,,climate ,,& ,,"t ,illu/ration3 ,,frontispiece ,n4 ,,w9t] ,,sol/ice ,,9 ,,aphelion4 ,n4 ,,w9t] ,,sol/ice ,,9 ,,p]ihelion4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,john/on1 ,ed9br4 & ,london4 ,,climate ,,& ,,"t ,,9 ,,_! ,,geological ,,relations ,a ,,!ory ,,( ,,secul> ,,*anges ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,climate ,,by ,,james ,,croll ,,( ,h4,m4 ,,geological ,,survey ,,( ,,scotl& ,,london ,,daldy1 ,,isbi/]1 ,,co4 #ef1 ,,ludgate ,,hill #ahge ,,london3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,virtue ,,& ,,co41 ,,city ,,road4 ,,preface4 ,9 ! foll[+ pages ,i h endeav\r$ to give a full & concise /atem5t ( ! facts & argum5ts adduc$ 9 support ( ! !ory ( ,secul> ,*anges ( ! ,e>?'s ,climate4 ,consid]able portions ( ! volume h already appe>$ 9 sub/ance z sep>ate pap]s 9 ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e & o!r j\rnals dur+ ! pa/ t5 or twelve ye>s4 ,! !ory1 especially 9 z f> z x relates to ! cause ( ! glacial epo*1 appe>s to be gradually ga9+ acceptance ) geologi/s4 ,?is1 d\btless1 is ow+ to ! greatly increas$ & con/antly increas+ k ( ! drift-ph5om5a1 :i* has induc$ ! almo/ g5]al conviction t a climate su* z t ( ! glacial epo* c\ld only h result$ f cosmical causes4 ,consid]able att5tion has be5 devot$ to objections1 & to ! removal ( slight misappreh5sions1 :i* h naturally aris5 9 reg>d to a subject comp>atively new &1 9 _m respects1 complex1 & beset ) =midable difficulties4 ,i h /udi\sly avoid$ introduc+ any?+ ( a hypo!tical "*4 ,all ! conclusions are bas$ ei!r on kn[n facts or admitt$ physical pr9ciples4 ,9 %ort1 ! aim ( ! "w1 z w be %[n 9 ! introductory *apt]1 is to prove t secul> *anges ( climate foll[1 z a necess>y effect1 f admitt$ physical ag5cies1 & t ^! *anges1 9 z f> z ! pa/ climatic condition ( ! globe is conc]n$1 fully meet ! dem& ( ! geologi/4 ,! volume1 ?\gh n int5d$ z a popul> treatise1 w be f\nd1 ,i tru/1 to be p]fectly pla9 & intelligible ev5 to read]s n famili> ) physical sci5ce4 ,i avail myself ( ?is opportunity ( express+ my obligations to my colleagues1 ,mr4 ,james ,geikie1 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,l4 ,jack1 ,mr4 ,rob]t ,e!ridge1 jun41 & also to ,mr4 ,james ,paton1 ( ! ,ed9burgh ,museum ( ,sci5ce & ,art1 = _! valuable assi/ance r5d]$ :ile ^! pages 7 pass+ ?r\gh ! press4 ,to ! k9dness ( ,mr4 ,james ,b5nie ,i am indebt$ = ! copi\s index at ! end ( ! volume1 z well z = _m ( ! facts relat+ to ! glacial deposits ( ! ,we/ ( ,scotl&4 ,,james ,,croll4 ,,ed9burgh1 ,m>*1 #ahge4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,,page ,! ,fundam5tal ,problem ( ,geology4--,geology a ,dynamical ,sci5ce4--,! ,nature ( a ,geological ,pr9ciple4--,!ories ( ,geological ,climate4--,geological ,climate dep5d5t on ,a/ronomical ,causes4--,an ,important ,consid]ation ov]look$4--,ab/ract ( ! ,l9e ( ,argum5t pursu$ 9 ! ,volume #a ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,ocean-,,curr5ts ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,heat ,,ov] ,,! ,,globe4 ,! absolute ,heat+-p[] ( ,ocean-curr5ts4--,volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream4--,absolute ,am\nt ( ,heat convey$ by x4--,great] ,portion ( ,moi/ure 9 ,int]-tropical ,regions falls z ,ra9 9 ^? ,regions4--,l& along ! ,equator t5ds to l[] ! ,temp]ature ( ! ,globe4--,influ5ce ( ,gulf-/ream on ,climate ( ,europe4--,temp]ature ( ,space4--,radiation ( a ,p>ticle4--,pr(essor ,dove on ,normal ,temp]ature4--,temp]ature ( ,equator & ,poles 9 ! ,abs5ce ( ,ocean-curr5ts4--,temp]ature ( ,london1 h[ mu* due to ,ocean-curr5ts #bc ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,ocean-,,curr5ts ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,heat ,,ov] ,,! ,,globe4--7,cont9u$47 ,influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream on ! ,climate ( ! ,arctic ,regions4--,absolute ,am\nt ( ,heat receiv$ by ! ,arctic ,regions f ! ,sun4--,influ5ce ( ,ocean-curr5ts %[n by ano!r ,me?od4--,temp]ature ( a ,globe all ,wat] or all ,l& accord+ to ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes4--,an important ,consid]ation ov]look$4--,)\t ,ocean-curr5ts ! ,globe w\ld n be habitable4--,conclusions n affect$ by ,imp]fection ( ,data #de ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,outl9e ,,oe ,,! ,,physical ,,ag5cies ,,:i* ,,lead ,,to ,,secul> ,,*anges ,,( ,,climate4 ,ecc5tricity ( ! ,e>?'s ,orbit2 its ,effect on ,climate4--,glacial ,epo* n ! direct ,result ( an ,increase ( ,ecc5tricity4--,an important ,consid]ation ov]look$4--,*ange ( ,ecc5tricity affects ,climate only indirectly4--,ag5cies :i* are br\ght into ,op]ation by an ,increase ( ,ecc5tricity4--,h[ an ,accumulation ( ,sn[ is produc$4--,! ,effect ( ,sn[ on ! ,summ] ,temp]ature4--,reason ( ! ,l[ ,summ] ,temp]ature ( ,pol> ,regions4--,deflection ( ,ocean-curr5ts ! *ief ,cause ( ,secul> ,*anges ( ,climate4--,h[ ! =ego+ ,causes deflect ,ocean-curr5ts4--,ne>ness ( ! ,sun 9 ,p]igee a ,cause ( ! ,accumulation ( ,ice4--,a rem>kable ,circum/ance reg>d+ ! ,causes :i* lead to ,secul> ,*anges ( ,climate4--,! prim>y ,cause an ,increase ( ,ecc5tricity4--,mean ,temp]ature ( :ole ,e>? %\ld be great] 9 ,aphelion ?an 9 ,p]ihelion4--,pr(essor ,tyndall on ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,a g5]al ,r$uction ( ,temp]ature w n produce a ,glacial ,epo*4--,objection f ! pres5t ,condition ( ! ,planet ,m>s #ed ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,reason ,,:y ,,! ,,s\!rn ,,hemisph]e ,,is ,,cold] ,,?an ,,! ,,nor!rn4 ,adhm>'s ,explanation4--,adhm>'s ,!ory f\nd$ ^u a physical ,mi/ake 9 reg>d to ,radiation4--,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes on ,und]gr\nd ,temp]ature4--,g5]ally accept$ ,explanation4--,l[ ,temp]ature ( ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e attribut$ to ,prepond]ance ( ,sea4--,heat transf]r$ f ,s\!rn to ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e by ,ocean-curr5t ! true ,explanation4--,a l>ge ,portion ( ! ,heat ( ! ,gulf-/ream d]iv$ f ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e #ha ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,lieut4 ,,maury',s ,,!ory4 ,introduction4--,ocean-curr5ts1 accord+ to ,maury1 due to ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,temp]ature4--,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,saltness4--,maury's two ,causes neutralize ea* o!r4--,h[1 accord+ to him1 ,diff]5ce 9 ,saltness acts z a ,cause #ie ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,lieut4 ,,maury',s ,,!ory4--7,cont9u$47 ,me?ods ( det]m9+ ! ,"q4--,! ,=ce result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,sir ,john ,h]s*el's ,e/imate ( ! ,=ce4--,maximum ,d5sity ( ,sea-,wat]4--,rate ( ,decrease ( ,temp]ature ( ,ocean at ,equator4--,! actual ,am\nt ( ,=ce result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,m4 ,dubuat's ,exp]im5ts #aae ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,dr4 ,,c>p5t]',s ,,!ory4 ,gulf-/ream accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t] n due to ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,facts to be ,expla9$4--,! ,explanation ( ! ,facts4--,! ,explanation hypo!tical4--,! ,cause assign$ = ! hypo!tical ,mode ( ,circulation4--,"u ,curr5ts acc\nt = all ! ,facts bett] ?an ! ,gravitation ,hypo!sis4--,kn[n ,condition ( ! ,ocean inconsi/5t ) t ,hypo!sis #abb ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,! ,,me*anics ,,( ,,dr4 ,,c>p5t]',s ,,!ory4 ,exp]im5tal ,illu/ration ( ! ,!ory4--,! ,=ce ex]t$ by ,gravity4--,"w p]=m$ by ,gravity4--,circulation n by ,convection4--,circulation dep5ds on ,diff]5ce 9 ,d5sity ( ! ,equatorial & ,pol> ,columns4--,absolute ,am\nt ( ,"w :i* c be p]=m$ by ,gravity4--,h[ ,und]fl[ is produc$4--,h[ ,v]tical ,desc5t at ! ,poles & ,asc5t at ! ,equator is produc$4--,! ,gibralt> ,curr5t4--,mi/ake 9 ,me*anics conc]n+ x4--,! ,baltic ,curr5t #ade ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,dr4 ,,c>p5t]',s ,,!ory4--,,objections ,,consid]$4 ,modus ,op]&i ( ! ,matt]4--,pol> ,cold consid]$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ! ,primum ,mobile4--,suppos$ ,influ5ce ( ,heat d]iv$ f ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4--,circulation )\t ,diff]5ce ( ,level4--,a ,confusion ( ,ideas 9 ,ref]5ce to ! suppos$ ,ag5cy ( ,pol> ,cold4--,m4 ,dubuat's ,exp]im5ts4--,a ,begg+ ( ! ,"q at ,issue4--,pressure z a ,cause ( ,circulation #agb ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,inadequacy ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,prov$ ,,by ,,ano!r ,,me?od4 ,quantity ( ,heat :i* c be convey$ by ! ,g5]al ,oceanic ,circulation trifl+4--,t5d5cy 9 ! ,advocates ( ! ,gravitation ,!ory to "u-e/imate ! ,volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream4--,volume ( ! ,/ream z det]m9$ by ! ,*all5g]4--,imm5se ,volume ( ,w>m ,wat] discov]$ by ,capta9 ,n>es4--,condition ( ,nor? ,atlantic inconsi/5t ) ! ,gravitation ,!ory4--,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s ,e/imate ( ! ,!rmal ,"w ( ! ,gulf-/ream #aia ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,,f9dlay',s ,,objections ,,consid]$4 ,mr4 ,f9dlay's ,e/imate ( ! ,volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream4--,mean ,temp]ature ( a ,cross ,section less ?an ,mean ,temp]ature ( ,/ream4--,reason ( su* ,div]sity ( ,op9ion reg>d+ ,ocean-curr5ts4--,m rigid ,me?od ( ,inve/igation necess>y #bjc ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,w9d ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4 ,ocean-,curr5ts n due alone to ! ,trade-w9ds4--,an ,objection by ,maury4--,trade-w9ds d n expla9 ! ,great ,ant>ctic ,curr5t4--,ocean-curr5ts due to ! ,sy/em ( ,w9ds4--,! ,sy/em ( ,curr5ts agrees ) ! ,sy/em ( ! ,w9ds4--,*>t %[+ ! ,agreem5t betwe5 ! ,sy/em ( ,curr5ts & ,sy/em ( ,w9ds4--,cause ( ! ,gibralt> ,curr5t4--,nor? ,atlantic an imm5se ,:irlpool4--,!ory ( ,"u ,curr5ts4--,difficulty reg>d+ ,"u ,curr5ts obviat$4--,"w p]=m$ by ! ,w9d 9 impell+ ! ,wat] =w>d4--,! ,*all5g]'s crucial ,te/ ( ! ,w9d & ,gravitation ,!ories4--,nor? ,atlantic above ! ,level ( ,equator4--,!rmal ,condition ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean irreconcilable ) ! ,gravitation ,!ory #baj ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,w9d ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,*ange ,,( ,,climate4 ,direction ( ,curr5ts dep5ds on ,direction ( ! ,w9ds4--,causes :i* affect ! ,direction ( ,curr5ts w affect ,climate4--,h[ ,*ange ( ,ecc5tricity affects ! ,mode ( ,di/ribution ( ! ,w9ds4--,mutual ,reaction ( ,cause & ,effect4--,displacem5t ( ! ,great ,equatorial ,curr5t4--,displacem5t ( ! ,m$ian ,l9e betwe5 ! ,trades1 & its ,effect on ,curr5ts4--,ocean-curr5ts 9 ,relation to ! ,di/ribution ( ,plants & ,animals4--,alt]nate ,cold & ,w>m ,p]iods 9 ,nor? & ,s\?4--,mr4 ,d>w9's ,views quot$4--,h[ ,glaci]s at ! ,equator may be acc\nt$ =4--,migration across ! ,equator #bbf ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,w>m ,,int]-,,glacial ,,p]iods4 ,alt]nate ,cold & ,w>m ,p]iods4--,w>m ,int]-glacial ,p]iods a ,te/ ( ,!ories4--,reason :y _! ,occurr5ce has n be5 hi!rto recognis$4--,in/ances ( ,w>m ,int]-glacial ,p]iods4--,dranse1 ,drnt51 ,hoxne1 ,*apelhall1 ,craiglockh>t1 ,lei? ,walk1 ,r$hall ,qu>ry1 ,bei?1 ,cr(!ad1 ,kilmaurs1 ,sw$51 ,ohio1 ,crom]1 ,mundesley1 c41 c4--,cave & ,riv] ,deposits4--,occurr5ce ( ,arctic & ,w>m ,animals 9 "s ,b$s acc\nt$ =4--,mr4 ,boyd ,dawk9s's ,objections4--,occurr5ce ( ,s\!rn ,%ells 9 ,glacial ,deposits4--,evid5ce ( ,w>m ,int]-glacial ,p]iods f ,m9]al ,bor+s4--,/riat$ ,pavem5ts4--,reason :y ,int]-glacial ,l&-surfaces are s r>e #bcf ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,w>m ,,int]-,,glacial ,,p]iods ,,9 ,,arctic ,,regions4 ,cold ,p]iods be/ m>k$ 9 ,temp]ate1 & ,w>m ,p]iods 9 ,arctic1 ,regions4--,/ate ( ,arctic ,regions dur+ ,glacial ,p]iod4--,effects ( ,removal ( ,ice f ,arctic ,regions4--,ocean-curr5ts2 ,influ5ce on ,arctic ,climate4--,reason :y ,rema9s ( ,int]-glacial ,p]iod are r>e 9 ,arctic ,regions4--,rema9s ( ,anci5t ,=e/s 9 ,banks's ,l&1 ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&1 c4--,op9ions ( ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ,capta9 ,osborn1 & ,pr(essor ,haughton4--,tree dug up by ,sir ,e4 ,bel*] 9 lat4 #ge ,n4 #beh ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,=m] ,,glacial ,,epo*s4--,,reason ,,( ,,! ,,imp]fection ,,( ,,geological ,,records ,,9 ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,!m4 ,two ,reasons :y s little is kn[n ( ,glacial ,epo*s4--,evid5ce ( ,glaciation to be f\nd on ,l&-surfaces4--,:]e are all our anci5t ,l&-surfaces8--,! /ratifi$ ,rocks consi/ ( a ,s]ies ( old ,sea-bottoms4--,trans=mation ( a ,l&-surface into a ,sea-bottom oblit]ates all ,traces ( ,glaciation4--,:y s little rema9s ( ! ,b\ld] ,clays ( =m] ,glacial ,epo*s4--,records ( ! ,glacial ,epo* are fa/ disappe>+4--,iceb]gs d n /riate ! ,sea-bottom4--,mr4 ,campbell's ,obs]vations on ! ,coa/ ( ,labrador4--,am\nt ( ,mat]ial transport$ by ,iceb]gs mu* exagg]at$4--,mr4 ,pack>d on ! ,glacial ,ph5om5a ( ,labrador4--,b\ld] ,clay ! ,product ( ,l&-ice4--,palontological ,evid5ce4--,paucity ( ,life *>act]i/ic ( a ,glacial ,p]iod4--,w>m ,p]iods bett] repres5t$ by ,organic ,rema9s ?an cold4--,:y ! ,climate ( ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod 0 suppos$ to be w>m] ?an ! pres5t4--,mr4 ,james ,geikie on ! ,defects ( ,palontological ,evid5ce4--,conclusion #bff ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,=m] ,,glacial ,,epo*s2 ,,geological ,,evid5ce ,,(4 ,cambrian ,conglom]ate ( ,islay & ,nor?-we/ ( ,scotl&4--,ice-action 9 ,ayr%ire & ,wigt[n%ire dur+ ,silurian ,p]iod4--,silurian ,lime/ones 9 ,arctic ,legions4--,pr(essor ,ramsay on ,ice-action dur+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4--,w>m ,climate 9 ,arctic ,regions dur+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4--,pr(essor ,geikie & ,mr4 ,james ,geikie on a ,glacial ,conglom]ate ( ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s ,age4--,pr(essor ,haughton & ,pr(essor ,dawson on ,evid5ce ( ,ice-action dur+ ,coal ,p]iod4--,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,blan=d on ,glaciation 9 ,india dur+ ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4--,c>bonif]\s ,=mations ( ,arctic ,regions4--,pr(essor ,ramsay on ,p]mian ,glaci]s4--,p]mian ,conglom]ate 9 ,arran4--,pr(essor ,hull on ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,p]mian ,age4--,p]mian ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,natal4--,oolitic ,b\ld] ,conglom]ate 9 ,su!rl&%ire4---,w>m ,climate 9 ,nor? ,gre5l& dur+ ,oolitic ,p]iod4--,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 on ,ice-action dur+ ,cretace\s ,p]iod4--,glacial ,conglom]ates ( ,eoc5e ,age 9 ! ,alps4--,m4 ,ga/aldi on ! ,ice-transport$ ,lime/one ,blocks ( ! ,sup]ga4--,pr(essor ,he] on ! ,climate ( ,nor? ,gre5l& dur+ ,mioc5e ,p]iod #bib ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,geological ,,"t4--,,probable ,,date ,,( ,,! ,,glacial ,,epo*4 ,geological ,"t measurable f ,a/ronomical ,data4--,m4 ,lev]ri]'s ,=mul4--,tables ( ,ecc5tricity = #c1jjj1jjj ,ye>s 9 ! ,pa/ & #a1jjj1jjj ,ye>s 9 ! ,future4--,h[ ! ,tables h be5 comput$4--,:y ! ,glacial ,epo* is m rec5t ?an _h be5 suppos$4--,figures convey a v inadequate ,conception ( imm5se ,duration4--,mode ( repres5t+ a ,million ( ,ye>s4--,probable ,date ( ! ,glacial ,epo* #caa ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,geological ,,"t4--,,me?od ,,( ,,measur+ ,,! ,,rate ,,( ,,suba,,rial ,,d5udation4 ,rate ( ,subarial ,d5udation a ,measure ( ,"t4--,rate det]m9$ f ,s$im5t ( ! ,mississippi4--,am\nt ( ,s$im5t c>ri$ d[n by ! ,mississippi2 by ! ,ganges4--,pr(essor ,geikie on ,mod]n ,d5udation4--,pr(essor ,geikie on ! ,am\nt ( ,s$im5t convey$ by ,european ,riv]s4--,rate at :i* ! ,surface ( ! ,globe is be+ d5ud$4--,alfr$ ,tylor on ! ,s$im5t ( ! ,mississippi4--,! ,law :i* det]m9es ! ,rate ( ,d5udation4--,! ,globe becom+ less oblate4--,c>ry+ ,p[] ( our ,riv] ,sy/ems ! true ,measure ( ,d5udation4--,m>9e ,d5udation1 trifl+ 9 comp>ison to ,subarial4--,previ\s ,me?ods ( measur+ ,geological ,"t4--,circum/ances :i* %[ ! rec5t ,date ( ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,pr(essor ,ramsay on ,geological ,"t #cbi ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,! ,,probable ,,age ,,& ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,sun4 ,gravitation ,!ory4--,am\nt ( ,heat emitt$ by ! ,sun4--,meteoric ,!ory4--,helmholtz's ,cond5sation ,!ory4--,confusion ( ,ideas4--,gravitation n ! *ief ,s\rce ( ! ,sun's ,heat4--,orig9al ,heat4--,s\rce ( ,orig9al ,heat4--,orig9al ,heat d]iv$ f ,motion 9 ,space4--,conclusion z to ,date ( ,glacial ,epo*4--,false ,analogy4--,probable ,date ( ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e ,p]iods #cdf ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,a ,,me?od ,,( ,,det]m9+ ,,! ,,mean ,,?ickness ,,( ,,! ,,s$im5t>y ,,rocks ,,( ,,! ,,globe4 ,prevail+ ,me?ods defective4--,maximum ,?ickness ( ,briti% ,rocks4--,?ree ,elem5ts 9 ! ,"q4--,pr(essor ,huxley on ! ,rate ( ,deposition4--,?ickness ( ,s$im5t>y ,rocks enorm\sly ov]-e/imat$4--,obs]v$ ,?ickness no ,measure ( mean ,?ickness4--,deposition ( ,s$im5t pr9cipally along ,sea-m>g94--,mi/ak5 ,inf]5ce reg>d+ ! ,abs5ce ( a ,=mation4--,imm5se ,antiquity ( exi/+ ,oceans #cfj ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,subm]g5ce ,,& ,,em]g5ce ,,( ,,! ,,l& ,,dur+ ,,! ,,glacial ,,epo*4 ,displacem5t ( ! ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity by ,pol> ,ice-cap4--,simple ,me?od ( e/imat+ ,am\nt ( ,displacem5t4--,note by ,sir ,w4 ,?omson on =ego+ ,me?od4--,diff]5ce betwe5 ,cont95tal ,ice & a ,glaci]4--,probable ,?ickness ( ! ,ant>ctic ,ice-cap4--,probable ,?ickness ( ,gre5l& ,ice-%eet4--,! ,iceb]gs ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean4--,inadequate ,conceptions reg>d+ ! ,magnitude ( ,cont95tal ,ice #cfh ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,subm]g5ce ,,& ,,em]g5ce ,,( ,,! ,,l& ,,dur+ ,,! ,,glacial ,,epo*4--7,cont9u$47 ,ext5t ( ,subm]g5ce f ,displacem5t ( ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity4--,circum/ances :i* %[ t ! ,glacial ,subm]g5ce result$ f ,displacem5t ( ! ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity4--,agreem5t betwe5 ,!ory & ,obs]v$ ,facts4--,sir ,*>les ,lyell on subm]g$ ,areas dur+ ,t]ti>y ,p]iod4--,oscillations ( ,sea-,level 9 ,relation to ,di/ribution4--,ext5t ( ,subm]g5ce on ! ,hypo!sis t ! ,e>? is fluid 9 ! ,int]ior #chg ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,! ,,obliquity ,,( ,,! ,,ecliptic ,,on ,,climate ,,& ,,on ,,! ,,level ,,( ,,! ,,sea4 ,! direct ,effect ( ,*ange ( ,obliquity on ,climate4--,mr4 ,/ockwell on ! maximum ,*ange ( ,obliquity4--,h[ ,obliquity affects ! ,di/ribution ( ,heat ov] ! ,globe4--,increase ( ,obliquity dim9i%es ! ,heat at ! ,equator & increases t at ! ,poles4--,influ5ce ( ,*ange ( ,obliquity on ! ,level ( ! ,sea4--,:5 ! ,obliquity 0 la/ at its sup]ior ,limit4--,probable ,date ( ! #be-;foot rais$ ,bea*4--,probable ,ext5t ( ,rise ( ,sea-level result+ f ,increase ( ,obliquity4--,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson's & ,mr4 ,belt's ,!ories4--,sir ,*>les ,lyell on ,influ5ce ( ,obliquity #cih ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,coal ,,an ,,int]-,,glacial ,,=mation4 ,climate ( ,coal ,p]iod ,int]-glacial 9 ,"*4--,coal ,plants indicate an ,equable1 n a ,tropical ,climate4--,conditions necess>y = ,pres]vation ( ,coal ,plants4--,oscillations ( ,sea-level necess>ily impli$4--,:y our ,coal-fields conta9 m ?an ,"o ,coal-seam4--,"t requir$ to =m a ,b$ ( ,coal4--,:y ,coal ,/rata conta9 s little evid5ce ( ,ice-action4--,l& ,flat dur+ ,coal ,p]iod4--,lead+ ,idea ( ! ,!ory4--,c>bonif]\s ,lime/ones #dbj ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,pa? ,,( ,,! ,,ice-,,%eet ,,9 ,,nor?-,,we/]n ,,europe ,,& ,,its ,,relations ,,to ,,! ,,b\ld] ,,clay ,,( ,,cai?ness4 ,"* ( ,cai?ness ,b\ld] ,clay4--,!ories ( ! ,orig9 ( ! ,cai?ness ,clay4--,mr4 ,jamieson's ,!ory4--,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,pea*'s ,!ory4--,! propos$ ,!ory4--,?ickness ( ,scotti% ,ice-%eet4--,p5tl&s /riat$ on _! ,summits4--,sc&9avian ,ice-%eet4--,nor? ,sea fill$ ) ,l&-ice4--,great ,baltic ,glaci]4--,jutl& & ,d5m>k cross$ by ,ice4--,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison's ,obs]vations4--,orkney1 ,%etl&1 & ,f>oe ,isl&s /riat$ across4--,loess acc\nt$ =4--,pr(essor ,geikie's ,sugge/ion4--,pr(essor ,geikie & ,b4 ,n4 ,pea*'s ,obs]vations on ,ea/ ,coa/ ( ,cai?ness4--,evid5ce f ,*alk ,fl9ts & ,oolitic ,fossils 9 ,b\ld] ,clay #dce ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,nor? ,,( ,,engl& ,,ice-,,%eet1 ,,& ,,transport ,,( ,,wa/dale ,,crag ,,blocks4 ,transport ( ,blocks2 ,!ories (4--,evid5ce ( ,cont95tal ,ice4--,p5n9e ,range probably /riat$ on ,summit4--,glacial ,drift 9 ,c5tre ( ,engl&4--,mr4 ,lacy on ,drift ( ,cotteswold ,hills4--,engl& probably cross$ by ,l&-ice4--,mr4 ,jack's ,sugge/ion4--,%$d+ ( ,ice ,nor? & ,s\?4--,s\? ( ,engl& ,ice-%eet4--,glaciation ( ,we/ ,som]set4--,:y ,ice-m>k+s are s r>e 9 ,s\? ( ,engl&4--,=m ( ,contortion produc$ by ,l&-ice #def ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,evid5ce ,,f ,,buri$ ,,riv] ,,*annels ,,( ,a ,,cont95tal ,,p]iod ,,9 ,,brita94 ,rem>ks on ! ,drift ,deposits4--,exam9ation ( ,drift by ,bor+s4--,buri$ ,riv] ,*annel f ,kilsy? to ,grangem\?4--,*annels n excavat$ by ,sea nor by ,ice4--,section ( buri$ ,*annel at ,grangem\?4--,mr4 ,milne ,home's ,!ory4--,g]man ,ocean dry ,l&4--,buri$ ,riv] ,*annel f ,kilsy? to ! ,clyde4--,j\rnal ( ,bor+s4--,m>9e ,orig9 ( ! ,drift ,deposits4--,evid5ce ( ,int]-glacial ,p]iods4--,oscillations ( ,sea-,level4--,o!r buri$ ,riv] ,*annels #dff ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,glaci]s4--,,!ories ,,( ,,glaci]-,,motion4 ,:y ! ,"q ( ,glaci]-motion has be5 f\nd to be s difficult4--,! ,regelation ,!ory4--,x acc\nts = ! ,cont9uity ( a ,glaci]1 b n = its ,motion4--,gravitation prov$ by ,canon ,moseley insuffici5t to %e> ! ,ice ( a ,glaci]4--,mr4 ,mat!w's ,exp]im5t4--,no ,p>allel betwe5 ! b5d+ ( an ,ice ,plank & ! %e>+ ( a ,glaci]4--,mr4 ,ball's ,objection to ,canon ,moseley's ,exp]im5t4--,canon ,moseley's ,me?od ( det]m9+ ! ,unit ( ,%e>4--,defect ( ,me?od4--,motion ( a ,glaci] 9 "s ,way dep5d5t on ,heat4--,canon ,moseley's ,!ory4--,objections to 8 ,!ory4--,pr(essor ,james ,?omson's ,!ory4--,?is ,!ory fails to expla9 ,glaci]-motion4--,de ,saussure & ,hopk9s's 8,slid+0 ,!ories4--,m4 ,*>p5ti]'s 8,dilatation0 ,!ory4--,important ,elem5t 9 ! ,!ory #die ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,glaci]s4--,,! ,,molecul> ,,!ory4 ,pres5t ,/ate ( ! ,"q4--,heat necess>y to ! ,motion ( a ,glaci]4--,ice does n %e> 9 ! ,solid ,/ate4--,motion ( a ,glaci] molecul>4--,h[ ,heat is transmitt$ ?r\gh ,ice4--,mom5t>y ,loss ( ,%e>+ ,=ce4--,! ,rationale ( ,regelation4--,! ,orig9 ( 8,crevasses40--,effects ( ,t5sion4--,modification ( ,!ory4--,fluid ,molecules cry/allize 9 ,int]/ices4--,expansive ,=ce ( cry/alliz+ ,molecules a ,cause ( ,motion4--,int]nal molecul> ,pressure ! *ief ,mov+ ,p[]4--,h[ ,ice c excavate a ,rock ,bas94--,h[ ,ice c asc5d a ,slope4--,h[ deep ,riv] ,valleys are /riat$ across4--,a rem>kable ,example 9 ! ,valley ( ! ,tay4--,h[ ,b\ld]s c he c>ri$ f a l[] to a high] ,level #ead ,,app5dix4 ,i4 ,op9ions express$ previ\s to #ahfd reg>d+ ! ,influ5ce ( ! ,ecc5tricity ( ! ,e>?'s ,orbit on ,climate #ebh ,,ii4 ,on ! ,nature ( ,heat-,vibrations #edd ,,iii4 ,on ! ,reason :y ! ,diff]5ce ( ,read+ betwe5 a ,!rmomet] expos$ to direct ,sun%9e & ,"o ,%ad$ dim9i%es z we asc5d 9 ! ,atmosph]e #edg ,,iv4 ,rem>ks on ,mr4 ,j4 ,y4 ,bu*anan's ,!ory ( ! ,v]tical ,di/ribution ( ,temp]ature ( ! ,ocean #eej ,v4 ,on ! ,cause ( ! ,cool+ ,effect produc$ on ,solids by ,t5sion #eeb ,,vi4 ,! ,cause ( ,regelation #eed ,,vii4 ,li/ ( ,pap]s :i* h appe>$ 9 ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann's ,geographis*e ,mit!ilung5 relat+ to ! ,gulf-/ream & ,!rmal ,condition ( ! ,arctic ,regions #eef ,,viii4 ,li/ ( ,pap]s by ! ,au?or to :i* ,ref]5ce is made 9 ?is ,volume #efj ,,index #efc ,,li/ ,,( ,,plates4 ,,e>?',s ,,orbit ,,:5 ,,ecc5tricity ,,is ,,at ,,its ,,sup]ior ,,limit ,frontispiece4 ,,plate ,i4 ,,%[+ ,,agreem5t ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,ocean-,,curr5ts ,,& ,,w9ds ,to face page #bab ,,ii4 ,,%[+ ,,h[ ,,oppos+ ,,curr5ts ,,int]sect ,,ea* ,,o!r #bai ,,iii4 ,,section ,,( ,,mid-,,atlantic #bbb ,,iv4 ,,diagram ,,repres5t+ ,,! ,,v>iations ,,( ,,ecc5tricity ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,orbit #cac ,v4 ,,%[+ ,,probable ,,pa? ,,( ,,! ,,ice ,,9 ,,nor?-,,we/]n ,,europe #ddi ,,vi4 ,,%[+ ,,pa? ,,( ,,ice ,,across ,,cai?ness #dec ,,vii4 ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,midl& ,,valley 7,,scotl&71 ,,%[+ ,,buri$ ,,riv] ,,*annels #dga ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,introduction4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,problem ( ,geology4--,geology a ,dynamical ,sci5ce4--,! ,nature ( a ,geological ,pr9ciple4--,!ories ( ,geological ,climate4--,geological ,climate dep5d5t on ,a/ronomical ,causes4--,an ,important ,consid]ation ov]look$4--,ab/ract ( ! ,l9e ( ,argum5t pursu$ 9 ! ,volume4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,problem ( ,geology4--,! inve/igation ( ! successive *anges & modifications :i* ! e>?'s cru/ has und]gone dur+ pa/ ages is ! prov9ce ( geology4 ,x w be at once admitt$ t an acqua9tance ) ! ag5cies by means ( :i* ^? successive *anges & modifications 7 effect$1 is ( p>am\nt importance to ! geologi/4 ,:at1 !n1 are ^? ag5cies8 ,al?\gh volcanic & o!r subt]ranean eruptions1 e>?quakes1 upheavals1 & subsid5ces ( ! l& h tak5 place 9 all ages1 yet no tru? is n[ bett] e/abli%$ ?an t x is n by ^! convulsions & cataclysms ( nature t ^? great *anges 7 effect$4 ,x 0 r by ! ord9>y ag5cies t we see e day at "w ar\nd u1 su* z ra91 riv]s1 heat & cold1 fro/ & sn[4 ,! valleys 7 n produc$ by viol5t dislocations1 nor ! hills by sudd5 upheavals1 b 7 actually c>v$ out ( ! solid rock1 sil5tly & g5tly1 by ! ag5cies to :i* we h ref]r$4 8,! tools10 to quote ! words ( ,pr(essor ,geikie1 8by :i* ?is great "w has be5 done are ( ! simple/ & mo/ e-day ord]--! air1 ra91 fro/s1 spr+s1 brooks1 riv]s1 glaci]s1 iceb]gs1 & ! sea4 ,^! tools h be5 at "w f ! e>lie/ times ( :i* any geological record has be5 pres]v$4 ,inde$1 x is out ( ! accumulat$ *ips & du/ :i* !y h made1 aft]w>ds h>d5$ into solid rock & upheav$1 t ! v framework ( our cont95ts has be5 =m$40#a ,x w be obs]v$--& ?is is ! po9t requir+ p>ticul> att5tion--t ! ag5cies ref]r$ to are ! ord9>y meteorological or climatic ag5cies4 ,9 fact1 x is ^! ag5cies :i* con/itute climate4 ,! v>i\s peculi>ities or modifications ( climate result f a prepond]ance ( "o or m ( ^! ag5cies ov] ! re/4 ,:5 heat1 = example1 pr$om9ates1 we h a hot or tropical climate4 ,:5 cold & fro/ pr$om9ate1 we h a rigor\s or arctic climate4 ,) moi/ure 9 excess1 we h a damp & ra9y climate2 & s on4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,^! climatic ag5cies are n only ! factors :i* c>v$ out ! rocky face ( ! globe into hill & dale1 & spread ov] ! :ole a mantle ( soil2 b by !m are det]m9$ ! "* ( ! flora & fauna :i* exi/ on t soil4 ,! flora & fauna ( a di/rict are det]m9$ ma9ly by ! "* ( ! climate1 & n by ! nature ( ! soil1 or ! con=mation ( ! gr\nd4 ,x is f diff]5ce ( climate t tropical life diff]s s mu* f arctic1 & bo? ^! f ! life ( temp]ate regions4 ,x is climate1 & climate alone1 t causes ! orange & ! v9e to blossom1 & ! olive to fl\ri%1 9 ! s\?1 b d5ies !m to ! nor?1 ( ,europe4 ,x is climate1 & climate alone1 t enables ! =e/ tree to gr[ on ! pla91 b n on ! m\nta9 top2 t causes :eat & b>ley to fl\ri% on ! ma9l& ( ,scotl&1 b n on ! /eppes ( ,sib]ia4 ,aga91 if we comp>e flat c\ntries ) m\nta9\s1 highl&s ) l[l&s1 or isl&s ) cont95ts1 we %all f9d t diff]5ce ( climatic conditions is ! *ief reason :y life 9 ! "o diff]s s mu* f life 9 ! o!r4 ,& if we turn to ! sea we f9d t organic life is !re z mu* "u ! doma9 ( climate z on ! l&1 only ! conditions are mu* less complex4 ,= 9 ! case ( ! sea1 diff]5ce 9 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] may be said to con/itute almo/ ! only diff]5ce ( climatic conditions4 ,if !re is "o fact m cle>ly br\ght out ?an ano!r by ! rec5t deep-sea explorations1 x is ?is1 t no?+ ex]cises s mu* influ5ce on organic life 9 ! ocean z ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,9 fact1 s mu* is ?is ! case1 t w>m zones 7 f\nd to be almo/ equival5t to zones ( life4 ,x 0 f\nd t ev5 ! enorm\s pressure at ! bottom ( ! ocean does n ex]cise s mu* influ5ce on life z ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,!re are few1 ,i presume1 :o reflect on ! subject t w n readily admit t1 :e!r z reg>ds ! great physical *anges :i* are tak+ place on ! surface ( our globe1 or z reg>ds ! gr[? & di/ribution ( plant & animal life1 ! ord9>y climatic ag5ts are ! real ag5ts at "w1 & t1 comp>$ ) !m1 all o!r ag5cies s9k into insignificance4 ,x w also be admitt$ t :at holds true ( ! pres5t holds equally true ( ! pa/4 ,climatic ag5ts are n only n[ ! mo/ important & influ5tial2 !y h be5 s dur+ all pa/ geological ages4 ,!y 7 s dur+ ! ,ca9ozoic z mu* z dur+ ! pres5t2 & !re is no reason = suppos+ !y 7 o!rwise dur+ ! remot] ,mesozoic & ,palozoic epo*s4 ,!y h be5 ! pr9cipal factors conc]n$ 9 t long succession ( ev5ts & *anges :i* h tak5 place s9ce ! "t ( ! solidification ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks ( ! globe conta9 all ! records :i* n[ rema9 ( _! action1 & x is ! special duty ( ! geologi/ to inve/igate & read ^? records4 ,x w be at once admitt$ t 9 ord] to a prop] und]/&+ ( ! ev5ts embodi$ 9 ^! records1 an acqua9tance ) ! ag5cies by :i* !y 7 produc$ is ( ! utmo/ importance4 ,9 fact1 x is only by ?is means t we c hope to arrive at _! rational explanation4 ,a k ( ! ag5ts1 & ( ! laws ( _! op]ations1 is1 9 all ! physical sci5ces1 ! means by :i* we arrive at a rational compreh5sion ( ! effects produc$4 ,if we h be=e u "s complex & intricate effects :i* h be5 produc$ by heat1 or by light1 or by electricity1 c41 9 ord] to und]/& !m we mu/ make ourselves acqua9t$ ) ! ag5ts by :i* !y 7 produc$ & ! laws ( _! action4 ,if ! effects to be consid]$ be1 = example1 ^? ( heat1 !n we mu/ make ourselves acqua9t$ ) ?is ag5t & its laws4 ,if !y be ( electricity1 !n a k ( electricity & its laws becomes requisite4 ,?is is no m]e arbitr>y mode ( proc$ure :i* may be adopt$ 9 "o sci5ce & reject$ 9 ano!r4 ,x is 9 reality a necessity ( ?\ght aris+ out ( ! v con/itution ( our intellect2 = ! objective law ( ! ag5t is ! conception by means ( :i* ! effects are subjectively unit$ 9 a rational unity4 ,we may describe1 arrange1 & classify ! effects z we may1 b )\t a k ( ! laws ( ! ag5t we c h no rational unity4 ,we h n got ! high] conception by :i* !y c be compreh5d$4 ,x is ?is relation%ip betwe5 ! effects & ! laws ( ! ag5t1 a k ( :i* really con/itutes a sci5ce4 ,we might exam9e1 arrange1 & describe = a ?\s& ye>s ! effects produc$ by heat1 & /ill we %\ld h no sci5ce ( heat unless we _h a k ( ! laws ( t ag5t4 ,! effects w\ld nev] be se5 to be necess>ily connect$ ) any?+ kn[n to u2 we c\ld n connect !m ) any rational pr9ciple f :i* !y c\ld be d$uc$ priori4 ,! same rem>ks hold1 ( c\rse1 equally true ( all sci5ces1 9 :i* ! ?+s to be consid]$ /& 9 ! relation%ip ( cause & effect4 ,geology is no exception4 ,x is n l sy/ematic botany1 a m]e sci5ce ( classification4 ,x has to expla9 & acc\nt = effects produc$2 & ^! effects c no m be expla9$ )\t a k ( ! laws ( ! ag5ts :i* produc$ !m1 ?an c ! effects ( heat )\t a k ( ! laws ( heat4 ,! only di/9ction betwe5 geology & heat1 light1 electricity1 c41 is1 t 9 geology ! effects to be expla9$ h almo/ all occurr$ already1 :]eas 9 ^! o!r sci5ces effects actually tak+ place h to be expla9$4 ,b ?is di/9ction is ( no importance to our pres5t purpose1 = effects :i* h already occurr$ c no m be expla9$ )\t a k ( ! laws ( ! ag5t :i* produc$ !m ?an c effects :i* are 9 ! act ( occurr+4 ,x is1 moreov]1 n /rictly true t all ! effects to be expla9$ by ! geologi/ are already pa/4 ,x falls )9 ! scope ( 8 sci5ce to acc\nt = ! *anges :i* are at pres5t tak+ place on ! e>?'s cru/4 ,no am\nt ( description1 arrangem5t1 & classification1 h[ev] p]fect or accurate1 ( ! facts :i* come "u ! eye ( ! geologi/ c ev] con/itute a sci5ce ( geology any m ?an a description & classification ( ! effects ( heat c\ld con/itute a sci5ce ( heat4 ,?is w1 no d\bt1 be admitt$ by e "o :o reflects ^u ! subject1 & x w be ma9ta9$ t geology1 l e o!r sci5ce1 mu/ possess pr9ciples applicable to ! facts4 ,b "h confusion & misconception w arise unless !re be di/9ct & def9ite ideas z to :at ought to con/itute a geological pr9ciple4 ,x is n e /atem5t or rule t may apply to a great _m facts1 :i* w con/itute a geological pr9ciple4 ,a geological pr9ciple mu/ be> ! same *>act]i/ics z ! pr9ciples ( ^? sci5ces to :i* we h ref]r$4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! nature ( ! pr9ciples ( light1 heat1 electricity1 c48 ,! pr9ciples ( heat are ! laws ( heat4 ,! pr9ciples ( electricity are ! laws ( electricity4 ,& ^! laws are no?+ m nor less ?an ! ways accord+ to :i* ^! ag5ts produce _! effects4 ,! pr9ciples ( geology are !re=e ! laws ( geology4 ,b ! laws ( geology mu/ be simply ! laws ( ! geological ag5ts1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! me?ods by :i* !y produce _! effects4 ,any o!r s-call$ pr9ciple c be no?+ m ?an an empirical rule1 adopt$ = conv5i5ce4 ,possess+ no rationality 9 itself1 x _c be ju/ly reg>d$ z a pr9ciple4 ,9 ord] to rationality ! pr9ciple mu/ be ei!r resolvable into1 or logically d$ucible f1 ! laws ( ! ag5ts4 ,unless x possess ?is quality we _c give ! explanation priori4 ,! reason ( all ?is is p]fectly obvi\s4 ,! ?+s to be expla9$ are effects2 & ! relation%ip betwe5 cause & effect af=ds ! subjective connection betwe5 ! pr9ciple & ! explanation4 ,! explanation foll[s f ! pr9ciple simply z ! effect results f ! laws ( ! ag5t or cause4 ,!ories ( ,geological ,climate4--,we h already se5 t ! geological ag5ts are *iefly ! ord9>y climatic ag5ts4 ,consequ5tly1 ! ma9 pr9ciples ( geology mu/ be ! laws ( ! climatic ag5ts1 or "s logical d$uctions f !m4 ,x !re=e foll[s t1 9 ord] to a purely sci5tific geology1 ! gr& problem mu/ be "o ( geological climate4 ,x is ?r\gh geological climate t we c hope to arrive ultimately at pr9ciples :i* w af=d a rational explanation ( ! multif>i\s facts :i* h be5 accumulat+ dur+ ! pa/ c5tury4 ,! facts ( geology are z ess5tial to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! pr9ciples1 z ! facts ( heat1 light1 & electricity are ess5tial to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! pr9ciples ( ^! sci5ces4 ,a !ory ( geological climate devis$ )\t ref]5ce to ! facts w\ld be ab\t z wor?less z a !ory ( heat or ( electricity devis$ )\t ref]5ce to ! facts ( ^! sci5ces4 ,x has all along be5 an admitt$ op9ion among geologi/s t ! climatic condition ( our globe has n1 dur+ pa/ ages1 be5 uni=mly ! same z at pres5t4 ,= a long "t x 0 suppos$ t dur+ ! ,cambrian1 ,silurian1 & o!r e>ly geological p]iods1 ! climate ( our globe 0 mu* hott] ?an n[1 & t ev] s9ce x has be5 gradually becom+ cool]4 ,& ?is high temp]ature ( ,palozoic ages 0 g5]ally ref]r$ to ! influ5ce ( ! e>?'s int]nal heat4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 prov$ by ,sir ,william ,?omson#b t ! g5]al climate ( our globe c\ld n h be5 s5sibly affect$ by int]nal heat at any "t m ?an t5 ?\s& ye>s aft] ! comm5cem5t ( ! solidification ( ! surface4 ,?is physici/ has prov$ t ! pres5t influ5ce ( int]nal heat on ! temp]ature am\nts to ab\t only #a_/ge? ( a degree4 ,n only is ! !ory ( int]nal heat n[ g5]ally ab&on$1 b x is admitt$ t we h no good geological evid5ce t climate 0 mu* hott] dur+ ,palozoic ages ?an n[2 & mu* less1 t x has be5 becom+ uni=mly cold]4 ,! great discov]y ( ! glacial epo*1 & m lately t ( a mild & temp]ate condition ( climate ext5d+ dur+ ! ,mioc5e & o!r p]iods to ,nor? ,gre5l&1 h introduc$ a complete revolution ( ideas 9 ref]5ce to geological climate4 ,^? discov]ies %[$ t our globe has n only und]gone *anges ( climate1 b *anges ( ! mo/ extraord9>y "*4 ,!y %[$ t at "o "t n only an arctic condition ( climate prevail$ 9 our isl&1 b t ! great] "p ( ! temp]ate region d[n to comp>atively l[ latitudes 0 buri$ "u ice1 :ile at o!r p]iods ,gre5l& & ! ,arctic regions1 probably up to ! ,nor? ,pole1 7 n only free f ice1 b 7 cov]$ ) a ri* & luxuriant vegetation4 ,to acc\nt = ^! extraord9>y *anges ( climate has g5]ally be5 reg>d$ z ! mo/ difficult & p]plex+ problem :i* has fall5 to ! lot ( ! geologi/4 ,"s h attempt$ to expla9 !m by assum+ a displacem5t ( ! e>?'s axis ( rotation 9 consequ5ce ( ! upris+ ( l>ge m\nta9 masses on "s "p ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,b x has be5 %[n by ,pr(essor ,airy1#c ,sir ,william ,?omson1#d & o!rs1 t ! e>?'s equatorial protub]ance is su* t no geological *ange on its surface c\ld ev] possibly alt] ! position ( ! axis ( rotation to an ext5t :i* c\ld at all s5sibly affect climate4 ,o!rs1 aga91 h tri$ to expla9 ! *ange ( climate by suppos+1 ) ,poisson1 t ! e>? dur+ its pa/ geological hi/ory may h pass$ ?r\gh hott] & cold] p>ts ( space4 ,?is is n a v satisfactory hypo!sis4 ,!re is no d\bt a diff]5ce 9 ! quantity ( =ce 9 ! =m ( heat pass+ ?r\gh diff]5t p>ts ( space2 b space itself is n a sub/ance :i* c possibly be ei!r cold or hot4 ,if1 !re=e1 we 7 to adopt ?is hypo!sis1 we mu/ assume t ! e>? dur+ ! hot p]iods mu/ h be5 9 ! vic9ity ( "s o!r great s\rce ( heat & light besides ! sun4 ,b ! proximity ( a mass ( su* magnitude z w\ld be suffici5t to affect to any great ext5t ! e>?'s climate w\ld1 by its gravity1 s]i\sly dis>range ! me*anism ( our sol> sy/em4 ,consequ5tly1 if our sol> sy/em _h ev]1 dur+ any =m] p]iod ( its hi/ory1 really come into ! vic9ity ( su* a mass1 ! orbits ( ! planets ought at ! pres5t day to af=d "s evid5ce ( x4 ,b aga91 9 ord] to acc\nt = a cold p]iod1 su* z ! glacial epo*1 we h to assume t ! e>? mu/ h come into ! vic9ity ( a cold body4#e ,b rec5t discov]ies 9 reg>d to int]-glacial p]iods are :olly irreconcilable ) ?is !ory4 ,a *ange 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic has frequ5tly be51 & /ill is1 appeal$ to z an explanation ( geological climate4 ,?is !ory appe>s1 h[ev]1 to be beset by a tw(old objection3 7#a71 x c be %[n f cele/ial me*anics1 t ! v>iations 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic mu/ always h be5 s small t !y c\ld n mat]ially affect ! climatic condition ( ! globe2 & 7#b71 ev5 admitt+ t ! obliquity c\ld *ange to an indef9ite ext5t1 x c be %[n#f t no increase or decrease1 h[ev] great1 c\ld possibly acc\nt = ei!r ! glacial epo* or a w>m temp]ate condition ( climate 9 pol> regions4 ,! !ory t ! sun is a v>iable />1 & t ! glacial epo*s ( ! geologi/s may correspond to p]iods ( decrease 9 ! sun's heat1 has lately be5 advanc$4 ,?is !ory is also op5 to two objections3 7#a71 a g5]al dim9ution ( heat#g nev] c\ld produce a glacial epo*2 & 7#b71 ev5 if x c\ld1 x w\ld n expla9 int]-glacial p]iods4 ,! only o!r !ory on ! subject wor?y ( notice is t ( ,sir ,*>les ,lyell4 ,^? extraord9>y *anges ( climate are1 accord+ to 8 !ory1 attribut$ to diff]5ces 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat]4 ,sir ,*>les concludes t1 7 ! l& all collect$ r\nd ! poles1 :ile ! equatorial zones 7 occupi$ by ! ocean1 ! g5]al temp]ature w\ld be l[]$ to an ext5t t w\ld acc\nt = ! glacial epo*4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 7 ! l& all collect$ along ! equator1 :ile ! pol> regions 7 cov]$ ) sea1 ?is w\ld raise ! temp]ature ( ! globe to an enorm\s ext5t4 ,x w be %[n 9 subsequ5t *apt]s t ?is !ory does n duly take into acc\nt ! prodigi\s influ5ce ex]t$ on climate by means ( ! heat convey$ f equatorial to temp]ate & pol> regions by means ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,9 ,*apt]s ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 ,i h endeav\r$ to prove 7#a71 t 7 x n = ! heat convey$ f equatorial to temp]ate & pol> regions by ?is means1 ! !rmal condition ( ! globe w\ld be totally diff]5t f :at x is at pres5t2 & 7#b71 t ! effect ( plac+ all ! l& along ! equator w\ld be diametrically ! opposite ( t :i* ,sir ,*>les supposes4 ,b suppos+ t diff]5ce 9 ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] w\ld produce ! effects attribut$ to x1 nev]!less x w\ld n acc\nt = ^? extraord9>y *anges ( climate :i* h occurr$ dur+ geological epo*s4 ,take1 = example1 ! glacial epo*4 ,geologi/s almo/ all agree t little or no *ange has tak5 place 9 ! relative di/ribution ( sea & l& s9ce t epo*4 ,all our ma9 cont95ts & isl&s n only exi/$ !n z !y d n[1 b e ye> is add+ to ! am\nt ( evid5ce :i* goes to %[ t s rec5t1 geologically consid]$1 is ! glacial epo* t ! v cont\r ( ! surface 0 pretty mu* ! same !n z x is at ! pres5t day4 ,b ?is is n all2 = ev5 %\ld we assume 7#a71 t a diff]5ce 9 ! di/ribution ( sea & l& w\ld produce ! effects ref]r$ to1 & 7#b71 t we _h good geological evid5ce to %[ t at a v rec5t p]iod a =m ( di/ribution exi/$ :i* w\ld produce ! necess>y glacial conditions1 /ill ! glacial epo* w\ld n be expla9$1 = ! ph5om5a ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods w\ld completely upset ! !ory4 ,geological ,climate dep5d+ on ,a/ronomical ,causes4--,= a good _m ye>s pa/1 an impression has be5 gradually ga9+ gr\nd among/ geologi/s t ! glacial epo*1 z well z ! extraord9>y condition ( climate :i* prevail$ 9 arctic regions dur+ ! ,mioc5e & o!r p]iods1 mu/ "s way or o!r h result$ f a cosmical cause2 b all seem$ at a loss to conjecture :at t cause c\ld possibly be4 ,x 0 app>5t t ! cosmical cause mu/ be s\ght = 9 ! relations ( our e>? to ! sun2 b a *ange 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic & ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit are ! only *anges f :i* any s5sible effect on climate c\ld possibly be expect$ to result4 ,x 0 %[n1 h[ev]1 by ,laplace t ! *ange ( obliquity 0 conf9$ )9 s n>r[ limits t x has sc>cely ev] be5 appeal$ to z a cause s]i\sly affect+ climate4 ,! only rema9+ cause to :i* appeal c\ld be made 0 ! *ange 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit--precession ( ! equ9oxes )\t ecc5tricity produc+1 ( c\rse1 no effect :atev] on climate4 ,upw>ds ( =ty ye>s ago ,sir ,john ,h]s*el & a few o!r a/ronom]s direct$ _! att5tion to ! consid]ation ( ?is cause1 b ! result arriv$ at 0 adv]se to ! supposition t *ange ( ecc5tricity c\ld greatly affect ! climate ( our globe4 ,z "s misappreh5sion seems to prevail ) ref]5ce to ?is1 ,i w\ld take ! lib]ty ( briefly adv]t+ to ! hi/ory ( ! matt]1--ref]r+ ! read] to ! ,app5dix = full] details4 ,ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury "s writ]s attribut$ ! l[] temp]ature ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! fact t ! sun rema9s ab\t sev5 days less on t hemisph]e ?an on ! nor!rn2 _! view be+ t ! s\!rn hemisph]e on ?is acc\nt receives sev5 days less heat ?an ! nor!rn4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 8,pr9ciples10 publi%$ 9 #ahcj1 ref]s to ?is z a cause :i* might produce "s slight effect on climate4 ,sir ,*>les's rem>ks seem to h direct$ ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's att5tion to ! subject1 = 9 ! latt] "p ( ! same ye> he read a pap] be=e ! ,geological ,society on ! a/ronomical causes :i* may influ5ce geological ph5om5a1 9 :i*1 aft] po9t+ out ! mi/ake into :i* ,sir ,*>les _h be5 l$ 9 conclud+ t ! s\!rn hemisph]e receives less heat ?an ! nor!rn1 he consid]s ! "q z to :e!r geological climate c\ld be influ5c$ by *anges 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,he did n appe> at ! "t to h be5 aw>e ( ! conclusions arriv$ at by ,lagrange reg>d+ ! sup]ior limit ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit2 b he came to ! conclusion t possibly ! climate ( our globe may h be5 affect$ by v>iations 9 ! ecc5tricity ( its orbit4 8,an am\nt ( v>iation10 he says1 8:i* we ne$ n hesitate to admit 7at lea/ provisionally7 z a possible "o1 may be productive ( consid]able div]sity ( climate1 & may op]ate dur+ great p]iods ( "t ei!r to mitigate or to exagg]ate ! diff]5ce ( w9t] & summ] temp]atures1 s z to produce alt]nately 9 ! same latitude ( ei!r hemisph]e a p]petual spr+1 or ! extreme vicissitudes ( a burn+ summ] & a rigor\s w9t]40 ,?is op9ion1 h[ev]1 0 un=tunately to a great ext5t nullifi$ by ! /atem5t :i* %ortly aft]w>ds appe>$ 9 8 8,treatise on ,a/ronomy10 & also 9 ! 8,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy10 to ! effect t ! elliptic =m ( ! e>?'s orbit has b a v trifl+ influ5ce 9 produc+ v>iation ( temp]ature correspond+ to ! sun's di/ance2 ! reason be+ t :atev] may be ! ellipticity ( ! orbit1 x foll[s t equal am\nts ( heat are receiv$ f ! sun 9 pass+ ov] equal angles r\nd x1 9 :atev] "p ( ! ellipse ^? angles may be situat$4 ,^? angles w ( c\rse be describ$ 9 unequal times1 b ! great] proximity ( ! sun exactly comp5sates = ! m rapid description1 & ?us an equilibrium ( heat is ma9ta9$4 ,! sun1 = example1 is mu* ne>] ! e>? :5 he is ov] ! s\!rn hemisph]e ?an he is :5 ov] ! nor!rn2 b ! s\!rn hemisph]e does n on ?is acc\nt receive m heat ?an ! nor!rn2 =1 ow+ to ! great] velocity ( ! e>? :5 ne>e/ ! sun1 ! sun does n rema9 s long on ! s\!rn hemisph]e z he does on ! nor!rn4 ,^! two effects s exactly c\nt]balance ea* o!r t1 :atev] be ! ext5t ( ! ecc5tricity1 ! total am\nt ( heat rea*+ bo? hemisph]es is ! same4 ,& he consid]$ t ?is beautiful comp5sat+ pr9ciple w\ld protect ! climate ( our globe f be+ s]i\sly affect$ by an increase 9 ! ecc5tricity ( its orbit1 unless ! ext5t ( t increase 0 v great4 8,7 x n10 he says1 8= ?is1 ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit w\ld mat]ially influ5ce ! transition ( seasons4 ,! fluctuation ( di/ance am\nts to ne>ly #a_/cj? ( its mean quantity1 & consequ5tly ! fluctuation 9 ! sun's direct heat+ p[] to d\ble ?is1 or #a_/ae? ( ! :ole4 ,n[ ! p]ihelion ( ! orbit is situat$ ne>ly at ! place ( ! nor!rn w9t] sol/ice2 s t1 7 x n = ! comp5sation we h j describ$1 ! effect w\ld be to exagg]ate ! diff]5ce ( summ] & w9t] 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & to mod]ate x 9 ! nor!rn2 ?us produc+ a m viol5t alt]nation ( climate 9 ! "o hemisph]e1 & an approa* to p]petual spr+ 9 ! o!r4 ,z x is1 h[ev]1 no su* inequality subsi/s1 b an equal & imp>tial di/ribution ( heat & light is accord$ to bo?40#h ,h]s*el's op9ion 0 %ortly aft]w>ds adopt$ & advocat$ by ,arago#i & by ,humboldt4#aj ,arago1 = example1 /ates t s little is ! climate ( our globe affect$ by ! ecc5tricity ( its orbit1 t ev5 7 ! orbit to become z ecc5tric z t ( ! planet ,pallas 7t is1 z great z #jbd71 8/ill ?is w\ld n alt] 9 any appreciable mann] ! mean !rmometrical /ate ( ! globe40 ,?is idea1 support$ by ^! great au?orities1 got possession ( ! public m9d2 & ev] s9ce x has be5 almo/ univ]sally reg>d$ z settl$ t ! great *anges ( climate indicat$ by geological ph5om5a c\ld n h result$ f any *ange 9 ! relation ( ! e>? to ! sun4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o effect t 0 n reg>d$ z comp5sat$4 ,! total am\nt ( heat receiv$ by ! e>? is inv]sely proportional to ! m9or axis ( its orbit2 & x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! great] ! ecc5tricity1 ! great] is ! total am\nt ( heat receiv$ by ! e>?4 ,on ?is acc\nt x 0 conclud$ t an increase ( ecc5tricity w\ld t5d to a c]ta9 ext5t to produce a w>m] climate4 ,all ^? conclusions to :i* ,i ref]1 arriv$ at by a/ronom]s1 are p]fectly legitimate s f> z ! direct effects ( ecc5tricity are conc]n$2 & x 0 q natural1 &1 9 fact1 prop] to conclude t !re 0 no?+ 9 ! m]e increase ( ecc5tricity t c\ld produce a glacial epo*4 ,h[ unnatural w\ld x h be5 to h conclud$ t an increase 9 ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun %\ld l[] ! temp]ature1 & cov] ! c\ntry ) sn[ & ice6 ,nei!r w\ld excessively cold w9t]s1 foll[$ by excessively hot summ]s1 produce a glacial epo*4 ,to ass]t1 !re=e1 t ! purely a/ronomical causes c\ld produce su* an effect w\ld be simply absurd4 ,important ,consid]ation ov]look$4--,! important fact1 h[ev]1 0 ov]look$ t1 al?\gh ! glacial epo* c\ld n result directly f an increase ( ecc5tricity1 x might nev]!less d s indirectly4 ,al?\gh an increase ( ecc5tricity c\ld h no direct t5d5cy to l[] ! temp]ature & cov] our c\ntry ) ice1 yet x might br+ into op]ation physical ag5ts :i* w\ld produce ?is effect4 ,if1 in/ead ( endeav\r+ to trace a direct connection betwe5 a high condition ( ecc5tricity & a glacial condition ( climate1 we turn our att5tion to ! consid]ation ( :at are ! physical effects :i* result f an increase ( ecc5tricity1 we %all f9d t a ho/ ( physical ag5cies are br\ght into op]ation1 ! comb9$ effect ( :i* is to l[] to a v great ext5t ! temp]ature ( ! hemisph]e ^: w9t]s occur 9 aphelion1 & to raise to ne>ly z great an ext5t ! temp]ature ( ! opposite hemisph]e1 ^: w9t]s ( c\rse occur 9 p]ihelion4 ,until att5tion 0 direct$ to ^? physical circum/ances to :i* ,i ref]1 x 0 impossible t ! true cause ( ! glacial epo* c\ld h be5 discov]$2 &1 moreov]1 _m ( ! indirect & physical effects1 :i* 9 reality 7 ^? t br\ght ab\t ! glacial epo*1 c\ld n1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 h be5 kn[n previ\sly to rec5t discov]ies 9 ! sci5ce ( heat4 ,! consid]ation & discussion ( ^? v>i\s physical ag5cies are ! *ief aim ( ! foll[+ pages4 ,ab/ract ( ! ,l9e ( ,argum5t pursu$ 9 ?is ,volume4--,i %all n[ proce$ to give a brief ab/ract ( ! l9e ( argum5t pursu$ 9 ?is volume4 ,b z a consid]able portion ( x is devot$ to ! consid]ation ( objections & difficulties be>+ ei!r directly or indirectly on ! !ory1 x w be necess>y to po9t out :at ^? difficulties are1 h[ !y arose1 & ! me?ods :i* h be5 adopt$ to ov]come !m4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 conta9s an outl9e ( ! physical ag5cies affect+ climate :i* are br\ght into op]ation by an increase ( ecc5tricity4 ,by f> ! mo/ important ( all ^? ag5cies1 & ! "o :i* ma9ly br\ght ab\t ! glacial epo*1 is ! ,deflection ( ,ocean-,curr5ts4 ,! consid]ation ( ! indirect physical connection betwe5 a high /ate ( ecc5tricity & ! deflection ( ocean-curr5ts1 & also ! enorm\s influ5ce on climate :i* results f ?is deflection con/itute n only ! mo/ important "p ( ! subject1 b ! "o beset ) ! greate/ am\nt ( difficulties4 ,! difficulties besett+ ?is "p ( ! !ory arise ma9ly f ! imp]fect /ate ( our k1 7#a/7 ) ref]5ce to ! absolute am\nt ( heat transf]r$ f equatorial to temp]ate & pol> regions by means ( ocean-curr5ts & ! influ5ce :i* ! heat ?us transf]r$ has on ! di/ribution ( temp]ature on ! e>?'s surface2 & 7#bnd7 9 connection ) ! physical cause ( ocean circulation4 ,9 ,*apt]s ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 ,i h ent]$ at consid]able l5g? into ! consid]ation ( ! effects ( ocean curr5ts on ! di/ribution ( heat ov] ! globe4 ,! only curr5t ( :i* any?+ l an accurate e/imate ( volume & temp]ature has be5 made is ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,9 ref]5ce to ?is /ream we h a means ( det]m9+ 9 absolute measure ! quantity ( heat convey$ by x4 ,on ! necess>y computation be+ made1 x is f\nd t ! am\nt transf]r$ by ! ,gulf-/ream f equatorial regions into ! ,nor? ,atlantic is enorm\sly great] ?an 0 ev] anticipat$1 am\nt+ to no less ?an "o-fif? "p ( ! entire heat possess$ by ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,?is /rik+ fact ca/s a new light on ! "q ( ! di/ribution ( heat ov] ! globe4 ,x w be se5 t to su* an ext5t is ! temp]ature ( ! equatorial regions l[]$1 & t ( high temp]ate1 & pol> regions rais$1 by means ( ocean curr5ts1 t 7 !y to cease1 & ea* latitude to dep5d solely on ! heat receiv$ directly f ! sun1 only a v small portion ( ! globe w\ld be habitable by ! pres5t ord] ( be+s4 ,?is be+ ! case1 x becomes obvi\s to :at an ext5t ! deflection ( ocean curr5ts mu/ affect temp]ature4 ,= example1 7 ! ,gulf-/ream /opp$1 & ! heat convey$ by x deflect$ into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 h[ enorm\sly w\ld ?is t5d to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & raise ! temp]ature s\? ( ! equator4 ,*apt]s ,,vi41 ,,vii41 ,,viii41 ,,ix41 ,x41 & ,,xiii41 are devot$ to ! consid]ation ( ! physical cause ( oceanic circulation4 ,?is has be5 f\nd to be ! mo/ difficult & p]plex+ "p ( ! :ole inquiry4 ,! difficulties ma9ly arise f ! great div]sity ( op9ion & confusion ( ideas prevail+ 9 reg>d to ! me*anics ( ! subject4 ,!re are two !ories prop\nd$ to acc\nt = oceanic circulation2 ! "o :i* may be call$ ! ,w9d !ory1 & ! o!r ! ,gravitation !ory2 & ?is div]sity ( op9ion & confusion ( ideas prevail 9 connection ) bo? !ories4 ,z ! "q ( ! cause ( oceanic circulation has n only a direct & important be>+ on ! subject ( ! pres5t volume1 b is fur!r "o ( mu* g5]al int]e/1 ,i h ent]$ some:at fully into ! matt]4 ,! ,gravitation !ories may be divid$ into two classes4 ,! fir/ ( ^! attributes ! ,gulf-/ream & o!r s5sible curr5ts ( ! ocean to diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 result+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! sea 9 equatorial & pol> regions4 ,! lead+ advocate ( ?is !ory 0 ! late ,lieut5ant ,maury1 :o br\ght x s mu* into prom95ce 9 8 int]e/+ book on ! 8,physical ,geography ( ! ,sea40 ,! o!r class does n admit t ! s5sible curr5ts ( ! ocean c be produc$ by diff]5ce ( specific gravity2 b !y ma9ta9 t diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! sea 9 equatorial & pol> regions produces a g5]al movem5t ( ! upp] portion ( ! sea f ! equator to ! poles1 & a c\nt]-movem5t ( ! "u portion f ! poles to ! equator4 ,?is =m ( ! gravitation !ory has be5 ably & zeal\sly advocat$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 :o may be reg>d$ z its repres5tative4 ,! ,w9d !ories also divide into two classes4 ,accord+ to ! "o ocean curr5ts are caus$ & ma9ta9$ by ! impulse ( ! trade-w9ds1 :ile accord+ to ! o!r !y are due n to ! impulse ( ! trade-w9ds alone1 b to t ( ! prevail+ w9ds ( ! globe1 reg>d$ z a g5]al sy/em4 ,! =m] ( ^! is ! "o g5]ally accept$2 ! latt] is t advocat$ 9 ! pres5t volume4 ,! relations :i* ^! !ories be> to ! "q ( secul> *ange ( climate1 w be f\nd /at$ at l5g? 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be bett] to /ate "h 9 a few words :at ^? relations are4 ,:5 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit atta9s a high value1 ! hemisph]e1 ^: w9t] sol/ice occurs 9 aphelion1 has1 = reasons :i* are expla9$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv41 its temp]ature l[]$1 :ile t ( ! opposite hemisph]e is rais$4 ,let u suppose ! nor!rn hemisph]e to be ! cold "o1 & ! s\!rn ! w>m "o4 ,! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equator & ! ,nor? ,pole w !n be great] ?an betwe5 ! equator & ! ,s\? ,pole2 accord+1 !re=e1 to !ory1 ! trades ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e w be /rong] ?an ^? ( ! s\!rn1 & w consequ5tly bl[ across ! equator to "s di/ance on ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,?is /ate ( ?+s w t5d to deflect equatorial curr5ts s\?w>ds1 impell+ ! w>m wat] ( ! equatorial regions m into ! s\!rn or w>m hemisph]e ?an into ! nor!rn or cold hemisph]e4 ,! t5d5cy ( all ?is w be to exagg]ate ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature already exi/+ betwe5 ! two hemisph]es4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! great ocean curr5ts :i* convey ! w>m equatorial wat]s to temp]ate & pol> regions be n produc$ by ! impulse ( ! w9ds1 b by diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 z ,maury ma9ta9s1 !n 9 ! case above suppos$ ! equatorial wat]s w\ld be deflect$ m into ! nor!rn or cold hemisph]e ?an into ! s\!rn or w>m hemisph]e1 because ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equator & ! poles w\ld be great] on ! cold ?an on ! w>m hemisph]e4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 w\ld t5d to neutralize or c\nt]act t diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! two hemisph]es :i* _h be5 previ\sly produc$ by ecc5tricity4 ,9 %ort1 ?is !ory ( circulation w\ld effectually prev5t ecc5tricity f s]i\sly affect+ climate4 ,*apt]s ,,vi4 & ,,vii4 h be5 devot$ to an exam9ation ( ?is =m ( ! gravitation !ory4 ,! above rem>ks apply equally to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s =m ( ! !ory2 = accord+ to a doctr9e ( ,g5]al ,oceanic ,circulation result+ f diff]5ce ( specific gravity betwe5 ! wat] at ! equator & at ! poles1 ! equatorial wat] w be c>ri$ m to ! cold ?an to ! w>m hemisph]e4 ,x is p]fectly true t a belief 9 a g5]al oceanic circulation may be held q consi/5tly ) ! !ory ( secul> *anges ( climate1 provid$ x be admitt$ t n ?is g5]al circulation b ocean curr5ts are ! great ag5cy employ$ 9 di/ribut+ heat ov] ! globe4 ,! advocates ( ! !ory1 h[ev]1 admit no su* ?+1 b reg>d ocean curr5ts z ( second>y importance4 ,x may be /at$ t ! exi/5ce ( ?is g5]al ocean circulation has nev] be5 detect$ by actual obs]vation4 ,x is simply assum$ 9 ord] to acc\nt = c]ta9 facts1 & x is ass]t$ t su* a circulation mu/ take place z a physical necessity4 ,i freely admit t 7 x n t ! w>m wat] ( equatorial regions is be+ con/antly c>ri$ (f by means ( ocean curr5ts su* z ! ,gulf-/ream1 x w\ld accumulate till1 9 ord] to re/oration ( equilibrium1 su* a g5]al movem5t z is suppos$ w\ld be g5]at$4 ,b x w be %[n t ! w>m wat] 9 equatorial regions is be+ dra9$ (f s rapidly by ocean curr5ts t ! actual d5sity ( an equatorial column diff]s s little f t ( a pol> column t ! =ce ( gravity result+ f t diff]5ce is s inf9itesimal t x is d\btful :e!r x is suffici5t to produce s5sible motion4 ,i h also %[n 9 ,*apt] ,,viii4 t all ! facts :i* ?is !ory is design$ to expla9 are n only expla9$ by ! w9d !ory1 b are d$ucible f x z necess>y consequ5ces4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xi4 x is prov$1 by contra/+ ! quantity ( heat convey$ by ocean curr5ts f int]-tropical to temp]ate & pol> regions ) su* an am\nt z c\ld possibly be convey$ by means ( a g5]al oceanic circulation1 t ! latt] s9ks into insignificance be=e ! =m]4 ,9 ,*apt]s ,x4 & ,,xii4 ! v>i\s objections :i* h be5 advanc$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] & ,mr4 ,f9dlay are discuss$ at consid]able l5g?1 & 9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 ,i h ent]$ some:at m9utely into an exam9ation ( ! me*anics ( ! gravitation !ory4 ,a /atem5t ( ! w9d !ory is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii42 & 9 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 is %[n ! relation ( ?is !ory to ! !ory ( ,secul> *anges ( climate4 ,?is t]m9ates ! "p ( ! inquiry relat+ to oceanic circulation4 ,we n[ come to ! crucial te/ ( ! !ories respect+ ! cause ( ! glacial epo*1 viz41 ,w>m ,int]-glacial ,p]iods4 ,9 ,*apt]s ,,xv4 & ,,xvi4 ,i h giv5 a /atem5t ( ! geological facts :i* g to prove t t long epo* kn[n z ! ,glacial 0 n "o ( cont9u\s cold1 b consi/$ ( a succession ( cold & w>m p]iods4 ,?is condition ( ?+s is utt]ly inexplicable on e !ory ( ! cause ( ! glacial epo* :i* has hi!rto be5 advanc$2 b1 accord+ to ! physical !ory ( secul> *anges ( climate "u consid]ation1 x foll[s z a necess>y consequ5ce4 ,9 fact1 ! am\nt ( geological evid5ce :i* has already be5 accumulat$ 9 ref]5ce to int]-glacial p]iods may n[ be reg>d$ z p]fectly suffici5t to e/abli% ! tru? ( t !ory4 ,if ! glacial epo* result$ f "s accid5tal di/ribution ( sea & l&1 !n !re may or may n h be5 m ?an "o glacial epo*1 b if x result$ f ! cause :i* we h assign$1 !n !re mu/ h be5 dur+ ! geological hi/ory ( ! globe a succession ( glacial epo*s correspond+ to ! secul> v>iations 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,a belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( recurr+ glacial epo*s has be5 /eadily ga9+ gr\nd = _m ye>s pa/4 ,i h1 9 ,*apt] ,,xviii41 giv5 at "s l5g? ! facts on :i* ?is belief re/s4 ,x is true t ! geological evid5ce ( glacial epo*s 9 prior ages is meagre 9 comp>ison ) t ( ! glacial epo* ( ,po/-t]ti>y times2 b !re is a reason = ?is 9 ! nature ( geological evid5ce itself4 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 deals ) ! geological records ( =m] glacial epo*s1 %[+ t !y are n only imp]fect1 b t !re is good reason :y !y %\ld be s1 & t ! imp]fection ( ! records 9 ref]5ce to !m _c be advanc$ z an argum5t aga9/ _! exi/5ce4 ,if ! glacial epo* result$ f a high condition ( ecc5tricity1 we h n only a means ( det]m9+ ! positive date ( t epo*1 b we h also a means ( det]m9+ geological "t 9 absolute measure4 ,= if ! glacial epo*s ( prior ages correspond to p]iods ( high ecc5tricity1 !n ! int]vals betwe5 ^? p]iods ( high ecc5tricity become ! measure ( ! int]vals betwe5 ! glacial epo*s4 ,! rese>*es ( ,lagrange & ,lev]ri] into ! secul> v>iations ( ! elem5ts ( ! orbits ( ! planets enable u to det]m9e ) tol]able accuracy ! values ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit =1 at lea/1 f\r millions ( ye>s pa/ & future4 ,) ! view ( det]m9+ ^? values1 ,i sev]al ye>s ago comput$ f ,lev]ri]'s =mula ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit & longitude ( ! p]ihelion1 at int]vals ( t5 ?\s& & fifty ?\s& ye>s dur+ a p]iod ( ?ree millions ( ye>s 9 ! pa/1 & "o million ( ye>s 9 ! future4 ,! tables conta9+ ^! values w be f\nd 9 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,^! tables n only give u ! date ( ! glacial epo*1 b !y af=d1 z w be se5 f ,*apt] ,,xxi41 evid5ce z to ! probable date ( ! ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e p]iods4 ,t5 ye>s ago1 :5 ! !ory 0 fir/ advanc$1 x 0 beset by a v =midable difficulty1 aris+ f ! op9ions :i* !n prevail$ 9 ref]5ce to geological "t4 ,"o or two glacial epo*s 9 ! c\rse ( a million ( ye>s 0 a conclusion :i* at t "t sc>cely any geologi/ w\ld admit1 & mo/ w\ld h felt incl9$ to h plac$ ! la/ glacial epo* at lea/ "o million ( ye>s back4 ,b !n if we assume t ! glacial epo* 0 due to a high /ate ( ecc5tricity1 we %\ld be compell$ to admit ( at lea/ two glacial epo*s dur+ t lapse ( "t4 ,x 0 ! mod]n doctr9e t ! great *anges und]gone by ! e>?'s cru/ 7 produc$1 n by convulsions ( nature1 b by ! sl[ & almo/ imp]ceptible action1 ( ra91 riv]s1 sn[1 fro/1 ice1 c41 :i* impress$ s /rongly on ! m9d ( ! geologi/ ! va/ duration ( geological p]iods4 ,:5 x 0 consid]$ t ! rocky face ( our globe _h be5 c>v$ into hills & dales1 & ultimately worn d[n to ! sea-level by means ( ^? app>5tly trifl+ ag5ts1 n only once or twice1 b _m times1 dur+ pa/ ages1 x 0 n surpris+ t ! views ent]ta9$ by geologi/s reg>d+ ! imm5se antiquity ( our globe %\ld n h h>monis$ ) ! d$uctions ( physical sci5ce on ! subject4 ,x _h be5 %[n by ,sir ,william ,?omson & o!rs1 f physical consid]ations relat+ to ! age ( ! sun's heat & ! secul> cool+ ( our globe1 t ! geological hi/ory ( our e>?'s cru/ mu/ be limit$ to a p]iod ( some?+ l "o hundr$ millions ( ye>s4 ,b ^! speculations _h b little weight :5 pitt$ aga9/ ! /]n & und5iable facts ( subarial d5udation4 ,h[1 !n1 7 ! two to be reconcil$8 ,0 x ! physici/ :o _h "u-e/imat$ geological "t1 or ! geologi/ :o _h ov]-e/imat$ x8 ,few famili> ) mod]n physics1 & :o h giv5 special att5tion to ! subject1 w\ld admit t ! sun c\ld h be5 dissipat+ 8 heat at ! pres5t enorm\s rate = a p]iod mu* beyond "o hundr$ millions ( ye>s4 ,! probability 0 t ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ on ! e>?'s cru/ by ! d5ud+ ag5ts 9 a p]iod s imm5se z a million ( ye>s 01 = reasons /at$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xx41 v mu* "u-e/imat$4 ,b ! difficulty 0 h[ to prove ?is4 ,h[ 0 x possible to measure ! rate ( op]ation ( ag5ts s num]\s & div]sifi$ act+ ) su* extreme sl[ness & irregul>ity ov] s imm5se areas8 ,9 o!r words1 h[ 0 x possible to measure ! rate ( subarial d5udation8 ,pond]+ ov] ?is problem ab\t t5 ye>s ago1 an extremely simple & obvi\s me?od ( solv+ x sugge/$ itself to my m9d4 ,?is me?od--! details ( :i* w be f\nd 9 ,*apt] ,,xx4--%[$ t ! rate ( subarial d5udation is enorm\sly great] ?an _h be5 suppos$4 ,! me?od is n[ pretty g5]ally accept$1 & ! result has already be5 to br+ ab\t a complete reconciliation betwe5 physics & geology 9 ref]5ce to "t4 ,*apt] ,,xxi4 conta9s an acc\nt ( ! gravitation !ories ( ! orig9 ( ! sun's heat4 ,! en]gy possess$ by ! sun is g5]ally suppos$ to h be5 d]iv$ f gravitation1 combu/ion be+ totally inadequate z a s\rce4 ,b some?+ m ?an gravitation is requir$ be=e we c acc\nt = ev5 "o hundr$ millions ( ye>s' heat4 ,gravitation c\ld n supply ev5 "o-half t am\nt4 ,!re mu/ be "s o!r & great] s\rce ?an t ( gravitation4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 z is indicat$1 an obvi\s s\rce f :i* f> m en]gy may h be5 d]iv$ ?an c\ld h be5 obta9$ f gravitation4 ,! me?od ( det]m9+ ! rate ( subarial d5udation enables u also to arrive at a r\gh e/imate ( ! actual mean ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ! globe4 ,x w be se5 f ,*apt] ,,xxii4 t ! mean ?ickness is f> less ?an is g5]ally suppos$4 ,! physical cause ( ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& dur+ ! glacial epo*1 & ! influ5ce ( *ange 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic on climate1 are next consid]$4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,i h giv5 ! reasons :i* induce me to believe t coal is an int]-glacial =mation4 ,! next two *apt]s--! "o on ! pa? ( ! ice 9 nor?-we/]n ,europe1 ! o!r on ! nor? ( ,engl& ice-%eet--are repr9ts ( pap]s :i* appe>$ a few ye>s ago 9 ! ,geological ,magaz9e4 ,rec5t obs]vations h confirm$ ! tru? ( ! views advanc$ 9 ^! two *apt]s1 & !y are rapidly ga9+ acceptance among geologi/s4 ,i h giv51 at ! conclusion1 a /atem5t ( ! molecul> !ory ( glaci] motion--a !ory :i* ,i h be5 l$ to modify consid]ably on "o p>ticul> po9t4 ,!re is "o po9t to :i* ,i wi% p>ticul>ly to direct att5tion--viz41 t ,i h /udi\sly avoid$ introduc+ into ! !ories prop\nd$ any?+ ( a hypo!tical nature4 ,!re is n1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 f beg9n+ to end ( ?is volume1 a s+le hypo!tical elem5t3 n[h]e h ,i attempt$ to give a hypo!tical explanation4 ,! conclusions are 9 e case d]iv$ ei!r f facts or f :at ,i believe to be admitt$ pr9ciples4 ,9 %ort1 ,i h aim$ to prove t ! !ory ( secul> *anges ( climate foll[s1 z a necess>y consequ5ce1 f ! admitt$ pr9ciples ( physical sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,oceans-,,curr5ts ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,heat ,,ov] ,,! ,,globe4 ,! absolute ,heat+-p[] ( ,ocean-curr5ts4--,volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream4--,absolute ,am\nt ( ,heat convey$ by x4--,great] ,portion ( ,moi/ure 9 int]-tropical ,regions falls z ,ra9 9 ^? ,regions4--,l& along ! ,equator t5ds to l[] ! ,temp]ature ( ! ,globe4--,influ5ce ( ,gulf-/ream on ,climate ( ,europe4--,temp]ature ( ,space4--,radiation ( a ,p>ticle4--,pr(essor ,dove on ,normal ,temp]ature4--,temp]ature ( ,equator & ,poles 9 ! ,abs5ce ( ,ocean-curr5ts4--,temp]ature ( ,london1 h[ mu* due to ,ocean-curr5ts4 ,! absolute ,heat+-p[] ( ,ocean-curr5ts4--,!re is p]haps no physical ag5t conc]n$ 9 ! di/ribution ( heat ov] ! surface ( ! globe ! influ5ce ( :i* has be5 s mu* und]rat$ z t ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,?is is1 no d\bt1 ow+ to ! fact t al?\gh _! surface-temp]ature1 direction1 & g5]al influ5ce h obta9$ consid]able att5tion1 yet little or no?+ has be5 done t[>ds det]m9+ ! absolute am\nt ( heat or ( cold convey$ by !m or ! result+ absolute increase or decrease ( temp]ature4 ,! mod]n me?od ( det]m9+ ! am\nt ( heat-effects 9 absolute measure is1 d\btless1 de/9$ to ca/ new light on all que/ions connect$ ) climate1 z x has done1 & is /ill do+1 9 e dep>tm5t ( physics :]e en]gy1 "u ! =m ( heat1 is be+ /udi$4 ,b ?is me?od has h>dly z yet be5 attempt$ 9 que/ions ( meteorology2 & ow+ to ! complicat$ nature ( ! ph5om5a ) :i* ! meteorologi/ has g5]ally to deal1 its application w v (t5 prove practically impossible4 ,nev]!less1 x is p>ticul>ly suitable to all que/ions relat+ to ! direct !rmal effects ( curr5ts1 :atev] ! nature ( ^! curr5ts may happ5 to be4 ,9 ! application ( ! me?od to an ocean-curr5t1 ! two mo/ important elem5ts requir$ z data are ! volume ( ! /ream & its mean temp]ature4 ,b al?\gh we "k some?+ ( ! temp]ature ( mo/ ( ! great ocean-curr5ts1 yet1 ) ! exception ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 little has be5 asc]ta9$ reg>d+ _! volume4 ,! bread?1 dep?1 & temp]ature ( ! ,gulf-/ream h =m$ ! subject ( ext5sive & accurate obs]vations by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,coa/ ,survey4 ,9 ! memoirs & *>ts ( t survey cross-sections ( ! /ream at v>i\s places are giv51 %[+ its bread? & dep?1 & also ! temp]ature ( ! wat] f ! surface to ! bottom4 ,we are ?us enabl$ to det]m9e ) "s precision ! mean temp]ature ( ! /ream4 ,& kn[+ its mean velocity at any giv5 section1 we h likewise a means ( det]m9+ ! numb] ( cubic feet ( wat] pass+ ?r\gh t section 9 a giv5 "t4 ,b al?\gh we c obta9 ) tol]able accuracy ! mean temp]ature1 yet obs]vations reg>d+ ! velocity ( ! wat] at all dep?s h un=tunately n be5 made at any p>ticul> section4 ,consequ5tly we h no means ( e/imat+ z accurately z we c\ld wi% ! volume ( ! curr5t4 ,nev]!less1 s9ce we "k ! surface-velocity ( ! wat] at places :]e "s ( ! sections 7 tak51 we are enabl$ to make at lea/ a r\gh e/imate ( ! volume4 ,f an exam9ation ( ! publi%$ sections1 ,i came to ! conclusion "s ye>s ago#aa t ! total quantity ( wat] convey$ by ! /ream is probably equal to t ( a /ream fifty miles broad & #a1jjj feet deep1#ab fl[+ at ! rate ( f\r miles an h\r1 & t ! mean temp]ature ( ! entire mass ( mov+ wat] is n "u #fe at ! mom5t ( leav+ ! ,gulf4 ,b to prev5t ! possibility ( any objections be+ rais$ on ! gr\nds t ,i may h ov]-e/imat$ ! volume ( ! /ream1 ,i %all take ! velocity to be two miles in/ead ( f\r miles an h\r4 ,we are w>rant$1 ,i ?9k1 9 conclud+ t ! /ream be=e x returns f its nor!rn j\rney is on an av]age cool$ d[n to at lea/ #dj1ac consequ5tly x loses #be ( heat4 ,ea* cubic foot ( wat]1 !re=e1 9 ?is case c>ries f ! tropics = di/ribution upw>ds ( #a1aeh1jjj foot-p\nds ( heat4 ,accord+ to ! above e/imate ( ! size & velocity ( ! /ream1 :i* 9 ,*apt] ,,xi4 w be %[n to be an "u-e/imate1 #b1ghg1hdj1jjj1jjj cubic feet ( wat] are convey$ f ! ,gulf p] h\r1 or #ff1ijh1afj1jjj1jjj cubic feet daily4 ,consequ5tly ! total quantity ( heat ?us transf]r$ p] day am\nts to #gg1dgi1fej1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj foot-p\nds4 ,?is e/imate ( ! volume ( ! /ream is consid]ably less by "o-half ?an t giv5 bo? by ,capta9 ,maury & by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el4 ,capta9 ,maury consid]s ! ,gulf-/ream equal to a /ream ?irty-two miles broad & #a1bjj feet deep1 fl[+ at ! rate ( five knots an h\r4#ad ,?is gives #f1afe1gjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet p] h\r z ! quantity ( wat] convey$ by ?is /ream4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's e/imate is /ill great]4 ,he consid]s x equal to a /ream ?irty miles broad & #b1bjj feet deep1 fl[+ at ! rate ( f\r miles an h\r4#ae ,?is makes ! quantity #g1cei1ijj1jjj1jjj cubic feet p] h\r4 ,dr4 ,cold+1 9 8 elaborate memoir on ! ,gulf-/ream1 e/imates ! volume at #e1gfj1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet p] h\r1 :ile ,mr4 ,laughton's e/imate is ne>ly d\ble t ( m9e4 ,f obs]vations made by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el & by ,m4 ,p\illet on ! direct heat ( ! sun1 x is f\nd t1 7 no heat absorb$ by ! atmosph]e1 ab\t eighty-?ree foot-p\nds p] second w\ld fall ^u a squ>e foot ( surface plac$ at "r angles to ! sun's rays4#af ,mr4 ,mee* e/imates t ! quantity ( heat cut (f by ! atmosph]e is equal to ab\t tw5ty-two p] c5t4 ( ! total am\nt receiv$ f ! sun4 ,m4 ,p\illet e/imates ! loss at tw5ty-f\r p] c5t4 ,tak+ ! =m] e/imate1 #fdgd foot-p\nds p] second w !re=e be ! quantity ( heat fall+ on a squ>e foot ( ! e>?'s surface :5 ! sun is 9 ! z5i?4 ,& 7 ! sun to rema9 /ation>y 9 ! z5i? = twelve h\rs1 #b1gif1gfh foot-p\nds w\ld fall ^u ! surface4 ,x c be %[n t ! total am\nt ( heat receiv$ ^u a unit surface on ! equator1 dur+ ! twelve h\rs f sunrise till sunset at ! "t ( ! equ9oxes1 is to ! total am\nt :i* w\ld be receiv$ ^u t surface1 7 ! sun to rema9 9 ! z5i? dur+ ^? twelve h\rs1 z ! diamet] ( a circle to half its circumf]5ce1 or z #a to #aegjh4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t a squ>e foot ( surface on ! equator receives f ! sun at ! "t ( ! equ9oxes #a1ghj1dgd foot-p\nds daily1 & a squ>e mile #di1fcf1gej1jjj1jjj foot-p\nds daily4 ,b ?is am\nts to only #a_/aefjice? "p ( ! quantity ( heat daily convey$ f ! tropics by ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,gulf-/ream conveys z mu* heat z is receiv$ f ! sun by #a1efj1ice squ>e miles at ! equator4 ,! am\nt ?us convey$ is equal to all ! heat :i* falls ^u ! globe )9 ?irty-two miles on ea* side ( ! equator4 ,accord+ to calculations made by ,mr4 ,mee*1#ag ! annual quantity ( heat receiv$ by a unit surface on ! frigid zone1 tak+ ! mean ( ! :ole zone1 is #ede_/ab? ( t receiv$ at ! equator2 consequ5tly ! quantity ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream 9 "o ye> is equal to ! heat :i* falls on an av]age on #c1dcf1ijj squ>e miles ( ! arctic regions4 ,! frigid zone or arctic regions conta9 #h1acj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,!re is actually1 !re=e1 ne>ly "o-half z mu* heat transf]r$ f tropical regions by ! ,gulf-/ream z is receiv$ f ! sun by ! entire arctic regions1 ! quantity convey$ f ! tropics by ! /ream to t receiv$ f ! sun by ! arctic regions be+ ne>ly z two to five4 ,b we h be5 assum+ 9 our calculations t ! p]c5tage ( heat absorb$ by ! atmosph]e is no great] 9 pol> regions ?an x is at ! equator1 :i* is n ! case4 ,if we make due all[ance = ! extra am\nt absorb$ 9 pol> regions 9 consequ5ce ( ! obliqu5ess ( ! sun's rays1 ! total quantity ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream w probably be ne>ly equal to "o-half ! am\nt receiv$ f ! sun by ! entire arctic regions4 ,if we comp>e ! quantity ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream ) t convey$ by means ( arial curr5ts1 ! result is equally />tl+4 ,! d5sity ( air to t ( wat] is z #a to #ggj1 & its specific heat to t ( wat] is z #a to #db2 consequ5tly ! same am\nt ( heat t w\ld raise #a cubic foot ( wat] #a w\ld raise #ggj cubic feet ( air #db1 or #c1bcd cubic feet #a4 ,! quantity ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream is !re=e equal to t :i* w\ld be convey$ by a curr5t ( air #c1bcd times ! volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 at ! same temp]ature & mov+ ) ! same velocity4 ,tak+1 z be=e1 ! wid? ( ! /ream at fifty miles1 & its dep? at #a1jjj feet1 & its velocity at two miles an h\r1 x foll[s t1 9 ord] to convey an equal am\nt ( heat f ! tropics by means ( an arial curr5t1 x w\ld be necess>y to h a curr5t ab\t #a mile deep1 & at ! temp]ature ( #fe1 bl[+ at ! rate ( two miles an h\r f e "p ( ! equator ov] ! nor!rn hemisph]e t[>ds ! pole4 ,if its velocity 7 equal to t ( a good sail+-breeze1 :i* ,sir ,john ,h]s*el /ates to be ab\t tw5ty-"o miles an h\r1 ! curr5t w\ld require to be above #fjj feet deep4 ,a great] quantity ( heat is probably convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream alone f ! tropical to ! temp]ate & arctic regions ?an by all ! arial curr5ts :i* fl[ f ! equator4 ,we are apt1 on ! o!r h&1 to ov]-e/imate ! am\nt ( ! heat convey$ f tropical regions to u by means ( arial curr5ts4 ,! only curr5ts :i* fl[ f ! equatorial regions are ! upp] curr5ts1 or anti-trades z !y are call$4 ,b x is n possible t mu* heat c be convey$ directly by !m4 ,! upp] curr5ts ( ! trade-w9ds1 ev5 at ! equator1 are n[h]e bel[ ! sn[-l9e2 !y mu/ !re=e lie 9 a region ( :i* ! temp]ature is actually bel[ ! freez+-po9t4 ,9 fact1 if ^? curr5ts 7 w>m1 !y w\ld elevate ! sn[-l9e above !mselves4 ,! heat$ air ris+ (f ! hot burn+ gr\nd at ! equator1 aft] asc5d+ a few miles1 becomes expos$ to ! int5se cold ( ! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e2 x !n v soon loses all its heat1 & returns f ! equator mu* cold] ?an x w5t ?i!r4 ,x is impossible t we c receive any heat directly f ! equatorial regions by means ( arial curr5ts4 ,x is p]fectly true t ! s\?-we/ w9d1 to :i* we owe s mu* ( our w>m? 9 ?is c\ntry1 is a cont9uation ( ! anti-trade2 b ! heat :i* ?is w9d br+s to u is n d]iv$ f ! equatorial regions4 ,?is w appe> evid5t1 if we b reflect t1 be=e ! upp] curr5t desc5ds to ! sn[-l9e aft] leav+ ! equator1 x mu/ trav]se a space ( at lea/ #b1jjj miles2 & to p]=m ?is long j\rney sev]al days w be requir$4 ,dur+ all ?is "t ! air is 9 a region bel[ ! freez+-po9t2 & x is p]fectly obvi\s t by ! "t x beg9s to desc5d x mu/ h acquir$ ! temp]ature ( ! region 9 :i* x has be5 travell+4 ,if su* be ! case1 x is evid5t t a w9d ^: temp]ature is bel[ #cb c\ld nev] w>m a c\ntry su* z ours1 :]e ! temp]ature does n fall bel[ #ch or #ci4 ,! heat ( our s\?-we/ w9ds is d]iv$1 n directly f ! equator1 b f ! w>m wat] ( ! ,atlantic--9 fact1 f ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,! upp] curr5t acquires its heat aft] x desc5ds to ! e>?4 ,!re is "o way1 h[ev]1 :]eby heat is indirectly convey$ f ! equator by ! anti-trades2 t is1 9 ! =m ( aque\s vap\r4 ,9 ! =mation ( "o p\nd ( wat] f aque\s vap\r1 z ,pr(essor ,tyndall /rik+ly rem>ks1 a quantity ( heat is giv5 out suffici5t to melt five p\nds ( ca/ iron4#ah ,x mu/1 h[ev]1 be borne 9 m9d t ! great] "p ( ! moi/ure ( ! s\?-we/ & we/ w9ds is d]iv$ f ! ocean 9 temp]ate regions4 ,! upp] curr5t receives ! great] "p ( its moi/ure aft] x desc5ds to ! e>?1 :il/ ! moi/ure receiv$ at ! equator is 9 great "p cond5s$1 & falls z ra9 9 ^? regions4 ,?is latt] ass]tion has be5 s frequ5tly call$ 9 "q t ,i %all give my reasons = mak+ x4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,kei? ,john/on 78,physical ,atlas07 ! mean ra9fall ( ! torrid regions is n9ety-six in*es p] annum1 :ile t ( ! temp]ate regions am\nts to only ?irty-sev5 in*es4 ,if ! great] "p ( ! moi/ure ( ! torrid regions does n fall z ra9 9 ^? regions1 x mu/ fall z su* beyond !m4 ,n[ ! area ( ! torrid to t ( ! two temp]ate regions is ab\t z #cic to #ea4 ,consequ5tly n9ety-six in*es ( ra9 spread ov] ! temp]ate regions w\ld give sev5ty-f\r in*es2 b ?is is d\ble ! actual ra9fall ( ! temp]ate regions4 ,if1 aga91 x 7 spread ov] bo? temp]ate & pol> regions ?is w\ld yield sixty-f\r in*es1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is ne>ly d\ble ! mean ra9fall ( ! temp]ate & pol> regions4 ,if we add to ?is ! am\nt ( moi/ure d]iv$ f ! ocean )9 temp]ate & pol> regions1 we %\ld h a f> great] ra9fall = ^! latitudes ?an = ! torrid region1 & we "k1 ( c\rse1 t x is actually f> less4 ,?is proves ! tru? ( ! ass]tion t by f> ! great] "p ( ! moi/ure ( ! torrid regions falls 9 ^? regions z ra94 ,x w h>dly d to object t ! above may probably be an ov]-e/imate ( ! am\nt ( ra9fall 9 ! torrid zone1 = x is n at all likely t any error w ev] be f\nd :i* w affect ! g5]al conclusion at :i* we h arriv$4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 9 pro( ( ! small ra9fall ( ! torrid zone1 adduces ! case ( ! ,r$ ,sea1 :]e1 al?\gh evaporation is excessive1 almo/ no ra9 falls4 ,b ! reason :y ! vap\r rais$ f ! ,r$ ,sea does n fall 9 t region z ra91 is no d\bt ow+ to ! fact t ?is sea is only a n>r[ /rip ( wat] 9 a dry & p>*$ l&1 ! air above :i* is too gre$y ( moi/ure to admit ( ! vap\r be+ deposit$ z ra94 ,ov] a wide expanse ( ocean1 h[ev]1 :]e ! air above is kept to a great ext5t 9 a con/ant /ate ( saturation1 ! case is totally diff]5t4 ,l& at ! ,equator t5ds to ,l[] ! ,temp]ature ( ! ,globe4--,! =ego+ consid]ations1 z well z _m o!rs :i* might be /at$1 lead to ! conclusion t1 9 ord] to raise ! mean temp]ature ( ! :ole e>?1 wat] %\ld be plac$ along ! equator1 & n l&1 z is suppos$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell & o!rs4 ,= if l& is plac$ at ! equator1 ! possibility ( convey+ ! sun's heat f ! equatorial regions by means ( ocean-curr5ts is prev5t$4 ,! transf]5ce ( heat c\ld !n be effect$ only by means ( ! upp] curr5ts ( ! trades2 = ! heat convey$ by conduction along ! solid cru/1 if any1 c h no s5sible effect on climate4 ,b ^! curr5ts1 z we h j se51 are ill-adapt$ = convey+ heat4 ,! surface ( ! gr\nd at ! equator becomes int5sely heat$ by ! sun's rays4 ,?is causes x to radiate its heat m rapidly into space ?an a surface ( wat] heat$ "u ! same conditions4 ,aga91 ! air 9 contact ) ! hot gr\nd becomes also m rapidly heat$ ?an 9 contact ) wat]1 & consequ5tly ! asc5d+ curr5t ( air c>ries (f a great] am\nt ( heat4 ,b 7 ! heat ?us c>ri$ away transf]r$ by means ( ! upp] curr5ts to high latitudes & !re employ$ to w>m ! e>?1 !n x might to a consid]able ext5t comp5sate = ! abs5ce ( ocean-curr5ts1 & 9 ?is case l& at ! equator might be ne>ly z well adapt$ z wat] = rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! :ole e>?4 ,b su* is n ! case2 = ! heat c>ri$ up by ! asc5d+ curr5t at ! equator is n employ$ 9 w>m+ ! e>?1 b is ?r[n (f into ! cold /ell> space above4 ,?is asc5d+ curr5t1 in/ead ( be+ employ$ 9 w>m+ ! globe1 is 9 reality "o ( ! mo/ effectual means t ! e>? has ( gett+ quit ( ! heat receiv$ f ! sun1 & ( ?us ma9ta9+ a mu* l[] temp]ature ?an x w\ld o!rwise possess4 ,x is 9 ! equatorial regions t ! e>? loses z well z ga9s ! great] "p ( its heat2 s t1 ( all places1 "h ought to be plac$ ! sub/ance be/ adapt$ = prev5t+ ! dissipation ( ! e>?'s heat into space1 9 ord] to raise ! g5]al temp]ature ( ! e>?4 ,wat]1 ( all sub/ances 9 nature1 seems to possess ?is quality to ! greate/ ext5t2 &1 besides1 x is a fluid1 & !re=e adapt$ by means ( curr5ts to c>ry ! heat :i* x receives f ! sun to e region ( ! globe4 ,^! results %[ 7al?\gh !y h ref]5ce to only "o /ream7 t ! g5]al influ5ce ( ocean-curr5ts on ! di/ribution ( heat ov] ! surface ( ! globe mu/ be v great4 ,if ! quantity ( heat transf]r$ f equatorial regions by ! ,gulf-/ream alone is ne>ly equal to all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by ! arctic regions1 !n h[ enorm\s mu/ be ! quantity convey$ f equatorial regions by all ! ocean-curr5ts toge!r6 ,influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream on ! ,climate ( ,europe4--,9 a pap] read be=e ! ,briti% ,association at ,exet]1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,f9dlay objects to ! conclusions at :i* ,i h arriv$ 9 =m] pap]s on ! subject1 t ,i h n tak5 into acc\nt ! great l5g? ( "t t ! wat] requires 9 ord] to circulate1 & ! int]f]5ce x has to enc\nt] 9 its passage4 ,! objection is1 t a /ream s comp>atively small z ! ,gulf-/ream1 aft] spread+ out ov] su* a l>ge area ( ! ,atlantic1 & mov+ s sl[ly across to ! %ores ( ,europe1 los+ heat all ! way1 w\ld n be able to produce any v s5sible influ5ce on ! climate ( ,europe4 ,i am unable to p]ceive ! =ce ( ?is objection4 ,:y1 ! v effici5cy ( ! /ream z a heat+ ag5t necess>ily dep5ds ^u ! sl[ness ( its motion4 ,did ! ,gulf-/ream move z rapidly along its :ole c\rse z x does 9 ! ,/raits ( ,florida1 x c\ld produce no s5sible effect on ! climate ( ,europe4 ,x does n require mu* consid]ation to p]ceive ?is4 7#a7 ,if ! /ream dur+ its c\rse cont9u$ n>r[1 deep1 & rapid1 x w\ld h little opportunity ( los+ its heat1 & ! wat] w\ld c>ry back to ! tropics ! heat :i* x ought to h giv5 (f 9 ! temp]ate & pol> regions4 7#b7 ,! ,gulf-/ream does n heat ! %ores ( ,europe by direct radiation4 ,our isl&1 = example1 is n heat$ by radiation f a /ream ( w>m wat] fl[+ along its %ores4 ,! ,gulf-/ream heats our isl& indirectly by heat+ ! w9ds :i* bl[ ov] x to our %ores4 ,! anti-trades1 or upp] return-curr5ts1 z we h se51 br+ no heat f ! tropical regions4 ,aft] trav]s+ "s #b1jjj miles 9 a region ( extreme cold !y desc5d on ! ,atlantic z a cold curr5t1 & !re absorb ! heat & moi/ure :i* !y c>ry to nor?-ea/]n ,europe4 ,^? arial curr5ts d]ive _! heat f ! ,gulf-/ream1 or if x is pref]r$1 f ! w>m wat] p\r$ into ! ,atlantic by ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,h[1 !n1 are ^! w9ds heat$ by ! w>m wat]8 ,! air is heat$ 9 two ways1 viz41 by direct radiation f ! wat]1 & by contact ) ! wat]4 ,n[1 if ! ,gulf-/ream cont9u$ a n>r[ & deep curr5t dur+ its entire c\rse simil> to :at x is at ! ,/raits ( ,florida1 x c\ld h little or no opportunity ( communicat+ its heat to ! air ei!r by radiation or by contact4 ,if ! /ream 7 only ab\t =ty or fifty miles 9 bread?1 ! arial p>ticles 9 _! passage across x w\ld n be 9 contact ) ! w>m wat] m ?an an h\r or two4 ,moreov]1 ! numb] ( p>ticles 9 contact ) ! wat]1 ow+ to ! n>r[ness ( ! /ream1 w\ld be small1 & !re w\ld !re=e be little opportunity = ! air becom+ heat$ by contact4 ,! same also holds true 9 reg>d to radiation4 ,! m we wid5 ! /ream & increase its area1 ! m we increase its radiat+ surface2 & ! great] ! radiat+ surface1 ! great] is ! quantity ( heat ?r[n (f4 ,b ?is is n all2 ! numb] ( arial p>ticles heat$ by radiation increases 9 proportion to ! area ( ! radiat+ surface2 consequ5tly1 ! wid] ! area ov] :i* ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream are spread1 ! m effectual w ! /ream be z a heat+ ag5t4 ,&1 aga91 9 ord] t a v wide area ( ! ,atlantic may be cov]$ ) ! w>m wat]s ( ! /ream1 sl[ness ( motion is ess5tial4 ,mr4 ,f9dlay supposes t fully "o-half ( ! ,gulf-/ream passes into ! s\?-ea/]n bran*1 & t x is only ! nor?-ea/]n bran* ( ! curr5t t c be effectual 9 rais+ ! temp]ature ( ,europe4 ,b x appe>s to me t x is to ?is s\?-ea/]n portion ( ! curr5t1 & n to ! nor?-ea/]n1 t we1 9 ?is c\ntry1 are *iefly indebt$ = our heat4 ,! s\?-we/ w9ds1 to :i* we owe our heat1 d]ive _! temp]ature f ?is s\?-ea/]n portion :i* fl[s away 9 ! direction ( ! ,azores4 ,! s\?-we/ w9ds :i* bl[ ov] ! nor!rn portion ( ! curr5t :i* fl[s pa/ our isl& up into ! arctic seas _c possibly cross ?is c\ntry1 b w g to heat ,norway & nor!rn ,europe4 ,! nor?-ea/]n portion ( ! /ream1 no d\bt1 protects u f ! ice ( ,gre5l& by w>m+ ! nor?-we/ w9ds :i* come to u f t cold region4 ,mr4 ,bu*an1 ,secret>y ( ! ,scotti% ,meteorological ,society1 has %[n#ai t 9 a l>ge tract ( ! ,atlantic betwe5 latitudes #bj & #dj ,n41 ! mean pressure ( ! atmosph]e is great] ?an 9 any o!r place on ! globe4 ,to ! we/ ( ,madeira1 betwe5 longitude #aj & #dj ,w41 ! mean annual pressure am\nts to #cjb in*es1 :ile betwe5 ,icel& & ,spitzb]g5 x is only #bif1 a l[] mean pressure ?an is f\nd 9 any o!r place on ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,!re mu/ consequ5tly1 he concludes1 be a g5]al t5d5cy 9 ! air to fl[ f ! =m] to ! latt] place along ! e>?'s surface4 ,n[1 ! air 9 mov+ f ! l[] to ! high] latitudes t5ds to take a nor?-ea/]ly direction1 & 9 ?is case w pass ov] our isl& 9 its c\rse4 ,?is region ( high pressure1 h[ev]1 is situat$ 9 ! v pa? ( ! s\?-ea/]n bran* ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 & consequ5tly ! w9ds bl[+ !refrom w c>ry directly to ,brita9 ! heat ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,z we %all pres5tly see1 x is z ess5tial to ! heat+ ( our isl& z to t ( ! s\!rn portion ( ,europe1 t a v l>ge proportion ( ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream %\ld spread ov] ! surface ( ! ,atlantic & nev] pass up into ! arctic regions4 ,ev5 accord+ to ,mr4 ,f9dlay's own !ory1 x is to ! s\?-we/ w9d1 heat$ by ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,atlantic1 t we are indebt$ = ! high temp]ature ( our climate4 ,b he seems to be "u ! impression t ! ,atlantic w\ld be able to supply ! necess>y heat indep5d5tly ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,?is1 x seems to me1 is ! fundam5tal error ( all ^? :o d\bt ! effici5cy ( ! /ream4 ,x is a mi/ake1 h[ev]1 into :i* "o is v apt to fall :o does n adopt ! m rigid me?od ( det]m9+ heat-results 9 absolute measure4 ,:5 we apply ?is me?od1 we f9d t ! ,atlantic1 )\t ! aid ( su* a curr5t z ! ,gulf-/ream1 w\ld be :olly unable to supply ! necess>y am\nt ( heat to ! s\?-we/ w9ds4 ,! quantity ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream1 z we h se51 is equal to all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by #a1efj1ice squ>e miles at ! equator4 ,! mean annual quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun by ! temp]ate regions p] unit surface is to t receiv$ by ! equator z #ijh to #ab4bj ,consequ5tly1 ! quantity ( heat convey$ by ! /ream is equal to all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by #b1jfb1ifj squ>e miles ( ! temp]ate regions4 ,! total area ( ! ,atlantic f ! latitude ( ! ,/raits ( ,florida1 #bjj miles nor? ( ! tropic ( ,canc]1 up to ! ,arctic ,circle1 includ+ also ! ,g]man ,ocean1 is ab\t #h1ejj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,9 ?is case ! quantity ( heat c>ri$ by ! ,gulf-/ream into ! ,atlantic ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida1 is to t receiv$ by ?is entire area f ! sun z #a to #dab1 or 9 r\nd numb]s z #a to #d4 ,x !re=e foll[s t "o-fif? ( all ! heat possess$ by ! wat]s ( ! ,atlantic ov] t area1 ev5 suppos+ t !y absorb e ray t falls ^u !m1 is d]iv$ f ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,w\ld ^? :o call 9 "q ! effici5cy ( ! ,gulf-/ream be will+ to admit t a decrease ( "o-f\r? 9 ! total am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun1 ov] ! entire area ( ! ,atlantic f )9 #bjj miles ( ! tropical zone up to ! arctic regions1 w\ld n s5sibly affect ! climate ( nor!rn ,europe8 ,if !y w\ld n will+ly admit ?is1 :y1 !n1 cont5d t ! ,gulf-/ream does n affect climate8 = ! /oppage ( ! ,gulf-/ream w\ld deprive ! ,atlantic ( #gg1dgi1fej1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj foot-p\nds ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat p] day1 a quantity equal to "o-f\r? ( all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by t area4 ,h[ mu*1 !n1 ( ! temp]ature ( ! s\?-we/ w9ds d]iv$ f ! wat] ( ! ,atlantic is due to ! ,gulf-/ream8 ,7 ! sun ext+ui%$1 ! temp]ature ov] ! :ole e>? w\ld s9k to ne>ly t ( /ell> space1 :i*1 accord+ to ! inve/igations ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el#ba & ( ,m4 ,p\illet1#bb is n above #bci ,f4 ,7 ! e>? possess$ ( no atmosph]e1 ! temp]ature ( its surface w\ld s9k to exactly t ( space1 or to t indicat$ by a !rmomet] expos$ to no o!r heat-influ5ce ?an t ( radiation f ! />s4 ,b ! pres5ce ( ! atmosph]ic envelope w\ld slightly modify ! conditions ( ?+s2 = ! heat f ! />s 7:i* ( c\rse con/itutes :at is call$ ! temp]ature ( space7 w\ld1 l ! sun's heat1 pass m freely ?r\gh ! atmosph]e ?an ! heat radiat$ back f ! e>?1 & !re w\ld 9 consequ5ce ( ?is be an accumulation ( heat on ! e>?'s surface4 ,! temp]ature w\ld !re=e /& a little high] ?an t ( space2 or1 9 o!r words1 x w\ld /& a little high] ?an x w\ld o!rwise d 7 ! e>? expos$ 9 space to ! direct radiation ( ! />s )\t ! atmosph]ic envelope4 ,b1 = reasons :i* w pres5tly be /at$1 we may 9 ! meantime1 till fur!r light is ca/ ^u ?is matt]1 take -#bci ,f4 z probably n f> f :at w\ld be ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface 7 ! sun ext+ui%$4 ,suppose n[ t we take ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! ,atlantic at1 say1 #ef4bc ,!n #bci #ef #bie repres5ts ! numb] ( degrees ( rise due to ! heat :i* x receives4 ,9 o!r words1 x takes all ! heat t ! ,atlantic receives to ma9ta9 its temp]ature #bie above ! temp]ature ( space4 ,/op ! ,gulf-/ream1 & ! ,atlantic w\ld be depriv$ ( "o-fif? ( ! heat :i* x possesses4 ,!n1 if x takes five p>ts ( heat to ma9ta9 a temp]ature ( #bie above t ( space1 ! f\r p>ts :i* w\ld rema9 aft] ! /ream 0 /opp$ w\ld only be able to ma9ta9 a temp]ature ( f\r-fif?s ( #bie1 or #bcf above t ( space3 ! /oppage ( ! ,gulf-/ream w\ld !re=e deprive ! ,atlantic ( an am\nt ( heat :i* w\ld be suffici5t to ma9ta9 its temp]ature #ei above :at x w\ld o!rwise be1 did x dep5d alone ^u ! heat receiv$ directly f ! sun4 ,x does n1 ( c\rse1 foll[ t ! ,gulf-/ream actually ma9ta9s ! temp]ature #ei above :at x w\ld o!rwise be 7 !re no ocean-curr5ts1 because ! actual heat+-effect ( ! /ream is neutraliz$ to a v consid]able ext5t by cold curr5ts f ! arctic regions4 ,b #ei ( rise repres5ts its actual p[]2 consequ5tly #ei1 m9us ! l[]+ effect ( ! cold curr5ts1 repres5ts ! actual rise4 ,:at ! rise may am\nt to at any p>ticul> place mu/ be det]m9$ by o!r means4 ,?is me?od ( calculat+ h[ mu* ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface w\ld rise or fall f an increase or a decrease 9 ! absolute am\nt ( heat receiv$ is t adopt$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 9 8 8,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy10 #cfi;a4 ,ab\t ?ree ye>s ago1 9 an article 9 ! ,read]1 ,i endeav\r$ to %[ t ?is me?od is n rigidly correct4 ,x has be5 %[n f ! exp]im5ts ( ,dulong & ,petit1 ,dr4 ,balf\r ,/ew>t1 ,pr(essor ,drap]1 & o!rs1 t ! rate at :i* a body radiates its heat (f into space is n directly proportionate to its absolute temp]ature4 ,! rate at :i* a body loses its heat z its temp]ature rises increases m rapidly ?an ! temp]ature4 ,z a body rises 9 temp]ature ! rate at :i* x radiates (f its heat increases2 ! rate ( ?is increase1 h[ev]1 is n uni=m1 b increases ) ! temp]ature4 ,consequ5tly ! temp]ature is n l[]$ 9 proportion to ! decrease ( ! sun's heat4 ,b at ! comp>atively l[ temp]ature ) :i* we h at pres5t to deal1 ! error result+ f assum+ ! decrease ( temp]ature to be proportionate to ! decrease ( heat w\ld n be great4 ,x may be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t ! exp]im5ts ref]r$ to 7 made on solids2 b1 f c]ta9 results arriv$ at by ,dr4 ,balf\r ,/ew>t1 x w\ld seem t ! radiation ( a mat]ial p>ticle may be proportionate to its absolute temp]ature4#bd ,?is physici/ f\nd t ! radiation ( a ?ick plate ( glass increases m rapidly ?an t ( a ?9 plate z ! temp]ature rises1 & t1 if we g on cont9ually dim9i%+ ! ?ickness ( ! plate ^: radiation at diff]5t temp]atures we are asc]ta9+1 we f9d t z x gr[s ?9n] & ?9n] ! rate at :i* x radiates (f its heat z its temp]ature rises becomes less & less4 ,9 o!r words1 z ! plate gr[s ?9n] & ?9n] its rate ( radiation becomes m & m proportionate to its absolute temp]ature4 ,& we c h>dly resi/ ! conviction t if we c\ld possibly g on dim9i%+ ! ?ickness ( ! plate till we rea*$ a film s ?9 z to embrace b only "o p>ticle 9 its ?ickness1 its rate ( radiation w\ld be proportionate to its temp]ature4 ,dr4 ,balf\r ,/ew>t has v +5i\sly sugge/$ ! probable reason :y ! rate ( radiation ( ?ick plates increases ) rise ( temp]ature m rapidly ?an t ( ?94 ,x is ?is3 all sub/ances are m dia!rman\s = heat ( high temp]atures ?an = heat ( l[ temp]atures4 ,:5 a body is at a l[ temp]ature1 we may suppose t only ! ext]ior r[s ( p>ticles supply ! radiation1 ! heat f ! int]ior p>ticles be+ all /opp$ by ! ext]ior ones1 ! sub/ance be+ v opaque = heat ( l[ temp]ature2 :ile at a high temp]ature we may imag9e t "p ( ! heat f ! int]ior p>ticles is all[$ to pass1 !reby swell+ ! total radiation4 ,b z ! plate becomes ?9n] & ?9n]1 ! ob/ructions to int]ior radiation become less & less1 & z ^! ob/ructions are great] = radiation at l[ temp]atures ?an = radiation at high temp]atures1 x necess>ily foll[s t1 by r$uc+ ! ?ickness ( ! plate1 we assi/ radiation at l[ temp]atures m ?an we d at high4 ,9 a gas1 :]e ea* p>ticle may be assum$ to radiate by itself1 & :]e ! p>ticles /& at a consid]able di/ance f "o ano!r1 ! ob/ruction to int]ior radiation mu/ be f> less ?an 9 a solid4 ,9 ?is case ! rate at :i* a gas radiates (f its heat z its temp]ature rises mu/ increase m sl[ly ?an t ( a solid sub/ance4 ,9 o!r words1 its rate ( radiation mu/ correspond m ne>ly to its absolute temp]ature ?an t ( a solid4 ,if ?is be ! case1 a r$uction 9 ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun1 ow+ to an increase ( 8 di/ance1 %\ld t5d to produce a great] l[]+ effect on ! temp]ature ( ! air ?an x does on ! temp]ature ( ! solid gr\nd4 ,b z ! temp]ature ( our climate is det]m9$ by ! temp]ature ( ! air1 x mu/ foll[ t ! error ( assum+ t ! decrease ( temp]ature w\ld be proportionate to ! decrease 9 ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat may n be great4 ,x may be obs]v$ "h1 al?\gh x does n be> directly on ?is po9t1 t al?\gh ! air 9 a room1 = example1 or at ! e>?'s surface is pr9cipally cool$ by convection r ?an by radiation1 yet x is by radiation alone t ! e>?'s atmosph]e p>ts ) its heat to /ell> space2 & ?is is ! *ief matt] ) :i* we are at pres5t conc]n$4 ,air1 l all o!r gases1 is a bad radiator2 & ?is t5ds to protect x f be+ cool$ to su* an ext5t z x w\ld o!rwise be1 7 x a good radiator l solids4 ,true1 x is also a bad absorb]2 b z x is cool$ by radiation into space1 & heat$1 n altoge!r by absorption1 b to a v l>ge ext5t by convection1 x on ! :ole ga9s its heat m easily ?an x loses x1 & consequ5tly mu/ /& at a high] temp]ature ?an x w\ld d 7 x heat$ by absorption alone4 ,b1 to return2 ! error ( reg>d+ ! decrease ( temp]ature z proportionate to ! decrease 9 ! am\nt ( heat receiv$1 is probably neutraliz$ by "o ( an opposite nature1 viz41 t ( tak+ space at too high a temp]ature2 = by s do+ we make ! result too small4 ,we "k t absolute z]o is at lea/ #dic bel[ ! melt+-po9t ( ice4 ,?is is #bbb bel[ t ( space4 ,consequ5tly1 if ! heat d]iv$ f ! />s is able to ma9ta9 a temp]ature ( #bci1 or #bbb ( absolute temp]ature1 !n ne>ly z mu* heat is d]iv$ f ! />s z f ! sun4 ,b if s1 :y d ! />s give s mu* heat & s v little light8 ,if ! radiation f ! />s c\ld ma9ta9 a !rmomet] #bbb above absolute z]o1 !n space mu/ be f> m transp>5t to heat-rays ?an to light-rays1 or else ! />s give out a great am\nt ( heat1 b v little light1 nei!r ( :i* suppositions is probably true4 ,! probability is1 ,i v5ture to presume1 t ! temp]ature ( space is n v mu* above absolute z]o4 ,at ! "t :5 ^! inve/igations into ! probable temp]ature ( space 7 made1 at lea/ z reg>ds ! lab\rs ( ,p\illet1 ! mod]n sci5ce ( heat _h no exi/5ce1 & little or no?+ 0 !n kn[n ) c]ta9ty reg>d+ absolute z]o4 ,9 ?is case ! :ole matt] w\ld require to be reconsid]$4 ,! result ( su* an inve/igation 9 all probability w\ld be to assign a l[] temp]ature to /ell> space ?an #bci4 ,tak+ all ^! v>i\s consid]ations into acc\nt1 x is probable t if we adopt #bci z ! temp]ature ( space1 we %all n be f> f ! tru? 9 assum+ t ! absolute temp]ature ( a place above t ( space is proportionate to ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun4 ,we may1 !re=e1 9 ?is case conclude t #ei ( rise is probably n v f> f ! tru?1 z repres5t+ ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,! ,gulf-/ream1 in/ead ( produc+ little or no effect1 produces an effect f> great] ?an is g5]ally suppos$4 ,our isl& has a mean annual temp]ature ( ab\t #ab above ! normal due to its latitude4 ,?is excess ( temp]ature has be5 ju/ly attribut$ to ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,b x is s+ul> h[ ?is excess %\ld h be5 tak5 z ! measure ( ! rise result+ f ! influ5ce ( ! /ream4 ,^! figures only repres5t ! numb] ( degrees t ! mean normal temp]ature ( our isl& /&s above :at is call$ ! normal temp]ature ( ! latitude4 ,! mode 9 :i* ,pr(essor ,dove con/ruct$ 8 ,tables ( normal temp]ature 0 z foll[s3--,he took ! temp]ature ( ?irty-six equidi/ant po9ts on e t5 degrees ( latitude4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ^! ?irty-six po9ts he calls 9 ea* case ! normal temp]ature ( ! p>allel4 ,! excess above ! normal m]ely repres5ts h[ mu* ! /ream raises our temp]ature above ! mean ( all places on ! same latitude1 b x af=ds u no in=mation reg>d+ ! absolute rise produc$4 ,9 ! ,pacific1 z well z 9 ! ,atlantic1 !re are imm5se masses ( wat] fl[+ f ! tropical to ! temp]ate regions4 ,n[1 unless we "k h[ mu* ( ! normal temp]ature ( a latitude is due to ocean-curr5ts1 & h[ mu* to ! direct heat ( ! sun1 we c\ld n possibly1 f ,pr(essor ,dove's ,tables1 =m ! mo/ di/ant conjecture z to h[ mu* ( our temp]ature is d]iv$ f ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,! ov]look+ ( ?is fact has l$ to a g5]al misconception reg>d+ ! positive influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream on temp]ature4 ,! #ab m>k$ 9 ,tables ( normal temp]ature d n repres5t ! absolute effect ( ! /ream1 b m]ely %[ h[ mu* ! /ream raises ! temp]ature ( our c\ntry above ! mean ( all places on ! same latitude4 ,o!r places h _! temp]ature rais$ by ocean-curr5ts z well z ?is c\ntry2 only ! ,gulf-/ream produces a rise ( sev]al degrees ov] & above t produc$ by o!r /reams 9 ! same latitude4 ,at pres5t !re is a diff]5ce m]ely ( #hj betwe5 ! mean temp]ature ( ! equator & ! poles2#be b 7 ea* "p ( ! globe's surface to dep5d only ^u ! direct heat :i* x receives f ! sun1 !re ought1 accord+ to !ory1 to be a diff]5ce ( m ?an #bjj4 ,! annual quantity ( heat receiv$ at ! equator is to t receiv$ at ! poles 7suppos+ ! proportionate quantity absorb$ by ! atmosph]e to be ! same 9 bo? cases7 z #ab to #dih1 or1 say1 z #ab to #e4 ,consequ5tly1 if ! temp]atures ( ! equator & ! poles be tak5 z proportionate to ! absolute am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun1 !n ! temp]ature ( ! equator above t ( space mu/ be to t ( ! poles above t ( space z #ab to #e4 ,:at ought1 !re=e1 to be ! temp]atures ( ! equator & ! poles1 did ea* place dep5d solely ^u ! heat :i* x receives directly f ! sun8 ,7 all ocean & arial curr5ts /opp$1 s t !re c\ld be no transf]5ce ( heat f "o "p ( ! e>?'s surface to ano!r1 :at ought to be ! temp]atures ( ! equator & ! poles8 ,we c at lea/ arrive at a r\gh e/imate on ?is po9t4 ,if we dim9i% ! quantity ( w>m wat] convey$ f ! equatorial regions to ! temp]ate & arctic regions1 ! temp]ature ( ! equator w beg9 to rise1 & t ( ! poles to s9k4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ?is process w\ld affect ! temp]ature ( ! poles m ?an x w\ld t ( ! equator2 = z ! w>m wat] fl[s f ! equator to ! poles1 ! area ov] :i* x is spread becomes less & less4 ,b z ! wat] f ! tropics has to raise ! temp]ature ( ! temp]ate regions z well z ! pol>1 ! diff]5ce ( effect at ! equator & poles might n1 on t acc\nt1 be s v great4 ,let u take a r\gh e/imate4 ,say t1 z ! temp]ature ( ! equator rises "o degree1 ! temp]ature ( ! poles s9ks "o degree & a half4 ,! mean annual temp]ature ( ! globe is ab\t #eh4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ! equator is #hj1 & t ( ! poles #j4 ,let ocean & arial curr5ts n[ beg9 to cease1 ! temp]ature ( ! equator comm5ces to rise & ! temp]ature ( ! poles to s9k4 ,= e degree t ! temp]ature ( ! equator rises1 t ( ! poles s9ks #a2 & :5 ! curr5ts are all /opp$ & ea* place becomes dep5d5t solely ^u ! direct rays ( ! sun1 ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! equator above t ( space w be to t ( ! poles1 above t ( space1 z #ab to #e4 ,:5 ?is proportion is rea*$1 ! equator w be #cgd above t ( space1 & ! poles #aef2 = #cgd is to #aef z #ab is to #e4 ,! temp]ature ( space we h se5 to be #bci1 consequ5tly ! temp]ature ( ! equator w 9 ?is case be #ace1 reckon$ f ! z]o ( ! ,fahr5heit !rmomet]1 & ! poles #hc bel[ z]o4 ,! equator w\ld !re=e be #ee w>m] ?an at pres5t1 & ! poles #hc cold]4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! equator & ! poles w 9 ?is case am\nt to #bah4 ,n[1 if we take into acc\nt ! quantity ( positive en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat c>ri$ by w>m curr5ts f ! equator to ! temp]ate & pol> regions1 & also ! quantity ( negative en]gy 7cold7 c>ri$ by cold curr5ts f ! pol> regions to ! equator1 we %all f9d t !y are suffici5t to r$uce ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! poles & ! equator f #bah to #hj4 ,! quantity ( heat receiv$ 9 ! latitude ( ,london1 = example1 is to t receiv$ at ! equator ne>ly z #ab to #h4 ,?is1 accord+ to !ory1 %\ld produce a diff]5ce ( ab\t #abe4 ,! temp]ature ( ! equator above t ( space1 z we h se51 w\ld be #cgd4 ,!re=e #bdi above t ( space w\ld repres5t ! temp]ature ( ! latitude ( ,london4 ,?is w\ld give #aj z its temp]ature4 ,! /oppage ( all ocean & arial curr5ts w\ld ?us increase ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! equator & ! latitude ( ,london by ab\t #he4 ,! /oppage ( ocean-curr5ts w\ld n be ne>ly s mu* felt1 ( c\rse1 9 ! latitude ( ,london z at ! equator & ! poles1 because1 z has be5 already notic$1 9 all latitudes midway betwe5 ! equator & ! poles ! two sets ( curr5ts to a consid]able ext5t comp5sate ea* o!r--! w>m curr5ts f ! equator raise ! temp]ature1 :ile ! cold ones f ! poles l[] x2 b z ! w>m curr5ts *iefly keep on ! surface & ! cold return-curr5ts are pr9cipally "u-curr5ts1 ! heat+ effect v greatly exce$s ! cool+ effect4 ,n[1 z we h se51 ! /oppage ( all curr5ts w\ld raise ! temp]ature ( ! equator #ee2 t is to say1 ! rise at ! equator alone w\ld increase ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equator & t ( ,london by #ee4 ,b ! actual diff]5ce1 z we h se51 ought to be #he2 consequ5tly ! temp]ature ( ,london w\ld be l[]$ #cj by ! /oppage ( ! curr5ts4 ,= if we raise ! temp]ature ( ! equator #ee & l[] ! temp]ature ( ,london #cj1 we !n increase ! diff]5ce by #he4 ,! normal temp]ature ( ! latitude ( ,london be+ #dj1 ! /oppage ( all ocean & arial curr5ts w\ld ?us r$uce x to #aj4 ,b ! ,gulf-/ream raises ! actual mean temp]ature ( ,london #aj above ! normal4 ,consequ5tly #cj #aj #dj repres5ts ! actual rise at ,london due to ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream ov] & above all ! l[]+ effects result+ f arctic curr5ts4 ,on "s p>ts ( ! ,am]ican %ores on ! latitude ( ,london1 ! temp]ature is #aj bel[ ! normal4 ,! /oppage ( all ocean & arial curr5ts w\ld !re=e l[] ! temp]ature !re only #bj4 ,x is at ! equator & ! poles t ! great sy/em ( ocean & arial curr5ts produces its maximum effects4 ,! influ5ce becomes less & less z we rec$e f ^? places1 & betwe5 !m !re is a po9t :]e ! influ5ce ( w>m curr5ts f ! equator & ( cold curr5ts f ! poles exactly neutralize ea* o!r4 ,at ?is po9t ! /oppage ( ocean-curr5ts w\ld n s5sibly affect temp]ature4 ,?is po9t1 ( c\rse1 is n situat$ on ! same latitude 9 all m]idians1 b v>ies accord+ to ! position ( ! m]idian 9 relation to l&1 & ocean-curr5ts1 :e!r cold or hot1 & o!r circum/ances4 ,a l9e drawn r\nd ! globe ?r\gh ^! v>i\s po9ts w\ld be v irregul>4 ,at "o place1 su* z on ! we/]n side ( ! ,atlantic1 :]e ! arctic curr5t pr$om9ates1 ! neutral l9e w\ld be deflect$ t[>ds ! equator1 :ile on ! ea/]n side1 :]e w>m curr5ts pr$om9ate1 ! l9e w\ld be deflect$ t[>ds ! nor?4 ,x is a difficult problem to det]m9e ! mean position ( ?is l9e2 x probably lies some:]e n f> nor? ( ! tropics4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,ocean-,,curr5ts ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,heat ,,ov] ,,! ,,globe4--7,cont9u$47 ,influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream on ! ,climate ( ! ,arctic ,regions4--,absolute ,am\nt ( ,heat receiv$ by ! ,arctic ,regions f ! ,sun4--,influ5ce ( ,ocean-curr5ts %[n by ano!r ,me?od4--,temp]ature ( a ,globe all ,wat] or all ,l& accord+ to ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes4--,an important ,consid]ation ov]look$4--,)\t ,ocean-curr5ts ! ,globe w\ld n be habitable4--,conclusions n affect$ by ,imp]fection ( ,data4 ,influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream on ! ,climate ( ! ,arctic ,regions4--,does ! ,gulf-/ream pass into ! arctic regions8 ,are ! seas ar\nd ,spitzb]g5 & ,nor? ,gre5l& heat$ by ! w>m wat] ( ! /ream8 ,^? :o d5y ?is nev]!less admit ! exi/5ce ( an arctic curr5t4 ,!y admit t an imm5se mass ( cold wat] is cont9ually fl[+ s\? f ! pol> regions ar\nd ,gre5l& into ! ,atlantic4 ,if x be admitt$1 !n1 t a mass ( wat] fl[s across ! arctic circle f nor? to s\?1 x mu/ also be admitt$ t an equal mass fl[s across f s\? to nor?4 ,x is also evid5t t ! wat] cross+ f s\? to nor? mu/ be w>m] ?an ! wat] cross+ f nor? to s\?2 = ! temp]ate regions are w>m] ?an ! arctic1 & ! ocean 9 temp]ate regions w>m] ?an ! ocean 9 ! arctic2 consequ5tly ! curr5t :i* fl[s into ! arctic seas1 to comp5sate = ! cold arctic curr5t1 mu/ be a w>m] curr5t4 ,is ! ,gulf-/ream ?is w>m curr5t8 ,does ?is comp5sat+ w>m curr5t proce$ f ! ,atlantic or f ! ,pacific8 ,if x proce$s f ! ,atlantic1 x is simply ! w>m wat] ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,we may call x ! w>m wat] ( ! ,atlantic if we *oose2 b ?is _c mat]ially affect ! "q at issue1 = ! heat :i* ! wat]s ( ! ,atlantic possess is d]iv$1 z we h se51 to an enorm\s ext5t f ! wat] br\ght f ! tropics by ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,if we d5y t ! w>m comp5sat+ curr5t comes f ! ,atlantic1 !n we mu/ assume t x comes f ! ,pacific4 ,b if ! cold curr5t fl[s f ! arctic regions into ! ,atlantic1 & ! w>m comp5sat+ curr5t f ! ,pacific into ! arctic regions1 ! highe/ temp]ature %\ld be f\nd on ! ,pacific side ( ! arctic regions & n on ! ,atlantic side2 ! rev]se1 h[ev]1 is ! case4 ,9 ! ,atlantic1 = example1 ! #da iso!rmal l9e rea*es to latitude #fecj1 :ile 9 ! ,pacific x n[h]e goes beyond latitude #eg4 ,! #bg iso!rm rea*es to latitude #ge 9 ! ,atlantic1 b 9 ! ,pacific x does n pass beyond #fd4 ,& ! #ad iso!rm rea*es ! nor? ( ,spitzb]g5 9 latitude #hj1 :]eas on ! ,pacific side ( ! arctic regions x does n rea* to latitude #gb4 ,on no po9t ( ! e>?'s surface does ! mean annual temp]ature rise s high above ! normal z 9 ! nor!rn ,atlantic1 j at ! arctic circle1 at a spot believ$ to be 9 ! middle ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,?is place is no less ?an #bbe above ! normal1 :ile 9 ! nor!rn ,pacific ! temp]ature does n any:]e rise m ?an #i above ! normal4 ,^! facts prove t ! w>m curr5t passes up ! ,atlantic into ! arctic regions & n up ! ,pacific1 or at lea/ t ! l>g] am\nt ( w>m wat] mu/ pass into ! arctic regions ?r\gh ! ,atlantic4 ,9 o!r words1 ! ,gulf-/ream is ! w>m comp5sat+ curr5t4 ,n only mu/ !re be a w>m /ream1 b "o ( v consid]able magnitude1 9 ord] to comp5sate = ! great am\nt ( cold wat] t is con/antly fl[+ f ! arctic regions1 & also to ma9ta9 ! temp]ature ( ^? regions s mu* above ! temp]ature ( space z !y actually are4 ,no d\bt1 :5 ! results ( ! late dr$g+ exp$ition are publi%$1 !y w ca/ mu* additional light on ! direction & "* ( ! curr5ts =m+ ! nor?-ea/]n bran* ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,! av]age quantity ( heat receiv$ by ! arctic regions z a :ole p] unit surface to t receiv$ at ! equator1 z we h already se51 is z #ede to #ab1 assum+ t ! p]c5tage ( rays cut (f by ! atmosph]e is ! same at bo? places4 ,9 ?is case ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! arctic regions1 tak5 z a :ole1 w\ld be ab\t #fi1 did ^? regions dep5d entirely = _! temp]ature ^u ! heat receiv$ directly f ! sun4 ,b ! temp]ature w\ld n ev5 rea* to ?is2 = ! p]c5tage ( rays cut (f by ! atmosph]e 9 arctic regions is g5]ally believ$ to be great] ?an at ! equator1 & consequ5tly ! actual mean quantity ( heat receiv$ by ! arctic regions w be less ?an #edeab?s ( :at is receiv$ at ! equator4 ,9 ! article on ,climate 9 ! 8,encyclopdia ,britannica0 !re is a ,table calculat$ ^u ! pr9ciple t ! quantity ( heat cut (f is proportionate to ! numb] ( arial p>ticles :i* ! rays h to enc\nt] be=e rea*+ ! surface ( ! e>?--t1 z a g5]al rule1 if ! tracts ( ! rays foll[ an ari?metical progression1 ! dim9i%$ =ce ) :i* ! rays rea* ! gr\nd w =m a decreas+ geometrical progression4 ,accord+ to ?is ,table ab\t #ge p] c5t4 ( ! sun's rays are cut (f by ! atmosph]e 9 arctic regions4 ,if #ge p] c5t4 ( ! rays 7 cut (f by ! atmosph]e 9 arctic regions1 !n ! direct rays ( ! sun c\ld n ma9ta9 a mean temp]ature #ajj above t ( space4 ,b ?is is no d\bt mu* too high a p]c5tage = ! quantity ( heat cut (f2 = rec5t discov]ies 9 reg>d to ! absorption ( radiant heat by gases & vap\rs prove t ,tables comput$ on ?is pr9ciple mu/ be incorrect4 ,! rese>*es ( ,tyndall & ,melloni %[ t :5 rays pass ?r\gh any sub/ance1 ! absorption is rapid at fir/3 b ! rays are soon 8sift$10 z x is call$1 & !y !n pass onw>ds ) b little fur!r ob/ruction4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 ow+ to ! d5se fogs :i* prevail 9 arctic regions1 ! quantity ( heat cut (f mu/ be consid]able4 ,if z mu* z #ej p] c5t4 ( ! sun's rays are cut (f by ! atmosph]e 9 arctic regions1 ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ directly f ! sun w\ld n be suffici5t to ma9ta9 a mean annual temp]ature ( #ajj4 ,consequ5tly ! arctic regions mu/ dep5d to an enorm\s ext5t ^u ocean-curr5ts = _! temp]ature4 ,influ5ce ( ,ocean-curr5ts %[n by ano!r ,me?od4--,t ! temp]ature ( ! arctic regions w\ld s9k enorm\sly1 & ! temp]ature ( ! equator rise enorm\sly1 7 all ocean-curr5ts /opp$1 c be %[n by ano!r me?od--viz41 by tak+ ! mean annual temp]ature f ! equator to ! pole along a m]idian pass+ ?r\gh ! ocean1 say1 ! ,atlantic1 & comp>+ x ) ! mean annual temp]ature tak5 along a m]idian pass+ ?r\gh a great cont95t1 say1 ! ,asiatic4 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes1 9 an int]e/+ memoir1#bf has endeav\r$ by ?is me?od to det]m9e :at w\ld be ! temp]ature ( ! equator & ! poles 7 ! globe all wat] or all l&4 ,he has tak5 ! temp]ature ( ! two m]idians f ! tables & *>ts ( ,pr(essor ,dove1 & asc]ta9$ ! exact proportion ( l& & wat] on e #aj ( latitude f ! equator to ! poles1 ) ! view ( det]m9+ :at proportion ( ! av]age temp]ature ( ! globe 9 ea* p>allel is due to ! l&1 & :at to ! wat] :i* respectively belongs to x4 ,he next endeav\rs to obta9 a =mula = express+ ! mean temp]ature ( a giv5 p>allel1 & !nce arrives at 8an approximate answ] to ! inquiry z to :at w\ld h be5 ! equatorial or pol> temp]ature ( ! globe1 or t ( any latitude1 _h its surface be5 entirely compos$ ( l& or ( wat]40 ,! result at :i* he arriv$ is ?is3 t1 7 ! surface ( ! globe all wat]1 #gag w\ld be ! temp]ature ( ! equator1 & #abe ! temp]ature ( ! poles2 & 7 ! surface all l&1 #ajih w\ld be ! temp]ature ( ! equator1 & #bef ! temp]ature ( ! poles4 ,b 9 ,pr(essor ,=bes's calculations no acc\nt :atev] is tak5 ( ! influ5ce ( curr5ts1 :e!r ( wat] or ( air1 & ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature is attribut$ :olly to diff]5ce ( latitude & ! physical prop]ties ( l& & wat] 9 relation to _! p[]s 9 absorb+ & deta9+ ! sun's rays1 & to ! laws ( conduction & ( convection :i* regulate ! int]nal motion ( heat 9 ! "o & 9 ! o!r4 ,he consid]s t ! effects ( curr5ts are all comp5satory4 8,if a curr5t ( hot wat]10 he says1 8mod]ates ! cold ( a ,lapl& w9t]1 ! c\nt]-curr5t1 :i* br+s ! cold ( ,gre5l& to ! %ores ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 a great measure re/ores ! balance ( temp]ature1 s f> z x is di/urb$ by ?is p>ticul> influ5ce4 ,! preval5t w9ds1 9 l mann]1 includ+ ! trade-w9ds1 ?\gh !y r5d] "s portions ( cont95ts1 on ! av]age1 hott] or cold] ?an o!rs1 produce j ! contr>y effect else:]e4 ,ea* cont95t1 if x has a cold ea/]n %ore1 has likewise a w>m we/]n "o2 & ev5 local w9ds h = ! mo/ "p e/abli%$ laws ( comp5sation4 ,9 a giv5 p>allel ( latitude all ^! second>y causes ( local climate may be imag9$ to be mutually comp5satory1 & ! out/&+ gradation ( mean or normal temp]ature w ma9ly dep5d1 #a/1 ^u ! effect ( latitude simply2 #bnd1 on ! di/ribution ( l& & wat] consid]$ 9 _! prim>y or /atical effect40 ,x is s+ul> t a physici/ s acute z ,pr(essor ,=bes %\ld1 9 a "q su* z ?is1 leave out ( acc\nt ! influ5ce ( curr5ts1 "u ! impression t _! effects 7 comp5satory4 ,if !re is a con/ant transf]5ce ( hot wat] f ! equatorial regions to ! pol>1 & ( cold wat] f ! pol> regions to ! equatorial 7a ?+ :i* ,pr(essor ,=bes admitt$71 !n !re c only be "o place betwe5 ! equator & ! pole :]e ! two sets ( curr5ts comp5sate ea* o!r4 ,at all places on ! equatorial side ( ?is po9t a cool+ effect is ! result4 ,/>t+ f ?is neutral po9t1 ! prepond]ance ( ! cool+ effect ov] ! heat+ increases z we approa* t[>ds ! equator1 & ! prepond]ance ( ! heat+ effect ov] ! cool+ increases z we rec$e f ?is po9t t[>ds ! pole--! cool+ effect rea*+ a maximum at ! equator1 & ! heat+ effect a maximum at ! pole4 ,_h ,pr(essor ,=bes obs]v$ ?is important fact1 he w\ld h se5 at once t ! l[ temp]ature ( ! l& 9 high latitudes1 9 comp>ison ) t ( ! sea1 0 no index :atev] z to h[ mu* ! temp]ature ( ^? regions w\ld s9k 7 ! sea entirely remov$ & ! surface to become l&2 = ! pres5t high temp]ature ( ! sea is n due :olly to ! m]e physical prop]ties ( wat]1 b to a great ext5t is due to ! heat br\ght by curr5ts f ! equator4 ,n[1 unless x is kn[n h[ mu* ( ! absolute temp]ature ( ! ocean 9 ^? latitudes is due to curr5ts1 we _c tell h[ mu* ! removal ( ! sea w\ld l[] ! absolute temp]ature ( ^? places4 ,7 ! sea remov$1 ! cont95ts 9 high latitudes w\ld n simply lose ! heat+ advantages :i* !y pres5tly d]ive f ! m]e fact ( _! proximity to s mu* sea1 b ! removal w\ld1 9 addition to ?is1 deprive !m ( an enorm\s am\nt ( heat :i* !y at pres5t receive f ! tropics by means ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 at ! equator1 7 ! sea remov$1 ! cont95ts !re w\ld n simply lose ! cool+ influ5ces :i* result f _! proximity to s mu* wat]1 b1 9 addition to ?is1 !y w\ld h to endure ! scor*+ effects :i* w\ld result f ! heat :i* is at pres5t c>ri$ away f ! tropics by ocean-curr5ts4 ,we h already se5 t ,pr(essor ,=bes conclud$ t ! removal ( ! sea w\ld raise ! mean temp]ature ( ! equator #cj1 & l[] ! temp]ature ( ! poles #bh2 x is !re=e p]fectly c]ta9 t1 _h he add$ to 8 result ! effect due to ocean-curr5ts1 & _h he be5 aw>e t ab\t "o-fif? ( all ! heat possess$ by ! ,atlantic is actually d]iv$ f ! equator by means ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 he w\ld h assign$ a temp]ature to ! equator & ! poles1 ( a globe all l&1 diff]+ n v f> f :at ,i h conclud$ w\ld be ! temp]ature ( ^? places 7 all ocean & arial curr5ts /opp$1 & ea* place to dep5d solely ^u ! heat :i* x receiv$ directly f ! sun4 ,)\t ,ocean-curr5ts ! ,globe w\ld n be habitable4--,all ^! =ego+ consid]ations %[ to :at an ext5t ! climatic condition ( our globe is due to ! !rmal influ5ces ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,z reg>ds ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 we h two imm5se oceans1 ! ,pacific & ! ,atlantic1 ext5d+ f ! equator to ne> ! nor? pole1 or p]haps to ! pole altoge!r4 ,betwe5 ^! two oceans lie two great cont95ts1 ! ea/]n & ! we/]n4 ,ow+ to ! e>?'s sph]ical =m1 f> too mu* heat is receiv$ at ! equator & f> too little at high latitudes to make ! e>? a suitable habitation = s5ti5t be+s4 ,! function ( ^! two great oceans is to remove ! heat f ! equator & c>ry x to temp]ate & pol> regions4 ,arial curr5ts c\ld n d ?is4 ,!y might remove ! heat f ! equator1 b !y c\ld n1 z we h already se51 c>ry x to ! temp]ate & pol> regions2 = ! great] portion ( ! heat :i* arial curr5ts remove f ! equator is dissipat$ into /ell> space3 ! ocean alone c convey ! heat to di/ant %ores4 ,b arial curr5ts h a mo/ important function2 = ( :at avail w\ld x be1 ?\gh ocean-curr5ts %\ld c>ry heat to high latitudes1 if !re 7 no means ( di/ribut+ ! heat ?us convey$ ov] ! l&8 ,! function ( arial curr5ts is to d ?is4 ,^u ?is tw(old arrangem5t dep5ds ! !rmal condition ( ! globe4 ,exclude ! wat]s ( ! ,pacific & ! ,atlantic f temp]ate & pol> regions & place !m at ! equator1 & no?+ n[ exi/+ on ! globe c\ld live 9 high latitudes4 ,7 ^! two great oceans plac$ beside ea* o!r on "o side ( ! globe1 & ! two great cont95ts plac$ beside ea* o!r on ! o!r side1 ! nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld n !n be suitable = ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s3 ! l& on ! c5tral & on ! ea/]n side ( ! unit$ cont95t w\ld be f> too cold4 ,! =ego+ ,conclusions n affect$ by ! ,imp]fection ( ! ,data4--,! g5]al results at :i* we h arriv$ 9 ref]5ce to ! influ5ce ( ocean-curr5ts on ! climatic condition ( ! globe are n affect$ by ! imp]fection ( ! data employ$4 ,x is p]fectly true t consid]able unc]ta9ty prevails reg>d+ "s ( ! data2 b1 aft] mak+ ! fulle/ all[ance = e possible error1 ! influ5ce ( curr5ts is s enorm\s t ! g5]al conclusion _c be mat]ially affect$4 ,i c h>dly imag9e t any "o famili> ) ! physics ( ! subject w be likely to ?9k t1 ow+ to possible errors 9 ! data1 ! effects h probably be5 d\bl$4 ,ev5 admitt+1 h[ev]1 t ?is 7 prov$ to be ! case1 /ill t w\ld n mat]ially alt] ! g5]al conclusion at :i* we h arriv$4 ,! influ5ce ( ocean-curr5ts 9 ! di/ribution ( heat ov] ! surface ( ! globe w\ld /ill be admitt$ly enorm\s1 :e!r we conclud$ t ow+ to !m ! pres5t temp]ature ( ! equator is #ee or #bg cold] ?an x w\ld o!rwise be1 or ! poles #hc or #da hott] ?an !y w\ld be did no curr5ts exi/4 ,nay1 m1 suppose we %\ld aga9 halve ! result2 ev5 9 t case we %\ld h to admit t1 ow+ to ocean-curr5ts1 ! equator is ab\t #ad cold] & ! poles ab\t #ba hott] ?an !y w\ld o!rwise be2 9 o!r words1 we %\ld h to admit t1 7 x n = ocean-curr5ts1 ! mean temp]ature ( ! equator w\ld be ab\t #ajj & ! mean temp]ature ( ! poles ab\t #ba4 ,if ! influ5ce ( ocean-curr5ts 9 r$uc+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! equator & poles am\nt$ to only a few degrees1 x w\ld ( c\rse be ne$less to put mu* weight on any results arriv$ at by ! me?od ( calculation :i* ,i h adopt$2 b :5 x is a matt] ( two hundr$ degrees1 x is n at all likely t ! g5]al results w be v mu* affect$ by any errors :i* may ev] be f\nd 9 ! data4 ,objections ( a palontological nature h frequ5tly be5 urg$ aga9/ ! op9ion t our isl& is mu* indebt$ = its mild climate to ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream2 b1 f :at has already be5 /at$1 x mu/ be app>5t t all objections ( t nature are ( little avail4 ,! palontologi/ may detect1 f ! "* ( ! flora & fauna br\ght up f ! sea-bottom by dr$g+ & o!r means1 ! pres5ce ( a w>m or ( a cold curr5t2 b ?is c nev] enable him to prove t ! temp]ate & pol> regions are n affect$ to an enorm\s ext5t by w>m wat] convey$ f ! equatorial regions4 ,= any?+ t palontology c %[ to ! contr>y1 7 ocean-curr5ts to cease1 ! mean annual temp]ature ( our isl& might s9k bel[ ! pres5t midw9t] temp]ature ( ,sib]ia4 ,:at w\ld be ! !rmal condition ( our globe 7 !re no ocean-curr5ts is a "q = ! physici/2 n = ! naturali/4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,outl9e ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,ag5cies ,,:i* ,,lead ,,to ,,secul> ,,*anges ,,( ,,climate4 ,ecc5tricity ( ! ,e>?'s ,orbit2 its ,effect on ,climate4--,glacial ,epo* n ! direct ,result ( an ,increase ( ,ecc5tricity4--,an important ,consid]ation ov]look$4--,*ange ( ,ecc5tricity affects ,climate only indirectly4--,ag5cies :i* are br\ght into ,op]ation by an ,increase ( ,ecc5tricity4--,h[ an ,accumulation ( ,sn[ is produc$4--,! ,effect ( ,sn[ on ! ,summ] ,temp]ature4--,reason ( ! l[ ,summ] ,temp]ature ( ,pol> ,regions4--,deflection ( ,ocean-curr5ts ! *ief ,cause ( secul> ,*anges ( ,climate4--,h[ ! =ego+ ,causes deflect ,ocean-curr5ts4--,ne>ness ( ! ,sun 9 ,p]igee a ,cause ( ! ,accumulation ( ,ice4--,a rem>kable ,circum/ance reg>d+ ! ,causes :i* lead to secul> ,*anges ( ,climate4--,! prim>y ,cause an ,increase ( ,ecc5tricity4--,mean ,temp]ature ( :ole ,e>? %\ld be great] 9 ,aphelion ?an 9 ,p]ihelion4--,pr(essor ,tyndall on ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,a g5]al ,r$uction ( ,temp]ature w n produce a ,glacial ,epo*4--,objection f ! pres5t ,condition ( ! ,planet ,m>s4 ,prim>y cause ( ,*ange ( ,ecc5tricity ( ! ,e>?'s ,orbit4--,!re are two causes affect+ ! position ( ! e>? 9 relation to ! sun1 :i* mu/1 to a v l>ge ext5t1 influ5ce ! e>?'s climate2 viz41 ! precession ( ! equ9oxes & ! *ange 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,if we duly exam9e ! comb9$ influ5ce ( ^! two causes1 we %all f9d t ! nor!rn & s\!rn portions ( ! globe are subject to an excessively sl[ secul> *ange ( climate1 consi/+ 9 a sl[ p]iodic *ange ( alt]nate w>m] & cold] cycles4 ,accord+ to ! calculations ( ,lev]ri]1 ! sup]ior limit ( ! e>?'s ecc5tricity is #jjggge4bg ,! ecc5tricity is at pres5t dim9i%+1 & w cont9ue to d s dur+ #bc1ihj ye>s1 f ! ye> #ahjj ,a4,d41 :5 its value w be !n #jjcad4 ,! *ange 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit may affect ! climate 9 two diff]5t ways2 viz41 by ei!r increas+ or dim9i%+ ! mean annual am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun1 or by increas+ or dim9i%+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 summ] & w9t] temp]ature4 ,let u consid] ! =m] case fir/4 ,! total quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun dur+ "o revolution is inv]sely proportional to ! m9or axis4 ,! diff]5ce ( ! m9or axis ( ! orbit :5 at its maximum & its m9imum /ate ( ecc5tricity is z #iig to #ajjj4 ,?is small am\nt ( diff]5ce _c !re=e s5sibly affect ! climate4 ,h5ce we mu/ seek = our cause 9 ! second case "u consid]ation4 ,!re is ( c\rse z yet "s little unc]ta9ty 9 reg>d to ! exact mean di/ance ( ! sun4 ,i %all1 h[ev]1 9 ! pres5t volume assume x to be #ia1djj1jjj miles4 ,:5 ! ecc5tricity is at its sup]ior limit1 ! di/ance ( ! sun f ! e>?1 :5 ! latt] is 9 ! aphelion ( its orbit1 is no less ?an #ih1ejf1cej miles2 & :5 9 ! p]ihelion x is only #hd1bic1fej miles4 ,! e>? is !re=e #ad1bab1gjj miles fur!r f ! sun 9 ! =m] position ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,! direct heat ( ! sun be+ inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 x foll[s t ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ by ! e>? :5 9 ^! two positions w be z #ai to #bf4 ,tak+ ! pres5t ecc5tricity to be #jafh1 ! e>?'s di/ance dur+ w9t]1 :5 ne>e/ to ! sun1 is #hi1hfd1dhj miles4 ,suppose n[ t1 accord+ to ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 w9t] 9 our nor!rn hemisph]e %\ld happ5 :5 ! e>? is 9 ! aphelion ( its orbit1 at ! "t :5 ! orbit is at its greate/ ecc5tricity2 ! e>? w\ld !n be #h1fda1hgj miles fur!r f ! sun 9 w9t] ?an at pres5t4 ,! direct heat ( ! sun w\ld !re=e be "o-fif? less dur+ t season ?an at pres5t2 & 9 summ] "o-fif? great]4 ,?is enorm\s diff]5ce w\ld affect ! climate to a v great ext5t4 ,b if w9t] "u ^! circum/ances %\ld happ5 :5 ! e>? is 9 ! p]ihelion ( its orbit1 ! e>? w\ld !n be #ad1bab1gjj miles ne>] ! sun 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,9 ?is case ! diff]5ce betwe5 w9t] & summ] 9 ! latitude ( ?is c\ntry w\ld be almo/ annihilat$4 ,b z ! w9t] 9 ! "o hemisph]e corresponds ) ! summ] 9 ! o!r1 x foll[s t :ile ! "o hemisph]e w\ld be endur+ ! greate/ extremes ( summ] heat & w9t] cold1 ! o!r w\ld be enjoy+ a p]petual summ]4 ,x is q true t :atev] may be ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 ! two hemisph]es mu/ receive equal quantities ( heat p] annum2 = proximity to ! sun is exactly comp5sat$ by ! effect ( swift] motion--! total am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun betwe5 ! two equ9oxes is ! same 9 bo? halves ( ! ye>1 :atev] ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit may be4 ,= example1 :atev] extra heat ! s\!rn hemisph]e may at pres5t receive f ! sun dur+ its summ] mon?s ow+ to great] proximity to ! sun1 is exactly comp5sat$ by a correspond+ loss aris+ f ! %ortness ( ! season2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 :atev] defici5cy ( heat we 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e may at pres5t h dur+ our summ] half ye> 9 consequ5ce ( ! e>?'s di/ance f ! sun1 is also exactly comp5sat$ by a correspond+ l5g? ( season4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 ! introductory *apt] t a simple *ange 9 ! sun's di/ance w\ld n alone produce a glacial epo*1 & t ^? physici/s :o conf9$ _! att5tion to purely a/ronomical effects 7 p]fectly correct 9 affirm+ t no increase ( ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit c\ld acc\nt = t epo*4 ,b ! important fact 0 ov]look$ t al?