,illustration3 ,the ,helmet of a ,commander ,bronze1 silver1 and ivory4 ,greek1 mid-,,vi century ,b4,c4 ,from a ,greek colony at ,metaponto1 ,italy ,,armor ,,and ,,arms ,an elementary handbook and guide to the collection in the ,city ,art ,museum of ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri1 ,u4,s4,a4 by ,thomas ,t4 ,hoopes ,curator of the ,museum ,illustration3 ,state sword1 ,german1 ,augsburg1 ,,xvi century ,st4 ,louis1 ,missouri #aied ,copyright #aied by the ,city ,art ,museum of ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,,preface ,this publication is a guide to the armor and arms in the ,city ,art ,museum of ,st4 ,louis and1 incidentally1 a very elementary introduction to the history of arms and armor in general4 ,the major part of the ,museum's collection1 comprising the ,european armor and arms of the fifteenth1 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 is displayed in a single armor gallery4 ,other specimens are shown with the exhibition of their own special cultures4 ,the ,city ,art ,museum is1 as its name implies1 restricted to objects of art1 to objects which1 independently of their usefulness1 are more or less beautiful by the intention of their makers4 ,there are numerous items in the vast range of armor and arms which do not fill this requirement1 and are purely utilitarian4 ,the ,museum possesses specimens of some of these4 ,as they are not considered objects of art they are not on exhibition1 but have been assembled in a special study collection where they can be seen on application to the ,curator4 ,when individual specimens are illustrated1 they are given1 in the list of illustrations1 their identifying ,museum serial numbers4 ,if a reader fails to find on exhibition any such specimen in which he is interested1 he has only to ask for it by this serial number at the information desk4 ,if its place of exhibition has been changed he will be told where to find it2 if for any reason it has been temporarily removed from exhibition1 arrangements will be made1 if possible1 for him to see it4 ,the subject of armor and arms is neither short nor simple1 and it is quite impossible1 in a publication the size of this one1 to do more than give the barest kind of outline4 ,many points of interest are not discussed in detail1 some technical terms are unexplained1 many fascinating items are not mentioned at all4 ,if the subject interests you1 you will find helpful information in the books listed on page #dc1 most of which will be available at any public library4 ,if specific questions concerning armor and arms are addressed to the ,curator1 ,city ,art ,museum1 ,forest ,park1 ,st4 ,louis #e1 ,missouri1 accompanied by a self-addressed1 stamped envelope1 they will be answered as far as practicable1 but research problems cannot be undertaken4 ,,contents ,list of illustrations viii ,the earliest arms and armor #a ,chain mail #e 8,gothic0 armor #h 8,maximilian0 armor #i ,armor of the late xvi century3 decorated armor #aj ,late armor #af ,questions concerning armor #ah ,middle ,eastern armor #bj ,arms3 striking and cutting weapons #bb ,lances and pole arms #bf ,middle ,eastern edged weapons #bh ,projectile weapons3 bows and crossbows #cj ,projectile weapons3 firearms #cb ,bibliography #dc ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,figure ,acc4 ,no4 ,page ,frontispiece ,helmet1 bronze with silver crest1 #bhb3di ,greek1 mid-,,vi century ,b4,c4 ,title ,page ,state sword1 ,german1 ,augsburg1 ,,xvi #agc3bf century #a ,ceremonial axe blade 7,ch'i71 bronze1 ,chinese1 #cf3ea #a ,an-yang1 ,shang dynasty 7ca4 #aebc-;ca4 #ajbh ,b4,c471 gift of ,j4 ,lionberger ,davis #b ,helmet1 bronze1 ,chinese1 ,shang dynasty 7ca4 #bhc3di #b #aebc-;ca4 #ajbh ,b4,c47 #c ,ceremonial dagger of a shaman1 bronze1 ,siberian #cd3dc #b steppes1 ca4 #ajjj ,a4,d4 #d ,lock of a crossbow1 bronze1 ,chinese1 ,han dynasty #aajf3bj #c 7#bjf ,b4,c4-#bbj ,a4,d471 with model to show operation of interlocking interior parts #e ,disk1 probably the central plate of a shield1 #ea3bb #d bronze1 ,italian1 from ,picenum1 near ,ancona1 ,,vii-,,vi century ,b4,c4 #f ,figure of a warrior1 bronze1 ,etruscan1 ca4 #ejj #dj3ea #d ,b4,c4 ,gift of ,j4 ,lionberger ,davis #g ,ink rubbing of engraved brass plate on tomb of ,sir #g ,roger de ,trumpington1 a ,crusader1 in the church at ,trumpington1 ,cambridgeshire1 ,england #h 8,bishop's mantle0 of chain mail1 ,german or ,swiss1 #hg3ci #g ,,xvi century #i ,salade1 ,gothic1 ,german1 ca4 #adge #eh3ci #h #aj ,full suit of ,maximilian armor1 ,german1 ca4 #aeaj #aga3bf #aj #aa ,breastplate1 ,italian1 ,pisan style1 ca4 #aege #agj3bf #aa #ab ,morion1 ,italian1 ca4 #aefj #cai3be #aa #ac ,closed helmet1 ,german1 ca4 #aege #gi3ci #ab #ad ,tilting helmet1 ,spanish1 ca4 #aehj #ddd3ai #ac #ae ,parade shield1 ,italian1 ,,xvi century #dg3bg #ad #af ,helmet1 ,german1 made for ,hungarian or ,polish market1 #ga3db #ad ,,xvi century #ag ,mitten gauntlet for left hand1 ,english1 ,greenwich #hj3ci #ad school1 second half of ,,xvi century #ah ,parade shield1 wood1 painted1 ,hungarian1 ,,xv century #hh3db #ae #ai ,stirrups1 pair1 bronze gilt1 ,french1 early ,,xvii #ed3bf #af century #ee3bf #bj ,three-quarter suit of armor1 ,south ,german1 ca4 #afbj #agb3bf #ag ,drawings to illustrate methods of attaining flexibility in plate armor3 #ba ,by use of leather straps #ai #bb ,by use of ordinary rivets at pivot points #ai #bc ,by use of rivets and slotted holes1 7so-called #ai ,almain or sliding rivets7 to allow motion in two directions #bd ,breastplate of char aina1 ,persian1 ,ispahan1 ,,xvi-,,xvii #cd3ae #bj century #be ,helmet1 ,persian1 late ,,xvi century #af3bb #ba #bf ,helmet1 ,turkish1 ,,xv century #cf3db #ba #bg ,mace1 ,italian1 second quarter ,,xvi century #bca3bc #bb #bh ,sword1 bronze1 ,chinese1 ,han dynasty 7#bjf ,b4,c4-#bbj #aajh3bj #bb ,a4,d47 #bi ,group of swords1 as displayed #bc #a4 ,state sword1 ,german1 ,,xvi century #agc3bf #b4 ,two-handed landesknecht sword1 ,swiss1 dated #afag #fj3ci #c4 ,swept-hilted rapier1 ,italian1 late ,,xvi century #dcj3ai #d4 ,dress sword1 ,german1 ,saxon1 ca4 #afbj #fb3ci #e4 ,left-hand dagger1 companion to ,no4 #d #fc3ci #f4 ,cup-hilted rapier1 ,italian1 ,,xvii century #di3be #g4 ,left-hand dagger1 ,italo-,spanish1 ,,xvii century #ha3ci #h4 ,cup-hilted rapier1 ,spanish1 ,,xvii century #bcc3bc #cj ,hilt and guard of court sword1 ,italian or ,spanish1 #agd3bf #bd ,,xvii century #ca ,rondel dagger1 ,italian1 ,,xv century #hb3ci #be #cb ,trousse1 ,german1 ,,xvi century #fe3ci #be #cc ,group of spear-type pole arms1 ,,xv-,,xvii centuries #bg #a4 ,ox-tongue pike1 ,austrian1 ,salzburg1 ca4 #aejj #dcc3ai #b4 ,hunting spear1 ,italian1 ,,xvi century #db3ai #c4 ,partisan1 ,italian1 ,,xvi century #dej3ai #d4 ,partisan of ,state ,guard of ,william ,v of ,bavaria1 #afi3bf ca4 #afae #e4 ,partisan of ,state ,guard of ,augustus the ,strong of #aff3bf ,saxony1 ,king of ,poland1 ca4 #aeig #cd ,group of axe-type pole arms1 ,,xv-,,xvii centuries #bh #a4 ,military axe1 ,spanish1 ,,xvi century #dc3ai #b4 ,military axe1 ,italian1 ,,xvi century #dd3ai #c4 ,halberd1 ,swiss1 ,,xv century #fg3ci #d4 ,halberd1 ,north ,italian1 ,,xvi century #dea3ai #e4 ,halberd of ,state ,guard of ,christian ,,ii of ,saxony1 #afg3bf ca4 #aeij #f4 ,halberd of ,state ,guard of the ,princes of #afh3bf ,liechtenstein1 ,,xvii century #ce ,two dagger-knives #bi #a4 ,persian1 ,ispahan1 ,,xvii century #ac3bb #b4 ,persian1 ,shiraz1 ,,xvii century #ad3bb #cf ,sword hilt1 gold1 ,persian1 ,,xiii-,,xiv century #de3bd #bi #cg ,crossbow1 ,flemish1 ,,xv century #da3ai #cj #ch ,prodd1 ,italian1 ,,xvi century #fi3ci #cj #ci ,crossbow and cranequin1 ,swiss1 ,,xvii century #fh3ci #ca #dj ,drawing1 mechanism of cranequin #ca #da ,drawing1 mechanism of crossbow lock #ca #db ,engraving after de ,gheyn1 #afjf3 musketeer about to #ca give fire #dc ,matchlock musket1 ,dutch1 ,,xvii century1 and detail of #cjb3ea #cc its decoration4 ,gift of the ,john ,m4 ,olin ,trust #dd ,wheellock gun1 ,german1 ca4 #aeej and detail of #gd3ci #cd engraved inlays after ,beham #de ,engraving by ,hans ,sebald ,beham1 7#aejj- ca4 #aeej7 #eh3ad #ce ,the ,rape of ,iole #df ,group of hand firearms of the ,,xvii century #cg #a4 ,miguelet lock gun1 ,italian1 ,brescia1 for the #gf3ci ,balearic trade1 by ,lazari ,cominaz1 ,,xvii century #b4 ,wheellock rifle1 ,german1 ,dresden1 by ,martin #ge3ci ,sssebecker 7#aeic-affh71 gunmaker to the ,saxon court1 ca4 #afce #c4 ,wheellock tschinke1 ,german-,silesian1 ,,xvii century #gc3ci #d4 ,wheellock rifle1 ,french1 pinal 7,vosges71 by #gj3ci ,claude ,thomas1 #afbc #d;,a1,b4 ,pair of wheellock pistols4 ,companions to ,no4 #d #ga3ci #gb3ci #e4 ,flintlock pistol1 ,italian1 ,brescia1 by ,lazaro #gg3ci ,lazarino1 ,,xvii century #f4 ,flintlock pistol1 ,italian1 ,brescian1 by ,lazarino #he3ci ,cominazzo2 ,giovanni ,bourgognone1 mid-,,xvii century #dg ,details of decoration of guns3 #ci #a4 ,miguelet lock gun1 ,italian1 ,brescia1 for the #gf3ci ,balearic trade1 signed 8,lazari ,cominaz01 ,,xvii century #b4 ,wheellock rifle1 ,german1 ,dresden1 by ,martin #ge3ci ,sssebecker 7#aeic-affh71 ca4 #afce #c4 ,wheellock tschinke1 ,german-,silesian1 ,,xvii century #gc3ci #dh ,wheellock pistol1 ,italian1 ,brescia1 ca4 #afcj #hd3ci #dj #di ,flintlock powder tester1 ,german1 ca4 #afij #bd3be #dj #ej ,flintlock pistol set 7two brace7 with accessories1 #ahe3db #da ,portuguese1 ,lisbon1 by ,jacinto ,xavier1 #agii #ea ,flintlock repeating pistol1 ,french1 ,paris1 by ,derby1 #dc3ci #db late ,,xviii century ,,the ,,earliest ,,armor ,,and ,,arms ,once upon a time there probably were men who had neither armor nor arms4 ,they did not last long1 for wild animals or other men with stones or sticks in their hands killed them and ate them up4 ,the first men about whom we know anything definite already had weapons of stone4 ,arms and1 later1 armor have accompanied man throughout his history4 ,the first obvious weapons were stones1 roughly shaped to make them more effective4 ,such are not to be found in the ,city ,art ,museum1 but we do have examples of the next type to develop1 the weapons of the bronze age4 ,bronze is a mixture of copper and tin1 and it was invented a very long time ago1 and in many different places4 ,it was known in ancient ,egypt1 in the ,far ,east and in ,europe4 ,two thousand years before ,christ the ,chinese were making bronze arms and domestic and ceremonial objects of all sorts1 and were making them so beautiful that such objects are considered proper exhibits for an art museum4 ,we have a very fine collection of ancient ,chinese bronzes1 exhibited in the ,museum's ,chinese galleries1 and among them are numerous