bottom4 #b4 ,coal4 ,a carbonized mass1 in which the external forms of the plants and trees composing it are obliterated1 but the internal structure remains2 large trunks or stems1 and leaves1 are rarely distinguishable in it1 but the presence of coniferous wood in many beds of coal1 proves that this arises1 not from the absence of trees1 but from their external forms having been obliterated4 #c4 ,the ,roof1 or upper bed4 ,this generally consists of slaty clay1 abounding in leaves1 trunks1 stems1 branches1 and fruits1 and contains layers and nodules of ironstone1 inclosing leaves1 insects1 crustaceans1 c4 ,in some localities beds of fresh-water mussels1 and in others of marine shells1 are intercalated2 layers of shale1 finely laminated clay1 micaceous sand and grit1 and pebbles of limestone1 granite1 sandstone1 and other rocks1 are often present4 ,the most illustrative examples of the foliage of the carboniferous flora are found in this deposit1 which appears to be an accumulation of drifted materials derived from other rocks1 and promiscuously intermingled with the dense foliage and stems of a prostrate forest2 the whole having been transported from a distance by a powerful current or flood4 ,sidenote3 ,,origin ,,and ,,nature ,,of ,,coal4 ,thus we have1 in the first place1 spread uniformly over the bottom1 and constituting the bed on which the coal reposes1 a stratum of clay 7,under-clay71 composed of fine pulverulent materials1 which may have once constituted the soil of a vast plain or savannah2 the only remains found in it are the roots of gigantic trees 7see ,lign4 #cf72 for such the stigmari are now proved to have been1 and not aquatic plants1 as was formerly supposed 7,bd4 p4 #dgf74 ,secondly1 a bituminous mass 7,coal71 composed of coniferous wood1 gigantic ferns1 club-mosses1 c42 occasionally with trunks of trees penetrating vertically through it4 ,thirdly1 a deposit of drift or water-worn materials 7the ,roof71 mixed with the foliage and stems of numerous species of terrestrial plants2 the whole appearing to have been subjected to the action of currents4 ,the first1 or ,under-clay1 may have been the natural soil1 in which the stigmari grew2 the next1--the ,coal1--the carbonized stems1 and other remains of the trees to which the roots belonged3 and the last1 or uppermost1 forming the roof of the coal1 may have resulted from the foliage and branches of a prostrate forest1 overwhelmed and buried beneath the transported detritus of distant rocks4 ,these phenomena may be explained by supposing the inundation of a thickly-wooded plain from an irruption of the sea2 or of a vast inland lake1 occasioned by the sudden removal of some barrier2 or by a subsidence of the tract of country on which the forest grew4 ,but when we find an accumulation of strata1 in which triple deposits of this kind are repeated some thirty or forty times through a thickness of many thousand feet1 this solution of the problem is not satisfactory4 ,not only subsidence after subsidence must have taken place1 but the first submergence have been followed by an elevation of the land--another soil1 fit for the growth of forest trees1 must have been produced--another generation of vegetables1 of precisely the same species and genera1 have sprung up1 and arrived at maturity--and then another subsidence1 and another accumulation of drift4 ,and these periodical oscillations in the relative level of the land and water must have gone on uninterruptedly through a long period of time1 not in one district or country only1 but in various parts of the world1 during the same geological epoch4 ,at present ,i do not think we have data sufficient to explain these phenomena2 what has been advanced may1 perhaps1 serve to elicit further information1 by pointing out the difficulties in which the question is involved1 and showing what interesting fields of discovery are still unexplored1 and how comprehensive and important are the objects that come within the scope of geological investigation4#ei #ei ,i would refer the student for a fuller consideration of the phenomena thus briefly noticed1 to the #fth edition of my ,wonders of ,geology1 pp4 #ffi1 #gah1 #gca4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i will conclude this chapter with the following beautiful reflections of ,dr4 ,buckland on the origin and nature of ,coal1 and the changes it undergoes when rendered subservient to the necessities and luxuries of man4 ,few persons are aware of the remote and wonderful events in the economy of our planet1 and of the complicated applications of human industry and science1 which are involved in the production of the coal that supplies with fuel the metropolis of ,england4 ,the most early stage to which we can carry back its origin1 was among the swamps and forests of the primeval earth1 where it flourished in the form of gigantic ,calamites1 and stately ,lepidodendra1 and ,sigillari4 ,from their native bed1 these plants were transported into some adjacent lake1 or estuary1 or sea4 ,here they floated on the waters1 until they sank saturated to the bottom1 and being buried in the detritus of adjacent lands1 became transferred to a new estate among the members of the mineral kingdom4 ,a long interment followed1 during which a course of chemical changes1 and new combinations of their vegetable elements1 converted them to the mineral condition of coal4 ,by the elevating force of subterranean agency1 these beds of coal have been uplifted from beneath the waters1 to a new position in the hills and mountains1 where they are accessible to the industry of man4 ,from this fourth stage1 coal has been removed by the labours of the miner1 assisted by the arts and sciences1 that have co-operated to produce the steam-engine1 and the safety-lamp4 ,returned once more to the light of day1 and a second time committed to the waters1 it has1 by the aid of navigation1 been conveyed to the scene of its next and most considerable change by fire2 a change during which it becomes subservient to the most important wants and conveniences of man4 ,in this seventh stage of its long eventful history1 it seems1 to the vulgar eye1 to undergo annihilation2 its elements are1 indeed1 released from the mineral combinations which they have maintained for ages1 but their apparent destruction is only the commencement of new successions of change and of activity4 ,set free from their long imprisonment1 they return to their native atmosphere1 from which they were absorbed by the primeval vegetation of the earth4 ,to-morrow they may contribute to the substance of timber1 in the trees of our existing forests2 and having for a while resumed their place in the living vegetable kingdom1 may1 ere long1 be applied a second time to the use and benefit of man4 ,and when decay or fire shall once more consign them to the earth1 or to the atmosphere1 the same elements will enter on some further department of their perpetual ministration in the economy of the material world4#fj #fj ,bd p4 #dha4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,fossil ,,vegetables4 ,in the present section of this work1 ,i propose to explain the botanical arrangement and nomenclature of fossil plants2 and figure and describe one or more species of the genera that are most likely to come under the observation of the student1 either in public or private collections1 or in the course of his researches in the field4 ,to determine the botanical relations of fossil leaves and stems1 reference must be had to works expressly devoted to the subject2 namely1 the ,british ,fossil ,flora1 by ,dr4 ,lindley and ,mr4 ,hutton1 and the ,histoire des ,vgtaux ,fossiles1 by ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart4 ,the classification of the last-named eminent botanist is here adopted1 as the most easy of application4 ,with regard to the nomenclature1 it may be necessary to remark1 that when a fossil plant undoubtedly belongs to a recent genus1 the usual botanical name is employed3 for example1 ,equisetum ,lyellii2 when the fossil does not possess all the generic characters1 yet is evidently allied to a recent genus1 the term ites 7from 1 lithos1 stone71 is added--as ,equisetites1 ,palmacites1 c42 and this termination is invariably adopted by some authors4 ,when the fossil plant differs altogether from any known type1 it is distinguished by some arbitrary generic name1 as ,bucklandia1 ,sigillaria1 c4 ,there are also a few provisional genera for the reception of fossil leaves1 fruits1 and stems1 whose characters and relations are but imperfectly known2 as ,carpolithes1 ,endogenites1 c4 ,upon these principles the present arrangement has been founded3 the progress of discovery will1 of course1 be continually adding to the list1 and the classification require to be modified4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,cryptogamia4 ,the following account of the principal types of the ancient floras whose relics are preserved in the mineral kingdom1 though commencing with those of the most simple structure1 the ,cryptogamia1 and advancing to the higher orders1 is not strictly botanical2 for it was found convenient1 in some instances1 to notice certain species and genera of different orders under the same head1 from their occurrence in the same geological formations4 ,it is estimated that not more than two thousand species of plants have been discovered in a fossil state1 while the known recent species amount to upwards of eighty thousand4 ,cellular ,cryptogamia2 ,alg4--,the plants designated by botanists ,alg1 and commonly known as sea-weeds1 lavers1 and fresh-water mosses1 are of the most simple structure--mere aggregations of cells--but present innumerable varieties of form and magnitude3 many species are mere vesicles of such minuteness as to be invisible to the unassisted eye1 except accumulated in countless myriads1 when they appear as a green1 purple1 or reddish1 slime in the water2 or as a film on wood or stone1 or on the ground1 in damp situations2 while others are tough branched marine plants1 many fathoms in length4 ,the ,alg form three principal groups3 #a4 the jointless1 as the ,fuci1 the ,dulses1 ,tangles1 and ,lavers3 #b4 the jointed1 which are composed of thread-like articulated tubes2 such are the fresh-water ,conferv3 #c4 the disjointed1 or ,brittle-worts1 so called from their spontaneous self-division1 which is in some kinds complete1 in others only partial2 and these1 by separating transversely1 and leaving each cell or frustule attached at the angles1 produce those beautiful chains of angular green transparent cases1 so constantly seen under the microscope when substances from fresh-water streams or lakes are submitted to examination4 ,as many of these forms are endowed with spontaneous motion1 and possess other properties common to animal organization1 it is not surprising that their vegetable nature was doubted1 and that even so profound a naturalist as ,m4 ,ehrenberg placed them in the animal kingdom3 the greater number being comprised in his family of ,bacillari1 were described in the former edition of this work1 as ,infusoria or ,animalcules2 in conformity with the classification of the illustrious microscopist1 whose splendid works and indefatigable labours have so greatly promoted the advancement of microscopical investigation4#fa #fa ,the whole of the objects called ,infusoria in the first edition of ,the ,medals of ,creation belong to various kinds of ,diatomace4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,diatomace4 ,these minute vegetable organisms are placed by botanists in two tribes1 the ,diatomace or the ,brittle-worts1 and the ,desmidie4 ,the latter are exclusively inhabitants of fresh-water1 while a large proportion of the former are marine plants4 ,some naturalists 7,m4 ,brbisson7 restrict the name ,diatomace to those species which secrete siliceous envelopes2 and that of ,desmidie to those whose structures are not siliceous1 and are reducible by heat to carbon4 ,as the durable parts of these plants alone concern the geologist1 the name ,diatomace will be employed as a general term in reference to their fossil remains4 ,these tribes of ,alg abound in every lake and stream of fresh-water1 in every pool or bay1 and throughout the ocean from the equator to the poles4 ,certain kinds of sea-weeds secrete carbonate of lime2 but the ,diatomace have the power of separating silex1 or the earth of flint1 from the water1 by some unknown process1 and their tissues are composed of pure quartz3 hence1 under the microscope1 their remains1 consisting wholly of rock crystal1 exhibit the most exquisite forms1 elaborately fretted and ornamented 7see ,lign4 #d74 ,after the death and decomposition of these plants1 their durable frustules or cases appear as colourless discs1 cups1 spheres1 shields1 c41 and these accumulate at the bottom of the water in such inconceivable numbers1 as to form strata of great thickness and extent4 ,slowly1 imperceptibly1 and incessantly1 are the vital energies of these atoms separating from the element in which they live the most refractory and enduring of mineral substances1 silex1 and elaborating it into imperishable structures1 and thus adding enormous contributions to the accumulations of detritus1 which make up the sedimentary rocks of the crust of the globe4 ,the extent of this infinitesimal flora throughout regions where no other forms of vegetation are known1 is strikingly demonstrated by the observations of our eminent botanical traveller4 ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker1 in his account of the ,antarctic regions4#fb #fb ,on the ,botany of the ,south ,polar ,regions2 in ,sir ,j4 ,ross's ,voyage of ,discovery4 ,everywhere1 ,dr4 ,hooker states1 the waters and the ice alike abound in these microscopic vegetables4 ,though too small to be visible to the unassisted eye1 their aggregated masses stained the iceberg and pack-ice wherever the latter were washed by the sea1 and imparted a pale ochreous colour to the ice4 ,from the south of the belt of ice which encircles the globe1 to the highest latitudes reached by man1 this vegetation is everywhere conspicuous1 from the contrast between its colour and that of the white snow and ice in which it is imbedded4 ,in the #hj of south latitude all the surface ice carried along by currents1 and the sides of every berg1 and the base of the great ,victoria barrier itself--a perpendicular wall of ice1 from one to two hundred feet above the sea level--were tinged brown from this cause1 as if the waters were charged with oxide of iron4 ,the majority of these plants consist of simple vegetable cells enclosed in indestructible silex2 and it is obvious that the death of such multitudes must form sedimentary deposits of immense extent4 ,the universal existence of such an invisible vegetation as that of the ,antarctic ,ocean is a truly wonderful fact1 and the more so from its being unaccompanied by plants of a high order4 ,this ocean swarms with mollusca1 and entomostracous crustaceans1 small whales1 and porpoises2 and the sea with penguins and seals1 and the air with birds2 the animal kingdom is everywhere present1 the larger creatures preying on the smaller1 and these again on those more minute2 all living nature seems to be carnivorous4 ,this microscopic vegetation is the sole nutrition of the herbivorous animals2 and it may likewise serve to purify the atmosphere1 and thus execute in the ,antarctic latitudes the office of the trees and grasses of the temperate regions1 and the broad foliage of the palms of the tropics4 ,dr4 ,hooker also remarks that the siliceous envelopes of the same kinds of diatomace now living in the waters of the ,south ,polar ,ocean1 have contributed in past ages to the formation of ,european strata2 for the tripoli and the phonolite stones of the ,rhine1 contain the siliceous envelopes of identical species4 ,such are the comments of one of our most distinguished botanists1 on the phenomena under review4 ,the reader will perhaps ask1 what then are the essential characters which separate the animal from the vegetable kingdom8 ,to this question it is impossible to give a satisfactory reply3 perhaps the only distinction that will be generally admitted by zoologists and botanists is the following3--animals require organic substances for their support2 vegetables derive their sustenance from inorganic matter4 ,sidenote3 ,,recent ,,diatomace4 ,recent ,diatomace4 ,plate ,,iv4--,to familiarize the reader with the nature of these vegetable organisms1 a few recent species are represented in ,plate ,,iv41 coloured as they appear when alive1 under the microscope2 the figures are magnified as expressed by the fractions4 ,xanthidium4 ,plate ,,iv4 figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e4--,the case or frustule of this genus consists of a hollow1 siliceous globe1 beset with spines4 ,the increase of the ,xanthidia by self-division1 produces the double appearance in the figures1 all of which are in the progress of separation4#fc #fc ,the organisms so abundant in the flint and chalk1 and which were referred by ,m4 ,ehrenberg to this genus1 and consequently described under the name of ,xanthidia by myself and others1 are certainly in nowise related to the recent forms3 they are flexible envelopes1 and probably belong to zoophytes2 as will be shown in the sequel4 ,pyxidiculum4 ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #b4--,the case is a little saucer-shaped box1 and is invested by a membrane4 ,bacillaria4 ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #f4--;,a simple siliceous frustule1 of a prismatic shape1 forming a brilliant chain1 which often appears in zigzag1 in consequence of incomplete self-division4 ,an immense number and variety of forms are placed in this family by ,ehrenberg1 with a multitude of generic and specific names4 ,the fresh-water species inhabit every pond and lake1 and the marine every sea4 ,fossil species are equally abundant4 ,cocconeis4 ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #g4--,this is a very elegant type2 the frustule consists of a simple siliceous case1 with a central opening2 it never occurs in chains like the former4 ,it has been found fossil near ,cassel4 ,navicula4 ,plate ,,iv4 figs4 #h1 #i1 #ad1 #ae4--,the plants of this genus are free1 and float in the water apparently by the agency of cilia4 ,their case is a boat-like envelope with six openings1 composed of pure silex1 and in many species is exquisitely ornamented4 ,figs4 #h and #i4 show a living ,navicula1 viewed in front1 and in profile3 in fig4 #i are represented the currents produced when the body is moving through the water2 after ,ehrenberg4 ,fossil ,navicul abound in many tertiary strata4 ,galionella4 ,plate ,,iv4 figs4 #aj1 #aa4--,these alg are free1 and the frustules of a cylindrical1 globular1 or discoidal form2 they occur in chains1 in consequence of the self-division being imperfect1 and the new individuals remaining attached to the old4 ,the ,galionell are most abundant and prolific1 and inhabit every pool1 stream1 and lake3 fossil species occur in the ,virginian marls1 and other strata4 ,synhedra4 ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #ab4--,the frustules are siliceous1 and of a slender1 elongated form4 ,the plant is attached by the base 7fig4 #ab a47 in youth1 and afterwards becomes free4 ,it is found fossil in the ,mountain-meal of ,santa ,flora1 and many other deposits4 ,podosphenia4 ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #ac4--,the frustule is cruciform1 or wedge-shaped1 and attached in youth by the small end1 but afterwards becomes free4 ,these plants are often arranged in clusters1 as in the figure4 ,m4 ,ehrenberg states that they inhabit the sea1 and not fresh-water2 but ,i have found them in streams communicating with the ,thames4 ,podospheni abound in the polishing slate of ,bilin4 ,eunotia4 ,plate ,,iv4 figs4 #af1 #ag4--,the frustule is siliceous1 and either simple or bivalve2 flat below1 and convex1 and often richly dentated above4 ,an empty case is shown fig4 #af2 and a group of living ,eunotice attached to a stem of conferva1 fig4 #ag4 ,several fossil species have been discovered at ,santa ,flora4 ,that the general reader1 whose attention is for the first time directed to this subject1 may be prepared for the enormous deposits of fossil diatomace that are found in some formations1 ,i subjoin the observations of ,dr4 ,bailey on an elegant fragile species1 which hangs together in clusters1 appearing like spiral chains1 and is about #a_/bj of a line in diameter2 it is named ,meridion vernale4 ,this fresh-water plant is seen in immense quantities in the mountain brooks around ,west ,point1 the bottoms of which are literally covered in the first warm days of spring with a ferruginous-coloured mucous matter1 about a quarter of an inch thick1 that1 on examination by the microscope1 proves to be filled with millions and millions of these exquisitely beautiful siliceous organisms4 ,every submerged stone1 twig1 and spear of grass1 is enveloped by them2 and the waving plume-like appearance of a filamentous body covered in this manner1 is often extremely elegant4 ,alcohol completely dissolves the endochrome 7soft colouring matter7 of this species1 and the frustules are left as colourless as glass1 and resist the action of fire4#fd #fd ,trans4 ,amer4 ,assoc4 ,geolog4 #ahdc1 p4 #aeb4 ,the yellow or ochreous scum observable in ponds1 ditches1 and stagnant pools1 is an aggregation of diatomace1 whose frustules are feriniginous1 and of such extreme minuteness1 that a billion of their cases would not be more than a cubic inch in bulk4#fe #fe ,ehrenberg4 ,fossil ,diatomace4--,from this notice of a few recent types1 we proceed to the investigation of the fossil remains of this tribe of ,alg4 ,in peat-bogs and swamps1 both of modern and ancient date1 masses of a white marly or siliceous paste 7hydrate of silica71 are often observed1 and these are found upon microscopical observation to be wholly made up of the frustules of ,navicul1 ,bacillari1 ,galionell1 c41 with an intermixture of the needle-like spicules of fresh-water sponges4 ,many of the peat-bogs of ,ireland contain layers of a white earthy substance1 which1 when dry1 is of the appearance and consistence of friable chalk1 and entirely consists of the siliceous cases of various kinds of diatomace4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #d4 ,siliceous ,frustules of ,diatomace1 and ,spicules of ,spongill2 from a deposit on the banks of the river ,bann1 ,ireland4 7,seen by transmitted light1 and highly magnified47 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,diatomace ,,of ,,ireland4 ,fossil ,diatomace from ,ireland1 ,lign4 #d4--;,dr4 ,drummond describes a bed of this kind near the base of the ,mourne ,mountains1 in the ,county of ,down1 ,ireland4 ,it consists of a very light white substance1 resembling in appearance carbonate of magnesia3 it has a coarse and somewhat fibrous fracture1 and is easily reduced to powder4 ,it is almost entirely siliceous1 and is composed of the cases of diatomace of the usual fresh-water species1 without any admixture of inorganic matter4#ff #ff ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,new ,series1 vol4 iii4 p4 #cec1 ,july #ahci4 ,on the banks of the river ,bann1 in the same county1 there is an extensive stratum of a similar earth1 and which1 from being in much request for polishing plate1 is locally known as ,lord ,roden's plate powder4 ,this earth is wholly made up of the siliceous frustules of many kinds of this tribe of ,alg1 and a few grains under the microscope yield a great variety of exquisite forms3 figures of several are given in ,lign4 #d1 from specimens of this earth1 with which ,i was favoured by the ,countess of ,caledon4 ,they comprise two or three species of ,navicula1 ,galionella1 ,coscinodiscus1 ,gomphonema1 ,bacillaria1 ,stauroneis1 c41 and spicules or spines of fresh-water sponges4#fg #fg ,the names of the usual kinds of ,diatomaceous frustules may be learnt by reference to ,mr4 ,andrew ,pritchard's abstract 7with coloured figures7 of ,ehrenberg's ,infusoria4 ,the splendid work of ,mr4 ,ralfs1 on the ,british ,desmidie1 #a vol4 #dto1 with coloured plates1 is the best guide for those who wish to study the recent plants4 ,beds of siliceous marl--that is1 of argillaceous earth combined with a large amount of minute particles of silex1 all of which prove to be organisms when examined by a high magnifying power1--have been found in numerous places not only in ,england1 but all over the world1 since ,m4 ,ehrenberg first directed attention to their nature and origin4 ,near ,bryansford 7,newcastle71 ,binstwick in ,holderness1 and in the ,fens of ,lincolnshire and ,cambridgeshire1 extensive fresh-water microphytal deposits have been discovered and examined4 ,from our ,antipodes ,i have received many examples of these vegetable earths4 ,my eldest son1 ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 discovered an extensive bed of white marl on the banks of the great brackish-water lake of ,waihora1 in the middle island of ,new ,zealand1 consisting entirely of frustules of ,bacillari4 ,from ,new ,plymouth he obtained some new and exquisite forms of ,navicula1 ,stauroneis1 c42 ranges of low hillocks of sand1 of considerable extent1 being made up of microphytes 7microscopic plants74#fh #fh ,see a ,memoir on the ,geology and ,fossil ,remains of ,new ,zealand1 from the researches of ,walter ,mantell1 ,esq4--,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 pl4 #bi4 ,mr4 ,dean1 of ,clapham ,common1 informs me that a large quantity of white earth sent from ,new ,zealand as native magnesia1 he found to consist wholly of frustules of diatomace1 chiefly of ,galionell4 7,see ,lign4 #e47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #e4 ,fossil4 ,galiomell2 highly magnified4 ,in ,america1 recent beds of this kind of great extent have been observed and examined by that distinguished microscopist1 ,dr4 ,bailey1 ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,military ,academy at ,west ,point3 and the pages of that excellent scientific periodical1 ,silliman's ,american ,journal of ,science1 are enriched with figures and descriptions of the microphytes of which they are mainly composed4 ,but the ,tertiary formations contain strata of this nature1 which far surpass in the abundance and variety of their organic contents1 any of the modern deposits we have noticed4 ,the ,polierschiefer1 or polishing-slate of ,bilin1 is stated1 by ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 to form a series of strata fourteen feet in thickness1 entirely made up of the siliceous shells of ,galionell1 of such extreme minuteness1 that a cubic inch of the stone contains forty-one thousand millions4 ,the ,berghmehl 7mountain-meal1 or fossil farina71 of ,san ,flora1 in ,tuscany1 is one mass of these organisms4 ,in ,lapland a similar earth is met with1 which1 in times of scarcity1 is mixed by the inhabitants with the ground bark of trees1 for food2 some of this earth was found to contain twenty different species of alg4 ,in the district of ,soos1 near ,egra1 in ,bohemia1 a fine white infusorial earth occurs1 about three feet beneath the surface2 this substance1 when dried1 appears to the naked eve like pure magnesia1 but under the microscope is seen to be mainly constituted of elegant disciform cases of a species of ,campilodiscus1 of which figures are given1 ,lign4 #aaa1 figs4 #a1 #b4 ,some beds of porcelain-earth ,m4 ,ehrenberg found to be in a great measure made up of concentric articulated rings1 entire and in fragments 7see ,lign4 #f71 which he believes to be bacillari4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #f ,organic ,bodies in ,porcelain ,earth2 highly magnified4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,diatomace ,,of ,,virginia4 ,fossil ,diatomace of the ,richmond-earth2 ,virginia4--,the town of ,richmond1 in ,virginia1 is built on strata of siliceous marl of great extent1 which earth2 highly magnified4 have a total thickness1 beneath and around the town1 of more than twenty feet4 ,these marls1 whose organic composition was first detected by ,professor ,w4 ,b4 ,rogers1 are referred by that eminent ,american geologist1 to the older tertiary 7eocene1 or miocene7 formations4 ,they occupy considerable districts1 spreading out into sterile tracts along the flanks of the hills1 their siliceous character rendering them unfavourable to vegetation4 ,the investigations of ,dr4 ,bailey have shown that the frustules so abundant in this earth1 consist of several species of ,navicula 7,lign4 #a1 fig4 #a1 #a;a471 ,galionella 7,lign4 #a4 fig4 #c1 #c;a471 ,actinocyclus 7,lign4 #a1 figs4 #d1 #e71 c4 ,the most remarkable forms are disciform frustules1 having their surfaces elaborately ornamented with hexagonal spots disposed in curves1 and bearing some resemblance to the engine-turned case of a watch4 ,lign4 #g1 fig4 #b1 is a small segment of a disc1 very highly magnified4 ,these frustules vary in size from #a_/ajj to #a_/ajjj of an inch in diameter2 they are named ,coscinodiscus 7sieve-like disc71 and there are several species3 one less richly sculptured1 ,c4 patina1 is figured ,lign4 #g1 fig4 #f4 ,circular bodies1 with five or six lines radiating from the centre to the circumference1 like the spokes of a wheel1 hence named ,actinocyclus 7,lign4 #g1 figs4 #d1 #e71 and spicules of ,sponges1 are also abundant4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #g4 ,microphytes#fi from the ,richmond-earth2 highly magnified4 ,tertiary4 ,virginia4 ,fig4 #a4--,navicula4 #a;a4 ,side view4 #b4--;,coscinodiscus radiatus2 a portion of the circular shield4 #c4--;,galionella sulcata2 the upper figure shows the transverse face of one of the frustules4 #c;a4--,three united cells viewed laterally4 #d1 #e4--;,actinocyclus4 ,two species4 #f4--;,coscinodiscus patina2 transverse view4 #f;a4 ,lateral view4 #fi ,as the term ,infusorial-earth must be abandoned1 it will be convenient to substitute a name simply expressive of the nature of the most abundant organisms that enter into the composition of these deposits3 that of ,microphyta1 or ,microphytes1 7from 1 mikros1 small1 and 1 phyton1 a plant71 signifying very minute vegetables1 may perhaps be admissible3 in this sense the word microphytal is employed in these pages4 ,when a few grains of the marl are prepared1 and mounted on a glass1 almost all these varieties will be manifest1 so largely is this earth composed of organic structures2 in fact1 very few inorganic particles are intermixed1 the merest pellicle left by the evaporation of a drop of water in which some of the marl has been mixed1 teeming with the most beautiful structures4 ,at ,petersburg1 in ,virginia1 a sandy marl occurs1 interstratified with deposits which1 from their shells1 are referred to the older tertiary formations4 ,probably this marl is a continuation of that of ,richmond1 but it is full of many new forms1 associated with those common in the earth of the latter locality4#gj #gj ,dr4 ,bailey1 with great liberality1 has so amply supplied myself and other observers with specimens of these deposits for examination1 that the fossils above described are familiar to all ,british microscopists4 ,figures of many of those organisms are given in the ,american ,journal of ,science4 ,it is an interesting fact1 7first observed by ,mr4 ,hamlin ,lee17 that the common ,scallop 7,pecten maximus71 as well as the ,barnacle 7,balanus71 feed on diatomace1 and their stomachs generally contain numerous cases of ,coscinodisci1 ,dichtyochi1 ,actinocycli1 c43 a slide prepared and mounted with the contents of the stomachs of these mollusks1 presents an assemblage of forms identical with those found in the tertiary earths of ,virginia4#ga #ga ,see my ,thoughts on ,animalcules1 p4 #ajc4 ,in the mud of the quicksands on the shore at ,brighton1 ,mr4 ,reginald ,mantell found recent ,coscinodisci1 c4 associated with fossil polythalamia that had been washed out of the chalk1 and precipitated with the frustules of the recent diatomace1 into the sediments now in progress4 ,the prevalence of marine and fresh-water forms in the same deposit is not unusual2 and the remarks of ,dr4 ,bailey on this fact are so pertinent1 that ,i insert them1 as a salutary caution against hasty generalizations on subjects connected with these investigations4 ,after describing a species of ,galionella 7,g4 moniliformis71 as an inhabitant only of salt and brackish water1 and stating that he had also found it sixty miles up the ,hudson ,river1 near ,west ,point1 ,dr4 ,bailey observes--,the ,fauna and ,flora of the ,hudson at this place would1 if in a fossil state1 be rather puzzling to the geologist1 on account of the singular mixture of marine and fluviatile species4 ,while ,valisneria and ,potamogeton 7two common fresh-water plants71 grow in such vast quantities1 in some places1 as to prevent the passage of a boat1 and the shore is strewn with fluviatile shells 7such as ,planorbis1 ,physa1 c47 in a living state1 yet the above plants are entangled with ,alg 7sea-weeds71 and marine parasitic zoophytes2 while the rocks below low-water mark are covered with ,balani 7barnacles7 and minute corallines1 and the marine ,flora is represented by vast quantities of very elegant sea plants4#gb #gb ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 x4 p4 #da4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i must here close this extended notice of the fossil remains of a class of vegetable organisms1 which1 though for the most part invisible to the unassisted eye as individual forms1 constitute by their inconceivable multitudes an important element in the formation of sedimentary deposits4 ,the fact of their having been formerly treated of as animalcules1 and generally regarded as belonging to the animal kingdom1 rendered a full consideration of the phenomena necessary1 in order to place the subject before the reader in a clear and comprehensive point of view4#gc #gc ,as both the recent and fossil frustules of ,diatomace are beautiful objects for the microscope and polariscope1 they are in much request4 ,specimens mounted on glass slides may be had of ,mr4 ,topping1 and ,mr4 ,poulton4 ,see ,appendix4 ,confervites4--,the cellular aquatic plants named ,conferv are sometimes found in transparent quartz pebbles1 and in chalk1 appearing as delicate simple or branched filaments1 which1 by the aid of the microscope1 are seen to be articulated4 ,seven species are described by authors1 but the vegetable nature of some of these is doubtful4 ,a beautiful species in ,chalk1 first noticed by the late ,samuel ,woodward1 ,esq4 7author of the ,geology of ,norfolk71 is here figured4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #h4 ,confervites ,woodwardii2 nat4 ,chalk4 ,norfolk4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,fucoids4 ,fossil ,fucoids4--,of the tribe of ,alg which comprises the sea-weeds that are not articulated1 many fossil species occur in very ancient1 as well as in modern1 fossiliferous deposits4 ,in the ,lower ,silurian rocks of ,north ,america1 beds of limestone of great extent are full of a large digitated ,fucus 7,fucoides ,alleghaniensis74#gd ,the ,firestone or ,malm-rock of ,bignor in ,sussex abounds in a ramose variety 7,fucoides ,targionii1 ,vg4 ,foss4 p4 #ef71 of which specimens are figured in the vignette of this volume1 and in ,lign4 #i4 #gd ,figured and described in ,dr4 ,harlan's ,medical and ,physical ,researches3 ,philadelphia1 #ahce1 p4 #cic4 ,chondrites4--,these fossil alg approach nearest to the living species of ,chondrus 7hence the name of the genus74 ,the frond is thick1 branched1 dichotomous1 with cylindrical or claviform divisions1 with a smooth surface and without tubercles4 ,the substance of the ,bignor fossils is a white friable earth1 which strikingly contrasts with the dark grey malm-rock that forms the matrix4 ,as the ,sussex ,chalk ,chondrites appear to be distinct from the ,tertiary species named by ,m4 ,brongniart ,c4 ,targionii1 ,i have1 at the suggestion of ,mr4 ,morris1 substituted ,c4 ,bignoriensis1 to indicate the locality in ,sussex in which ,i discovered it forty years since4 ,in the chalk-flints ramose fuci occasionally occur1 but not in a state of preservation that admits of the determination of the forms of the originals4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #i4 ,chondrites ,bignoriensis2 nat4 ,malm-rock4 ,bignor1 ,sussex4 ,the tertiary marls and limestones of ,monte ,bolca yield several beautiful species of ,alg1 one of which is figured in ,lign4 #aj4 ,it is referred to the fossil genus ,delesserites 7,sternberg71 which includes those alg that have thin1 and flat or undulated1 smooth1 membranous fronds1 with a median rib4 ,of the little plants comprised in the class of cellular cryptogamia1 which have stems1 leaves1 and fructification1 but no true vessels1 two or three species of ,moss and ,liverwort have been met with in tertiary strata4 ,mosses as well as ,fuci are occasionally imbedded in quartz pebbles1 in which they appear of their natural colour1 and apparently floating in the transparent medium4 ,a beautiful green moss1 with a ,conferva twined round its base1 is figured ,lign4 #aa 1 p4 #ajd1 from a specimen described by the late ,dr4 ,macculloch4 ,it is supposed to be related to ,hypnum 7,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 ii474 ,sidenote3 ,,mocha-,,stones4 ,moss-agates and ,mocha-stones4--,the beautiful siliceous pebbles called ,moss-agates1 and ,mocha-stones1 will so often come under the notice of the collector1 that1 although but extremely few1 if any1 of these objects contain organic remains1 the arborescent substances they inclose being merely metallic oxides1 a few remarks on their nature may be expected4 ,the late ,dr4 ,macculloch paid considerable attention to the investigation of these bodies1 and believed that some of the objects imbedded in the pure and compact quartz were really of vegetable or animal origin2 the specimen figured ,lign4 #aa is of this kind2 the fossils being apparently cellular cryptogamous plants4 ,in ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 ii41 other examples are figured and described by the same sagacious observer4 ,mr4 ,bowerbank is of opinion that spongeous structure enters into the composition of almost all the moss-agates1 and ,i have no doubt that in some instances such organisms are present3 but in by far the greater number of agates and mocha-stones the inclosed bodies are mere crystallizations2 they are arborescent or dendritical oxides of manganese1 copper1 chlorite1 iron1 c4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aj ,delesserites 7,fucoides7 ,lamourouxii4 ,monte ,bolca4 7,vg4 ,foss4 ,br47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aa4 ,moss and ,conferva1 in transparent quartz1 #c4 ,m4 ,brongniart1 who carefully examined a great number of agates and pebbles1 with the view of determining if vegetable substances were ever imbedded in them1 could not detect a single instance in which the apparent mosses1 conferv1 or alg1 were organic2 in every case the mineral origin of the pseudo-vegetation was1 in his opinion1 unequivocal4 ,some of the beautiful green arborescent bodies in quartz pebbles1 even under the microscope1 present so close a resemblance to conferv and mosses1 that it is difficult to persuade oneself they are not vegetable structures2 but the observations of ,m4 ,brongniart appear to me conclusive as to their mineral nature4#ge ,with the exception of three or four species of ,jungermannia1 and four or five of ,muscites in ,amber1 ,m4 ,brongniart states that he knows but one true fossil plant of the family of ,mosses2 the ,muscites ,tournalii from the fresh-water tertiary deposits of ,armissan4 #ge ,see ,histoire des ,vgtaux ,fossiles1 pp4 #bi-cd4 ,vascular1 or ,acrogenous ,cryptogamia4--,these plants1 as the name implies1 possess a more complicated structure than the preceding1 having vascular tissue as varied as in the phanerogamia4 ,equisetace4--,the common species of ,equisetum1 or ,marestail1 is a plant that grows in marshy tracts1 and on the banks of ditches and rivers2 it has a jointed stalk1 garnished with elegant sheaths which embrace the stem1 and verticillate linear leaves3 it attains a height of two feet1 and is half an inch in diameter4 ,in the fossil state there are many plants allied to the ,equisetum1 but only a few that are generically the same4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ab4 ,equisetum ,lyellii4 ,wealden4 ,pounceford4 nat4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a stem1 having two sheaths1 and a bud at the lowermost joint4 #b4--,stem of a young plant1 with sheaths1 preserved in pyrites4 #c4--,stem1 with the cryptogamous head or upper end4 ,sidenote3 ,,equisetites4 ,equisetum ,lyellii1 ,lign4 #ab4--;,a species which ,i discovered in ,wealden limestone1 at ,pounceford 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bde71 must have closely resembled the ,equisetum fluviatile3 it has an articulated cylindrical stem1 and regularly dentated sheaths1 embracing the stem at the joints4 ,a transverse slice of the stem exhibits under the microscope a cellular structure filled with calc-spar1 and forms a beautiful object when viewed with the polarizing apparatus4 ,this plant occurs in many localities of the ,wealden in ,sussex and ,kent2 from the railway cuttings near ,tonbridge1 ,i collected several fine specimens2 it is met with also in the cliffs near ,hastings4 ,equisetites columnaris4 ,lign4 #ac4--;,a gigantic species of ,equisetum abounds in the strata of the lower division of the ,oolitic or ,jurassic formation of ,yorkshire1 and many fine specimens have been collected1 especially from the vicinity of ,whitby4 ,in the sandstone of the ,inferior ,oolite of the ,cleveland ,hills1 ,yorkshire1 numerous stems of this colossal marestail have been observed standing erect1 as if occupying the position in which they grew2 the same fact was also discovered at ,carlton ,bank1 near ,stokesly1 forty miles from the coast4 ,in both localities fossil shells of fresh-water mussels 7,uniones7 were associated with the vegetable remains4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ac4 ,equisetites columnaris4 7,ad4 ,brongn4 ,pl4 #ac47 ,lower ,oolite4 ,whitby4 ,fig4 #a4--,portion of a stem1 showing two articulations1 and an intermediate constriction4 #a_/c nat4 #b4--;,a few of the denticulations produced by the sheath1 nat4 ,this plant is a true equisetum1 differing chiefly from existing species in its gigantic size and arborescent character4 ,the sheaths surrounding the stem1 and the verticillate linear leaves1 are preserved in some examples3 and in all1 the furrows left by the imprints of the sheaths are more or less strongly impressed4 ,the stem is not channelled throughout1 as in ,calamites1 the carboniferous plant whose stems at first sight might be mistaken for those of ,equisetites1 but which are entirely distinct1 as will be explained hereafter4 ,the ,equisetites columnaris is peculiar to the ,oolite2 it does not occur in the coal-measures4 ,specimens have been discovered which indicate a height of twenty feet1 and a diameter of several inches4#gf #gf ,see ,hist4 ,vg4 ,fossiles1 p4 #aae4 ,a small species of ,equisetum 7,eq4 ,brodiei#gg7 occurs in the insectiferous limestone of the lower ,lias1 at ,strensham1 ,worcestershire1 associated with the foliage of fresh-water endogenous plants resembling the ,potamogeton1 or pond-weed1 and of supposed dicotyledonous vegetables4 #gg ,prof4 ,buckman1 in ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 p4 #dac4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ad4 ,calamites decoratus4 #a_/c nat4 7,ad4 ,brongniart4 ,pl4 #ad47 ,coal ,formation4 ,yorkshire4 ,fig4 #a4--,part of a stem1 showing the tubercles for the attachment of leaves4 #b4--;,a portion of the same on a larger scale4 ,sidenote3 ,,calamites4 ,calamites4 ,lign4 #ad1 #ae4--,stem articulated1 regularly furrowed longitudinally1 the articulations naked1 or studded with tubercles4 ,the plants of this genus were supposed to be related to the marestail1 but to differ in the absence of the encircling sheaths1 and in being uniformly striated2 but an examination of specimens in a better state of preservation than those previously known1 shows their affinity to the gymnosperms4 ,some of the species are of a gigantic size1 being from one to three feet in diameter1 and from thirty to forty feet in height4 ,calamites abound in the coal formation1 and must have constituted an important feature in the forests of the carboniferous period2 they occur also in more ancient deposits1 and some species belong to the earliest terrestrial ,flora of which any vestiges are known4 ,in most instances when specimens are found lying in the same plane with the strata1 they are pressed flat1 but those occurring in a vertical position retain their natural cylindrical form4 ,an outer crust or cylinder of coal generally invests the stem1 but traces of the internal structure are rarely preserved4 ,the ,calamite consists of a large central column of tissue1 surrounded by a ligneous cylinder4 ,the central part has in most instances perished after the death of the plant1 and the cavity thus left been filled up with mineral matter4 ,as the hollow ligneous zone is almost always carbonized1 and very friable1 it is seldom attached to the cast1 and consequently the surface of the latter is generally jointed and ribbed4 ,the true external surface of the cortical investment is marked with longitudinal stri1 without any indications of joints or constrictions2 but the position of the original articulations is indicated in some specimens by the presence of small verticillate scars1 to which leaves were appended#gh as in the example figured by ,m4 ,brongniart1 of which ,lign4 #ad1 fig4 #a1 is a reduced figure4 #gh ,see ,mr4 ,dawes1 ,on the ,structure of ,calamites1 ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc1 #ahea1 vol4 vii4 p4 #aig4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ae4 ,calamites1 in ,coal ,shale4 ,fig4 #a4--;,calamites radiatus1 with the remains of one of the sheaths4--#a_/b nat4 #b4--,stem1 with remains of roots4--#a_/b nat4 #c4--;,calamites approximatus1 showing the curved lower end of the plant4#gi--a_/e nat4 #gi ,this specimen has been inadvertently drawn with the base uppermost4 ,the stellate appearance on the upper part of the stem figured in ,lign4 #ae1 fig4 #a1 is produced by the zone of leaves which surrounded the joint3 this character is entirely distinct from the sheath of the ,equisetum shown in ,lign4 #ab4 ,this specimen points out the importance of carefully examining and preserving the stone around fossil stems2 had this precaution been lost sight of in this instance1 no knowledge would have been obtained of this important botanical character4 ,it is rarely that any traces of the roots remain2 the fossil figured 7fig4 #b7 is from the ,foss4 ,flor4 ,a beautiful example of the foliage of a species of ,calamites is represented in ,lign4 #ei1 fig4 #b4 ,upright stems of ,calamites occur in the ,coal formation near ,pictou1 in ,north ,america2 and in one example a group of ten or twelve stems1 covering an area of two square feet1 sprung from one root4#hj #hj ,dawson1 ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 vii4 p4 #aie4 ,see ,sir ,c4 ,lyell's ,travels in ,north ,america1 vol4 ii4 p4 #aie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,ferns4 ,filicites1 or ,ferns4 ,we now arrive at the consideration of one of the most interesting families of the vascular cryptogamia that adorned the ,flora of the ancient world1 and the living species of which impart beauty and elegance to the scenery of the countries where they prevail4 ,the most essential character of these vegetables1 is that of developing their fructification on the leaves2 a fact familiar to every one who has even but cursorily examined the ,polypody growing on our walls1 or the ,brake of our hedge-rows and commons4 ,the largest species of ,british ferns scarcely exceed four or five feet in height2 but the arborescent or tree-ferns1 of warm climates1 attain an altitude of from thirty to forty feet4 ,there is too this peculiarity in the arborescent forms1 that while in our indigenous species the leaves surround the stem1 and incline towards the upper part of the plant1 the foliage of the former bends downwards1 and spreads out from the crown1 or summit1 into an elegant canopy4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #af4 ,pecopteris ,sillimani2 nat4 ,coal ,shale4 ,ohio4 a4 ,the ,stem4 b4 ,leaf-stalk1 or petiole4 c4 ,leaf1 or frond1 which is bipinnate4 d4 e4 ,leaflets1 or pinn2 the upper1 d1 are entire2 the lower1 e1 are pinnatifid4 f4 ,the pinnules1 lobes1 or segments4 g4 ,the midrib1 or median vein4 h4 ,the veins4 ,the veins are introduced in the leaflets1 d2 but in the lower ones1 e1 the midribs only are marked4 ,the leaves of our branched ferns are persistent1 and when shed1 the markings left by their attachment to the stalk are soon obliterated4 ,in the arborescent ferns1 on the contrary1 the petioles become detached from their bases1 and fall entire1 leaving scars or cicatrices on the stem2 and these impressions are so regularly and symmetrically disposed1 as to afford characters by which the trunks may be distinguished from those of other trees4 ,the stems of the tree-ferns are therefore easily recognized in a fossil state externally1 by their cylindrical forms without ramification1 and by the regular disposition and peculiar character of the scars left by the separation of the petioles2 and1 internally by that peculiar zone1 formed of bundles of ligneous tissue inclosed in sheaths1 which encircles the central axis1 as shown in the transverse sections in ,lign4 #b1 ante1 p4 #fb4 ,the leaves may be identified by the form of their segments1 which are disposed with remarkable regularity1 and have a peculiar mode of subdivision2 and above all1 by the delicacy1 evenness1 and distribution of the veins4 ,there are upwards of two thousand species of living ferns1 and in the fossil kingdom the number is considerable2 more than two hundred have been collected from the carboniferous formation4 ,the recent tree-ferns are confined almost exclusively to the equinoctial regions2 humidity and heat being the conditions most favourable to their development 7,vg4 ,foss4 p4 #ada4 ,bd4 p4 #dfa4 ,wond4 p4 #gbg74 ,from the elegance and diversity of form of their foliage1 fossil ferns are the most remarkable and attractive vegetable remains in the ancient strata4 ,the greater number are from the coal deposits1 the fern-leaves generally occurring in the schists or shales that form the roof of the beds of coal4 ,many of the strata are made up of carbonized fern-leaves and stems closely pressed together4 ,the roof of a coal-mine1 when newly exposed1 often presents a most interesting appearance1 from the abundance and variety of leaves1 branches1 and stems1 that occur either in relief1 or impressed on the dark glossy surface4 ,the specimens selected for illustration exhibit the principal modes of venation on which the genera are founded4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fossil genera have been established by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart1 from the form of the leaves and the characters of their venation2 that is1 the distribution of the vessels4 ,in the following descriptions some botanical phrases are necessarily employed2 a few terms of frequent occurrence are explained in ,lign4 #af4 ,pachypteris#ha 7thick-fern74 ,lign4 #ag4--;,in this genus from the lower ,oolite1 the fronds are pinnated1 or bipinnated1 the leaflets entire1 without visible veins1 having but a single midrib1 and contracted at the base4 ,the absence of veins1 and the leaflets not being lobed1 are the essential generic distinctions4 #ha ,the names of the genera are derived from pteris1 fern1 to which prefixed a term indicative of the peculiar characters4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ag4 ,pachypteris lanceolata4 ,inferior ,oolite4 ,whitby4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ah4 ,sphenopteris elegans ,coal-shale1 ,waldenburg1 ,silesia4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,ferns4 ,,sphenopteris4 ,sphenopteris 7wedge-leaf74 ,lign4 #ah4--,the leaves are twice or thrice pinnated1 the leaflets wedge-shaped1 contracted or narrowest at their base1 and more or less deeply lobed3 the lobes divergent and palmated3 the veins radiating from the base4 ,the ferns of this genus are extremely elegant1 and comprise upwards of forty species4 ,a beautiful ,sphenopteris 7,s4 affinis1 ,wond4 p4 #gaf17 occurs abundantly in the fresh-water carboniferous strata at ,burdie ,house1 near ,edinburgh2#hb another elegant form1 in coal-shale1 is represented in ,lign4 #ah4 #hb ,see ,dr4 ,hibbert's ,memoir on the ,strata and ,fossils of ,burdie ,house4 #dto4 #ahce4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ai4 ,sphenopteris nephrocarpa4 ,inferior ,oolite1 ,scarborough4 ,a magnified vein of a leaflet1 showing the fructification at the extremities of the lobes1 two diameters4 ,it is so rarely that the fructification of any species of ,sphenopteris is preserved in a fossil state that ,i am induced to figure a leaflet of a remarkable plant1 of this genus from the fluvio-marine oolitic deposits of ,scarborough4 ,lign4 #ai is copied from the lithograph accompanying a notice of some rare plants from that locality1 by the eminent botanist1 ,c4 ,j4 ,f4 ,bunbury1 ,esq4#hc #hc ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vii4 p4 #agi1 pl4 xii4 ,this fossil fern closely resembles certain species of ,dicksonia 7natives of ,new ,granada74 ,each segment of the leaflet or pinnate is dilated at the apex into a reniform indusium2 no capsules are visible1 the fructification being1 probably1 in a young state4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bj4 ,sphenopteris ,mantelli2 nat4 ,wealden1 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,in the ,wealden deposits1 both of ,england and ,germany1 several species of ,sphenopteris abound2 one of which 7,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for4 #ahbg71 often occurs in the calciferous grit of ,tilgate ,forest1 in a beautiful state of preservation3 a small branch is figured in ,lign4 #bj4 ,this species is characterized by its slender and minutely divided wedge-shaped leaflets4 ,the ,sphenopteris ,mantelli did not attain a considerable size2 the largest stem ,i have seen indicated a plant of five or six feet in height4 ,this ,sphenopteris is sometimes associated with the remains of a beautiful plant of the genus ,alethoptris1#hd the leaflets of which1 in some examples1 bear the fructification4 7,wond4 p4 #cid1 ,lign4 #hi47 #hd ,alethoptris elegans of ,dr4 ,dunker4 ,mon4 ,norddeutschen ,weald1 pl4 vii4 fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ba4 ,cyclopteris trichomanoides2 a single leaflet2 nat4 ,oolite1 near ,scarborough4 ,cyclopteris 7round-leaf74 ,lign4 #ba4--,the frond is simple and entire1 or but slightly lobed at the margin1 and generally orbicular1 or kidney-shaped3 there is no midrib2 the veins are numerous1 equal1 and dichotomous1 or forked1 and radiate from the base4 ,the form and disposition of the veins resemble those of some living species of fern2 the absence of a median rib1 or vein1 is the most striking character of this genus4 ,the fructification is supposed to have been marginal4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,ferns4 ,,neuropteris4 ,neuropteris 7nerved-leaf74 ,lign4 #bb4--,the fronds are pinnate or bipinnate2 the leaflets more or less ovate or cordiform and entire1 adhering to the rachis by their centre only2 veins very fine1 arched1 rising obliquely from the base of the leaflet2 the midrib does not extend' to the apex of the leaflets1 but terminates by subdividing into veins4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bb4 ,neuropteris acuminata2 nat4 ,in ,coal-shale1 ,yorkshire4 ,this is a very numerous genus1 comprising thirty or more species1 which are principally found in the coal-shale4 ,some of these plants bear a general resemblance to the ,osmunda regalis1 but differ in their essential characters2 their leaflets often form the nuclei of ironstone nodules4 ,glossopteris 7tongue-leaf74 ,lign4 #bc4--,leaves simple1 sub-lanceolate1 gradually contracting towards the base2 midrib thick at the base1 and vanishing towards the apex of the leaf2 veins very fine1 curved1 oblique1 frequently dichotomous1 sometimes reticulated1 or anastomosing at their base4 ,the plants of this genus resemble the ferns with simple leaves4 ,a few species only are known2 of these1 two are from the coal-shale1 one from the ,lias1 and one from the oolite4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bc4 ,glossopteris ,phillipsii2 nat4 ,oolite1 ,scarborough4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bd4 ,odontopteris ,schlotheimii2 nat4 ,coal-shale of ,saxony4 ,odontopteris 7tooth-leaf74 ,lign4 #bd4--,leaf bipinnate1 the leaflets adhering to the rachis or stalk by their whole base1 which is not contracted2 the veins equal1 simple1 dichotomous1 arising side by side from the base of the leaflet2 no distinct midrib4 ,in their general aspect these plants resemble some ,south ,american species of ,osmunda4 ,five species only are known1 all of which belong to the most ancient coal strata4 ,anomopteris 7anomalous fern--so named because the plants differ from all recent and fossil ferns74 ,lign4 #be4--,leaves deeply pinnated2 leaflets very long1 entire1 linear1 traversed by a distinct midrib1 equal throughout2 secondary veins simple1 perpendicular to the median vein1 swollen at their free extremities1 and not extending to the margin of the leaflet4 ,but one species is known4 ,these leaves are of great size1 and doubtless belonged to some arborescent fern2 in several examples the fructification is preserved4 ,my collection contained a splendid specimen from near ,strasburgh1 presented by the late ,m4 ,voltz1 which is now in the ,british ,museum4#he #he ,petrifactions1 p4 #cb4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #be4 ,anomopteris ,mougeotii2 nat4 ,new ,red ,sandstone2 ,sultz-les-,bains1 near ,strasburgh4 ,fig4 #a4--,three leaflets of a very large frond4 #b4--;,a portion magnified to show the fructification4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,ferns4 ,t,,niopteris4 ,tniopteris 7wreathed fern74 ,lign4 #bf4--,leaves simple1 entire1 straight1 with parallel margins1 traversed by a strong midrib1 which extends to the apex2 secondary veins1 simple or bifurcated at their base1 and almost perpendicular to the median vein4 ,these ferns are related to certain species of ,polypodium4 ,three species are known2 two from the ,oolite1 and one from a tertiary deposit4 ,the specimen figured is a fragment4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bf4 ,tniopteris latifolia2 fragment of a frond2 nat4 ,stonesfield ,slate4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bg4 ,fig4 #a4--,pecopteris ,murrayana2 a pinnule with the fructification2 magnified4 ,inf4 ,oolite1 ,scarborough4 #b4--,pecopteris lonchitica4 ,coal-shale1 ,france4 ,pecopteris 7embroidered fern74 ,lign4 #bg4--,leaves once1 twice1 or thrice pinnated3 leaflets adhering by their whole base to the rachis1 rarely by the centre only2 traversed by a strong midrib1 which extends to the apex2 veins simple1 or once or twice dichotomous1 proceeding almost at right angles from the median vein4 ,this genus embraces a very large proportion of the ferns which have contributed to the formation of the coal1 and whose leaves and stems are preserved in the associated strata4 ,the originals of many species were undoubtedly arborescent1 and attained a large size2 some leaves four feet wide1 and of a proportionate length1 have been observed4 ,more than one hundred species are determined4 ,an ,american species 7,pecopteris ,sillimani7 is figured in illustration of certain botanical terms1 ,lign4 #af1 ante1 p4 #aaj4 ,several species of ,pecopteris occur in the fluvio-marine oolitic deposits near ,scarborough1 and leaves in fructification are not uncommon3 fig4 #a1 ,lign4 #bg1 represents a leaflet slightly magnified4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bh4 ,lonchopteris ,mantelli4 ,wealden1 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,fig4 #a and #b4--,leaflets magnified1 to show the reticulated venation4 #c4--;,a fragment of a frond2 nat4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,ferns4 ,,lonchopteris4 ,lonchopteris 7spear-leafed47 ,lign4 #bh4--,leaves many times pinnated2 leaflets more or less adherent to each other at their base1 traversed by a midrib2 secondary veins reticulated4 ,the three known species which compose this genus resemble the living ferns of the genera ,lonchitis1 ,woodwardia1 c4 ,two have been found in the coal-measures1 and one species in the ,wealden formation of ,england and ,germany 7,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for4 pl4 iii47 ,this last appears to have been a delicate plant2 for though fragments are very common in the micaceous grits and clays1 any considerable portion of a leaf is of rare occurrence4 ,m4 ,graves found the same fern near ,beauvais in ,france1 in strata1 which1 from the presence of the fresh-water limestone called ,sussex marble1 are supposed to be referable to the ,wealden epoch4 ,this ,lonchopteris is widely spread through the ,wealden2 and occurs also in the ,greensand4 ,mr4 ,morris first observed it in the iron-sandstone of ,shanklin ,chine4#hf #hf ,geol4 ,i4 of ,w4 #b;d ,ed4 p4 #bcj4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bi4 ,fig4 #a4--,phlebopteris#hg ,phillipsii4 ,oolite1 ,scorborough4 #b4--,phlebopteris propinqua1 showing fructification4 #hg ,comptopteris of ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart4 ,phlebopteris 7veined-leaf74 ,lign4 #bi4--,leaves pinnated2 leaflets with the margin entire1 or crenulated1 the midrib strong2 secondary veins anastomosing by arches1 with large angular spaces1 often unequally disposed2 the finer veins are simple or divided2 the apex sometimes free4 ,the fructification is punctiform1 and placed at the apices of the veins4 ,the foliage of these remarkable ferns has been mistaken for the leaves of dicotyledonous plants2 but ,m4 ,brongniart has demonstrated that they belong to the present family4 ,six species have been found in the ,oolite and ,lias4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #cj4 ,clathropteris meniscoides4 ,portion of a leaflet3 the original #a-a_/b ft4 long4 ,wealden8 ,scania4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,ferns4 ,,clathropteris4 ,clathropteris 7latticed-leaf74 ,lign4 #cj4--,leaf deeply pinnatifid2 leaflets elongated1 traversed by a strong midrib extending to the apex2 secondary veins numerous1 simple1 parallel1 almost perpendicular to the midrib1 united by transverse branches1 which1 with the finer veins1 produce on the surface of the leaf a net-work of quadrangular meshes4 ,this genus was instituted by ,m4 ,brongniart1 for the reception of some very large fern-leaves from the shale of ,hoer1 in ,scania1 which resemble in structure the foliage of the recent ,polypodium quercifolium1 a native of the ,east ,indies1 and the ,moluccas4 ,one leaf was four feet wide1 and the leaflets1 though imperfect1 were eighteen inches long4#hh #hh ,hoer is a little village1 situated nearly in the centre of ,scania1 a province in the southern extremity of ,sweden4 ,the ,chalk formation appears in several parts of this district1 and ,carboniferous strata at ,hoeganes4 ,to the west of ,hoer1 there is a range of hills1 composed of ferruginous grits1 micaceous sandstones1 clays1 and beds of quartzose conglomerate4 ,it is in these strata that the ferns and other terrestrial plants occur1 and no animal remains whatever have been found in them2 their geological position appears to be between the ,chalk and the ,coal1 but on this point nothing positive is known4 ,the general analogy of the plants with the group forming the ,flora of the ,wealden1 led ,m4 ,brongniart to suppose that the deposits in question belong to that formation2 and ,m4 ,nillson1 of ,lund1 who examined my collection at ,brighton1 recognized1 among some undescribed plants from ,tilgate ,forest1 forms that he had collected from ,hoer4 ,see ,observations sur les ,vgtaux ,fossiles renferms dans les ,grs de ,hoer en ,scanie3 par ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart4 ,ann4 ,sc4 ,nat4 #ahbe4 ,many other genera of fossil ferns have been established from the form and venation of the leaves1 and are described in ,brit4 ,foss4 ,flor41 and other ,british and foreign works4 ,stems of arborescent ,ferns4--,notwithstanding the profusion with which the foliage of many kinds of ferns is distributed throughout the coal formation1 the undoubted stems of plants of this family are rarely met with2 for the numerous tribe called ,sigillari is now removed altogether from this class4 ,it may1 however1 admit of question whether much of the foliage which1 from the analogy of structure1 has been referred to ferns1 may not have belonged to those trees2 for as in the animal kingdom1 so in the vegetable1 distinct types of living organisms are often found blended in the lost races2 and as the stems of recent tree-ferns are even more durable than their leaves1 it seems impossible to account for their absence in strata1 that inclose entire layers of the foliage matted together4 ,a few fossils1 supposed to possess the essential characters of recent fern-stems1 have been discovered1 and arranged under the following genus4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,fern-,,stems4 ,caulopteris 7fern-stem74 ,lign4 #ca4--,stems not channelled1 marked with discoidal1 oblong1 or ovate scars1 arranged longitudinally2 vascular cicatrices numerous4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ca4 ,caulopteris macrodiscus4 ,coal4 ,the fragment of stem here figured1 resembles the trunks of some recent tree-ferns in its proportions1 and in the number1 disposition1 and size1 of the scars of the leaf-stalks2 but these markings differ in their more lanceolate form1 and pointed terminations1 and in their peculiarly striated surface1 from those of any known existing species4 ,psarolites 7,silicified ,fern-,stems74--,in the ,new ,red sandstone1 near ,hillersdorf1 in the neighbourhood of ,chemnitz1 in ,saxony1 silicified stems1 apparently of tree-ferns1 occur in great numbers4 ,they are remarkably beautiful1 and the organization of the original is so well preserved by the silex1 that slices1 examined by the microscope1 display the peculiar structure almost as perfectly as if the plants were recent3 transverse sections exhibit the arched bundles of vascular fibres which compose the ligneous cylinder1 surrounded by the cellular tissue4 ,from the stellated markings produced by sections of the vessels that compose the tissues1 and which are visible to the naked eye1 these fossils have obtained the popular name of ,staaren-stein1 or ,star-stone4 ,the external surface of the specimens ,i have examined has a ligneous structure1 and is of a dark reddish brown colour2 internally the stems are of a dull red1 mottled with various tints of blue and yellow1 from the infiltrated chalcedony with which the vessels are permeated4#hi #hi ,see ,pict4 ,atlas 7pl4 viii47 for coloured figures2 and ,org4 ,rem4 vol4 ,l plate viii4 figs4 #a-g4 ,the reader will be amused by the perusal of the ingenious but unsuccessful attempt of the excellent author1 ,mr4 ,parkinson1 to elucidate their nature4 ,i have still a specimen which he presented to me more than thirty-five years since1 as one of the most curious and perplexing fossils that had ever come under his notice4 ,an excellent work 7,dendrolithen7 on these fossils1 in which thirty species are described1 has been published at ,dresden by ,m4 ,cotta2 who arranges them under the genus ,psaronius or ,psarolites4 ,the stem is composed of two distinct parts2 an outer zone1 consisting of a great number of nearly cylindrical bundles of vessels1 supposed to have been roots which proceeded from the stem near its base2 and an inner part or axis4 ,in the outer portion1 the fossil air-roots have a vascular tissue1 but there is often a delicate cellular tissue interposed4 ,in the axis the vessels form zigzag or wavy bands1 resembling those of ferns4#ij ,these flexuous and vermiform bands are entirely composed of barred or scalariform vessels1 similar to those of ferns and club-mosses4 ,the ,psarolites are therefore considered by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart to be the bases of the trunks of lycopodiaceous trees1 while ,m4 ,cotta and other botanists regard them as true arborescent ferns4#ia #ij ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 viii4 #ia ,see ,m4 ,brongniart's ,tableau des ,genres de ,vgt4 ,foss4 p4 #dd4 ,dr4 ,buckland has discovered in the ,new ,bed sandstone formation at ,allesley1 near ,coventry1 silicified trunks of coniferous trees1 and it is not improbable that further research in that locality may bring to light fern-stems like those of ,chemnitz4#ib ,dr4 ,lloyd1 of ,warwick1 has recently obtained leaves of several conifer from the same locality4#ic #ib ,vide ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #dch4 #ic ,geol4 ,society1 ,june #aheb4 ,dr4 ,lloyd's specimens are probably referable to the genus ,walchia3 see ,lign4 #fj4 ,sidenote3 ,,sigillarl ,,and ,,stigmari4 ,sigillarl and ,stigmari4 ,among the most common and striking objects that arrest the attention of a person who visits a coal-mine for the first time1 and examines the numerous vegetable relics that are profusely dispersed among the heaps of slate1 coal1 and shale1 are long flat slabs1 from half an inch to an inch thick1 having both surfaces longitudinally fluted1 and uniformly pitted with deep symmetrical imprints2 these are disposed with such perfect regularity between the grooves1 that the specimens are often supposed1 by persons not conversant with palontology1 to be engraven stones1 and not natural productions4 ,these fossils are the flattened trunks of gigantic trees covered by the bark in the state of coal2 the regular imprints on the surface1 being the scars left by the separation of the petioles or leaf-stalks1 as in the arborescent ferns previously examined4 ,the name ,sigillaria1 commonly applied to these fossils1 is derived from sigillum1 a seal1 and alludes to the regular and uniform pattern of the imprints on the surface4 ,these stems are from a few inches to several feet in diameter1 and the largest attain a height of sixty feet2 they are generally found lying in a horizontal position in the strata1 and quite flat1 from the pressure produced by the superincumbent rocks2 but when the trunks are in an erect position1 and at right angles to the plane of the beds1 the cylindrical form of the original is preserved4 ,a remarkable instance1 in which five stems of ,sigillaria were standing upright1 with their roots in the soil below1 apparently in the position in which they grew1 was brought to light a few years since1 in forming the ,bolton and ,manchester railway4#id ,they stand on the same plane1 and near to each other4 ,their roots are branched1 and spread out in the bed of impure coal in which they are implanted4 ,the trunks are surrounded by a soft blue shale4 ,the largest tree is eleven feet high1 and seven and a half feet in circumference at the base2 its trunk is gnarled and knotted1 and has many decorticated prominences1 like those in barked timber of our old dicotyledonous trees2 the roots1 too1 partake of the same character4#ie ,the others are respectively from three to five feet in height4 ,a sketch of one of the short stems is subjoined4 ,all the trees were broken off as if by violence1 and no traces of the upper part of the stems or branches were detected4 #id ,these trees still remain in situ1 and1 thanks to the scientific zeal of ,mr4 ,hawkshaw1 have been carefully preserved4 ,they are situated at ,dixon ,fold1 ,clifton1 near ,manchester4 ,instructive models of these highly interesting relics of the carboniferous forests may be obtained4 ,an excellent ,memoir on this discovery1 with illustrations1 by ,mr4 ,hawkshaw1 is given in ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 vi4 pl4 xvii4 ,see ,pict4 ,atlas1 p4 #aih2 and ,petrifactions1 p4 #cf4 #ie ,see ,mr4 ,bowman's ,memoir1 ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bgj4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #cb4 ,base of a ,trunk of a ,sigillaria4 with roots1 standing erect with five other stems1 in ,carboniferous strata4 7,the original is four feet high47 ,in the stratum through which the roots extend1 a considerable quantity of the fossil cones1 called ,lepidostrobi1 hereafter described1 were imbedded 7see ,lign4 #dj74 ,a thin layer of coal which invested the stems1 was evidently the carbonized bark4 ,all the stems were filled with blue clay1 or shale1 a proof that they were hollow when submerged in the mud1 which is now consolidated into the shale in which they are imbedded4 ,but it is not probable that they were originally tubular1 like a reed3 on the contrary1 there is evidence to show that they were highly organized4 ,their internal structure may have decayed1 or been destroyed by insects or other depredators2 as is often the case in tropical climates1 where the trunks of timber trees are speedily excavated after their fall1 and afford shelter to innumerable insects and reptiles1 as the weary traveller often finds to his surprise and annoyance4#if ,the late ,mr4 ,bowman affirmed#ig that these trees were dicotyledonous1 and stated that medullary rays and coniferous structure could be detected2 an opinion1 which the researches of ,m4 ,brongniart on the ,sigillari have fully corroborated4 #if ,mr4 ,hawkshaw1 ,geol4 ,proc4 p4 #bfi4 #ig ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bgj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,erect ,,stigmari4 ,many other instances have been noticed of ,sigillari standing more or less erect in the strata4 ,in forming the railway tunnel at ,claycross1 five miles south of ,chesterfield1 through the middle portion of the ,derbyshire coal-measures1 in #ahch1 a group of nearly forty trees 7,sigillari7 was discovered1 standing not more than three or four feet apart1 at right angles to the plane of the strata4#ih ,on the coast of ,northumberland1 within the length of half a mile1 twenty trees were observed by ,mr4 ,trevelyan1 in #ahaf 7,bd4 p4 #dgj74 ,the coal-pit at ,st4 ,etienne1 in ,france1 described by ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongniart1 is celebrated for affording an example of this phenomenon 7,wond4 p4 #fgc72 but the positions of many of those stems are inclined at various angles1 and their roots implanted in different beds1 so that the perpendicularity of the erect trees is probably accidental 7,bd4 p4 #dga74 #ih ,ibid4 p4 #bgb4 ,the most remarkable instance hitherto observed1 is on the southern shore of the ,bay of ,fundy1 in ,nova ,scotia1 where the cliffs1 which are about two hundred feet high1 are composed of carboniferous strata1 consisting of coal1 clay1 grit1 and shale1 in which numerous erect trees1 probably ,sigillari1 are seen on the face of the cliff2 there are ten rows one above another1 indicating1 in the opinion of ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 repeated subsidences of the land1 so as to allow of the growth often successive forests6#ii 7,wond4 p4 #fgd74 #ii ,on the ,coal ,strata of ,nova ,scotia4 ,amer4 ,journ4 ,oct4 #ahda and ,travels in ,america1 vol4 ii4 p4 #ahj4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #cc4 ,sigillari2 in ,coal-shale4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a specimen deprived of its carbonaceous bark1 except in the interstices of the channels1 and showing pits left by the external scars4 #b4--,the markings of ,s4 ,defrancii4 7,vg4 ,foss4 ,br47 ,sidenote3 ,,sigillarl4 ,the stems of ,sigillari vary in size from a few inches to five feet in diameter2 and in length from five to sixty feet2 they gradually taper from the base to the summit4 ,a specimen measured by ,m4 ,brongniart was forty feet long1 one foot in diameter at the base1 and but six inches at the top1 where it divided into two equal branches4 ,these stems may be readily distinguished from those of other trees with which they are associated1 by the fluted surface produced by the deep longitudinal grooves1 and the regularly disposed imprints between the channels4#ajj ,the carbonized bark1 in large specimens1 is often an inch thick1 but in small examples is a mere pellicle1 and being extremely brittle1 flakes off with the slightest touch1 leaving the inner surface exposed1 with the coal remaining in the deep furrows and pits1 as in ,lign4 #cc1 fig4 #a4 ,no traces of leaves1 or fruit1 in connexion with the stems1 have been observed4 ,the subjoined sketches 7,lign4 #cc1 and #cd17 illustrate the usual aspect of these fossils4 ,the difference between the imprints on the outside of the bark1 and those on the exposed surface of the stem1 from the removal of the cortical covering1 is well marked in ,lign4 #cd4 #ajj ,the stems of some recent dicotyledonous trees from ,new ,zealand1 in the possession of ,dr4 ,robert ,brown1 possess similar longitudinal ribs and furrows1 both on the bark and alburnum1 or naked wood4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #cd4 ,sigillaria ,saullii4 ,carb4 ,manchester4 a4 ,the imprints of the petioles on the external surface of the carbonized cortical investment4 b4 ,the inner surface1 exposed by the removal of the crust or bark4 ,internal ,structure of ,sigillari4--,our knowledge of the structure of this numerous tribe of plants1 has received an important accession by the discovery of the silicified fragment of a stem1 which1 fortunately for the advancement of science1 was placed at the disposal of ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart4 ,it has been described and illustrated by that eminent botanist1 in a memoir which is one of the most valuable contributions to fossil botany that has hitherto appeared4#aja #aja ,the reader intending to make fossil botany his particular study1 should refer to the original memoir1 and become familiar with the facts and inferences so admirably enunciated by the author2 not only for the illustration of the structure of the tribe of plants under consideration1 but as a valuable exemplification of the manner in which all such inquiries should be conducted4 ,see ,archives du ,musum d',histoire ,naturelle1 tom4 i4 ,paris1 #ahci4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ce4 ,silicified ,stem of ,sigillaria elegans4 ,autun4 ,france4 7,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart47 ,fig4 #a4--;,a transverse section of the silicified stem1 from ,autun2 nat4 a4 ,situation of the medullary tissue1 occupied by coloured silex4 b4 ,zone composed of bundles of vessels1 forming the woody tissue4 c4 ,band of cellular tissue d4 ,space between the ligneous cylinder and the bark1 with no evident structure1 but originally occupied by the external cellular tissue4 e4 ,zone of indistinct cellular substance4 f4 ,external cortical envelopment1 or bark4 #b4--,portion of one of the vessels of the medullary tissue1 as seen in a longitudinal section1 7 47 #c4--,portion of a spiral vessel of the same tissue4 7 47 ,the annexed figure 7,lign4 #ce7 is an outline of the specimen1 of the natural size2 but this sketch is a mere plan or diagram1 for it is impossible without the aid of colour to convey a faithful idea of the original4 ,the student should observe1 that when mineral matter has permeated the stems of plants1 the vascular tissue is often so well preserved1 that one such specimen affords more important information1 than hundreds of examples in which the form alone remains4 ,sidenote3 ,,sigillarla ,,elegans4 ,the external surface of this specimen possesses the characteristic markings of the insertion of the leaf-stalks of ,sigillaria elegans4 ,the internal organization1 as seen in the transverse section1 is as follows3-- a4 ,the centre1 filled with silex2 it exhibits no traces of structure4 b4 ,the zone which surrounds the interspace on which this letter is placed1 is composed of bundles of vascular tissue4 ,a portion of one of these bundles1 highly magnified1 is represented in ,plate ,v4 fig4 #g4 ,the inner circle of this zone1 indicated by the convex undulating line1 is made up of medullary vascular tissue2 the external circle is divided by rays1 and is composed of woody fibre1 constituting a ligneous cylinder4 ,one of the spiral vessels 7fig4 #c71 and another showing a remarkable difference of structure in a short space 7fig4 #b71 as seen in a longitudinal section of the medullary tissue1 are figured in ,lign4 #ce4 ,the ligneous cylinder is surrounded by a band of cellular tissue1 and the space between this and the cortical integument is occupied by silex1 in which there are but obscure traces of structure4 ,the inner layer of bark1 f1 is composed of elongated cells1 disposed in a radiating manner1 and traversed by fibro-vascular bundles1 which pass towards the leaves4 ,upon instituting a comparison between the fossil and the stems of those recent plants which present the closest analogy to it1 ,m4 ,brongniart was led to conclude that the ,sigillari constituted a peculiar extinct family1 belonging to the great division of gymnospermous dicotyledons4 ,the ,sigillari were tall erect trees1 with a regular and cylindrical stem1 without side branches1 but dichotomous towards the summit4 ,their superficial bark was hard and durable1 channelled longitudinally1 bearing leaf-scars that are of a rounded form above and below1 and angular at the sides1 often oblong in relation to the stem1 and having three vascular pits1 one central and small1 and two lateral of a larger size4 ,the internal structure bears most analogy to that of the ,cycade1 and the foliage consisted of long linear carinated leaves4 ,the ,sigillari1 therefore1 differ essentially from the arborescent cryptogamia1 which they somewhat approach in having scalariform vascular tissue1 symmetrical and regular leaf-scars1 and branchless trunks4 ,more than fifty species have been determined4#ajb #ajb ,for figures of ,sigillari1 see ,pictorial ,atlas1 pl4 xix4 xx1 xxiv4 ,sidenote3 ,,stigmaria4 ,stigmaria4 ,lign4 #cf4--,this extended notice of the structure of the ,sigillari14will enable us to understand the nature of the fossil vegetables termed ,stigmari1 or spotted-stems1 which abound in the beds of under-clay of most coal-fields1 as stated in a former part of this work 7ante1 p4 #ha74 ,these bodies when uncompressed are of a cylindrical form1 from one to six or seven inches in diameter1 and of considerable length--sometimes upwards of twenty feet--and gradually diminish in size towards their termination4 ,the surface is marked with distinct pits or areol1 of a circular or oval form1 with a small tubercle in the centre of each1 disposed around the stem in a quincunx and somewhat regular order4 ,when broken transversely1 a small cylindrical axis is seen to extend in a longitudinal direction through the stem1 like a medullary column2 it seldom occupies the centre1 but lies near to one side1 and parallel with a depression on the outer surface of the fossil4 ,this internal body is often loose1 and removable2 its surface is covered with interrupted1 irregular1 longitudinal1 ridges1 which leave corresponding depressions on the walls of the cavity in which it was inclosed4 ,lign4 #cf1 represents a fragment exhibiting the characters above described4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #cf4 ,stigmaria ficoides4 ,carboniferous4 ,derbyshire4--#a_/d nat4 ,fig4 #a4--,portion of a stem1 with some of the rootlets 7formerly considered as leaves7 extending into the surrounding clay4 ,the internal axis is seen at a2 and the corresponding groove on the portion of external surface that remains4 #b4--;,an outline of one of the rootlets1 with a tubercle to show the mode of its attachment by a ball and socket joint to the root4 ,when ,stigmari are observed in the under-clay1 to which stratum they are principally confined1 long1 tapering1 subcylindrical fibres1 often several feet in length1 are seen affixed to the tubercles with which the surface is covered2 their form and mode of attachment are shown in ,lign4 #cf4 ,instances occur in which several ,stigmari spring from a common centre1 of a dome-like form1 whence they radiate in every direction 7,bd4 pl4 lvi4 fig4 #h71 and the main branches divide and subdivide till they are lost in the surrounding rock4 ,the nature of these fossil vegetables was long a perplexing question1 for no specimens had been found in connexion with any of the stems1 branches1 or foliage1 that abound in the coal deposits4 ,at length1 the discovery of a dome-shaped mass1 to which were attached numerous ,stigmari1 seemed to afford a clue to the solution of this botanical problem2 and it was concluded by the eminent authors of the ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain1 that the original belonged to a tribe of plants which inhabited swamps1 or still and shallow lakes1 and were characterized by a low truncated stem1 having long horizontal branches beset with cylindrical1 and1 probably1 succulent leaves1 that either trailed on the surface of the swamp1 or floated in the water4 ,but within the last few years1 the occurrence in various carboniferous deposits of erect stems of ,sigillari1 has shown that the ,stigmari are nothing more than the roots of these and other congenerous trees2 an opinion maintained by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,steinhaur more than thirty years ago1 and subsequently affirmed by ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart1 who found1 on examining microscopically the internal structure of a silicified specimen in which the vascular tissue was preserved1 that it bore as close an analogy to that of the ,sigillari1 as exists between the roots and trunks of certain dicotyledonous trees4 ,the annexed figure1 ,lign4 #cg1 represents the transverse section of a small ,stigmaria1 with the axis displaced from its natural situation2 this circumstance1 as well as the corresponding external groove1 has arisen from compression1 by which the tough cylinder has been forced from its original position in the middle of the soft cellular tissue1 to one side4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #cg4 ,transverse ,section of ,stigmaria ficoides2 nat4 7,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart47 ,this specimen shows that the cylinder 7a in ,lign4 #cf7 is formed of bundles of vascular tissue1 disposed in rays4 ,the central axis is thus shown to be a cylinder composed of bundles of vessels1 disposed in a radiating manner1 and separated from each other by medullary rays2 the whole constituting a ligneous zone resembling that of ,sigillaria 7see ,lign4 #ce72 but the inner circle of medullary tissue seen in the latter is altogether wanting4 ,this difference is similar to that observable in the stems or branches of a dicotyledonous tree1 in which the woody cylinder is associated internally with bundles of medullary tissue1 and the roots of the same tree that are destitute of them4 ,part of a vascular bundle from the woody tissue of a ,stigmaria1 seen by a high power and transmitted light1 is figured ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #f2 the smooth interspaces are composed of cellular tissue4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ch4 ,erect ,stem of a ,sigillaria1 with roots4 ,coal ,mine1 near ,liverpool4 a4 ,the trunk of the tree1 traversing a bed of ,coal4 b4 ,the roots 7,stigmari7 spreading out in the ,under-clay4 ,sidenote3 ,,erect ,,sigillarla ,,with ,,roots4 ,this opinion of ,m4 ,brongniart was confirmed by the discovery1 in #ahdc1 at ,st4 ,helen's1 near ,liverpool1 of an upright trunk of a ,sigillaria1 nine feet high1 with ten roots eight or nine feet in length1 still attached1 and extending in their natural position4 ,these roots are undoubted ,stigmari of the usual species1 ,s4 ficoides2 and the radicles1 formerly considered leaves1 are spread out in all directions1 to the extent of several feet4#ajc ,to the sagacity and perseverance of ,mr4 ,binney1 of ,manchester1 science is indebted for this important discovery2 the same gentleman laid bare1 on the floor of the mine at ,dunkinfold1 near ,manchester1 a large erect trunk of a ,sigillaria1 with numerous ,stigmari roots4 #ajc ,from a communication to the ,british ,association at ,cork1 #ahdc4 ,in the ,pictou coal-field of ,cape ,breton1 in ,nova ,scotia1 similar facts have been brought to light2 the remarkable phenomena existing in that locality1 of successive carboniferous deposits containing scores of erect trees with roots spreading into their native soil1 presenting peculiar facilities for verifying the observations made in ,england4 ,in an interesting memoir on the coal-fields of ,nova ,scotia1 ,mr4 ,richard ,brown has given a detailed account of numerous examples of stems of ,sigillari1 and of ,lepidodendra1 7a tribe of gigantic club-mosses of which we shall presently treat17 with the roots attached2 these roots1 in every instance1 had the characters and structure of ,stigmari4 ,in one instance1 the stem of the tree was broken off close to the roots1 and the hollow cylinder of bark was bent down and doubled over by the pressure of the surrounding mud1 so as effectually to close up the aperture1 and leave only a few irregular cicatrices converging near the apex2 this fossil explains the true nature of the dome-shaped plant figured in the ,fossil ,flora1 and in ,dr4 ,buckland's ,essay4,,cz #ajd ,see ,pictorial ,atlas1 p4 #bjj3 and ,petrifactions1 pp4 #cg1 #ch4 ,sidenote3 ,,lepidodendron4 ,lepidodendron 7scaly-tree74 ,lign4 #ci4--,stems cylindrical1 covered towards their extremities with simple1 linear1 or lanceolate leaves1 which are attached to elevated rhomboidal spaces1 or papill2 papill marked in the upper part with a large transverse triangular scar2 lower part of the stem destitute of leaves4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ci4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a terminal ,branch of a ,lepidodendron2 nat4 #b4--,leaf-scars on the stem of a ,lepidodendron2 nat4 ,in ,coal-shale1 ,newcastle4 ,the remains of this tribe of plants abound in the coal formation1 and rival in number and magnitude the ,calamites and ,sigillari previously described4 ,these trees have received the name of ,lepidodendra1 from the scaly character of their stems1 occasioned by the angular scars left by the separation of the foliage1 as is the case in arborescent ferns3 the term1 however1 simply indicates the appearance1 for the surface is not imbricated4 ,some of these trees have been found almost entire1 from the roots to their topmost branches4 ,one specimen1 forty feet high1 and thirteen feet in diameter at the base1 divided towards the summit into fifteen or twenty branches1 was discovered in the ,jarrow coal-mine4#aje ,the foliage consists of simple1 linear leaves1 spirally arranged around the stem1 and appears to have been shed from the base of the tree with age4 ,the scars produced by the attachment of the petioles were persistent2 and the twigs and branches are generally found covered with foliage1 as in ,lign4 #ci4 ,the roots are ,stigmari1 like those of the ,sigillari1 as proved by specimens in the ,pictou coal-field1 discovered by ,mr4 ,brown4#ajf #aje ,wond1 p4 #gbb4 ,this specimen is figured and described in ,foss4 ,flor4 #ajf ,petrifactions1 p4 #ci4 ,the internal organization of the stem of ,lepidodendron differs from that of ,sigillaria1 in the absence of the woody cylinder and medullary rays which constitute so peculiar and important a character in the latter4 ,the ,lepidodendra have only an eccentric1 vascular1 medullary zone1 the interval between which and the bark is filled up by cellular tissue4#ajg ,in their structure1 external configuration1 mode of ramification1 and disposition of the leaves1 they accord so closely with the ,lycopodiace1 that1 notwithstanding the disparity in size1 ,m4 ,brongniart1 ,dr4 ,joseph ,hooker1 and other eminent botanists1 concur in regarding them as gigantic arborescent club-mosses#ajh ,the living species of ,lycopodiace amount to nearly two hundred1 the greater number of which1 like the arborescent ferns1 inhabit the islands of intertropical regions4 ,they are diminutive plants1 with delicate foliage1 none exceeding three feet in height2 most of them trail on the ground1 but there are a few erect species1 one of which 7,lycopodium densum7 is abundant in ,new ,zealand4 #ajg ,see ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart1 ,archives du ,museum d',hist4 ,nat4 torn4 i4 7for #ahci71 pl4 ,,xxx4 #ajh ,figures of ,lepidodendra in ,wond4 p4 #gah4 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 i4 iii4 ix4 xxvi4 xxvii4 xxxiii4 ,the fruit of the ,club-mosses is an oval or cylindrical cone1 which in some species is situated at the extremity of the branches1 and constitutes an imbricated spike4 ,now associated with the stems of the ,lepidodendra1 and very often in masses of their foliage1 and in some instances attached to the extremities of the branches1 are numerous oblong1 or sub-cylindrical1 scaly cones1 garnished with leaves4 ,these have received the names of ,lepidostrobi 7scaly-cones71 and are unquestionably the fruit of the trees with which they are imbedded4 ,sidenote3 ,,lepidostrobus4 ,lepidostrobus4 ,lign4 #dj4--;,a cylindrical strobilus or cone1 imbricated from above downwards1 composed of winged scales1 terminating in rhomboidal discs3 the axis traversed by a longitudinal cavity or receptacle4 ,these fossils have long been known to collectors1 and are figured by ,martin 7,petrif4 ,derbiensia71 ,parkinson 7,org4 ,rem4 vol4 i4 pl4 ix471 and others4 ,they are cylindrical imbricated bodies1 rounded at both extremities1 from two to six or seven inches in length1 and one or two inches in circumference4 ,when broken asunder1 a cylindrical cavity is exposed1 which is sometimes hollow1 but commonly filled with mineral matter2 and when specimens are found imbedded in shale1 the cone is fringed with linear-lanceolate bracte1 as in ,lign4 #dj1 fig4 #c4 ,these fruits1 like the fronds of ferns1 often form the nuclei of ironstone nodules1 and the leaves are frequently replaced either by a white hydrate of alumine1 or by the mineral called galena1 or sulphuret of lead1 and the receptacles filled with the same substances4 ,the specimens from ,coalbrook ,dale are generally in this state of mineralization1 and possess great brilliancy2 they are interesting examples of the electro-chemical changes which these fruits of the carboniferous forests have undergone4#aji #aji ,these fossil cones are not liable to decompose1 like the pyritous fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey2 they require no preparation for the cabinet2 washing injures their lustre2 a soft brush will safely remove any extraneous matter4 ,there is a fine collection of ,lepidostrobi in the ,british ,museum2 see ,petrifactions1 p4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #dj4 ,lepidostrobi1 the fruit of ,lepidodendra2 nat4 ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a portion of a cone1 showing the imbricated structure and internal cavity4 #b4--,the upper part of a cone1 displaying the imbricated surface4 #c4--;,a young specimen attached to the extremity of a branch4 ,the figures in ,lign4 #dj1 represent the usual characters of these fruits4 ,of the young specimen1 7fig4 #c17 situated at the termination of a branch1 ,m4 ,brongniart observes1 qu'il est impossible de ne pas reconnatre pour un ,lepidostrobus jeune1 fix l'extrmit d'un rameau4#aaj ,as it is only in their young state that the spikes are found attached to the branches1 it is probable they were shed as soon as they arrived at maturity4 #aaj ,hist4 ,vg4 ,foss4 tom4 ii4 p4 #dg4 ,triplosporite4--,additional light has recently been thrown on the structure of the ,lepidostrobi1 by ,dr4 ,robert ,brown's examination of a silicified specimen of the upper part of a strobilus1 in which the internal organization is beautifully displayed4 ,the reader specially interested in this department of fossil botany should refer to the original memoir by the illustrious ,president of the ,linnan ,society1 with the accompanying plates that admirably exhibit the microscopic analysis of the structure of this remarkable fossil2 a slice of which was shown me some years since by the late ,marquis of ,northampton4#aaa ,the external surface of the specimen is covered with hexagonal areol2 the transverse sections exhibit the appearance of the bracte and sporangia4 ,the strobilus is formed of a central axis of relatively small diameter1 from which proceed bracte1 about thirteen in number1 that are densely approximated1 and much imbricated2 and of an equal number of sporangia1 filled with innumerable microscopic sporules1 originally connected in threes4 ,this triple composition of sporules 7which differs from the constant quadruple union in the tribes of existing plants presumed to be most nearly allied to the fossil1 namely the ,ophioglosse and ,lycopodiace7 is expressed by the name ,triplosporite1 adopted by ,dr4 ,brown to indicate this peculiarity of structure1 and the class or primary division to which the original plant is supposed to belong4#aab #aaa ,the specimen brought to ,england was but two inches of the upper end of the cone2 it was purchased conjointly by ,lord ,northampton1 ,dr4 ,brown1 and the ,british ,museum1 for #cjl46 #aab ,see ,trans4 ,linnan ,society of ,london1 vol4 xx4 p4 #dfi4 ,lycopodites4--,species of true ,lycopodiace occur in tertiary marls2 a beautiful specimen1 from ,germany1 ,lycopodites ,benetti1 is figured ,wond4 p4 #gbc4 ,sidenote3 ,,halonia4 ,,knorria4 ,halonia2 ,knorria4 ,lign4 #da4--;,associated with the plants already described from the coal-measures1 there are trunks and branches of other trees1 presenting peculiar and but imperfectly known characters1 which it will be convenient to notice in this place4 ,fragments of these stems are to be seen in most public collections of the carboniferous flora1 and should be examined by the student1 for figures and descriptions can convey but an imperfect idea of their nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,denny1 the intelligent and indefatigable ,curator of the ,leeds ,philosophical ,society1 has given the following admirable summary of the distinctive characters of the stems of most frequent occurrence in the ,coal1#aac which will be found a useful guide to the collector4 #aac ,on the ,fossil ,flora of the ,carboniferous ,epoch1 with especial reference to the ,yorkshire ,coal-field4 ,by ,mr4 ,henry ,denny1 ,a4,l4,s4 ,proceedings of the ,polytechnic ,society of ,yorkshire2 for #ahej4 #a4 ,sigillaria4--,stem furrowed1 not branched1 leaf-scars small1 round1 much narrower than the ridges of the stem4 #b4 ,favularia4--,stem furrowed1 not branched1 leaf-scars small1 square1 and as broad as the ridges of the stem4 #c4 ,lepidodendron4--,stem not furrowed1 branched1 covered with lozenge-shaped scars in quincuncial order1 each having a papilla in the upper part2 the upper portion of the stem and branches with simple linear leaves2 the lower portion destitute of leaves4 #d4 ,halonia4--,stem not furrowed1 branched1 covered with indistinct rhomboidal marks1 and tubercular projections disposed in quincunx4 #e4 ,knorria4--,stem not furrowed1 branched1 marked with projecting scars of petioles disposed spirally4 #f4 ,megaphyton4--,stem dotted1 neither furrowed nor branched1 leaf-scars very large1 of a horse-shoe figure4#aad #aad ,pictorial ,atlas1 pl4 xxv4 #g4 ,bothrodendron4--,stem pitted1 neither furrowed nor branched1 scars of cones 787 obliquely oval4 #h4 ,ulodendron4--,stem neither furrowed nor branched1 covered with rhomboidal marks2 scars of cones 787 circular4 ,the characters of the roots called ,stigmari 7ante1 p4 #acd71 and of the stems named ,calamities 7ante1 p4 #ajg71 and ,equisetites 7ante1 p4 #ajf71 are sufficiently distinct from the above to be easily recognized1 ,i will briefly notice those not previously described4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #da4 ,stems from the ,coal ,formation4 ,fig4 #a4--;,halonia regularis4 ,coalbrook ,dale4 #b4--,knorria ,taxina4 ,roof of the ,high-main ,coal seam1 ,jarrow ,colliery4 7,brit4 ,foss4 ,flor47 ,halonia4--,the specimens usually seen are mere sandstone casts having a thin carbonaceous crust2 the stem is branched and beset with large elevated knobs1 or subcortical protuberances1 as shown in fig4 #a1 ,lign4 #da4 ,these plants appear to be closely related to the ,lepidodendra2 their mode of branching is shown in a beautiful specimen 7in the museum of the ,leeds ,philos4 ,soc47 figured and described by ,mr4 ,denny1 which is also remarkable because it indicates the probability that the ,haloni1 and the fossil stems1 termed ,knorri1 are identical2 for the specimen in question1 which in its branches is unquestionably of the former type1 has the base of the stem impressed with the leaf-scars of the latter4 ,knorria4--,to this genus the authors of the ,fossil ,flora of ,great ,britain referred those stems which have projecting leaf-scars1 arranged spirally4 ,the beautiful specimen figured as ,knorria taxina1 ,lign4 #da1 fig4 #b1 closely resembles a young branch of ,yew 7,taxus71 and perhaps might be more correctly named ,taxites4 ,bothrodendron and ,ulodendron4--,these genera1 together with ,megaphyton1 are stems of a very remarkable character1 and are easily distinguished by the vertical rows of large and distant scars4 ,the two first have two series of very deep oval depressions on opposite sides of the stems1 arranged alternately in the specimens ,i have examined3 from the size and form of these obliquely-oval cavities1 it is supposed that they were formed by the attachment of cones1 and not by petioles2 but their real nature is involved in obscurity4#aae #aae ,figured in ,bd4 pl4 lvi4 ,in ,megaphyton1 the large ovate scars indicate the attachment of deciduous branches or gigantic leaves1 which did not grow all round the stem1 but in a regular order of superposition on each side4#aaf #aaf ,figured in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxv4 ,sidenote3 ,,asterophyllites4 ,asterophyllites4--,i shall conclude this notice of some of the most characteristic trees of the ,carboniferous ,flora1 with an account of a tribe of plants whose remains are so common in the coal-shales and grits1 that there are but few large slabs with vegetable remains that do not exhibit examples of the elegant verticillate foliage of one or more species4 ,the term ,asterophyllites1 7expressive of the star-like form of the leaves17 applied to this family by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart1 includes several fossil plants which are known to geologists under different generic names2 the following concise account may be useful to the student4#aag #aag ,consult ,tableau des ,genres de ,vgtaux ,fossiles1 par ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart4 ,diet4 d',hist4 ,nat4 ,paris1 #ahdi4 #a4 ,calamodendron4--,these are arborescent stems1 ligneous internally1 and covered with a smooth carbonaceous crust1 without regular longitudinal stri1 and not articulated2 but the woody axis covered by this bark is deeply striated and articulated1 resembling in this respect the true ,calamites4 ,these stems have a large central pith1 or medullary column1 surrounded by a ligneous zone1 which is formed of radiated bands1 without circles of growth3 the structure of the carbonized bark is unknown4 #b4 ,asterophyllites4--,these are supposed to be the branches and foliage of the stems above described4 #c4 ,sphenophyllum4--,plants1 differing in the form of the leaves1 but analogous in structure and mode of fructification to the ,asterophyllites4 #d4 ,annularia4--,herbaceous aquatic plants1 distinct from the preceding4 #e4 ,volkmannia4--,these fossil plants are ,asterophyllites in fructification4 ,the ,asterophyllites 7,lign4 #db7 had branched articulated stems1 with verticillate leaves1 arranged perpendicularly to the branches which supported them3 but as the foliage is in most instances partially concealed1 the natural form is but seldom observable4 ,the original plants are supposed to have been a tribe of flowering dicotyledons1 for small seed-vessels resembling those of the ,cypress are often found with the foliage4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #db4 ,asterophyllites equisetiformis2 nat4 ,coal-shale4 7,foss4 ,flor47 ,sidenote3 ,,annularia ,,cardiocarpon4 ,the ,annulari were herbaceous plants with verticillate foliage like the former1 but the whorls were arranged on the same plane with the stems on which they grew1 and their remains have a very elegant appearance when expanded in the coal schists4 ,it is supposed that they were aquatic plants1 and that the stems and leaves floated on the surface of the water4#aah #aah ,wond4 p4 #gag4 ,petrifactions1 pp4 #bg1 #dc1 c4 ,for coloured figures see ,pictorial ,atlas1 pl4 v4 ,sphenophyllum 7wedge-shaped leaf74 ,lign4 #dc4--,the fossil vegetables thus named1 though somewhat resembling in their elegant verticillate foliage the ,asterophyllites1 differ essentially1 and are regarded by ,m4 ,brongniart as herbaceous plants related to the ,marsiliace1 or ,pepper-worts4 ,the leaves are triangular1 truncated at the summit1 and very deeply lobed and dentated4 ,the fructification consists of sessile axillary or terminal spikes1 composed of verticillate bracte1 covering the receptacles4 ,this mode of fructification resembles that of the ,asterophyllites4#aai #aai ,for details consult ,tab4 des ,genres de ,vg4 ,foss4 p4 #eb4 ,cardiocarpon4--,lign4 #dd4 fig4 #a4--,these are small fossil fruits or seed-vessels1 which much resemble those of the ,thuja or ,arbor-vit1 and are so often found imbedded with masses of the foliage of ,asterophyllites1 that it is conjectured they belong to those plants4 ,they occur in groups of from five to twenty1 and evidently were didymous1 i4e4 grew in pairs4 ,fig4 #a;a4 is an enlarged view1 to show the surface left by the attachment of the twin-seed4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #dc4 ,fig4 #a4--,sphenophyllum ,schlotheimii2 nat4 #b4--,sphenophyllum erosum4 ,coal-,shale4 ,trigonocarpum4 ,lign4 #dd4 figs4 #c4 #d4--,these fruits1 which resemble those of certain ,palms1 are often met with in the coal-mines of ,leicestershire and ,yorkshire2 frequently occurring in groups of thirty or forty1 as if they were the scattered seeds of a raceme of a ,palm3 they are referred to the genus ,nggerathia1 a tree of the carboniferous formation allied to the ,palms4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,fruits4 ,a figure of a fossil fruit from the ,oolite--,carpolithes ,bucklandi1 is introduced in ,lign4 #dd1 fig4 #b1 and will be described hereafter4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #dd4 ,fossil ,fruits1 or ,seed-vessels2 nat4 ,fig4 #a4--;,cardiocarpon acutum4 ,snibstone ,coal-mine1 ,leicestershire4 #a;a4--,one of the above magnified4 #b4--;,carpolithes ,bucklandii4 ,coralline ,oolite1 ,malton4 #c4--,trigonocarpum olivforme4 ,snibstone ,colliery4 #d4--,trigonocarpum ,nggerathi4 ,the reader will observe that the fossil vegetables hitherto described belong1 with but few exceptions1 to the ,carboniferous flora2 and that the remains of ,ferns1 ,calamites1 ,sigillari1 and ,lepidodendra1 compose in a great measure those prodigious accumulations of mineral fuel1 or coal1 which supply the luxuries and necessities created by civilization4 ,our review of fossil plants will now assume somewhat of a botanical arrangement1 and we proceed to notice some of the most characteristic vegetable forms of the secondary and tertiary formations4 ,we commence our examination with those remarkable tribes of gymnosperms1 the ,cycadace1 which comprise the ,zami and ,cycade4 ,fossil ,cycadace4 ,the plants of this subdivision of the vegetable kingdom1 from their singular structure and mode of growth1 their simple cylindrical stems1 and coronets of pinnated foliage1 resembling that of certain palms1 their usually gyrate vernation like that of the ferns1 and their anomalous inflorescence and fructification1 are objects of great interest to the scientific botanist2 while the abundance of their fossil remains in the secondary formations renders them of the highest importance to the geologist4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #de4 ,foliage and upper part of the ,stem of ,cycas revoluta #a_/ab nat4 ,in ,kew ,conservatory4 ,as many kinds of ,zamia#abj and ,cycas are cultivated in our hot-houses1 the general appearance of the plants of this order must be familiar to the reader3 the annexed figure of a beautiful living ,cycas in the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew1 will serve to illustrate the general aspect of these exotics4 #abj ,the ,linnan genus ,zamia is now separated into five or six genera1 as ,encephalartos1 ,macrozamia1 ,dion1 c4 ,the ,zami are short plants1 with stout cylindrical stems1 beset with thick scales1 which are the bases of the petioles that have been shed3 towards the summit the stem is garnished with a crown of elegant leaves2 the fruit resembles the cones of pines4 ,the leaves are pinnated1 and very tough2 their venation is either parallel as in endogens1 or dichotomous as in ferns1 but never reticulated as in exogens3 in a young state they are coiled up like a crosier1 as in ferns4 ,the ,cycade have the general aspect of the ,zami1 but differ in their fructification and other characters2 and some species have the stem bifurcated towards the top1 and attain a height of upwards of twenty feet2 for example1 ,c4 circinalis4 ,the stem in its internal structure#aba bears a close analogy to that of the ,conifer2 it has a central medullary column surrounded by a ligneous cylinder1 divided by cellular medullary rays1 each composed of bundles of vessels1 and a thick cellular cortical investment or false-bark1#abb composed of the persistent scales that formed the bases of the petioles4 7,see ,pl4 ,v4 fig4 #e47 #aba ,see ,bd4 pl4 lxii4 #abb ,see ,bd4 vol4 i4 pp4 #did-dih1 for detailed description of structure in recent and fossil ,zami and ,cycade4 ,the existing species of ,cycadace are exclusively natives of hot regions1 and chiefly inhabit the ,west ,indies1 ,south ,africa1 ,equinoctial ,america1 ,japan1 ,new ,holland1 c42 not one species is known in ,europe3 a fact in striking contrast with the abundance of fossil plants of this order1 which occur throughout the secondary formations of ,england and the continent4#abc #abc ,the most interesting collection of living ,cycade and ,zami near ,london1 is that of ,james ,yates1 ,esq41 of ,lauderdale ,house1 ,highgate2 it comprises choice examples of several of the sub-genera into which these plants are now divided by botanists4 ,no true cycads have hitherto been discovered in the carboniferous deposits2 it is in the floras of the secondary epochs1 from the new ,red to the ,cretaceous inclusive1 that this tribe of plants forms an important feature4 ,the foliage1 stems1 and fruits1 occur in a fossil state2 and as these organs cannot be referred with certainty to their respective plants1 distinct genera are formed for their reception4 ,foliage4--,from the tough and durable nature of the leaves1 the foliage of the ,cycade occurs in a fine state of preservation2 and in the fluvio-marine deposits of the ,oolite of ,yorkshire1 many specimens of great beauty have been collected4 ,i know not another locality in ,england so rich in fossils of this kind1 as the cliffs along the coast near ,scarborough2 ,gristhorpe ,bay is well known to collectors4 ,not only the leaves1 but also the fruits or cones occur1 and of these1 examples are to be seen in most public museums4#abd ,the leaves are carbonized1 but the venation is well preserved4 #abd ,british ,museum3 see ,petrifactions1 p4 #ed1 ,room #a1 ,case ,f4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #df4 ,part of a leaf of ,pterophyllum comptum2 nat4 ,oolite1 ,scarborough4 ,the leaflet of the recent ,cycas is distinguished by a strong nervure1 which runs along the middle2 that of ,zamia has no midrib1 but fine parallel veins that pass direct to the margin4 ,pterophyllum comptum4 ,lign4 #df4--,the general aspect of these fossils is shown in this figure of a leaf1 referred to the genus ,pterophyllum1 which is characterized by leaflets1 often slightly united at their base1 truncated at the summit1 of a quadrangular or oblong form1 and having fine1 straight1 parallel veins4 ,the leaves are ten or twelve inches long1 and have fine lanceolate leaflets2 they are abundant in the same beds1 and are often associated with the cones or fruit#abe figured in ,lign4 #dh4 #abe ,brit4 ,mus4 ,petrifactions1 p4 #ee4 ,sidenote3 ,,zamites ,,pectinatus4 ,zamites pectinatus4 ,lign4 #dg4--;,in the ,stonesfield slate1 collocated with remains of reptiles1 fishes1 insects1 and mollusks1 leaves and fruits of cycads are occasionally met with4 ,a portion of a leaf nine inches long is here figured4 ,the ,lias of ,dorsetshire has yielded many beautiful relics of this family#abf #abf ,in the carboniferous strata of ,eastern ,virginia1 ,united ,states1 which are referred by ,professor ,rogers to the ,oolitic epoch1 leaves of ,cycadeous plants are abundant4 ,see ,trans4 ,american ,geol p4 #bih4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #dg4 ,part of a leaf of ,zamites pectinatus2 nat4 ,oolite1 ,stonesfield4 ,but few vestiges of the foliage of ,cycads have been observed in the ,wealden formation of ,england2 one elegant leaf1 however1 of an undescribed species1 was obtained some years since1 from a sandstone quarry in ,surrey1 and is figured in my ,geology of the ,south-east of ,england1 p4 #bch2 it is named in honour of my distinguished friend1 ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart1 ,cycadites ,brongniarti4 ,the ,wealden of the north of ,germany is very rich in fossil ,cycade2 my friend4 ,dr4 ,dunker1 has figured and described twelve species in his admirable work on the organic remains of that formation4#abg #abg ,mon4 ,norddeutschen ,weald1 tab4 i4 to vii4 ,fruits4--,the cones or fruits which occur with the foliage of ,zami in the carbonaceous shales and marls of the ,oolite of the ,yorkshire coast1 are very fine1 and have been described under the various names of ,zamites ,mantelli1 ,z4 gigas1 and ,z4 lanceolatus4 ,an interesting memoir on the structure of these fossils1 by ,james ,yates1 ,esq4 7a gentleman distinguished for his knowledge of the recent ,cycadace71 is published in the ,proceedings of the ,yorkshire ,philosophical ,society for #ahdi1 p4 #cg2 and another communication on the same subject by my friend ,professor ,williamson1 of ,manchester1 in ,york4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahai1 p4 #de2 to these papers ,i must refer for a detailed account of all that is at present known respecting their organization4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #dh4 ,fruit of ,zamites ,mantelli1 7,brongniart72 nat4 ,from near ,scarborough4 ,the surface of the cone is concealed by the bracte4 ,zamites ,mantelli4#abh ,lign4 #dh4--,the leaves associated with the fruit here figured1 have lanceolate leaflets that insensibly contract at the base1 and are inserted obliquely into the rachis2 thus resembling the foliage of the recent ,encephalartos4 ,with these leaves1 and the ovate cones 7,lign4 #dh71 are occasionally found a circle of leaves or elongated scales1 locally termed collars1 which ,professor ,williamson has shown to be a zone formed by a scaly bud in which the germ of the plants was inclosed4 ,in the progress of development1 the fruit burst through the upper part of the investing sheath1 and1 as it grew to maturity1 rose above the incurved elongated bracte1 till the latter formed a zone or collar around the pedicle of the cone4#abi ,these fossils have been mistaken for flowers4#acj #abh ,podozamites of ,braun4 #abi ,proc4 ,yorkshire ,philos4 ,soc4 #ahdi1 p4 #de4 #acj ,bird's ,yorkshire1 tab4 i4 figs4 #a and #g4 ,it does not appear that the structure of the cone has been preserved in any of the specimens1 so as to demonstrate the characters of the original2 in all those ,i have examined1 the surface of the fruit is concealed by the elongated bracte1 which are pressed flat1 and adhere so firmly to the inclosed body1 as to render it impossible to ascertain its nature4#aca ,mr4 ,williamson is of opinion that the plant resembled the recent ,cycas circinalis1 in its great height1 and lax habits2 and states1 that he had seen portions of leaves that were three feet in length4 #aca ,brit4 ,mus4 ,petrif4 p4 #ee4 ,zamites crassus4 ,lign4 #di1 fig4 #a4--;,in ,sandown ,bay1 on the south coast of the ,isle of ,wight1 where the ,wealden beds rise to the surface from beneath the lowest strata of ,greensand on the east and west1 several cones have been found1 associated with other vegetable remains1 and bones of the ,iguanodon1 c4 ,a fossil cone from this locality is here figured2 it bears considerable resemblance to the fruit of the recent ,encephalartos4 ,sidenote3 ,,zamites ,,ovatus4 ,zamites ovatus4 ,lign4 #di1 fig4 #b4--;,a few examples of cycadeous fruits have been collected from the ,greensand of ,kent and ,sussex4 ,the beautiful fossil represented1 ,lign4 #di1 fig4 #b1 from ,foss4 ,flor4 is referred to the ,zami1 by the eminent authors of that work2 but it presents in its imbricated character a greater analogy to a pine cone4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #di4 ,fossil ,fruits of ,cycadeous ,plants2 #a_/b nat4 ,fig4 #a4--,zamites ,crassus4 ,wealden1 ,isle of ,wight4 #b4--,zamites ,ovatus4 ,greensand1 ,kent4 ,zamites ,sussexiensis4--,at ,willingdon1 near ,eastbourn1 in ,sussex1 a cone nearly six inches long was discovered in a bed of ,greensand1 which abounds in fossil coniferous wood3 it is of an elongated cylindrical form1 and covered with hexagonal scales4 ,i have provisionally named it ,zamites ,sussexiensis 7,geol4 ,proc4 #ahdc71 as it presents a nearer resemblance to the fruit of ,zami than to that of ,conifers4 ,trunks and ,stems of ,cycadace4--,in this section ,i shall notice the fossil plants which occur so abundantly in the fresh-water deposits that overlie the marine oolitic limestone of the ,isle of ,portland1 and which must be familiar to my readers1 from the graphic account of the circumstances under which they occur1 by ,mr4 ,webster1 and subsequently by ,dr4 ,buckland1 and ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,beche4 ,in my ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #chg1 and ,geol4 ,isle of ,wight1 p4 #cie1 the geological phenomena of that most interesting locality1 the ,isle of ,portland1 are so fully described1 that it will not be necessary to dwell upon them2 the structure and affinities of the fossil vegetables are the especial objects of our present inquiry4 ,sidenote3 ,,mantellia ,,nidiformis4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ej4 ,silicified ,trunk of ,mantellia nidiformis 7,brongn472 #a_/d nat4 7,cycadites megalophyllus4 ,bd47 ,wealden4 ,isle of ,portland4 a4 ,central mass of cellular tissue1 b4 ,circle of ligneous plates1 c4 ,zone of cellular tissue1 d4 ,false-bark4 ,mantellia4 ,lign4 #ej1 #ea4--,the fossil ,cycade of the ,isle of ,portland were first described botanically by ,dr4 ,buckland1 7,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 ii4 #b;d ,series17 under the name of ,cycadeoidea2 of which ,memoir the account in ,bd4 p4 #djd1 is an abstract4 ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart1 considering these plants as a peculiar type1 referred them to a new genus1 which he did me the honour to name ,mantellia 7,prod4 ,veg4 ,foss474 ,these stems or trunks are from one to two feet in height2 the circumference of the largest not exceeding three feet4 ,the stem is subcylindrical1 and the external surface covered with the rhomboidal scars formed by the attachment of the leaf-stalks1 and which are widest in their transverse diameter4 ,there are two species1 which are readily distinguished by the form of the stems1 and the difference in the size of the cicatrices left by the petioles4 ,the most common kind is short1 and spheroidal1 and the leaf-scars are relatively large2 its shape has caused it to be named ,crows' nest1 by the quarrymen1 who believe these plants to be nests that were built by crows in the trees of the petrified forest with which they are imbedded4 ,the specific name 7nidiformis7 adopted by ,m4 ,brongniart1 expresses this popular notion4 ,lign4 #ej4 represents a fine example from the ,portland ,dirt-bed1 which exhibits a structure altogether similar to that which characterizes the stems of recent cycadeous plants2 namely1 7a7 a central mass of cellular tissue surrounded by circles of laminated ligneous rays or plates 7b72 then a zone of cellular tissue 7c71 and an external cylinder of false-bark 7d74 ,the mode of increase by buds1 from germs in the axill of the petioles1 as in the living plants1 is also distinctly seen4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ea4 ,mantellia cylindrica4 7,brongn472 #a_/h nat4 7,cycadites microphyllus4 ,bd47 ,wealden4 ,petrified ,forest of the ,isle of ,portland4 ,the other species is subcylindrical1 and the leaf-scars are much smaller and more regular than in ,m4 nidiformis1 indicating a more delicate foliage1 as expressed by ,buckland's specific name3 that of ,m4 ,brongniart refers to the cylindrical form of the stem4 ,this plant was higher and more slender than its associate4 ,numerous buds are seen in the axill of the petioles in the specimen figured4 ,these fossils present1 both externally and internally1 a close relation to the bulbiform stems of the recent ,cycade1 named ,encephalartos1 of ,south ,africa4#acb #acb ,the fossil ,cycads of the ,isle of ,portland are admirably described and illustrated in ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,essay1 7p4 #dig1 and pl4 lx4 lxi471 and their internal structure is fully explained4 ,neither the leaves nor the fruit are known3 a cone found in the ,dirt-bed of ,portland1 and attributed to these plants1 appears to belong to the conifer of the petrified forest4 ,examples of ,mantelli have been found in the quarry of ,portland-stone at ,swindon1 ,wilts4 ,sidenote3 ,,clathraria ,,lyellii4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #eb4 ,clathraria ,lyellii4 ,wealden4 ,a branched example of the inner axis3 the original #c-a_/b feet high4 ,clathraria#acc ,lyellii4 ,lign4 #eb-eg4--,the fossil plants to which ,i would next direct attention were first discovered by me in the ,wealden strata of ,sussex1 in #ahbj1 and were figured and described under the name they still bear1 in my ,fossils of ,tilgate ,forest1 in #ahbg4 ,the specimens figured in that work are the most illustrative hitherto discovered1 with but one exception4#acd #acc ,,ec ,c lathraria1 i4e4 lattice stem1 from the scars left by the petioles4 #acd ,they are now in the ,british ,museum2 see ,petrifactions1 p4 #de4 ,room ,i4 ,case ,e4 ,from the imperfect state of the remains of these plants1 the structure and affinities of the originals were very ambiguous1 and the fossils have been placed by some eminent botanists with the ,liliace1 and by others with the ,asphodele2 their true botanical position is doubtless with the ,cycadace2 for in some points they resemble the ,zami1 in others the ,cycade4 ,the stem of the ,clathraria is composed of a solid internal axis1 the surface of which is covered with reticulated fibres2 the large branched specimen of this part1 figured in ,lign4 #eb1 is the finest example hitherto obtained3 it was discovered1 with bones of the ,iguanodon1 in a quarry near ,cuckfield1 ,sussex1 in #ahbj4 ,the axis is invested with a very thick false-bark1 formed of the consolidated bases of the leaf-stalks1 the insertions of which are rhomboidal and transverse4 ,the outer surface of the bark is consequently marked with elevated lozenge-shaped cicatrices 7,lign4 #ec71 separated from each other by a marginal furrow1 which is surrounded by a parallel ridge or band of a fibrous structure4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ec4 ,clathraria ,lyellii4 #a_/d nat4 ,a stem1 with rhomboidal transverse scars1 left by the petioles2 broken transversely and separated1 to show the internal axis at a1 which1 if the pieces were united1 would be received in the cavity below the depression1 or cicatrix1 on the middle of the upper portion1 b1 was probably the situation of a resinous secretion1 like the dragon-blood in the ,dracna4 ,the cortical zone is generally converted into a cylinder of stone1 which in some examples separates from the axis4 ,in a beautiful specimen of this kind1 ,lign4 #ed1 the axis projects and is surrounded by the false-bark4 ,the axis is solid1 and has its surface strongly marked with interrupted ridges4 ,this surface has generally patches of vascular tissue adhering to it2 and there are here and there deep pits1 or lacun1 which probably contained a resinous secretion4 ,thin transverse sections of the axis1 prepared with ,canada balsam1 and examined under the microscope1 only give faint traces of cellular tissue4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ed4 ,clathraria ,lyellii2 #a_/d nat4 ,wealden ,sandstone4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,portion of a stem1 scored by the cicatrices of the petioles2 showing the ,axis a1 surrounded by the cortical cylinder4 ,i have spared neither trouble nor expense in endeavouring to detect the organization of this plant2 numerous sections of stems have been cut1 and examined microscopically1 but very few exhibit any traces of structure2 and in those which retain some vestiges of organization1 the siliceous mass which permeates the vascular tissue1 is not sufficiently transparent to yield satisfactory results4 ,it can only be inferred that in their internal organization1 as in their external characters1 the ,clathrari were most nearly allied to the ,cycade or ,zami4 ,a remarkable specimen1 7,lign4 #ef17 discovered in a stratum of ,chalk-marl1 near ,bonchurch1 confirms this view1 and throws much light on the nature and relations of these vegetables4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ee4 ,petiole of ,clathraria ,lyellii2 a4 ,external aspect4 b4 ,inner surface4 c4 ,vascular pits left by the separation of the leaf4 ,this fossil is a portion of the summit of a stem garnished with persistent petioles1 or leaf-stalks2 it is fifteen inches in length1 and nearly perfect at the top2 and at the lower end1 which has been broken off transversely1 the inner axis 7,lign4 #ef a471 surrounded by the false-bark formed by the confluence and consolidation of the bases of the petioles1 is exposed4 ,the stem has been stript of the leaf-stalks at the lowermost part1 and exhibits the characteristic lattice-like scars4 ,the petioles are for the most part entire2 some of them are abortive1 and others1 which have supported leaves1 are marked on the summits with vascular pits1 indicating that the foliage was shed naturally2 as shown in ,lign4 #ee a4 ,these petioles were probably persistent for some years1 as in the existing ,cycads4 ,the opposite side of the stem to that represented is covered with elongated and flattened petioles4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ef4 ,clathraria ,lyellii2 #a_/d nat4 ,chalk-marl4 ,bonchurch1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,the summit of a stem garnished with petioles2 the lower part shows the cicatrices left by the removal of some of the petioles3 a1 the internal axis4 ,on the sea-shore bounded by cliffs of ,wealden rocks1 in the ,isle of ,wight1 water-worn portions of stems of ,clathrari are occasionally met with2 and these are impressed with the lozenge-shaped areas left by the petioles1 as in the specimen1 ,lign4 #eg4 ,mr4 ,saxby1 of ,bonchurch1 has favoured me with the loan of a thin section of a stem of ,clathraria in which the bundles of vascular tissue in the petioles appear to be made up of spiral vessels4 ,from what has been advanced1 it is obvious that these remarkable plants of the ,wealden flora were gymnosperms1 closely related to the ,cycade4 ,vestiges of roots1 seed-vessels1 and panicles1 have been found in the ,wealden1 which may possibly belong to the ,clathraria2 but the evidence as to their presumed relationship is at present too vague to require further notice4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #eg4 ,clathraria ,lyellii2 #a_/b nat4 ,specimen1 showing the water-worn external surface4 ,sidenote3 ,,endogenites4 ,endogenites erosa4--7,geol ,s4 ,e4 pl4 i42 ,tilg4 ,foss4 pl4 iii42 and by ,dr4 ,fitton in ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 iv47--,the genus ,endogenites was established by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart for the reception of those fossil stems and woods1 whose internal structure is endogenous1 but which are too imperfect to be referred to any particular family4 ,in this category must be placed certain silicified stems having a carbonaceous cortical investment1 which ,i discovered in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest1 in #ahbj4 ,these fossils often occur in the layers of lignite which traverse the clay-beds in some parts of the ,weald of ,sussex4 ,they are from one to eight inches in diameter1 and five or six feet in length1 and of very irregular shapes2 ,i have not observed any indications of branches4 ,some specimens are subcylindrical in the middle1 and gradually taper to a point at each end2 others are of a depressed clavated form1 like some of the ,cacte or ,euphorbiace4 ,they are generally silicified1 and1 when in situ1 are invested with a friable carbonaceous crust1 of a glossy lustre1 which soon falls to pieces on exposure to the atmosphere1 so that cabinet specimens seldom retain any vestiges of it4 ,when this coaly matter is removed1 the surface of the silicified stem is seen to be traversed by numerous fine meandering grooves1 and deep1 tortuous channels1 disposed in an irregular manner1 in a longitudinal direction4 ,these channels or vessels1 which are generally lined with quartz crystals1 give the surface that eroded appearance which suggested the specific name1 erosa2 but this term is inapplicable1 for the perforations and sinuosities are not the effect of erosion1 but result from the structure of the original4 ,polished sections1 seen by transmitted light1 are represented in ,dr4 ,fitton's memoir 7,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 iv472 and ,i have had many slices ground as thin as possible1 in the hope of detecting the characters of the vascular tissue4 ,in one example there are indications of a cycadeous structure1 which favour the conclusion1 that the originals belonged to an extinct tribe of gymnosperms2 but in other specimens1 bundles of vascular tissue1 resembling those of palms1 are apparent4 ,large water-worn stems of ,endogenites are occasionally washed out of the ,wealden cliffs at ,hastings1 and in ,sandown and ,brook ,bays1 in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,conifer4 ,fossil conifer4 ,the other great natural order of ,gymnospermous phanerogami1#ace the ,conifer1 or cone-bearing--so named from the form of their fruit1 of which the fir-cones and larch-juli are familiar examples1--comprise the extensive tribes of ,firs and ,pines1 and the ,cypresses1 ,yews1 ,junipers1 ,cedars1 c41 among which are the loftiest trees on the face of the globe4 #ace ,signifying1 flowering plants with naked seeds4 ,the ,conifers are all arborescent1 having numerous branches1 which are in general disposed with much regularity4 ,the leaves are commonly acicular or needle-shaped1 narrow1 and linear3 in two or three genera1 however1 7,dammara1 ,podocarpus17 the foliage departs remarkably from the ordinary type1 the leaves being broad and flat4 ,the structure of the stem1 though in its general characters essentially exogenous 7see ,plate ,,iv4 fig4 #d71--that is1 having a central pith1 medullary rays1 zones of vascular tissue1 and concentric circles of growth1--differs in the almost entire absence of spiral vessels1 and in the peculiar modification of the radiating bands of woody fibre1 which are made up of uniform longitudinal vessels1 and run parallel with the medullary rays4 ,the lateral walls of these vessels have longitudinal rows of areol1 which are generally circular or elliptical1 but when in contact are angular and polygonal3 each areola has a small pore or punctation in the centre4 ,these discs1 glands1 or ducts1 as they are called1 are variously arranged in different genera2 they are generally confined to the contiguous and corresponding lateral surfaces of the fibres2 and occur rarely1 if ever1 on the inner and outer aspects of the vessels4 ,in the recent genus ,pinus the rows of ducts are single in some species2 in others both single and double series occur1 but never more than two1 and in the latter case the ducts are always parallel to each other 7see pl4 v4 #c;b4 ,wond4 pp4 #fif1 #gbe74 ,but in the ,araucari1 or ,norfolk ,island ,pines1 the vessels have double1 triple1 and sometimes quadruple1 rows of discs1 of smaller size than in the common pines2 and in the double series1 these bodies are always arranged alternately 7,wond4 p4 #fif4 ,bd4 #ef a472 ,mr4 ,nicol states that there are about #ej discs in the length of #a_/bj inch1 the diameter of each not exceeding #a_/ajjj inch4 ,the form and arrangement of these ducts1 and the structure of the medullary rays1 are the characters on which the scientific botanist relies for the detection of the affinities of the coniferous trees1 whose mineralized trunks and branches1 in a fragmentary state1 are1 for the most part1 the only relics of these important tribes of the lost floras of the earlier ages of our planet4#acf #acf ,i know not a more delightful and instructive branch of science for the young and inquiring of both sexes1 than this department of ,fossil ,botany1 which the recent improvements in the microscope have rendered so accessible2 and yet there are but few cultivators of fossil botany in ,england6 ,the great value of these data will be shown in the sequel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the stems1 fruit1 and foliage1 of ,conifer1 occur in the various fossiliferous deposits1 from those containing the earliest traces of terrestrial vegetation to the newest tertiary strata2 and a large proportion of the petrified wood found in the ,british formations belongs to trees of this order4 ,the presence of rows of ducts on the ligneous fibres1 which is peculiar to this division of gymnosperms1 as we have already explained 7ante1 p4 #eh71 is so easily detected by microscopic examination1 that the merest fragment of fossil coniferous wood retaining internal structure1 may without difficulty be recognized4 ,the number of rows1 and the opposite or alternate arrangement of the areol1 are characters which1 in the living pines and firs1 enable us to refer the respective trees to ,european or exotic forms2 but in the fossil coniferous wood1 much diversity exists in other not less important points of structure1 and for the successful cultivation of this department of fossil botany1 works especially devoted to the subject must be consulted4 ,to the ,english student1 ,mr4 ,witham's beautiful volume1 ,observations on the ,structure of ,fossil ,vegetables1 ,edinburgh1 #ahca1 will be found a valuable guide4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,coniferous ,,wood4 ,fossil ,coniferous ,wood4--,the coniferous wood of the secondary formations of ,england1 belongs for the most part to the ,araucarian type3 that is1 the glands1 when in double rows1 are placed alternately1 as in the ,norfolk ,island ,pines 7,wond4 p4 #fif71 and not side by side1 as in the common ,european species of firs and pines 7,bd4 p4 #dhf74 ,numerous sections of this kind of fossil wood are figured by ,mr4 ,witham1 from specimens obtained from ,lennel ,braes1 on the banks of the ,tweed1 near ,coldstream2 and from near ,allanbank ,mill1 in ,berwickshire 7,obs4 ,foss4 ,veg4 p4 #ad72 a fossil trunk1 #dj feet long1 discovered in ,craigleith ,quarry1 near ,edinburgh1 at a depth of #acf feet1 possessed the same structure4 ,paloxylon 7coniferous wood of the ,coal ,measures74--,the existence of coniferous trees in the ,carboniferous flora1 and the fact that their trunks and branches had contributed to the formation of coal1 was first discovered and clearly demonstrated by ,mr4 ,witham in the work to which reference has been made4 ,figures of the peculiar structure observable in thin slices of coal1 are given in ,obs4 ,foss4 ,veg4 pl4 iii4 iv4 v4 ,this carbonized wood resembles that of the ,araucari in the multiple series of ducts1 and their alternate arrangement2 but the presence of thick compound medullary rays in these stems1--a character unknown in any living conifers1--led ,m4 ,brongniart to place them in a separate genus--,paloxylon 7ancient wood72 characterized by the presence of medullary rays formed of numerous layers of cells1 which are not arranged in superimposed series1 and that present a lanceolate or oval form1 in a section perpendicular to their direction4#acg #acg ,the ,pinites ,withami1 and ,p4 medullaris1 of ,lindley and ,hutton1 figured in ,mr4 ,witham's work1 belong to this genus4 ,it may interest the reader to know that slices of these woods prepared for the microscope by ,mr4 ,nicol1 7presented to me by the late ,dr4 ,henry1 of ,manchester17 not only expose the vegetable organization in an admirable manner1 but also form beautiful objects for the exhibition of polarization4 ,peuce4--,another species of coniferous wood from the coal is thus named2 it differs from the former in the medullary rays being composed but of one layer of superposed cells4 ,araucarites 7,dadoxylon of ,endlechen74--,this term is employed to designate the fossil wood whose structure is apparently identical with that of the living species of ,araucari1 having the same kind of medullary rays1 and the ligneous fibres studded with discs or areol1 which are polygonal1 often hexagonal1 and disposed in several alternating series4 ,this wood is common in the ,lias1 ,oolite1 ,wealden1 and ,chalk4 ,drifted fragments of coniferous wood of this type occur in the ,stonesfield slate1 associated with leaves and fruits of cycade1 and with marine shells1 bones of reptiles1 fishes1 and mammalia2 at ,scarborough1 with the ferns and zami previously described2 at ,swindon1 in the ,portland oolite1 with belemnites1 ammonites1 trigoni1 c4 ,sidenote3 ,,sternbergia4 ,sternbergia4--,to the ,araucarian tribe1 according to the recent investigations of ,professor ,williamson1 must be referred certain fossil stems found in the coal-measures1 and named ,sternbergi4#ach ,these are long solid cylindrical casts of sandstone or clay1 with annular constrictions1 which are generally invested with a thin film of carbonaceous matter2 when this crust is removed the surface is found to be marked with longitudinal ridges4 ,these fossils were once supposed to be the stems of plants allied to ,yucca or ,dracna2 but1 as was first shown by ,mr4 ,dawson and ,mr4 ,dawes1#aci they are merely sandstone casts of the medullary axis or cylinder of an extinct genus of conifer1 allied to the ,araucari3 a specimen in which the cast was surrounded by a thick ligneous cylinder1 heaving enabled that acute observer to detect the structure of the original4#adj ,the ,sternbergi are sandstone casts of central cavities existing within the true pith2 which cavities1 under some favourable conditions1 were filled with inorganic materials4 ,mr4 ,williamson is inclined to believe that all the coniferous wood from the coal-measures1 belonging to the genus ,dadoxylon1 is referable to the trees of whose piths the ,sternbergi approximat are internal casts2 and that some of the foliaceous appendages of these trees have been confounded with ,lepidodendra4#ada #ach ,see ,pictorial ,atlas1 pl4 xviii4 p4 #ec4 #aci ,on the ,coal formation of ,nova ,scotia1 ,geol4 ,proc4 #ahdf4 #adj ,see ,prof4 ,williamson's ,memoir on ,sternbergia1 ,manchester ,philos4 ,trans4 #ahea4 #ada ,ibid4 p4 #cee4 ,petrified ,forests of ,conifers4--,the most remarkable assemblage of fossil conifers is that presented in the well-known quarries in the ,island of ,portland1 to which allusion was made when describing the ,mantelli obtained from that locality 7ante1 p4 #aeg74 ,referring to ,wond4 p4 #che1adb for an account of the geological circumstances under which the phenomena occur1 it will suffice to state that a forest of pines appears to have been submerged1 and the trunks to have become petrified1 whilst standing erect on the spot where they grew2 the ,cycads still shoot up as it were between the stems1 and the roots of the trees1 though changed into flint1 extend into the bed of mould whence they originally derived support1 and which is so little altered in appearance1 as to be called the ,dirt-bed1 by the quarrymen2 thus realizing the fable of the petrified city in ,arabian story1 whose inhabitants were turned into stone1 in the varied attitudes of life4 #adb ,geol4 ,i4 of ,wight1 p4 #cid4 ,petrifactions1 p4 #ef4 ,no foliage has been observed in connexion with these trees2 not a leaf has been found in the rocks3 a cone1 nearly related to the fruit of ,araucaria excelsa1 was discovered in the ,dirt-bed4 ,at ,brook-point1 in the ,isle of ,wight1 an equally interesting fact may be observed4 ,at the base of the cliff1 which is entirely composed of ,wealden clays1 shales1 and sandstones1 there is a vast accumulation of petrified firs and pines1 imbedded in the indurated grit that forms the lowermost strata on the sea-shore1 and of which the reefs and rocks1 produced by the encroachments of the sea1 and that extend far from land1 are composed4 ,these can be examined at low-water1 and the observer1 upon lifting up the fuci and alg which cover them1 will find the rocks and masses of stone to consist of petrified trunks of conifer4 ,there are no erect trees as in ,portland2 on the contrary1 the stems are prostrate1 and lie confusedly intermingled1 and associated with bones of ,iguanodons and other reptiles1 and large mussel-shells2 the whole presenting the characters of a raft of forest trees which had drifted down the stream of a vast river1 and entangled in its course the limbs and carcasses of animals that were floating in the water1 and the shells that inhabited the river1 and at length became submerged in the bed of the delta or estuary4 ,both foliage and fruit have been found in the ,wealden deposits at ,brook1 and will be described hereafter4#adc #adc ,see ,geol4 ,i4 of ,wight1 chap4 x4 and xi4 ,in the sands of the ,desert of ,sahara1 in ,egypt1--among the mammalian bones of the ,sub-,himalayas1--and in the tertiary deposits of ,virginia associated with cycads1--drifted trunks of conifers have been discovered4 ,fossil trees of this family also occur in various localities in ,australia and ,van ,diemen's ,land1 the wood of which is in some parts calcified1 and in others silicified4 ,the same trunk often has externally a white friable calcareous zone1 several inches thick1 traversed by veins of silex1 or opaline chalcedony1 while the centre is a silicified mass2 in both states the internal structure may be detected4 ,this kind of fossil wood is to be seen in most cabinets1 a large quantity having been sent to ,england by emigrants4#add ,these fossil trees appear to have been subjected to the same mutations as those of the ,isle of ,portland1 for they are described as standing erect to the height of several feet in a bed of arid sand1 apparently in the places where they grew2 their petrified branches being scattered around them4 ,they so entirely preserve their natural appearance1 that one of the colonists mentions among the extraordinary sights he witnessed on his first arrival in ,new ,holland1 the burning of trees into lime to manure the ground4 #add ,my late friend1 ,sir ,francis ,chantrey1 had a magnificent specimen1 which1 is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,see ,petrifactions1 p1 #ei4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,conifer ,,of ,,australia4 ,a fossil pine forest1 on the eastern coast of ,australia1 in the inlet called ,lake ,macquarrie1 is described by the ,rev4 ,b4 ,clarke1 as occurring at the base of a mountain range1 composed of conglomerate and sandstone1 with subordinate beds of lignite2 an alluvial plain extends to the water's edge1 covering the sandstone rock which is seen in situ beneath4 ,throughout this plain1 stumps of fossil trees project from the ground1 and present the appearance of a forest in which the trees have all been broken off at the same level4 ,at the distance of some yards from the shore1 a reef is formed by vertical rows of the petrified stems1 which project out of the water4 ,many of the fossil stems on the strand have the remains of roots extending into the sandstone below the alluvial deposit1 and1 like those in the ,island of ,portland1 are in some instances surrounded by an accumulation of rock1 which forms a mound of a higher level than the surface of the stratum4 ,the trunks are1 generally1 three or four feet high1 and from two to six feet in diameter4 ,the wood is silicified1 and veins of chalcedony traverse its substance between the concentric rings and medullary rays2 in several examples1 from #fj to #abj annual circles of growth were observable4 ,beds of lignite occur in the neighbouring hills1 both above and below the fossil trees2 many localities along the eastern coast of ,australia are mentioned1 as presenting similar phenomena4 ,i may add that the only fragment of petrified wood found by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell in ,new ,zealand is coniferous4 ,in the valley of the ,derwent1 in ,australia1 opalized coniferous trees of a similar character were observed under very extraordinary circumstances1 by the distinguished traveller1 ,count ,strzelecki4 ,truncated stems were found standing erect in a bed of scoriaceous basalt 7lava7 and trachytic conglomerate3 but in some instances only basaltic casts of the trunks remain4 ,this curious phenomenon can only be explained by supposing the silicified stems to have resisted the intense heat of the incandescent lava1 while trees placed in circumstances unfavourable to their petrifaction were consumed3 but the latter1 being either saturated with water1 or fresh and green1 were burnt slowly1 and left cylindrical moulds in the cooled basaltic scori1 with impressions of the external surface of the bark2 these moulds were filled ,tip by a subsequent eruption1 and thus basaltic casts of the consumed trees were formed4#ade #ade ,physical ,description of ,new ,south ,wales1 by ,count ,strzelecki4 ,coniferous ,wood in ,oxford ,clay4--,it would occupy too much space to notice the numerous localities in which fossil remains of conifers occur in the ,liassic and ,oolitic formations of ,england4 ,in the ,oxford and ,kimmeridge ,clays water-worn trunks and branches of large pine-trees are often met with4 ,an interesting deposit of these remains was brought to light by my youngest son 7,mr4 ,reginald ,mantell71 when constructing the branch line of railway from the ,great ,western to ,trowbridge1 in ,wilts4 ,in the progress of the work1 extensive sections were cut through the ,oxford ,clay1 and laid bare a large quantity of drifted wood1 much of which was not petrified1 but in the state of bog-wood1 and was used for fuel by the workmen4 ,trunks ten or twelve feet long were met with1 to which serpul1 oysters 7,ostrea delta71 and other shells were adherent4 ,these vegetable remains were associated with ,belemnites1 ,belemnoteuthides1 ,ammonites1 c42 and had evidently been drifted far out to sea by currents4#adf #adf ,see ,wond4 p4 #ejb4 ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 p4 #caa4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,coniferous ,,wood4 ,coniferous ,wood in the ,chalk formation4--,the arenaceous limestones of the ,greensand of ,kent and ,sussex abound1 in some localities1 in water-worn masses of coniferous wood1 which are often perforated by boring mollusks1 as ,teredo1 ,fistulana1 ,gastrochna1 c4 ,in the ,iguanodon quarry of ,kentish rag1 near ,maidstone1 large quantities of these remains occur1 and ,mr4 ,bensted has collected several cones belonging to different kinds of conifers2 one of these appears to be a species of ,abies1 or ,fir3#adg it was associated with fragments of trunks and branches1 whose internal structure proved their relation to the fruit4 ,plate ,v4 fig4 #b1 are microscopic views of transverse and longitudinal sections of this wood2 #b;a shows the cellular tissue in a transverse slice1 seen by reflected light2 #b;b a vertical section in the direction of the medullary rays1 exhibiting the vessels studded with single rows of glands4 ,this wood occurs both in a calcareous and siliceous state2 in some examples the external zones are calcareous1 and the inner siliceous2 in others the entire branch is changed into black flint1 in which the coniferous structure is beautifully preserved4 #adg ,it is figured and described as ,abies ,benstedi1 by the ,author4 ,geol4 ,proc4 ,january1 #ahdc4 ,near ,willingdon1 in ,sussex 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #agb71 a bed of sand1 immediately beneath the ,galt1 contains a layer of water-worn fragments of stems and branches1 of small size2 they are generally perforated by ,gastrochnce1 and the cavities formed by these depredators are filled with particles of green chlorite sand4 ,the structure of this wood is represented in ,plate ,v4 fig4 #c;a a transverse1 and #c;b a vertical section1 viewed by reflected light2 in #c;b the vessels are dotted with two parallel longitudinal rows of very minute glands1 arranged alternately1 as in the ,araucari2 a fragment of one of the medullary rays is seen near the middle of the specimen4 ,in this deposit of coniferous wood1 two or more fruits apparently referable to ,zami have been discovered2 one specimen1 five and a half inches long1 and of an elongated cylindrical form1 covered with rhomboidal eminences1 ,i have figured and described as ,zamites ,sussexiensis4#adh #adh ,geol4 ,proc4 #ahdc4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #eh4 ,fragment of ,coniferous ,wood in ,flint4 ,from a wall in ,lewes ,priory1 ,the ,white ,chalk of ,england has afforded but few traces of plants of this family4 ,fragments of coniferous wood are1 however1 occasionally found in the state of carbonaceous1 or reddish brown friable masses1 and when this substance is removed1 the surface of the chalk is seen to be marked with impressions of ligneous fibres2 sometimes the surface is studded over with little pyriform eminences1 which are cretaceous casts of perforations made by insects in the wood4 ,these specimens1 when all traces of the wood are absent1 are very puzzling to those who are not aware of their origin4 ,occasionally silicified fragments of wood are found imbedded in flint4 ,i have an interesting specimen of this kind obtained from a wall in ,lewes ,priory 7,lign4 #eh71 and though it must have been exposed to the influence of the weather for nearly eight centuries1 its surface still exhibits coniferous structure4 ,sidenote3 ,,wood ,,in ,,flint4 ,tertiary ,coniferous ,wood4--,the ,tertiary formations in some localities abound in coniferous plants and trees1 which1 in the ,paris basin1 are associated with bones of mammalia2 several species of pine 7,pinus7 and of yew 7,taxus7 from those deposits are described by ,m4 ,brongniart4 ,i have collected fossils of this kind from the ,london ,clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 ,bracklesham ,bay1 and ,bognor in ,sussex1 and ,alum ,bay1 in the ,isle of ,wight2 and from the plastic clay at ,newhaven4 ,fossil ,foliage and ,fruit of ,conifers4--,from this digression on the pine-forests and drift-wood of the secondary formations1 we return to the examination of the foliage and fruits of this order of vegetables that are preserved in the mineral kingdom4 ,araucaria peregrina 7,lindley and ,hutton74 ,lign4 #ei1 fig4#a4--,with the trunks and branches of conifers of the ,lias1 cones and foliage are occasionally found3 a beautiful example of a branch with the leaves preserved1 is figured1 ,lign4 #ei4 ,this fossil has been so admirably cleared from the shale which invested it 7by ,miss ,philpot7 that even the surface of the leaves is exposed4 ,it so closely resembles a twig of ,altingia excelsa1 that the eminent authors of ,foss4 ,flor4 have named it as above4 ,but ,m4 ,brongniart states that the foliage differs from that of the two living groups of ,araucari3 in ,araucaria ,brasiliensis1 the leaves are flat1 in ,altingia excelsa1 quadrangular2 in the fossil the leaves are short1 fleshy1 arranged spirally1 and inserted4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ei4 ,fig4 #a4--,part of a ,branch of ,araucaria peregrina2 nat4 ,lias1 ,lyme ,regis4 #b4--;,calamites nodosus with foliage2 nat4 ,coal-shale1 7see ante1 p4 #aji74 ,pinites2 a name applied to those fossil leaves and fruits which agree in their general character with the recent genus ,pinus2 upwards of thirty species are known4#adi ,in the ,pines1 as botanically distinguished from the ,firs 7,abies71 the leaves arise in bundles of from two to five2 and the scales of the cones are thickened1 and terminate in discs more or less defined4 ,in ,firs1 7,larch1 ,cedar1 c47 the scales have thin edges1 and the leaves are solitary4 #adi ,see ,endlechen's ,synopsis ,coniferarum4 ,pinites ,fittoni4 ,geol4 ,isle of ,wight2 #b;d edit1 p4 #deg4--,several cones with the above characters have been found in the ,wealden formation4 ,a cone figured and described by ,dr ,fitton1 is remarkable for a double prominence on each scale3 ,it was supposed to resemble the fruit of ,dammara1 but the strobilus of the latter is like that of the ,cedar of ,lebanon1 in which the edges of the scales are thin4 ,the ,wealden fossil appears to be a genuine pine1 and may be distinguished by the name of its discoverer1 ,pinites ,fittoni2 a small figure of the only known specimen is given1 ,wond4 p4 #cii1 fig4 #d4 ,i have collected from the ,wealden strata of the ,isle of ,wight three or four small cones1 which resemble those of a species of ,araucaria2 they are ovate1 imbricated1 with acuminated scales1 which are recurved at the apex4 ,the fossils figured in ,wond4 p4 #cii1 figs4 #b and #c1 are1 ,i believe1 water-worn specimens of the same species4#aej #aej ,i subjoin a definition of the genera ,pinus and ,abies1 for the use of the student4 ,pinus4--,fruit-catkins ovate1 roundish1 or cylindrical closely set with thick two-flowered scales2 forming an imbricated cone1 composed of numerous ligneous angular1 or flat1 rigid scales1 having attached to the inside of each two seeds crowned with a thin membraneous1 falcate1 oblong1 or roundish wing2 the scales are composed of a thick woody substance1 forming an angular surface1 with a recurved point4 ,the ,pines are evergreen trees1 with from two to five narrow1 angular leaves springing from each sheath4 ,cotyledons four to twelve4 ,abies4--,cones with thin flat scales1 which are more membranous at the extremities than in ,pines3 the leaves are emarginate1 short solitary1 needle-shaped1 angular or flat4 ,sidenote3 ,,walchia4 ,walchia4 ,lign4 #fj4--,the fossil conifer thus named by ,sternberg1 have numerous closely set1 regularly pinnated branches1 resembling those of ,araucaria excelsa1 and which are thickly beset with foliage4 ,the leaves are sessile1 compact1 enlarged at the base1 tetragonal or falciform1 and slightly decurrent2 they often vary considerably in form and length on the same bough4 ,the branches are in some examples terminated by oblong cones1 composed of imbricated1 oval or lanceolate1 pointed scales1 the summits of which are not recurved1 as in the ,araucari4 ,the trees of this genus are closely related to the ,araucaria excelsa1 and ,a4 ,cunninghami4 ,some species occur in the ,coal formation at ,st4 ,etienne and ,autun2#aea others 7as ,walchia hypnoides7 in the schists of ,lodve1 and in the copper slates of the ,zechstein in ,mansfeld4#aeb #aea ,mines de ,houille de ,vettin1 c4 ,see ,tableau des ,vg4 ,foss4 p4 #gj1 par ,m4 ,brongniart4 #aeb ,missing6 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fj4 ,walchia hypnoides2 #a_/c nat4 ,permian1 ,lodve4 ,part of a bough with six of the branches bearing terminal cones4 ,abietites4--,to the ,abies1 or ,fir1 several cones found in the ,wealden deposits of ,sussex and ,hants closely approximate in the form and structure of their scales4 ,the most remarkable is the very elongated coniferous fruit1 first discovered by me in the ,wealden at ,brook ,point1 and described and figured in my ,geology of the ,isle of ,wight 7#b;d edit4 p4 #deb71 under the name of ,abietites ,dunkeri1 in honour of the eminent geologist who has so successfully and diligently explored the ,wealden of the ,north of ,germany4 ,i have been so fortunate as to collect from thirty to forty specimens of these fruits of the conifers of the country of the ,iguanodon1 associated with trunks and branches1 and imperfect vestiges of single lanceolate leaves4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fa4 ,abietites ,dunkeri4 ,wealden2 ,isle of ,wight2 #a_/c nat4 ,fir-cone1 showing the imbricated scales1 and many bracte4 ,sidenote3 ,,abietites ,,dunkeri4 ,abietites ,dunkeri4 ,lign4 #fa4--,these cones are of a cylindrical form1 and greatly elongated3 the largest specimen is thirteen inches in length1 and but three inches in circumference4 ,the scales are broad1 slightly convex without and concave within1 obovate or subrotund1 with a prominent midrib1 edges thin and entire4 ,leaves solitary1 slender1 slightly curved1 from #a inch to #a-a_/b inch in length4 ,the cones were garnished with bracte1 which are seen on the margins of the fossil when imbedded in the rock4 ,whether the foliage that forms the constituent substance of a large proportion of the bituminous coal of ,hanover 7ante1 p4 #gd71 and which has been figured and of the named by ,dr4 ,dunker ,abietites ,linkii1 belongs to the same species of ,fir as these cones1 ,i am unable to determine4 ,the seeds are of an ovate form3 the pericarp is in the state of carbon1 and filled or lined with pyrites or calc-spar4 ,these cones are generally found more or less pyritified1 and are extremely beautiful objects when first collected2 but like the fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey1 similarly mineralized1 often decompose1 in spite of every precaution1 after exposure to the air but for a few weeks4 ,a small sub-ovate fir-cone found with coniferous wood in the ,kentish-rag of ,mr4 ,bensted's quarry1 near ,maidstone1 7ante1 p4 #agc71 and figured and described by me as ,abies ,benstedi1 probably belongs to the conifer of the ,wealden1 since it was associated with drifted bones of the ,iguanodon4 ,fossil ,cypresses4--,the tribe of conifers called ,cupressus or ,cypress1 7distinguished from the firs and pines by the leaves being mere scales1 and the cones consisting of small wooded peltate bracte1 and by other botanical characters17 including the ,juniper and ,arbor-vit1 appears to have flourished during the whole of the secondary epochs2 for fossil leaves and stems referable to this family1 but whose generic affinities cannot be determined with precision1 have been found in the ,trias1 ,lias1 ,oolite1 and ,wealden deposits4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fb4 ,thuites ,kurrianus nat4 ,wealden4 ,hastings4 ,thuites ,kurrianus4 ,lign4 #fb4--,the ,thuja or ,arbor-vit1 a plant too well known to require description1 is the type of the fossil plants distinguished by the name of ,thuites4 ,many years since ,i discovered vestiges of branches and leaves of some species of this genus1 in the ironstone of the ,wealden beds1 at ,heathfield in ,sussex 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bbh72 and of late1 many specimens have been found in strata of the same formation in ,england and ,germany4 ,the branch here figured1 from the cabinet of ,s4 ,h4 ,beckles1 ,esq4 will serve to illustrate the appearance of these fossil plants4 ,some small fruits found in the ironstone of ,heathfield may possibly belong to ,cypresses4 ,the foliage and fruit of five or six distinct species of ,thuites have been discovered in ,tertiary strata4 ,voltzia4#aec 7,wond4 p4 #edg74--,this extinct genus of plants is peculiar to the ,trias 7,grs bigarr7 or ,new ,red deposits1 and is one of the most characteristic of the fossil conifer4 ,the specimens first found were from ,sultz-les-,bains1 near ,strasburgh4 ,the leaves are alternate1 arranged spirally1 sessile1 and decurrent1 and have much analogy with those of certain ,araucari4 ,the fruits are oblong cones1 with cuneiform scales1 slightly imbricated1 not contiguous1 and generally with from three to five lobes4 #aec ,named in honour of the late ,m4 ,voltz1 of ,strasburgh1 by whom they were first discovered4 ,the specimens in the ,british ,museum1 from my collection1 were presented to me by ,m4 ,voltz4 ,sidenote3 ,,taxites4 ,n,,ggerathia4 ,,fossil ,,resins4 ,taxites4--,some branches found in the ,stonesfield slate1 and bearing a general resemblance to twigs of ,yew 7,taxus71 are described under the above name1 but their analogies are doubtful4 7,see ante1 p4 #ade47 ,nggerathia4#aed--;,i must briefly notice the coal-plants which ,m4 ,brongniart has placed under this genus1 because the foliage of some species appears to have entered largely into the formation of certain seams of coal1 although the perfect form of the leaves is unknown4 ,the foliage referred to ,nggerathia consist of pinnated1 or deeply pinnatifid1 simple leaves4 ,these leaves1 or leaflets1 are either elongated1 linear1 lanceolate1 wedge-shaped or flabelliform1 and entire1 or deeply lobed at their extremity1 and are traversed by numerous1 fine1 equal nerves1 slightly diverging from the base1 but almost parallel4 ,the affinities of these plants are not satisfactorily made out3 ,m4 ,brongniart considers them to approach nearest to the ,cycads or ,conifers2 perhaps forming a connecting tribe between those two great groups of gymnosperms4#aee #aed ,a leaf of ,n4 flabellata is figured in ,foss4 ,flor4 #aee ,tab4 ,veg4 ,foss4 p4 #fd4 ,fossil ,resins4--,amber4--,the resinous secretions of ,conifers are occasionally found in a fossil state4 ,when the tunnel was carried through ,highgate ,hill1 in #ahaa1 concretionary lumps of a brittle substance were discovered1 which proved1 upon analysis1 to be the resin of a coniferous tree changed by mineralization4 ,in a bed of fossil wood1 near ,hythe1 in ,kent1 a resin was found that partook of the properties of amber and retinasphalt2 it was of a clear red colour1 very infusible1 and acted upon with difficulty by many chemical solvents4#aef #aef ,geological ,proceedings1 #ahdc4 ,the pollen of pines or firs occurs in a tertiary deposit at ,egra1 in ,bohemia2 this bed is entirely composed of pollen and the frustules of many kinds of diatomace4#aeg #aeg ,described by ,m4 ,ehrenberg4 ,sidenote3 ,,amber4 ,,fossil ,,palms4 ,amber1 so remarkable for its electrical properties1 and so largely used for ornamental purposes1 is a fossil resin1 the product of an extinct species of pine 7,pinus succinifer71 which1 though nearly allied to ,pinus abies1 and ,p4 picea1 is essentially distinct4 ,the ,amber in the ,european markets is principally collected from the shores of the ,baltic1 between ,memel and ,konigsberg1 being washed out of submerged beds of lignite1 and thrown up on the strand by the waves4 ,amber is occasionally found on the eastern and northern shores of ,england4 ,the forests of ,amber-pines appear to have been situated in the south-eastern part of what is now the bed of the ,baltic1 in about #ee north latitude1 and #cg to #ch east longitude1 and were probably destroyed at the commencement of the ,drift period4 ,insects1 spiders1 small crustaceans1 leaves1 and fragments of vegetable tissue1 are often imbedded in amber2 and a few hairs and feathers of mammalia and birds have been detected4 ,these organic bodies must have become immersed in this substance when it exuded from the trees in a viscid state1 for they are often preserved as fresh and beautiful as if recently embalmed in the liquid resin4 ,upwards of #hjj species of insects have been discovered1 chiefly referable to ,aptera1 ,diptera1 ,neuroptera1 ,coleoptera1 ,libellula1 c43 by far the greater number belong to extinct forms4 ,the vegetable remains comprise four species of pine1 and species of cedar1 cypress1 juniper1 yew2 and of oak1 poplar1 beech1 ash1 c42 and a few ferns1 mosses1 liverworts1 conferv1 and fungi4 ,the ,amber appears to have exuded from the bark and wood1 but chiefly from the root-stock1 as is the case with the ,copal and ,anim1 which are resinous substances obtained from certain trees in ,india and ,america1 and largely employed for varnish3 these resins are often substituted for true amber1 especially when they contain insects1 c42 but the latter are always of the existing indigenous species of the country4 ,the difference observable in the colour of the various species of amber1 is attributable to accidental chemical admixtures4#aeh #aeh ,petrifactions1 p4 #bc4 ,fossil ,palms 7,palmacites74--,reserving an account of the fossil plants belonging to the other grand division of ,dicotyledons1 the ,angiosperms 7ante1 p4 #fa71 for the last section of the present chapter1 ,i proceed to notice the most important family of the ,endogens1 or ,monocotyledons1 whose remains occur abundantly in many tertiary deposits--the ,palms4 ,the ,palms are1 for the most part1 lofty trees1 having a single cylindrical stem1 which1 like that of the arborescent ferns1 rises to a great height1 and is crowned with a canopy of foliage4 ,the trunks are solid1 most dense on the outer part1 and in some species 7as the ,cane-palms7 are coated with a thin siliceous epidermis4 ,at a little distance above the surface of the ground1 strong1 simple1 rope-like roots are sent off from the stem1 appearing like clusters of stays or braces to support the trunk2 and the base of the petrified palm-trees often exhibits vestiges of these organs4#aei ,the leaves are supported by petioles1 and are in most species very large2#afj they are either pinnated or flabellated 7fan-shaped71 and sometimes nearly split in half3 the veins or nervures are parallel1 and the interspaces plaited like the folds of a fan4 ,the surface of the stem is scored by transverse scars formed by the separation of the petioles1 and these markings assist in the identification of the fossil trunks of palm-trees4 ,the fruit is in some kinds a single drupe1 as the ,cocoa-nut2 in others a cluster of soft pericarps1 as the ,date4 #aei ,specimens in the ,brit4 ,mus4 ,petrifactions1 p4 #ab4 #afj ,in the ,fan-palm 7,corypha71 the leaf is sometimes twenty feet broad4 ,the ,palm family is divided into upwards of sixty genera1 comprising more than a thousand species3 the greater number are inhabitants of tropical countries4 ,stems1 with the external surface and internal structure preserved1 and the foliage1 and fruit1 of several kinds of ,palms1 have been found in a fossil state1 and chiefly in the ,tertiary formations4 ,examples of the large silicified palm-stems from the ,west ,india ,islands1 where they occur imbedded with corals petrified in the same manner1 are to be seen in the ,british ,museum1#afa and most public collections3 and sliced polished sections1 exhibiting the monocotyledonous structure1 are common in private cabinets4 ,the endogenous organization of the stems is so obvious as to leave no doubt as to the class to which the trees belong1 but ,m4 ,brongniart states1 that1 in the absence of the foliage and fruit1 it is seldom possible to pronounce with certainty that a fossil monocotyledonous stem belongs to a ,palm2 for the internal structure alone does not enable the botanist to fix upon any characters which will distinguish the stems of ,palms from those of ,pandanus1 ,agave1 ,yucca1 ,aloes1 ,dracna1 c4 ,fossil monocotyledons known by their stems only1 are therefore arranged by ,m4 ,brongniart under the general name of ,endogenites4 #afa ,petrifactions1 p4 #eb4 ,the ,palmacites carbonigenus of ,corda1 and other supposed palm-trees of the ,coal formation1 are regarded by the same eminent botanist as essentially differing in structure from this family1 and belonging to an extinct tribe of exogens4 ,that a large proportion of the exogenous stems found in the ,tertiary deposits are true palms1 there can1 however1 be no doubt1 for the foliage and fruit1 which are occasionally associated with them1 confirm the inference drawn from the characters of the trunks4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,palm ,,leaves4 ,stems1 leaves1 and fruits of ,palms have been discovered in the ,paris basin1 by ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart 7,bd4 pl4 lxiv4 p4 #eae72 and silicified trunks in many other places on the ,continent2 but no fossils of this kind surpass in beauty and interest those which are found in the ,west ,indies4 ,a slice of a silicified stem from ,antigua is represented1 as seen by reflected light1 in ,plate ,v4 fig4 #a2 it admirably displays bundles of vessels imbedded in cellular tissue4 ,silicified stems of monocotyledons1 related to the ,palms1 are very widely distributed1 and have been collected among mammalian remains in ,ava1 and in the ,sub-,himalaya mountains4 ,fossil ,palm-leaves4--,the pinnated and fan-shaped leaves of the ,palms are so peculiar as to be easily recognized in a fossil state4 ,though many specimens have been found in the tertiary strata of the ,continent1 but two or three examples have been met with in ,england4 ,the first discovered ,british specimen is in my cabinet1 and was obtained by ,mr4 ,fowlstone1 of ,ryde1 from the fresh-water limestone of ,whitecliff ,bay1 in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,it is thirteen inches in length1 and eleven in width3 fresh-water shells and plants are imbedded with it4 ,it is figured in ,geol4 ,i4 of ,wight1 #b;d edit4 p4 #dca4 ,this species 7,palmacites ,lamanonis7 occurs also at ,aix in ,provence1 in great perfection1 associated with ,insects1 ,fishes1 fresh-water shells1 c4 7,wond4 p4 #bfj4 ,petrif4 p4 #fb74 ,twelve species of palm-leaves are enumerated by ,m4 ,unger1 from the ,tertiary deposits of the ,continent4 ,one species has been found in the ,chalk formation of ,silesia2 the most ancient strata in which the remains of undoubted palms have as yet been observed4 ,the fossil palm-leaves of the pinnated form are named ,phnicites1,,ff and examples occur in the ,tertiary grits of ,puy en ,velais1 ,i am not aware that leaves of this type have been found in ,england3 diligent research in our tertiary leaf-beds 7at ,whitecliff ,bay1 ,alum ,bay1 ,bournemouth1 ,wareham7 will probably sooner or later discover them4 ,the leaflets have a well-marked median nerve1 with fine nervures running parallel with it2 a character by which the foliage of ,phnicites may be distinguished from that of the ,cycade4 #afb ,from ,phnix dactylifera3 the ,date-,palm4 ,fossil ,fruits of ,palms4--,although certain fruits found in the coal-measures have been referred to the palm-tribe by ,m4 ,unger1 ,dr4 ,lindley1 and other botanists1 ,m4 ,brongniart is of opinion that no such identification can be established2 the same remark applies to the ,carpolithes from the ,oolite2 in fine1 the ,tertiary deposits have alone yielded fruits that can be unquestionably referred to plants of this order4 ,the most productive ,british locality of fossil fruits of ,palms1 and of many other vegetables1 is the ,island of ,sheppey2 and ,i purpose describing in this place1 not only the remains of this family1 but also of the other plants associated with them4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,fruits ,,of ,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,sheppey4 ,fossil ,fruits of the ,isle of ,sheppey4--,this little island1 which is situated in the mouth of the ,thames1 is entirely composed of the ,london ,clay1 with bands of septaria4 ,on the north1 there is a range of cliffs1 about two hundred feet high1 which is being continually undermined by the waves1 and large masses of the clay are thrown down1 and innumerable fruits1 seeds1 branches and stems of trees1 and other fossils1 are exposed on the strand at low-water4 ,the vegetables are strongly impregnated with iron pyrites1 and as this mineral speedily decomposes when exposed to the atmosphere1 the choicest examples often fall to pieces1 even when preserved in the cabinet4#afc ,the nodular masses of indurated clay1 termed septaria1 contain the best preserved and most durable fossils4 ,the fossil fruits1 or carpolithes1 occur in such profusion1 that a large collection can easily be made2 they comprise several hundred species1 few of which have been scientifically investigated4#afd #afc ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 who possesses an unrivalled collection of these fruits1 keeps them in stopper-bottles filled with water1 placing the different species separately1 and labelling the phials4 ,i have successfully employed mastic varnish1 first wiping the specimens dry1 and removing any saline efflorescence by means of raw cotton1 and then brushing in the varnish with a stiff hair-pencil4 #afd ,see vol4 ii4 ,excursion to the ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,mr4 ,parkinson has given admirable figures of several of the ,sheppey fruits1 particularly of the large palm-like nuts1 called petrified figs 7,org4 ,rem4 vol4 i4 pl4 vi4 vii4 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 vi4 vii47 ,m4 ,ad4 ,brongniart has named several in his ,prodrome2 but without figures the descriptions are useless to the student4 ,mr4 ,bowerbank has published two numbers of a work entitled1 ,history of the ,fossil ,fruits of the ,london ,clay1 with seventeen plates2 from which ,i have selected a few subjects for illustration4 ,the fruits described are the following3 #a4 ,fruits having a downy structure1 like the ,cotton plant4 #b4 ,cucumites4 ,seeds of plants of the cucumber family4 ,lign4 #fc1 fig4 #a and #c4 ,these fossil fruits so closely resemble the seeds of various members of the recent genus ,cucumis1 or ,cucumber1 comprising the ,gourd1 ,water-melon1 c41 both in outward form and internal structure1 that there is no reasonable doubt of their belonging to plants of the same family2 hence the name ,cucumites or fossil cucumbers4 #c4 ,cones of a tree allied to the genus ,petrophila1 of ,new ,holland4 ,lign4 #fc1 figs4 #b and #h4 #d4 ,seeds of the ,bean family1 some of which resemble those of the common ,scarlet-runner4 ,lign4 #fc4 figs4 #e1 #f1 #g4 #e4 ,wetherellia2 pulpy fruits divided into two lobes by the expansion of the ripe seeds4 ,as the section thus exposed bears some resemblance to a coffee-berry1 these fossils are popularly called petrified coffee-berries4 ,this genus has no known living representative4 ,lign4 #fc1 fig4 #d4 #f4 ,fruits allied to the ,palm tribe4 7,nipadites74 ,lign4 #fc1 fig4 #i1 and #aj4 #g4 ,fruits of leguminous plants1 differing from any known recent4 ,lign4 #fd1 figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d4 #h4 ,seeds1 allied to the ,amomum1 or ,cardamom tribe4 ,lign4 #fd1 fig4 #e4 #i4 ,seeds of ,cupressinites1 or plants related to the ,cypress4 #aj4 ,seeds resembling those of the ,laburnum4 #aa4 ,seed-pod of a species of ,acacia1 or ,mimosa4 ,lign4 #fd1 fig4 #g4--b_/c nat4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fc4 ,fossil ,fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,london ,clay4 ,fig4 #a and #c4--;,cucumites variabilis3 fig4 #c1 is a vertical section1 showing the seeds4 ,lign4 #fd1 fig4 #f--a_/b nat4 #b and #h4--,petrophiloides ,richardsoni3 #a_/c nat4 ,fig4 #h1 is a vertical section1 showing the disposition of the seeds in the cells formed by the confluent scales--#a_/b nat4 #d4--,wetherellia variabilis3 a section of the fruit1 in which state it is called coffee-berry by the collectors--#a_/c nat4 #e and #f4--;,faboidea semicurvilinearis3 fig4 #e1 side view-- #a_/d nat4 #f4--;,is the face of a similar seed--#a_/c nat4 #g4--;,faboidea bifalcis3 side view--#a_/c nat4 #i4--,nipadites lanceolatus3 a1 the seed2 b1 the shell1 or pericarp--#a_/b nat4 #aj4--,nipadites cordiformis3 a1 the extremity of the seed1 imbedded in the shell--#a_/c nat4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fd4 ,fossil ,fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,london ,clay4 ,fig4 #a and #b4--,zulinosprionites latus4 #b4 ,a section1 showing the receptacles for two seeds4--#b_/c nat4 #c4--,leguminosites dimidiatus2 side view4--#a_/b nat4 #d4--,leguminosites subquadrangularis2 side view4--#a_/b nat4 #e4--;,cupanoides lobatus4--#a_/b nat4 #f4--;,cucumites variabilis4--#a_/b nat4 #g4--,mimosites ,browniana2 from ,ossington1 ,suffolk4 ,a seed-pod of an ,acacia1 or other plant of the ,mimosa family4--#b_/c nat4 ,nipadites4 ,lign4 #fc4 7,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 vi4 vii47--,the most remarkable fruits in the above catalogue are those which1 from their appearance when compressed1 are known to collectors by the name of petrified figs 7,lign4 #fc1 fig4 #i1 #aj74 ,some specimens attain a considerable size1 and are from five to seven inches long4 ,the nut1 and the pericarp or shell1 are often well preserved4 ,these fossils were referred to the ,cocos by ,mr4 ,parkinson1 but they have not a ligneous endocarp with three pores as in the ,cocoa-nut4 ,mr4 ,bowerbank has shown that they are nearly related to the fruit of the ,nipa1 or ,molucca-,palm1 a tree which abounds in ,bengal1 and in the ,molucca and ,philippine ,islands4 ,the ,nip are low1 shrub-like plants1 having the general aspect of palms2 they grow in marshy tracts1 at the mouths of great rivers1 particularly where the waters are brackish4 ,they are allied to the ,cocoa-nut tribe1 on the one hand1 and to the ,pandanus1 or ,screw-pine1 on the other4 ,the ,nipadites1 according to ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 have the epicarp and endocarp thin and membranous1 and the sarcocarp thick and pulpy1 and composed of cellular tissue1 through which run numerous bundles of vessels4 ,nearly in the centre of the pericarp is situated a large seed which1 when broken1 is more or less hollow4 ,this seed consists of regular layers of cells1 radiating from a spot situated near the middle1 and apparently inclosing a central embryo4 ,the same author remarks1 that if the habits of the plants to which the fossil fruits belonged were similar to those of the recent ,nipa1 it will account for their abundance in the ,london ,clay in the ,isle of ,sheppey2 which formation1 from the great variety of stems and branches1 mixed up with star-fishes1 shells of mollusks1 and bones of fishes1 crustaceans1 and reptiles of numerous marine and fresh-water genera1 is strikingly characteristic of the delta of a river1 which probably flowed from near the ,equator towards the spot where these interesting relics are deposited4 ,the fact that the seed-vessels of several species of ,nipadites abound in the ,isle of ,sheppey1 and have not been observed in any other locality in ,england1 tends to support this opinion4 ,carpolithes of this kind occur in great perfection in the ,eocene strata of ,belgium1 and were figured and described1 nearly seventy years since1 in ,burton's ,oryctographie de ,bruxelles1 as petrified cocoa-nuts2 the uncompressed state in which these fossils occur makes the resemblance to the recent fruit more striking than in the flattened pyritous specimens from the clay of ,sheppey4 ,sidenote3 ,,nipadites ,,of ,,belgium4 ,the ,nipadites of ,brussels have recently been brought under the more immediate notice of ,english geologists1 in a memoir ,on the ,tertiary ,strata of ,belgium and ,french ,flanders1 by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 in which several specimens are figured and described4#afe ,these fossils are found in sands and sandstone1 presumed to be of the age of the ,bracklesham beds of ,sussex4 ,they are procured from ,schaerbeek1 in the northern suburbs of ,brussels1 where extensive quarries are worked for paving-stones1 and have long been celebrated for remains of turtles1 trunks of palms1 and dicotyledonous trees1 and the fruits1 now called ,nipadites4 ,the vegetable remains often occur silicified2 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell was shown by the workmen the trunk of a petrified exogenous tree1 with forty rings of annual growth2 it had lain in a horizontal position1 and was bored by teredin4 ,the silicified base of the trunk of a ,palm-tree1 apparently broken off short at about the level of the soil1 had numerous air-roots1 or rootlets1 attached4#aff #afe ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 vol4 viii4 ,august #aheb4 #aff ,on the ,belgian ,tertiary ,formations1 ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 viii1 p4 #cdd4 ,of the thirteen species of ,nipadites enumerated by ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 some of which are1 however1 only accidental varieties1 four have been identified among those obtained from ,schaerbeek3 two of them belong to but one species--the ,nipadites ,burtoni3 the others are ,n4 lanceolata 7,lign4 #fc1 fig4 #i71 and ,n4 ,parkinsoni 7,pictorial ,atlas1 plate vii474 ,these fossil nuts closely resemble the fruit of ,nipas fruticans1 a palm which abounds in the delta of the ,ganges1 and other parts of ,bengal1 and is the only living species of the genus known4#afg ,in an immature or abortive specimen of ,nipadites giganteus 7of ,bowerbank71 figured in ,geol4 ,journ4 pl4 xix4 fig4 #b1 the angularity of the pericarp observable in the ripe fruit 7,lign4 #fc4 fig4 #i7 is well marked4 ,the largest specimen of ,nipadites from ,schaerbeek1 is above seven inches long and four wide4 ,the arenaceous strata containing these fruits1 and stems of palms and dicotyledonous trees1 are supposed to have been formed in the sea near the mouth of a river1 as in the case of the clay-beds at ,sheppey3 the vegetable remains are associated with bones of fresh-water ,turtles1 teeth of ,sharks1 cases and spines of ,echinoderms1 and shells of the genera ,ostrea1 ,pinna1 c4#afh #afg ,on the ,belgian ,tertiary ,formations1 ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 viii4 p4 #cdd4 #afh ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 viii4 p4 #cdg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,pandanus4 ,fossil ,fruit of ,pandanus4 7,popocarya4 ,bd4 pl4 lxii4 p4 #ejc47--,the ,pandanace are monocotyledonous trees1 named ,screw ,pines from the spiral insertion of their long1 rigid1 sword-like leaves1 along the stem2 they are natives of hot climates1 and abound in the groups of islands in the ,pacific2 being generally the first important vegetable tenants of the newly-formed ,atols or coral-islands4 ,as in the palms1 the stem is supported near the base by long side-roots1 which enable these trees to maintain an erect position1 and flourish on the newly-elevated coral-reefs1 where but little soil has accumulated4 ,the existence of this tribe of plants during the secondary ages is known only by a single example of a fossil fruit1 which was discovered by ,mr4 ,page1 of ,bishport1 in the ,inferior ,oolite1 to the east of ,charmouth1 ,dorsetshire1 and is preserved in the museum at ,oxford2 no vestiges of the stems or foliage have been observed4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fe4 ,fossil ,wood with ,teredines2 nat4 ,london ,clay1 ,regent's ,park4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a polished transverse section1 showing the tubes lined with spar4 #b4--,portions of mineralized ,teredines1 seen in relief on the wood4 ,this carpolithe1 7for a detailed account and figures see ,bd4 p4 #ejd1 pl4 lxiii47 is of the size of a large orange2 the surface is covered with a stellated epicarpium1 composed of hexagonal tubercles forming the summits of cells which occupy the entire circumference of the fruit4 ,each cell contains a single seed1 usually hexagonal1 resembling a small grain of rice1 and is supported by a foot-stalk1 formed of dense fibres2 a character exhibited only by the seed-vessels of ,pandanus4 ,the fossil fruit differs from that of the recent ,screw-pines in the seeds being neither inclosed in a hard nut1 nor collected into drupes1 but dispersed uniformly over the entire mass2 this forms the essential generic distinction between them4 ,dr4 ,buckland has named this unique carpolithe ,podocarya4 7,bd4 p4 #eje47 ,wood perforated by ,teredin4 ,lign4 #fe4--,the drifted trunks and masses of wood found in the ,london ,clay1 at ,sheppey1 ,bognor1 ,bracklesham1 c41 some of which belong to ,palms1 others to ,conifers1 and ,dicotyledons1 are commonly more or less perforated by the boring mollusks called ,teredo1 or ,teredina2 and remains of their testaceous tubes are often well preserved4 ,the tortuous channels excavated in the wood by these borers1 are lined or filled up with calcareous spar1 indurated clay1 or other mineral matter1 of various shades of grey1 blue1 yellow1 c42 and the polished slabs of this fossil wood are beautifully diversified by the sections of the sparry tubes1 crossed at right angles by the ligneous structure2 as in the specimen fig4 #a1 ,lign4 #fe1 from the ,canal in the ,regent's ,park4#afi #afi ,slabs of this kind are generally kept by the lapidaries at ,bognor1 ,worthing1 c4 and sold at #bs4 or #bs4 #f;d4 each4 ,in the fossil1 fig4 #b4 ,lign4 #fe1 from the ,isle of ,sheppey1 the tubes of the teredin are seen in relief1 in consequence of the surface of the block of wood having decayed and been removed4 ,fossil ,liliace4--,the family of endogens1 termed ,liliace1 comprises many beautiful plants2 those with annual stems1 as the ,lily1 ,hyacinth1 ,tulip1 c4 are well known for the variety and splendour of their blossoms2 some of the arborescent forms1 as the ,tulip-tree1 attain a large size1 but the flowers of this division are relatively small4 ,in tertiary strata1 the stems1 leaves1 fruits1 and even the imprints of flowers1 have been discovered1 of plants related to ,sagittaria 7,arrow-head71 ,smilax 7,bind-weed71 ,convallaria 7,lily of the valley71 c4 ,the ,dracna 7,dragon-blood tree71 a tall1 slender1 elegant tree with amplexicaul leaves 7common in our hot-houses71 belongs to this family2 and certain stems found with ,clathrari1 and bones of the ,iguanodon1 in the ,kentish-rag at ,maidstone 7ante1 p4 #agc71 so closely resemble the trunk of this plant1 that they have been named by ,mr4 ,knig1#agj ,dracna ,benstedi2 the specimens are in the ,british ,museum4 ,until the internal structure of these fossils has been examined1 the correctness of this identification is1 however1 uncertain3 the external resemblance to the stem of the ,dracna consists in the interrupted annular ridges1 denoting amplexicaul leaves3 no vestiges of the foliage have been observed4 #agj ,petrifactions1 p4 #di4 ,sidenote3 ,,fresh-,,water ,,plants4 ,,fossil ,,char4 ,fossil ,fresh-water ,plants4--,the tertiary fresh-water strata often contain abundance of the remains of the aquatic vegetables that inhabited the lakes and rivers in which those deposits were formed4 ,the remains of several species of the common lacustrine plant1 the ,chara1 are found in immense quantities in the fresh-water limestones and marls of the ,isle of ,wight1 of the coast of ,hampshire1 and of the ,paris ,basin4 ,the shell-marls1 still in progress of formation in the lakes of ,scotland1 and the travertine precipitated from thermal springs1 in like manner envelop and preserve the leaves and fruits of recent species4 ,fossil ,fruits of ,chara4 7,gyrogonites47 ,lign4 #ff4--,the ,chara is a well-known inhabitant of almost every stream and rivulet4 ,the stems are hollow1 and composed of tubes filled with a fluid in which green globules circulate2 they form beautiful microscopic objects for exhibiting the circulation in vegetables4 ,the fruit consists of very small nuclei1 contained in a calcareous pericarp1 composed of five spirally twisted plates1 that unite at the summit4 ,these seed-vessels1 when first discovered in a fossil state1 were supposed to be the shells of mollusks1 and a genus was formed for their reception with the name of ,gyrogonites 7twisted-stones72 a term still employed1 though the vegetable nature of these bodies is well known4 ,in ,plate ,,iii4 fig4 #e1 a branch of the common ,chara with seeds is represented3 and figures of the seed-vessels1 of two fossil species are given in ,lign4 #ff1 figs4 #a1 #b4 ,specimens of the fossil fruits and stems of ,char1 may be collected in abundance in the fresh-water limestone at ,east ,cliff ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight4#aga #aga ,see my ,geology of the ,isle of ,wight1 ,lign4 #e1 p4 #aji4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ff4 ,fossil ,fresh-water ,plants4 ,eocene1 ,paris4 ,fig4 #a4--,seed-vessel of ,chara helicteres #aj2 side view4 #a;a4--,view of the base of the same4 #a;b4--,one of the spiral valves separated4 #a;c4--,view from above4 #b4--,seed-vessel of ,chara medicaginula #aj4 ,the upper figure is a side view3 the lower1 a view of the base4 #c4--;,carpolithes ovulum1 magnified side view4 #c;a4--,the same1 natural size4 #c;b4--,magnified view of the base of the same4 #d4--;,a piece of fresh-water limestone1 with impressions of two stems of ,nymphea arethusa 4 ,the ,purbeck beds at ,durlstone ,bay1 near ,swanage1 also contain numerous ,gyrogonites associated with fresh-water shells4 ,the bands of siliceous sinter1 which occur in the lowermost deposits1 are especially rich in these remains4#agb #agb ,i am indebted to the ,rev4 ,osmond ,fisher1 of ,dorchester1 for a fine suite of these and other interesting fossils from the ,purbeck beds of ,ridgway and ,osmington1 near ,weymouth2 and to ,william ,shipp1 ,esq41 of ,blandford1 and ,edward ,woodhouse1 ,esq41 of ,ansty1 for many specimens from ,durlstone ,bay1 and ,ridgway4 ,fossil ,nymphe4 ,lign4 #ff1 fig4 #d4--,those magnificent aquatic plants1 the ,water-,lilies 7,nymphe71 that adorn our rivers and lakes with flowers and foliage which partake more of the characters of an exotic flora than any other of our indigenous plants1 are also found fossil in the lacustrine marls and limestones of the tertiary formations of ,france2 but the nature of these remains could only be recognized by a