\gh ! glacial epo* c\ld n result directly f an increase ( ecc5tricity1 x might nev]!less d s indirectly4 ,! glacial epo*1 z ,i hope to %[1 0 n due directly to an increase 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 b to a numb] ( physical ag5ts t 7 br\ght into op]ation z a result ( an increase4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to give an outl9e ( :at ^! physical ag5ts 71 h[ !y 7 br\ght into op]ation1 & ! way 9 :i* !y l$ to ! glacial epo*4 ,:5 ! ecc5tricity is ab\t its sup]ior limit1 ! comb9$ effect ( all ^? causes to :i* ,i allude is to l[] to a v great ext5t ! temp]ature ( ! hemisph]e ^: w9t]s occur 9 aphelion1 & to raise to ne>ly z great an ext5t ! temp]ature ( ! opposite hemisph]e1 :]e w9t] ( c\rse occurs 9 p]ihelion4 ,) ! ecc5tricity at its sup]ior limit & ! w9t] occurr+ 9 ! aphelion1 ! e>? w\ld be #h1fda1hgj miles fur!r f ! sun dur+ t season ?an at pres5t4 ,! r$uction 9 ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun ow+ to ?is increas$ di/ance w\ld1 ^u ! pr9ciple we h /at$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 l[] ! midw9t] temp]ature to an enorm\s ext5t4 ,9 temp]ate regions ! great] portion ( ! moi/ure ( ! air is at pres5t precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( ra91 & ! v small portion :i* falls z sn[ disappe>s 9 ! c\rse ( a few weeks at mo/4 ,b 9 ! circum/ances "u consid]ation1 ! mean w9t] temp]ature w\ld be l[]$ s mu* bel[ ! freez+-po9t t :at n[ falls z ra9 dur+ t season w\ld !n fall z sn[4 ,?is is n all2 ! w9t]s w\ld !n n only be cold] ?an n[1 b !y w\ld also be mu* long]4 ,at pres5t ! w9t]s are ne>ly eight days %ort] ?an ! summ]s2 b ) ! ecc5tricity at its sup]ior limit & ! w9t] sol/ice 9 aphelion1 ! l5g? ( ! w9t]s w\ld exce$ t ( ! summ]s by no few] ?an ?irty-six days4 ,! l[]+ ( ! temp]ature & ! l5g!n+ ( ! w9t] w\ld bo? t5d to ! same effect1 viz41 to increase ! am\nt ( sn[ accumulat$ dur+ ! w9t]2 =1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! l>g] ! sn[-accumulat+ p]iod ! great] ! accumulation4 ,i may rem>k1 h[ev]1 t ! absolute quantity ( heat receiv$ dur+ w9t] is n affect$ by ! decrease 9 ! sun's heat1#bh = ! additional l5g? ( ! season comp5sates = ?is decrease4 ,z reg>ds ! absolute am\nt ( heat receiv$1 increase ( ! sun's di/ance & l5g!n+ ( ! w9t] are comp5satory1 b n s 9 reg>d to ! am\nt ( sn[ accumulat$4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is /ate ( ?+s w\ld be t1 at ! comm5cem5t ( ! %ort summ]1 ! gr\nd w\ld be cov]$ ) ! w9t]'s accumulation ( sn[4 ,aga91 ! pres5ce ( s mu* sn[ w\ld l[] ! summ] temp]ature1 & prev5t to a great ext5t ! melt+ ( ! sn[4 ,!re are ?ree sep>ate ways :]eby accumulat$ masses ( sn[ & ice t5d to l[] ! summ] temp]ature1 viz43-- ,fir/4 ,by means ( direct radiation4 ,no matt] :at ! int5sity ( ! sun's rays may be1 ! temp]ature ( sn[ & ice c nev] rise above #cb4 ,h5ce ! pres5ce ( sn[ & ice t5ds by direct radiation to l[] ! temp]ature ( all surr\nd+ bodies to #cb4 ,9 ,gre5l&1 a c\ntry cov]$ ) sn[ & ice1 ! pit* has be5 se5 to melt on ! side ( a %ip expos$ to ! direct rays ( ! sun1 :ile at ! same "t ! surr\nd+ air 0 f> bel[ ! freez+-po9t2 a !rmomet] expos$ to ! direct radiation ( ! sun has be5 obs]v$ to /& above #ajj1 :ile ! air surr\nd+ ! in/rum5t 0 actually #ab bel[ ! freez+-po9t4#bi ,a simil> exp]i5ce has be5 record$ by travell]s on ! sn[-fields ( ! ,alps4#cj ,^! results1 surpris+ z !y no d\bt appe>1 are :at we ought to expect "u ! circum/ances4 ,! dia!rmancy ( air has be5 well e/abli%$ by ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,tyndall on radiant heat4 ,p]fectly dry air seems to be ne>ly incapable ( absorb+ radiant heat4 ,! entire radiation passes ?r\gh x almo/ )\t any s5sible absorption4 ,consequ5tly ! pit* on ! side ( ! %ip may be melt$1 or ! bulb ( ! !rmomet] rais$ to a high temp]ature by ! direct rays ( ! sun1 :ile ! surr\nd+ air rema9s int5sely cold4 8,a jo9t ( meat10 says ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 8might be roa/$ be=e a fire1 ! air ar\nd ! jo9t be+ cold z ice40#ca ,! air is cool$ by contact ) ! sn[-cov]$ gr\nd1 b is n heat$ by ! radiation f ! sun4 ,:5 ! air is humid & *>g$ ) aque\s vap\r1 a simil> cool+ effect also takes place1 b 9 a slightly diff]5t way4 ,air *>g$ ) aque\s vap\r is a good absorb] ( radiant heat1 b x c only absorb ^? rays :i* agree ) x 9 p]iod4 ,x s happ5s t rays f sn[ & ice are1 ( all o!rs1 ^? :i* x absorbs be/4 ,! humid air w absorb ! total radiation f ! sn[ & ice1 b x w all[ ! great] "p (1 if n ne>ly all1 ! sun's rays to pass unabsorb$4 ,b dur+ ! day1 :5 ! sun is %9+1 ! radiation f ! sn[ & ice to ! air is negative2 t is1 ! sn[ & ice cool ! air by radiation4 ,! result is1 ! air is cool$ by radiation f ! sn[ & ice 7or r1 we %\ld say1 to ! sn[ & ice7 m rapidly ?an x is heat$ by ! sun2 &1 z a consequ5ce1 9 a c\ntry l ,gre5l&1 cov]$ ) an icy mantle1 ! temp]ature ( ! air1 ev5 dur+ summ]1 seldom rises above ! freez+-po9t4 ,sn[ is a good reflector1 b z simple reflection does n *ange ! "* ( ! rays !y w\ld n be absorb$ by ! air1 b w\ld pass into /ell> space4 ,7 x n = ! ice1 ! summ]s ( ,nor? ,gre5l&1 ow+ to ! cont9uance ( ! sun above ! horizon1 w\ld be z w>m z ^? ( ,engl&2 b1 in/ead ( ?is1 ! ,gre5l& summ]s are cold] ?an our w9t]s4 ,cov] ,india ) an ice %eet1 & its summ]s w\ld be cold] ?an ^? ( ,engl&4 ,second4 ,ano!r cause ( ! cool+ effect is t ! rays :i* fall on sn[ & ice are to a great ext5t reflect$ back into space4#cb ,b ^? t are n reflect$1 b absorb$1 d n raise ! temp]ature1 = !y disappe> 9 ! me*anical "w ( melt+ ! ice4 ,! lat5t heat ( ice is ab\t #adb ,f42 consequ5tly 9 ! melt+ ( e p\nd ( ice a quantity ( heat suffici5t to raise "o p\nd ( wat] #adb disappe>s1 & is completely lo/1 s f> z temp]ature is conc]n$4 ,?is quantity ( heat is consum$1 n 9 rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! ice1 b 9 ! me*anical "w ( te>+ ! molecules sep>ate aga9/ ! =ces ( cohesion b9d+ !m toge!r into ! solid =m4 ,no matt] :at ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat may be1 ! surface ( ! gr\nd w rema9 p]man5tly at #cb s long z ! sn[ & ice cont9ue unmelt$4 9999,p#a3miss+ page numb] ,?ird4 ,sn[ & ice l[] ! temp]ature by *ill+ ! air & cond5s+ ! vap\r into ?ick fogs4 ,! great /r5g? ( ! sun's rays dur+ summ]1 due to 8 ne>ness at t season1 w\ld1 9 ! fir/ place1 t5d to produce an increas$ am\nt ( evaporation4 ,b ! pres5ce ( sn[-clad m\nta9s & an icy sea w\ld *ill ! atmosph]e & cond5se ! vap\r into ?ick fogs4 ,! ?ick fogs & cl\dy sky w\ld effectually prev5t ! sun's rays f rea*+ ! e>?1 & ! sn[1 9 consequ5ce1 w\ld rema9 unmelt$ dur+ ! entire summ]4 ,9 fact1 we h ?is v condition ( ?+s exemplifi$ 9 "s ( ! isl&s ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean at ! pres5t day4 ,s&wi* ,l&1 :i* is 9 ! same p>allel ( latitude z ! nor? ( ,scotl&1 is cov]$ ) ice & sn[ ! entire summ]2 & 9 ! isl& ( ,s\? ,georgia1 :i* is 9 ! same p>allel z ! c5tre ( ,engl&1 ! p]petual sn[ desc5ds to ! v sea-bea*4 ,! foll[+ is ,capta9 ,cook's description ( ?is dismal place3--8,we ?\ght x v extraord9>y10 he says1 8t an isl& betwe5 ! latitudes ( #ed & #ee %\ld1 9 ! v height ( summ]1 be almo/ :olly cov]$ ) froz5 sn[1 9 "s places _m fa?oms deep4444 ,! head ( ! bay 0 t]m9at$ by ice-cliffs ( consid]able height2 pieces ( :i* 7 cont9ually break+ (f1 :i* made a noise l a cannon4 ,nor 7 ! int]ior p>ts ( ! c\ntry less horrible4 ,! savage rocks rais$ _! l(ty summits till lo/ 9 ! cl\ds1 & valleys 7 cov]$ ) seem+ly p]petual sn[4 ,n a tree nor a %rub ( any size 7 to be se54 ,! only signs ( vegetation 7 a /rong-blad$ grass gr[+ 9 tufts1 wild burnet1 & a plant-l moss se5 on ! rocks4444 ,we are incl9$ to ?9k t ! int]ior p>ts1 on acc\nt ( _! elevation1 nev] enjoy heat en\gh to melt ! sn[ 9 su* quantities z to produce a riv]1 nor did we f9d ev5 a /ream ( fre% wat] on ! :ole coa/40#cc ,capta9 ,sir ,james ,ross f\nd ! p]petual sn[ at ! sea-level at ,admiralty ,inlet1 ,s\? ,%etl&1 9 lat4 #fd2 & :ile ne> ?is place ! !rmomet] 9 ! v middle ( summ] fell at night to #bc ,f42 & s rapidly 0 ! "y ice =m+ ar\nd ! %ip t he began1 he says1 8to h s]i\s appreh5sions ( ! %ips be+ froz5 940#cd ,at ! comp>atively l[ latitude ( #ei ,s41 9 long4 #aga ,e4 7! correspond+ latitude ( our ,orkney ,isl&s71 sn[ 0 fall+ on ! longe/ day1 & ! surface ( ! sea at #cb4ce ,& dur+ ! mon? ( ,febru>y 7! mon? correspond+ to ,augu/ 9 our hemisph]e7 !re 7 only ?ree days 9 :i* !y 7 n assail$ by sn[-%[]s4#cf ,9 ! ,/raits ( ,magellan1 9 #ec ,s4 lat41 :]e ! direct heat ( ! sun ought to be z great z 9 ! c5tre ( ,engl&1 ,,mm4 ,*urrca & ,galcano h se5 sn[ fall 9 ! middle ( summ]2 & ?\gh ! day 0 eighte5 h\rs long1 ! !rmomet] seldom rose above #db or #dd1 & nev] above #ea4cg ,?is rigor\s condition ( climate *iefly results f ! rays ( ! sun be+ int]cept$ by ! d5se fogs :i* envelope ^? regions dur+ ! entire summ]2 & ! fogs aga9 are due to ! air be+ *ill$ by ! pres5ce ( ! sn[-clad m\nta9s & ! imm5se masses ( float+ ice :i* come f ! ant>ctic seas4 ,! r$uction ( ! sun's heat & l5g!n+ ( ! w9t]1 :i* w\ld take place :5 ! ecc5tricity is ne> to its sup]ior limit & ! w9t] 9 aphelion1 w\ld 9 ?is c\ntry produce a /ate ( ?+s p]haps z bad z1 if n worse ?an1 t :i* at pres5t exi/s 9 ,s\? ,georgia & ,s\? ,%etl&4 ,if we turn our att5tion to ! pol> regions1 we %all f9d t ! cool+ effects ( sn[ & ice are ev5 /ill m m>k$4 ,! coldness ( ! summ]s 9 pol> regions is ow+ almo/ solely to ?is cause4 ,capta9 ,scoresby /ates t1 9 reg>d to ! arctic regions1 ! g5]al obscurity ( ! atmosph]e aris+ f fogs or cl\ds is su* t ! sun is frequ5tly invisible dur+ sev]al successive days4 ,at su* times1 :5 ! sun is ne> ! nor!rn tropic1 !re is sc>cely any s5sible quantity ( light f noon till midnight4#ch 8,& sn[10 he says1 8is s common 9 ! arctic regions1 t x may be boldly /at$ t 9 n9e days out ( t5 dur+ ! mon?s ( ,april1 ,may1 & ,june m or less falls40#ci ,on ! nor? side ( ,hudson's ,bay1 = example1 :]e ! quantity ( float+ ice dur+ summ] is enorm\s1 & d5se fogs prevail1 ! mean temp]ature ( ,june does n rise above ! freez+-po9t1 be+ actually #ace bel[ ! normal temp]ature2 :ile 9 "s p>ts ( ,asia "u ! same latitude1 :]e !re is comp>atively little ice1 ! mean temp]ature ( ,june is z high z #fj4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ,van ,r5ssela] ,h>b\r1 9 lat4 #gh #cg ,n41 long4 #gj #ec ,w41 0 accurately det]m9$ f h\rly obs]vations made day & night ov] a p]iod ( two ye>s by ,dr4 ,kane4 ,x 0 f\nd to be z foll[s3-- ,w9t] #bhei ,spr+ #ajei ,summ] #ccch ,autumn - #djc ,b al?\gh ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun at t latitude ought to h be5 great] dur+ ! summ] ?an 9 ,engl&1#dj yet nev]!less ! temp]ature is only #ach above ! freez+-po9t4 ,! temp]ature ( ,port ,b[51 lat4 #gc #ad ,n41 0 f\nd to be z foll[s3-- ,w9t] #beji ,spr+ - #egg ,summ] #cddj ,autumn #ajeh ,"h ! summ] is only #bd above ! freez+-po9t4 ,! condition ( ?+s 9 ! ant>ctic regions is ev5 /ill worse ?an 9 ! arctic4 ,capta9 ,sir ,james ,ross1 :5 betwe5 lat4 #ff ,s4 & #gg #e ,s41 dur+ ! mon?s ( ,janu>y & ,febru>y1 #ahda1 f\nd ! mean temp]ature to be only #bfe2 & !re 7 only two days :5 x rose ev5 to ! freez+-po9t4 ,:5 ne> ! ice-b>ri] on ! #h? ( ,febru>y1 #ahda1 a season ( ! ye> equival5t to ,augu/ 9 ,engl&1 he _h ! !rmomet] at #ab at noon2 & s rapidly 0 ! "y ice =m+ ar\nd ! %ips1 t x 0 ) difficulty t he escap$ be+ froz5 9 = ! w9t]4 8,?ree days lat]10 he says1 8! ?ick fall+ sn[ prev5t$ our see+ to any di/ance be=e u2 ! waves z !y broke ov] ! %ips froze z !y fell on ! decks & rigg+1 & cov]$ our clo!s ) a ?ick coat+ ( ice40#da ,on visit+ ! b>ri] next ye> ab\t ! same season1 he aga9 ran ! risk ( be+ froz5 94 ,he /ates t ! surface ( ! sea pres5t$ "o unbrok5 %eet ( "y ice z f> z ! eye c\ld discov] f ! ma/head4 ,lieut5ant ,wilkes1 ( ! ,am]ican ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 says t ! temp]ature !y exp]i5c$ 9 ! ant>ctic regions surpris$ him1 = !y seldom1 if ev]1 _h x above #cj1 ev5 at midday4 ,capta9 ,n>es1 :5 9 latitude #fd,s41 betwe5 ! #ac? & #be? ,febru>y la/ 7#ahgd71 f\nd ! mean temp]ature ( ! air to be #cae2 a l[] temp]ature ?an is met ) 9 ! arctic regions1 9 ,augu/1 t5 degrees ne>] ! pole4#db ,^! extraord9>ily l[ temp]atures dur+ summ]1 :i* we h j be5 detail+1 7 due solely to ! pres5ce ( sn[ & ice4 ,9 ,s\? ,georgia1 ,s&wi* ,l&1 & "s o!r places :i* we h notic$1 ! summ]s ought to be ab\t z w>m z ^? ( ,engl&2 yet to su* an ext5t is ! air cool$ by means ( float+ ice com+ f ! ant>ctic regions1 & ! rays ( ! sun enfeebl$ by ! d5se fogs :i* prevail1 t !re is actually n heat suffici5t ev5 9 ! v middle ( summ] to melt ! sn[ ly+ on ! sea-bea*4 ,we read ) a/oni%m5t t a c\ntry 9 ! latitude ( ,engl& %\ld 9 ! v middle ( summ] be cov]$ ) sn[ d[n to ! sea-%ore--! !rmomet] seldom ris+ mu* above ! freez+-po9t4 ,b we d n consid] x s surpris+ t ! summ] temp]ature ( ! pol> regions %\ld be l[1 = we are accu/om$ to reg>d a l[ temp]ature z ! normal condition ( ?+s !re4 ,we are1 h[ev]1 mi/ak5 if we suppose t ! influ5ce ( ice on climate is less m>k$ at ! poles ?an at su* places z ,s\? ,georgia or ,s&wi* ,l&4 ,x is true t a l[ summ] temp]ature is ! normal /ate ( matt]s 9 v high latitudes1 b x is s only 9 consequ5ce ( ! p]petual pres5ce ( sn[ & ice4 ,:5 we speak ( ! normal temp]ature ( a place we mean1 ( c\rse1 z we h already se51 ! normal temp]ature "u ! pres5t condition ( ?+s4 ,b 7 ! ice remov$ f ^? regions1 our pres5t ,tables ( normal summ] temp]ature w\ld be valueless4 ,^! ,tables give u ! normal ,june temp]ature :ile ! ice rema9s1 b !y d n af=d u ! lea/ idea z to :at t temp]ature w\ld be 7 ! ice remov$4 ,! m]e removal ( ! ice1 all ?+s else rema9+ ! same1 w\ld raise ! summ] temp]ature enorm\sly4 ,! actual ,june temp]ature ( ,melville ,isl&1 = example1 is #cg1 & ,port ,frankl91 ,nova ,zembla1 #cfe2 b 7 ! ice remov$ f ! arctic regions1 we %\ld !n f9d t ! summ] temp]ature ( ^? places w\ld be ab\t z high z t ( ,engl&4 ,?is w be evid5t f ! foll[+ consid]ations3-- ,! temp]ature ( a place1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 is proportionate to ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun4 ,if ,gre5l& receives p] giv5 surface z mu* heat f ! sun z ,engl&1 its temp]ature ought to be z high z t ( ,engl&4 ,n[1 f ,may #aj till ,augu/ #c1 a p]iod ( eighty-five days1 ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun 9 consequ5ce ( 8 rema9+ above ! horizon is actually great] at ! nor? pole ?an at ! equator4 ,column ,,ii4 ( ! foll[+ ,table1 calculat$ by ,mr4 ,mee*1#dc repres5ts ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun on ! #ae? ( ,june at e #aj ( latitude4 ,to simplify ! ,table1 ,i h tak5 #ajj z ! unit quantity receiv$ at ! equator on t day in/ead ( ! unit adopt$ by ,mr4 ,mee*3-- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,latitude4 ,quantity ,june ( heat4 temp]ature4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,equator #j #ajj #hjj #aj #aaa #haa #bj #aah #haa #cj #abc #ggc #dj #abe #fhj #ej #abe #ehh #fj #abc #ead #gj #abg #cib #hj #acc #cjb ,nor? ,pole #ij #acf #bgd ---------------------------------------- ---- ,! calculations are1 ( c\rse1 made ^u ! supposition t ! quantity ( rays cut (f 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e is ! same at ! poles z at ! equator1 :i*1 z we "k1 is n exactly ! case4 ,b1 not)/&+ ! extra loss ( sol> heat 9 high latitudes caus$ by ! great] am\nt ( rays t are cut (f1 /ill1 if ! temp]ature ( ! arctic summ]s 7 at all proportionate to ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun1 x ought to be v mu* high] ?an x actually is4 ,column ,,iii4 repres5ts ! actual mean ,june temp]ature1 accord+ to ,pr(4 ,dove1 at ! correspond+ latitudes4 ,a comp>ison ( ^! two columns w %[ ! v great defici5cy ( temp]ature 9 high latitudes dur+ summ]4 ,at ! equator1 = example1 ! quantity ( heat receiv$ is repres5t$ by #ajj & ! temp]ature #hj2 :ile at ! pole ! temp]ature is only #bgd1 al?\gh ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ is #acf4 ,?is l[ temp]ature dur+ summ]1 f :at has be5 already %[n1 is due *iefly to ! pres5ce ( sn[ & ice4 ,if by "s means or o!r we c\ld remove ! sn[ & ice f ! arctic regions1 !y w\ld !n enjoy a temp]ate1 if n a hot1 summ]4 ,9 ,gre5l&1 z we h already se51 sn[ falls ev5 9 ! v middle ( summ]1 m or less1 n9e days out ( t52 b remove ! sn[ f ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & a sn[-%[] 9 ,gre5l& dur+ summ] w\ld be z great a r>ity z x w\ld be on ! pla9s ( ,india4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! quantity ( sol> heat receiv$ 9 ,gre5l& dur+ summ] is consid]ably great] ?an 9 ,engl&4 ,consequ5tly1 7 x n = sn[ & ice1 x w\ld enjoy z w>m a climate dur+ summ] z t ( ,engl&4 ,conv]sely1 let ! pol> sn[ & ice ext5d to ! latitude ( ,engl&1 & ! summ]s ( t c\ntry w\ld be z cold z ^? ( ,gre5l&4 ,our summ]s w\ld !n be z cold z our w9t]s are at pres5t1 & sn[ 9 ! v middle ( summ] w\ld p]haps be z common z ra94 ,mr4 ,murphy's ,!ory4--,9 a pap] read be=e ! ,geological ,society by ,mr4 ,murphy#dd he admits t ! glacial climate 0 due to an increase ( ecc5tricity1 b ma9ta9s 9 opposition to me t ! glaciat$ hemisph]e mu/ be t 9 :i* ! summ] occurs 9 aphelion dur+ ! greate/ ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,i fe> t ,mr4 ,murphy mu/ be re/+ 8 !ory on ! mi/ak5 idea t a summ] 9 aphelion ought to melt less sn[ & ice ?an "o 9 p]ihelion4 ,x is q true t ! long] summ] 9 aphelion--o!r ?+s be+ equal--is cold] ?an ! %ort] "o 9 p]ihelion1 b ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun is ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,consequ5tly ! quantity ( sn[ & ice melt$ ought also to be ! same2 = ! am\nt melt$ is 9 proportion to ! quantity ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat receiv$4 ,x is true t ) u at pres5t less sn[ & ice are melt$ dur+ a cold summ] ?an dur+ a w>m "o4 ,b ?is is n a case 9 po9t1 = dur+ a cold summ] we h less heat ?an dur+ a w>m summ]1 ! l5g? ( bo? be+ ! same4 ,! coldness ( ! summ]s 9 ?is case is ow+ *iefly to a portion ( ! heat :i* we ought to receive f ! sun be+ cut (f by "s ob/ruct+ cause4 ,! reason :y we h s little sn[1 & consequ5tly s little ice1 9 temp]ate regions1 is n1 z ,mr4 ,murphy seems to suppose1 t ! heat ( summ] melts x all1 b t !re is s little to melt4 ,& ! reason :y we h s little to melt is t1 ow+ to ! w>m? ( our w9t]s1 we h g5]ally ra9 in/ead ( sn[4 ,b if y increase ! ecc5tricity v mu*1 & place ! w9t] 9 p]ihelion1 we %\ld probably h no sn[ :atev]1 &1 z f> z glaciation is conc]n$1 x w\ld !n matt] v little :at sort ( summ] we _h4 ,b x is n correct to say t ! p]ihelion summ] ( ! glacial epo* mu/ h be5 hot4 ,!re are physical reasons1 z we h j se51 :i* g to prove t1 not)/&+ ! ne>ness ( ! sun at t season1 ! temp]ature w\ld seldom1 if ev]1 rise mu* above ! freez+-po9t4 ,besides1 ,mr4 ,murphy ov]looks ! fact t ! ne>ness ( ! sun dur+ summ] 0 ne>ly z ess5tial to ! production ( ! ice1 z we %all %ortly see1 z 8 great di/ance dur+ w9t]4 ,we mu/ n[ proce$ to ! consid]ation ( an ag5cy :i* is br\ght into op]ation by ! =ego+ condition ( ?+s1 an ag5cy f> m pot5t ?an any :i* has yet come "u our notice1 viz41 ! ,deflection ( ,ocean-curr5ts4 ,deflection ( ,ocean-curr5ts ! *ief ,cause ( secul> ,*anges ( ,climate4--,! enorm\s ext5t to :i* ! !rmal condition ( ! globe is affect$ by ocean-curr5ts seems to ca/ new light on ! my/]y ( geological climate4 ,:at1 = example1 w\ld be ! condition ( ,europe 7 ! ,gulf-/ream /opp$1 & ! ,atlantic ?us depriv$ ( "o-fif? ( ! absolute am\nt ( heat :i* x is n[ receiv+ above :at x has 9 virtue ( ! temp]ature ( space8 ,if ! results j arriv$ at be at all ju/ifiable1 x foll[s t ! /oppage ( ! /ream w\ld l[] ! temp]ature ( nor!rn ,europe to an ext5t t w\ld induce a condition ( climate z sev]e z t ( ,nor? ,gre5l&2 & 7 ! w>m curr5ts ( ! ,nor? ,pacific also at ! same "t to be /opp$1 ! nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld assur$ly be subject$ to a /ate ( g5]al glaciation4 ,suppose also t ! w>m curr5ts1 hav+ be5 )drawn f ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 %\ld fl[ into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean3 :at !n w\ld be ! condition ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e8 ,su* a transf]5ce ( heat w\ld raise ! temp]ature ( ! latt] hemisph]e ab\t z mu* z x w\ld l[] ! temp]ature ( ! =m]4 ,x w\ld consequ5tly raise ! mean temp]ature ( ! ant>ctic regions mu* above ! freez+-po9t1 & ! ice "u :i* ^? regions are at pres5t buri$ w\ld1 to a great ext5t at lea/1 disappe>4 ,! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ?us depriv$ ( ! heat f ! equator1 w\ld be "u a condition ( ?+s simil> to t :i* prevail$ dur+ ! glacial epo*2 :ile ! o!r hemisph]e1 receiv+ ! heat f ! equator1 w\ld be "u a condition ( climate simil> to :at we "k prevail$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e dur+ a "p ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod1 :5 ,nor? ,gre5l& enjoy$ a climate z mild z t ( ,engl& at ! pres5t day4 ,?is is no m]e picture ( ! imag9ation1 no m]e hypo!sis devis$ to meet a difficult case2 = if :at has already be5 /at$ be n completely errone\s1 all ?is foll[s z a necess>y consequ5ce f physical pr9ciples4 ,if ! w>m curr5ts ( ! equatorial regions be all deflect$ into "o hemisph]e1 su* mu/ be ! condition ( ?+s4 ,h[ !n d ! ag5cies :i* we h be5 consid]+ deflect ocean-curr5ts8 ,h[ ! =ego+ ,causes deflect ,ocean-curr5ts4--,a high condition ( ecc5tricity t5ds1 we h se51 to produce an accumulation ( sn[ & ice on ! hemisph]e ^: w9t]s occur 9 aphelion4 ,?is accumulation t5ds 9 turn to l[] ! summ] temp]ature1 to cut (f ! sun's rays1 & s to ret>d ! melt+ ( ! sn[4 ,9 %ort1 x t5ds to produce on t hemisph]e a /ate ( glaciation4 ,exactly opposite effects take place on ! o!r hemisph]e1 :i* has its w9t] 9 p]ihelion4 ,!re ! %ortness ( ! w9t]s & ! highness ( ! temp]ature1 ow+ to ! sun's ne>ness1 comb9e to prev5t ! accumulation ( sn[4 ,! g5]al result is t ! "o hemisph]e is cool$ & ! o!r heat$4 ,?is /ate ( ?+s n[ br+s into play ! ag5cies :i* lead to ! deflection ( ! ,gulf-/ream & o!r great ocean-curr5ts4 ,ow+ to ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! equator & ! poles1 !re is a con/ant fl[ ( air f ! poles to ! equator4 ,x is to ?is t ! trade-w9ds owe _! exi/5ce4 ,n[ z ! /r5g? ( ^! w9ds1 z a g5]al rule1 w dep5d ^u ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature t may exi/ betwe5 ! equator & high] latitudes1 x foll[s t ! trades on ! cold hemisph]e w be /rong] ?an ^? on ! w>m4 ,:5 ! pol> & temp]ate regions ( ! "o hemisph]e are cov]$ to a l>ge ext5t ) sn[ & ice1 ! air1 z we h j se51 is kept almo/ at ! freez+-po9t dur+ bo? summ] & w9t]4 ,! trades on t hemisph]e w1 ( necessity1 be exce$+ly p[]ful2 :ile on ! o!r hemisph]e1 :]e !re is comp>atively little sn[ & ice1 & ! air is w>m1 ! trades w1 z a consequ5ce1 be weak4 ,suppose n[ ! nor!rn hemisph]e to be ! cold "o4 ,! nor?-ea/ trade-w9ds ( ?is hemisph]e w f> exce$ 9 /r5g? ! s\?-ea/ trade-w9ds ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! m$ian-l9e betwe5 ! trades w consequ5tly lie to a v consid]able di/ance to ! s\? ( ! equator4 ,we h a good example ( ?is at ! pres5t day4 ,! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! two hemisph]es at pres5t is b trifl+ to :at x w\ld be 9 ! case "u consid]ation2 yet we f9d t ! s\?-ea/ trades ( ! ,atlantic bl[ ) great] =ce ?an ! nor?-ea/ trades1 & ! result is t ! s\?-ea/ trades sometimes ext5d to #aj or #ae ,n4 lat41 :]eas ! nor?-ea/ trades seldom bl[ s\? ( ! equator4 ,! effect ( ! nor!rn trades bl[+ across ! equator to a great di/ance w be to impel ! w>m wat] ( ! tropics ov] into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean4 ,b ?is is n all2 n only w\ld ! m$ian-l9e ( ! trades be %ift$ s\?w>ds1 b ! great equatorial curr5ts ( ! globe w\ld also be %ift$ s\?w>ds4 ,let u n[ consid] h[ ?is w\ld affect ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,! ,s\? ,am]ican cont95t is %ap$ some:at 9 ! =m ( a triangle1 ) "o ( its angul> corn]s1 call$ ,cape ,/4 ,roque1 po9t+ ea/w>ds4 ,! equatorial curr5t ( ! ,atlantic imp+es aga9/ ?is corn]2 b z ! great] portion ( ! curr5t lies a little to ! nor? ( ! corn]1 x fl[s we/w>d into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & =ms ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,a consid]able portion ( ! wat]1 h[ev]1 /rikes ! l& to ! s\? ( ! ,cape & is deflect$ along ! %ores ( ,brazil into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 =m+ :at is kn[n z ! ,brazilian curr5t4 ,n[ x is p]fectly obvi\s t ! %ift+ ( ! equatorial curr5t ( ! ,atlantic only a few degrees to ! s\? ( its pres5t position--a ?+ :i* w\ld c]ta9ly take place "u ! conditions :i* we h be5 detail+--w\ld turn ! entire curr5t into ! ,brazilian bran*1 & in/ead ( fl[+ *iefly into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico z at pres5t1 x w\ld all fl[ into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 & ! ,gulf-/ream w\ld consequ5tly be /opp$4 ,! /oppage ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 comb9$ ) all ^? causes :i* we h j be5 consid]+1 w\ld place ,europe "u glacial conditions2 :ile1 at ! same "t1 ! temp]ature ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean w\ld1 9 consequ5ce ( ! enorm\s quantity ( w>m wat] receiv$1 h its temp]ature 7already high f o!r causes7 rais$ enorm\sly4 ,deflection ( ! ,gulf-/ream dur+ ! ,glacial ,epo* indicat$ by ! ,diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,clyde & ,canadian ,%ell-b$s4--,t ! glaciation ( nor?-we/]n ,europe result$ to a great ext5t f ! /oppage ( ! ,gulf-/ream may1 ,i ?9k1 be inf]r$ f a circum/ance po9t$ out by ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,crosskey1 sev]al ye>s ago1 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,glasg[ ,geological ,society4#de ,he %[$ t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! glacial %ells ( ,canada & ^? n[ exi/+ 9 ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce is mu* less m>k$ ?an ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! glacial %ells ( ! ,clyde b$s & ^? n[ exi/+ 9 ! ,fir?4 ,& f ?is he ju/ly inf]s t ! *ange ( climate 9 ,canada s9ce ! glacial epo* has be5 f> less complete ?an 9 ,scotl&4 ,! return ( ! ,gulf-/ream has rais$ ! mean annual temp]ature ( our isl& no less ?an #ae above ! normal1 :ile ,canada1 depriv$ ( its influ5ce & expos$ to a cold /ream f pol> regions1 has be5 kept ne>ly z mu* bel[ ! normal4 ,let u comp>e ! pres5t temp]ature ( ! two c\ntries4 ,9 mak+ our comp>ison we mu/1 ( c\rse1 comp>e places on ! same latitude4 ,x w n d1 = example1 to comp>e ,glasg[ ) ,montreal or ,quebec1 places on ! latitude ( ! s\? ( ,france & nor? ( ,italy4 ,x w be f\nd t ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! two c\ntries is s enorm\s z to appe> sc>cely cr$ible to ^? :o h n exam9$ ! matt]4 ,! temp]atures h all be5 tak5 f ,pr(essor ,dove's "w on ! 8,di/ribution ( ,heat ov] ! ,surface ( ! ,globe10 & 8 ,tables publi%$ 9 ! ,report ( ! ,briti% ,association = #ahdg4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ,scotl& = ,janu>y is ab\t #ch ,f41 :ile 9 "s p>ts ( ,labrador1 on ! same latitude1 & all along ! c5tral p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica ly+ to ! nor? ( ,upp] ,canada1 x is actually #aj1 & 9 _m places #ac bel[ z]o4 ,! ,janu>y temp]ature at ! ,cumb]l& ,h\se1 :i* is situat$ on ! latitude ( ! c5tre ( ,engl&1 is m ?an #ac bel[ z]o4 ,"h is a diff]5ce ( no less ?an #ea4 ,! normal temp]ature = ! mon? ( ,janu>y 9 ! latitude ( ,glasg[1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,dove1 is #aj4 ,consequ5tly1 ow+ to ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 we are #bh w>m] dur+ t mon? ?an we w\ld o!rwise be1 :ile va/ tracts ( c\ntry 9 ,am]ica are #bc cold] ?an !y %\ld be4 ,! ,july temp]ature ( ,glasg[ is #fa1 :ile on ! same latitude 9 ,labrador & places to ! we/ x is only #di4 ,glasg[ dur+ t mon? is #c above ! normal temp]ature1 :ile ,am]ica1 ow+ to ! influ5ce ( ! cold pol> /ream1 is #i bel[ x4 ,! mean annual temp]ature ( ,glasg[ is ne>ly #ej1 :ile 9 ,am]ica1 on ! same latitude1 x is only #cj1 & 9 _m places z l[ z #bc4 ,! mean normal temp]ature = ! :ole ye> is #ce4 ,our mean annual temp]ature is !re=e #ae above ! normal1 & t ( ,am]ica f #e to #ab bel[ x4 ,! ,am]ican w9t]s are excessively cold1 ow+ to ! cont95tal "* ( ! climate1 & ! abs5ce ( any b5efit f ! ,gulf-/ream1 :ile ! summ]s1 :i* w\ld o!rwise be w>m1 are1 9 ! latitude ( ,glasg[1 cool$ d[n to a great ext5t by ! cold ice f ,gre5l&2 & ! consequ5ce is1 t ! mean annual temp]ature is ab\t #bj or #bg bel[ t ( ours4 ,! mean annual temp]ature ( ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce is z l[ z t ( ,lapl& or ,icel&4 ,x is no wond]1 !n1 t ! %ells :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ,canada dur+ ! glacial epo* h n left ! gulf & ! neighb\r+ seas4 ,we h good reason to believe t ! climate ( ,am]ica dur+ ! glacial epo* 0 ev5 !n some:at m sev]e ?an t ( ,we/]n ,europe1 = ! erratics ( ,am]ica ext5d z f> s\? z latitude #dj1 :ile on ! old cont95t !y are n f\nd mu* beyond latitude #ej4 ,?is diff]5ce may h result$ f ! fact t ! we/]n side ( a cont95t is always w>m] ?an ! ea/]n4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e :e!r ! cold 0 z great 9 ,am]ica dur+ ! glacial epo* z 9 ,we/]n ,europe1 we mu/ n comp>e ! fossils f\nd 9 ! glacial b$s ab\t ,montreal1 = example1 ) ^? f\nd 9 ! ,clyde b$s1 = ,montreal lies mu* fur!r to ! s\? ?an ! ,clyde4 ,! ,clyde b$s mu/ be comp>$ ) ^? ( ,labrador1 :ile ! b$s ( ,montreal mu/ be comp>$ ) ^? ( ! s\? ( ,france & ! nor? ( ,italy1 if any are to be f\nd !re4 ,on ! :ole1 x may be conclud$ t _h ! ,gulf-/ream n return$ to our %ores at ! close ( ! glacial epo*1 & _h its place be5 suppli$ by a cold /ream f ! pol> regions1 simil> to t :i* wa%es ! %ores ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 x is highly probable t ne>ly e species f\nd 9 our glacial b$s w\ld h _h _! repres5tatives fl\ri%+ 9 ! ,briti% seas at ! pres5t day4 ,x is no d\bt true t :5 we comp>e ! places 9 :i* ! ,canadian %ell-b$s ref]r$ to by ,mr4 ,crosskey are situat$ ) places on ! same latitude 9 ,europe1 ! diff]5ce ( climate result+ f ! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream is n s great z betwe5 ,scotl& & ^? places :i* we h be5 consid]+2 b /ill ! diff]5ce is suffici5tly great to acc\nt = :y ! *ange ( climate 9 ,canada has be5 less complete ?an 9 ,scotl&4 ,& :at holds true 9 reg>d to ! curr5ts ( ! ,atlantic holds also true1 ?\gh p]haps n to ! same ext5t1 ( ! curr5ts ( ! ,pacific4 ,ne>ness ( ! ,sun 9 ,p]igee a ,cause ( ! ,accumulation ( ,ice4--,b !re is /ill ano!r cause :i* mu/ be notic$3--,a /rong "u curr5t ( air f ! nor? implies an equally /rong upp] curr5t to ! nor?4 ,n[ if ! effect ( ! "u curr5t w\ld be to impel ! w>m wat] at ! equator to ! s\?1 ! effect ( ! upp] curr5t w\ld be to c>ry ! aque\s vap\r =m$ at ! equator to ! nor?2 ! upp] curr5t1 on rea*+ ! sn[ & ice ( temp]ate regions1 w\ld deposit its moi/ure 9 ! =m ( sn[2 s t1 not)/&+ ! great cold ( ! glacial epo*1 x is probable t ! quantity ( sn[ fall+ 9 ! nor!rn regions w\ld be enorm\s4 ,?is w\ld be p>ticul>ly ! case dur+ summ]1 :5 ! e>? w\ld be 9 ! p]ihelion & ! heat at ! equator great4 ,! equator w\ld be ! furnace :]e evaporation w\ld take place1 & ! sn[ & ice ( temp]ate regions w\ld act z a cond5s]4 ,heat to produce evaporation is j z ess5tial to ! accumulation ( sn[ & ice z cold to produce cond5sation4 ,n[ at ,midsumm]1 on ! supposition ( ! ecc5tricity be+ at its sup]ior limit1 ! sun w\ld be #h1fda1hgj miles ne>] ?an at pres5t dur+ t season4 ,! effect w\ld be t ! int5sity ( ! sun's rays w\ld be "o-fif? great] ?an n[4 ,t is to say1 = e five rays receiv$ by ! ocean at pres5t1 six rays w\ld be receiv$ !n1 consequ5tly ! evaporation dur+ summ] w\ld be excessive4 ,b ! ice-cov]$ l& w\ld cond5se ! vap\r into sn[4 ,x w\ld1 no d\bt1 be dur+ summ] t ! greate/ sn[fall w\ld take place4 ,9 fact1 ! ne>ness ( ! sun dur+ t season 0 z ess5tial to ! production ( ! glacial epo* z 0 8 di/ance dur+ w9t]4 ,! direct effect ( ecc5tricity is to produce on "o ( ! hemisph]es a long & cold w9t]4 ,?is alone w\ld n lead to a condition ( ?+s s sev]e z t :i* we "k prevail$ dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,b ! sn[ & ice ?us produc$ w\ld br+ into op]ation1 z we h se51 a ho/ ( physical ag5cies ^: comb9$ ef=ts w\ld be q suffici5t to d ?is4 ,a rem>kable ,circum/ance reg>d+ ^? ,causes :i* lead to ,secul> ,*anges ( ,climate4--,!re is "o rem>kable circum/ance connect$ ) ^? physical causes :i* des]ves special notice4 ,!y n only all lead to "o result1 viz41 an accumulation ( sn[ & ice1 b !y react on "o ano!r4 ,x is q a common ?+ 9 physics = ! effect to react on ! cause4 ,9 electricity & magnetism1 = example1 cause & effect 9 almo/ e case mutually act & react ^u ea* o!r4 ,b x is usually1 if n univ]sally1 ! case t ! reaction ( ! effect t5ds to weak5 ! cause4 ,! weak5+ influ5ces ( ?is reaction t5d to impose a limit on ! effici5cy ( ! cause4 ,b1 /range to say1 9 reg>d to ! physical causes conc]n$ 9 ! br++ ab\t ( ! glacial condition ( climate1 cause & effect mutually react$ s z to /r5g!n ea* o!r4 ,& ?is circum/ance _h a great deal to d ) ! extraord9>y results produc$4 ,we h se5 t ! accumulation ( sn[ & ice on ! gr\nd result+ f ! long & cold w9t]s t5d$ to cool ! air & produce fogs :i* cut (f ! sun's rays4 ,! rays ?us cut (f dim9i%$ ! melt+ p[] ( ! sun1 & s increas$ ! accumulation4 ,z ! sn[ & ice cont9u$ to accumulate1 m & m ( ! rays 7 cut (f2 & on ! o!r h&1 z ! rays cont9u$ to be cut (f1 ! rate ( accumulation increas$1 because ! quantity ( sn[ & ice melt$ became ?us annually less & less4 ,aga91 dur+ ! long & dre>y w9t]s ( ! glacial epo* ! e>? w\ld be radiat+ (f its heat into space4 ,_h ! heat ?us lo/ simply gone to l[] ! temp]ature1 ! l[]+ ( ! temp]ature w\ld h t5d$ to dim9i% ! rate ( loss2 b ! necess>y result ( ?is 0 ! =mation ( sn[ & ice r ?an ! l[]+ ( temp]ature4 ,&1 aga91 ! =mation ( sn[ & ice facilitat$ ! rate at :i* ! e>? lo/ its heat2 & on ! o!r h&1 ! m rapidly ! e>? p>t$ ) its heat1 ! m rapidly 7 ! sn[ & ice =m$4 ,fur!r1 z ! sn[ & ice accumulat$ on ! "o hemisph]e1 !y at ! same "t cont9u$ to dim9i% on ! o!r4 ,?is t5d$ to increase ! /r5g? ( ! trade-w9ds on ! cold hemisph]e1 & to weak5 ^? on ! w>m4 ,! effect ( ?is on ocean curr5ts w\ld be to impel ! w>m wat] ( ! tropics m to ! w>m hemisph]e ?an to ! cold4 ,suppose ! nor!rn hemisph]e to be ! cold "o1 !n z ! sn[ & ice began gradually to accumulate !re1 ! ocean curr5ts ( t hemisph]e w\ld beg9 to decrease 9 volume1 :ile ^? on ! s\!rn1 or w>m1 hemisph]e1 w\ld p>i passu increase4 ,?is )drawal ( heat f ! nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld t5d1 ( c\rse1 to l[] ! temp]ature ( t hemisph]e & ?us fav\r ! accumulation ( sn[ & ice4 ,z ! sn[ & ice accumulat$ ! ocean curr5ts w\ld decrease1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 z ! ocean curr5ts dim9i%$ ! sn[ & ice w\ld accumulate1--! two effects mutually /r5g!n+ ea* o!r4 ,! same mu/ h held true 9 reg>d to arial curr5ts4 ,! m ! pol> & temp]ate regions became cov]$ ) sn[ & ice1 ! /rong] w\ld become ! trades & anti-trades ( ! hemisph]e2 & ! /rong] ^? w9ds became1 ! great] w\ld be ! am\nt ( moi/ure transf]r$ f ! tropical regions by ! anti-trades to ! temp]ate regions2 & on ! o!r h&1 ! m moi/ure ^? w9ds br\ght to temp]ate regions1 ! great] w\ld be ! quantity ( sn[ produc$4 ,! same process ( mutual action & reaction w\ld take place among ! ag5cies 9 op]ation on ! w>m hemisph]e1 only ! result produc$ w\ld be diametrically opposite ( t produc$ 9 ! cold hemisph]e4 ,on ?is w>m hemisph]e action & reaction w\ld t5d to raise ! mean temp]ature & dim9i% ! quantity ( sn[ & ice exi/+ 9 temp]ate & pol> regions4 ,_h x be5 possible = ea* ( ^? v>i\s physical ag5ts :i* we h be5 consid]+ to produce its direct effects )\t influ5c+ ! o!r ag5ts or be+ influ5c$ by !m1 its real effici5cy 9 br++ ab\t ei!r ! glacial condition ( climate or ! w>m condition ( climate w\ld n h be5 s great4 ,! prim>y cause t set all ^? v>i\s physical ag5cies 9 op]ation :i* br\ght ab\t ! glacial epo*1 0 a high /ate ( ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit4 ,:5 ! ecc5tricity is at a high value1 sn[ & ice beg9 to accumulate1 ow+ to ! increas+ l5g? & coldness ( ! w9t] on t hemisph]e ^: w9t] sol/ice is approa*+ t[>d ! aphelion4 ,! accumulat+ sn[ !n beg9s to br+ into op]ation all ! v>i\s ag5cies :i* we h be5 describ+2 &1 z we h j se51 ^!1 :5 once 9 full op]ation1 mutually aid "o ano!r4 ,z ! ecc5tricity increases c5tury by c5tury1 ! temp]ate regions become m & m cov]$ ) sn[ & ice1 fir/ by reason ( ! cont9u$ increase 9 ! coldness & l5g? ( ! w9t]s1 & secondly1 & *iefly1 ow+ to ! cont9u$ increase 9 ! pot5cy ( ^? physical ag5ts :i* h be5 call$ into op]ation4 ,?is glacial /ate ( ?+s goes on at an increas+ rate1 & rea*es a maximum :5 ! sol/ice-po9t arrives at ! aphelion4 ,aft] ! sol/ice passes ! aphelion1 a contr>y process comm5ces4 ,! sn[ & ice gradually beg9 to dim9i% on ! cold hemisph]e & to make _! appe>ance on ! o!r hemisph]e4 ,! glaciat$ hemisph]e turns1 by degrees1 w>m] & ! w>m hemisph]e cold]1 & ?is cont9ues to g on = a p]iod ( t5 or twelve ?\s& ye>s1 until ! w9t] sol/ice rea*es ! p]ihelion4 ,by ?is "t ! conditions ( ! two hemisph]es h be5 rev]s$2 ! =m]ly glaciat$ hemisph]e has n[ become ! w>m "o1 & ! w>m hemisph]e ! glaciat$4 ,! transf]5ce ( ! ice f ! "o hemisph]e to ! o!r cont9ues z long z ! ecc5tricity rema9s at a high value4 ,?is w1 p]haps1 be bett] und]/ood f an inspection ( ! frontispiece4 ,! ,mean ,temp]ature ( ! :ole ,e>? %\ld be great] 9 ,aphelion ?an 9 ,p]ihelion4--,:5 ! ecc5tricity becomes r$uc$ to ab\t its pres5t value1 its influ5ce on climate is b little felt4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 probable t ! pres5t ext5sion ( ice on ! s\!rn hemisph]e may1 to a consid]able ext5t1 be ! result ( ecc5tricity4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! climatic conditions ( ! two hemisph]es is j :at %\ld be accord+ to !ory3--7#a7 ,! mean temp]ature ( t hemisph]e is less ?an t ( ! nor!rn4 7#b7 ,! w9t]s ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e are cold] ?an ^? ( ! nor!rn4 7#c7 ,! summ]s1 ?\gh occurr+ 9 p]ihelion1 are also comp>atively cold2 ?is1 z we h se51 is :at ought to be accord+ to !ory4 7#d7 ,! mean temp]ature ( ! :ole e>? is great] 9 ,june1 :5 ! e>? is 9 aphelion1 ?an 9 ,decemb]1 :5 x is 9 p]ihelion4 ,?is1 ,i v5ture to affirm1 is also :at ought to foll[ accord+ to !ory1 al?\gh ?is v fact has be5 adduc$ z a pro( t ecc5tricity has at pres5t b little effect on ! climatic condition ( our globe4 ,t ! mean temp]ature ( ! :ole e>? w\ld1 dur+ ! glacial epo*1 be great] :5 ! e>? 0 9 aphelion ?an :5 9 p]ihelion w1 ,i ?9k1 be app>5t f ! foll[+ consid]ations3--,:5 ! e>? 0 9 ! p]ihelion1 ! sun w\ld be ov] ! hemisph]e ne>ly cov]$ ) sn[ & ice4 ,! great /r5g? ( ! sun's rays w\ld 9 ?is case h little effect 9 rais+ ! temp]ature2 x w\ld be sp5t 9 melt+ ! sn[ & ice4 ,b :5 ! e>? 0 9 ! aphelion1 ! sun w\ld be ov] ! hemisph]e comp>atively free1 or p]haps :olly free1 f sn[ & ice4 ,consequ5tly1 ?\gh ! int5sity ( ! sun's rays w\ld be less ?an :5 ! e>? 0 9 p]ihelion1 /ill x ought to h produc$ a high] temp]ature1 because x w\ld be *iefly employ$ 9 heat+ ! gr\nd & n consum$ 9 melt+ sn[ & ice4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall on ! ,glacial ,epo*4--8,s natural10 says ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 80 ! association ( ice & cold1 t ev5 celebrat$ m5 assum$ t all t is ne$$ to produce a great ext5sion ( our glaci]s is a dim9ution ( ! sun's temp]ature4 ,_h !y gone ?r\gh ! =ego+ reflections & calculations1 !y w\ld probably h dem&$ m heat in/ead ( less = ! production ( a glacial epo*4 ,:at !y really ne$$ 7 cond5s]s suffici5tly p[]ful to congeal ! vap\r g5]at$ by ! heat ( ! sun40 7,! ,=ms ( ,wat]1 p4 #aed4 ,see also1 to ! same effect1 ,heat ,consid]$ z a ,mode ( ,motion1 *ap4 vi47 ,i d n "k to :om ,pr(essor ,tyndall "h ref]s1 b c]ta9ly 8 rem>ks h no application to ! !ory "u consid]ation1 = accord+ to x1 z we h j se51 ! ice ( ! glacial epo* 0 ab\t z mu* due to ! ne>ness ( ! sun 9 p]igee z to 8 great di/ance 9 apogee4 ,!re is "o !ory1 h[ev]1 to :i* 8 rem>ks ju/ly apply1 viz41 ! !ory t ! great *anges ( climate dur+ geological ages result$ f ! passage ( our globe ?r\gh diff]5t temp]atures ( space4 ,:at ,pr(essor ,tyndall says %[s pla9ly t ! glacial epo* 0 n br\ght ab\t by our e>? pass+ ?r\gh a cold "p ( space4 ,a g5]al r$uction ( temp]ature ov] ! :ole globe c]ta9ly w\ld n produce a glacial epo*4 ,suppose ! sun 7 ext+ui%$ & our globe expos$ to ! temp]ature ( /ell> space 7#bci ,f471 ?is w\ld c]ta9ly freeze ! ocean solid f its surface to its bottom1 b x w\ld n cov] ! l& ) ice4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall's conclusions are1 ( c\rse1 equally conclusive aga9/ ,pr(essor ,balf\r ,/ew>t's !ory1 t ! glacial epo* may h result$ f a g5]al dim9ution 9 ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat4 ,nev]!less x w\ld be 9 direct opposition to ! well-e/abli%$ facts ( geology to assume t ! ice p]iods ( ! glacial epo* 7 w>m p]iods4 ,we are z c]ta9 f palontological evid5ce t ! cold 0 !n mu* great] ?an n[1 z we are f physical evid5ce t ! accumulation ( ice 0 great] ?an n[4 ,our glacial %ell-b$s & rema9s ( ! mammo?1 ! re9de]1 & musk-ox1 tell ( cold z truly z ! m>k+s on ! rocks d ( ice4 ,objection f ! ,pres5t ,condition ( ! ,planet ,m>s4--,x has be5 urg$ z an objection by ,pr(essor ,*>les ,m>t9s#df & o!rs1 t if a high /ate ( ecc5tricity c\ld produce a glacial epo*1 ! planet ,m>s ought to be at pres5t "u a glacial condition4 ,! ecc5tricity ( its orbit am\nts to #jjicbb1 & "o ( its s\!rn w9t] sol/ices is1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,oudemans1 ( ,batavia1#dg )9 #ag #da #h ( aphelion4 ,consequ5tly1 x is suppos$ t "o ( ! hemisph]es %\ld be 9 a glacial /ate & ! o!r free f sn[ & ice4 ,b x is believ$ t ! sn[ accumulates ar\nd ea* pole dur+ its w9t] & disappe>s to a great ext5t dur+ its summ]4 ,!re w\ld be =ce 9 ?is objection 7 x ma9ta9$ t ecc5tricity alone c produce a glacial condition ( climate1 b su* is n ! case1 & !re is no good gr\nd = conclud+ t ^? physical ag5cies :i* l$ to ! glacial epo* ( our globe exi/ 9 ! planet ,m>s4 ,x is p]fectly c]ta9 t ei!r wat] mu/ be diff]5t 9 con/itution 9 t planet f :at x is 9 our e>?1 or else its atmosph]ic envelope mu/ be totally diff]5t f ours4 ,= x is evid5t f :at has be5 /at$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 t 7 our globe to be remov$ to ! di/ance ( ,m>s f ! sun1 ! l[]+ ( ! temp]ature result+ f ! decrease 9 ! sun's heat w\ld n only de/roy e liv+ ?+1 b w\ld conv]t ! ocean into solid ice4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! ecc5tricity ( ,m>s' orbit is at pres5t f> f its sup]ior limit ( #jadbbd1 & x may s happ5 9 ! economy ( nature t :5 x approa*es to t limit a glacial condition ( ?+s may sup]v5e4 ,! tru? is1 h[ev]1 t v little seems to be kn[n ) c]ta9ty reg>d+ ! climatic condition ( ,m>s4 ,?is is obvi\s f ! fact t "s a/ronom]s believe t ! planet possesses a d5se atmosph]e :i* protects x f cold2 :ile o!rs ma9ta9 t its atmosph]e is s exce$+ly ?9 t its mean temp]ature is bel[ ! freez+-po9t4 ,"s ass]t t ! climatic condition ( ,m>s resembles v mu* t ( our e>?1 :ile o!rs affirm t its seas are actually froz5 solid to ! bottom1 & ! poles cov]$ ) ice ?irty or =ty miles 9 ?ickness4 ,= reasons :i* w be expla9$ 9 ! ,app5dix1 ,m>s1 not)/&+ its great] di/ance f ! sun1 may enjoy a climate z w>m z t ( our e>?4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,reason ,,:y ,,! ,,s\!rn ,,hemisph]e ,,is ,,cold] ,,?an ,,! ,,nor!rn4 ,adhm>'s ,explanation4--,adhm>'s ,!ory f\nd$ ^u a physical ,mi/ake 9 reg>d to ,radiation4--,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes on ,und]gr\nd ,temp]ature4--,g5]ally accept$ ,explanation4--,l[ ,temp]ature ( ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e attribut$ to ,prepond]ance ( ,sea4--,heat transf]r$ f ,s\!rn to ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e by ,ocean-curr5t ! true ,explanation4--,a l>ge ,portion ( ! ,heat ( ! ,gulf-/ream d]iv$ f ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e4 ,adhm>'s ,explanation4--,x has long be5 kn[n t on ! s\!rn hemisph]e ! temp]ature is l[] & ! accumulation ( ice great] ?an on ! nor!rn4 ,?is diff]5ce has usually be5 attribut$ to ! great prepond]ance ( sea on ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,m4 ,adhm>1 on ! o!r h&1 attempts to expla9 ?is diff]5ce by ref]r+ x to ! diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( heat lo/ by ! two hemisph]es 9 consequ5ce ( ! diff]5ce ( sev5 days 9 ! l5g? ( _! respective w9t]s4 ,z ! nor!rn w9t] is %ort] ?an ! summ]1 he concludes t !re is an accumulation ( heat on t hemisph]e1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! s\!rn w9t] be+ long] ?an ! summ]1 !re is !re=e a loss ( heat on ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 8,! s\? pole10 he says1 8loses 9 "o ye> m heat ?an x receives1 because ! total duration ( its night surpasses t ( its day by #afh h\rs2 & ! contr>y takes place = ! nor? pole4 ,if1 = example1 we take = unity ! mean quantity ( heat :i* ! sun s5ds (f 9 "o h\r1 ! heat accumulat$ at ! end ( ! ye> at ! nor? pole w be express$ by #afh1 :ile ! heat lo/ by ! s\? pole w be equal to #afh times :at ! radiation less5s x by 9 "o h\r1 s t at ! end ( ! ye> ! diff]5ce 9 ! heat ( ! two hemisph]es w be repres5t$ by #ccf times :at ! e>? receives f ! sun or loses 9 an h\r by radiation40#dh ,adhm> supposes t ab\t #aj1jjj ye>s h5ce1 :5 our nor!rn w9t] w occur 9 aphelion & ! s\!rn 9 p]ihelion1 ! climatic conditions ( ! two hemisph]es w be rev]s$2 ! ice w melt at ! s\? pole1 & ! nor!rn hemisph]e w become envelop$ 9 "o cont9u\s mass ( ice1 leagues 9 ?ickness1 ext5d+ d[n to temp]ate regions4 ,?is !ory seems to be bas$ ^u an errone\s int]pretation ( a pr9ciple1 fir/ po9t$ out1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 by ,humboldt 9 8 memoir 8,on ,iso!rmal ,l9es & ,di/ribution ( ,heat ov] ! ,globe40#di ,?is pr9ciple may be /at$ z foll[s3-- ,al?\gh ! total quantity ( heat receiv$ by ! e>? f ! sun 9 "o revolution is inv]sely proportional to ! m9or axis ( ! orbit1 yet ?is am\nt1 z 0 prov$ by ,d',alemb]t1 is equally di/ribut$ betwe5 ! two hemisph]es1 :atev] ! ecc5tricity may be4 ,:atev] extra heat ! s\!rn hemisph]e may at pres5t receive f ! sun daily dur+ its summ] mon?s ow+ to great] proximity to ! sun1 is exactly comp5sat$ by a correspond+ loss aris+ f ! %ortness ( ! season2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 :atev] daily defici5cy ( heat we 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e may at pres5t h dur+ our summ] half-ye>1 9 consequ5ce ( ! e>?'s di/ance f ! sun1 is also exactly comp5sat$ by a correspond+ l5g? ( season4 ,b ! surface temp]ature ( our globe dep5ds z mu* ^u ! am\nt ( heat radiat$ into space z ^u ! am\nt d]iv$ f ! sun1 & x has be5 ?\ght by "s t ?is comp5sat+ pr9ciple holds true only 9 reg>d to ! latt]4 ,9 ! case ( ! heat lo/ by radiation ! rev]se is suppos$ to take place4 ,! s\!rn hemisph]e1 x is ass]t$1 has n only a cold] w9t] ?an ! nor!rn 9 consequ5ce ( ! sun's great] di/ance1 b x has also a long] w9t]2 & ! extra loss ( heat f radiation dur+ w9t] is n comp5sat$ by its ne>ness to ! sun dur+ summ]1 = x ga9s no additional heat f ?is proximity4 ,& 9 ! same way x is argu$ t z our w9t] 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ow+ to ! less di/ance ( ! sun1 is n only w>m] ?an t ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 b is also at ! same "t %ort]1 s our hemisph]e is n cool$ to su* an ext5t z ! s\!rn4 ,& ?us ! mean temp]ature ( ! w9t] half-ye>1 z well z ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat1 is affect$ by a *ange 9 ! sun's di/ance4 ,al?\gh ,i always reg>d$ ?is cause ( ,humboldt's to be utt]ly inadequate to produce su* effects z ^? attribut$ to x by ,adhm>1 /ill1 9 my e>li] pap]s#ej ,i /at$ x to be a v]a causa :i* ought to produce "s s5sible effect on climate4 ,b %ortly aft]w>ds on a m c>eful consid]ation ( ! :ole subject1 ,i 0 l$ to suspect t ! circum/ance 9 "q c1 accord+ to !ory1 produce little or no effect on ! climatic condition ( our globe4 ,z !re appe>s to be a consid]able am\nt ( misappreh5sion 9 ref]5ce to ?is po9t1 :i* =ms ! basis ( ,adhm>'s !ory1 ,i may "h give x a brief consid]ation4#ea ,! rate at :i* ! e>? radiates into space ! heat receiv$ f ! sun dep5ds ^u ! temp]ature ( its surface2 & ! temp]ature ( its surface 7o!r ?+s be+ equal7 dep5ds ^u ! rate at :i* ! heat is receiv$4 ,! great] ! rate at :i* ! e>? receives heat f ! sun1 ! great] w !re=e be ! rate at :i* x w lose t heat by radiation4 ,n[ ! total quantity ( heat receiv$ dur+ w9t] by ! s\!rn hemisph]e is exactly equal to t receiv$ dur+ w9t] by ! nor!rn4 ,b z ! s\!rn w9t] is long] ?an ! nor!rn1 ! rate at :i* ! heat is receiv$1 & consequ5tly ! rate ( radiation1 dur+ t season mu/ be less on ! s\!rn hemisph]e ?an on ! nor!rn4 ,?us ! s\!rn hemisph]e loses heat dur+ a long] p]iod ?an ! nor!rn1 & !re=e ! less rate ( radiation 77 x n = a circum/ance pres5tly to be notic$7 w\ld :olly comp5sate = ! long] p]iod1 & ! total quantity ( heat lo/ dur+ w9t] w\ld be ! same on bo? hemisph]es4 ,! s\!rn summ] is %ort] ?an ! nor!rn1 b ! heat is m int5se1 & ! surface ( ! gr\nd kept at a high] temp]ature2 consequ5tly ! rate ( radiation into space is great]4 ,:5 ! rate at :i* a body receives heat is increas$1 ! temp]ature ( ! body rises till ! rate ( radiation equals ! rate ( absorption1 aft] :i* equilibrium is re/or$2 & :5 ! rate ( absorption is dim9i%$1 ! temp]ature falls till ! rate ( radiation equals t ( absorption4 ,b not)/&+ all ?is1 ow+ to ! sl[ conductivity ( ! gr\nd = heat1 m heat w pass into x dur+ ! long] summ] ( aphelion ?an dur+ ! %ort] "o ( p]ihelion2 = ! am\nt ( heat :i* passes into ! gr\nd dep5ds on ! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i* ! e>? is receiv+ heat1 z well z ^u ! am\nt receiv$4 ,9 l mann]1 m heat w pass out ( ! gr\nd dur+ ! long] w9t] 9 aphelion ?an dur+ ! %ort] "o 9 p]ihelion4 ,suppose ! l5g? ( ! days on ! "o hemisph]e 7say ! nor!rn7 to be #bc h\rs1 & ! l5g? ( ! nights1 say "o h\r2 :ile on ! o!r hemisph]e ! days are "o h\r & ! nights #bc h\rs4 ,suppose also t ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun by ! s\!rn hemisph]e dur+ ! day ( "o h\r to be equal to t receiv$ by ! nor!rn hemisph]e dur+ ! day ( #bc h\rs4 ,x is evid5t t al?\gh ! surface ( ! gr\nd on ! s\!rn hemisph]e w\ld receive z mu* heat f ! sun dur+ ! %ort day ( "o h\r z ! surface ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e dur+ ! long day ( #bc h\rs1 yet1 ow+ to ! sl[ conductivity ( ! gr\nd = heat1 ! am\nt absorb$ w\ld n be ne>ly s mu* on ! s\!rn hemisph]e z on ! nor!rn4 ,! temp]ature ( ! surface dur+ ! day1 x is true1 w\ld be f> high] on ! s\!rn hemisph]e ?an on ! nor!rn1 & consequ5tly ! rate at :i* ! heat w\ld pass into ! gr\nd w\ld be great] on t hemisph]e ?an on ! nor!rn2 b1 not)/&+ ! great] rate ( absorption result+ f ! high temp]ature ( ! surface1 x w\ld n comp5sate = ! %ortness ( ! day4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! surface ( ! gr\nd on ! s\!rn hemisph]e w\ld be cold] dur+ ! long night ( #bc h\rs ?an x w\ld be on ! nor!rn dur+ ! %ort night ( only "o h\r2 & ! l[ temp]ature ( ! gr\nd w\ld t5d to less5 ! rate ( radiation into space4 ,b ! decrease 9 ! rate ( radiation w\ld n comp5sate fully = ! great l5g? ( ! night4 ,! g5]al & comb9$ result ( all ^? causes w\ld be t a slight accumulation ( heat w\ld take place on ! nor!rn hemisph]e & a slight loss on ! s\!rn4 ,b ?is loss ( heat on ! "o hemisph]e & ga9 on ! o!r w\ld n g on accumulat+ at a uni=m rate ye> by ye>1 z ,adhm> supposes4 ,( c\rse we are at pres5t simply consid]+ ! e>? z an absorb] & radiator ( heat1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! effects ( di/ribution ( sea & l& & o!r modify+ causes1 & are assum+ t ev]y?+ is ! same 9 bo? hemisph]es1 ) ! exception t ! w9t] ( ! "o hemisph]e is long] ?an t ( ! o!r4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! am\nt ( heat /or$ up by ! "o hemisph]e & lo/ by ! o!r8 ,is x su* an am\nt z to s5sibly affect climate8 ,! exp]im5ts & obs]vations :i* h be5 made on und]gr\nd temp]ature af=d u a means ( mak+ at lea/ a r\gh e/imate ( ! am\nt4 ,& f ^! x w be se5 t ! influ5ce ( an excess ( sev5 or eight days 9 ! l5g? ( ! s\!rn w9t] ov] ! nor!rn c\ld h>dly produce an effect t w\ld be s5sible4 ,obs]vations 7 made at ,ed9burgh by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes on ?ree diff]5t sub/ances2 viz41 s&/one1 s&1 & trap-rock4 ,by calculation1 we f9d f ! data af=d$ by ^? obs]vations t ! total quantity ( heat accumulat$ 9 ! gr\nd dur+ ! summ] above ! mean temp]ature 0 z foll[s3--,9 ! s&/one-rock1 a quantity suffici5t to raise ! temp]ature ( ! rock #a ,c4 to a dep? ( #he feet #f in*es2 9 ! s& a quantity suffici5t to raise ! temp]ature #a ,c4 to a dep? ( #gb feet #f in*es2 & 9 ! trap-rock a quantity only suffici5t to raise ! temp]ature #a ,c4 to a dep? ( #fa feet #f in*es4 ,tak+ ! specific heat ( ! s&/one p] unit volume1 z det]m9$ by ,regnault1 at #dfbc1 & t ( s& at #cjjf1 & trap at #ebhc1 & r$uc+ all ! results to "o /&>d1 viz41 t ( wat]1 we f9d t ! quantity ( heat /or$ up 9 ! s&/one w\ld1 if appli$ to wat]1 raise its temp]ature #a ,c4 to a dep? ( #ci feet #f in*es2 t /or$ up 9 ! s& w\ld raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat] #a ,c4 to a dep? ( #ba feet #h in*es1 & t /or$ up 9 ! trap w\ld raise ! wat] #a ,c4 to ! dep? ( #cb feet #f in*es4 ,we may take ! mean ( ^! ?ree results z repres5t+ pretty accurately ! quantity /or$ up 9 ! g5]al surface ( ! c\ntry4 ,?is w\ld be equal to #ca feet #c in*es dep? ( wat] rais$ #a ,c4 ,! quantity ( heat lo/ by radiation dur+ w9t] bel[ ! mean 0 f\nd to be ab\t equal to t /or$ up dur+ summ]4 ,! total quantity ( heat p] squ>e foot ( surface receiv$ by ! equator f sunrise till sunset at ! "t ( ! equ9oxes1 all[+ #bb p] c5t4 = ! am\nt cut (f 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 is #a1ghj1dgd foot-p\nds4 ,9 ! latitude ( ,ed9burgh ab\t #ich1dfj foot-p\nds p] squ>e foot ( surface is receiv$1 assum+ t n m ?an #bb p] c5t4 is cut (f by ! atmosph]e4 ,at ?is rate a quantity ( heat w\ld be receiv$ f ! sun 9 two days t5 h\rs 7say1 ?ree days7 suffici5t to raise ! temp]ature ( ! wat] #a ,c4 to ! requir$ dep? ( #ca feet #c in*es4 ,consequ5tly ! total quantity ( heat /or$ up dur+ summ] 9 ! latitude ( ,ed9burgh is only equal to :at we receive f ! sun dur+ ?ree days at ! "t ( ! equ9oxes4 ,?ree days' sun%9e dur+ ! middle ( ,m>* or ,septemb]1 if appli$ to raise ! temp]ature ( ! gr\nd1 w\ld re/ore all ! heat lo/ dur+ ! entire w9t]2 & ano!r ?ree days' sun%9e w\ld conf] on ! gr\nd z mu* heat z is /or$ up dur+ ! entire summ]4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! total duration ( sun%9e 9 w9t] is to t ( summ] 9 ! latitude ( ,ed9burgh only ab\t z #d to #g4 ,"h is a diff]5ce ( two mon?s4 ,b ?is is n all2 ! quantity ( heat receiv$ dur+ w9t] is sc>cely "o-?ird ( t receiv$ dur+ summ]2 yet1 not)/&+ ?is enorm\s diff]5ce betwe5 summ] & w9t]1 ! gr\nd dur+ w9t] loses only ab\t six days' sun-heat bel[ ! maximum am\nt possess$ by x 9 summ]4 ,b if :at has already be5 /at$ is correct1 ?is loss ( heat su/a9$ by ! e>? dur+ w9t] is n *iefly ow+ to radiation dur+ ! long] abs5ce ( ! sun1 b to ! decrease 9 ! quantity ( heat receiv$ 9 consequ5ce ( 8 long] abs5ce comb9$ ) ! obliquity ( 8 rays dur+ t season4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( ! two hemisph]es1 al?\gh ! s\!rn w9t] is long] ?an ! nor!rn1 yet ! quantity ( heat receiv$ by ea* is ! same4 ,b suppos+ x held true1 :i* x does n1 t ! loss ( heat su/a9$ by ! e>? 9 w9t] is z mu* ow+ to radiation result+ f ! excess 9 ! l5g? ( ! w9t] nights ov] ^? ( ! summ] z to ! defici5cy ( heat receiv$ 9 w9t] f t receiv$ 9 summ]1 ?ree days' heat w\ld !n 9 ?is case be ! am\nt lo/ by radiation 9 consequ5ce ( ?is excess 9 ! l5g? ( ! w9t] nights4 ,! total l5g? ( ! w9t] nights to ^? ( ! summ] is1 z we h se51 ab\t z #g to #d4 ,?is is a diff]5ce ( ne>ly #abjj h\rs4 ,b ! excess ( ! s\? pol> w9t] ov] ! nor? am\nts to only ab\t #ahd h\rs4 ,n[ if #abjj h\rs give a loss ( ?ree days' sun-heat1 #ahd h\rs w give a loss ( sc>cely #e h\rs4 ,x is no d\bt true t ! two cases are n exactly analog\s2 b x is obvi\s t any error :i* c possibly arise f reg>d+ !m z su* _c mat]ially alt] ! conclusion to :i* we h arriv$4 ,suppos+ ! effect 7 d\ble1 or ev5 quadruple1 :at we h conclud$ x to be1 /ill x w\ld n am\nt to a loss ( two days' heat1 :i* c\ld c]ta9ly h little or no influ5ce on climate4 ,b ev5 assum+ all ! prec$+ reason+ to be incorrect1 & t ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 9 consequ5ce ( its long] w9t]1 loses heat to ! extravagant ext5t ( #afh h\rs1 suppos$ by ,adhm>1 /ill ?is c\ld n mat]ially affect climate4 ,! climate is influ5c$ by ! m]e temp]ature ( ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 & n by ! quantity ( heat or cold t may be /or$ up "u ! surface4 ,! climate is det]m9$1 s f> z ! gr\nd is conc]n$1 by ! temp]ature ( ! surface1 & is :olly indep5d5t ( ! temp]ature :i* may exi/ "u ! surface4 ,und]gr\nd temp]ature c only affect climate ?r\gh ! surface4 ,if ! surface c\ld1 = example1 be kept cov]$ ) p]petual sn[1 we %\ld h a cold & /]ile climate1 al?\gh ! temp]ature ( ! gr\nd "u ! sn[ 0 actually at ! boil+-po9t4 ,let ! gr\nd to a dep? (1 say #dj or #ej feet1 be depriv$ ( an am\nt ( heat equal to t receiv$ f ! sun 9 #afh h\rs4 ,?is c\ld produce little or no s5sible effect on climate2 =1 ow+ to ! sl[ conductivity ( ! gr\nd = heat1 ?is loss w\ld n s5sibly affect ! temp]ature ( ! surface1 z x w\ld take sev]al mon?s = ! sun's heat to p5etrate to t dep? & re/ore ! lo/ heat4 ,! cold1 if ,i may be all[$ to use ! expression1 w\ld come s sl[ly out to ! surface t its effect 9 l[]+ ! temp]ature ( ! surface w\ld sc>cely be s5sible4 ,&1 aga91 if we suppose ! #afh h\rs' heat to be lo/ by ! m]e surface ( ! gr\nd1 ! effect w\ld c]ta9ly be s5sible1 b x w\ld only be s = a few days4 ,we might 9 ?is case h a week's froz5 soil1 b t w\ld be all4 ,be=e ! air _h "t to become v s5sibly affect$ by ! l[ temp]ature ( ! surface ! froz5 soil w\ld be ?aw$4 ,! /or+ up ( heat or cold 9 ! gr\nd has 9 reality v little to d ) climate4 ,"s physici/s expla91 = example1 :y ! mon? ( ,july is w>m] ?an ,june by ref]r+ x to ! fact t by ! mon? ( ,july ! gr\nd has become possess$ ( a l>g] accumulation ( heat ?an x possess$ 9 ,june4 ,?is explanation is evid5tly errone\s4 ,! gr\nd 9 ,july c]ta9ly possesses a great] /ore ( heat ?an x did 9 ,june2 b ?is is n ! reason :y ! =m] mon? is hott] ?an ! latt]4 ,july is hott] ?an ,june because ! air 7n ! gr\nd7 has become possess$ ( a l>g] /ore ( heat ?an x _h 9 ,june4 ,n[ ! air is w>m] 9 ,july ?an 9 ,june because1 receiv+ little increase ( temp]ature f ! direct rays ( ! sun1 x is heat$ *iefly by radiation f ! e>? & by contact ) its w>m surface4 ,consequ5tly1 al?\gh ! sun's heat is great] 9 ,june ?an x is 9 ,july1 x is ne> ! middle ( ,july be=e ! air becomes possess$ ( its maximum /ore ( heat4 ,we !re=e say t ,july is hott] ?an ,june because ! air is hott]1 & consequ5tly ! temp]ature 9 ! %ade is great] 9 ! =m] mon? ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,x is !re=e1 ,i presume1 q app>5t t ,adhm>'s !ory fails to expla9 :y ! s\!rn hemisph]e is cold] ?an ! nor!rn4 ,! g5]ally accept$ ,explanation4--,! diff]5ce 9 ! mean temp]ature ( ! two hemisph]es is usually attribut$ to ! proportion ( sea to l& 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e & ( l& to sea 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,?is1 no d\bt1 w acc\nt = ! great] annual range ( temp]ature on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 b x seems to me t x w n acc\nt = ! excess ( mean temp]ature possess$ by t hemisph]e ov] ! s\!rn4 ,! g5]al influ5ce ( l& on climate is to exagg]ate ! v>iation ( temp]ature due to ! seasons4 ,on cont95ts ! summ]s are hott] & ! w9t]s cold] ?an on ! ocean4 ,! days are also hott] & ! nights cold] on l& ?an on sea4 ,?is is a result :i* foll[s f ! m]e physical prop]ties ( l& & wat]1 indep5d5tly ( curr5ts1 :e!r ( ocean or ( air4 ,b x nev]!less foll[s1 accord+ to !ory 7& ?is is a po9t :i* has be5 ov]look$71 t ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! ocean ought to be great] ?an t ( ! l& 9 equatorial regions z well z 9 temp]ate & pol> regions4 ,?is w appe> obvi\s = ! foll[+ reasons3--7#a7 ,! gr\nd /ores up heat only by ! sl[ process ( conduction1 :]eas wat]1 by ! mobility ( its p>ticles & its transp>5cy = heat-rays1 especially ^? f ! sun1 becomes heat$ to a consid]able dep? rapidly4 ,! quantity ( heat /or$ up 9 ! gr\nd is ?us comp>atively small1 :ile ! quantity /or$ up 9 ! ocean is great4 7#b7 ,! air is probably heat$ m rapidly by contact ) ! gr\nd ?an ) ! ocean2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x is heat$ f> m rapidly by radiation f ! ocean ?an f ! l&4 ,! aque\s vap\r ( ! air is to a great ext5t dia!rman\s to radiation f ! gr\nd1 :ile x absorbs ! rays f wat] & ?us becomes heat$4 7#c7 ,! air radiates back a consid]able portion ( its heat1 & ! ocean absorbs ?is radiation f ! air m readily ?an ! gr\nd does4 ,! ocean w n reflect ! heat f ! aque\s vap\r ( ! air1 b absorbs x1 :ile ! gr\nd does ! opposite4 ,radiation f ! air1 !re=e1 t5ds m readily to heat ! ocean ?an x does ! l&4 7#d7 ,! aque\s vap\r ( ! air acts z a scre5 to prev5t ! loss by radiation f wat]1 :ile x all[s radiation f ! gr\nd to pass m freely into space2 ! atmosph]e ov] ! ocean consequ5tly ?r[s back a great] am\nt ( heat ?an is ?r[n back by ! atmosph]e ov] ! l&4 ,! sea 9 ?is case has a mu* great] difficulty ?an ! l& has 9 gett+ quit ( ! heat receiv$ f ! sun2 9 o!r words1 ! l& t5ds to lose its heat m rapidly ?an ! sea4 ,! consequ5ce ( all ^! circum/ances is t ! ocean mu/ /& at a high] mean temp]ature ?an ! l&4 ,a /ate ( equilibrium is nev] ga9$ until ! rate at :i* a body is receiv+ heat is equal to ! rate at :i* x is los+ x2 b z equal surfaces ( sea & l& receive f ! sun ! same am\nt ( heat1 x !re=e foll[s t1 9 ord] t ! sea may get quit ( its heat z rapidly z ! l&1 x mu/ /& at a high] temp]ature ?an ! l&4 ,! temp]ature ( ! sea mu/ cont9ue to rise till ! am\nt ( heat ?r[n (f into space equals t receiv$ f ! sun2 :5 ?is po9t is rea*$1 equilibrium is e/abli%$ & ! temp]ature rema9s /ation>y4 ,b1 ow+ to ! great] difficulty t ! sea has 9 gett+ rid ( its heat1 ! mean temp]ature ( equilibrium ( ! ocean mu/ be high] ?an t ( ! l&2 consequ5tly ! mean temp]ature ( ! ocean1 & also ( ! air imm$iately ov] x1 9 tropical regions %\ld be high] ?an ! mean temp]ature ( ! l& & ! air ov] x4 ,! great] portion ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 h[ev]1 is occupi$ by wat]1 & :y !n1 x may be ask$1 is ?is wat] hemisph]e cold] ?an ! l& hemisph]e8 ,ought x n also to foll[ t ! sea 9 int]-tropical regions %\ld be w>m] ?an ! l& "u ! same p>allels2 yet1 z we "k1 ! rev]se is actually f\nd to be ! case4 ,h[ !n is all ?is to be expla9$1 if ! =ego+ reason+ be correct8 ,we f9d :5 we exam9e ,pr(essor ,dove's *>ts ( mean annual temp]ature1 t ! ocean 9 int]-tropical regions has a mean annual temp]ature bel[ ! normal1 & ! l& a mean annual temp]ature above ! normal4 ,bo? 9 ! ,pacific & 9 ! ,atlantic ! mean temp]ature s9ks to #bc bel[ ! normal1 :ile on ! l& x rises #df above ! normal4 ,! explanation 9 ?is case is obvi\sly ?is3 ! temp]ature ( ! ocean 9 int]-tropical regions1 z we h already se51 is kept mu* l[] ?an x w\ld o!rwise be by ! enorm\s am\nt ( heat t is be+ con/antly c>ri$ away f ^? regions into temp]ate & pol> regions1 & ( cold t is be+ con/antly c>ri$ f temp]ate & pol> regions to ! tropical regions by means ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,! same pr9ciple :i* expla9s :y ! sea 9 int]-tropical regions has a l[] mean annual temp]ature ?an ! l&1 expla9s also :y ! s\!rn hemisph]e has a l[] mean annual temp]ature ?an ! nor!rn4 ,! temp]ature ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e is l[]$ by ! transf]5ce ( heat by means ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,heat transf]r$ f ! ,s\!rn to ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e by ,ocean-curr5ts ! true ,explanation4--,! great ocean-curr5ts ( ! globe take _! rise 9 ?ree imm5se /reams f ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 :i*1 on rea*+ ! tropical regions1 become deflect$ 9 a we/]ly direction & fl[ along ! s\!rn side ( ! equator = ?\s&s ( miles4 ,p]haps m ?an "o half ( ?is mass ( mov+ wat] returns into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean )\t ev] cross+ ! equator1 b ! quantity :i* crosses ov] to ! nor!rn hemisph]e is enorm\s4 ,?is con/ant fl[ ( wat] f ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! nor!rn 9 ! =m ( surface curr5ts mu/ be comp5sat$ by "u curr5ts ( equal magnitude f ! nor!rn hemisph]e to ! s\!rn4 ,! curr5ts1 h[ev]1 :i* cross ! equator are f> high] 9 temp]ature ?an _! comp5sat+ "u curr5ts2 consequ5tly !re is a con/ant transf]5ce ( heat f ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! nor!rn4 ,any curr5ts tak+ _! rise 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e & fl[+ across into ! s\!rn are comp>atively trifl+1 & ! am\nt ( heat transf]r$ by !m is also trifl+4 ,!re are "o or two curr5ts ( consid]able size1 su* z ! ,brazilian bran* ( ! great equatorial curr5t ( ! ,atlantic1 & a "p ( ! ,s\? ,equatorial ,drift-curr5t ( ! ,pacific1 :i* cross ! equator f nor? to s\?2 b ^! _c be reg>d$ z nor!rn curr5ts2 !y are simply s\!rn curr5ts deflect$ back aft] cross+ ov] to ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! heat :i* ^! curr5ts possess is *iefly obta9$ on ! s\!rn hemisph]e be=e cross+ ov] to ! nor!rn2 & al?\gh ! nor!rn hemisph]e may n ga9 mu* heat by means ( !m1 x1 on ! o!r h&1 does n lose mu*1 = ! heat :i* !y give out 9 _! progress along ! s\!rn hemisph]e does n belong to ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,b1 aft] mak+ ! fulle/ all[ance = ! am\nt ( heat c>ri$ across ! equator f ! nor!rn hemisph]e to ! s\!rn1 we %all f9d1 if we comp>e ! mean temp]ature ( ! curr5ts f s\? to nor? ) t ( ! great comp5sat+ "u curr5ts & ! "o or two small surface curr5ts1 t ! =m] is v mu* high] ?an ! latt]4 ,! mean temp]ature ( ! wat] cross+ ! equator f s\? to nor? is probably n "u #fe1 t ( ! "u curr5ts is probably n ov] #ci4 ,b to ! "u curr5ts we mu/ add ! surface curr5ts f nor? to s\?2 & assum+ t ?is w raise ! mean temp]ature ( ! entire mass ( wat] fl[+ s\? to1 say1 #de1 we h /ill a diff]5ce ( #bj betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! masses fl[+ nor? & s\?4 ,ea* cubic foot ( wat] :i* crosses ! equator w 9 ?is case transf] ab\t #ife1jjj foot-p\nds ( heat f ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! nor!rn4 ,if we _h any means ( asc]ta9+ ! volume ( ^? great curr5ts cross+ ! equator1 we %\ld !n be able to make a r\gh e/imate ( ! total am\nt ( heat transf]r$ f ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! nor!rn2 b z yet no accurate e/imate has be5 made on ?is po9t4 ,let u assume1 :at is probably bel[ ! tru?1 t ! total am\nt ( wat] cross+ ! equator is at lea/ d\ble t ( ! ,gulf-/ream z x passes ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida1 :i* am\nt we h already f\nd to be equal to #ff1ijh1afj1jjj1jjj cubic feet daily4 ,tak+ ! quantity ( heat convey$ by ea* cubic foot ( wat] ( ! ,gulf-/ream z #a1aeh1jjj foot-p\nds1 x is f\nd1 z we h se51 t an am\nt ( heat is convey$ by ?is curr5t equal to all ! heat t falls )9 #cb miles on ea* side ( ! equator4 ,!n1 if ea* cubic foot ( wat] cross+ ! equator transf]s #ife1jjj foot-p\nds1 & ! quantity ( wat] be d\ble t ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 x foll[s t ! am\nt ( heat transf]r$ f ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! nor!rn is equal to all ! heat fall+ )9 #eb miles on ea* side ( ! equator1 or equal to all ! heat fall+ on ! s\!rn hemisph]e )9 #ajd miles ( ! equator4 ,?is quantity tak5 f ! s\!rn hemisph]e & add$ to ! nor!rn w !re=e make a diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( heat possess$ by ! two hemisph]es equal to all ! heat :i* falls on ! s\!rn hemisph]e )9 some:at m ?an #bjh miles ( ! equator4 ,a l>ge ,portion ( ! ,heat ( ! ,gulf-/ream d]iv$ f ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e4--,x c be prov$ t a v l>ge portion ( ! heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream comes f ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! pro( is z foll[s3-- ,if all ! heat came f ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 x c\ld only come f t portion ( ! ,atlantic1 ,c>ibbean ,sea1 & ,gulf ( ,mexico :i* lies to ! nor? ( ! equator4 ,! entire area ( ^! seas1 ext5d+ to ! ,tropic ( ,canc]1 is ab\t #g1gjj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,b ?is area is n suffici5t to supply ! curr5t pass+ ?r\gh ! 8,n>r[s0 ) ! necess>y heat4 ,7 ! heat :i* passes ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida d]iv$ exclusively f ?is area1 ! foll[+ table w\ld !n repres5t ! relative quantity p] unit surface possess$ by ! ,atlantic 9 ! ?ree zones1 assum+ t "o half ( ! heat ( ! ,gulf-/ream passes into ! arctic regions & ! o!r half rema9s to w>m ! temp]ate regions#eb3-- ,f ! equator to ! ,tropic ( ,canc] #ggc ,f ! ,tropic ( ,canc] to ! ,arctic ,circle #hdh ,f ! ,arctic ,circle to ! ,nor? ,pole #faj ,^! figures %[ t ! ,atlantic1 f ! equator to ! ,tropic ( ,canc]1 w\ld be z cold z f ! ,tropic ( ,canc] to ! ,nor? ,pole1 7 x n t a l>ge proportion ( ! heat possess$ by ! ,gulf-/ream is d]iv$ f ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,lieut4 ,,maury',s ,,!ory4 ,introduction4--,ocean-curr5ts1 accord+ to ,maury1 due to ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,temp]ature4--,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,saltness4--,maury's two ,causes neutralize ea* o!r4--,h[1 accord+ to him1 ,diff]5ce 9 ,saltness acts z a ,cause4 ,introduction4--,few subjects h excit$ m int]e/ & att5tion ?an ! cause ( ocean circulation2 & yet few are 9 a m imp]fect & unsatisfactory condition1 nor is !re any "q reg>d+ :i* a great] div]sity ( op9ion has prevail$4 ,our incomplete acqua9tance ) ! facts relat+ to ! curr5ts ( ! ocean & ! modes ( circulation actually 9 op]ation1 is no d\bt "o reason = ?is /ate ( ?+s4 ,b d\btless ! pr9cipal cause ( su* div]sity ( op9ion lies 9 ! fact t ! "q is "o :i* prop]ly belongs to ! doma9 ( physics & me*anics1 :ile z yet no physici/ ( note 7if we except ,dr4 ,cold+1 ( ,cop5hag57 has giv51 z f> z ,i "k1 any special att5tion to ! subject4 ,x is true t 9 works ( meteorology & physical geography ref]5ce is cont9ually made to su* em95t physici/s z ,h]s*el1 ,p\illet1 ,buff1 & o!rs2 b :5 we turn to ! writ+s ( ^! au?ors we f9d m]ely a few rem>ks expressive ( _! op9ions on ! subject1 & no special discussion or inve/igation ( ! matt]1 nor any?+ :i* c\ld w>rant u 9 conclud+ t su* inve/igations h ev] be5 made4 ,at pres5t ! "q _c be decid$ by a ref]5ce to au?orities4 ,! v>i\s !ories on ! subject may be class$ "u two divisions2 ! fir/ ( ^! attributes ! motion ( ! wat] to ! impulse ( ! w9d1 & ! second to ! =ce ( gravity result+ f diff]5ce ( d5sity4 ,b ev5 among/ ^? :o adopt ! =m] !ory1 x is g5]ally held t ! w9ds are n ! sole cause1 b t1 to a c]ta9 ext5t at lea/1 diff]5ce ( specific gravity contributes to produce motion ( ! wat]s4 ,?is is a v natural conclusion2 & 9 ! pres5t /ate ( physical geography on ?is subject "o c h>dly be expect$ to hold any o!r view4 ,! support]s ( ! latt] !ory may be subdivid$ into two classes4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 7( :i* ,maury may be reg>d$ z ! repres5tative7 attributes ! ,gulf-/ream1 & o!r s5sible curr5ts ( ! ocean1 to diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 ,! o!r class 7at pres5t ! m popul> ( ! two1 & ( :i* ,dr4 ,c>p5t] may be consid]$ ! repres5tative7 d5ies altoge!r t su* curr5ts c be produc$ by diff]5ce ( specific gravity1#ec & affirms t !re is a g5]al movem5t ( ! upp] portion ( ! ocean f ! equator to ! poles1 & a c\nt]-movem5t ( ! "u portion f ! poles to ! equator4 ,?is movem5t is attribut$ to diff]5ce ( specific gravity betwe5 equatorial & pol> wat]1 result+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature4 ,! widespread popul>ity ( ! gravitation !ory is no d\bt1 to a great ext5t1 ow+ to ! v great prom95ce giv5 to x by ,lieut4 ,maury 9 8 int]e/+ & popul> "w1 8,! ,physical ,geography ( ! ,sea40 ,ano!r cause :i* mu/ h fav\r$ ! reception ( ?is !ory is ! ease ) :i* x is p]ceiv$ h[1 accord+ to x1 circulation ( ! wat]s ( ! ocean is suppos$ to foll[4 ,"o has no difficulty1 = example1 9 p]ceiv+ t if ! int]-tropical wat]s ( ! ocean are exp&$ by heat1 & ! wat]s ar\nd ! poles contract$ by cold1 ! surface ( ! ocean w /& at a high] level at ! equator ?an at ! poles4 ,equilibrium be+ ?us di/urb$1 ! wat] at ! equator w t5d to fl[ t[>ds ! poles z a surface curr5t1 & ! wat] at ! poles t[>ds ! equator z an "u curr5t4 ,?is1 at fir/ sight1 looks well1 especially to ^? :o take b a sup]ficial view ( ! matt]4 ,we %all exam9e ?is !ory at "s l5g?1 = two reasons3 #a1 because x lies at ! root ( a great deal ( ! confusion & misconception :i* h prevail$ 9 reg>d to ! :ole subject ( ocean-curr5ts3 #b1 because1 if ! !ory is correct1 x militates /rongly aga9/ ! physical !ory ( secul> *anges ( climate advanc$ 9 ?is volume4 ,we h already se5 7,*apt] ,,iv47 t :5 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit rea*es a high value1 a comb9ation ( physical circum/ances t5ds to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! hemisph]e :i* has its w9t] sol/ice 9 aphelion1 & to raise ! temp]ature ( ! opposite hemisph]e1 ^: w9t] sol/ice w1 ( c\rse1 be 9 p]ihelion4 ,! direct result ( ?is /ate ( ?+s1 z 0 %[n1 is to /r5g!n ! =ce ( ! trade-w9ds on ! cold hemisph]e1 & to weak5 _! /r5g? on ! w>m hemisph]e3 & ?is1 9 turn1 we also saw1 t5ds to impel ! w>m wat] ( ! int]-tropical region on to ! w>m hemisph]e1 & to prev5t x1 9 a v l>ge degree1 f pass+ into ! cold hemisph]e4 ,?is deflection ( ! ocean-curr5ts t5ds to an enorm\s ext5t to increase ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature previ\sly exi/+ betwe5 ! two hemisph]es4 ,9 o!r words1 ! w>m & equable condition ( ! "o hemisph]e1 & ! cold & glacial condition ( ! o!r1 are1 to a great ext5t1 due to ?is deflection ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,b if ! !ory be correct :i* attributes ! motion ( ocean-curr5ts to a diff]5ce 9 d5sity betwe5 ! sea 9 int]-tropical & pol> regions1 !n x foll[s t ^! curr5ts 7o!r ?+s be+ equal7 ought to be /rong] on ! cold hemisph]e ?an on ! w>m1 because !re is a great] diff]5ce ( temp]ature &1 consequ5tly1 a great] diff]5ce ( d5sity1 betwe5 ! pol> seas ( ! cold hemisph]e & ! equatorial seas1 ?an betwe5 ! pol> seas ( ! w>m hemisph]e & ! equatorial seas4 ,& ?is be+ ! case1 not)/&+ ! influ5ce ( ! trade-w9ds ( ! cold hemisph]e bl[+ ov] ^u ! w>m1 ! curr5ts w1 9 all probability1 be /rong] on ! cold hemisph]e ?an on ! w>m4 ,9 o!r words1 ! influ5ce ( ! p[]ful trade-w9ds ( ! cold hemisph]e to transf] ! w>m wat] ( ! equator to ! w>m hemisph]e w probably be m ?an c\nt]balanc$ by ! t5d5cy ( ! w>m & buoyant wat]s ( ! equator to fl[ t[>ds ! d5se & cold wat]s ar\nd ! pole ( ! cold hemisph]e4 ,b if ocean-curr5ts are due n to diff]5ce 9 specific gravity1 b to ! influ5ce ( ! w9ds1 !n x is evid5t t ! wat]s at ! equator w be impell$1 n into ! cold hemisph]e1 b into ! w>m4 ,= ?is reason ,i h be5 ! m anxi\s to prove t int]-tropical heat is convey$ to temp]ate & pol> regions by ocean-curr5ts1 & n by means ( any g5]al movem5t ( ! ocean result+ f diff]5ce ( gravity4 ,i %all !re=e on ?is acc\nt ent] m fully into ?is "p ( ! subject ?an ,i o!rwise w\ld h done4 ,irrespective ( all ?is1 h[ev]1 ! important nature ( ! :ole "q1 & ! v g5]al int]e/ x excites1 w>rant a full consid]ation ( ! subject4 ,i %all consid] fir/ t =m ( ! gravitation !ory advocat$ by ,maury 9 8 "w on ! 8,physical ,geography ( ! ,sea10 :i* attributes ! motion ( ! ,gulf-/ream & o!r s5sible curr5ts ( ! ocean to diff]5ces ( specific gravity4 ,"o reason :i* has induc$ me to select ,maury's "w is1 t x n only conta9s a mu* full] discussion on ! cause ( ! motion ( ocean-curr5ts ?an is to be f\nd any:]e else1 b also t x has probably pass$ ?r\gh a great] numb] ( editions ?an any o!r book ( a sci5tific "* 9 ! ,engli% language 9 ! same l5g? ( "t4 ,exam9ation ( ,lieut4 ,maury's ,gravitation ,!ory4--,al?\gh ,lieut4 ,maury has exp\nd$ 8 views on ! cause ( ocean-curr5ts at great l5g? 9 ! v>i\s editions ( 8 "w1 yet x is some:at difficult to discov] :at !y really are4 ,?is arises *iefly f ! g5]ally confus$ & sometimes contradictory nature ( 8 hydrodynamical conceptions4 ,aft] a repeat$ p]usal ( sev]al editions ( 8 book1 ! foll[+1 ,i tru/1 w be f\nd to be a pretty accurate repres5tation ( 8 !ory3-- ,ocean-curr5ts1 accord+ to ,maury1 due to ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,al?\gh ,maury alludes to a numb] ( causes :i*1 he ?9ks1 t5d to produce curr5ts1 yet he deems _! influ5ce s small t1 practically1 all curr5ts may be ref]r$ to diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 8,if we except10 he says1 8! tides1 & ! p>tial curr5ts ( ! sea1 su* z ^? t may be creat$ by ! w9d1 we may lay x d[n z a rule t all ! curr5ts ( ! ocean owe _! orig9 to ! diff]5ces ( specific gravity betwe5 sea-wat] at "o place & sea-wat] at ano!r2 = :]ev] !re is su* a diff]5ce1 :e!r x be ow+ to diff]5ce ( temp]ature or to diff]5ce ( saltness1 c41 x is a diff]5ce t di/urbs equilibrium1 & curr5ts are ! consequ5ce0 7 #dfg7ed4 ,to ! same effect see #hif1 #cg1 #eab1 #ebj1 & #ecg4 ,not)/&+ ! fact t he is cont9ually ref]r+ to diff]5ce ( specific gravity z ! great cause ( curr5ts1 x is difficult to und]/& 9 :at way he conceives ?is diff]5ce to act z a cause4 ,diff]5ce ( specific gravity betwe5 ! wat]s ( ! ocean at "o place & ano!r c give rise to curr5ts only ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! e>?'s gravity4 ,all curr5ts result+ f diff]5ce ( specific gravity c be ultimately resolv$ into ! g5]al pr9ciple t ! molecules t are specifically heavi] desc5d & displace ^? t are specifically light]4 ,if1 = example1 ! ocean at ! equator be exp&$ by heat or by any o!r cause1 x w be =c$ by ! d5s] wat]s 9 temp]ate & pol> regions to rise s t its surface %all /& at a high] level ?an ! surface ( ! ocean 9 ^! regions4 ,! surface ( ! ocean w become an incl9$ plane1 slop+ f ! equator to ! poles4 ,hydro-/atically1 ! ocean1 consid]$ z a mass1 w !n be 9 a /ate ( equilibrium2 b ! individual molecules w n be 9 equilibrium4 ,! molecules at ! surface 9 ?is case may be reg>d$ z ly+ on an incl9$ plane slop+ f ! equator d[n to ! poles1 & z ^! molecules are at lib]ty to move !y w n rema9 at re/1 b w desc5d ! incl9e t[>ds ! poles4 ,:5 ! wat]s at ! equator are exp&$1 or ! wat]s at ! poles contract$1 gravitation makes1 z x 71 a tw(old ef=t to re/ore equilibrium4 ,x 9 ! fir/ place s9ks ! wat]s at ! poles1 & raises ! wat]s at ! equator1 9 ord] t ! two masses may balance ea* o!r2 b ?is v ef=t ( gravitation to re/ore equilibrium to ! mass de/roys ! equilibrium ( ! molecules by di/urb+ ! level ( ! ocean4 ,x !n1 9 ! second place1 endeav\rs to re/ore equilibrium to ! molecules by pull+ ! light] surface wat] at ! equator d[n ! incl9e t[>ds ! poles4 ,?is t5ds n only to re/ore ! level ( ! ocean1 b to br+ ! light] wat] to occupy ! surface & ! d5s] wat] ! bottom ( ! ocean2 & :5 ?is is done1 complete equilibrium is re/or$1 bo? to ! mass ( ! ocean & to its individual molecules1 & all fur!r motion ceases4 ,b if heat be con/antly appli$ to ! wat]s ( ! equatorial regions1 & cold to ^? ( ! pol> regions1 & a p]man5t di/urbance ( equilibrium ma9ta9$1 !n ! cont9ual ef=t ( gravitation to re/ore equilibrium w give rise to a con/ant curr5t4 ,9 ?is case1 ! heat & ! cold 7! ag5ts :i* di/urb ! equilibrium ( ! ocean7 may be reg>d$ z causes ( ! curr5t1 inasmu* z )\t !m ! curr5t w\ld n exi/2 b ! real effici5t cause1 t :i* impels ! wat] =w>d1 is ! =ce ( gravity4 ,b ! =ce ( gravity1 z has already be5 notic$1 _c produce motion 7p]=m "w7 unless ! ?+ act$ ^u desc5d4 ,desc5t is impli$ 9 ! v conception ( a curr5t produc$ by diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 ,b ,maury speaks z if diff]5ce ( specific gravity c\ld give rise to a curr5t )\t any desc5t4 8,x is n necess>y10 he says1 8to associate ) oceanic curr5ts ! idea t !y mu/ ( necessity1 z on l&1 run f a high] to a l[] level4 ,s f> f ?is be+ ! case1 "s curr5ts ( ! sea actually run up hill1 :ile o!rs run on a level4 ,! ,gulf-/ream is ( ! fir/ class0 7 #djc74 8,! top ( ! ,gulf-/ream runs on a level ) ! ocean2 !re=e we "k x is n a desc5d+ curr5t0 7 #ah74 ,& 9 #i he says t betwe5 ! ,/raits ( ,florida & ,cape ,hatt]as ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream 8are actually =c$ up an incl9$ plane1 ^: subm>9e asc5t is n less ?an #aj in*es to ! mile40 ,to ! same effect see #be1 #ei4 ,x is p]fectly true t 8x is n necess>y to associate ) ocean-curr5ts ! idea t !y mu/ ( necessity1 z on l&1 run f a high] to a l[] level40 ,b ! reason ( ?is is t ocean-curr5ts d n1 l ! curr5ts on l&1 owe _! motion to ! =ce ( gravitation4 ,if ocean-curr5ts result f diff]5ce ( specific gravity betwe5 ! wat]s 9 tropical & pol> regions1 z ,maury ma9ta9s1 !n x is necess>y to assume t !y are desc5d+ curr5ts4 ,:atev] be ! cause :i* may give rise to a diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 ! motion :i* results f ?is diff]5ce is due :olly to ! =ce ( gravity2 b gravity c produce no motion unless ! wat] desc5d4 ,?is fact mu/ be p>ticul>ly borne 9 m9d :ile we are consid]+ ,maury's !ory t curr5ts are ! result ( diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 ,ocean-curr5ts1 !n1 accord+ to t writ]1 owe _! exi/5ce to ! diff]5ce ( specific gravity betwe5 ! wat]s ( int]-tropical & pol> regions4 ,?is diff]5ce ( specific gravity he attributes to two causes--7#a7 to diff]5ce z to temp]ature1 7#b7 to diff]5ce z to saltness4 ,!re are "o or two causes ( a m9or nature affect+ ! specific gravity ( ! sea1 to :i* he alludes2 b ^! two det]m9e ! g5]al result4 ,let u beg9 ) ! consid]ation ( ! fir/ ( ^! two causes1 viz43-- ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,temp]ature4--,maury expla9s 8 views on ?is po9t by means ( an illu/ration4 8,let u n[ suppose10 he says1 8t all ! wat] )9 ! tropics1 to ! dep? ( "o hundr$ fa?oms1 sudd5ly becomes oil4 ,! aque\s equilibrium ( ! planet w\ld !reby be di/urb$1 & a g5]al sy/em ( curr5ts & c\nt] curr5ts w\ld be imm$iately comm5c$--! oil1 9 an unbrok5 %eet on ! surface1 runn+ t[>d ! poles1 & ! wat]1 9 an "u curr5t1 t[>d ! equator4 ,! oil is suppos$1 z x rea*es ! pol> bas91 to be reconv]t$ into wat]1 & ! wat] to become oil z x crosses ,canc] & ,capricorn1 ris+ to ! surface 9 int]-tropical regions1 & return+ z be=e0 7 #bj74 8,n[10 he says 7 #bb71 8d n ! cold wat]s ( ! nor?1 & ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,gulf1 made specifically light] by tropical heat1 & :i* we see actually pres]v+ su* a sy/em ( c\nt] curr5ts1 hold1 at lea/ 9 "s degree1 ! relation ( ! suppos$ wat] & oil80 ,9 #bd he calculates t at ! ,n>r[s ( ,bem9i ! diff]5ce 9 weight betwe5 ! volume ( ! ,gulf-wat] t crosses a section ( ! /ream 9 "o second1 & an equal volume ( wat] at ! ocean temp]ature ( ! latitude1 suppos+ ! two volumes to be equally salt1 is fifte5 millions ( p\nds4 ,consequ5tly ! =ce p] second op]at+ to propel ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf t[>ds ! pole w\ld 9 ?is case1 he concludes1 be ! 8equilibrat+ t5d5cy due to fifte5 millions ( p\nds ( wat] 9 ! latitude ( ,bem9i40 ,9 #eaa & #eab he /ates t ! effect ( exp&+ ! wat]s at ! torrid zone by heat1 & ( contract+ ! wat]s at ! frigid zone by cold1 is to produce a set ( surface-curr5ts ( w>m & light wat] f ! equator t[>ds ! poles1 & ano!r set ( "u curr5ts ( cool] & heavy wat] f ! poles t[>ds ! equator4 7,see also to ! same effect #eac1 #ead1 #hif47 ,!re c be no d\bt t 8 conclusion is t ! wat]s 9 int]-tropical regions are exp&$ by heat1 :ile ^? 9 pol> regions are contract$ by cold1 & t ?is t5ds to produce a surface curr5t f ! equator to ! poles1 & an "u curr5t f ! poles to ! equator4 8,we %all n[ consid] 8 second great cause ( ocean curr5ts1 viz43-- ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity result+ f ,diff]5ce 9 ,degree ( ,saltness4--,maury ma9ta9s1 & t correctly1 t saltness increases ! d5sity ( wat]--t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! salte/ wat] is ! d5se/4 ,he sugge/s 8t "o ( ! purposes :i*1 9 ! gr& design1 x 0 probably int5d$ to accompli% by hav+ ! sea salt & n fre%1 0 to imp>t to its wat]s ! =ces & p[]s necess>y to make _! circulation complete0 7 #die74 ,n[ x is p]fectly obvi\s t if diff]5ce 9 saltness is to co-op]ate ) diff]5ce 9 temp]ature 9 ! production ( ocean-curr5ts1 ! salte/ wat]s1 & consequ5tly ! d5se/1 mu/ be 9 ! pol> regions1 & ! wat]s lea/ salt1 & consequ5tly lighte/1 mu/ be 9 equatorial & int]-tropical regions4 ,7 ! salte/ wat]s at ! equator1 & ! fre%e/ at ! poles1 x w\ld t5d to neutralize ! effect due to heat1 &1 in/ead ( produc+ a curr5t1 w\ld simply t5d to prev5t ! exi/5ce ( ! curr5ts :i* o!rwise w\ld result f diff]5ce ( temp]ature4 ,a v consid]able portion ( 8 "w1 h[ev]1 is devot$ to prov+ t ! wat]s ( equatorial & int]-tropical regions are salt] & heavi] ?an ^? ( ! pol> regions2 & yet1 not)/&+ ?is1 he endeav\rs to %[ t ?is diff]5ce 9 respect to saltness betwe5 ! wat]s ( ! equatorial & ! pol> regions is "o ( ! *ief causes1 if n ! *ief cause1 ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,9 fact1 x is = ?is special end t s mu* lab\r is be/[$ 9 prov+ t ! salte/ wat] is 9 ! equatorial & int]-tropical regions1 & ! fre%e/ 9 ! pol>4 8,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k10 he says1 8conc]n+ ?is wond]ful ph5om5on 7= ! ,gulf-/ream is "o ( ! mo/ m>vell\s ?+s 9 ! ocean7 we c d little m ?an conjecture4 ,b we h two causes 9 op]ation :i* we may safely assume are among ^? conc]n$ 9 produc+ ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,"o ( ^! is ! increas$ saltness ( its wat] aft] ! trade-w9ds h be5 suppli$ ) vap\r f x1 be x mu* or little2 & ! o!r is ! dim9i%$ quantum ( salt :i* ! ,baltic & ! ,nor!rn ,seas conta90 7 #cg74 8,n[ "h we h1 on "o side1 ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ,gulf ( ,mexico1 ) _! wat]s ( br9e2 on ! o!r1 ! great ,pol> ,bas91 ! ,baltic1 & ! ,nor? ,sea1 ! two latt] ) wat]s t are b little m ?an bracki%4 ,9 "o set ( ^! sea-bas9s ! wat] is heavy1 9 ! o!r x is light4 ,betwe5 !m ! ocean int]v5es2 b wat] is b\nd to seek & to ma9ta9 its level2 & "h1 !re=e1 we unmask "o ( ! ag5ts conc]n$ 9 caus+ ! ,gulf-/ream0 7 #ch74 ,to ! same effect see #eb1 #ebb1 #ebc1 #ebd1 #ebe1 #ebf1 #ebh1 #ecj1 #eed1 #eef4 ,lieut4 ,maury's two causes neutralize ea* o!r4 ,"h we h two !ories put =? reg>d+ ! cause ( ocean-curr5ts1 ! "o 9 direct opposition to ! o!r4 ,accord+ to ! "o !ory1 ocean-curr5ts exi/ because ! wat]s ( equatorial regions1 9 consequ5ce ( _! high] temp]ature1 are less d5se ?an ! wat]s ( ! pol> regions2 b accord+ to ! o!r !ory1 ocean-curr5ts exi/ because ! wat]s ( equatorial regions1 9 consequ5ce ( _! great] saltness1 are m d5se ?an ! wat]s ( ! pol> regions4 ,if ! "o cause be assign$ z a reason :y ocean-curr5ts exi/1 !n ! o!r c be equally assign$ z a reason :y !y %\ld n exi/4 ,accord+ to bo? !ories x is ! diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> wat]s t gives rise to curr5ts2 b :ile ! "o !ory ma9ta9s t ! equatorial wat]s are light] ?an ! pol>1 ! o!r holds t !y are heavi]4 ,ei!r ! "o !ory or ! o!r may be true1 or nei!r2 b x is logically impossible t bo? ( !m c4 ,let x be obs]v$ t x is n two curr5ts1 ! "o contr>y to ! o!r1 ) :i* we h at pres5t to d2 x is n temp]ature produc+ curr5ts 9 "o direction1 & saltness produc+ curr5ts 9 ! contr>y direction4 ,we h two !ories reg>d+ ! orig9 ( curr5ts1 ! "o diametrically oppos$ to ! o!r4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! "o cause assign$ is to prev5t ! action ( ! o!r4 ,if temp]ature is all[$ to act1 x w make ! int]-tropical wat]s light] ?an ! pol>1 & !n1 accord+ to !ory1 a curr5t w result4 ,b if we br+ saltness into play 7! o!r cause7 x w d ! rev]se3 x w increase ! d5sity ( ! int]-tropical wat]s & dim9i% ! d5sity ( ! pol>2 & s f> z x acts x w dim9i% ! curr5ts produc$ by temp]ature1 because x w dim9i% ! diff]5ce ( specific gravity betwe5 ! int]-tropical & pol> regions :i* _h be5 previ\sly caus$ by temp]ature4 ,& :5 ! effects ( saltness are z p[]ful z ^? ( temp]ature1 ! diff]5ce ( specific gravity produc$ by temp]ature w be completely effac$1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! wat]s ( ! equatorial & pol> seas w be ( ! same d5sity1 & consequ5tly no curr5t w exi/4 ,& s long z ! two causes cont9ue 9 action1 no curr5t c arise1 unless ! en]gy ( ! "o cause %\ld happ5 to exce$ t ( ! o!r2 & ev5 !n a curr5t w only exi/ to ! ext5t by :i* ! /r5g? ( ! "o exce$s t ( ! o!r4 ,! contr>y nature ( ! two !ories w be bett] se5 by consid]+ ! way 9 :i* x is suppos$ t diff]5ce 9 saltness is produc$ & acts z a cause4 ,if !re is a con/ant curr5t result+ f ! diff]5ce 9 saltness betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> wat]s1 !n !re mu/ be a cause :i* ma9ta9s ?is diff]5ce4 ,! curr5t is simply ! ef=t to re/ore ! equilibrium lo/ by ! diff]5ce2 & ! curr5t w\ld v soon d ?is1 & !n all motion w\ld cease1 7 !re n a con/antly op]at+ cause ma9ta9+ ! di/urbance4 ,:at1 !n1 accord+ to ,maury1 is ! cause ( ?is di/urbance1 or1 9 o!r words1 :at is x t keeps ! equatorial wat]s salt] ?an ! pol>8 ,! ag5cies 9 op]ation are /at$ by him to be heat1 radiation1 evaporation1 precipitation1 & secretion ( solid matt] 9 ! =m ( %ells1 c4 ,! two mo/ important1 h[ev]1 are evaporation & precipitation4 ,! trade-w9ds ent] ! equatorial regions z relatively dry w9ds ?ir/+ = vap\r2 consequ5tly !y absorb f> m moi/ure ?an !y give out2 & ! result is t 9 int]-tropical regions1 evaporation is mu* 9 excess ( precipitation2 & z fre% wat] only is tak5 up1 ! salt be+ left beh9d1 ! process1 ( c\rse1 t5ds to increase ! saltness ( ! int]-tropical seas4 ,aga91 9 pol> & extra-tropical regions ! rev]se is ! case2 precipitation is 9 excess ( evaporation4 ,?is t5ds 9 turn to dim9i% ! saltness ( ! wat]s ( ^? regions4 7,see on ^! po9ts #ca1 #cc1 #cd1 #cg1 #agi1 #eag1 #ebf1 & #eeb47 ,9 ! sy/em ( circulation produc$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 z we h already se51 ! surface-curr5ts fl[ f ! equator to ! poles1 & ! "u or return curr5ts f ! poles to ! equator2 b 9 ! sy/em produc$ by diff]5ce ( saltness1 ! surface curr5ts fl[ f ! poles to ! equator1 & ! return "u curr5ts f ! equator to ! poles4 ,t ! surface curr5ts produc$ by diff]5ce ( saltness fl[ f ! poles to ! equator1 ,maury ?9ks is evid5t = ! two foll[+ reasons3-- 7#a7 ,z evaporation is 9 excess ( precipitation 9 int]-tropical regions1 m wat] is tak5 (f ! surface ( ! ocean 9 ^? regions ?an falls ^u x 9 ! =m ( ra94 ,?is excess ( wat] falls 9 ! =m ( ra9 on temp]ate & pol> regions1 :]e1 consequ5tly1 precipitation is 9 excess ( evaporation4 ,! lift+ ( ! wat] (f ! equatorial regions & its deposit on ! pol> t5d to l[] ! level ( ! ocean 9 equatorial regions & to raise ! level 9 pol>2 consequ5tly1 9 ord] to re/ore ! level ( ! ocean1 ! surface wat] at ! pol> regions fl[s t[>ds ! equatorial regions4 7#b7 ,z ! wat] tak5 up at ! equator is fre%1 & ! salt is left beh9d1 ! ocean1 9 int]-tropical regions1 is ?us made salti] & consequ5tly d5s]4 ,?is d5se wat]1 !re=e1 s9ks & passes away z an "u curr5t4 ,?is wat]1 evaporat$ f int]-tropical regions1 falls z fre% & light] wat] 9 temp]ate & pol> regions2 & !re=e n only is ! level ( ! ocean rais$1 b ! wat]s are made light]4 ,h5ce1 9 ord] to re/ore equilibrium1 ! wat]s 9 temp]ate & pol> regions w fl[ z a surface curr5t t[>ds ! equator4 ,"u curr5ts w fl[ f ! equator to ! poles1 & surface or upp] curr5ts f ! poles to ! equator4 ,diff]5ce 9 temp]ature & diff]5ce 9 saltness1 !re=e1 9 e respect t5d to produce opposite effects4 ,t ! above is a fair repres5tation ( ! way 9 :i* ,maury supposes diff]5ce 9 saltness to act z a cause 9 ! production ( ocean-curr5ts w appe> f ! foll[+ quotations3-- 8,9 ^? regions1 z 9 ! trade-w9d region1 :]e evaporation is 9 excess ( precipitation1 ! g5]al level ( ?is suppos$ sea w\ld be alt]$1 & imm$iately z mu* wat] z is c>ri$ (f by evaporation w\ld comm5ce to fl[ 9 f nor? & s\? t[>d ! trade-w9d or evaporation region1 to re/ore ! level0 7 #eji74 8,on ! o!r h&1 ! w9ds h tak5 ?is vap\r1 borne x (f to ! extra-tropical regions1 & precipitat$ x1 we w suppose1 :]e precipitation is 9 excess ( evaporation4 ,"h is ano!r alt]ation ( sea-level1 by elevation in/ead ( by depression2 & h5ce we h ! motive p[] = a surface curr5t f ea* pole t[>ds ! equator1 ! object ( :i* is only to supply ! dem& = evaporation 9 ! trade-w9d regions0 7 #eaj74 ,! above result w\ld foll[1 suppos+ ! ocean to be fre%4 ,he !n proce$s to consid] an additional result t foll[s 9 consequ5ce ( ! saltness ( ! ocean4 8,let evaporation n[ comm5ce 9 ! trade-w9d region1 z x 0 suppos$ to d 9 ! case ( ! fre%wat] seas1 & z x actually goes on 9 nature--& :at takes place8 ,:y a l[]+ ( ! sea-level z be=e4 ,b z ! vap\r ( salt wat] is fre%1 or ne>ly s1 fre% wat] only is tak5 up f ! ocean2 t :i* rema9s beh9d is !re=e m salt4 ,?us1 :ile ! level is l[]$ 9 ! salt sea1 ! equilibrium is de/roy$ because ( ! saltness ( ! wat]2 = ! wat] t rema9s aft] evaporation takes place is1 on acc\nt ( ! solid matt] held 9 solution1 specifically heavi] ?an x 0 be=e any portion ( x 0 conv]t$ into vap\r0 7 #eag74 8,! vap\r is tak5 f ! surface-wat]2 ! surface-wat] !reby becomes m salt1 &1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 heavi]4 ,:5 x becomes heavi]1 x s9ks2 & h5ce we h1 due to ! salts ( ! sea1 a v]tical circulation1 namely1 a desc5t ( heavi]--because salt] & cool]--wat] f ! surface1 & an asc5t ( wat] t is light]--because x is n s salt--f ! dep?s bel[0 7 #eah74 ,9 section #eai he goes on to %[ t ?is vap\r remov$ f ! int]-tropical region is precipitat$ 9 ! pol> regions1 :]e precipitation is 9 excess ( evaporation4 8,9 ! precipitat+ regions1 !re=e1 ! level is de/roy$1 z be=e expla9$1 by elevation1 & 9 ! evaporat+ regions by depression2 :i*1 z already /at$1 gives rise to a sy/em ( surface curr5ts1 mov$ by gravity alone1 f ! poles t[>ds ! equator0 7 #ebj74 8,?is fre% wat] be+ empti$ into ! ,pol> ,sea & agitat$ by ! w9ds1 becomes mix$ ) ! salt2 b z ! agitation ( ! sea by ! w9ds is suppos$ to ext5d to no great dep?1 x is only ! upp] lay] ( salt wat]1 & t to a mod]ate dep?1 :i* becomes mix$ ) ! fre%4 ,! specific gravity ( ?is upp] lay]1 !re=e1 is dim9i%$ j z mu* z ! specific gravity ( ! sea-wat] 9 ! evaporat+ regions 0 increas$4 ,& ?us we h a surface curr5t ( salti% wat] f ! poles t[>ds ! equator1 & an "u curr5t ( wat] salt] & heavi] f ! equator to ! poles0 7 #ebb74 8,?is prop]ty ( saltness imp>ts to ! wat]s ( ! ocean ano!r peculi>ity1 by :i* ! sea is /ill bett] adapt$ = ! regulation ( climates1 & x is ?is3 by evaporat+ fre% wat] f ! salt 9 ! tropics1 ! surface wat] becomes heavi] ?an ! av]age ( sea-wat]4 ,?is heavy wat] is also w>m wat]2 x s9ks1 & be+ a good reta9]1 b a bad conductor1 ( heat1 ?is wat] is employ$ 9 transport+ ?r\gh "u curr5ts heat = ! mitigation ( climates 9 f> di/ant regions0 7 #ebf74 8,= in/ance1 let u suppose ! wat]s 9 a c]ta9 "p ( ! torrid zone to be #ij1 b by reason ( ! fre% wat] :i* has be5 tak5 f !m 9 a /ate ( vap\r1 & consequ5tly1 by reason ( ! proportionate increase ( salts1 ^! wat]s are heavi] ?an wat]s t may be cool]1 b n s salt4 ,?is be+ ! case1 ! t5d5cy w\ld be = ?is w>m b salt & heavy wat] to fl[ (f z an "u curr5t t[>ds ! pol> or "s o!r regions ( light] wat]0 7 #eed74 ,t ,maury supposes ! w>m wat] at ! equator to fl[ to ! pol> regions z an "u curr5t is fur!r evid5t f ! fact t he ma9ta9s t ! climate ( ! arctic regions is mitigat$ by a w>m "u curr5t1 :i* comes f ! equatorial regions1 & passes up ?r\gh ,davis ,/raits 7see #ecdedd74 ,! "q n[ sugge/s itself3 to :i* ( ^! two antagoni/ic causes does ,maury really suppose ocean-curr5ts mu/ be ref]r$8 ,:e!r does he suppose1 diff]5ce 9 temp]ature or diff]5ce 9 saltness1 to be ! real cause8 ,i h be5 unable to f9d any?+ f :i* we c reasonably conclude t he pref]s ! "o cause to ! o!r4 ,x w\ld seem t he reg>ds bo? z real causes1 & t he has fail$ to p]ceive t ! "o is de/ructive ( ! o!r4 ,b x is difficult to conceive h[ he c\ld believe t ! sea 9 equatorial regions1 by virtue ( its high] temp]ature1 is light] ?an ! sea 9 pol> regions1 :ile at ! same "t x is n light] b heavi]1 9 consequ5ce ( its great] saltness--h[ he c\ld believe t ! w>m wat] at ! equator fl[s to ! poles z an upp] curr5t1 & ! cold wat] at ! poles to ! equator z an "u curr5t1 :ile at ! same "t ! w>m wat] at ! equator does n fl[ to ! poles z a surface curr5t1 nor ! cold wat] at ! poles to ! equator z an "u curr5t1 b ! rev]se4 ,& yet1 unless ^! absolute impossibilities be possible1 h[ c an ocean-curr5t be ! result ( bo? causes8 ,! only explanation ( ! matt] appe>s to be t ,maury has fail$ to p]ceive ! contradictory nature ( 8 two !ories4 ,?is fact is p>ticul>ly se5 :5 he comes to apply 8 two !ories to ! case ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,he ma9ta9s1 z has already be5 /at$1 t ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream are salt] ?an ! wat]s ( ! sea ?r\gh :i* !y fl[ 7see #c1 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #cd1 & sev]al o!r places74 ,& he /ates1 z we h already se5 7see p4 #ajd71 t ! exi/5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream is due pr9cipally to ! diff]5ce ( d5sity ( ! wat] ( ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ! ,gulf ( ,mexico z comp>$ ) t ( ! great ,pol> ,bas9 & ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,!re c be no d\bt :atev] t x is ! d5sity ( ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream at its f\nta9-head1 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 result+ f its sup]ior saltness1 & ! defici5cy ( d5sity ( ! wat]s 9 pol> regions & ! ,nor? ,sea1 c41 t is "h consid]$ to be unmask$ z "o ( ! ag5ts4 ,if ?is be a cause ( ! motion ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 h[ !n c ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! wat]s ( int]-tropical & pol> regions assi/ z a cause8 ,?is diff]5ce ( temp]ature w simply t5d to undo all t has be5 done by diff]5ce ( saltness3 = x w t5d to make ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico light]1 & ! wat]s ( ! pol> regions heavi]4 ,b ,maury ma9ta9s1 z we h se51 t ?is diff]5ce ( temp]ature is also a cause1 :i* %[s t he does n p]ceive ! contradiction4 ,?is is /ill fur!r app>5t4 ,he holds1 z /at$1 t 8! wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream are salt] ?an ! wat]s ( ! sea ?r\gh :i* !y fl[10 & t ?is excess 9 saltness1 by mak+ ! wat] heavi]1 is a cause ( ! motion ( ! /ream4 ,b he ma9ta9s t1 not)/&+ ! effect :i* great] saltness has 9 increas+ ! d5sity ( ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 yet1 ow+ to _! high] temp]ature1 !y are actually light] ?an ! wat] ?r\gh :i* !y fl[2 & z a pro( t ?is is ! case1 he adduces ! fact t ! surface ( ! ,gulf-/ream is ro(-%ap$ 7 #cida71 :i* x c\ld n be 7 its wat]s n actually light] ?an ! wat]s ?r\gh :i* ! /ream fl[s4 ,s x turns out t1 9 contradiction to :at he _h already /at$1 x is ! less] d5sity ( ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream t is ! real cause ( _! motion4 ,! great] saltness ( ! wat]s1 to :i* he attributes s mu*1 c 9 no way be reg>d$ z a cause ( motion4 ,its effect1 s f> z x goes1 is to /op ! motion ( ! /ream r ?an to assi/ x4 ,b1 aga91 al?\gh he ass]ts t diff]5ce ( saltness & diff]5ce ( temp]ature are bo? causes ( ocean-curr5ts1 yet he appe>s actually to admit t temp]ature & saltness neutralize ea* o!r s z to prev5t *ange 9 ! specific gravity ( ! ocean1 z w be se5 f ! foll[+ quotation3-- 8,x is ! trade-w9ds1 !n1 :i* prev5t ! !rmal & specific gravity curves f con=m+ ) ea* o!r 9 int]-tropical seas4 ,! wat] !y suck up is fre% wat]2 & ! salt x conta9$1 be+ left beh9d1 is j suffici5t to c\nt]balance1 by its weight1 ! effect ( !rmal dilatation ^u ! specific gravity ( sea-wat] betwe5 ! p>allels ( #cd nor? & s\?4 ,z we g f #cd to ! equator1 ! wat] gr[s w>m] & exp&s4 ,x w\ld become light]2 b ! trade-w9ds1 by tak+ up vap\r )\t salt1 make ! wat] salt]1 & !re=e heavi]4 ,! conclusion is1 ! proportion ( salt 9 sea-wat]1 its expansibility betwe5 #fb & #hb1 & ! ?ir/ ( ! trade-w9ds = vap\r are1 :]e !y bl[1 s balanc$ z to produce p]fect comp5sation2 & a m beautiful comp5sation _c1 x appe>s to me1 be f\nd 9 ! me*anism ( ! univ]se ?an t :i* we h "h /umbl$ ^u4 ,x is a triple adju/m5t2 ! p[] ( ! sun to exp&1 ! p[] ( ! w9ds to evaporate1 & ! quantity ( salts 9 ! sea--^! are s proportion$ & adju/$ t :5 bo? ! w9d & ! sun h ea* play$ ) its =ces ^u ! int]-tropical wat]s ( ! ocean1 ! residuum ( heat & ( salt %\ld be j su* z to balance ea* o!r 9 _! effects2 & s ! aque\s equilibrium ( ! torrid zone is pres]v$0 7 #dcf1 elev5? edition74 8,betwe5 #ce or #dj & ! equator evaporation is 9 excess ( precipitation2 & ?\gh1 z we approa* ! equator on ei!r side f ^! p>allels1 ! sol> ray w>ms & exp&s ! surface-wat] ( ! sea1 ! w9ds1 by ! vap\r !y c>ry (f1 & ! salt !y leave beh9d1 prev5t x f mak+ t wat] light]0 7 #dcg1 elev5? edition74 8,philosoph]s h admir$ ! relations betwe5 ! size ( ! e>?1 ! =ce ( gravity1 & ! /r5g? ( fibre 9 ! fl[]-/alks ( plants2 b h[ mu* m exquisite is ! sy/em ( c\nt]poises & adju/m5ts "h pres5t$ betwe5 ! sea & its salts1 ! w9ds & ! heat ( ! sun60 7 #dch1 elev5? edition74 ,h[ c ?is be reconcil$ ) all t prec$es reg>d+ ocean-curr5ts be+ ! result ( diff]5ce ( specific gravity caus$ by a diff]5ce ( temp]ature & diff]5ce ( saltness8 ,"h is a di/9ct recognition ( ! fact t diff]5ce 9 saltness1 in/ead ( produc+ curr5ts1 t5ds r to prev5t ! exi/5ce ( curr5ts1 by c\nt]act+ ! effects ( diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4 ,& s effectually does x d ?is1 t = #dj1 or ne>ly #c1jjj miles1 on ea* side ( ! equator !re is absolutely no diff]5ce 9 ! specific gravity ( ! ocean1 & consequ5tly no?+1 ei!r z reg>ds diff]5ce ( temp]ature or diff]5ce ( saltness1 t c possibly give rise to a curr5t4 ,b x is evid5t t1 if betwe5 ! equator & latitude #dj ! two effects completely neutralize ea* o!r1 x is n at all likely t betwe5 latitude #dj & ! poles !y w n to a l>ge ext5t d ! same ?+4 ,& if s1 h[ c ocean-curr5ts be due ei!r to diff]5ce 9 temp]ature or to diff]5ce 9 saltness1 f> less to bo?4 ,if !re be any diff]5ce ( specific gravity ( ! ocean betwe5 latitude #dj & ! poles1 x mu/ be only to ! ext5t by :i* ! "o cause has fail$ to neutralize ! o!r4 ,if1 = example1 ! wat]s 9 latitude #dj1 by virtue ( high] temp]ature1 are less d5se ?an ! wat]s 9 ! pol> regions1 !y c be s only to ! ext5t t diff]5ce 9 saltness has fail$ to neutralize ! effect ( diff]5ce 9 temp]ature4 ,& if curr5ts result1 !y c d s only to ! ext5t t diff]5ce 9 saltness has ?us fall5 %ort ( be+ able to produce complete comp5sation4 ,maury1 aft] /at+ 8 views on comp5sation1 seems to become aw>e ( ?is2 b1 /rangely1 he does n appe> to p]ceive1 or1 at lea/1 he does n make any allusion to ! fact1 t all ?is is fatal to 8 !ories ab\t ocean-curr5ts be+ ! comb9$ result ( diff]5ces ( temp]ature & ( saltness4 ,=1 9 opposition to all t he _h previ\sly advanc$ reg>d+ ! difficulty ( f9d+ a cause suffici5tly p[]ful to acc\nt = su* curr5ts z ! ,gulf-/ream1 & ! great importance t diff]5ce 9 saltness _h 9 _! production1 he n[ beg9s to ma9ta9 t s great is ! influ5ce ( diff]5ce 9 temp]ature t diff]5ce 9 saltness1 & a numb] ( o!r comp5sat+ causes are actually necess>y to prev5t ! ocean-curr5ts f becom+ too p[]ful4 8,if all ! int]-tropical heat ( ! sun10 he says1 87 to pass into ! seas ^u :i* x falls1 simply rais+ ! temp]ature ( _! wat]s1 x w\ld create a !rmo-dynamical =ce 9 ! ocean capable ( transport+ wat] scald+ hot f ! torrid zone1 & spread+ x :ile /ill 9 ! tepid /ate ar\nd ! poles4444 ,n[1 suppose !re 7 no trade-w9ds to evaporate & to c\nt]act ! dynamical =ce ( ! sun1 ?is hot & light wat]1 by becom+ hott] & light]1 w\ld fl[ (f 9 curr5ts ) almo/ mill-tail velocity t[>ds ! poles1 cov]+ ! int]v5+ sea ) a mantle ( w>m? z a g>m5t4 ,! cool & heavy wat] ( ! pol> bas91 com+ out z "u curr5ts1 w\ld fl[ equatorially ) equal velocity40 8,?us two antagoni/ic =ces are unmask$1 &1 be+ unmask$1 we discov] 9 !m a mo/ exquisite adju/m5t--a comp5sation--by :i* ! dynamical =ces t reside 9 ! sunbeam & ! trade-w9d are made to c\nt]balance ea* o!r1 by :i* ! climates ( int]-tropical seas are regulat$1 & by :i* ! set1 =ce1 & volume ( oceanic curr5ts are measur$0 7 #dcg & #dch1 elev5? edition74 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,lieut4 ,,maury',s ,,!ory 7cont9u$74 ,me?ods ( det]m9+ ! ,"q4--,! ,=ce result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,sir ,john ,h]s*el's ,e/imate ( ! ,=ce4--,maximum ,d5sity ( ,sea-,wat]4--,rate ( ,decrease ( ,temp]ature ( ,ocean at ,equator4---,! actual ,am\nt ( ,=ce result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,m4 ,dubuat's ,exp]im5ts4 ,h[ ! ,"q may be ,det]m9$4--,:e!r ! circulation ( ! ocean is due to diff]5ce 9 specific gravity or n may be det]m9$ 9 ?ree ways3 viz4 7#a7 by direct exp]im5t2 7#b7 by asc]ta9+ ! absolute am\nt ( =ce act+ on ! wat] to produce motion1 9 virtue ( diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 & !reaft] comp>+ x ) ! =ce :i* has be5 %[n by exp]im5t to be necess>y to ! production ( s5sible motion2 or 7#c7 by det]m9+ ! greate/ possible am\nt ( "w :i* gravity c p]=m on ! wat]s 9 virtue ( diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 & !n asc]ta9+ if ! "w ( gravity does or does n equal ! "w ( ! resi/ances 9 ! requir$ motion4 ,b ,maury has n adopt$ ei!r ( ^! me?ods4 ,! ,=ce result+ f ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,i %all consid] fir/ :e!r ! =ce result+ f diff]5ce ( specific gravity be suffici5t to acc\nt = ! motion ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,! inadequacy ( ?is cause has be5 s cle>ly %[n by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 t "o might expect t little else w\ld be requir$ ?an simply to quote 8 words on ! subject1 :i* are z foll[s3-- 8,fir/1 !n1 if !re 7 no atmosph]e1 !re w\ld be no ,gulf-/ream1 or any o!r consid]able ocean-curr5t 7z di/+ui%$ f a m]e surface-drift7 :atev]4 ,by ! action ( ! sun's rays1 ! surface ( ! ocean becomes mo/ heat$1 & ! heat$ wat] w1 !re=e1 nei!r directly t5d to asc5d 7:i* x c\ld n d )\t leav+ ! sea7 nor to desc5d1 :i* x _c d1 be+ r5d]$ buoyant1 nor to move lat]ally1 no lat]al impulse be+ giv51 & :i* x c\ld only d by reason ( a g5]al declivity ( surface1 ! dilat$ portion occupy+ a high] level4 ,let u see :at ?is declivity w\ld am\nt to4 ,! equatorial surface-wat] has a temp]ature ( #hd4 ,at #g1bjj feet deep ! temp]ature is #ci1 ! level ( :i* temp]ature rises to ! surface 9 latitude #ef4 ,tak+ ! dilatability ( sea-wat] to be ! same z t ( fre%1 a uni=mly progressive increase ( temp]ature1 f #ci to #hd ,fahr41 w\ld dilate a column ( #g1bjj feet by #aj feet1 to :i* height1 !re=e1 above ! sph]oid ( equilibrium 7or above ! sea-level 9 lat4 #ef71 ! equatorial surface is actually rais$ by dilatation4 ,an arc ( #ef on ! e>?'s surface measures #c1cfj geographical miles2 s t we h a slope ( #a_/bh? ( an in* p] geographical mile1 or #a_/cbnd ( an in* p] /atute mile = ! wat] s rais$ to run d[n4 ,z ! accel]at+ =ce correspond+ to su* a slope 7( #a_/aj? ( a second1 #ja7 is less ?an "o two-million? "p ( gravity1 we may dismiss ?is z a cause capable ( creat+ only a v trifl+ surface-drift1 & n wor? consid]+1 ev5 7 x 9 ! prop] direction to =m1 by conc5tration1 a curr5t f ea/ to we/1 :i* x c\ld n be1 b ! v rev]se40#ee ,x is s+ul> h[ any "o1 ev5 ?\gh he reg>d$ ?is conclusion z b a r\gh approximation to ! tru?1 c\ld ent]ta9 ! idea t ocean-curr5ts c be ! result ( diff]5ce 9 specific gravity4 ,!re are "o or two reasons1 h[ev]1 :i* may be giv5 = ! above n hav+ be5 g5]ally receiv$ z conclusive4 ,h]s*el's calculations ref] to ! diff]5ce ( gravity result+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature2 b ?is is only "o ( ! causes to :i* ,maury appeals1 & ev5 n ! "o to :i* he mo/ frequ5tly ref]s4 ,he insi/s s /rongly on ! effects ( diff]5ce ( saltness1 t _m might ?9k t1 al?\gh ,h]s*el may h %[n t diff]5ce 9 specific gravity aris+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature c\ld n acc\nt = ! motion ( ocean-curr5ts1 yet nev]!less t ?is1 comb9$ ) ! effects result+ f diff]5ce 9 saltness1 might be a suffici5t explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 ,su*1 ( c\rse1 w\ld n be ! case ) ^? :o p]ceiv$ ! contradictory nature ( ,maury's two causes2 b probably _m read ! 8,physical ,geography ( ! ,sea0 )\t be+ aw>e t ! "o cause is de/ructive ( ! o!r4 ,aga91 a few plausible objections1 :i* h nev] receiv$ due consid]ation1 h be5 /rongly urg$ by ,maury & o!rs aga9/ ! !ory t ocean-curr5ts c be caus$ by ! impulses ( ! w9ds2 & probably ^! objections appe> to militate z /rongly aga9/ ?is !ory z ,h]s*el's argum5ts aga9/ ,maury's4 ,!re is "o trifl+ objection to ,h]s*el's result3 he takes #ci z ! temp]ature ( maximum d5sity4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 z we %all see1 does n mat]ially affect 8 conclusions4 ,obs]vations on ! temp]ature ( ! maximum d5sity ( sea-wat] h be5 made by ,erman1 ,despretz1 ,rossetti1 ,neumann1 ,m>cet1 ,hubb>d1 ,horn]1 & o!rs4 ,no two ( !m h arriv$ at exactly ! same conclusion4 ,?is probably arises f ! fact t ! temp]ature ( maximum d5sity dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( salt held 9 solution4 ,no two seas1 unless !y are equal z to saltness1 h ! same temp]ature ( maximum d5sity4 ,! foll[+ ,table ( ,despretz w %[ h[ rapidly ! temp]ature ( bo? ! freez+-po9t & ( maximum d5sity is l[]$ by additional am\nts ( salt3-- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,am\nt ,temp]ature ( ,temp]ature ( ( salt4 freez+-po9t4 ,maximum d5sity4 ---------------------------------------- ------ #jjjjabc #aba ,c4 #aai ,c4 #jjbdf #bbd #afi #jjcga #bgg #dge #jjgda #ebh #afjj ---------------------------------------- ------ ,he f\nd ! temp]ature ( maximum d5sity ( sea-wat]1 ^: d5sity at #bj;,c4 0 #ajbgc1 to be #cfg;,c4 7#bed;,f471 & ! temp]ature ( freez+-po9t #bee;,c4 7#bgd;,f474#ef ,some:]e betwe5 #be & #bf ,f4 may !re=e be reg>d$ z ! temp]ature ( maximum d5sity ( sea-wat] ( av]age saltness4 ,we h no reason to believe t ! ocean1 f ! surface to ! bottom1 ev5 at ! poles1 is at #bgd;,f41 ! freez+-po9t4 ,! actual slope result+ f diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 z we %all pres5tly see1 does n am\nt to #aj feet4 ,h]s*el's e/imate 01 h[ev]1 made on insuffici5t data1 bo? z to ! rate ( expansion ( sea-wat] & t at :i* ! temp]ature ( ! ocean at ! equator decreases f ! surface d[nw>ds4 ,we are happily n[ 9 ! possession ( data = det]m9+ ) tol]able accuracy ! am\nt ( slope due to diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> seas4 ,! rate ( expansion ( sea-wat] f #j;,c4 to #ajj;,c4 has be5 exp]im5tally det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,muncke1 ( ,heidelb]g4#eg ,! valuable reports ( ,capta9 ,n>es1 ( ,h4,m4,s4 ,*all5g]1 lately publi%$ by ! ,admiralty1 give ! rate at :i* ! temp]ature ( ! ,atlantic at ! equator decreases f ! surface d[nw>ds4 ,^! obs]vations %[ cle>ly t ! sup]-heat+ effect ( ! sun's rays does n ext5d to any great dep?4 ,!y also prove t at ! equator ! temp]ature decreases z ! dep? increases s rapidly t at #fj fa?oms f ! surface ! temp]ature is #fbd1 ! same z at ,madeira at ! same dep?2 :ile at ! dep? ( #aej fa?oms x is only #ea1 ab\t ! same z t 9 ! ,bay ( ,biscay 7,reports1 p4 #aa74 ,"h at ! v outset we h broad & important facts ho/ile to ! !ory ( a fl[ ( wat] result+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! ocean 9 equatorial & temp]ate & pol> regions4 ,?r\gh ! k9dness ( ,/aff-,capta9 ,evans1 ,hydrograph] ( ! ,admiralty1 ,i h be5 fav\r$ ) a mo/ valuable set ( s]ial temp]ature s\nd+s made by ,capta9 ,n>es ( ! ,*all5g]1 close to ! equator1 betwe5 long4 #ad #di ,w4 & #cb #af ,w4 ,! foll[+ ,table repres5ts ! mean ( ! :ole ( ^! obs]vations3-- ----------------------- ,fa?oms4 ,temp]ature4 ----------------------- ,surface4 #ggi #aj #ggb #bj #gga #cj #gfi #dj #gag #ej #fdj #fj #fjd #gj #eid #hj #ehj #ij #ehj #ajj #eef #aej #eaj #bjj #dff #cjj #dbb #djj #djc #ejj #chi #fjj #cib #gjj #cij #hjj #cia #ijj #chb #ajjj #cfi #aajj #cgf #abjj #cfg #acjj #ceh #adjj #cfd #aejj #cfa ,bottom4 #cdg ----------------------- ,we h 9 ?is ,table data = det]m9+ ! height at :i* ! surface ( ! ocean at ! equator ought to /& above t ( ! poles4 ,assum+ #cb;,f4 to be ! temp]ature ( ! ocean at ! poles f ! surface to ! bottom & ! =ego+ to be ! rate at :i* ! temp]ature ( ! ocean at ! equator decreases f ! surface d[nw>ds1 & !n calculat+ accord+ to ,muncke's ,table ( ! expansion ( sea-wat]1 we h only #d feet #f in*es z ! height to :i* ! level ( ! ocean at ! equator ought to /& above t at ! poles 9 ord] t ! ocean may be 9 /atic equilibrium4 ,9 o!r words1 ! equatorial column requires to be only #d feet #f in*es high] ?an ! pol> 9 ord] t ! two may balance ea* o!r4 ,tak+ ! di/ance f ! equator to ! poles at #f1bjj miles1 ! =ce result+ f ! slope ( #d feet 9 #f1bjj w am\nt to only #a_/g1cdj1jjj? t ( gravity1 or ab\t #a_/ajjj? ( a gra9 on a p\nd ( wat]4 ,b1 z we %all %ortly see1 !re c be no p]man5t curr5t result+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature :ile ! two columns rema9 9 equilibrium1 = ! curr5t is simply an ef=t to ! ret>dation ( equilibrium4 ,9 ord] to h p]man5t circulation !re mu/ be a p]man5t di/urbance ( equilibrium4 ,or1 9 o!r words1 ! weight ( ! pol> column mu/ be kept 9 excess ( t ( ! equatorial4 ,suppose1 !n1 t ! weight ( ! pol> column exce$s t ( ! equatorial by #b feet ( wat]1 ! diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! two columns w1 9 t case1 am\nt to only #b feet #f in*es4 ,?is w\ld give a =ce ( only #a_/ac1bjj1jjj? t ( gravity1 or n mu* ov] #a_/a1ijj? ( a gra9 on a p\nd ( wat]1 t5d+ to draw ! wat] d[n ! slope f ! equator to ! poles1 a =ce :i* does n mu* exce$ ! weight ( a gra9 on a ton ( wat]4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t ?is =ce ( a gra9 p] ton w\ld affect only ! wat] at ! surface2 a v %ort di/ance bel[ ! surface ! =ce1 small z x is1 w\ld be enorm\sly r$uc$4 ,if wat] 7 a p]fect fluid1 & (f]$ no resi/ance to motion1 x w\ld n only fl[ d[n an incl9e1 h[ev] small x might be1 b w\ld fl[ d[n ) an accel]at$ motion4 ,b wat] is n a p]fect fluid1 & its molecules d (f] consid]able resi/ance to motion4 ,wat] fl[+ d[n an incl9e1 h[ev] /eep x may be1 soon acquires a uni=m motion4 ,!re mu/ !re=e be a c]ta9 incl9ation bel[ :i* no motion c take place4 ,exp]im5ts 7 made by ,m4 ,dubuat ) ! view ( det]m9+ ?is limit4#eh ,he f\nd t :5 ! incl9ation 0 #a 9 #ejj1jjj1 ! motion ( ! wat] 0 b>ely p]ceptible2 & he came to ! conclusion t :5 ! incl9ation is r$uc$ to #a 9 #a1jjj1jjj1 all motion ceases4 ,b ! incl9ation af=d$ by ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! sea 9 equatorial & pol> regions does n am\nt to "o-sev5? ( ?is1 & consequ5tly x c h>dly produce ev5 t 8trifl+ surface-drift0 :i* ,sir ,john ,h]s*el is will+ to attribute to x4 ,!re is an error into :i* "s writ]s appe> to fall to :i* ,i may "h ref]4 ,suppose t at ! equator we h to desc5d #aj1jjj feet be=e wat] equal 9 d5sity to t at ! poles is rea*$4 ,we h 9 ?is case a pla9 ) a slope ( #aj1jjj feet 9 #f1bjj miles1 =m+ ! upp] surface ( ! wat] ( maximum d5sity4 ,n[ ?is slope ex]cises no influ5ce 9 ! way ( produc+ a curr5t1 z "s seem to ?9k2 = x is n a case ( di/urb$ equilibrium1 b ! rev]se4 ,x is ! condition ( /atic equilibrium result+ f a diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] at ! equator & ! poles4 ,! only slope t has any t5d5cy to produce motion is t :i* is =m$ by ! surface ( ! ocean 9 ! equatorial regions be+ high] ?an ! surface at ! poles2 b ?is is an incl9ation ( only #d feet #f in*es1 & is !re=e :olly inadequate to produce su* curr5ts z ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,dr4 ,,c>p5t]',s ,,!ory4 ,gulf-/ream accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t] n due to ,diff]5ce ( ,specific ,gravity4--,facts to be ,expla9$4--,! ,explanation ( ! ,facts4--,! ,explanation hypo!tical4--,! ,cause assign$ = ! hypo!tical ,mode ( ,circulation4--,"u curr5ts acc\nt = all ! ,facts bett] ?an ! ,gravitation ,hypo!sis4--,kn[n ,condition ( ! ,ocean inconsi/5t ) t ,hypo!sis4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] does n suppose1 ) ,lieut4 ,maury1 t ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! ocean 9 equatorial & pol> regions c acc\nt = ! ,gulf-/ream & o!r great curr5ts ( ! ocean4 ,he ma9ta9s1 h[ev]1 t ?is diff]5ce is q suffici5t to br+ ab\t a sl[ g5]al int]*ange ( wat] betwe5 ! pol> & int]-tropical areas--to induce a g5]al movem5t ( ! upp] portion ( ! ocean f ! equator to ! poles & a c\nt]-movem5t ( ! "u portion 9 a contr>y direction4 ,x is ?is g5]al movem5t :i*1 accord+ to t au?or1 is ! great ag5t by :i* heat is di/ribut$ ov] ! globe4#ei ,9 attempt+ to e/imate ! adequacy ( ?is hypo!sis z an explanation ( ! ph5om5a involv$1 !re are obvi\sly two que/ions to be consid]$3 namely1 7#a7 is ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! sea 9 int]-tropical & pol> regions suffici5tly great to produce ! requir$ movem5t8 & 7#b7 assum+ t !re is su* a movem5t1 does x convey ! am\nt ( heat :i* ,dr4 ,c>p5t] supposes8 ,i %all beg9 ) ! consid]ation ( ! fir/ ( ^! two po9ts4 ,b be=e do+ s let u see :at ! facts are :i* ?is gravitation !ory is int5d$ to expla94 ,! ,facts to be ,expla9$4--,dr4 ,c>p5t] consid]s t ! great mass ( w>m wat] prov$ dur+ rec5t dr$g+ exp$itions to occupy ! dep?s ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 mu/ be ref]r$1 n to ! ,gulf-/ream1 b to a g5]al movem5t ( wat] f ! equator4 8,! inf]5ce seems inevitable10 he says1 8t ! bulk ( ! wat] 9 ! w>m area mu/ h come ?i!r f ! s\?-we/4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream prop] 7mean+ by ?is ! body ( sup]-heat$ wat] :i* issues ?r\gh ! #8,n>r[s' f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico71 if x rea*es ?is locality at all 7:i* is v d\btful71 c\ld only affect ! mo/ sup]ficial /ratum2 & ! same may be said ( ! surface-drift caus$ by ! preval5ce ( s\?-we/]ly w9ds1 to :i* "s h attribut$ ! ph5om5a usually acc\nt$ = by ! ext5sion ( ! ,gulf-/ream to ^! regions4 ,& ! pres5ce ( ! body ( wat] :i* lies betwe5 #ajj & #fjj fa?oms deep1 & ! range ( ^: temp]ature is f #dh to #db1 c sc>cely be acc\nt$ = on any o!r hypo!sis ?an t ( a great g5]al movem5t ( equatorial wat] t[>ds ! pol> area1 ( :i* movem5t ! ,gulf-/ream con/itutes a peculi> case modifi$ by local conditions4 ,9 l mann] ! ,arctic /ream :i* und]lies ! w>m sup]ficial /ratum 9 our cold area con/itutes a peculi> case1 modifi$ by ! local conditions to be pres5tly expla9$1 ( a great g5]al movem5t ( pol> wat] t[>ds ! equatorial area1 :i* depresses ! temp]ature ( ! deepe/ p>ts ( ! great oceanic bas9s ne>ly to ! freez+-po9t40 ,x is well-kn[n t1 :]ev] temp]ature-obs]vations h be5 made 9 ! ,atlantic1 ! bottom ( t ocean has be5 f\nd to be occupi$ by wat] ( an ice-cold temp]ature4 ,& ?is holds true n m]ely ( ! ,atlantic1 b also ( ! ocean 9 int]-tropical regions--a fact :i* has be5 prov$ by repeat$ obs]vations1 & m p>ticul>ly ( late by ^? ( ,comm&] ,*immo 9 ! ,*9a ,sea & ,indian ,ocean1 :]e a temp]ature z l[ z #cb ,fahr4 0 f\nd at a dep? ( #b1fef fa?oms4 ,9 %ort1 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 & probably ! int]-tropical seas also1 may be reg>d$1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] consid]s1 z divid$ horizontally into two great lay]s or /rata--an upp] w>m1 & a l[] cold /ratum4 ,all ^! facts ,i1 ( c\rse1 freely admit2 nor am ,i aw>e t _! tru? has be5 call$ 9 "q by any "o1 no matt] :at 8 views may h be5 z to ! mode 9 :i* !y are to be expla9$4 ,! ,explanation ( ! ,facts4--,we h next ! explanation ( ! facts1 :i* is simply ?is3--,! cold wat] occupy+ ! bottom ( ! ,atlantic & ( int]-tropical seas is to be acc\nt$ = by ! supposition t x came f ! pol> regions4 ,?is is obvi\s1 because ! cold possess$ by ! wat] c\ld n h be5 d]iv$ f ! cru/ ( ! e>? b5ea?3 nei!r c\ld x h come f ! surface2 = ! temp]ature ( ! bottom wat] is f> bel[ ! normal temp]ature ( ! latitude 9 :i* x is f\nd4 ,consequ5tly 8! inf]5ce seems irresi/ible t ?is depression mu/ be produc$ & ma9ta9$ by ! convection ( cold f ! pol> t[>ds ! equatorial area40 ,( c\rse1 if we suppose a fl[ ( wat] f ! poles t[>ds ! equator1 we mu/ necess>ily inf] a c\nt] fl[ f ! equator t[>ds ! poles2 & :ile ! wat] fl[+ f equatorial to pol> regions w be w>m1 t fl[+ f pol> to equatorial regions w be cold4 ,! doctr9e ( a mutual int]*ange ( equatorial & pol> wat] is !re=e a necess>y consequ5ce f ! admission ( ! =ego+ facts4 ,) ?is explanation ( ! facts ,i ne$ h>dly say t ,i fully agree2 nor am ,i aw>e t its correctness has ev] be5 disput$4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] surely _c *>ge me ) ov]look+ ! fact ( a mutual int]*ange ( equatorial & pol> wat]1 see+ t my e/imate ( ! !rmal p[] ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 f :i* x is prov$ t ! am\nt ( heat convey$ f equatorial to temp]ate & pol> regions is enorm\sly great] ?an _h ev] be5 anticipat$1 0 made a consid]able "t be=e he began to write on ! subject ( oceanic circulation4#fj ,& 9 my pap] 8,on ,ocean-curr5ts 9 relation to ! ,di/ribution ( ,heat ov] ! ,globe0#fa 7! sub/ance ( :i* is reproduc$ 9 ,*apt]s ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 ( ?is volume71 ,i h endeav\r$ to %[ t1 7 x n = ! rais+ ( ! temp]ature ( pol> & high temp]ate regions & ! l[]+ ( ! temp]ature ( int]-tropical regions by means ( ?is int]*ange ( wat]1 ^! portions ( ! globe w\ld n be habitable by ! pres5t exi/+ ord]s ( be+s4 ,! explanation goes fur!r3--8,x is along ! surface & upp] portion ( ! ocean t ! equatorial wat]s fl[ t[>ds ! poles1 & x is along ! bottom & "u portion ( ! ocean t pol> wat]s fl[ t[>ds ! equator2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! w>m wat] keeps ! upp] portion ( ! ocean & ! cold wat] ! "u portion40 ,) ?is explanation ,i to a great ext5t agree4 ,x is evid5t t1 9 ref]5ce to ! nor!rn hemisph]e at lea/1 ! mo/ ( ! wat] :i* fl[s f int]-tropical to pol> regions 7z1 = example1 ! ,gulf-/ream7 keeps to ! surface & upp] portion ( ! ocean2 b = reasons :i* ,i h already /at$1 a v l>ge proportion ( ?is wat] mu/ return 9 ! =m ( "u curr5ts2 or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 ! return comp5sat+ curr5t1 :e!r x consi/ ( ! id5tical wat] :i* orig9ally came f ! equator or n1 mu/ fl[ t[>ds ! equator z an "u curr5t4 ,t ! cold wat] :i* is f\nd at ! bottom ( ! ,atlantic & ( int]-tropical seas mu/ h come z "u curr5ts is p]fectly obvi\s1 because wat] :i* %\ld come along ! surface ( ! ocean f ! pol> regions w\ld n be cold :5 x rea*$ int]-tropical regions4 ,! ,explanation hypo!tical4--,"h ! g5]al agreem5t betwe5 u 9 a great measure t]m9ates1 = ,dr4 ,c>p5t] is n satisfi$ ) ! explanation g5]ally adopt$ by ! advocates ( ! w9d !ory1 viz41 t ! cold wat] f\nd 9 temp]ate & int]-tropical areas comes f pol> regions z comp5sat+ "u curr5ts1 b advances a hypo!tical =m ( circulation to acc\nt = ! ph5om5on4 ,he assumes t !re is a g5]al set or fl[ ( ! surface & upp] portion ( ! ocean f ! equator to pol> regions1 & a g5]al set or fl[ ( ! bottom & "u portion ( ! ocean f pol> regions to ! equator4 ,mr4 ,f]rel 7,nature1 ,june #ac1 #ahgb7 speaks ( t 8int]*ang+ motion ( ! wat] betwe5 ! equator & ! pole discov]$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]40 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 ,mr4 ,f]rel is mi/ak52 = ,dr4 ,c>p5t] n only makes no claim to any discov]y ( ! k9d1 b di/9ctly admits t none su* has yet be5 made4 ,al?\gh 9 "s ( 8 pap]s he speaks ( a 8set ( w>m surface-wat] 9 ! s\!rn oceans t[>d ! ,ant>ctic pole0 z be+ well kn[n to navigators1 yet he n[h]e affirms1 z f> z ,i "k1 t ! exi/5ce ( su* a g5]al oceanic circulation z he advocates has ev] be5 directly det]m9$ f obs]vations4 ,?is mode ( circulation is simply inf]r$ or assum$ 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! facts ref]r$ to above4 8,at pres5t10 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] says1 8,i claim = x no high] "* ?an t ( a good work+ hypo!sis to be us$ z a guide 9 fur!r inquiry0 7 #af72 & le/ !re %\ld be any misappreh5sion on ?is po9t1 he closes 8 memoir ?us3--8,at pres5t1 z ,i h already said1 ,i claim = ! doctr9e ( a g5]al oceanic circulation no high] a "* ?an t ( a good work+ hypo!sis consi/5t ) our pres5t k ( facts1 & !re=e entitl$ to be provisionally adopt$ = ! purpose ( /imulat+ & direct+ fur!r inquiry40 ,i am unable to agree ) him1 h[ev]1 on ?is latt] po9t4 ,x seems to me t !re is no necessity = adopt+ any hypo!tical mode ( circulation to acc\nt = ! facts1 z !y c be q well acc\nt$ = by means ( t mode ( circulation :i* does actually exi/4 ,x has be5 det]m9$ f direct obs]vation t surface-curr5ts fl[ f equatorial to pol> regions1 & _! pa?s h be5 actually mapp$ out4 ,b if x is e/abli%$ t curr5ts fl[ f equatorial to pol> regions1 x is equally s t return curr5ts fl[ f pol> to equatorial regions2 = if ! "o actually exi/s1 ! o!r ( necessity mu/ exi/4 ,we "k also on physical gr\nds1 to :i* ,i h already ref]r$1 & :i* fall to be consid]$ m fully 9 a subsequ5t *apt]1 t a v l>ge portion ( ! wat] fl[+ f pol> to equatorial regions mu/ be 9 ! =m ( "u curr5ts4 ,if !re are cold "u curr5ts1 !re=e1 fl[+ f pol> to temp]ate & equatorial regions1 ?is is all t we really require to acc\nt = ! cold wat] :i* is f\nd to occupy ! b$ ( ! ocean 9 ^? regions4 ,x does n necess>ily foll[1 because cold wat] may be f\nd at ! bottom ( ! ocean all along ! equator1 t !re mu/ be a direct fl[ f ! pol> regions to e po9t ( ! equator4 ,wat] br\ght con/antly f ! pol> regions to v>i\s po9ts along ! equator by means ( "u curr5ts w necess>ily accumulate1 & 9 c\rse ( "t spread ov] ! bottom ( ! int]-tropical seas4 ,x mu/ ei!r d ?is1 or ! curr5ts on rea*+ ! equator mu/ b5d upw>ds & fl[ to ! surface 9 an unbrok5 mass4 ,consid]able portions ( "s ( ^? curr5ts may no d\bt d s & jo9 surface-curr5ts2 b probably ! great] portion ( ! wat] com+ f pol> regions ext5ds itself ov] ! floor ( ! equatorial seas4 ,9 a lett] 9 ,nature1 ,janu>y #aa1 #ahgb1 ,i endeav\r$ to %[ t ! surface-curr5ts ( ! ocean are n sep>ate & indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 b =m "o gr& sy/em ( circulation1 & t ! impell+ cause keep+ up ?is sy/em ( circulation is n ! trade-w9ds alone1 z is g5]ally suppos$1 b ! prevail+ w9ds ( ! entire globe consid]$ also z "o gr& sy/em4 ,! evid5ce = ?is op9ion1 h[ev]1 w be consid]$ m fully 9 ! sequel4 ,al?