weapons4 ,the earliest include axes and dagger-axes 7,fig4 #a74 ,these date from the ,shang ,dynasty1 7ca4 #aebc-;ca4 #ajbh ,b4,c47 ,this too is the period of a bronze helmet 7,fig4 #b7 in the form of a hood with smooth sides which come down well over the cheeks1 while leaving the front of the face exposed4 ,helmets of almost precisely this form1 but made of steel1 were worn in ,italy in the fifteenth century1 more than two thousand years later6 ,this helmet has a small plume-holder at its very top1 and is peculiar in having1 as its only decoration1 a pair of eyes embossed in relief on the forehead4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,a ,chinese bronze axe more than #cjjj years old1 with a crouching monster in relief4 ,from the ,ordos region of ,siberia1 where a primitive culture lasted for a very long time1 comes a particularly fine ceremonial dagger 7,fig4 #c7 of bronze with inlays of turquoise4 ,from ,china again1 dating throughout the thousand years before ,christ1 come numerous bronze weapons now in the ,museum's ,study ,collection1 including swords1 daggers1 and1 from about the beginning of the ,christian ,era1 most ingenious mechanisms for the crossbow 7,fig4 #d7 a weapon which was not known in ,europe until many centuries later4 ,an ,etruscan grave has yielded the large bronze disk of ,fig4 #e4 ,on stylistic grounds it is believed that this originated not in ,etruria1 but on the other1 ,eastern1 shore of ,italy in ,picenum1 in the second half of the seventh century before ,christ4 ,it was probably the central reinforcement of a large leather shield4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a bronze helmet as old as the axe in ,fig4 #a1 but in form closely resembling ,italian steel helmets of the fifteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,the thin flat-bladed ceremonial bronze dagger of a shaman or sorcerer from the steppes of ,siberia4 ,but of all the specimens of antique armor and arms in this 7and possibly in any other7 museum1 none surpasses the helmet shown in our frontispiece4 ,this helmet1 together with fragments of armor1 a shield rim and a spear point1 all now in the ,museum1 was found in a tomb near ,metaponto1 in ,southern ,italy1 where once there was a ,greek colony4 ,it is believed to date from about the middle of the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,the helmet is of bronze1 the upper part of the bowl formed as the neck and head of a ram4 ,this is surmounted by a great crest of silver1 resting on a support of ivory4 ,the cheek pieces of the helmet have rams' heads in profile embossed in relief4 ,the eyes1 the horns of the main ram's head1 the ivory crest holder and part of the silver crest are restorations1 but enough original fragments of the crest were found with the helmet to indicate exactly how the crest was shaped4 ,moreover the existence of such metallic crests is verified by a bronze statuette of similar origin 7,fig4 #f74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,a crossbow lock two thousand years old1 with a model to show how the parts interlock4 ,an ingenious bit of early mechanical engineering4 ,at first glance1 the helmet proclaims itself a great work of sculpture1 and proves that arms and armor can properly belong in a museum of art4 ,how very well this piece deserves its place here is still more apparent on close examination4 ,it seems incredible that so long ago a craftsman could1 without any of our modern tools1 have formed from a single plate of bronze such a deep and difficult forging as this helmet bowl4 ,it is equally amazing that1 in a period still considered as archaic1 his artistic imagination could have produced so naturalistic yet so noble a rendition of an animal form4 ,the technical skill and taste of the engraving and embossing are also noteworthy3 the suggestion of locks of hair around the forehead1 the eyebrows which terminate as snakes' heads1 the suggestions of skin texture on the rams' heads4 ,it is indeed one of the world's masterpieces of armor4 ,although the ,greeks made their armor out of bronze1 they did have knowledge of iron1 at least as early as the fifth century ,b4,c4 ,but it was extremely difficult for them to prepare1 as they had not yet discovered efficient methods of smelting it from iron ore1 so that what little they had was very precious4 ,it could not be spared for making armor1 but was restricted to edged weapons where a relatively small amount of this hard new metal could be most effective4 ,the ,romans too used iron1 and as their technical skill improved they used more and more of it4 ,after the ,roman empire was overwhelmed by the barbarian hordes from the ,north the making of fine arms languished4 ,it did not cease2 occasionally discoveries are made of beautifully inlaid sword pommels and shield bosses belonging to the so-called 8dark ages04 ,sword blades too turn up occasionally1 skillfully constructed of many layers of alternately hard steel and soft iron1 so that they may retain a keen cutting edge yet still be tough rather than brittle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,embossed bronze disk1 probably the central reinforcement of a leather shield1 from ,picenum1 ,east-,central ,italy1 second half ,,vii century ,b4 ,c4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,an ,etruscan warrior in battle dress4 ,note the rivets on the helmet crest4 7,steel1 you will remember1 is not a separate metal2 it is just iron which contains from about 4#e to about #b4e1 of carbon4 ,this gives it the peculiar property that if it is heated to redness and quickly cooled1 it becomes much harder than before4 ,it also becomes more brittle4 ,if hardened steel be heated a second time1 not red hot but to a much lower temperature1 and again chilled1 the hardness is reduced somewhat1 while the brittleness is reduced a great deal2 the metal becomes tough and suitable for making into tools4 ,this second heating and chilling is called 8tempering04 ,contrary to popular belief1 8to temper0 steel does not mean 8to make it harder04 ,it means 8to make fully hardened steel somewhat softer and much tougher04 ,if the iron has too much or too little carbon it cannot be hardened at all2 if there is too little it is very soft and malleable and is called 8wrought iron04 ,if there is too much carbon it is harder than mild steel1 but is very brittle indeed2 this is called 8cast iron047 ,,chain ,,mail ,except for the rare finds just mentioned1 we know little about the armor and arms of the period from the fall of ,rome to about the twelfth century4 ,the paintings1 drawings1 and statues which have survived suggest1 but give no clear information4 ,we have reason to believe that armor was made of small plates of iron attached to cloth or leather garments1 or of chain mail1 a fabric made of interlinked rings of iron wire4 ,towards the end of this period we know that chain mail was extensively employed1 for it often appears1 especially in ,england1 on the engraved brass plates attached to the tombs of important people of the time 7,fig4 #g74 ,the ,museum has a small collection of paper impressions of these 8brasses0 which are well worthy of study by anyone interested in early armor4 ,some are exhibited on the walls of the armor gallery4 ,chain mail is more interesting than it appears at first glance1 and the ,museum's specimens deserve to be looked at carefully4 ,in the first place1 it was made of wire4 ,nowadays wire is so common that we think nothing of it2 it is produced by the mile with automatic machinery4 ,but in medieval times wire was scarce and valuable1 for every bit of it had to be made by hand4 ,at first this was done with the hammer3 a billet of iron was pounded with a hammer held in one hand1 while the other kept the billet rotating so that its diameter became less and less until it was small enough to be made up into links of mail4 ,of course1 only short bits of wire could be made in this way and the diameter was naturally irregular4 ,it was slow and tedious work1 but the earliest mail was so made4 ,later it was found that a rod of iron could be pulled by tongs through a hole in a hardened steel plate1 thus reducing its diameter and giving it a uniform thickness4 ,by drawing it through a number of holes of progressively smaller diameter1 the wire could be made quite thin and entirely uniform4 ,then such wire could be wound in a coil around an iron rod1 and the coil then cut lengthwise with a chisel or saw giving a large number of links all of the same size4 ,all later chain mail was so made4 ,such links were interlaced1 each link with four others1 to form a fabric much like that of a lady's mesh bag4 ,however1 if the ends of the links were simply brought together the fabric would not be very strong4 ,an arrow or dagger point could easily spread open a link1 and penetrate to the wearer's body4 ,so all good chain mail was strengthened by having the ends of every link overlapped1 slightly flattened1 and then riveted4 ,in that part of the world we now call 8,middle ,east0--where the ,mohammedan and ,hindu cultures flourished--the rivet was a separate piece of fine wire4 ,european chain mail is more of a mystery--principally because there is so very little old ,european chain mail still in existence4 ,the probability is that a separate rivet was used as in the ,eastern mail1 but that its insertion was more skillfully performed4 ,however1 some scholars feel that ,european chain mail was welded or was riveted by a swaging process1 that a special tool in the form of tongs or a pair of dies forced a small part of the lower end of the link of chain mail through a slit in the upper end and then riveted it over4 ,careful microscopical research on sections of links of mail could doubtless solve this problems1 but who wants to cut off links from a rare and precious genuine1 documented piece8 ,as yet it may be said that no such ingenious swaging tool has been discovered1 nor have we any unquestionably contemporary illustrations which would prove this theory4 ,in places where special strength was required1 as around the throat1 the rings were made of the same size but of heavier wire1 which was flattened by hammering in the neighborhood of the rivet4 ,in this way the overlapping of the rings became so close that not even a needle could penetrate the fabric 7,fig4 #h74 ,in other cases1 unflattened rings were used1 but strands of leather were drawn through the rows1 giving additional rigidity and protection4 ,it is believed that this practice accounts for the appearance of what is known as 8banded mail0 in numerous monuments and engraved brasses4 ,chain mail was a