profound botanist1 for they consist of impressions of the internal structure of the stems1 which1 however1 is so peculiar1 that no reasonable doubt of their origin can be entertained4 ,two imprints on a piece of limestone from ,lonjumeau1 presented to me by the late ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongniart1 are figured in ,lign4 #ff1 fig4 #d2 some minute seed-vessels 7,lign4 #ff1 fig4 #c71 found with them1 closely resemble those of ,nymphe1 and are supposed to belong to the same plants 7,class4 ,vg4 ,foss4 p4 #gb74 ,fossil ,flowers4--,the tertiary limestones of ,monte ,bolca 7,wond4 p4 #efe71 so rich in ichthyolites1 and other fossil remains of great interest1 contain leaves1 and even flowers1 of liliaceous plants4 ,the specimen figured 7,lign4 #fg1 fig4 #c7 is in the ,museum at ,paris1 and described by ,m4 ,brongniart under the name of ,antholithes 7stone-flower7 liliaceus2 it consists of the corolla and calyx3 the anthers and pistils have not been observed in any example4 ,the discovery of this fossil should excite the young collector to search diligently for such objects in the tertiary strata of ,england4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,angiosperms4 ,fossil ,angiosperms4--,the fossil remains of the class which constitutes the grand features of the existing floras of most countries1 the ,exogenous ,angiosperms1 are now to be considered2 and though our survey of fossil botany has partaken but little of a geological arrangement1 yet the reader may have observed1 that a large proportion of the vegetables composing the floras of the ancient secondary formations1 belonged to the ,cryptogamous and ,gymnospermous classes4 ,a striking contrast is presented in the geological position of the mineralized dicotyledonous plants1 of existing genera4 ,these abound in the tertiary strata1 and generally in an inverse ratio to the antiquity of the deposit1 while their remains are almost wholly absent in the older rocks2 neither have there been discovered in the ,tertiary1 any beds of vascular cryptogamia1 at all approaching the immense accumulations in the ,carboniferous formations4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fg4 ,fossil ,nuts1 and ,flower4 ,fig4 #a4--,thalictroides ,parisensis2 ,tertiary strata1 ,paris4 #b4--,thalictroides ,websteri4 ,isle of ,wight4 #c4--;,antholithes liliaceus4 ,monte ,bolca4 #d4--;,juglans nux-taurinensis3 fossil ,walnut1 ,turin4 #d;a4---,portion of the husk of the shell4 #d;b4--,the kernel1 formed of calcareous spar4 ,the most remarkable exception1 is the single instance of a large leaf of a dicotyledonous plant in the ,trias1 or ,new ,red sandstone1 near ,liverpool1 described by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 which much resembles the foliage of a thick-ribbed ,cabbage4,,fq #agc ,this fossil is named ,dictyophyllum crassinervium1 by ,dr4 ,lindley1 ,foss4 ,flor4 pl4 cci4 and is figured1 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #dc4 ,it would be impossible1 within the limits necessarily assigned to these volumes1 to offer even a general view of the fossil remains of this grand class of vegetables2 our remarks must be limited to a few interesting examples and localities4 ,when stems of dicotyledonous trees only are found1 but little certainty can be obtained as to the family to which they belonged2 the foliage of many well-known genera offer more positive characters2 the flowers are rarely in a state of preservation to afford any valuable data2 but the fruits1 or seed-vessels1 are frequently well preserved1 and these may enable the botanist to arrive at precise determinations as to generic1 and1 perhaps1 specific relations4 ,the tertiary marls of ,aix1 in ,provence1 which abound in insects1 crustaceans1 and lacustrine shells1 contain many kinds of dicotyledonous leaves1 associated with those of palms4 7,wond4 p4 #bfj47 ,the ,lignite1 or ,brown-coal deposits1 are almost entirely composed of dicotyledonous trees1 belonging to many genera1 which are inhabitants of ,europe2 namely1 the ,poplar1 ,willow1 ,elm1 ,chestnut1 ,walnut1 ,sycamore1 ,maple1 ,linden1 ,buckthorn1 ,vine1 c4 7,bd4 vol4 i4 pp4 #ejh-ead47 ,the beds of brown coal1 on the banks of the ,rhine1 are literally carbonized submerged forests1 which in some remote period were drifted from the interior of the ,continent into a vast lake or gulf2 for the trees bear evident marks of transport1 and are destitute of roots and branches4 ,these masses resemble the rafts of forest trees1 which are daily floated down the ,mississippi into the ,atlantic1 where they become engulfed in the profound depths of the ocean1 and probably will be converted into coal or lignite2 and in future ages1 may be elevated above the waters1 become dry land1 and present to the then existing communities of mankind an inexhaustible supply of mineral fuel1 composed of species and genera of plants1 which possibly may then be extinct1 and replaced by peculiar types of vegetation4 ,fossil ,flora of ningen4 7,bd4 pp4 #eaa-ead74--,the celebrated lacustrine tertiary formation of ningen1 whose fossil reptiles and mammalia we shall have to notice hereafter1 contains a rich assemblage of dicotyledonous and gymnospermous ligneous vegetables1 with a few ferns and grasses4 ,not only branches and leaves of a species of ,vine#agd occur1 but even the fruit2 fossil grapes being found in these deposits2#age there are also many aquatic plants4 ,a descriptive list of these fossils1 by ,professor ,braun1 of ,carlsruhe1 is given by ,dr4 ,buckland4 ,the brown-coal of this basin is in thin beds of but little economical importance1 but so rich in the vegetation of the miocene tertiary period1 that a few days spent in collecting those treasures will amply reward the intelligent tourist who may visit ,constance4 7,see ,wond4 p4 #bfc47 #agd ,see ,knorr1 ,mon4 des ,catastrophes1 pl4 xxxviii4 tom4 i4 #age ,fossil grapes from the lignite of ningen were exhibited by ,dr4 ,daubeny at a late meeting of the ,geological ,society4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,dicotyledonous ,,leaves4 ,the foliage of dicotyledonous trees frequently occurs in the ,eocene marls and limestones1 and in some localities in considerable abundance1 and in beautiful preservation4 ,near ,bournemouth1 on the ,hampshire coast1 the leaves of many species are met with in a bed of sandy marl1 between three and four feet thick3 the vegetable substance is carbonized2 some of the leaves are referable to the ,laurace and ,amentace1 others to the ,charace2#agf a similar deposit of tertiary plants has been discovered near ,wareham4 ,these beds belong to the lower group of the ,hampshire ,basin4#agg #agf ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #eib4 #agg ,as the seed-vessels and other vegetable remains in the ,isle of ,sheppey are all of a tropical character1 while those found in the ,eocene strata of ,alum ,bay1 ,bournemouth1 and ,newhaven1 are of a temperate climate1 as ,nerium1 ,platanus1 c41 ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes infers that the former were transported from distant lands by currents1 and that the latter belong to the true flora of the country inhabited by the ,palotheria and other associated mammalia4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fh4 ,imprints of ,dicotyledonous ,leaves in ,gypseous ,marl4 ,tertiary4 ,stradella1 near ,pavia4 ,fig4 #a4--,leaf of ,poplar 7,populus grca74 #b4--------- ,maple 7,acer74 #c4--------- ,water-spike 7,potamogeton74 #d4--------- ,willow 7,salix74 #e4--------- ,chestnut 7sculvs74 ,the red marlstone associated with lignite in the plastic clay beds at ,castle ,hill1 ,newhaven 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #ed71 contains leaves of a similar kind2 a seed-vessel of a coniferous tree has also been found in it4 ,some of the most interesting examples of dicotyledonous leaves that have come under my notice1 are from the ,sub-,apennine tertiary strata1 at ,stradella1 near ,pavia4 ,they belong to several genera of arborescent1 or at least ligneous plants1 and most of them to species which still grow in ,italy4 ,in some examples the substance of the leaves is changed into carbon1 and the structure well preserved2 but1 in general1 sharp imprints on the stone are the only traces of the originals4 ,they are found in a gypseous marl1 of a cream colour2 and1 from their perfect state1 it is inferred that they were enveloped in the soft matrix immediately after their fall1 and preserved by the rapid crystallization of the gypsum4 ,two specimens from my cabinet are figured in ,plate ,,iii4 figs4 #d and #h2 and outlines of a few other examples1 in ,lign4 #fh4 ,carpolithes 7,fossil ,fruits74--,in the description of the fossil fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey1 several kinds of dicotyledons were included4 ,many species also abound in the lignites of ,germany1 ,france1 and ,italy2 in those near ,frankfort1 seed-vessels of the ,maple1 ,elm1 ,hornbeam1 ,birch1 ,willow1 and ,walnut1 c4 ,in the environs of ,turin1 fruits of a species of ,walnut 7,juglans1 ,lign4 #fg71 occur in the newer tertiary deposits1 and are called ,turin-nuts2 the ligneous envelope has perished1 but the form of its surface1 and of the inclosed kernel1 is preserved in calcareous spar4 ,these nuts differ1 both in the pericarp and kernel1 from the living species3 the lobes are simple 7,lign4 #fg1 fig4 #d;b71 and not subdivided as in the common walnut2 a species has been discovered at ,lons-le-,saulnier1 in which the lobes are mamillated4 ,two kinds of fruits belonging to plants of the order ,ranunculace1 and related to ,thalictrum 7,meadow-rue71 have been found in the eocene deposits of ,france and ,england2 one in the ,paris basin1 7meulire du terrain d'eau douce suprieur17 by ,m4 ,alexandre ,brongniart1 and the other in the ,isle of ,wight1 by ,mr4 ,webster4 ,in the specimen from the last-named locality the pericarp is carbonized1 and its cavity filled with clay4 ,figures of these seed-vessels are given in ,lign4 #fg1 figs4 #a1 #b4 ,carpolithes ,smithi4--,i would notice in this place some very remarkable fossil fruits that are occasionally met with in the ,white ,chalk of ,sussex and ,kent1 and appear to belong to dicotyledonous trees4 ,the first specimen was discovered by me in a chalk-pit near ,lewes1 and is described in my ,fossils of the ,south ,downs3 some illustrative examples collected by ,mrs ,smith1 of ,tunbridge ,wells1 tending to elucidate the nature of the original more satisfactorily than those in my collection1 are figured and described by me in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 #ahdc1 under the above name4 ,these fruits are of an oval form1 about one and a half inch long1 and one inch wide1 and are pressed almost flat4 ,they are of a rich burnt-sienna colour1 mottled with white1 from the chalk having permeated their substance1 and are studded over with slight eminences1 which are the exposed summits of oblong flattened seeds4 ,although the internal structure is not preserved1 there can be no doubt that the originals were spurious compound berries1 having1 like the ,mulberry1 the seeds imbedded in a soft pulpy mass4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,dicotyledonous ,,trees4 ,fossil ,dicotyledonous ,trees4--,the occurrence of trunks and branches of angiospermous trees in a carbonized state has already been described2 like the monocotyledons and conifers1 they also occur silicified4 ,the most beautiful specimens ,i have seen are from the ,lybian and ,egyptian deserts1 and were collected by my friend1 the late ,colonel ,head4 ,in these the most delicate vascular tissue is permeated by chalcedony and jasper1 and the vessels are filled with silex of a bright vermilion and blue colour1 while the cellular structure is of a rich yellow4 ,fragments of these fossil trees are scattered everywhere among the sands of the desert2 the most interesting locality is an irregular plateau1 which reposes on marine limestone1 considerably above the level of the ,nile1 about seven miles east by south from ,cairo4 ,this district is called the petrified forest1 from the immense quantities of silicified trees with which it is covered4 ,it is thus graphically described by a late traveller3-- ,having passed the tombs of the ,caliphs1 just beyond the gates of ,cairo1 we proceed to the southward nearly at right angles to the road1 across the ,desert to ,suez3 and after travelling some ten miles up a low barren valley covered with sand1 gravel1 and sea-shells1 fresh as if the tide had retired but yesterday1 we cross a low range of sand-hills1 which has for some distance run parallel to our path4 ,the scene now presented is beyond conception singular and desolate4 ,heaps of fragments of large trees converted into stone everywhere meet the eye1 and when struck by our horses' hoofs rang like cast iron2 they extend for miles in the form of a decayed and prostrate forest2 and the appearance is so natural1 that were it in ,scotland or ,ireland1 it would pass without remark as a drained bog1 on which the exhumed trees lay rotting in the sun4 ,the roots1 and rudiments of the branches1 are in many cases nearly perfect1 and in some the worm-holes eaten under the bark are distinctly recognizable4#agh #agh ,bombay ,times4 ,many of the trunks are scattered over the surface1 among rolled and angular fragments of dark grit1 and pebbles of jasper1#agi chert1 and quartz4 ,the large trunks occur in great numbers on dark-coloured knolls1 where they lie1 like the broken stems of a prostrate forest1 crossing each other at various angles4 ,two of the largest measured respectively forty-eight1 and sixty feet in length1 and two and a half1 and three feet in diameter1 at the base4 ,with but two or three exceptions1 all the specimens examined microscopically1 are dicotyledons4 ,no traces of seed-vessels or leaves have been detected4 #agi ,the jaspers are known to lapidaries as ,egyptian ,pebbles4 ,the situation and condition of these petrified forests1 indicate great changes in the relative position of the land and sea in that part of ,egypt2 for the trees must have grown on the dry land formed by the elevated bottom of a former ocean2 which must have subsided1 and been covered by beds of sand and pebbles2 another elevatory movement must have raised the entire series of deposits to their present situation1 and the retiring waters have removed the loose portions of the last formed strata1 and dispersed them1 with fragments of the silicified trees1 over the surface of the ,egyptian and ,lybian deserts4#ahj #ahj ,see a ,memoir on the ,geology of ,egypt1 ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ghb2 and on the ,petrified ,forest near ,cairo1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cdi1 by ,lieut4 ,newbold1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,sidenote3 ,,dicotyledonous ,,of ,,the ,,cretaceous ,,epoch4 ,dicotyledons of the ,cretaceous ,epoch4--,among the crowd of interesting facts relating to the botanical character of the earlier periods of geology which recent observations have brought to light1 one discovery demands especial notice1 and ,i have reserved it for this place1 rather than introduce it in an earlier section4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,aix-la-,chapelle the lower members of the ,cretaceous formation1 viz4 the ,greensand1 ,galt1 and ,chalk-marl1 are well developed1 and comprise a series of littoral deposits of the great ,chalk ocean that extended westwardly between ,france and ,england1 on both sides of the existing ,channel1 and eastwardly over ,north and ,central ,germany1 ,sweden1 ,poland1 and ,russia1 far into ,asia4 ,the series of strata at ,aix-la-,chapelle is several hundred feet in thickness1 and the lowermost beds lie immediately on the ,carboniferous rocks of the country4 ,dr4 ,m4 ,h4 ,debey1#aha to whose scientific labours we are indebted for an accurate knowledge of these interesting facts1 divides these cretaceous deposits into four groups1 the lowermost of which appears to be the equivalent of our ,greensand2 it consists of beds of clay and sand1 the middle portion abounding in stems1 leaves1 and fruit1 and the resin of coniferous trees4 #aha ,see ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vii4 p4 #aji4 ,the epidermis of the leaves often occurs in a carbonized state1 and is recognizable by its microscopic structure4 ,xylophagous mollusks are found in the petrified and carbonized wood4 ,fresh-water ,desmidiace1 and a few marine remains1 are associated with this fossil flora1 which is distinguished by the abundance of ,ferns and dicotyledonous leaves1 and the scarcity of ,cycads2 among them are undoubted ,proteace4 ,the specimens collected by ,m4 ,debey from the lower cretaceous beds are the following3 ,alg1 #ae4 ,filices1 #bh4 ,hydropterid1 #b4 ,cycade1 #e4 ,naiade1 #e4 ,palm1 #a4 ,conifer1 #bj4 ,juliflor1 #e4 ,credneri1 #c4 ,leaves of ,dicotyledons1 undetermined1 #bf4 ,fruits undetermined1 #h4 ,woods4#ahb #ahb ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vii4 p4 #aaa4 ,this assemblage of angiosperms1 with gymnosperms1 and cryptogamia1 at the commencement of the ,cretaceous epoch1 when the ,iguanodon and other reptilian forms of the ,oolite and ,wealden still inhabited the land and water1 proves1 as ,sir ,charles ,lyell has remarked1#ahc that the meteorological phenomena of that remote period differed in no essential particular from those which now prevail4 #ahc ,supplement to the ,new ,edition of ,elements of ,geology1 #aheb1 p4 ,,xv4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,retrospect ,,of ,,fossil ,,botany4 ,sidenote3 ,,retrospect ,,of ,,fossil ,,botany4 ,if we pass from the consideration of details of structure1 and of botanical affinities1 to a general survey of the mineralized remains of the vegetable kingdom1 we perceive that from the palozoic deposits1 to those which are contemporaneous with the human race1--from the coal-measures to the peat-bogs of modern times1--vast accumulations of vegetable matter1 in various states of carbonization1 have been produced from the imbedded relics of the terrestrial floras that flourished during the respective periods of their formation2 petrifaction1 or the transmutation of vegetable tissues into stone1 from the infiltration of siliceous1 calcareous1 or metallic solutions1 being an accidental process1 dependent on the physical conditions under which the trees and plants were submerged1 and entombed in the strata4 ,although the entire system of vegetable life which prevailed during the earlier ages of the world is but partially revealed by the fossil remains which geological researches have brought under the examination of the naturalist1--for numerous tribes of plants may have existed of which no traces have been detected1 while of species of delicate tissues all vestiges may have perished1--yet a review of the facts hitherto obtained1 presents some highly important and unexpected results1 as to the characters of the successive floras which prevailed during the palozoic1 secondary1 and tertiary epochs4 ,and though deductions of this nature must1 in the present state of our knowledge1 be regarded in the light of shifting hypotheses to be modified or abandoned with the progress of discovery1--yet the predominating types which characterize the flora of one system of formations1 differ so essentially from those of another1 that it may be reasonably inferred such apparent distinctions are the effect of organic laws1 and not illusions arising from our misinterpretation of the natural records of former conditions of the vegetable world4 ,the absence in the most ancient deposits of the entire class of ,angiosperms1 or flowering plants1 which constitutes the leading features of the floras with which we are familiar1--the abundance of unknown types of ,cryptogamia1 and the extinction or disappearance of those tribes in the succeeding formations1 and the prevalence of new species and genera belonging to another class2--the predominance in one flora1 both in number and variety1 of certain tribes1 and their decadence in the next period2 while a family subordinate in the antecedent epoch1 and known but by a small number of species1 suddenly acquires a pre-eminence both in numbers and variety2--are phenomena1 which the facts brought before us in the course of this argument1 present in a striking point of view4 ,assuming these data as the basis of a philosophical generalization1 ,m4 ,brongniart arranges the known species of fossil plants into three grand systems1 which correspond with the great geological periods1 comprehended in the palozoic1 secondary1 and tertiary formations4 ,the first or most ancient flora is characterized by the predominance of ,cryptogamic ,acrogens--the ,ferns and ,club-mosses2 the second by the large development of the ,dicotyledonous ,gymnosperms--the ,cycads and ,conifers3 the third by the appearance and prevalence of the ,angiosperms1 both dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous4 ,the following table presents a concise view of the results of ,m4 ,brongniart's investigation4#ahd #ahd ,for details1 and a masterly review of the subject1 the original ,memoir must be consulted4 ,see ,tableau des ,genres de ,vgtaux ,fossiles1 considrs sur le point de vue de leur ,classification ,botanique et de leur ,distribution ,gologique1 par ,m4 ,adolphe ,brongniart4 ,paris1 #ahdi4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,floras4 ,,geological ,,epochs4 ,i4 ,rgne des ,acrognes2 the ,flora ,the ,devonian1 ,carboniferous1 of ,vascular ,cryptogamia4 and ,permian1 ,formations4 ,,ii4 ,rgne des ,gymnospermes2 the ,the ,triassic1 ,jurassic 7or ,flora of ,cycadace and ,conifer4 ,lias and ,oolite71 and ,wealden1 ,formations4 ,,iii4 ,rgne des ,angiospermes4 ,the ,cretaceous1 and ,tertiary ,flora of ,dicotyledonous and 7,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,monocotyledonous flowering ,pliocene71 ,formations4 plants1 or ,angiosperms4 ,it must be observed that this table is only designed to indicate the successive predominance of each of the three classes of the vegetable kingdom1 in the respective epochs1 and not the entire exclusion of the others4 ,thus1 in the two first1 both ,acrogens and ,gymnosperms existed2 but in the first period the former greatly exceeded the latter1 both in number and magnitude2 while in the next the ,gymnosperms acquired the ascendancy2 but in both these epochs1 from the ,devonian to the ,wealden inclusive1 very few if any ,angiosperms1 or flowering dicotyledons1 existed4 ,with the ,cretaceous period the ,angiosperms appear in great numbers1 and in the ,tertiary epochs acquire the importance they possess in the existing floras4 ,the following analysis of the flora of the ,carboniferous epoch1 by ,m4 ,brongniart1 will exemplify these remarks4#ahe #ahe ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #gbf-gcc1 for an account of the ,carboniferous floras and deposits4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,carboniferous ,,flora ,cryptogamia 7,amphigens74 ,alg #d ,champignons #f --- #f 7,acrogens74 ,ferns #bej ,lycopodiace 7,club-mosses7 #hc ,equisetace #ac --- #cdf ,dicotyledonous ,gymnosperms4 ,asterophyllites #dd ,sigillari #fj ,nggerathi #ab ,cycade8 #c ,conifer #af --- #ace ,dicotyledonous ,angiosperms #j ,monocotyledons8 7very doubtful7 #ae --- #ejb --- ,thus out of five hundred species1 #ceb are ,cryptogamia2 and with the exception of six1 belong to the ,acrogens4#ahf #ahf ,bronn gives the annexed numerical summary of the fossil and recent species of plants3-- ,plants4--,cellular #ahh ,fossil4 #i1ajj ,living4 ,vascular #a1hfg #fj1cjc ----- ------ #b1jee #fi1djc 7#hj1jjj1 ,lindley47 ----- ------ ,in conclusion1 ,i must direct attention to a remarkable character of the palozoic and secondary floras1 namely1 the almost entire absence of the ,gramine or ,grasses1 which constitute so large a proportion of the existing vegetation4 ,above six hundred species of plants have been discovered in the ,british strata2#ahg and yet two species of ,poa 7a tribe of grasses71 from ,coalbrook ,dale1 are the only known examples of ,gramine4 ,it has been suggested that the greater or lesser durability of the foliage of certain vegetables1 may have occasioned their presence or absence in the carboniferous deposits1 and experiments were instituted by ,dr4 ,lindley with the view of determining this question4 ,but though it was found that1 when the foliage of various families was subjected to long maceration1 the leaves of dicotyledons and grasses disappeared1 while those of ferns and cycads remained1 this fact does not meet the exigencies of the case1 for we have no evidence to show that the fossil leaves were ever placed in similar conditions2 on the contrary1 there is reason to conclude that they were imbedded under circumstances that arrested the usual progress of decomposition1 prevented the escape of the hydrogen and other gaseous elements1 and gave rise to the bituminous fermentation by which they were converted into lignite and coal2 and we have no proof that1 had grasses been associated with the ferns1 they would not have undergone a similar change4 ,moreover1 there are countries in which the ferns now assume the numerical proportion of the grasses of other latitudes2 for example4 ,new ,zealand1 which also presents in its fauna a striking analogy to that of the carboniferous deposits1 in the almost entire absence of indigenous mammalia2 one species of ,rat being the only known living quadruped4 #ahg ,see ,mr4 ,morris's ,catalogue of ,british ,fossils4 ,on this subject ,dr4 ,dieffenbach remarks1 that although in its flora ,new ,zealand has some relationship with the two large continents between which it is situated1 ,america and ,australia1 and even possesses some species identical with those of ,europe1 without the ,latter being referable to an introduction by ,europeans1 yet the greater number of species1 and even genera1 are peculiar to it4 ,new ,zealand1 with the adjacent islands1 ,chatham1 ,auckland1 and ,macquarrie1 forms a botanical centre4 ,it is sufficiently distant from both continents to preserve its botanical peculiarities1 and it offers the most striking instance of an acknowledged fact in all branches of natural history1 viz4 that the different regions of the globe are endowed with peculiar forms of animal and vegetable life4 ,the number of species of plants at present known is #fcb1 of which #cad are dicotyledonous1 and the rest1 or #cah1 are monocotyledonous and cellular4 ,the monocotyledons are few in comparison with the cellular plants1 for there are but seventy-six species4 ,the grasses have given way to ferns1 for the ferns and fern-like plants are by far the most abundant in ,new ,zealand1 and cover immense districts4 ,they replace the ,gramine of other countries1 and give a character to all the open land of the hills and plains4 ,some of the arborescent kinds grow to thirty feet and more in height1 and the variety and elegance of their forms1 from the minutest species to the most gigantic1 are very remarkable4#ahh ,in the accumulations of vegetable matter now in the progress of formation in the morasses1 bays1 and creeks of ,new ,zealand1 the remains of ferns largely predominate2 and ,i am informed by my son1#ahi that in the estuaries they are associated with numerous shells of brachiopodous mollusca4 #ahh ,dr4 ,dieffenbach's ,new ,zealand4 #ahi ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 of ,wellington1 ,new ,zealand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,collecting ,,british ,,fossil ,,vegetables4 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,vegetables4 ,from what has been advanced1 the student will perceive that to obtain an illustrative collection of the fossil plants of ,great ,britain1 many different localities must be visited4 ,the fruits and stems of ,palms1 ,conifers1 and many dicotyledons1 may be collected in the ,isle of ,sheppey1 and other places where the ,london ,clay is exposed4 7,see ,excursion to the ,isle of ,sheppey1 ,part ,,iv47 ,cycadeous stems and coniferous wood may be procured in the ,isle of ,portland2 from the ,wealden ,cliffs along the southern shore of the ,isle of ,wight2 and on the ,sussex coast1 from ,bexhill1 by ,st4 ,leonard's1 to the east of ,hastings4 ,the foliage of several species of ,zami and ferns1 occur abundantly in the lower ,oolite1 along the ,yorkshire coast1 near ,scarborough1 and at ,gristhorpe ,bay4 ,the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1 ,charmouth1 and their vicinity1 affords stems and branches of coniferous trees1 and leaves of cycads4 ,ferns1 ,sigillari1 ,calamites1 and the usual plants of the carboniferous flora1 may be found in every coal-mine2 and the ,devonian limestones of the ,south of ,ireland yield ferns and ,lepidodendra4 ,in ,forfarshire the lower ,devonian shales abound in the foliage of aquatic1 apparently fluviatile1 plants4#aij #aij ,see ,memoir on the ,telerpeton2 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 viii4 p4 #ajf4 ,a list of some of the most productive ,british localities is subjoined4 ,in addition to the suggestions already given as to the mode of collecting specimens1 it may be necessary to state that the leaves in the tertiary marls and clays are generally very delicate and friable1 and liable to flake off in the state of a carbonaceous film4 ,this may1 in a great measure1 be prevented by carefully covering them with a thin coating either of mastic varnish1 or gum-water1 before they are placed in the cabinet4 ,in extracting these specimens1 a broad chisel will be found the most convenient instrument4 ,in searching for fossils in coal-mines1 the collector should remember that the ironstone nodules often contain beautiful examples of the leaves of ferns1 and fruits of ,lepidodendra4 ,these nodules1 when of an oblong shape1 should be split open in a longitudinal direction1 by a smart blow of a hammer1 and the inclosed leaf will thus be exposed1 as shown in ,lign4 #c1 figs4 #b1 #c1 ante1 p4 #fi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,vegetables4 ,sidenote3 ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,vegetables4 ,allenbank1 ,berwickshire ,carb4 ,stems of ,conifers1 c4 ,alum ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight ,tert4 ,fruit1 dicotyledonous leaves1 lignite2 ,charge1 stems and seed-vessels4 ,ashby-de-la-,zouch1 ,carb4 ,coal plants in great abundance4 ,leicestershire ,bignor1 ,sussex ,cret4 ,fucoids4 ,firestone ,binstead ,quarries1 near ,tert4 ,char1 stems and seed-vessels4 ,ryde1 ,isle of ,wight ,blackdown1 ,devonshire ,gr4 ,sand4 ,silicified wood--coniferous4 ,bognor1 ,sussex ,tert4 ,coniferous and monocotyledonous wood2 washed up on the shore4 ,bolton1 ,lancashire ,carb4 ,lepidodendra1 ,sigillari1 c4 ,bournemouth1 ,hants ,tert4 ,dicotyledonous leaves4#aia #aia ,fruits and ,fern-leaves have been collected here by ,mr4 ,beckles and stems of a species of ,arundo1 by ,mr4 ,alfred ,woodhouse4 ,brook-point1 ,isle of ,wight ,wealden ,cycads1 and coniferous wood4 ,burdie ,house1 near ,edinburgh ,carb4 ,ferns1 wood1 c4 ,calbourn1 ,isle of ,wight ,tert4 ,char1 stems and fruits4 ,camerton1 near ,bath ,carb4 ,usual plants of the coal4 ,charmouth1 ,dorset ,oolite ,coniferous wood2 ,cycads2 fruit of ,pandanus4 ,clifton1 near ,manchester ,carb4 ,coal plants in great perfection4 ,coalbrook ,dale1 ,shropshire ,carb4 ,usual plants of the coal1 in abundance4 ,the ironstone nodules are rich in fern-leaves1 fruits of lepidodendrons1 c4 ,cuckfield1 ,sussex ,wealden ,clathraria1 ,endogenites1 ,ferns1 and ,lignite4 ,durlstone ,bay1 near ,swanage ,wealden ,char2 ,gyrogonites in abundance4 ,folkstone1 ,kent ,galt ,coniferous wood--bituminous1 and pyritified4 ,glasgow ,carb4 ,coal plants1 and large trunks of ,conifer4 ,hastings1 ,sussex ,wealden ,clathrari1 ,cycads1 ,endogenites1 ,ferns1 ,thuites1 c4 ,herne ,bay1 ,kent ,london ,fruits of ,conifers1 and ,clay ,palms3 wood4 ,kilkenny1 ,ireland ,carb4 ,calamites1 ferns1 c4 ,knocktopher1 nr4 ,kilkenny1 ,devonian ,ferns1 ,lepidodendrons1 c4 ,ireland ,leeds ,carb4 ,beautiful coal-plants from the pits in the vicinity4 ,liverpool ,new ,red ,fuci4 ,lyme ,regis1 ,dorset ,lias ,cycads2 ,conifers2 wood4 ,maidstone1 ,kent ,greensand ,fruits and wood of ,abies1 ,pinus1 ,dracna2 ,fuci4 ,malton ,oolite ,fruits1 and ,cycads4 ,newcastle 7,jarrow ,colliery7 ,carb4 ,coal plants in great variety4#aib #aib ,in collecting ,stigmari1 the student should particularly attend to the relation existing between these fossils and their supposed stems2 for it is probable that roots of this type will be found to belong to other genera1 besides ,sigillaria1 and ,lepidodendron 7ante1 p4 #acf74 ,newhaven 7,castle ,hill71 ,tert4 ,dicotyledonous leaves and ,sussex fruit--rarely4 ,portishead 7on the shore7 ,millstone ,sigillari1 ,stigmari1 c4 ,grit ,portland1 ,isle of ,wealden ,petrified forest of ,conifers1 with ,cycads4 ,pounceford1 ,sussex ,wealden ,equiseta1 ,ferns1 ,lignite4 ,runswick1 ,yorkshire ,coast ,lower ,cycads1 ,ferns1 c4 ,oolite ,saltwick1 near ,whitby ,lower ,foliage of ,cycads1 ,ferns1 c4 ,oolite ,sandown ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight ,wealden ,conifers1 ,cycads1 wood4 ,scarborough ,oolite ,ferns1 ,cycads1 ,equiseta1 c4 ,selmeston1 ,sussex ,greensand ,coniferous wood4 ,sheppey1 ,isle of ,london ,fruits innumerable1 wood1 ,clay c4 7ante1 p4 #ahf47 ,stonesfield1 ,oxfordshire ,oolite ,fuci1 ,cycads1 ,thuites1 c4 ,swindon1 ,wilts ,oolite ,coniferous wood1 ,cycads4 ,tunbridge ,wells 7vicinity7 ,wealden ,ferns1 several species4 ,ventnor1 ,isle of ,wight ,firestone ,clathraria1 ,conifers4 ,wareham1 ,dorset ,tert4 ,dicotyledonous foliage1 and ,palm-leaves4 ,whitecliff ,bay1 ,i4 of ,wight ,tert4 ,palm-leaves1 ,char1 c4 ,whitwick1 ,leicestershire ,carb4 ,the usual coal-plants4 ,the above list must1 of course1 be considered as merely suggestive3 many other localities are mentioned in the previous notices of the fossil genera4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,fossil ,,zoology4 ,the very ground on which we tread1 and the mountains that surround us1 are vast tumuli in which the ,organic ,remains of a ,former ,world are enshrined4--,parkinson4 ,the existing species of animals scientifically determined by naturalists amount to upwards of one hundred thousand1 while those known in a fossil state scarcely exceed twenty-five thousand2 yet the latter comprise examples of all the classes1 and most of the families and genera1 which still inhabit our planet4 ,although our notice of these remains must necessarily be very general1 we shall endeavour to describe all that are of peculiar interest1 either in a geological or zoological point of view2 or which from their prevalence1 or wide distribution1 will frequently be met with by the collector in the course of his researches4 ,our examination will commence with animal organisms of the simplest structure1 and proceed in an ascending order1 in accordance with the usual zoological classifications2 but1 as in the botanical department1 it will be convenient occasionally to include the consideration of the fossil remains of more than one family in the same section1 when associated in a particular locality or deposit4 ,in the preliminary remarks on the nature of ,organic ,remains 7ante1 p4 #dc71 the various conditions in which the durable structures of animals are preserved in the mineral kingdom1 were fully explained2 we may therefore at once enter upon the investigation of this most important division of our subject2 that to which the term ,palontology1 is1 indeed1 restricted by some authors4 ,the fossil remains of the animal kingdom will be treated of under the following heads3-- ,i4 ,zoophytes3 including-- #a4 ,porifera1 or ,amorphozoa3 the most simple animal structures2 as the ,sponges4 #b4 ,polypifera1 or ,polypiaria2 ,coral-animals4 #c4 ,bryozoa1 or ,molluscan ,zoophytes2 as the ,flustr4 ,,ii4 ,echinodermata1 or ,echinoderms2 ,comprising-- #a4 ,crinoidea2 or ,lily-shaped animals4 #b4 ,asteriad2 ,star-fishes4 #c4 ,echinid2 ,sea-urchins4 ,,iii4 ,mollusca1 or ,mollusks4 ,under this head not only the fossil shells of testaceous mollusca1 but also those of a lower order of animals1 the ,rhizopodes1 or ,foraminifera1 will be treated of4 #a4 ,foraminifera4 #b4 ,bivalves3 the ,lamellibranchia1 and ,brachiopoda4 #c4 ,univalves3 the ,gasteropoda and ,pteropoda4 #d4 ,cephalopoda2 those with chambered shells1 as the ,nautilus and ,ammonite2 and the naked tribes1 the ,sepiad1 or ,cuttle-fish4 ,,iv4 ,articulata4 7,animals protected by a hard jointed envelope or case47 #a4 ,cirripedia3 as the ,balanus1 or ,barnacle4 #b4 ,annelida3 red-blooded worms1 as the ,serpulid4 #c4 ,insecta1 and ,arachnida or ,spiders4 #d4 ,crustacea2 including ,crabs1 ,lobsters1 ,trilobites1 c4 ,v4 ,pisces2 or ,fishes4 ,,vi4 ,reptilia2 or ,reptiles4 ,,vii4 ,aves2 or ,birds4 ,,viii4 ,mammalia4 ,,ix4 ,man4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,fossil ,,zoophytes4--,,porifera ,,or ,,amorphozoa--,,polypifera ,,or ,,corals--,,bryozoa ,,or ,,molluscan ,,zoophytes4 ,many tribes of the extraordinary beings whose mineralized relics are the immediate subject of our investigation1 have largely contributed to the solid materials of which the sedimentary strata are composed4 ,in the most ancient rocks in which vestiges of organic structures have been detected1 those of ,zoophytes hold a conspicuous place2 and in the seas of tropical climates1 the agency of the ,coral-animalcules1 or ,polypifera1 is producing enormous deposits1 and laying the foundations of new islands and continents1 and forming reefs of rocks hundreds of miles in extent1 which1 if elevated above the level of the sea1 would rival in magnitude the mountain-chains of modern ,europe4 ,the reader unacquainted with the natural history of these marvellous creatures will find an account of their nature and economy1 and of the physical effects produced on the earth's surface by their agency1 in the sixth lecture of ,wond4 vol4 ii4 p4 #ehh4 ,the term ,zoophytes1 or animal-plants1 comprises two very distinct classes of living beings1 namely1 the ,porifera1 or ,sponges1 which 7if not vegetables7 are wanting in many attributes regarded as essential characteristics of the members of the animal kingdom2 and the ,polypifera1 or polype-bearing-animals1--the ,corals2 which are generally associated groups or aggregations of individuals1 united by a common organized mass or axis1 each polype having an independent existence1 and exhibiting volition and perception1 in a greater or lesser degree4 ,fossil ,porifera4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,porifera4 ,the terms ,amorphozoa 7signifying animals of variable shapes71 and ,porifera 7structures traversed by pores or channels71 are employed by naturalists to designate the ,sponges and analogous organisms1 which appear to occupy the boundary line that separates the animal from the vegetable kingdom4 ,the true position of the ,sponges in the great system of ,creation is still a disputed point2 for while many distinguished naturalists regard them as ,protozoa1 or the lowest type of animal organization1 others of equal eminence affirm that neither in structure nor functions do they differ from vegetables in any essential particular2 and that if a line be drawn between the two kingdoms the ,porifera must be placed on the vegetable side of the boundary4 ,on the other hand1 ,dr4 ,george ,johnston1 in his delightful work on the ,british ,zoophytes1#aic expresses his opinion that there is nothing to discountenance the belief that these bodies hold an intermediate place2 that they are1 in fact1 the true ,zoophytes1 or animal-plants2 in some forms1 as the green ,spongill of our lakes1 the vegetable nature prevails2 while in others1 as the horny or keratose sponges filled with mucilaginous slime1 and the fleshy ,tethya whose oscula1 or pores1 are said to exhibit signs of irritability1 the animal character predominates4 #aic ,a ,history of ,british ,sponges1 c4 by ,dr4 ,george ,johnston1 ,edinburgh4 #ahdc4 ,one vol4 #hvo4 with twenty-five plates4 ,a previous work1 ,a ,history of ,british ,zoophytes1 with forty-four plates1 from drawings by the accomplished lady of the ,author1 cannot be too highly commended4 ,without committing ourselves to either opinion1 and simply remarking that the large proportion of silex that enters into the tissues of a considerable number of the porifera1 is more characteristic of vegetable than of animal structures1 we proceed to consider the fossil sponges and allied forms1 as the mineralized remains of the lowest types of the animal kingdom3 if the vegetable nature of the originals were generally admitted1 this section should have followed that which treats of the ,diatomace 7ante1 p4 #ajj74 ,sponge consists of a reticulated fibrous mass1 covered with numerous pores of various sizes1 which are connected internally by anastomosing channels1 and this tissue is surrounded by a cellular gelatinous matter1 by which the entire structure was secreted1 and is1 in fact1 the vital part of the zoophyte4 ,the tough framework or skeleton is in some kinds fibrous1 horny1 flexible1 or rigid1 and strengthened by calcareous or siliceous spicula 7spines72#aid while in other species its substance is calcareous1 and in some siliceous1 constituting a web of transparent rock crystal1 resembling spun glass1#aie ,the gelatinous matter lines all the cavities1 and forms the margins of the openings2 it presents no signs of irritability1 and may be easily pressed out of the porous mass with the hand1 so slight is the connexion between the skeleton and the investing tissue4 ,currents of water constantly enter the small pores1 traverse the inosculating canals1 and issue from the larger orifices1 which often project above the surface in perforated papill4 ,by the circulation of the water through the porous structure1 the nutrition of the organized mass is effected2 and the modifications observable in the number1 size1 form1 and disposition of the pores1 channels1 and orifices1 in different species1 appear to be subservient to this especial purpose2 the imbibition and expulsion of water being the only function the sponges perform4 ,in its earliest stage the sponge gemmule is of a spheroidal shape1 and covered with vibratile cilia1 and after expulsion from the canals in which it is formed1 moves rapidly through the water till it becomes attached to some body1 and is then immovably fixed during life2 exhibiting no signs of vitality save the aqueous circulation through the pores and canals4 #aid ,the ,mediterranean and ,american sponges of commerce are devoid of spicules1 and are deprived of their soft animal matter simply by washing freely in fresh water4 #aie ,i particularly allude to a siliceous ,sponge from ,barbadoes1 named1 by ,mr4 ,samuel ,stutchbury1 formerly of the ,bristol ,institution1 7now of ,australia47 ,dictyochalix pumicea4 ,this specimen is of a fungiform shape1 and appears to the naked eye as if formed of pumice stone1 but under the microscope is literally a tissue of transparent silex4 ,there is much confusion in the arrangement and nomenclature of the fossil species of this class of zoophytes2 and this has originated1 in part1 from the varied forms assumed by the same species1 having been described under different names2 and from the reprehensible practice of changing1 without sufficient reason1 the name assigned to a species by the original discoverer2 an evil1 unfortunately1 not restricted to this department of natural history4 ,the recent ,sponges are arranged in four groups according to their structure1 viz4-- ,fresh-water ,sponges4 ,spongilla3 siliceous spicula in a translucent jelly-like mass4 ,marine ,sponges4 ,tethea3 having a tough outer skin2 siliceous spicula in bundles1 and radiating from the compact nucleus to the periphery4 ,halichondria3 7from silex and cartilago7 siliceous spicula in a cartilaginous mass4 ,grantia3 calcareous spicula in a gelatinous mass4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,sponges4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny seems to believe that with the exception of the horny ,cliona1 all the fossil sponges had originally calcareous skeletons1--qu'ils n'ont jamais t corns1 mais que leur tissu a toujours t calcaire et pierreuse2#aif which is certainly not the case1 for abundant examples of fossil keratose sponges occur4 #aif ,cours ,elmentaire de ,palontologie1 torn4 ii4 p4 #bjh4 ,i have selected a few genera for the illustration of the subject1 and shall describe them under the names that are most familiar to the ,british scientific collector3 doubtless sooner or later some competent naturalist will undertake the elucidation of this department of palontology1 and construct a classification and nomenclature based on natural characters2 till then the student will find it hopeless to attempt to learn the ever-varying names of genera and species applied to fossil ,porifera and ,polypifera1 by different observers4#aig #aig ,it has happened most unfortunately1 that but recently ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 in the late ,mr4 ,dixon's beautiful work on ,chalk and ,tertiary ,fossils1 and ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards in his able ,monograph in the ,palontological ,society's ,memoirs1 have described many of our chalk ,corals under different specific and generic names4 ,sidenote3 ,,spongites ,,in ,,chalk ,,and ,,flint4 ,on the ,sponges in ,chalk and ,flint4--,from the durability of the tissue of the flexible sponges1 and the imperishable nature of those which have a siliceous or calcareous endo-skeleton or framework1 their fossil remains generally occur in a fine state of preservation1 and in immense quantities1 in the sediments that were deposited in those parts of the ancient sea-bottoms1 originally inhabited by these zoophytes4 ,even the relics of the keratose species1 the ,halichondria1 whose structure consists of siliceous spines imbedded in a cartilaginous mass1 are equally abundant4 ,sponge-spicula are everywhere met with in the chalk1 flint1 and greensand1 and many layers in the cretaceous strata are almost entirely composed of them4 ,sponges so commonly form the nuclei of the nodular flints1 that some naturalists have ascribed the formation of the layers and nodules of silex in the cretaceous rocks to these zoophytes3 a supposition altogether groundless1#aih ,the various states of mineralization in which sponges occur in the chalk give rise to many beautiful and highly instructive fossils1 as we shall point out in the course of this notice4 ,in general the zoophyte is simply invested by the flint1 the pores and tubes being filled with silex1 the original tissue appearing as a brown reticulated calcareous mass4 ,in other examples the sponge has been permeated by the liquid flint1 and subsequently perished2 and in this manner have been formed those hollow nodules which on being broken are found to contain only a powder1 consisting of siliceous spicules and fragments of silicified sponge4 ,but in numerous instances the substance of the zoophyte is completely silicified1 and the intimate structure of the original exquisitely preserved2 such are many of the flint-pebbles1 and moss-agates1 that are mounted as brooches and other ornaments4 #aih ,see ,wonders of ,geology1 p4 #cjj4 ,this question is fully considered in a ,memoir entitled ,notes of a ,microscopical ,examination of the ,chalk and ,flint of the ,south-,east of ,england1 c4 by the ,author1 in #ahde4 ,spongites4#aii--,this name ,i would apply generically to those fossils which appear to be identical in structure with the ordinary marine sponges that consist of a fibro-reticulated porous mass1 destitute of regular tubes or canals3 the form exceedingly various4 #aii ,achilleum of ,schweigger4 ,the fossil sponges of the chalk may be divided into two groups2 the cyathiforms1 or cup-shaped1 and the ramose1 or branched4 ,flints inclosing the first kind1 generally exhibit externally the form of the original2 those containing the branched species are of irregular shapes1 and except by an experienced observer1 the nature of the enclosed body would not be suspected4 ,on breaking them1 the sponge is often well displayed1 as in the specimen figured in ,lign4 #fi1 fig4 #b3 the surface of this fossil was covered with a white gritty powder1 made up of minute needle-shaped siliceous spicula4 ,sidenote3 ,,spongites ,,in ,,flints4 ,spongites ,ramosus4--,a branched sponge1 sometimes from twelve to fifteen inches long1 is not uncommon in the flints of the ,lewes and ,brighton chalk2 the stems and branches are cylindrical1 and the terminations of the latter are rounded and full of large pores4 ,when completely silicified the structure can only be detected by fracture1 but occasionally the sponge appears to have been saturated with liquid chalk before it was enveloped in the flint2 and as it is coated with calcareous matter1 it may be detached from the nodule entire4#bjj #bjj ,in this manner ,i obtained the beautiful specimen 7now in the ,british ,museum7 figured in my ,foss4 ,south ,downs1 tab1 xv4 fig4 #aa4 ,a branch of this species is represented ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxix4 fig4 #ab4 ,spongites lobatus 7sp4 ,fleming7 is figured ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxix4 fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #fi4 ,coral1 and ,spongites4 ,chalk4 ,sussex4 ,fig4 #a4--,petalopora pulchella4 ,upper figure 3 lower figure1 nat4 ,chalk near ,chichester4 7,mr4 ,walter ,mantell47 #b4--,spongites clavellatus4 a branch in the cavity of a flint4 ,south ,downs4 #c4--,siphonia ,morrisiana4 7,g4 ,a4 ,m47 ,a transverse polished section of a pebble4 ,brighton ,beach4 ,a smaller ramose spongite1 with numerous short clavate protuberances1 is often met with in the flints of ,sussex and ,wilts2 a branch is figured in ,lign4 #fi1 fig4 #b4bja #bja ,this spongite is named ,polypothecia clavellata1 in ,miss ,benett's ,wiltshire ,fossils4 ,spongites ,townsendi4 7,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xli47--,the cyathiform flints1 whose shape depends on the inclosed zoophytes1 so much resemble the cup-shaped sponges of commerce1 as to be easily recognized in the heaps of nodules that are collected in chalk districts for the roads2 they are from one to eight inches in diameter at the upper part1 and many are of a globular or spheroidal shape2 the surface has the usual calcareo-siliceous coating of flint nodules1 giving a sensation of roughness to the touch2 the margin of the cup generally exhibits a narrow band of porous structure1 and when broken1 sections of the enclosed body are exposed4 ,these funnel-shaped spongites terminate at the bottom in a peduncle1 whence fibrous root-like processes diverge2 by these appendages the original was fixed to the rock4 ,i have collected a few specimens in which the roots are attached to a shell1 or pebble1 but have never seen any that appeared to occupy the spot on which they grew4 ,they seem to have been detached from their native sites by the waves1 and transported to a distance1 and subsiding into the tranquil depths of the ocean1 became imbedded in the cretaceous sediments that were accumulating at the bottom4 ,spongites 787 labyrinthicus4#bjb ,lign4 #hj1 fig4 #e4--;,another abundant species of amorphozoa has given rise to sub-hemispherical flints1 rounded below and flat above1 with a marginal band of porous tissue1 that expands into flexuous lobes which fill up the area of the upper surface4 ,when found imbedded in the chalk1 the form of this zoophyte is often preserved entire2 the upper part showing the lobated and flexuous character of the original4 ,upon breaking these flints1 the organic structure is generally apparent2 but in many instances has perished1 and left a cavity which is either partially filled with stalactitical chalcedony1 or lined with quartz crystals4 ,these fossils vary in size from a walnut to that of an orange2 the pedicle has long processes4 #bjb ,foss1 ,s4 ,d4 tab4 xv4 fig4 #g4 ,a lobed zoophyte1 resembling the above in its general form1 and long rootlets1 is distinguished by a large central cavity1 which is continued above the body in the form of a cylinder4#bjc #bjc ,beautiful figures of these and other chalk zoophytes are given by ,mr4 ,toulmin ,smith in his elegant memoir ,on the ,ventriculid4 ,the specimens above described are named ,bracholites by ,mr4 ,smith4 ,the plan of the present work forbids the discussion of that author's opinions and inferences4 ,spongites 787 flexuosus4 ,lign4 #hj1 fig4 #aj4--;,among the cyathiform flints that abound in the chalk1 a very elegant species is distinguished by a flexuous band that runs round the margin1 and indicates the lobed structure of the original4 ,in the chalk of ,flamborough ,head1 ,yorkshire1 many beautiful cyathiform sponges are preserved1 in which the outer surface is thickly covered with projecting hollow papill2 these fossils are generally silicified1 the surface and pores being frosted over with minute quartz crystals4 ,the museum of the ,york ,institution contains a splendid series of these spongites4#bjd #bjd ,the silicified state of these zoophytes was first detected by ,mr4 ,charlesworth1 who by immersing specimens in dilate hydrochloric acid1 obtained admirable examples of the delicate structure of the original4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,zoophytes ,,of ,,faringdon4 ,fossil ,zoophytes of ,faringdon4 ,lign4 #gj1 #ga1 #gb4--,the richest locality for fossil sponges in ,england is in the immediate neighbourhood of the little town of ,faringdon1 in ,berkshire4#bje ,the ,greensand beds that overlie the ,oolite in that district1 consist of a coarse friable aggregation of sand1 comminuted shells1 corals1 amorphozoa1 and echinoderms1 more or less consolidated by a ferruginous cement4 ,the gravel-pits1 as the quarries are locally termed1 expose what evidently were banks of detritus thrown up on the strand of a sea-margin2 among the water-worn and fragmentary relics of oolitic as well as cretaceous forms1 many perfect sponges of various kinds may be collected in the course of a few hours4 ,figures of some of the common species are subjoined4 #bje ,see ,excursions1 in vol4 ii4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #gj4 ,fossil ,zoophytes4 ,fig4 #a4--,lunulites radiatus4 ,preston ,chalk-pits2 view of the convex side4 7,mr4 ,walter ,mantell47 #a;a4--,front view2 nat4 #a;b4--,portion of the surface of fig4 #a1 magnified4 #b4--,scyphia intermedia2 #a_/b nat4 ,faringdon4 #c4--,lithododendron sociale3 the left-hand branch shows a vertical section at the upper part1 displaying the internal structure2 #a_/b nat4 ,mountain ,limestone1 ,yorkshire4 #d4--,verticillipora anastomosans4 ,faringdon4 #e4--,scyphia ramosa2 #a_/b nat4 ,faringdon4 #f4--,scyphia foraminosa2 #a_/b nat4 ,faringdon4 #g4--;,cnemidium astrophorum2 #a_/c nat4 ,faringdon4 ,scyphia4 ,lign4 #gj1 #gb4--,these spongites are of a tubular1 fistulous1 or cylindrical form1 and terminate in a rounded pit2 they are either simple or branched1 and composed of a firm reticulated tissue2 ,lign4 #gj1 fig4 #b1 #e1 #f1 and ,lign4 #gb1 fig4 #d1 are examples4 ,the ,upper ,greensand at ,folkstone and ,dover abounds in a flexuous species1 named ,scyphia meandrina 7,morris74 ,cnemidium 7,goldfuss74 ,lign4 #gj1 fig4 #g4--,these sponges consist of a cluster of turbinated projections1 having a central pit above1 and being porous on the external surface1 and radiated at the margin4 ,the mass is dense and fibrous1 and is traversed by horizontal canals1 diverging from the centre to the circumference4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ga4 ,fossil ,sponge2 nat4 7,chenendopora fungiformis47 ,greensand4 ,faringdon4 ,chenendopora4,,gx ,lign4 #ga4--,the species of porifera thus named are cyathiform1 or cup-shaped2 externally furrowed1 mamillated1 or lobed2 internally smooth1 and the surface covered with fine pores4 ,the beautiful species figured 7,c4 fungiformis7 is abundant in the gravel-pits1 and well known to the quarrymen as petrified salt-cellars4 #bjf ,the ,pictorial ,atlas contains coloured figures of the following3-- ,chenendopora fungiformis 7,michelin71 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xliv4 fig4 #e3 according to ,mr1 ,morris4 ------------ subplana 7,michelin71 ibid1 pl4 xliv1 fig4 #c4 ,scyphia articulata 7,goldfuss71 ibid1 pl4 xliii4 figs4 #g1 #h1 #i4 ------- costata 7,goldfuss71 ibid4 pl4 xliv1 fig1 #a4 ,cnemidium rimulosum 7,goldfuss71 ibid1 pl4 xliv4 fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #gb4 ,fossil ,zoophytes2 nat4 ,greensand4 ,faringdon4 ,fig4 #a4--,tragos peziza4 #b4--,probably ,chenendopora in a young state4 #c4--,verticillipora anastomosans4 #d4--,species of ,scyphia4 #e4--,tragos ,faringdoniensis4 ,tragos4 ,lign4 #gb1 fig4 #a4--,these turbinated sponges are readily distinguished from the preceding1 by the relatively large oscula1 or open papill1 disposed irregularly on the inner surface2 as shown in the specimen1 fig4 #a4 ,their tissue is dense and fibrous4 ,the fossil represented by fig4 #e1 though named ,tragos by collectors1 appears to differ in the structure of the inner surface from the type of this genus3 it is a remarkably beautiful species4#bjg #bjg ,it may be convenient to distinguish it as ,t4 ,faringdoniensis4 ,the base in all these ,greensand sponges is flat and expanded2 not fibrous and root-like1 as in the spongites of the chalk previously described4 ,among the shingle at ,brighton1 ,margate1 ,dover1 ,isle of ,wight1 c4 pebbles containing fossil sponges may frequently be discovered4 ,when the flint nodule has been broken1 and the calcareous particles of the inclosed zoophytes are washed away by the action of the waves1 a delicate silicified tissue remains4#bjh ,many of the large solid pebbles1 are portions of silicified sponges1 and polished specimens are beautiful objects under the microscope4 #bjh ,the pebbles represented in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlv4 fig4 #e1 #ab1 are specimens of this kind4 ,sidenote3 ,,siphonia4 ,siphonia4 ,lign4 #gc4--,these fossil porifera are readily distinguished from those which have engaged our attention by their more symmetrical structure4 ,the body of the zoophyte is a mass of dense porous tissue1 of a pyriform or bulbous shape1 supported by a slender stem fixed at the base by rootlets4 ,the stem is composed of very fine parallel longitudinal tubes1 which extend to a series of canals that traverse the mass1 and terminate in openings on the surface of a shallow central cavity1 as shown in the section1 fig4 #b1 ,lign4 #gc4 ,the characters of this genus are well exemplified in a common species of the ,greensand 7,s4 pyriformis1 ,lign4 #gc71 described by the late ,mr4 ,webster1 from specimens collected in the ,isle of ,wight1 where it occurs in profusion1 near ,ventnor1 and the ,western lines4 ,this zoophyte is pyriform1 7,lign4 #gc1 fig4 #a17 and has a shallow cylindrical cavity1 supported upon a long slender stem1 the base of which is fixed by root-like processes 7fig4 #e72 the transverse fracture shows a section of the longitudinal tubes4 ,this species has been found in numerous localities of the ,greensand1 and also in the ,firestone or malm-rock4#bji #bji ,dr4 ,fitton's figures1 ,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 ii4 pl4 xv4 a1 are very beautiful and accurate4 ,the ,portland limestone contains numerous remains of a ,siphonia closely resembling this species2 and varied sections of its stems produce the white markings commonly observable on the slabs of pavements4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #gc4 ,siphoni1 from the ,greensand2 nat4 ,wilts1 and ,isle of ,wight4 ,fig4 #a4--,siphonia pyriformis2 the body or upper part4 #b4--,vertical section of the same1 showing the internal structure1 and the central cavity4 #c4--,specimen of ,s4 pyriformis in a young state4 #d4--,siphonia 7,polypothecia1 of ,miss ,benett17 lobata2 ,firestone or ,upper ,greensand1 ,warminster4 #e4--,the lower part of the stem1 and radicles1 of ,s4 pyriformis4 ,a group of ,sponges from the ,upper ,greensand1 near ,warminster1 figured and described by the late ,miss ,etheldred ,benett1#baj under the name of ,polypothecia1 comprises several forms that are allied in structure to the ,siphoni4 ,these fossils present considerable diversity of shape2 one of the lobed forms is delineated in ,lign4 #gc1 fig4 #d3 and a branched species in ,lign4 #gd4 ,upon breaking the stem of one of these zoophytes transversely1 sections of parallel longitudinal tubes like those in the ,siphoni are exhibited4 #baj ,an elegant ,memoir on the ,wiltshire ,fossils1 by this accomplished lady1 is published in ,sir ,r4 ,c4 ,hoare's ,wiltshire4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #gd4 ,polypothecia dichotoma4 ,upper ,greensand1 ,warminster1 ,wilts4 ,the ,kentish rag contains irregular ramose spongeous bodies1 which belong to this group of porifera2 and ,mr4 ,bensted has discovered in his quarry1 near ,maidstone1 numerous remains of a polymorphous lobed zoophyte1 having a porous structure beset with spicula4 ,in the ,firestone of ,southbourne1 ,steyning1 and ,bignor1 in ,sussex1 ,i have observed large pyriform and subcylindrical ,siphoni4 ,the organization of all these zoophytes was evidently adapted for the imbibition and circulation of sea-water1 in a more perfect and definite manner than in the irregular simple sponges4 ,flint-pebbles inclosing remains of ,siphoni abound on the ,sussex coast1 especially in the shingle near ,brighton1 having been washed out of the chalk cliffs4 ,there were several chalk-pits in ,edward-street1 7now1 ,i believe1 filled up and the area built upon17 in which every flint enveloped a sponge or siphonia2 many specimens were mineralized by pyrites and beautifully exhibited the internal structure of the originals4 ,siphonia ,morrisiana4 ,lign4 #fi1 fig4 #c4--;,a polished slice of a pebble from ,brighton1 whose markings are derived from the transverse section of an undescribed zoophyte is figured1 ante1 p4 #bbd3 though scarcely more than half the diameter of the original is preserved1 yet its structure is well shown2 the centre is occupied by numerous parallel openings1 the sections of longitudinal tubes1 and is surrounded by a broad zone of spongeous tissue4 ,i have seen many examples of this beautiful fossil1 set for brooches in the jewellers' shops in the ,isle of ,wight1 and at ,brighton4#baa #baa ,the specific name is in honour of ,john ,morris1 ,esq4 ,f4,g4,s4 the author of the ,catalogue of ,british ,fossils1 whose important services to ,palontology and ,geology it is gratifying thus to acknowledge4 ,there are coloured figures of ,siphonite in ,pictorial ,atlas1 pl4 xxxix4 fig4 #i2 pl4 xlii4 fig4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #ab1 and #ac2 pl4 xliii4 fig4 #f4 ,siphoni 7chiefly ,s4 pyriformis7 are abundant in the ,upper ,greensand1 near ,farnham in ,surrey1 but their tissues are saturated with phosphate of lime1 instead of silica as is ordinarily the case2 the entire sponge usually contains between #ej and #fj per cent1 of phosphate3 hence these fossils have1 of late1 been in great request for manure4#bab #bab ,mr4 ,payne1 of ,farnham1 a distinguished agriculturist1 has largely made use of them1 both in the natural state and treated with sulphuric acid4 ,the ,firestone strata on ,st4 ,catherine's ,hill1 ,isle of ,wight1 have been dug for a like purpose4 ,see an ,account of the ,phosphate ,diggings1 in my ,isle of ,wight1 ,second ,edition1 p4 #ddh4 ,sidenote3 ,,choanites ,k,,nigi4 ,choanites ,knigi1 ,lign4 #ge4--,the zoophyte which has given rise to the fossils ,i have distinguished by the name of ,choanites1#bac is of a spheroidal or sub-ovate form1 and appears to have been composed of a softer tissue than the ordinary sponges4 ,it has a central cavity1 and was fixed at the base by long rootlets3 its mass is traversed by numerous tubes or channels1 which open on the inner surface of the cavity2 it differs from ,siphonia in not having a stem composed of bundles of tubes1 and probably also in its constituent substance4 ,among the ,sussex and ,wiltshire chalk-flints specimens of this zoophyte are very common2 they are easily recognized by the peculiar markings produced by the silicified tubes that radiate from the centre1 as seen in ,lign4 #ge1 fig4 #d4 ,the semi-diaphanous pebbles on the ,sussex coast1 more frequently contain ,choanites than any other zoophytes4 ,from the beautiful and varied markings observable in the polished sections1 they are in great request for brooches1 and are termed petrified sea-animal flowers#bad by the lapidaries2 among the shingle on the sea-shore at ,bognor1 ,worthing1 and other places1 very fine examples may be collected4 #bac ,foss4 ,s4 ,d4 p4 #agh4 #bad ,from the supposition that the original was an ,actinia1 or ,sea-,anemone4 ,a coloured vertical section of a pebble of this kind is figured in my ,thoughts on a ,pebble1 ,eighth ,edition1 pl4 ii4 ,see coloured figures of ,choanites in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlii4 fig4 #a1 #i1 and #aj2 pl4 xliv4 fig4 #h2 and pl4 xlv4 fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ge4 ,choanites ,knigi4 7,g4 ,a4 ,m47 ,chalk1 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--,transverse section of a siliceous specimen4 #b4--,upper portion of a ,choanite1 in chalk1 showing the opening of the central cavity at a4 #c4--,vertical section of a ,choanite1 in flint1 exposing a section of the mass1 and canals passing obliquely from the central cavity1 through the substance4 #d4--;,choanite in flint2 the usual appearance of these fossils4 #e4--,various kinds of ,spicula of fossil sponges2 magnified4 ,lign4 #ge1 fig4 #d1 represents the usual appearance of a flint deriving its form from a ,choanite2 fig4 #b1 is the upper part of a ,choanite preserved in chalk1 and richly coloured by iron2 the opening at the summit1 a1 is the orifice of the central cylindrical cavity1 which is in this instance filled up by chalk1 but in flint specimens1 with silex of a different colour to that of the surrounding mass4 ,if fig4 #b1 were placed on the top of fig4 #d1 the general shape of the original zoophyte would be represented4 ,the opening at the base of fig4 #d1 marks the spot whence the processes of attachment proceeded4 ,the vertical section of a flint1 similar to fig4 #d1 is shown at fig4 #c2 and in this example are seen the central cavity1 and a section of the substance of the zoophyte1 which is traversed by numerous tubes1 that ramify through the mass of which the body was composed1 and terminate in openings on the inner wall of the central cavity1 or sac4 ,a transverse section of a similar flint is delineated in fig4 #a2 the central white spot indicates the sac filled with flint1 and the tubes are seen radiating from it through the mass2 under a powerful lens the interstitial structure appears to be granular rather than porous4 ,the perfect transparency of the body when silicified1 and the rich tints it has acquired from metallic solutions1 and the compressed state in which it is often found1 seem to indicate that the original mass was a soft gelatinous substance1 like that of the ,actinia1 strengthened by spicula2 for numerous tri-radiate spines1 like those on the left-hand of fig4 #e1 ,lign4 #ge1 occur occasionally in chalk specimens4 ,in many ,choanites1 which differ in no other respect from the present species1 vertical sections show on each side the central cavity1 large oval spots1 that are sections of a canal which traverses the entire mass1 proceeding from the base to the summit1 in a spiral coil around the central cavity4 ,this structure was first detected by ,mr4 ,cunnington4 ,mr4 ,woodward thinks this spiral tube is common to all the ,choanites1 and constitutes a generic character2 but so many examples have passed under my examination in which no traces of such a canal are perceptible1 that it may be a specific difference4 ,among the chalk amorphozoa whose true affinities are doubtful1 is a small turbinated zoophyte1 which ,i would place provisionally under this genus2 it has a shallow central cavity1 with a broad smooth margin1 a reticulated external surface1 and radicle processes proceeding from the base2 see ,lign4 #hj1 fig4 #a4 ,sidenote3 ,,paramoudra4 ,paramoudra4 ,lign4 #gf4--,this vernacular ,irish term was introduced by ,dr4 ,buckland1 in his account of some gigantic flints1 thus popularly named1 that occur in the chalk near ,belfast1 and also at ,whitlingham1 near ,norwich4 ,these fossils are of an irregular1 oblong1 spherical1 or pyriform shape1 having a cavity above1 which1 in some specimens1 extends to the bottom2 indications of a pedicle are seen at the base2 in short1 they closely resemble1 upon a large scale1 the funnel-shaped spongites1 so frequent in the flints of the ,south ,downs4 ,their appearance in situ1 is represented ,lign4 #gf1 from ,dr4 ,buckland's illustrations3 b1 is a single specimen1 partly imbedded in the chalk1 and c1 d1 two of the fossils in contact1 the pedicle of the upper one lying in the cavity of the lower4 ,these bodies are from one to two or more feet in length1 and from six inches to a foot in diameter4 ,the appearance1 both of the outer and inner surface1 is that of the usual white calcareo-siliceous crust of spongitic chalk-flints4 ,upon breaking them1 no decided structure is perceptible2 but here and there1 patches of red and blue chalcedony occur1 as in the ,ventriculites and spongites in chalk-flints2 the originals were probably large goblet-shaped zoophytes1 allied to the sponges1 but of so perishable a nature as to leave but few traces of their organization1 save their general form4 ,specimens may however yet be found with the structure preserved1 for many years elapsed after the first discovery of flint ventriculites1 before ,i obtained examples that threw light on their origin and formation4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #gf4 ,paramoudra2 seen in a vertical section of a ,chalk-pit1 near ,moira4 7,the ,very ,rev4 ,dr4 ,buckland4 ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 iv47 a1 a1 a4 ,layers of flint nodules1 alternating with chalk strata1 b4 ,a ,paramoudra1 imbedded in the chalk1 c1 d4 ,two of these bodies in contact4 ,in the ,devonian slates of ,polperro some curious fossils1 supposed to be remains of fishes1 have been ascertained by ,prof ,mc,coy to be ,amorphozoa1 and are described by that eminent palontologist under the name of ,steganodictyum4#bae #bae ,synopsis of the ,classification of the ,british ,palozoic ,fossils1 by ,prof4 ,sedgwick and ,fred4 ,mc,coy4 #dto4 ,fas4 #b1 p4 vii4 pl4 #b ,a4 #aheb4 ,clionites 7,morris7 ,lign4 #acj4--;,a recent parasitical sponge 7first described by ,dr4 ,grant under the name of ,cliona71 consisting of a fleshy substance1 full of siliceous tubular pin-shaped spicula1 gives rise to those perforations with which oysters and other shells are often completely riddled1#baf ,certain bivalve shells in the cretaceous seas appear to have been peculiarly obnoxious to the depredations of similar zoophytes1 and in consequence of the cavities left by the decay of the sponge having subsequently been filled up by flint1 a curious series of fossil bodies has resulted1 which we shall more particularly notice hereafter4 ,these fossils ,mr4 ,morris has distinguished by the name ,clionites1 to indicate their origin2 they are not1 however1 the silicified sponge1 but inorganic casts1 moulded in the excavations4 ,the common species is ,c4 ,conybearei3 cells irregular1 somewhat polygonal1 with one or more papill2 surface finely tuberculated2 connecting threads numerous4#bag #baf ,for an account of the characters of the recent ,cliona1 see a monograph by ,mr4 ,hancock1 ,annals of ,nat4 ,hist4 ,may #ahea4 #bag ,ann4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,august #ahea1 pl4 iv1 fig4 #h4 ,spicula1 or spines of ,porifera4 ,lign4 #ge4--,siliceous spicules1 as we have had occasion to mention1 occur in immense quantities in some of those deposits which abound in the remains of spongites4 ,these spines are tubular1 and of various shapes2 some are acicular1 or needle-like2 others of a stellate form2 many are tri-radiate or multi-radiate2 and some have the shape of a trident2 a few of these fossils are figured in ,lign4 #ge4 ,as the ,actinia1 ,gorgonia1 and ,alcyonia1 possess spicula1 some of the fossil spines may have been derived from those zoophytes4 ,the larger spicules may be discovered with a lens of moderate power1 or even by the unassisted eye2 but all will amply repay a microscopical examination1 and the minutest can only thus be detected4 ,sidenote3 ,,spiniferites ,,in ,,flints4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #gg4 ,a group of ,spiniferites in ,flint4 7,seen by transmitted light47 ,fig4 #a4--;,a thin-translucent chip of flint2 nat4 #b4--,the same magnified1 and viewed by transmitted light2 showing a group of five ,spiniferites4 #c4--,the same more highly magnified4 #d4--,spin4 ramosus2 one of the animalculites seen in fig4 #c1 very highly magnified4 #e4--,spin4 ,reginaldi2 one of the same group2 #cjj diameters4 #f4--;,a variety of ,s4 ramosus2 another of the same cluster of ,spiniferites4 ,spiniferites 7,xanthidium1 ,ehrenb474 ,lign4 #gg4--;,i propose to describe in this place those elegant and very minute bodies1 that occur in great numbers in the chalk and flint1 and which1 on the authority of ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 were regarded as identical with the siliceous frustules of the genus of fresh-water ,desmidi1 named ,xanthidium#bah 7ante1 p4 #ia47 ,later and more correct observations have proved that the fossils under consideration entirely differ from their supposed homologues2 their original substance not being siliceous1 but flexible and membranous2 and that instead of being spores of alg1 they are probably the gemmules either of porifera1 or of polypifera4 #bah ,several recent species of ,xanthidium are figured in ,plate ,,iv4 of this volume4 ,to avoid the perpetuation of the error by the retention of the botanical name of a recent genus of plants1 for fossils whose vegetable origin is very problematical1 and which are entirely distinct from their supposed analogues1 ,i would substitute that of ,spiniferites1#bai a term simply expressive of the general aspect of these bodies2 that of a globe or sphere beset with spines4 ,the appearance of these fossils will be understood by the examination of a group discovered by ,mr4 ,reginald ,neville ,mantell1 in a fragment chipped off from a flint pebble2 and ,i will describe the mode by which these minute objects were detected1 as it offers a good practical lesson for the young investigator4 #bai ,from spina1 a spine1 and fero1 to bear4 ,the chip of flint is represented1 of the natural size1 in ,lign4 #gg1 fig4 #a2 it was immersed in oil of turpentine for a short time1 and then placed on a piece of glass1 and examined with a moderate power1 by transmitted light1 the turpentine having rendered the translucent flint almost as transparent as glass2 this appearance is shown in fig4 #b2 the organisms here represented are from #a_/cjj to #a_/ejj of an inch in diameter4 ,the half-inch object-glass was next employed1 and fig4 #c gives the result4 ,the quarter-inch object-glass1 and a corresponding eye-piece1 were then substituted1 and by the adaptation of a camera lucida1 figs4 #d1 #e1 and #f1 were delineated4 ,as fig4 #e proved to be a new species1 it was named after its discoverer4 ,the specimens in flint1 when rendered transparent and viewed by transmitted light under a high power1 as shown in ,lign4 #gh1 and #gi1 appear as hollow globular bodies1 beset with spinous processes1 which in most species are fimbriated at the extremities4 ,there is considerable variety in the form and length of the spines4 ,in ,s4 ,reginaldi1 these appendages are numerous1 regular1 short1 and relatively thick3 in an elegant species discovered by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,reade 7,lign4 #gi7 they are long and palmated3 in other kinds they are of intermediate size and proportions4#bbj #bbj ,excellent figures of several species are given in a ,memoir by ,h4 ,h4 ,white1 ,esq4 of ,clapham1 in the ,trans4 ,microscopical ,society1 vol4 i4 p4 #gg4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #gh4 ,spiniferites ,reginaldi4 7,magnified #ejj diameters47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #gi4 ,spiniferites palmatus2 in flint4 7 #ejj diameters47 ,the apparently torn and collapsed state of the body and arms of some examples first led me to doubt the siliceous nature of the original substance2 and on my discovery of the soft parts of foraminifera in flint and chalk1 ,mr4 ,deane undertook to search for the so-called ,xanthidia in chalk1 that these bodies might be subjected to chemical analysis1#bba ,mr4 ,deane succeeded in detecting all the usual species in the ,dover chalk1 by digesting some chalk in dilute hydrochloric acid1 and mounting the residue in ,canada balsam4 ,in this state the shape of the body is that of a depressed sphere2 many of the specimens appear to have a circular opening1 and the arms or spines to be closed at the extremities4 ,upon pressure under water between two pieces of glass1 they were torn asunder as a horny or cartilaginous substance would be1 and the spines in contact with the glass were bent4 ,some after maceration in water several weeks became flaccid2 a proof that they are not siliceous4#bbb #bba ,a torn and apparently shrunken specimen from chalk1 is represented in my paper on ,foraminifera2 ,philos4 ,trans4 #ahdf1 p4 #dfe4 #bbb ,memoir on ,fossil ,xanthidia1 by ,henry ,deane1 ,esq4 ,microscopical ,journal1 #ahdf4 ,the real nature of these fossils must be regarded as still undetermined3 their prevalence in the chalk-flints whose forms are derived from zoophytes1 seems to countenance the supposition that the ,spiniferites are the gemmules or early state of animals of this family2 but ,i have never detected any organic connexion between them and the porifera with which they are associated2 it is possible they may be the germs of the remarkable zoophytes we have next to examine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,ventriculites4 ,ventriculites4#bbc ,lign4 #hj1 #ha1 #hb4--;,at every step of our review of the fossil zoophytes1 ,i find myself embarrassed by the conflicting opinions entertained by naturalists1 respecting some of the most abundant of the extinct forms2 arising from the imperfect state of our knowledge as to the structure of the originals1 which compels a comparison with recent types1 from which1 perhaps1 the fossils differed essentially in their organization4 ,this remark especially applies to the zoophytes which have given rise to the fungiform flints so well known to the inhabitants of the chalk districts of ,sussex1 as petrified mushrooms1 from their close resemblance in form to fungi3 a specimen with this name inscribed on it in the cabinet of a friend first drew my attention to these curious fossils4 ,in ,lign4 #hj1 figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 several flints of this kind are represented2 figs4 #c1 #f1 #h1 are fungiform2 fig4 #g1 is the upper part of a specimen1 the stem having been broken off2 figs4 #b and #d1 are examples of the lower part of the zoophyte2 in all1 there are openings at the base1 and a groove on the margin or edge of the upper part in which the structure of the inclosed fossil is visible2 upon breaking these flints1 sections of a funnel-shaped body are exposed4 #bbc ,ventriculite2 from ventriculus1 a ventricle or sac4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #hj4 ,flints1 deriving their forms from ,zoophytes4 ,from the ,south ,downs1 near ,lewes2 #a_/f nat4 ,fig4 #a4--;,choanites 787 ,turbinatus4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i4--;,flints1 whose forms are derived from ,ventriculites1 provincially called petrified mushrooms4 #e4--,spongites labyrinthicus4 #aj4--,spongites flexuosus4 ,the origin of these fossils will be understood by reference to the four specimens delineated in ,lign4 #ha4 ,in fig4 #c1 a fungiform flint1 resembling fig4 #f1 of ,lign4 #hj1 is seen in the lower part of a cup-shaped zoophyte2 while above1 and surrounding the flint1 the impression remains of the reticulated outer surface1 deeply coloured by a ferruginous tinge4 ,in fig4 #d1 ,lign4 #ha1 a small turbinated flint1 resembling fig4 #d1 of ,lign4 #hj1 occupies the base1 and three rootlets are seen emerging from it at a4 ,in ,lign4 #hb1 fig4 #a1 in which the chalk has been removed so as to expose the outer surface of the ,ventriculite1 a flint occupies the centre at c2 above which1 the radiating reticulated structure is spread out on the chalk1 a2 the base1 with its roots1 is shown at b4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ha4 ,ventriculites radiatus2 #a_/f nat4 ,chalk2 near ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a perfect specimen in chalk1 inverted1 showing the external reticulated surface2 the apex of the base projects in the centre4 #b4--,specimen expanded1 displaying the inner surface1 studded over with the openings of the cells or tubes4 #c4--;,a ,ventriculite in chalk2 the lower part inclosed in flint4 #d4--,portion of a ,ventriculite2 the stem towards the base is enveloped in flint1 and three radicle processes spread from it into the surrounding chalk at a4 ,these specimens demonstrate that all the flints referred to1 have been moulded in the cavities of cyathiform zoophytes2 and that their diversity of figure has arisen from the amount of silex that happened to permeate the organism2 if but a small proportion of silica in solution was present1 then flints1 like fig4 #d1 were produced2 if the quantity were sufficient to fill up a considerable part of the tissues of the original1 fungiform flints1 as ,lign4 #hj1 fig4 #c1 and ,lign4 #ha1 fig4 #c1 were the result4 ,the disciform flints originated from the expanded examples1 ,lign4 #ha1 figs4 #a and #b3 and when the silex was insufficient to silicify the entire zoophyte1 an annular flint1 resembling a quoit1 was formed4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #hb4 ,portions of ,ventriculites2 #a_/d nat4 ,chalk1 near ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a specimen1 in which the middle is inclosed in a flint c2 the external structure of the ,ventriculite is seen at a1 expanded on the chalk2 and the pedicle with its roots is exposed at b4 ,the figures are one-fourth the size of the originals4 #b1 #c1 #e4--;,chalk specimens1 showing the external structure of stems of ,ventriculites4 #d4--;,a siliceous cast of the cavity of a ,ventriculite covered with papill1 moulded in the orifices of the cells4 ,the form of the original was evidently that of a hollow inverted cone1 terminating in a point at the base1 which was attached by fibrous rootlets to other bodies4 ,the outer integument was reticulated1 that is1 disposed in meshes1 like net-work2 and the inner surface studded with regular openings1 apparently the orifices of tubular cells4 ,the substance of the mass appears to have been sufficiently flexible to expand and contract without laceration4 ,this opinion is based on the fact1 that in many specimens the zoophyte is a nearly flat circular disc 7,lign4 #ha1 figs4 #a1 #b72 and in others a subcylindrical pouch4 ,in the former state the outer reticulated structure is elongated1 while in the latter1 it is corrugated2 hence ,i am led to conclude that the original possessed a common irritability1 and was able to contract and expand like many of the flexible polypiaria4 ,the openings on the inner surface are cylindrical1 and very regular2 the flints often present sharp casts of them1 which appear like rows of minute pillars4 ,when the flint filling up the cavity of a ,ventriculite can be extracted1 it is a solid cone1 studded with papill1 the casts of the cells1 as in ,lign4 #hb1 fig4 #d4 ,in the flints1 the substance of the ,ventriculites is generally as translucent as that of the ,choanites1 and defined by its rich purple1 sienna1 or grey colour2#bbd but towards the base and margin it is more or less calcareous2 and in many examples the whole1 or a large portion of the zoophyte1 is in this state4 ,but this fact does not invalidate the inference that the original was flexible2 for in these instances the tissues may have been immersed in fluid chalk before their envelopment in flint1#bbe ,the chalk specimens are commonly as friable and earthy as the surrounding stone1 from which they are distinguishable by their ochreous colour4 #bbd ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlv4 fig4 #i1 represents a beautiful transverse section of the lower part of a ,ventriculite in flint1 richly coloured4 ,pl4 xliii4 fig4 #af1 is a pebble containing the base of a ,ventriculite2 the orifices on the top have been produced by the transit of the radicle processes2 for the fossil is drawn in an inverted position1 a common error before the origin of these flints was ascertained4 #bbe ,a piece of sponge dipped in liquid plaster of ,paris1 and afterwards inclosed in a transparent substance1 as glass1 would present such an appearance4 ,the stain always observable in the tissues of the chalk ,ventriculites and other zoophytes1 while the surrounding white limestone is uncoloured1 may be explained by the chemical changes to which the decomposition of animal matter under such circumstances would give rise4 ,if sulphuretted hydrogen were evolved from the putrifying zoophytes imbedded in calcareous mud containing iron in solution1 the sulphur would enter into combination with the iron1 the hydrogen escape1 and a sulphate or sulphuret of iron be deposited1 atom by atom1 and thus impart colour and permanence of form to the original4 ,when the inclosed organisms in the flint nodules have perished1 chalcedony1 quartz crystals1 or crystallized pyrites1 sometimes of great beauty1 are found occupying the cavities2 in short1 numerous modifications of the petrifactive process are beautifully exhibited in these common1 but highly interesting1 cretaceous fossils4 ,the species to which the previous remarks more immediately refer1 is named ,ventriculites radiatus2 from the radiated appearance of the external integument2 some of the expanded specimens are more than one foot in diameter4#bbf #bbf ,the reader interested in the history of these objects should consult ,foss4 ,south ,downs1 p4 #afg1 plates x1 xi1 xii4 xiii4 xiv4 ,a memoir by the ,author on these fossils1 under the name of ,alcyonium chonoides1 with four beautiful plates1 was published in the ,linnan ,transactions1 vol4 xi4 #ahba4 ,the ,ventriculites are the only organic remains figured in ,conybeare and ,phillips's ,geology of ,england and ,wales1 p4 #gf4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #hc4 ,ventriculites alcyonoides4 in ,flint4 ,lewes4 ,ocellaria inclusa4 ,knig4 ,fig4 #a4--,portion of the surface of fig4 #b1 magnified4 #b4--,the fossil body extracted from the flint1 fig4 #d4 #b;a4--,transverse section of the same1 showing a central spot of flint1 surrounded by tubular cells4 #b;b4--,two of the cells of fig4 #b;a1 highly magnified4 #d4--,the hollow flint1 from which fig4 #b was extracted2 the papill on the surface1 are casts of the apertures of cells4 ,ventriculites alcyonoides4 ,lign4 #hc4--,under the name of ,ocellaria inclusa1 the late ,mr4 ,knig#bbg figured and described an elegant fossil zoophyte not uncommon in the chalk and flints of ,sussex4 ,this fossil is inversely conical1 and somewhat resembles the cast of the cavity of ,ventriculites radiatus1 but a little attention will enable the collector to distinguish it4 ,the flint that is moulded in ,v4 radiatus1 is surrounded by the substance of the zoophyte1 and if found detached1 with the investing material removed1 shows no structure whatever1 but simply a surface covered with minute papill4 ,the present zoophyte is generally included in a nodule1 and by a slight blow may be readily separated from the surrounding flint2 it then has the appearance of a white calcareous cone1 beset with regular cells1 disposed in quincunx order 7,lign4 #hc1 fig4 #b72 leaving a conical cavity in the flint1 which is covered with corresponding eminences 7,lign4 #hc1 fig4 #d74 ,upon breaking the cone itself1 it is found to consist of a dense reticulated structure1 from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch in thickness 7,lign4 #hc1 fig4 #b;a71 investing a solid nucleus of flint1 the surface of the latter being covered with minute points1 which are less regular than those on the cavity of the outer case4 ,the specific name1 inclusa1 was suggested by this character2 which1 however1 is only accidental1 for the specimens imbedded in chalk1 are simply surrounded by the stone4 ,it is the calcareous nature of the fossil1 which renders it so easily separable from the investing flint1 while its cells afford numerous points of attachment1 and these remain as casts in relief on the interior of the hollow case3 ,i have not observed the same regularity of structure on the inner as on the outer surface4 #bbg ,icones ,foss4 ,sect4 fig4 #ih4 ,the reticulated integument of this zoophyte resembles in structure that of ,v4 radiatus4 ,with regard to the latter1 ,i should state that ,mr4 ,toulmin ,smith#bbh discovered that the inosculating fibres of the intimate tissue formed an octahedral plexus at each knot or point of union2 and this structure ,mr4 ,smith regards as peculiar to the ,ventriculites1 and states that he detected it in all the fossils he has arranged under the name ,ventriculid4 ,no spicula have been detected in the integuments4 #bbh ,on the ,ventriculid2 a series of papers published in the ,annals of ,natural ,history1 with many figures of cretaceous zoophytes4 ,by ,toulmin ,smith1 ,esq4 ,until more ample and satisfactory evidence is collected as to the nature of these fossils1 the interests of science will be best promoted by allowing the question to remain sub judice1 and restricting the term ,ventriculites to those zoophytes which possess the general characters of the type to which the name was originally assigned2 namely1 a vasiform or subcylindrical framework1 terminating at the base in a point1 and fixed by radicle processes2 the substance consisting of a plexiform fibrous tissue2 externally constituting a reticulated integument1 the meshes disposed in a radiating manner from the base to the periphery2 the inner surface studded with open cells regularly arranged4 ,in the former edition of this work the ,ventriculites were placed with the ,polypifera from the structure of the openings or cells1 for these are so symmetrical1 and disposed with so much regularity1 as to present a closer analogy to the polype-cells of a coral1 than to the large pores of a sponge4 ,the doubts expressed by many eminent observers as to the correctness of this view1 have induced me to insert this notice in the present section2 leaving the true affinities of these organisms to be determined by future observers4 ,possibly we have in these fossils the relics of a tribe of zoophytes of an extinct type1 that formed a connecting link between the porifera and the polypifera2 however this may be1 ,i will venture to affirm that no one who had seen the infinitely varied examples of these fossils that ,i have1 would for a moment confound them1 as some naturalists have done1 with the ,scyphi1 and other simple amorphozoa4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #hd4 ,a ,coral-polype in flint4 #ejj diameters4 7,seen by transmitted light47 ,polype in ,flint4 ,lign4 #hd4--;,i will here notice an exceedingly minute and interesting object1 discovered by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,reade1 in a flint containing vestiges of a ,ventriculite1 and which may possibly belong to this tribe of zoophytes4 ,it must however be remarked1 that there was nothing to show the collocation was not accidental4 ,the drawing with which ,mr4 ,reade favoured me1 is engraved ,lign4 #hd4 ,this object is unmistakeably a polype-cell1 with some of the integument of the animal protruding1 in the form of a shrivelled tube4 ,the possibility of soft animal tissues being preserved in flint1 will not now admit of question1 as we shall show when treating of the ,foraminifera4 ,the record of this fact may load to the discovery of other fossils of a like nature4 ,fossil ,polypifera4 ,sidenote3 ,,polypifera4 ,as we proceed in our investigations1 the impossibility of rigidly adhering to a zoological classification based on the structure of organs1 of which but few1 if any1 traces exist in the mineral kingdom1 becomes more and more apparent2 the durable skeletons or polyparia being the only materials from which the palontologist can gather information1 relating to the physiology of the extinct coral-animals which swarmed in the ancient seas1 and whose petrified remains constitute a large proportion of the secondary and palozoic calcareous rocks4 ,numerous fossil genera have been established by various authors from the external form of the polyparium1 or the disposition and structure of the cells2 but a slight attention to this department of palontology will disclose corals which differ essentially from the typical forms1 and new genera and species will require to be added to the already extended catalogue4 ,the few genera selected for the present work1 will convey a general idea of the nature of this class of fossils4 ,to ascertain the names of the species he may collect1 the student must refer to works especially devoted to the illustration of the corals of particular rocks2 as for example1 those of the ,british ,cretaceous deposits in the monographs of the ,palontological ,society2 of the ,palozoic in ,sil4 ,syst42 and in ,prof ,sedgwick's ,synopsis of the ,classification of the ,brit4 ,pal4 ,foss42 of the ,mountain ,limestone in ,prof1 ,phillips's work2 and those of ,ireland in ,col4 ,portlock's ,geological ,memoirs4 ,those of the palozoic rocks of ,new ,york1 are illustrated in ,prof4 ,james ,hall's splendid work on the ,geology of that ,state4 ,the fossil zoophytes included in this section present innumerable varieties of form and structure1 but agree in the important character of having originated1 7with but few exceptions17 from aggregations of those minute beings termed ,polypes 7many-feet#bbi74 ,the common ,hydra 7,wond4 p4 #fjj71 or fresh-water polype1 that inhabits pools and streams1 is a familiar example of a free animal of this kind1 consisting of a cellular gelatinous substance1 in the form of a short tube1 or pouch1 surrounded at the upper margin by long tentacula1 or feelers1 which appear to the naked eye as delicate threads4 ,the ,polypifera1 properly so called1 are groups of polypes1 permanently united by a common integument or axis1 each animalcule having an independent existence4 ,a common support or endo-skeleton1 termed polyparium1#bcj is secreted by the integuments1 which varies in its nature from a mere gelatinous1 or horny material1 to an earthy1 calcareous1 and even siliceous substance1 that remains when the polypes die1 and their soft parts have perished4 ,all the varieties of corals1 c4 are nothing more than the durable structures of aggregated masses of such beings4 #bbi ,a name derived from the tentacula1 or processes1 which in some species serve for prehension1 and in others for respiration4 #bcj ,the basis1 framework1 or endo-skeleton1 of these groups of animalcules is termed the polyparium1 or polypidom 7polype-habitation72 those of a stony hardness are familiarly known as corals2 these names1 therefore1 refer to the durable substance1 and not to the animals themselves2 but in familiar writing1 the term ,coral is often used to designate the entire living mass4 ,the ,red-,coral forms a distinct genus called ,corallium4 ,in fossils1 the polyparium alone remains1 except in very rare instances4 ,it may here be necessary to notice a prevailing error1 regarding the mode in which the substance called coral is produced4 ,it is very generally supposed that ,corals1 particularly those bearing stars and cells1 have been constructed by animalcules1 in the same manner as is the honey-comb1 by the ,bee2 and the expressions often employed by naturalists1 of the coral animalcules building up their rocky habitations1 and constructing their cells1 have contributed to foster this error4 ,but the processes are in no respect similar3 the insect1 under the guidance of an unerring instinct1 resulting from its peculiar organization1 constructs its cells2 but the polype is incapable of forming1 or even modifying1 its support or cell in the slightest degree4 ,the polypidom is secreted by the animal tissues1 in the same manner as are the bones in the vertebrated animals1 without the individual being conscious of the process4 ,if a piece of white coral be immersed in dilute hydrochloric acid1 the calcareous part is dissolved1 and the secreting membrane1 in the form of a flocculent substance1 is seen attached to the undissolved part2 even in some coralline marbles of incalculable antiquity1 the animal membrane may1 in this manner1 be detected4#bca #bca ,see ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxiv4 fig4 #b4 ,from the delicate and perishable nature of many of the gelatinous zoophytes1 numerous tribes may have inhabited the seas1 which deposited the fossiliferous strata1 and yet no indications of their existence remain2 while1 of others1 but obscure traces of their structure are likely to be detected4 ,the ,polypifera are separated into two natural groups or classes2 viz4 the ,anthozoa 7flower-animals71 and the ,bryozoa 7moss-animals71 or ,polyzoa4 ,the ,anthozoa are polypes of the most simple type of structure4 ,the body consists of a symmetrical gelatinous sac1 capable of contraction and expansion1 with one aperture or mouth1 which is encircled by tentacula4 ,the ,hydra1 or fresh-water polype 7,wond4 p4 #fjj71 is a familiar example of a single1 locomotive1 anthozoan animal4 ,in the compound or aggregated forms1 the body is either inclosed in a horny sheath 7ex4 ,sertularia1 ,wond4 p4 #fae71 or is supported by a lamellated calcareous endo-skeleton 7ex4 ,fungia1 ,wond4 p4 #fbc1 pl4 vi4 fig4 #ae71 or the soft parts invest a stony axis 7ex4 ,madrepora1 ,wond4 p4 #fbj71 or a horny flexible framework 7ex4 ,gorgonia1 ,wond4 p4 #faf74 ,the ,anthozoa are subdivided into three orders1 which are based on the peculiar characters of the polypes2 the ,hydra1 the ,actinia 7,sea-,anemone1 ,wond4 p4 #fbb71 and the ,alcyonium 7,dead-men's fingers1 ,wond4 pl4 v4 fig4 #aj71 being respectively the type of #a4 the ,hydroida1 or ,hydraform2 #b4 the ,asteroida or ,alcyonian2 and #c4 the ,helianthoida1 or ,actiniform zoophytes4 ,in the ,hydroida the body in the compound species is implanted in a horny tubular sheath1 and the polypidoms form branched corallines1 which are fixed by the base to rocks1 sea-weeds1 shells1 c4 ,the ,asteroida have a horny or calcareous axis1 surrounded and inclosed by the soft parts which secrete it4 ,the ,helianthoids1 except in the simple free species1 as the ,actinia1 have a lamellated calcareous polypidom1 the plates of which radiate from a centre4 ,the calcareous secretions of the ,anthozoa1 especially of the ,helianthoida1 in a great measure constitute the mass of the coral-reefs and coral-islands of tropical seas4 ,their polypidoms1 whether external or internal1 maintain but little organic connexion with the compound soft substance4 ,these zoophytes increase by gemmation or budding2 some throw up germs from the disk1 as in ,astread2 others laterally1 as in ,caryophillid2 and some spirally along the stem1 as in ,madreporid2 examples of these modes of reproduction are often found in fossil corals4 ,the increase of coral-rocks is produced by the continual formation of new masses1 by the successive generations which spring up as it were from the bodies of their parents2 layer upon layer1 and tier upon tier1 of ,helianthoid polypidoms1 are found to compose many of the coralline limestones of the palozoic formations4 ,fossil ,anthozoa4--,the first group of extinct corals to be noticed under this head is the ,graptolitid1 a family restricted to the ,silurian rocks1 and whose natural affinities have been much questioned2 some palontologists referring them to the ,pennatulid1 or ,sea-pens1 others to the ,sertulariad4#bcb #bcb ,for a full consideration of this subject1 refer to ,prof4 ,mc,coy's ,brit4 ,palozoic ,fossils4 ,sidenote3 ,,graptolites4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #he4 ,graptolites in ,wenlock ,limestone4 7,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst47 ,fig4 #a4--;,graptolites ludensis4#bcc #a;a4--,magnified view of a portion of the same4 #b4--;,graptolites ,murchisoni4 #b;a4--,magnified portion of fig4 #b4 #bcc ,ludensis1 from ,ludlow--to indicate the habitat of the fossils4 ,graptolites4 ,lign4 #he4--,these curious zoophytes abound in many of the ,silurian deposits2 they consist of sessile polype cells1 arranged in one or two rows to a flexible stem1 like the recent ,sertularia1 or ,virgularia4 ,prof4 ,mc,coy refers them to the order ,hydroida4 ,in a recent state these bodies were probably covered with a soft1 or albuminous mass1 studded with polype-cells1 disposed in rows along the margins of the lateral1 curved1 grapple-like processes1 as in the zoophytes termed ,virgularia1#bcd to which one kind bears a great analogy4 ,if two specimens of the ,graptolites ,ludensis be placed together1 so that the elongated smooth edges be in apposition1 the united stems will be seen to offer a general resemblance to the axis of ,virgularia mirabilis4 #bcd ,see ,british ,zoophytes1 pl4 xxiv4 ,m4 ,barrande divides the ,graptolites into three groups or genera1 which are defined as follow3-- ,graptolites 7proper71 a single series of cells united together at the base1 and adhering along the sides nearly to the orifice of each cell1 as in fig4 #a;a4 ,monoprion of ,m4 ,barrande4 ,rastrites4--,the axis reduced to a mere line1 on which the cells are placed at relatively wide intervals1 and but slightly inclined4 ,these two genera are supposed to have been hydroid zoophytes1 and related to the ,sertularid4 ,diprion 7,diplograpsus of ,mr4 ,mc,coy71 cells in two series arranged along a central axis2 these forms present a foliaceous appearance2 they are presumed to resemble the existing genera ,pennatula and ,virgularia4 ,graptolites have been found in strata of the same age in ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,scotland4#bce ,i have received slates literally covered with them1 from the ,silurian rocks of the ,united ,states1 by the kindness of my friend1 ,benjamin ,silliman1 jun4 ,esq4 #bce ,many species of ,graptolites from the ,lower ,silurian rocks of the ,south of ,scotland1 are described and figured by ,mr4 ,harkness in ,geol4 ,journal for #ahej1 vol4 vii4 p4 #eh1 pl4 #a4 ,sir ,r4 ,murchison remarks1 that the nature of the strata in which these remains occur in ,radnorshire1 indicates a condition of the sea1 well suited to the habits of the family of ,pennatulid1 or ,sea-pens2 for the recent species live in mud and slimy sediment1 and the fossils are imbedded in a finely levigated mud-stone1 which1 from its structure1 must have been tranquilly deposited4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i will next describe the single lamellated ,anthozoa1 and afterwards notice those corals which consist of an aggregation of radiated cells1 either frondescent1 or disposed in solid masses4 ,sidenote3 ,,fungia4 ,,anthophyllum4 ,fungia 7,wond4 p4 #fbc74--,the corals thus named1 from their supposed resemblance to fungi1 are of a depressed form1 and have the under surface scabrous2 they are divided above by numerous lamell1 or plates1 which radiate from a central1 oblong depression4 ,when living1 the solid stony polyparium is enclosed in the gelatinous mass by which it was secreted1 and there are numerous tentacula around the central cavity1 or sac4 ,these zoophytes may be compared to the ,actini1 or ,sea-,anemones1 from which they differ only in having a calcareous axis1 while the ,actini have a tough albuminous integument4 7,wond4 pl4 vi4 fig4 #ae1 represents the living animal2 and ,lign4 #ada1 fig4 #b1 p4 #fda1 and ,lign4 #eh1 fig4 #d1 two fossil species74#bcf #bcf ,fungia numismalis4 ,pict1 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxvi4 fig4 #f4 ------ polymorpha4 ,ibid4 pl4 xliii4 fig4 #a--d2 pl4 xlv1 fig4 #aa4 ,anthophyllum ,atlanticum4 ,lign4 #hh4 fig4 #d4--;,in the arenaceous strata of the ,united ,states1 which the researches of ,dr4 ,morton1 of ,philadelphia1 have proved to be the equivalents of the ,european ,cretaceous formation1 a single lamellated coral is not uncommon4 ,it is evidently related to the ,fungi1 and has been named as above by ,dr4 ,morton4 ,turbinolia ,knigi 7,wond4 p4 #cbj74--,polyparium turbinated1 striated externally1 detached1 base not adhering2 cell single1 radiated4 ,this genus occurs in all the fossiliferous deposits3 a small1 well-marked species is frequently met with in the ,galt1 of which subdivision of the cretaceous strata it is a characteristic fossil4 ,it is figured ,wond4 ,lign4 #eh1 figs4 #a1 #b4bcg #bcg ,turbinolia complanata4 ,ibid4 pl4 xxxvi4 fig4 #i4 ---------- mitrata4 ,ibid4 pl4 xxxvi4 fig4 #aj4 ,caryophyllia centralis 7,lign4 #hi figs4 #a1 #b3 ,lign4 #hh1 fig4 #e74--,polyparium turbinated1 or cylindrical1 simple or branched1 longitudinally striated1 fixed by the base2 cells lamellated4#bch #bch ,monocarya 7of ,lonsdale71 ,dixon's ,fossils1 p1 #bdd4 ,a small recent species 7,c4 cyathus71 is very common in the ,mediterranean1 and frequently seen in collections3 it is cyathiform1 and the base by which it is attached to other bodies1 is broad and spreading2 the newer tertiary deposits of ,sicily contain this species in abundance4 ,a ,caryophyllia1 bearing a general resemblance to this species1 is common in the chalk1 and occurs in beautiful preservation 7,wond4 ,lign4 #eh1 fig4 #c74bci #bci ,c4 centralis1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxvi4 figs4 #ae1 #af4 ,c4 annularis1 ibid4 pl4 xxxvii4 fig4 #e4 ,branched ,caryophylli are found in the ,coralline ,oolite and ,dudley ,limestones 7,sil4 ,syst4 pl4 xvi474 ,a large proportion of the ,coral-rag of the ,middle ,oolite is composed of a branched species 7,c4 annularis7 of this genus2 ,lign4 #hh1 fig4 #e1 represents a specimen from near ,faringdon4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #hf4 ,favosites polymorpha4 7,goldfuss47 ,devonian limestone4 ,eifel4 ,fig4 #a4--,portion of a branch of the coral2 nat4 #b4--;,fragment1 slightly magnified1 with part of the surface broken away below1 exposing the central axis1 and radiated arrangement of the cells1 with their lateral pores4 #c4--;,another portion1 magnified1 showing the polype-cells hollow4 ,favosites polymorpha4 ,lign4 #hf4 ,lign4 #hh1 fig4 #c4--,polyparium stony1 polymorphous1 solid internally1 compact1 composed of a congeries of diverging or ascending parallel1 contiguous1 prismatic tubes1 covered by pores1 divided by lamell1 and communicating by lateral foramina4 ,the corals of this extinct genus abounded in the ,silurian and ,devonian seas2 the remains occur with those of other fossil zoophytes of that epoch in great numbers1 both in ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,i have many beautiful examples from the ,silurian rocks of the ,ohio and ,niagara1 by favour of ,dr4 ,owen1 of ,new ,harmony1 and ,dr4 ,yandell1 of ,louisville1 in which the cells are filled up with calcareous spar4 ,the varied markings on many of the ,babbicombe marbles1 and ,torquay pebbles1 are derived from the enclosed ,favosites 7,wond4 p4 #fdc74 ,another species 7,favosites ,gothlandica7 occurs in masses of a subconical shape1 and is common in some of the ,silurian limestones4 ,a fragment1 to show the structure1 is figured ,lign4 #hh1 fig4 #c4 ,sidenote3 ,,catenipora4 ,,syringopora4 ,catenipora 7,wond4 p4 #fdd1 fig4 #c74--,polyparium hemispherical1 composed of vertical anastomosing lamell2 cells tubular1 oval1 terminal1 united laterally4 ,the oval form of the cells when united laterally1 and the flexuous disposition of the lamell1 give rise in transverse sections to elegant catenated markings1 from which appearance the fossil has received the name of chain-coral4#bdj ,the species figured 7,c4 escharoides7 in ,wond4 is common in the ,silurian limestones1 and sometimes forms hemispherical masses more than a foot in diameter4 ,the chain-coral is extensively distributed through the ,silurian rocks of the ,united ,states4 ,coloured figures of this exquisitely beautiful coral are given in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 ,,xxxv4 #bdj ,org4 ,rem4 vol4 ii4 pl4 iii4 figs4 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,syringopora ramulosa4 ,lign4 #hh1 fig4 #b4 7,wond4 p4 #fda47 ,these corals bear a general resemblance to the ,organ-pipe ,coral of ,australia4 ,the polypidom is composed of long1 cylindrical1 vertical tubes1 distant from each other1 and connected by transverse tubular processes2 the cells are deep and radiated by numerous lamell4 ,the external aspect of these fossils is that of a cluster of cylindrical pipes1 more or less parallel1 connected by short transverse branches4 ,they are the ,tubiporites of ,mr4 ,parkinson1 who has given admirable figures of several specimens4#bda ,in these fossil corals that excellent observer first detected the animal membrane4 ,a slab of marble1 whose markings are produced by the section of the inclosed tubes of a ,syringopora1 is represented1 ,wond4 p4 #fdd1 fig4 #b4 ,the ,mountain limestones of ,derbyshire1 and of ,clifton1 on the banks of the ,avon1 contain figured marbles of this kind1 which are manufactured into vases1 tables1 c4 ,the genus is extinct4 #bda ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxv4 fig4 #a4 ,syringopora geniculata1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxiv4 ,lithostrotion ,columnaria 7,wond4 p4 #fda1 fig4 #h74--,polyparium massive1 solid1 composed of aggregated1 contiguous1 parallel1 prismatic tubes1 each terminated by a star3 cells shallow1 multi-radiate1 stelliform4 ,species of this extinct genus are common in the mountain limestone1 in large masses1 which1 from the pentagonal form1 and parallel arrangement of the tubes1 appear like clusters of miniature basaltic columns4#bdb #bdb ,lithostrotion striatum1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxvii4 figs4 #e1 #f4 ,sidenote3 ,,cyathophyllum4 ,cyathophyllum4 ,lign4 #hg1 figs4 #a1 #b4 7,wond4 p4 #fda1 figs4 #a1 #c47--,polyparium turbinated1 simple or compound1 internal structure transversely chambered or lamellated2 cells polygonal1 radiated1 depressed in the centre4 ,the corals of this genus are so abundant in the ,silurian rocks1 that the seas of that epoch must have swarmed with them4 ,the simple turbinated forms are often several inches long1 and being somewhat curved1 have obtained the popular name of petrified rams-horns4 ,upon slitting one of these corals vertically1 as in ,lign4 #hg1 fig4 #a1 the axis of the polyparium1 beneath the cell1 is found to consist of thin transverse partitions1 constituting a series of chambers4 ,in the compound ,cyathophylla1 the germs of young cells1 occupying the disc of a parent cell1 are often met with4 ,fig4 #c represents a group of four germs on the parent cell1 of ,c4 dianthus1 a common and beautiful coral of the ,dudley limestone4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #hg1 ,corals from the ,dudley ,limestone4 7,sil4 ,syst47 ,fig4 #a4--;,cyathophyllum turbinatum3 an oblique longitudinal section1 showing at a the transverse lamell1 or cells1 of the internal structure4 #b4--,the same species4 #c4--;,cyathophyllum dianthus3 a ,specimen1 with four young germs arising from the disc below4 #d4--,the same species1 with four adult cells4 ,these corals are also prevalent in ,south ,devonshire1 and many of the elegant marbles of ,babbicombe are figured by the sections of these polyparia4#bdc #bdc ,cyathophyllum turbinatum1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxvi4 ------------- fungites1 ibid4 pl4 xxxviii4 ,associated with the ,cyathophylla in the ,silurian rocks1 are certain corals that attain considerable magnitude1 and which are principally distinguishable by their internal structure4 ,such are ,cystiphyllum1 constructed of bladder-like cells1 and ,strombodes1 composed of spirally contorted lamell1 or plates 7,sil4 ,syst4 pl4 #af7;bis71 fig4 #d74 ,other hemispherical masses1 presenting on the surface concentric wrinkles1 with very minute pores1 are common at ,dudley1 and belong to the genus ,stromatopora4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #hh4 ,fossil ,corals4 ,upper ,silurian1 ,dudley4#bdd ,fig4 #a4--;,astrea ananas4 #a;a4--,a polished slice of ,marble1 formed of ,astrea pentagona4 ,devonian4 ,torquay4 #b4--,syringopora ramulosa4 ,mt4 ,l4 ,derbyshire4 #c4--;,a ,fragment of ,favosites ,gothlandica4 ,ohio4 7,by ,dr4 ,owen47 #d4--;,anthophyllum ,atlanticum4 ,cret4 ,u4 ,states4 7,by ,dr4 ,morton47 #e4--;,caryophyllia annularis4 ,oolite4 ,faringdon4 #bdd ,figured in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxvii4 fig4 #a4 ,sidenote3 ,,astrea4 ,astrea4 ,lign4 #hh1 figs4 #a1 #a;a4--,polyparium massive1 irregular in shape1 generally globular1 formed by an aggregation of lamellated1 radiated1 shallow1 polymorphous cells4 ,the corals of this genus are very numerous in the seas of the ,tropics1 and there are many species in the ,oolite1 and older secondary formations4 ,the ,astre1 ,caryophylli1 ,cyathophylla1 c41 form the principal mass of the coralline limestones of the ,oolite1 termed the ,coral-rag1 from the abundance of these relics3 being literally composed of an aggregation of large corals1 the interstices of which are filled with shells1 radiaria1 c41 either whole1 or in a comminuted state4 ,the heaps of this limestone placed by the road-side1 in the ,n4 ,w4 of ,berkshire1 appear like fragments of an old coral-reef1 and attract the notice even of the most incurious observer4 ,i have figured a specimen of ,astrea1 ,lign4 #hh1 fig4 #a1 and a polished section1 fig4 #a;a1 from ,clifton1 a locality well known for the stupendous mural precipices of mountain limestone rocks1 which yield beautiful examples of coralline marble4#bde ,the mode of increase of the ,astrea is very curious2 a subdivision takes place in the old cells1 after the manner of the ,infusoria2 and among the fossils1 a star or cell may often be seen in progress of division into two1 three1 or four stars 7,sil4 ,syst4 pl4 xvi4 fig4 #f74 ,a living polype of this genus is figured1 ,wond4 pl4 vi4 fig4 #ac4 #bde ,astrea arachnoides1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxviii4 fig4 #d4 ------ undulata1 ibid1 pl4 xxxviii4 fig4 #aj4 ------ ,tisburiensis ibid4 pl4 xxxviii4 figs4 #ab1 #ac4 ,a species of ,astrea 7,a4 ,tisburiensis4 ,wond4 p4 #fda1 fig4 #i71 is found in large hemispherical masses1 completely silicified1 at ,tisbury1 in ,wiltshire4 ,the transverse surface displays1 in some specimens1 beautiful white radiated stars1 on a dark blue ground2 and in others1 the colours of the stars and ground are reversed4 ,this silicified coral is obtained from a bed of chert1 a foot in thickness1 which is interstratified with the ,portland limestone1 this division of the ,oolite being quarried around ,tisbury4#bdf #bdf ,see ,catalogue of the ,organic ,remains of ,wiltshire1 p4 iv4 by ,miss ,etheldred ,benett4 #dto4 #ahca4 ,in the tertiary clays at ,bracklesham ,bay1 ,sussex1 a beautiful small coral of this type 7,siderastrea ,websteri1 ,dixon's ,foss4 tab4 i1 #e71 is found attached to flint pebbles4 ,several species of this and the following genus1 perfectly silicified1 are found in the state of pebbles and boulders in the superficial soil of ,antigua1 and other islands of the ,west ,indies1 associated with the fossil palms1 described in a former part of this work4 ,some of these corals are of great beauty1 and polished sections exhibit the coralline structure most perfectly4#bdg #bdg ,in the ,spongitenkalk1 at ,nattheim1 near ,heidenheim1 all the corals are replaced by chalcedony4 ,madrepora4--,polyparium arborescent or frondescent1 porous1 fixed2 cells deep1 with twelve rays1 prominent1 irregularly dispersed on the surface1 and accumulated towards the terminations of the coral4 ,the term madreporite1 or fossil madrepore1 was formerly applied to all the branched fossil corals with radiated cells1 but is now restricted to those which possess the above characters4 ,the recent common species1 figured ,wond4 p4 #fbj1 will serve to illustrate this genus4 ,the elevated1 branched ,madrepores1 with minute polygonal cells having twelve rays1 the lamell of which are denticulated1 are termed ,porites1 and are frequent in the ,silurian strata 7,sil4 ,syst474 ,millepora4 ,lign4 #hi4--;,coral ramose2 cells very minute1 distinct1 perpendicular to the surface1 giving the interior a finely striated fracture1 disposed irregularly4 ,there are many fossil species of this genus1 some of which are of considerable size4 ,a small species from the mountain limestone is figured ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #g4bdh #bdh ,millepora1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xl4 fig4 #f4 ,lithodendron4 ,lign4 #gj1 fig4 #c4--,polyparium branched1 formed of deep1 cylindrical1 elongated cells1 which are terminal1 and radiated1 with a prominent central axis4 ,large masses of corals of this genus1 composed of clusters of branches1 are imbedded in the mountain limestone of ,derbyshire1 ,yorkshire1 c42 and a few species occur in the ,coralline ,oolite2 their general configuration will be understood by the figure ,lign4 #gj1 fig4 #c2 but in this specimen the margins of the cells are worn off1 and do not present the original deeply excavated form4#bdi #bdi ,lithodendron fasciculatum1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xxxviii4 ,there is a remarkable specimen of this coral in the ,bristol ,institution 7of which a portion is now placed in the ,museum of ,practical ,geology1 in ,london71 that was discovered by ,mr4 ,samuel ,stutchbury1#bej in a vein of hematitic iron ore4 ,it is a large mass1 in which the entire substance of the coral is transmuted into a metallic ore1 forming one of the most interesting natural electrotypes ,i have ever seen4 ,in this instance1 a block of ,lithodendron must have lain in a vein or fissure of the rock1 and its animal membrane have resisted the action of the gaseous emanations1 or mineral solutions1 while the calcareous polypidom was dissolved1 and the metallic matter deposited atom by atom1 as in the case of pseudo-morphous crystals4 #bej ,now of ,sydney1 ,australia4 ,gorgonia4--,of the flexible anthozoan coral1 which from the flabellated form of the polyparium is generally called ,venus's fan1 and by naturalists ,gorgonia1 a few fossil species have been discovered and determined4 ,from the friable arenaceous limestone beds of ,maestricht1 which abound in corals1 fine specimens of a delicate species are occasionally procured4 ,wond4 p4 #cbj1 fig4 #e1 shows the character of this fossil zoophyte4 ,fossil ,bryozoa4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,bryozoa4 ,the second class of ,polypifera1 the ,bryozoa or ,polyzoa1 are of a much higher order of organization than those which have engaged our attention4 ,the body is not symmetrical1 nor capable of contraction and expansion1 as in the ,anthozoa3 it consists of a digestive cavity or sac1 which is bent on itself and open at both extremities4 ,the outer integument is either membranaceous or horny2 sometimes calcareous4 ,the oral aperture or mouth is surrounded by a circle of tentacula1 from eight to twelve or more in number1 and these tentacles are clothed with vibratile cilia4 7,wond4 p4 #fjf1 the polype of ,flustra pilosa47 ,the polypes in this order never occur singly2 they are always united by a common integument1 but each enjoys an individual existence4 ,the animal can extend its tentacula and protrude the mouth from the cell1 but the rest of the body is incapable of extension or contraction4 ,these polypifera increase by germination4 ,in their organization1 they so closely approach the mollusca1 that in recent zoological systems they are placed in that class4 ,the ciliated character of their tentacula has also led to their being named ,cilio-branchiata4 ,but as it is desirable in a work of this elementary nature to avoid conflicting opinions as much as possible1 the fossil ,bryozoa will be considered as corals1 in the general sense of that term4 ,sidenote3 ,,flustra4 ,,eschara4 ,flustra 7,sea-mat74 ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #d1 #e4--,the polyparium is either membranaceous and flexible1 calcareous and encrusting1 or foliaceous1 composed of cells1 arranged in juxtaposition1 more or less quadrangular1 flat1 with a distinct border1 disposed on a flat surface1 or on opposite surfaces1 as in the ,f4 foliacea4 ,this is one of the most common genera of the encrusting and frondescent zoophytes4 ,the ,flustra consists of a cluster1 or aggregation of polypes1 invisible to the naked eye2 under the microscope1 the polype is found to be a transparent gelatinous body bent on itself1 with a sac or digestive cavity1 having two apertures1 the external margin of which terminates in eight or ten tentacula1 clothed with cilia2 the whole is surrounded by a firm wall1 constituting a cell1 from which the animal can protrude its tentacula and upper part4 7,figures of the living polypes of ,flustr1 ,wond4 p4 #fje1 pl4 vi4 fig4 #f1 #g47 ,many species of ,flustr occur in the ,british strata3 the encrusting forms are attached to echinites1 shells1 c42 the foliaceous are imbedded in chalk1 sand1 sandstone1 c4 ,in ,mr4 ,morris's ,cat4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ten species are enumerated2 none of these are from formations below the ,chalk4 ,i have selected for illustration a ,flustra attached to an echinite from ,lewes4 ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #e1 represents a small portion of the natural size2 and fig4 #d1 a few cells magnified1 to show their form and arrangement4 ,a foliaceous zoophyte1 apparently a bryozoon1 is abundant in the ,sussex and ,kentish chalk1 and is often disposed in angular folds4 ,it is generally of a ferruginous colour1 and1 from its friable texture1 it is probable the original consisted of a membranous polypidom or calcareous substance2 specimens sometimes extend over several square inches of the chalk4 ,it is common in the chalk-pit at ,off ham1 near ,lewes4#bea #bea ,in my ,south ,down ,fossils1 pl4 xv4 fig4 #f1 a specimen of this kind is described as a ,ventriculite1 ,v4 quadrangularis4 ,an admirable lignograph of a remarkable example is given by ,mr4 ,toulmin ,smith1 under the name of ,brachiolites angularis2 it presents ten deep1 flat1 angular folds1 and has radicle and lateral processes2 see ,on the ,ventriculid1 p4 #ic4 ,eschara4#beb--;,in these zoophytes the polyparium is encrusting or foliaceous1 calcareous and brittle2 the cells are thickened on their outer margins1 and have a small1 depressed1 round aperture4 ,they are arranged in two series of planes1 adhering together1 the cells on each surface exactly corresponding4 #beb ,so named from a supposed resemblance to an eschar4 ,species of ,eschar are found either in flints1 or attached to echinites1 and other bodies2 they have the appearance of patches of flustr1 but with a lens may be distinguished by the symmetrical juxtaposition of the cells on the opposite sides of the polyparium4 ,illustration3 ,ellen ,maria ,mantell1 ad nat4 delt4 ,lign4 #hi4 ,corals from the ,chalk and ,mountain ,limestone4 ,fig4 #a4--;,carophyllia centralis2 nat4 7,g4 ,a4 ,m47 ,cret4 ,lewes4 #b4--;,front view of half the disc of the same4 #c4--,two cells of ,crisia ,johnstoniana4 4 #d4--,magnified view of six cells of the ,flustra1 fig4 #e4 #e4--;,a portion of an encrusting ,flustra2 nat4 ,cret4 ,chichester4 #f4--;,idmonea 7,dixoniana7 cretacea2 nat4 ,cret4 ,lewes4 ,the figure on the left shows the under surface2 that on the right1 the upper surface1 with a row of polype-cells on each margin3 a portion magnified is given fig4 #ab4 #g4--,millepora rhombifera4 4 ,mt4 ,l4 ,ph4 ,yorks4 ,the small figure on the left is of the natural size4 #h4--,pustulopora pustulosa4 4 ,cret4 ,chichester4 ,the small figure on the left1 nat4 #i4--;,homsolen ramulosus4 4 ,cret4 ,dover4 ,the left-hand figure1 nat4 #aj4--;,crisia 787 ,johnstoniana4 7,g4 ,a4 ,m47 #bej linear4 ,s4 s4 ,maidstone4 #aj;b4--,two cells of the coral1 fig4 #aj1 seen in profile1 4 #aa4--;,homsolen ramulosus2 nat4 ,cret4 ,lewes4 #ab4--;,idmonea ,dixoniana2 a portion of fig4 #f4 4 #ac4--,retepora laxa4 ,mt4 ,l4 ,ph4 ,yorks4 #ac4--;,a portion of the same 4 #ad4--;,idmonea ,comptoniana4 4 7,g4 ,a4 ,m47 ,chalk1 ,chichester4 7,mr4 ,walter ,mantell47 ,the small figure on the right is of the natural size4 ,sidenote3 ,,microscopic ,,fossil ,,bryozoa4 ,crisia ,johnstoniana4 ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #c1 #aj1 #aj;b4--,the minute recent corals thus designated are allied to ,flustra1 but separated from that genus by the cells being disposed in a single series1 and united by connecting tubes4 ,i notice this genus to direct attention to a very curious polypidom from the ,greensand of ,maidstone1 presented to me by ,mr4 ,bensted4 ,the specimen is attached to a fragment of shell4 ,the cells1 five of which are represented1 fig4 #aj1 are elliptical1 with the aperture above1 and towards one extremity2 they are united by very slender1 hollow filaments3 fig4 #c1 two of the cells seen from above #bej linear2 fig4 #aj;b the same seen in profile4#bec ,i have named this species ,c4 ,johnstoniana1 as a tribute of respect to the author of the admirable works on ,british ,zoophytes1 previously noticed4 #bec ,i refer this fossil to the genus ,crisia with some hesitation2 perhaps ,hippathoea would be more correct1 but all the described species of the latter are branched4 ,the fragmentary relics of numerous minute and elegant corals1 constitute a considerable portion of the mass of some of the white chalk strata2 several genera of these zoophytes are figured in ,mr4 ,dixon's beautiful work1 and described by ,mr4 ,lonsdale4 ,attached to the surface of shells1 c41 and sometimes standing erect in little crannies1 or hollows1 of the flints1 many beautiful corals may often be detected with the aid of a lens4 ,by brushing chalk in cold water1 and examining the deposit1 the student will probably discover several of the species figured in ,lign4 #hi1 which we proceed to describe4 ,retepora 7,lace-,coral74 ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #ac4--;,a very thin calcareous polyparium1 disposed like net-work in foliaceous and branching plates2 cells opening either on the upper or inner side4 ,these are an elegant tribe of corals1 of which many species occur in the ,chalk formation at ,maestricht1 in the white-chalk of ,england1 in the mountain limestone of ,yorkshire1 7,phil4 ,york471 and in the ,silurian deposits 7,sil4 ,syst474 ,it may be useful to state1 that in the description of the fossil retepores1 the openings in the net-work are called fenestrules--the spaces between the ends1 dissepiments--and those between the fenestrules1 interstices4 ,a delicate fossil retepore from the mountain limestone of ,yorkshire 7,r4 flexa71 is figured ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #ac4 ,fenestrella4--,cells very small1 indistinct externally1 with small prominent openings2 polyparium stony1 fixed at the base1 composed of branches1 which inosculate by growth1 and form a cup4 ,numerous delicate corals1 formerly arranged as ,retepor1 occur in the ,silurian rocks1 and have been placed in this genus by ,mr4 ,lonsdale4 7,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #fgg47 ,petalpora pulchella4#bed ,lign4 #fi1 fig4 #a4--,this beautiful cretaceous coral is tubular1 free except at the base2 framework composed of vertical lamin1 with an intermediate foraminated structure2 apertures to the tubular cavities distributed over the surface2 exterior varying with age4 ,it has slender round dichotomous branches1 and the polyparium when entire must have formed an elegant plexus of coral4 ,a layer an inch thick1 full of branches of this zoophyte1 is exposed on the face of the chalk cliffs1 near ,dover2 and beautiful masses1 several inches square1 made up of this coral1 ,idmonea and ,pustulopora1 may be obtained4 ,the microscopic specimen figured in ,lign4 #fi1 was obtained with many other corals by washing chalk with a brush1 and examining the detritus deposited4 #bed ,mr4 ,lonsdale4 ,dixon's ,fossils1 p4 #bhe4 ,pustulopora4 ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #h4--;,another very common tubular branched coral of the ,dover chalk2 the tubes are cylindrical1 their apertures are arranged in annular or spiral rows1 and slightly projecting1 giving a pustulous appearance to the stem and branches4 ,specimens covering a piece of chalk six or eight inches wide1 and a foot long1 have been discovered4 ,the example figured is a very minute branch4 ,homsolen ramulosus4#bee ,lign4 #hi1 figs4 #i1 #aa4--,this delicate branched coral is formed of large and small tubes variously intermingled1 both inclined in the same direction1 partially visible on the surface1 or wholly concealed1 limited to one side of the coral2 mouths simple tubular extremities2 back without pores1 composed of a continuous lamina4#bef #bee ,homsolen1 from 1 similar2 and 1 a tube4 #bef ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 in ,dixon's ,fossils1 p4 #cjg1 tab4 xviii4 ,b4 figs1 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,the elegant coral1 fig4 #aa1 ,lign4 #hi1 is thus named by ,mr4 ,lonsdale2 it resembles his fig4 #d4 ,the fossil1 fig4 #i1 ,lign4 #hi1 though very different in its branching1 and in the surface1 which is covered with pores1 is evidently identical with fig4 #c of ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 which he refers to the same species4 ,idmonea1 ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #f4--;,in this elegant coral the polyparium is calcareous1 branched1 porous2 the cells distinct1 prominent1 arranged in single rows1 more or less inclined1 on each side a median line on the inner face only4 ,the genus is extinct4 ,a beautiful species of ,idmonea1 of which a small branch is figured in ,lign4 #hi1 abounds in the chalk of ,kent and ,sussex2 it often forms a cluster1 two or three inches in circumference4 ,the surface of the stems is covered with minute pores1 and the cells are distinct1 and placed in single rows2 the left-hand figure of fig4 #f shows the plain surface1 and that on the right1 the opposite and inner1 each margin of which is garnished with a row of cells2 a portion magnified is represented fig4 #ab4beg #beg ,in the former edition of this work1 ,i named this species ,i4 ,dixoniana1 to commemorate the researches of my late friend1 ,frederic ,dixon1 ,esq41 of ,worthing1 who had formed an interesting collection of chalk fossils1 and announced a work on the ,zoology of the ,chalk ,formation1 to be richly illustrated with figures of many undescribed organic remains4 ,it appears that a species1 supposed to be identical1 had been previously named by ,mr4 ,milne ,edwards1 ,i4 cretacea4 ,see ,dixon's ,foss4 tab4 xviii4 ,a4 fig4 #e1 p4 #bha4 ,mr4 ,lonsdale places it in a new genus1 with the name of ,desmeopora semicylindrica4 ,it will convey some idea to the unscientific reader1 of the labour bestowed on this department of palontology1 to learn that the description and identification of but #be species of minute corals1 represented on three plates1 occupy ninety pages of close printing in royal #dto4 of ,mr4 ,dixon's work4 ,idmonea ,comptoniana1#beh ,lign4 #hi1 fig4 #ad4--,this is a very small and remarkable coral2 it is dichotomous1 cylindrical1 with elongated distinct cells1 which are disposed in triplets1 at regular distinct intervals1 on one side of the stem4 #beh ,this specific name is in honour of the noble and highly respected ,president of the ,royal ,society1 the ,marquess of ,northampton4 #ahdd4 ,we have now described all the fossil corals figured in ,lign4 #hi2 and have shown what interesting organisms may be detected in a few grains of calcareous earth4 ,it would be easy to give restored figures of the beings whose stony skeletons are the subject of these remarks1 from their close resemblance to existing species2 every pore and cell might be represented fraught with life2 here the agile inmates1 with their little arms fully expanded1 and in rapid motion2 there retreating within their recesses1 and devouring the infinitesimal living atoms that constitute their food2 or rapidly shrinking up their tentacula upon the approach of danger2 even their varied colours might be introduced1 and thus the beautiful and highly interesting picture drawn by the imagination1 of a group of living zoophytes of the ancient chalk ocean1 be presented to the eye4 ,although1 for convenience1 ,i have selected the above examples principally from the cretaceous strata1 the reader must not suppose that other deposits are not equally prolific in these remains4 ,the ,coral-rag of the ,oolite1 many beds of the ,mountain limestone1 and those of ,dudley and ,wenlock of the ,silurian ,system1 contain myriads of minute polypidoms associated with the coralline masses of which we have already treated4 ,exquisite figures of the ,silurian corals1 by ,mr4 ,scharf1 are given in ,sil4 ,syst4 pl4 xv4 xvi4 and described by ,mr4 ,lonsdale4 ,a slab of the ,dudley limestone often has the entire surface studded with minute corals of many species and genera1 lying in bold relief1 and in an admirable state of preservation4 ,verticillipora 7,lign4 #gj1 fig4 #d4 ,lign4 #gb1 fig4 #c74--;,cells poriform1 arranged in meshes on the surface of convex imbricating plates round a hollow axis1 forming a fixed1 irregular1 subcylindrical polyparium4 ,lign4 #gj1 fig4 #d1 represents a coral often met with in the gravel-pits at ,faringdon1 7ante1 p4 #bbh17 which is referred by ,mr1 ,morris to this genus4 ,it is composed of short cylindrical anastomosing tubular branches1 emanating from an expanded base1 divided internally by transverse parallel plates1 covered with exceedingly minute pores or cells1 disposed in meshes2 the plates surround a hollow axis2 the structure is well shown in the figure4 ,lunulites4 ,lign4 #gj4--,the polyparium is stony1 orbicular1 convex above1 concave below2 concavity radiated2 convexity covered with cells1 arranged in concentric circles on diverging stri4 ,a species of this coral is often found in the chalk3 ,lign4 #gj1 fig4 #a1 represents a specimen from the ,south ,downs1 discovered by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell4 ,the natural affinities of this genus are not determined with precision2 but ,i have placed it with the ,bryozoa in accordance with the opinion of ,m4 de ,blainville4 ,it is an elegant white coral1 and easily recognized among the minute organisms of the chalk4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,distribution ,,of ,,fossil ,,bryozoa4 ,geological ,distribution of ,fossil ,zoophytes4--,although the geological distribution of fossil zoophytes affords less striking phenomena than that of the vegetable kingdom1 yet some interesting reflections are suggested by the facts we have thus cursorily noticed4 ,we find that in the most ancient seas of which any vestiges of their inhabitants remain1 these forms of vitality existed1 and produced the same physical results as at the present time2 giving rise to coral-reefs1 and banks of coral-limestones1 and largely contributing to the solid materials of the crust of the globe4 ,nearly #djj ,british species are enumerated by ,mr4 ,morris1 and the list has subsequently been greatly extended by the labours of ,phillips1 ,portlock1 ,lonsdale1 ,mc,coy1 ,milne ,edwards1 and other eminent naturalists4 ,the ,tertiary formations afford numerous species of ,caryophylli1 ,flustr1 ,eschar1 ,spongia1 c42 and the ,crag1 several genera that are as yet but imperfectly determined4 ,the older ,tertiary1 or ,eocene deposits1 contain ,turbinoli1 ,astre1 ,fungi1 ,meandrin1 and species of other genera1 the recent types of which are inhabitants of tropical seas4 ,the zoophytes of the ,british ,chalk have been illustrated in detail by ,mr4 ,lonsdale in ,dixon's ,cretaceous and ,tertiary ,fossils of the ,south-,east of ,england2 and by ,dr4 ,milne ,edwards in the ,monographs of the ,palontological ,society4 ,in the ,maestricht deposits1 lamelliferous corals1 as ,astre1 ,fungi1 ,meandrin1 c4 prevail1 and may be extracted from the friable arenaceous limestones in a fine state of preservation4 ,in the ,white ,chalk and ,greensand of this country1 the ,spongites and allied genera are abundant1 and associated with ,caryophylli1 ,astre1 and many forms of ,bryozoa4 ,but in the cretaceous formation of ,england1 no coral-reefs are observable2 the zoophytal remains1 with but a few local exceptions1 occur promiscuously intermingled with the fishes1 shells1 ,radiaria1 and other marine exuvi2 although many layers1 or thin seams of chalk and marl1 are largely composed of the detritus of corals1 like the modern deposits of the ,bermudas 7,wond4 p4 #fac74 ,these phenomena are in accordance with the lithological characters of the ,white ,chalk strata1 and the nature of its mollusca1 both of which indicate a deep sea2 and coral-reefs are only formed at moderate depths4 ,but in regions where the sea was shallow1 during the deposition of the cretaceous rocks1 beds of coral limestone were produced2 and these also contain littoral 7sea-shore7 shells1 associated with the usual sponges and zoophytes 7,wond4 p4 #fac74 ,in the marine secondary formations antecedent to the cretaceous1 namely1 the ,lias and ,oolite1 coral-reefs1 which appear to have undergone no change save that of elevation from the bottom of the sea1 and the consolidation of their materials by mineral infiltrations1 demonstrate a condition of the ocean in our latitudes1 which is now only met with in the tropics 7,wond4 p4 #fad74 ,the limestones of the ,carboniferous1 ,devonian1 and ,silurian formations1 abound in anthozoan corals1 and among them are many kinds of ,cyathophyllum1 ,lithododendra1 ,syringopora1 ,catenipora1 ,graptolites1 c41 which are characteristic of these deposits4 ,the ,silurian zoophytes are figured in ,sil4 ,syst42 and the splendid works on the ,british ,palozoic ,fossils1 by ,prof4 ,sedgwick and ,prof4 ,mc,coy1 now in course of publication1 contain many admirable figures of new1 or but imperfectly known species4 ,the extensive beds of coralline limestones1 which are found in the ,silurian strata1 wherever they occur1--for the limestones of this system in ,north ,america are characterized by the same species of corals as those of ,england1--seem to indicate that a more equal temperature prevailed throughout the ocean1 at that geological epoch1 than at the present time1 when the geographical distribution of the coral zoophytes is strictly limited by temperature4 ,the reef-forming genera are now confined to waters where the temperature is not below #gj2 their most prolific development being #gf4 ,the apparent exception1 the occurrence of coral-reefs at the ,bermudas1 is found to depend upon proximity to the ,gulf ,stream 7,wond4 p4 #fad71 which brings down the thermal waters of the tropics1 and increases the local temperature of the sea in those localities4#bei #bei ,mr4 ,deane's splendid and masterly work on ,corals1 should be studied by those who wish to be acquainted with the present state of this branch of natural history4 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,corals4 ,on ,collecting ,fossil ,corals4--,few instructions are required for the collection of fossil zoophytes2 for as the most important characters of the several kinds have been pointed out in the previous descriptions1 the student will be able to select illustrative specimens for his cabinet4 ,the minute corals1 c4 of the ,chalk1 and other limestones1 are to be obtained by the same process as that directed for the discovery and preservation of the foraminifera1 and other microscopic organisms1 at the end of the next chapter4 ,the larger examples should be left attached to a piece of chalk1 when practicable1 and the surrounding stone removed with a knife or graver1 so as to expose as much of the fossil as may be required for the display of its characters1 without loosening its attachment to the block4 ,when the investing chalk is very hard1 frequently pencilling the specimen with vinegar1 or dilute hydrochloric acid1 will soften the stone1 and render its removal easy1 by means of a soft brush3 when acid is employed1 the specimen must afterwards be well rinsed in cold water4#bfj #bfj ,it may be well to caution the collector against employing sulphuric acid 7commonly called oil of vitriol7 for this purpose1 for a white insoluble deposit 7sulphate of lime7 will thus be formed on the specimen1 and its appearance irremediably injured4 ,many of the fossil corals obtained from the chalk of ,dover ,cliffs1 are so saturated with muriate of soda1 from long exposure to the spray of the sea1 as to be liable to decomposition in the course of a few weeks1 and are therefore not worth purchasing of the dealers4 ,the zoophytes that are in part flint1 and part chalk1 as the ,ventriculites1 7ante1 p4 #bdd1 ,lign4 #ha17 can rarely be obtained1 except through the quarrymen who have been instructed how to extract them from the rock4 ,the first specimen of this kind that came under my notice1 ,i discovered while breaking a mass of chalk1 in search of fungiform flints2 when1 to my great delight1 ,i found the fossil1 ,lign4 #ha1 fig4 #c1 by which at once1 and for the first time1 was shown the connexion between the chalk specimens1 ,lign4 #h1 figs4 #a1 #b1 and the flints figured in ,lign4 #h1 figs4 #b1 #c1 #f1 #g1 #h4 ,upon showing this fossil to the quarrymen1 and exciting their attention by suitable rewards1 ,i obtained the illustrative series now in the ,british ,museum4#bfa ,much light would be thrown on the nature of other zoophytes of the chalk that are invested with flint1 if due care were taken in the collection of specimens1 and they were examined before extracted from the rock4 ,loose1 delicate specimens1 whether from the chalk or tertiary strata1 should be affixed with strong gum-water to cards1 or pieces of thin board1 covered with coloured paper4 #bfa ,petrifactions1 ,room ,,vi4 p4 #dff4 ,the ,greensand ,spongites1 ,siphoni1 c4 may often be extracted from the rock tolerably perfect1 by a well-directed blow of the hammer2 but fragile species should be left attached to a block1 and the surrounding stone be carefully chiselled away1 so as to expose the most essential characters4 ,the ,faringdon zoophytes are1 for the most part1 encrusted by an aggregation of minute polyparia1 shells1 and detritus1 which may be partially removed by washing with a stiff brush1 and their cavities cleared with a stout penknife1 removing the extraneous matter by chipping1 not by scraping1 or the surface will be injured4 ,in this manner the beautiful specimens figured1 ante1 p4 #bbh1 were developed4 ,the ,corals in the hard limestones can seldom be chiselled out to advantage2 for the most part1 polished sections best exhibit the form and structure of the originals4 ,weather-worn or water-worn masses of coral limestone often display the structure of the zoophytes of which they are in a great measure composed1 in a beautiful state of sculpture and relief3 the silicified or calcified corals appearing as perfect as if fresh from the sea4 ,the mural rocks of coral limestone at ,florence ,court1 the seat of the ,earl of ,enniskillen1 are in many parts encrusted1 as it were1 with syringopora and other tubular corals1 laid bare uninjured by the long and insensible effect of atmospheric erosion4 ,a beautiful illustration of the old aphorism1--,aqua cavat lapidem non vi sed spe cadendo1--is afforded by the splendid examples of catenipor1 fungi1 caryophill1 sculptured in alto-relievo on the face of the ,silurian rocks over which dash the rapids at the ,falls of the ,ohio4 ,the silicified zoophytes of the ,west ,indies1 and those from ,ava and the ,sub-,himalayas1 form beautiful subjects for the microscope2 and chips1 or sections1 should be prepared in the manner recommended for fossil wood in the same state of mineralization4 ,sidenote3 ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,zoophytes4 ,british localities4--,the gravels and sands of the ,crag afford most favourable sites for obtaining tertiary zoophytes4 ,in the ,london clay at ,bracklesham ,bay1 a species of ,astrea 7,a4 ,websteri7 is often met with attached to flints and pebbles4 ,in the ,greensand of ,atherfield1 in the ,isle of ,wight1 an elegant coral 7,astrea elegans7 is by no means rare4 ,the ,greensand gravel-pits1 near ,faringdon1 in ,berkshire1 abound1 as already mentioned1 7ante1 p4 #bbh17 in many kinds of sponges1 and other porifera2 and the quarries of oolitic limestone in the vicinity of that town1 yield the usual corals of the ,jurassic formation in great profusion1 ,i know of no locality richer in fossil zoophytes1 than ,faringdon4#bfb #bfb ,see ,excursion1 ,part ,,iv4 of this work4 ,the quarries of that division of the ,oolite called ,coral-rag 7as in the north-west of ,berkshire1 ,oxfordshire1 ,gloucestershire1 c471 afford the usual corals of the ,oolite4 ,the ,oolite near ,bath contains many species1 and large masses of a minute coral 7,eunomia radiata71 are abundant4 ,at ,steeple ,ashton1 in ,wiltshire1 numerous oolitic corals may be obtained4 ,the silicified ,astre1 of ,tisbury1 in the same county1 deserve particular notice 7ante1 p4 #bfc74 ,clifton1 near ,bristol1 and ,torquay and ,babbicombe1 on the ,devonshire coast1 are celebrated for their coralline marbles and pebbles2 and many of the ,derbyshire limestones are equally prolific in similar remains4 ,the ,devonian marbles are so largely employed for ornamental purposes1-- as brooches1 tables1 and side-boards1--that the figures produced by the sections of the enclosed corals must be familiar to the reader4#bfc #bfc ,specimens of these fossil corals1 either as objects of natural history1 or as ornaments1 may be obtained of ,mr4 ,tennant1 #adi1 ,strand4 ,dudley1 ,wenlock1 and ,ludlow1 are well known for the abundance and variety of ,silurian polyparia4 ,other localities of ,british corals have been mentioned in the course of this review of fossil zoophytes4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,fossil ,,stellerid2 ,,comprising ,,the ,,crinoidea ,,or ,,lily-,,like ,,animals2 ,,and ,,the ,,asteriad1 ,,or ,,star-,,fishes4 ,the ,radiata1 or radiated animals1 so designated because the parts of which the body is composed are arranged around a common centre or axis1 are divided into three sub-classes2 namely1 #a1 the ,polypifera1 whose fossil remains were treated of in the previous chapter2 #b4 the ,acalepha1 or ,jelly-fishes1 whose structures are so perishable as to render it improbable that any vestiges of them will be found in a fossil state1 though imprints of the general outline of certain kinds may possibly occur2#bfd and1 #c1 the ,echinodermata1 comprehending under that term the ,stellerid1 or ,crinoids and ,star-fishes1 and the ,echinoderms1 properly so called4 ,this sub-class is the subject of the present section2 it comprises four orders1 viz4 ,crinoidea1 or ,lily-like ,animals4 ,asteriad1 or ,star-fishes4 ,echinid1 or ,sea-urchins4 ,holothuriad1 or ,sea-slugs4 #bfd ,the impression of an ,acaleph resembling an quorea 7a kind of ,medusa71 is stated by ,m4 ,pictet to have been observed in a slab of schistose rock1 in ,germany4 ,vestiges of the ,stellerida are among the earliest relics of animal organization hitherto discovered4 ,many kinds of ,crinoidea abound in the ,silurian rocks1 and one genus of ,star-fishes occurs in the same deposits3 the ,echinid first appear in the ,devonian formation4 ,the ,echinodermata possess the radiated type of structure in an eminent degree2 especially the ,asterioid and the ,echinid1 of which the common ,star-fish1 and ,sea-urchin1 are familiar examples4 ,the external integument or skin is in many kinds protected by spines1 7hence the name ,echinoderms or spiny-skin17 and perforated by numerous foramina for the imbibition and transmission of sea-water1 and for the protection of minute soft tubular processes 7called pseudopodia71 which constitute organs of adhesion and locomotion4 ,the first two orders have endo-skeletons1 composed of numerous ossicula or little calcareous bones3 in the third order1 the ,echinid1 the body is inclosed in a calcareous case or shell1 formed of numerous plates closely adjusted to each other2 in the fourth order1 the ,sea-slugs1 the body has only a tough outer integument without movable spines4 ,diversified in form and external appearance as are the ,invertebrata thus grouped together1 they are naturally related by their organization4 ,the ,crinoidea may be regarded as ,star-fishes fixed to one spot by a jointed stem2 the ,star-fishes as free ,crinoidea2 the ,echinid as ,star-fishes with the rays coalesced and united into a globular or spherical case2 and the ,holothuri1 as elongated ,sea-urchins1 destitute of spines1 and without a calcareous envelop4 ,sidenote3 ,,crinoidea4 ,crinoidea4--,the animals of this order are subdivided into families and genera according to the number1 form1 and arrangement of the plates composing the calcareous case or receptacle1 and the structure of the arms and column4 ,in one living family1 the ,comatulid1 the body is free2 and in one fossil genus1 the ,marsupite1 the animal is capable of locomotion through the water4 ,the essential character of the ,crinoidea1#bfe--so named because the receptacle and anus of some kinds resemble when in repose a closed lily or tulip1--are well exemplified in the recent ,pentacrinus2 the only known living form that is identical in structure with the numerous extinct tribes1 that swarmed in the seas of the palozoic and secondary ages4 #bfe ,from 1 crinon1 lily1 and 1 eidos1 a form4 ,the ,pentacrinus 7,f4 caput-medus1 ,wond4 p4 #fdg71 is an inhabitant of the ,caribbean ,sea1 and but rarely obtained2 there are specimens in the ,british ,museum#bff and in the ,hunterian ,collection of the ,college of ,surgeons4 #bff ,petrifactions1 p4 #gg4 ,this animal has a long stem or column1 which is composed of pentagonal calcareous plates or ossicula1 articulated to each other by radiated surfaces1 and is fixed by the base to a rock1 or other firm body4 ,the column supports a vasiform receptacle or cup1 formed of calcareous plates in close apposition2 in which the digestive and other viscera are situated4 ,the upper part of the receptacle is covered by an integument in which there is an aperture for the mouth4 ,from the margin or brim proceed ten multi-radiate arms1 which subdivide into branches of extreme tenuity4 ,on the upper and inner side of the arms are numerous articulated feelers or pinn4 ,the ova are situated externally on and near the base of the arms1 as in the ,comatulid2 a family of living ,star-fishes1 or more properly ,crinoids1 which have a receptacle1 surrounded by articulated and multi-radiate arms1 but are free animals1 being destitute of a column4 ,in the living state of ,pentacrinus1 the skeleton--for such are the specimens in our museums--was of course covered and concealed by the soft integuments and tissues by which it was secreted4 ,the ossicula composing the stem are pentangular1 and very numerous2 they have a central perforation1 and their articulating surfaces are ornamented by pentapetalous striations4 ,there are numerous side-arms sent off from the column in groups of five1 at uncertain distances4 ,the mouth is situated in the centre of a plated integument spread over the top of the receptacle4 ,the arms1 which arise from the margin of the latter1 surround the mouth1 and when spread out1 with their numerous pinn or feelers expanded1 form a net for the capture of prey2 and are the organs by which the animal obtains food1 and conveys it to the mouth4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,crinoidea4 ,fossil ,crinoidea4--,the fossil crinoids1 like the recent prototype above described1 consist of an articulated column1 and a receptacle formed of calcareous plates1 and articulated arms or tentacula4 ,they constitute two groups2 the ,encrinites1 in which the ossicula of the column are subcylindrical and smooth2 and the ,pentacrinites1 with a stem composed of pentangular ossicles1 as in the living ,pentacrinus4 ,the petrified remains consist of the ossicula of the column1 arms1 and tentacula2 of the plates of the receptacle2 and of the peduncle1 or process of attachment by which the animal was fixed to the rock4 ,the peduncle is in some species flat and expanded1 like that of the ,gorgonia2 in others1 it consists of long jointed processes4 ,these several parts are commonly found detached1 and intermingled with detritus in the strata2 throughout extensive beds of encrinital marble1 vestiges of the receptacle are but seldom discoverable4 ,in some localities the skeletons are preserved entire1 and lie expanded on the surface of the layers of shale1 clay1 or limestone1 as if the animals had been enveloped by the soft deposit when alive in their native seas4 ,these remarks will serve to convey a general idea of the nature of the crinoidal remains which are scattered through certain rocks in such inconceivable quantities2 for1 much as the columns may differ in form1 the ossicula in their markings1 and the plates of the receptacle in their configuration and ornament1 the same general type of structure prevails throughout the family4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ij4 ,stems of ,encrinites and ,pentacrinites4 ,fig4 #a4--,screw or ,pulley-stone4 ,derbyshire4 #b1 #d4--;,articulating surfaces of ,encrinital ossicula4 #c1 #e4--;,entrochites1 or portions of stems of ,encrinites4 #f1 #h1 #aj4--,portions of ,pentacrinital stems4 #g1 #i4--;,articulating surfaces of ossicula of ,pentacrinites4 ,fossil ,stems and ,ossicula of ,crinoidea4--7,bd4 pl4 xlix-lii4 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlvii47--,the detached ossicula and stems are so common in many places1 that they attracted the notice of the earlier collectors1 by whom the single pieces were termed trochites 7wheel-stones71 and the united series entrochites4 ,in the north of ,england these fossils are called ,fairy-stones1 and the circular perforated ossicula ,saint ,cuthbert's beads2 the latter were worn as ornaments by the ancient ,britons1 and are occasionally found in tumuli4 ,these petrifactions present considerable variety in form1 and in the markings on their articulating surfaces1 which are often radiated and sculptured in floriform and stellular figures 7,lign4 #ij1 fig4 #g1 #i1 and ,lign4 #ia1 fig4 #c1 #d74 ,the central perforation is small in some species1 and large and pentagonal in others4 ,the ossicula of the ,encrinites often vary in size in the same column1 being circular and elliptical1 and thick or thin1 alternately1 as in the upper part of the column of the ,lily ,encrinite1 ,lign4 #ia1 fig4 #f2 by which great flexibility and freedom of motion were obtained4 ,the pentagonal stems also display many modifications2 some have five1 others but four sides 7,lign4 #ij1 fig4 #f1 #h1 #aj1 and #ia1 fig4 #g1 #i72 in some the angles are acute1 in others rounded4 ,pulley-stones4 ,lign4 #ij1 fig4 #a4--,the circular1 or pentagonal channel formed by the united ossicula of the column1 has given rise to the curious fossils called in ,derbyshire the ,screw1 or ,pulley-stones1 which are flint casts of those cavities that occur in the beds of chert1 interstratified with the mountain limestone4 ,the siliceous matter1 when fluid1 must have filled up the channel and invested the stem3 the original calcareous ossicles have since been dissolved1 and the casts1 now solid cylinders of flint1 resembling a pulley1 remain4 ,the masses of chert are often impressed with the ornamented articulating surfaces of the trochites4 ,in the quarries on ,middleton ,moor1 near ,cromford1 ,derbyshire1 where extensive beds of limestone composed of crinoideal remains are worked for chimney-pieces and other ornamental purposes1 beautiful examples of these fossils may be obtained4#bfg ,the cavities of the column and ossicles are often filled with white calcareous spar1 while the ground of the marble is of a dark reddish brown colour2 in other varieties of the ,derbyshire encrinital limestones1 the substance of the fossils is white1 and the ground dark grey or brown1#bfh ,a slab of this marble1 with portions of columns lying in relief1 and a polished section showing the inclosed entrochites1 are figured ,wond4 p4 #fej4bfi #bfg ,see ,excursions around ,matlock1 ,part ,,iv4 of this work4 #bfh ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlix4 figs4 #a1 #c1 #f4 #bfi ,upwards of #hj figures of ,encrinital remains are given in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlvii4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ia4 ,illustrations of ,crinoidea4 ,fig4 #a4--;,group of ,living ,comatul2 nat4 7,dr4 ,thompson47 #a;a4--,a single ,comatula of the same group1 magnified4 #b4--,pentremites pyriformis4 ,silurian1 ,ohio4 #c1 #d4--,surfaces of two pentapetalous ossicula4 #e4--;,a single ,ossicle of an ,apiocrinus4 ,chalk4 #f4--;,encrinus liliiformis2 the receptacle with part of the column attached2 #a_/b nat4 ,from ,brunswick4 #g4--,pentacrinital stem with four angles4 #h4--;,entrochite1 composed of five smooth ossicles4 #i4--,quadrangular stem of seven ossicles4 #aj4--;,cyathocrinus tuberculatus4 7,sil4 ,syst47 #aa4--,receptacle of ,bourqueticrinus2 from the ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,the receptacle which contained the viscera is extremely diversified in form1 and in the number1 shape1 and arrangement of its plates3 the annexed figure #b1 ,lign4 #ib1 illustrates the several pieces that enter into its composition4 ,the genera1 or sub-genera1 are based on the modifications of shape and structure of the receptacle2 and their names are composed of the termination crinus1 or crinites 7signifying stone-lily71 with a term prefixed expressive of the generic character3 thus we have ,apiocrinus1 or ,apiocrinites1 ,pear ,encrinite4#bgj #bgj ,the termination crinus is now generally employed1 instead of crinites2 the latter is preferable1 as it indicates the fossil nature of the specimens4 ,a more expressive name than ,encrinite was suggested by ,mr4 ,martin1 of ,derbyshire2 that of ,stylastrit or ,column-,stars4 ,the receptacle being round and inflated1 and composed of pieces articulated with the stems1 and supporting the arms by similar articulations1 are the generic characters of ,apiocrinites of ,miller4 ,when round but not inflated--,encrinus1 when pentagonal1 ,pentacrinus4 ,when the receptacle is composed of angular plates united at the edges and forming several series or stages1 it constitutes the basis of the following genera3 viz1-- ,platycrinus2 two series1 the one of three1 the other of five plates4 ,pateriocrinus2 three series each of five plates4 ,cyathocrinus2 three series of five plates1 the last with five intercalated pieces4 ,actinocrinus2 several series of plates3 the first composed of three1 the second of five1 and the others of many pieces4 ,rhodocrinus2 several series of plates that are covered externally with radiated ridges4 ,the first course consists of three1 the second of five1 the third of ten1 and the others of many plates4 ,eugeniacrinus2 of five pieces united into one receptacle4 ,this brief explanation will enable the student to comprehend the nature of the almost infinite variety of figure and ornament which the fossil crinoidea present1 and the principles of nomenclature generally adopted by modern authors4 ,to attempt an enumeration even of the genera would be inadmissible in these volumes4 ,the late ,mr4 ,miller's ,natural ,history of the ,crinoidea or ,lily-shaped ,animals1#bga will afford the student satisfactory information on this class of organic remains4#bgb #bga ,published in #a vol4 #dto4 #ahba1 with coloured plates4 #bgb ,a beautiful ,monograph on the ,recent and ,fossil ,crinoidea1 by ,messrs4 ,austin1 in #dto4 is in course of publication1 of which but eight numbers have appeared4 ,apiocrinus 7,a4 ,parkinsoni74 ,lign4 #ib1 fig4 #d4 7,wond44 p4 #feb47--,the ,apiocrinite or ,pear-,encrinite of ,bradford1 from its size1 and the abundance of its remains in one particular locality1 is the most generally known of all the ,british fossil ,crinoids4 ,it abounds in the beds of oolite1 in the quarries on the heights above the picturesquely situated town of ,bradford1 in ,wiltshire4 ,the receptacle1 detached ossicula1 and the pedicle1 are very common2 and in some instances the entire endo-skeleton1 from the peduncle to the extremities of the arms1 is preserved4 ,the late ,channing ,pearce1 ,esq41 of ,bradford1 by unremitting attention to the collection of these fossils1 obtained the beautiful specimens deposited in the ,british ,museum4#bgc #bgc ,petrifactions1 ,room ,,ii4 ,wall-case ,g4 ,this ,apiocrinite has a smooth receptacle of a pyriform shape1 composed of large thin plates with radiated articulating surfaces2 the stem is short and strong2 the arms are simple1 resembling those of the ,marsupite2 the peduncle spreads out into an expanded base1 which is firmly attached to the rock1 like that of the ,gorgonia1 and is generally of a rich purple colour4#bgd #bgd ,pictorial ,atlas1 pl4 xlix4 ,pulley-stones and ,encrinital marbles2 pl4 #a4 ,apiocrinites4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ib4 ,fossil ,crinoidea4 ,fig4 #a4--;,eugeniacrinus4 ,switzerland4 #b4--;,cyathocrinus planus4 ,mountain ,limestone4 a4 ,basal plate of the receptacle4 b4 ,one of the plates composing the walls of the pelvis4 c4 ,costal plate4 d4 ,intercostal plate4 e4 ,scapula1 or ossicle that receives the arm4 f4 ,first ossicle of the arm4 #c4--,marsupites ,milleri 7,g4 ,a4 ,m474 ,chalk1 ,brighton4 a4 ,the semilunar cavity for an attachment of the arm4 #d4--;,apiocrinus rotundus1 ,pear-,encrinite4 ,bradford4 a4 ,first ossicles of the arms4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell mentions an interesting fact relating to the occurrence of these fossils in the ,oolitic limestone at ,bradford4 ,in ,burfield quarry1 on the heights that overlook the town1 a bed of limestone was exposed1 the upper surface of which was incrusted with the stony peduncles or roots of ,apiocrinites2 upon this stratum was a layer of clay1 in which were innumerable remains of receptacles and ossicula of stems and arms2 some of the stems were erect1 others prostrate1 and throughout the clay were the dismembered remains4 ,this submarine forest of ,crinoideans must therefore have flourished in the clear sea-water1 till invaded by a current loaded with mud that overwhelmed the living zoophytes1 and entombed them in the argillaceous deposit in which their fossil remains are imbedded4#bge #bge ,burfield quarry1 on the heights of ,bradford1 is the locality referred to2 but ,i believe it is rarely that any specimens of the ,apiocrinite are to be found in an erect position4 ,i could not learn from any of the local collectors1 that an example had been seen by them4 ,when ,i visited the quarry in ,june1 #ahdh1 no good section of the beds was apparent3 a few detached plates of ,apiocrinites were the only relics we could meet with4 ,mr4 ,reginald ,mantell1 when engaged on the construction of the railway near ,bradford1 sought repeatedly1 but in vain1 to discover any ,apiocrinites in an erect position1 or as if lying on the spot where they grew4 ,the constituent substance of the ossicula and plates of the ,bradford ,encrinite is calcareous1 and has an oblique fracture2 the colour is generally a light ochre1 or a bluish grey4#bgf #bgf ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 #a4 contains figures of the ,bradford ,encrinites4 ,sidenote3 ,,apiocrinite ,,of ,,the ,,chalk4 ,apiocrinus ellipticus4 ,lign4 #ic4--;,detached ossicula of this small encrinite are abundant in the ,white ,chalk2 the receptacle is known to the quarrymen by the name of bottle4 ,the pieces composing the column are cylindrical in the upper part1 and elliptical and angular in the lower1 and are articulated by a transversely-grooved surface4 ,the two upper joints are enlarged1 and support the receptacle1 which is smooth and round 7fig4 #a74 ,the column has articulated side-arms1 and the base numerous jointed processes of attachment1 which1 when found apart from the column1 have been mistaken for a distinct type1 and named ,stag's-horn ,encriniter4#bgg ,the specimens figured ,lign4 #ic1 show the essential characters of this crinoid2 when perfect1 this species must have borne a general resemblance to the ,pear ,encrinite of ,bradford4 #bgg ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlvii4 fig4 #ca1 p4 #aac4 ,in the same plate there are figures of several specimens of detached portions of the stem of this species from the ,kentish ,chalk4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ic4 ,apiocrinites4 ,chalk1 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--;,apiocrinus ellipticus1 #c4 #a;a4--,part of the elliptical portion of the column1 with a side-arm4 #a;b4--,portion of the same1 magnified4 #a;c4--,the articulating surface of an ossicle4 #b4--,ossicle of ,a4 flexuosus4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny474 #c4--,portion of the cylindrical stem4 ,bourqueticrinus 7,d',orbigny74 ,lign4 #ia1 fig4 #aa4--;,detached ossicles of other species belonging to the same genus1 or to allied genera1 are frequently met with in the ,kentish and ,sussex chalk4 ,a common form is that figured in ,lign4 #ia1 which is part of the receptacle of a crinoid1 named as above2 it differs from the other ,apiocrinites of the chalk in the articulating surfaces of the ossicles not being radiated1 and in the receptacle1 which is small and pyriform1 not having a distinct cavity2 there is only a median canal1 which is seen in a vertical section3 but the entire structure of the summit does not appear to be shown in any specimens hitherto observed4 ,encrinus liliiformis 7,lily ,encrinite74 ,lign4 #ia1 fig4 #f4--,this exquisite ,crinoid is equally interesting and attractive to the amateur collector and the naturalist4 ,its remains do not occur in the ,british strata1 and are only known in the muschelkalk of ,lower ,saxony4 ,the specimens in this country are chiefly from ,erkerode1 in ,brunswick2 they are found in a layer1 about eighteen inches thick1 of a soft argillaceous cream-coloured limestone1 chiefly made up of trochites1 detached ossicula1 and a few fragile shells and corals4 ,the receptacle of the ,lily ,encrinite is smooth1 and in the form of a depressed vase2 its base is composed of five plates1 upon which are placed three successive series of other plates1 with the uppermost of which the arms articulate4 ,the stem is formed of numerous perforated round ossicles1 articulated to each other by radiated grooved surfaces1 and becoming somewhat pentangular1 and alternately larger and smaller1 towards the summit1 to which the receptacle is fixed2 a construction admitting great freedom of motion4#bgh #bgh ,mr4 ,miller's work should be consulted for details of structure4 ,this ,encrinite when lying in relief on the rock1 with its receptacle entirely or partially closed 7see ,wond4 p4 #edh71 so strikingly resembles the bud or expanding flower of a ,lily or ,tulip1 as to justify the popular name of ,stone-lily4 ,an exquisite specimen is figured by ,mr4 ,parkinson2#bgi the ,british ,museum possesses some fine examples4#bhj #bgi ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlviii4 #bhj ,petrifactions1 p4 #gg4 ,mr4 ,parkinson detected the animal membrane in ossicles of this crinoid1 by immersing them in dilute hydrochloric acid4#bha ,my friend ,mr4 ,frederick ,harford has repeated the experiment with success4 #bha ,see ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlvii4 fig4 #dg4 ,sidenote3 ,,pentacrinites4 ,pentacrinites4--,the description of the recent ,pentacrinus caput-medus 7ante1 p4 #bhb71 illustrates the characters of the crinoideans whose fossil remains are so familiar to the palontologist1 under the name of ,pentacrinites4 ,in these animals the pieces composing the receptacle are firmly articulated together2 the rays of the disk are fixed immediately to the summit of the column by special ossicula2 and the stem is composed of angular pieces1 which are generally pentagonal4 ,the receptacle is small1 and situated deep between the bases of the arms2 it is closed above by an integument covered by minute plates or flat ossicles 7,lign4 #id1 fig4 #b74 ,the fossil remains of several species are abundant in the ,lias and ,oolite of ,dorsetshire1 ,somersetshire1 c4 ,slabs of limestone may be extracted with the surface covered with these crinoideans1 spread out as if floating in their native element2 very commonly they are transmuted into sulphuret of iron1 or have a coating of brilliant pyrites4#bhb ,the neighbourhoods of ,lyme ,regis1 and ,charmouth1 are celebrated for these organic remains4 ,a small specimen of the arms of a pentacrinite on ,lias shale is figured in ,lign4 #id1 fig4 #c4 #bhb ,pictorial ,atlas1 pl4 li4 lii4 ,the arms in many of the plumose pentacrinites are very long and thickly beset with side-arms1 and minute pinn1 all of which are composed of separate articulated ossicles1 so that the number of bones in a single endo-skeleton of those crinoids amounts to from fifty to one hundred and fifty thousand distinct pieces4 ,the ,briarean ,pentacrinite1#bhc so named from its numerous tentacula1 is literally a tuft of articulated processes1 appearing like a delicate fibrous plume attached to a stem4 ,the ,pentacrinus ,hiemeri is a beautiful example of this type of crinoids1 of which there is a noble group1 comprising upwards of thirty individuals1 on a slab in the ,british ,museum1#bhd exposed on the surface of the stone in as perfect a state as if just dredged up from the bottom of the sea4 ,the pentacrinites are for the most part entire2 the peduncle being fixed1 and the column extending upwards in gentle undulations1 and supporting the receptacle1 from which the arms are gracefully outspread in various attitudes4 ,the structure of the receptacle1 and of the arms1 and the extreme delicacy of the finer tentacula made up of countless minute ossicula1 are admirably shown in this unique and most instructive fossil4 #bhc ,pictorial ,atlas1 pl4 xlvii4 ,the ,briarean ,pentacrinite is fully illustrated and described in detail in ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridge water ,essay1 p4 #dhd4 #bhd ,this species was named and figured by ,m4 ,knig in his ,icones ,fossilium sectiles1 pl4 iii4 fig4 #bi1 in #ahbf4 ,see ,petrifactions1 p4 #hh4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #id4 ,actinocrinites1 or ,nave ,encrinites4 ,fig4 #a4--;,actinocrinus ,parkinsoni4 7,org4 ,rem4 ii4 pl4 xvii4 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 li47 #b4--,section of an ,actinocrinus1 7,miller's ,crinoide1 pl4 ii47 a4 ,proboscideal protrusion of the plate and integument4 b4 ,sections of the folded or closed arms4 #c4--;,arms of a ,pentacrinite1 on ,lias-shale2 ,lyme ,regis4 ,sidenote3 ,,actinocrinus4 ,,cyathocrinus4 ,actinocrinus 7,nave ,encrinite74 ,lign4 #id1 fig4 #a1 #b4 7,wond4 p4 #ehe4 ,bd4 pl4 xlvii47--,the column is formed of numerous round ossicula1 possesses side-arms1 and is fixed by root-like processes4 ,the receptacle is of an irregular subspherical form1 the arms passing off at right angles like the spokes from the nave of a wheel2 hence the name4 ,the base is composed of three plates which support five hexagonals and one pentagonal1 and on these are three other series2 from the upper margin of the last1 five arms are given off4 ,the receptacle is closed by a dome-shaped tesselated covering 7,lign4 #id1 fig4 #b71 having on one side the opening for the mouth and vent4 ,the specimen1 fig4 #a1 is a receptacle without a stem1 and with but a few joints of the arms2 this is the usual state in which these fossils are obtained4 ,fig4 #b is an ,actinocrinite in which part of the brim of the receptacle and of the arms has been removed in front1 leaving a portion of the coalesced arms partially surrounding the proboscideal plated integument that covers the upper part of the receptacle2 the figure is from ,mr4 ,miller's work1 and is introduced to illustrate the structure of these crinoideans4#bhe #bhe ,miller's ,crinoidea1 fig4 ,n4 pp4 #ih-ajj4 ,the external surface of the plates of the receptacle in the ,actinocrinites1 is generally covered with radiated markings and ridges1 so that detached plates have been mistaken for those of ,marsupites2 see the restored figure of a ,nave ,encrinite1 ,wond4 p4 #fed4 ,in some species the receptacle is richly ornamented2 but in the specimen figured1 ,lign4 #id1 fig4 #a1 the surface has been defaced in consequence of the fossil having been immersed in strong acid4 ,cyathocrinus 7,cup-like ,encrinite74 ,lign4 #ie1 and ,lign4 #ib1 fig4 #b4--,the column is formed of round1 depressed1 perforated joints1 articulating by radiated surfaces2 pentagonal near the summit4 ,the receptacle is composed of five pieces1 succeeded by two successive series of five plates1 with intervening plates1 and supports five bifurcating1 radiated arms4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ie4 ,cyathocrinites planus2 nat4 ,mountain ,limestone1 ,clevedon4 ,the ,encrinites of this genus have a light and elegant appearance3 the forms of the plates composing the pelvis1 and of the ossicula of the arms1 are shown in ,lign4 #ib1 fig4 #b2 which represents a specimen of ,c4 planus1 from the magnesian limestone of ,somersetshire2 a beautiful example of the same species is figured in ,lign4 #ie4 ,the receptacle resembles in shape a depressed vase2 its upper part was probably covered by a plated integument1 having an aperture in the centre as in the ,actinocrinites4 ,cyathocrinites occur in the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous formations4#bhf #bhf ,a figure of ,cyathocrinus rugosus is given in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlix4 fig4 #d4 ,the same work contains coloured figures of ,pentacrinus scalaris 7,goldfuss71 pl4 xlvii4 figs4 #eg1 #fd1 #ff2 ,pentacrinus basaltiformis1 pl4 xlvii4 fig4 #dg4 ,a remarkable receptacle1 with the tentacula partially introverted1 is figured ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlvi4 fig4 #b1 from ,gloucestershire2 and several beautiful examples of the arms1 tentacula1 c4 of ,pentacrinites in ,lias limestone and shale1 in pl4 li4 figs4 #i1 #ae1 #af1 and pl4 lii4 figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 from ,charmouth4 ,rhodocrinus4 7,r4 verus4 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlix4 fig4 #g1 #h47--;,a beautiful form1 allied to the ,antinocrinoids1 occurs in the palozoic rocks1 and is named the ,rose-encrinite by ,miller4 ,the column is cylindrical and traversed by a pentagonal canal4 ,the rays or arms arise by a single ossicle and then bifurcate3 the receptacle is formed of three1 five1 ten1 and more numerous series of plates1 which are ornamented externally4 ,a fine example of a crinoid of this type 7,hypanthocrinus7 from the ,wenlock limestone1 is figured in the ,london ,palontological ,journal1 pl4 xxi4 ,in ,sir ,r4 ,murchison's ,sil4 ,syst4 all the crinoids of the ,silurian deposits1 then known1 are figured4 ,several new genera are described by ,professor ,mc,coy1 in the ,synopsis of ,british ,palozoic ,fossils4 ,eugeniacrinus 7,clove-like ,encrinite74 ,lign4 #ib1 fig4 #a4--,these little crinoids1 which resemble a clove in form1 are found at ,mount ,randen1 in ,switzerland1 in ,oolitic limestone4 ,the receptacle is simple in structure1 for it has but one series of plates2 its cavity is very small4 ,it had five arms3 the articulating surface of the ossicles is radiated4 ,when perfect this crinoidean must have somewhat resembled the ,lily ,encrinite1 but the plates are all anchylosed1 or blended together1 which ,mr4 ,miller attributed to an early stage of growth4 ,sidenote3 ,,pentremites ,,pyriformis4 ,pentremites pyriformis 7,pear-shaped angular ,encrinite74 ,lign4 #ia1 fig4 #b4--,the column of this remarkable crinoid is short1 and formed of cylindrical1 perforated ossicula1 with radiated surfaces1 and has irregular side-arms4 ,the receptacle is composed of polygonal plates1 divided by five perforated grooves or furrows1 which are of an elongated petalous form1 and converge in a rosette on the summit4 ,the marginal longitudinal rows of minute pores are not however for the passage of soft membranous feelers1 as in the ambulacra of echinoderms1 as was formerly conjectured1 but are channels for the transit of vessels that supply an infinite number of delicate simple tentacula1 composed of extremely minute calcareous ossicula1 as in the other ,crinoidea1 but not subdivided as in the ,pentacrinites and ,encrinites4 ,these articulated tentacula are arranged close together in longitudinal rows on the ambulacral spaces2 there being two rows1 each consisting of fifty tentacula1 on every space4 ,they are directed upwards towards the vertex of the receptacle1 and appear to be the instruments for the capture and conveyance of food to the mouth4#bhg #bhg ,see ,dr4 ,fred4 ,remer on jointed tentacles found on the ambulacral spaces of ,pentremites1 ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 v4 p4 #h4 ,there are several species of ,pentremites1 some of which swarm in the cherty limestones of ,kentucky4 ,mr4 ,say1 to whom we are indebted for the first satisfactory investigation of these fossils1 mentions that such is their abundance1 that he has observed1 on a piece of rock not larger than three inches by two-and-a-half1 above twenty specimens lying in relief ,cystidea4--,in the ancient fossiliferous strata there occurs a remarkable family of crinoideans1 which is supposed to be restricted to the palozoic ages2 these fossils have been named by ,von ,buch1 ,cystide1 from the body of the animal being wholly inclosed in a cyst1 or box4 ,the receptacle is of a spherical form1 and composed of polygonal plates1 articulated to each other2 it has distinct apertures for the mouth1 vent1 and oviduct2 the orifice of the latter is closed by valves4 ,it has a short pedicle1 but no arms have been discovered1 and the ,cystide are generally described as ,crinoids without appendages of this kind4 ,but in some members of this group1 there are not only arms and tentacula1 but likewise certain organs connected with the plates1 which ,prof ,e4 ,forbes terms1 pectinated rhombs1 the functions of which are not obvious4 ,the arms more closely resemble those of the ,ophiurid than of the ,crinoidea4#bhh ,this order comprises several genera1 and is the type under which the ,crinoidea first appear in the natural records of our planet1 according to the present state of our knowledge1 and which becomes extinct before the advent of the ,pentacrinites4 #bhh ,see a memoir on the ,british ,cystidea1 by ,prof4 ,ed4 ,forbes2 in the ,mem4 ,geological ,survey1 vol4 ii4 ,sidenote3 ,,marsupites ,,milleri4 ,marsupites ,milleri4 ,lign4 #ib1 fig4 #c1 ,lign4 #if4 7,wond4 p4 #feb47--,the fossil remains of a genus related to the ,encrinites1 but separated from them by being unattached and free1 having no column of support1 were first described by the late ,mr4 ,parkinson under the name of ,tortoise ,encrinite 7,org4 ,rem4 vol4 ii4 pl4 xiii4 fig4 #bd1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 xlvii472 but misled by the resemblance of some of the plates to those of certain species of ,actinocrinites1 ,mr4 ,parkinson supposed the original to have possessed a jointed column4 ,the examination of specimens obtained from the ,chalk of ,lewes and ,brighton1 enabled me to determine the true characters of the original2 the purse-like form when the arms are closed suggested the name ,marsupites 7purse-like71 by which it is now generally known2 the specific name ,milleri1 is in commemoration of the late excellent and able author of the ,natural ,history of the ,crinoidea4 ,the receptacle of the ,marsupite is of a sub-ovate shape1 and rounded and entire at the dorsal extremity2 a large central plate forms its base1 on which is placed a successive series of pentagonal and hexagonal plates1 the margins of which are in contact1 but not anchylosed nor firmly united2 to the periphery of this cup are articulated five arms1 which subdivide into ten rays1 or tentacula4 ,the top of the receptacle was closed by an integument1 covered by numerous small semilunar plates1 in the centre of which was situated the oral aperture4 ,the external surfaces of the plates of the receptacle are generally granulated and radiated1 as in ,lign4 #ib1 fig4 #c2 but in some specimens the surface is quite smooth1 a character which possibly may be specific4 ,some examples have the surface granulated and rugous1 and these ,mr4 ,miller regarded as distinct1 and named ,m4 ornatus4 ,i have not of late years been able to obtain specimens to determine this question4 ,the ,marsupites vary in size1 from an inch to three inches in length1 exclusive of the arms4 ,the receptacle is relatively very capacious compared with that of other crinoideans4 ,the central plate is large1 and of a pentagonal form1 without the slightest indication of any column or process of attachment3 five pentagonal plates are united to the sides of the basal plate1 and above these a like number of hexagonals1 which receive the five upper plates that constitute the margin2 these have each a semilunar depression1 to articulate with the first bones of the arms1 or brachial appendages4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #if4--,marsupites ,milleri1 nat4 ,chalk1 ,lewes4 ,detached plates and ossicula of marsupites are not uncommon in the ,chalk of ,kent and ,sussex2 nearly entire receptacles1 filled with chalk or flint1 are occasionally found in the pits near ,lewes and ,brighton2 but examples with remains of the arms are extremely rare2 and ,i have seen but one specimen 7which ,i collected from the ,sussex chalk71 in which the plates of the integument that covered the opening of the receptacle are preserved4#bhi #bhi ,it is figured in my ,south ,d4 ,foss4 pl4 xvi4 fig4 #f4 ,the ,marsupite is an exceedingly interesting type1 in a zoological point of view1 since it forms a link that unites the ,crinoidea with the ,comatul1 or feather-stars1 which we shall presently notice4 ,its general form and habits are sufficiently indicated by the numerous specimens that have been collected in the ,chalk of the south-east of ,england4 ,the body of the animal was inclosed in a crustaceous case formed of large plates1 articulated to each other by suture2 the mouth or oral aperture was situated in the centre of the plated integumental cover of the receptacle4 ,the organs of locomotion and prehension consisted of five arms or brachial appendages1 formed of ossicula as in the crinoidea1 and the whole was invested with soft tissue or integuments4 ,when floating in the water1 the creature could spread out its tentacula1 and form a net to capture its prey1 and by closing them1 secure it1 and convey it to its mouth4 ,the figure1 ,lign4 #if1 is restored from specimens which separately exhibit the parts here represented in connexion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fossil ,asteriad4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,asteriad4 ,the radiated animals1 popularly called ,star-fishes1 from their stellular forms1 are so abundant on our coasts1 that the common five-rayed species must be familiar to all my readers who indulge in rambles on the sea-shore1 and will serve as an illustration of the general appearance and structure of the beings whose petrified remains now claim our attention4 ,this species belongs to the division of ,asteriad1 in which the rays are elongated1 and far exceed in length the diameter of the disk2 in another group 7,goniastea1 or ,cushion-star71 the body is angular1 and the lobes or rays are short1 and not longer than the diameter2 while in a third subdivision 7,comatula and ,ophiura71 the arms are distinct from the body1 and articulated1 elongated1 and ramified1 as in the ,crinoidea4 ,the external surface of the common ,star-fish is soft1 and attached to a tough coriaceous integument1 investing a skeleton composed of an infinite number of calcareous ossicula1 arranged in regular series along the margins of the rays4 ,each ray has a longitudinal furrow1 perforated at the sides by alternating rows of pores1 through which tubular tentacula are protruded4 ,the mouth is situated in the centre of the under surface4 ,now if we imagine a ,star-fish placed with its mouth upwards1 and the five rays fringed with long articulated tentacula1 as in the ,comatula1 and fixed by the centre of its dorsal surface upon a jointed stem1 we shall have the essential characters of a crinoidean2 and the animals of one recent tribe of ,asteriad are actually in this condition in the earlier stage of their existence3 these are the ,comatul1 or ,feather-stars1 in some of which 7the ,euryale71 the arms are as numerously subdivided as in the ,pentacrinites4#bij #bij ,the reader interested in this subject should peruse the charming volume on ,british ,star-fishes and other ,echinoderms1 by ,professor ,edward ,forbes4 #a vol4 #hvo4 ,john ,van ,voorst4 #ahda4 ,from the importance of the ,crinoidea in the economy of the ancient world1 the history of the only type at present inhabiting ,europe1 the ancient seas of which swarmed with numerous forms of these beautiful creatures1 presents many points of interest4 ,the receptacle of the soft body of the ,comatula1 like that of the ,crinoideans1 consists of a cup-shaped calcareous base1 which sends off from its margin five arms1 that quickly subdivide1 and are beset on each side with rows of articulated pinn2 on the convexity there are also numerous slender1 jointed1 simple1 tentacula4 ,the mouth is situated in the centre of the area surrounded by the arms1 and is capable of being elongated into a proboscis4 ,in the young state1 the ,comatul are attached by a jointed stem to other bodies1 as shown in ,lign4 #ia1 fig4 #a1 which represents several of the natural size2 fig4 #a;a is an enlarged view of an individual1 and closely resembles an expanded ,crinoidean4 ,the stem is composed of about eighteen joints1 which are pentangular2 after a few weeks the ,feather-star becomes detached from its peduncle1 and ranges the sea in freedom4#bia #bia ,the researches of ,j4 ,v4 ,thompson1 ,esq4 first brought to light these interesting facts in the ,natural ,history of the ,comatula2 this eminent naturalist first observed pedunculated ,comatul in the ,cove of ,cork4 ,when this discovery was first made known to me1 ,i suspected that the ,marsupite might have been pedunculated when young2 but as very small specimens of this ,crinoid are equally free from all traces of a stem as the adult1 ,i was led to relinquish that opinion3 still the collector1 when searching for ,crinoidean remains1 should bear in mind the possibility of this having been the case4 ,in the ,comatulid1 the arms are distinct from the body2 these animals therefore closely approach the ,crinoideans3 in the true ,star-fish1 the angular processes1 or arms1 are an integral part of the body1 containing a portion of the stomach1 ova1 c41 and are furnished with rows of pseudopodia4 ,fossil ,comatul have been discovered in the ,solenhofen slate2 and it is not improbable that some of the numerous ,crinoideans may be ,asteriad in the early stages of development4 ,in another group1 ,asteriad1 7named ,ophiur or ,serpent-stars17 the rays are long and slender1 and without grooves or tentacula1 and are distinct from the body4 ,these organs are extremely flexuous1 and in some species beset with spines1 and enable the animal to seize and entwine round its prey4 ,the mouth is central1 and there is an ovarian aperture at the base of each of the five arms4 ,though the fossil ,star-fishes comprise many extinct genera1 they belong to the same families as the recent2 and ,comatul1 ,ophiur1 and ,asteriad1 occur in the ,lias1 ,oolite1 and ,chalk1 in considerable numbers4 ,professor ,edward ,forbes has determined many of the ,british species1 and it is to be hoped1 will publish a monograph on the ,fossil ,asteriad1 as a companion to his delightful work on the recent ,star-fishes4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,ossicula ,,of ,,star-,,fishes4 ,fossil ,ossicula of ,star-fishes4--,from the immense number of little bones which enter into the composition of the skeleton of a single ,star-fish1 and which are but slightly held together after the death of the animal and the decomposition of the soft parts1 we can understand how layer upon layer of ossicula of ,asteriad may have been formed at the bottom of the cretaceous seas2 as we find them in the quarries near ,arundel1 ,worthing1 c4 ,whoever has witnessed the hauling up of the dredge off our coasts1 and seen the mass of living ,star-fishes which it brings up1 as if the sea-bottom were a living bank of these ,radiata1 will not be surprised at the vast quantities of their fossil remains4 ,this profusion of the living animals of this family1 serves also to account for the enormous amount of those kindred but extinct forms1 whose relics were the subject of investigation in the former part of the present chapter4 ,the ossicula vary in shape in different parts of the skeleton1 and ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes affirms1 that the careful determination of their characters is of great importance1 since they are the only paints of the animals likely to be preserved1 and the shape of an ossicle is as truly indicative of a genus or species1 as is that of a bone among the vertebrata4 ,there is one ossicle situated on the side of the centre of the disk1 which is worthy of remark1 because it often occurs in the chalk mingled with the debris of the rest of the skeleton1 and should be preserved by the collector4 ,it differs from all the other bones in being marked with radiating grooves1 and is called the madreporiform tubercle2 it appears to be the analogue of the stem of the ,crinoide1 in other words1 a rudimental condition of an organ1 which is fully developed in that order of radiata4 ,sidenote3 ,,ophiura4 ,ophiura4 ,lign4 #ig1 fig4 #a4--,several species of this genus1 which is distinguished by the long1 slender1 serpent-like arms1 and the circular disk covered with plates and spines1 have been found in a fossil state3 one species was