\gh ! "u curr5ts are p>ts ( "o g5]al sy/em ( oceanic circulation produc$ by ! impulse ( ! sy/em ( prevail+ w9ds1 yet _! direction & position are nev]!less1 to a l>ge ext5t1 det]m9$ by diff]5t laws4 ,! wat] at ! surface1 be+ mov$ by ! =ce ( ! w9d1 w foll[ ! pa? ( greate/ pressure & traction1--! effects result+ f ! g5]al cont\r ( ! l&1 :i* to a great ext5t are common to bo? sets ( curr5ts1 n be+ tak5 into acc\nt2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! "u curr5ts f pol> regions 7:i* to a great ext5t are simply 8indraughts0 comp5sat+ = ! wat] dra9$ f equatorial regions by ! ,gulf-/ream & o!r surface curr5ts7 w foll[1 z a g5]al rule1 ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,! ,cause assign$ = ! ,hypo!tical ,mode ( ,circulation4--,dr4 ,c>p5t] assigns a cause = 8 mode ( circulation2 & t cause he f9ds 9 ! diff]5ce ( specific gravity betwe5 equatorial & pol> wat]s1 result+ f ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ^! two regions4 8,two sep>ate que/ions10 he says1 8h to be consid]$1 :i* h n1 p]haps1 be5 kept suffici5tly di/9ct1 ei!r by ,mr4 ,croll or by myself2--fir/1 :e!r !re is adequate evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( a g5]al v]tical oceanic circulation2 & second1 :e!r1 suppos+ its exi/5ce to be provisionally admitt$1 a v]a causa c be f\nd = x 9 ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! oceanic wat]s ( ! pol> & equatorial areas0 7 #ag74 ,x seems to me t ! facts adduc$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] d n necess>ily require ! assumption ( any su* mode ( circulation z t advanc$ by him4 ,! ph5om5a c be satisfactorily acc\nt$ = o!rwise2 & !re=e !re does n appe> to be any necessity = consid]+ :e!r 8 hypo!sis be suffici5t to produce ! requir$ effect or n4 ,an important ,consid]ation ov]look$4--,b !re is "o important consid]ation :i* seems to h be5 ov]look$--namely1 ! fact t ! sea is salt] 9 int]-tropical ?an 9 pol> regions1 & t ?is circum/ance1 s f> z x goes1 mu/ t5d to neutralize ! effect ( diff]5ce ( temp]ature4 ,x is probable1 inde$1 t ! effect produc$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature is ?us entirely neutraliz$1 & t no diff]5ce ( d5sity :atev] exi/s betwe5 ! sea 9 int]-tropical & pol> regions1 & consequ5tly t !re is no diff]5ce ( level nor any?+ to produce su* a g5]al motion z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] supposes4 ,?is1 ,i am glad to f9d1 is ! op9ion ( ,pr(essor ,wyville ,?omson4 8,i am greatly mi/ak510 says t au?or1 8if ! l[ specific gravity ( ! pol> sea1 ! result ( ! cond5sation & precipitation ( vap\r evaporat$ f ! int]-tropical area1 d n fully c\nt]balance ! contraction ( ! sup]ficial film by arctic cold4444 ,speak+ 9 ! total abs5ce ( all reliable data1 x is my g5]al impression t if we 7 to set aside all o!r ag5cies1 & to tru/ = an oceanic circulation to ^? conditions only :i* are reli$ ^u by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 if !re 7 any g5]al circulation at all1 :i* seems v problematical1 ! odds are r 9 fav\r ( a w>m "u curr5t travell+ nor?w>ds by virtue ( its excess ( salt1 balanc$ by a surface return curr5t ( fre%] ?\gh cold] arctic wat]40#fb ,?is is :at actually takes place on ! we/ & nor?-we/ ( ,spitzb]g54 ,!re ! w>m wat] ( ! ,gulf-/ream fl[s und]nea? ! cold pol> curr5t4 ,& x is ! op9ion ( ,dr4 ,scoresby1 ,mr4 ,clem5ts ,m>kham1 & ,lieut4 ,maury t ?is w>m wat]1 9 virtue ( its great] saltness1 is d5s] ?an ! pol> wat]4 ,mr4 ,leigh ,smi? f\nd on ! nor?-we/ ( ,spitzb]g5 ! temp]ature at #ejj fa?oms to be #eb1 & once ev5 #fd1 :ile ! wat] on ! surface 0 only a degree or two above freez+4#fc ,mr4 ,aitk51 ( ,d>ro*1 9 a pap] lately read be=e ! ,royal ,scotti% ,society ( ,arts1 %[$ exp]im5tally t ! pol> wat] 9 regions :]e ! ice is melt+ is actually less d5se ?an ! w>m & m salt tropical wat]s4 ,nor w x help ! matt] 9 ! lea/ to ma9ta9 t diff]5ce ( specific gravity is n ! reason :y ! w>m wat] ( ! ,gulf-/ream passes "u ! pol> /ream--because if diff]5ce ( specific gravity be n ! cause ( ! w>m wat] und]ly+ ! cold wat] 9 pol> regions1 !n diff]5ce ( specific gravity may likewise n be ! cause ( ! cold wat] und]ly+ ! w>m at ! equator2 & if s1 !n !re is no necessity = ! gravitation hypo!sis ( oceanic circulation4 ,!re is little d\bt t ! sup]-heat$ /ratum at ! surface ( ! int]-tropical seas1 :i* /ratum1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 is ( no great ?ickness1 is less d5se ?an ! pol> wat]3 b if we take a column ext5d+ f ! surface d[n to ! bottom ( ! ocean1 ?is column at ! equator w be f\nd to be z heavy z "o ( equal l5g? 9 ! pol> area4 ,& if ?is be ! case1 !n !re c be no diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! equator & ! poles1 & no di/urbance ( /atic equilibrium nor any?+ else to produce circulation4 ,"u ,curr5ts acc\nt = all ! ,facts bett] ?an ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s ,hypo!sis4--,assum+1 = ! pres5t1 ! sy/em ( prevail+ w9ds to be ! true cause ( oceanic curr5ts1 x necess>ily foll[s 7z w be %[n h]eaft]7 t a l>ge quantity ( ,atlantic wat] mu/ be propell$ into ! ,arctic ,ocean2 & su*1 z we "k1 is actually ! case4 ,! ,arctic ,ocean1 h[ev]1 z ,pr(essor ,wyville ,?omson rem>ks1 is a well-nigh clos$ bas91 n p]mitt+ ( a free outfl[ into ! ,pacific ,ocean ( ! wat] impell$ into x4 ,b x is evid5t t ! wat] :i* is ?us be+ con/antly c>ri$ f ! int]-tropical to ! arctic regions mu/ someh[ or o!r f9d its way back to ! equator2 9 o!r words1 !re mu/ be a return curr5t equal 9 magnitude to ! direct curr5t4 ,n[ ! "q to be det]m9$ is1 :at pa? mu/ ?is return curr5t take8 ,x appe>s to me t x w take ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance1 :e!r t pa? may happ5 to be at ! surface or "u ! surface4 ,b t ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance w1 z a g5]al rule1 lie at a v consid]able di/ance bel[ ! surface is1 ,i ?9k1 evid5t f ! foll[+ consid]ations4 ,at ! surface ! g5]al direction ( ! curr5ts is opposite to t ( ! return curr5t4 ,! surface motion ( ! wat] 9 ! ,atlantic is f ! equator to ! pole2 b ! return curr5t mu/ be f ! pole to ! equator4 ,consequ5tly ! surface curr5ts w oppose ! motion ( any return curr5t unless t curr5t lie at a consid]able dep? bel[ ! surface curr5ts4 ,aga91 ! w9ds1 z a g5]al rule1 bl[ 9 an opposite direction to ! c\rse ( ! return curr5t1 because1 accord+ to supposition1 ! w9ds bl[ 9 ! direction ( ! surface curr5ts4 ,f all ^! causes ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance to ! return curr5t w1 z a g5]al rule1 n be at ! surface1 b at a v consid]able dep? bel[ x4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! wat] f ! pol> regions no d\bt leaves ^? regions z surface curr5ts2 b a surface curr5t ( ?is k9d1 on meet+ ) "s resi/ance to its onw>d progress along ! surface1 w dip d[n & cont9ue its c\rse z an "u curr5t4 ,we h an example ( ?is 9 ! case ( ! pol> curr5t1 :i* ^u meet+ ! ,gulf-/ream on ! banks ( ,newf\ndl& divides--a portion ( x dipp+ d[n & pursu+ its c\rse und]nea? t /ream into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico & ! ,c>ibbean ,sea4 ,& t ?is "u curr5t is a real & tangible curr5t1 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 & n an imp]ceptible movem5t ( ! wat]1 is prov$ by ! fact t l>ge iceb]gs deeply imm]s$ 9 x are (t5 c>ri$ s\?w>d ) consid]able velocity aga9/ ! unit$ =ce ( ! w9d & ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ref]s at consid]able l5g? 7 #acd7 to ,mr4 ,mit*ell's op9ion z to ! orig9 ( ! pol> curr5t1 :i* is ! same z t advanc$ by ,maury1 viz41 t ! impell+ cause is diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 ,b al?\gh ,dr4 ,c>p5t] quotes ,mr4 ,mit*ell's op9ion1 he nev]!less does n appe> to adopt x3 = 9 #ijic & v>i\s o!r places he di/9ctly /ates t he does n agree ) ,lieut4 ,maury's view t ! ,gulf-/ream & pol> curr5t are caus$ by diff]5ce ( d5sity4 ,9 fact1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] seems p>ticul>ly anxi\s t x %\ld be cle>ly und]/ood t he diss5ts f ! !ory ma9ta9$ by ,maury4 ,b he does n m]ely d5y t ! ,gulf-/ream & pol> curr5t c be caus$ by diff]5ce ( d5sity2 he ev5 goes s f> z to affirm t no s5sible curr5t :atev] c be due to t cause1 & adduces ! au?ority ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el 9 support ( t op9ion3--8,! doctr9e ( ,lieut4 ,maury10 he says1 80 p[]fully & conv9c+ly oppos$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el2 :o %[$1 beyond all reasonable d\bt1 fir/1 t ! ,gulf-/ream really has its orig9 9 ! propulsive =ce ( ! trade-w9ds1 & secondly1 t ! greate/ di/urbance ( equilibrium :i* c be suppos$ to result f ! ag5cies invok$ by ,lieut4 ,maury w\ld be utt]ly inadequate to g5]ate & ma9ta9 ei!r ! ,gulf-/ream or any o!r s5sible curr5t0 7 #ib74 ,?is be+ ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s belief1 x is some:at s+ul> t he %\ld advance ! case ( ! pol> curr5t pass+ "u ! ,gulf-/ream z evid5ce 9 fav\r ( 8 !ory2 = 9 reality he c\ld h>dly h select$ a case m ho/ile to t !ory4 ,9 %ort1 x is evid5t t1 if a pol> curr5t impell$ by a =ce o!r ?an t ( gravity c pass f ! banks ( ,newf\ndl& to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico 7a di/ance ( "s ?\s&s ( miles7 "u a curr5t fl[+ 9 ! opposite direction &1 at ! same "t1 s p[]ful z ! ,gulf-/ream1 x c\ld pass mu* m easily "u comp>atively /ill wat]1 or wat] fl[+ 9 ! same direction z itself4 ,& if ?is be s1 !n all our difficulties disappe>1 & we satisfactorily expla9 ! pres5ce ( cold pol> wat] at ! bottom ( int]-tropical seas )\t hav+ rec\rse to ! hypo!sis advanc$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,b we h an example ( an "u curr5t m inexplicable on ! gravitation hypo!sis ?an ev5 t ( ! pol> curr5t1 viz41 ! w>m "u curr5t ( ,davis ,/rait4 ,!re is a /rong curr5t fl[+ nor? f ! ,atlantic ?r\gh ,davis ,/rait into ! ,arctic ,ocean und]nea? a surface curr5t pass+ s\?w>ds 9 an opposite direction4 ,l>ge iceb]gs h be5 se5 to be c>ri$ nor?w>ds by ?is "u curr5t at ! rate ( f\r knots an h\r aga9/ bo? ! w9d & ! surface curr5t1 ripp+ & te>+ _! way ) t]rific =ce ?r\gh surface ice ( great ?ickness4#fd ,a curr5t s p[]ful & rapid z ?is _c1 z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] admits1 be ref]r$ to diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 ,b ev5 suppos+ t x c\ld1 /ill diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> seas w\ld n acc\nt = x2 = ! curr5t 9 "q fl[s 9 ! wrong direction4 ,nor w x help ! matt] ! lea/ to adopt ,maury's explanation1 viz41 t ! w>m "u curr5t f ! s\?1 9 consequ5ce ( its great] saltness1 is d5s] ?an ! cold "o f ! pol> regions4 ,= if ! wat] ( ! ,atlantic1 not)/&+ its high] temp]ature1 is 9 consequ5ce ( its great] saltness s mu* d5s] ?an ! pol> wat] on ! we/ ( ,gre5l& z to produce an "u curr5t ( f\r knots an h\r 9 ! direction ( ! pole1 !n surely ! same ?+ to a c]ta9 ext5t w hold true 9 ref]5ce to ! ocean on ! ea/ side ( ,gre5l&4 ,?us in/ead ( !re be+1 z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] supposes1 an und]fl[ ( pol> wat] s\? into ! ,atlantic 9 virtue ( its great] d5sity1 !re ought1 on ! contr>y1 to be a surface fl[ 9 consequ5ce ( its less] d5sity4 ,! true explanation no d\bt is1 t ! w>m "u curr5t f ! s\? & ! cold upp] curr5t f ! nor? are bo? p>ts ( "o gr& sy/em ( circulation produc$ by ! w9ds1 diff]5ce ( specific gravity hav+ no %>e :atev] ei!r 9 impell+ ! curr5ts1 or 9 det]m9+ :i* %all be ! upp] & :i* ! l[]4 ,! w9d 9 ,baff9's ,bay & ,davis ,/rait bl[s ne>ly always 9 "o direction1 viz4 f ! nor?4 ,! t5d5cy ( ?is is to produce a surface or upp] curr5t f ! nor? d[n into ! ,atlantic1 & to prev5t or ret>d any surface curr5t f ! s\?4 ,! w>m curr5t f ! ,atlantic1 tak+ ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance1 dips "u ! pol> curr5t & pursues its c\rse z an "u curr5t4 ,mr4 ,clem5ts ,m>kham1 9 8 8,?re%old ( ! ,unkn[n ,region10 is incl9$ to attribute ! motion ( ! iceb]gs to tidal action or to c\nt] "u curr5ts4 ,t ! motion ( ! iceb]gs _c reasonably be attribut$ to ! tides is1 ,i ?9k1 evid5t f ! descriptions giv5 bo? by ,mid%ipman ,griff9 & by ,capta9 ,duncan1 :o di/9ctly saw ! iceb]gs mov+ at ! rate ( ab\t f\r knots an h\r aga9/ a surface curr5t fl[+ s\?w>ds4 ,& ,capta9 ,duncan /ates t ! b]gs cont9u$ _! c\rse nor?w>ds = sev]al days1 till !y ultimately disappe>$4 ,! probability is t ?is nor?w>d curr5t is compos$ p>tly ( ,gulf-/ream wat] & p>tly ( t portion ( pol> wat] :i* is suppos$ to fl[ r\nd ,cape ,f>ewell f ! ea/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&4 ,?is /ream1 compos$ ( bo? w>m & cold wat]1 on rea*+ to ab\t latitude #fe,n41 :]e x enc\nt]s ! /rong nor!rly w9ds1 dips d[n "u ! pol> curr5t & cont9ues its nor?w>d c\rse z an "u curr5t4 ,we h on ! we/ ( ,spitzb]g51 z has already be5 notic$1 a simil> example ( a w>m curr5t f ! s\? pass+ "u a pol> curr5t4 ,a portion ( ! ,gulf-/ream :i* passes r\nd ! we/ coa/ ( ,spitzb]g5 fl[s "u an arctic curr5t com+ d[n f ! nor?2 & x does s no d\bt because x is "h 9 ! region ( prevail+ nor!rly w9ds1 :i* fav\r ! pol> curr5t b oppose ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,aga91 we h a cold & rapid curr5t sweep+ r\nd ! ea/ & s\? ( ,spitzb]g51 a curr5t ( :i* ,mr4 ,lamont ass]ts t he is positive he has se5 x runn+ at ! rate ( sev5 or eight miles an h\r4 ,?is curr5t1 on meet+ ! ,gulf-/ream ab\t ! nor!rn entrance to ! ,g]man ,ocean1 dips d[n "u t /ream & pursues its c\rse s\?w>ds z an "u curr5t4 ,sev]al o!r cases ( "u curr5ts might be adduc$ :i* _c be expla9$ on ! gravitation !ory1 & :i* mu/ be ref]r$ to a sy/em ( oceanic circulation produc$ by ! impulse ( ! w9d2 b ^! w suffice to %[ t ! assumption t ! w9ds c produce only a m]e surface-drift is directly oppos$ to facts4 ,& x w n d to affirm t a curr5t :i* =ms "p ( a g5]al sy/em ( circulation produc$ by ! impulse ( ! w9ds _c possibly be an "u curr5t2 = 9 ! case ref]r$ to we h pro( t ! ?+ is n only possible b actually exi/s4 ,?is po9t1 h[ev]1 w be bett] und]/ood aft] we h consid]$ ! evid5ce 9 fav\r ( a g5]al sy/em ( oceanic curr5ts4 ,mu* ( ! difficulty exp]i5c$ 9 compreh5d+ h[ "u curr5ts c be produc$ by ! w9d1 or h[ an impulse imp>t$ to ! surface ( ! ocean c ev] be transmitt$ to ! bottom1 appe>s to me to result1 to a consid]able ext5t at lea/1 f a slight deception ( ! imag9ation4 ,! ?+ :i* impresses u mo/ =cibly 9 reg>d to ! ocean is its pr(\nd dep?4 ,a mean dep? (1 say1 ?ree miles produces a /rik+ impression2 b if we c\ld repres5t to ! m9d ! va/ area ( ! ocean z correctly z we c its dep?1 %all[ness r ?an dep? w\ld be ! impression produc$4 ,if 9 cross+ a mead[ we f\nd a %eet ( wat] "o hundr$ y>ds 9 diamet] & only an in* 9 dep?1 we %\ld n call t a deep1 b a v %all[ pool4 ,! probability is t we %\ld speak ( x z simply a piece ( gr\nd cov]$ ) a ?9 lay] ( wat]4 ,yet su* a ?9 lay] ( wat] w\ld be a correct repres5tation 9 m9iature ( ! ocean2 = ! ocean 9 relation to its sup]ficial area is z %all[ z ! pool ( our illu/ration4 ,9 ref]5ce to su* a pool or ?9 film ( wat]1 we h no difficulty 9 conceiv+ h[ a di/urbance on its surface w\ld be transmitt$ to its bottom4 ,9 fact our difficulty is 9 conceiv+ h[ any di/urbance ext5d+ ov] its entire surface %\ld n ext5d to ! bottom4 ,n[ if we c\ld =m z accurate a s5su\s impression ( ! va/ area ( ! ocean z we d ( su* a pool1 all our difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ ! impulses ( ! w9d act+ on ! va/ area ( ! ocean %\ld communicate motion d[n to its bottom w\ld disappe>4 ,x is c]ta9ly true t sudd5 commotions caus$ by /orms d n g5]ally ext5d to great dep?s4 ,nei!r w w9ds ( %ort cont9uance produce a curr5t ext5d+ f> bel[ ! surface4 ,b prevail+ w9ds :i* c produce su* imm5se surface-fl[ z t ( ! great equatorial curr5ts ( ! globe & ! ,gulf-/ream1 :i* foll[ def9ite directions1 mu/ communicate _! motion to great dep?s1 unless wat] be frictionless1 a ?+ :i* x is n4 ,suppose ! upp] lay] ( ! ocean to be =c$ on by ! direct action ( ! w9ds ) a con/ant velocity (1 say1 f\r miles an h\r1 ! lay] imm$iately bel[ w be dragg$ along ) a con/ant velocity some:at less ?an f\r miles an h\r4 ,! lay] imm$iately bel[ ?is second lay] w 9 turn be also dragg$ along ) a con/ant velocity some:at less ?an ! "o above x4 ,! same w take place 9 reg>d to ea* succe$+ lay]1 ! con/ant velocity ( ea* lay] be+ some:at less ?an ! "o imm$iately above x1 & great] ?an ! "o bel[ x4 ,! "q to be det]m9$ is1 at :at dep? w all motion cease8 ,i presume t at pres5t we h n suffici5t data = prop]ly det]m9+ ?is po9t4 ,! dep? w dep5d1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ^u ! am\nt ( molecul> resi/ance (f]$ by ! wat] to motion--9 o!r words1 on ! am\nt ( ! %e>+-=ce ( ! "o lay] ov] ! o!r4 ,! fact1 h[ev]1 t motion imp>t$ to ! surface w ext5d to great dep?s c be easily %[n by direct exp]im5t4 ,if a con/ant motion be imp>t$ to ! surface ( wat]1 say1 9 a vessel1 motion w ultimately be communicat$ to ! bottom1 no matt] h[ wide or h[ deep ! vessel may be4 ,! same effect w take place :e!r ! vessel be #e feet deep or #ejj feet deep4 ,! kn[n ,condition ( ! ,ocean inconsi/5t ) ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s ,hypo!sis4--,dr4 ,c>p5t] says t he looks =w>d ) great satisfaction to ! results ( ! inquiries :i* are be+ prosecut$ by ! ,circumnavigation ,exp$ition1 9 ! hope t ! facts br\ght to light may e/abli% 8 !ory ( a g5]al oceanic circulation2 & he specifies c]ta9 ( ^! facts :i*1 if f\nd to be correct1 w e/abli% 8 !ory4 ,x seems to me1 h[ev]1 t ! facts to :i* he ref]s are j z explicable on ! !ory ( "u curr5ts z on ! !ory ( a g5]al oceanic circulation4 ,he beg9s by say+1 8,if ! views ,i h prop\nd$ be correct1 x may be expect$ t ne> ! bord] ( ! great ant>ctic ice-b>ri] a temp]ature bel[ #cj w be met ) 7z x has be5 by ,p>ry1 ,m>t5s1 & ,weypre*t ne> ,spitzb]g57 at no great dep? b5ea? ! surface1 & t in/ead ( ris+ at /ill great] dep?s1 ! !rmomet] w fall to ne> ! freez+-po9t ( salt wat]0 7 #ci74 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] c h>dly claim ?is z evid5ce 9 fav\r ( 8 !ory2 = ne> ! bord]s ( ! ice-b>ri] ! wat]1 z a matt] ( c\rse1 c\ld n be expect$ to h a mu* high] temp]ature ?an ! ice itself4 ,& if ! obs]vations be made dur+ summ] mon?s1 ! temp]ature ( ! wat] at ! surface w no d\bt be f\nd to be high] ?an t ( ! bottom2 b if !y be c>ri$ on dur+ w9t]1 ! surface-temp]ature w d\btless be f\nd to be z l[ z ! bottom-temp]ature4 ,^! are results :i* d n dep5d ^u any p>ticul> !ory ( oceanic circulation4 8,! bottom temp]ature ( ! ,nor? ,pacific10 he cont9ues1 8w af=d a crucial te/ ( ! tru? ( ! doctr9e4 ,= s9ce ! sole communication ( ?is va/ oceanic area ) ! arctic bas9 is a /rait s %all[ z only to p]mit an infl[ ( w>m surface wat]1 its deep cold /ratum mu/ be entirely d]iv$ f ! ant>ctic area2 & if its bottom temp]ature is n actually high] ?an t ( ! ,s\? ,pacific1 ! glacial /ratum ought to be f\nd at a great] dep? nor? ( ! equator ?an s\? ( x0 7 #ci74 ,?is may probably %[ t ! wat] came f ! ant>ctic regions1 b _c possibly prove t x came 9 ! mann] :i* he supposes4 8,9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 aga91 ! comp>ative limitation ( communication ) ! arctic area may be expect$ to prev5t its bottom temp]ature f be+ r$uc$ z l[ z t ( ! ,s\!rn ,atlantic0 7 #ci74 ,suppos+ ! bottom temp]ature ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic %\ld be f\nd to be l[] ?an ! bottom temp]ature ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 ?is fact w be j z consi/5t ) ! !ory ( "u curr5ts z ) 8 !ory ( a g5]al movem5t ( ! ocean4 ,i am also :olly unable to compreh5d h[ he %\ld imag9e1 because ! bottom temp]ature ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic happ5s to be l[]1 & ! pol> wat] to lie ne>] to ! surface 9 ?is ocean ?an 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 t !re=e ?is proves ! tru? ( 8 !ory4 ,?is condition ( matt]s is j z consi/5t1 & ev5 m s1 z w be %[n 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii41 ) my !ory z ) 84 ,:5 we consid] ! imm5se quantity ( w>m surface wat] :i*1 z has be5 %[n 7,*apt] ,v471 is be+ con/antly transf]r$ f ! ,s\? into ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 we readily und]/& h[ ! pol> wat] comes ne>] to ! surface 9 ! =m] ocean ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,e p\nd ( wat]1 ( c\rse1 pass+ f ! s\!rn to ! nor!rn hemisph]e mu/ be comp5sat$ by an equal am\nt pass+ f ! nor!rn to ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,b nev]!less ! w>m wat] dra9$ (f ! ,s\? ,atlantic is n replac$ directly by wat] f ! nor?1 b by t cold ant>ctic curr5t1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* is1 un=tunately1 too well kn[n to navigators f ! imm5se masses ( iceb]gs :i* x br+s along ) x4 ,9 fact1 ! :ole ( ! ph5om5a are j z easily expla9$ ^u ! pr9ciple ( "u curr5ts z ^u ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory4 ,b we %all h to return to ?is po9t 9 ,*apt] ,,xiii41 :5 we come to discuss a class ( facts :i* appe> to be :olly irreconcilable ) ! gravitation !ory4 ,inde$ ,i fe> t ev5 al?\gh ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s expectations %\ld ev5tually be realis$ 9 ! results ( ! ,circumnavigation ,exp$ition1 yet ! advocates ( ! w9d !ory w /ill rema9 unconv]t$4 ,9 fact ! ,director ( ?is ,exp$ition has already1 on ! w9d !ory1 (f]$ an explanation ( ne>ly all ! ph5om5a on :i* ,dr4 ,c>p5t] relies2#fe & ! same has also be5 done by ,dr4 ,pet]mann1#ff :o1 z is well kn[n1 is equally oppos$ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] directs att5tion to ! necessity ( exam9+ ! broad & deep *annel sep>at+ ,icel& f ,gre5l&4 ,! obs]vations :i* h already be5 made1 h[ev]1 %[ t ne>ly ! entire *annel is occupi$1 on ! surface at lea/1 by wat] fl[+ s\?w>d f ! pol> area--a direction ! opposite ( :at x ought to be accord+ to ! gravitation !ory4 ,9 fact ! surface ( "o half ( ! entire area ( ! ocean1 ext5d+ f ,gre5l& to ! ,nor? ,cape1 is mov+ 9 a direction ! opposite ( t :i* x ought to take accord+ to ! !ory "u review4 ,! we/]n half ( ?is area is occupi$ by wat] :i* at ! surface is fl[+ s\?w>ds2 :ile ! ea/]n half1 :i* has hi!rto be5 reg>d$ by almo/ ev]ybody b ,dr4 ,c>p5t] himself & ,mr4 ,f9dlay z an ext5sion ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 is mov+ polew>ds4 ,! motion ( ! we/]n half mu/ be attribut$ to ! w9ds & n to gravity2 = x is mov+ 9 ! wrong direction to be acc\nt$ = by ! latt] cause2 b _h x be5 mov+ 9 ! opposite direction1 no d\bt its motion w\ld h be5 ref]r$ to gravitation4 ,to ?is cause ! motion ( ! ea/]n half1 :i* is 9 ! prop] direction1 is attribut$2#fg b :y n assign ?is motion also to ! impulse ( ! w9ds1 m especially s9ce ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds bl[+ ov] t area co9cides ) t ( ! wat]8 ,if ! w9d c produce ! motion ( ! wat] 9 ! we/]n half1 :y may n x d ! same 9 ! ea/]n half8 ,if !re be su* a diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 equatorial & pol> wat]s z to produce a g5]al fl[ ( ! upp] portion ( ! ocean polew>d1 h[ does x happ5 t "o half ( ! wat] 9 ! above area is mov+ 9 opposition to gravity8 ,h[ is x t 9 a wide op5 sea gravitation %\ld act s p[]fully 9 ! "o half ( x & ) s little effect 9 ! o!r half8 ,!re is probably little d\bt t ! ice-cold wat] ( ! we/]n half ext5ds f ! surface d[n to ! bottom4 ,& x is also probable t ! bottom wat] is mov+ s\?w>ds 9 ! same direction z ! surface wat]4 ,! bottom wat] 9 su* a case w\ld be mov+ 9 h>mony ) ! gravitation !ory2 b w\ld ,dr4 ,c>p5t] on ?is acc\nt attribute its motion to gravity8 ,w\ld he attribute ! motion ( ! l[] half to gravity & ! upp] half to ! w9d8 ,he c\ld n 9 consi/5cy ) 8 !ory attribute ! motion ( ! upp] half to gravity3 = al?\gh ! ice-cold wat] ext5d$ to ! surface1 ?is c\ld n expla9 h[ gravity %\ld move x s\?w>d in/ead ( polew>ds1 z accord+ to !ory x ought to move4 ,he might affirm1 if he *ose1 t ! surface wat] moves s\?w>ds because x is dragg$ =w>d by ! bottom wat]2 b if ?is view be held1 he is n entitl$ to affirm1 z he does1 t ! w9ds c only produce a m]e surface drift4 ,if ! viscosity & molecul> resi/ance ( wat] be su* t1 :5 ! l[] /rata ( ! ocean are impell$ =w>d by gravity or by any o!r cause1 ! sup]9cumb5t /rata ext5d+ to ! surface are p]=ce dragg$ aft] !m1 !n1 = ! same reason1 :5 ! upp] /rata are impell$ =w>d by ! w9d or any o!r cause1 ! und]ly+ /rata mu/ also be dragg$ along aft] !m4 ,if ! condition ( ! ocean betwe5 ,gre5l& & ! nor?-we/]n %ore ( ,europe is irreconcilable ) ! gravitation !ory1 we f9d ! case ev5 worse = t !ory :5 we direct our att5tion to ! condition ( ! ocean on ! s\!rn hemisph]e2 = accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ,capta9 ,dup]rey & o!rs on ! curr5ts ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 a v l>ge portion ( ! area ( t ocean is occupi$ by wat] mov+ on ! surface m 9 a nor?w>d ?an a polew>d direction4 ,ref]r+ to ! deep tr\gh betwe5 ! ,%etl& & ! ,f>oe ,isl&s1 call$ by him ! 8,lightn+ ,*annel10 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] says1 8,if my view be correct1 a curr5t-drag susp5d$ 9 ! upp] /ratum ought to h a p]ceptible movem5t 9 ! ,n4,e4 direction2 :il/ ano!r1 susp5d$ 9 ! l[] /ratum1 %\ld move ,s4,w40 7 #dj74 ,any "o believ+ 9 ! nor?-ea/]n ext5sion ( ! ,gulf-/ream & 9 ! ,spitsb]g5 pol> "u curr5t1 to :i* ,i h already ref]r$1 w\ld n feel surpris$ to le>n t ! surface /rata h a p]ceptible nor?-ea/w>d motion1 & ! bottom /rata a p]ceptible s\?-we/w>d motion4 ,nor?-ea/ & ea/ ( ,icel& !re is a g5]al fl[ ( cold pol> wat] 9 a s\?-ea/ direction t[>ds ! left edge ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,?is wat]1 z ,pr(essor ,mohn concludes1 8desc5ds b5ea? ! ,gulf-/ream & p>tially f9ds an outlet 9 ! l[] half ( ! ,f>oe-,%etl& *annel40#fh ,an ,objection ,consid]$4--,9 ,nature1 vol4 ix4 p4 #dbc1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] has advanc$ ! foll[+ objection to ! =ego+ !ory ( "u-curr5ts3--8,accord+ to ,mr4 ,croll's doctr9e1 ! :ole ( t va/ mass ( wat] 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 av]ag+1 say1 #a1ejj fa?oms 9 ?ickness & #c1fjj miles 9 bread?1 ! temp]ature ( :i* 7f #dj d[nw>ds71 z asc]ta9$ by ! ,*all5g] s\nd+s1 cle>ly %[s x to be ma9ly d]iv$ f a pol> s\rce1 is no?+ else ?an ! reflux ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,n[1 ev5 if we suppose t ! :ole ( ?is /ream1 z x passes ,s&y ,hook1 7 to g on into ! clos$ arctic bas91 x w\ld only =ce out an equival5t body ( wat]4 ,& z1 on comp>+ ! sectional areas ( ! two1 ,i f9d t ( ! ,gulf-/ream to be ab\t #a_/ijj? t ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic und]fl[2 & z x is admitt$ t a l>ge "p ( ! ,gulf-/ream returns into ! ,mid-,atlantic circulation1 only a bran* ( x go+ on to ! nor?-ea/1 ! extreme improbability 7may ,i n say impossibility87 t s va/ a mass ( wat] c be put 9 motion by :at is by comp>ison a m]e rivulet 7! nor?-ea/ motion ( :i*1 z a di/9ct curr5t1 has n be5 trac$ ea/w>d ( #cj ,w4 long47 seems /ill m obvi\s40 ,9 ?is objection ?ree ?+s are assum$3 7#a7 t ! mass ( cold wat] #a1ejj fa?oms deep & #c1fjj miles 9 bread? is 9 a /ate ( motion t[>ds ! equator2 7#b7 t x _c be ! reflux ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 because its sectional area is #ijj times z great z t ( ! ,gulf-/ream2 7#c7 t ! imm5se mass ( wat] is1 accord+ to my views1 set 9 motion by ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,z ?is objection has an important be>+ on ! "q "u consid]ation1 ,i %all consid] ^! ?ree assumptions sep>ately & 9 _! ord]3 7#a7 ,t ?is imm5se mass ( cold wat] came orig9ally f ! pol> regions ,i1 ( c\rse1 admit1 b t ! :ole is 9 a /ate ( motion ,i c]ta9ly d n admit4 ,!re is no w>rant :atev] = any su* assumption4 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t] himself1 ! heat+-p[] ( ! sun does n ext5d to any great dep? bel[ ! surface2 consequ5tly !re is no?+ :atev] to heat ?is mass b ! heat com+ ?r\gh ! e>?'s cru/4 ,b ! am\nt ( heat d]iv$ f ?is s\rce is s trifl+1 t an "u curr5t f ! arctic regions f> less 9 volume ?an t ( ! ,gulf-/ream w\ld be q suffici5t to keep ! mass at an ice-cold temp]ature4 ,tak+ ! area ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic betwe5 ! equator & ! ,tropic ( ,canc]1 includ+ also ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 to be #g1gjj1jjj squ>e miles1 & ! rate at :i* int]nal heat passes ?r\gh ! e>?'s surface to be t assign$ by ,sir ,william ,?omson1 we f9d t ! total quantity ( heat d]iv$ f ! e>?'s cru/ by ! above area is equal to ab\t #hh #ajae foot-p\nds p] day4 ,b ?is am\nt is equal to only #a_/hid? t convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream1 on ! supposition t ea* p\nd ( wat] c>ries #ai1cjj foot-p\nds ( heat4 ,consequ5tly an "u curr5t f ! pol> regions ( n m ?an #a_/ce? ! volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream w\ld suffice to keep ! entire mass ( wat] ( t area )9 #a ( :at x w\ld be 7 !re no heat d]iv$ f ! cru/ ( ! e>?2 t is to say1 7 ! wat] convey$ by ! "u curr5t at #cb1 int]nal heat w\ld n ma9ta9 ! mass ( ! ocean 9 ! above area at m ?an #cc4 ,! entire area ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic f ! equator to ! arctic circle is some:]e ab\t #af1jjj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,an "u curr5t ( less ?an #a_/ag? t ( ! ,gulf-/ream com+ f ! arctic regions w\ld !re=e suffice to keep ! entire ,nor? ,atlantic bas9 fill$ ) ice-cold wat]4 ,9 %ort1 :atev] !ory we adopt reg>d+ oceanic circulation1 x foll[s equally z a necess>y consequ5ce t ! entire mass ( ! ocean bel[ ! /ratum heat$ by ! sun's rays mu/ consi/ ( cold wat]4 ,= if cold wat] be cont9ually com+ f ! pol> regions ei!r 9 ! =m ( "u curr5ts1 or 9 ! =m ( a g5]al und]fl[ z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] supposes1 ! entire "u portion ( ! ocean mu/ ultimately become occupi$ by cold wat]2 = !re is no s\rce f :i* ?is influx ( wat] c d]ive heat1 save f ! e>?'s cru/4 ,b ! am\nt ?us d]iv$ is s trifl+ z to produce no s5sible effect4 ,= example1 a pol> "u curr5t "o half ! size ( ! ,gulf-/ream w\ld be suffici5t to keep ! entire wat] ( ! globe 7bel[ ! /ratum heat$ by ! sun's rays7 at an ice-cold temp]ature4 ,int]nal heat w\ld n be suffici5t "u su* circum/ances to ma9ta9 ! mass #a ,fahr4 above ! temp]ature x possess$ :5 x left ! pol> regions4 ,x foll[s !re=e t ! pres5ce ( ! imm5se mass ( ice-cold wat] 9 ! great dep?s ( ! ocean is completely acc\nt$ = by "u curr5ts1 & !re is no necessity = suppos+ x to be all 9 a /ate ( motion t[>ds ! equator4 ,9 fact1 ?is v /ate ( ?+s1 :i* ! g5]al oceanic circulation hypo!sis 0 devis$ to expla91 results z a necess>y consequ5ce ( pol> "u curr5ts4 ,unless ^! 7 entirely /opp$ x is physically impossible t ! ocean c\ld be 9 any o!r condition4 ,b suppose t ?is imm5se mass ( cold wat] occupy+ ! great dep?s ( ! ocean 71 z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] assumes x to be1 9 a /ate ( con/ant motion t[>ds ! equator1 & t its sectional area 7 #ijj times t ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 x w\ld n !re=e foll[ t ! quantity ( wat] pass+ ?r\gh ?is l>ge sectional area mu/ be great] ?an t fl[+ ?r\gh a sectional area ( ! ,gulf-/ream2 = ! quantity ( wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ?is l>ge sectional area dep5ds entirely on ! rate ( motion4 ,i am :olly unable to und]/& h[ x c\ld be suppos$ t ?is und]fl[1 accord+ to my view1 is set 9 motion by ! ,gulf-/ream1 see+ t ,i h %[n t ! return "u curr5t is z mu* due to ! impulse ( ! w9d z ! ,gulf-/ream itself4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] lays consid]able /ress on ! important fact e/abli%$ by ! ,*all5g] exp$ition1 t ! great dep?s ( ! sea 9 equatorial regions are occupi$ by ice-cold wat]1 :ile ! portion heat$ by ! sun's rays is simply a ?9 /ratum at ! surface4 ,x seems to me t x w\ld be difficult to f9d a fact m ho/ile to 8 !ory ?an ?is4 ,7 x n = ?is upp] /ratum ( heat$ wat] !re w\ld be no diff]5ce betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> columns1 & consequ5tly no?+ to produce motion4 ,b ! ?9n] ?is /ratum is ! less is ! diff]5ce1 & ! less !re is to produce motion4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,! ,,me*anics ,,( ,,dr4 ,,c>p5t]',s ,,!ory4 ,exp]im5tal ,illu/ration ( ! ,!ory4--,! ,=ce ex]t$ by ,gravity4--,"w p]=m$ by ,gravity4--,circulation n by ,convection4--,circulation dep5ds on ,diff]5ce 9 ,d5sity ( ! ,equatorial & ,pol> ,columns4--,absolute ,am\nt ( ,"w :i* c be p]=m$ by ,gravity4--,h[ ,und]fl[ is produc$4--,h[ ,v]tical ,desc5t at ! ,poles & ,asc5t at ! ,equator is produc$4--,! ,gibralt> ,curr5t4--,mi/ake 9 ,me*anics conc]n+ x4--,! ,baltic ,curr5t4 ,exp]im5t to illu/rate ,!ory4--,9 support ( ! !ory ( a g5]al movem5t ( wat] betwe5 equatorial & pol> regions1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] adduces ! au?ority ( ,humboldt & ( ,pr(4 ,buff4#fi ,i h be5 unable to f9d any?+ 9 ! writ+s ( ei!r f :i* x c be inf]r$ t !y h giv5 ?is matt] special consid]ation4 ,humboldt m]ely alludes to ! !ory1 & t 9 ! mo/ casual mann]2 & t ,pr(4 ,buff has n c>efully inve/igat$ ! subject is app>5t f ! v illu/ration quot$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] f ! 8,physics ( ! ,e>?40 8,! wat] ( ! ocean at great dep?s10 says ,pr(4 ,buff1 8has a temp]ature1 ev5 "u ! equator1 ne>ly approa*+ to ! freez+-po9t4 ,?is l[ temp]ature _c dep5d on any influ5ce ( ! sea-bottom4444 ,! fact1 h[ev]1 is expla9$ by a cont9ual curr5t ( cold wat] fl[+ f ! pol> regions t[>ds ! equator4 ,! foll[+ well-kn[n exp]im5t cle>ly illu/rates ! mann] ( ?is movem5t4 ,a glass vessel is to be fill$ ) wat] ) :i* "s p[d] has be5 mix$1 & is !n to be heat$ at bottom4 ,x w soon be se51 f ! motion ( ! p>ticles ( p[d]1 t curr5ts are set up 9 opposite directions ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,w>m wat] rises f ! bottom up ?r\gh ! middle ( ! vessel1 & spreads ov] ! surface1 :ile ! cold] & !re=e heavi] liquid falls d[n at ! sides ( ! glass40 ,?is illu/ration is evid5tly int5d$ to %[ n m]ely ! =m & direction ( ! great sy/em ( oceanic circulation1 b also ! mode 9 :i* ! circulation is induc$ by heat4 ,x is no d\bt true t if we apply heat 7say t ( a _s-lamp7 to ! bottom ( a vessel fill$ ) wat]1 ! wat] at ! bottom ( ! vessel w become heat$ & rise to ! surface2 & if ! heat be cont9u$ an asc5d+ curr5t ( w>m wat] w be g5]at$2 & ?is1 ( c\rse1 w give rise to a comp5sat+ "u curr5t ( cold] wat] f all sides4 ,9 l mann] x is also true t1 if heat 7 appli$ to ! bottom ( ! ocean 9 equatorial regions1 an asc5d+ curr5t ( hot wat] w\ld be also g5]at$1 giv+ rise to an "u curr5t ( cold wat] f ! pol> regions4 ,b all ?is is ! diametrically opposite ( :at actually takes place 9 nature4 ,! heat is n appli$ to ! bottom ( ! ocean1 s z to make ! wat] !re light] ?an ! wat] at ! surface1 & ?us to g5]ate an asc5d+ curr5t2 b ! heat is appli$ to ! surface ( ! ocean1 & ! effect ( ?is is to prev5t an asc5d+ curr5t r ?an to produce "o1 = x t5ds to keep ! wat] at ! surface light] ?an ! wat] at ! bottom4 ,9 ord] to %[ h[ ! heat ( ! sun produces curr5ts 9 ! ocean1 ,pr(4 ,buff %\ld h appli$ ! heat1 n to ! bottom ( 8 vessel1 b to ! upp] surface ( ! wat]4 ,b ?is is n all1 ! =m ( ! vessel has some?+ to d ) ! matt]4 ,! wid] we make ! vessel 9 proportion to its dep?1 ! m difficult x is to produce curr5ts by means ( heat4 ,b 9 ord] to repres5t :at takes place 9 nature1 we ought to h ! same proportion betwe5 ! dep? & ! sup]ficial area ( ! wat] 9 our vessel z !re is betwe5 ! dep? & ! sup]ficial area ( ! sea4 ,! mean dep? ( ! sea may be tak5 r\ghly to be ab\t ?ree miles4#gj ,! di/ance betwe5 pole & pole we %all take 9 r\nd numb]s to be #ab1jjj miles4 ,! sun may !re=e be reg>d$ z %9+ ^u a circul> sea #ab1jjj miles 9 diamet] & ?ree miles deep4 ,! dep? ( ! sea to its diamet] is !re=e z #a to #d1jjj4 ,suppose1 n[1 t 9 our exp]im5t we make ! dep? ( our vessel "o in*1 we %all require to make its diamet] #d1jjj in*es1 or #ccc feet1 say1 9 r\nd numb]s1 #ajj y>ds 9 diamet]4 ,let u1 !n1 take a pool ( wat] #ajj y>ds 9 diamet]1 & "o in* deep4 ,suppose ! wat] to be at #cb4 ,apply heat to ! upp] surface ( ! pool1 s z to raise ! temp]ature ( ! surface ( ! wat] to #hj at ! c5tre ( ! pool1 ! temp]ature dim9i%+ t[>ds ! edge1 :]e x is at #cb4 ,x is f\nd t at a dep? ( two miles ! temp]ature ( ! wat] at ! equator is ab\t z l[ z t ( ! poles4 ,we mu/ !re=e suppose ! wat] at ! c5tre ( our pool to dim9i% 9 temp]ature f ! surface d[nw>ds1 s t at a dep? ( half an in* ! wat] is at #cb4 ,we h 9 ?is case a ?9 lay] ( w>m wat] half an in* ?ick at ! c5tre1 & gradually ?9n+ (f to no?+ at ! edge ( ! pool4 ,! lighte/ wat]1 be x obs]v$1 is at ! surface1 s t an asc5d+ or a desc5d+ curr5t is impossible4 ,! only way :]eby ! heat appli$ c h any t5d5cy to produce motion is ?is3--,! heat+ ( ! wat] exp&s x1 consequ5tly ! surface ( ! pool mu/ /& at a little high] level at its c5tre ?an at its edge1 :]e no expansion takes place2 & !re=e1 9 ord] to re/ore ! level ( ! pool1 ! wat] at ! c5tre w t5d to fl[ t[>ds ! sides4 ,b :at is ! am\nt ( ?is t5d5cy8 ,its am\nt w dep5d ^u ! am\nt ( slope1 b ! slope 9 ! case "u consid]ation am\nts to only #a 9 #g1cdj1jjj4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s ,exp]im5t4--,9 ord] to obviate ! objection to ,pr(essor ,buff's exp]im5t ,dr4 ,c>p5t] has devis$ ano!r mode4 ,b ,i presume 8 exp]im5t 0 int5d$ r to illu/rate ! way 9 :i* ! circulation ( ! ocean1 accord+ to 8 !ory1 takes place1 ?an to prove t x actually does take place4 ,at any rate1 all t c be claim$ = ! exp]im5t is ! pro( t wat] w circulate 9 consequ5ce ( diff]5ce ( specific gravity result+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature4 ,b ?is does n require pro(1 = no physici/ d5ies x4 ,! po9t :i* requires to be prov$ is ?is4 ,is ! diff]5ce ( specific gravity :i* exi/s 9 ! ocean suffici5t to produce ! suppos$ circulation8 ,n[ 8 mode ( exp]im5t+ w n prove ?is1 unless he makes 8 exp]im5t agree ) ! conditions already /at$4 ,b ,i decid$ly object to ! wat] be+ heat$ 9 ! way 9 :i* x has be5 done by him 9 8 exp]im5t be=e ! ,royal ,geographical ,society2 = ,i feel some:at confid5t t 9 ?is exp]im5t ! circulation result$ n f diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 z 0 suppos$1 b r f ! way 9 :i* ! heat 0 appli$4 ,9 t exp]im5t ! "o half ( a ?ick metallic plate 0 plac$ 9 contact ) ! upp] surface ( ! wat] at "o end ( ! tr\gh2 ! o!r half1 project+ ov] ! end ( ! tr\gh1 0 heat$ by means ( a _s-lamp4 ,x is p]fectly obvi\s t ?\gh ! temp]ature ( ! great mass ( ! wat] "u ! plate might n be rais$ ov] #hj or s1 yet ! molecules 9 contact ) ! metal w\ld h a v high temp]ature4 ,^! molecules1 9 consequ5ce ( _! expansion1 w\ld be unable to s9k into ! cool] & d5s] wat] und]nea?1 & ?us escape ! heat :i* 0 be+ con/antly communicat$ to !m f ! heat$ plate4 ,b escape !y mu/1 or _! temp]ature w\ld cont9ue to rise until !y w\ld ultimately bur/ into vap\r4 ,!y _c asc5d1 nei!r c !y desc5d3 !y !re=e mu/ be expell$ by ! heat f ! plate 9 a horizontal direction4 ,! next lay] ( molecules f b5ea? w\ld take _! place & w\ld be expell$ 9 a simil> mann]1 & ?is process w\ld cont9ue s long z ! heat 0 appli$ to ! plate4 ,a circulation w\ld ?us be e/abli%$ by ! direct expansive =ce ( vap\r1 & n 9 any way due to diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] supposes4 ,b suppos+ ! heat$ b> to be replac$ by a piece ( ice1 circulation w\ld no d\bt take place2 b ?is proves no?+ m ?an t diff]5ce ( d5sity w produce circulation1 :i* is :at no "o calls 9 "q4 ,! case ref]r$ to by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ( ! heat+ app>atus 9 ,london ,univ]sity is also unsatisfactory4 ,! wat] leaves ! boil] at #abj & returns to x at #hj4 ,! diff]5ce ( specific gravity betwe5 ! wat] leav+ ! boil] & ! wat] return+ to x is suppos$ to produce ! circulation4 ,x seems to me t ?is diff]5ce ( specific gravity has no?+ :atev] to d ) ! matt]4 ,! cause ( ! circulation mu/ be s\ght = 9 ! boil] itself1 & n 9 ! pipes4 ,! heat is appli$ to ! bottom ( ! boil]1 n to ! top4 ,:at is ! temp]ature ( ! molecules 9 contact ) ! bottom ( ! boil] directly ov] ! fire1 is a "q :i* mu/ be consid]$ be=e we c arrive at a j det]m9ation ( ! causes :i* produce circulation 9 ! pipes ( a heat+ app>atus su* z t to :i* ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ref]s4 ,b1 9 addition to ?is1 z ! heat is appli$ to ! bottom ( ! boil] & n to ! top1 convection comes into play1 a cause :i*1 z we %all f9d1 does n come into play 9 ! !ory ( oceanic circulation at pres5t "u our consid]ation4 ,! ,=ce ex]t$ by ,gravity4--,dr4 ,c>p5t] speaks ( 8 doctr9e ( a g5]al oceanic circulation su/a9$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature alone1 8z "o ( :i* physical geograph]s c\ld n recognise ! importance1 s long z !y rema9$ "u ! dom9ant idea t ! temp]ature ( ! deep sea is ev]y:]e #ci40 ,& he affirms t 8until x is cle>ly appreh5d$ t sea-wat] becomes m & m d5se z its temp]ature is r$uc$1 ! imm5se motive p[] ( pol> cold _c be und]/ood40 ,b 9 *ap4 vii4 & also 9 ! ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,octob]1 #ahgj & #ahga1 ,i prov$ t if we take #ci z ! temp]ature ( maximum d5sity ! =ce ex]t$ by gravity t5d+ to produce circulation is j z great z :5 we take #cb4 ,! reason = ?is is t :5 we take #cb z ! temp]ature ( maximum d5sity1 al?\gh we h1 x is true1 a great] elevation ( ! ocean above ! place ( maximum d5sity1 yet ?is latt] occurs at ! poles2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 :5 we take #ci1 ! diff]5ce ( level is less--! place n be+ at ! poles b 9 ab\t lat4 #ef4 ,n[ ! %ort] slope f ! equator to lat4 #ef is z /eep z ! l>g] "o f ! equator to ! poles1 & consequ5tly gravity ex]ts z mu* =ce 9 ! production ( motion 9 ! "o case z 9 ! o!r4 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 tak+ #ci z ! temp]ature ( maximum d5sity1 e/imat$ ! slope at #a_/cbnd ( an in* p] mile1 :]eas we1 tak+ #cb z ! actual temp]ature ( maximum d5sity ( ! pol> seas & calculat+ f mod]n data1 f9d t ! slope is n "o-half t am\nt1 & t ! =ce ( gravity t5d+ to produce circulation is mu* less ?an ,h]s*el conclud$ x to be4 ,! reason1 !re=e1 :y physical geograph]s did n adopt ! !ory t oceanic circulation is ! result ( diff]5ce ( temp]ature c\ld n possibly be ! "o assign$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 viz41 t !y _h "u-e/imat$ ! =ce ( gravity by tak+ #ci in/ead ( #cb z ! temp]ature ( maximum d5sity4 ,! ,"w p]=m$ by ,gravity4--,b 9 ord] cle>ly to und]/& ?is po9t1 x w be bett] to treat ! matt] accord+ to ! ?ird me?od1 & consid] n ! m]e =ce ( gravity impell+ ! wat]s1 b ! am\nt ( "w :i* gravitation is capable ( p]=m+4 ,let u !n assume ! correctness ( my e/imate1 t ! height ( ! surface ( ! ocean at ! equator above t at ! poles is #d feet #f in*es1 = 9 repres5t+ ! mode 9 :i* diff]5ce ( specific gravity produces circulation x is ( no importance :at we may fix ^u z ! am\nt ( ! slope4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to avoid fractions ( a foot1 ,i %all take ! slope at #d feet in/ead ( #d feet1 :i* x actually is4 ,a p\nd ( wat] 9 fl[+ d[n ?is slope f ! equator to ei!r ( ! poles w p]=m #d foot-p\nds ( "w2 or1 m prop]ly speak+1 gravitation w4 ,n[ x is evid5t t :5 ?is p\nd ( wat] has rea*$ ! pole1 x is at ! bottom ( ! slope1 & consequ5tly _c desc5d fur!r4 ,gravity1 !re=e1 _c p]=m any m "w ^u x2 z x c only d s :ile ! ?+ act$ ^u cont9ues to desc5d--t is1 moves "u ! =ce ex]t$4 ,b ! wat] w n move "u ! influ5ce ( gravity unless x move d[nw>d2 x be+ 9 ?is direction only t gravity acts on ! wat]4 8,b10 says ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 8! effect ( surface-cold ^u ! wat] ( ! pol> bas9 w be to r$uce ! temp]ature ( its :ole mass bel[ ! freez+-po9t ( fre% wat]1 ! surface-/ratum s9k+ z x is cool$ 9 virtue ( its dim9i%$ bulk & increas$ d5sity1 & be+ replac$ by wat] n yet cool$ to ! same degree40#ga ,by ! cool+ ( ! :ole mass ( pol> wat] by cold & ! heat+ ( ! wat] at ! equator by ! sun's rays ! pol> column ( wat]1 z we h se51 is r5d]$ d5s] ?an ! equatorial "o1 & 9 ord] t ! two may balance ea* o!r1 ! pol> column is necess>ily %ort] ?an ! equatorial by #d feet2 & ?us x is t ! slope ( #d feet is =m$4 ,x is p]fectly true t ! wat] :i* leaves ! equator w>m & light1 becomes by ! "t x rea*es ! pole cold & d5se4 ,b unless x be d5s] ?an ! und]ly+ pol> wat] x w n s9k d[n ?r\gh x4#gb ,we are n told1 h[ev]1 :y x %\ld be cold] ?an ! :ole mass und]nea?1 :i*1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 is cool$ by pol> cold4 ,b t he does suppose x to s9k to ! bottom 9 consequ5ce ( its contraction by cold w\ld appe> f ! foll[+ quotation3-- 8,until x is cle>ly appreh5d$ t sea-wat] becomes m & m d5se z its temp]ature is r$uc$1 & t x consequ5tly cont9ues to s9k until x freezes1 ! imm5se motor p[] ( pol> cold _c be appreh5d$4 ,b :5 ?is has be5 cle>ly recognis$1 x is se5 t ! application ( cold at ! surface is precisely equival5t z a mov+ p[] to t application ( heat at ! bottom by :i* ! circulation ( wat] is su/a9$ 9 e heat+ app>atus t makes use ( x0 7 #be74 ,! application ( cold at ! surface is ?us held to be equival5t z a motor p[] to ! application ( heat at ! bottom4 ,b heat appli$ to ! bottom ( a vessel produces circulation by convection4 ,x makes ! molecules at ! bottom exp&1 & !y1 9 consequ5ce ( buoyancy1 rise ?r\gh ! wat] 9 ! vessel4 ,consequ5tly if ! action ( cold at ! surface 9 pol> regions is equival5t to t ( heat1 ! cold mu/ contract ! molecules at ! surface & make !m s9k ?r\gh ! mass ( pol> wat] b5ea?4 ,b assum+ ?is to be ! mean+ 9 ! passage j quot$1 h[ mu* cold] is ! surface wat] ?an ! wat] b5ea?8 ,let u suppose ! diff]5ce to be "o degree4 ,h[ mu* "w1 !n1 w gravity p]=m ^u ?is "o p\nd ( wat] :i* is "o degree cold] ?an ! mass b5ea? suppos$ to be at #cb8 ,! =ce ) :i* ! p\nd ( wat] w s9k w n be proportional to its weight1 b to ! diff]5ce ( weight betwe5 x & a simil> bulk ( ! wat] ?r\gh :i* x s9ks4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! weight ( a p\nd ( wat] at #ca & an equal volume ( wat] at #cb is #a_/bi1jjj? ( a p\nd4 ,n[ ?is p\nd ( wat] 9 s9k+ to a dep? ( #aj1jjj feet1 :i* is ab\t ! dep? at :i* a pol> temp]ature is f\nd at ! equator1 w\ld p]=m only "o-?ird ( a foot-p\nd ( "w4 ,& suppos+ x 7 ?ree degrees cold] ?an ! wat] b5ea?1 x w\ld 9 s9k+ p]=m only "o foot-p\nd4 ,?is w\ld give u only #d #a #e foot-p\nds z ! total am\nt t c\ld be p]=m$ by gravitation on ! p\nd ( wat] f ! "t t x left ! equator till x return$ to ! po9t f :i* x />t$4 ,! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ 9 desc5d+ ! slope f ! equator to ! pole & 9 s9k+ to a dep? ( #aj1jjj feet or s ?r\gh ! pol> wat] assum$ to be w>m] ?an ! surface wat]1 compreh5ds ! total am\nt ( "w t gravitation c possibly p]=m2 s t ! am\nt ( =ce ga9$ by su* a supposition ov] & above t d]iv$ f ! slope is trifl+4 ,x w\ld appe>1 h[ev]1 t ?is is n :at is meant aft] all4 ,:at ,dr4 ,c>p5t] app>5tly means is ?is3 :5 a quantity ( wat]1 say a lay] "o foot ?ick1 fl[s d[n f ! equator to ! pole1 ! pol> column becomes !n heavi] ?an ! equatorial by ! weight ( ?is additional lay]4 ,a lay] ( wat] equal 9 quantity is !re=e press$ away f ! bottom ( ! column & fl[s (f 9 ! direction ( ! equator z an "u curr5t1 ! pol> column at ! same "t s9k+ d[n "o foot until equilibrium ( ! pol> & equatorial columns is re/or$4 ,ano!r foot ( wat] n[ fl[s d[n ^u ! pol> column & ano!r foot ( wat] is displac$ f bel[1 caus+1 ( c\rse1 ! column to desc5d an additional foot4 ,! same process be+ cont9ually repeat$1 a con/ant d[nw>d motion ( ! pol> column is ! result4 ,or1 p]haps1 to express ! matt] m accurately1 ow+ to ! con/ant fl[ ( wat] f ! equatorial regions d[n ! slope1 ! weight ( ! pol> column is kept always 9 excess ( t ( ! equatorial2 !re=e ! pol> column 9 ! ef=t to re/ore equilibrium is kept 9 a con/ant /ate ( desc5t4 ,h5ce he t]ms x a 8v]tical0 circulation4 ,! foll[+ w %[ ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory 9 8 own words3-- 8,! action ( cold on ! surface wat] ( ea* pol> area w be ex]t$ z foll[s3-- 87a7 ,9 dim9i%+ ! height ( ! pol> column z comp>$ ) t ( ! equatorial1 s t a l[]+ ( its level is produc$1 :i* c only be made good by a surface-fl[ f ! latt] t[>ds ! =m]4 87b7 ,9 produc+ an excess 9 ! d[nw>d pressure ( ! column :5 ?is infl[ has re/or$ its level1 9 virtue ( ! increase ( specific gravity x has ga9$ by its r$uction 9 volume2 :]eby a portion ( its heavy bottom-wat] is displac$ lat]ally1 caus+ a fur!r r$uction ( level1 :i* draws 9 a fur!r supply ( ! w>m] & light] wat] fl[+ t[>ds its surface4 87c7 ,9 imp>t+ a d[nw>d movem5t to ea* new surface-/ratum z its temp]ature und]goes r$uction2 s t ! entire column may be said to be 9 a /ate ( con/ant desc5t1 l t :i* exi/s 9 ! wat] ( a tall j> :5 an op5+ is made at its bottom1 & ! wat] :i* fl[s away ?r\gh x is replac$ by an equival5t supply p\r$ into ! top ( ! j>0 7 #bc74 ,b if ?is be 8 !ory1 z x evid5tly is1 !n ! #d foot-p\nds 7! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by ! desc5t ( ! wat] d[n ! slope7 compreh5ds all ! "w t gravitation c p]=m on a p\nd ( wat] 9 mak+ a complete circuit f ! equator to ! pole & f ! pole back to ! equator4 ,?is1 ,i tru/1 w be evid5t f ! foll[+ consid]ations4 ,:5 a p\nd ( wat] has fl[$ d[n f ! equator to ! pole1 x has desc5d$ #d feet1 & is !n at ! foot ( ! slope4 ,gravity has !re=e no m p[] to pull x d[n to a l[] level4 ,x w n s9k ?r\gh ! pol> wat]1 = x is n d5s] ?an ! wat] b5ea? on :i* x re/s4 ,b x may be repli$ t al?\gh x w n s9k ?r\gh ! pol> wat]1 x has nev]!less made ! pol> column heavi] ?an ! equatorial1 & ?is excess ( pressure =ces a p\nd ( wat] out f b5ea? & all[s ! column to desc5d4 ,suppose x may be argu$ t a quantity ( wat] fl[s d[n f ! equator1 s z to raise ! level ( ! pol> wat] by1 say1 "o foot4 ,! pol> column w n[ be r5d]$ heavi] ?an ! equatorial by ! weight ( "o foot ( wat]4 ,! pressure ( ! "o foot w ?us =ce a quantity ( wat] lat]ally f ! bottom & cause ! entire column to desc5d till ! level ( equilibrium is re/or$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! pol> column w s9k "o foot4 ,n[ 9 ! s9k+ ( ?is column "w is p]=m$ by gravity4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( "w is p]=m$ by gravity 9 caus+ ! wat] to fl[ d[n ! slope f ! equator to ! pole1 &1 9 addition to ?is1 a c]ta9 am\nt is p]=m$ by gravity 9 ! v]tical desc5t ( ! column4 ,i freely admit ?is to be s\nd reason+1 & admit t s mu* is due to ! slope & s mu* to ! v]tical desc5t ( ! wat]4 ,b "h we come to ! mo/ important po9t1 viz41 is !re ! full slope ( #d feet & an additional v]tical movem5t8 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] seems to conclude t !re is1 & t ?is v]tical =ce is some?+ 9 addition to ! =ce :i* ,i d]ive f ! slope4 ,& "h1 ,i v5ture to ?9k1 is a radical error into :i* he has fall5 9 reg>d to ! :ole matt]4 ,let x be obs]v$ t1 :5 wat] circulates f diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 ?is v]tical movem5t is j z real a "p ( ! process z ! fl[ d[n ! slope2 b ! po9t :i* ,i ma9ta9 is t !re is no additional p[] d]iv$ f ?is v]tical movem5t ov] & above :at is d]iv$ f ! full slope--or1 9 o!r words1 t ?is primum mobile1 :i* he says ,i h ov]look$1 has 9 reality no exi/5ce4 ,p]haps ! foll[+ diagram w help to make ! po9t /ill cle>]3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,let ,p 7fig4 #a7 be ! surface ( ! ocean at ! pole1 & ,e ! surface at ! equator2 ,p ,o a column ( wat] at ! pole1 & ,e ,q a column at ! equator4 ,! two columns are ( equal weight1 & balance ea* o!r2 b z ! pol> wat] is cold]1 & consequ5tly d5s] ?an ! equatorial1 ! pol> column is %ort] ?an ! equatorial1 ! diff]5ce 9 ! l5g? ( ! two columns be+ #d feet4 ,! surface ( ! ocean at ! equator ,e is #d feet high] ?an ! surface ( ! ocean at ! pole ,p2 !re is !re=e a slope ( #d feet f ,e to ,p4 ,! molecules ( wat] at ,e t5d to fl[ d[n ?is slope t[>ds ,p4 ,! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by gravity 9 ! desc5t ( a p\nd ( wat] d[n ?is slope f ,e to ,p is !re=e #d foot-p\nds4 ,b ( c\rse !re c be no p]man5t circulation :ile ! full slope rema9s4 ,9 ord] to h circulation ! pol> column mu/ be heavi] ?an ! equatorial4 ,b any addition to ! weight ( ! pol> column is at ! exp5se ( ! slope4 ,9 proportion z ! weight ( ! pol> column increases ! less becomes ! slope4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 makes no diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by gravity4 ,suppose n[ t wat] has fl[$ d[n till an addition ( "o foot ( wat] is made to ! pol> column1 & ! diff]5ce ( level1 ( c\rse1 dim9i%$ by "o foot4 ,! surface ( ! ocean 9 ?is case w n[ be repres5t$ by ! dott$ l9e ,p ,e1 & ! slope r$uc$ f #d feet to #c feet4 ,let u !n suppose a p\nd ( wat] to leave ,e & fl[ d[n to ,p2 #c foot-p\nds w be ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$4 ,! pol> column be+ n[ too heavy by ! ext5t ( ! mass ( wat] ,p ,p "o foot ?ick1 its extra pressure causes a mass ( wat] equal to ,p ,p to fl[ (f lat]ally f ! bottom ( ! column4 ,! column !re=e s9ks d[n "o foot till ,p rea*es ,p4 ,n[ ! p\nd ( wat] 9 ?is v]tical desc5t f ,p to ,p has "o foot-p\nd ( "w p]=m$ on x by gravity2 ?is add$ to ! #c foot-p\nds d]iv$ f ! slope1 gives a total ( #d foot-p\nds 9 pass+ f ,e to ,p & !n f ,p to ,p4 ,?is is ! same am\nt ( "w t w\ld h be5 p]=m$ _h x desc5d$ directly f ,e to ,p4 ,9 l mann] x c be prov$ t #d foot-p\nds is ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ 9 ! desc5t ( e p\nd ( wat] ( ! mass ,p ,p4 ,! fir/ p\nd :i* left ,e fl[$ d[n ! slope directly to ,p1 & p]=m$ #d foot-p\nds ( "w4 ,! la/ p\nd fl[$ d[n ! slope ,e ,p1 & p]=m$ only #c foot-p\nds2 b 9 desc5d+ f ,p to ,p x p]=m$ ! o!r "o foot-p\nd4 ,a p\nd leav+ at a p]iod exactly int]m$iate betwe5 ! two fl[$ d[n #c feet ( slope & desc5d$ v]tically half a foot4 ,:atev] pa? a p\nd ( wat] might take1 by ! "t t x rea*$ ,p1 #d foot-p\nds ( "w w\ld be p]=m$4 ,b no fur!r "w c be p]=m$ aft] x rea*es ,p4 ,b "s w ask1 9 reg>d to ! v]tical movem5t1 is x only 9 ! desc5t ( ! wat] f ,p to ,p t "w is p]=m$8 ,wat] _c desc5d f ,p to ,p1 x w be urg$1 unless ! entire column ,p ,o und]nea? desc5d also4 ,b ! column ,p ,o desc5ds by means ( gravity4 ,:y1 !n1 x w be ask$1 is n ! desc5t ( ! column a motive p[] z real z ! desc5t ( ! mass ( wat] ,p ,p8 ,t nei!r =ce nor en]gy c be d]iv$ f ! m]e desc5t ( ! pol> column ,p ,o is demon/rable ?us3--,! reason :y ! column ,p ,o desc5ds is because1 9 consequ5ce ( ! mass ( wat] ,p ,p re/+ on x1 its weight is 9 excess ( ! equatorial column ,e ,q4 ,b ! =ce ) :i* ! column desc5ds is equal1 n to ! weight ( ! column1 b to ! weight ( ! mass ,p ,p2 consequ5tly z mu* "w w\ld be p]=m$ by gravity 9 ! desc5t ( ! mass ,p ,p 7! "o foot ( wat]7 alone z 9 ! desc5t ( ! entire column ,p ,o1 #aj1jjj feet 9 height4 ,suppose a ton weight is plac$ 9 ea* scale ( a balance3 ! two scales balance ea* o!r4 ,place a p\nd weight 9 "o ( ! scales along ) ! ton weight & ! scale w desc5d4 ,b x desc5ds1 n ) ! pressure ( a ton & a p\nd1 b ) ! pressure ( ! p\nd weight only4 ,9 ! desc5t ( ! scale1 say1 "o foot1 gravity c p]=m only "o foot-p\nd ( "w4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! desc5t ( ! pol> column1 ! only "w available is ! "w ( ! mass ,p ,p laid on ! top ( ! column4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t 9 ! desc5t ( ! column f ,p to ,p1 a di/ance ( "o foot1 ea* p\nd ( wat] ( ! mass ,p ,p does n p]=m "o foot-p\nd ( "w2 = ! mom5t t a molecule ( wat] rea*es ,p1 x !n ceases to p]=m fur!r "w4 ,! molecules at ! surface ,p desc5d "o foot be=e rea*+ ,p2 ! molecules midway betwe5 ,p & ,p desc5d only half a foot be=e rea*+ ,p1 & ! molecules at ! bottom ( ! mass are already at ,p1 & !re=e _c p]=m any "w4 ,! mean di/ance ?r\gh :i* ! entire mass p]=ms "w is !re=e half a foot4 ,"o foot-p\nd p] p\nd ( wat] repres5ts 9 ?is case ! am\nt ( "w d]iv$ f ! v]tical movem5t4 ,t su* is ! case is fur!r evid5t f ! foll[+ consid]ations4 ,be=e ! pol> column beg9s to desc5d1 x is heavi] ?an ! equatorial by ! weight ( "o foot ( wat]2 b :5 ! column has desc5d$ half a foot1 ! pol> column is heavi] ?an ! equatorial by ! weight ( only half a foot ( wat]2 &1 z ! column cont9ues to desc5d1 ! =ce ) :i* x desc5ds cont9ues to dim9i%1 & :5 x has sunk to ,p ! =ce is z]o4 ,consequ5tly ! mean pressure or weight ) :i* ! "o foot ( wat] ,p ,p desc5d$ 0 equal to t ( a lay] ( half a foot ( wat]2 9 o!r words1 ea* p\nd ( wat]1 tak+ ! mass z a :ole1 desc5d$ ) ! pressure or weight ( half a p\nd4 ,b a half p\nd desc5d+ "o foot p]=ms half a foot-p\nd2 s t :e!r we consid] ! full pressure act+ ?r\gh ! mean di/ance1 or ! mean pressure act+ ?r\gh ! full di/ance1 we get ! same result1 viz4 a half foot-p\nd z ! "w ( v]tical desc5t4 ,n[ x w be f\nd1 z we %all pres5tly see1 t if we calculate ! mean am\nt ( "w p]=m$ 9 desc5d+ ! slope f ! equator to ! pole1 #c foot-p\nds p] p\nd ( wat] is ! am\nt4 ,! wat] at ! bottom ( ! mass ,p ,p mov$1 ( c\rse1 d[n ! full slope ,e ,p #d feet4 ,! wat] at ! top ( ! mass :i* desc5d$ f ,e to ,p desc5d$ a slope ( only #c feet4 ,! mean desc5t ( ! :ole mass is !re=e #c feet4 ,& ?is gives #c foot-p\nds z ! mean am\nt ( "w p] p\nd ( wat] 9 desc5d+ ! slope2 ?is1 add$ to ! half foot-p\nd d]iv$ f v]tical desc5t1 gives #d foot-p\nds z ! total am\nt ( "w p] p\nd ( ! mass4 ,i h 9 ! above reason+ suppos$ "o foot ( wat] accumulat$ on ! pol> column be=e any v]tical desc5t takes place4 ,x is ne$less to rem>k t ! same conclusion w\ld h be5 arriv$ at1 viz41 t ! total am\nt ( "w p]=m$ is #d foot-p\nds p] p\nd ( wat]1 suppos+ we _h consid]$ #b feet1 or #c feet1 or ev5 #d feet ( wat] to h accumulat$ on ! pol> column be=e v]tical motion took place4 ,i h also1 9 agreem5t ) ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s mode ( repres5t+ ! op]ation1 be5 consid]+ ! two effects1 viz41 ! fl[+ ( ! wat] d[n ! slope & ! v]tical desc5t ( ! pol> column z tak+ place alt]nately4 ,9 nature1 h[ev]1 ! two effects take place simultane\sly2 b x is ne$less to add t ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ w\ld be ! same :e!r ! effects took place alt]nately or simultane\sly4 ,i h also repres5t$ ! level ( ! ocean at ! equator z rema9+ p]man5t :ile ! alt]ations ( level 7 tak+ place at ! pole4 ,b 9 repres5t+ ! op]ation z x w\ld actually take place 9 nature1 we %\ld consid] ! equatorial column to be l[]$ z ! pol> "o is be+ rais$4 ,we %\ld1 = example1 consid] ! "o foot ( wat] ,p ,p put ^u ! pol> column z s mu* tak5 (f ! equatorial column4 ,b 9 view+ ! problem ?us we arrive at exactly ! same results z be=e4 ,let ,p 7,fig4 #b71 z 9 ,fig4 #a1 be ! surface ( ! ocean at ! pole1 & ,e ! surface at ! equator1 !re be+ a slope ( #d feet f ,e to ,p4 ,suppose n[ a quantity ( wat]1 ,e ,e1 say1 "o foot ?ick1 to fl[ f (f ! equatorial regions d[n ^u ! pol>4 ,x w ?us l[] ! level ( ! equatorial column by "o foot1 & raise ! level ( ! pol> column by ! same am\nt4 ,i may1 h[ev]1 obs]ve t ! "o foot ( wat] 9 pass+ f ,e to ,p w\ld h its temp]ature r$uc$ f #hj to #cb1 & ?is w\ld produce a slight contraction4 ,b z ! weight ( ! mass w\ld n be affect$1 9 ord] to simplify our reason+ we may leave ?is contraction out ( consid]ation4 ,any "o c easily satisfy himself t ! assumption t ,e ,e is equal to ,p ,p does n 9 any way affect ! "q at issue--! only effect ( ! contraction be+ to increase by an inf9itesimal am\nt ! "w done 9 desc5d+ ! slope1 & to dim9i% by an equally inf9itesimal am\nt ! "w done 9 ! v]tical desc5t4 ,if1 = example1 #c foot-p\nds repres5t ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ 9 desc5d+ ! slope1 & "o foot-p\nd ! am\nt p]=m$ 9 ! v]tical desc5t1 on ! supposition t ,e ,e does n contract 9 pass+ to ! pole1 !n #cjjbd foot-p\nds w repres5t ! "w ( ! slope1 & #jiigf foot-p\nds ! "w ( v]tical desc5t :5 all[ance is made = ! contraction4 ,b ! total am\nt ( "w p]=m$ is ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,consequ5tly1 to simplify our reason+1 we may be all[$ to assume ,p ,p to be equal to ,e ,e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,! slope ,e ,p be+ #d feet1 ! slope ,e ,p is consequ5tly #b feet2 ! mean slope = ! entire mass is !re=e #c feet4 ,! mean am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by ! desc5t ( ! mass w ( c\rse be #c foot-p\nds p] p\nd ( wat]4 ,! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by ! v]tical desc5t ( ,p ,p ought !re=e to be "o foot-p\nd p] p\nd4 ,t ?is is ! am\nt w be evid5t ?us3--,! transf]5ce ( ! "o foot ( wat] f ! equatorial column to ! pol> di/urbs ! equilibrium by mak+ ! equatorial column too light by "o foot ( wat] & ! pol> column too heavy by ! same am\nt ( wat]4 ,! pol> column w !re=e t5d to s9k1 & ! equatorial to rise till equilibrium is re/or$4 ,! diff]5ce ( weight ( ! two columns be+ equal to #b feet ( wat]1 ! pol> column w beg9 to desc5d ) a pressure ( #b feet ( wat]2 & ! equatorial column w beg9 to rise ) an equal am\nt ( pressure4 ,:5 ! pol> column has desc5d$ half a foot ! equatorial column w h ris5 half a foot4 ,! pressure ( ! desc5d+ pol> column w n[ be r$uc$ to "o foot ( wat]4 ,& :5 ! pol> column has desc5d$ ano!r foot1 ,p w h rea*$ ,p1 & ,e w h rea*$ ,e2 ! two columns w !n be 9 equilibrium4 ,x !re=e foll[s t ! mean pressure ) :i* ! pol> column desc5d$ ! "o foot 0 equal to ! pressure ( "o foot ( wat]4 ,consequ5tly ! mean am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by ! desc5t ( ! mass 0 equal to "o foot-p\nd p] p\nd ( wat]2 ?is1 add$ to ! #c foot-p\nds d]iv$ f ! slope1 gives a total ( #d foot-p\nds4 ,9 :atev] way we view ! "q1 we are l$ to ! conclusion t if #d feet repres5t ! am\nt ( slope betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> columns :5 ! two are 9 equilibrium1 !n #d foot-p\nds is ! total am\nt ( "w t gravity c p]=m ^u a p\nd ( wat] 9 ov]com+ ! resi/ance to motion 9 its passage f ! equator to ! pole d[n ! slope1 & !n 9 its v]tical desc5t to ! bottom ( ! ocean4 ,b x w be repli$1 n only does ! "o foot ( wat] ,p ,p desc5d1 b ! entire column ,p ,o1 #aj1jjj feet 9 l5g?1 desc5ds also4 ,:at1 !n1 x w be ask$1 becomes ( ! =ce :i* gravity ex]ts 9 ! desc5t ( ?is column8 ,we %all %ortly see t ?is =ce is entirely appli$ 9 "w aga9/ gravity 9 o!r p>ts ( ! circuit2 s t n a s+le foot-p\nd ( ?is =ce goes to ov]come cohesion1 friction1 & o!r resi/ances2 x is all sp5t 9 c\nt]act+ ! ef=ts :i* gravity ex]ts to /op ! curr5t 9 ano!r "p ( ! circuit4 ,i %all n[ consid] ! next "p ( ! movem5t1 viz41 ! "u or return curr5t f ! bottom ( ! pol> to ! bottom ( ! equatorial column4 ,:at produces ?is curr5t8 ,x is ne$less to say t x _c be caus$ directly by gravity4 ,gravitation _c directly draw any body horizontally along ! e>?'s surface4 ,! wat] t =ms ?is curr5t is press$ out lat]ally by ! weight ( ! pol> column1 & fl[s1 or r is pu%$1 t[>ds ! equator to supply ! vacancy caus$ by ! asc5t ( ! equatorial column4 ,!re is a con/ant fl[ ( wat] f ! equator to ! poles along ! surface1 & ?is dra9+ ( ! wat] f ! equator is suppli$ by ! "u or return curr5t f ! poles4 ,b ! only p[] :i* c impel ! wat] f ! bottom ( ! pol> column to ! bottom ( ! equatorial column is ! pressure ( ! pol> column4 ,b :5ce does ! pol> column d]ive its pressure8 ,x c only press to ! ext5t t its weight exce$s t ( ! equatorial column4 ,t :i* ex]ts ! pressure is !re=e ! mass ( wat] :i* has fl[$ d[n ! slope f ! equator ^u ! pol> column4 ,x is 9 ?is case ! v]tical movem5t t causes ?is "u curr5t4 ,! en]gy :i* produces ?is curr5t mu/ consequ5tly be d]iv$ f ! #d foot-p\nds result+ f ! slope2 = ! en]gy ( ! v]tical movem5t1 z has already be5 prov$1 is d]iv$ f ?is s\rce2 or1 9 o!r words1 :atev] p[] ?is v]tical movem5t may ex]t is s mu* d$uct$ f ! #d foot-p\nds d]iv$ f ! full slope4 ,let u n[ consid] ! f\r? & la/ movem5t1 viz41 ! asc5t ( ! "u curr5t to ! surface ( ! ocean at ! equator4 ,:5 ?is cold "u curr5t rea*es ! equatorial regions1 x asc5ds to ! surface to ! po9t :5ce x orig9ally />t$ on its circuit4 ,:at1 !n1 lifts ! wat] f ! bottom ( ! equatorial column to its top8 ,?is _c be done directly1 ei!r by heat or by gravity4 ,:5 heat1 = example1 is appli$ to ! bottom ( a vessel1 ! heat$ wat] at ! bottom exp&s &1 becom+ light] ?an ! wat] above1 rises ?r\gh x to ! surface2 b if ! heat be appli$ to ! surface ( ! wat] in/ead ( to ! bottom1 ! heat w n produce an asc5d+ curr5t4 ,x w t5d r to prev5t su* a curr5t ?an to produce "o--! reason be+ t ea* successive lay] ( wat] w1 on acc\nt ( ! heat appli$1 become hott] & consequ5tly light] ?an ! lay] bel[ x1 & cold] & consequ5tly heavi] ?an ! lay] above x4 ,x !re=e _c asc5d1 because x is too heavy2 nor c x desc5d1 because x is too light4 ,b ! sea 9 equatorial regions is heat$ f above1 & n f bel[2 consequ5tly ! wat] at ! bottom does n rise to ! surface at ! equator 9 virtue ( any heat :i* x receives4 ,a lay] ( wat] c nev] raise ! temp]ature ( a lay] bel[ x to a high] temp]ature ?an itself2 & s9ce x _c d ?is1 x _c make ! lay] "u x light] ?an itself4 ,t :i* raises ! wat] at ! equator1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory1 mu/ be ! d[nw>d pressure ( ! pol> column4 ,:5 wat] fl[s d[n ! slope f ! equator to ! pole1 ! pol> column1 z we h se51 becomes too heavy & ! equatorial column too light2 ! =m] !n s9ks & ! latt] rises4 ,x is ! s9k+ ( ! pol> column :i* raises ! equatorial "o4 ,:5 ! pol> column desc5ds1 z mu* wat] is press$ 9 und]nea? ! equatorial column z is press$ f und]nea? ! pol> column4 ,if "o foot ( wat] is press$ f "u ! pol> column1 a foot ( wat] is press$ 9 "u ! equatorial column4 ,?us1 :5 ! pol> column s9ks a foot1 ! equatorial column rises to ! same ext5t4 ,! equatorial wat] cont9u+ to fl[ d[n ! slope1 ! pol> column desc5ds3 a foot ( wat] is aga9 press$ f und]nea? ! pol> column & a foot press$ 9 "u ! equatorial4 ,z foot aft] foot is ?us remov$ f ! bottom ( ! pol> column :ile x s9ks1 foot aft] foot is pu%$ 9 "u ! equatorial column :ile x rises2 s by ?is means ! wat] at ! surface ( ! ocean 9 pol> regions desc5ds to ! bottom1 & ! wat] at ! bottom 9 equatorial regions asc5ds to ! surface--! effect ( sol> heat & pol> cold cont9u+1 ( c\rse1 to ma9ta9 ! surface ( ! ocean 9 equatorial regions at a high] level ?an at ! poles1 & ?us keep+ up a con/ant /ate ( di/urb$ equilibrium4 ,or1 to /ate ! matt] 9 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s own words1 8,! cold & d5se pol> wat]1 z x fl[s 9 at ! bottom ( ! equatorial column1 w n directly take ! place ( t :i* has be5 draft$ (f f ! surface2 b ?is place w be fill$ by ! ris+ ( ! :ole sup]9cumb5t column1 :i*1 be+ w>m]1 is also light] ?an ! cold /ratum b5ea?4 ,e new arrival f ! poles w take its place bel[ t :i* prec$es x1 s9ce its temp]ature w h be5 less affect$ by contact ) ! w>m] wat] above x4 ,9 ?is way an asc5d+ movem5t w be imp>t$ to ! :ole equatorial column1 & 9 due c\rse e portion ( x w come "u ! influ5ce ( ! surface-heat ( ! sun40#gc ,b ! ag5cy :i* raises up ! wat] ( ! "u curr5t to ! surface is ! pressure ( ! pol> column4 ,! equatorial column _c rise directly by means ( gravity4 ,gravity1 in/ead ( rais+ ! column1 ex]ts all its p[]s to prev5t its ris+4 ,gravity "h is a =ce act+ aga9/ ! curr5t4 ,x is ! desc5t ( ! pol> column1 z has be5 /at$1 t raises ! equatorial column4 ,consequ5tly ! entire am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by gravity 9 pull+ d[n ! pol> column is sp5t 9 rais+ ! equatorial column4 ,gravity p]=ms exactly z mu* "w 9 prev5t+ motion 9 ! equatorial column z x p]=ms 9 produc+ motion 9 ! pol> column2 s t1 s f> z ! v]tical p>ts ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s circulation are conc]n$1 gravity may be said nei!r to produce motion nor to prev5t x4 ,& ?is rem>k1 be x obs]v$1 applies n only to ,p ,o & ,e ,q1 b also to ! p>ts ,p ,p & ,e ,e ( ! two columns4 ,:5 a mass ( wat] ,e ,e1 say "o foot deep1 is remov$ (f ! equatorial column & plac$ ^u ! pol> column1 ! latt] column is !n heavi] ?an ! =m] by ! weight ( two feet ( wat]4 ,gravity !n ex]ts m =ce 9 pull+ ! pol> column d[n ?an x does 9 prev5t+ ! equatorial column f ris+2 & ! consequ5ce is t ! pol> column beg9s to desc5d & ! equatorial column to rise4 ,b z ! pol> column cont9ues to desc5d & ! equatorial to rise1 ! p[] ( gravity to produce motion 9 ! pol> column dim9i%es1 & ! p[] ( gravity to prev5t motion 9 ! equatorial column increases2 & :5 ,p desc5ds to ,p & ,e rises to ,e1 ! p[] ( gravity to prev5t motion 9 ! equatorial column is exactly equal to ! p[] ( gravity to produce motion 9 ! pol> column1 & consequ5tly motion ceases4 ,x !re=e foll[s t ! entire am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by ! desc5t ( ,p ,p is sp5t 9 rais+ ,e ,e aga9/ gravity4 ,x foll[s also t inequalities 9 ! sea-bottom _c 9 any way aid ! circulation2 = al?\gh ! cold "u curr5t %\ld 9 its progress come to a deep tr\gh fill$ ) wat] less d5se ?an itself1 x w\ld no d\bt s9k to ! bottom ( ! holl[2 yet be=e x c\ld get out aga9 z mu* "w w\ld h to be p]=m$ aga9/ gravity z 0 p]=m$ by gravity 9 s9k+ x4 ,b :il/ inequalities 9 ! b$ ( ! ocean w\ld n aid ! curr5t1 !y w\ld nev]!less v consid]ably ret>d x by ! ob/ructions :i* !y w\ld (f] to ! motion ( ! wat]4 ,we h be5 assum+ t ! weight ( ,p ,p is equal to t ( ,e ,e2 b ! mass ,p ,p mu/ be great] ?an ,e ,e because ,p ,p has n only to raise ,e ,e1 b to impel ! "u curr5t--to pu% ! wat] along ! sea-bottom f ! pole to ! equator4 ,s we mu/ h a mass ( wat]1 9 addition to ,p ,p1 plac$ on ! pol> column to enable x to produce ! "u curr5t 9 addition to ! rais+ ( ! equatorial column4 ,x foll[s also t ! am\nt ( "w :i* c be p]=m$ by gravity dep5ds entirely on ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equatorial & ! pol> wat]s1 & is :olly indep5d5t ( ! way 9 :i* ! temp]ature may decrease f ! equator to ! poles4 ,suppose1 9 agreem5t ) ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s idea1#gd t ! equatorial heat & pol> cold %\ld be conf9$ to limit$ areas1 & t ?r\gh ! int]m$iate space no great diff]5ce ( temp]ature %\ld prevail4 ,su* an arrangem5t z ?is w\ld n increase ! am\nt ( "w :i* gravity c\ld p]=m2 x w\ld simply make ! slope /eep] at ! two extremes & flatt] 9 ! int]v5+ space4 ,x w\ld no d\bt aid ! surface-fl[ ( ! wat] ne> ! equator & ! poles1 b x w\ld ret>d 9 a correspond+ degree ! fl[ ( ! wat] 9 ! int]m$iate regions4 ,9 %ort1 x w\ld m]ely de/roy ! uni=mity ( ! slope )\t aid+ 9 ! lea/ degree ! g5]al motion ( ! wat]4 ,x is !re=e demon/rable t ! en]gy d]iv$ f ! full slope1 :atev] t slope may be1 compreh5ds all t c possibly be obta9$ f gravity4 ,x _c be urg$ z an objection to :at has be5 advanc$ t ,i h det]m9$ simply ! am\nt ( ! =ce act+ on ! wat] at ! surface ( ! ocean & n t on ! wat] at all dep?s--t ,i h e/imat$ ! am\nt ( "w :i* gravity c p]=m on a giv5 quantity ( wat] at ! surface1 b n ! total am\nt ( "w :i* gravity c p]=m on ! entire ocean4 ,?is objection w n /&1 because x is at ! surface ( ! ocean :]e ! greate/ diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 & consequ5tly ( d5sity1 exi/s betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> wat]s1 & !re=e !re t gravity ex]ts its greate/ =ce4 ,& if gravity be unable to move ! wat] at ! surface1 x is mu* less able to d s "u ! surface4 ,s f> z ! "q at issue is conc]n$1 any calculations z to ! am\nt ( =ce ex]t$ by gravity at v>i\s dep?s are ne$less4 ,x is ma9ta9$ also t ! w9ds _c produce a v]tical curr5t except "u "s v peculi> conditions4 ,we h already se5 t1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory1 ! v]tical motion is caus$ by ! wat] fl[+ (f ! equatorial column1 d[n ! slope1 ^u ! pol> column1 ?us de/roy+ ! equilibrium betwe5 ! two by dim9i%+ ! weight ( ! equatorial column & increas+ t ( ! pol> column4 ,9 ord] t equilibrium may be re/or$1 ! pol> column s9ks & ! equatorial "o rises4 ,n[ mu/ n ! same effect occur1 suppos+ ! wat] to be transf]r$ f ! "o column to ! o!r1 by ! influ5ce ( ! w9ds in/ead ( by ! influ5ce ( gravity8 ,! v]tical desc5t & asc5t ( ^! columns dep5d entirely ^u ! diff]5ce 9 _! weights1 & n ^u ! nature ( ! ag5cy :i* makes ?is diff]5ce4 ,s f> z diff]5ce ( weight is conc]n$1 #b feet ( wat]1 propell$ d[n ! slope f ! equatorial column to ! pol> by ! w9ds1 w produce j ! same effect z ?\gh x _h be5 propell$ by gravity4 ,if v]tical motion foll[s z a necess>y consequ5ce f a transf]5ce ( wat] f ! equator to ! poles by gravity1 x foll[s equally z a necess>y consequ5ce f ! same transf]5ce by ! w9ds2 s t "o is n at lib]ty to advocate a v]tical circulation 9 ! "o case & to d5y x 9 ! o!r4 ,gravitation ,!ory ( ! ,gibralt> ,curr5t4--,if diff]5ce ( specific gravity fails to acc\nt = ! curr5ts ( ! ocean 9 g5]al1 x c]ta9ly fails 9 a /ill m decid$ mann] to acc\nt = ! ,gibralt> curr5t4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! subm>9e ridge betwe5 ,capes ,trafalg> & ,sp>tel1 z 0 %[n 9 ! ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,octob]1 #ahga1 p4 #bfi1 affects curr5ts result+ f diff]5ce ( specific gravity 9 a mann] :i* does n seem to h sugge/$ itself to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,! pressure ( wat] & o!r fluids is n l t ( a solid--n l t ( ! weight 9 ! scale ( a balance1 simply a d[nw>d pressure4 ,fluids press d[nw>ds l ! solids1 b !y also press lat]ally4 ,! pressure ( wat] is hydro/atic4 ,if we fill a bas9 ) wat] or any o!r fluid1 ! fluid rema9s 9 p]fect equilibrium1 provid$ ! sides ( ! bas9 be suffici5tly /rong to resi/ ! pressure4 ,! ,m$it]ranean & ,atlantic1 up to ! level ( ! subm>9e ridge ref]r$ to1 may be reg>d$ z huge bas9s1 ! sides ( :i* are suffici5tly /rong to resi/ all pressure4 ,x foll[s t1 h[ev] mu* d5s] ! wat] ( ! ,m$it]ranean may be ?an t ( ! ,atlantic1 x is only ! wat] above ! level ( ! ridge t c possibly ex]cise any influ5ce 9 ! way ( di/urb+ equilibrium1 s z to cause ! level ( ! ,m$it]ranean to /& l[] ?an t ( ! ,atlantic4 ,! wat] ( ! ,atlantic bel[ ! level ( ?is ridge might be z light z air1 & t ( ! ,m$it]ranean z heavy z molt5 lead1 b ?is c\ld produce no di/urbance ( equilibrium2 & if !re be no diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ! ,m$it]ranean wat]s f ! surface d[n to ! level ( ! top ( ! ridge1 !n !re c be no?+ to produce ! circulation :i* ,dr4 ,c>p5t] inf]s4 ,suppose bo? bas9s empty1 & d5se wat] to be p\r$ into ! ,m$it]ranean1 & wat] less d5se into ! ,atlantic1 until !y are bo? fill$ up to ! level ( ! ridge1 x is evid5t t ! heavi] wat] 9 ! "o bas9 c ex]cise no influ5ce 9 rais+ ! level ( ! light] wat] 9 ! o!r bas91 ! entire pressure be+ borne by ! sides ( ! bas9s4 ,b if we cont9ue to p\r 9 wat] till ! surface is rais$1 say "o foot1 above ! level ( ! ridge1 !n !re is no?+ to resi/ ! lat]al pressure ( ?is "o foot ( wat] 9 ! ,m$it]ranean b ! c\nt] pressure ( ! "o foot 9 ! ,atlantic4 ,b z ! ,m$it]ranean wat] is d5s] ?an ! ,atlantic1 ?is "o foot ( wat] w consequ5tly ex]t m pressure ?an ! "o foot ( wat] ( ! ,atlantic4 ,we mu/ !re=e cont9ue to p\r m wat] into ! ,atlantic until its lat]al pressure equals t ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! two seas w !n be 9 equilibrium1 b ! surface ( ! ,atlantic w ( c\rse be at a high] level ?an ! surface ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! diff]5ce ( level w be proportionate to ! diff]5ce 9 d5sity ( ! wat]s ( ! two seas4 ,b "h we come to ! po9t ( importance4 ,9 det]m9+ ! diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! two seas1 or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 ! diff]5ce ( level betwe5 a column ( ! ,atlantic & a column ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 we mu/ take into consid]ation only ! wat] :i* lies above ! level ( ! ridge4 ,if !re be "o foot ( wat] above ! ridge1 !n !re is a diff]5ce ( level proportionate to ! diff]5ce ( pressure betwe5 ! "o foot ( wat] ( ! two seas4 ,if !re be #b feet1 #c feet1 or any numb] ( feet ( wat] above ! level ( ! ridge1 ! diff]5ce ( level is proportionate to ! #b feet1 #c feet1 or :atev] numb] ( feet !re may be ( wat] above ! ridge4 ,if1 = example1 #ac %\ld repres5t ! d5sity ( ! ,m$it]ranean wat] & #ab ! d5sity ( ! ,atlantic wat]1 !n if !re 7 "o foot ( wat] 9 ! ,m$it]ranean above ! level ( ! ridge1 !re w\ld require to be "o foot "o in* ( wat] 9 ! ,atlantic above ! ridge 9 ord] t ! two might be 9 equilibrium4 ,! diff]5ce ( level w\ld !re=e be "o in*4 ,if !re 7 #b feet ( wat]1 ! diff]5ce ( level w\ld be #b in*es2 if #c feet1 ! diff]5ce w\ld be #c in*es1 & s on4 ,& ?is w\ld foll[1 no matt] :at ! actual dep? ( ! two bas9s might be2 ! wat] bel[ ! level ( ! ridge ex]cis+ no influ5ce :atev] on ! level ( ! surface4 ,tak+ ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s own data z to ! d5sity ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ,atlantic wat]s1 :at1 !n1 is ! diff]5ce ( d5sity8 ,! subm>9e ridge comes to )9 #afg fa?oms ( ! surface2 say1 9 r\nd numb]s1 to )9 #a1jjj feet4 ,:at are ! d5sities ( ! two bas9s d[n to ! dep? ( #a1jjj feet8 ,accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t] !re is little1 if any1 diff]5ce4 ,8 own words on ?is po9t are ^!3--8,a comp>ison ( ^! results leaves no d\bt t !re is an excess ( sal9ity 9 ! wat] ( ! ,m$it]ranean above t ( ! ,atlantic2 b t ?is excess is slight 9 ! surface-wat]1 :il/ some:at great] 9 ! deep] wat]0 7 #g74 8,aga91 x 0 f\nd by exam9+ samples ( wat] tak5 f ! surface1 f #ajj fa?oms1 f #bej fa?oms1 & f #djj fa?oms respectively1 t :il/ ! fir/ two _h ! *>act]i/ic temp]ature & d5sity ( ,atlantic wat]1 ! la/ two _h ! *>act]i/ics & d5sity ( ,m$it]ranean wat]0 7 #ac74 ,"h1 at lea/ to ! dep? ( #ajj fa?oms or #fjj feet1 !re is little diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 ! wat]s ( ! two bas9s4 ,consequ5tly d[n to ! dep? ( #fjj feet1 !re is no?+ to produce any s5sible di/urbance ( equilibrium4 ,if !re be any s5sible di/urbance ( equilibrium1 x mu/ be 9 consequ5ce ( diff]5ce ( d5sity :i* may exi/ betwe5 ! dep?s ( #fjj feet & ! surface ( ! ridge4 ,we h no?+ to d ) any diff]5ce :i* may exi/ betwe5 ! wat] ( ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ,atlantic bel[ ! ridge2 ! wat] 9 ! ,m$it]ranean bas9 may be z heavy z m]cury bel[ #a1jjj feet3 b ?is c h no effect 9 di/urb+ equilibrium4 ,! wat] to ! dep? ( #fjj feet be+ ( ! same d5sity 9 bo? seas1 ! l5g? ( ! two columns act+ on ea* o!r is !re=e r$uc$ to #djj feet--t is1 to t /ratum ( wat] ly+ at a dep? ( f #fjj to ! surface ( ! ridge #a1jjj feet bel[ ! surface4 ,b1 to give ! !ory full ju/ice1 we %all take ! ,m$it]ranean /ratum at ! d5sity ( ! deep wat] ( ! ,m$it]ranean1 :i* he f\nd to be ab\t #ajbi1 & ! d5sity ( ! ,atlantic /ratum at #ajbf4 ,! diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 ! two columns is !re=e #jjc4 ,consequ5tly1 if ! height ( ! ,m$it]ranean column be #djj feet1 x w be balanc$ by ! ,atlantic column ( #djab feet2 ! diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! ,m$it]ranean & ! ,atlantic _c !re=e be m ?an #ab foot4 ,! am\nt ( "w t c be p]=m$ by gravity 9 ! case ( ! ,gibralt> curr5t is little m ?an "o foot-p\nd p] p\nd ( wat]1 an am\nt ( en]gy evid5tly inadequate to produce ! curr5t4 ,x is true t 9 8 la/ exp$ition ,dr4 ,c>p5t] f\nd ! bottom-wat] on ! ridge some:at d5s] ?an ,atlantic wat] at ! same dep?1 ! =m] be+ #ajbib & ! latt] #ajbfe2 b x also prov$ to be d5s] ?an ,m$it]ranean wat] at ! same dep?4 ,he f\nd1 = example1 t 8! d5se ,m$it]ranean wat] lies ab\t #ajj fa?oms ne>] ! surface ov] a #cjj-;fa?oms bottom1 ?an x does :]e ! bottom s9ks to m ?an #ejj fa?oms0 7 #ea74 ,b any excess ( d5sity :i* might exi/ at ! ridge c\ld h no t5d5cy :atev] to make ! ,m$it]ranean column prepond]ate ov] ! ,atlantic column1 any m ?an c\ld a weight plac$ ov] ! fulcrum ( a balance h a t5d5cy to make ! "o scale weigh d[n ! o!r4 ,if ! objection ref]r$ to be s\nd1 x %[s ! me*anical impossibility ( ! !ory4 ,x proves t :e!r !re be an "u curr5t or n1 or :e!r ! d5se wat] ly+ 9 ! deep tr\gh ( ! ,m$it]ranean be c>ri$ ov] ! subm>9e ridge into ! ,atlantic or n1 ! explanation (f]$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] is "o :i* _c be admitt$4 ,x is incumb5t on him to expla9 ei!r 7#a7 h[ ! almo/ inf9itesimal diff]5ce ( d5sity :i* exi/s betwe5 ! ,atlantic & ,m$it]ranean columns d[n to ! level ( ! ridge c produce ! upp] & "u curr5ts c>ry+ ! deep & d5se wat] ( ! ,m$it]ranean ov] ! ridge1 or 7#b7 h[ all ?is c be done by means ( ! diff]5ce ( d5sity :i* exi/s bel[ ! level ( ! ridge4#ge ,:at ! true cause ( ! ,gibralt> curr5t really is w be consid]$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,xiii4 ,! ,baltic ,curr5t4--,! entrance to ! ,baltic ,sea is 9 "s places n ov] #ej or #fj feet deep4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 f :at has already be5 prov$ 9 reg>d to ! ,gibralt> curr5t1 t ! influ5ce ( gravity mu/ be ev5 /ill less 9 caus+ a curr5t 9 ! ,baltic /rait ?an 9 ! ,gibralt> /rait4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4--,,dr4 ,,c>p5t]',s ,,!ory4--,,objections ,,consid]$4 ,modus ,op]&i ( ! ,matt]4--,pol> ,cold consid]$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ! ,primum ,mobile4--,suppos$ ,influ5ce ( ,heat d]iv$ f ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4--,circulation )\t ,diff]5ce ( ,level4--,a ,confusion ( ,ideas 9 ,ref]5ce to ! suppos$ ,ag5cy ( ,pol> ,cold4--,m4 ,dubuat's ,exp]im5ts4--,a ,begg+ ( ! ,"q at ,issue4--,pressure z a ,cause ( ,circulation4 ,9 ! =ego+ *apt]1 ! sub/ance ( :i* appe>$ 9 ! ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,octob]1 #ahga1 ,i h repres5t$ ! mann] 9 :i* diff]5ce ( specific gravity produces circulation4 ,b ,dr4 ,c>p5t] appe>s to ?9k t !re are "s important po9ts :i* ,i h ov]look$4 ,^! ,i %all n[ proce$ to consid] 9 detail4 8,mr4 ,croll's :ole mann] ( treat+ ! subject10 he says1 8is s diff]5t f t :i* x appe>s to me to require1 & he has s completely misappreh5d$ my own view ( ! "q1 t ,i feel x requisite to pres5t ?is 9 full] detail 9 ord] t physici/s & ma!maticians1 hav+ bo? sides fully be=e !m1 may judge betwe5 u0 7 #bf74gf ,he !n ref]s to a po9t s obvi\s z h>dly to require consid]ation1 viz41 ! effect :i* results :5 ! surface ( ! entire area ( a lake or pond ( wat] is cool$4 ,! :ole ( ! surface-film1 be+ *ill$ at ! same "t1 s9ks ?r\gh ! subjac5t wat]1 & a new film f ! w>m] lay] imm$iately b5ea? ! surface rises into its place4 ,?is be+ cool$ 9 its turn1 s9ks1 & s on4 ,he next consid]s :at takes place :5 only a portion ( ! surface ( ! pond is cool$1 & %[s t 9 ?is case ! surface-film :i* desc5ds is replac$ n f b5ea?1 b by an infl[ f ! neighb\r+ area4 8,t su* mu/ be ! case10 says ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 8appe>s to me s self-evid5t t ,i am surpris$ t any p]son conv]sant ) ! pr9ciples ( physical sci5ce %\ld hesitate 9 admitt+ x1 /ill m t he %\ld explicitly d5y x4 ,b s9ce o!rs may feel ! same difficulty z ,mr4 ,croll1 x may be wor? :ile = me to pres5t ! case 9 a =m ( yet m elem5t>y simplicity0 7 #bi74 ,!n1 9 ord] to %[ ! mode 9 :i* ! g5]al oceanic circulation takes place1 he supposes two cyl9drical vessels1 ,w & ,c1 ( equal size1 to be fill$ ) sea-wat]4 ,cyl9d] ,w repres5ts ! equatorial column1 & ! wat] conta9$ 9 x has its temp]ature ma9ta9$ at #fj2 :il/ ! wat] 9 ! o!r cyl9d] ,c1 repres5t+ ! pol> column1 has its temp]ature ma9ta9$ at #cj by means ( ! con/ant application ( cold at ! top4 ,free communication is ma9ta9$ betwe5 ! two cyl9d]s at top & bottom2 & ! wat] 9 ! cold cyl9d] be+1 9 virtue ( its l[ temp]ature1 d5s] ?an ! wat] 9 ! w>m cyl9d]1 ! two columns are !re=e n 9 /atic equilibrium4 ,! cold1 & h5ce heavi] column t5ds to produce an outfl[ ( wat] f its bottom to ! bottom ( ! w>m column1 :i* outfl[ is replac$ by an infl[ f ! top ( ! w>m column to ! top ( ! cold column4 ,9 fact1 we h j a simple repetition ( :at he has giv5 ov] & ov] aga9 9 8 v>i\s memoirs on ! subject4 ,b :y s repeat$ly ent] into ! modus op]&i ( ! matt]8 ,:o feels any difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ ! circulation is produc$8 ,pol> ,cold consid]$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ! ,primum ,mobile4--,x is evid5t t ,dr4 ,c>p5t] believes t he has f\nd 9 pol> cold an ag5cy ! pot5cy ( :i*1 9 produc+ a g5]al oceanic circulation1 has be5 ov]look$ by physici/s2 & x is ) ! view ( develop+ 8 ideas on ?is subject t he has ent]$ s fully & s frequ5tly into ! exposition ( 8 !ory4 8,if ,i h myself done any?+10 he says1 8to /r5g!n ! doctr9e1 x has be5 by %[+ t pol> cold1 r ?an equatorial heat1 is ! primum mobile ( ?is circulation40#gg ,! influ5ce ( ! sun 9 heat+ ! wat]s ( ! int]-tropical seas is1 9 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s mann] ( view+ ! problem1 ( no great importance4 ,! effici5t cause ( motion he consid]s resides 9 cold r ?an 9 heat4 ,9 fact1 he ev5 goes ! l5g? ( ma9ta9+ t1 z a p[] 9 ! production ( ! g5]al int]*ange ( equatorial & pol> wat]1 ! effect ( pol> cold is s mu* sup]ior to t ( int]-tropical heat1 t ! influ5ce ( ! latt] may be practically disreg>d$4 8,suppose two bas9s ( ocean-wat]10 he says1 8connect$ by a /rait to be plac$ "u su* diff]5t climatic conditions t ! surface ( "o is expos$ to ! heat+ influ5ce ( tropical sun%9e1 :il/ ! surface ( ! o!r is subject$ to ! extreme cold ( ! sunless pol> w9t]4 ,! effect ( ! surface-heat ^u ! wat] ( ! tropical bas9 w be = ! mo/ "p limit$ 7z ,i %all pres5tly %[7 to its upp]mo/ /ratum1 & may "h be practically disreg>d$40#gh ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s idea reg>d+ ! effici5cy ( cold 9 produc+ motion seems to me to be n only oppos$ to ! g5]ally receiv$ views on ! subject1 b :olly irreconcilable ) ! ord9>y pr9ciples ( me*anics4 ,9 fact1 !re are s _m po9ts on :i* ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory ( a 8,g5]al ,v]tical ,oceanic ,circulation0 diff]s f ! g5]ally receiv$ views on ! subject ( circulation by means ( diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 t ,i h ?\ght x advisable to ent] some:at m9utely into ! consid]ation ( ! me*anics ( t !ory1 ! m s z he has s repeat$ly ass]t$ t em95t physici/s agree ) :at he has advanc$ on ! subject4 ,accord+ to ! g5]ally receiv$ !ory1 ! circulation is due to ! diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 ! sea 9 equatorial & pol> regions4 ,! real effici5t cause is gravity2 b gravity _c act :5 !re is no diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 ,if ! sea 7 ( equal d5sity f ! poles to ! equator1 gravity c\ld ex]cise no influ5ce 9 ! production ( circulation2 & ! influ5ce :i* x does possess is 9 proportion to ! diff]5ce ( d5sity4 ,b ! diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 equatorial & pol> wat]s is 9 turn due n absolutely ei!r to pol> cold or to tropical heat1 b to bo?--or1 9 o!r words1 to ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! pol> & equatorial seas4 ,?is diff]5ce1 9 ! v nature ( ?+s1 mu/ be z mu* ! result ( equatorial heat z ( pol> cold4 ,if ! sea 9 equatorial regions 7 n be+ heat$ by ! sun z rapidly z ! sea 9 pol> regions is be+ cool$1 ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 !m1 & consequ5tly ! diff]5ce ( d5sity1 w\ld be dim9i%+1 & 9 c\rse ( "t w\ld disappe> altoge!r4 ,z has already be5 %[n1 x is a necess>y consequ5ce t ! wat] fl[+ f equatorial to pol> regions mu/ be comp5sat$ by an equal am\nt fl[+ f pol> to equatorial regions4 ,n[1 if ! wat] fl[+ f pol> to equatorial regions 7 n be+ heat$ z rapidly z ! wat] fl[+ f equatorial to pol> regions is be+ cool$1 ! equatorial seas w\ld gradually become cold] & cold] until no s5sible diff]5ce ( temp]ature exi/$ betwe5 !m & ! pol> oceans4 ,9 fact1 equality ( ! two rates is necess>y to ! v exi/5ce ( su* a g5]al circulation z t advocat$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,if he admits t ! g5]al int]*ange ( equatorial & pol> wat] advocat$ by him is caus$ by ! diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 ! wat] at ! equator & ! poles1 result+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 !n he mu/ admit also t ?is diff]5ce ( d5sity is j z mu* due to ! heat+ ( ! equatorial wat] by ! sun z x is to ! cool+ ( ! pol> wat] by radiation & o!r means--or1 9 o!r words1 t x is z mu* due to equatorial heat z to pol> cold4 ,& if s1 x _c be true t pol> cold r ?an equatorial heat is ! 8primum mobile0 ( ?is circulation2 & f> less c x be true t ! heat+ ( ! equatorial wat] by ! sun is ( s little importance t x may be 8practically disreg>d$40 ,suppos$ ,influ5ce ( ,heat d]iv$ f ! ,e>?'s ,cru/4--,!re is1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 ano!r ag5t conc]n$ 9 ! production ( ! g5]al oceanic circulation1 viz41 ! heat d]iv$ by ! bottom ( ! ocean f ! cru/ ( ! e>?4#gi ,we h no reason to believe t ! quantity ( int]nal heat com+ ?r\gh ! e>?'s cru/ is great] 9 "o "p ( ! globe ?an 9 ano!r2 nor h we any gr\nds = conclud+ t ! bottom ( int]-tropical seas receives m heat f ! e>?'s cru/ ?an ! bottom ( ^? 9 pol> regions4 ,b if ! pol> seas receive z mu* heat f ?is s\rce z ! seas )9 ! tropics1 !n ! diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 ! two _c possibly be due to heat receiv$ f ! e>?'s cru/2 & ?is be+ s1 x is me*anically impossible t int]nal heat c be a cause 9 ! production ( ! g5]al oceanic circulation4 ,circulation )\t ,diff]5ce ( ,level4--,!re is ano!r "p ( ! !ory :i* appe>s to me irreconcilable ) me*anics4 ,x is ma9ta9$ t ?is g5]al circulation takes place )\t any diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! equator & ! poles4 ,ref]r+ to ! case ( ! two cyl9d]s ,w & ,c1 :i* repres5t ! equatorial & pol> columns respectively1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] says3-- 8,! =ce :i* w ?us lift up ! entire column ( wat] 9 ,w is t :i* causes ! desc5t ( ! entire column 9 ,c1 namely1 ! excess ( gravity con/antly act+ 9 ,c1--! levels ( ! two columns1 & consequ5tly _! heights1 be+ ma9ta9$ at a con/ant equality by ! free passage ( surface-wat] f ,w to ,c40 8,! :ole ( ,mr4 ,croll's discussion ( ?is "q1 h[ev]10 he cont9ues1 8proce$s ^u ! assumption t ! levels ( ! pol> & equatorial columns are n kept at an equality1 c40 7 #cj47 ,& aga91 8,n[1 s f> f ass]t+ 7z ,capta9 ,maury has done7 t ! trifl+ diff]5ce ( level aris+ f inequality ( temp]ature is adequate to ! production ( ocean-curr5ts1 ,i simply affirm t z fa/ z ! level is di/urb$ by *ange ( temp]ature x w be re/or$ by gravity40 7 #bc47hj ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,9 ord] to und]/& m cle>ly h[ ! circulation "u consid]ation _c take place )\t a diff]5ce ( level1 let ,w ,e 7,fig4 #c7 repres5t ! equatorial column1 & ,c ,p ! pol> column4 ,! equatorial column is w>m] ?an ! pol> column because x receives m heat f ! sun ?an ! latt]2 & ! pol> is cold] ?an ! equatorial column because x receives less4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ! d5sity ( ! two columns results f _! diff]5ce ( temp]ature2 & ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature results 9 turn f ! diff]5ce 9 ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun by ea*4 ,or1 to express ! matt] 9 o!r words1 ! diff]5ce ( d5sity 7& consequ5tly ! circulation "u consid]ation7 is due to ! excess ( heat receiv$ f ! sun by ! equatorial ov] t receiv$ by ! pol> column2 s t to leave out ( acc\nt ! sup]-heat+ ( ! int]-tropical wat]s by ! sun is to leave out ( acc\nt ! v ?+ ( all o!rs t is absolutely ess5tial to ! exi/5ce ( ! circulation4 ,! wat] be+ assum$ to be ! same 9 bo? columns & diff]+ only z reg>ds temp]ature1 & ! equatorial column possess+ m heat ?an ! pol>1 & be+ !re=e less d5se ?an ! latt]1 x foll[s1 9 ord] t ! two columns may be 9 /atic equilibrium1 t ! surface ( ! equatorial column mu/ /& at a high] level ?an t ( ! pol>4 ,?is produces ! slope ,w ,c f ! equator to ! pole4 ,! ext5t ( ! slope w ( c\rse dep5d ^u ! ext5t ( ! diff]5ce ( _! temp]atures4 ,b1 z 0 %[n on a =m] occasion1#ha x is impossible t /atic equilibrium c ev] be fully obta9$1 because ! slope occasion$ by ! elevation ( ! equatorial column above ! pol> produces :at we may be all[$ to call a molecul> di/urbance ( equilibrium4 ,! surface ( ! ocean1 or ! molecules ( wat] ly+ on ! slope1 are n 9 a position ( equilibrium1 b t5d1 9 virtue ( gravity1 to roll d[n ! slope 9 ! direction ( ! pol> column ,c4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! m we ga9 ( /atic equilibrium ( ! entire ocean ! great] is ! slope1 & consequ5tly ! great] is ! di/urbance ( molecul> equilibrium2 &1 vice v]s1 ! m molecul> equilibrium is re/or$ by ! r$uction ( ! slope1 ! great] is ! di/urbance ( /atic equilibrium4 ,x is !re=e absolutely impossible t bo? conditions ( equilibrium c be fulfill$ at ! same "t s long z a diff]5ce ( temp]ature exi/s betwe5 ! two columns4 ,& ?is conclusion holds true ev5 ?\gh we %\ld assume wat] to be a p]fect fluid absolutely devoid ( viscosity4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t a g5]al oceanic circulation )\t a diff]5ce ( level is a me*anical impossibility4 ,9 a case ( actual circulation due to diff]5ce ( gravity1 !re is always a con/ant di/urbance ( bo? /atic & molecul> equilibrium4 ,column ,c is always high] & column ,w always l[] ?an x ought to be 7 ! two 9 equilibrium2 b !y nev] c be at ! same level4 ,x is q conceivable1 ( c\rse1 t ! two conditions ( equilibrium may be fulfill$ alt]nately4 ,we c conceive column ,c rema9+ /ation>y till ! wat] fl[+ f column ,w has re/or$ ! level4 ,& aft] ! level is re/or$ we c conceive ! pol> column ,c s9k+ & ! equatorial column ,w ris+ till ! two p]fectly balance ea* o!r4 ,su* a mode ( circulation1 consi/+ ( an alt]nate surface-fl[ & v]tical desc5t & asc5t ( ! columns1 ?\gh conceivable1 is 9 reality impossible 9 nature2 = !re are no means by :i* ! pol> column ,c c\ld be support$ f s9k+ till ! level _h be5 re/or$4 ,b ,dr4 ,c>p5t] does n assume t ! g5]al oceanic circulation takes place 9 ?is int]mitt+ mann]2 accord+ to him1 ! circulation is con/ant4 ,he ass]ts t !re is a 8cont9ual transf]5ce ( wat] f ! bottom ( ,c to ! bottom ( ,w1 & f ! top ( ,w to ! top ( ,c1 ) a con/ant desc5d+ movem5t 9 ,c & a con/ant asc5d+ movem5t 9 ,w0 7 #bi74 ,b su* a condition ( ?+s is irreconcilable ) ! idea ( 8! levels ( ! two columns1 & consequ5tly _! heights1 be+ ma9ta9$ at a con/ant equality0 7 #bi74 ,al?\gh ,dr4 ,c>p5t] does n admit ! exi/5ce ( a p]man5t diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! equator & ! pole1 he nev]!less speaks ( a depression ( level 9 ! pol> bas9 result+ f ! contraction by cool+ ( ! wat] fl[+ into x4 ,?is r$uction ( level induces an infl[ ( wat] f ! surr\nd+ area2 8& s9ce :at is drawn away10 to quote 8 own words1 8is suppli$ f a yet great] di/ance1 ! cont9u$ cool+ ( ! surface-/ratum 9 ! pol> bas9 w cause a #8set' ( wat]s t[>ds x1 to be propagat$ backw>ds ?r\gh ! :ole int]v5+ ocean 9 communication ) x until x rea*es ! tropical area40 ,! slope produc$ betwe5 ! pol> bas9 & ! surr\nd+ area1 if suffici5tly great1 w enable ! wat] 9 ! surr\nd+ area to fl[ polew>ds2 b unless ?is slope ext5d to ! equator1 x w n enable ! tropical wat]s also to fl[ polew>ds4 ,"o ( two ?+s necess>ily foll[s3 ei!r ! slope ext5ds f ! equator to ! pole1 or wat] c fl[ f ! equator to ! pole )\t a slope4 ,if ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ma9ta9s ! =m]1 he contradicts himself2 & if he adopts ! latt]1 he contradicts an obvi\s pr9ciple ( me*anics4 ,a ,confusion ( ,ideas 9 ,ref]5ce to ! suppos$ ,ag5cy ( ,pol> ,cold4--,x seems to me t ,dr4 ,c>p5t] has be5 some:at misl$ by a slight confusion ( ideas 9 ref]5ce to ! suppos$ ag5cy ( pol> cold4 ,?is is br\ght out =cibly 9 ! foll[+ passage f 8 memoir 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 xv4 8,mr4 ,croll1 9 argu+ aga9/ ! doctr9e ( a g5]al oceanic circulation su/a9$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 & ju/ly ma9ta9+ t su* a circulation _c be produc$ by ! application ( heat at ! surface1 has entirely ignor$ ! ag5cy ( cold40 ,x is "h suppos$ t !re are two ag5ts at "w 9 ! production ( ! g5]al oceanic circulation4 ,! "o ag5t is heat1 act+ at ! equatorial regions2 & ! o!r ag5t is cold1 act+ at ! pol> regions4 ,x is suppos$ t ! ag5cy ( cold is f> m p[]ful ?an t ( heat4 ,9 fact s trifl+ is ! ag5cy ( equatorial heat 9 comp>ison ) t ( pol> cold t x may be 8practically disreg>d$0--left out ( acc\nt altoge!r1--pol> cold be+ ! primum mobile ( ! circulation4 ,x is suppos$ also t ,i h consid]$ ! effici5cy ( "o ( ! ag5ts1 viz41 heat1 & f\nd x totally inadequate to produce ! circulation 9 "q2 & x is admitt$ also t my conclusions are p]fectly correct4 ,b !n ,i am suppos$ to h left out ( acc\nt ! o!r ag5t1 viz41 pol> cold1 ! only ag5t possess+ real pot5cy4 ,_h ,i tak5 into acc\nt pol> cold1 x is suppos$ t ,i %\ld h f\nd at once a cause p]fectly adequate to produce ! requir$ effect4 ,?is is a fair /atem5t ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s views on ! subject2 ,i am unable1 at lea/1 to atta* any o!r mean+ to 8 words4 ,& ,i h no d\bt !y are also ! views :i* h be5 adopt$ by ^? :o h accept$ 8 !ory4 ,x mu/ be suffici5tly evid5t f :at has already be5 /at$1 t ! notion ( !re be+ two sep>ate ag5ts at "w produc+ circulation1 namely heat & cold1 ! "o ( :i* is assum$ to h mu* m pot5cy ?an ! o!r1 is n only oppos$ to ! views ent]ta9$ by physici/s1 b is also :olly irreconcilable ) ! ord9>y pr9ciples ( me*anics4 ,b m ?an ?is1 if we analyze ! subject a little s z to remove "s ( ! confusion ( ideas :i* besets x1 we %all f9d t ^! views are irreconcilable ) ev5 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s own explanation ( ! cause ( ! g5]al oceanic circulation4 ,cold is n a some?+ positive imp>t$ to ! pol> wat]s giv+ !m motion1 & ( :i* ! tropical wat]s are depriv$4 ,if1 dipp+ "o h& into a bas9 fill$ ) tropical wat] at #hj & ! o!r into "o fill$ ) pol> wat] at #cb1 we ref] to our s5sations1 we call ! wat] 9 ! "o hot & t 9 ! o!r cold2 b s f> z ! wat] itself is conc]n$ heat & cold simply mean diff]5ce 9 ! am\nts ( heat possess$4 ,bo? ! pol> & ! tropical wat] possess a c]ta9 am\nt ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat1 only ! pol> wat] does n possess s mu* ( x z ! tropical4 ,h[1 !n1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 does pol> cold imp>t motion to ! wat]8 ,! w>m wat] fl[+ 9 ^u ! pol> column becomes *ill$ by cold1 b x is n cool$ bel[ t ( ! wat] und]nea?2 =1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 ! ocean 9 pol> regions is z cold & z d5se und]nea? z at ! surface4 ,! cool$ surface-wat] does n s9k ?r\gh ! wat] und]nea?1 l ! surface-wat] ( a pond *ill$ dur+ a fro/y night4 8,! desc5d+ motion 9 column ,c w n consi/10 he says1 89 a successional desc5t ( surface-films f above d[nw>ds1 b x w be a d[nw>d movem5t ( ! entire mass1 z if wat] 9 a tall j> 7 be+ drawn (f ?r\gh an orifice at ! bottom0 7 #bi74 ,!re is a d[nw>d motion ( ! entire column1 produc+ an outfl[ ( wat] at ! bottom t[>ds ! equatorial column ,w1 :i* outfl[ is comp5sat$ by an infl[ f ! top ( ! equatorial column to ! top ( ! pol> column ,c4 ,b :at causes column ,c to desc5d8 ,! cause ( ! desc5t is its excess ( weight ov] t ( column ,w4 ,column ,c desc5ds & column ,w asc5ds1 = ! same reason t 9 a balance ! heavy scale desc5ds & ! light scale rises4 ,column ,c desc5ds n simply because x is cold1 b because x is cold] ?an column ,w4 ,column ,c desc5ds n simply because 9 consequ5ce ( be+ cold x is d5se & !re=e heavy1 b because 9 consequ5ce ( be+ cold x is d5s] & !re=e heavi] ?an column ,w4 ,x might be z cold z froz5 m]cury & z heavy z lead2 b x w\ld n on t acc\nt desc5d unless x 7 heavi] ?an column ,w4 ,! desc5t ( column ,c & asc5t ( column ,w1 & consequ5tly ! g5]al oceanic circulation1 results1 !re=e1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s explanation1 f ! diff]5ce 9 ! weights ( ! two columns2 & ! diff]5ce 9 ! weights ( ! two columns results f _! diff]5ce ( d5sity2 & ! diff]5ce ( d5sity ( ! two columns 9 turn results f _! diff]5ce ( temp]ature4 ,b x has already be5 prov$ t ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! pol> & equatorial columns dep5ds :olly on ! diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ by ea* f ! sun4 ,! equatorial column ,w possesses m heat ?an ! pol> column ,c1 solely because x receives m heat f ! sun ?an column ,c4 ,consequ5tly ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s /atem5t t ! circulation is produc$ by pol> cold r ?an by equatorial heat1 is j z mu* 9 contradiction to 8 own !ory z x is to ! pr9ciples ( me*anics4 ,aga91 8 admission t ! g5]al oceanic circulation 8_c be produc$ by ! application ( heat to ! surface10 is virtually a giv+ up ! :ole po9t 9 debate2 = accord+ to 8 gravitation !ory1 & e =m ( t !ory1 ! circulation results f diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 equatorial & pol> seas2 b ?is diff]5ce1 z we h se51 is entirely ow+ to ! diff]5ce 9 ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun at ^! two places4 ,! heat receiv$1 h[ev]1 is 8surface-heat20 = x is at ! surface t ! ocean receives all its heat f ! sun2 & consequ5tly if surface-heat _c produce ! effect requir$1 no?+ else c4 ,m4 ,dubuat's ,exp]im5ts4--,ref]r+ to ! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,dubuat adduc$ by me to %[ t wat] w\ld n run d[n a slope ( #a 9 #a1hbj1jjj1hb he says1 8,n[ ! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,dubuat _h ref]5ce1 n to ! sl[ re/oration ( level produc$ by ! motion ( wat] on itself1 b to ! s5sible movem5t ( wat] fl[+ ov] solid surfaces & ret>d$ by its friction aga9/ !m0 7 #bb74 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s mean+1 ,i presume1 is t if ! incl9e consi/ ( any solid sub/ance1 wat] w n fl[ d[n x2 b if x be made ( wat] itself1 wat] w fl[ d[n x4 ,b 9 ,m4 ,dubuat's exp]im5ts x 0 only ! molecules 9 actual contact ) ! solid incl9e t c\ld possibly be ret>d$ by friction aga9/ x4 ,! molecules n 9 contact ) ! solid incl9e evid5tly re/$ ^u an incl9e ( wat]1 & 7 at p]fect lib]ty to roll d[n t incl9e if !y *ose2 b !y did n d s2 & consequ5tly ,m4 ,dubuat's exp]im5t prov$ t wat] w n fl[ ov] itself on an incl9e ( #a 9 #a1jjj1jjj4 ,a ,begg+ ( ! ,"q at ,issue4--8,x is to be rememb]$10 says ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 8t1 h[ev] small ! orig9al am\nt ( movem5t may be1 a mom5tum t5d+ to its cont9uance mu/ be g5]at$ f ! in/ant ( its comm5cem5t2 s t if ! initiat+ =ce be 9 con/ant action1 !re w be a progressive accel]ation ( its rate1 until ! increase ( resi/ance equalises ! t5d5cy to fur!r accel]ation4 ,n[1 if x be admitt$ t ! propagation ( ! di/urbance ( equilibrium f "o column to ano!r is simply ret>d$1 n prev5t$1 by ! viscosity ( ! liquid1 ,i _c see h[ ! conclusion c be resi/$1 t ! con/antly ma9ta9$ diff]5ce ( gravity betwe5 ! pol> & equatorial columns really acts z a vis viva 9 ma9ta9+ a circulation betwe5 !m0 7 #ce74 ,if x be true1 z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ass]ts1 t 9 ! case ( ! g5]al oceanic circulation advocat$ by him 8viscosity0 simply ret>ds motion1 b does n prev5t x1 ,i c]ta9ly agree ) him 8t ! con/antly ma9ta9$ diff]5ce ( gravity betwe5 ! pol> & equatorial columns really acts z a vis viva 9 ma9ta9+ a circulation betwe5 !m40 ,b to ass]t t x m]ely ret>ds1 b does n prev5t1 motion1 is simply begg+ ! "q at issue4 ,x is an e/abli%$ pr9ciple t if ! =ce resi/+ motion be great] ?an ! =ce t5d+ to produce x1 !n no motion c take place & no "w c be p]=m$4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,dubuat prove t ! =ce ( ! molecul> resi/ance ( wat] to motion is great] ?an ! =ce d]iv$ f a slope ( #a 9 #a1jjj1jjj2 & !re=e x is simply begg+ ! "q at issue to ass]t t x is less4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,,mm4 ,b>l[1 ,ra9ey1 & o!rs1 to :i* he alludes1 are sc>cely wor?y ( consid]ation 9 relation to ! pres5t "q1 because we "k no?+ :atev] reg>d+ ! actual am\nt ( =ce produc+ motion ( ! wat] 9 ^! exp]im5ts1 fur!r ?an t x mu/ h be5 enorm\sly great] ?an t d]iv$ f a slope ( #a 9 #a1jjj1jjj4 ,suppos$ ,argum5t f ! ,tides4--,dr4 ,c>p5t] advances ,mr4 ,f]rel's argum5t 9 reg>d to ! tides4 ,! p[] ( ! moon to di/urb ! e>?'s wat]1 he ass]ts1 is1 accord+ to ,h]s*el1 only #a_/aa1djj1jjj? "p ( gravity1 & t ( ! sun n ov] #a_/be1gcf1djj? "p ( gravity2 yet ! moon's attractive =ce1 ev5 :5 c\nt]act$ by ! sun1 w produce a rise ( ! ocean4 ,b z ! di/urbance ( gravity produc$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature is f> great] ?an ! above1 x ought to produce circulation4 ,x is "h suppos$ t ! =ce ex]t$ by gravity on ! ocean1 result+ f diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 t5d+ to produce ! g5]al oceanic circulation1 is mu* great] ?an ! =ce ex]t$ on ! ocean by ! moon 9 ! production ( ! tides4 ,b if we exam9e ! subject we %all f9d t ! opposite is ! case4 ,! attraction ( ! moon t5d+ to lift ! wat]s ( ! ocean acts directly on e molecule f ! surface to ! bottom2 b ! =ce ( gravity t5d+ to produce ! circulation 9 "q acts directly on only a portion ( ! ocean4 ,gravity c ex]cise no direct =ce 9 impell+ ! und]fl[ f ! pol> to ! equatorial regions1 nor 9 rais+ ! wat] to ! surface :5 x rea*es ! equatorial regions4 ,gravity c ex]cise no direct influ5ce 9 pull+ ! wat] horizontally along ! e>?'s surface1 nor 9 rais+ x up to ! surface4 ,! pull ( gravity is always d[nw>ds1 nev] horizontally nor upw>ds4 ,gravity w t5d to pull ! surface-wat] f ! equator to ! poles because "h we h desc5t4 ,gravity w t5d to s9k ! pol> column because "h also we h desc5t4 ,b ^! are ! only p>ts ( ! circuit :]e gravity has any t5d5cy to produce motion4 ,motion 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! circuit1 viz41 along ! bottom ( ! ocean f ! poles to ! equator & 9 rais+ ! equatorial column1 is produc$ by ! pressure ( ! pol> column2 & consequ5tly x is only indirectly t gravity may be said to produce motion 9 ^? p>ts4 ,x is true t on c]ta9 portions ( ! ocean ! =ce ( gravity t5d+ to produce motion is great] ?an ! =ce ( ! moon's attraction1 t5d+ to produce ! tides2 b ?is portion ( ! ocean is ( inconsid]able ext5t4 ,! total =ce ( gravity act+ on ! entire ocean t5d+ to produce circulation is 9 reality prodigi\sly less ?an ! total =ce ( ! moon t5d+ to produce ! tides4 ,x is no d\bt a some:at difficult problem to det]m9e accurately ! total am\nt ( =ce ex]cis$ by gravity on ! ocean2 b = our pres5t purpose ?is is n necess>y4 ,all t we require at pres5t is a v r\gh e/imate inde$4 ,& ?is c be atta9$ by v simple consid]ations4 ,suppose we assume ! mean dep? ( ! sea to be1 say1 ?ree miles4 ,! mean dep? may yet be f\nd to be some:at less ?an ?is1 or x may be f\nd to be some:at great]2 a slight mi/ake1 h[ev]1 9 reg>d to ! mass ( ! ocean w n mat]ially affect our conclusions4 ,tak+ ! dep? at #c miles1 ! =ce or direct pull ( gravity on ! entire wat]s ( ! ocean t5d+ to ! production ( ! g5]al circulation w n am\nt to m ?an #a_/bd1jjj1jjj1jjj? t ( gravity1 or only ab\t #a_/b1ajj? t ( ! attraction ( ! moon 9 ! production ( ! tides4 ,let x be obs]v$ t ,i am ref]r+ to ! =ce or pull ( gravity1 & n to hydro/atic pressure4 ,! moon1 by rais+ ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 w produce a slope ( #b feet 9 a quadrant2 & because ! rais$ wat] s9ks & ! level is re/or$1 ,mr4 ,f]rel concludes t a simil> slope ( #b feet produc$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature w !re=e be suffici5t to produce motion & re/ore level4 ,b x is ov]look$ t ! re/oration ( level 9 ! case ( ! tides is z truly ! "w ( ! moon z ! di/urbance ( t level is4 ,= ! wat] rais$ by ! attraction ( ! moon at "o "t is aga91 six h\rs aft]w>ds1 pull$ d[n by ! moon :5 ! e>? has turn$ r\nd a quadrant4 ,no d\bt ! e>?'s gravity alone w\ld 9 c\rse ( "t re/ore ! level2 b ?is does n foll[ z a logical consequ5ce f ,mr4 ,f]rel's premises4 ,if we suppose a slope to be produc$ 9 ! ocean by ! moon & ! moon's attraction )drawn s z to all[ ! wat] to s9k to its orig9al level1 ! rais$ side w be ! heavie/ & ! depress$ side ! lighte/2 consequ5tly ! rais$ side w t5d to s9k & ! depress$ side w t5d to rise1 9 ord] t ! ocean may rega9 its /atic equilibrium4 ,b :5 a diff]5ce ( level is produc$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 ! rais$ side is always ! lighte/ & ! depress$ side is always ! heavie/2 consequ5tly ! v ef=t :i* ! ocean makes to ma9ta9 its equilibrium t5ds to prev5t ! level be+ re/or$4 ,! moon produces ! tides *iefly by means ( a simple yield+ ( ! entire ocean consid]$ z a mass2 :]eas 9 ! case ( a g5]al oceanic circulation ! level is re/or$ by a fl[ ( wat] at or ne> ! surface4 ,consequ5tly ! am\nt ( friction & molecul> resi/ance to be ov]come 9 ! re/oration ( level 9 ! latt] case is mu* great] ?an 9 ! =m]4 ,! moon1 z ! rese>*es ( ,sir ,william ,?omson %[1 w produce a tide 9 a globe compos$ ( a sub/ance :]e no curr5ts or g5]al fl[ ( ! mat]ials c\ld possibly take place4 ,pressure z a ,cause ( ,circulation4--,we %all n[ briefly ref] to ! influ5ce ( pressure 7! indirect effects ( gravity7 9 ! production ( ! circulation "u consid]ation4 ,t :i* causes ! pol> column ,c to desc5d & ! equatorial column ,w to asc5d1 z has repeat$ly be5 rem>k$1 is ! diff]5ce 9 ! weight ( ! two columns4 ,! effici5t cause 9 ! production ( ! movem5t is1 prop]ly speak+1 gravity2 cold at ! poles & heat at ! equator1 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 ! excess ( heat receiv$ by ! equator ov] t receiv$ by ! poles is :at ma9ta9s ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! two columns1 & consequ5tly is t also :i* ma9ta9s ! diff]5ce ( weight betwe5 !m4 ,9 o!r words1 diff]5ce ( temp]ature is ! cause :i* ma9ta9s ! /ate ( di/urb$ equilibrium4 ,b ! effici5t cause ( ! circulation 9 "q is gravity4 ,gravity1 h[ev]1 c\ld n act )\t ?is /ate ( di/urb$ equilibrium2 & diff]5ce ( temp]ature may !re=e be call$1 9 relation to ! circulation1 a necess>y condition1 :ile gravity may be t]m$ ! cause4 ,gravity s9ks column ,c directly1 b x raises column ,w indirectly by means ( pressure4 ,! same holds true 9 reg>d to ! motion ( ! bottom-wat]s f ,c to ,w1 :i* is likewise due to pressure4 ,! pressure ( ! excess ( ! weight ( column ,c ov] t ( column ,w impels ! bottom-wat] equatorw>ds & lifts ! equatorial column4 ,b on ?is po9t ,i ne$ n dwell1 z ,i h 9 ! prec$+ *apt] ent]$ into a full discussion z to h[ ?is takes place4 ,we come n[ to ! mo/ important "p ( ! inquiry1 viz41 h[ is ! surface-wat] impell$ f ! equator to ! poles8 ,is pressure f beh9d ! impell+ =ce "h z 9 ! case ( ! bottom-wat] ( ! ocean8 ,x seems to me t1 9 attempt+ to acc\nt = ! surface-fl[ f ! equator to ! poles1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory signally fails4 ,! =ce to :i* he appeals appe>s to be :olly inadequate to produce ! requir$ effect4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,dubuat1 z already notic$1 prove t1 any slope :i* c possibly result f ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equator & ! poles is :olly insuffici5t to enable gravity to move ! wat]s2 b x does n necess>ily prove t ! pressure result+ f ! rais$ wat] at ! equator may n be suffici5t to produce motion4 ,?is po9t w be bett] und]/ood f ! foll[+ figure1 :]e1 z be=e1 ,p ,c repres5ts ! pol> column & ,e ,w ! equatorial column4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! wat] 9 t w$ge-%ap$ portion ,w ,c ,w =m+ ! incl9e _c be 9 a /ate ( /atic equilibrium4 ,a molecule ( wat] at ,o1 = example1 w be press$ m 9 ! direction ( ,c ?an 9 ! direction ( ,w1 & ! am\nt ( ?is excess ( pressure t[>ds ,c w dep5d ^u ! height ( ,w above ! l9e ,c ,w4 ,x is evid5t t ! pressure t5d+ to move ! molecule at ,o t[>ds ,c w be f> great] ?an ! direct pull ( gravity t5d+ to draw a molecule at ,o ly+ on ! surface ( ! incl9e t[>ds ,c4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,m4 ,dubuat prove t ! direct =ce ( gravity w n move ! molecule at ,o--t is1 cause x to roll d[n ! incl9e ,w ,c2 b !y d n prove t x may n yield to pressure f above1 or t ! pressure ( ! column ,w ,w w n move ! molecule at ,o4 ,! pressure is caus$ by gravity1 & _c1 ( c\rse1 enable gravity to p]=m m "w ?an :at is d]iv$ f ! en]gy ( gravity2 x w enable gravity1 h[ev]1 to ov]come resi/ance1 :i* x c\ld n d by direct action4 ,b :e!r ! pressure result+ f ! great] height ( ! wat] at ! equator due to its high] temp]ature be actually suffici5t to produce displacem5t ( ! wat] is a "q :i* ,i am :olly unable to answ]4 ,if we suppose #d feet #f in*es to be ! height ( ! equatorial surface above ! pol> requir$ to make ! two columns balance ea* o!r1 ! actual diff]5ce ( level betwe5 ! two columns w c]ta9ly n be m ?an "o-half t am\nt1 because1 if a circulation exi/1 ! weight ( ! pol> column mu/ always be 9 excess ( t ( ! equatorial4 ,b ?is excess c only be obta9$ at ! exp5se ( ! surface-slope1 z has already be5 %[n at l5g?4 ,! surface-slope probably w n be m ?an #b feet or #b feet #f in*es4 ,suppose ! ocean to be ( equal d5sity f ! poles to ! equator1 & t by "s means or o!r ! surface ( ! ocean at ! equator is rais$1 say1 #b feet above t ( ! poles1 !n !re c be little d\bt t 9 su* a case ! wat] w\ld soon rega9 its level2 = ! ocean at ! equator be+ heavi] ?an at ! poles by ! weight ( a lay] #b feet 9 ?ickness1 x w\ld s9k at ! =m] place & rise at ! latt] until equilibrium 0 re/or$1 produc+1 ( c\rse1 a v slight displacem5t ( ! bottom-wat]s t[>ds ! poles4 ,x w be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t re/oration ( level 9 ?is case takes place by a simple yield+1 z x 71 ( ! entire mass ( ! ocean )\t displacem5t ( ! molecules ( ! wat] ov] ea* o!r to any great ext5t4 ,9 ! case ( a slope produc$ by diff]5ce ( temp]ature1 h[ev]1 ! rais$ portion ( ! ocean is n heavi] b light] ?an ! depress$ portion1 & consequ5tly has no t5d5cy to s9k4 ,any movem5t :i* ! ocean z a mass makes 9 ord] to rega9 equilibrium t5ds1 z we h se51 r to increase ! diff]5ce ( level ?an to r$uce x4 ,re/oration ( level c only be produc$ by ! =ces :i* are 9 op]ation 9 ! w$ge-%ap$ mass ,w ,c ,w1 con/itut+ ! slope itself4 ,b x w be obs]v$ by a glance at ! ,figure t1 9 ord] to ! re/oration ( level1 a l>ge portion ( ! wat] ,w ,w at ! equator w require to fl[ to ,c1 ! pole4 ,accord+ to ! g5]al v]tical oceanic circulation !ory1 pressure f beh9d is n "o ( ! =ces employ$ 9 ! production ( ! fl[ f ! equator to ! poles4 ,?is is evid5t2 = !re c be no pressure f beh9d act+ on ! wat] if !re be no slope exi/+ betwe5 ! equator & ! poles4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] n only d5ies ! actual exi/5ce ( a slope1 b d5ies ! necessity = its exi/5ce4 ,b to d5y ! exi/5ce ( a slope is to d5y ! exi/5ce ( pressure1 & to d5y ! necessity = a slope is to d5y ! necessity = pressure4 ,t 9 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory ! surface-wat] is suppos$ to be drawn f ! equator to ! poles1 & n press$ =w>d by a =ce f beh9d1 is fur!r evid5t f ! fact t he ma9ta9s t ! =ce employ$ is n vis a t]go b vis a fronte4#hc ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,inadequacy ,,( ,,! ,,gravitation ,,!ory ,,prov$ ,,by ,,ano!r ,,me?od4 ,quantity ( ,heat :i* c be convey$ by ! ,g5]al ,oceanic ,circulation trifl+4--,t5d5cy 9 ! ,advocates ( ! ,gravitation ,!ory to "u-e/imate ! ,volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream4--,volume ( ! ,/ream z det]m9$ by ! ,*all5g]4--,imm5se ,volume ( ,w>m ,wat] discov]$ by ,capta9 ,n>es4--,condition ( ,nor? ,atlantic inconsi/5t ) ! ,gravitation ,!ory4--,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s ,e/imate ( ! ,!rmal ,"w ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,i %all n[ proce$ by ano!r me?od to prove ! inadequacy ( su* a g5]al oceanic circulation z t :i* ,dr4 ,c>p5t] advocates4 ,by contra/+ ! quantity ( heat c>ri$ by ! ,gulf-/ream f int]-tropical to temp]ate & pol> regions ) su* am\nt z c possibly be convey$ 9 ! same direction by means ( a g5]al oceanic circulation1 x w become evid5t t ! latt] s9ks into utt] insignificance be=e ! =m]4 ,9 my e>li] pap]s on ! am\nt ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream1#hd ,i e/imat$ ! volume ( t /ream z equal to t ( a curr5t #ej miles broad & #a1jjj feet deep1 fl[+ 7f ! surface to ! bottom7 at #d miles an h\r4 ,( c\rse ,i did n mean1 z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] seems to suppose1 t ! /ream at any p>ticul> place is #ej miles broad & #a1jjj feet deep1 or t x actually fl[s at ! uni=m rate ( #d miles an h\r at surface & bottom4 ,all ,i meant 01 t ! ,gulf-/ream is equal to t ( a curr5t ( ! above size & velocity4 ,b 9 my rec5t pap]s on ,ocean-curr5ts1 ! sub/ance ( :i* appe>s 9 ! pres5t volume1 to obviate any objections on ! gr\nds ( hav+ ov]-e/imat$ ! volume1 ,i h tak5 t at "o half ?is e/imate1 viz41 equal to a curr5t #ej miles broad & #a1jjj feet deep fl[+ at ! rate ( #b miles an h\r4 ,i h e/imat$ ! mean temp]ature ( ! /ream z x passes ! ,/raits ( ,florida to be #fe1 & h suppos$ t ! wat] 9 its c\rse becomes ultimately cool$ d[n on an av]age to #dj4 ,9 ?is case ea* p\nd ( wat] conveys #ai1cjj foot-p\nds ( heat f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 to be employ$ 9 w>m+ temp]ate & pol> regions4 ,assum+ ^! data to be correct1 x foll[s t ! am\nt ( heat transf]r$ f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico by ?is /ream p] day am\nts to #gg1dgi1fej1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj foot-p\nds4 ,?is enorm\s quantity ( heat is equal to "o-f\r? ( all t is receiv$ f ! sun by ! :ole ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean f ! ,tropic ( ,canc] up to ! ,arctic ,circle4 ,?is is ! am\nt ( heat convey$ f int]-tropical to temp]ate & pol> regions by ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,:at n[ is ! am\nt convey$ by means ( ! ,g5]al ,oceanic ,circulation8 ,accord+ to ?is !ory !re ought to be z mu* w>m wat] fl[+ f int]-tropical regions t[>ds ! ,ant>ctic z t[>ds ! ,arctic ,circle4 ,we may1 !re=e1 9 our calculations1 consid] t ! heat :i* is receiv$ 9 tropical regions to ! s\? ( ! equator goes to w>m ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & t receiv$ on ! nor? side ( ! equator to w>m ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,! w>m curr5ts f\nd 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic 9 temp]ate regions we may conclude came f ! regions ly+ to ! nor? ( ! equator1--or1 9 o!r words1 f t "p ( ! ,atlantic ly+ betwe5 ! equator & ! ,tropic ( ,canc]4 ,at lea/1 accord+ to ! gravitation !ory1 we h no reason to believe t ! quantity ( w>m wat] fl[+ f tropical to temp]ate & pol> regions 9 ! ,atlantic is great] ?an ! area betwe5 ! equator & ! ,tropic ( ,canc] c supply--because x is affirm$ t a v l>ge proportion ( ! cold wat] f\nd 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic comes1 n f ! arctic1 b f ! ant>ctic regions4 ,b if ! ,nor? ,atlantic is cool$ by a cold /ream f ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! s\!rn hemisph]e 9 turn mu/ be heat$ by a w>m curr5t f ! ,nor? ,atlantic--unless we assume t ! comp5sat+ curr5t fl[+ f ! ,atlantic into ! s\!rn hemisph]e is z cold z ! ant>ctic curr5t1 :i* is v improbable4 ,b ,dr4 ,c>p5t] admits t ! quantity ( w>m wat] fl[+ f ! ,atlantic 9 equatorial regions t[>ds ! s\? is ev5 great] ?an t fl[+ nor?w>ds4 8,! unre/rict$ communication10 he says1 8:i* exi/s betwe5 ! ant>ctic area & ! great ,s\!rn ,ocean-bas9s w\ld involve1 if ! doctr9e ( a g5]al oceanic circulation be admitt$1 a mu* m consid]able int]*ange ( wat]s betwe5 ! ant>ctic & ! equatorial areas ?an is possible 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e40#he ,we h already se5 t1 7 x n = ! great mass ( w>m wat] :i* f9ds its way to ! pol> regions1 ! temp]ature ( ^! regions w\ld be enorm\sly l[] ?an !y really are4 ,x has be5 %[n likewise t ! comp>atively high temp]ature ( nor?-we/]n ,europe is due to ! same cause4 ,b if x be d\btful :e!r ! ,gulf-/ream rea*es our %ores1 & if x be true t1 ev5 suppos+ x did1 x 8c\ld only affect ! mo/ sup]ficial /ratum10 & t ! great mass ( w>m wat] f\nd by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] 9 8 dr$g+ exp$itions came directly f ! equatorial regions1 & n f ! ,gulf-/ream1 !n ! pr9cipal "p ( ! heat+-effect mu/ be attribut$1 n to ! ,gulf-/ream1 b to ! g5]al fl[ ( wat] f ! equatorial regions4 ,x surely w\ld n1 !n1 be too mu* to assume t ! quantity ( heat convey$ f equatorial regions by ?is g5]al fl[ ( wat] into ! ,nor? ,atlantic is at lea/ equal to t convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,if we assume ?is to be ! am\nt ( heat convey$ by ! two ag5cies into ! ,atlantic f int]-tropical regions1 x w1 ( c\rse1 be equal to twice t convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream alone4 ,we %all n[ consid] :e!r ! area ( ! ,atlantic to ! nor? ( ! equator is suffici5t to supply ! am\nt ( heat dem&$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory4 ,! entire area ( ! ,atlantic1 ext5d+ f ! equator to ! ,tropic ( ,canc]1 includ+ ! ,c>ibbean ,sea & ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 is ab\t #g1gjj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,! quantity ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida is1 z we h already endeav\r$ to %[1 equal to all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by #a1efj1ice squ>e miles at ! equator4 ,! annual quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun by ! torrid zone p] unit surface1 tak+ ! mean ( ! :ole zone1 is to t receiv$ by ! equator z #ci to #dj1 consequ5tly ! quantity ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream is equal to all ! heat receiv$ by #a1fjj1ifj squ>e miles ( ! ,atlantic 9 ! torrid zone4 ,b if1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s views1 ! quantity ( heat convey$ f ! tropical regions is d\ble t convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream1 ! am\nt ( heat 9 ?is case convey$ into ! ,atlantic 9 temp]ate regions w be equal to all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by #c1bja1ibj squ>e miles ( ! ,atlantic betwe5 ! equator & ! ,tropic ( ,canc]4 ,?is is #cb_/gg?s ( all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by t area4 ,tak+ ! annual quantity receiv$ p] unit surface at ! equator at #a1jjj1 ! quantities receiv$ by ! ?ree zones w\ld be respectively z foll[s3-- ,equator #ajjj ,torrid zone #ige ,temp]ate zone #geg ,frigid zone #ded ,n[1 if we remove f ! ,atlantic 9 tropical regions #cb_/gg?s ( ! heat receiv$ f ! sun1 we remove #dje p>ts f e #ige receiv$ f ! sun1 & consequ5tly only #egj p>ts p] unit surface rema94 ,x has be5 %[n#hf t ! quantity ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream f ! equatorial regions into ! temp]ate regions is equal to #ajj_/dab?s ( all ! heat receiv$ by ! ,atlantic 9 temp]ate regions4 ,b accord+ to ! !ory "u consid]ation ! quantity remov$ is d\ble ?is1 or equal to #ajj_/bjf?s ( all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun4 ,b ! am\nt receiv$ f ! sun is equal to #geg p>ts p] unit surface2 add !n to ?is #ajj_/bjf?s ( #geg1 or #cfg1 & we h #a1abd p>ts ( heat p] unit surface z ! am\nt possess$ by ! ,atlantic 9 temp]ate regions4 ,! ,atlantic %\ld 9 ?is case be mu* w>m] 9 temp]ate ?an 9 tropical regions2 = 9 temp]ate regions x w\ld possess #a1abd p>ts ( heat p] unit surface1 :]eas 9 tropical regions x w\ld possess only #egj p>ts p] unit surface4 ,( c\rse ! heat convey$ f tropical regions does n all rema9 9 temp]ate regions2 a v consid]able portion ( x mu/ pass into ! arctic regions4 ,let u1 !n1 assume t "o half goes to w>m ! ,arctic ,ocean1 & ! o!r half rema9s 9 ! temp]ate regions4 ,9 ?is case #ahce p>ts w\ld rema91 & consequ5tly #geg #ahce #idje p>ts w\ld be ! quantity possess$ by ! ,atlantic 9 temp]ate regions1 a quantity :i* /ill exce$s by no less ?an #cgje p>ts ! heat possess$ by ! ,atlantic 9 tropical regions4 ,z "o half ( ! am\nt ( heat convey$ f ! tropical regions is assum$ to g into ! ,arctic ,ocean1 ! quantity pass+ into t ocean w\ld !re=e be equal to t :i* passes ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida1 an am\nt :i*1 z we h f\nd1 is equal to all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by #c1dcf1ijj squ>e miles ( ! ,arctic ,ocean4#hg ,! entire area cov]$ by sea beyond ! ,arctic ,circle is "u #e1jjj1jjj squ>e miles2 b tak+ ! ,arctic ,ocean 9 r\nd numb]s at #e1jjj1jjj squ>e miles1 ! quantity ( heat convey$ into x by curr5ts to t receiv$ f ! sun w\ld !re=e be z #c1dcf1ijj to #e1jjj1jjj4 ,! am\nt receiv$ on ! unit surface ( ! arctic regions we h se5 to be #ded p>ts4 ,! am\nt receiv$ f ! curr5ts w\ld !re=e be #cab p>ts4 ,?is gives #gff p>ts ( heat p] unit surface z ! quantity possess$ by ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,?us ! ,arctic ,ocean also w\ld conta9 m heat ?an ! ,atlantic 9 tropical regions2 = ! ,atlantic 9 ^! regions w\ld1 9 ! case "u consid]ation1 possess only #egj p>ts1 :ile ! ,arctic ,ocean w\ld possess #gff p>ts4 ,x is true t m rays are cut (f 9 arctic regions ?an 9 tropical2 b /ill1 aft] mak+ due all[ance = ?is1 ! ,arctic ,ocean1 if ! !ory we are consid]+ 7 true1 ought to be z w>m z1 if n w>m] ?an1 ! ,atlantic 9 tropical regions4 ,! relative quantities ( heat possess$ by ! ?ree zones w\ld !re=e be z foll[s3-- ,atlantic1 9 torrid zone #egj 9 temp]ate zone #idj 9 frigid zone #gff ,x is "h assum$1 h[ev]1 t none ( ! heat possess$ by ! ,gulf-/ream is d]iv$ f ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 :i*1 we "k1 is n ! case4 ,b suppos+ t z mu* z "o half ( ! heat possess$ by ! /ream came f ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & t ! o!r half 0 obta9$ f ! seas ly+ betwe5 ! equator & ! ,tropic ( ,canc]1 ! relative proportions ( heat possess$ by ! ?ree zones p] giv5 area w\ld be z foll[s3-- ,atlantic1 9 torrid zone #fga 9 temp]ate zone #idj 9 frigid zone #gff ,?is proves inconte/ably t1 suppos+ !re is su* a g5]al oceanic circulation z is ma9ta9$1 ! quantity ( heat convey$ by means ( x into ! ,nor? ,atlantic & ,arctic ,oceans mu/ be trifl+ 9 comp>ison ) t convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream2 = if x ne>ly equall$ t convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream1 !n n only ! ,nor? ,atlantic 9 temp]ate regions1 b ev5 ! ,arctic ,ocean itself w\ld be mu* w>m] ?an ! int]-tropical seas4 ,9 fact1 s f> z ! di/ribution ( heat ov] ! globe is conc]n$1 x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce :e!r !re really is or is n su* a ?