good protection against cuts and stabs1 but it had a number of serious disadvantages4 ,in the first place1 it was expensive4 ,even the most skillful armorer could make it but slowly4 ,the mail cape of ,fig4 #h contains about #dd1bce links1 each separately forged and riveted2 some complete coats of mail contain over #bjj1jjj6 ,forgeries of antique chain mail are practically non-existent1 for they would cost more to make than genuine specimens1 rare as they are1 would be worth today4 ,again1 chain mail was very easily attacked by rust1 and1 once it was rusted1 was most difficult to clean4 7,the usual way was to put a rusted mail shirt in a barrel with some oily sawdust and to set an apprentice to rolling the barrel around for hour after hour47 ,consequently very little early mail is left--most of it just rusted away to nothing4 ,it was heavy and uncomfortable1 for the whole weight hung from the shoulders4 ,but its worst disadvantage lay in its flexibility4 ,it would resist a cut1 but was of little protection against a blow4 ,to make it of any use in battle against heavy swords1 maces1 and battle axes it was necessary to wear beneath it a very heavily padded garment which1 of course1 was hot4 ,how the ,crusaders in their chain mail must have sweated in the hot sun of the ,holy ,land6 ,and how many mail-clad knights must have been pounded to death without necessarily losing one drop of blood6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,an ink rubbing taken from the engraved brass plate on the tomb of ,sir ,roger de ,trumpington1 an ,english knight who died in #abhi4 ,note the complete suit of chain mail1 the supplementary knee defenses and big pot helmet attached by a chain1 the cloth surcoat1 and the shield with his punning badge of a trumpet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,cape of chain mail1 with extra wide links at the collar1 and ornamental links of brass around the lower edge4 ,to protect against blows1 therefore1 it became necessary to produce a rigid protection4 ,the primitive state of iron metallurgy did not permit the making of more than small pieces of iron at a time4 ,nevertheless1 iron head coverings were already in use by the eleventh century1 and from that time on pieces of plate armor increased in size and number4 ,after the head defense1 the most vulnerable part of a rider's body 7for remember that only knights could afford mail1 and knights fought on horseback7 was the knees4 ,have you ever had a really hard bump on the kneecap1 and1 if you remember one1 should you have liked to go on fighting just after receiving it8 ,the knight represented in the brass of ,fig4 #g1 who died in #abhi1 wears knee-guards1 and rests his head on his great 8pot-helm01 which was normally attached to his body by a chain1 so that it could not easily be lost if he took it off to get a breath of air4 ,the ,city ,art ,museum has no specimens of plate armor of this early period4 8,,gothic0 ,,armor ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,a helmet called a salade3 made like a deep salad bowl1 with a slit to see through4 ,during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries it became the fashion to wear a long cloth garment1 called a surcoat1 over armor4 ,pictures and statues of this period show armored figures only with such surcoats1 and it is1 therefore1 impracticable to follow the exact development of the pieces of plate armor which were added to reinforce the chain mail4 ,by the beginning of the fifteenth century complete outfits of plate armor were in use1 but the earliest surviving suits of the so-called 8,gothic0 armor date from about #adfj4 ,they are exceedingly rare4 ,the ,city ,art ,museum possesses only a gauntlet of about #adej and a helmet 7,fig4 #i7 from about #adge1 yet we feel lucky to have these two pieces1 for 8,gothic0 armor is not only rare3 it is very beautiful4 ,it was at this period that armorers did their best work1 from every standpoint4 ,it was best metallurgically1 with inner surfaces of pure soft iron1 but with outer surfaces skillfully converted into almost glass-hard steel4 ,it was best functionally1 for its simple clean curved lines were admirably designed to turn a blow harmlessly aside1 with no unnecessary decorative forms to catch descending edge or point4 ,it was best artistically 7as is usually the case with things that function perfectly71 depending for beauty on its own pure sculptural lines rather than on extraneous ornament4 ,the helmet of ,fig4 #i is of a type called salade4 ,it is a simple steel hat1 like that of a modern soldier1 and originally had a padded lining4 ,unlike the modern military helmet1 however1 it covers the head down to the end of the nose2 there is a narrow slit in front of the eyes which permits surprisingly good vision while leaving the eyes quite well protected4 ,the lines of this helmet are clean and elegant1 typical of the 8,gothic0 style4 ,this type of helmet was often worn in combination with an upstanding guard for the lower part of the face which was attached to the top of the neck-defense4 ,the lower edge of the helmet overlapped the upper edge of this face-guard2 thus the entire face was protected1 yet the wearer had reasonable ventilation and could obtain more when circumstances permitted by taking off his helmet4 8,,maximilian0 ,,armor ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century the most important single personality in ,europe was probably ,king 7later ,emperor7 ,maximilian ,i of ,germany and ,austria4 ,a contemporary of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 he lived at a time when versatility was one of the characteristics of an educated man1 and as sovereign he set his subjects a good example in this respect4 ,he wrote books on genealogy1 hunting and woodsmanship1 horse breeding1 architecture1 and landscape gardening4 ,he was greatly interested in arms and armor1 and frequently visited his court armorer in his workshop4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that he had a great influence on the design of armor1 and that the new and sharply different fashion which appeared at this time became known as the 8,maximilian04 ,it was characterized by parallel1 or almost parallel1 fluting1 especially on breastplate and thigh guards1 by broad-toed foot guards 7sollerets7 as compared with the long pointed toes of the ,gothic period1 and by strongly roped edges of the plates4 ,the ,city ,art ,museum has an excellent suit of ,maximilian armor 7,fig4 #aj74 ,the breastplate1 thigh guards 7tassets7 and main shell of the helmet illustrate the characteristic flutings1 while the sollerets are fully developed ,maximilian style4 ,the suit was made in ,nuremberg in the first quarter of the sixteenth century1 and was formerly in the armory of ,prince ,liechtenstein4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,a full suit of ,maximilian armor from the early sixteenth century4 ,,armor ,,of ,,the ,,late ,,xvi ,,century3 ,,decorated ,,armor ,by the middle of the sixteenth century the techniques of the armorer were fully developed4 ,from the smelters he was able to obtain iron in good-sized lumps1 and he had learned so to weld it as to produce plates of any desired size4 ,he could keep it soft and malleable or could add minute amounts of carbon and thus convert it into steel1 which he could1 by heat treatment1 give any desired degree of hardness4 ,he no longer bothered to harden the surface of his breastplate and helmets to the glassy hardness which was the pride of the ,gothic armorers1 but he made good1 reasonably homogeneous mild steel which was hard enough for sword or dagger blades1 yet tough enough to avoid brittleness4 ,he could hammer his metal into even the most fantastic shapes1 could color or gild it1 or could inlay it with precious metals4 ,armorers began to vie with one another to produce magnificent and elaborate armor2 many and strange were the results4 ,instead of only one kind of armor1 as in the past1 there were three3 military1 tournament and parade armor4 ,in the military armor1 intended for actual fighting1 taste was usually conservative4 ,extravagances1 such as excessively wide or narrow sollerets1 over-elaborate elbow guards1 or extremely large shoulder guards1 were avoided4 ,a moderate amount of decoration was considered quite permissible1 provided it did not lessen the functionality of the armor2 such decoration most frequently was in the form of etching4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,a breastplate decorated with etched ornament against a black background4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,a morion with etched decoration4 ,handsome1 but rather top-heavy4 ,although we are accustomed to think of etching primarily in connection with pictures on paper1 the process seems to have originated with the armorers4 ,they would take a helmet or breastplate1 paint it all over with a heavy acid-proof varnish1 scratch a design through this varnish with a sharp needle1 then place the metal in a bath of acid4 ,the acid would eat away the steel where the varnish had been scratched1 but not elsewhere4 ,after the plate had been taken from the acid and the varnish removed1 the etched part would show dark against the polished surface of the steel4 ,this contrast could be heightened by rubbing in a little black pigment1 and the early armorers discovered that they could readily keep a record of their work or a sample sheet to show other customers1 by simply placing a piece of paper against the etched and blackened surface and rubbing it4 ,the fresh black would stick to the paper1 giving a clear impression of the etched design4 ,masters of etching like ,rembrandt used and modern etchers still use essentially the same process4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,a closed helmet with etching4 ,though heavier1 it is more comfortable than ,fig4 #ab1 since its weight rests partly on the shoulders4 ,the ,museum has a number of good examples of etched armor4 ,in ,fig4 #aa we see a breastplate with etched designs of military trophies and mythological figures4 ,fig4 #ab shows a helmet1 formerly in the collections of the ,baron de ,cosson and ,henry ,g4 ,keasbey1 of the type called morion1 with an exceedingly high comb and similar etched decoration4 ,fig4 #ac shows a typical closed helmet of the mid-sixteenth century4 ,like the morion1 it has a high1 elaborately etched comb4 ,the wearer's face was protected by two plates1 an upper one called the vizor1 which has a narrow horizontal slit for vision like the salade described on page #i1 and a lower called the ventail which has holes and vertical slits