discovered in the ,lower ,silurian deposits by ,prof4 ,sedgwick1 and other forms have been obtained from all the succeeding formations4 ,the ,lias near ,lyme ,regis and ,charmouth has yielded many beautiful examples of ,ophiura ,egertoni4 ,professor ,john ,phillips has figured a species 7,oph4 ,milleri1 ,geol4 ,york1 pl4 xiii47 from the marlstone of ,yorkshire1 and a species from the ,oxford ,clay has been described as ,ophiura ,prattii4 ,in the ,cretaceous formation1 remains of several species have been found4 ,the first specimen from the ,sussex ,chalk that came under my notice1 was discovered many years since1 by my son1 in a quarry at ,preston1 near ,brighton2 the rays were admirably preserved1 as shown in the portion figured in ,lign4 #ig4 ,an example of this species1 with the disk entire1 and portions of five arms1 was found by ,henry ,catt1 ,esq4 and is represented in pl4 xxiii4 fig4 #b1 of ,mr4 ,dixon's work4,,kf #bib ,three plates are devoted to the ,cretaceous ,star-fishes3 the descriptions by ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes comprise twenty-five species1 belonging to the genera ,oreaster1 ,goniaster1 ,stellaster1 ,arthraster1 and ,ophiura1 all from the ,chalk of ,sussex and ,kent4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ig4 ,fossil remains of ,star-fishes4 ,fig4 #a;a4--,part of the ray of ,ophiura serrata2 nat4 ,chalk1 ,preston4 7,mr4 ,walter ,mantell47 #a4--,portion of the same magnified4 #b4--;,goniaster ,hunteri4 ,chalk4 ,gravesend4 ,sidenote3 ,,goniaster--,,asterias4 ,goniaster4 ,lign4 #ig and #ih4--,the star-fishes of this genus1 popularly called ,cushion-stars1 are of a pentagonal form1 and have a double series of large marginal plates1 bearing granules or spines2 the latter are seldom preserved in the fossils4 ,the upper surface is nodulose4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ih4 ,fossil ,star-fish4 ,chalk1 ,kent4 ,goniaster ,mantelli4 7sp ,forbes4#bic7 #bic ,dixon's ,cret4 ,foss4 p4 #ccb4 ,the detached ossicula of the skeletons of ,cushion-stars are frequent in the ,white ,chalk2 and the large central bone1 the madreporiform tubercle1 which is present in the dorsal aspect of all star-fishes1 is large1 and therefore often observed1 and may be easily mistaken for the base of a crinoidean receptacle4 ,the layers in the ,sussex ,chalk composed of the exuvi of star-fishes1 as previously mentioned1 are chiefly made up of ossicula of goniasters4 ,there are two species not uncommon in the ,chalk1 of which portions may generally be obtained from the pits near ,gravesend2 and occasionally very fine examples of the entire goniaster are met with4 ,mr4 ,dixon's work contains figures of several exquisite fossils of this kind4 ,these organic remains were familiar to the early collectors3 ,mr4 ,parkinson figures several in ,org4 ,rem4 vol4 iii4 pl4 i4 and ii4#bid #bid ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 liii4 ,goniaster ,hunteri 7,lign4 #ig71 has the body obtusely pentagonal1 and the sides nearly straight2 the superior intermediate marginal plates are four1 equal1 broadly oblong1 coarsely mamillato-punctate2 the ossicula of the disk hexagonal4#bie ,this species is common in the upper chalk4 #bie ,prof4 ,forbes1 ,dixon's ,cret4 ,foss4 p4 #cca4 ,in ,goniaster ,mantelli1 ,lign4 #ih1 the body is pentagonal1 but the sides are curved1 with projecting angles2 the ossicula of the disk are punctated4 ,the superior intermediate marginal plates are oblong1 narrow1 punctate1 marginate1 and six in number4#bif #bif ,ibid4 p4 #ccb4 ,specimens of these ,goniasters are sometimes met with attached to a nodule of flint1 in an extraordinary state of freshness2 sharp imprints of the external surface1 the skeleton having perished1 are also found in flints1 and1 rarely1 casts in pyrites4 ,the whetstone of ,dorsetshire often bears distinct moulds of ,goniasters6 ,i have found ossicula of this form of ,star-fish in the ,london ,clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,asterias4 ,lign4 #ii4--,the animals of this genus1 of which the common ,star-fish is the type1 are stellate in form2 the rays are flat1 and extend from the body1 of which they are a prolongation--not mere appendages4 ,they have deep grooves or furrows bordered by marginal plates1 which are continued to the extremities4 ,the ,lias of ,germany has yielded several species of ,asterias2 one of which is figured1 ,lign4 #ii4 ,a very large species occurs in the ,cornbrash of the ,oolite of ,england4 ,a magnificent specimen of ,asterias arenicola 7,goldfuss71 from the calcareous grit1 near ,pickering1 ,yorkshire1 measuring #aj-a_/b inches from the extremity of one ray to that of another1 is figured in the ,london ,palontological ,journal1 pl4 xvii4 ,the same work contains admirable figures of ,ophiura ,egertoni1 and ,oph4 senatu in flint1 pl4 xix42 ,oph4 ,milleri in ,staithes marlstone1 and ,oph4 ,murravii1 pl4 xx42 and two specimens of ,oph4 ,milleri on the same slab of ,lias from ,staithes1 near ,whitby1 pl4 viii4 ,the ,star-fishes of the ,british palozoic strata are described by ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes in the ,memoirs of the ,geol4 ,survey1 ,decad4 #a4big #big ,see also ,prof4 ,m',coy's ,lower ,palozoic ,fossils1 p4 #eh4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ii4 ,fossil ,star-fish4 ,lias1 ,wirtemberg4 ,asterias prisca4 7,goldfuss47 ,sidenote3 ,,geological ,,distribution ,,of ,,crinoidea4 ,geological distribution of the ,crinoidea4--,the great number of extinct forms of this order of ,radiata in the most ancient fossiliferous deposits1 is a remarkable fact1 which has already been incidentally adverted to4 ,in the palozoic seas--including the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 ,carboniferous1 and ,permian--the ,crinoidea were represented by upwards of fifty genera1 whose existence began and ended during that geological cycle4 ,according to the present state of our knowledge all those peculiar types of radiated animals were created1 and each lived through the destined period alloted to its race1 and died out ere the deposition of the ,new ,red ,sandstone2 not a single species1 not a relic of the innumerable individuals that swarmed in the palozoic oceans1 has been observed in any strata above the ,permian4 ,the ,trias1 which ranks as the earliest of the secondary formations1 is characterized by the advent of two typical genera2 the true ,encrinus or ,lily-encrinite1 and the ,pentacrinus2 the former is unknown in any other deposits2 the duration of its race was comprised within the ,triassic epoch4 ,the ,pentacrinus1 on the other hand1 has been perpetuated through all the succeeding periods1 and one species inhabits the present seas2 the sole existing representative of the most ancient type of this order4 ,in the ,oolite1 another living form1 the ,comatula1 first appears4 ,the ocean of the ,cretaceous epoch was inhabited by five genera of ,crinoids1 unknown elsewhere2 among them is that remarkable genus1 the ,marsupite4 ,the ,crinoidea of the ,tertiary seas are as few in number and variety as those of the present day2 not a vestige of any of the ancient tribes has been discovered4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny's ,tab4 #ab presents the phenomena thus briefly noticed1 in a striking point of view4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from this review of the fossil ,crinoidea and ,asteriad1 the student will be in some measure prepared for the collecting of instructive specimens from the immense accumulation of remains imbedded in certain strata of the ,oolitic1 ,liassic1 ,carboniferous and ,silurian rocks4 ,the ,british species of fossil ,crinoidea amount to more than two hundred1 and when the great number of bones that enter into the composition of the skeleton of a single ,pentacrinite or ,encrinite is considered1 the prodigious quantity of the fossil remains of these zoophytes in the ancient deposits may be readily conceived4 ,polished slices of the encrinital marbles of ,derbyshire1 and of the ,lias limestones from ,lyme ,regis and ,charmouth1 should be obtained1 as they show sections of the imbedded crinoidal stems and detached ossicula2 and sometimes of the receptacles4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,fossil ,,echinid1 ,,or ,,sea-,,urchins4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ajj4 ,turban ,echinus1 with its spines2 #a_/b nat4 7,hemicidaris crenularis1 ,agassiz47 ,jura limestone4 ,the fossils we have now to examine are among the most familiar of the objects commonly known as petrifactions2 for as the enveloping cases of the ,echini possess considerable durability1 they have served as moulds into which silex1 calc-spar1 limestone1 pyrites1 and other mineral substances1 when in solution1 or in a semi-fluid state1 have percolated1 and formed sharp and enduring casts1 which exhibit the forms of the plates1 and the disposition of the pores1 stri1 c4 of the original structures4 ,the common ,echinus of our sea-coasts 7,echinus sphra71 known by the name of ,sea-egg1 ,sea-urchin1 or ,sea-hedgehog1 presents the typical characters of this order of ,radiata1 which differs from the ,crinoids and ,star-fishes in the absence of arms4 ,the calcareous envelope of the ,echinus1 or shell1 as it is popularly called1 is composed of many calcareous1 polygonal plates1 closely fitted to each other1 and arranged in regular and elegant patterns2 appearing in the globular and spherical kinds like the lines of the meridian on a globe4 ,the plates are disposed in ten vertical series1 united by serrated sutures1 and form sections1 into which the envelope or case very commonly separates upon the decay of the investing integuments4 ,of the ten bands five are large and five small4 ,the large bands 7are7 are each composed of a double row of plates1 ornamented with tubercles supporting large spines 7,lign4 #ajj74 ,the five narrower bands consist of much smaller plates1 and the spines are minute1 or altogether wanting2 hence these bands appear like avenues through the spinous tracks1 and have therefore been fancifully termed ambulacra or walks4 ,they are the equivalents of the grooves or furrows of the ,star-fishes 7,lign4 #ajh1 a472 and are traversed by numerous pores1 for the exsertion of tubular feet1 or tentacula4 ,besides these rows of minute openings1 there are two principal apertures1 the mouth and the outlet or vent2 and also a few large pores1 commonly five1 on the summit1 for the exclusion of the ova1 and the free admission of water4 ,the form and relative position of the parts above described1 afford characters by which the order is divided into genera4 ,the mouth1 which is situated on the lower part1 is in some species furnished with five sharp angular teeth1 attached to a calcareous framework that admits of being protruded2 this apparatus1 when entire1 commonly bears the name of ,diogenes' lantern4 ,the eminences on the surface of the plates vary in size from mere granules1 or papill1 to large mamillated tubercles2 they serve for the attachment of movable spines1 which also present great variety of form and ornament4 ,the spines have a cup-like cavity at the base which fits on the papill1 and in many species are only supported by the capsular envelopment of the common integument2 but in others1 the large spines are attached by a ligament which passes from the centre of the socket1 and is received in a perforation of the papilla of each tubercle1 in the same manner as the ligamentum teres of the human thigh-bone4 ,transverse slices of the spines exhibit the internal structure1 and are beautiful objects under the microscope4 ,there are also minute appendages to the integument1 called pedicellari1 or pinchers1 of a very remarkable character1 whose functions are not known4 ,they are slender columnar bodies1 each crowned with three calcareous teeth-like spines1 beautifully sculptured1 and which in some species are long and slender1 in others short and obtuse4 ,i have not observed any traces of these bodies1 even in the best preserved echinites1 but as they are as durable as the spines and case1 they may exist in a fossil state4 ,sidenote3 ,,turban ,,echinites4 ,this general view of the structure of the recent ,echinites will enable the student to understand the nature of the fossil remains2 for the parts above described1 are found more or less perfectly preserved1 either in their natural arrangement1 or separated and dispersed in the rock4 ,the habits of these animals1 of burrowing in the sand1 were favourable to their preservation in a mineralized state2 and in some of the oolitic limestones1 hundreds of beautiful examples of ,turban ,echinites 7,cidares71 having their spines spread out on the face of the rock1 are found lying in the positions they evidently occupied when living4 ,the quarries near ,calne and ,chippenham1 in ,wilts1 are celebrated for such fossils4 ,it was my intention to give figures of the genera into which the numerous fossil species have been divided by modern authors3 but ,i found the attempt hopeless1 from the changes in nomenclature and arrangement which are constantly taking place4 ,the monographs on the fossil ,echinid1 by ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes1 now in course of publication by the ,government ,school of ,mines1 will1 when completed1 place this branch of ,palontology on a satisfactory basis4 ,for the convenience of study1 the fossil ,echini may be separated into three principal groups2 viz4 the ,cidaritid1 or ,turban ,echinites2 the ,clypeasterid1 or ,buckler-shaped ,echinites2 and the ,spatangid1 or ,heart-shaped ,echinites4 ,sidenote3 ,,cidaritid4 ,cidaritid4 ,turban ,echinites4--,in these sea-urchins the vent is situated on the summit of the shell1 and is surrounded by five minute apertures for the exclusion of the ova4 ,the mouth1 or oral aperture1 is placed directly opposite1 in the middle of the base1 or inferior surface4 ,the mouth is large1 and furnished with a powerful apparatus1 armed with teeth2 which is sometimes found fossil 7see fig4 #a1 #c1 ,lign4 #aja74 ,the structure of the animal1 in consequence of the symmetrical position of the two chief outlets of the shells1 is strictly radiated2 that is1 all the parts proceed from1 or are arranged around one common centre4 ,the tubercles are larger and fewer than in the other tribes of this family2 they support long and powerful spines1 which vary much in form and ornament in different species 7see ,lign4 #ajb74 ,the larger tubercles and spines are beset with smaller ones1 disposed in regular series4 ,the ,turban ,echinites are the most ancient types of the order1 some forms appearing in the ,carboniferous deposit4 ,the species are very numerous4 ,the echinites of this group are subdivided into four tribes3 #a4 ,cidares1 properly so called4--,in these the tubercles are perforated2 the ambulacra narrow1 and beset with granular tubercles1 and the two lines of pores are close together4 ,the pseudopodia can be protruded to a great length1 even beyond the spines1 so as to reach objects the latter could not touch4 #b4 ,echini1 which differ from the above in the tubercles being imperforate1 and the ambulacral area wide3 the spines and tubes are of a moderate size4 #c4 ,diadem4--,the tubercles are perforated1 and the ambulacra wide and studded with large tubercles4 #d4 ,saleni4--,the tubercles are imperforate1 and relatively large2 the chief distinction is a solid ovarian disk on the summit1 composed of several large flat plates1 anchylosed together4 ,the case of the ,turban ,echinites is composed of twenty vertical series of plates1 the ambulacra1 or porous grooves1 forming continuous bands from the summit to the mouth1 which is armed with five angular teeth4 ,this tribe comprises many of the most elegant fossil species2 those which1 from their shape and highly ornamented surface1 have received the popular name of ,fairy's night-caps4 ,the genus ,cidaris1 which is characterized by perforated spinous tubercles1 affords the most beautiful examples1 and these are occasionally found with the spines in contact2 a circumstance less rare than might be supposed1 when the nature of the attachment of these organs is considered2 for1 upon the decomposition of the integument1 and the ligaments which connect the spines with the tubercles in a living state1 these appendages quickly fall off1 even in recent specimens4 ,the interesting fossil figured ,lign4 #ajj 7ante1 p4 #caa71 is a choice example of a ,cidarite with the spines attached4 ,this species 7,hemicidaris crenularis1 ,agassiz7 is said to be characteristic of the ,upper ,jura limestone of ,switzerland1 and was supposed to be identical with ,mr4 ,parkinson's ,cidaris parpillata var4 7,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 lvi4 fig4 #f71 from ,calne1 in ,wiltshire2 but spines like those of ,lign4 #ajj1 do not occur in the ,english oolite4 ,these spines are not homogeneous throughout2 the central part appears to have been of a less dense tissue than the outer coat1 as is shown in the fractured spine in the figure4 ,this structure does not exist in the spines of the depressed ,turban ,echinites1 but is stated by ,m4 ,agassiz to prevail in all the species of the genus ,hemicidaris1 of which the fossil figured in ,lign4 #ajj is the type4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aja4 ,cidarites from the ,oolite and ,chalk4 ,fig4 #a4--;,hemicidaris intermedia2 view in profile1 showing the teeth projecting3 #a_/c nat4 ,calne4 #b4--,the same seen from above1 displaying the outlet1 and surrounding pores4 #c4--,the same1 view of the base1 displaying the mouth1 surrounded by five angular bipartite teeth4 ,the ambulacral tubercles at the base are omitted in the figure4 #d4--;,diadema rotulare 7,agass473 viewed in profile3 not4 #e4--;,a siliceous cast of another species of ,diadema4 ,south ,downs4 #f4--,view of the base of ,diadema rotulare4 ,this species occurs in the so-called ,neocomian ,formation of ,france4 ,cidaris 7,hemicidaris87 intermedia1 ,lign4 #aja1 fig4 #a1 #b1 #c4--,the shell of this echinite1 from the ,oolite at ,calne1 so closely resembles that of ,h4 crenularis1 above described4 that without the spines it could not be distinguished4#bih ,it is of a depressed form1 and has very long subcylindrical spines2 a specimen is figured ,lign4 #ajb1 fig4 #i4 ,it is this cidarite which occurs in such immense numbers in the ,oolite at ,calne1 ,chippenham1 ,faringdon1 c4 ,slabs of limestone are occasionally extracted from the quarries at ,calne1 with more than thirty of these echinites surrounded by their spines4 ,i have one specimen1 attached to a block of limestone1 with fifty spines2 but it is difficult to detach a perfect spine4 #bih ,mr4 ,woodward4 ,i am indebted to this gentleman for many valuable remarks on fossil ,echinoderms4 ,sidenote3 ,,cidaris ,,blumenbachii4 ,cidaris ,blumenbachii4 ,lign4 #abg1 fig4 #c4--,this is another beautiful characteristic ,turban ,echinite of the ,oolite4 ,the tubercles are very large and prominent1 and the spines remarkably neat1 being covered with longitudinal granulated stri2 they are of an elongated cucumerine form1 and homogeneous in structure 7,lign4 #abg1 fig4 #e74 ,they occur by hundreds in some of the layers of friable stone in the quarries around ,calne4 ,many species of ,turban ,echinites abound in the ,white ,chalk1 especially near ,gravesend1 ,northfleet1 ,purfleet1 ,charlton1 and other places in ,kent2 the softness of the cretaceous strata in those localities rendering the removal of the chalk an easy task4 ,splendid specimens1 with the spines and tubercles almost as fresh as if recent1 have rewarded the patience and skill of collectors4 ,the ,british ,museum contains many fine examples1 especially a specimen of ,cidaris clavigera from ,charlton1 with sixteen spines1 and the dental apparatus in situ4#bii #bii ,several coloured figures of ,cidarites and spines are given in ,pict1 ,atlas1 pl4 liii4 and lvi4 ,a fine series of ,chalk specimens are figured in ,dixon's ,fossils1 tab4 xxv42 many from the choice cabinet of ,henry ,catt1 ,esq4 of ,brighton4 ,the collection of ,chalk ,cidarites with their spines1 formed by ,w4 ,h4 ,taylor1 ,esq4 ,f4,g4,s41 of ,winterslow-place1 ,brixton1 is the most splendid assemblage of these fossils ,i have seen4 ,diadema4 ,lign4 #aja1 fig4 #d1 #f4--,the shell in this genus is of a more depressed form than in ,cidaris2 there are two rows of large tubercles1 which are crenulated and perforated1 on the ambulacra as well as on the interambulacral spaces4 ,the spines are slender and annulated4 ,mr4 ,woodward remarks that the common ,chalk species referred by authors to this genus1 belong to the sub-genus ,cyphosoma of ,m4 ,agassiz1 in which the tubercles are imperforate4 ,there are nearly fifty fossil species known1 and they range from the ,lias to the ,chalk4 ,the recent analogues inhabit the seas of warm regions4 ,echinus4--,the shells of the genus ,echinus resemble those of ,cidaris in their general structure1 but the tubercles are imperforate4 ,more than twenty fossil species are described1 from the ,oolite and ,chalk4 ,salenia4--,in the greensand pits near ,faringdon1 in ,berkshire1 which abound in fossil sponges and other porifer 7ante1 p4 #bbh71 there are immense numbers of a small elegant ,turban ,echinite1 which belongs to the genus thus named by the eminent zoologist4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,gray1 of the ,british ,museum4 ,the collector will easily recognize these sea-urchins by the plated summit4 ,the shell has five ovarian and five interovarian plates1 and an eleventh or odd one4 ,the tubercles are crenulated4 ,the common species at ,faringdon is ,s4 petalifera1 of ,desmarest4 ,two species of this genus1 viz4 ,s4 scutigera and ,s4 stellulata1 from near ,warminster1 are figured in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 liii4 fig4 #ab1 #ac4 ,cidarites of ,new ,zealand4--,detached plates and spines of sea-urchins1 belonging to the family ,cidaritid1 have been discovered by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 in the ,ototara limestone of ,new ,zealand2 which is a fawn-coloured stone1 composed of foraminifer1 like the ,chalk1 and containing terebratul1 corals1 and teeth of sharks4#cjj #cjj ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 p4 #cai4 ,sidenote3 ,,spines ,,of ,,cidarites4 ,spines of ,cidarites4 ,lign4 #ajb4--;,allusion has been made to the immense numbers of the spines of two or three kinds of ,cidarites that occur in the oolitic limestones of certain localities4 ,the spines of other species and genera abound in the ,chalk1 ,greensand1 c42 occurring detached and intermingled with corals1 shells1 and the usual fossils of those deposits4 ,there is great variety in the form1 size1 and sculpture of these organs4 ,in the subjoined ,lign4 #ajb1 a few distinct kinds are represented4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ajb4 ,fossil ,spikes of ,cidarites4 ,fig4 #a4--,spine of ,acrocidaris nobilis 7,agassiz74 #b4-- ---- ,cidaris cucumifera4 #c4-- ---- ----- stemmacantha4 #d4-- ---- ----- meandrina4 #e4-- ---- ----- spinosa4 #f4-- ---- ----- clunifera4 #g4-- ---- ----- sceptrifera4 #h4-- ---- ----- ,parkinsoni4 #i4-- ---- ,hemicidaris intermedia4 ,flint ,casts of ,turban ,echinites4 ,lign4 #ajc4--,the siliceous casts of the shells of the ,turban ,echinites are interesting objects1 for they are often beautiful models of the interior4 ,a specimen of this kind is represented in ,lign4 #aja1 fig4 #e4 ,casts of the larger ,cidarites are often seen on the ploughed lands of the ,south ,downs1 in beds of gravel1 and among the shingle on the sea-shore of chalk districts2 appearing as flattened spherical bodies1 with a circular protuberance at each pole1 and vertical rows of nodular projections4 ,impressions of the external surface of the cases are also frequent on chalk-flints1 and exhibit exquisite casts1 in intaglio1 of the mamillated tubercles1 and ambulacral grooves and pores4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ajc4 ,echinital ,remains in ,flint4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 7,one-third the natural size47 ,fig4 #a4--;,cast of an ,ananchyte1 showing the form of the plates4 #b4--;,imprint of a segment of a ,cidarite on a pebble4 a4--,one of the impressions of a spinous tubercle3 nat4 #c4--,portion of an ,ananchyte1 having the cavity of the shell covered at the bottom with flint1 and lined above with crystals of carbonate of lime4 ,a fragment of a flint1 impressed by a portion of a ,cidarite1 is represented ,lign4 #ajc1 fig4 #b4 ,the perforations around the imprint indicate tubular cavities in the flinty formed by the spines1 and show that these processes were attached to the shell when the latter was enveloped by the fluid silex2 the case and the spines having since perished4 ,but in the ,chalk1 exquisite specimens of ,cidarites occur with the case perfect1 and filled with flint3 examples of this kind are often attached to a nodule by the slender column of silex that fills up the aperture of the shell4 ,the mineralized condition of the originally friable calcareous cases of ,cidarites and other ,echini1 is worthy of attention3 for whether the shell or spines be imbedded in chalk1 flint1 or pyrites1 if the structure and form remain1 the constituent substance is invariably opaque crystallized carbonate of lime1 having an oblique fracture4 ,as this conversion of a crustaceous envelope into calc-spar is constant1 it has probably resulted from the peculiar nature of the original animal structures2 but the cause of such transmutation is unknown4 ,sidenote3 ,,cidaritid ,,of ,,the ,,pal,,ozoic ,,rocks4 ,cidaritid of the ,palozoic ,rocks4--,three genera of this family1 comprising several species1 have been discovered in the carboniferous limestone of ,northumberland and ,ireland4 ,one genus is undistinguishable from ,cidaris2 and the species are placed under that name in ,mr4 ,morris's ,cat4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,these fossils have been figured and described by ,prof4 ,john ,phillips1 and ,col4 ,portlock4 ,prof4 ,m',coy1 with his accustomed penetration and sagacity1 has ascertained1 that notwithstanding the general resemblance between the ,cidarites of the secondary and those of the palozoic formations1 the latter are constructed on an entirely different plan4 ,in the turban echini of the secondary1 tertiary1 and modern seas1 the interambulacral plates always consist of two rows2 but in the palozoic ,cidarites there are three or some greater odd number of these plates4 ,this eminent naturalist1 therefore1 places the earliest type of ,echinid at present known in the order ,perischoechinid4 ,the case is spheroidal1 formed of more than twenty rows of plates2 five ambulacra composed of two rows of pentagonal plates each2 rows of interambulacral plates1 three1 five1 or more1 terminating dorsally in five large pentagonal ovarian plates4 ,as in the more recent forms1 these ,cidarites are separable into two groups or families2 one in which the spiniferous tubercles are imperforate as in the ,echinus 7,palchinid of ,m',coy72 the other with numerous small secondary tubercles and a few large primary ones1 perforated for the ligament of the spine as in ,cidaris 7the ,archocidarid of ,m',coy74#cja #cja ,prof4 ,sedgwick's ,british ,palozoic ,fossils1 p4 #abd4 ,clypeastrid4--,the shell in this family of sea-urchins1 is oblong or rounded2 the mouth is of an angular form1 and situated in the middle of the base or inferior face2 it is furnished with well-developed dental organs4 ,the outlet is distant from the summit4 ,the tubercles are mere granulations1 and the spines proportionally small4 ,this group is subdivided into two tribes3 the ,galeritid 7helmet-like71 and the ,clypeide 7buckler-like74 ,galerites albo-galerus4 ,lign4 #ajd4--,the tribe of which this genus is the type has the shell inflated1 orbicular1 oblong1 or pentangular4 ,the ambulacra are simple1 never petaloid2 the poriferous zones extend uninterruptedly from the summit to the mouth4 ,in the species figured ,lign4 #ajd1 fig4 #a1 the shell is of a conical form1 in some varieties subpentagonal2 narrowest at the hinder part4 ,the mouth is of a decagonal shape1 and armed with teeth3 it is situated in the centre of the base 7,lign4 #ajd1 fig1 #a;a72 the outlet is near the posterior margin of the base4 ,the surface of the shell is covered with granulations irregularly distributed4 ,this species1 which received the name of albo-galerus1 from its fancied resemblance to the white conical caps of the priests of ,jupiter1 occurs in great numbers and perfection in the ,kentish chalk2 it is less common in that of ,sussex4 ,siliceous casts of the shell are constantly found among the drift and gravel1 and on the ploughed lands of chalk districts2 they are popularly termed sugar-loaves4 ,the specimens obtained from the chalk1 when filled with flint1 yield exquisite casts1 if the shell be dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid2 by this means the form of the plates1 and casts of the minutest ambulacral pores are obtained4 ,sidenote3 ,,echinites ,,from ,,the ,,chalk4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ajd4 ,echinites from the ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--;,galerites albo-galerus3 nat4 #a;a4--,base of the same1 with the five teeth4 #b4--;,ananchytes ovatus3 #a_/b nat4 #b;a4--,base of the same4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aje4 ,holectypus 7,galerites7 inflatus4 ,kimmeridge ,clay1 ,switzerland4 ,the left-hand figure shows the summit2 the middle figure a profile2 and the right hand1 a view of the base1 with the mouth in the centre1 and the outlet towards the margin4 7,m4 ,agassiz74 ,holectypus 7,galerites7 inflatus4 ,lign4 #aje4--;,in certain kinds of ,galerites1 the shell is strengthened internally by five strong ribs or projections1 which of course leave corresponding deep furrows or channels on the flint casts moulded in them2 such fossils are not numerous on the ploughed lands of the ,south ,downs4 ,these echinites are placed by ,m4 ,desor in the genus of which an example is figured in ,lign4 #aje4 ,the shell is hemispherical1 and circular2 the base flat2 the tubercles are disposed in series2 the inside of the case is supported by ribs4 ,sidenote3 ,,discoidea ,,castanea4 ,discoidea 7,galerites7 castanea4 ,lign4 #ajf4--,the ,galeritid1 which have a polygonal mouth1 with the tubercles disposed in vertical rows from the summit to the centre of the base1 as in the ,cidarites1 instead of being uniformly spread over the surface1 as in ,g4 albo-galerus1 are placed in the genus ,discoidea1 by ,m4 ,agassiz4 ,a species1 in which the mouth is pentagonal1 and the outlet on the margin1 occurs in the ,chalk-marl of ,sussex1 ,dorset1 and the ,alps2 a specimen is figured in ,lign4 #ajf4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ajf4 ,discoidea 7,galeritcs7 castanea4 ,chalk-marl1 ,dorset4 ,fig4 #a4--,profile4 ,the pores and plates of the ambulacra only are inserted in this figure4 #b4--,view from above4 #c4--,the base1 showing the central pentangular mouth1 and the vent in the margin4 ,the ,clypeide differ from the tribe of echinites last described1 in the ambulacra being petaloid1 that is1 of a leaf-like shape1 and disposed in a stellated figure on the upper part of the shell4 ,the ambulacra do not extend to the mouth4 ,the shell is generally of a depressed form2 and the petaloid ambulacra in many species appear like an elegant star1 richly fretted1 spread over the shell4 ,there are numerous species of this type1 both recent and fossil2 many of the latter1 being of a large size1 are beautiful objects in a cabinet of petrifactions4 ,clypeus sinuatus 7,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 liv4 fig4 #a74--,of this genus1 which is the type of the tribe1 a large species1 ,c4 sinuatus1 is very common in the ,oolite of ,wilts1 ,gloucestershire1 and ,oxfordshire1 and must be familiar to collectors4 ,the shell is circular1 and much depressed2 and has five petaloid ambulacra3 the odd interambulacral area forms a deep furrow in which the outlet is situated3 the mouth is median1 pentagonal1 and surrounded by a strong margin4 ,the coloured figures in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 liv4 will enable the student to recognize these fossils without difficulty4 ,splendid specimens of an allied form 7,clypeaster7 occur in the tertiary limestone of ,malta1 7,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 lvi4 fig4 #g17 and are not uncommon in collections4 ,nucleolites 7,wond4 p4 #cbh74--,there is a small type belonging to this family1 of which several species are so abundant in the ,oolite1 ,greensand1 and ,chalk-marl1 that a brief notice of their characters may be useful4 ,the shell is oblong and inflated1 rounded in front and flat behind4 ,the pores are united by grooves2 the outlet is in a deep furrow on the superior face2 the mouth is sub-central4 ,one species occurs in the ,tertiary strata1 and there is a recent species inhabits the seas of ,australia4 ,there are coloured figures of ,nucleolites in ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 liv4 fig4 #e1 pl4 lv4 figs4 #f1 #h4 ,spatangid4--,in this tribe of echinites1 the case is oblong or cordiform4 ,the mouth1 elongated transversely and destitute of proper jaws1 is situated in front of the centre of the base1 near the anterior border of the periphery4 ,the outlet is towards the posterior margin4 ,the tubercles and spines are very small4 ,four subdivisions are established1 namely1-- #a4 ,ananchytes4--,a thick and oval shell2 the ambulacra simple and converging towards the summit2 the mouth transverse2 the outlet is situated on the inferior face4 7,lign4 #ajd1 fig4 #b47 #b4 ,spatangus4--,this name is now restricted to those ,spatangid in which the ambulacra are petaloid1 the external row of pores slightly elongated1 and the inner rows round4 #c4 ,micraster4--,by this term are now distinguished the ,spatangid which have the ambulacra depressed1 and the shell cordiform4 ,the pores of the even ambulacra are united by a furrow4 ,the vent is on the posterior face4 ,the common chalk ,spatangus belongs to this genus4 7,lign4 #ajg47 #d4 ,holaster4--,the shells are heart-shaped2 the ambulacra simple1 and converging towards the summit2 the mouth is transverse2 the outlet is within the posterior face4 ,sidenote3 ,,ananchytes ,,ovatus4 ,ananchytes ovatus4 ,lign4 #ajd4 fig4 #b4--,these sea urchins are among the most characteristic of the fossils of the ,upper ,chalk1 and are peculiar to the ,cretaceous formation4 ,they are readily distinguished by their elevated helmet-like form1 and by the transverse mouth and oblong outlet situated on the inferior face of the flat base1 and towards the margin4 7,lign4 #ajd4 fig4 #b;a47 ,the vernacular names of ,shepherd's ,crown1 and ,fairy ,loaf1 indicate the form of these abundant fossils4 ,the shell is oval in its longest diameter2 flat1 or nearly so1 below2 and rounded1 conical1 and somewhat laterally compressed towards the summit4 ,the ambulacra are five1 between double lines of pores2 the tubercles are minute and scattered2 the substance of the shell is of great thickness4 ,more than twenty species of the genus are known4 ,the helmet ,echinites1 like the preceding1 have given rise to innumerable siliceous casts1 which are found associated with those of other forms in the ,drift1 on the ploughed lands1 and among the shingle on the sea-shore2 they are often placed as ornaments on the mantel-shelves of the cottagers4 ,a flint cast of an ,ananchyte1 in which the plates were partially separated1 is represented ,lign4 #ajc1 fig4 #a4 ,the shells are sometimes filled with pyrites2 and occasionally are found partially empty1 with crystals of calc-spar symmetrically arranged on the inside of the shell1 parallel with the rows of ambulacral pores4 ,lign4 #ajc1 fig4 #c1 is a remarkable example1 in which flint occupies the base of the shell1 while the upper surface is lined with crystals of calcareous spar4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ajg4 ,micraster 7,spatangus7 cor-anguinum4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--,view from above1 showing the petaloid ambulacra4 #b4--,view of the base1 with the mouth4 ,micraster cor-anguinum 7,snake-heart74 ,lign4 #ajg4--,of this genus there are many species in the ,chalk4 ,this type of ,spatangid are more or less oval1 elongated1 and heart-shaped1 wider before than behind1 with a sulcus1 or furrow1 in front4 ,the shell is fragile1 and composed of large polygonal plates2 the tubercles small and irregularly distributed2 the spines are short4 ,the mouth is transverse1 situated anteriorly1 and protected by a strong projection of the odd interambulacrum1 which is named the lip4 ,the vent is terminal1 and placed above the margin4 ,there are but four ambulacra1 and these are incomplete1 comparatively of small extent1 and situated in deep furrows4 ,a large and new species of ,micraster 7,m4 cor-bovis1 of ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes71 from the ,sussex ,chalk1 is figured in ,dixon's ,fossils1 pl4 xxiv4 figs4 #c1 #d1 p4 #cdb4 ,sidenote3 ,,toxaster ,,complanatus4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ajh4 ,toxaster complanatus4 ,greensand4 ,switzerland4 ,fig4 #a4--,profile4 #b4--,view of the summit1 showing the ,vent at the side2 e4 #c4--,view of the base1 displaying the situation of the mouth1 and the union of the five ambulacra2 their pores are not introduced in figs4 #b and #c4 a4 ,the narrow porous divisions of the shell1 termed ,ambulacra4 b4 ,interambulacral spaces4 c4 ,are1 or spaces covered by the wide plates4 d4 ,the ,mouth4 e4 ,the ,vent1 or ,outlet4 ,toxaster 7,spatangus7 complanatus4 ,lign4 #ajh4--;,in this form of ,spatangus 7constituting the genus ,toxaster ,agass471 the ambulacra are not depressed or furrowed1 as in the preceding echinites1 nor petaloid 7leaf-shaped71 as in those which ,m4 ,agassiz denominates true ,spatangi1 but converge to a point on the summit1 as is shown in fig4 #b2 the external rows of pores are elongated horizontally1 and form a kind of furrow4 ,the odd ambulacrum is in a deep groove4 ,the mouth is transverse1 fig4 #c1 d2 and at the anterior part of the inferior face there is a depression1 which results from the convergence of the ambulacral are towards that point4 ,the vent is in the posterior face4 ,this species is from the ,neocomian strata of ,france2 ,i introduce it to illustrate the characters of several other echinites1 which the ,french geologists suppose to be confined to the so-called ,neocomian formation2 but which also occur in the ,upper ,greensand of ,blackdown4 ,holaster is another genus of ,spatangid established by ,m4 ,agassiz1 for those echinites that are heart-shaped1 with simple ambulacra converging towards the summit4 ,the mouth is elongated transversely2 the outlet is on the posterior face4 ,a specimen first described in my ,foss4 ,s4 ,d4 7pl4 xvii4 fig4 #i1 #ba71 as ,spatangus planus1 is common in the ,lower ,chalk1 and ,chalk-marl1 and abundant in the ,firestone ,malm-rock4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our limits will not allow of a more extended notice of the fossil ,echinid4 ,the student should consult the ,memoirs on the genera1 now in course of publication at the ,government ,school of ,mines1 by ,professor ,edward ,forbes2 the plates are exquisite1 as works of art1 and the descriptions all that can be desired4 ,mr4 ,dixon's work contains three excellent plates of cretaceous ,echinites4 ,several chalk species are figured in my ,foss4 ,south ,down4 ,the numerous coloured figures of fossil sea-urchins in the ,pictorial ,atlas of ,organic ,remains1 have already been mentioned4 ,geological ,distribution of ,echinites4--,no vestiges of this order of radiata have been discovered in the ,silurian deposits3 the earliest known occurrence of any type is in the ,carboniferous formation4 ,the most ancient ,echinid1 according to the present state of our knowledge1 are the ,cidares1 in the modified form previously noticed1--,archocidarid 7ante1 p4 #cbb74 ,in the ,trias another type appears1 ,hemicidaris1 which holds an intermediate place between the ,cidarites properly so called and the ,diadema4 ,in the ,oolite1 and ,jurassic formations1 numerous forms are for the first time met with1 constituting the genera ,echinus1 ,clypeus1 ,disaster1 ,holectypus1 ,diadema1 ,nucleolites1 c4 ,the ,cretaceous seas swarmed with echini belonging to genera of which no traces have been found in earlier rocks2 viz4 ,holaster1 ,salenia1 ,micraster1 ,salerites1 ,discoidea1 ,ananchytes1 ,cassidulus1 c4 ,in the ,tertiary formations1 ,spatangus1 ,scutella1 ,clypeaster1 and other new genera appear1 and many of the ancient ones are absent2 or at least have not been observed4 ,of the genera printed above in italics1 no living species are known4 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,echinodermata4 ,on collecting and developing fossil ,echinodermata4--,in the previous remarks on the fossil remains of radiated animals1 we have pointed out those remains that are the most important and instructive1 and should be sought for by the student4 ,thus1 in collecting ,crinoids1 the receptacle or body should be the principal object of research1 and if only detached plates can be extracted from the rock1 their relative position should be carefully noted1 and the specimens glued to a card or board1 in their natural order2 and some of the ossicula of the column1 and of the arms1 or tentacula1 be placed with them4 ,mr4 ,miller dissected specimens of every genus1 and has figured the separate plates or bones that enter into the composition of the receptacle1#cjb and arms4 ,traces of the tentacula1 and their subdivisions1 must be sought for1 and if discovered1 should be removed with the stone to which they are attached1 and the block be afterwards reduced in size by a mason's saw1 and not by the blows of a hammer1 which might displace the ossicula4 #cjb ,natural ,history of the ,crinoidea4 ,if imbedded in ,lias shale1 or other fragile material1 a thick slab should be removed1 for greater safety in conveyance2 this1 when reduced to a convenient size and thinness1 may be imbedded in a tray with plaster of ,paris1 or glued to a piece of thin1 well-seasoned mahogany1 or deal4 ,the specimens of the ,pear ,encrinite of ,bradford1 and of the ,pentacrinites from ,lyme ,regis1 in the ,british ,museum1#cjc were prepared in this manner4 #cjc ,petrifactions1 p4 #gh4 ,the crinoideal remains in ,chalk belong but to few genera2 they merely require the usual manipulation of cretaceous fossils4 ,the collector1 however1 should remember that the ossicula and plates of the receptacle 7as for instance of the ,marsupites71 are but slightly adherent to each other1 and the chalk must not be wholly removed1 or these parts will become detached4 ,the receptacles of the ,apiocrinites of the chalk are rarely found with more than a few joints of the column attached2 and ,i believe no vestiges of the arms have been observed3 these parts are therefore desiderata1 and should be diligently sought for3 the radicles of these crinoideans are long1 articulated1 and branching1 and without due caution may be mistaken for the arms1 or for another species4 ,the first remark will also apply to the ,marsupite2 any specimens with but a few ossicula of the arms are very precious4 ,i may observe that there is yet much to learn as to the number of species and genera1 and the peculiar characters of the ,crinoidea of the chalk1 and that any addition to our knowledge on this subject will be valuable4 ,the ,asterid are so simple in form and structure1 that it is unnecessary to offer any suggestions for their development2 of course they must not be removed from the stone4 ,among the detached ossicula dispersed through the chalk1 the student will remember that the large madrepore-like tubercle of the ,star-fishes1 7ante1 p4 #cjd17 may often occur4 ,it may easily be mistaken for an encrinital body1 or for a coral1 but an accurate inspection will show that it is not composed of anchylosed plates1 like the receptacle of an ,apiocrinite1 but has surfaces for attachment to other ossicula2 while the ends1 which in a crinoideal column would have radiated surfaces1 are rounded and entire4 ,in collecting ,echinites1 much caution is required in dissecting specimens surrounded by spines4 ,if imbedded in hard limestone1 or in laminated clay1 it is scarcely possible to preserve the spines in connexion with the shell2 but it often happens that the ,cidarites of the ,oolite are attached by the base to the solid limestone1 and the case with the spines is imbedded in sandy1 friable aggregate1 not difficult of removal4 ,a specimen in my cabinet1 with upwards of fifty spines attached to the shell1 was obtained under such circumstances4#cjd #cjd ,now in the ,british ,museum4 ,the ,chalk ,echinites will be found to possess spines more frequently than is commonly supposed1 if care be taken to explore the surrounding chalk before it be removed4 ,t have often procured ,cidarites with spines1 when there were no apparent vestiges of these appendages1 by carefully scraping away the surrounding mass until the extremity of a spine appeared1 and then tracing it up to its connexion with the shell2 another point was discovered by further removal1 and that was developed in the same manner2 and at length a ,cidaris with several spines was obtained4 ,the chalk around the mouth should always be cautiously removed in the dentated species1 in the hope of preserving the teeth1 as in the specimens1 ,lign4 #aja1 fig4 #a1 and ,lign4 #ajd1 fig4 #a4 ,as the shells of ,chalk ,echinites1 when hollow1 are often lined with crystals 7see ,lign4 #ajc1 fig4 #c71 it is worth while to break all indifferent specimens of the common species1 with the chance of obtaining an example of this kind4 ,the chalk must not be scraped off from the crust or shell of the ,echinites1 or the minute granulations and papill will be injured or removed2 it should be flaked off with a blunt point4 ,in friable arenaceous strata1 as in some of the ,maestricht and ,tertiary deposits1 the ,echinites may be extricated in as perfect a condition as if fresh from the sea2 it is1 indeed1 probable1 from the habit of these animals of burrowing in mud and sand1 that in many instances they were entombed alive by the sediment in which their fossil remains are imbedded4 ,beautiful ,cidarites and their spines may be collected in the ,oolitic strata at ,calne1 ,chippenham1 ,bath1 c42 and in the coralline ,oolite near ,faringdon2 and of ,saleni1 in the ,greensand gravel-pits near that town4 ,the ,upper ,greensand near ,warminster1 and at ,chute ,farm1 near ,heytesbury1 abounds in small ,cidaritid and other echinites4 ,the large sinuated ,clypeus is found in great perfection in the ,oolite at ,malton1 ,cheltenham1 ,gloucester1 c4 ,the cretaceous echinites are to be met with in most localities of the white chalk4 ,the chalk-pits in ,kent1 especially at ,gravesend1 ,northfleet1 ,chatham1 c4 are rich in ,cidarites1 and their spines4 ,the ,galerites1 and ,ananchytes1 are also very fine and numerous2 and the softness of the chalk renders their extrication from the stone a delightful task for the young geologist4 ,specimens of the common kinds of fossil ,echinoderms may be obtained at moderate prices of the dealers named in the ,appendix4 ,there is a matchless suite of fossil ,echinid in the ,british ,museum1 which has been arranged and named by ,mr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward1 and is now the most instructive and interesting collection extant4 ,it contains examples of the following genera1 viz41 ,ananchytes1 ,echinocorys1 ,echinolampas1 ,holaster1 ,galerites1 ,cidaris1 ,diadema1 ,acrosalenia1 ,glypticus1 ,disaster1 ,pygurus1 ,clypeaster1 ,scutella1 ,salmasis1 ,echinocyanus1 c4 ,there is also a good series of echinital spines4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,fossil ,,foraminifera--,,microscopical ,,examination ,,of ,,chalk ,,and ,,flint4 ,where is the dust that has not been alive8 ,young4 ,that those infinitesimal forms of animal existence which swarm throughout the waters of the ocean1 but whose presence can only be made manifest by the aid of the microscope1 are preserved in a fossil state1--that their durable remains constitute mountain ranges1 and form the subsoil of extensive regions1--and that the most stupendous monuments erected by man are constructed of the petrified relics of beings invisible to the unassisted eye1--are facts not the least astounding of those which modern ,geology has revealed4 ,this interesting field of research1 which the labours of that eminent observer ,m4 ,ehrenberg first made known1 has since been explored by other naturalists1 and in every part of the world many of the ,tertiary and ,secondary deposits have been found to contain microscopic organisms in profusion4 ,at present this branch of palontology is in its infancy1 and it offers to the young student an inexhaustible and most attractive path of scientific investigation2 it possesses1 too1 this great advantage over many others1 that it can be pursued at home1 and the materials for its prosecution are everywhere at hand4 ,unlike my explorations in the ,wealden1 in which a few fragments of bones1 or teeth1 scattered at wide intervals through the rocks1 and in localities many miles apart1 were often the only reward of a day's labour1 here1 in the quiet of my study1 ,i may discover in a few atoms of flint1 or grains of chalk1 picked up by the road-side1 the fossil remains of beings as interesting and extraordinary as the extinct colossal reptiles of ,tilgate ,forest4 ,sidenote3 ,,microphytes4 ,the microphytes1 or fossil ,diatomace1 described in a previous chapter1 7ante1 p4 #ic17 were formerly classed with the organisms that now claim our attention1 under the name ,infusoria2 from the belief that generally prevailed among naturalists1 of their animal origin4 ,in fact1 some eminent microscopic observers1 while admitting the vegetable character of ,xanthidium1 ,micrasterias1 c4 consider the ,navicul1 ,ennoti1 c4 as belonging to the animal kingdom4 ,thus ,dr4 ,j1 ,w4 ,bailey1 in a late ,memoir on the ,microscopic ,organisms in ,various ,localities of the ,united ,states1 divides these bodies into three groups2 viz4 ,infusoria1 ,desmidie1 and ,diatomace2 with the remark1 that he has separated the two latter tribes from the ,infusoria1 because so many distinguished naturalists consider them decidedly to belong to the vegetable kingdom3 but1 he adds1 while ,i believe that no positive line of separation can be drawn between certain animals and vegetables1 ,i am yet disposed to regard the ,desmidie1 from the sum of all their characters1 as most nearly allied to admitted vegetables2 while the ,diatomace1 notwithstanding ,mr4 ,thwaites's interesting observations on their conjunction1#cje still seem to me1 as they have always done1 to be true animals4 ,there is such apparent volition in their movements1 such an abundance of nitrogen in the composition of their soft parts1 and such resemblance between the stipitate ,gomphonemat and some of the ,vorticell1 that ,i should be still disposed to class them as animals1 even if ,ehrenberg's observations of the retractile threads and snail-like feet of some of the ,navicul should not be confirmed4#cjf #cje ,the mode of fructification1 or conjunction1 as it is termed1 in the ,alg1 consists in the adhesion of two cells or frustules together1 and their fusion into one2 from their united contents a mass of granular substance is produced1 that becomes consolidated and forms the spore or fruit1 which1 when arrived at maturity1 is set free by the bursting of the cell4 ,mr4 ,thwaites has ascertained that the fructification is similar in the ,diatomace4 #cjf ,smithsonian ,contributions1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cd4 ,thus1 whilst referring ,closterium1 ,arthrodesma1 ,euastrum1 ,xanthidium1 ,micrasterium1 c4 as vegetables1 to the ,desmidie1 ,dr4 ,bailey places1 ,actinocyclus1 ,campilodiscus1 ,coscinodiscus1 ,ennotia1 ,navicula1 ,gomphonema1 ,pinnularia1 ,triceratium1 c4 among the ,diatomace1 as animals4 ,of the animal nature of the microscopic objects which now require our attention1 there is however no question1 although the zoological position and affinities of many of the organisms included in this survey are still but imperfectly determined4 ,the animals designated ,foraminifera1#cjg or ,rhizopoda1#cjh are of a more simple structure than the ,polypifera and ,echinodermata described in the previous chapters2 yet as their relics are for the most part presented to the notice of the geologist as aggregations of shells1 forming extensive beds of limestone1 it will be convenient to treat of them in this place4 #cjg ,foraminifera1 i4e4 bearing foramina--a name derived from the minute openings in the shells and their septa4 #cjh ,rhizopoda2 root-like feet2 from the long fibrous processes1 or pseudopodia4 ,the fact that the fossil remains of ,foraminifera1 and of ,mollusca1 alike consist of shells1 and constitute strata identical in mineral characters1 and deposited under like physical conditions1 renders the examination of these ,microzoa#cji a fit introduction to the study of the durable remains of the higher order--the ,mollusca4 #cji ,microzoa2 from 1 mikros1 small1 and 1 zoon1 animal2 a convenient term to denote minute animal organisms whose forms can only be defined by the aid of the microscope4 ,it is scarcely more than a hundred and twenty years ago1 that the existence of this numerous order of microzoa was first made known to naturalists by ,beccarius1 who detected a considerable number of species in the sand on the shores of the ,adriatic4 ,but the structure of the animals that secreted these shells is a discovery of comparatively modern date4 ,the early collectors classed these microscopic bodies with the shells of true mollusca2 and even ,m4 ,d',orbigny1 whose elaborate researches justly constitute him a high authority in this branch of natural history1 in his first memoir1 in #ahbe1 described the involuted discoidal forms as ,cephalopoda4 ,this error was corrected by the investigations of ,m4 ,dujardin1 who in #ahce satisfactorily demonstrated that the ,foraminifera are animals of the most simple structure1 and entirely separated by their organization from the ,mollusca4 ,but the true nature of this class is so little understood by ,british collectors of fossil shells1--of course ,i mean the uninitiated1 and the amateur naturalist1 for whose use these unpretending pages are designed1--that in order to invest the study of the fossil species with the interest which a knowledge of the structure and economy of the living originals can alone impart1 ,i must give a history of the recent forms somewhat in detail1 taking ,m4 ,d',orbigny as my chief authority4#caj #caj ,the best work for the student to consult is ,m4 ,d',orbigny's ,foraminifres ,fossiles du ,basse ,tertiaire de ,vienne1 ,autriche4 ,paris1 #ahdf4 #a vol4 #dto4 with plates4 ,i rejoice to learn that a ,monograph on the ,british ,foraminifera is in preparation by ,dr4 ,carpenter and ,professor ,williamson3 than whom there are none more competent4 ,sidenote3 ,,foraminifera4 ,the ,foraminifera are marine animals of low organization1 and1 with but few exceptions1 extremely minute3 in an ounce of sea-sand between three and four millions have been distinctly enumerated4 ,when living1 they are not aggregated1 but always individually distinct2 they are composed of a body1 or vital mass1 of a gelatinous consistence1 which is either entire and round1 or divided into segments1 placed either on a simple or alternate line1 or coiled in a spiral1 or involuted round an axis4 ,this body is covered with an envelope or shell1 which is generally testaceous1 rarely cartilaginous1 is modelled on the segments1 and follows all the modifications of form and contour of the body4 ,from the extremity of the last segment there issue sometimes from one1 sometimes from several openings of the shell1 or through the numerous pores or foramina1 very elongated1 slender1 contractile1 colourless1 filaments1 more or less divided and ramified1 serving for prehension1 and capable of entirely investing the shell4 ,the body varies in colour1 but is always identical in individuals of the same species2 it is yellow1 ochreous1 red1 violet1 blue1 c4 ,its consistence is variable2 it is composed of minute globules1 the aggregation of which determines the general tint4 ,it is sometimes entire1 round1 and without segments1 as in ,gromia1 ,orbulina1 c41 which represent at all ages the embryonic state of all the other genera4 ,the animal increases by gemmation1 each segment being essentially distinct1 but connected with the preceding one by a tube or neck4 ,when the body is divided by lobes or segments1 the primary lobe1 as in the permanent condition of the ,gromia1 is at first round or oval1 according to the genus2 once formed it never enlarges1 but is enveloped externally by testaceous matter4 ,the segments1 which successively appear1 are agglomerated together in seven different ways1 and these modifications are the basis of ,m4 ,d',orbigny's classification4 ,the discoidal forms1 as the ,rotalia1 ,rosalina1 ,cristellaria1 c4 are involute1 like the ,nautilus1 and divided by septa or partitions1 which1 like the enveloping shell1 are perforated4 ,the lobes of the body occupy contemporaneously every chamber1 and are connected by a tube that extends through the entire series4 ,in the spiral form1 as the ,textularia1 c41 the same structure is apparent4 ,whatever the form of the body1 the filaments always consist of a colourless transparent matter2 they are capable of being elongated to six times the diameter of the shell4 ,they often divide and subdivide1 so as to appear branched2 and though alike in form in the different genera1 vary much in their position4 ,in some species they form a bundle which issues from a single aperture1 and is withdrawn into the same by contraction2 in others1 the filaments project only through each of the pores in that portion of the shell which covers the last segment3 in many they issue from both the large aperture and the foramina4 ,these filaments or pseudopodia fulfil in these animals the functions of the numerous tentacula in the ,star-fishes2 serving as instruments of locomotion and attachment4 ,neither organs of nutriment nor of reproduction have been discovered4 ,in the genera having one large aperture from which the filaments issue and retract1 we can conceive nutriment to be absorbed by that opening2 but this cannot be the case in the species which have the last cell closed up2 in these the filaments issuing through the foramina are probably also organs of nutrition4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny considers the ,foraminifera as constituting a distinct class in zoology2 though less complicated than the ,echinoderms and the ,polypifera in their internal organization1 they have the mode of locomotion of the first2 while by their free1 individual existence1 they are more advanced in the scale of being than the aggregated and immovably fixed animals of the latter class4 ,but though ,i consider the animal of the ,foraminifera as single1 and the additional lobes1 or segments1 as the continuous growth of the same individual1 ,i must state that some eminent naturalists regard the entire structure as a series of distinct individuals1 developed by gemmation from the first formed segment1 like the clusters of the compound ,tunicata2 and not as a single aggregated organism1 made up of an assemblage of similar parts indefinitely repeated4 ,in a palontological point of view1 it matters not which opinion is adopted4#caa #caa ,see a masterly paper on the structure of ,nummulina and ,orbitoides1 by ,dr4 ,carpenter2 ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 pp4 #ba-ci1 with admirable representations of the structural details4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aji4 ,foraminifera4 ,chalk4 ,charing4 ,fig4 #a4--;,globigerina cretacea2 the original is #a_/fj of an inch in diameter4 #b4--,textularia ,globulosa2 #a_/dj4 #c4--,verneuilina tricarinata2 #a_/cj4 #d4--;,cristellaria rotulata2 #a_/dj4 #e4--,rosalina ,lorneiana2 #a_/dj4 ,sidenote3 ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,foraminifera4 ,classification of the ,foraminifera4--,the number of genera is so great1 that ,i can only attempt to convey a very general idea of the principles of classification adopted by ,m4 ,d',orbigny1 and give a few illustrations of some of the most abundant fossil species4 ,that the reader may be cognizant of the usual aspect of these shells five specimens from the ,chalk1 belonging to as many genera1 are here represented 7,lign4 #aji72 the deposit whence they were obtained will be described hereafter4 ,as the mode in which the growth of the body1 and consequently of the shell1 takes place1 differs greatly in certain groups1 an obvious and natural arrangement is suggested1 by which the class is divided into seven orders3-- #a4 ,the primary1 or simplest type2 one segment or cell2 as in ,orbulina4 #b4 ,the segments arranged in circular lines2 as in ,orbitolina4 #c4 ,segments disposed in a straight or arched single line2 successively increasing from the first to the last cell2 as in ,nodosaria1 ,lign4 #aaa4 #d4 ,segments1 spirally and discoidally disposed1 on the same plane1 like cells of the ,nautilus2 as in ,cristellaria1 ,lign4 #aji4 ,the same type1 but coiled obliquely1 and inequilaterally1 like the shells of ,gasteropoda2 as in ,globigerina1 ,lign4 #aji1 ,rosalina1 ,lign4 #aji4 #e4 ,segments developed alternately on the right and left of the first1 and successively on each side the longitudinal axis2 as in ,textularia1 ,lign4 #aji4 #f4 ,arrangement of the segments combining the modes of #d and #e2 that is1 the segments are formed alternately1 but the whole are coiled spirally1 either obliquely1 or on the same plane2 as in ,amphistigena4 #g4 ,segments round a common axis1 on two1 three1 four1 or five1 opposite faces1 returning after each entire revolution2 the new cells being placed exactly on the preceding series2 as in ,quinqueloculina1 ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 lxii4 fig4 #ab4 ,the ,foraminifera vary considerably in magnitude2 by far the greater number of species are invisible to the unassisted eye1 and the aid of a lens or microscope is required to define the structure even of the largest2 yet many are of sufficient size to be recognized1 as for example the ,spirolin1 ,lign4 #aab4 ,a few genera are from a quarter of an inch to nearly an inch in diameter1 as the ,orbitoides ,mantelli of the tertiary formations of ,north ,america1#cab and the ,nummulina1 commonly termed ,nummulites1 of ,europe1 ,lign4 #aaj4 ,we will now describe the genera selected for illustration1 commencing with the large and well-known type1 whose aggregated remains form extensive beds of crystalline limestone in the ,alps1 and in ,asia1 and ,africa4#cac #cab ,dr4 ,morton's ,synopsis of the ,organic ,remains of the ,cretaceous group of the ,united ,states4 ,philadelphia1 #ahbd1 p4 #de1 pl4 v4 fig4 #i4 #cac ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 v4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aaj4 ,nummulites1 or ,nummulina2 nat4 ,from the ,great ,pyramid of ,egypt4 ,fig4 #a4--,transverse section of a ,nummulite1 showing the form and arrangement of the cells4 #b1 #c4--,specimens with part of the external plate removed4 ,nummulina lvigata4 ,lign4 #aaj4--,the shell is of a discoidal or lenticular form1 composed of numerous cells1 concentrically arranged round an axis on the same plane2 both sides of the disk covered by a smooth thick plate4 ,sidenote3 ,,nummulites4 ,under the name of ,nummulites1 from their resemblance to a piece of money1 the fossil shells of this genus of ,foraminifera have long been known to naturalists1 and are figured in many of the early works on petrifactions4 ,they occur in immense quantities in certain rocks1 and are of all sizes1 from a mere point1 to disks an inch and a half in diameter2 thus exceeding in magnitude all other animals of this class4 ,perfect specimens appear as a calcareous solid circular body1 of a lenticular shape2 smooth1 and slightly convex on both sides1 and without any visible structure4 ,on splitting the fossil transversely1 or rubbing down one of the convex planes1 a series of minute cells1 arranged in a discoidal spire1 is brought to view1 as shown in ,lign4 #aaj1 fig4 #a4 ,but this description gives a very inadequate idea of the complicated and exquisite structure of the original1 which has been admirably worked out by ,dr4 ,carpenter4 ,this eminent physiologist has shown that each chamber was occupied by a living segment1 connected with other segments by one or more tubular prolongations1 which absorbed nutrition from without1 by means of filamentous pseudopodia1 that projected through a system of passages leading from the medial plane to the external surface4#cad ,a figure of the supposed form of a living ,nummulina is given in ,pict4 ,atlas1 p4 #ahg4 #cad ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 p4 #ba4 ,see also a paper by ,prof4 ,williamson1 ,on the minute ,structure of the ,calcareous ,shells of some recent species of ,foraminifera4 ,trans4 ,microscop4 ,soc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #aje4 ,the specimens figured in ,lign4 #aaj are from the limestone that forms the foundation rock of the ,great ,pyramid of ,egypt1 and of which that structure is in great part composed4 ,strabo alludes to the ,nummulites of the ,pyramids1 as lentils which had been scattered about by the artificers employed on those stupendous monuments1 and become stone4#cae ,silicified masses of ,nummulites are occasionally met with2 polished slices of such specimens are richly figured by the sections of the inclosed ,foraminifera4 #cae ,an interesting fact was communicated to me by a friend who lately descended the ,nile2 the ,nummulitic limestone rocks are in some parts of the course of the river washed into the stream1 and becoming disintegrated1 the ,nummulites are set free1 and re-deposited in the recent mud of the ,nile4 ,the ,nummulitic limestones are of the ,eocene or ancient4 ,tertiary epoch1 as the labours of ,sir ,roderick ,murchison in the ,alps1 ,apennines1 and ,carpathians first established3 ,nummulites are unknown in the ,secondary formations4#caf #caf ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 v4 ,orbitoides4--,the fossil bodies thus named are disciform1 like the ,nummulites2 and one species1 which forms the constituent substance of ranges of limestone mountains1 #cjj feet high1 near ,suggsville1 in ,north ,america1 was first described by my lamented friend1 the late ,dr4 ,morton1 of ,philadelphia1 as ,n4 ,mantelli1 in his work on the ,cretaceous ,fossils of the ,united ,states4 ,the discovery that the ,nummulitic deposits of the ,old ,world were of the tertiary period1 directed attention to their supposed geological equivalents in ,america2 and on a careful examination of their fossils1 the rocks proved to be tertiary1 and the shells true ,foraminifera allied to the ,nummulites1 but generically distinct4#cag ,a reference to ,dr4 ,carpenters memoir1 previously cited1 is necessary to comprehend the complicated structure of these fossils4#cah #cag ,manual of ,geology1 p4 #bjh4 #cah ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 ,siderolina1 or ,siderolites1 is a genus of ,foraminifera1 which may be described as ,nummulites1 in which the turns of the spire are intercepted by elongated appendages1 that project beyond the periphery of the disk1 and produce a stellated figure4 ,these fossils abound in the cretaceous strata of ,maestricht4 ,fusulina4--,the shell is fusiform1 being elongated transversely to the axis2 the cells are divided internally by constrictions4 ,only one species is known1 7,f4 cylindrica17 and this is confined to the ,carboniferous formation2 it is the most ancient or earliest type of the class1 according to the present state of our knowledge4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aaa4 ,foraminifera1 c4 ,fig4 #a and #b4--;,campilodiscus2 a perfect frustule1 and part of another1 seen from above1 ,tertiary2 ,egra in ,bohemia4 ,see ante1 p4 #if4 #c;a4--,lituola nautilotdea4 ,chalk1 ,chichester4 7,by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell47 ,side view1 #h4 #c;b4--,front view of the last cell of #c;d1 to show the foramina with which it is pierced4 #c;c4--,the last cell of #c;a4 #c;d4--,side view of a young shell1 before the produced1 or straight part appears1 #bj4 #d;a4--,flabellina ,baudonina4 ,chalk4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 ,a young individual seen in profile1 #ab4 #d;b4--,the same1 viewed laterally1 shows the oblique arrangement of the cells4 #e4--,nodosaria4 ,chalk1 ,chichester4 7,by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell47 ,the line below indicates the natural size4 ,sidenote3 ,,nodosaria4 ,,lituola4 ,nodosaria4 ,lign4 #aaa1 fig4 #e4--,straight1 elongated cells placed end to end1 separated by constrictions2 the last formed cell has a round central aperture4 ,several beautiful species abound in the ,chalk2 specimens often occur adhering to the surface of the flint nodules4 ,nodosari are abundant in tertiary deposits4 ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell discovered ,foraminifera of this genus in the blue clay of ,kakaunui1 in ,new ,zealand4 ,cristellaria4 ,lign4 #aji1 fig4 #d4--,the shell is in the form of a compressed ,nautilus2 it has a single aperture1 which is situated at the angle of the keel2 the cells are oblique4 ,this genus comprises seventy fossil species1 which occur in the ,lias1 ,oolite1 and ,chalk4 ,living species are abundant in almost every sea4 ,flabellina4 ,lign4 #aaa1 fig4 #d;a4--,in a young state1 this shell1 like the preceding1 resembles that of a ,nautilus1 and the cells are oblique2 but in the adult1 are of a zigzag 7chevron7 form4 ,it has a single round aperture4 ,fig4 #d;a shows a young individual1 seen in profile2 fig4 #d;b a lateral view1 exhibiting the obliquity of the cells4 ,species of ,flabellina are often found in cretaceous strata4 ,the genus is not known in a recent state4 ,polystomella4--,in its general form this genus resembles the other nautiloid shells above described1 but its structure differs essentially2 for there are several apertures along the side of the shell1 as well as the opening in the last segment4 ,the cells are simple1 and each is a single cavity4 ,the figures and details of structure1 given by ,professor ,williamson1 must be referred to1 for an insight into the organization of this beautiful and complicated type of ,foraminifera4#cai ,one species of ,polystomella is said to occur in the ,chalk2 ,i have not detected this genus in our cretaceous deposits4 ,recent species swarm in our seas2 and may be easily obtained from the mud and sand on the shores at ,brighton4#cbj #cai ,trans4 ,microscop4 ,society1 vol4 ii4 #cbj ,mr4 ,poulton has specimens of the shells1 and the bodies of the animals deprived of the shell1 mounted for the microscope4 ,lituola4 ,lign4 #aaa1 fig4 #c;a4--,in a young state the shell is nautiloid1 as in fig4 #c;b1 #c;d2 but becomes produced by age1 and assumes a crosier-like form1 as in fig4 #c;a4 ,the cells are filled with a porous testaceous tissue1 as shown in figs4 #c;b1 #c;c2 which also illustrate the foraminiferous character of the shells in this class of animals2 for both the external testaceous covering1 and the septa of the cells1 exhibit perforations4#cba #cba ,the perforations are omitted1 by mistake1 in the figure of the adult shell1 fig4 #c;a4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aab4 ,spirolinites in ,flint4 ,chalk4 ,sussex4 7,by the late ,marquis of ,northampton47 ,the specimens are only sections of the shells ,imbedded in flint1 and seen as opaque objects with a lens of moderate power4 ,the small figures denote the size of the originals4 ,sidenote3 ,,spirolina4 ,spirolina4 ,lign4 #aab4--,the general form resembles that of ,lituola3 the young shell being a discoidal1 involute1 and becoming produced by age2 but the internal structure is different2 the cells are simple cavities4 ,the chalk and flints of ,sussex abound in these crosier-like shells1 whose existence in the cretaceous rocks was first made known by my deeply lamented friend1 the late ,marquis of ,northampton4 ,the annexed lignograph1 from drawings by his lordship1 shows the form and structure as displayed by sections in fractured flints4 ,four species were named by ,lord ,northampton 7see ,wond4 p4 #cb-e72 but it is doubtful whether all the specimens belong to more than one species2 the apparent diversity of structure may arise simply from the different planes in which the sections happen to have been made4 ,globigerina4 ,lign4 #aji1 fig4 #a4--,the shell is turbinated1 the cells are spheroidal1 and the last1 or terminal one1 has a semilunar aperture at the umbilical angle4 ,several fossil species abound in the ,chalk and in the tertiary deposits2 and many living species swarm in our seas4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aac4 ,nonionina ,germanica1 #bij4 ,a recent specimen of the body of the animal2 the shell removed by acids4 ,from the ,north ,sea1 ,cuxhaven4 7,m4 ,ehrenberg47 a1 a4--,navicul and other organisms in the segments of the animal4 ,nonionina4--,lign4 #aac4--;,a nautiloid shell1 with simple cells2 the last cell has a single narrow aperture placed transversely over the dorsal aspect of the spire4 ,one species occurs in the chalk formation of ,germany2 several in tertiary deposits1 and in the existing seas4 ,the figure1 ,lign4 #aac1 represents the body of the animal deprived of its shell1 to illustrate the nature of certain fossils from the ,chalk4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aad4 ,foraminifera in ,chalk and ,flint4 4 7,seen by transmitted light47 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #f4--;,different forms of ,rotalia4 #b4--,resembles the recent ,rotalia stigma2 ,ehrenberg2 from the ,north ,sea1 near ,cuxhaven4 #d4--,portion of a ,nautilus1 showing five chambers1 partially separated1 each pierced by the siphunculus3 in ,flint1 from ,ireland4 #e4--,the body of a ,rotalia1 in ,flint2 the shell is not apparent4 ,sidenote3 ,,rotalia--,,rosalina4 ,rotalia4 ,lign4 #aad4--,the shell1 though nautiloid in its contour1 is regularly turbinated1 the cells not globular2 the last cell has a central1 semilunar1 transverse1 aperture4 ,there are fifty fossil species4 ,the ,rotali appear in the ,lias1 ,oolite1 and ,chalk1 in immense numbers1 and swarm in the present seas4 ,rosalina4 ,lign4 #aji1 fig4 #e4--,the shell is depressed2 the spire apparent on one side2 the aperture is a prolonged slit extending from one cell to another1 and opening on the umbilicus2 that is1 on the side opposite to the spire4 ,there are eighteen fossil1 and many recent species of this genus4 ,textularia4 ,lign4 #aji4--,this1 and the following genus1 belong to that order of ,foraminifera in which the segments or cells are arranged in two or three distinct axes 7ante1 p4 #cdb71 and by their gradual increase give rise to an elongated conical but not spiral shell1 which in its general outline resembles that of certain gasteropoda1 but is easily distinguished by its internal structure4 ,the shell is conical1 compressed1 formed of alternate cells1 with a transverse aperture placed on the inner side4 ,upwards of thirty fossil species are known4 ,the ,textulari are in great abundance in the cretaceous rocks2 and1 together with ,rotali and ,rosalin1 constitute a large proportion of the minute organisms of the secondary formations as well as of the present seas4 ,verneuilina4--,lign4 #aji1 fig4 #c4--;,a turriculated shell1 with a slit or aperture transverse to the axis of involution1 and placed on the umbilicus4 ,this genus1 of which but one species is known1 is peculiar to the cretaceous deposits4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,chalk ,,animalculites4 ,strata composed of ,foraminifera4--,from this concise exposition of the characters of the genera that most frequently occur in a fossil state1 we pass to the examination of the organic composition of those limestones which are in a great measure made up of the debris of ,foraminifer4 ,we will commence the investigation with that common substance1 the white chalk of the ,south-,east of ,england4 ,it has long been known that a large proportion of the purest white chalk consists of minute chambered shells1#cbb and corals4 #cbb ,often termed ,polythalamia1 meaning many chambers or cells4 ,mr4 ,lonsdale1 some years since1 first showed that by brushing chalk in water1 and examining the sediment1 shells1 corals1 and foraminifera might be obtained in abundance2 but it was not at that time suspected that the residue of the detritus was almost entirely composed of distinct organic structures1 so minute as to require high magnifying powers1 and a peculiar mode of manipulation1 for their detection and definition4 ,m4 ,ehrenberg demonstrated that even the fossils discovered by ,mr4 ,lonsdale are colossal1 in comparison with the infinitesimal structures of which the finer particles of the chalk consist2 for one cubic inch of the limestone is found to contain upwards of a million of well-preserved animal organisms4 ,the chalk1 therefore1 is an aggregation of extremely minute fossils and inorganic particles4 ,the yellow1 soft1 writing chalk of the ,north of ,europe1 according to ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 is composed of about half its mass of organic remains2 but in the chalk of the ,south of ,europe1 the fossils predominate4 ,the amorphous atoms of the cretaceous limestone do not1 as was formerly believed1 arise from a precipitate of lime previously held in solution1 but from the disintegration of the assembled organisms into more minute calcareous particles2 and these have subsequently been reunited by a crystalline action1 into regular1 elliptical1 granular1 bodies4 ,m4 ,ehrenberg infers that the compact flint nodules have originated from an aggregation of pulverulent particles of siliceous organisms2 and upon this hypothesis explains the absence of flint nodules1 and the abundance of siliceous infusoria1 in the beds of marl that alternate with the chalk in the south of ,europe1 and their presence in the chalk of northern ,europe1 in which the marls are wanting4 ,in other words1 he supposes1 that in the former case the siliceous shells of the animalcules were spread abroad and deposited in layers or strata2 and in the latter were aggregated into nodular masses4 ,this opinion is not1 however1 supported by facts2 for1 though the animal origin of lime1 flint1 and iron1 may be admitted to a great extent1 yet the deposition of silex and lime from aqueous solutions1 is carried on at the present moment upon an enormous scale2 and it cannot be doubted that to such a process is attributable the formation of the nodules1 layers1 dikes1 and veins of flint1 which traverse the chalk1 and other rocks4#cbc #cbc ,see my ,memoir on a ,microscopical ,examination of ,chalk and ,flint1 ,annals of ,nat4 ,hist41 ,aug4 #ahde4 ,the most abundant microscopic organisms in the ,english chalk and flint which ,i have examined1 are ,rotali1 or ,rosalin1 and ,textulari4 ,immense numbers of minuter ,foraminifera also occur1 and many shells1 which are unquestionably the young state of testaceous ,cephalopoda 7as ,nautilus1 ,ammonite1 c474 ,spines of ,sponges1 and of ,echinoderms1 also frequently appear in the field of the microscope3 and a spongeous structure is so common in flint1 that an eminent observer conceives that all the flints1 both nodular and tabular1 have originated from poriferous zoophytes2#cbd an hypothesis altogether inadmissible4 #cbd ,memoir on the ,siliceous ,bodies in the ,chalk1 ,greensands1 and ,oolite1 by ,j4 ,s4 ,bowerbank1 ,esq4 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 vi4 p4 #aha4 ,the assertion that the chalk every where consists almost wholly of organic bodies must likewise be accepted with some limitation4 ,the assiduous observer who searches for hours chalk and flint carefully prepared1 and with the aid of an excellent microscope1 though he will meet with immense numbers of organisms1 will often find a great proportion of atoms without traces of structure4 ,neither is there much variety in the easily recognizable forms of the ,english chalk 7,i write from my own limited experience72 many of the species described by ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 and others1 are few and far between2 and ,i have not detected a single example of diatomace4 ,the student therefore must not be discouraged1 if1 after perusing the glowing accounts of the discoveries of ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 he should not be more successful than myself4 ,it must1 however1 be borne in mind1 that as the fossil remains of the larger animals and plants are commonly associated together in particular localities1 while in similar rocks in other districts they are altogether wanting2 in like manner1 some strata of the same series may be made up of organic bodies1 while others are destitute of them4 ,in fact1 such is the case with our ,english ,chalk3 some layers in the cliffs at ,dover are literally an aggregation of foraminifera and corals1 while other beds have but few vestiges of organic remains4 ,sidenote3 ,,chalk ,,foraminifera4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aae4 ,chalk-dust2 chiefly composed of ,foraminifera2 highly magnified4 7,seen by reflected light47 a1 a4 ,rotali4 b4 ,textulari4 ,foraminifera of the ,chalk and ,flint4 ,lign4 #aae4--;,if a few grains of soft white chalk from ,gravesend or ,dover be examined under a high power 7#a_/d inch object-glass of ,ross71 groups of foraminifera will be perceived1 chiefly of ,rotali1 ,rosalin1 and ,textulari1 as shown in ,lign4 #aae4 ,if some of the powder be immersed in ,canada balsam1 7as directed in the instructions at the close of this chapter for preparing chalk for microscopical examination17 the outline of the shells1 and the cavities of1 the cells1 will be apparent2 as in the sketches ,lign4 #aad1 ante p4 #cea4 ,if a chip or slice of flint1 rendered transparent by immersion in oil of turpentine or ,canada balsam1 be viewed first with a low power1 7#a inch object-glass17 to discover a good specimen1 and afterwards under a high magnifier1 7a #a_/d or an #a_/h object-glass17 the form of the shell and of the cells will be distinctly seen1 as in ,lign4 #aaf4 ,in this beautiful fossil ,rotalia1 the segments are as sharply defined as in a recent example3 and one of the cells 7a7 is seen to be lined with quartz crystals4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aaf4 ,section of a ,rotalia in flint4 7,seen by transmitted light1 and showing the chambers partially filled with mineral matter47 a4 ,a cell lined with spar4 7 #bej diameters47 ,at first sight this fossil might be mistaken for a nautilus partially filled with spar2 but the reader will remark that the septa1 or partitions1 have their convex surface towards the aperture2 whereas in the shells of the ,cephalopoda 7,nautilus1 ,ammonite1 c47 the septa are concave anteriorly4 ,in ,lign4 #aad1 fig4 #d1 a series of casts in flint of the septa of a young ,nautilus is represented2 by comparing it with the ,rotali in the same lignograph1 figs4 #b1 #c1 this distinction will be obvious4 ,and here it may be necessary again to point out the essential character of the animal of the foraminifera1 as distinguished from that of the cephalopoda with chambered shells4 ,in the latter1 the body of the mollusk only occupies the large outer chamber2 the internal compartments are empty dwellings1 which the animal has successively quitted in the progress of its growth1 and with which it has no connexion except by the siphunculus4 ,in the ,rotalia1 and allied forms1 the body of the animal is inclosed within the shells1 and occupies every chamber contemporaneously at every stage3 the cells are always filled by the segments of the body4 ,hence when the shell1 which is calcareous1 is dissolved in weak hydrochloric acid1 the soft body is exposed1 and seen to extend to the innermost chamber4 ,the segments are connected by a membranous tube1 which some naturalists regard as a common channel of communication between the several digestive sacs of which the body consists2 for minute diatomace which the animal has swallowed1 7according to ,ehrenberg17 are seen within the membranous sacs2 as shown in ,lign4 #aac1 which represents the body of a ,nonionina1 deprived of its shell4 ,the importance of obtaining a correct idea of this structure will presently appear4 ,when a recent ,rotalia is immersed in dilute acid1 the soft parts of the body1 deprived of the shell1 may be obtained entire2 they consist of a series of little bags or sacs1 united by a tube4 ,the constituent substance appears to be a tough membrane1 and is generally of a rich brown or amber colour4 ,the sacs are sometimes full of a granular substance1 but are often empty and collapsed4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,bodies ,,of ,,rotali4 ,fossil remains of the soft parts of ,foraminifera4 ,lign4 #aac4--,when examining chalk#cbe and flint under the microscope with the view of discovering the fossil bodies described by ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 ,i observed that the cells of the ,rotali in flint were frequently occupied by a substance varying in colour from a light amber to a dark brown1 and closely resembling in appearance the body of the recent foraminifer deprived of its shell4 ,under a high power1 the folds of the membranous sacs and the connecting tube were apparent1 and ,i felt convinced that the substance filling the cells was not inorganic1 but the original animal tissues in the state of molluskite4#cbf ,in short1 that the animal had become immersed and preserved in the fluid silex like the insects in amber4 ,the appearance of the first discovered example of this kind is represented in ,lign4 #aag4 #cbe ,in #ahde4 #cbf ,molluskite3 a name by which ,i proposed to distinguish the carbonaceous substance resulting from the soft bodies of testaceous mollusca4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aag4 ,rotalia in ,flint1 with the fossilized body of the animal in the shell3 highly magnified4 7,seen by transmitted light47 ,sidenote3 ,,soft ,,bodies ,,of ,,foraminifera4 ,in a paper read before the ,geological ,society in #ahde1cbg ,i ventured to affirm the animal nature of the fossils in question2 but the supposition was regarded by geologists as very startling and unsatisfactory2 and as the specimens were enveloped in flint1 the appearance was attributed to the infiltration of mineral matter of a different colour from the surrounding silex1 into the empty chambers2 a circumstance of frequent occurrence in ,ammonites1 ,nautili1 and even in the foraminifera2 for the latter are often filled with chalk1 flint1 silicate of iron1 crystal1 c4 as in ,lign4 #aaf4 ,in these instances1 ,i conceive the shells were either empty when immersed in the fluid chalk or flint1 or speedily became so by the decomposition of the soft parts of the animal4 ,but in the fossils under consideration1 ,i believe the live animal was suddenly enveloped1 and hermetically sealed1 as it were1 in its shell1 and that putrefaction was thus prevented4 ,the uniformity in colour1 and the structure of the substance in the cells1 appeared to me incompatible with its assumed mineral origin1 and ,i resolved to follow up the inquiry by an examination of ,rotali in chalk2 in the hope that by dissolving the shell in acid 7as in recent foraminifera71 the body of the animal might be detected in an unmineralized state4 ,after many fruitless attempts1 several examples of the soft bodies of ,rotali were obtained from the grey chalk of ,dover1 in an extraordinary state of preservation4#cbh #cbg ,notes of a ,microscopical ,examination of the ,chalk and ,flint of the ,south-,east of ,england1 with ,remarks on the ,animalculites of certain ,tertiary and ,modern ,deposits4 ,published in the ,ann4 ,nat4 ,hist41 ,aug4 #ahde4 #cbh ,to ,henry ,deane1 ,esq4 of ,clapham ,common1 ,i am indebted for some of the most illustrative specimens hitherto obtained4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aah4 ,the ,soft ,bodies of ,foraminifera2 extracted from ,chalk3 highly magnified4 7,viewed by transmitted light47 ,fig4 #a4--;,an exquisite example of the body of a ,rotalia2 the sacs partially collapsed4 #b4--;,body of a ,rotalia2 the sacs distended with a dark granular substance4 ,these marvellous relics were obtained by subjecting a few grains of the chalk to the action of weak hydrochloric acid1 by which the calcareous earth and the shells it contained were dissolved2 the residue1 consisting of particles of quartz and green silicate of iron1 and remains of the animal tissues1 were placed1 in the usual manner1 in ,canada balsam4 ,two exquisite specimens of the bodies of ,rotali thus obtained are figured in ,lign4 #aah4cbi #cbi ,i communicated this discovery to the ,royal ,society4 ,see ,philos4 ,transactions1 #ahdf1 p4 #dfe4 ,in these fossils the sacs are generally more or less distended with a dark substance1 as in ,lign4 #aah1 fig4 #b3 but in some1 they are empty and collapsed in folds1 just as membranous pouches would appear under similar conditions2 as in the exquisite fossil1 ,lign4 #aah1 fig4 #a4 ,the sacs regularly diminish in size from the innermost to the outermost cell1 and vary in number from fourteen to twenty-six2 being more numerous than in the recent species of ,rotali that have come under my notice4 ,in some instances small papill are seen on the outer surface of the integument2 apparently the vestiges of the pseudopodia4#ccj #ccj ,admirably as my excellent engraver1 ,mr4 ,lee1 7of ,prince's ,square1 ,kennington17 has executed the lignograph1 #aah1 ,i would refer the reader to the steel plate in ,philos4 ,trans4 #ahdf1 pl4 xxi4 for figures of these marvellous fossils4 ,not only is the form and general character of the animal substance preserved1 but even its flexibility2 for in one instance1 the body1 released by the solution of the chalk and shell1 was uncoiled and pressed out1 as shown in ,lign4 #aai1 fig4 #d4 ,in one specimen1 7figured in ,philos4 ,trans4 #ahdf1 pl4 xxi4 fig4 #aj17 the membrane of the largest sacs is much corrugated1 and disposed in numerous duplications1 probably owing to the empty state of these segments1 when immersed in the chalk2 but the discoidal contour of the original is well preserved4 ,this fossil so closely resembles the decalcified body of a recent ,rotalia or ,rosalina1 that an eminent observer who saw it under the microscope at the meeting of the ,royal ,society1 without knowing its history1 concluded it to be the body of a recent animal4 ,this extraordinary preservation of the soft delicate tissues of an animal of the cretaceous seas1 invisible to the unassisted eye1 through the incalculable ages that must have elapsed since the deposition of the chalk in which it was enshrined1 is a fact as remarkable as the occurrence of the carcass of the ,lena ,mammoth1 in the frozen soil of ,siberia4 ,sidenote3 ,,foraminifera ,,in ,,chalk ,,and ,,flint4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aai4 ,remains of ,foraminifera2 in ,chalk and ,flint4 7,viewed by transmitted light2 highly magnified47 ,fig4 #a4--,shell of a ,rosalina1 filled with mineral matter2 in flint4 #b4--,soft parts of a ,textularia2 in flint4 #c4--;,cells of ,textularia elongata2 filled with mineral matter2 the shell not visible2 in flint4 #d4--,the soft body of a ,rotalia1 deprived of its shell1 and partially uncoiled2 obtained from ,chalk1 #dej diameters4 ,the soft parts of other foraminifera have been discovered in a similar state of preservation4 ,a fine example of the body of a ,textularia1 in flint1 is figured1 ,lign4 #aai1 fig4 #b4 ,the form and disposition of the segments in ,textularia elongata1 is shown in ,lign4 #aai1 fig4 #c4 ,these cells are filled with inorganic matter4 ,the shell of a ,rosalina filled with an opaque mineral substance1 forming casts of the cells1 is represented in ,lign4 #aai1 fig4 #a4 ,the preservation of the soft parts of foraminifera and of mollusks1 in a fossil state1 is a phenomenon of frequent occurrence1 and no longer questioned by geologists1 notwithstanding the scepticism with which my first announcement of the fact was received4 ,dr4 ,bailey1 of ,west ,point ,military ,academy1 soon after the publication of my first paper1 sent me specimens from the marls of ,new ,jersey4 ,foraminiferous ,limestones of ,india4--,so much doubt was expressed as to the accuracy of my opinion respecting the nature of the fossil ,rotali1 that its corroboration by observations on certain limestones in ,india1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,carter1 ,esq4 ,secretary of the ,bombay ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 was as gratifying as unexpected4 ,according to the researches of that gentleman1 the south-east coast of ,arabia is chiefly composed of two distinct limestone formations2 the one averaging about #d1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 and the other #fjj feet4 ,the latter forms the desert of ,akaf1 and with the intervention of the mountains of ,oman1 which belong to the greater formation1 passes up into the lower ,sindh2 while the former constitutes the high land of the coast1 which1 parting from the western border of the ,desert of ,akaf1 extends nearly to ,cape ,aden4 ,the limestones of both these groups1 or formations1 consist chiefly of foraminifera2 the largest forms being visible to the naked eye4 ,mr4 ,carter states that his attention was first directed to the organic composition of the ,porebunder limestone1 which is imported into ,bombay for building1 by small amber-coloured specks on the stone1 that resembled the soft parts of foraminifera figured and described by me in the ,philosophical ,transactions4 ,on subjecting a portion of the limestone to the action of acid1 ,i found them to be what ,dr4 ,mantell's observations had led me to expect1 the actual remains of the animals1 of exquisite beauty in form and symmetrical development4 ,the minute kinds in the ,porebunder stone do not average more than #a_/ijj of an inch in diameter2 and the composite forms are held together by thread-like attachments1 which indicate the tubular communications that existed between them when living4#cca #cca ,on the ,existence of ,beds of ,foraminifera1 ,recent and ,fossil1 on the ,south-,east coast of ,arabia1 by ,h4 ,j4 ,carter1 ,esq42 ,proceedings of the ,bombay ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 #ahdh1 ,sidenote3 ,,foraminiferous ,,deposit ,,at ,,charing4 ,foraminiferous ,deposit at ,charing4 ,lign4 #aji4--,the little town of ,charing1 in ,kent1 has acquired a celebrity among those naturalists who are interested in the present inquiry1 by the researches of ,william ,harris1 ,esq4 ,f4,g4,s4 who some years since made known the existence of a remarkable deposit of chalk detritus1 about one foot in thickness1 which extends over the outcrop or exposed surface of the firestone in that locality4 ,this bed consists of a soft1 whitish1 tenacious clay1 which1 when immersed in water1 is found to be largely composed of minute grains1 that prove to be foraminifera4 ,these shells belong to many species and genera2 and are associated with the cases of entomostraceous crustaceans1 spicula of sponges1 c4 ,the organisms readily separate from the amorphous particles by washing1 and specimens may be easily obtained as distinct and perfect as if recent4 ,see ,lign4 #aji1 ante1 p4 #cdb4 ,intermingled with the cretaceous forms1 are minute fresh-water shells1 apparently derived from a modern source4 ,the ,charing deposit appears to have originated from the action of water on the unconsolidated chalk of the neighbouring ,downs1 before the surface of the hills was protected by a covering of vegetable soil4 ,through the liberality of ,mr4 ,harris1 ,i have been able to examine an extensive series of the ,charing ,foraminifera2 and ,prof ,williamson has figured and described the principal types in an interesting memoir in the ,transactions of the ,manchester ,philos4 ,soc4 vol4 viii4 #ahdg4 ,as in most of the cretaceous strata1 the prevailing species are referable to the genera ,textularia1 ,rotalia1 ,rosalina1 ,cristellaria1 ,lagena1#ccb c4 ,there are numerous spicula of sponges1 and needle-like calcareous prisms1 which are the detritus of the fibrous shells1 called ,inoceramus4 #ccb ,this interesting type of ,foraminifera is the subject of a ,memoir by ,prof4 ,williamson2 ,annals1 ,nat4 ,hist4 #ahdh1 vol4 i4 ,foraminifera of the ,oolite1 ,lias1 c4--,the occurrence of certain genera in particular rocks has been incidentally noticed in the previous descriptions1 and it is needless to particularize any localities of the ,oolite1 ,lias1 and other secondary deposits4 ,it must suffice to state that ,dr4 ,carpenter1 ,prof ,williamson1 ,prof ,phillips1 ,mr4 ,sorby1 ,mr4 ,rupert ,jones1 and other able observers1 have figured and described foraminifera from the strata between the ,chalk and the ,carboniferous formations3 the report to be drawn up by the two first-named gentlemen for the ,british ,association1 will present a resume of the ,british fossil genera and species4 ,it is deserving record1 that no vestiges of foraminifera have been found in the ,wealden strata2 the fluviatile origin of those deposits renders it improbable that the remains of these marine organisms should occur in great numbers1 yet from1 the estuary character of some of the beds1 the presence of foraminifera might be expected4 ,foraminiferous ,deposits of the ,united ,states4--,dr4 ,bailey has made us familiar with the foraminiferous rocks of ,north ,america4 ,the various memoirs on this class of fossil animalculites1 and on the diatomace 7ante1 p4 #ic71 published in the ,american ,journal of ,science1 and in the ,smithsonian ,transactions1 attest the acumen1 and unwearied spirit of research1 of this able observer4 ,not only from the ,united ,states1 but from numerous localities in ,asia and ,arabia1 ,dr4 ,bailey has transmitted me specimens of limestones containing foraminifera1 chiefly of the genera ,rotalia and ,textularia4#ccc #ccc ,from ,beyrout1 ,damascus1 the ,mount of ,olives1 ,anti-,libanus4 ,in the calcareous marls of the ,upper ,missouri river1 extending nearly to the ,rocky ,mountains1 similar fossils are met with4 ,in the interior of ,florida1 the white orbitoidal limestone is traversed by flint2 and the calcareous and siliceous masses are full of microscopic foraminifera4#ccd #ccd ,smithsonian ,contributions1 vol4 ii4 p4 #afa4 ,sidenote3 ,,foraminifera ,,of ,,the ,,carboniferous ,,formations4 ,foraminifera of the ,carboniferous ,formations4--,in the carboniferous limestones of ,england1 the late ,mr4 ,bowman1 ,prof4 ,tennant1 and ,mr4 ,darker1 detected shells of foraminifera1 apparently of the genus ,fusulina4#cce ,prof4 ,phillips mentions the occurrence of nautiloid foraminifera in the palozoic limestones of ,carrington ,park1 ,south ,devon1 and ,yorkshire4#ccf #cce ,edinburgh ,new ,phil4 ,journal1 vol4 xxx4 p4 #dd4 #ccf ,proceedings of the ,polytechnic ,society of the ,west ,riding of ,yorkshire1 #ahde4 ,dr4 ,dale ,owen is said to have obtained well characterized polythalamia from the oolitic portion of the carboniferous 7,pentremitic1 ante1 p4 #bih17 limestone of ,indiana4#ccg ,and ,m4 de ,verneuil discovered a species of ,fusulina1 in the ,millstone-grit of the coal formation of the ,ohio4 #ccg ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xlvi4 note to p4 #caa4 ,but the most remarkable deposits of foraminifera in the palozoic rocks1 are those of ,russia1 described by ,sir ,roderick ,murchison4#cch ,the upper beds of the ,mountain limestone in the ,lower ,volga1 consist of laminated calcareous shales1 composed of an aggregation of shells of ,fusulin4 ,bands of limestone1 through a vertical extent of two hundred feet1 are loaded with ,fusulin2 layers from five inches to five feet in thickness1 consist of a pure white ,fusulina limestone2 the foraminifera are all of one species1 the ,fusulina cylindrica4 #cch ,geology of ,russia in ,europe1 vol4 i4 p4 #hf4 pl4 i4 fig4 #a4 ,foraminiferous ,limestone of ,new ,zealand4--,on the eastern coast of the ,middle ,island of ,new ,zealand1 to the north of ,otago1 strata of yellow and fawn-coloured limestone appear on the surface at ,ototara1 and continue to ,kakaunui4 ,this rock is generally friable and porous2 it contains terebratul1 spines and cases of echinoderms1 pseudo-belemnites1 teeth of sharks1 c4 ,a microscopical examination shows it to be in a great part composed of an aggregation of very small polythalamia4#cci ,the specimens of the ,ototara limestone received from my son1 are very rich in minute corals and shells1 and foraminifera of the ,european cretaceous type3 species of ,rotalia1 ,cristellaria1 ,globigerina1 ,textularia1 ,rosalina1 ,nodosaria1 ,dentalina1 c4 ,among them are two forms which occur at ,charing3 namely1 ,rosalina ,lorneiana1 ,lign4 #aji1 fig4 #e1 and ,textularia elongata3 of the latter a specimen in flint is figured1 ,lign4 #aai1 fig4 #c4 ,the soft parts of ,rotali are preserved in the ,ototara limestone1 as in our chalk4 #cci ,notes on the ,geological ,structure of the ,middle ,island of ,new ,zealand1 by ,walter ,mantell1 ,esq4 of ,wellington4 #ahdh4 ,there are likewise1 as at ,charing1 cases of ,entomostrac of the genera ,basidia and ,cythereis4#cdj #cdj ,see ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 p4 #cci4 pl4 xxix4 ,the assemblage of fossil remains in the ,ototara rock has decidedly a cretaceous aspect1 but till the geological position of the strata in relation to the other formations of the ,island is determined1 it would be premature to regard these limestones as the equivalents in time of the ,chalk formations of ,europe4#cda #cda ,a list of the ,ototaran fossils collected by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 is given in ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 vi4 p4 #cbi4 ,tertiary ,foraminifera4--,the marine tertiary deposits which contain foraminifera in abundance1 are so numerous1 that it is unnecessary to particularize any4 ,the sands of the ,paris basin in some localities are so full of microscopic forms1 that a cubic inch of the mass contains sixty thousand4 ,the friable calcareous strata at ,grignon are a loose aggregate of the shells of foraminifera and minute mollusks2 and as the fossil shells from that locality are very common1 and generally filled with debris1 the student will have no difficulty in obtaining specimens for examination4 ,the tertiary argillaceous deposits of ,england are less rich in foraminifera than the arenaceous2 but the usual types occur in the ,london ,clay1 at ,highgate1 ,clapham ,common1 ,bracklesham ,bay1 c4 ,the ,eocene marls of the ,united ,states are rich in foraminifera4 ,sidenote3 ,,foraminifera ,,of ,,the ,,fens4 ,foraminifera of the ,fens of ,lincolnshire and ,cambridgeshire4--,though the alluvial deposits of the fen-districts are comparatively of modern date1 yet the rich assemblage of foraminifera contained in the clay of certain districts is so interesting and instructive1 that a brief notice of them must not be omitted4 ,the foraminiferous character of the ,lincolnshire alluvium was first made known to me by specimens from ,bolton1 sent me by ,professor ,williamson2 and their extension over a wide area in ,cambridgeshire1 by a liberal supply from ,mr4 ,smith1 of ,march4 ,the bed that abounds in these shells1 is about seven feet beneath the surface1 and consists of a fine sea sand combined with carbonaceous and argillaceous matter4 ,by washing about a gallon of this earth in water1 an ounce of polythalamia and organic detritus may be obtained4 ,the perfect shells are as fresh as if just dredged up from the sea2 the soft parts--the membranous segments held together by their tubular connexion--in many instances remaining in the shell2 these parts may be obtained by the solution of the shell in acid4 ,when the ,rotali are rendered transparent by immersion in ,canada balsam1 their appearance1 by transmitted light is identical with that exhibited by the fossil specimens2 and if viewed by reflected light1 the body may be seen occupying all the cells of the shell2 but the segments are somewhat collapsed2 evidently from the shrinking of the animal tissues after death4#cdb #cdb ,two specimens are figured in my notice of fossil ,foraminifera4 ,phil4 ,trans1 p4 iv4 for #ahdf1 pl4 xxi4 figs4 #ac1 #ad4 ,the organisms of the ,lincolnshire alluvium have been thoroughly investigated by ,prof4 ,williamson2 they comprise many species and genera1 of the usual types2 as ,rotali1 ,rosalin1 ,polystomell1 ,textulari1 ,lagen1 ,nodosari1 c4 ,it is remarkable1 that though a marine estuary deposit1 no vestiges of diatomace have been observed4 ,the bed so rich in foraminifera1 extends west and south-west of the ,wash4 ,mr4 ,smith sent me a mass of sandy clay1 from a well sunk in the town of ,march1 to the depth of twenty-five feet1 that was loaded with these beautiful organisms4#cdc #cdc ,the reader interested in these inquiries should peruse the highly interesting ,memoir by ,prof4 ,williamson1 ,on some ,microscopical ,objects found in the ,mud of the ,levant1 and other ,deposits4 ,manchester ,phil4 ,trans1 vol4 viii4 ,recent ,foraminiferous ,deposit at ,brighton4--,an interesting fact connected with the phenomena under review is deserving record4 ,the presence of the fossils of an older formation1 in strata subsequently deposited1 and in part composed of the detritus of the rocks whence the organic remains were derived1 is not uncommon3 such fossils are termed by the ,french geologists fossiles remanis4 ,the nature of these re-deposited fossils is generally obvious2 either by the water-worn condition of shells1 bones1 c4 or from their containing particles of their parent bed2 or if casts1 from their mineral composition4 ,thus in the chalk of ,st4 ,catherine's ,mount1 near ,rouen1 there are numerous casts of ,ammonites1 ,scaphites1 and other shells1 composed of marl full of particles of greensand4 ,these have evidently been washed out of the preceding cretaceous beds of firestone or glauconite2 and re-deposited in the chalk strata in which they are now imbedded4#cdd 99 99 99 99 99 #cdd ,m4 ,d',orbigny4 ,along the sea-shore1 to the east of ,brighton1 there is a bank of sand and calcareous mud1 the detritus of the neighbouring cliffs1 in the progress of formation2 and in this sediment ,mr4 ,reginald ,mantell discovered recent ,rotali1 ,nodosari1 c41 with frustules of ,bacillari1 ,coscinodisci1 ,navicul1 and other diatomace2 associated with cretaceous polythalamia washed out of the chalk1#cde ,the difference in the aspect of the recent and fossil organisms was so evident1 as to leave no doubt of the correctness of this interpretation4 ,here1 then1 at the present moment1 a deposit is going on1 whose organic contents consist of an assemblage of species of living animalcules of our seas1 with the fossil forms of the ancient chalk ocean2 in like manner as in the bed of the ,nile1 the ,nummulites of the tertiary rocks are being imbedded with the existing mollusks and desmidi of that river 7ante1 p4 #cde74 #cde ,see ante1 p4 #ii4 ,sidenote3 ,,geological ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,foraminifera4 ,geological distribution of the ,foraminifera4--,according to the observations of ,m4 ,d',orbigny1 the first appearance of the tribes of minute beings which have played so important a part in the elaboration of materials for the formation of the sedimentary rocks of the secondary and tertiary ages1 and are at this moment invisible but powerful agents in the accumulation of calcareous sediments at the bottom of the sea1 was in the ,carboniferous epoch1 and by a single type1 the ,fusulina 7ante1 p4 #cdf74 ,i believe no certain evidence of the occurrence of ,foraminifera in ,silurian or ,devonian deposits has been obtained4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny gives the following summary of the distribution of the known fossil and recent species3-- ,,genera4 ,,species4 ,carboniferous ,system #a #a ,jurassic #e #bj ,cretaceous #cd #bhj ,tertiary #ef #dfj ,living in the present ,seas #fh #ajjj ,of the recent species1 #ege inhabit the ,tropics4 ------ #cej ----- ,temperate zones4 ------ #ge ----- ,cold regions4 ,the above statistical view was published six years ago2 but the great activity of research that has since prevailed1 has largely augmented the known number both of fossil and recent forms4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny's recent ,tables#cdf give for the ,jurassic or ,oolite #aj genera2 ,cretaceous1 #ch genera2 ,tertiary1 #fj genera2 but this estimate must be far too low4 #cdf ,cours ,elmentaire de ,palontologie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have thus endeavoured to convey a general idea of the highly important results obtained by the microscopical investigation of the minute organisms that enter so largely into the composition of many of the fossiliferous deposits4 ,without the aid of the most perfect optical instruments which modern science and art have produced1 even the existence of many of these structures could not have been demonstrated2 and we cannot doubt1 that were the powers of the microscope increased1 the fossil remains of beings still more minute would be detected2 and that rocks and strata which now appear to consist of amorphous particles of lime1 of silex1 and of iron1 would prove to be the aggregated skeletons of animals1 yet more infinitesimal than those which have formed the subject of our contemplations4 ,how strikingly illustrative are these phenomena of the profound remark of the illustrious ,galileo--,la nature fait beaucoup avec peu1 et ses oprations sont toutes galement merveilleuses4 ,,instructions ,,for ,,the ,,microscopical ,,examination ,,of ,,chalk1 ,,flint1 ,,and ,,other ,,rocks4 ,sidenote3 ,,microscopical ,,examination ,,of ,,chalk4 ,chalk4--,the following method is that recommended by ,m4 ,ehrenberg1 ,place a drop of water upon a plate of thin glass1 and put into it as much scraped chalk as will cover the fine point of a knife1 spreading it out1 and leaving it to rest a few seconds2 then withdraw the finest particles which are suspended in the water1 together with most of the liquid1 and let the remainder become perfectly dry4 ,cover this dried spot of chalk with ,canada balsam 7the turpentine of ,abies balsamea71 and hold the plate of glass over the flame of a lamp1 until the balsam becomes slightly fluid1 without froth or air-bubbles2 it should be maintained in this position 7the glass being kept as hot as the finger will bear7 for a few minutes1 until the balsam is found to have thoroughly permeated the substance to be examined4 ,it is preferable to place a piece of very thin glass upon the balsam1 and gently press it down1 and allow it to remain4 ,the best flatted crown-glass should be used for placing the chalk or other objects on4 ,it is convenient to have the slips of glass of one size1 or the specimens will require different boxes for their reception2 three inches by one inch is that usually employed4 ,these objects require to be viewed with a power magnifying three hundred times linear1 that is1 in diameter2 and if the process has been properly conducted1 it will be seen that the chalk is chiefly composed of well-preserved organisms4 ,in these preparations the cells of the foraminifera appear at first black1 with a white central spot2 this is caused by the air contained in those cavities1 for air-bubbles always appear as black annular bodies2 by degrees1 the balsam penetrates into all the single cells1 the black rings of the air vesicles disappear1 and the structure of the original is beautifully displayed4#cdg #cdg ,specimens of chalk1 flint1 and other rocks for examination2 or specimens prepared on slides1 may be obtained of the microscopic artists1 named in the ,appendix4 ,soft part of ,rotali in chalk4--,the manner in which ,i obtained the unmineralized soft bodies of foraminifera from chalk has already been mentioned 7ante1 p4 #cfj72 but it may be useful to offer a few additional suggestions2 for such fossil remains are not easily extracted4 ,many experienced microscopical observers have not succeeded in obtaining one good specimen2 but others have been more fortunate1 or persevering4 ,in several glass test-tubes1 7the more the greater chance of success17 put a few grains of chalk powder3 pour the tube half full of diluted hydrochloric 7muriatic7 acid--about ten parts water to one of acid--agitate1 and set the mixture by3 when all action has ceased add one or two drops of undiluted acid to each tube1 and repeat the process at due intervals till all the calcareous matter is dissolved4 ,pour off the fluid1 substitute distilled water1 agitate1 and then let the sediment subside4 ,the residue will consist of atoms of quartz and other insoluble mineral matter1 and animal tissue1 if there be any4 ,then1 with a camel-hair pencil1 place a small portion of the sediment on a glass slide1 and when dry cover it with ,canada balsam1 and treat it as above directed4 ,among a dozen slides thus mounted1 there will probably be two or more good examples of the body1 or detached membranous segments of ,rotali or ,textulari1 like those figured in ,lign4 #aah4 ,calcareous ,sandstones and ,marls4--,these substances may be examined by the same process2 but if of loose texture1 ,dr4 ,bailey recommends that some of the sandy powder should be spread very thinly on a plate of glass1 with or without water1 and by the aid of a lens of moderate power the roundish grains should be selected and picked up with fine forceps1 or the point of a needle1 and transferred to another piece of glass1 having on one spot a thin coat of ,canada balsam4 ,this should be gently heated over a spirit lamp1 when the balsam will penetrate the grains1 and render them transparent2 by this process the minutest shells1 c4 may be detected4 ,for a hasty exploration1 the dust may be rendered sufficiently transparent by a drop or two of oil of turpentine4 ,sandy calcareous marls may be examined by diffusing a few grains in water in a wine-glass1 the lighter portions will be suspended in the fluid1 and may be placed on glass1 and when dry prepared with ,canada balsam in the usual manner4 ,sidenote3 ,,microscopical ,,examination ,,of ,,flint4 ,flint4--,flint1 and other siliceous stones1 require to be chipped into very thin fragments1 and immersed in oil of turpentine4 ,a clear1 translucent flint should be selected1 from which fragments may be shattered off by smart blows of a hammer1 over a sheet of white paper3 the most transparent flakes are to be selected1 and these should be put in oil of turpentine1 in a wide-mouth glass bottle4 ,take out the pieces for examination with forceps1 and inspect them as transparent objects1 by transmitted light4 ,when good specimens are discovered1 mount them in ,canada balsam4 ,it is hazardous to entrust such fossils to the lapidaries2 an interesting group of twenty spiniferites was reduced to ten1 by one of our best workmen1 in whose hands it was placed for polishing1 with the view of rendering it more transparent4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,fossil ,,testaceous ,,mollusca1 ,,or ,,shells4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abj4 ,fossil ,oyster1 from the ,chalk4 ,kemptown1 ,brighton4 ,on ,fossil ,mollusca4--,numerous as are the fossil remains of the various types of animal organization which have already passed under review1 they are far exceeded in number and variety by those of the beings whose mineralized relics we now propose to investigate4 ,although every one is familiar with the external appearance of the shells cast up by the waves on the shores of our island1 and of those which1 from their varied colours and elegant forms1 are preserved in the cottage of the peasant1 and in the mansion of the rich1 but few persons are conversant with the nature of the animals that secreted and were protected by these beautiful and enduring structures4 ,the organization even of the oyster1 mussel1 whelk1 c41 is known only to the naturalist4 ,appearing to the uninstructed eye as a shapeless gelatinous mass1 there is nothing to arrest the attention1 or excite the curiosity4 ,yet the beings which inhabited these durable cases1 are objects of the highest interest and present a rich field of instructive investigation4 ,except as shedding some light on the structure and economy of their inhabitants1 the shells1 in the estimation of the naturalist1 are the least interesting part of the organization of the ,mollusca2 but to the geologist1 from their permanent nature1 and the proofs they yield of the conditions under which the strata that contain them were deposited1 they are important in the highest degree4 ,it has even been found convenient to classify formations1 in which fossil shells largely prevail1 by the relative numerical proportion of the recent and extinct species found in the different groups of strata2 and the terms1 ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene1 7proposed by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell17 have reference to this character1 as we have previously explained 7ante1 p4 #bd74 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,mollusca4 ,the ,mollusca1 a name indicative of the soft nature of the integuments of these animals1 constitute a very comprehensive subdivision of the animal kingdom1 and are separable into two principal groups1 viz4 the ,acephala and the ,encephala4 ,i4 ,the ,acephala 7so termed because they are destitute of a head7 have neither jaws1 tongue1 nor a distinct mouth4 ,they are aquatic1 and are subdivided into classes1 according to the modification of their integument1 or of their gills4 a4 ,the ,tunicata 7from the elastic tunic1 or mantle1 in which they are enclosed7 have no shell1 and therefore do not come within the scope of our inquiries3 yet it is possible that the soft parts even of these perishable structures may have left some trace1 or that markings of their integument on the silt or mud may be preserved2#cdh and ,i would recommend the student to search for such indications on the rippled surface of clays and sandstones4 #cdh ,the ,ischadites ,knigi of the ,ludlow rock was supposed to resemble ,boltenia1 a pedunculated ,ascidian4 b4 ,the ,brachiopoda 7arm-feet7 have two long spiral fleshy arms1 or brachia1 developed from the sides of the alimentary orifice1 are enclosed in bivalve shells1 and respire by means of their vascular skin1 or mantle4 ,they have not the power of locomotion1 but are fixed by a peduncle to other bodies4 c4 ,the ,lamellibranchia 7plated gills7 have also bivalve shells1 but their respiration is effected by gills composed of vascular membrane disposed in plates1 and attached to the mantle2 the beard of the ,oyster is the branchial or respiratory apparatus of that animal4 ,these bivalve ,mollusca are subdivided into those which close their shells by one adductor muscle1 hence called monomyaria1 as the ,oyster2 and those which have two muscles1 dimyaria1 as the ,cockle4 ,as the impressions left on the shells1 by the attachment of these adductor muscles1 and by the margin of the mantle1 are found as perfect in the fossil as in the recent1 they constitute important distinctive characters4 ,dr4 ,gray's definition of the respective parts of univalve and bivalve shells is at once clear1 concise1 and natural1 being conformable to the structure of the body of the enclosed mollusk4 ,the front of the shell is the part which covers the head of the animal2 the back of the shell is the part which covers the tail2 the left and right sides correspond with the same parts of the mollusk4 ,in univalves1 the apex of the shelly cone whether it be simply conical or spiral 7except in ,patella7 is over the hinder part of the animal3 when the shell is placed on its mouth with the apex towards the observer1 the parts of the shell correspond with the position of the person looking at it4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,bivalve ,,shells4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aba4 ,illustration of ,fossil ,bivalve ,shells2 nat4 ,petricola ,patagonica4 ,d',orb4 ,interior of right valve1 and the same valve with the animal as seen on the removal of the left valve4 a4 ,labial ,palpi4 b4 ,mantle4 c4 ,margin of shell4 d4 ,branchi4 e4 ,anal siphon4 f4 ,branchial siphon4 g4 ,foot4 h4 ,retractor muscle of siphons4 i4 ,posterior adductor4 j4 ,anterior adductor4 k4 ,ligament4 l4 ,umbo4 m4 ,lunule4 n4 ,base1 or ventral margin4 o4 ,anterior side4 p4 ,posterior side4 q4 ,pallial line4 7,the length of the shell is estimated from o to p1 its breadth from l to n47 ,in bivalves 7,lign4 #aba7 the ligament is always on the dorsal surface of the animal1 and the mouth in front of the apex or umbo of the valves1 before the ligament4 ,a bivalve placed with the hinge side uppermost and the ligament towards the observer is in the same relative position as the person looking at it2 viz4 the head in front1 and the right and left valves in their natural relations4 ,the length of the shell is therefore from the front to the back of the animal3 the width or transverse diameter is from the umbo to the margin4 ,much confusion has arisen from many conchologists having described the length and width of a shell diametrically opposite to the proper position of its inhabitant4 ,,ii4 ,the ,encephalous ,mollusca4--,these possess a head1 with feelers or soft tentacula1 eyes1 and a mouth with jaws2 they are arranged in classes1 according to the modification of their locomotive organs2 for1 with but few exceptions1 they are free animals1 and can crawl1 climb1 or swim4 ,their shells are1 for the most part1 composed of one piece1 or valve1 hence they are termed ,univalves4 ,in some genera the shell is a simple cavity1 spirally disposed1 as in the ,snail2 in others1 it is conical1 consisting of one or many pieces1 as in the ,limpet and ,chiton4 ,in the ,cephalopoda it is internally divided into cells1 or chambers1 as1 for example1 in the ,nautilus4 ,the ,encephalous ,mollusca are subdivided into the following classes2 viz4-- a4 ,pteropoda 7wing-feet74--,in these the organs of progression are two wing-like muscular expansions1 proceeding from the sides of the neck1 by which they can swim and float in the open sea3 all the species are of small size4 b4 ,gasteropoda 7feet under the body74--,these crawl by means of a muscular disk1 or foot1 which is attached to the under-part of the body2 most of the species are marine1 but some are terrestrial1 and others inhabit fresh-water4 ,they are very widely distributed2 the garden snail is a familiar instance of a terrestrial ,gasteropod4 c4 ,cephalopoda 7feet around the head74--,the mollusca of this order have powerful muscular arms1 or tentacula1 which surround the head1 or upper part of the body2 some genera have no shell1 but possess an internal skeleton1 as the recent ,sepiad and the fossil ,belemnitid4 ,most of the testaceous ,cephalopoda have a discoidal1 univalve shell1 which is divided internally by septa or partitions2 as the ,nautilus4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,mollusca4 ,in many univalves the aperture or opening is entire1 that is1 without any notch or groove2 in others it is notched or extended into a canal1 or siphon1 and this character has relation to the respiratory organs3 thus the ,gasteropods1 in which the water is conducted to the interior by a muscular tube1 or siphon1 have the margin of the aperture of the shell channelled2 as in the ,whelk1 or ,buccinum4 ,many of the land and fresh-water species have entire openings1 and are1 for the most part1 herbivorous2 while the greater number of the marine univalves have the aperture indented or notched1 and are carnivorous4#cdi ,some of these mollusca1 too1 have a retractile proboscis1 armed with minute teeth1 by which they can rasp or bore into the shells of the species on which they prey4 ,there are some exceptions to the above rules1 but the prevalence of the characters specified afford pretty certain indications of the fluviatile or marine nature of the originals4 ,the application of these data to geological investigations will be considered hereafter4 #cdi ,the form of the aperture does not necessarily indicate fresh-water genera4 ,melanopsis1 ,pirena1 and most of the ,melani have a channelled or notched aperture4 ,fresh-water univalves frequently have the spire corroded2 in a fossil state they can only be determined to be fresh-water species by their analogy to recent genera and sub-genera4--,note by ,mr4 ,woodward4 ,in the generic distinctions of the simple univalves1 the form of the mouth is an important character2 while in the bivalves1 the configuration of the hinge affords an equally convenient aid for their classification4 ,some tribes of testaceous mollusca are exclusively marine2 many are restricted to the brackish water of estuaries2 others live only in fresh-water2 and some on the land4 ,their geographical distribution is alike various3 certain groups inhabit deep water only1 and are provided with means by which they can maintain themselves near the surface of the ocean1 far away from any shore2 while others are littoral1 that is1 live in the shallows along the sea-shores4 ,many exist in quiet1 others in turbulent waters2 some are gregarious1 like the oyster2 while others occur singly1 or in groups4 ,the vertical range1 that is1 the relative depths in which the mollusca live in the sea1 is also strictly defined2 certain genera being1 in a great measure1 restricted to moderate depths1 others to a few fathoms1 and many to the profound abysses of the ocean1 which neither the dredge nor the plummet can reach4 ,all these varieties of condition are more or less strongly impressed on the shells1 which may be considered as external skeletons2#cej and the accomplished conchologist is enabled1 by certain characters1 to determine the nature of the animals which inhabited them1 and the physical conditions in which they were placed4#cea #cej ,in equivalve bivalves the animal lives in an upright position4 ,in inequivalves1 i4e4 one large and one small valve1 the animal lies on its side4 ,the situation of bivalve shells1 as oysters1 should therefore be noticed1 for if they lie on their concave shell1 with the flat valve uppermost1 it is evident they were overwhelmed in their native bed and in a living state2 if they lie indiscriminately on either valve1 they were probably dead shells and overwhelmed in that state4 ,if the pallial imprint is notched by a sinus1 it shows the presence and size of the tubes of the mantle4 ,whether there be one or two muscular impressions is of far less importance4 #cea ,for an extended notice of the geographical distribution of testacea1 see ,prof4 ,edward ,forbes1 ,british ,marine ,zoology1 ,part ,i4 p4 #ada4 ,the number of living species of mollusca known to naturalists1 not including the shell-less genera1 exceeds twelve thousand2 and almost every day is adding new species1 for scarcely a vessel arrives from distant seas without enriching the stores of the conchologist4 ,the numerous genera into which they are divided by systematists1 and the constant changes effected in arrangement and nomenclature by every writer on the subject1 render it difficult if not impossible to present the reader with any satisfactory epitome of modern conchology4 ,i must restrict myself to a brief account of some of the most common genera that occur in the ,british strata2 and shall dwell more particularly on those species which prevail in the secondary formations1 because they present the most important deviations from the recent types that are familiar to the general observer2 by this means1 and by reference to figures in standard works1 the collector will1 ,i trust1 be enabled to identify the fossil shells which may most frequently come under his notice in the course of his geological rambles4 ,,fossil ,,bivalve ,,shells2 ,,including ,,the ,,brachiopoda ,,and ,,lamellibranchia4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,bivalve ,,shells4 ,although in the modern ,tertiary strata1 as the ,crag1 and in the arenaceous beds of the ,eocene formations1 shells are generally found in so perfect a state1 that no caution or knowledge is requisite for their collection1 yet a few preliminary remarks are necessary to point out certain conditions in which the remains of mollusca1 or evidence of their existence1 occur in the mineral kingdom1 and particularly in the older fossiliferous rocks4 ,shells are found in the strata in the three following states3-- #astly4 ,shells in which the constituent substance has undergone but little change4 ,many of the specimens in the sands of the ,crag in ,norfolk and ,suffolk1 and in the ,eocene beds at ,grignon1 near ,paris1 and the ,pliocene of ,palermo1 in ,sicily1 are as perfect as if collected from the sea-shore1 having suffered no loss but that of colour4 ,in some instances1 even the varied markings on the surface remain2 but in general the shells are bleached1 or have a ferruginous stain4 #b;dly4 ,the form preserved1 but the constituent substance mineralized4 ,this state is very common in shells that are imbedded in hard rock1 whatever may be the age of the deposit4 ,in calcareous strata the testaceous substance is generally transmuted into calcareous spar1 as in most of the specimens from the chalk1 oolite1 mountain limestone1 c4 ,in sands abounding in silex1 the shell is changed into flint1 as in the exquisite fossils from the ,greensand of ,blackdown1 ,devonshire2 in deposits permeated with sulphuret of iron1 the shells are often metamorphosed into pyrites1 as in the ,ammonites in the ,lias1 ,galt1 c4 #c;dly1 ,in the state of casts and impressions4 ,although in loose sand the shells are either empty1 or filled with detritus easily removable by washing2 in clay1 limestone1 and sandstone1 the cavities are generally occupied by consolidated materials1 which had entered when in a soft or fluid state2 and frequently the substance of the shell has disappeared1 and the stony cast of the interior alone remains4 ,in many instances1 the spaces left by the dissolution of the shells are filled with spar1 or the casts are closely invested by the surrounding stone1 from long-continued superincumbent pressure while the matrix was in a plastic state2 and in such cases the casts are often distorted and flattened4 ,but the vacancy is occasionally empty1 and on its walls is found an impress of the external surface of the shell1 with all the lines and ornaments of the original as sharp as if cast in plaster of ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abb4 ,turritell1 from ,bracklesham1 ,sussex4 ,tert4 ,fig4 #a4--,turritella conoidea2 the perfect shell3 nat4 #b4--,septarium1 with ,turritell2 a polished slab3 #a_/c nat4 #c4--;,a cast of one of the shells1 in calcareous spar3 nat4 ,sidenote3 ,,septarium ,,with ,,shells4 ,the specimen1 ,lign4 #abb1 fig4 #b1 from the tertiary strata at ,bracklesham ,bay1 ,sussex1 is a polished slice of indurated argillaceous limestone1 from a septarium 7nodule divided by fissures71 abounding in spiral univalve shells1 called ,turritell4 ,fig4 #a is a perfect shell of the same species1 extracted from soft clay2 and fig4 #c1 a cast in calcareous spar1 obtained from the septarium4 ,in the polished slab1 fig4 #b1 sections of numerous shells are seen4 ,the dark partitions1 or septa1 are veins of spar1 which occupy interstices that have been formed in the clay-nodule by shrinking2 and if the specimen be closely examined1 the shells will be found split across and displaced by the fissures2 thus presenting an interesting illustration of the faults1 or dislocations1 of the strata1 so familiar to the geological observer4 ,in the present instance1 the lines on the exterior of the shell do not materially differ from those on the interior1 and1 consequently1 the cast1 fig4 #c1 and the shell4 fig4 #a1 resemble each other2 but in many species there is a striking contrast between the outer and inner surfaces1 the external aspect being strongly ornamented1 while the internal is smooth2 the cast1 therefore1 in such examples1 so little resembles the shell1 that an inexperienced collector may readily suppose it belongs to a different species4 ,the bivalve called ,trigonia1 ,lign4 #abg1 figs4 #a1 #b1 is an instance of this contrast4 ,the polished slab of the ,septarium1 ,lign4 #abb1 fig4 #b1 demonstrates another condition of fossil shells--that of a compact argillaceous limestone--and entire beds of marble are composed of an aggregation of this kind1 formed of shells and other animal exuvi1 consolidated by mineral infiltrations4 ,in the older secondary strata this state prevails2 and the beautiful markings of many valuable marbles1 are merely sections of the enclosed shells4 ,but this process is not restricted to the deposits of ancient date2 at the present moment the same operation is silently but constantly going on in our seas1 and an examination of the specimen1 ,lign4 #abc1 will afford an exemplification of the manner in which these shelly limestones are produced4 ,sidenote3 ,,brighton ,,shell-,,conglomerate4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abc4 ,shell-,conglomerate2 now forming in the ,british ,channel4 ,dredged off ,brighton4 ,fig4 #a4--;,an ,aggregation of ,shells and ,corals2 the interstices are filled up with sand1 and the mass is consolidated by an infiltration of carbonate of lime4 #b4--,trochus ziziphinus2 extricated from the mass with the following3 #c4--,pecten opercularis4 #d4--,serpula4 #e4--,portion of a ,cellepora2 magnified4 #f4--,sabella4 ,we have here a solid mass of stone1 composed of several recent species of shells1 corals1 c4 ,it is a fragment of a large block1 dredged up from the ,british ,channel1 off ,brighton4 ,similar masses have been obtained at different soundings along this part of the ,sussex coast2 and in some specimens numerous other species of recent shells1 as oysters1 mussels1 whelks1 c4 enter into the composition of the consolidated rock4 ,the shelly and coralline limestones and sandstones1 so abundant in the ancient strata of ,england have been formed in a similar manner2 and when the modern conglomerate of ,brighton shall have been permeated with crystalline matter1 and subjected to great pressure by superincumbent deposits1 through countless centuries1 and at length be elevated above the waters1 it will constitute beds of shell-marble1 in some mountain range1 and become an interesting1 perhaps the only memento1 of the races of mollusca and polypiaria of the present seas1 when all record and traces of ,great ,britain and its inhabitants shall be destroyed4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abd4 ,shell-,limestone2 from the mouth of the ,thames4 ,fig #a4--;,a mass of ,cockle-shells and ,whelks1 consolidated into a coarse limestone4 #b1 #d4--,one of the shells1 ,cardium edule1 extracted from the block4 #c4--;,a slice of the rock1 polished1 the markings on the surface being derived from sections of the shells4 ,sidenote3 ,,modern ,,shell-,,limestone4 ,off the ,kentish coast1 near the mouth of the ,thames1 a bank of consolidated shells1 chiefly of one species1 is in the progress of formation1 from which blocks may be obtained of great firmness and solidity 7,lign4 #abd72 these1 when cut and polished 7fig4 #c71 display a variety of markings1 produced by the sections of the shells4 ,extensive shoals of loose shells1 composed almost wholly of the ,cardium edule1 exist in several localities1 near the embouchure of the ,thames2 and these are continually shifting with the changes of the wind and tide2 it is only in a few places that consolidated blocks occur1 like that of which a fragment is figured in ,lign4 #abd4 ,these examples of shelly limestones and sandstones now in progress of formation will familiarize the student with the nature and origin of those ancient deposits of a similar character1 which contain extinct species and genera of mollusca4 ,the vast deposits of fluviatile shells which exist in ,florida1 at ,picolata1 ,volusia1 and ,enterprize are of great geological interest4 ,the two latter places present bluffs and hills of from forty to fifty feet in height1 extending half a mile or more from the river1 that are composed of scarcely anything but well-preserved shells of ,paludina vivipara1 ,ampullaria depressa1 some undetermined species of ,unio1 ,helix septemvolvis1 ,melania1 and a few others4 ,there is but a scanty mixture of earth1 and the shells are clean1 and look as if they had been washed ashore after the death of their inhabitants4 ,in some places the beds are sandy1 and are hardening into a calcareous shelly sandstone4 ,in one such bed the superficial stratum furnished a few bones of turtles and undetermined fragments1 the bones of some large vertebrate animal4 ,this is1 ,i believe1 the locality where ,count ,pourtals collected human bones in a recent sandstone4444 ,no microscopical forms were detected in these beds after the most careful search4#ceb #ceb ,dr4 ,j1 ,w4 ,bailey1 in ,smithsonian ,contributions1 vol4 ii4 ,article viii4 p4 #bc4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abe4 ,terebratula and ,rhynchonella2 nat4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--,rhynchonella plicatilis4 #a;a4--,the same species1 partly open4 #b4--,rhynchonella subplicata4 #b;a4--,front view of the same4 #c4--,terebratula semiglobosa2 side view4 #c;a4--,the same species1 seen from above4 #d4--,terebratula subrotunda4 ,fossil ,shells of the ,brachiopodous ,mollusca4--,these are bivalve shells1 of which nearly five hundred species are found in the ,british strata4 ,they occur in incredible numbers in the ancient rocks1 to which several genera are restricted2 while some continue through all the formations1 and inhabit the present seas2 but the existing genera are few4 ,sidenote3 ,,terebratula4 ,terebratula 7bored1 alluding to the perforated beak71 ,lign4 #abe4--,the common species of this genus must be familiar to all who have ever looked into a quarry of ,chalk1 or of ,shanklin sand1 in the south-east of ,england4 ,they have been humorously called the ,fossil ,aristocracy1 from the incalculable antiquity of their lineage4 ,the species are very numerous2 more than #cjj extinct forms have been determined4#cec ,those figured in ,lign4 #abe are from the ,white ,chalk1 and are beautifully preserved2 even vestiges of the colour occasionally remain4 ,in a living state1 the animal is fixed to foreign bodies by a byssus1 or peduncle1 which passes through the opening in the beak1 or arched extremity1 of the shells1#ced ,the most interesting circumstance relating to these mollusca1 is the respiratory apparatus1 which consists of two long ciliated tubes1 spirally coiled1 united at their base1 and supported by slender calcareous processes1 which are often preserved in the fossils4 ,thus1 in specimens from the soft chalk1 the calcareous earth may be removed from the interior of the shell1 and the appendages exposed1 as in the examples1 ,lign4 #abf1 figs4 #a1 #b2 and in the shells that are empty1 these processes occasionally remain distinct1 or are coated by a thin pellicle of calcareous spar1 or pyrites4 #cec ,see ,catalogue of ,terebratulid1 published for the ,british ,museum4 #ced ,in the ,british ,museum 7,eastern ,zoological ,gallery1 case table ,a7 there are between thirty and forty recent terebratul 7,t4 australis1 ,quoy1 a plaited species1 much resembling ,t4 fimbria of the ,inf4 ,oolite1 ,cheltenham7 attached with their byssi to a block of stone1 from ,port ,jackson1 where it was found by ,mr4 ,jukes just below low-water4 ,in the smooth ,terebratul1 the laminations of the shell are full of minute perforations1 which may be seen by a lens of moderate power2 the appearance of this structure1 when highly magnified1 is shown fig4 #b;a1 ,lign4 #abf4cee ,the ,rhynchonell 7as ,lign4 #abe1 figs4 #a1 #b17 do not possess this organization4 #cee ,an interesting ,memoir on the ,microscopal ,examination of ,shells has recently been communicated to the ,royal ,society by ,dr4 ,carpenter4 ,several species of ,terebratula are found both living and fossil1 e4g4 ,terebratula vitrea1 living in the ,mediterranean1 fossil in ,sicily1--,t4 caput-serpentis1 recent in the ,british seas1 fossil in the ,crag1--and ,t4 lenticularis1 both recent and fossil in ,new ,zealand4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abf4 ,terebratula and ,spirifer4 ,fig4 #a and #b4--,upper and under valve of ,terebratula carnea4 ,chalk2 ,lewes3 a1 a1 remains of the calcareous support of the brachia4 #b;a4--,portion of the shell of ,terebratula carnea1 magnified to exhibit the perforations4 #c4--,spirifer trigonalis1 with part of the upper valve removed1 to show one of the spiral processes4 7,min4 ,conch47 ,mountain ,limestone4 ,sidenote3 ,,spirifer4 ,,pentamerus4 ,spirifer 7containing spiral processes74 ,lign4 #abf4--;,in the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous limestones there is a profusion of several genera of ,brachiopoda1 whose peculiar forms render them easily recognisable4 ,among these1 the ,spirifers are the most interesting1 on account of their spiral calcareous processes1 which in the recent state supported the ciliated brachia1 being often preserved4 ,a specimen1 in which part of the upper valve of the shell has been removed1 and one of the spires exposed1 is figured ,lign4 #abf1 fig4 #c4 7,wond4 pp4 #gce1 #gcf74cef #cef ,see a ,memoir on the ,anatomy of the ,brachiopoda1 by ,professor ,owen4 ,zoological ,trans1 vol4 i4 p4 #ade1 et seq4 ,all these genera are extinct2 they prevail in the oldest fossiliferous rocks1 and gradually disappear as we ascend to the newer formations2 the last trace of their existence is in the ,lias1 in which one species has been found4 ,but the ,terebratul abound in the ,lias1 ,oolite1 ,chalk1 c41 occur in the tertiary formations1 and several living species inhabit the seas around ,australia and ,new ,zealand4 7,see ante p4 #cij47 ,rhynchonella1 ,fischer4 ,the plaited ,terebratul differ from the typical species 7e4g4 ,t4 australis1 caput-serpentis1 vitrea1 c47 more than even the ,spirifers differ1 and must be regarded as forming a distinct family1 ,rhynchonellid1 which will include ,pentamerus4 ,the shell is not punctate2 the arms are spiral1 supported only at their origins by shelly processes2 the larger valve is beaked acutely1 and has a notch within the beak through which the pedicle passes2 sometimes the notch is converted into a foramen1 by two little plates1 7deltidium17 as in ,terebratula4 ,the form of the ,rhynchonell is tetrahedral4 ,lign4 #abe4 ,pentamerus1 ,ly4 p4 #ceb4--,with the ,spirifers1 and other ,brachiopoda of the ,silurian ,system1 some bivalves which1 in their general figure1 resemble certain species of ,terebratul1 frequently occur4 ,these shells differ in their internal structure from all other genera1 in having a septum1 or plate1 by which their cavity is divided into four chambers2 and in one valve the septum itself contains a cell1 thus making five chambers1 whence the name ,pentamerus 7five-celled74 ,the casts of these shells often have fissures1 produced by the decomposition of the septa2 and occasionally these cavities are occupied by calcareous spar4 ,specimens of this kind commonly split into two parts1 in one of which two1 and in the other three1 chambers may be detected2 the fifth chamber is the canal of the peduncle4 ,four species are known1 and all belong to the ,silurian rocks4 ,orthis1 ,leptna1 and ,producta form a third family1 with horizontal spiral arms1 unsupported by shelly processes4 ,davidsonia is a ,leptna attached by the ventral valve1 and the only genus in this family which is fixed by the shell itself4 ,calceola4 a genus of ,brachiopoda2 the shell of an inverted pyramidal form1 the upper valve nearly flat2 found in the ,devonian strata of the ,eifel1 and in ,devonshire4 ,crania1 ,ly4 fig4 #bje4 ,these are small brachiopodous shells1 attached to other bodies2 very frequently to the ,echinites of the chalk4 ,the free valve is commonly wanting1 but ,i have found specimens dispersed in the rock4 ,in many of the quarries in ,kent and ,sussex1 the helmet ,echinites bear groups of these shells4 ,ly4 fig4 #ac4 ,orbicula4 ,this genus resembles ,crania in form1 the upper valve being like a limpet1 whilst the attached valve is flat2 it differs1 however1 from ,crania in being horny and flexible1 and is fixed to rocks on the bed of the sea1 by a muscular pedicle passing out through a small fissure4 ,species of ,orbicula are found in strata of all ages1 from the ,lower ,silurian to the ,tertiary1 and several are now living in tropical seas4 ,obolus4 ,eichwald4 ,in the ,lower ,silurian 7,obolite grit7 of ,sweden and ,russia1 is a ,lingula1 with a hinge and a notch for the pedicle2 it has not hitherto been found in ,britain4 ,sidenote3 ,,lingula4 ,,hippurites4 ,lingula4 ,ly4 p4 #cec1 fig4 #dab4--,the ,brachiopoda referred to this genus have a long peduncle1 and their respiratory apparatus has no calcareous support2 the recent species burrow in the sand1 being usually inhabitants of shallow waters4 ,the ,lingul are readily distinguished from the ,terebratul by their imperforate1 equivalved shells4 ,one species is found in the ,aymestry limestone1 and several have been collected from the ,mountain limestone1 ,oolite1 and ,shanklin sand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with reference to the species of ,brachiopoda1 particularly of the ,terebratul1 which inhabit the depths of the ocean1 ,professor ,owen observes1 that both the respiration and nutrition of animals1 which exist beneath a pressure of from sixty to ninety fathoms of sea-water1 are subjects suggestive of interesting reflections1 and lead us to contemplate with less surprise the great strength and complexity of some of the minutest parts of the frame of these diminutive creatures4 ,in the unbroken stillness which pervades those abysses1 the existence of these animals must depend on their power of exciting a perpetual current around them1 in order to dissipate the water laden with their effete particles1 and to bring within the reach of their prehensile organs the animalcules adapted for their sustenance4 ,hippurites4 ,this genus belongs to a group of fossil shells whose characters are somewhat problematical1 some conchologists referring them to the ordinary bivalves1 and others to the ,brachiopoda4 ,although ,hippurites have not been discovered in the ,british strata1 ,i am induced to notice them in this place1 in consequence of their great abundance in the ,cretaceous deposits of the ,south of ,france1 and in the ,oolite of the ,pyrenees2 and also to illustrate the nature of a nearly related genus1 ,sphrulites1 of which one or more species occur in the ,sussex ,chalk4 ,the ,hippurite is of an elongated conical form1 and fixed by its base2 it has internally a deep lateral channel1 formed by two obtuse longitudinal ridges4 ,the base is sometimes partitioned off by transverse septa1 forming cells or cavities1 as in the ,euomphalus4 ,the aperture1 or opening1 is closed by an operculum1 or upper valve4 ,the substance of the shell is cellular1 and very thick1 and when fractured much resembles that of the lamelliferous corals3 the lamin are sometimes separated into cells1 or cavities1 like the ,spondyli4 ,these shells often attain considerable magnitude1 and in certain districts of the ,pyrenees1 where they abound1 are called petrified horns by the inhabitants4 ,it is remarkable1 that1 while in the ,chalk of the ,south of ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,greece shells of this genus so prevail1 as to be considered the characteristic fossils of the formation1 in the ,north of ,france they are very rare1 and in ,england have not hitherto been discovered4#ceg #ceg ,as marking the rapid progress of ,palontology in this country1 it may be noticed that the only fossil figured in the first edition of the ,enclycopdia ,britannica1 in illustration of the article1 ,petrifaction1 is one of these supposed petrified horns1 described by the ,abb ,fortis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fossil ,shells of the ,lamellibranchia4--,these are bivalve shells1 the animals of which differ from the preceding class1 as we have already stated1 in performing respiration by means of lamellated gills4 ,the valves are united by a strong substance1 termed the ligament1 which1 by its elasticity1 admits of the shells being opened to a considerable extent2 and they are closed by powerful1 short1 thick muscles1 called adductors4 ,the shells of some of the genera1 as the ,oyster and ,scallop1 have but one muscle1 7monomyaria72 others1 as the ,cockle1 or ,cardium1 and ,venus1 have two1 7dimyaria72 and by these characters the class is arranged in two groups4 ,monomyaria3 ,bivalve ,shells1 with one muscular impression4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,oysters4 ,ostrea1 ,lign4 #abj4--,the ,oyster is well known to possess no power of locomotion2 it is attached to rocks1 pebbles1 and other bodies1 and forms extensive beds1 consisting of numerous individuals1 of all sizes4 ,there are many fossil species2 the ,british strata yield between forty and fifty4 ,in some localities4 ,oysters are found in thick beds1 of great extent1 apparently on the spots they occupied when living4 ,one of the most interesting localities ,i am acquainted with1 is ,sundridge ,park1 near ,bromley1 in ,kent1 where a hard conglomerate1 entirely made up of oyster-shells1 and the shingle that formed their native bed1 is quarried4 ,this stone is much employed for ornamental rock-work1 and several walls in and near ,bromley are constructed of it3 these display the fossils1 some with the valves closed1 others open1 others detached1 and the whole grouped as if artificially imbedded to expose the characters of the shells4 ,these oyster-beds belong to the tertiary strata of the ,london basin2 they extend to ,plumstead1 and other places in the vicinity2 and in some localities1 the oysters are associated with other bivalves1 called ,pectunculi4 ,in the tertiary clays near ,woolwich and ,bexley1 fossil oyster-shells abound4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,reading1 in ,berkshire1 an extensive layer of fossil oysters occupies the same geological position1 namely1 the lowermost sands and clays of the ,london basin4 ,wherever the strata around ,london are perforated to a sufficient depth1 this oyster-bed is reached4 ,very recently an ,artesian well was bored at ,hanwell1 in ,middlesex1 and at the depth of two hundred and eighty feet this stratum of sand with oyster-shells was found4 ,at ,headley1 near ,reigate1 in ,surrey1 there is a similar deposit4 ,these oysters very closely resemble the edible species4 ,the ,white ,chalk contains several species of ,ostrea1 but ,i believe no beds of these shells have been found in it2 on the contrary1 the shells are diffused promiscuously through the strata4 ,i have collected a few groups of from thirty to forty shells1 evidently the young or fry of the species 7,o4 semiplana7 figured ,lign4 #abj4 ,this specimen is an interesting example of the petrifactive process which the mollusca have occasionally undergone2 the soft parts of the oyster are transmuted into flint1 and the shell is changed into carbonate of lime1 having a crystalline structure4 ,both valves were perfect when discovered1 but ,i chiselled off the greater part of one shell to expose the silicified body of the animal4 ,a small oyster1 called ,ostrea vesicularis1 is a characteristic shell of the chalk2 one valve is convex1 the other flat2 it is abundant in the ,chalk of ,norfolk1 and also in the ,firestone of some localities3 it is figured ,ly4 p4 #bab4 ,another small species1 having the margin plicated 7,o4 plicata71 is also frequent in the ,chalk4 ,a large shell1 with the margins deeply indented by angular folds1 resembling the recent cockscomb oyster1 is abundant in the ,chalk ,marl and ,firestone2 particularly near ,dover1 and around ,selbourne in ,hampshire1 where it attracted the notice of ,white1 by its resemblance to the living ,cockscomb ,oyster of the ,west ,indies2 it is named ,ostrea carinata1 and figured ,ly4 p4 #bab1 fig4 #bjd4 ,one other species may be noticed1 the ,ostrea deltoidea1 which has been found in every locality of the ,kimmeridge ,clay in ,england and ,france4 ,it is a very flat species1 and of a triangular form2 the specific name is derived from a supposed resemblance to the ,greek letter 1 delta4 ,i believe that in ,england no shells of this genus have been observed in strata older than the ,lias4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abg4 ,shells and ,echinite from the ,oolite and ,lias4 ,fig4 #a4--,trigonia clavellata4 ,oxford ,cloy1 near ,weymouth4 #b4--,trigonia gibbosa2 a limestone cast4 ,isle of ,portland4 #c4--;,cidaris ,blumenbachii4 ,oolite4 ,calne1 ,wilts4 #d4--,trigonia costata4 ,oolite4 ,highworth1 ,wilts4 #e4--,spine of the ,cidaris ,blumenbachii4 #f4--;,gryphya incurva4 ,lias4 ,cheltenham4 #g4--;,ammonites ,walcotii4 ,lias1 near ,bath4 ,sidenote3 ,,gryphy,a4 ,gryphya4 ,lign4 #abg1 fig4 #f4--,the shells to which the term ,grypha1 or ,gryphites1 is applied1 are related to the ,oyster1 but distinguished by the deep concave under valve1 and its curved summit1 or beak1 and the almost flat1 or opercular upper shell4 ,the ,gryphites are of a finer laminated structure than the oysters1 and the ligament of the hinge is inserted in an elongated curved groove4 ,there are about thirty ,british fossil species1 none of which have been noticed below the ,lias1 in which formation one very remarkable species is so abundant as to be considered characteristic of the ,liassic deposits4 ,it is so faithfully represented1 ,lign4 #abg1 fig4 #f1 that description is unnecessary4 ,in the upper argillaceous beds of the ,oolite and ,kimmeridge ,clay1 a very small gryphite1 7,g4 virgula1 ,ly4 p4 #bfj7 is so abundant1 that it constitutes entire layers4 ,the low cliffs on the west of ,boulogne harbour1 like those near ,weymouth1 are composed of this clay1 and myriads of the gryphites are scattered on the shore1 with other shells of the same deposits2 these shelly beds are called marnes gryphes1 by the ,french geologists4 ,a very large gryphite1 ,grypha sinuata1 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #ccf17 is found in the ,shanklin sand of the ,isle of ,wight1 and of ,kent and ,sussex4 ,at low water1 in the sand along the shore under ,dunnose ,cliff1 near ,shanklin ,chine1 numerous specimens are always obtainable4#ceh #ceh ,the name ,exogyra was applied to the ,chama-shaped species of ,grypha by the late ,mr4 ,sowerby1 and other writers2 but subsequent authors have included these shells in the present genus4 ,sidenote3 ,,spondylus4 ,,plagiostoma4 ,spondylus4 ,lign4 #abh4--;,a species of this genus is so frequent in the ,chalk1 that it ranks with certain ,terebratul1 as characteristic of that formation4 ,one valve is covered with long slender spines1 which1 in the usual examples1 are destroyed by the mode of extracting them4 ,the specimen figured shows the appearance of a shell partly cleared2 the remainder of the chalk might be removed by a penknife 7taking care to leave the longest spines supported by brackets of chalk71 and it would then resemble the beautiful fossils figured ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #gh1 and in ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #abe4 ,between the beaks there is a triangular aperture in the spinous valve1 which some naturalists1 with much probability1 suppose was once filled up with shell1 as in the recent species4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abh4 ,spondylus spinosus4 ,in ,chalk-flint4 ,lewes4 ,in the cretaceous strata of ,north ,america1 ,dr4 ,morton has discovered a ,spondylus 7,s4 dumosus7 very nearly related to ,s4 spinosus2 but it differs in its general form1 and has both valves beset with strong spines4 ,i have the fragment of a large bivalve from the ,kentish ,rag 7,mr4 ,bensted's quarry71 which has the peculiar structure of the ,water-clam 7,spondylus varius of ,mr4 ,broderip72 namely1 hollow interspaces formed by shelly layers or partitions1 which were secreted by the posterior part of the mantle1 or investing integument of the animal1 as it gradually receded from that part of the shell4 ,in the recent ,water-clam the cells are full of fluid4#cei #cei ,s ee ,penny ,cyclop4 ,art1 ,spondylid4 ,plagiostoma1 ,llhwyd1 #afii4 ,this genus1 adopted by ,mr4 ,sowerby in the ,mineral ,conchology1 is scarcely distinguishable from ,lima of ,bruguiere 7#agia74 ,most of the recent species are ornamented with small asperities1 from which the name lima 7file7 is derived2 they are symmetrical shells attached by a byssus4 ,several smooth species of this genus are found in the ,chalk1#cfj ,oolite1 and ,lias4 ,a very large species 7,p4 giganteum71 sometimes ten inches in diameter1 abounds in the ,lias 7,ly4 p4 #bgd74 ,it is somewhat depressed in form1 with the surface slightly striated2 each valve has a pointed beak1 with two lateral expansions1 or ears1 as they are termed by conchologists4 #cfj ,see ,foss4 ,south ,downs11 plate xxvi4 ,plicatula1 is another genus of this family1 of which there are three ,british fossil species4 ,a delicate shell1 with slender depressed spines 7,p4 inflata4 ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxvi471 occurs in the ,chalk ,marl4 ,the recent species are natives of the seas of warm climates4 ,pecten4--,the common scallop-shell will serve as a type of this genus4 ,the animals of these shells1 unlike the oysters1 have the power of locomotion1 and when in the water1 may be seen moving with rapidity1 and flapping their shells to and fro with great activity4 ,numerous species are found fossil4 ,in the ,pliocene1 and other marine tertiary deposits1 ,pectens abound2 in the ,white ,chalk there are several elegant forms 7see ,foss4 ,south ,d4 plate xxv472 many kinds in the ,oolite and ,lias2 and several in the ,devonian strata4 ,a large ,mediterranean species 7,pecten ,jacobus1 ,ly4 p4 #aeb7 occurs in the ,pliocene strata of ,palermo1 in every stage of growth1 and as perfect as if recent4 ,the ,chalk and ,shanklin sand contain a small inequivalved ,pecten1 the lower valve of which is convex1 and pentangular1 the upper flat1 and both strongly ribbed1 or pectinated2 it is named ,pecten quinquecostatus 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxvi4 ,ly4 p4 #bab72 and in the cretaceous strata of ,north ,america a variety of this species is found4 ,in the ,chalk ,marl a large and beautiful ,pecten 7,p4 ,beaveri4 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #aeh7 is very common1 and ,i have obtained from ,hamsey and ,southerham examples in the most perfect state of preservation2 it is a characteristic shell of the ,chalk ,marl of ,england 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 plate ,,xxv4 fig4 #aa74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #abi ,inoceramus ,cuvieri4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--;,beak and hinge of an ,inoceramus4 a4 ,the hinge line4 #b4--,two valves of ,i4 ,cuvieri1 displaced1 and both showing the external surface4 ,sidenote3 ,,inoceramus4 ,inoceramus4 ,lign4 #abi4--,this name1 which refers to the fibrous structure of the shell1 has been given to a fossil genus1 of which there are about thirty species in the cretaceous and oolitic formations2 and very recently four or five species have been discovered in the ,silurian strata of ,ireland4#cfa ,these shells are chiefly characterized by their hinge 7see ,lign4 #abi1 fig4 #a;a471 and by the fibrous structure of their constituent substance1 which closely resembles that of the recent ,pinna2#cfb and under the microscope is found1 like that shell1 to consist of prismatic cells1 filled with carbonate of lime4#cfc ,the species vary in size from an inch to three or four feet in diameter4 ,the shell1 in consequence of the vertical arrangement of the fibres1 readily breaks to pieces1 and it is often extremely difficult to extricate a specimen with the hinge and beaks tolerably entire4 ,that they were equally brittle when recent is evident from the numerous fragments diffused through the chalk and flint1 and occasionally imbedded in pyrites4#cfd ,the form of the hinge is shown in ,lign4 #abi1 fig4 #a3 in the lower specimen two valves of the same individual are seen displaced1 one lying over the other4 ,the usual chalk species are figured ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxvii4 and in ,min4 ,conch4 #cfa ,the term ,inoceramus is restricted by the ,french geologists to the beaked and laminated species of the ,galt2 and the chalk ,inocerami are arranged under the name ,catillus4 #cfb ,perna and all the ,aviculid have the same structure1 ,inoceramus scarcely differs from ,perna4 #cfc ,dr4 ,carpenter on the ,microscopical ,structure of ,shells4 ,to detect this structure1 the shell should be immersed in diluted hydrochloric acid1 and when partially dissolved1 the cells will be apparent4 #cfd ,it was many years before ,i succeeded in obtaining a specimen with the hinge perfect2 and ,m4 ,brongniart1 unable to obtain one from the chalk of ,france1 gave the figure of this genus from my ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxvii4 in the ,gog4 ,min4 ,env4 de ,paris4 ,in the ,galt1 or ,folkstone-marl1 two small species of this genus are to be found in every locality ,i have visited4 ,they were first figured and described by ,mr4 ,parkinson1 under the name of ,inoceramus sulcatus1 and ,i4 concentricus 7,wond4 p4 #ccj1 fig4 #a and #c74 ,in most examples the shell is in the state of a white1 friable earth1 and readily decomposes1 leaving patches of iridescent nacre on the casts2 but ,i have seen examples which prove that the originals were of a fibrous structure1 like the ,inocerami of the ,chalk4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #acj4 ,flint1 with fragments of ,inoceramus4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 a4 ,marks the section of a fragment of shell1 with numerous cavities1 occasioned by the depredations of ,cliona ,conybearei4 b4 ,portion of shell partially decomposed1 and exposing siliceous1 globular bodies1 connected by filaments1 which are flint casts of the hollows left by the ,cliona4 ,the shells of the ,inocerami1 like those of the oyster1 and other living mollusca1 were exposed to the attacks of some parasite1 and perhaps of some ,annelid1 as the ,nereis4 ,the shells are often cellular from this cause1 and the cavities are found either hollow1 or filled with chalk1 or1 as in the example ,lign4 #acj1 with flint4 ,in the latter case1 upon the decomposition of the shell1 the siliceous casts remain in relief on the surface of the flint1 as in ,lign4 #acj1 b4 ,such specimens are common in the broken flints of the ,south ,downs1 and in the shingle on the sea-shore of chalk districts2 and their origin would be difficult to understand without this explanation4#cfe #cfe ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,conybeare first ascertained the origin of these fossils1 and figured and described them in an elegant ,memoir1 published in ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 ii4 first series4 ,mr4 ,morris proposes the name of ,clionites for the fossil bodies derived from the depredations of the ,cliona on the ,inocerami and other shells4 ,see ,annals ,nat4 ,hist4 #ahea1 and my ,pictorial ,atlas of ,organic ,remains4 ,avicula4 ,lyell1 p4 #bgd4--;,above fifty species of this genus of shells have been found in the ,british strata2 their general character will be readily understood by reference to the pearl-oyster1 7,avicula margaritifera17 which is so largely imported for the manufacture of mother-of-pearl ornaments4 ,a remarkable species is found in the ,lias1 called1 from the great disproportion in the size of the shells1 ,avicula inquivalvis1 7,lyell1 p4 #bgd47 ,the recent species are inhabitants of warm climates4 ,our limits will not admit of further notice of the ,monomyaria1 and we proceed to the second division of the plated-gilled mollusca4 ,dimyaria3 ,bivalve ,shells1 with two muscular imprints4 ,the conchifera1 or bivalve shells1 of this group1 found fossil1 are more than double in number those of the preceding2 nearly eight hundred species are known in the rocks of ,great ,britain1 of which by far the greater number is marine4 ,but we must restrict our notice of this division to a few genera1 that more space may be devoted to that important class1 the ,cephalopodous ,mollusca4 ,the ,cardium1 ,venus1 and ,mussel shells1 are familiar examples of the ,dimyaria4 ,the conglomerates1 now forming in the ,british ,channel1 from accumulations of the recent species of ,cockle 7,c4 edule71 have been previously noticed2 see ,lign4 #abd1 p4 #chf4 ,in the strata of ,england there are upwards of thirty species3 the ,crag contains several1 particularly a large and delicate shell1 the ,cardium ,parkinsoni 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #di74 ,others are peculiar to the ,london clay1 as the ,cardium semigranulatum1 a beautiful shell1 having the surface smooth1 except on the posterior side1 which is covered with strong ridges1 beset with minute granules2 it is found in many localities 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #add74 ,among the silicified shells of the ,shanklin sand of ,devonshire1 an elegant ,cardium1 ,c4 ,hillanum1 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #ad17 occurs4 ,but one species is known in the formations below the ,lias3 the ,cardium striatum1 7,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 tab4 #f1 fig4 #b17 found in the ,aymestry limestone4 ,sidenote3 ,,venericardia4 ,,pectunculus4 ,venericardia4 ,ly4 p4 #aii4--,these shells are abundant in the tertiary strata2 one large species1 ,v4 planicosta1 7,ly4 p4 #aii1 fig4 #aga17 is found in immense quantities in the clay and sand at ,bracklesham ,bay1 in ,sussex1 from the young to the adult state2 some examples are very large1 and perfect4 ,in the sand at ,grignon1 near ,paris1 the same shell is abundant1 possessing the usual white and delicate aspect of the fossils of that celebrated locality of the ,calcaire grossier4 ,only one species has been noticed in the ,british secondary strata4 ,pectunculus4 ,wond4 p4 #bdd1 fig4 #h4--;,in the ,london clay at ,bracklesham ,bay1 ,highgate1 ,hordwell ,cliff1 and in the arenaceous limestone of ,bognor rocks1 an immense number of the bivalve shells1 called ,pectunculi 7little pectens71 occur4 ,some of the ,french marine tertiary strata also abound in the same1 and other species of this genus4 ,in the above-mentioned ,sussex localities1 these shells are so numerous1 as to be the most frequent fossils that come under the notice of the collector4 ,they are readily known from their associates by their rounded equivalve shells1 and the single arched row of teeth along the hinge1 resembling the common ,arca4#cff 7,see ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #bg74 ,at ,plumstead1 near ,woolwich1 a smaller species is found2 and also occasionally with the oysters at ,bromley4 #cff ,the species so abundant at ,bognor1 is ,p4 brevirostris1 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #dgb4 ,i have seen a block of the limestone1 in which1 spread over an area of a foot square1 there were upwards of fifty specimens lying in relief4 ,nucula4--,several species of a small elegant bivalve1 related to the preceding1 but distinguished by having two rows of teeth on the hinge1 diverging from an interspace between the beaks1 are found in the ,crag and other tertiary deposits 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #ahj1 #aib74 ,two species occur in the ,galt 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xix4 fig4 #e1 #f1 #i71 at ,ringmer1 ,folkstone1 ,bletchingley1 c41 sometimes with the shell perfect1 but generally in the state of casts composed of indurated clay1 and having impressions of the muscles and of the two rows of hinge-teeth4 ,the shell of one species is marked with fine transverse grooves1 or stri 7,n4 pectinata72 the other is of a flattened ovate form1 and the surface smooth 7,n4 ovata74 ,the most beautiful species of ,nucula are the ,n4 bivirgata of the ,galt of ,folkstone1 and ,f4 ,cobboldi of the ,norwich ,crag4 ,the species of ,nucula with the posterior side produced into a long beak have been separated under the name ,leda2 they have a pallial sinus1 indicating a siphon to the mantle2-- e4g4 ,nucula ovum ,alum ,shale4 -- claviformis ,lias4 -- attenuata ,coal ,shale4 -- arctica ,norwich ,crag4 ,sidenote3 ,,pinna4 ,,mytilus4 ,,modiola4 ,pinna4--,the common large ,pinna1 of the ,mediterranean1 is well known1 and differs so entirely from other shells1 as to be readily distinguished4 ,there are about fifteen or sixteen ,british fossil species4 ,the earliest appearance of this genus is in the ,carboniferous ,limestone of ,derbyshire 7,phil4 ,york4 tab4 #f71 in which there are two species4 ,the ,lias contains one species2 the ,oolite eight2 the ,cretaceous formation four2 and the ,london clay two4 ,one of the tertiary species1 ,pinna affinis 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #cac71 occurs in considerable numbers in the ,bognor rocks1 associated with ,pectunculi2 it varies in length from one to six or seven inches4 ,a beautiful and delicate species is found in the ,calcaire grossier of ,grignon4 ,shells of this genus are very rare in the ,white ,chalk1 most of the supposed ,pinn being imperfect examples of ,inocerami2 but ,i have seen specimens from ,norfolk 7collected by the late ,mr4 ,woodward71 and one from ,sussex1 in the cabinet of the ,marquess of ,northampton4#cfg #cfg ,dr4 ,lee has recently discovered in the ,kimmeridge ,clay on his estate at ,hartwell1 ,bucks1 a species of ,pinna not previously observed in ,england4 ,professor ,forbes informs me that it resembles ,pinna conica 7of ,remer71 and is related to ,p4 lanceolata of ,sowerby1 but appears to be distinct from both4 ,mytilus1 or ,mussel4--,there have been found about twenty species of this well-known genus of marine shells in the ,british strata4 ,they are sparingly distributed through the several formations1 from the ,silurian to the newer ,tertiary4 ,one species 7,mytilus ,lyellii1 ,wond4 p4 #dje1 fig4 #b7 occurs in the ,wealden1 associated with fresh-water shells4 ,of the genus termed ,modiola1 which comprises those mussels that have a rounded anterior termination1 nearly forty ,british species have been discovered2 ranging through the fossiliferous strata1 from the ,silurian to the ,crag4 ,a beautiful species 7,modiola elegans4 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #i71 with the shell generally retaining its pearly coat1 is found in the ,london ,clay1 and in the limestone of ,bognor4 ,an undescribed striated ,modiola 7which may be named ,m4 striata1 since the stri are peculiar71 occurs in the ,kimmeridge ,clay1 at ,hartwell4 ,those species of ,modiola1 which excavate hollows in stones1 and inhabit them1 are arranged in a genus termed ,lithodomus4 ,the occurrence of these shells in the remaining erect pillars of the ,temple of ,jupiter ,serapis 7,wond4 p4 #ajf71 at ,puzzuoli1 has afforded important and unequivocal evidence of the physical mutations which that part of ,italy has undergone4 ,two species of ,lithodomi have been found1 by ,mr1 ,lonsdale1 in the ,oolite4 ,pholadomya4 ,ly4 p4 #bgb1 fig4 #bij4--,this genus of shells 7established by ,mr4 ,james ,de ,c4 ,sowerby in the ,min4 ,conch4 #ahbf71 comprises about twenty ,british fossils1 all of which1 with but two exceptions1 occur in the ,lias and ,oolite4 ,they are equivalved shells1 with the posterior end short1 and rounded1 and the anterior elongated and gaping4 ,the surface is generally marked with ribs1 or alternate elevations and depressions1 diverging obliquely from the beaks to the margin4 ,in the clay at ,osmington and ,radipole1 near ,weymouth1 a large species 7,p4 qualis1 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #edf7 is abundant4 ,the ,oolite of ,brora1 in ,scotland1 contains several species4 ,the only species found in our ,chalk1 is the beautiful shell 7,p4 decussatum71 figured ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 ,,xxv4 fig4 #c1 and first discovered by me1 in #ahbj1 in a bed of ,chalk ,marl1 which at that time was exposed at low-water1 at the base of the cliff at ,brighton1 near the present entrance to the ,chain-pier4 ,the same species has since been found at ,clayton1 ,hamsey1 ,southbourne1 and other localities of the ,marl4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,pholades4 ,pholas4 ,lign4 #aff1 fig4 #e1 #f4--,the common boring bivalve called ,pholas1 must have attracted the attention of every stroller by the sea-shore1 from the numerous perforations in blocks of chalk1 and other limestones1 occasioned by its operations4 ,some species burrow in wood1 and often commit serious ravages in piles and other submarine works constructed of timber4 ,in the earlier ages of our planet we find evidence of the existence of the same kind of living instruments for the disintegration of floating wood1 and the reduction of masses of rock into detritus4 ,but no traces of these shells have been found in strata below the ,oolite4 ,one species occurs in the ,coral ,rag1 another in the ,kimmeridge ,clay2 two in the ,galt and ,greensand2 and three or four in the tertiary deposits4 ,in the ,crag1 blocks of stone are occasionally found with the shells of ,pholades occupying the perforations they originally formed and inhabited4 ,but all the specimens ,i have observed in the ,galt1 ,greensand1 and ,oolite were xylophagous 7wood-eating7 species4 ,in the ,shanklin ,sand1 masses of fossil wood1 literally honey-combed by the perforations of ,pholades1 are frequent2 but the shells themselves are rare4 ,mr4 ,sowerby has figured a beautiful specimen of silicified wood1 from ,sandgate1 with numerous shells of this genus 7,pholas priscus4 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #eha74 ,lign4 #aff1 fig4 #e1 represents a fragment of fossil wood1 with three shells in situ2 a1 a shell seen longitudinally2 and below1 the rounded anterior extremities of two other shells are exposed4 ,masses of wood perforated by ,pholades1 from which all traces of the shells have disappeared1 have given rise to some curious fossil remains1 which are often very enigmatical to the young collector4 ,in the ,kentish ,rag1 as for example1 in ,mr4 ,bensted's quarry1 near ,maidstone1 large blocks of stone are found1 covered with groups of subcylindrical mammillary projections1 which are obtuse or rounded at the apex4 ,in some examples the interstices between these bodies are free2 in others they are occupied by a reddish brown1 friable substance1 presenting obscure indications of ligneous structure3 and rarely1 distinct woody fibres may be observed1 the direction of which is transverse1 or nearly at right angles1 to the mammillated projections4 ,these blocks are1 in truth1 the stony casts of cavities formed by ,pholades1 in masses of wood1 both the vegetable structure1 and the shells1 having perished4 ,in the ,white ,chalk specimens of this kind are occasionally found4 ,a remarkable fact1 relating to some of the specimens from the ,iguanodon quarry1 remains to be mentioned4 ,upon breaking off the projections1 to ascertain if any traces of the shells of the ,pholades remained1 we discovered in several1 near the apex1 a univalve shell1 a species of ,nerita4 ,lign4 #aff1 fig4 #f1 represents a fragment of stone with two of the casts1 which have been broken1 and in each1 at a1 a univalve is imbedded4 ,at b1 the ligneous structure of the original wood is visible4 ,the only hypothesis that will account for the appearance of these univalves in their present position1 is that of supposing that the ,nerites crawled into the cavities made in the mass of timber1 after the shells of the ,pholades had been removed2 and that the wood became imbedded in a sand-bank1 and the univalves enclosed in the cavities2 the ligneous structure in a great measure perished1 and the stony casts of the perforations of the borers1 with the imprisoned univalves1 remained4 ,the ,nerites1 as shown in the example figured1 do not occupy any particular position in the tubes2 one has the apex towards the end of the cavity1 and the other lies in a transverse direction4#cfh #cfh ,in a fragment of a perforated column1 from ,puzzuoli1 in my possession1 by favour of ,sir ,woodbine ,parish1 there were numerous living univalves in the cavities made and previously inhabited by the lithodomi4 ,sidenote3 ,,teredo4 ,teredo4 ,ly4 p4 #bd4--;,it will be convenient to notice in this place another genus of boring shells1 whose fossil remains are far more abundant than those of the ,pholas4 ,the ,teredo navalis1 or ,ship-worm1 which is the most vermiform of all the mollusca1 forms tortuous cylindrical hollows in wood2 and in some climates commits the most extensive injuries to ships1 the piles of harbours1 bridges1 and other submarine works formed of timber4 ,a reference to the illustration given by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell will render detailed description unnecessary4 ,the ,teredo is furnished at one extremity with testaceous valves1 by which it bores its way into the wood1 while from the surface of its soft body a calcareous matter is secreted1 which lines with a shelly covering the hollows or channels formed by the animal in its progress4 ,the fossil species differ from the recent in the valves being united to the calcareous tube4 ,wood perforated by ,teredines1 and occupied by their shelly tubes1 occurs in almost every locality of the ,london ,clay4 ,those specimens in which the wood is petrified1 and the cavities of the tubes are filled with calcareous spar of various colours1 furnish beautiful sections1 when cut and polished 7,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 viii4 fig4 #h1 #i74 ,when the canal in the ,regent's ,park was being formed1 large blocks of perforated calcareous wood were discovered1 having the ligneous structure well preserved1 and the tubes of the ,teredines occupied by yellow1 grey1 and brown spar1 forming specimens of great beauty and interest4 ,wood1 with ,teredines1 or some analogous boring mollusks1 occurs sparingly in the chalk of this country2 but in the cretaceous strata at ,maestricht1 large masses are frequently found4#cfi ,fossil wood may occasionally be observed with perforations that have been made by other kinds of boring shells2 but the preceding remarks will suffice to convey an idea of the nature and origin of such appearances4#cgj #cfi ,in the ,british ,museum there is a mass of silicified wood from the ,upper ,greensand of ,blackdown1 perforated by a ,teredo1 whose valves remain in the burrows4 #cgj ,other genera of boring shells also occur fossil1 as ,fistulana1 ,gastrochna 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #ebf71 ,saxicava 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #dff74 ,trigonia4 ,lign4 #abg1 fig4 #a1 #b1 #d4--,these bivalves are related to the ,arcade and ,nucul1 but distinguished by the peculiar character of the hinge2 the right valve has two large oblong teeth1 which diverge from the umbo1 and are strongly furrowed1 and fit into two corresponding grooved cavities1 in the opposite1 or left valve4 ,these shells are very thick and nacreous2 they abound in certain strata of the ,oolite and lower ,cretaceous formation1 but have not been observed in any deposits of this country older than the ,lias2 there are nearly thirty ,british species4 ,two living species of ,trigonia 7,trigonia margaritacea and ,t4 ,jukesii7 are known1 both inhabitants of the seas of ,new ,holland1 where they are associated with ,terebratul4 ,some of the argillaceous beds of the ,oolite1 as the ,oxford and ,kimmeridge clays1 abound in ,trigoni2 ,osmington and ,radipole1 near ,weymouth1 are celebrated localities for these fossil shells1 which are found there in great perfection2 and on the ,french coast1 where similar strata appear1 the ,trigoni are equally abundant4 ,under the cliffs1 near ,boulogne harbour1 the shore is strewn with them4 ,three common species are figured in ,lign4 #abg4 ,the casts of most of the species are smooth1 as in fig4 #b2 and the collector should1 therefore1 search for impressions of the outer surface1 when the shell is absent1 as is generally the case in the ,portland ,oolite and ,shanklin ,sand1 in which ,trigoni are very numerous4 ,near ,highworth1 in ,wiltshire1 very fine and large examples of ,trigonia costata1 fig4 #d1 occur1 with the shell preserved4 ,the impressions of the large1 oblong1 diverging teeth of the hinge1 are usually so strongly marked in the casts1 as to render it easy to identify the shells of this genus4 ,the quarries of the ,portland ,oolite at ,swindon1 ,wilts1 teem with casts of ,trigoni1 collocated with ,ammonites4 ,in the ,isle of ,portland they are also very numerous1 some beds of stone being so friable1 from the numerous cavities left by the removal of the substance of the shells1 as to be unfit for paving1 or other economical purposes4 ,very sharp casts may be obtained from this rock by merely breaking the stone to pieces4 ,in the ,whetstone of ,blackdown1 ,devon1 beautiful silicified ,trigoni are occasionally found4 ,tisbury1 in ,wiltshire1 yields very fine specimens1 and in some examples1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,sowerby has detected remains of the ligament4 ,,fossil ,,fresh-,,water ,,bivalves4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,fresh-,,water ,,bivalves4 ,the animals of the shells hitherto described are1 with scarcely any exception1 inhabitants of the sea2 and the marine origin of the strata in which they occur1 may consequently be inferred1 with but little probability of error4 ,i now propose noticing the fossil remains of those bivalves which inhabit rivers1 lakes1 streams1 and pools of fresh water4 ,the marine1 or fresh-water1 character of fossil shells1 is inferred from their resemblance to the recent mollusca1 whose habits are known2 for the shells alone present no unequivocal marks1 by which even the experienced conchologist can pronounce whether an extinct form belonged to a marine or to a fluviatile mollusk1 although certain characters may admit of an approximative inference4 ,thus1 for instance1 as none of the known living fresh-water bivalves belong to the previous division1 the ,monomyaria1 the presence in a stratum of numerous shells with but one muscular impression1 would afford a fair presumption of the marine origin of such1 deposit4 ,the remains with which the shells are associated and the mineralogical characters of the strata in which they occur1 would1 of course1 afford important corroborative evidence4#cga #cga ,see ,sir ,c4 ,lyell on the distinction between fresh-water and marine deposits4 ,ly4 p4 #bg1 et seq4 ,the living fresh-water bivalves comprise but a few genera and species2 and those which have been found fossil in the ,british strata belong to but four or five genera4 ,their distribution is restricted to strata of undoubted fluviatile origin1 and to those local intercalations of fresh-water and land productions in marine deposits1 which occur in some of the secondary1 and in many of the tertiary formations4 ,unio4 ,ly4 p4 #bh4--,the river ,mussels1 or ,unionid1 have a solid1 pearly shell1 with two principal and two lateral teeth on the hinge2 and their umbones1 or bosses1 are generally smooth1 or longitudinally undulated4 ,those which have no cardinal teeth are arranged under the genus ,anodon3 but it is not necessary for our present purpose1 to enter into minute conchological distinctions4 ,in number1 variety1 and beauty1 the species which inhabit the large rivers of ,north ,america present a striking contrast with the few and homely ,british fresh-water mussels2 nor have we1 in a fossil state1 any shells of this family at all comparable with those living types4#cgb ,the earliest fossil ,mollusca referred to the genus ,unio appear in certain layers of clay and argillaceous ironstone belonging to the ,carboniferous system of ,derbyshire1 ,coalbrook ,dale1 c4 7,min4 ,conch4 vol4 i4 tab4 #cc74 ,in the former county1 these strata are termed mussel-band2#cgc and some beds constitute a compact shell-limestone1 which admits of being manufactured into vases1 c41 and takes a good polish2 the sections of the shells in this marble are white1 on a dark ground4 ,there is1 however1 considerable doubt whether any of the ,carboniferous shells really belong to the genus ,unio2 some geologists refer them to ,cardinia1 a group of sea-shells found especially in the ,lias4 #cgb ,see ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xlvii4 p4 #djb1 ,unionid4 #cgc ,a solid stratum of ironstone1 which extends from ,tupton ,moor to ,staveley4 ,martin's ,petrificata ,derbiensia1 pl4 xxvii4 ,the earliest undoubted shells of this genus from the ,british strata1 are1 ,i believe1 those first discovered by me in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest1 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 p4 #de1 and ,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for4 p4 #eg71 and subsequently found in numerous localities of the ,wealden4#cgd #cgd ,they are figured in ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bej2 and in ,dr4 ,fitton's ,memoir1 ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 iv4 pl4 #ba4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aca4 ,unio ,valdensis4 7#a_/c nat47 ,wealden2 ,isle of ,wight4 ,in #ahdd ,i discovered a large species in the ,wealden at ,brook ,point4 ,i have named it ,unio ,valdensis4#cge ,i have collected and obtained nearly fifty specimens2 they present two varieties1 the one contracted and narrow1 the other broader and deeper2 this difference is probably sexual2 the wide and deep shells may be the females2 for in the living ,american ,uniones the same characters are observed4 ,some examples are remarkably well preserved2 the ligament remaining in a carbonized state1 and the body of the mollusk in the condition of molluskite2 even a tint of the original tawny reddish colour of the shell is present4 ,the same species has been found in the ,wealden strata1 near ,tunbridge ,wells1 by ,mr4 ,barlow1 ,c4 ,e4 #cge ,unio ,valdensis resembles in form the ,mexican species1 ,u4 ,panacensis 7,river ,panaco71 but is probably more nearly allied to an unnamed ,australian species of which ,mr4 ,g1 ,sowerby has numerous examples4 ,i shall reserve my remarks upon the important aid these fossils afforded in the determination of the fluviatile origin of the ,wealden1 for our ,excursion to ,tilgate ,forest4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #acb4 ,cyclas and ,melanopsis4 ,wealden2 ,sussex4 ,cyclas4 ,wond4 p4 #djd4 ,ly4 p4 #bh4--;,another genus of fresh-water bivalves is termed ,cyclas1 of which there are ten species in the ,wealden formation3 and1 with the exception of four or five recent forms1 which occur in the tertiary fresh-water strata1 none others have been found in ,england4#cgf ,the shells of the genus ,cyclas are oval1 transverse1 equivalved bivalves1 with the hinge-teeth very small3 the substance of the shell is thin and fragile2 the figures in ,wond4 and ,ly4 accurately represent the appearance of the fossil ,cyclades of the ,wealden1 and tertiary strata4 ,entire layers of two or three species of these shells occur in the argillaceous deposits of the ,wealden1 generally in a friable state1 but from among the masses of crushed shells1 perfect specimens may be obtained1 and sometimes with the remains of the epidermis and ligament4 ,the hard stone1 termed calciferous grit1 in the neighbourhood of ,hastings1 ,tilgate ,forest1 ,horsham1 and other places in the ,weald of ,sussex1 abounds in casts of the same species1 associated with the ,uniones1 previously described4 ,in the cliffs on the southern shores of the ,isle of ,wight where the ,wealden beds emerge1 and also in the ,isle of ,purbeck1 these shells are equally abundant4 ,together with the ,uniones1 they occasionally appear in the limestone1 called ,sussex ,marble2 and in the ,isle of ,purbeck there are beds of limestone wholly composed of bivalves belonging to these two genera1 and presenting1 in polished slabs1 markings formed by sections of the enclosed shells4 #cgf ,cyrena1 is a genus so nearly related to ,cyclas1 that it is difficult to distinguish them1 and it will be convenient to retain only the former name4 ,,fossil ,,pteropoda4 ,sidenote3 ,,pteropoda4 ,,gasteropoda4 ,in the ,ludlow strata there are found small fragile elongated conical shells without chambers1 which are supposed by ,professor ,e4 ,forbes to be identical with a recent genus of pteropodous mollusca1 common in the ,mediterranean1 called ,creseis4 ,they seldom exceed two inches in length4 ,of another genus1 named ,conularia1 six ,species have been discovered in the ,silurian formation4#cgg #cgg ,see ,geol4 ,trans1 second series1 vol4 vi1 p4 #cbe4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #acc4 ,fossil ,shells of ,gasteropoda4 ,fig4 #a4--,paludina fluviorum4 ,wealden4 #b4--,limna longiscata4 ,tertiary4 ,isle of ,wight4 #c4--;,cerithium lapidorum4 ,tertiary1 ,grignon4 #d4--;,fusus contrarius4 ,crag4 ,essex4 ,,fossil ,,shells ,,of ,,gasteropoda4 ,the univalve shells1 as we have previously explained1 are the calcareous cases1 or coverings1 of a more highly organized class of molluscous animals1 than the inhabitants of the bivalves 7see p4 #cff71 for they possess a head and mouth with jaws1 eyes1 and feelers2 and while the ,acephala1 with but few exceptions1 are incapable of locomotion1 the ,encephala are almost all of them furnished with organs of progression1 and can creep1 climb1 and swim1 or float on the surface of the water4 ,their shells are for the most part formed of one valve1 hence the name of univalve2 but in some species it is composed of several pieces4 ,the most simple form of shell is that of the hollow cone1 of which the ,patella1 or limpet1 affords an example2 and in the more complicated modifications1 the cone is twisted1 or convoluted spirally1 either in the same plane as in the ,planorbis of our rivers1 or obliquely1 as in by far the greater number of species4 ,the direction of the spire is generally from left to right1 the aperture being dextral to the observer when the shell is placed with its apex uppermost1 as in ,lign4 #acc1 