+ z ?is g5]al oceanic circulation4 ,! enorm\s am\nt ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream alone puts x beyond all d\bt t ocean-curr5ts are ! great ag5ts employ$ 9 di/ribut+ ov] ! globe ! excess ( heat receiv$ by ! sea 9 int]-tropical regions4 ,x is !re=e1 s f> z conc]ns ! !ory ( a ,g5]al ,oceanic ,circulation1 ( ! utmo/ importance t ! advocates ( t !ory %\ld prove t ,i h ov]-e/imat$ ! !rmal p[] ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c only be done by detect+ "s error ei!r 9 my computation or 9 ! data on :i* x is bas$2 yet nei!r ,dr4 ,c>p5t] nor any "o else1 z f> z ,i "k1 has *all5g$ ! accuracy ( my figures4 ,! "q at issue is ! correctness ( ! data2 b ! only "p ( ! data :i* c possibly admit ( be+ que/ion$ is my e/imate ( ! volume & temp]ature ( ! /ream4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 h[ev]1 does n ma9ta9 t ,i h ov]-e/imat$ ! temp]ature ( ! /ream2 on ! contr>y1 he affirms t ,i h really "u-e/imat$ x4 8,if we assume10 he rem>ks1 8! limit ( ! /ratum above #fj z t ( ! real ,gulf-/ream curr5t1 we %all f9d its av]age temp]ature to be some:at high] ?an x has be5 /at$ by ,mr4 ,croll1 :o seems to h tak5 #fe z ! av]age ( ! wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ! entire *annel4 ,! av]age surface temp]ature ( ! ,florida *annel = ! :ole ye> is #hj2 & we may fairly set ! av]age ( ! entire outgo+ /ream1 d[n to ! plane ( #fj1 at #gj1 in/ead ( #fe z e/imat$ by ,mr4 ,croll0 7 #ada74 ,x foll[s1 !n1 t e p\nd ( wat] ( ! ,gulf-/ream actually conveys #e units ( heat m ?an ,i h e/imat$ x to d--! am\nt convey$ be+ #cj units in/ead ( #be units z e/imat$ by me4 ,consequ5tly1 if ! ,gulf-/ream be equal to t ( a curr5t ( m]ely #da miles broad & #a1jjj feet deep1 fl[+ at ! rate ( #b miles an h\r1 x w /ill convey ! e/imat$ quantity ( heat4 ,b ?is e/imate ( ! volume ( ! /ream1 let x be obs]v$1 b>ely exce$s "o-?ird ( t giv5 by ,h]s*el1 ,maury1 & ,cold+1#hh & is little m ?an "o-half t assign$ to x by ,mr4 ,laughton1 :ile x v little exce$s t giv5 by ,mr4 ,f9dlay1#hi an au?or :om few w consid] likely to ov]rate ei!r ! volume or heat+-p[] ( ! /ream4 ,! important results obta9$ dur+ ! ,*all5g] exp$ition h cle>ly prov$ t ,i h nei!r ov]-e/imat$ ! temp]ature nor ! volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,betwe5 ,b]muda & ,s&y ,hook ! /ream is #fj miles broad & #fjj feet deep1 ) a maximum velocity ( f #c to #d miles an h\r4 ,if ! mean velocity ( ! entire section am\nts to #b miles an h\r1 :i* x probably does1 ! volume ( ! /ream mu/ equal t giv5 9 my e/imate4 ,b we h no evid5ce t all ! wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida passes ?r\gh ! section exam9$ by ! (fic]s ( ! ,*all5g]4 ,be ?is1 h[ev]1 z x may1 ! obs]vations made betwe5 ,/4 ,?omas & ,s&y ,hook reveal ! exi/5ce ( an imm5se fl[ ( w>m wat]1 #b1cjj feet deep1 entirely di/9ct f ! wat] includ$ 9 ! above section ( ! ,gulf-/ream prop]4 ,z ! ?icke/ portion ( ?is imm5se body ( wat] jo9s ! w>m wat] ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 ,capta9 ,n>es consid]s t 8x is evid5tly connect$ ) x1 & probably z an (f%oot40 ,at ,s&y ,hook1 accord+ to him1 x ext5ds #a1bjj feet deep] ?an ! ,gulf-/ream itself1 b (f ,*>le/on1 #fjj miles ne>] ! s\rce1 ! same temp]ature is f\nd at ! same dep?4 ,b :e!r x be an (f%oot ( ! ,gulf-/ream or n1 "o ?+ is c]ta91 x c only come f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico or f ! ,c>ibbean ,sea4 ,?is mass ( wat]1 aft] fl[+ nor?w>ds = ab\t #a1jjj miles1 turns to ! "r & crosses ! ,atlantic 9 ! direction ( ! ,azores1 :]e x appe>s to ?9 out4 ,if1 !re=e1 we take into acc\nt ! comb9$ heat convey$ by bo? /reams1 my e/imate ( ! heat transf]r$ f int]-tropical regions into ! ,nor? ,atlantic w be f\nd r "u ?an above ! tru?4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s ,e/imate ( ! ,!rmal ,"w ( ! ,gulf-/ream4--,9 ! app5dix to an elaborate memoir on ,oceanic ,circulation lately read be=e ! ,geographical ,society1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] endeav\rs to %[ t ,i h ov]-e/imat$ ! !rmal "w ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,9 t memoir#ij he has also fav\r$ u ) 8 own e/imate ( ! sectional area1 rate ( fl[1 & temp]ature ( ! /ream4 ,ev5 adopt+ 8 data1 h[ev]1 ,i f9d myself unable to arrive at 8 conclusions4 ,let u consid] fir/ 8 e/imate ( ! sectional area ( ! /ream4 ,he admits t 8x is impossible1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 to arrive at any exact e/imate ( ! sectional area ( ! /ream2 s9ce x is = ! mo/ "p only f ! temp]atures ( its diff]5t /rata t we c judge :e!r !y are1 or are n1 9 movem5t1 & :at is ! direction ( _! movem5t40 ,n[ x is p]fectly evid5t t our e/imate ( ! sectional area ( ! /ream w dep5d ^u :at we assume to be its bottom temp]ature4 ,if1 = example1 we assume #gj to be ! bottom temp]ature1 we %all h a small sectional area4 ,tak+ ! temp]ature at #fj1 ! sectional area w be l>g]1 & if #ej be assum$ to be ! temp]ature1 ! sectional area w be l>g] /ill1 & s on4 ,n[ ! small sectional area obta9$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] arises f ! fact ( 8 hav+ assum$ ! high temp]ature ( #fj to be t ( ! bottom ( ! /ream4 ,he concludes t all ! wat] bel[ #fj has an inw>d fl[1 & t x is only t portion f #fj & upw>ds :i* con/itutes ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,i h be5 unable to f9d any satisfactory evid5ce = assum+ s high a temp]ature = ! bottom ( ! /ream4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! wat] und]ly+ ! ,gulf-/ream is n ! ord9>y wat] ( ! ,atlantic1 b ! cold curr5t f ! arctic regions4 ,9 fact1 x is ! same wat] :i* rea*es ! equator at almo/ e po9t ) a temp]ature n mu* above ! freez+-po9t4 ,x is !re=e highly improbable t ! "u surface ( ! ,gulf-/ream has a temp]ature s high z #fj4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s me?od ( measur+ ! mean velocity ( ! ,gulf-/ream is equally objectionable4 ,he takes ! mean annual rate at ! surface 9 ! 8,n>r[s0 to be two miles an h\r & ! rate at ! bottom to be z]o1 & he concludes f ?is t ! av]age rate ( ! :ole is "o mile an h\r--! ari?metical mean betwe5 ^! two extremes4 ,n[ x w be obs]v$ t ?is conclusion only holds true on ! supposition t ! bread? ( ! /ream is z great at ! bottom z at ! surface1 :i* ( c\rse x is n4 ,all admit t ! sides ( ! ,gulf-/ream are n p]p5dicul>1 b slope some:at 9 ! mann] ( ! banks ( a riv]4 ,! /ream is broad at ! surface & n>r[s t[>ds ! bottom4 ,x is !re=e evid5t t ! upp] half ( ! section has a mu* l>g] area ?an ! l[]2 ! quantity ( wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ! upp] half ) a great] velocity ?an "o mile an h\r mu/ be mu* l>g] ?an ! quantity fl[+ ?r\gh ! l[] half ) a less velocity ?an "o mile an h\r4 ,8 me?od ( e/imat+ ! mean temp]ature ( ! /ream is ev5 m objectionable4 ,he says1 8,! av]age surface temp]ature ( ! ,florida ,*annel = ! :ole ye> is #hj1 & we may set ! av]age ( ! entire outgo+ /ream d[n to ! plane ( #fj at #gj1 in/ead ( #fe1 z e/imat$ by ,mr4 ,croll40 ,if #hj be ! surface & #fj be ! bottom temp]ature1 temp]ature & rate ( velocity be+ assum$ ( c\rse to decrease uni=mly f ! surface d[nw>ds1 h[ is x possible t #gj c be ! av]age temp]ature8 ,! am\nt ( wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ! upp] half ( ! section1 ) a temp]ature above #gj1 is f> m ?an ! am\nt fl[+ ?r\gh ! "u half ( ! section1 ) a temp]ature bel[ #gj4 ,suppos+ ! l[] half ( ! section to be z l>ge z ! upp] half1 :i* x is n1 /ill ! quantity ( wat] fl[+ ?r\gh x w\ld only equal "o-?ird ( t fl[+ ?r\gh ! upp] half1 because ! mean velocity ( ! wat] 9 ! l[] half w\ld be only half a mile p] h\r1 :]eas ! mean velocity ( t 9 ! upp] half w\ld be a mile & a half an h\r4 ,b ! area ( ! l[] half is mu* less ?an t ( ! upp] half1 consequ5tly ! am\nt ( wat] ^: temp]ature is "u #gj mu/ be ev5 mu* "u "o-?ird ( t1 ! temp]ature ( :i* is above #gj4 ,_h ,dr4 ,c>p5t] tak5 ! prop] me?od ( e/imat+ ! mean temp]ature1 he w\ld h f\nd t #ge1 ev5 accord+ to 8 own data1 0 mu* ne>] ! tru? ?an #gj4 ,i po9t$ out1 sev]al ye>s ago1#ia ! fallacy ( e/imat+ ! mean temp]ature ( a /ream 9 ?is way4 ,s high a mean temp]ature z #ge = ! ,gulf-/ream1 ev5 9 ! ,florida ,*annel1 is manife/ly absurd1 b if #fj be ! bottom temp]ature ( ! /ream1 ! mean temp]ature _c possibly be mu* "u t am\nt4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 by "u-e/imat+ ! sectional area ( ! /ream t its mean temp]ature is ov]-e/imat$4 ,we _c r$uce ! mean temp]ature )\t increas+ ! sectional area4 ,if my e/imate ( #fe be tak5 z ! mean temp]ature1 :i* ,i h little d\bt w yet be f\nd to be n f> f ! tru?1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s e/imate ( ! sectional area mu/ be ab&on$4 ,= if #fe be ! mean temp]ature ( ! /ream1 its bottom temp]ature mu/ be f> "u #fj1 & if ! bottom temp]ature be mu* "u #fj1 !n ! sectional area mu/ be great] ?an he e/imates x to be4 ,be ?is1 h[ev]1 z x may2 ev5 if we suppose t #fj w ev5tually be f\nd to be ! actual bottom temp]ature ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 nev]!less1 if ! total quantity ( heat convey$ by ! /ream f int]-tropical regions be e/imat$ 9 ! prop] way1 we %all /ill f9d t am\nt to be s enorm\s1 t !re is n suffici5t heat rema9+ 9 ^? regions to supply ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s oceanic circulation ) a quantity z great = di/ribution 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,x !re=e foll[s 7& s f> z reg>ds ! !ory ( ,secul> *anges ( climate1 ?is is all t is wor? cont5d+ =7 t ,ocean-curr5ts & n a ,g5]al ,oceanic ,circulation result+ f gravity1 are ! great ag5ts employ$ 9 ! di/ribution ( heat ov] ! globe4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,,f9dlay',s ,,objections ,,consid]$4 ,mr4 ,f9dlay's ,e/imate ( ! ,volume ( ! ,gulf-/ream4--,mean ,temp]ature ( a ,cross ,section less ?an ,mean ,temp]ature ( ,/ream4--,reason ( su* ,div]sity ( ,op9ion reg>d+ ,ocean-curr5ts4--,m rigid ,me?od ( ,inve/igation necess>y4 ,at ! conclusion ( ! read+ ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s pap] be=e ! ,royal ,geographical ,society1 on ,janu>y #i?1 #ahga1 ,mr4 ,f9dlay made ! foll[+ rem>ks3-- 8,:51 by ! direction ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,gov]nm5t1 t5 or elev5 ye>s ago1 ! n>r[e/ "p ( ! ,gulf-/ream 0 exam9$1 figures 7 obta9$ :i* %ut out all idea ( its ev] rea*+ our %ores z a heat-be>+ curr5t4 ,9 ! n>r[e/ "p1 c]ta9ly n m ?an f #bej to #cjj cubic miles ( wat] pass p] diem4 ,six mon?s aft]w>ds t wat] rea*es ! banks ( ,newf\ndl&1 & n9e or twelve mon?s aft]w>ds ! coa/ ( ,engl&1 by :i* "t x is popul>ly suppos$ to cov] an area ( #a1ejj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,! proportion ( ! wat] t passes ?r\gh ! ,gulf ( ,florida w n make a lay] ( wat] m ?an #f in*es ?ick p] diem ov] su* a space4 ,e "o kn[s h[ soon a cup ( tea cools2 & yet x is commonly imag9$ t a film ( only a few in*es 9 dep?1 aft] ! lapse ( s long a "t1 has an effect ^u our climate4 ,!re is no ne$ = calculations2 ! ?+ is self-evid5t40#ib ,ab\t five ye>s ago1 ,mr4 ,f9dlay object$ to ! conclusions :i* ,i _h arriv$ at reg>d+ ! enorm\s heat+-p[] ( ! ,gulf-/ream on ! gr\nd t ,i _h ov]-e/imat$ ! volume ( ! /ream4 ,he /at$ t its volume 0 only ab\t ! half ( :at ,i _h e/imat$ x to be4 ,to obviate ?is objection1 ,i subsequ5tly r$uc$ ! volume to "o-half ( my =m] e/imate4#ic ,b tak+ ! volume at ?is l[ e/imate1 x 0 nev]!less f\nd t ! quantity ( heat convey$ into ! ,atlantic ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida by means ( ! /ream 0 equal to ab\t "o-f\r? ( all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by ! ,atlantic f ! latitude ( ! ,/rait ( ,florida up to ! ,arctic ,circle4 ,mr4 ,f9dlay1 9 8 pap] read be=e ! ,briti% ,association1 affirm$ t ! volume ( ! /ream is some:]e f #bid to #ccc cubic miles p] day2 b 9 8 rem>ks at ! close ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s address1 he /at$ x to be n great] ?an f #bej to #cjj cubic miles p] day4 ,i am unable to reconcile any ( ^? figures ) ! data f :i* he appe>s to h d]iv$ !m4 ,9 8 pap] to ! ,briti% ,association1 he rem>ks t 8! ,gulf-/ream at its outset is n m ?an #ci miles wide1 & #a1bjj feet deep40 ,f all atta9able data1 he computes ! mean annual rate ( motion to be #fed miles p] day2 b z ! rate decreases ) ! dep?1 ! mean velocity ( ! :ole mass does n exce$ #did miles p] day4 ,:5 he speaks ( ! mean velocity ( ! ,gulf-/ream be+ s & s1 he mu/ ref] to ! mean velocity at "s p>ticul> place4 ,?is is evid5t2 = ! mean velocity entirely dep5ds ^u ! sectional area ( ! /ream4 ,! place :]e ! mean velocity is #did miles p] day mu/ be ! place :]e x is #ci miles broad & #a1bjj feet deep2 = he is "h endeav\r+ to %[ u h[ small ! volume ( ! /ream actually is4 ,n[1 unless ! mean velocity ref]s to ! place :]e he gives u ! bread? & dep? ( ! /ream1 8 figures h no be>+ on ! po9t 9 "q4 ,b a /ream #ci miles broad & #a1bjj feet deep has a sectional area ( #hig squ>e miles1 & ?is1 ) a mean velocity ( #did miles p] day1 w give #ddc cubic miles ( wat]4 ,! am\nt1 accord+ to my e/imate1 is #dei cubic miles p] day2 x !re=e exce$s ,mr4 ,f9dlay's e/imate by only #af cubic miles4 ,mr4 ,f9dlay does n1 z f> z ,i "k1 consid] t ,i h ov]-e/imat$ ! mean temp]ature ( ! /ream4 ,he /ates#id t betwe5 ,s& ,key & ,havana ! ,gulf-/ream is ab\t #a1bjj feet deep1 & t x does n rea* ! summit ( a subm>9e ridge1 :i* he /ates has a temp]ature ( #fj4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t ! bottom ( ! /ream has a temp]ature ( at lea/ #fj1 :i* is )9 #e ( :at ,i reg>d z ! mean temp]ature ( ! mass4 ,b ! surface ( ! /ream is at lea/ #ag above ?is mean4 ,n[1 :5 we consid] t x is at ! upp] p>ts ( ! /ream1 ! place :]e ! temp]ature is s mu* above #fe1 t ! motion is greate/1 x is evid5t t ! mean temp]ature ( ! entire mov+ mass mu/1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,f9dlay1 be consid]ably ov] #fe4 ,x !re=e foll[s1 accord+ to 8 own data1 t ! ,gulf-/ream conveys into ! ,atlantic an am\nt ( heat equal to "o-f\r? ( all ! heat :i* ! ,atlantic1 f ! latitude ( ! ,/raits ( ,florida up to ! arctic regions1 d]ives f ! sun4 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t al?\gh ! mean temp]ature ( ! cross section %\ld be bel[ #fe1 x does n !re=e foll[ t ! mean temp]ature ( ! wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ?is cross section mu/ be bel[ t temp]ature1 = x is p]fectly obvi\s t ! mean temp]ature ( ! mass ( wat] fl[+ ?r\gh ! cross section 9 a giv5 "t mu/ be mu* high] ?an t ( ! cross section itself4 ,! reason is v simple4 ,x is 9 ! upp] half ( ! section :]e ! high temp]ature exi/s2 b z ! velocity ( ! /ream is mu* great] 9 its upp] ?an 9 its l[] half1 ! great] portion ( ! wat] pass+ ?r\gh ?is cross section is wat] ( high temp]ature4 ,b ev5 suppos+ we 7 to halve ,mr4 ,f9dlay's own e/imate1 & assume t ! volume ( ! /ream is equal to only #bbb cubic miles ( wat] p] day in/ead ( #ddc1 /ill ! am\nt ( heat convey$ w\ld be equal to "o-eigh? "p ( ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by ! ,atlantic4 ,b w\ld n ! )drawal ( an am\nt ( heat equal to "o-eigh? ( t receiv$ f ! sun greatly affect ! climate ( ! ,atlantic8 ,suppos+ we take ! mean temp]ature ( ! ,atlantic at1 say1 #ef2 ?is w make its temp]ature #bie above t ( space4 ,ext+ui% ! sun & /op ! ,gulf-/ream1 & ! temp]ature ought to s9k #bie4 ,h[ f>1 !n1 ought ! temp]ature to s9k1 suppos+ ! sun to rema9 & ! ,gulf-/ream to /op8 ,w\ld n ! )drawal ( ! /ream cause ! temp]ature to s9k "s #cj8 ,( c\rse1 if ! ,gulf-/ream 7 )drawn & ev]y?+ else 7 to rema9 ! same1 ! temp]ature ( ! ,atlantic w\ld n actually rema9 #cj l[] ?an at pres5t2 = heat w\ld fl[ 9 f all sides & p>tly make up = ! loss ( ! /ream4 ,b nev]!less #cj repres5ts ! am\nt ( temp]ature ma9ta9$ by means ( ! heat f ! /ream4 ,& ?is1 be x obs]v$1 is tak+ ! volume ( ! /ream at a l[] e/imate ?an ev5 ,mr4 ,f9dlay himself w\ld be will+ to admit4 ,mr4 ,f9dlay says t1 by ! "t ! ,gulf-/ream rea*es ! %ores ( ,engl&1 x is suppos$ to cov] a space ( #a1ejj1jjj squ>e miles4 8,! proportion ( wat] t passes ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida w n make10 accord+ to him1 8a lay] ( wat] m ?an #f in*es ?ick p] diem ov] su* a space40 ,b a lay] ( wat] #f in*es ?ick cool+ #be w give out #egi1jjj foot-p\nds ( heat p] squ>e foot4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! ,gulf-/ream1 z he ass]ts1 supplies #f in*es p] day to t area1 !n e squ>e foot ( ! area gives (f p] day #egi1jjj foot-p\nds ( heat4 ,! am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun p] squ>e foot 9 latitude #ee1 :i* is n mu* above ! mean latitude ( ,great ,brita91 is #a1jdg1gcj foot-p\nds p] day1 tak+1 ( c\rse1 ! mean ( ! :ole ye>2 consequ5tly ?is lay] ( wat] gives out an am\nt ( heat equal to m ?an "o-half ( all t is receiv$ f ! sun4 ,b assum+ t ! /ream %\ld leave ! half ( its heat on ! ,am]ican %ores & c>ry to ! %ores ( ,brita9 only #ab ( heat1 /ill we %\ld h #bhi1ejj foot-p\nds p] squ>e foot1 :i* not)/&+ is m ?an equal to "o-f\r? ( t receiv$ f ! sun4 ,if an am\nt ( heat s enorm\s _c affect climate1 :at c8 ,i %all j allude to "o o!r errone\s notion :i* prevails 9 reg>d to ! ,gulf-/ream2 b x is an error :i* ,i by no means attribute ei!r to ,mr4 ,f9dlay or to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,! error to :i* ,i ref] is t ( suppos+ t :5 ! ,gulf-/ream wid5s out to hundr$s ( miles1 z x does be=e x rea*es our %ores1 its dep? mu/ on ?is acc\nt be mu* less ?an :5 x issues f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,al?\gh ! /ream may be hundr$s ( miles 9 bread?1 !re is no necessity :y x %\ld be only #f in*es1 or #f feet1 or #fj feet1 or ev5 #fjj feet 9 dep?4 ,x may j z likely be #f1jjj feet deep z #f in*es4 ,! ,reason :y su* ,div]sity ( ,op9ion prevails 9 ,reg>d to ,ocean-curr5ts4--,9 conclusion ,i v5ture to rem>k t m ?an n9e-t5?s ( all ! error & unc]ta9ty :i* prevail1 bo? 9 reg>d to ! cause ( ocean-curr5ts & to _! influ5ce on climate1 is due1 n1 z is g5]ally suppos$1 to ! intr9sic difficulties ( ! subject1 b r to ! defective me?ods :i* h hi!rto be5 employ$ 9 its inve/igation--t is1 9 n treat+ ! subject accord+ to ! rigid me?ods adopt$ 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( physics4 ,:at ,i mo/ p>ticul>ly allude to is ! disreg>d paid to ! mod]n me?od ( det]m9+ ! am\nt ( effects 9 absolute measure4 ,b let me n be misund]/ood on ?is po9t4 ,i by no means suppose t ! absolute quantity is ! ?+ always requir$ = its own sake4 ,x is 9 mo/ cases requir$ simply z a means to an end2 & v (t5 t end is ! k ( ! relative quantity4 ,take1 = example1 ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,suppose ! "q is ask$1 to :at ext5t does ! heat convey$ by t /ream influ5ce ! climate ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic8 ,9 ord] to ! prop] answ]+ ( ?is "q1 ! pr9cipal ?+ requir$ is to "k :at proportion ! am\nt ( heat convey$ by ! /ream into ! ,atlantic be>s to t receiv$ f ! sun by t area4 ,we want ! relative proportions ( ^! two quantities4 ,b h[ are we to obta9 !m8 ,we c only d s by det]m9+ fir/ ! absolute quantity ( ea*4 ,we mu/ fir/ measure ea* be=e we c "k h[ mu* ! "o is great] ?an ! o!r1 or1 9 o!r words1 be=e we c "k _! relative proportions4 ,we h ! means ( det]m9+ ! absolute am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun by a giv5 area at any latitude ) tol]able accuracy2 b ! same _c be done ) equal accuracy 9 reg>d to ! am\nt ( heat convey$ by ! ,gulf-/ream1 because ! volume & mean temp]ature ( ! /ream are n kn[n ) c]ta9ty4 ,nev]!less we h suffici5t data to enable u to fix ^u su* a maximum & m9imum value to ^! quantities z w induce u to admit t ! tru? mu/ lie some:]e betwe5 !m4 ,9 ord] to give full ju/ice to ^? :o ma9ta9 t ! ,gulf-/ream ex]cises b little influ5ce on climate1 & to put an end to all fur!r objections z to ! unc]ta9ty ( my data1 ,i %all take a m9imum to :i* none ( !m surely c reasonably object1 viz4 t ! volume ( ! /ream is n ov] #bcj cubic miles p] day1 & ! heat convey$ p] p\nd ( wat] n ov] #ab units4 ,calculat+ f ^! data1 we f9d t ! am\nt ( heat c>ri$ into ! ,nor? ,atlantic is equal to "o-sixte5? ( all ! heat receiv$ f ! sun by t area4 ,!re are1 ,i presume1 few :o w n admit t ! actual proportion is mu* high] ?an ?is1 probably z high z #a to #c1 or #a to #d4 ,b1 :o1 )\t adopt+ ! me?od ,i h pursu$1 c\ld ev] h come to ! conclusion t ! proportion 0 ev5 #a to #af8 ,he might h guess$ x to be #a to #ajj or #a to #ajjj1 b he nev] w\ld h guess$ x to be #a to #af4 ,h5ce ! reason :y ! great influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream z a heat+ ag5t has be5 s mu* "u-e/imat$4 ,! same rem>ks apply to ! gravitation !ory ( ! cause ( curr5ts4 ,view$ simply z a !ory x looks v reasonable4 ,!re is no "o acqua9t$ ) physics b w admit t ! t5d5cy ( ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equator & ! poles is to cause a surface curr5t f ! equator t[>ds ! poles1 & an "u curr5t f ! poles to ! equator4 ,b be=e we c prove t ?is t5d5cy does actually produce su* curr5ts1 ano!r "q mu/ be settl$1 viz4 is ?is =ce suffici5tly great to produce ! requir$ motion8 ,n[ :5 we apply ! me?od to :i* ,i ref]1 & det]m9e ! absolute am\nt ( ! =ce result+ f ! diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 we discov] t n to be ! p[]ful ag5t :i* ! advocates ( ! gravitation !ory suppose1 b a =ce s inf9itesimal z n to be wor?y ( be+ tak5 into acc\nt :5 consid]+ ! causes by :i* curr5ts are produc$4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,w9d ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation4 ,ocean-curr5ts n due alone to ! ,trade-w9ds4--,an ,objection by ,maury4--,trade-w9ds d n expla9 ! ,great ,ant>ctic ,curr5t4--,ocean-curr5ts due to ! ,sy/em ( ,w9ds4--,! ,sy/em ( ,curr5ts agrees ) ! ,sy/em ( ! ,w9ds4--,*>t %[+ ! ,agreem5t betwe5 ! ,sy/em ( ,curr5ts & ,sy/em ( ,w9ds4--,cause ( ! ,gibralt> ,curr5t4--,nor? ,atlantic an imm5se ,:irlpool4--,!ory ( ,"u ,curr5ts4--,difficulty reg>d+ ,"u ,curr5ts obviat$4--,"w p]=m$ by ! ,w9d 9 impell+ ! ,wat] =w>d4--,! ,*all5g]'s crucial ,te/ ( ! ,w9d & ,gravitation ,!ories4--,nor? ,atlantic above ! ,level ( ,equator4--,!rmal ,condition ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean irreconcilable ) ! ,gravitation ,!ory4 ,ocean-curr5ts n due alone to ! ,trade-w9ds4--,! g5]ally receiv$ op9ion among/ ! advocates ( ! w9d !ory ( oceanic circulation is t ! ,gulf-/ream & o!r curr5ts ( ! ocean are due to ! impulse ( ! trade-w9ds4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! trade-w9ds is to impel ! int]-tropical wat]s along ! l9e ( ! equator f ea/ to we/2 & 7 ^? regions n occupi$ 9 "s places by l&1 ?is equatorial curr5t w\ld fl[ directly r\nd ! globe4 ,its we/w>d progress1 h[ev]1 is arre/$ by ! two great cont95ts1 ! old & ! new4 ,on approa*+ ! l& ! curr5t bifurcates1 "o portion tr5d+ nor?w>ds & ! o!r s\?w>ds4 ,! nor!rn bran* ( ! equatorial curr5t ( ! ,atlantic passes into ! ,c>ibbean ,sea1 & aft] mak+ a circuit ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 fl[s nor?w>d & cont9ues its c\rse into ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,! s\!rn bran*1 on ! o!r h&1 is deflect$ along ! ,s\?-,am]ican coa/1 con/itut+ :at is kn[n z ! ,brazilian curr5t4 ,9 ! ,pacific a simil> deflection occurs aga9/ ! ,asiatic coa/1 =m+ a curr5t some:at resembl+ ! ,gulf-/ream1 a portion ( :i* 7,kamts*atka curr5t7 9 l mann] passes into ! arctic regions4 ,9 ref]5ce to all ^! v>i\s curr5ts1 ! impell+ cause is suppos$ to be ! =ce ( ! trade-w9ds4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 urg$ z an objection by ,maury & o!r advocates ( ! gravitation !ory1 t a curr5t l ! ,gulf-/ream1 ext5d+ z f> z ! arctic regions1 c\ld n possibly be impell$ & ma9ta9$ by a =ce act+ at ! equatorial regions4 ,b ?is is a some:at weak objection4 ,x seems to be bas$ ^u a misconception ( ! magnitude ( ! =ce 9 op]ation4 ,x does n take into acc\nt t ?is =ce acts on ne>ly ! :ole area ( ! ocean 9 int]-tropical regions4 ,if1 9 a bas9 ( wat]1 say ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 a =ce is appli$ suffici5t to produce a surface-fl[ "o foot broad across ! c5tre ( ! bas91 ! wat] impell$ aga9/ ! side w be deflect$ to ! extremes ( ! vessel4 ,& ?is result does n 9 any way dep5d ^u ! size ( ! bas94 ,! same effect :i* occurs 9 a small bas9 w occur 9 a l>ge "o1 provid$ ! proportion betwe5 ! bread? ( ! belt ( wat] put 9 motion & ! size ( ! vessel be ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,x does n matt]1 !re=e1 :e!r ! diamet] ( ! bas9 be suppos$ to be ?ree feet1 or ?ree ?\s& miles1 or t5 ?\s& miles4 ,!re is a m =midable objection1 h[ev]1 to ! !ory4 ,! trade-w9ds w acc\nt = ! ,gulf-/ream1 ,brazil1 ,japan1 ,mozambique1 & _m o!r curr5ts2 b !re are curr5ts1 su* z "s ( ! pol> curr5ts1 :i* _c be s acc\nt$ =4 ,take1 = example1 ! great ant>ctic curr5t fl[+ nor?w>d into ! ,pacific4 ,?is curr5t does n b5d to ! left "u ! influ5ce ( ! e>?'s rotation & cont9ue its c\rse 9 a nor?-we/]ly direction1 b actually b5ds r\nd to ! "r & fl[s ea/w>d aga9/ ! ,s\?-,am]ican coa/1 9 direct opposition bo? to ! influ5ce ( rotation & to ! trade-w9ds4 ,! trade-w9d !ory1 !re=e1 is insuffici5t to acc\nt = all ! facts4 ,b !re is yet ano!r explanation1 :i* satisfactorily solves our difficulties4 ,! curr5ts ( ! ocean owe _! orig91 n to ! trade-w9ds alone1 b to ! prevail+ w9ds ( ! globe 7includ+1 ( c\rse1 ! trade-w9ds74 ,ocean-curr5ts due to ! ,sy/em ( ,w9ds4--,if we leave out ( acc\nt a few small inl& %eets ( wat]1 ! globe may be said to h b "o sea1 j z x possesses only "o atmosph]e4 ,we h accu/om$ ourselves1 h[ev]1 to speak ( p>ts or geographical divisions ( ! "o great ocean1 su* z ! ,atlantic & ! ,pacific1 z if !y 7 s _m sep>ate oceans4 ,& we h likewise come to reg>d ! curr5ts ( ! ocean z sep>ate & indep5d5t ( "o ano!r4 ,?is notion has no d\bt to a consid]able ext5t militat$ aga9/ ! acceptance ( ! !ory t ! curr5ts are caus$ by ! w9ds1 & n by diff]5ce ( specific gravity2 = x leads to ! conclusion t curr5ts 9 a sea mu/ fl[ 9 ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds bl[+ ov] t p>ticul> sea4 ,! prop] view ( ! matt]1 z ,i hope to be able to %[1 is t :i* reg>ds ! v>i\s curr5ts m]ely z memb]s ( "o gr& sy/em ( circulation produc$1 n by ! trade-w9ds alone1 nor by ! prevail+ w9ds prop] alone1 b by ! comb9$ action ( all ! prevail+ w9ds ( ! globe1 reg>d$ z "o sy/em ( circulation4 ,if ! w9ds be ! impell+ cause ( curr5ts1 ! direction ( ! curr5ts w dep5d ^u two circum/ances1 viz43--7#a7 ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds ( ! globe1 includ+1 ( c\rse1 "u ?is t]m ! prevail+ w9ds prop] & ! trade-w9ds2 & 7#b7 ! con=mation ( l& & sea4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t z a curr5t 9 any giv5 sea is b a memb] ( a g5]al sy/em ( circulation1 its direction is det]m9$1 n alone by ! prevail+ w9ds bl[+ ov] ! sea 9 "q1 b by ! g5]al sy/em ( prevail+ w9ds4 ,x may consequ5tly sometimes happ5 t ! g5]al sy/em ( w9ds may produce a curr5t directly opposite to ! prevail+ w9d bl[+ ov] ! curr5t4 ,! accompany+ ,*>t 7,plate ,i47 %[s h[ exactly ! sy/em ( ocean-curr5ts agrees ) ! sy/em ( ! prevail+ w9ds4 ,! f9e l9es indicate ! pa?s ( ! prevail+ w9ds1 & ! f9e arr[s ! direction 9 :i* ! w9d bl[s along ^? pa?s4 ,! l>ge arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! pr9cipal ocean-curr5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,i4 ,,*>t ,,%[+ ,,! ,,g5]al ,,agreem5t ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,ocean ,,curr5ts ,,& ,,w9ds4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,john/on1 ,ed9br4 & ,london4 ,! directions & pa?s ( ! prevail+ w9ds h be5 tak5 f ,messrs4 ,john/on's small physical ,atlas1 :i*1 ,i f9d1 agrees exactly ) ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds z d$uc$ f ! f\r qu>t]ly w9d *>ts lately publi%$ by ! ,hydrographic ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,admiralty4 ,! direction ( ! ocean-curr5ts has be5 tak5 f ! ,curr5t-*>t publi%$ by ! ,admiralty4 ,9 e case1 )\t exception1 ! direction ( ! ma9 curr5ts ( ! globe agrees exactly ) ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds4 ,!re c\ld n possibly be a m conv9c+ pro( t ^? w9ds are ! cause ( ! ocean-curr5ts ?an ?is g5]al agreem5t ( ! two sy/ems z indicat$ by ! *>t4 ,take1 = example1 ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,! ,gulf-/ream foll[s exactly ! pa? ( ! prevail+ w9ds4 ,! ,gulf-/ream bifurcates 9 mid-,atlantic2 s does ! w9d4 ,! left bran* ( ! /ream passes nor?-ea/w>ds into ! arctic regions1 & ! "r bran* s\?-ea/w>ds by ! ,azores2 s does ! w9d4 ,! s\?-ea/]n bran* ( ! /ream1 aft] pass+ ! ,can>ies1 re-ent]s ! equatorial curr5t & fl[s into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico2 ! same1 x w be obs]v$1 holds true ( ! w9d4 ,a l rem>kable agreem5t exi/s 9 ref]5ce to all ! o!r lead+ curr5ts ( ! ocean4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly se5 9 ! case ( ! great ant>ctic curr5t betwe5 long4 #adj ,w4 & #afj ,w4 ,?is curr5t1 fl[+ nor?w>ds f ! ant>ctic regions1 in/ead ( b5d+ to ! left "u ! influ5ce ( rotation1 turns to ! "r :5 x ent]s ! regions ( ! we/]ly w9ds1 & fl[s ea/w>ds t[>ds ! ,s\?-,am]ican %ores4 ,9 fact1 all ! curr5ts 9 ?is region ( /rong we/]ly w9ds fl[ 9 an ea/]ly or nor?-ea/]ly direction4 ,tak+ into acc\nt ! effects result+ f ! con=mation ( sea & l&1 ! sy/em ( ocean-curr5ts agrees precisely ) ! sy/em ( ! w9ds4 ,all ! pr9cipal curr5ts ( ! globe are 9 fact mov+ 9 ! exact direction 9 :i* !y ought to move1 assum+ ! w9ds to be ! sole impell+ cause4 ,9 %ort1 s p]fect is ! agreem5t betwe5 ! two sy/ems1 t1 giv5 ! sy/em ( w9ds & ! con=mation ( sea & l&1 & ! direction ( all ! curr5ts ( ! ocean1 or m prop]ly ! sy/em ( oceanic circulation1 might be det]m9$ priori4 ,or giv5 ! sy/em ( ! ocean-curr5ts toge!r ) ! con=mation ( sea & l&1 & ! direction ( ! prevail+ w9ds c\ld also be det]m9$ priori4 ,or1 ?irdly1 giv5 ! sy/em ( w9ds & ! sy/em ( curr5ts1 & ! con=mation ( sea & l& might be r\ghly det]m9$4 ,= example1 x c be %[n by ?is means t ! ant>ctic regions are probably occupi$ by a cont95t & n by a numb] ( sep>ate isl&s1 nor by sea4 ,:ile hold+ t ! curr5ts ( ! ocean =m "o sy/em ( circulation1 we mu/ n be suppos$ to mean t ! v>i\s curr5ts are connect$ end to end1 hav+ ! same wat] fl[+ ?r\gh !m all 9 succession l t 9 a heat+ app>atus4 ,all t is ma9ta9$ is simply ?is1 t ! curr5ts are s mutually relat$ t any great *ange 9 "o w\ld modify ! conditions ( all ! o!rs4 ,= example1 a great increase or decrease 9 ! ea/]ly fl[ ( ant>ctic wat] 9 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean w\ld decrease or increase1 z ! case might be1 ! /r5g? ( ! ,we/ ,au/ralian curr5t2 & ?is *ange w\ld modify ! equatorial curr5t ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 a modification :i* 9 l mann] w\ld affect ! ,agulhas curr5t & ! ,s\!rn ,atlantic curr5t--?is la/ lead+ 9 turn to a modification ( ! equatorial curr5t ( ! ,atlantic1 & consequ5tly ( ! ,brazilian curr5t & ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,fur!rmore1 s9ce a curr5t impell$ by ! w9ds1 z ,mr4 ,laughton 9 8 excell5t pap] on ,ocean-curr5ts ju/ly rem>ks1 t5ds to leave a vacancy beh9d1 x foll[s t a decrease or increase 9 ! ,gulf-/ream w\ld affect ! equatorial curr5t1 ! ,agulhas curr5t1 & all ! o!r curr5ts back to ! ant>ctic curr5ts4 ,aga91 a l>ge modification 9 ! great ant>ctic drift-curr5t w\ld 9 l mann] affect all ! curr5ts ( ! ,pacific4 ,on ! o!r h&1 any great *ange 9 ! curr5ts ( ! ,pacific w\ld ultimately affect ! curr5ts ( ! ,atlantic & ,indian ,oceans1 ?r\gh its influ5ce on ! ,cape ,horn curr5t1 ! ,s\? ,au/ralian curr5t1 & ! curr5t pass+ ?r\gh ! ,asiatic ar*ipelago2 & vice v]s1 any *anges 9 ! curr5ts ( ! ,atlantic or ,indian ,oceans w\ld modify ! curr5ts ( ! ,pacific4 ,cause ( ,gibralt> ,curr5t4--,i may n[ consid] ! cause ( ! ,gibralt> curr5t4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ?is curr5t owes its orig9 7z ,mr4 ,laughton po9ts out7 to ! ,gulf-/ream4 8,i conceive10 t au?or rem>ks1 8t ! ,gibralt> curr5t is di/9ctly a /ream =m$ by ea/]ly drift ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 :i*1 al?\gh x =ms a s\!rly curr5t on ! coa/ ( ,portugal1 is /ill /rongly press$ to ! ea/w>d & seeks ! fir/ escape x c f9d4 ,s great inde$ does ?is pressure seem to be1 t m wat] is =c$ ?r\gh ! ,/raits ?an ! ,m$it]ranean c receive1 & a "p ( x is eject$ 9 rev]se curr5ts1 "s z lat]al curr5ts on ! surface1 "s1 x appe>s1 z an "u curr5t at a consid]able dep?40#ie ,! funnel-%ap$ nature ( ! /rait ?r\gh :i* ! wat] is impell$ helps to expla9 ! exi/5ce ( ! "u curr5t4 ,! wat] be+ press$ into ! n>r[ neck ( ! *annel t5ds to produce a slight bank+ up2 & z ! pressure urg+ ! wat] =w>d is greate/ at ! surface & dim9i%es rapidly d[nw>ds1 ! t5d5cy to ! re/oration ( level w cause an und]fl[ t[>ds ! ,atlantic1 because bel[ ! surface ! wat] w f9d ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,x is evid5t inde$ t ?is und]fl[ w n take place t[>d ! ,m$it]ranean1 f ! fact t t sea is already fill$ to ov]fl[+ by ! curr5t receiv$ f ! outside ocean4 ,if we exam9e ! ,curr5t-*>t publi%$ by ! ,hydrographic ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,admiralty1 we %all f9d ! ,gibralt> curr5t repres5t$ z m]ely a cont9uation ( ! ,s4,e4 fl[ ( ,gulf-/ream wat]4 ,n[1 if ! arr[s %[n ^u ?is *>t indicate correctly ! direction ( ! fl[1 we mu/ become conv9c$ t ! ,gulf-/ream wat] _c possibly avoid pass+ ?r\gh ! ,gibralt> ,/rait4 ,( c\rse ! excess ( evaporation ov] t ( precipitation )9 ! ,m$it]ranean area w\ld alone suffice to produce a consid]able curr5t ?r\gh ! ,/rait2 b ?is ( itself w\ld n fill t inl& sea to ov]fl[+4#if ,! ,atlantic may1 9 fact1 be reg>d$ z an imm5se :irlpool ) ! ,s>agossa ,sea z its vortex2 & al?\gh x is true1 z w be se5 f an inspection ( ! ,*>t1 t ! w9d bl[s r\nd ! ,atlantic along ! v pa? tak5 by ! wat]1 impell+ ! wat] =w>d along e in* ( its c\rse1 yet nev]!less x mu/ hold equally true t ! wat] has a t5d5cy to fl[ (f 9 a /raight l9e at a tang5t to ! circul> c\rse 9 :i* x is mov+4 ,b ! wat] is s hemm$ 9 on all sides t x _c leave ?is circul> pa? except only at two po9ts2 & at ^! two po9ts x actually does fl[ outw>ds4 ,on ! ea/ & we/ sides ! l& prev5ts any su* outfl[4 ,simil>ly1 9 ! s\? ! escape ( ! wat] is fru/rat$ by ! pressure ( ! oppos+ curr5ts fl[+ f t qu>t]2 :ile 9 ! nor? x is prev5t$ by ! pressure ex]t$ by pol> curr5ts f ,davis ,/rait & ! ,arctic ,ocean4 ,b 9 ! ,/rait ( ,gibralt> & 9 ! nor?-ea/]n portion ( ! ,atlantic betwe5 ,icel& & ! nor?-ea/]n %ores ( ,europe !re is no resi/ance (f]$3 & at ^! two po9ts an outfl[ does actually take place4 ,9 bo? cases1 h[ev]1 especially ! latt]1 ! outfl[ is greatly aid$ by ! impulse ( ! prevail+ w9ds4 ,no "o1 :o w glance at ! accompany+ *>t 7,plate ,i47 %[+ h[ ! nor?-ea/]n bran* ( ! ,gulf-/ream b5ds r\nd &1 ( c\rse1 necess>ily presses aga9/ ! coa/1 c fail to und]/& h[ ! ,atlantic wat] %\ld be impell$ into ! ,gibralt> ,/rait1 ev5 al?\gh ! loss su/a9$ by ! ,m$it]ranean f evaporation did n exce$ ! ga9 f ra9 & riv]s4 ,!ory ( ,"u ,curr5ts4--,! consid]ation t ocean-curr5ts are simply p>ts ( a sy/em ( circulation produc$ by ! sy/em ( prevail+ w9ds1 & n by ! impulse ( ! trade-w9ds alone1 helps to remove ! difficulty :i* "s h 9 acc\nt+ = ! exi/5ce ( "u curr5ts )\t ref]r+ !m to diff]5ce ( specific gravity4 ,take ! case ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 :i* passes "u ! pol> /ream on ! we/ ( ,spitzb]g51 ?is latt] /ream pass+ 9 turn "u ! ,gulf-/ream a little beyond ,be> ,isl&4 ,! pol> /reams h _! orig9 9 ! region ( prevail+ nor!rly w9ds1 :i* no d\bt ext5ds to ! pole4 ,! curr5t fl[+ pa/ ! we/]n %ores ( ,spitzb]g51 ?r\gh\t its entire c\rse up to ne> ! po9t :]e x disappe>s "u ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 lies 9 ! region ( ^! same nor!rly w9ds4 ,n[ :y %\ld ?is curr5t cease to be a surface curr5t z soon z x passes out ( ! region ( nor!rly into t ( s\?-we/]ly w9ds8 ,! explanation seems to be ?is3 :5 ! /ream ent]s ! region ( prevail+ s\?-we/]ly w9ds1 its progress s\?w>ds along ! surface ( ! ocean is ret>d$ bo? by ! w9d & by ! surface wat] mov+ 9 opposition to its c\rse2 b be+ cont9ually press$ =w>d by ! impulse ( ! nor!rly w9ds act+ along its :ole c\rse back almo/ to ! pole1 p]haps1 or z f> nor? at lea/ z ! sea is n :olly cov]$ ) ice1 ! pol> curr5t _c /op :5 x ent]s ! region ( oppos+ w9ds & curr5ts2 x mu/ move =w>d4 ,b ! wat] ?us press$ f beh9d w naturally take ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,n[ 9 ! pres5t case ?is pa? w necess>ily lie at a consid]able di/ance bel[ ! surface4 ,_h ! pol> /ream simply to cont5d ) ! ,gulf-/ream fl[+ 9 ! opposite direction1 x w\ld probably keep ! surface & cont9ue its c\rse along ! side ( t /ream2 b x is oppos$ by ! w9ds1 f :i* x _c escape except by dipp+ d[n "u ! surface2 & ! dep? to :i* x w desc5d w dep5d ^u ! dep? ( ! surface curr5t fl[+ 9 ! opposite direction4 ,!re is no necessity = suppos+ a heap+ up ( ! wat] 9 ord] to produce by pressure a =ce suffici5t to impel ! "u curr5t4 ,! pressure ( ! wat] f beh9d is ( itself en\gh4 ,! same explanation1 ( c\rse1 applies to ! case ( ! ,gulf-/ream pass+ "u ! pol> /ream4 ,& if we reflect t ^! "u curr5ts are b p>ts ( ! g5]al sy/em ( circulation1 & t 9 mo/ cases !y are curr5ts comp5sat+ = wat] dra9$ (f at "s o!r qu>t]1 we ne$ n wond] at ! di/ance :i* !y may 9 "s cases fl[1 z1 = example1 f ! banks ( ,newf\ndl& to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico4 ,! "u curr5ts ( ! ,gulf-/ream are necess>y to comp5sate = ! wat] impell$ s\?w>ds by ! nor!rly w9ds2 & aga91 ! pol> "u curr5ts are necess>y to comp5sate = ! wat] impell$ nor?w>d by ! s\? & s\?-we/]ly w9ds4 ,b x may be ask$1 h[ d ! oppos+ curr5ts succe$ 9 cross+ ea* o!r8 ,x is evid5t t ! ,gulf-/ream mu/ plunge ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( ! pol> /ream be=e x c become an "u curr5t1 & s likewise mu/ ! cold wat] ( ! pol>-fl[ pass ?r\gh ! g5ial wat] ( ! ,gulf-/ream 9 ord] to get und]nea? x & cont9ue on its c\rse t[>ds ! s\?4 ,! accompany+ diagram 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #a7 w r5d] ?is suffici5tly intelligible4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c ,,plate ,,ii4 ,map %ew+ meet+ ( ! ,gulf-/ream & ,pol> ,curr5t 7f ,dr4 ,pet]mann's ,geographis*e ,mit!ilung547 ,! curv$ l9es are ,iso!rms2 temp]atures are 9 ,fahr5heit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a ,diagram to %ew h[ two oppos+ curr5ts int]sect ea* o!r ,illu/ration3 ,surface ,plan to %ew h[ two oppos+ curr5ts meet ea* o!r ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,john/on1 ,ed9br4 & ,london4 ,fig4 #b ,n[ ^! two great ocean-curr5ts are s compell$ to int]sect ea* o!r = ! simple reason t !y _c turn aside1 ! "o to ! left & ! o!r to ! "r4 ,:5 two broad /reams l ^? 9 "q are press$ up aga9/ ea* o!r1 !y succe$ 9 mutually int]sect+ ea* o!r's pa? by break+ up into b&s or belts--! cold wat] be+ invad$ & pi]c$ z x 7 by long tongues ( w>m wat]1 :ile at ! same "t ! latt] is simil>ly int]sect$ by correspond+ protrusions ( cold wat]4 ,! two /reams become 9 a mann] int]lock$1 & ! "o passes ?r\gh ! o!r v mu* z we pass ! f+]s ( "o h& betwe5 ! f+]s ( ! o!r4 ,! diagram 7,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #b71 repres5t+ ! surface ( ! ocean at ! place ( meet+ ( two oppos+ curr5ts1 w %[ ?is bett] ?an description4 ,at ! surface ! b&s necess>ily assume ! tongue-%ap$ appe>ance repres5t$ 9 ! diagram1 b :5 !y h succe$$ 9 mutually pass+ d[n ?r\gh ! :ole ?ickness ( ! oppos+ curr5ts1 !y !n unite & =m two def9ite "u curr5ts1 fl[+ 9 opposite directions4 ,! pol> b&s1 aft] p5etrat+ ! ,gulf-/ream1 unite bel[ to =m a s\?w>d-fl[+ "u curr5t1 & 9 ! same way ! ,gulf-/ream b&s1 unit+ und]nea? ! pol> curr5t1 cont9ue 9 _! nor!rly c\rse z a broad "u curr5t ( w>m wat]4 ,t ?is is a correct repres5tation ( :at actually occurs 9 nature becomes evid5t f an inspection ( ! curr5t *>ts4 ,?us 9 ! *>t ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic :i* accompanies ,dr4 ,pet]mann's ,memoir on ! ,gulf-/ream1 we obs]ve t s\? ( ,spitzb]g5 ! pol> curr5t & ! ,gulf-/ream are mutually int]p5etrat$--long tongues invad+ & dipp+ d[n und]nea? ! ,gulf-/ream1 :ile 9 l mann] ! pol> curr5t becomes simil>ly int]sect$ by well-m>k$ protrusions ( w>m wat] fl[+ f ! s\?4 7,see ,plate ,,ii41 ,fig4 #c47 ,no accurate obs]vations1 z f> z ,i "k1 h be5 made reg>d+ ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by ! w9d 9 impell+ ! wat] =w>d2 b :5 we consid] ! great ret>d+ effect ( objects on ! e>?'s surface1 x is q app>5t t ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ on ! surface ( ! ocean mu/ be f> great] ?an is g5]ally suppos$4 ,= example1 ,mr4 ,bu*an1 ,secret>y to ! ,scotti% ,meteorological ,society1 has %[n#ig t a f5ce made ( slabs ( wood ?ree in*es 9 wid? & ?ree in*es ap>t f ea* o!r is a protection ev5 dur+ high w9ds to objects on ! lee side ( x1 & t a wire scre5 ) me%es ab\t an in* ap>t af=ds protection dur+ a gale to fl[]-pots4 ,! same writ] 0 in=m$ by ,mr4 ,addie t su* a scre5 put up at ,rockville 0 torn to pieces by a /orm ( w9d1 ! wire scre5 giv+ way mu* 9 ! same way z sails dur+ a hurricane at sea4 ,! 8,*all5g]'s0 ,crucial ,te/ ( ! ,w9d & ,gravitation ,!ories ( ,oceanic ,circulation4--,x has be5 %[n 9 =m] *apt]s t all ! facts :i* h be5 adduc$ 9 support ( ! gravitation !ory are equally well expla9$ by ! w9d !ory4 ,we may n[ consid] a class ( facts :i* d n appe> to h>monize ) ei!r !ory4 ,! rec5t inve/igations ( ! ,*all5g] ,exp$ition into ! !rmal /ate ( ! ocean reveal a condition ( ?+s :i* appe>s to me utt]ly irreconcilable ) ! gravitation !ory4 ,x is a condition absolutely ess5tial to ! gravitation !ory t ! surface ( ! ocean %\ld be highe/ 9 equatorial regions & slope d[nw>ds to ei!r pole4 ,7 wat] absolutely frictionless1 an incl9e1 h[ev] small1 w\ld be suffici5t to produce a surface-fl[ f ! equator to ! poles1 b to induce su* an effect "s slope !re mu/ be1 or gravitation c\ld ex]cise no p[] 9 draw+ ! surface-wat] polew>ds4 ,! rese>*es ( ! ,*all5g] ,exp$ition br+ to light ! /rik+ & important fact t ! g5]al surface ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic 9 ord] to produce equilibrium mu/ /& at a high] level ?an at ! equator4 ,9 o!r words ! surface ( ! ,atlantic is l[e/ at ! equator1 & rises ) a g5tle slope to well-nigh ! latitude ( ,engl&4 ,if ?is be ! case1 !n x is me*anically impossible t1 z f> z ! ,nor? ,atlantic is conc]n$1 !re c be any su* g5]al movem5t z ,dr4 ,c>p5t] believes4 ,gravitation c no m cause ! surface-wat] ( ! ,atlantic to fl[ t[>ds ! arctic regions ?an x c compel ! wat]s ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico up ! ,mississippi into ! ,miss\ri4 ,! impossibility is equally great 9 bo? cases4 ,9 ord] to prove :at has be5 /at$1 let u take a section ( ! mid-,atlantic1 nor? & s\?1 across ! equator2 &1 to give ! gravitation !ory e advantage1 let u select t p>ticul> section adopt$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] z ! "o ( all o!rs mo/ fav\rable to 8 !ory1 viz41 ,section m>k$ ,no4 ,,viii4 9 8 memoir lately read be=e ! ,royal ,geographical ,society4#ih ,! fact t ! pol> cold wat] comes s ne> ! surface at ! equator is reg>d$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] z evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! gravitation !ory4 ,on fir/ look+ at ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s section x =cibly /ruck me t if x 0 accurately drawn1 ! ocean to be 9 equilibrium w\ld require to /& at a high] level 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic ?an at ! equator4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to det]m9e :e!r ?is is ! case or n ,i ask$ ! hydrograph] ( ! ,admiralty to fav\r me ) ! temp]ature s\nd+s indicat$ 9 ! section1 a fav\r :i* 0 mo/ oblig+ly grant$4 ,! foll[+ are ! temp]ature s\nd+s at ! ?ree /ations ,a1 ,b1 & ,c4 ,! temp]ature ( ,c are ! mean ( six s\nd+s tak5 along ne> ! equator3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,a ,b ,c ,dep? ,lat4 #cg #ed ,n4 ,lat4 #bc #aj ,n4 ,mean ( six 9 ,long4 #da #dd ,w4,long4 #ch #db ,w4temp]ature s\nd+s ,fa?oms4 ne> equator4 --------------------- ,temp]ature4 ,temp]ature4 ,dep? 9,temp]ature4 ,fa?oms4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,surface4 #gjj #gbj ,surface4 #ggi #ajj #fce #fgj #aj #ggb #bjj #fjf #egf #bj #gga #cjj #fjj #ebe #cj #gfi #djj #edh #dgg #dj #gag #ejj #dfg #dcg #ej #fdj #fjj #daf #dag #fj #fjd #gjj #djf #djf #gj #eid #hjj #cha #cid #hj #ehj #ijj #cgh #cib #ij #ehj #ajjj #cgi #chc #ajj #eef #aajj #cga #chj #aej #eaj #abjj #cga #cgf #bjj #dff #acjj #cgb #cfg #cjj #dbb #adjj #cga #cfi #djj #djc #aejj 44 #cfg #ejj #chi #bgjj #ceb 44 #fjj #cib #bgbj 44 #ced #gjj #cij #hjj #cia #ijj #chb #ajjj #cfi #aajj #cgf #abjj #cfg #acjj #ceh #adjj #cfd #aejj #cfa ,bottom4 #cdg ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,on comput+ ! ext5t to :i* ! ?ree columns ,a1 ,b1 & ,c are ea* exp&$ by heat accord+ to ,muncke's table ( ! expansion ( sea wat] = e degree ,fahr5heit1 ,i f\nd t column ,b1 9 ord] to be 9 equilibrium ) ,c 7! equatorial column71 w\ld require to h its surface /&+ fully #b feet #f in*es above ! level ( column ,c1 & column ,a fully #c feet #f in*es above t column4 ,9 %ort1 x is evid5t t !re mu/ be a gradual rise f ! equator to latitude #ch ,n4 ( #c feet4 ,any "o c v]ify ! accuracy ( ^! results by mak+ ! necess>y computations = himself4#ii ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iii4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,john/on1 ,ed9br4 & ,london4 ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,atlantic ne>ly ,nor? & ,s\?1 betwe5 ,,lat4 #ch ,n4 ,,lat4 #ch ,s4 ,i may obs]ve t1 _h column ,c ext5d$ to ! same dep? z columns ,a & ,b1 ! diff]5ce ( level w\ld be consid]ably great]1 = column ,c requires to balance only t portion ( columns ,a & ,b :i* lies above ! level ( its base4 ,suppose a dep? ( ocean equal to t ( column ,c to ext5d to ! nor? pole1 & ! pol> wat] to h a uni=m temp]ature ( #cb f ! surface to ! bottom1 !n1 9 ord] to produce equilibrium1 ! surface ( ! ocean at ! equator w\ld require to be #d feet #f in*es above t at ! pole4 ,b ! surface ( ! ocean at ,b w\ld be #g feet1 & at ,a #h feet1 above ! poles4 ,gravitation nev] c\ld h caus$ ! ocean to assume ?is =m4 ,x is impossible t ?is imm5se mass ( w>m wat]1 ext5d+ to su* a dep? 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 c\ld h be5 br\ght f equatorial regions by means ( gravitation4 ,&1 ev5 if we suppose ?is accumulation ( w>m wat] c be acc\nt$ = by "s o!r means1 /ill its pres5ce precludes ! possibility ( any su* surface-fl[ z t advocat$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,= s long z ! ,nor? ,atlantic /&s #c feet above ! level ( ! equator1 gravitation c nev] move ! equatorial wat]s polew>ds4 ,!re is ano!r feature ( ?is section irreconcilable ) ! gravitation !ory4 ,x w be obs]v$ t ! accumulation ( w>m wat] is all 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 & t !re is little or none 9 ! s\?4 ,b accord+ to ! gravitation !ory x ought to h be5 ! rev]se4 ,= ow+ to ! unre/rict$ communication betwe5 ! equatorial & ant>ctic regions1 ! g5]al fl[ ( wat] t[>ds ! s\? pole is1 accord+ to t !ory1 suppos$ to be great] ?an t[>ds ! nor?1 & consequ5tly ! quantity ( w>m equatorial wat] 9 ! ,s\? ,atlantic ought also to be great]4 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] himself seems to be aw>e ( ?is difficulty besett+ ! !ory1 & meets x by /at+ t 8! upp] /ratum ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic is n ne>ly z mu* cool$ d[n by its limit$ pol> und]fl[1 z t ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic is by ! va/ movem5t ( ant>ctic wat] :i* is con/antly tak+ place t[>ds ! equator40 ,b ?is 8va/ movem5t ( ant>ctic wat]0 necess>ily implies a va/ c\nt]-movem5t ( w>m surface-wat]4 ,s t if !re is m pol> wat] 9 ! ,s\? ,atlantic to produce ! cool+ effect1 !re %\ld likewise be m w>m wat] to be cool$4 ,accord+ to ! w9d !ory ( oceanic circulation ! explanation ( ! :ole ph5om5a is simple & obvi\s4 ,x has already be5 %[n t ow+ to ! fact t ! ,s4 ,e4 trades are /rong] ?an ! ,n4 ,e41 & bl[ con/antly ov] ^u ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! w>m surface-wat] ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic is drift$ across ! equator4 ,x is !n c>ri$ by ! equatorial curr5t into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 & aft]w>ds ( c\rse =ms a "p ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,! ,nor? ,atlantic1 on ! o!r h&1 n only does n lose its surface heat l ! equatorial & ,s\? ,atlantic1 b x receives f ! ,gulf-/ream 9 ! =m ( w>m wat] an am\nt ( heat1 z we h se51 equal to "o-f\r? ( all ! heat :i* x receives f ! sun4 ,! reason :y ! w>m surface /rata are s mu* ?ick] on ! ,nor? ,atlantic ?an on ! equatorial regions is p]fectly obvi\s4 ,! surface-wat] at ! equator is swept into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico by ! trade-w9ds & ! equatorial curr5t1 z rapidly z x is heat$ by ! sun1 s t x has n "t to ga!r to any great dep?4 ,b all ?is w>m wat] is c>ri$ by ! ,gulf-/ream into ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 :]e x accumulates4 ,t ?is great dep? ( w>m wat] 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 repres5t$ 9 ! section1 is d]iv$ f ! ,gulf-/ream1 & n f a direct fl[ f ! equator due to gravitation1 is fur!r evid5t f ! fact t temp]ature s\nd+ ,a 9 latitude #ch ,n4 is made ?r\gh t imm5se body ( w>m wat]1 upw>ds ( #cjj fa?oms ?ick1 ext5d+ f ,b]muda to ne> ! ,azores1 discov]$ by ! ,*all5g] ,exp$ition1 & ju/ly reg>d$ by ,capta9 ,n>es z an (f%oot ( ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,?is1 9 ,capta9 ,n>es's ,report1 is ,no4 #h 8temp]ature s\nd+10 betwe5 ,b]muda & ! ,azores2 s\nd+ ,b is ,no4 #f 8temp]ature curve10 betwe5 ,t5]iffe & ,/4 ,?omas4 ,!re is an additional reason to ! "o already /at$ :y ! surface temp]ature ( ! ,s\? ,atlantic %\ld be s mu* bel[ t ( ! ,nor?4 ,x is p]fectly true t :atev] am\nt ( wat] is transf]r$ f ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! nor!rn mu/ be comp5sat$ by an equal am\nt f ! nor!rn to ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 nev]!less ! w>m wat] :i* is c>ri$ (f ! ,s\? ,atlantic by ! w9ds is n directly comp5sat$ by wat] f ! nor?1 b by t cold ant>ctic curr5t ^: exi/5ce is s well kn[n to m>9]s f ! imm5se masses ( ice :i* x br+s f ! ,s\!rn ,ocean4 ,!rmal ,condition ( ,s\!rn ,ocean4----,! !rmal condition ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 z asc]ta9$ by ! ,*all5g] ,exp$ition1 appe>s to me to be also irreconcilable ) ! gravitation !ory4 ,betwe5 ! p>allels ( latitude #fe #db ,s4 & #ej #a ,s41 ! ocean1 ) ! exception ( a ?9 /ratum at ! surface heat$ by ! sun's rays1 0 f\nd1 d[n to ! dep? ( ab\t #bjj fa?oms1 to be sev]al degrees cold] ?an ! wat] und]nea?4#ajj ,! cold upp] /ratum is evid5tly an ant>ctic curr5t1 & ! w>m und]ly+ wat] an equatorial "u curr5t4 ,b1 accord+ to ! gravitation !ory1 ! cold] wat] %\ld be und]nea?4 ,! v fact ( a mass ( wat]1 #bjj fa?oms deep & ext5d+ ov] fifte5 degrees ( latitude1 rema9+ above wat] ( ?ree or f\r degrees high] temp]ature %[s h[ little influ5ce diff]5ce ( temp]ature has 9 produc+ motion4 ,if x _h ! pot5cy :i* "s attribute to x1 "o w\ld suppose t ?is cold /ratum %\ld s9k d[n & displace ! w>m wat] und]nea?4 ,if diff]5ce ( d5sity is suffici5t to move ! wat] horizontally1 surely x mu/ be m ?an suffici5t to cause x to s9k v]tically4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,w9d ,,!ory ,,( ,,oceanic ,,circulation ,,9 ,,relation ,,to ,,*ange ,,( ,,climate4 ,direction ( ,curr5ts dep5ds on ,direction ( ! ,w9ds4--,causes :i* affect ! ,direction ( ,curr5ts w affect ,climate4--,h[ ,*ange ( ,ecc5tricity affects ! ,mode ( ,di/ribution ( ! ,w9ds4--,mutual ,reaction ( ,cause & ,effect4--,displacem5t ( ! ,great ,equatorial ,curr5t4--,displacem5t ( ! ,m$ian ,l9e betwe5 ! ,trades1 & its ,effect on ,curr5ts4--,ocean-curr5ts 9 ,relation to ! ,di/ribution ( ,plants & ,animals4--,alt]nate ,cold & ,w>m ,p]iods 9 ,nor? & ,s\?4--,mr4 ,d>w9's ,views quot$4--,h[ ,glaci]s at ! ,equator may be acc\nt$ =4--,migration across ! ,equator4 ,ocean-curr5ts 9 ,relation to ,*ange ( ,climate4--,9 my attempts to prove t oceanic circulation is produc$ by ! w9ds & n by diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 & t ocean-curr5ts are ! great di/ributors ( heat ov] ! globe1 my *ief aim has be5 to %[ ! be>+ :i* ^! po9ts h on ! gr& "q ( secul> *anges ( climate dur+ geological epo*s1 m p>ticul>ly 9 ref]5ce to t my/]y ! cause ( ! glacial epo*4 ,9 conclud+ ?is discussion reg>d+ oceanic circulation1 ,i may !re=e be all[$ briefly to recapitulate ^? po9ts connect$ ) ! subject :i* seem to %$ mo/ light on ! "q ( *anges ( climate4 ,! complete agreem5t betwe5 ! sy/ems ( ocean-curr5ts & w9ds n only %[s t ! w9ds are ! impell+ cause ( ! curr5ts1 b x also indicates to :at an ext5t ! directions ( ! curr5ts are det]m9$ by ! w9ds1 or1 m prop]ly1 to :at an ext5t _! directions are det]m9$ by ! direction ( ! w9ds4 ,we h se5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 to :at an enorm\s ext5t ! climatic conditions ( ! globe are dep5d5t on ! di/ribution ( heat effect$ by means ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,x has be5 !re po9t$ out t1 if ! heat convey$ f int]-tropical to temp]ate & pol> regions by oceanic circulation 7 re/or$ to ! =m]1 ! equatorial regions w\ld !n h a temp]ature ab\t #ee w>m]1 & ! high pol> regions a climate #hc cold] ?an at pres5t4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t any cause :i* w greatly affect ! curr5ts or greatly *ange _! pa?s & mode ( di/ribution1 w ( necessity s]i\sly affect ! climatic condition ( ! globe4 ,b z ! exi/5ce ( ^! curr5ts dep5ds on ! w9ds1 & _! direction & =m ( di/ribution dep5d ^u ! direction & =m ( di/ribution ( ! w9ds1 any cause :i* w greatly affect ! w9ds w also greatly affect ! curr5ts1 & consequ5tly w influ5ce ! climatic condition ( ! globe4 ,aga91 z ! exi/5ce ( ! w9ds dep5ds ma9ly on ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 equatorial & pol> regions1 any cause :i* w greatly affect ?is diff]5ce ( temp]ature w likewise greatly affect ! w9ds2 & ^! w j z surely react on ! curr5ts & climatic conditions ( ! globe4 ,a simple increase or decrease 9 ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 equatorial & pol> regions1 ?\gh x w\ld c]ta9ly produce an increase or a decrease1 z ! case might be1 9 ! /r5g? ( ! w9ds1 & consequ5tly 9 ! /r5g? ( ! curr5ts1 w\ld n1 h[ev]1 greatly affect ! mode ( di/ribution ( ! w9ds1 nor1 z a consequ5ce1 ! mode ( di/ribution ( ! curr5ts4 ,b al?\gh a simple *ange 9 ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equator & ! poles w\ld n produce a diff]5t di/ribution ( arial1 & consequ5tly ( ocean-curr5ts1 nev]!less a diff]5ce 9 ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equator & ! two poles w\ld d s2 t is to say1 any cause t %\ld increase ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equator & ! pole on ! "o hemisph]e1 & decrease t diff]5ce on ! o!r1 w\ld effect a *ange 9 ! di/ribution ( ! arial curr5ts1 :i* *ange w\ld 9 turn produce a correspond+ *ange 9 ! di/ribution ( ocean-curr5ts4 ,x has be5 %[n#aja t an increase 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit t5ds to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! "o hemisph]e & to raise ! temp]ature ( ! o!r4 ,x is true t an increase ( ecc5tricity does n af=d m heat to ! "o hemisph]e ?an to ! o!r2 nev]!less x br+s ab\t a condition ( ?+s :i* t5ds to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! "o hemisph]e & to raise ! temp]ature ( ! o!r4 ,let u imag9e ! ecc5tricity to be at its sup]ior limit1 #jjggge1 & ! w9t] sol/ice 9 ! aphelion4 ,! midw9t] temp]ature1 ow+ to ! increas$ di/ance ( ! sun1 w\ld be l[]$ enorm\sly2 & ! effect ( ?is w\ld be to cause all ! moi/ure :i* n[ falls z ra9 dur+ w9t] 9 temp]ate regions to fall z sn[4 ,nor is ?is all2 ! w9t]s w\ld n m]ely be cold] ?an n[1 b !y w\ld also be mu* long]4 ,at pres5t ! summ] half-ye> exce$s ! w9t] half ye> by ne>ly eight days2 b at ! p]iod 9 "q ! w9t]s w\ld be long] ?an ! summ]s by upw>ds ( ?irty-six days4 ,! heat ( ! sun dur+ ! %ort summ]1 = reasons :i* h already be5 expla9$1 w\ld n be suffici5t to melt ! sn[ ( w9t]2 s t gradually1 ye> by ye>1 ! sn[ w\ld cont9ue to accumulate on ! gr\nd4 ,on ! s\!rn hemisph]e ! opposite condition ( ?+s w\ld obta94 ,ow+ to ! ne>ness ( ! sun dur+ ! w9t] ( t hemisph]e1 ! moi/ure ( ! air w\ld be precipitat$ z ra9 9 regions :]e at pres5t x falls z sn[4 ,?is & ! %ortness ( ! w9t] w\ld t5d to produce a decrease 9 ! quantity ( sn[4 ,! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! equatorial & ! temp]ate & pol> regions w\ld !re=e be great] on ! nor!rn ?an on ! s\!rn hemisph]e2 &1 z a consequ5ce1 ! arial curr5ts ( ! =m] hemisph]e w\ld be /rong] ?an ^? ( ! latt]4 ,?is w\ld be m especially ! case ) ! trade-w9ds4 ,! ,n4,e4 trades be+ /rong] ?an ! ,s4,e4 trades w\ld bl[ across ! equator1 & ! m$ian l9e betwe5 !m w\ld !re=e be at "s di/ance to ! s\? ( ! equator4 ,?us ! equatorial wat]s w\ld be impell$ m to ! s\!rn ?an to ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 & ! w>m wat] c>ri$ ov] 9 ?is mann] to ! s\!rn hemisph]e w\ld t5d to increase ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! two hemisph]es4 ,?is *ange1 aga91 w\ld 9 turn t5d to /r5g!n ! ,n4,e4 & to weak5 ! ,s4,e4 trades1 & w\ld ?us induce a /ill great] fl[ ( equatorial wat]s into ! s\!rn hemisph]e--a result :i* w\ld /ill m increase ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 ! nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]e1 & s on--! "o cause s react+ on ! o!r z to increase its effects1 z 0 %[n at l5g? 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,x 0 ?is mutual reaction ( ^? physical ag5ts :i* l$1 z 0 po9t$ out 9 ,*apt] ,,iv41 to t extraord9>y condition ( climate :i* prevail$ dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,!re is ano!r circum/ance to be consid]$ :i* p]haps m ?an any ?+ else w\ld t5d to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! "o hemisph]e & to raise ! temp]ature ( ! o!r2 & ?is is ! displacem5t ( ! great equatorial curr5t4 ,dur+ a glacial p]iod 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e ! m$ian l9e betwe5 ! trades w\ld be %ift$ v consid]ably s\? ( ! equator2 & ! same w\ld necess>ily be ! case ) ! great equatorial curr5ts1 ! only diff]5ce be+ t ! equatorial curr5ts1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 w\ld be deflect$ f>!r s\? ?an ! m$ian l9e4 ,= ! wat] impell$ by ! /rong ,n4,e4 trades w\ld be mov+ ) great] velocity ?an ! wat]s impell$ by ! weak] ,s4,e4 trades1 &1 ( c\rse1 w\ld cross ! m$ian l9e ( ! trades be=e its progress s\?w>ds c\ld be arre/$ by ! c\nt]act+ influ5ce ( ! ,s4,e4 trades4 ,let u glance briefly at ! results :i* w\ld foll[ f su* a condition ( ?+s4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z 0 %[n on =m] occasions1#ajb 7 ! equatorial curr5t ( ! ,atlantic 7! fe$] ( ! ,gulf-/ream7 %ift$ consid]ably s\? ( its pres5t position1 x w\ld n bifurcate1 z x n[ does1 (f ,cape ,/4 ,roque1 ow+ to ! fact t ! :ole ( ! wat]s w\ld /rike obliquely aga9/ ! ,brazilian coa/ & ?us be deflect$ into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean4 ,! effect produc$ on ! climate ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic & ,nor?-,we/]n ,europe by ! )drawal ( ! wat] =m+ ! ,gulf-/ream1 may be conceiv$ f :at has already be5 /at$ conc]n+ ! am\nt ( heat convey$ by t /ream4 ,! heat ?us )drawn f ! ,nor? ,atlantic w\ld g to raise ! temp]ature ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean & ant>ctic regions4 ,a simil> result w\ld take place 9 ! ,pacific ,ocean4 ,7 ! equatorial curr5t ( t ocean remov$ greatly to ! s\? ( its pres5t position1 x w\ld n !n imp+e & be deflect$ ^u ! ,asiatic coa/1 b ^u ! cont95t ( ,au/ralia2 & ! great] portion ( its wat]s w\ld !n pass s\?w>d into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 :ile t portion pass+ r\nd ! nor? ( ,au/ralia 7ow+ to ! great /r5g? ( ! ,n4,e4 trades7 w\ld r fl[ into ! ,indian ,ocean ?an turn r\nd1 z n[1 along ! ea/ coa/ ( ,asia by ! ,japan ,isl&s4 ,! /oppage ( ! ,japan curr5t1 comb9$ ) ! displacem5t ( ! equatorial curr5t to ! s\? ( ! equator1 w\ld greatly l[] ! temp]ature ( ! :ole ( ! ,nor? ,pacific & adjo9+ cont95ts1 & raise to a correspond+ degree ! temp]ature ( ! ,s\? ,pacific & ,s\!rn ,ocean4 ,aga91 ! wat]s ( ! equatorial curr5t ( ! ,indian ,ocean 7ow+ to ! oppos+ ,n4,e4 trades71 w\ld n1 z at pres5t1 f9d _! way r\nd ! ,cape ( ,good ,hope into ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 b w\ld be deflect$ s\?w>ds into ! ,ant>ctic ,sea4 ,we h 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s a /rik+ example ( ! ext5t to :i* ! m$ian l9e betwe5 ! two trades may be %ift$1 & ! position ( ! great equatorial curr5ts ( ! ocean may be affect$1 by a slight diff]5ce 9 ! relative /r5g? ( ! two arial curr5ts4 ,! ,s4,e4 trades are at pres5t a little /rong] ?an ! ,n4,e42 & ! consequ5ce is t !y bl[ across ! equator into ! nor!rn hemisph]e to a di/ance sometimes ( #aj or #ae1 s t ! mean position ( ! m$ian l9e lies at lea/ #f or #g degrees nor? ( ! equator4 ,& x is d\btless ow+ to ! sup]ior /r5g? ( ! ,s4,e4 trades t s mu* w>m wat] crosses ! equator f ! ,s\? to ! ,nor? ,atlantic1 & t ! ma9 portion ( ! equatorial curr5t fl[s into ! ,c>ibbean ,sea r ?an along ! ,brazilian coa/4 ,7 ! two trades ( equal /r5g?1 ! transf]5ce ( heat into ! ,nor? ,atlantic f ! s\!rn hemisph]e by means ( ! ,s\!rn ,atlantic & equatorial curr5ts w\ld be mu* less ?an at pres5t4 ,! same w\ld also hold true 9 reg>d to ! ,pacific4 ,ocean-curr5ts 9 ,relation to ! ,di/ribution ( ,plants & ,animals4--,9 ! fif? & la/ editions ( ! 8,orig9 ( ,species10 ,mr4 ,d>w9 has done me ! hon\r to express 8 belief t ! =ego+ view reg>d+ alt]nate cold & w>m p]iods 9 nor? & s\? dur+ ! glacial epo* expla9s a great _m facts 9 connection ) ! di/ribution ( plants & animals :i* h always be5 reg>d$ z exce$+ly puzzl+4 ,!re are c]ta9 species ( plants :i* occur alike 9 ! temp]ate regions ( ! s\!rn & nor!rn hemisph]es4 ,at ! equator ^! same temp]ate =ms are f\nd on elevat$ m\nta9s1 b n on ! l[l&s4 ,h[1 !n1 did ^! temp]ate =ms manage to cross ! equator f ! nor!rn temp]ate regions to ! s\!rn1 & vice v]s8 ,mr4 ,d>w9's solution ( ! problem is 79 8 own words7 z foll[s3-- 8,z ! cold became m & m int5se1 we "k t arctic =ms invad$ ! temp]ate regions2 & f ! facts j giv51 !re c h>dly be a d\bt t "s ( ! m vigor\s1 dom9ant1 & wide/-spread+ temp]ate =ms invad$ ! equatorial l[l&s4 ,! inhabitants ( ^! hot l[l&s w\ld at ! same "t h migrat$ to ! tropical & subtropical regions ( ! s\?2 = ! s\!rn hemisph]e 0 at ?is p]iod w>m]4 ,on ! decl9e ( ! glacial p]iod1 z bo? hemisph]es gradually recov]$ _! =m] temp]atures1 ! nor!rn temp]ate =ms liv+ on ! l[l&s "u ! equator w\ld h be5 driv5 to _! =m] homes or h be5 de/roy$1 be+ replac$ by ! equatorial =ms return+ f ! s\?4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 ( ! nor!rn temp]ate =ms w\ld almo/ c]ta9ly h asc5d$ any adjo9+ high l&1 :]e1 if suffici5tly l(ty1 !y w\ld h long surviv$ l ! arctic =ms on ! m\nta9s ( ,europe40 8,9 ! regul> c\rse ( ev5ts ! s\!rn hemisph]e w\ld 9 its turn be subject$ to a sev]e glacial p]iod1 ) ! nor!rn hemisph]e r5d]$ w>m]2 & !n ! s\!rn temp]ate =ms w\ld invade ! equatorial l[l&s4 ,! nor!rn =ms :i* _h be=e be5 left on ! m\nta9s w\ld n[ desc5d & m+le ) ! s\!rn =ms4 ,^! latt]1 :5 ! w>m? return$1 w\ld return to _! =m] homes1 leav+ "s few species on ! m\nta9s1 & c>ry+ s\?w>d ) !m "s ( ! nor!rn temp]ate =ms :i* _h desc5d$ f _! m\nta9 fa/nesses4 ,?us we %\ld h "s few species id5tically ! same 9 ! nor!rn & s\!rn temp]ate zones & on ! m\nta9s ( ! int]m$iate tropical regions0 7p4 #cci1 six? edition74 ,additional light is ca/ on ?is subject by ! results already /at$ 9 reg>d to ! enorm\s ext5t to :i* ! temp]ature ( ! equator is affect$ by ocean-curr5ts4 ,7 !re no transf]r5ce ( heat f equatorial to temp]ate & pol> regions1 ! temp]ature ( ! equator1 z has be5 rem>k$1 w\ld probably be ab\t #ee w>m] ?an at pres5t4 ,9 su* a case no plant exi/+ on ! face ( ! globe c\ld live at ! equator unless on "s elevat$ m\nta9 region4 ,on ! o!r h&1 7 ! quantity ( w>m wat] :i* is be+ transf]r$ f ! equator to be v mu* increas$1 ! temp]ature ( int]-tropical latitudes might be s l[]$ z easily to admit ( temp]ate species ( plants gr[+ at ! equator4 ,a l[]+ ( ! temp]ature at ! equator "s #bj or #cj is all t w\ld be requir$2 & only a mod]ate increase 9 ! volume ( ! curr5ts proce$+ f ! equator1 tak5 9 connection ) ! effects fl[+ f ! foll[+ consid]ations1 might suffice to produce t result4 ,dur+ ! glacial epo*1 :5 ! "o hemisph]e 0 "u ice & ! o!r enjoy+ a w>m & equable climate1 ! m$ian l9e betwe5 ! trades may h be5 %ift$ to almo/ ! tropical l9e ( ! w>m hemisph]e4 ,"u su* a condition ( ?+s ! w>me/ "p w\ld probably be some:]e ab\t ! tropic ( ! w>m hemisph]e1 & n1 z n[1 at ! equator2 = s9ce all1 or ne>ly all1 ! surface-wat] ( ! equator w\ld !n be impell$ ov] to ! w>m hemisph]e1 ! tropical regions ( t hemisph]e w\ld be receiv+ ne>ly d\ble _! pres5t am\nt ( w>m wat]4 ,aga91 z ! equatorial curr5t at ?is "t w\ld be %ift$ t[>ds ! tropic ( ! w>m hemisph]e1 ! surface-wat] w\ld n1 z at pres5t1 be fl[+ 9 equatorial regions p>allel to ! equator1 b obliquely across x f ! cold to ! w>m hemisph]e4 ,?is ( itself w\ld t5d greatly to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! equator4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 z a necess>y consequ5ce1 t dur+ ! glacial epo*1 :5 ! "o hemisph]e 0 "u sn[ & ice & ! o!r enjoy+ a w>m & equable climate1 ! temp]ature ( ! equator w\ld be l[] ?an at pres5t4 ,b :5 ! glaciat$ hemisph]e 7:i* we may assume to be ! nor!rn7 began to gr[ w>m] & ! climate ( ! s\!rn or w>m hemisph]e to get cold]1 ! m$ian l9e ( ! trades & ! equatorial curr5ts ( ! ocean also w\ld beg9 to move back f ! s\!rn tropic t[>ds ! equator4 ,?is w\ld cause ! temp]ature ( ! equator to rise & to cont9ue ris+ until ! equatorial curr5ts rea*$ _! normal position4 ,:5 ! sn[ began to accumulate on ! s\!rn hemisph]e & to disappe> on ! nor!rn1 ! m$ian l9e ( ! trades & ! equatorial curr5ts ( ! ocean w\ld !n beg9 to move t[>ds ! nor!rn tropic z !y _h =m]ly t[>ds ! s\!rn4 ,! temp]ature ( ! equator w\ld !n aga9 beg9 to s9k1 & cont9ue to d s until ! glaciation ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e rea*$ its maximum4 ,?is oscillation ( ! !rmal equator to & fro across ! geographical equator w\ld cont9ue s long z ! alt]nate glaciation ( ! two hemisph]es cont9u$4 ,?is l[]+ ( ! temp]ature ( ! equator dur+ ! sev]e/ "p ( ! glacial epo* w help to expla9 ! =m] exi/5ce ( glaci]s 9 int]-tropical regions at no v great elevation above ! sea-level1 evid5ce ( :i* appe>s rec5tly to h be5 f\nd by ,pr(essor ,agassiz1 ,mr4 ,belt1 & o!rs4 ,! glacial epo* may be consid]$ z contemporane\s 9 bo? hemisph]es4 ,b ! epo* consi/$ ( a succession ( cold & w>m p]iods1 ! cold p]iods ( "o hemisph]e co9cid+ ) ! w>m p]iods ( ! o!r1 & vice v]s4 ,migration across ! ,equator4--,mr4 ,belt#ajc & o!rs h felt "s difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[1 accord+ to !ory1 ! plants & animals ( temp]ate regions c\ld manage to migrate f "o hemisph]e to ! o!r1 see+ t 9 _! passage !y w\ld h to cross ! !rmal equator4 ,! oscillation to & fro ( ! !rmal equator across ! geographical1 removes e difficulty 9 reg>d to h[ ! migration takes place4 ,:51 = example1 a cold p]iod on ! nor!rn hemisph]e & ! correspond+ w>m "o on ! s\!rn 7 at _! maximum1 ! !rmal equator w\ld by ?is "t h probably pass$ beyond ! ,tropic ( ,capricorn4 ,! geographical equator w\ld !n be enjoy+ a subtropical1 if n a temp]ate condition ( climate1 & ! plants & animals ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld manage !n to rea* ! equator4 ,:5 ! cold began to abate on ! nor!rn & to increase on ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! !rmal equator w\ld comm5ce its retreat t[>ds ! geographical4 ,! plants & animals f ! nor?1 9 ord] to escape ! increas+ heat z ! !rmal equator approa*$ !m1 w\ld beg9 to asc5d ! m\nta9 heights2 & :5 t equator _h pass$ to its nor!rn limit1 & ! geographical equator 0 aga9 enjoy+ a subtropical condition ( climate1 ! plants & animals w\ld beg9 to desc5d & pursue _! j\rney s\?w>ds z ! cold abat$ on ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,w>m ,,int]-,,glacial ,,p]iods4 ,alt]nate ,cold & ,w>m ,p]iods4--,w>m ,int]-glacial ,p]iods a ,te/ ( ,!ories4--,reason :y _! ,occurr5ce has n be5 hi!rto recognis$4--,in/ances ( ,w>m ,int]-glacial ,p]iods4--,dranse1 ,drnt51 ,hoxne1 ,*apelhall1 ,craiglockh>t1 ,lei? ,walk1 ,r$hall ,qu>ry1 ,bei?1 ,cr(!ad1 ,kilmaurs1 ,sw$51 ,ohio1 ,crom]1 ,mundesley1 c41 c4--,cave & ,riv] ,deposits4--,occurr5ce ( ,arctic & ,w>m ,animals 9 "s ,b$s acc\nt$ =4--,mr4 ,boyd ,dawk9s's ,objections4--,occurr5ce ( ,s\!rn ,%ells 9 ,glacial ,deposits4--,evid5ce ( ,w>m ,int]-glacial ,p]iods f ,m9]al ,bor+s4--,/riat$ ,pavem5ts4--,reason :y ,int]-glacial ,l&-surfaces are s r>e4 ,alt]nate ,cold & ,w>m ,p]iods4--,if ! !ory develop$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s 9 ref]5ce to ! cause ( secul> *anges ( climate be correct1 x foll[s t t long age kn[n z ! glacial epo* did n1 z has hi!rto be5 g5]ally suppos$1 consi/ ( "o long unbrok5 p]iod ( cold & ice4 ,nei!r did x consi/1 z "s h conclud$1 ( two long p]iods ( ice ) an int]v5+ mild p]iod1 b x mu/ h consi/$ ( a long succession ( cold & w>m p]iods2 ! w>m p]iods ( ! "o hemisph]e correspond+ 9 "t ) ! cold p]iods ( ! o!r & vice v]s4 ,x foll[s also f !ory t z ! cold p]iods became m & m sev]e1 ! w>m int]v5+ p]iods w\ld become m & m w>m & equable4 ,z ! ice began to accumulate dur+ ! cold p]iods 9 sub>ctic & temp]ate regions 9 places :]e x previ\sly did n exi/1 s 9 l mann] dur+ ! correspond+ w>m p]iods x w\ld beg9 to disappe> 9 arctic regions :]e x _h held endur+ sway ?r\gh\t ! n[ clos+ cycle4 ,z ! cold p]iods 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e became m & m sev]e1 ! ice w\ld cont9ue to advance nor?w>ds 9 ! temp]ate regions2 b at t v same "t ! int]v5+ w>m p]iods 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld become w>m] & w>m] & m equable1 & ! ice ( ! arctic regions w\ld cont9ue to disappe> f>!r & f>!r to ! nor?1 till by ! "t t ! ice _h rea*$ a maximum dur+ ! cold ant>ctic p]iods1 ,gre5l& & ! arctic regions w\ld1 dur+ ! w>m int]v5+ p]iods1 be probably free ( ice & enjoy+ a mild & equable climate4 ,or we may say t z ! "o hemisph]e became cold ! o!r became w>m1 & :5 ! cold rea*$ a maximum 9 ! "o hemisph]e1 ! w>m? w\ld rea* a maximum 9 ! o!r4 ,! "t :5 ! ice _h rea*$ its greate/ ext5sion on ! "o hemisph]e w\ld be ! "t :5 x _h disappe>$ f ! o!r4 ,int]-glacial ,p]iods a ,te/ ( ,!ories4--,"h we h ! gr& crucial te/ ( ! tru? ( ! =ego+ !ory ( ! cause ( ! glacial epo*4 ,t ! glacial epo* %\ld h consi/$ ( a succession ( cold & w>m p]iods is utt]ly inconsi/5t ) all previ\s !ories :i* h be5 advanc$ to acc\nt = x4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! evid5ce ( geology on ?is subject8 ,if ! glacial epo* c be prov$ f geological evid5ce to h consi/$ ( su* a succession ( cold & w>m p]iods1 !n ,i h little d\bt b ! !ory w soon be g5]ally accept$4 ,b at ! v outset an objection meets u1 viz41 :y call an epo*1 :i* consi/$ z mu* ( w>m p]iods z ( cold1 a glacial epo*1 or an 8,ice ,age10 z ,mr4 ,james ,geikie t]sely expresses x8 ,:y n z well call x a w>m epo* z a cold "o1 see+ t1 accord+ to !ory1 x 0 j z mu* a w>m z a cold epo*8 ,! answ] to ?is objection w be fully discuss$ 9 ! *apt] on ! ,reason ( ! ,imp]fection ( ,geological ,records4 ,b 9 ! meantime1 ,i may rem>k t x w be %[n t ! epo* kn[n z ! glacial has be5 ju/ly call$ ! glacial epo* or 8,ice ,age10 because ! geological evid5ces ( ! cold p]iods rema9 9 a rem>kably p]fect /ate1 :il/ ! evid5ces ( ! w>m p]iods h to a great ext5t disappe>$4 ,! reason ( ?is diff]5ce 9 ! two cases w be discuss$ 9 ! *apt] to :i* ,i h ref]r$4 ,besides1 ! condition ( ?+s dur+ ! cold p]iods 0 s extraord9>y1 s exceptional1 s totally diff]5t f ^? n[ prevail+1 t ev5 suppos+ ! geological records ( ! w>m p]iods _h be5 z well pres]v$ z ^? ( ! cold1 nev]!less we %\ld h t]m$ ! epo* 9 "q a glacial epo*4 ,!re is yet ano!r reason1 h[ev]1 = our limit$ k ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods4 ,till v lately1 little or no att5tion 0 paid by geologi/s to ?is "p ( ! subject 9 ! way ( keep+ records ( cases ( int]-glacial deposits :i*1 f "t to "t1 h be5 obs]v$4 ,few geologi/s ev] dreamt ( su* a ?+ z w>m p]iods dur+ ! age ( ice1 s t :5 int]calat$ b$s ( s& & gravel1 b$s ( peat1 roots1 bran*es1 trunks1 leaves1 & fruits ( trees 7 f\nd 9 ! b\ld] clay1 no physical importance 0 atta*$ to !m1 & consequ5tly no description or record ( !m ev] kept4 ,9 fact1 all su* examples 7 reg>d$ z purely accid5tal & exceptional1 & 7 consid]$ n wor?y ( any special att5tion4 ,a case :i* came "u my own obs]vation w illu/rate my mean+4 ,an intellig5t geologi/1 "s ye>s ago1 read a pap] be=e "o ( our local geological societies1 giv+ an acc\nt ( a fossilif]\s b$ ( clay f\nd int]calat$ betwe5 two di/9ct b$s ( till4 ,9 ?is int]calat$ b$ 7 f\nd rootlets & /ems ( trees1 nuts1 & o!r rema9s1 %[+ t x _h evid5tly be5 an old int]-glacial l& surface4 ,9 ! transactions ( ! society a description ( ! two b$s ( till 0 giv51 b no m5tion :atev] 0 made ( ! int]calat$ b$ conta9+ ! organic rema9s1 al?\gh ?is 0 ! only po9t ( any real importance4 ,s9ce ! !ory t ! glacial epo* result$ f a high /ate ( ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit began to receive "s little acceptance1 geologi/s h paid a good deal ( att5tion to cases ( int]calat$ b$s 9 ! till conta9+ organic rema9s1 & ! result is t we h already a great body ( evid5ce ( a geological nature 9 fav\r ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods1 & ,i h little d\bt t 9 ! c\rse ( a few ye>s ! =m] occurr5ce ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods w be univ]sally admitt$4 ,i %all n[ proce$ to give a v brief outl9e ( ! evid5ce be>+ on ! subject4 ,b ! cases to :i* ,i %all h to ref] are mu* too num]\s to all[ me to ent] into details4 ,int]-glacial ,b$s ( ,switz]l&4--,! fir/ geologi/1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 :o direct$ att5tion to evid5ce ( a break 9 ! cold ( ! glacial epo* 0 ,m4 ,morlot4 ,x is n[ tw5ty ye>s ago s9ce he ann\nc$ ! exi/5ce ( a w>m p]iod dur+ ! glacial epo* f geological evid5ce connect$ ) ! glacial drift ( ! ,alps4#ajd ,! riv]s ( ,switz]l&1 he f\nd1 %[ on _! banks ?ree well-m>k$ t]races ( regul>ly /ratifi$ & well-r\nd$ %+le1 id5tical ) ! mod]n deposits ( ! riv]s4 ,!y /& at #ej1 #ajj1 & #aej feet above ! pres5t level ( ! riv]s4 ,^! t]races 7 evid5tly =m$ by ! pres5t sy/em ( riv]s :5 ^! fl[$ at a high] level1 & ext5d up ! ,alps to a height ( f #c1jjj to #d1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,!re is a t]race bord]+ ! ,rh9e at ,camis*ollas1 above ,dis5tis1 #d1djj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 prov+ t dur+ ! p]iod ( its =mation ! ,alps 7 free ( ice up to ! height ( #d1djj feet above ! sea-level4 ,x is well kn[n t a glacial p]iod mu/ h succe$$ ! =mation ( ^! drifts1 = !y are 9 _m places cov]$ ) erratics4 ,at ,g5eva1 = example1 an erratic drift ne>ly #ej feet ?ick is se5 to re/ on ! drift ( ! middle t]race1 :i* rises #ajj feet above ! level ( ! lake4 ,b x is also evid5t t a glacial p]iod mu/ h prec$$ ! =mation ( ! drift b$s1 = !y are f\nd to lie 9 _m places ^u ! un/ratifi$ b\ld] clay or till4 ,m4 ,morlot obs]v$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,cl>eus1 f #g to #i feet ( drift re/+ ^u a b$ ( true till #dj feet ?ick2 ! latt] 0 compos$ ( a compact blue clay1 conta9+ worn & scrat*$ alp9e b\ld]s & )\t any trace ( /ratification4 ,9 ! gorge ( ,dranse1 ne> ,?oron1 ,m4 ,morlot f\nd ! :ole ?ree =mations 9 a direct sup]impos$ s]ies4 ,at ! bottom 0 a mass ( compact till or b\ld] clay1 #ab feet ?ick1 conta9+ b\ld]s ( alp9e lime/one4 ,ov] ?is mass came regul>ly /ratifi$ b$s #aej feet ?ick1 made up ( r\nd$ pebbles 9 horizontal b$s4 ,above ?is aga9 lay a second =mation ( un/ratifi$ b\ld] clay1 ) erratic blocks & /riat$ pebbles1 :i* con/itut$ ! left lat]al mora9e ( ! great glaci] ( ! ,rhone1 :5 x advanc$ = ! second "t to ! ,lake ( ,g5eva4 ,a condition ( ?+s some:at simil> 0 obs]v$ by ,m4 ,is*] 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,b]ne4 ,^! facts1 ,m4 ,morlot ju/ly consid]s1 prove ! exi/5ce ( two glacial p]iods sep>at$ by an int]m$iate "o1 dur+ :i* ! ice1 :i* _h n only cov]$ ,switz]l&1 b ! great] "p ( ,europe1 disappe>$ ev5 9 ! pr9cipal valleys ( ! ,alps to a height ( m ?an #d1djj feet above ! pres5t level ( ! sea4 ,?is w>m p]iod1 aft] cont9u+ = long ages1 0 succe$$ by a second glacial p]iod1 dur+ :i* ! c\ntry 0 aga9 cov]$ ) ice z be=e4 ,m4 ,morlot ev5 sugge/s ! possibility ( ^! alt]nations ( cold & w>m p]iods dep5d+ ^u a cosmical cause4 8,wild z x may h appe>$10 he says1 8:5 fir/ />t$1 ! idea ( g5]al & p]iodical eras ( refrig]ation = our planet1 connect$ p]haps ) "s cosmic ag5cy1 may ev5tually prove correct40#aje ,%ortly aft]w>ds1 evid5ce ( a f> m rem>kable "* 0 f\nd 9 ! glacial drift ( ,switz]l&1 namely1 ! fam\s lignite b$s ( ,drnt54 ,9 ! vic9ity ( ,utzna* & ,drnt51 on ! ,lake ( ,zuri*1 & ne> ,mrs*wyl1 on ! ,lake ( ,con/ance1 !re are b$s ( coal or lignite1 ne>ly #ab feet ?ick1 ly+ directly on ! b\ld] clay4 ,ov]ly+ ^! b$s is ano!r mass ( drift & clay #cj feet 9 ?ickness1 ) r\nd$ blocks1 & on ! top ( ?is upp] drift lie long angul> erratics1 :i* evid5tly h be5 transport$ on ! back ( glaci]s4#ajf ,pr(essor ,vogt attributes _! transport to float+ ice2 b he evid5tly does s to avoid ! hypo!sis ( a w>m p]iod dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,"h we h pro( n m]ely ( ! disappe>ance ( ! ice dur+ ! glacial epo*1 b ( its abs5ce dur+ a p]iod ( suffici5t l5g? to all[ ( ! gr[? ( #aj or #ab feet ( coal4 ,pr(essor ,he] ?9ks t ?is coal-b$1 :5 9 ! condition ( peat1 mu/ h be5 #fj feet ?ick2 & assum+ t "o foot ( peat w\ld be =m$ 9 a c5tury1 he concludes t #f1jjj ye>s mu/ h be5 requir$ = ! gr[? ( ! coal plants4 ,accord+ to ,liebig1 #i1fjj ye>s w\ld be requir$4 ,?is1 z we h already se51 is ab\t ! av]age duration ( a w>m p]iod4 ,9 ^! b$s h be5 f\nd ! bones ( ! elephant 7,e4 ,m]kii71 /ag1 cave-be>1 & o!r animals4 ,num]\s insects h also be5 met )1 :i* fur!r prove ! w>m1 mild condition ( climate :i* mu/ h prevail$ at ! "t ( ! =mation ( ! lignite4 ,at ,hoxne1 ne> ,diss1 9 ,suffolk1 a black peaty mass sev]al feet ?ick1 conta9+ fragm5ts ( wood ( ! oak1 yew1 & fir1 0 f\nd1 ov]ly+ ! b\ld] clay4#ajg ,pr(essor ,vogt believes t ?is peat b$ is ( ! same age z ! lignite b$s ( ,switz]l&4 ,9 ! glacial drift ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 p>ticul>ly ab\t ,lake ,*ampla9 & ! valley ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 !re is simil> evid5ce ( two glacial p]iods ) an int]v5+ non-glacial or w>m p]iod4#ajh ,glacial & ,int]-glacial ,p]iods ( ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e--7,s\? ,africa74--,mr4 ,g4 ,w4 ,/[1 9 a pap] on ! 8,geology ( ,s\? ,africa10#aji describes a rec5t glaciation ext5d+ ov] a l>ge portion ( ,natal1 ,briti% ,kaffr>ia1 ! ,kaga & ,krome m\nta9s1 :i* he attributes to ! action ( l&-ice4 ,he sums up ! ph5om5a z foll[s3--8,! r\nd+ (f ( ! hills 9 ! int]iors ( ! anci5t bas9s2 ! num]\s dome-%ap$ 7ro*es m\tonne7 rocks2 ! enorm\s erratic b\ld]s 9 positions :]e wat] c\ld n h c>ri$ !m2 ! frequ5cy ( un/ratifi$ clays--clays ) imb$d$ angul> b\ld]s2 drift & l(ty m\nds ( b\ld]s2 l>ge tracts ( c\ntry ?ickly spread ov] ) un/ratifi$ clays & sup]impos$ fragm5ts ( rock2 ! ,oliphant's-,hoek clay1 & ! va/ piles ( ,enon conglom]ate40 ,9 addition to ^! results ( ice-action1 he records ! discov]y by himself ( di/9ct ice-scrat*es or groov+s on ! surface ( ! rocks at ,reit-,poort 9 ! ,t>ka1 & subsequ5tly#aaj ! discov]y by ,mr4 ,g4 ,gilfillan ( a l>ge b\ld] at ,pniel ) /ri di/9ctly m>k$ ^u x1 & also t ! same obs]v] f\nd t almo/ e b\ld] 9 ! gravel at 8,moonlight ,ru%0 _h unmi/akable /ri on "o or m sides4 ,9 ,s\? ,africa !re is evid5ce n only ( a glacial condition dur+ ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 b also ( a w>m] climate ?an n[ prevails 9 t region4 8,! evid5ce10 says ,mr4 ,/[1 8( ! ,plioc5e %ells ( ! sup]ficial lime/one ( ! ,zw>tkops heights1 & else:]e1 leads u to believe t ! climate ( ,s\? ,africa mu/ h be5 ( a f> m tropical "* ?an at pres5t4 8,take1 = in/ance1 ! *>act]i/ic ,v5]ic>dia ( t lime/one4 ,?is has migrat$ along ! coa/ "s #bi or #cj & is n[ f\nd )9 a few degrees ( ! equator1 ne> ,zanzib>1 gradually driv51 z ,i presume x mu/ h be51 fur!r & fur!r nor? by a gradual l[]+ ( ! temp]ature ( ! m s\!rn p>ts ( ?is coa/ s9ce ! lime/one 0 deposit$40 8,dur+ ! =mation ( ! %ell-banks 9 ! ,zw>tkops e/u>y1 y\ng] ?an ! ,plioc5e lime/one1 ! imm5se numb] ( c]ta9 species ( %ells1 :i* h z yet be5 f\nd liv+ only 9 latitudes ne>] ! equator1 po9t to a some:at simil> ?\gh a m modifi$ *ange ( temp]ature40 ,int]-glacial ,b$s ( ,scotl&4--,upw>ds ( a doz5 ye>s ago1 ,pr(essor ,geikie arriv$1 f 8 own obs]vations ( ! glacial drift ( ,scotl&1 at a simil> conclusion to t ( ,m4 ,morlot reg>d+ ! int]calation ( w>m p]iods dur+ ! glacial epo*2 & ! facts on :i* ,pr(essor ,geikie's conclusions 7 bas$ are briefly z foll[s4 ,9 a cliff ( b\ld] clay on ! banks ( ! ,slitrig ,wat]1 ne> ! t[n ( ,hawick1 he obs]v$ a b$ ( /ones or %+le4 ,ov] ! l[] /ratum ( /ones lay a few in*es ( well-/ratifi$ s&1 silt1 & clay1 "s ( ! lay]s be+ black & peaty1 ) enclos$ vegetable fibres 9 a crumbl+ /ate4#aaa ,!re 7 "s #cj or #dj feet ( b\ld] clay above ^! /ratifi$ b$s1 & #ae or #bj feet "u !m4 ,! /ones 9 ! %+le b& 7 id5tical ) ^? ( ! b\ld] clay1 b !y %[$ no /riations1 & 7 m r\nd$ & wat]-worn1 & resembl$ 9 e respect ! /ones n[ ly+ 9 ! b$ ( ! ,slitrig4 ,! section ( ! cliff /ood z "u3-- #a4 ,vegetable soil4 #b4 ,b\ld] clay1 ?irty to =ty feet4 #c4 ,yell[i% gravelly s&4 ,/ratifi$ b$s #d4 ,peaty silt & clay4 #e4 ,f9e f]rug9\s s&4 #f4 ,co>se %+le1 two to ?ree feet4 #g4 ,co>se1 /iff b\ld] clay1 fifte5 to tw5ty feet4 ,a few m cases ( int]calation ( /ratifi$ mat]ials 9 ! true till 7 also f\nd 9 ! same valley4 ,9 a cliff ( /iff br[n b\ld] clay1 ab\t #bj feet high1 on ! banks ( ! ,c>mi*ael ,wat]1 ,lan>k%ire1 ,pr(essor ,geikie obs]v$ a /ratifi$ b$ ( clay ab\t #c or #d in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,ab\t a mile high] up ! /ream1 he f\nd a s]ies ( b$s ( gravel1 s&1 & clay 9 ! true till4 8,a ?9 seam ( peaty matt]10 he says1 80 obs]v$ to run = a few in*es along ! bottom ( a b$ ( clay & !n disappe>1 :ile 9 a b& ( f9e lam9at$ clay ) ?9 s&y p>t+s occasional fragm5ts ( m\ld]+ wood 7 f\nd40#aab ,at ,*apelhall1 ne> ,airdrie1 a s&-b$ has be5 ext5sively m9$ "u ab\t #aad feet ( till4 ,?is b$ ( f9ely /ratifi$ s& is ab\t #bj feet ?ick4 ,9 x 7 f\nd l5ticul> b$s ( f9e pale-col\r$ clay conta9+ lay]s ( peat & decay+ twigs & bran*es4 ,pr(essor ,geikie f\nd ! vegetable fibres1 ?\gh mu* decay$1 /ill di/9ct1 & ! sub/ance :5 put into ! fire burn$ ) a dull lamb5t flame4 ,und]ly+ ^! /ratifi$ b$s1 & =m+ ! floor ( ! m9e1 is a deposit ( ! true till ab\t #bd feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 ano!r pit adjo9+1 ! till =m+ ! floor is #cj feet ?ick1 b x is sometimes abs5t altoge!r1 s z to leave ! s& b$s re/+ directly on ! s&/one & %ale ( ! coal-measures4 ,at "s di/ance f ?is s&-pit an old buri$ riv] *annel 0 met ) 9 "o ( ! pit work+s4 ,?is *annel 0 f\nd to conta9 a coat+ ( b\ld] clay1 on :i* ! lam9at$ s&s & clays repos$1 %[+1 z ,pr(essor ,geikie has po9t$ out1 t ?is old *annel _h be5 fill$ ) b\ld] clay1 & !n re-excavat$ to all[ ( ! deposition ( ! /ratifi$ deposits4 ,ov] all lay a ?ick mantle ( b\ld] clay :i* buri$ ! :ole4 ,a case some:at simil> 0 f\nd by ,pr(essor ,nicol 9 a cutt+ on ! ,ed9burgh & ,lei? ,railway4 ,9 _m places ! till _h be5 worn into holl[s z if "p ( x _h be5 remov$ by ! action ( runn+ wat]4#aac ,"o ( ^! holl[s1 ab\t #e or #f feet wide by #c or #d feet deep1 closely resembl$ ! *annel ( a small /ream4 ,x 0 also fill$ ) gravel & s&1 9 all respects l t f\nd 9 su* a /ream at ! pres5t day4 ,x 0 se5 to exhibit ! same *>act]s on bo? sides ( ! cutt+1 b ,pr(essor ,nicol 0 unable to det]m9e h[ f> x may h ext5d$ beyond2 b he _h no d\bt :atev] t x _h be5 =m$ by a /ream ( wat]4 ,ov] ?is old wat]c\rse 0 a ?ick deposit ( true till4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! =ego+ cases1 ,pr(essor ,geikie makes ! foll[+ p]t95t rem>ks3--8,"h x is evid5t t ! scoop+ out ( ?is *annel belongs to ! era ( ! b\ld] clay4 ,x mu/ h be5 effect$ dur+ a pause 9 ! deposition ( ! clay1 :5 a run ( wat] c\ld f9d its way along ! inequalities ( ! surface ( ! clay4 ,?is pause mu/ h be5 ( suffici5t duration to enable ! runnel to excavate a capaci\s *annel = itself1 & leave 9 x a quantity ( s& & %+le4 ,we c sc>cely d\bt t :5 ?is process 0 go+ on ! gr\nd mu/ h be5 a l& surface1 & c\ld n h be5 "u ! sea4 ,& la/ly1 we see f ! upp] b\ld] clay t ! old conditions return$1 ! wat]c\rse 0 *ok$ up1 & ano!r mass ( *aotic b\ld] clay 0 tumbl$ d[n ^u ! face ( ! c\ntry4 ,?is indicates t ! b\ld] clay is n ! result ( "o great cata/rophe1 b ( sl[ & sil5t1 yet mighty1 =ces act+ sometimes ) long pauses ?r\gh\t a va/ cycle ( "t40#aad ,at ,craiglockh>t ,hill1 ab\t a mile s\? ( ,ed9burgh1 an ext5sive b$ ( f9e s& ( f "o to ?ree feet 9 ?ickness 0 f\nd betwe5 two di/9ct masses ( true b\ld] clay or till4 ,! s& 0 ext5sively us$ = build+ purposes dur+ ! erection ( ! city poorh\se a few ye>s ago4 ,9 ?is s&-b$ ,i f\nd a great _m tree roots 9 ! position 9 :i* !y _h gr[n4 ,dur+ ! "t ( ! excavations ,i visit$ ! place almo/ daily1 & _h e opportunity ( satisfy+ myself t ?is s&-b$1 prior to ! "t ( ! =mation ( ! upp] b\ld] clay1 mu/ h be5 a l& surface on :i* ! roots _h gr[n4 ,9 no case did ,i f9d !m p5etrat+ into ! upp] b\ld] clay1 & 9 sev]al places ,i f\nd /ones ( ! upp] clay re/+ directly on ! brok5 ends ( ! roots4 ,^! roots 7 exam9$ by ,pr(essor ,balf\r1 b !y 7 s decay$ t he 0 unable to det]m9e _! "*4 ,9 digg+ a f\ndation = a build+ 9 ,lei? ,walk1 ,ed9burgh1 a few ye>s ago1 two di/9ct b$s ( s& 7 pass$ ?r\gh1 ! upp]1 ab\t #aj feet 9 ?ickness1 re/$ ^u :at appe>$ to be a d5ud$ surface ( ! l[] b$4 ,9 ?is l[] b$1 :i* evid5tly _h be5 a l& surface1 numb]s ( tree roots 7 f\nd4 ,i _h ! pleasure ( exam9+ !m along ) my fri5d ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,pea*1 :o fir/ direct$ my att5tion to !m4 ,9 no in/ance 7 ! roots f\nd 9 ! upp] b$4 ,t ^! roots did n belong to trees :i* _h gr[n on ! pres5t surface & p5etrat$ to t dep?1 0 fur!r evid5t f ! fact t 9 "o or two cases we f\nd ! roots brok5 (f at ! place :]e !y _h be5 jo9$ to ! trunk1 & !re ! upp] s&-b$ ov] !m 0 m ?an #aj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,if we assume t ! roots belong$ to trees :i* _h gr[n on ! pres5t surface1 !n we mu/ also assume1 :at no "o w\ld be will+ to admit1 t ! trunks ( ! trees _h gr[n d[nw>ds into ! e>? to a dep? ( upw>ds ( t5 feet4 ,i h %[n ^! roots to sev]al botani/s1 b none ( !m c\ld det]m9e to :at trees !y belong$4 ,! surface ( ! gr\nd at ! spot 9 "q is #de feet above sea-level4 ,mr4 ,pea* & ,i h f\nd simil> roots 9 ! "u s&-b$ at sev]al o!r places 9 ! same neighb\rhood4 ,t !y belong to an int]-glacial p]iod appe>s probable = ! foll[+ reasons3--7#a47 ,?is upp] s&-b$ is ov]laid by a t\gh clay1 :i* 9 all respects appe>s to be ! same z ! ,portobello clay1 :i* we "k belongs to ! glacial s]ies4 ,9 company ) ,mr4 ,b5nie1 ,i f\nd ! clay 9 "s places to be contort$ 9 a simil> mann] to ! ,portobello clays4 7#b47 ,9 a s&-pit ab\t "o or two hundr$ y>ds to ! we/ ( :]e ! roots 7 f\nd1 ! s&-b$ 0 f\nd contort$ 9 ! mo/ extraord9>y mann] to a dep? ( ab\t #ae feet4 ,9 fact1 = a space ( m ?an #cj feet1 ! b$d+ _h be5 completely turn$ up on end )\t ! f9e lay]s be+ 9 ! lea/ degree brok5 or dis>rang$1 %[+ t !y _h be5 upturn$ by "s enorm\s p[]s act+ on a l>ge mass ( ! s&4 ,"o ( ! be/ examples ( true till to be met ) 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,ed9burgh is at ,r$hall ,qu>ry1 ab\t ?ree miles to ! s\?-we/ ( ! city4 ,9 rec5tly op5+ up a new qu>ry ne> ! old "o a b$ ( peat 0 f\nd int]calat$ 9 ! ?ick mass ( till ov]ly+ ! rock4 ,! clay ov]ly+ & und]ly+ ! peat-b$ 0 c>efully exam9$ by ,mr4 ,john ,h5d]son1#aae & f\nd to be true till4 ,9 a qu>ry at ,ov]t[n1 ne> ,bei?1 ,ayr%ire1 a s$im5t>y b$ ( clay1 int]calat$ betwe5 two b\ld] clays1 0 "s ye>s ago obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,rob]t ,craig1 ( ! ,glasg[ ,geological ,society4 ,?is b$ fill$ an elliptical bas9 ab\t #acj y>ds long1 & ab\t #cj y>ds broad4 ,its ?ickness av]ag$ f "o to two feet4 ,?is s$im5t>y b$ re/$ on ! till on ! nor?-ea/ end ( ! bas91 & 0 itself ov]laid on ! s\?-we/ end by ! upp] b$ ( till4 ,! clay b$ 0 f\nd to be full ( roots & /ems ( ! common hazel4 ,t ^! roots _h gr[n 9 ! position 9 :i* !y 7 f\nd 0 evid5t f ! fact t !y 7 9 _m places f\nd to pass into ! 8cutt]s0 or fissures ( ! lime/one1 & 7 "h f\nd 9 a flatt5$ =m1 hav+ 9 gr[+ accommodat$ !mselves to ! size & %ape ( ! fissures4 ,nuts ( ! hazel 7 pl5tifully f\nd4#aaf ,at ,hillhead1 "s di/ance f ,ov]t[n1 !re is a simil> int]calat$ b$ full ( hazel rema9s1 & a species ( fre%wat] ,o/racoda 0 detect$ by ,mr4 ,david ,rob]tson4 ,9 a railway cutt+ a %ort di/ance f ,bei?1 ,mr4 ,craig po9t$ out to my colleague1 ,mr4 ,jack1 & myself1 a ?9 lay] ( peaty matt]1 ext5d+ = a consid]able di/ance betwe5 an upp] & l[] mass ( till2 & at "o place we f\nd a piece ( oak ab\t f\r feet 9 l5g? & ab\t sev5 or eight in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,?is oak b\ld] 0 well poli%$ & /riat$4 ,n f> f ?is place is ! fam\s ,cr(!ad int]-glacial b$1 s well kn[n f ! description giv5 by ,mr4 ,james ,geikie & o!rs t ,i ne$ n "h describe x4 ,i _h ! pleasure ( visit+ ! section twice :ile x 0 well expos$1 once1 9 company ) ,mr4 ,james ,geikie1 & ,i d n ent]ta9 ! %ad[ ( a d\bt z to its true int]-glacial "*4 ,9 ! silt1 evid5tly ! mud ( an int]-glacial lake1 7 f\nd ! upp] portion ( ! skull ( ! great ext9ct ox 7,bos primig5ius71 horns ( ! ,iri% elk or de]1 & bones ( ! horse4 ,9 ! detail$ li/ ( ! less] organic rema9s f\nd 9 ! int]calat$ peat-b$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,mahony1#aag are ! foll[+1 viz41 ?ree species ( ,desmidace1 ?irty-"o species ( ,diatomace1 elev5 species ( mosses1 n9e species ( phan]ogam\s plants1 & sev]al species ( annelids1 cru/acea1 & insects4 ,?is li/ cle>ly %[s t ! int]-glacial p]iod1 repres5t$ by ^! rema9s1 0 n only mild & w>m1 b ( consid]able duration4 ,mr4 ,david ,rob]tson f\nd 9 ! clay "u ! peat sev]al species ( ,o/racoda4 ,! well-kn[n ,kilmaurs b$ ( peaty matt] 9 :i* ! rema9s ( ! mammo? & re9de] 7 f\nd1 has n[ by ! rese>*es ( ! ,geological ,survey be5 prov$ to be ( int]-glacial age4#aah ,9 ,irel&1 z %[n by ,pr(essors ,hull & ,h>kness1 ! int]-glacial b$s1 call$ by !m ! 8manure gravels10 conta9 num]\s fragm5ts ( %ells indicat+ a m g5ial climate ?an prevail$ :5 ! b\ld] clays ly+ above & bel[ !m 7 =m$4#aai ,9 ,sw$5 int]-glacial b$s ( fre%wat] orig91 conta9+ plants1 h be5 met ) by ,h]r ,na?or/ & also by ,h]r ,holm/rm4#abj ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica ,mr4 ,:ittlesey describes int]-glacial b$s ( blue clay enclos+ pieces ( wood1 int]calat$ ) b$s ( h>d pan 7till74 ,pr(essor ,newb]ry f\nd at ,g]mant[n1 ,ohio1 an imm5se b$ ( peat1 f #ab to #bj feet 9 ?ickness1 und]ly+1 9 "s places #cj feet1 & 9 o!r places z mu* z #hj feet1 ( till1 & ov]ly+ drift b$s4 ,! upp]mo/ lay]s ( ! peat conta9 undecompos$ sphagn\s mosses1 grasses1 & s$ges1 b 9 ! o!r portions ( ! b$ abundant fragm5ts ( conif]\s wood1 id5tifi$ z r$ c$> 7,junip]us virg9iana71 h be5 f\nd4 ,a%1 hickory1 sycamore1 toge!r ) grape-v9es & bee*-leaves1 7 also met )1 & ) ^! ! rema9s ( ! ma/odon & great ext9ct beav]4#aba ,int]-glacial ,b$s ( ,engl&4--,scotl& has be5 s mu* d5ud$ by ! ice %eet ) :i* x 0 cov]$ dur+ ! p]iod ( maximum glaciation t little c be le>n$ 9 ?is "p ( ! isl& reg>d+ ! e>ly hi/ory ( ! glacial epo*4 ,b 9 ,engl&1 & m especially 9 ! s\?-ea/]n portion ( x1 matt]s are some:at diff]5t4 ,we h1 9 ! ,norwi* ,crag & ,*illes=d b$s1 a =mation pretty well develop$1 :i* is n[ g5]ally reg>d$ z ly+ at ! base ( ! ,glacial ,s]ies4 ,t ?is =mation is ( a glacial "* is evid5t f ! fact ( its conta9+ %ells ( a nor!rn type1 su* z ,l$a lanceolata1 ,c>dium ,gronl&icum1 ,luc9a borealis1 ,cypr9a ,isl&ica1 ,panopa ,norvegica1 & ,mya truncata4 ,b ! glacial "* ( ! =mation is m /rik+ly br\ght out1 z ,sir ,*>les ,lyell rem>ks1 by ! pr$om9ance ( su* species z ,rhyn*onella psittacea1 ,tell9a calc>ea1 ,a/>te borealis1 ,scal>ia ,gronl&ica1 & ,fusus c>9atus4 ,! 8,=e/ ,b$s40--,imm$iately foll[+ ?is 9 ! ord] ( "t comes ! fam\s 8,=e/ ,b$0 ( ,crom]4 ,?is buri$ =e/ has be5 trac$ = m ?an =ty miles along ! coa/ f ,crom] to ne> ,kess5gl&1 & consi/s ( /umps ( trees /&+ erect1 atta*$ to _! roots1 p5etrat+ ! orig9al soil 9 :i* !y grew4 ,"h & 9 ! ov]ly+ fluvio-m>9e b$s we h ! fir/ evid5ce ( at lea/ a temp]ate1 if n a w>m1 int]-glacial p]iod4 ,?is is evid5t f ! "* ( ! flora & fauna belong+ to ^! b$s4 ,among ! trees we h1 = example1 ! ,scot* & spruce fir1 ! yew1 ! oak1 bir*1 ! ald]1 & ! common sloe4 ,!re h also be5 f\nd ! :ite & yell[ wat]-lilies1 ! pond-we$1 & o!rs4 ,among/ ! mammalia h be5 met ) ! ,elephas m]idionalis1 also f\nd 9 ! ,l[] ,plioc5e b$s ( ! ,val d',arno1 ne> ,flor5ce2 ,elephas antiquus1 ,hippopotamus major1 ,rh9oc]os ,etruscus1 ! two latt] ,val d',arno species1 ! roebuck1 ! horse1 ! /ag1 ! ,iri% elk1 ! ,c]vus ,polignacus1 f\nd also at ,mont ,p]ri]1 ,france1 ,c4 v]ticornis1 & ,c4 c>nutorum1 ! latt] also f\nd 9 ,plioc5e /rata ( ,/4 ,pre/1 ,france4 ,9 ! fluvio-m>9e s]ies h be5 f\nd ! ,cyclas omnica & ! ,palud9a m>g9ata1 a species ( mollusc /ill f\nd 9 ! ,s\? ( ,france1 b no long] inhabit+ ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,above ! =e/ b$ & fluvio-m>9e s]ies comes ! well-kn[n un/ratifi$ ,norwi* b\ld] till1 conta9+ imm5se blocks #f or #h feet 9 diamet]1 _m ( :i* mu/ h come f ,sc&9avia1 & above ! un/ratifi$ till are a s]ies ( contort$ b$s ( s& & gravel4 ,?is s]ies may be consid]$ to repres5t a p]iod ( int5se glaciation4 ,above ?is aga9 comes ! middle drift ( ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood1 junior1 yield+ %ells :i* indicate1 z is n[ g5]ally admitt$1 a comp>atively mild condition ( climate4 ,^u ?is middle drift lies ! upp] b\ld] clay1 :i* is well develop$ 9 ,s\? ,norfolk & ,suffolk1 & :i* is ( unmi/akable glacial orig94 ,new] ?an all ^! are ! ,mundesley fre%wat] b$s1 :i* lie 9 a holl[ d5ud$ out ( ! =ego+ s]ies4 ,9 ?is =mation a black peaty deposit conta9+ se$s ( plants1 insects1 %ells1 & scales & bones ( fi%es1 has be5 f\nd1 all indicat+ a mild & temp]ate condition ( climate4 ,among ! %ells !re is1 z 9 ! =e/ b$1 ! ,palud9a m>g9ata4 ,& t an arctic condition ( ?+s 9 ,engl& foll[$ is believ$ by ,mr4 ,fi%] & o!rs1 on ! evid5ce ( ! 8,trail0 describ$ by ! =m] obs]v]4 ,cave & ,riv] ,deposits4--,evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( w>m p]iods dur+ ! glacial epo* is d]iv$ f a class ( facts :i* h long be5 reg>d$ by geologi/s z v puzzl+1 namely1 ! occurr5ce ( mollusca & mammalia ( a s\!rn type associat$ 9 ,engl& & on ! cont95t ) ^? ( an extremely arctic "*4 ,= example1 ,cyr5a flum9alis is a %ell :i* does n live at pres5t 9 any ,european riv]1 b inhabits ! ,nile & p>ts ( ,asia1 especially ,ca%m]e4 ,unio littoralis1 ext9ct 9 ,brita91 is /ill abundant 9 ! ,loire2 ,palud9a m>g9ata does n exi/ 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,^! %ells ( a s\!rn type h be5 f\nd 9 po/-t]ti>y deposits at ,gray's ,?urrock1 9 ,essex2 9 ! valley ( ! ,ouse1 ne> ,b$=d2 & at ,hoxne1 9 ,suffolk1 associat$ ) a ,hippopotamus closely alli$ to t n[ inhabit+ ! ,nile1 & ,elephas antiquus1 an animal rem>kable = its s\!rn range4 ,among/ o!r =ms ( a s\!rn type :i* h be5 met ) 9 ! cave & riv] deposits1 are ! spott$ hyna f ,africa1 an animal1 says ,mr4 ,dawk9s1 id5tical1 except 9 size1 ) ! cave hyna1 ! ,african elephant 7,e4 ,africanus71 & ! ,elephas m]idionalis1 ! great beav] 7,trogon!rium71 ! cave hyna 7,hyna spela71 ! cave lion 7,felis leo1 v>4 spela71 ! lynx 7,felis lynx71 ! sabre-too!d tig] 7,ma*airodus latid5s71 ! rh9oc]os 7,rh9oc]os meg>h9us & ,r4 leptorh9us74 ,b ! mo/ extraord9>y ?+ is t along ) ^!1 associat$ 9 ! same b$s1 h be5 f\nd ! rema9s ( su* animals ( an arctic type z ! glutton 7,gulo luscus71 ! erm9e 7,mu/ela erm9ea71 ! re9de] 7,c]vus t>&us71 ! musk-ox or musk-%eep 7,ovibos mos*atus71 ! auro*s 7,bison priscus71 ! woolly rh9oc]os 7,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us71 ! mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius71 & o!rs ( a l "*4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawk9s1 ^! s\!rn animals ext5d$ z f> nor? z ,york%ire 9 ,engl&1 & ! nor!rn animals z f> s\? z ! latitude ( ! ,alps & ,pyr5ees4#abb ,! ,explanation ( ! ,difficulty4--,z an explanation ( ^! puzzl+ ph5om5a1 ,i sugge/$1 9 ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,novemb]1 #ahfh1 t ^! s\!rn animals liv$ 9 our isl& dur+ ! w>m p]iods ( ! glacial epo*1 :ile ! nor!rn animals liv$ dur+ ! cold p]iods4 ,?is view ,i am happy to f9d has lately be5 support$ by ,sir ,john ,lubbock2 fur!r1 ,mr4 ,james ,geikie1 9 8 8,great ,ice ,age10 & also 9 ! ,geological ,magaz9e1 has ent]$ s fully into ! subject & br\ght =w>d su* a body ( evid5ce 9 support ( x1 t1 9 all probability1 x w1 ere long1 be g5]ally accept$4 ,! only objection :i* has be5 advanc$1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 des]v+ ( s]i\s consid]ation1 is t by ,mr4 ,boyd ,dawk9s1 :o holds t if ^! migrations _h be5 secul> in/ead ( seasonal1 z is suppos$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell & himself1 ! arctic & s\!rn animals w\ld n[ be f\nd 9 sep>ate deposits4 ,x is p]fectly true t if !re _h be5 only "o cold & "o w>m p]iod1 ea* ( geologically imm5se duration1 ! rema9s might1 ( c\rse1 be expect$ to h be5 f\nd 9 sep>ate b$s2 b :5 we consid] t ! glacial epo* consi/$ ( a long succession ( alt]nate cold & w>m p]iods1 ( n m ?an t5 or twelve ?\s& ye>s ea*1 we c h>dly expect t 9 ! riv] deposits belong+ to ?is long cycle we %\ld be able to di/+ui% ! deposits ( ! cold p]iods f ^? ( ! w>m4 ,%ell ,b$s4--,evid5ce ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods may be ju/ly inf]r$ f ! pres5ce ( %ells ( a s\!rn type :i* h be5 f\nd 9 glacial b$s1 ( :i* "s illu/rations foll[4 ,9 ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,norway1 f ! pres5t sea-level up to #ejj feet1 are f\nd glacial %ell b$s1 simil> to ^? ( ,scotl&4 ,9 ^! b$s ,tro*us magus1 ,tapes decussata1 & ,pholas c&ida h be5 f\nd1 %ells :i* are di/ribut$ betwe5 ! ,m$it]ranean & ! %ores ( ,engl&1 b no long] live r\nd ! coa/s ( ,norway4 ,at ,capellback51 ne> ,udevalla1 9 ,sw$51 !re is an ext5sive b$ ( %ells #bj to #cj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,?is =mation has be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,gwyn ,jeffreys4#abc ,x consi/s ( sev]al di/9ct lay]s1 app>5tly repres5t+ _m epo*s & conditions4 ,its %ells are ( a highly arctic "*1 & sev]al ( ! species h n be5 f\nd liv+ s\? ( ! arctic circle4 ,b ! rem>kable circum/ance is t x conta9s ,cypra lurida1 a ,m$it]ranean %ell1 :i* ,mr4 ,jeffreys1 aft] "s hesitation1 believ$ to belong to ! b$4 ,aga91 at ,lilleh]/ehag51 a %ort di/ance f ,capellback51 ano!r ext5sive deposit is expos$4 8,"h ! upp] lay]10 says ,mr4 ,jeffreys1 8gives a s+ul> result4 ,mix$ ) ! univ]sal ,trophon cla?ratus 7:i* is a high nor!rn species1 & f\nd liv+ only )9 ! arctic circle7 are _m %ells ( a s\!rn type1 su* are ,o/rea edulis1 ,tapes pulla/ra1 ,corbula gibba1 & ,aporrhais pes-pelicani40 ,at ,kempsey1 ne> ,worce/]1 a %ell b$ is describ$ by ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison 9 8 8,silurian ,sy/em0 7p4 #ecc71 9 :i* ,bulla ampulla & a species ( ,oliva1 %ells ( a s\!rn type1 h be5 f\nd4 ,a case some:at simil> to ! above is record$ by ! ,rev4 ,mr4 ,crosskey z hav+ be5 met ) 9 ,scotl& at ! ,kyles ( ,bute4 8,among ! ,clyde b$s1 ,i h f\nd10 he says1 8a lay] conta9+ %ells1 9 :i* ^? ( a m s\!rn type appe> to exi/ 9 great] pr(usion & p]fection ?an ev5 9 our pres5t seas4 ,x is an op5 "q10 he cont9ues1 8:e!r our climate 0 n slightly w>m] ?an x is n[ betwe5 ! glacial epo* & ! pres5t day40#abd ,9 a glacial b$ ne> ,gre5ock1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,bell f\nd ! fry ( liv+ ,m$it]ranean =ms1 viz41 ,conus ,m$it]raneus & ,c>dita trapezia4 ,al?\gh deposits conta9+ %ells ( a temp]ate or ( a s\!rn type 9 glacial b$s h n be5 (t5 record$1 x by no means foll[s t su* deposits are actually ( r>e occurr5ce4 ,t glacial b$s %\ld conta9 deposits indicat+ a temp]ate or a w>m condition ( climate is a ?+ s contr>y to all preconceiv$ op9ions reg>d+ ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts dur+ ! glacial epo*1 t mo/ geologi/s1 7 !y to meet ) a %ell ( a s\!rn type 9 "o ( ^? b$s1 w\ld in/antly come to ! conclusion t its occurr5ce !re 0 purely accid5tal1 & w\ld pay no special att5tion to ! matt]4 ,evid5ce d]iv$ f 8,bor+s40--,) ! view ( asc]ta9+ if additional light w\ld be ca/ on ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts1 dur+ ! =mation ( ! b\ld] clay1 by an exam9ation ( ! j\rnals ( bores made ?r\gh a great dep? ( surface deposits1 ,i collect$1 dur+ ! summ] ( #ahfg1 ab\t two hundr$ & fifty su* records1 put d[n 9 all p>ts ( ! m9+ di/ricts ( ,scotl&4 ,an exam9ation ( ^! bores %[s mo/ conclusively t ! op9ion t ! b\ld] clay1 or l[] till1 is "o great undivid$ =mation1 is :olly errone\s4 ,^! two hundr$ & fifty bores repres5t a total ?ickness ( #ba1cdh feet1 giv+ #hf feet z ! mean ?ickness ( ! deposits pass$ ?r\gh4 ,tw5ty ( ^! h "o b\ld] clay1 ) b$s ( /ratifi$ s& or gravel b5ea? ! clay2 tw5ty-five h two b\ld] clays1 ) /ratifi$ b$s ( s& & gravel betwe52 t5 h ?ree b\ld] clays2 "o has f\r b\ld] clays2 two h five b\ld] clays2 & no "o has few] ?an six sep>ate masses ( b\ld] clay1 ) /ratifi$ b$s ( s& & gravel betwe52 sixte5 h two or ?ree sep>ate b\ld] clays1 diff]+ altoge!r 9 col\r & h>dness1 )\t any /ratifi$ b$s betwe54 ,we h1 !re=e1 out ( two hundr$ & fifty bores1 sev5ty-five ( !m repres5t+ a condition ( ?+s :olly diff]5t f t exhibit$ to ! geologi/ 9 ord9>y sections4 ,! full details ( ! "* ( ! deposits pass$ ?r\gh by ^! bores1 & _! be>+ on ! hi/ory ( ! glacial epo*1 h be5 giv5 by ,mr4 ,james ,b5nie1 9 an int]e/+ pap] read be=e ! ,glasg[ ,geological ,society1#abe to :i* ,i w\ld ref] all ^? int]e/$ 9 ! subject ( surface geology4 ,! evid5ce af=d$ by ^! bores ( ! exi/5ce ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods w1 h[ev]1 fall to be consid]$ 9 a subsequ5t *apt]4#abf ,ano!r important & unexpect$ result obta9$ f ^! bores to :i* we %all h occasion to ref]1 0 ! evid5ce :i* !y af=d$ ( a ,cont95tal ,p]iod4 ,/riat$ ,pavem5ts4--,x has be5 sometimes obs]v$ t 9 horizontal sections ( ! b\ld] clay1 ! /ones & b\ld]s are all /riat$ 9 "o uni=m direction1 & ?is has be5 effect$ ov] ! orig9al m>k+s on ! b\ld]s4 ,x has be5 inf]r$ f ?is t a pause ( long duration mu/ h tak5 place 9 ! =mation ( ! b\ld] clay1 dur+ :i* ! ice disappe>$ & ! clay became h>d5$ into a solid mass4 ,aft] :i* ! old condition ( ?+s return$1 glaci]s aga9 appe>$1 pass$ ov] ! surface ( ! h>d5$ clay ) its imb$d$ b\ld]s1 & gr\nd x d[n 9 ! same way z !y _h =m]ly done ! solid rocks und]nea? ! clay4 ,an in/ance ( /riat$ pavem5ts 9 ! b\ld] clay 0 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,rob]t ,*amb]s 9 a cliff betwe5 ,portobello & ,fi%]r[4 ,at sev]al places a n>r[ tra9 ( blocks 0 obs]v$ cross+ ! l9e ( ! bea*1 some:at l a quay or mole1 b n m ?an a foot above ! g5]al level4 ,all ! blocks _h flat sides upp]mo/1 & all ! flat sides 7 /riat$ 9 ! same direction z t ( ! rocky surface ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,a simil> in/ance 0 also obs]v$ betwe5 ,lei? & ,portobello4 8,!re is1 9 %ort10 says ,mr4 ,*amb]s1 8a surface ( ! b\ld] clay1 deep d[n 9 ! entire b$1 :i*1 to appe>ance1 has be5 9 precisely ! same circum/ances z ! fa/ rock surface bel[ _h previ\sly be54 ,x has _h 9 its turn to su/a9 ! weight & abrad+ =ce ( ! glacial ag5t1 9 :atev] =m x 0 appli$2 & ! additional deposits ( ! b\ld] clay left ov] ?is surface may be presum$ to h be5 =m$ by ! ag5t on t occasion40#abg ,sev]al cases ( a simil> "* 7 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,james ,smi?1 ( ,jordanhill1 on ! bea* at ,r[1 & on ! %ore ( ! ,g>elo*4#abh ,betwe5 ,dunb> & ,cockburnspa?1 ,pr(essor ,geikie f\nd along ! bea*1 = a space ( #cj or #dj squ>e y>ds1 numb]s ( l>ge blocks ( lime/one ) flatt5$ upp] sides1 imb$d$ 9 a /iff r$ clay1 & all /riat$ 9 "o direction4 ,on ! %ores ( ! ,solway he f\nd ano!r example4#abi ,! cases ( /riat$ pavem5ts record$ are1 h[ev]1 n v num]\s4 ,b ?is by no means %[s t !y are ( r>e occurr5ce 9 ! b\ld] clay4 ,^! pavem5ts1 ( c\rse1 are to be f\nd only 9 ! int]ior ( ! mass1 & ev5 !re !y c only be se5 along a horizontal section4 ,b sections ( ?is k9d are r>ely to be met )1 = riv] *annels1 qu>ries1 railway cutt+s1 & o!r excavations ( a simil> "* :i* usually lay op5 ! b\ld] clay1 exhibit v]tical sections only4 ,x is !re=e only along ! sea-%ore1 z ,pr(essor ,geikie rem>ks1 :]e ! surface ( ! clay has be5 worn away by ! action ( ! waves1 t opportunities h hi!rto be5 pres5t$ to ! geologi/ = obs]v+ !m4 ,!re c be little d\bt t dur+ ! w>m p]iods ( ! glacial epo* our isl& w\ld be clo!d ) a luxuriant flora4 ,at ! end ( a cold p]iod1 :5 ! ice _h disappe>$1 ! :ole face ( ! c\ntry w\ld be cov]$ ov] to a consid]able dep? ) a confus$ mass ( /ones & b\ld] clay4 ,a surface ?us :olly de/itute ( e se$ & g]m w\ld probably rema9 = ye>s )\t vegetation4 ,b ?r\gh c\rse ( "t life w\ld beg9 to appe>1 & dur+ ! ?\s&s ( ye>s ( p]petual summ] :i* w\ld foll[1 ! soil1 uncong5ial z x no d\bt mu/ h be51 w\ld be =c$ to su/a9 a luxuriant vegetation4 ,b al?\gh ?is 0 ! case1 we ne$ n wond] t n[ sc>cely a s+le ve/ige ( x rema9s2 = :5 ! ice %eet aga9 crept ov] ! isl& ev]y?+ animate & inanimate w\ld be gr\nd d[n to p[d]4 ,we are c]ta9 t prior to ! glacial epo* our isl& mu/ h be5 cov]$ ) life & vegetation4 ,b n a s+le ve/ige ( ^! are n[ to be f\nd2 no1 n ev5 ( ! v soil on :i* ! vegetation grew4 ,! solid rock itself ^u :i* ! soil lay has be5 gr\nd d[n to mud by ! ice %eet1 &1 to a l>ge ext5t1 z ,pr(essor ,geikie rem>ks1 swept away into ! adjo9+ seas4#acj ,x is n[ ev5 m difficult to f9d a trace ( ! anci5t soil "u ! b\ld] clay ?an x is to f9d rema9s ( ! soil ( ! w>m p]iods 9 t clay4 ,z reg>ds ,scotl&1 cases ( old l& surfaces "u ! b\ld] clay are z seldom record$ z cases ( old l& surfaces 9 x4 ,9 s f> z geology is conc]n$1 !re is z mu* evid5ce to %[ t our isl& 0 clo!d ) vegetation dur+ ! glacial epo* z !re is t x 0 s clo!d prior to t epo*4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,w>m ,,int]-,,glacial ,,p]iods ,,9 ,,arctic ,,regions4 ,cold ,p]iods be/ m>k$ 9 ,temp]ate1 & ,w>m ,p]iods 9 ,arctic1 ,regions4--,/ate ( ,arctic ,regions dur+ ,glacial ,p]iod4--,effects ( ,removal ( ,ice f ,arctic ,regions4--,ocean-,curr5ts2 ,influ5ce on ,arctic ,climate4--,reason :y ,rema9s ( ,int]-glacial ,p]iod are r>e 9 ,arctic ,regions4--,rema9s ( ,anci5t ,=e/s 9 ,banks's ,l&1 ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&1 c4--,op9ions ( ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison1 ,capta9 ,osborn1 & ,pr(essor ,haughton4--,tree dug up by ,sir ,e4 ,bel*] 9 lat4 #ge ,n4 ,9 ! temp]ate regions ! cold p]iods ( ! glacial epo* w\ld be f> m m>k$ ?an ! w>m int]-glacial p]iods4 ,! condition ( ?+s :i* prevail$ dur+ ! cold p]iods w\ld diff] f> m widely f t :i* n[ prevails ?an w\ld ! condition ( ?+s dur+ ! w>m p]iods4 ,b z reg>ds ! pol> regions ! rev]se w\ld be ! case2 !re ! w>m int]-glacial p]iods w\ld be f> m m>k$ ?an ! cold p]iods4 ,! condition ( ?+s prevail+ 9 ^? regions dur+ ! w>m p]iods w\ld be 9 /ronge/ contra/ to :at n[ obta9s1 b ?is w\ld n hold true 9 ref]5ce to ! cold p]iods2 = dur+ ! latt]1 matt]s !re w\ld be pretty mu* ! same z at pres5t1 only a good deal m sev]e4 ,! reason ( ?is may be se5 f :at has already be5 /at$ 9 ,*apt] ,,iv42 b z x is a po9t ( consid]able importance 9 ord] to a prop] und]/&+ ( ! physical /ate ( ?+s prevail+ 9 pol> regions dur+ ! glacial epo*1 ,i %all consid] ?is "p ( ! subject m fully4 ,dur+ ! cold p]iods1 our isl&1 & ne>ly all places 9 ! nor!rn temp]ate regions d[n to ab\t ! same latitude1 w\ld be cov]$ ) sn[ & ice1 & all animal & vegetable life )9 ! glaciat$ area w\ld to a great ext5t be de/roy$4 ,! pres5ce ( ! ice w\ld ( itself1 = reasons already expla9$1 l[] ! mean annual temp]ature to ne> ! freez+-po9t4 ,! summ]s1 not)/&+ ! proximity ( ! sun1 w\ld n be w>m1 on ! contr>y _! temp]ature w\ld rise little above ! freez+-po9t4 ,an excess ( evaporation w\ld no d\bt take place1 ow+ to ! increase 9 ! int5sity ( ! sun's rays1 b ?is result w\ld only t5d to increase ! sn[fall4#aca ,dur+ ! w>m p]iods our c\ntry & ! regions "u consid]ation w\ld exp]i5ce conditions n diff]+ mu* f ^? ( ! pres5t1 b ! climate w\ld probably be some:at w>m] & m equable4 ,! proximity ( ! sun dur+ w9t] w\ld prev5t sn[ f fall+4 ,! summ]s1 ow+ to ! great] di/ance ( ! sun1 w\ld probably be some:at cold] ?an !y are n[4 ,b ! loss ( heat dur+ summ] w\ld be to a l>ge ext5t comp5sat$ = by two causes to :i* we mu/ "h ref]4 7#a47 ,! mu* great] am\nt ( heat convey$ by ocean-curr5ts ?an at pres5t4 7#b47 ,our summ]s are n[ cool$ to a consid]able ext5t by cold arial curr5ts f ! ice-cov]$ regions ( ! nor?4 ,b dur+ ! p]iod 9 "q !re w\ld be little or no ice 9 arctic regions1 consequ5tly ! w9ds w\ld be comp>atively w>m1 :atev] direction !y came f4 ,let u next direct our att5tion to ! /ate ( ?+s 9 ! arctic regions dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,at pres5t ,gre5l& & o!r p>ts ( ! arctic regions occupi$ by l& are almo/ :olly cov]$ ) ice1 & z a consequ5ce ne>ly de/itute ( vegetable life4 ,dur+ ! cold p]iods ( ! glacial epo* ! quantity ( sn[ fall+ w\ld d\btless be great] & ! ice ?ick]1 b z reg>ds organic life1 matt]s w\ld n probably be mu* worse ?an !y are at pres5t4 ,9 fact1 s f> z ,gre5l& & ! ant>ctic cont95t are conc]n$1 !y are ab\t z de/itute ( plant life z !y c be4 ,al?\gh an increase 9 ! ?ickness ( ! arctic ice w\ld n greatly alt] ! pres5t /ate ( matt]s 9 ^? regions1 yet :at a trans=mation w\ld ensue ^u ! disappe>ance ( ! ice6 ,?is w\ld n only raise ! summ] temp]ature "s tw5ty degrees or s1 b w\ld af=d ! necess>y conditions = ! exi/5ce ( abundant animal & plant life4 ,! sev]ity ( ! climate ( ,gre5l& is due to a v consid]able ext5t1 z we h already se51 to ! pres5ce ( ice4 ,get rid ( ! p]man5t ice1 & ! temp]ature ( ! c\ntry1 ct]is p>ibus1 w\ld in/antly rise4 ,t ,gre5l& %\ld ev] h enjoy$ a temp]ate climate1 capable ( support+ abundant vegetation1 has (t5 be5 matt] ( a/oni%m5t1 b ?is wond] dim9i%es :5 we reflect t dur+ ! w>m p]iods x w\ld be 9 ! arctic regions t ! greate/ heat+ effect w\ld take place1 ?is be+ due ma9ly to ! transf]5ce ( ne>ly all ! w>m int]-tropical wat]s to "o hemisph]e4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 t ! heat+ effects at pres5t result+ f ! transf]5ce ( heat by ocean-curr5ts increase z we approa* ! poles4 ,z a consequ5ce ( ?is x foll[s t dur+ ! w>m p]iods1 :5 ! quantity ( w>m wat] transf]r$ w\ld be ne>ly d\bl$1 ! increase ( heat result+ f ?is cause w\ld itself increase z ! w>m pole 0 approa*$4 ,?is effect1 comb9$ ) ! %ortness ( ! w9t] 9 p]ihelion & ! ne>ness ( ! sun dur+ t season1 w\ld prev5t ! accumulation ( sn[4 ,dur+ summ]1 ! sun1 x is true1 w\ld be at a mu* great] di/ance f ! e>? ?an at pres5t1 b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t = a p]iod ( ?ree mon?s ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun at ! nor? pole w\ld be great] ?an t receiv$ at ! equator4 ,consequ5tly1 aft] ! w9t]'s sn[ 0 melt$1 ?is great am\nt ( heat w\ld g to raise ! temp]ature1 & ! arctic summ] c\ld n be o!rwise ?an hot4 ,x is n hot at pres5t1 b ?is1 be x obs]v$1 is because ( ! pres5ce ( ! ice4 ,:5 we take all ^! facts into consid]ation we ne$ n be surpris$ t ,gre5l& once enjoy$ a condition ( climate totally diff]5t f t :i* n[ obta9s 9 t region4 ,x is1 !re=e1 9 ! arctic & ant>ctic regions :]e we ought to f9d ! mo/ m>k$ & decid$ evid5ce ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods4 ,& d\btless su* evid5ce w\ld be abundantly =?com+ _h ^! regions n be5 subject$ to su* int5se d5udation s9ce ! glacial epo*1 & 7 s l>ge a portion ( ! l& n /ill buri$ b5ea? an icy cov]+1 & !re=e beyond ! geologi/'s rea*4 ,only on isl&s & su* outly+ places z are n %r\d$ 9 sn[ & ice c we hope to meet ) any trace ( ! w>m p]iods ( ! glacial epo*3 & we may n[ proce$ to consid] :at relics ( ^! w>m p]iods h actually be5 discov]$ 9 arctic regions4 ,evid5ce ( ,w>m ,p]iods 9 ,arctic ,regions4--,! fact t /umps1 c41 ( full-gr[n trees h be5 f\nd 9 places :]e at pres5t no?+ is to be met ) b fields ( sn[ & ice1 & :]e ! mean annual temp]ature sc>cely rises above ! z]o ( ! ,fahr5heit !rmomet]1 is good evid5ce to %[ t ! climate ( ! arctic regions 0 once mu* w>m] ?an n[4 ,! rema9s ( an anci5t =e/ 7 discov]$ by ,capta9 ,mc,clure1 9 ,banks's ,l&1 9 latitude #gd #dh4 ,he f\nd a great accumulation ( trees1 f ! sea-level to an elevation ( upw>ds ( #cjj feet4 8,i ent]$ a rav9e10 says ,capta9 ,mc,clure1 8"s miles inl&1 & f\nd ! nor? side ( x1 = a dep? ( #dj feet f ! surface1 compos$ ( "o mass ( wood simil> to :at ,i _h be=e se540#acb ,9 ! rav9e he obs]v$ a tree protrud+ ab\t #h feet1 & #c feet 9 circumf]5ce4 ,& he fur!r /ates t1 8,f ! p]fect /ate ( ! b>k1 & ! position ( ! trees s f> f ! sea1 !re c be b little d\bt t !y grew orig9ally 9 ! c\ntry40 ,a cone ( "o ( ^! fir-trees 0 br\ght home1 & 0 f\nd to belong app>5tly to ! g5us ,abies1 resembl+ ,a4 7,p9us7 alba4 ,9 ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&1 9 latitude #gf #ab ,n41 longitude #abb ,w41 ne> ! head ( ,walk] ,inlet1 & a consid]able di/ance 9 ! int]ior 9 "o ( ! rav9es1 a tree protrud+ ab\t #aj feet f a bank 0 discov]$ by ,lieut5ant ,me*am4 ,x prov$ to be #d feet 9 circumf]5ce4 ,9 its neighb\rhood sev]al o!rs 7 se51 all ( !m simil> to "s he _h f\nd at ,cape ,mann+2 ea* ( !m measur$ #d feet r\nd & #cj feet 9 l5g?4 ,! c>p5t] /at$ t ! trees resembl$ l>*4 ,lieut5ant ,me*am1 f _! appe>ance & position1 conclud$ t !y mu/ h gr[n 9 ! c\ntry4#acc ,trees "u simil> conditions 7 also f\nd by ,lieut5ant ,pim on ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&1 & by ,capta9 ,p>ry on ,melville ,isl&1 all consid]ably above ! pres5t sea-level & at a di/ance f ! %ore4 ,on ! coa/ ( ,new ,sib]ia1 ,lieut5ant ,anj\ f\nd a cliff ( clay conta9+ /ems ( trees /ill capable ( be+ us$ = fuel4 8,?is rem>kable ph5om5on10 says ,capta9 ,osborn1 8op5s a va/ field = conjecture1 & ! imag9ation becomes bewild]$ 9 try+ to realise t p]iod ( ! _w's hi/ory :5 ! abs5ce ( ice & a mild] climate all[$ =e/ trees to gr[ 9 a region :]e n[ ! gr\nd-will[ & dw>f-bir* h to /ruggle = exi/5ce40 ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison came to ! conclusion t all ^? trees 7 drift$ to _! pres5t position :5 ! isl&s ( ! arctic ar*ipelago 7 subm]g$4 ,b x 0 ! difficulty ( acc\nt+ = ! gr[? ( trees 9 su* a region :i* l$ him to adopt ?is hypo!sis4 ,8 argum5t is ?is3 8,if we imag9e10 he says1 8t ! timb] f\nd 9 ^? latitudes grew on ! spot we %\ld be driv5 to adopt ! anomal\s hypo!sis t1 not)/&+ physical relations ( l& & wat] simil> to ^? :i* n[ prevail1 trees ( l>ge size grew on su* t]ra firma )9 a few degrees ( ! nor? pole6--a supposition :i* ,i consid] to be :olly incompatible ) ! data 9 our possession1 & at v>iance ) ! laws ( ! iso!rmal l9es40#acd ,?is reason+ ( ,sir ,rod]ick's may be q correct1 on ! supposition t *anges ( climate are due to *anges 9 ! di/ribution ( sea & l&1 z advocat$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell4 ,b ^! difficulties disappe> if we adopt ! views advocat$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s4 ,z ,capta9 ,osborn has po9t$ out1 h[ev]1 ,sir ,rod]ick's hypo!sis leaves ! real difficulty unt\*$4 8,a v diff]5t climate10 he says1 8mu/ !n h exi/$ 9 ^? regions to all[ driftwood s p]fect z to reta9 its b>k to rea* su* great di/ances2 & p]haps x may be argu$ t if t sea 0 suffici5tly cle> ( ice to all[ su* timb] to drift unsca!d to ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,l&1 t t v abs5ce ( a froz5 sea w\ld all[ fir-trees to gr[ 9 a soil naturally f]tile40#ace ,z has be5 already /at$1 all :o h se5 ^? trees 9 arctic regions agree 9 ?9k+ t !y grew 9 situ4 ,& ,pr(essor ,haughton1 9 8 excell5t acc\nt ( ! arctic ar*ipelago app5d$ to ,mc,clintock's 8,n>rative ( ,arctic ,discov]ies10 aft] a c>eful exam9ation ( ! entire evid5ce on ! subject1 is di/9ctly ( ! same op9ion2 :ile ! rec5t rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,he] put x beyond d\bt t ! drift !ory mu/ be ab&on$4 ,und\bt$ly ! arctic ar*ipelago 0 subm]g$ to an ext5t t c\ld h admitt$ ( ^? trees be+ float$ to _! pres5t positions4 ,?is1 z we %all see1 foll[s f !ory2 b subm]g5ce1 )\t a w>m] condition ( climate1 w\ld n enable trees to rea* ^? regions ) _! b>k entire4 ,b 9 reality we are n left to !orise on ! subject1 = we h a well-au!nticat$ case ( "o ( ^? trees be+ got by ,capta9 ,bel*] /&+ erect 9 ! position 9 :i* x grew4 ,x 0 f\nd imm$iately to ! nor?w>d ( ! n>r[ /rait op5+ into ,well+ton ,s\nd1 9 lat4 #ge #cb ,n4 long4 #ib ,w41 & ab\t a mile & a half inl&4 ,! tree 0 dug up out ( ! froz5 gr\nd1 & along ) x a portion ( ! soil :i* 0 imm$iately 9 contact ) ! roots4 ,! :ole 0 pack$ 9 canvas & br\ght to ,engl&4 ,ne> to ! spot sev]al knolls ( peat mosses ab\t n9e in*es 9 dep? 7 f\nd1 conta9+ ! bones ( ! lemm+ 9 great numb]s4 ,! tree 9 "q 0 exam9$ by ,sir ,william ,hook]1 :o gave ! foll[+ report conc]n+ x1 :i* be>s out /rongly ! fact ( its hav+ gr[n 9 situ4 8,! piece ( wood br\ght by ,sir ,edw>d ,bel*] f ! %ores ( ,well+ton ,*annel belongs to a species ( p9e1 probably to ! ,p9us 7,abies7 alba1 ! mo/ nor!rn conif]4 ,! /ructure ( ! wood ( ! specim5 br\ght home diff]s rem>kably 9 its anatomical "* f t ( any o!r conif] ) :i* ,i am acqua9t$4 ,ea* conc5tric r+ 7or annual gr[?7 consi/s ( two zones ( tissue2 "o1 ! out]1 t t[>ds ! circumf]5ce1 is broad]1 ( a pale col\r1 & consi/s ( ord9>y tubes ( fibres ( wood1 m>k$ ) discs common to all conif]4 ,^! discs are usually opposite "o ano!r :5 m ?an "o r[ ( !m occur 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? ( ! fibre2 &1 :at is v unusual1 pres5t radiat+ l9es f ! c5tral depression to ! circumf]5ce4 ,secondly1 ! inn] zone ( ea* annual r+ ( wood is n>r[]1 ( a d>k col\r1 & =m$ ( m sl5d] woody fibres1 ) ?ick] walls 9 proportion to _! diamet]4 ,^! tubes h few or no discs ^u !m1 b are cov]$ ) spiral /ri1 giv+ ! appe>ance ( ea* tube be+ =m$ ( a twi/$ b&4 ,! above *>act]s prevail 9 all p>ts ( ! wood1 b are slightly modifi$ 9 diff]5t r+s4 ,?us ! out] zone is broad] 9 "s ?an 9 o!rs1 ! disc-be>+ fibres ( ! out] zone are sometimes fa9tly m>k$ ) spiral /ri1 & ! spirally m>k$ fibres ( ! inn] zone sometimes be> discs4 ,^! appe>ances sugge/ ! annual recurr5ce ( "s special cause t %all ?us modify ! fir/ & la/ =m$ fibres ( ea* ye>'s deposit1 s t t fir/ =m$ may diff] 9 am\nt z well z 9 k9d f t la/ =m$2 & ! peculi> conditions ( an arctic climate appe> to af=d an adequate solution4 ,! inn]1 or fir/-=m$ zone1 mu/ be reg>d$ z imp]fectly develop$1 be+ deposit$ at a season :5 ! functions ( ! plant are v int]mitt5tly ex]cis$1 & :5 a few %ort h\rs ( sun%9e are daily succe$$ by _m ( extreme cold4 ,z ! season advances ! sun's heat & light are cont9u\s dur+ ! great] "p ( ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 & ! newly =m$ wood fibres are h5ce m p]fectly develop$1 !y are mu* long]1 pres5t no signs ( /ri1 b are /udd$ ) discs ( a m highly organiz$ /ructure ?an are usual 9 ! natural ord] to :i* ?is tree belongs40#acf ,ano!r circum/ance :i* %[s t ! tree _h gr[n :]e x 0 f\nd is ! fact t 9 digg+ up ! roots portions ( ! leaves 7 obta9$4 ,x may also be m5tion$ t ne> ?is place 0 f\nd an old riv] *annel cut deeply into ! rock1 :i*1 at "s remote p]iod1 :5 ! climate mu/ h be5 less rigor\s ?an at pres5t1 _h be5 occupi$ by a riv] ( consid]able size4 ,n[1 x is evid5t t if a tree c\ld h gr[n at ,well+ton ,s\nd1 !re is no reason :y "o might n h gr[n at ,banks's ,l&1 or at ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&4 ,&1 if ! climatic condition ( ! c\ntry w\ld all[ "o tree to gr[1 x w\ld equally z well all[ a hundr$1 a ?\s&1 or a :ole =e/4 ,if ?is1 !n1 be ! case1 ,sir ,rod]ick's objection to ! !ory ( gr[? 9 situ falls to ! gr\nd4 ,ano!r circum/ance :i* fav\rs ! idea t ^? trees grew dur+ ! glacial epo* is ! fact t al?\gh !y are rec5t1 geologically speak+1 & belong to ! drift s]ies1 yet !y are1 hi/orically speak+1 v old4 ,! wood1 ?\gh n fossiliz$1 is s h>d5$ & *ang$ by age t x w sc>cely burn4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,=m] ,,glacial ,,epo*s4--,,reason ,,( ,,! ,,imp]fection ,,( ,,geological ,,records ,,9 ,,ref]5ce ,,to ,,!m4 ,two ,reasons :y s little is kn[n ( ,glacial ,epo*s4--,evid5ce ( ,glaciation to be f\nd on ,l&-surfaces4--,:]e are all our anci5t ,l&-surfaces8--,! /ratifi$ ,rocks consi/ ( a ,s]ies ( old ,sea-bottoms4--,trans=mation ( a ,l&-surface into a ,sea-bottom oblit]ates all ,traces ( ,glaciation4--,:y s little rema9s ( ! ,b\ld] ,clays ( =m] ,glacial ,epo*s4--,records ( ! ,glacial ,epo* are fa/ disappe>+4--,iceb]gs d n /riate ! ,sea-bottom4--,mr4 ,campbell's ,obs]vations on ! ,coa/ ( ,labrador4--,am\nt ( ,mat]ial transport$ by ,iceb]gs mu* exagg]at$4--,mr4 ,pack>d on ! ,glacial ,ph5om5a ( ,labrador4--,b\ld] ,clay ! ,product ( ,l&-ice4--,palontological ,evid5ce4--,paucity ( ,life *>act]i/ic ( a ,glacial ,p]iod4--,w>m ,p]iods bett] repres5t$ by ,organic ,rema9s ?an cold4--,:y ! ,climate ( ! ,t]ti>y ,p]iod 0 suppos$ to be w>m] ?an ! pres5t4--,mr4 ,james ,geikie on ! ,defects ( ,palontological ,evid5ce4--,conclusion4 ,two ,reasons :y s little is kn[n ( =m] ,glacial ,epo*s4--,if ! glacial epo* result$ f ! causes discuss$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s1 !n su* epo*s mu/ h frequ5tly sup]v5$4 ,we may1 !re=e1 n[ proce$ to consid] :at evid5ce !re is = ! =m] occurr5ce ( excessive conditions ( climate dur+ previ\s geological ages4 ,:5 we beg9 our inquiry1 h[ev]1 we soon f9d t ! facts :i* h be5 record$ z evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! action ( ice 9 =m] geological epo*s are v scanty inde$4 ,two obvi\s reasons = ?is may be giv51 namely1 7#a7 ,! imp]fection ( ! geological records !mselves1 & 7#b7 ! little att5tion hi!rto paid t[>d rese>*es ( ?is k9d4 ,! notion1 once s preval5t1 t ! climate ( our e>? 0 mu* w>m] 9 ! e>li] geological ages ?an x is n[1 & t x has ev] s9ce be5 gradually becom+ cool]1 0 :olly at v>iance ) ! idea ( =m] ice-p]iods4 ,& ?is conviction ( ! priori improbability ( cold p]iods hav+ obta9$ dur+ ,palozoic & ,mesozoic ages t5d$ to prev5t due att5tion be+ paid to su* facts z seem$ to be> ^u ! subject4 ,b our limit$ k ( =m] glacial epo*s mu/ no d\bt be attribut$ *iefly to ! actual imp]fection ( ! geological records4 ,s great is ?is imp]fection t ! m]e abs5ce ( direct geological evid5ce _c reasonably be reg>d$ z suffici5t pro( t ! conclusions d]iv$ f a/ronomical & physical consid]ations reg>d+ =m] ice-p]iods are improbable4 ,nor is ?is all4 ,! geological records ( anci5t glacial conditions are n only imp]fect1 b1 z ,i %all endeav\r to %[1 ?is imp]fection foll[s z a natural consequ5ce f ! pr9ciples ( geology itself4 ,!re are n m]ely s _m blanks or gaps 9 ! records1 b a reason exi/s 9 ! v nature ( geological evid5ce :y su* breaks 9 ! record might reasonably be expect$ to occur4 ,evid5ce ( ,glaciation to be f\nd *iefly on ,l&-surfaces4--,x is on a l&-surface t ! pr9cipal traces ( ! action ( ice dur+ a glacial epo* are left1 = x is !re t ! /ones are *iefly /riat$1 ! rocks gr\nd d[n1 & ! b\ld] clay =m$4 ,b :]e are all our anci5t l&-surfaces8 ,!y are n to be f\nd4 ,! total ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ,great ,brita9 is1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 ne>ly f\rte5 miles4 ,b f ! top to ! bottom ( ?is enorm\s pile ( deposits !re is h>dly a s+le l&-surface to be detect$4 ,true pat*es ( old l&-surfaces ( a local "* exi/1 su*1 = example1 z ! dirt-b$s ( ,portl&2 b1 ) ! exception ( coal-seams1 e g5]al =mation f top to bottom has be5 accumulat$ "u wat]1 & none b ! "u-clays ev] exi/$ z a l&-surface4 ,& x is "h1 9 su* a =mation1 t ! geologi/ has to collect all 8 in=mation reg>d+ ! exi/5ce ( =m] glacial epo*s4 ,! entire /ratifi$ rocks ( ! globe1 ) ! exception ( ! coal-b$s & "u-clays 79 nei!r ( :i* w\ld "o expect to f9d traces ( ice-action71 consi/ almo/ entirely ( a s]ies ( old sea-bottoms1 ) "h & !re an occasional fre%wat] deposit4 ,be>+ ?is 9 m9d1 :at is ! sort ( evid5ce :i* we c n[ hope to f9d 9 ^! old sea-bottoms ( ! exi/5ce ( =m] ice-p]iods8 ,e geologi/ ( c\rse admits t ! /ratifi$ rocks are n old l&-surfaces1 b a s]ies ( old sea-bottoms =m$ out ( ! accumulat$ mat]ial d]iv$ f ! degradation ( primeval l&-surfaces4 ,& x is true t all l&-surfaces once exi/$ z sea-bottoms2 b ! /ratifi$ rocks consi/ ( a s]ies ( old sea-bottoms :i* nev] 7 l&-surfaces4 ,_m ( !m no d\bt h be5 repeat$ly above ! sea-level1 & may once h possess$ l&-surfaces2 b ^!1 ) ! exception ( ! "u-clays ( ! v>i\s coal measures1 ! dirt-b$s ( ,portl&1 & "o or two m pat*es1 h all be5 d5ud$ away4 ,! important be>+ :i* ?is consid]ation has on ! nature ( ! evid5ce :i* we c n[ expect to f9d ( ! exi/5ce ( =m] glacial epo*s has c]ta9ly be5 v mu* ov]look$4 ,if we exam9e ! matt] fully we %all be l$ to conclude t ! trans=mation ( a l&-surface into a sea-bottom w probably completely oblit]ate e trace ( glaciation :i* t l&-surface may once h pres5t$4 ,we _c1 = example1 expect to meet ) poli%$ & /riat$ /ones belong+ to a =m] l& glaciation2 = su* /ones are n c>ri$ d[n bodily & un*ang$ by our riv]s & deposit$ 9 ! sea4 ,!y become brok5 up by subarial ag5cies into gravel1 s&1 & clay1 & 9 ?is condition are transport$ seaw>ds4 ,nor ev5 if we suppos$ x possible t ! /ones & b\ld]s d]iv$ f a mass ( till c\ld be c>ri$ d[n to sea by riv]-action1 c\ld we at ! same "t fail to admit t su* /ones w\ld be depriv$ ( all _! ice-m>k+s1 & become wat]-worn & r\nd$ on ! way4#acg ,nor c we expect to f9d b\ld] clay among ! /ratifi$ rocks1 = b\ld] clay is n c>ri$ d[n z su* & deposit$ 9 ! sea1 b "u ! influ5ce ( ! d5ud+ ag5ts becomes brok5 up into s(t mud1 clay1 s&1 & gravel1 z x is gradually peel$ (f ! l& & swept seaw>ds4 ,pat*es ( b\ld] clay may h be5 n[ & aga9 =c$ into ! sea by ice & ev5tually become cov]$ up2 b su* cases are :olly exceptional1 & _! abs5ce 9 any =mation _c fairly be adduc$ z a pro( t t =mation does n belong to a glacial p]iod4 ,! only evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( l&-ice dur+ =m] p]iods :i* we c reasonably expect to meet ) 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks1 consi/s ( erratic blocks :i* may h be5 transport$ by iceb]gs & dropp$ into ! sea4 ,b unless ! glaci]s ( su* epo*s rea*$ ! sea1 we c\ld n possibly possess ev5 ?is evid5ce4 ,traces 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ! effects ( l&-ice dur+ =m] epo*s mu/1 9 ! v nature ( ?