for ventilation4 ,both are pivoted at the ears1 so that the vizor could be raised alone or vizor and ventail together1 yet at the appearance of danger both could be snapped down into position with a single sweep of the gauntleted hand4 ,the etching on this helmet shows floral arabesques and leaping stags against a background1 not blackened1 but gilt4 ,such gilding was done by rubbing the freshly etched surface with a mixture of gold and mercury1 then heating the metal to evaporate the mercury and leave behind the gold firmly attached to the steel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,a heavy helmet especially designed for the tournament4 ,the man who wore this was about as safe as armor could make him4 ,tournament armor1 used in the toughest1 most exciting sport that man has ever invented1 was worn for comparatively short periods of time1 and could1 therefore1 be considerably heavier than the military armor which a man might have to wear continuously4 ,decoration on the armor itself was reduced to a minimum1 although elaborate trappings of cloth and feathers were often added to it4 ,fig4 #ad shows a helmet for use in a form of tournament conducted according to ,italian rules1 in which the contestants were separated by a fence which prevented their horses from colliding1 thus permitting unrestricted speed of attack4 ,the helmet is very solid and sturdy1 with plain polished surfaces to deflect the opposing lance-point4 ,notice the circular hollow rim at the neck4 ,this closed over an outward-turned rim on the throat defense 7colletin7 so that although the helmet could be turned to either side following the motion of the wearer's head1 it could not separate from the body armor at the throat and leave an opening for hostile spear or sword point4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,a parade shield1 etched and gilded4 ,italian1 ,,xvi century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,a parade helmet1 probably made in ,germany for the ,hungarian or ,polish market4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,a gauntlet of solid steel which is almost as flexible as chamois skin4 ,parade armor was the lightest yet the most elaborate of all4 ,not intended for actual combat in either war or sport1 it did not require the fundamental functionality of the other types2 the armorers were free to follow their fancy and make the decoration as elaborate as they pleased4 ,all methods were used4 ,etching and gilding were extensive and in addition the metal was embossed or chased in the most fanciful forms4 ,in addition to the flat mercury gilding1 gold was applied by the damascene process1 either the 8true0 damascene in which plates or wires of gold 7or silver7 were actually inlaid into undercut grooves in the steel much as a dentist would fill a tooth1 or the 8false0 damascene in which the precious metal was applied in the form of foil and rubbed onto the steel surface which had previously been roughened by tool work to produce innumerable tiny sharp points which could be burnished down to hold the foil firmly in place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,a painted shield for a pageant or fancy-dress parade4 ,hungarian1 ,,xv century4 ,specimens of the simpler parade armor1 with etched and gilded ornament against a background colored a warm brown1 are the shield shown in ,fig4 #ae and the helmet of ,fig4 #af4 ,a mitten-gauntlet of the second half of the sixteenth century from the ,clarence ,mackay collection and formerly from the ,imperial ,russian ,collection in the ,hermitage ,museum of ,st4 ,petersburg 7,fig4 #ag7 is an example of the work of the ,british ,royal ,armory at ,greenwich1 which made numerous finely decorated suits of armor for the nobles of the court of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,this gauntlet is a magnificent specimen of engineering skill as applied to the design of armor2 its construction allows complete freedom to the wrist1 knuckle1 and finger joints1 yet keeps the hand perfectly protected in any position4 ,the gauntlet is decorated with an etched design of rising eagles in interlaced medallions against a dotted background2 the latter is partly black1 partly gilded4 ,an entirely different type of parade armor is the shield of ,fig4 #ah4 ,it is made of wood1 covered on the inside with leather1 on the outside with canvas painted with a small coat of arms and a large representation of two unarmored men in mortal combat4 ,this shield also was formerly in the ,clarence ,h4 ,mackay collection4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,these stirrups are made of carved bronze1 completely gilded4 ,another example of parade equipment in a different medium is a pair of stirrups 7,fig4 #ai7 made of bronze and elaborately carved and gilded4 ,they were formerly in the ,spitzer collection4 ,,late ,,armor ,as the sixteenth century drew to a close armor began to deteriorate4 ,no single influence was responsible4 ,do not think that firearms were invented and armor was therefore suddenly made obsolete4 ,as a matter of fact1 firearms were in use before plate armor really received general acceptance1 and firearms were in use all the time that plate armor was being worn in ,europe4 ,but the gradual improvement in the efficiency of firearms undoubtedly caused armor to be made heavier and heavier1 and thereby contributed greatly to its decline4 ,for just when armor was thus increasing in weight there developed a new school of cavalry tactics based upon the use of lightly armed troopers on fast horses who1 instead of directly attacking the enemy1 could dash around his flank and cut off his supplies from the rear4 ,the tendency was1 therefore1 to make the armor light and very flexible1 directly contrary to the need for solid1 bullet-stopping protection4 ,even fashion had a deteriorating effect on armor4 ,fig4 #bj shows a late suit of armor which has a multitude of small plates to give extreme flexibility1 and has extra wide leg protectors to cover the extravagant wide-topped trousers which were then the vogue4 ,but what a clumsy suit this is compared to the ,maximilian suit of ,fig4 #aj6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 8,three-quarter0 suit of armor for a young ,german of the early ,,xvii century4 ,during the seventeenth century armor shrank away piece by piece1 much as a tired soldier might have been tempted to discard it on a long march4 ,the choking face defenses vanished from the helmet4 ,the sollerets went1 then the shin guards or greaves1 then the thigh guards4 ,the arm guards were discarded1 then the gauntlets4 ,finally the armored man was left with only breastplate1 backplate1 and helmet1 and even these deteriorated in the following century into the decorative but inefficient trappings of the cuirassier4 ,the two world wars1 with their steel helmets and flak suits 7the design of which was strongly influenced by ancient models7 have revived the use of armor1 but it is a machine-made product and1 well-designed though it be1 must be considered a reproduction rather than an original work of art4 ,,questions ,,concerning ,,armor ,let us turn back to the armor of the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries1 and consider some of the questions which naturally arise in our minds as we contemplate these relics of the past4 ,in the first place1 was it practical8 ,how could men possibly wear such a mass of metal upon their bodies and engage in long military campaigns1 interspersed with violent battles8 ,isn't it true that an armored man1 once fallen1 could not get up again until he was hoisted with a derrick8 ,no1 that isn't true4 ,the comical scenes in the moving pictures of frustrated knights floundering about in search of hoisting engines were put in strictly for laughs4 ,armor was practical2 it was worn by about all the most important men of more than three centuries2 if they had not worn it they would not have lived long enough to become important6 ,as a matter of fact armor is not as heavy as one might think4 ,a good military suit weighs no more than the pack carried by a modern soldier1 sixty pounds or less1 and is a great deal more comfortable to carry4 ,the pack hangs from the shoulders1 but a good suit of armor1 carefully made 7as all good armor had to be made7 to fit the individual body of the wearer1 has its weight distributed over the entire body4 ,the helmet rests partly on the head and partly on the shoulders4 ,the breast and backplates rest partly on the shoulders and partly on the hips4 ,the arm and leg guards are laced to the special undergarment which had always to be worn with armor1 and each limb supports its own protection4 ,the joints come at exactly the right places to correspond with the natural motions of the body1 and every one of these motions is provided for4 ,a man wearing a properly fitting suit of armor over the correct undergarment could do anything that a modern man can do wearing a winter overcoat1 and probably1 due to his special training1 a number of things that the modern man could not4 ,he could certainly walk1 run1 climb a wall1 lie down and get up quickly1 and mount his horse without help4 ,to test the truth of these statements and the implications of the romantic novels of the past1 the writer donned a suit of armor which fitted him only approximately1 yet found himself able to perform all the actions above mentioned and1 in addition1 to descend two stories on a rope1 hand under hand4 ,two particular devices aided in making such flexibility possible4 ,where the body needed protection combined with motility it could be covered with a series of narrow1 overlapping steel strips1 each of which was riveted in turn to one or more leather straps1 the ends of which were fastened to the solid main defense4 ,then as the body was flexed the steel strips or lames would slide over one another without exposing the body beneath them 7,fig4 #ba74 ,it was also possible to join a series of lames by not more than two rivets for each pair2 these would act as pivots1 allowing one lame to rotate slightly relative to the other 7,fig4 #bb74 ,however1 if rivets were used with rather large heads with a washer under the burred end of each1 and if the holes for the rivet in one lame were round while that in the other had the form of a slot1 in addition to the pivoting motion1 a certain amount of sideways motion between the lames would be possible 7,fig4 #bc74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,the leathering of a tasset1 from the inside4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,the pivot rivets of a