figs4 #a1 #b1 #c2 but in a few species the spire turns in the opposite manner1 and the mouth or aperture is to the left1 or sinistral1 as in ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #d4 ,in consequence of the form of the aperture of the shell1 the entire or notched condition of its margin1 and the presence or absence of a canal or siphon always having relation to the soft parts of the animal1 these characters afford data by which the genera and species of the shells may be determined1 and information obtained as to the structure and economy of the originals4 ,the ,gasteropoda generally creep by means of a fleshy disk1 or foot1 which is situated under the belly4 ,some kinds are terrestrial1 others inhabit trees1 many live in rivers and streams1 others in stagnant and brackish waters2 but the greater number are denizens of the sea4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,gasteropoda4 ,the ,common ,snail1 ,river ,snail1 and ,periwinkle1 are instances of terrestrial1 fluviatile1 and marine forms4 ,the organs of respiration are situated in the last whorl of the shell2 and in some genera the border of the mantle1 or integument surrounding the body1 is prolonged into a siphon1 by which the water is freely admitted1 without the head or foot being protruded3 in these mollusks the shell has a corresponding channel to receive the siphon1 as in the ,whelk1 or ,buccinum1 and in the fossil shell ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #d4 ,the ,gasteropoda are generally provided with an operculum1 or movable valve1 by which the aperture is closed and defended when the animal retreats within its shell4 ,in some species the operculum is a mere horny pellicle2 in others it is a solid calcareous plate of considerable relative thickness4 ,these mollusca1 as is but too well known of the terrestrial species1 consume large quantities of food4 ,some are herbivorous1 and others carnivorous2 many prey on living1 and others on decaying animal and vegetable substances4#cgh ,as in a fossil state the shells alone remain to afford any clue as to the structure and economy of the originals1 characters have been sought for1 by which the fluviatile or marine nature1 and the carnivorous or herbivorous habits of the living mollusca may be determined4 ,as a general rule1 it will be found1 that the shells of terrestrial and fresh-water ,gasteropoda have the aperture entire1 as in the ,garden ,snail1 and in the fossil shell1 ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #a2 and that a large proportion of the marine species have the opening notched or channelled1 as in the ,whelk1 and ,lign4 #acc1 figs4 #c1 #d2 and most of the species with entire apertures are herbivorous4 ,but these inferences must be regarded in a very general sense1 and it will require corroborative evidence to establish the marine or fresh-water nature of those fossil shells which do not bear a close analogy to known living species4#cgi #cgh ,all ,gasteropoda commence life under the same form1 both of shell and animal1 namely1 a very simple helicoid shell1 and an animal furnished with two ciliated wings or lobes1 by which it can swim freely through the fluid in which it is contained4 ,at this stage of existence the animal corresponds to the permanent state of the ,pteropod1 and the form is alike1 whether it be afterwards a shelled or a shell-less species4--,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes1 ,edin4 ,philos4 ,journal1 vol4 xxxvi4 p4 #cbf4 ,the well known ,tiger ,cowry 7,cyprcea tigris7 in its earliest stage has a minute helicoid 7snail-like7 shell4 #cgi ,see ,ly4 p4 #cj4 ,the various conditions in which the remains of univalve shells occur in the mineral kingdom have already been so fully explained1 that but a few additional remarks on that subject are required 7see p4 #chb74 ,the ,gasteropoda are found to progressively diminish in number with the antiquity of the deposits1 and it was once supposed that this type of molluscous organization was not contemporaneous with the ancient ,cephalopoda4 ,my discovery of several genera associated with ,ammonites in the chalk 7see ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xviii1 xix7 first tended to invalidate this hypothesis2 and the subsequent researches of ,dr4 ,fitton1 ,professor ,phillips1 and other geologists have shown that the presence or absence of ,gasteropoda in a stratum may generally be ascribed to the circumstance of the deposit having been formed in shallow1 or in deep water4 ,thus when simple univalves largely predominate under circumstances that indicate they were imbedded in their native habitats1 it may be safely concluded that the rock is of littoral formation2 or1 in other words1 was deposited in shallow water1 near the sea-shore2 and1 on the contrary1 when ,nautili1 ,ammonites1 and the shells of other mollusca known to live in deep waters abound in a formation1 it may be presumed that the strata were formed in the tranquil depths of the ocean4 ,the number of described species from the ,british strata is nearly eight hundred2 and these are distributed throughout the sedimentary formations1 from the ,silurian to the newest ,tertiary2 the latter containing by far the greater proportion4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,fresh-,,water ,,univalves4 ,fresh-water ,univalves4--,the fossil shells of ,gasteropoda that are undoubtedly fluviatile1 comprise but few genera and species1 and are confined to those deposits1 which1 from the corroborative proofs afforded by other organic remains1 are unquestionably of fresh-water origin4 ,such are the intercalated beds of clay and limestone in the ,london and ,paris basins1 the ,wealden formation1 and certain strata in the ,carboniferous system4 ,the most numerous specimens are principally referable to the common fluviatile genera1 ,paludina1 ,limna1 ,planorbis1 and ,melanopsis 7see ,ly4 p4 #bi74 ,paludina4 ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #a4 7,wond4 p4 #dja1 ,ly4 p4 #bi47--,this common river shell is of a conoidal form1 and the whorls of the spire1 and the aperture1 are rounded4 ,eleven ,british species are known4 ,in the tertiary fresh-water beds of ,headon ,hill1 at ,alum ,bay1 ,paludin with the shells perfect1 and of a dull white colour1 are abundant2 and also in the limestone at ,shalcombe1 in the ,isle of ,wight1 in the state of casts4 ,in both these localities the ,paludin are associated with other fresh-water shells4 ,but the grand deposit of shells of this genus is the ,wealden formation2 throughout which there are extensive beds of marble1 coarse limestone1 and clays1 almost wholly composed of ,paludin1 and minute fresh-water ,crustaceans1 of the genus ,cypris1 which will be described in a subsequent chapter4 ,the compact paludina-limestone of ,sussex1 called ,petworth or ,sussex marble1 is principally made up of one species1 the ,p4 fluviorum1 ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #a1 and is an aggregation of ,paludin1 held together by crystallized carbonate of lime2 the cavities of the shells1 and their interstices1 being often filled with white calcareous spar4 ,a polished slab1 displaying sections of the enclosed shells1 is figured in ,wond4 p4 #djb4 ,upon examining slices of this marble with the microscope1 the cavities of the shells are found to contain myriads of the cases of ,cyprides4#chj ,the ,wealden limestone of the ,isle of ,purbeck1 ,lign4 #acd1 known as ,purbeck marble1 is1 in like manner1 composed of ,paludin1 but of a much smaller species4 ,both these marbles were in great repute with the architects of the middle ages1 and there are but few of our cathedrals and ancient churches which do not still contain examples1 either in their columns1 monuments1 or pavements1 of one or both varieties4 ,the polished marble columns of ,chichester ,cathedral1 and those of the ,temple ,church1 in ,london1 are of ,purbeck marble2 in other words1 they are composed of the petrified shells of snails1 that lived and died in a river1 flowing through a country inhabited by the ,iguanodon and other colossal reptiles1 all of which have long since become extinct4 ,with the exception of the mussel-band limestone of the ,carboniferous system1 previously described1 these are the only ,british fresh-water marbles#cha ,there are four species of ,paludina in the ,wealden1 and four in the ,tertiary strata of ,hants4 #chj ,for a particular account of this marble1 see ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 pp4 #ahb-ahg4 #cha ,the collector may obtain specimens1 and polished slabs of these limestones1 of ,mr4 ,martin1 mason1 ,lewes1 ,sussex4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #acd4 ,polished ,slab of ,purbeck ,marble4 ,limna4 ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #b4--,several species of these fresh-water mollusks inhabit our lakes and ponds1 and may be known by their pointed spire1 elongated oval body1 and delicate thin shell3 on the inner lip of the aperture there is an oblique fold4 ,fossil shells of this genus are found with ,paludin in the fresh-water tertiary deposits4 ,headon ,hill and other localities in the ,isle of ,wight abound in these shells2 and in the limestone of ,calbourn beautiful casts are very numerous4 ,the ,paris basin yields several species2 and there are six species in the ,isle of ,wight ,tertiary2 ,i have not observed any decided examples in the ,wealden4 ,in the sands and clays the shells are well preserved2 in the limestones the casts only remain4 ,shells of another genus of fresh-water spiral univalves1 termed ,bulimus 7,ly4 p4 #cj71 are found associated with the above4 ,a large species 7,b4 ellipticus1 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #ccg71 occurs in the limestone at ,binstead1 near ,ryde1 and at ,calbourn2 ,i have collected specimens two inches long from the former locality2 they are generally in the state of casts1 with a white friable coating of the shell4#chb #chb ,a very large species of ,limna from ,bavaria 7labelled ,l4 maxima7 is in the ,british ,museum4 ,it is a cast six and a half inches long1 and is placed with the recent shells4 ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes has discovered a ,limned 7,physa7 in the ,purbeck strata4 ,planorbis4 ,ly4 p4 #bi4 ,wond4 p4 #djj4--,the shells of this genus are also numerous in our rivers and lakes1 and may be distinguished by their discoidal form1 the shell being coiled up in a nearly vertical plane4 ,there are about twenty living species2 and sixteen are enumerated as fossil in the ,british tertiary2 five occur in the ,isle of ,wight basin1 in the localities of the fresh-water genera already mentioned2 ,headon ,hill1 in particular1 yields shells of this genus in great abundance and perfection4 ,melanopsis4 ,ly4 p4 #bi4--,these are spiral univalves1 the appearance of which will be better understood by the figures1 than by any description4 ,i allude to this genus because a small species is very numerous1 with the other fresh-water shells1 at ,headon ,hill2 and two or more species are found in the argillaceous strata of the ,wealden 7see ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bdi1 and ,lign4 #acb74 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,marine ,,univalves4 ,marine ,univalves4--,of the fossil marine ,gasteropoda there are no less than eighty genera in the strata of the ,british ,islands1 and the species amount to several hundreds4 ,to distinguish the species and genera1 reference must1 of course1 be made to works expressly devoted to fossil conchology1 as ,sowerby's ,mineral ,conchology1 and ,genera of ,fossil ,shells2 or to the works of ,french authors1 particularly those of ,lamarck1 edited by ,m4 ,deshayes1 and of ,m4 ,blainville4 ,the ,penny ,cyclopedia contains admirable notices of fossil shells1 under the respective heads of the classes1 orders1 and genera1 of the recent ,mollusca4 ,buccinum1 of which the common ,whelk is an example4--,fusus1 ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #d4 ,wond4 p4 #bdd4--,pleurotoma1 ,ly4 p4 #ca4 ,wond4 p4 #bdd4--;,cerithium1 ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #c4 ,wond4 p4 #bdd4--;,ancilla1 ,wond4 p4 #bdd4 ,ly4 p4 #ca4--,voluta1 ,ly4 p4 #bjb1 fig4 #ahj4--,murex1 ,ly4 p4 #afd4--,rostellaria1 ,ly4 p4 #bja4--,to the eight genera here enumerated a very large number of the marine simple univalve shells belong2 and they are principally found in ,tertiary strata4 ,the animals of these shells are characterized by their respiratory organs1 which are formed of one or two pectiniform gills1 with a tube or siphon more or less elongated1 for the free admission of sea-water to the branchial apparatus4 ,this organization is indicated in the shell1 either by a notch1 or by a prolonged tubular canal4 ,all the species are1 with scarcely any exceptions1 inhabitants of the sea1 and carnivorous4 ,i have selected for illustration of the genus ,fusus1 a celebrated shell of the ,crag1 known among collectors as the ,esssex reversed ,whelk1 ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #d2 the spire is twisted in the opposite direction to the usual mode1 and the mouth is consequently to the left of the observer2 the same species occurs with the spire in the common direction4 ,the shells of the genus ,pleurotoma are distinguished by an incision1 or notch1 in the side of the right or outer lip2 and those of ,cerithium1 by the form of the mouth1 see ,lign4 #acc1 fig4 #c4 ,the latter is a very numerous genus1 and more than two hundred fossil species are enumerated2 it contains many elegant forms4 ,the ,tertiary strata at ,grignon are particularly rich in these fossils2 the shells are of a pearly whiteness1 and as perfect as when recent4 ,some ,cerithia are of considerable size2 the ,c4 giganteum is from ten to fourteen inches in length4 ,the genus ,potamides comprehends shells closely resembling the ,cerithia in form1 but which are inhabitants of fresh-water4#chc ,this is an instance of the difficulty which sometimes exists of arriving at certain conclusions as to the habits of the mollusks1 from their testaceous coverings alone4 #chc ,mr4 ,woodward informs me that they can only be distinguished when fossil1 by the absence of varices1 or periodic mouths4 ,the recent species are known to be inhabitants of fresh-water1 by their dark epidermis1 corroded points1 and horny multi-spiral opercula4 ,the ,plastic ,clay beds at ,castle ,hill1 ,newhaven1 and in the vicinity of ,woolwich1 abound in two species of shells1 which were originally described by ,mr4 ,sowerby1 as ,cerithia 7viz4 ,c4 funatum and ,c4 melanoides71#chd but are now referred to the fresh-water genus1 ,melania2 by some conchologists to ,potamides4 ,at ,castle ,hill they are accompanied by fresh-water bivalves1 and leaves of dicotyledonous plants4 #chd ,foss4 ,south ,downs1 tab4 xvii4 figs4 #c1 #d4 ,of the genus ,rostellaria1 there is a remarkable species in the ,london ,clay1 called ,r4 macroptera1 from the large wing-like expansion of its outer lip1 in adult specimens2 see ,ly4 p4 #bja4 ,an elegant ,rostellaria is found in the ,galt1 at ,folkstone1#che 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xix4 figs4 #ab1 #ad17 and other localities2 and also in the ,chalk ,marl4 #che ,this shell belongs to the recent genus1 ,aporrhas1 and is related to ,cerithium1 not to ,strombus4--,mr4 ,woodward4 99 99 99 99 99 ,casts of a large ventricose1 globular univalve1 called ,dolium1,,nv have been found in the ,chalk ,marl1 at ,clayton1 near ,hurstpierpoint1 in ,sussex4 ,this species is distinguished by its transverse tuberculated bands2 it is a very rare production of the lower chalk of ,sussex 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #cbf74 ,turbinated shells related to ,trochus1 and belonging to several genera1 occur in the ,cretaceous deposits4 ,as is the case generally with the univalves of this formation1 but slight traces of the shells remain2 the thin internal nacreous lining is sometimes found adhering to the cast4 #chf ,this ,chalk fossil is not a ,dolium3 it is probably related to ,ringinella incrassata 7,geol4 ,suss4 t4 xix4 fig4 #c71 one of the ,tornatellid1 a family largely developed in the chalk4 ,in the ,chalk of ,touraine1 species of the genera ,conus 7,lign4 #ace1 fig4 #a7 and ,solarium 7,lign4 #ace1 fig4 #b7 are found with the shells preserved4 ,the specimens figured1 ,lign4 #ace1 are selected to familiarize the student with the difference so commonly observable1 between the outer surface of the casts1 and that of the shells3 in both these fossils the shells are marked externally with lines and tubercles2 but the casts present only the smooth surface of the interior of the shell in which they were moulded4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ace4 ,univalves1 from the ,chalk of ,touraine4--nat4 ,fig4 #a4--;,conus tuberculatus1 with part of the shell remaining attached to the cast4 #b4--,solarium ornatum1 with the shell4 #b;a4--,specimen of the same species1 deprived of the shell4 ,in the most ancient fossiliferous formations1 the ,carboniferous2 ,devonian1 and ,silurian1 many species and genera of ,gasteropoda have been discovered4 ,professor ,phillips enumerates more than ninety in the mountain limestone of ,yorkshire 7,phil4 ,york471 belonging to the genera ,turbo1 ,pleurotomaria1 ,natica1 ,euomphalus1 ,loxonema1 ,macrocheilus1 ,platyceras1 and ,metoptoma4 ,thirty-four species from the ,silurian rocks are figured and described in ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #gjf4 ,the ,natica1 ,lign4 #acf1 fig4 #c1 sometimes attains thrice the size represented1 and has been found in many localities in ,england and ,ireland4 ,pleurotomaria4 ,lign4 #acf1 fig4 #d4--,this is an extinct genus1 distinguished from ,trochus by a fissure on the right lip1 the position of which is indicated by the band along the back of the whorl in ,lign4 #acf2 several species occur in the ,mountain ,limestone2 the markings of the original shell are sometimes preserved1 as in the example delineated ,this genus is common in the ,oolite2 a splendid species1 with the shell entire1 is found in the ,kimmeridge ,clay1 at ,hartwell2 limestone casts of the same species are abundant in the ,portland stone at ,swindon1 in ,wiltshire4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #acf4 ,univalves from the ,mountain ,limestone4 ,fig4 #a4--;,euomphalus pentangulatus2 ,upper surface4 #b4--,polished section of the same species4 #c4--,natica plicistria4 ,yorkshire4 ,mt4 ,l4 #d4--,pleurotomaria flammigera4 7,phil4 ,york47 ,mt4 ,l4 ,there are two species of this genus 7formerly named ,cirrus by ,mr4 ,sowerby7 which are of frequent occurrence in the ,white ,chalk of ,england1 in the state of casts1 and are figured in my ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xviii41 under the names of ,cirrus perspectivus1 and ,trochus linearis4 ,the ,chalk ,marl of ,sussex yields in some localities 7,hamsey1 ,middleham1 ,clayton7 fine casts of ,pleurotomaria1 which appear to be distinct from those of the upper cretaceous strata4 ,sidenote3 ,,euomphalus4 ,euomphalus4#chg ,lign4 #acf1 figs4 #a1 #b4--,the shells of this extinct genus are deeply umbilicated1 discoidal1 spiral univalves1 having the innermost whorls of the shell divided by imperforated partitions4 ,the internal structure of these shells will serve to prepare the student for those more complicated forms of the testaceous apparatus presented by the ,cephalopoda1 which will form the subject of the next chapter4 ,there are several recent univalves the animals of which retreat in the progress of growth from the apex of the spire1 and the vacated portion is shut off by a shelly plate4 ,in some genera a series of concave septa are thus formed2 but in others 7as ,magilus7 the deserted cavity is filled by a compact accretion of calcareous matter1 and a solid elongated shell is produced4 ,the ,euomphalus1 of which there are many species in the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous strata1 belongs to the former group4 ,as the animal increased in size1 it deserted the smaller and innermost portion of the spire1 and a nacreous partition was secreted by the posterior part of the mantle1 the interspace remaining hollow2 as this process was repeated at different periods1 several cells were successively formed4 ,this chambered structure is shown in the specimen ,lign4 #acf1 fig4 #b1 in which the cells are filled with spar1 but the outer cavity is occupied by limestone like that in which the shell was imbedded2 a proof that no communication existed between the chamber occupied by the body of the animal1 and the space from which it had withdrawn4 ,the calcareous spar1 as in the vegetable remains previously described 7p4 #ga71 has percolated the substance of the fossil1 and crystallized in the innermost cells4 ,we shall again have occasion to refer to this interesting fact1 when investigating the chambered cells of the ,cephalopoda4 ,it may be necessary to remark1 that it does not appear that the vacant interspaces in the ,euomphalus served the special purpose of the air-chambers of the ,nautilus and ,ammonite4 #chg ,so named by ,mr4 ,sowerby1 in allusion to the deeply umbilicated character of the disk4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #acg4 ,murchisonia angulata4 ,devonian2 ,eifel4 ,murchisonia4 ,lign4 #acg4 ,an elongated spiral shell1 having the outer lip deeply notched1 as in the ,pleurotomaria 7a1 ,lign4 #acg74 ,there are upwards of #ej species of this genus1 which are characteristic of the palozoic rocks4 ,they occur in the ,permian1 ,devonian1 and ,lower ,silurian deposits2 the specimen figured is from the ,devonian1 or ,old ,red of the ,eifel4 ,chiton4 ,valves of ,chitons have been found in the ,magnesian limestone1 near ,sunderland1 by ,prof4 ,king1 7,permian ,fossils1 ,pal4 ,soc4 p4 #bjb1 pl4 xvi471 and in the ,silurian rocks of ,ireland1 by ,mr4 ,salter1 ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 iii4 p4 #dh4 ,sidenote3 ,,sph,,rulites4 ,sphrulites4#chh ,lign4 #ach4--,no vestiges of a shell of this genus had been noticed in the ,english strata1 until my discovery of some fragments in the ,lewes ,chalk in #ahbj2 from the lamellated structure of these fossils1 ,i mistook them for corals1 until specimens were obtained sufficiently perfect to show the form of the originals2 these were described in the ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 7p4 #acj71 under the name of ,hippurites4 ,but these fossils are more nearly related to the ,sphrulites1 which differ from the shells of the former genus in having only one internal longitudinal ridge1 and in the external surface being roughened by irregularly raised plates1 as in ,lign4 #ach1 fig4 #a1 which is a specimen from the ,pyrenees1 collected by ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongniart2 the operculum is seen at a4 #chh ,this genus has been referred by some conchologists to the ,bivalves1 and by others to the ,univalves4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ach4 ,sphrulites from the ,chalk of ,france and ,england4 ,fig4 #a4--,sphrulite1 with its operculum1 a4 #b4--,sphrulites ,mortoni 7,g4 ,a4 ,m471 from ,lewes3 #a_/b nat4 #b;a4--,cellular structure of fig4 #b1 in a transverse section3 #b;b4--,structure1 as seen in a vertical section3 ,the species found in the ,sussex ,chalk1 ,lign4 #ach1 fig4 #b1 is characterized by the longitudinal stri on the outer surface4 ,in some examples there is an external longitudinal furrow1 and a corresponding internal ridge4#chi #chi ,the specific name is in honour of ,dr4 ,george ,morton1 of ,philadelphia1 author of the ,synopsis of the ,cretaceous ,group of the ,united ,states4 ,the ,sphrulites sometimes occur in groups in the ,sussex chalk2 ,i had a large water-worn mass1 consisting of five or six individuals1 anchylosed together4 ,some beautiful specimens collected by the late ,mr4 ,dixon from the ,chalk1 near ,worthing1 are now in the ,british ,museum4#cij ,the structure of the ,sphrulite is accurately delineated in ,lign4 #ach1 figs4 #b;a #b;b4 ,the cavities of these shells are occasionally filled with flint1 but in general with chalk1 which may be entirely cleared away1 as in fig4 #b4 ,the ,hippurites of the limestone of the ,pyrenees are frequently occupied by calcareous spar1 and the substance of the shells is occasionally transmuted into the same mineral4 #cij ,petrifactions1 p4 #dfh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,molluskite4 ,molluskite2 or the carbonized remains of the soft parts of mollusca4--,before proceeding to the consideration of that numerous and important division of the mollusca the ,cephalopoda1 ,i will offer a few remarks on a carbonaceous substance resulting from the gelatinous matter of which the soft bodies of these animals are composed1 and for which ,i have proposed the name of molluskite1 to indicate its nature and origin4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aci4 ,coprolites and ,molluskite4 ,chalk and ,greensand4 ,fig4 #a4--;,coprolite of a fish 7,macropoma74 ,chalk1 ,lewes4 #b4--;,coprolite of a fish 7,squalus74 ,chalk marl4 ,ramsey4 #c4--,molluskite of a ,rostellaria4 7,mr4 ,bensted47 ,kentish ,rag1 ,maidstone4 ,this substance is of a dark brown or black colour1 and occurs either in shapeless masses1 which are irregularly distributed among the shells and other organic remains1 in sandstone1 limestone1 c41 or as casts of shells1 or occupying their cavities1 as in the specimen ,lign4 #aci1 fig4 #c1 which is a vertical section of a spiral univalve 7,rostellaria71 filled with the soft parts of the animal1 converted into molluskite4 ,upon analysis this substance is found to contain a large proportion of animal carbon4#cia ,the rocks of firestone at ,southbourne1 on the ,sussex coast1 are mottled with brown molluskite and hard amorphous concretions1 consisting of carbon and phosphate of lime1 mixed with sand and other extraneous matter4 ,casts of shells1 of the genera ,venus1 ,arca1 c41 entirely composed of the same kind of materials1 are also abundant in those rocks4 ,the lowermost bed of ,galt1 at its line of junction with the ,greensand beneath1 at ,folkstone1 and in many other localities1 is largely composed of similar matter1 resembling in appearance the fossils called ,coprolites1 hereafter described4 ,the outer chamber of the ,ammonites and other shells1 so abundant in the ,galt1 are often filled with this substance4 ,but the most interesting deposit of molluskite is in the ,kentish ,rag of ,mr4 ,bensted's quarry1 near ,maidstone4 ,this phenomenon had not escaped the notice of that intelligent and accurate observer1 who liberally placed at my disposal numerous shells1 particularly of ,trigoni and ,terebratul1 which were filled with molluskite1 and large slabs of the sandstone1 full of concretionary and amorphous masses of the same4 ,the latter1 ,mr4 ,bensted suggested1 may have been derived from the soft bodies of the dead ,mollusks1 which1 having become disengaged from their shells and aggregated together1 had floated in the sea1 until they became enveloped in the sand and mud1 which have gradually consolidated into the arenaceous stone termed ,kentish ,rag1 ,in illustration of this opinion1 ,mr4 ,bensted directed my attention to the following remarkable fact1 related in the ,american ,journal of ,science3--,in the year #ahcf1 a fatal epidemic prevailed among the shell-fish of the ,muskingum ,river1 in the state of ,ohio4 ,it commenced in ,april1 and continued until ,june1 destroying millions of the mollusca that inhabited the beds of the tributary streams1 and the river4 ,as the animals died1 the valves of the shells opened1 and1 decomposition commencing1 the muscular adhesions gave way1 and the fleshy portions rose to the surface of the water1 leaving the shells in the bed of the river4 ,as masses of the dead bodies floated down the current1 the headlands of islands1 piles of drifted wood1 and the shores of the river1 in many places1 were covered with them2 and the air in the vicinity was tainted with the putrid effluvium exhaling from these accumulations of decomposing animal matter4 ,the cause of the epidemic was unknown4 #cia ,some of this molluskite has1 at my request1 been analyzed by ,mr4 ,rigg1 who obliged me with the following remarks3--,after removing the lime by means of hydrochloric acid from ten grains of this substance1 there remained #a4b grain of dark powder1 which gave1 by analysis with oxide of copper1 4#af of a cubic inch of carbonic acid1 and a small portion of nitrogen4 ,on subjecting to the same kind of analysis two grains of the darker body1 without previously acting upon it by any acid1 4#jed of a cubic inch of carbonic acid was obtained2 so that from these results there is no doubt but the darker portion of the molluskite contains about 4#ce per cent1 of its weight of carbon in an organized state4 ,now nearly the whole of the shells in the beds of ,kentish ,rag1 ,mr4 ,bensted remarks1 have their shells open1 as if they were dead before their envelopment in the deposit4 ,and1 from the large quantity of water-worn fragments of wood perforated by ,pholades imbedded with them1 it seems probable that this stratum had originally been a sand-bank covered with drifted wood and shells1 thus presenting a very analogous condition to the phenomenon above described4 ,the gelatinous bodies of the ,trigoni1 ,ostre1 ,rostellari1 ,terebratul1 c41 detached from their shells1 may have been intermingled with the drifted wood in a sand-bank2 while1 in some instances1 the animal matter would remain in the shells1 be converted into molluskite1 and retain the form of the original1 as in the spiral univalve1 represented in section1 ,lign4 #aci1 fig4 #c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a microscopical examination of the ,maidstone molluskite detects1 with a low power1 innumerable portions of the nacreous lamin of shells1 intermingled with the carbonaceous matter1 many siliceous spicula of ,sponges1 minute spines of ,echinoderms1 and fragments of ,corals2 these extraneous bodies probably became entangled among the floating animal matter4 ,a large proportion of the shelly lamin1 examined with a high power1 displays the peculiar structure of the ,terebratul 7see ,lign4 #abf1 fig4 #b;a71 of which several species are abundant in the ,kentish ,rag4 ,the dark masses and veins so common in the ,sussex and ,purbeck marbles are produced by molluskite4 ,if at the period of their envelopment the shells were empty1 they became filled either with grey marl and limestone1 or with white calcareous spar2 but if they enclosed the bodies of the ,mollusks1 the soft mass was changed into carbonaceous matter2 and in polished sections of the marble1 the molluskite appears either in black or dark brown spots1 or fills up the cavities of the shells4 ,the dark blotches and veins observable in the fine pillars of ,purbeck marble in the ,temple ,church1 ,london1 are produced by molluskite2 and the most beautiful slabs of ,sussex marble owe their appearance to the contrast produced by this black substance in contact with white calcareous spar4#cib #cib ,see a ,memoir on the ,carbonized ,remains of ,mollusca1 by the author4 ,read before the ,geological ,society of ,london1 ,february1 #ahdc2 and published in the ,american ,journal of ,science4 ,carbon1 resulting from animal remains1 is of frequent occurrence in many strata2 and the fetid emanations from certain limestones1 upon being broken or rubbed1 are attributable to the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen1 from the animal matter which they contain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,geological ,,distribution ,,of ,,shells4 ,geological ,distribution of the ,bivalve and ,univalve ,mollusca4--,if the more rare and splendid organic remains may be regarded as the ,medals of ,creation1 the fossil testaceous mollusca1 from their durability1 numbers and variety1 may be considered as the current coin of ,geology4 ,occurring in the most ancient fossiliferous strata in small numbers1 and of peculiar types1--becoming more abundant and varied in the secondary formations1--and increasing prodigiously1 both numerically and specifically1 in the tertiary1 these relics are of inestimable value in the identification of a stratum in distant regions1 and in the determination of the relative age of a series of deposits4 ,to the solution of the former problem the sagacity of the late ,dr4 ,william ,smith first suggested their applicability2#cic while the idea1 so happily conceived1 and so philosophically candied out1 by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 of arranging that heretofore chaotic mass of deposits1 termed the ,tertiary1 into groups1 by the relative number of recent and extinct species of shells1 demonstrated the important aid to be derived from this class of organic remains1 in the determination of some of the most difficult questions in geological science4 #cic ,see an interesting memoir of ,dr1 ,smith1 from the pen of his distinguished nephew1 ,professor ,phillips4 ,many useful tables have been constructed by ,professor ,phillips1#cid ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 ,m4 ,deshayes1 ,m4 ,d',orbigny1 ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes1 and other eminent observers1 to illustrate the geological distribution1 in the several formations1 of the genera and species of fossil shells hitherto described4 ,to the ,english student1 ,mr4 ,morris's ,catalogue of ,british ,fossils1 of which an enlarged edition is in the press1 will be the most valuable for reference4 ,in the works which we have especially recommended for reference 7ante1 p4 #aj71 figures are given of some of the characteristic shells from each formation1 as follow2 commencing with the most ancient deposits4 #cid ,a ,treatise on ,geology2 and ,art4 ,geology1 ,encyclopd4 ,metropolitana4 ,silurian ,system4 ,ly4 p4 #cej4 ,orthis orbicularis2 ,ly4 fig4 #dji4 ------ grandis2--fig4 #dbg4 ,terebratula navicula2--fig4 #daj4 ------------ ,wilsoni2--fig4 #dac4 ,pentamerus ,knightii2--fig1 #daa4 ---------- lvis2--fig4 #dbf4 ,atrypa reticularis2 fig4 #dad4 ,wond4 p4 #ghf4 ,lingula ,lewisii2 ,ly4 fig4 #dab4 ,strophomena depressa2--fig4 #dba4 ,devonian ,system4 ,ly4 p4 #cdb4 ,calceola sandalina2 ,ly4 fig4 #djc4 ,stringocephalus ,burtini2--fig4 #djd4 ,megalodon cucullatus2--fig4 #dje4 ,the ,silurian ,system1 by ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison1 a splendid work on the rocks and fossils of the above formations1 contains numerous figures of the shells peculiar to each group of strata2 and many other species are delineated in the ,memoir on the ,devonian deposits of ,devonshire and ,cornwall1 by ,sedgwick and ,murchison1 ,geol4 ,trans4 ,new ,series1 vol4 v4 plates lii-lvii4 ,a ,memoir on the ,palozoic ,rocks of ,germany and ,belgium1 by the same distinguished geologists1 is also accompanied by many figures of fossil shells belonging to the same geological epochs4 ,geol4 ,trans4 ,new ,series1 vol4 vi4 ,see also ,prof4 ,m',coy's ,silurian ,fossils of ,ireland1 and his ,description of the ,british ,palozoic ,fossils in the ,woodwardian ,museum at ,cambridge1 in ,prof4 ,sedgwick's ,synopsis of the ,classification of the ,british ,palozoic ,rocks1 of which two ,parts are already published4 ,carboniferous ,system4 ,ly4 #cjh4 ,wond4 p4 #gcf4 ,producta punctata2 ,wond4 p4 #gcf4 -------- ,martini2 ,ly4 fig4 #cij4 ,pleurotomaria flammigera2 ,lign4 #acf1 fig4 #d4 ,euomphalus pentangulatus2 ,lign4 #acf1 fig4 #a4 ,natica plicistria2 ,lign4 #acf1 fig4 #c4 ,spirifera trigonalis2 ,wond4 p4 #gcf4 --------- triangularis2 ,wond4 p4 #gcf4 --------- glabra2 ,ly4 p4 #chi4 ,serpula carbonaria2 ,ly4 fig4 #cge4 ,avicula papyracea2--fig4 #cgh4 ,for the shells of the ,mountain ,limestone1 reference should be made to the second vol4 of ,prof4 ,phillips's ,geology of ,yorkshire2 to ,prof4 ,m',coy's ,carboniferous ,limestone ,fossils of ,ireland2 and to ,prof1 de ,konick's ,anim4 ,foss4 ,belg4 ,the fossils of other portions of the ,carboniferous ,system are illustrated in ,phillips's ,palozoic ,fossils of ,devon2#cie and in ,prestwich's ,memoir on ,coalbrook ,dale 7,geol4 ,trans474 #cie ,to prevent confusion1 it may be necessary to state that ,professor ,phillips1 in the work referred to1 terms the ,silurian strata the lower palozoic and the mountain limestone1 the upper palozoic ,magnesian ,limestone and ,trias4 ,ly4 p4 #cja4 ,producta calva2 ,ly4 p4 #bjc1 fig4 #ccg4 ,permian4 ,spirifera undulata2--fig4 #cch4 ,posidonia minuta2--p4 #bhh1 fig4 #cba4 ,triassic ,avicula socialis2--fig4 #cbb4 ,prof4 ,king's elaborate ,monograph on the ,permian ,fossils 7published by the ,palontographical ,society7 should be consulted by the student4 ,lias4 ,ly4 p4 #bgc4 ,pleurotomaria ,anglica2 ,ly4 p4 #ci4 ,avicula inquivalvis2 ,ly4 fig4 #cjb4 ,plagiostoma giganteum2 ,ly4 fig4 #cjc4 ,grypha incurva2 ,lign4 #abg4 ,oolite4 ,ly4 p4 #beg4 ,grypha virgula2 ,ly4 fig4 #bfh4 ,ostrea deltoidea 7,kimmeridge ,clay72--fig4 #bfi4 ,trigonia gibbosa2--fig4 #bgj4 -------- clavellata2 ,lign4 #abg4 -------- costata2 ,lign4 #abg4 ,nerina ,goodhallii2 ,ly4 fig4 #bgd4 ,diceras arietinum2--fig4 #bge4 ,pleurotomaria2--fig4 #bii4 ,terebratula spinosa2--fig #big4 ----------- digona2--fig #bhc4 ,ostrea ,marshii2--fig4 #cjj4 ,phasianella ,heddingtonensis2--fig4 #eh4 ,many of the characteristic shells of the ,oolite and ,kimmeridge ,clay1 are figured in ,plates ,,xxii4 and ,,xxiii4 of ,dr4 ,fitton's ,memoir on the ,strata below the ,chalk2 ,geol4 ,trans4 ,new ,series1 vol4 iv4 ,the fossil shells of the ,great ,oolite are figured and described by ,messrs4 ,morris and ,lycett1 in the ,memoirs of the ,palontographical ,society2 and valuable ,papers on the ,brachiopods of the ,oolite and ,lias1 by ,mr4 ,davidson1 have been published by the same ,society4 ,wealden and ,purbeck4 ,wond4 vol4 i4 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e41 ,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for41 and ,ly4 p4 #bbe4 ,melanopsis2 ,wond4 pp4 #dja and #djd4 ,cyclas2--p4 #djd4 ,paludina ,sussexiensis2--p4 #dja4 ,neritina ,fittoni2--p4 #dja4 ,mytilus ,lyellii2--p4 #dje4 ,unio antiquus2 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bej1 fig4 #a4 ---- compressus2--fig4 #b4 ---- aduncus2--fig4 #c4 ---- porrectus2--fig4 #d4 ,valdensis2--,min4 ,conch4 pl4 #fdf1 and ,lign4 #aca4 ,corbula alata2 ,ly4 p4 #bbi4 ,ostrea distorta2--p4 #bcb4 ,the shells of the ,wealden are also figured by ,dr4 ,fitton1 ,geol4 ,trans4 ,new ,series1 vol4 iv4 ,pl4 ,,xxi4 ,chalk ,formation4 ,i4--,shanklin1 or ,lower ,greensand4 ,ly4 p4 #bai4 ,dr4 ,fitton's ,memoir1 previously quoted1 contains numerous figures of the characteristic shells of this division of the ,chalk1 particularly of the species which abound in the celebrated ,whetstone of ,devonshire4 ,geol4 ,trans4 ,new ,series1 vol4 iv4 ,pl4 ,,xiii-,,xviii4 ,see also ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes's ,catalogue of ,lower ,greensand ,fossils1 in the ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 i4 ,,ii4--,galt and ,upper ,greensand4 ,wond4 p4 #cjg2 ,ly4 p4 #bah4 ,inoceramus concentricus2 ,wond4 p4 #ccj1 fig4 #a4 ---------- sulcatus2--fig4 #c4 ,terebratula lyra2 ,ly4 fig4 #bai4 ,pecten quinquecostatus2--fig4 #bjc4 ,ostrea carinata2--fig4 #bjd4 ,in ,plates ,,xi4 and ,,xii4 of ,dr4 ,fitton's ,memoir1 there are figures of more than twenty characteristic shells of this division of the ,chalk4 ,,iii4--,white ,chalk4 ,ly4 p4 #baa1 ,foss4 ,south ,d41 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 ,some cretaceous species are delineated in ,lign4 #abe1 #abf1 #abh1 #abi1 #acj1 #ach2 and ,sir ,c4 ,lyell figures other species2 but ,i must refer the student to the ,foss4 ,south ,d41 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e41 and ,dixon's ,fossils of ,sussex1 as accessible works containing numerous figures of the fossil shells of the ,chalk4 ,accurate descriptions and representations of all the ,british chalk shells1 however1 are still much required4 ,mr4 ,davidson has done much towards the illustration of our ,cretaceous ,brachiopods2 and the shells of the ,cretaceous strata of the ,united ,states are figured and described in an elegant work by ,dr4 ,morton1 of ,philadelphia4 ,tertiary ,formations4 ,i4--,eocene4 ,ly4 p4 #agd2 ,wond4 p4 #bbf4 ,,ii4--,miocene4 ,ly4 p4 #afh4 ,,iii4--,pliocene4 ,ly4 p4 #afa4 ,the specimens figured by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell have been so carefully selected1 and are so well engraven1 as to present a coup-d'il of the most characteristic shells of the three grand divisions of the ,tertiary ,deposits4 ,i have reserved for especial mention in this place1 the work1 which will afford the student of ,british fossil ,conchology the most important aid in the identification of specimens1 namely1 the ,mineral ,conchology of ,great ,britain1 by the late eminent naturalist1 ,mr4 ,james ,sowerby1 and continued by his son1 ,mr4 ,james ,de ,carle ,sowerby2 in six volumes #hvo41 with several hundred coloured plates4 ,unfortunately1 this work has long been discontinued2 and the rapid progress of discovery1 and the numerous foreign publications on every department of fossil conchology1 almost forbid the hope that it will be resumed by the present proprietor4 ,although the high price of this work places it beyond the reach of many individuals1 it will be found in most libraries of ,natural ,history4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,shells4 ,on the ,collection and ,arrangement of ,fossil ,shells4--,the instructions already given for the collection of corals1 echinoderms1 c41 will have familiarized the student with the methods generally adopted1 and render it unnecessary to enter into much detail4 ,the shells in arenaceous deposits1 particularly in those of the ,tertiary formations1 are commonly so perfect1 as merely to require careful removal3 those in the clays are more fragile1 and must be extracted with great caution2 and1 when very delicate1 should be left attached to the clay or shale4 ,the specimens extracted entire may be kept either in paper trays1 lined with wadding1 or fixed to pieces of card or thin board covered with paper1 by thick gum-water2 three or four specimens being attached in different positions1 so as to expose the essential characters1 as the aperture1 spire1 and back of the univalves1 and the hinge1 muscular imprints1 c4 of the bivalves4 ,where only casts remain1 search should be made for an impression of the outer surface of the shell1 and a cast taken of it in wax1 kneaded bread1 or plaster of ,paris4 ,in indurated clays1 sometimes both shells and casts may be obtained2 and a specimen of each should be preserved4 ,mastic varnish1 or solution of gum tragacanth1 delicately applied to fragile shells1 tends to preserve them1 and improves their appearance4 ,it is desirable to collect the same species in various states of growth2 the form of the young shell 7as in ,rostellaria ampla1 of ,solander7 often differing essentially from that of the adult4 ,it will be found convenient to have trays or boards of different colours2 and to select one tint for the shells collected from a particular formation1 or deposit2 for example1 the newer ,tertiary may be placed on yellow paper2 the older1 or ,eocene fossils1 on light-blue4 ,it is also desirable to separate the marine from the fresh-water species4 ,shells imbedded in chalk1 limestone1 c41 often require much labour to display their more delicate and important characters4 ,for clearing chalk specimens1 a stout penknife1 and a few gravers or gouges of various sizes1 will be necessary2 and by a little practice1 the spines of the ,spondylus 7,lign4 #abh71 and the beaks and hinge of ,inocerami 7,lign4 #abi71 c41 may be readily exposed4 ,a small stiffish brush1 used with water1 is also serviceable4 ,the shells in compact stone1 as those of the mountain limestone1 must generally be cleared with the hammer and chisel4 ,common species may be broken out1 and1 from several examples1 probably one or two will be found perfect2 but choice and rare specimens should not be thus risked2 they will amply repay the trouble of the less expeditious method of chiselling away the surrounding stone4 ,casts may be taken in gutta percha1 c4 ,to determine the names of the specimens that he has collected should be the next care of the student4 ,no method will so readily initiate the young collector in fossil conchology1 as the careful examination of a small series of the common species1 with their names attached4#cif ,by the geological map1#cig the nature of the deposit in which the locality of the specimens is situated1 may be ascertained2 and the remarks previously advanced on the prevailing shells of each formation1 will afford a general idea of the genera to which they belong2 and1 by referring to the figures quoted1 the specific names may be determined4 #cif ,such a series may be obtained1 at very little cost1 of dealers in objects of natural history2 as1 ,messrs4 ,tennant1 ,sowerby1 the ,british ,natural ,history ,society1 c4 ,see ,appendix4 #cig ,a ,geological ,map of ,england and ,wales1 coloured by ,mr4 ,woodward1 under the direction of ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison1 has been published by the ,society for the ,diffusion of ,useful ,knowledge1 at the low price of #es4 ,although on a very small scale1 and therefore not to be compared for utility and convenience with that by ,prof4 ,phillips1 much less with ,greenough's large map1 or with ,knipe's1 it will be found serviceable4 ,i subjoin a list of some localities of fossil shells1 to direct research in places which are likely to be productive4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,shells4 ,sidenote3 ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,shells4 ,aldborough1 ,suffolk4 ,the usual shells of the ,crag4 ,alum ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,eocene tertiary2 marine and fresh-water shells4 ,ancliff4 ,great variety of minute shells of the ,oolite4 ,arundel1 ,sussex4 ,chalk-pits in the neighbourhood4 ,atherfield1 ,isle of ,wight1 ,shells of the lower beds of the ,lower ,greensand1 in great variety and abundance4 ,aylesbury1 ,bucks4 ,kimmeridge ,clay3 near ,hartwell4 ,aymestry4 ,pentamerus1 and other ,silurian shells4 ,barnstaple1 ,north ,devon4 ,numerous ,devonian shells4 ,barton ,cliff1 ,hants4 ,eocene shells in profusion4 ,bedford4 ,lower ,oolite1 ,terebratul1 ,ostre1 ,myad1 c4 ,binstead1 near ,ryde1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,tertiary3 in the stone-quarries1 terrestrial and fresh-water shells1 as ,bulimus1 ,helix1 ,limnc1 and ,planorbis4 ,blackdown1 near ,collumpton1 ,devon4 ,greensand4 ,numerous silicified shells1 of great beauty4 ,trigonia1 ,venus1 ,corbula1 ,rostellaria1 c4 c4 ,bognor ,rocks1 ,sussex4 ,eocene ,tertiary4 ,vermetus1 ,pectunculus1 ,pinna1 ,voluta1 c4 ,bolland4 ,numerous shells of the ,mountain ,limestone4 ,bradford1 ,wilts4 ,numerous ,oolitic shells4 ,avicula4 ,bramerton ,hill1 near ,norwich4 ,shells of the ,norfolk ,crag4 ,brighton4 ,strondylus1 ,terebratula1 ,ostrea1 ,pecten1 ,inoceramus1 c4 ,many species in the chalk4 ,bromley1 ,kent4 ,eocene ,tertiary4 ,oyster conglomerate4 ,brook-point1 ,isle of ,wight3 about one mile east of the ,chine4 ,wealden3 ,unio valdensis1 ,cyclades1 ,paludin1 c4 ,brora1 ,scotland4 ,oolite4 ,pholadomya1 ,sanguinolaria1 c4 ,calbourn1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,tertiary4 ,fresh-water ,univalves4 ,cambridge4 ,in the ,galt and ,chalk-marl1 the usual shells4 ,castle ,hill1 near ,newhaven1 ,sussex4 ,in the ,tertiary strata1 on the summit of the hill4 ,numerous ,potamides1 ,cyclades1 and other fresh-water shells1 ,ostre1 with pebbles4 ,chardstock1 ,devon4 ,the fossils of the ,lower ,chalk4 ,cheltenham4 ,fine shells of the ,oolite and ,lias4 ,chute1 near ,longleat1 ,wilts4 ,greensand shells1 in abundance4 ,clayton1 near ,hurst1 ,sussex4 ,in ,chalk-marl1 many rare shells2 as1 ,dolium nodosum 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #cbf47 ,clifton4 ,carboniferous ,limestone4 ,spirifera1 ,producta1 c4 ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,silurian and ,carboniferous fossils4 ,cork4 ,in the vicinity4 ,carboniferous limestone shells4 ,crich ,hill1 ,derbyshire4 ,the usual shells of the ,mountain ,limestone4 ,cuckfield1 ,sussex4 ,in the ,sandstone and ,grit1 fresh-water shells of the ,wealden4 ,dudley4 ,profusion of shells of the ,silurian strata4 ,dundry1 near ,bristol4 ,beautiful shells in the ,inferior ,oolite4 ,earlstoke1 ,wilts4 ,many shells of the ,greensand4 ,faringdon1 ,berks4 ,the usual shells of the ,oolite in the ,coral ,rag1 c42 and of the ,greensand1 in the ,gravel-pits4 ,folkstone1 ,kent4 ,galt4 ,inoceramus1 ,arca1 ,rostellaria1 ,dentalium1 c4 ,lower ,greensand1 ,grypha1 ,ostrea1 c4 ,gravesend4 ,beautiful shells of the ,white ,chalk4 ,hampstead ,cliff1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,fresh-water ,tertiary shells4 ,hampton ,quarry1 near ,bath4 ,abounds in ,oolitic shells4 ,hartwell1 ,bucks4 ,on the estate of ,dr4 ,lee1 beautiful shells of the ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,harwich ,cliff1 ,essex4 ,the ,crag shells4 ,voluta ,lamberti4 ,hastings1 ,sussex4 ,fresh-water shells of the ,wealden4 ,headon ,hill1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,fresh-water ,tertiary shells in profusion4 ,heddington4 ,oysters in ,kimmeridge ,clay 7,ostrea deltoidea74 ,perna1 ,gervillia1 ,trigonia1 c4 ,highworth1 ,wilts4 ,very fine ,trigoni1 and other ,oolitic1 shells1 in the stone-quarries4 ,hollington1 near ,hastings4 ,wealden4 ,fresh-water bivalves1 c4 ,holywell1 near ,ipswich4 ,shells of the ,crag1 abundantly4 ,hordwell ,cliff1 ,hants4 ,the usual shells of the ,eocene deposits1 in immense quantity1 variety1 and perfection4 ,horningsham1 near ,frome1 ,wilts4 ,oxford ,clay4 ,terebratula1 ,pecten1 c4 in great numbers4 ,horsham1 ,sussex4 ,fresh-water shells of the ,wealden1 in the stone-quarries4 ,humbleton ,hill1 ,sunderland4 ,permian fossils4 ,hythe1 ,kent4 ,greensand4 ,trigonia1 ,grypha1 ,pecten1 c4 ,ilminster1 ,somerset4 ,brachiopoda1 c4 ,inf4 ,oolite and ,marlstone4 ,ipswich4 ,the usual ,crag shells4 ,langton ,green1 near ,tunbridge ,wells4 ,wealden4 ,in the sandstone quarries1 ,uniones1 ,cyclades1 c4 ,leckhampton ,hill1 near ,cheltenham4 ,numerous shells of the ,inferior ,oolite and ,lias4 ,lewes4 ,inoceramus1 ,pecten1 and usual shells of the ,white ,chalk and ,chalk ,marl4 ,ludlow4 ,pentamerus1 ,spirifera1 c4 and other ,silurian shells4 ,lyme ,regis4 ,lias4 ,plagiostoma1 ,grypha1 ,trochus4 ,malton4 ,beautiful shells of the ,oolite4 ,matlock1 ,derbyshire4 ,the mountain limestone in the vicinity abounds in the characteristic shells ,leptna1 ,spirifer1 c4 ,minchinhampton4 ,numerous shells of the ,great ,oolite4 ,osmington1 near ,weymouth4 ,purbeck2 fresh-water and marine shells3 ,oolite2 ,trigonia1 ,gervillia1 ,perna1 ,pholadomya1 and many other genera4 ,portland1 ,isle of4 ,oolite4 ,in the stone-quarries immense numbers of the genera ,trigonia1 ,venus1 ,ostrea1 ,pecten1 c4 ,pluckley1 ,kent4 ,lower ,greensand4 ,trigoni1 ,terebratul1 c4 ,radipole1 near ,weymouth4 ,trigonia1 ,pholadomya1 c4 in ,oxford ,clay4 ,sandgate1 near ,margate4 ,in the ,greensand1 the usual shells4 ,scarborough4 ,in the cliffs along the shore1 a profusion of ,oolitic and ,liassic shells4 ,selbourne1 ,hants4 ,in the firestone1 ,ostrea carinata and other characteristic shells4 ,shalfleet1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,in tertiary fresh-water limestone1 shells of various genera1 as ,bulimus1 ,helix1 ,planorbis1 c4 ,shanklin ,chine4 ,greensand4 ,in the cliffs along the shore1 ,terebratid1 ,gryphites1 ,gervilli1 and many other shells4 ,sharnbrook1 ,bedfordshire4 ,the usual shells of the ,cornbrash and ,lower ,oolite4 ,sheppey1 ,isle of4 ,eocene4 ,london ,clay shells1 in abundance4 ,south ,petherton1 ,somerset4 ,terebratul1 ,pholadomya1 ,ostre1 ,pleurotomari1 c4 of the ,marlstone4 ,stamford1 ,lincolnshire4 ,lower ,oolite4 ,univalves and bivalves in profusion4 ,stonesfield1 ,oxfordshire4 ,trigoni and other shells of the ,lower ,oolite4 ,stubbington ,cliff1 near ,portsmouth4 ,eocene shells4 ,swanage4 ,in the quarries in the vicinity1 the prevailing fresh-water shells of the ,purbeck limestone4 ,swindon1 ,wilts4 ,oolite4 ,the ,portland limestone abounds in the usual shells of that deposit4 ,trigoni1 ,gervilli1 c4 ,taunton1 ,somersetshire1 7,pickeridge ,hill1 c47 ,lima1 ,pecten1 and other ,liassic shells4 ,tisbury1 ,wilts4 ,beautiful ,trigoni1 and other shells of the ,portland ,oolite4 ,vincent's1 ,st41 near ,clifton4 ,the rocks abound in the usual shells of the mountain limestone4 ,walton1 ,essex4 ,shells of the ,crag1 in great variety4 ,weymouth4 ,the ,oxford ,clay and other strata in the vicinity contain great variety of fossil shells4 ,whitecliff ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,eocene4 ,marine and fresh-water shells4 ,worthing4 ,the chalk quarries in the neighbourhood are remarkably prolific in the usual species2 and yield ,sphrulites4 ,note4--,a comprehensive list of the localities for ,lower ,palozoic shells1 c4 is given by ,prof4 ,m',coy in the second ,fasciculus of the ,british ,palozoic ,fossils2 and in the little ,stratigraphical ,list1 published by ,mr4 ,tennant1 reference is carefully made to the localities for the fossils of every formation4 ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bohn',s ,,scientific ,,library4 ,,mantell',s ,,medals ,,of ,,creation4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,illustration3 ,pl4 #b ,j4 ,dinkel del4 ,g4 ,scharf lithog4 ,printed by ,hullmandel ,walton ,,the ,medals of ,creation2 ,,or1 ,,first ,,lessons ,,in ,,geology1 ,,and ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,organic ,,remains4 ,,by ,,gideon ,,algernon ,,mantell1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,v4,p4,g4,s4 ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,london ,,medical ,,society1 ,,etc4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,geology1 ,,etc4 ,illustration3 ,,inclined ,,strata ,,of ,,millstone ,,grit1 ,,crich ,,hill4 ,,in ,,two ,,vols4--,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,containing ,fossil ,cephalopoda1 ,crustacea1 ,insects1 ,fishes ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammalia4 ,,with ,,notes ,,of ,,geological ,,excursions4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,,entirely ,,rewritten4 ,,london3 ,,henry ,g4 ,,bohn1 ,,york ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 ,,london3 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,frontispiece ,,of ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,illustrative of the mode of developing ,fossil ,fishes in ,chalk4 ,osmeroides ,mantelli3 a ,fossil ,smelt2 from the ,chalk1 ,lewes4 ,see page #fbf4 7,one-third natural size47 ,fig4 #a4--,the two corresponding surfaces of a block of ,chalk split asunder4 ,the irregular oval lines1 seen on each surface1 are the only apparent indications that the stone contains an extraneous body4 #b4--;,in this figure the two pieces represented above are shown cemented together2 care having been taken that the oval markings on each surface were accurately adjusted4 ,the chalk has been chiselled away in the supposed longitudinal direction of the enclosed extraneous body1 and part of the scaly surface of a fish has been thus brought to light4 ,a portion of chalk has also been removed towards both ends1 with the view of ascertaining the extent and direction of the fossil2 and at each place indications of its presence are visible4 #c4--,represents the specimen completely developed4 ,it proves to be a fish almost perfect1 lying on its back1 with the body uncompressed1 the mouth open1 the arches and opercula of the gills expanded1 and the dorsal1 pectoral1 and ventral fins entire4 ,the caudal fin1 or tail1 is imperfect4 ,the original is nine inches long1 and is one of the most extraordinary fossil fishes ever discovered4 ,it belongs to the ,salmon family1 and is allied to the ,osmerus1 or ,smelt2 it is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,we thus perceive that the oval markings on the surface of fig4 #a were occasioned by the section of the scales covering the cylindrical body of the fish 7see p4 #fbg74 ,a magnified view of one of the scales is figured ,lign4 #ahe1 fig4 #d1 p4 #efg4 ,,list ,,of ,,lignographs ,,in ,,vol4 ,,ii4 7,illustrative of ,fossil ,zoology47 ,,lign4 ,,page #adj4 ,fossil ,cuttle-,fish 7,kelno7 #ddg #ada4 ,belemnites1 from the ,chalk1 c4 #dea #adb4 ,restored outline of ,belemnites #dec #adc4 ,restored outline of the ,belemnites ,puzosianus #ded #add4 ,perfect specimen of ,belemnites ,puzosianus #dee #ade4 ,belemnoteuthis antiquus #dfj #adf4 ,horny rings and hooks of ,belemnoteuthis antiquus #dfa #adg4 ,osselets of extinct dibranchiate ,cephalopoda #dfc #adh4 ,bellerophon #dfe #adi4 ,nautilus pompilius in its shell #dfg #aej4 ,fossil ,nautili #dgj #aea4 ,nautilus elegans #dga #aeb4 ,nautilus ,saxbyi #dgb #aec4 ,casts of ,chambers of ,nautilus and ,ammonite #dgc #aed4 ,clymeni #dgc #aee4 ,orthoceratites #dge #aef4 ,ammonites from the ,cretaceous formation #dgf #aeg4 ,ammonites communis #dgg #aeh4 ,ammonites ,jason #dgi #aei4 ,goniatites #dhb #afj4 ,shells of the ,ammonitid #dhd #afa4 ,hamites1 c4 from the ,chalk-marl #dhj #afb4 ,scaphites #dhh #afc4 ,turrilites #dhi #afd4 ,turrilites tuberculatus #dia #afe4 ,aptychus sublvis #dib #aff4 ,fossil impression of ,nereis #ejd #afg4 ,fossil ,barnacles and ,pholades #ejg #afh4 ,fossil ,crustaceans from the ,galt #eac #afi4 ,fossil ,crustaceans from the ,chalk #eag #agj4 ,fossil ,crustacean from the ,oolite #eai #aga4 ,archoniscus ,brodiei #eba #agb4 ,fossil ,limulus1 in a ,nodule of ,ironstone #ebb #agc4 ,limulus trilobitoides #ebc #agd4 ,fossil ,cyprides #ebg #age4 ,trilobites #ecc #agf4 ,homalonotus delphinocephalus #ecf #agg4 ,phacops caudatus #ech #agh4 ,paradoxides ,bohemicus #eci #agi4 ,fossil ,libellula #eea #ahj4 ,wings of ,neuropterous ,insects #eec #aha4 ,fossil ,wings of ,insects #eed #ahb4 ,insectiferous ,limestone #eef #ahc4 ,fossil ,insects from ,aix #eeh #ahd4 ,a group of ,fossil ,fish from ,aix #efb #ahe4 ,fossil ,scales of ,fishes #efg #ahf4 ,lepidotus #ege #ahg4 ,amblypterus #egf #ahh4 ,dorsal ,rays of ,sharks #egh #ahi4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,sharks #ehe #aij4 ,mandible of ,edaphodon ,mantelli #ehi #aia4 ,mandibles of ,edaphodon ,leptognathus #ehi #aib4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,sharks #eia #aic4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,sharks from the ,chalk #eid #aid4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,fishes #eih #aie4 ,dapedius #fjc #aif4 ,scales and ,fin of ,lepidotus ,mantelli #fje #aig4 ,portion of the ,jaw of ,lepidotus #fjf #aih4 ,gyrodus ,murchisoni #fji #aii4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii #faa #bjj4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii #faa #bja4 ,coccosteus and ,pterichthys #fac #bjb4 ,teeth of ,asterolepis #fai #bjc4 ,smerdis minutus #fbf #bjd4 ,fossil ,teeth and ,jaws of ,fishes #fbi #bje4 ,the ,lower ,jaw of ,iguana #fdi #bjf4 ,fossil ,vertebr of ,reptiles #fec #bjg4 ,dermal ,bone of the ,swanage ,crocodile #feh #bjh4 ,dermal ,bones of ,fossil ,reptiles #ffj #bji4 ,eye of ,ichthyosaurus #ffd #baj4 ,teeth of ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus #ffe #baa4 ,vertebra of ,ichthyosaurus #fff #bab4 ,pectoral ,arch of ,ichthyosaurus #ffg #bac4 ,pectoral ,arch of ,plesiosaurus #ffg #bad4 ,paddles of ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus #ffh #bae4 ,hinder ,paddle of an ,ichthyosaurus1 with its ,integument #ffi #baf4 ,skull and ,jaws of ,teleosaurus and ,steneosaurus #fge #bag4 ,first ,caudal ,vertebra of ,crocodilus ,hastingsi #fgf #bah4 ,portion of ,jaw of ,megalosaurus ,bucklandi #fhf #bai4 ,tooth of the ,megalosaurus ,bucklandi #fhg #bbj4 ,jaw of ,iguanodon ,mantelli #fic #bba4 ,lower ,tooth of the ,iguanodon #fid #bbb4 ,upper ,tooth of the ,iguanodon #fie #bbc4 ,teeth of ,iguanodon #fif #bbd4 ,six ,caudal ,vertebr of the ,iguanodon #fii #bbe4 ,left ,femur of the ,iguanodon #gja #bbf4 ,bones of the ,feet and ,claws of ,iguanodon #gjc #bbg4 ,mosasaurus ,hoffmanni #gjf #bbh4 ,mosasauroid ,teeth #gjg #bbi4 ,tooth of ,mosasaurus #gjh #bcj4 ,mosasauroid ,tooth #gaj #bca4 ,rhynchosaurus articeps #gab #bcb1 #bcc4 ,dicynodon lacerticeps #gaf #bcd4 ,dicynodon testudiceps 7tooth7 #gai #bce4 ,telerpeton ,elginense #gba #bcf4 ,telerpeton ,elginense 7outline7 #gbb #bcg4 ,pterodactylus crassirostris #gbd #bch4 ,chelone ,benstedi #gcc #bci4 ,mandible of a ,turtle #gcd #bdj4 ,chelone ,bellii #gce #bda4 ,tretosternon ,bakewelli #gcg #bdb4 ,palophis ,toliapicus #gch #bdc4 ,cryptobranchus ,scheuchzeri #gda #bdd4 ,archegosaurus ,dechenii #gdg #bde4 ,cheirotherium ,kaupii #geb #bdf4 ,fossil ,bird #gfg #bdg4 ,ornithoidichnites from ,massachusetts #ggj #bdh4 ,bird-like ,footprint1 and ,impressions of ,rain-drops #gga #bdi4 ,zeuglodon cetoides 7teeth7 #ghj #bej4 ,teeth of ,zeuglodon #gha #bea4 ,teeth of ,ruminant #ghb #beb4 ,leg-bones of ,horse1 ,deer1 and ,anoplothere #ghd #bec4 ,elephas ,ganesa 7skull and tusks7 #ghe #bed4 ,mastodon ,tooth #ghf #bee4 ,anoplotherium 7outline7 #ghh #bef4 ,anoplothere and ,palothere 7teeth7 #gij #beg4 ,hyopotamus ,teeth #gib #beh4 ,tooth of ,mastodon ,elephantoides #gid #bei4 ,elephant ,tooth #gid #bfj4 ,elephant ,teeth #gid #bfa4 ,hippopotamus ,teeth #gie #bfb4 ,rhinoceros ,teeth #gif #bfc4 ,teeth of ,horse #gig #bfd4 ,foot and ,tooth of ,glyptodon #hjj #bfe4 ,jaws of ,phascolotherium and ,ampitherium #hjf 7,illustrative of ,geological ,excursions47 #bff4 ,hammers #hcb #bfg4 ,brighton ,cliffs #heb #bfh4 ,section of ,brighton ,cliffs #hed #bfi4 ,section at ,farringdon #hfa #bgj4 ,section at ,derwent ,valley #hgf #bga4 ,crich ,hill ,quarry #hhf #bgb4 ,view of ,crich ,hill #hhg #bgc4 ,plan of ,crich ,hill #hhi #bgd4 ,section of ,crich ,hill #hij #bge4 ,diagram ,section of ,crich ,hill #hie ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,description of the ,frontispiece of ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 v4 ,list of ,lignographs in ,vol4 ,,ii4 vii4 ,contents of ,vol4 ,,ii4 ix4 ,chapter ,,xii4--,fossil ,cephalopoda1 #ddg4 ,fossil ,dibranchiate ,cephalopods1 #dej4 ,belemnites1 #dea4 ,belemnitella1 #deg4 ,belemnoteuthis1 #dei4 ,beloptera1 #dfc4 ,geoteuthis1 #dfc4 ,bellerophon and ,argonaut1 #dfe4 ,fossil ,tetrabranchiate ,cephalopods1 #dff4 ,nautilus1 #dfg4 ,clymenia1 #dgc4 ,orthoceras1 #dgd4 ,ammonitid1 #dgf4 ,ammonites1 #dgh4 ,goniatites1 #dhb4 ,ceratites1 #dhc4 ,crioceras1 #dhc4 ,ancyloceras1 #dhd4 ,toxoceras1 #dhe4 ,hamites1 #dhe4 ,ptychoceras1 #dhe4 ,baculites1 #dhf4 ,scaphites1 #dhg4 ,turrilites1 #dhi4 ,aptychus1 #dia4 ,geological ,distribution of the ,fossil ,cephalopoda1 #dib4 ,on the ,collecting ,british ,fossil ,cephalopoda1 #dif4 ,british ,localities of ,fossil ,cephalopoda1 #dii4 ,chapter ,,xiii4--,fossil ,articulata1 #ejc4 ,annelida1 #ejc4 ,serpula1 #eje4 ,cirripedia1 #eje4 ,calamy1 #ejf4 ,lepadid1 #ejh4 ,crustacea1 #ejh4 ,fossil ,crabs1 #eaa4 ,notopocorystes1 #ead4 ,fossil ,lobsters1 #eae4 ,enoploclytia1 #eaf4 ,isopodous ,crustaceans1 #ebj4 ,entomostraca1 #ebb4 ,limulus1 #ebb4 ,eurypterus1 #ebd4 ,pterygotus1 #ebe4 ,dithyrocaris1 #ebe4 ,ceratiocaris1 #ebe4 ,hymenocaris1 #ebf4 ,estheria1 #ebf4 ,leperditia1 #ebf4 ,beyrichia1 #ebf4 ,ostracoda1 #ebf4 ,cypris1 #ebg4 ,cythere1 #eca4 ,cypridina1 #ecb4 ,trilobites1 #ecb4 ,calymene1 #ece4 ,homalonotus1 #ecf4 ,asaphus1 #ecf4 ,isotelus1 #ecg4 ,bumastus1 #ecg4 ,ogygia1 #ecg4 ,phacops1 #ech4 ,trinucleus1 #ech4 ,paradoxides1 #ech4 ,brontes1 #eci4 ,geological ,distribution of ,crustaceans1 #edb4 ,on ,collecting ,fossil ,crustaceans1 #edd4 ,british ,localities of ,fossil ,crustaceans1 #edf4 ,fossil ,insects1 ,scorpions1 and ,spiders1 #edg4 ,insects1 #edg4 ,arachnida1 #eej4 ,fossil ,scorpion1 #eej4 ,fossil ,spiders1 #eej4 ,fossil ,insects1 #eea4 ,neuroptera1 #eea4 ,libellulid1 #eea4 ,corydalis1 #eeb4 ,panorpa1 #eec4 ,coleoptera1 #eed4 ,curculio1 #eee4 ,purbeck ,insects1 #eef4 ,aix ,insects1 #eeg4 ningen ,insects1 #eei4 ,fossil ,larv of ,phryganea1 #eei4 ,on ,collecting ,fossil ,insects1 #efj4 ,chapter ,,xiv4--,fossil ,ichthyology2 comprising the ,sharks1 ,rays1 and other ,placoid ,fishes1 #efb4 ,fishes1 #efb4 ,scales of ,fishes1 #eff4 ,fins of ,fishes1 #efi4 ,teeth of ,fishes1 #egj4 ,skeletons of ,fishes1 #egb4 ,ichthyodorulites1 #egf4 ,hybodus subcarinatus1 #ehj4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,fishes1 #ehb4 ,cestracion1 #ehd4 ,acrodus1#ehd4 ,ptychodus1 #ehe4 ,psammodus1 #ehg4 ,ceratodus1 #ehg4 ,edaphodon1 #ehh4 ,hybodus1 #eia4 ,sharks with cutting ,teeth1 #eib4 ,carcharodon1 #eic4 ,hemipristis1 #eic4 ,lamna1 #eid4 ,notidanus1 #eie4 ,corax1 #eie4 ,fossil ,vertebra of ,sharks1 #eif4 ,squaloraia1 #eif4 ,pristis1 #eig4 ,rays1 #eig4 ,chapter ,,xv4--,fossil ,ichthyology2 comprising the ,ganoid1 ,ctenoid1 and ,cycloid ,fishes1 #fjj4 ,amblypterus1 #fja4 ,paloniscus1 #fja4 ,dapedius1 #fjc4 ,lepidotus1 #fjd4 ,pycnodus1 #fjg4 ,gyrodus1 #fjh4 ,cephalaspides1 #faj4 ,cephalaspis1 #faa4 ,pterichthys1 #fab4 ,coccosteus1 #fad4 ,fossil ,sauroid ,fishes1 #fae4 ,lepidostei1 #faf4 ,sauroidei1 #fag4 ,clacanthi1 #fah4 ,macropoma1 #fbj4 ,coprolites1 #fba4 ,cololites1 #fba4 ,dercetis1 #fbb4 ,fossil ,ctenoid ,fishes1 #fbc4 ,beryx1 #fbd4 ,smerdis1 #fbe4 ,fossil ,cycloid ,fishes1 #fbe4 ,osmeroides1 #fbf4 ,saurocephalus and ,saurodon1 #fbh4 ,hypsodon1 #fcj4 ,enchodus1 #fcj4 ,ichthyolites of recent ,species1 #fca4 ,ichthyopatolites1 #fcb4 ,geological ,distribution of ,fishes1 #fcb4 ,on ,collecting and ,developing ,fossil ,fishes1 #fce4 ,microscopical ,examination1 #fci4 ,british ,localities of ,fossil ,fishes1 #fdj4 ,foreign ,localities1 #fda4 ,chapter ,,xvi4--,fossil ,reptiles2 comprising the ,enaliosaurians and ,crocodiles1 #fdc4 ,the ,age of ,reptiles1 #fdd4 ,classification of ,reptiles1 #fdf4 ,teeth of ,reptiles1 #fdf4 ,lower ,jaw of ,reptiles1 #fea4 ,vertebr1 #fea4 ,ribs1 #fef4 ,extremities1 #feg4 ,dermal ,bones1 #feg4 ,dermal ,bones of ,hylosaurus1 #fei4 ,dermal ,spines of ,hylosaurus1 #ffa4 ,horn of ,iguanodon1 #ffa4 ,enaliosaurians1 #ffb4 ,ichthyosaurus1 #ffc4 ,paddle and ,skin of ,ichthyosaurus1 #ffh4 ,plesiosaurus1 #fga4 ,pliosaurus1 #fgc4 ,crocodilians1 #fgd4 ,swanage ,crocodile1 #fgg4 ,pcilopleuron1 #fgi4 ,teleosaurus1 #fgi4 ,streptospondylus1 #fhj4 ,cetiosaurus1 #fhb4 ,polyptychodon1 #fhc4 ,chapter ,,xvii4--,fossil ,reptiles2 comprising the ,dinosaurians1 ,lacertians1 ,pterodactyles1 ,turtles1 ,serpents1 and ,batrachians1 #fhd4 ,dinosauria1 #fhd4 ,megalosaurus1 #fhf4 ,hylosaurus1 #fhh4 ,iguanodon1 #fia4 ,jaw and ,teeth of ,iguanodon1 #fic4 ,vertebra3 of ,iguanodon1 #fih4 ,extremities of ,iguanodon1 #gjj4 ,length of ,iguanodon1 #gjb4 ,lacertian ,reptiles1 #gje4 ,mosasaurus1 #gje4 ,leiodon1 #gji4 ,geosaurus1 #gaa4 ,raphiosaurus1 #gaa4 ,delicious1 #gaa4 ,rhynchosaurus1 #gab4 ,thecodontosaurus and ,palosaurus1 #gac4 ,dicynodon1 #gad4 ,telerpeton1 #gbj4 ,pterosauria1 #gbc4 ,chelonia1 #gbf4 ,fossil ,turtles and ,tortoises1 #gbi4 ,fossil ,marine ,turtles1 #gcb4 ,chelone ,benstedi1 #gcb4 ,chelone ,bellii1 #gcd4 ,fossil ,fresh-water ,tortoises1 #gcf4 ,ophidia1 or ,serpents1 #gch4 ,batrachia1 #gci4 ,batracholites1 #gdj4 ,labyrinthodon1 #gda4 ,archegosaurus1 #gde4 ,parabatrachus1 #gdf4 ,dendrerpeton1 #gdf4 ,ichnolites1 #gdi4 ,on collecting the ,fossil ,remains of ,reptiles1 #gec4 ,british ,localities of ,fossil ,reptiles1 #gef4 ,chapter ,,xviii4--,ornitholites1 or ,fossil ,birds1 #gei4 ,osteological ,characters of ,birds1 #gfj4 ,fossil ,birds of the ,pleistocene ,epoch1 #gfc4 ,fossil ,birds of the ,older ,tertiary ,deposits1 #gfe4 ,fossil ,birds of the ,wealden1 #gfh4 ,ornithoidichnites1 #gfh4 ,on collecting the ,fossil ,remains of ,birds1 #ggc4 ,chapter ,,xix4--,fossil ,mammalia1 #gge4 ,classification of ,mammalia1 #ggf4 ,fossil ,cetacea1 #ggg4 ,otolithes of ,whales1 #ggh4 ,brighton ,fossil ,whale1 #ggh4 ,zeuglodon ,cetoides1 #ggi4 ,fossil ,ruminants1 #ghb4 ,pachydermata1 #ghe4 ,fossil ,elephants and ,mastodons1 #ghe4 ,dinotherium1 #ghg4 ,cuvierian ,pachydermata1 #ghi4 ,teeth of ,mammalia1 #gic4 ,fossil ,horse1 #gif4 ,fossil ,edentata1 #gih4 ,megatherium1 #gih4 ,glyptodon1 #gii4 ,mylodon1 #hjj4 ,fossil ,rodents1 #hjb4 ,fossil ,marsupials1 #hjc4 ,triassic ,mammalian ,teeth1 #hje4 ,fossil ,mammalia of ,stonesfield1 #hje4 ,fossil ,carnivora1 #hjg4 ,kent's ,hole1 #haj4 ,fossil ,seals1 #hab4 ,fossil ,insectivora4 #hab4 ,fossil ,bats1 #hac4 ,fossil ,quadrumana1 or ,monkeys1 #hac4 ,fossil ,ape of ,france1 #had4 ,fossil ,monkey of the ,sub-,himalayas1 #had4 ,fossil ,monkey of ,south ,america1 #had4 ,fossil ,british ,monkeys1 #hae4 ,fossil ,human ,bones1 #hae4 ,on collecting and developing ,fossil ,remains of ,mammalia1 #hae4 ,british ,localities of ,fossil ,mammalia1 #hah4 ,bone-caves in ,franconia1 #hbj4 ,retrospect1 #hbb4 ,appendix to ,part ,,iii41 #hbf4 ,,part ,,iv4--,notes of ,excursions1 in ,illustration of the ,mode of ,investigating ,geological ,phenomena1 and of ,collecting ,organic ,remains1 #hbg4 ,chapter ,,xx4--,general ,instructions for the ,collection of ,specimens of ,rocks and ,fossils1 #hca4 ,chapter ,,xxi4--,excursions illustrative of the ,geological ,character and ,organic ,remains of the ,tertiary ,deposits of the ,london ,basin1 #hcg4 ,excursion to the ,isle of ,sheppey1 #hch4 ,excursion to ,bracklesham ,bay1 #hdd4 ,notes for an ,excursion to examine the ,tertiary ,strata of the ,isle of ,wight1 #hdg4 ,chapter ,,xxii4--,notes for a ,geological ,excursion from ,london to ,brighton1 #hdi4 ,a ,stroll from ,brighton to ,rottingdean1 #heb4 ,chapter ,,xxiii4--,geological ,notes of various ,places on the ,line of the ,great ,western ,railway2 illustrative of the ,oolite1 ,lias1 c4 from ,london to ,clifton1 #hei4 ,farringdon1 #hei4 ,swindon1 #hfb4 ,caine and ,chippenham1 #hfc4 ,bath and ,bristol1 #hfd4 ,clifton1 #hfd4 ,chapter ,,xxiv4--,excursion to ,matlock and its ,vicinity1 #hfg4 ,geological ,position of ,matlock ,dale1 #hga4 ,a ,walk to the ,incrusting ,springs1 #hgb4 ,visit to the ,cavern of the ,high ,tor1 #hge4 ,geological ,formations of ,derbyshire1 #hgh4 ,excursion to ,crich ,hill1 #hhj4 ,notes for a ,geological ,excursion by ,bonsal ,valley1 and ,wirksworth1 to ,middleton ,moor and ,stonnis1 #hid4 ,chapter ,,xxv4--,notes for a ,geological ,excursion to ,charnwood ,forest2 by ,leicester1 ,mount ,sorel1 ,swithland and ,woodhouse1 and ,bardon ,hill to ,whitwick1 #hih4 ,list of ,dealers in ,fossils and ,minerals1 c4 #ijd4 ,general ,index1 #iji4 ,,the ,,medals ,,of ,,creation4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,fossil ,,cephalopoda2 ,,comprising ,,the ,,belemnitid1 ,,nautilid1 ,,and ,,ammonitid4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #adj4 ,fossil ,sepia or ,cuttle-,fish3 #a_/c nat4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 ,solenhofen4 7,kelno#cih speciosa4 ,count ,mnster47 ,the impression of the body1 head1 and arms1 with their clasps4 #cih ,kelno 7one of the ,furies7 ,acanthoteuthis 7,wagner72 probably identical with ,belemnoteuthis1 which also has ten sub-equal arms4--,mr4 ,woodward4 ,the molluscous animals named ,cephalopoda 7from their organs of prehension being arranged around the upper part of the body7 are the most ancient1 numerous1 and interesting of this division of animated nature2 and their fossil remains comprehend the most varied and striking forms of extinct beings that occur in the sedimentary strata1 from the earliest ,secondary to the latest ,tertiary formations4 ,the living species are but a feeble representation of the countless myriads which swarmed in the ancient seas2 yet they afford important assistance in developing the characters of the numerous extinct genera1 whose relics abound in the strata1 and will continually be presented to the observation of the collector4 ,it is therefore necessary to enter somewhat in detail on the structure of these beings1 that the student may obtain a correct idea of the nature of the curious fossils to which the mineralized remains of the durable parts of these animals have given rise1 and whose origin has but lately been correctly ascertained4 ,the body of these mollusca is either enclosed in a shell1 as in the ,nautilus1 or contains a calcareous or cartilaginous part1 as in the ,sepia1 or cuttle-fish2 they have a distinct head1 and eyes as perfect as in the vertebrate animals2 complicated organs of hearing2 and a powerful manducatory apparatus1 surrounded by arms serving for prehension4 ,they have below the head a tube which acts as a locomotive instrument to propel the animal backwards1 by the forcible ejection of the water that has served the purposes of respiration1 and which can be thrown out with considerable force by the contraction of the body4 ,the figures #a and #f1 ,lign4 #adb1 are views of a naked 7that is1 shell-less7 cephalopod1 showing the arms1 eyes1 and a pair of fins1 for swimming4 ,the ,cephalopoda1 thus endowed with powerful organs of locomotion1 traverse the seas unrestricted1 and are seen in groups of myriads in the midst of the ocean1 and only appear periodically near the shores4 ,their fossil remains consist of-- #ast4 ,the external shells2 which are generally symmetrical1 and either straight 7as in ,orthoceras1 ,lign4 #aee72 arched or bent 7as in ,crioceras1 ,lign4 #afj72 spiral 7as in ,turrilites1 ,lign4 #afc72 or involute1#cii and simple 7as in the ,argonaut71 or divided1 by smooth or foliaceous partitions1 into chambers or air-cells1 connected by a hydraulic tube or siphuncle 7as in ,nautilus1 ,lign4 #adi and #aej1 and ,ammonites1 ,lign4 #aef and #aeg74 #cii ,involute1 as applied to the shells of ,cephalopoda1 implies that the inner whorls are embraced by the outer turn or whorl2 convolute1 the inner turns apparent1 or exposed2 evolute1 the whorls coiled in one plane1 but not touching each other2 revolute1 the extremities bent inwards4 #b;dly4 ,the internal horny or calcareous support1 called osselet1 and its appendages4#djj 7,lign4 #adc47 #djj ,the bone or shell of the ,cuttle-fish1 the friable part of which1 reduced to powder1 forms pounce1 is the osselet of that cephalopod4 #c;dly4 ,the ink-bladder1 with its inspissated contents1 termed sepia4 #dthly4 ,the mandibles of the mouth1 or beaks1 called ,rhyncholites4 7,lign4 #aej1 fig4 #a47 #ethly4 ,the soft parts of the animal in the state of molluskite2 impressions of the head and tentacula1 and remains of the clasps or curved hooks of the arms of some species 7see ,lign4 #adj and #ade74 ,these several parts are generally found separate1 but they sometimes occur in their proper relative position1 and from such examples the nature of the original may be determined4 ,the ,cephalopoda#dja are divided into two orders1 according to the number of their organs of respiration1 or gills2 namely1 the ,dibranchiata1 or those which have two gills1 7called also ,acetabulifera1 from their arms being furnished with rows of little cups or suckers27 and the ,tetrabranchiata1 which have four gills1 or branchi1 and very numerous arms without suckers4 #dja ,the best systematic account of the ,cephalopoda and ,gasteropoda1 both recent and fossil1 yet published1 is contained in the first part of the very valuable ,manual of ,mollusca1 by ,mr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward1 of the ,british ,museum4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,cephalopoda ,,fossil ,,dibranchiate ,,cephalopoda4 ,the ,argonaut1 or ,paper ,nautilus1 whose elegant fragile shell is too well known to require description1 is the only living genus of this ,order1 in which the animal is protected by a hard calcareous external covering4 ,this shell is symmetrical1 and convoluted on a vertical plane1 and consists of but one cavity or chamber4 ,the other genera are naked1 and possess an internal chambered shell 7as in the recent ,spirula71 or some modification of such an apparatus4 ,the last chamber or cell of these enclosed shells is too small to admit any part of the body of the animal2 a character by which the fossil species of this ,order may be distinguished from those of the other order4 ,others have a horny or calcareous osselet1 as the bone of the ,cuttle-fish1 and pen of the ,calamary or ,sea-pen 7see ,bd4 pl4 #bh72 and in an appendage of this kind a conical chambered shell is contained in many of the fossil genera1 hereafter to be noticed4 ,these animals have eight arms1 with the addition in some genera of two long tentacula1 which are furnished with rows of suctorial disks or cups1 called acetabula 7see ,lign4 #adb1 figs4 #a1 #f74 ,these naked ,cephalopoda1 devoid of any external defence1 possess a very extraordinary means of escape from their enemies4 ,they are furnished with a bag or bladder1 containing a dark fluid resembling ink in appearance1 which they have the power of ejecting into the surrounding water upon the approach of danger2 and by the obscurity t us induced1 they foil the pursuit of their adversaries3 the ,nautilus and other cephalopods1 protected by a large external shell1 are destitute of such an apparatus4 ,the deep brown colour1 sepia1 was formerly prepared from the fluid of the ink-bags of different species of ,cuttle-fish2 a similar substance secreted by extinct naked ,cephalopoda1 as we shall presently demonstrate1 is found in a fossil state4 ,these preliminary remarks on the organization of the recent animals will prepare us for the investigation of the extinct species4 ,we will first notice those remarkable fossils1 called ,belemnites1 or thunder-stones4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ada4 ,belemnites3 #a_/b nat4 ,chalk and ,oolite4 ,fig4 #a4--;,belemnitella mucronata4 ,chalk4 ,brighton4 ,on the right of the figure is a view of the aperture1 and a transverse section4 #b4--,portion of a ,belemnite1 containing the internal conical chambered shell1 called phragmocone4 ,oolite4 #c4--;,belemnitella quadrata4 ,beauvais1 ,france4 ,the quadrangular cavity is shown in the upper figure on the left4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 #d4--;,belemnites dilatatus4 ,lower ,greensand 7,nocomien74 ,france4 ,sidenote3 ,,belemnites ,belemnite 7from a supposed resemblance to the head of a dart or javelin74 ,lign4 #ada to #add4 ,among the innumerable relics of an earlier world1 which swarm in the sedimentary deposits1 there are perhaps no fossil bodies that have excited more curiosity1 and given rise to so many fruitless conjectures as to their nature and origin1 as the ,belemnites4#djb ,these are long1 cylindrical1 or fusiform fossils1 more or less pointed at one extremity1 and having at the other and larger end a conical cavity1 which is either occupied by a chambered shell1 or filled up with the material in which the fossils are imbedded4 ,their substance is like fibrous calcareous spar1 varying in colour from a dark brown to a light amber2 many are transparent1 others nearly opaque4 ,when broken transversely they present a radiated structure 7,lign4 #ada1 fig4 #a7 and a minute central cavity1 or axis1 is seen to extend through the whole length of the solid portion of the stone 7see ,lign4 #adb1 fig4 #e474 ,a longitudinal section 7,lign4 #adb1 figs4 #d and #e7 shows the conical cavity in the upper part1 and that the shaft consists of a series of concentric layers4 ,such are the characters of these fossils in the examples of most frequent occurrence4 #djb ,see ,park4 ,org4 ,rem4 vol4 iii4 p4 #abb4 ,the ,belemnites vary in size from the small1 delicate1 transparent species1 ,lign4 #adb1 figs4 #c and #d1 to massy opaque specimens1 several inches in circumference1 and from ten to twenty inches in length4 ,they present also considerable variety of form2 some are regularly cylindrical1 as in ,lign4 #ada fig4 #a2 others broad and flattened1 as in fig4 #d2 or subfusiform1 as in ,lign4 #adb1 figs4 #c and #d4 ,the small end is slender and pointed in some belemnites1 and in others is obtuse1 or rounded1 with a projecting point4 ,in many there is a longitudinal groove or furrow on the ventral aspect2 and some species have a furrow on each side1 as in that represented in ,lign4 #adb1 fig4 #b4 ,but the fossils above described are only a part of the original structure of the ,belemnite4 ,when in a perfect state1 the cavity seen in ,lign4 #adb1 fig4 #e1 is occupied by a chambered conical shell1 called the phragmocone1 composed of a series of shallow concave cells1 of a nacreous or pearly substance1 which are pierced by a siphuncle at the margin2 see ,lign4 #ada1 fig4 #b4 ,the parts of the ,belemnite at present known consist of-- #ast4 ,the spathose osselet1 or guard1 having at the larger end a conical cavity1 called the alveolus1 as in ,lign4 #ada1 fig4 #a1 and ,lign4 #adb1 fig4 #e4 #b;dly4 ,a conical1 chambered pearly shell1 termed the phragmocone1 which is situated in the alveolus 7as in ,lign4 #ada1 fig4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #adb4 ,belemnites3 #a_/b nat4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a front view of the supposed animal of the ,belemnite1 by ,m4 ,d',orbigny4 b4 denotes the osselet1 to the base of which the ,belemnite1 a1 is attached4 #b4--;,belemnites bipartitus2 the figure below shows the form of the aperture4 ,neocomian ,formation4 ,france4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 #c4--;,belemnites ,listeri 7,g4 ,a4 ,m472 from the ,galt4 ,ringmer4 #d4--;,a longitudinal section of ,b4 ,listeri4 #e4--;,belemnites semicaniliculatus3 a longitudinal section2 the figure below is the aperture of the alveolus4 ,from the ,firestone 7,craie tufeau7 of ,france4 #f4--;,a side view of fig4 #a4 #c;dly4 ,the horny prolongation of the capsule 7the outer investment of the guard71 called the receptacle1 as in ,lign4 #adc4 #dthly4 ,the ink-bag1 and its inspissated fluid1 sepia2 7,bd4 pl4 #dd1 figs4 #g1 #i47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #adc4 ,the structure of the sherry parts of the ,belemnites ,puzosianus4 ,oxford ,clay4 ,christian ,malford4 7#a_/d nat4 size47 a1 a4 ,the dorsal basilar processes of the phragmocone4 b1 b4 ,upward extension of the attenuated osselet4 c4 ,siphunculus4 d4 ,phragmocone3 the transverse lines indicate the septa4 e4 ,the capsule or outer investment of the guard4 f4 ,the distal part of the phragmocone4 g4 ,the alveolus or cavity in the guard4 h4 ,vertical section of the guard4 i4 ,the solid part of the rostrum or guard4 k4 ,the sulcus or groove on the ventral aspect of the rostrum4 l4 ,shows the continuation of the capsule1 in section1 continued from e4 m4 ,diverging parallel stri observable between the dorsal processes of the phragmocone4 n4 ,transverse section of half the diameter of the radiated structure4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #add4 ,very perfect specimen of ,belemnites ,puzosianus4 ,oxford ,clay4 ,christian ,malford1 ,wilts4 7#a_/f nat4 size47 a1 a4 ,basal processes of the phragmocone4 b4 ,the phragmocone4 c4 ,the rostrum or guard of the osselet1 containing the apex of the phragmocone in its upper part4 ,the invariably radiated crystalline structure of the ,belemnite has evidently resulted from the peculiar organization of the original osselet1 which is formed of thin concentric lamin1 of very minute prismatic trihedral fibres1 arranged at right angles to the planes of the successive layers4#djc #djc ,the ,belemnitic shell presents the same arrangement of its constituent layers as the ,pearl-mussel1 ,pinna1 and other ,aviculid1 viz4 the outer layer is prismatic-cellular1 the inner nacreous3 the first is formed by the free margin of the mantle1 the second by the visceral 7peritoneal7 part of the mantle4--,mr4 ,woodward4 ,from the obvious analogy of the structure above demonstrated with that of the recent dibranchiate ,cephalopoda1 several eminent naturalists inferred that the animal of the ,belemnite was closely related to the existing types2 and the late ,mr4 ,miller1 in a communication to the ,geological ,society of ,london1 gave a restored figure of the original1 which1 as modified by ,m4 ,d',orbigny1 is represented ,lign4 #adb1 figs4 #a and #f4 ,the indefatigable and successful researches of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,buckland have confirmed the general correctness of this restoration4 ,in the ,lias of ,dorsetshire two specimens of the ,belemnite1 with its chambered shell and horny or pearly receptacle1 still retaining the ink-bag and its contents1 have been discovered1 and were figured in the ,br4 ,treatise 7,bd4 pl4 #dd1 #dd74 ,a third specimen1 showing the ink-bag1 is in the ,british ,museum4 ,the ink-bag of the ,belemnite is very small1 as might be expected1 from the extent to which it is protected by a chambered shell4 ,the mandibles or beaks of the ,belemnite are supposed to have been horny1 as in the other naked ,cephalopoda2 since no calcareous beaks have been found associated with their remains4 ,the ,belemnite having the advantage of its dense1 but well-balanced internal shell1 must have exercised the power of swimming backwards and forwards1 which it possessed in common with the modern decapod 7ten-armed7 ,dibranchiata1 with great vigour and precision4 ,its position was probably more commonly vertical than in its recent congeners4 ,it would rise swiftly and stealthily to infix its claws in the belly of a supernatant fish1 and then perhaps as swiftly dart down1 and drag its prey to the bottom and devour it4 ,we cannot doubt at least but that1 like the hooked ,calamaries of the present seas1 the ancient ,belemnites were the most formidable and predacious of their class4--,owen4 ,the ,belemnites of the oolitic limestones frequently contain the phragmocone1 either filled with calcareous spar1 or with its cells empty4 ,in the clays the horny sheath or receptacle is sometimes found pressed flat and extending above the alveolus of the osselet1 and has often a thin coat of nacre of a pearly lustre1 but it is more commonly detached4 ,the ,belemnites abound in the ,lias1 ,oolite1 and ,chalk1 and have not been discovered in any other deposits2 there are nearly thirty ,british species1 some of which are restricted to the ,chalk1 and others to the ,oolite and ,lias4 ,a few characteristic forms are represented1 ,lign4 #ada and #adb1 in order to illustrate the three groups which1 according to ,m4 ,d',orbigny1 are peculiar to the grand divisions of the ,cretaceous formation4 #a4 ,belemnitella mucronata4 ,lign4 #ada1 fig4 #a4--,the name ,belemnitella is given to those ,belemnites which have a slit1 or crevice1 on the anterior margin of the alveolus or cavity1 and two lateral impressions4 ,the surface is sometimes granulated1 and often has vascular markings1 produced by the investing integument of the living animal4 ,the form of the aperture is shown in the middle dextral figure2 and the radiated structure1 as seen by a transverse section1 in the sketch4 ,this species is abundant in the ,white ,chalk1 particularly in certain localities in ,norfolk and ,devonshire4 ,it is more frequent in the chalk of ,kent than in that of ,sussex2 and in the cretaceous strata around ,brighton1 than in those near ,lewes4 ,i have never been able to detect the least vestige of the phragmocone1 or chambered shell1 in the alveolus4 ,this ,belemnite is occasionally imbedded in flint nodules2 and such examples possess the calcareous crystalline structure of the chalk and limestone specimens4 ,in the chalk of ,ireland1 the ,belemnites which have been corroded1 or perforated by marine borers 7cliona71 are often injected with flint2 and if the calcareous substance be removed by immersion in dilute hydrochloric acid1 exquisite siliceous casts may be obtained 7see also page #djc74 ,it is not unusual to find flints with a cavity1 occasioned by the solution and removal of the calcareous guard1 and having a siliceous conical cast of the alveolus1 occupying the upper part of the interspace4 ,the reader will recollect that the pulley-stones of the ,derbyshire ,encrinites were produced by a similar process 7see p4 #bhe1 vol4 i474 ,the ,american cretaceous sands abound in a species of ,belemnitella1 nearly related to ,b4 mucronata4 #b4 ,belemnites ,listeri4 ,lign4 #adb1 fig4 #c4--,this small elegant ,belemnite has two lateral grooves1 and is generally as transparent as amber2 it has frequently a nacreous or calcareous pellicle partially investing the guard4 ,it seldom exceeds two inches in length4 ,it is abundant in1 and peculiar to1 the ,galt1 or blue marl of the ,chalk1 and is constantly associated with the ,inocerami1 previously described as common at ,folkstone1 ,bletchingley1 ,ringmer1 and other localities of that deposit4 ,the ,red ,chalk of ,norfolk contains the same species 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #ehi74 #c4 ,belemnites dilatatus4 ,lign4 #ada1 fig4 #d4--,this species is distinguished by its flattened form1 and by the longitudinal furrow being situated on the margin opposite to the siphuncle of the phragmocone1 instead of being on the same side1 as is most usual4 ,it is supposed by ,m4 ,d',orbigny to be characteristic of the ,neocomian beds1 or lowermost division of the ,shanklin ,sand4 #d4 ,the ,chalk-marl contains a ,belemnite of a more elongated form than those above described1 the apex gradually tapering to a point1 with a slight double furrow on each side4 ,it is named ,b4 lanceolatus 7,sow4 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #fjj1 figs4 #h1 #i71 and is very common in the marl-pits at ,steyning1 ,clayton1 and ,hamsey1 in ,sussex4 ,at the base of ,golden ,cap ,hill1 near ,charmouth1 there are two strata of marl-stone observable on the shore1 which are literally paved with ,belemnites4 ,great numbers of these fossils have ,serpul and other extraneous shells attached to them1 a proof that the ink-bags and other soft parts of the mollusks had decomposed1 and that the guards had lain uncovered at the bottom of the sea4 ,m4 ,de ,koninck has discovered in the ,devonian limestone of ,belgium1 at ,couvin and ,vis1 a small fossil body which closely resembles in form and structure the rostrum or guard of a belemnite2 it is1 however1 too fragmentary to admit of positive detemination4#djd #djd ,bulletin del',acadmie ,roy ale de ,bruxelles1 tome x4 ,no4 #c4 p4 #bjg4 ,sidenote3 ,,belemnoteuthis ,belemnoteuthis#dje 7,j4 ,c4 ,pearce74 ,lign4 #ade4--,within the last few years much additional knowledge has been obtained regarding the nature of the extinct ,cephalopoda1 by the discovery in the ,oxford clay1 at ,christian ,malford1 not only of several examples with the receptacle and ink-bag in their natural relative positions1 but also with the remains and impressions of the mantle1 body1 tentacula with their hooks1 and the fins6 #dje ,for the history of this interesting ,cephalopod consult ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdh1 and #ahej2 ,ann4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,june #ahej2 ,petrif4 p4 #dei1 c4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ade4 ,belemnoteuthis antiquus4 7,pearce47 ,oxford ,clay4 ,christian ,malford4 7#a_/b nat4 size47 a4 ,the uncinated arms and tentacles4 b4 ,remains of the head and eyes4 c4 ,the mantle1 with indications of fins4 d4 ,the pigmental sac or ink-bag4 e4 ,the osselet3 the transverse lines indicate the septa of the phragmocone1 which is covered by a horny sheath or capsule4 f4 ,the solid terminal apex of the osselet4 ,sidenote3 ,,belemnoteuthis ,,antiquus ,certain argillaceous strata of the ,oolite1 as well as of the ,lias1 appear to have been peculiarly favourable for the preservation of the muscular tissue and integuments1 and in many specimens of ,belemnoteuthis1 the arms1 the large sessile eyes1 the funnel1 a great proportion of the muscular parts of the mantle1 remains of the two lateral fins1 the ink-bladder and duct1 and the phragmocone1 are well displayed1 as in the beautiful example1 ,lign4 #ade1 for the drawing of which ,i am indebted to ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward1 ,esq41 of the ,british ,museum4 7,see also ,lond4 ,geol4 ,journ4 pl4 xv4 and xvi47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #adf4 ,horny rings and hooks of ,belemnoteuthis antiquus4 ,fig4 #a1 #c4--;,detached hooks 7natural size74 #b4--,three hooks with attached horny rings3 from a specimen in the possession of ,mr4 ,cunnington4 #d4--,part of one of the arms1 showing four hooked spines4 #e4--,transverse section of the distal part of the osselet of ,belemnoteuthis1 exposing the apex of the chambered shell in the centre1 surrounded by the radiated osselet1 a 7magnified four diameters74 ,from the extraordinarily perfect condition of the ,belemnoteuthis here figured1 which of itself exemplifies the essential parts of its structure1 a brief description will suffice4 ,the body is of an elongated form1 with a pair of lateral fins1 two large sessile eyes1 eight uncinated arms1 and a pair of armed tentacles2 each arm was furnished with from twenty to forty pairs of hooks1 placed alternately4 ,like the ,sepia it had a pigmental sac or ink-bag1 which is generally found filled with the inspissated secretion4 ,the inferior part of the body is of a conical form1 and contains a brown horny osselet1 with a siphunculated phragmocone1 that terminates in a guard or rostrum of a fibrous structure4 ,in the recent genus ,onychoteuthis1 the tentacles alone are armed with claws2 ,enoploteuthis has claws both on the arms and on the tentacles1 but the latter are long and feeble1 and the hooks are confined to their extremities4 ,the extinct ,belemnoteuthis 7like the ,acanthoteuthis of ,solenhofen1 ,lign4 #adj7 had eight nearly equal arms1 the dorsal pair being rather smaller than the rest2 each arm was furnished with twenty to forty pairs of hooks1 forming a double1 alternating row4 ,the tentacles were not longer than the arms1 and like them had a double series of hooks extending from their bases to the points4 ,in all essential points of structure1 the ,belemnoteuthis is most nearly related to the ,calamaries 7,teuthid71 but1 in consequence of the prolongation of its pointed shell posteriorly1 the fins become lateral 7as in ,sepiola and ,sepia71 instead of terminal4 ,whilst the complicated 7chambered7 structure of its shell1 and the peculiar character of the tentacles1 show that it must be regarded as a type distinct from and equal in importance to the ,calamaries4 ,it cannot be doubted that the ,belemnite and ,conoteuthis present similar conditions of the soft parts2 and the four genera will form the ,family ,belemnitid4 ,the normal position of these animals in the sea is horizontal1 whilst that of the ,nautiloid genera must have been vertical1 with the head downwards4--,mr4 ,woodward4 ,the fossils which have afforded this unexpected and highly interesting illustration of the nature of the extinct animals of this ,order have been obtained by closely examining the shales in which they abound1 and1 before removing the solid osselet1 carefully searching the surrounding stone for traces of the more perishable parts4 ,the attention of the collector can scarcely be too often directed to the necessity of examining the surrounding matrix before extricating a fossil from its bed4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #adg4 ,osselets of extinct dibranchiate ,cephalopoda4 7,woodward1 ,manual1 p4 #gf1 pl4 #a #b47 ,fig4 #a4--;,belosepia sepioides2 #a_/b nat4 ,eocene4 ,bracklesham4 #b4--,spirulirostra ,bellardii2 #b_/c nat4 ,miocene4 ,turin4 #c4--;,beloteuthis subcostata2 #a_/d nat4 ,lias4 ,wirtemberg4 #d4--;,beloptera belemnitoides2 #b_/c nat4 ,eocene4 ,bracklesham4 ,sidenote3 ,,beloptera ,beloptera4 7,bd4 pl4 xliv4 fig4 #ae4 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #eia47--,under this name ,mr4 ,sowerby figures and describes a very curious fossil1 from the ,london ,clay at ,highgate1 which seems to hold an intermediate place between the ,cuttle-fish and the ,spirulirostra4 ,the guard1 which is of an oblong form1 with an obtuse apex1 has the structure of the osselet of the ,sepia1 and contains in its upper part a phragmocone1 the cells of which are very narrow4 ,in strata of the same age1 in ,france1 three species have been discovered by ,m4 ,deshayes4 ,i allude to these shells1 that the attention of the collector may be directed to the search after other examples in our tertiary deposits4 ,fossil ,calamary1 or ,squid4 ,geoteuthis4#djf 7,bd4 pl4 xxviii4 xxix47--,the common ,calamary 7,loligo vulgaris7 is so often seen on our shores1 that its general aspect must be familiar to all who frequent the sea-side4 ,in this animal1 the osselet1 or internal support1 is a cartilaginous elongated body1 which1 from its form1 is called ,sea-pen 7,bd4 pl4 xxviii472 and even this delicate structure is found in a fossil state4 ,in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1 ,miss ,mary ,aiming first discovered specimens of ,sea-pens in juxtaposition with the ink-bag1 as in the recent ,calamary2 and subsequently many similar examples have been found1 both in ,england and on the ,continent4 ,dr4 ,buckland has given some exquisite figures of these fossils2 and his collection contains a matchless series of these most interesting organic remains4 ,in some specimens the ink-bag and its tube or duct1 but little compressed1 are occasionally met with1 having a brilliant nacreous pellicle1 the remains of the sheath1 attached to the surface4 ,the ink-bag is sometimes of considerable magnitude2 specimens have been found at ,lyme ,regis nearly a foot in length4#djg ,the circumstance of the ink-bags being generally full of sepia admits of the inference 7as ,dr4 ,buckland with his wonted acumen remarks71 that these individuals died suddenly2 for their living analogues reject the inky fluid upon the least approach of danger4 ,the perfect condition of the bag proves also their instantaneous enclosure in the deposit1 for the distended membrane would otherwise have burst from decomposition1 and the contents would have escaped4 ,the fossil marine reptiles1 the ,ichthyosauri1 c41 with which these fossils are associated1 present similar phenomena1 as we shall hereafter have occasion to remark1 and strengthen the probability1 that swarms of the inhabitants of the ,liassic ocean were suddenly destroyed1 and imbedded1 on the area now occupied by their remains4 #djf ,geoteuthis has hooks on its arms2 hut1 being a ,calamary 7,teuthid71 it would probably have unequal arms4--,mr4 ,woodward4 #djg ,the large ink-bags figured by ,dr4 ,buckland 7,br4 ,tr4 vol4 i4 pp4 #cgb-cgi1 pl4 xliv47 belonged to the great ,geoteuthis ,bollensis1 of ,schuble4--,mr4 ,woodward4 ,in the cream-coloured limestone1 of ,solenhofen1 so rich in organic remains of the highest interest 7,wond4 p4 #egh71 the soft parts of naked ,cephalopoda have also been discovered4 ,i have figured1 ,lign4 #adj1 a beautiful specimen obtained by the late ,count ,mnster1 which exhibits an imprint of the body1 the arms and tentacles being represented by ten double rows of horny hooks1 which precisely resemble those of ,belemnoteuthis4 ,m4 ,d',orbigny supposes that the original animal closely resembled a recent decapod called ,enoploteuthis leptura4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #adh4 ,fossil ,shells related to the ,argonaut4#djh ,fig4 #a4--;,bellerophon costatus4 ,mt4 ,limestone4 ,yorkshire4 #b4--;,bellerophon bilobatus4 ,sil4 ,syst4 #djh ,some naturalists consider the ,bellerophon to be allied to the ,carinaria 7,heteropod74 ,bellerophon4--,it has been already stated1 that the animals of one genus of the existing dibranchiate ,cephalopoda are protected by a thin1 flexible1 symmetrical1 keeled shell1 convoluted on a vertical plane1 and having but one chamber--this is the ,argonaut1 or ,paper ,nautilus1 an inhabitant of the ,mediterranean4 ,this animal belongs to the ,octopoda1 or those which have eight arms2 and in one pair of these processes the extremities expand into broad and thin membranes1 by which the delicate1 elastic1 calcareous envelopement1 or shell1 is secreted4 ,there membranes usually encompass the shell1 and meet and overlap each other along its keel2 and by them chiefly the shell is retained in its position4 ,when these membranes are withdrawn1 or the animal dies1 the shell1 having no muscular connexion with the soft parts1 readily separates from the body4 ,hence the doubts so long entertained as to the relation between the animal of the ,argonaut and its shell1 but which are now set at rest2 the observations on the living animal by ,madame ,tower1 and the anatomical demonstrations by ,m4 ,sander ,rang1 having removed the obscurity in which the subject was formerly involved4 ,in the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous deposits there are several species of a genus of shells1 the animals of which are by some considered to have been analogous to the recent ,argonaut4 ,it is named ,bellerophon4 ,i have figured two species2 one from the ,mountain ,limestone1 ,lign4 #adh1 fig4 #a2 the other from the ,silurian ,system4 ,there are about thirty ,british species1 most of which are of small size2 some of them are keeled1 others have a slight dorsal depression1 as in fig4 #a4 and many have the back rounded1 and the sides lobed1 as in ,lign4 #adh1 fig4 #b 4 ,,fossil ,,tetrabranchiate ,,cephalopoda4 ,i am not aware of the existence of any ,british fossils analogous to ,spirula 7dibranchiate72 for the minute fossil polythalamia1 formerly referred to this class1 are now known to have belonged to animals possessing an organization altogether different1 as we have already explained 7see p4 #cfi74 ,i therefore proceed to notice the fossil remains of those ,cephalopoda which were furnished with an external shell having its cavity divided by cells1 which are perforated by a hydraulic tube or siphuncle2 and of which group the recent ,nautilus is the type4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #adi4 ,nautilus pompilius in its shell4 a4 ,the animal1 occupying the last or body chamber of the shell4 b4 ,the shell cut vertically through the middle1 and showing the air-chambers and the siphuncle4 ,the appearance and structure of the recent shell are familiar to every one2 a correct knowledge of the nature of the original animal has1 however1 been obtained but very recently4 ,in its general characters the animal of the ,nautilus1 which is an inhabitant of the seas of hot climates1 resembles the naked ,cephalopoda2 it possesses four branchi1 or gills1 and numerous hollow arms and retractile tentacula4 ,its head is furnished with a muscular flattened disk1 which serves as an operculum to the shell when the animal is retracted4 ,the beaks are horny1 and coated at their tips by calcareous matter4 ,it has no ink-bag1 and is destitute of fins or other organs for swimming4 ,the body occupies the ample outer cell of the shell1 to which it is firmly attached by two lateral muscles2 and it has a siphuncle1 that passes from the posterior part of the animal through the shelly tube1 and by which communication is maintained with the entire series of cells or chambers4 ,the siphuncle is provided with a small artery and vein1 and traverses the entire series of chambers1 thus maintaining the vitality of the shell4 ,mr4 ,edwards considers that it may be looked upon as an elongated ccum1 and that it is not under any circumstances used by the animal as a hydrostatic balance4#dji #dji ,the reader interested in this subject should consult the ,memoirs by ,m4 ,valenciennes1 ,mem4 de l',inst42 ,m4 ,vander ,hoven1 in the ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society2 ,prof4 ,owen's ,memoir on the ,pearly ,nautilus1 ,mr4 ,gray's paper in the ,an4 ,nat4 ,hist41 ,mr4 ,edward's ,monograph in the ,palont4 ,soc41 and ,mr4 ,woodward's ,manual4 ,upon making a vertical section of the shell1 the inner volutions are exposed1 and the cavity is seen divided at regular intervals into cells1 by smooth1 concave1 nacreous septa2 these vary in number according to the age of the individual2 there are about thirty-five in an adult specimen4 ,the partitions are pierced in the centre by a shelly tube1 which traverses each cell to within a short distance of the next partition2 and this tube is rendered a continuous channel in the living animal1 by the membranous siphuncle4 ,this series of air-chambers constitutes an apparatus which renders the ,nautilus nearly of the same specific gravity as the surrounding water1 and enables it to rise to the surface of the sea1 or sink to the bottom1 by a very small amount of muscular exertion4 ,the ,nautilus swims1 like the ,cuttle-fish1 by expelling the water from its respiratory chamber2 the walls of which are very thick and powerful muscles4 ,from this very general description of the only living representative of the numerous genera of tetrabranchiate ,cephalopoda1 which swarmed in such prodigious numbers in the ancient seas1 we may pass to the consideration of the fossil ,nautili1 and their related congeners4 ,our remarks must be limited to the genera that will serve to demonstrate the most important modifications of structure1 and explain the nature of the fossil remains of this extensive class of extinct beings4 ,the genera into which these shells are distributed are founded upon the mode in which the shell is coiled1 its form1 the character of the partitions or septa1 and the situation of the siphuncle4 ,a little reflection will enable the student to understand the principles of this classification4 ,the essential character of all the shells of this class1 is to have an external chamber larger than the inner chambers1 and which contains the body of the animal2 to be divided internally into different compartments1 by partitions 7concavo-convex1 with the concavity outwards72 and to have a pipe or tube extending from the outer open chamber to the innermost cell4 ,they are divided into three groups or families4 #a4 ,the ,nautilid 7,bd4 pl4 xxxi473 in these the septa are smooth1 or but slightly undulated1 and the siphuncle either traverses the centre of the cell-partitions1 or is situated towards the inner margin or turn of the spire4 #b4 ,the ,orthoceratid 7,lign4 #aee73 in these the siphuncle is complicated in its structure2 it is central or lateral2 the septa are smooth4 7,woodward's ,man4 ,moll4 p4 #hg47 #c4 ,the ,ammonitid 7,bd4 pl4 xxxv-xlii473 in these the septa are more or less waved1 and their margins foliated or crenated1 that is1 indented2 and the siphuncle is situated at or near the outer margin4 ,in the ,nautilus1 the shell is convoluted on the same plane1 in spiral whorls1 all of which are contiguous1 and the siphuncle is central4 ,the ,british strata contain about sixty species of ,nautili4 ,the ,tertiary formations have yielded five or six2 the ,cretaceous a like number2 the ,lias and ,oolite ten or eleven2 the ,carboniferous about thirty species2 and the ,devonian two species4 ,in the ,london ,clay a large and beautiful species is abundant 7,nautilus imperialis4 ,min4 ,conch4 tab4 i471 having the shell very commonly entire2 but the outer opaque coat frequently flakes off1 and exposes the pearly or nacreous internal layer4 ,the septa generally retain their original nacreous structure1 and the cells are either occupied by clay or marl1 or are partially filled or lined with calcareous spar1 brilliant pyrites1 or other mineral matter4 ,these ,nautili are often found constituting the nuclei of the septaria1 or clay nodules1 with which this deposit abounds4#daj ,the small species1 ,n4 centralis 7,ly4 fig4 #agi71 and ,nautilus 7,aturia7 ziczac 7,wond4 p4 #bdg71 occur in the same strata4 ,the ,london ,clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey and of the coasts of ,hants and ,sussex is productive of these fossils4 #daj ,three other well-marked species are figured and described by ,mr4 ,edwards 7,monog4 ,pal4 ,soc47 from the ,english eocene strata3 viz4 ,n4 ,sowerbyi1 ,n4 urbanus1 and ,n4 regalis4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aej4 ,fossil ,nautili4 ,chalk marl4 ,fig4 #a4--;,beak of a ,nautilus1 7,rhyncolite47 ,back view4 #a;a4--,anterior view of the same4 #a;b4--,profile of the same4 #b4--,vertical section of ,nautilus pseudo-elegans4 ,hamsey4 a4 ,the siphuncle4 #c4--;,front view of ,n4 ,deslongchampsii4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 ,hamsey4 #c;a4--,lateral view of the same4 ,in the ,white ,chalk near ,lewes1 casts of several very large ,nautili have been found2 but shells of this genus are more abundant in the lower division1 the ,chalk-marl4 ,a large and beautiful species1 ,nautilus elegans 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #aaf71 is not unusual in the marl-pits near ,lewes1 ,clayton1 ,steyning1 c4 and may be considered as characteristic of that portion of the ,cretaceous deposits4 ,the first specimen discovered 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xx7 was from the marl-bank immediately at the foot of the mound on which stands the church of ,hamsey1 a little hamlet on the north of ,lewes2 a spot from which ,i obtained numerous other cephalopodous shells1 at that time unknown as ,british species4 ,the collocation of fossils at ,hamsey is similar to that observable in the quarries at ,st4 ,catherine's ,mount1 near ,rouen4 ,these remains only occur as casts1 no vestige of the shell remaining2 but sections will sometimes show the situation of the siphon1 its tube being filled with a different material from that which occupies the cells4 ,this is exemplified in the section of a smaller species 7,n4 pseudo-elegans1 ,lign4 #aej1 fig4 #b71 in which the channel of the siphon is filled with a dark-coloured marl1 a2 the lines formed by the section of the smooth septa are also shown4 ,in the same lignograph1 fig4 #c1 a front view and profile of another chalk-marl ,nautilite are figured4#daa #daa ,the student will find a section of the shell of the recent ,nautilus a very instructive object of comparison1 in the investigation of the fossils of this family4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aea4 ,nautilus elegans4 ,lower ,chalk4 ,lewes4 7#a_/f nat4 size47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aeb4 ,nautilus ,saxbyi4 ,lower ,greensand4 ,in the ,chalk1 as well as in many other calcareous deposits1 the shells of the ,nautili1 ,ammonites1 c4 are very rarely preserved2 even the internal septa are often dissolved1 and the stony casts1 moulded in the cells1 remain distinct1 and readily separate 7,lign4 #aec74 ,an entire series1 from the innermost cell to the outer chamber1 may sometimes be obtained 7in the ,coralline ,oolite72 forming1 as it were1 a dissected model of the internal structure4#dab ,the beaks or mandibles are occasionally found fossil 7,lign4 #aej1 fig4 #a74 #dab ,bd4 pl4 xlii4 fig4 #a3 see also plates xxxi4 to xliii41 for illustrations of ,nautilites4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aec4 ,casts of chambers of ,nautilus and ,ammonite4 7#a_/b nat47 ,fig4 #a4--;,cast in calcareous spar of a chamber of ,nautilus4 ,from the ,london ,clay4 #b4--;,cast of a chamber of ,ammonites excavatus4 ,from the ,coral ,rag4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aed4 ,clymenia3 #a_/b nat4 ,devonian4 ,fig4 #a4--;,clymenia ,sedgwickii4 #b4--;,front view of the same4 #c4--,vertical section of ,c4 striata1 showing the siphunculus on the inner edge of each septum4 #d4--,suture of ,c4 striata4 ,clymenia 7,lign4 #aed1 ,ly4 fig4 #djf74--,this genus belongs to the ,nautilid1 and is peculiar to the ,devonian deposits4 ,it differs from the allied genera in the siphuncle being situated on the inner margin of the septa4 ,the shell is discoidal1 and the septa are very slightly lobed4 ,at ,elbersreuth1 near ,bareuth1 in the ,n4 ,e4 of ,bavaria1 the ,devonian strata abound in these shells2 thirty-five species have been found1 the greater number being peculiar to that locality4 ,in ,england they are chiefly found at ,south ,petherwin1 ,cornwall1 and in the ,devonshire marbles4 7,see ,phillip's ,pal4 ,foss4 ,devonshire47 ,sidenote3 ,,orthoceras4 ,orthoceras 7straight shell71 ,lign4 #aee4--,the shells of this genus may be described as ,nautili uncoiled and extended in a straight line4 ,they are straight1 elongated1 chambered shells1 with smooth and gently undulated septa1 which are concave towards the opening or upper part1 and have the siphuncle either central1 or not far removed from the centre4 ,the ,orthoceratites more especially belong to the ancient ,secondary strata4 ,they first appear in the ,silurian1 and abound in the ,devonian and ,carboniferous4 ,they vary in size from a few inches to several feet in length1 and eight or nine inches in diameter2 and in form1 from a slender elongated cone1 to a short1 massy1 almost spherical figure1 with a contracted orifice4 ,some examples have been noticed with upwards of sixty cells4 ,mr4 ,sowerby figures and describes ,o4 giganteum 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 #bdf71 from ,scotland1 as exceeding seven or eight feet in length2 and ,i discovered on the beach at ,brighton1 where it had probably been brought by some vessel1 among ballast1 a fine fragment of the same species1 indicating as great a magnitude4 ,several species are figured1 ,lign4 #aee1 to show the structure and appearance of these fossils4 ,the casts of the separate cells are often found4 ,the section1 fig4 #c1 from the red marble of ,devonshire1 beautifully displays the situation of the siphuncle1 and the lines of the septa4 ,the shelly siphuncle1 which is moniliform 7bead-like71 or dilated at each chamber1 is replaced by white spar2 and the membranous internal tube is filled with a dark substance1 probably molluskite4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aee4 ,orthoceratites4 ,fig4 #a4--,orthoceras striatum4 7,min4 ,conch47 ,devonian4 #b4--,orthoceras conicum4 ,whitby4 ,carboniferous4 #c4--,vertical section of an ,orthoceras1 showing the central siphon1 and the chambers4 ,devonshire4 #d4--,orthoceras laterale4 ,carb4 7,min4 ,conch47 #e4--,orthoceras gregarium4 7,munch4 ,sil4 ,syst47 a4 ,one of the septa4 b4 ,a portion covered at the upper part by the shell4 c4 ,the lower part of the same specimen1 displaying the septa4 ,there are some species in which the internal tube1 as well as the external1 is calcareous1 and the two are connected at regular intervals1 by radiating1 hollow processes4 ,these ,orthoceratites have been principally obtained from the ,silurian limestones1 at ,lake ,huron2 they also occur in ,ireland4 ,mr4 ,stokes1 who first investigated their structure1 has arranged them in a distinct genus1 with the name of ,actinoceras 7radiated-horn74#dac #dac ,see ,geol4 ,trans1 second series1 vol4 v4 p4 #gjh4 ,slabs of reddish ,devonian limestone1 containing ,orthoceratites1 may be seen in some of the pavements at ,hampton ,court1 and in ,chelsea ,college1 which when wet present excellent sections of the enclosed shells4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aef4 ,ammonites from the ,cretaceous ,formation4 ,fig4 #a--;,ammonites varians4 ,chalk-marl4 ,hamsey4 #b4--;,ammonites ,dufrenoyi4 #b;a4--,shows the keel and septum of the same4 #c4--;,ammonites lautus4 ,galt4 ,folkstone4 #c;a4--,keel and septum of the same4 ,ammonitid4--,the ,ammonites1 or ,cornua ,ammonis 7so called from a supposed resemblance to the horns engraven on the heads of ,jupiter ,ammon71 are among the most common and well-known fossils of the ,british secondary strata4 ,in some districts1 as in ,yorkshire and ,somersetshire1 where the ,ammonites abundantly prevail1 they were noticed in very remote times4 ,local legends1 ascribing their origin to swarms of snakes turned into stone by the prayers of some patron saint1 are still extant1 and are perpetuated by the name of snake-stones1 by which these fossils are provincially known4 ,the ,lias1 near ,whitby1 in ,yorkshire1 contains immense numbers of two or three species1 one of which 7,am4 bifrons7 is figured in ,lign4 #abg1 fig4 #g1 and another in ,lign4 #aeg4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aeg4 ,ammonites communis4 ,lias4 ,whitby4 ,the shells comprehended in this family are either spiral1 involute1 arched1 or straight2 their septa are deeply lobed1 and have the margins foliated4 ,the siphuncle is dorsal1 as shown by the notch in the cast1 ,lign4 #aef1 fig4 #c;a4 ,several hundred species have been described2 they are divided into genera which are characterized by essential modifications in the direction of the spire1 and the inflections of the septa4 ,thus1 in the ,ammonites1 ,lign4 #aef1 the spire is involute1 and all the turns contiguous2 in ,crioceras 7curved-horn71 ,lign4 #afj1 fig4 #b1 evolute2 in ,scaphites1 incurved at both extremities1 ,lign4 #afb2 ,hamites1 bent like a siphon1 or hook1 ,lign4 #afa1 fig4 #a2 ,turrilites1 spiral1 round a vertical axis1 ,lign4 #afc2 and in ,baculites1 straight1 ,lign4 #afa1 fig4 #b4 ,new genera are continually being added1 to embrace modifications of structure which appear to be too important for specific distinctions4 ,i will endeavour to render this arrangement more clear to the student by the following definitions4 ,a straight tube1 or horn1 of an elongated conical figure1 tapering to a point1 and having its cavity divided by transverse partitions1 which septa are not straight1 but undulated1 and their edges1 which fit into the walls of the tube1 deeply wrinkled1 and the whole series pierced by a pipe running along near the outer margin1 would be the model of the shell termed ,baculites1 ,lign4 #afa1 fig4 #b1 7,bd4 pl4 xliv4 fig4 #e27 which may be regarded as a straight ,ammonite4 ,a similar shell1 gently arched or curved1 would be a ,toxoceras1 ,lign4 #afj1 fig4 #a2 the same tube1 bent upon itself1 like a siphon1 into unequal limbs1 not contiguous1 a ,hamites1 ,lign4 #afa 7,bd4 pl4 xliv4 fig4 #aj72 bent and approximate1 or anchylosed in a straight line1 ,ptychoceras1 ,lign4 #afa1 fig4 #d2 partially convoluted1 the whorls contiguous1 and the free end recurved1 ,scaphites1 ,lign4 #afb2 the same form1 but the spire not contiguous1 ,ancyloceras1 ,lign4 #afj1 fig4 #c2 spirally twisted around an axis1 ,turrilites1 ,lign4 #afc 7,bd4 pl4 xliv4 fig4 #ad72 coiled1 but the turns not touching each other1 ,crioceras1 ,lign4 #afj1 fig4 #b2 lastly1 coiled up in the form of a disk1 all the turns being contiguous1 ,ammonites4 ,sidenote3 ,,ammonite4 ,ammonites4 ,lign4 #aef1 #aeg1 #aeh4--,shell discoidal1 more or less compressed1 whorls of the spire contiguous1 and often visible2 septa lobed1 their margins deeply sinuated2 aperture symmetrical1 border or lip thickened1 often notched and auriculated4 ,siphuncle dorsal4 ,the student will be able readily to distinguish ,ammonites from ,nautili by attention to the above definition4 ,the situation of the siphuncle1 the foliated or wrinkled edges of the septa1 as shown in the cast1 ,lign4 #aef1 fig4 #b2 and when these characters are wanting1 the arched ribs and elevations1 as in figs4 #a and #c1 will serve as discriminating features4 ,like the fossil ,nautili1 the ,ammonites most commonly occur as casts1 the shell having been dissolved4 ,sometimes these consist of semi-transparent calcareous spar1 the cast of each cell being distinct1 but held together by the interlocking of the foliations of the septa2 such examples are of great beauty and interest 7see ,bd4 pl4 xlii4 figs4 #b1 #c72 they most frequently occur in the limestones of the ,oolite4 ,the siphuncle is often preserved1 even in the chalk specimens1 in which all traces of the shell are lost4 ,in a large ,ammonite from1 near ,lewes1 not only the shelly siphuncle remains1 but even the internal membranous tube1 converted into dark molluskite4 ,separate portions of similar siphuncles occur in the chalk1 and have been mistaken for tubular shells4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aeh4 ,ammonites ,jason4 #a_/b nat4 ,oxford ,clay1 ,trowbridge1 ,wilts4 a4--,lateral processes of the margins of the aperture4 ,the outer lip1 or margin of the aperture1 is occasionally found entire4 ,in some species there is a dorsal process1 as in a very common ,chalk ,ammonite 7,a4 varians1 ,lign4 #aef1 fig4 #a71 which extends far beyond the margin2 in other species1 from the ,oxford ,clay1 there are long1 narrow1 lateral appendages1 7,lign4 #aeh74 ,in the collection of ,s4 ,p4 ,pratt1 ,esq41 there is a small ,ammonite1 from the ,inferior ,oolite of ,normandy1 in which these processes meet over the aperture1 leaving only a circular aperture towards the back of the shell 7where the siphuncle of the animal would be situated7 and a narrow fissure on the side next the involute spire4 ,the specimen is unique1 and can scarcely be regarded as a normal form4#dad 7,mr4 ,woodward47 #dad ,m4 ,steenstrup has described a species of ,purpura1 which at the close of its life shuts up the aperture of its shell1 with the exception of the respiratory siphon4--,mr4 ,woodward4 ,from the small size of the cells of the ,ammonites1 particularly in those species which are of a depressed or flattened form1 it was long doubted whether the outer chamber could have been sufficiently capacious to contain the body of the animal2 and it was supposed that these shells were internal1 like the recent ,spirula1 or ,crosier4 ,but ,dr4 ,buckland has clearly demonstrated1 that the outer cell of the ,ammonite1 if restricted in breadth1 is sufficiently ample in length to have contained the soft parts of a ,cephalopod1 equal in magnitude to the largest known specimens1 its proportion to the chambered part being as considerable as in the ,nautilus4 ,the outer chamber often occupies more than half1 and in some instances the entire circumference of the outer whorl 7see ,bd4 pl4 xxxvi474 ,in certain argillaceous deposits1 as the ,galt1 and the clays of the ,lias1 ,ammonites with the shell preserved are abundant2 generally the outer opaque layer is wanting1 or adheres to the matrix when a specimen is removed1 leaving only the internal nacreous1 or pearly coat4 ,folkstone1 on the coast of ,kent1 is celebrated for examples of this kind1 which may easily be collected from the ,galt1 which forms the base of the cliffs1 at ,eastware ,bay4 ,watchett1 in ,somersetshire1 is equally rich in the pearly ,ammonites of the ,lias2 entire layers of these beautiful organic remains occur in the limestones and in the shale exposed at low water4#dae #dae ,a splendid group of these ,ammonites may be seen in the ,gallery of ,fossils at the ,british ,museum4 ,the shell of the ,ammonite is generally thinner and more delicate than that of the ,nautilus4 ,however thin these shells may be1 they are possessed of great strength of structure4 ,not only is the shell one continuous arch1 but it is moreover provided with transverse arches or corrugated ribs1 which1 like the flutings on metal pencil-cases1 and corrugated sheet-iron1 greatly strengthen the thin material4 ,these ribs are further subdivided1 so as to multiply supports as the convexity of the shell enlarges1 in a manner somewhat similar to the groin-work of vaulted roofs4 ,the spines1 tubercles1 and bosses1 which often arise from the ribs1 are so many additions to the strength of the latter4 ,the sides of the shell are also supported by the transverse plates forming the septa1 or divisions of the chambers1 and1 as these plates are very sinuous where they meet the sides of the shell1 they distribute their support over a considerable portion of the surface4#daf ,these complicated edges of the septa form the delicate and intricate lines of foliation 7sutures7 seen on the casts of ,ammonites 7,lign4 #aef1 fig4 #b71 ,baculites 7,lign4 #afa1 fig4 #c71 ,hamites1 c4 ,in some species the shell is thick and dense1 as in the ,ammonites of the ,kimmeridge ,clay near ,aylesbury1 in which one species 7,ammonites biplex1 ,min4 ,conch4 pl4 ccxciii47 in particular abounds1 and is very generally invested with the shell1 as perfect as if recent4 ,the same ,ammonite occurs in the ,portland limestone above1 in the state of casts1 without any vestige of the shell4 ,in some strata the shell is replaced by calcareous spar2 in others by silex or flint4#dag ,in the pyritous clays and shales of the ,lias1 the shell and all its delicate internal mechanism are coated with or replaced by brilliant sulphuret of iron1 forming the most exquisite natural electrotype imaginable4 ,polished vertical sections of these fossils often exhibit the inner cells filled with transparent white calcareous spar2 sometimes with groups of crystals of sulphate of lime4 ,the ,ammonites of the ,galt1 and of the ,kimmeridge ,clay1 are also frequently imbued with the same mineral4 #daf ,see ,bd4 i4 p4 #cci1 c4 #dag ,see an admirable figure of a chalcedonic specimen1 exhibiting the foliated septa of an ,ammonite1 ,bd4 pl4 xli4 ,there are about two hundred identified species of ,ammonite in the ,british strata1 ranging through all the secondary formations2 they have not been found in the ,tertiary deposits4 ,they vary in size from half an inch to four feet in diameter4#dah #dah ,i have seen imprints of the large ,chalk ,ammonite1 ,a4 peramplus 7,min4 ,conch4 pl4 ccclvii471 on the shore off ,rottingdean1 and ,beachy ,head1 which indicated even larger proportions4 ,certain species are restricted to particular formations1 and are therefore oftentimes of essential aid in determining the relations of a deposit2 for example1 the ,galt contains several species not found in the upper division of the ,chalk2 and in the ,chalk-maid are species that have not been discovered in other strata4 ,certain ,ammonites of the ,lias are peculiar to that formation 7as ,a4 ,walcottii1 ,lign4 #abg1 fig4 #g1 p4 #cig2 and ,a4 communis1 ,lign4 #aeg74 ,ammonites of species allied to those of our ,middle and ,lower ,oolites have been discovered in strata in the ,himalaya mountains1 several thousand feet above the level of the sea4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aei4 ,goniatites4 nat4 ,carb4 ,syst4 ,fig4 #a4--;,goniatites ,listeri4 #b4--;,goniatites striatus4 #c4--,outline of a suture of ,goniatite4 #d4--,outline of a suture of ,ammonites venustus4 ,the ,arrows in figs4 #c and #d denote the direction of the dorsal line4 ,sidenote3 ,,goniatites4 ,,ceratites4 ,,crioceras4 ,goniatites1 ,lign4 #aei4--;,from the numerous family of ,ammonites1 a separation has been made of a large division1 in which the margins of the septa are not deeply notched or foliated1 and are destitute of lateral crenatures or denticulations1 so that their outline always presents a continued uninterrupted line4 ,the siphuncle is relatively small4 ,the last or outer cell of the shell extends beyond one turn of the chambered part4 ,the back is occasionally keeled1 but in most species is round4 ,in illustration of this genus1 which is named ,goniatites1 ,i have selected two common species 7,lign4 #aei7 from the ,carboniferous limestone1 and annexed outlines of a suture 7the edge of the septum7 of a ,goniatite1 and of an ,ammonite1 for comparison4 ,the importance of the separation of this type of ,ammonites into a distinct genus1 relates to the ,goniatites being restricted to some of the older sedimentary strata2 for although there are sixty ,british species1 none of them have been observed above the ,carboniferous system4#dai #dai ,g4 ,henslowi1 ,g4 striatus1 and ,g4 sphricus1 are figured in ,bd4 pl4 xl4 ,in ,ceratites the sutures are more simple than in the ,ammonite1 being lobed rather than foliated2 and the alternate lobes have their edge crenulated or finely toothed4 7,c4 nodosus1 ,bd4 pl4 xl47 ,this genus is found in the ,muschelkalk and the ,keuper formations of ,europe and ,asia4 ,our limits will not permit us to extend this notice of the very numerous family of ,ammonitid1#dbj except to offer a few illustrations of some of the modifications in form to which we have already alluded1 and which will assist the student in discriminating these fossil remains4 #dbj ,for further information1 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,treatise1 and the respective articles in the ,penny ,cyclopdia1 may be referred to4 ,mr4 ,woodward's ,manual should be consulted for the classification of the family1 and ,m4 ,d',orbigny's ,palontologie ,franaise for the illustration of species4 ,crioceras 7coiled-horn71 ,lign4 #afj1 fig4 #b4--,this shell differs from the ,ammonites in the turns of the spire being distant from each other4 ,the siphuncle is continuous1 and the septa are regularly divided into six lobes4 ,i have found specimens of this genus in the ,chalk-marl at ,hamsey1 and in the ,white ,chalk1 near ,lewes 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxiii4 fig4 #i74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afj4 ,shells of the family ,ammonitid4 ,chalk and ,greensand4 ,fig4 #a4--,toxoceras ,emericianum1 and its septum4 ,hamsey4 #b4--;,crioceras ,puzosianum4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 ,lewes4 #c4--;,ancyloceras furcatum1 and its septum4 ,france4 ,in the genus ,ancyloceras 7incurved horn71 ,lign4 #afj1 fig4 #c1 the whorls are separate1 and1 at first1 spiral 7like ,crioceras72 but afterwards the shell is prolonged1 and then inflected at the large extremity1 like a ,scaphite1 but the whorls are not contiguous4 ,a very large species of ,ancyloceras occurs in the ,kentish ,rag1 near ,maidstone1 some specimens of which are eighteen inches in length4 ,it is figured and described1 by the name of ,scaphites ,hillsii1 in the admirable ,memoir of ,dr4 ,fitton on the ,strata below the ,chalk 7,geol4 ,trans4 vol4 iv4 pl4 xv472 the present genus was not then established4 ,the ,shanklin ,sand in the ,isle of ,wight also contains a gigantic species1 which is figured and described by ,mr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,sowerby1 in the ,geol4 ,trans41 as ,scaphites gigas4 ,ancyloceras occurs also in the ,oolite4 ,sidenote3 ,,toxoceras4 ,,hamites4 ,in ,toxoceras 7bow-horn71 ,lign4 #afj1 fig4 #a1 the shell is slightly curved1 like a horn4 ,two or three species of ,toxoceras are found at ,hamsey4 ,the tubercles1 in the casts1 are the bases of spines1 with which the back of the shell was armed1 as ,i have ascertained by examples examined in the rock 7see ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxiii4 fig4 #a74 ,the specimens figured of the above two genera occur in the ,neocomian strata of ,france4 ,hamites 7hook-shaped74 ,lign4 #afa1 fig4 #a4--,shell involute1 spiral1 the turns not contiguous2 spire irregular1 elliptical2 the large end reflected towards the spire4 ,the term ,hamite1 proposed by the late ,mr4 ,parkinson1 was formerly given to all the fragments of sub-cylindrical chambered shells1 that were bent1 or slightly hooked2 and the genera ,ancyloceras1 ,toxoceras1 c41 have been separated from them1 by ,m4 ,d',orbigny4 ,but from fossils recently obtained from ,cretaceous strata in ,pondicherry1 and other parts of ,india1 it seems probable that these genera will be found to merge into each other2 at present it is convenient to keep up the distinction4 ,the ,hamites are distinguished from ,ancyloceras1 which they most resemble1 by their elliptical1 irregular spire4 ,ptychoceras 7folded horn74 ,lign4 #afa1 fig4 #d4--,this is another genus formed from the ,hamites4 ,the shell is bent double in the shape of a siphon1 and the limbs are united together4 ,the specimen figured is from the ,neocomian strata of the ,lower ,alps4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afa4 ,hamites1 etc4 from the ,chalk-marl4 ,fig4 #a4--;,hamites cylindraceus1 with part of the shell4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 #b4--;,baculites baculoides1 with the mouth entire4 ,hamsey4 #c4--,part of the stem of the same species1 showing the sinuous septa4 ,a detached septum is figured above4 #d4--,ptychoceras ,emericianum4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 ,sidenote3 ,,baculites4 ,baculites 7staff-like74 ,lign4 #afa1 figs4 #b and #c4--,this1 as the name implies1 is a straight1 elongated1 conical1 chambered shell2 the upper part is destitute of septa1 and probably contained the body of the animal4 ,in my early researches in the ,chalk-marl of ,hamsey1 ,i discovered numerous solid1 oval1 and cylindrical pipes of marl1 with scarcely any vestige of organic structure1 whose origin it was impossible to determine4 ,at length ,i found the specimen1 ,lign4 #afa1 fig4 #b1 which showed the perfect aperture of a chambered shell2 and afterwards ,i found portions which displayed the foliated septa4 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxiii4 figs4 #e1 #f1 #g47 ,the ,baculite1 when perfect1 is elongated to a point2 the septa are very numerous and foliated2 the siphuncle is situated on the margin4 ,i have a splendid specimen from the ,chalk of ,france1 7collected by ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongniart17 which is composed of distinct casts of the cells1 held together by the deep inflections of their margins1 in the same manner as are the sparry casts of ,ammonites1 previously described4#dba #dba ,see ,bd4 pl4 xliv1 fig4 #e4 ,the ,galt1 near ,folkstone1 abounds in fossils of the above genera1 principally of ,hamites2 and the nacreous substance of the shells is very often preserved4 ,from the ,chalk-marl near ,dover1 ,southbourn1 ,ringmer1 and ,southerham1 near ,lewes1 and from ,clayton1 near ,hurstpierpoint1 in ,sussex1 ,i have obtained examples of several species4 ,sidenote3 ,,scaphites4 ,scaphites 7boat-like74 ,lign4 #afb4--,this name was given by ,mr4 ,parkinson 7,org4 ,rem4 vol4 iii4 pl4 x4 ,see ,pict4 ,atlas7 to some small chambered shells from the ,chalk and ,shanklin ,sand1 of a boat-like form1 with the inner whorls coiled up in a spire1 and half hidden by the outer chamber1 which becomes contracted and recurved on itself1 is destitute of septa1 and terminates in an oval or transverse mouth4 ,the siphuncle is dorsal4 ,an ,ancyloceras closely coiled would be a ,scaphite4 ,hamsey marl-pit yielded to my early researches the first ,scaphites discovered in the ,british strata1 together with ,turrilites1 and other cephalopodous shells1 previously unknown in ,england4#dbb ,the ,scaphite is of an elliptical form1 the spire and the mouth approaching close to each other2 the spire occupies about one-half of the shell4 ,except the thick outer lip or margin of the aperture1 which is almost constantly found changed into pyrites1 it is rarely that any vestige of the shell remains4 ,the same mineral constitutes casts of the spiral part2 and these1 when separated from the other portion1 might be taken for ,ammonites2 see fig4 #b4 ,there are two varieties at ,hamsey2 one1 with the surface covered by fine transverse stri1 which arise singly from the inner margins1 and bifurcate on the dorsal part2 fig4 #a4 ,the other is also striated1 but has a row of prominent ribs on the inner half of the broad central portion of the shell2 fig4 #d4 ,scaphites occur in the ,upper ,green ,sand of ,dorsetshire1 and in the ,chalk-marl in several places in ,england2 and at ,rouen1 in ,france2 and a large species1 ,s4 ,cuvieri1 has been found in ,new ,jersey4 #dbb ,sow4 ,min4 ,conch1 vol1 i4 p4 #ec4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afb4 ,scaphites4 ,chalk-marl4 ,hamsey4 ,fig4 #a and #d4--,scaphites qualis4 7,parkinson47 #b4--;,cast in pyrites of the spiral part of a ,scaphite4 #b;a4--,front view of the same specimen4 #c4--;,front view of ,scaphites qualis4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afc4 ,turrilites4 ,chalk-marl4 ,fig4 #a4--,turrilites catenatus4 7,m4 ,d',orbigny47 ,france4 a4--,one of the septa4 #b4--,turrilites costatus4 ,hamsey4 ,sidenote3 ,,turrilites4 ,turrilites4 ,lign4 #afc4--,shell spiral1 more or less conical1 coiled obliquely round an axis1 and turriculated4 ,spire sinistral1 whorls contiguous1 apparent1 with a perforated umbilicus4 ,edges of septa very sinuous4 ,siphuncle continuous1 situated either on the external convexity1 or near the suture at the base of the wreath4 ,the discovery of three species of these elegant shells rewarded my researches in the little marl-pit at ,hamsey1 already noticed1 and were the first examples of the genus found in ,england4#dbc ,like the ,ammonites1 ,scaphites1 ,hamites1 c4 with which they are associated1 the ,turrilites of our ,chalk-marl seldom possess any traces of their shells4 ,the specimens are solid and tolerably sharp casts1 with occasional indications of the septa1 and more rarely of the siphunculus4 ,they vary in size from two or three inches to two feet in length2 and are frequently more or less elliptical1 from compression4 ,the three species which generally occur in the ,sussex and ,kentish chalk1 are ,t4 costatus1 ,lign4 #afc1 fig4 #b2 ,t4 tuberculatus 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxiv4 fig4 #g71 characterised by its four rows of tubercles2 and ,t4 undulatus 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxiv4 fig4 #h71 the wreaths of which are ornamented with plain1 slightly undulated1 transverse ribs4 ,these are all reversed1 or sinistral shells2 that is1 the spire is twisted to the left1 the aperture being on the right hand of the observer when the shell is placed on its apex1 as in fig4 #a4 ,several other species of ,turrilites occur in the ,chalk of ,france1#dbd one of which1 ,t4 catenatus1 is represented ,lign4 #afc1 fig4 #a4 #dbc ,sow4 ,min4 ,conch1 tab4 xxxvi4 #dbd ,see ,m4 ,d',orbigny's ,palontologie ,franaise4 ,some of the ,turrilites attain a considerable magnitude4 ,the largest found in ,england is a specimen of ,t4 tuberculatus 7,min4 ,conch4 tab4 lxxiv471 from ,middleham1 in the parish of ,ringmer1 near ,lewes2 when perfect1 it must have been full two feet in length3 it consists of six wreaths1 the siphuncle1 in the state of pyrites1 appearing in three or four2 portions of the nacreous internal layer of the shell remain4#dbe ,in some specimens in my possession1 the form of the aperture1 and the termination of the columella1 are distinctly shown2 as in the fine example the last whorl of which is represented in ,lign4 #afd4 #dbe ,this specimen is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afd4 ,turrilites tuberculatus1 7,bosc47 nat4 ,chalk-marl1 ,lewes4 ,showing the form of the aperture1 and the spinous tubercles4 ,the specimen is a cast in indurated chalk-marl2 the last wreath only is figured4 ,fig4 #a4--,posterior view1 exhibiting the expanded outer lip1 and the obtuse termination of the columella4 #b4--;,front view1 showing the form of the aperture4 a4--,two tubercles1 bearing spines4 ,the ,chalk-marl of ,lewes1 of the ,sussex coast1 and of the cliffs near ,dover1 and the ,upper ,green ,sand of ,dorsetshire1 have yielded the principal ,british specimens of this genus4 ,several species occur in the lower cretaceous strata1 at ,st4 ,catherine's ,mount1 near ,rouen1 associated1 as in ,england1 with ,scaphites1 ,hamites1 and other allied genera4#dbf #dbf ,see ,fossils of the ,south4 ,downs for figures of many species of the ,cephalopoda of the ,sussex ,chalk4 ,sidenote3 ,,aptychus4 ,aptychus1 ,meyer4 7,trigonellites1 ,parkinson47 ,lign4 #afe4--;,associated with the remains of ,ammonites in several localities1 are found flattened triangular bodies1 from less than an inch to an inch and a half in diameter1 the nature of which is still somewhat problematical4 ,a good figure is given by ,mr4 ,parkinson of one species 7,org4 ,rem4 vol4 iii4 pl4 xiii4 figs4 #i1 #aj1 #ab4 ,see ,pict4 ,atlas71 with the name ,trigonellites latus4 ,these bodies frequently occur in pairs and in apposition1 as in the specimen figured in ,lign4 #afe4 ,their structure is cellular2 one surface is slightly concave and striated1 and the other covered with minute circular pores4 ,altogether their appearance is that of bodies enclosed in vascular integuments4 ,it is supposed that they are the opercula of ,ammonites4 ,these fossils are commonly found in the last or body chamber of ,ammonites1 in the ,oxford ,clay1 near ,chippenham1 the ,coral ,oolite of ,malton1 the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1 and the lithographic limestone of ,solenhofen4 ,m4 ,ewald states that they may be found in the ,chalk ,scaphites by making a longitudinal section of the body chamber3 but ,i have not succeeded in detecting them in the examples from the chalk-marl which ,i have broken up for that purpose4 ,as these bodies 7alluded to by authors as ,trigonellites1 ,aptychus1 ,munsteria1 c47 will probably come under the observation of the collector1 especially among the fossils of the ,kimmeridge ,clay1 these remarks are introduced to suggest diligent research1 in the hope that the origin of these fossils may at length be discovered4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afe4 ,aptychus sublvis4 #a_/b nat4 ,kimmeridge ,clay1 ,hartwell1 ,bucks4 ,fig4 #a4--,the convex surface4 #a;a4--,magnified section of portion4 #b4--,the concave side4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,distribution ,,of ,,fossil ,,cephalopoda4 ,geological ,distribution of ,fossil ,cephalopoda4--,even from this short review of the principal types of the fossil ,cephalopoda1 the great interest which attaches to the study of this class of organic remains is strikingly demonstrated4 ,their geological distribution is alike replete with phenomena of an important character4 ,in the ,lower ,palozoic 7,lower and ,upper ,silurian7 strata1 the chambered mollusks belong 7with a very few doubtful exceptions7 to the ,nautilid1 namely1 ,nautilus1 ,lituites1 ,cyrtoceras1 ,orthoceras1 c4 ,the ,devonian and ,carboniferous systems contain ,nautilus1 ,clymenia1 ,gyroceras1 ,cyrtoceras1 and ,orthoceras1 together with a peculiar group of ,ammonitid1 the ,goniatites4 ,the ,trias in general is extremely poor in ,cephalopoda2 the ,permian group affording but two species of ,nautilus1 and the ,muschelkalk two other species3 but1 in addition to these1 the ,muschelkalk contains ,ceratites1 which is a genus peculiar to the ,triassic group1 and chiefly abounds in the ,st4 ,cassian beds 7in the ,austrian ,alps71 where it is accompanied by ,nautilus1 ,orthoceras1 ,ammonites1 and ,goniatites4 ,in the ,lias and ,oolite ,nautili abound1 and we meet for the first time with ,belemnites4 ,the same families1 viz4 ,nautilid1 ,ammonitid1 and ,belemnitid1 prevail throughout the ,cretaceous strata4 ,the ,tertiary formations contain a few ,nautilid only2 no vestiges of the ,ammonitid and true ,belemnitid1 which1 as we have seen1 swarmed in the ancient seas1 are perceptible1 while in the existing oceans1 the ,nautilus and ,spirula are the sole representatives of the numerous shell-bearing cephalopoda of the ancient geological eras4 ,thus1 the ,nautilid extend from the oldest to the newest fossiliferous strata1 the genus being still in existence3 the ,ammonitid1 on the other hand1 though less ancient in origin1 do not pass beyond the limits of the cretaceous epoch4 ,in the following tabular arrangement these facts are placed in a more distinct point of view3-- ,tabular ,view of the ,distribution of ,cephalopoda through the ,geological ,epochs4 ,existing ,genera ,argonauta4 ,octopoda4 ,octopus1 c4 ,loligo1 ,cranchia4 7,teuthid74 ,sepiola1 ,onychoteuthis1 c4 ,dibranchiata4 ,decapoda4 ,sepia 7,sepiad74 ,spirula4 ,nautilus 7,nautilid74 ,tetrabranchiata4 ,general fossil in the ,tertiary ,formations ,sepiad ,sepia1 ,spirulirostra1 ,beloptera1 ,belemnosis4 ,nautilid ,nautilus and ,aturia ,cretaceous ,deposits ,belemnitid ,belemnites1 ,belemnitella1 and ,conoteuthis4 ,nautilid ,nautilus4 ,ammonitid ,ammonites1 ,crioceras1 ,scaphites1 ,ancyloceras1 ,toxoceras1 ,hamites4 ,ptychoceras1 ,helicoceras1 ,turrilites1 ,baculites4 ,oolite and ,lias ,sepiad ,sepia4 ,teuthid ,teudopsis1 ,beloteuthis1 ,geoteuthis1 ,leptoteuthis1 ,ommastrephes4 ,belemnitid ,belemnites4 ,acanthoteuthis1 and ,belemnoteuthis4 ,nautilid ,nautilus4 ,ammonitid ,ammonites1 ,ancyloceras4 ,trias ,nautilid ,nautilus4 ,ammonitid#dbg ,ammonites1 ,goniatites1 and ,ceratites4 ,carboniferous ,system ,nautilid ,nautilus1 ,gyroceras1 ,cyrtoceras1 ,gomphoceras1 and ,orthoceras1 ,actinoceras1 c4 ,ammonitid ,goniatites4 ,devonian ,system ,nautilid ,nautilus1 ,clymenia1 ,cyrtoceras1 ,phragmoceras1 ,gomphoceras1 ,orthoceras1 ,actinoceras1 c4 ,ammonitid ,goniatites4 ,upper and ,lower ,silurian ,systems ,nautilid ,nautilus1 ,lituites1 ,gyroceras1 ,cyrtoceras1 ,phragmoceras1 ,gomphoceras1 ,oncoceras1 ,ascoceras1 ,orthoceras1 ,actinoceras1 c4 ,x_/ #dbg ,the ,ammonitid are from the ,st4 ,cassian beds only4 ,with regard to the zoological affinities between the living and extinct species of testaceous ,cephalopoda1 ,dr4 ,buckland remarks1 that they are all connected by one plan of organization2 each forming a link in the common chain which unites the existing species with those that prevailed among the earliest conditions of life upon our globe2 and all attesting the identity of the design that has effected so many similar ends1 through such a variety of instruments1 the principle of whose construction is1 in every species1 fundamentally the same4 ,throughout the various living and extinct genera of these beings1 the use of the air-chambers and siphuncle of their shells1 to adjust the specific gravity of the animals in rising and sinking1 appears to have been identical4 ,the addition of a new transverse plate within the coiled shell added a new air-chamber1 larger than the preceding one1 to counterbalance the increase of weight that attended the growth of the shell and body of these animals4 7,bd4 p4 #chj47 ,the occurrence of the ,nautilus1 and its congeners1 among the earliest traces of the animal kingdom1 and their continuance throughout the immense periods during which the family of ,ammonitid was created1 flourished1 and became extinct1 and the existence of species of the same genus at the present time1 are facts too remarkable to have escaped the notice even of those who are not professed cultivators of geological science2 and ,i am induced to quote the following beautiful lines1 by ,mrs4 ,howitt1 to impress this interesting phenomenon more strongly on the mind of the youthful reader4#dbh #dbh ,the poetess has1 however1 not been literally accurate regarding the ,nautilus and its habits1 nor as to the formation of stratified rocks1 but has given a romantic rather than a scientifically correct view of this interesting ,cephalopod1 and of the disappearance of its congener4 ,the young reader must1 therefore1 remember that the ,nautilus sometimes floats1 but never sails2 and that the whole race of ,ammonites died out in course of time1 and were not annihilated by convulsive movements of earth and sea4 ,,to ,,the ,,nautilus4 ,thou didst laugh at sun and breeze1 ,in the new created seas2 ,thou wast with the reptile broods ,in the old sea solitudes1 ,sailing in the new-made light1 ,with the curl'd-up ,ammonite4 ,thou surviv'dst the awful shock1 ,which turn'd the ocean bed to rock1 ,and changed its myriad living swarms1 ,to the marble's veined forms4 ,thou wast there1 thy little boat1 ,airy voyager6 kept afloat1 ,o'er the waters wild and dismal1 ,o'er the yawning gulfs abysmal2 ,amid wreck and overturning1 ,rock-imbedding1 heaving1 burning1 ,mid the tumult and the stir2 ,thou1 most ancient mariner1 ,in that pearly boat of thine1 ,sail'dst upon the troubled brine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,cephalopoda4 ,on the ,collection of ,british ,fossil ,cephalopoda4--,in the ,tertiary formations of ,england1 the remains of but seven species of ,nautilus 7comprising ,aturia7 have been noticed2 the large species 7,n4 imperialis7 is the most common4 ,these are generally in a good state of preservation1 and only require the careful removal of the surrounding clay or marl4 ,when pyrites largely enters into the composition of the specimens1 the investing matrix can seldom be effectually cleared off3 if the outer surface1 and general form1 be not well displayed1 breaking the specimen will often expose the inner cells1 with the siphunculus1 in a beautiful state4 ,the ,nautilus imperialis is occasionally imbedded in the septaria of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 and of ,bognor and ,bracklesham1 on the ,sussex coast4 ,sections of such examples1 in the vertical direction of the enclosed shell1 afford1 when polished1 very brilliant and interesting fossils2 the septa and the shelly tube of the siphunculus are often preserved4 ,the ,cephalopods of the ,cretaceous formation1 with the exception of those in the argillaceous strata of the ,galt1 are generally destitute of their shells1 and only occur in the state of casts2 and the ,chalk ,nautili are liable to separate at the divisions of the septa1 and an entire series of the casts of the chambers may sometimes be obtained1 so as to display the entire form of the original shell4 ,the ,ammonites of the ,white ,chalk1 although mere casts1 yet retain their configuration1 the foliated margins of the septa dove-tailing them together4 ,i have already mentioned that search should be made along the back of these specimens for the siphuncle1 the shelly tube of which is sometimes well defined4 ,in the ,chalk-marl the casts are sharper than in the ,white ,chalk1 and generally of a deep ochreous colour1 with the lines of the sinuous septa clearly defined4 ,the siphuncle is occasionally preserved in pyrites1 in the ,ammonites1 ,nautili1 ,turrilites1 and ,scaphites2 and the outer lip or margin of the mouth1 or aperture1 of the latter1 and of the ,ammonites1 is frequently replaced by the same mineral4 ,the ,ammonites1 ,hamites1 c4 of the ,galt have their pearly coat remaining1 but this investment is extremely delicate2 and although when first removed from the marl it is beautifully iridescent1 the vivid hues are very evanescent1 and the shell becomes opaque and of a light fawn colour4 ,very commonly the shell flakes off1 wholly or in part1 leaving a cast of indurated pyritous marl4 ,i have preserved specimens with the shell many years1 by applying a thin coat of mastic varnish with a soft camel-hair pencil1 before the marl had become dry1 and while the shells were entire4 ,the ,galt ,ammonites1 like the ,nautili of the ,london ,clay1 are often invested with pyrites1 and have the inner cells and siphuncle well preserved4 ,the argillaceous strata of the ,oolite and ,lias contain ,ammonites1 c4 in much the same state of mineralization as those of the ,galt4 ,the ,kimmeridge ,clay1 in some localities1 particularly around ,aylesbury 7and especially at ,hartwell ,park1 the seat of ,dr4 ,lee71 abounds in ,ammonites with the shell as perfect and beautiful as if just dredged up from the sea4 ,but1 like the fossils of the ,galt1 few of the specimens are durable2 although in many examples the shell may be preserved by the application of mastic varnish4 ,the most common ,ammonite at ,hartwell is ,a4 biplex 7,sow4 ,min4 ,conch471 which varies from three inches to one foot in diameter2 the surface is covered by very strong ribs that encircle the whorls4 ,the shell is thick1 and composed of several lamin4#dbi #dbi ,according to the observations of my son1 the outer layers1 when highly magnified1 present an appearance of opaque areol1 with irregular radiating fibres2 the inner lamin are covered with minute pores1 apparently the orifices of tubuli1 some of which are arranged singly in crescents1 and others are confluent1 like short strands of beads4 ,i mention the fact to direct attention to the microscopic examination of the structure of these splendid fossils4 ,the sparry casts of the separate cells of ,ammonites which occur in some of the calcareous beds of the ,oolite1 will not fail to be observed by the collector4 ,it is convenient to preserve such specimens either on a tray or board1 in which a groove is made for their reception1 or in a mould of gutta percha4 ,in collecting ,belemnitid1 the caution already given1 of examining the surrounding clay or marl1 must not be disregarded2 the student should remember1 that traces of the soft parts of the animals1 even of mere impressions of the body and head1 with the tentacula and their acetabula1 or little horny rings and hooks1 are more important than the most splendid examples of the spathose durable osselet4 ,the guards should be selected with especial reference to their containing the phragmocone 7see ,lign4 #ada1 fig4 #b71 or chambered conical shell1 in the alveolus or cavity of the upper and larger end4 ,an apparently worthless fragment of a ,belemnite will often be found to possess this part of the structure1 as in the example figured1 which1 until fractured longitudinally1 had been thrown by among useless duplicates4 ,the search for the remains of the fossil naked ,cephalopoda1 as the ,teuthid and ,sepiad1 and their ink-bags1 must be made in a like cautious manner4 ,in the ,lias marls1 the ink-bag and its duct is often found partially covered by a pellicle of nacre1 without any trace of the other parts of the animal4 ,a reference to ,dr4 ,buckland's plates 7,bd4 pl4 xxviii4 xxix7 will familiarize the student with the appearance of these fossil remains4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,cephalopoda4 ,a ,,few ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,cephalopoda4 ,abingdon1 ,berks4 ,ammonites1 fine casts in spar and limestone2 ,middle ,oolite4 ,aylesbury1 ,bucks4 ,ammonites1 several species2 splendid examples of ,a4 biplex1 with the shell remaining1 in the ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,aymestry4 ,upper ,silurian2 ,gomphoceras1 ,orthoceras1 c4 ,bath4 ,fine ,ammonites in the ,oolite4 ,beachy ,head4 ,along the shore1 gigantic ,ammonites in the ,chalk1 at low-water4 ,benson1 ,oxfordshire4 ,fine ,hamites1 in ,chalk-marl4 ,blackdown1 ,devonshire4 ,beautiful siliceous casts of ,ammonites2 ,green ,sand4 ,bognor1 ,sussex4 ,nautili1 in the ,tertiary ,clays and sandy ,limestones2 also1 along the neighbouring coast1 in ,septaria4 ,bolland1 ,yorkshire4 ,mountain ,limestone2 ,goniatites4 ,boreham1 near ,warminster1 ,wilts4 ,nautili and ,ammonites in ,green ,sand4 ,bracklesham ,bay1 ,sussex4 ,nautili in ,tertiary ,clay4 ,bridport1 ,dorset4 ,ammonites2 ,inferior ,oolite4 ,brighton4 ,in the ,chalk1 ,ammonites1 ,belemnitell1 c4 ,brill1 ,lucks4 ,ammonites1 as at ,aylesbury4 ,buxton1 ,derbyshire4 ,goniatites2 ,mountain ,limestone4 ,charmouth1 ,dorsetshire4 ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 c42 ,lias4 ,cheltenham4 ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 ,nautili1 c4 in abundance2 ,inferior ,oolite and ,lias4 ,chicksgrove1 ,tisbury1 ,wilts4 ,ammonites1 several species2 some chalcedonic2 ,upper ,oolite4 ,christian ,malford1 near ,chippenham4 ,in ,oxford ,clay1 ,belemnites1 ,belemnoteuthis1 and ,geoteuthis2 very fine4 ,clayton1 near ,hurstpierpoint1 ,sussex4 ,in ,chalk-marl1 ,ammonites1 ,nautili1 and ,turrilites2 very fine specimens4 ,closeburn1 ,dumfriesshire4 ,orthocerata1 large species2 ,silurian4 ,comb ,down1 near ,bath4 ,ammonites and ,nautili2 ,oolite4 ,connaught1 ,ireland4 ,goniatites2 ,mountain ,limestone4 ,cork4 ,orthocerata2 ,mountain ,limestone4 ,crockerton1 near ,warminster4 ,ammonites1 in ,galt4 ,dover4 ,in the cliffs1 and along the shore1 in ,chalk and ,chalk-marl1 ,turrilites1 ,ammonites1 ,nautili1 c4 ,dowlands1 near ,lyme4 ,fine ,ammonites1 c4 in the ,lias4 ,dundry1 near ,bristol4 ,ammonites1 c4 ,inferior ,oolite4 ,earlstoke1 ,wilts4 ,hamites1 ,ammonites1 c4 in ,green ,sand4 ,faringdon1 ,berks4 ,in the gravel-pits1 ,nautili1 ,ammonites1 c4 ,in the ,coral ,rag1 beautiful casts in limestone and spar of ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 c4 ,folkstone1 ,kent4 ,in the ,galt1 at ,eastware ,bay1 in the cliff1 and along the shore at low-water1 ,belemnites1 ,hamites1 ,ammonites1 c4 in profusion4 ,hamsey1 near ,lewes1 ,sussex4 ,chalk-marl2 ,turrilites1 ,scaphites1 ,hamites1 ,baculites1 ,crioceratites1 ,ammonites1 ,nautili2 ,belemnites1 very rare4 ,hartwell1 ,bucks1 seat of ,dr4 ,lee4 ,splendid ,ammonites1 with their shells1 in ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,heytesbury1 ,wilts4 ,nautilus elegans1 and other ,chalk-marl ,cephalopoda4 ,horncastle4 ,very fine ,ammonites4 ,hythe1 ,kent4 ,in ,green ,sand1 large ,ancyloceratites1 ,ammonites1 c4 ,ilminster1 ,somerset4 ,upper ,lias1 ,ammonites2 ,marlstone1 ,belemnites and ,ammonites4 ,kelloway4 ,many beautiful ,ammonites1 c42 ,middle ,oolite4 ,keynsham1 near ,bristol4 ,splendid ,nautili and ,ammonites2 the large ,a4 giganteus1 two or three feet in diameter2 and specimens with the chamber filled with spar1 of surpassing beauty2 ,lias4 ,lewes1 ,sussex4 ,nautili1 ,ammonites1 c4 in the ,chalk and ,marl quarries of the vicinity4 ,london4 ,tertiary strata in the vicinity4 ,highgate ,hill1 fine ,nautili1 and ,aturia ziczac1 ,beloptera1 c4 ,ludlow4 ,upper ,silurian2 ,lituites1 ,orthoceras1 ,phragmoceras1 c4 ,lyme ,regis1 ,dorsetshire4 ,ammonites1 ,nautili1 ,belemnites1 ,sepi1 c4 in profusion in the ,lias2 and ,scaphites and ,turrilites in the ,chalk4 ,lympne1 ,kent4 ,ammonites1 ,ancyloceratites1 c4 in ,green ,sand4 ,maidstone1 ,kent4 ,ammonites1 of large size1 in ,shanklin ,sand4 ,malton4 ,ammonites1 several large species4 ,lower ,oolite4 ,marsham1 near ,abingdon4 ,ammonites2 ,oolite4 ,marston ,magna1 near ,ilchester4 ,ammonite-marble2 ,lias4 ,newton ,bushel1 ,devonshire4 ,nautilus1 ,orthoceras1 ,cyrtoceras1 ,goniatites1 c4 in the ,devonian rocks4 ,norwich4 ,in ,chalk1 ,belemnites in profusion2 ,ammonites1 c4 ,nutfield1 ,surrey4 ,fuller's-earth pits3 beautiful ,nautili 7,n4 undulatus1 and ,a4 ,nutfieldiensis71 and ,ammonites4 ,offham1 near ,lewes4 ,in the ,chalk-pits1 large ,ammonites2 ,chalk-marl in a pit1 on the right-hand side of the road1 a quarter of a mile north of the village1 ,hamites1 ,turrilites1 ,scaphites1 ,nautili1 rare species of ,ammonites1 c4 ,oxford4 ,quarries in the vicinity1 ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 c4 ,petherwin1 ,cornwall4 ,clymenia1 ,goniatites1 ,orthoceras1 c4 in the ,upper ,devonian rocks4 ,portland4 ,upper ,oolite2 gigantic ,ammonites4 ,roak1 near ,benson1 ,oxfordshire4 ,in ,chalk-marl1 ,hamites1 ,ammonites1 c4 ,scarborough4 ,kelloway ,rock2 ,ammonites1 c4 ,scarlet1 ,isle of ,man4 ,nautili1 c42 ,mountain ,limestone4 ,settle1 ,yorkshire4 ,goniatites2 ,mountain ,limestone4 ,sherbourn1 ,somersetshire4 ,ammonite-marble2 ,lias4 ,southerham1 near ,lewes4 ,in the ,chalk-pits1 large ,ammonites2 in the ,marl1 ,nautili1 ,ammonites1 ,turrilites1 c4 ,south ,petherton1 ,somerset4 ,marlstone2 ,belemnites and ,ammonites in profusion4 ,speeton1 ,yorkshire4 ,galt2 ,crioceras1 ,ancyloceras1 c4 ,steyning1 ,sussex4 ,in ,chalk-marl near the town1 ,belemnites 7,b4 lanceolatus71 ,nautili1 ,ammonites1 c4 ,swindon1 ,wilts4 ,in the ,portland-stone quarries1 ,ammonites1 in abundance2 principally casts of ,a4 biplex1 and ,a4 triplicate4 ,in the ,kimmeridge ,clay in the vicinity1 ,ammonites with the shell preserved4 ,tisbury1 ,wilts4 ,in ,portland-stone1 fine ,ammonites1 often chalcedonic 7see ,bd4 pl4 xli474 ,trowbridge1 ,wilts4 ,in ,oxford ,clay1 ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 c4 were obtained in great numbers during the railway cuttings4 ,watchett1 ,somersetshire4 ,ink-bags of ,sepiad1 c42 splendid ,ammonites2 ,lias4 ,whitby1 ,yorkshire4 ,ammonites1 ,belemnites1 c4 in abundance2 ,nautili1 c42 ,lias4 ,yeovil1 ,somersetshire4 ,nautili and ,ammonites2 ,inferior ,oolite4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,fossil ,,articulata2 ,,comprising ,,the ,,annelides1 ,,cirripedes1 ,,crustaceans1 ,,and ,,insects4 ,the division of the ,animal ,kingdom termed ,articulata1 embraces1 as the name implies1 those animals which have a jointed body1 generally possessing an external-jointed skeleton1 composed of segments more or less annular and distinct4 ,it comprehends six classes2 namely-- #a4 ,annelata1 or ,annelida2 i4 e4 formed of rings2 comprising the ,red-blooded ,worms4 #b4 ,myriapoda2 as the ,centipede4 #c4 ,cirripedia2 i4 e4 having curled-feet2 as the ,balanus and ,lepas 7,barnacle74 #d4 ,crustacea2 as the ,crab1 ,lobster1 and ,water ,flea4 #e4 ,arachnida2 ,mites1 ,scorpions1 and ,spiders4 #f4 ,insecta1 or ,insects4 ,of the first1 third1 fourth1 and sixth of these classes1 remains occur in the ,british strata1 some being referable to existing1 but the greater part to extinct species and genera4 ,i propose to describe a few illustrative examples of the fossils belonging to each ,class4 ,annelida4--,this name is given to a class of ,articulata1 consisting of worms1 whose bodies are formed of little rings1 or annular segments1 and which have red blood2 as the ,leech1 ,earth-worm1 c4 ,some are naked 7the ,dorsibranchiata and ,abranchiata71 and move with great celerity2 as the ,gordius1 or ,hair-worm1 and the ,nereis1 so frequent on the sands of the sea-shore4 ,others have shelly coverings 7the ,tubicol71 as the ,serpula1 and are sedentary1 or fixed to other bodies4 ,the soft bodies of certain species are protected by a coat1 or tube1 formed by the agglutination of sand1 or other foreign substances1 as in the ,sabella 7,lign4 #abc1 fig4 #f1 p4 #che74 ,the fossil remains of the testaceous ,annelides are very abundant in some deposits2 and even the naked1 flexible1 soft-bodied forms have left proofs of their existence in some of the most ancient sedimentary rocks4 ,traces of nine species1 belonging to five genera of these soft1 naked ,annelides1 have been observed in the ,silurian strata of ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aff4 ,fossil impression of ,nereis4 ,silurian strata4 7,drawn by ,miss ,murray47 ,nereites ,cambrensis4 7,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst47 ,llampeter4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,nereis4 ,,serpula4 ,,cirripedia4 ,the first notice of these remarkable remains appeared in the invaluable work of ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison on the ,silurian ,system4#dcj ,the living species of ,nereis 7,dorsibranchiate7 are free1 agile animals1 having a distinct head1 provided with either eyes or antenn1 or both2 they are the most perfect in structure of all the ,annelides4 ,the fossil represented in ,lign4 #aff indicates that the body of the original was composed of about one hundred and twenty segments2 the feet were half the length of a segment of the body2 and the cirri of the feet were longer than such segment4 ,a more slender species1 7,nereites ,sedgwickii17 the body consisting of a greater number of segments1 is also figured and described by ,sir ,it4 ,i4 ,murchison4 ,other impressions in the same stone resemble those that would be produced by smooth ,annelides 7,abranchiate7 related to the ,gordius1 or ,hair-worm4#dca #dcj ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #fii4 #dca ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #gja1 pl4 xxvii42 and ,m',coy1 ,cambridge ,pal4 ,foss4 p4 #abh1 pl4 #a4 ,d4 ,serpula4--,the animals of this genus are sedentary or fixed1 having calcareous tubes or shells1 but to which they have no muscular attachment4 ,they have plumose or arborescent gills affixed to the anterior part of the body4 ,the shelly tubes of the ,serpul are constantly seen on our coasts1 encrusting stones1 rocks1 shells1 sea-weeds1 c41 and may be known by their contorted or twisted forms4 ,there are a hundred and fifty ,british fossil ,tubicol4 ,a large species has been discovered in the ,silurian rocks 7,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 pl4 v4 fig4 #a72 several occur in the ,carboniferous1 ,oolitic1 and ,cretaceous1 and many in the ,tertiary strata4 ,in the ,upper ,chalk1 a smooth tortuous ,serpula is not uncommon 7,s4 plexus1 ,min4 ,conch1 tab4 #eih72 it occurs in masses several inches long4 ,but ,i have not observed either in the ,chalk1 or in any other deposit1 indications of banks of ,serpulid1 like those now in progress off the ,bermudas1 and which resemble coral-reefs in their solidity and extent4 ,cirripedia4--,these animals have a soft body1 enveloped in a membrane1 which in some genera is protected only by a horny sheath1 but in general is enclosed in a shell composed of various calcareous plates4#dcb ,they have six pairs of feet1 terminating in long1 slender1 articulated tentacula1 furnished with cilia1 and coiled up like tendrils at the extremities near the mouth4 ,the name of the class 7curled-feet7 has originated from the appearance presented by the curled tentacula when projecting from the oval aperture of the shell4 ,the testaceous ,cirripedes or ,barnacles are divided into two groups2 namely1 the sessile1 or those which in their adult state are fixed by the base to other bodies1 7,balanid17 as the ,acorn-shell1 or ,balanus2 and the pedunculated1 which have a process of attachment1 peduncle or stem1 7,lepadid17 as the ,duck-barnacle1 or ,lepas4 ,but the young animals of these genera have powerful locomotive organs1 and are capable of swimming1 by sudden jerks1 like some of the crustaceans1 to which class1 especially in this stage of their existence1 they closely approach4 ,but after a short period of freedom1 the young ,cirripede fixes itself in some locality suitable to its economy1 and rapidly undergoes the transformation which results in the sessile adult ,barnacle or ,lepas4#dcc #dcb ,until within the last few years the valves of the ,cirripedes have been generally figured and described in works on ,conchology as being allied to the ,mollusca4 #dcc ,see ,mr4 ,c4 ,darwin's admirable ,monograph on the ,cirripedia1 published by the ,ray ,society1 #ahea4 ,balanus4 ,lign4 #afg1 fig4 #a4c--,the shell of this sessile ,cirripede is of a conical shape and cellular structure4 ,it consists of a thick plate at the base1 or place of attachment2 of a series of plates1 united by sutures1 arranged around the body of the animal1 and called parietal valves2 and of pieces termed opercular valves1 by which the aperture is closed4 ,the shell of the ,balanus1 so common on the rocks of our shores1 and on every pile and pier within reach of the tide1 is composed of six parietal1 and four opercular valves4 ,the fossil ,balanus1 ,lign4 #afg4 fig4 #a1 is from the ,crag1 a formation containing many shells of this genus3 in this example1 the six parietal plates of the conical shell only remain1 but in some specimens the opercular valves are also preserved4 ,there are about twelve species of ,balanus in the ,crag2 but none have been found either in the older ,tertiary1 or in the secondary rocks of ,england4 ,in the newer ,pliocene deposits of the ,sub-,apennines1 and of ,north ,america1 several species are common4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afg4 ,fossil ,barnacles and ,pholades4 ,fig4 #a4--;,balanus tesselatus4 7,sow4 ,min4 ,conch47 ,crag4 ,suffolk4 #b4--,loricula pulchella4 7,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,sowerby1 jun47 ,chalk4 ,kent4 a4 ,the situation of the aperture of the shell4 #c4--;,a valve 7,tergum7 of ,scalpellum maximum4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 #d4--;,another valve 7,carina7 of the same species4 #e4--,pholas priscus#dcd2 in wood4 ,lower ,green ,sand4 ,sandgate4 a4 ,one of the shells seen in profile4 #f4--,univalve ,shells 7,nerit7 in hollows formed by ,pholades4 7,mr4 ,bensted47 ,lower ,green ,sand4 ,maidstone4 a4 ,the ,nerites lodged in the cavities4 b4 ,fragment of wood remaining attached4 #dcd ,figs4 #e and #f are referred to and described at pages #dji and #daj1 vol4 i4 ,lepadid4--,the pedunculated ,cirripedes1 of which the common ,duck-barnacle is a well-known example1 have a strong1 muscular1 hollow stalk1 or peduncle1 which supports a multivalve shell1 containing the body of the animal4 ,in ,pollicipes and ,scalpellum there are small calcareous plates covering the junction of the body with the peduncle4 ,detached valves of several species of these two genera are met with in the ,chalk1 ,galt1 and ,shanklin ,sand1 of ,kent and ,sussex2 and three species have been found in the ,english ,tertiary beds4#dce ,the valves of these fossil ,cirripedes are most usually found in a disconnected state 7,lign4 #afg1 figs4 #c and #d72 but the ,tertiary ,scalpellum quadratum is sometimes better preserved2 and ,mr4 ,morris has described a most beautiful group of ,pollicipes 7,p4 concinnus71 attached to an ,ammonite1 from the ,oxford ,clay4 ,mr ,wetherell1 of ,highgate1 has also discovered1 in the ,upper ,chalk1 near ,rochester1 an almost perfect ,cirripede1 named by ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 ,sowerby1 jun41 ,loricula pulchella 7,lign4 #afg1 fig4 #b71 and lately more fully described in detail by ,mr4 ,darwin4#dcf #dce ,see ,mr4 ,darwin's ,monograph of the ,fossil ,lepadid1 ,palontographical ,society1 #ahea4 #dcf ,monograph of the ,fossil ,lepadid1 p4 #ha1 pl4 v4 ,crustacea4--,the animals whose fossil remains we have now to consider1 are characterised by their crustaceous external integument or shell1 which is disposed in segments1 more or less distinct1 the annular portions supporting articulated limbs or appendages4 ,they are aquatic1 free1 locomotive beings1 and possess distinct branchi1 or organs fitted for aquatic respiration4 ,the ,crab and ,lobster are examples of those tribes in which the external crust is calcareous1 and coloured by a pigmental substance1 diffused more or less irregularly through it2 and is formed upon and by a vascular organized integument1 or corium1 which is lined by the smooth serous membrane of the visceral cavities4 7,owen47 ,the subdivisions of this class have relation to the forms1 combinations1 and proportions of the primary rings or segments of the external crust or integument1 but it will not be requisite for our present purpose to enter upon this department of the subject4 ,it may1 however1 be necessary to mention1 that in the normal type of ,crustaceans1 the integument consists of twenty-one rings or segments1 which form the three regions into which the body is divided2 namely1 the head or cephalic1 the thoracic1 and the abdominal2 each of which is assumed to consist of seven rings1 although some of these are generally anchylosed1 and form but one segment2 and even the three regions are occasionally more or less blended together4 ,the cephalic portion of the crust contains the principal organs of sense1 and the commencement of the digestive apparatus1 and includes the masticatory appendages4 ,the thoracic portion is formed of the rings to which the extremities serving for locomotion are attached3 and1 together with the cephalic1 contains almost all the viscera4 ,the consolidation of the rings or segments takes place most generally in the cephalic1 and next in frequency in the thoracic2 and but rarely occurs in the abdominal region4 ,these animals possess organs of sight variously modified1 and in some species highly complicated2 some have smooth or simple eyes 7stemmata71 and others compound eyes1 like those of insects1 with distinct facets4 ,in one grand division 7called ,edriopthalmia71 the eyes are sessile and immovable2 in the other 7,podopthalmia71 they are supported upon moveable stems or peduncles4 ,these few remarks on the organization of the recent crustaceans are required1 to make our description of the fossil remains intelligible to the general reader4 ,as the shell1 or calcareous integument1 even in those species in which it is very dense and thick1 is moulded upon the soft parts it envelopes1 the experienced naturalist is able1 from its configuration alone1 to obtain certain conclusions as to the form1 size1 and position of the contained viscera2 and1 as these animals annually shed their solid case and acquire a new one1 which is moulded on the soft parts1 the form and relative situation of the internal organs must necessarily be faithfully represented by the external integument1 even when it has acquired its greatest degree of consolidation2 thus the regions of the stomach1 heart1 branchi or respiratory organs1 c4 may be distinctly traced on the external shell4 ,hence the fossil carapaces may afford important data regarding the structure and economy of the extinct species4 ,m4 ,desmarest#dcg was the first naturalist who successfully applied this phrenological method to the investigation of the fossil crustaceans4 #dcg ,histoire ,naturelle des ,crustacs ,fossiles2 par ,,mm4 ,alex4 ,brongniart et ,desmarest4 #a tom4 #dto4 ,paris1 #ahbb4 ,the fossil remains of ,crustaceans consist of the calcareous covering or carapace1 with the articulated extremities1 and1 rarely1 the jaws and antenn4 ,for the most part1 the specimens are mutilated1 and present only portions of the carapace1 abdominal segments1 and detached claws2 but in strata composed of very fine detritus1 such as the cream-coloured limestones of ,solenhofen and ,pappenheim1 examples often occur in the most beautiful state of preservation1 appearing as if the animals had been carefully embalmed in a soft paste1 that had quickly consolidated around them1 and preserved them without mutilation or blemish4 ,in some examples1 even the colour of the original remains4 ,the specimens found in hard limestones and coarse conglomerates are generally mutilated1 and1 as the under surface of the carapace1 and the sternal plates to which the legs are attached1 present more irregularity than the dorsal portion of the shell1 they are firmly impacted in the stone1 so as to render the development of some of the most important characters difficult1 if not impossible4 ,the antenn and claws are often separated1 or altogether wanting2 the most common relics being the pincers and the carapace1 or united cephalo-thoracic segments4 ,the substance of the shell1 which in the recent state consists of phosphate and carbonate of lime1 with gelatine or cartilage1 is commonly a friable carbonate of lime1 tinged with oxide of iron4 ,these remarks apply more particularly to the crabs1 lobsters1 shrimps1 prawns1 c4 ,numerous species of the smaller crustaceans1 as the ,cypris1 and the extinct family of ,trilobites1 occur in myriads1 and1 in some formations1 are the principal constituent of deposits of great thickness and extent4 ,the remains of this class have been found throughout the vast series of the fossiliferous strata4 ,extinct forms appear in prodigious numbers in the most ancient formations1 and are succeeded by genera which approach more nearly to the more highly organized crustaceans4 ,the ,crab and ,lobster tribes are represented by certain species in the ,lias1 ,oolite1 and ,chalk2 while in many of the ,tertiary strata the existing types prevail4 ,the ,london ,clay1 in the ,isle of ,sheppey1 yields many beautiful examples of the higher order of crustaceans1 as the ,crab1 ,lobster1 c4 ,in the ,chalk these remains are more rare1 but a few fine specimens have been obtained4 ,on the ,continent1 certain localities are extremely rich in these remains4 ,upwards of sixty species were discovered by ,count ,mnster in the ,jura limestone1 at ,solenhofen2 and the ,muschelkalk of ,germany has yielded several extinct genera4 ,the beautiful state in which these fossils occur1 is exemplified in the specimen from ,solenhofen1 figured in the frontispiece of this work2 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #b4 ,fossil ,crabs4--,of the brachyurous1 or short-tailed1 crustaceans1 of which the common ,crab is an example1 and of the ,anomura 7abnormal-tailed71 there are remains of several genera in the ,tertiary deposits4 ,the ,isle of ,sheppey is the most productive locality in ,england4 ,the carapaces of several kinds occur in the septaria and nodules of indurated clay2 the chelate hand-claws 7pincer-claws7 are often found detached1 and sometimes in connexion with the shield4 ,the most numerous specimens are referable to two species4 ,one of them 7,cancer ,leachii7 is from two to three inches wide1 and has a convex shell1 the surface of which is covered by minute punctations1 with three tubercles on each anterior lateral margin4#dch ,the carapace of the other species is more distinctly lobed1 and studded with aculeated or spiny tubercles2 it is named ,c4 tuberculatus4#dci #dch ,hist4 ,nat4 ,crust4 ,foss4 pl4 viii4 figs4 #e and #f4 #dci ,knig1 ,icones ,foss4 ,sect4 fig4 #ed4 ,these two species are now referred to the genus ,zanthopsis4 ,a species of ,crab1 characterised by its relatively large claws1 is common in the soft ,tertiary limestone of ,malta2 and examples1 in a fine state of preservation1 are often seen in cabinets2 see ,wond4 p4 #bea4 ,i am not aware that vestiges of more than one genus of brachyurous crustaceans have been observed in the ,british ,secondary formations2 namely1 the ,podopilumnus ,fittoni 7,m#8,coy71 from the ,greensand of ,lyme ,regis3 but several small species belonging to the anomurous group have been found in the ,galt4 ,in the ,galt at ,ringmer1 a village near ,lewes1 ,i discovered1 many years since1 four or five species of small crustaceans1 which are figured and described1 ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxiv42 their natural relations were pointed out to me by the late eminent naturalist1 ,dr4 ,leach4 ,specimens of two of the species have since been collected at ,folkstone1 but as these are only the carapaces1 no additional light has been thrown upon the structure of the originals4 ,the smallest species consists of the carapace or cephalo-thoracic segments1 united into a transversely obovate1 obscurely trilobate shell1 the surface of which is covered with minute irregular papill2 with four tubercles on each lateral portion1 and an irregularly tuberculated dorsal ridge 7see ,lign4 #afh1 fig4 #a1 #a;a472 it probably belongs to the genus ,etyus2 and ,i have named it ,etyus ,martini1 in honour of my friend1 ,p4 ,j4 ,martin1 ,esq41 author of several excellent ,memoirs on the ,geology of ,western ,sussex4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afh4 ,fossil ,crustaceans3 nat4 ,galt4 ,near ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4 --,etyus ,martini 7,g4 ,a4 ,m473 showing the empty carapace or shell4 ,ringmer4 #a;a4--,the dorsal surface of the same4 #b4 --,corystes,a ,stokesii 7,g4 ,a4 ,m474 ,ringmer4 #c4 --,corystes#ddj ,broderipii 7,g4 ,a4 ,m474 ,ringmer4 #c;a4--,the under surface of the same species1 displaying the sternal plates and the bases of the claws1 three of which are marked a1 a1 a4 #ddj ,these two crustaceans are included in the fossil genus ,notopocorystes1 established by ,professor ,m',coy1 #ahdi4 ,there are two species that appear to have some relations with ,corystes1 a genus which includes several recent crustaceans that inhabit our shores1 and are characterised by their elongated oval shell and four antenn1 the external pair being long1 setaceous1 and furnished with two rows of cilia4 ,the tail is folded under the body when the animal is in repose4 ,they have ten legs1 the anterior pair chelate 7with pincers71 the others terminating in an acute elongated nail or claw4 ,the fossils consist of the carapace1 and one example possesses the inferior or thoracic plates and the remains of the bases of some of the legs 7see ,lign4 #afh1 fig4 #c;a74 ,notopocorystes ,stokesii4 ,lign4 #afh1 fig4 #b4--,the carapace is relatively wider than in most species of this genus2 is has a strong dorsal ridge of irregular oblong tubercles2 the union of the cephalic and thoracic segments is marked by a transverse undulated groove2 there are three or four tubercles on the surface of each lateral portion of the former1 and one on each of the latter4 ,the whole surface is finely granulated4 ,the openings left by the attachment of the peduncles of the eye remain4 ,notopocorystes ,broderipii4 ,lign4 #afh1 fig4 #c4--,this species1 like the former1 has a transverse undulated furrow1 indicating the union of the cephalic with the thoracic segments2 the dorsal ridge is smooth1 and there are two tubercles on each lateral cephalic portion of the shield4 ,the carapace is longitudinally ovate1 much depressed1 with three sharp points directed forwards on each margin of the anterior part3 the whole surface is finely granulated4 ,in the specimen fig4 #c;a the sternal plates1 with portions of the first joints of the claws1 remain2 one example 7figured ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #afi7 possessed six or seven arcuate abdominal segments1 which were turned under the body4#dda #dda ,i have described these small crustaceans somewhat minutely1 and have given them specific names1 in the hope of directing the attention of collectors to these highly interesting relics1 and leading to the discovery of more illustrative examples4 ,see ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pp4 #if1 #ig4 ,the carapace or shell of the other crustacean observed in the ,sussex ,galt 7,notopocorystes ,bechei7 is of an orbicular inflated form 7see ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #afi1 fig4 #c71 and ornamented with twelve or thirteen aculeated tubercles2 its margin is dentated4 ,in the friable arenaceous limestone of the ,cretaceous formation at ,st4 ,peter's ,mountain1 near ,maestricht1 the cheliferous claws of a small kind of crustacean 7,mesostylus ,faujasii1 ,wond4 p4 #cch71 are frequently discovered 7and occasionally in the ,chalk of ,kent and ,sussex71 but with no vestige of the carapace or shell4 ,this curious fact is explained by the analogy existing between the fossil claws and those of the ,pagurus1 or ,hermit-crab1 whose body is only covered by a delicate membrane1 the claws alone having a calcareous covering2 hence the latter might be preserved in a fossil state1 while no traces of the soft parts remained4 ,in the fossil1 as in the recent claws1 the right arm is the strongest4 ,there is no doubt that the crustaceans to which the fossil claws belonged possessed the same modification of structure as the recent 7anomurous7 ,hermit-crab1 and must have sought shelter in the shells of the mollusks with which their durable remains are associated4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,lobsters4 ,fossil ,lobsters4--,the macrurous1 or long-tailed1 crustaceans1 as the ,lobster1 are distinguished from those of the former divisions by the prolonged abdomen 7or tail1 as it is commonly termed71 which forms a powerful instrument of locomotion1 and enables the animal to dart backwards through the water with great rapidity2 and this is furnished with an appendage or tail1 which none of the ambulatory crustaceans possess4 ,of the fresh-water species1 the ,cray-fish 7,astacus fluviatilis71 and of the marine1 the ,lobster 7,astacus marinus71 are illustrative examples4 ,the remains of three macrurous species occur in the ,london ,clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 associated with congenerous crustaceans2 and the segments of the tails 7post-abdomen7 are often well preserved4 ,the ,chalk contains a few species of the ,macrura1 which were first discovered in the quarries near ,lewes1 and are figured in ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxx4 xxxi42 they are among the most rare and delicate of the fossils of the ,cretaceous strata4 ,these remains consist of the carapace and claws1 and rarely of the tail and antenn1 and are composed of a friable earthy crust1 which1 when first discovered1 is of a dark chocolate colour1 but quickly changes to a pale fawn1 or reddish brown1 by exposure to the air4 ,in the specimens obtained by breaking the stone1 the crustaceous covering remains attached by its rough external surface to one portion of chalk1 and on the corresponding piece are sharp casts of the carapace and claws1 having a glossy surface covered with minute papill formed by the bases of tubercles or spines4 ,four species have been observed4 ,enoploclytia ,leachii4 ,lign4 #afi1 figs4 #a1 #b1 #c4--,this is a long delicate crustacean1 having a pair of equal1 slender1 anterior chelate claws1 the fingers of which are long1 attenuated1 and armed with a row of obtuse cylindrical spines4 ,the surface of the hand-claws is muricated1 or covered with short erect aculeated tubercles4 ,the pincers in the specimen figured ,lign4 #afi1 fig4 #c1 are shorter than in most examples4 ,the carapace is elongated and sub-cylindrical1 with a dorsal ridge and two lateral furrows1 indicating the normal division of the cephalic and thoracic segments of the shield2 the antenn are long1 filiform1 and setaceous 7bristly71 and are placed on squamous peduncles 7see ,lign4 #afi1 fig4 #b74 ,there appear to have been five legs on each side2 the anterior or chelate pair are the most usual relics of this animal2 of the other claws and the branchi1 but obscure indications have been obtained4 ,the abdominal segments are arcuate1 and six or seven in number2 their surface is granulated2 the appendage1 or tail1 is foliaceous and marginate1 with a few longitudinal ridges 7see ,lign4 #afi1 fig4 #a74ddb ,the claws of these crustaceans may be easily recognised by their general aspect1 and the length and straightness of the fingers or pincers4 ,in most examples traces remain of the tendinous expansion of the muscles of the moveable claw 7see ,lign4 fig4 #c74 #ddb ,see ,foss4 ,south ,d4 p4 #bba1 et seq4 for further details4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #afi4 ,fossil ,crustaceans3 nat4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--;,abdominal appendage1 or tail1 of ,astacus#ddc ,leachii 7,g4 ,a4 ,m471 with three abdominal segments4 #b4--,part of the head of ,astacus ,leachii1 with remains of the squamous peduncles of the antenn1 and of the long setaceous antenn4 #c4--;,chelate claw1 with part of the carpus1 or wrist1 of ,astacus ,leachii4 #d4--;,chelate claw of ,astacus#ddc ,sussexiensis 7,g4 ,a4 ,m474 #ddc ,these fossil ,lobsters are now to be referred to ,prof4 ,m',coy's genus ,enoploclytia4 ,enoploclytia ,sussexiensis4 ,lign4 #afi1 fig4 #d4--,the claws of this species are readily distinguished from the former by their broader and stronger proportions1 and spinous character2 the pincers are strong and tuberculated1 and the moveable finger is more curved and shorter than its opponent4 ,the entire crust of this lobster is muricated1 or beset with spines and sharp tubercles4#ddd #ddd ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxx4 fig4 #c4 ,in the beautiful work of the late ,mr4 ,dixon1 on the ,fossils of ,sussex1 there are figures of very fine specimens of these two species of ,enoploclytia 7plate xxxviii9947 with detailed descriptions by ,prof4 ,bell 7p4 #cdd72 but unfortunately1 from inadvertence1 no reference is made to my former drawings and descriptions of these fossil ,lobsters of the ,chalk1 and new names are given by the ,professor2 ,e4 ,leachii appearing as ,palastacus macrodactylus1 and ,e4 ,sussexiensis as ,p4 ,dixoni4 ,i need scarcely remind my readers that according to the established rules of ,nomenclature the earlier specific names must be preserved2 and that1 ,prof4 ,m#8,coy having already indicated the distinction of these fossils from the recent ,astacus by providing an appropriate generic appellation1 these new names are altogether inadmissible4 ,claws of other ,astacid have been found in the ,chalk of ,sussex and ,kent2 one species in particular is distinguished from those previously described by its short curved pincers1 and granulated surface2#dde and remains of other species of ,enoploclytia1 from near ,cambridge and ,maidstone1 are described by ,prof4 ,m',coy4 #dde ,this species may be named ,astacus cretosus1 to indicate its geological habitat4 ,the ,lobster-clays in the ,lower ,greensand1 or ,neocomian1 beds at ,atherfield afford numerous fine specimens of a small long-clawed crustacean1 allied to ,astacus2 a fine specimen is figured in the ,geology of the ,isle of ,wight1 title-page vignette1 and see page #bcb4 ,one or more species1 apparently distinct from those of ,atherfield1 have been discovered by ,mr4 ,beckles in beds of clay that appear to occupy the line of junction between the ,wealden and ,greensand1 on the ,sussex coast1 between ,pevensey and ,bexhill4 ,imperfect claws of ,astacid have also been found at other places in the ,shanklin ,sand2 and ,i have collected from the ,galt at ,ringmer1 the abdominal segments of a small species1 resembling ,meyeria ornata1 ,lign4 #agj4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #agj4 ,fossil ,crustacean4 ,speeton ,clay4 ,yorkshire4 ,meyeria ornata3 nat4 7,phillips and ,m',coy47 ,the carapaces of two or three small ,astacid1 sometimes with the abdominal segments attached1 as in the beautiful fossil figured in ,lign4 #agj1 are found in the ,speeton ,clay1 near ,scarborough4 ,in this example the post-abdomen and its appendages are entire1 and traces remain of the antenn and some of the feet4 ,these specimens are commonly imbedded in masses of indurated clay1 as the fern-leaves in the ,carboniferous ironstone1 and are discovered by splitting the nodules through their longest diameter4 ,the carapace of another small species 7,glyphea rostrata7#ddf occurs in the ,oolite of ,scarborough4 ,my friend1 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,reade1 has also discovered an example of this species in that rich repository of organic remains1 the ,kimmeridge ,clay1 at ,hartwell1 ,bucks4 #ddf ,this is the ,astacus rostratus of ,prof4 ,phillips's ,geol4 ,york4 vol4 i4 tab4 #d1 fig4 #bj4 ,a remarkable macrurous crustacean 7,eryon ,cuvieri7 is found in the ,jurassic limestone of ,solenhofen4 ,perfect specimens of this species are occasionally seen in collections2 it is distinguished by its very large1 flat1 oval shell1 with the front lateral margins strongly dentated1 and by its short setaceous antenn2 the front claws are as long as the body1 and armed with pincers2 the post-abdomen consists of six segments1 terminating in a caudal appendage or tail4 ,in the ,united ,states several fossil crustaceans have been noticed in the ,cretaceous strata of ,new ,jersey2 some of which are said to be related to ,pagurus1 and others to ,astacus4 ,fossil ,prawns and ,shrimps1 of exquisite beauty1 are found in the lithographic limestone of ,pappenheim3 a specimen from that locality 7,palmon spinipes7 is figured ,wond4 p4 #eac3 see also ,frontispiece of this work4 ,a large crustacean of the ,shrimp family has been discovered by the ,earl of ,enniskillen in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis4#ddg ,other specimens also of ,macrura1 more or less perfect1 have been obtained from the same rich mine of organic remains3 especially some in which the branchi1 or respiratory organs1 remain2 and a portion of the post-abdomen1 or tail1 of a ,cray-fish1 as large as the common species4 #ddg ,this beautiful fossil is figured and described by ,mr4 ,broderip1 ,geol4 ,trans1 second series1 vol4 v4 pl4 xii4 under the name of ,coleia antiqua4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,isopodous ,,crustaceans4 ,isopodous ,crustaceans4 ,lign4 #aga4--;,isopoda 7equal-feet7 is the term applied to an order of crustaceans in which the body is composed of a distinct head1 and seven rings1 each having a pair of equal feet2 the common ,oniscus1 or wood-louse1 is a familiar example of a terrestrial ,isopod4 ,this order includes many genera and species1 some of which nearly approach the extinct family of crustaceans 7,trilobites7 whose remains abound in the palozoic strata2 and the parasitical ,isopod1 ,bopyrus1 that