+s1 be r>e inde$4 ,! only sort ( evid5ce :i*1 z a g5]al rule1 we may expect to detect1 is ! pres5ce ( l>ge erratic blocks imb$d$ 9 /rata :i* f _! con/itution h evid5tly be5 =m$ 9 /ill wat]4 ,b ?is is q en\gh2 = x proves ! exi/5ce ( ice at ! "t ! /rata 7 be+ deposit$ z conclusively z ?\gh we saw ! ice float+ ) ! blocks ^u x4 ,?is sort ( evid5ce1 :5 f\nd 9 l[ latitudes1 ought to be receiv$ z conclusive ( ! exi/5ce ( =m] glacial epo*s2 &1 no d\bt1 w\ld h be5 s receiv$ _h x n be5 = ! idea t1 if ^! blocks _h be5 transport$ by ice1 !re ought 9 addition to h be5 f\nd /riat$ /ones1 b\ld] clay1 & o!r indications ( ! ag5cy ( l&-ice4 ,( c\rse all erratics are n necess>ily transport$ by masses ( ice brok5 f ! t]m9al front ( glaci]s4 ,! 8ice foot10 =m$ by ! freez+ ( ! sea along ! coa/s ( ! high] latitudes ( ,gre5l&1 c>ries seaw>ds imm5se quantities ( blocks & dbris4 ,& aga9 /ones & b\ld]s are frequ5tly froz5 into riv]-ice1 & :5 ! ice breaks up 9 spr+ are swept out to sea1 & may be c>ri$ "s little di/ance be=e !y are dropp$4 ,b bo? ^! cases c occur only 9 regions :]e ! w9t]s are excessive2 nor is x at all likely t su* ice-rafts w succe$ 9 mak+ a long voyage4 ,if1 !re=e1 we c\ld assure ourselves t ! erratics occasionally met ) 9 c]ta9 old geological =mations 9 l[ latitudes 7 really transport$ f ! l& by an ice-foot or a raft ( riv]-ice1 we %\ld be =c$ to conclude t v sev]e climatic conditions mu/ h obta9$ 9 su* latitudes at ! "t ! erratics 7 disp]s$4 ,! reason :y we n[ h1 comp>atively speak+1 s little direct evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( =m] glacial p]iods w be m =cibly impress$ ^u ! m9d1 if we reflect on h[ difficult x w\ld be 9 a million or s ( ye>s h5ce to f9d any trace ( :at we n[ call ! glacial epo*4 ,! /riat$ /ones w\ld by t "t be all1 or ne>ly all1 dis9tegrat$1 & ! till wa%$ away & deposit$ 9 ! bottom ( ! sea z /ratifi$ s&s & clays4 ,& :5 ^! became consolidat$ into rock & 7 rais$ into dry l&1 ! only evid5ce t we %\ld probably !n h t !re ev] _h be5 a glacial epo* w\ld be ! pres5ce ( l>ge blocks ( ! old] rocks1 :i* w\ld be f\nd imb$d$ 9 ! uprais$ =mation4 ,we c\ld only inf] t !re _h be5 ice at "w f ! fact t by no o!r kn[n ag5cy c\ld we conceive su* blocks to h be5 transport$ & dropp$ 9 a /ill sea4 ,probably few geologi/s believe t dur+ ! ,middle ,eoc5e & ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iods our c\ntry pass$ ?r\gh a condition ( glaciation z sev]e z x has done dur+ ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iod2 yet :5 we exam9e ! subject c>efully1 we f9d t !re is actually no j gr\nd to conclude t x has n4 ,=1 9 all probability1 ?r\gh\t ! /rata to be ev5tually =m$ out ( ! de/ruction ( ! n[ exi/+ l&-surfaces1 evid5ce ( ice-action w be z sc>ce z 9 ,eoc5e or ,mioc5e /rata4 ,if ! /ratifi$ rocks =m+ ! e>?'s cru/ consi/$ ( a s]ies ( old l&-surfaces in/ead 7z !y actually d7 ( a s]ies ( old sea-bottoms1 !n probably traces ( _m glacial p]iods might be detect$4 ,ne>ly all ! evid5ce :i* we h reg>d+ ! glacial epo* has be5 d]iv$ f :at we f9d on ! n[ exi/+ l&-surfaces ( ! globe4 ,b probably n a ve/ige ( ?is w exi/ 9 ! /ratifi$ b$s ( future ages1 =m$ out ( ! de/ruction ( ! pres5t l&-surfaces4 ,ev5 ! v arctic %ell-b$s !mselves1 :i* h af=d$ to ! geologi/ su* cle> pro(s ( a froz5 sea dur+ ! glacial epo*1 w n be f\nd 9 ^? /ratifi$ rocks2 = !y mu/ suff] de/ruction along ) ev]y?+ else :i* n[ exi/s above ! sea-level4 ,!re is probably n a s+le relic ( ! glacial epo* :i* has ev] be5 se5 by ! eye ( man t w be treasur$ up 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks ( future ages4 ,no?+ t does n lie buri$ 9 ! deep] recesses ( ! ocean w escape complete dis9tegration & appe> imb$d$ 9 ^? =mations4 ,x is only ^? objects :i* lie 9 our exi/+ sea-bottoms t w rema9 z monum5ts ( ! glacial epo* ( ! ,po/-t]ti>y p]iod4 ,&1 moreov]1 x w only be ^? portions ( ! sea-bottoms t may happ5 to be uprais$ into dry l& t w be available to ! geologi/ ( future ages4 ,! po9t to be det]m9$ n[ is ?is3--,is x probable t ! geologi/ ( ! future w f9d 9 ! rocks =m$ out ( ! n[ exi/+ sea-bottoms m evid5ce ( a glacial epo* dur+ ,po/-t]ti>y times ?an we n[ d ( "o dur+1 say1 ! ,mioc5e1 ! ,eoc5e1 or ! ,p]mian p]iod8 ,unless ?is c be prov$ to be ! case1 we h no gr\nd :atev] to conclude t ! cold p]iods ( ! ,mioc5e1 ,eoc5e1 & ,p]mian p]iods 7 n z sev]e z t ( ! glacial epo*4 ,?is is evid5t1 = ! only relics :i* n[ rema9 ( ! glacial epo*s ( ^? p]iods are simply :at happ5$ to be protect$ 9 ! !n exi/+ sea-bottoms4 ,e ve/ige t lay on ! l& w\ld 9 all probability be de/roy$ by subarial ag5cy & c>ri$ into ! sea 9 a s$im5t>y =m4 ,b be=e we c det]m9e :e!r or n !re is m evid5ce ( ! glacial epo* 9 our n[ exi/+ sea-bottoms ?an !re is ( =m] glacial epo*s 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks 7:i* are 9 reality ! sea-bottoms belong+ to anci5t epo*s71 we mu/ fir/ asc]ta9 :at is ! nature ( ^? m>ks ( glaciation :i* are to be f\nd 9 a sea-bottom4 ,iceb]gs d n /riate ! ,sea-bottom4--,we "k t ! rocky face ( ! c\ntry 0 gr\nd d[n & /riat$ dur+ ! glacial epo*2 & ?is is n[ g5]ally believ$ to h be5 done by l&-ice4 ,b we h no direct evid5ce t ! floor ( ! ocean1 beyond :]e x may h be5 cov]$ ) l&-ice1 0 /riat$4 ,beyond ! limits ( ! l&-ice x c\ld be /riat$ only by means ( iceb]gs4 ,b d iceb]gs /riate ! rocky b$ ( ! ocean8 ,are !y adapt$ = su* "w8 ,x seems to be (t5 assum$ t !y are4 ,b ,i h be5 totally unable to f9d any rational gr\nds = su* a belief4 ,clean ice c h b little or no erosive p[]1 & nev] c\ld scrat* a rock4 ,to d ?is x mu/ h gr9d+ mat]ials 9 ! =m ( s&1 mud1 or /ones4 ,b ! bottoms ( iceb]gs are devoid ( all su* mat]ials4 ,iceb]gs c>ry ! gr9d+ mat]ials on _! backs1 n on _! bottoms4 ,no d\bt1 :5 ! iceb]g is laun*$ into ! deep1 great masses ( s&1 mud1 & /ones w be adh]+ to its bottom4 ,b no soon] is ! b]g imm]s$1 ?an a melt+ process comm5ces at its sides & l[] surface 9 contact ) ! wat]2 & ! consequ5ce is1 ! mat]ials adh]+ to ! l[] surface soon drop (f & s9k to ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,! iceb]g1 dive/$ ( ^! mat]ials1 c n[ d v little h>m to ! rocky sea-bottom ov] :i* x floats4 ,x is true t an iceb]g mov+ ) a velocity ( a few miles an h\r1 if x came 9 contact ) ! sea-bottom1 w\ld1 by ! m]e =ce ( concussion1 te> up loose & disjo9t$ rocks1 & hurl "s ( ! loose mat]ials to a di/ance2 b x w\ld d b little 9 ! way ( gr9d+ d[n ! rock aga9/ :i* x /ruck4 ,b ev5 suppos+ ! bottom ( ! iceb]g 7 prop]ly %od ) ! necess>y gr9d+ mat]ials1 /ill x w\ld be b a v ineffici5t gr9d+ ag5t2 = a float+ iceb]g w\ld n be 9 contact ) ! sea-bottom4 ,& if x 7 9 contact ) ! sea-bottom1 x w\ld soon become /r&$ &1 ( c\rse1 motionless1 & "u su* conditions c\ld produce no effect4 ,x is p]fectly true t al?\gh ! bottom ( ! b]g may be devoid ( gr9d+ mat]ials1 yet ^! may be f\nd ly+ on ! surface ( ! subm>9e rock ov] :i* ! ice moves4 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! same curr5t :i* w move ! iceb]gs ov] ! surface ( ! rock w move ! s&1 mud1 & o!r mat]ials ov] x also2 s t ! m>k+s effect$ by ! ice w\ld 9 all probability be eras$ by ! curr5t4 ,9 ! deep recesses ( ! ocean ! wat] has be5 f\nd to h b little or no motion4 ,b iceb]gs always foll[ ! pa? ( curr5ts2 & x is v evid5t t at ! comp>atively small dep? ( a ?\s& feet or s rea*$ by iceb]gs ! motion ( ! wat] w be consid]able2 & ! cont9ual %ift+ ( ! small p>ticles ( ! mud & s& w 9 all probability efface ! m>k+s :i* may be made n[ & aga9 by a pass+ b]g4 ,mu* has be5 said reg>d+ ! sup]iority ( iceb]gs z gr9d+ & /riat+ ag5ts 9 consequ5ce ( ! great velocity ( _! motion 9 comp>ison ) t ( l&-ice4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t x is :ile ! iceb]g is float+1 & be=e x t\*es ! rock1 t x possesses high velocity4 ,:5 ! iceb]g runs agr\nd1 its motion is sudd5ly arre/$ or greatly r$uc$4 ,b if ! iceb]g advanc+ ^u a slop+ sea-bottom is rais$ up s z to ex]t great pressure1 x w on ?is acc\nt be ! m sudd5ly arre/$1 ! motion w be sl[1 & ! di/ance pass$ ov] %ort1 be=e ! b]g becomes /r&$4 ,if x ex]ts b little pressure on ! sea-bottom1 x may reta9 a consid]able am\nt ( motion & advance to a consid]able di/ance be=e x is br\ght to a /&2 b1 ex]t+ little pressure1 x c p]=m b little "w4 ,l&-ice moves sl[ly1 b !n x ex]ts enorm\s pressure4 ,a glaci] #a1jjj feet 9 ?ickness has a pressure on its rocky b$ equal to ab\t #be tons on ! squ>e foot2 b an iceb]g a mile 9 ?ickness1 =c$ up on a slop+ sea-bottom to an elevation ( #bj feet 7& ?is is p]haps m ?an any ocean-curr5t c\ld effect71 w\ld only ex]t a pressure ( ab\t half a ton on ! squ>e foot1 or ab\t #a_/ej? "p ( ! pressure ( ! glaci] #a1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,a great deal has be5 said ab\t ! erosive & cru%+ p[] ( iceb]gs ( enorm\s ?ickness1 z if _! ?ickness gave !m any additional pressure4 ,an iceb]g #ajj feet 9 ?ickness w ex]t j z mu* pressure z "o a mile 9 ?ickness4 ,! pressure ( an iceb]g is n l t ( a glaci]1 9 proportion to its ?ickness1 b to ! height to :i* x is rais$ out ( ! wat]4 ,an iceb]g #ajj feet 9 ?ickness rais$ #aj feet w ex]t exactly ! same pressure z "o a mile 9 ?ickness rais$ to an equal height4 ,to be an effici5t gr9d+ ag5t1 /ead9ess ( motion1 z well z pressure1 is ess5tial4 ,a roll+ or rock+ motion is ill-adapt$ = gr9d+ d[n & /riat+ a rock4 ,a /eady rubb+ motion "u pressure is ! ?+ requir$4 ,b an iceb]g is n only defici5t 9 pressure1 b also defici5t 9 /ead9ess ( motion4 ,:5 an iceb]g mov+ ) consid]able velocity comes on an elevat$ portion ( ! sea-bottom1 x does n move /eadily onw>ds ov] ! rock1 unless ! pressure ( ! b]g on ! rock be trifl+4 ,! resi/ance be+ entirely at ! bottom ( ! iceb]g1 its mom5tum1 comb9$ ) ! pressure ( ! curr5t1 appli$ :olly above ! po9t ( resi/ance1 t5ds to make ! b]g b5d =w>d1 & 9 "s cases upset 7:5 x is ( a cubical =m74 ,! mom5tum ( ! mov+ b]g1 in/ead ( be+ appli$ 9 =c+ x ov] ! rock aga9/ :i* x comes 9 contact1 is probably all consum$ 9 "w aga9/ gravitation 9 rais+ ! b]g ^u its front edge4 ,aft] ! mom5tum is consum$1 unless ! b]g be completely upset1 x w fall back "u ! =ce ( gravitation to its orig9al position4 ,b ! mom5tum :i* x acquires f gravitation 9 fall+ backw>ds c>ries x beyond its position ( repose 9 an opposite direction4 ,x w ?us cont9ue to rock backw>ds & =w>ds until ! friction ( ! wat] br+s x to re/4 ,! mom5tum ( ! b]g1 in/ead ( be+ appli$ to ! "w ( gr9d+ & /riat+ ! sea-bottom1 w *iefly be consum$ 9 heat 9 ! agitation ( ! wat]4 ,b if ! b]g does advance1 x w d s ) a rock+ un/eady motion1 :i*1 z ,mr4 ,c\?\y#ach & ,pr(essor ,dana#aci obs]ve1 w t5d r to oblit]ate /riations ?an produce !m4 ,a float+ b]g moves ) great /ead9ess2 b a b]g t has run agr\nd _c advance ) a /eady motion4 ,if ! rock ov] :i* ! b]g moves (f]s little resi/ance1 x may d s2 b 9 su* a case ! b]g c\ld produce b little effect on ! rock4 ,dr4 ,su!rl&1 :o has _h good opportunities to witness ! effects ( iceb]gs1 makes "s mo/ judici\s rem>ks on ! subject4 8,x w be well0 he says1 8to be> 9 m9d t :5 an iceb]g t\*es ! gr\nd1 if t gr\nd be h>d & resi/+1 x mu/ come to a /&1 & ! propell+ p[] cont9u+1 a slight lean+ ov] 9 ! wat]1 or yield+ motion ( ! :ole mass1 may comp5sate readily = be+ s sudd5ly arre/$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! gr\nd be s(t1 s z n to arre/ ! motion ( ! iceb]g at once1 a mora9e w be ! result2 b ! mora9e ?us rais$ w t5d to br+ x to a /&40#adj ,!re is ano!r cause ref]r$ to by ,pr(essor ,dana1 :i*1 to a great ext5t1 mu/ prev5t ! iceb]g f hav+ an opportunity ( /riat+ ! sea-bottom1 ev5 ?\gh x 7 o!rwise well adapt$ = s do+4 ,x is ?is3 ! b$ ( ! ocean 9 ! track ( iceb]gs mu/ be pretty mu* cov]$ ) /ones & rubbi% dropp$ f ! melt+ b]gs4 ,& ?is mass ( rubbi% w t5d to protect ! rock4#ada ,if iceb]gs _c be %[n priori1 f me*anical consid]ations1 to be well adapt$ = /riat+ ! sea-bottom1 "o w\ld naturally expect1 f ! confid5t way 9 :i* x is ass]t$ t !y are s adapt$1 t ! fact has be5 at lea/ e/abli%$ by actual obs]vation4 ,b1 /range z x may appe>1 we seem to h little or no pro( t iceb]gs actually /riate ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,?is c be prov$ f ! direct te/imony ( ! advocates ( ! iceb]g !ory !mselves4 ,we %all take ! te/imony ( ,mr4 ,campbell1 ! au?or ( two well-kn[n works 9 def5ce ( ! iceb]g !ory1 viz41 8,fro/ & ,fire10 & 8,a ,%ort ,am]ican ,tramp40 ,mr4 ,campbell w5t 9 ! fall ( ! ye> #ahfd to ! coa/ ( ,labrador1 ! ,/raits ( ,belle ,isle1 & ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 = ! express purpose ( witness+ ! effects ( iceb]gs1 & te/+ ! !ory :i* he _h =m$1 t ! ice-m>k+s ( ! glacial epo* 7 caus$ by float+ ice & n by l&-ice1 z is n[ g5]ally believ$4 ,! foll[+ is ! result ( 8 obs]vations on ! coa/ ( ,labrador4 ,hanly ,h>b\r1 ,/rait ( ,belle ,isle3--8,! wat] is #cg ,f4 9 ,july4444 ,z fa/ z "o isl& ( ice gr\nds & bur/s1 ano!r takes its place2 & 9 w9t] ! :ole /rait is block$ up by a mass :i* sw+s bodily up & d[n1 grat+ along ! bottom at all dep?s4444 ,exam9$ ! bea*es & rocks at ! wat]-l9e1 especially 9 s\nds4 ,f\nd ! rocks gr\nd smoo?1 b n /riat$1 9 ! s\nds0 7,%ort ,am]ican ,tramp1 pp4 #fh1 #ajg74 ,cape ,*>les & ,battle ,h>b\r3--8,b ?\gh ^! h>b\rs are all froz5 e w9t]1 ! rocks at ! wat]-l9e are n /riat$0 7p4 #fh74 ,at ,/4 ,francis ,h>b\r3--8,! wat]-l9e is mu* rubb$1 smoo?1 b n /riat$0 7p4 #gb74 ,cape ,bluff3--8,wat*$ ! rocks ) a telescope1 & fail$ to make out /ri any:]e2 b ! wat]-l9e is ev]y:]e rubb$ smoo?0 7p4 #ge74 ,seal ,isl&s3--8,no /ri are to be se5 at ! l&-wa% 9 ^! s\nds or on op5 sea-coa/s ne> ! pres5t wat]-l9e0 7p4 #gf74 ,he only m5tions hav+ "h f\nd /riations 9 ! ?ree foll[+ places along ! entire coa/ ( ,labrador visit$ by him2 & 9 reg>d to two ( ^!1 x seems v d\btful t ! m>k+s 7 made by mod]n iceb]gs4 ,murray's ,h>b\r3--8,?is h>b\r 0 block$ up ) ice on ! #bj? ( ,july4 ,! wat]-l9e is rubb$1 & 9 "s places /riat$0 7p4 #fi74 ,pack ,isl&3--8,! wat]-l9e 9 a n>r[ s\nd 0 poli%$ & /riat$ 9 ! direction ( ! s\nd1 ab\t ,n4,n4,w4 ,?is seems to be fre% "w done by heavy ice drift+ f ,s&wi* ,bay2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 /ages ) _! legs 9 ! sea1 & re/+ on ^! v rocks1 are n swept away by ! ice0 7p4 #if74 ,if ^! m>k+s 7 mod]n1 :y did n ! 8heavy ice0 remove ! small fir poles support+ ! fi%+-/ages8 ,r$ ,bay3--8,l&$ half-dress$1 & f\nd "s /ri p]fectly fre% at ! wat]-level1 b wea!r$ out a %ort di/ance inl&0 7p4 #ajg74 ,! /riations 8inl&0 c\ld n h be5 made by mod]n iceb]gs2 & x does n foll[ t because ! m>k+s at ! wat]-level 7 n wea!r$ !y 7 produc$ by mod]n ice4 ,^! are ! evid5ces :i* he f\nd t iceb]gs /riate rocks1 on a coa/ ( :i* he says t1 dur+ ! ye> he visit$ x1 8! w9t]-drift 0 "o va/ solid raft ( floes & b]gs m ?an #aej miles wide1 & p]haps #c1jjj feet ?ick at spots1 driv5 by a :ole curr5t bodily ov] "o def9ite c\rse1 ye> aft] ye>1 s9ce ?is l& 0 f\nd0 7p4 #he74 ,b ,mr4 ,campbell himself freely admits t ! float+ ice :i* comes agr\nd along ! %ores does n produce /ri4 8,x is suffici5tly evid5t10 he says1 8t glacial /ri are n produc$ by ?9 bay-ice0 7p4 #gf74 ,& 9 8,fro/ & ,fire10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bcg1 he /ates t1 8f a c>eful exam9ation ( ! wat]-l9e at _m spots1 x appe>s t bay-ice gr9ds rocks1 b does n produce /riation40 8,x is impossible10 he cont9ues1 8to get at rocks ov] :i* heavy iceb]gs n[ move2 b a mass #aej miles wide1 p]haps #c1jjj feet ?ick 9 "s p>ts1 & mov+ at ! rate ( a mile an h\r1 or m1 appe>s to be an eng9e amply suffici5t to acc\nt = /ri on ris+ rocks40 ,& 9 8,am]ican ,tramp10 p4 #gf1 he says1 8/ri mu/ be made 9 deep wat] by ! l>ge masses :i* seem to pursue ! ev5 t5or ( _! way 9 ! /eady curr5t :i* fl[s d[n ! coa/40 ,mr4 ,campbell1 f a c>eful exam9ation ( ! sea-bottom along ! coa/1 f9ds t ! small iceb]gs d n produce /ri1 b ! l>ge ones1 :i* move ov] rocks impossible to be got at1 8mu/0 produce !m4 ,!y 8appe>0 to be amply suffici5t to d s4 ,if ! small] b]gs _c /riate ! sea-bottom1 :y mu/ ! l>g] ones d s8 ,!re is no reason :y ! small] b]gs %\ld n move z swiftly & ex]t z mu* pressure on ! sea-bottom z ! l>g] ones4 ,& ev5 suppos+ t !y did n1 "o w\ld expect t ! light b]gs w\ld effect on a small] scale :at ! heavy ones w\ld d on a l>g]4 ,i h no d\bt t :5 ,mr4 ,campbell visit$ ,labrador he expect$ to f9d ! sea-coa/ "u ! wat]-l9e /riat$ by means ( iceb]gs1 & 0 probably n a little surpris$ to f9d t x actually 0 n4 ,& ,i h no d\bt t 7 ! sea-bottom 9 ! tracks ( ! l>ge iceb]gs elevat$ into view1 he w\ld f9d to 8 surprise t x 0 free f /riations also4 ,s f> z obs]vation is conc]n$1 we h no gr\nds f :at ,mr4 ,campbell witness$ to conclude t iceb]gs /riate ! sea-bottom4 ,! te/imony ( ,dr4 ,su!rl&1 :o has _h opportunities ( see+ ! effects ( iceb]gs 9 arctic regions1 leads u to ! same conclusion4 8,except10 he says1 8f ! evid5ce af=d$ by plants & animals at ! bottom1 we h no means :atev] to asc]ta9 ! effect produc$ by iceb]gs ^u ! rocks4#adb ,9 ! ,malegat & ,waigat ,i h se5 :ole clu/]s ( ^! float+ isl&s1 draw+ f #ajj to #bej fa?oms1 mov+ to & fro ) e return & recession ( ! tides4 ,i look$ v e>ne/ly = grooves & scrat*es left by iceb]gs & glaci]s 9 ! rocks1 b always fail$ to discov] any40#adc ,we %all n[ see :e!r riv]-ice actually produces /riations or n4 ,if float+ ice "u any =m c /riate rocks1 "o w\ld expect t x ought to be done by riv]-ice1 see+ t su* ice is oblig$ to foll[ "o n>r[ def9ite track4 ,/4 ,john's ,riv]1 ,new ,brunswick3--8,?is riv]10 says ,mr4 ,campbell1 8is ob/ruct$ by ice dur+ five mon?s ( ! ye>4 ,:5 ! ice goes1 !re is wild "w on ! bank4 ,arriv$ at ,/4 ,john1 drove to ! susp5sion-bridge4444 ,at ?is spot1 if any:]e 9 ! _w1 riv]-ice ought to produce /riation4 ,! :ole dra9age ( a wide bas9 & "o ( ! /ronge/ tides 9 ! _w1 "h "w cont9ually 9 "o rock-groove2 & 9 w9t] ?is wat]-p[] is arm$ ) heavy ice4 ,!re are no /ri ab\t ! wat]-l9e40#add ,riv] ,/4 ,lawr5ce3--8,9 w9t] ! p[] ( ice-floats driv5 by wat]-p[] is trem5d\s4 ,! riv] freezes & packs ice till ! fl[ ( wat] is ob/ruct$4 ,! rock-pass at ,quebec is l ! ,n>r[s at ,/4 ,john's1 ,newf\ndl&4 ,! :ole pass1 ab\t a mile wide1 0 pav$ ) great brok5 slabs & r\nd b\ld]s ( worn ice z big z small %acks1 pil$ & toss$1 & heap$ & scatt]$ ^u ! level wat] bel[ & froz5 solid4444 ,?is k9d ( ice does ,,n produce /riation at ! wat]-m>g9 at ,quebec4 ,at ,montreal1 :5 ! riv] #8goes1' ! ice goes ) x ) a v5geance4444 ,! pi]s are n yet /riat$ by riv]-ice at ,montreal4444 ,! rocks at ! high-wat] level h no trace ( glacial /ri4444 ,! rock at ,ottawa is rubb$ by riv]-ice e spr+1 & always 9 "o direction1 b x is n /riat$4444 ,! surfaces are all rubb$ smoo?1 & ! edges ( brok5 b$s are r\nd$ :]e expos$ to ! ice2 b !re are no /ri40#ade ,:5 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell visit$ ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce 9 #ahdb1 at ,quebec he w5t along ) ,colonel ,codr+ton 8& se>*$ c>efully bel[ ! city 9 ! *annel ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 at l[ wat]1 ne> ! %ore1 = ! signs ( glacial action at ! precise po9t :]e ! *ief pressure & friction ( pack$ ice are ex]t$ e ye>10 b f\nd none4 8,at ! bridge above ! ,falls ( ,montmor5ci1 ov] :i* a l>ge quantity ( ice passes e ye>1 ! gneiss is poli%$1 & kept p]fectly free f li*5s1 b n m s ?an rocks simil>ly situat$ at wat]falls 9 ,scotl&4 ,9 none ( ^! places 7 any long /raight grooves obs]vable40#adf ,! only ?+ 9 ! %ape ( mod]n ice-m>k+s :i* he seems to h met ) 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 0 a few /raight furr[s half an in* broad 9 s(t s&/one1 at ! base ( a cliff at ,cape ,blomidon 9 ! ,bay ( ,fundy1 at a place :]e dur+ ! prec$+ w9t] 8pack$0 ice #ae feet ?ick _h be5 pu%$ along :5 ! tide rose ov] ! s&/one l$ges4#adg ,! v fact t a geologi/ s em95t z ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 aft] hav+ twice visit$ ,nor? ,am]ica1 & se>*$ specially = mod]n ice-m>k+s1 0 able to f9d only two or ?ree scrat*es1 ^u a s(t s&/one rock1 :i* he c\ld reasonably attribute to float+ ice1 ought to h ar\s$ ! suspicion ( ! advocates ( ! iceb]g !ory t !y _h really =m$ too extravagant notions reg>d+ ! pot5cy ( float+ ice z a /riat+ ag5t4 ,!re is no reason to believe t ! grooves & m>k+s notic$ by ,m4 ,weibye & o!rs on ! ,sc&9avian coa/ & o!r p>ts ( nor!rn ,europe 7 made by iceb]gs4 ,pr(essor ,geikie has cle>ly %[n1 f ! "* & direction ( ! m>k+s1 t !y are ! production ( l&-ice4#adh ,if ! float+ ice ( ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce & ! iceb]gs ( ,labrador are unable to /riate & groove ! rocks1 x is n likely t ^? ( nor!rn ,europe w be able to d s4 ,x w n d = ! advocates ( ! iceb]g !ory to assume1 z !y h hi!rto done1 t1 z a matt] ( c\rse1 ! sea-bottom is be+ /riat$ & groov$ by means ( iceb]gs4 ,!y mu/ prove t4 ,!y mu/ ei!r %[ t1 z a matt] ( fact1 iceb]gs are actually effici5t ag5ts 9 /riat+ ! sea-bottom1 or prove f me*anical pr9ciples t !y mu/ be s4 ,! "q mu/ be settl$ ei!r by obs]vation or by reason2 m]e op9ion w n d4 ,! ,am\nt ( ,mat]ial transport$ by ,iceb]gs mu* exagg]at$4--,! transport+ ( b\ld]s & rubbi%1 & n ! gr9d+ & /riat+ ( rocks1 is evid5tly ! prop] function ( ! iceb]g4 ,b ev5 9 ?is respect ,i fe> too mu* has be5 attribut$ to x4 ,9 read+ ! details ( voyages 9 ! arctic regions "o _c help feel+ surpris$ h[ seldom ref]5ce is made to /ones & rubbi% be+ se5 on iceb]gs4 ,arctic voyag]s1 l o!r p1 :5 !y are allud+ to ! geological effects ( iceb]gs1 speak ( enorm\s quantities ( /ones be+ transport$ by !m2 b 9 read+ ! details ( _! voyages1 ! impression convey$ is t iceb]gs ) /ones & blocks ( rock ^u !m are ! exceptions4 ,! great] portion ( ! n>ratives ( voyages 9 arctic regions consi/s ( int]e/+ & detail$ acc\nts ( ! voyag]'s adv5tures among ! ice4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! iceb]gs1 _! %ape1 _! size1 _! height1 _! col\r1 are all notic$2 b r>ely is m5tion made ( /ones be+ se54 ,t ! great] numb] ( iceb]gs h no /ones or rubbi% on !m is borne out by ! positive evid5ce ( geologi/s :o h _h opportunities ( see+ iceb]gs4 ,mr4 ,campbell says3--8,x is rem>kable t up to ?is "t we h only se5 a few d\btful /ones on b]gs :i* we h pass$4444 ,?\gh no b]gs ) /ones on !m or 9 !m h be5 approa*$ dur+ ?is voyage1 _m on bo>d ! ,ariel h be5 close to b]gs heavily lad54444 ,a man :o has _h "s exp]i5ce ( ice has nev] se5 a /one on a b]g 9 ^! latitudes4 ,capta9 ,&]son1 ( ! ,europa1 :o is a geologi/1 has nev] se5 a /one on a b]g 9 cross+ ! ,atlantic4 ,no /ones 7 cle>ly se5 on ?is trip40#adi ,capta9 ,sir ,james ,&]son 7:o has long be5 famili> ) geology1 has sp5t a consid]able "p ( 8 life on ! ,atlantic1 & has be5 accu/om$ to view ! iceb]g z a geologi/ z well z a seaman7 has nev] se5 a /one on an iceb]g 9 ! ,atlantic4 ,?is is r a significant fact4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell /ates t1 :5 pass+ iceb]gs on ! ,atlantic1 he 80 mo/ anxi\s to asc]ta9 :e!r !re 0 any mud1 /ones1 or fragm5ts ( rocks on any "o ( ^! float+ masses2 b aft] exam9+ ab\t =ty ( !m )\t p]ceiv+ any signs ( froz5 matt]1 ,i left ! deck :5 x 0 gr[+ dusk40#aej ,aft] he _h gone bel[1 "o 0 said to be se5 ) some?+ l /ones ^u x4 ,! capta9 & (fic]s ( ! %ip assur$ him t !y _h nev] se5 a /one ^u a b]g4 ,! foll[+ extract f ,mr4 ,pack>d's 8,memoir on ! ,glacial ,ph5om5a ( ,labrador & ,ma9e10 w %[ h[ little is effect$ by ! great masses ( float+ ice on ! ,labrador coa/ ei!r 9 ! way ( gr9d+ & /riat+ ! rocks1 or ( transport+ /ones1 clay1 & o!r mat]ials4 8,^u ?is coa/1 :i* dur+ ! summ] ( #ahfd 0 l9$ ) a belt ( floe-ice & b]gs probably two hundr$ miles broad1 & :i* ext5d$ f ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce at ,belles ,am\rs to ! arctic seas1 ?is imm5se body ( float+ ice seem$ directly to produce b little alt]ation 9 its physical features4 ,if we 7 to ascribe ! groov+ & poli%+ ( rocks to ! action ( float+ ice-floes & b]gs1 h[ is x t ! pres5t %ores f> above 7#ejj71 & at lea/ #bej feet bel[1 ! wat]-l9e are (t5 jagg$ & angul>1 ?\gh con/antly /opp+ ! c\rse ( masses ( ice impell$ f\r to six miles an h\r by ! jo9t action ( tides1 curr5ts1 & w9ds8 ,no b\ld]s1 or gravel1 or mud 7 se5 ^u any ( ! b]gs or masses ( %ore-ice4 ,!y _h dropp$ all burd5s ( ?is nature ne>] _! po9ts ( deta*m5t 9 ! high arctic regions40 444 8,?is huge area ( float+ ice1 embrac+ s _m ?\s&s ( squ>e miles1 0 ( great] ext5t1 & rema9$ long] ^u ! coa/1 9 #ahfd1 ?an = =ty ye>s previ\s4 ,x 0 n only press$ ^u ! coa/ by ! normal action ( ! ,labrador & ,gre5l& curr5ts1 :i*1 9 consequ5ce ( ! rotatory motion ( ! e>?1 t5d$ to =ce ! ice 9 a s\?-we/]ly direction1 b ! pres5ce ( ! ice caus$ ! con/ant passage ( cool] curr5ts ( air f ! sea ov] ! ice ^u ! heat$ l&1 giv+ rise dur+ ! pres5t season to a con/ant succession ( nor?-ea/]ly w9ds f ,m>* until e>ly 9 ,augu/1 :i* fur!r s]v$ to cr[d ! ice into e h>b\r & recess ^u ! coa/4 ,x 0 ! univ]sal compla9t ( ! inhabitants t ! ea/]ly w9ds 7 m preval5t1 & ! ice #8held' lat] 9 ! h>b\rs ?is ye> ?an = _m seasons previ\s4 ,?us ! fi%]ies 7 ne>ly a failure1 & vegetation greatly ret>d$ 9 its developm5t4 ,b s f> z poli%+ & /riat+ ! rocks1 deposit+ drift mat]ial1 & ?us modify+ ! cont\r ( ! surface ( ! pres5t coa/1 ?is mod]n mass ( b]gs & float+ ice effect$ comp>atively little4 ,s+le iceb]gs1 :5 small en\gh1 ent]$ ! h>b\rs1 & !re /r&+1 soon p\nd$ to pieces ^u ! rocks1 melt$1 & disappe>$4 ,f ,cape ,h>rison1 9 lat4 #ee1 to ,c>ibo ,isl&1 0 an int]rupt$ l9e ( b]gs /r&$ 9 #hj to #ajj or m fa?oms1 (t5 miles ap>t1 :ile o!rs pass$ to ! seaw>d d[n by ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,newf\ndl&1 or ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,belle ,isle40#aea ,b\ld] ,clay ! ,product ( ,l&-ice4--,!re is /ill ano!r po9t connect$ ) iceb]gs to :i* we mu/ allude1 viz41 ! op9ion t great masses ( ! b\ld] clay ( ! glacial epo* 7 =m$ f ! dropp+s ( iceb]gs4 ,if b\ld] clay is at pres5t be+ accumulat$ 9 ?is mann]1 !n traces ( ! b\ld] clay deposits ( =m] epo*s might be expect$ to occur4 ,x is p]fectly obvi\s t un/ratifi$ b\ld] clay c\ld n h be5 =m$ 9 ?is way4 ,/ones1 gravel1 s&1 clay1 & mud1 ! +r$i5ts ( b\ld] clay1 tumbl$ all toge!r f ! back ( an iceb]g1 c\ld n s9k to ! bottom ( ! sea )\t sep>at+4 ,! /ones w\ld rea* ! bottom fir/1 !n ! gravel1 !n ! s&1 !n ! clay1 & la/ ( all ! mud1 & ! :ole w\ld settle d[n 9 a /ratifi$ =m4 ,b1 besides1 h[ c\ld ! clay be d]iv$ f iceb]gs8 ,iceb]gs d]ive _! mat]ials f ! l& be=e !y are laun*$ into ! deep1 & :ile !y are 9 ! =m ( l&-ice4 ,! mat]ials :i* are f\nd on ! backs ( iceb]gs are :at fell ^u ! ice f m\nta9 tops & crags project+ above ! ice4 ,iceb]gs are *iefly d]iv$ f cont95tal ice1 su* z t ( ,gre5l&1 :]e ! :ole c\ntry is buri$ "u "o cont9u\s mass1 ) only a l(ty m\nta9 peak "h & !re ris+ above ! surface4 ,& ?is is no d\bt ! *ief reason :y s few iceb]gs h /ones ^u _! backs4 ,! cont95tal ice ( ,gre5l& is n1 l ! glaci]s ( ! ,alps1 cov]$ ) loose /ones4 ,dr4 ,rob]t ,br[n in=ms me t no mora9e matt] has ev] be5 se5 on ! inl& ice ( ,gre5l&4 ,x is p]fectly pla9 t clay does n fall ^u ! ice4 ,:at falls ^u ! ice is /ones1 blocks ( rocks1 & ! loose dbris4 ,clay & mud we "k1 f ! acc\nts giv5 by arctic voyag]s1 are sometimes wa%$ d[n ^u ! coa/-ice2 b c]ta9ly v little ( ei!r c possibly get ^u an iceb]g4 ,arctic voyag]s sometimes speak ( see+ clay & mud ^u b]gs2 b x is probable t if !y _h be5 ne> en\gh !y w\ld h f\nd t :at !y took = clay & mud 7 m]ely du/ & rubbi%4 ,und\bt$ly ! b\ld] clay ( _m places be>s unmi/akable evid5ce ( hav+ be5 =m$ "u wat]2 b x does n on t acc\nt foll[ t x 0 =m$ f ! dropp+s ( iceb]gs4 ,! fact t ! b\ld] clay 9 e case is *iefly compos$ ( mat]ials d]iv$ f ! c\ntry on :i* ! clay lies1 proves t x 0 n =m$ f matt] transport$ by iceb]gs4 ,! clay1 no d\bt1 conta9s /ones & b\ld]s belong+ to o!r c\ntries1 :i* 9 "s cases may h be5 transport$ by iceb]gs2 b ! clay itself has n come f ano!r c\ntry4 ,b if ! clay itself has be5 d]iv$ f ! c\ntry on :i* x lies1 !n x is absurd to suppose t x 0 deposit$ f iceb]gs4 ,! clay & mat]ials :i* are f\nd on iceb]gs are d]iv$ f ! l& on :i* ! iceb]g is =m$2 b to suppose t iceb]gs1 aft] float+ ab\t ^u ! ocean1 %\ld always return to ! c\ntry :i* gave !m bir?1 & !re deposit _! loads1 is r an extravagant supposition4 ,f ! facts & consid]ations adduc$ we are1 ,i w\ld v5ture to presume1 w>rant$ to conclude t1 ) ! exception ( :at may h be5 produc$ by l&-ice1 v little 9 ! %ape ( b\ld] clay or /riat$ rocks belong+ to ! glacial epo* lies buri$ "u ! ocean--& t :5 ! n[ exi/+ l&-surfaces are all d5ud$1 probably sc>cely a trace ( ! glacial epo* w !n be f\nd1 except ! huge blocks t 7 transport$ by iceb]gs & dropp$ into ! sea4 ,x is !re=e probable t we h z mu* evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( a glacial epo* dur+ =m] p]iods z ! geologi/s ( future ages w h ( ! exi/5ce ( a glacial epo* dur+ ! ,po/-t]ti>y p]iod1 & t consequ5tly we are n w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t ! glacial epo* 0 some?+ unique 9 ! geological hi/ory ( our globe4 ,palontological ,evid5ce4--,x might be ?\ght t if glacial epo*s h be5 num]\s1 we ought to h abundance ( palontological evid5ce ( _! exi/5ce4 ,i d n "k if ?is necess>ily foll[s4 ,let u take ! glacial epo* itself = example1 :i* is q a mod]n affair4 ,"h we d n require to g & se>* 9 ! bottom ( ! sea = ! evid5ce ( its exi/5ce2 = we h ! surface ( ! l& 9 almo/ id5tically ! same /ate 9 :i* x 0 :5 ! ice left x1 ) ! b\ld] clay & all ! wreck ( ! ice ly+ ^u x4 ,b :at geologi/1 ) all ^! mat]ials be=e him1 w\ld be able to f9d out f palontological evid5ce alone t !re _h be5 su* an epo*8 ,he might se>* ! :ole1 b w\ld n be able to f9d fossil evid5ce f :i* he c\ld w>rantably inf] t ! c\ntry _h ev] be5 cov]$ ) ice4 ,we h evid5ce 9 ! fossils ( ! ,crag & o!r deposits ( ! exi/5ce ( a cold] condition ( climate prior to ! true glacial p]iod1 & 9 ! %ell-b$s ( ! ,clyde & o!r places ( a simil> /ate ( matt]s aft] ! great ice-%eets _h vani%$ away4 ,b 9 reg>d to ! p]iod ( ! true b\ld] clay or till1 :5 ! c\ntry 0 envelop$ 9 ice1 palontology has almo/ no?+ :atev] to tell u4 8,:atev] may be ! cause10 says ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 8! fact is c]ta9 t ov] l>ge areas 9 ,scotl&1 ,irel&1 & ,wales1 ,i might add ?r\gh\t ! nor!rn hemisph]e on bo? sides ( ! ,atlantic1 ! /ratifi$ drift ( ! glacial p]iod is v commonly devoid ( fossils40#aeb ,9 ! 8flys*0 ( ! ,eoc5e ( ! ,alps1 to :i* we %all h occasion to ref] 9 ! next *apt]1 9 :i* ! huge blocks are f\nd :i* prove ! exi/5ce ( ice-action dur+ t p]iod1 few or no fossils h be5 f\nd4 ,s devoid ( organic rema9s is t =mation1 t x is only f its position1 says ,sir ,*>les1 t x is kn[n to belong to ! middle or 8nummulitic0 portion ( ! great ,eoc5e s]ies4 ,aga91 9 ! conglom]ates at ,tur91 belong+ to ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod1 9 :i* ! angul> blocks ( lime/one are f\nd :i* prove t dur+ t p]iod ,alp9e glaci]s rea*$ ! sea-level 9 ! latitude ( ,italy1 n a s+le organic rema9 has be5 f\nd4 ,x w\ld seem t an extreme paucity ( organic life is a *>act]i/ic ( a glacial p]iod1 :i* w>rants u 9 conclud+ t ! abs5ce ( organic rema9s 9 any =mation o!rwise indicative ( a cold climate _c be reg>d$ z suffici5t evid5ce t t =mation does n belong to a cold p]iod4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] x 0 %[n :y s little evid5ce ( ! w>m p]iods ( ! glacial epo* is n[ =?com+4 ,! rema9s ( ! faunas & floras ( ^? p]iods 7 ne>ly :olly de/roy$ & swept into ! adjo9+ seas by ! ice-%eet t cov]$ ! l&4 ,x is ^u ! pres5t l&-surface t we f9d ! *ief evid5ce ( ! la/ glacial epo*1 b ! traces ( ! w>m p]iods ( t epo* are h>dly n[ to be met ) 9 t position s9ce !y h ne>ly all be5 oblit]at$ or c>ri$ into ! sea4 ,9 reg>d to =m] glacial epo*s1 h[ev]1 ice-m>k$ rocks1 scrat*$ /ones1 mora9es1 till1 c41 no long] exi/2 ! l&-surfaces ( ^? old times h be5 utt]ly swept away4 ,! only evid5ce1 !re=e1 ( su* anci5t glacial epo*s1 t we c hope to detect1 mu/ be s\ght = 9 ! deposits t 7 laid d[n ^u ! sea-bottom2 :]e also we may expect to f9d traces ( ! w>m p]iods t alt]nat$ dur+ su* epo*s ) glacial conditions4 ,x is pla91 moreov]1 t ! palontological evid5ce 9 fav\r ( w>m p]iods w always be ! mo/ abundant & satisfactory4 ,judg+ f geological evid5ce alone1 we naturally conclude t1 z a g5]al rule1 ! climate ( =m] p]iods 0 some:at w>m] ?an x is at ! pres5t day4 ,x is f fossil rema9s t ! geologi/ pr9cipally =ms 8 e/imate ( ! "* ( ! climate dur+ any p]iod4 ,n[1 9 reg>d to fossil rema9s1 ! w>m p]iods w always be f> bett] repres5t$ ?an ! cold2 = we f9d t1 z a g5]al rule1 ^? =mations :i* geologi/s are incl9$ to believe indicate a cold condition ( climate are rem>kably devoid ( fossil rema9s4 ,if a geologi/ does n keep ?is pr9ciple 9 view1 he w be v apt to =m a wrong e/imate ( ! g5]al "* ( ! climate ( a p]iod ( su* enorm\s l5g? z say ! ,t]ti>y4 ,suppose t ! pres5tly exi/+ sea-bottoms1 :i* h be5 =m+ s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! glacial epo*1 7 to become consolidat$ into rock & !reaft] to be elevat$ into dry l&1 we %\ld !n h a =mation :i* might be prop]ly designat$ ! ,po/-plioc5e4 ,x w\ld repres5t ! "t :i* has elaps$ f ! beg9n+ ( ! glacial epo* to ! pres5t day4 ,suppose "o to be call$ ^u z a geologi/ to det]m9e f t =mation :at 0 ! g5]al "* ( ! climate dur+ ! p]iod 9 "q1 :at w\ld probably be ! conclusion at :i* he w\ld arrive8 ,he w\ld probably f9d "h & !re pat*es ( b\ld] clay conta9+ /riat$ & ice-worn /ones4 ,n[ & aga9 he w\ld meet ) bones ( ! mammo? & ! re9de]1 & %ells ( an arctic type4 ,he w\ld likewise /umble ^u huge blocks ( ! old] rocks imb$d$ 9 ! =mation1 f :i* he w\ld inf] ! exi/5ce ( iceb]gs & glaci]s rea*+ ! sea-level4 ,b1 on ! :ole1 he w\ld p]ceive t ! great] portion ( ! fossil rema9s met ) 9 ?is =mation impli$ a w>m & temp]ate condition ( climate4 ,at ! l[] "p ( ! =mation1 correspond+ to ! "t ( ! true b\ld] clay1 !re w\ld be su* a sc>city ( organic rema9s t he w\ld probably feel at a loss to say :e!r ! climate at t "t 0 cold or hot4 ,b if ! int5se cold ( ! glacial epo* 0 n cont9u\s1 b brok5 up by int]v5+ w>m p]iods dur+ :i* ! ice1 to a consid]able ext5t at lea/1 disappe>$ = a long p]iod ( "t 7& !re are few geologi/s :o h prop]ly /udi$ ! subject :o w positively d5y t su* 0 ! case71 !n ! c\ntry w\ld no d\bt dur+ ^? w>m p]iods possess an abundance ( plant & animal life4 ,x is q true t we may almo/ se>* 9 va9 on ! pres5t l&-surface = ! organic rema9s :i* belong$ to ^? int]-glacial p]iods2 = !y 7 ne>ly all swept away by ! ice :i* foll[$4 ,b no d\bt 9 ! deep recesses ( ! ocean1 buri$ "u hundr$s ( feet ( s&1 mud1 clay1 & gravel1 lie multitudes ( ! plants & animals :i* !n fl\ri%$ on ! l&1 & 7 c>ri$ d[n by riv]s into ! sea4 ,& along ) ^! lie ! skeletons1 %ells1 & o!r exuvi ( ! creatures :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! w>m seas ( ^? p]iods4 ,n[ look+ at ! great abundance ( fossils indicative ( w>m & g5ial conditions :i* ! l[] portions ( ?is =mation w\ld conta91 ! geologi/ might be 9 dang] ( inf]r+ t ! e>li] "p ( ! ,po/-plioc5e p]iod 0 a w>m] p]iod1 :]eas we1 at ! pres5t day1 look+ at ! matt] f a diff]5t /&po9t1 decl>e t "p to h be5 *>act]iz$ by cold or glacial conditions4 ,no d\bt1 if ! b$s =m$ dur+ ! cold p]iods ( ! glacial epo* c\ld be di/+ui%$ f ^? =m$ dur+ ! w>m p]iods1 ! fossil rema9s ( ! "o w\ld indicate a cold condition ( climate1 & ^? ( ! o!r a w>m condition2 b /ill1 tak+ ! entire epo* z a :ole1 ! p]c5tage ( fossil rema9s indicative ( a w>m condition w\ld probably s mu* exce$ t indicative ( a cold condition1 t we %\ld come to ! conclusion t ! "* ( ! climate1 z a :ole1 dur+ ! epo* 9 "q 0 w>m & equable4 ,z geologi/s we h1 z a rule1 no means ( arriv+ at a k ( ! "* ( ! climate ( any giv5 p]iod b ?r\gh an exam9ation ( ! sea-bottoms belong+ to t p]iod2 = ^! conta9 all ! evid5ce ^u ! subject4 ,b unless we ex]cise caution1 we %all be v apt1 9 judg+ ( ! climate ( su* a p]iod1 to fall into ! same error t we h j n[ se5 "o might naturally fall into 7 he call$ ^u to det]m9e ! "* ( ! climate dur+ ! glacial epo* f ! nature ( ! organic rema9s :i* lie buri$ 9 our adjo9+ seas4 ,on ?is po9t ,mr4 ,j4 ,geikie's obs]vations are s appropriate1 t ,i _c d bett] ?an introduce !m "h4 8,:5 we are deal+10 says ?is writ]1 8) =mations s f> remov$ f u 9 "t1 & 9 :i* ! animal & plant rema9s dep>t s widely f exi/+ =ms ( life1 we c h>dly expect to d]ive mu* aid f ! fossils 9 our attempts to detect traces ( cold climatic conditions4 ,! arctic %ells 9 our ,po/-t]ti>y clays are conv9c+ pro(s ( ! =m] exi/5ce 9 our latitude ( a sev]e climate2 b :5 we g s f> back z ,palozoic ages1 we h no su* cle> evid5ce to guide u4 ,all t palontologi/s c say reg>d+ ! fossils belong+ to ^! old times is simply ?is1 t !y seem to indicate1 g5]ally speak+1 mild1 temp]ate1 or g5ial1 & ev5 sometimes tropical1 conditions ( climate4 ,_m ( ! fossils1 inde$1 if we are to reason f analogy at all1 c\ld n possibly h liv$ 9 cold seas4 ,b1 = aught t we "k1 !re may h be5 alt]nations ( climate dur+ ! deposition ( ea* p>ticul> =mation2 & ^! *anges may be m>k$ by ! pres5ce or abs5ce1 or by ! great] or less abundant developm5t1 ( c]ta9 organisms at v>i\s horizons 9 ! /rata4 ,not)/&+ all t has be5 done1 our k ( ! natural hi/ory ( ^! anci5t seas is /ill v imp]fect2 & !re=e1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our in=mation1 we are n entitl$ to argue1 f ! g5]al aspect ( ! fossils 9 our old] =mations1 t ! temp]ature ( ! anci5t seas 0 nev] o!r ?an mild & g5ial40#aec ,conclusion4--,f :at has already be5 /at$ x w1 ,i tru/1 be app>5t t1 assum+ glacial epo*s dur+ pa/ geological ages to h be5 z num]\s & z sev]e z ! ,secul> !ory dem&s1 /ill x w\ld be unreasonable to expect to meet ) abundant traces ( !m4 ,! imp]fection ( ! geological record is su* t we ought n to be a/oni%$ t s few relics ( =m] ice ages h come d[n to u4 ,x w also be app>5t t ! palontological evid5ce ( a w>m condition ( climate hav+ obta9$ dur+ any p>ticul> age1 is no pro( t a glacial epo* did n also sup]v5e dur+ ! same cycle ( "t4 ,inde$ x is q ! rev]se2 = ! w>m conditions ( :i* we h pro( may indicate m]ely ! exi/5ce ( an int]-glacial p]iod4 ,fur!rmore1 if ! ,secul> !ory ( *anges ( climate be admitt$1 !n evid5ce ( a w>m condition ( climate hav+ prevail$ 9 arctic regions dur+ any pa/ geological age may be reg>d$ z presumptive pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( a glacial epo*2 t is to say1 ( an epo* dur+ :i* cold & w>m conditions ( climate alt]nat$4 ,keep+ ^! consid]ations 9 view1 we %all n[ proce$ to exam9e briefly :at evid5ce we at pres5t h ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( glacial epo*s4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,=m] ,,glacial ,,epo*s2 ,,geological ,,evid5ce ,,(4 ,cambrian ,conglom]ate ( ,islay & ,nor?-we/ ( ,scotl&4--,ice-action 9 ,ayr%ire & ,wigt[n%ire dur+ ,silurian ,p]iod4--,silurian ,lime/ones 9 ,arctic ,regions4--,pr(essor ,ramsay on ,ice-action dur+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4--,w>m ,climate 9 ,arctic ,regions dur+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4--,pr(essor ,geikie & ,mr4 ,james ,geikie on a ,glacial ,conglom]ate ( ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s ,age4--,pr(essor ,haughton & ,pr(essor ,dawson on ,evid5ce ( ,ice-action dur+ ,coal ,p]iod4--,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,blan=d on ,glaciation 9 ,india dur+ ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod4--,c>bonif]\s ,=mations ( ,arctic ,regions4--,pr(essor ,ramsay on ,p]mian ,glaci]s4--,p]mian ,conglom]ate 9 ,arran4--,pr(essor ,hull on ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,p]mian ,age4--,p]mian ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,natal4--,oolitic ,b\ld] ,conglom]ate 9 ,su!rl&%ire4--,w>m ,climate 9 ,nor? ,gre5l& dur+ ,oolitic ,p]iod4--,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 on ,ice-action dur+ ,cretace\s ,p]iod4--,glacial ,conglom]ates ( ,eoc5e ,age 9 ! ,alps4--,m4 ,ga/aldi on ! ,ice-transport$ ,lime/one ,blocks ( ! ,sup]ga4--,pr(essor ,he] on ! ,climate ( ,nor? ,gre5l& dur+ ,mioc5e ,p]iod4 ,,cambrian ,,p]iod4 ,isl& ( ,islay4--,good evid5ce ( ice-action has be5 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,james ,?omson1 ,f4,g4,s41#aed 9 /rata :i* he believes to be ( ,cambrian age4 ,at ,port ,askaig1 ,isl& ( ,islay1 bel[ a precipit\s cliff ( qu>tzite #gj feet 9 height1 !re is a mass ( ar5ace\s talcose s*i/ conta9+ fragm5ts ( granite1 "s angul>1 b mo/ ( !m r\nd$1 & ( all sizes1 f m]e p>ticles to l>ge b\ld]s4 ,z !re is no granite 9 ! isl& f :i* ^! b\ld]s c\ld h be5 d]iv$1 he ju/ly inf]s t !y mu/ h be5 transport$ by ! ag5cy ( ice4 ,! probability ( 8 conclusion is /r5g!n$ by ! almo/ total abs5ce ( /ratification 9 ! deposit 9 "q4 ,nor?-we/ ( ,scotl&4--,mr4 ,j4 ,geikie tells me t mu* ( ! ,cambrian conglom]ate 9 ! nor?-we/ ( ,scotl& /rongly rem9ds him ( ! co>se %+le b$s 7,alp9e diluvium7 :i* s (t5 cr[d ! old glacial valleys ( ,switz]l& & ,nor!rn ,italy4 ,9 _m places ! /ones ( ! ,cambrian conglom]ate h a subangul>1 blunt$ %ape1 l ^? ( ! re-arrang$ mora9e dbris ( ,alp9e c\ntries4 ,,silurian ,,p]iod4 ,wigt[n%ire4--,! possibility ( glacial action s f> back z ! ,silurian age has be5 sugge/$4 ,9 b$s ( slate & %ales 9 ,wigt[n%ire ( ,l[] ,silurian age ,mr4 ,j4 ,c>rick ,moore f\nd b$s ( conglom]ate ( a rem>kable "*4 ,! fragm5ts g5]ally v>y f ! size ( "o in* to a foot 9 diamet]1 b 9 "s ( ! b$s1 b\ld]s ( #c1 #d1 & ev5 #e feet 9 diamet] occur4 ,!re are no rocks 9 ! neighb\rhood f :i* any ( ^! fragm5ts c\ld h be5 d]iv$4 ,! matrix ( ?is conglom]ate is sometimes a gre5 trappean-look+ s&/one ( exce$+ t\ghness1 & sometimes an indurat$ s&/one indi/+ui%able f _m common v>ieties ( greywacke4#aee ,ayr%ire4--,mr4 ,james ,geikie /ates t 9 ,gl5app1 & ne> ,dalmell+ton1 he f\nd emb$d$ 9 ,l[] ,silurian /rata blocks & b\ld]s f "o foot to #e feet 9 diamet] ( gneiss1 sy5ite1 granite1 c41 none ( :i* belong to rocks ( ^? neighb\rhoods4#aef ,simil> cases h be5 f\nd 9 ,galway1 ,irel&1 & at ,lisbellaw1 s\? ( ,enniskill54#aeg ,9 ,am]ica1 ,pr(essor ,dawson describes ,silurian conglom]ates ) b\ld]s #b feet 9 diamet]4 ,arctic ,regions4--,! exi/5ce ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods dur+ t age may be inf]r$ f ! fact t 9 ! arctic regions we f9d widespread masses ( ,silurian lime/ones conta9+ encr9ites1 corals1 & mollusca1 & o!r fossil rema9s1 = an acc\nt ( :i* see ,pr(essor ,haughton's geological acc\nt ( ! ,arctic ,ar*ipelago app5d$ to ,mc,clintock's 8,n>rative ( ,arctic ,discov]ies40#aeh ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one4 ,nor? ( ,engl&4--,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ramsay & "s o!r geologi/s ! brecciat$1 subangul> conglom]ates & b\ld] b$s ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl& & ! ,nor? ( ,engl& are ( glacial orig94 ,:5 ^! conglom]ates & ! rec5t b\ld] clay come toge!r x is difficult to draw ! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 !m4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay obs]v$ "s v rem>kable facts 9 connection ) ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one conglom]ates ( ,kirkby ,lonsdale1 & ,s$burgh1 9 ,we/morel& & ,york%ire4 ,i %all give ! results ( 8 obs]vations 9 8 own words4 8,! result is1 t we h f\nd _m /ones & blocks di/9ctly scrat*$1 & on o!rs ! gho/s ( scrat*es ne>ly oblit]at$ by age & *emical action1 probably aid$ by pressure at a "t :5 ^! rocks 7 buri$ "u ?\s&s ( feet ( c>bonif]\s /rata4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 ! m>k+s 7 probably produc$ )9 ! body ( ! rock itself by pressure1 accompani$ by di/urbance ( ! /rata2 b 9 o!rs ! longitud9al & cross /riations convey ! idea ( glacial action4 ,! %apes ( ! /ones ( ^! conglom]ates1 _m ( :i* are f #b to #c feet long1 _! flatt5$ sides & subangul> edges1 toge!r ) ! confus$ mann] 9 :i* !y are (t5 arrang$ 7l /ones 9 ! drift71 h long be5 en\gh to conv9ce me ( _! ice-borne "*2 & ! scrat*$ specim5s1 :5 prop]ly inve/igat$1 may possibly conv9ce o!rs40#aei ,isle ( ,man4--,! conglom]ate ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 9 ! ,isle ( ,man has be5 comp>$ by ,mr4 ,cumm+ to 8a consolidat$ anci5t b\ld] clay40 ,& he rem>ks1 8,0 x s t ^? /range trilobitic-look+ fi%es ( t era _h to endure ! buffet+ ( ice-waves1 & to /ruggle amid/ ! wreck ( ice-floes & ! cru% ( b]gs80#afj ,au/ralia4--,a conglom]ate simil> to t ( ,scotl& has be5 f\nd 9 ,victoria1 ,au/ralia1 by ,mr4 ,selwyn1 at sev]al localities4 ,along ! ,wild ,duck ,creek1 ne> ,hea?cote1 & also ne> ! ,mia-,mia1 ,spr+ ,pla9s1 ,r$esdale1 localities 9 ! ,colony ( ,victoria1 :]e x 0 exam9$ by ,messrs4 ,taylor & ,e!ridge1 ,junior1 ?is conglom]ate consi/s ( a mixture ( granite pebbles & b\ld]s ( v>i\s col\rs & textures1 porphyries1 indurat$ s&/one1 qu>tz1 & a peculi> fl9t-col\r$ rock 9 a matrix ( blui%-grey v h>d mud-cem5t4#afa ,rocks simil> to ! pebbles & blocks compos+ ! conglom]ate d n occur 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood2 & f ! curi\s mixture ( l>ge & small angul> & wat]-worn fragm5ts x 0 conjectur$ t x might possibly be ( glacial orig94 ,scrat*$ /ones 7 n obs]v$1 al?\gh a c>eful exam9ation 0 made4 ,f simil> mud-pebble b$s on ! ,l]d]d]g ,riv]1 ,victoria1 ,mr4 ,p4 ,da9tree obta9$ a few pebbles groov$ aft] ! mann] ( ice-scrat*$ blocks4#afb ,& ! exi/5ce ( a w>m condition ( climate dur+ ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod is evid5c$ by ! fossilif]\s lime/ones ( ,engl&1 ,russia1 & ,am]ica4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,a?abasca ,riv]1 ,rup]t-,l&1 ,sir ,john ,ri*>dson f\nd b$s ( lime/one conta9+ ,producti1 ,spirif]i1 an ,or?is resembl+ ,o4 resup9ata1 ,t]ebratula reticul>is1#afc & a ,pleurotom>ia1 :i*1 9 ! op9ion ( ! late ,dr4 ,woodw>d1 :o exam9$ ! specim5s1 are *>act]i/ic ( ,devonian rocks ( ,devon%ire4 ,,c>bonif]\s ,,p]iod4 ,france4--,x is n[ a good _m ye>s s9ce ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 direct$ att5tion to :at he consid]$ evid5ce ( ice-action dur+ ! coal p]iod4 ,?is geologi/ f\nd 9 ! c>bonif]\s /rata ( ,france l>ge angul> blocks :i* he c\ld n acc\nt = )\t inf]r+ ! =m] action ( ice4 8,:e!r f local elevation10 he says1 8or f climatic conditions1 !re are c]ta9 appe>ances ov] ! :ole :i* imply t at "o "t ! temp]ature mu/ h be5 v l[1 z glaci]-action c alone acc\nt = ! pres5ce ( ! l>ge angul> blocks :i* occur 9 ! l[e/ detrital b$s ( _m ( ! s\!rn coal-bas9s40#afd ,scotl&4--,9 ,scotl& great b$s ( conglom]ate are met ) 9 v>i\s p>ts1 :i* are n[ consid]$ by ,pr(essor ,geikie1 ,mr4 ,james ,geikie1 & o!r (fic]s ( ! ,geological ,survey :o h _h opportunities ( exam9+ !m1 to be ( glacial orig94 8,!y are10 says ,mr4 ,james ,geikie1 8q un/ratifi$1 & ! /ones (t5 %[ t peculi> blunt$ =m :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( glacial "w40#afe ,_m ( ! /ones f\nd by ,pr(essor ,geikie1 sev]al ( :i* ,i h _h an opportunity ( see+1 are well /riat$4 ,9 #ahea ,pr(essor ,haughton br\ght =w>d at ! ,geological ,society ( ,dubl91 a case ( angul> fragm5ts ( granite occurr+ 9 ! c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ! c\nty ( ,dubl92 & he expla9$ ! ph5om5a by ! supposition ( ! transport+ p[] ( ice4 ,nor? ,am]ica4--,9 "o ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican coal-fields ,pr(essor ,newb]ry f\nd a b\ld] ( qu>tzite #ag in*es by #ab in*es1 imb$d$ 9 a seam ( coal4 ,simil> facts h also be5 record$ bo? 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & 9 ,nova ,scotia4 ,pr(essor ,dawson describes :at he calls a gigantic esk] ( ,c>bonif]\s age1 on ! outside ( :i* l>ge travell$ b\ld]s 7 deposit$1 probably by drift-ice2 :ile 9 ! swamps )91 ! coal flora fl\ri%$4#aff ,india4--,mr4 ,w4 ,t4 ,blan=d1 ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,india1 /ates t 9 b$s consid]$ to be ( ,c>bonif]\s age are f\nd l>ge b\ld]s1 "s ( !m z mu* z #ae feet 9 diamet]4 ,! b$ 9 :i* ^! occur is a f9e silt1 & he ref]s ! deposition ( ! b\ld]s to ice-action4 ,)9 ! la/ ?ree ye>s 8 views h receiv$ s+ul> confirmation 9 ano!r "p ( ,india1 :]e b$s ( lime/one 7 f\nd /riat$ bel[ c]ta9 ov]ly+ /rata4 ,! probability t ^! appe>ances are due1 z ,mr4 ,blan=d says1 to ! action ( ice1 is /r5g!n$ by ! consid]ation t ab\t five degrees f>!r to ! nor? ( ! di/rict 9 "q rises ! cold & high table-l& ( ,?ibet1 :i* dur+ a glacial epo* w\ld und\bt$ly be cov]$ ) ice t might well desc5d ov] ! pla9s ( ,india4#afg ,arctic ,regions4--,a glacial epo* dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s age may be indirectly inf]r$ f ! probable exi/5ce ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods1 z indicat$ by ! lime/ones ) fossil rema9s f\nd 9 arctic regions4 ,t an equable condition ( climate ext5d$ to ne> ! nor? pole is prov$ by ! fact t 9 ! arctic regions va/ masses ( c>bonif]\s lime/one1 hav+ all ! *>act]s ( ! m\nta9 lime/one ( ,engl&1 h be5 f\nd4 8,^! lime/ones10 says ,mr4 ,isbi/]1 8are mo/ ext5sively develop$ 9 ! nor?-ea/ extremity ( ! cont95t1 :]e !y occupy ! great] "p ( ! coa/-l9e1 f ! nor? side ( ! ,kotzebue ,s\nd to )9 a few miles ( ,po9t ,b>r[1 & =m ! *ief con/itu5t ( ! l(ty & conspicu\s headl&s ( ,cape ,?omson1 ,cape ,lisburn1 & ,cape ,sab9e40#afh ,lime/one ( ! same age occurs ext5sively along ! ,mack5zie ,riv]4 ,! foll[+ fossils h be5 f\nd 9 ^! lime/ones3--,t]ebratula resup9ata1#afi ,li?o/rotion basalti=me1 ,cya?ophyllum dian?um1 ,c4 flexuosum1 ,turb9olia mitrata1 ,productus ,m>t9i1#agj ,d5talium ,s>c9ula1 ,spirif]i1 ,or?id1 & encr9ital fragm5ts 9 ! greate/ abundance4 ,among ! fossils br\ght home f ,dept ,po9t1 ,alb]t ,l&1 by ,sir ,e4 ,bel*]1 ,mr4 ,salt] f\nd ! foll[+1 belong+ to ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod3--,fusul9a hyp]borea1 ,/yla/rea inconf]ta1 ,zaphr5tis ovibos1 ,clisiophyllum tumulus1 ,syr+opora 7,aulopora71 ,f5e/ella ,arctica1 ,spirif]a ,keilhavii1 ,productus cora1 ,p4 semireticulatus4#aga ,coal-b$s ( ,c>bonif]\s age are ext5sively develop$ 9 arctic regions4 ,! fuel is ( a highly bitum9\s "*1 resembl+1 says ,pr(essor ,haughton1 ! gas coals ( ,scotl&4 ,! occurr5ce ( coal 9 su* high latitudes indicates beyond d\bt t a mild & temp]ate condition ( climate mu/1 dur+ "s "p ( ! ,c>bonif]\s age1 h prevail$ up to ! v pole4 8,9 ! coal ( ,jameson's ,l&1 on ! ea/ side ( ,gre5l&1 ly+ 9 latitude #ga1 & 9 t ( ,melville ,isl&1 9 latitude #ge ,n41 ,pr(essor ,jameson f\nd plants resembl+ fossils ( ! coal-fields ( ,brita940#agb ,,p]mian ,,p]iod4 ,engl&4--,f ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,ramsay 9 ! ,p]mian breccias1 we h e reason to believe t dur+ a "p ( ! ,p]mian age our c\ntry 0 probably cov]$ ) glaci]s rea*+ to ! sea4 ,^! brecciat$ /ones1 he /ates1 are mo/ly angul> or subangul>1 ) flatt5$ sides & b v slightly r\nd$ at ! edges1 & are imb$d$ 9 a deep r$ m>ly pa/e4 ,at ,abb]ley ,hill "s ( ! masses are f #b to #c feet 9 diamet]1 & 9 "o ( ! qu>ries1 ne> ! base ( ,woodbury ,hill1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay saw "o #b feet 9 diamet]4 ,ano!r 0 obs]v$ at ,woodbury ,rock1 #d feet long1 #c feet broad1 & #a feet ?ick4 ,! b\ld]s 7 f\nd 9 ,s\? ,/af=d%ire1 ,enville1 9 ,abb]ley & ,malv]n ,hills1 & o!r places4 8,!y seem10 he says1 8to h be5 d]iv$ f ! conglom]ate & gre51 grey1 & purple ,cambrian grits ( ! ,longmynd1 & f ! ,silurian qu>tz-rocks1 slates1 fel/ones1 felspa?ic a%es1 gre5/ones1 & ,upp] ,c>adoc rocks ( ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,longmynd & ,*irbury4 ,b !n10 he cont9ues1 8! s\? end ( ! ,malv]n ,hills is f =ty to fifty miles1 ! ,abb]leys f tw5ty-five to ?irty-five miles1 ,enville f tw5ty to ?irty miles1 & ,s\? ,/af=d%ire f ?irty-five to =ty miles di/ant f t c\ntry40#agc ,x is physically impossible1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay rem>ks1 t ^! blocks c\ld h be5 transport$ to su* di/ances by any o!r ag5cy ?an t ( ice4 ,_h !y be5 transport$ by wat]1 suppos+ su* a ?+ possible1 !y w\ld h be5 r\nd$ & wat]-worn1 :]eas _m ( ^! /ones are flat slabs1 & mo/ ( !m h _! edges b little r\nd$4 ,& besides _m ( !m are highly poli%$1 & o!rs groov$ & f9ely /riat$1 exactly l ^? ( ! anci5t glaci]s ( ,scotl& & ,wales4 ,"s ( ^! specim5s are to be se5 9 ! ,museum ( ,practical ,geology1 ,j]myn ,/reet4 ,scotl&4--,9 ! ,isl& ( ,arran1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,wuns* & ,mr4 ,james ,?omson f\nd a b$ ( conglom]ate :i* !y consid]$ ( ,p]mian age1 & probably ( glacial orig94 ,?is conglom]ate enclos$ angul> fragm5ts ( v>i\s s*i/ose1 volcanic1 & lime/one rocks1 & conta9$ c>bonif]\s fossils4 ,irel&4--,at ,armagh1 ,irel&1 ,pr(essor ,hull f\nd b\ld] b$s ( ,p]mian age1 conta9+ pebbles & b\ld]s1 sometimes #b feet 9 diamet]4 ,"s ( ! b\ld]s mu/ h be5 transport$ f a region ly+ ab\t #cj miles to ! nor?-we/ ( ! locality 9 :i* !y n[ occur4 ,x is difficult to conceive1 says ,pr(essor ,hull1 h[ rock fragm5ts ( su* a size c\ld h be5 c>ri$ to _! pres5t position by any o!r ag5cy ?an t ( float+ ice4 ,?is b\ld]-b$ is ov]laid by a rec5t b$ ( b\ld] clay4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 :o also exam9$ ! section1 agrees ) ,pr(essor ,hull t ! b$ is ( ,p]mian age1 & unque/ionably ( ice-=mation4#agd ,pr(essor ,ramsay feels conv9c$ t ! same conclusions :i* he has drawn 9 reg>d to ! ,p]mian breccia ( ,engl& w probably yet be f\nd to hold good 9 reg>d to mu* ( t ( ,nor? ,g]many4#age ,& !re appe>s to be "s gr\nd = conclud+ t ! cold ( t p]iod ev5 rea*$ to ,india4#agf ,s\? ,africa4--,an anci5t b\ld] clay1 suppos$ to be ei!r ( ,p]mian or ,jurassic age1 has be5 ext5sively f\nd 9 ,natal1 ,s\? ,africa4 ,?is deposit1 discov]$ by ,dr4 ,su!rl&1 ! ,surveyor-,g5]al ( ! colony1 is ?us describ$ by ,dr4 ,mann3-- 8,! deposit itself consi/s ( a greyi%-blue argillace\s matrix1 conta9+ fragm5ts ( granite1 gneiss1 graphite1 qu>tzite1 gre5/one1 & clay-slate4 ,^! imb$d$ fragm5ts are ( v>i\s size1 f ! m9ute dim5sions ( s&-gra9s up to va/ blocks measur+ #f feet across1 & weigh+ f #e to #aj tons4 ,!y are smoo!d1 z if !y _h be5 subject to a c]ta9 am\nt ( attrition 9 a muddy s$im5t2 b !y are n r\nd$ l b\ld]s t h be5 subject$ to sea-break]s4 ,! fracture ( ! rock is n con*oidal1 & !re is manife/1 9 its sub/ance1 a rude disposition t[>ds wavy /ratification40 8,dr4 ,su!rl& incl9es to ?9k t ! transport ( va/ massive blocks ( sev]al tons' weight1 ! scor+ ( ! subjac5t surfaces ( s&/one1 & ! simultane\s deposition ( m9ute s&-gra9s & l>ge b\ld]s 9 ! same matrix1 all po9t to "o ag5cy z ! only "o :i* c be rationally admitt$ to acc\nt satisfactorily = ! pres5ce ( ?is rem>kable =mation 9 ! situations 9 :i* x is f\nd4 ,he believes t ! b\ld]-be>+ clay ( ,natal is ( analog\s nature to ! great ,sc&9avian drift1 to :i* x is c]ta9ly intimately alli$ 9 intr9sic m9]alogical "*2 t x is virtually a va/ mora9e ( old5 "t2 & t ice1 9 "s =m or o!r1 has _h to d ) its =mation1 at lea/ s f> z ! deposition ( ! imb$d$ fragm5ts 9 ! amorph\s matrix are conc]n$40#agg ,9 ! discussion :i* foll[$ ! read+ ( ,dr4 ,su!rl&'s pap]1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay po9t$ out t 9 ! ,natal b$s enorm\s blocks ( rock occurr$1 :i* 7 #fj or #hj miles f _! orig9al home1 & /ill rema9$ angul>2 & !re 0 a difficulty 9 acc\nt+ = ! ph5om5a on any o!r hypo!sis ?an t sugge/$4 ,mr4 ,/[1 9 8 pap] on ! ,k>oo b$s1 has express$ a simil> op9ion reg>d+ ! glacial "* ( ! =mation4#agh ,b we h 9 ! ,k>oo b$s evid5ce n only ( glaciation1 b ( a mu* w>m] condition ( ?+s ?an pres5tly exi/s 9 t latitude4 ,?is is %[n f ! fact t ! %ells ( ! ,trigona-b$s indicate a tropical or subtropical condition ( climate4 ,arctic ,regions4--,! evid5ce :i* we h ( ! exi/5ce ( a w>m climate dur+ ! ,p]mian p]iod is equally conclusive4 ,! close resemblance ( ! flora ( ! ,p]mian p]iod to t ( ,c>bonif]\s times evid5tly po9ts to ! =m] preval5ce ( a w>m & equable climate4 ,& ! exi/5ce ( ! magnesian lime/one 9 high latitudes seems to indicate t dur+ at lea/ a "p ( ! ,p]mian p]iod1 j z dur+ ! accumulation ( ! c>bonif]\s lime/one1 a w>m sea mu/ h obta9$ 9 ^? latitudes4 ,,oolitic ,,p]iod4 ,nor? ( ,scotl&4--,!re is n want+ evid5ce ( some?+ l ! action ( ice dur+ ! ,oolitic p]iod4#agi ,9 ! ,nor? ( ,scotl& ,mr4 ,james ,geikie says !re is a co>se b\ld] conglom]ate associat$ ) ! ,jurassic /rata 9 ! ea/ ( ,su!rl&1 ! possibly glacial orig9 ( :i* long ago sugge/$ itself to ,pr(essor ,ramsay & o!r obs]v]s4 ,mr4 ,judd believes ! b\ld]s to h be5 float$ d[n by ice f ! ,highl& m\nta9s at ! "t ! ,jurassic /rata 7 be+ accumulat$4 ,nor? ,gre5l&4--,dur+ ! ,oolitic p]iod a w>m condition ( climate ext5d$ to ,nor? ,gre5l&4 ,= example1 9 ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&1 at ,wilkie ,po9t1 9 lat4 #gf #bj ,n41 & long4 #aag #bj ,w41 ,oolitic rocks conta9+ an ammonite 7,ammonites ,mc,clintocki1 ,haughton71 l ,a4 concavus & o!r %ells ( ,oolitic species1 7 f\nd by ,capta9 ,mc,clintock4#ahj ,9 ,katmai ,bay1 ne> ,behr+'s ,/raits1 ! foll[+ ,oolitic fossils 7 discov]$--,ammonites ,wasness5skii1 ,a4 biplex1 ,belemnites paxillosus1 & ,unio liass9us4#aha ,capta9 ,mc,clintock f\nd at ,po9t ,wilkie1 9 ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&1 lat4 #gf #bj1 a bone ( ,i*?yosaurus1 & ,sir ,e4 ,bel*] f\nd 9 ,exm\? ,isl&1 lat4 #gf #af ,n41 & long4 #if ,w41 at an elevation ( #egj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 bones :i* 7 exam9$ by ,pr(essor ,ow51 & pron\nc$ to be ^? ( ! same animal4#ahb ,mr4 ,salt] rem>ks t at ! "t t ^! fossils 7 deposit$1 8a condition ( climate some?+ l t ( our own %ores 0 prevail+ 9 latitudes n f> %ort ( #hj ,n40#ahc ,& ,mr4 ,jukes says t dur+ ! ,oolitic p]iod1 89 latitudes :]e n[ sea & l& are b\nd 9 ice & sn[ ?r\gh\t ! ye>1 !re =m]ly fl\ri%$ animals & plants simil> to ^? liv+ 9 our own prov9ce at t "t4 ,! que/ions ?us rais$10 cont9ues ,mr4 ,jukes1 8z to ! climate ( ! globe :5 cephalopods & reptiles su* z we %\ld expect to f9d only 9 w>m or temp]ate seas1 c\ld live 9 su* high latitudes1 are n easy to answ]40#ahd ,& ,pr(essor ,haughton rem>ks1 t he ?9ks x highly improbable t any *ange 9 ! position ( l& & wat] c\ld ev] h produc$ a temp]ature 9 ! sea at #gf nor? latitude :i* w\ld all[ ( ! exi/5ce ( ammonites1 especially species s l ^? t liv$ at ! same "t 9 ! tropical w>m seas ( ! ,s\? ( ,engl& & ,france at ! close ( ! ,liassic1 & comm5cem5t ( ! ,l[] ,oolitic p]iod4#ahe ,! great abundance ( ! lime/one & coal ( ! ,oolitic sy/em %[s also ! w>m & equable condition ( ! climate :i* mu/ h !n prevail$4 ,,cretace\s ,,p]iod4 ,croydon4--,a l>ge block ( cry/all9e rock resembl+ granite 0 f\nd imb$d$ 9 a pit1 on ! side ( ! old ,london & ,brighton road ne> ,purley1 ab\t two miles s\? ( ,croydon4 ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 has %[n conclusively t x mu/ h be5 transport$ !re by means ( float+ ice4 ,?is b\ld] 0 associat$ ) loose sea-s&1 co>se %+le1 & a small] b\ld] weigh+ tw5ty or tw5ty-five p\nds1 & all wat]-worn4 ,^! _h all sunk toge!r )\t sep>at+4 ,h5ce !y mu/ h be5 firmly held toge!r1 bo? dur+ ! "t t !y 7 be+ float$ away1 & also :il/ s9k+ to ! bottom ( ! cretace\s sea4 ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 supposes ! :ole to h be5 c>ri$ away froz5 to ! bottom ( a mass ( gr\nd-ice4 ,:5 ! ice f melt+ became unable to float ! mass atta*$ to x1 ! :ole w\ld !n s9k to ! bottom toge!r4#ahf ,dov]4--,:ile ! workm5 7 employ$ 9 cutt+ ! tunnel on ! ,london1 ,*a?am1 & ,dov] ,railway1 betwe5 ,lydd5 ,hill & ,%eph]dswell1 a few miles f ,dov]1 !y came ^u a mass ( coal imb$d$ 9 *alk1 at a dep? ( #ahj feet4 ,x 0 ab\t #d feet squ>e1 & f #d to #aj in*es ?ick4 ,! coal 0 friable & highly bitum9\s4 ,x resembl$ "s ( ! ,weald5 or ,jurassic coal1 & 0 unlike ! true coal ( ! coal-measures4 ,! specific gravity ( ! coal preclud$ ! supposition t x c\ld h float$ away ( itself into ! cretace\s sea4 8,consid]+ its friability10 says ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/51 8,i d n ?9k t ! ag5cy ( a float+ tree c\ld h be5 engag$ 9 its transport2 b1 look+ at its flat1 angul> =m1 x seems to me t its hi/ory may agree ) :at ,i h already sugge/$ ) ref]5ce to ! b\ld] 9 ! *alk at ,croydon4 ,we may suppose t dur+ ! ,cretace\s p]iod "s bitum9\s b$s ( ! prec$+ ,oolitic p]iod lay s z to be cov]$ ) wat] ne> ! sea-m>g91 or along "s riv]-bank1 & f :i* portions c\ld be c>ri$ (f by ice1 & s drift$ away1 until ! ice 0 no long] able to support its load40#ahg ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 !n m5tions a numb] ( o!r cases ( blocks be+ f\nd 9 ! *alk4 ,9 reg>d to ^? cases he appropriately rem>ks t1 z ! cases :]e ! occurr5ce ( su* blocks has be5 obs]v$ are likely to be f> less num]\s ?an ^? :i* h escap$ obs]vation1 or fail$ to h be5 record$1 & z ! *alk expos$ 9 pits & qu>ries be>s only a mo/ trifl+ proportion to ! :ole horizontal ext5t ( ! =mation1 we h no gr\nds to conclude t ! above are exceptional cases4 ,b\ld]s h also be5 f\nd 9 ! cretace\s /rata ( ! ,alps by ,es*] von d] ,l9?4#ahh ,! exi/5ce ( w>m p]iods dur+ ! ,cretace\s age is pla9ly %[n by ! "* ( ! flora & fauna ( t age4 ,! fact t *alk is ( organic orig9 implies t ! climate mu/ h be5 w>m & g5ial1 & o!rwise fav\rable to animal life4 ,?is is fur!r manife/$ by su* plants z ,cycas & ,zamia1 :i* betok5 a w>m climate1 & by ! corals & huge sauroid reptiles :i* !n inhabit$ our wat]s4 ,x is1 9 fact1 ! tropical "* ( ! fauna ( t p]iod :i* induc$ ,sir ,*>les ,lyell to reject ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5's idea t ! b\ld]s f\nd 9 ! *alk _h be5 transport$ by float+ ice4 ,su* a supposition1 imply+ a cold climate1 8is10 ,sir ,*>les says1 8inconsi/5t ) ! luxuriant gr[? ( l>ge *amb]$ univalves1 num]\s corals1 & _m fi%1 & o!r fossils ( tropical =ms40 ,! rec5t discov]y ( ! ,cretace\s =mation 9 ,gre5l& %[s t dur+ t p]iod a mild & temp]ate condition ( climate mu/ h prevail$ 9 t cont95t up to high latitudes4 8,?is =mation 9 ,gre5l&10 says ,dr4 ,rob]t ,br[n1 8has only be5 rec5tly sep>at$ f ! ,mioc5e =mation1 ) :i* x is associat$ & 0 suppos$ to be a "p (4 ,x is1 z f> z we yet "k1 only f\nd 9 ! vic9ity ( ,kome or ,koke1 ne> ! %ores ( ,om5ak ,fjord1 9 ab\t #gj nor? latitude1 ?\gh traces h be5 f\nd else:]e on ,disco1 c4 ,! fossils hi!rto br\ght to ,europe h be5 v few1 & consi/ ( plants :i* are n[ pres]v$ 9 ! ,/ockholm & ,cop5hag5 ,museums4 ,f ^! !re seems little d\bt t ! age assign$ to ?is limit$ deposit 7s f> z we yet "k7 by ! celebrat$ palontologi/1 ,pr(essor ,oswald ,he]1 ( ,zuri*1 is ! correct "o40#ahi ,dr4 ,br[n gives a li/ ( ! ,cretace\s flora f\nd 9 ,gre5l&4 ,,eoc5e ,,p]iod4 ,switz]l&4--,9 a co>se conglom]ate belong+ to ! 8flys*0 ( ,switz]l&1 an ,eoc5e =mation1 !re are f\nd c]ta9 imm5se blocks1 "s ( :i* consi/ ( a v>iety ( granite :i* is n kn[n to occur 9 situ 9 any "p ( ! ,alps4 ,"s ( ! blocks are #aj feet & upw>ds 9 l5g?1 & "o at ,halek]51 at ! ,lake ( ,?un1 is #aje feet 9 l5g?1 #ij feet 9 bread?1 & #de feet 9 height4 ,simil> blocks are f\nd 9 ! ,ap5n9es4 ,^! unmi/akably indicate ! pres5ce ( glaci]s or float+ ice4 ,?is conclusion is fur!r borne out by ! fact t ! 8flys*0 is de/itute ( organic rema9s4 ,b ! hypo!sis t ^! huge masses 7 transport$ to _! pres5t sites by glaci]s or float+ ice has be5 always object$ to1 says ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 8on ! gr\nd t ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,nummulitic age 9 ,switz]l&1 z well z 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 conta9 g5]a ( fossil plants & animals *>act]i/ic ( a w>m climate4 ,& x has be5 p>ticul>ly rem>k$10 he cont9ues1 8by ,m4 ,desor t ! /rata mo/ ne>ly associat$ ) ! #8flys*' 9 ! ,alps are ri* 9 e*9od]ms ( ! ,spatangus family :i* h a decid$ tropical aspect40#aij ,b accord+ to ! !ory ( ,secul> ,*anges ( ,climate1 ! v fact t ! 8flys*0 is imm$iately associat$ ) b$s indicat+ a w>m or ev5 tropical condition ( climate1 is "o ( ! /ronge/ pro(s :i* c\ld be adduc$ 9 fav\r ( its glacial "*1 = ! m sev]e a cold p]iod ( a glacial epo* is1 ! w>m] w be ! p]iods :i* imm$iately prec$e & succe$4 ,^! crocodiles1 tortoises1 & tropical flora probably belong to a w>m ,eoc5e int]-glacial p]iod4 ,,mioc5e ,,p]iod4 ,italy4--,we h /rong evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! op9ion t a glacial epo* exi/$ dur+ ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,m4 ,ga/aldi1 t dur+ t age ,alp9e glaci]s ext5d$ to ! sea-level4 ,ne> ,tur9 !re is a s]ies ( hills1 ris+ ab\t #ejj or #fjj feet above ! valleys1 compos$ ( b$s ( ,mioc5e s&/one1 m>l1 & gravel1 & loose conglom]ate4 ,^! b$s h be5 c>efully exam9$ & describ$ by ,m4 ,ga/aldi4#aia ,! hill ( ! ,lup]ga has be5 p>ticul>ly notic$ by him4 ,_m ( ! /ones 9 ^! b$s are /riat$ 9 a mann] simil> to ^? f\nd 9 ! true till or b\ld] clay ( ?is c\ntry4 ,b :at is mo/ rem>kable is ! fact t l>ge erratic blocks ( lime/one1 _m ( !m f #aj to #ae feet 9 diamet]1 are f\nd 9 abundance 9 ^! b$s4 ,x has be5 %[n by ,ga/aldi t ^! blocks h all be5 d]iv$ f ! out] ridge ( ! ,alps on ! ,italian side1 namely1 f ! range ext5d+ f ,ivrea to ! ,lago ,maggiore1 & consequ5tly !y mu/ h travell$ f tw5ty to eighty miles4 ,s abundant are ^! l>ge blocks1 t ext5sive qu>ries h be5 op5$ 9 ! hills = ! sake ( procur+ !m4 ,^! facts prove n only ! exi/5ce ( glaci]s on ! ,alps dur+ ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 b ( glaci]s ext5d+ to ! sea & break+ up into iceb]gs2 ! /ratification ( ! b$s among/ :i* ! blocks occur suffici5tly indicat+ aque\s action & ! =m] pres5ce ( ! sea4 ,t ! glaci]s ( ! ,s\!rn ,alps actually rea*$ to ! sea1 & s5t _! iceb]gs adrift ov] :at are n[ ! sunny pla9s ( ,nor!rn ,italy1 is suffici5t pro( t dur+ ! cold p]iod ( ,mioc5e times ! climate mu/ h be5 v sev]e4 ,inde$1 x may well h be5 z sev]e z1 if n ev5 m excessive ?an1 ! int5se/ sev]ity ( climate exp]i5c$ dur+ ! la/ great glacial epo*4 ,gre5l&4--,( ! exi/5ce ( w>m conditions dur+ ,mioc5e times1 geology af=ds u abundant evid5ce4 ,i %all quote ! op9ion ( ,sir ,*>les ,lyell on ?is po9t3-- 8,we "k10 says ,sir ,*>les1 8t ,gre5l& 0 n always cov]$ ) sn[ & ice2 = :5 we exam9e ! t]ti>y /rata ( ,disco ,isl& 7( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod71 we discov] !re a multitude ( fossil plants :i* demon/rate t1 l _m o!r p>ts ( ! arctic regions1 x =m]ly enjoy$ a mild & g5ial climate4 ,among ! fossils br\ght f t isl&1 lat4 #gj ,n41 ,pr(essor ,he] has recognis$ ,sequoia ,l&sdorfii1 a conif]\s species :i* fl\ri%$ ?r\gh\t a great "p ( ,europe 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod4 ,! same plant has be5 f\nd fossil by ,sir ,john ,ri*>dson )9 ! ,arctic ,circle1 f> to ! we/ on ! ,mack5zie ,riv]1 ne> ! entrance ( ,be> ,riv]2 also by "s ,dani% naturali/s 9 ,icel&1 to ! ea/4 ,! ,icel&ic surturb& or lignite1 ( ?is age1 has also yield$ a ri* h>ve/ ( plants1 m ?an ?irty-"o ( !m1 accord+ to ,/e5/rup & ,he]1 9 a good /ate ( pres]vation1 & no less ?an fifte5 specifically id5tical ) ,mioc5e plants ( ,europe4 ,?irte5 ( ! numb] are arboresc5t2 & among/ o!rs is a tulip-tree 7,liriod5dron71 ) its fruit & *>act]i/ic leaves1 a plane 7,platanus71 a walnut1 & a v9e1 af=d+ unmi/akable evid5ce ( a climate 9 ! p>allel ( ! ,arctic ,circle :i* precludes ! supposition ( glaci]s !n exi/+ 9 ! neighb\rhood1 /ill less any g5]al cru/ ( cont95tal ice l t ( ,gre5l&40#aib ,at a meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association1 held at ,nott+ham 9 ,augu/ #ahff1 ,pr(essor ,he] read a valuable pap] on ! 8,mioc5e ,flora ( ,nor? ,gre5l&40 ,9 ?is pap] "s rem>kable conclusions z to ! probable temp]ature ( ,gre5l& dur+ ! ,mioc5e p]iod 7 giv54 ,upw>ds ( sixty diff]5t species br\ght f ,atanek]dluk1 a place on ! ,waigat opposite ,disco1 9 lat4 #gj ,n41 h be5 exam9$ by him4 ,a /eep hill rises on ! coa/ to a height ( #a1jhj feet1 & at ?is level ! fossil plants are f\nd4 ,l>ge quantities ( wood 9 a fossiliz$ or c>boniz$ condition lie ab\t4 ,capta9 ,+lefield obs]v$ "o trunk ?ick] ?an a man's body /&+ upright4 ,! leaves1 h[ev]1 are ! mo/ important portion ( ! deposit4 ,! rock 9 :i* !y are f\nd is a sp>ry iron ore1 :i* turns r$di% br[n on exposure to ! wea!r4 ,9 ?is rock ! leaves are f\nd1 9 places pack$ closely toge!r1 & _m ( !m are 9 a v p]fect condition4 ,!y give u a mo/ valuable insight into ! nature ( ! vegetation :i* =m$ ?is primeval =e/4 ,he arrives at ! foll[+ conclusions3-- #a4 ,! fossiliz$ plants ( ,atanek]dluk _c h be5 drift$ f any great di/ance4 ,!y mu/ h gr[n on ! spot :]e !y 7 f\nd4 ,?is is %[n-- 7a7 ,by ! fact t ,capta9 ,+lefield & ,dr4 ,ruik obs]v$ trunks ( trees /&+ upright4 7b7 ,by ! great abundance ( ! leaves1 & ! p]fect /ate ( pres]vation 9 :i* !y are f\nd4 7c7 ,by ! fact t we f9d 9 ! /one bo? fruits & se$s ( ! trees ^: leaves are also f\nd !re4 7d7 ,by ! occurr5ce ( insect rema9s along ) ! leaves4 #b4 ,! flora ( ,atanek]dluk is ,mioc5e4 #c4 ,! flora is ri* 9 species4 #d4 ,! flora proves )\t a d\bt t ,nor? ,gre5l&1 9 ! ,mioc5e epo*1 _h a climate mu* w>m] ?an its pres5t "o4 ,! diff]5ce mu/ be at lea/ #bi ,f4 ,pr(essor ,he] discusses at consid]able l5g? ?is proposition4 ,he says t ! evid5ce f ,gre5l& gives a f9al answ] to ^? :o object$ to ! conclusions z to ! ,mioc5e climate ( ,europe drawn by him on a =m] occasion4 ,x is q impossible t ! trees f\nd at ,atanek]dluk c\ld ev] h fl\ri%$ !re if ! temp]ature 7 n f> high] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,?is is cle> f _m ( ! species1 ( :i* we f9d ! ne>e/ liv+ repres5tative #aj or ev5 #bj ( latitude to ! s\? ( ! locality 9 "q4 ,! trees ( ,atanek]dluk 7 n1 he says1 all at ! extreme nor!rn limit ( _! range1 = 9 ! ,mioc5e flora ( ,spitzb]g51 lat4 #gh ,n41 we f9d ! bee*1 plane1 hazelnut1 & "s o!r species id5tical ) ^? f ,gre5l&1 & we may conclude1 he ?9ks1 t ! firs & popl>s :i* we meet at ,atanek]dluk & ,bell ,s\nd1 ,spitzb]g51 mu/ h rea*$ up to ! ,nor? ,pole if l& exi/$ !re 9 ! t]ti>y p]iod4 8,! hills ( fossiliz$ wood10 he adds1 8f\nd by ,mc,clure & 8 companions 9 ,banks's ,l& 7lat4 #gd #bg ,n471 are !re=e discov]ies :i* %\ld n a/oni% u1 !y only confirm ! evid5ce z to ! orig9al vegetation ( ! pol> regions :i* we h d]iv$ f o!r s\rces40 ,! ,sequoia l&sdorfii is ! mo/ abundant ( ! trees ( ,atanek]dluk4 ,! ,sequoia semp]vir5s is its pres5t repres5tative4 ,?is tree has its extreme nor!rn limit ab\t lat4 #ec ,n4 ,= its exi/5ce x requires a summ] temp]ature ( #ei or #fa ,f4 ,its fruit requires a temp]ature ( #fd = rip5+4 ,! w9t] temp]ature mu/ n fall bel[ #cd1 & t ( ! :ole ye> mu/ be at lea/ #di4 ,! temp]ature ( ,atanek]dluk dur+ ! "t t ! ,mioc5e flora grew c\ld n h be5 "u ! above4#aic ,pr(essor ,he] concludes 8 pap] z foll[s3-- 8,i ?9k ^! facts are conv9c+1 & ! m s t !y are n insulat$1 b confirm$ by ! evid5ce d]ivable f ! ,mioc5e flora ( ,icel&1 ,spitzb]g51 & ,nor!rn ,canada4 ,^! conclusions1 too1 are only l9ks 9 ! gr& *a9 ( evid5ce obta9$ f ! exam9ation ( ! ,mioc5e flora ( ! :ole ( ,europe4 ,!y prove to u t we c\ld n by any re-arrangem5t ( ! relative positions ( l& & wat] produce = ! nor!rn hemisph]e a climate :i* w\ld expla9 ! ph5om5a 9 a satisfactory mann]4 ,we mu/ only admit t we are face to face ) a problem1 ^: solution 9 all probability mu/ be attempt$1 &1 we d\bt n1 complet$ by ! a/ronom]40 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,geological ,,"t4--,,probable ,,date ,,( ,,! ,,glacial ,,epo*4 ,geological ,"t measurable f ,a/ronomical ,data4--,m4 ,lev]ri]'s ,=mul4--,tables ( ,ecc5tricity = #c1jjj1jjj ,ye>s 9 ! ,pa/ & #a1jjj1jjj ,ye>s 9 ! ,future4--,h[ ! ,tables h be5 comput$4--,:y ! ,glacial ,epo* is m rec5t ?an _h be5 suppos$4--,figures convey a v inadequate ,conception ( imm5se ,duration4--,mode ( repres5t+ a ,million ( ,ye>s4--,probable ,date ( ! ,glacial ,epo*4 ,if ^? great ,secul> v>iations ( climate :i* we h be5 consid]+ be indirectly ! result ( *anges 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 !n we h a means ( det]m9+1 at lea/ s f> z reg>ds rec5t epo*s1 :5 ^! v>iations took place4 ,if ! glacial epo* be due to ! causes assign$1 we h a means ( asc]ta9+1 ) tol]able accuracy1 n m]ely ! date ( its comm5cem5t1 b ! l5g? ( its duration4 ,m4 ,lev]ri] has n only det]m9$ ! sup]ior limit ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 b has also giv5 =mul by means ( :i* ! ext5t ( ! ecc5tricity = any p]iod1 pa/ or future1 may be comput$4 ,a well-kn[n a/ronom] & ma!matician1 :o has specially inve/igat$ ! subject1 is ( op9ion t ^! =mul give results :i* may be dep5d$ ^u z approximately correct = f\r millions ( ye>s pa/ & future4 ,an em95t physici/ has1 h[ev]1 express$ to me 8 d\bts z to :e!r ! results c be dep5d$ on = a p]iod s enorm\s4 ,m4 ,lev]ri] 9 8 ,memoir has giv5 a table ( ! ecc5tricity = #ajj1jjj ye>s be=e & aft] #ahjj ,a4,d41 comput$ = int]vals ( #aj1jjj ye>s4 ,?is table1 no d\bt1 embraces a p]iod suffici5tly great = ord9>y a/ronomical purposes1 b x is by f> too limit$ to af=d in=mation 9 reg>d to geological epo*s4 ,) ! view ( asc]ta9+ ! probable date ( ! glacial epo*1 z well z ! "* ( ! climate = a long c\rse ( ages1 ,table ,i4 0 comput$ f ,m4 ,lev]ri]'s =mul4#aid ,x %[s ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit & longitude ( ! p]ihelion = #c1jjj1jjj ( ye>s back1 & #a1jjj1jjj ( ye>s to come1 at p]iods #ej1jjj ye>s ap>t4 ,on look+ ov] ! table x w be se5 t !re are ?ree pr9cipal p]iods :5 ! ecc5tricity rose to a v high value1 ) a few subord9ate maxima betwe54 ,x w be p]ceiv$ also t dur+ ea* ( ^? p]iods ! ecc5tricity does n rema9 at ! same uni=m value1 b rises & falls1 9 "o case twice1 & 9 ! o!r two cases ?ree times4 ,ab\t #b1fej1jjj ye>s back we h ! ecc5tricity almo/ at its inf]ior limit4 ,x !n beg9s to increase1 & fifty ?\s& ye>s aft]w>ds1 namely at #b1fjj1jjj ye>s ago1 x rea*es #jffj2 fifty ?\s& ye>s aft] ?is p]iod x has dim9i%$ to #jafg1 :i* is ab\t its pres5t value4 ,x !n beg9s to increase1 & 9 ano!r fifty ?\s& ye>s1 namely at #b1ejj1jjj ye>s ago1 x approa*es to almo/ ! sup]ior limit1 its value be+ !n #jgba4 ,x !n beg9s to dim9i%1 & at #b1dej1jjj ye>s ago x has dim9i%$ to #jbeb4 ,^! two maxima1 sep>at$ by a m9imum & ext5d+ ov] a p]iod ( #bjj1jjj ye>s1 con/itute ! fir/ great p]iod ( high ecc5tricity4 ,we !n pass onw>ds = upw>ds ( a million & a half ye>s1 & we come to ! second great p]iod4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree maxima sep>at$ by two m9ima4 ,! fir/ maximum occurr$ at #iej1jjj ye>s ago1 ! second or middle "o at #hej1jjj ye>s ago1 & ! ?ird & la/ at #gej1jjj ye>s ago--! :ole ext5d+ ov] a p]iod ( ne>ly #cjj1jjj ye>s4 ,pass+ onw>ds = ano!r million & half ye>s1 or to ab\t #hjj1jjj ye>s 9 ! future1 we come to ! ?ird great p]iod4 ,x also consi/s ( ?ree maxima "o hundr$ ?\s& ye>s ap>t4 ,^? occur at ! p]iods #hjj1jjj1 #ijj1jjj1 & #a1jjj1jjj ye>s to come1 respectively1 sep>at$ also by two m9ima4 ,^? ?ree great p]iods1 two ( !m 9 ! pa/ & "o ( !m 9 ! future1 includ$ 9 ! ,table1 are !re=e sep>at$ f ea* o!r by an int]val ( upw>ds ( #a1gjj1jjj ye>s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,iv ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,john/on1 ,ed9br4 & ,london4 ,,diagram ,,repres5t+ ,,! ,,v>iations ,,9 ,,! ,,ecc5tricity ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,orbit ,,= ,,?ree ,,million ,,( ,,ye>s ,,be=e #ahjj ,a4,d4 ,,"o ,,million ,,( ,,ye>s ,,aft] ,,x4 ,! ,ord9ates are jo9$ by /raight l9es :]e ! values1 at int]vals ( #aj1jjj ye>s1 betwe5 !m h n be5 det]m9$4 ,9 ?is ,table !re are sev5 p]iods :5 ! e>?'s orbit becomes ne>ly circul>1 f\r 9 ! pa/ & ?ree 9 ! future4 ,! ,table %[s also f\r or five subord9ate p]iods ( high ecc5tricity1 ! pr9cipal "o occurr+ #bjj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,! v>iations ( ecc5tricity dur+ ! f\r millions ( ye>s1 are repres5t$ to ! eye diagrammatically 9 ,plate ,,iv4 ,9 ord] to det]m9e ) m accuracy ! condition ( ! e>?'s orbit dur+ ! ?ree p]iods ( great ecc5tricity includ$ 9 ,table ,i41 ,i comput$ ! values = p]iods ( t5 ?\s& ye>s ap>t1 & ! results are embodi$ 9 ,tables ,,ii41 ,,iii41 & ,,iv4 ,!re are /ill em95t a/ronom]s & physici/s :o are ( op9ion t ! climate ( ! globe nev] c\ld h be5 s]i\sly affect$ by *anges 9 ! ecc5tricity ( its orbit4 ,?is op9ion results1 no d\bt1 f view+ ! "q z a purely a/ronomical "o4 ,view$ f an a/ronomical /&po9t1 z has be5 already rem>k$1 !re is actually no?+ f :i* any "o c\ld reasonably conclude ) c]ta9ty :e!r a *ange ( ecc5tricity w\ld s]i\sly affect climate or n4 ,by means ( a/ronomy we asc]ta9 ! ext5t ( ! ecc5tricity at any giv5 p]iod1 h[ mu* ! w9t] may exce$ ! summ] 9 l5g? 7or ! rev]se71 h[ mu* ! sun's heat is increas$ or decreas$ by a decrease or an increase ( di/ance1 & s =?2 b we obta9 no in=mation :atev] reg>d+ h[ ^! w actually affect climate4 ,?is1 z we h already se51 mu/ be det]m9$ :olly f physical consid]ations1 & x is an exce$+ly complicat$ problem4 ,an a/ronom]1 unless he has giv5 special att5tion to ! physics ( ! "q1 is j z apt to come to a wrong conclusion z any "o else4 ,! "q involves c]ta9 a/ronomical elem5ts2 b :5 ^! are det]m9$ ev]y?+ !n connect$ ) ! matt] is purely physical4 ,ne>ly all ! a/ronomical elem5ts ( ! "q are compreh5d$ 9 ! accompany+ ,tables4 ,,table ,i4 ,,! ,,ecc5tricity ,,& ,,longitude ,,( ,,! ,,p]ihelion ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,orbit ,,= #c1jjj1jjj ,,ye>s ,,9 ,,! ,,pa/ ,,& #a1jjj1jjj ,,ye>s ,,9 ,,! ,,future1 ,,comput$ ,,= ,,int]vals ,,( #ej1jjj ,,ye>s4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,pa/ ,,"t4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,numb] ( ye>s ,ecc5tricity4,longitude ( be=e epo* #ahjj4 p]ihelion4 ---------------------------------------- --- #c1jjj1jjj #jjcfe #ci #cj #b1iej1jjj #jjagj #baj #ci #b1ijj1jjj #jjddb #bjj #eb #b1hej1jjj #jjdaf #j #ah #b1hjj1jjj #jjceb #cci #ad #b1gej1jjj #jjcbf #afa #bb #b1gjj1jjj #jjccj #fe #cg #b1fej1jjj #jjjec #cah #dj #b1fjj1jjj #jjffj #aij #d #b1eej1jjj #jjafg #bih #cd #b1ejj1jjj #jjgba #cch #cf #b1dej1jjj #jjbeb #aji #cc #b1djj1jjj #jjdae #aaf #dj #b1cej1jjj #jjbha #cjh #bc #b1cjj1jjj #jjbch #aie #be #b1bej1jjj #jjcbh #ada #ah #b1bjj1jjj #jjceb #cjg #f #b1aej1jjj #jjahc #cjg #e #b1ajj1jjj #jjcjd #ih #dj #b1jej1jjj #jjagj #ccd #df #b1jjj1jjj #jjach #cbd #d #a1iej1jjj #jjdbg #abj #cb #a1ijj1jjj #jjccf #ahh #ca #a1hej1jjj #jjejc #bgb #ad #a1hjj1jjj #jjccd #ced #eb #a1gej1jjj #jjcej #fe #be #a1gjj1jjj #jjjhe #ie #ac #a1fej1jjj #jjjce #afh #bc #a1fjj1jjj #jjcje #aeh #db #a1eej1jjj #jjbci #bbe #eg #a1ejj1jjj #jjdcj #cjc #bi #a1dej1jjj #jjaie #eg #aa #a1djj1jjj #jjcae #ig #ce #a1cej1jjj #jjcbb #bic #ch #a1cjj1jjj #jjjbb #j #dh #a1bej1jjj #jjdge #aje #ej #a1bjj1jjj #jjbhi #bci #cd #a1aej1jjj #jjdgc #bej #bg #a1ajj1jjj #jjcaa #ee #bd #a1jej1jjj #jjcbf #d #h #a1jjj1jjj #jjaea #bdh #bb #iej1jjj #jjeag #ig #ea #ijj1jjj #jjajb #ace #b #hej1jjj #jjgdg #bci #bh #hjj1jjj #jjacb #cdc #di #gej1jjj #jjege #bg #ah #gjj1jjj #jjbbj #bjh #ac #fej1jjj #jjbbf #ada #bi #fjj1jjj #jjdag #cb #cd #eej1jjj #jjaff #bea #ej #ejj1jjj #jjchh #aic #ef #dej1jjj #jjcjh #cef #eb #djj1jjj #jjagj #bij #g #cej1jjj #jjaie #ahb #ej #cjj1jjj #jjdbd #bc #bi #bej1jjj #jjbeh #ei #ci #bjj1jjj #jjefi #afh #ah #aej1jjj #jjccb #bdb #ef #ajj1jjj #jjdgc #caf #ah #ej1jjj #jjaca #ej #ad ---------------------------------------- --- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,future ,,"t4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,numb] ( ye>s ,ecc5tricity4,longitude ( be=e epo* #ahjj4 p]ihelion4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,a4,d4 #ahjj #jjafh #ii #cj #ej1jjj #jjagc #ch #ab #ajj1jjj #jjaia #aad #ej #aej1jjj #jjcec #bja #eg #bjj1jjj #jjbdf #bgi #da #bej1jjj #jjbhf #cej #ed #cjj1jjj #jjaeh #agb #bi #cej1jjj #jjjih #bja #dj #djj1jjj #jjdbi #f #i #dej1jjj #jjbca #ih #cg #ejj1jjj #jjecd #aeg #bf #eej1jjj #jjbei #bhg #ca #fjj1jjj #jjcie #bhe #dc #fej1jjj #jjafi #add #c #gjj1jjj #jjceg #ag #ab #gej1jjj #jjaie #j #ec #hjj1jjj #jjfci #adj #ch #hej1jjj #jjadd #agf #da #ijj1jjj #jjfei #bia #af #iej1jjj #jjjhf #aae #ac #a1jjj1jjj #jjebh #eg #ca ---------------------------------------- --- ,,table ,,ii4 ,,ecc5tricity1 ,,longitude ,,( ,,! ,,p]ihelion1 ,c41 ,c41 ,,= ,,int]vals ,,( #aj1jjj ,,ye>s1 ,,f #b1fej1jjj ,,to #b1dej1jjj ,,ye>s ,,ago4 ,,! ,,glacial ,,epo* ,,( ,,! ,eoc5e p]iod ,,is ,,probably ,,compreh5d$ ,,)9 ,,?is ,,table4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,w9t] occurr+ 9 aphelion4 ---------------------------------------- ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,numb] (,ecc5tricity,longitude ,numb] ( ,excess (,midw9t],numb] ( ,midw9t] ye>s ( orbit4 ( degrees w9t] int5sitydegrees by temp]ature be=e p]ihelion4 pass$ ov] ( ! :i* ! ( ,great ,a4,d4 ov] by ! summ]1 sun's midw9t] ,brita94 #ahjj4 p]ihelion49 days4 heat4 temp]ature ,motion ,pres5t is l[]$ retrograde int5sity at p]iods #ajjj4 m>k$ ,r4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- #b1fej1jjj #jjjec #cah #dj ,f4 ,f4 #b1fdj1jjj #jjagc #ed #be #ie #de #b1fcj1jjj #jjcca #ic #cg #ci #ab #aed #ijf #bfb #abh #b1fbj1jjj #jjdgi #abg #ab #cc #ce #bbb #hhd #ccc #eg #b1faj1jjj #jjeia #aeh #cf #ca #bd #bgd #hfb #chc #jg #b1fjj1jjj #jjffj #aij #d #ca #bh #cjf #hea #dae #be #b1eij1jjj #jjfff #bbj #bh #cj #bd #cji #hej #dah #bh #b1ehj1jjj #jjfji #bdi #ef #bi #bh #bhc #hei #cib #jb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- #b1egj1jjj #jjdib #bgg #bd #bg #bh #bbi #hgh #cci #ea #b1efj1jjj #jjcej #cje #b #bg #ch #afb #ijb #bga #aai #b1eej1jjj #jjafg #bih #cd ,r #f #bh #b1edj1jjj #jjaib #bec #eh ,r #dd #cf #b1ecj1jjj #jjcfi #bei #ai #e #ba #aga #hii #bhj #aaj #b1ebj1jjj #jjecg #bhc #g #bc #dh #bej #hga #cei #ca #b1eaj1jjj #jjffj #caj #d #bf #eg #cjf #hea #dae #be #b1ejj1jjj #jjgba #cch #cf #bh #cb #cce #hda #ddb #eb #b1dij1jjj #jjgbb #g #cf #bi #j #ccf #hda #ddc #ec #b1dhj1jjj #jjffb #ce #df #bh #aj #cjh #hej #dag #bg #b1dgj1jjj #jjeec #fc #bf #bg #dj #beg #hfh #cff #bd #b1dfj1jjj #jjdaj #hi #ac #be #dg #aia #hib #cjj #ij #b1dej1jjj #jjbeb #aji #cc #bj #bj #aag ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,table ,,iii4 ,,ecc5tricity1 ,,longitude ,,( ,,! ,,p]ihelion1 ,c41 ,c41 ,,= ,,int]vals ,,( #aj1jjj ,,ye>s1 ,,f #a1jjj1jjj ,,to #gej1jjj ,,ye>s ,,ago4 ,,! ,,glacial ,,epo* ,,( ,,! ,mioc5e p]iod ,,is ,,probably ,,compreh5d$ ,,)9 ,,?is ,,table4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,w9t] occurr+ 9 aphelion4 ---------------------------------------- ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,numb] (,ecc5tricity,longitude ,numb] ( ,excess (,midw9t],numb] ( ,midw9t] ye>s ( orbit4 ( degrees w9t] int5sitydegrees by temp]ature be=e p]ihelion4 pass$ ov] ( ! :i* ! ( ,great ,a4,d4 ov] by ! summ]1 sun's midw9t] ,brita94 #ahjj4 p]ihelion49 days4 heat4 temp]ature ,motion ,pres5t is l[]$ retrograde int5sity at p]iods #ajjj4 m>k$ ,r4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- #a1jjj1jjj #jjaea #bdh #bb ,f4 ,f4 #iij1jjj #jjbbd #cac #ej #fe #bh #ihj1jjj #jjcbi #ceh #b #dd #ab #aec #ijf #bfa #abi #igj1jjj #jjdda #cb #dj #cd #ch #bje #hhg #cae #ge #ifj1jjj #jjdia #ff #di #cd #i #bbh #hgh #cch #eb #iej1jjj #jjeag #ig #ea #ca #b #bdj #hgd #cej #dj #idj1jjj #jjdie #abg #db #bi #ea #bcj #hgh #cdj #ej #icj1jjj #jjdbc #aef #aa #bh #bi #aig #hij #cjf #hd #ibj1jjj #jjcje #aha #dj #be #bi #adb #iaj #bej #adj #iaj1jjj #jjaef #aid #ae #ab #ce #ijj1jjj #jjajb #ace #b ,r #ei #ac #hij1jjj #jjbhe #abg #a ,r #h #a #hhj1jjj #jjdef #aeb #cc #be #cb #bab #hhd #cbb #fh #hgj1jjj #jjfjg #ahj #bc #bg #ej #bhb #hei #cij #jj #hfj1jjj #jjgjh #bji #da #bi #ah #cbi #hdc #dcf #df #hej1jjj #jjgdg #bci #bh #bi #dg #cdg #hcg #dec #fc #hdj1jjj #jjfih #bfi #ad #bi #df #cbd #hde #dcb #db #hcj1jjj #jjfbc #bih #bh #bi #ad #bij #heg #djj #aj #hbj1jjj #jjdgf #cbf #d #bg #cf #bba #hha #cca #ei #haj1jjj #jjbif #cdh #cj #bb #bf #hjj1jjj #jjacb #cdc #di ,r #d #da #gij1jjj #jjaga #bic #ai ,r #ej #cj #ghj1jjj #jjcbe #cjc #cg #aj #ah #aeb #ijg #bfj #acj #ggj1jjj #jjdee #cbh #ch #be #a #bab #hhd #cbb #fh #gfj1jjj #jjedj #ceg #ab #bh #cd #bea #hgj #cfj #cj #gej1jjj #jjege #bg #ah #cj #f #bfg #hfd #cgg #ac #gdj1jjj #jjefa #eh #cj #ca #ab #bfa #hfg #cgj #bj #gcj1jjj #jjejg #ij #ee #cb #be #bcf #hgf #cdf #dd #gbj1jjj #jjdbb #abe #ad #cd #ai #aif #hij #cjf #hd #gaj1jjj #jjcjg #agg #bf #eb #ab #adc #iaj #bej #adj #gjj1jjj #jjbbj #bjh #ac #cj #dg ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,,table ,,iv4 ,,ecc5tricity1 ,,longitude ,,( ,,! ,,p]ihelion1 ,c41 ,c41 ,,= ,,int]vals ,,( #aj1jjj ,,ye>s1 ,,f #bej1jjj ,,ye>s ,,ago ,,to ,,! ,,pres5t ,,date4 ,,! ,glacial epo* ,,is ,,probably ,,compreh5d$ ,,)9 ,,?is ,,table4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------ ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,w9t] occurr+ 9 aphelion4 ---------------------------------------- ,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii4 ,,viii4 ,numb] (,ecc5tricity,longitude ,numb] ( ,excess (,midw9t],numb] ( ,midw9t] ye>s ( orbit4 ( degrees w9t] int5sitydegrees by temp]ature be=e p]ihelion4 pass$ ov] ( ! :i* ! ( ,great ,a4,d4 ov] by ! summ]1 sun's midw9t] ,brita94 #ahjj4 p]ihelion49 days4 heat4 temp]ature ,motion ,pres5t is l[]$ retrograde int5sity at p]iods #ajjj4 m>k$ ,r4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,f4 ,f4 #bej1jjj #jjbeh #ei #ci #bdj1jjj #jjcgd #gd #eh #ae #ai #agd #hih #bhc #ajg ,s #bcj1jjj #jjdgg #ajb #di #bg #ea #bbb #hhe #ccb #eh ,s #bbj1jjj #jjdig #abd #cc #ba #dd #bcb #hgg #cda #di ,s #baj1jjj #jjege #add #ee #bj #bb #bfg #hfd #cgg #ac #bjj1jjj #jjefi #afh #ah #bc #bc #bfe #hfe #cgd #af ,s #aij1jjj #jjecb #aij #d #ba #df #bdg #hga #ceg #cc ,s #ahj1jjj #jjdgf #bji #bb #ai #ah #bba #hha #cca #ei ,s #agj1jjj #jjdcg #bbh #g #ah #de #bjc #hhg #cac #gg #afj1jjj #jjcfd #bcf #ch #h #ca #afi #ijj #bgh #aab #aej1jjj #jjccb #bdb #ef #f #ah #aed #ije #bfb #abh #adj1jjj #jjcdf #bdf #bi #c #cc #afa #ijc #bfi #aba #acj1jjj #jjchd #bei #cd #ac #e #agh #hif #bhh #ajb #abj1jjj #jjdca #bgd #dg #ae #ac #bja #hhh #caj #hj #aaj1jjj #jjdfj #bic #dh #ai #a #bad #hhc #cbd #ff #ajj1jjj #jjdgc #caf #ah #bb #cj #bbj #hha #ccj #fj ,l #ij1jjj #jjdeb #cdj #b #bc #dd #baj #hhe #cbj #gj ,l #hj1jjj #jjcih #d #ac #bd #aa #ahe #hid #bid #if ,l #gj1jjj #jjcaf #bg #bb #bc #i #adg #ijh #bee #ace ,l #fj1jjj #jjbah #df #h #ah #df #ej1jjj #jjaca #ej #ad #d #f ,l #dj1jjj #jjaji #bh #cf ,r #ba #ch ,l #cj1jjj #jjaea #e #ej ,r #bb #df ,l #bj1jjj #jjahh #dd #j #ch #aj ,l #aj1jjj #jjahg #gh #bh #cd #bh ,a4,d4 #ahjj #jjafh #ii #cj #ba #b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- --- ,9 ,tables ,,ii41 ,,iii41 & ,,iv41 column ,i4 repres5ts ! dates ( ! p]iods1 column ,,ii4 ! ecc5tricity1 column ,,iii4 ! longitude ( ! p]ihelion4 ,9 ,table ,,iv4 ! ecc5tricity & ! longitude ( ! p]ihelion ( ! six p]iods m>k$ ) an ,s are copi$ f a lett] ( ,mr4 ,/one to ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 publi%$ 9 ! ,supplem5t ( ! ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,june1 #ahfe2 ! eight p]iods m>k$ ,l are copi$ f ,m4 ,lev]ri]'s ,table1 to :i* ref]5ce has be5 made4 ,= ! correctness ( ev]y?+ else1 bo? 9 ?is ,table & 9 ! o!r ?ree1 ,i alone am responsible4 ,column ,,iv4 gives ! numb] ( degrees pass$ ov] by ! p]ihelion dur+ ea* #aj1jjj ye>s4 ,f ?is column x w be se5 h[ irregul> is ! motion ( ! p]ihelion4 ,at f\r diff]5t p]iods x _h a retrograde motion = #bj1jjj ye>s4 ,column ,v4 %[s ! numb] ( days by :i* ! w9t] exce$s ! summ] :5 ! w9t] occurs 9 aphelion4 ,column ,,vi4 %[s ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat dur+ midw9t]1 :5 ! w9t] occurs 9 aphelion1 ! pres5t midw9t] int5sity be+ tak5 at #a1jjj4 ,^! six columns compreh5d all ! a/ronomical "p ( ! ,tables4 ,reg>d+ ! correctness ( ! pr9ciples ^u :i* ^! columns are con/ruct$1 !re is no div]sity ( op9ion4 ,b ^! columns af=d no direct in=mation z to ! "* ( ! climate1 or h[ mu* ! temp]ature is increas$ or dim9i%$4 ,to f9d ?is we pass on to columns ,,vii4 & ,,viii41 calculat$ on physical pr9ciples4 ,n[1 unless ! physical pr9ciples ^u :i* ^! ?ree columns are calculat$ be :olly errone\s1 *ange ( ecc5tricity mu/ und\bt$ly v s]i\sly affect climate4 ,column ,,vii4 %[s h[ _m degrees ,fahr5heit ! temp]ature is l[]$ by a decrease 9 ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat correspond+ to column ,,vi4 ,= example1 #hej1jjj ye>s ago1 if ! w9t]s occurr$ !n 9 aphelion1 ! direct heat ( ! sun dur+ midw9t] w\ld be only #hcg_/ajjj ( :at x is at pres5t at ! same season ( ! ye>1 & column ,,vii4 %[s t ?is decrease 9 ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat w\ld l[] ! temp]ature #dec ,f4 ,! pr9ciple ^u :i* ?is result is arriv$ at is ?is3--,! temp]ature ( space1 z det]m9$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 is #bci ,f4 ,m4 ,p\illet1 by a diff]5t me?od1 arriv$ at almo/ ! same result4 ,if we take ! midw9t] temp]ature ( ,great ,brita9 at #ci1 !n #bci #ci #bgh w repres5t ! numb] ( degrees ( rise due to ! sun's heat at midw9t]2 9 o!r words1 x takes a quantity ( sun-heat :i* we h repres5t$ by #ajjj to ma9ta9 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface 9 ,great ,brita9 #bgh above ! temp]ature ( space4 ,7 ! sun ext+ui%$1 ! temp]ature ( our isl& w\ld s9k #bgh bel[ its pres5t midw9t] temp]ature1 or to ! temp]ature ( space4 ,b #hej1jjj ye>s ago1 z w be se5 f ,table ,,iii41 if ! w9t]s occurr$ 9 aphelion1 ! heat ( ! sun at midw9t] w\ld only equal #hcg in/ead ( #ajjj z at pres5t4 ,consequ5tly1 if x takes #a1jjj p>ts ( heat to ma9ta9 ! temp]ature #bgh above ! temp]ature ( space1 #hcg p>ts ( heat w only be able to ma9ta9 ! temp]ature #bcbg above ! temp]ature ( space2 = #bcbg is to #bgh z #hcg is to #a1jjj4 ,!re=e1 if ! temp]ature 0 !n only #bcbg above t ( space1 x w\ld be #dec bel[ :at x is at pres5t4 ,?is is :at ! temp]ature w\ld be on ! supposition1 ( c\rse1 t x dep5d$ :olly on ! sun's int5sity & 0 n modifi$ by o!r causes4 ,?is me?od has already be5 discuss$ at "s l5g? 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,b :e!r ^! values be too high or too l[1 "o ?+ is c]ta91 t a v slight increase or a v slight decrease 9 ! quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun mu/ affect temp]ature to a consid]able ext5t4 ,! direct heat ( ! moon1 = example1 _c be detect$ by ! f9e/ in/rum5ts :i* we possess2 yet f #bch1jjj obs]vations made at ,prague dur+ #ahdjff1 x w\ld seem t ! temp]ature is s5sibly affect$ by ! m]e *ange 9 ! lun> p]igee & incl9ation ( ! moon's orbit4#aie ,column ,,viii4 gives ! midw9t] temp]ature4 ,x is f\nd by subtract+ ! numb]s 9 column ,,vii4 f #ci1 ! pres5t midw9t] temp]ature4 ,i h n giv5 a ,table %[+ ! temp]ature ( ! summ]s at ! correspond+ p]iods4 ,?is c\ld n well be done2 = !re is no relation at ! p]iods 9 "q betwe5 ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat & ! temp]ature ( ! summ]s4 ,"o is apt to suppose1 )\t due consid]ation1 t ! summ]s ought to be !n z mu* w>m] ?an !y are at pres5t1 z ! w9t]s 7 !n cold] ?an n[4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 9 8 8,pr9ciples10 has giv5 a column ( summ] temp]atures calculat$ f my table ^u ?is pr9ciple4 ,a/ronomically ! pr9ciple is correct1 b physically1 z 0 %[n 9 ,*apt] ,,iv41 x is totally errone\s1 & calculat$ to convey a wrong impression reg>d+ ! :ole subject ( geological climate4 ,! summ]s at ^? p]iods1 in/ead ( be+ mu* w>m] ?an !y are at pres5t1 w\ld 9 reality be mu* cold]1 not)/&+ ! great increase 9 ! int5sity ( ! sun's heat result+ f ! dim9i%$ di/ance ( ! sun4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! date ( ! glacial epo*8 ,x is p]fectly obvi\s t if ! glacial epo* result$ f a high /ate ( ecc5tricity1 x mu/ be ref]r$ ei!r to ! p]iod includ$ 9 ,table ,,iii4 or to ! "o 9 ,table ,,iv4 ,9 ,table ,,iii4 we h a p]iod ext5d+ f ab\t #ihj1jjj to ab\t #gbj1jjj ye>s ago1 & 9 ,table ,,iv4 we h a p]iod beg9n+ ab\t #bdj1jjj ye>s ago1 & ext5d+ d[n to ab\t #hj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,z ! =m] p]iod 0 ( great] duration ?an ! latt]1 & ! ecc5tricity also atta9$ to a high] value1 ,i at fir/ felt dispos$ to ref] ! glacial epo* prop] 7! "t ( ! till & b\ld] clay7 to ! =m] p]iod2 & ! latt] p]iod1 ,i 0 incl9$ to believe1 mu/ h correspond$ to ! "t ( local glaci]s t[>ds ! close ( ! glacial epo*1 ! evid5ce = :i* 7mora9es7 is to be f\nd 9 almo/ e "o ( our ,highl& gl5s4 ,on ?is po9t ,i consult$ sev]al em95t geologi/s1 & !y all agre$ 9 ref]r+ ! glacial epo* to ! =m] p]iod2 ! reason assign$ be+ t !y consid]$ ! latt] p]iod to be mu* too rec5t & ( too %ort duration to repres5t t epo*4 ,pond]+ ov] ! subject dur+ ! e>ly "p ( #ahff1 reasons soon sugge/$ !mselves :i* conv9c$ me t ! glacial epo* mu/ be ref]r$ to ! latt] & n to ! =m] p]iod4 ,^? reasons ,i %all n[ proce$ to /ate at "s l5g?1 s9ce !y h a direct be>+1 z w be se51 on ! :ole "q ( geological "t4 ,x is ! mod]n & philosophic doctr9e ( uni=mity t has *iefly l$ geologi/s to ov]-e/imate ! l5g? ( geological p]iods4 ,?is philosophic s*ool tea*es1 & t truly1 t ! great *anges und]gone by ! e>?'s cru/ mu/ h be5 produc$1 n by convulsions & cataclysms ( nature1 b by ^? ord9>y ag5cies t we see at "w e day ar\nd u1 su* z ra91 sn[1 fro/1 ice1 & *emical action1 c4 ,x tea*es t ! valleys 7 n produc$ by viol5t dislocations1 nor ! hills by sudd5 upheavals1 b t !y 7 actually c>v$ out ( ! solid rock by ! sil5t & g5tle ag5cy ( *emical action1 fro/1 ra91 ice1 & runn+ wat]4 ,x tea*es1 9 %ort1 t ! rocky face ( our globe has be5 c>v$ into hill & dale1 & ultimately worn d[n to ! sea-level1 by means ( ^! app>5tly trifl+ ag5ts1 n only once or twice1 b probably doz5s ( times ov] dur+ pa/ ages4 ,n[1 :5 we reflect t ) su* extreme sl[ness d ^! ag5ts p]=m _! "w1 t we might wat* _! op]ations f ye> to ye>1 & f c5tury to c5tury1 if we c\ld1 )\t be+ able to p]ceive t !y make any v s5sible advance1 we are necessitat$ to conclude t geological p]iods mu/ be enorm\s4 ,& ! conclusion at :i* we ?us arrive is und\bt$ly correct4 ,x is1 9 fact1 impossible to =m an adequate conception ( ! l5g? ( geological "t4 ,x is some?+ too va/ to be fully grasp$ by our m9ds4 ,b "h we come to ! po9t :]e ! fundam5tal mi/ake arises2 ,geologi/s d n err 9 =m+ too great a conception ( ! ext5t ( geological p]iods1 b 9 ! mode 9 :i* !y repres5t ! l5g? ( ^! p]iods 9 numb]s4 ,:5 we speak ( units1 t5s1 hundr$s1 ?\s&s1 we c =m "s notion ( :at ^! quantities repres5t2 b :5 we come to millions1 t5s ( millions1 hundr$s ( millions1 ?\s&s ( millions1 ! m9d is !n totally unable to foll[1 & we c only use ^! numb]s z repres5tations ( quantities t turn up 9 calculation4 ,we "k1 f ! way 9 :i* !y d turn up 9 our process ( calculation1 :e!r !y are correct repres5tations ( ?+s 9 actual nature or n2 b we c\ld n1 f a m]e comp>ison ( ^! quantities ) ! ?+ repres5t$ by !m1 say :e!r !y 7 actually too small or too great4 ,at pres5t1 geological e/imates ( "t are little else ?an m]e conjectures4 ,geological sci5ce has hi!rto af=d$ no tru/wor?y means ( e/imat+ ! positive l5g? ( geological epo*s4 ,geological ph5om5a tell u mo/ emphatically t ^! p]iods mu/ be long2 b h[ long !y h hi!rto fail$ to in=m u4 ,geological ph5om5a repres5t "t to ! m9d "u a mo/ /rik+ & impos+ =m4 ,!y pres5t to ! eye1 z x 71 a s5su\s repres5tation ( "t2 ! m9d ?us becomes deeply impress$ ) a s5se ( imm5se duration2 & :5 "o "u ^! feel+s is call$ ^u to put d[n 9 figures :at he believes w repres5t t duration1 he is v apt to be deceiv$4 ,if1 = example1 a million ( ye>s z repres5t$ by geological ph5om5a & a million ( ye>s z repres5t$ by figures 7 plac$ be=e our eyes1 we %\ld c]ta9ly feel />tl$4 ,we %\ld probably feel t a unit ) six ciph]s aft] x 0 really some?+ f> m =midable ?an we _h hi!rto suppos$ x to be4 ,c\ld we /& ^u ! edge ( a gorge a mile & a half 9 dep? t _h be5 cut out ( ! solid rock by a t9y /ream1 sc>cely visible at ! bottom ( ?is fe>ful abyss1 & 7 we in=m$ t ?is little /reamlet 0 able to we> (f annually only #a_/aj ( an in* f its rocky b$1 :at w\ld our conceptions be ( ! prodigi\s l5g? ( "t t ?is /ream mu/ h tak5 to excavate ! gorge8 ,we %\ld c]ta9ly feel />tl$ :51 on mak+ ! necess>y calculations1 we f\nd t ! /ream _h p]=m$ ?is enorm\s am\nt ( "w 9 some?+ less ?an a million ( ye>s4 ,if1 = example1 we c\ld possibly =m "s adequate conception ( a p]iod s prodigi\s z "o hundr$ millions ( ye>s1 we %\ld n !n feel s dissatisfi$ ) ,sir ,w4 ,?omson's e/imate t ! age ( ! e>?'s cru/ is n great] ?an t4 ,"h is "o way ( convey+ to ! m9d "s idea ( :at a million ( ye>s really is4 ,take a n>r[ /rip ( pap] an in* broad1 or m1 & #hc feet #d in*es 9 l5g?1 & /ret* x along ! wall ( a l>ge hall1 or r\nd ! walls ( an ap>tm5t some:at ov] #bj feet squ>e4 ,recall to memory ! days ( y\r boyhood1 s z to get "s adequate conception ( :at a p]iod ( a hundr$ ye>s is4 ,!n m>k (f f "o ( ! ends ( ! /rip #a_/aj ( an in*4 ,! #a_/aj ( ! in* w !n repres5t "o hundr$ ye>s1 & ! entire l5g? ( ! /rip a million ( ye>s4 ,x is well wor? mak+ ! exp]im5t1 j 9 ord] to feel ! /rik+ impression t x produces on ! m9d4 ,! latt] p]iod1 :i* we h conclud$ to be t ( ! glacial epo*1 ext5d$1 z we h se51 ov] a p]iod ( #afj1jjj ye>s4 ,b z ! glaciation 0 only on "o hemisph]e at a "t1 #hj1jjj ye>s or s w\ld repres5t ! unit$ l5g? ( ! cold p]iods4 ,9 ord] to satisfy ourselves t ?is p]iod is suffici5tly long to acc\nt = all ! am\nt ( d5udation effect$ dur+ ! glacial epo*1 let u make "s r\gh e/imate ( ! probable rate at :i* ! surface ( ! c\ntry w\ld be gr\nd d[n by ! ice4 ,suppose ! ice to gr9d (f only "o-t5? ( an in* annually ?is w\ld give upw>ds ( #fej feet z ! quantity ( rock remov$ dur+ ! "t4 ,b x is probable t x did n am\nt to "o-f\r? "p ( t quantity4 ,:e!r "o-t5? ( an in* p] annum be an ov]-e/imate or an "u-e/imate ( ! rate ( d5udation by ! ice1 x is p]fectly evid5t t ! p]iod 9 "q is suffici5tly long1 s f> z d5udation is conc]n$1 to acc\nt = ! ph5om5a ( ! glacial epo*4 ,b admitt+ t ! p]iod "u consid]ation is suffici5tly long to acc\nt = all ! d5udation :i* took place dur+ ! glacial epo*1 we h yet to satisfy ourselves t x is also suffici5tly remote to acc\nt = all ! d5udation :i* has tak5 place s9ce ! glacial epo*4 ,are ! facts ( geology consi/5t ) ! idea t ! close ( ! glacial epo* does n date back beyond #hj1jjj ye>s8 ,?is "q c\ld be answ]$ if we knew ! pres5t rate ( subarial d5udation1 = ! pres5t rate evid5tly does n diff] greatly f t :i* has obta9$ s9ce ! close ( ! glacial epo*4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,geological ,,"t4--,,me?od ,,( ,,measur+ ,,! ,,rate ,,( ,,suba,,rial ,,d5udation4 ,rate ( ,subarial ,d5udation a ,measure ( ,"t4--,rate det]m9$ f ,s$im5t ( ! ,mississippi4--,am\nt ( ,s$im5t c>ri$ d[n by ! ,mississippi2 by ! ,ganges4--,pr(essor ,geikie on ,mod]n ,d5udation4--,pr(essor ,geikie on ! ,am\nt ( ,s$im5t convey$ by ,european ,riv]s4--,rate at :i* ! ,surface ( ! ,globe is be+ d5ud$4--,alfr$ ,tylor on ! ,s$im5t ( ! ,mississippi4--,! ,law :i* det]m9es ! ,rate ( ,d5udation4--,! ,globe becom+ less oblate4--,c>ry+ ,p[] ( our ,riv] ,sy/ems ! true ,measure ( ,d5udation4--,m>9e ,d5udation trifl+ 9 comp>ison to ,subarial4--,previ\s ,me?ods ( measur+ ,geological ,"t4--,circum/ances :i* %[ ! rec5t ,date ( ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,pr(essor ,ramsay on ,geological ,"t4 ,x is almo/ self-evid5t t ! rate ( subarial d5udation mu/ be equal to ! rate at :i* ! mat]ials are c>ri$ (f ! l& into ! sea1 b ! rate at :i* ! mat]ials are c>ri$ (f ! l& is measur$ by ! rate at :i* s$im5t is c>ri$ d[n by our riv] sy/ems4 ,consequ5tly1 9 ord] to det]m9e ! pres5t rate ( subarial d5udation1 we h only to asc]ta9 ! quantity ( s$im5t annually c>ri$ d[n by ! riv] sy/ems4 ,kn[+ ! quantity ( s$im5t transport$ by a riv]1 say annually1 & ! area ( its dra9age1 we h ! means ( det]m9+ ! rate at :i* ! surface ( ?is area is be+ l[]$ by subarial d5udation4 ,& if we "k ?is 9 ref]5ce to a few ( ! great cont95tal riv]s dra9+ imm5se areas 9 v>i\s latitudes1 we c\ld !n asc]ta9 ) tol]able correctness ! rate at :i* ! surface ( ! globe is be+ l[]$ by subarial d5udation1 & also ! l5g? ( "t :i* our pres5t cont95ts c rema9 above ! sea-level4 ,expla9+ ?is to ,pr(essor ,ramsay dur+ ! w9t] ( #ahfe1 ,i le>n$ f him t accurate measurem5ts _h be5 made ( ! am\nt ( s$im5t annually c>ri$ d[n by ! ,mississippi ,riv]1 full p>ticul>s ( :i* inve/igations 7 to be f\nd 9 ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,am]ican ,association = ! ,advancem5t ( ,sci5ce = #ahdh4 ,^! proce$+s conta9 a report by ,messrs4 ,br[n & ,dickeson1 :i* un=tunately ov]-e/imat$ ! am\nt ( s$im5t transport$ by ! ,mississippi by ne>ly f\r times :at 0 aft]w>ds f\nd by ,messrs4 ,humphreys & ,abbot to be ! actual am\nt4 ,f ?is e/imate1 ,i 0 l$ to ! conclusion t if ! ,mississippi is a fair repres5tative ( riv]s 9 g5]al1 our exi/+ cont95ts w\ld n rema9 long] ?an "o million & a half ye>s above ! sea-level4#aif ,?is 0 a conclusion s />tl+ z to excite suspicion t !re mu/ h be5 "s mi/ake 9 ref]5ce to ,messrs4 ,br[n & ,dickeson's data4 ,x %[$ beyond d\bt1 h[ev]1 t ! rate ( subarial d5udation1 :5 accurately det]m9$ by ?is me?od1 w\ld be f\nd to be enorm\sly great] ?an _h be5 suppos$4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds1 on e/imat+ ! rate f ! data furni%$ by ,humphreys & ,abbot1 ,i f\nd ! rate ( d5udation to be ab\t "o foot 9 #f1jjj ye>s4 ,tak+ ! mean elevation ( all ! l& z asc]ta9$ by ,humboldt to be #a1jjj feet1 ! :ole w\ld !re=e be c>ri$ d[n into ! ocean by our riv] sy/ems 9 ab\t #f1jjj1jjj ( ye>s if no elevation ( ! l& took place4#aig ,! foll[+ are ! data & mode ( computation by :i* ?is conclusion 0 arriv$ at4 ,x 0 f\nd by ,messrs4 ,humphreys & ,abbot t ! av]age am\nt ( s$im5t held 9 susp5sion 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,mississippi is ab\t #a_/aejj ( ! weight ( ! wat]1 or #a_/bijj by bulk4 ,! annual dis*>ge ( ! riv] is #ai1ejj1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet ( wat]4 ,! quantity ( s$im5t c>ri$ d[n into ! ,gulf ( ,mexico am\nts to #f1gbd1jjj1jjj cubic feet4 ,b besides t :i* is held 9 susp5sion1 ! riv] pu%es d[n into ! sea ab\t #gej1jjj1jjj cubic feet ( e>?y matt]1 mak+ 9 all a total ( #g1dgd1jjj1jjj cubic feet transf]r$ f ! l& to ! sea annually4 ,:]e does ?is enorm\s mass ( mat]ial come f8 ,unque/ionably x comes f ! gr\nd dra9$ by ! ,mississippi4 ,! area dra9$ by ! riv] is #a1bdd1jjj squ>e miles4 ,n[ #g1dgd1jjj1jjj cubic feet remov$ (f #a1bbd1jjj squ>e miles ( surface is equal to #a_/deff ( a foot (f t surface p] annum1 or "o foot 9 #d1eff ye>s4 ,! specific gravity ( ! s$im5t is tak5 at #ai1 t ( rock is ab\t #be2 consequ5tly ! am\nt remov$ is equal to "o foot ( rock 9 ab\t #f1jjj ye>s4 ,! av]age height ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t above ! sea-level1 accord+ to ,humboldt1 is #gdh feet2 consequ5tly1 at ! pres5t rate ( d5udation1 ! :ole area ( dra9age w be br\ght d[n to ! sea-level 9 less ?an #d1ejj1jjj ye>s1 if no elevation ( ! l& takes place4 ,ref]r+ to ! above1 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell makes ! foll[+ appropriate rem>ks3--8,!re seems no dang] ( our ov]rat+ ! mean rate ( wa/e by select+ ! ,mississippi z our example1 = t riv] dra9s a c\ntry equal to m ?an half ! cont95t ( ,europe1 ext5ds ?r\gh tw5ty degrees ( latitude1 & !re=e ?r\gh regions enjoy+ a great v>iety ( climate1 & "s ( its tribut>ies desc5d f m\nta9s ( great height4 ,! ,mississippi is also m likely to af=d u a fair te/ ( ord9>y d5udation1 because1 unlike ! ,/4 ,lawr5ce & its tribut>ies1 !re are no great lakes 9 :i* ! fluviatile s$im5t is ?r[n d[n & arre/$ on its way to ! sea40#aih ,! rate ( d5udation ( ! area dra9$ by ! riv] ,ganges is mu* great] ?an t ( ! ,mississippi4 ,! annual dis*>ge ( t riv] is #f1ebc1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet ( wat]4 ,! s$im5t held 9 susp5sion is equal to #a_/eaj by weight2 area ( dra9age #dcb1dhj squ>e miles4 ,?is gives "o foot ( rock 9 #b1ceh ye>s z ! am\nt remov$4 ,r\gh e/imates h be5 made ( ! am\nt ( s$im5t c>ri$ d[n by "s eight or t5 ,european riv]s2 & al?\gh ^? e/imates _c be dep5d$ ^u z be+ any?+ l p]fectly accurate1 /ill !y %[ 7:at !re is v little reason to d\bt7 t x is extremely probable t ! ,european cont95t is be+ d5ud$ ab\t z rapidly z ! ,am]ican4 ,= a full acc\nt ( all t is kn[n on ?is subject ,i mu/ ref] to ,pr(essor ,geikie's valuable memoir on ,mod]n ,d5udation 7,transactions ( ,geological ,society ( ,glasg[1 vol4 iii42 also ,jukes & ,geikie's 8,manual ( ,geology10 *ap4 xxv47 ,x is ma9ly ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ?is lum9\s & exhau/ive memoir t ! me?od "u consid]ation has ga9$ su* wide acceptance among/ geologi/s4 ,pr(essor ,geikie f9ds t at ! pres5t rate ( erosion ! foll[+ is ! numb] ( ye>s requir$ by ! und]m5tion$ riv]s to remove "o foot ( rock f ! g5]al surface ( _! bas9s4 ,pr(essor ,geikie ?us %[s t ! rate ( d5udation1 z det]m9$ f ! am\nt ( s$im5t c>ri$ d[n ! ,mississippi1 is c]ta9ly n too high4 ,danube #f1hdf ye>s4 ,mississippi #f1jjj ,ni? #d1gbc ,ganges #b1ceh ,rhone #a1ebh ,hoang ,ho #a1dfd ,po #gbi ,by means ( subarial ag5cies cont95ts are be+ cut up into isl&s1 ! isl&s into small] isl&s1 & s on till ! :ole ultimately disappe>s4 ,no prop] e/imate has be5 made ( ! quantity ( s$im5t c>ri$ d[n into ! sea by our ,briti% riv]s4 ,b1 f ! pr9ciples j /at$1 we may inf] t x mu/ be z great 9 proportion to ! area ( dra9age z t c>ri$ d[n by ! ,mississippi4 ,= example1 ! riv] ,tay1 :i* dra9s a great portion ( ! c5tral ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 c>ries to ! sea ?ree times z mu* wat] 9 proportion to its area ( dra9age z is c>ri$ by ! ,mississippi4 ,& any "o :o has se5 ?is rapidly runn+ riv] dur+ a flood1 r$ & turbid ) s$im5t1 w easily be conv9c$ t ! quantity ( solid mat]ial c>ri$ d[n by x into ! ,g]man ,ocean mu/ be v great4 ,mr4 ,john ,d\gall has f\nd t ! wat]s ( ! ,clyde dur+ a flood hold 9 susp5sion #a_/hjj by bulk ( s$im5t4 ,! obs]vations 7 made ab\t a mile above ! city ( ,glasg[4 ,b ev5 suppos+ ! am\nt ( s$im5t held 9 susp5sion by ! wat]s ( ! ,tay to be only "o-?ird 7:i* is c]ta9ly an "u-e/imate7 ( t ( ! ,mississippi1 viz4 #a_/dejj by weight1 /ill ?is w\ld give ! rate ( d5udation ( ! c5tral ,highl&s at "o foot 9 #f1jjj ye>s1 or #a1jjj feet 9 #f millions ( ye>s4 ,x is rem>kable t al?\gh s _m measurem5ts h be5 made ( ! am\nt ( fluviatile s$im5t be+ transport$ seaw>ds1 yet t ! be>+ :i* ?is has on ! broad que/ions ( geological "t & ! rate ( subarial d5udation %\ld h be5 ov]look$4 ,"o reason = ?is1 no d\bt1 is t ! measurem5ts 7 made1 n ) a view to det]m9e ! rate at :i* ! riv] bas9s are be+ l[]$1 b ma9ly to asc]ta9 ! age ( ! riv] deltas & ! rate at :i* ^! are be+ =m$4#aii ,! ,law :i* det]m9es ! ,rate at :i* any ,c\ntry is be+ d5ud$4--,by means ( subarial ag5cies cont95ts are be+ cut up into isl&s1 ! isl&s into small] isl&s1 & s on till ! :ole ultimately disappe>s4 ,s long z ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s rema9s1 ! rate ( d5udation w cont9ue :ile l& rema9s above ! sea-level2 & we h no w>rant = suppos+ t ! rate 0 dur+ pa/ ages less ?an x is at ! pres5t day4 ,x w n d to object t1 z a consid]able am\nt ( ! s$im5t c>ri$ d[n by riv]s is b\ld] clay & o!r mat]ials belong+ to ! ,ice age1 ! total am\nt remov$ by ! riv]s is on t acc\nt great] ?an x w\ld o!rwise be4 ,7 ?is objection true1 x w\ld foll[ t1 prior to ! glacial p]iod1 :5 x is assum$ t !re 0 no b\ld] clay1 ! face ( ! c\ntry mu/ h consi/$ ( b>e rock2 = 9 ?is case no soil c\ld h accumulat$ f ! dis9tegration & decomposition ( ! rocks1 s9ce1 unless ! rocks ( a c\ntry dis9tegrate m rapidly ?an ! riv] sy/ems are able to c>ry ! dis9tegrat$ mat]ials to ! sea1 no surface soil c =m on t c\ntry4 ,! rate at :i* riv]s c>ry d[n s$im5t is evid5tly n det]m9$ by ! rate at :i* ! rocks are dis9tegrat$ & decompos$1 b by ! quantity ( ra9 fall+1 & ! velocity ) :i* x moves (f ! face ( ! c\ntry4 ,e riv] sy/em possesses a def9ite am\nt ( c>ry+-p[]1 dep5d+ ^u ! slope ( ! gr\nd1 ! quantity ( ra9 fall+ p] annum1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! ra9 falls1 :e!r x falls gradually or 9 torr5ts1 & a few o!r circum/ances4 ,:5 x s happ5s1 z x g5]ally does1 t ! am\nt ( rock dis9tegrat$ on ! face ( ! c\ntry is great] ?an ! c>ry+-p[] ( ! riv] sy/ems c remove1 !n a soil necess>ily =ms4 ,b :5 ! rev]se is ! case no soil c =m on t c\ntry1 & x w pres5t no?+ b b>r5 rock4 ,?is is no d\bt ! reason :y 9 places l ! ,isl& ( ,skye1 = example1 :]e ! rocks are exce$+ly h>d & difficult to decompose & sep>ate1 ! gr\nd /eep1 & ! quantity ( ra9 fall+ v great1 !re is s mu* b>e rock to be se54 ,if1 prior to ! glacial epo*1 ! rocks ( ! area dra9$ by ! ,mississippi did n produce annually m mat]ial f _! de/ruction "u atmosph]ic ag5cy ?an 0 be+ c>ri$ d[n by t riv]1 !n x foll[s t ! c\ntry mu/ h pres5t$ no?+ b b>e rock1 if ! am\nt ( ra9 fall+ !n 0 z great z at pres5t4 ,b1 aft] all1 "o foot remov$ (f ! g5]al level ( ! c\ntry s9ce ! creation ( man1 accord+ to ,mosaic *ronology1 is c]ta9ly n a v great quantity4 ,no p]son b "o :o _h "s preconceiv$ op9ions to ma9ta91 w\ld ev] ?9k ( conclud+ t "o foot ( soil dur+ #f1jjj ye>s 0 an extravagant quantity to be wa%$ (f ! face ( ! c\ntry by ra9 & floods dur+ t long p]iod4 ,^? :o reside 9 ! c\ntry & are eye-witnesses ( ! actual effects ( heavy ra9s ^u ! soil1 our s(t c\ntry roads1 dit*es1 brooks1 & riv]s1 w h consid]able difficulty 9 actually believ+ t only "o foot has be5 wa%$ away dur+ ! pa/ #f1jjj ye>s4 ,"s may probably admit t a foot ( soil may be wa%$ (f dur+ a p]iod s long z #f1jjj ye>s1 & may tell u t :at !y d5y is n t a foot ( loose & s(t soil1 b a foot ( solid rock c be wa%$ away dur+ t p]iod4 ,b a mom5t's reflection mu/ conv9ce !m t1 unless ! rocks ( ! c\ntry 7 dis9tegrat+ & decompos+ z rapidly into soil z ! ra9 is c>ry+ ! soil away1 ! surface ( ! c\ntry w\ld ultimately become b>e rock4 ,x is true t ! surface ( our c\ntry 9 _m places is protect$ by a ?ick cov]+ ( b\ld] clay2 b :5 ?is has once be5 remov$1 ! rocks w !n dis9tegrate f> m rapidly ?an !y are do+ at pres5t4 ,b sl[ z is ! rate at :i* ! c\ntry is be+ d5ud$1 yet :5 we take into consid]ation a p]iod s enorm\s z #f millions ( ye>s1 we f9d t ! results ( d5udation are really />tl+4 ,"o ?\s& feet ( solid rock dur+ t p]iod w\ld be remov$ f (f ! face ( ! c\ntry4 ,b if ! mean level ( ! c\ntry w\ld be l[]$ #a1jjj feet 9 #f millions ( ye>s1 h[ mu* w\ld our valleys & gl5s be deep5$ dur+ t p]iod8 ,?is is a problem well wor?y ( ! consid]ation ( ^? :o treat ) ridicule ! idea t ! g5]al features ( our c\ntry h be5 c>v$ out by subarial ag5cy4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! ret>dation ( ! e>?'s rotation1 occasion$ by ! friction ( ! tidal wave1 ! sea-level mu/ be sl[ly s9k+ at ! equator & ris+ at ! poles4 ,b x is probable t ! l& at ! equator is be+ l[]$ by d5udation z rapidly z ! sea-level is s9k+4 ,ne>ly "o mile mu/ h be5 worn (f ! equator dur+ ! pa/ #ab millions ( ye>s1 if ! rate ( d5udation all along ! equator be equal to t ( ! bas9 ( ! ,ganges4 ,x !re=e foll[s t we _c inf] f ! pres5t %ape ( our globe :at 0 its =m1 or ! rate at :i* x 0 rotat+1 at ! "t :5 its cru/ became solidifi$4 ,al?\gh x _h be5 z oblate z ! planet ,jupit]1 d5udation mu/ 9 "t h giv5 x its pres5t =m4 ,!re is ano!r effect :i* w\ld result f ! d5udation ( ! equator & ! s9k+ ( ! ocean at ! equator & its rise at ! poles4 ,?is1 namely1 t x w\ld t5d to increase ! rate ( rotation2 or1 m prop]ly1 x w\ld t5d to less5 ! rate ( tidal ret>dation4 ,b if ! rate ( d5udation be at pres5t s great1 :at mu/ x h be5 dur+ ! glacial epo*8 ,x mu/ h be5 some?+ enorm\s4 ,at pres5t1 d5udation is greatly ret>d$ by ! limit$ p[] ( our riv] sy/ems to remove ! loose mat]ials result+ f ! de/ruction ( ! rocks4 ,^! mat]ials accumulate & =m a ?ick soil ov] ! surface ( ! rocks1 :i* protects !m1 to a great ext5t1 f ! wea!r+ effects ( atmosph]ic ag5ts4 ,s long z ! am\nt ( rock dis9tegrat$ exce$s t :i* is be+ remov$ by ! riv] sy/ems1 ! soil w cont9ue to accumulate till ! am\nt ( rock de/roy$ p] annum is br\ght to equal t :i* is be+ remov$4 ,x !re=e foll[s f ?is pr9ciple t ! ,,c>ry+-,,p[] ,,( ,,our ,,riv] ,,sy/ems ,,is ,,! ,,true ,,measure ,,( ,,d5udation4 ,b dur+ ! glacial epo* ! ?ickness ( ! soil w\ld h b little effect 9 dim9i%+ ! wa/e ( ! rocks2 = at t p]iod ! rocks 7 n decompos$ by atmosph]ic ag5cy1 b 7 gr\nd d[n by ! me*anical friction ( ! ice4 ,b ! pres5ce ( a ?ick soil at ?is p]iod1 in/ead ( ret>d+ ! rate ( d5udation1 w\ld t5d to increase x t5fold1 = ! soil w\ld !n be us$ z gr9d+-mat]ial = ! ice-%eet4 ,9 places :]e ! ice 01 say1 #b1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 ! soil w\ld be =c$ along ov] ! rocky face ( ! c\ntry1 ex]t+ a pressure on ! rocks equal to #ej tons on ! squ>e foot4 ,x is true t ! rate at :i* _m k9ds ( rocks decompose & dis9tegrate is f> less ?an :at has be5 conclud$ to be ! mean rate ( d5udation ( ! :ole c\ntry4 ,?is is evid5t f ! fact :i* has be5 adduc$ by "s writ]s1 t inscriptions on /ones :i* h be5 expos$ to atmosph]ic ag5cy = a p]iod ( #b1jjj ye>s or s1 h n be5 oblit]at$4 ,b 9 mo/ cases epitaphs on monum5ts & tomb/ones1 & inscriptions on ! walls ( build+s1 #bjj ye>s old1 c h>dly be read4 ,& ?is is n all3 ! /one on :i* ! lett]s 7 cut has dur+ t "t rott$ 9 probably to ! dep? ( sev]al in*es2 & dur+ ! c\rse ( a few c5turies m ! :ole mass w crumble into du/4 ,! facts :i* we h be5 consid]+ %[ also h[ trifl+ is ! am\nt ( d5udation effect$ by ! sea 9 comp>ison ) t by subarial ag5ts4 ,! entire sea-coa/ ( ! globe1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,a4 ,kei? ,john/on1 is #aaf1eca miles4 ,suppose we take ! av]age height ( ! coa/-l9e at #be feet1 & take also ! rate at :i* ! sea is advanc+ on ! l& at "o foot 9 #ajj ye>s1 !n ?is gives #ae1chb1ejj1jjj cubic feet ( rock z ! total am\nt remov$ 9 #ajj ye>s by ! action ( ! sea4 ,! total am\nt ( l& is #eg1fjj1jjj squ>e miles1 or #a1fje1gej1jjj1jjj1jjj squ>e feet2 & if "o foot is remov$ (f ! surface 9 #f1jjj ye>s1 !n #bf1gfc1jjj1jjj1jjj cubic feet is remov$ by subarial ag5cy 9 #ajj ye>s1 or ab\t #a1gdj times z mu* z t remov$ by ! sea4 ,be=e ! sea c\ld d5ude ! globe z rapidly z ! subarial ag5ts1 x w\ld h to advance on ! l& at ! rate ( upw>ds ( #ag feet annually4 ,x w n d1 h[ev]1 to measure m>9e d5udation by ! rate at :i* ! sea is advanc+ on ! l&4 ,!re is no relation :atev] betwe5 ! rate at :i* ! sea is advanc+ on ! l& & ! rate at :i* ! sea is d5ud+ ! l&4 ,= x is evid5t t z ! subarial ag5ts br+ ! coa/ d[n to ! sea-level1 all t ! sea has got to d is simply to advance1 or at mo/ to remove ! loose mat]ials :i* may lie 9 its pa?4 ,! am\nt ( d5udation :i* has be5 effect$ by ! sea dur+ pa/ geological ages1 comp>$ ) :at has be5 effect$ by subarial ag5cy1 is evid5tly b trifl+4 ,d5udation is n ! prop] function ( ! sea4 ,! great d5ud+ ag5ts are l&-ice1 fro/1 ra91 runn+-wat]1 *emical ag5cy1 c4 ,! prop] "w :i* belongs to ! sea is ! transport+ ( ! loose mat]ials c>ri$ d[n by ! riv]s1 & ! spread+ ( ^! out s z to =m ! /ratifi$ b$s ( future ages4 ,previ\s ,me?ods ( measur+ ,geological ,"t unreliable4--,! me?od :i* has j be5 detail$ ( e/imat+ ! rate ( subarial d5udation seems to af=d ! only reliable means ( a geological "* ( det]m9+ geological "t 9 absolute measure4 ,! me?ods :i* h hi!rto be5 adopt$ n only fail to give ! positive l5g? ( geological p]iods1 b "s ( !m are actually calculat$ to mislead4 ,! common me?od ( calculat+ ! l5g? ( a p]iod f ! ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ rocks belong+ to t p]iod is "o ( t class4 ,no?+ :atev] c be inf]r$ f ! ?ickness ( a deposit z to ! l5g? ( "t :i* 0 requir$ to =m x4 ,! ?ickness ( a deposit w dep5d ^u a great _m circum/ances1 su* z :e!r ! deposition took place ne> to l& or f> away 9 ! deep recesses ( ! ocean1 :e!r x occurr$ at ! m\? ( a great riv] or along ! sea-%ore1 or at a "t :5 ! sea-bottom 0 ris+1 subsid+1 or rema9+ /ation>y4 ,/ratifi$ =mations #aj1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 = example1 may1 "u "s conditions1 h be5 =m$ 9 z _m ye>s1 :ile "u o!r conditions x may h requir$ z _m c5turies4 ,no?+ :atev] c be safely inf]r$ z to ! absolute l5g? ( a p]iod f ! ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ =mations belong+ to t p]iod4 ,nei!r w ?is me?od give u a tru/wor?y e/imate ( ! relative l5g?s ( geological p]iods4 ,suppose we f9d ! av]age ?ickness ( ! ,cambrian rocks to be1 say1 #bf1jjj feet1 ! ,silurian to be #bh1jjj feet1 ! ,devonian to be #f1jjj feet1 & ! ,t]ti>y to be #aj1jjj feet1 x w\ld n be safe to assume1 z is sometimes done1 t ! relative duration ( ^? p]iods mu/ h correspond$ to ^! numb]s4 ,7 we sure t we _h got ! correct av]age ?ickness ( all ! rocks belong+ to ea* ( ^? =mations1 we might probably be able to arrive at ! relative l5g?s ( ^? p]iods2 b we c nev] be sure ( ?is4 ,^? =mations all1 at "o "t1 =m$ sea-bottoms2 & we c only measure su* deposits z are n[ rais$ above ! sea-level4 ,b is n x probable t ! relative positions ( sea & l& dur+ ! ,cambrian1 ,silurian1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,c>bonif]\s1 & o!r e>ly p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 diff]$ m f ! pres5t ?an ! di/ribution ( sea & l& dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod diff]$ f t :i* obta9s n[8 ,may n ! great] portion ( ! ,t]ti>y deposits be /ill "u ! sea-bottom8 ,& if ?is be ! case1 x may yet be f\nd at "s day 9 ! di/ant future1 :5 ^! deposits are elevat$ into dry l&1 t !y are mu* ?ick] ?an we n[ conclude !m to be4 ,( c\rse1 x is by no means ass]t$ t ?is is s1 b only t !y may be ?ick] = any?+ we "k to ! contr>y2 & ! possibility t !y may1 de/roys our confid5ce 9 ! accuracy ( ?is me?od ( det]m9+ ! relative l5g?s ( geological p]iods4 ,nei!r does palontology af=d any bett] mode ( measur+ geological "t4 ,9 fact1 ! palontological me?od ( e/imat+ geological "t1 ei!r absolute or relative1 f ! rate at :i* species *ange1 appe>s to be ev5 /ill m unsatisfactory4 ,if we c\ld asc]ta9 by "s means or o!r ! "t t has elaps$ f "s giv5 epo* 7say1 = example1 ! glacial7 till ! pres5t day1 & 7 we sure at ! same "t t species h *ang$ at a uni=m rate dur+ all pa/ ages1 !n1 by asc]ta9+ ! p]c5tage ( *ange t has tak5 place s9ce ! glacial epo*1 we %\ld h a means ( mak+ some?+ l a r\gh e/imate ( ! l5g? ( ! v>i\s p]iods4 ,b )\t "s su* p]iod to />t )1 ! palontological me?od is useless4 ,x w n d to take ! hi/oric p]iod z a base-l9e4 ,x is f> too %ort to be us$ ) safety 9 det]m9+ ! di/ance ( p]iods s remote z ^? :i* conc]n ! geologi/4 ,b ev5 suppos+ ! palontologi/ _h a p]iod ( suffici5t l5g? measur$ (f correctly to beg9 )1 8 results w\ld /ill be unsatisfactory2 = x is p]fectly obvi\s1 t unless ! climatic conditions ( ! globe dur+ ! v>i\s p]iods 7 ne>ly ! same1 ! rate at :i* ! species *ange w\ld c]ta9ly n be uni=m2 b su* has n be5 ! case1 z an exam9ation ( ! ,tables ( ecc5tricity w %[4 ,take1 = example1 t long epo* ( #bfj1jjj ye>s1 beg9n+ ab\t #ihj1jjj ye>s ago & t]m9at+ ab\t #gbj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,dur+ t long p]iod ! *anges f cold to w>m conditions ( climate e #aj1jjj or #ab1jjj ye>s mu/ h be5 ( ! mo/ extreme "*4 ,comp>e t p]iod ) ! p]iod beg9n+1 say1 #hj1jjj ye>s ago1 & ext5d+ to ne>ly #aej1jjj ye>s into ! future1 dur+ :i* !re w be no extreme v>iations ( climate1 & h[ great is ! contra/6 ,h[ ext5sive ! *anges 9 species mu/ h be5 dur+ ! fir/ p]iod z comp>$ ) ^? :i* are likely to take place dur+ ! latt]6 ,besides1 x mu/ also be tak5 into consid]ation t organization 0 ( a f> m simple type 9 ! e>li] ,palozoic ages ?an dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 & w\ld probably on ?is acc\nt *ange mu* m sl[ly 9 ! =m] ?an 9 ! latt]4 ,! =ego+ consid]ations r5d] x highly probable1 if n c]ta91 t ! rate at :i* ! g5]al surface ( ! globe is be+ l[]$ by subarial d5udation _c be mu* "u "o foot 9 #f1jjj ye>s4 ,h[1 if we assign ! glacial epo* to t p]iod ( high ecc5tricity beg9n+ #ihj1jjj ye>s ago1 & t]m9at+ #gbj1jjj ye>s ago1 !n we mu/ conclude t z mu* z #abj feet mu/ h be5 d5ud$ (f ! face ( ! c\ntry s9ce ! close ( ! glacial epo*4 ,b if z mu* z ?is _h be5 c>ri$ d[n by our riv]s into ! sea1 h>dly a pat* ( b\ld] clay1 or any trace ( ! glacial epo*1 %\ld be n[ rema9+ on ! l&4 ,x is !re=e evid5t t ! glacial epo* _c be assign$ to t remote p]iod1 b ought to be ref]r$ to ! p]iod t]m9at+ ab\t #hj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,we h1 9 ?is latt] case1 #ac feet1 equal to ab\t #ah feet ( drift1 z ! am\nt remov$ f ! g5]al surface ( ! c\ntry s9ce ! glacial epo*4 ,?is am\nt h>monizes v well ) ! direct evid5ce ( geology on ?is po9t4 ,_h ! am\nt ( d5udation s9ce ! close ( ! glacial epo* be5 mu* great] ?an ?is1 ! drift deposits w\ld n only h be5 f> less complete1 b ! g5]al appe>ance & outl9e ( ! surface ( all glaciat$ c\ntries w\ld h be5 v diff]5t f :at !y really are4 ,circum/ances :i* %[ ! ,rec5t ,date ( ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,"o ( ! circum/ances to :i* ,i ref] is ?is4 ,:5 we exam9e ! surface ( any glaciat$ c\ntry1 su* z ,scotl&1 we c easily satisfy ourselves t ! upp] surface ( ! gr\nd diff]s v mu* f :at x w\ld h be5 _h its ext]nal features be5 due to ! action ( ra9 & riv]s & ! ord9>y ag5cies :i* h be5 at "w s9ce ! close ( ! ,ice p]iod4 ,g :]e "o w 9 ! ,l[l&s ( ,scotl&1 & he %all h>dly f9d a s+le acre ^: upp] surface be>s ! m>ks ( be+ =m$ by ! d5ud+ ag5ts :i* are pres5tly 9 op]ation4 ,he w obs]ve ev]y:]e m\nds & holl[s1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* _c be acc\nt$ = by ! pres5t ag5cies at "w4 ,9 fact ^! ag5cies are sl[ly d5ud+ pre-exi/+ heights & silt+ up pre-exi/+ holl[s4 ,ev]y:]e "o comes ^u pat*es ( alluvium :i* ^u exam9ation prove to be simply old glacially =m$ holl[s silt$ up4 ,true1 ! ma9 riv]s1 /reams1 & ev5 brooks1 occupy *annels :i* h be5 =m$ by runn+ wat]1 ei!r s9ce or prior to ! glacial epo*1 b1 9 reg>d to ! g5]al surface ( ! c\ntry1 ! pres5t ag5cies may be said to be j beg9n+ to c>ve a new l9e ( features out ( ! old glacially =m$ surface4 ,b s little progress has yet be5 made1 t ! kames1 gravel m\nds1 knolls ( b\ld] clay1 c41 /ill reta9 9 mo/ cases _! orig9al =m4 ,n[1 :5 we reflect t m ?an a foot ( drift is be+ remov$ f ! g5]al surface ( ! c\ntry e #e1jjj ye>s or s1 x becomes p]fectly obvi\s t ! close ( ! glacial epo* mu/ be ( comp>atively rec5t date4 ,!re is ano!r circum/ance :i* %[s t ! glacial epo* mu/ be ref]r$ to ! late/ p]iod ( great ecc5tricity4 ,if we ref] ! glacial epo* to ! p5ultimate p]iod ( extreme ecc5tricity1 & place its comm5cem5t "o million ( ye>s back1 !n we mu/ also l5g!n out to a correspond+ ext5t ! entire geological hi/ory ( ! globe4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 :o is incl9$ to assign ! glacial epo* to ?is p5ultimate p]iod1 consid]s t :5 we g back z f> z ! ,l[] ,mioc5e =mations1 we arrive at a p]iod :5 ! m>9e %ells diff]$ z a :ole f ^? n[ exi/+4 ,b only #e p] c5t4 ( ! %ells exi/+ at ! comm5cem5t ( ! glacial epo* h s9ce di$ out4 ,h5ce1 assum+ ! rate at :i* ! species *ange to be uni=m1 x foll[s t ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod mu/ be tw5ty times z remote z ! comm5cem5t ( ! glacial epo*4 ,consequ5tly1 if x be "o million ( ye>s s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( ! glacial epo*1 #bj millions ( ye>s1 ,sir ,*>les concludes1 mu/ h elaps$ s9ce ! "t ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e p]iod1 & #fj millions ( ye>s s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 & ab\t #afj millions ( ye>s s9ce ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 & ab\t #bdj millions ( ye>s mu/ be ! "t :i* has elaps$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cambrian p]iod4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 if we ref] ! glacial epo* to ! late/ p]iod ( great ecc5tricity1 & take #bej1jjj ye>s ago z ! beg9n+ ( t p]iod1 !n1 accord+ to ! same mode ( calculation1 we h #ae millions ( ye>s s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 & #dj millions ( ye>s s9ce ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 & #fj millions ( ye>s 9 all s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cambrian p]iod4 ,if ! beg9n+ ( ! glacial epo* be c>ri$ back a million ye>s1 !n x is probable1 z ,sir ,*>les ,lyell concludes1 t ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cambrian p]iod w require to be plac$ #bdj millions ( ye>s back4 ,b x is v probable t ! l5g? ( "t embrac$ by ! pre-,cambrian ages ( geological hi/ory may be z great z t :i* has elaps$ s9ce ! close ( ! ,cambrian p]iod1 &1 if ?is be s1 !n we %all be compell$ to admit t ne>ly #ejj millions ( ye>s h pass$ away s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! e>?'s geological hi/ory4 ,b we h evid5ce ( a physical nature :i* proves t x is absolutely impossible t ! exi/+ ord] ( ?+s1 z reg>ds our globe1 c date s f> back z any?