solleret4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,the wrist plates of a gauntlet with sliding 7,almain7 rivets4 ,who wore armor8 ,every man who could afford it4 ,armor was always very much of a luxury4 ,its making required the services of consummate craftsmen1 men who were not only expert metal workers1 but also skilled draughtsmen1 expert tailors1 and keen students of human anatomy4 ,armorers were the aristocrats of all mediaeval craftsmen1 the most highly respected and by far the best paid4 ,it required a great deal of their time2 the completion of a full suit of armor might take a year or more4 ,armor was1 therefore1 in the class of the modern automobile4 ,a wealthy monarch might have a large wardrobe of beautifully decorated armor1 as a millionaire to-day owns a fleet of expensive imported motor cars4 ,a simple knight would be proud to possess a single suit1 plain1 but nevertheless made exactly to fit him and no other person4 ,a minor soldier was lucky if he could secure a simple ready-made breastplate and helmet4 ,what was the physical character of the men who wore armor8 ,why do the suits seem so small8 ,were people smaller in those days8 ,yes and no4 ,it is true that the nature of their life tended to develop men of the cowboy type1 wiry rather than massive4 ,men who spend their lives on horseback are likely to have a broad shoulder and narrow waist1 strong thigh and slender calf4 ,it is true too that with primitive medicine and sanitation man died young2 the average age of adult males was less than it is now4 ,however the principal reason for the small average size of preserved suits of armor lies in its inextensibility4 ,a suit of armor cannot be 8let out04 ,as has been pointed out1 it had to be made exactly to fit the wearer4 ,men had to learn their military duties very young1 they had to have and to wear armor while they were still growing4 ,consequently they usually outgrew their first suit of armor1 and it was this suit1 unmarked by the scars of serious fighting1 which was most likely to be preserved4 ,by the time a man reached his full growth his armor showed wear and tear2 when he died he was buried in it1 or it was discarded after his death as too battered to be worth keeping4 ,the suits of armor in the world's collections are largely the outgrown suits of young men4 ,,middle ,,eastern ,,armor ,in addition to the armor of ,europe1 consideration should be given to that of the ,middle ,east1 of which the ,city ,art ,museum displays a number of fine specimens in a special gallery4 ,armor was worn in ,persia and in ,india long after it had been abandoned in ,europe2 it is even possible that among isolated tribes armorers may still be plying their trade4 ,however1 as in ,europe1 the later work tended to deteriorate1 and the earlier an ,eastern armor is1 the better will it probably be4 ,the ,indian and ,persian smiths had two specialties3 ,damascus steel and damascened steel1 which are often and not unnaturally confused1 both having presumably originated at ,damascus4 ,damascene work has already been described on page #ae2 both the 8true0 and the 8false0 variety were practised throughout the ,middle ,east4 ,damascus steel1 on the other hand1 is a type of metal especially suitable for armor and sword blades1 made by the intimate combination1 in innumerable layers1 of two kinds of metal1 one extremely hard1 the other soft and tough4 ,as billets of this composite steel were twisted1 bent1 and reformed1 the superimposed layers made intricate patterns like those in watered silk4 ,such ,damascus steel patterns can be best observed in sword and dagger blades like those illustrated in ,fig4 #ce1 page #bi4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,this is the breastplate of a ,persian suit of armor4 ,the buckles are for the straps which attach the side and back plates4 ,the ,persian armorers did not follow the ,european custom of forging body armor exactly to fit the wearer1 but instead made the principal defense of four rectangular plates known as char aina or 8the four mirrors04 ,two were worn as breast- and backplate respectively1 the other two1 made concave on the upper edge1 were worn at the sides1 the concavity fitting under the arm4 ,chain mail was always used in the ,east1 even more extensively than in ,europe1 to protect all areas of the body not covered by the char aina or other defenses of solid plate4 ,fig4 #bd shows a plate of such a four-piece armor4 ,it is made of fine ,damascus steel 7the pattern is too fine to show in the photograph71 and is decorated with damascene inlay of floral arabesques in gold4 ,this is work of the late sixteenth or early seventeenth century1 and combines adequate functionality with oriental elegance4 ,a ,persian helmet 7,fig4 #be7 of the same period shows skillful forging of the fluted ornament4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,the chain mail which now looks rather ragged originally hung evenly around the rim of this ,persian helmet4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,although corroded1 this fifteenth century ,turkish helmet demonstrates the wonderful skill of ,middle ,eastern armorers4 ,but the helmet in ,fig4 #bf1 probably a century or more earlier1 shows a much greater appreciation of sculptural form4 ,with a row of parallel vertical flutings around its domed upper part1 it resembles closely the ,maximilian armor of contemporary ,europe4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if many ,european smiths could have forged the minaret-like pinnacle which terminates the dome4 ,the helmet is decorated with damascene work of silver in calligraphic inscriptions and arabesques4 ,its owner's neck was protected by chain mail attached around the lower edge of the helmet4 ,probably because of the warmer climate1 the ,saracenic warriors never adopted the closed helmet of ,european lands1 but preferred to leave the face exposed1 or protected only by a nasal bar which was often so arranged that it could be slid upwards and clamped4 ,,arms3 ,,striking ,,and ,,cutting ,,weapons ,man's first weapon was probably a club1 and the simple club has always retained a certain popularity4 ,even in the middle of the sixteenth century1 when arms of all kinds attained great elaboration1 the mace1 or short one-handed club1 was the accepted weapon of military men in holy orders who1 forbidden to shed blood1 found no such prohibition against the bloodless cracking of skulls4 ,fig4 #bg shows such a mace1 of heavy steel1 carved and gilded1 a formidable though beautiful weapon4 ,related arms are short-handled military axes and hammers4 ,but the accepted symbol of man as a fighting creature has always been the sword1 and the sword1 perhaps more than any other item of man's warlike panoply1 has experienced the full range of his artistic and technical initiative4 ,space does not here permit a discussion of the innumerable types of swords2 only a brief resum of the general development can be given4 ,this is supplemented by a display of some typical forms along one side wall of the armor gallery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,a mace or one-handed club1 made of steel carved and gilded4 ,a beautiful implement for smashing heads6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,a ,chinese bronze sword from about the time of ,christ4 ,not very sharp1 but it could still do quite a lot of damage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,typical swords of the sixteenth-seventeenth centuries1 as displayed in the armor gallery4 ,stone ,age man could not make any true swords1 for the flint and obsidian which he had to use were too brittle to be available in large pieces4 ,but bronze could be cast into swords both effective and beautiful4 ,a number of ,chinese bronze sword blades from the ,han ,dynasty 7#bjf ,b4,c4-#bbj ,a4,d47 7,fig4 #bh7 are available in the study collection4 ,they are rather short1 double edged blades1 adapted primarily for thrusting1 but not without cutting ability too4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans used swords of rather similar form1 and also another type which tended to broaden near the point1 bringing the weight forward and adding impetus to both the thrust and the cut4 ,mention has already been made1 7p4 #d71 of the rare but beautiful swords of the dark ages1 made in whole or in part of laminated metal resembling the ,damascus steel of the ,middle ,east1 7cf4 p4 #bj74 ,such swords were carried by the ,vikings who harried the coast of ,britain and extended their voyages even to ,north ,america4 ,these swords had long1 straight1 symmetrically double-edged blades1 a short hilt1 and a short crossbar guard between blade and hilt4 ,they were very powerful in a downward slash1 but too heavy to be manipulated easily as thrusting weapons4 ,by the fifteenth century the crossbar and the hilt had become longer1 giving the weapon a better balance1 but the general character of the arm remained the same4 ,with the longer hilt1 both hands could be used1 considerably increasing the power of the weapon 7,fig4 #bi #a1 also title page illustration74 ,this tendency continued in the sixteenth century until it culminated in the enormous two-handed swords used by the professional mercenary soldiers1 or landesknechts 7,fig4 #bi #b74 ,such swords were over five feet long1 with immense drooping guards and long leather-wrapped hilts4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,how many figures are carved in the solid steel of this court sword hilt8 ,illustration3 ,court sword hilt ,as the sixteenth century advanced1 sword blades became narrower1 lighter1 and more adapted for thrusting1 while guards developed rings and curved knuckle-guards to protect the out-thrust hand 7,fig4 #bi #d1 #c74 ,the new method of fighting had definite advantages over the old slashing system1 which required the sword to be raised high1 exposing the body1 before a blow could be struck1 and soon the thrusting sword1 or rapier1 was used everywhere4 ,the system of rings which formed the guard grew more complicated and finally coalesced into a solid metal cup1 which completely shielded the hand within it 7,fig4 #bi #f1 #h74 ,sometimes a dagger 7,fig4 #bi #e1 #g7 was held in the left hand to parry the opponent's sword blade1 but eventually this was abandoned and fencers learned to parry with the rear portion of their own blades1 before making a second thrust 7riposte7 with the point4 ,action grew faster and faster1 and swords lighter and more manageable1 until by the seventeenth century the customary weapon was the court sword1 with a short1 single-handed hilt1 a small flat guard often magnificently decorated