infests the common ,prawn1 is closely related to certain genera of ,trilobites1 hereafter described4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aga4 ,archoniscus ,brodiei4 ,purbeck limestone4 ,vale of ,wardour4 7,drawn by ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward1 ,esq47 ,impressions of the upper and under surfaces4 ,one species of fossil ,isopod has been found in green fissile marl1 at ,montmartre2 and another in fine-grained limestone1 probably1 from ,pappenheim4#ddh ,no fossil remains of this order had been noticed in the ,british strata1 until the discovery of the ,archoniscus in the ,purbeck strata by the ,rev4 ,p4 ,b4 ,brodie4 ,the quarry in which these relics were found is situated at ,dallards1 near the village of ,dinton1 about twelve miles west of ,salisbury4 ,they are principally distributed in a bed of light-brown and grey limestone1 in the lower part of which are numerous fresh-water bivalves 7cyclades71 and a few small oysters4 ,these ,isopods often occur in clusters 7see ,lign4 #aga72 the lenses of the compound eyes are sometimes detectable in the limestone1 and1 rarely1 attached to the head2 traces of legs have been observed1 but no antenn4 ,in the same stratum the elytron 7sheath1 or wing-case7 of a coleopterous insect was discovered4 ,mr4 ,brodie has obtained specimens an inch and a half in length1 and an inch broad4 ,these fossils appear to have been deposited tranquilly at the bottom of the water which they inhabited1 since they are usually found imbedded with their legs downwards1 and generally well preserved4#ddi #ddh ,nat4 ,hist4 ,crust4 ,foss4 p4 #ach4 #ddi ,see ,brodie's ,fossil ,insects1 pp4 #c and #aj4 ,the ,archonisci also occur in the ,purbeck insectiferous limestone of ,durlstone ,bay1 near ,swanage1 and have been discovered in strata of a similar character at the ,ridgway railway-cutting between ,dorchester and ,weymouth1 by the ,rev4 ,osmond ,fisher1 of ,dorchester4 ,entomostraca4--,the ,crustaceans that we have above noticed belong to the ,sub-class ,malacostraca2 and we have now to describe some fossil genera belonging to various divisions of the ,entomostracous ,crustaceans4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #agb4 ,fossil4 ,limulus1 in a ,nodule of ,ironstone3 #a_/b nat4 ,carb4 ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,fig4 #a4 ,limulus ,rotundatus1 the imprint of fig4 #c4 #b4--,the nodule before it was broken4 #c4--,limulus ,rotundatus1 7the corresponding portion of the nodule1 fig4 #a17 showing the entire form of the carapace4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,limulus4 ,the ,limulus 7,mollucca or ,king ,crab7 is a genus belonging to that ,division of the ,entomostraca termed ,pcilopoda and is abundant in the seas of ,india and ,america4 ,the carapace is crustaceous and of a semilunar form1 the head and thorax are blended together1 and the superior abdominal shield1 which is composed of confluent segments1 appears like one piece1 and has an indistinct trilobed character2 the last segment is prolonged into a three-edged1 sharp1 styliform weapon4 ,the ,limulus has two reniform1 compound eyes1 composed of facets of a peculiar form4 ,the gills are disposed on lamelliform processes4 ,it is distinguished from all other crustaceans by the mastication of its food being performed by the first joint of the thoracic legs which surround the mouth1 instead of by jaws4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #agc4 ,limulus trilobitoides4 ,coal ,measures4 ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,very fine examples of a fossil species of this remarkable genus are occasionally obtained from the lithographic stone of ,solenhofen4#dej ,in ,england three small species have been discovered in nodules of ironstone and indurated clay1 in the ,carboniferous strata of ,coalbrook ,dale1 by ,mr4 ,prestwich4#dea ,in one example 7,l4 ,anthrax#deb7 two of the legs are seen extending from under the body2 in another species the sharp1 pointed process of the tail is well developed 7,buckl4 p4 #cif1 and tab4 xlvi42 see also ,lign4 #agc74 ,the specimen figured ,lign4 #agb is one of several examples which ,i obtained by breaking up nodules from that celebrated locality4 ,fig4 #b represents the nodule unbroken1 and without any indication of its contents2 by a well-directed blow it was separated into two equal portions1 figs4 #a and #c1 in which the carapace of the crustacean1 and its marginal appendages1 are well displayed4 ,the rounded form of the carapace1 and the membrane which appears to connect the spines1 separate this species from all others4 #dej ,hist4 ,crust4 ,foss4 pl4 xi4 fig4 #f4 #dea ,see ,mr4 ,prestwich's ,memoir on the ,geology of ,coalbrook ,dale1 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 second series1 vol4 v4 part #c4 #deb ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 second series1 vol4 v4 pl4 xli4 figs4 #a-d4 ,the ,eurypterus and ,pterygotus are palozoic crustaceans1 of large size4 ,they are regarded by ,prof4 ,m#8,coy and ,mr4 ,salter as belonging to the ,pcilopoda1 and as differing from the ,limulus chiefly in having the segments of the abdomen freely articulating with each other4#dec ,the ,eurypterus was first described by ,mr4 ,dekay1 in the ,united ,states1 probably from the ,carboniferous system4 ,the head is round1 the thoracic and cephalic portions of the carapace being blended together1 and the abdominal region is formed of eleven segments1 with a caudal appendage4 ,it has two depressed1 lunated eyes1 remote from each other1 and eight feet1 the anterior pairs furnished with branchi1 and the hindmost pair relatively larger than in any other crustacean4 ,two ,american species are described2 the one is five1 and the other about four inches long4#ded ,in the ,carboniferous strata at ,burdie-house1 near ,edinburgh1 and of ,kirton1 near ,glasgow1 a large species of this curious genius has been found by ,dr4 ,hibbert and ,dr4 ,scouler2 the length of some specimens being estimated at from twelve to eighteen inches4#dee #dec ,see ,salter on ,pterygotus1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol viii p4 #chg4 #ded ,dr4 ,harlan1 in ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,pennsylvania1 vol4 i4 p4 #if4 #dee ,see the elegant ,memoir on the ,fresh-water ,limestone of ,burdie-house1 near ,edinburgh1 by ,samuel ,hibbert1 ,m4,d4 ,f4,e4,s4,e4 ,other species of ,eurypterus have been noticed in the ,upper ,silurian rocks of ,kendal1 ,westmoreland1#def and of ,kington1 ,radnorshire2 and in the ,devonian of ,russia4 #def ,pal4 ,foss4 ,cambridge1 ,appendix4 ,pterygotus4--,in the ,old ,red sandstone of ,forfarshire1 and other parts of ,scotland1 the remains of this remarkable crustacean have been long known to the quarry-men by the name of petrified ,seraphims2 from an imaginary resemblance of the expanded post-abdomen to the usual representations of those ideal beings6 ,this genus is characterised by the angular carapace1 which forms a lozenge-shaped shield2 and the appendage of the post-abdomen1 which1 instead of being divided into segments1 as in most animals of this class1 is a continuous flap4 ,the eye-pits on the carapace are like those of ,eurypterus1 but are very large4 ,the claws resemble those of the common lobster4 ,the external crustaceous covering is ornamented with circular and elliptical markings1 producing an imbricated or scaly appearance1 the imprints of which gave rise to the enigmatical ,seraphims of the ,forfarshire sandstone4 ,some specimens indicate a total length of four feet6#deg #deg ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 or ,new ,walks in an ,old ,field1 by ,hugh ,miller1 p4 #adg4 ,there are specimens in the ,british ,museum from the quarries of ,carmylie4 ,besides this ,devonian species 7,p4 anglicus71 there is also a ,silurian species 7,p4 problematicus71 from ,herefordshire4#deh #deh ,see ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 viii4 p4 #chf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,several fossil genera of the ,entomostracous ,crustaceans belong to the ,phyllopoda 7leaf-feet71 which constitute a subdivision of the ,branchiopoda 7gill-feet74 ,of these perhaps the most remarkable is the ,dithyrocaris1 first discovered by ,dr4 ,scouler in the ,carboniferous shale near ,paisley4 ,this genus is allied to the recent ,apus1 and1 like it1 has a broad1 flat1 thin carapace1 easily divisible down the middle of the back1 and a lengthened tail or post-abdomen1 with a trifid termination4 ,six species have been found in the ,carboniferous deposits of the ,british ,isles4 ,ceratiocaris and ,hymenocaris1 which are related to the recent ,nebalia1 are also of the ,phyllopod group1 and maybe said to resemble a shrimp-like animal partly enclosed in a bivalve carapace1 while its tail is exposed1 and either protruded1 or turned beneath the body4 ,of the first-mentioned genus there are three ,upper ,silurian species2 and of ,hymenocaris ,mr4 ,salter has described a single species 7,h4 vermicanda7 from the ,lower ,silurian 7,cambrian7 of ,north ,wales4 ,the ,limnadiad1--another ,phyllopodous family1 of which the recent ,limnadia is the type1--are well represented in the older rocks4 ,these ,crustaceans are also bivalved1 but the body is wholly enclosed4 ,they are of small size4 ,estheria1 a genus closely related to ,limnadia1 occurs plentifully in the ,wealden of ,sussex and ,germany1 and in the ,lias of ,westbury4 ,mr4 ,bean also has noticed a species 7,e4 concentrica7 in the ,oolite shell of ,gristhorpe ,bay2 and the ,e4 minuta#dei is characteristic of the ,keuper division of the ,trias in ,england and ,europe4 #dei ,this was formerly described as a ,posidonomya4 ,leperditia and ,beyrichia are other fossil genera belonging to the ,limnadiad4 ,these little crustaceans were gregarious in their habit1 and1 like ,estheria1 occur locally in great profusion4 ,they are characteristic of the ,silurian deposits2 the former being an abundant ,upper ,silurian fossil in ,europe and ,north ,america1 and the latter1--a very minute form1--both in the ,upper and ,lower ,silurian4 ,the next group of ,entomostraca that we have to notice belongs to the ,lophyropoda 7feet crested with bristles71 namely1 the ,ostracoda 7shelled74 ,the recent genera1 ,cypris1 ,cythere1 and ,cypridina1#dfj are types of the three families of this group1 and are the existing representatives of numerous closely related forms that occur in a fossil state4 #dfj ,the student should consult ,dr4 ,baird's elegant and elaborate work on the ,natural ,history of the ,british ,entomostraca 7published by the ,ray ,society71 for information on the characters and habits of these interesting little crustaceans and their numerous allies ,illustration3 ,lign4 #agd4 ,fossil ,cyprides4 ,wealden4 ,sussex and ,isle of ,wight4 ,fig4 #a4--;,cypris ,valdensis3 magn42 showing the ventral aspect of the united valves4 ,cooksbridge4 #a;a4--,side view of the same1 magn4 ,the three small figures are of the nat4 size4 #b4--;,cypris ,fittoni1 magn4 ,langton ,green4 #c4--;,cypris tuberculata1 magn4 ,langton ,green4 #c;a4--,view of the same1 showing the lower edges of the valves united3 the three small figures1 nat4 #d4--;,cypris granulosa1 magn42 view showing the hinge-line4 #e4--;,a piece of ,weald ,clay1 with ,cyprides and ,shells2 nat4 ,cypris4 ,lign4 #agd4--,the animals of this genus belong to those ,crustaceans in which the covering of the body is not divided into transverse segments1 but consists of a large dorsal shield1 having the form of a bivalve shell4 ,they are often very minute1 and numerous kinds swarm in our lakes and pools4 ,the species of an allied genus1 named ,cythere1 the shells of which cannot always with certainty be distinguished in a fossil state from those of ,cypris1 inhabit salt or brackish waters4 ,as the living ,cyprides are interesting objects for microscopic examination1 they are commonly shown in the exhibitions of the hydro-oxygen microscope1 and their appearance is therefore well known4 ,two recent species are figured in ,ly4 p4 #ahc4 ,these animals have the body enclosed in a bivalve1 horny case1 the two pieces being united by a hinge-line4 ,they have four feet1 and two pairs of antenn1 with a pencil of cilia at the extremities2 and one compound eye4 ,they swim with rapidity1 by means of their ciliated antenn1 and crawl about actively on the water-weeds and other subaqueous surfaces4 ,like the other crustaceans1 they frequently moult or cast their cases1 and the surface of the mud spread over the bottoms of still lakes is often covered with their exuvi4 ,the largest living ,cypris 7,c4 clavata7 does not exceed one-eighth of an inch in length4 ,the fossil cases or shells of ,cyprides are found in considerable variety and in prodigious numbers in certain ,tertiary and ,secondary strata1 which appear to have been deposited by fresh-water2 as1 for example1 in the lacustrine marls of ,auvergne 7,ly4 p4 #ahc71 and the fluviatile clays and limestones of the south-east of ,england4 ,they have not been observed in any decidedly marine beds2 but ,mr4 ,lonsdale discovered in the ,chalk1 by means of the microscope1 cases of crustaceans1 that belong to the genus ,cythere 7,ly4 p4 #bf1 figs4 #ba-bd71 the recent species of which inhabit the sea4 ,one or more species of ,cypris have been observed in the older ,british ,tertiaries1--by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 in ,hordwell ,cliff 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bhh71 and by ,mr4 ,prestwich at ,hempstead ,cliff 7,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdf72 but in the ,pleistocene deposits the ,cypris and its congeners abound1 and of these ,mr4 ,r4 ,jones has enumerated nine species 7,annals ,nat4 ,hist4 #b;d ser4 vol4 iii474 ,in many districts on the ,continent1 the ,eocene marls and clays abound in these remains4 ,some of the fresh-water ,tertiary strata of ,france contain myriads of a ,cypris 7named ,c4 faba1 from its bean-like form7 which was formerly supposed1 but erroneously1 to be identical with a species found in the ,wealden4 ,the laminated marls of ,auvergne contain1 between every layer1 countless myriads of the shells of ,cyprides1 through a depth of several hundred feet2 although each lamina of marl scarcely exceeds the thickness of paper4 ,near ,clermont1 the green cypridiferous marls approach to within a few yards of the granite which forms the borders of that ancient basin 7,ly4 p4 #ahd74 ,in the eastern portion of the basaltic districts of ,india1 ,mr4 ,malcolmson has discovered two species of ,cypris1 associated with fresh-water univalves and bivalves4#dfa ,in ,england the principal deposits of the ,cyprides1 are the clays and limestones of the ,wealden and the ,isle of ,purbeck1#dfb to the composition of which the relics of these minute beings have largely contributed4 ,entire layers of their cases are found in the laminated clays and marls on the southern shores of the ,isle of ,wight1 at ,atherfield and ,sandown ,bay1 where some of the ,wealden beds emerge from beneath the lower division of the ,shanklin sand4 ,upon splitting the clay in the direction of the lamin1 the exposed surfaces are found to be covered with these minute bodies2 as in the specimen1 ,lign4 #agd1 fig4 #e4 #dfa ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 v4 pl4 xlvii4 #dfb ,on account of the distinctive characters of their carapace-valves1 ,m4 ,bosquet has suggested the appellation ,cypridea as a generic name for the ,cypridid of the ,wealden and ,purbeck beds4 ,the appearance of four characteristic ,wealden ,cyprides1 of their natural size and magnified1 is shown in ,lign4 #agd4 ,the one named ,c4 ,valdensis1 or ,wealden ,cypris1 by ,dr4 ,fitton and ,mr4 ,sowerby 7fig4 #a71 is the most frequent1 and occurs in numerous localities in ,kent and ,sussex4 ,a ,cypris having the case studded with relatively large tubercles 7fig4 #c71 is found in many of the finer sandstones of ,tilgate forest2 another1 with the shell tuberculated1 but divided by a transverse ridge 7fig4 #b71 indicating a rudimentary condition of the segments which characterise the class1 is certainly distinct from the former1 and can have no name more appropriate than that of ,c4 ,fittoni4 ,the other beautiful species 7,c4 granulosa1 fig4 #d7 has the surface of the case covered with granules4 ,one more species has been observed in the ,weald clay1 at ,sandown ,bay and ,atherfield 7by ,mr4 ,lonsdale72 it is distinguished by a short conical spine on each valve1 and is therefore named ,c4 spinigera4 ,in the ,weald clay at ,resting-oak-hill1 near ,cooksbridge 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #ahg71 ,c4 ,valdensis is so abundant1 that every thin flake is covered with its white calcareous shells2 and upon breaking the nodules and septaria of reddish-brown ironstone which occur in that locality1 myriads of beautiful sharp casts of the cases are observable in almost every fragment4 ,they are associated with fresh-water bivalves and univalves 7,cyclas and ,paludina71 and minute scales of fishes4 ,the sandstone at ,langton ,green1 near ,tunbridge ,wells1 which contains casts and impressions of several species of fresh-water shells1 abounds in ,cyprides2 and the layers of argillaceous ironstone1 interstratified with the sandstone in one of the quarries1 are particularly rich in these remains4 ,the surface of a recently broken slab is often covered by minute1 polished1 oblong1 convex bodies1 which are the casts of cypridean carapaces4 ,the ,sussex marble is largely composed of the remains of these minute crustaceans4 ,upon examining thin polished slices of this limestone under the microscope1 the cavities and interstices of the shells are found to be filled with the shields of ,cyprides1 entire or in fragments2 and some specimens of the ,purbeck marble equally abound in these remains4 ,the ,purbeck marls1 as well as the limestones1 often abound with ,cyprides4 ,according to ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes1 these belong to several species1 all more or less distinct from those of the ,wealden 7,brit4 ,association1 #ahej74 ,the ,cyprides of the ,wealden of ,germany have been figured and described by ,dr4 ,dunker2 and several of the ,british forms are found there4 ,as the recent species inhabit still lakes1 or gently running streams1 and not the turbulent waters of estuaries1 we cannot doubt that the strata in which these animals so largely predominate were deposited in lakes or bays1 communicating with the river which transported to their present situation the bones and other remains of the colossal reptiles of the ,wealden4 ,and the beds of fresh-water snails1 with scarcely any intermixture of other organic remains but the ,cyprides1 which are spread over extensive areas in the ,wealden and ,purbeck districts1 appear to afford corroborative proof of this inference4 ,four species of minute bivalved ,entomostraca from the ,carboniferous deposits have been referred to ,cypris3 viz4 ,c4 arcuata1 ,bean1 from the ,coal-shale at ,newcastle2 ,c4 inflata1 ,murchison1 ,coal-measures1 near ,shrewsbury2 ,c4 ,scoto-,burdigalensis1 ,hibbert1 ,coal-measures at ,burdie-house1 and ,coal-shale at ,derry2 and ,c4 subrecta1 ,portlock1 also from ,derry1 ,tyrone4 ,cythere4#dfc--,this animal differs but little from ,cypris except in having an additional pair of feet4 ,in the ,subgenus ,cythereis the valves are thick1 oblong1 and strongly hinged2 thus differing from the thin and more or less oval valves of the true ,cythere and of ,cypris4 ,several species of ,cythere and its sub-genera occur in the ,tertiary1 ,cretaceous1 ,oolitic1 ,liassic1 ,permian1 and ,carboniferous deposits4#dfd #dfc ,for description and illustration of this genus1 see ,baird's ,british ,entomostraca1 p4 #afc1 c4 #dfd ,consult ,m4 ,bosquet's ,memoir on the ,tertiary ,entomostraca of ,belgium and ,france2 ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,jones's ,monograph of the ,cretaceous ,entomostraca 7,palontographical ,society71 and of the ,permian ,entomostraca1 in ,prof4 ,king's ,monograph of the ,permian ,fossils 7,palont4 ,soc472 and ,prof4 ,m',coy's ,synopsis of the ,characters of the ,mountain ,limestone ,fossils of ,ireland4 ,three species of ,entomostraca1 very closely related to ,cypridina1#dfe from the ,carboniferous rocks of ,belgium1 hare been figured and described by ,m4 ,de ,koninck2 one species from the ,carboniferous rocks of ,ireland1 by ,prof4 ,m',coy2#dff and two species from the ,cretaceous limestone of ,maestricht1#dfg by ,m4 ,bosquet4 ,the genera ,cyprella and ,cypridella have been established by ,m4 ,de ,koninck for the reception of some allied forms found in the ,carboniferous strata of ,belgium2 and ,entomoconchus 7,m#8,coy7 and ,daphnoidia 7,hibbert7 are allied ,british ,carboniferous forms4 #dfe ,see ,baird's ,british ,entomostraca1 p4 #agf1 c4 #dff ,under the name of ,daphnia primva4 #dfg ,under the generic appellation of ,cyprella4 ,trilobites4--,among the numerous petrifactions which are found in the limestones in the neighbourhood of ,dudley1 in ,staffordshire1 there are certain fossil bodies which1 from their extraordinary form and appearance1 have for more than a hundred and fifty years been objects of great interest to the naturalist1 and of wonder to the general observer1 and have long been provincially termed ,dudley insects1 or locusts4#dfh ,by the earlier naturalists these fossils were referred to fishes1 to molluscs1 and to insects1 before their real character was discovered4 ,the most common type consists of a convex1 oblong body1 divided transversely into three principal parts1 and longitudinally into three lobes1 by two deep1 parallel furrows2 this last character suggested the name ,trilobita1 or ,trilobites1 by which the family is now distinguished by naturalists4 #dfh ,lhywd4 ,philos4 ,trans4 for the year #afih4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #age4 ,trilobites4 ,silurian ,limestones4 ,fig4 #a4--;,illnus perovalis4 7,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst47 #b4--,trinucleus ,lloydii4 7,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst47 #c4--;,calymene ,blumenbachii3 the upper surface of the carapace1 viewed from above4 ,dudley4 #d4--,the same1 coiled up1 and seen in profile4 #d;a4--,the same1 seen in front4 ,these fossils are the carapaces1 or shells1 of crustaceans1 belonging to an extinct family1#dfi which comprises many genera1 and numerous species4 ,mortimer1 ,da ,costa1 ,guettard1 and ,linnus recognised the crustacean character of this interesting1 but obscure class of organic remains3 their true affinities1 however1 were first scientifically determined by ,alex4 ,brongniart4#dgj ,many memoirs on the ,trilobites have since been published by eminent ,continental and ,american writers2#dga and much light has been thrown on the subject by the labours of ,martin1#dgb ,parkinson1#dgc ,stokes1 ,phillips1#dgd ,knig1#dge ,dr4 ,buckland1#dgf ,sir ,e4 ,i4 ,murchison1#dgg and others4 ,the beautiful illustrations and interesting description of the ,trilobites in ,dr4 ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise 7,bd4 p4 #chi1 and pl4 xlv4 xlvi47 must have rendered the reader familiar with the most important facts relating to these extinct beings2 but subsequent discoveries have thrown additional light on their structure and natural affinities4 ,the works of ,m4 ,burmeister1#dgh ,mr4 ,salter1#dgi ,prof ,m',coy#dhj and especially of ,m4 ,barrande1#dha should be carefully referred to by the student in this branch of ,palontology4 #dfi ,the ,trilobites appear to have been related more nearly to the ,phyllopoda than to any other division of the ,crustacea4 #dgj ,hist4 ,nat4 ,crust4 ,foss4 ,burmeister on ,trilobites2 ,introduction4 #dga ,a ,monograph on the ,trilobites of ,north ,america1 by ,jacob ,green1 ,m4,d4 ,philadelphia1 #ahcb4 #dgb ,petrificata ,derbiensia4 #dgc ,organic ,remains of a ,former ,world1 vol4 iii4 ,see ,pictorial ,atlas4 #dgd ,geology of ,yorkshire2 and ,palozoic ,fossils of ,devon4 #dge ,icones ,fossilium ,sectiles4 #dgf ,bridgewater ,treatise4 #dgg ,silurian ,system1 chap1 xlvii4 #dgh ,die ,organisation der ,trilobiten4 #ahdc4 ,translation3 ,ray ,society4 #dgi ,in the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 and in the ,memoirs and ,decades of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain4 #dhj ,palozoic ,fossils in the ,cambridge ,museum4 #dha ,the ,silurian ,system of ,bohemia3 the ,trilobites4 ,in the ,trilobites the head is distinct1 and without antenn1 and the feet are supposed to have been rudimentary1 soft1 and membranaceous3 the essential characters which separate them from all other crustaceans1 except ,bopyrus 7a parasite on the branchi of the common prawn71 are1 according to ,mr4 ,macleay1 the deficiency of antenn1 and of lateral posterior abdominal appendages1 and the presence of evanescent feet4 ,like other crustaceans1 the ,trilobites were subject to the process of metamorphosis during their early stages of life2 and ,m4 ,barrande has ascertained that one species1 the ,sa hirsuta1 appeal's in no less than twenty different stages of development4 ,in its earliest1 embryonic condition1 it is a simple disk1 and it passes through various stages until it becomes a perfect adult trilobite1 having seventeen free thoracic segments and two caudal joints4 ,no less than ten genera and eighteen species were instituted by palontologists on some of the forms only which this one species presents in its different stages of metamorphosis1 before ,m4 ,barrande's laborious and long-continued investigations gave him an insight into the true relations of these various conditions of the same animal to one another4 ,this talented and indefatigable palontologist has arrived at like results with other ,trilobites1 and has been enabled to add greatly to our knowledge of the natural history and geological distribution of this interesting group of crustaceans4 ,see ,transact1 of the ,sections1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdi and #ahej2 and ,trilob4 ,bohme1 pl4 vii4 ,the ,trilobites have been arranged in numerous genera1 the names of which in a few cases are expressive of natural characters1 but in others have reference to the obscurity that still invests some parts of the organization of these animals4#dhb #dhb ,as1 for example1 ,asaphus1 obscure2 ,calymene1 concealed2 ,agnostus1 unknown4 ,calymene ,blumenbachii4 ,lign4 #age1 figs4 #c1 #d4--,this is the ,trilobite so well known as the ,dudley locust1 or insect4 ,it consists of an ovate1 convex1 trilobed crustaceous shell1 or case1 and is found either expanded1 as in ,lign4 #age1 fig4 #c1 with its under surface attached to1 and blended with1 the limestone 7,wond4 p4 #ghi72 or coiled up like an ,oniscus1 or wood-louse1 as in figs4 #d and #d;a4 ,the head is large1 convex1 rounded in front1 with a broad border1 and divided into three lobes by two longitudinal depressions4 ,the eyes are two in number1 compound1 and have numerous facets2 they are situated on the sides of the head1 remote from each other4 ,the carapace is deeply trilobed by two longitudinal furrows2 the thoracic portion is composed of thirteen segments2 the caudal shield is small and nearly semicircular4 ,this species is from one to four inches in length4 ,it occurs from the ,lower ,llandeilo rocks up to the ,upper ,ludlow inclusive4 ,the structure here described may be regarded as the normal type1 but numerous and important modifications prevail in the different genera4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #agf ,homalonotus dephinocephalus4 7,reduced from pl4 vii4 ,sil4 ,syst47 ,upper ,silurian4 ,dudley4 ,in the genus ,homalonotus1 ,lign4 #agf1 the thoracic portion of the carapace is but obscurely lobed1 and consists of thirteen segments2 the abdominal is distinct from the thoracic1 and formed of nine rings2 it terminates in a prolonged point4 ,the ,h4 ,herschelii is a large ,trilobite1 very plentiful in the ,upper ,silurian schists of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,in another genus1 ,asaphus 7,geol4 ,surv4 ,decade #b71 the carapace is wide and much depressed2 the middle lobe distinct1 the cephalic portion rounded in front1 and terminating posteriorly in a sharp process on each side4 ,the eyes are compound1 and each contains upward of six thousand lenses1 many of which remain in some examples4#dhc ,some ,american species belonging to this group are of a gigantic size1 as1 for example1 the ,isotelus gigas 7of ,mr4 ,dekay71 which is eighteen inches long4 ,in the ,isotelus#dhd the body is of an oval shape1 and the posterior angles of the head are rounded2 the thorax is composed of eight segments4 #dhc ,mem4 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,decade #b1 pl4 v4 p4 #b1 note4 #dhd ,isotelus1 i4 e4 equal extremities4 ,another division of the ,trilobites has the body contracted1 and very thick1 and the abdomen large and scutiform1 without any segmentary divisions2 the small crustacean 7,illnus perovalis1 ,murch47 ,lign4 #age1 fig4 #a1 will serve to illustrate these characters4 ,the ,trilobite called ,bumastus by ,sir ,r4 ,murchison 7from its grape-like form7 presents a very curious modification of the normal type4 ,both the head and caudal extremity are rounded1 with no distinct longitudinal furrows2 and the whole surface of the carapace is covered by extremely thin1 apparently imbricated1 lamell1 the edges of which are undulated1 and the intermediate spaces studded with minute dots4 ,the eyes are smooth1 and not granulose1 as in ,calymene4 ,this genus is known in ,england by the name of the ,barr ,trilobite1 from its occurrence in the limestone near ,barr1 in ,staffordshire2 it is sometimes five inches long1 and three and a half wide 7,geol4 ,surv4 ,decade #b1 pl4 iii4 and iv474 ,the genus ,ogygia 7,bd4 pl4 xlvi4 fig4 #i7 is characterised by the elliptical and depressed form of the carapace1 its nearly balanced extremities1 and the prolongation of the buckler1 or cephalic portion1 on each side1 into slender spikes1 distinct from the body2 the thoracic and abdominal regions are divided by two deep1 longitudinal furrows1 into three lobes2 there is also a straight1 longitudinal groove1 in the front of the buckler 7see figures and descriptions of ,o4 ,buchii1 ,geol4 ,surv4 ,decade #b74 ,the ,trilobites of this genus are found in the ,lower ,silurian rocks of ,north ,wales and ,ireland2 they occur also in great abundance in the slate rocks of ,angers1 and some species are more than a foot in length4 ,some species of the genus ,phacops have long1 pointed caudal appendages1 as the ,p4 7formerly ,asaphus7 caudatus 7,lign4 #agg2 ,bd4 pl4 xlv4 figs4 #aj1 #aj2 and ,geol4 ,surv4 ,decade #b1 pl4 i474 ,the eyes are often well preserved1 and each contains about #bdj spherical lenses4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #agg4 ,phacops caudatus4 ,upper ,silurian4 ,dudley4 ,the caudal extremity4 ,trinucleus4 ,lign4 #age1 fig4 #b2 ,ly4 fig4 #dcb4--,this genus comprises several small forms which are found in the ,lower ,silurian rocks of ,england1 and occur in the equivalent deposits of ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,russia4#dhe ,in the ,trinucleus1 the cephalic shield is obtuse1 trilobed1 rounded1 and terminating in lateral spikes2 and its margin is marked by numerous pit-like depressions4 ,there are six body-rings or thoracic segments4 ,the caudal shield is large and somewhat triangular4 ,there are no distinct eyes4 #dhe ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #bag4 ,paradoxides4 ,lign4 #agh4--,the ,trilobites of this genus are easily recognised by the ends of the lateral segments of the thorax and abdomen terminating in deflected points1 which extend in spikes beyond the membrane they supported1 and particularly those near the tail1 which are much elongated2 whereas in the other genera the lateral points of the segments are united by a membrane1 which often forms a border beyond them4 ,the cephalic buckler is semicircular1 and its lateral angles are lengthened out behind into two strong spines2 it is divided on the median line into four protuberances1 by transverse grooves4 ,the thorax consists of from sixteen to twenty segments2 the abdominal buckler is generally very small and rounded4 ,the animals of this genus have the body much depressed1 and the lateral lobes wider than the middle lobe3 some species are of considerable size1 attaining several inches in length4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #agh4 ,paradoxides ,bohemicus3 nat4 ,silurian4 ,bohemia4 ,a very peculiar form of ,trilobite 7,brontes flabellifer1 ,ly4 p4 #cdh7 is found in the ,devonian strata of the ,eifel and ,south ,devonshire2 the head1 or cephalic region1 is narrow1 and has two lunated eyes2 the thoracic region is trilobed and short1 and composed of about ten small articulations2 the abdominal very small1 and bordered by segments1 which radiate and form a wide1 fan-shaped expansion4 ,other species of this genus occur in the ,silurian rocks4 ,with regard to the under surface of the ,trilobites much remains to be known4 ,no decided indications either of antenn or extremities have been discovered4 ,in an ,american specimen1 ,mr4 ,stokes detected a plate1#dhf which appears to be a labrum1 or upper mandible or lip1 resembling that of ,apus cancriformis4 ,this animal has a similar labrum1 and lateral influted terminations of the shelly segments of the body1 with a distinctly trilobed pygidium 7tail or caudal portion71 and a prolonged tail3 the feet being foliaceous1 and the abdomen merely covered by a membrane4#dhg ,in the upper or dorsal surface of the carapace the ,trilobites approach certain ,isopoda1 particularly in the characters of the buckler and eyes4 ,mr4 ,macleay states that among the existing crustaceans there are certain genera which individually possess some one or more of the characters1 which have been thought peculiar to the extinct ,trilobites4 ,thus the ,serolis 7,bd4 pl4 xlv4 fig4 #f71 and the ,bopyrus1 have a trilobed form2 the female ,cymotho have the coriaceous margin of the body1 and in some species are without eyes as are many of the ,trilobites2 while the eyes of the males of some ,cymotho are composed of large facets1 and are situated on the back of the head1 wide apart1 as in the ,calymene2 rudimentary feet1 and the absence of antenn occur in ,bopyrus2 and lastly1 the ,sphroma has an onisciform body1 and the power of rolling itself up into a ball1 like the ,calymene 7,lign4 #age1 fig4 #d74 ,the analogy between the ,bopyrus and the ,barr ,trilobite is so close1 that if the latter had a body with thirteen equal segments1 and short crustaceous feet1 it would be in every essential particular a male ,bopyrus4#dhh ,burmeister regards the ,trilobites as being related to the ,branchipus4 ,from the absence of eyes in the female1 and their presence in the male of certain recent genera of crustaceans1 it is not improbable that a similar character may have prevailed in the ,trilobites1 and that certain fossils referred to different genera1 from the presence or absence of eyes1 may have been the males and females of the same species4 #dhf ,geol4 ,trans1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bjh4 ,see also ,bd4 pl4 xlv1 fig4 #ab2 and ,burmeister1 pl4 vi4 #dhg ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #ffe4 #dhh ,ibid4 p4 #ffg4 ,the habits of the ,trilobites1 as deducible from ,mr4 ,macleay's exposition of their structure and affinities1 must have resembled those of the ,cymothoad1 some of which1 like the ,calymenes1 coil themselves up1 and are not parasitical2 while their close affinity to ,bopyrus1 and the apparent absence of distinct crustaceous feet1 imply that they were to a certain degree sedentary4 ,the flat under surface of their bodies1 and the lateral coriaceous margin of several species1 which is so analogous to that of the multivalve shell ,chiton1 render it probable that they adhered by a soft1 articulated1 under surface1 to the rocks or sea-weeds4 ,their instruments of progression are unknown2 whether they moved by means of membranaceous feet1 or by the undulations of setigerous segments1 like the earth-worm1 or by wrinkling the under surface of the abdomen1 like the ,chiton1 are questions yet to be determined4 ,it is evident1 from their longitudinally trilobed form1 and lateral coriaceous margin1 that they had the power of firmly adhering to flat surfaces2 and while thus sedentary the thin but hard dorsal crustaceous shell would protect them from the attacks of their enemies4 ,the ,trilobites1 probably1 like the ,chitones1 adhered in masses one upon another1 and thus formed those conglomerations of individuals which are so remarkable in certain rocks2 but it is not likely that they were parasitical1 since almost all the existing parasites that adhere to other animals1 have strong feet1 armed at their extremities with hooks for that purpose4#dhi ,from the form of the labrum of the mouth 7,barrande1 pl4 i4 and ii ,a7 it is inferred that they were carnivorous1 preying on naked mollusks1 or on the annelides1 with which their remains are associated4 #dhi ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #ffi4 ,as the compound eyes of the ,trilobites#dij are similar to those of existing crustaceans and insects 7see ,wond4 p4 #gib71 the highly interesting and important fact is established1 that the mutual relations of light to the eye1 and of the eye to light1 were the same in the remote epoch when the ,trilobites flourished1 as at the present time2 and that the condition of the waters of the sea1 and the atmosphere1 and the relation of both these media to light1 have undergone no change through the countless ages that have elapsed since the deposition of the ,silurian strata4#dia #dij ,the compound eyes in many specimens remain in a high state of preservation4 ,m4 ,barrande in the eye of a ,brontes palifer counted #cj1jjj lenses4 ,see also ,barrande1 pl4 iii4 #dia ,see ,dr4 ,buckland's eloquent and instructive commentary on this subject1 ,bd4 pp4 #dja-djd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,geological ,distribution of ,fossil ,crustaceans4 ,we have seen that the ,tertiary strata contain the remains of many of the highest organized crustaceans2 a few brachyurous1 macrurous1 and entomostracous genera appear in the ,cretaceous1 ,oolitic1 and ,liassic formations2 whilst the ,isopodous ,archoniscus and several species of ,cypris occur in the ,wealden and ,purbeck deposits4 ,some few ,entomostraca have been enumerated from the ,trias and ,permian4 ,one species of macrurous decapod has been found in the ,muschelkalk of ,germany2 and ,mr4 ,prestwich's ,apus dubius 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 v4 pl4 xli4 fig4 #i71 and ,dr4 ,ick's crustacean1 noticed in ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 i4 p4 #aii1 both from the ,coal ,measures of ,england1 are probably true ,decapodous ,crustaceans4 ,with these exceptions not a species of the numerous tribes of ,crabs1 ,lobsters1 c4 has been observed in the older formations1 though composed of such enormous thicknesses of marine detritus1 and containing countless myriads of the relics of the inhabitants of the ocean4 ,a few species of ,limulus1 several ,cytheres and allied genera1 and a few ,trilobites 7,phillipsia and ,griffithides7 belong to the strata of the ,carboniferous ,system4 ,in the ,devonian ,system we find some minute entomostracans1 the gigantic ,pterygotus1 and various ,trilobites 7,brontes1 ,cheirurus1 ,homalonotus1 ,phacops1 c472 but it is the ,silurian rocks that constitute the grand mausoleum of those ancient beings1 the ,trilobites4 ,there are about thirty genera of ,trilobites found in the ,silurian rocks of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,many of these are common to the ,upper and ,lower ,divisions of that system2 and some of them are met with both in the ,silurian and in the ,devonian rocks1 as ,phacops1 ,brontes1 ,cheirurus1 ,harpes1 and ,homalonotus4 ,the ,calymene ,blumenbachii 7,lign4 #age1 figs4 #c and #d7 ranges through the ,ludlow and ,wenlock1 to the ,bala and ,llandeilo formations4 ,the ,phacops caudatus also 7,lign4 #agg71 the ,cheirurus bimucronatus1#dib and the ,encrinurus punctatus#dic extend from the ,ludlow1 to the ,llandeilo formation4 ,the ,upper ,silurian rocks exclusively contain some peculiar forms1 as ,encrinurus variolaris1 ,bumastus ,barriensis1 and several species of ,acidaspis4 ,and the ,lower ,silurian has several distinct genera1 namely1 the ,trinucleus 7,lign4 #age1 fig4 #b71 ,ogygia1 ,agnostus1 ,asaphus1 ,olenus1 ,remopleurides1 c4 ,one species of ,pterygotus1 and one of ,eurypterus1 the ,ceratiocaris and ,hymenocaris1 and several species of the minute bivalved ,entomostraca 7,leperditia and ,beyrichia7 are all that remain to be enumerated as constituting1 in company with the ,trilobites1 the ,crustacean fauna of the ancient ,cambrian and ,silurian seas4#did #dib ,in ,murchison's ,silurian ,system this form is figured 7pl4 xiv4 figs4 #h and #i7 and described as ,paradoxides bimucronatus4 #dic ,this is described and figured as ,asaphus tuberculatus in ,buckland's ,bridgewater ,treatise1 pl4 xlvi4 fig4 #f4 #did ,we have also to refer to the indications of the existence of other large ,silurian ,entomostraca afforded by the magnificent series of fossil foot-tracks lately brought to ,england by ,w4 ,e4 ,logan1 ,esq41 and obtained by that gentleman from the ,potsdam ,sandstone 7,lower ,silurian7 of ,eastern ,canada4 ,these foot-marks and trails have been determined by ,prof4 ,owen as being most probably referable to some large ,crustaceans of the ,limulus ,group1 and are named by him ,protichnites4 7,see drawings and descriptions in the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 viii47 ,on ,collecting ,fossil ,crustaceans4--,the ,crabs and ,lobsters of the argillaceous tertiary strata are generally imbedded in nodules of indurated clay and septaria4 ,on the shore beneath the cliffs on the north of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 and near ,southend1 specimens may be observed in the nodules that have been exposed to the action of the waves1 the attrition to which they have been subjected having partially worn away the surrounding stone1 and displayed the enclosed fossils4 ,in these examples the carapace is occasionally seen on one side1 and the pair of pincer-claws on the other face of the boulder2 the other feet and the plates of the thorax may sometimes be developed in such examples by chiselling away the enveloping mass4 ,in the laminated marls of the tertiary and other deposits1 in which the minute crustaceans1 as the ,cyprides abound1 thin slabs covered with these relics may be easily extracted2 and many of the tertiary clays and sands yield ,cytheres1 together with ,foraminifera and other minute fossils1 on careful washing and examination with a lens4 ,the ,chalk crustaceans1 particularly those which are muricated1 or beset with spines and tubercles1 as the ,enoploclytia ,sussexiensis and ,e4 ,leachii 7,lign4 #afi71 require considerable patience and dexterity to develope successfully4 ,the crustaceous covering of the carapace and claws adheres firmly to the chalk by the rough external coat1 while the inner1 smooth1 glossy surface as readily separates4 ,hence1 upon breaking a block of chalk containing portions of these crustaceans1 we find one piece exhibiting a chalk cast of the claw or carapace1 covered with tubercles or papill1 that have been moulded in the bases of the spines of the crust2 and on the other portion the crustaceous shell imbedded by its outer surface1 and presenting the internal glossy lining1 beset with circular depressions1 which are the bases of the spines4 ,this crust is exceedingly friable1 and will flake off by a very slight touch4 ,to obtain specimens with the external characters1 it is necessary to proceed with great caution2 and when indications of a crustacean are observed in a block1 the chalk should be chiselled or sawn off to within half an inch of the surface of the fossil1 and the remainder of the stone be cleared away1 piece by piece1 by means of a penknife or graver4 ,by this process the fossils figured ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxix4 xxx4 xxxi4 were developed4 ,when a fine specimen has been broken1 and the shell is attached to one piece of the stone and the cast to the other1 it is possible to obtain an illustrative example of the external surface1 by cementing the pieces accurately together with very thin hot glue2 and1 when firmly consolidated1 the chalk may be removed1 and the spines1 tubercles1 and papill of the crustaceous covering be developed by the method previously described4 ,a thin coating of mastic varnish will give durability to the crust1 and improve its appearance2 but the rich brown colour it possesses when first exposed soon disappears4 ,the ,crustaceans of the ,galt are often found amongst the argillaceous and pyritous nodules flung aside in heaps where the ,galt is used for brick-making4 ,the ,cytherid of the ,chalk1 ,galt1 ,oolite1 c4 are to be obtained by disintegrating the matrix in water1 and examining the debris1 after sifting1 under a lens4 ,the ,limuli of the ,coal-measures often form the nuclei of clay nodules1 as in the example figured ,lign4 #agb1 in which fig4 #b represents the nodule without any external indication of its contents1 and figs4 #a1 and #c1 the same broken1 and displaying the crustacean4 ,traces of the legs1 branchi1 and other appendages1 should be diligently sought for in fossils of this kind1 for they are more likely to be detected in such specimens than in those found in limestone4 ,it is possible that polished sections of the coiled up examples of ,trilobites 7,lign4 #age1 fig4 #d7 would throw some light upon the nature of the hitherto undiscovered organs of locomotion and respiration of this extinct order of ,crustaceans4 ,a ,,few ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,crustaceans4 ,abberley4 ,silurian3 ,trilobites and ,beyrichia4 ,aberystwith1 neighbourhood of4 ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,arundel1 ,sussex4 ,chalk-pits in the vicinity4 ,astacid and ,cytherid4 ,atherfield1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,wealden3 ,cyprides in clay 7,lign4 #agd74 ,barr1 ,staffordshire2 limeworks at ,hay ,head4 ,silurian3 ,trilobites1 particularly of the genus ,bumastus4 ,bewdley1 ,shropshire4 ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,bolland1 ,yorkshire4 ,carboniferous ,limestone3 ,trilobites 7,cyclus1 ,phillipsia74 ,burdie-house1 near ,edinburgh4 ,fresh-water coal-measures4 ,cyprides and ,eurypteri4 ,burham1 near the banks of the ,medway1 ,kent4 ,quarry of ,mr4 ,w4 ,lee1 a good section of the lower ,chalk3 fine ,crustaceans4 ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,coal-measures and ,silurian4 ,limuli and ,trilobites4 ,coniston1 ,lancashire4 ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,dinley1 ,wilts4 ,purbeck4 ,isopoda 7,lign4 #aga7 and ,cyprides4 ,dover4 ,in the lower ,chalk1 ,astacus 7,enoploclytia7 ,sussexiensis1 c4 ,dudley4 ,upper ,silurian3 ,trilobites in abundance4 ,durlstone ,bay1 near ,swanage4 ,purbeck3 ,cyprides and ,isopoda4 ,folkstone1 ,kent4 ,in ,galt3 small ,crabs 7,lign4 #afh71 and numerous ,cytheres4 ,grays1 ,essex4 ,pleistocene3 ,cyprides4 ,gristhorpe ,bay1 ,yorkshire ,oolite3 ,astacid4 ,hastings1 ,sussex1 neighbourhood of4 ,wealden3 ,cyprides4 ,hollington1 near ,hastings4 ,wealden3 ,cyprides4 ,hordwell ,cliff1 ,hampshire4 ,upper ,eocene3 ,cyprides4 ,kildare1 ,ireland4 ,carboniferous and ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,langton ,green1 near ,tunbridge ,wells4 ,wealden3 ,cyprides4 ,lewes1 ,sussex4 ,in the ,chalk-pits of the vicinity3 ,astacid 7,lign4 #afi71 and other ,crustaceans4 ,llandeilo1 ,caermarthenshire4 ,lower ,silurian3 ,trilobites1 ,trinuclei4 ,lyme ,regis1 ,dorset4 ,green ,sand3 ,hoploparia4 ,lias3 ,coleia4 ,malvern ,hills4 ,lower ,silurian4 ,trilobites 7,olenus74 ,meifod ,hills1 ,montgomeryshire4 ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,mount ,pleasant1 ,caermarthen4 ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,newton ,bushel4 ,devonian3 ,trilobites 7,brontes74 ,rhiwlas1 near ,bala1 ,north ,wales4 ,lower ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,ringmer1 near ,lewes4 ,in ,galt3 small ,crabs1 c4 ,sandown ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,cyprides1 in ,weald ,clay4 ,scarborough4 ,oolite3 ,astacid1 in clay nodules4 ,sheppey4 ,london ,clay3 ,lobsters and ,crabs4 ,steyning1 ,sussex4 ,in ,chalk-marl3 ,lobsters1 c4 ,tyrone1 ,ireland4 ,carboniferous and ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,wenlock1 neighbourhood of4 ,upper ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,westbury1 ,gloucestershire4 ,lias3 ,estheria and ,cyprides4 ,wilmington1 near ,marton1 ,salop4 ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,wistanstow1 ,salop4 ,lower ,silurian3 ,trilobites4 ,worthing1 ,sussex4 ,neighbouring ,chalk-pits4 ,lobsters1 c4 ,,fossil ,,insects1 ,,scorpions1 ,,and ,,spiders4 ,from the ,crustaceans we pass by a natural transition to the other ,articulata1 viz4 the ,arachnida 7,scorpions and ,spiders7 and the ,insecta1 in the last of which the highest problem of animal mechanics is solved1 and the body and its appendages can be lifted from the ground and propelled through the air 7,owen74 ,the skeleton in these animals1 as in the ,crustaceans1 is chiefly external1 and consists of a hard shell or case 7composed of a peculiar substance1 termed chitine71 divided into segments1 and furnished with articulated or jointed hollow extremities4 ,the head is distinct1 and has a pair of compound eyes1 and of jointed antenn4 ,to the segments that form the thorax the legs are attached1 and these consist of three pieces in the hexapods 7insects with six feet71 each supporting a pair of feet4 ,the wings in the flying insects are attached to the middle and third thoracic segments4 ,the legs1 or articulated appendages1 are hollow1 as in the ,crustaceans1 and contain the muscles and other soft parts4 ,the generic and other distinctions adopted by naturalists1 to facilitate the study of this most numerous division of the animal kingdom1 are founded on the structure and configuration of the antenn and wings4 ,the latter consist of flat membranous expansions1 supported by hollow tubes or nervures2 and in some orders consist of one pair1 and in others of two4 ,in burrowing insects1 as the ,beetle1 the front pair of wings constitutes a hard case 7elytron71 which covers and protects the membranous posterior pair1 when the animal is in repose or walking4 ,the modifications of the wings furnish the characters by which the class is divided into orders4 ,thus the ,coleoptera 7sheathed-wings7 comprise the beetles and other burrowing insects1 in which the membranous wings are folded transversely beneath the elytra1 or wing-cases4 ,the ,orthoptera 7straight-wings71 those with two pairs of wings1 of which the anterior encase the others1 the posterior being membranous1 and folded longitudinal during repose2 as the ,earwig1 ,cockroach1 ,mantis1 and ,locusts4 ,neuroptera 7nerved-wings71 those with two pairs of transparent reticulated wings1 as the ,libellula1 or ,dragon-fly1 the ,ephemera1 and the ,termites4 ,hymenoptera 7membranous-wings71 with simply veined membranous wings1 as the ,gall-flies1 the ,bee1 c4 ,the ,cicas1 ,aphis1 and ,coccus constitute the somewhat anomalous group termed ,homoptera 7equal-wings71 in which the anterior pair of wings are usually similar to the posterior in consistence1 and shut up in a roof-like manner4 ,the ,heteroptera 7different-wings7 include the ,nepa1 ,notonecta1 c4 and have the anterior wings coriaceous at the base1 membranous towards the point1 and shutting up nearly horizontally1 partly lapping over one another4 ,lepidoptera 7scaly-wings7 have wings covered with scales1 as the ,butterfly and ,moth4 ,in the ,diptera 7two-wings7 the anterior pair of wings only are the instruments for flying1 and the hinder pair are reduced to mere clavate appendages1 as the ,gnat and ,fly4 ,the ,phrygane 7,caddis flies7 constitute the order of ,trichoptera 7hairy-wings71 related to the ,neuroptera1 but resembling the ,lepidoptera in the distribution of the nervures of the wings1 and in many other characters4 ,lastly1 there remain the ,wingless ,insects1 divisible into three orders1 of which the ,flea1 the ,parasites1 and the ,podura are respectively the types4 ,with these few remarks on those durable parts of the structure of ,insects which their fossil remains generally present1 we must quit this part of the subject1 and enter upon the examination of the relics which are the immediate objects of our present inquiry4 ,from the enduring nature of the elytra1 segments1 and articulated extremities of insects1 the fossil remains of animals of this class might naturally be expected to abound in lacustrine and fluviatile deposits2 this1 however1 is not the case1 and except in a few favoured localities1 fossil insects are seldom met with1 and good specimens rank among the most rare and interesting of the organic remains of the ,secondary formations4 ,in certain ,tertiary beds1 as at ningen1 and ,aix in ,provence1 insects of numerous species and genera have been discovered2 and the cream-coloured limestone of ,solenhofen1 among its numerous other treasures1 has yielded some fine examples of this class4 ,the strata in which remains of insects have been found in ,england#die are the ,tertiary clays of the ,bagshot series1 the ,hastings beds1 ,purbeck marls and limestones1 ,kimmeridge ,clay1 ,oxford ,clay1 ,forest ,marble1 ,stonesfield ,slate1 ,upper and ,lower ,lias1 and the ,coal ,measures4 #die ,palontologists are particularly indebted to the ,rev4 ,p4 ,b4 ,brodie1 ,f4,g4,s4 for his compendious and valuable ,history of the ,fossil ,insects in the ,secondary ,rocks of ,england 7#hvo4 #ahde72 and to ,j4 ,o4 ,westwood1 ,esq4 the eminent ,entomologist1 for the very important and interesting ,observations on the ,insect ,remains1 prefixed to the above work4 ,in an interesting paper on the ,geology of the vicinity of ,ilminster1 ,c4 ,moore1 ,esq4 has noticed the numerous ,insect remains of the ,upper ,lias of that place4 ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes and ,w4 ,r4 ,binfield1 ,esq4 have discovered ,insects in the ,hastings series2 and ,mr4 ,binfield1 besides having most successfully searched the ,upper ,lias of ,gloucestershire1 has also detected some specimens in the ,lias at ,lyme4 ,lastly1 ,mr4 ,morris has found ,insects in the ,upper ,lias in ,lincolnshire4 ,,arachnida4 ,fossil ,scorpion4 7,bd4 pl4 xlvi47--,the discover of a fossil ,scorpion in coal-shale1 associated with leaves1 by ,count ,sternberg1 and of ,spiders in the limestone of ,solenhofen1 by ,count ,mnster1 proves the existence at a very remote period of both these insectivorous families of ,arachnidans1 or spiders 7,bd4 p4 #dje74 ,the fossil ,scorpion was found in a block of argillaceous shale1 at ,chomle1 in ,bohemia4 ,it lies imbedded amidst the carbonized remains of leaves1 and a large trifid carpolithe or seed-vessel 7see ,bd4 pl4 xlvi473 by a fortunate separation of the shale1 the back or dorsal carapace is shown on one surface2 and the thorax1 with five or six legs attached1 and the abdominal segments1 are exposed on the other1 together with a fragment of the tail of another and larger ,scorpion4 ,the head and eyes1 one of the jaws with teeth1 and a portion of the skin remain 7,bd4 pl4 xlvi4 figs4 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f74 ,the horny covering seems to have undergone no change2 it is still elastic and transient1 and consists of two layers1 both retaining their texture1 and structure1 and exhibiting under the microscope hexagonal cells divided by strong partitions4 ,fossil ,spiders4--,with the numerous insects preserved in the gypseous marls at ,aix1 of which we shall treat hereafter1 ,spiders are occasionally found4 ,a beautiful example1 showing the under surface of a small spider1 with the papill of the spinning organs protruded by pressure1 from the cabinet of ,mrs4 ,murchison1 is figured1 ,bd4 pl4 xlvi4 fig #ab ,in the beautiful lithographic stone of ,solenhofen the remains of spiders are not unfrequent4 ,,insecta4 ,fossil ,neuroptera4--,of this order1 the insects of which are distinguished by their four finely reticulated membranous wings1 several fossil species have been found4 ,some of these are referable to the family ,libellulid2--insects so well known from their light and elegant figure1 their beautiful and variegated colours1 their large lustrous wings1 and the velocity and gracefulness of their motions4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #agi4 ,fossil ,libellula1 or ,dragon-fly4 ,solenhofen4 7,drawn by ,mr4 ,joseph ,dinkel47 ,in the cabinet of the late ,marquess of ,northampton4 ,fossil ,libellulid4 ,lign4 #agi4--,of the highly organized family of carnivorous insects1 the ,libellulid1 five or six specimens have been discovered in the lithographic limestone of ,solenhofen2 a beautiful specimen from that locality is represented1 ,lign4 #agi4 ,in this example both pairs of wings remain1 but one wing is pressed down beneath the abdomen3 the nervures of the wings are admirably preserved4 ,a few examples of the remains of this family have been found in the ,british strata4 ,one species of ,libellula and one of shna have been found by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,brodie in the ,purbeck beds of the ,vale of ,wardour4 ,two species of ,libellula1#dif two of shna1 and some other allied species have been obtained by ,messrs4 ,strickland1 ,buckman1 ,binfield1 and ,brodie from the ,lias4 ,the wing of the shna liassina1 discovered in the ,lias1 near ,binton1 in ,warwickshire1 by ,mr4 ,strickland1 is two inches and ten and a half lines in length1 and eight and a half lines in its greatest breadth1 being one-third larger than the wing of the largest ,british species4 ,see ,wond4 ,lign4 #aai1 and p4 #ebh4 #dif ,a very interesting specimen of fossil ,libellula1 discovered by the ,rev4 ,mr ,brodie in the ,upper ,lias near ,cheltenham1 is figured in the ,quarterly ,geol4 ,journal1 for #ahdh1 vol4 v4 pl4 v4 ,fossil ,corydalis4 ,lign4 #aha1 fig4 #b4--,the wing of a remarkable fossil ,neuropterous insect was discovered by me in a nodule of ironstone1 from ,coalbrook ,dale1 and mistaken for a leaf4 ,the specimen consists of one wing1 which1 as ,m4 ,audoin first ascertained1 closely resembles that of the living ,corydalis of ,carolina2 see ,lign4 #aha1 fig4 #b4 ,the membranous structure and the distribution of the nervures are distinctly preserved2 on the portion figured the surface of the wing lies in relief on the stone2 and on the corresponding part of the nodule1 a sharp imprint remains1#dig ,i have named this fossil in honour of the eminent ,french savant1 ,m4 ,alex4 ,brongniart4 #dig ,this specimen is now in the collection of the ,british ,museum4 ,wings of ,corydalis have also been found in the ,purbeck beds of the ,vale of ,wardour1 by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,brodie1 who has also discovered remains of ,phryganeid and a ,termes in the same group of strata4 ,panorpa 8 ,liassica4 ,lign4 #ahj4--;,in the ,lias1 on the banks of the ,severn1 at ,wainlode ,cliff1 ,gloucestershire1 specimens of minute neuropterous wings have been discovered4 ,i subjoin accurate figures of two specimens in the cabinet of the ,geological ,society2 they are represented twice the natural size2 they resemble the wings of a recent genus of ,neuroptera1 termed ,panorpa2 particularly ,p4 ,germanica4 ,the transverse lines are not fractures1 but nervures1 and are faithfully copied from the originals4 ,to the above notice of ,british fossil neuropterous insects1 ,i may add that the wing of a large species 7,hemerobioides giganteus7 has been discovered by ,dr4 ,buckland in the ,stonesfield slate4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahj4 ,wings of ,neuropterous ,insects4 ,twice nat4 size4 7,drawn by ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward1 ,esq47 ,lias4 ,wainlode ,cliff4 ,portions of the anterior wings of a species resembling ,panorpa4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aha4 ,fossil ,wings of ,insects4 7,drawn by ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward1 ,esq47 ,fig4 #a4--;,elytron1 or wing-case of ,buprestis ,bucklandi1 ,great ,oolite2 ,stonesfield4 #b4--,wing of ,corydalis ,brongniarti4 7,g4 ,a4 ,m47 ,carboniferous2 ,coalbrook ,dale4 ,fossil ,coleoptera4--,the elytra or wing-cases of coleopterous insects have long since been noticed in the oolitic slate at ,stonesfield1 near ,oxford2 a locality celebrated for the only mammalian relies hitherto discovered in the ,secondly strata of ,england4 ,the ,stonesfield elytra are always found detached2 in no instance1 ,i believe1 has any other part of an insect been observed1 except a single leg of a ,curculio 7,bd4 pl4 xlvi4 fig4 #aj74 ,the specimen figured ,lign4 #aha1 fig4 #a1 displays the usual characters of the largest species4 ,these fossils are of a reddish-brown colour1 with a finely granulated surface2 there appear to be four or five species1 all of which belong to ,buprestis1 a family of beetles remarkable for their splendid metallic lustre4 ,remains of ,coleoptera occur in the ,tertiary clays near ,corfe1 ,dorset1#dih and in the ,lias of ,worcestershire and ,gloucestershire2 and in the ,danby oolitic coal-pits1 in the eastern moorlands of ,yorkshire1 the elytra of beetles have also been discovered1 by ,mr4 ,r4 ,c4 ,taylor 7,bd4 vol4 ii4 p4 #gh74 #dih ,see ,notice by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,brodie1 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ix4 p4 #ea4 ,a most remarkable fossil of this kind is described by ,dr4 ,buckland2 a unique specimen of ,buprestis1 from ,japan1 about an inch long1 converted into chalcedony1 with the antenn and portions of the legs finely preserved4 ,the surface of this insect is covered with clusters of minute concentric rings of chalcedony2 an appearance common in silicified shells4 ,associated with this fossil1 were fragments of silicified wood1 bored with tubular cavities1 apparently by the larv of insects of this family2 and within these cavities was a quantity of dust produced by the boring1 also converted into chalcedony 7,bd4 vol4 ii4 p4 #gh74 ,of the ,curculio1 a genus of coleoptera distinguished by their splendid elytra1 of which the ,diamond ,beetle is a familiar example1 the remains of two species have been discovered in the nodular ironstone of ,coalbrook ,dale1 by ,mr4 ,w4 ,anstice1 and are figured and described by ,dr4 ,buckland 7,bd4 vol4 ii4 p4 #gf2 and pl4 xlvi4 figs4 #a1 #b74 ,in one of these specimens 7,curculioides ,ansticii71 with the exception of the rostrum and anterior part of the head1 all the essential characters of the insect are displayed2 namely1 the elytra1 thorax1 and six legs1 the hindmost of which exhibits the enlarged femur1 or thigh1 a character peculiar to the ,curculionid4 ,the legs possess a tufted appearance1 which that eminent entomologist1 ,mr4 ,curtis1 conceives may have been caused by fungi1 after the death of the animal1 as often happens in tropical climates4 ,in the other example 7,c4 ,prestvichii71 the insect lies on its back1 with the left side raised upwards1 and exhibiting a portion of the external surface of the left elytron2 there are remains of the antenn1 and indications of the proboscis and of the legs4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahb4 ,insectiferous ,limestone4 ,purbeck4 7,magnified six diameters47 a1 b4 ,membranous wings of the ,corydalis type4 c4 ,punctate-striate elytron of a ,beetle4 d4 ,elytron of a ,beetle1 with a smooth surface4 e4 ,smooth elytron1 the upper part impressed with transverse lines4 ,the ,orthoptera1 ,homoptera1 and ,diptera are also represented in the ,lias of ,gloucestershire1 and in the ,purbeck strata of the ,vale of ,wardour1 by numerous species1 which have been enumerated1 and mostly discovered1 by the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,brodie4#dii ,this observer has1 indeed1 been very successful in his researches in the latter locality1 for in the deposits of limestone and marl which yielded the isopodous crustaceans1 previously described 7p4 #eba1 ,lign4 #aga71 he has discovered the remains of several orders of insects1 and states that1 for abundance and variety of specimens1 the beds may be said to resemble the ,tertiary marls of ,aix and ningen4 ,these remains were obtained from a quarry at ,dinton1 about twelve miles west of ,salisbury4 ,they consist chiefly of ,coleoptera1 with the remains of ,neuroptera1 ,trichoptera1 and ,homoptera1 and of several species of ,diptera4 ,in the cream-coloured laminated ,purbeck marls that axe exposed in ,durlstone ,bay 7about one mile from ,swanage7 insectiferous beds have been found by the ,rev4 ,o4 ,fisher and ,prof4 ,e4 ,forbes1 which are the equivalents of those of the ,vale of ,wardour2 and similar beds were met with in the cutting of the railway through the ,ridgway ,hill1 between ,dorchester and ,weymouth4 #dii ,see ,brodie's ,fossil ,insects4 ,in a quarry on the road-side between the village of ,stone and ,hartwell1 ,bucks1 the ,portland ,oolite is covered by the ,purbeck marls2 in these latter remains of ,insects occur1 together with scales and teeth of small ,fishes1 and abundance of ,cyprides4 ,all the ,british localities of fossil insects have now been alluded to2 but on the ,continent1 independently of the celebrated limestones of ,solenhofen1 to which reference has been made1 p4 #eej1 there are several tertiary deposits exceedingly rich in these interesting fossils4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,insects4 ,fossil ,insects of ,aix1 in ,provence4--,the town of ,aix is situated in the lowest part of a deep valley1 the immediate flanks of which are composed of a thick fresh-water formation1 lying unconformably upon strata of ,jura limestone4 ,the fresh-water series consists of white and grey calcareous marls1 calcareo-siliceous grits1 and beds of gypsum2 and the quarries formed in the latter rock have long been celebrated for the prodigious quantity of fish and plants which they contain4 ,m4 ,marcel de ,serres first made known the great abundance of insects in these gypseous marls1 and has enumerated nearly seventy genera1 chiefly of the ,coleoptera1 ,diptera1 and ,hemiptera2 they are mostly referable to ,european forms1 and to existing genera4 ,an interesting ,memoir on these strata1 by ,sir ,r4 ,murchison and ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1#ejj first directed the attention of the ,english reader to these beautiful fossils4 ,in ,wond4 p4 #bfa1 an epitome of this valuable communication is given1 and five specimens of insects are here figured1 which will convey some idea of their forms and perfect state of preservation4 #ejj ,edinburgh ,new ,philosophical ,journal for ,october1 #ahbi4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahc4 ,fossil ,insects4 ,tertiary4 ,aix in ,provence4 ,fig4 #a4--,tettigonia spumaria4 #b4--,mycetophila2 the body distended by pressure4 #c4--,lathrobium4 #d4--;,allied to ,penthetria holosericea4 ,the hinder legs are broken off1 and one of them reversed1 so that the tarsi nearly touch the thigh2 the palpi are long and perfect2 the antenn are remarkably distinct4 #e4--,liparus2 resembling ,l4 ,punctatus4 ,fossil ,insects of ningen4--,in the immediate vicinity of ningen1 near ,constance1 on the banks of the ,rhine1 there is the basin of an ancient lake1 filled up with marls and limestones1 presenting a fine example of a lacustrine formation1 and abounding in fossil ,fishes1 ,reptiles1 ,plants1 ,shells1 ,crustaceans1 and ,insects4#eja ,these ,insects are often in an admirable state of preservation1 and occur in the different stages of larva1 pupa1 and imago4 ,the pupa of a ,libellula shows the mask1 insertion of the legs1 and the spiracula4 ,some belong to genera1 the species of which frequent marshy plants of the same kind as those which are found associated with the insects2 and it seems probable that they fell into the lake from the plants which grew on its borders1 and became enveloped in the fine mud or sediment4 ,numerous species of several genera of ,ants also occur in these deposits of ningen and at ,radoboj in ,croatia4#ejb #eja ,see the ,memoir by ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison on the lacustrine formation at ningen1 near ,constance1 ,geol4 ,trans1 new series1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bgg4 #ejb ,see ,prof4 ,o4 ,heer's ,memoir1 translated in the ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 vi4 pt4 ii4 p4 #fa2 and his ,history of ,insects1 ibid4 p4 #fh4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,caddis-,,worm4 ,fossil ,larv of ,phryganea4 ,ly4 p4 #ahe4--,the ,caddis-worm1 so well known to all the brethren of the angle1 is the larva of the winged insect termed ,phryganea1 and is abundant at the bottom of fresh-water streams and lakes2 the cases1 like those of the marine ,sabella 7p4 #che1 fig4 #f71 are always studded over with extraneous bodies1 cemented together by a glutinous secretion to the silken integument1 or case1 which encloses the lava4 ,some species are coated with pieces of stick or straw1 others with minute shells1 as planorbis1 bithinia1 and the like2 and when the larv have passed into the perfect state1 their cases1 or indusi1 remain4 ,many of the ,tertiary fresh-water limestones of ,auvergne are almost wholly composed of the indusi of ,caddis-worms1 cemented together by calcareo-siliceous matter into stone1 which is employed for building1 and is called indusial limestone 7,wond4 p4 #bgc74 ,these limestones are associated with marls abounding in fresh-water shells and cyprides2 the whole assemblage presenting all the stratigraphical and zoological characters of a lacustrine formation4 ,if1 says ,mr4 ,scrope1#ejc we consider that repeated strata1 of five or six feet in thickness1 almost entirely composed of these tubes1 once extended over a district presenting a surface of many hundred square miles1 we may have some idea of the countless myriads of minute beings which lived and died within the bosom of that ancient lake4 #ejc ,on the ,geology of ,central ,france1 by ,g4 ,poulett ,scrope1 ,esq4 #d to4 #ahbg4 ,on ,collecting ,fossil ,insects4--,the localities in which the ,british collector may reasonably expect to discover fossil remains of ,insects1 are ,stonesfield1 where the elytra of beetles are by no means scarce1--,coalbrook ,dale1 in which relics of this class are sometimes1 but very rarely1 found in the ironstone nodules1--,bedford1 ,warwickshire1 and the ,wainlode and ,aust ,cliffs1 for ,lower ,lias insects1--,dumbleton and ,ilminster1 for ,upper ,lias insects1--,dallards1 near ,dinton1 and ,stone1 near ,aylesbury1 and the exposures of similar beds in ,dorsetshire1 for the ,purbeck insects4 ,the white clays belonging to the ,bagshot series of ,bournemouth1 ,poole1 and ,corfe1 so rich in beautifully preserved leaves and other parts of plants1 should be carefully searched for insect remains1 since these clays at ,creech1 near ,corfe1 have already afforded a few specimens4#ejd #ejd ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ix4 p4 #ea4 ,at page #edi a few other ,english localities yielding these delicate and very interesting fossils are also indicated as having been lately discovered by some of our most acute and active geologists4 ,should the student visit the celebrated sites of these fossils in ,france and ,germany1 namely1 ,aix1 ningen1 ,solenhofen1 c41 he will have but little difficulty in obtaining an interesting series1 at a moderate expense4 ,the marls and limestones in which insects occur are often of a laminated character1 and in general readily split asunder in the direction favourable for the display of the insects4 ,in some examples1 only the form of the animal is seen through a thin opaque pellicle of calcareous earth1 which may be removed by a penknife or graver1 and the wings1 elytra1 antenn1 legs1 c4 will thus be disclosed4 ,a very thin coating of mastic varnish heightens the colours of such specimens1 and renders them more durable4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,fossil ,,ichthyology2 ,,comprising ,,the ,,sharks1 ,,rays ,,and ,,other ,,placoid ,,fishes4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahd4 ,a group of ,fossil ,fishes4 ,tertiary4 ,aix4 ,lebias cephalotes 7,agassiz74 ,ascending from the two grand subdivisions of the animal kingdom1 the ,mollusca and the ,articulata1 we advance to the ,vertebrata1 animals distinguished from all those which have previously engaged our attention1 by the possession of a bony1 jointed1 hollow column of support1 or spine1 formed of bones termed vertebr 7turn or whirl bones71 and enclosing and protecting those strands or cords of the nervous system called the spinal marrow2 the former classes1 being destitute of such a structure1 have the general name of ,invertebrata4 ,in the beings whose mineralized remains form the subject of our present investigation1 the durable parts of the frame-work1 or skeleton1 are1 in most instances1 situated internally1 and their fossil relics consist principally of the bones1 or solid earthy portions of their structures1 either imbedded in the rocks in their natural relative position1 or in a state of dismemberment and dispersion4 ,in most cases the teeth1 and in many the durable parts of their external integument1 or skin1 are also preserved1 in a greater or less degree of integrity4 ,in the lowest class of vertebrata1 the ,fishes1 the skin is covered with numerous pieces or scales1 of a dense1 durable substance1 and strengthened1 in some families1 by the addition of osseous plates2 thus constituting a flexible and almost impenetrable coat of armour1 which affords suitable protection to beings peculiarly exposed to external injuries1 from the nature of the regions they inhabit1 and the state of warfare with each other in which they are constantly engaged4 ,confined to a fluid medium1 they are provided with organs fitted for aquatic respiration1 called branchi1 or gills1 and with instruments of progressive motion1 termed fins1 by which they are enabled to propel themselves through the water with great velocity4 ,the apparatus for seizing1 tearing1 and crushing their prey presents numerous and important modifications1 corresponding to the habits and economy of the different genera2 their teeth offering as great variety of form and structure as those of the higher orders of animals4 ,the cartilaginous or the osseous nature of the skeleton1 and the number and position of the fins1 were the characters formerly employed in the classification of ,fishes2 but ,prof4 ,agassiz1 conceiving the structure of the skin to afford a natural index to the essential modifications of organization and functions1 has1 with great sagacity1 adopted an arrangement founded upon the form and structure of the scales2 and he has divided the whole class into four orders1 each distinguished by essential differences in the dermal 7skin7 system4 ,to the geologist this method has proved of inestimable value2 for it is simple1 easy of application1 and1 so far as our present knowledge extends1 may be relied upon as affording accurate conclusions as to the nature and relations of the originals to which a few detached fossil scales may have belonged4 ,another important aid has been derived from the microscopical examination of the structure of the teeth2 and a splendid work on this subject by ,professor ,owen has opened a wide field of palontological investigation1 which is yet but very partially explored4#eje #eje ,odontography2 or1 a ,treatise on the ,comparative ,anatomy of the ,teeth2 their ,physiological ,relations1 ,mode of ,development1 and ,microscopic ,structure2 illustrated by upwards of #aej plates4 ,by ,prof4 ,r4 ,owen1 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 #dto4 ,london4 #ahdj-ahde4 ,the living species of ,fishes exceed eight thousand2 and those found in a fossil state1 and determined by ,m4 ,agassiz1 already amount to upwards of one thousand five hundred2 while several hundreds are still undescribed2 and the rapid progress of geological research is continually adding to the number3 upwards of six hundred ,british fossil species are enumerated4 ,in an initiatory work like the present1 it will be necessary to confine our remarks to an illustration of the mode in which the investigation of the fossil remains of the animals of this class should be conducted2 and1 by the elucidation of a few leading principles1 prepare the student for the perusal of works expressly devoted to this branch of ,palontology4#ejf #ejf ,the admirable and important work entitled ,recherches sur les ,poissons ,fossiles1 par ,louis ,agassiz1 stands preeminent in this department of science4 ,it consists of five volumes1 #dto4 of letter-press1 and five volumes1 folio1 of coloured plates4 ,it must be consulted by all who would acquire a correct view of the present state of fossil ,ichthyology4 ,it is from this work that the commentary in the text has been chiefly derived4 ,the fossil remains of fishes rank in the first class of the ,medals of ,creation1 for they demonstrate the existence of numerous tribes of highly organized beings in some of the most ancient fossiliferous strata1 and the continuance of the same type of organization1 variously modified1 through the entire series of subsequent deposits to the present time4 ,each geological formation contains peculiar groups of fossil fishes1 distinguished by distinct modifications of structure4 ,thus1 according to the data at present obtained1 all the osseous fishes anterior to the ,chalk belong to genera which have no representatives among existing species2 and they are characterised by rhomboidal scales covered with enamel4 ,the state of conservation in which the fossils of this class occur1 appears to have depended on the relative delicacy or firmness of the original structures1 and on the nature of the deposits in which the fishes were imbedded4 ,thus the fossil fishes of the early formations1 which are characterised by their dense integument and enamelled scales1 often present the entire forms of the originals1 and generally considerable portions of the connected scales1 with the fins and other appendages3 while the specimens of later deposits1 which contain a large proportion of species with delicate scales1 more often display the mineralized osseous skeleton1 than the dermal structure4 ,sedimentary strata composed of mud or fine detritus1 of whatever age1 have been most favourable to the preservation of the entire forms2 hence we often find in the pulverulent clays and marls of the ,tertiary strata1 in the ,chalk of ,england and ,westphalia1 and in the fine lithographic stone of ,solenhofen1 fishes perfect in form1 and not only individuals1 but groups1 with the scales1 fins1 head1 teeth1 and even the capsule of the eye1 in their natural positions4 ,a small slab of marl from ,aix1 in ,provence1 in the collection of ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison1 contains scores of small fishes1 as perfect as if recently imbedded in soft mud3 a portion of this specimen is represented1 ,lign4 #ahd2 and the beautiful fish figured in the frontispiece of vol4 i4 7pl4 i4 fig4 #c71 from near ,castellamare1 will serve to illustrate the state of perfection of some of the ichthyolites of the ,jura limestone4 ,in the ,chalk1 many of the fishes are uncompressed1 the body being as perfect in form as if the original had been surrounded by soft plaster of ,paris while floating in the water4 ,but in coarse limestones and conglomerates1--in other words1 in materials that have been subjected to the action of the waves and torrents1--detached teeth1 scales1 bones1 c4 constitute the principal vestiges of this class of beings4 ,in illustration of this department of ,paleontology1 it will be expedient to consider1--#astly1 the characters afforded by the scales and dermal appendages2 #b;dly1 the teeth1 or dental organs2 #c;dly1 the osseous and cartilaginous skeletons2 and lastly1 apply the data thus obtained to the elucidation of some of the principal fossil genera and species4 ,scales of ,fishes4--,the dermal plates or scales are composed of two substances1 disposed in lamin or plates2 the one cartilaginous or horny1--the other dense and osseous1 possessing the structure of bone4 ,in most species the scales are imbricated1 i4 e4 lie over each other like the tiles of a roof2 the margin of a front row partly covering the series immediately behind4 ,from this arrangement1 the apparent shape of the scales is very different from their true form2 the processes of attachment and the lateral angles being concealed4 ,the scales that are not imbricated are either very small1 and imbedded in the substance of the skin so as to be imperceptible to the naked eye1 as in the shagreen of ,sharks2 or are disposed in the form of bosses or scutcheons1 as in the ,rays2 sometimes bristling equally over the surface of the body1 as in the ,diodon2 and sometimes covering it like mosaic work2 or forming particular series on certain regions of the body1 while the other parts are garnished with different scales1 as in the ,sturgeon4 ,there are a few genera destitute of scales4 ,in almost all fishes there is a particular series disposed in a gently undulated line along each side of the body1 from the head to the tail1 and constituting what is termed the lateral line2 these scales are tubular1 and serve an important purpose in the economy of these animals4 ,every one must be aware that the body in most living fishes is constantly covered with a kind of mucus1 or slime1 which serves to lubricate the skin and to defend it from the action of the surrounding medium4 ,this fluid is secreted by a mucous canal or duct1 which extends along the body1 and ramifies in all the bones of the head1 jaws1 c42 and it is distributed over the surface of the head by numerous pores in the bones1 and over the body by the tubes formed by the row of scales above described4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahe4 ,fossil ,scales of ,fishes4 7highly magn47 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--,scale or plate of the shagreen of a ,shark4 #b4--,scale of ,macropoma ,mantelli2 the exposed surface4 #c4--,scale of ,beryx ,lewesiensis2 the exposed surface4 #d4--,scale of ,osmeroides ,mantelli2 the entire form4 ,the four orders into which this grand class of vertebrata is divided by ,m4 ,agassiz1 are founded upon the peculiar structure of the scales2#ejg and are characterised as follow3-- #ejg ,for illustrations of the scales of fishes1 see ,wond4 p4 #cci1 ,lign4 #fh1 and p4 #cdj1 ,lign4 #fi2 ,foss4 ,brit4 ,mus4 p4 #dai2 and ,ly4 fig4 #cjf1 figs4 #cdb-cdg1 c4 ,and for their minute structure1 see ,prof4 ,williamson's important paper in the ,phil4 ,trans4 for #ahea4 ,order ,i4 ,placoid 7a broad plate74--,the skin covered irregularly with enamelled plates1 sometimes of a large size1 but frequently in small points1 as the shagreen on the dermal integument of the ,sharks and the tubercles of the ,rays4 ,lign4 #ahe1 fig4 #a1 a fossil placoidian scale from the skin of a shark1 highly magnified4 ,order ,,ii4 ,ganoid 7splendid1 from the brilliant surface of the enamel74--,the scales are of an angular form1 and composed of plates of horn or bone1 covered with a thick layer of enamel2 their structure is identical with that of the teeth4 ,the ,sturgeon is an example of this order4 ,lign4 #aif1 figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 are fossil scales of a ganoidian fish4 ,order ,,iii4 ,ctenoid 7toothed1 or comb-like74--,the scales are formed of plates1 which are toothed or pectinated on their posterior margin or edge1 like a comb4 ,as the plates are superimposed on each other1 so that the lowermost always extend beyond the uppermost1 their numerous sharp points or teeth render the scales very harsh to the touch4 ,the ,perch belongs to this order4 ,lign4 #ahe1 fig4 #c1 represents a fossil ctenoidian scale4 ,order ,,iv4 ,cycloid 7circular74--,the scales are composed of simple lamin1 or plates of bone or horn1 without enamel1 and have smooth borders2 but their external surface is often ornamented with markings4 ,the scales of the lateral line consist of funnels placed one within the other2 the contracted part of which1 applied against the disk of the scale1 forms the tube through which the mucus flows4 ,to this order belong the ,mullet1 ,salmon1 and ,carp4 ,lign4 #ahe1 fig4 #d1 is the scale of a fossil cycloidian fish4 ,fins of ,fishes4--,as the progression of fishes through the water is principally effected by the action of the tail1 they have no limbs commonly so called4 ,the instruments for balancing the body1 and for assisting progression1 are the fins1 which are composed of numerous rays that support a membranous expansion2 and the number and situation of the fins present various modifications in the different orders and genera4 ,the fins are named according to the situation they occupy2 for example1 pectoral1 those on each side of the chest1 and which correspond to the anterior extremities of other vertebrated animals2 dorsal1 on the back2 ventral1 on the belly2 caudal1 on the tail4 7,see outlines of ,fish1 ,ligns4 #ahf1 #ahg1 #aie47 ,the rays are of two kinds2 #ast1 the ,spinous rays2 these consist of a single osseous piece1 usually dense and pointed1 sometimes flexible and elastic1 and divided longitudinally 7,ligns4 #ahh1 #aif72 #b;d1 ,soft or articulated rays1 which are composed of numerous small articulations or joints1 and divide into branches at their extremities4 ,many species of fishes have four fins2 others six2 some but two2 and in certain genera they are altogether wanting4 ,in a fossil state the fins are often beautifully preserved2 even the soft rays in many of the ,tertiary marls and in the ,chalk1 are found entire1 and attached to the body in their natural situation4 ,the large1 strong1 spinous rays of the dorsal fins of the cartilaginous fishes1 as the ,sharks and ,rays1 are generally found detached1 or connected only with a few vertebr2 but they are so abundant in some of the ,secondary deposits 7and in numerous instances they are the only vestiges of extinct species and genera71 that they possess great geological interest2 they are distinguished by the term ,ichthyodorulites 7fossil fish-weapons71 under which head they will hereafter be described 7see ,lign4 #ahh74 ,the first ray in the dorsal fin of some fishes is protected in front by a double row of enamelled scales1 and these often occur in a fossil state 7see ,lign4 #aif1 fig4 #e74 ,teeth of ,fishes4--,of all the durable parts of animals teeth occur in the mineral kingdom1 the teeth of fishes present by far the most numerous1 varied1 and striking modifications of form1 structure1 composition1 mode of arrangement1 and attachment2 and yet these dental organs1 separately considered1 do not in many instances1 either in their structure or mode of implantation1 afford characters by which the natural affinities of the original can be satisfactorily ascertained2 and without the aid of other parts of the skeleton it is often impossible to determine1 from external characters only1 whether an unknown form of tooth belonged to an animal of the class of ,fishes or of ,reptiles4 ,although the modifications of form are almost innumerable1 they are referable to four principal types2 namely1 the conical1 the flattened1 the prismatic1 and the cylindrical4#ejh #ejh ,the ,odontography of ,professor ,owen should be consulted by those who would thoroughly comprehend this interesting department of science4 ,see also the ,article ,teeth1 by ,prof4 ,owen in the ,cyclopdia of ,anatomy and ,physiology4 ,the conical teeth are extremely variable in size and form2 some are slender1 almost invisible points1 distributed like the pile of velvet 7villous-teeth71 or set like the hairs of a brush 7brush-teeth72 some are long and slender1 or barbed at the point2 others are obtuse2 and many are long and striated at the base1 and closely resemble the teeth of certain reptiles4 ,the depressed teeth are equally diversified2 some have the grinding surface smooth2 others1 deeply grooved2 in some it is flat2 in others convex4 ,in form they are either lozenge-shaped1 elliptical1 square1 oblong1 semilunar1 c4 ,the cylindrical teeth are hemispherical1 or flattened2 in some fishes they are short and thick2 in others slender and support an obtuse1 conical crown4 ,the prismatic form is equally modified2 from the compressed1 sharp1 lanceolate1 cutting teeth1 to the strong1 triangular1 three-pointed dentary organs4#eji #eji ,for illustrations of the teeth of fishes1 see plate iv4 figs4 #a1 #b1 #h1 #aj1 and ,ligns4 #ahi1 #aia-aid1 #aig1 #aih1 #bjb1 #bje2 ,foss4 ,brit4 ,mus4 p4 #ddi2 and ,ly4 figs4 #bcf1 #cjh1 #cbd1 and #chc4 ,the mode of arrangement and attachment of the teeth1 is as diversified as their forms4 ,in some species all the teeth are of one type1 and disposed in somewhat of a serial order on both sides of the jaws2 but in a large proportion of fishes there are several kinds of teeth1 which are implanted not only in the jaws1 properly so called1 but on the bones which form the cavity of the mouth1 the arches of the palate1 tongue1 c42 and it is peculiar to this class of vertebrata to present examples of teeth developed in the median line 7along the middle7 of the mouth1 as in certain species of ,rays2 or crossing the symphysis 7the front line of union of the two sides7 of the lower jaw1 as in ,myliobates#eaj 7see ,lign4 #aid1 fig4 #b74 ,in some species the teeth are implanted in sockets1 to which they are attached only by the soft parts1 as in the rostral teeth of the ,saw-fish2 some have hollow bases1 supported upon bony prominences1 which rise from the base of the socket2 as in several fossil teeth from the ,chalk4 ,but by far the most common mode of attachment is by a continuous ossification between the dental pulp and the jaw1#eaa the teeth being thus anchylosed to the bone4 ,in the ,sharks the osseous bases of the teeth are attached by a ligamentous substance to the tough1 dense crust1 which covers the cartilaginous jaws2 the teeth of these fishes are therefore generally found detached in a fossil state1 in consequence of the decomposition of this substance4 #eaj ,odontography1 p4 #e4 #eaa ,op4 cit4 p4 #f4 ,the teeth are composed of a dense1 osseous material1 of a finely tubular structure1 termed dentine2 which1 in many species1 forms on the external surface of the tooth a layer of firmer texture1 with a glossy surface1 resembling enamel4 ,the essential character of their organization is to have a pulp or medullary cavity1 or cavities1 filled with a plexus of blood-vessels and nerves1 from which the minute tubes composing the dentine radiate4#eab ,the differences observable in the size1 mode of ramification1 and distribution of the medullary cavities or canals1 and the calcigerous tubes1#eac as revealed by microscopic exploration1 constitute important distinctive characters2 particularly in the examination of the fossil teeth of extinct fishes4 ,in some teeth the dentine is traversed by equidistant1 parallel1 medullary canals2 in others1 these channels frequently subdivide1 and their branches anastomose with each other4 ,in some the medullary canals form a reticulated1 or net-like structure in the dentine1 the meshes of which are occupied by calcigerous tubes1 and cells2 often producing a dendritical appearance1 as in the tooth of a fossil fish named ,dendrodus4 ,in the highest type of structure1 the dentine consists of a simple medullary cavity or canal1 and a single system of calcigerous tubes1 which radiate from the central or sub-central pulp-cavity1 at right angles to the periphery of the tooth 7,owen71 as in the teeth of the extinct ,sauroid 7lizard-like7 fishes4 ,a continued succession of teeth takes place during the life of the fish1 and we often find in fossil specimens a series of successional teeth beneath the row in use2 as in the fragment of a jaw of ,lepidotus1 from ,tilgate ,forest ,lign4 #ajg4 #eab ,see ,owen's ,odontography2 and ,tome's ,dental ,physiology4 #eac ,calagerous tubes2 so named because they are composed of calx1 or lime4 ,skeletons of ,fishes4--,the skeletons of the animals of this class differ so remarkably in their relative degree of firmness and elasticity1 in consequence of peculiar modifications of their constituent substance1 as to form two grand divisions2 one of which is termed the osseous1 the other the cartilaginous4 ,the essential difference in the skeletons of these two groups consists in the presence or absence of earthy matter 7phosphate and carbonate of lime7 in the materials of which they are constructed4 ,in the cartilaginous fishes1 the skeleton is cartilaginous and transparent2 but in some species1 the skin has dense osseous particles or plates on the skin1 as in the ,rays2 and in others1 the head and body are protected by large osseous scutcheons1 as in the ,sturgeon4 ,there is also an intermediate group of fishes1 termed the fibro-cartilaginous1 in which the skeleton contains lime1 but in a much less proportion than in the true osseous fishes4 ,in some genera1 certain portions of the skeleton1 as the bodies of the vertebra1 are cartilaginous1 while the spinous processes1 ribs1 c4 are osseous2 these characters are of considerable importance in the investigation of the fossil remains of fishes1 as we shall hereafter have occasion to demonstrate4 ,the skeleton consists of the cranium or skull1 which is composed of numerous bones1--the jaws1 and bones of the tongue1--the osseous frame-work of the organs of respiration1 consisting of the bones1 rays1 and arches that support the gills1 and the opercula1 or covers which close over the branchial apertures1--and of the vertebral column1 formed of numerous dorsal and caudal vertebr1 with the ribs and other appendages2 there are no proper cervical vertebr1 or spinal bones of the neck4 ,the branchial arches are in general four or five on each side1 and are attached above to the cranium1 and below to a chain of small bones1 by which they are connected with the os hyoides1 or bone of the tongue4 ,the opercular bones1 composing the cover or lid of the opening of the gills1 consist of three pieces on each side1 and are distinguished by the names1 opercular1 pre-opercular1 and sub-opercular1 according to the situations which they respectively occupy4 ,the vertebr are double hollow cones1#ead not unlike an hour-glass in form3 the interval between two of these bones is filled up1 in the living state1 by a gelatinous fluid4 ,along the upper part of each vertebra1 there is an annular cavity1 which in the united vertebral column forms a canal for the spinal marrow2 the posterior dorsal and caudal verteb have also a channel below1 for the passage of the large blood-vessels4 #ead ,there are certain exceptions2 thus in the ,lepidosteus the vertebral column is a series of ball-and-socket joints1 the convexity being anterior1 as in the land ,salamander1 and in the fossil reptile known as the ,streptospondylus4 ,there are likewise bones analogous to some of those which enter into the composition of the extremities1 chest or thorax1 and pelvis of the higher vertebrata2 but which it is not necessary for our present purpose here to describe4 ,of the organs of vision some fossil remains also occur4 ,the sclerotic coat1 or capsule of the eye1 being bony in fishes1 is often preserved2 and in several chalk specimens ,i have found it occupying the orbit4 ,in addition to those durable parts of fishes1 already mentioned1 as likely to be met with in a fossil state1 the bones called otolithes 7ear-stones7 must be enumerated4 ,these calcareous bodies are found in the membranous labyrinth of the organs of hearing2 and1 although more or less developed in the ear-bulb of all animals1 they are larger and of more definite forms in the higher osseous and cartilaginous fishes4 ,the otolithes are supposed to assist in communicating more vivid impressions of sounds to the extremities of the auditory nerves2 they are stony in most aquatic animals1 and friable or pulverulent in those that live on land4 ,smooth1 oblong otolithes are not uncommon in the ,crag deposits of ,norfolk and ,suffolk2 and minute ear-bones are found in the ,barton ,clay4 ,tails of ,fishes4--,the tail1 as we have previously mentioned1 is the chief instrument of progressive motion in these animals2 it assumes two principal modifications4 ,in the greater number of the existing species the vertebral column terminates in a triangular plate of bone 7formed by the fusion of the last few vertebr71 to which the caudal fin is attached symmetrically2 and its figure is either rounded1 or divided into two equal lobes or branches2 these tails are termed homocercal1 i4 e4 even-tail4 ,in the second modification the vertebral column towards its extremity diverges from a straight line1 rises up1 and is prolonged into the upper lobe of the tail2 the caudal fin appearing like a rudder1 and its low'er lobe1 being destitute of vertebr1 is proportionably very feeble and small1 as in the ,shark and ,dog-fish3 this form of tail is called heterocercal1 i4 e4 unequal-tail 7see ,foss4 ,brit4 ,mus4 p4 #dba2 and ,ly4 figs4 #cdj1 #cda74 ,in the embryonic state the tail in all fishes is heterocercal1 and it becomes homocercal in the progress of development in those genera which have this type of the caudal appendage4 ,but few of the existing species have the heterocercal tail1 while it is found in all the fossil fishes that occur in the ancient secondary strata2 namely1 the ,magnesian limestone1 and antecedent deposits4 ,the rounded and equal-bilobed1 or homocercal1 tails1 are seen in the fishes from the ,chalk1 ,wond4 pp4 #cdg1 c42 and in the ,wealden ,lepidotus1 ,lign4 #ahf2 and the unequal or heterocercal tail is shown in the ,amblypterus from the ,carboniferous strata1 ,lign4 #ahg4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahf4 ,lepidotus4 ,wealden4 7#a_/f nat4 size47 7,showing the ,homocercal ,tail47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahg4 ,amblypterus4 ,carboniferous4 7#a_/d nat4 size47 a4 ,the heterocercal tail4 ,in the ,annals of ,nat4 ,hist1 for #ahdh1 p4 #cjd1 ,prof4 ,m',coy has described and figured an intermediate form of tail1 which he regards as characteristic of the ,diplopterus 7of the ,old ,red ,sandstone7 and its allies3 this the ,professor terms the ,diphycercal tail4 ,from this brief summary of the essential characters of those durable parts of the organization of fishes1 which most frequently occur in a fossil state1 we pass to the investigation of some illustrative examples of this class of organic remains4 ,but before describing any entire specimens1 it will be expedient to notice the separate fins1 and teeth1 which abound in many deposits2 in some instances occurring in connexion with other parts of the skeleton1 but more generally detached1 and constituting the only evidence of the existence of numerous extinct species and genera4 ,the greater part belong to the first order--the ,placoidians 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 iii471 and to the families of ,sharks and ,rays4 ,the osseous dorsal rays of cartilaginous fishes 7named ,ichthyodorulites 7fossil-fish-weapons7 by ,dr4 ,buckland and ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,beche7 first demand our notice4 ,ichthyodorulites4 ,lign4 #ahh4--,this name is applied to the fossil spines1 or rays1 of dorsal fins1 of which numerous species occur in the ,secondary deposits2 they belong1 for the most part1 to extinct cartilaginous fishes of the ,cestracionid and ,hybodontid groups4 ,in the osseous tribes the dorsal spines have at their base two articular processes1 by which they are united to the osselets that support them1 as in the ,silurus2 but in the cartilaginous1 they have no articulations at the base1 and terminate in an obtuse point1 which is implanted in the flesh2 the posterior margin is grooved almost to the upper extremity4 ,they are of a fibrous1 osseous texture4 ,the common ,spinax1 or ,dog-fish 7,acanthias vulgaris71 has a spine of this kind in the front of each dorsal fin4 ,the rays of the ,sharks are compressed1 and some have rows of teeth on the posterior margin2 in the genus ,cestracion 7,port-,jackson ,shark71 these organs are strong1 triangular1 straight1 pointed1 rounded in front1 flat at the posterior face1 and widest at the base2 in the ,hays they are flattened or depressed4 ,these spines are generally capable of being elevated and depressed1 and not only serve the purpose of defence1 but1 in many instances1 afford support and protection to the soft rays of the fin2 forming1 as it were1 a moveable mast1 by which the sail can be spread out or lowered at pleasure4 ,in illustration of this subject1 ,i would first direct attention to the beautiful fossil1 figured ,lign4 #ahh1 fig4 #a1 which was discovered in the ,chalk near ,lewes1 and is figured1 of the natural size1 ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxxix4 ,this ray1 or spine1 belongs to one of the ,cestraciont fishes 7,ptychodus71 whose teeth are so abundant in the ,chalk1 and will presently be described4 ,it is composed of fourteen thick1 flat1 osseous rods1 or strands1 intimately united together1 with longitudinal furrows or sutures on the surface4 ,the anterior margin is embossed1 and the projections form on the sides wide1 rounded ribs1 and transverse depressions4 ,towards the base of the posterior part1 there are large osseous fibres inserted vertically and obliquely1 which appear to have been processes of attachment4 ,the rods1 or plates1 are parallel ,with the posterior margin1 and each terminates in a rounded extremity1 or boss1 on the front edge of the spine4 ,this ray is wider at its base than at the superior part the anterior margin is oblique1 and the posterior straight4 ,the surface1 where entire1 is covered with a dense osseous substance1 which is finely engrailed4#eae #eae ,this specimen is figured in ,poiss4 ,foss42 but it is represented too short1 from the two portions being drawn as if they were connected1 without any interval between them1 as in ,lign4 #ahh4 ,it is in the ,british ,museum4 ,see ,petrifactions1 p4 #dej4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahh4 ,dorsal ,rays of ,sharks4 ,sussex4 ,fig4 #a4--,ptychodus spectabilis4 #a_/e nat4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 #a;a4--,portion of a ,dorsal ,ray1 with oblique serrated sutures4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 #b4--,ptychodus ,gibberulus4 #a_/e nat4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 #c4--;,hybodus subcarinatus4 nat4 ,weald4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,in #ahej ,i discovered in the ,plastic ,clay of ,castle ,hill ,newhaven1 a dorsal fin of ,ptychodus1 with eight vertebr4 ,a nearly entire fin-ray of this species1 three feet in length1 has recently been discovered by ,mr4 ,charles ,potter1 of ,lewes1 in the ,chalk near that town4 ,the remains of another ray1 of equal proportions1 were found near it2 and these dorsal spines might have belonged to the same individual1 for there are no reasons to forbid the supposition that the ,ptychodus had two dorsal fin-rays4 ,the length of these spines necessarily indicates a very large fish4 ,a smaller species of ,ichthyodorulite1 also found in the ,lewes ,chalk1 is distinguished from ,p4 spectabilis by its osseous plates contracting towards their extremities1 and terminating more suddenly on the front margin1 producing gibbosities less acute and more distant than in ,p4 spectabilis2 this species is named ,p4 gibberulus3 see ,lign4 #ahh1 fig4 #b4eaf #eaf ,this fossil is figured of the natural size1 ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xl4 fig4 #c4 ,the bony plates of these fins are occasionally found lying in irregular groups in the ,chalk1 as if the fin had partially decomposed and the plates separated4 ,in one example1 the rays are split asunder by a piece of bone1 apparently a portion of a long pointed tooth1 firmly impacted between them2 as if the fish had been seized by some enemy1 and had escaped1 with the tooth of its adversary in its fin4 ,very fine specimens have been found at ,charing1 ,kent1 by ,w4 ,harris1 ,esq4 ,f4,g4,s4 ,in the fragment of an ,ichthyodorulite from the ,lewes ,chalk1 a remarkable structure is displayed2 the osseous plates are united laterally by smooth1 longitudinal lines1 as in those above described2 but they are also traversed by numerous oblique1 finely-serrated sutures4 ,lign4 #ahh1 fig4 #a;a4 ,the ,chalk contains rays of other species of ,ptychodus1 as well as of some allied genera4 ,of these1 the most remarkable are smooth1 arched1 pointed spines1 having a shallow posterior groove1 with an enamelled surface1 marked with fine longitudinal stri1 and frequent1 parallel1 oblique lines4 ,these1 according to ,sir ,p4 ,egerton1 belong to a true ,cestracion 7see p4 #ehd73 they were first figured and described by me 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxxiii4 fig4 #e7 as belonging to the ,acanthias major1 and were subsequently assigned to the genus ,spinax by ,prof4 ,agassiz 7,poiss4 ,foss4 iii4 p4 #fb74 ,it may be necessary to remark1 that the fins first described have been referred to the fishes which yielded the large grooved teeth so common in the ,chalk 7see ,pl4 ,,vi fig4 #b7 in consequence of their affinity to existing species1 which have similar fins and teeth2 and from the circumstance that the ,sharks of the genus ,lamna1 whose teeth also abound in the ,chalk1 have no dorsal rays of this kind2 still the proof of identity remains to be discovered4 ,in one specimen only have ,i observed indications of any other part of the skeleton2 it is a spine of ,acanthias major1 the base of which rests on several dorsal vertebr 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxxiii474 ,hybodus subcarinatus4 ,lign4 #ahh1 fig4 #c4--,the fishes of another extinct genus of ,sharks1 termed ,hybodus1 from the gibbous form of the teeth1 were also provided with dorsal spines1 which may be readily distinguished from the preceding4 ,these ,ichthyodorulites are generally long1 slightly arched1 and terminate in a point at the extremity2 the base1 which was implanted in the flesh1 is deeply grooved1 and much prolonged1 being sometimes equal to one-third of the entire length4 ,the surface is marked with strong longitudinal ridges1 parallel with the anterior margin which is rounded and laterally compressed4 ,the posterior edge1 which is more or less flat1 has1 towards the base two rows of sharp arched teeth1 which gradually approach 'each other1 and blend into one line on the upper part of the ray ,there are numerous species of this genus in the ,oolite and ,lias4 ,i have found one species in the ,chalk and a few in the ,wealden4 ,the small ,ray figured ,lign4 #ahh fig4 #c1 is from ,tilgate ,forest1 and displays the usual characters of these fossils4 ,from specimens discovered in the ,lias1 associated with the teeth1 it appears that the ,hybodus had two dorsal fins1 each furnished with rays1 as in the recent ,dog-fish4 ,the microscopic structure of these rays is stated by ,m4 ,agassiz to resemble that of the teeth3 in some there is a pulp cavity1 which occupies the centre of the spine1 and is surrounded by dentine1 in which the calcigerous tubes radiate direct to the surface2 the external enamel is a layer of dentine1 in which the medullary canals are wanting4 ,in the strata below the ,lias there are numerous ,ichthyodorulites1 some of a large size1 belonging chiefly to the ,cestracion family1 and of extinct species1 not observed in more recent deposits4 ,thus there are several species of dorsal rays 7named ,onchus1 from their hooked form17 that are wide at the base1 and bent backwards1 with the posterior margin destitute of teeth1 in the ,carboniferous1 ,devonian1 and ,silurian formations2 also immense compressed spines1 having small teeth on the posterior margin1 and the surface covered with longitudinal stri1 and finely toothed1 transversely2 hence termed ,ctenacanthus1 or pectinated-spine 7,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #eif74 ,the fossil spine1 named ,orthacanthus 7,poiss4 ,foss4 vol4 iii4 pl4 xlv471 and found in the ,coal of ,manchester1 has been discovered in connexion with the body of the fish to which it belonged in the ,carboniferous deposits of ,ruppersdorf in ,bohemia 7,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 v4 part ii4 p4 #bc74 ,some ,ichthyodorulites have the surface richly ornamented with stellular tubercles1 and are termed ,asteracanthus1 or starry-spine2 there are very large fin-rays of this kind in the ,wealden1 ,purbeck1 ,oolites1 and ,lias4#eag #eag ,for particular information on ,ichthyodorulites1 consult ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 iii4 chap4 i4 ,about seventy species are enumerated4 ,the ,ichthyodorulites of the ,rays have no cavity like those of the ,sharks1 and are of a depressed form1 and more or less flattened2 they are armed with teeth along their exterior margins1 and not on the posterior edge1 as in the latter family4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,fishes4--,from the durable nature and striking appearance of many of the fossil teeth of fishes1 and their prodigious numbers in some deposits1 they are familiar objects to the collector4 ,by far the largest proportion of the detached teeth belongs to various species and genera of that most numerous1 and widely distributed family of voracious fishes1 the ,sharks4 ,in the ,tertiary strata teeth of this kind occur of a very large size2 in the ,chalk many species abound1 particularly of the lanceolate and compressed forms1 and of the rugous1 mammillated1 palatal teeth1 commonly termed palates4 ,as we pass to the more ancient formations1 teeth of different forms prevail2 and those which approach the recent types are either very rare or altogether absent4 ,we will select some examples of the different genera in illustration of this subject2 the previous observations on the form and structure of the recent teeth render but few introductory remarks necessary4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,sharks4--,the fishes of the ,shark and ,ray families belong to the ,placoid order2 the scales in the former consist of enamelled plates and tubercles1 forming a shagreen surface2 and in the dermal integument of the latter they appear as spines and bosses1 irregularly disposed4 ,notwithstanding the diversity in appearance of the teeth of ,sharks1 they all possess one essential character of structure1 namely1 a base1 or osseous root of variable form1 which is implanted in the integuments2 and a crown1 or external portion1 which projects into the mouth1 is covered with enamel or compact dentine1 and assumes numerous modifications1 by which the fossil genera are characterized4 ,these teeth are never imbedded in sockets1 nor united to the dentary margins of the jaws2 they only adhere to the integuments of the mouth1 and the covering of the maxill2 they possess1 in most of the ,sharks1 great mobility4 ,they are generally disposed in rows2 the anterior ones1 being first used1 fall out1 and are replaced by those on the inner series4 ,new teeth are also continually formed behind those in use1 and advance successively towards the anterior rows as the latter are shed1 and in their turn occupy the front rank4 7,see ,cyclop4 ,anat4 ,art4 ,teeth47 ,an examination of the fossil and recent teeth of ,sharks and ,rays proves that the prevailing existing generic types have but few1 if any1 representatives in the fossils1 except in those which belong to the ,tertiary and ,cretaceous formations2 while the genera that appear isolated1 as it were1 in the present seas have numerous analogues in the ,secondary strata4 ,the fossil teeth of this family may be divided into two grand divisions2 namely1 those which are more or less of a polygonal1 obtusely conical1 or depressed form1 having a tesselated arrangement in the mouth2 and those of a triangular1 lanceolate shape1 with cutting1 or serrated edges1 disposed in a series of rows on the jaws4 ,the teeth of the first group 7,cestracionid7 have most analogy to those of the living genus ,cestracion 7,port-,jackson ,shark72 the second 7,sgualid7 to the ,sharks1 commonly so called4 ,the ,cestracion is the only living representative of a family of squaloid fishes of a peculiar type1 whose remains occur in almost the earliest fossiliferous deposits2 it inhabits the seas of ,new ,holland and the southern coasts of ,china4 ,the jaws of the ,cestracion are relatively very large1 and are armed with numerous rows of teeth1 essentially of two kinds2 those situated anteriorly1 or towards the front of the mouth1 being adapted for seizing and retaining the food1 and the posterior ones for crushing and bruising4 ,the prehensile teeth are sharp1 angular1 and pointed3 the others are obtuse1 polygonal1 enamelled1 and disposed in oblique rows along the margins and inner surface of both jaws2 there are sometimes sixty in each jaw 7see ,bd4 ii4 pl4 xxvii #aa4 fig4 ,a74 ,fossil teeth of this type are exceedingly numerous in the ,chalk1 ,lias1 c4 but are very seldom found in juxtaposition2 the decomposition of the cartilaginous integuments in which they are imbedded1 having1 in most examples1 occasioned their displacement and dispersion2 specimens1 however1 are occasionally discovered1 in which numerous teeth1 of various sizes1 are disposed in mosaic1 in their natural relative positions4 ,the extinct forms of this family 7,cestracionid7 are known almost only by their teeth2 and according to the shape1 structure1 and sculpture of these organs1 ,m4 ,agassiz has arranged them into several genera4 ,they occur in most of the fossiliferous deposits4 ,cestracion canaliculatus4--,the teeth of a fish belonging to the existing genus have been discovered in the ,chalk of ,kent2 they are figured and described by ,sir ,p4 ,egerton in the beautiful work by ,mr4 ,dixon4#eah ,this unique specimen consists of a group of thirteen posterior molar and three or four detached prehensile anterior teeth1 imbedded in a block of chalk about two inches square4 ,the chief distinction from the teeth of the recent ,cestracion is in the presence of a large medullary canal which traverses the base of each tooth3 hence the specific name4 #eah ,dixon's ,fossils of ,sussex1 c4 p4 #cfe1 tab4 xxxii4 fig4 #h4 ,from the t examination of a specimen lately found at ,lewes1 ,sir ,p4 ,egerton has been led to assign to this species the spine formerly described as ,spinax major4 ,acrodus 7ridge-tooth7 nobilis4 ,lign4 #ahi1 fig4 #d1 ,ly4 p4 #bge1 fig4 #cjg4--;,in the ,lias and ,oolite1 oblong enamelled teeth1 having the surface of the crown covered with fine radiating grooves and stri1 are well known to collectors1 in many parts of ,england1 by the name of fossil leeches1 from a fancied resemblance to a contracted leech4 ,they belong to an extinct genus of ,cestracionts1 named ,acrodus by ,m4 ,agassiz4 ,the crown of the tooth is enamelled1 and covered with transverse grooves1 which diverge from a longitudinal furrow2 the base is in the form of a parallelogram inclined on its inner side4 ,these teeth were inserted along the jaws in oblique series1 their longitudinal direction corresponding with that of the bones which supported them2 in their natural position1 the extremity of a hinder tooth was enclosed between the two next anterior teeth4 ,a beautiful group is figured ,bd4 ii4 pl4 xxviie4#eai #eai ,the microscopical structure of the teeth of ,acrodus is well shown in the ,odontography1 pl4 xiv4 xv41 and beautifully illustrates the relation of dentine to bone4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #ahi4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,sharks4 ,fig4 #a4--,ptychodus ,mortoni4 7,g4 ,a4 ,m47 ,cret4 ,new ,jersey4 #b4--,psammodus cinctus4 7,ag47 ,mt4 ,l4 ,bristol4 #c4--,orodus cinctus4 7,ag47 ,mt4 ,l4 ,bristol4 #d4--;,acrodus nobilis4 ,lias4 ,lyme ,regis4 ,ptychodus 7wrinkle-tooth74 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #b2 ,lign4 #ahi1 and ,lign4 #aia4--,the palatal teeth1 which occur more or less abundantly in almost every chalk-pit1 and are known by the name of palates1 belong to several species of the genus ,ptychodus4 ,a very common form is figured ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #b2 and microscopic views of vertical and transverse sections1 as seen by transmitted light1 are shown in figs4 #b;b1 #b;c4 ,groups of these teeth1 somewhat naturally arranged1 and varying in size and form according to the situations they occupied in the jaws1 are occasionally found3 one specimen in the ,british ,museum1 and formerly in my collection1 contains more than #abj teeth4 ,in general they occur in a very perfect state1 with the osseous base and enamelled crown entire4 ,the dorsal rays or spines previously described 7p4 #egg71 are sometimes found with the teeth1 and belong to fishes of the same genus4 ,these teeth are of an angular form1 and more or less square1 the crown is wider than the root1 which is obtuse1 truncated1 and depressed in the centre2 the enamelled part of the tooth is expanded at the edges1 and forms in the centre a flattened or slightly convex mammillary projection1 which is traversed by large1 acute1 transverse1 parallel ridges4 ,the borders are granulated1 and the sides of the projection marked with deep vertical plic or folds2 this description particularly applies to the species named ,p4 polygurus1 figured in ,plate ,,vi4 ,dr4 ,buckland has represented a fine group of these teeth1 ,bd4 ii4 pl4 xxvi4 ,another common species 7,p4 decurrens7 is distinguished from the former by the connexion between the large furrows on the crown and the granulations on the expanded border1 which diverge from the outer edge of the large folds to the margin of the enamel4 ,the microscopic structure of these teeth presents the same congeries of medullary and calcigerous tubes as those of the recent ,cestracion3 see ,plate ,,vi4 figs4 #b;b1 #b;c4 ,the teeth of a species of ,ptychodus occur in the arenaceous strata of the ,chalk-formation in ,new ,jersey1 which possess the essential characters of the ,european types1 but differ from them in their configuration2 the only specimen ,i have seen is figured ,lign4 #ahi1 fig4 #a2 it was presented to me by ,dr4 ,morton4 ,the enamelled crown forms a conical projection1 traversed by large inosculating ridges1 which radiate from the summit towards the margin4#ebj #ebj ,i have named it ,p4 ,mortoni1 in honour of my distinguished friend1 the eminent ,american naturalist and physician1 ,dr4 ,george ,morton1 of ,philadelphia1 by whom it was discovered4 ,psammodus#eba 7sandy-tooth74 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #a2 ,lign4 #abh1 fig4 #b4--,to this genus are referred the fossil teeth of the extinct ,cestracionts1 which have the crown formed of small vertical tubes1 with the grinding surface more or less smooth1 and presenting only a punctated or sandy appearance4#ebb ,these teeth are generally flat or slightly convex1 and of a square or oblong form2 the base is osseous1 and as large as the crown4 ,two species are figured1 ,lign4 #ahi1 fig4 #b1 and ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #a;a4 ,a magnified vertical section of the crown1 displaying the medullary canals and radiating calcigerous tubes1 is represented ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #a;b1 and a transverse section1 fig4 #a;c2 they are thin slices of a tooth1 ,p4 porosus1 from the ,black ,rock 7,mountain ,limestone71 near ,clifton1 viewed by transmitted light4 ,the large1 flat1 quadrilateral1 oblong teeth that abound in the ,stonesfield ,slate belong to the ,strophodus magnus4 #eba ,see ,odontography1 pl4 xviii4 xix4 #ebb ,ibid4 vol4 i4 p4 #ei4 ,there are several kinds of fossil teeth which possess the same essential structure as those of ,psammodus1 but differ in their external characters2 these are referred to other genera by ,m4 ,agassiz4 ,thus ,orodus1 ,lign4 #ahi1 fig4 #c1 comprises those elongated teeth in which the centre of the crown forms an obtuse transverse cone1 traversed by a ridge from which oblique furrows diverge transversely towards the circumference4 ,similar teeth1 but with a smooth1 obtusely conical crown1 are referred to the genus ,helodus4 ,those with the crown compressed and elevated1 with a sharp edge1 and with the base surrounded by concentric folds1 constitute the type of ,chomatodes4 ,a similar crown1 but subdivided by deep transverse ridges into dentations1 characterises the genus ,ctenoptychius4 ,ceratodus 7horn-tooth7 emarginatus4 ,lign4 #aid1 fig4 #a4--,very curious dental organs1 possessing a structure analogous to that of the teeth of ,psammodus1 are found in the ,bone-bed of the ,lias2 they consist of consolidated plates instead of separate teeth2 there was probably but one plate on each side the jaws4 ,the upper margin is generally undulated1 and more or less worn by use4 ,these dental plates are composed of two distinct layers2 the lowermost portion1 or root1 is an osseous1 reticulated tissue1 as in cartilaginous fishes in general2 and the upper consists of dentine1 with minute parallel vertical tubes1 as in ,psammodus2 these tubes are a continuation of the medullary tissue of the osseous root4 ,one species occurs in the ,great ,oolite at ,stonesfield1 and very many forms abound in the ,bone-bed at ,aust ,cliff1 near ,westbury on ,avon3 and in the ,trias 7bone-bed7 of ,germany the teeth of several species of ,ceratodus are very abundant4 ,the fishes to which these fossil teeth1 referred to ,ceratodus1 belonged were most probably ,cestracionts2 the ray-spine known as ,nemacanthus is provisionally assigned to them4 ,edaphodon4 ,lign4 #aij and ,lign4 #aia1 ,ly4 p4 #bgf1 fig4 #cji4--,the ,chimroid fishes1 though formerly placed with the ,plagiostomes 7,sharks and ,bays71 constitute a distinct group1 of which there are but two recent genera1 though several occur in a fossil state4 ,their dental organs are very peculiar4 ,their mandibles are furnished with two or more pairs of oblong teeth1 composed of long hollow cylindrical columns1 placed nearly at right angles to the grinding surface1 which is pitted with minute depressions4 ,these teeth are never shed1 but are persistent1 and grow on through life1 as in the ,rodentia1 exhibiting in this respect a striking contrast with those of the ,sharks1 which are feeble and numerous1 and constantly replaced by rows of successional teeth4 ,fossil teeth of several species1 some much larger than the recent1 have been found in the ,tertiary1 ,cretaceous1 and ,oolitic deposits4 ,the first ,british specimen was discovered in the ,chalk-marl at ,hamsey1 in #ahbj1 by myself2 but its nature was not suspected until more perfect examples were obtained from the ,kimmeridge ,clay at ,shotover by ,sir ,p4 ,egerton1 and were submitted to ,dr4 ,buckland1 who subsequently ascertained their characters and relations by an examination of the dental organs of a recent ,chimra in the ,museum at ,leyden in #ahce4ebc #ebc ,proceedings of the ,geological ,society of ,london1 vol4 ii4 p4 #bji4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aij4 ,mandible of ,edaphodon ,mantelli4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 7#a_/b nat4 size47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aia4 ,edaphodon leptognathus4 #a_/b nat4 ,london ,clay4 ,bracklesham4 ,the ,upper and ,lower ,mandibles of the left side2 viewed mesially or from within4 ,fig4 #a4--,the ,upper ,jaw2 left ramus4 p m4--,the premaxillary bone4 #a1 #b1 #c4--,the three dental tubercles4 ,fig4 #b4--,the ,lower ,jaw4 s4--,the symphysial surface1 by which this ramus is united to the opposite or right side of the jaw4 #d1 #e1 #f4--,the three dental tubercles1 or triturating surfaces1 of the left ramus of the lower jaw4 ,many specimens1 both of the upper and lower mandibles1 have since been discovered in the ,eocene beds1 ,chalk1 ,upper ,greensand1 ,galt1 ,kimmeridge ,clay1 and ,stonesfield ,slate4 ,the subject has been carefully investigated by ,sir ,p4 ,egerton2 and this eminent ,ichthyologist has tabulated the principal forms1 and arranged them under five genera4#ebd #ebd ,viz4 ,ganodus1 ,ischyodus1 ,edaphodon1 ,elasmodus1 and ,psaliodus4 ,see ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ce2 and ,dixon's ,foss4 ,sussex4 ,in some species the external vertical wall of the plate is formed of hard dentine1 resembling enamel2 in others the dentine is disposed in isolated ramifications1 producing a dendritical appearance2 the modifications of this structure occasion the differences observable in the dental plates of the various species4 ,in some1 compact dentine with parallel canals constitutes the mass of the tooth2 in others1 the squamous dentine with ramifying tubes prevails4 ,i have figured the right upper and lower mandibles of the type named ,edaphodon 7pavement-tooth71 in which there are three teeth or dental tubercles on each ramus of both jaws1 ,lign4 #aia3 the lower mandible is produced anteriorly into a falciform beak3#ebe the articulating surface of the symphysis 7#b s7 is broad at the base1 and contracts gradually forward until the margins meet at the apex4 ,in ,ischyodus the lower jaw is deeper1 less produced in front1 and the margins of the symphysis are parallel until abruptly truncated at the extremities3 the upper jaw has four tubercles on each side4 #ebe ,hence ,m4 ,agassiz proposed the name of ,psittacodon 7parrot-tooth7 for this genus of ,chimroids4 ,the upper jaw in ,elasmodus has but three tubercles1 as in ,edaphodon1 but the dentine of which they are composed is confluent1 being rolled round like a scroll in the substance of the bone1 one edge forming the margin of the tooth1 and the other being buried deep in its centre4 ,the dorsal fin-ray or spine of the ,edaphodon is laterally compressed1 with the posterior margin grooved1 and the edges armed with fine teeth3 ,i have a specimen of the spine1 with a pair of inferior mandibles of the same individual1 imbedded in a block of chalk from ,kent2 by favour of ,mrs4 ,smith1 of ,tunbridge ,wells4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aib4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,sharks4 ,fig4 #a4--;,hybodus medius4 ,lias4 ,lyme ,regis4 #b4--;,hybodus raricostatus4 ,lias4 ,bristol4 #c4--;,carcharodon productus4 ,tert4 ,malta4 #d4--;,hemipristis serra 7fragment74 ,chalk4 ,ratisbon4 #e4--,otodus ,obliquus4 ,tert4 ,sheppey4 ,hybodus4 ,lign4 #aib1 figs4 #a1 #b4 7,bd4 pl4 xxviid47--,intermediate between the obtuse crushing teeth of the ,sharks previously described1 and those sharp1 angular1 pointed1 dental organs of the ,squaloids1 are those of the fishes which ,m4 ,agassiz has arranged in a sub-family or group termed ,hybodonts2 the teeth of which are characterised by their transversely elongated form1 and the series of subacute1 compressed1 conical cusps or points1 which compose the crown4 ,the median cone is the principal1 the lateral points being shorter and smaller1 as in ,lign4 #aib1 fig4 #b2 in some species the difference between the median and lateral cones is greater1 in others less1 as in fig4 #a4 ,these cusps have a coating of dense enamel1 which is plicated longitudinally on both faces4 ,the base1 which almost equals the crown in size1 is composed of a coarse osseous substance4 ,the internal structure of the crown differs from that of the ,cestracionts1 in having no principal pulp-cavity1 and in being chiefly composed of dendritical dentine1 with reticulated medullary canals4 ,the form and organization of these teeth show them to have been instruments for cutting and tearing food4 ,the ,hybodonts1 as we have already stated 7p4 #eha71 possessed two spinous dorsal fins2 in their habits and economy they probably did not differ from the ordinary ,sharks4 ,teeth and spines of this genus are common in the ,trias1 ,lias1 ,oolite1 and ,walden1 and occur in the ,green ,sand and ,chalk4 ,there are several species of teeth and fins in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest 7,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 x474 ,in general the teeth are found detached1 but occasionally they occur in their natural position1 adhering to the mineralized cartilaginous jaws 7,petrif4 ,lign4 #ig72 as in the beautiful fossil figured ,bd4 pl4 xxvii4d2 and in the fine specimen of ,h4 basanus1 from the ,isle of ,wight1 figured in the ,geol4 ,soc4 ,journ4 vol4 pl4 iv4 ,there are several related genera1 founded on the situation1 form1 and division of the principal cusps of the teeth4 ,sharks with ,cutting ,teeth4--,the jaws of the common squaloid fishes1 as the ,lamna 7,porbeagle7 and ,carcharias 7,great ,white ,shark71 are so common in collections of natural history1 as to render a description unnecessary4 ,the numerous vertical rows of angular1 laterally compressed1 pointed teeth1 with sharp or serrated edges--in some species consisting of a simple trenchant cusp1 in others with small lateral teeth1 or denticles1 at the base1 are characters with which all are familiar4 ,fossil teeth of this form are extremely abundant in the ,tertiary and ,cretaceous deposits2 and are commonly in a beautiful state of preservation4 ,the genera of these fossil teeth are founded on the solidity or hollow structure of the cusps1 their possessing cutting or serrated edges1 and the presence or absence of lateral denticles4 ,but the last character cannot in every instance be relied upon1 for some recent ,sharks have rows of teeth both with and without denticles4 ,carcharodon productus4 ,lign4 #aib1 fig #c4--,the genus ,carcharias comprises the large ,sharks with cutting triangular teeth1 crenated 7notched7 on their margins1 and having a broad base4 ,in ,carcharodon1 the teeth differ from those of ,carcharias in being solid in the centre1 while in the latter they are hollow2 but in both genera the teeth exhibit the same reticulated structure of medullary and calcigerous tubes4 ,the ,white ,shark and other large species belong to these genera2 some of which are upwards of forty feet in length4 ,but even these colossal fishes must have been far surpassed in magnitude by the extinct species of the ,tertiary deposits1 if the teeth afford a scale of proportions2 for some of the fossil teeth from ,malta and the ,united ,states are six inches long1 and five wide at the base2#ebf being twice the size of the teeth in the largest living species4 ,the specimen figured in illustration1 ,lign4 #aib1 fig4 #c1 is of a small size4 #ebf ,for instance1 some of the ,maryland specimens of ,carcharodon megalodon4 ,see an admirable memoir on the ,fossil ,squalid of the ,united ,states1 by ,dr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,gibbes1 ,journ4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,science1 ,philadelphia4 ,at the meeting of the ,british ,association in #ahea1 ,j4 ,s4 ,bowerbank1 ,esq4 ,f4,r4,s4 read some interesting observations on the comparison of these large fossil fishes with the recent ,carcharias glaucus of ,australia4 ,see also ,owen1 ,cyclop4 ,anat4 ,art4 ,teeth4 ,hemipristis serra4 ,lign4 #aib1 fig #d4--,the fossil teeth of this genus are distinguished by serrated edges1 that do not extend to the summit1 which is a sharp angular point2 as in the fossil represented4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aic4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,sharks4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,fig4 #a4--;,corax pristodontus4 #b4--,lamna crassidens4 #c4--,notidanus microdon4 #d4--,ptychodus polygurus2 seen laterally4 #e4--,ptychodus polygurus2 viewed from above4 #f4--,lamna elegans4 ,lamna elegans4 ,lign4 #aic1 fig4 #f4--,the fishes of the genus ,lamna 7to which the recent shark called the ,porbeagle belongs7 have teeth with smooth trenchant edges1 and a small sharp denticle 7little tooth7 on each side the base1 as in the fossil1 ,lign4 #aic1 fig4 #f4 ,the specimen1 fig4 #b1 although devoid of denticles1 probably belongs to the same genus1 for reasons already explained4 ,several species abound in the ,chalk2 and they are associated with teeth1 which are relatively wider and shorter1 and have large compressed denticles2 the latter are arranged in a separate genus1 named ,otodus 7eared-tooth71 by ,m4 ,agassiz4 ,the specimen figured ,lign4 #aib1 fig4 #e1 represents ,o4 obliquus2 another species1 ,otodus appendiculatus1 is abundant in the ,sussex ,chalk4 ,the large1 wide1 triangular1 smooth teeth1 with trenchant edges1 and destitute of lateral denticles1 so common in the ,chalk1 are related to ,lamna1 and are comprised in the genus ,oxyrhina 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 tab4 xxxiii474 ,notidanus microdon4 ,lign4 #aic1 fig4 #c4--,these teeth differ remarkably from those of the other genera of ,sharks4 ,the crown of each tooth is composed of a series of sharp angular enamelled points1 the first of which is the largest1 and is notched on its anterior edge2 the base or root is osseous1 flat1 with a slight longitudinal depression below the border of enamel4 ,these teeth are comparatively rare in the ,chalk4 ,one species has been found in the ,oxford ,clay2 and several in the ,tertiary strata4 ,specimens occur in ,hordwell ,cliff4 ,corax pristodontus4 ,lign4 #aic1 fig4 #a4--,the teeth of the fossil ,corax chiefly differ from those of the recent genus ,galeus1 to which the ,tope1 or ,grey ,shark1 belongs1 in being solid2 they are of a triangular form1 with a deep concavity or notch on the posterior margin1 the base of which is prolonged and forms three or four angular points3 the anterior edge of the tooth is finely serrated4 ,the root of the tooth1 as in ,notidanus1 is a broad osseous plate4 ,there is much diversity of form in the ,chalk specimens1 which are all of a small size1 as in ,lign4 #aic1 fig4 #a4 ,in ,sussex they are more common in the ,chalk-marl than in the ,chalk4 ,the only fossil teeth of the ,shark family resembling those of the tertiary ,carchariodonts1 that have been discovered in the strata below the ,chalk1 are from the carboniferous deposits of ,yorkshire and ,armagh4 ,these teeth are compressed1 triangular1 crenated on the edges1 with large plaits or folds on the enamelled surface1 towards the base of the crown4 ,m4 ,agassiz refers them to a new genus1 viz4 ,carcharopsis1 with the specific name of ,prototypus4 ,fossil ,vertebr of ,sharks4--,as the cartilaginous nature of the skeleton in this family renders it unfavourable to preservation in the mineral kingdom1 the durable parts already described1 and those which are ossified1 are almost the only relics found in a fossil state4 ,the dermal integument is1 however1 sometimes preserved2 and ,i had a beautiful example of shagreen1 composed of irregular minute hexagonal scales1 one of which is represented highly magnified1 ,lign4 #ahe1 fig4 #a4 ,in the ,galeus and ,carcharias the vertebr are more ossified than in many other genera of cartilaginous fishes1 and fossil vertebr of these sharks often occur in the cretaceous and other strata4 ,groups of vertebr of a large size occasionally occur in the ,sussex ,chalk2 they are circular1 biconcave1 and very short2 one specimen is four inches in diameter1 and one inch long2 their concavities are consequently shallow4 ,these vertebra3 are composed of two shallow conical disks1 which are united by their summits1 at the axis1 and are connected and supported by numerous wedge-shaped plates1 that radiate from the centre to the periphery 7see ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xxxiii4 fig4 #aj74 ,my collection contained a connected series of forty small vertebr from the ,chalk near ,lewes1 which probably belonged to the same species of ,shark as the dorsal spine named ,spinax major 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 iii4 pl4 xla fig4 #f74 ,squaloraia4 ,in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1 that inexhaustible storehouse of fossil treasures1 a considerable portion of the skeleton of a very remarkable fish1 partaking of the characters of the ,sharks and ,rays1 was discovered by ,miss ,mary ,aiming1 and is now in the ,museum of the ,bristol ,institution4#ebg ,in this fish the jaws are prolonged into a beak1 like the ,pristis 7,saw-fish74 ,it has the head of a ,shark1 with a long beak2 vertebr of the ,rays2 with pectoral and ventral fins1 almost equally developed2 a tail armed with1 a spine2 and spinous bosses1 as in the true ,rays4 #ebg ,it is figured and described by ,dr4 ,riley1 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 v4 pl4 iv4 ,see also ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 iii4 pl4 xlii4 ,fossil ,pristis1 or ,saw-fish4--,this well-known predatory fish1 which is allied to the ,rays and ,sharks1 and referred by ,m4 ,agassiz to the family of ,raiid1 has projecting from its snout an osseous1 flat1 horizontal plate1 or beak1 equal in length to one-third of the fish1 and armed on each side by a row of elongated1 compressed1 pointed teeth1 implanted in sockets2 the front margin of these teeth is convex1 the posterior concave2 this defence is termed the saw1 and constitutes a most powerful weapon4 ,the ,pristis has also numerous small obtuse teeth on the jaws4 ,the remains of the beak1 or saw1 of an extinct species of ,pristis have been discovered in the ,bagshot ,sand at ,goldsworth ,hill1 ,surrey1#ebh and three other species have been found in the ,london clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 and the ,eocene beds at ,bracklesham and ,hordwell4#ebi #ebh ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #fhg4 #ebi ,two teeth are figured in ,dixon's ,fossils of ,sussex1 pl4 xii42 the specimens are in the ,british ,museum2 see ,petrifactions1 p4 #dad4 ,fossil ,rays4--,the teeth of these fishes are characterised by the extraordinary transversal development of the median teeth in both jaws4 ,instead of pointed teeth1 they have wide1 flat1 tesselated dentary plates in each jaw1 composed of distinct pieces1 juxtaposed and connected by their margins1 and united by fine sutures4 ,in some species the teeth are equal1 in others of various sizes2 they present numerous modifications of arrangement1 and are always disposed in symmetrical rows4 ,in the genus ,myliobatis 7,eagle-ray7 the teeth of the median row are of an extraordinary width1 while their length does not exceed that of the lateral plates1 or chevrons1 which are of an irregular hexagonal form1 and disposed in two or three rows on each side4 ,there are five living species of ,myliobatis1 and eighteen fossil species have been found in the ,tertiary strata at the ,isle of ,sheppey1 ,hordwell ,cliff1 and ,bracklesham ,bay4 ,i have figured a specimen of part of the upper jaw of a species 7,m4 micropleurus1 ,lign4 #aid1 fig4 #b71 in which the median teeth are very wide1 and have two lateral rows of small1 irregularly hexagonal1 plates4 ,the surface of the teeth in this species is smooth2 but in others it is striated longitudinally 7,bd4 pl4 xxvid4 fig4 #ad74 ,in an allied genus1 tobatis1 from the ,tertiary beds at ,bracklesham1 the lower jaw projects beyond the upper1 and in each there is a row of flat1 transverse teeth1 without lateral plates4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aid4 ,fossil ,teeth of ,fishes ,fig4 #a4--;,ceratodus emarginatus3 #a_/b nat4 ,lias ,bone-bed4 ,aust ,cliff4 ,a single dental plate4 #b4--,myliobatis micropleurus3 #a_/c nat4 ,tert4 ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,a series of six median teeth1 with the corresponding lateral teeth4 #c4--,pycnodus ,mantelli4 ,weald4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,this specimen consists of the vomerine bone1 with a median row of flat1 arched teeth1 and two rows on each side of elliptical teeth1 arranged alternately4 ,to this notice of the fossil ,rays1 we may add1 that a gigantic ,torpedo has been discovered in that celebrated locality of ,ichthyolites1 ,monte ,bolca3 and that ,sir ,philip ,egerton has recently enriched his matchless collection of fossil fishes1 by a perfect ,ray1 from ,mount ,lebanon4 ,it is figured and described in the ,quarterly ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 i4 pl4 v4 p4 #bbe1 under the name of ,cyclobatis oligodactylus4 ,it is a small species1 resembling the common ,rays in its general appearance1 but is surrounded by a broad1 flexible1 cartilagino-membranous fin2 the skin is smooth1 the teeth and eyes are small1 the tail is slender2 there are no traces of dermal spines1 tubercles1 or defensive weapons4 ,in many points of structure it resembles the ,torpedo2 and may possibly1 like that fish1 have possessed an electric organ4 ,it is #c-a_/b inches long1 and #c inches wide across the expanded fins4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,fossil ,,ichthyology2 ,,comprising ,,the ,,ganoid1 ,,ctenoid1 ,,and ,,cycloid ,,fishes4 ,the fishes we have hitherto examined belong to the first order1 the ,placoidians2 we now pass to the fossil remains of the second order1 the ,ganoidians1 which are distinguished by their brilliant angular scales1 formed of osseous or horny plates1 densely covered with enamel4 ,this order contains six or more families1 comprising many genera and numerous species2 our investigation must be restricted to a selection from the principal genera of the ,ganoids1 properly so called1 and of the ,sauroids1 or lizard-like fishes4#ecj #ecj ,the fishes of these orders are described in ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 ii4 ,the first family1 termed ,lepidoides1 contains several genera1 which are defined as possessing either numerous rows of brush-teeth1 or of obtuse conical teeth2 flat1 rhomboidal scales1 arranged parallel with the body2 and an osseous1 or partially osseous1 skeleton4 ,in one division of this family1 the body is either elongated or fusiform1 the mouth furnished with brash-teeth only1 and the tail heterocercal1 or unequally bilobed 7see p4 #egf74 ,to this group belong several genera1 which are restricted to the ,secondary formations more ancient than the ,oolite2 while the other group1 with homocercal tails1 lived in the ,oolitic and ,cretaceous seas4 ,two genera1 in particular1 abound in the ,permian and ,carboniferous strata2 namely1 ,amblypterus and ,paloniscus4#eca #eca ,for the characters1 affinities1 and distribution of these and the allied genera of the ,heterocerque ,ganoid fishes1 see ,sir ,p4 ,egerton's ,memoir in the sixth volume of the ,quarterly ,geological ,journal4 ,amblypterus4 ,lign4 #ahg4 ,wond4 p4 #gdj4 ,bd4 pl4 xxvii4b4--,the fishes of this genus1 as the name indicates1 have very large and wide fins1 composed of numerous rays4 ,the scales are rhomboidal and finely enamelled2 the tail is heterocercal4 ,the figures referred to convey a correct idea of the form and external characters4 ,beautiful pyritous imprints of ,amblypteri occur in the ,carboniferous slate of ,saarbrck1 in ,lorraine2 and fine specimens in the ironstone nodules of the same locality4 ,on the shore at ,newhaven1 near ,leith1 similar fossils occur in nodules washed out of the cliffs of coal-shale 7,bd4 p4 #bgh74 ,paloniscus4 ,ly4 p4 #cjd4--,the fishes of this genus differ from those of ,amblypterus in the relatively moderate size of the scales1 and the numerous little rays on their margins4 ,they have rhomboidal scales1 which in some species are very small1 and in others large4 ,they have numerous brush-teeth4 ,several peculiar species1 found in the marl-slates and magnesian limestones of the ,permian system1 are very widely distributed1 occurring in the ,british ,isles1 ,germany1 and the ,united ,states4 ,in some localities the small species occur in groups2 on a slab of red sandstone1 in the ,museum of the ,geological ,society1 from ,tyrone1 between two and three hundred perfect fishes 7,p4 catopterus7 are imbedded on a space not exceeding two feet square4 ,a remarkable circumstance relating to the fishes of this genus is the almost constant absence of the bodies of the vertebr in otherwise well-preserved specimens1 and in which the spinal processes and the ribs are entire3 occasionally1 however1 examples occur with some of the vertebr perfect4 ,an explanation of the above phenomenon may perhaps be found in the probable originally cartilaginous nature of the bodies of the vertebr1 and the osseous structure of the enduring apophyses and ribs2#ecb while those rare specimens which possess a few bony vertebr may be regarded as exceptions1 in which ossification took place in a structure essentially cartilaginous4 #ecb ,professor ,owen states that a similar condition of the spinal column obtains in the fossil ,microdonts4--,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdf4 ,the fishes found in the copper-schists of the ,zechstein1 at ,mansfeld in ,saxony1 are generally impregnated with copper pyrites1 and their scales are as brilliant as burnished gold4 ,these ichthyolites are almost always in contorted and twisted positions2 which appearance ,m4 ,agassiz attributes to contraction of the muscular tissues after death1 during the progress of decomposition1 and before the fishes sank down and became imbedded in the mud4 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 ii4 p4 #gj47 ,the fishes of the genus ,paloniscus are often found in the shales and marls of the ,permian and ,carboniferous systems of ,england and ,scotland4 ,at ,east ,thickley1 in the county of ,durham1 numerous specimens have been found4#ecc ,the lower ,carboniferous strata at ,burdie-house1 a locality we have before mentioned1 have yielded several species of ,paloniscus1 associated with teeth and other remains of large sauroid fishes4#ecd ,on the continent also they prevail in deposits of the same epoch2 ,eisleben and ,mansfeld1 iii ,saxony1 are well-known localities4 ,in ,north ,america they have been discovered in strata of probably the same age4#ece ,in fine1 the genera ,amblypterus and ,paloniscus may be regarded as characteristic medals of the geological epoch which intervened between the ,devonian and ,triassic formations4 #ecc ,see ,professor ,sedgwick on the ,magnesian ,limestone4 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 iii42 and ,prof4 ,king's ,monograph on the ,permian ,fossils1 published by the ,palontographical ,society4 #ecd ,dr4 ,hibbert's ,memoir on the ,fossils of ,burdie-house4 #ece ,geology of ,massachusetts1 by ,professor ,e4 ,hitchcock4 ,we will next examine a few genera of the homocercal ,lepidoids and ,pycnodonts1 whose relics are chiefly distributed in the ,lias1 ,oolite1 ,purbeck1 and ,wealden4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aie4 ,outline of the ,dapedius4 ,lias4 7#a_/b nat4 size74 ,dapedius4 ,lign4 #aie4--;,at ,lyme ,regis1 and other productive localities of the fossils of the ,lias1 large masses of angular enamelled scales1 and occasionally entire specimens of the fishes to which they belonged1 have for many years been collected4 ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,beche first scientifically investigated the structure of these ,ichthyolites1 and pointed out their characters and relations4 ,the ,dapedius 7of which a restored figure is given in ,lign4 #aie7 is a flat1 laterally compressed fish1 with a rounded head1 and fins of moderate size4 ,the body rapidly contracts towards the root of the tail1 the fin of which is large and symmetrically lobed4 ,the mouth is furnished with several rows of small conical teeth1 which are crenated at their summits1 and has brush-teeth on the palatine bones2 the jaws are short4 ,the scales are rhomboidal1 highly polished1 and united laterally by short processes2 as in many other ganoid fishes4 ,it belongs to the ,lepidoids4 ,the ,tetragonolepis is a ,liassic fish1 very similar in shape to the ,dapedius4 ,it was formerly grouped with the ,lepidoidei1 but ,sir ,p4 ,egerton has lately discovered that it essentially differs from those fishes in the character of its scales and teeth1 and that it belongs to the ,pycnodonts4 ,lepidotus4#ecf ,lign4 #ahf1 #aif1 #aig4--,scales of a dark-brown1 almost black colour1 with a glossy enamelled surface1 and of a rhomboidal or lozenge form1 and teeth equally dark and glossy1 of an obtuse hemispherical figure1 are very common in the ,wealden strata of the south-east of ,england and in the ,isle of ,purbeck4 ,they are called by the quarry-men fishes' scales and eyes4 ,the collectors of the last century used to term the obtuse circular teeth of this and the related genera ,bufonites1 from a supposition that they were formed in the heads of toads4 ,these relics belong to an extinct genus named ,lepidotus1 which contains numerous species1 that are distributed in the ,oolite1 ,purbeck1 and ,wealden formations4 ,these fishes resembled the ,carps in their general form1 but they have no anatomical relations to that family4 ,the body is covered with large rhomboidal scales1 which are protected on the external surface by a thick plate of enamel 7,lign #aif1 fig4 #c74 ,the lateral line1 which is slightly arched1 passes direct from the operculum to the middle of the insertion of the caudal fin4 ,the head1 and even the face1 are cased with osseous and enamelled plates4 ,the bones of the surface of the skull are very large1 and are connected by sinuous sutures4 ,the jaws are short and rounded1 and furnished with a row of obtuse1 conical1 circular teeth 7see ,lign4 #aig71 and several rows of sessile teeth1 more or less contracted at the base1 which forms a very short pedicle that is anchylosed to the bone4 ,the fossil ,lepidoti are found1 for the most part1 in fluviatile deposits1 as in the ,purbeck and ,wealden strata2 and it is probable they inhabited the rivers or sea-coasts1 and not deep waters4 #ecf ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 ii4 p4 #bcc4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aif4 ,scales and ,fin of ,lepidotus ,mantelli4 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 7,nat4 size47 ,fig4 #a4--,scale1 with a single process of attachment4 #b4--,one of the scales of the dorsal line4 #c4--,scale 7external surface71 with a bifurcating process of attachment2 the enamelled portion 7which alone is visible when the scales are in their natural position on the animal7 has longitudinal grooves or folds4 #d4--,scale 7viewed on the inner surface71 having a bifurcating process of attachment and a tooth or projection on each side1 to connect the scale laterally with the adjoining scales4 #e4--,the front ray of the dorsal fin1 covered with two rows of enamelled scales1 and another ray behind it4 ,the scales and teeth figured ,lign4 #aif1 #aig1 belong to the larger species of the ,wealden4 ,the remains of this fish were first collected in ,tilgate ,forest1 and several teeth and3 scales are figured ,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 v4 and x42 considerable portions of connected scales have since been found2 also the head entire1 and the fins more or less perfect4 ,a specimen in my collection retained a mass of the scales near the insertion of the tail1 a foot wide2 indicating the original to have been twelve feet long1 and its body three feet broad4 ,the scales are distinguished from other species by the folds or grooves on their enamelled surface2 and the teeth by the contracted base1 or pedicle1 which is a little narrower than the crown 7,lign4 #aig1 and ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #aj74 ,a species 7,l4 ,fittoni7 closely related to the above is equally abundant in the ,weald of ,sussex2 the scales are not striated1 and the teeth have no pedicle4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aig4 ,portion of the ,jaw of ,lepidotus4 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 7,nat4 size47 ,this specimen shows three successional teeth beneath a row of teeth in use4 ,the intimate structure of the teeth of the ,lepidotus is beautifully preserved1 and may be easily examined in thin transverse and vertical sections1 viewed by transmitted light3 see ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #aj4 ,the dentine is composed of bundles of tubes1 continued from the cells of the osseous base1 radiating in a vertical direction to the surface of the tooth1 as seen in ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #aj1 and giving off branches at an acute angle2 but when more highly magnified1 the finer branches are seen to be spread out and arched at their extremities1 presenting the appearance of the stems of corn1 beaten down by heavy rain4#ecg #ecg ,odontography1 p4 #gj4 ,see the beautiful representation of this structure1 pl4 xxxi4 ,the dorsal and pectoral fins of these fishes are very strong1 and consist of several bony rays4 ,there is a double row of acuminated enamelled scales1 arranged more or less obliquely1 on the anterior margin of the dorsal and anal fins1 and on both margins of the caudal3 part of the first ray of a dorsal fin1 with scales1 is represented ,lign4 #aif1 fig4 #e4 ,a small species of ,lepidotus 7,a4 minor7 is common in the ,purbeck limestone1 and specimens may often be procured from the quarries near ,swanage2#ech it has also been found at ,hildesheim1 in ,saxony1 by ,m4 ,roemer4 ,the detached scales abound in the limestones2 and the splendid fossil reptile from ,swanage1 figured ,petrif4 ,lign4 #ch1 is sprinkled with the scales and minute teeth of this fish4 #ech ,fine specimens of this fish are in the ,british ,museum 7,petrifactions1 p4 #dbi71 and in the ,museum at ,dorchester4 ,the majority of the species of ,lepidotus belong to the ,lower ,oolites and the ,lias4 ,the habits of the ,lepidoti1 as indicated by the form and structure of the teeth1 were those of fishes whose food consisted of crustaceans1 shelly mollusca1 c42 for the dental organs are peculiarly adapted for the crushing and grinding of such substances2 and the teeth of the adult fishes are generally worn down by use4 ,pycnodus4 ,pl4 ,i4 fig4 #c2 ,lign4 #aid1 fig4 #c4--,the fishes of the family of ,pycnodonts1 so named from the thickness of their teeth1 have an osseous skeleton1 a flat body covered with rhomboidal scales1 and flat or rounded teeth disposed in several rows on the palatine1 vomerine1 intermaxillary1 and premandibular bones4#eci ,as in the ,lepidotus1 these teeth are constructed for crushing1 and have generally a smooth1 dense1 convex or flattened crown1 with a highly polished surface4 ,this genus belongs chiefly to the ,oolite2 it is found also in the ,lias1 ,chalk1 and ,wealden4 ,a perfect fish of the genus ,pycnodus 7,p4 rhombus71 from the ,jura limestone1 at ,torre d',orlando1 near ,castellamare1 is figured in the frontispiece of the first volume of this work2 and a vomerine bone1 with teeth1 from ,tilgate ,forest1 in ,lign4 #aid1 fig4 #c4 ,in the last fossil there is a median row of flat11 elongated1 transversely arched1 smooth1 glossy teeth1 with a double alternate row of small sub-circular teeth on each side1 attached to the bone1 which is imbedded in ,tilgate grit4 ,specimens of this kind1 belonging to one or more species of ,pycnodus1 occur in the ,wealden of ,sussex2 they were among my earliest discoveries in ,tilgate ,forest 7,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 xvii4 figs4 #bf1 #bg74 ,examples are met2 with in which all the teeth are shed1 and the bony plate of the vomer alone remains4 #eci ,the intermaxillary1 palatine1 and vomerine bones compose the vault or roof of the mouth2 the vomer occupying the middle2 the intermaxillary the front2 and the palatine bones the sides2 the premandibular bones belong to the lower border of the mouth4 ,gyrodus4 ,lign4 #aih4--;,in another genus of the ,pycnodonts1 termed ,gyrodus1 the crowns of the teeth are deeply furrowed1 the structure of the dentine is very dense1 and the pulp-cavity large and simple4 ,one species occurs in the ,speeton clay of ,yorkshire1 and another in the ,sussex weald2 but the teeth are chiefly found in the ,oolite and ,chalk4 ,as in ,pycnodus1 the teeth are distributed in rows on the bones composing the roof1 floor1 and sides of the mouth4#edj #edj ,an extraordinarily perfect lower jaw of a ,gyrodus is to be seen in the ,british ,museum 7,foss4 ,brit4 ,mus4 p4 #dci74 ,these characters are beautifully displayed in the ,russian specimen1 ,lign4 #aih4 ,this interesting fossil was presented to me by the late ,stephen ,cattley1 jun4 ,esq41 who collected it in #ahci1 in a valley near ,rjeff1 a village on the banks of the ,volga4 ,mr4 ,cattley informed me that many fossils are found in that and the neighbouring valleys2 and the locality is frequented by ,russian geologists when the season permits1 which is but seldom1 owing to the long duration of the snow1 and the heavy rains which accompany the thaw4 ,this specimen consists of the vomerine bone1 which is of a coarse texture1 and five rows of teeth2 the median row consists of very large elliptical teeth2 those of the lateral rows are much smaller and arranged alternately4 ,the peculiar structure of the teeth of this genus#eda is finely displayed in this fossil4 ,the ample1 deep1 and simple pulp-cavity is seen in several teeth1 where the crown of dentine has been worn off1 filled with a pure white calcareous spar2 one of these cavities is marked a4 ,the dentine is extremely dense1 consisting of very minute calcigerous tubes1 and passes into an external layer of enamel4 #eda ,odontography1 p4 #gb4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aih4 ,gyrodus ,murchisoni#edb 7,g4 ,a4 ,m47 ,oolite8 ,russia4 7,collected by the late ,stephen ,cattley1 jun4 ,esq47 ,fig4 #a4--,the vomerine bone of a fish1 with five rows of teeth2 seen from above2 many of the crowns of the teeth are worn away by use1 and the large pulp-cavities1 filled with white spar1 are exposed2 as at a4 #b4--,lateral view of the same4 a4 ,one of the pulp-cavities filled with spar4 #edb ,it is with peculiar pleasure that ,i inscribe this new species of ,gyrodus to ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison1 in commemoration of those extended and successful geological researches in the ,russian empire1 which have conferred additional honour on his distinguished name4 ,the fishes of the genus ,gyrodus have the body large1 flat1 and elevated2 the dorsal and anal fins are very long2 and the tail is forked1 with equal elongated lobes4 ,the scales are laterally connected by strong processes1 as in ,lepidotus4 ,other genera related to the foregoing occur in the ,oolite2 as for example1 ,microdon1 thus named from the smallness of its very numerous flat angular teeth1 arranged in many rows2 ,placodus1 in which the teeth are few1 flat1 and of great size2#edc and ,platysomus 7flat-body71 with orbicular1 clavate1 teeth4 #edc ,odontography1 pl4 xliii4 fig4 #a1 and pl4 xxx4 fig4 #b4 ,in these fishes1 also1 the dental organs are well adapted for the comminution of shell-fish1 and other hard bodies4 ,cephalaspides of the ,devonian ,system4--,the remains of the three genera of ,ganoid fishes that we have now to notice are of a very remarkable character1 and are found exclusively in the ,devonian or ,old ,red system2 most frequently in ,scotland1 but also in other parts of the ,british ,isles1 and in ,europe and ,america4 ,these fishes agree in one general character1 that of having extensive osseous plates1 or scutcheons2 their general aspect will be understood by reference to ,lign4 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja4 ,there are no vestiges of the bodies of the vertebr1 which1 therefore1 were probably cartilaginous4 ,these fishes constitute a distinct family with the name ,cephalaspides1 from the character of the first genus we propose to describe4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #aii4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii4 7#a_/d nat4 size47 ,devonian4 ,forfarshire4 ,crushed specimen2 seen from above4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bjj4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii4 7#a_/d nat4 size47 ,devonian4 ,glammis1 ,forfarshire4 ,lateral view1 showing the produced dorsal lobe of the tail4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii4 ,lign4 #aii1 #bjj4--,the most striking feature in the ,ichthyolites of this genus is the enormous scutcheon1 or buckler1 which forms the head1 and is prolonged posteriorly into two lateral horns or points2 this part so closely resembles the cephalic shield of certain trilobites 7see ,lign4 #age71 that the first found specimens were supposed to be the remains of unknown crustaceans4 ,the name ,cephalaspis 7buckler-head7 is derived from this character4 ,this remarkable appearance is occasioned by the intimate anchylosis of all the bones of the cranium4 ,the body of these fishes is relatively smaller than the head2 it has one dorsal fin1 and terminates in a tapering tail1 supporting a fin4 ,there are two small eyes1 placed towards the middle of the head4 ,the body is covered with rhomboidal scales2 and the head with discoidal scales1 which are highly ornamented with radiated markings#edd 7,ly4 p4 #cdd1 fig4 #cif74 ,there are four species of ,cephalaspis at present known4 #edd ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 ii4 p4 #ace4 ,the other genera are equally unlike any recent types of the class of fishes4 ,no perfect examples have been found1 and some parts of their structure are still unknown2 the annexed figures1 ,lign4 #bja1 have been drawn by ,mr4 ,dinkel 7the eminent artist employed by ,m4 ,agassiz71 with scrupulous accuracy1 no part being introduced which is not clearly demonstrated in some one specimen2 and the form of the scutcheons is made out very distinctly1 to aid the collector in discriminating the detached plates1 which are the most common relics of these singular beings4 ,pterichthys cornutus4#ede ,lign4 #bja1 fig4#a4--,this fish is distinguished by its two wing-like lateral appendages2 whence the name of the genus 7winged-fish74 ,these processes1 like the spines on the gill-covers of the common ,bullhead 7,cottus gobio71 are weapons of defence4 ,in some specimens they are extended at right angles to the body 7,ly4 p4 #cde1 fig4 #djj74 #ede ,the first fish of this genus was discovered by ,mr4 ,hugh ,miller1 in whose charming little work1 ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone2 or1 ,new ,walks in an ,old ,field1 will be found a very graphic description of the ,old ,red fishes2 ,i know not a more fascinating volume on any branch of ,british geology4 ,consult also ,sir ,p4 ,egerton's elaborate paper on the ,pterichthys in the ,geol4 ,journal1 vol4 iv4 p4 #cjb4 ,the head and anterior part of the body are covered with large angular tuberculated scutcheons4 ,the under surface of the body is flat and protected by five plates1 a quadrangular plate occupying the centre4 ,the upper part of the body is convex2 the form and disposition of the dorsal scutcheons are shown in ,lign4 #bja1 fig4#a4 ,there are two eyes1 which are placed in front of the lateral spines3 see fig4 #a4 ,the tail is of an angular form1 and as long as the body2 it is covered with scales1 and considered by ,m4 ,agassiz to have been the only instrument of locomotion4 ,the ,british species of this genus1 of which ten are known1 are all very small1 varying in length from one to ten inches4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bja4 ,fossil ,fishes of the ,devonian ,system4 7,drawn by ,mr4 ,joseph ,dinkel47 ,fig4 #a4--,pterichthys cornutus1 seen from above4 #b4--;,coccosteus oblongus4 ,these figures are restored with great care1 from the best preserved specimens hitherto discovered4 ,coccosteus oblongus4 ,lign4 #bja1 fig4 #b4--,the fishes of this genus1 as may be seen by the lignograph1 very much resemble those of ,pterichthys2 in both the osseous scutcheons of the body are very similarly disposed4 ,in ,coccosteus1 the head#edf is somewhat rounded2 slight rounded notches on the edge of the buckler indicate the place of the eyes on the sides of the head4 ,there is no indication of lateral spines4 ,the tail is very long1 covered with scales1 and supports a fin4 ,the plates of the body are tuberculated1 as in ,pterichthys4 ,there are six or eight teeth on each half of the lower jaw 7and probably as many on the upper71 with a curious group of teeth situated on its symphisis4 ,the teeth are chiefly composed of bone1 passing into dentine at their surface4#edg #edf ,this is of course only the cranial buckler of the animal1 for1 as ,mr4 ,hugh ,miller observes1 of the true internal skull there remains not a vestige4 ,like that of the ,sturgeon1 it must have been a perishable cartilaginous box4--,miller's ,foot-prints1 p4 #ej4 #edg ,miller1 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahej4 ,transact4 ,sect4 p4 #ib4 ,in the ,annals of ,natural ,history for ,november1 #ahdh1 ,professor ,m#8,coy has given a corrected outline of the carapace1 or bony cephalo-thoracic casing1 of the ,coccosteus4 ,see also ,miller's ,foot-prints1 fig4 #aa4 ,these fishes are from a few inches to two feet in length2 six species have been discovered2 and their remains are the most abundant of the ,ichthyolites of the ,old ,red4 ,patches of detached scales1 and isolated osseous plates1 are very frequent in the sandy cornstones1 and the subcrystalline masses of limestone4 ,these fragments are usually of a brilliant blue or purple colour2 and1 strongly contrasting with the dull red tint of the surrounding rock1 are easily recognised4 ,the colour is supposed to be due to the presence of phosphate of iron1 which has communicated a similar tint to the ,ichthyolites of the ,caithness ,schist4#edh #edh ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #ehh2 see also a detailed description of the ,cephalaspis1 ,holoptychius1 and other ,devonian ,ichthyolites1 by ,m4 ,agassiz1 ibid4 p4 #ehi-fja4 ,fossil ,sauroid ,fishes4 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 ii47--,the family of ,ganoid1 fishes termed ,sauroid1 or lizard-like1 by ,m4 ,agassiz1 are so named in consequence of certain peculiarities in their organization which are found in no other animals of this class1 but exist in reptiles4 ,there are but two living genera2 namely1 the ,lepidosteus1 of which there are many species that inhabit the rivers of ,america2 and the ,polypterus1 that contains two species1 one inhabiting the ,nile1 and the other the rivers of ,senegal4 ,in these fishes the bones of the skull are closely connected by sutures2 the teeth are large1 conical1 and longitudinally striated1 as in the crocodile1 plesiosaurus1 c42 the spinous processes are united to the bodies of the vertebr by suture1 as in most reptiles2 and the ribs are articulated to the extremities of the transverse processes2 the skeleton is osseous4 ,even in the soft parts many analogies to reptilian structure are seen2 thus the ,lepidosteus has a glottis1 as in the ,siren2 and a cellular air-bladder1 with a tracheal vessel1 resembling the lungs of an ,ophidian 7serpent74 ,these fishes are the only living representatives of those voracious tribes of the most ancient marine fauna1 whose remains abound in the ,secondary formations4 ,their relics have often been mistaken for those of reptiles2 particularly the teeth1 which from their large size1 conical figure1 enamelled and striated surface1 and internal cavity1 were generally supposed to belong to crocodiles4 ,the scales are flat1 rhomboidal1 and parallel to the body4 ,the recent ,lepidosteus osseus1 of ,north ,america1 affords a good illustration of the fossil genera2 a reduced figure of this fish1 from ,poiss4 ,foss41 will be found in ,bd4 pl4 xxviia42 and teeth of some fossil ,sauroids are represented ,bd4 pl4 xxvii4 ,the teeth of the ,sauroids consist of two kinds2 namely1 large pointed striated cones1 and numerous small brush-teeth4 ,the intricate structure of the conical teeth of the ,stony-gar1 or ,lepidosteus1 is very remarkable1 and presents some analogy to that observable in the dental organs of the ,labyrinthodon1 an extinct genus of reptiles1 of which we shall treat in a subsequent chapter4 ,the tooth consists of a large conical pulp-cavity1 surrounded by a mass of dentine1 which is plicated longitudinally1 its folds giving to the pulp-cavity an appearance of being divided into parallel longitudinal branches2 resembling1 in this respect1 the base of the tooth of ,ichthyosaurus1 as shown in a transverse section1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig #i4 ,if we imagine these folds to be multiplied1 and to have more inflections1 and the pulp-cavity to be reduced in its proportions1 we shall have the elegant organization of the teeth of the ,labyrinthodonts 7see ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c;b74 ,the dentine is composed of very minute calcigerous tubes1 which pass off at right angles from the pulp-cavity to the periphery2 and it is covered by a layer of cement1 or coarser dentine1 which is encased in a coat of enamel1 forming the external investment of the tooth4#edi ,the long conical teeth are implanted in alveoli or sockets1 to the walls of which they are anchylosed at their base4 #edi ,these remarks are based on ,m4 ,agassiz's description and my own observations4 ,an interesting paper1 ,on the ,microscopic ,structure of the ,teeth of the ,lepidostei1 and their analogy with those of the ,labyrinthodonts1 with a plate1 by ,dr4 ,jeffries ,wyman1 will be found in ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,science1 ,october1 #ahdc1 p4 #cei4 ,lepidostei4--,this family1 having the above described recent ,lepidosteus for its type1 comprises several genera1 and is represented in all the formations from the ,tertiary to the ,coal-measures inclusive4 ,the ,lepidosteus itself has left its remains in the ,eocene tertiary of ,england4 ,the ,lepidotus 7before described1 p4 #fjd17 ranges from the ,chalk to the ,lias2 the ,pholidophorus and ,dapedius 7p4 #fjc7 abound in the ,lias2 the latter being found also in the ,wealden1 and the former in the ,oolite and ,purbeck2 and the ,paloniscus 7see p4 #fja7 is a well-known ,permian and ,carboniferous form4 ,sauroidei4--,the remains of the ,sauroids proper occur in the ,chalk1 ,purbeck1 ,oolite1 ,lias1 ,permian1 and ,carboniferous rocks4 ,the great strength and size of some of these teeth prove that the seas of those remote periods were inhabited by voracious fishes of enormous magnitude4 ,see ,petrif4 pp4 #dcb1 et seq4 ,the teeth and jaw of a gigantic sauroid 7,megalichthys71 from the ,carboniferous strata at ,burdie-house1 are figured ,bd4 pl4 xxvii42 the sections of the teeth shown in figs4 #ac1 #ad1 of that plate1 illustrate the size of the pulp-cavity and the thickness of the layer of dentine4 ,these remains were associated with the plants and crustaceans previously described2 an assemblage of fossils indicating a lacustrine or estuary formation4 ,similar teeth have been found in the cannel-coal of ,fifeshire4 ,in the ,upper ,lias of ,ilminster1 ,somerset1 the nodular calcareous rock is rich with the remains of the ,pachycormus1 many fine specimens of which ,mr4 ,c4 ,moore1 of that town1 has successfully worked out from their stony encasement1 exhibiting the gaping1 contorted fish1 as it died in the convulsive throes of suffocation in the muddy sea4 ,the little sauroid ,leptolepis1 of the ,lias and the ,purbeck1 is also abundant in the above mentioned locality4 ,in the lithographic stone of ,solenhofen1 and in the ,purbeck strata1 ,oxford ,clay1 and ,lias of ,england1 occur specimens of a sauroid fish remarkable for the extreme shortness of the lower jaw1 and the prolongation of the upper into a beak2 it is named ,aspidorhynchus by ,agassiz4 ,the figure of this fossil fish is contrasted on pl4 xxviia4 ,bd4 with that of its recent ally1 the ,lepidosteus4 ,in the ,shanklin sand and in the ,galt of ,kent and ,sussex1 large1 conical1 striated teeth belonging to sauroid fishes are occasionally found4 ,they invariably occur detached1 and no portion of the jaws has been observed4 ,in the ,chalk of ,sussex several fine sauroid fishes have been discovered2 such as the ,lophiostomus1#eej ,belonostomus1#eea and ,caturus2 the last two of which are found in the ,oolite and ,lias also4 ,these have been described and figured in the late ,mr4 ,dixon's ,geology and ,fossils of ,sussex4 #eej ,geol4 ,surv4 ,dec4 #f4 pl4 x4 xi4 #eea ,petrif4 p4 #dca4 ,the ,sauroidei-dipterini#eeb are found almost exclusively in the ,devonian formation4 ,osteolepis1 ,diplopterus1 and ,dipterus are characteristic members of this family4 ,interesting descriptions and instructive figures of the structure of these genera are given in ,mr4 ,hugh ,miller's late work1 ,foot-prints of the ,creator1 or the ,asterolepis of ,stromness1 at pp4 #ej to #fa4 #eeb ,the characters of the scales of this and the next family1 as well as of the ,acanthodei1 are succinctly given in ,miller's ,foot-prints of the ,creator1 pp4 #cj1 et seq4 ,clacanthi4--,this is a numerous family of sauroid fishes1 that have derived their name1 hollow-spine1 from the central cavity in the fin-rays1 which1 however1 may have had originally cartilaginous cores4 ,they are found from the ,devonian to the ,cretaceous series4 ,in the former1 one of the most remarkable is the genus ,holoptychius1 distinguished by the peculiar structure of the scales2 the enamelled surface of which is covered by undulated furrows4 ,the whole body is covered by thick enamelled scales of this kind4 ,a splendid specimen1 twenty-eight inches long1 and twelve wide1 is figured ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 pl4 ii4bis4 ,scales have been found exceeding three inches in length1 by two and a half in width2 which must have belonged to a fish of great magnitude4 ,ly4 fig4 #cie4 ,in the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,elgin1 at a quarry at ,scat-craig1 some peculiar teeth occur1 which possess a very remarkable structure1 and have been referred to a genus of sauroid fishes1 which1 from the dendritical or arborescent disposition of the calcigerous tubes1 ,prof4 ,owen has named ,dendrodus4 ,these teeth are of a conical form1 slightly curved1 and solid throughout4 ,on the external surface they are finely striated longitudinally1 and have two opposite vertical ridges2 the base is rough1 and its margin rounded1 as if for attachment to a shallow socket4 ,the largest specimen is one and a half inch in length4 ,in thin sections1 viewed microscopically by transmitted light1 there is a central pulp-cavity1 of small size2 the medullary canals pass into a few short ramifications1 like the branches of a shrub1 and these are distributed into irregular dilatations1 simulating leaves1 which resolve themselves into radiating bundles of calcigerous tubes2 a portion of a transverse section#eec is shown ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #h4 #eec ,odontography1 pl4 lxii4 ,b fig4 #b2 and ,cycl4 ,anat4 ,art4 ,teeth4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bjb4 ,asterolepis4 ,devonian4 7#a_/b nat4 size7 ,inner side of portion of the lower jaw4 7,after ,miller47 ,sidenote3 ,,asterolepis4 ,in ,mr4 ,h4 ,miller's charming work just referred to we have a full and clear account of the singular fossil fish the ,asterolepis4 ,remains of this gigantic ,ganoid were first found in ,russia4#eed ,its name is derived from the stellate markings on the dermal plates of the head1 which are of great size1 and form a strong expanded buckler1 the orbits of the eyes being situated near the anterior border4 7,see ,miller's ,asterolepis1 pp4 #gd1 et seq4 figs4 #bg-bi47 ,lign4 #bjb shows a part of the lower jaw of this fish1 seen on the inside4 ,along the upper margin are seen a thickly set row of small broadly-based teeth1--these are ordinary fish-teeth2 and behind this edge-row of small teeth1 b1 there occur a thinly set row of huge reptile-teeth1 based on an interior platform of bone1 which formed the top of the cartilage enclosing box composing the jaw4 7,miller47 ,these large teeth1 a a1 are longitudinally striated1 and generally bear two sharp lateral cutting edges4#eee #eed ,casts of the fossil bones from ,russia are in the ,british ,museum2 ,petrif4 p4 #dce4 #eee ,the microscopic structure of both kinds of teeth is elegantly figured in ,mr4 ,miller's work1 pp4 #ha1 #hb4 ,macropoma ,mantelli4 ,wond4 p4 #cdh4 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxxvii4 xxxviii42 ,petrif4 p4 #dcf1 ,lign4 #hi47--,this ,clacanth fish is from one to two feet in length1 of an elongated fusiform shape1 with a large head and two dorsal fins2 the anterior fin is imbedded1 and has seven or eight strong spinous rays1 the first two of which have numerous spines4 ,the opercula are very long and large 7hence its name72 the scales#eef are garnished with adpressed spines1 disposed in semicircular rows 7see ,lign4 #ahe1 fig4 #b74 ,the teeth are small1 conical1 and numerous4 #eef ,see ,prof4 ,williamson's ,memoir1 ,philos4 ,trans4 #ahdi1 p4 #dce2 pl4 xliii4 figs4 #bg1 #bh4 ,several specimens of this fish are almost perfect4 ,the bones of the cranium1 the jaws1 teeth1 opercula1 branchial rays1 palatine arches1 the surface of the body covered with scales1 all the fins1 the pelvic bones1 the vertebr and their apophyses1 all remain4 ,in one example1 the vomer1 covered with minute teeth1 is exposed4 ,but the most extraordinary fact relating to these ,ichthyolites1 is the preservation1 in every specimen1 of the air-bladder2#eeg even its membranes remain1 and separate in flakes2 and the ramification of the minute vessels is visible under a high magnifying power4 ,in some instances this bladder is displaced and much distended2 but in general it occupies its natural position1 and retains its elongated1 sub-cylindrical form1 with a few annular constrictions or folds4 #eeg ,see ,williamson1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dfb-afe1 and figs4 #bi1 #cj4 ,sidenote3 ,,coprolites4 ,,cololites4 ,coprolites4 ,lign4 #aci1 figs4 #a1 #b4--;,in more than one example the solid earthy residue of digestion1 in small lumps or pellets1 of a conical form and spirally convoluted1 lies in the abdomen of these fossil fishes4 ,fossil excrementitious substances of this kind are termed ,coprolites 7,bd4 p4 #aih1 pl4 xv472 they occur in many deposits1 and belong not only to fishes1 but to large reptiles and other animals4 ,lign4 #aci1 p4 #dcb1 fig4 #a1 represents the coprolite of a ,macropoma2 and fig4 #b1 that of a species of ,shark1 from ,hamsey4 ,the convoluted appearance of these bodies arises from the peculiar organization of the intestinal canal of the original fishes1 in which1 as in the recent ,dog-fish1 a portion of the intestine was spirally twisted1 the tube forming several gyrations2 and the passage of the calcareous substance through this constricted canal gave rise to the structure observable in the coprolites4 ,in the ,macropoma the gyrations appear to have been few2 seldom more than five or six turns being apparent4 ,in the fossil ,sharks the convolutions are more numerous1 ten or twelve occurring in the length of an inch4 ,in many of the coprolites1 the impression of the mucous or lining membrane of the intestinal canal may be detected4 ,some of the coprolites of the ,macropoma are not convoluted2 probably from having occupied the upper part of the digestive tube1 and therefore not having been moulded in the spiral part4 7,see ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #ade4 ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 ix47 ,minute scales and bones of fishes are occasionally imbedded in the substance of the coprolites1 affording evidence of the carnivorous habits of the ,macropoma4 ,cololites4 ,bd4 pl4 xva--,it will be convenient to notice in this place those curious fossils which occur in detached masses in the limestone of ,solenhofen1 and used to be known to collectors by the term lumbricaria1 from the supposition that they were petrified earth-worms4 ,an excellent representation of a fine specimen is given by ,dr4 ,buckland in the plate referred to above4 ,these convoluted bodies ,m4 ,agassiz1 with his wonted sagacity1 has ascertained to be the intestines of fishes2 and has therefore named them ,cololites4 ,although generally found isolated1 specimens occur in which they are imbedded1 like the coprolites of the ,macropoma1 in the abdominal region of fishes4 ,the frequent occurrence of the ,cololites apart from the body1 is explained by the usual process of decomposition in fishes4 ,m4 ,agassiz remarks that dead fish always float on the surface of the water with the belly uppermost1 until the abdomen bursts from distention4 ,the small intestines are then expelled by the evolved gases through the aperture1 and soon become detached from the body4 ,i have observed indistinct traces of similar remains in the beds of chalk in which fossil fishes most prevail4 ,dr4 ,buckland mentions the discovery1 by ,lord ,greenock1 of a mass of petrified intestines distended with coprolite1 and surrounded by the scales of a fish1 in a block of coal-shale from the neighbourhood of ,edinburgh 7,bd4 p4 #aii74 ,dercetis elongatus4 ,wond4 p4 #cdi4--;,before proceeding to the investigation of examples of the next order1 ,i will describe a highly interesting ,ichthyolite1 which in a mutilated state is extremely common in some of the chalk strata of the ,south-east of ,england2 it is noticed in ,foss4 ,south ,d4 p4 #bcb4 ,this fish is placed by ,m4 ,agassiz in his family of ganoidians1 termed ,scleroderms2 and he mentions that another species has been found in the chalk of ,westphalia4 ,the ,dercetis has a very elongated body1 with a short head terminating in a pointed beak2 the upper jaw is a little longer than the lower1 and both jaws are armed with long1 conical1 elevated teeth1 and several rows of very small ones4 ,on each side of the fish there are three rows of osseous scutcheons like those of the ,sturgeon 7see ,wond4 p4 #cdi72 the body was also covered with numerous small scales4 ,from the form of the body somewhat resembling that of the eel1 being very long1 and sub-cylindrical in uncompressed examples1 the specimens are generally called petrified eels by the quarry-men4 ,the examples usually found consist of the elongated body1 more or less compressed1 and irregularly covered with patches of scales confusedly intermingled2 among which traces of the scutcheons may sometimes be distinguished4 ,these specimens occasionally exceed two feet in length1 by one or two inches in breadth2 with neither extremity perfect1 and without any vestige of the fins4#eeh ,the example figured ,wond4 ,lign4 #gd1 is the only instance in which ,i have seen the cranium perfect4 ,the scutcheons in the ,westphalian species have a prominent longitudinal ridge or keel1 and their surface finely granulated2 they are so large that the whole body of the fish is covered with them4 #eeh ,see ,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 xl4 fig4 #b1 and pl4 xxxiv4 figs4 #aj and #aa4 ,sidenote3 ,,ctenoid ,,fishes4 ,fossil ,ctenoid ,fishes 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 iv474--,the fishes of this order have imbricated laminated scales1 the posterior margins of which are round and finely pectinated2 i4 e4 divided into little teeth1 like a comb4 ,these scales are nearly circular1 but more or less elongated2 and1 as the lamin of which they are composed successively diminish from the lowermost to the uppermost1 the pectinated margin of each being apparent1 the surface is very scabrous2 the front edge is sinuous4 ,the common ,perch is the type of the ,ctenoidians4 ,the teeth of these fishes are invariably small1 and either villous or brush-like4 ,from the numerous fossil genera ,i select1 in illustration of the characters of this order1 the ,beryx2 of which four species occur in the ,english ,chalk1 and three others in the ,chalk of ,bohemia and ,westphalia4 ,of this genus1 which is closely related to the ,perch 7,perca71 two living species inhabit the seas of ,australia4 ,the bones of the skull have dentated crests2 the dorsal fin has spinous rays in front1 which are united to the soft rays2 the margin of the caudal fin has little spinous rays4 ,the ,beryx is one of the most ancient representatives of the ,perch tribe1 and of the ,ctenoid order4 ,beryx ,lewesiensis4#eei ,wond4 p4 #cea2 ,petrif4 ,lign4 #ij4--,this is one of the most common of the ,ichthyolites of the ,chalk of the ,south-east of ,england2 it is called ,johnny ,dory by the quarry-men2 the specimens are from six to twelve inches long4 ,it occurs also in the ,chalk of ,westphalia4 ,the outline of the perfect form of this species1 ,wond4 p4 #cea1 by ,mr4 ,dinkel1 conveys an accurate idea of its external characters4 ,it has one dorsal fin1 with several spinous rays in front of the soft ray4 ,the head is very large1 and the opercular pieces are ornamented with sculptured rays2 the margins of the jaws are covered with a broad band of brush-teeth4 ,the orbit is large1 and often contains the capsule 7sclerotica7 of the eye4 ,the rays of the gills are short and thick1 five are preserved in some examples4 ,the scales are very large2 about twenty-five in the median row2 their posterior margins have several concentric rows of spines 7see ,lign4 #ahe1 fig4 #c1 p4 #efg74 ,the lateral line is often distinctly apparent1 in the form of a tube1 contracted behind and expanded in the centre of the scale4 ,the vertebral column is composed of large short vertebr1 with very long apophyses2 the ribs are slight4 #eei ,the fossil discovered by me1 and figured in ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxxvi4 was the first perfect fish obtained from the ,chalk4 ,this fish was first described by me1 ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxxv4 xxxvi4 as ,zeus ,lewesiensis2 ,m4 ,agassiz has very properly referred it to the genus ,beryx2 but he has also substituted another specific name2 which is wholly unwarrantable1 for that first imposed ought to be retained2 see p4 #eah1 note4 ,beryx superbus4--,this is a larger species1 sometimes thirteen inches long1 with very large and broad scales4 ,it has been found in the lower chalk at ,lewes4 ,see ,dixon's ,foss4 ,sussex1 tab4 xxxvi4 fig4 #e4 ,beryx radians4 ,wond4 p4 #cej4--,this species is smaller1 and relatively longer1 than ,b4 ,lewesiensis2 it generally occurs in the ,chalk-marl1 and is invariably of a very dark colour1 the scales having a polished or glossy aspect4 ,the scales are small1 with a simple row of diverging spines on the posterior edge4 ,the scales of the lateral line are peculiar2 the mucous canal is not formed of a series of simple tubular cylinders1 as in ,b4 ,lewesiensis1 but is divided into several branches1 as may be seen with a lens of moderate power4 ,there are more than thirty scales in the length of the lateral line4 ,beryx microcephalus 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 iv4 tab4 ivc42 and ,dixon1 ,foss4 ,sussex1 tab4 xxiv4 fig4 #c74--,this fish is distinguished by its slender form1 and the extreme smallness of the head1 as the name implies4 ,the scales have one row of very thick spines on the posterior margin2 they are more elevated1 and shorter than in ,b4 radians2 those of the lateral line are pierced by an elongated conical tube1 and are not ramified as in the last species4 ,this ichthyolite1 like the ,b4 radians1 occurs in the ,chalk-marl1 and in a similar state of mineralization4 ,smerdis minutus4 ,lign4 #bjc4--;,a pretty ctenoidian fish1 from one to three inches long1 about the dimensions of a perch a year old1 is very common in the marls of ,aix in ,provence1 ,wond4 p4 #bfj2 and many are often found grouped together in every variety of position4 ,this species is characterised by the elevated anterior rays of the dorsal1 and the wide and very forked caudal fin4 ,several ctenoidian and cycloidian fishes have been found in the north of the ,brazils1 by ,mr4 ,gardiner1 in strata probably of the ,cretaceous epoch4 ,fossil ,cycloid ,fishes4 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 v47--,this order comprises the fishes possessing scales of a cycloid1 or circular1 form1 with smooth margins1 and composed of plates of horn or bone1 without enamel4 ,it contains numerous families1 including the ,scaroids1 or ,parrot-fishes1 and the ,scomberoids1 or ,mackerel tribe1 which are ,acanthopterygians1 the ,lucioids1 or ,pikes1 ,clupeoids1 or ,herrings1 ,salmonoids1 or ,salmon tribe1 and the ,cyprinoids1 or ,carps1 which are ,malacopterygians1 as well as other families4 ,the fossil remains of this order are exceedingly numerous1 particularly in the ,tertiary and upper ,secondary deposits4 ,a genus of ,salmonid1 discovered in the ,white ,chalk of ,sussex1 will serve to exemplify the characters of the fossil cycloidian fishes4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bjc4 ,smerdis minutus4 ,eocene4 7nat4 size47 ,aix in ,provence4 ,osmeroides4 ,plate ,,ii4 and ,wond4 p4 #cdd1 #cdg4--,two species of this genus occur in the ,chalk1 near ,lewes2 and principally1 if not exclusively1 in the ,lower ,chalk1 without flints4 ,they are exceedingly beautiful ,ichthyolites1 and are almost invariably found with the body but little compressed2 the fish1 in many examples1 is as round and perfect as when living4 ,the entire cranium1 the opercula and branchial rays1 and all the fins are preserved in some examples4 ,these fishes belong to the ,salmon family1#efj and are nearly related to the ,smelt 7,osmerus72 whence the name of the genus4 ,there are two species1 easily distinguishable4 ,the first 7,o4 ,mantelli1 ,pl4 ,,ii47 has a short1 sub-cylindrical body1 and seldom exceeds eight or nine inches in length2 the other 7,o4 ,lewesiensis7 has an elongated and elliptical body1 and sometimes attains a length of fourteen inches4 ,the dorsal fin too in this species has more rays than in the other4 ,the fossil figured in ,pl4 ,,ii4 is a very remarkable specimen of the first species4 ,it is nine inches in length2 and the chalk has been cleared away1 so as to expose the entire fish1 six inches in relief above the surface of the block1 ,petrif4 ,lign4 #ib1 p4 #dde4 ,the fish is lying on its back1 with the mouth open1 and the opercula1 or gill-covers1 and the branchial arches expanded2 the pectoral and ventral fins1 and the dorsal fin1 are in their natural position2 the five rays of the dorsal are erect2 of the caudal fin1 or tail1 but slight indications remain4 ,there is but one dorsal fin2 but in a specimen of ,o4 ,lewesiensis there is a trace of the little adipose process observable between the dorsal fin and the tail1 as in the recent species of ,salmonid4 ,a magnified view of one of the scales is represented ,lign4 #ahe1 fig4 #d1 p4 #efg4 #efj ,they were first described by me in ,foss4 ,south ,d4 p4 #bce1 tab4 xxxiii4 and xl4 as ,salmo ,lewesiensis4 ,of the ,cyprinoids1 or fishes of the ,carp family 7,malacopterygians71 the recent species of which are