+ l #ejj millions ( ye>s4 ,! argum5ts to :i* ,i ref] are ^? :i* h be5 advanc$ by ,pr(essor ,sir ,william ,?omson at v>i\s times4 ,^! argum5ts are well kn[n1 & to all :o h really giv5 due att5tion to !m mu/ be felt to be conclusive4 ,x w\ld be sup]flu\s to /ate !m "h2 ,i %all1 h[ev]1 = reasons :i* w pres5tly appe>1 ref] briefly to "o ( !m1 & t "o :i* seems to be ! mo/ conclusive ( all1 viz41 ! argum5t d]iv$ f ! limit to ! age ( ! sun's heat4 ,pr(essor ,ramsay on ,geological ,"t4--,9 an int]e/+ sugge/ive memoir1 8,on ,geological ,ages z items ( ,geological ,"t10#bjj ,pr(essor ,ramsay discusses ! comp>ative values ( c]ta9 gr\ps ( =mations z repres5tative ( geological "t1 & arrives at ! foll[+ g5]al conclusion1 viz41 8,t ! local cont95tal era :i* began ) ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & clos$ ) ! ,new ,r$ ,m>l is comp>able1 9 po9t ( geological "t1 to t occupi$ 9 ! deposition ( ! :ole ( ! ,mesozoic1 or ,second>y s]ies1 lat] ?an ! ,new ,r$ ,m>l & all ! ,ca9ozoic or ,t]ti>y =mations1 & inde$ ( all ! "t t has elaps$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! deposition ( ! ,lias d[n to ! pres5t day40 ,?is conclusion is d]iv$ p>tly f a comp>ison ( ! physical "* ( ! =mations con/itut+ ea* gr\p1 b pr9cipally f ! zoological *anges :i* took place dur+ ! "t repres5t$ by !m4 ,! e>li] p]iod repres5t$ by ! ,cambrian & ,silurian rocks he also1 f ! same consid]ations1 consid]s to h be5 v long1 b he does n attempt to fix its relative l5g?4 ,( ! absolute l5g? ( any or all ( ^! great eras ( geological "t no e/imate or guess is giv54 ,he believes1 h[ev]1 t ! :ole "t repres5t$ by all ! fossilif]\s rocks1 f ! e>lie/ ,cambrian to ! mo/ rec5t1 is1 geologically speak+1 %ort comp>$ ) t :i* w5t be=e x4 ,aft] quot+ ,pr(essor ,huxley's enum]ation ( ! _m classes & ord]s ( m>9e life 7id5tical ) ^? /ill exi/+71 ^: rema9s *>act]ize ! l[e/ ,cambrian rocks1 he says1 8,! inf]5ce is obvi\s t 9 ?is e>lie/ kn[n v>i$ life we f9d no evid5ce ( its hav+ liv$ ne> ! beg9n+ ( ! zoological s]ies4 ,9 a broad s5se1 comp>$ ) :at mu/ h gone be=e1 bo? biologically & physically1 all ! ph5om5a connect$ ) ?is old p]iod seem to my m9d to be q ( a rec5t description1 & ! climates ( seas & l&s 7 ( ! v same k9d z ^? t ! _w enjoys at ! pres5t day40444 8,9 ! words ( ,d>w91 :5 discuss+ ! imp]fection ( ! geological record ( ?is hi/ory1 #8we possess ! la/ volume alone relat+ only to two or ?ree c\ntries1' & ! reason :y we "k s little ( pre-,cambrian faunas & ! physical *>act]s ( ! m anci5t =mations z orig9ally deposit$1 is t bel[ ! ,cambrian /rata we get at once involv$ 9 a sort ( *aos ( metamorphic /rata4'0 ,x seems to me t ,pr(essor ,ramsay's results lead to ! same conclusion reg>d+ ! positive l5g? ( geological p]iods z ^? d]iv$ f physical consid]ations4 ,x is true t 8 views lead u back to an imm5se lapse ( unkn[n "t prior to ! ,cambrian p]iod1 b ?is practically t5ds to %ort5 geological p]iods4 ,= x is evid5t t ! geological hi/ory ( our globe mu/ be limit$ by ! age ( ! sun's heat1 no matt] h[ long or %ort its age may be4 ,?is be+ ! case1 ! great] ! l5g? ( "t :i* mu/ h elaps$ prior to ! ,cambrian p]iod1 ! less mu/ be ! "t :i* has elaps$ s9ce t p]iod4 ,:atev] is add$ to ! "o p]iod mu/ be s mu* tak5 f ! o!r4 ,consequ5tly1 ! long] we suppose ! pre-,cambrian p]iods to h be51 ! %ort] mu/ we suppose ! po/-,cambrian to be4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,! ,,probable ,,age ,,& ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,sun4 ,gravitation ,!ory4--,am\nt ( ,heat emitt$ by ! ,sun4--,meteoric ,!ory4--,helmholtz's ,cond5sation ,!ory4--,confusion ( ,ideas4--,gravitation n ! *ief ,s\rce ( ! ,sun's ,heat4--,orig9al ,heat4--,s\rce ( ,orig9al ,heat4--,orig9al ,heat d]iv$ f ,motion 9 ,space4--,conclusion z to ,date ( ,glacial ,epo*4--,false ,analogy4--,probable ,date ( ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e ,p]iods4 ,gravitation ,!ory ( ! ,orig9 & ,s\rce ( ! ,sun's ,heat4--,!re are two =ms 9 :i* ?is !ory has be5 pres5t$3 ! fir/1 ! meteoric !ory1 prop\nd$ by ,dr4 ,mey]1 ( ,heilbronn2 & ! second1 ! contraction !ory1 advocat$ by ,helmholtz4 ,x is f\nd t #hcd foot-p\nds ( heat p] second are incid5t ^u a squ>e foot ( ! e>?'s surface expos$ to ! p]p5dicul> rays ( ! sun4 ,! am\nt radiat$ f a squ>e foot ( ! sun's surface is to t incid5t on a squ>e foot ( ! e>?'s surface z ! squ>e ( ! sun's di/ance to ! squ>e ( 8 radius1 or z #df1djj to #a4 ,consequ5tly #c1hfi1jjj foot-p\nds ( heat are radiat$ (f e squ>e foot ( ! sun's surface p] second--an am\nt equal to ab\t #g1jjj horse p[]4 ,! total am\nt radiat$ f ! :ole surface ( ! sun p] annum is #h1cdj #ajcj foot-p\nds4 ,to ma9ta9 ! pres5t rate ( radiation1 x w\ld require ! combu/ion ( ab\t #a1ejj lbs4 ( coal p] h\r on e squ>e foot ( ! sun's surface2 & 7 ! sun compos$ ( t mat]ial1 x w\ld be all consum$ 9 less ?an #e1jjj ye>s4 ,! op9ion t ! sun's heat is ma9ta9$ by combu/ion _c be ent]ta9$ = a s+le mom5t4 ,a p\nd ( coal fall+ into ! sun f an inf9ite di/ance w\ld produce by its concussion m ?an #f1jjj times ! am\nt ( heat t w\ld be g5]at$ by its combu/ion4 ,x is well kn[n t ! velocity ) :i* a body fall+ f an inf9ite di/ance w\ld rea* ! sun w\ld be equal to t :i* w\ld be g5]at$ by a con/ant =ce equal to ! weight ( ! body at ! sun's surface op]at+ ?r\gh a space equal to ! sun's radius4 ,"o p\nd w\ld at ! sun's surface weigh ab\t #bh p\nds4 ,tak+ ! sun's radius at #dda1jjj miles1#bja ! en]gy ( a p\nd ( matt] fall+ into ! sun f inf9ite space w\ld equal t ( a #bh-p\nd weight desc5d+ ^u ! e>? f an elevation ( #dda1jjj miles1 suppos+ ! =ce ( gravity to be z great at t elevation z x is at ! e>?'s surface4 ,x w\ld am\nt to upw>ds ( #fe1jjj1jjj1jjj foot-p\nds4 ,a bett] idea ( ?is enorm\s am\nt ( en]gy ex]t$ by a "o-p\nd weight fall+ into ! sun w be convey$ by /at+ t x w\ld be suffici5t to raise #a1jjj tons to a height ( #e miles4 ,x w\ld project ! ,w>rior1 fully equipp$ ) guns1 /ores1 & ammunition1 ov] ! top ( ,b5 ,nevis4 ,gravitation is n[ g5]ally admitt$ to be ! only conceivable s\rce ( ! sun's heat4 ,b if we attribute ! en]gy ( ! sun to gravitation z a s\rce1 we assign x to a cause ! value ( :i* c be accurately det]m9$4 ,prodigi\s z is ! en]gy ( a s+le p\nd ( matt] fall+ into ! sun1 nev]!less a range ( m\nta9s1 consi/+ ( #agf cubic miles ( solid rock1 fall+ into ! sun1 w\ld ma9ta9 8 heat = only a s+le second4 ,a mass equal to t ( ! e>? w\ld ma9ta9 ! heat = only #ic ye>s1 & a mass equal to t ( ! sun itself fall+ into ! sun w\ld af=d b #cc1jjj1jjj ye>s' sun-heat4 ,x is q possible1 h[ev]1 t a meteor may rea* ! sun ) a velocity f> great] ?an t :i* x c\ld acquire by gravitation2 = x might h be5 mov+ 9 a direct l9e t[>ds ! sun ) an orig9al velocity be=e com+ "u ! s5sible influ5ce ( ! sun's attraction4 ,9 ?is case a great] am\nt ( heat w\ld be g5]at$ by ! meteor ?an w\ld h result$ f its m]ely fall+ into ! sun "u ! influ5ce ( gravitation4 ,b !n meteors ( ?is sort mu/ be ( r>e occurr5ce4 ,! meteoric !ory ( ! sun's heat has n[ be5 pretty g5]ally ab&on$ = ! contraction !ory advanc$ by ,helmholtz4 ,suppose1 ) ,helmholtz1 t ! sun orig9ally exi/$ z a nebul\s mass1 fill+ ! entire space pres5tly occupi$ by ! sol> sy/em & ext5d+ into space indef9itely beyond ! out]mo/ planet4 ,! total am\nt ( "w 9 foot-p\nds p]=m$ by gravitation 9 ! cond5sation ( ?is mass to an orb ( ! sun's pres5t size c be f\nd by means ( ! foll[+ =mula giv5 by ,helmholtz1#bjb #c r#b,m#b ,"w ( cond5sation -- ------------------------ g #e ,rm ,m is ! mass ( ! sun1 m ! mass ( ! e>?1 ,r ! sun's radius1 & r ! e>?'s radius4 ,tak+ ,m #dbcj #ajbg lbs41 m #aa1ibj #ajba lbs41 ,r #b1cbh1ejj1jjj feet1 & r #bj1hhi1bgb feet2 we h !n = ! total am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by gravitation 9 foot-p\nds1 #c 7#bj1hhi1bgbe7b 7#dbcj #ajbg7b ,"w -- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #e #b1cbh1ejj1jjj #aa1ibj #ajba #afh1gij #ajcf foot-p\nds4 ,! am\nt ( heat ?us produc$ by gravitation w\ld suffice = ne>ly #bj1bcg1ejj ye>s4 ,^! calculations are bas$ ^u ! assumption t ! d5sity ( ! sun is uni=m ?r\gh\t4 ,b x is highly probable t ! sun's d5sity increases t[>ds ! c5tre1 9 :i* case ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by gravitation w\ld be some:at m ?an ! above4 ,"s confusion has aris5 9 ref]5ce to ?is subject by ! introduction ( ! "q ( ! am\nt ( ! sun's specific heat4 ,if we simply consid] ! sun z an inc&esc5t body 9 ! process ( cool+1 ! "q ( ! am\nt ( ! sun's specific heat is ( ! utmo/ importance2 because ! absolute am\nt ( heat :i* ! sun is capable ( giv+ out dep5ds :olly ^u 8 temp]ature & specific heat4 ,9 ?is case ?ree ?+s only are requir$3 7#a71 ! sun's mass2 7#b71 temp]ature ( ! mass2 7#c71 specific heat ( ! mass4 ,b if we are consid]+ :at is ! absolute am\nt ( heat :i* c\ld h be5 giv5 out by ! sun on ! hypo!sis t gravitation1 ei!r accord+ to ! meteoric !ory sugge/$ by ,mey] or accord+ to ! contraction !ory advocat$ by ,helmholtz1 is ! only s\rce ( 8 heat1 !n we h no?+ :atev] to d ) any inquiries reg>d+ ! specific heat ( ! sun4 ,?is is evid5t because ! absolute am\nt ( "w :i* gravitation c p]=m 9 ! pull+ ( ! p>ticles ( ! sun's mass toge!r1 is :olly indep5d5t ( ! specific heat ( ^? p>ticles4 ,consequ5tly1 ! am\nt ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat ?us imp>t$ to ! p>ticles by gravity mu/ also be :olly indep5d5t ( specific heat4 ,t is to say1 ! am\nt ( heat imp>t$ to a p>ticle w be ! same :atev] may be its specific heat4 ,ev5 suppos+ we limit ! geological hi/ory ( our globe to #ajj millions ( ye>s1 x is nev]!less evid5t t gravitation w n acc\nt = ! supply ( ! sun's heat dur+ s long a p]iod4 ,!re mu/ be "s o!r s\rce ( mu* m importance ?an gravitation4 ,:at o!r s\rce ( en]gy great] ?an t ( gravitation c !re be8 ,x is s+ul> t ! op9ion %\ld h become s common ev5 among physici/s1 t !re is no o!r conceivable s\rce ?an gravitation f :i* a great] am\nt ( heat c\ld h be5 d]iv$4 ,! ,orig9 & ,*ief ,s\rce ( ! ,sun's ,heat4--,accord+ to ! =ego+ !ories reg>d+ ! s\rce ( ! sun's heat1 x is assum$ t ! matt] compos+ ! sun1 :5 x exi/$ 9 space z a nebul\s mass1 0 n orig9ally possess$ ( temp]ature1 b t ! temp]ature 0 giv5 to x z ! mass became cond5s$ "u ! =ce ( gravitation4 ,x is suppos$ t ! heat giv5 out 0 simply ! heat ( cond5sation4 ,b x is q conceivable t ! nebul\s mass might h be5 possess$ ( an orig9al /ore ( heat previ\s to cond5sation4 ,x is q possible t ! v reason :y x exi/$ 9 su* a r>efi$ or gase\s condition 0 its excessive temp]ature1 & t cond5sation only began to take place :5 ! mass began to cool d[n4 ,x seems f> m probable t ?is %\ld h be5 ! case ?an t ! mass exi/$ 9 s r>efi$ a condition )\t temp]ature4 ,= :y %\ld ! p>ticles h exi/$ 9 ?is sep>at$ =m :5 devoid ( ! repulsive en]gy ( heat1 see+ t 9 virtue ( gravitation !y _h su* a t5d5cy to approa* to "o ano!r8 ,b if ! mass 0 orig9ally 9 a heat$ condition1 !n 9 cond5s+ x w\ld h to "p n only ) ! heat g5]at$ 9 cond5s+1 b also ) ! heat :i* x orig9ally possess$1 a quantity :i* w\ld no d\bt mu* exce$ t produc$ by cond5sation4 ,to illu/rate ?is pr9ciple1 let u suppose a p\nd ( air1 = example1 to be plac$ 9 a cyl9d] & heat appli$ to x4 ,if ! pi/on be s fix$ t x _c move1 #bcde foot-p\nds ( heat w raise ! temp]ature ( ! air #a ,c4 ,b if ! pi/on be all[$ to rise z ! heat is appli$1 !n x w require #ccjb foot-p\nds ( heat to raise ! temp]ature #a ,c4 ,x requires #ieg foot-p\nds m heat 9 ! latt] case ?an 9 ! =m]4 ,! same am\nt ( en]gy1 viz41 #bcde foot-p\nds1 9 bo? cases goes to produce temp]ature2 b 9 ! latt] case1 :]e ! pi/on is all[$ to move1 #ieg foot-p\nds ( additional heat are consum$ 9 ! me*anical "w ( rais+ ! pi/on4 ,suppose1 n[1 t ! air is all[$ to cool "u ! same conditions3 9 ! "o case #bcde foot-p\nds ( heat w be giv5 out :ile ! temp]ature ( ! air s9ks #a ,c42 9 ! o!r case1 :]e ! pi/on is all[$ to desc5d1 #ccjb foot-p\nds w be giv5 out :ile ! temp]ature s9ks #a ,c4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! air 9 cool+ has simply to "p ) ! en]gy :i* x possesses 9 ! =m ( temp]ature2 b 9 ! latt] case x has1 9 addition to ?is1 to "p ) ! en]gy be/[$ ^u its molecules by ! desc5d+ pi/on4 ,:ile ! temp]ature ( ! gas is s9k+ #a1 #ieg foot-p\nds ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat are be+ imp>t$ to x by ! desc5d+ pi/on2 & ^! h to be got rid ( be=e ! temp]ature is l[]$ by #a4 ,consequ5tly #bcde foot-p\nds ( ! heat giv5 out previ\sly exi/$ 9 ! air "u ! =m ( temp]ature1 & ! rema9+ #ieg foot-p\nds giv5 out 7 imp>t$ to ! air by ! desc5d+ pi/on :ile ! gas 0 los+ its temp]ature4 #bcde foot-p\nds repres5t ! en]gy or heat :i* ! air previ\sly possess$1 & #ieg ! en]gy or heat ( cond5sation4 ,9 ! case ( ! cool+ ( ! sun f a nebul\s mass1 !re w\ld ( c\rse be no ext]nal =ce or pressure ex]t$ on ! mass analog\s to t ( ! pi/on on ! air2 b !re w\ld be1 :at is equival5t to ! same1 ! gravitation ( ! p>ticles to ea* o!r4 ,!re w\ld be ! pressure ( ! :ole mass t[>ds ! c5tre ( conv]g5ce4 ,9 ! case ( air1 & all p]fect gases cool+ "u pressure1 ab\t #bcd foot-p\nds ( ! orig9al heat possess$ by ! gas are giv5 out :ile #ie foot-p\nds are be+ g5]at$ by cond5sation4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 no reason :atev] to believe t 9 ! case ( ! cool+ ( ! sun ! same proportions w\ld hold true4 ,! proportion ( orig9al heat possess$ by ! mass ( ! sun to t produc$ by cond5sation may h be5 mu* great] ?an #bcd to #ie1 or x may h be5 mu* less4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( all k on ?is po9t1 we may 9 ! meantime assume t to be ! proportion4 ,! total quantity ( heat giv5 out by ! sun result+ f ! cond5sation ( 8 mass1 on ! supposition t ! d5sity ( ! sun is uni=m ?r\gh\t1 we h se5 to be equal to #bj1bcg1ejj ye>s' sun-heat4 ,!n ! quantity ( heat giv5 out1 :i* previ\sly exi/$ 9 ! mass z orig9al temp]ature1 mu/ h be5 #di1hej1jjj ye>s' heat1 mak+ 9 all #gj1jhg1ejj ye>s' heat z ! total am\nt4 ,! above quantity repres5ts1 ( c\rse1 ! total am\nt ( heat giv5 out by ! mass s9ce x began to cond5se4 ,b ! geological hi/ory ( our globe mu/ date its beg9n+ at a p]iod po/]ior to t4 ,= at t "t ! mass w\ld probably occupy a mu* great] am\nt ( space ?an is pres5tly possess$ by ! entire sol> sy/em2 & consequ5tly1 be=e x _h cool$ d[n to )9 ! limits ( ! e>?'s pres5t orbit1 our e>? c\ld n h _h an exi/5ce z a sep>ate planet4 ,previ\sly to t "t x mu/ h exi/$ z a portion ( ! sun's fi]y mass4 ,if we assume t x exi/$ z a globe previ\sly to t1 & came 9 f space aft] ! cond5sation ( ! sun1 !n x is difficult to conceive h[ its orbit %\ld be s ne>ly circul> z x is at pres5t4 ,let u assume t by ! "t t ! mass ( ! sun _h cond5s$ to )9 ! space encircl$ by ! orbit ( ! planet ,m]cury 7t is1 to a sph]e hav+1 say1 a radius ( #ah1jjj1jjj miles7 ! e>?'s cru/ began to =m2 & let ?is be ! "t :5 ! geological hi/ory ( our globe dates its comm5cem5t4 ,! total am\nt ( heat g5]at$ by ! cond5sation ( ! sun's mass f a sph]e ( ?is size to its pres5t volume w\ld equal #ai1gdj1jjj ye>s' sun-heat4 ,! am\nt ( orig9al heat giv5 out dur+ t "t w\ld equal #dh1fbe1jjj ye>s' sun-heat1--?us giv+ a total ( #fh1cfe1jjj ye>s' sun-heat enjoy$ by our globe s9ce t p]iod4 ,! total quantity may possibly1 ( c\rse1 be consid]ably m ?an t1 ow+ to ! fact t ! sun's d5sity may increase greatly t[>ds 8 c5tre4 ,b we %\ld require to make extravagant assumptions reg>d+ ! int]ior d5sity ( ! sun & ! proportion ( orig9al heat to t produc$ by cond5sation be=e we c\ld manage to acc\nt = any?+ l ! p]iod t geological ph5om5a are suppos$ by "s to dem&4 ,! "q n[ arises1 by :at conceivable means c\ld ! mass ( ! sun h become possess$ ( su* a prodigi\s am\nt ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat previ\s to cond5sation8 ,:at p[] c\ld h communicat$ to ! mass #ej1jjj1jjj ye>s' heat be=e cond5sation began to take place8 ,! ,sun's ,en]gy may h orig9ally be5 d]iv$ f ,motion 9 ,space4--,!re is no?+ at all absurd or improbable 9 ! supposition t su* an am\nt ( en]gy might h be5 communicat$ to ! mass4 ,! ,dynamical ,!ory ( ,heat af=ds an easy explanation ( at lea/ h[ su* an am\nt ( en]gy may h be5 communicat$4 ,two bodies1 ea* "o-half ! mass ( ! sun1 mov+ directly t[>ds ea* o!r ) a velocity ( #dgf miles p] second1 w\ld by _! concussion g5]ate 9 a s+le mom5t ! #ej1jjj1jjj ye>s' heat4 ,= two bodies ( t mass mov+ ) a velocity ( #dgf miles p] second w\ld possess #dadi #ajch foot-p\nds ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( vis viva2 & ?is1 conv]t$ into heat by ! /oppage ( _! motion1 w\ld give an am\nt ( heat :i* w\ld cov] ! pres5t rate ( ! sun's radiation1 = a p]iod ( #ej1jjj1jjj ye>s4 ,:y may n ! sun h be5 compos$ ( two su* bodies8 ,& :y may n ! orig9al /ore ( heat possess$ by him h all be5 d]iv$ f ! concussion ( ^! two bodies8 ,two su* bodies com+ into collision ) t velocity w\ld be dissipat$ into vap\r by su* an inconceivable am\nt ( heat z w\ld ?us be g5]at$2 & :5 !y cond5s$ on cool+1 !y w\ld =m "o sph]ical mass l ! sun4 ,x is p]fectly true t two su* bodies c\ld nev] atta9 ! requir$ am\nt ( velocity by _! mutual gravitation t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,b !re is no necessity :atev] = suppos+ t _! velocities 7 d]iv$ f _! mutual attraction alone4 ,!y might h be5 approa*+ t[>ds ea* o!r ) ! requir$ velocity :olly indep5d5t ( gravitation4 ,we "k no?+ :atev] reg>d+ ! absolute motion ( bodies 9 space4 ,& beyond ! limit$ sph]e ( our obs]vation1 we "k no?+ ev5 ( _! relative motions4 ,!re may be bodies mov+ 9 relation to our sy/em ) inconceivable velocity4 ,= any?+ t we "k to ! contr>y1 7 "o ( ^! bodies to /rike our e>?1 ! %ock might be suffici5t to g5]ate an am\nt ( heat t w\ld dissipate ! e>? into vap\r1 ?\gh ! /rik+ body might n be heavi] ?an a cannon-ball4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no?+ v extraord9>y 9 ! velocity :i* we h f\nd w\ld be requir$ 9 ! two suppos$ bodies to g5]ate ! #ej1jjj1jjj ye>s' heat4 ,a comet1 hav+ an orbit ext5d+ to ! pa? ( ! planet ,neptune1 approa*+ s ne> ! sun z to almo/ graze 8 surface 9 pass+1 w\ld h a velocity ( ab\t #cij miles p] second1 :i* is )9 #hf miles ( ! requir$ velocity4 ,b 9 ! orig9al heat+ & expansion ( ! sun into a gase\s mass1 an am\nt ( "w mu/ h be5 p]=m$ aga9/ gravitation equal to t :i* has be5 p]=m$ by gravitation dur+ 8 cool+ & cond5sation1 a quantity :i* we h f\nd am\nts to ab\t #bj1jjj1jjj ye>s' heat4 ,! total am\nt ( en]gy orig9ally communicat$ by ! concussion mu/ h be5 equal to #gj1jjj1jjj ye>s' sun-heat4 ,a velocity ( #efc miles p] second w\ld give ?is am\nt4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t ! #efc miles p] second is ! velocity at ! mom5t ( collision2 ab\t "o-half ( ?is velocity w\ld be d]iv$ f ! mutual attraction ( ! two bodies 9 _! approa* to ea* o!r4 ,suppose ea* body to be equal 9 volume to ! sun1 & ( c\rse "o-half ! d5sity1 ! am\nt ( velocity :i* !y w\ld acquire by _! mutual attraction w\ld be #bgd miles p] second1 consequ5tly we h to assume an orig9al or project$ velocity ( only #bhi miles p] second4 ,if we admit t gravitation is n suffici5t to acc\nt = ! am\nt ( heat giv5 out by ! sun dur+ ! geological hi/ory ( our globe1 we are compell$ to assume t ! mass ( :i* ! sun is compos$ exi/$ prior to cond5sation 9 a heat$ condition2 & if s1 we are fur!r oblig$ to admit t ! mass mu/ h receiv$ its heat f "s s\rce or o!r4 ,& z ! dissipation ( heat into space mu/ h be5 go+ on1 9 all probability1 z rapidly be=e z aft] cond5sation took place1 we are fur!r oblig$ to conclude t ! heat mu/ h be5 communicat$ to ! mass imm$iately be=e cond5sation began1 = ! mom5t ! mass began to lose its heat cond5sation w\ld ensue4 ,if we conf9e our speculations to causes & ag5cies kn[n to exi/1 ! cause :i* has be5 assign$ appe>s to be ! only conceivable "o t w acc\nt = ! production ( su* an enorm\s am\nt ( heat4 ,! g5]al conclusion to :i* we are !re=e l$ f physical consid]ations reg>d+ ! age ( ! sun's heat is1 t ! entire geological hi/ory ( our globe mu/ be compris$ )9 less ?an #ajj millions ( ye>s1 & t consequ5tly ! comm5cem5t ( ! glacial epo* _c date mu* f>!r back ?an #bdj1jjj ye>s4 ,! facts ( geology1 m especially ^? 9 connection ) d5udation1 seem to geologi/s to require a p]iod ( mu* long] duration ?an #ajj millions ( ye>s1 & x is ?is :i* has s long prev5t$ !m accept+ ! conclusions ( physical sci5ce 9 reg>d to ! age ( our globe4 ,b ! me?od ( measur+ subarial d5udation already detail$ seems to me to %[ conv9c+ly t ! geological data1 :5 prop]ly int]pret$1 are 9 p]fect accord ) ! d$uctions ( physical sci5ce4 ,p]haps !re are n[ few :o h fairly consid]$ ! "q :o w refuse to admit t #ajj millions ( ye>s are amply suffici5t to comprise ! :ole geological hi/ory ( our globe4 ,a false ,analogy suppos$ to exi/ betwe5 ,a/ronomy & ,geology4--,p]haps "o ( ! ?+s :i* has t5d$ to mislead on ?is po9t is a false analogy :i* is suppos$ to subsi/ betwe5 a/ronomy & geology1 viz41 t geology deals ) unlimit$ "t1 z a/ronomy deals ) unlimit$ space4 ,a little consid]ation1 h[ev]1 w %[ t !re is n mu* analogy betwe5 ! two cases4 ,a/ronomy deals ) ! c\ntless worlds :i* lie spread out 9 ! b\ndless inf9ity ( space2 b geology deals ) only "o _w4 ,no d\bt reason & analogy bo? fav\r ! idea t ! age ( ! mat]ial univ]se1 l its magnitude1 is immeasurable2 we h no reason1 h[ev]1 to conclude t x is et]nal1 any m ?an we h to inf] t x is inf9ite4 ,b :5 we comp>e ! age ( ! mat]ial univ]se ) its magnitude1 we mu/ n take ! age ( "o ( its memb]s 7say1 our globe7 & comp>e x ) ! size ( ! univ]se4 ,nei!r mu/ we comp>e ! age ( all ! pres5tly exi/+ sy/ems ( worlds ) ! magnitude ( ! univ]se2 b we mu/ comp>e ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! univ]se z x /ret*es back into ! imm5sity ( bygone "t1 ) ! pres5tly exi/+ univ]se z x /ret*es out on all sides into limitless space4 ,= worlds prec$e worlds 9 "t z worlds lie beyond worlds 9 space4 ,ea* _w1 ea* individual1 ea* atom is evid5tly work+ out a f9al purpose1 accord+ to a plan pre>rang$ & pr$et]m9$ by ! ,div9e ,m9d f all et]nity4 ,& ea* _w1 l ea* individual1 :5 x s]ves ! end = :i* x 0 call$ into exi/5ce1 disappe>s to make room = o!rs4 ,?is is ! gr& conception ( ! univ]se :i* naturally impresses itself on e ?\ghtful m9d t has n got into confusion ab\t ^? ?+s call$ 9 sci5ce ! ,laws ( ,nature4#bjc ,b ! geologi/ does n pass back f _w to _w z !y /& relat$ to ea* o!r 9 ! ord] ( succession 9 "t1 z ! a/ronom] passes f _w to _w z !y /& relat$ to ea* o!r 9 ! ord] ( coexi/5ce 9 space4 ,! rese>*es ( ! geologi/1 moreov]1 are n only conf9$ to "o _w1 b x is only a portion ( ! hi/ory ( t "o _w t c come "u 8 obs]vation4 ,! olde/ ( exi/+ =mations1 s f> z is yet kn[n1 ! ,laur5tian ,gneiss1 is made up ( ! wa/e ( previ\sly exi/+ rocks1 & x1 aga91 has probably be5 d]iv$ f ! degradation ( rocks belong+ to "s /ill old] p]iod4 ,reg>d+ :at succe$s ^! old ,laur5tian rocks geology tells u mu*2 b ( ! =mations t prec$$1 we "k no?+ :atev]4 ,= any?+ t geology %[s to ! contr>y1 ! "t :i* may h elaps$ f ! solidify+ ( ! e>?'s cru/ to ! deposition ( ! ,laur5tian /rata--an absolute blank--may h be5 z great z ! "t t has s9ce int]v5$4 ,probable ,date ( ! ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e ,p]iods4--,if we take into consid]ation ! limit :i* physical sci5ce assigns to ! age ( our globe1 & ! rapid rate at :i*1 z we h se51 d5udation takes place1 x becomes evid5t t ! enorm\s p]iod ( #c millions ( ye>s compreh5d$ 9 ! =ego+ tables mu/ /ret* f> back into ! ,t]ti>y age4 ,suppos+ t ! mean rate ( d5udation dur+ t p]iod 0 n great] ?an ! pres5t rate ( d5udation1 /ill we %\ld h no less ?an #ejj feet ( rock worn (f ! face ( ! c\ntry & c>ri$ into ! sea dur+ ^! #c millions ( ye>s4 ,?is fact %[s h[ totally diff]5t ! appe>ance & configuration ( ! c\ntry 9 all probability 0 at ! comm5cem5t ( ?is p]iod f :at x is at ! pres5t day4 ,if x be correct t ! glacial epo* result$ f ! causes :i* we h already discuss$1 ^? tables ought to aid u 9 our endeav\r to asc]ta9 h[ mu* ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod may be compreh5d$ )9 ^! #c millions ( ye>s4 ,we h already se5 7,*apt] ,,xviii47 t !re is evid5ce ( a glacial condition ( climate at two diff]5t p]iods dur+ ! ,t]ti>y age1 namely1 ab\t ! middle ( ! ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e p]iods respectively4 ,z has already be5 %[n1 ! m sev]e a glacial epo* is1 ! m m>k$ ought to be ! "* ( its w>m int]-glacial p]iods2 ! great] ! ext5sion ( ! ice dur+ ! cold p]iods ( a glacial epo* ! fur!r %\ld t ice disappe> 9 arctic regions dur+ ! correspond+ w>m p]iods4 ,?us ! sev]ity ( a glacial epo* may 9 ?is case be indirectly inf]r$ f ! "* ( ! w>m p]iods & ! ext5t to :i* ! ice may h disappe>$ f arctic regions4 ,judg$ by ?is te/1 we h e reason to believe t ! ,mioc5e glacial epo* 0 "o ( extreme sev]ity4 ,! ,eoc5e conglom]ate1 devoid ( all organic rema9s1 & conta9+ num]\s enorm\s ice-transport$ blocks1 is1 z we h se51 imm$iately associat$ ) nummulitic /rata *>g$ ) fossils *>act]i/ic ( a w>m climate4 ,ref]r+ to ?is ,sir ,*>les ,lyell says1 8,to imag9e iceb]gs c>ry+ su* huge fragm5ts ( /one 9 s s\!rn a latitude1 & at a p]iod imm$iately prec$$ & foll[$ by ! signs ( a w>m climate1 is "o ( ! mo/ p]plex+ enigmas :i* ! geologi/ has yet be5 call$ ^u to solve40#bjd ,x is p]fectly true t1 accord+ to ! g5]ally receiv$ !ories ( ! cause ( a glacial climate ! :ole is a p]plex+ enigma1 b if we adopt ! ,secul> !ory ( *ange ( climate1 e difficulty disappe>s4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory ! v fact ( ! conglom]ate be+ =m$ at a p]iod imm$iately prec$$ & succe$$ by w>m conditions ( climate1 is ( itself /rong presumptive evid5ce ( ! conglom]ate be+ a glacial =mation4 ,b ?is is n all1 ! v highness ( ! temp]ature ( ! prec$+ & succe$+ p]iods be>s te/imony to ! sev]ity ( ! int]v5+ glacial p]iod4 ,despite ! defici5cy ( direct evid5ce reg>d+ ! "* ( ! ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e glacial p]iods1 we are n w>rant$1 = reasons :i* h be5 /at$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xvii41 to conclude t ^! p]iods 7 less sev]e ?an ! "o :i* happ5$ 9 ,quat]n>y times4 ,judg+ f indirect evid5ce1 we h "s gr\nds = conclud+ t ! ,mioc5e glacial epo* at lea/ 0 ev5 m sev]e & protract$ ?an our rec5t glacial epo*4 ,by ref]r+ to ,table ,i41 or ! accompany+ diagram1 x w be se5 t prior to ! p]iod :i* ,i h assign$ z t ( ! glacial epo*1 !re are two p]iods :5 ! ecc5tricity almo/ atta9$ its sup]ior limit4 ,! fir/ p]iod occurr$ #b1ejj1jjj ye>s ago1 :5 x rea*$ #jjgba1 & ! second p]iod #hej1jjj ye>s ago1 :5 x atta9$ a /ill high] value1 viz41 #jjgdg1 be+ )9 #jjjbh ( ! sup]ior limit4 ,to ! fir/ ( ^! p]iods ,i am dispos$ to assign ! glacial epo* ( ,eoc5e times1 & to ! second t ( ! ,mioc5e age4 ,) ! view ( det]m9+ ! "* ( ^! p]iods ,tables ,,ii4 & ,,iii4 h be5 comput$4 ,!y give ! ecc5tricity & longitude ( p]ihelion at int]vals ( #aj1jjj ye>s4 ,x w be se5 f ,table ,,ii4 t ! ,eoc5e p]iod ext5ds f ab\t #b1fbj1jjj to ab\t #b1dfj1jjj ye>s ago2 & f ,table ,,iii4 x w be ga!r$ t ! ,mioc5e p]iod la/$ f ab\t #ihj1jjj to ab\t #gbj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,9 ord] to f9d :e!r ! ecc5tricity atta9$ a high] value ab\t #hej1jjj ye>s ago ?an #jjgdg1 ,i comput$ ! values = "o or two p]iods imm$iately be=e & aft] t p]iod1 & satisfi$ myself t ! value /at$ 0 inde$ ! highe/1 z w be se5 f ! subjo9$ table3-- #hea1jjj #jjgded #hej1jjj #jjgdffd #hdi1ejj #jjgdff #hdi1jjj #jjgdff ,h[ totally diff]5t mu/ h be5 ! condition ( ! e>?'s climate at t p]iod f :at x is at pres5t6 ,tak+ ! mean di/ance ( ! sun to be #ia1djj1jjj miles1 8 pres5t di/ance at midw9t] is #hi1hfd1dhj miles2 b at ! p]iod 9 "q1 :5 ! w9t] sol/ice 0 9 p]ihelion1 8 di/ance at midw9t] w\ld be no less ?an #ih1bbd1bhi miles4 ,b ?is is n all2 our w9t]s are at pres5t %ort] ?an our summ]s by #gh days1 b at t p]iod !y w\ld be long] ?an ! summ]s by #cdg days4 ,at pres5t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! p]ihelion & aphelion di/ance ( ! sun am\nts to only #c1jfi1ehj miles1 b at ! p]iod "u consid]ation x w\ld am\nt to no less ?an #ac1fdh1egi miles6 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,a ,,me?od ,,( ,,det]m9+ ,,! ,,mean ,,?ickness ,,( ,,! ,,s$im5t>y ,,rocks ,,( ,,! ,,globe4 ,prevail+ ,me?ods defective4--,maximum ,?ickness ( ,briti% ,rocks4--,?ree ,elem5ts 9 ! ,"q4--,pr(essor ,huxley on ! ,rate ( ,deposition4--,?ickness ( ,s$im5t>y ,rocks enorm\sly ov]-e/imat$4--,obs]v$ ,?ickness no ,measure ( mean ,?ickness4--,deposition ( ,s$im5t pr9cipally along ,sea-m>g94--,mi/ak5 ,inf]5ce reg>d+ ! ,abs5ce ( a ,=mation4--,imm5se ,antiquity ( exi/+ ,oceans4 ,v>i\s attempts h be5 made to measure ! positive l5g? ( geological p]iods4 ,"s geologi/s h s\ght to det]m9e1 r\ghly1 ! age ( ! /ratifi$ rocks by calculations bas$ ^u _! probable ?ickness & ! rate at :i* !y may h be5 deposit$4 ,?is me?od1 h[ev]1 is wor?less1 because ! rates :i* h be5 adopt$ are purely arbitr>y4 ,"o geologi/ w take ! rate ( deposit at a foot 9 a hundr$ ye>s1 :ile ano!r w assume x to be a foot 9 a ?\s& or p]haps t5 ?\s& ye>s2 &1 = any reasons t h be5 assign$1 ! "o rate is j z likely to be correct z ! o!r3 = if we exam9e :at is tak+ place 9 ! ocean-b$ at ! pres5t day1 we %all f9d 9 "s places a foot ( s$im5t laid d[n 9 a ye>1 :ile 9 o!r places a foot may n be deposit$ 9 a ?\s& ye>s4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks 7 evid5tly =m$ at all possible rates4 ,:5 we speak ( ! rate ( _! =mation1 we mu/ ( c\rse ref] to ! mean rate2 & x is p]fectly true t if we knew ! ?ickness ( ^! rocks & ! mean rate at :i* !y 7 deposit$1 we %\ld h a ready means ( det]m9+ _! positive age4 ,b !re appe>s to be ne>ly z great unc]ta9ty reg>d+ ! ?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y rocks z reg>d+ ! rate at :i* !y 7 =m$4 ,no d\bt we c r\ghly e/imate _! probable maximum ?ickness2 = in/ance1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay has f\nd f actual measurem5t1 t ! s$im5t>y =mations ( ,great ,brita9 h a maximum ?ickness ( upw>ds ( #gb1jjj feet2 b all su* measurem5ts give u no idea ( _! mean ?ickness4 ,:at is ! mean ?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y rocks ( ! globe8 ,on ?is po9t geology does n af=d a def9ite answ]4 ,:atev] ! pres5t mean ?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y rocks ( our globe may be1 x mu/ be small 9 comp>ison to ! mean ?ickness ( all ! s$im5t>y rocks :i* h be5 =m$4 ,?is is obvi\s f ! fact t ! s$im5t>y rocks ( "o age are p>tly =m$ f ! de/ruction ( ! s$im5t>y rocks ( =m] ages4 ,f ! ,laur5tian age d[n to ! pres5t day1 ! /ratifi$ rocks h be5 und]go+ con/ant d5udation4 ,unless we take into consid]ation ! quantity ( rock remov$ dur+ pa/ ages by d5udation1 we _c--ev5 ?\gh we knew ! actual mean ?ickness ( ! exi/+ s$im5t>y rocks ( ! globe1 & ! rate at :i* !y 7 =m$--arrive at an e/imate reg>d+ ! l5g? ( "t repres5t$ by ^! rocks4 ,= if we are to det]m9e ! age ( ! /ratifi$ rocks f ! rate at :i* !y 7 =m$1 we mu/ h1 n ! pres5t quantity ( s$im5t>y rocks1 b ! pres5t plus ! quantity :i* has be5 d5ud$ dur+ pa/ ages4 ,9 o!r words1 we mu/ h ! absolute quantity =m$4 ,9 _m places ! miss+ b$s mu/ h be5 ( enorm\s ?ickness4 ,! "t repres5t$ by b$s :i* h disappe>$ is1 d\btless1 z already rem>k$1 mu* great] ?an t repres5t$ by ! b$s :i* n[ rema94 ,! great] mass ( ! s$im5t>y rocks has be5 =m$ out ( previ\sly exi/+ s$im5t>y rocks1 & ^! aga9 out ( s$im5t>y rocks /ill old]4 ,z ! mat]ials compos+ our /ratifi$ b$s may h pass$ ?r\gh _m cycles ( de/ruction & re-=mation1 ! "t requir$ to h deposit$ at a giv5 rate ! pres5t exi/+ mass ( s$im5t>y rocks may be b a fraction ( ! "t requir$ to h deposit$ at ! same rate ! total mass t has actually be5 =m$4 ,to measure ! age ( ! s$im5t>y rocks by ! pres5t exi/+ rocks1 assum$ to be =m$ at "s giv5 rate1 ev5 suppos+ ! rate to be correct1 is a me?od :olly fallaci\s4 8,! aggregate ( s$im5t>y /rata 9 ! e>?'s cru/10 says ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 8c nev] exce$ 9 volume ! am\nt ( solid matt] :i* has be5 gr\nd d[n & wa%$ away by riv]s1 waves1 & curr5ts4 ,h[ va/1 !n1 mu/ be ! spaces :i* ?is ab/raction ( matt] has left vacant6 ,h[ f> exce$+ 9 dim5sions all ! valleys1 h[ev] num]\s1 & ! holl[s1 h[ev] va/1 :i* we c prove to h be5 cle>$ out by aque\s erosion60#bje ,i presume !re are few geologi/s :o w\ld n admit t if all ! rocks :i* h 9 pa/ ages be5 remov$ by d5udation 7 re/or$1 ! mean ?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y rocks ( ! globe w\ld be at lea/ equal to _! pres5t maximum ?ickness1 :i* we may take at #gb1jjj feet4 ,!re are ?ree elem5ts 9 ! "q2 ( :i* if two are kn[n1 ! ?ird is kn[n 9 t]ms ( ! o!r two4 ,if we h ! mean ?ickness ( all ! s$im5t>y rocks :i* h be5 =m$ & ! mean rate ( =mation1 !n we h ! "t :i* elaps$ dur+ ! =mation2 or hav+ ! ?ickness & ! "t1 we h ! rate2 or1 hav+ ! rate & ! "t1 we h ! ?ickness4 ,"o ( ^! ?ree1 namely1 ! rate1 c1 h[ev]1 be det]m9$ ) tol]able accuracy if we are simply all[$ to assume--:at is v probable1 z has already be5 %[n--t ! pres5t rate at :i* ! s$im5t>y deposits are be+ =m$ may be tak5 z ! mean rate = pa/ ages4 ,if we "k ! rate at :i* ! l& is be+ d5ud$1 !n we "k ) p]fect accuracy ! rate at :i* ! s$im5t>y deposits are be+ =m$ 9 ! ocean4 ,?is is obvi\s1 because all ! mat]ials d5ud$ f ! l& are deposit$ 9 ! sea2 & :at is deposit$ 9 ! sea is j :at comes (f ! l&1 ) ! exception ( ! small proportion ( calc>e\s matt] :i* may n h be5 d]iv$ f ! l&1 & :i* 9 our r\gh e/imate may be left out ( acc\nt4 ,n[ ! mean rate ( subarial d5udation1 we h se51 is ab\t "o foot 9 #f1jjj ye>s4 ,tak+ ! proportion ( l& to t ( wat] at #egf to #a1cij1 !n "o foot tak5 (f ! l& & spread ov] ! sea-bottom w\ld =m a lay] #e in*es ?ick4 ,consequ5tly1 if "o foot 9 #f1jjj ye>s repres5ts ! mean rate at :i* ! l& is be+ d5ud$1 "o foot 9 #ad1djj ye>s repres5ts ! mean rate at :i* ! s$im5t>y rocks are be+ =m$4 ,assum+1 z be=e1 t #gb1jjj feet w\ld repres5t ! mean ?ickness ( all ! s$im5t>y rocks :i* h ev] be5 =m$1 ?is1 at ! rate ( "o foot 9 #ad1djj ye>s1 gives #a1jcf1hjj1jjj ye>s z ! age ( ! /ratifi$ rocks4 ,pr(essor ,huxley1 9 8 endeav\r to %[ t #ajj1jjj1jjj ye>s is a p]iod suffici5tly long = all ! dem&s ( geologi/s1 takes ! ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ rocks at #ajj1jjj feet1 & ! rate ( deposit at a foot 9 #a1jjj ye>s4 ,"o foot ( rock p] #a1jjj ye>s gives1 x is true1 #ajj1jjj feet 9 #ajj1jjj1jjj ye>s4 ,b :at ab\t ! rocks :i* h disappe>$8 ,if x takes a hundr$ millions ( ye>s to produce a mass ( rock equal to t :i* n[ exi/s1 h[ _m hundr$s ( millions ( ye>s w x require to produce a mass equal to :at has actually be5 produc$8 ,pr(essor ,huxley adds1 8,i d n "k t any "o is prep>$ to ma9ta9 t ! /ratifi$ rocks may n h be5 =m$ on ! av]age at ! rate ( #a_/hcrd ( an in* p] annum40 ,:5 ! rate1 h[ev]1 is accurately det]m9$1 x is f\nd to be1 n #a_/hcrd ( an in* p] annum1 b only #a_/abjj? ( an in*1 s t ! #ajj1jjj feet ( rock mu/ h tak5 #a1ddj1jjj1jjj ye>s 9 its =mation1--a conclusion :i*1 accord+ to ! results ( mod]n physics1 is :olly inadmissible4 ,ei!r ! ?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y rocks has be5 ov]-e/imat$1 or ! rate ( _! =mation has be5 "u-e/imat$1 or bo?4 ,if x be ma9ta9$ t a foot 9 #ad1djj ye>s is too sl[ a rate ( deposit1 !n x mu/ be ma9ta9$ t ! l& mu/ h be5 d5ud$ at a great] rate ?an "o foot 9 #f1jjj ye>s4 ,b mo/ geologi/s probably felt surpris$ :5 ! ann\ncem5t 0 fir/ made1 t at ?is rate ( d5udation ! :ole exi/+ l& ( ! globe w\ld be br\ght "u ! ocean 9 #f1jjj1jjj ( ye>s4 ,! error1 no d\bt1 consi/s 9 ov]-e/imat+ ! ?ickness ( ! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,assum+1 = physical reasons already /at$1 t #ajj1jjj1jjj ye>s limits ! age ( ! /ratifi$ rocks1 & t ! proportion ( l& to wat] & ! rate ( d5udation h be5 on ! av]age ! same z at pres5t1 ! mean ?ickness ( s$im5t>y rocks =m$ 9 ! #ajj1jjj1jjj ye>s am\nts to only #g1jjj feet4 ,b be x obs]v$ t ?is is ! mean ?ickness on an area equal to t ( ! ocean4 ,ov] ! area ( ! globe x am\nts to only #e1jjj feet2 & ?is1 let x be obs]v$ also1 is ! total mean ?ickness =m$1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt :at has be5 remov$ by d5udation4 ,if we wi% to asc]ta9 :at is actually ! pres5t mean ?ickness1 we mu/ d$uct f ?is #e1jjj feet an am\nt ( rock equal to all ! s$im5t>y rocks :i* h be5 d5ud$ dur+ ! #ajj1jjj1jjj ye>s2 = ! #e1jjj feet is n ! pres5t mean ?ickness1 b ! total mean ?ickness =m$ dur+ ! :ole ( ! #ajj1jjj1jjj ye>s4 ,if we assume1 :at no d\bt mo/ geologi/s w\ld be will+ to grant1 t ! quantity ( s$im5t>y rocks n[ rema9+ is n ov] "o-half ( :at has be5 actually deposit$ dur+ ! hi/ory ( ! globe1 !n ! actual mean ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ! globe is n ov] #b1ejj feet4 ,?is />tl+ result w\ld almo/ necessitate u to suspect t ! rate ( subarial d5udation is probably great] ?an "o foot 9 #f1jjj ye>s4 ,b1 be ?is z x may1 we are apt1 9 e/imat+ ! mean ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ! globe f _! asc]ta9$ maximum ?ickness1 to arrive at errone\s conclusions4 ,!re are consid]ations :i* %[ t ! mean ?ickness ( ^! rocks mu/ be small 9 proportion to _! maximum ?ickness4 ,! /ratifi$ rocks are =m$ f ! s$im5t c>ri$ d[n by riv]s & /reamlets & deposit$ 9 ! sea4 ,x is obvi\s t ! great] quantity ( ?is s$im5t is deposit$ ne> ! m\?s ( riv]s1 & along a n>r[ m>g9 ext5d+ to no great di/ance f ! l&4 ,did ! l& consi/ ( num]\s small isl&s equally di/ribut$ ov] ! globe1 ! s$im5t c>ri$ (f f ^! isl&s w\ld be spread pretty equally ov] ! sea-bottom4 ,b ! great] "p ( ! l&-surface consi/s ( two imm5se cont95ts4 ,consequ5tly1 ! mat]ials remov$ by d5udation are n spread ov] ! ocean-bottom1 b on a n>r[ fr+e surr\nd+ ^? two cont95ts4 ,7 ! mat]ials spread ov] ! entire ocean-b$1 a foot remov$ (f ! g5]al surface ( ! l& w\ld =m a lay] ( rock only five in*es ?ick4 ,b 9 ! way 9 :i* ! mat]ials are at pres5t deposit$1 ! foot remov$ f ! l& w\ld =m a lay] ( rock _m feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! great] "p ( ! s$im5t is deposit$ )9 a few miles ( ! %ore4 ,! entire coa/-l9e ( ! globe is ab\t #aaf1ejj miles4 ,i %\ld ?9k t ! quantity ( s$im5t deposit$ beyond1 say1 #ajj miles f ?is coa/-l9e is n v great4 ,no d\bt sev]al ( ! l>ge riv]s c>ry s$im5t to a mu* great] di/ance f _! m\?s ?an #ajj miles1 & ocean curr5ts may 9 "s cases c>ry mud & o!r mat]ials also to great di/ances4 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t at _m places )9 ! #ajj miles ( ?is imm5se coa/-l9e little or no s$im5t is deposit$1 s t ! actual area ov] :i* ! s$im5t c>ri$ (f ! l& is deposit$ is probably n great] ?an ! area ( ?is belt--#aaf1ejj miles long & #ajj miles broad4 ,?is area on :i* ! s$im5t is deposit$1 on ! above supposition1 is !re=e equal to ab\t #aa1fej1jjj squ>e miles4 ,! am\nt ( l& on ! globe is ab\t #eg1fjj1jjj squ>e miles4 ,consequ5tly1 "o foot ( rock1 d5ud$ f ! surface ( ! l& & deposit$ on ?is belt1 w\ld make a /ratum ( rock #e feet 9 ?ickness2 b 7 ! s$im5t spread ov] ! entire b$ ( ! ocean1 x w\ld =m1 z has already be5 /at$1 a /ratum ( rock ( only #e in*es 9 ?ickness4 ,suppose t no subsid5ce ( ! l& %\ld take place = a p]iod (1 say1 #c1jjj1jjj ( ye>s4 ,dur+ t p]iod #ejj feet w\ld be remov$ by d5udation1 on an av]age1 (f ! l&4 ,?is w\ld make a =mation #b1ejj feet ?ick1 :i* "s future geologi/ might call ! ,po/-t]ti>y =mation4 ,b ?is1 be x obs]v$1 w\ld be only ! mean ?ickness ( ! =mation on ?is area2 its maximum ?ickness w\ld evid5tly be mu* great]1 p]haps twice1 ?rice1 or ev5 f\r times t ?ickness4 ,a geologi/ 9 ! future1 measur+ ! actual ?ickness ( ! =mation1 might f9d x 9 "s places #aj1jjj feet 9 ?ickness1 or p]haps f> m4 ,b _h ! mat]ials be5 spread ov] ! entire ocean-b$1 ! =mation w\ld h a mean ?ickness ( little m ?an #bjj feet2 & spread ov] ! entire surface ( ! globe1 w\ld =m a /ratum ( sc>cely #aej feet 9 ?ickness4 ,!re=e1 9 e/imat+ ! mean ?ickness ( ! /ratifi$ rocks ( ! globe1 a =mation ) a maximum ?ickness ( #aj1jjj feet may n repres5t m ?an #aej feet4 ,a =mation ) a mean ?ickness ( #aj1jjj feet repres5ts only #fjj feet4 ,x may be object$ t 9 tak+ ! pres5t rate at :i* ! s$im5t>y deposits are be+ =m$ z ! mean rate = all ages1 we probably "u-e/imate ! total am\nt ( rock =m$1 because dur+ ! _m glacial p]iods :i* mu/ h occurr$ 9 pa/ ages ! am\nt ( mat]ials gr\nd (f ! rocky surface ( ! l& 9 a giv5 p]iod w\ld be f> great] ?an at pres5t4 ,b1 9 reply1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t al?\gh ! de/ruction 9 ice-cov]$ regions w\ld be great] dur+ ^! p]iods ?an at pres5t1 yet ! quantity ( mat]ials c>ri$ d[n by riv]s into ! sea w\ld be less4 ,at ! pres5t day ! great] "p ( ! mat]ials c>ri$ d[n by our riv]s is n :at is be+ remov$ (f ! rocky face ( ! c\ntry1 b ! b\ld] clay1 s&1 & o!r mat]ials :i* 7 gr\nd (f dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,x is !re=e possible1 on ?is acc\nt1 t ! rate ( deposit may h be5 less dur+ ! glacial epo* ?an at pres5t4 ,:5 any p>ticul> =mation is want+ 9 a giv5 area1 ! inf]5ce g5]ally drawn is1 t ei!r ! =mation has be5 d5ud$ (f ! area1 or ! area 0 a l&-surface dur+ ! p]iod :5 t =mation 0 be+ deposit$4 ,f ! =ego+ x w be se5 t ?is inf]5ce is n legitimate2 =1 suppos+ t ! area _h be5 "u wat]1 ! *ances t mat]ials %\ld h be5 deposit$ on t area are f> less ?an are ! *ances t !re %\ld n4 ,!re are sixte5 *ances aga9/ "o t no =mation ev] exi/$ 9 ! area4 ,if ! great depressions ( ! ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 & ,indian ,oceans be1 = example1 z old z ! beg9n+ ( ! ,laur5tian p]iod--& !y may be s = any?+ :i* geology c %[ to ! contr>y--!n "u ^! oceans little or no /ratifi$ rocks may exi/4 ,! supposition t ! great ocean bas9s are ( imm5se antiquity1 & t consequ5tly only a small proportion ( ! s$im5t>y /rata c possibly occupy ! deep] b$ ( ! sea1 acquires /ill m probability :5 we consid] ! great ext5t & ?ickness ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ! ,p]mian1 & o!r deposits1 :i*1 accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ramsay & o!rs1 h be5 accumulat$ 9 va/ inl& lakes4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,subm]g5ce ,,& ,,em]g5ce ,,( ,,! ,,l& ,,dur+ ,,! ,,glacial ,,epo*4 ,displacem5t ( ! ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity by ,pol> ,ice-cap4--,simple ,me?od ( e/imat+ ,am\nt ( ,displacem5t4--,note by ,sir ,w4 ,?omson on =ego+ ,me?od4--,diff]5ce betwe5 ,cont95tal ,ice & a ,glaci]4--,probable ,?ickness ( ! ,ant>ctic ,ice-cap4--,probable ,?ickness ( ,gre5l& ,ice-%eet4--,! ,iceb]gs ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean4--,inadequate ,conceptions reg>d+ ! ,magnitude ( ,cont95tal ,ice4 ,displacem5t ( ! ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity by ,pol> ,ice-cap4#bjf--;,9 ord] to repres5t ! "q 9 its mo/ simple elem5t>y =m1 ,i %all assume an ice-cap ( a giv5 ?ickness at ! pole & gradually dim9i%+ 9 ?ickness t[>ds ! equator 9 ! simple proportion ( ! s9es ( ! latitudes1 :]e at ! equator its ?ickness ( c\rse is z]o4 ,let u assume1 :at is actually ! case1 t ! equatorial diamet] ( ! globe is some:at great] ?an ! pol>1 b t :5 ! ice-cap is plac$ on "o hemisph]e ! :ole =ms a p]fect sph]e4 ,i %all beg9 ) a p]iod ( glaciation on ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,let ,w ,n ,e ,s 7,fig4 #e7 be ! solid "p ( ! e>?1 & c its c5tre ( gravity4 ,& let ,e ,s ,w be an ice-cap cov]+ ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,let u 9 ! fir/ case assume ! e>? to be ( ! same d5sity z ! cap4 ,! e>? ) its cap =ms n[ a p]fect sph]e ) its c5tre ( gravity at o2 = ,w ,n ,e ,s is a circle1 & o is its c5tre4 ,suppose n[ ! :ole to be cov]$ ) an ocean a few miles deep1 ! ocean w assume ! sph]ical =m1 & w be ( uni=m dep?4 ,let ! s\!rn w9t] sol/ice beg9 n[ to move r\nd f ! aphelion4 ,! ice-cap w also comm5ce gradually to dim9i% 9 ?ickness1 & ano!r cap w beg9 to make its appe>ance on ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,z ! nor!rn cap may be suppos$1 = simplicity ( calculation1 to increase at ! same rate t ! s\!rn w dim9i%1 ! sph]ical =m ( ! e>? w always be ma9ta9$4 ,by ! "t t ! nor!rn cap has rea*$ a maximum1 ! s\!rn cap w h completely disappe>$4 ,! circle ,w ,n ,e ,s w n[ repres5t ! e>? ) its cap on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & o w be its c5tre ( gravity2 = o is ! c5tre ( ! circle ,w ,n ,e ,s4 ,& z ! di/ance betwe5 ! c5tres o & o is equal to ,n ,n1 ! ?ickness ( ! cap at ! pole ,n ,n w !re=e repres5t ! ext5t to :i* ! c5tre ( gravity has be5 displac$4 ,x w also repres5t ! ext5t to :i* ! ocean has ris5 at ! nor? pole & sunk at ! s\?4 ,?is is evid5t2 = z ! sph]e ,w ,n ,e ,s is ! same 9 all respects z ! sph]e ,w ,n ,e ,s1 ) ! exception only t ! cap is on ! opposite side1 ! surface ( ! ocean at ! poles w n[ be at ! same di/ance f ! c5tre o z x 0 f ! c5tre o :5 ! cap cov]$ ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,h5ce ! di/ance betwe5 o & o mu/ be equal to ! ext5t ( ! subm]g5ce at ! nor? pole & ! em]g5ce at ! s\?4 ,neglect ! attraction ( ! alt]+ wat] on ! wat] itself1 :i* lat] on w come "u our consid]ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,we %all n[ consid] ! result :5 ! e>? is tak5 at its actual d5sity1 :i* is g5]ally believ$ to be ab\t #ee4 ,! d5sity ( ice be+ #ib1 ! d5sity ( ! cap to t ( ! e>? w !re=e be z #a to #f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,let ,fig4 #f repres5t ! e>? ) an ice-cap on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ^: ?ickness is1 say1 #f1jjj feet at ! pole4 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( ! e>? )\t ! cap is at c4 ,:5 ! cap is on1 ! c5tre ( gravity is %ift$ to o1 a po9t a little m ?an #ejj feet to ! nor? ( c4 ,_h ! cap & ! e>? be5 ( equal d5sity1 ! c5tre ( gravity w\ld h be5 %ift$ to o ! c5tre ( ! figure1 a po9t situat$1 ( c\rse1 #c1jjj feet to ! nor? ( c4 ,n[ x is v approximately true t ! ocean w t5d to adju/ itself z a sph]e ar\nd ! c5tre ( gravity1 o4 ,?us x w\ld ( c\rse s9k at ! s\? pole & rise to ! same ext5t at ! nor?1 9 any op5+ or *annel 9 ! ice all[+ ! wat] to ent]4 ,let ! ice-cap be n[ transf]r$ ov] to ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & ! condition ( ?+s on ! two hemisph]es w 9 e p>ticul> be rev]s$4 ,! c5tre ( gravity w !n lie to ! s\? ( c1 or ab\t #a1jjj feet f its =m] position4 ,consequ5tly ! transf]5ce ( ! cap f ! "o hemisph]e to ! o!r w produce a total subm]g5ce ( ab\t #a1jjj feet4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 absurd to suppose t an ice-cap c\ld ev] actually rea* d[n to ! equator4 ,x is probable t ! great ice-cap ( ! glacial epo* n[h]e rea*$ ev5 halfway to ! equator4 ,our cap mu/ !re=e t]m9ate at a mod]ately high latitude4 ,let x t]m9ate some:]e ab\t ! latitude ( ! nor? ( ,engl&1 say at latitude #ee4 ,all t we h to d n[ is simply to imag9e our cap1 up to t latitude1 becom+ conv]t$ into ! fluid /ate4 ,?is w\ld r$uce ! cap to less ?an "o-half its =m] mass4 ,b x w\ld n dim9i% ! subm]g5ce to any?+ l t ext5t4 ,= al?\gh ! cap w\ld be r$uc$ to less ?an "o-half its =m] mass1 yet its influ5ce 9 displac+ ! c5tre ( gravity w\ld n be dim9i%$ to t ext5t4 ,?is is evid5t2 = ! cap n[ ext5d+ d[n to only latitude #ee1 has its c5tre ( gravity mu* f>!r remov$ f ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity ?an x _h :5 x ext5d$ d[n to ! equator4 ,consequ5tly x n[ possesses1 9 proportion to its mass1 a mu* great] p[] 9 displac+ ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity4 ,!re is ano!r fact :i* mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,! common c5tre ( gravity ( ! e>? & cap is n exactly ! po9t ar\nd :i* ! ocean t5ds to adju/ itself4 ,x adju/s itself n 9 relation to ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! solid mass alone1 b 9 relation to ! common c5tre ( gravity ( ! entire mass1 solid & liquid4 ,n[ ! wat] :i* is pull$ ov] f ! "o hemisph]e to ! o!r by ! attraction ( ! cap w also aid 9 displac+ ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,x w co-op]ate ) ! cap & c>ry ! true c5tre ( gravity to a po9t beyond t ( ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! e>? & cap1 & ?us increase ! effect4 ,x is ( c\rse p]fectly true t :5 ! ice-cap does n ext5d d[n to ! equator1 z 9 ! latt] supposition1 & is ( less d5sity ?an ! globe1 ! ocean w n adju/ itself uni=mly ar\nd ! c5tre ( gravity2 b ! deviation f p]fect uni=mity is s trifl+1 z w be se5 f ! app5d$ note ( ,sir ,william ,?omson1 t = all practical purposes x may be entirely left out ( acc\nt4 ,9 ! ,read] = ,janu>y #ac1 #ahff1 ,i advanc$ an objection to ! subm]g5ce !ory on ! gr\nds t ! l[]+ ( ! ocean-level by ! evaporation ( ! wat] to =m ! ice-cap1 w\ld exce$ ! subm]g5ce result+ f ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity4 ,b1 aft] my lett] _h gone to press1 ,i f\nd t ,i _h ov]look$ "s important consid]ations :i* seem to prove t ! objection _h no real f\ndation4 ,= dur+ a glacial p]iod1 say on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! entire mass ( ice :i* pres5tly exi/s on ! s\!rn hemisph]e w\ld be transf]r$ to ! nor!rn1 leav+ ! quantity ( liquid wat] to a great ext5t un*ang$4 ,note on ! prec$+ by ,sir ,william ,?omson1 ,f4,r4,s4 8,mr4 ,croll's e/imate ( ! influ5ce ( a cap ( ice on ! sea-level is v rem>kable 9 its relation to ,laplace's celebrat$ analysis1 z be+ f\nd$ on t law ( ?ickness :i* leads to expressions involv+ only ! fir/ t]m ( ! s]ies ( #8,laplace's functions1' or #8sph]ical h>monics4' ,! equation ( ! level surface1 z alt]$ by any giv5 transf]5ce ( solid matt]1 is express$ by equat+ ! alt]$ pot5tial function to a con/ant4 ,?is function1 :5 exp&$ 9 ! s]ies ( sph]ical h>monics1 has = its fir/ t]m ! pot5tial due to ! :ole mass suppos$ collect$ at its alt]$ c5tre ( gravity4 ,h5ce a sph]ical surface r\nd ! alt]$ c5tre ( gravity is ! fir/ approximation 9 ,laplace's me?od ( solution = ! alt]$ level surface4 ,mr4 ,croll has ) admirable tact *os51 ( all ! arbitr>y suppositions t may be made f\ndations = r\gh e/imates ( ! *ange ( sea-level due to v>iations 9 ! pol> ice-cru/s1 ! "o :i* r$uces to z]o all t]ms aft] ! fir/ 9 ! h>monic s]ies1 & r5d]s t fir/ approximation 7:i* always expresses ! ess5ce ( ! result7 ! :ole solution1 undi/urb$ by t]ms irrelevant to ! great physical "q4 8,mr4 ,croll1 9 ! prec$+ pap]1 has allud$ ) rem>kable cle>ness to ! effect ( ! *ange 9 ! di/ribution ( ! wat] 9 increas+1 by its own attraction1 ! deviation ( ! level surface above t :i* is due to ! giv5 *ange 9 ! di/ribution ( solid matt]4 ,! rem>k he makes1 t x is r\nd ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! alt]$ solid & alt]$ liquid t ! alt]+ liquid surface adju/s itself1 expresses ! ess5ce ( ,laplace's celebrat$ demon/ration ( ! /ability ( ! ocean1 & sugge/s ! prop] elem5t>y solution ( ! problem to f9d ! true alt]ation ( sea-level produc$ by a giv5 alt]ation ( ! solid4 ,z an assumption lead+ to a simple calculation1 let u suppose ! solid e>? to rise out ( ! wat] 9 a va/ numb] ( small flat-topp$ isl&s1 ea* b\nd$ by a p]p5dicul> cliff1 & let ! proportion ( wat] area to ! :ole be equal 9 all qu>t]s4 ,let all ( ^! isl&s 9 "o hemisph]e be cov]$ ) ice1 ( ?ickness accord+ to ! law assum$ by ,mr4 ,croll--t is1 v>y+ 9 simple proportion ( ! s9e ( ! latitude4 ,let ?is ice be remov$ f ! fir/ hemisph]e & simil>ly di/ribut$ ov] ! isl&s ( ! second4 ,by work+ out accord+ to ,mr4 ,croll's directions1 x is easily f\nd t ! *ange ( sea-level :i* ?is w produce w consi/ 9 a s9k+ 9 ! fir/ hemisph]e & ris+ 9 ! second1 ?r\gh heights v>y+ accord+ to ! same law 7t is1 simple proportionality to s9es ( latitudes71 & am\nt+ at ea* pole to 7#a - 7x ------------------1 #a - w :]e t d5otes ! ?ickness ( ! ice-cru/ at ! pole2 i ! ratio ( ! d5sity ( ice1 & w t ( sea-wat] to ! e>?'s mean d5sity2 & ! ratio ( ! area ( ocean to ! :ole surface4 8,?us1 = in/ance1 if we suppose 1 & t #f1jjj feet1 & take & #a_/7e7 z ! d5sities ( ice & wat] respectively1 we f9d = ! rise ( sea-level at "o pole1 & depression at ! o!r1 #fjjj ------------------------1 #b #a #a - -- -- #c #e or approximately #chj feet4 8,i %all n[ proce$ to consid] r\ghly :at is ! probable ext5t ( subm]g5ce :i*1 dur+ ! glacial epo*1 may h result$ f ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity by means ( ! transf]r5ce ( ! pol> ice f ! "o hemisph]e to ! o!r40 ,diff]5ce betwe5 ,cont95tal-ice & a ,glaci]4--,an ord9>y glaci] desc5ds 9 virtue ( ! slope ( its b$1 &1 z a g5]al rule1 x is on ?is acc\nt ?9 at its comm5cem5t1 & ?ick5s z x desc5ds into ! l[] valleys1 :]e ! slope is less & ! resi/ance to motion great]4 ,b 9 ! case ( cont95tal ice matt]s are entirely diff]5t4 ,! slope ( ! gr\nd ex]cises little or no influ5ce on ! motion ( ! ice4 ,9 a cont95t ( "o or two ?\s& miles across1 ! g5]al slope ( ! gr\nd may be left out ( acc\nt2 = any slight elevation :i* ! c5tre ( su* a cont95t may h w n comp5sate = ! resi/ance (f]$ to ! fl[ ( ! ice by m\nta9 ridges1 hills1 & o!r irregul>ities ( its surface4 ,! ice c move (f su* a surface only 9 consequ5ce ( pressure act+ f ! int]ior4 ,9 ord] to produce su* a pressure1 !re mu/ be a pil+ up ( ! ice 9 ! int]ior2 or1 9 o!r words1 ! ice-%eet mu/ ?ick5 f ! edge inw>ds to ! c5tre4 ,we are necess>ily l$ to ! same conclusion1 ?\gh we %\ld n admit t ! ice moves 9 consequ5ce ( pressure f beh9d1 b %\ld hold1 on ! contr>y1 t ea* p>ticle ( ice moves by gravity 9 virtue ( its own weight2 = 9 ord] to h su* a motion !re mu/ be a slope1 & z ! slope is n on ! gr\nd1 x mu/ be on ! ice itself3 consequ5tly we mu/ conclude t ! upp] surface ( ! ice slopes upw>ds f ! edge to ! int]ior4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! lea/ slope at :i* ! ice w desc5d8 ,mr4 ,hopk9s f\nd t ice b>ely moves on a slope ( "o degree4 ,we h !re=e "s data = arriv+ at lea/ at a r\gh e/imate ( ! probable ?ickness ( an ice-%eet cov]+ a cont95t1 su*1 = example1 z ,gre5l& or ! ,ant>ctic ,cont95t4 ,probable ,?ickness ( ! ,ant>ctic ,ice-cap4--,! ant>ctic cont95t is g5]ally believ$ to ext5d1 on an av]age1 f ! ,s\? ,pole d[n to ab\t1 at lea/1 lat4 #gj4 ,9 r\nd numb]s1 we may take ! diamet] ( ?is cont95t at #b1hjj miles4 ,! di/ance f ! edge ( ?is ice-cap to its c5tre1 ! ,s\? ,pole1 w1 !re=e1 be #a1djj miles4 ,! :ole ( ?is cont95t1 l ,gre5l&1 is und\bt$ly cov]$ ) "o cont9u\s %eet ( ice gradually ?ick5+ inw>ds f its edge to its c5tre4 ,a slope ( "o degree cont9u$ = #a1djj miles w give tw5ty-f\r miles z ! ?ickness ( ! ice at ! pole4 ,b suppose ! slope ( ! upp] surface ( ! cap to be only "o-half ?is am\nt1 viz41 a half degree1--& we h no evid5ce t a slope s small w\ld be suffici5t to dis*>ge ! ice1--/ill we h twelve miles z ! ?ickness ( ! cap at ! pole4 ,to ^? :o h n be5 accu/om$ to reflect on ! physical conditions ( ! problem1 ?is e/imate may d\btless be reg>d$ z some:at extravagant2 b a slight consid]ation w %[ t x w\ld be ev5 m extravagant to assume t a slope ( less ?an half a degree w\ld be suffici5t to produce ! necess>y outfl[ ( ! ice4 ,9 e/imat+ ! ?ickness ( a %eet ( cont95tal ice ( "o or two ?\s& miles across1 our imag9ation is apt to deceive u4 ,we c easily =m a pretty accurate s5su\s repres5tation ( ! ?ickness ( ! %eet2 b we c =m no adequate repres5tation ( its sup]ficial area4 ,we c repres5t to ! m9d ) tol]able accuracy a ?ickness ( a few miles1 b we _c d ?is 9 ref]5ce to ! area ( a surface #b1hjj miles across4 ,consequ5tly1 9 judg+ :at proportion ! ?ickness ( ! %eet %\ld be> to its sup]ficial area1 we are apt to fall into ! error ( "u-e/imat+ ! ?ickness4 ,we h a /rik+ example ( ?is 9 reg>d to ! ocean4 ,! ?+ :i* impresses u mo/ =cibly 9 reg>d to ! ocean is its pr(\nd dep?4 ,a mean dep? (1 say1 ?ree miles produces a /rik+ impression2 b if we c\ld repres5t to ! m9d ! va/ area ( ! ocean z correctly z we c d its dep?1 %all[ness r ?an dep? w\ld be ! impression produc$4 ,a %eet ( wat] #ajj y>ds 9 diamet]1 & only "o in* deep1 w\ld n be call$ a deep b a v %all[ pool or ?9 lay] ( wat]4 ,b su* a lay] w\ld be a correct repres5tation ( ! ocean 9 m9iature4 ,7 we 9 l mann] to repres5t to ! eye 9 m9iature ! ant>ctic ice-cap1 we w\ld call x a ?9 cru/ ( ice4 ,tak+ ! mean ?ickness ( ! ice at f\r miles1 ! ant>ctic ice-%eet w\ld be repres5t$ by a c>pet cov]+ ! floor ( an ord9>y-siz$ d9+-room4 ,7 ^? :o consid] ! above e/imate ( ! ?ickness ( ! ant>ctic ice-cap z extravagantly great call$ ^u to sket* on pap] a section ( :at !y %\ld deem a cap ( mod]ate ?ickness1 n9ety-n9e out ( e hundr$ w\ld draw "o ( mu* great] ?ickness ?an twelve miles at ! c5tre4 ,! diagram on foll[+ page 7,fig4 #g7 repres5ts a section across ! cap drawn to a natural scale2 ! upp] surface ( ! %eet hav+ a slope ( half a degree4 ,no "o on look+ at ! section w\ld pron\nce x to be too ?ick at ! c5tre1 unless he 7 previ\sly made aw>e t x repres5t$ a ?ickness ( twelve miles at t place4 ,x may be "h m5tion$ t _h ! section be5 drawn ^u a mu* l>g] scale--_h x1 = in/ance1 be5 made sev5 feet long1 in/ead ( sev5 in*es--x w\ld h %[n to ! eye 9 a m /rik+ mann] ! ?9ness ( ! cap4 ,b to avoid all objections on ! score ( ov]-e/imat+ ! ?ickness ( ! cap1 ,i %all assume ! angle ( ! upp] surface to be only a qu>t] ( a degree1 & ! ?ickness ( ! %eet "o-half :at x is repres5t$ 9 ! section4 ,! ?ickness at ! pole w !n be only six miles in/ead ( twelve1 & ! mean ?ickness ( ! cap two in/ead ( f\r miles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,section across ,ant>ctic ,ice-cap1 drawn to a natural scale4 ,l5g? repres5t$ by section #b1hjj miles4 ,?ickness at c5tre 7,s\? ,pole7 #ab miles4 ,slope ( upp] surface half-degree4 ,is !re any well-gr\nd$ reason = conclud+ ! above to be an ov]-e/imate ( ! actual ?ickness ( ! ant>ctic ice8 ,x is n s mu* 9 consequ5ce ( any priori reason t c be urg$ aga9/ ! probability ( su* a ?ickness ( ice1 b r because x s f> transc5ds our previ\s exp]i5ce t we are reluctant to admit su* an e/imate4 ,if we nev] _h any exp]i5ce ( ice ?ick] ?an :at is f\nd 9 ,engl&1 we %\ld feel />tl$ on le>n+ = ! fir/ "t t 9 ! valleys ( ,switz]l& ! ice lay f #bjj to #cjj feet 9 dep?4 ,aga91 if we _h nev] he>d ( glaci]s ?ick] ?an ^? ( ,switz]l&1 we c\ld h>dly cr$it ! /atem5t t 9 ,gre5l& !y are actually f #b1jjj to #c1jjj feet ?ick4 ,we1 9 ?is c\ntry1 h long be5 famili> ) ,gre5l&2 b till v lately no "o ev] ent]ta9$ ! idea t t cont95t 0 buri$ "u "o cont9u\s mass ( ice1 ) sc>cely a m\nta9 top ris+ above ! icy mantle4 ,& _h x n be5 t ! geological ph5om5a ( ! glacial epo* h = s _m ye>s accu/om$ our m9ds to su* an extraord9>y condition ( ?+s1 ,dr4 ,r9k's description ( ! ,gre5l& ice w\ld probably h be5 reg>d$ z ! extravagant picture ( a wild imag9ation4 ,let u n[ consid] :e!r or n ! facts ( obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 s f> z !y g1 be> out ! conclusions to :i* physical consid]ations lead u 9 ref]5ce to ! magnitude ( cont95tal ice2 & m especially z reg>ds ! ice ( ! ant>ctic regions4 ,fir/4 ,9 s f> z ! ant>ctic ice-%eet is conc]n$1 obs]vation & exp]i5ce to a great ext5t may be said to be a p]fect blank4 ,"o or two voyag]s h se5 ! out] edge ( ! %eet at a few places1 & ?is is all4 ,9 fact1 we judge ( ! pres5t condition ( ! int]ior ( ! ant>ctic cont95t 9 a great measure f :at we "k ( ,gre5l&4 ,b aga91 our exp]i5ce ( ,gre5l& ice is almo/ :olly conf9$ to ! outskirts4 ,few h p5etrat$ into ! int]ior1 &1 ) ! exception ( ,dr4 ,hayes & ,pr(essor ,nord5skjld1 none1 z f> z ,i "k1 h pass$ to any consid]able di/ance ov] ! inl& ice4 ,dr4 ,rob]t ,br[n 9 8 int]e/+ memoir on 8,das ,inn]e von ,grnl&10#bjg gives an acc\nt ( an excursion made 9 #agdg by a ,dani% (fic] ( ! "n ( ,dalag]1 f ,fr$rik%aab1 ne> ! s\!rn extremity ( ! cont95t1 into ! int]ior4 ,aft] a j\rney ( a day or two1 he rea*$ an em95ce f :i* he saw ! inl& ice /ret*+ 9 an unbrok5 mass z f> z ! eye c\ld rea*1 b 0 unable to proce$ fur!r4 ,dr4 ,br[n gives an acc\nt also ( an excursion made 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,m>*1 #ahcj1 by ,o4 ,b4 ,kiels51 a ,dani% :ale-fi%]1 f ,hol/e9borg 7lat4 #fg ,n474 ,aft] a mo/ fatigu+ j\rney ( sev]al days1 he rea*$ a high po9t f :i* he c\ld see ! ice ( ! int]ior4 ,next morn+ he got up e>ly1 & t[>ds midday rea*$ an ext5sive pla94 ,f ?is ! l& sank inw>ds1 & ,kiels5 n[ saw fully 9 view be=e him ! enorm\s ice-%eet ( ! int]ior4 ,he drove rapidly ov] all ! little hills1 lakes1 & /reams1 till he rea*$ a pretty l>ge lake at ! edge ( ! ice-%eet4 ,?is 0 ! end ( 8 j\rney1 = aft] va9ly attempt+ to climb up on ! ice-%eet1 he 0 compell$ to retrace 8 /eps1 & _h a some:at difficult return4 ,:5 he arriv$ at ! fiord1 he f\nd ! ice brok5 up1 s t he _h to g r\nd by ! l& way1 by :i* he rea*$ ! dept on ! #i? ( ,m>*4 ,! di/ance :i* he trav]s$ 9 a /raight l9e f ,hol/e9borg into ! int]ior measur$ eighty ,engli% miles4 ,dr4 ,hayes's excursion 0 made1 h[ev]1 n ^u ! real inl& ice1 b ^u a small] ice-field connect$ ) x2 :ile ,pr(essor ,nord5skjld's excursion 0 made at a place too f> s\? to af=d an accurate idea ( ! actual condition ( ! int]ior ( ,nor? ,gre5l&1 ev5 ?\gh he _h p5etrat$ mu* f>!r ?an he actually did4 ,h[ev]1 ! /ate ( ?+s z record$ by ,hayes & by ,nord5skjld af=ds u a glimpse into ! condition ( ?+s 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95t4 ,!y bo? f\nd by obs]vation1 :at foll[s z a necess>y result f physical consid]ations1 t ! upp] surface ( ! ice pla91 "u :i* hills & valleys are buri$1 gradually slopes upw>ds t[>ds ! int]ior ( ! cont95t4 ,pr(essor ,nord5skjld /ates t :5 at ! extreme po9t at :i* he rea*$1 ?irty geographical miles f ! coa/1 he _h atta9$ an elevation ( #b1bjj feet1 & t ! inl& ice cont9u$ con/antly to rise t[>ds ! int]ior1 s t ! horizon t[>ds ! ea/1 nor?1 & s\?1 0 t]m9at$ by an ice-bord] almo/ z smoo? z t ( ! ocean40#bjh ,dr4 ,hayes & 8 p>ty p5etrat$ inw>ds to ! di/ance ( ab\t sev5ty miles4 ,on ! fir/ day !y rea*$ ! foot ( ! great ,m] de ,glace2 ! second day's j\rney c>ri$ !m to ! upp] surface ( ! ice-%eet4 ,on ! ?ird day !y travell$ #cj miles1 & ! asc5t1 :i* _h be5 ab\t #f1 dim9i%$ gradually to ab\t #b4 ,!y advanc$ on ! f\r? day ab\t #be miles2 ! temp]ature be+ #cj bel[ z]o 7,fah474 8,our /ation at ! camp10 he says1 80 sublime z x 0 dang]\s4 ,we _h atta9$ an altitude ( #e1jjj feet above ! sea-level1 & 7 #gj miles f ! coa/1 9 ! mid/ ( a va/ froz5 ,sah>a immeasurable to ! human eye4 ,!re 0 nei!r hill1 m\nta91 nor gorge1 any:]e 9 view4 ,we _h completely sunk ! /rip ( l& betwe5 ! ,m] de ,glace & ! sea1 & no object met ! eye b our feeble t5t1 :i* b5t to ! /orm4 ,fitful cl\ds swept ov] ! face ( ! full-orb$ moon1 :i*1 desc5d+ t[>ds ! horizon1 glimm]$ ?r\gh ! drift+ sn[ t scudd$ ov] ! icy pla9--to ! eye 9 undulat+ l9es ( d[ny s(tness1 to ! fle% 9 %[]s ( pi]c+ d>ts40#bji ,dr4 ,r9k1 ref]r+ to ! inl& ice1 says t ! elevation or height above ! sea ( ?is icy pla9 at its junction ) ! outskirts ( ! c\ntry1 & :]e x beg9s to l[] itself ?r\gh ! valleys to ! fir?s1 is1 9 ! ramifications ( ! ,bay ( ,om5ak1 f\nd to be #b1jjj feet1 f :i* level x gradually rises t[>ds ! int]ior4#baj ,dr4 ,rob]t ,br[n1 :o1 along ) ,mr4 ,:ymp] 9 #ahfg1 attempt$ a j\rney to "s di/ance ov] ! inl& ice1 is ( op9ion t ,gre5l& is n trav]s$ by any ranges ( m\nta9s or high l&1 b t ! entire cont95t1 #a1bjj miles 9 l5g? & #djj miles 9 bread?1 is cov]$ ) "o cont9u\s unbrok5 field ( ice1 ! upp] surface ( :i*1 he says1 rises by a g5tle slope t[>ds ! int]ior4#baa ,suppose n[ ! po9t rea*$ by ,hayes to be )9 #bjj miles ( ! c5tre ( disp]sion ( ! ice1 & ! mean slope f t po9t to ! c5tre1 z 9 ! case ( ! ant>ctic cap1 to be only half a degree2 ?is w\ld give #aj1jjj feet z ! elevation ( ! c5tre above ! po9t rea*$4 ,b ! po9t rea*$ 0 #e1jjj feet above sea-level1 consequ5tly ! surface ( ! ice at ! c5tre ( disp]sion w\ld be #ae1jjj feet above sea-level1 :i* is ab\t "o-f\r? :at ,i h conclud$ to be ! elevation ( ! surface ( ! ant>ctic ice-cap at its c5tre4 ,& suppos+ we assume ! g5]al surface ( ! gr\nd to h 9 ! c5tral region an elevation z great z #e1jjj feet1 :i* is n at all probable1 /ill ?is w\ld give #aj1jjj feet = ! ?ickness ( ! ice at ! c5tre ( ! ,gre5l& cont95t4 ,b if we admit ?is conclusion 9 ref]5ce to ! ?ickness ( ! ,gre5l& ice1 we mu/ admit t ! ant>ctic ice is f> ?ick]1 because ! ?ickness1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 w dep5d ^u ! size1 or1 m prop]ly1 ^u ! diamet] ( ! cont95t2 = ! l>g] ! surface ! great] is ! ?ickness ( ice requir$ to produce ! pressure requisite to make ! rate ( dis*>ge ( ! ice equal to ! rate ( increase4 ,n[ ! area ( ! ant>ctic cont95t mu/ be at lea/ a doz5 ( times great] ?an t ( ,gre5l&4 ,second4 ,t ! ant>ctic ice mu/ be f> ?ick] ?an ! arctic is fur!r evid5t f ! dim5sions ( ! iceb]gs :i* h be5 met ) 9 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean4 ,no iceb]gs ov] ?ree hundr$ feet 9 height h be5 f\nd 9 ! arctic regions1 :]eas 9 ! ant>ctic regions1 z we %all see1 iceb]gs ( twice & ev5 ?rice t height h be5 report$4 ,?ird4 ,we h no reason to believe t ! ?ickness ( ! ice at pres5t cov]+ ! ant>ctic cont95t is less ?an t :i* cov]$ a cont95t ( a simil> area 9 temp]ate regions dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,take1 = example1 ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 or1 m prop]ly1 t portion ( x cov]$ by ice dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,pr(essor ,dana has prov$ t dur+ t p]iod ! ?ickness ( ! ice on ! ,am]ican cont95t mu/ 9 _m places h be5 consid]ably ov] a mile4 ,he has %[n t ov] ! nor!rn bord] ( ,new ,engl& ! ice _h a mean ?ickness ( #f1ejj feet1 :ile its mean ?ickness ov] ! ,canada wat]%$1 betwe5 ,/4 ,lawr5ce & ,hudson's ,bay1 0 n less ?an #ab1jjj feet1 or upw>ds ( two miles & a qu>t] 7see ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce & ,art = ,m>*1 #ahgc74 ,f\r?4 ,"s may object to ! =ego+ e/imate ( ! am\nt ( ice on ! ant>ctic cont95t1 on ! gr\nds t ! quantity ( sn[fall 9 t region _c be mu*4 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t1 no matt] h[ev] small ! annual am\nt ( sn[fall may be1 if m falls ?an is melt$1 ! ice mu/ cont9ue to accumulate ye> by ye> till its ?ickness 9 ! c5tre ( ! cont95t be suffici5tly great to produce motion4 ,! op9ion t ! sn[fall ( ! ant>ctic regions is n great does n1 h[ev]1 appe> to be borne out by ! obs]vation & exp]i5ce ( ^? :o h visit$ ^? regions4 ,capta9 ,wilkes1 ( ! ,am]ican ,explor+ ,exp$ition1 e/imat$ x at #cj feet p] annum2 & ,sir ,james ,ross says1 t dur+ a :ole mon? !y _h only ?ree days free f sn[4 ,! fact t p]petual sn[ is f\nd at ! sea-level at lat4 #fd ,s4 proves t ! sn[fall mu/ be great4 ,b !re is ano!r circum/ance :i* mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 viz41 t ! curr5ts c>ry+ moi/ure move 9 f all directions t[>ds ! pole1 consequ5tly ! area on :i* !y deposit _! sn[ becomes less & less z ! pole is rea*$1 & ?is mu/1 to a correspond+ ext5t1 increase ! quantity ( sn[ fall+ on a giv5 area4 ,let u assume1 = example1 t ! cl\ds 9 pass+ f lat4 #fj to lat4 #hj deposit moi/ure suffici5t to produce1 say1 #cj feet ( sn[ p] annum1 & t by ! "t !y rea* lat4 #hj !y are 9 possession ( only "o-t5? "p ( _! orig9al /ore ( moi/ure4 ,z ! area betwe5 lat4 #hj & ! pole is b "o-eigh? ( t betwe5 lat4 #fj & #hj1 ?is w\ld1 not)/&+1 give #bd feet z ! annual am\nt ( sn[fall betwe5 lat4 #hj & ! pole4#bab ,fif?4 ,! enorm\s size & ?ickness ( ! iceb]gs :i* h be5 met ) 9 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean te/ify to ! ?ickness ( ! ant>ctic ice-cap4 ,we "k f ! size ( "s ( ! iceb]gs :i* h be5 met ) 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e t ! ice at ! edge ( ! cap :]e ! b]gs break (f mu/ 9 "s cases be consid]ably ov] a mile 9 ?ickness1 = iceb]gs ( m ?an a mile 9 ?ickness h be5 f\nd 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,! foll[+ are ! dim5sions ( a few ( ^! enorm\s b]gs tak5 f ! ,twelf? ,numb] ( ! ,meteorological ,pap]s publi%$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade1 & f ! excell5t pap] ( ,mr4 ,t[son on ! ,iceb]gs ( ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 publi%$ also by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade4#bac ,) "o or two exceptions1 ! heights ( ! b]gs 7 accurately det]m9$ by angul> measurem5t3-- ,sept4 #aj?1 #ahef4--,! ,lightn+1 :5 9 lat4 #ee #cc ,s41 long4 #adj ,w41 met ) an iceb]g #dbj feet high4 ,nov41 #ahci4--;,9 lat4 #da ,s41 long4 #hg #cj ,e41 num]\s iceb]gs #djj feet high 7 met )4 ,sept41 #ahdj4--;,9 lat4 #cg ,s41 long4 #ae ,e41 an iceb]g #a1jjj feet long & #djj feet high 0 met )4 ,feb41 #ahfj4--;,capta9 ,cl>k1 ( ! ,lightn+1 :5 9 lat4 #ee #bj ,s41 long4 #abb #de ,w41 f\nd an iceb]g #ejj feet high & #c miles long4 ,dec4 #a/1 #ahei4--;,an iceb]g1 #ehj feet high1 & f two & a half to ?ree miles long1 0 se5 by ,capta9 ,smi!rs1 ( ! ,edmond1 9 lat4 #ej #eb ,s41 long4 #dc #eh ,w4 ,s /rongly did ?is iceb]g resemble l&1 t ,capta9 ,smi!rs believ$ x to be an isl&1 & report$ x z su*1 b !re is little or no d\bt t x 0 9 reality an iceb]g4 ,!re 7 pieces ( drift-ice "u its lee4 ,nov41 #ahef4--,?ree l>ge iceb]gs1 #ejj feet high1 7 f\nd 9 lat4 #da #j ,s41 long4 #db #j ,e4 ,jan41 #ahfa4--;,five iceb]gs1 "o #ejj feet high1 7 met ) 9 lat4 #ee #df ,s41 long4 #aee #ef ,w4 ,jan41 #ahfa4--;,9 lat4 #ef #aj ,s41 long4 #afj #j ,w41 an iceb]g #ejj feet high & half a mile long 0 f\nd4 ,jan41 #ahfg4--,! b>que ,sc\t1 f ! ,we/ ,coa/ ( ,am]ica1 on h] way to ,liv]pool1 pass$ "s iceb]gs #fjj feet 9 height1 & ( great l5g?4 ,april1 #ahfd4--,! ,royal ,/&>d came 9 collision ) an iceb]g #fjj feet 9 height4 ,dec41 #ahef4--;,f\r l>ge iceb]gs1 "o ( !m #gjj feet high1 & ano!r #ejj feet1 7 met ) 9 lat4 #ej #ad ,s41 long4 #db #ed ,e4 ,dec4 #be?1 #ahfa4--,! ,que5 ( ,nations fell 9 ) an iceb]g 9 lat4 #ec #de ,s41 long4 #agj #j ,w41 #gbj feet high4 ,dec41 #ahef4--;,capta9 ,p4 ,wakem1 %ip ,ell5 ,rad=d1 f\nd1 9 lat4 #eb #ca ,s41 long4 #dc #dc ,w41 two l>ge iceb]gs1 "o at lea/ #hjj feet high4 ,mr4 ,t[son /ates t "o ( our mo/ celebrat$ & tal5t$ naval surveyors in=m$ him t he _h se5 iceb]gs 9 ! s\!rn regions #hjj feet high4 ,m>* #bcrd1 #ahee4--,! ,agneta pass$ an iceb]g 9 lat4 #ec #ad ,s41 long4 #ad #da ,e41 #ifj feet 9 height4 ,aug4 #af?1 #ahdj4--,! ,dut* %ip1 ,g5]al ,b>on von ,ge51 pass$ an iceb]g #a1jjj feet high 9 lat4 #cg #cb ,s41 long4 #ad #aj ,e4 ,may #ae?1 #ahei4--,! ,rosewor? f\nd 9 lat4 #ec #dj ,s41 long4 #abc #ag ,w41 an iceb]g z l>ge z 8,tri/an d',acunha40 ,9 ! regions :]e mo/ ( ^! iceb]gs 7 met )1 ! mean d5sity ( ! sea is ab\t #ajbef4 ,! d5sity ( ice is #ib4 ,! d5sity ( iceb]gs to t ( ! sea is !re=e z #a to #aaae2 consequ5tly e foot ( ice above wat] indicates #hg feet bel[ wat]4 ,x !re=e foll[s t ^? iceb]gs #djj feet high _h #c1dhj feet "u wat]1--#c1hhj feet w\ld consequ5tly be ! total ?ickness ( ! ice4 ,! iceb]gs :i* 7 #ejj feet high w\ld be #d1hej feet ?ick1 ^? #fjj feet high w\ld h a total ?ickness ( #e1hbj feet1 & ^? #gjj feet high w\ld be no less ?an #f1gij feet ?ick1 :i* is m ?an a mile & a qu>t]4 ,! iceb]g #ifj feet high1 sight$ by ! ,agneta1 w\ld be actually #i1cab feet ?ick1 :i* is upw>ds ( a mile & ?ree-qu>t]s4 ,al?\gh ! mass ( an iceb]g bel[ wat] comp>$ to t above may be tak5 to be ab\t #hg to #a1 yet x w\ld n be always safe to conclude t ! ?ickness ( ! ice bel[ wat] be>s ! same proportion to its height above4 ,if ! b]g1 = example1 be mu* broad] at its base ?an at its top1 ! ?ickness ( ! ice bel[ wat] w\ld be> a less proportion to ! height above wat] ?an z #hg to #a4 ,b a b]g su* z t record$ by ,capta9 ,cl>k1 #ejj feet high & ?ree miles long1 mu/ h _h only #a_/hg ( its total ?ickness above wat]4 ,! same rem>k applies also to ! "o se5 by ,capta9 ,smi!rs1 :i* 0 #ehj feet high1 & s l>ge t x 0 tak5 = an isl&4 ,?is b]g mu/ h be5 #e1fbh feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! enorm\s b]g :i* came 9 collision ) ! ,royal ,/&>d mu/ h be5 #e1hbj feet ?ick4 ,x is n /at$ :at l5g? ! iceb]gs #gcj1 #ifj1 & #a1jjj feet high respectively 72 b suppos+ t we make consid]able all[ance = ! possibility t ! proportionate ?ickness ( ice bel[ wat] to t above may h be5 less ?an z #hg to #a1 /ill we c h>dly avoid ! conclusion t ! iceb]gs 7 consid]ably above a mile 9 ?ickness4 ,b if !re are iceb]gs above a mile 9 ?ickness1 !n !re mu/ be l&-ice some:]e on ! s\!rn hemisph]e ( t ?ickness4 ,9 %ort1 ! great ant>ctic ice-cap mu/ 9 "s places be ov] a mile 9 ?ickness at its edge4 ,inadequate ,conceptions reg>d+ ! ,magnitude ( ,cont95tal ,ice4--,few ?+s h t5d$ m to mislead geologi/s 9 ! int]pretation ( glacial ph5om5a ?an inadequate conceptions reg>d+ ! magnitude ( cont95tal ice4 ,)\t ! conception ( cont95tal ice ! kn[n facts connect$ ) glaciation w\ld be p]fectly inexplicable4 ,x 0 only :5 x 0 f\nd t ! accumulat$ facts refus$ to be expla9$ by any o!r conception1 t belief 9 ! v exi/5ce ( su* a ?+ z cont95tal ice became common4 ,b al?\gh mo/ geologi/s n[ admit ! exi/5ce ( cont95tal ice1 yet1 nev]!less1 adequate conceptions ( its real magnitude are by no means s common4 ,ye> by ye>1 z ! out/&+ facts connect$ ) glaciation accumulate1 we are compell$ to ext5d our conceptions ( ! magnitude ( l&-ice4 ,take ! foll[+ z an example4 ,x 0 f\nd t ! transport ( ! ,wa/dale ,crag blocks1 ! direction ( ! /ri on ! isl&s ( ! ,baltic1 on ,cai?ness & on ! ,orkney1 ,%etl&1 & ,f>oe1 isl&s1 ! b\ld] clay ) brok5 %ells 9 ,cai?ness1 ,hold]ness1 & o!r places1 7 inexplicable on ! !ory ( l&-ice4 ,b x 0 s only 9 consequ5ce ( ! inadequacy ( our conceptions ( ! magnitude ( ! ice2 = a slight ext5sion ( our ideas ( its ?ickness has expla9$ n only ^! ph5om5a1#bad b o!rs ( an equally rem>kable "*1 su* z ! /riation ( ! ,long ,isl& & ! subm]g$ rock-bas9s ar\nd our coa/s describ$ by ,mr4 ,james ,geikie4 ,9 l mann]1 if we admit ! !ory ( ! glacial epo* prop\nd$ 9 =m] *apt]s1 all t is really necess>y to acc\nt = ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& is a slight ext5sion ( our hi!rto preconceiv$ e/imate ( ! ?ickness ( ! ice on ! ant>ctic cont95t4 ,if we simply admit a conclusion to :i* all physical consid]ations1 z we h se51 necess>ily lead u1 viz41 t ! ant>ctic cont95t is cov]$ ) a mantle ( ice at lea/ two miles 9 ?ickness1 we h !n a complete explanation ( ! cause ( ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,al?\gh ( no great importance to ! "q "u consid]ation1 x may be rem>k$ t1 except dur+ ! sev]e/ "p ( ! glacial epo*1 we h no reason to believe t ! total quantity ( ice on ! globe 0 mu* great] ?an at pres5t1 only x w\ld !n be all on "o hemisph]e4 ,remove two miles ( ice f ! ant>ctic cont95t1 & place x on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & ?is1 along ) ! ice t n[ exi/s on ?is hemisph]e1 w\ld equal1 9 all probability1 ! quantity exi/+ on our hemisph]e dur+ ! glacial epo*2 at lea/1 be=e x rea*$ its maximum sev]ity4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiv4 ,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,subm]g5ce ,,& ,,em]g5ce ,,( ,,! ,,l& ,,dur+ ,,! ,,glacial ,,epo*4--,cont9u$4 ,ext5t ( ,subm]g5ce f ,displacem5t ( ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity4--,circum/ances :i* %[ t ! ,glacial ,subm]g5ce result$ f ,displacem5t ( ! ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity4--,agreem5t betwe5 ,!ory & obs]v$ ,facts4--,sir ,*>les ,lyell on subm]g$ ,areas dur+ ,t]ti>y ,p]iod4--,oscillations ( ,sea-level 9 ,relation to ,di/ribution4--,ext5t ( ,subm]g5ce on ! ,hypo!sis t ! ,e>? is fluid 9 ! ,int]ior4 ,ext5t ( ,subm]g5ce f ,displacem5t ( ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity4--,h[ mu*1 !n1 w\ld ! transf]5ce ( ! two miles ( ice f ! s\!rn to ! nor!rn hemisph]e raise ! level ( ! ocean on ! latt] hemisph]e8 ,?is mass1 be x obs]v$1 is equal to only "o-half t repres5t$ 9 our section4 ,a consid]able am\nt ( discussion has aris5 9 reg>d to ! me?od ( det]m9+ ?is po9t4 ,accord+ to ! me?od already detail$1 :i* supposes ! rise at ! pole to be equal to ! ext5t ( ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 ! rise at ! ,nor? ,pole w\ld be ab\t #chj feet1 tak+ into acc\nt ! effect produc$ by ! displac$ wat]2 & ! rise 9 ! latitude ( ,ed9burgh w\ld be #cab feet4 ,! fall ( level on ! s\!rn hemisph]e w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be equal to ! rise ( level on ! nor!rn4 ,accord+ to ! me?od advanc$ by ,mr4 ,d4 ,d4 ,hea?1#bae ! rise ( level at ! ,nor? ,pole w\ld be ab\t #fej feet4 ,ar*deacon ,pratt's me?od#baf makes ! rise /ill great]2 :ile accord+ to ,rev4 ,o4 ,fi%]'s me?od#bag ! rise w\ld be no less ?an #b1jjj feet4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r circum/ance :i* mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 :i* w give an additional rise ( upw>ds ( "o hundr$ feet4 ,! greate/ ext5t ( ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 & consequ5tly ! greate/ rise ( ! ocean result+ f t displacem5t1 w\ld ( c\rse occur at ! "t ( maximum glaciation1 :5 ! ice 0 all on "o hemisph]e4 ,b ow+ to ! foll[+ circum/ance1 a /ill great] rise ?an t result+ f ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity alone might take place at "s consid]able "t1 ei!r be=e or aft] ! p]iod ( maximum glaciation4 ,x is n at all probable t ! ice w\ld melt on ! w>m hemisph]e at exactly ! same rate z x w\ld =m on ! cold hemisph]e4 ,x is probable t ! ice w\ld melt m rapidly on ! w>m hemisph]e ?an x w\ld =m on ! cold4 ,suppose t dur+ ! glacial epo*1 at a "t :5 ! cold 0 gradually increas+ on ! nor!rn & ! w>m? on ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! ice %\ld melt m rapidly (f ! ant>ctic cont95t ?an x 0 be+ =m$ on ! arctic & sub>ctic regions2 suppose also t1 by ! "t a quantity ( ice1 equal to "o-half :at exi/s at pres5t on ! ant>ctic cont95t1 _h accumulat$ on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! :ole ( ! ant>ctic ice _h be5 melt$ away1 ! sea w\ld !n be full] ?an at pres5t by ! am\nt ( wat] result+ f ! "o mile ( melt$ ice4 ,! height to :i* ?is w\ld raise ! g5]al level ( ! sea w\ld be z foll[s3-- ,! ant>ctic ice-cap is equal 9 area to #a_/bcdf ( t cov]$ by ! ocean4 ,! d5sity ( ice to t ( wat] be+ tak5 at #ib to #a1 x foll[s t #be feet #f in*es ( ice melt$ (f ! cap w\ld raise ! g5]al level ( ! ocean "o foot1 & ! "o mile ( ice melt$ (f w\ld raise ! level #bjj feet4 ,?is #bjj feet ( rise result+ f ! melt$ ice we mu/ add to ! rise result+ f ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity4 ,! removal ( ! two miles ( ice f ! ant>ctic cont95t w\ld displace ! c5tre ( gravity #aij feet1 & ! =mation ( a mass ( ice equal to ! "o-half ( ?is on ! arctic regions w\ld c>ry ! c5tre ( gravity #ie feet f>!r2 giv+ 9 all a total displacem5t ( #bhe feet1 ?us produc+ a rise ( sea-level at ! ,nor? ,pole ( #bhe feet1 & 9 ! latitude ( ,ed9burgh ( #bcd feet4 ,add to ?is ! rise ( #bjj feet result+ f ! melt$ ice1 & we h !n #dhe feet ( subm]g5ce at ! pole1 & #dcd feet 9 ! latitude ( ,ed9burgh4 ,a rise to a simil> ext5t might probably take place aft] ! p]iod ( maximum glaciation1 :5 ! ice w\ld be melt+ on ! nor!rn hemisph]e m rapidly ?an x w\ld be =m+ on ! s\!rn4 ,if we assume ! ant>ctic ice-cap to be z ?ick z is repres5t$ 9 ! diagram1 ! ext5t ( ! subm]g5ce w\ld ( c\rse be d\ble ! above1 & we might h 9 ?is case a rise ( sea-level 9 ! latitude ( ,ed9burgh to ! ext5t ( f #hjj to #a1jjj feet4 ,b be ?is z x may1 x is evid5t t ! quantity ( ice on ! ant>ctic cont95t is p]fectly suffici5t to acc\nt = ! subm]g5ce ( ! glacial epo*1 = we h little evid5ce to conclude t ! g5]al subm]g5ce mu* exce$$ #djj or #ejj feet4#bah ,we h evid5ce 9 ,engl& & o!r places ( subm]g5ce to ! ext5t ( f #a1jjj to #b1jjj feet1 b ^! may be q local1 result+ f subsid5ce ( ! l& 9 ^? p>ticul> areas4 ,elevations & depressions ( ! l& h tak5 place 9 all ages1 & no d\bt dur+ ! glacial epo* also4 ,circum/ances :i* %[ t ! ,glacial ,subm]g5ce result$ f ,displacem5t ( ! ,e>?'s ,c5tre ( ,gravity4--,9 fav\r ( ?is view ( ! cause ( ! subm]g5ce ( ! glacial epo*1 x is a circum/ance ( "s significance1 t 9 e "p ( ! globe :]e glaciation has be5 f\nd evid5ce ( ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& has also be5 f\nd along ) x4 ,! inv>iable occurr5ce ( subm]g5ce along ) glaciation po9ts to "s physical connection betwe5 ! two4 ,x w\ld seem to imply1 ei!r t ! two 7 ! direct effects ( a common cause1 or t ! "o 0 ! cause ( ! o!r2 t is1 ! subm]g5ce ! cause ( ! glaciation1 or ! glaciation ! cause ( ! subm]g5ce4 ,!re is1 ,i presume1 no kn[n cause to :i* ! two c be directly relat$ z effects4 ,nor d ,i ?9k t !re is any "o :o w\ld suppose t ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& c\ld h be5 ! cause ( its glaciation1 ev5 al?\gh he attribut$ all glacial effects to float+ ice4 ,! subm]g5ce ( our c\ntry w\ld1 ( c\rse1 h all[$ float+ ice to pass ov] x _h !re be5 any to pass ov]2 b subm]g5ce w\ld n h produc$ ! ice1 nei!r w\ld x h br\ght ! ice f ! arctic regions :]e x already exi/$4 ,b al?\gh subm]g5ce c\ld n h be5 ! cause ( ! glacial epo*1 yet we c1 z we h j se51 easily und]/& h[ ! ice ( ! glacial epo* c\ld h be5 ! cause ( ! subm]g5ce4 ,if ! glacial epo* 0 br\ght ab\t by an increase 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 !n a subm]g5ce ( ! l& z ! ice accumulat$ 0 a physical necessity4 ,!re is ano!r circum/ance connect$ ) glacial subm]g5ce :i* x is difficult to reconcile ) ! idea t x result$ f a subsid5ce ( ! l&4 ,x is well kn[n t dur+ ! glacial epo* ! l& 0 n once "u wat] only1 b sev]al times2 &1 besides1 !re 7 n m]ely sev]al p]iods :5 ! l& /ood at a l[] level 9 relation to ! sea ?an at pres5t1 b !re 7 also sev]al p]iods :5 x /ood at a mu* high] level ?an n[4 ,& ?is holds true1 n m]ely ( our own c\ntry1 b ( e c\ntry on ! nor!rn hemisph]e :]e glaciation has yet be5 f\nd4 ,all ?is foll[s z a necess>y consequ5ce f ! !ory t ! oscillations ( sea-level result$ f ! transf]5ce ( ! ice f ! "o hemisph]e to ! o!r2 b x is :olly inconsi/5t ) ! idea t !y result$ f upheavals & subsid5ce ( ! l& dur+ a v rec5t p]iod4 ,b ?is is n all1 !re is m /ill to be acc\nt$ =4 ,x has be5 ! prevail+ op9ion t at ! "t :5 ! l& 0 cov]$ ) ice1 x /ood at a mu* great] elevation ?an at pres5t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n ma9ta9$ t ! facts ( geology e/abli% su* a conclusion4 ,! great] elevation ( ! l& is simply assum$ z an hypo!sis to acc\nt = ! cold4#bai ,! facts ( geology1 h[ev]1 are fa/ e/abli%+ ! opposite conclusion1 viz41 t :5 ! c\ntry 0 cov]$ ) ice1 ! l& /ood 9 relation to ! sea at a l[] level ?an at pres5t1 & t ! cont95tal p]iods or times :5 ! l& /ood 9 relation to ! sea at a high] level ?an n[ 7 ! w>m int]-glacial p]iods1 :5 ! c\ntry 0 free ( sn[ & ice1 & a mild & equable condition ( climate prevail$4 ,?is is ! conclusion t[>ds :i* we are be+ l$ by ! m rec5t revelations ( surface geology1 & also by c]ta9 facts connect$ ) ! geographical di/ribution ( plants & animals dur+ ! glacial epo*4 ,! simple occurr5ce ( a rise & fall ( ! l& 9 relation to ! sea-level 9 "o or 9 two c\ntries dur+ ! glacial epo*1 w\ld n necess>ily imply any physical connection4 ,! co9cid5ce ( ^! movem5ts ) ! glaciation ( ! l& might h be5 purely accid5tal2 b :5 we f9d t a succession ( su* movem5ts occurr$1 n m]ely 9 "o or 9 two c\ntries1 b 9 e glaciat$ c\ntry :]e prop] obs]vations h be5 made1 we are =c$ to ! conclusion t ! connection betwe5 ! two is n accid5tal1 b ! result ( "s fix$ cause4 ,if we admit t an increase 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit 0 ! cause ( ! glacial epo*1 !n we mu/ admit t all ^? results foll[$ z necess>y consequ5ces4 ,= if ! glacial epo* la/$ = upw>ds ( "o hundr$ ?\s& ye>s or s1 !re w\ld be a succession ( cold & w>m p]iods1 & consequ5tly a succession ( elevations & depressions ( sea-level4 ,& ! elevations ( ! sea-level w\ld take place dur+ ! cold p]iods1 & ! depressions dur+ ! w>m p]iods4 ,b ! agreem5t betwe5 !ory & obs]v$ facts does n t]m9ate "h4 ,x foll[s f !ory t ! greate/ oscillations ( sea-level w\ld take place dur+ ! sev]e/ "p ( ! glacial epo*1 :5 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit w\ld be at its highe/ value1 & t ! oscillations w\ld gradually dim9i% 9 ext5t z ! ecc5tricity dim9i%$ & ! climate gradually became less sev]e4 ,n[ x is well kn[n t ?is is actually :at took place2 ! great subm]g5ce1 z well z ! great elevation or cont95tal p]iod1 occurr$ dur+ ! e>li] or m sev]e "p ( ! glacial epo*1 & z ! climate grew less sev]e ^! *anges became ( less ext5t1 till we f9d !m t]m9at+ 9 our subm]g$ =e/s & #be-;foot rais$ bea*4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 accord+ to ! !ory advanc$1 t ! m]e fact ( an area hav+ be5 "u sea does n imply t !re has be5 any subsid5ce or elevation ( ! l&1 & t consequ5tly ! inf]5ce :i* has be5 drawn f ^! subm]g$ areas z to *anges 9 physical geography may be 9 _m cases n well f\nd$4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 9 8 8,pr9ciples10 publi%es a map %[+ ! ext5t ( surface 9 ,europe :i* has be5 cov]$ by ! sea s9ce ! e>li] "p ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,?is map is int5d$ to %[ ! extraord9>y am\nt ( subsid5ce & elevation ( ! l& :i* has tak5 place dur+ t p]iod4 ,x is necess>y = ,sir ,*>les's !ory ( ! cause ( ! glacial epo* t *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe to an enorm\s ext5t %\ld h tak5 place dur+ a v rec5t p]iod1 9 ord] to acc\nt = ! great *ange ( climate :i* occurr$ at t epo*4 ,b if ! =ego+ results be any?+ l correct1 x does n necess>ily foll[ t !re mu/ h be5 great *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ,europe1 simply because ! sea cov]$ ^? areas m>k$ 9 ! map1 = ?is may h be5 produc$ by oscillations ( sea-level1 & n by *anges 9 ! l&4 ,9 fact1 ! areas m>k$ 9 ,sir ,*>les's map z hav+ be5 cov]$ by ! sea1 are j ^? :i* w\ld be cov]$ 7 ! sea-level rais$ a few hundr$ feet4 ,no d\bt !re 7 elevations & subsid5ces 9 _m ( ! areas m>k$ 9 ! map dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 & to ?is cause a consid]able am\nt ( ! subm]g5ce might be due2 b ,i h little d\bt t by f> ! great] "p mu/ be attribut$ to oscillations ( sea-level4 ,x is no objection t ! great] "p ( ! %ells & o!r organic rema9s f\nd 9 ! m>9e deposits ( ^? areas are n indicative ( a cold or glacial condition ( climate1 =1 z we h se51 ! greate/ subm]g5ce w\ld probably h tak5 place ei!r be=e ! m sev]e cold _h set 9 or aft] x _h to a great ext5t pass$ away4 ,t ! subm]g5ce ( ^? areas probably result$ f elevations ( sea-level r ?an depressions ( ! l&1 is fur!r evid5t f ! foll[+ consid]ations4 ,if we suppose t ! climate ( ! glacial epo* 0 br\ght ab\t ma9ly by *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ! globe1 we mu/ assume t ^! great *anges took place1 geologically speak+1 at a v rec5t date4 ,!n :5 we ask :at gr\nd is !re = assum+ t any su* *ange 9 ! relations ( sea & l& z is requir$ actually took place1 ! subm]g5ce ( ^? areas is adduc$ z ! pro(4 ,did x foll[ z a physical necessity t all subm]g5ce mu/ be ! result ( subsid5ce ( ! l&1 & n ( elevations ( ! sea1 !re w\ld be "s =ce 9 ! reasons adduc$4 ,b su* a conclusion by no means foll[s1 &1 priori1 x is j z likely t ! appe>ance ( ! ice 0 ! cause ( ! subm]g5ce z t ! subm]g5ce 0 ! cause ( ! appe>ance ( ! ice4 ,aga91 a subsid5ce ( ! l& to ! ext5t requir$ w\ld to a great ext5t h alt]$ ! configuration ( ! c\ntry1 & ! ma9 riv] sy/ems ( ,europe2 b !re is no evid5ce t any su* *ange has tak5 place4 ,all ! ma9 valleys are well kn[n to h exi/$ prior to ! glacial epo*1 & our riv]s to h occupi$ ! same *annels !n z !y d n[4 ,9 ! case ( "s ( ! small] /reams1 x is true1 a slight deviation has result$ at "s po9ts f ! fill+ up ( _! *annels ) drift dur+ ! glacial epo*2 b z a g5]al rule all ! pr9cipal valleys & riv] sy/ems are old] ?an ! glacial epo*4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 c\ld n be ! case if a subsid5ce ( ! l& suffici5tly great to acc\nt = ! subm]g5ce ( ! areas 9 "q1 or *anges 9 ! physical geography ( ,europe necess>y to produce a glacial epo*1 _h actually tak5 place4 ,! total abs5ce ( any geological evid5ce = ! exi/5ce ( any *ange :i* c\ld expla9 ei!r ! subm]g5ce ( ! areas 9 "q or ! climate ( ! glacial epo*1 is /rong evid5ce t ! subm]g5ce ( ! glacial epo*1 z well z ( ! areas 9 "q1 0 ! result ( a simple oscillation ( sea-level result+ f ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity by ! transf]r5ce ( ! ice-cap f ! s\!rn to ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,oscillations ( ,sea-level 9 relation to ,di/ribution4--,! oscillations ( sea-level result+ f ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity help to ?r[ new light on "s obscure po9ts connect$ ) ! subject ( ! geographical di/ribution ( plants & animals4 ,at ! "t :5 ! ice 0 on ! s\!rn hemisph]e dur+ ! glacial epo*1 & ! nor!rn hemisph]e 0 enjoy+ a w>m & equable climate1 ! sea-level w\ld be sev]al hundr$ feet l[] ?an at pres5t1 ! ,nor? ,sea w\ld probably be dry l&1 & ,great ,brita9 & ,irel& jo9$ to ! cont95t1 ?us op5+ up a pa?way f ! cont95t to our isl&4 ,z has be5 %[n 9 =m] *apt]s1 dur+ ! int]-glacial p]iods ! climate w\ld be mu* w>m] & m equable ?an n[1 s t animals f ! s\?1 su* z ! hippopotamus1 hyna1 lion1 ,elephas antiquus & ,rh9oc]os meg>h9us1 w\ld migrate into ?is c\ntry1 :]e at pres5t !y c\ld n live 9 consequ5ce ( ! cold4 ,we h !re=e an explanation1 z 0 sugge/$ on a =m] occasion1#bbj ( ! fact t ! bones ( ^! animals are f\nd m+l$ 9 ! same grave ) ^? ( ! musk-ox1 mammo?1 re9de]1 & o!r animals :i* liv$ 9 ?is c\ntry dur+ ! cold p]iods ( ! glacial epo*2 ! animals f ! nor? w\ld cross ov] into ?is c\ntry ^u ! froz5 sea dur+ ! cold p]iods1 :ile ^? f ! s\? w\ld f9d ! ,engli% ,*annel dry l& dur+ ! w>m p]iods4 ,! same reason+ w hold equally true 9 ref]5ce to ! old & new _w4 ,! dep? ( ,behr+ ,/raits is "u #cj fa?oms2 consequ5tly a l[]+ ( ! sea-level ( less ?an #bjj feet w\ld connect ,asia ) ,am]ica1 & ?us all[ plants & animals1 z ,mr4 ,d>w9 believes1 to pass f ! "o cont95t to ! o!r4#bba ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 :5 ,behr+ ,/raits w\ld be dry l&1 ,gre5l& w\ld be comp>atively free f ice1 & ! arctic regions enjoy+ a comp>atively mild climate4 ,9 ?is case plants & animals belong+ to temp]ate regions c\ld avail !mselves ( ?is passage1 & ?us we c expla9 h[ plants belong+ to temp]ate regions may h1 dur+ ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 pass$ f ! old to ! new cont95t1 & vice v]s4 ,z has already be5 notic$1 dur+ ! "t ( ! greate/ ext5sion ( ! ice1 ! quantity ( ice on ! s\!rn hemisph]e might be consid]ably great] ?an :at exi/s on ! entire globe at pres5t4 ,9 t case !re might1 9 addition to ! l[]+ ( ! sea-level result+ f ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 be a consid]able l[]+ result+ f ! dra9+ ( ! ocean to =m ! additional ice4 ,?is decrease & increase 9 ! total quantity ( ice :i* we h consid]$ w\ld affect ! level ( ! ocean z mu* at ! equator z at ! poles2 consequ5tly dur+ ! glacial epo* !re might h be5 at ! equator elevations & depressions ( sea-level to ! ext5t ( a few hundr$ feet4 ,ext5t ( ,subm]g5ce on ! ,hypo!sis t ! ,e>? is fluid 9 ! ,int]ior4--,b we h be5 proce$+ ^u ! supposition t ! e>? is solid to its c5tre4 ,if we assume1 h[ev]1 :at is ! g5]al op9ion among geologi/s1 t x consi/s ( a fluid int]ior surr\nd$ by a ?ick & rigid cru/ or %ell1 !n ! ext5t ( ! subm]g5ce result+ f ! displacem5t ( ! c5tre ( gravity = a giv5 ?ickness ( ice mu/ be mu* great] ?an ,i h e/imat$ x to be4 ,?is is evid5t1 because1 if ! int]ior ( ! globe be 9 a fluid /ate1 x1 9 all probability1 consi/s ( mat]ials diff]+ 9 d5sity4 ,! d5se/ mat]ials w be at ! c5tre1 & ! lea/ d5se at ! outside or surface4 ,n[ ! transf]r5ce ( an ice-cap f ! "o pole to ! o!r w n m]ely displace ! ocean--! fluid mass on ! outside ( ! %ell--b x w also displace ! heavi] fluid mat]ials 9 ! int]ior ( ! %ell4 ,9 o!r words1 ! heavi] mat]ials w be attract$ by ! ice-cap m =cibly ?an ! light]1 consequ5tly !y w approa* t[>ds ! cap to a c]ta9 ext5t1 s9k+1 z x 71 into ! light] mat]ials1 & displac+ !m t[>ds ! opposite pole4 ,?is displacem5t w ( c\rse t5d to %ift ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity 9 ! direction ( ! ice-cap1 because ! heavi] mat]ials are %ift$ 9 ?is direction1 & ! light] mat]ials 9 ! opposite direction4 ,?is process w p]haps be bett] und]/ood f ! foll[+ figures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,fig4 #i4 ,o4 ,! ,ocean4 ,s4 ,solid ,cru/ or ,%ell4 ,f1 ,f#a1 ,f#b1 ,f#c4 ,! v>i\s conc5tric lay]s ( ! fluid int]ior4 ,! lay]s increase 9 d5sity t[>ds ! c5tre4 ,i4 ,! ,ice-cap4 ,c4 ,c5tre ( gravity4 ,c#a4 ,! displac$ c5tre ( gravity4 ,9 ,fig4 #h1 :]e !re is no ice-cap1 ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! e>? co9cides ) ! c5tre ( ! conc5tric lay]s ( ! fluid int]ior4 ,9 ,fig4 #i1 :]e !re is an ice-cap plac$ on "o pole1 ! conc5tric lay] ,f#a be+ d5s] ?an lay] ,f1 is attract$ t[>ds ! cap m =cibly ?an ,f1 & consequ5tly s9ks to a c]ta9 dep? 9 ,f4 ,aga91 ,f#b be+ d5s] ?an ,f#a1 x also s9ks to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 ,f#a4 ,& aga9 ,f#c1 ! mass at ! c5tre1 be+ d5s] ?an ,f#b1 x also s9ks 9 ,f#b4 ,all ?is be+ comb9$ ) ! effects ( ! ice-cap1 & ! displac$ ocean outside ! %ell1 ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! entire globe w no long] be at ,c1 b at ,c#a1 a consid]able di/ance ne>] to ! side ( ! %ell on :i* ! cap re/s ?an ,c1 & also a consid]able di/ance ne>] ?an x w\ld h be5 _h ! int]ior ( ! globe be5 solid4 ,!re are "h ?ree causes t5d+ to %ift ! c5tre ( gravity1 7#a7 ! ice-cap1 7#b7 ! displac$ ocean1 & 7#c7 ! displac$ mat]ials 9 ! int]ior4 ,two ( ! ?ree causes mutually react on ea* o!r 9 su* a way z to increase ea* o!r's effect4 ,?us ! m ! ocean is drawn 9 ! direction ( ! ice-cap1 ! m effect x has 9 draw+ ! heavi] mat]ials 9 ! int]ior 9 ! same direction2 & 9 turn ! m ! heavi] mat]ials 9 ! int]ior are drawn t[>ds ! cap1 ! great] is ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 & ( c\rse1 z a consequ5ce1 ! great] is ! displacem5t ( ! ocean4 ,x may be obs]v$ also t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! ?9n] ! solid cru/ or %ell is1 & ! great] ! diff]5ce 9 ! d5sity ( ! fluid mat]ials 9 ! int]ior1 ! great] w be ! ext5t ( ! displacem5t ( ! ocean1 because ! great] w be ! displacem5t ( ! c5tre ( gravity4 ,x foll[s t if we knew 7#a7 ! ext5t ( ! g5]al subm]g5ce ( ! glacial epo*1 & 7#b7 ! pres5t am\nt ( ice on ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 we c\ld det]m9e :e!r or n ! e>? is fluid 9 ! int]ior4 ,,*apt] ,,xxv4 ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,! ,,obliquity ,,( ,,! ,,ecliptic ,,on ,,climate ,,& ,,on ,,! ,,level ,,( ,,! ,,sea4 ,! direct ,effect ( ,*ange ( ,obliquity on ,climate4--,mr4 ,/ockwell on ! maximum ,*ange ( ,obliquity4--,h[ ,obliquity affects ! ,di/ribution ( ,heat ov] ! ,globe4--,increase ( ,obliquity dim9i%es ! ,heat at ! ,equator & increases t at ! ,poles4--,influ5ce ( ,*ange ( ,obliquity on ! ,level ( ! ,sea4--,:5 ! ,obliquity 0 la/ at its sup]ior ,limit4--,probable ,date ( ! #be-;foot rais$ ,bea*4--,probable ,ext5t ( ,rise ( ,sea-level result+ f ,increase ( ,obliquity4--,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson's & ,mr4 ,belt's ,!ories4--,sir ,*>les ,lyell on ,influ5ce ( ,obliquity4 ,! direct ,effect ( ,*ange 9 ! ,obliquity ( ! ,ecliptic on ,climate4--,!re is /ill ano!r cause :i*1 ,i feel conv9c$1 mu/ to a v consid]able ext5t h affect$ climate dur+ pa/ geological ages4 ,i ref] to ! *ange 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic4 ,?is cause has long engag$ ! att5tion ( geologi/s & physici/s1 & ! conclusion g5]ally come to is t no great effect c be attribut$ to x4 ,aft] giv+ special att5tion to ! matt]1 ,i h be5 l$ to ! v opposite conclusion4 ,x is q true1 z has be5 urg$1 t ! *anges 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic _c s5sibly affect ! climate ( temp]ate regions2 b x w produce a slight *ange on ! climate ( tropical latitudes1 & a v consid]able effect on t ( ! pol> regions1 especially at ! poles !mselves4 ,we %all n[ consid] ! matt] briefly4 ,x 0 f\nd by ,laplace t ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic w oscillate to ! ext5t ( #a #bb #cd on ea* side ( #bc #bh1 ! obliquity 9 ! ye> #ahja4bbb ,?is po9t has lately be5 exam9$ by ,mr4 ,/ockwell1 & ! results at :i* he has arriv$ are almo/ id5tical ) ^? ( ,laplace4 8,! mean value ( ! obliquity10 he says1 8( bo? ! app>5t & fix$ ecliptics to ! equator is #bc #ag #ag4 ,! limits ( ! obliquity ( ! app>5t ecliptic to ! equator are #bd #ce #eh & #ba #eh #cf2 :5ce x foll[s t ! greate/ & lea/ decl9ations ( ! sun at ! sol/ices c nev] diff] f ea* o!r to any great] ext5t ?an #b #cg #bb40bbc ,?is *ange w b slightly affect ! climate ( ! temp]ate regions1 b x w ex]cise a v consid]able influ5ce on ! climate ( ! pol> regions4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,mee*1#bbd if #cfebd !rmal days repres5t ! pres5t total annual quantity ( heat receiv$ at ! equator f ! sun1 #aeaei !rmal days w repres5t ! quantity receiv$ at ! poles4 ,adopt+ 8 me?od ( calculation1 x turns out t :5 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic is at ! maximum assign$ by ,laplace ! quantity receiv$ at ! equator w\ld be #cfcea !rmal days1 & at ! poles #afjjd !rmal days4 ,! equator w\ld !re=e receive #agc !rmal days less heat1 & ! poles #hde !rmal days m heat ?an at pres5t4 ,,annual ,,am\nt ,,( ,,sun',s ,,heat4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,am\nt 9 #ahja4 ,am\nt at ,obliquity #bc #bh4 maximum1 ,diff]5ce4 #bd #ej #cd84 ---------------------------------------- -- ,latitude4 ,!rmal ,!rmal ,!rmal days4 days4 days4 #j #cfebd #cfcea #agc #dj #bhhee #bhhcb #jbc #gj #agcjd #agiad #faj #hj #aeffc #afdfc #hjj #ij #aeaei #afjjd #hde ---------------------------------------- -- ,:5 ! obliquity 0 at a maximum1 ! poles w\ld !re=e be receiv+ #ai rays = e #ah !y are receiv+ at pres5t4 ,! poles w\ld !n be receiv+ ne>ly z mu* heat z latitude #gf is receiv+ at pres5t4 ,! increase ( obliquity w\ld n s5sibly affect ! pol> w9t]4 ,x is true t x w\ld slightly increase ! bread? ( ! frigid zone1 b ! l5g? ( ! w9t] at ! poles w\ld rema9 unaffect$4 ,aft] ! sun disappe>s bel[ ! horizon 8 rays are completely cut (f1 s t a fur!r desc5t ( #a #bb #cd w\ld make no mat]ial diff]5ce 9 ! climate4 ,9 ! temp]ate regions1 ! sun's altitude at ! w9t] sol/ice w\ld be #a #bb #cd less ?an at pres5t4 ,?is w\ld slightly increase ! cold ( w9t] 9 ^? regions4 ,b ! increase 9 ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ by ! pol> regions w\ld mat]ially affect ! condition ( ! pol> summ]4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! rise ( temp]ature at ! poles :i* w\ld result f ! increase ( #hde !rmal days 9 ! total am\nt receiv$ f ! sun8 ,an increase ( #hde !rmal days1 or #a_/ah? ( ! total quantity receiv$ f ! sun1 accord+ to ! mode ( calculation adopt$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,ii4 w\ld produce1 all o!r ?+s be+ equal1 a rise 9 ! mean annual temp]ature equal to #ad or #ae4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,dove#bbe !re is a diff]5ce ( #gf betwe5 ! mean annual temp]ature ( latitude #gf & ! pole2 ! temp]ature ( ! =m] be+ #ih1 & t ( ! latt] #bb4 ,s9ce x foll[s t :5 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic is at a maximum ! poles w\ld receive ab\t z mu* heat p] annum z latitude #gf receives at pres5t1 x may be suppos$ t ! temp]ature ( ! poles at t p]iod ought to be no high] ?an t ( latitude #gf at ! pres5t "t4 ,a little consid]ation w1 h[ev]1 %[ t ?is by no means foll[s4 ,pr(essor ,dove's ,tables repres5t correctly ! mean annual temp]ature correspond+ to e t5? degree ( latitude f ! equator to ! pole4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t ! rate at :i* ! temp]ature dim9i%es f ! equator to ! pole is n proportionate to ! decrease 9 ! total quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun z we pass f ! equator to ! pole4 ,7 ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! v>i\s latitudes proportionate to ! am\nt ( direct heat receiv$1 ! equator w\ld be mu* w>m] ?an x actually is at pres5t1 & ! poles mu* cold]4 ,! reason ( ?is1 z has be5 %[n 9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 is p]fectly obvi\s4 ,!re is a con/ant transf]r5ce ( heat f ! equator to ! poles1 & ( cold f ! poles to ! equator4 ,! w>m wat] ( ! equator is con/antly fl[+ t[>ds ! poles1 & ! cold wat] at ! poles is con/antly fl[+ to ! equator4 ,! same is ! case 9 reg>d to ! arial curr5ts4 ,consequ5tly a great portion ( ! direct heat ( ! sun goes1 n to raise ! temp]ature ( ! equator1 b to heat ! poles4 ,&1 on ! o!r h&1 ! cold mat]ials at ! poles are transf]r$ to ! equator1 & ?us l[] ! temp]ature ( t "p ( ! globe to a great ext5t4 ,! pres5t diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 lat4 #gf & ! pole1 det]m9$ accord+ to ! rate at :i* ! temp]ature is f\nd to dim9i% betwe5 ! equator & ! pole1 am\nts to only ab\t #g or #h4 ,b 7 !re no mutual transf]r5ce ( w>m & cold mat]ials betwe5 ! equatorial & pol> regions1 & 7 ! temp]ature ( ea* latitude to dep5d solely ^u ! direct rays ( ! sun1 ! diff]5ce w\ld f> exce$ t am\nt4 ,n[1 :5 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic 0 at its sup]ior limit1 & ! poles receiv+ ab\t #a_/ah? m direct heat f ! sun ?an at pres5t1 ! increase ( temp]ature due to ?is increase ( heat w\ld be f> m ?an #g or #h4 ,x w\ld probably be ne>ly d\ble t am\nt4 8,we may1 !re=e1 conclude t :5 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic 0 at a maximum1 & ! poles 7 receiv+ #a_/ah? m heat ?an at pres5t1 ! temp]ature ( ! poles ought to h be5 ab\t #ad or #ae w>m] ?an at ! pres5t day1 provid$1 ( c\rse1 t ?is extra heat 0 employ$ :olly 9 rais+ ! temp]ature4 ,7 ! pol> regions free f sn[ & ice1 ! great] portion ( ! extra heat w\ld g to raise ! temp]ature4 ,b z ^? regions are cov]$ ) sn[ & ice1 ! extra heat w\ld h no effect 9 rais+ ! temp]ature1 b w\ld simply melt ! sn[ & ice4 ,! ice-cov]$ surface ^u :i* ! rays fell c\ld nev] rise above #cb4 ,at ! p]iod "u consid]ation1 ! total annual quantity ( ice melt$ at ! poles w\ld be #a_/ah? m ?an at pres5t4 ,! g5]al effect :i* ! *ange 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic w\ld h ^u ! climate ( ! pol> regions :5 comb9$ ) ! effects result+ f ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 w\ld be ?is3--,:5 ! ecc5tricity 0 at a v high value1 ! hemisph]e ^: w9t] occurr$ 9 ! aphelion 7= physical reasons1 :i* h already be5 discuss$7#bbf w\ld be "u a condition ( glaciation1 :ile ! o!r hemisph]e1 hav+ its w9t] 9 p]ihelion1 w\ld be enjoy+ a w>m & equable climate4 ,:5 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic 0 at a maximum1 & #a_/ah? m heat fall+ at ! poles ?an at pres5t1 ! effect w\ld be to modify to a great ext5t ! rig\r ( ! glaciation 9 ! pol> zone ( ! hemisph]e "u a glacial condition1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 to produce a m rapid melt+ ( ! ice on ! o!r hemisph]e enjoy+ ! equable climate4 ,! effects ( ecc5tricity & obliquity ?us comb9$ w\ld probably completely remove ! pol> ice-cap f (f ! latt] hemisph]e1 & =e/ trees might !n gr[ at ! pole4 ,aga91 :5 ! obliquity 0 at its m9imum condition & less heat rea*+ ! poles ?an at pres5t1 ! glaciation ( ! =m] hemisph]e w\ld be increas$ & ! w>m? ( ! latt] dim9i%$4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,*ange 9 ! ,obliquity ( ! ,ecliptic on ! ,level ( ! ,sea4--,"o v rem>kable effect :i* seems to result indirectly f a v>iation ( ! obliquity "u c]ta9 conditions1 is an influ5ce on ! level ( ! sea4 ,z ?is probably may h _h some?+ to d ) ^? rec5t *anges ( sea-level ) :i* ! hi/ory ( ! subm>9e =e/s & rais$ bea*es h made u all s famili>1 x may be ( int]e/ to ent] at "s l5g? into ?is "p ( ?is subject4 ,x appe>s almo/ c]ta9 t at ! "t :5 ! nor!rn w9t] sol/ice 0 9 ! aphelion la/1 a rise ( ! sea on ! nor!rn hemisph]e to a consid]able numb] ( feet mu/ h tak5 place f ! comb9$ effect ( ecc5tricity & obliquity4 ,ab\t #aa1gjj ye>s ago1 ! nor!rn w9t] sol/ice 0 9 ! aphelion4 ,! ecc5tricity at t "t 0 #jahg1 be+ some:at great] ?an x is n[2 b ! w9t]s occurr+ 9 aphelion in/ead (1 z n[1 9 p]ihelion1 !y w\ld on t acc\nt be probably #aj or #ae cold] ?an !y are at ! pres5t day4 ,x is probable1 also1 = reasons /at$ 9 a previ\s *apt]1 t ! ,gulf-/ream at t "t w\ld be consid]ably less ?an n[4 ,?is w\ld t5d to l[] ! temp]ature to a /ill great] ext5t4 ,z sn[ in/ead ( ra9 mu/ h fall5 dur+ w9t] to a great] ext5t ?an at pres5t1 ?is no d\bt mu/ h produc$ a slight increase 9 ! quantity ( ice on ! nor!rn hemisph]e _h no o!r cause come into op]ation4 ,b ! condition ( ?+s1 we h e reason to believe1 mu/ h be5 affect$ by ! great] obliquity ( ! ecliptic at t p]iod4 ,we h no =mula1 except1 p]haps1 t giv5 by ,mr4 ,/ockwell1 f :i* to det]m9e ) p]fect accuracy ! ext5t ( ! obliquity at a p]iod s remote z ! "o "u consid]ation4 ,if we adopt ! =mula giv5 by ,/ruve & ,pet]s1 :i* agrees pretty ne>ly ) t obta9$ f ,mr4 ,/ockwell's =mula1 we h ! obliquity at a maximum ab\t ! "t t ! sol/ice-po9t 0 9 ! aphelion4 ,! =mula giv5 by ,lev]ri] places ! maximum some:at lat]4 ,at all ev5ts1 we _c be f> f ! tru? 9 assum+ t at ! "t ! nor!rn w9t] sol/ice 0 9 ! aphelion1 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic w\ld be ab\t a maximum1 & t s9ce !n x has be5 gradually dim9i%+4 ,x is evid5t1 !n1 t ! annual am\nt ( heat receiv$ by ! arctic regions1 & especially ab\t ! pole1 w\ld be consid]ably great] ?an at pres5t4 ,& z ! heat receiv$ on ^? regions is *iefly employ$ 9 melt+ ! ice1 x is probable t ! extra am\nt ( ice :i* w\ld !n be melt$ 9 ! arctic regions w\ld prev5t t slight increase ( ice :i* w\ld o!rwise h result$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! w9t] occurr+ 9 ! aphelion4 ,! w9t]s at t p]iod w\ld be cold] ?an !y are at pres5t1 b ! total quantity ( ice on ! nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld n probably be great]4 ,let u n[ turn to ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,z ! s\!rn w9t] w\ld !n occur 9 ! p]ihelion1 ?is w\ld t5d to produce a slight decrease 9 ! quantity ( ice on ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,b on ?is hemisph]e ! effects ( ecc5tricity w\ld n1 z on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 be comp5sat$ by ^? ( obliquity2 = bo? causes w\ld "h t5d to produce ! same effect2 namely1 a melt+ ( ! ice 9 ! ant>ctic regions4 ,x is probable t at ?is "t ! quantity ( w>m wat] fl[+ f ! equatorial regions into ! ,s\!rn ,ocean w\ld be mu* great] ?an at pres5t4 ,?is w\ld t5d to raise ! temp]ature ( ! air ( ! ant>ctic regions1 & ?us assi/ 9 melt+ ! ice4 ,^! causes1 comb9$ ) ! great increase ( heat result+ f ! *ange ( obliquity1 w\ld t5d to dim9i% to a consid]able ext5t ! quantity ( ice on ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,i ?9k we may assume t ! slight increase ( ecc5tricity at t p]iod1 ! occurr5ce ( ! s\!rn w9t] 9 p]ihelion1 & ! extra quantity ( w>m wat] fl[+ f ! equatorial to ! ant>ctic regions1 w\ld produce an effect on ! s\? pol> ice-cap equal to t produc$ by ! increase 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic4 ,x w\ld1 !re=e1 foll[ t = e eighte5 p\nds ( ice melt$ annually at pres5t at ! s\? pole tw5ty p\nds w\ld !n be melt$4 ,let u n[ consid] ! effect t ?is condition ( ?+s w\ld h ^u ! level ( ! sea4 ,x w\ld evid5tly t5d to produce an elevation ( ! sea-level on ! nor!rn hemisph]e 9 two ways4 #a/4 ,! addition to ! sea occasion$ by ! melt+ ( ! ice f (f ! ant>ctic l& w\ld t5d to raise ! g5]al level ( ! sea4 #bndly4 ,! removal ( ! ice w\ld also t5d to %ift ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity to ! nor? ( its pres5t position--& z ! sea mu/ %ift along ) ! c5tre1 a rise ( ! sea on ! nor!rn hemisph]e w\ld necess>ily take place4 ,! "q naturally sugge/s itself1 might n ! la/ rise ( ! sea1 relative to ! l&1 h result$ f ?is cause8 ,we "k t dur+ ! p]iod ( ! #be-;foot bea*1 ! "t :5 ! e/u>9e mud1 :i* n[ =ms ! ri* soil ( ! ,c>ses ( ! ,=? & ,tay1 0 deposit$1 ! sea1 9 relation to ! l&1 /ood at lea/ #bj or #cj feet high] ?an at pres5t4 ,b imm$iately prior to ?is p]iod1 we h ! age ( ! subm>9e =e/s & peat-b$s1 :5 ! sea relative to ! l& /ood l[] ?an x does n[4 ,we "k also t ^! *anges ( level 7 n m]e local affairs4 ,!re seems e reason to believe t our ,c>se clay1 z ,mr4 ,fi%] /ates1 is ! equival5t ( ! m>9e mud1 ) ,scrobicul>ia1 :i* cov]s ! subm>9e =e/s ( ,engl&4#bbg ,& on ! o!r h&1 ^? subm>9e =e/s are n conf9$ to "o locality4 8,!y may be trac$10 says ,mr4 ,jamieson1 8r\nd ! :ole ( ,brita9 & ,irel&1 f ,orkney to ,cornwall1 f ,mayo to ! %ores ( ,fife1 & ev51 x w\ld seem1 along a great "p ( ! we/]n sea-bo>d ( ,europe1 z if !y bore witness to a p]iod ( widespread elevation1 :5 ,irel& & ,brita91 ) all its num]\s isl&s1 =m$ "o mass ( dry l&1 unit$ to ! cont95t1 & /ret*+ out into ! ,atlantic40#bbh 8,^! subm>9e =e/s08 rem>ks ,de la ,be*e1 also1 8are to be f\nd "u ! same g5]al condition f ! %ores ( ,sc&9avia to ^? ( ,spa9 & ,portugal1 & ar\nd ! ,briti% isl&s40#bbi ,^? buri$ =e/s are n conf9$ to ,europe1 b are f\nd 9 ! valley ( ! ,mississippi & 9 ,nova ,scotia1 & o!r p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,& aga91 ! /rata :i* und]lie ^? =e/s & peat-b$s be> witness to ! fact ( a previ\s elevation ( ! sea-level4 ,9 %ort1 we h evid5ce ( a numb] ( oscillations ( sea-level dur+ po/-t]ti>y times4#bcj ,_h !re be5 only "o rise ( ! l& relative to ! sea-level1 or "o depression1 x might q reasonably1 z already rem>k$1 h be5 attribut$ to an upheaval or a s9k+ ( ! gr\nd1 occasion$ by "s volcanic1 *emical1 or o!r ag5cy4 ,b c]ta9ly ^? repeat$ oscillations ( sea-level1 ext5d+ z !y d ov] s wide an area1 look m l a ris+ & s9k+ ( ! sea ?an ( ! l&4 ,b1 be ?is z x may1 s9ce x is n[ e/abli%$1 ,i presume1 beyond controv]sy1 t ! old notion t ! g5]al level ( ! sea rema9s p]man5t1 & t ! *anges mu/ be all attribut$ to ! l& is :olly incorrect1 & t ! sea1 z well z ! l&1 is subject to *anges ( level1 x is c]ta9ly q legitimate to consid] :e!r ! la/ elevation ( ! sea-level relatively to ! l& may n h result$ f ! ris+ ( ! sea r ?an f ! s9k+ ( ! l&1 9 %ort1 :e!r x may n be attribut$ to ! cause we are n[ consid]+4 ,! fact t ^? rais$ bea*es & t]races are f\nd at s _m diff]5t heights1 & also s discont9u\sly along our coa/s1 might be urg$ z an objection to ! op9ion t !y 7 due to *anges 9 ! level ( ! sea itself4 ,space w n p]mit me to ent] ^u ! discussion ( ?is po9t at pres5t2 b x may be /at$ t ?is objection is m app>5t ?an real4 ,x by no means foll[s t bea*es ( ! same age mu/ be at ! same level4 ,?is has be5 %[n v cle>ly by ,mr4 ,w4 ,p5gelly 9 a pap] on 8,rais$ ,bea*es10 read be=e ! ,briti% ,association at ,nott+ham1 #ahff4 ,we h1 z ,i ?9k1 evid5ce am\nt+ to almo/ absolute c]ta9ty t #aa1gjj ye>s ago ! g5]al sea-level on ! nor!rn hemisph]e mu/ h be5 high] ?an at pres5t4 ,& 9 ord] to det]m9e ! "q ( ! #be-;foot bea*1 we h m]ely to consid] :e!r a rise to some?+ l ?is ext5t probably took place at ! p]iod 9 "q4 ,we h at pres5t no means ( det]m9+ ! exact ext5t ( ! rise :i* mu/ h tak5 place at t p]iod1 = we _c tell :at quantity ( ice 0 !n melt$ (f ! ant>ctic regions4 ,b we h ! means ( mak+ a v r\gh e/imate1 :i*1 at lea/1 may enable u to det]m9e :e!r a rise ( "s #bj or #cj feet may n possibly h tak5 place4 ,if we assume t ! s\!rn ice-cap ext5ds on an av]age d[n to lat4 #gj1 we %all h an area equal to #a_/ccafc ( ! entire surface ( ! globe4 ,! proportion ( l& to t ( wat]1 tak+ into acc\nt ! ant>ctic cont95t1 is z #ebf to #abgb4 ,! s\!rn ice-cap w !re=e be equal to #a_/bcdf ( ! area cov]$ by wat]4 ,! d5sity ( ice to t ( wat] be+ tak5 at #ib to #a1 x foll[s t #be feet #f in*es ( ice melt$ f (f ! face ( ! ant>ctic cont95t w\ld raise ! level ( ! ocean "o foot4 ,if #dgj feet 7 melt$ (f--& ?is is by no means an extravagant supposition1 :5 we reflect t = e #ah p\nds ( ice pres5tly melt$ an additional p\nd or two p\nds1 or p]haps m1 w\ld !n be melt$1 & t = _m ages 9 succession--! wat] ?us produc$ f ! melt$ ice w\ld raise ! level ( ! sea #ah feet #e in*es4 ,! removal ( ! #dgj feet ( solid ice-- :i* mu/ be b a v small fraction ( ! total quantity ( ice ly+ ^u ! ant>ctic cont95t--w\ld %ift ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity ab\t #g feet to ! nor? ( its pres5t position4 ,! %ift+ ( ! c5tre ( gravity w\ld cause ! sea to s9k on ! s\!rn hemisph]e & rise on ! nor!rn4 ,& ! quantity ( wat] ?us transf]r$ f ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! nor!rn w\ld c>ry ! c5tre ( gravity ab\t "o foot fur!r1 & ?us give a total displacem5t ( ! c5tre to ! ext5t ( ab\t #h feet4 ,! sea w\ld !re=e rise ab\t #h feet at ! ,nor? ,pole1 & 9 ! latitude ( ,ed9burgh ab\t #f feet #g in*es4 ,?is1 add$ to ! rise ( #ah feet #e in*es1 occasion$ by ! melt+ ( ! ice1 w\ld give #be feet z ! total rise 9 ! latitude ( ,scotl& #aa1gjj ye>s ago4 ,ea* squ>e foot ( surface at ! poles #aa1gjj ye>s ago w\ld be receiv+ #ah1bbc1ajj foot-p\nds m ( heat annually ?an at pres5t4 ,if we d$uct #bb p] c5t4 z ! am\nt absorb$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! atmosph]e1 we h #ad1bad1jjj foot-p\nds4 ,?is w\ld be suffici5t to melt #bbf feet ( ice4 ,b if #ej1 in/ead ( #bb1 p] c5t4 7 cut (f1 #ade cubic feet w\ld be melt$4 ,9 ?is case ! #dgj feet ( ice w\ld be melt$1 indep5d5tly ( ! effects ( ecc5tricity1 9 ab\t #cbj ye>s4 ,& suppos+ t only "o-f\r? "p ( ! extra heat rea*$ ! gr\nd1 #dgj feet ( ice w\ld be remov$ 9 ab\t #fdj ye>s4 ,z to ! exact "t t ! obliquity 0 at a maximum1 previ\s to t ( #aa1gjj ye>s ago1 our unc]ta9ty is /ill great]4 ,if we are p]mitt$ to assume t ! ecliptic passes f its maximum to its m9imum /ate & back to its maximum aga9 ) any?+ l uni=mity1 at ! rate assign$ by ,lev]ri] & o!rs1 ! obliquity w\ld n be f> f a maximum ab\t #fj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,tak+ ! rate ( precession at #ejbaabi1 & assum+ x to be uni=m--:i* x probably is n--! w9t] sol/ice w\ld be 9 ! aphelion ab\t #fa1cjj ye>s ago4#bca ,9 %ort1 x seems n at all improbable t at ! "t ! sol/ice-po9t 0 9 ! aphelion1 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic w\ld n be f> f its maximum /ate4 ,b at t "t ! value ( ! ecc5tricity 0 #jjbc1 in/ead ( #jjahg1 its value at ! la/ p]iod4 ,consequ5tly ! rise ( ! sea w\ld probably be some:at great] ?an x 0 #aa1gjj ye>s ago4 ,might n ?is be ! p]iod ( ! #dj-;foot bea*8 ,9 ?is case #aa1jjj or #ab1jjj ye>s w\ld be ! age ( ! #be-;foot bea*1 & #fj1jjj ye>s ! age ( ! #dj-;foot bea*4 ,ab\t #bb1jjj ye>s ago1 ! w9t] sol/ice 0 9 ! p]ihelion1 & z ! ecc5tricity 0 !n some:at great] ?an x is at pres5t1 ! w9t]s w\ld be a little w>m] & ! climate m equable ?an x is at ! pres5t day4 ,?is p]haps might be ! p]iod ( ! subm>9e =e/s & l[] peat-b$s :i* und]lie ! ,c>se clays1 ,scrobicul>ia mud1 & o!r deposits belong+ to ! age ( ! #be-;foot bea*4 ,at any rate1 x is p]fectly c]ta9 t a condition ( climate at ?is p]iod prevail$ exce$+ly fav\rable to ! gr[? ( peat4 ,x foll[s also t at ?is "t1 ow+ to a great] accumulation ( ice on ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ! sea-level w\ld be a few feet l[] ?an at pres5t1 & t =e/s & peat may h !n gr[n on places :i* are n[ "u ! sea-level4 ,= a few ?\s& ye>s be=e & aft] #aa1gjj ye>s ago1 :5 ! w9t] sol/ice 0 evid5tly n f> f ! aphelion1 & ! sea /&+ consid]ably above its pres5t level1 w\ld probably1 z we h already /at$1 be ! "t :5 ! ,c>se clays & o!r rec5t deposits ly+ above ! pres5t level ( ! riv] 7 =m$4 ,& x is also a s+ul> fact t ! condition ( ?+s at t p]iod mu/ h be5 exce$+ly fav\rable to ! =mation ( su* e/u>9e deposits2 = at t "t ! w9t] temp]ature ( our isl&1 z has be5 already %[n1 w\ld be consid]ably l[] ?an at pres5t1 &1 consequ5tly1 dur+ t season1 sn[1 to a mu* l>g] ext5t ?an n[1 w\ld fall in/ead ( ra94 ,! melt+ ( ! w9t]'s accumulation ( sn[ on ! approa* ( summ] w\ld necess>ily produce great floods1 simil> to :at occur 9 ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,asia & ,am]ica at ! pres5t day f ?is v same cause4 ,! loose upp] soil w\ld be c>ri$ d[n by ^? floods & deposit$ 9 ! e/u>ies ( our riv]s4 ,! =ego+ is a r\gh & imp]fect sket* ( ! hi/ory ( ! climate & ! physical conditions ( our globe = ! pa/ #fj1jjj ye>s1 9 s f> z physical & cosmical consid]ations seem to af=d u in=mation on ! subject1 & its /rik+ agreem5t ) t d]iv$ f geological s\rces is an additional evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! op9ion t geological & cosmical ph5om5a are physically relat$ by a bond ( causation4 ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson's ,!ory ( ! ,cause ( ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,9 a pap] read be=e ! ,geological ,society by ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson1 ,r4,a41 on ! #bbnd ,febru>y1 #ahga1bcb t au?or /ates1 t aft] calculat+ f ! record$ positions ( ! pole ( ! heav5s dur+ ! la/ #b1jjj ye>s1 he f9ds ! pole ( ! ecliptic is n ! c5tre ( ! circle trac$ by ! pole ( ! heav5s4 ,! pole ( ! heav5s1 he consid]s1 describes a circle r\nd a po9t #f di/ant f ! pole ( ! ecliptic & #bi #be #dg f ! pole ( ! heav5s1 & t ab\t #ac1gjj ye>s b4c4 ! angul> di/ance ( ! two poles 0 #ce #be #dg4 ,?is w\ld br+ ! ,arctic ,circle d[n to latitude #ed #cd #ac ,n4 ,i fe> t ?is is a conclusion t w n be g5]ally accept$ by ^? famili> ) cele/ial me*anics4 ,b1 be ?is z x may1 my pres5t object is n to discuss ! a/ronomical "p ( ,colonel ,drayson's !ory1 b to consid] :e!r ! conclusions :i* he d$uces f 8 !ory 9 reg>d to ! cause ( ! glacial epo* be legitimate or n4 ,assum+ = argum5t's sake t ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic c possibly rea* to #ce or #cf1 s z to br+ ! ,arctic ,circle d[n to ! c5tre ( ,engl&1 w\ld ?is acc\nt = ! glacial epo*8 ,colonel ,drayson concludes t ! %ift+ ( ! ,arctic ,circle d[n to ! latitude ( ,engl& w\ld induce "h a condition ( climate simil> to t :i* obta9s 9 arctic regions4 ,?is seems to be ! radical error ( ! !ory4 ,x is p]fectly true t 7 ! ,arctic ,circle br\ght d[n to latitude #ed #ce "p ( our isl& w\ld be 9 ! arctic regions1 b x does n on t acc\nt foll[ t our isl& w\ld be subject$ to an arctic climate4 ,! pol> regions owe _! cold n to ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic1 b to _! di/ance f ! equator4 ,inde$ 7 x n = obliquity ^? regions w\ld be mu* cold] ?an !y really are1 & an increase ( obliquity1 in/ead ( increas+ _! cold1 w\ld really make !m w>m]4 ,! g5]al effect ( obliquity1 z we h se51 is to dim9i% ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ 9 equatorial & tropical regions1 & to increase x 9 ! pol> & temp]ate regions4 ,! great] ! obliquity1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! f>!r ! sun rec$es f ! equator1 ! small] is ! quantity ( heat receiv$ by equatorial regions1 & ! great] ! am\nt be/[$ on pol> & temp]ate regions4 ,if1 = example1 we repres5t ! pres5t am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun at ! equator on a giv5 surface at #ajj p>ts1 #dbdg p>ts w !n repres5t ! am\nt receiv$ at ! poles on ! same giv5 surface4 ,b 7 ! obliquity increas$ to #ce ! am\nt receiv$ at ! equator w\ld be r$uc$ to #idic p>ts1 & t at ! poles increas$ to #eiha2 be+ an increase at ! poles ( ne>ly "o half4 ,at latitude #fj ! pres5t quantity is equal to #eg p>ts2 b ab\t #fc p>ts w\ld be receiv$ 7 ! obliquity increas$ to #ce4 ,x !re=e foll[s t al?\gh ! ,arctic ,circle 7 br\ght d[n to ! latitude ( ,london s t ! ,briti% isl&s w\ld become a "p ( ! arctic regions1 ! mean temp]ature ( ^! isl&s w\ld n be l[]$1 b ! rev]se4 ,! w9t]s w\ld no d\bt be cold] ?an !y are at pres5t1 b ! cold ( w9t] w\ld be f> m ?an comp5sat$ = by ! heat ( summ]4 ,x is n a fair repres5tation ( ! /ate ( ?+s1 m]ely to say t an increase ( obliquity t5ds to make ! w9t]s cold] & ! summ]s hott]1 = x affects ! summ] heat f> m ?an x does ! w9t] cold4 ,& ! great] ! obliquity ! m does ! increase ( heat dur+ summ] exce$ ! decrease dur+ w9t]4 ,?is is obvi\s because ! great] ! obliquity ! great] ! total annual am\nt ( heat receiv$4 ,if an increase ( obliquity t5d$ to produce an increase ( ice 9 temp]ate & pol> regions1 & ?us to lead to a glacial epo*1 !n ! great] ! obliquity ! great] w\ld be ! t5d5cy to produce su* an effect4 ,conceive1 !n1 ! obliquity to g on increas+ until x ultimately rea*$ its absolute limit1 #ij1 & ! e>?'s axis to co9cide ) ! plane ( ! ecliptic4 ,! ,arctic ,circle w\ld !n ext5d to ! equator4 ,w\ld ?is produce a glacial epo*8 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,a squ>e foot ( surface at ! poles w\ld !n be receiv+ z mu* heat p] annum z a squ>e foot at ! equator at pres5t1 suppos+ ! sun rema9$ on ! equator dur+ ! entire ye>4 ,less heat1 h[ev]1 w\ld be rea*+ ! equatorial regions ?an n[4 ,at pres5t1 z we h j se51 ! annual quantity ( heat receiv$ at ei!r pole is to t receiv$ at ! equator z #dbdg to #ajj2 b at ! p]iod "u consid]ation ! poles w\ld be actually obta9+ "o-half m heat ?an ! equator4 ,! am\nt receiv$ p] squ>e foot at ! poles1 to t receiv$ p] squ>e foot at ! equator1 w\ld be 9 ! ratio ( half ! circumf]5ce ( a circle to its diamet]1 or z #aegjh to #a4 ,b m]ely to say t ! poles w\ld be receiv+ m heat p] annum ?an ! equator is at pres5t1 does n convey a correct idea ( ! excessive heat :i* ! poles w\ld !n h to endure2 = x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! heat rea*+ ! equator is spread ov] ! :ole ye>1 :]eas ! poles w\ld get _! total am\nt dur+ ! six mon?s ( _! summ]4 ,consequ5tly1 = six mon?s 9 ! ye> ! poles w\ld be obta9+ f> m ?an d\ble ! quantity ( heat receiv$ at pres5t by ! equator dur+ ! same l5g? ( "t1 & m ?an ?ree times ! quantity !n receiv$ by ! equator4 ,! am\nt rea*+ ! pole dur+ ! six mon?s to t rea*+ ! equator w\ld be z #cadaf to #a4 ,at ! equator twelve h\rs' d>kness alt]nates ) twelve h\rs' sun%9e1 & ?is prev5ts ! temp]ature f ris+ excessively high2 b at ! poles x w\ld be cont9u\s sun%9e = six mon?s )\t ! gr\nd hav+ an opportunity ( cool+ = a s+le h\r4 ,at ! summ] sol/ice1 :5 ! sun w\ld be 9 ! z5i? ( ! pole1 ! am\nt ( heat receiv$ !re e tw5ty-f\r h\rs w\ld actually be ne>ly ?ree-&-a-qu>t] times great] ?an t pres5tly receiv$ at ! equator4 ,n[ :at holds true ) reg>d to ! poles w\ld hold equally true1 ?\gh to a less] ext5t1 ( pol> & temp]ate regions4 ,we c =m b a v inadequate idea ( ! condition ( ?+s :i* w\ld result f su* an enorm\s increase ( heat4 ,no?+ liv+ on ! face ( ! globe c\ld exi/ 9 pol> regions "u s fe>ful a temp]ature z w\ld !n prevail dur+ summ] mon?s4 ,h[ absurd w\ld x be to suppose t ?is condition ( ?+s w\ld t5d to produce a glacial epo*6 ,n only w\ld e p>ticle ( ice 9 pol> regions be dissipat$1 b ! v seas ar\nd ! pole w\ld be1 = sev]al mon?s 9 ! ye>1 at ! boil+ po9t4 ,if x c\ld be %[n f physical pr9ciples--:i*1 to say ! lea/1 is highly improbable--t ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic c\ld ev] h be5 z great z #ce1 x w\ld to a v consid]able ext5t acc\nt = ! comp>ative abs5ce ( ice 9 ,gre5l& & o!r regions 9 high latitudes1 su* z we "k 0 ! case dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s1 ,mioc5e1 & o!r p]iods4 ,b al?\gh a great increase ( obliquity might cause a melt+ ( ! ice1 yet x c\ld n produce t mild condition ( climate :i* we "k prevail$ 9 high latitudes dur+ ^? p]iods2 :ile no increase ( obliquity1 h[ev] great1 c\ld 9 any way t5d to produce a glacial epo*4 ,colonel ,drayson1 h[ev]1 seems to admit t ?is great increase ( obliquity w\ld make our summ]s mu* w>m] ?an !y are at pres5t4 ,h[1 !n1 accord+ to 8 !ory1 is ! glacial epo* acc\nt$ =8 ,! foll[+ is ! au?or's explanation z /at$ 9 8 own words3-- 8,at ! date #ac1gjj ,b4,c4 ! same conditions appe> to h prevail$ d[n to ab\t #ed ( latitude dur+ w9t] z reg>ds ! sun be+ only a few degrees above ! horizon4 ,we are1 !n1 w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t ! same climate prevail$ d[n to #ed ( latitude z n[ exi/s 9 w9t] d[n to #fg ( latitude4 8,?us 9 ! great] "p ( ,engl& & ,wales1 & 9 ! :ole ( ,scotl&1 iceb]gs ( l>ge size w\ld be =m$ ea* w9t]2 e riv] & /ream w\ld be froz5 & block$ ) ice1 ! :ole c\ntry w\ld be cov]$ ) a mantle ( sn[ & ice1 & ^? creatures :i* c\ld nei!r migrate nor endure ! cold ( an arctic climate w\ld be ext]m9at$40--8,! ,la/ ,glacial ,epo*10 p4 #adf4 8,at ! summ] sol/ice ! midday altitude ( ! sun = ! latitude #ed w\ld be ab\t #ga1 an altitude equal to t :i* ! sun n[ atta9s 9 ! s\? ( ,italy1 ! s\? ( ,spa91 & 9 all localities hav+ a latitude ( ab\t #dj40 8,!re w\ld1 h[ev]1 be ?is s+ul> diff]5ce f pres5t conditions1 t 9 latitude #ed ! sun at ! p]iod ( ! summ] sol/ice w\ld rema9 ! :ole tw5ty-f\r h\rs above ! horizon2 a fact :i* w\ld give extreme heat to ^? v regions :i*1 six mon?s previ\sly1 _h be5 subject$ to an arctic cold4 ,n only w\ld ?is greatly increas$ heat prevail 9 ! latitude ( #ed1 b ! sun's altitude w\ld be #ab great] at midday 9 midsumm]1 & also #ab great] at midnight 9 high nor!rn latitudes1 ?an x ev] atta9s n[2 consequ5tly ! heat w\ld be f> great] ?an at pres5t1 & high nor!rn regions1 ev5 ar\nd ! pole itself1 w\ld be subject$ to a heat dur+ summ] f> great] ?an any :i* n[ ev] exi/s 9 ^? localities4 ,! natural consequ5ce w\ld be1 t ! iceb]gs & ice :i* _h dur+ ! sev]e w9t] accumulat$ 9 high latitudes w\ld be rapidly ?aw$ by ?is heat0 7p4 #adh74 8,ea* w9t] ! :ole nor!rn & s\!rn hemisph]es w\ld be "o mass ( ice2 ea* summ] ne>ly ! :ole ( ! ice ( ea* hemisph]e w\ld be melt$ & disp]s$0 7p4 #aej74 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 n only is ! :ole c\ntry cov]$ ea* w9t] ) a cont9u\s mass ( ice1 b l>ge iceb]gs are =m$ dur+ t %ort season1 & :5 ! summ] heat sets 9 all is melt$ away4 ,"h we h a misappreh5sion n only z to ! actual condition ( ?