in chiselled steel1 and a relatively short1 light blade having a needle-like point1 and often without any sharp cutting edge at all 7,fig4 #cj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,a rondel dagger with a silver handle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,an outfit for a hunter3 dagger1 knife1 awl1 and larding needle1 all fitting into one scabbard4 ,in addition to the sword1 the dagger was often used as a supplementary weapon which could still be carried for self-protection when courtesy or convenience made the wearing of a sword impracticable4 ,daggers were made in a number of special shapes1 varying with changes of fashion4 ,in the fifteenth century two popular forms were the rondel dagger 7,fig4 #ca7 which had guard and pommel in the form of disks1 and the kidney dagger 7then known by a less-printable name and worn1 with the naive exhibitionism of pre-,victorian days1 directly below the belt buckle7 which had a straight1 simple hilt and a short guard of ball-like form4 ,italians of the sixteenth century liked the anelace1 with its drooping guard and short1 wide1 sharply tapering blade4 ,mention has already been made of the left-hand daggers of the seventeenth century4 ,the stiletto1 without a guard other than a short cross-bar1 was also popular at this time4 ,hunters and landesknechts often carried a complete outfit of small tools in the scabbard with their dagger2 such a trousse 7,fig4 #cb7 was very convenient when preparing freshly-killed venison for the cook or when eating around a camp fire4 ,,lances ,,and ,,pole ,,arms ,the chief arm of the mounted knight was the lance1 a weapon having a long and often quite heavy wooden shaft and a steel point4 ,near the butt its diameter was reduced to provide a comfortable hand grip1 and just in front of this grip there was applied a vamplate or conical hand guard of steel4 ,behind the grip there was attached a thick iron ring called a graper1 which1 when the lance was in use1 rested against the hook or lance-rest projecting from the right side of the knight's breastplate4 ,the graper thus served as a thrust bearing1 and put directly behind the point of the lance the entire momentum of horse and rider4 ,when such a projectile made a direct hit upon an opponent something had to give4 ,either the opponent was knocked completely off his horse1 or his back was broken1 or the lance was shattered4 ,foot soldiers also employed arms with long wooden shafts1 of which by far the commonest was the pike1 which had a very simple steel point and butt ferrule respectively on the ends of a slender rod of wood about fourteen feet long4 ,this was the arm of the great bodies of mercenary infantry which did so much of the fighting of the seventeenth century4 ,a company of such men1 formed into a square or circle1 the front rank kneeling1 the second standing1 and both holding their pikes with the butts against the ground and the points projecting outward1 was almost invulnerable to cavalry1 whose horses would not charge against the forest of pike-points4 ,the one effective maneuver against them was for some of the cavalry to dismount and attack swinging great two-handed swords1 which could beat down the pike points and allow the cavalry to ride in4 ,lance and pike were simple utilitarian tools2 few have survived4 ,but there are other pole arms1 from the fifteenth century on1 which offered more opportunity to individual taste in form and decoration2 a number of these are present in the ,museum's collection4 ,some 7,fig4 #cc7 were developments of the simple spear point1 as for example 7#a7 the type called an ox-tongue or 7#b7 a boar spear provided with a toggle to prevent a wounded animal from charging right up the shaft of the weapon which transfixed him4 ,in 7#c71 now a well-developed partisan1 the toggle has been replaced by a projecting spur at each side of the base4 ,in 7#d7 these spurs have become large and ornamental1 the weapon is decorated with etching1 and has become a ceremonial object rather than a weapon for actual fighting4 7#e7 is a partisan of the state guard of ,augustus the ,strong1 ,elector of ,saxony and ,king of ,poland 7#afig-agcc71 and is even more noticeably designed for display purposes only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,spear-type pole arms1 ,,xv-,,xvii centuries4 ,developing from a simple tool for stabbing to a decorated badge of office4 ,other pole arms are developments of the axe4 ,military axes 7,fig4 #cd #a1 #b7 had handles somewhat shorter than those of pikes1 spears or partisans but longer than the short-handled axes used on horseback4 ,they were particularly popular for use in judicial combats or 8trial by battle04 ,each contestant in a law suit would swear to the truth of his claim1 and call upon ,god to prove its truth4 ,the two men1 armed with such axes1 would fight until one was killed or driven out of the ring4 ,the victor was thus proven to have told the truth1 while the unsuccessful contestant1 if still alive1 was executed for perjury4 ,such axes1 capable of defending the right1 were made with special care1 and were highly valued by their surviving owners4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,axe-type pole arms1 ,,xv-,,xvii centuries4 ,the earlier ones1 at the left1 were used in judicial duels1 the later1 at the right1 were held by warders of the doors of princes4 ,axes with longer shafts were known as halberds1 and were usually provided with a sharpened hook at the back of the axe blade to permit a man on foot to catch and cut the bridle rein of an attacking horseman4 ,like the partisans1 halberds developed from plain functional military types1 7,fig4 #cd #c1 #d7 of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries respectively to highly decorated types carried as badges of authority by the state guards of ,christian ,,ii of ,saxony 7,fig4 #cd #e7 and of the ,princes of ,liechtenstein 7,fig4 #cd #f7 respectively4 ,,middle ,,eastern ,,edged ,,weapons ,the chief characteristic of the blades of the ,middle ,east is the beautiful watered pattern of the ,damascus steel1 discussed on page #bj4 ,unfortunately this pattern is too delicate to show well in reproduction1 but it may readily be observed in the actual objects1 exhibited in the gallery of ,middle ,eastern ,art4 ,two knives are shown in ,fig4 #ce1 illustrating delicate ,damascene work in gold and similar ornament carried out not by inlay of another metal1 but by chiselling in low relief4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,persian dagger-knives of the seventeenth century1 equally useful as tool and as weapon1 and beautiful too6 ,fig4 #cf shows a ,persian sword hilt of solid gold1 from the late thirteenth or fourteenth century4 ,the ends of its guard are formed as the heads of lions4 ,it is engraved with floral arabesques and a calligraphic inscription4 ,the engraved lines are filled in with black pigment 7niello74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,a ,persian sword hilt of solid gold1 ,,xiii-,,xiv century1 inscribed3 8,salute to ,mohammed04 ,,projectile ,,weapons3 ,,bows ,,and ,,crossbows ,ever since a hairy primitive first picked up a stone and threw it1 man has tried to find better and better ways to strike from a safe distance4 ,the devices which he has produced for this purpose have been many and varied1 yet1 strangely enough1 remarkable similarities often occur between inventions of widely separated areas4 ,in ancient ,peruvian graves have been found cord slings for hurling stones almost identical with those used by herd boys in ,palestine today1 as in the time of ,david and ,goliath4 ,bronze arrowheads from prehistoric ,japan are much the same as those excavated from ,roman ,britain4 ,the bow has several different characteristic forms distributed throughout the world1 but its fundamental principle is everywhere the same4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg 7,left74 ,a light crossbow like this would be used by a young man or an athletic girl4 ,flemish1 ,,xv century4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch 7,below74 ,made a little lighter4 ,a prodd or bullet-shooting crossbow1 probably for a lady4 ,the first projectile-throwing arm appropriate to an art museum is the crossbow1 which is simply a bow mounted on a wooden stock provided with a catch and trigger1 so that the bow could be carried ready to shoot4 ,this was a great convenience in hunting or war1 because otherwise the time lost in drawing the bow might give the victim opportunity to escape4 ,moreover1 it was soon found that the application of mechanical devices permitted the use of a bow much stronger than any man could draw unaided4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,it took a powerful man to wind and shoot this heavy ,swiss hunting crossbow1 even with the cranequin to help wind6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,if you take off the outer case1 these three parts make up the entire mechanism of the cranequin4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,mechanism of a crossbow lock1 complicated but effective4 ,fig4 #cg shows a light ,flemish crossbow of the fifteenth century4 ,its wooden stock is inlaid with white and with green stained bone in openwork patterns4 ,this type of crossbow required mechanical assistance to pull the string back to the catch which would hold it until the moment should arrive to shoot2 the instrument employed was called a goat's foot lever4 ,the crossbow of ,fig4 #ch is ,italian work of the sixteenth century4 ,the bow is light enough to be pulled by the hands alone1 without mechanical assistance4 ,it had a double string1 with a little pouch attached between the two strands1 and shot small bullets1 instead of arrows4 ,the wooden stock is beautifully carved and the metal parts are damascened with arabesques in gold4 ,this type of light crossbow was especially popular with aristocratic ladies who are frequently represented shooting it in hunting tapestries of the period4 ,in ,fig4 #ci is shown a very powerful hunting crossbow of the seventeenth century4 ,the bow is of steel1 two inches wide and a third of an inch thick4 ,the bowstring resembles a piece of heavy rope4 ,to pull this string1 bending a steel spring as massive as this1 requires a tremendous power and an immense strength in the mechanism which will hold the fully-drawn bow until the moment for its release4 ,the pulling power is supplied by a device1 also shown in the illustration 7,fig4 #ci7 called a cranequin or cric4 ,it is in mechanical respects essentially identical with a modern geared automobile jack1 although1 of course1 it pulls