inhabitants either of fresh-water1 or the brackish waters of the mouths of rivers1 many fossil species occur in the fluviatile and lacustrine deposits of the ,tertiary formations4 ,in their character of omnivorous fishes1 the ,carps then1 as now1 formed the principal mass of the finny population of the lakes1 and in their turn served as food to the carnivorous tribes1 as the pikes1 eels1 c4 ,several species are found in a beautiful state in the schists of ningen1 and in the ,tertiary marls at ,aix4 ,many of the layers of marl at the latter locality are covered with groups of fishes of the family ,cyprinodonts1 the recent species of which are of a small size1 and inhabit the fresh-water lakes of temperate zones4 ,lign4 #ahd1 p4 #efb1 represents a portion of a large slab of marl in the cabinet of ,sir ,r4 ,murchison1 which is covered with scores of a species resembling a recent fish 7,lebias7 in the profile of its head1 and the form of its fins4 ,it is named ,lebias cephalotes1 from the relative largeness of its head4 ,the black appearance of the abdomen in many of these ,ichthyolites indicates the original situation of the intestines and of the liver1 which is largely developed in the fishes of this family1 and contains much colouring matter4 ,saurocephalus and ,saurodon4 ,lign4 #bjd4--;,in the same quarry1 near ,lewes1 from which the first entire fish of the ,sussex ,chalk was obtained1 teeth of a very peculiar character were1 many years since1 occasionally discovered4#efa ,these teeth are of a lanceolate form1 much compressed2 with entire1 sharp edges1 terminating in a point2 the fang is single1 and broad2 the surface of the crown is glossy1 and marked with fissures filled with chalk 7see ,lign4 #bjd1 fig4 #a74 ,teeth of this kind1 attached to portions of the jaw1 were subsequently found in the ,chalk at ,brighton and ,lewes4 ,similar remains were collected from the ,cretaceous marls of ,missouri and ,new ,jersey1 in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,american specimens comprised two closely allied genera1 which1 from the supposition that the fossils were the relics of reptiles1 were respectively designated ,saurocephalus and ,saurodon4#efb ,examples of the teeth and jaws of both genera have been discovered in the ,sussex ,chalk 7see ,lign4 #bjd74 #efa ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xxxiii4 p4 #bbh4 #efb ,american ,phil4 ,trans1 vol4 iii4 new series1 pl4 xvi4 on the ,saurodon1 by ,dr4 ,hays2 and ,journal ,acad4 ,sciences1 ,philadelphia1 vol4 iii4 on the ,saurocephalus1 by ,dr4 ,harlan4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bjd4 ,fossil ,teeth and ,jaws of ,fishes4 ,chalk4 ,sussex4 ,fig4 #a4--,tooth of ,saurocephalus lanciformis4 ,lewes4 #b4--,teeth of ,saurocephalus striatus4 ,brighton4 ,portion of the jaw1 with five teeth4 #c4--;,fragment of a jaw1 with two perfect teeth1 and the base of another1 of ,saurodon ,leanus4 ,kemptown1 ,brighton4 #d4--;,enchodus halocyon4 ,left branch of the lower jaw1 with teeth2 and one front tooth of the opposite portion4 ,lewes4 ,m4 ,agassiz retains the names imposed by the ,american naturalists1 and has placed these genera in the family of ,scomberoids 7,mackerel1 ,swordfish74 ,they belong to the ,pharyngognathi of ,muller4 ,the teeth are disposed in a single row1 and fixed in deep sockets by a simple root1 or fang1 which is frequently somewhat excavated by the pressure of a successional tooth4 ,in ,saurodon ,leanus the crown of the tooth is angular1 and barbed1 and supported on a sub-cylindrical shank1 or stem 7see ,lign4 #bjd1 fig4 #c74 ,the microscopical structure of these teeth presents that peculiar reticulated disposition of the medullary canals throughout the entire body of the tooth1 which is only found in the dental organs of fishes4 ,hypsodon ,lewesiensis4 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xlii47--,the ,sussex and ,kentish ,chalk also contain the remains of a very large fish1 belonging to the ,pharyngognathi1 with extremely upright1 long1 conical1 compressed1 pointed teeth1 which1 like those of the ,saurodon1 are implanted in sockets4 ,these teeth are commonly of a delicate fawn colour externally and of a dark brown internally2 having a large simple pulp-cavity4 ,in ,foss4 ,south ,d4 7tab4 xlii47 are represented portions of an intermaxillary and jaw-bone with teeth2 a vertebra1 deeply biconcave2 and a large bone1 apparently a branch of the os hyoides2 all found in the same block of chalk4#efc #efc ,a magnificent specimen 7now in the ,british ,museum7 displays1 on the same slab of chalk1 a large portion of the cranium1 teeth1 several vertebr1 ribs1 and many other bones1 belonging to a fish of considerable magnitude4 ,petrif4 p4 #ddd4 ,enchodus 7sword-tooth7 halocyon4 ,lign4 #bjd1 fig4 #d4 7,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 tab4 xxvc47--,the specimen figured is a portion of the lower jaw1 with one row of elongated1 conical1 slightly curved1 pointed teeth2 the two anterior teeth being much longer and larger than the others2 it affords a good illustration of the dental organs of ,enchodus2 a genus of ,acanthopterygian fishes1 the jaws and teeth of which are often found in the ,sussex ,chalk4 ,the teeth are of various sizes1 and attached by anchylosis1 one row on the premandibular bone1 and another irregular row of smaller teeth to the inside of the lower jaw4 ,the two anterior teeth are very large1 and of a peculiar form3 their base is wide and solid1 and the shank of the tooth is suddenly contracted immediately above1 and becomes elongated into a point4 ,these teeth are generally of a dark colour1 have a glossy aspect1 and are very brittle2 differing so remarkably in this respect from the shark's teeth1 with which they are usually collocated1 that mere fragments can be readily identified4 ,the external surface of the lower jaw is marked with finely granulated1 longitudinal ridges or stri4#efd #efd ,a fine example of the lower jaw1 with twelve teeth1 is figured ,foss4 ,south ,d4 tab4 xli4 and another1 with the upper jaw and teeth1 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #adj4 ,beautiful figures of the remains of ,saurocephalus1 ,enchodus1 ,hypsodon1 and many other fine ,chalk fishes1 are given in ,dixon's ,fossils of ,sussex1 #dto4 #ahej4 ,mr4 ,toulmin ,smith1 of ,highgate1 has in his ,museum a portion of the lower jaw with fifteen teeth of a small individual1 imbedded in the centre of a flint nodule1 from ,gravesend1 which was discovered by accidentally breaking the stone4 ,the bone of the jaw and the teeth are of a dead white colour1 and appear not to be in the slightest degree silicified2 but in those teeth which are broken the pulp-cavity is filled with quartz1 which must have transuded through the walls of the teeth4 ,ichthyolites of recent species4--,the distinguished naturalist to whose labours in fossil ,ichthyology we have been so largely indebted1 states1 that of the many hundred species submitted to his notice1 but one can be identified with any fish now living4 ,this conclusion must1 however1 be received with some reservation2 for1 among the fossil genera1 founded on the teeth1 there are species which certainly cannot be distinguished from recent forms4 ,and in the diluvial drift at ,breslau1 associated with the bones of the fossil elephant 7,elephas primigenius71 the remains of a pike1 closely resembling the common ,european species1 have lately been discovered4#efe #efe ,agassiz1 ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 p4 #fh4 ,the exception above alluded to1 is a little ,malacopterygian fish1 rather larger than a ,sprat1 called the ,capelan 7,mallotus villosus71 which inhabits the banks of ,newfoundland1 and other parts of the coasts of the northern seas4 ,fossil specimens of this fish4#eff occur in nodules of indurated marl or clay1 on the coast of ,greenland4#efg ,it is supposed that these ,ichthyolites are of very recent date3 and that similar fossils are in the progress of formation4 #eff ,see ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 pl4 lx41 in which the skeleton of the recent fish1 and specimens of the fossil species1 are represented4 #efg ,similar fossils have been obtained from the ,drift on the ,saco ,river1 thirty miles north of ,portsmouth1 ,new ,hampshire4 ,see ,lyell's ,second ,visit to the ,united ,states1 vol4 i4 p4 #bi4 ,ichthyopatolites1 or imprints of the pectoral fin-rays of certain fishes4 ,under this name ,dr4 ,buckland described certain problematical markings observed on a flag-stone from a coal-pit at ,mostyn1 in ,flintshire1 and now in the ,geological ,society's ,museum4 ,it consists of curvilinear scratches or imprints1 disposed symmetrically at regular intervals on each side a smooth level space1 about two inches wide1 which may correspond to the body of a fish1 the pectoral fins of which ,dr4 ,buckland suggests were the instruments by which the markings in question were formed4 ,these scratches follow each other in nearly equidistant rows of three in a row1 and at intervals of about two inches from the point of each individual scratch to the points of those next succeeding and preceding it2 they are slightly convex outwards1 three on each side the median space1 or supposed track of the body of the fish4 ,dr4 ,buckland1 in the memoir referred to1 shows that these markings cannot be referable to the imprint of the feet or claws of reptiles1 and points out the structure of the bony anterior rays of the pectoral fins1 as in certain ,siluroid and ,lophoid fishes1 and in the ,climbing ,perch 7,anabas scandens71 or the ,hassar 7,doras costata71 and refers also to the ambulatory movements of the common ,gurnard1 in corroboration of this opinion4#efh #efh ,proceedings of ,geol4 ,society1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bjd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,geological ,distribution of ,fossil ,fishes4--,from the incidental notices of the geological habitats of the fossil fishes enumerated in our survey of this class of beings1 the reader cannot fail to have remarked1 that the most recent strata abounded in forms related to the inhabitants of the existing seas and rivers2 while the most ancient teemed with species and genera of families altogether extinct1 or of prodigious rarity in the recent fauna4 ,in general terms1 it may be stated1 upon the authority of ,m4 ,agassiz1 that the ,ichthyolites of the ,tertiary deposits approach in their characters to the living genera1 but all the species are extinct4 ,the newer ,tertiary1 as the ,crag1 contain genera common to tropical seas1 as the large sharks 7,carcharias71 and eagle-rays 7,myliobates71 c4 ,in the ,eocene1 or most ancient ,tertiary1 as the ,london and ,paris basins1 ,monte ,bolca1 c41 many of the ,ichthyolites are closely related to recent genera4 ,of the ,chalk fishes1 a few only are of recent genera1 but the majority are still allied to ,tertiary forms4 ,in the ,chalk1 the ,pharyngognathi1 ,acanthopteri1 and ,malacopteri are met with as new types2 and indications of the ,hybodontid1 ,sauroidei1 and ,clacanthi 7the last derived from the ,devonian1 and the other two from the ,carboniferous ,limestone7 appear for the last time4 ,the ichthyic fauna of the ,cretaceous deposits is closely related by the majority of its family groups with that of the series of strata from the ,lias to the ,wealden1 inclusive4 ,in and above the ,lias all the ganoid fishes are homocercal4 ,below the ,lias1 the genera and species are far more removed from existing types1 and almost all are heterocercal4 ,of the eight thousand living fishes known to naturalists1 three-fourths belong to the ,cycloid and ,ctenoid orders1 and of these no species are known below the ,chalk2 the other fourth is referable to the ,placoids and ,ganoids1 of which there are comparatively but few existing species4 ,yet fishes of these two orders almost solely flourished during the ancient ,secondary formations2 for below the ,lias1 the predominant recent orders are altogether absent4 ,beneath the ,coal1 true carnivorous fishes1 with trenchant teeth1 are almost unknown2 but omnivorous species1 with either brush or obtusely conical teeth1 and great sauroid fishes1 are the prevailing representatives of the class4#efi ,in fine1 the ,ichthyolites of the different formations constitute two grand groups1 which have their boundary line at the base of the ,cretaceous deposits4 ,the first and most ancient comprises the ,ganoids and ,placoids2 the second1 more intimately related to existing types1 comprehends forms more diversified2 these are principally ,ctenoid and ,cycloid1 with a small number of the two preceding orders1 which insensibly disappear2 and their few living analogues are very distinct from the ancient species4 ,now1 although deductions of this nature may require to be modified with the progress of knowledge1 yet the generalizations thus obtained are founded on so vast an accumulation of facts and observations1 as to render it improbable that they will be materially invalidated by future discoveries2 for they remarkably accord with the results derived from the investigation of the fossil remains of all the other classes of animals4 ,the most modern deposits contain the remains of animals allied to the existing species2 the most ancient1 of forms altogether extinct1 or of excessive rarity in the recent faunas4 ,the discovery of existing species1 or genera1 in the most ancient strata1 would modify1 but not destroy1 the inferences deduced from the facts hitherto obtained2 and every geologist is prepared to find that such may be the case4 #efi ,in the several chapters on the different formations1 as arranged in the ,wonders1 the student will find succinct notices of the distribution of the genera of fishes throughout the fossiliferous deposits4 ,a list of the ,chalk species known in #ahdh is given at pp4 #cef-cei1 ,wond4 ,thus of the ,sharks1 with triangular notched teeth1 which are so common in the ,tertiary formations1 and were formerly unknown in the ancient ,secondary1 one representative has been found in the ,carboniferous system 7see p4 #eie74 ,but1 if teeth of this type should hereafter be discovered in every ,secondary deposit1 the great preponderance of these fishes over the ,sauroid in the ,tertiary1 and in the existing seas1 would not be the less remarkable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,on ,collecting and ,developing ,fossil ,fishes4--,from what has been advanced1 the reader will have obtained a general knowledge of the fossil remains of this class that are likely to be met with in particular deposits4 ,thus1 he will expect to find the teeth of large sharks and rays in the ,tertiary clays and sands2 and skeletons and perfect specimens of numerous ,ctenoid and ,cycloid fishes in the laminated marls and fine limestones of the same formations4 ,in the ,chalk1 with numerous teeth of sharks1 he may discover splendid examples of ,cycloid and ,ctenoid fishes2 and1 in the ,wealden1 large ,ganoidian forms4 ,passing to the ancient ,secondary strata1 the extraordinary buckler-headed and ,sauroid fishes will arrest his attention2 and their vestiges will be found1 more or less perfect1 in the shales and limestones1 and in the indurated nodules of clay and sandstone4 ,the detached teeth of fishes in ,tertiary sands and clays may be easily obtained entire1 and should be arranged in the same manner as the shells 7see p4 #ddb71 either in trays1 or on boards4 ,the triangular teeth1 with lateral denticles1 must be carefully extracted1 so as to preserve those appendages on which the specific and generic distinctions of many ,ichthyolites depend4 ,m4 ,agassiz particularly recommends the preservation of all the specimens collected together in the same locality1 as many may probably belong to the same individual1 and thus the dental organization of the original be determined4 ,teeth collected from the same stratum in different places1 should not1 therefore1 be mixed together4 ,several series of the same kind of teeth should be preserved1 and as many as possible of each kind2 for specimens apparently identical may prove to be highly instructive as a series4 ,i have often had occasion to regret the disposal of supposed duplicates1 in my earlier researches1 which would have tended to elucidate the characters of those specimens which were retained4 ,the ,ichthyolites1 and their detached teeth and fins1 in the ,chalk and other soft limestones1 may be cleared by means of a penknife or graver and small sharp chisels4 ,it is preferable to leave the teeth attached to small blocks of the chalk2 as in the examples1 figured ,lign4 #aic4 ,but to develop the beautiful ,chalk ,ichthyolites1 particularly those of the ,osmeroides1 ,macropoma1 c4 some practice and considerable dexterity are required4 ,the compressed fishes1 as the ,beryx1 like those in the ,tertiary limestones1 often lie in the sedimentary plane of the stone1 and may be sufficiently exposed1 by a blow of a hammer or a pick1 to show the nature of the fossil1 and admit of being easily developed4 ,but the fishes with sub-cylindrical bodies very commonly split asunder in a transverse direction3 and those with spinous scales1 as the ,macropoma1 adhere so firmly to the chalk1 that1 to display the external surface of their scales1 the surrounding stone must be removed piecemeal1 in the manner described for the ,chalk crustaceans 7see p4 #edd74 ,the collector who sees the splendid ,chalk fishes in the ,british ,museum1#egj and learns that they were found in the ,chalk of ,kent and ,sussex1 will be grievously disappointed1 upon visiting the quarries from which they were obtained1 if he expects to discover specimens with any considerable portion of the scales1 or body1 exposed4 ,it was many years before the quarry-men acquired the tact they now possess1 of detecting1 from very slight evidence1 the presence of an ,ichthyolite in a block of chalk3 patches of scales1 which the quarry-men called bran1 and detached sharks' teeth1 birds beaks1 and snakes' tongues1 and teeth of ,ptychodus1 slugs1 being the only remains of fishes generally observed and laid aside by the workmen4 #egj ,petrifactions1 pp4 #dda1 #ddd4 ,the fossil ,salmon or ,smelt 7see p4 #fbf71 which may be considered as one of the most extraordinary of the ,chalk fishes found in ,england1 affords an excellent illustration of the mode of developing the ,ichthyolites of this formation4 ,this interesting fossil is delineated on a small scale1 in three different states1 in ,plate ,,ii42 and affords a good practical lesson for the young collector4 ,among some blocks of chalk which a recent fall in one of the quarries near ,lewes had brought to light1 was a large mass split asunder1 and exposing on each corresponding surface an irregular oval marking of a yellowish brown colour2 this appearance is represented ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #a4 ,presuming that these markings were produced by a transverse section of the body of a fish1 the two blocks were trimmed into a portable size1 and accurately cemented together with very hot1 thin1 fresh glue4 ,when consolidated1 some of the chalk was chiselled off in the supposed longitudinal direction of the enclosed fish1 and part of the body1 covered with scales1 was exposed1 as ,pl4 ,,ii4 fig4 #b4 ,with the view of ascertaining the extent of the ,ichthyolite1 some of the surrounding stone was then removed towards each extremity of the block1 and traces of the fish were discovered1 as shown in the same figure4 ,the task of completely developing the fossil was thus rendered comparatively easy2 the chalk was chiselled1 cut1 and scraped away1 till the perfect fish1 as seen in fig4 #c1 was developed4#ega ,the block was then reduced to a convenient size1 and the edges sawn smooth4 ,the chalk is easily cut with a carpenter's saw2 the instrument should be short and strong1 and the teeth of moderate size4 #ega ,the figure in ,pl4 ,,ii4 is too small to convey an accurate idea of this ,ichthyolite1 which is now in the ,british ,museum2 see ,petrifactions1 pp4 #dde1 #ddf4 ,m4 ,agassiz's figure very inaccurately represents the original4 ,a beautiful lithograph of this fish1 by ,mr4 ,pollard1 of ,brighton1 was published in the ,catalogue of the ,mantellian ,museum1 #ahcf4 ,when a portion of the body of an ,ichthyolite of this kind is found in a block of chalk1 and the fracture of the block appears to be recent1 diligent search should be made for the corresponding piece2 for it may probably be found to contain the other part of the fish4 ,a splendid specimen of ,osmeroides ,lewesiensis1 more than a foot long1 was thus obtained4 ,the quarry-men1 in a block of chalk which a recent fall had thrown down1 discovered a few inches of the caudal portion of the body of a fish2 on the broken surface of the stone1 a section of the body was distinctly seen1 as in the specimen previously described4 ,search was made among the fallen masses for the corresponding piece1 but without success4 ,upon observing the face of the quarry exposed by the recent fall1 on a projecting block1 many yards above our reach1 a discoloured spot was indistinctly seen1 and it was conjectured that this might prove to be the other moiety of the ,ichthyolite4 ,the workmen were directed to preserve this block if possible2 but it remained in situ several months1 and until the rock was again blasted2 when the stone so long coveted rolled away from the fallen mass1 and fortunately was soon discovered4 ,it proved to be the corresponding portion of the fish2 with the head1 opercula1 branchial arches1 pectoral fins1 and the anterior part of the body covered with beautiful cycloid scales4 ,in the preparation of fossils of this kind1 glue as the cement1 and a paste made of plaster of ,paris with thin glue1 to fill up the crevices and strengthen the block1 are the materials ,i have employed4 ,the fossil remains of fishes in other rocks require to be extracted and developed in the manner previously directed for the ,echinoderms1 ,cephalopoda1 c4 7pp4 #ccb1 #dig47 ,the collector may be reminded1 that ,otolithes1 or ear-stones 7p4 #egd71 are found in the ,crag of ,norfolk1 and other ,tertiary strata2 and that ,coprolites1 associated with minute scales1 bones1 c4 of small fishes1 constitute1 in some localities1 layers of considerable thickness and of great extent4 ,the bone-bed of the ,lias1 near ,westbury1 and that of the ,ludlow series on the banks of the ,teme1 near ,ludlow1#egb are well-known examples of such a deposit4 #egb ,see ,mr4 ,strickland's interesting notice of the distribution and contents of this bone-bed1 in the ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ix4 p4 #h ,microscopical ,examination4--,a few words on the microscopical examination of the remains of fishes may be useful4 ,the structure of the large1 and the forms of the minute scales1 may be seen by a common lens1 and without preparing the specimens4 ,but for the examination of the intimate organization of scales1 teeth1 c4 the microscope is required2 and the method directed for the investigation of flint 7p4 #cgc7 should be employed4 ,the scales1 portions of the membranes of the air-bladder1 stomach1 c4 and thin chips of the teeth1 rendered temporarily transparent by oil of turpentine1 or permanently so by ,canada balsam1 should be viewed by transmitted light4 ,but the intricate structure of the dental organs1 the medullary canals1 and the calcigerous tubes1 cannot be successfully investigated without the aid of the lapidary1 or the adoption of the process described at page #fg for the preparation of fossil wood for microscopical examination4 ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,fishes4 ,the detached teeth1 scales1 vertebr1 c4 of fishes are so extensively distributed1 that there is scarcely a cliff or quarry of fossiliferous rock in ,great ,britain1 that does not contain some examples4 ,the following list of localities must1 therefore1 be regarded as merely directing the student to a few places1 in which particular fossils of this class have been discovered4 ,abergavenny4 ,mt4 ,l4 ,teeth of ,psammodus1 ,orodus1 c4 ,armagh1 ,ireland4 ,mt4 ,l4 ,numerous teeth and spines4 ,arundel1 ,sussex4 ,cret4 ,quarries in the neighbourhood2 beautiful ,chalk fishes4 ,aust ,cliff1 near ,westbury1 ,somersetshire4 ,lower ,lias4 ,pholidophorus1 c4 ,base of ,lias4 ,in a layer called the bone-bed1 containing bones1 scales1 teeth1 and ,coprolites of fishes4 ,teeth of ,ceratodus1 c4 ,axmouth4 ,base of ,lias3 ,bone-bed4 ,numerous scales1 bones1 and teeth4 ,saurichthys1 c4 ,barrow-on-,soar4 ,lias4 ,dapedius4 ,bracklesham ,bay1 ,sussex4 ,eocene4 ,magnificent specimens of ,rays1 as ,myliobatis1 ,atobatis1 and of ,chimroids were collected by the late ,f4 ,dixon1 ,esq41 and are now in the ,british ,museum4 ,brighton4 ,cret4 ,chalk quarries in the vicinity4 ,beryx1 ,dercetis1 ,saurocephalus1 ,saurodon1 and the common species of teeth1 c4 ,bristol4 ,mt4 ,l4 ,the usual species of ,psammodus1 ,orodus1 ,onchus1 c4 ,burdie-house1 near ,edinburgh4 ,carb4 ,paloniscus1 ,megalichthys1 ,holoptychius1 c4 ,caithness1 ,scotland4 ,old ,red4 ,dipterus1 c4 ,charing1 ,kent4 ,many fishes in the ,chalk4 ,chatham1 ,kent4 ,cret4 ,beryx1 ,hypsodon1 and the usual teeth1 c4 ,cheltenham4 ,base of ,lias4 ,in the bone-bed teeth1 scales1 ,coprolites4 ,clayton1 ,sussex4 ,lower ,chalk4 ,beryx microcephalus1 and other rare ,ichthyolites4 ,clifton1 near ,bristol4 ,mt4 ,l4 ,psammodus1 ,orodus1 c4 ,cromarty1 ,scotland4 ,old ,red4 ,coccosteus1 ,pterichthys1 c4 ,cuckfield1 ,sussex4 ,wealden4 ,lepidotus1 ,hybodus1 ,acrodus4 ,cullercoats1 ,durham4 ,permian4 ,paloniscus1 c4 ,dinton1 ,vale of ,wardour4 ,purbeck4 ,leptolepis1 ,ceramurus1 c4 ,downton ,hall1 near ,ludlow4 ,devonian4 ,cephalaspis1 ,dipterus1 c4 ,u4 ,sil4 ,in a quarry on the banks of the ,teme1 a fish-bed composed of scales1 teeth1 and ,coprolites1 in ,upper ,ludlow limestone4 ,dudley4 ,sil4 ,ichthyodorulites4 ,dungannon1 ,ireland4 ,permian4 ,quarry at ,rhone-hill2 numerous small ,palonisci1 ,p4 catopterus4 ,east ,thickley1 ,durham4 ,magnesian ,limestone4 ,palonisci4 ,glammis1 ,forfarshire4 ,devon4 ,cephalaspis1 ,gyrolepis1 ,dipterus4 ,gravesend and ,northfleet4 ,chalk-pits rich in fish-teeth1 c4 ,hastings4 ,wealden4 ,lepidotus1 ,hybodus4 ,ilminster1 ,somerset4 ,upper ,lias4 ,pachycormus and ,leptolepis4 ,leeds1 ,middleton ,quarry4 ,carb4 ,layers of fish-coal1 abundance of remains of ,megalichthys1 ,holoptychius1 c4 7,geol4 ,proc4 iii4 p4 #aec47 ,lewes1 ,sussex4 ,cret4 ,all the fishes of the ,british ,chalk4 ,see ,wond4 pp4 #cef-cei4 ,lyme ,regis4 ,lias4 ,dapedius1 ,hybodus1 ,squaloraia2 and numerous other species and genera4 ,newhaven1 near ,leith4 ,carb4 ,on the shore1 nodules of ironstone with fishes and ,coprolites4 ,amblypterus1 ,paloniscus4 ,sheppey1 ,isle of4 ,tert4 ,numerous teeth of ,rays1 ,sharks1 c41 and other ,ichthyolites in great abundance4 ,shotover1 near ,oxford4 ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,ischyodus1 ,hybodus1 c4 ,southend1 ,essex4 ,eocene4 ,fish-bones and teeth 7,pisodus1 c47 are found on the shore along the foot of the cliff4 ,speeton1 ,yorkshire4 ,galt4 ,macropoma ,egertoni2 and many other fishes4 ,steyning1 ,sussex4 ,cret4 ,in the marl-pits1 ,coprolites and teeth of ,sharks are abundant4 ,stonesfield4 ,great ,oolite4 ,hybodus1 ,lepidotus1 ,leptacanthus1 c4 ,swanage4 ,purbeck4 ,lepidotus1 ,hybodus1 ,ophiopsis1 c4 ,thurso1 ,scotland4 ,devonian4 ,asterolepis1 c4 ,westbury1 near ,bristol4 ,base of ,lias4 ,bone-bed with numerous remains4 ,worthing4 ,cret4 ,beautiful ,chalk fishes in the neighbouring quarries4 ,,foreign ,,localities4 ,although the present work is expressly designed as a guide to the ,british collector1 ,i am induced to subjoin a few foreign localities of ,ichthyolites1 that lie within the reach of the continental tourist4 ,a detailed account of the most celebrated sites is given by ,m4 ,agassiz1 ,poiss4 ,foss4 ,aix1 in ,provence4 ,tertiary4 ,some of the beds of gypseous marl contain numerous species in abundance4 ,eisleben1 ,upper ,saxony4 ,permian4 ,numerous ,ichthyolites in dark shale4 ,glaris1 ,switzerland4 ,cret4 ,immense numbers of fishes in dark schist4 ,the specimens are often contorted1 from the contraction of their bodies1 during decomposition4 ,maestricht 7,st4 ,peter's ,mountain74 ,upper ,cret4 ,numerous teeth1 vertebr1 c4 of fishes of the ,cretaceous epoch4 ,see ,wond4 p4 #cji4 ,mansfeld1 in ,thuringia4 ,permian4 ,fishes in copper-slate1 in great numbers2 many extremely beautiful4 ,monte ,bolca1 or ,vestena ,nova4 ,tert4 ,the richest mine of ,ichthyolites in the world4 ,a catalogue of the numerous genera and species found in this celebrated locality1 is given in ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 iv4 pp4 #cc-eb4egc ,see ,wond4 p4 #bfe4 ,mount ,lebanon1 ,asia4 ,tert4 ,numerous ,ichthyolites1 in great perfection4 ningen4 ,tert4 fresh-water4 ,many kinds of fishes of the same genera as those which inhabit the great ,european lakes2 as the ,perch1 ,salmon1 ,eel1 ,pike1 ,carp1 c4 ,a list of these ,ichthyolites will be found in ,poiss4 ,foss4 tom4 ii4 part ii4 p4 #gh4 ,see ,wond4 p4 #bfc4 ,saarbrck1 in ,lorraine4 ,carb4 ,amblypterus1 and other ,carboniferous fishes4 ,seefeld1 in the ,tyrol2 on the principal road from ,insbruck to ,munich4 ,lias4 ,abundance of fish in bituminous slate4 ,stabia1 ,italy1 at ,torre d',orlando1 near ,castellamare4 ,oolite4 ,beautiful fishes in fissile limestone4 ,solenhofen4 ,oolite4 ,numerous ,ichthyolites2 many in great perfection4 ,see ,wond4 p4 #eac4 #egc ,it is necessary to caution the collector against the frauds practised by the quarry-men1 and dealers in fossils1 at this and other celebrated foreign localities4 ,specimens1 apparently perfect1 are ingeniously constructed from the fragments of various examples4 ,the head of one fish1 the body of another1 decorated with the fins of a third1 and perhaps the tail of a fourth1 of different species1 or even genera1 are dove-tailed together1 coloured1 and varnished1 so as to deceive the common observer1 and1 occasionally1 even the experienced collector4 ,sponging the specimens with cold water will often detect the imposition2 for the colour if artificial will be removed1 or rendered paler1 while the same process will heighten the natural tints4 ,at ,pappenheim1 ,solenhofen1 and other places1 where fossil crustaceans1 as ,shrimps1 ,prawns1 c4 are found in such perfection1 the imprints of good specimens are often coloured1 and offered for sale2 a wet sponge will speedily detect the imposture4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,fossil ,,reptiles2 ,,comprising ,,the ,,enaliosaurians ,,and ,,crocodiles4 ,nous remontons done un autre ge du monde2 cet ge o la terre n'toit encore parcourue que par des reptiles a sang froid--o la mer abondoit en ammonites1 en blemnites1 en trbratules1 en encrinites1 et o tous ces genres1 aujourd'hui d'une raret prodigieuse1 faisoient le fond de sa population4--,cuvier1 ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 p4 #aj4 ,we advance now to the investigation of the fossil remains of the more highly organized classes of the ,vertebrata2 the ,fishes being the lowest in the scale amongst the beings characterised by an osseous skeleton1 with a flexible spinal column1 composed of articulated bones1 and presenting1 in the various classes1 orders1 genera1 and species1 numerous modifications of form and structure4 ,the mineralized relics of the vertebrated animals consist1 for the most part1 of single and displaced bones1 or groups of bones and teeth1 and the durable portions of the dermal integuments2 entire skeletons being of rare occurrence4 ,a knowledge of anatomy and physiology1 and access to anatomical and zoological libraries and collections1 are therefore indispensable for the cultivation of this most attractive department of ,palontology4 ,fortunately for the ,english student1 this branch of the science1 which a few years since was but little cultivated in this country1#egd has been greatly advanced1 by the liberal support afforded by the ,british ,association of ,science to ,professor ,owen1 whose ,reports on the ,british ,fossil ,reptiles and ,mammalia1 published in the ,transactions of the ,association1#ege should be referred to for more precise and detailed information than can be given in these unpretending volumes4 ,our remarks will be limited to a general notice of the fossil remains of ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and ,mammals2 with descriptions of such characteristic examples1 as will serve to illustrate the nature of the specimens that may probably come under the notice of the collector2 or which1 from their peculiar characters1 are objects worthy his special attention4 #egd ,see ,petrif4 p4 #bbf1 note4 #ege ,report of the ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahci and #ahda2 see also ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #b;d ser4 vol4 v4 p4 #eae 7#ahch74 ,the ,age of ,reptiles4#egf--,the announcement by the illustrious founder of ,palontology1 in the quotation prefixed to this chapter1 that there was a period when the lakes1 rivers1 and seas of our planet were peopled by reptiles1 and when cold-blooded oviparous quadrupeds1 of appalling magnitude1 were the principal inhabitants of the dry lands1 was a proposition so novel and startling1 as to require the prestige of the name of ,cuvier to obtain for it any degree of credence1 even with those who were prepared to admit that a universal deluge could not account for the physical changes1 which the crust of the earth had evidently undergone4 ,subsequent observations and discoveries have1 however1 fully confirmed the truth of this induction1 and the ,age of ,reptiles is no longer considered fabulous4 #egf ,the ,age of ,reptiles was the title given by the author to a popular summary of the evidence bearing on this question3 it was published in the ,edinburgh ,philosophical ,journal1 #ahca4 ,this name is now generally employed to designate the geological epochs characterised by the predominance of oviparous quadrupeds2 namely1 from the ,permian to the ,chalk1 inclusive4 ,in some of the ancient fossiliferous deposits1#egg indications of the existence of ,reptiles are visible1 in the indelible markings left by their footsteps on the muddy banks of rivers1 and on the wet sands of the sea-shores1 now in the state of layers of marl and sandstone4 ,here and there in the ,devonian1#egh ,carboniferous1 and ,new ,red formations1 teeth and bones are found1 presenting unequivocal proofs of the presence of extinct forms of cold-blooded oviparous quadrupeds4 ,as we ascend in the secondary formations1 we are suddenly surrounded by innumerable marine and terrestrial reptiles1 belonging to species and genera1 and even orders1 of which no living representatives are known4 ,throughout the ,liassic1 ,oolitic1 ,wealden1 and ,cretaceous epochs1 the class of ,reptiles was at its fullest development4 ,in the ,tertiary periods which succeeded1 the ,reptiles approach the recent types1 and their relics are found intermingled with the bones of mammiferous quadrupeds2 thus indicating the commencement of the present condition and relations of the animal kingdom4 ,referring the reader to ,bd4 p4 #afe1 and ,wond4 pp4 #dji-ddd and #efg-ehh1 for a more comprehensive view of this subject1 we advance to the examination of some of the fossil genera and species2 and we propose1 in the first place1 to explain a few essential characters of form and structure observable in those durable parts of the skeletons which are most frequently met with in a fossil state2 namely1 the teeth1 jaws1 vertebr1 c41 and the osseous appendages of the dermal system4 #egg ,devonian rooks of ,elgin1 ,north ,britain2 and the ,lower ,carboniferous of ,pottsville1 ,pennsylvania4 #egh ,the most ancient ,reptile hitherto discovered is the ,telerpeton ,elginense1 from the ,old ,red of ,scotland1 which will be described in the sequel4 ,the animals comprehended in the ,class of ,reptilia constitute1 according to ,prof4 ,owen's arrangement1 eight principal groups1 or ,orders1 as follow3-- ,the ,batrachia2 ,frogs3 the body naked1 with only rudimentary ribs2 and with two or four feet4 ,most of these reptiles breathe by branchi or gills in their young state1 and by lungs in the adult 7as for example the ,frog72 in some 7the perenni-branchiata71 the branchi are persistent through life4 ,having a tripartite heart 7i4 e4 with ,the ,ophidia2 ,serpents3 the body two auricles and destitute of feet4 one ventricle71 and simple transverse ,the ,lacertia or ,sauria2 ,lizards3 the processes to the body supported by four or two feet1 and cervical and anterior covered with scales4 dorsal vertebr4 ,the ,chelonia2 ,tortoises3 the body supported by four feet or paddles1 and enveloped in two osseous bucklers1 composed of the expanded bones of the sternum and thorax4 ,the ,enaliosauria2 ,sea-saurians 7extinct73 body furnished with four paddles1 and destitute of scaly covering4 ,the ,pterosauria2 ,wing-saurians 7extinct73 body supported on four ,having a quadripartite feet1 the outer finger of each fore-foot heart 7i4 e4 with two greatly lengthened1 and forming a support auricles and two for the wing4 ventricles71and double transverse processes to ,the ,crocodilia2 ,crocodiles3 body the cervical and anterior supported on four partially webbed feet1 dorsal vertebr4 and encased with an armour of bony plates or scutes4 ,the ,deinosauria2 ,great-saurians 7extinct73 body supported on four feet4 ,teeth of ,reptiles4--,the teeth of the animals of this class exhibit considerable diversity of form1 but the characteristic type is that of a conical1 pointed tooth1 with a simple root or fang2 for1 in no reptile does the base of the tooth terminate in more than one fang1 and this is never branched4 ,any fossil1 therefore1 which exhibits a tooth implanted by two fangs in a double socket1 must be mammiferous1 since the socketed teeth of reptiles have but a single fang2 and the only fishes' teeth which approach such a tooth in form1 are those of a bifurcate base1 belonging to certain sharks4 7,owen47 ,these dental organs are only fitted for seizing and retaining the prey or food2 for no living reptiles have the power of performing mastication4 ,in the ,crocodiles the tooth has a cylindrical shank1 with a conical1 longitudinally striated1 enamelled crown1 having a ridge on each side 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #e74 ,in the ,labyrinthodon 7a fossil reptile71 the cone is more curved and pointed 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c72 in the ,hylosaurus1 the shank is cylindrical1 and the crown expanded and lanceolate1 with blunt margins 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #f72 in the ,megalosaurus1 the tooth is laterally compressed1 trenchant1 and slightly inclined backwards like a sabre1 with serrated edges 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #g72 in the ,iguanodon1 the shank is cylindrical1 and the crown of a prismatic form1 greatly expanded1 with broad denticulated edges1 and longitudinal ridges on one side 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #d1 and ,ligns4 #bba1 #bbc74 ,in the ,serpents1 the teeth are very long and pointed2 in the ,crocodiles and ,lizards1 may be seen every modification of the conical form1 down to a mere hemispherical tubercle or plate4 ,in the fossil ,dicynodon1 to be hereafter described1 the dental system consists of but two tusks or canine teeth1 like those of the ,walrus1 implanted in the upper jaw4 ,the ,turtles and some fossil ,lacertians are edentulous1 i4 e4 destitute of teeth2 their dental organs consisting of the horny trenchant sheaths with which the jaws are covered4 ,the teeth are very numerous in reptiles2 the individuals of some species have more than two hundred4 ,in some genera1 they are implanted on the jaws alone2 in many1 they occupy the palatine1 vomerine1 and other bones composing the vault of the mouth1 as in certain fishes4 ,the teeth are generally anchylosed to the bone2 but in some genera they are implanted in distinct sockets1 as in the ,crocodile and ,plesiosaurus2 in others1 as in the ,ichthyosaurus1 they are arranged in a deep furrow1 and retained only by the integuments2 in some1 they are supported upon an elevated osseous base4 ,in the ,labyrinthodonts1 and in the greater part of the ,serpent tribes1 the tooth is implanted by the base in a shallow socket1 with which it is confluent4 ,in most of the ,lacertians1 or true ,lizards1 the attachment of the teeth presents a peculiar modification1 of which the lower jaw of the ,iguana1 ,lign4 #bje1 p4 #fdi1 affords a good illustration4 ,the teeth are not placed in sockets1 but are attached by the shank to an alveolar plate1 or parapet1 that extends along the margin of the jaw1 as shown in figs4 #a and #c2 the crowns of the teeth project above this plate1 as seen in figs4 #b and #d4 ,from the anchylosis of the teeth to the side of the jaw1 the ,lizards possessing this dental structure are termed ,pleurodonts4#egi #egi ,the ,pleurodonts are those lizards in which the teeth are anchylosed to the side of the dentary bone2 ,acrodonts1 those with the teeth fixed to the upper margin or ridge of the jaw-bone2 ,thecodonts1 those having the teeth implanted1 either loosely1 or anchylosed to the walls of their sockets4 ,lacertians are also said to be ,pleodont 7having solid teeth71 or ,clodont 7hollow-toothed74 ,in reptiles1 we have1 therefore1 five essential modifications in the attachment of the teeth2 namely1 in distinct sockets2 in a continuous groove or furrow2 attached laterally by the shank to an alveolar parapet2 anchylosed by the base to a shallow socket2 and attached to an osseous support1 without sockets or an alveolar plate4#ehj #ehj ,see the beautiful exemplification of this subject1 and the comparison between the transitory stages of the human teeth in their progress of development1 discovered by ,mr4 ,goodsir1 with the permanency of these conditions in reptiles4 ,odontography1 p4 #ahb4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bje4 ,the ,lower ,jaw of an ,iguana4 7,from ,barbadoes47 ,fig4 #a4--,the right branch of the lower jaw of an ,iguana2 viewed on its inner aspect4 ,nat4 size4 a4 ,dentary bone4 b4 ,opercular bone4 c4 ,complementary or coronoid bone4 d4 ,surangular bone4 e4 ,angular bone4 f4 ,articular bone4 #b4--,the external aspect of the same4 #c4--;,inner aspect of three teeth 7magnified7 attached to the alveolar parapet2 with the germ of a successional tooth at the base of the middle tooth2 and the sockets of other germs at the bases of the outer two fully formed teeth4 #d4--;,external view of the crowns of three teeth2 slightly magnified4 ,the intimate structure of the teeth consists of a simple pulp-cavity1 surrounded by dentine1 which is permeated by extremely minute calcigerous tubes1 radiating at right angles to the periphery1 or external surface of the tooth4 ,one essential modification of this structure consists in the intermingling of cylindrical processes of the pulp-cavity1 in the form of medullary or vascular canals1 with the finer tubular structure2 as in the tooth of the ,iguanodon1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 figs4 #d;b and #d;c4 ,but another modification is that to which allusion was made when describing the teeth of the ,lepidosteus 7see p4 #faf72 in this mode1 the dentine preserves its normal character1 but the external cement and surface of the tooth are deeply inflected in longitudinal folds around the entire circumference2 and this structure is accompanied with corresponding extensions of the pulp-cavity and dentine into the interspaces of these inflected and converging folds4#eha ,this organization is shown1 in its simplest form1 in the transverse section of the base of a tooth of the ,ichthyosaurus1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #i2 and attains its most complicated condition in that of the ,labyrinthodon1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 figs4 #c;a1 #c;b1 #c;c4 #eha ,there is a marked difference between the internal structure of the teeth of true ,saurians and of ,sauroid ,fishes4 ,in the former1 as well as in the ,enaliosauria1 the dentine consists of tubes radiating from a slender central pulp-cavity to the periphery of the tooth1 without any intermixture of vascular canals4 ,in the sauroid fish 7,dendrodus7 the central pulp-cavity is produced into numerous irregular canals1 from which vascular sinuses radiate to the periphery1 sending off branches generally at right angles throughout their entire course2 thus1 there is an extensive distribution of the vascular system through the body of the tooth1 which does not exist in any saurian reptile2 the nearest analogy is in the labyrinthine teeth of the gigantic fossil batrachians4 7,owen3 ,odontography2 and ,art4 ,teeth1 ,cyclop4 ,anat47 ,with regard to the mode of development of the teeth1 we must briefly state1 that the germ of the new tooth is always produced at the side of the base of the old one2 that in its progress of growth it presses against the tooth it is destined to supplant1 occasions the progressive absorption of the fang1 and ultimately displaces its predecessor2 in some instances1 by splitting the crown of the tooth2 in others1 by casting it off1 according to the oblique or direct position the new tooth attains in its progress1 in relation to its predecessor4 ,thus1 in the teeth of the ,crocodile1 the new tooth is generally found immediately under the conical apex of the crown1 and beneath the former a second successional tooth appears1 like a series of thimbles of various sizes placed one upon another2 for in reptiles the production of new teeth is unlimited4 ,but in the ,pleurodont lizards1 the new tooth makes its way obliquely1 and the crown is often shed entire4 ,lign4 #bje1 fig4 #c1 exemplifies the situation of the successional teeth in the ,iguana4 ,lower ,jaw of ,reptiles4--,it is well known that the lower jaw in mammiferous animals is composed of a single bone on each side2 and that in many genera these pieces become united in front1 and form but one bone in the adult state4 ,but in reptiles1 the lower jaw consists of six distinct bones on each side1 as in ,lign4 #bje2 and these undergo various modifications of form and arrangement in the different genera4 ,these bones are distinguished by names which have reference to their office and situation1 and are as follow3--,lign4 #bje1 a1 the dentary bone1 supporting the teeth2 b1 the splenial or opercular2 c1 the coronoid or complementary2 d1 the sur-angular2 e1 the angular2 f1 the articular1 which forms the upper portion of the jaw1 and includes the condyle4 ,the form and disposition of these bones in the ,iguana1 and other true lizards1 are shown in ,lign4 #bje2 but they differ materially in the ,crocodile1 ,ichthyosaurus1 and other genera4 ,we must restrict our comments to this short notice1 which1 however1 will suffice to enable the collector who discovers a fragment of a lower jaw1 with any traces of the structure above described1 to determine that it is reptilian2 and if any portion of the dentary bone remains1 indications may be obtained of the family1 and perhaps genus1 to which it belonged4#ehb #ehb ,to obtain a correct knowledge of the osteological structure of fossil ,reptiles1 the student should consult ,baron ,cuvier's ,ossemens ,fossiles1 tom4 v4 ,to the ,english reader1 the translated abridgement of ,cuvier's ,fossil ,remains of the ,animal ,kingdom1 by ,e4 ,pidgeon1 #a vol4 #hvo4 with plates1 #ahcj1 will be found a very instructive volume4 ,see also ,penny ,cyclopdia1 ,art4 ,saurians4 ,vertebr of ,reptiles4--,the bones of the vertebral column of this class of animals present such numerous and important modifications in the different orders and families1 that reference to the works already cited must be made for satisfactory information on this topic4 ,from the great number of vertebr in many reptiles1 amounting in the individuals of some species to nearly two hundred1 these bones are the most abundant fossil relics of these animals to be found in our collections4 ,the vertebr are commonly detached1 and deprived of their processes2 the solid centrum1 or body1 alone remaining in most examples 7as in ,lign4 #bjf1 fig4 #h74 ,connected series1 more or less complete1 are occasionally discovered2 and the entire column1 in connexion with other parts of the skeleton1 is preserved in many specimens in the ,british and other museums4#ehc ,although1 for the reasons previously stated1 minute osteological details cannot be attempted in this work1 some acquaintance with the elementary characters of the bones composing the spinal column1 and of the nomenclature employed to distinguish them1 is necessary to guide the student1 and even the amateur collector1 in their researches4 ,i have1 therefore1 selected a few specimens from ,tilgate ,forest in illustration of the elements of ,saurian vertebr1 and of the terms by which the different processes are distinguished2 the general reader will thus be enabled to comprehend the descriptions of these structures in other works on ,palontology4 #ehc ,see ,petrifactions1 pp4 #acf-ceb1 and pp4 #cfb-chg4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bjf4 ,fossil ,vertebr or ,reptiles4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,the figures are reduced in the proportions specified by the fractions4 ,fig4 #a4--;,caudal vertebra of an unknown reptile4 #b4--;,chevron bone of ,iguanodon3 seen in front4 #c4--;,caudal vertebra of ,iguanodon1 viewed laterally in an oblique direction4 #c;a4--,front view of the same4 #d4--;,caudal vertebra of ,iguanodon1 without either transverse process or chevron-bone4 ,the letter o marks the deep hollow left by the removal of the transverse process1 at the suture of the annular part4 #e4--,vertebra of ,streptospondylus3 #a_/af nat4 #f4--,lumbar vertebra of ,iguanodon1 with the neural spine broken off4 #g4--,vertebra of ,streptospondylus3 #a_/af nat4 c4 ,the pair of posterior oblique processes 7zygapophyses74 #h4--,the bodies of two dorsal vertebr of ,iguanodon3 viewed laterally4 ,the same letters refer to the same parts in the respective figures1 with the exception of c in fig4 #g4 a4 ,the body1 or centrum1 of the vertebra3 the letter denotes the anterior part4 b4 ,the annular part1 formed of the two neurapophyses1 which contains the spinal cord4 c1 c4 ,the articular or oblique processes 7zygapophyses71 which join to the next vertebra in front4 d4 ,the spinous process or neural spine of the annular part4 e1 e4 ,the transverse process of the annular part4 f4 ,the chevron-bone1 formed of the two hmapophyses and the hmal spine4 g4 ,the double articulating head of the chevron3 the passage left by these processes 7hmal arch71 seen in the front view1 figs4 #b and #c1 is for the passage of the large blood-vessels which supply the tail4 h4 ,the spine of the chevron-bone2 the inferior spinous process1 or hmal spine4 i4 ,denotes the medullary cavity of the annular part4 o1 o4 ,mark the sutures which connect the annular part with the body of the vertebra4 w1 w4 ,indicate the place of attachment of the chevron-bone4 ,the bones composing the spine1 are not only designed to form a flexible column of support to the trunk1 but also to afford protection to the grand nervous chords constituting the spinal marrow1 and which extend from the brain to the tail1 and give off numerous lateral branches in their course1 conferring sensation and motive power to every part of the frame4 ,to effect this purpose1 there is attached to the upper or dorsal part of each vertebra a bony ring1 called the neural-arch1 which is composed of two processes 7,lign4 #bjf1 b471 arising from each side of the body or centrum 7,lign4 #bjf1 a471 and which unite above into a solid piece1 termed the spinal process1 ox neural spine 7,lign4 #bjf1 d474 ,on each side of the annular paid there is a process1 called the transverse 7,lign4 #bjf1 e1 e471 for the attachment of muscles2 and in the middle and the posterior dorsal regions of some reptiles1 as1 for example1 in the existing ,crocodiles1 these processes articulate with the ribs4 ,the vertebr of the tail have1 in addition to the above1 an inferior spinous process1 termed the chevron-bone 7,lign4 #bjf1 fig4 #b1 and fig4 #c1 f471 which gives support to the inferior layers of the caudal muscles2 and1 bifurcating at its attachment to the body of the vertebra1 leaves a channel for the passage of the large blood-vessels1 by which the circulation of the tail is effected4 ,in the generality of living reptiles 7as1 for example1 in the ,crocodile7 the bodies of the vertebr are concave in front1 and convex behind2 the bones of the spine being united by ball-and-socket joints2 but1 in most fossil reptiles1 both faces are either flat1 or more or less concave4 ,in mammalian quadrupeds1 the annular part is anchylosed to the vertebral centre2 but in reptiles1 it is united by suture1 although1 in old subjects1 the connecting line is often obliterated4 ,by reference to ,lign4 #bjf1 and its description1 the form1 arrangement1 and connexion of the different vertebral elements1 in certain fossil reptiles1 may be easily understood4 ,the bones in the vertebral column of the same animal are considerably modified in the several regions of the neck 7cervical vertebr71 back 7dorsal and lumbar71 and tail 7caudal74 ,the cervical are generally of the most complicated structure2 and the caudal1 the most simple4 ,from this exposition1 the reader will perceive that every vertebra consists of the following essential parts3 first1 the body1 or centrum2 and secondly1 the annular part1 or neural arch1 so named1 because it protects the nervous chord2 while a caudal vertebra has1 in addition1 the chevron-bone1 called also the hmal arch1 from its affording a passage to the large blood-vessels4 ,the bodies of the vertebr are in general solid1 and consist of the ordinary osseous structure2 but in certain fossil vertebr the centre of the bone is filled with calcareous spar1 indicating an irregular medullary cavity1 as in the caudal vertebr of the ,ox4#ehd #ehd ,see ,petrifactions1 p4 #aff1 note4 ,the ,sacrum1 which may be termed the key-stone of the pelvic arch1 is formed in existing reptiles by the union of two vertebr2 but in the ,iguanodon and the ,hylosaurus the sacrum is composed of six anchylosed vertebr2 in the ,megalosaurus probably of but five4#ehe #ehe ,report1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #aje1 and p4 #acj4 ,from the sides of the two anchylosed vertebr which form the sacrum1 strong1 short1 rib-like processes are given off in those ,saurians which occasionally walk on dry land1 and these constitute a firm support to the hinder extremities4 ,in the ,crocodiles1 the four or five vertebr preceding the sacrum have no ribs attached to them1 and are termed lumbar2 in the ,lizards1 there are but two lumbar vertebr4 ,a peculiar modification exists in the first caudal vertebra of the adult ,gavial and ,crocodile2 the centrum is convex both in front and behind1 as was first demonstrated by me in #ahcf4 ,see ,wond4 p4 #dai1 and ,petrif4 p4 #afg4 ,the last of the anchylosed vertebr forming the sacrum is concave posteriorly2 hence the necessity of an anterior ball in the first joint of the tail4 7,see ,lign4 #bag1 p4 #fgf1 illustrative of ,crocodilus ,hastingsi47 ,the last cervical vertebra in the ,turtles and ,tortoises has a similar construction4 ,this mechanism confers freedom of motion without risk of dislocation4 ,ribs4--,the ,ribs1 which are regarded as appendages to the vertebr1 7homologues of the pleurapophyses17 are generally slender and round in the ,lizards1 and articulate with the spinal column by a single head1 supported on a short convex process or tubercle4 ,in ,crocodiles only of all existing ,reptiles1 but in several extinct genera1 the proximal end of the rib forms a double articulation1 by a distinct head and a tubercle1 with the vertebr in the cervical and anterior dorsal region of the spinal column2 in the posterior dorsal region the ribs are attached to the elongated transverse processes of the vertebr4 ,as this double articulation of the ribs is invariably associated in existing reptiles with a heart having double ventricles1 while the lacertian single-headed ribs are in like manner connected with a heart having but one ventricle1 the student will perceive the important physiological inferences that spring from the discovery of a mere fragment of a rib1 when interpreted by the profound anatomist4#ehf ,in some fossil reptiles the ribs are flat and very broad2 as1 for example1 in the ,hylosaurus4#ehg #ehf ,see ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahda1 and ,memoirs1 ,palont4 ,soc4 #ehg ,in ,crocodiles the abdominal region is strengthened by slender ribs 7hmapophyses1 ,prof4 ,owen71 that are affixed to a ligamentous extension of the cartilaginous sternum1 analogous to the linea alba in man2 and the ,hylosaurus appears to have possessed a similar development of the costal elements1 for ,i observed many fragments of long1 slender1 sub-cylindrical rib-like bones whilst chiselling off the stone from this species1 and portions of similar bones occur in the stone around the spinal column from ,bolney4 ,in the ,maidstone ,iguanodon there are likewise some long slender bones of this character1 which ,i think must be prolongations of the ordinary dorsal ribs4 ,extremities4--,the locomotive extremities are variously constructed1 according to the adaptation of the animals to a terrestrial1 fluviatile1 or marine existence4 ,the bones of the limbs in the extinct colossal terrestrial species much resemble those of our large pachydermata1 the ,rhinoceros and ,hippopotamus4 ,the cylindrical bones of the extremities in the ,crocodilians1 and other recent reptiles1 are solid4 i4 e4 have no cavity filled with marrow2 such also is the case in the fossil ,enaliosaurians2 but the thigh-bones and leg-bones of the ,iguanodon1 and of other extinct land saurians1 h ave a large medullary canal4 ,our limits will not admit of further osteological details2 and we are compelled to omit the description of the bones composing the thoracic and pelvic arches4 ,dermal ,bones4 ,ligns4 #bjg and #bjh4 ,in many of the reptile tribes1 particularly of the ,crocodilian or loricated 7mailed7 group1 there are immediately under the external integument or skin a series of osseous scutes1 or scutcheons1 variously arranged1 which serve as supports to the integumental scales and spines4 ,in the gigantic ,gavial1 that inhabits the ,ganges and other rivers of ,india1 and which is remarkably distinguished from the common ,crocodile and ,alligator by an extremely elongated slender muzzle1 the nape of the neck is protected by sixteen or eighteen transverse rows of dermal scutes2 and there are likewise six rows which extend down the back4 ,these bones are deeply corrugated or sculptured on their upper surface2 a structure adapted for the firm adhesion of the horny integument4 ,detached bones of this character occur in the ,purbeck strata2 and the first fragments ,i collected were supposed by me to belong to the soft-skinned turtles 7,trionyces72 but the subsequent discovery of perfect scutes demonstrated their analogy to the dermal bones of the ,gavial1 and enabled me to determine their true character4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bjg4 ,dermal ,bone of the ,swanage ,crocodile3 #a_/c nat4 ,purbeck4 7,goniopholis crassidens47 ,fig4 #a4--,the external aspect4 #b4--,the inner surface4 a4--,the lateral connecting process4 ,in the splendid specimen of the fossil remains of a ,crocodilian reptile 7,goniopholis71 found at ,swanage 7,wond4 pp4 #dae2 and ,petrif4 p4 #agj71 there are numerous dermal examples dispersed among the bones1 as shown in ,petrif4 ,lign4 ,one of these is figured ,lign4 #bjg2 fig4 #a represents the external surface1 which is deeply sculptured by irregular roundish pits or excavations2 the under or inner surface1 fig4 #b1 is smooth1 but marked with very fine stri1 decussating each other at right angles1 as in the dermal bones of the ,hylosaurus 7,lign4 #bjh1 fig4 #a;a474 ,these scutes differ from those of other recent and fossil ,crocodilians1 in a lateral conical projection1 marked a1 figs4 #a1 #b1 ,lign4 #bjg1 which fits into a depression on the under surface of the opposite angle of the adjoining plate2 resembling1 in this respect1 the scales of the ,lepidotus 7see ,lign4 #aif1 p4 #fje74 ,numerous hexagonal and pentagonal scutes1 articulated together by marginal sutures1 also entered into the composition of the osseous dermal cuirass of this reptile1 which must1 therefore1 have possessed a flexible1 yet impenetrable1 coat of armour1 capable of affording protection against the attack of any assailant4 ,in the ,oolite1 the dermal bones of other slender-nosed ,crocodilians 7,teleosaurus7 are occasionally met with2 the outer surfaces of which are marked with small circular distinct pits2 these scutes are thicker and more rectangular than those above described1 and slightly overlapped each other laterally2 they have no connecting process4 ,in another species one half of the outer surface is smooth1 proving that it was covered to that extent by the adjoining scute4#ehh #ehh ,a description of the dermal bones of ,british fossil reptiles is given in ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report for #ahda1 pp4 #gj1 #gi1 c4 ,dermal ,bones of the ,hylosaurus4--,elliptical and circular dermal scutes1 having the under surface flat and the upper convex with a conical tubercle1 were first noticed in the specimen of the ,hylosaurus1 figured ,wond4 pl4 iv42 and ,i have since discovered similar bones associated with other remains of that extraordinary reptile2 reduced figures of two specimens are represented in ,lign4 #bjh1 figs4 #a1 #c4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bjh4 ,dermal ,bones of ,reptiles4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,fig4 #a1 and #c4--;,dermal bones of the ,hylosaurus3 #a_/c nat4 #a;a4--,the under surface of a fragment of a dermal bone1 displaying fine spicula1 decussating each other at right angles1 and indicating a similar structure to that of the ,curium1 in which the bones were imbedded3 nat4 #a;b4---,a portion of the same1 highly magnified1 and viewed by transmitted light4 #b4--;,horn of ,iguanodon3 #a_/f nat4 #d4--;,a ,dorsal ,spine of the ,hylosaurus2 the original is thirteen inches long4 ,the structure of these bodies is very remarkable2 upon closely inspecting the under side1 and the surface exposed by a transverse fracture1 very minute osseous spicula1 decussating each other at right angles1 are distinctly seen2 as shown in ,lign4 #bjh1 fig4 #a;a4 ,in fig4 #a;b1 a thin slice of the same1 highly magnified1 and viewed by transmitted light1 displays medullary canals1 with very fine lines radiating from them4 ,the peculiar character of this organization consists in the disposition of the straight bony spicula2 an appearance which first attracted my attention when developing the original specimen of the ,hylosaurus 7see ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #cbg71 and led to the discovery of some perfect examples1 which otherwise would have been destroyed4 ,this structure closely resembles that presented by the ligamentous fibres of the corium1 or skin1 and seems to have resulted from an ossified condition of the dermal integument4 ,these bones vary from half an inch to three or four inches in diameter1 and were disposed in one or more longitudinal series on each side the spine1 diminishing in size as they approach the end of the tail4 ,dermal ,spines of ,hylosaurus4 ,lign4 #bjh1 fig4 #d4--,with the dermal bones above described there are associated in the first discovered specimen of the ,hylosaurus1 flat1 thin1 angular1 osseous plates1 from three to seventeen inches in length2 one of which is figured ,lign #bjh1 fig4 #d4 ,the manner in which they are imbedded in the rocks1 in connexion with other parts of the skeleton1 is shown ,wond4 pl4 iv4 and ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 pl4 v4 ,these very remarkable processes appeared to me to have formed part of a serrated fringe1 which extended along the back of the reptile1 analogous to that observable in certain living lizards 7,wond4 p4 #dcf1 ,lign4 #ajh72 and were provisionally described as such in my first memoir on the ,hylosaurus4 ,this conjecture has been substantiated by subsequent discoveries1 and the true nature of the large1 flat1 angular spines1 and the conical bones resembling the horn-cones of ruminants1 which occur in the ,wealden1 is now established4#ehi #ehi ,see ,fossils1 ,brit4 ,mus4 pp4 #bih1 #cbj4 ,horn of ,iguanodon4--,in this category may be placed the nasal tubercle or horn of a saurian1 like that of the ,iguana 7,lign4 #bjh1 fig4 #b2 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 pl4 iii471 found with the remains of the ,iguanodon1 and probably belonging to that colossal reptile 7,wond4 p4 #dca2 and ,petrif4 p4 #bih74 ,it is four inches in length and #c4b inch by #b4a inch in diameter at the base1 which is of an irregular elliptical form4 ,several smaller specimens have recently been discovered4 ,examples of dermal scutes and spines1 presenting modifications of form and structure distinct from those above described1 have been brought to me from various localities of the ,wealden2 but1 as in no instance a connexion with other parts of the skeleton could be traced1 the particular reptiles to which they belonged cannot be ascertained4 ,we proceed to notice some of the principal genera of ,fossil ,reptiles1 especially of those whose remains occur in the ,british strata2 the arrangement of ,professor ,owen is adopted for the convenience of reference to the ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,reports1 #ahci and #ahda1 which should be consulted by the student who would acquire a knowledge of this department of ,palontology4 ,the subject will be considered under the following heads2 namely3-- ,i4 ,enaliosaurians1 or ,marine ,reptiles2 ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus4 ,,ii4 ,crocodilians2 ,crocodile1 ,teleosaur1 c4 ,,iii4 ,deinosaurians2 comprising the ,iguanodon1 ,megalosaurus1 ,hylosaurus1 ,pelorosaurus1 c4 ,,iv4 ,lacertians2 including the ,mosasaurus1 ,rhyncosaurus1 c4 ,v4 ,pterosaurians2 the ,pterodactyles1 or flying ,reptiles4 ,,vi4 ,chelonians2 or ,tortoises and ,turtles4 ,,vii4 ,ophidians2 or ,serpents4 ,,viii4 ,batrachians2 or the ,frog tribe2 comprising the ,labyrinthodonts4 ,i4 ,enaliosaurians4--,the extinct marine reptiles comprised in this order constitute two genera1 which are characterized by essential modifications of osteological structure2 they are named ,ichthyosaurus 7fish-lizard71 and ,plesiosaurus 7akin to a lizard74 ,the general appearance of these beings is so well known1 from the splendid collection of their fossil remains in the ,british ,museum1 and the numerous specimens in provincial and private collections1 and by various works1 both scientific and popular1 in which their structure and physiological relations are fully elucidated1 that they must be familiar to every reader4#eij #eij ,bd4 vols4 i4 and ii4 contain an admirable exposition of their habits and organization2 and ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,reports1 #ahci1 #ahda1 elaborate osteological investigations of both genera4 ,a folio volume on these extinct ,reptiles1 with splendid lithographs1 by ,thomas ,hawkins1 ,esq41 cannot fail to delight the reader by its graphic descriptions and beautiful illustrations4 ,see also the masterly paper on the ,ichthyosaur and the ,plesiosaur1 by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybeare1 in the ,geological ,transactions1 #ast series1 vol4 v4 p4 #eei1 et seq4 ,side note3 ,,ichthyosaurus4 ,,plesiosaurus4 ,the living ,ichthyosaurus must have borne a resemblance to a ,grampus or ,porpoise1 with four large flippers or paddles and a long tail1 having a vertical caudal fin of moderate dimensions2 the skin probably being naked and smooth1 as in the ,cetaceans4 ,the ,plesiosaurus presented a configuration still more extraordinary 7,wond4 p4 #ege74 ,with a very small head1 it possessed a neck of enormous length1 a body of moderate size1 with four paddles1 resembling those of turtles1 and a very short tail4 ,they were both marine1 air-breathing1 cold-blooded1 carnivorous1 vertebrate animals2 swarming in prodigious numbers during the secondary epochs1 and particularly in the seas of the ,liassic period 7,ly4 p4 #bgg1 figs4 #caj1 #caa74 ,in both genera the construction of the skeleton presents many important variations from all known recent types2 and should be carefully investigated by the student1 who will find in the ,reports of ,professor ,owen above referred to all the information that can be desired4#eia #eia ,the ,penny ,cyclopdia1 ,art4 ,plesiosaurus1 contains an able abstract of these ,reports2 and in the ,fossils of the ,british ,museum1 the student will find a full account of the discovery of the ,ichthyosaur and ,plesiosaur1 and of the deposits in which they are chiefly found1 as well as detailed descriptions of the most characteristic structures of the different species4 ,it will suffice for our present purpose to point out a few important and obvious characters4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bji4 ,eye of ,ichthyosaurus4 #a_/f nat4 ,lias4 ,lyme ,regis4 ,portion of the facial part of the skull of an ,ichthyosaurus1 showing the position of the nostril1 and of the orbit with its circle of bony plates1 forming the sclerotic coat of the eye4 n4 ,the left nasal aperture4 ,in the ,ichthyosaurus1 the nasal apertures or openings of the nostrils are not towards the snout1 as in the ,crocodile1 but near the anterior angle of the orbit 7see ,lign4 #bji71 approaching1 in this respect1 some of the recent lizards4 ,the orbit is very large1 and the sclerotic coat or capsule of the eye has in front an annular series of bony plates 7,bd4 pl4 x4 figs4 #a1 #c71 which often occur in their natural position 7,lign4 #bji74 ,this structure is not possessed by fishes1 but is analogous to that observable in the eyes of turtles1 lizards1 and many birds2 as for example1 in the owl and eagle3 it confers on the eye additional power of adaptation and intensity of vision4 ,the muzzle of the ,ichthyosaurus is long and pointed2 the lower jaw is formed of two branches1 united anteriorly through nearly half their length2 each branch is composed of six bones1 as in the ,crocodile and ,lizards1 but differently arranged than in those reptiles4 ,the teeth are very numerous1 amounting to nearly two hundred in some species1 and are placed in a single row along the jaws1 being implanted in a deep continuous groove 7see ,bd4 pl4 xi474 ,these teeth are of a pointed conical form1 longitudinally striated1 with an expanded base 7,lign4 #baj74 ,the new teeth are developed at the inner side of the base of the old1 and grow up and displace them 7see ,lign4 #baj74 ,the microscopical structure of the teeth of the ,ichthyosaurus is beautifully illustrated by ,professor ,owen 7,odontography1 p4 #bge1 pl4 lxiv474 ,the tooth consists of a pulp-cavity1 surrounded by a body of dentine1 which is invested at the base by a thick layer of cement2 and at the crown by a coat of enamel1 also covered by a pellicle of cement #c the pulp-cavity1 in fully-formed teeth1 is more or less occupied by coarse bone4 ,the chief peculiarity of this structure consists in the inflection of the cement into vertical folds at the base of the tooth1 by which the marginal portion of the basal dentine is divided into a corresponding number of processes2 producing1 in a transverse section1 the appearance represented in ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #i4 ,this organization1 as we have previously remarked1 is similar to that observable in the teeth of the ,lepidosteus 7see p4 #faf71 and of the extinct reptile1 called ,labyrinthodon1 hereafter to be noticed4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #baj4 ,teeth of ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus1 nat4 ,lias4 ,somersetshire4 ,fig4 #a4--,tooth of ,plesiosaurus4 #a;a4 ,transverse section of the lower part4 #b4--,tooth of ,ichthyosaurus4 #b;a4 ,transverse section of the middle of the tooth4 #c4 ,vertical section of part of lower jaw of ,ichthyosaurus1 with a tooth1 illustrative of the mode of dentition4 a1 a1 a4 ,section of the lower jaw1 showing the deep furrow1 b in which the teeth are implanted4 c4 ,the canal for the dental vessels4 d4 ,foramen for the passage of vessels to the outer integuments4 e4 ,germ of a successional tooth which has occasioned the absorption of the inner portion of the base of the mature tooth1 f4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #baa4 ,vertebra of ,ichthyosaurus4 #a_/c nat4 ,fig4 #a4--,neural arch and spine4 #b4--;,body or centrum4 a4 ,socket for the reception of the corresponding process of the neural arch4 #c4--,vertical section of the centrum4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bab4 ,the bones composing the ,pectoral ,arch of ,ichthyosaurus4 #a_/h nat4 s1 sternum4 cl1 cl1 clavicles4 sc1 sc1 scapul4 c1 c1 coracoids4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bac4 ,the bones composing the ,pectoral ,arch of ,plesiosaurus4 #a_/h nat4 s1 sternum4 sc1 sc1 scapul or omoplates4 c1 c1 coracoids4 g1 g1 the glenoid cavities or sockets for the head of the humerus or arm-bones4 ,the vertebr2 7,bd4 pl4 xii42 and ,lign4 #baa71 of which there are upwards of one hundred and forty in the individuals of some species1 are relatively very short in their antero-posterior diameter 7i4 e4 from front to back72 and deeply cupped on each articulating face1 as in fishes4 ,the annular part is not united to the body of the vertebra1 as in mammals1 nor connected by suture1 as in ,crocodiles1 but terminates on each side in a compressed oval base1 which fits into corresponding sockets placed on the boundary line of the spinal depression on the body 7,lign4 #baj1 #b;a72 thus completing the medullary canal 7see ,bd4 pl4 xii4 fig4 ,d1 ,e474 ,hence the collector may easily recognise the body of an ,ichthyosaurian vertebra1 by the pits or depressions on the sides of the spinal interspace4 ,the first and second vertebra2 are anchylosed together1 and have additional subvertebral1 wedge-shaped bones1 which render this part of the column a fixed point of support4#eib 7,bd4 pl4 xii4 figs4 #c1 #f47 ,the form and arrangement of the bones that enter into the composition of the pectoral and pelvic arches1 and of the paddles1 are exemplified in ,bd4 pl4 xii42 and full osteological details are given in ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahci1 p4 #ajd4 ,the characters of the several bones composing the pectoral arch of the ,ichthyosaur will be readily understood from the accompanying illustration4 ,the structure of the pectoral arch of the ,plesiosaur is also shown in an accompanying ,lignograph1 for the sake of comparison4 ,the bones of a fore-paddle of an ,ichthyosaurus are represented 7,lign4 #bad1 fig4 #a74 ,in some species each paddle consists of nearly one hundred bones4 ,these locomotive extremities are very analogous in their osteological construction to those of the ,cetaceans1 but they are connected with the trunk by means of the glenoid socket formed by the scapula and coracoid1 which are firmly united to the sternum2 whereas in the ,cetaceans the pectoral fin is only attached to a simple scapula1 which is merely suspended in the muscles4 ,this structure1 together with the presence of a clavicle in the ,ichthyosaurus 7see ,lign4 #bab71 which is wanting in the ,cetaceans11 indicates1 in the opinion of ,professor ,owen1 that this marine fish-lizard was capable of some degree of locomotion on the land2 and that it might have resorted to the shore to deposit its eggs1 or1 like the ,crocodile1 to sleep4 ,from the frequent occurrence of a dislocation or abrupt bend of the vertebral series of the tail1 at about one-third of its length from the end1 supposed to have been produced by the weight of a large fin1 during the progress of decomposition1 and from the terminal caudal vertebr being laterally compressed1 it is inferred that the ,ichthyosaurus had a vertical fin at the extremity of the tail1 which would thus be rendered a powerful instrument of progressive motion4#eic ,from the appearance of the ,coprolites1 which occur abundantly with the skeletons of these animals1 it is obvious that the intestinal canal in the ,ichthyosaurus was furnished with spiral valves1 as in the ,sharks2 and the comminuted bones and scales in the coprolites prove that fishes constituted the principal food of these marine reptiles4 #eib ,this structure was first demonstrated by ,sir ,philip ,egerton4 ,see ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d series1 vol4 v4 p4 #ahg1 pl4 xiv4 #eic ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 v4 p4 #eaa1 pl4 xlii4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bad4 ,paddles of ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus1 #a_/h nat4 size4 ,lias ,shale4 ,lyme ,regis4 ,fig4 #a4--,left fore-paddle of the ,ichthyosaurus4 #b4--,left fore-paddle of the ,plesiosaurus4 ,the ,ichthyosaurus has abdominal ribs 7p4 #fef1 note71 as in the ,crocodile1 and it is therefore inferred that1 if oviparous1 it did not produce ova in such immense numbers as the ,batrachians1 c4 ,a specimen found by the late ,mr4 ,channing ,pearce renders it probable that the ,ichthyosaurus may have been viviparous4 ,a remarkably perfect adult ,ichthyosaurus1 examined by this gentleman1 contained the bones of a ftus 7a few inches long7 in the cavity of the pelvis4 ,this specimen is in the collection of ,mr4 ,pearce1 at ,bath4 ,remains or traces of the dermal integument have been discovered in some examples from the ,lias of ,barrow-on-,soar1 ,lyme ,regis1 ,ilminster1 and the neighbourhood of ,tewkesbury4#eid #eid ,see ,mr4 ,coles's interesting paper on the ,skin of the ,ichthyosaurus1 in the ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ix4 p4 #gi4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bae4 ,hinder ,paddle of an ,ichthyosaurus 7#a_/c nat473 with the impression of its integuments4 ,lias4 ,barrow-on-,soar4 7,from ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 pl4 xx47 ,integuments of the ,paddle4--,the importance of carefully examining the surrounding stone before removing vegetable or animal remains from the matrix in which they are imbedded1 and which has so often been insisted upon in the preceding pages1 is strikingly exemplified in the highly interesting example of the hinder paddle of an ,ichthyosaurus 7,i4 communis7 discovered by ,sir ,philip ,egerton4 ,lign4 #bae is reduced from the exquisite representation of the specimen accompanying the original memoir by ,prof4 ,owen on this fossil1 in the ,geological ,transactions4 ,the specimen consists of the phalangeal bones of a posterior paddle1 with the impression of the soft parts or integuments in their natural position2 a1 marks the termination or distal extremity of the fin1 consisting entirely of the softer integuments2 these gradually widen and expand to receive the terminal rows of the phalangeal ossicles or bones1 marked b4 ,the upper border of this integumentary part of the paddle 7c7 is formed by a smooth1 well-defined line1 apparently a mere duplicature of integument4 ,but the lower margin 7d7 exhibits the impressions of a series of rays1 by which the fold of integument was supported2 these rays bifurcate as they approach the margin of the fin1 and were probably either cartilaginous1 or composed of an albuminous horny tissue1 like the marginal rays in the fins of ,sharks4 ,dr4 ,buckland detected remains of the dermal integument of an ,ichthyosaurus in a specimen from the ,lias at ,barrow-on-,soar 7,bd4 ii4 p4 #bb1 pl4 x472 and in a fine skeleton with the four paddles 7now in the ,british ,museum71 which ,i obtained from that locality1 there were decided traces of the carbonized integuments around each paddle1 but which were1 unfortunately1 chiselled away1 in developing the bones1 before ,i was aware of their true nature4 ,in ,mr4 ,coles's paper1 already referred to1 the student has an instructive instance of the value of a careful examination of faint or obscure traces of organic matter accompanying these saurian remains1 and how such an examination should be made4 ,the ,plate illustrative of the ,memoir exhibits the minute1 hooked1 conical bodies1 that form the dense felt-like mass which the black film1 frequently accompanying these fossil bones1 appears to consist of1 when seen under the microscope4 ,to what extent this substance entered into the constitution of the integuments1 or of the exact relation of these setiform scales to the surface or the interior of the skin1 our present knowledge does not enable us to judge4 ,sidenote3 ,,plesiosaurus4 ,plesiosaurus4 7,bd4 pl4 xvi4--xix47--,the animals of this genus present in their osteological structure a remarkable deviation from all known recent and fossil reptiles2 uniting the characters of the head of a lizard1 with the teeth of a crocodile1 to a neck of inordinate length1 with such modifications of the ribs1 the pectoral and pelvic arches1 and the paddles1 as to justify the graphic simile of ,professor ,sedgwick1 that the ,plesiosaurus might be compared to a serpent threaded through the shell of a turtle4 ,the character which immediately strikes the observer1 is the extraordinary length of the neck1 and the relative smallness of the head4 ,the neck1 which in most animals is formed of but five vertebr1 and in the extremest recent example1 the ,swan1 does not exceed twenty-four1 is in the ,plesiosaurus composed of from twenty to forty2 and1 in some species1 is four times the length of the head1 and equal to the entire length of the body and tail2 while the length of the head 7in ,p4 dolichodeirus7 is less than one-thirteenth of the entire skeleton4 ,the skull resembles that of the crocodile in its general form1 but is relatively smaller1 and is more related to the lacertian type4 ,the parietal bone is more triquetal than in the crocodiles2 but the zygomatic bone is attached to its lower end4 ,the breathing apertures are situated anterior to the orbits1 on the highest part of the head4 ,the lower jaw has the usual structure of the ,saurians2 but the dentary bone is greatly expanded anteriorly1 and united in front 7see ,bd4 pl4 xix474 ,the teeth are implanted in separate sockets1 as in the crocodile1 and there are from thirty to forty on each side the jaws4 ,they are conical1 slender1 long1 pointed1 slightly recurved1 and longitudinally grooved from the base upwards2 having a long round fang4 ,the pulp-cavity is long and single1 surrounded by a body of firm dentine1 covered on the crown with a layer of enamel1 and at the base with cement 7,odont4 pl4 lxxiv474 ,the dentition in the ,plesiosauri differs from that of the ,crocodiles1 in the successional teeth emerging through distinct apertures on the inner side of the sockets of their predecessors1 and not through the pulp-cavity4 ,the vertebr are relatively longer than in the ,ichthyosaurus1 and their articular faces are either flat1 or slightly excavated towards the periphery1 with a gentle convexity in the centre 7,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 ix4 fig4 #d74eie #eie ,for details1 see ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahci1 p4 #ej4 ,the caudal vertebr have two distinct hmapophyses1 not united into a chevron-bone4 ,the cervical ribs1 or hatchet-bones1 are attached by two articular facets to the bodies of the vertebr1 but with a very narrow space between2 scarcely large enough even for the passage of the sympathetic nerve2 and apparently not sufficient for the vertebral artery4 ,the pectoral arch is remarkable for the pair of elongated and broad coracoid bones 7,bd4 pl4 xvii4 and ,lign4 #bac72 indeed the coracoids attain their maximum of development in the ,plesiosaurus4 ,the ribs1 which are very numerous1 and extend throughout a great portion of the vertebral column1 are connected1 anteriorly1 in the abdominal region1 by several slender bones1 called costal-arcs1 consisting of six or seven pieces to each pair of ribs2 the ,ichthyosaurus has a similar structure1 but the arcs are composed of but five pieces4 ,as these connecting bones are so constructed as to admit of a certain degree of gliding motion upon each other1 it is inferred that1 by this mechanism1 considerable expansion of the pulmonary cavities in these air-breathing marine reptiles was obtained 7,bd4 pl4 xviii4 fig4 #c74 ,the paddles are composed of fewer and more slender bones than in the ,ichthyosaurus1 and must have been of a more elegant form1 and possessed greater flexibility 7,lign4 #bad1 fig4 #b74 ,the wrist 7carpus7 consists of a double row of round ossicles1 which are succeeded by five elongated metacarpal1 and these by numerous1 slender and slightly-curved phalangeal bones4 ,sixteen species of ,plesiosaurus and ten of ,ichthyosaurus have been discovered in the ,british strata1 and nearly forty are now known2 their geological range is from the ,lias to the ,chalk1 inclusive4#eif ,their remains are found most abundantly in the ,lias and ,oolite4 ,i have collected many ,plesiosaurian vertebr in the ,wealden1 and in the ,green ,sand of ,farringdon4 ,no traces of ,ichthyosauri have been observed in the ,wealden2 but vertebr1 and jaws with teeth1 occur in the lower ,chalk and ,galt of ,kent and ,cambridgeshire4#eig ,on the ,continent the remains of ,enaliosaurians have also been discovered in the same formations4 #eif ,see ,petrifactions1 for an account of the specimens in the ,british ,museum4 #eig ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,trans4 #ahde1 ,sect4 p4 #fj4 ,the ,enaliosaurian bones and teeth found in the ,cretaceous deposits of ,england have been fully described and illustrated by ,prof4 ,owen1 in ,dixon's ,fossils of ,sussex1 c41 and in his ,monograph on the ,fossil ,reptiles of the ,cretaceous ,formation1 ,palontographical ,society1 #ahea4 ,pliosaurus4---,this name designates a gigantic extinct reptile1 of which the upper and lower jaws1 with teeth1 considerable portions of the vertebral column1 and many bones of the extremities have been discovered in the ,kimmeridge clay of ,oxfordshire1 and are preserved in ,dr4 ,buckland's museum4 ,the teeth resemble those of the ,plesiosaurus in their general aspect1 being of a conical form1 longitudinally grooved1 and having a long fang2 but they are readily distinguished by the subtrihedral form of the crown1 produced by the smooth1 flat1 or slightly convex external surface2 they approach in this respect the tooth of the ,mosasaurus2 from the latter1 however1 even fragments may be known by the presence of longitudinal ridges4 ,the animal itself was an enormous marine reptile1 allied to the ,plesiosaurians1 but more nearly related to the ,crocodilians4#eih #eih ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahda1 p4 #fj4 ,odont4 pl4 lxviii4 ,,ii4 ,crocodilians4--,the loricated1 or mailed1 ,saurian reptiles1 viz4 the ,alligators1 ,crocodiles1 and ,gavials1 are well known as the largest living forms of cold-blooded oviparous quadrupeds4#eii ,no relics of any recent species have been observed in a fossil state2 except that of the ,gangetic ,gavial1 which has been found fossil in the ,sub-,himalayas by ,capt4 ,cantley and ,dr4 ,falconer2 but remains of ,crocodilians of the existing generic type1 having the spinal column composed of concavo-convex vertebra2 7i4 e4 united to each other by a ball and socket-joint71 the convexity being behind1 or towards the tail1 have been found in the ,london ,clay at ,hackney and the ,isle of ,sheppey1 and in the eocene deposits on the coast of ,western ,sussex and ,hants4#fjj ,but the ,crocodiles of the ,wealden1 ,purbeck1 ,oolite1 and ,lias differ materially in their osteological characters from the recent species1 particularly in the structure of the vertebral column2 which in one genus is composed of concavo-convex vertebra2 placed in a reversed position to those of the existing species1 the ball or convexity being anterior1 or directed forwards4 ,in the other genera1 both the articular faces of the vertebr are either flat1 or concave4#fja 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bif47 #eii ,a detailed and philosophical examination of the osteology of the recent ,crocodilia has lately been given to the scientific world by ,prof4 ,owen1 in his ,monograph on the ,reptilia of the ,london ,clay1 published by the ,palontographical ,society of ,london1 #ahej4 ,a condensed notice1 by ,prof4 ,owen1 of the dental apparatus of the ,crocodilians1 is to be found in the ,cyclop4 ,anat4 ,art4 ,teeth4 #fjj ,see ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahdd1 ,sect4 p4 #ej2 and #ahdg1 ,sect1 p4 #fe4 #fja ,cuvier1 ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 p4 #aec2 on the fossil ,crocodiles of ,honfleur1 which comprise both the types alluded to in the text4 ,vertebr of two species of ,crocodilians or ,alligators have been found in the cretaceous ,green ,sand of the ,united ,states3 these are of the true proclian#fjb type1 as in the existing species2 but they present peculiar characters in the modification of the apophyses4#fjc #fjb ,proclian1 concave before3 amphiclian1 concave at both ends platyclian1 flat in front and concave behind4 #fjc ,see ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 v4 p4 #chj1 pl4 x4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #baf4 ,skull and ,jaws of ,teleosaurus4 #a_/h nat4 ,lias4 ,whitby4 ,fig4 #a4--,upper view of the cranium of ,teleosaurus4 c1 occipital condyle4 t1 t1 temporal foss4 o1 o1 orbits4 n1 nasal apertures4 #b4--,muzzle or anterior extremity of the jaws of ,steneosaurus4 #c4--,the same of ,teleosaurus4 #d4--,lateral view of the cranium and lower jaw of ,teleosaurus4 ,with this exception1 the ,crocodilians with broad muzzles1 as the ,cayman and ,alligator1 have no representatives below the ,tertiary formations2 the ,crocodilia of the ,secondary deposits being all referable to the division having elongated beaks1 like the recent ,gavials 7,bd4 p4 #bej74 ,the fossil ,crocodiles of the latter type are arranged in two genera2 namely1 ,teleosaurus#fjd 7,lign4 #baf1 fig4 #c71 in which the nasal apertures terminate in two orifices1 7not blended into a single opening as in the recent species17 in front of the nose2 and ,steneosaurus 7,lign4 #baf1 fig4 #b71 in which the breathing canals end in two nearly semicircular vertical openings at the extremity of the muzzle4 7,see also ,bd4 pl4 xxv47 #fjd ,the skeleton of a recent ,gavial1 and that of a ,teleosaur1 are represented on one plate1 for comparison1 in ,prof4 ,owen's ,monograph1 loc4 cit4 ,the ,british fossil species1 most nearly related to the recent1 occur in the ,lower and ,middle ,eocene of the ,south-,east of ,england4 ,two fine specimens of the skull of ,crocodilus toliapicus1 ,cuvier and ,owen 7,c4 ,spenceri of ,dr4 ,buckland71 have been found at ,sheppey1 as well as a skull of ,c4 champsodes 7,owen71 and numerous vertebr referable to each species4 ,the eocene deposits of ,hordwell ,cliff have yielded the ,crocodilus ,hastingsi1#fje and the ,alligator ,hantoniensis 7,petrif4 p4 #dfg2 and ,charlesworth's ,geol4 ,journ4 pl4 i472 and the remains of a ,gavial 7,gavialis ,dixoni1 ,owen1 in ,dixon's ,foss4 ,suss47 have been found at ,bracklesham4#fjf #fje ,this fossil ,crocodile supplies a good illustration of the biconvex body of the first caudal vertebra already described as peculiar to these loricated reptiles1 see page #fef2 and ,i have subjoined ,lign4 #bag in illustration of this structure4 #fjf ,most of these valuable fossils are in the ,british ,museum4 ,they are all described in detail and most elaborately illustrated in ,prof4 ,owen's ,monograph1 already referred to4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bag4 ,first ,caudal ,vertebra of ,crocodilus ,hastingsi4 #a_/c nat4 ,eocene4 ,hordwell ,cliff4 s1 spinous process1 or neural spine4 z1 anterior zygapophysis or oblique process4 z#a1 posterior zygapophysis4 d1 left diapophysis1 or transverse process4 a1 p1 body or centrum1 convex at both ends4 ,in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest1 associated with innumerable remains of reptiles of various kinds1 teeth of the ,crocodilian type1 belonging to two genera1 are not uncommon4#fjg ,the first kind 7,suchosaurus#fjh cultridens of ,prof4 ,owen7 is a tooth about an inch in length1 of a slender acuminated form1 compressed laterally1 and gently recurved1 with a sharp edge in front and behind2 resembling1 in its general figure1 the tooth of a ,megalosaurus1 with the serrations on the edges worn off 7,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #g74 ,the sides of the crown are marked with a few longitudinal grooves4 ,some biconcave vertebr found in the same quarries1 and characterized by the compressed wedge-shaped form of the centre 7,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 ix4 fig4 #aa71 are supposed by ,professor ,owen to belong to the same reptile as the teeth above described2 but it is hazardous to pronounce on the identity of these detached teeth and bones1 without more corroborative proof than has hitherto been obtained4 #fjg ,foss4 ,south ,downs1 p4 #ej4 ,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for4 p4 #fd2 pl4 v4 figs4 #a-c1 #g4 ,cuv4 ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 p4 #afa1 pl4 x4 ,see also ,owen's later examination of these remains1 ,report ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahaa1 p4 #fg2 and ,cyclop4 ,anat4 ,art4 ,teeth4 #fjh ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahda1 p4 #fh4 ,sucho-saurus is derived from ,suchus1 or ,suchis1 the name given by ,strabo to the sacred crocodile of the ,egyptians4 ,swanage ,crocodile4 7,goniopholis crassidens47 ,petrif4 p4 #agj1 ,lign4 #ch4--,under this name1 the second species of ,crocodilian teeth will be considered2 the discovery of a considerable portion of a skeleton of a reptile with teeth of this form 7,wond4 p4 #daf71 in a quarry near ,swanage1 having disclosed some of the most important osteological characters of the original4 ,these teeth are distinguished from the former by their cylindrical base1 and rounded1 obtuse1 conical crowns 7,petrif4 p4 #aga73 they somewhat resemble in form those of the ,crocodile1 but the crown is strongly marked with numerous1 well-defined1 longitudinal grooves and ridges2 and there is a sharp ridge on the middle of each side4 ,a small specimen1 broken off at the base1 is represented ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #e2 it shows the smooth cylindrical base of the tooth1 which is covered with cement1 and the finely striated enamelled crown2 some of the teeth are more than two inches in length1 and one inch in diameter at the base 7,foss4 ,til ,for4 pl4 v4 figs4 #a1 #b74 ,i have found these teeth in numerous localities2 they are always well preserved1 with the ridges sharp1 and have a high polish 7,geol4 ,i4 ,wight1 p4 #ceg1 ,lign4 #cj72 a series of successional teeth may often be detected in the pulp-cavity 7see ,wond4 p4 #dad74 ,the detached teeth1 and fragments of dermal bones 7,lign4 #bjg71 which1 from their constant occurrence with this species1 ,i had been led to consider as belonging to the same reptile1 were the only relics that had come under my observation1 until the discovery of the ,swanage specimen above mentioned4#fji ,on the two corresponding slabs containing this fine fossil are imbedded many detached teeth2 a portion of the left side of the lower jaw1 with two teeth in place2 ribs and numerous vertebr1 which are biconcave1 and have an irregular medullary cavity in the centre of the body2 chevron bones resembling those of the ,crocodile2 the bones of the pelvic arch1 and some of those of the extremities4 ,with these are the remains of the osseous dermal cuirass1 consisting of numerous scutes 7figured and described p4 #feg1 ,lign4 #bjg71 scattered at random among the other relics of the skeleton2 some having the inner1 and others the external surface exposed2 several of these bones are perfect1 and exceed six inches in length1 and two and a half in breadth4 ,numerous scales of a small ,ganoid fish 7,lepidotus minor71 common in the ,purbeck strata1 are also intermingled with these remains4 ,this reptile is named ,goniopholis crassidens1 by ,professor ,owen4#faj #fji ,now in the ,british ,museum3 see ,petrif4 p4 #agj4 ,a lithograph of one of the slabs was given in the third edition of the ,wonders of ,geology1 #ahci4 #faj ,gonio-pholis3--angle-scute4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahda1 p4 #gb4 ,both the slabs of the ,swanage specimen are admirably arranged in the same case in the ,british ,museum1 with bones and scutes of this reptile from ,tilgate ,forest2 there can be no doubt that the entire lower jaw of the ,swanage reptile might have been obtained if the quarry-men had taken the precaution of examining the adjoining block of stone4 ,pcilopleuron4--,the remains of an allied genus of ,crocodile1 the ,pcilopleuron ,bucklandi 7of ,deslongchamps71 occur in the ,oolite1 near ,caen1 ,normandy4 ,this reptile1 like the ,goniopholis1 had biconcave vertebr1 with a large medullary cavity in the middle of the centrum4 ,the body of the vertebr is contracted in the middle1 the neural arch anchylosed1 with no trace of suture1 and with a thin spinous process1 which is remarkable for its backward inclination4 ,vertebr of this character also occur in the ,wealden strata of ,tilgate ,forest and the ,isle of ,wight4#faa #faa ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahda1 p4 #hd4 ,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 ix4 fig4 #h1 represents a caudal vertebra4 ,teleosaurus4 7,bd4 pl4 xxv47--,in the ,oolite of ,england and the ,continent1 the remains of a genus of extinct reptiles1 having1 like the recent ,gavial1 long slender muzzles1 have been discovered in several localities4 ,these fossils consist of the osseous scutes of an imbricated dermal cuirass2 of the cranium and jaws with teeth2 of the vertebral column2 and many other bones4 ,the characters of the dermal scutes1 and of the muzzle with its terminal nasal apertures1 have already been described 7p4 #fei1 and p4 #fgf74 ,there are several species of ,teleosaurus2 a splendid specimen of ,t4 ,chapmanni1 fifteen feet long1 from the ,lias-shale on the ,yorkshire coast1 is preserved in the ,whitby ,museum2 and there are interesting examples in the ,british ,museum4#fab ,teleosaurian remains have been found in the ,oolite at ,stonesfield1 and at ,deddington1 ,oxfordshire2 and ,mr4 ,c4 ,moore1 of ,ilminster1 whose museum is rich with perfect ,ichthyosaurs and ,fishes from the ,upper ,lias of the neighbourhood1 has been highly successful in developing some charming specimens of small ,teleosaurs from out of the same deposit4 ,in the ,oolite of ,caen1 in ,normandy1 very fine specimens of ,t4 ,cadomensis have been discovered2 and from these the illustrious ,cuvier first determined the character and affinities of the original4#fac ,the ,british ,oolite contains also the relics of a reptile with biconcave vertebr1 belonging to the genus ,steneosaurus3 the cranium with the jaws and teeth have been found in ,kimmeridge clay1 at ,shotover 7,bd4 pl4 xxv474#fad #fab ,petrifactions1 p4 #agh4 #fac ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 p4 #abg4 #fad ,report ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #hb4 ,from the ,jura limestone at ,monheim1 in ,franconia1 the remains of a small ,crocodilian reptile 7,teleosaurus priscus71 with a long slender muzzle1 have been obtained4 ,in a specimen#fae from the former locality1 the skull1 jaws with teeth1 the entire vertebral column1 and many parts of the skeleton are preserved3 the entire length is but three feet4 #fae ,now in the ,british ,museum3 see ,petrif4 p4 #agh1 where a detailed description of this unique fossil is given4 ,see also ,ossem4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 pl4 vi4 ,streptospondylus1 ,lign4 #bjf1 figs4 #e1 #g4--;,baron ,cuvier in his celebrated work1 ,recherches sur les ,ossemens ,fossiles1 has given an elaborate description of the remains of two kinds of slender-nosed ,crocodilians1 from the ,kimmeridge clay of ,honfleur1 and the ,oxford clay of ,havre4 ,the specimens consist of the jaws with teeth1 vertebr1 and some bones of the extremities4#faf ,in one species1 the vertebr are biconcave2 in the other1 they are convexo-concave1 and present a remarkable deviation from the recent ,crocodilian type1 namely1 that they are placed in a reversed position1--the convex face of the vertebra being directed anteriorly1 or towards the cranium1 and the concavity posteriorly2 the name of the genus1 ,streptospondylus 7reversed-spine71 denotes this peculiarity of structure4 ,the bodies of three or four large convexo-concave cervical vertebr1 were discovered in the ,tilgate strata many years since1 and are described in my various works 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #cjj72 but no suspicion was then entertained of their belonging to this genus1 although ,i had repeatedly compared them with the figures of the ,honfleur crocodile1#fag the imperfect state of the processes obscuring their true characters4 ,professor ,owen first detected the true character of these ,wealden vertebr1 in a large cervical1 six inches long 7now in the ,british ,museum71 in which two oblique processes are preserved on the concave end of the bone1 their flat1 oblong1 articular faces1 are directed downwards and outwards1--a character which at once proves them to be the posterior pair1 for the anterior oblique processes would be directed upwards and inwards4#fah ,vertebr of the same species occur in the ,wealden of the ,isle of ,wight2 and of another species in the ,oolite at ,chipping ,norton1 and in the ,lias of ,whitby4 #faf ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 p4 #adc1 pl4 viii4 ix4 #fag ,reduced figures of two of these vertebr are given in ,lign4 #bjf1 figs4 #e and #g1 p4 #fec4 #fah ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahda1 p4 #ib4 ,the position of the articulating surfaces of the oblique processes 7zygapophyses7 in more perfect specimens1 subsequently discovered in various localities of the ,wealden1 established the existence not only of a saurian allied to the ,streptospondylus1 but also of other reptiles whose spinal column was wholly or in part made up of vertebr which were convex in front and concave behind1 as in the cervicals and anterior dorsals of certain mammalia4 ,some of these fossil vertebr ,dr4 ,melville has referred1 with great probability1 to the cervical region of the ,iguanodon 7see ,petrif4 p4 #bei72 others cannot at present be satisfactorily assigned to any known genus of reptiles4 ,a concavo-convex caudal vertebra1 with the relations of which ,i am unacquainted1 was found in the same quarry in ,tilgate ,forest2 a reduced outline of this unique fossil is given in ,lign4 #bjf1 fig4 #a4 ,the centrum is of a sub-cylindrical form1 and the articular face in front is concave1 and that behind1 convex2 with a chevron-bone that is anchylosed to the body of the vertebra1 as in some of the caudals of the ,mosasaurus1 and terminates in an inferior spine 7f472 the pair of anterior oblique processes remains2 the neural spinous process is destroyed4 ,cetiosaurus4--,from a considerable number of verteb and bones of the extremities of some gigantic aquatic reptiles1 discovered in the ,oolite in various places in ,oxfordshire1 ,northamptonshire1 and ,yorkshire1 the present genus was established2 the name being intended to indicate a distant general resemblance of these extinct ,saurians to the ,cetaceans4#fai ,the vertebra2 differ from those of the ,iguanodon in having their articular faces of a sub-circular form1 and the body relatively short2 the anterior face is nearly flat1 and the posterior concave1 in the dorsal vertebra22 but in the caudal both faces are concave1 and have a well-defined elevated margin1 which gives the body a deeply excavated character1 easily recognizable4 ,vertebr of this kind were among my earliest discoveries in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest4 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bhb47 ,some specimens are eight inches in the transverse diameter of the articular face1 and but four and a half inches in the antero-posterior length of the body4#fbj ,the original animals are supposed to have been of aquatic1 and probably of marine habits1 on the evidence of the sub-biconcave structure of the vertebr and of the coarse cancellous tissue of the long bones1 which are destitute of a medullary cavity4 ,they must have rivalled the modern whales in bulk1 for some specimens indicate a length of forty or fifty feet2 they are supposed to have had web-feet1 and a broad vertical tail4#fba #fai ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #deg4 #fbj ,the osteological characters of these remains1 and the physiological relations of the original animals1 are described in ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahda1 pp4 #id-ajb4 #fba ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahda1 p4 #ajb4 ,polyptychodon4#fbb--,the remains of another gigantic marine ,saurian have been discovered in the ,green ,sand at ,hythe1 in ,kent2 they consist chiefly of the bones of the pelvis and hinder extremities4#fbc ,the femur must have been nearly four feet in length4 ,the long bones have a cancellated structure1 without a medullary cavity #c the outer surface is finely striated4 ,probably in a recent state the cells were filled with oil1 as in the ,cetacea4 ,neither the vertebr nor the teeth of this reptile are known2 but1 provisionally1 these remains have been referred to the same animal as that to which the large1 conical1 longitudinally ridged teeth belonged1 which have been found in the ,kentish ,rag1 at ,maidstone1 and in the ,chalk of ,sussex1 and have been named ,polyptychodon continuus4#fbd ,teeth of ,p4 interruptus are not unfrequent in the ,cretaceous series2 and a portion of the lower jaw of this species1 from the ,chalk of ,kent1 is in ,mr4 ,toulmin ,smith's collection4#fbe #fbb ,poly-ptych-odon2 many-wrinkle-tooth4 #fbc ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ddi4 ,the bones from ,hythe were presented by their discoverer1 ,h4 ,b4 ,makeson1 ,esq41 to the ,british ,museum4 ,see ,petrifactions1 p4 #bjj4 #fbd ,owen's ,monograph1 ,cretac4 ,reptilia1 ,pal4 ,soc4 p4 #dg4 #fbe ,ibid4 p4 #ee4 ,see also ,dixon's ,foss4 ,suss4 p4 #cgh4 ,teeth of the ,polyptychodon are figured in ,odontography1 pl4 lxxii4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,fossil ,,reptiles2 ,,comprising ,,the ,,deinosaurians1 ,,pterodactyles1 ,,turtles1 ,,serpents1 ,,and ,,batrachians4 ,,iii4 ,deinosaurians4--,the ,order ,deinosauria 7fearfully-great lizards7 has been established for the reception of those extinct colossal reptiles1 comprising the ,megalosaurus1 ,hylosaurus1 ,iguanodon1 and ,pelorosaurus1 which1 in their organization1 present the transition from the ,crocodilians to the ,lacertians1 and whose essential osteological characters ,professor ,owen has described as follow3-- ,this group1 which includes at least three well-established genera of ,saurians1 is characterized by a large sacrum1 composed of five anchylosed vertebr of unusual construction2 by the height1 breadth1 and outward sculpture of the neural arch of the dorsal vertebr2 by the two-fold articulation of the ribs to the vertebra31 viz4 at the anterior part of the spine by a head and tubercle1 and along the rest of the trunk by a tubercle attached to the transverse process only2 by broad1 and sometimes complicated1 coracoids1 and long and slender clavicles2 whereby ,crocodilian characters of the vertebral column are combined with a ,lacertian type of the pectoral arch4 ,the dental organs also exhibit the same transitional or annectent characters1 in a greater or lesser degree4 ,the bones of the extremities are of large proportional size for ,saurians2 they are provided with large medullary cavities1 and with well developed and unusual processes1 and are terminated by metacarpal1 metatarsal1 and phalangeal bones1 which1 with the exception of the ungual phalanges1 more or less resemble those of the heavy pachydermal ,mammals1 and attest1 with the hollow long-bones1 the terrestrial habits of the species4 ,the combinations of such characters1 some1 as the sacral ones1 altogether peculiar among ,reptiles1 others borrowed1 as it were1 from groups now distinct from each other1 and all manifested by creatures far surpassing in size the largest of existing reptiles1 will1 it is presumed1 be deemed sufficient ground for establishing a distinct tribe or sub-order of ,saurian ,reptiles1 for which ,i would propose the name of ,dinosauria4 ,of this tribe the principal and best established genera are the ,megalosaurus1 the ,hylosaurus1 and the ,iguanodon2 the gigantic ,crocodile-lizards of the dry land2 the peculiarities of the osteological structure of which distinguish them as clearly from the modern terrestrial and amphibious ,sauria1 as the opposite modifications for an aquatic life characterize the extinct ,enaliosauria1 or ,marine ,lizards4#fbf #fbf ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep4 #ahda1 p4 #ajc4 ,the elaborate investigation of the fossil remains of these stupendous beings1 and the luminous exposition of their organization and physiological relations1 embodied in the report to which the above extract is introductory1 are among the most important contributions to ,palontology1 and afford a striking example of the successful application of profound anatomical knowledge to the elucidation of the most marvellous epoch in the earth's physical history1 the ,age of ,reptiles4 ,from the great size of the bones of these reptiles1 their remains have excited the curiosity even of the common observer2 and although an exaggerated idea has been generally entertained of the magnitude of the original animals1 yet1 even when reduced to their natural proportions by the rigorous formula of the anatomist1 applied to the accumulated relics which years of laborious research have exhumed from their rocky sepulchres and deposited in our museums1 their dimensions are sufficiently stupendous to satisfy the most enthusiastic lover of the marvellous4 ,let the reader visit the ,british ,museum1#fbg and after examining the largest thigh-bone of the ,iguanodon1 repair to the zoological gallery1 and inspect the recent ,crocodilian reptiles1 some twenty-five or thirty feet in length2 and observe that the fossil bone equals1 if not surpasses1 in size1 the entire thigh of the largest of existing reptiles2 then let him imagine this bone clothed with proportionate muscles and integuments1 and reflect upon the enormous trunk which such limbs must have been destined to move and to sustain--and he will obtain a just notion of the appalling magnitude of the lizards which inhabited the country of the ,iguanodon4 #fbg ,see ,fossils of the ,british ,museum1 p4 #bbg4 ,the general characters of the extinct reptiles comprised in the order ,deinosauria#fbh must be known to the intelligent reader1 from the various popular notices which have from time to time appeared2 and their names have become as familiar as household words4 ,i shall here restrict myself to a few general remarks on the form and structure of the teeth1 and of some of the more important bones of the best known species of these great reptiles4#fbi #fbh ,in the new edition of ,pictet's ,palontologie 7now in course of publication71 two #dto4 plates 7xxiii4 and xxiv47 are devoted to the illustration of the remains of these colossal reptiles4 #fbi ,for further account of the ,iguanodon1 see ,petrif4 p4 #bbd1 c42 of the ,hylosaurus1 ibid4 p4 #cad1 c42 of the ,pelorosaurus1 ibid4 p4 #ccj1 c42 of the ,regnosaurus1 ibid4 p4 #ccc1 c42 and of the ,megalosaurus1 ibid4 p4 #cbh1 c4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bah4 ,megalosaurus ,bucklandi4 #a_/d nat4 ,great ,oolite4 ,stonesfield1 ,oxfordshire4 ,portion of the left ramus of the lower jaw1 containing several teeth in different stages of growth3 inner aspect4 a1 a4 ,crowns of successional teeth4 b1 b4 ,transverse partitions of the tooth-sockets4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bai4 ,tooth of the ,megalosaurus ,bucklandi4 7,nat4 size47 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,sidenote3 ,,megalosaurus4 ,megalosaurus 7gigantic lizard7 ,bucklandi4 ,lign4 #bah and #bai4 ,bd4 pl4 xxiii4 ,wond4 p #dba4--,the oolitic flag-stone of ,stonesfield1 in ,oxfordshire1 has long been celebrated for the bones and teeth of a gigantic reptile1 which ,dr4 ,buckland first described by the name of ,megalosaurus1 in a highly interesting memoir 7,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 sec4 ser4 vol4 i471 illustrated by figures of the teeth in a portion of the lower jaw1 the sacrum1 femur1 and other bones4 ,the remains of this reptile are also frequently discovered in the ,wealden 7see ,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 p4 #fg1 pl4 ix4 figs4 #b1 #f74 ,the most important relic of this great carnivorous terrestrial lizard is a portion of the right ramus of the lower jaw1 containing one perfect tooth1 and the germs of several teeth 7,lign4 #bah74 ,the tooth of the ,megalosaurus1 7,lign4 #bai1 and ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #g17 has a conical1 laterally compressed crown1 with the point recurved like a sabre1 and the edges trenchant and finely serrated4 ,the implantation of the teeth is very peculiar1 and exhibits the dentition of the ,crocodilians blended with that of the ,lacertians4 ,the jaw has an outer parapet1 as in the true lizards 7see ,lign4 #bje71 but the teeth are fixed in distinct sockets1 formed by transverse partitions1 that are attached to a mesial 7inner7 parapet1 composed of a series of triangular osseous plates2 the bases of the old teeth1 and the germs of the new ones1 being thus enclosed and concealed4 ,the tooth is formed of a central body of dentine1 the crown having a coating enamel2 and the whole an external investment of cement1 which forms a thicker layer around the fang2 the pulp-cavity is occupied by coarse bone1 in the adult tooth4 ,the microscopical examination shows the dentine to consist of very fine calcigerous tubes1 #a_/bhjjjth of an inch in diameter1 without any admixture of medullary canals1 radiating from the pulp-cavity at right angles with the external surface of the tooth1 and sending2 off numerous secondary branches2 these ultimately dilate into1 or inosculate with1 a stratum of calcigerous cells that separates the dentine from the enamel4#fcj ,a thin slice of a vertical section1 viewed by transmitted light1 is represented ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #g b2 showing the calcigerous tubes radiating from the centre1 and terminating in the stratum of cells2 this cellular structure is invested with a layer of enamel1 and the latter with an external coat of cement1 indicated by the dark outline4#fca #fcj ,owen's ,odontography1 p4 #bga1 which should be consulted for more minute details4 #fca ,to fully comprehend the minute structure of these and the other teeth figured in ,pl4 ,,vi4 ,professor ,owen's plates should be examined2 the small scale necessarily adopted in the present work rendering it impossible to do justice to the subject4 ,four specimens of the sacrum1 composed of five anchylosed vertebral 7,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 xix4 fig4 #ab71 have been discovered2 one of these is from ,tilgate ,forest4 ,the femur of the ,megalosaurus has two large rounded trochanters of nearly equal size1 below the head of the bone2 its shaft is sub-cylindrical1 and slightly bowed4 ,this colossal carnivorous ,saurian1 whose length is estimated at thirty feet1 appears to have been terrestrial1 and an inhabitant of the same terra incognita as the ,iguanodon2 it probably preyed on the smaller reptiles1 and the young of the ,iguanodon1 ,crocodilians1 c4 ,hylosaurus 7,wealden lizard7 ,owenii4 ,wond4 pl4 iv4 and p4 #dce2 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 pl4 v4--,in the summer of #ahcb1 ,i obtained the interesting specimen which first demonstrated the existence of the remains of another extraordinary modification of ,saurian organization in the ,wealden4 ,the circumstances which led to this discovery afford an instructive lesson to the young collector4 ,upon visiting a quarry in ,tilgate ,forest1 which had yielded many organic remains1 ,i perceived in some fragments of a large mass of stone1 which had recently been broken up and thrown on the road-side1 traces of numerous pieces of bone4 ,i therefore collected all the recognisable portions of the block1 and had them conveyed to my residence4 ,the first step was to cement together those pieces that would admit of juxtaposition1 and these were at length united into a block of stone five feet long1 three wide1 and about one foot thick4 ,this was firmly fixed in a stout frame1 to prevent the separation of the united portions during the process of chiselling4 ,guided by the indications which the sections visible on the edge afforded1 a thin iron wedge was carefully driven in1 about half an inch above the uppermost layer of bones1 and a large slab was flaked off2 the three dermal spines 7,wond4 pl4 iv4 #e7 in the middle of the specimen were thus exposed1 and shivered to pieces2 some fragments adhered to the mass broken off1 others to the block1 and many were detached2 every piece1 however small1 was collected1 and those adhering to the slab were chiselled out2 and the whole were then carefully replaced and cemented to the bones that remained imbedded in the large block4 ,after an interval of some days1 to allow of the firm cohesion of the cemented parts1 the task was resumed1 and the stone chiselled away1 until some portion of the large bones of the pectoral arch 7,wond4 pl4 iv4 #g7 were observed4 ,the specimen was at length brought to the state in which it now appears 7in the ,british ,museum#fcb72 but during the progress of its development1 which occupied many weeks1 it was repeatedly necessary to suspend the work1 and unite displaced fragments of bone1 and resume the task after their consolidation4 ,the plate in the ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 conveys a good idea of the original4 #fcb ,see ,fossils1 ,brit4 ,mus4 p4 #aci1 c4 ,the specimen consists of a part of the spinal column1 composed of seven dorsal and three or four cervical vertebr1 almost in their natural juxtaposition1 with obscure indications of a part of the base of the skull2 eleven ribs2 the bones of the pectoral arch 7two coracoids and two scapul72 with numerous dermal bones and spines4 ,a second specimen of this reptile was found near ,bolney1 in ,sussex2 and like the former1 it was1 unfortunately1 almost wholly destroyed by the labourers2 but ,i obtained many bones1 some of which are perfect1 and indicate an animal of considerable magnitude3 a scapula1 nineteen inches long1 an arm-bone or humerus1 numerous ribs1 bones of the phalanges1 c4 ,a fine series of twenty-six caudal vertebra1 having a total length of nearly six feet1 with chevron bones and dermal spines1 was discovered in #ahcg1 in ,tilgate ,forest4#fcc ,a few detached bones are the only other relics of this reptile that have come under my observation4#fcd ,the osteological characters presented by these remains afford another example of tire blending of the ,crocodilian with the ,lacertian type of structure2 for we have in the pectoral arch the scapula or omoplate of a crocodile associated with the coracoid of a lizard4 ,another remarkable feature in these fossils is the presence of the large angular bones or spines 7described p4 #ffj1 figured ,lign4 #bjh71 which1 there is reason to infer1 constituted a serrated crest along the middle of the back3 and the numerous small oval dermal bones1 which appear to have been arranged in longitudinal series along each side of the dorsal fringe4 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #cbc47 #fcc ,see ,fossils1 ,brit4 ,mus4 p4 #cbc4 #fcd ,see ,memoir on the ,remains of the ,iguanodon1 ,hylosaurus1 and other ,saurian ,reptiles1 by the ,author1 in ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahda1 ,part ,,ii4 ,the vertebr1 ribs1 and other parts of the skeleton found in these specimens also present modifications of structure of great interest4#fce ,no specimens of teeth have been found associated with the remains of the ,hylosaurus1 in such manner as to afford unequivocal proof of their belonging to that animal4 ,but in the same quarries1 teeth1 decidedly of the ,lacertian structure1 are occasionally found1 and may with some probability be referred to that reptile4 ,these teeth 7see ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #f;a47 are about #a-a_/d inch in length1 and commence at the base with a cylindrical shank1 which gradually enlarges into a crown of an obtuse lanceolate form1 convex in front1 hollowed behind1 and terminating in a rounded obtusely angular apex1 the margins of which are generally more or less worn4#fcf ,the crown is solid1 but the fang encloses a small pulp-cavity2 the surface is enamelled1 and covered with very fine longitudinal stri2 the base in every specimen appears broken transversely1 as if it had been anchylosed to the jaw1 or to the base of a socket4 ,the fang never presents an appearance of lateral adhesion1 as if belonging to a ,pleurodont lizard4 ,sections of these teeth expose a simple1 central1 medullary canal1 the upper part of which is generally filled with the ossified remains of the pulp2 and this is surrounded by a body of firm dentine1 with extremely minute calcigerous tubes radiating from the centre to the periphery of the tooth1 which is invested with a relatively thick coat of enamel1 in which no structure is apparent4 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #f;b represents a small portion of a vertical slice1 highly magnified and viewed by transmitted light4 ,the reference of these dental organs to the ,hylosaurus must not1 however1 be considered as conclusive1 until confirmed by the discovery of the teeth attached to the jaw1 in connexion with other parts of the skeleton4 ,the locomotive organs of the ,hylosaurus are but imperfectly known2 a perfect humerus1 one phalangeal bone1 and fragments of the fibula 7the small bone of the leg7 are the only bones hitherto observed4 ,the length of this reptile1 which was probably terrestrial and herbivorous1 may be estimated at from twenty to thirty feet4 #fce ,see ,report1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 pp4 #aaa-abj4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahda1 pp4 #ada-add1 pl4 x4 #fcf ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #aah4 ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 ,england1 pl4 ii4 figs4 #b1 #d4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahda1 p4 #add1 pl4 vi4 figs4 #i1 #aj1 #aa4 ,iguanodon4 ,ligns4 #bai to #bbf2 ,wond4 pl4 ii4 iii41 and pp4 #dbb1 c4--,soon after my first discovery of the remains of vertebrated animals in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest1 some teeth of a very remarkable character particularly engaged my attention1 from their dissimilarity to any that had previously come under my notice4#fcg ,attention having been directed to these interesting fossils1 examples were soon discovered of teeth in various conditions1 from the sharp1 unused tooth of the young reptile1 to the obtuse1 worn-out crown of the adult4 ,from the resemblance of the perfect teeth to those of the ,iguana 7,lign4 #bje1 p4 #fdi71 a land lizard of the ,west ,indies1 ,i proposed the name of ,iguanodon 7signifying an animal with teeth like those of the ,iguana7 for the extinct reptile to which they belonged4 ,the numerous bones and teeth subsequently exhumed from the strata of ,tilgate ,forest and other localities in the ,wealden of ,sussex and of the ,isle of ,wight1 and the considerable portion of the skeleton of an individual discovered by ,mr4 ,bensted in the ,kentish ,rag1 have supplied the data upon which our present knowledge of the characters of the original is based4 #fcg ,these are described in ,foss4 ,south ,d4 #ahbb1 p4 #ed1 under the head ,teeth and bones of unknown animals4 ,this was the earliest published notice of the fossils of the ,wealden2 it contains also a description of a tooth of the ,megalosaurus 7p4 #ee1 ,no4 #db74 ,in ,wond1 pp4 #dbb-dce1 a brief account will be found of the character of the teeth1 horn1 femur1 vertebr1 c41 and of the ,maidstone specimen#fch 7,pl4 ,,iii474 #fch ,in a ,monograph on the ,reptiles of the ,cretaceous ,deposits of ,england1 published by the ,palontographical ,society1 ,professor ,owen has lately figured anew and described in detail this most valuable fossil skeleton2 to which description are appended the ,professor's latest views on the structure of the teeth of this reptile4 ,the ,geology of the ,south-east of ,england contains accurate figures of the long bones of the leg 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 pl4 ii71 femur1 clavicles 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 pl4 iv471 tympanic bone 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 pl4 ii471 horn and ungual bone 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 pl4 iii474 ,in the ,fossils of ,tilgate ,forest1 there are fifteen quarto plates devoted to the illustration of the bones and teeth of the ,iguanodon and other ,wealden reptiles4 ,the osteological structure is fully detailed in ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 pp4 #abj-add4 ,a general notice of the principal bones of the ,iguanodon1 with plates1 will be found in ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahda1 pp4 #aca-aea2 and in ,petrif4 chap4 iii4 the author has given a detailed account of the most important specimens1 both in the ,british ,museum and in his own collection1 together with a rsum of the palontology and geology of the ,wealden district4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbj4 ,iguanodon ,mantelli4 #a_/g nat4 size4 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,the right ramus of the ,dower ,jaw2 #fci discovered in #ahdh1 by ,captain ,lambart ,brickenden1 ,f4,g4,s4 ,fig4 #a4--,the inner aspect1 showing three teeth1 and the sockets of eighteen4 a4 ,germ of a tooth4 b4 ,perfect crown of a successional tooth4 c4 ,remains of a successional tooth1 the upper part having been broken off4 d4 ,the symphysial extremity of the jaw4 e4 ,the opercular furrow4 f4 ,the coronoid process4 #b1 #c1 and #d1 the teeth a1 b1 and c1 in fig4 #a1 represented on a larger scale4 #fci ,for the outer aspect1 and a restoration of the whole jaw1 ,petrif4 pp4 #bdg and #bdi4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bba4 ,lower ,tooth of the ,iguanodon3 nat4 size4 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,the apex slightly worn4 ,fig4 #a4--;,inner aspect1 showing the longitudinal ridges1 and denticulated margins of the crown of the tooth4 #b4--,view of the outer surface of the tooth4 a4 ,the denticulated margin4 b4 ,the apex of the crown1 worn by use2 b4 fig4 #b1 shows the oblique smooth surface produced by mastication4 c4 ,a transverse fracture of the fang1 showing a section of the medullary cavity occupied by the ossified remains of the pulp4 d4 ,marks the inferior limit of the denticulated margin2 if a line were carried horizontally from d1 across the tooth1 the under figure would represent a tooth worn flown below the denticulations1 and deprived of its peculiar dental characters2 in this latter state the tooth somewhat resembles an incisor of a ,rhinoceros 7see ,ligns4 #bbb1 #bbc2 and ,petrif4 ,lign4 #dh74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbb4 ,upper ,tooth of the ,iguanodon3 nat4 size4 ,wealden4 ,brook ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,the crown is worn down to an oblique smooth surface1 and the fang is absorbed4 ,jaw and ,teeth of the ,iguanodon4 ,ligns4 #bai-bbc4--;,although the form and structure of the cranium are unknown1 yet the half of a lower jaw1 discovered in ,sussex by ,capt4 ,l4 ,brickenden1#fdj and a fragment of an upper jaw1 found some years since1#fda enable us to form a tolerably perfect idea of the structure and functions of the dental organs of the ,iguanodon4 ,the unused tooth of this reptile is characterized by the prismatic form of the crown1 the presence of from two to four longitudinal ridges on its enamelled face1 the denticulated margins 7,lign4 #bba1 a71 and finely serrated edge of the summit1 as seen in ,lign4 #bbj1 fig4 #c4 ,the shank or fang of the tooth 7,ligns4 #bba1 #bbc1 fig4 #b7 is sub-cylindrical1 slightly curved1 and tapers to a point4 ,the inner surface of the crown in the lower teeth1 and the outer surface in the upper1 are covered with a thick layer of enamel1 but the opposite face of the crown and the sides have but a thin coating of this substance4 ,the teeth of the upper jaw 7,lign4 #bbb7 are curved in the opposite direction to those of the lower1 and have the convexity external1 and the concavity internal4 ,thus the upper and lower molars were related to each other nearly as in the ,ruminants2 the outer aspect below corresponding to the inner above 7see ,petrif4 ,lign4 #ef1 p4 #bed74 ,the specimens met with have almost always the apex of the crown more or less worn down by use#fdb 7see ,lign4 #bbc71 and presenting an oblique1 triangular1 smooth surface1 as in the fine large specimen figured in ,lign4 #bba1 which was found imbedded in the trunk of a ,clathraria1 as if it had snapped off while the animal was in the act of gnawing the tough stem4 ,the denticulated margins are well developed2 in fig4 #a1 they appear as simple serrations2 but viewed laterally1 they are seen to be formed by a series of denticulated plates 7,lign4 #bbc1 fig4 #f74 ,the crown of a tooth of a young animal1 worn at the summit1 and presenting but three longitudinal ridges1 is represented ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #d;a4 ,the microscropical structure consists of a simple pulp-cavity in the centre of a body of dentine permeated by calcigerous tubes1 but with this peculiar modification1 that the dentine is traversed by vascular canals1 radiating at definite intervals from the pulp-cavity nearly to the periphery of the tooth1 and running parallel with the calcigerous tubes2 thus constituting a softer and coarser dentine than in the other reptiles1 and resembling that which characterizes the teeth of some of the herbivorous mammals4#fdc ,the crown of the tooth is covered with a layer of enamel1 which is thickest on the external surface3 and the fang is invested with cement4 ,the structure here described is shown in ,pl4 ,,vi42 fig4 #d;b1 a vertical1 and fig4 #d;c1 a transverse section of a tooth1 seen by transmitted light1 with a high magnifying power4 ,the calcigerous tubes are #a_/bejjj an inch in diameter4 ,sections of the teeth of the ,iguanodon are beautiful objects under the microscope1 for the medullary canals are generally of a deep yellowish brown colour4 #fdj ,figured and described in the ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdh1 p4 #ahh1 pl4 xvi4 xvii4 #fda ,both specimens are fully described in ,petrif4 pp4 #bdb1 et seq4 #fdb ,plates iv4 and xvii4 in the ,fossils of ,tilgate ,forest1 contain representations of upwards of thirty specimens of teeth in various states of development and detrition4 #fdc ,tomes on the ,microscopic ,structure of the ,tooth of the ,iguanodon1 ,petrif4 pp4 #bci1 #bdj4 ,see also ,owen's ,odontography1 p4 #bdi1 and pl4 lxxi42 and ,cycl4 ,anat4 ,art4 ,teeth4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbc4 ,teeth of ,iguanodon4 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,fig4 #a4--,outer aspect of an upper tooth 7in a reversed position71 worn flat1 and with the fang absorbed2 fig4 #c1 inner aspect of the same tooth4 a1 a4 ,flat grinding surface1 produced by mastication when all the thickly enamelled portion of the crown is worn away4 c4 ,cavity produced by the pressure of a new tooth4 #b4--,lower tooth of a young animal1 slightly worn3 inner aspect4 #d4--,outer ,surface of a lower tooth of an adult2 and fig4 #e1 inner surface of the same4 a1 a4 ,the hard cutting edge of the oblique surface worn by mastication4 c4 ,indentation produced by the pressure of a successional tooth4 #f4--;,edge view of the serration on fig4 #e2 magnified4 ,the dentine is less vascular1 and therefore hardest1 on that side of the crown which has the thicker coat of enamel2 hence the tooth wears away faster on one side than on the other1 and an oblique grinding surface1 with a sharp edge of enamel1 is maintained until the crown is worn away4 ,the internal structure of the teeth of the ,iguanodon is thus in perfect accordance with their external configuration1 and must have been admirably adapted1 in every stage1 for the laceration and comminution of the tough vegetable substances which1 there is every reason to conclude1 constituted the food of this colossal oviparous quadruped4 ,vertebra of the ,iguanodon1#fdd ,lign4 #bjf1 p4 #fec2 ,lign4 #bbd4--,the remains of the vertebral column of the ,iguanodon1 consisting generally of broken and water-worn dorsal and caudal vertebr1 deprived of their processes and reduced to the state of the specimens represented ,lign4 #bjf1 figs4 #f and #h1 are so abundant in some of the ,wealden strata1 that a short account of their characters may be useful4 ,a reference to ,lign4 #bjf1 and its description1 will render the following remarks intelligible to the general reader4 ,the vertebr of the ,iguanodon are distinguishable from those of other reptiles which occur in the same strata by the following peculiarities1 which the figure of a perfect specimen of a caudal vertebra 7,lign4 #bjf1 fig #c7 will serve to illustrate4 ,the body1 or centrum1 is either flat or somewhat depressed on both articular faces2 its sides are nearly flat1 or somewhat convex1 vertically 7as in fig #c71 and slightly concave lengthwise1 or from front to back3 in some examples1 the body is more contracted towards the inferior surface1 as in fig4 #f2 and in the vertebr1 near the middle of the tail1 the sides are compressed1 so as to give an angular contour and somewhat vertical elongation to the face1 as in fig4 #d2 but in the dorsal vertebr1 the articular faces are nearly circular1 but somewhat higher than wide4 ,in the caudal vertebr1 the inferior angles of the body are truncated 7w1 figs4 #c1 #d71 and present an oblique1 smooth face1 to articulate with the chevron bone 7fig4 #c1 f74 ,the annular part is united to the body by suture 7fig4 #c1 o71 and anchylosed in the dorsal vertebr2 and in these bones the neural arch is very high1 and greatly expanded1 and its bases extend transversely inwards1 and join each other below the spinal canal1 forming a ring1 or bony channel1 to contain the spinal chord4#fde ,the transverse processes are straight1 and very long in the vertebr from the middle of the trunk1 indicating a considerable expanse of the abdominal cavity1 adapted for the lodgment of the capacious viscera of a herbivorous quadruped4 7,owen47 ,the spinous processes 7,lign4 #bjf1 fig4 #c1 d7 are large and of great height in the anterior caudal vertebr1 ,lign4 #bbd2 and here the chevrons1 or hmapophyses 7,lign4 #bbd1 b1 and ,lign4 #bjf1 fig4 #b1 and fig4 #c1 f71 are also of considerable length2 the bases of the latter are always united 7,lign4 #bjf1 fig4 #b1 g71 and often blended1 so as to form but one face for articulation with the truncated inferior angles of the body of the vertebra31 leaving a vertically elongated channel for the passage of the large blood-vessels of the tail4 ,the external surface of the vertebr of the ,iguanodon is more or less marked with fine longitudinal stri2 those of the ,megalosaurus have a smoother and more polished surface4#fdf #fdd ,a detailed account of the elements of the spinal column of the ,iguanodon1 and remarks on various fossil vertebr1 the relations of which with the ,iguanodon have been considered doubtful1 will be found in ,petrif4 pp4 #bef-bgi4 #fde ,see also lithographs of dorsal and caudal vertebr from the ,kentish ,rag2 ,owen's ,monog4 ,cret4 ,rept4 7,pal4 ,soc47 #ahea4 #fdf ,see ,rep4 ,brit ,assoc4 #ahda1 pp4 #abe-acc1 where an elaborate investigation of the vertebra3 of the ,iguanodon is given by ,professor ,owen4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbd4 ,six ,caudal ,vertebra of the ,iguanodon4 #a_/ad nat4 size4 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 a1 a4 ,spinous processes 7neurapophyses71 from #ac to #ae-a_/b inches in height4 b1 b4 ,three displaced chevron bones 7hmapophyses71 imbedded in the stone near their original position at the junction of the bodies of the vertebr4 c4 ,anterior articular face of a vertebra4 ,bones of the ,extremities4 ,ligns4 #bbe and #bbf4--,the thigh-bone 7femur71 both bones of the leg 7tibia and fibula71 and many of the metatarsal and phalangeal bones have been discovered2 the osteology of the hinder extremity is1 therefore1 almost perfect4 ,the thigh-bone 7,lign4 #bbe2 and ,petrif4 p4 #bib17 is of a very remarkable character1 having a closer resemblance to the femur of a huge mammalian1 than to that of a reptile4#fdg ,several perfect specimens have been discovered1 as well as the associated bones of the leg 7,petrif4 p4 #bic1 ,lign4 #fb72 but the first fragment that came under my notice1 was the middle portion of the shaft of a femur of enormous size1 and of an irregular quadrangular form2 and so shapeless and unintelligible it then appeared1 that several years elapsed before its real nature was determined4 7,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for4 pl4 xviii47 #fdg ,see ,cuvier's ,ossem4 ,foss4 vol4 ii4 p4 #cf4 ,an entire thigh-bone of an adult ,iguanodon1 from the ,weald clay in the west of ,sussex1 measured three feet eight inches in length4#fdh end thirty-five inches in circumference at the condyles2 and ,i have a femur of a very young animal1 that is but five inches long4 ,the form of the thigh-bone is so peculiar1 that fragments may easily be recognised4 ,the head of the femur 7,lign4 #bbe1 f17 is hemispherical1 and projects inwards2 there is no appearance of a ligamentum teres2 a flattened process or trochanter 7,lign4 #bbe1 a17 forms the external boundary of the neck of the bone1 from which it is separated by a deep and narrow vertical fissure2 the shaft is of a sub-quadrangular shape1 and a slightly elevated ridge1 produced by the union of two broad1 flat1 longitudinal surfaces1 extends down the middle of the anterior face1 and1 diverging towards the inner condyle1 gradually disappears4 ,the bone terminates below in two large condyles1 separated in front and behind by a deep1 narrow cleft1 or groove 7,lign4 #bbe1 e74 ,near the middle of the inner edge of the shaft1 there is a compressed ridge1 with an angular projection1 or trochanter4 ,thus the upper part of the femur maybe known by the presence of the flattened1 or laterally compressed trochanter2 and if that process be wanting1 a fractured surface indicating its position may be detected2 the middle of the shaft is characterized by its broad angular faces1 and the inner submedian trochanter3 the condyloid or inferior extremity of the bone may be distinguished by the deep groove between the condyles1 both in front and behind4 #fdh ,the average length of the adult femur is estimated at about four feet five inches4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbe4 ,left ,femur of the ,iguanodon4 #a_/aj nat4 size4 ,anterior aspect4 ,wealden4 ,brook ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight4 a4 ,outer trochanter4 b4 ,median trochanter4 c4 ,inner condyle4 d4 ,outer condyle4 e4 ,anterior infra-condyloid fissure4 f4 ,head of the femur4 ,the arm-bone 7humerus7 of the ,iguanodon has been discovered in the ,wealden of the ,isle of ,wight by ,mr4 ,fowlstone2 it is figured and described in ,petrif4 p4 #bhf4 ,the humerus is also present in the ,maidstone specimen#fdi of ,iguanodon1 before referred to at page #fib3 in pl4 ii4 of ,wond4 this bone is termed the radius4 ,the humerus of this reptile is much smaller than the femur2 in the ,maidstone specimen the former is about #bj inches1 and the latter about #cc inches in length4 #fdi ,the two bones marked #f in pl4 ii4 ,wond4 and in ,lign4 #fe1 ,petrif4 7one of which is figured in outline in ,lign4 #bbf1 fig4 #d17 regarded by ,prof4 ,owen as the radius and ulna 7the two bones of the fore-arm73 the author's reasons for regarding these bones as metacarpals are given in full at p4 #bhi1 ,petrif4 ,as separate bones of the feet of the ,iguanodon1 for example1 metacarpals1 metatarsals1 phalangeals1 and unguals1 often occur in the strata of the ,wealden1 figures of several specimens1 on a reduced scale1 are introduced in ,lign4 #bbf1 and may enable the student to identify those he may meet with in his researches4#fej ,the ungual phalanges1 or claw-bones1 which were invested with the nail1 are sometimes found of an enormous size2 from a quarry near ,horsham1 ,mr4 ,holmes obtained specimens more than five inches long1 and three inches wide at the articular extremity4 #fej ,see ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 pp4 #acg-adb4 ,length of the ,iguanodon4--,the length of the united head and trunk1 according to my estimate in ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #caf1 is seventeen feet and a half2 by ,professor ,owen's estimate it is reduced to fifteen feet2#fea a difference of no importance in such merely approximative calculations1 particularly when the form of the cranium is unknown4#feb #fea ,ibid4 p4 #add4 #feb ,the more recently discovered specimen of lower-jaw1 already referred to1 page #fic1 indicates a length of between three and four feet for the entire jaw1 ,petrif4 p4 #bdi4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbf4 ,bones of the ,feet and ,claws of the ,iguanodon4 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 7,see ,wond4 pl4 in47 ,fig4 #a4--,metatarsal3 original #f inches long3 upper surface4 #b4--,metacarpal bone4 #c4--,under surface of fig4 #a4 #d4--;,a phalangeal bone of the fore-foot3 the original #ad inches long4 #d;a4--,a transverse section of the same1 showing the medullary cavity4 #e4--,one of the second row of phalangeal bones of the fore-foot4 #f4--,view from above of one of the claw-bones of the hind-foot2 #a_/f nat4 #g4--,profile of claw-bone of fore-foot3#fec #a_/f nat4 #h4--,metatarsal1 or bone of the hind-foot3 #a_/h nat4 a4 ,denotes the proximal articulation1 or that nearest the trunk4 b4 ,the distal1 or extremity most distant from the trunk4 #fec ,this bone is conjecturally referred by ,prof4 ,owen to the ,megalosaurus4 ,the estimated extent of the tail has been subject to variation4 ,my early estimate of its length gave rise to the idea of this reptile having attained seventy feet in length4 ,professor ,owen1 however1 considered that the abbreviated character of the anterior caudal vertebr indicated a far less extent of tail1 which the ,professor estimated at thirteen feet2 this opinion1 from the evidence then before us1 seemed well founded1 but from evidence since afforded by a series of eleven caudal vertebra1 belonging to the middle region of the tail1 that have been lately discovered1 7,petrif4 p4 #cab17 it is not at all improbable1 that1 instead of all the caudal vertebr being abbreviated1 these elements of the tail were elongated as in the corresponding part of the skeleton of the ,iguana1 and that the largest ,iguanodons may have attained a length of from sixty to seventy feet4 ,the author's physiological inferences as to the structure and economy of the ,iguanodon1 deduced from the study of the osseous remains of this singular creature1 especially the lately discovered remains of the jaw-bones1 are given in full at pp4 #cjg-cac ,petrif4 or ,foss4 ,brit4 ,mus43 and at pp4 #cce-cch1 ibid4 may be found some general remarks on the physical geography and the nature of the fauna and flora of the country inhabited by these stupendous reptiles1 whose remains are so characteristic of the ,wealden rocks4 ,jaw of the ,regnosaurus4 7,petrif4 p4 #ccc47--;,a portion of the right ramus1 or side1 of the lower jaw of this reptile was discovered in a block of sandstone from ,tilgate ,forest4 ,it consists of a fragment1 six inches long1 of the dentary bones1 with a small portion of the opercular2 and it contains the fangs of fifteen teeth1 which are closely and evenly set in a regular series1 and imbedded laterally in grooves1 or sockets1 in the dentary bone2 there are three or four sockets of successional teeth on the inner side of the bases of the old teeth4 7,phil4 ,trans4 #ahda1 pl4 v4 figs4 #a1 #b47 ,unfortunately1 all the crowns of the teeth are wanting4 ,the outer parapet of the dentary piece is entire1 and its upper margin is finely crenated4 ,all the fangs of the teeth are exposed1 but there are traces of a thin inner wall1 indicating the probability that1 as in the ,megalosaurus1 the teeth were supported medially by an osseous plate1 and were implanted in distinct sockets4#fed ,in my memoir on this fossil jaw in the ,phil4 ,trans4 7#ahda1 p4 #aca71 ,i referred it to the genus ,iguanodon2 but subsequent observations have led me to conclude that it is generically distinct2 and in my ,memoir on the ,jaw of the ,iguanodon1 in ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahdh 7p4 #ahc71 ,i have proposed for the animal to which it belonged the distinct generic appellation1 ,regnosaurus1 with the specific name ,northamptoni4 #fed ,the collector will perceive the importance that attaches to the discovery of even a fragment of the jaw of an unknown reptile1 containing teeth in their natural position4 ,sidenote3 ,,lacertian ,,reptiles4 ,,iv4 ,lacertian ,reptiles4--,the recent ,lacertians1 or true ,lizards1 are smaller and less highly organized reptiles than the ,saurians of the ,crocodilian order2 and their dermal covering consists of a finer and more delicate squamous integument4 ,they are also characterized by important modification in their osteological structure4 ,the spinal column is almost always composed of concavo-convex vertebr1 with the convexity behind2 the ribs are slender and rounded1 having a single convex tubercle of attachment4 ,the fossil species are1 for the most part1 of gigantic dimensions1 and deviate in a striking manner from any that now exist4 ,vertebr of the recent lacertian type are very rare in the secondary strata2 ,i believe a few in my cabinet1 obtained from the sandstone of ,tilgate ,forest1 and which belonged to a very small unknown reptile1 are the most ancient examples at present known4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbg4 ,mosasaurus ,hoffmanni4 7,the original is feet by #b-a_/b feet47 ,remains of the jaws of the great fossil reptile of ,maestricht4 ,mosasaurus4 ,bd4 pl4 xx42 ,wond4 p4 #caa2 ,petrif4 p4 #aic4--,of the fossil lizard of ,maestricht1 named ,mosasaurus 7lizard of the ,meuse7 from the river adjacent to the quarries of ,st4 ,peter's ,mountain1 in which its remains have been discovered1 ,i have given a detailed account at pages #aic-aif of ,petrif4 ,a specimen1 with the jaws1 and bones of the palate armed with teeth1 now in the museum at ,paris1 has long been celebrated1 and is still the most precious relic of this extinct reptile hitherto discovered2 a reduced representation is given in ,lign4 #bbg2 and ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 lxx4 ,this is the ,mosasaurus ,hoffmanni4#fee ,the specimen is four and a half feet long1 and two and a half feet wide2 it consists of both sides of the lower jaw1 with the right ramus of the upper jaw in its natural position1 and the left1 which is displaced1 lying across the articular extremity of the left branch of the lower jaw3 of the pterygoid bones1 which are armed with teeth2 of the left tympanic bone 7os quadratum71 which is but little removed from its natural situation1 and connects the lower jaw with the cranium2 one of the metacarpal or metatarsal bones1 and some fragments4#fef #fee ,several fine portions of the jaws1 and many vertebr of this animal1 are in the ,british ,museum3 see ,foss4 ,brit4 ,mus4 p4 #aci4 ,in a splendid work1 ,histoire ,naturelle de la ,montagne de ,st4 ,pierre1 by the late ,faujas ,st4 ,fond 7#a vol4 folio1 with numerous plates71 there are admirable figures of the remains of the ,mosasaurus4 #fef ,in the ,british ,museum there is a cast of this specimen1 in a case near the bones of the ,iguanodon4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbh4 ,mosasauroid ,teeth4#feg #a_/b nat4 size4 ,figs4 #a;a1 #b;a4 ,transverse sections of the crowns of the teeth1 figs4 #a and #b respectively4 #feg ,reduced from figures accompanying ,dr4 ,gibbes's ,memoir ,on the ,mosasaurus and three allied new genera1 7with plates17 in the ,smithsonian ,contributions1 vol4 ii4 #ahdi4 ,this interesting paper comprises much information regarding the ,mosasaurians of the ,cretaceous deposits of ,n4 ,america2 but we cannot fully coincide with the author in his palontological determinations4 ,the teeth are large1 and supported on expanded conical osseous eminences1 which are anchylosed to the alveolar ridge of the jaw 7acrodont74 ,the crown of the tooth is conical and recurved1 with the outer face nearly flat1 and this space is bordered on each side by a longitudinal ridge2 giving the tooth somewhat of a pyramidal figure4 7,see ,ligns4 #bbh-bcj47 ,professor ,owen states that the crown consists of a body of simple and firm dentine1 with fine and close-set calcigerous tubes1 enclosing a simple pulp-cavity2 irregular processes of the latter extend as medullary canals into the conical base of the tooth1 but not1 as in the ,iguanodon1 into the substance of the coronal dentine2 the dentine is invested with a moderately thick coat of enamel4#feh #feh ,see ,odontography1 p4 #beh1 and pl4 lxxii42 the student should also consult ,cyclop4 ,anat4 ,phys4 ,art4 ,teeth4 ,the vertebr of the ,mosasaur1 as is usual in the existing lizards and crocodiles1 are concave in front and convex behind1 and the neural arch is united to the centrum by suture4 ,the entire vertebral column of ,m4 ,hoffmanni appears to have consisted of #aca vertebr1 of which #ig belonged to the tail4#fei ,this ,mosasaur was about twenty-five feet long4 #fei ,see ,cuvier1 ,oss4 ,foss4 vol4 v4 pp4 #cbf-ccd4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bbi4 ,tooth of ,mosasaurus3 magn4 twice4 ,either a pterygoid tooth of ,m4 ,hoffmanni1 or a jaw-tooth of ,m4 gracilis4 ,chalk4 ,gravesend4 7,in ,mr4 ,wetherell's ,collection47 ,this extinct lacertian reptile forms an intermediate link between the ,saurians without pterygoid teeth 7,monitors7 and those with them 7,iguanas74 ,its crocodilian affinities are but partial4 ,the ,mosasaurus appears to have had webbed feet1 adapted or crawling on land as well as for swimming1#ffj and a long and vertically expanded tail1 serving as a powerful oar1 and enabling the animal to stem the roughest waters4 #ffj ,see ,prof4 ,owen's observations on the bones that have been regarded as referable to the extremities of this creature1 and especially on the phalangeal and other bones of the ,mosasaur of the ,new ,jersey greensand2 ,monog4 ,cret4 ,rept4 #ahea1 pp4 #cf-dj4 ,prof4 ,goldfuss has described the remains of another and smaller species of ,mosasaurus 7,m4 ,maximiliani71 from ,upper ,missouri1 ,u4,s42 and ,prof4 ,owen1 in ,dixon's ,fossils of ,sussex1 has established a third and still smaller species 7,m4 gracilis71#ffa to which he refers the four or five mosasaurian vertebr found in the ,chalk of ,sussex4 ,two of these 7caudal7 are figured in ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #adf1 and ,petrif4 ,lign4 #dd2 and these and others are lithographed in plate viii4 of ,prof4 ,owen's ,monog4 ,cret4 ,reptilia1 #ahea4 #ffa ,see also ,monograph on the ,reptiles of the ,chalk1 #ahea1 p4 #ca1 and plate ix4 ,the remains of ,mosasaurus occur also in the cretaceous sands of ,new ,jersey1 ,u4 ,s4 7,see ,dr4 ,morton's ,synopsis of the ,organic ,remains of the ,united ,states1 #ahcd2 and the ,quart4 ,journ4 of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 v4 #ahdi47 ,leiodon anceps4#ffb--,under this name ,professor ,owen has described a splendid fossil1 consisting of a portion of the lower jaw of an acrodont reptile1 with teeth1 obtained by ,edward ,charlesworth1 ,esq4 from the ,chalk north of the ,thames4 ,this specimen was submitted to my inspection1 many years since1 by ,mr4 ,charlesworth1 and ,i then pointed out the analogy of this acrodont jaw to that of the ,mosasaurus4 #ffb ,ibid4 p4 #db1 pl4 ix4 ,a4 ,prof4 ,owen in #ahdj 7,odontog4 p4 #bfa71 and in #ahda 7,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 p4 #add71 described and figured some teeth from the same specimen1 which were lent by ,mr4 ,charlesworth4 ,these teeth the ,hunterian ,professor regarded as characteristic of a new genus of ,mosasauroid reptile1 to which he gave the name ,leiodon 7in allusion to the smoothness of the teeth74 ,in #ahde 7,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 p4 #fj7 ,mr4 ,charlesworth noticed1 and in #ahdf 7,london ,geol4 ,journal1 p4 #bc1 plates iv4 and vi47 figured and described1 the above mentioned portion of jaw with teeth1 under the name ,mosasaurus stenodon2 and in #ahea ,prof4 ,owen figured and described this specimen under the name of ,leiodon anceps1 which was originally proposed for the animal1 as known from its teeth1 in #ahdj4 ,the portion of bone on which the teeth1 five in number are implanted is seven inches in length1 and is1 in ,professor ,owen s opinion1 the dentary piece of the lower jaw1 and not a portion of a pterygoid bone4 ,mr4 ,charlesworth has had a section made of four of the teeth1 and finds that the pulp-cavities are more or less occupied with solid cones of silex1 which must have permeated the osseous parietes of the teeth4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bcj4 ,mosasauroid ,tooth4 ,resembling the back-teeth in the lower jaw of ,mosasaurus ,hoffmanni4 ,chalk4 ,gravesend4 7,in the ,collection of ,mr4 ,wetherell47 ,the teeth of ,leiodon have a simple pulp-cavity1 surrounded by fine dentine1 with an external layer of smooth enamel4 ,the apex of the crown is sharp-pointed2 the body of the crown is slightly recurved2 its base is expanded into a thick circular fang1 which is anchylosed to a short conical process of the alveolar border of the jaw3 the teeth differ from those of the ,mosasaurus in having the outer side as convex as the inner side1 the transverse section being an ellipse with pointed ends1 which latter correspond with the lateral trenchant edges of the crown of the tooth3 the teeth are more closely set than in the ,mosasaur and ,geosaur4 7,owen47 ,geosaurus ,smmeringii4 ,petrif4 p4 #age4--;,in the ,british ,museum are the remains of a reptile from the white ,jura 7upper oolite7 of ,monheim1 in ,franconia1 which ,cuvier describes as being more nearly related to the ,lizards than ,crocodiles4 ,the length of this reptile is estimated at about ten feet4 ,the eyes had a circle of osseous plates in the sclerotica1 like those of the ,ichthyosaurus2 the teeth resemble those of the ,mosasaurus in being sub-compressed and recurved1 but they are at once distinguished by their anterior and posterior finely serrated sharp edges2 the crown is invested with an external coat of enamel4#ffc #ffc ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 p4 #cdc4 ,raphiosaurus subulidens4--,a portion of a lower jaw1 containing twenty-two closely set1 subulate teeth1 anchylosed by their bases to a shallow alveolar groove and an outer alveolar parapet of bone1 as in the ,iguana1 thus corresponding with the pleurodont ,lizards1 is described under this name by ,professor ,owen1 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 pl4 xxxix472 and ,monog4 ,cret4 ,rept4 7,pal4 ,soc47 #ahea1 p4 #ai1 pl4 x4 figs4 #e1 #f4 ,it is from the ,lower ,chalk1 near ,cambridge1 and is in the collection of ,james ,carter1 ,esq4 of that place4 ,remains of ,raphiosaurus have been found also in the ,chalk at ,northfleet1 ,kent4 ,dolichosaurus longicollis4--,in the ,chalk of ,kent was found1 some years since1 a considerable portion of the skeleton of a lacertian reptile1 consisting of the posterior half of the spinal column1 with remains of the pelvic and thigh bones2 it was figured in the ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 pl4 xxxix42 and is now in the collection of ,sir ,p4 ,g4 ,egerton4 ,from the researches of the late ,mr4 ,dixon1 it appears that a mutilated reptilian head and anterior portion of a spinal column1 with fore-arm and scapular bones1 now in the collection of ,mr4 ,smith1 of ,tunbridge ,wells1 belong to the same skeleton as the vertebral remains above mentioned4 ,both specimens were obtained at the same time from the well-known chalk-pit at ,burham1 ,kent4 ,professor ,owen has lately described these interesting remains in detail 7,monog4 ,cret4 ,rept4 #ahea1 pp4 #bb1 c471 and finds no intrinsic contradiction to exist to the historical evidence adduced as to the probability of the two moieties having belonged to the same individual4 ,in the two specimens there exist sixty-three concavo-convex 7proclian7 vertebr1 of which fifty-seven form the series between the skull and the pelvis1 giving the trunk a length of about eighteen inches4 ,this unique reptile was elongate and snake-like in its form1 with the abdomen deep and narrow1 like that of the water-snakes3 its limbs were short2 its tail1 from the character of the few caudal vertebr remaining1 must have been relatively long and powerful4 ,this long and slender lacertian was therefore probably to a considerable degree aquatic in its habits1 swimming with an undulatory eel-like movement4 ,the ,dolichosaurus 7long-lizard7 presents somewhat of the ophidian character in the number and size of its cervical vertebr1 in the size and shape of its ribs1 and in the slender proportions of its trunk and head2 but1 with these partial exceptions1 its affinities are truly lacertian4 7,owen47 ,rhynchosaurus articeps4 ,lign4 #bca4--;,in a quarry of ,upper ,new ,red ,sandstone at ,grinsell1 near ,shrewsbury1 ,dr4 ,o4 ,ward discovered a skull 7#c-a_/b inches long71 vertebr1 ribs1 bones of the pectoral and pelvic arches1 portions of two femora with medullary cavities1 and fragments of other bones of a very remarkable lacertian reptile 7,lign4 #bca74 ,the lower jaw is preserved with the skull in its natural position4 ,the cranium in its general aspect resembles that of a turtle1 rather than of a lizard2 for the intermaxillary bones are double1 as in ,chelonians1 and symmetrical1 and are not united by a median process2 they are very long1 and curve downwards1 giving the fore part of the skull the profile of a parrot4 ,see ,lign4 #bca4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bca4 ,rhynchosaurus articeps4 ,new ,red ,sandstone2 near ,shrewsbury ,fig4 #a4--,lateral view of the cranium and lower jaw3 #a_/b nat size4 ,cranium4 a1 a4 ,intermaxillary bones4 b4 ,nasal4 c4 ,frontal4 d4 ,maxillary4 e4 ,anterior frontal4 f4 ,lachrymal4 g4 ,malar4 h4 ,posterior frontal4 i4 ,orbital division of posterior frontal4 k4 ,temporal4 l4 ,tympanic4 ,lower ,jaw4 m4 ,dentary4 n4 ,coronoid4 o4 ,articular4 p4 ,angular4 q4 ,opercular or splenial4 r4 ,the orbit4 ,fig4 #b4--,the upper aspect of a dorsal vertebra3 nat4 size4 ,there are no teeth apparent in either jaw3 the margin of the upper maxillary has feeble dentations1 but in the lower jaw even these indications are wanting1 and it is probable that this reptile had its jaws encased by a bony or horny sheath1 as in birds and turtles4#ffd 7,owen47 #ffd ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #aej4 ,see also ,camb4 ,phil4 ,trans1 vol4 vii4 p4 #ceg1 tab4 #e1 #f4 ,thecodontosaurus and ,palosaurus4 ,ly4 p4 #cjf1 figs4 #cdh1 #cdi4--,numerous bones and teeth of reptiles occur in the ,magnesian ,conglomerate1 near ,bristol1 and have been described by ,dr4 ,riley and ,mr4 ,stutchbury in an interesting memoir to which reference should be made for details 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 v4 p4 #cdi1 pl4 xxix4 xxx474 ,the bones denote an approach to the lizards2 the teeth are implanted in sockets2 these reptiles1 therefore1 belonged to the group termed thecodont1 and the name ,thecodontosaurus1 given to these extinct ,saurians by ,dr4 ,riley1 has reference to this character4 ,the teeth are pointed1 compressed laterally1 slightly convex on each side1 with a trenchant1 finely serrated edge in front and behind2 the fang is sub-cylindrical4 ,other teeth from the same deposit1 possessing the same general characters1 but distinguished by peculiarities of form1 have been referred to another genus1 named ,palosaurus4 ,the vertebr found associated with the teeth and jaws are biconcave1 and are remarkably characterized by the great depth of the spinal canal in the middle of the centrum or body of the vertebr1 so that the spinal chord must have presented a moniliform or bead-like appearance4 ,these reptiles1 in their thecodont type of dentition1 biconcave vertebr1 double-headed ribs1 and proportionate size of the bones of the extremities1 are nearly allied to the ,teleosaurus1 7see ante1 p4 #fgi72 but they combine a lacertian form of tooth1 and a lacertian structure of the pectoral1 and probably of the pelvic arches1 with these crocodilian characters2 they have also distinctive modifications3 such1 for example1 as the moniliform spinal chord4#ffe #ffe ,owen2 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #aee1 c4 ,dicynodon4 ,ligns4 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcd4--,this singular fossil reptile was discovered1 by ,mr4 ,bain1 in ,south ,africa4 ,it is distinguished1 by some remarkable peculiarities of structure1 from other animals of the ,saurian order2 of which it represents a new tribe1 or sub-order4 ,the cranium is narrow2 the nostrils are divided1 as in ,lizards1 and not confluent1 as in ,chelonia2 the skull1 in other respects1 much resembles in general appearance that of a ,turtle2 the orbits are large2 the jaws are edentulous1 as in the ,turtles1 with the exception of a pair of long tusks1#fff implanted in sockets in the upper maxillary bone1 like those of the ,walrus2 these tusks are of a finer texture than that of the ,crocodile's teeth1 and almost as dense as in the ,hyna4 ,these creatures present in the most striking manner that blending of the peculiarities of several existing orders1 which is continually presented to the palontologist2 for with a type essentially lacertian are combined crocodilian and chelonian modifications4 ,although no vestiges of these reptiles have been discovered in ,england or in ,europe1 yet the occurrence of an allied form1 the ,rhynchosaurus 7,lign4 #bca71 in our ,new ,red ,sandstone1 and the probability that the ,south ,african reptiliferous deposits may1 from their position1 belong to the ,triassic ,epoch1 induce me to give a somewhat extended notice of these extraordinary fossils3 and ,i am led to do so on another account1 namely1 because the memoir1#ffg of which the following is a brief abstract1 is so excellent an example of the manner in which such investigations should be conducted1 so as to arrive at any satisfactory conclusions as to the characters and relations of the lost types of beings1 whose fragmentary and petrified relics are the only vestiges that remain4 #fff ,hence the generic name1 ,dicynodon3 from 7twice71 and 7canine tooth74 #ffg ,prof4 ,owen's ,memoir on the ,dicynodon1 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vii4 pp4 #ei1 et seq42 and plates iii4 to vi4 ,the fossils under consideration were exhumed some years since by ,mr4 ,andrew ,geddes ,bain1 from the intensely hard argillo-calcareous nodules of the sandstone strata which range over an immense tract of country beyond the mountains north of ,capetown1#ffh ,the extensive series of these and other fossils from ,south ,africa1 collected by the indefatigable labour of ,mr4 ,bain1 have lately been deposited in the ,british ,museum2 but the specimens described and figured in ,prof4 ,owen's ,memoir1 above alluded to1 are nearly all that have as yet been successfully worked out from the exceedingly hard matrix in which the bones are imbedded4 ,these consist of crania and jaws1 referable to four species4#ffi #ffh ,for a notice of the geological structure of this region1 see ,mr4 ,bain's paper in ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vii4 pp4 #ec1 c42 and the abstract of a later ,memoir by ,mr4 ,bain1 in the ,literary ,gazette1 ,dec4 #ah1 #aheb 7,no4 #ahgd74 #ffi ,namely1 ,dicynodon lacerticeps 7lizard-head71 ,d4 testudiceps 7turtle-bead71 and ,d4 strigiceps 7owl-head71 the trivial names of which have reference to the general form of the head2 and ,d4 ,bainii1 the largest1 but unfortunately as yet the least known species1 which takes the name of the intelligent and energetic discoverer and collector of the whole4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bcb and ,lign4 #bcc4 ,dicynodon lacerticeps4 7,owen47 ,south ,africa4 7,see ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vii4 pl4 iii47 ,the letters of reference correspond in the two figures4 ,lign4 #bcb4 ,side view of the ,cranium and ,lower ,jaw3 #a_/c nat4 size4 ,lign4 #bcc4 ,upper aspect of the ,cranium3 #a_/c nat4 size4 ,cranium and ,upper ,jaw4 a1 a4 ,intermaxillary bone4 b1 b4 ,nasal4 c1 c4 ,frontal4 d1 d4 ,maxillary4 e1 e4 ,prefrontal4 f1 f4 ,lachrymal4 g1 g4 ,malar4 h1 h4 ,post-frontal4 i1 i4 ,parietal4 k1 k4 ,temporal4 l1 l4 ,tympanic4 m1 m4 ,mastoid4 n1 n4 ,nasal apertures4 o1 o4 ,orbits4 oc1 oc4 ,basi-occipital4 t1 t4 ,temporal foss4 t1 t4 ,canine teeth in the upper jaw4 ,lower ,jaw4 #a4 ,dentary bone4 #b4 ,coronoid4 #c4 ,opercular4 #d4 ,angular4 #e4 ,articular4 #f4 ,surangular4 ,the most striking character in these crania is the presence of a pair of long1 sharp-pointed1 gently curved tusks1 implanted in the superior maxillary bones1 and which descend1 one on each side of the fore-part of the lower jaw1 as seen in ,ligns4 #bcb and #bcc1 t1 t4 ,this is a dental character which1 with this exception1 is peculiar to the mammalia 7the ,walrus1 ,musk-deer1 and ,machairodus71 and is rare even in that class4 ,examination of the skull4--,one of the crania showed the median undivided process of a single intermaxillary bone1 ascending and separating two distinct anterior nasal apertures2 in another1 the boundaries of a very much contracted cranial cavity were evident3 these characters combined to prove that the skulls were referable to air-breathing oviparous and cold-blooded animals1 or ,reptiles2 but neither to ,crocodilians nor ,chelonians1 and for the following reasons3-- #astly4 ,the originals were not mammalians2 for no mammalian has the intermaxillary bone single 7as in ,lign4 #bcc1 a71 or the external bony nasal aperture double2 and neither mammalian nor bird has the cavity for the brain so relatively small as in this fossil4 #b;dly4 ,they were not ,crocodiles2 for in all crocodiles the intermaxillary bone is divided by a suture1 and the anterior nasal aperture is single and on the median line1 as in mammalia4 #c;dly4 ,they were not ,chelonians2 for all turtles have the nasal opening single and placed in the middle of the fore-part of the skull1 in the very situation which1 in the ,dicynodon1 is occupied by the convex imperforate median plate of the broad intermaxillary bone4 #dthly4 ,they could not be ,fishes1 as those animals have no well-defined external respiratory nasal apertures4 #ethly4 ,they were neither ,batrachians 7frogs7 nor ,ophidians 7serpents72 for1 although the reptiles of these two orders have a single intermaxillary and double nostrils1 like the fossils1 the latter are at once separated from them by the presence of a strong and complete zygomatic arch 7,ligns4 #bcb and #bcc1 g1 d71 continued from the tympanic bone to the large immovably articulated superior maxillary4 ,lastly1 the characters last named1 and the presence of vertical tympanic pedicles 7,lign4 #bcb1 l71 suspended by their upper part to the junction of the zygomatic and mastoid bones1 prove the affinity to the lacertians or true lizards4 ,these bidental crania have certain characters in common with that of the ,rhynchosaur1 which is also1 as we have before seen1 of the true lacertian group1 but the ,dicynodonts are more nearly allied to the ,crocodiles and the ,chelonians than the ,rhynchosaurus appears to be4 ,referring to the original ,memoir for anatomical details1 ,i must limit this notice to a few additional general remarks4 ,both the jaws are edentulous1 with the exception of the pair of tusks1 as in ,chelonians2 there are no traces of teeth1 or of their sockets1 in the lower jaw1 which is short and very deep1 and anchylosed at the symphysis1 as in turtles2 the alveolar border forms a smooth trenchant edge1 which shuts within the corresponding part of the upper jaw3 it is probable that both jaws were covered by horn1 as in the chelonians4 ,the tusks are implanted in wide and deep conical alveoli in the suborbital part of the maxillary bone1 and project about two inches beyond the sockets 7,lign4 #bcb72 they are long and pointed1 and are directed downwards and forwards1 with a slight backward curve1 and slightly converge towards their extreme points 7,lign4 #bcc74 ,these teeth consist of a simple body of unvascular dentine1 with a very thin external coat of enamel4 ,the tooth-ivory is more dense than in any known reptile1 and approaches in its intimate texture that of the canines of the carnivorous mammals4 ,the base of the tooth has a conical cavity 7,lign4 #bcd71 indicating a persistent matrix or dental pulp1 the rest of the tooth without the socket being solid4 ,there are no traces whatever of the germs of successional teeth4 ,it is therefore inferred1 that1 like the tusks and scalpriform incisors of mammalia1 the canine or maxillary teeth of the ,dicynodon were capable of constant growth and renovation2 thus offering an approach to the typical dentition of mammalia1 unknown in any other reptiles4 ,as the points of the teeth in the only known perfect specimen are unworn1 it is inferred that these tusks were not employed either as instruments for obtaining food1 as in the ,dugong1 or for locomotion1 as in the ,walrus1 but were simply offensive and defensive weapons4#fgj #fgj ,see ,prof4 ,owen's detailed account of these curious dental organs in the ,memoir already referred to1 and in the ,art4 ,teeth1 in the ,cyclopdia of ,anatomy and ,physiology4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bcd4 ,dicynodon testudiceps4 7,owen47 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vii4 pl4 v4 figs4 #c #d47 ,fig4 #a4--,longitudinal section of the fang of the tooth implanted in its socket3 #a_/c nat4 size4 #a;a4--,transverse section of the tooth4 ,a few sub-biconcave vertebr and other undetermined bones were associated with these remains2 and many similar crania1 both with and without the tusks1 and other cranial remains with jaws armed with numerous teeth1 as well as indications of smaller reptiles1 form part of ,mr4 ,bain's collections now in the ,national ,museum1 awaiting the skilful manipulation of the experienced workman to clear away their hard investing matrix1 and the scientific examination of the palontologist to elucidate their zoological characters4 ,telerpeton ,elginense 7,mantell74 ,ligns4 #bce and #bcf4--,this is the oldest ,reptile yet known4#fga ,its remains consist of the impression#fgb of a skeleton of a small1 four-footed1 vertebrate animal1 on a block of the ,old ,red or ,devonian ,sandstone from ,spynie1 near ,elgin1 ,north ,britain4 ,it was obtained by ,mr4 ,patrick ,duff1 in #ahea2 and a detailed description of this unique fossil1 with an illustrative plate1 will be found in the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 viii4 pp4 #ajj1 et seq42 together with a notice by ,captain ,brickenden of the geology of the district where the specimen was found1 and a paper on some fossil foot-prints1#fgc discovered by this geologist in the same rock4 #fga ,the word ,telerpeton simply denotes the remote antiquity of this ,devonian reptile of ,scotland1 7far off71 7reptile72 the trivial name1 ,elginense1 records the locality from whence it was obtained4 #fgb ,a model of this most delicate and valuable impression has been deposited in the palontological gallery of the ,british ,museum4 #fgc ,a general notice of the fossil foot-prints1 or ,ichnolites1 that have been referred to ,reptiles will be given at a subsequent page of this chapter4 ,by reference to ,lign4 #bce1 it will be seen that the cranium is almost wholly lost2 a few conical teeth1 mostly of a very small size1 were observed in connexion with the vestige of the jaws4 ,the spinal column is represented by the impressions of about thirty-six vertebr1 eleven or twelve of which belong to its caudal portion4 ,the vertebr present some faint evidence of their possessing a biconcave form2 the length of one of the dorsal vertebr is #a_/ith of an inch4 ,there are twenty-one pairs of long slender ribs4 ,the pectoral arch and anterior extremities have nearly disappeared in the fracture of the stone4 ,the pelvis and sacrum are very obscure2 the latter is formed probably of two anchylosed vertebra24 ,the thigh-bones are somewhat curved2 the tibia is gently bowed1 and expanded at each extremity4 ,there are no remains of the feet4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bce4 ,telerpeton ,elginense 7,mantell74 ,dev4 ,elgin4 ,impression of the skeleton 7nat4 size72 showing the outline of the vertebral column1 ribs1 pelvis1 femora1 tibi and fibul1 part of the caudal series of vertebr1 the left humerus1 radius1 and ulna1 imperfect traces of the right anterior extremity1 and obscure indications of part of the cranium4 a4 ,the remains of the cranium4 b1 b4 ,imprints of portions of the anterior extremities4 c1 c4 ,well-defined impressions of the thigh-bones and leg-bones1 with an obscure sub-quadrangular pelvis4 #a4 ,one of the teeth3 nat4 size and mag4 ,the structure of this reptilian skeleton1 as far as the specimen can serve to show1 indicates a peculiar type of organization1 in which1 as in numerous other extinct forms1 in this1 as in other ,classes1 osteological characters are associated which in existing oviparous quadrupeds are restricted to distinct orders and genera4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bcf4 ,telerpeton ,elginense 7,mantell74 ,outline of the restored form of the original reptile3 #a_/b nat4 ,the lacertian affinities of the ,telerpeton are well marked in the relative size and form of the bones of its extremities1 the situation of its pelvis1 and probably in the articulation and the length of its ribs2 but the contracted1 biconcave centrum1 and the short neural spine of the vertebr1 as well as the horizontality of the articulating surfaces of the zygapophyses1 and the general uniformity of character throughout the spinal column1 are to be regarded as batrachian modifications4 ,probably the original was a peculiar type1 which1 in the present state of our knowledge1 it would be rash to ascribe to either order4 ,the length of the original animal could not have exceeded six or seven inches4 ,lign4 #bcf represents in outline the probable form of this small1 but most interesting reptile4 ,v4 ,pterosaurians1 or ,flying ,reptiles4--,pterodactylus 7wing-fingered reptile74 ,lign4 #bcg4 ,petrif4 p4 #ahg2 ,wond4 p4 #egg2 ,bd4 pl4 xxi4 xxii4--,the extinct reptiles denominated ,pterodactyles1 constituting a few genera of an order of ,saurians organized for arial life1#fgd are unquestionably the most marvellous even of the wonderful beings which the relics of the ,age of ,reptiles have enabled the palontologist to reconstruct4 ,with a long-snouted head and long neck1 much resembling that of a bird1 bat-like wings1 and a small trunk and tail1 with lacertian affinities in its skull1 teeth1 and skeleton1 and with a bird-like structure of sternum and scapular arch1 these creatures present an anomaly of structure as unlike their fossil contemporaries1 as is the duck-billed ,ornithorhynchus1 of ,australia1 to existing animals4 ,the cranium1 or brain-case1 is small2 the jaws are either long1 and armed with numerous sharp-pointed teeth1 or toothless1 like those of a bird4 ,the teeth of the ,pterodactyle are all laniary2 they are simple1 of a conical form1 recurved1 with but little difference in their form and size1 and implanted in distinct sockets1 with wide intervals between each4 ,in some species there are twenty-eight or thirty in the lower1 and twenty-two in the upper jaw4 #fgd ,the only known recent reptile at all analogous is the little ,draco volans of the ,east ,indian ,islands2 but even this can scarcely be regarded as a flying animal1 its lateral membranous expansions1 which are rather parachutes than wings1 and formed by elongated ribs1 not by the fingers1 presenting but a rudimentary condition of wings compared with those of the ,bat and the ,pterodactyle4 ,the orbit is very large2 the sclerotica consists of an annular row of bony plates1 but less in number than in the ,ichthyosaurus2 the external orifice of the nostrils is near the orbits2 remains of the os hyoides 7bone of the tongue7 have been observed4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bcg4 ,pterodactylus crassirostris3 #a_/b nat4 size4 ,oolite4 ,solenhofen4 ,the cervical vertebr are large and strong1 and capable of great flexibility forwards and backwards1 probably to allow the head to fall back to the centre of gravity during flight4 ,there are frequently traces of ossified condition of the tendons of the muscles of the neck4 ,this is well seen in ,p4 macronyx and ,p4 crassirostris 7,lign4 #bcg71 and is a peculiarity dependent on the additional support required by the long neck of the animal4 ,the dorsal vertebr are from seventeen to twenty in number4 ,the sacrum is formed by the coalescence of two vertebr only1 as in existing reptiles1 and not of many1 as in birds and certain extinct saurians4 ,the tail is generally short1 an unusual character with saurians2 but a species with a long tail occurs at ,solenhofen4 ,there are five toes or digits on each foot2 the outer finger of the fore-arm is immensely elongated1 for the support of a membranous expansion 7the impression of this wing-membrane is preserved on the stone in some examples72 and the other digits1 of fore and hind feet1 terminated in long curved claws4 ,the size and form of the extremities show that the ,pterodactylus was capable of perching on trees1 of hanging against perpendicular surfaces1 and of standing firmly on the ground1 when1 with its wings folded1 it might crawl on all-fours1 and walk or hop like a bird4 ,a reference to the graphic description of the characters and probable habits of these beings1 by ,dr4 ,buckland1 ,bd4 i4 p4 #bba1 and the beautiful illustrations accompanying it 7,bd4 ii4 pl4 xxi4 xxii471 will equally instruct and gratify the reader4 ,the most perfect examples of the ,pterodactyles have been discovered in the lithographic stone of ,monheim1 ,pappenheim1 and ,solenhofen1 where their bones are associated with the remains of ,dragon-flies 7see p4 #eea7 and other insects4 ,in ,england1 bones of these reptiles have been obtained from the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1 from the ,oolitic slate of ,stonesfield1 from the ,wealden strata of ,tilgate ,forest1 and the ,chalk of ,kent4#fge ,one of the most interesting ,british specimens consists of a considerable part of the skeleton of a species about the size of a ,raven1 discovered by the late ,mary ,anning1 in the ,lias of ,lyme ,regis1 and now deposited in the ,british ,museum4#fgf ,it consists of the principal bones of the extremities1 and of several vertebra31 and is figured and described by ,dr4 ,buckland1 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 iii4 pl4 xxvii4 ,this specimen is distinguished by a greater length of the claws 7whence the name of the species1 ,p4 macronyx1 long-claw17 than in any previously known4 #fge ,for a detailed description of the ,pterosaurian remains from the ,english ,chalk1 with numerous beautiful illustrations1 see ,prof4 ,owen s ,monograph1 published by the ,palontographical ,society1 #ahea4 ,other important memoirs on ,pterodactyles and their structure1 not mentioned in the text1 are1 by ,von ,meyer1 in ,nova ,acta ,acad4 ,nat4 ,curios4 vol4 xv4 part ii4 and ,palontographica1 part i4 #ahdf2 ,goldfuss1 ,nova ,acta1 vol4 xv4 part i41 and ,reptilien der ,vorwelt1 #ahca2 ,prof4 ,owen ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iii4 and ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 ibid4 vol4 iv4 #fgf ,see ,petrif4 p4 #ahi4 ,the remains of the ,pterodactyles of the ,chalk1 for the most part1 indicate a large size for the original animals4 ,it has been estimated that some of these gigantic flying reptiles possessed an extent of wing surpassing that of the great albatross4 ,the ,pterodactylus ,cuvieri had probably an expanse of wing not less than eighteen feet from tip to tip2 another ,chalk species1 ,p4 compressirostris1 fifteen feet2 whilst the ,p4 macronyx1 of the ,lias1 measured about four feet seven inches from the extremity of one wing to that of the other4#fgg #fgg ,bowerbank1 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahea1 and ,owen1 ,monograph1 p4 #ajd4 ,sidenote3 ,,chelonians4 ,,vi4 ,chelonian ,reptiles4--,those singular reptiles1 commonly known by the name of ,tortoises and ,turtles1 and designated by naturalists ,chelonia 7from ,chelone1 the ,greek term for a ,tortoise71 are distinguished from all other animals by the osseous cuirass in which their bodies are enclosed1 the head and neck1 extremities1 and tail1 alone being excluded4 ,this remarkable bony case is produced by the extraordinary development of the bones of the thorax and back2 and consists of an under 7sternal7 and an upper 7dorsal7 portion4 ,the breast-plate1 or plastron1 which is the true sternum1 is composed of nine pieces of bone1 eight of which are in pairs1 and the ninth1 or odd plate1 is situated between the four anterior plates4 ,the variation in the form of these plates is considerable1 and affords important distinctive characters4 ,in the young state of land and fresh-water tortoises1 there are vacancies between the pieces1 which are filled up in the adult1 the whole being ultimately united into one bony plate2 but in the marine turtles 7and also in the ,trionyces1 or soft tortoises71 these pieces do not completely unite1 and interspaces always remain4 ,the bones of which the dorsal buckler1 carapace1 or upper shield is composed consist of eight of the ten pairs of ribs1 united by a longitudinal series of angular plates1 which are attached to the annular part of the vertebra throughout the whole1 or a great part of their length1 according to the age and species of the individual4#fgh ,numerous modifications exist in the form of the buckler1 in its flatness or convexity1 in the degree of extension of the ribs1 and their angular plates1 and in the characters of the scutes or horny integument with which the carapace is covered2 and with corresponding variations in the head1 and in the locomotive extremities1 in the numerous species and genera of the ,chelonian reptiles1 according to their adaptation to a terrestrial1 fluviatile1 or marine existence4 #fgh ,in the ,monograph on ,eocene ,reptiles1 #ahdi1 ,prof4 ,owen has given a succinct account of the carapace and plastron of the ,chelone1 and a brief notice of the composition and homologies of these bony encasements in the ,tortoise1 with references to more particular and comprehensive memoirs by himself and others4 ,the animals of this order are arranged in four principal groups1 viz4 the marine1 or ,turtles 7,chelones72 the fluviatile1 or river-,tortoises 7,trionyces72 the marsh-,tortoises 7,emydes72 and the terrestrial or land-,tortoises 7,testudines74 ,the marine ,chelonians generally feed upon vegetables2 the ,emys and ,trionyx approach more nearly to the terrestrial than to the marine species2 they are carnivorous1 feeding on frogs1 fishes1 fresh-water mollusca1 and other small animals4 ,the ,trionyces differ from their congeners in being destitute of a horny external integument1 having no scutes on the buckler or any other part of the body but the osseous carapace is invested with a strong tough skin1 which equally covers the dorsum and sternum1 to which it firmly adheres2 the dermal surface of the bones in these ,tortoises is always rugose1 and either granulated1 or covered with punctations and depressions4 ,the buckler of the ,trionyces is of a depressed form1 with a soft flattened margin4 ,the ,testudinid1 or land-,tortoises1 are too well known to render any description requisite for our present purpose4 ,in the marine species1 eight pairs of ribs and thirteen plates of the longitudinal series form the buckler2 the ribs or costal plates are united to each other through a great part of their extent2 but towards their distal or outer extremities each rib contracts1 and terminates in a point1 which is supported on a marginal series of bony plates2 the intervals between the ribs are filled up in the living animal by a cartilaginous membrane which never becomes ossified4 ,this character1 therefore1 affords an important aid in the discrimination of the fossil remains of this family4#fgi #fgi ,the reader will recognise this peculiarity in the gilded skeleton of the carapace of ,turtles1 frequently exhibited in the soup-shops of the metropolis4 ,in the terrestrial and the marsh ,tortoises1 the ossification is complete in the adult state2 but in the fluviatile ,trionyces1 which are without a horny integument1 there is no border1 or marginal series of bony plates1 and the extremities of the ribs are therefore always distinct1 and generally have an obtuse extremity4 ,the skeletons of the three groups present corresponding modifications1 and an accurate knowledge of the osteology of the recent animals is necessary to enable the palontologist to arrive at secure conclusions as to the characters and relations of the fossil species4#fhj ,we can only advert to one remarkable osteological character1--the construction of the shoulder1 which differs from that of all other animals1 in being situated within the cavity of the thorax1 instead of without4 ,in consequence of this modification1 a process of the shoulder-blade 7scapula or omoplate71 termed the acromion1 is largely developed1 and the shoulder-bone is tri-mucronate1 or three-pronged1 consisting of a short1 thick head1 containing a concavity 7which1 with that on the coracoid-bone1 forms a socket for the arm-bone71 and of two diverging branches4 ,this form is so peculiar1 that the collector can be at no loss to recognise the shoulder-bone of a ,chelonian1 should it come under his notice with other fossil relics 7see ,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 xix4 fig4 #aa74 ,the shoulder-blade and its associated coracoid-bone undergo certain modifications in the three groups of ,turtles1 by which the anatomist may pretty certainly determine the terrestrial1 fluviatile1 or marine character of the animals to which they belonged4 ,the successful application of a perfect knowledge of this department of osteology1 is admirably exemplified in the works to which reference has been made2 and even but a slight acquaintance with its principles will often enable us to obtain some general information as to the nature and relations of fossil ,chelonians4 #fhj ,the student should consult ,cuvier's ,ossemens ,fossiles1 tom4 v4 part iime4 chap4 ii43 and ,prof4 ,owen's ,monographs1 published by the ,palontographical ,society1 #ahdi1 #ahea1 #ahec4 ,the ,penny ,cyclopdia1 ,art4 ,tortoises1 contains an excellent summary of the osteology of these reptiles1 also an abstract of ,professor ,owen's ,report on the ,fossil ,chelonia4 ,the student will remember that all the ,chelonians are edentulous1 i4 e4 toothless2 their bony jaws being covered by horny sheaths1 as in birds2 these mandibles are therefore the only dental organs that can occur in a fossil state4 ,sidenote3 ,,turtles ,,and ,,tortoises4 ,fossil ,turtles and ,tortoises4#fha--,some of the earliest indications of the presence of ,reptiles on our planet are afforded by the foot-prints of ,chelonian animals on the surfaces of the layers of sandstone of the ,old ,red formation at ,elgin1 and of the ,new ,red in ,dumfriesshire1 at ,storeton1 near ,liverpool1 and at some places in ,germany 7see ,bd4 i4 p4 #bei1 and p4 #bfe1 note74 ,but no osseous remains of the animals of this family have hitherto been found in strata antecedent to the ,oolite4 ,the ,solenhofen quarries 7,kelheim7 have yielded the bones and carapaces of several ,emydian tortoises1 and some remains of ,chelonians have been found at ,stonesfield1 and in the ,portland ,sandstone4#fhb ,in the ,jura limestone at ,soleure1 two large species of ,emydians have been discovered4 ,the ,wealden and ,purbeck formations abound in ,chelonian remains of both fluviatile and marine genera4 ,from the ,isle of ,purbeck numerous fine examples have been obtained2#fhc my own researches in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest 7,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 p4 #fj7 have also brought to light several species1 and in particular an interesting ,chelonian related to the soft-skinned1 fresh-water tortoises1 ,trionyces 7,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bee74 ,in the ,cretaceous formation of ,england the remains of these reptiles are not frequent4 ,the ,greensand of ,cambridgeshire 7,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #agb17 has yielded a marine species1 and that of ,kent a fine ,emydian form 7,owen1 ,monog4 #ahea72 and in the ,white ,chalk a few examples have been obtained1 to which we shall hereafter more particularly allude4 ,on the ,continent fine examples have been found in the slate of ,glaris 7see ,bd4 pl4 xxv472 and in the upper ,cretaceous strata of the ,netherlands1 at ,maestricht1 and at ,melsbroeck1 near ,brussels1 many beautiful specimens of fresh-water tortoises 7,emydes71 and marine turtles 7,chelones71 have from time to time been obtained2 these are figured and described by ,baron ,cuvier 7,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 pp4 #bcf1 #bci74 ,in the ,eocene strata of ,england1 several species of ,chelonians have been collected2 of these eleven belong to the marine genus ,chelone2 eight to the fresh-water ,trionyx2 and eight to the marsh-tortoises1 ,emys and ,platemys4 ,the ,isle of ,sheppey and ,hordwell have yielded the majority of these