+s dur+ ! glacial epo*1 b ev5 z to ! way 9 :i* iceb]gs & l&-ice are =m$4 ,iceb]gs are =m$ f l&-ice1 b l&-ice is n =m$ dur+ a s+le w9t]1 mu* less a mass ( suffici5t ?ickness to produce iceb]gs4 ,l&-ice ( ?is ?ickness requires ! accumulat$ sn[s ( c5turies = its production4 ,all t we c\ld really h1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 w\ld be a ?ick cov]+ ( sn[ dur+ w9t]1 :i* w\ld entirely disappe> dur+ summ]1 s t !re c\ld be no l&-ice4 ,mr4 ,?omas ,belt's ,!ory4--,! !ory t ! glacial epo* result$ f a great increase 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic has rec5tly be5 advocat$ by ,mr4 ,?omas ,belt4#bcc ,8 conceptions on ! subject1 h[ev]1 appe> to me to be ev5 m irreconcilable ) physics ?an ^? we h be5 consid]+4 ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson admits t ! increase ( heat to pol> regions result+ f ! great increase ( obliquity w\ld dissipate ! ice !re1 b ,mr4 ,belt does n ev5 admit t an increase ( obliquity w\ld br+ ) x an increase ( heat1 f> less t x w\ld melt ! pol> ice4 ,on ! contr>y1 he ma9ta9s t ! t5d5cy ( obliquity is to increase ! rig\r ( pol> climate1 & t ?is is ! reason 8t n[ ar\nd ! poles "s l&s are be+ glaciat$1 = except+ = t obliquity sn[ & ice w\ld n accumulate1 except+ on m\nta9 *a9s40 8,?us10 he says1 8!re exi/ glacial conditions at pres5t ar\nd ! poles1 due prim>ily to ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic40 ,& he also ma9ta9s t if !re 7 no obliquity & ! e>?'s axis 7 p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( its orbit1 an et]nal 8spr+ w\ld reign ar\nd ! arctic circle10 & t 8"u su* circum/ances ! pil+ up ( sn[1 or ev5 its production at ! sea-level1 w\ld be impossible1 except+ p]haps 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! poles1 :]e ! rays ( ! sun w\ld h b little heat+ p[] f its small altitude40 ,mr4 ,belt has app>5tly be5 l$ to ^! /range conclusions by ! foll[+ s+ul> misappreh5sion ( ! effects ( obliquity on ! di/ribution ( ! sun's heat ov] ! globe4 8,! obliquity ( ! ecliptic10 he rem>ks1 8does n affect ! mean am\nt ( heat receiv$ at any "o po9t f ! sun1 b x causes ! heat & ! cold to pr$om9ate at diff]5t seasons ( ! ye>40 ,x is n necess>y to dwell fur!r on ! absurdity ( ! supposition t an increase ( obliquity c possibly acc\nt = ! glacial epo*1 b we may 9 a few words consid] :e!r a decrease ( obliquity w\ld mitigate ! climate & remove ! sn[ f pol> regions4 ,suppos+ obliquity to disappe> & ! e>?'s axis to become p]p5dicul> to ! plane ( its orbit1 x is p]fectly true t day & night w\ld be equal all ov] ! globe1 b !n ! quantity ( heat receiv$ by ! pol> regions w\ld be f> less ?an at pres5t4 ,x is well kn[n t at pres5t at ! equ9oxes1 :5 day & night are equal1 sn[ & n ra9 prevails 9 ! arctic regions1 & c we suppose x c\ld be o!rwise 9 ! case "u consid]ation8 ,h[1 we may well ask1 c\ld ^! regions1 depriv$ ( _! summ]1 get rid ( _! sn[ & ice8 ,b ev5 suppos+ x c\ld be %[n t a *ange 9 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic to ! ext5t assum$ by ,mr4 ,belt & ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson w\ld produce a glacial epo*1 /ill ! assumption ( su* a *ange is "o :i* physical a/ronomy w n p]mit4 ,mr4 ,belt does n appe> to dispute ! accuracy ( ! me?ods by :i* x is prov$ t ! v>iations ( obliquity are conf9$ )9 n>r[ limits2 b he ma9ta9s t physical a/ronom]s1 9 mak+ _! calculations h left out ( acc\nt "s circum/ances :i* mat]ially affect ! problem4 ,^!1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,belt1 are ! foll[+3--7#a7 ,upheavals & subsid5ces ( ! l& :i* may h tak5 place 9 pa/ ages4 7#b7 ,! unequal di/ribution ( sea & l& on ! globe4 7#c7 ,! fact t ! equatorial protub]ance is n a regul> "o1 8b approa*es 9 a g5]al outl9e to an ellipse1 ( :i* ! great] diamet] is two miles long] ?an ! o!r40 7#d7 ,! heap+ up ( ice ar\nd ! poles dur+ ! glacial p]iod4 ,we may briefly consid] :e!r any or all ( ^! c s5sibly affect ! "q at issue4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! la/-m5tion$ elem5t1 x is no d\bt true t if an imm5se quantity ( wat] 7 remov$ f ! ocean & plac$ ar\nd ! poles 9 ! =m ( ice x w\ld affect ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic2 b ?is is an elem5t ( *ange :i* is n available to ,mr4 ,belt1 because accord+ to 8 !ory ! pil+ up ( ! ice is an effect :i* results f ! *ange ( obliquity4 ,9 ref]5ce to ! diff]5ce ( two miles 9 ! equatorial diamet]s ( ! e>?1 ! fact mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! long] diamet] passes ?r\gh ne>ly ! c5tre ( ! great depression ( ! ,pacific ,ocean1#bcd :]eas ! %ort] diamet] passes ?r\gh ! opposite cont95ts ( ,asia & ,am]ica4 ,n[1 :5 we take into consid]ation ! fact t ^! cont95ts are n only two-&-a-half times d5s] ?an ! ocean1 b h a mean elevation ( ab\t #a1jjj feet above ! sea-level1 x becomes p]fectly obvi\s t ! e>?'s mass mu/ be pretty ev5ly di/ribut$ ar\nd its axis ( rotation1 & t !re=e ! diff]5ce 9 ! equatorial diamet]s c ex]cise no appreciable effect on ! *ange ( obliquity4 ,x foll[s also t ! pres5t arrangem5t ( sea & l& is ! be/ t c\ld be *os5 to prev5t di/urbance ( motion4 ,t !re ev] 7 upheavals & depressions ( ! l& ( s enorm\s a magnitude z to lead to a *ange ( obliquity to ! ext5t assum$ by ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson & ,mr4 ,belt is :at1 ,i presume1 few geologi/s w\ld be will+ to admit4 ,suppose ! great table-l& ( ,?ibet1 ) ! ,himalaya ,m\nta9s1 7 to s9k "u ! sea1 x w\ld h>dly produce any s5sible effect on ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic4 ,nay m2 suppos+ t all ! l& 9 ! globe 7 sunk "u ! sea-level1 or ! ocean b$s conv]t$ into dry l&1 /ill ?is w\ld n mat]ially affect obliquity4 ,! reason is v obvi\s4 ,! equatorial bulge is s imm5se t ^? upheavals & depressions w\ld n to any great ext5t alt] ! oblate =m ( ! e>?4 ,! only cause :i* c\ld produce any s5sible effect on obliquity1 z has already be5 notic$1 w\ld be ! removal ( ! wat] ( ! ocean & ! pil+ ( x up 9 ! =m ( ice ar\nd ! poles2 b ?is is a cause :i* is n available to ,mr4 ,belt4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell's ,!ory4--,i am also unable to agree ) ,sir ,*>les ,lyell's conclusions 9 ref]5ce to ! influ5ce ( ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic on climate4 ,sir ,*>les says1 8,x may be rem>k$ t if ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic c\ld ev] be dim9i%$ to ! ext5t ( f\r degrees bel[ its pres5t incl9ation1 su* a deviation w\ld be ( geological int]e/1 9 s f> z x w\ld cause ! sun's light to be dissem9at$ ov] a broad] zone inside ( ! arctic & ant>ctic circles4 ,inde$1 if ! date ( its occurr5ce 9 pa/ "t c\ld be asc]ta9$1 ?is great] spread ( ! sol> rays1 imply+ a %ort5+ ( ! pol> night1 might help 9 "s slight degree to acc\nt = a vegetation su* z n[ *>act]izes l[] latitudes1 hav+ _h 9 ! ,mioc5e & ,c>bonif]\s p]iods a mu* wid] range t[>ds ! pole40#bce ,! effects1 z we h se51 w\ld be directly ! rev]se ( :at is "h /at$1 viz41 ! m ! obliquity 0 dim9i%$ ! less w\ld ! sun's rays spread ov] ! arctic & ant>ctic regions1 & conv]sely ! m ! obliquity 0 increas$ ! great] w\ld be ! am\nt ( heat spread ov] pol> latitudes4 ,! f>!r ! sun rec$es f ! equator1 ! great] becomes ! am\nt ( heat diffus$ ov] ! pol> regions2 & if ! obliquity c\ld possibly atta9 its absolute limit 7#ij71 x is obvi\s t ! poles w\ld !n be receiv+ m heat ?an ! equator is n[4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvi4 ,,coal ,,an ,,int]-,,glacial ,,=mation4 ,climate ( ,coal ,p]iod ,int]-glacial 9 ,"*4--,coal ,plants indicate an ,equable1 n a ,tropical ,climate4--,conditions necess>y = ,pres]vation ( ,coal ,plants4--,oscillations ( ,sea-level necess>ily impli$4--,:y our ,coal-fields conta9 m ?an ,"o ,coal-seam4--,"t requir$ to =m a ,b$ ( ,coal4--,:y ,coal ,/rata conta9 s little evid5ce ( ,ice-action4--,l& ,flat dur+ ,coal ,p]iod4--,lead+ ,idea ( ! ,!ory4--,c>bonif]\s ,lime/ones4 ,an ,int]-glacial ,climate ! "o be/ suit$ = ! ,gr[? ( ! ,coal ,plants4--,no ass]tion1 p]haps1 c\ld appe> m improbable1 or is m oppos$ to all hi!rto receiv$ !ories1 ?an ! "o t ! plants :i* =m our coal grew dur+ a glacial epo*4 ,b1 nev]!less1 if ! !ory ( secul> *anges ( climate1 discuss$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt]s1 be correct1 we h 9 w>m int]-glacial p]iods 7z 0 po9t$ out sev]al ye>s ago7#bcf ! v condition ( climate be/ suit$ = ! gr[? ( ^? k9ds ( trees & vegetation ( :i* our coal is compos$4 ,x is ! g5]ally receiv$ op9ion among bo? geologi/s & botani/s t ! flora ( ! ,coal p]iod does n indicate ! exi/5ce ( a tropical1 b a moi/1 equable1 & temp]ate climate4 8,x seems to h become10 says ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 8a m & m receiv$ op9ion t ! coal plants d n on ! :ole indicate a climate resembl+ t n[ enjoy$ 9 ! equatorial zone4 ,tree-f]ns range z f> s\? z ! s\!rn p>ts ( ,new ,zeal&1 & ,araucanian p9es occur 9 ,norfolk ,isl&4 ,a great prepond]ance ( f]ns & lycopodiums indicates moi/ure1 equability ( temp]ature1 & fre$om f fro/1 r ?an int5se heat40#bcg ,mr4 ,rob]t ,br[n1 ! em95t botani/1 consid]s t ! rapid & great gr[? ( _m ( ! coal plants %[$ t !y grew 9 swamps & %all[ wat] ( equable & g5ial temp]ature4 8,g5]ally speak+10 says ,pr(essor ,page1 8we f9d !m resembl+ equisetums1 m>%-grasses1 re$s1 club-mosses1 tree-f]ns1 & conif]\s trees2 & ^! 9 exi/+ nature atta9 _! maximum developm5t 9 w>m1 temp]ate1 & subtropical1 r ?an 9 equatorial regions4 ,! ,well+tonias ( ,cali=nia & ! p9es ( ,norfolk ,isl& are m gigantic ?an ! l>ge/ conif]\s tree yet discov]$ 9 ! coal-measures40#bch ,! ,coal p]iod 0 n only *>act]iz$ by a great prepond]ance ov] ! pres5t 9 ! quantity ( f]ns gr[+1 b also 9 ! numb] ( diff]5t species4 ,our isl& possesses only ab\t #ej species1 :ile no few] ?an #adj species h be5 enum]at$ z hav+ inhabit$ ^? few isolat$ places 9 ,engl& ov] :i* ! coal has be5 work$4 ,& ,humboldt has %[n t x is n 9 ! hot1 b 9 ! m\nta9\s1 humid1 & %ady p>ts ( ! equatorial regions t ! family ( f]ns produces ! greate/ numb] ( species4 8,dr4 ,hook] ?9ks t a climate w>m] ?an ours n[ is1 w\ld probably be indicat$ by ! pres5ce ( an increas$ numb] ( fl[]+ plants1 :i* w\ld d\btless h be5 fossiliz$ ) ! f]ns2 :il/ a l[] temp]ature1 equal to ! mean ( ! seasons n[ prevail+1 w\ld assimilate our climate to t ( su* cool] c\ntries z are *>act]iz$ by a disproportionate am\nt ( f]ns40#bci 8,! g5]al op9ion ( ! highe/ au?orities10 says ,pr(essor ,hull1 8appe>s to be t ! climate did n resemble t ( ! equatorial regions1 b 0 "o 9 :i* ! temp]ature 0 free f extremes2 ! atmosph]e be+ w>m & moi/1 some:at resembl+ t ( ,new ,zeal& & ! surr\nd+ isl&s1 :i* we endeav\r to imitate artificially 9 our ho?\ses40#bdj ,! enorm\s quantity ( ! c>bonif]\s vegetation %[s also t ! climate "u :i* x grew c\ld n h be5 ( a tropical "*1 or x mu/ h be5 decompos$ by ! heat4 ,peat1 s abundant 9 temp]ate regions1 is n to be f\nd 9 ! tropics4 ,! condition mo/ fav\rable to ! pres]vation ( vegetable rema9s1 at lea/ "u ! =m ( peat1 is a cool1 moi/1 & equable climate1 su* z prevails 9 ! ,falkl& ,isl&s at ! pres5t day4 8,9 ^! isl&s10 says ,mr4 ,d>w91 8almo/ e k9d ( plant1 ev5 ! co>se grass :i* cov]s ! :ole surface ( ! l&1 becomes conv]t$ into ?is sub/ance40#bda ,f ! evid5ce ( geology we may reasonably inf] t 7 ! diff]5ce betwe5 our summ] & w9t] temp]ature ne>ly annihilat$1 & 7 we to enjoy an equable climate equal to1 or p]haps a little above1 ! pres5t mean annual temp]ature ( our isl&1 we %\ld !n h a climate simil> to :at prevail$ dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s epo*4 ,b we h already se5 t su* mu/ h be5 ! "* ( our climate at ! "t t ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit 0 at a maximum1 & w9t] occurr$ :5 ! e>? 0 9 ! p]ihelion ( its orbit4 ,=1 z we h already %[n1 ! e>? w\ld 9 su* a case be #ad1bab1gjj miles ne>] to ! sun 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]4 ,?is enorm\s diff]5ce1 along ) o!r causes :i* h be5 discuss$1 w\ld almo/ ext+ui% ! diff]5ce betwe5 summ] & w9t] temp]ature4 ,! almo/ if n entire abs5ce ( ice & sn[1 result+ f ?is condition ( ?+s1 w\ld1 z has already be5 %[n1 t5d to raise ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! climate high] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,conditions necess>y = ! ,pres]vation ( ! ,coal ,plants4--,b 9 ord] to ! =mation ( coal1 x is n simply necess>y to h a condition ( climate suitable = ! gr[?1 b also = ! pres]vation1 ( a luxuriant vegetation4 ,! v exi/5ce ( coal is z mu* due to ! latt] circum/ance z to ! =m]2 nay m1 z we %all yet see1 ! fact t a great] am\nt ( coal belongs to ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod ?an to any o!r1 0 evid5tly due n s mu* to a m ext5sive vegetable gr[? dur+ t age1 suit$ to =m coal1 z to ! fact t t flora has be5 bett] pres]v$4 ,n[1 z w be pres5tly %[n1 we h n m]ely 9 ! w>m p]iods ( a glacial epo* a condition ( climate be/ suit$ = ! gr[? ( coal plants1 b we h also 9 ! cold p]iods ( su* an epo* ! condition mo/ fav\rable = ! pres]vation ( ^? plants4 ,"o circum/ance necess>y = ! pres]vation ( plants is t !y %\ld h be5 cov]$ ov] by a ?ick deposit ( s&1 mud1 or clay1 & = ?is end x is necess>y t ! area ^u :i* ! plants grew %\ld h become subm]g$4 ,x is evid5t t unless ! area _h become subm]g$1 ! plants c\ld n h be5 cov]$ ov] ) a ?ick deposit2 &1 ev5 suppos+ !y _h be5 cov]$ ov]1 !y c\ld n h escap$ de/ruction f subarial d5udation unless ! :ole _h be5 "u wat]4 ,ano!r condition fav\rable1 if n ess5tial1 to ! pres]vation ( ! plants1 is t !y %\ld h be5 subm]g$ 9 a cold & n 9 a w>m sea4 ,assum+ t ! coal plants grew dur+ a w>m p]iod ( a glacial epo*1 we h 9 ! cold p]iod :i* succe$$ all ! above conditions necess>ily secur$4 ,x is n[ g5]ally admitt$ t ! coal trees grew ne> broad e/u>ies & on imm5se flat pla9s b little elevat$ above sea-level4 ,b t ! ,lepidod5dra1 ,sigill>i1 & o!r trees1 ( :i* our coal is almo/ :olly compos$1 grew on dry gr\nd1 elevat$ above sea-level1 & n 9 swamps & %all[ wat]1 z 0 at "o "t suppos$1 has be5 conclusively e/abli%$ by ! rese>*es ( ,pr9cipal ,dawson & o!rs4 ,aft] ! gr[? ( _m g5]ations ( trees1 ! pla9 is ev5tually subm]g$ "u ! sea1 & ! :ole1 ?r\gh c\rse ( "t1 becomes cov]$ ov] ) ?ick deposits ( s&1 gravel1 & o!r s$im5ts c>ri$ d[n by /reams f ! adjo9+ l&4 ,aft] ?is ! subm]g$ pla9 becomes aga9 elevat$ above ! sea-level1 & =ms ! site ( a second =e/1 :i*1 aft] cont9u+ to fl\ri% = long c5turies1 is 9 turn de/roy$ by subm]g5ce1 &1 l ! =m]1 becomes cov]$ ov] ) deposits f ! l&4 ,?is alt]nate process ( subm]g5ce & em]g5ce goes on till we h a succession ( buri$ =e/s "o above ano!r1 ) imm5se /ratifi$ deposits betwe54 ,^! buri$ =e/s ultimately become conv]t$ into b$s ( coal4 ,?is1 ,i presume1 is a fair repres5tation ( ! g5]ally admitt$ way 9 :i* our coal-b$s _h _! orig94 ,x is also wor?y ( notice t ! /ratifi$ b$s betwe5 ! coal-seams are ( m>9e & n ( lacu/r9e orig94 ,on ?is po9t ,i may quote ! op9ion ( ,pr(essor ,hull1 a well-kn[n au?ority on ! subject3 8,:il/ admitt+10 he says1 8! occasional pres5ce ( lacu/r9e /rata associat$ ) ! coal-measures1 ,i ?9k we may conclude t ! :ole =mation has be5 ess5tially ( m>9e & e/u>9e orig940#bdb ,coal-b$s necess>ily imply ,oscillations ( ,sea-level4--,x may also be obs]v$ t ea* coal-seam indicates bo? an elevation & a depression ( ! l&4 ,if1 = example1 !re are six coal-seams1 "o above ! o!r1 ?is proves t ! l& mu/ h be51 at lea/1 six times bel[ & six times above sea-level4 ,?is repeat$ oscillation ( ! l& has be5 reg>d$ z a some:at puzzl+ & s+ul> circum/ance4 ,b if we assume coal to be an int]-glacial =mation1 ?is difficulty n only disappe>s1 b all ! v>i\s circum/ances :i* we h be5 detail+ are readily expla9$4 ,we h to beg9 ) a w>m int]-glacial p]iod1 ) a climate specially suit$ = ! gr[? ( ! coal trees4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 z has be5 %[n 9 ! *apt] on ,subm]g5ce1 ! sea w\ld be /&+ at a l[] level ?an at pres5t1 lay+ b>e l>ge tracts ( sea-bottom1 on :i* w\ld fl\ri% ! coal vegetation4 ,?is condition ( ?+s w\ld cont9ue = a p]iod ( #h1jjj or #aj1jjj ye>s1 all[+ ! gr[? ( _m g5]ations ( trees4 ,:5 ! w>m p]iod came to a close1 & ! cold & glacial condition set 91 ! climate became unsuit$ = ! gr[? ( ! coal plants4 ,! sea w\ld beg9 to rise1 & ! old sea-bottoms on :i*1 dur+ s long a p]iod1 ! =e/s grew1 w\ld be subm]g$ & become cov]$ by s$im5t>y deposits br\ght d[n f ! l&4 ,^! =e/s becom+ subm]g$ 9 a cold sea1 & buri$ "u an imm5se mass ( s$im5t1 7 !n n[ protect$ f de/ruction1 & 9 a position to become conv]t$ into coal4 ,! cold cont9u+ = a p]iod ( #aj1jjj ye>s1 or !reby1 w\ld be succe$$ by ano!r w>m p]iod1 dur+ :i* ! subm]g$ areas became aga9 a l&-surface1 on :i* a second =e/ fl\ri%$ = ano!r #aj1jjj ye>s1 :i* 9 turn became subm]g$ & buri$ "u drift on ! approa* ( ! second cold p]iod4 ,?is alt]nate process ( subm]g5ce & em]g5ce ( ! l&1 correspond+ to ! rise & fall ( sea-level dur+ ! cold & w>m p]iods1 w\ld cont9ue s long z ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit rema9$ at a high value1 till we might h1 p]haps1 five or six subm]g$ =e/s1 "o above ! o!r1 & sep>at$ by great ?icknesses ( /ratifi$ deposits1 ^! subm]g$ =e/s be+ ! coal-b$s ( ! pres5t day4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,x is probable t ! =e/s ( ! ,coal p]iod w\ld ext5d inl& ov] ! c\ntry1 b only su* portions z 7 slightly elevat$ above sea-level w\ld be subm]g$ & cov]$ ov] by s$im5t & ?us be pres]v$1 & ultimately become coal-seams4 ,! process w be bett] und]/ood f ! foll[+ diagram4 ,let ,a ,b repres5t ! surface ( ! gr\nd prior to a glacial epo*1 & to ! =mation ( ! b$s ( coal & /ratifi$ deposits repres5t$ 9 ! diagram4 ,let ,s ,s be ! normal sea-level4 ,suppose ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit beg9s to increase1 & ! w9t] sol/ice approa*es ! p]ihelion1 we h !n a mod]ately w>m p]iod4 ,! sea-level s9ks to #a1 & =e/s ( sigill>i & o!r coal trees cov] ! c\ntry f ! sea-%ore at #a1 /ret*+ away inl& 9 ! direction ( ,b4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ! w9t] sol/ice moves r\nd to aphelion & a cold p]iod foll[s4 ,! sea beg9s to rise & cont9ues ris+ till x rea*es #a4 ,d5udation & ! sev]ity ( ! climate de/roy e ve/ige ( ! =e/ f #a backw>ds into ! int]ior2 b ! portion #a #a be+ subm]g$ & cov]$ ov] by s$im5t br\ght d[n f ! l& is pres]v$4 ,! ecc5tricity cont9u+ to increase 9 ext5t1 ! second int]-glacial p]iod is m w>m & equable ?an ! fir/1 & ! sea ?is "t s9ks to #b4 ,a second =e/ n[ cov]s ! c\ntry d[n to ! sea-%ore at #b4 ,?is second w>m p]iod is foll[$ by ! second cold p]iod1 m sev]e ?an ! fir/1 & ! sea-level rises to #b4 ,d5udation & sev]ity ( climate n[ de/roy e remnant ( ! =e/1 f #b inl&1 b ( c\rse ! subm]g$ portion ( #b #b1 l ! =m] portion #a #a1 is pres]v$4 ,dur+ ! ?ird w>m p]iod 7! ecc5tricity be+ /ill on ! increase7 ! sea-level s9ks to #c1 & ! c\ntry = ! ?ird "t is cov]$ by =e/s1 :i* ext5d d[n to #c4 ,?is ?ird w>m p]iod is foll[$ by a cold glacial p]iod m sev]e ?an ! prec$+1 & ! sea-level rises to #c1 & ! subm]g$ portion ( ! =e/ f #c to #c becomes cov]$ ) drift1--! re/ z be=e be+ de/roy$ by d5udation & ! sev]ity ( ! climate4 ,we %all assume t ! ecc5tricity has n[ rea*$ a maximum1 & t dur+ ! f\r? int]-glacial p]iod ! sea-level s9ks only to #d1 ! level to :i* x sank dur+ ! second int]-glacial p]iod4 ,! c\ntry is n[ cov]$ = ! f\r? "t by =e/s4 ,! cold p]iod :i* succe$s n be+ s sev]e z ! la/1 ! sea rises only to #d1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 m>ks ! limit ( ! f\r? =e/4 ,! ecc5tricity cont9u+ to dim9i%1 ! fif? =e/ is only subm]g$ up to #e1 & ! six? & la/ "o up to #f4 ,! epo* ( cold & w>m p]iods be+ n[ at a close1 ! sea-level rema9s /ation>y at its old normal position ,s ,s4 ,"h we h six buri$ =e/s1 ! "o above ! o!r1 :i*1 ?r\gh c\rse ( ages1 become trans=m$ into coal-b$s4 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 necess>ily foll[ t ea* sep>ate coal-seam repres5ts a w>m p]iod4 ,x is q possible t two or m seams sep>at$ f ea* o!r by ?9 p>t+s or a few feet ( s$im5t>y /rata might h be5 =m$ dur+ "o w>m p]iod2 = dur+ a w>m p]iod m9or oscillations ( sea-level suffici5t to subm]ge ! l& to "s dep? might q readily h tak5 place f ! melt+ ( pol> ice1 z 0 %[n 9 ! *apt] on ,subm]g5ce4 ,x may be notic$ t 9 ord] to make ! section m di/9ct1 its ?ickness has be5 greatly exagg]at$4 ,x w also be obs]v$ t b$s #d1 #e1 & #f ext5d consid]ably to ! left ( :at is repres5t$ 9 ! section4 ,b x is n to be suppos$ t ! :ole ph5om5a ( ! coal-fields c be expla9$ )\t suppos+ a subsid5ce ( ! l&4 ,! great dep? to :i* ! coal-b$s h be5 sunk1 9 _m cases1 mu/ be attribut$ to a subsid5ce ( ! level4 ,a s]ies ( b$s =m$ dur+ a glacial epo*1 may1 ow+ to a subsid5ce ( ! l&1 be sunk to a great dep?1 & become cov]$ ov] ) ?\s&s ( feet ( s$im5t2 & !n on ! occurr5ce ( ano!r glacial epo*1 a new s]ies ( coal-b$s may be =m$ on ! surface4 ,?us ! upp] s]ies may be sep>at$ f ! l[] by ?\s&s ( feet ( s$im5t>y rock4 ,!re is ano!r consequ5ce result+ f ! s9k+ ( ! l&1 :i* mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,_h !re be5 no s9k+ ( ! l& dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s age1 ! quantity ( coal-b$s n[ rema9+ w\ld be f> less ?an x actually is1 = x is 9 a great measure ow+ to _! be+ sunk to a great dep? t !y h escap$ de/ruction by ! enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation :i* has tak5 place s9ce t remote age4 ,x !re=e foll[s t only a v small fraction ( ! subm]g$ =e/s ( ! ,coal p]iod d actually n[ exi/ 9 ! =m ( coal4 ,g5]ally x w\ld only be ^? areas :i* happ5$ to be sunk to a consid]able dep?1 by a subsid5ce ( ! l&1 t w\ld escape de/ruction f d5udation4 ,b no d\bt ! areas :i* w\ld ?us be pres]v$ be> b a small proportion to ^? de/roy$4 ,l5g? ( ,int]-glacial ,p]iod1 z indicat$ by ! ,?ickness ( a ,b$ ( ,coal4--,a fact fav\rable to ! idea t ! coal-seams 7 =m$ dur+ int]-glacial p]iods is1 t ! l5g? ( ^? p]iods agrees pretty closely ) ! l5g? ( "t suppos$ to be requir$ to =m a coal-seam ( av]age ?ickness4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! ?ickness ( a coal-seam w\ld dep5d ^u ! l5g? ( ! int]-glacial p]iod4 ,if ! rate ( precession & motion ( ! p]ihelion 7 always uni=m ! p]iods w\ld all be ( equal l5g?4 ,b al?\gh ! rate ( precession is n subject to mu* v>iation1 su* is n ! case 9 reg>d to ! motion ( ! p]ihelion1 z w be se5 f ! tables ( ! longitude ( ! p]ihelion giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,sometimes ! motion ( ! p]ihelion is rapid1 at o!r times sl[1 :ile 9 "s cases its motion is retrograde4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is1 an int]-glacial p]iod may n be m ?an "s six or sev5 ?\s& ye>s 9 l5g?1 :ile 9 o!r cases its l5g? may be z mu* z fifte5 or sixte5 ?\s& ye>s4 ,accord+ to ,b\ss+ault1 luxuriant vegetation at ! pres5t day takes f ! atmosph]e ab\t a half ton ( c>bon p] acre annually1 or fifty tons p] acre 9 a c5tury4 ,fifty tons ( c>bon ( ! specific gravity ( coal1 ab\t #ae1 spread ev5ly ov] ! surface ( an acre1 w\ld make a lay] ne>ly "o-?ird ( an in*4#bdc ,humboldt makes ! e/imate a little high]1 viz41 "o half-in*4 ,tak+ ! latt] e/imate1 x w\ld require #g1bjj ye>s to =m a b$ ( coal a y>d ?ick4 ,dr4 ,he]1 ( ,zuri*1 ?9ks t x w\ld n require m ?an #a1djj ye>s to =m a b$ ( coal "o y>d ?ick2#bdd :ile ,mr4 ,macl>5 ?9ks t a b$ ( coal "o y>d ?ick w\ld be =m$ 9 #a1jjj ye>s4#bde ,pr(essor ,phillip1 calculat+ f ! am\nt ( c>bon tak5 f ! atmosph]e1 z det]m9$ by ,liebig1 consid]s t if x 7 conv]t$ into ord9>y coal ) ab\t #ge p] c5t4 ( c>bon1 x w\ld yield "o in* 9 #abge ye>s1 or a y>d 9 #d1fjj ye>s4#bdf ,!re is "h a consid]able am\nt ( diff]5ce 9 reg>d to ! "t requir$ to =m a y>d ( coal4 ,! tru?1 h[ev]1 may probably be some:]e betwe5 ! two extremes1 & we may assume #e1jjj ye>s to be ab\t ! "t4 ,9 a w>m p]iod ( #ae1jjj ye>s we %\ld !n h deposit$ a seam ( coal #i feet ?ick1 :ile dur+ a w>m p]iod ( #g1jjj ye>s we w\ld h a seam ( only #d feet4 ,reason :y ! ,coal ,/rata pres5t s little ,evid5ce ( ,ice-action4--,!re are two objections :i* w1 no d\bt1 pres5t !mselves to ! read]'s m9d4 7#a47 ,if coal be an int]-glacial =mation1 :y d ! coal /rata pres5t s little evid5ce ( ice-action8 ,if ! coal-seams repres5t w>m int]-glacial p]iods1 ! int]v5+ b$s mu/ repres5t cold or glacial p]iods1 & if s1 !y ought to conta9 m abundant evid5ce ( ice-action ?an !y really d4 7#b47 ,9 ! case ( ! glacial epo*1 almo/ e ve/ige ( ! vegetation ( ! w>m p]iods 0 de/roy$ by ! ice ( ! cold p]iods2 :y !n did n ! same ?+ take place dur+ ! glacial epo* ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod8 ,dur+ ! glacial epo* ! face ( ! c\ntry 0 9 all probability cov]$ = ages ) ! mo/ luxuriant vegetation2 b sc>cely a ve/ige ( t vegetation n[ rema9s1 inde$ ! v soil ^u :i* x grew is n to be f\nd4 ,all t n[ rema9s is ! wreck & desolation produc$ by ! ice-%eet t cov]$ ! c\ntry dur+ ! cold p]iods ( t epo*1 consi/+ ( transport$ blocks ( /ones1 poli%$ & groov$ rocks1 & a confus$ mass ( b\ld] clay4 ,"h we h 9 ?is epo* no?+ tangible pres5t+ itself b ! de/ructive effects ( ! ice :i* swept ov] ! l&4 ,:y1 !n1 9 ref]5ce to ! glacial epo*s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s age %\ld we h su* abundant evid5ce ( ! vegetation ( ! w>m p]iods1 & yet s little evid5ce ( ! effect ( ! ice ( ! cold p]iods8 ,! answ] to ^! two objections w g a great way to expla9 :y we h s mu* coal belong+ to ! ,c>bonif]\s age1 & s little belong+ to any o!r age2 & x w1 ,i ?9k1 be f\nd 9 ! peculi> physical "* ( ! c\ntry dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s age4 ,! areas on :i* ! =e/s ( ! ,coal p]iod grew escap$ ! de/ructive p[] ( glaci]s & l&-ice on acc\nt ( ! flat nature ( ! gr\nd4 ,!re are few po9ts on :i* geologi/s are m unanim\s ?an 9 reg>d to ! flat "* ( ! c\ntry dur+ ! ,coal p]iod4 ,!re does n seem to be any v satisfactory evid5ce t ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry rose to any v great elevation4 ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/5 ?9ks t dur+ ! ,coal p]iod !re mu/ h be5 8a va/ expanse ( cont9u\s horizontal surface at v slight elevations above ! sea-level40#bdg ,( ! widely spread t]re/rial surface ( ! ,coal-measure p]iod1 portions1 he believes1 atta9$ a consid]able elevation4 ,b 9 contra/ to ?is he /ates1 8,!re is a feature :i* seems to di/+ui% ?is p]iod physically f all subsequ5t p]iods1 & :i* consi/s 9 ! va/ expanse ( cont9u\s horizontal surface :i* ! l& area pres5t$1 bord]+ on1 & at v slight elevations above1 ! sea-level40#bdh ,hugh ,mill]1 describ+ 9 8 usual graphic way ! appe>ance ( ! c\ntry dur+ ! ,coal p]iod1 says3--8,x seems to h be5 a l& consi/+ ( imm5se flats1 unv>i$1 mayhap1 by a s+le hill1 9 :i* dre>y swamps1 inhabit$ by doleful creatures1 spread out on e h& = hundr$s & ?\s&s ( miles2 & a gigantic & mon/r\s vegetation =m$1 z ,i h %[n1 ! only prom95t features ( ! sc5]y40#bdi ,n[1 if ?is is 9 any way l a j repres5tation ( ! g5]al features ( ! c\ntry dur+ ! ,coal p]iod1 x 0 physically impossible1 no matt] h[ev] sev]e ! climate may h be51 t !re c\ld h be5 9 ?is c\ntry at t p]iod any?+ approa*+ to cont95tal ice1 or p]haps ev5 to glaci]s ( su* dim5sions z w\ld rea* d[n to ne> ! sea-level1 :]e ! coal vegetation n[ pres]v$ is suppos$ *iefly to h gr[n4 ,! condition ( ?+s :i* w\ld prevail w\ld m probably resemble t ( ,sib]ia ?an t ( ,gre5l&4 ,! abs5ce ( all traces ( ice-action 9 ! /rata ( ! coal-measures c 9 ?is case be easily expla9$4 ,= z by supposition !re 7 no glaci]s1 !re c\ld h be5 no scrat*+1 groov+1 or poli%+ ( ! rocks2 nei!r c\ld !re h be5 any iceb]gs1 = ! l>ge masses kn[n z iceb]gs are ! t]m9al portions ( glaci]s :i* h rea*$ d[n to ! sea4 ,aga91 !re be+ no iceb]gs1 !re ( c\rse c\ld h be5 no gr9d+ or scrat*+ ( ! rocks =m+ ! floor ( ! ocean4 ,true1 dur+ summ]1 :5 ! froz5 sea broke up1 we %\ld !n h imm5se masses ( float+ ice1 b ^! masses w\ld n be ( suffici5t ?ickness to rub aga9/ ! sea-bottom4 ,b ev5 suppos+ t !y did occasionally t\* ! bottom "h & !re1 we c\ld n possibly f9d ! evid5ce ( ?is 9 any ( ! /rata ( ! coal-measures4 ,we c\ld n expect to f9d any scrat*+s or m>k+s on ! s&/one or %ale ( ^? /rata indicat+ ! action ( ice1 = at t p]iod !re 7 no b$s ( s&/one or %ale1 b simply b$s ( s& & mud1 :i* 9 future ages became consolidat$ into s&/one & %ale4 ,a mass ( ice might occasionally rub along ! sea-bottom1 & leave its m>k+s on ! loose s& or s(t mud =m+ t bottom1 b ! next wave t pass$ ov] x w\ld oblit]ate e m>k1 & leave ! surface z smoo? z be=e4 ,nei!r c\ld we expect to f9d any l>ge erratics or b\ld]s 9 ! coal /rata1 = ^! mu/ come f ! l&1 & z by supposition !re 7 no glaci]s or l&-ice at t p]iod1 !re 0 !re=e no means ( transport+ !m4 ,9 ,gre5l& ! iceb]gs sometimes c>ry l>ge b\ld]s1 :i* are dropp$ into ! sea z ! iceb]gs melt away2 b ^! blocks h all ei!r be5 transport$ on ! backs ( glaci]s f inl& tracts1 or h fall5 on ! field-ice along ! %ore f ! face ( crags & ov]hang+ precipices4 ,b z !re 7 probably nei!r glaci]s rea*+ to ! sea1 nor p]haps precipit\s cliffs along ! sea-%ore1 !re c\ld h be5 few or no blocks transport$ by ice & dropp$ into ! sea ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 & ( c\rse we ne$ n expect to f9d !m 9 ! s&/one & %ale :i* dur+ t epo* =m$ ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,!re w\ld no d\bt be coa/-l9e ice & gr\nd-ice 9 riv]s1 c>ry+ away l>ge quantities ( gravel & /ones2 b ^! gravels & /ones w\ld ( c\rse be all wat]-worn1 & al?\gh f\nd 9 ! /rata ( ! coal-measures1 z no d\bt !y actually are1 !y w\ld n be reg>d$ z indicat+ ! action ( ice4 ,! simple abs5ce ( relics ( ice-action 9 ! coal-measures proves no?+ :atev] 9 reg>d to :e!r !re 7 cold p]iods dur+ _! =mation or n4 ,?is comp>ative abs5ce ( cont95tal ice might be "o reason :y ! =e/s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod h be5 pres]v$ to a mu* great] ext5t ?an ^? ( any o!r age4 ,x mu/ be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! conclusions at :i* we h arriv$ 9 ref]5ce to ! comp>ative abs5ce ( cont95tal ice applies only to ! areas :i* n[ con/itute our coal-fields4 ,! accumulation ( ice on ! ant>ctic regions1 & on "s p>ts ( ! arctic regions1 might h be5 z great dur+ t age z x is at pres5t4 ,_h !re be5 no cont95tal ice !re c\ld h be5 no su* oscillations ( sea-level z is assum$ 9 ! =ego+ !ory4 ,! lead+ idea ( ! !ory1 express$ 9 a few words1 is1 t ! glacial epo*s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s age 7 z sev]e1 & ! accumulation ( ice z great1 z dur+ any o!r age1 only !re 7 l>ge tracts ( flat c\ntry1 b little elevat$ above ! sea-level1 :i* 7 n cov]$ by ice4 ,^! pla9s1 dur+ ! w>m int]-glacial p]iods1 7 cov]$ ) =e/s ( sigill>i & o!r coal trees4 ,portions ( ^? =e/s 7 protect$ by ! subm]g5ce :i* result$ f ! rise ( ! sea-level dur+ ! cold or glacial p]iods & ! subsequ5t subsid5ce ( ! l&4 ,^? portions n[ con/itute our coal-b$s4 ,b t coal may be an int]-glacial =mation is no m]e hypo!sis1 = we h 9 ! well-kn[n ,drnt5 b$s--describ$ 9 ,*apt] ,,xv4--an actual example ( su* a =mation4 ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/ones4--,z a g5]al rule ! lime/ones ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 l ! coal1 are f\nd 9 b$s sep>at$ by masses ( s&/one & o!r /ratifi$ deposits1 :i* proves t ! corals1 cr9oids1 & o!r creatures1 ( ! rema9s ( :i* x is compos$1 did n live cont9u\sly on dur+ ! entire ,lime/one p]iod4 ,^! lime/ones are a m>9e =mation4 ,if ! l& 0 repeat$ly subm]g$ ! coal mu/ ( necessity h be5 produc$ 9 seams ) /ratifi$ deposits betwe51 b !re is no reason :y ! same %\ld h be5 ! case ) ! lime/ones4 ,if ! climatic condition ( ! sea cont9u$ ! same we %\ld n h expect$ ?is alt]nate succession ( life & dea?2 b1 accord+ to ! !ory ( alt]nate cold & w>m p]iods1 su* a condition foll[s z a necess>y consequ5ce1 = dur+ ! w>m p]iods1 :5 ! l& 0 cov]$ ) a luxuriant vegetation1 ! sea-bottom w\ld be cov]$ ) mollusca1 cr9oids1 corals1 c41 fitt$ to live only 9 a mod]ately w>m sea2 b :5 ! cold came on ^? creatures w\ld die1 & _! rema9s1 dur+ ! cont9uance ( ! cold p]iod1 w\ld become sl[ly cov]$ ov] ) deposits ( s& & clay4 ,on ! return ( ! w>m p]iod ^? deposits w\ld soon become cov]$ ) life z be=e1 =m+ ano!r b$ ( lime/one1 & ?is alt]nation ( life & dea? w\ld g on z long z ! glacial epo* cont9u$4 ,x is true t 9 ,d]by%ire1 & 9 ! s\? ( ,irel& & "s o!r places1 ! lime/one is f\nd 9 "o mass ( sev]al hundr$ feet 9 ?ickness )\t any b$s ( s&/one or %ale1 b !n x is n[h]e f\nd 9 "o cont9u\s mass f top to bottom )\t any l9es ( division4 ,^! breaks or divisions may z di/9ctly m>k a cold p]iod z ?\gh !y _h be5 occupi$ by b$s ( s&/one4 ,! m>9e creatures ceas$ to exi/1 & :5 ! r\gh surface left by _! rema9s became smoo!d d[n by ! action ( ! waves into a flat pla91 ano!r b$ w\ld beg9 to =m ^u ?is floor s soon z life aga9 appe>$4 ,two ag5cies work+ toge!r probably conspir$ to produce ^! enorm\s masses ( lime/one divid$ only by breaks m>k+ diff]5t p]iods ( elaboration4 ,corals gr[ 9 w>m seas1 & !re only 9 wat] ( a dep? rang+ f #bj to #cj fa?oms4 ,! cold ( a p]iod ( glaciation w\ld n only s]ve to de/roy !m1 b !y w\ld be subm]g$ s mu* beyond ! dep? prop] = _! exi/5ce t ev5 7 x possible t ) ! subm]g5ce a suffici5t temp]ature 0 left1 !y w\ld inevitably p]i% f ! sup]9cumb5t mass ( wat]4 ,we are !re=e1 z x seems to me1 w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t ! sep>ate masses ( ,d]by%ire lime/one 7 =m$ dur+ w>m int]-glacial p]iods1 & t ! l9es ( division repres5t cold p]iods ( glaciation dur+ :i* ! animals p]i%$ by ! comb9$ influ5ce ( cold & pressure ( wat]4 ,! subm]g5ce ( ! coral banks 9 deep wat] on a sea-bottom1 :i*1 l ! l&1 0 *>act]i/ically flat & ev51 implies its c>ry+ away f> into ! bosom ( ! ocean1 & consequ5tly remote f any cont95t & ! riv]-borne detritus !re(4 ,,*apt] ,,xxvii4 ,,pa? ,,( ,,! ,,ice-,,%eet ,,9 ,,nor?-,,we/]n ,,europe ,,& ,,its ,,relations ,,to ,,! ,,b\ld] ,,clay ,,( ,,cai?ness4#bej ,"* ( ,cai?ness ,b\ld] ,clay4--,!ories ( ! ,orig9 ( ! ,cai?ness ,clay4--,mr4 ,jamieson's ,!ory4--,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,pea*'s ,!ory4--,! propos$ ,!ory4--,?ickness ( ,scotti% ,ice-%eet4--,p5tl&s /riat$ on _! ,summits4--,sc&9avian ,ice-%eet4--,nor? ,sea fill$ ) ,l&-ice4--,great ,baltic ,glaci]4--,jutl& & ,d5m>k cross$ by ,ice4--,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison's ,obs]vations4--,orkney1 ,%etl&1 & ,f>oe ,isl&s /riat$ across4--,loess acc\nt$ =4--,pr(essor ,geikie's ,sugge/ion4--,pr(essor ,geikie & ,b4 ,n4 ,pea*'s ,obs]vations on ,ea/ ,coa/ ( ,cai?ness4--,evid5ce f ,*alk ,fl9ts & ,oolitic ,fossils 9 ,b\ld] ,clay4 ,! ,nature ( ! ,cai?ness ,b\ld] ,clay4--,a consid]able am\nt ( difficulty has be5 felt by geologi/s 9 acc\nt+ = ! orig9 ( ! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness4 ,x is an un/ratifi$ clay1 ( a deep grey or slaty col\r1 resembl+ mu* t ( ! ,cai?ness flags on :i* x re/s4 ,x is ?us describ$ by ,mr4 ,jamieson 7,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxii41 p4 #bfa73-- 8,! glacial drift ( ,cai?ness is p>ticul>ly int]e/+ z an example ( a b\ld] clay :i* 9 its mode ( accumulation & ice-scrat*$ dbris v mu* resembles t un/ratifi$ /ony mud :i* occurs und]nea? glaci]s--! #8mora9e pr(onde1' z "s call x4 8,! appe>ance ( ! drift along ! ,ha/] ,burn1 & 9 _m o!r places 9 ,cai?ness1 is 9 fact precisely ! same z t ( ! old b\ld] clay ( ! re/ ( ,scotl&1 except t x is *>g$ ) rema9s ( sea-%ells & o!r m>9e organisms4 8,if want ( /ratification1 h>dness ( texture1 & abundance ( well-glaciat$ /ones & b\ld]s are to be ! te/s = :at we call g5u9e b\ld] clay1 !n mu* ( ! ,cai?ness drift w /& ! ordeal40 ,s f>1 !re=e1 z ! m]e appe>ance ( ! drift is conc]n$1 x w\ld at once be pron\nc$ to be true ,l[] ,till1 ! product ( l&-ice4 ,b !re are two circum/ances connect$ ) x :i* h be5 g5]ally reg>d$ z fatal to ?is conclusion4 7#a7 ,! /ri on ! rocks %[ t ! ice :i* =m$ ! clay mu/ h come f ! sea1 & n f ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry2 = _! direction is almo/ at "r angles to :at x w\ld h be5 _h ! ice come f ! int]ior4 ,ov] ! :ole di/rict1 ! direction ( ! grooves & scrat*es1 n only ( ! rocks b ev5 ( ! /ones 9 ! clay1 is pretty ne>ly ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 8,:5 exam9+ ! sections along ! ,ha/] ,burn10 says ,mr4 ,jamieson1 89 company ) ,mr4 ,joseph ,&]son1 ,i rem>k$ t ! /ri on ! imb$d$ fragm5ts g5]ally agre$ 9 direction ) ^? ( ! rocks b5ea?4 ,! scrat*es on ! b\ld]s1 z usual1 run l5g?ways along ! /ones :5 !y are ( an elongat$ =m2 & ! position ( ^! /ones1 z !y lie imb$d$ 9 ! drift1 is1 z a rule1 su* t _! long] axes po9t 9 ! same direction z d ! scrat*es on ! solid rock b5ea?2 %[+ t ! same ag5cy t scor$ ! rocks also gr\nd & pu%$ along ! drift40 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,pea* in=ms me t he seldom or nev] f\nd a /one ) two sets ( /ri on x1 a fact indicat+1 z ,mr4 ,jamieson rem>ks1 t ! drift 0 produc$ by "o great movem5t inv>iably 9 ! same direction4 ,let x be borne 9 m9d t ! ice1 :i* ?us mov$ ov] ,cai?ness 9 ?is inv>iable track1 mu/ ei!r h come f ! ,atlantic to ! ,n4,w41 or f ! ,moray ,fir? to ! ,s4,e4 7#b7 ,! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness is full ( sea-%ells & o!r m>9e rema9s4 ,! %ells are 9 a brok5 condition1 & are int]sp]s$ l ! /ones ?r\gh ! entire mass ( ! clay4 ,mr4 ,jamieson /ates t he n[h]e obs]v$ any in/ance ( %ells be+ f\nd 9 an undi/urb$ condition1 8nor c\ld ,i he>10 he says1 8( any su* hav+ be5 f\nd2 !re seems to be no su* ?+ z a b$ ( lam9at$ silt ) %ells 9 situ40 ,! %ell-fragm5ts are scrat*$ & ice-worn1 ! same z ! /ones f\nd 9 ! clay4 ,n only are ! %ells glaciat$1 b ev5 ! =am9if]a1 :5 se5 ?r\gh ! microscope1 h a rubb$ & worn appe>ance4 ,! %ells h evid5tly be5 brok51 /riat$1 & pu%$ along by ! ice at ! "t ! b\ld] clay 0 be+ =m$4 ,!ories reg>d+ ! ,orig9 ( ! ,cai?ness ,clay4--,mr4 ,jamieson1 z we h se51 freely admits t ! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness has ! appe>ance ( true l&-ice till1 b f ! ,n4,w4 & ,s4,e4 direction ( ! /ri on ! rocks1 & ! pres5ce ( sea-%ells 9 ! clay1 he has come to ! conclusion t ! glaciation ( ,cai?ness has be5 effect$ by float+ ice at a "t :5 ! di/rict 0 subm]g$4 ,i h always felt conv9c$ t ,mr4 ,jamieson _h n hit ^u ! true explanation ( ! ph5om5a4 7#a7 ,x is physically impossible t any deposit =m$ by iceb]gs c\ld be :olly un/ratifi$4 ,suppose a mass ( ! mat]ials :i* w\ld =m b\ld] clay is dropp$ into ! sea f1 say an iceb]g1 ! heavi] p>ts1 su* z /ones1 w rea* ! bottom fir/4 ,!n w foll[ light] mat]ials1 su* z s&1 !n clay1 & la/ ( all ! mud w settle d[n ov] ! :ole 9 f9e lay]s4 ,! diff]5t masses dropp$ f ! v>i\s iceb]gs1 w1 no d\bt1 lie 9 confusion "o ov] ! o!r1 b ea* sep>ate mass w %[ signs ( /ratification4 ,a good deal ( b\ld] clay evid5tly has be5 =m$ 9 ! sea1 b if ! clay be un/ratifi$1 x mu/ h be5 =m$ "u glaci]s mov+ along ! sea-bottom z on dry gr\nd4 ,:e!r un/ratifi$ b\ld] clay may happ5 to be =m$ "u wat] or on dry l&1 x mu/ 9 ei!r case be ! product ( l&-ice4#bea ,^? :o imag9e t mat]ials1 diff]+ 9 specific gravity l ^? :i* compose b\ld] clay1 dropp$ into wat]1 c settle d[n )\t assum+ ! /ratifi$ =m1 %\ld make ! exp]im5t1 & !y w\ld soon satisfy !mselves t ! ?+ is physically impossible4 ,! notion t un/ratifi$ b\ld] clay c\ld be =m$ by deposits f float+ ice1 is n only errone\s1 b positively p]nici\s1 = x t5ds to lead ^? :o ent]ta9 x a/ray 9 reg>d to ! :ole "q ( ! orig9 ( drift4 7#b7 ,x is also physically impossible t ice-m>k+s1 su* z ^? ev]y:]e f\nd on ! rocky face ( ! di/rict1 & on ! pebbles & %ells imb$d$ 9 ! clay1 c\ld h be5 effect$ by any o!r ag5cy ?an t ( l&-ice4 ,i ne$ n "h ent] into any discussion on ?is po9t1 z ?is has be5 done at consid]able l5g? 9 ano!r place4#beb ,9 ! pres5t case1 h[ev]1 x is unnecess>y1 because if x c be %[n t all ! facts are acc\nt$ = 9 ! mo/ natural mann] by ! !ory ( l&-ice1 no "o w cont5d = ! float+-ice !ory2 = x is admitt$ t1 ) ! exception ( ! direction ( ! /ri & ! pres5ce ( ! %ells1 all ! facts agree bett] ) ! l&-ice ?an ) ! float+-ice !ory4 ,my fir/ impression on ! subject 0 t ! glaciation ( ,cai?ness _h be5 effect$ by ! pol> ice-cap1 :i*1 dur+ ! sev]] "p ( ! glacial epo*1 mu/ h ext5d$ d[n to at lea/ ! latitude ( ! nor? ( ,scotl&4 ,on a =m] occasion 7see ! ,read] = #ad? ,octob]1 #ahfe7 x 0 %[n t all ! nor!rn seas1 ow+ to _! %all[ness1 mu/1 at t p]iod1 h be5 block$ up ) solid ice1 :i* displac$ ! wat] & mov$ along ! sea-bottoms ! same z on dry l&4 ,9 fact1 ! nor!rn seas1 includ+ ! ,g]man ,ocean1 be+ fill$ at ! "t ) glaci]-ice1 might be reg>d$ z dry l&4 ,ice ( ?is sort1 mov+ along ! b$ ( ! ,g]man ,ocean or ,nor? ,sea1 & ov] ,cai?ness1 c\ld n fail to pu% be=e x ! %ells & o!r animal rema9s ly+ on ! sea-bottom1 & to mix !m up ) ! clay :i* n[ rema9s ^u ! l& z evid5ce ( its progress4 ,ab\t two ye>s ago ,i _h a conv]sation ) ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,pea* on ! subject4 ,?is g5tleman1 z is well kn[n1 has long be5 famili> ) ! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness4 ,he felt conv9c$ t ! clay ( t c\ntry is ! true ,l[] ,till1 & n a m rec5t deposit1 z ,mr4 ,jamieson supposes4 ,he express$ to me 8 op9ion t ! glaciation ( ,cai?ness _h be5 effect$ by masses ( l&-ice cross+ ! ,moray ,fir? f ! m\nta9 ranges to ! s\?-ea/1 & pass+ ov] ,cai?ness 9 its c\rse4 ,! difficulty :i* seems to beset ?is !ory is1 t a glaci] ent]+ ! ,fir? w\ld n leave x & asc5d ov] ! ,cai?ness coa/4 ,x w\ld take ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance & move into ! ,nor? ,sea1 :]e x w\ld f9d a free passage into deep] wat]4 ,mr4 ,pea*'s !ory is1 h[ev]1 an important /ep 9 ! "r direction4 ,x is a "p ( ! tru?1 b ,i believe n ! :ole tru?4 ,! foll[+ is submitt$ z a solution ( ! "q4 ,! ,propos$ ,!ory4--,x may n[ be reg>d$ z an e/abli%$ fact t1 dur+ ! sev]] "p ( ! glacial p]iod1 ,scotl& 0 cov]$ ) "o cont9u\s mantle ( ice1 s ?ick z to bury "u x ! ,o*il1 ,sidlaw1 ,p5tl&1 ,campsie1 & o!r mod]ately high m\nta9 ranges4 ,= example1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,geikie & ,mr4 ,b4 ,n4 ,pea* f\nd t ! great masses ( ! ice f ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s1 came /raight ov] ! ,o*ils ( ,p]?%ire & ! ,lomonds ( ,fife4 ,9 fact1 ^! m\nta9 ridges 7 n suffici5tly high to deflect ! icy /ream ei!r to ! "r h& or to ! left2 & ! flatt5$ & r\nd$ tops ( ! ,campsie1 ,p5tl&1 & ,lamm]moor ranges be> ample te/imony to ! d5ud+ p[] ( ice4 ,fur!r1 to quote f ,mr4 ,jamieson1 8! deta*$ m\nta9 ( ,s*ehallion 9 ,p]?%ire1 #c1ejj feet high1 is m>k$ ne> ! top z well z on its flanks1 & ?is n by ice fl[+ d[n ! sides ( ! hill itself1 b by ice press+ ov] x f ! nor?4 ,on ! top ( ano!r isolat$ hill1 call$ ,morv51 ab\t #c1jjj feet high1 & situat$ a few miles to ! nor? ( ! village ( ,ballat]1 9 ! c\nty ( ,ab]de51 ,i f\nd granite b\ld]s unlike ! rock ( ! hill1 & app>5tly d]iv$ f ! m\nta9s to ! we/4 ,aga91 on ! highe/ wat]%$s ( ! ,o*ils1 at altitudes ( ab\t #b1jjj feet1 ,i f\nd ?is summ] 7#ahfd7 pieces ( mica s*i/ full ( g>nets1 :i* seem to h come f ! ,grampian ,hills to ! nor?-we/1 %[+ t ! transport+ ag5t _h ov]fl[$ ev5 ! highe/ p>ts ( ! ,o*il ridge4 ,& on ! ,we/ ,lomonds1 9 ,fife%ire1 at ,clatt]+-well ,qu>ry1 #a1dej feet high1 ,i f\nd ice-worn pebbles ( ,r$ ,s&/one & porphyry 9 ! dbris cov]+ ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ( ! top ( ! ,bi%op ,hill4 ,facts l ^! meet u ev]y:]e4 ,?us on ! ,p]?%ire ,hills1 betwe5 ,blair ,a?ol & ,dunkeld1 ,i f\nd ice-worn surfaces ( rocks on ! tops ( hills1 at elevations ( #b1bjj feet1 z if caus$ by ice press+ ov] !m f ! nor?-we/1 & transport+ b\ld]s at ev5 great] heights40#bec ,facts /ill m important1 h[ev]1 9 _! be>+ on ! "q be=e u 7 obs]v$ on ! ,p5tl& range by ,mr4 ,b5nie & myself dur+ ! summ] ( #ahgj4 ,on asc5d+ ,all]muir1 "o ( ! hills =m+ ! nor!rn t]m9ation ( ! ,p5tl& range1 we 7 n a little surpris$ to f9d its summit ice-worn & /riat$4 ,! top ( ! hill is compos$ ( a compact porphyritic fel/one1 :i* is v mu* brok5 up2 b :]ev] any rema9s ( ! orig9al surface c\ld be se51 x 0 f\nd to be poli%$ & /riat$ 9 a mo/ decid$ mann]4 ,^! /ri are all 9 "o uni=m direction1 ne>ly ea/ & we/2 & on m9utely exam9+ !m ) a l5s we _h no difficulty :atev] 9 det]m9+ t ! ice :i* effect$ !m came f ! we/ & n f ! ea/1 a fact :i* cle>ly %[s t !y mu/ h be5 made at ! "t :51 z is well kn[n1 ! entire ,midl& valley 0 fill$ ) ice1 com+ f ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s4 ,on ! summit ( ! hill we also f\nd pat*es ( b\ld] clay 9 holl[ bas9s ( ! rock4 ,at "o spot x 0 upw>ds ( a foot 9 dep?1 & re/$ on ! ice-poli%$ surface4 ,! clay 0 some:at loose & s&y1 z might be expect$ ( a lay] s ?91 expos$ to ra91 fro/1 & sn[1 dur+ ! long c\rse ( ages :i* mu/ h elaps$ s9ce x 0 deposit$ !re4 ,( #ajj pebbles collect$ f ! clay1 j z !y turn$ up1 e "o1 ) ! exception ( ?ree or f\r compos$ ( h>d qu>tz1 pres5t$ a flatt5$ & ice-worn surface2 & =ty-f\r 7 di/9ctly /riat$3 9 %ort1 e /one :i* 0 capable ( receiv+ & reta9+ scrat*es 0 /riat$4 ,a numb] ( ^! /ones mu/ h come f ! ,highl&s to ! nor?-we/4#bed ,! height ( ,all]muir is #a1fag feet1 &1 f its position1 x is impossible t ! ice c\ld h gone ov] its summit1 unless ! entire ,midl& valley1 at ?is place1 _h be5 fill$ ) ice to ! dep? ( m ?an #a1fjj feet4 ,! hill is situat$ ab\t f\r or five miles to ! s\? ( ,ed9burgh1 & =ms1 z has already be5 /at$1 ! nor!rn t]m9ation ( ! ,p5tl& range4 ,imm$iately to ! nor? lies ! broad valley ( ! ,fir? ( ,=?1 m ?an twelve miles across1 (f]+ a mo/ free & unob/ruct$ outlet = ! great mass ( ice com+ along ! ,midl& valley f ! we/4 ,n[1 :5 we reflect h[ easily ice c accommodate itself to ! inequalities ( ! *annel along :i* x moves1 h[ x c turn to ! "r h& or to ! left1 s z to f9d = itself ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance1 x becomes obvi\s t ! ice nev] w\ld h gone ov] ,all]muir1 unless n only ! ,midl& valley at ?is po9t1 b also ! :ole surr\nd+ c\ntry _h be5 cov]$ ) "o cont9u\s mass ( ice to a dep? ( m ?an #a1fjj feet4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! height ( ,all]muir repres5ts ! ?ickness ( ! ice2 = on asc5d+ ,scald ,law1 a hill f\r miles to ! s\?-we/ ( ,all]muir1 & ! highe/ ( ! ,p5tl& range1 we f\nd1 9 ! dbris cov]+ its summit1 hundr$s ( transport$ /ones ( all sizes1 f "o to eighte5 in*es 9 diamet]4 ,we also dug up a ,gre5/one b\ld] ab\t eighte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 :i* 0 f9ely poli%$ & /riat$4 ,z ! height ( ?is hill is #a1hih feet1 ! mass ( ice cov]+ ! surr\nd+ c\ntry mu/ h be5 at lea/ #a1ijj feet deep4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,directly to ! nor? ( ! ,p5tl&s1 9 a l9e ne>ly p>allel ) ! ea/ coa/1 & at "r angles to ! pa? ( ice f ! int]ior1 !re is n1 ) ! exception ( ! solit>y peak ( ,ea/ ,lomond1 & a l[ hill or two ( ! ,sidlaw range1 an em95ce wor?y ( ! "n ( a hill ne>] ?an ! ,grampians 9 ! nor? ( ,=f>%ire1 di/ant upw>ds ( sixty miles4 ,?is broad pla91 ext5d+ f almo/ ! ,s\!rn to ! ,nor!rn ,highl&s1 0 ! great *annel ?r\gh :i* ! ice ( ! int]ior ( ,scotl& f\nd an outlet into ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,if ! dep? ( ! ice 9 ! ,fir? ( ,=?1 :i* =ms ! s\!rn side ( ?is broad holl[1 0 at lea/ #a1ijj feet1 x is n at all probable t its dep? 9 ! nor!rn side1 =m$ by ! ,valley ( ,/ra?more & ! ,fir? ( ,tay1 :i* lay m directly 9 ! pa? ( ! ice f ! ,nor? ,highl&s1 c\ld h be5 less4 ,"h we h "o va/ glaci]1 m ?an sixty miles broad & #a1ijj feet ?ick1 com+ f ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry4 ,x is1 !re=e1 evid5t t ! great mass ( ice ent]+ ! ,nor? ,sea to ! ea/ ( ,scotl&1 especially ab\t ! ,fir?s ( ,=? & ,tay1 c\ld n h be5 less1 & 0 probably mu* m1 ?an f #a1jjj to #b1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,! gr& "q n[ to be consid]$ is1 ,:at became ( ! huge %eet ( ice aft] x ent]$ ! ,nor? ,sea8 ,did x break up & float away z iceb]gs8 ,?is appe>s to h be5 hi!rto tak5 = grant$2 b ! %all[ness ( ! ,nor? ,sea %[s su* a process to h be5 utt]ly impossible4 ,! dep? ( ! sea 9 ! ,engli% ,*annel is only ab\t tw5ty fa?oms1 & al?\gh x gradually increases to ab\t =ty fa?oms at ! ,moray ,fir?1 yet we mu/ g to ! nor? & we/ ( ! ,orkney & ,%etl& ,isl&s ere we rea* ! #ajj fa?om l9e4 ,?us ! av]age dep? ( ! entire ,nor? ,sea is n ov] =ty fa?oms1 :i* is ev5 insuffici5t to float an iceb]g #cjj feet ?ick4 ,no d\bt ! ,nor? ,sea1 = two reasons1 is n[ mu* %all[] ?an x 0 dur+ ! p]iod 9 "q4 7#a47 ,!re w\ld1 at ! "t ( ! great ext5sion ( ! ice on ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 be a consid]able subm]g5ce1 result+ f ! displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity4#bee 7#b47 ,! sea-b$ is n[ probably fill$ up to a l>g] ext5t ) drift deposits ?an x 0 at ! ice p]iod4 ,b1 aft] mak+ ! mo/ extravagant all[ance = ! additional dep? ga9$ on ?is acc\nt1 /ill !re c\ld n possibly h be5 wat] suffici5tly deep to float a glaci] ( #a1jjj or #b1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,inde$1 ! ,nor? ,sea w\ld h requir$ to be ne>ly t5 times deep] ?an x is at pres5t to h float$ ! ice ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,we may1 !re=e1 conclude ) ! mo/ p]fect c]ta9ty t ! ice-%eet ( ,scotl& c\ld n possibly h brok5 up into iceb]gs 9 su* a *annel1 b mu/ h mov$ along on ! b$ ( ! sea 9 "o unbrok5 mass1 & mu/ h f\nd its way to ! deep tr\gh ( ! ,atlantic1 we/ ( ! ,orkney & ,%etl& ,isl&s1 ere x broke up & float$ away 9 ! iceb]g =m4 ,x is h>dly necess>y to rem>k t ! wat]s ( ! ,nor? ,sea w\ld h b little effect 9 melt+ ! ice4 ,a %all[ sea l ?is1 into :i* l>ge masses ( ice 7 ent]+1 w\ld be kept con/antly ab\t ! freez+-po9t1 & wat] ( ?is temp]ature has b little melt+ p[]1 = x takes #adb lbs4 ( wat]1 at #cc1 to melt "o p\nd ( ice4 ,9 fact1 an icy sea t5ds r to protect ! ice ent]+ x f be+ melt$ ?an o!rwise4 ,& besides1 ow+ to fre% acquisitions ( sn[1 ! ice-%eet w\ld be accumulat+ m rapidly ^u its upp] surface ?an x w\ld be melt+ at its l[] surface1 suppos+ !re 7 sea-wat] "u t surface4 ,! ice ( ,scotl& dur+ ! glacial p]iod mu/1 ( necessity1 h f\nd its way into w>m] wat] ?an t ( ! ,nor? ,sea be=e x c\ld h be5 melt$4 ,b ?is x c\ld n d )\t rea*+ ! ,atlantic1 & 9 gett+ !re x w\ld h to pass r\nd by ! ,orkney ,isl&s1 along ! b$ ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 z l&-ice4 ,?is w expla9 h[ ! ,orkney ,isl&s may h be5 glaciat$ by l&-ice2 b x does n1 h[ev]1 expla9 h[ ,cai?ness %\ld h be5 glaciat$ by t means4 ,^! isl&s lay 9 ! v track ( ! ice on its way to ! ,atlantic1 & c\ld h>dly escape be+ ov]ridd52 b ,cai?ness lay consid]ably to ! left ( ! pa? :i* we %\ld expect ! ice to h tak54 ,! ice w\ld n leave its *annel1 turn to ! left1 & asc5d ^u ,cai?ness1 unless x 7 =c$ to d s4 ,:at1 !n1 compell$ ! ice to pass ov] ,cai?ness8 ,pa? ( ! ,sc&9avian ,ice4--,we mu/ consid] t ! ice f ,scotl& & ,engl& 0 b a fraction ( t :i* ent]$ ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,! great] "p ( ! ice ( ,sc&9avia mu/ h gone into ?is sea1 & if ! ice ( our isl& c\ld n f9d wat] suffici5tly deep 9 :i* to float1 f> less w\ld ! mu* ?ick] ice ( ,sc&9avia d s4 ,! ,sc&9avian ice1 be=e x c\ld break up1 w\ld ?us1 l ! ,scotti% ice1 h to cross ! b$ ( ! ,nor? ,sea & pass into ! ,atlantic4 ,x c\ld n pass to ! nor?1 or to ! nor?-we/1 = ! ocean 9 ^! directions w\ld be block$ up by ! pol> ice4 ,x is true t along ! s\!rn %ore ( ,norway !re ext5ds a comp>atively deep tr\gh ( f "o to two hundr$ fa?oms4 ,b ?is is evid5tly n deep en\gh to h float$ ! ,sc&9avian ice-%eet2 & ev5 suppos+ x _h be5 suffici5tly deep1 ! float+ ice mu/ h f\nd its way to ! ,atlantic1 & ?is x c\ld n h done )\t pass+ along ! coa/4 ,n[1 its passage w\ld n only be ob/ruct$ by ! mass ( ice cont9ually protrud+ into ! sea directly at "r angles to its c\rse1 b x w\ld be met by ! /ill m enorm\s masses ( ice com+ (f ! entire ,norwegian coa/-l9e4 ,&1 besides ?is1 ! ice ent]+ ! ,arctic ,ocean f ,lapl& & ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,sib]ia1 except ! v small portion :i* might f9d an outlet into ! ,pacific ?r\gh ,behr+'s ,/raits1 w\ld h to pass along ! ,sc&9avian coa/ 9 its way to ! ,atlantic4 ,no matt]1 !n1 :at ! dep? ( ?is tr\gh may h be51 if ! ice f ! l&1 aft] ent]+ x1 c\ld n make its escape1 x w\ld cont9ue to accumulate till ! tr\gh became block$ up2 & aft] ?is1 ! great mass f ! l& w\ld move =w>d z ?\gh ! tr\gh _h no exi/5ce4 ,?us1 ! only pa? = ! ice w\ld be by ! ,orkney & ,%etl& ,isl&s4 ,its m direct & natural pa? w\ld1 no d\bt1 be to ! s\?-we/1 9 ! direction ( our %ores2 & 9 all probability1 _h ,scotl& be5 a l[ flat isl&1 in/ead ( be+ a high & m\nta9\s "o1 ! ice w\ld h pass$ completely ov] x4 ,b its m\nta9\s "*1 & ! enorm\s masses ( ice at ! "t proce$+ f its int]ior1 w\ld effectually prev5t ?is1 s t ! ice ( ,sc&9avia w\ld be compell$ to move r\nd by ! ,orkney ,isl&s4 ,consequ5tly1 ^! two huge masses ( mov+ ice--! "o f ,scotl& & ! mu* great] "o f ,sc&9avia--w\ld meet 9 ! ,nor? ,sea1 probably n f> f our %ores1 & w\ld move1 z repres5t$ 9 ! diagram1 side by side nor?w>ds into ! ,atlantic z "o gigantic glaci]4 ,nor c ?is be reg>d$ z an anomal\s /ate ( ?+s2 = 9 ,gre5l& & ! ant>ctic cont95t ! ice does n break up into iceb]gs on rea*+ ! sea1 b moves along ! sea-bottom 9 a cont9u\s mass until x rea*es wat] suffici5tly deep to float x4 ,x is q possible t ! ice at ! pres5t day may n[h]e trav]se a di/ance ( ?ree or f\r hundr$ miles ( sea-bottom1 b ?is is :olly ow+ to ! fact t x f9ds wat] suffici5tly deep to float x be=e hav+ travell$ s f>4 ,7 ,baff9's ,bay & ,davis's ,/raits1 = example1 z %all[ z ! ,nor? ,sea1 ! ice ( ,gre5l& w\ld n break up into iceb]gs 9 ^! seas1 b cross 9 "o cont9u\s mass to & ov] ! ,am]ican cont95t4 ,! m$ian l9e ( ! ,sc&9avian & ,scotti% ice-%eets w\ld be situat$ n f> f ! ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl&4 ,! ,sc&9avian ice w\ld press up z ne> to our coa/ z ! resi/ance ( ! ice f ?is side p]mitt$4 ,! enorm\s mass ( ice f ,scotl&1 press+ out into ! ,nor? ,sea1 w\ld compel ! ,sc&9avian ice to move r\nd by ! ,orkneys1 & w\ld also keep x at "s little di/ance f ,scotl&4 ,:]e1 on ! o!r h&1 !re 0 b little resi/ance (f]$ by ice f ! int]ior ( ?is c\ntry 7& ?is might be ! case along _m p>ts ( ! ,engli% coa/71 ! ,sc&9avian ice might rea* ! %ores1 & ev5 ov]run ! c\ntry = "s di/ance inl&4 ,we h hi!rto conf9$ our att5tion to ! action ( ice proce$+ f ,norway2 b if we n[ consid] :at took place 9 ,sw$5 & ! ,baltic1 we %all f9d m conclusive pro( ( ! d[nw>d pressure ( ,sc&9avian ice on our own %ores4 ,! we/]n half ( ,go?l& is /riat$ 9 ! direction ( ,n4,e4 & ,s4,w41 & t ?is has be5 effect$ by a huge mass ( ice cov]+ ! c\ntry1 & n by local glaci]s1 is app>5t f ! fact obs]v$ by ,rob]t ,*amb]s1#bef & (fic]s ( ! ,sw$i% ,geological ,survey1 t ! g5]al direction ( ! groov+s & /ri on ! rocks be>s little or no relation to ! con=mation ( ! surface1 %[+ t ! ice 0 ( suffici5t ?ickness to move /raight =w>d1 reg>dless ( ! inequalities ( ! gr\nd4 ,at ,gott5burg1 on ! %ores ( ! ,cattegat1 & all ar\nd ,lake ,w5] & ,lake ,wett]1 ! ice-m>k+s are ( ! mo/ rem>kable "*1 indicat+1 9 ! mo/ decid$ mann]1 t ! ice came f ! int]ior ( ! c\ntry to ! nor?-ea/ 9 "o va/ mass4 ,all ?is mass ( ice mu/ h gone into ! %all[ ,cattegat1 a sea n suffici5tly deep to float ev5 an ord9>y glaci]4 ,! ice com+ (f ,go?l& w\ld !re=e cross ! ,cattegat1 & !nce pass ov] ,jutl& into ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,aft] ent]+ ! ,nor? ,sea1 x w\ld be oblig$ to keep betwe5 our %ores & ! ice com+ direct f ! we/]n side ( ,sc&9avia4 ,b ?is is n all4 ,a v l>ge proportion ( ! ,sc&9avian ice w\ld pass into ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 :]e x c\ld n possibly float4 ,x w\ld !n move s\? into ! ,baltic z l&-ice4 ,aft] pass+ d[n ! ,baltic1 a portion ( ! ice w\ld probably move s\? into ! flat pla9s 9 ! nor? ( ,g]many1 b ! great] portion w\ld keep 9 ! b$ ( ! ,baltic1 & ( c\rse turn to ! "r r\nd ! s\? end ( ,go?l&1 & !nce cross ov] ,d5m>k into ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,t ?is mu/ h be5 ! pa? ( ! ice is1 ,i ?9k1 obvi\s f ! obs]vations ( ,mur*ison1 ,*amb]s1 ,hrbye1 & o!r geologi/s4 ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison f\nd--?\gh he does n attribute x to l&-ice--t ! ,al& ,isl&s1 :i* lie betwe5 ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia & ! ,baltic1 are all /riat$ 9 a nor? & s\? direction4#beg ,upsala & ,/ockholm1 a tract ( flat c\ntry project+ = "s di/ance into ! ,baltic1 is also groov$ & /riat$1 n 9 ! direction t w\ld be effect$ by ice com+ f ! int]ior ( ,sc&9avia1 b nor? & s\?1 9 a direction p>allel to :at mu/ h be5 ! c\rse ( ! ice mov+ d[n ! ,baltic4#beh ,?is "p ( ! c\ntry mu/ h be5 /riat$ by a mass ( ice com+ f ! direction ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia4 ,& t ?is mass mu/ h be5 great is app>5t f ! fact t ,lake ,mal>1 :i* crosses ! c\ntry f ea/ to we/1 at "r angles to ! pa? ( ! ice1 does n seem to h _h any influ5ce 9 deflect+ ! icy /ream4 ,t ! ice came f ! nor? & n f ! s\? is also evid5t f ! fact t ! nor!rn sides ( rocky em95ces are poli%$1 r\nd$1 & ice-worn1 :ile ! s\!rn sides are comp>atively r\gh4 ,! nor!rn banks ( ,lake ,mal>1 = example1 :i*1 ( c\rse1 face ! s\?1 are r\gh1 :ile ! s\!rn banks1 :i* mu/ h (f]$ opposition to ! advance ( ! ice1 are smoo!d & r\nd$ 9 a mo/ s+ul> mann]4 ,aga91 t ! ice1 aft] pass+ d[n ! ,baltic1 turn$ to ! "r along ! s\!rn end ( ,go?l&1 is %[n by ! direction ( ! /ri & ice-groov+s obs]v$ on su* isl&s z ,go?l&1 l&1 & ,bornholm4 ,sir ,r4 ,mur*ison f\nd t ! isl& ( ,go?l& is groov$ & /riat$ 9 "o uni=m direction f ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w4 8,^! groov+s10 says ,sir ,rod]ick1 8s p]fectly resemble ! flut+s & /ri produc$ 9 ! ,alps by ! actual movem5t ( glaci]s1 t nei!r ,m4 ,agassiz nor any "o ( 8 support]s c\ld detect a diff]5ce40 ,he concludes1 h[ev]1 t ! m>k+s c\ld n h be5 made by l&-ice1 because ,go?l& is n only a l[1 flat isl& 9 ! middle ( ! ,baltic1 b is 8at lea/ #djj miles di/ant f any elevation to :i* ! t]m ( m\nta9 c be appli$40 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 is conclusive aga9/ ! hypo!sis t ,go?l& & ! o!r isl&s ( ! ,baltic c\ld h be5 glaciat$ by ord9>y glaci]s2 b x is q 9 h>mony ) ! !ory t ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia & ! entire ,baltic 7 fill$ ) "o cont9u\s mass ( l&-ice1 d]iv$ f ! dra9age ( ! great] "p ( ,sw$51 ,lapl&1 & ,f9l&4 ,9 fact1 ! :ole glacial ph5om5a ( ,sc&9avia are inexplicable on ! hypo!sis ( local glaci]s4 ,t ! ,baltic 0 completely fill$ by a mass ( ice mov+ f ! nor? is fur!r evid5c$ by ! fact t ! ma9l&1 n only at ,upsala1 b at sev]al places along ! coa/ ( ,go?l&1 is groov$ & /riat$ p>allel to ! %ore1 & (t5 at "r angles to ! m>k+s ( ! ice f ! int]ior1 %[+ t ! pres5t b$ ( ! ,baltic 0 n l>ge en\gh to conta9 ! icy /ream4 ,= example1 along ! %ores betwe5 ,kalm> & ,k>lskrona1 z describ$ by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison & by ,m4 ,hrbye1 ! /riations are p>allel to ! %ore4 ,p]haps ! slight ob/ruction (f]$ by ! isl& ( l&1 situat$ s close to ! %ore1 w\ld deflect ! edge ( ! /ream at ?is po9t ov] on ! l&4 ,! icy /ream1 aft] pass+ ,k>lskrona1 b5t r\nd to ! we/ along ! pres5t entrance to ! ,baltic1 & aga9 invad$ ! ma9l&1 & cross$ ov] ! l[ headl& ( ,*ri/ian/adt1 & !nce pass$ we/w>d 9 ! direction ( ,zeal&4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,v4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,john/on1 ,ed9br4 & ,london4 ,,*>t ,,%[+ ,,! ,,probable ,,pa? ,,( ,,! ,,ice ,,9 ,,nor?-,,we/]n ,,europe ,,dur+ ,,! ,,p]iod ,,( ,,maximum ,,glaciation4 ,! l9es also repres5t ! actual direction ( ! /riae on ! rocks4 ,?is imm5se ,baltic glaci] w\ld 9 all probability pass ov] ,d5m>k1 & ent] ! ,nor? ,sea some:]e to ! nor? ( ! ,riv] ,elbe1 & w\ld !n h to f9d an outlet to ! ,atlantic ?r\gh ! ,engli% ,*annel1 or pass 9 betwe5 our ea/]n %ores & ! mass f ,go?l& & ! nor?-we/]n %ores ( ,europe4 ,! entire probable pa? ( ! ice may be se5 by a ref]5ce to ! accompany+ *>t 7,plate ,v47 ,t ! ice cross$ ov] ,d5m>k is evid5t f ! fact t ! surface ( t c\ntry is /rewn ) dbris d]iv$ f ! ,sc&9avian p59sula4 ,tak+ all ^! v>i\s consid]ations into acc\nt1 ! conclusion is inevitable t ! great masses ( ice f ,scotl& w\ld be oblig$ to turn abruptly to ! nor?1 z repres5t$ 9 ! diagram1 & pass r\nd into ! ,atlantic 9 ! direction ( ,cai?ness & ! ,orkney ,isl&s4 ,if ! =ego+ be a fair repres5tation ( ! /ate ( matt]s1 x is physically impossible t ,cai?ness c\ld h escap$ be+ ov]ridd5 by ! l&-ice ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,cai?ness1 z is well kn[n1 is n only a l[1 flat tract ( l&1 little elevat$ above ! sea-level1 & consequ5tly incapable ( support+ l>ge glaci]s2 b1 9 addition1 x projects 9 ! =m ( a headl& across ! v pa? ( ! ice4 ,unless ,cai?ness c\ld h protect$ itself by pu%+ into ! sea glaci]s ( "o or two ?\s& feet 9 ?ickness1 x c\ld n possibly h escap$ ! inroads ( ! ice ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,b ,cai?ness itself c\ld n h support$ glaci]s ( ?is magnitude1 nei!r c\ld x h d]iv$ !m f ! adjo9+ m\nta9\s regions ( ,su!rl&1 = ! ice ( ?is c\nty f\nd a m direct outlet ?an along ! flat pla9s ( ,cai?ness4 ,! %ells :i* ! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness conta9s h ?us evid5tly be5 pu%$ out ( ! b$ ( ! ,nor? ,sea by ! l&-ice1 :i* =m$ ! clay itself4 ,! fact t ^! %ells are n s int5sely arctic z ^? f\nd 9 "s o!r qu>t]s ( ,scotl&1 is no evid5ce t ! clay 0 n =m$ dur+ ! mo/ sev]e "p ( ! glacial epo*1 = ! %ells did n live 9 ! ,nor? ,sea at ! "t t x 0 fill$ ) l&-ice4 ,! %ells mu/ h belong$ to a p]iod prior to ! invasion ( ! ice1 & consequ5tly be=e ! cold _h rea*$ its greate/ int5sity4 ,nei!r is !re any necessity = suppos+ ! %ells to be pre-glacial1 = ^! %ells may h belong$ to an int]-glacial p]iod4 ,9 s f> z ,scotl& is conc]n$1 x w\ld be haz>d\s to conclude t a plant or an animal is ei!r pre-glacial or po/-glacial simply because x may happ5 n to be ( an arctic or ( a boreal type4 ,! same rem>ks :i* apply to ,cai?ness apply to a c]ta9 ext5t to ! headl& at ,fras]burgh4 ,x1 too1 lay 9 ! pa? ( ! ice1 & f ! direction ( ! /ri on ! rocks1 & ! pres5ce ( %ells 9 ! clay1 z describ$ by ,mr4 ,jamieson1 x be>s evid5ce also ( hav+ be5 ov]ridd5 by ! l&-ice ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,9 fact1 we h1 9 ! invasion ( ,cai?ness & ! headl& at ,fras]burgh by ! l&-ice ( ! ,nor? ,sea1 a repetition ( :at we h se5 took place at ,upsala1 ,kalm>1 ,*ri/ian/adt1 & o!r flat tracts along ! sides ( ! ,baltic4 ,! sc>city1 or p]haps entire abs5ce ( ,sc&9avian b\ld]s 9 ! ,cai?ness clay is n 9 any way unfav\rable to ! !ory1 = x w\ld only be ! left edge ( ! ,nor? ,sea glaci] t c\ld possibly pass ov] ,cai?ness2 & ?is edge1 z we h se51 0 compos$ ( ! l&-ice f ,scotl&4 ,we might expect1 h[ev]1 to f9d ,sc&9avian blocks on ! ,%etl& & ,f>oe ,isl&s1 =1 z we %all pres5tly see1 !re is pretty good evid5ce to prove t ! ,sc&9avian ice pass$ ov] ^! isl&s4 ,! ,%etl& & ,f>oe ,isl&s glaciat$ by ,l&-ice4--,x is also wor?y ( notice t ! /ri on ! rocks 9 ! ,orkney1 ,%etl&1 & ,f>oe ,isl&s1 all po9t 9 ! direction ( ,sc&9avia1 & are :at w\ld be effect$ by l&-ice mov+ 9 ! pa?s indicat$ 9 ! diagram4 ,& x is a fact ( "s significance1 t :5 we proce$ nor? to ,icel&1 ! /ri1 accord+ to ! obs]vations ( ,rob]t ,*amb]s1 seem to po9t t[>ds ,nor? ,gre5l&4 ,is x possible t ! entire ,atlantic1 f ,sc&9avia to ,gre5l&1 0 fill$ ) l&-ice8 ,a/\nd+ z ?is may at fir/ appe>1 !re are sev]al consid]ations :i* r5d] su* a conclusion probable4 ,! obs]vations ( ,*amb]s1 ,pea*1 ,hibb]t1 ,allan1 & o!rs1 %[ t ! rocky face ( ! ,%etl& & ,f>oe ,isl&s has be5 gr\nd1 poli%$1 & /riat$ 9 a mo/ rem>kable mann]4 ,t ?is c\ld n h be5 done by ice belong+ to ! isl&s !mselves is obvi\s1 = ^! isl&s are mu* too small to h support$ glaci]s ( any size1 & ! smalle/ ( !m is /riat$ z well z ! l>ge/4 ,besides1 ! uni=m direction ( ! /ri on ! rocks %[s t x mu/ h be5 effect$ by ice pass+ ov] ! isl&s4 ,t ! /riations c\ld n h be5 effect$ by float+ iceb]gs at a "t :5 ! isl&s 7 subm]g$ is1 ,i ?9k1 equally obvi\s1 f ! fact t n only are ! tops ( ! highe/ em95ces ice-worn1 b ! entire surface d[n to ! pres5t sea-level is smoo!d & /riat$2 & ^! /riations con=m to all ! irregul>ities ( ! surface4 ,?is la/ fact ,pr(essor ,geikie has cle>ly %[n is :olly irreconcilable ) ! float+-ice !ory4#bei ,mr4 ,pea*#bfj f\nd v]tical precipices 9 ! ,%etl&s groov$ & /riat$1 & ! same ?+ 0 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,?omas ,allan on ! ,f>oe ,isl&s4#bfa ,t ! :ole ( ^! isl&s h be5 glaciat$ by a cont9u\s %eet ( ice pass+ ov] !m 0 ! impression left on ! m9d ( ,rob]t ,*amb]s aft] visit+ !m4#bfb ,?is is ! !ory :i* alone expla9s all ! facts4 ,! only difficulty :i* besets x is ! enorm\s ?ickness ( ! ice dem&$ by ! !ory4 ,b ?is difficulty is v mu* dim9i%$ :5 we reflect t we h good evid5ce1 f ! ?ickness ( iceb]gs :i* h be5 met ) 9 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1#bfc t ! ice mov+ (f ! ant>ctic cont95t mu/ be 9 "s places consid]ably ov] a mile 9 ?ickness4 ,x is !n n s surpris+ t ! ice ( ! glacial epo*1 com+ (f ,gre5l& & ,nor!rn ,europe1 %\ld n h be5 able to float 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 ,:y ! ,ice ( ,scotl& 0 ( su* enorm\s ,?ickness4--,! enorm\s ?ickness ( ! ice 9 ,scotl&1 dur+ ! glacial epo*1 has be5 a matt] ( no little surprise4 ,x is rem>kable h[ an isl&1 n m ?an #ajj miles across1 %\ld h be5 cov]$ ) a %eet ( ice s ?ick z to bury m\nta9 ranges m ?an #a1jjj feet 9 height1 situat$ almo/ at ! sea-%ore4 ,b all our difficulties disappe> :5 we reflect t ! seas ar\nd ,scotl&1 ow+ to _! %all[ness1 71 dur+ ! glacial p]iod1 block$ up ) solid ice4 ,scotl&1 ,sc&9avia1 & ! ,nor? ,sea1 w\ld =m "o imm5se table-l& ( ice1 f #a1jjj to #b1jjj feet above ! sea-level4 ,?is table-l& w\ld t]m9ate 9 ! deep wat]s ( ! ,atlantic by a p]p5dicul> wall ( ice1 ext5d+ probably f ! we/ ( ,irel& away 9 ! direction ( ,icel&4 ,f ?is b>ri] iceb]gs w\ld be cont9ually break+ (f1 rivall+ 9 magnitude ^? :i* are n[ to be met ) 9 ! ant>ctic seas4 ,! great ,ext5sion ( ! ,loess acc\nt$ =4--,an effect :i* w\ld result f ! block+ up ( ! ,nor? ,sea ) l&-ice1 w\ld be t ! wat]s ( ! ,rh9e1 ,elbe1 & ,?ames w\ld h to f9d an outlet into ! ,atlantic ?r\gh ! ,engli% ,*annel4 ,pr(essor ,geikie has sugge/$ to me t if ! ,/raits ( ,dov] 7 n !n op5--q a possible ?+--or 7 !y block$ up ) l&-ice1 say by ! great ,baltic glaci] cross+ ov] f ,d5m>k1 ! consequ5ce w\ld be t ! wat]s ( ! ,rh9e & ,elbe w\ld be damm$ back1 & w\ld inundate all ! l[-ly+ tracts ( c\ntry to ! s\?2 & ?is might acc\nt = ! extraord9>y ext5sion ( ! ,loess 9 ! bas9 ( ! ,rh9e1 & 9 ,belgium & ! nor? ( ,france4#bfd ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,,*>t ,,%[+ ,,pa? ,,( ,,! ,,ice ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,john/on1 ,ed9br & ,london4 ,note4 ,curv$ l9es %ew pa? ( ,ice4 ,arr[s %ew direction ( /riae z obs]v$ by ,pr(4 ,geikie ,b4 ,n4 ,pea*4 ,%ort ?ick l9es %ew direction ( /riae by o!r obs]v]s4 ,note on ! ,glaciation ( ,cai?ness4 ,i h v lately receiv$ a rem>kable confirmation ( ! pa? ( ! ,cai?ness ice 9 obs]vations communicat$ to me by ,pr(essor ,geikie & ,mr4 ,b4 ,n4 ,pea*4 ,! latt] geologi/ says1 8,ne> ! ,ord ( ,cai?ness & on to ,b]ri$ale ! /ri pass (f ! l& & out to sea2 b ne> ,dunbea?1 #f miles nor?-ea/ ( ,b]ri$ale1 !y beg9 to creep up out ( ! sea on to ! l& & range f ab\t #ae to #aj ea/ ( nor?4 ,:]e ! /ri pass out to ! sea ! b\ld] clay is made up ( ! mat]ials f inl& & conta9s no %ells1 b imm$iately ! /ri beg9 to creep up on to ! l& !n %ells beg9 to make _! appe>ance2 & !re is a diff]5ce1 moreov]1 9 ! col\r ( ! clay1 = 9 ! =m] case x is r$ & incoh]5t1 & 9 ! latt] h>d & d>k-col\r$40 ,! accompany+ *>t 7,plate ,,vi47 %[s ! outl9e ( ! ,cai?ness coa/ & ! direction ( ! /ri z obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,geikie & ,mr4 ,pea*1 & no demon/ration c\ld be m conclusive z to ! pa? ( ! ice & ! ob/acles x met ?an ^! obs]vations1 supplem5t$ & confirm$ z !y are by o!r record$ facts to :i* ,i %all pres5tly allude4 ,_h ! ice-curr5t z x ent]$ ! ,nor? ,sea (f ! ,su!rl& coa/ met ) no ob/acle x w\ld h pl\gh$ its way outw>ds till x broke (f 9 glaci]s & float$ away4 ,b x is cle> t ! great press ( ,sc&9avian ice & ! small] mass ( l&-ice f ! ,moray%ire coa/ conv]g+ 9 ! ,nor? ,sea fill$ up its entire b$1 & ^!1 meet+ ! oppos+ curr5t f ! ,su!rl& coa/1 turn$ x back ^u itself1 & =c$ x ov] ! nor?-ea/ "p ( ,cai?ness4 ,! f>!r s\? on ! ,su!rl& coa/ t ! ice ent]$ ! sea ! deep] w\ld x be able to p5etrate into ! ocean-b$ be=e x met an opposition suffici5tly /rong to turn its c\rse1 & ! wid] w\ld be its sweep2 b :5 we come to ! ,su!rl& coa/ we rea* a po9t :]e ! l&-ice--z1 = example1 ne> ,dunbea?--is =c$ to b5d r\nd be=e x ev5 rea*es ! sea-%ore1 z w be se5 f ! accompany+ diagram4 ,we are l$ to ! same conclusions reg>d+ ! pa? ( ! ice 9 ! ,nor? ,sea f ! pres5ce ( oolitic fossils & *alk fl9ts f\nd likewise 9 ! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness1 = ^!1 z we %all see1 evid5tly mu/ h come f ! sea4 ,at ! meet+ ( ! ,briti% ,association1 ,ed9burgh1 #ahej1 ,hugh ,mill] exhibit$ a collection ( boreal %ells ) fragm5ts ( oolitic fossils1 *alk1 & *alk fl9ts f ! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness collect$ by ,mr4 ,dick1 ( ,?urso4 ,my fri5d1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,pea*1 f\nd t ! *alk fl9ts 9 ! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness become m abundant z we proce$ nor?w>d1 :ile ! isl& ( ,/roma 9 ! ,p5tl& ,fir? he f\nd to be completely /rewn ) !m4 ,?is same obs]v] f\nd1 also1 9 ! ,cai?ness clay /ones belong+ to ! ,oolitic & ,lias =mations1 ) _! *>act]i/ic fossils1 :ile ammonites1 belemnites1 fossil wood1 c41 c41 7 also f\nd loose 9 ! clay4#bfe ,! explanation evid5tly is1 t ^! rema9s 7 d]iv$ f an outcrop ( oolitic & cretace\s b$s 9 ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,x is well kn[n t ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,su!rl&%ire is fr+$ ) a n>r[ /rip ( oolite1 :i* passes "u ! sea1 b to :at di/ance is n yet asc]ta9$4 ,outside ! ,oolitic =mation ! *alk b$s 9 all probability crop out4 ,x w be se5 f a glance at ! accompany+ *>t 7,plate ,,vi47 t ! ice :i* pass$ ov] ! nor?-ea/]n "p ( ,cai?ness mu/ h cross$ ! out-cropp+ *alk b$s4 ,z has already be5 /at$ 9 ! =ego+ *apt]1 ! headl& ( ,fras]burgh1 nor?-ea/]n corn] ( ,ab]de5%ire1 be>s evid5ce1 bo? f ! direction ( ! /ri & brok5 %ells 9 ! b\ld] clay1 ( hav+ be5 ov]ridd5 also by l&-ice f ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,?is conclusion is /r5g!n$ by ! fact t *alk fl9ts & oolitic fossils h also be5 abundantly met ) 9 ! clay by ,dr4 ,knight1 ,mr4 ,james ,*ri/ie1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,f]guson1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,f4 ,jamieson1 & o!rs4 ,,*apt] ,,xxviii4 ,,nor? ,,( ,,engl& ,,ice-,,%eet1 ,,& ,,transport ,,( ,,wa/dale ,,crag ,,blocks4#bff ,transport ( ,blocks2 ,!ories (4--,evid5ce ( ,cont95tal ,ice4--,p5n9e ,range probably /riat$ on ,summit4--,glacial ,drift 9 ,c5tre ( ,engl&4--,mr4 ,lacy on ,drift ( ,cotteswold ,hills4--,engl& probably cross$ by ,l&-ice4--,mr4 ,jack's ,sugge/ion4--,%$d+ ( ,ice ,nor? & ,s\?4--,s\? ( ,engl& ,ice-%eet4--,glaciation ( ,we/ ,som]set4--,:y ,ice-m>k+s are s r>e 9 ,s\? ( ,engl&4--,=m ( ,contortion produc$ by ,l&-ice4 ,consid]able difficulty has be5 felt 9 acc\nt+ = ! transport ( ! ,wa/dale granite b\ld]s across ! ,p5n9e *a9 to ! ea/4 ,pr(essors ,h>kness1#bfg & ,phillips1#bfh ,messrs4 ,se>les ,wood1 jun41#bfi ,mack9to%1#bgj & ,i presume all :o h writt5 on ! subject1 agree t ^! blocks c\ld n h be5 transport$ by l&-ice4 ,! ag5cy ( float+ ice "u "s =m or o!r is assum$ by all4 ,we h 9 ,scotl& ph5om5a ( an exactly simil> nature4 ,! summits ( ! ,o*ils1 ! ,p5tl&s1 & o!r m\nta9 ranges 9 ! ea/ ( ,scotl&1 at elevations ( f #a1ejj to #b1jjj feet1 are n only ice-m>k$1 b /rewn ov] ) b\ld]s d]iv$ f rocks to ! we/ & nor?-we/4 ,_m ( !m mu/ h come f ! ,highl&s di/ant "s #ej or #fj miles4 ,x is impossible t ^! /ones c\ld h be5 transport$1 or ! summits ( ! hills /riat$1 by means ( ord9>y glaci]s4 ,nei!r c ! ph5om5a be attribut$ to ! ag5cy ( iceb]gs c>ri$ along by curr5ts4 ,= we %\ld require to assume n m]ely a subm]g5ce ( ! l& to ! ext5t ( #b1jjj feet or s1--an assumption :i* might be p]mitt$1--b also t ! curr5ts be>+ ! iceb]gs took _! rise 9 ! elevat$ m\nta9s ( ! ,highl&s 7a mo/ unlikely place71 & t ^! curr5ts radiat$ 9 all directions f t place z a c5tre4 ,9 %ort1 ! glacial ph5om5a ( ,scotl& are :olly inexplicable ^u any o!r !ory ?an t1 dur+ at lea/ a "p ( ! glacial epo*1 ! entire isl& f sea to sea 0 cov]$ ) "o cont9u\s mass ( ice ( n less ?an #b1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,9 my pap] on ! ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,cai?ness 7see prec$+ *apt]71 ,i h %[n t if ! ice 0 #b1jjj feet or s 9 ?ickness1 x mu/1 9 its motion seaw>ds1 h foll[$ ! pa?s indicat$ by ! curv$ l9es 9 ! *>t accompany+ t pap] 7,see ,plate ,v474 ,9 s f> z ,scotl& is conc]n$ & ,sc&9avia also1 ^! l9es repres5t pretty accurately n only ! pa?s actually tak5 by ! b\ld]s1 b also ! g5]al direction ( ! ice-m>k+s on all ! elevat$ m\nta9 ridges4 ,b if ,scotl& 0 cov]$ to su* an ext5t ) ice1 x is n at all probable t ,we/morel& & ! o!r m\nta9\s di/ricts ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl& c\ld h escap$ be+ envelop$ 9 a some:at simil> mann]4 ,n[ if we admit ! supposition ( a cont9u\s mass ( ice cov]+ ! ,nor? ( ,engl&1 all our difficulties reg>d+ ! transport ( ! ,wa/dale blocks across ! ,p5n9e *a9 disappe>4 ,an inspection ( ! *>t above ref]r$ to w %[ t ^! blocks foll[$ ! pa?s :i* !y ought to h done ^u ! supposition t !y 7 convey$ by cont95tal ice4 ,t ,wa/dale ,crag itself suff]$ abrasion by ice mov+ ov] x1 9 ! direction indicat$ by ! l9es 9 ! diagram1 is obvi\s f :at has be5 record$ by ,dr4 ,ni*olson & ,mr4 ,mack9to%4 ,!y bo? f\nd ! ,crag itself beautifully m\tonne up to its summit1 & /riat$ 9 a ,w4,s4,w4 & ,e4,n4,e4 direction4 ,mr4 ,mack9to% /ates t ^! scor+s run obliquely up ! slop+ face ( ! crag4 ,ice scrat*es cross+ valleys & runn+ up ! slop+ faces ( hills & ov] _! summits are ! sure m>ks ( cont95tal ice1 :i* meet ! eye ev]y:]e 9 ,scotl&4 ,dr4 ,ni*olson f\nd 9 ! drift cov]+ ! l[] "p ( ! crag1 pebbles ( ! ,coni/on flags & grits f ! we/4#bga ,! fact t 9 ,we/morel& ! direction ( ! ice-m>k+s1 z a g5]al rule1 corresponds ) ! direction ( ! ma9 valleys1 is no evid5ce :atev] t ! c\ntry 0 n at "o p]iod cov]$ ) a cont9u\s %eet ( ice2 because1 = long ages aft] ! p]iod ( cont95tal ice1 ! valleys w\ld be occupi$ by glaci]s1 & ^!1 ( c\rse1 w\ld necess>ily leave ! m>ks ( _! pres5ce beh9d4 ,?is is j :at we h ev]y:]e 9 ,scotl&4 ,x is on ! summits ( ! hills & elevat$ ridges1 :]e no glaci] c\ld possibly rea*1 t we f9d ! sure evid5ce ( cont95tal ice4 ,b t l&-ice %\ld h pass$ ov] ! tops ( hills #a1jjj or #b1jjj feet 9 height is a ?+ hi!rto reg>d$ by geologi/s z s unlikely t few ( !m ev] ?9k ( se>*+ 9 su* places = ice-m>k+s1 or = transport$ /ones4 ,al?\gh little has be5 record$ on ?is po9t1 ,i h>dly ?9k x likely t !re is 9 ,scotl& a hill "u #b1jjj feet :olly de/itute ( evid5ce t ice has gone ov] x4 ,if !re 7 hills 9 ,scotl& t %\ld h escap$ be+ ov]ridd5 by ice1 !y 7 surely ! ,p5tl& ,hills2 b ^!1 z 0 %[n on a =m] occasion1#bgb 7 completely buri$ "u ! mass ( ice cov]+ ! flat surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,i h no d\bt :atev] t if ! summits ( ! ,p5n9e range 7 c>efully exam9$1 say "u ! turf1 evid5ce ( ice-action1 9 ! =m ( transport$ /ones or scrat*es on ! rock1 w\ld be f\nd4#bgc ,nor is ! fact t ! ,wa/dale b\ld]s are n r\nd$ & ice-m>k$1 or f\nd 9 ! b\ld] clay1 b lie on ! surface1 any evid5ce t !y 7 n transport$ by l&-ice4 ,= x w\ld n be ! /ones "u ! ice1 b ^? fall+ on ! upp] surface ( ! %eet1 t w\ld /& ! be/ *ance ( be+ c>ri$ ov] m\nta9 ridges4 ,b su* blocks w\ld n be cru%$ & ice-worn2 & x is on ! surface ( ! clay1 & n imb$d$ 9 x1 t we %\ld expect to f9d !m4 ,x is q possible t ! disp]sion ( ! ,wa/dale b\ld]s took place at v>i\s p]iods4 ,dur+ ! p]iod ( local glaci]s ! blocks w\ld be c>ri$ along ! l9e ( ! valleys4 ,all ,i wi% to ma9ta9 is t ! transport ( ! blocks across ! ,p5n9e *a9 is easily acc\nt$ = if we admit1 :at is v probable1 t ! great ice-cov]+ ( ,scotl& ov]lapp$ ! high gr\nds ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl&4 ,! ph5om5on is ! same 9 bo? places1 & :y n attribute x to ! same cause8 ,!re is ano!r curi\s circum/ance connect$ ) ! drift ( ,engl& :i* seems to indicate ! ag5cy ( an ice-cov]+4 ,z f> back z #ahai1 ,dr4 ,buckl&1 9 8 ,memoir on ! ,qu>tz ,rock ( ,lickey ,hill1#bgd direct$ att5tion to ! fact1 t on ! ,cotteswold ,hills !re are f\nd pebbles ( h>d r$ *alk :i* mu/ h come f ! ,wolds ( ,york%ire & ,l9coln%ire4 ,he po9t$ out also t ! slaty & porphyritic pebbles probably came f ,*>nwood ,=e/1 ne> ,leice/]4 ,pr(essor ,hull1 ( ! ,geological ,survey1 consid]s t 8almo/ all ! ,nor!rn ,drift ( ?is "p ( ! c\ntry _h be5 d]iv$ f ! dbris ( ! rocks ( ! ,midl& ,c\nties40#bge ,he came also to ! conclusion t ! slate fragm5ts may h be5 d]iv$ f ,*>nwood ,=e/4 ,9 ! ,vale ( ,moreton he f\nd erratic b\ld]s f two feet to ?ree feet 9 diamet]4 ,! same nor!rn "* ( ! drift ( ?is di/rict is rem>k$ by ,pr(essor ,ramsay & ,mr4 ,avel9e1 9 _! ,memoir ( ! ,geology ( p>ts ( ,gl\ce/]%ire4 ,9 ,leice/]%ire & ,nor?ampton%ire ! (fic]s ( ! ,geological ,survey f\nd 9 abundance drift :i* mu/ h come f ,l9coln%ire & ,york%ire to ! nor?-ea/4 ,mr4 ,lucy1 :o has also lately direct$ att5tion to ! fact t ! ,cotteswold ,hills are spr9kl$ ov] ) b\ld]s f ,*>nwood ,=e/1 /ates also t1 on visit+ ! latt] place1 he f\nd t _m ( ! /ones conta9$ 9 x _h come f ,york%ire1 /ill fur!r to ! nor?-ea/4#bgf ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood1 jun41 9 8 int]e/+ pap] on ! ,b\ld] ,clay ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl&1#bgg /ates t enorm\s quantities ( ! *alk dbris f ! ,york%ire ,wold are f\nd 9 ,leice/]1 ,rutl&1 ,w>wick1 ,nor?ampton1 & o!r places to ! s\? & s\?-we/4 ,mr4 ,wood ju/ly concludes t ?is *alk dbris c\ld n h be5 transport$ by wat]4 8,if we consid]10 he says1 8! soluble nature ( *alk1 x mu/ be evid5t t none ( ?is dbris c h be5 deta*$ f ! p>5t mass1 ei!r by wat]-action1 or by any o!r atmosph]ic ag5cy ?an mov+ ice4 ,! action ( ! sea1 ( riv]s1 or ( ! atmosph]e1 ^u *alk1 w\ld take ! =m ( dissolution1 ! degrad$ *alk be+ tak5 up 9 m9ute quantities by ! wat]1 & held 9 susp5sion by x1 & 9 t =m c>ri$ away2 s t x seems obvi\s t ?is great volume ( roll$ *alk c h be5 produc$ 9 no o!r way ?an by ! ag5cy ( mov+ ice2 & = t ag5cy to h op]at$ to an ext5t adequate to produce a quantity t ,i e/imate z exce$+ a lay] #bjj feet ?ick ov] ! entire ,wold1 no?+ less ?an ! complete envelopm5t ( a l>ge "p ( ! ,wold by ice = a long p]iod w\ld suffice40 ,i h already assign$ my reasons = disbeliev+ ! op9ion t su* masses ( drift c\ld h be5 transport$ by float+ ice2 b if we ref] x to l&-ice1 x is obvi\s t ! ice c\ld n h be5 9 ! =m ( local glaci]s1 b mu/ h exi/$ z a %eet mov+ 9 a s\? & s\?-we/ direction1 f ,york%ire1 across ! c5tral "p ( ,engl&4 ,b h[ is ?is to h>monize ) ! !ory ( glaciation1 :i* is advanc$ to expla9 ! transport ( ! ,%ap b\ld]s8 ,! explanation has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 po9t$ out by a writ] 9 ! ,glasg[ ,h]ald1#bgh ( ! #bf? ,novemb]1 #ahgj1 9 a review ( ,mr4 ,lucy's pap]4 ,9 my pap] on ! ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,cai?ness1 ,i _h repres5t$ ! ice ent]+ ! ,nor? ,sea f ! ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl& & ,engl&1 z all pass+ r\nd ! nor? ( ,scotl&4 ,b ! review] sugge/s t ! ice ent]+ at places to ! s\? (1 say1 ,flambor\gh ,head1 w\ld be deflect$ s\?w>ds in/ead ( nor?w>ds1 & ?us pass ov] ,engl&4 8,x is improbable1 h[ev]10 says ! writ]1 8t ?is jo9t ice-%eet w\ld1 z ,mr4 ,croll supposes1 all f9d its way r\nd ! nor? ( ,scotl& into ! deep sea4 ,! s\!rn upl&s ( ,scotl&1 & probably also ! m\nta9s ( ,nor?umb]l&1 propell$1 dur+ ! colde/ "p ( ! glacial p]iod1 a l& ice-%eet 9 an ea/w>d direction4 ,?is %eet w\ld be met by ano!r /ream+ outw>d f ! s\?-we/]n "p ( ,norway--9 a diametrically opposite direction4 ,9 o!r words1 an imag9>y l9e might be drawn repres5t+ ! c\rse ( "s p>ticul> b\ld] 9 ! mora9e pr(onde f ,engl& met by a b\ld] f ,norway1 9 ! same /raight l9e4 ,) a d5se ice-%eet to ! nor? ( ?is l9e1 & an op5 pla9 to ! s\?1 x is cle> t all ! ice travell+ ea/ or we/ f po9ts to ! s\? ( ! />t+-po9ts ( our two b\ld]s w\ld be #8%$' (f to ! s\?4 ,!re w\ld be a po9t some:]e along ! l9e1 at :i* ! ice w\ld turn z on a pivot--?is po9t be+ ne>] ,engl& or ,sc&9avia1 z ! degree ( pressure ex]cis$ by ! respective ice-%eets %\ld det]m9e4 ,!re is v little d\bt t ! po9t 9 "q w\ld be ne>] ,engl&4 ,fur!r1 ! direction ( ! jo9t ice-%eet c\ld n be due s\? unless ! pressure ( ! compon5t ice-%eets %\ld be exactly equal4 ,9 ! ev5t ( t f ,sc&9avia press+ ) great] =ce1 ! direction w\ld be to ! s\?-we/4 ,?is is ! direction 9 :i* ! drifts describ$ by ,mr4 ,lucy h travell$40 ,i c p]ceive no physical objection to ?is modification ( ! !ory4 ,:at ! ice seeks is ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance1 & along ?is pa? x w move1 :e!r x may lie to ! s\? or to ! nor?4 ,& x is n at all improbable t an outlet to ! ice w\ld be f\nd along ! natural holl[ =m$ by ! valleys ( ! ,tr5t1 ,avon1 & ,sev]n4 ,ice mov+ 9 ?is direction w\ld no d\bt pass d[n ! ,bri/ol ,*annel & !nce into ! ,atlantic4 ,might n ! %$d+ ( ! nor? ( ,engl& ice-%eet to ! nor? & s\?1 some:]e n f> f ,/a9moor1 acc\nt = ! rem>kable fact po9t$ out by ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood1 t ! b\ld] clay1 ) ,%ap b\ld]s1 to ! nor? ( ! ,wold is de/itute ( *alk2 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 ! *alky b\ld] clay to ! s\? ( ! ,wold is de/itute ( ,%ap b\ld]s8 ,! ice :i* pass$ ov] ,wa/dale ,crag mov$ to ! ,e4,n4,e41 & did n cross ! *alk ( ! ,wold2 :ile ! ice :i* b5t r\nd to ! s\? by ! ,wold came f ! di/rict ly+ to ! s\? ( ,wa/dale ,crag1 & consequ5tly did n c>ry ) x any ( ! granite f t ,crag4 ,9 fact1 ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood has himself repres5t$ on ! map accompany+ 8 ,memoir ?is %$d+ ( ! ice nor? & s\?4 ,^! !oretical consid]ations are1 ( c\rse1 advanc$ = :at !y are wor?4 ,hi!rto geologi/s h be5 proce$+ ^u ! supposition ( an ice-%eet & an op5 ,nor? ,sea2 b ! latt] is an impossibility4 ,b if we suppose ! seas ar\nd our isl& to h be5 fill$ ) l&-ice dur+ ! glacial epo*1 ! entire glacial problem is *ang$1 & x does n !n appe> s surpris+ t ice %\ld h pass$ ov] ,engl&4 ,note on ! ,s\? ( ,engl& ,ice-%eet4 ,if :at has already be5 /at$ reg>d+ ! nor? ( ,engl& be any?+ l correct1 x is evid5t t ! s\? ( ,engl& c\ld n possibly h escap$ glaciation4 ,if ! ,nor? ,sea 0 s completely block$ up by ,sc&9avian ice1 t ! great mass ( ice f ! ,cumb]l& m\nta9s ent]+ ! sea on ! ea/ coa/ 0 compell$ to b5d r\nd & f9d a way ( escape across ! c5tre ( ,engl& 9 ! direction ( ! ,bri/ol ,*annel1 x is sc>cely possible t ! imm5se mass ( ice fill+ ! ,baltic ,sea & cross+ ov] ,d5m>k c\ld help pass+ across at lea/ a portion ( ! s\? ( ,engl&4 ,! ,nor? ,sea be+ block$ up1 its natural outlet into ! ,atlantic w\ld be ?r\gh ! ,engli% ,*annel2 & x is n likely t x c\ld pass ?r\gh )\t imp++ to "s ext5t ^u ! l&4 ,already geologi/s are beg9n+ to recognise ! evid5ce ( ice 9 ?is region4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,lucy1 9 ! ,geological ,magaz9e = ,june1 #ahgd1 records ! f9d+ by himself ( evid5ces ( glaciation 9 ,we/ ,som]set1 9 ! =m ( 8r\nd$ rocky knolls10 ne> ,m9ehead1 l ^? ( glaciat$ di/ricts2 ( a b$ ( gravel & clay #gj feet deep1 :i* he consid]$ to be b\ld] clay4 ,he also m5tions ! occurr5ce ne> ,portlock ( a l>ge mass ( s&/one well /riat$1 only p>tially deta*$ f ! p>5t rock4 ,9 ! same magaz9e = ! foll[+ mon? ,mr4 ,h4 ,b4 ,woodw>d records ! discov]y by ,mr4 ,u%] ( "s 8rum /uff0 ne> ,y>combe1 9 ! ,black ,d[n ,hills ( ,devon%ire1 :i*1 on inve/igation1 prov$ to be b\ld] clay2 & fur!r1 t x 0 n a m]e isolat$ pat*1 b occurr$ 9 sev]al o!r places 9 ! same di/rict4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,pea* in=ms me t on ! ,cornwall coa/1 ne> ,dodman ,po9t1 at an elevation ( ab\t #fj feet above sea-level1 he f\nd ! rock surface well /riat$ & ice-poli%$4 ,9 a pap] on ! ,drift ,deposits ( ! ,ba? di/rict1 read be=e ! ,ba? ,natural ,hi/ory & ,antiqu>ian ,field ,club1 ,m>* #aj?1 #ahgd1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,moore describes ! rock surfaces z groov$1 ) deep & long-cont9u$ furr[s simil> to ^? usually f\nd on glaciat$ rocks1 & concludes t dur+ ! glacial p]iod !y 7 subject$ to ice-action4 ,?is conclusion is confirm$ by ! fact ( !re be+ f\nd1 imm$iately ov]ly+ ^! glaciat$ rocks1 b$s ( gravel ) int]calat$ clay-b$s1 hav+ a ?ickness ( #cj feet1 9 :i* mammalian rema9s ( arctic types are abundant4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( :i* are ,elephas primig5ius1 ,e4 antiquus1 ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us1 ,bubalus mos*atus1 & ,c]vus t>&us4 ,!re is little d\bt t :5 ! gr\nd is bett] exam9$ _m o!r examples w be f\nd4 ,"o reason1 probably1 :y s little evid5ce ( glaciation 9 ! s\? ( ,engl& has be5 record$1 is ! comp>ative abs5ce ( rock surfaces suitable = reta9+ ice-m>k+s4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o class ( evid5ce :i* might det]m9e ! "q ( ! glaciation ( ! s\? ( ,engl& z satisfactorily z m>k+s on ! rock4 ,! evid5ce to :i* ,i ref] is t ( contort$ b$s ( s& or clay4 ,9 ,engl& contortions f ! s9k+ ( ! b$s are1 ( c\rse1 q common1 b a ?\ghtful obs]v]1 :o has _h a little exp]i5ce ( ice-=m$ contortions1 c easily1 )\t mu* tr\ble1 di/+ui% ! latt] f ! =m]4 ,contortions result+ f ! lat]al pressure ( ! ice assume a diff]5t =m f ^? produc$ by ! s9k+ ( ! b$s4 ,9 ,scotl&1 = example1 !re is "o well-m>k$ =m ( contortion1 :i* n only proves ! exi/5ce ( l&-ice1 b also ! direction 9 :i* x mov$4 ,! =m ( contortion to :i* ,i ref] is ! b5d+ back ( ! /ratifi$ b$s ^u !mselves1 some:at 9 ! =m ( a fi%+-hook4 ,?is =m ( contortion w be bett] und]/ood f ! accompany+ figure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,,section ,,( ,,contort$ ,,drift ,,ne> ,,musselburgh4 a ,b\ld] ,clay2 b ,lam9at$ ,clay2 c ,s&1 ,gravel1 & ,clay1 contort$4 ,dep? ( ,section1 tw5ty-two feet4--,h4 ,,skae4 ,,*apt] ,,xxix4 ,,evid5ce ,,f ,,buri$ ,,riv] ,,*annels ,,( ,a ,,cont95tal ,,p]iod ,,9 ,,brita94#bgi ,rem>ks on ! ,drift ,deposits4--,exam9ation ( ,drift by ,bor+s4--,buri$ ,riv] ,*annel f ,kilsy? to ,grangem\?4--,*annels n excavat$ by ,sea nor by ,ice4--,section ( buri$ ,*annel at ,grangem\?4--,mr4 ,milne ,home's ,!ory4--,g]man ,ocean dry ,l&4--,buri$ ,riv] ,*annel f ,kilsy? to ! ,clyde4--,j\rnal ( ,bor+s4--,m>9e ,orig9 ( ! ,drift ,deposits4--,evid5ce ( ,int]-glacial ,p]iods4--,oscillations ( ,sea-level4--,o!r buri$ ,riv] ,*annels4 ,rem>ks on ! ,drift ,deposits4--,! drift & o!r surface deposits ( ! c\ntry h *iefly be5 /udi$ f sections obs]v$ on ! banks ( /reams1 railway cutt+s1 dit*es1 f\ndations ( build+s1 & o!r excavations4 ,! great defect ( su* sections is t !y d n lay op5 a suffici5t dep? ( surface4 ,!y may1 no d\bt1 repres5t pretty accurately ! "* & ord] ( ! m rec5t deposits :i* ov]lie ! b\ld] clay1 b we are h>dly w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t ! succession ( deposits belong+ to ! e>li] "p ( ! glacial epo*1 ! p]iod ( ! true till1 is fully exhibit$ 9 su* limit$ sections4 ,suppose1 = example1 ! glacial epo* prop]--! "t ( ! l[] b\ld] clay--to h consi/$ ( a succession ( alt]nate cold & w>m p]iods1 !re w\ld1 9 su* a case1 be a s]ies ( sep>ate =mations ( b\ld] clay2 b we c\ld h>dly expect to f9d on ! flat & op5 face ( ! c\ntry1 :]e ! surface deposits are g5]ally n ( great dep?1 ^? v>i\s =mations ( till ly+ ! "o sup]impos$ ^u ! o!r4 ,= x is obvi\s t ! till =m$ dur+ "o ice-p]iod w\ld1 z a g5]al rule1 be ei!r swept away or re-gr\nd & laid d[n by ! ice ( ! succe$+ p]iod4 ,if ! v h>de/ rocks c\ld n )/& ! abrad+ p[] ( ! enorm\s masses ( ice :i* pass$ ov] ! surface ( ! c\ntry dur+ ! glacial epo*1 x is h>dly to be expect$ t ! comp>atively s(t b\ld] clay w\ld be able to d s4 ,x is probable t ! b\ld] clay ( "o p]iod w\ld be us$ z gr9d+ mat]ials by ! ice ( ! succe$+ p]iods4 ,! b\ld] clay :i* we f9d 9 "o cont9u\s mass may1 !re=e1 9 _m cases1 h be5 gr\nd (f ! rocks und]nea? at widely diff]5t p]iods4 ,if we wi% to f9d ! b\ld] clays belong+ to ea* ( ! successive cold p]iods ly+1 ! "o sup]impos$ on ! o!r 9 ! ord] ( "t 9 :i* !y 7 =m$1 we mu/ g & se>* 9 "s deep gorge or valley1 :]e ! clay has n only accumulat$ 9 enorm\s masses1 b has be5 p>tially protect$ f ! de/ructive p[] ( ! ice4 ,b x is seldom t ! geologi/ has an opportunity ( see+ a complete section d[n to ! rock-head 9 su* a place4 ,9 fact1 except+ by bores = m9]als1 or by %afts ( pits1 ! surface1 to a dep? ( "o or two hundr$ feet1 is nev] pass$ ?r\gh or laid op54 ,exam9ation ( ,drift by ,bor+s4--,) ! view ( asc]ta9+ if additional light w\ld be ca/ on ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts1 dur+ ! =mation ( ! b\ld] clay1 by an exam9ation ( ! j\rnals ( bores made ?r\gh a great dep? ( surface deposits1 a collection ( ab\t #bej bores1 put d[n 9 all p>ts ( ! m9+ di/ricts ( ,scotl&1 0 made4 ,an exam9ation ( ^! bores %[s mo/ conclusively t ! op9ion t ! b\ld] clay1 or l[] till1 is "o great undivid$ =mation1 is :olly errone\s4 ,^! #bej bores1 z already /at$1#bhj repres5t a total ?ickness ( #ba1cdh feet1 giv+ #hf feet z ! mean ?ickness ( ! deposits pass$ ?r\gh4 ,tw5ty ( ^! bores h "o b\ld] clay1 ) b$s ( /ratifi$ s& or gravel b5ea? ! clay2 #be h #b b\ld] clays1 ) /ratifi$ b$s ( s& & gravel betwe52 #aj h #c b\ld] clays2 "o has #d b\ld] clays2 #b h #e b\ld] clays2 & "o has no few] ?an #f sep>ate masses ( b\ld] clay1 ) /ratifi$ b$s ( s& & gravel betwe52 #af h two or ?ree sep>ate b\ld] clays1 diff]+ altoge!r 9 col\r & h>dness1 )\t any /ratifi$ b$s betwe54 ,we h1 !re=e1 out ( #bej bores1 #ge ( !m repres5t+ a condition ( ?+s :olly diff]5t f t exhibit$ to ! geologi/ 9 ord9>y sections4 ,^! bores be> te/imony to ! conclusion t ! glacial epo* consi/$ ( a succession ( cold & w>m p]iods1 & n ( "o cont9u\s & unbrok5 p]iod ( ice1 z 0 at "o "t g5]ally suppos$4 ,! full details ( ! "* ( ! deposits pass$ ?r\gh by ^! bores1 & _! be>+ on ! hi/ory ( ! glacial epo*1 h be5 giv5 by ,mr4 ,james ,b5nie1 9 an int]e/+ pap] read be=e ! ,glasg[ ,geological ,society1#bha to :i* ,i w\ld ref] all ^? int]e/$ 9 ! subject ( surface geology4 ,b x is n to ! m]e cont5ts ( ! bores t ,i wi% at pres5t to direct att5tion1 b to a new & important result1 to :i* !y h unexpect$ly l$4 ,buri$ ,riv] ,*annel1 ,kilsy? to ,grangem\?1 ,fir? ( ,=?4--,^! bor+s reveal ! exi/5ce ( a deep pre-glacial1 or p]haps int]-glacial1 tr\gh or holl[1 ext5d+ f ! ,clyde above ,b[l+ across ! c\ntry by ,kilsy?1 along ! valley ( ! ,=? & ,clyde ,canal1 to ! ,fir? ( ,=? at ,grangem\?4 ,?is tr\gh is fill$ up ) imm5se deposits ( mud1 s&1 gravel1 & b\ld] clay4 ,^! deposits n only fill x up1 b !y cov] x ov] to su* an ext5t t x is absolutely impossible to f9d on ! surface a s+le trace ( x2 & _h x n be5 = bor+s1 & o!r m9+ op]ations1 its exi/5ce w\ld probably nev] h be5 kn[n4 ,9 places :]e ! bottom ( ! tr\gh is p]haps #bjj feet bel[ ! sea-level1 we f9d on ! surface n a holl[1 b (t5 an imm5se ridge or elliptical knoll ( s&1 gravel1 or b\ld] clay1 ris+ sometimes to #aej or #bjj feet above ! pres5t sea-level4 ,i ne$ n "h ent] into any m9ute details reg>d+ ! =m1 dep?1 & g5]al outl9e ( ?is tr\gh1 or ( ! "* ( ! deposits cov]+ x1 ^! hav+ already be5 describ$ by ,mr4 ,b5nie1 b %all proce$ to ! consid]ation ( circum/ances :i* seem to ?r[ light on ! physical orig9 ( ?is curi\s holl[1 & to ! pro( :i* x unexpect$ly af=ds t ,scotl&1 dur+ probably an e>ly "p ( ! glacial epo*1 /ood high] 9 relation to ! sea-level ?an x does at pres5t2 or r1 z ,i w\ld be dispos$ to express x1 ! sea /ood mu* l[] ?an at pres5t4 ,f ! fact t all along ! l9e ( ?is tr\gh ! surface ( ! c\ntry is cov]$ ) enorm\s b$s ( /ratifi$ s&s & gravels ( m>9e orig91 :i* proves t ! sea mu/ h at a rec5t p]iod occupi$ ! valley1 my fir/ impression 0 t ?is holl[ _h be5 scoop$ out by ! sea4 ,?is conclusion appe>$ at fir/ sight q natural1 = at ! "t t ! sea fill$ ! valley1 ow+ to ! ,gulf-/ream imp++ on our we/]n %ores1 a /rong curr5t w\ld probably !n pass ?r\gh f ! ,atlantic on ! we/ to ! ,g]man ,ocean on ! ea/4 ,h[ev]1 consid]ations soon began to sugge/ !mselves :olly irreconcilable ) ?is hypo!sis4 ,! "q imm$iately arose1 if ! t5d5cy ( ! sea occupy+ ! valley is to deep5 x1 by we>+ d[n its rocky bottom1 & remov+ ! abrad$ mat]ials1 !n :y is ! valley fill$ up to su* a prodigi\s ext5t ) m>9e deposits8 ,does n ! fact ( ! :ole valley be+ fill$ up f sea to sea ) m>9e deposits to a dep? ( f #ajj to #bjj feet1 & 9 "s places1 to ev5 #djj feet1 %[ t ! t5d5cy ( ! sea fill+ ?is valley is to silt x up r ?an to deep5 x8 ,:at conceivable *ange ( conditions c\ld acc\nt = op]ations s div]se8 ,t ! sea c\ld n h cut out ?is tr\gh1 is1 h[ev]1 susceptible ( direct pro(4 ,! height ( ! surface ( ! valley at ! wat]%$ or highe/ "p1 ab\t a mile to ! ea/ ( ,kilsy?1 :]e ! ,kelv9 & ! ,bonny ,wat]1 runn+ 9 opposite directions1--! "o we/ into ! ,clyde1 & ! o!r ea/ into ! ,c>ron1--take _! rise1 is #afj feet above ! sea-level4 ,consequ5tly1 be=e ! sea c\ld pass ?r\gh ! valley at pres5t1 ! sea-level w\ld require to be rais$ #afj feet4 ,b 9 discuss+ ! "q z to ! orig9 ( ?is pre-glacial holl[1 we mu/ suppose ! surface deposits ( ! valley all remov$1 = ?is holl[ 0 =m$ be=e ^! deposits 7 laid d[n4 ,let u take ! av]age dep? ( ^! deposits at ! wat]%$ to be #ej feet4 ,x foll[s t1 assum+ ! holl[ 9 "q to h be5 =m$ by ! sea1 ! sea-level at ! "t mu/ h be5 at lea/ #aaj feet high] ?an at pres5t4 ,7 ! surface deposits ( ! c\ntry entirely remov$1 ! di/rict to ! we/ & nor?-we/ ( ,glasg[ w\ld be occupi$ by a sea :i* w\ld /ret* f ! ,kilpatrick ,hills1 nor? ( ,dunto*]1 to ,paisley1 a di/ance ( ab\t five miles1 & f ne> ,h\/on to )9 a %ort way ( ,kirk9tillo*1 a di/ance ( m ?an twelve miles4 ,?is bas9 w\ld conta9 a few small isl&s & sunk5 rocks1 b its mean dep?1 z det]m9$ f a great numb] ( surface bores obta9$ ov] its :ole area1 w\ld be n mu* "u #gj or #hj feet4 ,b we %all1 h[ev]1 take ! dep? at only #ej feet4 ,n[1 if we raise ! sea-level s z to all[ ! wat] j b>ely to fl[ ov] ! wat]%$ ( ! valley1 ! sea 9 ?is bas9 w\ld !re=e be #afj feet deep4 ,let u n[ see :at w\ld be ! condition ( ?+s on ! ea/ end ( ! valley4 ,! valley1 = sev]al miles to ! ea/ ( ,kilsy?1 cont9ues v n>r[1 b on rea*+ ,l>b]t x sudd5ly op5s into ! broad & flat c>se l&s ?r\gh :i* ! ,=? & ,c>ron w9d4 ,! av]age dep? at :i* ! sea w\ld /& at pres5t 9 ?is tract ( c\ntry1 7 ! surface remov$1 z asc]ta9$ f bores1 w\ld be at lea/ #ajj feet1 or ab\t d\ble t 9 ! we/]n bas94 ,consequ5tly1 :5 ! sea 0 suffici5tly high to pass ov] ! wat]%$1 ! wat] w\ld be "h #baj feet 9 dep?1 & sev]al miles 9 bread?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,w4 ,a4 ,k4 ,john/on ,ed9br4 & ,london4 ,,*>t ,,( ,,! ,,midl& ,,valley1 ,,%[+ ,,buri$ ,,riv] ,,*annels4 ,! blue p>ts repres5t ! area :i* w\ld be cov]$ by sea 7 ! l& subm]g$ to ! ext5t ( #bjj feet4 ,! heavy black l9es ,a & ,b repres5t ! buri$ ,riv] ,*annels4 ,b 9 ord] to h a curr5t ( "s /r5g? pass+ ?r\gh ! valley1 let u suppose ! sea at ! "t to h /ood #aej feet high] 9 relation to ! l& ?an at pres5t4 ,?is w\ld give #dj feet z ! dep? ( ! sea on ! wat]%$1 & #bjj feet z ! dep? 9 ! we/]n bas91 & #bej feet z ! dep? 9 ! ea/]n4 ,an exam9ation ( ! ,ordnance ,survey map ( ! di/rict w %[ t ! #bjj feet cont\r l9es :i* run along ea* side ( ! valley f ,kilsy? to ,ca/lec>y come1 9 sev]al places1 to )9 "o-?ird ( a mile ( ea* o!r4 ,f an inspection ( ! gr\nd1 ,i f\nd t1 ev5 ?\gh ! surface deposits 7 remov$ (f ! valley1 x w\ld n s5sibly affect ! cont\rs at ^? places4 ,x is !re=e evid5t t ?\gh ! sea may h /ood ev5 #bjj feet high] ?an at pres5t1 ! bread? ( ! /rait at ! wat]%$ & sev]al o!r po9ts c\ld n h exce$$ "o-?ird ( a mile4 ,x is also evid5t t at ^? places ! curr5t w\ld be fl[+ ) ! greate/ velocity1 = "h x 0 n only n>r[e/1 b also %all[e/4 ,a ref]5ce to ,plate ,,vii4 w %[ ! =m ( ! bas9s4 ,! /ippl$ portion1 col\r$ blue1 repres5ts ! area :i* w\ld be cov]$ by ! sea 7 ! l& subm]g$ to ! ext5t ( #bjj feet4 ,let u take ! bread? ( ! curr5t 9 ! we/]n bas9 at1 say1 ?ree miles4 ,?is is two miles less ?an ! bread? ( ! bas9 itself4 ,suppose ! curr5t at ! n>r[ p>ts betwe5 ,kilsy? & ,ca/lec>y to h _h a velocity (1 say1 five miles an h\r4 ,n[1 z ! mean velocity ( ! curr5t at ! v>i\s p>ts ( its c\rse w\ld be inv]sely proportionate to ! sectional areas ( ^? p>ts1 x !re=e foll[s t ! mean velocity ( ! curr5t 9 ! we/]n bas9 w\ld be only #a_/de? ( :at x 0 9 ! n>r[ pass betwe5 ,kilsy? & ,ca/lec>y4 ,?is w\ld give a mile 9 n9e h\rs z ! velocity ( ! wat] 9 ! we/]n bas94 ,9 ! ea/]n bas9 ! mean velocity ( ! curr5t1 assum+ its bread? to be ! same z 9 ! we/]n1 w\ld be only a mile 9 elev5 h\rs4 ,9 ! c5tral "p ( ! curr5t ! velocity at ! surface w\ld probably be consid]ably above ! mean1 b at ! sides & bottom x w\ld1 no d\bt1 be "u ! mean4 ,9 fact1 9 ^! two bas9s ! curr5t w\ld be almo/ ins5sible4 ,! effect ( su* a curr5t w\ld simply be to wid5 & deep5 ! valley all along t "p betwe5 ,kilsy? & ,ca/lec>y :]e ! curr5t w\ld be fl[+ ) consid]able rapidity4 ,b x w\ld h little or no effect 9 deep5+ ! bas9s at ea* end1 b ! rev]se4 ,x w\ld t5d r to silt !m up4 ,if ! curr5t fl[$ f we/ to ea/1 ! mat]ials remov$ f ! n>r[ "p betwe5 ,kilsy? & ,ca/lec>y1 :]e ! velocity ( ! wat] 0 great1 w\ld be deposit$ :5 ! curr5t almo/ disappe>$ 9 ! ea/]n "p ( ! valley4 ,s$im5t c>ri$ by a curr5t fl[+ at ! rate ( five miles an h\r1 w\ld n rema9 9 susp5sion :5 ! velocity became r$uc$ to less ?an five miles a day4 ,b ev5 suppos+ x 7 %[n t ! sea "u su* conditions c\ld h deep5$ ! valley along ! :ole di/ance f ! ,clyde to ! ,=?1 /ill ?is w\ld n expla9 ! orig9 ( ! tr\gh 9 "q4 ,:at we are 9 se>* ( is n ! orig9 ( ! valley itself1 b ! orig9 ( a deep & n>r[ holl[ runn+ along ! bottom ( x4 ,a sea fill+ ! :ole valley1 & fl[+ ) consid]able velocity1 w\ld1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 no d\bt deep5 & wid5 x1 b x w\ld n cut out along its bottom a deep1 n>r[ tr\gh1 ) sides (t5 /eep1 & 9 "s places p]p5dicul> & ev5 ov]hang+4 ,?is holl[ is evid5tly an old riv]-b$ scoop$ out ( ! rocky valley by a /ream1 fl[+ probably dur+ an e>ly "p ( ! glacial p]iod4 ,dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! summ] ( #ahfh1 ,i sp5t two or ?ree weeks ( my holidays 9 trac+ ! c\rse ( ?is buri$ tr\gh f ,kilsy? to ! riv] ,=? at ,grangem\?1 & ,i f\nd unmi/akable evid5ce t ! ea/]n portion ( x1 /ret*+ f ! wat]%$ to ! ,=?1 _h be5 cut out1 n by ! sea1 b by a /ream :i* mu/ h foll[$ almo/ ! pres5t c\rse ( ! ,bonny ,wat]4 ,i f\nd t ?is deep holl[ ent]s ! ,=? a few hundr$ y>ds to ! nor? ( ,grangem\? ,h>b\r1 at ! extraord9>y dep? ( #bfj feet bel[ ! pres5t sea-level4 ,at ! p]iod :5 ! sea occupi$ ! valley ( ! ,=? & ,clyde ,canal1 ! bottom ( ! tr\gh at ?is spot w\ld !re=e be upw>ds ( #djj feet bel[ ! level ( ! sea4 ,a %ort di/ance to ! we/ ( ,grangem\?1 & also at ,c>ron1 sev]al bores 7 put d[n 9 l9es almo/ at "r angles across ! tr\gh1 & by ?is means we h be5 enabl$ to =m a pretty accurate e/imate ( its dep?1 bread?1 & %ape at ^? places4 ,i %all give ! details ( "o ( ^? sections4 ,betwe5 ,t[ncr(t ,f>m & ! riv] ,c>ron1 a bore 0 put d[n to ! dep? ( #bgc feet be=e ! rock 0 rea*$4 ,ab\t #aej y>ds to ! nor? ( ?is !re is ano!r bore1 giv+ #bcd feet z ! dep? to ! rock2 #aej y>ds /ill fur!r nor? ! dep? ( ! surface deposits1 z det]m9$ by a ?ird bore1 is #aee feet4 ,?is la/ bore is evid5tly outside ( ! holl[1 = "o ab\t #aej y>ds nor? ( x gives ! same dep? ( surface1 :i* seems to be ab\t its av]age dep? = a mile or two ar\nd4 ,ab\t half a mile to ! s\? ( ! holl[ at ?is place ! surface deposits are #aej feet deep4 ,f a numb] ( bores obta9$ at v>i\s po9ts )9 a circuit ( #a miles1 ! surface appe>s to h a pretty uni=m dep? ( #aej feet or !reby4 ,= ! p>ticul>s ( ^! 8bores0 ,i am indebt$ to ! k9dness ( ,mr4 ,mackay1 ( ,grangem\?4 ,to ! s\? ( ! tr\gh 7see ,fig4 #ab7 !re is a fault runn+ ne>ly p>allel to x1 hav+ a d[n-?r[ to ! nor?1 & cutt+ (f ! coal & accompany+ /rata to ! s\?4 ,b an inspection ( ! section w %[ t ! holl[ 9 "q is no way due to ! fault1 b has be5 scoop$ out ( ! solid /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,,section ,,( ,,buri$ ,,riv]-,,b$ ,,ne> ,,t[ncr(t ,,f>m1 ,,grangem\?4 ,! ma9 coal wr\ght ext5sively "h is cut (f by ! tr\gh1 z w be se5 f ! section4 ,mr4 ,dawson1 ( ,c>ron ,iron ,works1 in=ms me t at ,c>ron%ore pit1 ab\t a mile & a qu>t] above :]e ?is section is tak51 ! coal 0 f\nd to be completely cut (f by ?is tr\gh4 ,9 "o ( ! work+s ( ?is pit1 ab\t =ty ye>s ago1 ! m9]s cut into ! tr\gh at #dj fa?oms bel[ ! surface1 :5 ! s& ru%$ 9 ) irresi/ible pressure1 & fill$ ! work+4 ,aga91 ab\t a mile bel[ :]e ! section is tak51 or ab\t two miles bel[ ,c>ron%ore1 & j at ! spot :]e ! tr\gh ent]s ! ,fir?1 x 0 also cut into 9 "o ( ! work+s ( ! ,heuck pit at a dep? ( #dj fa?oms f ! surface4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 at ?is po9t ! tr\gh is fill$ ) b\ld] clay in/ead ( s&1 & no damage 0 su/a9$4 ,"h1 = a di/ance ( two miles1 ! ,ma9 coal & 8,upp] ,coxroad0 are cut (f by ?is holl[2 or r1 ,i %\ld say ?is holl[ has be5 cut ?r\gh ! coal-seams4 ,! 8,"u ,coxroad10 ly+ ab\t #ad fa?oms bel[ ! position ( ! 8,ma90 coal1 z w be se5 9 ! descriptive section 7,fig4 #ab71 is n rea*$ by ! tr\gh1 & passes undi/urb$ "u x4 ,?is holl[ w\ld seem to n>r[ consid]ably z x rec$es we/w>ds1 = at ,c>ron%ore pit-%aft ! surface is #ach feet deep2 b n mu* ov] #aej y>ds to ! s\? ( ?is is ! spot :]e ! coal 0 cut (f by ! tr\gh at a dep? ( #dj fa?oms or #bdj feet4 ,"h x deep5s upw>ds ( #ajj feet 9 little m ?an #aej y>ds4 ,t x is n>r[ at ?is place is prov$ by ! fact1 t a bore put d[n ne> ,c>ronbank1 a little to ! s\?1 %[s ! surface to be only #aef feet deep4 ,9 ! section 7,fig4 #ab7 ! l9e describ$ z 8#aej feet above sea-level0 regi/]s ! height ( ! sea-level at ! "t :5 ! c5tral valley 0 occupi$ by sea #dj feet deep at ! wat]%$4 ,n[1 if ?is holl[1 :i* ext5ds "r along ! :ole l5g? ( ! valley1 _h be5 cut out by ! sea1 ! surface ( ! rock #aej feet bel[ ! pres5t surface ( ! gr\nd w\ld be ! sea-bottom at ! "t1 & ! l9e m>k$ 8#aej feet above sea-level0 w\ld be ! surface ( ! sea4 ,! sea w\ld !re=e be "h #cjj feet deep = sev]al miles ar\nd4 ,x _c be suppos$ t ! sea act+ on a broad flat pla9 ( sev]al miles 9 ext5t %\ld cut out a deep1 n>r[ holl[1 l ! "o exhibit$ 9 ! section1 & leave ! re/ ( ! pla9 a flat sea-bottom4 ,& x mu/ be obs]v$1 t ?is is n a holl[ cut m]ely 9 a sea-bea*1 b "o ext5d+ we/w>d to ,kilsy?4 ,n[1 if ?is holl[ 0 cut out by ! sea1 x mu/ h be5 done1 n by ! waves beat+ on ! bea*1 b by a curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh ! valley4 ,! /ronge/ curr5t t c\ld possibly pass ?r\gh ! n>r[ "p betwe5 ,kilsy? & ,ca/lec>y w\ld be :olly ins5sible :5 x rea*$ ,grangem\?1 :]e ! wat] 0 #cjj feet deep1 & sev]al miles broad4 ,consequ5tly1 x is impossible t ! curr5t c\ld h scoop$ out ! holl[ repres5t$ 9 ! section4 ,aga91 if ?is holl[ _h be5 scoop$ out by ! sea1 x ought to be deepe/ betwe5 ,kilsy? & ,ca/lec>y1 :]e ! curr5t 0 n>r[e/2 b ! rev]se is actually ! case4 ,x is %all[e/ at ! place :]e ! curr5t 0 n>r[e/1 & deepe/ at ! two ends :]e ! curr5t 0 broade/4 ,9 ! case ( a tr\gh cut by a sea curr5t1 we mu/ e/imate its dep? f ! level ( ! sea4 ,its dep? is ! dep? ( ! wat] 9 x :ile x 0 be+ scoop$ out4 ,! bottom ( ! tr\gh 9 ! highe/ & n>r[e/ "p ( ! valley ea/ ( ,kilsy? is #dj feet above ! pres5t sea-level4 ,consequ5tly1 its dep? at ?is po9t at ! p]iod 9 "q1 :5 ! sea-level 0 #aej feet high] ?an at pres5t1 w\ld be #aaj feet4 ,! bottom ( ! tr\gh at ,grangem\? is #bfj feet bel[ ! pres5t sea-level2 add to ?is #aej feet1 & we h #daj feet z its dep? "h at ! "t 9 "q4 ,if ?is holl[ 0 scoop$ out by ! sea1 h[ !n does x ?us happ5 t at ! place :]e ! curr5t 0 /ronge/ & conf9$ to a n>r[ *annel by hills on ea* side1 x cut its *annel to a dep? ( only #aaj feet1 :]eas at ! place :]e x _h sc>cely any motion x has cut1 on a flat & op5 pla9 sev]al miles broad1 a *annel to a dep? ( #daj feet8 ,b1 suppose we e/imate ! relative am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by ! sea at ,kilsy? & ,grangem\?1 n by ! actual dep? ( ! bottom ( ! tr\gh at ^! two places bel[ ! sea-level at ! "t t ! "w 0 p]=m$1 b by ! pres5t actual dep? ( ! bottom ( ! tr\gh bel[ ! rocky surface ( ! valley1 ?is w /ill n help u out ( ! difficulty4 ,tak+1 z be=e1 ! height ( ! rocky b$ ( ! valley at ! wat]%$ at #aaj feet above ! pres5t sea-level1 & ! bottom ( ! tr\gh at #dj feet1 ?is gives #gj feet z ! dep? scoop$ out ( ! rock at t place4 ,! dep? ( ! tr\gh at ,grangem\? bel[ ! rocky surface is #aah feet4 ,"h we h only #gj feet cut out at ! only place :]e !re 0 any resi/ance to ! curr5t1 z well z ! place :]e x possess$ any /r5g?2 :]eas at ,grangem\?1 :]e !re 0 no resi/ance1 & no /r5g? ( curr5t1 #aah feet has be5 scoop$ out4 ,su* a result z ?is is diametrically oppos$ to all t we "k ( ! dynamics ( runn+ wat]4 ,we may1 !re=e1 conclude t x is physically impossible t ?is holl[ c\ld h be5 cut out by ! sea4 ,ow+ to ! pres5t t5d5cy among geologi/s to attribute effects ( ?is k9d to ocean-curr5ts1 ,i h be5 induc$ to ent] ?us at mu* great] l5g? ?an w\ld o!rwise h be5 necess>y into ! facts & argum5ts aga9/ ! possibility ( ! holl[ hav+ be5 excavat$ by ! sea4 ,9 ! pres5t case ! discussion is specially necess>y1 = "h we h positive evid5ce ( ! sea hav+ occupi$ ! valley = ages1 along :i* ?is *annel has be5 cut4 ,consequ5tly1 unless x is prov$ t ! sea c\ld n possibly h scoop$ out ! *annel1 mo/ geologi/s w\ld be incl9$ to attribute x to ! sea-curr5t :i* is kn[n to h pass$ ?r\gh ! valley r ?an to any o!r cause4 ,b t x is a holl[ ( d5udation1 & has be5 scoop$ out by "s ag5t1 is p]fectly c]ta94 ,by :at ag5t1 !n1 has ! erosion be5 made8 ,! only o!r cause to :i* x c possibly be attribut$ is ei!r l&-ice or riv]-action4 ,! supposition t ?is holl[ 0 scoop$ out by ice is n m t5able ?an ! supposition t ! "w has be5 done by ! sea4 ,a glaci] fill+ up ! entire valley & desc5d+ into ! ,g]man ,ocean w\ld unque/ionably n only deep5 ! valley1 b w\ld gr9d d[n ! surface ov] :i* x pass$ all along its c\rse4 ,b su* a glaci] w\ld n cut a deep & n>r[ *annel along ! bottom ( ! valley4 ,a glaci] t c\ld d ?is w\ld be a small & n>r[ "o1 j suffici5tly l>ge to fill ?is n>r[ tr\gh2 = if x 7 mu* broad] ?an ! tr\gh1 x w\ld gr9d away its edges1 & make a broad tr\gh in/ead ( a n>r[ "o4 ,b a glaci] s small & n>r[ z only to fill ! tr\gh1 desc5d+ f ! hills at ,kilsy? to ! sea at ,grangem\?1 a di/ance ( fifte5 miles1 is v improbable inde$4 ,! resi/ance to ! advance ( ! ice along su* a slope w\ld cause ! ice to accumulate till probably ! :ole valley w\ld be fill$4#bhb ,!re is no o!r way ( expla9+ ! orig9 ( ?is holl[1 b ^u ! supposition ( its be+ an old riv]-b$4 ,b !re is c]ta9ly no?+ surpris+ 9 ! fact ( f9d+ an old wat]c\rse "u ! b\ld] clay & o!r deposits4 ,unless ! pres5t cont\r ( ! c\ntry be v diff]5t f :at x 0 at ! e>li] "p ( ! glacial epo*1 !re mu/ h !n be5 wat]c\rses correspond+ to ! ,bonny ,wat] & ! riv] ,c>ron ( ! pres5t day2 & t ! rema9s ( ^! %\ld be f\nd "u ! pres5t surface deposits is n surpris+1 see+ t ^! deposits are ( su* enorm\s ?ickness4 ,:5 wat] began to fl[ d[n our valleys1 on ! disappe>ance ( ! ice at ! close ( ! glacial epo*1 ! ,c>ron & ! ,bonny ,wat] w\ld n be able to rega9 _! old rocky *annels1 b w\ld be oblig$ to cut1 z !y h done1 new c\rses = !mselves on ! surface ( ! deposits "u :i* _! old ones lay buri$4 ,al?\gh an old pre-glacial or int]-glacial riv]-b$ is 9 itself an object ( mu* int]e/ & curiosity1 /ill1 x is n on t acc\nt t ,i h be5 induc$ to ent] s m9utely into ! details ( ?is buri$ holl[4 ,!re is some?+ ( f> m importance atta*$ to ?is holl[ ?an ! m]e fact ( its be+ an old wat]c\rse4 ,= ! fact t x ent]s ! ,fir? ( ,=? at a dep? ( #bfj feet bel[ ! pres5t sea-level1 proves inconte/ably t at ! "t ?is holl[ 0 occupi$ by a /ream1 ! l& mu/ h /ood at lea/ betwe5 #bjj & #cjj feet high] 9 relation to ! sea-level ?an at pres5t4 ,we h se5 t ! old surface ( ! c\ntry 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,grangem\?1 out ( :i* ?is anci5t /ream cut its *annel1 is at lea/ #aej feet bel[ ! pres5t sea-level4 ,n[1 unless ?is surface _h be5 above ! sea-level at t "t1 ! /ream w\ld n h cut a *annel 9 x4 ,b x has n m]ely cut a *annel1 b cut "o to a dep? ( #abj feet4 ,x is impossible t ?is *annel c\ld h be5 occupi$ by a riv] ( suffici5t volume to fill x4 ,x is n at all likely t ! riv] :i* scoop$ x out c\ld h be5 mu* l>g] ?an ! ,c>ron ( ! pres5t day1 = ! area ( dra9age1 f ! v =mation ( ! c\ntry1 c\ld n h be5 mu* great] above ,grangem\? ?an at pres5t4 ,an elevation ( ! l& w\ld1 no d\bt1 increase ! area ( ! dra9age ( ! /ream measur$ f its s\rce to :]e x might !n ent] ! sea1 because x w\ld increase ! l5g? ( ! /ream2 b x w\ld nei!r increase ! area ( dra9age1 nor ! l5g? ( ! /ream above ,grangem\?4 ,kilsy? w\ld be ! wat]%$ !n z x is n[4 ,:at we h "h is n ! m]e *annel :i* _h be5 occupi$ by ! anci5t ,c>ron1 b ! valley 9 :i* ! *annel lay4 ,x may1 p]haps1 be m prop]ly t]m$ a buri$ riv] valley2 =m$1 no d\bt1 l o!r riv] valleys by ! d5ud+ action ( ra9 & riv]4 ,! riv] ,c>ron at pres5t is only a few feet deep4 ,suppose ! anci5t ,c>ron1 :i* fl[$ 9 ?is old *annel1 to h be5 say #aj feet deep4 ,?is w\ld %[ t ! l& 9 relation to ! sea at t "t mu/ h /ood at lea/ #bej feet high] ?an at pres5t4 ,if #aj feet 0 ! dep? ( ?is old riv]1 & ,grangem\? ! place :]e x ent]$ ! sea1 !n #bej feet w\ld be ! ext5t ( ! elevation4 ,b x is probable t ,grangem\? 0 n ! m\? ( ! riv]2 x w\ld likely be m]ely ! place :]e x jo9$ ! riv] ,=? ( t p]iod4 ,we h e reason to believe t ! b$ ( ! ,g]man ,ocean 0 !n dry l&1 & t ! ,=?1 ,tay1 ,tyne1 & o!r ,briti% riv]s fl[+ ea/w>d1 z ,mr4 ,godw9-,au/9 supposes1 7 tribut>ies to ! ,rh9e1 :i* at t "t 0 a huge riv] pass+ d[n ! b$ ( ! ,g]man ,ocean1 & ent]+ ! ,atlantic to ! we/ ( ! ,orkney ,isl&s4 ,t ! ,g]man ,ocean1 z well z ! sea-b$ ( ! ,we/]n ,hebrides1 0 dry l& at a v rec5t geological p]iod1 is s well kn[n1 t1 on ?is po9t1 ,i ne$ n ent] into details4 ,we may1 !re=e1 conclude t ! riv] ,=?1 aft] pass+ ,grangem\?1 w\ld cont9ue to desc5d until x rea*$ ! ,rh9e4 ,if1 by means ( bor+s1 we c\ld trace ! old b$ ( ! ,=? & ! ,rh9e up to ! po9t :]e ! latt] ent]$ ! ,atlantic1 9 ! same way z we h done ! ,bonny ,wat] & ! ,c>ron1 we %\ld no d\bt obta9 a pretty accurate e/imate z to ! height at :i* ! l& /ood at t remote p]iod4 ,no?+ :atev]1 ,i presume1 is kn[n z to ! dep? ( ! deposits cov]+ ! b$ ( ! ,g]man ,ocean along :at 0 !n ! c\rse ( ! ,rh9e4 ,x mu/1 no d\bt1 be some?+ enorm\s4 ,we are also 9 ignorance z to ! ?ickness ( ! deposits cov]+ ! anci5t b$ ( ! ,=?4 ,a consid]able numb] ( bores h be5 put d[n at v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,fir? ( ,=? 9 connection ) ! contemplat$ railway bridge across ! ,fir?1 b 9 none ( ^? bores has ! rock be5 rea*$4 ,bores to a dep? ( #age feet h be5 made )\t ev5 pass+ ?r\gh ! deposits ( silt :i* probably ov]lie an enorm\s ?ickness ( s& & b\ld] clay4 ,ev5 9 places :]e ! wat] is #dj fa?oms deep & q n>r[1 ! bottom is n rock b silt4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 satisfactory to f9d on ! l& a confirmation ( :at has long be5 believ$ f evid5ce f\nd 9 ! seas ar\nd our isl&1 t at a v rec5t p]iod ! sea-level 9 relation to ! l& mu/ h be5 "s hundr$s ( feet l[] ?an at ! pres5t day1 & t our isl& mu/ h at t "t =m$ a "p ( ! great ea/]n cont95t4 ,a curi\s fact 0 relat$ to me by ,mr4 ,/irl+1 ! manag] ( ! ,grangem\? colli]ies1 :i* seems to imply a great elevation ( ! l& at a p]iod long po/]ior to ! "t :5 ?is *annel 0 scoop$ out4 ,9 s9k+ a pit at ,or*>dhead1 ab\t a mile to ! nor? ( ,grangem\?1 ! workm5 came ^u ! b\ld] clay aft] pass+ ?r\gh ab\t #aaj feet ( s&1 clay1 & gravel4 ,on ! upp] surface ( ! b\ld] clay !y f\nd cut out :at ,mr4 ,/irl+ believes to h be5 an old wat]c\rse4 ,x 0 #ag feet deep1 & n mu* broad]4 ,! sides ( ! *annel appe> to h be5 smoo? & wat]-worn1 & ! :ole 0 fill$ ) a f9e %>p s& beautifully /ratifi$4 ,z ?is *annel lay ab\t #ajj feet bel[ ! pres5t sea-level1 x %[s t if x actually be an old wat]c\rse1 x mu/ h be5 scoop$ out at a "t :5 ! l& 9 relation to ! sea /ood at lea/ #ajj feet high] ?an at pres5t4 ,buri$ ,riv] ,*annel f ,kilsy? to ! ,clyde4--,9 all probability ! we/]n half ( ?is great holl[1 ext5d+ f ! wat]%$ at ,kilsy? to ! ,clyde1 is also an old riv] *annel1 probably ! anci5t b$ ( ! ,kelv94 ,?is po9t _c1 h[ev]1 be satisfactorily settl$ until a suffici5t numb] ( bores h be5 made along ! direct l9e ( ! holl[1 s z to det]m9e ) c]ta9ty its wid? & g5]al =m & ext5t4 ,t ! we/]n *annel is z n>r[ z ! ea/]n is v probable4 ,x has be5 f\nd t its sides at "s places1 z1 = example1 at ,g>scadd51 are v /eep4 ,at "o place ! nor? side is actually an ov]hang+ buri$ precipice1 ! bottom ( :i* is ab\t #bjj feet bel[ ! sea-level4 ,we "k also t ! coal & iron/one 9 t qu>t] are cut ?r\gh by ! tr\gh1 & ! m9]s !re h to ex]cise great caution 9 driv+ _! work+s1 9 case !y might cut into x4 ,! tr\gh along ?is di/rict is fill$ ) s&1 & is kn[n to ! m9]s ( ! locality z ! 8s&-dyke40 ,to cut into runn+ s& at a dep? ( #dj or #ej fa?oms is a v dang]\s proce$+1 z w be se5 f ! details giv5 9 ,mr4 ,b5nie's pap]#bhc ( a disa/] :i* occurr$ ab\t tw5ty ye>s ago to a pit ne> ,dunto*]1 :]e ?is tr\gh 0 cut into at a dep? ( #ea fa?oms f ! surface4 ,! dep? ( ?is holl[1 bel[ ! pres5t sea-level at ,drumry1 z asc]ta9$ by a bore put d[n1 is #bcj feet4 ,= sev]al miles to ! ea/ ! dep? is ne>ly z great4 ,consequ5tly1 if ?is holl[ be an old riv]-b$1 ! anci5t riv] t fl[$ 9 x mu/ h ent]$ ! ,clyde at a dep? ( m ?an #bjj feet bel[ ! pres5t sea-level2 & if s1 !n x foll[s t ! rocky b$ ( ! anci5t ,clyde mu/ lie buri$ "u m ?an #bjj feet ( surface deposits f ,b[l+ d[nw>ds to ! sea4 ,:e!r ?is is ! case or n we h no means at pres5t ( det]m9+4 ,! manag] to ! ,clyde ,tru/ees in=ms me1 h[ev]1 t 9 none ( ! bor+s or excavations :i* h be5 made has ! rock ev] be5 rea*$ f ,b[l+ d[nw>ds4 ,! probability is1 t ?is deep holl[ passes d[nw>ds cont9u\sly to ! sea on ! we/]n side ( ! isl& z on ! ea/]n4#bhd ,! foll[+ j\rnals ( a few ( ! bor+s w give ! read] an idea ( ! "* ( ! deposits fill+ ! *annels4 ,! b$s :i* are believ$ to be b\ld] clay are pr9t$ 9 italics3-- ,,bor+s ,,made ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,deposits ,,fill+ ,,! ,,we/]n ,,*annel4 ,bore1 ,drumry ,f>m1 on ,l&s ( ,g>scadd54 ft4 ins4 ,surface soil #b #f ,s& & gravel #c #f ,dry s& #aa #j ,blue mud #h #f ,light mud & s& b$s #ac #j ,s& #ca #f ,s& & mud #h #j ,s& & gravel #ai #f ,s& #h #f ,gravel #bd #d ,s& #e #j ,gravel #i #f ,s& #ga #f ,s& 7coaly7 #a #j ,s& #i #j ,s& 7coaly7 #a #j ,s& #aj #c ,r$ clay & gravel #d #h ,s& #a #e ,gravel #b #j ,s& #b #h ,gravel #aj #f ,s& #a #f ,gravel #h #aj ,clay /ones & gravel #cc #c ---------------- #big #aj ,bore on ,ma9s ( ,g>scadd51 "o mile nor?-ea/ ( ,drumry4 ft4 ins4 ,surface soil #a #j ,blue clay & /ones #fj #j ,r$ clay & /ones #ah #j ,s(t clay & s& b$s #g #j ,gravel #f #j ,l>ge gravel #i #j ,s& & gravel #g #j ,h>d gravel #a #f ,s& & gravel #af #f ,dry s& #cj #j ,black s& #b #j ,dry s& #cc #j ,wet s& #h #j ,light mud #e #j ,s& #c #j ,gravel #e #f ,s&/one1 black #j #f ,blue clay & /ones #a #d ,:9 block #j #aj ,s&y clay #d #f ---------------- #bai #h ,bore ne>ly half a mile s\?-we/ ( ,milli*54 ft4 ins4 ,s&y clay #e #j ,br[n clay & /ones #ag #j ,mud #ae #j ,s&y mud #ca #j ,s& & gravel ) wat] #bh #j ,s&y clay & gravel #ag #j ,s& #e #j ,mud #f #j ,s& #ad #j ,gravel #cj #j ,br[n s&y clay & /ones #cj #j ,h>d r$ gravel #d #f ,light mud & s& #a #h ,light clay & /ones #f #f ,light clay & :9 block #bf #j ,f9e s&y mud #cf #j ,br[n clay & gravel & /ones #ad #d ,b>k clay & /ones #fh #j ---------------- #cee #j ,bore at ,we/ ,milli*51 ab\t #ajj y>ds ea/ ( f>m-h\se4 ft4 ins4 ,soil #a #f ,muddy s& & /ones #d #f ,s(t mud #d #j ,s& & gravel #de #j ,s&y mud & /ones #bj #f ,co>se gravel #aa #f ,clay & gravel #a #d ,f9e mud #g #j ,s& & gravel #b #j ,s&y mud #cj #f ,br[n s&y clay & /ones #be #j ,s& & gravel #f #j ,br[n s&y clay & /ones #ab #j ,s& #b #j ,br[n s&y clay & /ones #d #j ,mud #e #j ,mud & s& #aj #i ,s& & /ones #b #i ,blue clay & /ones #e #j ---------------- #bjj #d ,,bor+s ,,made ,,?r\gh ,,! ,,deposits ,,fill+ ,,! ,,ea/]n ,,*annel4 ,no4 #a4 ,betwe5 ,t[ncr(t ,f>m & ,c>ron ,riv]--#bjj y>ds f riv]4 ,height ( surface1 #ab feet above sea-level4 ,feet4 ,surface s& #f ,blue mud #d ,s& #d ,gravel #c ,s& #cc ,r$ clay #df ,s(t blue till #ag ,h>d blue till #adj ,s& #bj ------ #bgc ,no4 #b4 ,ab\t #aej y>ds nor? ( ,no4 #a4 ,height ( surface1 #ab feet above sea-level4 ,feet4 ,surface s& #f ,blue mud #c ,%ell b$ #a ,gravel #b ,blue mud #h ,gravel #c ,blue muddy s& #ae ,r$ clay #di ,blue till & /ones #bj ,s& #bj ,h>d blue till & /ones #bd ,s& #b ,h>d blue till & /ones #dj ,s& #g ,h>d blue till #bd ------ #bcd ,no4 #c4 ,ab\t #aej y>ds nor? ( ,no4 #b4 ,height ( surface1 #ab feet above sea-level4 ,feet4 ,surface s& #f ,s(t mud ) %ells #aa ,blue mud & s& 7h>d7 #c ,*annel 7r\gh gravel7 #c ,f9e s& #h ,runn+ s& 7r$ & f9e7 #ag ,r$ clay #cj ,s(t till #cf ,s& 7pure7 #b ,s(t till & s& #ag ,gravel #h ,h>d blue till #ad ------ #aee ,no4 #d4 ,ab\t #ajj y>ds f ,no4 #a4 ,feet4 ,surface #e ,blue mud #e ,black s& #c ,gravel #c ,r$ clay & /ones #cd ,r$ clay #dd ,s(t blue till #cb ,h>d blue till & /ones #ajd ,grey s& n pass$ ?r\gh #bb ------ #beb ,rock-head n rea*$4 ,no4 #e4 ,ab\t #ej y>ds nor? ( ,no4 #d4 ,feet4 ,surface #f ,blue mud #c ,%ell b$ #a ,*annel #b ,blue mud #h ,*annel #c ,blue mud & s& #ae ,r$ clay & s& #aj ,r$ clay #di ,blue till & /ones #bj ,s& #bj ,h>d blue till & /ones #bd ,s& #b ,h>d blue till & /ones #dj ,s& #g ,h>d blue till #bd ------ #baa ,no4 #f4 ,betwe5 ,heuck & ,c>ron ,riv]4 ,feet4 ,s&y clay #g ,mud #af ,br[n s&y clay & /ones #c ,mud #cf ,br[n clay #ci ,blue till & /ones #ed ------ #aee ,! "q arises z to :at is ! orig9 ( ! /ratifi$ s&s & gravels fill+ up ! buri$ riv] *annels4 ,are !y ( m>9e or ( fre%wat] orig98 ,mr4 ,dugald ,bell#bhe & ,mr4 ,james ,geikie#bhf are incl9$ to believe t z f> z reg>ds ^? fill+ ! we/]n *annel !y are ( lacu/r9e orig92 t !y 7 =m$ 9 lakes1 produc$ by ! damm+ back ( ! wat] result+ f ! melt+ ( ! ice4 ,i am1 h[ev]1 = ! foll[+ reasons1 incl9$ to agree ) ,mr4 ,b5nie's op9ion t !y are ( m>9e orig94 ,x w be se51 by a comp>ison ( ! j\rnals ( ! bor+s made ?r\gh ! deposits 9 ! ea/]n *annel ) ^? 9 ! we/]n1 t !y are ( a simil> "*2 s t1 if we suppose ^? 9 ! we/]n *annel to be ( fre%wat] orig91 we may f analogy inf] ! same 9 ref]5ce to ! orig9 ( ^? 9 ! ea/]n *annel4 ,b1 z we h already se51 ! deposits ext5d to ! ,fir? ( ,=? at ,grangem\?1 :]e !y are met ) at a dep? ( #bfj feet bel[ sea-level4 ,consequ5tly1 if we conclude !m to be ( fre%wat] orig91 we are =c$ to ! assumption1 n t ! wat] =m$ by ! melt$ ice 0 damm$ back1 b t ! sea itself 0 damm$ back1 & t by a wall ext5d+ to a dep? ( n less ?an two or ?ree hundr$ feet1 s z to all[ ( a lake be+ =m$ 9 :i* ! deposits might accumulate2 assum+1 ( c\rse1 t ! absolute level ( ! l& 0 ! same !n z x is n[4 ,b z reg>ds ! /ratifi$ deposits ( ,grangem\?1 we h direct evid5ce ( _! m>9e orig9 d[n to ! bottom ( ! ,r$ ,clay t imm$iately ov]lies ! till & its int]calat$ b$s1 :i* on an av]age is no less ?an #he feet1 & 9 "s cases #ajj feet1 bel[ ! pres5t surface4 ,f ?is deposit1 ,=am9if]a1 indicat+ an arctic condition ( sea1 7 det]m9$ by ,mr4 ,david ,rob]tson4 ,m>9e %ells 7 also f\nd 9 ?is b$1 & along ) !m ! rema9s ( a seal1 :i* 0 det]m9$ by ,pr(essor ,turn] to be ( an exce$+ly arctic type1 ?us prov+ t ^! deposits 7 n only m>9e b glacial4 ,direct fossil evid5ce z to ! "* ( ! deposits occupy+ ! we/]n bas91 is1 h[ev]1 n s abundant1 b ?is may be ow+ to ! fact t dur+ ! s9k+ ( pits1 no special att5tion has be5 paid to ! matt]4 ,at ,blaird>die1 9 s9k+ a pit-%aft ?r\gh ^! deposits1 %ells 7 f\nd 9 a b$ ( s& betwe5 two imm5se masses ( b\ld] clay4 ,! position ( ?is b$ w be bett] und]/ood f ! foll[+ section ( ! pit-%aft3-- ,feet4 ,surface soil #d ,blue clay #i ,h>d /ony clay #fi ,s& )1 a few %ells #c ,/ony clay & b\ld]s #df ,mud & runn+ s& #aa ,h>d clay1 b\ld]s1 & brok5 rock #bg ------ #agj ,b z ! %ells 7 n pres]v$1 we h1 ( c\rse1 no means ( det]m9+ :e!r !y 7 ( m>9e or ( fre%wat] orig94 ,9 ano!r pit1 at a %ort di/ance f ! above1 ,cypr9a ,isl&ica 0 f\nd 9 a b$ at ! dep? ( #ed feet bel[ ! surface4#bhg ,9 a pap] read by ,mr4 ,james ,smi?1 ( ,jordanhill1 to ! ,geological ,society1 ,april #bd?1 #ahej1bhh ! discov]y is record$ ( a /ratifi$ b$ conta9+ ,tell9a proxima int]calat$ betwe5 two di/9ct b\ld] clays4 ,! b$ 0 discov]$ by ,mr4 ,james ,russell 9 s9k+ a well at ,*apelhall1 ne> ,airdrie4 ,its height above sea-level 0 #eaj feet4 ,! "* ( ! %ell n only proves ! m>9e orig9 ( ! b$1 b also ! exi/5ce ( a subm]g5ce to t ext5t dur+ an int]-glacial p]iod4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! difficulty besett+ ! !ory ( ! m>9e orig9 ( ! deposits is ?is4 ,! int]calat$ b\ld] clays be> no m>ks ( /ratification1 & are evid5tly ! true un/ratifi$ till =m$ :5 ! c\ntry 0 cov]$ by ice4 ,b ! fact t ^! b$s are bo? und]laid & ov]laid by /ratifi$ deposits w\ld1 on ! m>9e !ory1 imply n m]ely ! repeat$ appe>ance & disappe>ance ( ! ice1 b also ! repeat$ subm]g5ce & em]g5ce ( ! l&4 ,if ! op9ion be correct t ! subm]g5ces & em]g5ces ( ! glacial epo* 7 due to depressions & elevations ( ! l&1 & n to oscillations ( sea-level1 !n ! difficulty 9 "q is1 inde$1 a =midable "o4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 if ! !ory ( subm]g5ces prop\nd$ 9 ,*apt]s ,,xxiii4 & ,,xxiv4 be ! true "o1 ! difficulty entirely disappe>s4 ,! explanation is z foll[s1 viz41 dur+ a cold p]iod ( ! glacial epo*1 :5 ! w9t] sol/ice 0 9 aphelion1 ! l[ gr\nds w\ld be cov]$ ) ice1 "u :i* a mass ( till w\ld be =m$4 ,aft] ! cold began to decrease1 & ! ice to disappe> f ! pla9s1 ! greate/ rise ( ! ocean1 = reasons already /at$1 w\ld take place4 ,! till cov]+ ! l[ gr\nds w\ld be subm]g$ to a consid]able dep? & w\ld soon be cov]$ ov] by mud1 s&1 & gravel1 c>ri$ d[n by /reams f ! high gr\nd1 :i*1 at ! "t1 w\ld /ill be cov]$ ) sn[ & ice4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ! sea w\ld beg9 to s9k & a w>m & cont95tal p]iod (1 p]haps1 f #f1jjj to #aj1jjj ye>s1 w\ld foll[1 :5 ! sea w\ld be /&+ at a mu* l[] level ?an at pres5t4 ,! w>m p]iod w\ld be succe$$ by a second cold p]iod1 & ! ice w\ld aga9 cov] ! l& & =m a second mass ( till1 :i*1 9 "s places1 w\ld re/ directly on ! =m] till1 :ile 9 o!r places x w\ld be laid d[n ^u ! surface ( ! s&s & gravels ov]ly+ ! fir/ mass4 ,aga91 on ! disappe>ance ( ! ice ! second mass ( till w\ld be cov]$ ov] 9 l mann] by mud1 s&1 & gravel1 & s on1 :ile ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit cont9u$ at a high value4 ,9 ?is way we might h ?ree1 f\r1 five1 or m masses ( till sep>at$ by b$s ( s& & gravel4 ,x w be se5 f ,table ,,iv4 ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,xix41 t ! =m] half ( t long succession ( cold & w>m p]iods1 kn[n z ! glacial epo*1 0 mu* m sev]e ?an ! latt] half4 ,t is to say1 9 ! =m] half ! accumulation ( ice dur+ ! cold p]iods1 & its disappe>ance 9 pol> regions dur+ ! w>m p]iods1 w\ld be great] ?an 9 ! latt] half4 ,x 0 probable t x 0 dur+ ! w>m p]iods ( ! e>li] "p ( ! glacial epo* t ! two buri$ *annels ( ! ,midl& valley 7 occupi$ by riv]s1 & t x 0 dur+ ! latt] & less sev]e "p ( ! glacial epo* t ^! *annels became fill$ up ) t rem>kable s]ies ( deposits :i* we h be5 consid]+4 ,o!r buri$ ,riv] ,*annels4--,a good _m examples ( buri$ riv] *annels h be5 f\nd bo? 9 ,scotl& & 9 ,engl&1 ?\gh none ( !m ( s rem>kable a "* z ! two occupy+ ! valley ( ! ,=? & ,clyde ,canal :i* h be5 j describ$4 ,i may1 h[ev]1 briefly ref] to "o or two localities :]e "s ( ^! occur4 7#a47 ,an anci5t buri$ riv] *annel1 simil> to ! "o ext5d+ f ,kilsy? to ,grangem\?1 exi/s 9 ! coal-fields ( ,durham1 & is kn[n to m9]s 9 ! di/rict z ! 8,wa%40 ,its c\rse 0 trac$ by ,mr4 ,ni*olas ,wood1 ,f4,g4,s41 & ,mr4 ,e4 ,f4 ,boyd1 f ,durham to ,newca/le1 a di/ance ( f\rte5 miles4#bhi ,x trav]ses1 aft] pass+ ! city ( ,durham1 a portion ( ! valley ( ! ,we>1 passes ,*e/]-le-,/reet1 & !n foll[s ! valley ( ! riv] ,team1 & t]m9ates at ! riv] ,tyne4 ,& :at is rem>kable1 x ent]s ! ,tyne at a dep? ( #adj feet bel[ ! pres5t level ( ! sea4 ,?is curi\s holl[ lies buri$1 l ! ,scotti% "o j allud$ to1 "u an enorm\s mass ( drift1 & x is only ?r\gh means ( bor+ & o!r m9+ op]ations t its "* has be5 reveal$4 ,! bottom & sides ( ?is *annel ev]y:]e be> evid5ce ( long exposure to ! abrad+ influ5ce ( wat] 9 motion2 ! rocky bottom be+ smoo!d1 furr[$1 & wat]-worn4 ,! riv] ,we> ( ! pres5t day fl[s to ! sea ov] ! surface ( ! drift at an elevation ( m ?an #ajj feet above ?is buri$ riv]-b$4 ,at ! "t t ?is *annel 0 occupi$ by runn+ wat] ! sea-level mu/ h be5 at lea/ #adj feet l[] ?an at pres5t4 ,?is old riv] evid5tly belongs to ! same cont95tal p]iod z ^? ( ,scotl&4 7#b47 ,f ext5sive bor+s & excavations1 made at ! docks ( ,hull & ,grimsby1 x is f\nd t ! anci5t b$ ( ! ,humb] is buri$ "u m ?an #ajj feet ( silt1 clay1 & gravel4 ,at ,hull ! bottom ( ?is buri$ tr\gh 0 f\nd to be #aaj feet bel[ ! sea-level4 ,& :at is mo/ int]e/+ at bo? ^! places1 ! rema9s ( a subm]g$ =e/ 0 f\nd at a dep? ( f ?irty to fifty feet bel[ ! sea-level4 ,9 "s places two =e/s 7 f\nd divid$ by a b$ ( leafy clay f five to fifte5 feet ?ick4 7#c47 ,9 ! valleys ( ,norfolk we also f9d ! same conditions exhibit$4 ,! anci5t b$ ( ! ,y>e & o!r riv]s ( ?is di/rict ent] ! sea at a dep? ( m ?an #ajj feet bel[ ! pres5t sea-level4 ,at ,y>m\? ! surface 0 f\nd #agj feet ?ick1 & ! deep surface ext5ds along ! ,y>e to beyond ,norwi*4 ,buri$ =e/s are also f\nd "h simil> to ^? on ! ,humb]4 ,x is probable t all our ,briti% riv]s fl[ into ! sea ov] _! old buri$ *annels1 except 9 cases :]e !y may h *ang$ _! c\rses s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! glacial epo*4 7#d47 ,9 ! ,sanquh> ,coal ,bas91 at ! foot ( ! ,kello ,wat]1 an old buri$ riv] c\rse 0 f\nd by ,mr4 ,b4 ,n4 ,pea*4 ,x ran at "r angles to ! ,kello1 & 0 fill$ ) b\ld] clay :i* cut (f ! coal2 b1 on driv+ ! m9e ?r\gh ! clay1 ! coal 0 f\nd 9 position on ! o!r side4 7#e47 ,an old riv] c\rse1 "u ! b\ld] clay1 is describ$ by ,mr4 ,milne ,home 9 8 memoir on ! ,mid-,lo?ian coal-fields4 ,x has be5 trac$ out f ,niddry away 9 a ,n4,e4 direction by ,new ,craighall4 ,at ,niddry1 ! holl[ is ab\t #ajj y>ds wide & betwe5 #fj & #gj feet deep4 ,x seems to deep5 & wid5 z x approa*es t[>ds ! sea1 = at ,new ,craighall x is ab\t #bjj y>ds wide & #ig feet deep4 ,?is old *annel w probably ent] ! sea ab\t ,musselburgh4 ,l ! *annels 9 ! ,midl& ,valley ( ,scotl& already describ$1 x is s completely fill$ up by drift t n a trace ( x is to be se5 on ! surface4 ,& l ^!1 also1 x mu/ h belong$ to a p]iod :5 ! sea-level /ood mu* l[] ?an at pres5t4 7#f47 ,at ,hailes' ,qu>ry1 ne> ,ed9burgh1 !re is to be se5 a portion ( an anci5t wat]c\rse "u ! b\ld] drift4 ,a %ort acc\nt ( x 0 giv5 by ,dr4 ,page 9 a pap] read be=e ! ,ed9burgh ,geological ,society4#bij ,! sup]9cumb5t s&/one1 he says1 has be5 cut to a dep? ( #fj feet4 ,! wid? ( ! *annel at ! surface v>ies f #ab to #ad feet1 b gradually n>r[s to #b or #c feet at ! bottom4 ,! sides & bottom are smoo!d & poli%$1 & ! :ole is n[ fill$ ) till & b\ld]s4 7#g47 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable buri$ *annels is t along ! ,valley ( ,/ra?more1 suppos$ to be ! anci5t b$ ( ! ,tay4 ,x ext5ds f ,dunkeld1 ! s\? ( ,blairg[rie1 ,ru?v51 & ,=f>1 & ent]s ! ,g]man ,ocean at ,lunan ,bay4 ,its l5g? is ab\t #cd miles4 8,no great riv]10 says ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 8foll[s ?is c\rse1 b x is m>k$ ev]y:]e by lakes or ponds1 :i* af=d %ell-m>l1 swamps1 & peat moss1 commonly surr\nd$ by ridges ( detritus f #ej to #gj feet high1 consi/+ 9 ! l[] "p ( till & b\ld]s1 & 9 ! upp] ( /ratifi$ gravels1 s&1 loam1 & clay1 9 "s in/ances curv$ or contort$40#bia 8,x evid5tly m>ks an anci5t l9e1 by :i*1 fir/1 a great glaci] desc5d$ f ! m\nta9s to ! sea1 & by :i*1 secondly1 at a lat] p]iod1 ! pr9cipal wat] dra9age ( ?is c\ntry 0 effect$40#bib 7#h47 ,a numb] ( examples ( anci5t riv] c\rses1 und]nea? ! b\ld] clay1 are detail$ by ,pr(essor ,geikie 9 8 glacial drift ( ,scotl&4 ,"s ( ! cases describ$ by him h acquir$ additional int]e/ f ! fact ( _! be>+ decid$ te/imony to ! exi/5ce ( int]-glacial w>m p]iods4 ,i %all briefly ref] to a few ( ! cases describ$ by him4 ,9 driv+ a trial m9e 9 a pit at ,*apelhall1 ne> ,airdrie1 ! workm5 came ^u :at !y believ$ to be an old riv] c\rse4 ,at ! end ( ! trial m9e ! iron/one1 ) its accompany+ coal & fire-clay1 7 cut (f at an angle ( ab\t #bj by a /iff1 d>k-col\r$ e>?1 /uck full ( angul> pieces ( :ite s&/one1 coal1 & %ale1 ) r\nd$ pebbles ( gre5/one1 basalt1 qu>tz1 c4 ,above ?is lay a f9e s]ies ( s& & clay b$s4 ,above ^! /ratifi$ b$s lay a dep? ( #ej or #fj feet ( true b\ld] clay4 ,! *annel ran 9 ! direction ( nor?-ea/ & s\?-we/4 ,mr4 ,russell1 ( ,*apelhall1 in=ms ,pr(essor ,geikie t ano!r ( ! same k9d1 a mile f>!r to ! nor?