instead of lifts 7,fig4 #dj74 ,a force of fifty pounds applied to the handle generates on the claw which grasps the bowstring a pull of more than two tons6 ,fig4 #da shows the mechanism for holding and releasing the string4 7,these parts are1 of course1 normally invisible1 being hidden inside the wooden stock74 ,returning to the artistic aspects of the crossbow of ,fig4 #ci1 we observe that the whole of the wooden stock is inlaid with plates of white stag horn engraved with scenes illustrating the legend of ,william ,tell--certainly an appropriate decoration6 ,the bow is quite plain except for the addition of decorative pompoms of colored wool1 but the cranequin gear housing is elaborately etched with representations of ,biblical and mythological personages1 strapwork1 and interlace1 much of this unfortunately now worn away4 ,,projectile ,,weapons3 ,,firearms ,the study of antique firearms is a fascinating one4 ,contrary to usual belief1 firearms are not a late invention4 ,they were in use before complete suits of plate armor were made1 and continued in use throughout the entire period that plate armor was worn4 ,many thousands of different specimens have been classified1 but all firearms before the nineteenth century belong to one of four types4 ,these include 7#a7 the cannon or hand cannon in which the charge of gunpowder was set off by direct application of a burning slow match or hot iron held by the shooter2 7#b7 the matchlock in which burning slow match or tinder was held in a clamp attached to the gun and was brought into contact with the gunpowder by a mechanism attached to the gun and operated by the shooter2 7#c7 the wheellock in which fire was not carried about1 but was produced by a mechanism like that of a modern cigarette lighter3 a rough wheel was spun around in contact with a stone 7not flint1 but a nodular form of iron pyrite7 so that sparks were produced to set off the gunpowder2 7#d7 the flintlock and its variations1 in which a piece usually of flint stone held in a clamp attached to a strong spring was moved by the spring to strike a piece of steel1 and thereby generate the spark which would set fire to the gunpowder4 ,the ,museum's collection includes interesting and unusual specimens of all but the first of these types4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,this is how a musketeer looked when he was just getting ready to aim his gun4 ,he has more gadgets than even a modern infantryman4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,the ,three ,musketeers carried muskets like this one in form1 but without the elaborate inlaid decoration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,was the decoration of the gun copied from the engraving1 or the engraving from the gun8 ,the earliest1 simplest form of hand firearm1 the hand cannon of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 is also the least interesting esthetically4 ,consisting of a simple tube of iron1 it was usually crudely formed1 and quite undecorated4 ,such hand cannon have much archaeological interest1 but contribute nothing to the history of art4 ,the first step forward in the mechanization of firearms was the matchlock1 and matchlock guns also were usually crude and strictly utilitarian1 military pieces 7,fig4 #db74 ,however1 a few specimens of fine quality were made for important personages1 and the ,museum is fortunate in possessing precisely such a specimen 7,fig4 #dc71 the gift of the ,john ,m4 ,olin ,trust4 ,the exact date and place of its manufacture are uncertain2 it could be ,english but seems a bit more likely to be ,dutch1 toward the middle of the seventeenth century4 ,the lock is the standard seventeenth century matchlock1 with the earlier form of trigger resembling that of a crossbow4 ,the serpentine which holds the burning slow match moves upon pressure of the trigger in the rearward direction1 from the muzzle towards the butt1 bringing the burning slow match 7a piece of rope impregnated with saltpeter7 into contact with the powder pan1 the swiveling cover of which must first have been opened by hand4 ,after the slow match has ignited the priming powder and fired the piece1 a release of pressure on the trigger allows a return spring to force the serpentine back to its original position4 ,notice the shape of the serpentine1 suggesting not so much a snake as a double-headed dragon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,hercules carries away ,iole1 daughter of ,eurytus4 7,she shows no strenuous objection47 ,evryti regis filiam ,iolam1 occiso patre1 aedvxit ,hercvles #ae ,hs,b #dd ,the barrel is one-third octagon with finely forged cross mouldings at the change of shape as well as at breach and muzzle4 ,the rear sight is a steel tube1 beautifully formed in partly octagonal1 partly fluted and molded sections4 ,a flash guard extends from the pan to this rear sight to protect the shooter's eyes against particles of burning powder from the pan4 ,it is the stock1 however1 which is the most remarkable feature of the gun4 ,this is of dark brown wood1 completely covered with an elaborate inlay of brass wire and engraved mother-of-pearl in a design of floral scrolls issuing from vases and supporting birds and insects4 ,a few escutcheons are inlaid in engraved bone or white stag horn4 ,the elaborateness of this inlay1 combined with its delicacy and taste1 make this one of the outstanding matchlock guns of the world4 ,the wheellock1 which for the first time freed gunners from the necessity of carrying around with them a continuously burning coil of slow match1 was invented in the early years of the sixteenth century and retained its popularity1 in ,germany at least1 until the very end of the eighteenth4 ,it thus has had a longer period of use than any other firearm with a discharge mechanism4 ,the ,museum's earliest wheellock1 from about #aeej 7,fig4 #dd71 has its entire octagonal barrel and lock magnificently decorated with damascene of floral arabesques in gold and silver4 ,the stock is inlaid with engraved stag horn showing hunting scenes1 ,hercules' capture of ,iole 7whose hand he had won by conquering her father1 ,eurytus1 in a shooting match71 and the figures of ,alexander the ,great and 8,der ,nero04 ,this gun well illustrates the close relationship which1 in this day1 existed between the various arts1 for these inlaid designs are copied almost exactly from a series of engravings by ,hans ,sebald ,beham 7#aejj-;ca4 #aeej71 examples of which are in the ,city ,art ,museum's print collection 7,fig4 #de74 ,another1 rifled1 specimen1 from about #afce1 formerly in the ,liechtenstein collection 7,fig4 #df #b7 has a plain barrel1 but the lock is finely engraved with a hunting scene1 while the stock 7,fig4 #dg #b7 is most elaborately inlaid with fine filigrees and engraved plates of stag horn representing mythological characters1 animals1 and monsters against an architectural and arabesque background4 ,the stock bears the mark of ,martin ,sssebecker1 who was born at ,liegnitz in #aeic1 and died in #affh at ,dresden where he was gunmaker to the court of the ,electors of ,saxony4 ,a light hunting rifle 7,fig4 #df #c7 with a very short stock of the type known as tschinke from the fact that such guns were made at the town of ,teschen in ,german ,silesia1 dates probably from the latter part of the seventeenth century4 ,it has a peculiar type of wheellock of which the mainspring and most of the other mechanism are exposed on the outside of the lock plate4 ,the barrel is engraved4 ,the lock is ornamented with openwork carving1 and the stock 7,fig4 #dg #c7 is inlaid with mother-of-pearl and engraved stag horn in various designs and animal motives against a background of floral arabesques and scroll work4 ,a fine ,italian wheellock pistol 7,fig4 #dh7 was formerly in the collection of ,h4 ,g4 ,keasbey4 ,the barrel1 ornamented with raised ridges giving it an octagonal appearance1 is inscribed 8,lazari ,cominaz01 an abbreviation of the name of ,lazarino ,cominazzo1 an early gunsmith of ,brescia1 in northern ,italy1 whose work became so famous that the name was adopted by his successors practically as a trademark4 ,the simple but finely carved lock and the lace-like openwork steel inlays of the stock are characteristic of the best ,brescian workmanship4 ,the piece dates from about #afcj4 ,but the finest wheellocks in the collection are a 8suite0 consisting of a gun and pair of pistols 7,fig4 #df #d1 #d;,a1 #d;,b74 ,these three pieces differ slightly from one another in their decoration1 but they all bear the same signature1 8,claude ,thomas ,espinal #afbc01 and are otherwise so similar that there is no doubt that they were intended to go together4 ,all have wheellocks elaborately ornamented with carving and engraving4 ,the pear wood stocks are magnificently carved in the round1 in openwork1 and in relief1 with plants1 animals1 and formal ornaments4 ,they all bear a coat of arms which has not yet been identified4 ,on the pistols this is on the side of the stock opposite the lock plate1 but on the gun the coat of arms is relegated to the left rear part of the stock1 while the region opposite the lock plate is ornamented with a medallion containing the initials 8,c4 ,t404 ,this1 together with the extraordinary elaboration of all three pieces1 suggests that this set of guns and pistols was not1 as was usually the case1 made to the order of a wealthy client1 but was rather a 8masterpiece0 produced by a young gunmaker exhibiting all the skill of which he was capable to prove his worthiness to attain the title of 8master gunsmith0 in the gunmakers' guild and the right to set up a shop of his own4 ,the coat of arms is presumably that of the noble patron who had supported him in the past and to whom the pieces would eventually come1 but as they were made for glory and not for pay1 the gunsmith felt quite entitled to place his own initials in a prominent position4 ,it should be noted that though the pistols are both smooth-bored the gun is carefully rifled4 ,it is interesting to speculate about the fate of ,claude ,thomas4 ,it seems improbable that so skilled a craftsman should not have been successful in his career4 ,yet1 this set of three pieces is the only work of this master known up to the present time4 ,perhaps he tried experimenting in mechanisms as he had already in decoration1 with the result that a magnificent technician was destroyed in the explosion of his invention4 ,perhaps he succumbed to the plague or to the fortunes of war4 ,all we know is that he could and did make some of the most magnificent guns in the world1 and here they are6 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,a