relics2 the turtles are smaller than the recent analogues1 which now inhabit intertropical latitudes4#fhd ,the ,eocene strata of ,france contain several fresh-water tortoises1 some of which are referable to the ,emydes1 and others to the ,trionyces4 ,from the gypsum beds1 near ,paris1 the remains of one or two species of ,trionyx have been obtained 7,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 p4 #bbb71 of another at ,aix1 in ,provence1 and of three or four species in other localities4 ,a fine specimen of fresh-water tortoise from ningen1 near ,constance1 is described and figured by ,professor ,bell in ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 iii4 ,the fossil remains of ,testudinid1 or land-tortoises1 are exceedingly rare4 ,no well-determined remains are known in the ,british strata2 the impressions of scutes found in the ,stonesfield slate1 and the foot-prints above described1 being the only indications of the existence of these reptiles4 ,the presence of land-tortoises in the strata of ,france appears to be equally problematical1 for the relics obtained from ,montmartre and ,aix 7,oss4 ,foss4 p4 #bde7 afford no certain data as to the character of the original4 #fha ,see ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 pp4 #afh1 et seq4 #fhb ,see ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda4 pp4 #afj and #afi4 #fhc ,some of the most beautiful of these almost perfect specimens have lately been figured and described by ,prof4 ,owen in his ,monograph on the ,fossil ,chelonian ,reptiles of the ,wealden and the ,purbeck2 ,palontographical ,society1 #ahec4 #fhd ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #agg1 and ,monograph on ,fossil ,reptiles1 ,pal4 ,soc4 #ahdi1 in which the anatomical details are given with the characteristic accuracy and minuteness of the author4 ,the ,tertiary formations of ,india1 however1 have furnished decided examples of fossil terrestrial tortoises2 and among the innumerable relics of the beings of an earlier world1 which the indefatigable labours of ,dr4 ,falconer and ,captain ,cautley have brought to light1 and which those accomplished naturalists have so skilfully developed1 are the remains of land tortoises of prodigious magnitude 7,colossochelys atlas72 one specimen indicating a length of twelve or fourteen feet1 with a breadth and height of corresponding proportions6 ,these remains are associated with the bones gigantic extinct mammalia1 allied to the ,palotheria and other pachyderms of the eocene deposits of the ,paris basin2 and with those of ,emydian and ,crocodilian reptiles4#fhe #fhe ,petrif4 pp4 #aa and #dfh4 ,fossil ,marine ,turtles4--,in illustration of this subject1 ,i select a specimen discovered in the lower ,chalk1 at ,burham1 ,kent1 which is remarkable for its beautiful state of preservation1 and its peculiar osteological characters4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bch4 ,chelone ,benstedi3 nat4 size4 ,chalk4 ,kent4 ,the dorsal shield or carapace of this specimen admits of being removed2 and four sternal plates1 a coracoid-bone1 and several vertebr are then exposed4 ,chelone ,benstedi4 ,lign4 #bch4--,to ,mr4 ,bensted1 of ,maidstone1 whose discoveries have rendered his quarry of ,kentish ,bag classic ground to the ,british palontologist1 ,i am indebted for this splendid fossil turtle4 ,the quarry whence it was obtained is situated at ,burham1 a short distance from the banks of the ,medway1 between ,chatham and ,maidstone1 and presents a good section of the lower ,chalk4 ,this locality is rich in fossil remains1 rivalling in this respect the quarries near ,lewes1 ,worthing1 and ,arundel1 in ,sussex4 ,two other fossil ,turtles have been obtained from this quarry1 and now enrich the cabinets of ,sir ,p4 ,egerton and ,mr4 ,bowerbank4 ,other relics of ,chelonians found in this place are four marginal plates of the carapace1 and fragments of ribs1#fhf some marginal plates of a much larger individual1 mandibles1 and other fragments1 which are noticed in ,prof4 ,owen's ,monograph1 #ahea4 ,the specimen1 of which ,lign4 #bch is a reduced figure1 consists of the dorsal buckler or carapace almost entire2 it is of a depressed elliptical form1 with a longitudinal median ridge2 it is six inches in length1 and three and a half inches in breadth across the middle4 ,it is composed of eight ribs1 or costal plates1 on each side the dorsal ridge1 which is formed of ten neural plates2 and there is a border of marginal plates4 ,these plates are united to each other by finely indented sutures1 and bear the imprints of the horny scutes1 or tortoise-shell1 with which they were originally invested4 ,the expanded ribs are united throughout the proximal half of their length1 and gradually taper to their marginal extremities1 which are supported by the plates of the osseous border4#fhg ,this description applies to the specimen as seen in ,lign4 #bch2 but ,mr4 ,bensted so skilfully cleared away the chalk as to admit of the removal of a great part of the dorsal shield1 by which means some of the vertebr1 four sternal 7hyosternal and hyposternal7 plates1 and one of the coracoid bones are displayed4 ,this brief description will suffice to convey a general idea of the characters of this fossil1 which differs from any known recent turtle1 and possesses some anomalous features1 that appear to indicate some slight ,emydian affinities4 #fhf ,see ,geol4 ,proceed1 vol4 iii4 p4 #bii4 #fhg ,see also ,phil4 ,trans4 #ahda1 p4 #aec1 pl4 xi4 and xii42 and ,palontograph4 ,monograph1 #ahea1 p4 #d1 plates i4 ii4 and iii4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bci4 ,beak or ,mandible of a ,turtle3 nat4 size4 ,chalk4 ,lewes4 ,among the numerous fossils obtained from the ,chalk of ,sussex1 the only trace of a ,chelonian reptile that has come under my observation is the bony mandible or beak of a ,turtle1 ,lign4 #bci4 ,its surface displays a fibrous cancellated structure1 denoting the attachment of the horny sheath with which1 in a recent state1 it was covered4 ,more or less perfect specimens of such mandibles also occur in the ,chalk of ,kent and elsewhere1 but no bones of the skull have yet been met with in that deposit4 ,in the ,greensand of ,cambridgeshire1 however1 the cranium of a small turtle has been found4 ,it is figured and described by ,prof4 ,owen as ,chelone pulchriceps 7,monograph1 #ahea74 ,chelone ,bellii4 ,lign4 #bdj1 ,petrif4 #aee4--;,in the strata of ,tilgate ,forest1 fragments of the carapace1 of the plastron or sternum1 and of the marginal plates1 with some of the bones of the extremities1 of a large marine turtle have been discovered2 several specimens are figured in ,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 vi4 and vii4 ,some examples must have belonged to an individual at least three feet in length4 ,unfortunately1 the specimens hitherto obtained are very imperfect1 and do not exhibit essential distinctive characters1 with the exception of the ribs1 which are united to within a short distance of their distal or marginal extremities2 hence the costal interspaces are reduced to much smaller dimensions than in any recent or fossil ,turtles with which ,i have had the means of comparing them4 ,the fragment of a rib1 imbedded in ,tilgate grit1 figured ,lign4 #bdj1 well exhibits this character4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bdj4 ,chelone ,bellii#fhh 7,g4 ,a4 ,m474 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,portion of a costal plate1 and the extremities of a rib3 nat4 size4 7,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for4 pl4 vi4 fig4 #b47 a4 ,the striated pointed extremity of rib4 b4 ,the distal portion of the costal plate4 #fhh ,the remains of this reptile were noticed in the ,fossils of the ,south ,downs1 or ,illustrations of ,geology of ,sussex1 #dto4 #ahbb1 p4 #dg1 and subsequently figured in the ,illustrations of the ,geology of ,sussex1 with figures and descriptions of the ,fossils of ,tilgate ,forest1 #dto4 #ahbg1 p4 #fj1 pl4 vi4 and vii42 and this extinct ,chelone was regarded as a species1 characterized by the great development of the rib-plates1 and named after ,professor ,bell1 the eminent zoologist1 in the first ,edition of the ,medals4 ,but in the ,monograph1 ,weald4 ,rept4 #ahec1 this determination has lately been overlooked2 and the specimen figured ,tilg4 ,foss4 pl4 vi4 fig4 #b1 is referred to the newly named ,ch4 costata1 characterized by its broad and prominent ribs4 ,a third name even 7,ch4 ,mantelli7 has been bestowed on this interesting fossil1 by a ,german palontologist4 ,fossil fresh-water ,tortoises4--,the remains of fresh-water ,tortoises1 referable to the ,emydid1 occur in the ,purbeck and ,wealden strata 7,owen's ,monograph1 #ahec1 and ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda72 the resemblance of some of these to the ,jurassic species from ,soleure was noticed by ,cuvier 7,oss4 ,foss4 vol4 v474 ,among the ,chelonian remains of the ,wealden1 some of the most remarkable are the costal plates and other bones of a ,tortoise1 which in its essential characters is closely allied to the ,trionyces1#fhi but differs from the recent forms1 in having possessed a dermal horny integument1 formed of scutes of tortoise-shell4 ,the chelonians of the genus ,trionyx 7so named from their having three claws7 have the extremities of the ribs free1 and not articulated to a border of marginal plates1 and there are intervals between their costal plates even in the adult state4 ,the external surface of the bones of the buckler is covered with granulations1 or with little pits1 for the attachment of the soft skin1 the only integument with which these animals are invested2 and1 being destitute of horny scutes1 their bones exhibit no furrows1 as in the other genera4 ,but the fossil rib-plates 7see ,lign4 #bda7 have a shagreen-like or punctated surface1 like the recent ,trionyces1 and at the same time bear the imprints of horny scutes2 and1 instead of being nearly of an equal width throughout their entire length1 as in the existing species1 have one extremity much wider than the other1 as in the land-tortoises4 ,from the slight degree of convexity of the ribs1 it is evident that the carapace was much flattened1 as in the ,trionyx4#fij ,except in having a defensive dermal integument1 and agreeing in this respect with many of the ,crocodilian reptiles1 with which its bones are associated1 the original must have closely resembled the existing predaceous fresh-water soft ,turtles2 and1 doubtless1 like those reptiles1 inhabited the muddy beds of lakes and rivers1 preying upon the eggs and young of the larger reptiles1 and on the uniones and other fluviatile mollusca1 whose shells are very commonly found imbedded with its remains4 #fhi ,the relations of these peculiar remains to ,trionyx were pointed out in ,foss4 ,s4 ,d4 #ahbb1 p4 #dg4 #fij ,see ,petrif4 p4 #aeg1 c4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bda4 ,tretosternon ,bakewelli2 #fia #a_/c nat4 size4 ,wealden4 ,tilgate ,forest4 7,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for4 pl4 vi4 fig4 #a47 ,one of the costal plates4 #fia ,this ,tortoise1 with the sanction of ,baron ,cuvier1 was described under the name ,trionyx1 in ,foss4 ,tilg4 ,for4 #ahbg1 p4 #fj1 and its distinctive characters were pointed out4 ,in ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 #ahcc1 p4 #bee1 the specific name ,bakewelli was proposed in honour of the late ,robert ,bakewell1 ,esq41 whose excellent works have so greatly promoted the advancement of geology2 a privilege to which1 as the original discoverer of the species1 and of its zoological relations1 ,i was fairly entitled4 ,but this name does not appear in the list of ,british ,chelonians1 either in ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 or in ,mr4 ,morris's ,cat4 ,brit4 ,org4 ,rem4 #ahdc4 ,with a melancholy pleasure ,i now restore the name of my lamented friend1 as a just1 but very inadequate tribute of respect to his memory4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bdb4 ,palophis toliapicus3 #b_/c nat4 size4 ,london ,clay4 ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,six concavo-convex vertebr of the trunk4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,serpents4 ,,vii4 ,ophidians1 or ,serpents4 ,lign4 #bdb4--,the remains of the vertebral columns of extinct ,serpents were discovered many years since in the ,london clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey1 and specimens were obtained by the celebrated ,hunter1 and preserved in his museum4 ,these specimens1 together with others in the collections of ,messrs4 ,saull1 ,bowerbank1 ,dixon1 ,combe1 and ,s4 ,wood1 have been figured and described1 and their relations to existing types elaborately worked out1 by ,professor ,owen4#fib ,the ,palophis typhus1 from the ,bracklesham clay1 had a length of about twenty feet1 and1 from the compressed character of its caudal vertebr1 was probably a sea-serpent4 ,a somewhat smaller species also occurs at ,bracklesham4 ,the ,sheppey specimens are referred to another species of this extinct genus1 namely1 the ,p4 toliapicus 7,lign4 #bdb72 it was from ten to twelve feet in length4 ,the remains of two species of land-serpents1 respectively about four and three feet long1 have been found at ,hordwell ,cliff4 ,these belong to the extinct genus ,paleryx1 thus named in reference to the near affinities of the ,hordwell vertebr to those of the recent ,eryx1 one of the ,boa and ,python group of serpents4#fic #fib ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 p4 #bji1 c4 pl4 xxii42 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #ahj2 ,dixon's ,geology and ,fossils of ,sussex1 pp4 #baa-bag1 pl4 xii4 fig4 #ad2 and especially ,palontographical ,monograph1 #ahej1 p4 #ea1 et seq42 and plates xii4 to xvi4 #fic ,see ,monograph on ,eocene ,reptiles1 #ahej1 from which these notices of the ,eocene ,ophidians are abridged4 ,the vertebr of ,serpents are distinguished by a transversely oblong anterior concavity1 forming a deep cup1 and a corresponding posterior convexity or hall2 by the interlocking of the projecting posterior oblique processes with the anterior pair2 and by the oblong tubercle on each side of the anterior part of the body of the vertebra1 for moveable articulation with the head of the ribs2 a spinal column thus constructed combines in the highest degree perfect flexibility with great strength4 ,in addition to the ophidian relics above referred to1 fossil vertebr of a small serpent 7,palophis87 have been found in the ,eocene sand below the ,bed ,crag1 at ,kyson in ,suffolk2#fid a locality that has yielded other organic remains of great interest 7see chap4 xix42 and ,wond4 p4 #beh74 ,the only fossils of this order of reptiles known to ,baron ,cuvier appear to have been some vertebr from the bone-breccia of ,cette 7,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 iv4 p4 #agg74 #fid ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #aha2 and ,monograph1 #ahej1 p4 #ff4 ,fossil eggs of snakes are occasionally met with in a comparatively recent limestone1 of fresh-water origin1 in ,germany1 near ,offenbach1 associated with shells of land and fresh-water molluscs4 ,like the turtles' eggs on the shores of ,ascension ,island1 these ova were probably laid in the moist mud1 and became encrusted and preserved by a deposit of tufa4#fie #fie ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 vi4 part #b1 p4 #db4 ,sidenote3 ,,batrachians4 ,,viii4 ,batrachians4--,the reptiles termed ,batrachians 7from the ,greek name for ,frog7 are characterized by the metamorphoses which they undergo in the progress of their development from the young to the adult state2 the ,frog1 ,toad1 and ,newt are familiar examples of this order4 ,their organs of arial respiration consist of a pair of lungs2 but in their young state they are provided with gills1 supported1 as in fishes1 by cartilaginous arches4 ,these organs disappear1 in most species1 when the animals arrive at maturity2 but in a few genera1 as the ,siren and ,proteus1 they are persistent4 ,the skeletons of these reptiles present corresponding modifications4 ,the skull is1 for the most part1 much depressed1 and the cerebral cavity small2 it is united to the vertebral column by two distinct condyles1 situated on the sides of the occipital or cranio-spinal aperture4#fif ,the vertebral column1 in some genera 7as1 for example1 in the common frog71 is very short1 and is reduced to eight or ten bones1 the caudal vertebr being fused into a long cylindrical style2 but in the higher organised ,batrachians the spine is composed of concavo-convex vertebr1 as in the ,crocodile3 in the lower type1 as the ,siren1 ,proteus1 and ,axolotl1 the vertebr are biconcave1 as in numerous species of fossil ,saurians4 ,the ribs are merely rudimentary1 being very short and few2 a condition which has relation to the mode of reproduction in these animals1 the eggs being accumulated and shed at once4#fig ,some of the ,batrachians are edentulous1 but others have numerous small1 conical1 uniform1 closely-arranged teeth1 placed either in a single row1 or aggregated like the rasp-teeth in fishes4#fih #fif ,saurians1 like birds1 have a single occipital condyle4 #fig ,see ,dr4 ,roget's ,bridgewater ,essay1 p4 #cie4 #fih ,the variations in the dental system of these animals are given in ,odontography1 chap4 ii4 p4 #ahg4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,batrachians4 ,batracholites2 or fossil remains of ,batrachians4--,the skeletons1 vestiges of the soft parts1 and imprints of the feet of several genera of ,batrachians occur in a fossil state in tertiary deposits1 all of which1 like the existing races1 appear to belong to fresh-water or terrestrial species4 ,in the pliocene or newer tertiary strata1 on the banks of the ,rhine1 at ningen1 and in the papierkohle of the ,eifel1 several species of ,frog1 ,toad1 and ,newt1 have been discovered4 ,fossil frogs of a small species1 very similar to the recent1 occur in numbers in a dark shale1 overlaid by basalt1 in the vicinity of ,bombay4#fii #fii ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iii4 p4 #bba4 ,a celebrated fossil of this class is the gigantic ,salamander 7,cryptobranchus71 three feet in length 7,lign4 #bdc71 found at ningen 7see ,wond4 pp4 #bfc1 #ehj71 which a ,german physician of some note 7,scheuchzer7 supposed to be a fossil man6#gjj and he described it in an essay1 entitled ,homo diluvii testis et ,theoscopos1 as being the moiety1 or nearly so1 of a human skeleton1 with the bones and flesh incorporated in the stone4#gja ,a fine example of this fossil ,salamander is preserved in the ,british ,museum 7,petrif4 p4 #ahf74 #gjj ,phil4 ,trans1 for #agbf1 vol4 xxxiv4 #gja ,ample description and figures of this highly interesting fossil are given by ,cuvier1 ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 v4 part ii4 p4 #dca1 pl4 xxv4 xxvi4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bdc4 ,cryptobranchus ,scheuchzeri3 #a_/aa nat4 size4 ,tertiary4 ningen4 ,sidenote3 ,,labyrinthodon4 ,labyrinthodon4 ,ly4 p4 #bij-bic2 ,wond4 p4 #eej4 ,by far the most interesting evidence of the existence of ,batrachian reptiles in the earlier ages of our planet has been afforded by ,professor ,jger's discovery of the skull1 teeth1 and other remains of gigantic extinct animals1 allied to the ,salamander1 in the ,upper ,new ,red ,sandstone 7,keuper7 of ,wirtemberg4#gjb #gjb ber die ,fossile ,reptilien welche in ,wrtemberg aufgefunden worden sind1 von ,dr4 ,geo4 ,friedr4 ,jger4 #dto4 ,stuttgart1 #ahbh4 ,see also ,hermann von ,meyer's ,notice of the ,saurians of the ,muschelkalk1 ,banter ,sandstein1 and ,keuper1 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv4 pt4 ii4 p4 #dj4 ,these remains were referred by this eminent physician and naturalist to saurian genera1 although the double condyle of the occipital bone indicated ,batrachian affinities4 ,it was reserved1 however1 for our distinguished countryman1 ,professor ,owen1 to correct the error into which the ,german savant had fallen1--remove the obscurity in which the subject was involved1--determine the natural relations of the original1--and develope a modification of dental organization of the most unexpected and interesting character4 ,dr4 ,lloyd1 of ,leamington1 having discovered some fossil teeth and bones in the light-coloured sandstone of the ,new ,red1 at ,warwick and ,leamington1 submitted them to ,professor ,owen1 who1 struck with their general resemblance to the teeth of the gigantic ,salamandrodes of ,wirtemberg1 instituted a microscopic examination of the ,british and ,german specimens4 ,the result proved that the teeth from both localities possessed a remarkable and complicated structure1 produced by the convergence of numerous inflected folds of the external layer of cement towards the pulp-cavity2 to which1 as we have already seen 7p4 #fff71 a very slight approach was made in the tooth of the ,ichthyosaurus1 and a still closer approximation by the teeth of certain fishes 7,lepidosteus1 p4 #faf74 ,from the intricate meanderings or labyrinthine inflections observable in the sections of these teeth1 ,professor ,owen has given the name of ,labyrinthodon to these extinct ,batrachian reptiles1 and has determined five ,british species2 one of which 7,l4 ,jgeri7 he conceives to be identical with a species described by my friend1 ,dr4 ,jger4 ,the remains of the skeletons of these reptiles1 hitherto found in ,warwickshire1 consist of portions of the cranium1 and of the upper and lower jaws1 with teeth1 vertebr1 a sternum1 and some of the bones of the pelvis and the extremities4 ,from a specimen 7of ,l4 scutulatus7 consisting of an aggregated group of bones1 imbedded in sandstone1 comprising four vertebr1 portions of ribs1 a humerus1 a thigh-bone1 and two leg-bones1 with several small osseous scutes1 it appears that one species1 at least1 resembled the ,crocodiles in its dermal structure4 ,but ,professor ,owen remarks1 that this modification of the dermal system does not affect the claims of the ,labyrinthodonts to be considered as ,batrachians1 although all the known living species of this order are covered with a soft1 lubricous1 naked integument2 for the skin is the seat of the most variable characters in all animals2 and the double occipital condyle1 the simple lower jaw1 the palatal vomerine bones1 and the teeth of these fossil reptiles must be deemed decisive of their essentially ,batrachian nature4 ,from the specimens of the cranium the important fact has been ascertained1 that the ,labyrinthodonts had subterminal nostrils leading to a wide and shallow nasal cavity1 which is separated by a broad and almost continuous palatal flooring from the cavity of the mouth2 indicating1 by its horizontal position1 that the posterior apertures were placed far behind the external nostrils2 whereas in the recent air-breathing ,batrachians the nasal canal is short and vertical1 and the inner apertures pierce the anterior part of the palate4 ,the nasal cavities in the ,frog are vertical2 for this reptile swallows air4 ,the ,labyrinthodonts must1 therefore1 have breathed air like the ,crocodiles1 and were probably provided with well-developed ribs1 and not mere rudimentary styles1 as in most living ,batrachians4 ,tooth of the ,labyrinthodon4 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c4--,the tooth of the ,labyrinthodon is of a conical figure1 very slightly recurved1 and marked externally with shallow1 fine1 longitudinal strife4 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c;a1 represents 7#a_/b nat4 size7 a specimen presented to me by ,dr4 ,jger4 ,the tooth is implanted1 by a single fang1 in an alveolar groove to which it is anchylosed4 ,it consists of a simple central pulp-cavity1 surrounded by a body of dentine1 which has an external thin coat of cement2 and a vertical duplication or fold of this cement penetrates the substance of the tooth at each of the stri1 which are arranged at intervals of about one line around the entire circumference of the tooth4 ,the inflected folds of cement extend inwards towards the centre1 in a straight direction for about half a line1 then become undulated1 and finally terminate in a dilatation or loop1 close to the pulp-cavity1 from which it is separated by a thin layer of dentine4 ,within these inflections of the cement1 the dentine1 or tooth-bone1 is similarly disposed2 a layer of dentine lining the folds of cement1 and having corresponding interspaces1 which are filled up by the processes from the pulp-cavity4 ,it is this blending of the cement and dentine in labyrinthine folds1 that gives the peculiar character observable in transverse sections of the teeth4 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #c;a1 represents a transverse section of half the diameter of the tooth2 the vacancy in the middle of the line at the bottom is a section of half the pulp-cavity4 ,fig4 #c;b is a vertical section of a fragment near the summit of the tooth2 and fig4 #c;c1 a highly-magnified view of one of the anfractuosities1 showing a fold of cement1 surrounding a fold of dentine1 and in the centre of the latter the termination of a process of the pulp4 ,the section of the tooth of the ,ichthyosaurus1 ,pl4 ,,vi4 fig4 #i1 shows the most simple modification of this structure2 the apparent complication of that of the ,labyrinthodon arises from the inflections of the three elements of dental organization being more numerous and diversified4 ,but the beautiful plates and the graphic description of the original discoverer must be seen and perused to obtain an adequate idea of the exquisite structure of the fossil teeth2 for the distribution of the extremely minute calcigerous tubes of the dentine is as diversified as that of the constituent substances4 ,and even after viewing these chefs-d'uvres of structural delineations1 should the reader have an opportunity of examining a transverse section of a tooth under the microscope1 he will feel how feebly any engraving can represent the characters of the original4#gjc #gjc ,professor ,owen's ,memoir on the ,labyrinthodonts1 in ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 pp4 #ejc-edc1 with five admirable lithographs by that excellent artist1 ,mr4 ,scharf1 and the description of the structure of the teeth1 ,odontography1 p4 #aie1 pl4 lxiii4 lxiv4 should be consulted4 ,see also ,cyclop4 ,anat4 ,art4 ,teeth4 ,sidenote3 ,,archegosaurus4 ,archegosaurus4 ,lign4 #bdd1 ,ly4 p4 #ccf1 figs4 #chd1gjd #che4--,the occurrence of reptilian remains in deposits of higher antiquity than the ,triassic was first established in #ahdd1 by the discovery of the skull and other portions of the skeleton of an air-breathing reptile1 the ,apateon pedestris1 related to the ,salamanders1 and about three feet in length1 in the coal of ,mnster-,appel in ,rhenish ,bavaria4 ,in #ahdg ,professor ,von ,dechen obtained1 in nodules of argillaceous ironstone1 from the coal-field of ,lebach1 in the district of ,saarbrck1 three species of the same type of reptiles2 these have been described by ,goldfuss1 under the name of ,archegosaurus4#gje ,one of them was well known to collectors1 but had previously been regarded as a fish 7the ,pygopterus lucius of ,m4 ,agassiz74 #gjd ,the original of this figure of ,archegosaurus minor is now in the ,british ,museum4 #gje ,see a notice of the researches of ,goldfuss1 ,von ,dechen1 and ,von ,meyer in the geological and zoological history of this interesting group of batrachoid reptiles1 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iv4 part ii4 7,miscell47 p4 #eac1 et seq4 ,the skull and portions of the trunk of this species 7,a4 ,dechenii71 see ,lign4 #bdd1 indicate an animal three and a half feet in length4 ,seventeen dorsal vertebr1 imprints of the ribs1 and remains of the extremities1 have been collected4 ,the jaws to beyond the orbit have small fine conical teeth1 longitudinally striated4 ,the eye was furnished with an osseous ring4 ,the skin1 of which a considerable part was detached1 was covered by long1 narrow1 wedge-shaped1 horny scales1 arranged in rows 7,lign4 #bdd74 ,the cranial bones are characterized by reticulating grooves and pittings1 similar in character to the reticulate markings on the cranial bones of the ,labyrinthodon1 but of a more delicate sculpturing4 ,the original reptiles were quadruped2 the fore and hind feet had distinct toes2 but the limbs were feeble1 and only capable of swimming1 or1 when on land1 of a slow creeping movement4 ,the ,archegosaurus is closely allied to the ,labyrinthodonts2#gjf and1 in the words of ,professor ,owen1#gjg it is essentially ,batrachian1 and most nearly allied to the perennibranchiate1 or lowest or most fish-like of that ,order of ,reptiles4 #gjf ,we may remark that in the opinion of ,dr4 ,goldfuss and ,von ,meyer 7loc4 cit47 the ,labyrinthodon and the ,archegosaurus are saurian forms connecting the ,crocodiles and the ,lizards1 and representing in the ancient fauna an arrested or permanent larva-condition of the loricated reptiles1 as the sirens do among the recent batrachians4 ,professor ,owen's estimation of the affinities of these genera is stated above1 and in the note at p4 #ee1 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv4 part ii4 #gjg ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ix4 p4 #fi4 ,parabatrachus ,colei4--,under this appellation ,professor ,owen has lately described 7,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ix4 p4 #fg1 pl4 ii4 fig4 #a17 a batrachoid fossil1 consisting of cranial and maxillary bones with teeth1 probably from the shale of the ,glasgow coal-field1 at ,carluke1 ,lanarkshire4 ,the slab of coal-shale in which the specimen is imbedded contains also a large scale of the ,holoptychius 7see p4 #fah74 ,sidenote3 ,,dendrerpeton ,,acadianum4 ,dendrerpeton ,acadianum4#gjh 7,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 #ahec1 pp4 #eh-fg1 plates ii4 and iii47--,the remains of a reptile and a land-shell1 resembling a ,pupa1 were discovered in #aheb1 by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell and ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson1 in the interior of an erect stamp of a fossil tree 7,sigillaria71 in the coal-measures at the ,south ,joggins cliffs1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,these remains were fully described by ,professor ,jeffries ,wyman1 of ,harvard ,university1 ,u4 ,s41 and ,professor ,owen in the ,appendix to the ,memoir by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell and ,mr4 ,dawson1 in the ,journal of the ,geological ,society1 vol4 ix4 ,some of the bones were recognised as having a near resemblance to those of the recent ,menobranchus and ,menopoma 7,perennibranchiate ,batrachians1 inhabiting ,north ,american fresh-waters72 the sculptured cranial bones are analogous to those of the ,labyrinthodon and ,archegosaurus2 and the teeth have a ,labyrinthodontoid structure3 numerous1 small1 concentrically striated scutes1 of an irregular oval shape1 accompany the bones and teeth4 #gjh ,the ,tree-reptile of ,acadia 7,acadia being the ancient ,indian name for ,nova ,scotia74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bdd4 ,archegosaurus ,dechenii4 #a_/b nat4 size4 ,coal ,formation4 ,saarbrck4 ,fig4 #a4--,the cranium and part of the lower jaw4 #b4--;,a portion of the skin1 or dermal scutes1 magnified4 #c and #d4--,magnified figures of two teeth4 ,the conclusions arrived at by the eminent comparative anatomists to whose examination the remains in question were submitted1 show that the character of the fossils are those of ,perennibranchiate ,batrachians2 that1 with regard to the long bones1 it is not improbable that the corresponding bones in the ,archegosaurus 7p4 #gde7 and ,labyrinthodon 7p4 #gda7 would present similar correspondences with those of the existing perennibranchiates2 and that1 although the ,dendrerpeton cannot be referred to any known form of the two genera just mentioned1 yet there exists strong evidence of its close affinity with these extinct ,batrachians4 ,the ,dendrerpeton ,acadianum was probably between two and three feet in length4 ,a series of minute biconcave vertebr were found with the other remains in the erect tree1 these1 however1 from their relatively small size1 and from other characteristics1 are regarded by ,professor ,wyman as having probably belonged to some other associated reptile4 ,the ,labyrinthodont reptiles have been regarded as characteristic of the ,permian and ,triassic epochs1 their remains being found in ,germany and ,england in rocks of that age4 ,the commencement of the existence of this family of sauroid-batrachians1 however1 is of greater antiquity1 since their relics also occur in the formations of the ,carboniferous epoch4 ,the ,archegosaurus 7p4 #gde71 a batrachian but slightly removed from the true ,labyrinthodont type1 has left its well-characterized remains in the ,coal of ,germany2 the ,parabatrachus1 in that of ,scotland2 and the allied ,dendrerpeton1 in the ,nova ,scotian coal-field4 ,this last-mentioned great carboniferous formation has1 however1 afforded fossil evidence of the existence of the true ,labyrinthodonts in the ,coal-period1 for some cranial bones1 imbedded in a mass of ,pictou coal1 lately sent to ,england by ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson1 and the subject of a ,paper by ,professor ,owen1 read before the ,geological ,society1 were demonstrated by that distinguished palontologist to have close affinity with the corresponding parts of the skull of the ,triassic genera ,capitosaurus and ,metopias4 ,sidenote3 ,,ichnolites4 ,ichnolites 7,foot-prints on stone74 ,lign4 #bde4--,the sandstones and mud-stones of many localities retain the track-prints of animals that have passed along on the surface of the beds when in a soft state4 ,these foot-prints1 or ichnolites1 either occur as impressions on the surface originally marked lay the animal in the act of progression1 or as the reverse of such impressions1 being casts in relief on the under side of the layer covering the surface originally impressed4 ,such indications of footsteps and trails have been noticed especially in the forest marble1 a member of the ,lower ,oolite series1 where ,crustacea and ,mollusks have left their markings1 and in the ,new ,red ,sandstone1 where the indications of reptilian quadrupeds and of bird-like bipeds#gji have been here and there preserved in great distinctness4 ,tracks referable to ,crustaceans have been found by ,mr4 ,w4 ,e4 ,logan1 on the very ancient and rippled surfaces of the ,potsdam ,sandstone of ,north ,america 7see p4 #edc1 note72 and very lately ,mr4 ,j4 ,w4 ,salter has communicated to the ,geological ,society the discovery of markings1 referred by him to the little entomostracous ,hymenocaris 7see p4 #ebf71 on the ,lower ,lingula ,flags of ,north ,wales1--deposits of as great an age1 if not older4 ,the most ancient reptilian ichnolites are those discovered by ,capt4 ,l4 ,brickenden#gaj in the ,old ,red1 at ,cummingston1 near ,elgin1 which have some resemblance to the track of a club-footed ,chelonian 7,ly4 fig4 #eba72 and those of the ,devonian sandstone of ,sharp ,mountain1 ,pennsylvania1 discovered by ,mr4 ,i4 ,lea1#gaa which exhibit distinct toes1 and are probably allied to the ,cheirotherian ichnolites1 about to be mentioned1 as are also other ancient fossil foot-tracks in the ,carboniferous deposits#gab of ,pennsylvania1 which are figured and described in ,ly4 pp4 #ccg-cdj4 #gji ,see ,ornithoidichnites1 in chap1 xviii4 #gaj ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 viii4 p4 #ig1 pl4 iii4 #gaa ,across the ridges of the ripples on this slab is a narrow groove1 passing along between the two rows of foot-prints2 this might have been made by the body or the tail of the animal4 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdi1 ,sect4 pp4 #ef and #acd2 and ,trans4 ,americ4 ,phil4 ,soc4 new series1 vol4 x4 part ii4 plates xxxi4 and xxxii4 #gab ,with regard to the distribution of reptilian life during the carboniferous and succeeding epochs1 see above1 page #gdh4 ,the sandstones of the ,new ,red or ,triassic series frequently retain the track-prints of animals1 and numerous notices of such occurrences have been published4#gac ,in addition to the account of these invaluable evidences of the existence of bygone creatures that is here given1 the attention of students is especially directed to ,dr4 ,buckland's most interesting description and illustrations of such as were known when his ,treatise was published 7,bd4 i4 p4 #bei1 c42 and ii4 p4 #cf1 pl4 xxvi4 c474 #gac ,the following are the principal notices of ichnolites by ,english authors which are not referred to in the text3--,cunningham1 ,yates1 and ,egerton on ,cheirotherian traces in ,cheshire1 ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ab-ae2 ,dr4 ,black on foot-prints at ,runcorn1 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ii4 p4 #fe1 pl4 ii42 ,mr4 ,cunningham4 ,liverpool ,lit4 and ,phil4 ,proc4 #ahdh1 p4 #abi1 plates iii4-v42 ,mr4 ,hawkshaw on the ,new ,red with foot-prints at ,lymm1 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdb1 ,sect4 p4 #ef2 ,mr4 ,rawlinson on the same1 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ix4 p4 #cg2 ,prof4 ,harkness on the track-bearing beds of ,dumfriesshire1 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahej1 ,sect4 p4 #hc2 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 vi4 pp4 #chi and #cic2 and ,annals ,nat4 ,hist4 #ahej1 vol4 vi4 p4 #bjc2 ,sir ,w4 ,jardine1 ,annals ,nat4 ,hist4 loc4 cit4 ,foreign authorities may be found by reference to ,pictet's ,trait de ,palontologie1 a new and enlarged edition1 vol4 i4 #ahec1 p4 #efg1 et seq4 ,the imprints of the feet of some large quadrupeds1 having the fore-paws much smaller than the hinder1 have been found in ,saxony 7see ,wond4 p4 #eee1 ,bd4 p4 xxvi472 and also in strata of the same age in ,warwickshire and ,cheshire4 ,the quarries at ,storeton ,hill1 near ,liverpool1 are celebrated for the abundance and variety of these imprints4#gad ,some of the strata of sandstone in this locality are divided by thin beds of clay2 a lithological structure which admits of the ready separation of the stone in the direction of the sedimentary planes4 #gad ,the ,museums at ,warwick1 ,warrington1 and ,liverpool are rich in impressed slabs from the ,triassic districts4 ,numerous fine specimens may be also seen in the ,museum of the ,geological ,society1 ,somerset ,house1 the ,museum of ,practical ,geology1 in ,jermyn ,street1 and in the ,british ,museum 7see ,petrif4 pp4 #ad and #fc74 ,sidenote3 ,,rain-,,prints ,,on ,,stone4 ,imprints are found on the face of each successive stratum2 and on some of the layers1 not only the tracks of animals that have walked over the clay when soft are distinctly observable1 but the surface is often traversed with casts of the cracks caused by the desiccation of one layer of clay previously to the deposition of the succeeding layer of sand or mud2 and it often presents a blistered or warty appearance1 being covered with either little hemispherical eminences or depressions1 which an accurate investigation of the phenomenon has proved to have been produced by showers of rain 7,ly4 figs4 #ebf-ebh74 ,on the slabs of sandstone1 the forms of the sun-cracks1 rain-drops1 and foot-prints appear in relief1 being casts moulded in the soft clayey mud upon which the original impressions were made2 while on the clay or shale1 corresponding depressions are apparent4#gae #gae ,the impressions of rain-drops on stone were first noticed1 and their origin explained1 by ,mr4 ,cunningham4 ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ii4 ,see also an interesting ,paper by ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 vii4 p4 #bdj4 ,the foot-prints on these strata are of several kinds2 some appear to have been produced by small reptiles and crustaceans2 but the principal imprints are identical with those which have been observed in ,saxony1 and are referable to some large quadruped1 in which the fore-feet were of a much smaller size than the hind-feet 7,lign4 #bde74 ,from a supposed resemblance of the imprints to those of a human hand1 ,professor ,kaup proposed the name of ,cheirotherium1 to designate the unknown animal which had left these footsteps on the sands of ,time4 ,but since ,professor ,owen's discovery1 that the bones and teeth of reptiles found in similar strata in ,warwickshire belong to gigantic ,batrachians1 and since the fore and hind-feet of the frog-tribe are often as dissimilar in size as the impressions of the ,cheirotherium1 it has been suggested1 with much probability1 that the foot-prints in question may be those of ,labyrinthodonts2 but until the form of the feet of these extinct ,batrachians can be ascertained1 this inference must be regarded as conjectural 7,ly4 fig4 #cca74 ,sidenote3 ,,cheirotherium4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bde4 ,cheirotherium ,kaupii4 #a_/h nat4 size4 ,casts of the foot-marks of a gigantic extinct ,batrachian1 probably a ,labyrinthodon2 with casts also of the cracks of the opposed surface4 ,trias4 ,hessburg1 near ,hildburghausen1 ,saxony4 ,fig4 #a4--;,casts of the imprints of a hind and a fore-foot of the same animal4 #b4--,similar tracks of another individual on the same stone4 ,allusion has already been made to foot-prints1 supposed to be those of tortoises 7see p4 #gbi71 on slabs of ,triassic sandstone in ,scotland4 ,of these there are five species at ,corncockle ,muir1 in ,dumfriesshire3 they are termed ,chelichnus by ,sir ,w4 ,jardine1 who has lately described them in his ,ichnology of ,annandale1 a splendid folio work1 illustrated with full-sized lithographs1 coloured after nature4 ,they are accompanied with three other forms of footstep 7,herpetichnus1 ,batrachnis1 and ,actibatis71 one of which ,sir ,w4 ,jardine regards as indicative of an animal probably of a saurian form4 ,at ,grinsill quarry1 from which the remains of the ,rhynchosaurus 7p4 #gab7 were obtained1 some small foot-prints have been observed1 which1 with some probability1 have been referred to that animal 7,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #adf74 ,a beautifully distinct series of foot-prints1 with the mark of a trailing tail1 on a rippled slab from the ,new ,red of ,shrewley ,common1 ,warwickshire1 are figured and described by ,strickland and ,murchison 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 v4 pl4 xvviii474 ,this ichnolite has been provisionally assigned by ,professor ,owen to ,labyrinthodon leptognathus4#gaf ,similar impressions occur in company with other ,cheirotherian imprints at ,storeton ,hill and at ,grinshill4 #gaf ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 p4 #ebe4 ,the probable relations of ,cheirotherium ,hercules to ,labyrinthodon ,jgeri1 and of ,ch4 ,kaupii to ,l4 pachygnathus1 are pointed out by the same high authority1 ibid4 pp4 #ecg1 #ech4 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,reptiles4 ,on ,collecting the ,fossil ,remains of ,reptiles4--,the length to which this article has extended1 compels me to omit a retrospect of the geological distribution of fossil reptiles2 and ,i must refer the reader to the brief review of the ,age of ,reptiles in ,wond4 p4 #efh1 et seq41 and ,petrif4 p4 #adg1 c41 and close this chapter with some directions for collecting reptilian remains1 and a list of a few ,british localities4#gag #gag ,an able ,summary on ,british ,fossil ,reptiles is appended to ,prof4 ,owen's ,report1 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #aia4 ,the fossil ,teeth of ,reptiles are commonly found in as perfect a state of preservation as those of fishes2 and require but the usual care for their preservation4 ,but the collector should assiduously search for vestiges of the jaw and cranium2 and it is desirable to place in the same drawer any undetermined bones found associated with the teeth2 as they may ultimately afford some clue to the nature of the original animal4 ,the microscopical examination of the teeth is to be conducted in the manner previously directed 7p4 #fci72 but for valuable specimens the lapidary should be employed1 and transverse sections made from near the apex1 the middle1 and base of the tooth2 if due care be taken1 several slices may be obtained from one specimen4 ,i have ten slices from one tooth of the ,labyrinthodon4 ,the bones imbedded in limestone generally partake of the chemical character of the rock1 and are often permeated with calcareous spar2 mere fragments1 when polished1 frequently display the internal structure4 ,the suggestions for repairing fossil bones 7p4 #df7 render further instructions on that head unnecessary2 and the description of the development of the specimen of ,hylosaurus 7p4 #fhi7 affords a practical lesson to the young collector4 ,when a vertebra is found in an imperfect state1 it should be closely examined on the spot1 and1 if it present proofs of recent fracture1 the detached processes should be sought for2 even if the body of a vertebra be imbedded in stone1 and the processes appear to have been broken off before it was enveloped in the rock1 the corresponding parts will often be found in the same mass of stone4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum a very fine ,saurian vertebra imbedded in a large slab of ,tilgate stone1 in which the spinous process is seen lying in the same block1 several inches distant from the centrum or body2 when observed in the quarry the latter only was exposed1 and ,i was about to detach it from the slab1 for the convenience of carriage1 when ,i perceived indications of the spinous process4 ,the vertebra was therefore allowed to remain1 and the stone chiselled away1 so as to expose the spine2 and the specimen then displayed its present interesting character4 ,it may frequently happen that a fragment of a large bone1--as1 for example1 the thigh-bone of the ,iguanodon1--may be obtained from a quarry2 and after an interval of some weeks the corresponding portions be discovered4 ,this was remarkably exemplified in the first specimen which revealed to me the peculiar characters of the femur of the ,iguanodon4 ,the lower part1 or condyloid extremity1 of a gigantic bone1 firmly impacted in a block of ,tilgate-grit1 was found in a quarry near ,cuckfield2 it was evidently but a fragment of the fossil1 for the fracture was recent2 ,i therefore requested the quarry-men to make diligent search for the corresponding portion1 but without success4 ,several months afterwards1 upon a fresh explosion in the quarry1 the head of a large bone was found loose among the fallen mass2 but there were no indications that it belonged to the specimen previously found2 and it was regarded as another relic of some one of the colossal animals whose bones were distributed in the ,wealden deposits4 ,teeth1 fragments of bones1 and other fossils were from time to time obtained from the same quarry2 and among these a huge quadrangular fragment of bone1 similar to the enormous mass that had so long been in my possession1 and had defied all attempts to ascertain its character4#gah ,it was some time before it occurred to me1 that the three portions of unknown colossal bone might belong to the same specimen2 but eventually they were found to correspond1 and upon cementing them together1 the femur of the ,iguanodon was1 for the first time1 developed4 #gah ,the fragment alluded to is figured1 ,foss4 ,til4 ,for4 pl4 xviii4 ,the figures in ,lign4 #bjf will assist the collector in recognising the different vertebral processes1 even when occurring as detached fragments4 ,when specimens are evidently rolled or water-worn1 there is1 of course1 no probability that the corresponding portions will be met with4 ,every fragment of a bone the nature of which is not obvious should be carefully preserved2 for sooner or later its characters may be ascertained4 ,it is scarcely necessary again to remind the collector1 that search should be made for indications of the soft parts around the bones2 the specimen of the paddle of the ,ichthyosaurus 7,lign4 #bae1 p4 #ffi71 with its integument1 must have impressed this fact too strongly on the mind to be soon forgotten4 ,if the impression of the extremities of a bone1 of which a fragment only remains1 be observed1 the block of stone should be preserved1 as a cast may be taken1 and the entire form of the original be ascertained4 ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,reptiles4 ,aust ,cliff1 near ,bristol4 ,lias4 ,plesiosaurus4 ,barrow-on-,soar4 ,lias4 ,ichthyosaurus1 ,plesiosaurus4 ,bath4 ,lias4 ,plesiosaurus4 ,battle1 ,sussex4 ,wealden4 ,iguanodon1 ,cetiosaurus1 ,goniopholis1 ,chelonians4 ,binstead1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,upper ,eocene4 ,fresh-water ,tortoises4 ,bognor4 ,lower ,eocene4 ,chelone4 ,bolney1 ,sussex4 ,wealden4 ,hylosaurus1 ,iguanodon1 ,chelonia1 ,goniopholis4 ,bracklesham ,bay4 ,middle ,eocene4 ,crocodiles1 ,serpents1 ,chelonians4 ,brighton4 ,chalk4 ,vertebra of ,mosasaurus or ,leiodon4 ,bristol4 ,lias4 ,ichthyosaurus4 ,brook-,point1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,wealden4 ,iguanodon1 ,cetiosaurus1 c4 ,burham1 near ,maidstone4 ,chalk4 ,chelone1 ,dolichosaurus1 ,pterodactylus4 ,bur wash1 ,sussex4 ,wealden2 quarries in the neighbourhood4 ,goniopholis1 ,turtles4 ,cambridge4 ,lower ,chalk4 ,raphiosaurus1 ,polyptychodon4 ,charmouth4 ,lias4 ,ichthyosaurus4 ,charmouth4 ,lias4 ,ichthyosaurus4 ,cheltenham4 ,lias4 ,ichthyosaurus4 ,chipping ,norton4 ,oolite4 ,streptospondylus4 ,clayton4 ,chalk4 ,coniosaurus4 ,corncockle ,muir1 ,dumfries4 ,new ,red4 ,imprints of feet of ,reptiles4 ,coton-,end1 ,warwickshire4 ,new ,red4 ,labyrinthodon1 c4 ,cubbington1 ,warwickshire4 ,new ,red4 ,labyrinthodon4 ,cuckfield4 ,wealden2 quarries in the vicinity4 ,iguanodon1 ,pelorosaurus1 ,hylosaurus1 ,trionyx1 c4 ,culver ,cliff1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,wealden4 ,streptospondylus4 ,dover4 ,chalk4 ,ichthyosaurus1 ,plesiosaurus4 ,garsington1 ,oxfordshire4 ,oolite4 ,cetiosaurus4 ,glastonbury4 ,lias4 ,ichthyosaurus4 ,grinsill1 ,warwickshire4 ,new ,red4 ,rhynchosaurus4 ,guy's ,cliff1 ,warwick4 ,new ,red4 ,labyrinthodon4 ,harwich4 ,london ,clay4 ,chelonia4 ,hastings4 ,wealden4 ,iguanodon1 ,pelorosaurus1 ,goniopholis1 ,turtles4 ,heddington1 ,oxfordshire4 ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,pliosaurus4 ,hordwell4 ,middle ,eocene4 ,crocodiles1 ,chelonians1 ,serpents4 ,horsham1 ,sussex4 ,wealden2 quarries in the vicinity4 ,hylosaurus1 ,iguanodon1 ,goniopholis1 ,turtles1 c4 ,ilminster4 ,upper ,lias4 ,ichthyosaurus1 ,teleosaurus4 ,kyson1 ,suffolk4 ,eocene4 ,serpent1 ,lizard4 ,leamington4 ,new ,red4 ,labyrinthodon4 ,lewes4 ,chalk4 ,vertebra2 of ,mosasaurus or ,leiodon4 ,lyme ,regis4 ,lias4 ,pterodactyles1 ,ichthyosauri1 and ,plesiosauri in abundance4 ,maidstone4 ,lower ,green ,sand2 quarries near the town2 particularly ,mr4 ,bensted's ,iguanodon quarry4 ,iguanodon1 ,plesiosaurus1 ,polyptychodon1 ,fresh-water ,tortoise4 ,malton4 ,oolite4 ,megalosaurus4 ,market ,rasen4 ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,pliosaurus4 ,norfolk8 ,chalk4 ,leiodon3 very rare4 ,portland1 ,isle of4 ,oolite4 ,turtles4 ,purbeck1 ,isle of4 ,purbeck4 ,goniopholis1 ,chelonians4 ,kim4 ,clay4 ,pliosaurus4 ,redland1 near ,bristol4 ,magnesian ,conglomerate4 ,palosaurus1 ,thecodontosaurus4 ,saltwick4 ,lias4 ,teleosaurus4 ,sheppey1 ,isle of4 ,london ,clay4 ,turtles1 ,serpents1 ,crocodiles4 ,shotover1 near ,oxford4 ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,pliosaurus1 ,teleosaurus4 ,southerham4 ,chalk4 ,mosasaurus1 ,plesiosaurus4 ,stonesfield4 ,oolite4 ,megalosaurus1 ,teleosaurus1 ,pterodactyles4 ,stourton1 ,cheshire4 ,new ,red4 ,foot-prints of reptiles 7,cheirotherium71 c4 ,street1 ,somersetshire4 ,lias4 ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri4 ,swanage1 ,isle of ,purbeck4 ,goniopholis1 ,chelonians4 ,tilgate ,forest4 ,wealden2 quarries in various localities4 ,iguanodon1 ,megalosaurus1 ,hylosaurus1 ,suchosaurus1 ,turtles1 and ,tortoises4 ,watchett1 ,somersetshire4 ,lias4 ,plesiosauri1 ,ichthyosauri4 ,warwick1 ,guy's ,cliff1 near4 ,new ,red4 ,labyrinthodon4 ,westbrook1 ,wilts4 ,kimmeridge ,clay4 ,ichthyosaurus4 ,weston1 near ,bath4 ,lias4 ,plesiosaurus4 ,whitby1 ,yorkshire4 ,lias4 ,ichthyosauri1 ,plesiosauri1 ,teleosaurus4 ,wight1 ,isle of2 along the southern shore1 near ,brook-,point4 ,wealden4 ,iguanodon1 ,cetiosaurus1 c41 washed up on the sea-shore4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,ornitholites2 ,,or ,,fossil ,,birds4 ,excepting in strata of comparatively modern origin1 the remains of ,birds are of extreme rarity in a fossil state4 ,in the caverns that contain the skeletons of carnivorous animals1 and which in many cases were once their dens1 the bones of several species of existing genera of ,birds have been discovered1 in ,england1 on the ,continent1 in ,america1 and in ,australia2 and recently there have been obtained from alluvial deposits in ,new ,zealand the skeletons of ,birds1 some of enormous magnitude1 and under conditions which leave some doubt whether1 like the ,dodo1 the species may not have been extirpated by man during the last few centuries2 or even if some stray individuals of the race may not1 according to the belief of the aborigines1 be still1 in existence in the interior of the country4 ,from the gypsum quarries at ,montmartre1 near ,paris1 ,baron ,cuvier obtained several species of ,ornitholites2 and ,prof4 ,owen has described the relics of three or four species from the ,london ,clay3 these fossil birds of the eocene tertiary deposits are the most ancient relics of this class known to the geologist1 with the exception of the foot-prints on the ,new ,red sandstone of ,north ,america1 that have been referred to animals of this class4 ,the rarity of the remains of ,birds may probably in some measure be attributable1 as ,sir ,c4 ,lyell has suggested1 to the peculiar organization of these animals2 for their power of flight necessarily renders them less liable to be engulphed and imbedded in the deltas of rivers or in the bed of the ocean1 than quadrupeds2 and the lightness of their structure1 occasioned by their tubular bones and feathery dermal integument1 generally prevents the sinking of the bodies of such as die on1 or fall into1 the water2 so that their carcases are devoured or decomposed4 ,in illustration of this subject1 ,i purpose1 in the first place1 to explain such peculiarities in the osteology of the animals of this class1 as may assist the collector in the identification of their fossil remains2 secondly1 to take a cursory survey of the geological distribution of fossil ,birds1 and examine a few of the most interesting examples2 and lastly1 consider the striking phenomena presented by the foot-prints of supposed ,birds on the strata of those ancient deposits which are comprised in the ,trias or ,new ,red formation4 ,sidenote3 ,,osteology ,,of ,,birds4 ,i4 ,osteological ,characters4--,the skull in adult birds presents this remarkable feature1 that it is composed of but one bone without any trace of suture3 the osseous tissue is very compact2 the bone is white1 and very smooth externally4 ,the lower jaw is formed1 as in reptiles1 of several bones1 namely1 articular1 angular1 supra-angular1 and dental2 it is united to the skull by the intervention of a bone 7os quadratum71 as in certain reptiles4 ,both jaws are destitute of teeth1 and are protected by dense horny sheaths1 which form powerful dentary organs4 ,the vertebral column of the neck is exceedingly flexible1 and is composed of a greater number of bones than in any other living animals2 for the cervical verteb1 which in the mammalia amount to seven1 in birds vary from ten to twenty-four1 as in the ,swan4 ,to admit of this extreme mobility of the neck without injury to the enclosed spinal cord1 the annular part1 or neural arch1 of each cervical vertebra is enlarged at the extremities that form a junction with the corresponding bones2 thus presenting a modification of vertebral development directly the reverse of that possessed by the extinct saurian of the ,magnesian conglomerate 7see p4 #gad74 ,the dorsal and sacra vertebral1 on the contrary1 are firmly interlocked1 and often anchylosed together1 and constitute a strong1 inflexible pillar to afford a fixed point of support to the powerful locomotive organs of flight4 ,there are no lumbar1 or rib-less vertebr4 ,the sacrum often consists of eighteen1 twenty1 or more vertebr1 anchylosed into a solid bone4 ,in the young ,ostrich the vertebr may be found separate and distinct2 and the neural arch is shifted to the union of two vertebr1 as in the ,megalosaurus4 ,the sacral spinal cord is almost as large as the brain2 to supply the large muscles4 ,the foramina for the passage of the nerves are double1 one for the sensitive1 and the other for the motive root1 which pass out separately and unite in4 a ganglion externally4 ,the ribs are formed so as to combine strength with lightness in the construction of the walls of the chest1 for each rib has a recurrent apophysis1 or process1 that extends backwards1 and glides over the contiguous bone2 this is a very peculiar and obvious character4#gai ,the ribs are united in front to the sternum by bony processes1 analogous to the costal-arcs of the ,plesiosaurus4 ,the pectoral arch is distinguished by the prominent longitudinal keel or crest of the sternum2 a structure designed to give attachment to the powerful pectoral muscles which move the wings1 and which presents characteristic modifications in the different orders2 and by the peculiar bone1 termed the furcula1 or merry-thought1 which connects the clavicles4 ,the clavicles are strongest and most open in birds of strongest flight4 ,the coracoids 7in birds7 relate to respiration1 and serve to admit of contraction and expansion of the sternum and abdomen4 ,the bones of the anterior extremities are modified to adapt these instruments for the purposes of flight1 and those of the fore-arm 7radius and ulna7 are very long1 and firmly united together2 the ulna has a row of slight eminences for the attachment of the quills of the secondary feathers4 ,the wrist1 or carpus1 is composed of but two bones1 articulated to the radius and ulna1 and which admit only of a lateral movement1 by which the wings are folded close to the body4 ,the bones of the hinder extremities consist of the thigh or femur2#gbj the leg-bones1 tibia#gba and fibula1 the latter very small and anchylosed to the former2 and of a single shank-bone1 which supplies the place of the tarsal and metatarsal bones of other animals4 ,this bone is articulated at its upper extremity to the tibia1 and terminates at the lower end in distinct processes1 which correspond in number with the toes2 each process having a groove for the pulley-like tendon that moves the corresponding toe4 ,this construction is peculiar to birds2 for although in some quadrupeds1 as the horse for example1 the metatarsus consists of but one piece1 the tarsus is composed of several bones4 #gai ,in very old crocodiles an analogous apophysis1 which is generally cartilaginous1 is sometimes found1 ossified 7,owen74 #gbj ,the acetabulum1 or socket for the head of the thigh-bone1 is always perforated4 ,the femur has a surface for the articulation of the fibula2 and by this character the femur of all birds may be distinguished4 ,there is always a patella4 #gba ,the lower end of the tibia is very like that of the femur4 ,the toes of birds present deviations equally recognisable2 for the number of the articulations 7or phalangeal pieces of bone7 in each toe is different4 ,thus the thumb1 or short toe1 has two bones2 the first toe on the inner side three2 the the middle toe four2 and the outer toe five4 ,in general1 three toes are directed forwards1 and one backwards4 ,in some species1 the thumb or opposable toe is altogether wanting2 in others1 as in the swallow1 it is directed forwards2 in climbing birds1 both the outer and the back toe are situated behind4 ,the position of the hind toe1 therefore1 affords an important indication of the habits of the bird 7see ,wond4 p4 #adf1 ,lign4 #bc71 and from a fragment of the lower extremity of the shank or tarso-metatarsal bone1 with any trace of this articulation1 we may determine whether the individual to which it belonged was a climber1 wader1 c4 ,in the toes of ,crocodiles alone1 the number of joints is the same as in birds2 but in these reptiles1 each toe is supported by a distinct metatarsal bone4 ,the osteological peculiarities above enumerated may assist the collector in arriving at some general inferences as to the nature of any fossil remains of birds4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,birds4 ,,ii4 ,ornitholites1 or ,fossil ,birds4--,the fossil remains of birds consist in general of their osseous skeletons1 and of detached bones1 and rarely of the feathers and eggs4 ,pleistocene ,epoch4--,bones of the ,dodo#gbb 7see ,wond4 p4 #aca71 a bird which appears to have become extinct by human agency within the last two centuries1 have been found1 associated with the remains of a recent species of ,tortoise1 beneath a bed of lava in the ,isle of ,france4 ,and in some caverns in the island of ,rodriguez1 the bones of one or more large birds allied to the ,dodo have also been discovered4 #gbb ,see ,penny ,cyclopdia1 ,art4 ,dodo1 and the beautiful work on the natural history of the ,dodo and its ,kindred1 by the late lamented ,mr4 ,strickland and ,dr4 ,melville1 #dto4 ,dinornis 7fearfully great bird74 ,pict4 ,atlas1 frontispiece1 and p4 #agb--,numerous bones of large extinct birds have been obtained in ,new ,zealand by ,mr4 ,rule1 the ,rev4 ,w4 ,williams1 ,col4 ,wakefield1 ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 and others4 ,these have been referred by ,professor ,owen to tridactylous struthious birds 7one of which was one-third larger than the ,african ostrich71 resembling the living ,apteryx of ,new ,zealand 7,wond4 p4 #abh1 ,petrif4 p4 #ajf7 in the proportions of the tibia to the metatarsus1 and also in the rudimental state of the wings4 ,the bones are found in the recent alluvium1 but probably in some cases at least they have been washed by the streams from older alluvial deposits4 ,an account of the history of the discovery of the gigantic ,moa's bones in ,new ,zealand 7,wond4 p4 #abi7 is given in full in ,petrif4 p4 #ic1 et seq42 and the scientific description of the various parts of the skeleton of the ,dinornis and ,palapteryx1 chiefly collected from ,professor ,owen's elaborate and finely illustrated memoirs in the ,transactions of the ,zoological ,society1 should be consulted1 ,petrif4 p4 #ajh1 c4 ,of ,dinornis ,professor ,owen discriminates seven or eight species2 of ,palapteryx1 three species2 and indications of a species of a third associated genus1 ,aptornis4 ,fragments of egg-shell accompany these interesting relics of birds from ,new ,zealand4 ,from ,madagascar also bird-bones and eggs have been obtained in a fossil state1 that indicate the original bird 7pyornis7 to have been even of a greater size than the ,dinornis4 ,ornitholites of the ,caverns4--,many limestone districts abound in fissures and caves1 which vary in extent from more superficial hollows to deep excavations and caverns of considerable magnitude 7,wond4 p4 #age1 c47 ,beneath the stalagmitic or sparry floors of some of these caverns1 the bones of extinct species of ,cats1 ,bears1 and ,hynas1 occur in immense quantities2 but the full consideration of these phenomena will be reserved for the next chapter4 ,the skeletons and detached bones of several kinds of ,birds are often found imbedded with these remains2 and under circumstances which seem to indicate that they were brought into these caverns as prey by the carnivora1 with whose relics they are now associated4 ,some examples show that the birds had fallen into the fissure2 others1 that their bones had been transported to their present situation by the action of water4 ,in the ,cave of ,kirkdale1 in ,yorkshire 7,wond4 p4 #agi71 ,dr4 ,buckland found bones of the ,raven1 ,lark1 ,pigeon1 ,duck1 and others2 and as almost all the specimens were the remains of wing-bones1 it is considered probable that they are the relics of dead birds1 which had been brought into the cave by the hynas1 whose den it is supposed to have been for a considerable period 7,reliqui ,diluvian1 p4 #cd74 ,similar remains have been discovered in the ,kent's ,hole cavern1 and in that at ,berry ,head1 ,torbay2 from the latter ,professor ,owen has obtained the wing-bones of a ,falcon 7,brit4 ,fos4 ,mam4 and ,birds1 p4 #eeh74 ,in ,france1 the ,lunel-,viel caverns have yielded a few bird-bones2 and many such remains occur in the caves of ,brazil1 described by ,m4 ,lund4 ,the so-called bone-breccia of the coasts and islands of the ,mediterranean 7,wond4 p4 #ahe7 contains frequent remains of birds3 they have been especially noticed at ,cette1 ,nice1 ,sardinia1 and ,gibraltar4 ,in the deposits especially referred to the northern drift or ,boulder-clay period1 fossil birds appear to be very rare1 although the remains of vertebrate terrestrial animals are locally abundant4 ,dr4 ,buckland states that some bones1 apparently of a species of goose1 found at ,lawford1 with the remains of ,hyna1 ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 c41 is the only instance he has met with of fossil birds in the drift of ,england 7,reliq4 ,diluv4 p4 #bg74 ,on the ,continent1 bird-bones have been found1 at ,quedlingbourg1 ,meissen1 and in the ,lahn ,valley1 in deposits said to be of this age4 ,ornitholites of the older ,tertiary ,deposits4 7,lign4 #bdf47--,the very rich pliocene deposits at ningen 7p4 #eei7 have afforded a few fragments of birds' bones4 ,three or four species of ,ornitholites 7,duck1 ,heron1 ,flamingo1 c471 and several examples of the eggs of birds1 have been discovered in the lacustrine strata of ,auvergne4 ,birds' bones also occur in the fresh-water limestone near ,issoire1 in the ,buy de ,dme1 associated with the remains of eocene mammalia4 ,in ,germany1 bird-bones have been found in tertiary deposits at ,wiesbaden1 ,wiesnau1 and ,mornbach4 ,in the ,siwalik ,hills the remains of birds are associated with the fossil reptilia and mammalia1 to which reference has already been made 7p4 #gca74 ,from the quarries of gypseous limestone of ,montmartre1 near ,paris1 ,baron ,cuvier obtained many bones1 and some connected portions of the skeletons of several birds related to the ,pelican1 ,sea-lark1 ,curlew1 ,woodcock1 ,owl1 ,buzzard1 and ,quail4#gbc ,in several of these examples there are the imprints and remains of the quills and feathers2 in some the skeleton has perished1 and a pellicle of dark-brown substance1 with the configuration of the original1 alone remains 7see ,lign4 #bdf74 ,these ,ornitholites are associated with the bones of the ,palotheria1 and other extinct mammalia of the eocene period4 ,two or three ,ornitholites have been discovered at ,montmartre1 in which almost the entire skeleton is preserved4 ,in one example1 described by ,cuvier1 the remains of a bird are displayed in such a manner as to render it probable that the animal had fallen on its belly1 and become partially impacted in the surface of the soft gypsum1 which is now become solid stone2 and that1 previously to its being completely enveloped1 the principal part of its head and the left leg were removed either by some voracious animal1 or by the action of the water4 ,in addition to the other parts of the skeleton1 the under side of the bill is very distinctly impressed on the stone1 and the left branch is entire2 there are also the remains of the cellular basis of the skull2 and both the wings are well preserved4 ,nine or ten species of fossil birds were identified by ,cuvier from the ,paris eocene strata4 #gbc ,ossemens ,fossiles1 tom4 iii4 p4 #cjb1 plates lxxii4--lxxv4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,vulture4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bdf4 ,fossil ,bird4 ,eocene4 ,montmartre4 7,cuvier1 ,oss4 ,foss4 vol4 iii4 p4 #cah1 pl4 lxxiii4 fig4 #b47 ,the remains of this individual consist only of a thin brown pellicle1 indicating the form and proportions of the head1 body1 and limbs4 ,lithornis vulturinus4 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d series1 vol4 vi4 p4 #bjf1 pl4 xxi4 figs4 #e and #f4--,under the name of ,lithornis 7petrified-bird71 ,professor ,owen has described the fossil remains of a bird1 consisting of two most characteristic bones1--the sternum and sacrum1--and fragments of other bones1 obtained from the ,london ,clay of the ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,these relics present a close agreement with the corresponding bones of the ,vulture tribe1 but indicate a smaller species of ,vulture than any now known to exist4 ,in his ,history of ,british ,fossil ,mammalia and ,birds1 #ahdf1 ,professor ,owen has also described another sacrum from the ,sheppey ,clay1 a sternum from ,primrose ,hill1 and the cranium of a bird1 probably of the ,halcyonid family1 from the same eocene deposit at ,sheppey4 ,this has also yielded a portion of shank-bone1 which1 according to ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 indicates a bird of the size of a full-grown albatross4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahea4 ,some few specimens of cylindrical bones from the ,chalk and the ,wealden#gbd have been previously referred to ,birds1 and described as remains of species of that family4 ,these fossils1 however1 have lately been reexamined in comparison with more perfect bones of similar character2 and1 with the exception of a few1 the structure of which decidedly has the characters belonging to bird's bone1 the result of this investigation has assigned them to ,pterodactyles4#gbe ,the long thin cylindrical bones from the ,stonesfield ,oolite are probably all ,pterodactylian also1 as suggested by the late ,mr4 ,miller4 #gbd ,one fragment of a bone1 apparently of an ulna1 retained a row of small eminences1 probably the points of attachment for the quills of the secondary feathers of the wings4 ,this specimen would appear to have a decided reference to ornithic structure1 but it was transferred to the ,british ,museum1 and is not now to be seen4 #gbe ,see ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 ii4 p4 #if1 c42 and ,owen's ,monograph on ,chalk ,reptiles1 #ahea1 p4 #hj1 et seq4 ,it is to be hoped that the eminent microscopists1 ,mr4 ,bowerbank and ,professor ,quekett1 may be enabled before long to elucidate the intimate structure of pterodactylian bone2 which1 although of an essentially reptilian type1 has characters of its own1 offering some resemblances to bird-structure1 that have not yet been fully described4 ,some specimens of bones from the ,wealden 7for instance1 the specimen figured in ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 v4 pl4 xiii4 fig4 #f1 and ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv4 pl4 i4 fig4 #i17 exhibit under the microscope an intimate structure resembling that seen in bird-bone1 in contradistinction to that characteristic of reptilian bone4 ,but until we are better acquainted with the microscopic structure of the osseous tissue of the ,pterosaurians1 and are in possession of more perfect specimens of bones1 it cannot be satisfactorily determined to what extent the class of ,birds existed in the country of the ,iguanodon4 ,sidenote3 ,,ornithoidichnites4 ,,iii4 ,ornithoidichnites4 7,bird-like foot-prints47 ,ligns4 #bdg1 #bdh4 ,bd4 pl4 xxvi4 a1 xxvi4b4--,the palontological history of the class of birds1 as evidenced by the foregoing pages1 is carried back but to a comparatively recent era in the earth's history3 and indeed1 in the present state of our knowledge1 it may be said that all positive evidence of the former existence of this highly organized class of vertebrated animals is confined to the ,tertiary and ,wealden deposits4 ,a most interesting discovery1 however1 by ,dr4 ,james ,deane1#gbf of ,greenfield1 ,u4 ,s4 seems to prove that numerous bird-like bipeds1 and some of gigantic size1 existed at the period when the ,triassic or ,new ,red strata were in the progress of formation2 that period1 as the reader will remember1 in which the ,labyrinthodonts and other extraordinary reptiles flourished4 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahda1 p4 #bcj1 note4 #gbf ,see ,illustrations of ,fossil ,foot-prints of the ,valley of the ,connecticut1 #ahdi1 #dto4 with nine plates4 ,in certain localities of the ,new ,red sandstone in the valley of the ,connecticut1 numerous tridactyle markings had been occasionally observed on the surfaces of the slabs of stone when split asunder1 in like manner as the ripple-marks appear on the successive layers of sandstone in ,corncockle ,muir1 ,tilgate ,forest1 c4 ,some remarkable distinct impressions of this kind at ,turner's ,falls 7,massachusetts7 happening to attract the attention of ,dr4 ,deane1 that sagacious observer was struck with their resemblance to the foot-marks left on the mud-banks of the adjacent river by the aquatic birds which had recently frequented the spot4 ,the conviction that the imprints on the stone were referable to a similar origin with those on the mud was so strongly impressed on his mind1 that he immediately collected a series of specimens1 and communicated his discovery and opinion to ,professor ,e4 ,hitchcock1 who followed up the inquiry with a zeal and success that have led to the most interesting results4 ,no reasonable doubt now exists that the imprints in question have been produced by the tracks of bipeds1 impressed on the stone when in a soft state4 ,the announcement of this extraordinary phenomenon was first made by ,professor ,hitchcock1 in the ,american ,journal of ,science 7,january1 #ahcf72 and that eminent geologist has subsequently published full descriptions of the different species of imprints which he has detected1 with excellent lithographs1 in his ,geology of ,massachusetts4 7,see ,petrif4 pp4 #fd-gc47 ,three highly interesting specimens of the ,ornithoidichnites of ,north ,america1 collected and developed by ,dr4 ,james ,deane1 have been lately added to the collection of organic remains in the ,british ,museum4 ,they exhibit several varieties of the foot-prints1 and are in a very fine state of preservation4 ,the surface of the largest slab is eight feet by six1 and bears upwards of seventy distinct impressions1 disposed in several tracks1 as shown in the ,lign4 #bdg4 ,the direction and disposition of the foot-tracks are rendered more distinct by the lines drawn from one imprint to another in the consecutive series4 ,the principal tracks on this slab1 ,lign4 #bdg1 are as follow2 ,fig4 #a to #a1 directed from below upwards1 is a track consisting of six large footsteps4 #b to #b1 from above downwards2 a track of four foot-prints1 disposed almost in a right line1 and very far apart4 #c to #c1 a track of five foot-prints1 from above downwards1 of a large1 heavy animal1 like fig4 #a4 #d to #d1 from above downwards1 four foot-prints like fig4 #b1 disposed in a nearly straight track1 and far apart4 #e1 a track of five heavy foot-prints1 directed obliquely upwards4 #f to #f1 five foot-prints of a large biped1 in a track from below upwards4 #g1 a series of five delicate foot-prints4 #h to #h1 a track of eleven very small foot-prints1 disposed in zigzag1 and extending obliquely from the right extremity to the upper edge of the slab4 #i to #i1 a track of four large and distant foot-prints1 passing obliquely across the stone from left to right4 ,i subjoin also a representation of one of the smaller foot-prints1 of the natural size1 the surface of the stone being sprinkled also with hemispherical markings produced by drops of rain4 7,lign4 #bdh47 ,a ,slab of ,new ,red ,sandstone 7eight feet by six71 from ,turner's ,falls1 ,massachusetts1 ,united ,states1 covered with numerous ,foot-marks of ,bipeds2 indicating the ,tracks of ten or twelve individuals1 of various sizes4 ,discovered by ,dr4 ,james ,deane1 of ,greenfield1 ,massachusetts4 ,this ,specimen is now in the ,british ,museum4--7,from the ,american ,journal of ,science1 vol4 xlvi4 p4 #gc47 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bdg4 ,ornithoidichnites1 or ,imprints of the ,footsteps of ,bipeds with ,bird-like ,feet1 on ,sandstone4 ,to face p4 #ggj4 ,sidenote3 ,,ornithoidichnites4 ,the above will suffice to give the reader a general idea of the nature of these extraordinary impressions4 ,a few shapeless fragments of bones are the only vestiges of the skeletons of any animals1 with the exception of fishes1 that have been found in the strata which have furnished the slabs of ,ornithoidichnites4 ,some ,coprolites also have been discovered4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bdh4 ,bird-like ,footprint1 and impressions of ,rain-drops1 on ,sandstone 7nat474 ,new ,red ,formation2 ,massachusetts4 ,amer4 ,journ4 of ,science1 7#ahdc17 vol4 xlvi4 p4 #gc4 ,the enormous size of some of the foot-marks is calculated to excite great surprise4 ,i have in my possession 7through the kindness of ,dr4 ,deane7 imprints that prove the size of the foot to have been fifteen inches in length1 and ten inches in width1 exclusive of the hind claw1 which is present in some species1 and is here two inches long4 ,the foot-prints of this biped when in a consecutive series of five or six1 are from four to six feet apart2 which1 of course1 must have been the length of the stride2 the longest stride was probably made by the animal when running2 the shortest1 when walking at a moderate pace4 ,these footsteps indicate proportions so far exceeding those of all known living bipeds1--for the foot of the ,african ostrich is but ten inches long1--that the geologist may be pardoned for having hesitated to adopt the opinions of the ,american savans1 in the absence of any relics of the osseous structure of the supposed birds2 although sanctioned by the high authority of ,dr4 ,buckland1 who1 from the first1 concurred in the views of ,professor ,hitchcock 7,bd4 ii4 p4 #ci73 but this objection has been in a great measure removed by the discovery of the remains of the gigantic ,moa or ,dinornis of ,new ,zealand1 with feet equal in magnitude to the largest of the ,connecticut foot-prints4 ,see p4 #gfc1 and ,pict4 ,atlas1 frontispiece4 ,professor ,hitchcock is of opinion that upwards of forty species of these biped foot-prints may be distinguished4 ,foot-prints referable to chelonians1 batrachians1 and lizards are associated with the above4#gbg #gbg ,trans4 ,amer4 ,phil4 ,soc4 n4 s4 vol4 x4 pt4 ii4 p4 #cab4 ,in the ,new ,red ,sandstone of ,stourton ,hill1 near ,liverpool1 ,mr4 ,cunningham has observed tridactylous1 webbed foot-prints1#gbh #b-a_/b inches long1 which he refers to a bird2 ,mr4 ,hawkshaw also noticed some bird-like tracks at ,lymm2 and ,professor ,harkness met with a trace of a biped at ,weston ,point1 near ,runcorn4 ,these appear to be the only indications of ornithoidichnites in the ,trias of ,england2 and these are very obscure4 #gbh ,these are accompanied by cheirotherian prints1 and by the cast of an impression quite similar to that made on the sands of the sea-beach of to day1 by the ,medusa 7sea-nettle or jelly-fish7 left by the reflux of the tide and exposed to a few hours of sunshine4 ,mr4 ,cunningham and ,mr4 ,pidgeon have furnished a figure of this interesting impression of the jelly-fish1 which has left the solid memorial of its evanescent existence en the ancient strand of the ,triassic sea1 showing that the physical conditions of land1 water1 and atmosphere were the same then as those that now obtain4--,liverpool ,lit4 ,phil4 ,soc4 ,proc4 #ahdh1 p4 #abh1 fig4 #a4 ,a similar imprint on a ,jurassic rock in ,germany is referred to at p4 #bhj4 ,in the ,wealden of ,hastings and the ,isle of ,wight1 the natural casts of large tridactylous foot-prints have been observed by ,mr4 ,taggart and ,mr4 ,beckles 7see ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #bfg1 vol4 vii4 p4 #aag1 vol4 viii4 p4 #cif1 and ,geol4 ,isle of ,wight1 p4 #cbh71 but as yet no solution of the mystery at present enwrapping these gigantic1 tridactylous1 biped 787 ichnolites has presented itself3 we only know that the creature that left them traversed the borders of the mighty river which floated down the bulky carcases of the ,hylosaur and ,iguanodon4 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,birds4 ,on ,collecting the ,fossil ,remains of ,birds4--,notwithstanding the extreme rarity of fossils of this class1 the student should not be discouraged in his search for the remains of ,birds in the secondary rocks4 ,that far more instructive specimens than any that have fallen under my observation may be discovered in the ,wealden strata by diligent research1 there can be no reasonable doubt4 ,it is also very probable that the ,stonesfield slate1 which abounds in remains of terrestrial plants and animals1 will be found to contain ,ornitholites4 ,it is important for the collector to bear in mind1 that when only a fragment of the shaft of a bone remains imbedded in the stone1 if the imprint of the other portions be preserved1 he may obtain a knowledge of the form of the extremities2 in the same manner as the external markings of the surface of a shell may be ascertained1 when the shell itself is lost or destroyed1 and a smooth stony cast of the internal cavity only is left4 ,the same remark will apply to the bones of reptiles and other animals2 for example1 a perfect leg-bone may be imbedded in a block of limestone2 but1 when exposed by breaking the stone1 a portion of the shaft may alone remain attached1 and both extremities be shattered to pieces by the concussion of the blow2 yet1 if the impression remains1 the entire form of the original may be determined4 ,the foot-prints1 not only of birds1 but of reptiles and other animals1 should be diligently sought for on the surfaces of laminated strata of sand and clay1 and especially where the presence of ripple-marks1 and the impressions of rain-drops1 indicate that the beds were deposited in shallow water4 ,the forest-marble flags at ,castle ,comb1 north of ,bath1 the ,stonesfield slates1 and the sandstones around ,horsham 7in ,sussex71 and particularly at ,stammerham 7see ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #bac71 are often rippled1 and it is therefore probable that the foot-prints of some of the ,oolitic and ,wealden quadrupeds and bipeds1 if such existed1 will sooner or later be discovered4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,fossil ,,mammalia4 ,the remains of ,mammalia discovered in a fossil state include an immense number of species1 and furnish examples of almost every living genus1 and of numerous genera1 and even orders1 of which no existing species are known4 ,yet amidst the vast accumulations of the skeletons of the higher orders of vertebrata contained in the tertiary deposits1 and in the superficial drift1 belonging to species which have successively appeared on the surface of our planet1 flourished for indefinite periods of time1 and then become annihilated1 no vestiges of ,man1 or of his works1 have been detected4 ,human skeletons1 naturally imbedded1 have hitherto only been observed in the silt of modern alluvial plains1#gbi in peat-bogs 7,wond4 p4 #fd71 and in conglomerates of recent date1 such as are in the progress of formation on the sea-shores1 particularly where the water is loaded with the detritus of shells and corals1 and the waves transport the calcareous matter along the margins of creeks and bays1 or deposit it in the shallows along the coast 7see ,wond4 p4 #hg1 and ,petrif4 p4 #dhc74 #gbi ,there seems1 however1 reason to believe that the human skulls and bones found with elephantine and other remains in the ,alps of ,swabia1 are of contemporaneous origin with these extinct mammals4 7,see ,literary ,gazette1 #ahec1 p4 #ajbg47 ,the geological distribution of fossil mammalia1#gcj--the occurrence of the entire carcases of extinct species of ,elephant and ,rhinoceros in blocks of ice 7,wond4 p4 #aea71--of recent species in the superficial alluvial clay and silt1--of recent and extinct forms in the ,drift or ,pleistocene deposits 7,wond4 p4 #adg71--of the gradual preponderance of unknown species and genera1 in proportion as we carry back our retrospect to the most ancient ,tertiary strata 7,wond4 p4 #bed71 --the sudden disappearance of all vestiges of the entire ,class of ,mammalia1 with the last bed of the ,eocene deposits1--with the exception of a few minute jaws in one set of beds of the ,oolite in ,england 7,wond4 p4 #eaj71 and of a few teeth in the ,trias 787 of ,germany1#gca the sole records of the existence of any of the highest types of animal organization throughout the vast periods of the secondary formations--are so fully treated of in the ,wonders of ,geology1 that ,i need not dwell upon the subject in the present volumes4 ,neither is it desirable to enter at large upon this department of ,palontology1 for it were vain to attempt the elucidation of the anatomical characters of but one extinct species of ,mammalia1 without giving details of structure1 that could only be successfully demonstrated in a work expressly devoted to the subject4 ,referring1 therefore1 to ,cuvier's ,ossemens ,fossiles1 and to ,professor ,owen's ,history of the ,british ,fossil ,mammalia1 #hvo4 #ahdf1 ,i must limit my remarks on the ,fossil ,mammalia to a brief summary of modern discoveries1 with suggestions for the identification and collection of some of the most interesting or prevalent remains4 #gcj ,for a notice of the distribution of mammalian remains in the ,upper ,tertiaries of ,europe1 see ,phillips's ,geology1 #ahec1 vol4 i4 p4 #de1 c4 #gca ,for an account of these teeth of small insectivorous mammals from the bone-bed of ,wrtemberg1 which has an analogous position at the top of the ,trias with the bone-bed of ,axmouth and ,aust ,cliff1 see ,ly4 p4 xiv4 figs4 #ebi-eca4 ,the fossil remains of ,mammalia will be considered under the following heads3-- ,i4 ,cetacea1 or animals of the ,whale tribe4 ,,ii4 ,ruminantia2 including the ,camel1 ,giraffe1 ,deer1 ,sheep1 ,ox1 c4 ,,iii4 ,pachydermata2 comprising the ,proboscideans1 as the ,elephant1 and the ordinary ,pachyderms1 as the ,rhinoceros1 ,horse1 ,swine1 c4 ,,iv4 ,edentata3 animals without teeth1 or with only molars1 as the ,ant-eater1 ,sloth1 ,megatherium1 ,mylodon1 c4 ,v4 ,rodentia1 or ,gnawers2 as the ,hare1 ,beaver1 ,rat1 c4 ,,vi4 ,marsupialia2 animals with an abdominal pouch1 as the ,kangaroo1 ,opossum1 c4 ,,vii4 ,carnivora2 including the ,bats1 ,moles1 and the carnivorous tribes in general4 ,,viii4 ,quadrumana2 ,apes and ,monkeys4 ,,ix4 ,bimana2 or ,man4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,whales4 ,i4 ,fossil ,cetacea4#gcb--,the ,cetaceans1 although popularly termed fishes1 are as perfect air-breathing vertebrated animals1 as the terrestrial mammalia1 and1 like them1 give suck to their young4 ,instead of fore-feet or arms1 they have a pair of fins or paddles1 but are destitute of hinder extremities1 the place of the latter organs being supplied by a powerful cartilaginous horizontal fin1 appended to the tail4 ,the ,cetaceans1 therefore1 differ in this respect from the fossil marine reptiles1 the ,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus 7see p4 #ffb71 which have two pairs of paddles4 ,this order1 as is well known1 comprises the most colossal forms of animal existence1--the ,whales4 ,some are herbivorous1 others carnivorous2 many have powerful teeth2 others are edentulous1 the jaw being furnished with a series of elongate plates of the substance familiarly known by the name of whale-bone4 #gcb ,cetacea3 an order of aquatic mammalia1 comprising the ,w hales1 ,narwhals1 ,porpoises1 ,dolphins1 and ,dugongs4 ,the fossil remains of ,cetaceans have1 for the most part1 been observed in alluvial silt and beds of drift1 in valleys still traversed by rivers2 but many examples have been discovered in elevated sea-beaches1 proving that1 although1 geologically speaking1 these beds are of modern origin1 yet great changes in the relative level of the land and sea must have taken place since these remains were imbedded4 ,thus1 on the banks of the river ,forth1 near ,alloa1 in ,scotland1 the skeleton of a ,whale 7,balnoptera71 seventy-two feet long1 was discovered imbedded in clay1 twenty feet above the highest tide4#gcc ,cuvier mentions the discovery of bones of a ,lamantin at ,angers2 of a ,dolphin1 and ,rorqual1 in ,lombardy2 and of a ,grampus1 in the pliocene of the ,sub-,apennines4#gcd #gcc ,dr4 ,fleming's ,british ,animals1 p4 #ci4 #gcd ,for notices and descriptions of ,cetacean remains found in ,england1 see ,owen's ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mammalia1 p4 #eaf1 et seq4 ,otolithes of ,cetaceans4--,petro-tympanic bones of several large whales have been found in great numbers in the red ,crag of ,felixstow2 among them is one of the genus ,physeter1 or ,sperm-,whale4#gce #gce ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc4 for #ahde1 p4 #da2 and ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #ebf1 c4 ,brighton ,fossil ,whale4--,an interesting discovery of the anterior half of one side of the lower jaw of a ,whale1 undoubtedly coeval with the extinct ,mammoth 7,elephas primigenius71 was made in #ahbh in the ,cliff1 east of ,kemp ,town1 ,brighton1 under the following circumstances4 ,on the face of the ,cliff1 in the ancient shingle which lies immediately upon the chalk and is surmounted by beds of calcareous rubble1 containing bones and teeth of ,elephants1 to the height of one hundred and twenty feet1 some fishermen had observed a huge bone1 that had been laid bare by an unusually high tide and now projected two or three feet beyond the face of the ,cliff4 ,unable to remove it1 they broke off the extremity1 a fragment of which was sent to me4 ,upon repairing to the spot a few days afterwards1 ,i found that the fishermen had renewed their attack1 and demolished a considerable portion of the bone in ineffectual attempts to dislodge it from its bed2 and had desisted only from the apprehension of being buried beneath the overhanging cliff1 which is composed of loosely aggregated materials4 ,unfortunately1 the bone extended directly into the cliff1 and it required several hours of labour1 not unattended with danger1 before an excavation was made sufficiently large to expose the entire specimen4 ,it proved to be the anterior nine feet of the left branch of the lower jaw of a whale-bone ,whale 7,balna mysticetus74 ,it was of a light fawn colour externally1 but the internal coarse osseous structure was delicately white2 it was extremely brittle1 and1 upon attempting to move it1 broke into a thousand pieces4 ,time would not permit of the application of a coating of plaster of ,paris1 for ere we had completed our task the tide was rapidly approaching1 or this interesting relic might have been extracted entire4 ,this portion of lower jaw1 before it was mutilated by the fishermen1 was twelve feet long1 and thirty-six inches in circumference at the largest extremity4 ,it must have belonged to a ,whale from sixty to seventy feet in length4#gcf #gcf ,the fragments of this jaw that were preserved are now exhibited in the ,british ,museum1 in ,room ,v4 ,in the fluviatile silt of the valley of the ,ouse1 near ,lewes 7,wond4 p4 #fc71 the skull of a ,porpoise and a portion of the cranium1 with the socket of the long straight tooth1 of a ,narwhal 7,monodon monoceros71 were found twelve feet beneath the surface of the soil4 ,the bones of an herbivorous ,cetacean1 the ,manatus1 a genus now peculiar to the torrid zone1 have been found in the eocene strata in various parts of ,france1 associated with those of the ,palotheria and other extinct mammalia of the ,paris basin4 ,sidenote3 ,,zeuglodon4 ,zeuglodon cetoides4 ,lign4 #bdi4gcg--,the remains of a very remarkable ,cetacean1 of an extinct genus1 were first made known by ,dr4 ,harlan1 of ,philadelphia1 who obtained a considerable portion of the jaws with teeth1 vertebr1 and other bones of an animal of enormous size1 from ,alabama and ,arkansas1 ,united ,states4 ,these relics were discovered in tertiary 7eocene7 limestone1 associated with a marine shelly conglomerate1 from a cliff near the bed of the river ,owachita4 ,when first observed1 the bones extended along the face of the rock1 with intervals between them1 to the extent of one hundred feet1 and the animal to which they belonged must have exceeded seventy feet in length4 ,dr4 ,harlan ascribed these bones to an unknown reptile1 which he called ,basilosaurus 7king of the lizards72 but a more correct investigation1 by ,professor ,owen1 proved their cetacean character1 and the peculiar form of the worn molar teeth suggested the name of ,zeuglodon 7yoke-tooth74 #gcg ,owen1 ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 p4 #fi1 c41 plates vii4 viii4 ix42 ,harlan's ,medical and ,physical ,researches1 p4 #ccg1 c42 ,gibbes1 ,journ4 ,acad4 ,nat4 ,sc4 ,philadelphia1 #b;d ser4 #ahdg1 vol4 i4 pp4 #e and #af2 ,bulkley1 ,silliman's ,journal1 vol4 xliv4 p4 #dji2 ,carus1 ,nova ,acta ,cur4 ,nat4 vol4 xxii4 pt4 ii4 #ahdh4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bdi4 ,zeuglodon cetoides4 ,portion of the ,jaw1 with ,teeth1 and a ,vertebra4 ,eocene4 ,alabama1 ,united ,slates4 ,fig4 #a4--,portion of the ,upper ,jaw1 with three teeth3 #a_/h nat4 a4 ,the exposed fang of a tooth4 #b4--,transverse section of the base of the crown of a tooth1 showing the deep constriction in the middle3 #a_/d nat4 #c4--;,a caudal vertebra3 #a_/ab nat4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bej4 ,teeth of ,zeuglodon3 #a_/b nat4 ,eocene4 ,france and ,n4 ,america4 ,fig4 #a4--,upper tooth of ,z4 squalodon2 from near ,bordeaux4 #b4--,molar tooth of ,z4 cetoides2 from ,alabama1 ,united ,states4 #c4--;,canine tooth of ,z4 cetoides4 ,the teeth 7,lign4 #bej7 are of two kinds1 some having but one fang1 and others two1 implanted in separate sockets and placed obliquely in the jaw2 they are of a compressed1 conical form1 with an obtuse apex1 the crown being deeply conjugate1 or contracted in the middle1 as shown in the transverse section1 ,lign4 #bdi1 fig4 #b4 ,they are devoid of enamel1 but the dentine is coated with cement1 and their structure is decidedly mammalian2 and a microscopical examination1 ,professor ,owen states1 incontestably proves their cetacean character4 ,the longitudinal diameter of the middle tooth is three inches4 ,the vertebr resemble those of the large cetacean known by the name of ,hyperoodon2 a caudal vertebra is figured ,lign4 #bdi1 fig4 #c4 ,the original animal was related to the ,dugong and ,cacholot1 and appears to have held an intermediate place between the latter and the herbivorous species4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,ruminants4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bea4 ,teeth of a ,ruminant4 ,pleistocene4 ,gibraltar4 ,imbedded in a mass of the osseous breccia4 ,,ii4 ,fossil ,ruminants4 7,owen's ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #ddd1 et seq47--,the fossil bones of animals of this order are very numerous in the alluvial deposits1 in caves1 and in pleistocene deposits1 in almost every part of the world4 ,they are generally associated with the remains of the next group4 ,the skulls of ,oxen1 and horns and bones of the ,bison and ,auroch1 have been found in ,north ,cliff1 ,yorkshire1 at ,walton in ,essex1 and other parts of ,england4 ,the fossil oxen appear to have been one-third larger than the recent species2 and the horns are relatively more massive than in the domestic race2 some of the horns measure four feet across1 at the widest expansion4 ,in the immense accumulations of large mammalia in the tertiary beds of the ,sub-,himalayan or ,siwalik range1 numerous remains of oxen occur4 ,the teeth of one species are often found in the ,elephant-bed at ,brighton4 ,of the ,deer family the relics of several kinds have been discovered in ,drift and ,caverns4 ,the cave of ,kirkdale alone contained the remains of three species4#gch ,the bones of a species that cannot be distinguished from the common ,bed ,deer are found in the modern shell-marls of ,scotland1 associated with the remains of oxen1 horse1 boar1 dog1 wolf1 and beaver4 ,the bones and antlers of the ,reindeer have been found at ,brentford and other places 7,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #dgi2 and ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahea4 ,sect4 p4 #fi74 ,the ossiferous caverns1 which contain bones of ,carnivora1 also yield those of ,deer2 as the caves of ,kirkdale and ,banwell1 c4 in ,england1 and the celebrated caverns of ,muggendorf1 on the ,continent4 ,a species of ,musk-deer has been found at ,epplesheim2 and bones of deer are associated with those of the ,dinotherium1 in ,rhenish ,hesse1 in late ,tertiary deposits4 ,the teeth and a lower jaw1 with other bones1 of a species of deer1 were obtained from the ,brighton ,elephant bed 7,wond4 p4 #aad74 #gch ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,buckland's ,reliqui ,diluvian2 or1 ,observations on the ,organic ,remains found in ,caves1 ,fissures1 and ,gravel2 #a vol4 #dto4 #ahbc1 pl4 viii4 and ix4 ,the most celebrated fossil animal of this family is the ,gigantic ,stag or ,deer of ,ireland 7see ,petrif4 p4 #dee2 ,wond4 p4 #acb71 whose bones and antlers are found in immense quantities in superficial marl1 in ,ireland1 in the ,isle of ,man1 and occasionally in ,england4 7,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv4 p4 #db47 ,a skeleton that was found1 almost entire1 in marl abounding in fresh-water shells1 at the depth of twenty feet1 is six feet high1 nine feet long1 and nine and a half feet in height1 to the top of the right horn4 ,some antlers are so large1 that the interspace from one point to the other exceeds twelve feet4#gci #gci ,see ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 lxxi42 a good figure of the skeleton of the fossil ,irish ,deer is given in the ,penny ,cyclopdia1 vol4 viii4 p4 #cfd2 for a detailed account of this gigantic animal1 see ,owen's ,foss4 ,brit4 ,mammalia1 p4 #ddd1 and ,charlesworth's ,journal1 p4 #hg4 ,the ,giraffe1 the tallest of known quadrupeds1 and now restricted to the deserts of ,africa1 was once a native of ,europe and ,asia1 for fossil bones of a species of this remarkable ruminant have been found at ,issoudun1 in ,france1 and in the ,siwalik mountains1 with several varieties of ,elk and ,deer4 ,of the ,camel1 the only ruminant with incisor teeth in the upper jaw1 a gigantic species has been discovered by ,dr4 ,falconer and ,captain ,cautley1 in the ,siwalik range4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #beb4 ,bones of the ,feet of ,horse1 ,deer1 and ,anoplotherium4 ,fig4 #a4--;,fore-foot of the ,horse4 #b4 ---- ,deer4 #c4 ---- ,anoplotherium gracile4 m1 m4 ,metacarpal bones 7canon-bone in the ,horse47 s1 in fig4 #a1 the splint-bone1 or rudimentary metacarpal4 p1 p4 ,first or proximal phalangeal-bones 7pastern in the ,horse74 p#b1 p#b4 ,second phalangeals 7coronet or crown-bone in the ,horse74 u1 u4 ,unguals1 or bones of the hoof 7coffin-bone in the ,horse74 ,in this category we must notice another most interesting discovery of the indefatigable and eminent naturalists above mentioned1 namely1 the ,sivatherium 7see ,wond4 p4 #afc71 an extinct animal1 which forms1 as it were1 a link between the ruminants and the large pachydermata4 ,the skull has four persistent horns1 and was furnished with a nasal proboscis4 ,the living creature must have resembled an immense ,antelope or ,gnu1 with a short thick head and an elevated cranium1 crested with two pairs of horns4 ,a splendid specimen of the skull of the ,sivatherium has been placed in the palontological collection of the ,british ,museum by ,dr4 ,falconer 7,petrif4 p4 #def1 ,lign4 #ih74 ,sidenote3 ,,elephant4 ,,mastodon4 ,,iii4 ,pachydermata4#gdj--,the fossil remains of this order of mammalia are most abundant1 and belong to numerous species1 comprising many extinct genera of a highly interesting character4 ,see ,pictet's ,palontologie1 new edit4 #ahec1 vol4 i4 p4 #abg1 et seq4 #gdj ,see ,owen on the ,classification of the ,pachydermata1 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv4 p4 #abg1 c4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bec4 ,elephas ,ganesa4 ,front view of the ,cranium and ,tusks4 7,the original is #ad feet long47 ,fossil ,elephants and ,mastodons4 ,lign4 #bec1 #bed1 #beh-bfj4 ,owen's ,hist4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #bag1 c42 ,wond4 pp4 #adg1 #aeg4--,the bones1 teeth1 and tusks of ,elephants1 equal in magnitude to1 and distinct from the existing ,african and ,asiatic species1 are scattered throughout the superficial alluvial and pleistocene accumulations of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bed4 ,mastodon giganteus4 ,unworn ,molar ,tooth3 #a_/c nat4 size4 ,upper ,tertiary4 ,banks of the ,hudson1 ,n4 ,america4 ,the fossil bones and teeth 7,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 lxxi4 lxxiv47 of these gigantic animals are so abundant1 that examples may be found in all the provincial1 and in most private collections2 and the ,british ,museum possesses an unrivalled series of specimens of both groups of these colossal herbivorous mammalia1 namely1 the ,elephants properly so called and the ,mastodons 7,petrif4 pp4 #dfc1 #dga74 ,it contains an invaluable series of specimens from the ,siwalik hills1 presented by ,capt4 ,cautley and ,dr4 ,falconer 7,petrif4 p4 #dfi72 amongst which are remains in which the dental organs present every modification of structure1 from that of the mastoid tubercles of the tooth of the ,mastodon1 to the vertical lamin of cement1 enamel1 and dentine of the ,elephant4 ,the ,museum also possesses the entire skeleton of the ,mastodon 7,petrif4 ,lign4 #ajg7 formerly exhibited by ,m4 ,koch1 as well as the fine suite of jaws and teeth obtained by the same indefatigable collector4 ,this collection demonstrates that all the bones and teeth1 apparently of several species1 and1 as some have supposed1 of distinct genera1 belong but to the one grand ,mastodon--the ,m4 giganteus of ,cuvier2 it also clearly proves that the young mastodon had a pair of tusks placed horizontally in the lower jaw2 and that but one of these tusks became developed in the adult1 and that only in the male4#gda #gda ,this remarkable circumstance1 in the infancy of palontological science1 gave rise to a very venial error2 it was made to constitute the character of a new genus1 to which the name ,tetracaulodon was applied4 ,it is therefore unnecessary to enlarge upon this subject1 for an inspection of a few specimens will afford the student a clearer insight into the structure of the skeletons and teeth of these animals than any description4 ,the form of the teeth1 and the disposition of the dental elements1 are illustrated in ,wond4 p4 #adc1 and ,ly4 p4 #aei4 ,sidenote3 ,,dinotherium4 ,dinotherium4 ,petrif4 p4 #dgd2 ,wond4 p4 #agc2 ,bd4 i4 p4 #ace1 pl4 ii4--,at ,epplesheim1 forty miles north-east of ,darmstadt1 in beds of sand and marl of the median ,tertiary formations1 the jaws1 teeth1 skull1 and other remains of the ,dinothere1 one of the most gigantic of terrestrial mammalians1 have been discovered2 they are preserved in the museum at ,darmstadt4 ,the length of the largest species is estimated at eighteen feet4 ,the teeth had previously been found in ,france1 ,bavaria1 and ,austria2 and1 from their close analogy to those of the ,tapir1 were described by ,cuvier as belonging to an extinct colossal animal of that genus4 ,but subsequent discoveries have shown that the ,dinotherium was probably a proboscideal animal1 and had two large curved tusks directed downwards in the anterior extremity of the lower jaw4#gdb #gdb ,there are some fine specimens1 and good models of the ,darmstadt specimens1 in the ,british ,museum 7,petrif4 p4 #dgd74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bee4 ,anoplotherium ,commune4 ,eocene ,tertiary4 ,montmartre4 ,restored outline of the animal2 after ,cuvier4 7,the original was about the size of an ,ass47 ,sidenote3 ,,cuvierian ,,pachyderms4 ,cuvierian ,pachyderms4 ,lign4 #bee1 #bef4 ,owen's ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #bii1 c42 ,wond4 p4 #bed2 ,bd4 i4 p4 #ha2 ,petrif4 p4 #dge4--;,a large proportion of the numerous bones and teeth which are found in the ,tertiary gypseous deposits at ,montmartre1 near ,paris1 are referable to the several extinct genera of ,pachydermata1 which the genius of ,cuvier first made known4 ,the ,palotheria and ,anoplotheria must be familiar to the intelligent reader1 for the restored outlines of several species are appended to almost every work that treats of the ancient inhabitants of our globe4 ,the details of their anatomical characters are given at length in ,oss4 ,foss4 tom4 iii41 illustrated with numerous plates4 ,the ,palotheria 7,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #caf1 et seq47 resembled the ,tapirs in their head and short proboscis1 while their molar teeth approached those of the ,rhinoceros1 and their feet were divided into three toes1 instead of four1 as in the ,tapirs4 ,upwards of eleven species have been discovered1 varying from the size of the ,rhinoceros to that of the ,hog4 ,their remains are extensively diffused in the ,upper ,eocene strata in various parts of ,france2 and have been found in the ,isle of ,wight4 ,the ,lophiodon 7crested-tooth71 a genus distinguished from the former by the characters of the teeth1 which more nearly resemble those of the ,tapirs1 comprehends twelve species1 all found in the fresh-water ,tertiary marls of ,france4 ,a canine tooth of a species of ,lophiodon was found in the ,london ,clay1 in sinking a well on ,sydenham ,common1 near the railway4#gdc #gdc ,see ,mr4 ,douglas ,allport's interesting ,history of ,camberwell1 p4 #ag1 and ,owen's ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #cjf4 ,the ,anoplotheria have two characters not observed in any other animal1 namely feet with two toes 7see ,lign4 #beb71 the metacarpal and metatarsal bones of which do not unite into a single piece1 as is the case in the ruminants2 and teeth placed in a continued series without any interval between them 7,petrif4 ,lign4 #aaa72 man alone has the teeth arranged in the same manner4 ,i subjoin figures of molar teeth of ,palotherium and ,anoplotherium 7,lign4 #bef74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bef4 ,teeth of ,palotherium and ,anoplotherium4 ,upper ,eocene4 ,isle of ,wight and ,montmartre4 ,fig4 #a4--,upper molar tooth 7external surface7 of ,palotherium magnum4 ,binstead4 #b4--,lower molar of ,palotherium magnum4 #c4--;,grinding surface of first upper molar of ,anoplotherium secundarium4 ,binstead4 #d4--;,inner side view of right upper canine of ,anoplotherium commune4 #e4--,upper molar of ,anoplotherium commune4 ,montmartre4 #f4--,lower molar of the same animal4 ,there are also sub-genera1 as for example1 ,xiphodon and ,dichobune1 characterized by peculiarities of dental and osteological structure2 and ,anthracotherium 7so named from two species having been found in a bed of ,anthracite or ,lignite1 near ,savone71 a genus intermediate between the ,palotheria and ,hogs4 ,the skeletons of these remarkable animals are imbedded with the remains of carnivora1 marsupialia1 bats1 birds1 crocodiles1 tortoises1 and fishes4 ,in ,england1 no remains of the extinct ,pachydermata of the ,paris ,tertiary strata were discovered until a few years since1 and they are still exceedingly rare4 ,there have been found in the fresh-water limestone at ,binstead1 near ,ryde1 and at ,seafield1 ,isle of ,wight1 7see ,geol4 ,i4 ,wight1 #ahed1 ,prefat4 ,note17 teeth and portions of the jaws of two species of ,anoplotherium1 four of ,palotherium1 and one of ,chropotamus1 an animal allied to the ,hog ,tribe 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 pl4 iv42 and ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #dac1 c474 ,the ,hyopotamus 7,lign4 #beg7 is a genus of ,anthracotherioid pachyderms1 two species of which have been determined by ,prof4 ,owen 7,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ajc1 c471 from specimens of teeth found in the upper eocene of the north-west coast of the ,isle of ,wight1 by the ,marchioness of ,hastings4 ,the ,palotherium1 ,dichobune1 ,dichodon1 ,paloplotherium1 and others occur in the upper eocene fresh-water deposits of ,hordwell ,cliff 7see ,charlesworth's ,journal1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #e1 and pl4 ii42 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ag1 and pl4 iii42 and ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahea1 sect4 p4 #fg74 ,two species of a new genus1 intermediate between the ,hog and the ,hyrax1 named by ,professor ,owen ,hyracotherium1 have been discovered in the eocene sands at ,kyson1 in ,suffolk1 and in the ,london ,clay of the cliffs at ,studd ,hill1 about a mile to the west of ,herne ,bay4#gdd ,the latter specimen consists of a mutilated skull1 about the size of that of a ,hare1 with the molar teeth perfect4 #gdd ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 pl4 xxi4 p4 #bjc2 and ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #dai1 c4 ,the ,paloplotherium1 an allied genus1 from ,hordwell ,cliff1 is described in ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv4 p4 #ajc4 ,the other large fossil ,pachyderms1 belonging to the two existing genera of ,rhinoceros and ,hippopotamus1 are found very extensively distributed in alluvial debris1 in the ossiferous breccia of caverns1 and in other pleistocene deposits2 and their remains are frequently dug up in the superficial marls1 clays1 gravel1 and sand of ,england4 ,as the teeth of these animals will occasionally be met with by the collector1 a brief explanation of their form and structure may be useful4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #beg4 ,hyopotamus4 ,incisor ,teeth3 nat4 size4 ,upper ,eocene4 ,isle of ,wight4 ,fig4 #a4--;,inner surface of an incisor of ,hyopotamus4 #c4--,lateral view of an upper incisor of ,hyopotamus4 #d4--,outer aspect of the crown of the same tooth4 #e4--;,inner aspect of ditto4 #b4--,lateral view of the upper incisor of recent ,hog 7,sus scrofa74 7,these figures are from plate vii4 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iv42 but the drawings have been accidentally reversed47 ,sidenote3 ,,teeth ,,of ,,mammalia4 ,teeth of ,mammalia4#gde--,the organization of the teeth in the herbivorous mammalia essentially consists in the adaptation of the three elements of dental structure to the peculiar conditions required by the habits and economy of the different species4 ,thus1 in the ,elephant 7,lign4 #bei1 #bfj71 ,horse 7,lign4 #bfc71 c41 the dentine1 cement1 and enamel are disposed in vertical plates more or less inflected1 the enamel and cement penetrating the body of the tooth1 and embracing corresponding processes of dentine2 an arrangement by which a grinding surface1 composed of three substances of unequal densities1 is produced and maintained in every state of detrition 7,owen74 ,but these teeth do not possess the symmetrical and complicated structure observable in those of many of the reptiles and fishes we have previously investigated4 ,in the carnivorous mammalia1 the enamel constitutes an external shell or case1 investing the body of dentine and presenting sharp cusps or trenchant ridges1 adapted for the laceration of flesh1 as in the ,tiger1 or modified so as to form instruments for snapping and crushing bones1 as in the teeth of the ,hyna4 ,in the ,mastodon1 the crown of the tooth1 when first emerged from the gum1 presents a series of strong conical eminences 7,lign4 #bed71 that become worn down by use1 at first into disks 7,ly4 p4 #aeg71 which1 by further detrition1 coalesce4 ,the tooth of the ,elephant 7,lign4 #bei and #bfj71 on the contrary1 consists of vertical plates of dentine1 with an immediate investment of enamel1 over which there is an external layer of cement that binds together the entire series of plates1 often amounting to twenty or more2 the horizontal surface produced by the detrition of such a structure1 gives rise to the well-known grinding surface of the molars of the elephant 7,lign4 #bei1 #bfj2 ,wond4 pp4 #adc and #afj2 ,ly4 p4 #aei2 ,owens ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 figs4 #hh-ij1 c474 ,detached plates of the teeth of ,elephants1 particularly of those which belong to the back part of the posterior grinder1 and have not come into use1 are puzzling to the inexperienced collector of fossil remains2 and the first indication ,i obtained of the existence of the remains of fossil ,elephants in ,brighton ,cliffs 7,wond4 p4 #aej71 was from a mass of this kind1 dug up in sinking a well in ,dorset ,gardens1 and sent to me as a petrified cauliflower4 #gde ,for the minute structure of the dental organs1 the modes of dentition prevalent in the mammalia1 and the homologies of the teeth1 we must refer to ,prof4 ,owen's often-quoted works1 the matchless ,odontography1 and the lucid and compendious ,article on ,teeth1 in the ,cyclopdia of ,anatomy and ,physiology4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #beh4 ,tooth of ,mastodon elephantoides3 #a_/f nat4 size4 ,upper ,tertiary4 ,ava1 ,burmah4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bei4 ,tooth of ,elephas primigenius3 #a_/f nat4 size4 ,upper ,tertiary4 ,big-bone-lick4 ,n4 ,america4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfj4 ,teeth of ,elephants3 #a_/f nat4 size4 ,the grinding surfaces of the teeth exhibit the arrangement of the bands of enamel1 which have an analogous1 but somewhat different distribution in the teeth of the different species of ,elephant4 ,fig4 #a4--,the worn surface of a molar tooth of the ,african ,elephant4 #b4--,that of the ,fossil ,elephant or ,mammoth 7,elephas primigenius74 #c4--,that of the ,asiatic ,elephant4 ,sidenote3 ,,hippopotamus4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfa4 ,fossil ,molar ,teeth of ,hippopotamus3 #b_/c nat4 ,pleistocene4 ,fig4 #a4--;,grinding surface of a molar tooth1 with the cusps partially worn away4 ,kent's ,cavern1 ,devonshire4 #b4--,perfect molar tooth1 seen laterally4 ,hertfordshire4 ,i subjoin 7,lign4 #bfa1 fig4 #a7 a figure of the crown of a fossil molar tooth of a ,hippopotamus1 from ,kent's ,cavern1 ,devonshire2 in this specimen the summits of the cusps are worn down by use2 and another1 fig4 #b1 representing a perfect molar1 with the conical cusps of the crown entire1 found in ,hertfordshire by ,w4 ,d4 ,saull1 ,esq4 ,the form of the worn surfaces of the molars of the ,rhinoceros1#gdf is shown in two different stages in the fossil teeth represented ,lign4 #bfb4 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell has given figures of the teeth of the ,horse1 ,ox1 ,deer1 c4 7,ly4 p4 #afj72 but teeth of the recent species are so readily obtained1 and so much more instructive1 that ,i would recommend the student to procure teeth of the domestic herbivorous1 carnivorous1 and rodent animals1 and preserve them in his cabinet as objects for comparison with the fossil mammalian teeth he may discover 7see ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 lxxii474 #gdf ,see ,translation of a ,memoir by ,giebel on the fossil remains of ,rhinoceros in the ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 viii4 part ii4 p4 #i1 c4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfb4 ,fossil ,molar ,tooth of ,rhinoceros3 #b_/c nat4 ,pleistocene4 ,fig4 #a4--;,a molar tooth much worn down by use2 with the fangs nearly perfect4 ,in gravel2 ,petteridge ,common1 ,surrey4 #b4--,large molar1 very much worn by use2 the fangs broken off4 ,kent's ,cavern1 ,devonshire4 ,sidenote3 ,,horse4 ,fossil ,horse4 ,lign4 #bfc2 and ,owen's ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #chc1 et seq4--,the bones and teeth of one or more species of this widely distributed genus are found in the alluvium1 in osseous breccia1 and in caverns in numerous localities in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,the teeth and bones of the horse are often met with in the ,elephant-bed in ,brighton cliffs2 they are referable to a small species1 about the size of a ,shetland pony4 ,the blue alluvial clay or silt of our existing river-valleys contains abundance of the remains of a horse not distinguishable from the recent4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfc4 ,teeth of ,fossil ,horse3 nat4 size4 ,pleistocene4 ,england4 ,fig4 #a4--,right lower canine tooth of young ,equus plicidens2 from the ,cave at ,oreston 7,owen's ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #cid74 #b4--,upper molar of a fossil ,horse2 from the ,elephant-bed of ,brighton ,cliffs4 ,in the ,siwalik hills1 collocated with the gigantic pachydermata1 ruminants1 and carnivora1 the remains of two or more species of ,horse have been discovered4 ,one form 7,hippotherium7 is remarkably distinguished from any previously known by the extreme length and slenderness of its ,i legs1 in which respect it must have closely resembled the ,antelope2 it did not surpass in size the common ,deer4 ,,iv4 ,fossil ,edentata4 ,petrif4 p4 #dgf4--,the remains of extinct colossal mammalia1 related to the existing diminutive ,sloths in the essential characters of their organization1 but modified to suit the peculiar conditions in which they were placed and the enormous increase in bulk of their colossal frames1 are strewn all over the vast area of those alluvial plains of ,south ,america1 called the ,pampas 7,wond4 p4 #afd74 ,the deposits of these regions#gdg consist of--#a4 ,beds of clay1 sand1 and limestone1 containing marine shells and teeth of sharks2 these are the lowermost strata4 #b4 ,indurated marl4 #c4 ,red clayey earth with calcareous concretions1 in which the bones of colossal terrestrial mammalia are abundant4 ,this vertical section demonstrates1 that an extensive bay of salt-water was gradually encroached upon1 and at length converted into a muddy estuary1 by detritus brought down from the interior of the country1 and in which carcases of land-animals floated and ultimately became engulphed in the silt4 ,it is in these last deposits1 which now form the immediate subsoil of the ,pampas1 that the teeth of the ,megatherium1 ,mylodon1 ,glyptodon1 ,mastodon1 ,horse1 c4 have been found4#gdh #gdg ,see ,buenos ,ayres1 c41 by ,sir ,woodbine ,parish1 #aheb1 pp4 #bji-bbc4 #gdh ,see the charming volume entitled1 ,journal of the ,voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,beagle1 by ,charles ,darwin1 ,esq2 see also ,prof4 ,owen's descriptions in the ,zoology of the ,beagle1 and his ,report1 laid before the ,british ,association in #ahdg4 ,the ,megatherium 7,petrif4 p4 #dgh1 ,lign4 #aab1 #aac2 ,wond4 p4 #afg2 ,bd4 p4 #aci1 and pl4 v47 is the best known to the general reader1 from the graphic exposition of its configuration and habits by ,dr4 ,buckland1 and the splendid remains of its skeleton presented to the ,hunterian ,museum by ,sir ,woodbine ,parish2 but this animal is only one of several species of ,edentata1 equally interesting1 and almost rivalling it in magnitude1 which the labours of our own naturalists1 ,sir ,w4 ,parish1 ,mr4 ,darwin1 and ,mr4 ,pentland1 and of ,dr4 ,lund and other foreign savants1 have brought to light4 ,i can only advert to two other genera1 namely1 the ,glyptodon and ,mylodon4#gdi #gdi ,an able memoir in the ,penny ,cyclopdia1 ,art4 ,megatherid1 and another under the title ,unau1 will present the student with an epitome of all that is at present known of these extinct beings4 ,sidenote3 ,,glyptodon4 ,glyptodon 7sculptured-tooth7 clavipes4 ,lign4 #bfd4--,the bony tesselated carapace1 or shield1 which was formerly assigned to the ,megatherium 7,bd4 i4 p4 #aei7 has been proved1#gej by the discovery of other specimens1 to belong to a gigantic animal1 whose bones are occasionally found associated with those of the ,megatherium1 and which is closely allied to the ,armadillo4 ,this discovery was made by my friend1 ,sir ,woodbine ,parish1 to whose indefatigable exertions the ,hunterian ,museum is indebted for its most splendid relics of fossil ,edentata4#gea ,the bony dermal coat of the ,glyptodon 7a fine specimen of which is in the ,hunterian ,museum7 was not disposed in rings as in the ,armadillo1 but is made up of polygonal pieces1 accurately articulating with each other1 and continuous over the whole of the upper part of the body and part of the tail2 the tail also is enclosed in a case of this kind1 like a sword in its scabbard 7,petrif4 p4 #cei1 ,lign4 #ge74 #gej ,see ,geol4 ,trans4 #ahce1 p4 #dch1 c42 and ,prof4 ,owen's elaborate ,memoir on the ,glyptodon in ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 p4 #ha1 pl4 x4 xiii4 #gea ,a restored figure of the ,glyptodon1 together with the skeletons of the ,megathere and the ,mylodon1 are beautifully illustrated in the interesting volume on ,buenos ,ayres and the ,provinces of ,rio de la ,plata4 #b;d ,edit4 ,by ,sir ,woodbine ,parish1 ,k4 ,c4 ,h4 c4 ,the teeth of this animal1 which are eight in number on each side of each jaw1 are sculptured laterally1 by two wide and deep channels 7,lign4 #bfd1 fig4 #a71 which divide the grinding surface of the tooth into three portions 7,lign4 #bfd1 fig4 #b74 ,the hind foot is very peculiar 7see ,lign4 #bfd1 fig4 #c71 presenting an extreme modification of the same general plan of structure as that of the ,armadillo4 ,the skeleton of this animal constitutes the type of a distinct genus 7,glyptodon71 related to the ,armadillo 7,dasypus74 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfd4 ,glyptodon clavipes4 ,tooth and ,bones of the ,left ,foot of a colossal ,quadruped allied to the ,armadillo 7reduced size74 ,pleistocene1 near ,monte ,video4 ,fig4 #a4--,side view of a tooth1 showing the deep lateral channels4 ,the original four inches long4 #b4--;,grinding surface of the same4 #c4--,outside view of the left hind-foot4 ,length of the original about fourteen inches1 from the heel to the toe4 7,from the ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d4 ser4 vol4 vi4 pl4 x47 ,sidenote3 ,,mylodon4 ,mylodon4#geb--;,by this name is designated a gigantic edentate animal1 allied to the ,sloth1 and formerly described as a species of ,megalonyx1 an almost perfect skeleton of which has been obtained from a fluviatile deposit1 a few leagues to the north of the city of ,buenos ,ayres1 and is now articulated and exhibited in the ,museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons of ,england4#gec ,the animal appears to have been imbedded entire1 and soon after its death1 for the parts of the skeleton were found but little displaced1 and the very few bones that are wanting1 are such as might easily have escaped the search of the collector4 ,but this magnificent specimen of the extinct fauna of ,south ,america must be seen to be properly appreciated4 ,the skeleton measures eleven feet from the fore part of the skull to the extremity of the tail1 the latter being three feet in length2 the circumference of the trunk around the tenth pair of ribs is nine feet nine inches2 the ,megatherium is eighteen feet in length1 and its girth fourteen and a half feet4 ,these particulars will serve to convey an idea of the relative size of these gigantic animals4 ,from certain peculiarities in the construction of the skeleton of the ,mylodon1 ,prof4 ,owen1 perceiving from the teeth that it was a vegetable feeder1 and probably lived on leaves and the tender buds of trees1 and its enormous bulk and weight forbidding the assumption that it climbed up trees and suspended itself by the branches1 like the diminutive existing ,sloths1--assigns to this creature the task of uprooting and felling trees1 and feeding upon the foliage of the forests it laid prostrate4 ,a remarkable development of the substance of the bones of the skull is presumed to hare been a provision against the fatal effects of a fracture of the cranium1 to which the ,mylodon1 from its supposed uprooting propensities1 is conjectured to have been peculiarly exposed2 and the skull of the specimen in the ,college bears proofs of having had two fractures1 from both of which the animal recovered4 ,but whoever looks at the skeleton will perceive that the fore-feet are admirably adapted for seizing and wrenching oft the branches1 and the hinder feet for clasping the trunk of a large tree2 and there is nothing to forbid the supposition1 that the animal could obtain a constant and ready supply of food1 by climbing up the stem to a sufficient height1 and wrenching off the branches4 ,prof4 ,owen states1 that the ,mylodon unites the two great groups of the ,unguiculata 7animals with nails and claws71 and the ,ungulata 7hoofed animals71 for it has both hoofs and claws on the same feet4 #geb ,signifying molar-tooth1--a name intended to express that the animal has only teeth adapted for grinding2 but this term is equally applicable to all the other megatheroid animals4 #gec ,see ,description of the ,skeleton of an extinct gigantic ,sloth 7,mylodon robustus71 c41 by ,richard ,owen1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,hunterian ,professor of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 #a vol4 #dto4 with twenty-four plates1 #ahdb4 ,the lithographs in this work1 by ,mr4 ,scharf1 are of the highest excellence3 the figure of the entire skeleton of the animal1 on a scale of two inches to a foot1 is admirable4 ,the dental organs consist of four molars on each side the lower1 and five on each side the upper jaw4 ,the teeth are implanted in very deep sockets1 and are of the same size and form throughout1 with a conical pulp-cavity at the base1 indicating that their growth continued during the life of the animal4 ,in structure they resemble those of the ,megatherium and ,sloth 7,bradypus72 being composed of a pillar of coarse dentine1 traversed by numerous vascular or medullary canals1 which is invested with a layer of very fine1 dense dentine1 with minute calcigerous tubes1 and the whole surrounded by a thick coating of cementum3 no enamel enters into their composition4 7,owen47 ,v4 ,fossil ,rodents4--,of the mammalia termed ,rodentia or ,gnawers 7see ,wond4 p4 #adc71 of which the ,mouse1 ,rabbit1 and ,beaver are examples1 the remains of several genera are found in a fossil state2 particularly in the caverns containing the bones of ,carnivora4 ,dr4 ,buckland collected from ,kirkdale ,cave-bones of a species of ,hare or ,rabbit1 ,mouse and ,water-,rat 7,reliq4 ,diluv4 pl4 xi474 ,in the eocene gypseous strata of ,france1 two species of ,dormouse and two of ,squirrel have been found4 ,from the tertiary sand at ,epplesheim1 with the bones of the ,dinotherium1 those of a species of ,hamster or ,german ,dormouse 7,cricetus7 were obtained4 ,fossil teeth of a species of ,porcupine 7,hystrix7 occur in the pliocene deposits of ,tuscany4 ,of the ,beaver 7,castor71 some undoubted remains have been collected in this country4 ,those of a species apparently identical with the recent ,beaver of the ,danube1 have been discovered in the fresh-water deposits of ,essex1#ged ,norfolk1 ,cambridgeshire1 and ,berks1 and in ,scotland2 and the remains of the very large extinct species first observed in ,russia 7and named1 by ,m4 ,fischer1 ,trogontherium17 have been found in the subterranean forest at ,bacton1 in ,suffolk4#gee #ged ,see ,mr4 ,brown's ,paper on ,copford1 ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 viii4 p4 #ahh4 #gee ,see ,hist4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #ahd1 c42 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 iv4 p4 #db2 and ,petrif4 p4 #ceg4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,marsupialia4 ,,vi4 ,fossil ,marsupialia4#gef--,that the remains of an extinct species of gigantic ,kangaroo should be found in the fissures of the rocks and in the caverns of ,australia1 a country in which marsupial animals are the principal existing mammalia1 is a fact that will not excite much surprise2 but that beings of this remarkable type of organization should ever have inhabited the countries situated in the latitude of the ,european continent and of ,great ,britain1 would never have been suspected1 but for the researches of the geologist4 ,the fossil remains of this class discovered in ,australia#geg occur in the pleistocene deposits of ,darling ,downs1 ,melbourne1 c4 and in fissures and caves in the limestone of ,wellington ,valley1 imbedded in red ochreous loam1 and are often incrusted by stalactitic concretions4 ,one of the species exceeds the largest existing ,kangaroo1 and its bones are associated with those of the ,wombat1 and other marsupial animals 7,ly4 p4 #aee74 #gef ,marsupialia2 animals that carry their young in a pouch 7marsupium71 as the ,kangaroo4 #geg ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdd1 p4 #bbc4 ,a species of ,didelphys 7,opossum7 has been discovered in the gypseous limestone of ,montmartre1 and is figured and described by ,cuvier 7,oss4 ,foss4 vol4 iii4 pl4 lxxi42 see also ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #gf74 ,it consists of a considerable part of the skeleton of a small animal1 imbedded in gypsum2 the block containing the specimen has been split asunder1 and some of the bones are attached to the surface of one moiety1 and the remainder to the other4 ,from the character of the jaws and teeth1 ,cuvier pronounced that the animal was related to the ,opossum1 and confidently predicted that the two peculiar bones which support the pouch in these animals would be found attached to the fore-part of the pelvis2 accordingly he chiselled away the stone1 and disclosed these marsupial bones2 thus proving the truth of those laws of correlation of structure1 which he was the first to enunciate and establish4 ,but as there are true marsupials in which the ossa marsupialia are merely rudimentary1 for example1 in the ,dog-headed ,opossum1 or ,hyna of the ,tasmanian colonists 7,thylacinus ,harrisii71 in which they are merely two small1 oblong1 flattened fibro-cartilages1 imbedded in the internal pillars of the abdominal rings1 and are only six lines long and three or four lines broad1--it follows that in a fossil state the pelvis of a true marsupial animal may be destitute of those appendages which are commonly supposed to be an essential character of the marsupial skeleton4 ,thus the fossil pelvis of the ,thylacinus1 had that species been long ago1 as it is soon likely to be1 extinct1 would not have afforded the certain evidence of its marsupial character to which ,cuvier triumphantly appealed in demonstration of the ,didelphys of the gypsum quarries of ,montmartre2 yet the ,thylacinus would not therefore have been less essentially a marsupial animal4#geh #geh ,see ,prof4 ,owen1 ,zoological ,society's ,proceedings1 ,dec4 #ahdd4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,mammalia4 ,in the ,eocene sand at ,kyson1 near ,woodbridge1 in ,suffolk1 among other mammalian remains 7,ly4 p4 #bjc71 ,mr4 ,colchester1 of ,ipswich1 whose researches have been rewarded by many interesting fossils1 found a fragment of the jaw1 with one premolar tooth having two fangs1 of a small animal 7,didelphys ,colchesteri1 ,owen72 and which ,mr4 ,charlesworth 7,curator of the ,philosophical ,institution of ,york7 ascertained to belong to a marsupial animal allied to the ,opossum4#gei #gei ,see ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist4 #ahci1 p4 #dej2 ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdb1 p4 #gc2 and ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #ga1 fig4 #bb4 ,but the specimens above described are far surpassed in interest by those discovered in the ,triassic ,bone-bed of ,wrtemberg and in the ,oolite of ,stonesfield2 the latter consisting of several jaws and teeth of marsupial animals4 ,triassic ,mammalian ,teeth4--,in the thin layer of rolled bones1 teeth1 scales1 and coprolite1 so extensively spread over the top of the ,trias and at the base of the ,lias1 both in ,england and in ,wrtemberg1 and well known to collectors as the ,bone-bed of ,aust ,cliff1 c4 7,wond4 p4 #ebi71 a few minute mammalian teeth have been discovered by ,m4 ,plieninger at ,diegerloch1 near ,stuttgart1 ,wrtemberg4 ,they appear to have belonged to one or more small ,insectivorous quadrupeds1 and have been described by ,plieninger and ,jger4 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell1 in the ,prefatory ,note to his ,manual1 #aheb1 fully treats of these interesting and most ancient mammalian remains1 and gives several exact figures of the teeth4 ,sidenote3 ,,stonesfield ,,mammalia4 ,fossil ,mammalia of ,stonesfield4#gfj ,lign4 #bfe4 7,bd4 pl4 ii4 ,ly4 p4 #bfh4 ,wond4 p4 #eaj47--,the best known examples of the fossil remains of mammalia in the ,secondary formations1 and1 excepting the teeth just mentioned1 of the highest antiquity1 according to our present knowledge of the earth's physical history1 are several mutilated lower jaws with teeth1 of some very small animals1 which are supposed to belong to insectivorous marsupial quadrupeds4#gfa #gfj ,see ,owen's ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 pp4 #bi-gj1 figs4 #ae-bj2 and ,petrifactions1 p4 #dja1 et seq4 #gfa ,a small mammalian vertebra from ,stonesfield is in ,mr4 ,morris's collection1 and has been figured by ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 ,quat4 ,geol4 ,jour4 vol4 iv4 pl4 i4 fig4 #d1 and pl4 ii4 fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfe4 ,lower ,jaws of ,mammalia2 nat4 ,great ,oolite4 ,stonesfield4 ,fig4 #a4--,phascolotherium ,bucklandi4 ,the right branch of the lower jaw1 seen from within1 with seven grinders1 one canine tooth1 and three incisors4 #b4--;,amphitherium ,broderipii4 ,the left branch of the lower jaw the inner side2 the incisor and canine teeth are wanting ,the upper figures are enlarged views of three molar teeth4 7,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 pl4 vi47 ,these most important organic remains have all been found in the oolitic calcareous flag-stones of ,stonesfield3 deposits which1 as we have already had occasion to notice1 teem with other relics of great interest4 ,two specimens of the natural size are represented ,lign4 #bfe1 and will serve for reference to the collector who may visit that interesting locality4 ,the existence of undoubted mammalia in the secondary formations was first made known by ,dr4 ,buckland 7in #ahbc71 who1 upon the authority of ,cuvier1 stated that the two specimens then discovered at ,stonesfield belonged to marsupials allied to the ,opossum 7,didelphys74 ,these fossils were the left branches of two lower jaws2 both were imbedded in the stone by the external surface1 the inner side only being exposed4 ,one of the specimens has ten molar teeth in a row2 the other 7the beautiful fossil1 fig4 #a1 ,lign4 #bfe1 now in the ,british ,museum17 has seven molars1 one canine tooth1 and three incisors4 ,five other specimens have since been found4#gfb #gfb ,see ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 pp4 #ae-gj1 for ample details of their anatomical characters1 and physiological relations4 ,the ,amphitherium had thirty-two teeth in the lower jaw1 that is1 sixteen on each side2 it is presumed to have been insectivorous1 and to have belonged to the placental mammalia4 ,the ,phascolotherium had four true molar teeth1 and three or four false molars1 one canine1 and three incisors in each branch of the lower jaw2 and closely approximates to marsupial genera now restricted to ,new ,south ,wales and ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,it is1 indeed1 as ,professor ,phillips first remarked1 an interesting fact1 that the other organic remains of the ,british ,oolite correspond with the existing forms now confined to the ,australian continent and neighbouring seas2 for in those distant latitudes1 the ,cestracionts1 ,trigoni1 and ,terebratul inhabit the ocean1 and the ,cycade and ,araucari flourish on the dry land 7,wond4 p4 #hid74 ,thus we have evidence of the existence of the ,marsupial order during the ,secondary and ,tertiary formations1 a proof1 as ,dr4 ,buckland observes 7,bd4 p4 #gc71 that this order1 instead of being1 as was once supposed1 of more recent introduction than other orders of mammalia1 was1 in reality1 the most ancient condition under which animals of this class first existed in the earlier geological epochs1 and was coexistent with many other orders throughout ,europe in the ,eocene period2 while its geographical distribution in the existing fauna is restricted to ,north and ,south ,america1 and to ,new ,holland1 and the adjacent islands4 ,,vii4 ,fossil ,carnivora4--,the fossil bones and teeth of numerous species of ,carnivora1 the order comprising the mammalia which prey on other animals1 of which the ,weasel1 ,bear1 ,cat1 ,dog1 c4 are examples1 abound in fissures and caverns1 in conglomerated rocks1 and in drifted sand and gravel4 ,the remains of the colossal ,pachyderms1 the ,mastodons and ,elephants1 lie buried1 for the most part1 as we have previously shown1 in the superficial alluvial deposits2 but the ,carnivora1 although occasionally entombed with the ,herbivora in superficial gravels and loams1 are principally found imbedded in the floors of extensive caverns4#gfc ,in many instances1 such immense quantities of bones and teeth of individuals of all ages1 and belonging to but one or two species1 occur in certain caves1 as to render it probable that these were for a long period the dens of the extinct species of ,bears1 ,hynas1 c4 whose bones they enclose4 #gfc ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdb1 sect4 p4 #fb4 ,for an account of the ossiferous caves of the ,brazils1 see ,petrif4 p4 #dhc4 ,another remarkable geological condition in which fossil bones of ,carnivora occur1 is that of an ossiferous conglomerate1 or bone-breccia2 that is1 a conglomerate formed of fragments of limestone and bones1 cemented together into a hard rock by a reddish calcareous concretion4 ,this breccia is found in almost all the islands on the shores of the basin of the ,mediterranean ,sea2 as for example1 at ,gibraltar1 ,cette1 ,nice1 ,cerigo1 ,corsica1 ,palermo1 c4 ,the most celebrated of the bone-caves are situated in ,franconia1 and in many parts of the ,hartz4 ,that of ,gailenreuth has long been known for its fossil treasures1 which principally consist of the bones and teeth of two extinct species of ,bears4 ,one of these is equal in size to a large horse1 and is termed ,ursus spelus 7,bear of the ,caverns72 and skeletons have been found of all ages1 from the adult to the cub but a few days old 7see ,wond4 pp4 #agf1 #agg74 ,there are numerous caverns in the neighbouring district1 some of which are equally rich in the remains of ,carnivora4#gfd ,similar fossils are also found in the consolidated gravel and drift in various parts of ,germany1 and in the fissures of rocks containing iron-ore1 at ,kropp1 in ,carniola4 #gfd ,a highly interesting account of the ,ossiferous ,caves of the ,hartz and ,franconia1 by ,sir ,philip ,grey ,egerton1 ,bart1 was published in #ahcd1 ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 ii4 p4 #id4 ,see also ,captain ,montagu's notice of the ,sophienhhle further on1 at p4 #hbj4 ,sidenote3 ,,bone-,,caverns4 ,even in ,australia1 caves with ossiferous breccia are numerous2 but the bones belong to extinct marsupial animals of genera still existing in the country 7see ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdd2 ,petrif4 p4 #acc2 and ,wond4 p4 #ahh74 ,in ,england1 several caverns presenting similar phenomena have been discovered4 ,that of ,kirkdale1 near ,kirby ,moorside1 ,yorkshire1 is well known from the celebrity it acquired by the graphic illustration of its contents by ,dr4 ,buckland4#gfe ,this cave1 or rather fissure1 for its dimensions were too limited to merit the name of cavern1 was situated in oolitic limestone2 it was two hundred and fifty feet long1 from two to fourteen high1 and six or seven wide4 ,the floor was occupied by a bed of indurated mud1 covered over with a thick crust of stalagmite2 the roof and sides being invested with a similar calcareous sparry coating1 as is commonly the case in all fissures in limestone rocks4#gff ,from this cave were obtained numerous bones of ,hynas1 associated with bones1 more or less fractured1 of ,tiger1 ,bear1 ,wolf1 ,fox1 ,weasel1 ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,hippopotamus1 ,horse1 ,deer1 ,ox1 ,hare or ,rabbit1 ,mouse1 ,water-rat1 and fragments of skeletons of ,ravens1 ,pigeons1 ,larks1 and ,ducks4 ,many of the bones exhibited marks of having been gnawed1 and crushed by the teeth of some animals4 ,from all the facts observed1 and which are detailed by ,dr4 ,buckland with his wonted graphic power1 it is inferred that the cave was inhabited for a considerable period by ,hynas2 that many of the remains found there were of individuals carried in and devoured by those animals1 and that in some instances the hynas preyed upon each other4 ,the portions of bone referable to the elephant seem to prove that occasionally the large mammalia were also obtained for food2 but it is probable that the smaller animals were either drifted in by currents of water1 or fell into the chasm through fissures now closed up by stalactitical incrustations4 #gfe ,dr4 ,buckland's celebrated work1 ,reliqui ,diluvian1 contains an admirable description of these caverns and their contents1 with numerous plates4 ,the student1 in consulting this volume1 must separate the facts from the diluvial theory1 which1 at the period of its publication 7#ahbc71 they were supposed by ,dr4 ,buckland and other eminent geologists to confirm4 #gff ,for a general description of the cave at ,kirkdale1 see ,wond4 p4 #agi2 and for details1 ,reliq4 ,diluv4 pp4 #a-ai4 ,the ossiferous caves at ,kirkdale1 ,torquay1 and ,banwell are noticed1 ,petrif4 p4 #dhb4 ,kent's ,cave1 near ,torquay1 ,oreston ,cave1 near ,plymouth1 and several other caves in ,devonshire1 have yielded great numbers of bones and teeth of ,carnivora and ,pachydermata 7see ,reliq4 ,diluv4 p4 #fg74 ,kent's ,hole is the most productive ossiferous cavern in ,england1 and its vicinity to ,torquay renders it of easy access4 ,an extensive collection of teeth and bones was obtained from this cave by the late ,rev4 ,j4 ,mac,enery1 comprising1 in addition to the usual extinct ,carnivora1 skulls and teeth of ,badger 7,meles taxus71 ,otter 7,lutra vulgaris71 ,pole-cat 7,putorius vulgaris71 ,stoat or ,ermine 7,p4 erminius71 c4 ,a selection of the choicest specimens in this collection is deposited in the ,british ,museum4 ,in ,glamorganshire1 two large caverns1 called ,goat's ,hole1 and ,paviland ,cave1 containing numerous bones of ,bear1 ,hyna1 ,wolf1 ,fox1 ,rhinoceros1 ,elephant1 c41 are situated in a lofty cliff of limestone1 between ,oxwich ,bay and the ,worm's ,head1 on the property of ,earl ,talbot1 fifteen miles west of ,swansea 7,reliq4 ,diluv4 p4 #hb74 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,carnivora4 ,in the western district of the ,mendip ,hills1 in ,somersetshire1 there are several ossiferous fissures and caves4 ,the most interesting are those of ,hutton1 on the northern escarpment of ,bleadon ,hill2 and of ,banwell1 lying about a mile to the east of ,hutton4 ,they contain remains of two species of bear1 one 7,ursus spelus7 of immense size and strength2 and of ,tiger1 ,hyna1 ,wolf1 ,fox1 ,deer1 ,ox1 and ,elephant4#gfg #gfg ,see a ,memoir ,on the ,caverns and ,fissures in the ,western ,district of the ,mendip ,hills1 by the late ,rev4 ,d4 ,williams4 ,proc4 ,royal ,society1 ,june #b1 #ahca1 p4 #ee4 ,from the caves at ,hutton1 the ,rev4 ,d4 ,williams obtained the milk-teeth and other remains of a calf-elephant1 about two years old1 and those of a young tiger1 just shedding its milk-teeth2 also the grinders of a young horse1 that were casting their coronary surfaces2 and remains of two species of hyna4 ,but one instance of the fossil bones of ,carnivora has been observed in the south-east of ,england4 ,it occurred in a fissure in a quarry of sandstone at ,boughton1 near ,maidstone2 among other bones1 the lower jaw of a ,hyna 7see ,frontispiece of ,vol4 ,i471 with the teeth1 was obtained4#gfh #gfh ,see ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist4 #ahcf1 vol4 ix4 p4 #eic2 and ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 vii4 p4 #chc4 ,in the modern silt of our alluvial districts1 the remains of carnivorous animals1 formerly indigenous to this island1 are occasionally met with2 and the skeleton of the ,brown ,bear 7a species which inhabited ,scotland eight centuries ago71 and of the ,wolf1 whose extinction is of a yet later date1 have been discovered4 ,the ,woodwardian ,museum at ,cambridge contains an entire skull of the ,brown ,bear 7,ursus arctos71 found in the ,manea ,fen of ,cambridgeshire2#gfi in an ancient fresh-water deposit1 near ,bacton1 in ,norfolk1 the right lower jaw of the ,bear of the ,caverns 7,ursus spelus71 has been discovered2#ggj and the phalangeal bone of a large ,bear has been found by ,mr4 ,j4 ,brown in the pleistocene deposits at ,copford1 ,essex1 with the remains of ,beaver1 ,elephant1 ,stag1 c4 7,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 viii4 p4 #ahg47 #gfi ,a beautiful lignograph of this specimen is given in ,hist4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #gg1 fig4 #bd4 #ggj ,hist4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #hi4 ,thus the remains of fossil ,carnivora discovered in ,england comprise several kinds of ,bear#gga 7including the two species of the caverns of ,germany1 ,u4 priscus and ,u4 spelus71 and of ,tiger1 ,hyna1 ,wolf1 ,fox1 c4 #gga ,petrif4 p4 #cih4 ,in the ,pict4 ,atlas1 pl4 lxxiii41 is a good figure of a large ,bear's tooth4 ,teeth of ,bear1 ,tiger1 ,hyna1 and ,arvicola1 are figured in ,ly4 p4 #afa4 ,although we cannot dwell on foreign localities of ,carnivora1 ,i may mention that the lacustrine pliocene formation of ningen occasionally yields fine remains4 ,a splendid specimen1 obtained from that locality by ,sir ,r4 ,i4 ,murchison1 displays almost the entire skeleton of a ,fox-like animal1 the ,galecynus ningensis of ,prof4 ,owen4#ggb #ggb ,see ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 iii4 pl4 xxxiii42 and ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 iii4 p4 #ee4 ,the ,seal1 which is one of the marine carnivorous mammalia1 also occurs in a fossil state in ,england4 ,a femur of a species of ,phoca has been found1 with the remains of a ,monkey and ,bat1 in a tertiary deposit in ,suffolk4 ,in the tertiary strata of ,malta an extinct species of ,seal has also been discovered4 ,in the bone-beds of ,new ,zealand my son frequently found bones and teeth of ,seals1 probably of the species now inhabiting the ,south ,pacific4 7,petrif4 p4 #acj47 ,of the ,insectivora1 the fossil remains of several genera occur4 ,in ,england1 the jaw with teeth of a large species of ,mole 7named ,palospalax1#ggc ancient mole71 has been discovered in a lacustrine deposit at ,ostend1 near ,bacton1 on the coast of ,norfolk1 associated with bones of ,elephant1 ,deer1 ,roebuck1 and ,beaver4 ,this animal must have been as large as a hedgehog4 ,the only part of the skeleton hitherto obtained is a portion of the left side of the lower jaw1 containing six molars2 its natural affinities have therefore been inferred from the characters of the crowns of the teeth4 #ggc ,hist4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #be4 ,sidenote3 ,,fossil ,,cheiroptera ,,and ,,quadrumana4 ,the ,cheiroptera 7hand-wings7 or ,bats1 are mammalia which have the power of flight1 from the bones of the phalanges or fingers being enormously elongated and giving support to a fine membranous expansion2 they are rarely found fossil1 although1 from their habits of haunting and hybernating in fissures and caves1 their skeletons often occur mingled in the earth of the floor of caverns1 and imbedded in crannies of rocks1 with bones of extinct animals4 ,the remains of a considerable portion of the skeleton of one species of ,bat was discovered by ,cuvier in the gypsum of ,montmartre1#ggd and another example in a gypseous deposit1 at ,kstritz1 in ,germany1 with remains of extinct species of other mammalia4 ,two instances of ,british fossil ,bats are recorded2#gge the one from ,kent's ,cavern1 collocated with the extinct ,carnivora1 and referred to the ,horse-shoe ,bat 7,rhinolophus72 the other from ,kyson1 in ,suffolk1 found in the same deposit with the remains of the ,monkey1 presently to be noticed4 #ggd ,discours sur les ,rvolutions de la ,surface du ,globe1 par ,baron ,g4 ,cuvier1 #dto4 #ahbf1 pl4 ii4 fig4 #a4 #gge ,rep4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 #ahdb1 and ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 pp4 #aa-ah4 ,,viii4 ,fossil ,quadrumana1 or ,monkeys4--,the illustrious ,cuvier1 when commenting on the extraordinary fact1 that among the innumerable fossil relics of the mammalia which peopled the continents and islands of our planet1 through the vast periods comprehended in the tertiary formations1 no traces of ,man or of his works occur1 emphatically remarked1 that it was a phenomenon not less surprising1 that no remains of the quadrumanous races1 which rank next to ,man in physical conformation1 should have been found in a fossil state2 and that the circumstance was the more remarkable1 because the majority of the mammalia found in the younger and older tertiary strata have their congeners at the present time in the warmest regions of the globe2 in those intertropical climates where the existing quadrumana are almost exclusively located4#ggf #ggf ,discours sur les ,rvolutions de la ,surface du ,globe1 p4 #aga4 ,fossil ,ape of ,france4--,but the remains of this order have at length been discovered in the most ancient of the tertiary deposits1 and under circumstances which admit of no doubt as to the antiquity of the fossils or the strata in which they were imbedded2 and almost at the same time in ,france and in the ,sub-,himalayas2 and very recently in the ,brazils and in ,england4 ,the first ,european specimen was discovered at ,sansan1 near ,auch1 about forty miles west of ,toulouse1 by ,m4 ,lartet1 with remains of the ,rhinoceros1 ,deer1 ,antelope1 ,palotherium1 c4 ,it consists of the lower jaw1 almost complete1 with all the teeth1 of an adult animal1 of an extinct species1 related to the long-limbed and tailed monkey1 called ,semnopithecus1 of which the ,negro ,monkey is an example4 ,a fragment of another jaw has been found in the same locality4 ,fossil ,monkey of the ,sub-,himalayas4--,in the inexhaustible mine of fossil bones1 discovered by ,british ,officers in ,india1 the upper jaw of an ,ape was found by ,messrs4 ,baker and ,durand1 and fragments of other jaws and some bones were subsequently collected by ,dr4 ,falconer and ,captain ,cautley4 ,these relics conjointly established the existence of a gigantic quadrumanous animal in the groves of ,india at the ,eocene epoch1 when the gigantic ,tortoise1 the lofty ,sivatherium1 and the colossal ,mastodon tenanted the plains1 and ,hippopotami frequented the marshes and rivers4 ,this fossil ,ape also is related to the ,semnopithecus4 ,fossil ,monkey of ,south ,america4--,dr4 ,lund1 the eminent ,danish naturalist1 to whose indefatigable researches1 and successful determination of the colossal ,edentata1 we have previously alluded1 has discovered the bones of a gigantic ,ape1 four feet in height1 related to the ,capuchin ,monkey1 in the ossiferous breccia of the caves of ,brazil4 ,british ,fossil ,monkeys1 ,ly4 p4 #bjb4--,the first fossil relic of a quadrumanous animal from the ,british strata was obtained in #ahci1 from a bed of ,eocene sand1 at ,kyson1 a few miles east of ,woodbridge1 in ,suffolk1 by ,w4 ,colchester1 ,esq4 ,the first specimen found consisted of a small fragment of the right side of the lower jaw1 with the last molar tooth entire in its socket2 another relic is the crown of one fang of the first molar tooth1 of the same species4 ,these relics have been referred to an extinct species of ,monkey1 related to the ,macacus1 which has been named ,macacus eocnus1 in allusion to the geological age of the stratum in which the remains were discovered4#ggg ,in this ,eocene sand have also been discovered the remains of a ,bat 7p4 #hac71 and of a ,marsupial 7,didelphys1 p4 #hje71 and numerous fish-teeth 7,lamna1 p4 #eid72 whilst in the clay overlying this sand were found the vertebra of a ,serpent 7,palophis1 p4 #gch7 and several teeth of a ,pachyderm 7,hyracotherium1 p4 #gia74 ,prof4 ,owen in the ,hist4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 xlvi4 figures and briefly notices the relics of another species of ,macacus1 from the newer pliocene1 or pleistocene1 brick earth at ,grays1 ,essex4 #ggg ,owen1 ,british ,fossil ,mammalia1 p4 #a1 figs4 #a1 #c4 ,fossil ,human ,bones4--,in the ,swabian ,alps1 human teeth and several perfect human skulls are said to have been found in deposits in which elephantine remains also occur4 ,this subject was brought before the meeting of the ,german ,association for the ,advancement of ,science at ,tubingen1 by ,fraas and ,jger1 and1 if correctly reported1 naturally leads to the conclusion that human beings were contemporaneous with the extinct elephants and some of the other large pachydermata in the regions referred to4 ,sidenote3 ,,on ,,collecting ,,fossil ,,mammalia4 ,on ,collecting and ,developing the ,fossil ,remains of ,mammalia4--,but few directions for the developing and repairing of the fossil remains of mammalia will be required in this place1 the suggestions already offered1 and particularly those in vol4 i4 pp4 #de-di1 embracing full instructions on this head4#ggh ,on the method recommended in p4 #df1 for strengthening the friable bones of the large mammalia1 ,i may observe1 that the drying-oil is prepared by boiling litharge in oil1 in the proportion of one ounce of the litharge to a pint of oil4 #ggh ,cement4--,the following formula was given me by an eminent collector and developer of fossils3-- ,gum mastic1 one ounce2 ,rectified spirit of wine1 sufficient to dissolve it4 ,isinglass1 one ounce1 soaked in water until soft2 then dissolve it in pure rum or brandy until it is in the state of stiff glue3 add to this a quarter of an ounce of gum ammoniacum1 well rubbed and mixed4 ,put the two solutions together in an earthen vessel1 over a gentle heat2 when thoroughly melted and united1 put the mixture into smooth1 well-corked bottles4 ,use4--,immerse the bottle in hot water until the cement is sufficiently liquid for use4 ,the search for fossils of this class is attended with much less certainty of success than for other animal remains4 ,in the following list1 page #hah1 the localities most likely to be productive are enumerated2 but we have no caverns1 as in ,germany1 so rich in remains of this kind as to ensure the discovery of specimens by the casual visitor2 for the treasures of the most productive cave1 that of ,banwell1 are prohibited2 the proprietor carefully preserving every fragment4 ,a short residence near some of the best localities and daily research are required for obtaining interesting specimens4 ,for example1 a residence at ,ryde1 for a search in the fresh-water tertiary limestone at ,binstead2 at ,torquay1 for ,kent's cavern2 or some other town or village near the other caves in ,devonshire2 ,herne ,bay1 for the ,london ,clay at ,studd's ,hill1 that produced the ,hyracotherium2 ,woodbridge or ,kyson1 for the ,suffolk mammalia2 ,walton and ,clacton1 in ,essex1 for remains of ,elephants in the pleistocene deposits of that coast4 ,in searching for bones and teeth in an unexplored cave1 the following suggestions by ,dr4 ,buckland will be found of great value4 ,select the lowest parts in the cavern or fissure into which any mud or clay can have been drifted or accumulated2 and then break through the stalagmitic crust of the floor1 and dig down into the silt and pebbles1 c4 below1 in which bones and teeth will be found1 if the spot contains any relics of this kind4 ,as a test for distinguishing the ancient bones found in these caves from those which may have been recently introduced1 the tongue should be applied to them when dry1 and they will adhere in consequence of the loss of their animal gluten1 without the substitution of any mineral substance1 such as we commonly find in the fossil bones of the regular strata4 ,human bones found in caves always possess too much animal gluten to adhere to the tongue when dry4#ggi #ggi ,dr4 ,buckland on ,fossil ,bones of ,bears in the ,grotto of ,osselles1 near ,besanon1 in ,france4 ,geol4 ,proc4 vol4 i4 p4 #bb4 ,along the eastern coast of ,england1 and often off the mouth of the ,thames1 the fishermen dredge up teeth1 tusks1 and bones of ,elephants2 and good specimens may sometimes be thus procured4 ,the ,ramsgate fishermen employed in trawling in the ,north ,sea and ,english channel1 frequently bring up in their gear fragments of fossil bones of ,mammoths1 and other mammalia4 ,from the bank of the ,goodwin-sands1 large tusks have been procured4 ,on the shore near ,herne ,bay1 very fine mammalian remains are occasionally obtained4 ,in the ,museum at ,canterbury1 there was 7and ,i believe is7 a good collection of fossil bones of large ,pachydermata procured from the neighbouring coast4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that immense quantities of the bones of ,mammoths1 or fossil ,elephants1 are strewn over the bed of the ,german ,ocean and ,english ,channel4#ghj ,the late ,mr4 ,woodward informed me1 that the teeth and tusks of ,elephants collected along the ,norfolk and ,suffolk coasts1 within his own cognizance1 must have belonged to upwards of five hundred individuals4 #ghj ,geol4 ,trans4 #b;d ser4 vol4 vi4 p4 #afa4 ,,british ,,localities ,,of ,,fossil ,,mammalia4 ,bacton1 ,norfolk4 ,see ,ostend4 ,banwell ,cave1 fifteen miles from ,bristol1 and three from ,banwell ,station4 ,bones and teeth of ,bears1 ,hynas1 a ,felis larger than the ,lion2 but chiefly of ,deer and ,oxen4 ,berry ,head1 ,devonshire2 ,cave4 ,carnivora2 as ,bear1 ,badger1 ,tiger1 ,pole-cat1 ,stoat4 ,binstead1 near ,ryde1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,upper ,eocene4 ,fresh-water limestone4 ,teeth and bones of ,anoplotherium1 ,palotherium1 ,chropotamus1 ,dichobune4 ,brighton ,cliffs4 ,between ,kemptown and ,rottingdean1 in the beds above the ,chalk4 ,pleistocene4 ,teeth and bones of ,elephant1 ,horse1 ,deer1 ,oxen2 jaw of a ,whale4 ,copford1 ,essex4 ,pleistocene4 ,elephant1 ,stag1 ,ox1 ,beaver1 ,bear1 c4 ,crayford1 ,kent4 ,pleistocene4 ,elephant1 ,horse1 c4 ,easton1 a mile and a half north of ,southwold4 ,mastodon tooth1 and ,carnivora4 ,folkstone1 ,kent4 ,pleistocene4 ,on the top of the west cliff and in the valley2 bones of ,elephant1 ,hyna1 ,hippopotamus1 ,ox1 ,horse1 ,stag1 c4 7,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 vii4 p4 #beg47 ,grays1 ,essex4 ,pleistocene4 ,elephant1 ,monkey1 c4 ,harwich1 ,essex4 ,pleistocene4 ,elephant's teeth1 c4 ,herne ,bay4 ,in ,london ,clay2 ,hyracotherium1 ,chropotamus4 ,in ,pleistocene deposits2 ,elephant1 ,whale4 ,hoe1 near ,plymouth1 raised ,beach at4 ,pleistocene4 ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,bear1 ,deer1 ,whale1 c4 ,horstead1 ,norfolk4 ,pleistocene4 ,mastodon tooth4 ,hutton ,caves1 near ,banwell1 ,somersetshire4 ,carnivora1 ,pachydermata1 c4 ,see p4 #ghc4 ,isle of ,man4 ,pleistocene4 ,the gigantic ,irish ,deer 7,cervus megaceros47 ,kent's ,cave1 near ,torquay4 ,the most productive of the ,british ossiferous caverns 7see p4 #hac74 ,bear1 ,badger1 ,tiger1 ,wolf1 and other ,carnivora2 ,rhinoceros1 ,elephant1 and other ,pachydermata4 ,kirkdale1 by ,kirby ,moorside1 ,yorkshire 7see p4 #ghc74 ,i know not if any accessible part of this celebrated cave remains4 ,kyson1 near ,woodbridge1 ,suffolk4 ,on the side of the river ,deben1 about a mile from ,woodbridge1 in the parish of ,kyson 7,kingston74 ,the strata consist of1 #a4 ,red crag1 the uppermost4 #b4 ,london clay1 about twelve feet4 #c4 ,white and yellow sand4 ,in this lower ,eocene bed the relics of ,monkey1 ,didelphys1 and ,bat4 ,manea ,fen1 ,cambridgeshire4 ,pleistocene4 ,skull of ,bear4 ,newbourn1 ,suffolk4 ,pleistocene4 ,mastodon tooth4 ,leopard4 ,newbury1 ,berks4 ,pleistocene4 ,in the peat and shell-marl1 ,boar1 ,ox1 ,roebuck1 ,stag1 ,beaver1 ,wolf1 ,ass1 c4 ,norwich4 ,pleistocene4 ,mammoth's teeth and bones4 ,oreston ,cave1 near ,plymouth4 ,carnivora1 ,wolf1 ,bear1 ,hyna1 c4 ,ostend1 near ,bacton1 on the coast of ,norfolk4 ,in a lacustrine deposit of dark clay and greenish sand1 with charred trunks and branches of trees4 ,a section presents--#a4 ,uppermost3 ,drift4 #b4 ,black earth1 with shells4 #c4 ,reddish sand4 #d4 ,norwich crag1 in patches4 #e4 ,chalk4 ,nos4 #b and #c are lacustrine2 and in these ,pleistocene beds have been found ,gigantic ,mole 7,palospalax71 ,elephant1 ,deer1 ,roebuck1 fossil ,beaver 7,trogontherium71 jaw of ,bear 7,ursus spelus74 ,see ,hist4 ,brit4 ,foss4 ,mam4 p4 #he4 ,paviland ,cave1 fifteen miles west of ,swansea2 between ,oxwich ,bay and the ,worm's ,head1 ,glamorganshire4 ,rhinoceros1 ,mammoth1 ,hyna1 ,wolf4 ,plymouth4 ,caverns near elevated ,beach1 at the ,hoe4 ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,bear1 c4 ,postwick1 near ,norwich4 ,pleistocene4 ,tooth of ,mastodon4 ,seafield1 ,isle of ,wight4 ,upper ,eocene4 ,palotherium4 ,southbourn1 ,sussex4 ,pleistocene4 ,the plain of alluvial mud and clay1 called the ,wish3 a section seen on the sea-shore between the ,sea-houses and the foot of the chalk hills4 ,elephant1 ,hippopotamus1 ,deer1 ,horse1 ,ox4 ,southwold1 ,suffolk4 ,pleistocene4 ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,horse1 ,deer1 ,mastodon3 ,otter1 in ,red ,crag4 ,stonesfield1 near ,woodstock1 ,oxfordshire4 ,great ,oolite4 ,the only known locality in ,england of remains of mammalia of the ,secondary period4 ,see p4 #hje4 ,studd ,hill1 a mile westward of ,herne ,bay4 ,london clay4 ,hyracotherium4 ,swansea 7,paviland ,cave1 near74 ,see ,paviland4 ,wirksworth1 ,dream ,cave4 ,a perfect skull of ,rhinoceros2 in ,dr4 ,buckland's museum1 at ,oxford4 ,woodbridge1 ,suffolk4 ,at ,kyson1 near ,woodbridge4 ,eocene4 ,teeth of ,monkey1 c4 ,note4--,for notices of the occurrence of ,mammalian ,bones at ,betchworth1 ,brighton1 ,dover1 ,east ,bourn1 ,folkstone1 ,maidstone1 ,marden1 ,peasemarsh1 the valley of the ,wey1 ,stonesfield ,slate1 ,thames ,valley1 c41 see ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 vii4 7consult ,index74 ,of foreign localities1 ,tibet1 ,upper ,punjab1 ,siwalik ,hills1 ,vichy1 c41 are also referred to in the same volume4 ,,bone ,,caves ,,in ,,franconia4 ,captain ,willoughby ,montagu having favoured me in #ahdd with an account of the state of the principal caves in ,franconian ,switzerland1 which he had lately visited1 the subjoined extract may be useful to the continental traveller4 ,the cave of ,sophienhhle appears to be highly interesting2 the stalactites remaining uninjured1 and the ossiferous floor in the state in which it was discovered2 whilst the much-frequented caverns have been stripped of every relic by the spoliations of visitors during the last century and a half4 ,the northern part of ,bavaria1 which is denominated ',franconian ,switzerland1' is situated about the centre of a triangle1 formed between ,bamberg on the ,n4,w41 ,bayreuth ,n4,e41 and ,nuremberg ,s42 the best road from this latter city diverging beyond ,erlangen to the north4 ,the nearest route from ,london is through ,belgium1 from ,ostend or ,antwerp1 by the line of railroad which 7since ,october1 #ahdc7 passes on from ,liege and ,verviers1 by ,aix-la-,chapelle to ,cologne4 ,thence by steam up the ,rhine1 by ,coblentz to ,mayence1 and again by railway to ,frankfort4 ,in summer there are steam boats up and down the ,maine1 as far as ,wurzburg1 daily1 and higher up1 between ,schweinfurt and ,bamberg1 which latter distance is performed in eight hours going up4 and five down4 ,or there is a diligence 7eilwagen7 from ,frankfort direct to ,nuremberg1 from which place 7or ,bamberg1 c47 a carriage must be hired to ,muggendorf1 the principal village of that interesting district4 ,it lies about half way on the post road between ,erlangen and ,bayreuth1 and has two tolerable country inns2 the people are civil1 and moderate in their charges1 at least for the freshest trout and good wine of ,bavaria4 ,this charming spot and neighbourhood attracts not only the geologist and lover of the picturesque1 but also the angler1 who finds excellent fishing in the clear1 rapidly-winding streams of the ,wiesent1 with its tributary waters1 all of which are romantically placed in the suddenly deep dales of this table-land4 ,the ,wiesent flows through ,forchheim into the ,regnitz1 westward1 and this into the ,maine1 north4 ,as to the time necessary to get there1 during the summer days it would only require one to pass through ,belgium to ,aix1 including the transit of this frontier into ,prussia1 with slight search of baggage4 ,then1 in between four and five hours to ,cologne1 where the steamers generally wait for the arrival of these trains2 and1 taking the first boat up1 it is possible to reach ,bingen 7if not ,mayence late7 the same evening4 ,from ,frankfort1 by diligence1 starting at #aa ,a4,m41 and travelling all night1 ,nuremberg may be reached on the second day2 and the centre of operations1 about ,muggendorf1 on the fifth from quitting the sea-coast4 ,in returning by the ,maine1--from ,wurzburg to ,mayence maybe performed in one long day1 and then on the ,rhine1 the descent being much quicker than the upward course against the streams1 the return homewards may be accomplished in one day less4 ,the nearest way to ,ostend is by the ,south-,eastern ,railroad to ,dover1 and embark for ,belgium4 ,the newly-discovered cave1 called ,sophienhhle1 lies on the right bank of a streamlet1 which gives its name to a romantic and rocky valley1 ,ahorn-thal1 and flows ,s4,w4 toward ,gsweinstein1 until it falls into the ,wiesent4 ,the situation of the cave is near ,klaustemerhhle1 and opposite to ,ludwigshhle3 and it is far easier of access than ,gailenreuth1 and may be inspected by ladies with the greatest facility4 ,an intelligent female showed us through its lofty and interesting details4 ,this cave is nearly #cjj feet wide1 and #aej feet in height4 ,the quantity of fossil bones strewed about the floor was very great1 notwithstanding many of the finest specimens had been removed1 and were to be seen in the neighbouring castle of ,count ,s----2 added to this1 the long1 pendant curtains of stalactite1 and the stupendous size of the cavern1 contributed to make it appear to me far surpassing in interest that near ,gailenreuth1 called ,zoolithen-,hhle1 which ,i had visited the day before4 ,the keys of this cavern--for this1 as well as the other celebrated caves1 is locked up1 to guard against depredations--are kept at the large farm or steward's house1 hard by4 ,the state of the weather prevented our visiting ,forstershhle 7,forest ,cavern71 which lies further ,n4,e4 beyond the little town of ,weischenfeld1 near ,zeubach2 but which1 we were informed1 was equal in interest to this of ,sophienhhle4 ,the tourist desirous of visiting this interesting district1 will find ,mr4 ,murray's ,handbook of ,southern ,germany an excellent guide3 ,i can vouch for its accuracy4 ,,retrospect4 ,ce que nous connaissons est peu de chose2 ce que nous ignorons est immense4 ,la ,place4 ,we have now arrived at the close of this argument2 we have taken a general survey of the fossilized relics of the various classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 and have explained the methods by which the inscriptions on these ,medals of ,creation may be deciphered4 ,but numerous as are the facts that have passed in review before us1 and great as the accession of geological knowledge has been during the last fifty years1 the data hitherto obtained are insufficient to elucidate many of the obscure pages of the earth's physical history2 and to future discoveries must be left the full interpretation of many phenomena as yet obscurely presented to us4 ,in vain we endeavour to penetrate the veil which shrouds from our view many of the mighty events that preceded the history of our race1 for1--although the shades of colossal and unknown forms belonging to the remote ages of a past eternity obey the spell of the true magician ,science1--yet of the innumerable beings which through countless centuries ,the ,earth has gather'd to her breast again1 ,and yet again1 the millions that were born ,of her unnumber'd1 unremember'd tribes-- how few1 comparatively1 could even the transcendent genius of ,cuvier reveal6 ,if we endeavour to trace the order of succession1 in which the extinct and existing types of animal and vegetable organization have appeared upon the face of our globe1 as demonstrated by fossil remains1 we at once perceive how imperfectly our knowledge enables us to present a true picture of the development of organic life as it existed in the remotest ages4 ,ascending from the ,granite--that shroud which conceals for ever from human ken the earliest scenes of the earth's physical drama--the first glimpses we obtain of animated nature are a few sea-weeds1 shells1 and ,crustacea4 ,but can we doubt for a moment that that ancient sea had its boundaries and its shores--that then1 as now1 there were islands and continents1 and hills and valleys1 and streams and rivers1 teeming with appropriate inhabitants8 ,the little ,lycopodiaceous seed-vessels in the ,ludlow bone-bed afford as certain indication of dry land1 as the olive branch which the dove brought back to the ,ark2 one fact of this kind overthrows a host of theories based upon negative evidence4 ,throughout the lower palozoic rocks organic life presents numerous modifications2 and the remains of small placoid fishes appear in the uppermost ,silurian4 ,in the ,devonian we meet with rare reptilian remains and foot-prints4 ,in the ,carboniferous rocks the sauroid ,batrachians have left their relics and their foot-tracks4 ,in the succeeding period these reptiles predominate2 and on the sands of the ,triassic ocean we have the foot-prints of monster reptiles and the tracks of bipeds--colossal bird-footed creatures--of which no other vestiges remain1 and to which the existing order of creation affords no parallel4 ,the last bed of the ,trias affords the first indication of ,mammalian life4 ,we now enter upon that marvellous epoch1 during which reptilian organization obtained its fullest development--when the ,iguanodon and ,megalosaurus-- ,mighty ,pre-,adamites who walked the earth1 ,of which ours is the wreck-- ,byron4 were the principal inhabitants of vast islands and continents4 ,but here1 as at an earlier period1 we have proof that warm-blooded animals existed2 and the diminutive marsupial insectivorous ,mammalia of the ,oolite and the birds of the ,wealden attest that the system of animal creation was complete4 ,leaving behind us the ,age of ,reptiles1 we approach that of the colossal ,mammalia1 when extensive countries were peopled by the enormous herbivorous ,megatheres1 the ,mastodons1 and gigantic ,pachyderms1 long since become extinct4 ,but with these lost forms many existing races were contemporary2 including the ,monkey tribes1 which1 of all animals1 approach nearest to man in their physical organization4 ,thus1 by slow and almost insensible gradations1 we arrive at the present state of animate and inanimate nature4 ,but even after the existing continents had attained their present configuration1 in the period immediately antecedent to the human epoch1 innumerable tribes of carnivorous animals swarmed throughout the temperate climates of ,europe2 the ,tiger1 ,hyna1 and ,bear prowled through the woods and inhabited the caverns2 and the ,horse and ,elephant1 with gigantic ,deer and ,oxen1 tenanted the plains4 ,but of ,man and of his works not a vestige appears throughout the vast periods embraced in this review4 ,yet were any of the existing islands or continents to be engulphed in the depths of the ocean1 and loaded with marine detritus1 and in future ages be elevated above the waters1 covered with consolidated mud and sand1 how different would be the characters of those strata from any which have preceded them6 ,their most striking features would be the remains of ,man1 and the productions of human art--the domes of his temples1 the columns of his palaces1 the arches of his stupendous bridges of iron and stone1 the ruins of his towns and cities1 and the durable remains of his earthly tenement imbedded in the rocks and strata--these would be the ,medals of ,creation of the ,human ,epoch1 and transmit to the remotest periods of time a faithful record of the present condition of the surface of the earth1 and of its inhabitants4#gha #gha ,see ,sir ,h4 ,davy's ,last ,days of a ,philosopher4 ,,appendix ,,to ,,part ,,iii4 ,,professor ,,owen',s ,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,animal ,,kingdom4 7,from the ,hunterian ,lectures for #ahdc47 ,kingdom--,,animalia 7animals74 ,sub-kingdom--,vertebrata 7having a spinal column74 ,class--,mammalia 7animals that give suck74 ,aves 7birds74 ,reptilia 7reptiles74 ,pisces 7fishes74 ,sub-kingdom--,articulata 7having external-jointed skeletons74 ,class--,crustacea 7having an external crust1 or hard skin74 ,arachnida 7spiders74 ,insecta 7insects74 ,annelata 7composed of rings74 ,cirripedia 7having curled-feet74 ,sub-kingdom--,mollusca 7soft animals74 ,class--,cephalopoda 7feet around the head74 ,gasteropoda 7belly-feet74 ,pteropoda 7wing-like feet74 ,lamellibranchiata 7with lamellated gills74 ,palliobranchiata 7mantle-gilled74 ,tunicata 7enveloped in a cloak74 ,sub-kingdom ,radiata 7radiated animals74 _/-------------------------------------- --- ,nematoneura ,acrita 7with thread-nerves74 7with indistinct nerves74 ,class--,radiaria 7rayed animals74 _/-------------------------------------- - ,echinodermata ,acaleph 7having a spinous skin74 7with a stinging skin74 ,class--,polypi 7polypes74 _/-------------------------------------- ---------- ,ciliobrachiata ,anthozoa ,nudibrachiata 7with ciliated arms74 7flower animals74 7with naked arms74 ,class--,entozoa 7internal animals74 _/-------------------------------------- --- ,clelmintha ,sterelmintha 7hollow worms74 7solid worms74 ,class--,infusoria 7infusorial animalcules74 _/-------------------------------------- -- ,rotifera ,polygastrica 7wheel animalcules74 7with many digestive sacs74 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,notes ,,of ,,excursions1 ,,in ,,illustration ,,of ,,the ,,mode ,,of ,,investigating ,,geological ,,phenomena1 ,,and ,,of ,,collecting ,,organic ,,remains4 ,,geological ,,excursions4 ------------ ,let the moon ,shine on thee in thy solitary walk2 ,and let the misty mountain winds be free ,to blow against thee2 and in after years1 ,when these wild ecstasies shall be matured ,into a sober pleasure1--when thy mind ,shall be a mansion for all lovely forms1 ,thy memory be a dwelling place ,for all sweet sounds and harmonies1 oh6 then ,if solitude1 or fear1 or pain1 or grief ,should be thy portion1 with what healing thoughts ,of tender joy wilt thou remember me ,and these my benedictions6 ,wordsworth4 ,i now propose to conduct the reader to a few ,british localities1 and point out the mode of examining geological phenomena in the field1 and of collecting organic remains from the rocks and strata2 in other words1 afford a practical illustration of the advantages to be derived from the knowledge acquired by our previous investigations4 ,but from want of space1 only one or two excursions can be described in detail2 and ,i must restrict myself in a great measure to extracts from my note-book1 and explanatory remarks and suggestions for the guidance of the student and collector4 ,the subjects will be arranged in the following manner3-- #a4 ,instructions for collecting specimens4 #b4 ,excursions illustrative of the geological character and organic remains of the ,tertiary deposits of the ,london and ,hampshire basins2 namely1 to the ,isle of ,sheppey1 ,bracklesham ,bay1 c4 #c4 ,notes for a geological ,excursion over the ,chalk and ,wealden districts of the ,south-east of ,england2 from ,london1 by ,tilgate ,forest1 to ,brighton4 ,also1 from ,brighton to ,rottingdean4 #d4 ,geological notes of various places on the line of the ,great ,western ,railway1 from ,london to ,clifton4 #e4 ,excursion to ,matlock and its vicinity2 to examine the nature and position of the mountain limestone and associated strata of that part of ,derbyshire4 #f4 ,geological ,notes for an examination of the central group of the plutonic or igneous rocks of ,england1 and of the ,carboniferous and ,slate strata through which they are protruded3 in an ,excursion to ,charnwood ,forest1 by ,leicester1 ,mount ,sorel1 ,swithland1 ,woodhouse1 c4 to ,whitwick4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,general ,,instructions ,,for ,,the ,,collection ,,of ,,specimens4 ,and some rin up hill and down dale1 knapping the chucky stones to pieces wi' hammers like sae many road-makers run daft--they say 'tis to see how the world was made4 ,st4 ,ronan's ,well4 ,before we proceed on a geological excursion1 it is necessary to be provided with suitable instruments to detach specimens from the rocks1 and extract fossils from the strata in which we may find them imbedded1 and with materials for packing up our treasures1 and noting their localities on the spot4 ,for this purpose1 the following articles will be found more or less requisite1 according to the particular object of the collector3-- #a4 ,a hammer of one of the forms figured in ,lign4 #bff4 ,fig4 #c will be found most generally useful4 #b4 ,a leather or strong camlet bag1 and one or two of smaller size2 the former with strings1 or with a strap for the shoulder4 ,if travelling in a carriage1 a box or basket may also be provided4 #c4 ,stout and thin paper1 and some of a soft kind1 for wrapping up specimens4 #d4 ,chip boxes1 and raw cotton1 wadding1 or tow1 for the same purpose4 #e4 ,string1 sealing-wax1 and writing paper gummed on one side1 for labels to affix to specimens on the spot4 #f4 ,a strong pair of gloves1 and a pair of eye preservers2 common spectacle frames covered with fine black crape will be more agreeable than glass4 #g4 ,a measuring tape1 a pocket compass1 and drawing materials will be required1 if the observer intend to note the geological characters of the district4#ghc #ghc ,on the construction of geological maps and sections1 see the ,appendix to ,de la ,beche's ,geological ,observer4 #h4 ,a good geological map of the country2 if this cannot be procured1 the best geographical map4 #i4 ,a strong double-bladed knife2 one or more chisels4 #aj4 ,a pocket set of single lenses of three powers1 to examine minute objects2 blank memorandum books4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bff4 ,geological and ,mineralogical ,hammers4 ,fig4 #a and #d1 #f1 are adapted for breaking large stones or masses of hard rock2 the thinner ends are convenient for splitting and trimming fragments to a moderate size4 ,the head should be from four to five inches long1 one and a half inch wide on the crown1 and from two to three pounds in weight2 the length of the handle from eighteen to twenty inches4 #b and #c4--,this is my favourite hammer1 and will be found most generally useful2 the short square head for breaking1 and the pick for splitting stones1 and extracting fossils of moderate size2 weight of the head two pounds1 length seven inches2 width of the crown one and a half inch2 handle from twelve to fourteen inches long1 and one inch wide at the lower part1 for the convenience of a firm hold4 ,if the handle be graduated as a foot measure1 as in fig4 #e1 it will be found useful4#ghb #ghb ,hammers of this kind may be obtained at ,messrs4 ,knight's1 ,foster-lane1 ,london2 and at #di1 ,cockspur-street1 ,charing ,cross3 care should be taken that the heads are of well-tempered steel1 and the handles of tough wood4 #e and #h1 #g1 are smaller hammers for breaking and chipping stones and minerals2 the heads from three to four inches long1 and one and a half pound in weight2 the handle one foot long4 ,such are the articles that will be required for a geological excursion intended to comprehend a scientific examination of a district2 but for a mere trip to collect fossil remains1 several may be dispensed with4 ,some years since1 an eminent geologist1 ,dr4 ,fitton1 drew up some excellent instructions for collecting specimens1 for the use of the party employed under ,captain ,king to survey the ,western coast of ,australia2 by permission of the author1 they are here subjoined4#ghd #ghd ,for the collection of rock specimens1 and for the mode of observing the phenomena of physical geology1 ,sir ,h4 ,de la ,beche s instructive volume1 ,how to ,observe1 should be consulted4 ,,instructions ,,for ,,collecting ,,geological ,,specimens4 ,it may be proper to premise1 that two of the principal objects of geological inquiry are1 to determine--#ast1 the nature of the materials of which the earth is composed3 and1 #b;dly1 the relative order in which these materials are disposed in relation to each other4 #a4 ,specimens of rocks ought not1 in general1 to be taken from loose pieces1 but from large masses in their native place1 or which have recently fallen from their natural situation4 #b4 ,the specimens should consist of the stone unchanged by exposure to the elements1 which sometimes alter the characters to a considerable depth from the surface4 ,petrifactions1 however1 are often best distinguishable in masses somewhat decomposed2 and are thus even rendered visible in many cases where no trace of any organized body can be discerned in the recent fracture4 #c4 ,the specimens ought not to be very small2--about three inches square1 and three quarters of an inch in thickness1 is a convenient size4 #d4 seldom happens that large masses1 even of the same kind of rock1 are uniform throughout any considerable space2 so that the general character is ascertained by geologists1 who examine rocks in their native places1 from the average of an extensive surface4 ,a collection ought1 therefore1 to embrace specimens of the most characteristic varieties2 and the most splendid examples are1 in general1 not the most instructive4 ,where several specimens are taken from the same place1 a series of numbers should be added to the note of their locality4 #e4 ,one of the most advantageous situations for obtaining specimens and examining the relations of rocks is in the sections afforded by cliffs on the sea-shore2 especially after recent falls of large masses1 t commonly happens that the beds thus exposed are more or less inclined2 and in this case1 if any of them be inaccessible at a particular point1 the decline of the strata will frequently enable the collector to supply himself with the required specimens1 within a short distance4 #f4 ,to examine the interior of an unknown country1 more skill and practice are required2 the rocks being generally concealed by the soil1 accumulations of sand1 gravel1 c41 and by the vegetation of the surface4 ,but the strata are commonly disclosed in the sides of ravines1--in the beds of rivers and mountain-streams2 and these1 especially where they cross the direction of the strata1 may be found1 by careful examination1 to afford instructive sections4 ,the mud and gravel in the beds of rivers and in deltas often contain grains of gold1 platina1 and other native metals1 rubies1 sapphires1 and other precious stones2 and a general knowledge of the rocks of an unexplored country often may be gained from the detritus at the embouchure of a river4 #g4 ,among the contents of the strata1 the remains of organized bodies1--shells1 corals and other zoophytes1--the bones and teeth of animals1--wood1 and the impressions of vegetable stems1 roots1 or leaves1 c4 are of the greatest importance2 affording generally the most marked characters of the beds in which they occur4 ,these should1 therefore1 be particularly sought after1 and their relative abundance or rarity in different situations noticed4 ,the fossils should1 if possible1 be kept united with portions of the rock or matrix in which they are found2 and where they are numerous1--in sand1 clay1 or any moist or friable matrix1--it is1 in general1 better to retain a large portion of the whole mass1 to be examined afterwards1 than to attempt their separation at the time of collecting4 #h4 ,the loose substances which are found above the solid rocks1 in the form of gravel1 silt1 rolled pebbles1 c41 should be carefully distinguished from the solid strata upon which they rest4 ,and the more ancient of these water-worn materials1 found on the sides or summits of hills1 c41 should be distinguished from the recent mud1 sand1 and gravel1 brought down by land-floods or by rivers4 ,the bones and teeth of quadrupeds are not unfrequently found in the more ancient gravel2 and the collection of these remains from distant quarters of the globe is an object of the greatest interest to geology4 #i4 ,besides a note of the locality1 there ought1 if possible1 to accompany every specimen a short notice of its geological circumstances2 as1 for example1 whether it be found in large shapeless masses1 or in strata8 ,if in strata1--what are the thickness1 inclination to the horizon1 and direction with respect to the compass1 of the beds8 ,if these cannot be measured1 an estimate should always be recorded while the objects are in view4 ,are they uniform in dip and direction8--curved1 or contorted8--continuous1 or interrupted by fissures or veins8 ,is the whole cliff1 or mass of strata in sight1 of uniform composition8--or does it consist of different kinds of stone8 ,if the strata be different1 what is the order in which they are placed above each other successively8 #aj4 ,a label1 distinctly written1 should accompany every specimen1 stating its native place1 its relative situation1 c41 and these labels should be attached to the specimens immediately1 on the spot where they were found4 ,this injunction may appear to be superfluous2 but so much valuable information has been lost to geology from the neglect of it1 that every observer of experience will acknowledge its necessity4 ,it is useful to mark on the labels the day1 and even the hour1 when each specimen is collected4 ,this1 with a corresponding note in the memorandum-book1 prevents confusion1 and will be found to assist the memory4 #aa4 ,a sketch of a coast or cliff1 however slight1 frequently conveys more information respecting the disposition and relations of rocks1 than a long memorandum4 ,if numbers1 denoting the situation of the specimens collected1 be marked upon such sketches1 much time may be saved at the moment of collecting4 ,but in all such cases1 the memorandum should be looked over soon afterwards1 and labels1 distinctly explaining their situation1 c4 be attached to the specimens4 #ab4 ,the specimens should be so packed1 that the surfaces may be defended from exposure to air1 moisture1 and friction3 for which purpose1 if strong paper cannot be obtained1 dry moss1 or straw1 or leaves may be employed4 ,where paper is used for wrapping the specimens1 they are best secured by fastening the envelope with sealing-wax4 ,lastly4 ,the collector must not be discouraged1 nor be prevented from collecting1 by finding that the place which he may chance to visit in a remote situation has not a stinking appearance1 or the rocks within his view a very interesting character2 since it frequently1 and even commonly happens1 that facts and specimens1 in themselves of very little importance1 become valuable by subsequent comparison2 so that scarcely any observation1 if recorded with accuracy1 will be thrown away4 ,these general instructions will suffice to prepare the reader for an excursion to some known locality1 where his researches will certainly be rewarded by many interesting organic remains2 and he may be so fortunate as to meet with some rare fossils1 and perhaps with one or two that have not previously been discovered2 for there is always a chance of finding relics hitherto unknown1 even in a cliff or quarry that is daily visited by collectors4 ,and as an old sportsman desirous of inspiring a novice with a love of field sports1 takes him at first to preserves where game is plentiful1 in like manner ,i would initiate my reader in the delightful pursuit of collecting ,medals of ,creation1 by conducting him to a spot where these antiquities of nature are scattered about in great profusion and variety4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,excursions ,,illustrative ,,of ,,the ,,geological ,,characters ,,and ,,organic ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,tertiary ,,deposits ,,of ,,the ,,london ,,basin4 ,in leaving ,london for any part of ,england1 the reader will remember that the area on which the metropolis is situated1 as well as the surrounding district to a distance varying from a radius of ten to twenty or thirty miles1 consists of the marine ,tertiary eocene strata 7see p4 #bd71 which have been deposited in1 and still occupy1 a depression1 or excavation of the ,chalk1 called the ,london ,basin 7,wond4 p4 #bbi74 ,around this formation1 the ,chalk forms a distinct boundary on the south1 west1 and north1 rising up into chains of hills or downs2 but on the east the range is broken1 and the ,tertiary basin lies open to the sea1 affording a passage for the ,thames and its tributary streams4 ,from this geological character of the metropolitan district1 it results1 that all the lines of railroad proceeding from ,london traverse1 for the first ten or twenty miles1 beds of clay1 loam1 and loosely aggregated sand and gravel2 hence the numerous slips that have taken place in the embankments2 as for example1 at ,new ,cross1 ,wandsworth ,common1 near ,hanwell1 c42 and in all these lines it is obvious1 from the nature of the strata and the steepness of many of the cuttings1 that similar catastrophes will again occur4 ,the next geological feature observable in the lines of all the ,london railroads is the ,chalk1 which is invariably passed either by steep cuttings1 or tunnels1 or both2 as for example1 from near ,croydon to ,merstham1 by the ,south-,eastern2 from near ,basingstoke to beyond ,winchester1 by the ,south-,western2 from ,maidenhead to beyond ,wallingford1 by the ,great ,western2 and from beyond ,watford to near ,ivinghoe1 by the ,birmingham line4 ,after passing through the ,chalk1 and over the marls and sandstone strata of the ,cretaceous formation1 the ,oolitic group 7consisting of ,portland stone1 ,kimmeridge clay1 c471 the ,lias1 ,new ,red or ,triassic1 and ,carboniferous deposits successively appear on the lines of railroad2 excepting on those of the ,south-,eastern1 which1 upon leaving the ,chalk-formation1 traverse the fluviatile beds of the ,wealden1 as we shall hereafter more particularly describe4 ,,excursion ,,to ,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,sheppey4 ,every one knows that ,sheppey is a small island about ten miles in length1 lying at the mouth of the ,thames1 at the distance of between forty and fifty miles east from ,london2 but every one does not know that the ,isle of ,sheppey is an inexhaustible mine of fossil treasures2 and that from its cliffs1 and on its shores1 may be gathered innumerable relics of tropical plants1 of quadrupeds1 birds1 serpents1 turtles1 fishes1 crabs1 lobsters1 shells1 c4 all belonging to species that now no longer exist4 ,a visit to the town of ,queenborough afforded me1 when a boy1 the first opportunity of beholding fossil remains in such a state of preservation1 and in such profusion1 as to excite in my mind an uncontrollable desire to investigate the nature and origin of objects which ,i had been taught to believe were either produced spontaneously in the earth1 or were left in their present situations by the waters of a universal deluge4 ,at a short distance from the inn where we sojourned1 was a vitriol manufactory1 and considerable plots of ground were covered with the pyritous clay1 obtained from the neighbourhood4 ,to my great astonishment1 ,i perceived that masses of this fossil earth were almost wholly made up of stems1 twigs1 and fragments of wood1 with innumerable fruits1 seed-vessels1 and berries1 of kinds altogether unknown to me4 ,these fossils were of a dark colour1 some quite black1 very heavy1 and permeated with the mineral substance termed sulphuret of iron1 or pyrites4 ,many were so brittle as to fall to pieces upon being handled1 but others were of a stony hardness1 and ,i quickly filled a handkerchief with my newly discovered treasures1 and hastened home to examine them at leisure4 ,they consisted of the usual kinds of fossil fruits so abundant in the island 7see ,lign4 #fc and #fd1 p4 #ahh71 with casts of shells1 and a few claws of crabs1 and teeth of fishes4 ,most of the specimens fell to pieces in the course of three or four months1 but a few were durable1 and these still occupy a corner in my cabinet as precious mementos of my juvenile researches4 ,many years afterwards ,i revisited ,sheppey1 and made a large collection of its fossils1 which is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,of late years1 the increasing taste for ,palontology has brought numerous visitors to the island1 which steam navigation has now placed within a few hours' distance of the metropolis2 and the demand for choice fossils has given rise to several local dealers4 ,the student may1 with but little trouble or expense1 visit the island1 make himself familiar with its geological character1 and return laden with the fruits of the ancient spice islands1 of whose ruins this mass of clay1 in the embouchure of the ,thames1 is almost wholly composed4 ,as it is some years since ,i last visited this interesting spot1 ,i have obtained1 as a ,cicerone for the reader1 the most indefatigable and successful investigator of its fossil ,flora1 ,mr4 ,bowerbank2 and as the courtesy of this gentleman is equal to his intelligence and scientific attainments1 the traveller will have no reason to regret the absence of the author4 ,a trip from ,london to ,sheppey and back1 affording time to procure a good collection of fossils1 may be easily accomplished in three days4 ,,excursion ,,to ,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,sheppey1 ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,bowerbank1 ,,esq4 ,f4,r4,s4#ghe #ghe ,abridged from the ,annals of ,philosophy1 by permission of the author4 ,the best conveyance is by the ,southend and ,sheerness steam-packets1 which leave ,london-bridge on ,tuesdays1 ,thursdays1 and ,saturdays1 at #aa o'clock in the morning1 and reach ,sheerness about #d or #e o'clock in the afternoon4 ,the town is divided into two parts1--the one contained within the limits of the garrison being designated the ,blue town1 while that beyond the fortifications to the north-east is designated the ,mile-town2 and it is to this portion that ,i should recommend the visitor to proceed1 and take up his quarters either at the ,royal ,hotel1 or at the ,wellington3 the latter is an exceedingly snug and comfortable house1 to which ,i have resorted for many years4 ,after having established himself in the inn1 he should request the attendance of ,mr4 ,hays 7better known perhaps by the name of ,paddy ,hays71 from whom he may purchase1 at a reasonable rate1 some good fossils1 such as crabs1 lobsters1 heads and portions of fishes1 and numerous species of fossil fruits4 ,our traveller will then have accomplished all that can be done towards the acquisition of fossils until the following morning2 there not being1 ,i believe1 any other collector in the town from whom purchases can be made4 ,on the following morning an early breakfast is desirable1 as a considerable extent of ground is to be traversed4 ,it is advisable to go provided with live or six sheets of soft paper1 to wrap fragile specimens in2 and a few cotton or linen bags1 of about four or five inches in diameter1 to separate the large from the small fossils2 the whole to be carried in a good-sized blue bag1 or haversack2 a chisel and light hammer are the only instruments required4 ,if the geologist has a desire to view the great section of the ,london ,clay1 afforded by the cliffs on the north shore of ,sheppey1 and is content with the comparatively few fossils which he may be able to procure by his own exertions1 he may proceed in the following manner3--,leaving ,sheerness by the new town1 he will pass along the sea-wall1 towards ,minster1 until he reaches ,scaps-gate1 where the cliffs begin to rise from the low lands of the western end of ,sheppey4 ,a few cottages are scattered round this point1 some of the inhabitants of which work upon the beach1 collecting either cement-stone or pyrites1 the latter being better known by the name of copperas4 ,to these application should be made for #8curiosities1' and very frequently excellent specimens1 and at a small price1 may be thus procured4 ,from this point the route will be under the cliffs upon the shingle1 amidst which1 dark patches1 ten or fifteen yards in length1 will be observed1 composed of nodules of pyrites1 intermixed with pyritized fragments of branches of trees1 in great abundance4 ,it is at such spots that the numerous and beautiful specimens of fossil fruits are found2 but1 to ensure success1 the collector must be content to go upon his knees1 and carefully search among the fragments4 ,the whole of the beach1 from about the parallel of ,minster church to ,warden ,point1 abounds with these patches of pyrites2 and ,i have by this means obtained in the course of a morning upwards of one hundred fine fruits of various sizes4 ,care must be taken in such an investigation of the coast1 that it be undertaken during the falling of the tide1 or unpleasant consequences may arise from being shut in between the banks of mud which are projected into the sea at many points of the coast4 ,if the principal object be the attainment of the greatest quantity of fossils1 a different course should be pursued4 ,the collector should then1 after having made his purchases at ,scaps-gate1 direct his steps towards ,minster church1 passing which1 he will proceed on the road towards ,warden4 ,about three-quarters of a mile beyond the church there is a lane on the left hand1 leading towards the ,royal ,oak1 in which lives a woman named ,mummery1 and several others1 who work upon the beach1 and from whom fossils are frequently to be procured4 ,these people will direct him to the cottage of a family named ,crockford1 who have usually a good assortment of fossils2 and to many other parties who also work upon the beach1 and reside between this point and ,hensbrook1 to which place he must now direct his steps4 ,at ,hensbrook inquiry should be made for a man named ,pead1 who has generally a considerable number of good specimens in his possession4 ,from this point 7,hensbrook7 the collector must proceed along the top of the cliff towards ,warden1 calling at the various cottages in his way1 until he arrives at ,warden ,point1 at which place he must inquire for ,mud-row1 many of the inhabitants of which work upon the beach1 and from whom a considerable addition to the specimens already collected may be purchased4 ,beyond this point nothing will be obtained1 and the best way to return to ,sheerness1 is by the road which runs through the most level portion of the country2 the path along the north cliff undulates very considerably more than the road4 ,the course of proceeding thus sketched applies to the supposition that the time is limited to three days1 but if a longer period can be spared1 ,i should recommend the tourist not to leave ,sheerness without viewing the dock-yard2 and the return to ,london may be made by the way of ,chatham and ,gravesend1 affording the gratification of a view of the dock-yard and lines at ,chatham1 and of the fine old cathedral and castle at ,rochester2 at the same time1 enabling him to arrive in ,london on the evening of the day that he quits ,sheerness4 ,sidenote3 ,,herne ,,bay4 ,,gravesend4 ,if the student's time will permit1 a day or two may be profitably spent at ,herne ,bay on his return2 and search should be made for fossils under ,swale ,cliff and ,studd ,hill1 where numerous fruits and some unique mammalian remains have been found by ,william ,richardson1 ,esq4 7see p4 #gia74 ,should he land at ,gravesend1 as recommended by ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 he should proceed towards the lime-kilns which lie on the ,london side of the pier1 on the right bank of the ,thames4 ,to the left of the lime-kilns he will perceive a road leading by some bold chalk cliffs to the high ground above ,gravesend2 and on the right hand there is a row of cottages1 or rather huts1 inhabited by the labourers that work in the quarries and kilns4 ,many of the usual fossils of the ,kentish ,chalk may be obtained of the women or children in these huts2 and sometimes ,cidares1 or turban ,echinites 7p4 #cad71 with spines2 and ,star-fish 7p4 #cjf74 ,a visit to the chalk-pits at ,purfleet1 on the opposite side of the river1 is very desirable2 many interesting fossils having been found in that locality4 ,the ,kentish ,chalk in this district is much softer than that of ,sussex1 and the fossils may be easily cleared with a penknife1 or by brushing in water2 care should be taken not to wash them roughly1 as they will readily separate from the chalk4 ,the fossils procured from the ,isle of ,sheppey1 by such an excursion1 will probably consist of portions of stems and branches of trees1 and fragments of wood1 perforated by ,teredines 7see p4 #aic72 specimens of the fruits of palms1 resembling the recent ,nipas of the ,moluccas 7p4 #ahh71 and of plants allied to the ,cucumber1 ,bean1 ,cypress1 ,laburnum1 c4 7p4 #ahi72 claws and fragments of the shields of ,crabs 7p4 #eab72 bones of ,crocodiles1 ,serpents1 and ,turtles2 bones and teeth of ,sharks 7p4 #eia72 ,rays 7p4 #eih71 and other fishes2 and several species of the usual shells of the ,london ,clay 7p4 #chc71 and a specimen or two of ,nautilus 7p4 #dfi74 ,,notes ,,for ,,an ,,excursion ,,to ,,bracklesham ,,bat1 ,,on ,,the ,,western ,,coast ,,of ,,sussex4 ,the line of low cliffs extending from ,selsea ,bill to the mouth of ,chichester ,harbour exhibits a section of the ,eocene deposits1 varying in height from five or six feet to ten or twelve2 it is covered at its base by a bed of shingle1 fifteen or twenty yards wide1 that extends towards the sea4 ,the space between the termination of the shingle and the limit of low-water-mark is occupied by a bed of dark grey and greenish sand2 and at certain seasons1 numberless specimens of the fossil shells common in the ,eocene strata of the ,london and ,paris basins are thickly spread over this area4 ,mr4 ,webster first directed attention to this locality1 in his celebrated ,memoir on the ,tertiary ,strata of ,england2 and my friend1 the late ,john ,hawkins1 ,esq4 of ,bignor ,park1 followed up the inquiry4 ,in #ahba ,i made a fine collection of the ,bracklesham fossils1 and published a list of them in ,foss4 ,south ,d4 and ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 ,messrs4 ,bowerbank1 ,saull1 ,dixon1 ,coombe1 c4 have subsequently made considerable and important additions to the catalogue2 and besides many new species of shells1 the vertebr and other bones of ,turtles1 ,serpents1 and ,crocodiles have been discovered4 ,an excellent notice of this locality1 from the pen of ,mr4 ,bowerbank1 appeared in ,mag4 ,nat4 ,hist4 7#ahdj72 and ,i am indebted to the kindness of the author for the following notes for the guidance of my readers4 ,the part of the bay most interesting to the geologist is that immediately in the neighbourhood of ,bracklesham ,barn1 especially at about a furlong to the east of that spot1 where there is a small break or chine in the low clay cliff4 ,at this place1 and at a few paces east and west of it1 beneath about six or seven feet of clay1 there is a stratum of light green marly sand1 abounding in remains of ,venericardia planicosta and other shells1 but which is often entirely hidden by thrown-up shingle1 and it is very rarely that more than a few feet in length of this bed can be seen4 ,it is from this bed1 or from one exceedingly like it1 somewhat lower in the series1 that perhaps most of the interesting shells of this district are to be procured4 ,if we proceed from this little break or chine westward1 for about forty paces parallel to the coast1 and then in the direction of a line at right angles to the cliff1 and at the time of low water1 we shall find1 near the low-water-mark1 the bed we have described as abounding in fossils exposed by the action of the sea in the most favourable manner4 ,at this spot ,venericardia planicosta is found literally by thousands1 with the valves united1 the shells resting upon their edges1 and packed close to each other1 exactly in the manner that we might expect to have found them1 supposing them to have been recent shells with the animals yet inhabiting them4 ,comparatively very few are gaping1 and their condition and position strikingly impress upon the mind the idea that when alive they must have inhabited the spot from which they are now disinterred2 especially as there are numerous small and fragile species of other well-known ,london ,clay shells1 which could not have remained whole had they been subjected to much attrition amid the larger shells surrounding them4 ,on the sands in the vicinity of this spot1 ,i found large masses of ,nummulites lvigatus cemented together1 and numerous detached specimens of the same shell4 ,at the eastern extremity of this bed1 which1 at the time of my visit1 was opened for about fifty yards1 ,i found ,sanguinolaria ,hollowaysii1 a rare and fragile1 but very beautiful shell1 in a fine state of preservation4 ,at about twenty or thirty yards westward of the western end of this interesting patch of shells1 there are large blocks of this bed1 which1 being of a firmer texture than the surrounding parts of the deposit1 have suffered less from the action of the water1 and project about twelve or eighteen inches above the surrounding sand1 and1 by presenting an obstruction to the ebbing tide1 they usually induce the formation of a small pool amidst which they stand4 ,at the south-eastern side of this pool on one occasion ,i found the stratum1 which is usually covered by the sand1 completely exposed4 ,at this spot there was scarcely a specimen of ,venericardia planicosta to be seen1 but instead of this shell1 ,turritella conoidea and ,t4 edita were imbedded in a dark green marly sand2 and among them1 together with ,fusus longvus and other well-known ,london ,clay shells1 ,i found ,venericardia acuticostata and ,v4 mitis1 and a splendid specimen of ,conus deperditus1 fully equal in size to the one figured by ,deshayes4 ,westward of this point ,i did not meet with anything particularly interesting4 ,about midway between ,bracklesham ,barn and the ,thorney coast-guard station1 a series of patches of a deposit of chalk-flints was exposed2 the first of these was nearly at low-water-mark1 and the remainder of them ran1 at short distances from each other1 in a diagonal line towards the coast1 nearly in the direction of a straight line drawn from their western extremity to the ,thorney station-houses4 ,apparently1 this stratum of flints has not1 at any time1 exceeded eight inches or a foot in thickness2 they are1 indeed1 so thinly scattered1 as rarely to occur piled upon each other3 very few of them have suffered from attrition1 and the greater part retain their original form and whitened surface4 ,they are imbedded in the same light green marly sand which ,i before described as occurring at the bottom of the ,london ,clay in the neighbourhood of the little chine near ,bracklesham ,barn4 ,amongst the flints there are numerous remains of the roots of trees1 in the state of soft bog-wood2 which indicate that this portion of the strata has been very thinly covered by the superimposed clay4 ,upon one of the bouldered flints1 firmly imbedded in the marly sand4 ,i found the most interesting of the valuable series of fossils which ,i had the good fortune to obtain during this excursion1 namely1 a fine specimen of ,astra#ghf attached to the upper and exposed surface of a flint4 #ghf ,astra1 a species of coral2 see p4 #bfb4 ,as to the accommodation that may be procured near this interesting geological locality1 ,mr4 ,bowerbank informs me that homely fare can be obtained at the little inn at ,bracklesham1 but there is only one spare bed4 ,at ,selsea1 about six miles distant1 there is a much better inn4 ,,notes ,,for ,,an ,,excursion ,,to ,,the ,,tertiary ,,strata ,,of ,,the ,,isle ,,of ,,wight4 ,see ,geological ,excursions round the ,isle of ,wight1 and along the adjacent ,coasts of ,dorsetshire1 by the ,author4 #hvo4 #c;d edit4 ,with ,prefatory ,note by ,t4 ,rupert ,jones4 #ahed4 ,bohn4 ,london4 ,land at ,cowes2 examine the blocks of fresh-water limestone along the shore1 which abound in shells4 ,drive to ,alum ,bay 7,wond4 p4 #bda71 taking ,calbourn in your route1 where there are quarries of the fresh-water limestone1 with innumerable casts of ,paludina1 ,helix1 ,bulimus1 c4 ,put up at ,groves' ,hotel1 on the summit of the hill1 commanding a glorious view of ,alum ,bay1 with the ,hampshire coast1 and the ,isle of ,purbeck on the right1 and ,portland ,island looming in the remote distance2 and on the left1 the vertical cliffs of ,chalk1 and the ,needles4 ,the pathway that leads down to the sea-shore traverses a chasm1 separating ,headon-hill on the right1 from ,alum ,bay on the left2 in the former1 fresh-water shells--in the vertical beds of clay1 in the latter1 marine shells--may be obtained in great abundance and variety4 ,if you land at ,ryde1 the small quarries at ,binstead are worthy of constant research1 for the chance of mammalian remains 7see p4 #gia74 ,the following extract from the splendid work of ,sir ,henry ,englefield on the ,isle of ,wight describes certain geological changes still in progress on the shore near ,ryde1 that are well deserving the visitor's attention4 ,a great and very singular change has taken place within no very distant period of time on the shores of the ,solent1 near to ,ryde2 and which seems to be still sensibly proceeding4 ,when ,fielding1 in the year #agec1 was at ,ryde1 on his voyage to ,lisbon1 he describes the town as totally inaccessible by sea except at or near high-water2 as the tide1 on its recess1 left a vast extent of mud1 too soft to bear the lightest weight4 ,this mud-bank is now entirely covered by a stratum of fine white sand1 smooth and firm enough to bear wheel-carriages1 and which renders the bathing at all times safe and agreeable4 ,this bed of sand now reaches to ,binstead1 having covered at least two miles of the shore within the last half-century2 and the inhabitants say that it is still extending to the westward4 ,on digging through the sand1 the old mud presently appears1 the sand stratum being very thin4 ,to what cause this change is owing it is difficult to guess2 but it is an example of the alternation of deposits from the action of the sea1 in circumstances apparently unchanged1 which may afford cause for reflection to the geologist4#ghg #ghg ,sir ,h4 ,englefield's ,isle of ,wight1 p4 #af4 ,if the visitor have leisure1 he should make a tour of this interesting island1 from ,ryde to ,shanklin and ,ventnor1 along the beautiful scenery of the ,under ,cliff1 formed by the slips of the ,lower ,green ,sand2 to ,black ,gang ,chine1 and ,fresh-water ,bay2 visiting ,brook-,point 7,wond4 p4 #cgh7 to collect fossils from the ,wealden strata on the sea-shore4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,notes ,,for ,a ,,geological ,,excursion1 ,,over ,,the ,,chalk ,,and ,,wealden ,,formations ,,of ,,the ,,south-,,east ,,of ,,england1 ,,from ,,london ,,to ,,brighton1 ,,and ,,from ,,brighton ,,to ,,rottingdean4 ,in travelling from ,london to ,brighton by the railway1 the following geological features of the country may be observed2 by a reference to ,wond4 p4 #cfj1 the structure of this remarkable district may be easily understood4 ,leaving the station at ,london ,bridge1 the ,london ,clay1 with its characteristic fossils1 is seen beyond ,deptford1 by ,new ,cross1 ,sydenham1 c42 and approaching ,croydon1 beds of gravel appear1 with interspersions of olive-green sand4 ,these strata belong to the ,eocene formation1 and lie above and upon the ,chalk4 ,the valley beyond ,croydon 7,smitham ,bottom71 along the side of which the railroad is carried1 is composed of gravel resting on chalk2 beyond the station called ,stoat's ,nest1 there is a fine section of the chalk1 with layers of flint1 and two parallel seams of marl1 at the distance of six or eight feet from each other4 ,these extend1 with but little interruption1 several miles1 preserving their parallelism1 although the strata in many places have sustained considerable disturbance4 ,the ,merstham ,tunnel1 through the ,surrey chalk hills1 is now entered4 ,at ,merstham the chalk1 chalk-marl1 and firestone are intersected1 and the ,lower ,greensand of ,red ,hill appears2 and from thence to ,horley station1 the lower sands and clays of the ,chalk formation are passed over or cut through2 affording sections of sandstone1 ironstone1 and fuller's earth4 ,the strata we have hitherto traversed are of marine origin1 and contain fossil shells1 fishes1 ,crustacea1 c41 and remains of other inhabitants of former oceans4 ,but we now enter upon the series of river deposits#ghh which form the ,wealden1 and contain the relics of terrestrial or fresh-water animals and plants4 #ghh ,a limited intercalation of a marine character occurs in the ,hasting ,sands of ,swanage ,bay2 this was discovered by ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,c4 ,austen1 and is noticed ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 vii4 p4 lix4 ,at ,horley the weald clay appears1 and is succeeded by sand1 sandstone1 and shale1 to ,crawley4 ,passing through the tunnel of the ,wealden strata1 we arrive at ,balcombe1 where sandstone in lamin and in thick beds1 having the surface at the lines of junction covered with ripple marks1 is seen on each side the railroad2 the dip of the strata is to the north-east4 ,after crossing the deep valley at ,balcombe1 over the magnificent viaduct1 the line runs along alternations of sand and clay1 dipping south-west2 we have thus passed over what is termed the anticlinal axis of the ,wealden4 ,arriving at ,hayward's ,heath station1 the tunnel exposes a good section of the ,wealden sand1 sandstone1 shale1 and blue marl or oak-tree clay1 to a depth of about thirty-six yards4 ,the strata are disposed in the same order and thickness as in the quarries around ,cuckfield2 namely1 fawn-coloured sand and sandstone1 like those of ,little ,horsted1 with beds of calciferous grit or ,tilgate stone2 and1 beneath1 layers of the blue clay4 ,the strata are very barren in organic remains2 several hours' research only afforded imperfect vegetable relics1 such as comminuted stems and leaves of the various species of ferns1 which occur in ,tilgate ,forest 7see ,wond4 p4 #cib74 ,some of the grey laminated sandstones and shales at this place very closely resemble certain strata of the ,coal measures4 ,proceeding over the ,weald clay with the ,sussex marble of ,st4 ,john's ,common1 the line encounters the ,lower ,greensand of ,sussex1 at ,stone-pound gate4 ,here then we quit the fresh-water strata of the ,wealden1 and again enter upon the marine deposits of the ,chalk-formation4 ,at the foot of the northern escarpment of the ,south downs1 the ,chalk is penetrated at the base of ,clayton ,hill1 the tunnel running through the lower members of the ,chalk--the ,galt and ,chalk-marl--and emerging at ,piecombe through the ,white ,chalk2 from thence to ,brighton1 the sections and tunnels intersect or perforate the same cretaceous deposits4 ,sidenote3 ,,london ,,and ,,brighton ,,railway4 ,in our traverse we shall have seen that the various strata cut through1 are repeated on the north and south of a line drawn from east to west through the ,forest ,ridge 7see ,wond4 ,geol4 ,map1 pl4 #a74 ,thus1 the railroad has to pass through two ranges of chalk hills by tunnels those of ,merstham and ,clayton2 two principal ridges of ,wealden strata--at ,balcombe and ,hayward's ,heath2 and the ,shanklin or ,lower ,greensand at ,red ,hill1 in ,surrey1 and near ,hurstpierpoint1 in ,sussex4 ,there is no railroad in the kingdom that1 in the distance of fifty miles1 exhibits geological phenomena of greater variety or interest4 ,if the student will refer to ,wond4 p4 #cfb1 the stratification above pointed out will be better comprehended4 ,the sections visible on the turnpike road from ,london to ,brighton are described1 ,wond4 p4 #cfc4 ,the neighbourhood of ,balcombe station will afford some sections of easy access2 and from ,hayward s ,heath station1 ,cuckfield is about two miles distant4 ,the quarries on the hill above that town were formerly very productive1 and the usual ,wealden fossils may still be obtained2 namely1 casts of several species of fresh-water shells 7p4 #daf71 scales and teeth of fishes 7,lepidotus1 p4 #fjd71 bones of reptiles1 and vegetable remains4 ,chap4 ,,xxii4 ,,geological ,,structure ,,of ,,brighton ,,cliffs4 ,yes6 where the huntsman winds his matin horn1 ,and the couch'd hare beneath the covert trembles2 ,where shepherds tend their flocks1 and grows the corn2 ,where ,fashion on our gay ,parade assembles-- ,wild ,horses1 ,deer1 and ,elephants have strayed1 ,treading beneath their feet old ,ocean's races4 ,horace ,smith4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfg4 ,brighton ,cliffs1 near ,kemptown1 ,from the ,sea-shore1 looking ,east1 or towards ,rottingdean4 a4--,the ,elephant-bed4 b4--,an ancient ,sea-beach1 composed of shingle and boulders of granite1 porphyry1 c4 c4--,the ,chalk which forms the base of the cliff4 ,a stroll from ,kemptown along the sea-shore to ,rottingdean is replete with interest1 for the strata of which the cliffs are composed clearly demonstrate that in very remote periods great changes have taken place in the relative position of the sea and land along the ,sussex coast4 ,some years since1 the bare face of the ,cliffs1 from the entrance to the esplanade of the ,chain-pier at the ,old ,steyne1 to ,kemptown1 was completely exposed1 and presented a most interesting section of the strata4 ,but at the present time1 as every one knows1 no portion of the cliffs is visible west of the groin below ,kemptown and the sections in my first work 7,foss4 ,south ,d4 pl4 iv4 and v47 are the only records of the appearances formerly presented1 and now concealed by the sea-wall4 ,even the cliffs immediately beyond ,kemptown are rapidly diminishing from the action of the waves1 which dash with greater violence against their base in consequence of the means taken to protect the adjoining terraces from the encroachments of the sea4 ,the appearance of the ,cliffs east of ,kemptown is shown in the sketch1 ,lign4 #bfg4 ,but further along the shore1 towards ,rottingdean1 in a ravine excavated by the encroachments of the sea1 the ancient chalk-cliff behind the mass of strata seen above is exposed2 this is represented in ,lign4 #bfh4 ,a description of the appearances at this point will elucidate the nature of the strata of which these cliffs are composed4 ,upon examining the shore at low-water1 masses of chalk1 covered with fuci 7sea-weed71 c4 are seen protruding through the sands2 and towards the base of the cliff a bed of sea-beach is spread upon the sand2 a low wall or terrace of white chalk constitutes the boundary of this shingle1 as seen in ,lign4 #bfg1 c4 ,thus we perceive1 that the present shore is formed by the continuation of the chalk strata of the neighbouring ,downs1 partially covered with sand and beach1 which are the detritus of the flints that have been washed out of previously existing layers of chalk1 and ground down by the action of the waves4 ,now1 along the eastern part of the coast1 towards ,rottingdean and ,newhaven1 the chalk rises into mural precipices immediately from the sea-shore2 but at this place the cliffs are composed of very different materials4#ghi #ghi ,wond4 p4 #aac2 and ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc4 vol4 vii4 pp4 #cfe1 #cif4 #a4 ,in the first place1 there is1 lying immediately on the terrace of chalk that forms the boundary-wall of the base of the cliff 7,lign4 #bfg1 c1 and ,lign4 #bfh1 c c171 a bed of sand 7denoted by the letter o1 ,lign4 #bfh71 of irregular thickness and variable extent3 from this sand marine shells and the jaw of a ,whale 7see p4 #ggh71 have been obtained4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfh4 ,cliffs between ,kemptown and ,rottingdean3 seen from the ,west4 a4--,elephant-bed2 calcareous strata1 containing teeth and bones of ,elephants4 b4--,ancient ,shingle1 or sea-beach4 o4--,red of ,sand2 containing bones of ,whales1 and marine shells4 c1 c4--,strata of undisturbed ,chalk1 dipping towards the ,downs4 #b4 ,upon the sand is a bed of loose shingle--a regular sea-beach appearing in no respect different1 to the common observer1 from that forming at the foot of the cliffs at the present moment2 this bed is marked b1 in ,lign4 #bfg1 and #bfh4 ,upon examining this shingle1 it is found to contain numerous pebbles and boulders of granite1 porphyry1 syenite1 and other plutonic rocks 7see p4 #cd71 none of which occur in the present beach4 ,and in this ancient shingle1 teeth and bones of extinct species of ,elephant1 ,horse1 and ,deer have been discovered4 ,we have here1 then1 unquestionable evidence that this beach has been formed under conditions altogether different from those which now prevail2 for not only is this shingle-bed elevated above the present sea-level1 but its contents are of such a nature as could not have been thrown up by the sea1 in its present relation to the countries that form its shores4 #c4 ,a series of loosely aggregated calcareous deposits1 obscurely stratified1 rests upon this bed of shingle1 and forms the upper portion of the cliff1 varying in total thickness from fifty to one hundred and twenty feet4 ,these strata are composed of chalk rubble and loam1 with flints partially water-worn1 and boulders and pebbles of tertiary sandstone2 the whole promiscuously intermingled1 and deposited in nearly horizontal layers1 from one to three or four feet thick4 ,but the face of the cliff generally presents a weather-worn and crumbling aspect1 and large masses are constantly falling down1 in consequence of the removal of the ancient shingle1 by the effects of the waves at the spring-tides4 ,from the loose state of aggregation of these beds1 the fallen masses are speedily washed away1 but here and there blocks of great hardness1 provincially termed ,coombe-rock1 remain upon the shore2 and1 but a few years since1 there was a group of high rocks of this kind near the ,chain-pier4 ,this compact conglomerate has been produced simply by an infiltration of calcareous spar1 which has cemented together the fragments of chalk1 flint1 c4 ,in some places1 this infiltration has reached the bed of ancient shingle below1 and large blocks are occasionally found1 consisting of pebbles of flint1 granite1 c4 held together by veins of calc-spar1 in acicular or needle-like crystals4 ,in these sparry conglomerates1 the teeth and bones of the mammalia previously noticed are sometimes found4#gij #gij ,my daughter discovered part of the lower jaw of a ,deer1 with teeth1 imbedded in this conglomerate1 in a mass on the shore near ,rottingdean4 ,it is in this accumulation of calcareous strata that numerous bones and teeth of the ,mammoth1 or fossil ,elephant1 have been discovered2 ,i have therefore designated it1 the ,elephant-bed1 to distinguish it from other loose calcareous deposits4 ,as seen immediately beyond ,kemptown 7,lign4 #bfg71 the cliffs appear to be entirely composed of the materials above described2 but farther on1 the face of the ancient chalk-cliff is exposed 7see ,lign4 #bfh72 and if we extend our walk to ,rottingdean1 we find in many places the ,chalk alone forming the present cliff2 the ,elephant-bed and its associated shingle and sand having been swept away4 ,a like destruction awaits the remainder of these interesting deposits at no very distant period4#gia #gia ,see ,foss4 ,south ,d4 p4 #bgg1 pl4 iv42 and ,geol4 ,s4 ,e4 p4 #cj2 ,wond4 p4 #aac4 ,after collecting specimens of the ,elephant-bed1 both of the friable varieties1 and of the coombe-rock1 and a few of the pebbles of granite1 porphyry1 c4 from the ancient beach1 and also some of the sand beneath the shingle1 to examine microscopically on our return home1 let us sit down on this mass of fallen chalk1 and consider the nature of those changes in the relative position of the land and sea1 which the phenomena before us appear to indicate4 ,we have seen that these cliffs are composed of the following deposits3--#a4 ,the ,elephant-bed 7,lign4 #bfg and #bfh1 a72 a series of calcareous strata1 with bones and teeth of ,elephants1 ,horses1 ,deer1 and ,oxen4 #b4 ,an ancient sea-beach 7b71 with pebbles and boulders of plutonic rocks1 and bones of mammalia2 and a bed of sand beneath1 in which cetacea and mollusca 7apparently of existing species7 have been found4 #c4 ,lastly1 the regular ,chalk-strata 7,lign4 #bfh1 c1 c71 extending far out to sea4 ,these appearances demonstrate the following sequence of physical changes1 namely-- #astly4 ,the ,chalk terrace 7c1 c71 on which the ancient shingle-bed 7b7 rests1 was on a level with the sea for a long period2 for this beach must have been formed1 like the modern1 by the action of the waves on the then existing chalk cliffs 7see ,lign4 #bfh1 ,chalk74 ,but there must have been some cause in operation1 by which pebbles and boulders of granite1 porphyry1 and other rocks1 foreign to our shores1 and bones of ,elephants1 c4 were thrown up on the strand1 and imbedded in the beach then in the progress of formation4 ,these transported materials may have been floated to the ,sussex coast by icebergs2 an agency by which the delicate bones and teeth might be deposited without injury1 although surrounded by the water-worn detritus 7see p4 #dc74 #b;dly4 ,the whole line of coast1 with the ancient shingle1 must have subsided to such a depth1 as to have allowed of the deposition of the calcareous strata1 forming the ,elephant-bed4 ,and from the absence of gravel and beach1 and the circumstance of the chalk-rubble1 of which they are largely composed1 often presenting angular fragments1 it would appear that this deposition took place in some tranquil bay or inland sea4 ,lastly4 ,the land was elevated to its present level2 and at this period the formation of the existing sea-beach and line of cliffs commenced4 ,the reader must not conclude1 from our remarks being restricted to the cliffs before us1 that the phenomena here contemplated were limited to this district2 on the contrary1 if our space would permit1 it might be shown that they are referable to extensive geological changes1 which took place in the period immediately antecedent to the present4 ,in all the valleys of the ,south-east and ,east of ,england that open into the sea1 traces1 more or less extensive and important1 of similar deposits exist4 ,the level plain1 called the ,steyne1 at ,brighton1 is entirely formed of the ,elephant-bed1 which extends up the valley to ,preston and ,patcham2 in the latter place bones and teeth of ,elephants have been found4 ,at ,southbourn1 the plain at the foot of the ,chalk hills1 called ,the ,wish1 containing remains of the ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 and ,hippopotamus1 evidently belongs to the same epoch4 ,at ,folkstone1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,carr has discovered large blocks of ,coombe-rock1 and ,mr4 ,s4 ,j4 ,mackie abundance of bones2 and at ,dover1 above the ,chalk1 similar masses occur4 ,on the opposite coast of ,franco there are also indications of these deposits4 ,all these phenomena are no doubt connected with the occurrence of immense quantities of mammalian remains in the superficial loam1 c4 on the eastern coasts of ,england1 and are referable to the same geological epoch4 ,imbedded in the ,chalk1 which is exposed at low water along the shore1 very large ,ammonites may sometimes be found between ,kemptown and ,rottingdean2 and numerous examples of fossil sponges and other amorphozoa 7p4 #bai74 ,the teeth and bones of mammalia are rare in these cliffs1 and it is not probable that any will be obtained in a first visit2 but from the fishermen and boys seen strolling along the shore1 specimens may often be purchased4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,geological ,,notes ,,of ,,various ,,places ,,on ,,the ,,line ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,western ,,railroad1 ,,from ,,london ,,to ,,clifton4 ,that splendid railway1 the ,great ,western1 by which the geologist may be transported in five or six hours from the ,tertiary strata of the metropolis to the magnificent cliffs of ,mountain limestone at ,clifton1 exposes in its course several fine sections1 and passes within a moderate distance of some interesting localities of organic remains4 ,this railroad traverses the ,tertiary strata by ,ealing1 ,hanwell1 and ,slough1 entering the ,chalk near ,maidenhead1 and pursuing rather a circuitous route to ,wallingford1 beyond which station it passes over the ,oolite1 and displays some bold sections of the limestones and clays of that formation4 ,near ,bath it emerges on the ,lias1 and crossing a narrow belt of the ,new ,red1 passes on to the ,carboniferous strata of the ,bristol coal measures4#gib ,in this route1 there are four places particularly deserving a visit from the geological student1 and collector of organic remains1 namely1 ,farringdon1 ,swindon1 ,caine1 and ,chippenham4 #gib ,see ,geological ,map of ,england4 ,visit to ,farringdon4--,the railway station is reached in from two to two and a half hours from ,london2 and an omnibus meets the morning and evening trains1 to convey passengers to the town of ,farringdon1 which is about five miles distant4#gic ,there are two ,inns in the town1 the ,crown and the ,bell1 where comfortable accommodation may be obtained4 #gic ,as there is not a conveyance from ,farringdon to meet every train that stops at the station1 the visitor who objects to a long walk should previously ascertain the time when the omnibus or coach does arrive1 and select a train accordingly4 ,the town is situated in a valley1 between ,farringdon ,hill1 an eminence seen from a considerable distance in the approach from ,oxford1 and ,badbury ,hill 7see ,lign4 #bfi74 ,a small stream divides the town into two tithings1 called ,port and ,west-port1 and flows into the ,thames on the north4 ,the summits of the highest eminences near ,farringdon consist of beds of sand and gravel1 resting on ,coral ,bag and ,kimmeridge ,clay1 and belonging to the ,cretaceous formation1 being the littoral deposits in this area of some sea of that period4 ,the ,lower ,green or ,shanklin ,sand1 the ,galt1 ,chalk-marl1 and ,chalk successively appear in the valley below ,coxwell ,furze up to the ,white ,horse ,downs4 ,sidenote3 ,,excursion ,,to ,,farringdon4 ,i have not observed any organic remains in the strata on the top of ,farringdon and ,badbury ,hills1 but from the pits in the low country numerous fossil sponges and other amorphozoa 7see pp4 #bbg-bbi7 maybe obtained4 ,one of the most productive gravel-pits1 as they are here termed1 is situated on the road to ,little ,coxwell1 about three quarters of a mile from ,farringdon4 ,it lies on the left of the road leading to the pretty village of ,shrivenham4 ,in this pit1 the strata consist of a coarse aggregate of siliceous particles1 with some lenticular masses in the state of compact conglomerate2 the lower beds are of a whitish grey1 the upper of a deep ferruginous colour4 ,the ,windmill public-house1 close by1 is kept by the owner of the pit 7,panting71 and specimens of the petrified salt-cellars 7see p4 #bbh7 and other sponges may generally be obtained of the inmates2 but the collector1 in a few hours1 will be able to gather an extensive and interesting collection2 the pick-hammer1 ,lign4 #bff1 fig4 #b1 will be found the most convenient instrument4 ,there are two other pits within a moderate distance of ,panting s pit1 which are also rich in fossils4 ,the principal organic remains to be obtained from these beds are the zoophytes figured p4 #bbg1 and ,wond4 p4 #fcg4 ,the reader should recollect that the beautiful cup-shaped sponge1 ,chenendopora fungiformis 7,lign4 #ga71 is the petrified salt-cellar of the quarry-men4 ,as many specimens as possible of the interesting coral1 ,verticellipora 7p4 #bbg1 ,lign4 #gj1 fig4 #d17 should be procured1 to examine the internal structure at leisure4 ,the cup-shaped sponges should be collected uncleared1 for they are often full of minute corals1 shells1 echinital spines1 c4 ,there are also numerous specimens to be met with of ,terebratul1 ,ostre1 ,nautili1 and other shells2 also rolled ,belemnites from the ,oolite1 and bones of ,plesiosauri and ,ichthyosauri4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bfi4 ,section of the strata at ,farringdon1 ,berks2 from ,farringdon ,hill to the ,chalk ,downs on the ,south4 ,the summits of ,farringdon and ,bradbury ,hills1 and ,coxwell ,furze1 are formed of sands and gravels of the ,cretaceous period4 ,the lines on the ,coralline ,oolite are not intended to denote the dip of the strata4 ,note3--,see ,memoirs on the ,farringdon ,sands1 by ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,c4 ,austen1 in ,quart4 ,geol4 ,journ4 vol4 vi4 and by ,mr4 ,d4 ,sharpe1 ibid4 vol4 x4 ,fossils of the ,coralline ,oolite4--,at a short distance from the town there is a large quarry of ,coral-rag1 called ,lamb-close-pit1 from which ,cidarites 7p4 #caf7 and spines1 and several species of corals and shells may be procured4 ,occasionally ,ammonites and ,belemnites are met with in the limestone at this place4 ,stanford pit1 about three miles south-east of ,farringdon1 is well worthy of a visit2 it consists of the following strata3-- #a4 ,uppermost2 ,coral-rag1 three and a half feet4 #b4 ,limestone1 containing an abundance of shells1 particularly of ,trigoni 7p4 #dab71 c4 four and a half feet4 #c4 ,portland sand1 of an olive-green colour1 three feet4 #d4 ,kimmeridge clay4 ,some shells are extremely numerous2 principally of the genera ,trigonia1 ,gervillia1 ,pecten1 ,ostrea1 ,terebratula1 c42 fine ,belemnites also occur4 ,the oolitic structure is very apparent in the upper beds of limestone4 ,swindon1 ,wilts4--,fourteen miles beyond the ,farringdon station of the railway1 we arrive at that of ,swindon4 ,about a mile from this station1 on the rising ground to the south1 stands the little1 and formerly retired1 town of ,swindon4 ,here1 when a schoolboy1 my curiosity was strongly excited by the so-called petrified ram's horns1 and oak1 so abundant in the solid masses of stone in the neighbouring quarries1 and which daily came under my notice in my rambles around the town4 ,it is indeed a locality most prolific in the ,ammonites and other shells1 and in the fossil wood peculiar to the upper division of the ,oolite formation--the ,portland beds2 the hill on which the town is built consisting of those strata2 the ,kimmeridge ,clay1 on which they rest1 is exposed in the railway cuttings in the valley on the north4 ,there are two little ,inns1 the ,bell and the ,goddard ,arms1 where the visitor may meet with accommodation4 ,the quarries1 which are in the immediate vicinity of the town1 abound in ,ammonites1 ,trigoni1 and other shells3 and some layers are entirely composed of the casts of several species4 ,the ,ammonites are principally of two kinds1 viz4 ,a4 biplex and ,a4 triplicatus1 and vary in size from a few inches to upwards of three feet in diameter2 the specimens are casts only1 no vestiges of the shells remaining4 ,at ,aylesbury the same species occur in clay1 with the shells entire 7see p4 #dha74 ,a large collection may be made in a few hours2 and from some of the quarry-men the less common forms may probably be obtained4 ,casts of the bivalves called ,gervillia and ,perna abound in the quarry on the right hand of the road4 ,i have collected from this place1 in addition to those above mentioned1 casts of the genera ,buccinum1 ,cardium1 ,cytherea or ,venus1 ,nerita1 ,terebra1 ,pullastra1 ,pecten2 and of the large species of ,pleurotomaria which occurs in the ,kimmeridge clay of ,hartwell1 with the shell perfect 7p4 #dbh72 also vertebr of ,ichthyosauri4 ,a section of the strata from ,swindon to the nearest point of the chalk hills would pass over1 in succession1--#a4 ,portland ,oolite2 #b4 ,lower ,greensand2 #c4 ,galt2 #d4 ,upper ,greensand2 #e4 ,chalk-marl2 and1 #f4 ,chalk4 ,sidenote3 ,,excursion ,,to ,,chippenham ,,and ,,calne4 ,chippenham and ,calne4--,in from three and a half to four hours the traveller from ,london reaches the town of ,chippenham1 ninety-three miles from ,london1 and situated on the ,oxford clay2 the locality where ,mr4 ,william ,bye obtained those interesting specimens of ,belemnoteuthis1 that contain vestiges of the soft bodies and arms 7see page #dei1 and ,lign4 #ade74 ,calne1 about six miles from ,chippenham1 stands on ,oolitic limestone2 and the quarries around the town have long been celebrated for the perfection and abundance of their fossil remains2 particularly of various species of the turban echinites 7,cidarites1 see p4 #caf71 and their spines4 ,a day or two at each of these towns will be well spent by the geologist and the collector of organic remains4 ,bath and ,bristol4--,the immediate vicinities of these cities are rich in interesting localities for the geologist4 ,a visit to the public museums in ,bath and ,bristol cannot fail to gratify the student1 and will at once point out to him the places most worthy his examination4 ,that of ,bristol is admirably arranged1 and contains1 among other treasures1 the specimen of fossil ,squaloraia 7see p4 #eif72 the remains of the reptiles of the magnesian conglomerate1 the ,thecodontosaurus 7p4 #gac72 and the celebrated collection of ,crinoidea 7p4 #bhc7 formed by the late ,mr4 ,miller4 ,sidenote3 ,,excursion ,,to ,,clifton4 ,clifton4--,the stupendous rocks of mountain limestone which flank both sides of the ,avon in its course from ,clifton to the ,severn are too well known to render a general description necessary1 and our limits will not admit of details4 ,the geological student should first obtain a coup d'il of the appearance and position of the strata1 by sailing down to the embouchure of the river in a steam-packet1 and afterwards visit on foot the most interesting localities4 ,on the right bank of the river1 near the ,black ,rock1 the teeth of several kinds of fishes of the genera ,psammodus 7p4 #ehg71 ,hybodus 7p4 #eia71 ,ceratodus 7p4 #ehg71 c4 may be obtained1 and shells and corals of the mountain limestone4 ,polished specimens of the coralline marbles may be purchased at the shops4 ,portishead1 a pretty little village on the south-east bank of the ,severn1 is well worth a visit2 and1 by going in the morning steamer and returning in the evening1 several hours may be agreeably spent along the shore below the hotel2 and fossil plants and shells1 from the blocks of millstone grit1 and numerous rock specimens may be collected4 ,a sail to ,chepstow1 and up the ,wye as far as ,tintern ,abbey1 returning on foot1 or in a carriage1 by ,piercefield to ,chepstow1 is an excursion replete with the highest interest and enjoyment4 ,the picturesque beauties of the ,wye are dependent1 like those of ,clifton and ,matlock1 on the disruptions which the strata of mountain limestone have sustained4 ,the magnificent scenery as we pass up the river1 and the interesting associations connected with the ruins of ,tintern ,abbey1 cannot fail to delight the traveller2 but the enchanting scene that bursts upon the sight from the heights of ,piercefield is magnificent in the extreme1 and equal to the grandest views on the ,rhine4 ,looking down from those elevated pinnacles of rock1 which are covered with the most luxuriant vegetation1 and crested with forests of pine1 oak1 and beech1 we perceive the ,wye pursuing its tortuous course at our feet1 and winding along1 around promontories of limestone1 towards ,chepstow2 while immediately beyond1 and apparently separated from the opposite bank of the river only by a precipitous rampart or mountain limestone1 the ,severn appears as a vast inland sea1 bounded in the remote distance by the country around ,gloucester1 and extending on the right to the ,bristol ,channel4 ,among other interesting geological sites within a few miles of ,clifton and ,bristol1 may be mentioned-- #a4 ,aust ,cliff2 a section of the ,lias1 from which many interesting fossils have been procured4 #b4 ,banwell ,cave2 which is particularly deserving of examination 7see p4 #hji74 #c4 ,cheddar ,cliffs2 which are equally interesting to the geologist and to the lover of picturesque scenery4 ,they are about twenty miles from ,bristol2 and a carriage and pair will be required1 if the visitor intends to return the same day4 ,the best arrangement is to visit the cavern at ,banwell1 remain in the neighbouring town the following night1 and make an excursion to ,cheddar ,cliffs the next day4 ,there has lately been opened at ,cheddar a cavern which surpasses in the beauty of its stalactites any hitherto discovered in ,england4 ,the ,rev4 ,w4 ,d4 ,conybeare states1 that it is the only one that at all realizes any idea we have of the far-famed ,grotto of ,antiparos4 ,it consists of one grand arch1 or porch1 and three or four lateral branches and narrow fissures1 about ten or twelve feet broad1 and from thirty to forty feet high1 vested and draped with the most fantastic hangings of stalactite4 ,the floor is a mass of stalagmite1 covering a bed of gravel of the mountain limestone1 which fills up about ten feet of the bottom4 ,i am not aware that any fossil bones have been observed4 ,when visiting ,banwell1 inquiry should be made if there be any ,cave at ,hutton accessible to the visitor4 ,the above remarks must be regarded only as suggestions2 for it would require a volume to particularize the geological objects of interest within a short distance of ,bristol4 ,the coal-mines in the neighbourhood of ,bath and ,bristol should be visited1 and fossil plants collected4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,geological ,,excursion ,,to ,,matlock4 ------ ,in famed ,attica such lovely dales ,are rarely seen2 nor can fair ,temp boast ,a charm they know not4 ,lord ,byron4 ,the beautiful and romantic ,dale of ,matlock1 although one hundred and forty-two miles distant1 is now brought within nine hours of the metropolis4 ,leaving ,london from the ,euston-square station of the ,birmingham ,railway1 at eleven o'clock 7taking the precaution to have a ticket that will ensure a passage from ,rugby by the ,midland ,counties ,railroad to ,derby71 we pass over in succession the clays1 sands1 and beds of gravel1 composing the ,tertiary strata of the ,london basin2 and at ,watford1 steep cuttings of these deposits are seen on each side of the station4 ,a long tunnel through the ,white ,chalk of ,hertfordshire is then passed2 and at ,tring we arrive at the termination of the ,chalk1 and obtain a fine view of the north-west escarpment of the ,downs1 which is seen extending on the right towards ,ivinghoe1 and attaining an elevation of #ijj feet4 ,the railway then proceeds over the ,chalk-marl1 ,galt1 and ,lower ,greensand1 to near ,leighton1 where these members of the ,cretaceous system are succeeded by the ,oolite of ,buckinghamshire and ,northamptonshire2 and the line crosses the ,grand ,junction ,canal near the emergence of the ,lias2 the ,rugby station being situated in the midst of that formation4 ,we then enter the ,midland ,counties line1 and pass on to ,stoney ,stanton1 where the ,lias terminates1 and the ,triassic or ,new ,red strata appear2 proceeding towards ,leicester1 clays and marls of a dull red colour1 denoting the ,triassic deposits1 constitute the slopes on each side the railway4 ,as we approach ,leicester1 the craggy summits of ,charnwood ,forest appear in the distance ,on the left1 with here and there an isolated conical hill1 indicating the protruded masses of granite1 porphyry1 and syenite1 which belong to the group of plutonic rocks of the central county of ,england4 ,the granitic mass of ,mount ,sorel is seen along the railway from ,sileby to ,barrow1 ,charnwood ,forest appearing in the distance4 ,leaving ,leicester for ,derby1 the route continues along ,triassic strata2 and a good section of the variegated marls1 with veins of white fibrous gypsum1 may be observed at ,red ,hill1 where a short tunnel perforates a ridge of the same deposits4 ,the railroad then emerges on the verdant alluvial plain through which the ,trent1 its waters increased by the confluence of the ,dove and the ,soar1 pursues its course towards the north1 and joins the ,humber at ,alkborough1 whence the united streams flow on1 and empty themselves into the ,german ,ocean4 ,at ,derby1 where the train arrives at half-past five1 half an hour is allowed for dinner2 and we then proceed by the ,north ,midland line1 by ,duffield and ,helper1 through a beautiful valley watered by the ,derwent1 which is seen winding its way towards ,derby4 ,the high grounds skirting this valley are composed of the millstone-grit and sandstone of the ,carboniferous system 7see p4 #ca74 ,ten miles beyond ,derby1 we arrive at ,amber ,gate station1 where an omnibus and other conveyances are in waiting1 to convey passengers to ,cromford and ,matlock4#gid #gid ,as it frequently happens that more passengers are brought by the train1 than the omnibus or coach can convey1 some activity is necessary to secure an outside place1 which it is most desirable for the s geological tourist to possess1 that he may command a good view of the splendid scenery1 which will be constantly opening on his sight1 through the romantic pass that leads to ,matlock4 ,sidenote3 ,,excursion ,,to ,,matlock ,,dale4 ,the road from ,amber ,gate leads through a succession of picturesque scenes of surpassing beauty4 ,at ,whatstandwell-bridge#gie 7see ,lign4 #bgc71 over which the ,derwent is crossed1 the view is most imposing4 ,the river is seen rapidly pursuing its course between richly wooded ravines1 fringed with luxuriant foliage to the water's edge4#gif ,as we advance1 the bold mountain ridge of ,crich ,hill appears on the light1 with the village of ,holloway at a considerable elevation1 and ,lea ,mills near the base of the range2 while on the left are the hills and overhanging woods of ,alderwasley4 ,ascending to the ,inn at ,cromford1 the road turns suddenly to the right1 and by an opening cut through a mass of strata twenty feet thick1 called ,scarthing ,rock1 conducts to the southern entrance of ,matlock ,dale4 ,on passing this chasm1 the glorious features of this enchanting region burst on the view4 ,on the east is a range of limestone cliffs1 richly wooded1 with ,willersley ,castle1 the seat of the ,arkwrights1 embosomed in trees on a commanding eminence2 and on the west1 a rocky precipice1 crested with forests1 and its sides partially covered with copses and brushwood2 while the river1 dashing through the ravine on the right1 completes the magic of the picture-- ,so wond'rous wild1 the whole might seem4 ,the scenery of a fairy dream4 ,lady of the ,lake4 #gie ,hotstandwell in the guide-books2 ,whatstandwell in the ,ordnance ,map4 #gif ,the pedestrian should alight at the little ,inn at ,whatstandwell1 and walk on to ,matlock the following morning4 ,at the distance of about half a mile1 we pass the toll-gate1 and a bold mural precipice of mountain limestone suddenly appears on the eastern bank of the river2 while on the western1 a steep slope1 clothed with verdure1 rises rapidly to the lofty pine-clad eminence called ,masson ,hill1 an elevation of upwards of #a1jjj feet4 ,the base of this mountain stretches directly across the dale in front1 and apparently presents a barrier to an egress from the valley on the north2 but as we advance1 the road is seen to wind round its foot by a defile along the left bank of the river2 and the magnificent rock called the ,high ,tor rises in majestic grandeur on the right4 ,the valley now gradually expands1 and1 at the distance of about two and a half miles from the entrance at ,scarthing's rock1 terminates in the champaign country beyond ,matlock village4#gig ,from the precipitous nature of the escarpment of mountain limestone which forms the eastern boundary of the dale1 the buildings at ,matlock ,bath are confined to the left or western side of the ,derwent1 and are scattered here and there among the trees1 on the projecting plots and terraces formed by the fallen cliffs of sandstone1 which1 during the lapse of ages1 have become partially disintegrated and are more or less concealed by vegetable soil2 the projecting rocks are covered with lichens1 mosses1 and ferns4 #gig ,the proper name of the hamlet in the valley1 generally called ,matlock1 is ,matlock ,bath4 ,the hotels1 of which there are several1 are all delightfully situated2 but the ,temple ,hotel1 which stands on a terrace on the side of ,masson ,hill1 about a hundred feet above the river1 has the preference in my estimation2 its elevated situation1 its seclusion from the noise and bustle of the village1 and its bowers and hedge-rows of sweet-briar and roses1 imparting a character of sylvan beauty to the spot1 peculiarly grateful to the traveller who wishes to enjoy a quiet sojourn at ,matlock ,dale4 ,the local guide-books afford the necessary information to direct the visitor to the celebrated picturesque spots of this beautiful region2 our immediate object is to point out the most important geological phenomena4#gih #gih ,the book entitled ,the ,gem of the ,peak1 by ,w4 ,adams1 price ,is41 and the ,brief ,remarks on the ,geology and ,botany of ,derbyshire1 by the same author1 price #as41 will be found to contain much valuable information4 ,the ,derbyshire ,tourist's ,guide1 with plates1 #hvo41 by ,e4 ,rhodes1 price #fs41 is a delightful hand-book4 ,sidenote3 ,,london ,,to ,,matlock4 ,geological ,position of ,matlock ,dale4--,that the reader may clearly comprehend the geological character of the romantic district in which he is now situated1 we will briefly enumerate the several formations over which we passed1 in our rapid transit from ,london2 by the aid of the geological map1 the following description will be easily comprehended4 ,our route from the metropolis commenced from the centre of the ,tertiary strata1 upon which ,london is situated1 and which fills up an extensive depression or basin in the ,chalk2 we then passed over1 or rather 7by the tunnel7 through the north-west boundary of the ,chalk basin1 and successively came upon the ,portland stone and other beds of the ,oolite1 and the ,lias2 the strata of these formations successively rising from beneath each other as we proceeded4 ,in ,leicestershire1 the beds of the ,new ,red or ,triassic formation emerged from under the ,lias2 and at the ,trent ,junction the nature of the deposits was concealed by the alluvial plains of the river4 ,beyond ,derby1 we entered upon strata of the ,carboniferous system1 the ,millstone grits and sandstones1 and finally reached the ,mountain limestone and its associated ,magnesian limestones1 which compose the mountainous district of ,derbyshire4 ,the following diagram will serve to illustrate this description4 ,illustration ,the immediate vicinity of ,matlock is1 therefore1 a region of ,carboniferous limestone and millstone strata1 which1 as we have previously explained 7see p4 #ca71 are of marine origin2 and those beds that contain organic remains abound in extinct species of shells and crinoidea4 ,these rocks are also the grand depository of the ores of lead 7see ,wond4 p4 #fha71 calamine1 c41 and contain a variety of minerals of great beauty and interest4 ,this district has also been the theatre1 in very remote periods1 of great physical changes1 and the strata have been upheaved and displaced by volcanic action1 the solid rocks rent asunder1 and beds of mineral substances1 rendered fluid by intense heat1 have been injected between the layers1 and into the fissures of the sedimentary strata2 to these revolutions1 the present bold and picturesque features of the country are attributable4 ,here then are phenomena replete with the highest interest2 the very beds of lava may still be seen--the rents and fissures caused by their explosive action1 and now lined with rich metallic ores and spars1 may be examined--and the thermal waters1 rising in perpetual fountains from an incalculable depth1 testify that the internal fires1 the sources of these catastrophes1 though latent1 are not extinguished4 ,sidenote3 ,,matlock ,,incrusting ,,springs4 ,a ,walk to the ,incrusting ,springs4--,the so-called petrifying springs and wells of ,derbyshire are celebrated throughout ,england for the incrusted birds' nests1 baskets1 c4 which are very generally purchased by visitors1 as mementos of a trip into this county4 ,the nature of this deposition of calcareous matter has already been explained 7see p4 #ci2 and ,wond4 p4 #ge72 and1 although the objects above mentioned are scarcely worthy of notice1 the natural operations by which the tufa and travertine are produced1 are extremely interesting4#gii #gii ,if the proprietors of these springs could be induced to follow the example of the ,italians at ,san ,filippo 7see ,wond4 p4 #ge71 or of the ,french1 in ,auvergne1 or the ,germans at ,carlsbad1 elegant bas-reliefs and other beautiful objects might be obtained1 for the incrusting power of the ,matlock waters is very considerable4 ,our first stroll shall therefore be to the beds of tufa which have been formed in remote ages by this operation and which now constitute the terrace on which the ,old ,bath and two other hotels1 and the elegant modern ,church are situated4 ,proceeding from our ,inn1 the tufaceous rock may be seen protruding in masses on the right hand1 in front of the beautiful parterres of the hotels2 and upon crossing the road1 where a narrow path leads down to the bed of the river1 and nearly opposite to the new church1 the lower beds of tufa are exposed in a quarry1 from which large blocks of the coarse1 porous stone are extracted for grotto and rock-work4 ,from this spot ,i collected very fine impressions of the foliage of the oak1 elm1 and hazel1 leaves of adder's tongue 7scolopendrium71 c4 and large portions of moss1 beautifully incrusted4#hjj #hjj ,i could not obtain any specimens of this kind from the quarry-men nor from the shops or museums1 as they are termed2 such objects not being deemed curiosities by the good folks of ,matlock2 and the workmen forbade me to search for more in the quarry6 ,the origin of this deposit of tufa1 which covers so huge an area along the western flank of the mountain range of ,masson ,hill1 is attributable to the thermal springs having1 at some very remote period1 issued from a much higher source than at present1 and flowing down the side of the hill into the river at its foot1 the water1 as it cooled1 deposited the lime with which it was charged on the stems1 branches1 leaves1 and other extraneous bodies4 ,at this time the springs escape from crevices in the rocks at an elevation of about one hundred feet above the bed of the river2 the waters1 at their source1 have a temperature of from #ff to #fh1 and contain free carbonic acid and minute quantities of muriates and sulphates of magnesia1 lime1 and soda4 ,their origin is now concealed1 and the water conducted by pipes to the various baths and fountains2 but wherever a rill escapes1 and flows down the hill1 the moss1 c4 is quickly incrusted4 ,i was informed1 that in about eight mouths a basket of eggs would be entirely enveloped in a thick mass of tufa4 ,the uniform high temperature of these waters shows that they emanate from a very deep source2 and it is probable that they originate from steam1 which is cooled and condensed as it approaches the surface of the earth4 ,the miners assured me1 that the springs burst out from beneath the volcanic rock1 here termed toadstone1 and that the water1 when it first issues1 is of a higher temperature than the ,matlock ,bath water2 but its heat is reduced by the cool land-springs with which it becomes intermingled4 ,most waters that flow through limestone districts deposit travertine more or less abundantly2 and ,i observed several streams in my rambles in the neighbourhood of ,matlock which appeared to possess this property in as great a degree as the thermal springs4 ,there is a lovely waterfall1 which issues from the side of a mountain that flanks the road leading by ,via ,gellia to ,middleton ,moor1 at an elevation of two hundred feet1 and flows into the adjacent valley1 bounding and dancing from one mossy knoll to another1 and appearing from the opposite hill like a stream of molten silver1 undulating through a carpet of emerald green4 ,the waters of this cascade have formed a thick bed of travertine along the side of the hill2 and the stone is of so firm a texture1 that the walls of a cottage hard by are constructed of it4 ,i gathered from the banks of this waterfall1 bundles of moss and groups of small shells incrusted with a beautiful white tufa2 and impressions of leaves1 twigs1 c4 were observable in the blocks of travertine recently quarried4 ,in contemplating the effects produced by these limpid streams1 by which perishable leaves and fragile shells are preserved for ages in solid masses of rock1 we are reminded of the forcible and eloquent remarks of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 when observing similar phenomena in the volcanic regions of ,italy4 ,how marvellous are those laws1 by which even the humblest types of organic existence are preserved though born amidst the sources of their destruction2 and by which a species of immortality is given to generations1 floating1 as it were1 like evanescent bubbles on a stream raised from the deepest caverns of the earth1 and instantly losing what may be called its spirit in the atmosphere6#hja #hja ,consolations in ,travel2 or1 the ,last ,days of a ,philosopher2 by ,sir ,humphry ,davy4 ,see also ,wond4 p4 #gg4 ,sidenote3 ,,cavern ,,of ,,the ,,high ,,tor4 ,visit to the ,cavern of the ,high ,tor4--,after the visitor has taken a general view of the romantic scenery around him1 a visit to the cavern at the foot of the ,high ,tor will enable him to comprehend the nature of those physical changes which have imparted to this district its picturesque character4 ,descending into the valley and passing northwards1 through the only street in ,matlock ,bath1 along the banks of the ,derwent1 which are beautifully overshadowed by copses and forest trees1 the bold cliff of mountain limestone1 called the ,high ,tor1 the most imposing feature in the dale1 suddenly appears on the right bank of the river4 ,this rock rises to the height of four hundred feet2 the upper half forming a bare and nearly perpendicular wall of limestone2 the lower portion being concealed by brushwood and luxuriant foliage to the river s edge4 ,at this spot1 a rude wooden hand-rail is stretched across the ,derwent1 which is here of considerable breadth1 and dashes along over fallen masses of rock in its course towards the south4 ,the ,high ,tor 7,lign4 #bgj7 consists of a capping of ,drift and of ,millstone grit 7#b72 of a series of beds of limestone with encrinites and shells1 slightly inclined southward 7#a72 of a layer of volcanic matter1 termed in ,derbyshire toadstone1 from its mottled yellow and greenish appearance 7#c72 and of a bed of ,trap1 or toadstone 7b71 at the base1 and near the floor at the entrance of the fissure or excavation in the limestone forming the cavern 7a72 which trap rock also appears on the opposite bank of the river 7c71 beneath the highly inclined and dislocated masses of limestone1 forming part of the base of ,masson ,hill4 ,the upper bed of toadstone 7#c7 cannot be seen1 for the face of the cliff 7although represented bare for the sake of perspicuity in the plan1 ,lign4 #bgj7 is entirely concealed1 half-way up1 by dense foliage2 but an intelligent miner assured me that such was the fact1 and that1 in sinking a shaft in the opposite hill1 toadstone was found in a corresponding situation4 ,upon entering the cavern1 which is not of considerable extent1 the first phenomenon to be observed is the bed of toadstone1 which protrudes near the floor1 beneath a stratum of limestone4 ,the limestone in contact with the trap is in some places changed to a light green colour1 and has a slaty texture1 from the effects of intense heat under great pressure2 it is often permeated with veins of pyrites1 and white calcareous spar4 ,the inner recesses of the cavern are literally covered1 both on the floor and sides1 with very large rhomboidal crystals of carbonite of lime1 of the form commonly called dog-tooth spar2 the cave surpasses1 in this respect1 every other in ,derbyshire4 ,illustration3 ,g4 ,a4 ,m4 delt4 ,j4 ,whimper1 lignt4 ,lign4 #bgj4 ,section across the ,valley of the ,derwent1 at the ,high ,tor1 ,matlock4 #a4--,the ,high ,tor1 composed of strata of ,mountain ,limestone4 #b4--;,capping of ,millstone ,grit and ,drift4 #c4--,supposed position of an intrusion of ,trap4 #d4--;,cliff of limestone on the opposite side of the valley4 a4--,entrance to the ,high ,tor ,cavern4 b4--,trap seen at the bottom of tile ,cave4 c4--,trap beneath the limestone on the opposite bank of the ,derwent4 ,within a few hundred yards of the cavern1 a gallery has been driven into the cliff1 and a vein of lead 7galena7 discovered1 and worked with some success4 ,tine masses of blue fluor 7provincially termed blue ,john7 and double refracting calcareous spar were also obtained4 ,on the opposite bank of the ,derwent1 beneath the limestone1 and extending along the road-side for two or three hundred yards1 a bed of toadstone1 evidently the continuation of that at the base of the ,high ,tor1 is distinctly exposed4 ,proceeding northwards1 the line of mural precipices1 of which the ,high ,tor is the most elevated point1 gradually descends2 but there is a bold and bare rock1 called the ,church ,tor1 from the church of the village of ,matlock being situated near its summit1 that requires particular remark2 for on the face of this cliff the strata present a series of curves1 or rather arches1 nowhere broken1 but having such an appearance as would result from an expansive force from beneath uplifting a group of horizontal strata1 while yet in a soft or plastic state4 ,the upper beds of limestone at the ,church ,tor abound in marine shells 7,spirifer1 see p4 #cij1 particularly the large species1 ,s4 giganteus74 ,such are the appearances presented by the strata in this locality1 on the right bank of the ,derwent4 ,on the opposite side of the valley are beds of limestone1 many of them varying in mineral constitution from those we have examined1 being of a light yellowish dun or cream colour 7hence called ,dun-stone71 and containing magnesia2 in these strata traces of fossil plants are occasionally found4 ,these magnesian limestones are of a granular texture and extremely hard2 they are said to be very rich in lead and calamine1 and have been extensively worked4 ,the prevailing rocks on this 7the western7 side of the valley belong to this group4 ,sidenote3 ,,formations ,,of ,,derbyshire4 ,geological ,formations of ,derbyshire4--,before we proceed on our walk1 let us sit down awhile on this mossy bank1 beneath the magnificent knoll of trees that here overshadows the river1 and1 by a reference to the geological table 7p4 #ca7 and the geological map1 obtain a clear idea of the nature and succession of the strata around us2 in other words1 the order of superposition of the deposits of ,derbyshire4 #a4 ,lowermost4 ,a bed of compact ,basalt or ,trap 7in ,derbyshire called ,toadstone71 of uncertain thickness and extent4 ,this rock consists of mineral matter that has undergone complete fusion1 and been erupted from the profound depths of some internal source of intense heat 7see ,wond4 pp4 #fhd1 #hdh74 ,the upheaving force thus put in action having been unequally exerted in different places1 the superincumbent beds of limestone have been protruded in dome-shaped masses through the upper strata2 and are now seen bent and curved1 forming what is termed arched stratification4#hjb #hjb ,my excellent friend1 the late ,robert ,bakewell1 ,esq41 was the first geologist who correctly explained the phenomena here described4 ,see his ,introduction to ,geology1 #eth edit4 p4 #adg4 ,vesicular or amygdaloidal ,toadstone4 ,this partakes more of the character of scori1 being full of little cells or cavities formed by air bubbles2 when these cavities are filled with other mineral matter1 as is often the case1 the rock is termed amygdaloidal4 ,this bed of ,trap was formerly considered to be distinct from the lowermost2 but it is now supposed1 and with much probability1 that all the masses of igneous rock that pierce1 or are intercalated with1 the sedimentary strata1 have sprung from one common source1 and are but lateral protrusions from some grand mass of erupted materials4#hjc #hjc ,see an analogous example1 ,wond4 p4 #heg4 #b4 ,limestones with intervening layers of clay1 and ,magnesian limestones1 or ,dunstones4 #c4 ,alternation of ,limestone and ,shale4 ,many of these limestones abound in organic remains2 and it is in this group that the ornamental marbles of ,derbyshire are comprised4 ,the upper beds are generally of a slaty texture1 and contain layers and nodules of chert1 which often afford exquisite siliceous casts of the stems of ,crinoidea 7pulley-stones1 see p4 #bhd2 and ,wond4 p4 #fej71 and shells2 white chert or porcelain-stone1 and black jasper or flinty slate also occur in these beds4 #d4 ,millstone ,grit and ,shale1 and coarse sandstones2 these form the subsoil of the principal heights of the mountain ranges1 their sterile soil supporting only a covering of ling and heath4 #e4 ,coal ,measures2 consisting of beds of ,coal1 with intervening layers of shale1 clay1 and ironstone 7see p4 #hj74 #f4 ,permian and ,triassic strata 7see pp4 #bi1 #cj74 ,the mineral substances found in the above strata in ,derbyshire are very numerous1 and the organic remains equally so1 and of a highly interesting character4#hjd #hjd ,a good1 catalogue of the principal varieties will be found in ,mr4 ,adams's pamphlet previously recommended2 and specimens may be obtained at his museum in ,matlock1 and from ,mr4 ,tennant 7,professor of ,mineralogy to ,king's ,college71 #adi1 ,strand1 ,london4 ,this enumeration of the geological formations of which the country around ,matlock is composed will enable us to proceed on our rambles without further digression1 and should the reader be at a loss to comprehend the nature of any of the rocks or strata we may meet with on our way1 he can refer to the above description4 ,mr4 ,bakewell1 with his wonted penetration1 first detected the true character of the stratification of the ,high ,tor1 previous writers having described this cliff as being composed of nearly horizontal layers4 ,but this is a deceptive appearance2 for1 although1 when viewed in front1 or in the direction of their planes1 the strata appear to be horizontal1 yet they are in reality highly inclined1 as may be seen in the line of dip1 and enfold or envelope the back of the cliff2 and they are continued into the hill 7,masson7 on the opposite side of the valley1 where they present a similar arrangement4 ,the continuity of the strata is broken by the vale of the ,derwent1 which has evidently originated in a fissure extending along the axis of elevation1 in a direction from north to south2 thus forming the water channel for the drainage of the country on the north1 and the bed of the present river4 ,we have already pointed out the curved position of the strata on the face of the ,church ,tor4 ,sidenote3 ,,excursion ,,to ,,crich ,,hill4 ,excursion to ,crich ,hill4--,the appearances observable at the ,high ,tor are of so striking a character1 and involve the consideration of so many interesting phenomena relating to the physical mutations which this district has undergone1 that it is desirable1 while they are strongly impressed upon the mind1 to take an excursion to ,crich1 a few miles to the south-east of ,matlock4 ,here there is an entire mountain of limestone1 formed by a protrusion of numerous strata1 many hundred feet in thickness1 through the once superincumbent beds of millstone grit and sandstone1 into a dome-shaped mass1 upwards of #hjj feet high4 ,and there it stands1 a stupendous monument of one of the past revolutions of the globe1 with its arches of rifted rock1 supported by a central mound of erupted mineral matter1 now cooled down into an amorphous mass of compact basalt6 ,were there no other object of interest near ,matlock1 ,crich ,hill would alone render it worthy of resort4 ,from the heights above our hotel1 looking towards the south-east1 a mountain remarkable for its elevation and obtusely conical configuration1 and distinguished by a tower on the summit1 forms a striking object on the horizon1 at an apparent distance of three or four miles--this is ,crich ,hill2 and on the same range1 to the right1 is seen the church-spire of ,crich village 7see ,lign4 #bgb74 ,a long summer's day is not too long to visit this mountain1 and examine all its interesting details4 ,a good pedestrian should proceed with his hammer and haversack1 for every step of the road is replete with interest2 and as numerous specimens will be obtained1 bags1 paper1 and boxes should be taken4 ,if an invalid or ladies be of the party1 it will be desirable to have a carriage for the day1 and dine at the little village of ,crich2#hje and1 if time permit1 the interesting ruins of ,south ,wingfield ,manor-,house 7once the prison of ,mary of ,scotland71 about two miles from ,crich1 may also be visited4 #hje ,a good1 guide will be a great acquisition1 and save much1 time and trouble2 and ,benjamin ,froggatt1 who has conducted ,dr4 ,buckland and other geologists to the principal localities in the neighbourhood1 will be found an obliging and intelligent attendant1 perfectly conversant with the richest geological and botanical sites around ,matlock4 ,the shortest drive from ,matlock to ,crich ,hill is over ,cromford-bridge2 but a far more picturesque route is by the ,derby-road to ,whatstandwell-bridge 7see ,lign4 #bgc71 and from thence ascending the hill to ,crich1 and returning home by ,holloway2 making the entire distance about twelve miles4 ,as our immediate object is to examine the geological features of the mountain1 we shall proceed by the nearest road2 and upon reaching ,scarthing ,rock1 turn to the left1 by ,wellersley ,castle grounds1 having on the right a bold escarpment of mountain limestone1 with layers of chert in nodules and amorphous masses4 ,at ,cromford ,canal1 the limestone suddenly terminates1 and sinks beneath the surrounding alluvial silt of the river valley1 and the millstone grit4 ,we will chip off a few specimens of the chert1 to examine at leisure4 ,crossing the bridge1 the road winds round the foot of the hills of sandstone1 which lie on our left1 while on the right is the valley of the ,derwent1 and the river is seen here and there through openings in the copses and hedge-rows1 meandering through the rich meadow-lands of the valley1 which are flanked on the west by a magnificent range of lofty hills1 clothed with the luxuriant woods of ,alderwasley4 ,the character of the scenery from this point of the road1 till we ascend the high ground1 is faithfully and graphically portrayed by ,mr4 ,rhodes4#hjf #hjf ,derbyshire ,tourist's ,guide1 p4 #dh4 ,the road lies through a beautiful valley by the side of the ,derwent2 sloping meadows1 crowned high above with a long range of magnificent woods1 skirt the road-side on the left3 on the right the river1 pursuing its winding way beneath the umbrageous branches of oak1 ash1 alder1 hazel1 and sycamore1 and bubbling as it passes along1 is a beautiful object4 ,about two miles below ,cromford-bridge1 the road leaves the more open part of the valley1 and plunges into the thick woods that environ the little hamlet of ,lea2 a lovely spot1 romantically situated by the side of a sparkling stream1 in a deep hollow1 amongst steep hills covered with foliage1 and fields of the freshest verdure4 ,the houses of this secluded village1 with the exception of here and there a comfortable cottage1 are handsome residences1 nestling among orchards and parterres of flowers4 ,everything was flourishing most luxuriantly2 and when we passed through the place1 the hollyhocks1 dahlias1 and roses were in full blossom1 and gave an extremely bright and cheerful aspect to the scene4 ,the road continues through ,lea ,wood to ,holloway by a very steep ascent1 and from the toll-gate at the top of the hill it traverses the side of a mountainous ridge1 covered with wood and intervening rock4 ,the prospect is now magnificent3 on the right a scene of great extent opens to the view1 rich in all that constitutes the highest beauty in landscape4 ,the summits of the two ranges of hills that form the eastern and western boundaries of the fertile valley at our feet are here from three to four miles apart2 and the extent from north to south is from ten to twelve4 ,many minor eminences1 rich with wood and intervening verdure1 adorn this enchanting scene1 through which the ,derwent1 sometimes hidden by overhanging trees1 and sometimes sparkling with light1 flows with busy speed and uninterrupted current by ,belper1 ,milford1 and ,duffield1 to ,derby2 the whole presenting an assemblage of splendid scenery finely diversified and rich in picturesque beauty4 ,the woods of ,alderwasley1 that cover the hills from below ,whatstandwell-bridge1 to the dark pine-crowned eminence of ,stonnis1 are peculiarly imposing and magnificent4 ,near the village of ,holloway there are several quarries opened on the side of the hill1 which enable us to ascertain that this range is composed of strata of millstone grit and sandstone1 highly inclined and dipping from the hill4 ,the beds are so split and shattered in every direction1 that no large blocks can be procured1 and the stone1 although a good building material1 is therefore only employed in the construction of the cottages and houses in the immediate vicinity4 ,the vignette of this volume represents a mass of the inclined sandstone strata near this place4 ,the reader will recollect that the hills on the opposite side of the valley1 on our right1 are also composed of similar strata2 and that the ridge1 covered with fir-trees1 marks the bold escarpment of the millstone grit at ,stonnis1 over ,cromford2 so that the geological horizon of the valley1 as seen from this spot1 is wholly formed by the millstone grits and sandstones4 ,a mile beyond ,holloway toll-gate1 the road turns to the left1 and the bare dome of mountain limestone of ,crich ,hill is before us4 ,we soon arrive at a limestone quarry1 in which the strata are seen to be distinctly arched 7see ,lign4 #bga1 p4 #hhf71 as in the cliff at ,matlock ,church ,tor4 ,we will alight here to examine the rock more closely1 and obtain specimens4 ,here we see that the strata are inclined both to the right and to the left1 and also lean towards the central axis of the hill in front of us2 presenting such an appearance as would be afforded by an excavation made in an onion1 or other spheroidal body1 formed of a series of concentric layers4 ,the limestone in this quarry is of the usual subcrystalline character1 abounding in shells1 principally ,spirifer4 ,there are numerous vertical and oblique fissures in the rock1 and these are more or less incrusted with minerals and spars1 which have evidently been deposited by electro-chemical action1 and admirably exemplify the manner in which the rich veins of lead1 c4 are distributed in the strata of the interior of the mountain4 ,in a crevice of the rock1 in which the mineral contents were undisturbed1 the arrangement of the prevailing minerals of this part of ,derbyshire1 namely1 galena 7sulphuret of lead71 sulphate of barytes 7here termed cawk71 and fluor spar1 was beautifully displayed4 ,a layer of the blue sulphuret of lead1 or galena1 was spread over the surface of limestone forming the walls of the fissure3 upon this was a thick stratum of white sulphate of barytes2 and on the latter1 fluor spar1 of a light blue colour1 forming cubic crystals on the surface nearest the cavity of the fissure1 which therefore appeared to be lined with crystals of fluor4#hjg #hjg ,the workmen at this and the other quarries generally have specimens of the fossils and minerals for sale1 at moderate prices4 ,sidenote3 ,,trap ,,of ,,crich ,,hill4 ,about half a mile beyond1 we arrive at ,wakebridge1 near which there are several very productive lead mines4 ,the ,glory-mine1 one of the richest in ,derbyshire1 is said1 some ten years since1 to have been worth from thirty to forty thousand pounds a-year4#hjh ,a mining establishment1 on the left hand1 where a powerful steam-engine is constantly at work1 affords numerous specimens of the usual ,i ,derbyshire spars and minerals2 and from among the heaps of refuse thrown by the visitor may make an interesting collection4 ,near this spot1 a vertical shaft was sunk in the side of the hill1 in search for lead ore1 and at the depth of twenty fathoms1 a rock of compact ,trap was reached2 the work was continued for a few yards deeper1 but ultimately abandoned as fruitless4 ,a gallery was subsequently driven into the side of the hill1 lower down1 and here1 too1 the trap was found2 thus proving the existence of a central protrusion of igneous rock1 over which the bent strata of mountain limestone are now disposed in consecutive layers4 ,numerous blocks of this compact trap or basalt1 some of which are veined with red jasper1 lie scattered about the site of the old shaft1 and an interesting suite of specimens may be collected4 ,pursuing our way1 the limestone strata are seen in openings on the hill side1 having the same remarkable arrangement as those before described4 #hjh ,derbyshire ,tourist1 p4 #ej4 ,upon arriving where the road divides1#hji we must proceed on foot and visit the quarries1 and examine the exposed masses of rock1 that we may clearly comprehend the structure of the mountain4 ,we will now ascend by the pathway that leads to the summit1 and on the left several good sections of the strata are displayed4 ,on reaching the tower on the crest of the mountain 7,lign4 #bgb1 p4 #hhg71 a magnificent panorama bursts upon our sight2 but which no language can adequately describe4 ,here and there bare pinnacles of rifted rock protrude through the green sward2 and masses of white1 yellowish1 and pink sulphate of barytes1 pyrites1 fluor1 and other minerals lie strewn upon the surface4#haj #hji ,the carriage should here be sent on to the village1 and orders given for refreshments4 #haj ,good specimens may often be obtained from the piles of stones1 and from the walls on the side of the hill4 ,having reposed for some time at the foot of the tower to enjoy the glorious prospect spread around us1 correct our notes1 look over1 trim1 and wrap up our specimens1 we will now descend to the north-eastern side of the hill1 that the appearance of the strata on that aspect may also be examined4 ,but ere we leave the summit1 again let me call your attention to its external configuration4 ,were it not on too extended a scale1 we might suppose that we were standing on an ancient earth-work1 or encampment1 formed of limestone1 surrounded by a deep fosse or ditch1 and flanked by precipitous embankments of millstone grit and sandstone1 so strongly defined are the physical features of this remarkable mountain4 ,we will now visit a large quarry on the eastern side1 which presents a fine section of the limestone strata1 above #ajj feet thick 7see ,lign4 #bga71 and which1 like those we have previously observed1 are disposed in curves1 and enfold1 as it were1 the central axis of the hill2 and the rock is shivered and fissured in every direction4 ,a thick bed of drift1 or alluvial debris1 covers the limestone strata1 as shown in ,lign4 #bga2 and in it1 partially rolled blocks of sandstone1 some of them of great size1 are imbedded4 ,the direction of the dip of the strata in this quarry is indicated by the arrows4 ,illustration3 ,drawn by ,henry ,carr1 ,esq4 ,c4 ,e4 delt4 ,j4 ,whimper1 lignt4 ,lign4 #bga4 ,quarry of ,mountain ,limestone1 ,crich ,hill4 ,sidenote3 ,,view ,,of ,,crich ,,hill4 ,illustration3 ,drawn by ,henry ,carr1 ,esq4 ,c4 ,e4 ,j4 ,whimper1 lignt4 ,lign4 #bgb4 ,view of ,crich ,hill1 ,derbyshire1 from the ,west4 ,let us now take a retrospect of the facts investigate during this morning's ramble1 and consider how far ,mr4 ,bakewell's interpretation of these phenomena 7see p4 #hgi7 is in accordance with the data we have obtained4 ,the outline of ,crich ,hill1 as seen from a moderate distance1 is that of an insulated oblong dome1 encircled by precipitous escarpments1 or angular eminences of less elevation4 ,the annexed sketch 7,lign4 #bgb71 by my friend1 ,henry ,carr1 ,esq4 ,c4,e41 of ,duffield1 to whom ,i am also indebted for a survey of ,crich ,hill1 and admeasurements of the dip of the strata1 will render this feature in the physical geography of the country more apparent4 ,in ,lign4 #bgb1 the protruded elongated cone of mountain limestone is denoted by the tower1 or ,stand1 on the summit2 and the other heights1 and the foreground1 are composed of millstone grit and sandstone4 ,the highest point of limestone is #gaf feet above the level of the ,derwent in the adjacent valley2 and was estimated by ,mr4 ,bakewell at about #ijj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the hill of sandstone on the right1 on which the mill stands1 is #djb feet high1 and conceals ,crich village in this view2 that in the middle distance1 on the left1 marked a1 is #djj feet high4 ,this disposition of the millstone escarpments around the central cone of elevated limestone is shown more in detail in the ground-plan1 ,lign4 #bgc4 ,thus we perceive that the strata of mountain-limestone dip from the centre of the hill in every direction1 as indicated by the arrows1 at various angles1 from #bj to #ej2 and those of the sandstone hills1 which form an irregular zone around ,crich1 are also highly inclined1 and in like manner dip from the central axis1 as is shown by the direction of the arrows4 ,now we know1 by observations made in places where the relative position of the ,millstone and ,limestone has suffered no disturbance1 that these two series of strata were originally disposed horizontally and conformably upon each other1 thus-- #a4 ,uppermost--,millstone ,grit and ,sandstone4 ----------------------------- #b4 ,lowermost--,mountain ,limestone4 ,sidenote3 ,,ground ,,plan ,,of ,,crich ,,hill4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bgc4 ,ground ,plan of ,crich ,hill1 ,derbyshire4 7,scale1 one inch to a mile47 ,by ,henry ,carr1 ,esq4 ,c4 ,e4 from actual ,survey4 ,the area1 enclosed within a line1 and marked ,stand1 ,crich ,hill1 is the elevated oblong dome of limestone4 ,all the surrounding country is composed of millstone grit and sandstone4 ,the arrows on the boundary line of ,crich ,hill denote the direction of the dip of the limestone strata in nine positions measured and determined by ,mr4 ,carr4 ,the dip vanes from #bj to #ej1 the greatest inclination is on the south-east of the tower4 ,the arrows on the surrounding millstone escarpments mark the dip of those strata in a sufficient number of stations1 to convey a general idea of the position of the mountain masses environing ,crich ,hill4#haa #haa ,at ,whatstandwell1 abridge crosses the ,derwent2 and dose by1 there is the ,bull ,inn1 where good accommodation and sleeping apartments maybe obtained4 ,sidenote3 ,,crich ,,hill4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bgd4 ,section of ,crich ,hill2 from ,a to ,b on the plan1 ,lign4 #bgc4 7,natural scale47 ,by ,reginald ,neville ,mantell4 ,a1 ,b4--,strata of ,millstone ,grit1 highly inclined1 and dipping from the central axis4 ,protrusion of the ,mountain ,limestone1 on the summit of which is ,crich ,tower1 #gaf feet above the level of the river ,derwent4 ,central mass of ,trap1 reached by a vertical shaft from above1 and by a gallery on the side of the hill4 ,it is therefore evident1 that at ,crich the strata ,no4 #b must have been forced up1 and protruded through the strata ,no4 #a1 or they could not occupy their present position4 ,we remarked1 on ascending ,holloway ,hill1 the great disturbance which the ,millstone beds had sustained 7see the vignette of this volume72 and the shaft and gallery near ,wakebridge 7p4 #hhd7 disclosed the existence of a mass of basalt1 or trap1 of unknown extent1 beneath the limestone1 in the centre of the mountain2 while the fissures and crevices1 filled with metallic ores and spars1 attest the action of intense heat1 under great pressure4 ,according to a survey made by my son1 a section in the line marked ,a--,b on the plan1 ,lign4 #bgc1 presents the arrangement of the strata seen in ,lign4 #bgd3 the heights are from actual admeasurements4 ,from the data thus obtained1 we may construct an ideal section in illustration of these phenomena1 as in the following diagram 7,lign4 #bge74 ,here then1 as ,mr4 ,bakewell forcibly observed1 we have cause and effect in conjunction4 ,here is the cooled and consolidated molten rock1 whose expansive force elevated the horizontal strata of limestone1 and forced them through the superincumbent beds of grit and sandstone4 ,but this eruption must have taken place under great pressure1 and at the bottom of the sea2 for1 had the phenomena been sub-arial1 the result would have been altogether of a different nature2 and we should have had cooled lava streams1 and not masses of basalt4 ,we have seen that the strata rise round and enfold this central nucleus of volcanic rock1 displaying nearly hemispherical segments and curves4 ,now if we suppose a vertical transverse fissure across such a hill as that represented in the diagram 7,lign4 #bge71 the face of the remaining strata would be in every respect similar to that of the ,high ,tor 7see ,lign4 #bgj1 p4 #hgf72 namely1 a mass of ,trap1 or toadstone1 at the base1 and a series of arched strata of limestone above2 with fissures containing ores of lead1 zinc1 barytes1 c4 and various kinds of spar4 ,illustration3 ,lign4 #bge4 ,ideal transverse ,section of ,crich ,hill4 ,a1 ,a4--,highly inclined strata of ,millstone ,grit4 ,b1 ,b4--,arched strata of ,mountain ,limestone4 ,c4--,a central nucleus of ,trap or ,toadstone4 ,to a mind accustomed to investigations of this nature1 a slight examination of the phenomena under review will1 ,i apprehend1 suffice to demonstrate the correctness of these deductions2 but ,i may have failed to place the subject before the general reader in an intelligible and lucid point of view2 should this be the case1 still1 if the attempt to present a familiar exposition of the physical structure of this remarkable district shall induce him to visit the scenes ,i have so imperfectly portrayed1 and interrogate ,nature in a right spirit1 the hours we have passed together in our excursion to ,crich ,hill will not have been spent in vain2 for in the beautiful language of the noble bard3-- ,to sit on rocks1 to muse o'er flood and fell1 ,to slowly trace the forest's shady scene1 ,where things that own not man's dominion dwell1 ,and mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been2 ,to climb the trackless mountain all unseen1 ,with the wild flock that never needs a fold2 ,alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean2 ,this is not solitude2 'tis but to hold ,converse with ,nature's charms1 and view her stores unroll'd4--,childe ,harold1 ,canto ,,ii4 xxv4 ,specimens of ,fossils and ,minerals4--,on our return1 our first care must be to look over all the specimens we have gathered1 arrange them1 and select those which are the most illustrative of the phenomena we have examined2 and ticket every specimen1 as recommended in the ,instructions4 ,the fossils1 consisting of several species of spirifer and other brachiopoda1 and of portions of encrinital stems1 require no particular care4 ,the rocks should comprise specimens of the different varieties of limestone and sandstone2 and of the green limestone1 altered by contact with the toadstone2 and examples of the compact trap1 and of the variety veined with red jasper1--of the amygdaloidal toadstone1--and the vesicular1 or that in which the cavities are empty4 ,the minerals should comprise the ores of lead1 zinc1 barytes1 fluor1 and calcareous spar2 of the last some good clear pieces should be selected1 that will exhibit its double refracting property4 ,of the common metal1 ,pyrites1 a few specimens should be preserved2 this mineral1 from its splendid yellow appearance1 is often mistaken for gold2 but a mere blow of the hammer will immediately detect it1 for ,pyrites is brittle1 and readily cracks to pieces1 while gold1 as is well known1 is remarkably ductile4 ,if the collector be not satisfied with the fruits of his day's researches1 he should look over the catalogue of ,mr4 ,adams1 and purchase such specimens as will render his collection sufficiently extensive to present a full illustration of the geological character of the scenes he has this day visited4 ,there is a variety of sulphate of barytes from near ,youlgreave exhibited in the shops at ,matlock1 of which one or two examples should be obtained4 ,the surface of the polished specimens much resembles the rich variegated appearance of dark tortoise-shell4 ,this mineral has been formed1 like the common calcareous stalactite1 by infiltration through some porous rock2 transverse sections exhibit concentric layers of various shades2 while the longitudinal have the varied colours disposed like those in tortoise-shell4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,,bonsal ,,valley4 ,,notes ,,for ,a ,,geological ,,excursion ,,by ,,cromford1 ,,up ,,bonsal ,,valley1 ,,by ,,via ,,gellia1 ,,to ,,middleton ,,moor2 ,,returning ,,by ,,stonnis4 ,this excursion will present many objects of interest1 and one day at least should be devoted to the examination of the different localities pointed out in the following notes4#hab ,to ,cromford1 and then take the road that leads through ,bonsal vale4 ,a fine range of limestone on the right1 and a sparkling stream 7,bonsal-brook7 on the left4 ,on the banks of this brook there is a manufactory of mineral colours 7,pooley's7 well worthy a visit4 ,but before we reach this establishment1 there is an opening on the hill side where the strata are exposed1 and a bed of ,trap is seen beneath the limestone2 near this place specimens of fluor1 calc-spar1 c41 that have been thrown out in forming the excavation1 may be collected4 ,from beneath the trap a warm spring issues and flows into the neighbouring brook4 #hab ,benjamin ,froggatt should be engaged to conduct the pedestrian2 and a carriage party would also do well to place themselves under his guidance4 ,proceed up the road leading to ,via ,gellia1 and through a valley flanked with high ranges of limestone and dun-stone4 ,on the right1 is the beautiful cascade previously mentioned1 near ,dunsley4 ,this valley is a celebrated botanical region1 for several species of plants which are of great rarity or unknown elsewhere are here met with4 ,at the direction post1 turn to the left up the steep hill that leads to ,middleton ,moor4 ,on each side numerous fossils of the mountain limestone may be collected from the blocks lying on the flanks of the hill4 ,views splendid in picturesque scenery and of a highly interesting geological character are obtained as we ascend4 ,on the summit of ,middleton ,moor1 which is from #a1cjj to #a1djj feet above the level of the sea1 a most extensive panoramic view of the surrounding country may be obtained4 ,the geological map will enable the observer to identify the crags of ,charnwood ,forest1 the ,high ,peak1 c4 c4 ,almost every part of the ,moor is studded with the disused shafts of exhausted mines1 and which are so carelessly covered over as to be extremely dangerous1 and the visitor must bear this caution in mind2 for the heaps of stone placed at irregular intervals on the hill1 and which tempt the geologist to seek for specimens1 are for the most part piled over the openings of deep shafts4#hac #hac ,my son narrowly escaped being drawn in by a heap of stones which gave way under his feet1 and suddenly disappeared in the chasm below4 ,in rambles of this kind in a mining country1 the young geologist must1 therefore1 be upon his guard1 or he may be engulphed with masses of limestone in some deep chasm1 and his bones1 incrusted with stalactite1 form an ossiferous breccia1 that in future ages may perplex some collector of organic remains to determine its relative antiquity6 ,pass on by ,worksworth1 to the quarries of mountain limestone1 where the encrinital marble1 so largely employed for side-boards1 chimney-pieces1 c4 is procured4 ,near the approach to the entrance of the quarry1 an instructive example of curved strata of limestone is seen on the left2 and on the right1 a fine vertical artificial section4 ,on the weathered surface of the left side of this entrance1 and on the face nearest the quarry1 good specimens of the stems ,i and ossicula of the usual ,derbyshire crinoidea may be extracted 7p4 #bhd7 from the layers of reddish limestone2 and good blocks of the marble may be selected4 ,large spirifers can be procured from the limestone in these quarries2 the quarry-men often have specimens4 ,on the right hand of the entrance1 layers of flinty slate 7called partings of black bind by the miners7 occur between the beds of limestone4 ,in a field near this quarry1 on the left of the road leading to ,cromford1 where some mining operations are going on1 blocks of the stone called chert have been thrown up1 and often contain beautiful examples of the pulley-stones 7p4 #bhe71 or siliceous casts of the stems of the crinoidea4 ,a large collection of fossils may be gathered in the localities above mentioned4 ,we now drive to the escarpment of millstone grit at ,stonnis1 called ,black-rock1 whose pine-clad summit forms so conspicuous an object in the view from ,crich ,hill2 it is about a mile from ,cromford1 and overlooks ,matlock ,dale4 ,on the right of the road1 the refuse workings of a mine cover the side of the hill2 among which some specimens of spars or minerals may perhaps be found4 ,sidenote3 ,,view ,,from ,,stonnis4 ,but the grand attraction of ,stonnis is the view of ,matlock ,dale and the surrounding mountains1 obtained from the verge of the precipitous escarpment of sandstone rocks1 under the knoll of pines4 ,it is1 indeed1 a scene of transcendent beauty and magnificence1 and is said1 by one who has ascended every mountain top and traversed every ravine and valley in this district1 to be unrivalled4 ,in that species of beauty which in landscape scenery approaches to grandeur1 it is unequalled in ,derbyshire4 ,the parts of which it is composed are of the first order of fine things1 and they are combined with a felicity that but rarely occurs in nature4 ,scarthing ,rock1 the woods of ,willersley ,castle1 ,matlock ,high ,tor1 the hills of ,masson1 ,crich1 and ,riber are all noble objects2 and the rude masses that constitute the foreground of the picture are thrown together1 and grouped and coloured in a manner strikingly picturesque4 ,i have scaled the highest eminences in the mountainous districts of ,derbyshire--seen from their summits the lovely dales that repose in ,h tranquil beauty at their base--marked the multitude of hills included within the wide horizon they command1 and my heart has thrilled with emotion at the sight2 but not an eminence that ,i ever before ascended--not a prospect1 however rich1 and varied1 which ,i thence beheld--is at all comparable with the view from ,stonnis4#had #had ,derbyshire ,tourist's ,guide1 p4 #db4 ,every one possessed of taste and feeling who gazes upon this glorious landscape will partake1 in a greater or lesser degree1 of the emotions thus finely expressed by the ardent lover of the sublime and beautiful in nature2 but to the natural philosopher the physical characters of this enchanting region are fraught with a deeper interest1 and present subjects for the most profound contemplation4 ,to him the rocks and the mountains are the grand monuments of nature1 on which are inscribed the history of the physical revolutions of the globe which took place in periods incalculably remote and long antecedent to the creation of the human race4 ,they present to his mind a succession of events1 each so vast as to be beyond his finite comprehension2 ages of tranquillity1 with lands and seas teeming with life and happiness1 succeeded by periods in which the earthquake and the volcano spread universal ruin and destruction--and they teach him that all these awful changes bear the impress of the ,almighty's hand1 and were subservient to the eternal purpose of rendering this planet the fit abode of man1 during his mortal pilgrimage4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,notes ,,for ,a ,,geological ,,excursion ,,to ,,charnwood ,,forest1 ,,to ,,examine ,,the ,,central ,,group ,,of ,,plutonic ,,rocks ,,of ,,england2 ,,and ,,the ,,carboniferous ,,and ,,cambrian ,,strata1 ,,through ,,which ,,they ,,have ,,been ,,erupted4 ,in the central county of our ,island1 within a hundred miles of the ,tertiary deposits of the ,south-east of ,england1 a group of plutonic rocks emerges from beneath the strata of limestone1 coal1 and red marl which constitute the principal geological features of the midland provinces1 and rises up into the bold and picturesque range of hills of ,charnwood ,forest4 ,almost the entire series of ,british rocks is now brought by the railroads within a few hours distance of the metropolis2 and the geological inquirer may1 in the course of a fortnight1 examine in their natural situations the ,eocene deposits of the ,london and ,hampshire basins--the ,cretaceous and ,wealden strata of ,sussex1 ,kent1 and ,surrey--the ,oolitic1 ,liassic1 ,triassic1 ,permian1 and ,carboniferous systems--the ,mountain limestone and its metalliferous treasures--,traps1 or ancient lavas1 and their effects--strata of the ,silurian and ,cambrian systems--and1 lastly1 ,granite1 ,syenite1 ,porphyry1 and other modifications of the plutonic or igneous rocks4 ,the present notes refer to two or three days spent in exploring the country around ,leicester1 and in examining the granite of ,mount ,sorel#hae--the slate quarries of ,swithland--the syenitic crags of ,bardon ,hill--the porphyritic masses of ,markfield and ,grooby--and the coal-mines of ,whitwick4 ,on our previous excursion by railway to ,leicester 7see ,excursion to ,matlock1 p4 #hfg71 the order of the succession of the strata from the metropolis to that town was described2 on this occasion it will only be requisite to direct the traveller's attention to the abrupt isolated hills1 by ,hinckley1 ,grooby1 and the craggy peaks of ,charnwood ,forest1 in the distance1 on the left of the railroad1 before reaching ,leicester4 ,if a pedestrian excursion be resolved upon1 three or four days at least will be required to follow the route presently pointed out2 in a carriage and pair1 it may be accomplished in a long summer s day1 by starting from ,leicester at six1 and returning by ten or eleven4#haf #hae ,sorel1 a corruption of ,soar ,hill1 or hill on the river ,soar4 #haf ,it maybe well to remind the visitor that at ,leicester the following objects are worthy of notice3--the ,roman ,milestone1 now placed in the ,high-street2 the remains of the ,roman ,wall2 and the ,blue ,boar ,hotel1 where ,richard ,,iii4 slept the night before the battle of ,bosworth4 ,sidenote3 ,,excursion ,,to ,,charnwood ,,forest ,the geological localities to be visited in this excursion are the following-- ,i4 ,barrow-on-,soar4#hag ,lias limestone4--,the quarries at this locality are celebrated for the organic remains that have from time to time been obtained from the limestone4 ,bones of ,ichthyosauri and ,plesiosauri 7see p4 #ffi71 fishes 7,dapedius1 p4 #fjc71 leaves of cycade1 and fossil wood1 together with ammonites1 terebratul1 c4 may generally be obtained4 #hag ,there is a station at ,barrow1 and the pedestrian may be put down within a short distance1 by the railway4 ,although at the very foot of the plutonic rocks1 and on the verge of the grand focus of volcanic action which erupted the syenitic masses of ,charnwood ,forest1 the strata in this spot appear to have suffered but little disturbance4 ,but this phenomenon is in accordance with what occurs in other volcanic districts4 ,for1 as ,m4 ,constant ,prevost remarks1 volcanoes may open across all the strata1 without occasioning great derangements2 thus1 at ,limagne1 ,aurillac1 and ,puy 7see ,wond4 p4 #bfi71 the tertiary strata have preserved their horizontality1 even around the vents through which issued the volcanic matter that covered those countries with numerous cones of eruption4 ,,ii4 ,mount ,sorel4 ,granite and ,syenite4--,the road from ,leicester ascends a ridge of ,triassic or ,new ,red strata1 called ,birstal ,hill1 from whence there is a fine view of the town4 ,in the meadows on the left1 some ruined walls1 covered with ivy1 mark the site1 and are the only remains of the ,abbey in which ,cardinal ,wolsey expired4 ,approaching ,mount ,sorel1 an abrupt hill1 with a mill on the summit1 denotes1 from a considerable distance1 the geological character of the spot4 ,there is a small ,inn in the village1 where accommodation may be procured4 ,visit the quarries1 and also the establishment of ,mr4 ,jackson1 where the granite is worked into pillars1 side-boards1 c4#hah #hah ,an interesting account of this manufactory will be found in ,sir ,richard ,phillips's ,personal ,tour4 ,the hill is about #abj feet in height1 and #a1djj yards long2 and is estimated to contain about two hundred millions of cubic feet of workable granite1 above the general level of the district4#hai #hai ,the granite resembles that of ,aberdeen1 but contains a larger proportion of felspar4 ,,iii4 ,swithland4 ,slate-rocks4--,from ,mount ,sorel proceed to ,swithland3 as we approach the quarries1 the employment of slate for every available purpose1 in the footpaths1 walls of cottages1 c41 indicates the abundance of this material in the neighbourhood4 ,at ,swithland1 the quarries are very extensive1 and expose magnificent sections1 from #ajj to #abj feet thick1 of strata of ,slate1 highly inclined2 and forming one side of an anticlinal axis1 the summit of which will be passed over in our route by ,woodhouse4 ,in one quarry1 at the time of my visit1 a series of nearly horizontal strata of red marl was exposed1 lying unconformably upon the edges of the highly inclined beds of ,slate4 ,the ,slate-rocks of ,charnwood ,forest have a single anticlinal axis1 which strikes from ,,nn4,w4 to ,,ss4,e42 and the axis of the adjacent coal-field of ,nuneaton has a similar direction4#hbj #hbj ,murch4 ,sil4 ,syst4 p4 #efi4 ,sidenote3 ,,woodhouse4 ,,bardon ,,hill4 ,,iv4 ,woodhouse4 ,slate-rocks4--,from ,swithland to ,woodhouse1 is a continuation of the highly inclined ,slate strata4 ,the village is romantically situated on the ridge or crest of the anticlinal axis of ,charnwood ,forest4 ,on the sides of the road1 there are occasional openings where the strata are exposed4 ,there is1 in particular1 a fine section on the sides of the elevated point on which the church and school are built1 lying to the left of the road in the approach from ,swithland4 ,a day might be well spent in this place1 and at ,swithland4 ,v4 ,bardon ,hill4 ,syenite4--,we next proceed to ,bardon ,hill1 ascending to the highest ridge of the protruded mass of igneous rock1 of which this mountain-range is composed4 ,the craggy and bare pinnacles which are every where presenting themselves1 shooting up1 as it were1 from the green sward1 cannot fail1 from their novel and striking character1 strongly to impress the mind of the young geologist1 who now1 for the first time1 visits a region of plutonic rocks4 ,the view from the summit of the hill is grand and imposing2 it should be studied with a geological map of the country before us1 that the position of this central mass of volcanic rocks1 and its relation to the surrounding sedimentary strata1 may be fully comprehended4 ,,vi4 ,whitwick and ,snibstone4 ,coal-measures4--,spread around the foot of the ,syenitic mountain which we are descending are the coal-bearing strata of the ,carboniferous system2 and in the works at ,whitwick and ,snibstone the geological inquirer can examine the nature of these deposits in the coal-mines1 which he should descend1 and obtain specimens of the strata and fossils from the beds in situ4#hba #hba ,should he be so fortunate as to see the resident engineer of ,snibstone ,colliery1 ,mr4 ,george ,vaughan1 he will be certain of meeting with a courteous reception1 and every facility for pursuing his inquiries1 descending the shaft1 and obtaining fossils4 ,mountain limestone is brought to this place to be converted into lime2 and good specimens of shells1 encrinites1 c4 may sometimes be extracted from the blocks of stone4 ,among the refuse of the workings thrown up from the various shafts1 search should be made for stems of calamites 7p4 #ajh71 seed-vessels 7p4 #adi71 fern-leaves 7p4 #aji71 c4 ,a section from ,whitwick1 through ,charnwood ,forest1 to ,barrow-on-,soar1 in the direction of the route we have traversed1 would give the following succession of rocks3--#a4 ,whitwick2 ,coal-strata1 highly inclined4 #b4 ,slate-rocks of ,woodhouse1 highly inclined4 #c4 ,protrusions of ,syenite4 #d4 ,slate-rocks of ,swithland1 highly inclined1 with unconformable strata of red marl4 #e4 ,granite and ,syenite of ,mount ,sorel4 #f4 ,red marl and sandstone1 supporting the ,lias1 at ,barrow-on-,soar4 ,the pedestrian should spend one or two days at ,snibstone1 where there is humble1 but comfortable accommodation4 ,sidenote3 ,,markfield ,,and ,,grooby1 ,,vii4 ,markfield and ,grooby4 ,syenite and ,porphyry1 c4--,these places may be visited on our way back to ,leicester4 ,illustration ,,miscellaneous4 ,list of ,dealers in ,fossils1 ,minerals1 c4 ,british ,natural ,history ,society1 for the distribution of ,fossils and ,recent ,shells1 ,london ,agent for the1 #cj1 ,tavistock-street1 ,covent ,garden4 ,charlton1 ,mr41 at the ,geological ,society's apartments1 ,somerset ,house4 ,for boards and tablets for fossils2 prepared and backed paper for diagrams2 cabinets for specimens1 c4 ,an excellent and intelligent workman1 and moderate in his charges4 ,cuttell1 ,mr41 #eb1 ,new ,compton-street1 ,lapidary4 ,prepares fossil teeth1 c4 for the microscope4 ,darker1 ,mr41 ,lapidary1 #i1 ,paradise-street1 ,lambeth4 ,fossil and recent objects for the microscope4 ,specimens of the infusorial earths1 teeth of fishes and reptiles1 marbles1 c4 ,edwards1 #dj1 ,high-street1 ,camden ,town4 ,for hoards for cabinets1 to affix fossils1 shells1 c4 instead of trays4 ,mc,lellan1 #ajg1 ,great ,russell-street1 ,bloomsbury4 ,manufactures the trays for the ,british ,museum4 ,wooden trays with black sides1 #b inches by #b1 to #f inches by #b1 price #gs4 per dozen4 ,this price is much too high1 except for public collections4 ,common card or pasteboard trays answer every purpose4 ,simmons1 ,mr41 #f1 ,francis-street1 ,newington ,butts4 ,collector of fossils2 especially of choice ,chalk fossils and fossil ,foraminifera4 ,sowerby1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,b4 7the eminent naturalist71 #ej1 ,great ,russell-street1 ,bloomsbury4 ,all kinds of minerals1 fossils1 and recent shells4 ,tennant1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,professor of ,mineralogy and ,geology to ,king's ,college1 #adi1 ,strand4 ,every purchasable species of fossil1 mineral1 or shell may be obtained2 as well as the various microscopic fossils1 infusorial earths1 slices of teeth1 wood1 marble1 c4 ,the collections formed by ,mr4 ,tennant for the student in ,geology1 ,palontology1 and ,mineralogy are admirably calculated to afford that practical acquaintance with specimens1 so indispensable to the acquisition of a knowledge of ,geology4 ,a series may be obtained1 illustrative of the system of instruction suggested in these volumes1 and arranged in a sequence corresponding to the order in which the fossils are described4 ,the price of a mahogany cabinet with five trays1 containing #bjj specimens1 illustrative of the elementary works on ,geology1 is five guineas3 cabinets with fewer and less valuable specimens from two to three guineas4 ,the following is an outline of the contents of the five guinea cabinet-- ,minerals which are either the components of ,rocks1 or occasionally imbedded in them3--,quartz1 ,agate1 ,chalcedony1 ,jasper1 ,garnet1 ,zeolite1 ,hornblende1 ,augite1 ,asbestus1 ,felspar1 ,mica1 ,talc1 ,tourmaline1 ,calcareous ,spar1 ,fluor1 ,selenite1 ,baryta1 ,strontia1 ,salt1 ,sulphur1 ,plumbago1 ,bitumen1 c4 ,native ,metals1 or ,metalliferous ,minerals2 these are found in masses or beds1 in veins1 and occasionally in the beds of rivers4 ,specimens of the following ,metallic ,ores are put in the ,cabinet3--,iron1 ,manganese1 ,lead1 ,tin1 ,zinc1 ,copper1 ,antimony1 ,silver1 ,gold1 ,platina1 c4 ,rocks2 ,granite1 ,gneiss1 ,mica-slate1 ,clay-slate1 ,porphyry1 ,serpentine1 ,sandstones1 ,limestones1 ,basalt1 ,lavas1 c4 ,silurian ,fossils from the ,llandeilo1 ,wenlock1 and ,ludlow ,rocks4 ,secondary ,fossils from the ,devonian1 ,carboniferous1 ,permian1 ,triassic1 ,lias1 ,oolite1 ,purbeck1 ,wealden1 and ,cretaceous ,groups4 ,tertiary ,fossils from the ,thanet ,sands1 ,woolwich and ,reading beds1 ,bracklesham1 ,barton1 and ,london ,clays1 ,isle of ,wight fresh-water series1 ,crag1 c4 ,mr4 ,tennant has also models of many unique and rare fossils2 as for example1 teeth1 horn1 claw-bones1 c4 of the ,iguanodon2 lily encrinite2 small models of the upright coal-trees1 near ,bolton2 of the magnificent ,plesiosaurus of ,mr4 ,hawkins's collection1 now in the ,british ,museum 7price #dl4 #ds472 ,mr4 ,sopwith's models of stratification1 c4 ,topping1 ,mr4 #a1 ,york-place1 ,pentonville-hill2 supplies boards and cases1 and every kind of fossil infusoria1 c42 polished slices of fossil wood and teeth2 and all kinds of microscopical objects1 admirably prepared1 and at moderate prices4 ,british ,museum4--,models of some of the most remarkable fossils in the ,national ,collection 7a list of which is published in the ,synopsis of the ,british ,museum 7 may be purchased of the ,formatore4 ,microscopes4--,a microscope is now an indispensable instrument for the collector of fossil remains2 and1 in fact1 for the cultivator of any natural science4 ,a microscope sufficient for every useful purpose may be obtained1 at the price of from seven to twenty guineas1 of-- ,poulton1 ,mr4 ,c41 ,wooburn1 near ,marlow1 ,bucks2 beautiful preparations of minute fossil animal and vegetable structures for the microscope at #as4 #c;d4 per slide4 ,infusorial earths admirably prepared4 ,specimens of foraminifera1 recent and fossil4 ,grignon sand with1 foraminifera1 c4 ,powell1 ,mr41 #bd1 ,clarendon-street1 ,clarendon-square4 ,pritchard1 ,mr4 ,andrew1 ,fleet-street2 the author of various useful works on microscopical subjects4 ,mr4 ,pritchard's microscope1 of from seven to ten guineas1 has been purchased by several of my geological friends1 and admirably answers the purpose of investigation4 ,ross1 ,mr4 #ba1 ,featherstone-buildings1 ,holborn2 justly celebrated for the perfection of his instruments4 ,smith and ,beck1 ,messrs4 #f1 ,coleman-street1 ,city4 ,,brighton4 ,nightingale1 ,mr4 #eb1 ,frederick-street1 near the railway station ,brighton ,a large assortment of ,sussex chalk and other fossils4 ,mr4 ,nightingale is a first-rate artist in clearing chalk fishes and crustaceans4 ,thatcher1 ,mr41 ,west ,cliff1 ,king's-road1 has often very choice chalk fossils1 admirably cleared1 and at fair prices4 ,most of the pebbles cut and set in brooches1 and sold by the lapidaries and jewellers in this town1 as ,brighton common ,german moss-agates4 ,the green brooches called ,brighton aqua marines6 are rolled fragments of bottle-glass4 ,occasionally good sections of the ,choanites 7see p4 #bcd7 may be obtained3 inquire for petrified sea-anemones4 ,,chippenham1 ,,wilts4 ,buy1 ,william2 for ,oxford ,clay fossils of the greatest variety and in the highest perfection4 ,especially celebrated for his discovery and admirable development of the soft parts of ,belemnoteuthides1 ,belemnites with phragmocones1 c4 ,,dover4 ,griffiths1 ,paradise-street4 ,moses1 ,stroud-street2 has generally a large collection of ,chalk and ,galt fossils4 ,,hastings4 ,bissenden1 ,thomas1 ,west-street2 ,oliver1 ,elizabeth1 #g1 ,parade2 of whom ,wealden fossils from the neighbouring cliffs may often be obtained4 ,,ryde1 ,,isle ,,of ,,wight ,fowlstone1 ,mr41 #d1 ,victoria ,arcade4 ,,sheerness4 ,hayes1 ,patrick1 ,sheppey-street1 ,blue ,town4 ,the usual ,sheppey fossils4 ,according to his own list1 he has for sale1--petrified whelk-shells1 cockles1 clams1 screws1 ,nautilus4 ,fruits1 various2 as beans1 coffee1 figs nuts4 ,crabs1 lobsters1 turtles4 ,fishes' heads1 teeth1 and spine-bones4 ,his charge for perfect specimens is high2 a ,nautilus1 cut in half and polished1 presenting two perfect sections1 #bes42 if imperfect1 #as4 or #bs4 ,a fish's head1 or lobster1 #ajs4 to #aes42 imperfect examples1 #f;d4 to #bs42 see p4 #hdj4 ,,ventnor1 ,,isle ,,of ,,wight4 ,wheeler1 ,charles1 ,holder's ,sea-side ,cottage4 ,an excellent guide to the most interesting localities along the southern shore of the island4 ,collects and sells specimens4 ,,warminster4 ,baker1 ,mr42 dealer in fossils4 ,the ,warminster ,greensand1 and ,chalk fossils4 ,,weymouth4 ,damon ,mr4 ,robert1 dealer in fossils2 has always on sale a large and excellent collection of the organic remains from the neighbourhood of ,weymouth1 the ,isle of ,portland1 and ,lyme ,regis1 c4 ,a series of recent ,british shells1 from #bjj to #djj species1 correctly named4 ,,york4 ,british ,natural ,history ,society1 for the distribution of ,fossils and recent shells2 conductor1 c4 ,mr4 ,charlesworth1 ,curator of the ,york ,museum4 99 99 99 99 99 ,notes on the ,prices of ,fossils4--,a ,short communication by the ,author to ,charlesworth's ,london ,geological ,journal1 ,no4 ,i4 p4 #ac1 contains a list of the prices of several interesting fossils and collections of fossils4 99 99 99 99 99 ,minerals4--,a complete series of the minerals of ,cumberland comprising specimens of great beauty and interest1 can be obtained of ,john ,cowper1 ,alston1 ,cumberland2 he may be relied upon for his knowledge and attention1 and his prices are moderate4 ,,general ,,index4 ,,general ,,index4 ,a4 ,abies1 #agg4 ,abietites ,dunkeri1 #agi4 ,acaleph1 #bhj1 #ggb4 ,acanthoteuthis furiosa1 #ddg1 #dfb4 ,acephala1 #cge4 ,acetabulifera1 #ddi4 ,achilleum1 #bbc4 ,acorn-shell1 #ejf4 ,acrocidaris nobilis1 #cai4 ,acrodont reptiles1 #fdh4 ,acrodus nobilis1 #ehd4 ,acrogens1 #fj4 ,actibatis1 #gec4 ,actinia1 #bed4 ,actinocrinites1 #bhg1 #bid1 #bie4 ,actinocrinus ,parkinsoni1 #bid4 ,agassiz1 ,m41 on cololites1 #fbb4 --------------- ,fishes1 #efc1 #efh1 et passim4 ,age of ,reptiles1 #fdd4 ,air-bladder of ,fishes1 fossil4 #fbj4 ,aix1 fossil insects from1 #eeg4 ,aix-la-,chapelle1 #bje4 ,aix1 ,provence1 #ahe1 #aii1 #eej1 #eeg1 #fbe1 #fbh1 #gca4 ,alabama1 ,united ,states1 #ghj4 ,alcyonium1 #bed4 --------- chonoides1 #bdg4 ,alg1 fossil1 #hg4 ,allanbank1 ,berwickshire1 #afg4 ,allesley1 near ,coventry1 #abd4 ,alligator ,hantoniensis1 #fgf4 ,alloa1 ,scotland1 #ggh4 ,allport1 ,mr4 ,d41 researches of1 #ghi4 ,alum ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight1 #gc1 #age1 #dba1 #hdg4 --------1 lignite at1 #gc4 ,amber1 #eb1 #ahb4 ,amblypterus1 #fja4 ,ammonites communis1 #dgg4 --------- ,dufrenoyi1 #dgf4 --------- ,jason1 #dgi4 --------- lautus1 #dgf4 --------- varians1 #dgf4 --------- ,walcottii1 #cig1 #dhb4 ,ammonitid1 #dfi1 #dgf4 ,amorphozoa1 #bai4 ,amphigens1 #fa4 ,amphitherium ,broderipii1 #hjf4 ,analysis of ,molluskite1 #dcc4 ,ananchyte1 flint-cast of1 #cbj4 ,ananchytes ovatus1 #cbc1 #cbg4 ,ancyloceras furcatum1 #dhd4 ----------- gigas1 #dhe4 ,angers1 #ecg4 ,angiosperms1 fossil1 #aig4 ,animal ,kingdom1 classification of1 #bag1 #hbf4 ,animal remains1 fossil1 #dc4 ,annelida1 #ejc4 ,anning1 ,miss ,m4 researches of1 #dh1 #dfd1 #eif4 ,annularia1 #adf1 #adg4 ,anomopteris ,mougeotii1 #aag4 ,anomura1 #eab4 ,anoplotherium commine1 #ghi4 ------------- secundarium1 #gij4 ,anstice1 ,mr41 researches of1 #eee4 ,antholites liliaceus1 #aih4 ,anthophyllum ,atlanticum1 #beg1 #bfb4 ,anthozoa1 #bec4 ,anthracotherioid pachyderms1 #gia4 ,anthracotherium1 #gij4 ,antigua1 #ahe1 #bfd4 ,apateon pedestris1 #gde4 ,ape1 fossil1 of ,france1 #had4 ,apiocrinites1 #bhf1 #bhh1 #bia4 ,apiocrinus ellipticus1 #bij4 ---------- flexuosus1 #bia4 ---------- ,parkinsoni1 #bhh4 ---------- rotundus1 #bhi4 ,aporrhais1 #dbf4 ,aptychus sublvis1 #dib4 ,arabia1 #cfb4 ------1 foraminifera-rocks in1 #cfb4 ,arachnida1 #eej4 ,araucaria peregrina1 #age4 ,araucarites1 #afh4 ,arborescent ferns1 fossil stems of1 #abb4 ,archocidarid1 #cbb4 ,archoniscus ,brodiei1 #eba4 ,archegosaurus ,dechenii1 #gde4 ------------- lucius1 #gde4 ------------- minor1 #gde4 ,argonaut1 #dej1 #dfe4 ,arkansas1 ,united ,states1 #ghj4 ,armagh1 ,ireland1 #eie4 ,artisia1 #afh4 ,asaphus1 #ecf4 ,aspidorhynchus1 #fag4 ,astacid1 #eae4 ,asteracanthus1 #eha4 ,asteriad1 #bhj1 #cja4 ,asterias arenicola1 #cjg4 -------- prisca1 #cjh4 ,asteroida1 #bed4 ,asterolepis1 #fai4 ,asterophyllites1 #ade4 --------------- equisetiformis1 #adg4 ,astra ananas1 #bfb4 ------- pentagona1 #bfb4 ------- ,tisburiensis1 #bfc4 ,atherfield1 #eah1 #ebi4 ,aust ,cliff1 #efj1 #ehh1 #hje1 #hfe4 ,austen1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,c41 researches of1 #hej1 #hfa4 ,austin1 ,messrs41 on crinoidea1 #bhh4 ,australia1 #hjc1 #hji4 ,autun1 ,france1 #acj1 #agh4 ,auvergne1 #ebi1 #efj1 #gfe4 ,ava1 ,burmah1 #ahe1 #bgh1 #gid4 ,avicula inquivalvis1 #djd4 ,aylesbury1 #dha1 #dih1 #hfc4 ,aymestry1 #cic1 #dje4 ,b4 ,babbicombe1 ,devon1 #bei1 #bfa4 ,bacillaria1 #hh1 #ia4 ,bacton1 ,suffolk1 #hjc1 #haa4 ,baculites baculoides1 #dhf4 ,bailey1 ,dr41 on diatomace1 #ic1 #ccg4 ----------- on foraminifera1 #cfd4 ----------- on recent shelly sandstone1 #chg4 ----------- on the mixture of marine and fluviatile species in the ,hudson ,river1 #ajj4 ,bain1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,g41 fossil reptiles in ,south ,africa1 discovered by1 #gad4 ,baker and ,durand1 ,messrs1 researches of1 #had4 ,bakewell1 ,mr41 the researches of1 #gcg1 #hgh1 #hhg4 ,balanid1 #ejf4 ,balanus tesselatus1 #ejg4 ,balcombe1 #hea4 ,bann ,river1 ,ireland1 diatomace from the banks of the1 #id4 ,banwell1 ,somerset1 #ghc1 #hji1 #haa1 #haf1 #hfe4 ,bardon ,hill1 #ija4 ,barnacles1 #ejf4 ,barr1 ,staffordshire1 #ecg4 ,barrande1 ,m41 on trilobites1 #ecd1 #eda4 ,barrow-on-,soar1 #ffi1 #hii4 ,bath1 #cig1 #hfd4 ,batrachia1 #fdf1 #gci4 ,batrachnis1 #gec4 ,batracholites1 #gdj4 ,bats1 fossil1 #hac4 ,bavaria1 #dbc1 #ghg4 ,bay of ,fundy1 ,nova ,scotia1 upright fossil trees on the cliffs of the1 #abh4 ,beachy ,head1 #dha4 ,bean1 ,mr41 researches of1 #ebf1 #eca4 ,bears1 fossil1 #haa4 ,beauvais1 ,france1 #dea4 ,beaver1 fossil1 #hjc4 ,beccarius1 foraminifera first discovered by1 #cci4 ,beckles1 ,mr41 researches of1 #ebi1 #ggc4 ,belemnitella mucronata1 #dea1 #deg4 ------------ quadrata1 #dea4 ,belemnites bipartitus1 #dec4 ---------- dilatatus1 #dea1 #deh4 ---------- lanceolatus1 #dei4 ---------- ,listeri1 #dec1 #deh4 ---------- ,puzosianus1 #ded4 ---------- semicanaliculatus1 #dec4 ,belemnoteuthis antiquus1 #dei4 ,belfast1 #ga1 #bcf4 ------- ,lough1 peat in1 #ga4 ,belgium1 #aia4 ,bellerophon bilobatus1 #dfe4 ----------- costatus1 #dfe4 ,beloptera belemnitoides1 #dfc4 ,belosepia sepioides1 #dfc4 ,beloteuthis subcostata1 #dfc4 ,benett1 ,miss ,e41 researches of1 #da1 #bca4 ,bensted1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,h41 researches of1 #bfi1 #dji1 #dcd1 #gcb4 ,bergh-mehl of ,norway1 #if4 ,bergmann on fossils1 #ag4 -------- on the solubility of silex in water1 #db4 ,bermudas1 #bgd4 ,berry ,head1 ,torbay1 #gfd4 ,beryx ,lewesiensis1 #fbd4 ----- microcephalus1 #fbd4 ----- radians1 #fbd4 ----- superbus1 #fbd4 ,bexhill1 ,sussex1 #eai4 ,bexley1 #cie4 ,beyrichia1 #ebf4 ,bidford1 ,warwickshire1 #efj4 ,bignor1 ,sussex1 #bcb4 ,bilin1 diatomaceous deposit at1 #if4 ,binfield1 ,mr41 researches of1 #edi4 ,binney1 ,mr41 on stigmaria1 #acf4 ,binstead1 ,isle of ,wight1 #dbc1 #gij1 #haf1 #hdg4 ,binstwick1 ,holderness1 #ie4 ,binton1 ,warwickshire1 #eeb4 ,bird-like bipeds1 imprints of feet of1 #gfh4 ,birds1 #gei1 #gfc4 ,bivalve mollusks1 the parts of1 #cgg4 ,blackdown1 ,devon1 #cej1 #daa1 #dac4 ,bleadon1 ,somerset1 #haa4 ,bletchingley1 #djf1 #deh4 ,bognor1 ,sussex1 #age1 #aic1 #bce1 #dje1 #djg4 ,bohemia1 #if1 #eci1 #fbc4 -------1 diatomaceous deposit in1 #if4 ,boiling springs1 #dj4 ,bolton1 ,lincolnshire1 #cfg4 ,bombay1 #gda4 ,bonchurch1 ,isle of ,wight1 #afb4 ,bone-breccia of the caverns1 #hjh4 ,bone-caverns1 #gfd1 #hjh1 #hba4 ,bones1 fossil1 #de4 ,botanical principles1 #eh4 ,botany1 fossil1 #ea4 ,bothrodrendron1 #add1 #ade4 ,boughton1 near ,maidstone1 #haa4 ,boulogne1 #cih1 #dab4 ,bourgueticrinus1 #bhf1 #bia4 ,bournemouth1 ,hants1 #bjj1 #efj4 ,bovey ,heathfield1 ,devon1 #gb4 -----------------------1 lignite at1 #gb4 ,bowerbank1 ,mr41 excursions to ,sheppey and ,bracklesham by1 #hdj1 #hdd4 --------- on carcharodon1 #eic4 ------------ flint1 #ced4 ------------ fossil bird from ,sheppey1 #gfh4 ------------ fossil fruits from ,sheppey1 #ec1 #ahg4 ------------ moss-agates1 #ajc4 ------------ pterodactyles1 #gbf4 ,bowman1 ,mr41 on sigillaria1 #abg4 ,brachiolites1 #bbf4 ------------ angularis1 #bfg4 ,brachiopoda or ,palliobranchiata1 #cgf1 #chh4 ,brachyura1 #eaa4 ,bracklesham ,bay1 #age1 #aic1 #bfd1 #cfg1 #chc1 #dje1 #dfc1 #dgj1 #ehi1 #eig1 #fgg1 #gch1 #hdd4 ,bradford encrinite1 #bij4 ,bradford1 ,wilts1 #bhh4 ,branchiopoda1 #ebe4 ,brazils1 #fbe1 #hjh1 #had1 #hae4 ,brebisson on diatomace1 #hh4 ,brentford1 #ghc4 ,brickenden1 ,capt41 researches of1 #fic1 #gbj1 #gdi4 ,bridgewater ,essay1 ,dr4 ,buckland's1 #h1 #bb1 et passim4 ,brighton1 #ii1 #bbd1 #bcj1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bhi1 #bii1 #cdh1 #cfh1 #chd1 #djh1 #dea1 #deh1 #fbh1 #ggh1 #ghc1 #gie1 #heb4 --------1 diatomace at1 #ii4 -------- fossil whale1 #ggh4 ,bristol1 #ehe1 #eia1 #gac1 #hfd4 ,british localities of fossil cephalopods1 #dii4 ---------------------------- crustaceans1 #edf4 ---------------------------- fishes1 #fdj4 ---------------------------- mammals1 #hah4 ---------------------------- plants1 #bac4 ---------------------------- reptiles1 #gef4 ---------------------------- shells1 #ddc4 ---------------------------- zoophytes1 #bgh4 ---------------------------- fossil monkeys1 #hae4 ,british ,museum1 fossils in1 #ge1 #ada1 #bhb1 #bhh1 #ccc1 #chi1 #daa1 #fcj1 #fcg1 #fgj1 #fgh1 #fha1 #fhc1 #fhe1 #ggj1 #ghd1 #ghf1 #hjg1 #haj4 -------------- strata1 synopsis of1 #bc4 ,brittle-worts1 #hh4 ,broderip1 ,mr41 researches of1 #hjf4 ,brodie1 ,rev4 ,p4 ,b41 researches of1 #eba1 #edi1 #eeb1 #eef4 ,bromley1 ,kent1 #cie1 #djf4 ,brongniart and ,cuvier on fossils1 #ah4 ,brongniart on asterophyllites1 #adf4 ------------- ,crustacea1 #ecc4 ------------- moss-agates1 #ajc4 ------------- psarolites1 #abd4 ------------- sigillaria1 #acb4 ------------- stigmaria1 #acd4 ------------- the classification of plants1 #fa4 ------------- the distribution of fossil plants1 #bjh4 ,bronteus flabellifer1 #eci4 ,brook ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight1 #afd1 #agj1 #agh1 #dae1 #fie1 #gja1 #hdh4 ,brora1 ,scotland1 #djh4 ----- oolite1 #bh4 ,brown-coal1 #ga4 ,brown1 ,dr4 ,r41 on triplosporites1 #adb4 ----- ,mr4 ,j41 researches of1 #hjc1 #haa4 ----- ,mr4 ,r41 on stigmaria1 #acg4 ,brunswick1 #bib4 ,brussels1 #aia1 #gcj4 ,bryansford1 near ,newcastle1 #ie4 ,bryozoa1 #bec1 #bfe4 ,buckland1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,bridgewater ,essay1 #h1 #bb1 et passim4 ------------------ on belemnites1 #def4 ------------------ carpolites1 #aic4 ------------------ cave-bones1 #haj4 ------------------ cephalopoda1 #dha4 ------------------ coal1 #hd4 ------------------ coprolites1 #fba4 ------------------ fossil bird's-bones1 #gfe4 ------------------ insects1 #eea4 ------------------ geoteuthis1 #dfd4 ------------------ ichnolites1 #ggj4 ------------------ ichthyopatolites1 #fcb4 ------------------ ,kirkdale ,cave1 #hjh4 ------------------ ,mantellia1 #aef4 ------------------ on marsupialia1 #hjf4 ------------------ megalosaurus1 #fhg4 ------------------ megatherium1 #gih4 ------------------ paramoudra1 #bcf4 ------------------ pterodactyles1 #gbe4 ------------------ ,reliq4 ,diluv41 #hji4 ------------------ trilobites1 #ecd4 ,buckman1 ,prof41 researches of1 #eeb4 ,buenos ,ayres1 #gii4 ,bufonites1 #fjd4 ,bulimus1 #dbc4 ,bumastus1 #dcg4 ,buprestis ,bucklandi1 #eed4 ,burdie ,house1 near ,edinburgh1 #gi1 #aac1 #ebd1 #eca1 #fjb1 #fag4 ------------1 fresh-water coal at1 #gi4 ,burham1 ,kent1 #gab1 #gcb4 ,burmeister1 ,m41 on trilobites1 #ecd1 #edj4 ,buy1 ,mr4 ,w41 researches of1 #hfc4 ,c4 ,caddis-worms1 fossil1 #eei4 ,caen1 ,normandy1 #fgi1 #fhj4 ,caithness1 #fad4 ,calamites approximatus1 #ajh4 --------- decoratus1 #ajg4 --------- radiatus1 #ajh4 ,calamodendron1 #adf4 ,calbourn1 ,isle of ,wight1 #dbc1 #hdg4 ,calceola1 #cib4 ,caine1 ,wilts1 #cac1 #cae1 #cig1 #hfd4 ,calymene ,blumenbachii1 #ece4 ,cambrian rocks1 lower1 #cd4 ,cambridge1 #eah1 #gaa1 #gcj4 ,cambridgeshire1 #ie1 #cfg1 #haa4 -------------- fens1 diatomaceous deposits in the1 #ie4 -------------- fossil foraminifera of the1 #cfg4 ,camel1 fossil1 #ghd4 ,campilodiscus1 #cdg4 ,cannel-coal1 #ga4 ,cape ,breton1 ,nova ,scotia1 #acg4 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 #ecf1 #gad4 ,caradoc ,sandstone1 #cc4 ,carboniferous ,flora1 #bji4 ------------- series1 #ca4 --------------------1 foraminifera of the1 #cfe4 ,carbonized remains of mollusks1 #dcb4 ,carcharodon productus1 #eia1 #eic4 ,carcharopsis prototypus1 #eie4 ,cardinia1 #dad4 ,cardiocarpon acutum1 #adg4 ,cardium edule1 #chf4 ,carluke1 ,lanarkshire1 #gdf4 ,carnivora1 fossil1 #hjg4 ,carpenter1 ,dr41 on the structure of nummulites1 #cde4 ---------------------- structure of shells1 #cij4 ,carpolithes ,bucklandi1 #adi4 ----------- ovulum1 #aif4 ----------- ,smithi1 #bjb4 ,carr1 ,mr4 ,h41 researches of1 #heh1 #hhi4 ,carrington ,park1 ,devon1 #cfe4 ,carter1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g41 researches of1 #cfb4 ----------------- on foraminifera-rocks in ,arabia and ,india1 #cfb4 ,caryophyllia annularis1 #beh1 #bfb4 ------------ centralis1 #beg1 #bfh4 ,castle ,comb1 near ,bath1 #ggd4 ,castor1 fossil1 #hjc4 ,catenipora escharoides1 #bei4 ,catillus1 #djb4 ,caulopteris macrodiscus1 #abc4 ,cautley1 ,capt41 discoveries by1 #fgd1 #ghd1 #ghf1 #gig1 #had4 ,cave-bones1 #gfd1 #hjh4 ,cavern of ,high ,tor1 ,matlock1 #hgf4 ,caverns1 ,ornitholites of the1 #gfd4 ,cellepora1 #che4 ,cellular plants1 #ei4 ,cement1 #haf4 ,cephalaspides1 #faj4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii1 #faj4 ,cephalopoda1 #cgh1 #ddg4 ,ceratiocaris1 #ebe4 ,ceratites1 #dhc4 ,ceratodus emarginatus1 #ehg1 #eih4 ,cerigo1 #hjh4 ,cerithium lapidum1 #dah1 #dbe4 ,cestracion canaliculatus1 #ehj1 #ehd4 ,cetacea1 #ggg4 ,cetiosaurus1 #fhb4 ,cette1 #gfe1 #hjh4 ,chropotamus1 #gia4 ,chalk and flint1 microscopical examination of1 #cga4 ,chalk animalculites1 #cec4 ----- detritus at ,charing1 #cfc4 ----- formation1 #be4 ----- dicotyledons in the1 #bje4 ----- fossil wood in the1 #agc4 ----- sponges in1 #bbb4 ,chara helicteres1 #aif4 ----- medicaginula1 #aif4 ,charing1 ,kent1 #cdb1 #cfc1 #egi4 -------1 chalk-detritus at1 #cfc4 ,charlesworth1 ,mr41 researches of1 #bbf1 #gji1 #hje4 ,charlton1 ,kent1 #cag4 ,charmouth1 ,dorset1 #aic1 #bic1 #cjd1 #dei4 ,charnwood ,forest1 #hfh4 ,cheddar1 ,somerset1 #hff4 ,cheiroptera1 fossil1 #hac4 ,cheirotherian tracks1 notices of1 #gej4 ,cheirotherium ,hercules1 #gec4 ------------- ,kaupii1 #geb1 #gec4 ,chelichnus1 #gec4 ,chelone ,bellii1 #gcd4 ------- ,benstedi1 #gcb4 ------- costata1 #gce4 ------- ,mantelli1 #gce4 ------- pulchriceps1 #gcd4 ,chelonia1 #fdf1 #gbf4 ,chelsea ,hospital1 fossils in pavement of1 #dgf4 ,cheltenham1 #cig4 ,chemnitz1 ,saxony1 #abc4 ,chenendopora fungiformis1 #bbh4 ,chichester1 #bbd1 #bfh1 #cdg4 ,chippenham1 ,wilts1 #cac1 #cag1 #dib1 #hfc4 ,chipping ,norton1 #fhb4 ,chiton1 #dcj4 ,choanites ,knigii1 #bcc4 --------- turbinatus1 #bdc4 ,chomle1 ,bohemia1 #eej4 ,chondrites ,bignoriensis1 #ajb4 ,christian ,malford1 ,wilts1 #ded1 #dei4 ,chronological arrangement of the ,british strata1 #bc4 ,cidaris ,blumenbachii1 #cag1 #cig4 ------- clunifera1 #cai4 ------- cucumifera1 #cai4 ------- intermedia1 #caf4 ------- meandrina1 #cai4 ------- ,parkinsoni1 #cai4 ------- sceptrifera1 #cai4 ------- spinosa1 #cai4 ------- stemmacantha1 #cai4 ,cidarite1 impression of1 on flint1 #cbj4 ,cidarites of ,new ,zealand1 #cah4 ,cidaritid1 #cad4 ---------- palozoic1 #cba4 ,ciliobrachiata1 #bff4 ,cirripedia1 #eje4 ,clacton1 #hag4 ,classification of fossil cephalopods1 #did4 ----------------- plants1 #fi4 ----------------- strata1 #bc4 ----------------- the ,animal ,kingdom1 #bag1 #hbf4 ,clathraria ,lyellii1 #aei4 ,clathropteris meniscoides1 #aba4 ,claycross1 near ,chesterfield1 #abg4 ,clayton1 ,sussex1 #djh1 #dbf1 #dbi1 #dei1 #dga1 #dhg1 #hea4 ,clermont1 ,auvergne1 #ebi4 ,clifton1 near ,bristol1 #bfj1 #bfc1 #hfd4 ,clionites ,conybeari1 #bch1 #djc4 --------- ,inoceramus1 shell perforated by1 #djc4 ,club-mosses1 #adj4 ,clymenia ,sedgwickii1 #dgc4 -------- striata1 #dgc4 ,clypeastrid1 #cbb4 ,clypeid1 #cbb1 #cbe4 ,clypeus sinuatus1 #cbe4 ,clove-encrinites1 #big4 ,cnemidium astrophorum1 #bbg4 ,coal1 ,bovey1 #gb4 ---- brown1 #ga4 ---- cannel1 #ga4 ---- field1 stratification of a1 #hj4 ---- formation1 #ca4 ---- measures1 #ca4 ---- nature and geology of1 #gf4 ---- of the ,wealden1 #gc4 ,coalbrook ,dale1 #adj1 #add1 #baj1 #dad1 #ebb1 #eeb1 #eee4 ,cocconeis1 #ia4 ,coccosteus oblongus1 #fac4 ,clacanthi1 #fah4 ,clodont lizards1 #fdh4 ,colchester1 ,mr41 researches of1 #hje1 #hae4 ,coles1 ,mr4 ,h41 on the skin of the ,ichthyosaurus1 #fgj4 ,collecting and arranging fossil shells1 directions for1 #dda4 ---------- and developing fossil fishes1 #fce4 ---------- remains of mammalia1 #hae4 ---------- and preserving fossil leaves and fruits1 #ec4 ---------- fossil bones1 #de4 ---------- cephalopoda1 #dif4 ---------- corals1 #bgf4 ---------- ,crustacea1 #edd4 ---------- echinodermata1 #cca4 ---------- insects1 #efj4 ---------- plants1 #baa4 ---------- remains of birds1 #ggc4 ---------- remains of reptiles1 #gec4 ,cololites1 #fba4 ,colossochelys atlas1 #gcb4 ,comatula1 #bhf1 #cjb4 ,conferv1 fossil1 #ajj4 ,confervites ,woodwardii1 #aja4 ,conifer1 fossil1 #afd4 -------- structure of1 #eg4 ,coniferous forests1 petrified1 #afi4 ---------- wood1 fossil1 #afg4 ----------------------- in the ,chalk-formation1 #agc4 ----------------------- in the ,oxford ,clay1 #agb4 ,conularia1 #dag4 ,conus tuberculatus1 #dbg4 ,conybeare1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,d41 researches of1 #djd1 #ffc4 ,cooksbridge1 ,sussex1 #ebg4 ,copford1 ,essex1 #hab4 ,coprolites1 #dcb1 #fba4 ,coral-rag1 #bg1 #bfc1 #hfb4 ,corals1 fossil1 in iron-ore1 #bfe4 -------------- of ,babbicombe1 #beh4 ----------------- ,clifton1 #bfj4 ----------------- ,dudley1 #bfa4 ------1 growth of1 #beb4 ,corax pristodontus1 #eie4 ,corfe1 ,dorset1 #efj4 ,cornbrash1 #bh4 ,corncockle ,muir1 #gec4 ,cornua ,ammonis1 #dgf4 ,corsica1 #hjh4 ,corydalis ,brongniarti1 #eed4 ,cotta on fossil fern-stems1 #abd4 ,couvin1 ,belgium1 #dei4 ,cowes1 #hdg4 ,crabs1 fossil1 #eaa4 ,craigleith1 near ,edinburgh1 #afg4 ,crania1 #cib4 ,creech1 near ,corfe1 #efj4 ,creseis1 #dag4 ,cretaceous formation1 #be4 -------------------- fossil plants of the1 #agc1 #bje4 -------------------- zoophytes of the1 #bgd4 ,crich ,hill1 #hhj1 #hhc4 ,crinoidea1 #bhj1 #bha1 #cji4 ,crioceras ,puzosianum1 #dhd4 ,crisia ,johnstoniana1 #bfi4 ,cristellaria rotulata1 #cdb1 #cdh4 ,crocodilia1 #fdf1 #fgc4 ,crocodilus champsodes1 #fgf4 ---------- ,hastingsi1 #fgf4 ---------- ,spenceri1 #fgf4 ---------- toliapicus1 #fgf4 ,cromford1 ,derbyshire1 #bhe4 ,croydon1 #hch1 #hdi4 ,crustac1 #ejh4 -------- ,ichnolites of1 #edc1 #gdi4 ,cryptobranchus ,scheuchzeri1 #gda4 ,cryptogamia1 #eh4 ,ctenacanthus1 #eha4 ,ctenoid fish1 #efh1 #fbc4 ,cuckfield1 #afj1 #gee1 #hea4 ,cucumites variabilis1 #ahh4 ,cummingston1 near ,elgin1 #gdi4 ,cunningham1 ,mr41 researches of1 #gej1 #gea1 #ggb4 ,cupanoides lobatus1 #ahi4 ,cup-encrinite1 #bie4 ,curculioides ,ansticii1 #eee4 ------------ ,prestvichii1 #eee4 ,cushion-star1 #cja4 ,cuttle-fish bone1 #ddi4 ----------- fossil1 #ddg4 ,cuvier and ,brongniart on fossils1 #ah4 ------ ,baron1 discoveries of1 #gff1 #ghi1 #hjd1 #hjf1 #hac4 ,cyathocrinites1 #bhg1 #bie4 ,cyathocrinus planus #bhi1 #bif4 ------------ tuberculatus1 #bhf4 ,cyathophyllum dianthus1 #bfa4 ------------- turbinatum1 #bfa4 ,cycade1 #aej4 ------- fossil stems of1 #aef4 ,cycadites megalophyllus1 #aeg4 --------- microphyllus1 #aeh4 ,cycas revoluta 7recent71 #aej4 ,cyclas1 #daf4 ,cyclobatis oligodactylus1 #egi4 ,cycloid fish1 #efh1 #fbe4 ,cyclopteris trichomanoides1 #aad4 ,cyphosoma1 #cah4 ,cyprella1 #ecb4 ,cypresses1 fossil1 #ahj4 ,cypridella1 #ecb4 ,cypridina1 #ecb4 ,cyprinoid fish1 #fbg4 ,cypris faba1 #ebi4 ------ ,fittoni1 #ebg4 ------ granulosa1 #ebg4 ------ tuberculata1 #ebg4 ------ ,valdensis1 #ebg4 ,cyrena1 #daf4 ,cystidea1 #bih4 ,cystiphyllum1 #bfa4 ,cythere1 #eca4 ,cythereis1 #eca4 ,d4 ,dadoxylon1 #afh4 ,dallards1 ,wilts1 #eba4 ,dana on ,silicification1 #ch1 #db4 ,dana's ,mineralogy noticed1 #i4 ,dapedius1 #fjc4 ,daphnoidia1 #ecb4 ,darling ,downs1 ,australia1 #hjc4 ,darmstadt1 #ghg4 ,darwin1 ,mr4 ,c41 researches of1 #ejf1 #ejh1 #gih4 ,dawson1 ,mr4 ,j41 researches of1 #gdg1 #gdh4 ,deane1 ,dr4 ,j41 on ornithoidichnites1 #gfi4 ----- ,mr41 researches of1 #bda1 #cei4 ,debey1 ,dr41 on fossil plants from ,aix-la-,chapelle1 #bje4 ,deddington1 ,oxon1 #fhj4 ,deer1 fossil1 #ghc4 ,de la ,beche1 ,sir ,h41 the works of1 referred to1 #hcc4 ,delesserites ,lamourouxii1 #ajc4 ,dendrerpeton ,acadianum1 #gdf4 ,dendrodus1 #fah4 ,denny on fossil stems in the ,coal1 #adc4 ,deposition of the ,coal-measures1 #gi4 ,derbyshire1 #bhd1 #djg1 #dad4 ,dercetis elongatus1 #fbb4 ,dermal bones of reptiles1 #feg4 ------ covering of ,glyptodon1 #gii4 ,derry1 ,tyrone1 #eca4 ,derwent ,valley1 ,australia1 #aga4 ,desmeopora semicylindrica1 #bga4 ,desmidi1 #hh4 ,devonian formation1 #ca4 -------- fossil plants1 #bab4 ,diadema rotulare1 #caf1 #cah4 ,diamond1 #eb4 ,diatomace1 fossil1 #hh1 #ic4 ---------- recent1 #ia4 ---------- the food of mollusks1 c41 #ii4 ,dibrachiata1 #ddi1 #dej4 ,dichobune1 #gia4 ,dichodon1 #gia4 ,dicotyledonous plant-remains of the ,chalk-formation1 #bae4 -------------- trees1 fossil1 #bjc4 ,dicotyledons1 #ei4 ,dictyophyllum crassinervum1 #aih4 ,dicynodon ,bainii1 #gag4 --------- lacerticeps1 #gaf4 --------- strigiceps1 #gag4 --------- testudiceps1 #gag4 ,didelphys1 fossil1 of ,montmartre1 #hjd4 --------- ,colchesteri1 #hje4 ,dieffenbach on the ,flora of ,new ,zealand1 #baj4 ,dimyaria1 #djd4 ,dinornis1 #gfc4 ,dinosauria1 #fdf1 #fhd4 ,dinotherium ,kaupii1 #ghg4 ,diogenes' lantern1 #cab4 ,diplograpsus1 #bef4 ,diprion1 #bef4 ,dirt-bed in the ,purbeck strata of the ,isle of ,portland1 #aef4 ,discoidea castanea1 #cbd4 ,dithyrocaris1 #ebe4 ,dixon1 ,mr4 ,f41 fossils and work of the late1 #bga1 #ccj1 #che1 #eah1 #ehd1 #fca1 #fgc1 #gch4 ,dixonfold1 near ,manchester1 #abe1 #acg4 ,dodo1 #gfc4 ,dolichosaurus longicollis1 #gaa4 ,d',orbigny4 ,m41 restoration of the ,belemnite by1 #dec4 --------- on foraminifera1 #cci4 ,dormouse1 fossil1 #hjb4 ,dover1 #bbh1 #bcj1 #bda1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #cee1 #cif1 #heh4 ,dracna ,benstedi1 #aid4 ,draco volans1 #gbc4 ,drift deposits1 #bc4 ,dudley1 ,staffordshire1 #bfb1 #ecc4 ------ limestone1 #cc1 #bfa1 #bgb4 ,dujardin1 ,m41 on foraminifera1 #cci4 ,dumarest1 ,m41 on fossil ,crustacea1 #eaj4 ,dumbleton1 #efj4 ,dumfries1 #gcj1 #gej1 #gec4 ,dunmore ,cliff1 ,isle of ,wight1 #cih4 ,dun-stone of ,matlock1 #hgh4 ,durlstone ,bay1 ,purbeck1 #aif1 #ebb1 #eeg4 ,e4 ,ear-bones of fishes1 #egd1 #fci4 ------------ whales1 #ggh4 ,east ,cliff ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight1 #aie4 ,east ,thickley1 ,durham1 #fjb4 ,eastware ,bay1 ,kent1 #dhj4 ,echinid1 #bhj1 #caa4 ,echinus1 #cah4 ,edaphodon leptognathus1 #ehi4 --------- ,mantelli4 #ehh4 ,edentata1 fossil1 #gih4 ,edinburgh1 #fbb4 ,edwards1 ,mr4 ,f41 on the siphuncle of the ,nautilus1 #dfg4 ,egerton1 ,sir ,p4 ,g41 researches of1 #egi1 #ehd1 #eij1 #eii1 #fja1 #fjd1 #ffg1 #fgj1 #gej1 #hji4 ,eggs1 fossil1 #gci1 #gfd4 ,egra1 ,bohemia1 #if1 #ahb1 #cdg4 ,egypt1 #agj1 #cde4 ,ehrenberg on infusoria1 #hh4 ------------ the ,chalk microzoa1 #cec4 ------------ ,polierschiefer of ,bilin1 #if4 ,eifel1 #beh1 #cib1 #dcj1 #eci1 #gda4 ,eisleben1 ,saxony1 #fjb4 ,elasmodus1 #eij4 ,elbersreuth1 ,bavaria1 #dgd4 ,elements of ,geology1 ,sir ,c4 ,lyell's1 #aj1 et passim4 ,elephants1 fossil1 #ghe1 #hag4 ,elephas ,ganesa1 #ghe4 ------- primigenius1 #gid4 ,elgin1 #fde1 #gbj1 #gcj4 ,emydid1 #gbg1 #gcf4 ,emys1 #gbg4 ,enaliosauria1 #faf1 #ffb4 ,encephalous mollusks1 #cgh4 ,enchodus halocyon1 #fcj4 ,encrinus liliiformis1 #bhf1 #bib4 ,endogenites erosa1 #afc4 ,endogenous stems1 #ef4 ,endogens1 #ei4 ,enniskillen1 ,earl of1 researches of1 #ebj4 ,enoploclytia ,leachii1 #eaf4 ------------ ,sussexiensis1 #eag4 ,enoploteuthis1 #dfb4 ,entomoconchus1 #ecb4 ,entomostraca1 #ebb4 ,entrochites1 #bhd4 ,eocene deposits1 #bd4 ,epplesheim1 #ghc1 #ghg4 ,equisetace1 #ajd4 ,equisetites columnaris1 #aje4 ,equisetum ,lyellii1 #aje4 ,equus plicidens1 #gig4 ,eschara1 #bfg4 ,estheria1 #ebf4 ,etyus ,martini1 #eac4 ,eugeniacrinus1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #big4 ,eunotia1 #ib4 ,euomphalus pentangulatus1 #dbh4 ,eurypterus1 #ebd4 ,excursions1 geological1 #hbi4 ---------------------- to ,bracklesham ,bay1 #hdd4 ------------------------- ,brighton1 #hdi4 ------------------------- ,bristol1 #hfd4 ------------------------- ,charnwood ,forest1 #hih4 ------------------------- ,chippenham and ,caine1 #hfc4 ------------------------- ,clifton1 #hfd4 ------------------------- ,crich ,hill1 #hhj4 ------------------------- ,farringdon1 #hei4 ------------------------- ,isle of ,sheppey1 #hch4 ------------------------- ,isle of ,wight1 #hdg4 ------------------------- ,matlock1 #hfg4 ------------------------- ,middleton ,moor1 #hid4 ------------------------- ,rottingdean1 #heb4 ------------------------- ,swindon1 #hfb4 ,exogenous stems1 #ef4 ,exogens1 #ei4 ,exogyra1 #cih4 ,extremities of ,iguanodon1 #gjj4 ----------- ,reptiles1 #feg4 ,eye of ,ichthyosaurus1 #ffd4 ,f4 ,faboidea bifalcis1 #ahh4 -------- semicurvilinearis1 #ahh4 ,fairies' night-caps1 #cae4 ,fairy-loaf1 #cbg4 ,fairy-stones1 #bhd4 ,falconer1 ,dr41 discoveries by1 #fgd1 #ghd1 #ghf1 #gig1 #had4 ,farnham1 ,surrey1 #bcc4 ,farringdon1 ,berks1 #bbf1 #bfb1 #bgc1 #bgg1 #cag1 #cah1 #hei4 ----------1 fossil zoophytes from1 #bbf4 ,favosites ,gothlandica1 #bei1 #bfb4 --------- polymorpha1 #beh4 ,favularia1 #adc4 ,felixstow1 #ggh4 ,fenestella1 #bgj4 ,ferns1 fossil1 #aji4 ----- fossil arborescent1 #abb4 ----- stems1 sections of1 #fb4 ,ferry ,bridge1 ,yorkshire1 #dd1 #ga4 -----------------------1 buried forest at1 #dd4 ,fifeshire1 #fag4 ,filicites1 #aji4 ,fisher1 ,rev4 ,o41 researches of1 #aif1 #ebb1 #eeg4 ,fishes1 characters of1 #efc4 ------ tins of1 #efi1 #egf4 ------ scales of1 #eff4 ------ skeletons of1 #egb4 ------ tails of1 #egd4 ------ teeth of1 #egj1 #ehb4 ,fitton1 ,dr41 works and researches of1 #agg1 #bcj1 #dbj1 #ebi1 #hcc4 ,flabellina ,baudouniana1 #cdg4 ,flamborough ,head1 #bbf4 ,flint1 casts of echinites in1 #cbj4 ----- formed from zoophytes1 #bdc4 ----- fossil wood in1 #agd4 ----- polype in1 #bej4 ----- sponges in1 #bbb4 ,flora of ,new ,zealand1 #baj4 ----- of ningen1 fossil1 #bjj4 ----- of the ,carboniferous epoch1 #bji4 ,florence ,court1 #bgh4 ,florida1 #cfe1 #chg4 ,flowers1 fossil1 #aig4 ,flustra1 #bff4 ,flying reptiles1 #gbc4 ,folkstone1 #bbh1 #djb1 #djf1 #dbf1 #dcc1 #deh1 #dgf1 #dhg1 #eab1 #heh4 ,foot-tracks of bipeds1 #gfh4 ----------- of ,crustacea1 #edc1 #gdi4 ----------- of reptiles1 #gdi4 ,foraminifera deposit at ,brighton1 #cfh4 ----------------------- ,charing1 #cdb1 #cfc4 -------------------- in the ,united ,states1 #cfd4 ------------ fossil1 #cdd4 ------------ fossil remains of the soft parts of1 #ceg1 #cgb4 ------------ in chalk and flint1 #cee4 ------------ of the ,carboniferous ,formation1 #cfe4 ------------------- fens of ,lincolnshire and ,cambridgeshire1 #cfg4 ------------------- ,oolite1 ,lias1 c41 #cfd4 ------------ recent1 #cci4 ------------ tertiary1 #cff4 ,foraminifera-rocks in ,arabia1 #cfb4 ------------------ ,india1 #cfb4 ------------------ ,new ,zealand1 #cff4 ,forbes1 ,prof4 ,e41 works and researches of1 #bjj1 #bii1 #cjb1 #cjd1 #cjh1 #chj1 #dag1 #dai1 #dbc1 #ecj1 #eai1 #eeg4 ,foreign localities of fossil fishes1 #fda4 ,forest marble1 #bh4 ,forests1 submarine1 #gj4 ,forfarshire1 #bab1 #ebe1 #faa4 ,fossil animal remains1 #dc4 ------ articulata1 #ejc4 ------ birds1 #gei1 #gfc4 ------ bones1 #de4 ------ botany1 #ea4 ------ brachiopoda1 #chh4 ------ cephalopoda1 #ddg4 ------ chelonians1 #gbi4 ------ diatomace1 #hh1 #ic4 ------ echinodermata1 #caa4 ------ fishes1 #efb4 ------ flowers1 #aig4 ------ foraminifera1 #ccf4 ------ fresh-water plants1 #aie4 ------ fruits from the ,isle of ,sheppey1 #ec1 #ahf4 ------ mammalia1 #gge4 ------ microphytes1 #hh4 ------ plants in the ,devonian rocks ------ of ,forfarshire and ,ireland1 #bab4 ------ polypifera1 #bea4 ------ porifera1 #bai4 ------ reptiles1 #fdc4 ------ resin1 #eb1 #aha4 ------ shells1 #cha1 #cid1 #dac1 #dag1 #dba1 #dbd4 ------ sugar-loaves1 #cbc4 ------ vegetables1 #ea1 #fa1 #hf4 ------ wood1 examination of1 #fe4 ------ zoology1 #baf4 ,fossiliferous rocks1 order of the1 #ba4 ,fossils1 definition of1 #ae1 #cg4 ------- nature of1 #cg4 ------- once thought to be ,lusus ,natur1 #b4 ,fowlstone1 ,mr41 researches of1 #gjb4 ,franconia1 #hjh1 #hbj4 ,frankfort1 #bjb4 ,fresh-water plants1 fossil1 #aie4 ---------- shells1 fossil1 #dac1 #dba4 ---------- turtles1 fossil1 #gcf4 ,frogs1 fossil1 #gdj4 ,fucoides ,lamourouxii1 #ajc4 ,fucoids1 fossil1 #aja4 ,fuller's-earth oolite1 #bh4 ,fungia1 #bec1 #bef4 ,fusulina cylindrica1 #cdf4 ,fusus contrarius1 #dah1 #dbe4 ,g4 ,gailenreuth1 #hjh4 ,galecynus ningensis1 #hab4 ,galerites albo-galerus1 #cbb4 ,galeritid1 #cbb4 ,galionella1 #ib1 #if4 ,ganoid fish1 #efh1 #fjj4 ,gardiner1 ,mr41 researches of1 #fbe4 ,gasteropoda #cgh1 #dag4 ,gavialis ,dixoni1 #fgg4 ,geological distribution of bivalve and univalve mollusca1 #dcf4 -------------------------- ,cephalopoda1 #dib4 -------------------------- ,crinoidea1 #cji4 -------------------------- ,crustacea1 #edb4 -------------------------- ,echinodermata1 #ccj4 -------------------------- ,fishes1 #fcb4 -------------------------- ,foraminifera1 #cfi4 -------------------------- ,sauroid-batrachians1 #gdh4 -------------------------- ,zoophytes1 #bgc4 ,geological ,excursions4 ,see ,excursions4 ,geology1 meaning of term1 #a4 ,geoteuthis1 #dfc4 ,geysers of ,iceland1 #dj4 ,gibbes1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,w41 on fossil mosasaurus1 #gjg4 ---------------------------- squalid1 #eic4 ,gibraltar1 #gfe1 #ghb1 #hjh4 ,gigantic crustaceans1 fossil1 #ebd4 -------- deer of ,ireland1 fossil1 #ghc4 -------- sloths1 fossil1 #gih4 ,giraffe1 fossil1 #ghd4 ,glammis1 ,forfarshire1 #faa4 ,glaris1 ,switzerland1 #gcj4 ,glasgow1 #gdf4 ,globigerina cretacea1 #cdb1 #cej4 ,glossopteris ,phillipsii1 #aaf4 ,glyphea rostrata1 #eai4 ,glyptodon clavipes1 #gii4 ,goldfuss1 ,dr41 and ,von ,meyer1 on the ,archegosaurus1 #gdf4 ,goldsworth ,hill1 ,surrey1 #eig4 ,goniastea1 #cja4 ,goniaster ,hunteri1 #cje4 --------- ,mantelli1 #cjf4 ,goniatites ,listen1 #dhb4 ---------- striatus1 #dhb4 ,goniopholis crassidens1 #feh1 #fgg4 ,gorgonia1 #bec1 #bfe4 ,grantia1 #bba4 ,graptolites ,ludensis1 #bee4 ----------- ,murchisoni1 #bee4 ,graptolitid1 #bed4 ,grauwacke series1 #cb4 ,gravesend1 ,kent1 #cje1 #cag1 #cee1 #gjh1 #gaj1 #hdc4 ,grays1 ,essex1 #hae4 ,great ,oolite1 #bh4 ,greenland1 #fcb4 ,greenock1 ,lord1 researches of1 #fbb4 ,grignon1 ,france1 #dah1 #dbe4 ,grinsell1 ,salop1 #gab1 #gec4 ,gristhorpe ,bay1 ,yorkshire1 #ebf4 ,grooby1 #ijc4 ,grypha incurva1 #cig4 -------- sinuata1 #cih4 -------- virgula1 #cih4 ,gryphites1 #cif4 ,gymnosperms1 #fj4 ,gyrodus ,murchisoni1 #fji4 ,gyrogonites1 #aie4 ,h4 ,hackney1 #fgd4 ,halichondria1 #bba4 ,halonia regularis1 #add4 ,hamites cylindraceus1 #dhf4 ,hammers1 #hcb4 ,hampton ,court1 polished ,devonian marbles in pavements at1 #dgf4 ,hamsey1 ,sussex1 #dja1 #djh1 #dbh1 #dei1 #dgj1 #dgf1 #dhd1 #dhe1 #dhf1 #dhg1 #ehh1 #fba4 ,hamster fossil1 #hjc4 ,hanwell1 #cie1 #hcg1 #hei4 ,hare1 fossil1 #hji4 ,harkness1 ,prof41 researches of1 #gej1 #ggb4 ,harlam1 ,dr41 on the ,zeuglodon1 #ghj4 ,harris1 ,mr4 ,w41 researches of1 #cfc1 #egi4 ,hartwell1 ,bucks1 #djh1 #dbh1 #ebj1 #eeg1 #hfc4 ,hartz1 #hjh4 ,hastings1 ,marchioness of1 researches of1 #fgf1 #gia4 ,hastings1 ,sussex1 #afd1 #ahj1 #dag1 #ggc4 ,havre1 #fhj4 ,hawkins1 ,mr4 ,t41 researches of1 #dh1 #ffc4 ,hawkshaw1 ,mr41 on fossil foot-prints1 #gej4 ------------------------ trees1 #abg4 ,hayward's ,heath1 #hej4 ,headley1 ,surrey1 #cie4 ,headon ,hill1 ,isle of ,wight1 #dba1 #dbc1 #dbd1 #hdg4 ,heathfield1 ,sussex1 #ahj4 ,helianthoida1 #bed4 ,hemerobioides giganteus1 #eec4 ,hemicidaris crenularis1 #caa4 ----------- intermedia1 #caf1 #cai4 ,hemipristis serra1 #eia1 #eic4 ,hempstead ,cliff1 #fbh4 ,henslow's1 ,prof41 works referred to1 #ed4 ,hermit-crab1 fossil1 #eae4 ,herne ,bay1 #gia1 #haf1 #hdc4 ,herpetichnus1 #gec4 ,hessburg1 ,saxony1 #geb4 ,highgate ,hill1 #aha1 #cfg1 #dje1 #dfc4 ,high ,tor1 ,matlock1 #hge4 ,highworth1 ,wilts1 #cig1 #dab4 ,hildesheim1 ,saxony1 #fjg4 ,himalayas1 #dhb4 ,hippopotamus1 fossil1 #gie4 ,hippurites1 #cic4 ,hitchcock1 ,prof41 on ,ornithoidichnites1 #gfi4 ,hoer1 ,scania1 #abb4 ,hohen-,warte1 ,osterwald1 #gd4 -----------1 brown-coal of1 #gd4 ,holaster1 #ccj4 ,holectypus inflatus1 #cbd4 ,holloway1 #hhb4 ,holmes1 ,mr41 researches of1 #gjb4 ,holoptychius1 #fah4 ,holothuriad1 #bhj4 ,homalonotus delphinocephalus1 #ecf4 ,homosolen ramulosus1 #bfh1 #bga4 ,honfleur1 #fhj4 ,hooker1 ,dr4 ,j41 on ,arctic ,diatomace1 #hi4 -------------- on ,lepidodendron1 #aci4 ,hordwell1 ,hants1 #dje1 #ebh1 #eie1 #eig1 #fge1 #gca1 #gch4 ,horley1 #hej4 ,horn of ,iguanodon1 #ffa4 ,horse1 fossil1 #gig4 ,horsham1 ,sussex1 #dag1 #ggd4 ,howitt1 ,mrs41 stanzas by1 #dif4 ,hudson ,river1 mixture of fluviatile and marine species in the1 #ajj4 ,human bones1 fossil1 #gge1 #hae4 ,hunterian ,museum1 fossils in the1 #gii1 #hja4 ,hurstpierpoint1 #hea4 ,hutton1 ,somerset1 #haa1 #hff4 ,hyna1 fossil1 #gic1 #hjh1 #haa4 ,hybodus medius1 #eia4 ------- raricostatus1 #eia4 ------- subcarinatus1 #egh1 #ehj4 ,hydra1 common fresh-water1 #beb1 #bec4 ,hydroida1 #bed4 ,hylosaurus ,owenii1 #feh1 #fhh4 ,hymenocaris1 #ebf4 ,hyopotamus1 #gia4 ,hypanthocrinus1 #big4 ,hypogene rocks1 #cd4 ,hypsodon ,lewesiensis1 #fcj4 ,hyracotherium1 #gia4 ,hythe1 ,kent1 #ahb1 #fhc4 ,i4 ,iceland1 #gb4 -------1 lignite in1 #gb4 ,ichnolites of ,crustacea1 #edc1 #gdi4 ------------- reptiles1 #gdi4 ----------1 tridactylous1 #gfh4 ,ichthyodorulites1 #egf4 ,ichthyolites1 #efb4 ,ichthyopatolites1 #fcb4 ,ichthyosaurus1 #ffb4 ,idmonea ,comptoniana1 #bfh1 #bgb4 ------- cretacea1 #bfh1 #bga4 ------- ,dixoniana1 #bfh1 #bga4 ,iguana1 teeth of1 #fdh4 ,iguanodon ,mantelli1 #ffa1 #fia4 ,illnus perovalis1 #ecc4 ,ilminster1 #edi1 #efj1 #fag1 #ffi1 #fhj4 ,imprints of acalephs or jelly-fish on stone1 #bhj1 #ggb4 ----------- feet of bird-like bipeds1 #gfh4 ----------- fin-markings1 #fcb4 ----------- leaves1 #bja4 ----------- rain-drops on stone1 #gea1 #gga4 ,incrustation1 #ch4 ,incrusting springs at ,matlock1 #hgb4 ,india1 beds of foraminifera in1 #cfb4 ,indiana1 #cfe4 ,inferior ,oolite1 #bh4 ,inoceramus concentricus1 #djb4 ---------- ,cuvieri1 #dja4 ---------- shell perforated by ,clionites1 #djc4 ---------- sulcatus1 #djb4 ,insectiferous ,purbeck limestone1 #eef4 ,insectivora1 fossil1 #hab4 ,insects1 fossil1 #edg4 ,instructions for collecting specimens1 #hca4 ---------------- the microscopical examination of chalk1 c4 #cga4 ,internal structure of sigillaria1 #acj4 ,investigating fossil remains of plants1 instructions for1 #ed1 #fa4 ,ireland1 #gj1 #id1 #bab1 #cba1 #dbg1 #dcj4 -------1 fossil microphytes from1 #id4 -------1 peat-bogs of1 #gj4 ,irish deer1 fossil gigantic1 #ghc4 ,ischyodus1 #eij4 ,isle of ,france1 #gfc4 ------- ,man1 #ghc4 ------- ,portland1 #gj1 #aef1 #afi1bcj1 #cig1 #dab4 ---------------- petrified forest in the1 #gj4 ------- ,purbeck1 #dag1 #dbb1 #fjd1 #gcf4 ------- ,sheppey1 #age1 #ahf1 #aic1 #bjb1 #cjg1 #dgj1 #eaa1 #eae1 #eia1 #eig1 #fgd1 #fgf1 #gca1 #gch1 #gfg1 #hch1 #hdj4 ------- ,wight1 passim4 ,isoletus1 #ecg4 ,isopoda1 #eba4 ,issoire1 #gfe4 ,j4 ,jger1 ,dr41 researches of1 #gdb1 #hje1 #hae4 ,japan1 #eee4 ,jardine1 ,sir ,w41 researches of1 #geb1 #gec4 ,jarrow1 #aci1 #add4 ,jaw of ,iguanodon1 #fic4 ,jeffery1 ,mr41 on silicification1 #ch4 ,jelly-fishes1 #bhj1 #ggb4 ,jet1 #gb4 ,johnston1 ,dr4 ,g41 on the porifera1 #bai4 ,juglans nux-taurinensis1 #aih4 ,jurassic formation1 #bg4 ,k4 ,kakaunui1 ,new ,zealand1 #cdh4 ,kangaroo1 fossil1 #hjc4 ,kelno furiosa1 #ddg4 ,kendal1 ,westmoreland1 #ebd4 ,kent's ,cave1 #haj1 #hac1 #haf4 ,kentucky1 #bih1 #gid4 ,kimmeridge clay1 #bg4 ,kington1 ,radnorshire1 #ebd4 ,kirkdale1 ,yorkshire1 #gfd1 #ghc1 #hjb1 #hji4 ,kirton1 near ,glasgow1 #ebd4 ,klein1 ,balthazar1 on coal1 #gf4 ,knorria taxina1 #add4 ,knigsberg1 ,prussia1 #ahb4 ,kstritz1 #hac4 ,kropp4 ,carniola1 #hji4 ,kyson1 ,suffolk1 #gci1 #gia1 #hje1 #hab1 #hac1 #hae4 ,l4 ,labyrinthodon ,jgeri1 #gdb1 #gec4 ------------- leptognathus1 #gec4 ------------- foot-prints of1 #gec4 ------------- pachygnathus1 #gec4 ------------- scutulatus1 #gdc4 ,labyrinthodontoid reptiles1 the geological distribution of1 #gdh4 ,labyrinthodonts1 #gda4 ,lacertia1 #fdf1 #gje4 ,lahn ,valley1 #gfe4 ,lake ,huron1 #dgf4 ---- ,macquarrie1 ,australia1 #aga4 ,lamellibranchiata1 #cgf4 ,lamna crassidens1 #eid4 ----- elegans1 #eid4 ,land-tortoises1 #gbg4 ,langton ,green1 ,kent1 #ebg4 ,lapland1 #if4 -------1 diatomaceous earth in1 #if4 ,lartet1 ,m41 researches of1 #had4 ,lathrobium1 #eeh4 ,lawford1 #gfe4 ,lea1 ,mr4 ,i41 researches of1 #gdi4 ,leach1 ,dr41 researches of1 #eab4 ,leamington1 #gdb4 ,leaves1 fossil1 from ,stradella1 #bja4 ------1 investigation of fossil1 #fd4 ,lebach1 ,saarbrck1 #gde4 ,lebias cephalotes1 #efb1 #fbh4 ,leguminosites dimidiatus1 #ahi4 ------------- subquadrangularis1#ahi4 ,leiodon anceps1 #gji4 ,length of ,iguanodon1 #gjb4 ,lennel ,braes1 near ,coldstream1 #afg4 ,lepadid1 #ejf1 #ejh4 ,leperditia1 #ebf4 ,lepidodendron1 #acg4 ,lepidoid fishes1 #fjj4 ,lepidosteus1 #faf4 ,lepidostrobus1 the fruit of ,lepidodendron1 #adj4 ,lepidotus ,fittoni1 #fjf4 --------- ,mantelli1 #fje4 --------- minor1 #fjg4 ,leptna1 #cib4 ,leptolepis1 #fag4 ,lewes1 ,sussex1 #agd1 #bcd1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bfg1 #bfh1 #bhf1 #bia1 #bii1 #cbj1 #cbc1 #chh1 #cij1 #cii1 #dja1 #djc1 #dca1 #deh1 #dga1 #dia1 #eac1 #eag1 #efg1 #egg1 #egi1 #ehd1 #ehi1 #ehd1 #eif1 #fbd1 #fbf1 #fbh1 #gcd1 #ggi4 ,lias series1 #bh4 ,libellula1 fossil1 #eea4 ,lignite1 #ga4 ,liliace1 #aid4 ,lily-encrinite1 #bhe1 #bib4 ,lily-like animals1 #bhj4 ,limnadiad1 #ebf4 ,limnus longiscatus1 #daj1 #dbc4 ,limulus rotundatus1 #ebb4 ------- trilobitoides1 #ebc4 ,lincolnshire1 #cfg4 ------------ buried forests in1 #gj4 ------------ fens1 diatomaceous deposits in the1 #ie4 -----------------1 fossil foraminifera of the1 #cfg4 ,lindley and ,hutton1 on fossil remains of plants1 #fa4 ,lindley1 ,dr41 on the principles of botany1 #eh4 ------------ on venation of leaves1 #fd4 ,lingula1 #cic4 ,linnus on ,trilobites1 #ecc4 ,liparus1 #eeh4 ,lister1 ,dr4 ,martin1 on fossils1 #c1 #ah4 ,lithododendron sociale1 #bbg1 #bfd4 ,lithodomus1 #djh4 ,lithornis vulturinus1 #gfg4 ,lithostrotion columnare1 #bfj4 ,lituola nautiloidea1 #cdg1 #cdi4 ,liverpool1 #aih4 ,llampeter1 #ejd4 ,llandeilo or ,bala series1 #cc4 ,lloyd1 ,dr41 researches of1 #gdb4 ,lobster-clays of ,atherfield1 #eah4 ,lobsters1 fossil1 #eae4 ,localities1 ,british1 of fossil cephalopods1 #dii4 ------------------------------ crustaceans1 #edf4 ------------------------------ fishes1 #fdj4 ------------------------------ mammalians1 #hah4 ------------------------------ reptiles1 #gef4 ------------------------------ vegetables1 #bac4 ------------------------------ zoophytes1 #bgh4 ----------1 foreign1 of fossil fishes1 #fda4 ,lodve1 #agh4 ,logan1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,e41 researches of1 #ha1 #edc1 #gdi4 ,lonchopteris ,mantelli1 #aai4 ,lonjumeau1 ,france1 #aig4 ,lonsdale1 ,mr4 ,w41 researches of1 #bgj1 #bgd1 #ceb1 #djh1 #ebh1 #ecj4 ,lophiodon1 #ghi4 ,loricula pulchella1 #ejg4 ,lower ,greensand1 #be4 ----- jaw of reptiles1 #fea4 ----- ,silurian1 or ,cambrian series1 #cc4 ,ludlow1 #bee1 #fci4 ------ ,bone-bed1 #fci4 ------ series1 #cc4 ,lund1 ,dr41 researches of1 #gii1 #hjh1 #had4 ,lunel-,viel1 #gfe4 ,lunulites radiatus1 #bbg1 #bgc4 ,lycopodites1 #adc4 ,lycopodium1 or club-moss1 #adj4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,c41 works and researches of1 #bj1 #bjf1 #bhi1 #cge1 #dac1 #ebh1 #eeh1 #gdg1 #gea1 #hje4 ,lyme ,regis1 ,dorset1 #agf1 #bic1 #cjd1 #dfd1 #dib1 #eab1 #ebj1 #edi1 #ehe1 #eia1 #eif1 #fjc1 #ffd1 #ffi1 #gbe4 ,lymm1 ,cheshire1 #gej1 #ggb4 ,m4 ,macculloch on coal1 peat1 lignite1 c41 #gf4 ,mac,enery1 the late ,rev4 ,j41 researches of1 #haj4 ,mackeson1 ,mr41 researches of1 #fhc4 ,mackie1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s41 researches of1 #heh4 ,macleay1 ,mr41 on trilobites1 #ecd1 #edj4 ,m',coy1 ,prof4 ,f41 works and researches of1 #beb1 #bge1 #cba1 #ebd1 #ecb1 #ecd1 #egf1 #ead4 ,macropoma ,mantelli1 #fbj4 ,macrura1 #eae4 ,madrepora1 #bec1 #bfd4 ,maestricht1 #bfe1 #bfi1bgd1 #cdf1 #daa1 #eae1 #gje1 #gcj4 ---------- chalk1 #be4 ,magnesian limestone series1 #cj4 --------- limestones of ,matlock1 #hgh4 ,maidstone1 ,kent1 #agc1 #ahj1 #aid1 #bfh1 #dji1 #dcc1 #dhe1 #ejg1 #eah1 #fhc1 #fib4 ,maine1 ,united ,states1 #gf4 -----1 lignite in the hogs of1 #gf4 ,malcolmson1 ,mr41 researches of in ,india1 #ebi4 ,mallotus villosus1 #fca4 ,malta1 #cbf1 #eab1 #eia1 #hab4 ,malton1 #adi1 #dib4 ,mammalia1 fossil1 #gge4 -------- of ,stonesfield1 fossil1 #hje4 -------- teeth of1 #gic4 -------- ,triassic1 #hje4 ,manchester1 #abi4 ,mansfeld1 ,saxony1 #agh1 #fjb4 ,mantell1 ,mr4 ,reginald1 researches of1 #bdj2 #bij1 #cfi4 ------- ,mr4 ,walter1 researches of1 #ie1 #baa1 #bgc1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #cff1 #gjb4 ,mantellia cylindrica1 #aeh4 --------- nidiformis1 #aeg4 ,marbles composed of fresh-water shells1 #dbb4 ,march1 ,lincolnshire1 #cfh4 ,margate1 ,kent1 #bcj4 ,marine univalves1 fossil1 #dbd4 ,markfield1 #ijc4 ,marlstone of the ,lias1 #bi4 ,marsupialia1 fossil1 #hjc4 ,marsupites ,milleri1 #bhi1 #bii4 ,maryland1 ,u4 ,s41 #eic4 ,massachusetts1 #gfi4 -------------1 biped foot-tracks of1 #gfi4 ,masson ,hill1 #hgj1 #hgc4 ,mastodon elephantoides1 #gid4 -------- giganteus1 #ghf4 ,matlock1 #hgj4 ,mauritius1 #gfc4 ,medals of creation1 fossils so called1 #ag4 ,megalichthys1 #fag4 ,megalosaurus ,bucklandi1 #fhf4 ,megaphyton1 #add1 #ade4 ,megatherium1 #gih4 ,meissen1 #gfe4 ,melania1 #dbf4 ,melanopsis1 #daf1 #dbd4 ,melbourne1 ,australia1 #hjc4 ,melville1 ,dr41 researches of1 #fha1 #gfc4 ,memel1 ,prussia1 #ahb4 ,mendip ,hills1 #haj4 ,meridion vernale1 ,dr4 ,bailey on the1 #ic4 ,merstham1 #hdi4 ,mesostylus ,faujasii1 #eae4 ,metamorphic rocks1 #cd4 ,meyeria ornata1 #eai4 ,micraster cor-anguinum1 #cbh4 ,microdon1 #faj4 ,microphytes1 fossil1 #hh1 #ccg4 ,microscopical examination1 #fe1 #cga1 #fci4 ,microzoa1 #cch4 ,middleton ,moor1 ,derbyshire1 #bhe1 #hid4 ,millepora rhombifera1 #bfd1 #bfh4 ,miller1 ,mr41 works and researches of1 #bhh1 #cca1 #def1 #hfd4 ------ ,mr4 ,hugh1 works and researches of1 #cb1 #fab1 #fad1 #fah1 #fai4 ,millstone-grit1 #ca4 ,mimosites ,browniana1 #ahi4 ,minerals1 definition of1 #ae4 ,miocene deposits1 #bd4 ,mississippi1 floating wood-rafts of the1 #gi4 ,missouri1 ,u4 ,s41 #cfe1 #fbh1 #gjh4 ,mocha-stones1 #ajc4 ,modiola1 #djg4 ,moira1 ,ireland1 #bcg4 ,mole1 fossil1 #hab4 ,mollusca1 #cgd4 ,molluskite1 #ceh1 #dcb4 ,monheim1 ,franconia1 #gaa4 ,monkeys1 fossil1 #hac4 ,monocarya centralis1 #beg4 ,monocotyledons1 #ei4 ,monomyaria1 #cie4 ,monoprion1 #bef4 ,montagu1 ,capt4 ,w41 notice of bone-caves in ,franconia1 #hbj4 ,monte ,bolca1 #aig1 #eii4 ,montmartre1 #aih1 #eba1 #gca1 #gff1 #ghi1 #hjd1 #hac4 ,moore1 ,mr4 ,c41 researches of1 #edi1 #feg1 #fhj4 ,mornbach1 #gff4 ,morris1 ,mr41 works and researches of1 #bcc4 #bch1 #djd1 #ejh1 #edi4 ,morton1 ,dr41 researches of1 #beg1 #cdd1 #cii1 #ehf4 ,mosasaurus gracilis1 #gji4 ---------- ,hoffmanni1 #gje4 ---------- ,maximiliani1 #gjh4 ,moss-agate1 #ajc4 ,mosses1 fossil1 #ajd4 ,mostyn1 ,flintshire1 #fcb4 ,mount ,lebanon1 #eii4 ,mount ,randen1 ,switzerland1 #big4 ,mount ,sorel1 #hfh1 #ijj4 ,mountain limestone1 #ca4 ,mouse1 fossil1 #hji4 ,muggendorf1 #ghc4 ,mnster-,appel1 #gde4 ,mnster1 ,count1 researches of1 #dfe1 #eej4 ,murchison1 ,sir ,r4 ,i41 works and researches of1 #cc1 #hj1 #bef1 #cfe1 #ejd1 #eeh1 #eei1 #gec1 #hab4 ,murchisonia bilineata1 #dcj4 ,mussel-band in the coal-measures1 #dad4 ,mycetophila1 #eeh4 ,myliobatis micropleurus1 #eih4 ,mylodon robustus1 #hjj4 ,mytilus1 #djg4 ,n4 ,natica plicistria1 #dbh4 ,nautilid1 #dfi4 ,nautilus ,deslongchampsii1 #dgj4 -------- elegans1 #dga4 -------- pompilius1 #dfg4 -------- pseudo-elegans1 #dgj4 -------- ,saxbyi1 #dgb4 ,nave-encrinites1 #bid4 ,navicula1 #ia4 ,nemacanthus1 #ehh4 ,nereis1 #ejd4 ,nereites ,cambrensis1 #ejd4 ,nerita1 #ejg4 ,neuber's liquid glue1 #df4 ,neuroptera1 fossil1 #eea4 ,neuropteris acuminata1 #aae4 ,newcastle1 #ach1eca4 ,new ,cross1 #hcg1 #hdi4 ,newhaven1 lignite at1 #gc4 --------1 near ,leith1 #fja4 --------1 ,sussex1 #gc1 #age1 #bja1 #dbe1 #egh ,new ,jersey1 ,u4 ,s41 #ebj1 #ehe1 #fbh1 #gjh4 ,new ,red ,sandstone series1 #bi4 ,new ,zealand1 #ie1 #agb1 #cah1 #cij1 #gfc1 #hab4 -----------1 cidarites from1 #cah4 ----------- fossil birds of1 #gfc4 ----------- fossil diatomace in1 #ie4 ----------- fossil foraminifera in1 #cff4 ----------- the flora of1 #baj4 ,niagara ,river1 #bei4 ,nice1 #gfe1 #hjh4 ,nicol's method of microscopical examination of fossil plants1 #fe4 ,nipadites cordiformis1 #ahh4 --------- lanceolatus1 #ahh4 ,nodosaria1 #cdg4 ,nodules1 method of opening1 #di4 ,nggerathia1 #aha4 ,nonionina ,germanica1 #cej4 ,normandy1 #dgj4 ,northampton1 the late ,marquis of1 researches of1 #cej4 ,northfleet1 ,kent1 #cag1 #gaa4 ,norway1 #bef1 #ech4 ,norwich1 #djf4 ,notidanus microdon1 #eid4 ,notopocorystes ,bechei1 #ead4 -------------- ,broderipii1 #eac4 -------------- ,stokesii1 #eac4 ,nucleolites1 #cbf4 ,nucula1 #djf4 ,nummulites lvigatus1 #cdd4 ,nympha arethusa1 #aif4 ,o4 ,obolus1 #cib4 ,ocellaria inclusa1 #bdg4 ,odontopteris ,schlotheimii1 #aaf4 ningen1 near ,constance1 #bjj1 #eei1 #fbg1 #gca1 #gda1 #gfe1 #hab4 -------1 fossil fox of1 #hab4 ------- fossil insects from1 #eei4 ,offenbach1 #gci4 ,offham1 ,sussex1 #bfg4 ,ogygia ,buchii1 #ecg4 ,ohio4 ,u4,s41 #bei1 #bfb1 #bgh1 #bhf1 #cfe4 ,old ,red ,sandstone series1 #ca1 #fah4 ,onychoteuthis1 #dfb4 ,oolite formation1 #bg4 ------ zoophytes of the1 #bge4 ,ophidia1 #fdf1 #gch4 ,ophiura ,egertoni1 #cje4 ------- ,prattii1 #cje4 ------- serrata1 #cje4 ,ophiurid1 #cjc1 #cjd4 ,opossum1 fossil1 #hjd4 ,orbicula1 #cib4 ,orbitoides ,mantelli1 #cdf4 ,oreston1 near ,plymouth1 #haj4 ,organic remains1 nature of1 #cg4 ,ornithoidichnites1 #gfh4 ,ornitholites1 #gei1 #gfc4 ,orthacanthus1 #eha4 ,orthis1 #cib4 ,orthoceratid1 #dfi1 #dgd4 ,orthoceras conicum1 #dge4 ---------- giganteum1 #dgd4 ---------- gregarium1 #dge4 ---------- laterale1 #dge4 ---------- striatum1 #dge4 ,osmeroides ,lewesiensis1 #fbg4 ---------- ,mantelli1 #fbg4 ,osmington1 ,dorset1 #djh1 #dab4 ,ossicles of encrinites1 #bhd4 -------- starfishes1 #cjc4 ,ossiferous caverns1 #hjh4 ,ostend4 near ,bacton1 #hab4 ,osteology of birds1 #gfj4 --------- fishes1 #egb4 --------- mammals1 #ggf4 --------- reptiles1 #fea4 ,osteolepis1 #fah4 ,ostracoda1 #ebf4 ,ostrea carinata1 #cif4 ------ deltoidea1 #cif4 ------ plicata1 #cif4 ------ semiplana1 #cif4 ------ vesicularis1 #cif4 ,otodus obliquus1 #eia1 #eid4 ,otolithes1 #egd1 #fci1 #ggh4 ,ototara1 ,new ,zealand1 #cff4 ,owen1 ,prof41#hbb classification of animals1 #hbf4 #hbb ,we have here refrained from making many references to the very numerous passages in the text in which our great palontologist's investigations and opinion1 in almost every branch of vertebrate and invertebrate zoology1 have been freely and of necessity quoted by the ,author and ,editor1--always1 however with due and grateful acknowledgment4 ------------------------------- reptiles1 #fdf4 ----------- on the archegosaurus1 #gdf4 ------------------ belemnite1 #def4 ------------------ brachiopoda1#cic4 ------------------ dendrerpeton1 #gdh4 ------------------ dinosauria1 #fhd4 ------------------ labyrinthodonts1 #gdb4 ------------------ teeth of reptiles1 #fdf4 ------------------ zeuglodon1 #gha4 ----------- work on ,british fossil mammals and birds referred to1 #ggf1 et passim4 ------------------ odontography1 #efd1 #egj1 et passim4 ------------------ the mylodon1 #hja4 ,oxford clay1 #bg4 ----------- fossil wood in the1 #agb4 ,oyster-shells1 fossil1 #cie4 ,p4 ,pachycormus1 #fag4 ,pachydermata1 fossil1 #ghe4 ,pachypteris lanceolata1 #aab4 ,paddle of ichthyosaur1 #ffh4 --------- plesiosaur1 #ffh4 ,paisley1 #ebe4 ,palochinid1 #cbb4 ,paloniscus1 #fja4 ,palontology1 meaning of the term1 #b4 ,palophis toliapicus1 #gch4 --------- typhus1 #gch4 ,palosaurus1 #gac4 ,palospalax1 #hab4 ,palotherium magnum1 #ghi4 ,paloxylon1 #afg4 ,palozoic cidaritid1 #cba4 --------- rocks1 #cj4 --------- zoophytes1 #bge4 ,palapteryx1 #gfd4 ,palermo1 #hjh4 ,paleryx1 #gch4 ,palliobranchiata or ,brachiopoda1 #cgf4 ,palmacites1 #ahc4 ,palm-fruits1 fossil1 #ahf4 ,palm-leaves1 fossil1 #ahe4 ,paloplotherium1 #gia4 ,paludina fluviorum1 #dah1 #dba4 ,pampas1 ,south ,america1 #gih4 ,pandanus1 fossil fruit of1 #aib4 ,panorpa ,liassica1 #eec4 ,paper-nautilus1 #dej1 #dfe4 ,pappenheim1 #ebj1 #eba4 ,parabatrachus ,colei1 #gdf4 ,paradoxides ,bohemicus1 #ech4 ,paramoudra1 #bcf4 ,paris4 ,see ,montmartre4 ,parish1 ,sir ,woodbine1 works and researches of1 #gih1 #gii4 ,parkinson1 ,mr41 his work and researches1 #gg1 #bib1 et passim4 ,see ,pict4 ,atlas4 ,pearce1 ,mr4 ,c41 researches of1 #bhh1 #def1 #ffi4 ,pear-encrinite1 #bhg4 ,peat1 #gj4 ,pecopteris lonchitica1 #aah4 ---------- ,murrayana1 #aah4 ---------- ,sillimani1 #aaj4 ,pecten ,beaveri1 #djj4 ------ ,jacobus1 #djj4 ------ quinquecostatus1 #djj4 ------ opercularis1 #che4 ,pectunculus1 #dje4 ,pedicellari1 #cac4 ,pentacrinus caput-medus1 #bhb4 ----------- ,hiemeri1 #bic4 ,pentamerus1 #cia4 ,penthetria1 #eeh4 ,pentremites pyriformis1 #bhf1 #big4 ,permian deposits1 #cj4 ,perna1 #djb4 ,petalopora pulchella1 #bbd1 #bgj4 ,petersburgh1 ,virginia1 #ig4 ------------------1 diatomaceous earth at1 #ig4 ,petricola ,patagonica1 #cgg4 ,petrifactions1 nature of1 #cg4 ,petrified forests of conifers1 #afi4 --------- horns1 #cid4 --------- mushrooms1 #bdb4 --------- rams'-horns1 #bfj1 #hfb4 --------- salt-cellars1 #hfa4 --------- trees in ,egypt1 #bjc4 ,petrophiloides ,richardsoni1 #ahh4 ,peuce1 #afh4 ,pevensey1 #eai4 ,phacops caudatus1 #ech4 ,phanerogamia1 #ei4 ,phascolotherium ,bucklandi1 #hjf4 ,phlebopteris ,phillipsii1 #abj4 ------------ propinqua1 #abj4 ,phillips1 ,prof41 works and researches of1 #dd1 #cba1 #cfe1 #dbj1 #dbg1 #hjg4 ,pholadomya1 #djh4 ,pholas priscus1 #djh1 #ejg4 ,phryganea1 fossil larv of1 #eei4 ,physa in the ,purbeck beds1 #dbc4 ,pickering1 ,yorkshire1 #cjg4 ,pictou1 ,nova ,scotia1 #aji4 ,pictorial ,atlas1 referred to1 #i1 #ahg1 #bbh1 #beg1 #bfc1 #bhe1 #cag1 #djd1 et passim4 ,pinites ,fittoni1 #agg4 ,pinna1 #djf4 ,pinus1 #agg4 ,placodus1 #faj4 ,placoid fish1 #efh1 #ehb4 ,plagiostoma giganteum1 #djj4 ,planorbis1 #dbc4 ,plants1 fossil1 #ea4 ,platycrinus1 #bhg4 ,platysomus1 #faj4 ,pleistocene deposits1 #bc4 ,pleodont lizards1 #fdh4 ,plesiosaurus1 #ffb4 #fga4 ,pleurodont reptiles1 #fdh4 ,pleurotoma1 #dbe4 ,pleurotomaria flammigera1 #dbg4 ,plicatula inflata1 #djj4 ,plieninger1 ,m41 researches of1 #hje4 ,pliocene deposits1 #bd4 ,pliosaurus1 #fgc4 ,plumstead1 ,kent1 #cie1 #djf4 ,plutonic rocks1 #cd4 ,podocarya1 #aib4 ,podosphenia1 #ib4 ,podozamites ,mantelli1 #aed4 ,pcilopleuron ,bucklandi1 #fgi4 ,polierschiefer of ,bilin1 #if4 ,polperro1 ,cornwall1 #bch4 ,polycotyledons1 #fj4 ,polyparium1 #beb4 ,polype in flint1 #bej4 ,polypidom1 #beb4 ,polypifera1 #bea1 #bhj4 ,polypothecia dichotoma1 #bca4 ,polyptychodon continuus1 #fhc4 ------------- interruptus1 #fhc4 ,polyzoa1 #bec4 ,pondicherry1 #dhe4 ,poole1 ,dorset1 #efj4 ,populus geca1 #bja4 ,porcupine1 fossil1 #hjc4 ,porifera1 #bai4 ,portishead1 #hfd4 ,portland4 ,see ,isle of ,portland4 -------- oolite1 #bg4 ,post-pliocene deposits1 #bc4 ,potamides1 #dbe4 ,potamogeton1 fossil1 #ajf1 #bja4 ,poteriocrinus1 #bhg4 ,potsville1 ,u4,s41 #fde4 ,potter1 ,mr41 researches of1 #egi4 ,pounceford1 ,sussex1 #aje4 ,prestwich1 ,mr41 researches of1 #ebc1 #ebh1 #edb ,preston1 ,sussex1 #bbg1 #cje4 ,primrose ,hill1 #gfg4 ,pristis1 #eig4 ,productus1 #cib4 ,protozoa1 #bai4 ,psammodus1 #ehg4 ,psarolites1 #abc4 ,pseudomorphic crystals1 #db4 ,pterichthys cornutus1 #fab4 ,pterodactylus compressirostris1 #gbf4 ------------- crassirostris1 #gbd4 ------------- ,cuvieri1 #gbf4 ------------- macronyx1 #gbf4 ,pterophylluni comptum1 #aeb4 ,pteropoda1 #cgh1 #dag4 ,pterosauria1 #fdf1 #gbc4 ,pterygotus1 #ebe4 ,ptychoceras ,emericianum1 #dhf4 ,ptychodus gibberulus1 #egh4 --------- polygurus1 #eid4 --------- spectabilis1 #egh1 #ehe4 ,pulley-stones1 #bhe4 ,purbeck4 ,see ,isle of ,purbeck4 ------- marble1 #dbb1 #dce4 ------- series1 #bf4 ,purfleet1 #cag1 #hdc4 ,pustulopora pustulosa1 #bfh1 #bgj4 ,puy-de-,dome1 #gfe4 ,puy en ,velais1 #ahf4 ,puzzuoli1 #djh4 ,pycnodus1 #fjg4 ,pyrenees1 #cic1 #dcb4 ,pyrites1 #hic4 ,pyritous fossil fruits1 #ec4 ,pyxidiculum1 #ia4 ,q4 ,quadrumana1 fossil1 #hac4 ,quedlingbourg1 #gfe4 ,queenborough1 #hch4 ,r4 ,radiata1 #bhj4 ,radipole1 ,dorset1 #djh1 #dab4 ,radoboj1 ,croatia1 #eei4 ,railway sections1 #hcg1 #hdi1 #hei4 ,rain-prints on stone1 #gea1 #gga4 ,raphiosaurus subulidens1 #gaa4 ,rastrites1 #bef4 ,ratisbon1 #eia4 ,rays1 fossil1 #eig4 ,reade1 ,rev4 ,j4 ,b41 researches of1 #bda1 #bej4 ,reading1 ,berkshire1 #cie4 ,recent shell-rock1 #chd1 #chf4 ,redland1 near ,bristol1 #gac4 ,regent's-park1 ,london1 #aid1 #daa4 ,regnosaurus ,northamptoni1 #gje4 ,remains1 fossil animal1 #dc4 ,reptilia1 #fdc4 ,reptiles1 ,ichnolites of1 #gdi4 ,resins1 fossil1 #eb1 #aha4 ,retepora laxa1 #bfi4 ,retrospect of fossil ,botany1 #bjf4 -------------------- zoology1 #hbb4 ,rhine1 brown-coal of the1 #gb4 -----1 tripoli of the1 #ij4 ,rhinoceros1 fossil1 #gif4 ,rhizopoda1 #cch4 ,rhodocrinus1 #bhg1 #big4 ,rhynchonella plicatilis1 #chh1 #cia4 ------------ subplicata1 #chh1 #cia4 ,rhynchosaurus articeps1 #gab4 -------------1 foot-prints of1 #gec4 ,richardson1 ,mr4 ,w41 researches of1 #gia1 #hdc4 ,richmond1 ,virginia1 #ig4 ------------------1 diatomaceous earth at1 #ig4 ,ridgway ,hill1 ,dorset1 #ebb4 #eeg4 ,riley1 ,dr41 researches of1 #gac4 ,ringinella1 #dbf4 ,ringmer1 ,sussex1 #djf1 #dec1 #deh1 #dhg1 #dij1 #eab1 #eai4 ,river-tortoises1 #gbg4 ,rjeff on the ,volga1 #fjh4 ,roane ,hill1 ,tyrone1 #fja4 ,rochester1 #ejh4 ,rocks and strata1 #ai4 ,rodents1 fossil1 #hjb4 ,rodriquez ,island1 #gfc4 ,roof of the coal1 #hb4 ,rosalina1 #cdb1 #cea1 #cef1 #ceh1 #cei4 ,rostellaria1 #dbf4 ,rotalia1 #cea4 ,rottingdean1 #heb1 #hef1 #heh4 ,rouen1 #cfh1 #dga1 #dia4 ,rule1 ,mr41 researches of1 #gfc4 ,ruminants1 fossil1 #ghb4 ,runcorn1 ,cheshire1 #gej1 #ggb4 ,ruppersdorf1 ,bohemia1 #eha4 ,russia1 #cfe1 #cib1 #ebd1 #ech1 #fjh1 #fai4 ,ryde1 ,isle of ,wight1 #haf1 #hdg4 ,s4 ,saarbrck1 ,lorraine1 #fja4 ,sabella1 #che4 ,sacrum of reptiles1 #fee4 ,sahara ,desert1 #agj4 ,salamander1 fossil1 #gda4 ,salamandrodes1 #gdb4 ,salenia1 #cah4 ,salter1 ,mr41 researches of1 #ebd1 #ebf1 #ecd1 #gdi4 ,sandgate1 ,kent1 #dji1 #ejg4 ,sandown ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight1 #aee1 #afd1 #ebi4 ,sansan1 near ,audi1 #had4 ,santa ,fiora1 diatomaceous earth at1 #if4 ,sardinia1 #gfe4 ,saull1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,d41 researches of1 #gie4 ,sauria1 #fdf4 ,saurocephalus lanciformis1 #fbi4 ------------- striatus1 #fbi4 ,saurodon ,leanus1 #fbi4 ,sauroid fishes1 #fae4 ,sauroidei1 #fag4 ,sauroidei-dipterini1 #fah4 ,savone1 #gij4 ,saw-fish1 fossil1 #eig4 ,scales of fishes1 #eff4 ,scalpellum maximum1 #ejg4 ,scaphites qualis1 #dhh4 ,scarborough1 #gc1 #aac1 #aad1 #aaf1 #aah1 #aeb1 #aed1 #afh1 #eai4 ,scat-craig1 ,elgin1 #fah4 ,schaerbeek1 ,belgium1 #aia4 ,scorpion1 fossil1 #eej4 ,scouler1 ,dr41 researches of1 #ebe4 ,screw-pines1 #aib4 ,screw-stones1 #bhe4 ,scrope1 ,mr4 ,p41 on fossil phrygane1 #efj4 ,scutes of reptiles1 #feg4 ,scyphia foraminosa1 #bbg4 ------- intermedia1 #bbg4 ------- ramosa1 #bbg4 ,sea anemones1 #bed4 --- eggs1 #cab4 --- slugs1 #bhj4 --- urchins1 #bhj1 #cab4 ,seafield1 ,isle of ,wight1 #gia4 ,seal1 fossil1 #hab4 ,secondary rocks1 #be4 ,selbourne1 ,hants1 #cif4 ,sepia1 fossil1 #ddg4 ,septarium with shells1 #chc4 ,serpents1 #gch4 ,serpula1 #che1 #eje4 ,serres1 ,marcel de1 researches of1 #eeg4 ,sertularia1 #bec4 ,shalcombe1 ,isle of ,wight1 #dba4 ,shanklin1 or ,lower ,greensand1 #be4 ,sharks1 fossil teeth of1 #ehb4 ------ vertebr of1 #eif4 ,sharp ,mountain1 ,pennsylvania1 #gdi4 ,shepherd's crowns1 #cbg4 ,sheppey1 ,see ,isle of ,sheppey4 ,shotover1 ,oxon1 #fhj4 ,shrewley ,common1 ,warwickshire4 #gec4 ,shrewsbury1 #eca1 #gab4 ,shrimps1 fossil1 #ebj4 ,sicily1 #cij4 ,siderastra ,websteri1 #bfd4 ,siderolina1 #cdf4 ,sigillari and ,stigmari1 #abe4 ,sigillaria ,defrancii1 #abh4 ---------- elegans1 #acj4 ---------- ,saullii1 #abi4 ,silesia1 #ahe4 ,silicification1 #dj4 ,silurian system1 #cb4 ,sind1 #cfb4 ,siphonia lobata1 #bca4 -------- ,morrisiana1 #bbd1 #bcc4 -------- pyriformis1 #bca4 ,siwalik ,hills1 #ahe1 #bgh1 #fgd1 #gca1 #gff1 #ghb1 #ghd1 #ghf1 #gig1 #had4 ,skeleton of fishes1 #egb4 ,skin of ,ichthyosaur1 #fgj4 ,sloths1 fossil gigantic1 4#gih4 ,smee1 ,mr41 on fossilization of bones1 #dd4 ,smerdis minutus1 #fbe4 ,smith1 ,dr4 ,william1 on fossils and strata1 #ah4 -----1 ,mr4 ,toulmin1 on the ventriculid1 #bbf1 #bdi1 #bfh4 ,snakes1 fossil eggs of1 #gci4 ,snibstone1 ,leicestershire1 #adi1 #ijb4 ,solarium ornatum1 #dbg4 ,solenhofen1 #ddg1 #dib1 #eaa1 #ebj1 #ebc1 #eej1 #eea1 #fag1 #fba1 #gbd4 ----------1 fossil insects from1 #eea4 ,soleure1 #gcj4 ,south ,africa1 #ecf1 #gad4 ------------1 fossil reptiles from1 #gad4 ,south ,america1 bone-caves of1 #hjh4 -------------1 fossil edentata of1 #gih4 --------------------- monkey of1 #had4 -------------1 ,pampas of1 #gih4 ,southbourn1 ,sussex1 #bcb1 #djh1 #dcc1 #dhg1 #heh4 ,southerham1 ,sussex1 #dja1 #dhg4 ,south ,joggins1 ,bay of ,fundy1 #abh1 #gdg4 ,south ,petherwin1 ,cornwall1 #dgd4 ,spatangid1 #cbf4 ,spatangus planus1 #ccj4 ,sphrulites ,mortoni1 #cic1 #dcj4 ,sphenophyllum erosum1 #adf1 #adh4 ------------- ,schlotheimi1 #adg1 #adh4 ,sphenopteris elegans1 #aab4 ------------ ,mantelli1 #aac4 ------------ nephrocarpa1 #aac4 ,spicula of sponges1 #bcd1 #bch4 ,spiders1 fossil1 #eej4 ,spinax major1 #ehj1 #ehd4 ,spines of ,cidarites1 #cai4 ,spiniferites palmatus1 #bda4 ------------ ramosus1 #bci1 #bdj4 ------------ ,reginaldi1 #bci1 #bda4 ,spirifer trigonalis1 #cij4 ,spirolina1 #cdi4 ,spirulirostra ,bellardii1 #dfc4 ,spondylus spinosus1 #cii4 ,sponges1 characters of1 #bbj4 -------1 arrangement of recent1 #bba4 ------- in chalk and flint1 #bbb4 ,spongilla1 #bba4 ,spongites clavellatus1 #bbd4 --------- flexuosus1 #bbf1 #bac4 --------- labyrinthicus1 #bbe1 #bdc4 --------- ramosus1 #bbc4 --------- ,townsendi1 #bbe4 ,spynie1 near ,elgin1 #gbj4 ,squaloraia1 #eif4 ,squirrel1 fossil1 #hjb4 ,st4 ,catherine's1 ,isle of ,wight1 #bcc4 --------------- ,mount4 ,see ,rouen4 ,st4 ,cuthbert's beads1 #bhd4 ,st4 ,etienne1 ,france1 #abg1 #agh4 ,st4 ,helen's1 near ,liverpool1 #acf4 ,st4 ,peter's ,mount4 ,see ,maestricht4 ,staaren-stein1 #abc4 ,stag-horn encrinite1 #bia4 ,staithes1 near ,whitby1 #cjg4 ,stammerham1 ,sussex1 #ggd4 ,steganodictyum1 #bcc4 ,steinhaur1 ,rev4 ,h41 on ,stigmaria1 #acd4 ,stellarid1 #bhj4 ,stems of arborescent ferns1 #abb4 -------- encrinites1 #bhd4 -------- pentacrinites1 #bhd4 -------- plants1 structure of1 #ee1 #fb4 ,sigillari1 #abh4 ,steneosaurus1 #fgf4 ,sternbergia1 #afh4 ,sternum of ichthyosaur1 #ffg4 ---------- plesiosaur1 #ffg1 #fgb4 ,steyning1 ,sussex1 #dei1 #dga4 ,stigmaria ficoides1 #acc4 ,stigmari1 the roots of sigillaria and lepidodendron1 #acb1 #aci4 ,stokes1 ,mr41 researches of1 #dgf1 #edj4 ,stone-lily1 #bib4 ,stone1 ,bucks1 #eeg4 ,stone perforated by lithodomi1 #djh4 ,stonesfield1 ,oxon1 #aeb1 #afh1 #aha1 #eec1 #ehg1 #fhf1 #gbe1 #gcj1 #gfe1 #hje4 -----------1 fossil mammalia of1 #hje4 ----------- slate1 #bh4 ,stonnis1 #hhc1 #hif4 ,storeton ,hill1 near ,liverpool1 #gcj1 #gea1 #gec1 #ggb4 -------------1 ichnolites at1 #gea1 #ggb4 ,stradella1 near ,pavia1 #bja4 ,strata and rocks1 #ai4 ------ composed of foraminifera1 #ceb4 ------1 synopsis of ,british1 #bc4 ,stratification of a coal-field1 #hj4 ,strensham1 ,worcestershire1 #ajf4 ,streptospondylus1 #fhj4 ,strickland1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,e41 researches of1 #eeb1 #fci1 #gec1 #gfc4 ,stromatopora1 #bfb4 ,strombodes1 #bfb4 ,strophodus magnus1 #ehg4 ,structure of conifer1 #eg4 ------------ vegetables1 #ee4 ,studd ,hill1 #hdc4 ,stutchbury1 ,mr41 researches of1 #bfe1 #gac4 ,stuttgart1 ,wrtemberg1 #hje4 ,stylastrit1 #bhg4 ,sub-,apennines1 #ejc4 ,sub-,himalayas4 ,see ,siwalik ,hills4 ,submerged forests1 #gj4 ,suchosaurus cultridens1 #fgf4 ,suggsville1 ,u4 ,s41 #cdf4 ,sulz-les-bains1 near ,strasburg1 #aag1 #aha4 ,sunderland1 #dcj4 ,sundridge1 ,kent1 #cie4 ,sussex marble1 #dbb1 #dce4 ,swabia1 #gge1 #hae4 ,swanage1 ,purbeck1 #aif1 #fjg1 #feh1 #fgg4 ------- crocodile1 #fgg4 ,swansea1 #haj4 ,sweden1 #bef1 #cib1 #ech4 ,swindon1 #afh1 #dab1 #dbh1 #hfb4 ,swithland1 #ijj4 ,switzerland1 #bhi4 ,sydenham1 #ghi1 #hdi4 ,synhedra1 #ib4 ,synopsis of ,british strata1 #bc4 ,syringopora ramulosa1 #bei1 #bfb4 ,t4 ,tniopteris latifolia1 #aah4 ,taggart1 ,mr41 researches of1 #ggb4 ,tails of fishes1 #egd4 ,taxites1 #aha4 ,teeth of ,fishes1 #egj1 #ehb4 -------- ,glyptodon1 #gii4 -------- ,ichthyosaur1 #ffe4 -------- ,iguanodon1 #fic4 -------- ,labyrinthodon1 #gdc4 -------- ,mammalia1 #gic4 -------- ,plesiosaur1 #ffe4 -------- ,reptiles1 #fdf4 -------- ,sharks1 fossil1 #ehb4 ,teleosaurus ,cadomensis1 #fhj4 ----------- ,chapmanni1 #fge1 #fgi4 ----------- priscus1 #fhj4 ,telerpeton ,elginense1 #gbj4 ,temple ,church1 the pillars of1 composed of fresh-water marble1 #dbb1 #dce4 ,temple of ,jupiter ,serapis1 the columns of1 perforated by ,lithodomi1 #djh4 ,terebratula carnea1 #cij4 ----------- semiglobosa1 #chh4 ----------- subrotunda1 #chh4 ,teredo1 #aic1 #daj4 ,tertiary coniferous wood1 #age4 -------- foraminifera1 #cff4 -------- ornitholites1 #gfe4 -------- rocks1 #bd4 -------- zoophytes1 #bgd4 ,tethea1 #bba4 ,tettigonia spumaria1 #eeh4 ,tetrabranchiata1 #ddi1 #dff4 ,tetragonolepis1 #fjd4 ,textularia globulosa1 #cdb1 #ceb4 ,thalictroides ,parisiensis1 #aih4 ------------- ,websteri1 #aih4 ,thames ,river1 #chf4 ,thecodontosaurus1 #gac4 ,thecodont reptiles1 #fdh4 ,thuites ,kurrianus1 #ahj4 ,tilgate ,forest1 ,sussex1 #ge1 #aac1 #aai1 #aei1 #dad1 #dag1 #ecj1 #egh1 #ehj1 #eib1 #fje1 #fjh1 #ffj1 #fgg1 #fha1 #fhg1 #fij1 #gjd1 #gbe1 #gcd1 #ggc1 #gfh4 ,tisbury1 ,wilts1 #bfc1 #dac4 ,toadstone of ,derbyshire1 #hge1 #hgh1 #hic4 ,torbay1 ,devon1 #bei1 #bfb1 #gfd1 #haj1 #haf4 ,torpedo4 #eih4 ,tortoises1 #gbf4 ,touraine1 #dbf4 ,toxaster complanatus1 #cbi4 ,toxoceras ,emericianum1 #dhd4 ,track-marks of bipeds1 #gfh4 -------------- crustaceans1 #edc1 #gdi4 -------------- fishes1 #fcb4 -------------- reptiles1 #gdi4 ,tragos ,farringdoniensis1 #bbi4 ------ peziza1 #bbi4 ,transition series1 #cb4 ,trap of ,crich ,hill1 #hhd1 #hia4 ,travertine1 or tufa1 #dj4 ,trees1 fossil1 dicotyledonous1 #bjc4 -------------1 in the ,coal-measures1 #acf4 --------------------- ,purbeck series1 #afi4 --------------------- ,wealden1 #agj4 -----1 silicified1 in ,australia1 #agj4 --------------------- ,egypt1 #agj1 #bjc4 ,tretosternon ,bakewelli1 #gcg4 ,trevelyan1 ,mr41 fossil upright stems in ,northumberland noticed by1 #abh4 ,trias series1 #bi4 ,triassic mammalian teeth1 #hje4 ,tridactylous imprints1 #gfh1 #ggb4 ,trigonia clavellata1 #cig1 #dab4 -------- costata1 #cig1 #dab4 -------- gibbosa1 #cig1 #dab4 ,trigonocarpum ,nggerathi1 #adi4 ------------- olivforme1 #adi4 ,trilobites1 #ecb4 ----------1 geological distribution of1 #edc4 ,trinucleus ,lloydii1 #ech4 ,trionyx1 #gbg4 ,triplosporite1 #adb4 ,trochites1 #bhd4 ,trochus ziziphinus1 #che4 ,trogontherium1 #hjc4 ,trowbridge1 ,wilts1 #dgi4 ,trunks and stems of fossil cycads1 #aef4 ------ of sigillari with roots1 #abf4 --------- trees1 investigation of1 #fb4 ,tufa or travertine1 #dj1 #hgb4 ,tunbridge ,wells1 #dae1 #ecj4 ,tunicata1 #cge4 ,turban-echinites1 #cac4 ,turbinolia ,knigii1 #beg4 ,turin1 #aih1 #dfc4 ,turner's ,falls1 ,massachusetts1 #gfi4 ,turrilites catenatus1 #dhi4 ---------- costatus1 #dhi4 ---------- tuberculatus1 #dia4 ,turritella conoidea1 #chc4 ,turtles1 #gbf4 ,tuscany1 #hjc4 ,u4 ,ulodendron1 #add1 #ade4 ,under-clays of the coal1 #ha4 ,unio1 #dad4 ,united ,states1 #bef1 #beg1 #cfd1 #cfg1 #cii1 #djj4 ,univalve mollusks1 #cgh1 #dag4 ,upper ,silurian series1 #cc4 ,upright trunks of sigillari1 #abe4 ,ursus arctos1 #haa4 ----- priscus1 #hab4 ----- spelus1 #haa4 ,v4 ,vale of ,wardour1 #eba1 #eeb1 #eef4 ,valley of the ,derwent1 #hhb4 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 #agj4 ,vegetables1 fossil1 #ea4 ----------1 organization of1 #ed4 ,venation of leaves1 #fj1 #fd4 ,venericardia1 #dje4 ,ventnor1 ,isle of ,wight1 #bcj4 ,ventriculites alcyonoides1 #bdg4 ------------- quadrangularis1 #bfg4 ------------- radiatus1 #bdb1 #bdd4 ,venus's fan1 #bfe4 ,verneuilina tricarinata1 #cdb1 #ceb4 ,vertebr of ,fish1 #egd4 ----------- ,ichthyosaur1 #fff4 ----------- ,iguanodon1 #fih4 ----------- ,reptiles1 #fea4 ----------- ,serpents1 #gci4 ,verticellipora anastomosans1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bgc4 ,virginia1 #ig1 #agj4 --------1 fossil microphytes from1 #ig4 ,vis1 ,belgium1 #dei4 ,volcanic rocks1 #ce4 ,volkmannia1 #adf4 ,voltzia1 #ahj4 ,w4 ,waihora ,lake1 ,new ,zealand1 diatomace from1 #ie4 ,wainlode ,cliff1 ,gloucestershire1 #eec4 ,wakebridge1 #hhd4 ,wakefield1 ,col41 researches of1 #gfc4 ,walchia hypnoides1 #agh4 ,waldenburg1 ,silesia1 #aab4 ,walton1 ,essex1 #hag4 ,wandsworth1 #hcg4 ,ward1 ,dr4 ,o41 researches of1 #gab4 ,wareham1 ,dorset1 #bjj4 ,warminster1 ,wilts1 #bca1 #cah4 ,water-rat1 fossil1 #hji4 ,warwick1 #gdb4 ,watchett1 ,somerset1 #dhj4 ,wealden coal1 #gc4 ------- formation1 #bf4 -------1 remains of birds in the1 #gfh4 -------1 tridactylous ichnolites in the1 #ggc4 ,webster1 ,prof41 researches of1 #bb1 #aef1 #bjb4 ,wellington ,valley1 ,australia1 #hjc4 ,wenlock series1 #cc4 --------------1 corals in the1 #beh1 #bfa4 -------1 graptolites in the1 #bee4 ,westbury-on-,avon1 #ebf1 #ehh4 ,western ,lines1 ,isle of ,wight1 #bcj4 ,westphalia1 #fbb1 #fba4 ,westwood1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,o41 researches of1 #edi4 ,wetherell1 ,mr4 ,n4 ,t41 researches of1 #ejh1 #gjh4 ,wetherellia variabilis1 #ahh4 ,weymouth1 #cig4 ,whales1 fossil1 #ggg4 ,whitby1 #gc1 #ajf1 #aab1 #dgg1 #fge1fhb4 ,whitecliff ,bay1 ,isle of ,wight1 #ahe4 ,whittingham1 ,norfolk1 #bcf4 ,whitwick1 #ijb4 ,wiesbaden1 #gff4 ,wiesnau1 #gff4 ,williams1 ,rev4 ,d41 researches of1 #haa4 --------1 ,rev4 ,w41 researches of1 #gfc4 ,williamson1 ,prof41 researches of1 #aee1 #cfc1 #cfg1 #efh1 #fbj4 ,willingdon1 ,sussex1 #aef1 #agc4 ,witham's method of microscopical examination of fossil plants1 #fe4 ,wood1 examination of fossil1 #fe4 ----1 fossil coniferous1 #afg4 ---- perforated by pholades1 #dji4 ------------------ teredines1 #aic1 #daa4 ,woodhouse1 #ija4 ,woodward41 ,mr4 ,s4 ,p41 notes by1 #bcf1 #cag1 #cgi1 #dbe1 #dbf1 #ddg1 #dfb1 #dfc1 #dgi4 --------1 ,manual of ,molluscs by1 #cha1ddi1 #dhc4 ,woolwich1 ,kent1 #cie1 #dbe4 ,worthing1 ,sussex1 #bce1 #dca4 ,wrtemberg1 #cjh1 #dfc1 #gdb1 #hje4 ,wyman1 ,prof4 ,j41 on dendrerpeton1 #gdg4 ---------------1 on ,lepidosteus1 #faf ,x4 ,xanthidium1 #ia4 ,xiphodon1 #gij4 ,y4 ,yorkshire1 #bbf1 #bbg1 #bfh1 #cje1 #dbg1 #dfe1 #dgg1 #eai1 #eie1 #fjh4 --------- oolite1 #bg4 ,z4 ,zami1 #aej4 ,zamites crassus1 #aee4 ------- ,mantelli1 #aed4 ------- ovatus1 #aee4 ------- pectinatus1 #aeb4 -------,sussexiensis1 #aef4 ,zanthopsis ,leachii1 #eab4 ---------- tuberculatus1 #eab4 ,zeuglodon cetoides1 #ggi4 --------- squalodon1 #gha4 ,zoology1 fossil1 #baf4 ,zoophytes1 #bah4 ---------1 distribution of fossil1 #bgc4 ,zulinosprionites latus1 #ahi4 ,,the ,,end4 ,r4 ,,clay1 ,,printer1 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill4 ,transcriber ,note ,some standardization of word usage and formatting was made2 but some of the original variant spellings retained 7ex41 ,m',coy and ,mc,coy74 ,italicizing of species1 publications1 authors1 etc4 was preserved4