group of masterpieces of the gunsmith's art1 ,,xvi-,,xviii centuries4 ,a large and heavy gun 7,fig4 #df #a7 with a peculiar type of early flintlock having an exposed mainspring and known as a miguelet was probably made in ,brescia for a purchaser from the ,balearic ,islands4 ,the barrel is plain2 the lock 7,fig4 #dg #a7 and steel mountings of the walnut stock1 however1 are elaborately carved in openwork and in strong relief4 ,some of the details of this carving1 especially that on the trigger guard1 evidence the exquisite skill characteristic of the ,brescian gunsmiths 7compare the wheellock pistol mentioned above74 ,the general style of most of the carving1 however1 shows a ruggedness of design and a love of the grotesque characteristic of ,balearic ,island taste4 ,the barrel is inscribed 8,lazari ,cominaz04 ,another early flintlock variation was the snaphaunce1 a form in which the piece of steel struck by the flint was not attached to the cover of the pan holding the priming powder1 but was entirely separate from it and could be turned back out of the way as a safety precaution1 when immediate use of the arm was not expected4 ,the ,museum has a fine snaphaunce pistol in the ,brescian style4 ,two other pairs of pistols with normal flintlocks are excellent examples of ,brescian work4 ,one 7,fig4 #df #f7 from about #afdj-affj has barrels with longitudinal ridging about one-third of their length and with the full inscription 8,lazarino ,cominazzo04 ,the locks are lightly engraved to give an impression of very shallow relief carving1 and bear the signature of 8,giovanni ,bourgognone in ,brescia04 ,the walnut stocks are ornamented with openwork steel similar to those on the wheellock pistol above described4 ,the other pair 7,fig4 #df #e71 possibly somewhat earlier1 have barrels octagonal for about one-sixth of their length4 ,these bear the inscription 8,lazaro ,lazarino0 7presumably a son of the great ,lazarino ,cominazzo or of one of his namesakes74 ,the stocks are of walnut4 ,the locks and the large and numerous mounts on the stock are elaborately chiseled steel in strong relief with designs of animals1 monsters1 and semi-human figures against a background of floral arabesques4 ,not all flintlocks were on firearms4 ,the same mechanism was used on tinder boxes1 alarm clocks1 and gunpowder testers4 ,the powder tester 7,fig4 #di7 was like a pistol with a friction cover closing the mouth of the barrel4 ,it was loaded 7of course without a bullet7 and fired4 ,the force of the explosion blew the cover away from the barrel against the friction of a heavy spring2 the distance which it moved gave an index of the strength of the gunpowder4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,details of fine gunsmithing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,this was what a gentleman carried in a holster at his saddle-bow in mid-seventeenth century ,italy4 ,fig4 #ej illustrates a very complete outfit of pistols and accessories made at ,lisbon1 ,portugal1 by ,jacinto ,xavier in #agii4 ,there are a pair of double barreled holster pistols for rides abroad1 and a pair of small but deadly pocket pistols for self defense or card table arguments4 ,with these are the accessories and tools appropriate to them3 powder flask1 powder measure1 bullet molds1 oil can1 hammer1 screw driver1 awl1 7for cleaning the touch holes71 and box for spare flints and bullets4 ,all are enclosed in a handsome mahogany case4 ,the outfit is definitely that of a dandy1 for every piece is beautifully made and exquisitely decorated4 ,the steel parts of the pistols are brilliantly polished or deeply blued4 ,the stocks are delicately inlaid with rococo scrolls of silver wire4 ,the oil can is a dainty hexagonal urn4 ,even the hammer and screw driver deserve in their own right places in a museum display4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,not a weapon1 but a device to test the strength of gunpowder4 ,yet just as beautiful as though it were deadly4 ,students of the history of arms will delight in the holster pistols1 for these have each two barrels side by side1 while a single flintlock fires each in turn4 ,the powder pan which catches the sparks from the flint is divided into two parts3 that on the right transmits the ignition directly to the right hand barrel2 that on the left is covered by a slide operated by a thumb piece on the left side of the pistol4 ,when this slide is pulled back1 a second priming charge is exposed1 so that the lock may be snapped again to fire the left hand barrel4 ,both barrels may be unscrewed by means of a wrench attached to the bullet mold2 they are loaded from the breach with a slightly oversized bullet which will not move through the barrel until the pistols are fired4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,a gadgeteer's dream4 ,the big pistols are double barreled1 and each of the little ones has three bayonets and a corkscrew6 ,the little pocket pistols are a gadgeteer's dream4 ,they have invisible triggers1 which are only exposed when the lock is cocked4 ,each has on the right side a tiny triangular bayonet which springs into position at a touch on a catch4 ,on the left side is a strong1 light1 knife blade similarly operated4 ,above each barrel is a second smaller knife blade 7just right for trimming a quill pen71 which may be pushed forward from a housing which conceals and protects it4 ,and in the butt of each pistol is hidden a small but1 effective corkscrew4 ,what more could ,beau ,brummel himself desire8 ,the final item for which we have space is a flintlock pistol 7,fig4 #ea7 of the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century4 ,it bears the signature 8,derby ,paris04 ,nothing seems to be known of this gunmaker2 whether he was a ,frenchman with an ,english name or an ,english gunsmith working in ,france must be left for future research to determine4 ,in any case1 he was a master of his craft4 ,the pistol is in beautiful condition1 though the blue color of the metal is a later restoration1 no doubt based on the original finish of the weapon4 ,the barrel and lock are finely engraved and partially gilt2 the walnut stock is fitted with a gilded butt cap and inlaid with silver wire in delicate arabesque scrolls4 ,attached to the top of the barrel is a short bayonet of bright steel2 this is mounted with a spring device in such a way that the bayonet can be folded back when not needed1 but at a touch of the thumb upon the spring catch1 will fly forward and lock in position for use4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,a repeating flintlock pistol4 ,a thousand of these in one place could have changed the history of the world6 ,the most remarkable feature of this pistol1 however1 is its ingenious repeating mechanism4 ,the type1 though rare1 is well known4 ,it seems to have been invented about one hundred years previous1 toward the close of the seventeenth century1 by a ,florentine gunsmith named ,lorenzoni4 ,during the following hundred years it was extensively copied4 ,arms with this type of mechanism are known bearing the signatures of ,austrian1 ,german1 ,french1 ,english1 and ,spanish gunsmiths4 ,variations and improvements show themselves from time to time1 but a complete study of the ,lorenzoni type of flintlock repeater has yet to be written4 ,its general principle1 however1 is as follows3 a cylinder of brass1 lying transversely across the body of the pistol1 can be rotated a half turn by a lever4 ,as this is done1 the cylinder picks up a bullet1 gunpowder1 and priming powder1 and conveys them to the proper positions for firing4 ,lugs on the cylinder also close the pan cover and cock the hammer4 ,the magazines hold supplies for eight shots1 which can thus be fired with practically the speed of the single action frontier revolver which was1 for many years1 the most famous of ,american arms4 ,think what changes in history a liberal supply of breech-loading repeating firearms of this type might have made had it been available throughout the eighteenth century6 ,but unfortunately very few gunsmiths were skillful enough to do the precise work required on an arm of this type1 and all who ever lived would not have been able to make enough of them to outfit a regiment4 ,such arms were rare and costly1 and only princes could afford them1 but we are fortunate that this specimen has come down to us to show what ,master ,derby of ,paris could do generations before the day of ,colt1 ,winchester1 and the all-destructive ,atom4 ,,bibliography ,the books listed below will be found helpful by any readers who wish to pursue further the study of ,armor and ,arms4 #a4 ,laking1 ,sir ,guy ,francis3 8,a ,record of ,european ,armour and ,arms10 #dto1 #e ,vols41 ,london1 #aibj-bb4 #b4 ,cripps-,day1 ,francis ,henry3 8,a ,record of ,armour ,sales10 #dto1 uniform with above1 ,london1 #aibe4 #c4 ,dean1 ,bashford3 8,handbook of ,arms and ,armor10 #hvo1 ,new ,york1 #aiae 7,the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art71 #aiae1 #aiba and later editions4 #d4 ,dean1 ,bashford3 8,notes on ,arms and ,armor01 #hvo1 ,new ,york1 7,the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art71 #aiaf4 #e4 ,dean1 ,bashford3 8,the ,collection of ,arms and ,armor of ,rutherfurd ,stuyvesant10 #dto1 ,new ,york #aiad4 #f4 ,dean1 ,bashford 8,a ,miscellany on ,arms and ,armor presented to ,bashford ,dean10 #dto1 ,new ,york1 #aibg4 #g4 v4 ,kienbusch1 ,carl ,otto and ,grancsay1 ,s4 ,v43 8,the ,bashford ,dean ,collection of ,arms and ,armor in the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art10 #dto1 ,portland1 ,maine1 #aicc4 #h4 ,calvert1 ,albert1 ,f43 8,spanish ,arms and ,armour10 #hvo1 ,london1 #aijg4 #i4 ,stone1 ,george ,c43 8,a ,glossary of the ,construction1 ,decoration and ,use of ,arms and ,armor10 #dto1 ,portland1 ,maine1 #aicd4 #aj4 ,stcklein1 ,hans3 8,meister des ,eisenschnittes10 #dto1 ,esslingen a4 ,n41 #aibb4 #aa4 ,egerton1 ,the ,hon4 ,wilbraham3 8,an ,illustrated ,handbook of ,indian ,arms10 #dto1 ,london1 #ahhj4 #ab4 ,payne-,gallwey1 ,sir ,ralph3 8,the ,cross-,bow1 ,medieval and ,modern1 ,military and ,sporting10 #dto1 ,london1 #aijc4 #ac4 ,mc,kee1 ,thomas ,heron3 8,the ,gun ,book10 #hvo1 ,new ,york1 #aiah4 #ad4 ,pollard1 ,h4 ,b4 ,c43 8,a ,history of ,firearms10 #dto1 ,london1 #aibf4 #ae4 ,jackson1 ,herbert ,j43 8,european ,hand ,firearms10 #dto1 ,london1 #aibc4 ,transcriber's ,notes --,silently corrected a few typos4 --,retained publication information from the printed edition3 this e,book is public-domain in the country of publication4 --,in the text versions only1 text in italics is delimited by underscores4