-we/1 _h be5 trac$ 9 "s ( ! pit work+s4 8,x is cle>10 says ,pr(essor ,geikie1 8t :atev] may be ! true explanation ( ^! *annels & bas9s1 !y unque/ionably belong to ! p]iod ( ! b\ld] clay4 ,! ,*apelhall bas9 lies1 inde$1 9 a holl[ ( ! c>bonif]\s rocks1 b its /ratifi$ s&s & clays re/ on an irregul> floor ( true till4 ,! old *annel ne> ! banks ( ! ,cald] is likewise scoop$ out ( s&/ones & %ales2 b x has a coat+ ( b\ld] clay1 on :i* its f9ely-lam9at$ s&s & clays repose1 z if ! *annel itself _h once be5 fill$ ) b\ld] clay1 :i* 0 re-excavat$ to all[ ( ! deposition ( ! /ratifi$ deposits4 ,9 all cases1 a ?ick mantle ( co>se1 tumultu\s b\ld] clay buries ! :ole40#bic ,pr(essor ,geikie f\nd betwe5 ! m\? ( ! ,pease ,burn & ,/4 ,abb's ,head1 ,b]wick%ire1 sev]al anci5t buri$ *annels4 ,"o at ! ,m5zie ,cleu*1 ne> ,r$heugh ,%ore1 0 fill$ to ! brim ) b\ld] clay4 ,ano!r1 ! ,lumsd5 ,dean1 half a mile to ! ea/ ( ,fa/ ,ca/le1 on ! bank ( ! ,c>mi*ael ,burn1 ne> ! p>i% *ur* ( ,c>mi*ael1--an old wat]c\rse ( ! b\ld] clay p]iod--is to be se54 ,! valley ( ! ,m\se ,wat] he in/ances z a rem>kable example4 ,"o or two he f\nd 9 ,ayr%ire1 & also "o on ! banks ( ! ,lyne ,wat]1 a tribut>y ( ! ,twe$4 7#i47 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,clyde1 above ,hamilton1 sev]al buri$ riv] *annels h be5 obs]v$4 ,!y are ?us describ$ by ,mr4 ,james ,geikie3--#bid 8,9 ! ,wi%aw di/rict1 two deep1 w9d+ tr\ghs1 fill$ ) s& & f9e gravel1 h be5 trac$ ov] a consid]able area 9 ! coal work+s4#bie ,^! tr\ghs =m no feature at ! surface1 b are entirely conceal$ bel[ a ?ick cov]+ ( b\ld] clay4 ,!y appe> to be old /ream c\rses1 & are 9 all probability ! pre-glacial rav9es ( ! ,cald] ,wat] & ! ,tillon ,burn4 ,! #8s&-dyke' t repres5ts ! pre-glacial c\rse ( ! ,cald] ,wat] runs = "s di/ance p>allel to ! pres5t c\rse ( ! /ream d[n to ,wi%aw ,h\se1 :]e x is int]sect$ by ! ,cald]1 & ! deposits :i* *oke x up are well se5 9 ! /eep wood$ banks bel[ ! h\se & 9 ! cliff on ! opposite side4 ,x next /rikes to s\?-ea/1 & is aga9 well expos$ on ! road-side lead+ d[n f ,wi%aw to ! ,cald] ,wat]4 ,f ?is po9t x has be5 trac$ und]gr\nd1 m or less cont9u\sly1 z f> z ,wi%aw ,ironworks4 ,beyond ?is place ! coal-seams s9k to a great] dep?1 & !re=e cease to be int]sect$ by ! anci5t rav9e1 ! c\rse ( :i*1 h[ev]1 may /ill be inf]r$ f ! evid5ce obta9$ dur+ ! s9k+ ( %afts & trial bor+s4 ,9 all probability x runs s\?1 & ent]s ! old c\rse ( ! ,clyde a little bel[ ,cambusne?an ,h\se4 ,only a portion ( ! old rav9e ( ! ,tillon ,burn is %[n ^u ! ,map4 ,x is fir/ met ) 9 ! coal-work+s ( ,clel& ,t[nhead 7,%eet #ca74 ,f ?is place x w9ds und]gr\nd 9 a s\!rly direction until x is int]sect$ by ! pres5t ,tillon ,burn1 a little nor? ( ,gl5clel& 7,%eet #ca74 ,x n[ runs to s\?-we/1 keep+ p>allel to ! burn1 & crosses ! valley ( ! ,cald] j imm$iately above ! m\? ( ! ,tillon4 ,f ?is po9t x c be trac$ 9 pit-%afts1 op5-air sections1 bor+s1 & coal-work+s1 by ,rav5scraig1 ,ne!r ,john/one1 & ,robb]hall ,belt+1 on to ! ,cald] ,wat] bel[ ,c\rs+ton ,bridge 7,%eet #ca74 ,x w\ld ?us appe> t 9 pre-glacial times ! ,cald] & ! ,tillon 7 indep5d5t /reams1 & t s9ce glacial times ! ,cald] ,wat]1 =sak+ its pre-glacial c\rse1 has cut its way across ! int]v5+ gr\nd1 pl\gh+ out deep rav9es 9 ! solid rocks1 until ev5tually x unit$ ) ! ,tillon4 ,simil> buri$ /ream c\rses occur at o!r places4 ,?us1 at ,fairholme1 ne> ,l>khall1 z already m5tion$ 7p>4 #id71 ! pre-glacial c\rse ( ! ,avon has be5 trac$ 9 pit-%afts & bor+s = "s di/ance to ! nor?4 ,ano!r old c\rse1 fill$ up ) b\ld] clay1 is expos$ 9 a burn ne> ,plotcock1 a mile s\?-we/ f ,millheugh2 & a simil> pre-glacial rav9e 0 met ) 9 ! cem5t-/one work+s at ,cald]wood4#bif ,inde$1 x might be said ) tru? t ne>ly all ! rocky rav9es ?r\gh :i* ! wat]s fl[1 especially 9 ! c>bonif]\s areas1 are ( po/-glacial age--! pre-glacial c\rses ly+ conceal$ "u masses ( drift4 ,mo/ frequ5tly1 h[ev]1 ! pres5t c\rses ( ! /reams are p>tly pre-glacial & p>tly po/-glacial4 ,9 ! pre-glacial portions ! /reams fl[ ?r\gh b\ld] clay1 9 ! po/-glacial rea*es _! c\rse1 z j m5tion$1 is usually 9 rocky rav9es4 ,! ,avon & ! ,cald]1 ) _! tribut>ies1 af=d num]\s illu/rations ( ^! ph5om5a40 ,! "q naturally arises1 ,:5 7 ^? *annels scoop$ out8 ,to :at geological p]iod mu/ ^? anci5t riv]s be ref]r$8 ,x w n d to conclude t ^? *annels mu/ be pre-glacial simply because !y conta9 b\ld] clay4 ,_h ! glacial epo* be5 "o unbrok5 p]iod ( cold1 & ! b\ld] clay "o cont9u\s =mation1 !n ! fact ( f9d+ b\ld] clay 9 ^? *annels w\ld %[ t !y 7 pre-glacial4 ,b :5 we f9d und\bt$ geological evid5ce ( a w>m condition ( climate ( long cont9uance1 dur+ ! sev]e/ "p ( ! glacial epo*1 :5 ! ice1 to a great ext5t1 mu/ h disappe>$1 & wat] began to fl[ z usual d[n our valleys1 all t c reasonably be inf]r$ f ! fact ( f9d+ till 9 ^? *annels1 is t !y mu/ be old] ?an ! till !y conta94 ,we _c inf] t !y are old] ?an all ! till ly+ on ! face ( ! c\ntry4 ,! probability1 h[ev]1 is1 t "s ( !m are ( pre-glacial & o!rs ( int]-glacial orig94 ,t _m ( ^! *annels h be5 us$ z wat]c\rses dur+ ! glacial epo*1 or r dur+ w>m p]iods ( t epo*1 is c]ta91 f ! fact t !y h be5 fill$ ) b\ld] clay1 !n re-excavat$1 & f9ally fill$ up aga9 ) ! clay4 ,,*apt] ,,xxx4 ,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,glaci]s4--,,!ories ,,( ,,glaci]-,,motion4 ,:y ! ,"q ( ,glaci]-motion has be5 f\nd to be s difficult4--,! ,regelation ,!ory4--,x acc\nts = ! ,cont9uity ( a ,glaci]1 b n = its ,motion4--,gravitation prov$ by ,canon ,moseley insuffici5t to %e> ! ,ice ( a ,glaci]4--,mr4 ,ma!w's ,exp]im5t4--,no ,p>allel betwe5 ! b5d+ ( an ,ice ,plank & ! %e>+ ( a ,glaci]4--,mr4 ,ball's ,objection to ,canon ,moseley's ,exp]im5t4--,canon ,moseley's ,me?od ( det]m9+ ! ,unit ( ,%e>4--,defect ( ,me?od4--,motion ( a ,glaci] 9 "s ,way dep5d5t on ,heat4--,canon ,moseley's ,!ory4--,objections to 8 ,!ory4--,pr(essor ,james ,?omson's ,!ory4--,?is ,!ory fails to expla9 ,glaci]-motion4--,de ,saussure & ,hopk9s's 8,slid+0 ,!ories4--,m4 ,*>p5ti]'s 8,dilatation0 ,!ory4--,important ,elem5t 9 ! ,!ory4 ,! cause ( ! motion ( glaci]s has prov$ to be "o ( ! mo/ difficult & p]plex+ que/ions )9 ! :ole doma9 ( physics4 ,! ma9 difficulty lies 9 reconcil+ ! motion ( ! glaci] ) ! physical prop]ties ( ! ice4 ,a glaci] moves d[n a valley v mu* 9 ! same way z a riv]1 ! motion be+ lea/ at ! sides & greate/ at ! c5tre1 & great] at ! surface ?an at ! bottom4 ,9 a cross section sc>cely two p>ticles w be mov+ ) ! same velocity4 ,aga91 a glaci] accommodates itself to ! inequalities ( ! *annel 9 :i* x moves exactly z a semifluid or pla/ic sub/ance w\ld d4 ,s ?or\ghly does a glaci] behave 9 ! mann] ( a visc\s or pla/ic body t ,pr(essor ,=bes 0 induc$ to believe t viscosity 0 a prop]ty ( ! ice1 & t 9 virtue ( ?is prop]ty x 0 enabl$ to move ) a diff]5tial motion & accommodate itself to all ! inequalities ( its *annel )\t los+ its cont9uity j z a mass ( mud or putty w\ld d4 ,b exp]i5ce proves t ice is a h>d & brittle sub/ance f> m resembl+ glass ?an putty4 ,9 fact x is "o ( ! mo/ brittle & unyield+ sub/ances 9 nature4 ,s unyield+ is a glaci] t x w snap 9 two be=e x w /ret* to any p]ceptible ext5t4 ,?is is prov$ by ! fact t crevasses result+ f a /ra9 on ! glaci] consi/ at fir/ ( a simple crack sc>cely wide en\gh to admit ! blade ( a p5knife4 ,all ! effects :i* 7 consid]$ to be due to ! viscosity ( ! ice h be5 fully expla9$ & acc\nt$ = on ! pr9ciple ( fracture & regelation discov]$ by ,f>aday4 ,! pr9ciple ( regelation expla9s :y ! ice mov+ ) a diff]5tial motion & accommodat+ itself to ! inequalities ( its *annel is yet enabl$ to reta9 its cont9uity1 b x does n acc\nt = ! cause ( glaci] motion4 ,9 fact x r involves ! "q 9 deep] my/]y ?an be=e4 ,= x is f> m difficult to conceive h[ ! p>ticles ( a h>d & brittle solid l t ( ice c move ) a diff]5tial motion1 ?an x is to conceive h[ ?is may take place 9 ! case ( a s(t & yield+ sub/ance4 ,! p>ticles ( ice h all to be displac$ "o ov] ano!r & alongside ea* o!r1 & z ^? p>ticles are rigidly fix$ toge!r ?is connection mu/ be brok5 be=e ! "o c slide ov] ! o!r4 ,%e>+-=ce1 z ,canon ,moseley %[s1 comes into play4 ,7 ice a pla/ic sub/ance !re w\ld n be mu* difficulty 9 und]/&+ h[ ! p>ticles %\ld move ! "o ov] ! o!r1 b x is totally diff]5t :5 we conceive ice to be a solid & unyield+ sub/ance4 ,! difficulty 9 connection ) glaci]-motion is n to acc\nt = ! cont9uity ( ! ice1 = ! pr9ciple ( regelation fully expla9s ?is1 b to %[ h[ x is t "o p>ticle succe$s 9 slid+ ov] ! ov]4 ,! pr9ciple ( regelation1 in/ead ( assi/+ to remove ?is difficulty1 increases x t5fold4 ,regelation does n expla9 ! cause ( glaci]-motion1 b ! rev]se4 ,x r t5ds to %[ t a glaci] %\ld n move4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! cause ( glaci]-motion8 ,accord+ to ! regelation !ory1 gravitation is ! impell+ cause4 ,b is gravitation suffici5t to %e> ! ice 9 ! mann] 9 :i* x is actually done 9 a glaci]8 ,i presume t few :o h giv5 mu* ?\ght to ! subject ( glaci]-motion h n _h "s slight misgiv+s 9 reg>d to ! commonly receiv$ !ory4 ,!re are "s facts :i* ,i nev] c\ld h>monize ) ?is !ory4 ,= example1 b\ld] clay is a f> loos] sub/ance ?an ice2 its %e>+-=ce mu/ be v mu* less ?an t ( ice2 yet imm5se masses ( b\ld] clay w lie immovable = ages on ! slope ( a hill s /eep t "o c h>dly v5ture to climb x1 :ile a glaci] w come crawl+ d[n a valley :i* by ! eye we c\ld h>dly detect to be actually (f ! level4 ,aga91 a glaci] moves fa/] dur+ ! day ?an dur+ ! night1 & ab\t twice z fa/ dur+ summ] z dur+ w9t]4 ,pr(essor ,=bes1 = example1 f\nd t ! ,glaci] des ,bois ne> its l[] extremity mov$ sometimes 9 ,decemb] only #aae in*es daily1 :ile dur+ ! mon? ( ,july its rate ( motion sometimes rea*$ #eba in*es p] day4 ,:y su* a diff]5ce 9 ! rate ( motion betwe5 day & night1 summ] & w9t]8 ,! glaci] is n heavi] dur+ ! day ?an x is dur+ ! night1 or dur+ ! summ] ?an x is dur+ ! w9t]2 nei!r is ! %e>+-=ce ( ! great mass ( ! ice ( a glaci] s5sibly less dur+ day ?an night1 or dur+ summ] ?an w9t]2 = ! temp]ature ( ! great mass ( ! ice does n s5sibly v>y ) ! seasons4 ,if ?is be ! case1 !n gravitation ought to be z able to %e> ! ice dur+ ! night z dur+ ! day1 or dur+ ! w9t] z dur+ ! summ]4 ,at any rate1 if !re %\ld be any diff]5ce x ought to be b trifl+4 ,x is true t1 ow+ to ! melt+ ( ! ice1 ! crevices ( ! glaci] are m gorg$ ) wat] dur+ summ] ?an w9t]2 & ?is1 z ,pr(essor ,=bes ma9ta9s1#big may t5d to make ! glaci] move fa/] dur+ ! =m] ?an ! latt] season4 ,b ! advocates ( ! regelation !ory _c conclude1 ) ,pr(essor ,=bes1 t ! wat] fav\rs ! motion ( ! glaci] by mak+ ! ice m s(t & pla/ic4 ,! melt+ ( ! ice1 accord+ to ! regelation !ory1 _c v mat]ially aid ! motion ( ! glaci]4 ,! !ory :i* has l$ to ! g5]al belief t ! ice ( a glaci] is %e>$ by ! =ce ( gravity appe>s to be ! foll[+4 ,x is suppos$ t ! only =ces to :i* ! motion ( a glaci] c be ref]r$ are gravitation & heat2 b z ! great mass ( a glaci] rema9s con/antly at ! same uni=m temp]ature x is conclud$ to be impossible t ! motion ( ! glaci] c be due to ?is cause1 & !re=e ( c\rse x mu/ be attribut$ to gravitation1 !re be+ no o!r cause4 ,t gravitation is insuffici5t to %e> ! ice ( a glaci] has be5 cle>ly demon/rat$ by ,canon ,moseley4#bih ,he det]m9$ by exp]im5t ! am\nt ( =ce requir$ to %e> "o squ>e in* ( ice1 & f\nd x to be ab\t #ge lbs4 ,by a process ( calculation :i* w be f\nd detail$ 9 ! ,memoir ref]r$ to1 he demon/rat$ t to desc5d by its own weight at ! rate at :i* ,pr(essor ,tyndall obs]v$ ! ice ( ! ,m] de ,glace to be desc5d+ at ! ,tacul1 ! unit ( %e>+ =ce ( ! ice c\ld n h be5 m ?an #acaica lbs4 ,consequ5tly x w require a =ce m ?an #cd times ! weight ( ! glaci] to %e> ! ice & cause x to desc5d 9 ! mann] 9 :i* x is f\nd to desc5d4 ,x is n[ six ye>s s9ce ,canon ,moseley's results 7 laid be=e ! public1 & no "o1 z f> z ,i am aw>e1 has yet attempt$ to po9t out any s]i\s defect 9 8 ma!matical treatm5t ( ! "q4 ,see+ ! great am\nt ( int]e/ manife/$ 9 ! "q ( glaci]-motion1 ,i ?9k we are w>rant$ to conclude t _h ! ma!matical "p ( ! memoir be5 inconclusive its defects w\ld h be5 po9t$ out ere ?is "t4 ,! "q1 !n1 h+es on :e!r ! exp]im5tal data on :i* 8 calculations are bas$ be correct4 ,or1 9 o!r words1 is ! unit ( %e> ( ice z mu* z #ge lbs48 ,?is "p ( ,mr4 ,moseley's rese>*es has n pass$ unque/ion$4 ,mr4 ,ball & ,mr4 ,ma!ws1 bo? ( :om h _h mu* exp]i5ce among glaci]s1 & h be/[$ consid]able att5tion on ! subject ( glaci]-motion1 h object$ to ! accuracy ( ,mr4 ,moseley's unit ( %e>4 ,i h c>efully read ! int]e/+ memoirs ( ,mr4 ,ma!ws & ,mr4 ,ball 9 reply to ,canon ,moseley1 b ,i am unable to p]ceive t any?+ :i* !y h advanc$ mat]ially affects 8 g5]al conclusions z reg>ds ! commonly receiv$ !ory4 ,mr4 ,ma!ws objects to ,canon ,moseley's exp]im5ts on ! gr\nds t extrane\s =ces are br\ght to be> ^u ! sub/ance submitt$ to op]ation1 & t conditions are ?us introduc$ :i* d n obta9 9 ! case ( an actual glaci]4 8,x w\ld ?r[10 he says1 8great light ^u our inquiry if we 7 to *ange ?is me?od ( proc$ure & simply to obs]ve ! deportm5t ( masses ( ice "u ! influ5ce ( no ext]nal =ces b ! gravitation ( _! own p>ticles40#bii ,a plank ( ice six in*es wide & #b in*es 9 ?ickness 0 support$ at ea* end by be>]s six feet ap>t4 ,f ! mom5t ! plank 0 plac$ 9 position x began to s9k1 & cont9u$ to d s until x t\*$ ! surface ov] :i* x 0 support$4 ,mr4 ,ma!ws rem>ks t ) ?is prop]ty ( ice1 viz41 its p[] to *ange its =m "u /ra9s produc$ by its own gravitation1 comb9$ ) ! slid+ movem5t demon/rat$ by ,hopk9s1 we h an adequate cause = glaci]-motion4 ,mr4 ,ma!ws concludes f ?is exp]im5t t ! unit ( %e> 9 ice1 in/ead ( be+ #ge lbs41 is less ?an #a lbs4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 no p>allel betwe5 ! b5d+ ( ! ice-plank & ! %e>+ ( a glaci]4 ,mr4 ,ma!ws' exp]im5t appe>s to prove too mu*1 z w be se5 f ! foll[+ reply ( ,canon ,moseley3-- 8,n[ ,i w10 he says1 8sugge/ to ,mr4 ,ma!ws a p>allel exp]im5t & a p>allel explanation4 ,if a b> ( wr\ght iron #a in* squ>e & #bj feet long 7 support$ at its extremities1 x w\ld b5d by its weight alone1 & w\ld !re=e %e>4 ,n[ ! weight ( su* a rod w\ld be ab\t #fg lbs4 ,accord+ to ,mr4 ,ma!ws's explanation 9 ! case ( ! ice-plank1 ! unit ( %e> 9 wr\ght-iron %\ld !re=e be #fg lbs4 p] squ>e in*4 ,x is actually #ej1jjj lbs40#cjj ,:atev] !ory we may adopt z to ! cause ( ! motion ( glaci]s1 ! deflection ( ! plank 9 ! way describ$ by ,mr4 ,ma!ws foll[s z a necess>y consequ5ce4 ,al?\gh no weight 0 plac$ ^u ! plank1 x does n necess>ily foll[ t ! deflection 0 caus$ by ! weight ( ! ice alone2 =1 accord+ to ,canon ,moseley's own !ory ( ! motion ( glaci]s by heat1 ! plank ought to be deflect$ 9 ! middle1 j z x 0 9 ,mr4 ,ma!ws's exp]im5t4 ,a solid body1 :5 expos$ to v>iations ( temp]ature1 w exp& & contract transv]sely z well z longitud9ally4 ,ice1 accord+ to ,canon ,moseley's !ory1 exp&s & contracts by heat4 ,!n if ! plank exp&s transv]sely1 ! upp] half ( ! plank mu/ rise & ! l[] half desc5d4 ,b ! side :i* rises has to p]=m "w aga9/ gravity1 :]eas ! side :i* desc5ds has "w p]=m$ ^u x by gravity2 consequ5tly m ( ! plank w desc5d ?an rise1 & ?is w1 ( c\rse1 t5d to l[] or deflect ! plank 9 ! middle4 ,aga91 :5 ! plank contracts1 ! l[] half w rise & ! upp] half w desc5d2 b z gravitation1 9 ?is case also1 fav\rs ! desc5d+ "p & opposes ! ris+ "p1 m ( ! plank w desc5d ?an rise1 & consequ5tly ! plank w be l[]$ 9 ! middle by contraction z well z by expansion4 ,?us1 z ! plank *anges its temp]ature1 x mu/1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,moseley's !ory1 desc5d or be deflect$ 9 ! middle1 /ep by /ep--& ?is n by gravitation alone1 b *iefly by ! motive p[] ( heat4 ,i d n1 ( c\rse1 mean to ass]t t ! desc5t ( ! plank 0 caus$ by heat2 b ,i ass]t t ,mr4 ,ma!ws's exp]im5t does n necess>ily prove 7& ?is is all t is requir$ 9 ! meantime7 t gravitation alone 0 ! cause ( ! deflection ( ! plank4 ,nei!r does ?is exp]im5t prove t ! ice 0 deflect$ )\t %e>+2 = al?\gh ! weight ( ! plank 0 n suffici5t to %e> ! ice1 z ,mr4 ,ma!ws1 ,i presume1 admits1 yet ,mr4 ,moseley w\ld reply t ! weight ( ! ice1 assi/$ by ! motive p[] ( heat1 0 p]fectly suffici5t4 ,i %all n[ briefly ref] to ,mr4 ,ball's pr9cipal objections to ,canon ,moseley's pro( t a glaci] _c %e> by its weight alone4 ,"o ( 8 *ief objections is t ,mr4 ,moseley has assum$ ! ice to be homog5e\s 9 /ructure1 & t pressures & t5sions act+ )9 x1 are n modifi$ by ! v>y+ con/itution ( ! mass4#cja ,al?\gh !re is1 no d\bt1 "s =ce 9 ?is objection 7= we h probably good reason to believe t ice w %e>1 = example1 m easily along c]ta9 planes ?an o!rs71 /ill ,i c h>dly ?9k t ,canon ,moseley's ma9 conclusion c ev] be mat]ially affect$ by ?is objection4 ,! ma9 "q is ?is1 ,c ! ice ( ! glaci] %e> by its own weight 9 ! way g5]ally suppos$8 ,n[ ! %e>+ =ce ( ice1 take x 9 :atev] direction we may1 s enorm\sly exce$s t requir$ by ,mr4 ,moseley 9 ord] to all[ a glaci] to desc5d by its weight only1 t x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce :e!r ice be reg>d$ z homog5e\s 9 /ructure or n4 ,mr4 ,ball objects also to ,mr4 ,moseley's imag9>y glaci] ly+ on an ev5 slope & 9 a uni=m rectangul> *annel4 ,he ?9ks t an irregul> *annel & a v>iable slope w\ld be m fav\rable to ! desc5t ( ! ice4 ,b surely if ! "w by ! weight ( ! ice be n equal to ! "w by ! resi/ance 9 a glaci] ( uni=m bread? & slope1 x mu/ be mu* less s 9 ! case ( "o ( irregul> %ape & slope4 ,t a relative displacem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! ice is involv$ 9 ! motion ( a glaci]1 is admitt$1 ( c\rse1 by ,mr4 ,ball2 b he /ates t ! am\nt ( ?is displacem5t is b small1 & t x is effect$ ) extreme sl[ness4 ,?is may be ! case2 b if ! weight ( ! ice be n able to ov]come ! mutual cohesion ( ! p>ticles1 !n ! weight ( ! ice _c produce ! requir$ displacem5t1 h[ev] small x may be4 ,mr4 ,ball !n objects to ,mr4 ,moseley's me?od ( det]m9+ ! unit ( %e> on ?is gr\nd3--,! %e>+ ( ! ice 9 a glaci] is effect$ ) extreme sl[ness2 b ! %e>+ 9 ,canon ,moseley's exp]im5t 0 effect$ ) rapidity2 & al?\gh x requir$ #ge lbs4 to %e> "o squ>e in* ( surface 9 8 exp]im5t1 x does n foll[ t #ge lbs4 w\ld be requir$ to %e> ! ice if done 9 ! sl[ mann] 9 :i* x is effect$ 9 ! glaci]4 8,9 %ort10 says ,mr4 ,ball1 8to asc]ta9 ! resi/ance oppos$ to v sl[ *anges 9 ! relative positions ( ! p>ticles1 s slight z to be ins5sible at %ort di/ances1 ,mr4 ,moseley measures ! resi/ance oppos$ to rapid disruption betwe5 contigu\s portions ( ! same sub/ance40 ,!re is =ce 9 ?is objection2 & "h we arrive at a really weak po9t 9 ,canon ,moseley's reason+4 ,8 exp]im5ts %[ t if we want to %e> ice quickly a weight ( ne>ly #abj lbs4 is requir$2 b if ! ?+ is to be done m sl[ly1 #ge lbs4 w suffice4#cjb ,9 %ort1 ! numb] ( p\nds requir$ to %e> ! ice dep5ds1 to a l>ge ext5t1 on ! l5g? ( "t t ! weight is all[$ to act2 ! long] x is all[$ to act1 ! less w be ! weight requir$ to p]=m ! "w4 8,i am curi\s to "k10 says ,mr4 ,ma!ws1 :5 ref]r+ to ?is po9t1 8:at weight w\ld h %e>$ ! ice if a day _h be5 all[$ = its op]ation40 ,i d n "k :at w\ld h be5 ! weight requir$ to %e> ! ice 9 ,mr4 ,moseley's exp]im5ts _h a day be5 all[$2 b ,i feel pretty confid5t t1 %\ld ! ice rema9 unmelt$1 & suffici5t "t be all[$1 %e>+ w\ld be produc$ )\t ! application ( any weight :atev]4 ,!re are no weights plac$ ^u a glaci] to make x move1 & yet ! ice ( ! glaci] %e>s4 ,if ! %e>+ is effect$ by weight1 ! only weight appli$ is ! weight ( ! ice2 & if ! weight ( ! ice makes ! ice %e> 9 ! glaci]1 :y may x n d ! same ?+ 9 ! exp]im5t8 ,:atev] may be ! cause :i* displaces ! p>ticles ( ! ice 9 a glaci]1 !y1 z a matt] ( fact1 are displac$ )\t any weight be+ appli$ beyond t ( ! ice itself2 & if s1 :y may n ! p>ticles ( ! ice 9 ! exp]im5t be also displac$ )\t ! application ( weights8 ,all[ ! ice ( ! glaci] to take its own "t & its own way1 & ! p>ticles w move ov] ea* o!r )\t ! aid ( ext]nal weights1 :atev] may be ! cause ( ?is2 well1 !n1 all[ ! ice 9 ! exp]im5t to take its own "t & its own way1 & x w probably d ! same ?+4 ,!re is some?+ "h unsatisfactory4 ,if1 by ! unit ( %e>1 be meant ! pressure 9 p\nds t mu/ be appli$ to ! ice to break ! connection ( "o squ>e in* ( two surfaces froz5 toge!r & cause ! "o to slip ov] ! o!r1 !n ! am\nt ( pressure requir$ to d ?is w dep5d ^u ! "t y all[ = ! ?+ be+ done4 ,if ! ?+ is to be done rapidly1 z 9 "s ( ,mr4 ,moseley's exp]im5ts1 x w take1 z he has %[n1 a pressure ( ab\t #abj lbs42 b if ! ?+ has to be done m sl[ly1 z 9 "s o!r ( 8 exp]im5ts1 #ge lbs4 w suffice4 ,& if suffici5t "t be all[$1 z 9 ! case ( glaci]s1 ! ?+ may be done )\t any weight :atev] be+ appli$ to ! ice1 &1 ( c\rse1 ,mr4 ,moseley's argum5t1 t a glaci] _c desc5d by its weight alone1 falls to ! gr\nd4 ,b if1 by ! unit ( %e>1 be meant n ! weight or pressure necess>y to %e> ! ice1 b ! am\nt ( "w requir$ to %e> a squ>e in* ( surface 9 a giv5 "t or at a giv5 rate1 !n he might be able to %[ t 9 ! case ( a glaci] 7say ! ,m] de ,glace7 ! "w ( all ! resi/ances :i* are oppos$ to its desc5t at ! rate at :i* x is desc5d+ is great] ?an ! "w ( its weight1 & t consequ5tly !re mu/ be "s cause1 9 addition to ! weight1 urg+ ! glaci] =w>d4 ,b !n he w\ld h no "r to affirm t ! glaci] w\ld n desc5d by its weight only2 all t he c\ld affirm w\ld simply be t x c\ld n desc5d by its weight alone at ! rate at :i* x is desc5d+4 ,mr4 ,moseley's unit ( %e>1 h[ev]1 is n ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ 9 %e>+ a squ>e in* ( ice 9 a giv5 "t1 b ! am\nt ( weight or pressure requir+ to be appli$ to ! ice to %e> a squ>e in*4 ,b ?is am\nt ( pressure dep5ds ^u ! l5g? ( "t t ! pressure is appli$4 ,"h lies ! difficulty 9 det]m9+ :at am\nt ( pressure is to be tak5 z ! real unit4 ,& "h also lies ! radical defect 9 ,canon ,moseley's result4 ,"t z well z pressure ent]s z an elem5t into ! process4 ,! key to ! explanation ( ?is curi\s circum/ance w1 ,i ?9k1 be f\nd 9 ! fact t ! rate at :i* a glaci] desc5ds dep5ds 9 "s way or o!r ^u ! am\nt ( heat t ! ice is receiv+4 ,?is fact %[s t heat has some?+ to d 9 ! %e>+ ( ! ice ( ! glaci]4 ,b 9 ! communication ( heat to ! ice "t necess>ily ent]s z an elem5t4 ,!re are two diff]5t ways 9 :i* heat may be conceiv$ to aid 9 %e>+ ! ice3 7#a47 we may conceive t heat acts z a =ce along ) gravitation 9 produc+ displacem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! ice2 or 7#b47 we may conceive t heat does n act z a =ce 9 pu%+ ! p>ticles ov] ea* o!r1 b t x assi/s ! %e>+ processes by dim9i%+ ! cohesion ( ! p>ticles ( ! ice1 & ?us all[+ gravitation to produce displacem5t4 ,! =m] is ! function attribut$ to heat 9 ,canon ,moseley's !ory ( glaci]-motion2 ! latt] is ! function attribut$ to heat 9 ! !ory ( glaci]-motion :i* ,i v5tur$ to advance "s "t ago4#cjc ,x results1 !re=e1 f ,canon ,moseley's own !ory1 t ! long] ! "t t is all[$ = ! pressure to %e> ! ice1 ! less w be ! pressure requir$2 =1 accord+ to 8 !ory1 a v l>ge proportion ( ! displacem5t is produc$ by ! motive p[] ( heat ent]+ ! ice2 &1 z x foll[s ( c\rse1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! long] ! "t dur+ :i* ! heat is all[$ to act1 ! great] w be ! proportionate am\nt ( displacem5t produc$ by ! heat2 consequ5tly ! less w require to be done by ! weight appli$4 ,9 ! case ( ! glaci]1 ,mr4 ,moseley concludes t at lea/ ?irty or =ty times z mu* "w is done by ! motive p[] ( heat 9 ! way ( %e>+ ! ice z is done by m]e pressure or weight4 ,!n1 if suffici5t "t be all[$1 :y may n f> m be done by heat 9 %e>+ ! ice 9 8 exp]im5t ?an by ! weight appli$8 ,9 ?is case h[ is he to "k h[ mu* ( ! %e>+ is effect$ by ! heat & h[ mu* by ! weight8 ,if ! great] "p ( ! %e>+ ( ! ice 9 ! case ( a glaci] is produc$1 n by pressure1 b by ! heat :i* necess>ily ent]s ! ice1 x w\ld be inconceivable t 9 8 exp]im5ts ! heat ent]+ ! ice %\ld n produce1 at lea/ to "s ext5t1 a simil> effect4 ,& if a portion ( ! displacem5t ( ! p>ticles is produc$ by heat1 !n ! weight :i* is appli$ _c be reg>d$ z ! measure ( ! =ce employ$ 9 ! displacem5t1 any m ?an x c\ld be inf]r$ t ! weight ( ! glaci] is ! measure ( ! =ce employ$ 9 ! %e>+ ( x4 ,if ! weight is n ! entire =ce employ$ 9 %e>+1 b only a "p ( ! =ce1 !n ! weight _c1 z 9 ,mr4 ,moseley's exp]im5t1 be tak5 z ! measure ( ! =ce4 ,h[1 !n1 are we to det]m9e :at is ! am\nt ( =ce requir$ to %e> ice8 9 o!r words1 h[ is ! unit ( %e> to be det]m9$8 ,if we are to measure ! unit ( %e> by ! weight requir$ to produce displacem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! ice1 we mu/ make sure t ! displacem5t is :olly effect$ by ! weight4 ,we mu/ be c]ta9 t heat does n ent] z an elem5t 9 ! process4 ,b if "t be all[$ to elapse dur+ ! exp]im5t1 we c nev] be c]ta9 t heat has n be5 at "w4 ,x is impossible to prev5t heat ent]+ ! ice4 ,we may keep ! ice at a con/ant temp]ature1 b ?is w\ld n prev5t heat f ent]+ ! ice & produc+ molecul> "w4 ,true t1 accord+ to ,moseley's !ory ( glaci]-motion1 if ! temp]ature ( ! ice be n p]mitt$ to v>y1 !n no displacem5t ( ! p>ticles c take place f ! influ5ce ( heat2 b accord+ to ! molecul> !ory ( glaci]-motion1 :i* w %ortly be consid]$1 heat w aid ! displacem5t ( ! p>ticles :e!r ! temp]ature be kept con/ant or n4 ,9 %ort1 x is absolutely impossible 9 our exp]im5ts to be c]ta9 t heat is n 9 "s way or o!r conc]n$ 9 ! displacem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! ice4 ,b we c %ort5 ! "t1 & ?us make sure t ! am\nt ( heat ent]+ ! ice dur+ ! exp]im5ts is too small to affect mat]ially ! result4 ,we _c 9 ?is case say t all ! displacem5t has be5 effect$ by ! weight appli$ to ! ice1 b we c say t s little has be5 done by heat t1 practically1 we may reg>d x z all done by ! weight4 ,?is consid]ation1 ,i tru/1 %[s t ! unit ( %e> adopt$ by ,canon ,moseley 9 8 calculations is n too l>ge4 ,= if 9 half an h\r1 aft] all ! "w t may h be5 done by heat1 a pressure ( #ge lbs4 is /ill requir$ to displace ! p>ticles ( "o squ>e in*1 x is p]fectly evid5t t if no "w _h be5 done by heat dur+ t "t1 ! =ce requir$ to produce ! displacem5t c\ld n h be5 less ?an #ge lbs4 ,x might h be5 m ?an t2 b x c\ld n h be5 less4 ,be ?is1 h[ev]1 z x may1 9 det]m9+ ! unit ( %e> we _c be p]mitt$ to prolong ! exp]im5t = any consid]able l5g? ( "t1 because ! weight "u :i* ! ice might !n %e> c\ld n be tak5 z ! measure ( ! =ce :i* is requir$ to %e> ice4 ,by prolong+ ! exp]im5t we might possibly get a unit small] ?an t requir$ by ,canon ,moseley = a glaci] to desc5d by its own weight4 ,b x w\ld be j z mu* begg+ ! :ole "q at issue to assume t1 because ! ice %e>$ "u su* a weight1 a glaci] might desc5d by its weight alone1 z x w\ld be to assume t1 because a glaci] %e>s )\t a weight be+ plac$ ^u x1 ! glaci] desc5ds by its weight alone4 ,b :y n det]m9e ! unit ( %e> ( ice 9 ! same way z we w\ld ! unit ( %e> ( any o!r solid sub/ance1 su*1 z iron1 /one1 or wood8 ,if ! %e>+ =ce ( ice be det]m9$ 9 ?is mann]1 x w be f\nd to be by f> too great to all[ ( ! ice %e>+ by its weight alone4 ,we %all be oblig$ to admit ei!r t ! ice ( ! glaci] does n %e> 79 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! t]m71 or if x does %e>1 t !re mu/1 z ,canon ,moseley concludes1 be "s o!r =ce 9 addition to ! weight ( ! ice urg+ ! glaci] =w>d4 ,! fact t ! rate ( desc5t ( a glaci] dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( heat :i* x receives1 proves t heat mu/ be reg>d$ ei!r z a cause or z a necess>y condition ( its motion2 :at1 !n1 is ! necess>y relation%ip betwe5 heat & ! motion ( ! glaci]8 ,if heat is to be reg>d$ z a cause1 9 :at way does ! heat produce motion8 ,i %all n[ briefly ref] to "o or two !ories :i* h be5 advanc$ on ! subject4 ,let u consid] fir/ t ( ,canon ,moseley4 ,canon ,moseley's ,!ory4--,he f\nd1 f obs]vations & exp]im5ts1 t %eets ( lead1 plac$ ^u an incl9$ plane1 :5 subject$ to v>iations ( temp]ature1 t5d to desc5d ev5 :5 ! slope is f> less ?an t :i* w\ld enable x to slide d[n "u ! influ5ce ( gravitation4 ,! cause ( ! desc5t he %[s to be ?is4 ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! %eet is rais$1 x exp&s1 &1 9 exp&+1 its upp] portion moves up ! slope1 & its l[] portion d[n ! slope2 b z gravitation opposes ! upw>d & fav\rs ! d[nw>d motion1 m ( ! %eet moves d[n ?an up1 & consequ5tly ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! %eet is slightly l[]$4 ,aga91 :5 ! %eet is cool$1 x contracts1 & 9 contract+ ! upp] portion moves d[nw>ds & ! l[] portion upw>ds1 & "h aga91 = ! same reason1 m ( ! %eet moves d[nw>ds ?an upw>ds4 ,consequ5tly1 at e *ange ( temp]ature !re is a slight displacem5t ( ! %eet d[nw>ds4 8,n[ a !ory ( ! desc5t ( glaci]s10 says ,canon ,moseley1 8:i* ,i h v5tur$ to propose myself1 is t !y desc5d1 z ! lead 9 ?is exp]im5t does1 by reason ( ! passage into !m & ! )drawal ( ! sun's rays1 & t ! dilatation & contraction ( ! ice s produc$ is ! proximate cause ( _! desc5t1 z x is ( t ( ! lead40#cjd ,! fundam5tal condition 9 ,mr4 ,moseley's !ory ( ! desc5t ( solid bodies on an incl9e1 is1 n t heat %\ld ma9ta9 ^! bodies at a high temp]ature1 b t ! temp]ature %\ld v>y4 ,! rate ( desc5t is proportionate1 n simply to ! am\nt ( heat receiv$1 b to ! ext5t & frequ5cy ( ! v>iations ( temp]ature4 ,z a pro( t glaci]s are subject$ to great v>iations ( temp]ature1 he adduces ! foll[+3--8,all alp9e travell]s10 he says1 8f ,de ,saussure to ,=bes & ,tyndall1 h borne te/imony to ! int5sity ( ! sol> radiation on ! surfaces ( glaci]s4 #8,i sc>cely ev]1' says ,=bes1 #8rememb] to h f\nd ! sun m pi]c+ ?an at ! ,j>d94' ,?is heat passes abruptly into a /ate ( int5se cold :5 any "p ( ! glaci] falls into %ad[ by an alt]ation ( ! position ( ! sun1 or ev5 by ! pass+ ov] x ( a cl\d40#cje ,mr4 ,moseley is "h n>rat+ simply :at ! travell] feels1 & n :at ! glaci] exp]i5ces4 ,! travell] is subject$ to great v>iations ( temp]ature2 b !re is no pro( f ?is t ! glaci] exp]i5ces any *anges ( temp]ature4 ,x is r because ! temp]ature ( ! glaci] is n affect$ by ! sun's heat t ! travell] is s mu* *ill$ :5 ! sun's rays are cut (f4 ,! sun %9es d[n ) pi]c+ rays & ! travell] is scor*$2 ! glaci] melts on ! surface1 b x /ill rema9s 8cold z ice40 ,! sun passes beh9d a cl\d or disappe>s beh9d a neighb\r+ hill2 ! scor*+ rays are !n )drawn1 & ! travell] is n[ subject$ to radiation on e side f surfaces at ! freez+-po9t4 ,x is also a necess>y condition 9 ,mr4 ,moseley's !ory t ! heat %\ld pass easily into & out ( ! glaci]2 = unless ?is 7 ! case sudd5 *anges ( temp]ature c\ld produce little or no effect on ! great mass ( ! glaci]4 ,h[1 !n1 is x possible t dur+ ! heat ( summ] ! temp]ature ( ! glaci] c\ld v>y mu*8 ,dur+ t season1 9 ! l[] valleys at lea/1 ev]y?+1 ) ! exception ( ! glaci]1 is above ! freez+-po9t2 consequ5tly :5 ! glaci] goes into ! %ade !re is no?+ to l[] ! ice bel[ ! freez+-po9t2 & z ! sun's rays d n raise ! temp]ature ( ! ice above ! freez+-po9t1 ! temp]ature ( ! glaci] mu/ !re=e rema9 unalt]$ dur+ t season4 ,x !re=e foll[s t1 in/ead ( a glaci] mov+ m rapidly dur+ ! middle ( summ] ?an dur+ ! middle ( w9t]1 x %\ld1 accord+ to ,moseley's !ory1 h no motion :atev] dur+ summ]4 ,! foll[+1 writt5 fifte5 ye>s ago by ,pr(essor ,=bes on ?is v po9t1 is mo/ conclusive3--8,b h[ /&s ! fact8 ,mr4 ,moseley quotes f ,de ,saussure ! foll[+ daily ranges ( ! temp]ature ( ! air 9 ! mon? ( ,july at ! ,col du ,gant & at ,*am\ni1 betwe5 :i* po9ts ! glaci] lies3 ,at ! ,col du ,gant #dbeg ,raumur4 ,at ,*am\ni #ajjib ,& he assumes #8! same mean daily v>iation ( temp]ature to obta9 ?r\gh\t ! l5g?' & dep?8 #8( ! ,glaci] du ,gant :i* ,de ,saussure obs]v$ 9 ,july at ! ,col du ,gant4' ,b betwe5 :at limits does ! temp]ature ( ! air oscillate8 ,we f9d1 by ref]r+ to ! ?ird volume ( ,de ,saussure's #8,travels1' t ! mean temp]ature ( ! colde/ h\r 7#d ,a4,m47 dur+ 8 /ay at ! ,col du ,gant 0 #ccjc ,fahr5heit1 & ( ! w>me/ 7#b ,p4,m47 #dbfa ,f4 ,s t ev5 ^u t expos$ ridge1 betwe5 #b1jjj & #c1jjj feet above :]e ! glaci] c be prop]ly said to comm5ce1 ! air does n1 on an av]age ( ! mon? ( ,july1 rea* ! freez+-po9t at any h\r ( ! night4 ,consequ5tly ! range ( temp]ature attribut$ to ! glaci] is betwe5 limits absolutely incapable ( effect+ ! expansion ( ! ice 9 ! smalle/ degree40#cjf ,aga91 dur+ w9t]1 z ,mr4 ,ball rem>ks1 ! glaci] is completely cov]$ ) sn[ & ?us protect$ bo? f ! influ5ce ( cold & ( heat1 s t !re c be no?+ ei!r to raise ! temp]ature ( ! ice above ! freez+-po9t or to br+ x bel[ t po9t2 & consequ5tly ! glaci] ought to rema9 immovable dur+ t season also4 8,!re c be no d\bt1 !re=e10 ,mr4 ,moseley /ates1 8t ! rays ( ! sun1 :i* 9 ^? alp9e regions are ( su* rem>kable int5sity1 f9d _! way into ! dep?s ( ! glaci]4 ,!y are a p[]1 & !re is no su* ?+ z ! loss ( p[]4 ,! me*anical "w :i* is _! equival5t1 & into :i* !y are conv]t$ :5 receiv$ into ! sub/ance ( a solid body1 accumulates & /ores itself up 9 ! ice "u ! =m ( :at we call ela/ic =ce or t5d5cy to dilate1 until x becomes suffici5t to produce actual dilatation ( ! ice 9 ! direction 9 :i* ! resi/ance is weake/1 & by its )drawal to produce contraction4 ,f ?is expansion & contraction foll[s ( necessity ! desc5t ( ! glaci]40#cjg ,:5 ! temp]ature ( ! ice is bel[ ! freez+-po9t1 ! rays :i* are absorb$ w1 no d\bt1 produce dilatation2 b dur+ summ]1 :5 ! ice is n bel[ ! freez+-po9t1 no dilatation c possibly take place4 ,all physici/s1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 agree t ! rays t are !n absorb$ g to melt ! ice1 & n to exp& x4 ,b to ?is ,mr4 ,moseley repli$ z foll[s3--8,to ?is !re is ! obvi\s answ] t radiant heat does f9d its way into ice z a matt] ( common obs]vation1 & t x does n melt x except at its surface4 ,blocks ( ice may be se5 9 ! w9d[s ( ice-%ops ) ! sun %9+ full ^u !m1 & melt+ n[h]e b on _! surfaces4 ,& ! exp]im5t ( ! ice-l5s %[s t heat may /ream ?r\gh ice 9 abundance 7( :i* a portion is necess>ily /opp$ 9 ! passage7 )\t melt+ x1 except on its surface40 ,b :at evid5ce is !re to conclude t if !re is no melt+ ( ! ice 9 ! int]ior ( ! l5s !re is a portion ( ! rays 8necess>ily /opp$0 9 ! int]ior8 ,x w n d to assume a po9t s mu* oppos$ to all t we "k ( ! physical prop]ties ( ice z ?is really is4 ,x is absolutely ess5tial to ,mr4 ,moseley's !ory ( ! motion ( glaci]s1 dur+ summ] at lea/1 t ice %\ld cont9ue to exp& aft] x rea*es ! melt+-po9t2 & x has !re=e to be %[n t su* is ! case2 or x ne$ n be wond]$ at t we _c accept 8 !ory1 because x dem&s ! adoption ( a conclusion contr>y to all our previ\s conceptions4 ,b1 z a matt] ( fact1 x is n /rictly true t :5 rays pass ?r\gh a piece ( ice !re is no melt+ ( ! ice 9 ! int]ior4 ,exp]im5ts made by ,pr(essor ,tyndall %[ ! contr>y4#cjh ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o =tunate circum/ance connect$ ) ,canon ,moseley's !ory4 ,x is ?is3 its tru? c be easily te/$ by direct exp]im5t4 ,! ice1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 desc5ds n simply 9 virtue ( heat1 b 9 virtue ( *ange ( temp]ature4 ,try1 !n1 ,hopk9s's fam\s exp]im5t1 b keep ! ice at a con/ant temp]ature2 !n1 accord+ to ,moseley's !ory1 ! ice w n desc5d4 ,let x be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t al?\gh ! ice "u ?is condition %\ld desc5d 7z !re is little d\bt b x w\ld71 x w\ld %[ t ,mr4 ,moseley's !ory ( ! desc5t ( glaci]s is incorrect1 /ill x w\ld n 9 ! lea/ degree affect ! conclusions :i* he lately arriv$ at 9 reg>d to ! g5]ally receiv$ !ory ( glaci]-motion4 ,x w\ld n prove t ! ice %e>$1 9 ! way g5]ally suppos$1 by its weight only4 ,x might be ! heat1 aft] all1 ent]+ ! ice1 :i* acc\nt$ = its desc5t1 al?\gh gravitation 7! weight ( ! ice7 might be ! impell+ cause4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 ! glaci]1 l ! %eet ( lead1 mu/ exp& & contract z "o entire mass1 & x is difficult to conceive h[ ?is c\ld acc\nt = ! diff]5tial motion ( ! p>ticles ( ! ice4 ,pr(essor ,james ,?omson's ,!ory4--,x 0 discov]$ by ?is physici/ t ! freez+-po9t ( wat] is l[]$ by pressure4 ,! ext5t ( ! l[]+ is equal to #jjge c5tigrade = e atmosph]e ( pressure4 ,z glaci] ice is g5]ally ab\t ! melt+-po9t1 x foll[s t :5 enorm\s pressure is br\ght to be> ^u any giv5 po9t ( a glaci] a melt+ ( ! ice at t p>ticul> spot w take place 9 consequ5ce ( ! l[]+ ( ! melt+-po9t4 ,! melt+ ( ! ice w1 ( c\rse1 t5d to fav\r ! desc5t ( ! glaci]1 b ,i c h>dly ?9k ! liquefaction produc$ by pressure c acc\nt = ! motion ( glaci]s4 ,x w help to expla9 ! giv+ way ( ! ice at p>ticul> po9ts subject$ to great pressure1 b ,i am unable to compreh5d h[ x c acc\nt = ! g5]al desc5t ( ! glaci]4 ,conceive a rectangul> glaci] ( uni=m bread? & ?ickness1 & ly+ ^u an ev5 slope4 ,9 su* a glaci] ! pressure at ea* p>ticul> po9t w\ld rema9 con/ant1 = !re w\ld be no reason :y x %\ld be great] at "o "t ?an at ano!r4 ,suppose ! glaci] to be #ejj feet 9 ?ickness2 ! ice at ! l[] surface ( ! glaci]1 ow+ to pressure1 w\ld h its melt+-po9t p]man5tly l[]$ "o-t5? ( a degree c5tigrade bel[ t ( ! upp] surface2 b ! ice at ! l[] surface w\ld n1 on ?is acc\nt1 be 9 ! fluid /ate4 ,x w\ld simply be ice at a slightly l[] temp]ature4 ,true1 :5 pressure is ex]t$ ! ice melts 9 consequ5ce ( ! l[]+ ( ! melt+-po9t1 b 9 ! case "u consid]ation !re w\ld1 prop]ly speak+1 be no ex]tion ( pressure1 b a con/ant /atical pressure result+ f ! weight ( ! ice4 ,b ?is /atical condition ( pressure w\ld n produce fluidity any m ?an a /atical condition ( pressure w\ld produce heat1 & consequ5tly motion c\ld n take place z a result ( fluidity4 ,9 %ort1 motion itself is requir$ to produce ! fluidity4 ,i ne$ n "h wait to consid] ! slid+ !ories ( ,de ,saussure & ,hopk9s1 z !y are n[ almo/ univ]sally admitt$ to be inadequate to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( glaci]-motion1 see+ t !y d n acc\nt = ! displacem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! ice ov] "o ano!r4 ,accord+ to ! dilatation !ory ( ,m4 ,*>p5ti]1 a glaci] is impell$ by ! =ce ex]t$ by wat] freez+ 9 ! fissures ( ! ice4 ,a glaci] he consid]s is full ( fissures into :i* wat] is be+ con/antly infiltrat$1 & :5 ! temp]ature ( ! air s9ks bel[ ! freez+-po9t x conv]ts ! wat] into ice4 ,! wat]1 9 pass+ into ice1 exp&s1 & 9 exp&+ t5ds to impel ! glaci] 9 ! direction ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,?is !ory1 al?\gh x does n expla9 glaci]-motion1 z has be5 cle>ly %[n by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes1 nev]!less conta9s "o important elem5t :i*1 z we %all see1 mu/ ent] into ! true explanation4 ,! elem5t to :i* ,i ref] is ! expansive =ce ex]t$ on ! glaci] by wat] freez+4 ,,*apt] ,,xxxi4 ,,! ,,physical ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,motion ,,( ,,glaci]s4--,,! ,,molecul> ,,!ory4 ,pres5t ,/ate ( ! ,"q4--,heat necess>y to ! ,motion ( a ,glaci]4--,ice does n %e> 9 ! ,solid ,/ate4--,motion ( a ,glaci] molecul>4--,h[ ,heat is transmitt$ ?r\gh ,ice4--,mom5t>y ,loss ( ,%e>+ ,=ce4--,! ,rationale ( ,regelation4--,! ,orig9 ( 8,crevasses40--,effects ( ,t5sion4--,modification ( ,!ory4--,fluid ,molecules cry/allize 9 ,int]/ices4--,expansive ,=ce ( cry/alliz+ ,molecules a ,cause ( ,motion4--,int]nal molecul> ,pressure ! *ief ,mov+ ,p[]4--,h[ ,ice c excavate a ,rock ,bas94--,h[ ,ice c asc5d a ,slope4--,h[ deep ,riv] ,valleys are /riat$ across4--,a rem>kable ,example 9 ! ,valley ( ! ,tay4--,h[ ,b\ld]s c be c>ri$ f a l[] to a high] ,level4 ,! condition :i* ! p]plex+ "q ( ! cause ( ! desc5t ( glaci]s has n[ rea*$ seems to be some?+ l ! foll[+4 ,! ice ( a glaci] is n 9 a s(t & pla/ic /ate1 b is solid1 h>d1 brittle1 & unyield+4 ,x nev]!less behaves 9 "s respects 9 a mann] v l :at a s(t & pla/ic sub/ance w\ld d if plac$ 9 simil> circum/ances1 inasmu* z x accommodates itself to all ! inequalities ( ! *annel 9 :i* x moves4 ,! ice ( ! glaci]1 ?\gh h>d & solid1 moves ) a diff]5tial motion2 ! p>ticles ( ! ice are displac$ ov] ea* o!r1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! ice %e>s z x desc5ds4 ,x _h be5 conclud$ t ! m]e weight ( ! glaci] is suffici5t to %e> ! ice4 ,canon ,moseley has inve/igat$ ?is po9t1 & %[n t x is n4 ,he has f\nd t = a glaci] to %e> 9 ! way t x is suppos$ to d1 x w\ld require a =ce "s ?irty or =ty times z great z ! weight ( ! glaci]4 ,consequ5tly1 = ! glaci] to desc5d1 a =ce 9 addition to t ( gravitation is requir$4 ,:at1 !n1 is ?is =ce8 ,x is f\nd t ! rate at :i* ! glaci] desc5ds dep5ds ^u ! am\nt ( heat :i* x is receiv+4 ,?is %[s t ! motion ( ! glaci] is 9 "s way or o!r dep5d5t ^u heat4 ,is heat1 !n1 ! =ce we are 9 se>* (8 ,! answ] to ?is1 ( c\rse1 is1 s9ce heat is a =ce necess>ily requir$1 we h no "r to assume any o!r till we see :e!r or n heat w suffice4 ,9 :at way1 !n1 does heat aid gravitation 9 ! desc5t ( ! glaci]8 ,9 :at way does heat assi/ gravitation 9 ! %e>+ ( ! ice8 ,!re are two ways :]eby we may conceive ! ?+ to be done3 ! heat may assi/ gravitation to %e>1 by press+ ! ice =w>d1 or x may assi/ gravitation by dim9i%+ ! cohesion ( ! p>ticles1 & ?us all[ gravitation to produce motion :i* x o!rwise c\ld n produce4 ,e attempt :i* has yet be5 made to expla9 h[ heat c act z a =ce 9 pu%+ ! ice =w>d1 has fail$4 ,! fact t heat _c exp& ! ice ( ! glaci] may be reg>d$ z a suffici5t pro( t x does n act z a =ce impell+ ! glaci] =w>d2 & we are ?us oblig$ to turn our att5tion to ! o!r conception1 viz41 t heat assi/s gravitation to %e> ! ice1 n by direct pressure1 b by dim9i%+ ! cohesive =ce ( ! p>ticles1 s z to enable gravitation to pu% ! "o pa/ ! o!r4 ,b h[ is ?is done8 ,does heat dim9i% ! cohesion by act+ z an expansive =ce 9 sep>at+ ! p>ticles8 ,heat _c d ?is1 because x _c exp& ! ice ( a glaci]2 & besides1 7 x to d ?is1 x w\ld de/roy ! solid & firm "* ( ! ice1 & ! ice ( ! glaci] w\ld n !n1 z a mass1 possess ! great am\nt ( %e>+-=ce :i* obs]vation & exp]im5t %[ t x does4 ,9 %ort x is because ! p>ticles are s firmly fix$ toge!r at ! "t ! glaci] is desc5d+1 t we are oblig$ to call 9 ! aid ( "s o!r =ce 9 addition to ! weight ( ! glaci] to %e> ! ice4 ,heat does n cause displacem5t ( ! p>ticles by mak+ ! ice s(t & pla/ic2 = we "k t ! ice ( ! glaci] is n s(t & pla/ic1 b h>d & brittle4 ,! %e>+-=ce ( ! ice ( ! mov+ glaci] is f\nd to be by at lea/ f ?irty to =ty times too great to p]mit ( ! ice be+ %e>$ by ! m]e =ce ( gravitation2 h[1 !n1 is x t gravitation1 )\t ! direct assi/ance ( any o!r =ce1 c manage to %e> ! ice8 ,or to put ! "q "u ano!r =m3 heat does n r$uce ! %e>+-=ce ( ! ice ( a glaci] to some?+ l #acaic lb4 p] squ>e in* ( surface1 ! unit requir$ by ,mr4 ,moseley to enable a glaci] to %e> by its weight2 ! %e>+-=ce ( ! ice1 not)/&+ all ! heat receiv$1 /ill rema9s at ab\t #ge lbs42 h[1 !n1 c ! glaci] %e> )\t any o!r =ce ?an its own weight pu%+ x =w>d8 ,?is is ! fundam5tal "q2 & ! true answ] to x mu/ reveal ! my/]y ( glaci]-motion4 ,we are compell$ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! problem to admit t glaci]s d desc5d ) a diff]5tial motion )\t any o!r =ce ?an _! own weight pu%+ !m =w>d2 & yet ! %e>+-=ce ( ! ice is actually f\nd to be ?irty or =ty times ! maximum t w\ld p]mit ( ! glaci] %e>+ by its weight only4 ,! explanation ( ?is app>5t p>adox w remove all our difficulties 9 ref]5ce to ! cause ( ! desc5t ( glaci]s4 ,!re seems to be b "o explanation 7& x is a v obvi\s "o71 viz4 t ! motion ( ! glaci] is molecul>4 ,! ice desc5ds molecule by molecule4 ,! ice ( a glaci] is 9 ! h>d cry/all9e /ate1 b x does n desc5d 9 ?is /ate4 ,gravitation is a con/antly act+ =ce2 if a p>ticle ( ! ice lose its %e>+-=ce1 ?\gh b = ! mom5t1 x w desc5d by its weight alone4 ,b a p>ticle ( ! ice w lose its %e>+-=ce = a mom5t if ! p>ticle loses its cry/all9e /ate = ! mom5t4 ,! passage ( heat ?r\gh ice1 :e!r by conduction or by radiation1 9 all probability is a molecul> process2 t is1 ! =m ( en]gy t]m$ heat is transmitt$ f molecule to molecule ( ! ice4 ,a p>ticle takes ! en]gy f its neighb\r ,a on ! "o side & h&s x ov] to its neighb\r ,b on ! opposite side4 ,b ! p>ticle mu/ be 9 a diff]5t /ate at ! mom5t x is 9 possession ( ! en]gy f :at x 0 be=e x receiv$ x f ,a1 & f :at x w be aft] x has h&$ x ov] to ,b4 ,be=e x became possess$ ( ! en]gy1 x 0 9 ! cry/all9e /ate--x 0 ice2 & aft] x loses possession ( ! en]gy x w be ice2 b at ! mom5t t x is 9 possession ( ! pass+ en]gy is x 9 ! cry/all9e or icy /ate8 ,if we assume t x is n1 b t 9 becom+ possess$ ( ! en]gy1 x loses its cry/all9e =m & = ! mom5t becomes wat]1 all our difficulties reg>d+ ! cause ( ! motion ( glaci]s are remov$4 ,we "k t ! ice ( a glaci] 9 ! mass _c become possess$ ( en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat )\t becom+ fluid2 if x c be %[n t ! same ?+ holds true ( ! ice p>ticle1 we h ! key to ! my/]y ( glaci]-motion4 ,a mom5t's reflection w suffice to conv9ce any "o t if ! glaci] ice 9 ! mass _c receive en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat )\t melt+1 ! same mu/ hold true ( ! ice p>ticles1 = x is inconceivable t ! ice 9 ! mass c\ld melt & yet ! ice p>ticles !mselves rema9 9 ! solid /ate4 ,x is ! solidity ( ! p>ticles :i* con/itutes ! solidity ( ! mass4 ,if ! p>ticles lose _! solid =m ! mass loses its solid =m1 = ! mass has no o!r solidity ?an t :i* is possess$ by ! p>ticles4 ,! correctness ( ! conclusion1 t ! weight ( ! ice is n a suffici5t cause1 dep5ds ^u ! tru? ( a c]ta9 elem5t tak5 = grant$ 9 ! reason+1 viz4 t ! %e>+-=ce ( ! molecules ( ! ice rema9s con/ant4 ,if ?is =ce rema9s con/ant1 !n ,canon ,moseley's conclusion is und\bt$ly correct1 b n o!rwise2 = if a molecule %\ld lose its %e>+-=ce1 ?\gh x 7 b = a mom5t1 if no ob/acle /ood 9 front ( ! molecule1 x w\ld desc5d 9 virtue ( its weight4 ,! fact t ! %e>+-=ce ( a mass ( ice is f\nd to be con/ant does n prove t ! same is ! case 9 reg>d to ! individual molecules4 ,if we take a mass ( molecules 9 ! aggregate1 ! %e>+-=ce ( ! mass tak5 ?us collectively may rema9 absolutely con/ant1 :ile at ! same "t ea* individual molecule may be suff]+ repeat$ mom5t>y losses ( %e>+-=ce4 ,?is is s obvi\s z to require no fur!r elucidation4 ,! :ole matt]1 !re=e1 resolves itself into ?is "o "q1 z to :e!r or n ! %e>+-=ce ( a cry/all9e molecule ( ice rema9s con/ant4 ,9 ! case ( ord9>y solid bodies we h no reason to conclude t ! %e>+-=ce ( ! molecules ev] disappe>s1 b 9 reg>d to ice x is v diff]5t4 ,if we analyze ! process by :i* heat is conduct$ ?r\gh ice1 we %all f9d t we h reason to believe t :ile a molecule ( ice is 9 ! act ( transmitt+ ! en]gy receiv$ 7say f a fire71 x loses = ! mom5t its %e>+-=ce if ! temp]ature ( ! ice be n "u #cb ,f4 ,if we apply heat to ! end ( a b> ( iron1 ! molecules at ! surface ( ! end h _! temp]atures rais$4 ,molecule ,a at ! surface1 ^: temp]ature has be5 rais$1 in/antly comm5ces to transf] to ,b a portion ( ! en]gy receiv$4 ,! t5d5cy ( ?is process is to l[] ! temp]ature ( ,a & raise t ( ,b4 ,b !n1 ) its temp]ature rais$1 beg9s to transf] ! en]gy to ,c4 ,! result "h is ! same2 ,b t5ds to fall 9 temp]ature1 & ,c to rise4 ,?is process goes on f molecule to molecule until ! opposite end ( ! b> is rea*$4 ,"h 9 ?is case ! en]gy or heat appli$ to ! end ( ! b> is transmitt$ f molecule to molecule "u ! =m ( heat or temp]ature4 ,! en]gy appli$ to ! b> does n *ange its "*2 x passes "r along f molecule to molecule "u ! =m ( heat or temp]ature4 ,b ! nature ( ! process mu/ be :olly diff]5t if ! transf]r5ce takes place ?r\gh a b> ( ice at ! temp]ature ( #cb4 ,suppose we apply ! heat ( ! fire to ! end ( ! b> ( ice at #cb1 ! molecules ( ! ice _c possibly h _! temp]atures rais$ 9 ! lea/ degree4 ,h[1 !n1 c molecule ,a take on1 "u ! =m ( heat1 ! en]gy receiv$ f ! fire )\t be+ heat$ or hav+ its temp]ature rais$8 ,! ?+ is impossible4 ,! en]gy ( ! fire mu/ appe> 9 ,a "u a diff]5t =m f t ( heat4 ,! same process ( reason+ is equally applicable to ,b4 ,! molecule ,b _c accept ( ! en]gy f ,a "u ! =m ( heat2 x mu/ receive x "u "s o!r =m4 ,! same mu/ hold equally true ( all ! o!r molecules till we rea* ! opposite end ( ! b> ( ice4 ,& yet1 /range to say1 ! la/ molecule transmits 9 ! =m ( heat its en]gy to ! objects beyond2 = we f9d t ! heat appli$ to "o side ( a piece ( ice w affect ! !rmal pile on ! opposite side4 ,! "q is susceptible ( a cle> & def9ite answ]4 ,:5 heat is appli$ to a molecule ( ice at #cb1 ! heat appli$ does n raise ! temp]ature ( ! molecule1 x is consum$ 9 "w aga9/ ! cohesive =ces b9d+ ! atoms or p>ticles toge!r into ! cry/all9e =m4 ,! en]gy !n mu/ exi/ 9 ! dissolv$ cry/all9e molecule1 "u ! /atical =m ( an aff9ity--cry/all9e aff9ity1 or :atev] else we may call x4 ,t is to say1 ! en]gy !n exi/s 9 ! p>ticles z a p[] or t5d5cy to ru% toge!r aga9 into ! cry/all9e =m1 & ! mom5t !y are all[$ to d s !y give out ! en]gy t 0 exp5d$ ^u !m 9 _! sep>ation4 ,?is en]gy1 :5 x is ?us giv5 out aga91 assumes ! dynamical =m ( heat2 9 o!r words1 ! molecule gives out heat 9 ! act ( freez+4 ,! heat ?us giv5 out may be employ$ to melt ! next adjo9+ molecule4 ,! ice-molecules take on en]gy f a heat$ body by melt+4 ,t peculi> =m ( motion or en]gy call$ heat disappe>s 9 =c+ ! p>ticles ( ! cry/all9e molecule sep>ate1 & = ! "t be+ exi/s 9 ! =m ( a t5d5cy 9 ! sep>at$ p>ticles to come toge!r aga9 into ! cry/all9e =m4 ,b x mu/ be obs]v$ t al?\gh ! cry/all9e molecule1 :5 x is act+ z a conductor1 takes on en]gy "u ?is =m f ! heat$ body1 x only exi/s 9 ! molecule "u su* a =m dur+ ! mom5t ( transmission2 t is to say1 ! molecule is melt$1 b only = ! mom5t4 ,:5 ,b accepts ( ! en]gy f ,a1 ! molecule ,a in/antly assumes ! cry/all9e =m4 ,b is n[ melt$2 & :5 ,c accepts ( ! en]gy f ,b1 !n ,b also 9 turn assumes ! solid /ate4 ,?is process goes on f molecule to molecule till ! en]gy is transmitt$ ?r\gh to ! opposite side & ! ice is left 9 its orig9al solid /ate4 ,?is1 z w be %[n 9 ! ,app5dix1 is ! rationale ( ,f>aday's prop]ty ( regelation4 ,?is is no m]e !ory or hypo!sis2 x is a necess>y consequ5ce f kn[n facts4 ,we "k t ice at #cb _c take on en]gy f a heat$ body )\t melt+2 & we "k also equally well t a slab ( ice at #cb1 not)/&+ ?is1 /ill1 z a mass1 reta9s its solid /ate :ile ! heat is be+ transmitt$ ?r\gh x4 ,?is proves t e molecule resumes its cry/all9e =m ! mom5t aft] ! en]gy is transf]r$ to ! adjo9+ molecule4 ,?is po9t be+ e/abli%$1 e difficulty reg>d+ ! desc5t ( ! glaci] entirely disappe>s2 = a molecule ! mom5t t x assumes ! fluid /ate is completely fre$ f %e>+-=ce1 & c desc5d by virtue ( its own weight )\t any imp$im5t4 ,all t ! molecule requires is simply room or space to advance 94 ,if ! molecule 7 9 absolute contact ) ! adjo9+ molecule bel[1 x w\ld n desc5d unless x c\ld pu% t molecule be=e x1 :i* x probably w\ld n be able to d4 ,b ! molecule actually has room 9 :i* to advance2 = 9 pass+ f ! solid to ! liquid /ate its volume is dim9i%$ by ab\t #a_/aj1 & x consequ5tly c desc5d4 ,true1 :5 x aga9 assumes ! solid =m x w rega9 its =m] volume2 b ! "q is1 w x g back to its old position8 ,if we exam9e ! matt] ?or\ghly we %all f9d t x _c4 ,if !re 7 only ?is "o molecule affect$ by ! heat1 ?is molecule w\ld c]ta9ly n desc5d2 b all ! molecules are simil>ly affect$1 al?\gh n all at ! same mom5t ( "t4 ,let u obs]ve :at takes place1 say1 at ! l[] end ( ! glaci]4 ,! molecule ,a at ! l[] end1 say1 ( ! surface1 receives heat f ! sun's rays2 x melts1 & 9 melt+ n only loses its %e>+-=ce & desc5ds by its own weight1 b x contracts also4 ,b imm$iately above x is n[1 s f> z ,a is conc]n$1 at lib]ty to desc5d1 & w d s ! mom5t t x assumes ! liquid /ate4 ,a by ?is "t has become solid1 & aga9 fix$ by %e>+-=ce2 b x is n fix$ 9 its old position1 b a little bel[ :]e x 0 be=e4 ,if ,b has n already pass$ into ! fluid /ate 9 consequ5ce ( heat d]iv$ f ! sun1 ! additional supply :i* x w receive f ! solidify+ ( ,a w melt x4 ,! mom5t t ,b becomes fluid x w desc5d till x rea*es ,a4 ,b !n is solidifi$ a little bel[ its =m] position4 ,! same process ( reason+ is 9 a simil> mann] applicable to e molecule ( ! glaci]4 ,ea* molecule ( ! glaci] consequ5tly desc5ds /ep by /ep z x melts & solidifies1 & h5ce ! glaci]1 consid]$ z a mass1 is 9 a /ate ( con/ant motion d[nw>ds4 ,! fact obs]v$ by ,pr(essor ,tyndall t !re are c]ta9 planes 9 ! ice along :i* melt+ takes place m readily ?an o!rs w p]haps fav\r ! desc5t ( ! glaci]4 ,we h 9 ?is !ory a satisfactory explanation ( ! orig9 ( 8crevasses0 9 glaci]s4 ,take1 = example1 ! transv]se crevasses =m$ at ! po9t :]e an increase 9 ! incl9ation ( ! glaci] takes place4 ,suppose a *ange ( incl9ation f1 say1 #d to #h 9 ! b$ ( ! glaci]4 ,! molecules on ! slope ( #h w desc5d m rapidly ?an ^? above on ! slope ( #d4 ,a /ate ( t5sion w !re=e be induc$ at ! po9t :]e ! *ange ( incl9ation occurs4 ,! ice on ! slope ( #h w t5d to pull aft] x ! mass ( ! glaci] mov+ m sl[ly on ! slope above4 ,! pull be+ cont9u$1 ! glaci] w snap asund] ! mom5t t ! cohesion ( ! ice is ov]come4 ,! great] ! *ange ( incl9ation is1 ! m readily w ! rupture ( ! ice take place4 ,e species ( crevasse c be expla9$ ^u ! same pr9ciple4#cji ,?is !ory expla9s also :y a glaci] moves at a great] rate dur+ summ] ?an dur+ w9t]2 = z ! supply ( heat to ! glaci] is great] dur+ ! =m] season ?an dur+ ! latt]1 ! molecules w pass (t5] into ! liquid /ate4 ,z reg>ds ! d5ud+ p[] ( glaci]s1 ,i may obs]ve t1 ?\gh a glaci] desc5ds molecule by molecule1 x w gr9d ! rocky b$ ov] :i* x moves z effectually z x w\ld d did x slide d[n 9 a rigid mass 9 ! way g5]ally suppos$2 = ! gr9d+-effect is produc$ n by ! ice ( ! glaci]1 b by ! /ones1 s&1 & o!r mat]ials =c$ along "u x4 ,b if all ! resi/ances oppos+ ! desc5t ( a glaci]1 int]nal & ext]nal1 are ov]come by ! m]e weight ( ! ice alone1 x c be prov$ t 9 ! case ( "o desc5d+ ) a giv5 velocity ! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ 9 =c+ ! gr9d+ mat]ials ly+ "u ! ice =w>d mu/ be z great1 suppos+ ! motion ( ! ice to be molecul> 9 ! way ,i h expla9$1 z x w\ld be suppos+ ! ice desc5d$ 9 ! mann] g5]ally suppos$4 ,( c\rse1 a glaci] c\ld n desc5d by means ( its weight z rapidly 9 ! latt] case z 9 ! =m]2 =1 9 fact1 z ,canon ,moseley has %[n1 x w\ld n 9 ! latt] case desc5d at all2 b assum+ = ! sake ( argum5t ! rate ( desc5t 9 bo? cases to be ! same1 ! conclusion ,i h /at$ w\ld foll[4 ,consequ5tly :atev] d5ud+ effects may h be5 attribut$ to ! glaci]1 accord+ to ! ord9>y !ory1 mu/ be equally attributable to x accord+ to ! pres5t explanation4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev]1 expla9s1 :at has always hi!rto excit$ a/oni%m5t1 viz41 :y a glaci] c desc5d a slope almo/ horizontal1 or :y ! ice c move (f ! face ( a cont95t p]fectly level4 ,?is is ! =m 9 :i* my explanation 0 fir/ /at$ ab\t half-a-doz5 ye>s ago4#caj ,!re is1 h[ev] ano!r elem5t :i* mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,x is "o :i* w help to ca/ additional light on "s obscure po9ts connect$ ) glacial ph5om5a4 ,ice is evid5tly n absolutely solid ?r\gh\t4 ,x is compos$ ( cry/all9e p>ticles1 :i*1 ?\gh 9 contact ) "o ano!r1 are1 h[ev]1 n pack$ toge!r s z to occupy ! lea/ possible space1 &1 ev5 ?\gh !y 71 ! p>ticles w\ld n fit s closely toge!r z to exclude int]/ices4 ,! cry/all9e p>ticles are1 h[ev]1 unit$ to "o ano!r at special po9ts det]m9$ by _! pol>ity1 & on ?is acc\nt !y require m space2 & ?is 9 all probability is ! reason1 z ,pr(essor ,tyndall rem>ks1 :y ice1 volume = volume1 is less d5se ?an wat]4 8,!y 7! molecules7 l ! magnets10 says ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 8are act$ ^u by two di/9ct =ces2 = a "t1 :ile ! liquid is be+ cool$1 !y approa* ea* o!r1 9 ob$i5ce to _! g5]al attraction = ea* o!r4 ,b at a c]ta9 po9t new =ces1 "s attractive "s repulsive1 emanat+ f special po9ts ( ! molecules1 come into play4 ,! attract$ po9ts close up1 ! repell$ po9ts retreat4 ,?us ! molecules turn & re>range !mselves1 dem&+ z !y d s m space1 & ov]com+ all ord9>y resi/ance by ! en]gy ( _! dem&4 ,?is1 9 g5]al t]ms1 is an explanation ( ! expansion ( wat] 9 solidify+40#caa ,x w be obvi\s1 !n1 t :5 a cry/all9e molecule melts1 x w n m]ely desc5d 9 ! mann] already describ$1 b capill>y attraction w cause x to fl[ into ! int]/ices betwe5 ! adjo9+ molecules4 ,! mom5t t x p>ts ) ! heat receiv$1 x w ( c\rse resolidify1 z has be5 %[n1 b x w n solidify s z to fit ! cavity :i* x occupi$ :5 9 ! fluid /ate4 ,= ! liquid molecule 9 solidify+ assumes ! cry/all9e =m1 & ( c\rse !re w be a def9ite proportion betwe5 ! l5g?1 bread?1 & ?ickness ( ! cry/al2 consequ5tly x w always happ5 t ! int]/ice 9 :i* x solidifies w be too n>r[ to conta9 x4 ,! result w be t ! fluid molecule 9 pass+ into ! cry/all9e =m w press ! two adjo9+ molecules aside 9 ord] to make suffici5t room = itself betwe5 !m1 & ?is x w d1 no matt] :at am\nt ( space x may possess 9 all o!r directions4 ,! cry/al w n =m to suit ! cavity1 ! cavity mu/ be made to conta9 ! cry/al4 ,& :at holds true ( "o molecule1 holds true ( e molecule :i* melts & resolidifies4 ,?is process is !re=e go+ on incessantly 9 e "p ( ! glaci]1 & 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( heat :i* ! glaci] is receiv+4 ,?is int]nal molecul> pressure1 result+ f ! solidify+ ( ! fluid molecules 9 ! int]/ices ( ! ice1 acts on ! mass ( ! ice z an expansive =ce1 t5d+ to cause ! glaci] to wid5 out lat]ally 9 all directions4 ,conceive a mass ( ice ly+ on a flat horizontal surface1 & receiv+ heat on its upp] surface1 say f ! sun2 z ! heat passes d[nw>ds ?r\gh ! mass1 ! molecules1 act+ z conductors1 melt & resolidify4 ,ea* fluid molecule solidifies 9 an int]/ice1 :i* has to be wid5$ 9 ord] to conta9 x4 ,! pressure ?us ex]t$ by ! cont9ual resolidify+ ( ! molecules w cause ! mass to wid5 out lat]ally1 & ( c\rse z ! mass wid5s out x w gr[ ?9n] & ?9n] if x does n receive fre% acquisition on its surface4 ,9 ! case ( a glaci] ly+ 9 a valley1 motion1 h[ev]1 w only take place 9 "o direction4 ,! sides ( ! valley prev5t ! glaci] f wid5+2 & z gravitation opposes ! motion ( ! ice up1 & fav\rs its motion d[n ! valley1 ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance to molecul> pressure w always be d[n ! slope1 & consequ5tly 9 ?is direction molecul> displacem5t w take place4 ,molecul> pressure w !re=e produce motion 9 ! same direction z t ( gravity4 ,9 o!r words1 x w t5d to cause ! glaci] to desc5d ! valley4 ,! lat]al expansion ( ! ice f int]nal molecul> pressure expla9s 9 a cle> & satisfactory mann] h[ rock-bas9s may be excavat$ by means ( l&-ice4 ,x also removes ! difficulties :i* h be5 felt 9 acc\nt+ = ! asc5t ( ice up a /eep slope4 ,! ma9 difficulty besett+ ! !ory ( ! excavation ( rock-bas9s by ice is to expla9 h[ ! ice aft] ent]+ ! bas9 manages to get out aga9--h[ ! ice at ! bottom is made to asc5d ! slop+ sides ( ! bas94 ,pressure act+ f beh9d1 x has be5 argu$ by "s2 b if ! bas9 be deep & its sides /eep1 ?is w simply cause ! ice ly+ above ! level ( ! bas9 to move =w>d ov] ! surface ( ! mass fill+ x4 ,?is conclusion is1 h[ev]1 incorrect4 ,! ice fill+ ! bas9 & ! glaci] ov]ly+ x are unit$ 9 "o solid mass1 s t ! latt] _c move ov] ! =m] )\t %e>+2 & al?\gh ! resi/ance to motion (f]$ by ! slop+ sides ( ! bas9 may be mu* great] ?an ! resi/ance to %e>1 /ill ! ice w be sl[ly dragg$ out ( ! bas94 ,h[ev]1 9 ord] to obviate ?is objection to :i* ,i ref]1 ! advocates ( ! glacial orig9 ( lake-bas9s po9t out t ! l5g? ( ^? bas9s 9 proportion to _! dep? is s great t ! slope up :i* ! ice has to pass is 9 reality b small4 ,?is no d\bt is true ( lake-bas9s 9 g5]al1 b x does n hold univ]sally true4 ,b ! !ory does n dem& t an ice-=m$ lake-bas9 _c h /eep sides4 ,we h inconte/able evid5ce t ice w pass up a /eep slope2 &1 if ice c pass up a /eep slope1 x c excavate a bas9 ) a /eep slope4 ,t ice w pass up a /eep slope is prov$ by ! fact t comp>atively deep & n>r[ riv] valleys are (t5 f\nd /riat$ across1 :ile hills :i* /ood directly 9 ! pa? ( ! ice ( ! glacial epo* are sometimes f\nd /riat$ upw>ds f _! base to _! summit4 ,"s /rik+ examples ( /ri runn+ up hill are giv5 by ,pr(essor ,geikie 9 8 8,glacial ,drift ( ,scotl&40 ,i h myself se5 a slope /riat$ upw>ds s /eep t "o c\ld n climb x4 ,a v good example ( a riv] valley /riat$ across came "u my obs]vation dur+ ! pa/ summ]4 ,! ,tay1 betwe5 ,c>gill & ,/anley 79 ! c5tre ( ! broad pla9 ( ,/ra?more71 has excavat$1 ?r\gh ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 a *annel betwe5 #bjj & #cjj feet 9 dep?4 ,! *annel "h runs at "r angles to ! pa? tak5 dur+ ! glacial epo* by ! great mass ( ice com+ f ! ,nor?-we/ ,highl&s4 ,at a %ort di/ance bel[ ,c>gill1 ! trap ris+ out ( ! b$ ( ! riv] is beautifully ice-groov$ & /riat$1 at "r angles to ! /ream4 ,a trap-dyke1 sev]al miles 9 l5g?1 crosses ! riv] ab\t a mile above ,/anley1 =m+ a rapid1 kn[n z ! ,l9n ( ,campsie4 ,?is dyke is m\tonne & /riat$ f ne> ! ,l9n up ! slop+ bank to ! level ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry1 %[+ t ! ice mu/ h asc5d$ a gradi5t ( "o 9 sev5 to a height ( #cjj feet4 ,f :at has be5 already /at$ 9 ref]5ce to ! resolidify+ ( ! molecules 9 ! int]/ices ( ! ice1 ! application ( ! molecul> !ory to ! explanation ( ! effects "u consid]ation w no d\bt be app>5t4 ,take ! case ( ! passage ( ! ice-%eet across a riv] valley4 ,z ! upp] surface ( ! ice-%eet is con/antly receiv+ heat f ! sun & ! air 9 contact ) x1 !re is consequ5tly a transf]r5ce ( heat f above d[nw>ds to ! bottom ( ! %eet4 ,?is transf]r5ce ( heat f molecule to molecule is accompani$ by ! melt+ & resolidify+ ( ! successive molecules 9 ! mann] already detail$4 ,z ! fluid molecules t5d to fl[ into adjo9+ int]/ices be=e solidify+ & assum+ ! cry/all9e =m1 ! int]/ices ( ! ice at ! bottom ( ! valley are con/antly be+ fill$ by fluid molecules f above4 ,^! molecules no soon] ent] ! int]/ices ?an !y pass into ! cry/all9e =m1 & become1 ( c\rse1 sep>at$ f _! neighb\rs by fre% int]/ices1 :i* new int]/ices become fill$ by fluid molecules1 :i*1 9 turn1 cry/allize1 =m+ fre% int]/ices1 & s on4 ,! ice at ! bottom ( ! valley1 s long z ?is process cont9ues1 is con/antly receiv+ fre% additions f above4 ,! ice mu/ !re=e exp& lat]ally to make room = ^! additions1 :i* x mu/ d unless ! resi/ance to lat]al expansion be great] ?an ! =ce ex]t$ by ! molecules 9 cry/alliz+4 ,b a resi/ance suffici5t to d ?is mu/ be enorm\s4 ,! ice at ! bottom ( ! valley _c exp& lat]ally )\t pass+ up ! slop+ sides4 ,9 exp&+ x w take ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance1 b ! pa? ( lea/ resi/ance w always be on ! side ( ! valley t[>ds :i* ! g5]al mass ( ! ice above is fl[+4 ,x has be5 %[n 7,*apt] ,,xxvii47 t ! ice pass+ ov] ,/ra?more mu/ h be5 ov] #b1jjj feet 9 ?ickness4 ,an ice-%eet #b1jjj feet 9 ?ickness ex]ts on its b$ a pressure ( upw>ds ( #ea tons p] squ>e foot4 ,:5 we reflect t ice "u s enorm\s a pressure1 ) gr9d+ mat]ials ly+ und]nea?1 0 =c$ by irresi/ible molecul> en]gy up an incl9e ( "o 9 sev51 x is n at all surpris+ t ! h>d trap %\ld be gr\nd d[n & /riat$4 ,we c also und]/& h[ ! s(t] portions ( ! rocky surface ov] :i* ! ice mov$ %\ld h be5 excavat$ into holl[ bas9s4 ,we h also an explanation ( ! transport ( b\ld]s f a l[] to a high] level1 = if ice c move f a l[] to a high] level1 x ( c\rse c c>ry b\ld]s along ) x4 ,! be>+ :i* ! =ego+ consid]ations ( ! mann] 9 :i* heat is transmitt$ ?r\gh ice h on ! "q ( ! cause ( regelation w be consid]$ 9 ! ,app5dix4 ,,app5dix4 ,i4 ,,op9ions ,,express$ ,,previ\s ,,to #ahfd ,,reg>d+ ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,! ,,ecc5tricity ,,( ,,! ,,e>?',s ,,orbit ,,on ,,climate4#cab ,m4 ,,de ,,mairan4 ,m4 de ,mairan1 9 an article 9 ! ,memoirs ( ! ,royal ,academy ( ,france#cac 8,on ! ,g5]al ,cause ( ,heat 9 ,summ] & ,cold 9 ,w9t]1 9 s f> z dep5ds on ! int]nal & p]man5t ,heat ( ! ,e>?10 makes ! foll[+ rem>ks on ! influ5ce ( ! diff]5ce ( di/ance ( ! sun 9 apogee & p]igee3-- 8,cet lm5t e/ con/ant p\r les deux sol/ices2 t&is que les autres 7height ( ! sun & obliquity ( 8 rays7 y v>i5t raison des latitudes locales2 et il y a encore cela de p>ticuli]1 qu'il t5d dim9u] la valeur de notre t1 et augm5t] celle de notre hiv] dans l'hmisphre boral o n\s sommes1 et t\t au contraire dans l'au/ral4 ,rem>quons cep5dant que de ces mmes di/ances1 qui con/itu5t ce troisime lm5t1 nat en p>tie un autre pr9cipe de *aleur t\t oppos1 et qui semble devoir tempr] les effets du prcd5t2 savoir1 la l5teur et la vitesse rciproques du m\vem5t annuel app>5t1 en v]tu duquel et du rel qui s'y mle1 le soleil emploie #h j\rs de plus p>c\rir les signes sept5trionaux4 ,c'e/--dire1 que le soleil passe #ahf j\rs dans notre hmisphre1 et seulem5t #agh dans l'hmisphre oppos4 ,ce qui1 en gnral1 ne peut manqu] de rp&re un p5 plus de *aleur sur l't du premi]1 et un peu mo9s sur son hiv]40 ,,mr4 ,,ri*>d ,,kirwan4 8p9us1#cad reason+ on a/ronomical pr9ciples1 attributes ! inf]ior temp]ature ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e to ! %ort] abode ( ! sun 9 ! s\!rn tropic1 %ort] by sev5 days1 :i* produces a diff]5ce ( f\rte5 days 9 fav\r ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 dur+ :i* m heat is accumulat$1 & h5ce he inf]s t ! temp]ature ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e is to t ( ! s\!rn1 z #ahie to #agee1 or z #ad to #ac40--,trans4 ( ! ,royal ,iri% ,academy1 vol4 viii41 p4 #dag4 #ahjb4 ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell4 8,be=e ! am\nt ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! two hemisph]es 0 asc]ta9$1 x 0 ref]r$ by a/ronom]s to ! accel]ation ( ! e>?'s motion 9 its p]ihelion2 9 consequ5ce ( :i* ! spr+ & summ] ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e are %ort] by ne>ly eight days ?an ^? seasons nor? ( ! equator4 ,a s5sible effect is probably produc$ by ?is s\rce ( di/urbance1 b x is q inadequate to expla9 ! :ole ph5om5a4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ( importance to ! geologi/ to be> 9 m9d t 9 consequ5ce ( ! precession ( ! equ9oxes1 ! two hemisph]es receive alt]nately1 ea* = a p]iod ( upw>ds ( #aj1jjj ye>s1 a great] %>e ( sol> light & heat4 ,?is cause may sometimes t5d to c\nt]balance inequalities result+ f o!r circum/ances ( a f> m influ5tial nature2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ sometimes t5d to increase ! extreme ( deviation1 :i* c]ta9 comb9ations ( causes produce at di/ant epo*s40--,pr9ciples1 ,fir/ ,edition1 #ahcj1 p4 #aaj1 vol4 i4 ,,sir ,,john ,f4 ,,h]s*el1 ,,b>t4 ,! foll[+1 9 s f> z x relates to ! effects ( ecc5tricity1 is a copy ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's memoir1 8,on ! ,a/ronomical ,causes :i* may influ5ce ,geological ,ph5om5a10 read be=e ! ,geological ,society1 ,dec4 #ae?1 #ahcj4--,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iii41 p4 #bic1 ,second ,s]ies3-- 8444 ,let u next consid] ! *anges aris+ 9 ! orbit ( ! e>? itself ab\t ! sun1 f ! di/urb+ action ( ! planets4 ,9 s do+ x w be obvi\sly unnecess>y to consid] ! effect produc$ on ! sol> tides1 to :i* ! above reason+ applies mu* m =cibly ?an 9 ! case ( ! lun>4 ,x is1 !re=e1 only ! v>iations 9 ! supply ( light & heat receiv$ f ! sun t we h n[ to consid]4 8,geomet]s hav+ demon/rat$ ! absolute inv>iability ( ! mean di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun1 x w\ld seem to foll[ t ! mean annual supply ( light & heat d]iv$ f t lum9>y w\ld be alike inv>iable2 b a clos] consid]ation ( ! subject w %[ t ?is w\ld n be a legitimate conclusion1 b t1 on ! contr>y1 ! mean am\nt ( sol> radiation is dep5d5t on ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit1 & !re=e liable to v>iation4 ,)\t go+ at pres5t into any geometrical inve/igations1 x w be suffici5t = ! purpose "h to /ate x z a !orem1 ( :i* any "o may easily satisfy himself by no v ab/ruse geometrical reason+1 t #8! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit v>y+1 ! total quantity ( heat receiv$ by ! e>? f ! sun 9 "o revolution is inv]sely proportional to ! m9or axis ( ! orbit4' ,n[ s9ce ! major axis is1 z above obs]v$1 inv>iable1 & !re=e1 ( c\rse1 ! absolute l5g? ( ! ye>1 x w foll[ t ! mean annual av]age ( heat w also be 9 ! same inv]se ratio ( ! m9or axis2 & ?us we see t ! v circum/ance :i* on a cursory view we %\ld h reg>d$ z demon/rative ( ! con/ancy ( our supply ( sol> heat1 =ms an ess5tial l9k 9 ! *a9 ( /rict reason+ by :i* its v>iability is prov$4 8,! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbits is actually dim9i%+1 & has be5 s = ages1 beyond ! records ( hi/ory4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ! ellipse is 9 a /ate ( approa* to a circle1 & its m9or axis be+1 !re=e1 on ! increase1 ! annual av]age ( sol> radiation is actually on ! decrease4 8,s f> ?is is 9 accordance ) ! te/imony ( geological evid5ce1 :i* indicates a g5]al refrig]ation ( climate2 b :5 we come to consid] ! am\nt ( dim9ution :i* ! ecc5tricity mu/ be suppos$ to h und]gone to r5d] an acc\nt ( ! v>iation :i* has tak5 place1 we h to consid] t1 9 ! fir/ place1 a great dim9ution ( ! ecc5tricity is requir$ to produce any s5sible increase ( ! m9or axis4 ,?is is a purely geometrical conclusion1 & is be/ %[n by ! foll[+ table3-- ,ecc5tricity4 ,m9or ,axis4 ,reciprocal or ,ratio ( ,heat receiv$4 #jjj #ajjj #ajjj #jje #jiii #ajjb #jaj #jiie #ajje #jae #jihi #ajaa #jbj #jihj #ajba #jbe #jifh #ajcb #jcj #jied #ajdh ,by ?is x appe>s t a v>iation ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit f ! circul> =m to t ( an ellipse1 hav+ an ecc5tricity ( "o-f\r? ( ! major axis1 w\ld produce only a v>iation ( #c p] c5t4 on ! mean annual am\nt ( sol> radiation1 & ?is v>iation takes 9 ! :ole range ( ! planet>y ecc5tricities1 f t ( ,pallas & ,juno d[nw>ds4 8,i am n aw>e t ! limit ( increase ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit has ev] be5 det]m9$4 ,t x has a limit has be5 satisfactorily prov$2 b ! celebrat$ !orem ( ,laplace1 :i* is usually cit$ z demon/rat+ t none ( ! planet>y orbits c ev] deviate mat]ially f ! circul> =m1 leads to no su* conclusion1 except 9 ! case ( ! great prepond]ant planets ,jupit] & ,saturn1 :ile = any?+ t !orem proves to ! contr>y1 ! orbit ( ! e>? may become elliptic to any am\nt4 8,9 ! abs5ce ( calculations :i* ?\gh practicable h1 ,i believe1 nev] be5 made1#cae & w\ld be no slight und]tak+1 we may assume t ecc5tricities :i* exi/ 9 ! orbits ( planets1 bo? int]ior & ext]ior to t ( ! e>?1 may possibly h be5 atta9$1 & may be atta9$ aga9 by t ( ! e>? itself4 ,x is cle> t su* ecc5tricities exi/+ !y _c be incompatible ) ! /ability ( ! sy/em g5]ally1 & t1 !re=e1 ! "q ( ! possibility ( su* an am\nt 9 ! p>ticul> case ( ! e>?'s orbit w dep5d on ! p>ticul> data belong+ to t case1 & c only be det]m9$ by execut+ ! calculations allud$ to1 hav+ reg>d to ! simultane\s effects ( at lea/ ! f\r mo/ influ5tial planets1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn1 n only on ! orbit ( ! e>?1 b on ^? ( ea* o!r4 ,! pr9ciples ( ?is calculation are detail$ 9 ! article ( ,laplace's "w cit$4 ,b be=e ent]+ on a "w ( s mu* lab\r1 x is q necess>y to inquire :at prospect ( advantage !re is to induce any "o to und]take x4 8,n[ x c]ta9ly at fir/ sight seems cle> t a v>iation ( #c p] c5t4 only 9 ! mean annual am\nt ( sol> radiation1 & t aris+ f an extreme supposition1 does n hold out su* a prospect4 ,yet x might be argu$ t ! effects ( ! sun's heat is to ma9ta9 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface at its actual mean height1 n above ! z]o ( ,fahr5heit's or any o!r !rmomet]1 b above ! temp]ature ( ! cele/ial spaces1 out ( ! rea* ( ! sun's influ5ce1 & :at t temp]ature is may be a matt] ( mu* discussion4 ,m4 ,f\ri] has consid]$ x z demon/rat$ t x is n greatly inf]ior to t ( ! pol> regions ( our own globe1 b ! gr\nds ( ?is decision appe> to me op5 to consid]able objection4#caf ,if ^? regions be really void ( matt]1 _! temp]ature c only arise1 accord+ to ,m4 ,f\ri]'s own view ( ! subject1 f ! radiation ( ! />s4 ,x ought1 !re=e1 to be z mu* inf]ior to t due to sol> radiation1 z ! light ( a />light night is to t ( ! brighte/ noon day1 9 o!r words x %\ld be v ne>ly a total privation ( heat--almo/ ! absolute z]o respect+ :i* s mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion exi/s1 "s plac+ x at #a1jjj1 "s at #e1jjj ( ,fahr5heit bel[ ! freez+-po9t1 & "s /ill l[]1 9 :i* case a s+le unit p] c5t4 9 ! mean annual am\nt ( radiation w\ld suffice to produce a *ange ( climate fully comm5surate to ! dem&s ( geologi/s4#cag 8,)\t attempt+1 h[ev]1 to ent] fur!r into ! p]plex+ difficulties 9 :i* ?is po9t is involv$1 :i* are f> great] ?an appe> on a cursory view1 let u next consid]1 n ! mean1 b ! extreme effects :i* a v>iation 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit may be expect$ to produce 9 ! summ] & w9t] climates 9 p>ticul> regions ( its surface1 & "u ! influ5ce ( circum/ances fav\r+ a diff]5ce ( effect4 ,& "h1 if ,i mi/ake n1 x w appe> t an am\nt ( v>iation1 :i* we ne$ n hesitate to admit 7at lea/1 provisionally7 z a possible "o1 may be productive ( consid]able div]sity ( climate1 & may op]ate dur+ great p]iods ( "t ei!r to mitigate or to exagg]ate ! diff]5ce ( w9t] & summ] temp]atures1 s z to produce alt]nately1 9 ! same latitude ( ei!r hemisph]e1 a p]petual spr+1 or ! extreme vicissitudes ( a burn+ summ] & a rigor\s w9t]4 8,to %[ ?is1 let u at once take ! extreme case ( an orbit z ecc5tric z t ( ,juno or ,pallas1 9 :i* ! greate/ & lea/ di/ances ( ! sun are to ea* o!r z #e to #c1 & consequ5tly ! radiations at ^? di/ances z #be to #i1 or v ne>ly z #c to #a4 ,to conceive :at w\ld be ! extreme effects ( ?is great v>iation ( ! heat receiv$ at diff]5t p]iods ( ! ye>1 let u fir/ imag9e 9 our latitude ! place ( ! p]igee ( ! sun to co9cide ) ! summ] sol/ice4 ,9 t case1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! summ] & w9t] temp]ature w\ld be exagg]at$ 9 ! same degree z if ?ree suns 7 plac$ side by side 9 ! heav5s 9 ! =m] season & only "o 9 ! latt]1 :i* w\ld produce a climate p]fectly intol]able4 ,on ! o!r h&1 7 ! p]igee situat$ 9 ! w9t] sol/ice our ?ree suns w\ld comb9e to w>m u 9 ! w9t]1 & w\ld af=d su* an excess ( w9t] radiation z w\ld probably m ?an c\nt]act ! effect ( %ort days & oblique sun%9e1 & ?r[ ! summ] season into ! w9t] mon?s4 8,! actual dim9ution ( ! ecc5tricity is s sl[1 t ! transition f a /ate ( ! orbit su* z we h assum$ to ! pres5t ne>ly circul> figure w\ld occupy upw>ds ( #fjj1jjj ye>s1 suppos+ x uni=mly *angeable--?is1 ( c\rse1 w\ld n be ! case2 :5 ne> ! maximum1 h[ev]1 x w\ld v>y sl[] /ill1 s t at t po9t x is evid5t a p]iod ( #aj1jjj ye>s w\ld elapse )\t any p]ceptible *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! data ( ! case we are consid]+4 8,n[ ?is adopt+ ! v +5i\s idea ( ,mr4 ,lyell#cah w\ld suffice1 by reason ( ! comb9$ effect ( ! precession ( ! equ9oxes & ! motion ( ! apsides ( ! orbit itself1 to transf] ! p]igee f ! summ] to ! w9t] sol/ice1 & ?us to produce a transition f ! "o to ! o!r species ( climate 9 a p]iod suffici5tly great to give room = a mat]ial *ange 9 ! botanical "* ( c\ntry4 8,! supposition above made is an extreme1 b x is n demon/rat$ to be an impossible "o1 & %\ld ev5 an approa* to su* a /ate ( ?+s be possible1 ! same consequ5ces1 9 a mitigat$ degree1 w\ld foll[4 ,b if1 on execut+ ! calculations1 x %\ld appe> t ! limits ( ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit are really n>r[1 & if1 on a full discussion ( ! v difficult & delicate po9t ( ! actual effect ( sol> radiation1 x %\ld appe> t ! mean1 z well z ! extreme1 temp]ature ( our climates w\ld n be mat]ially affect$1--x w be at lea/ satisfactory to "k t ! causes ( ! ph5om5a 9 "q are to be s\ght else:]e ?an 9 ! relations ( our planet to ! sy/em to :i* x belongs1 s9ce !re does n appe> to exi/ any o!r conceivable connections betwe5 ^! relations & ! facts ( geology ?an ^? we h enum]at$1 ! obliquity ( ! ecliptic be+1 z we "k1 conf9$ )9 too n>r[ limits = its v>iation to h any s5sible influ5ce40--,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,h]s*el4 ,! influ5ce :i* ?is pap] might h _h on ! "q z to :e!r ecc5tricity may be reg>d$ z a cause ( *anges 9 geological climate appe>s to h be5 completely neutraliz$ by ! foll[+1 :i* appe>$ %ortly aft]w>ds bo? 9 8 8,treatise0 & 8,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy10 %[+ evid5tly t he _h *ang$ 8 m9d on ! subject4 8,x appe>s1 !re=e1 f :at has be5 %[n1 ! supplies ( heat receiv$ f ! sun w be equal 9 ! two segm5ts1 9 :atev] direction ! l9e ,,ptq be drawn4 ,!y w1 inde$1 be describ$ 9 unequal times3 t 9 :i* ! p]ihelion ,a lies 9 a %ort]1 & ! o!r 9 a long]1 9 proportion to _! unequal area2 b ! great] proximity ( ! sun 9 ! small] segm5t comp5sates exactly = its m rapid description1 & ?us an equilibrium ( heat is1 z x 71 ma9ta9$4 8,7 x n = ?is ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit w\ld mat]ially influ5ce ! transition ( seasons4 ,! fluctuation ( di/ance am\nts to ne>ly #a_/cj? ( ! mean quantity1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! fluctuation ( ! sun's direct heat+ p[] to d\ble ?is1 or #a_/ae? ( ! :ole4444 ,7 x n = ! comp5sation we h j describ$1 ! effect w\ld be to exagg]ate ! diff]5ce ( summ] & w9t] 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 & to mod]ate x 9 ! nor!rn2 ?us produc+ a m viol5t alt]nation ( climate 9 ! "o hemisph]e & an approa* to p]petual spr+ 9 ! o!r4 ,z x is1 h[ev]1 no su* inequality subsi/s1 b an equal & imp>tial di/ribution ( heat & light is accord$ to bo?40--8,treatise ( ,a/ronomy10 ,cab9et ,cyclopdia1 #cae2 ,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy1 #cfh4 8,! fact ( a great *ange 9 ! g5]al climate ( l>ge tracts ( ! globe1 if n ( ! :ole e>?1 & ( a dim9ution ( g5]al temp]ature1 hav+ be5 recognis$ by geologi/s1 f _! exam9ation ( ! rema9s ( animals & vegetables ( =m] ages enclos$ 9 ! /rata1 v>i\s causes = su* dim9ution ( temp]ature h be5 assign$4444 ,x is evid5t t ! mean temp]ature ( ! :ole surface ( ! globe1 9 s f> z x is ma9ta9$ by ! action ( ! sun at a high] degree ?an x w\ld h 7 ! sun ext+ui%$1 mu/ dep5d on ! mean quantity ( ! sun's rays :i* x receives1 or1 :i* comes to ! same ?+1 on ! total quantity receiv$ 9 a giv5 inv>iable "t2 & ! l5g? ( ! ye> be+ un*angeable 9 all ! fluctuations ( ! planet>y sy/em1 x foll[s t ! total annual am\nt ( sol> radiation w det]m9e1 ct]is p>ibus1 ! g5]al climate ( ! e>?4 ,n[1 x is n difficult to %[ t ?is am\nt is inv]sely proportional to ! m9or axis ( ! ellipse describ$ by ! e>? ab\t ! sun1 reg>d$ z sl[ly v>iable2 & t1 !re=e1 ! major axis rema9+1 z we "k x to be1 con/ant1 & ! orbit be+ actually 9 a /ate ( approa* to a circle1 & consequ5tly ! m9or axis be+ on ! increase1 ! mean annual am\nt ( sol> radiation receiv$ by ! :ole e>? mu/ be actually on ! decrease4 ,we h "h1 !re=e1 an evid5t real cause ( suffici5t univ]sality1 & act+ 9 ! "r direction1 to acc\nt = ! ph5om5on4 ,its adequacy is ano!r consid]ation40#cai--;,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy1 pp4 #adeadg 7#ahcj74 ,,sir ,,*>les ,,lyell1 ,,b>t4 8,a/ronomical ,causes ( ,fluctuations 9 ,climate4--,sir ,john ,h]s*el has lately inquir$1 :e!r !re are any a/ronomical causes :i* may (f] a possible explanation ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! actual climate ( ! e>?'s surface1 & ^? :i* =m]ly appe> to h prevail$4 ,he has ent]$ ^u ?is subject1 he says1 #8impress$ ) ! magnific5ce ( t view ( geological revolutions1 :i* reg>ds !m r z regul> & necess>y effects ( great & g5]al causes1 ?an z result+ f a s]ies ( convulsions & cata/rophes1 regulat$ by no laws1 & r$ucible to no fix$ pr9ciples4' ,geomet]s1 he adds1 h demon/rat$ ! absolute inv>iability ( ! mean di/ance ( ! e>? f ! sun2 :5ce x w\ld seem to foll[ t ! mean annual supply ( light & heat d]iv$ f t lum9>y w\ld be alike inv>iable2 b a clos] consid]ation ( ! subject w %[ t ?is w\ld n be a legitimate conclusion1 b t1 on ! contr>y1 ! mean am\nt ( sol> radiation is dep5d5t on ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 &1 !re=e1 liable to v>iation4 8,n[1 ! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit1 he cont9ues1 is actually dim9i%+1 & has be5 s = ages beyond ! records ( hi/ory4 ,9 consequ5ce1 ! ellipse is 9 a /ate ( approa* to a circle1 & ! annual av]age ( sol> heat radiat$ to ! e>? is actually on ! decrease4 ,s f>1 ?is is 9 accordance ) geological evid5ce1 :i* indicates a g5]al refrig]ation ( climate2 b ! "q rema9s1 :e!r ! am\nt ( dim9ution :i* ! ecc5tricity may h ev] und]gone c be suppos$ suffici5t to acc\nt = any s5sible refrig]ation4#cbj ,! calculations necess>y to det]m9e ?is po9t1 ?\gh practicable1 h nev] yet be5 made1 & w\ld be extremely labori\s2 = !y mu/ embrace all ! p]turbations :i* ! mo/ influ5tial planets1 ,v5us1 ,m>s1 ,jupit]1 & ,saturn1 w\ld cause 9 ! e>?'s orbit & 9 ea* o!r's movem5ts r\nd ! sun4 8,! problem is also v complicat$1 inasmu* z x dep5ds n m]ely on ! ellipticity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 b on ! assum$ temp]ature ( ! cele/ial spaces beyond ! e>?'s atmosph]e2 a matt] /ill op5 to discussion1 & on :i* ,m4 ,f\ri] & ,sir ,j4 ,h]s*el h arriv$ at v diff]5t op9ions4 ,b if1 says ,h]s*el1 we suppose an extreme case1 z if ! e>?'s orbit %\ld ev] become z ecc5tric z t ( ! planet ,juno or ,pallas1 a great *ange ( climate might be conceiv$ to result1 ! w9t] & summ] temp]atures be+ sometimes mitigat$ & at o!rs exagg]at$1 9 ! same latitudes4 8,x is mu* to be desir$ t ! calculations allud$ to 7 execut$1 z ev5 if !y %\ld demon/rate1 z ,m4 ,arago ?9ks highly probable1 t ! mean ( sol> radiation c nev] be mat]ially affect$ by irregul>ities 9 ! e>?'s motion1 x w\ld /ill be satisfactory to asc]ta9 ! po9t40--,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 ,n9? ,edition1 #ahec1 p4 #abg4 ,m4 ,,arago4 8,c ! v>iations :i* c]ta9 a/ronomical elem5ts und]go s5sibly modify t]re/rial climates8 8,! sun is n always equally di/ant f ! e>?4 ,at ?is "t its lea/ di/ance is obs]v$ 9 ! fir/ days ( ,janu>y1 & ! greate/1 six mon?s aft]1 or 9 ! fir/ days ( ,july4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 a "t w come :5 ! m9imum w occur 9 ,july1 & ! maximum 9 ,janu>y4 ,"h1 !n1 ?is int]e/+ "q pres5ts itself1--,%\ld a summ] su* z ^? we n[ h1 9 :i* ! maximum corresponds to ! sol> di/ance1 diff] s5sibly1 f a summ] ) :i* ! m9imum ( ?is di/ance %\ld co9cide8 8,at fir/ sight e "o probably w\ld answ] 9 ! affirmative2 =1 betwe5 ! maximum & ! m9imum ( ! sun's di/ance f ! e>? !re is a rem>kable diff]5ce1 a diff]5ce 9 r\nd numb]s ( a ?irtie? ( ! :ole4 ,let1 h[ev]1 ! consid]ation ( ! velocities be introduc$ into ! problem1 elem5ts :i* _c fairly be neglect$1 & ! result w be on ! side opposite to t we orig9ally imag9$4 8,! "p ( ! orbit :]e ! sun is f\nd ne>e/ ! e>?1 is1 at ! same "t1 ! po9t :]e ! lum9>y moves mo/ rapidly along4 ,! demi-orbit1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! #ahj compreh5d$ betwixt ! two equ9oxes ( spr+-"t & autumn1 w !n be trav]s$ 9 ! lea/ possible "t1 :51 9 mov+ f ! "o ( ! extremities ( ?is arc to ! o!r1 ! sun %all pass1 ne> ! middle ( ?is c\rse ( six mon?s1 at ! po9t ( ! smalle/ di/ance4 ,to resume--! hypo!sis we h j adopt$ w\ld give1 on acc\nt ( ! less] di/ance1 a spr+-"t & summ] hott] ?an !y are 9 our days2 b on acc\nt ( ! great] rapidity1 ! sum ( ! two seasons w\ld be %ort] by ab\t sev5 days4 ,?us1 !n1 all ?+s consid]$1 ! comp5sation is ma!matically exact4 ,aft] ?is x is sup]flu\s to add1 t ! po9t ( ! sun's orbit correspond+ to ! e>?'s lea/ di/ance *anges v gradually2 & t s9ce ! mo/ di/ant p]iods1 ! lum9>y has always pass$ by ?is po9t1 ei!r at ! end ( autumn or beg9n+ ( w9t]4 8,we h ?us se5 t ! *anges :i* take place 9 ! position ( ! sol> orbit1 h no p[] 9 modify+ ! climate ( our globe4 ,we may n[ inquire1 if x be ! same conc]n+ ! v>iations :i* ?is orbit exp]i5ces 9 its =m4444 8,h]s*el1 :o has rec5tly be5 occupy+ himself ) ?is problem1 9 ! hope ( discov]+ ! explanation ( sev]al geological ph5om5a1 all[s t ! succession ( ages might br+ ! ecc5tricity ( ! t]re/rial orbit to ! proportion ( t ( ! planet ,pallas1 t is to say1 to be ! #be_/ajj ( a semi-great] axis4 ,x is exce$+ly improbable t 9 ^! p]iodical *anges ! ecc5tricity ( our orbit %\ld ev] exp]i5ce su* enorm\s v>iations1 & ev5 !n ^! tw5ty-five hundr$? p>ts 7#be_/ajj71 w\ld n augm5t ! mean annual sol> radiation except by ab\t "o hundr$? "p 7#a_/ajj74 ,to repeat1 an ecc5tricity ( #be_/ajj w\ld n alt] 9 any appreciat$ mann] ! mean !rmometrical /ate ( ! globe4444 8,! *anges ( ! =m1 & ( ! position1 ( ! t]re/rial orbit are ma!matically inop]ative1 or1 at mo/1 _! influ5ce is s m9ute t x is n indicat$ by ! mo/ delicate in/rum5ts4 ,= ! explanation ( ! *anges ( climates1 !n1 !re only rema9s to u ei!r ! local circum/ances1 or "s alt]ation 9 ! heat+ or illum9at+ p[] ( ! sun4 ,b ( ^! two causes1 we may cont9ue to reject ! la/4 ,& ?us1 9 fact1 all ! *anges w\ld come to be attribut$ to agricultural op]ations1 to ! cle>+ ( pla9s & m\nta9s f wood1 ! dra9+ ( morasses1 c4 8,?us1 at "o swoop1 to conf9e1 ! :ole e>?1 ! v>iations ( climates1 pa/ & future1 )9 ! limits ( ! naturally v n>r[ influ5ce :i* ! lab\r ( man c effect1 w\ld be a meteorological result ( ! v la/ importance40--pp4 #bbabbd1 ,memoir on ! 8,!rmometrical ,/ate ( ! ,t]re/rial ,globe10 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,new ,philosophical ,j\rnal1 vol4 xvi41 #ahcd4 ,,b>on ,,humboldt4 8,! "q10 he says1 8has be5 rais$ z to :e!r ! increas+ value ( ?is ellipticity is capable dur+ ?\s&s ( ye>s ( modify+ to any consid]able ext5t ! temp]ature ( ! e>?1 9 ref]5ce to ! daily & annual quantity & di/ribution ( heat8 ,:e!r a p>tial solution ( ! great geological problem ( ! imb$d+ ( tropical vegetable & animal rema9s 9 ! n[ cold zones may n be f\nd 9 ^! a/ronomical causes proce$+ regul>ly 9 accordance ) et]nal laws8444 ,x might at ! fir/ glance be suppos$ t ! occurr5ce ( ! p]ihelion at an opposite "t ( ! ye> 7in/ead ( ! w9t]1 z1 is n[ ! case1 9 summ]7 mu/ necess>ily produce great climatic v>iations2 b1 on ! above supposition1 ! sun w no long] rema9 sev5 days long] 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 no long]1 z is n[ ! case1 trav]se t "p ( ! ecliptic f ! autumnal equ9ox to ! v]nal equ9ox1 9 a space ( "t :i* is "o week %ort] ?an t 9 :i* x trav]ses ! o!r half ( its orbit f ! v]nal to ! autumnal equ9ox4 8,! diff]5ce ( temp]ature :i* is consid]$ z ! consequ5ce to be appreh5d$ f ! turn+ ( ! major axis1 w on ! :ole disappe>1 pr9cipally f ! circum/ance t ! po9t ( our planet's orbit 9 :i* x is ne>e/ to ! sun is at ! same "t always t ov] :i* x passes ) ! greate/ velocity4444 8,z ! alt]$ position ( ! major axis is capable ( ex]t+ only a v slight influ5ce ^u ! temp]ature ( ! e>?2 s likewise ! limit ( ! probable *anges 9 ! elliptical =m ( ! e>?'s orbit are1 accord+ to ,arago & ,poisson1 s n>r[ t ^! *anges c\ld only v slightly modify ! climates ( ! individual zones1 & t 9 v long p]iods40#cba--;,cosmos1 vol4 iv41 pp4 #deh1 #dei4 ,bohn's ,edition4 #aheb4 ,,sir ,,h5ry ,t4 ,,de ,,la ,,be*e4 8,mr4 ,h]s*el1 view+ ?is subject ) ! eye ( an a/ronom]1 consid]s t a dim9ution ( ! surface-temp]ature might arise f a *ange 9 ellipticity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 :i*1 ?\gh sl[ly1 gradually becomes m circul>4 ,no calculations hav+ yet be5 made z to ! probable am\nt ( decreas$ temp]ature f ?is cause1 x c at pres5t be only consid]$ z a possible explanation ( ^? geological ph5om5a :i* po9t to consid]able alt]ations 9 climates40--,geological ,manual4 ,?ird ,edition4 #ahcc4 p4 #h4 ,,pr(essor ,,phillips4 8,temp]ature ( ! ,globe4--,influ5ce ( ! ,sun4--,no proposition is m c]ta9 ?an ! fundam5tal dep5d5ce ( ! temp]ature ( ! surface ( ! globe on ! sol> influ5ce4 8,x is1 !re=e1 v important = geologi/s to inquire :e!r ?is be v>iable or con/ant2 :e!r ! am\nt ( sol> heat communicat$ to ! e>? is & has always be5 ! same 9 e annual p]iod1 or :at latitude ! laws ( planet>y movem5ts p]mit 9 ?is respect4 8,sir ,john ,h]s*el has exam9$ ?is "q 9 a satisfactory mann]1 9 a pap] read to ! ,geological ,society ( ,london4 ,! total am\nt ( sol> radiation :i* det]m9es ! g5]al climate ( ! e>?1 ! ye> be+ ( inv>iable l5g?1 is inv]sely proportional to ! m9or axis ( ! ellipse describ$ by ! e>? ab\t ! sun1 reg>d$ z sl[ly v>iable2 ! major axis rema9+ con/ant & ! orbit be+ actually 9 a /ate ( approa* to a circle1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! m9or axis be+ on ! increase1 x foll[s t ! mean annual am\nt ( sol> radiation receiv$ by ! :ole e>? mu/ be actually on ! decrease4 ,! limits ( ! v>iation 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit are n kn[n4 ,x is1 !re=e1 impossible to say accurately :at may h be5 9 =m] p]iods ( "t1 ! am\nt ( sol> radiation2 x is1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 t if ! ellipticity has ev] be5 s great z t ( ! orbit ( ,m]cury or ,pallas1 ! temp]ature ( ! e>? mu/ h be5 s5sibly high] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,b ! diff]5ce ( a few degrees ( temp]ature ?us occasion$1 is ( too small an ord] to be employ$ 9 expla9+ ! gr[? ( tropical plants & corals 9 ! pol> or temp]ate zones1 & o!r great ph5om5a ( ,geology40--,f ,a ,treatise on ,geology1 p4 #aa1 =m+ ! article "u t head 9 ! sev5? edition ( ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 #ahcg4 ,,mr4 ,,rob]t ,,bakewell4 8,a *ange 9 ! =m ( ! e>?'s orbit1 if consid]able1 might *ange ! temp]ature ( ! e>?1 by br++ x ne>] to ! sun 9 "o "p ( its c\rse4 ,! orbit ( ! e>? is an ellipsis approa*+ ne>ly to a circle2 ! di/ance f ! c5tre ( ! orbit to ei!r focus ( ! ellipsis is call$ by a/ronom]s #8! ecc5tricity ( ! orbit4' ,?is ecc5tricity has be5 = ages sl[ly decreas+1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! orbit ( ! e>? has be5 approa*+ ne>] to ! =m ( a p]fect circle2 aft] a long p]iod x w aga9 increase1 & ! possible ext5t ( ! v>iation has n be5 yet asc]ta9$4 ,f :at is kn[n respect+ ! orbits ( ,jupit] & ,saturn1 x appe>s highly probable t ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit is conf9$ )9 limits t preclude ! belief ( any great *ange 9 ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! globe ev] hav+ be5 occasion$ by ?is cause40--,introduction to ,geology1 p4 #fjj4 #ahch4 ,fif? ,edition4 ,,mrs4 ,,som]ville4 8,sir ,john ,h]s*el has %[n t ! elliptical =m ( ! e>?'s orbit has b a trifl+ %>e 9 produc+ ! v>iation ( temp]ature correspond+ to ! diff]5ce ( ! seasons40--,physical ,geography1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bj4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,,mr4 ,l4 ,w4 ,,mee*1 ,a4,m4 8,let u1 !n1 look back to t primeval epo* :5 ! e>? 0 9 aphelion at midsumm]1 & ! ecc5tricity at its maximum value--assign$ by ,lev]ri] ne> to #jggg4 ,)\t ent]+ into elaborate computation1 x is easy to see t ! extreme values ( diurnal int5sity1 9 ,section ,,iv41 w\ld be alt]$ z by ! multipli] 77#a e7_/7#a e77#b1 t is #a - #jaa 9 summ]1 & #a #jaa 9 w9t]4 ,?is w\ld dim9i% ! midsumm] int5sity by ab\t #i1 & increase ! midw9t] int5sity by #c or #d2 ! temp]ature ( spr+ & autumn be+ ne>ly un*ang$4 ,b ?is does n appe> to be ( itself adequate to ! geological effects 9 "q4 8,x is n our purpose1 "h1 to ent] into ! inquiry :e!r ! atmosph]e 0 once m d5se ?an n[1 :e!r ! e>?'s axis _h once a diff]5t incl9ation to ! orbit1 or ! sun a great] emissive p[] ( heat & light4 ,nei!r %all we attempt to speculate ^u ! primitive heat ( ! e>?1 nor ( planet>y space1 nor ( ! suppos$ connection ( t]re/rial heat & magnetism2 nor inquire h[ f> ! exi/5ce ( coal-fields 9 ?is latitude1 ( fossils1 & o!r geological rema9s1 h dep5d$ ^u exi/+ causes4 ,! prec$+ discussion seems to prove simply t1 "u ! pres5t sy/em ( physical a/ronomy1 ! sun's int5sity c\ld nev] h be5 mat]ially diff]5t f :at is manife/$ ^u ! e>? at ! pres5t day4 ,! causes ( notable geological *anges mu/ be o!r ?an ! relative position ( ! sun & e>?1 "u _! pres5t laws ( motion40--8,on ! ,relative ,int5sity ( ! ,heat & ,light ( ! ,sun40 ,smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k1 vol4 ix4 ,m4 ,,jean ,,reynaud4 8,la rvolution qui p\rrait y caus] les plus gr&s *angem5ts !rmomtriques1 celle qui porte l'orbite s'l>gir et se rtrcir alt]nativem5t et1 p> suite1 la plante pass]1 aux poques de prihlie1 plus ou mo9s prs du soleil1 embrasse une priode de plus de c5t mille annes t]re/res et demeure comprise dans de si troites limites que les habitants doiv5t tre pe9e av]tis que la *aleur dcrot1 p> cette raison1 depuis une haute antiquit et dcrotra encore p5dant des sicles en v>iant en mme temps dans sa rp>tition selon les div]ses poques de l'anne4444 ,enf91 le t\rnoiem5t de l'axe du globe s'empre9t galem5t d'une manire p>ticulire sur l'tablissem5t des saisons qui1 t\r de rle1 dans *acun des deux hmisphres1 devi5n5t graduellem5t1 durant une priode d'environ v+t-c9q mille ans1 de plus en plus uni=mes1 ou1 l'inv]se1 de plus en plus dissemblables4 ,c'e/ actuellem5t dans l'hmisphre boral que rgne l'uni=mit1 et quoique les ts et les hiv]s y t5d5t1 ds prs5t1 se tran*] de plus en plus1 il ne p>at pas d\teux que la modration des saisons n'y produise1 p5dant longtemps encore1 des effets apprciables4 ,en rsum1 de t\s ces *angem5ts il n'en e/ donc aucun ni qui suive un c\rs prcipit1 ni qui s'lve jamais des valeurs considrables2 ils se rgl5t t\s sur un mode de dveloppem5t presque ins5sible1 et il s'ensuit que les annes de la t]re1 malgr leur complexit virtuelle1 se di/+u5t p> le con/ance de leurs c>actres non-seulem5t de ce qui peut avoir lieu1 en v]tu des mmes pr9cipes1 dans les autres sy/mes plantaires de l'univ]s1 mais mme de ce qui s'obs]ve dans plusieurs des mondes qui compos5t le ntre40--,philosophie ,religieuse3 ,t]re et ,ciel4 ,m4 ,,adh,,m>4 ,adhm> does n consid] ! effects :i* ought to result f a *ange 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit2 he only conc]ns himself ) ^? :i*1 9 8 op9ion1 arise f ! pres5t am\nt ( su* ecc5tricity4 ,he admits1 ( c\rse1 t bo? hemisph]es receive f ! sun equal quantities ( heat p] annum2 b1 z ! s\!rn hemisph]e has a w9t] long] by #afh h\rs ?an ! correspond+ season 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 an accumulation ( heat necess>ily takes place 9 ! latt]1 & an accumulation ( cold 9 ! =m]4 ,adhm> also measures ! loss ( heat su/a9$ by ! s\!rn hemisph]e 9 a ye> by ! numb] ( h\rs by :i* ! s\!rn exce$s ! nor!rn w9t]4 8,! s\? pole10 he says1 8loses 9 "o ye> m heat ?an x receives1 because ! total duration ( its nights surpasses t ( ! days by #afh h\rs2 & ! contr>y takes place = ! nor? pole4 ,if1 = example1 we take = unity ! mean quantity ( heat :i* ! sun s5ds (f 9 "o h\r1 ! heat accumulat$ at ! end ( ! ye> at ! nor? pole w be express$ by #afh1 :ile ! heat lo/ by ! s\? pole w be equal to #afh times :at ! radiation less5s x by 9 "o h\r2 s t at ! end ( ! ye> ! diff]5ce 9 ! heat ( ! two hemisph]es w be repres5t$ by #ccf times :at ! e>? receives f ! sun or loses 9 an h\r by radiation10#cbb & at ! end ( #ajj ye>s ! diff]5ce w be #cc1fjj times1 & at ! end ( #a1jjj ye>s #ccf1jjj times1 or equal to :at ! e>? receives f ! sun 9 #ch ye>s1 & s on dur+ ! #aj1jjj ye>s t ! s\!rn w9t] exce$s 9 l5g? ! nor!rn4 ,?is1 9 8 op9ion1 is all t is requir$ to melt ! ice (f ! arctic regions1 & cov] ! ant>ctic regions ) an enorm\s ice-cap4 ,he fur!r supposes t 9 ab\t #aj1jjj ye>s1 :5 our nor!rn w9t] w occur 9 aphelion & ! s\!rn 9 p]ihelion1 ! climatic conditions ( ! two hemisph]es w be rev]s$2 t is to say1 ! ice w melt at ! s\? pole1 & ! nor!rn hemisph]e w become envelop$ 9 "o cont9u\s mass ( ice1 leagues 9 ?ickness1 ext5d+ d[n to temp]ate regions4 ,?is !ory1 z %[n 9 ,*apt] ,v41 is bas$ ^u a misconception reg>d+ ! laws ( radiant heat4 ,! loss ( heat su/a9$ by ! s\!rn hemisph]e f radiation1 result+ f ! great] l5g? ( ! s\!rn w9t]1 is va/ly ov]-e/imat$ by ,m4 ,adhm>1 & c\ld n possibly produce ! effects :i* he supposes4 ,b ,i ne$ n ent] into ?is subject "h1 z ! read] w f9d ! :ole "q discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! *apt] above ref]r$ to4 ,by f> ! mo/ important "p ( ,adhem>'s !ory1 h[ev]1 is 8 conception ( ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& by means ( a pol> ice-cap4 ,he appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ to put =? ! idea t a mass ( ice plac$ on ! globe1 say1 = example1 at ! s\? pole1 w %ift ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity a little to ! s\? ( its =m] position1 & ?us1 z a physical consequ5ce1 cause ! sea to s9k at ! nor? pole & to rise at ! s\?4 ,accord+ to ,adhm>1 z ! "o hemisph]e cools & ! o!r gr[s w>m]1 ! ice at ! pole ( ! =m] w increase 9 ?ickness & t at ! pole ( ! latt] dim9i%4 ,! sea1 z a consequ5ce1 w s9k on ! w>m hemisph]e :]e ! ice is decreas+ & rise on ! cold hemisph]e :]e ! ice is increas+4 ,&1 aga91 9 #aj1jjj ye>s1 :5 ! climatic conditions ( ! two hemisph]es are rev]s$1 ! sea w s9k on ! hemisph]e :]e x =m]ly rose1 & rise on ! hemisph]e :]e x =m]ly sank1 & s on 9 l mann] ?r\gh indef9ite ages4 ,adhm>1 h[ev]1 ackn[l$ges to h d]iv$ ! gr& conception ( a subm]g5ce ( ! l& f ! %ift+ ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity f ! foll[+ wild speculation ( "o ,b]tr&1 ( ,hamburgh3-- 8,b]tr& de ,hamb\rg1 dans un ouvrage imprim en #agii et qui a p\r titre3 ,r5\vellem5t priodique des ,cont95ts1 avait dj mis cette ide1 que la masse des eaux p\vait tre alt]nativem5t entrane d'un hmisphre l'autre p> le dplacem5t du c5tre de gravit du globe4 ,or1 p\r expliqu] ce dplacem5t1 il supposait que la t]re tait creuse et qu'il y avait dans son intrieur un gros noyau d'aimant auquel les comtes p> leur attraction communiquai5t un m\vem5t de va-et-vi5t analogue celui du p5dule40--,rvolutions de la ,m]1 p4 #da4 ,! some:at extravagant notions :i* ,adhm> has advanc$ 9 connection ) 8 !ory ( subm]g5ce h v mu* ret>d$ its acceptance4 ,among/ o!r rem>kable views he supposes ! pol> ice-cap to re/ on ! bottom ( ! ocean1 & to rise out ( ! wat] to ! enorm\s height ( tw5ty leagues4 ,aga91 he holds t on ! w9t] approa*+ p]ihelion & ! hemisph]e becom+ w>m ! ice waxes s(t & rott5 f ! accumulat$ heat1 & ! sea n[ beg9n+ to eat into ! base ( ! cap1 ?is is s und]m9$ z1 at la/1 to be left /&+ ^u a k9d ( gigantic p$e/al4 ,?is dis9tegrat+ process goes on till ! fatal mom5t at l5g? arrives1 :5 ! :ole mass tumbles d[n into ! sea 9 huge fragm5ts :i* become float+ iceb]gs4 ,! attraction ( ! opposite ice-cap1 :i* has by ?is "t ne>ly rea*$ its maximum ?ickness1 becomes n[ pr$om9ant4 ,! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity sudd5ly crosses ! pla9 ( ! equator1 dragg+ ! ocean along ) x1 & c>ry+ dea? & de/ruction to ev]y?+ on ! surface ( ! globe4 ,& ^! cata/rophes1 he ass]ts1 occur alt]nately on ! two hemisph]es e #aj1jjj ye>s4--,rvolutions de la ,m]1 pp4 #cafcbh4 ,adhm>'s !ory has be5 advocat$ by ,m4 ,le ,hon1 ( ,brussels1 9 a "w entitl$ ,priodicit des ,gr&s ,dluges4 ,bruxelles et ,leipzig1 #aheh4 ,,ii4 ,,on ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,heat-,,vibrations4#cbc ,f ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,may1 #ahfd4 ,9 a mo/ int]e/+ pap] on 8,radiant ,heat10 by ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 read be=e ! ,royal ,society 9 ,m>* la/1 x is %[n conclusively t ! p]iod ( heat-vibrations is n affect$ by ! /ate ( aggregation ( ! molecules ( ! heat$ body2 t is to say1 :e!r ! sub/ance be 9 ! gase\s1 ! liquid1 or1 p]haps1 ! solid condition1 ! t5d5cy ( its molecules to vibrate accord+ to a giv5 p]iod rema9s un*ang$4 ,! =ce ( cohesion b9d+ ! molecules toge!r ex]cises no effect on ! rapidity ( vibration4 ,i _h arriv$ at ! same conclusion f !oretical consid]ations sev]al ye>s ago1 & _h also d$uc$ "s fur!r conclusions reg>d+ ! nature ( heat-vibrations1 :i* seem to be 9 a measure confirm$ by ! exp]im5tal results ( ,pr(essor ,tyndall4 ,"o ( ^! conclusions 01 t ! heat-vibration does n consi/ 9 a motion ( an aggregate mass ( molecules1 b 9 a motion ( ! individual molecules !mselves4 ,ea* molecule1 or r we %\ld say ea* atom1 acts z if !re 7 no o!r 9 exi/5ce b itself4 ,:e!r ! atom /&s by itself z 9 ! gase\s /ate1 or is b\nd to o!r atoms z 9 ! liquid or ! solid /ate1 x behaves 9 exactly ! same mann]4 ,! deep] "q !n sugge/$ itself1 viz41 :at is ! nature ( t my/]i\s motion call$ heat assum$ by ! atom8 ,does x consi/ 9 excursions across c5tres ( equilibrium ext]nal to ! atom itself8 ,x is ! g5]ally receiv$ op9ion among physici/s t x does4 ,b ,i ?9k t ! exp]im5tal results arriv$ at by ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 z well z "s o!rs :i* w pres5tly be notic$1 are entirely ho/ile to su* an op9ion4 ,! relation ( an atom to its c5tre ( equilibrium dep5ds entirely on ! /ate ( aggregation4 ,n[ if heat-vibrations consi/ 9 excursions to & fro across ^! c5tres1 !n ! p]iod ought to be affect$ by ! /ate ( aggregation4 ,! high] ! t5sion ( ! atom 9 reg>d to ! c5tre1 ! m rapid ought its movem5t to be4 ,?is is ! case 9 reg>d to ! vibrations con/itut+ s\nd4 ,! h>d] a body becomes1 or1 9 o!r words1 ! m firmly its molecules are b\nd toge!r1 ! high] is ! pit*4 ,two h>p-cords /ruck ) equal =ce w vibrate ) equal =ce1 h[ev] mu* !y may diff] 9 ! rapidity ( _! vibrations4 ,! vis viva ( vibration dep5ds ^u ! =ce ( ! /roke2 b ! rapidity dep5ds1 n on ! /roke1 b ^u ! t5sion ( ! cord4 ,t heat-vibrations d n consi/ 9 excursions ( ! molecules or atoms across c5tres ( equilibrium1 foll[s also z a necess>y consequ5ce f ! fact t ! real specific heat ( a body rema9s un*ang$ "u all conditions4 ,all *anges 9 ! specific heat ( a body are due to diff]5ces 9 ! am\nt ( heat consum$ 9 molecul> "w aga9/ cohesion or o!r =ces b9d+ ! molecules toge!r4 ,or1 9 o!r words1 to produce 9 a body no o!r effect ?an a giv5 rise ( temp]ature1 requires ! same am\nt ( =ce1 :atev] may be ! physical condition ( ! body4 ,:e!r ! body be 9 ! solid1 ! fluid1 or ! gase\s condition1 ! same rise ( temp]ature always indicates ! same quantity ( =ce consum$ 9 ! simple production ( ! rise4 ,n[1 if heat-vibrations consi/ 9 excursions ( ! atom to & fro across a c5tre ( equilibrium ext]nal to itself1 z is g5]ally suppos$1 !n ! real specific heat ( a solid body1 = example1 ought to decrease ) ! h>dness ( ! body1 because an increase 9 ! /r5g? ( ! =ce b9d+ ! molecules toge!r w\ld 9 su* a case t5d to fav\r ! rise 9 ! rapidity ( ! vibrations4 ,^! conclusions n only af=d u an insight into ! hidd5 nature ( heat-vibrations1 b !y also appe> to ca/ "s light on ! physical con/itution ( ! atom itself4 ,!y seem to lead to ! conclusion t ! ultimate atom itself is ess5tially ela/ic4#cbd ,= if heat-vibrations d n consi/ 9 excursions ( ! atom1 !n x mu/ consi/ 9 alt]nate expansions & contractions ( ! atom itself4 ,?is aga9 is oppos$ to ! ord9>y idea t ! atom is ess5tially solid & imp5etrable4 ,b x fav\rs ! mod]n idea1 t matt] consi/s ( =ces ( resi/ance act+ f a c5tre4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall 9 a memoir read be=e ! ,royal ,society 8,on a new ,s]ies ( ,*emical ,reactions produc$ by ,light10 has subsequ5tly arriv$ at a simil> conclusion 9 ref]5ce to ! atomic nature ( heat-vibrations4 ,! foll[+ are 8 views on ! subject3-- 8,a "q ( extreme importance 9 molecul> physics "h arises3--,:at is ! real me*anism ( ?is absorption1 & :]e is its seat8 8,i figure1 z o!rs d1 a molecule z a gr\p ( atoms1 held toge!r by _! mutual =ces1 b /ill capable ( motion among !mselves4 ,! vap\r ( ! nitrite ( amyl is to be reg>d$ z an assemblage ( su* molecules4 ,! "q n[ be=e u is ?is3--,9 ! act ( absorption1 is x ! molecules t are effective1 or is x _! con/itu5t atoms8 ,is ! vis viva ( ! int]cept$ waves transf]r$ to ! molecule z a :ole1 or to its con/itu5t p>ts8 8,! molecule1 z a :ole1 c only vibrate 9 virtue ( ! =ces ex]t$ betwe5 x & its neighb\r molecules4 ,! int5sity ( ^! =ces1 & consequ5tly ! rate ( vibration1 w\ld1 9 ?is case1 be a function ( ! di/ance betwe5 ! molecules4 ,n[ ! id5tical absorption ( ! liquid & ( ! vapor\s nitrite ( amyl indicates an id5tical vibrat+ p]iod on ! "p ( liquid & vap\r1 & ?is1 to my m9d1 am\nts to an exp]im5tal demon/ration t ! absorption occurs 9 ! ma9 )9 ! molecule4 ,= x c h>dly be suppos$1 if ! absorption 7 ! act ( ! molecule z a :ole1 t x c\ld cont9ue to affect waves ( ! same p]iod aft] ! sub/ance _h pass$ f ! vapor\s to ! liquid /ate40--,proc4 ( ,roy4 ,soc41 ,no4 #aje4 #ahfh4 ,pr(essor ,w4 ,a4 ,norton1 9 8 memoir on 8,molecul> ,physics10#cbe has also arriv$ at results some:at simil> 9 ref]5ce to ! nature ( heat-vibrations4 8,x w be se510 he says1 8t ^! 7,mr4 ,croll's7 ideas are 9 accordance ) ! conception ( ! con/itution ( a molecule adopt$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t memoir 7p4 #aic71 & ) ! !ory ( heat-vibrations or heat-pulses d$uc$ !refrom 7p4 #aif740cbf ,,iii4 ,,on ,,! ,,reason ,,:y ,,! ,,diff]5ce ,,( ,,read+ ,,betwe5 ,a ,,!rmomet] ,,expos$ ,,to ,,direct ,,sun%9e ,,& ,,"o ,,%ad$ ,,dim9i%es ,,z ,,we ,,asc5d ,,9 ,,! ,,atmosph]e4#cbg ,f ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,m>*1 #ahfg4 ,! rem>kable fact 0 obs]v$ by ,mr4 ,glai%]1 t ! diff]5ce ( read+ betwe5 a black-bulb !rmomet] expos$ to ! direct rays ( ! sun & "o %ad$ dim9i%es z we asc5d 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,on view+ ! matt] "u ! light ( ,pr(essor ,tyndall's important discov]y reg>d+ ! influ5ce ( aque\s vap\r on radiant heat1 ! fact /at$ by ,mr4 ,glai%] appe>s to be 9 p]fect h>mony ) !ory4 ,! foll[+ consid]ations w p]haps make ?is pla94 ,! %ad$ !rmomet] m>ks ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ air2 b ! expos$ !rmomet] m>ks n ! temp]ature ( ! air1 b t ( ! bulb heat$ by ! direct rays ( ! sun4 ,! temp]ature ( ! bulb dep5ds ^u two elem5ts3 7#a7 ! rate at :i* x receives heat by direct radiation f ! sun above1 ! e>? b5ea?1 & all surr\nd+ objects1 & by contact ) ! air2 7#b7 ! rate at :i* x loses heat by radiation & by contact ) ! air4 ,z reg>ds ! heat ga9$ & lo/ by contact ) ! surr\nd+ air1 bo? !rmomet]s are "u ! same conditions1 or ne>ly s4 ,we !re=e require only to consid] ! elem5t ( radiation4 ,we beg9 by comp>+ ! two !rmomet]s at ! e>?'s surface1 & we f9d t !y diff] by a v consid]able numb] ( degrees4 ,we n[ asc5d "s miles into ! air1 & on aga9 comp>+ ! !rmomet]s we f9d t ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m has greatly dim9i%$4 ,x has be5 (t5 prov$1 by direct obs]vation1 t ! int5sity ( ! sun's rays increases z we rise 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,h[ !n does ! expos$ !rmomet] s9k m rapidly ?an ! %ad$ "o z we asc5d8 ,! reason is obvi\sly ?is4 ,! temp]ature ( ! !rmomet]s dep5ds z mu* ^u ! rate at :i* !y are los+ _! heat z ^u ! rate at :i* !y are ga9+ x4 ,! high] temp]ature ( ! expos$ !rmomet] is ! result ( direct radiation f ! sun4 ,n[1 al?\gh ?is !rmomet] receives by radiation m heat f ! sun at ! upp] position ?an at ! l[]1 x does n necess>ily foll[ on ?is acc\nt t its temp]ature ought to be high]4 ,suppose t at ! upp] position x %\ld receive "o-f\r? m heat f ! sun ?an at ! l[]1 yet if ! rate at :i* x loses its heat by radiation into space be1 say1 "o-?ird great] at ! upp] position ?an at ! l[]1 ! temp]ature ( ! bulb w\ld s9k to a consid]able ext5t1 not)/&+ ! extra am\nt ( heat receiv$4 ,let u n[ reflect on h[ matt]s /& 9 ?is respect 9 reg>d to ! actual case "u our consid]ation4 ,:5 ! expos$ !rmomet] is at ! high] position1 x receives m heat f ! sun ?an at ! l[]1 b x receives less f ! e>?2 = a consid]able "p ( ! radiation f ! e>? is cut (f by ! scre5 ( aque\s vap\r int]v5+ betwe5 ! !rmomet] & ! e>?4 ,b1 on ! :ole1 x is probable t ! total quantity ( radiant heat rea*+ ! !rmomet] is great] 9 ! high] position ?an 9 ! l[]4 ,comp>e n[ ! two positions 9 reg>d to ! rate at :i* ! !rmomet] loses its heat by radiation4 ,:5 ! !rmomet] is at ! l[] position1 x has ! w>m surface ( ! gr\nd aga9/ :i* to radiate its heat d[nw>ds4 ,! high temp]ature ( ! gr\nd ?us t5ds to dim9i% ! rate ( radiation4 ,above1 !re is a scre5 ( aque\s vap\r ?r[+ back ^u ! !rmomet] a v consid]able "p ( ! heat :i* ! in/rum5t is radiat+ upw>ds4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 t5ds greatly to dim9i% ! loss f radiation4 ,b at ! upp] position ?is v scre51 :i* prev5t$ ! !rmomet] f ?r[+ (f its heat into ! cold space above1 n[ affects ! in/rum5t 9 an opposite mann]2 = ! !rmomet] has n[ to radiate its heat d[nw>ds1 n ^u ! w>m surface ( ! gr\nd z be=e1 b ^u ! cold upp] surface ( ! aque\s scre5 int]v5+ betwe5 ! in/rum5t & ! e>?4 ,?is ( c\rse t5ds to l[] ! m]cury4 ,we are n[ 9 a great measure above ! aque\s scre51 ) no?+ to protect ! !rmomet] f ! influ5ce ( cold /ell> space4 ,x is true t ! air above is at a temp]ature little bel[ t ( ! !rmomet] itself2 b !n ! air is dry1 &1 ow+ to its dia!rmancy1 x does n absorb ! heat radiat$ f ! !rmomet]1 & consequ5tly ! in/rum5t radiates its heat directly into ! cold /ell> space above1 "s hundr$s ( degrees bel[ z]o1 almo/ ! same z x w\ld d 7 ! air entirely remov$4 ,! enorm\s loss ( heat :i* ! !rmomet] n[ su/a9s causes x to fall 9 temp]ature to a great ext5t4 ,! molecules ( ! comp>atively dry air at ?is elevation1 be+ v bad radiators1 d n ?r[ (f _! heat into space s rapidly z ! bulb ( ! expos$ !rmomet]2 consequ5tly _! temp]ature does n 7= ?is reason7 t5d to s9k s rapidly z t ( ! bulb4 ,h5ce ! %ad$ !rmomet]1 :i* indicates ! temp]ature ( ^? molecules1 is n affect$ to su* an ext5t z ! expos$ "o4 ,h5ce also ! diff]5ce ( read+ betwe5 ! two in/rum5ts mu/ dim9i% z we rise 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]ature ( ! two !rmomet]s evid5tly does n g on dim9i%+ to an indef9ite ext5t4 ,7 we able to cont9ue our asc5t 9 ! atmosph]e1 we %\ld c]ta9ly f9d t a po9t w\ld be rea*$ beyond :i* ! diff]5ce ( read+ w\ld beg9 to increase1 & w\ld cont9ue to d s till ! out] limits ( ! atmosph]e 7 rea*$4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! temp]atures ( ! two !rmomet]s beyond ! limits ( ! atmosph]e w\ld c]ta9ly be enorm\s4 ,! !rmomet] expos$ to ! direct rays ( ! sun w\ld no d\bt be mu* cold] ?an x _h be5 :5 at ! e>?'s surface2 b ! %ad$ !rmomet] w\ld n[ indicate ! temp]ature ( space1 :i*1 accord+ to ,sir ,john ,h]s*el & ,m4 ,p\illet1 is m ?an #bjj ,fahr5heit bel[ z]o4 ,x foll[s also1 f :at has be5 /at$1 t ev5 "u direct sun%9e ! removal ( ! e>?'s atmosph]e w\ld t5d to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface to a great ext5t4 ,?is conclusion also foll[s z an imm$iate inf]5ce f ! fact t ! e>?'s atmosph]e1 z x exi/s at pres5t *>g$ ) aque\s vap\r1 affects t]re/rial radiation m ?an x does radiation f ! sun2 = ! removal ( ! atmosph]e w\ld increase ! rate at :i* ! e>? ?r[s (f its heat into space m ?an x w\ld increase ! rate at :i* x receives heat f ! sun2 !re=e its temp]ature w\ld necess>ily fall until ! rate ( radiation f ! e>?'s surface exactly equall$ ! rate ( radiation to ! surface4 ,let ! atmosph]e aga9 envelope ! e>?1 & t]re/rial radiation w\ld in/antly be dim9i%$2 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface w\ld !re=e necess>ily beg9 to rise1 & w\ld cont9ue to d s till ! rate ( radiation f ! surface w\ld equal ! rate ( radiation receiv$ by ! surface4 ,equilibrium be+ ?us re/or$1 ! temp]ature w\ld rema9 /ation>y4 ,x is p]fectly obvi\s t if we envelope ! e>? ) a sub/ance su* z our atmosph]e1 t (f]s m resi/ance to t]re/rial radiation ?an to sol>1 ! temp]ature ( ! e>?'s surface mu/ necess>ily rise until ! heat :i* is be+ radiat$ (f equals t :i* is be+ receiv$ f ! sun4 ,remove ! air & ?us get quit ( ! resi/ance1 & ! temp]ature ( ! surface w\ld fall1 because 9 ?is case a l[] temp]ature w\ld ma9ta9 equilibrium4 ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ! moon1 :i* has no atmosph]e1 mu/ be mu* cold] ?an our e>?1 ev5 on ! side expos$ to ! sun4 ,7 our e>? ) its atmosph]e z x exi/s at pres5t remov$ to ! orbit ( ,v5us or ,m>s1 = example1 x c]ta9ly w\ld n be habitable1 ow+ to ! great *ange ( temp]ature t w\ld result4 ,b a *ange 9 ! physical con/itution ( ! atmosph]ic envelope is really all t w\ld be necess>y to reta9 ! e>?'s surface at its pres5t temp]ature 9 ei!r position4 ,,iv4 ,,rem>ks ,,on ,,mr4 ,j4 ,y4 ,,bu*anan',s ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,v]tical ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,temp]ature ,,( ,,! ,,ocean4#cbh ,s9ce ! =ego+ 0 9 type1 a pap] on ! 8,v]tical ,di/ribution ( ,temp]ature ( ! ,ocean10 by ,mr4 ,j4 ,y4 ,bu*anan1 *emi/ on bo>d ! ,*all5g]1 has be5 read be=e ! ,royal ,society4#cbi ,9 t pap] ,mr4 ,bu*anan endeav\rs to acc\nt = ! great dep? ( w>m wat] 9 ! middle ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic comp>$ ) t at ! equator1 )\t ref]r+ x to horizontal circulation ( any k9d4 ,! foll[+ is ! !ory z /at$ by ,mr4 ,bu*anan3-- 8,let u assume ! w9t] temp]ature ( ! surface-wat] to be #fj ,f4 & ! summ] temp]ature to be #gj ,f4 ,if we />t f midw9t]1 we f9d t1 z summ] approa*es1 ! surface-wat] mu/ get gradually w>m]1 & t ! temp]ature ( ! lay]s bel[ ! surface mu/ decrease at a v rapid rate1 until ! /ratum ( w9t] temp]ature1 or #fj ,f41 is rea*$2 9 ! language ( ! iso!rmal *>ts1 ! iso!rmal l9e = degrees betwe5 #gj ,f4 7if we suppose t we h arriv$ at midsumm]7 & #fj ,f4 op5 out or increase _! di/ance f ea* o!r z ! dep? increases4 ,let u n[ consid] ! conditions aft] ! summ] heat has begun to wav]4 ,dur+ ! :ole p]iod ( heat+1 ! wat]1 f its increas+ temp]ature1 has be5 always becom+ light]1 s t heat communication by convection ) ! wat] bel[ has be5 entirely susp5d$ dur+ ! :ole p]iod4 ,! heat+ ( ! surface-wat] has1 h[ev]1 _h ano!r effect1 besides increas+ its volume2 x has1 by evaporation1 r5d]$ x d5s] ?an x 0 be=e1 at ! same temp]ature4 ,keep+ 9 view ?is d\ble effect ( ! summ] heat ^u ! surface-wat]1 let u consid] ! effect ( ! w9t] cold ^u x4 ,! sup]ficial wat] hav+ assum$ ! atmosph]ic temp]ature (1 say #fj ,f41 w s9k ?r\gh ! w>m] wat] bel[ x1 until x rea*es ! /ratum ( wat] hav+ ! same temp]ature z itself4 ,arriv$ "h1 h[ev]1 al?\gh x has ! same temp]ature z ! surr\nd+ wat]1 ! two are no long] 9 equilibrium1 = ! wat] :i* has come f ! surface1 has a great] d5sity ?an t bel[ at ! same temp]ature4 ,x w !re=e n be arre/$ at ! /ratum ( ! same temp]ature1 z w\ld h be5 ! case ) fre% wat]2 b x w cont9ue to s9k1 c>ry+ ( c\rse its high] temp]ature ) x1 & di/ribut+ x among ! l[] lay]s ( cold] wat]4 ,at ! end ( ! w9t]1 !re=e1 & j be=e ! summ] heat+ recomm5ces1 we %all h at ! surface a m or less ?ick /ratum ( wat] hav+ a ne>ly uni=m temp]ature ( #fj ,f41 & bel[ ?is ! temp]ature decreas+ at a consid]able b less rapid rate ?an at ! t]m9ation ( ! summ] heat+4 ,if we di/+ui% betwe5 surface-wat]1 ! temp]ature ( :i* rises ) ! atmosph]ic temp]ature 7foll[+ ?us1 9 direction at lea/1 ! v>iation ( ! seasons71 & subsurface-wat]1 or ! /ratum imm$iately bel[ x1 we h = ! latt] !1 at fir/ sight1 p>adoxical effect ( summ] cool+ & w9t] heat+4 ,! effect ( ?is ag5cy is to diffuse ! same heat to a great] dep? 9 ! ocean1 ! great] ! ye>ly range ( atmosph]ic temp]ature at ! surface4 ,?is effect is well %[n 9 ! *>t ( iso!rmals1 on a v]tical section1 betwe5 ,madeira & a position 9 lat4 #c #h ,n41 long4 #ad #di ,w4 ,! iso!rmal l9e = #de ,f4 rises f a dep? ( #gdj fa?oms at ,madeira to #bdj fa?oms at ! above-m5tion$ position4 ,9 equatorial regions !re is h>dly any v>iation 9 ! surface-temp]ature ( ! sea2 consequ5tly we f9d cold wat] v close to ! surface all along ! l9e4 ,on ref]r+ to ! temp]ature section betwe5 ! position lat4 #c #h ,n41 long4 #ad #di ,w41 & ,/4 ,paul's ,rocks1 x w be se5 t1 ) a surface-temp]ature ( f #ge ,f4 to #gi ,f41 wat] at #ee ,f4 is rea*$ at di/ances ( less ?an #ajj fa?oms f ! surface4 ,midway betwe5 ! ,azores & ,b]muda1 ) a surface-temp]ature ( #gj ,f41 x is only at a dep? ( #djj fa?oms t we rea* wat] ( #ee ,f40 ,:at ,mr4 ,bu*anan /ates w expla9 :y ! mean annual temp]ature ( ! wat] at ! surface ext5ds to a great] dep? 9 ! middle ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic ?an at ! equator4 ,x also expla9s :y ! temp]ature f ! surface d[nw>ds decreases m rapidly at ! equator ?an 9 ! middle ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic2 b1 if ,i rightly und]/& ! !ory1 x does n expla9 7& ?is is ! po9t at issue7 :y at a giv5 dep? ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic %\ld be high] ?an ! temp]ature at a correspond+ dep? at ! equator4 ,7 !re no horizontal circulation ! greate/ ?ickness ( w>m wat] w\ld c]ta9ly be f\nd at ! equator & ! lea/ at ! poles4 ,! iso!rmals w\ld 9 su* a case gradually slope d[nw>ds f ! poles to ! equator4 ,! slope might n be uni=m1 b /ill x w\ld be a cont9u\s d[nw>d slope4 ,v4 ,,on ,,! ,,cause ,,( ,,! ,,cool+ ,,effect ,,produc$ ,,on ,,solids ,,by ,,t5sion4#ccj ,f ! ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,may1 #ahfd4 ,f a s]ies ( exp]im5ts made by ,dr4 ,j\le ) 8 usual accuracy1 he f\nd t :5 bodies are subject$ to t5sion1 a cool+ effect takes place4 8,! quantity ( cold10 he says1 8produc$ by ! application ( t5sion 0 s5sibly equal to ! heat evolv$ by its removal2 & fur!r1 t ! !rmal effects 7 proportional to ! weight employ$40#cca ,he f\nd t :5 a weight 0 appli$ to compress a body1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( heat 0 evolv$2 b ! same weight1 if appli$ to /ret* ! body1 produc$ a correspond+ am\nt ( cold4 ,?is1 al?\gh x does n appe> to h be5 rem>k$1 is a mo/ s+ul> result4 ,if we employ a =ce to compress a body1 & !n ask :at has become ( ! =ce appli$1 x is q a satisfactory answ] to be told t ! =ce is conv]t$ into heat1 & reappe>s 9 ! molecules ( ! body z su*2 b if ! same =ce be employ$ to /ret* ! body1 x w be no answ] to be told t ! =ce is conv]t$ into cold4 ,cold _c be ! =ce "u ano!r =m1 = cold is a privation ( =ce4 ,if a body1 = example1 is compress$ by a weight1 ! vis viva ( ! desc5d+ weight is transmitt$ to ! molecules ( ! body & reappe>s "u t =m ( =ce call$ heat2 b if ! same weight is appli$ s z to /ret* or exp& ! body1 n only does ! =ce ( ! weight disappe> )\t produc+ heat1 b ! molecules :i* receive ! =ce lose "p ( t :i* !y already possess$4 ,n only does ! =ce ( ! weight disappe>1 b along ) x a portion ( ! =ce previ\sly exi/+ 9 ! molecules "u ! =m ( heat4 ,we h !re=e to inquire1 n m]ely into :at becomes ( ! =ce imp>t$ by ! weight1 b also :at becomes ( ! =ce 9 ! =m ( heat :i* disappe>s f ! molecules ( ! body itself4 ,t ! vis viva ( ! desc5d+ weight %\ld disappe> )\t increas+ ! heat ( ! molecules is n s surpris+1 because x may be trans=m$ into "s o!r =m ( =ce diff]5t f t ( heat4 ,= x is by no means evid5t priori t heat %\ld be ! only =m "u :i* x may exi/4 ,b x is some:at /range t x %\ld cause ! =ce previ\sly exi/+ 9 ! molecules 9 ! =m ( heat also to *ange into "s o!r =m4 ,:5 a weight1 = example1 is employ$ to /ret* a solid body1 x is evid5t t ! =ce ex]t$ by ! weight is consum$ 9 "w aga9/ ! cohesion ( ! p>ticles1 = ! entire =ce is ex]t$ s z to pull !m sep>ate f ea* o!r4 ,b ! cool+ effect :i* takes place %[s t m =ce disappe>s ?an simply :at is ex]t$ by ! weight2 = ! cool+ effect is caus$ by ! disappe>ance ( =ce 9 ! %ape ( heat f ! body itself4 ,! =ce ex]t$ by ! weight disappe>s 9 p]=m+ "w aga9/ ! cohesion ( ! p>ticles ( ! body /ret*$4 ,b :at becomes ( ! en]gy 9 ! =m ( heat :i* disappe>s f ! body at ! same "t8 ,x mu/ be consum$ 9 p]=m+ "w ( "s k9d or o!r4 ,! =ce ex]t$ by ! weight _c be ! cause ( ! cool+ effect4 ,! transf]r5ce ( =ce f ! weight to ! body may be ! cause ( a heat+ effect--an increase ( =ce 9 ! body2 b ?is transf]r5ce ( =ce to ! body _c be ! cause ( a decrease ( =ce 9 ! body4 ,if a decrease ( =ce actually foll[s ! application ( t5sion1 ! weight c only be ! occasion1 n ! cause ( ! decrease4 ,9 :at mann]1 !n1 does ! /ret*+ ( ! body by ! weight become ! occasion ( its los+ en]gy 9 ! %ape ( heat8 ,or1 9 o!r words1 :at is ! cause ( ! cool+ effects :i* result f t5sion8 ,! probable explanation ( ! ph5om5on seems to be ?is3 if ! molecules ( a body are held toge!r by any =ce1 ( :atev] nature x may be1 :i* prev5ts any fur!r sep>ation tak+ place1 !n ! entire heat appli$ to su* a body w appe> z temp]ature2 b if ?is b9d+ =ce becomes less5$ s z to all[ fur!r expansion1 !n a portion ( ! heat appli$ w be lo/ 9 produc+ expansion4 ,all solids at any giv5 temp]ature exp& until ! expansive =ce ( _! heat exactly balances ! cohesive =ce ( _! molecules1 aft] :i* no fur!r expansion at ! same temp]ature c possibly take place :ile ! cohesive =ce ( ! molecules rema9s un*ang$4 ,b if1 by "s means or o!r1 ! cohesive =ce ( ! molecules become r$uc$1 !n in/antly ! body w exp& "u ! heat :i* x possesses1 & ( c\rse a portion ( ! heat w be consum$ 9 expansion1 & a cool+ effect w result4 ,n[ t5sion1 al?\gh x does n actually less5 ! cohesive =ce ( ! molecules ( ! /ret*$ body1 yet produces1 by c\nt]act+ ?is =ce1 ! same effect2 = x all[s ! molecules an opportunity ( p]=m+ "w ( expansion1 & a cool+ effect is ! consequ5ce4 ,if ! pi/on ( a /eam-eng9e1 = example1 be load$ to su* an ext5t t ! /eam is unable to move x1 ! /eam 9 ! int]ior ( ! cyl9d] w n lose any ( its heat2 b if ! pi/on be rais$ by "s ext]nal =ce1 ! molecules ( ! /eam w assi/ ?is =ce1 & consequ5tly w suff] loss ( heat 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( "w :i* !y p]=m4 ,! v same occurs :5 t5sion is appli$ to a solid4 ,previ\s to ! application ( t5sion1 ! heat exi/+ 9 ! molecules is unable to produce any expansion aga9/ ! =ce ( cohesion4 ,b :5 ! influ5ce ( cohesion is p>tly c\nt]act$ by ! t5sion appli$1 ! heat !n becomes enabl$ to p]=m "w ( expansion1 & a cool+ effect is ! result4 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,cause ,,( ,,regelation4#ccb ,!re are two !ories :i* h be5 advanc$ to expla9 ,regelation1 ! "o by ,pr(essor ,f>aday1 & ! o!r by ,pr(essor ,james ,?omson4 ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,james ,?omson1 pressure is ! cause ( regelation4 ,pressure appli$ to ice t5ds to l[] ! melt+-po9t1 & ?us to produce liquefaction2 b ! wat] :i* results is cold] ?an ! ice1 & refreezes ! mom5t x is reliev$ f pressure4 ,:5 two pieces ( ice are press$ toge!r1 a melt+ takes place at ! po9ts 9 contact1 result+ f ! l[]+ ( ! melt+-po9t2 ! wat] =m$1 re-freez+1 jo9s ! two pieces toge!r4 ,! objection :i* has be5 urg$ aga9/ ?is !ory is t regelation w take place "u circum/ances :]e x is difficult to conceive h[ pressure c be reg>d$ z ! cause4 ,two pieces ( ice1 = example1 susp5d$ by silk5 ?reads 9 an atmosph]e above ! melt+-po9t1 if b simply all[$ to t\* ea* o!r1 w freeze toge!r4 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,?omson1 h[ev]1 attributes ! freez+ to ! pressure result+ f ! capill>y attraction ( ! two moi/ surfaces 9 contact4 ,b :5 we reflect t x requires ! pressure ( a mile ( ice--#ace tons on ! squ>e foot--to l[] ! melt+-po9t "o degree1 x mu/ be obvi\s t ! l[]+ effect result+ f capill>y attraction 9 ! case "u consid]ation mu/ be inf9itesimal inde$4 ,! foll[+ cle> & concise acc\nt ( ,f>aday's !ory1 ,i quote f ,pr(essor ,tyndall's 8,=ms ( ,wat]30-- 8,f>aday conclud$ t 9 ! int]ior ( any body1 :e!r solid or liquid1 :]e e p>ticle is grasp$1 s to speak1 by ! surr\nd+ p>ticles1 & grasps !m 9 turn1 ! bond ( cohesion is s /rong z to require a high] temp]ature to *ange ! /ate ( aggregation ?an is necess>y at ! surface4 ,at ! surface ( a piece ( ice1 = example1 ! molecules are free on "o side f ! control ( o!r molecules2 & !y !re=e yield to heat m readily ?an 9 ! int]ior4 ,! bubble ( air or /eam 9 ov]heat$ wat] also frees ! molecules on "o side2 h5ce ! ebullition consequ5t ^u its introduction4 ,practically speak+1 !n1 ! po9t ( liquefaction ( ! int]ior ice is high] ?an t ( ! sup]ficial ice4444 8,:5 ! surfaces ( two pieces ( ice1 cov]$ ) a film ( ! wat] ( liquefaction1 are br\ght toge!r1 ! cov]+ film is transf]r$ f ! surface to ! c5tre ( ! ice1 :]e ! po9t ( liquefaction1 z be=e %[n1 is high] ?an at ! surface4 ,! special solidify+ p[] ( ice ^u wat] is n[ br\ght into play on bo? sides ( ! film4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 ,f>aday held t ! film w\ld congeal1 & freeze ! two surfaces toge!r40--,! ,=ms ( ,wat]1 p4 #agc4 ,! foll[+ appe>s to be a m simple explanation ( ! ph5om5a ?an ei!r ( ! prec$+3-- ,! freez+-po9t ( wat]1 & ! melt+-po9t ( ice1 z ,pr(essor ,tyndall rem>ks1 t\* ea* o!r z x 7 at ?is temp]ature4 ,at a hair's-bread? l[] wat] freezes2 at a hair's-bread? high] ice melts4 ,n[ if we wi%1 = example1 to freeze wat]1 already j ab\t ! freez+-po9t1 or to melt a piece ( ice already j ab\t ! melt+-po9t1 we c d ?is ei!r by a *ange ( temp]ature or by a *ange ( ! melt+-po9t4 ,b x w be always mu* easi] to effect ?is by ! =m] ?an by ! latt] means4 ,take ! case already ref]r$ to1 ( ! two pieces ( ice susp5d$ 9 an atmosph]e above ! melt+-po9t4 ,! pieces at _! surfaces are 9 a melt+ condition1 & are surr\nd$ by a ?9 film ( wat] j an inf9itesimal degree above ! freez+-po9t4 ,! film has on ! "o side solid ice at ! freez+-po9t1 & on ! o!r a w>m atmosph]e consid]ably above ! freez+-po9t4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! ice is to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! film1 :ile t ( ! air is to raise its temp]ature4 ,:5 ! two pieces are br\ght into contact ! two films unite & =m "o film sep>at+ ! two pieces ( ice4 ,?is film is n l ! =m] 9 contact ) ice on ! "o side & w>m air on ! o!r4 ,x is surr\nd$ on bo? sides by solid ice4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! ice1 ( c\rse1 is to l[] ! film to ! same temp]ature z ! ice itself1 & ?us to produce solidification4 ,x is evid5t t ! film mu/ ei!r melt ! ice or ! ice mu/ freeze ! film1 if ! two are to assume ! same temp]ature4 ,b ! p[] ( ! ice to produce solidification1 ow+ to its great] mass1 is enorm\sly great] ?an ! p[] ( ! film to produce fluidity1 consequ5tly regelation is ! result4 ,,vii4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,pap]s ,,:i* ,,h ,,appe>$ ,,9 ,,dr4 ,a4 ,,pet]mann',s ,,geographis*e ,,mit!ilung5 ,,relat+ ,,to ,,! ,,gulf-,,/ream ,,& ,,!rmal ,,condition ,,( ,,! ,,arctic ,,regions4 ,! mo/ important memoir :i* we h on ! ,gulf-/ream & its influ5ce on ! climate ( ! arctic regions is ! "o by ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann1 entitl$ 8,d] ,golf/rom und ,/&punkt d] !rmometris*5 ,k5ntniss des nord-atlantis*5 ,oceans und ,l&gebiets im ,jahre #ahgj40 ,geographis*e ,mit!ilung51 ,b& ,,xvi4 #ahgj4 ,dr4 ,pet]mann has1 9 ?is memoir1 by a diff]5t l9e ( argum5t f t :i* ,i h pursu$ 9 ?is volume1 %[n 9 ! mo/ cle> & conv9c+ mann] t ! abnormally high temp]ature ( ! nor?-we/]n %ores ( ,europe & ! seas ar\nd ,spitzb]g5 is ow+ entirely to ! ,gulf-/ream1 & n to any g5]al circulation su* z t advocat$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t]4 ,f a s]ies ( no few] ?an #ajj1jjj obs]vations ( temp]ature 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic & 9 ! arctic seas1 he has be5 enabl$ to trace ) accuracy on 8 *>ts ! v foot/eps ( ! heat 9 its passage f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico up to ! %ores ( ,spitzb]g54 ,! foll[+ is a li/ ( ! m important pap]s be>+ on ! subject :i* h rec5tly appe>$ 9 ,dr4 ,pet]mann's ,geogr4 ,mit!ilung53-- ,an ,engli% translation ( ,dr4 ,pet]mann's ,memoir1 & ( a few m 9 ! subjo9$ li/1 has be5 publi%$ 9 a volume1 ) supplem5ts1 by ! ,hydrographic ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 "u ! sup]9t5d5ce ( ,commodore ,r4 ,h4 ,wyman4 ,! pap]s ^: titles are 9 ,engli% h appe>$ 9 ! ,am]ican volume4 ,9 t volume ! pr9cipal ,engli% pap]s on ! subject1 9 z f> z !y relate to ! nor?-ea/]n ext5sion ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 h also be5 repr9t$4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,oceanic ,curr5ts 9 ! ,circumpol> ,bas9 ( ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e4 ,by ,dr4 ,a4 ,mhry4 ,vol4 ,,xiii41 ,"p ,,ii4 #ahfg4 ,! ,sci5tific ,results ( ! fir/ ,g]man ,nor? ,pol> ,exp$ition4 ,by ,dr4 ,w4 von ,fre$54 ,vol4 ,,xv41 ,"p ,,vi4 #ahfi4 ,! ,gulf-/ream1 & ! ,k ( ! ,!rmal ,prop]ties ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean & its ,cont95tal ,bord]s1 up to #ahgj4 ,by ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,geographis*e ,mit!ilung51 ,vol4 ,,xvi41 ,"p ,,vi4 #ahgj4 ,! ,temp]ature ( ! ,nor? ,atlantic ,ocean & ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,by ,re>-,admiral ,c4 ,irm+]4 ,vol4 ,,xvi41 ,"p ,,vi4 #ahgj4 ,meteorological ,obs]vations dur+ a ,w9t] ,/ay on ,be> ,isl&1 #ahfeahff4 ,by ,siev]t ,tobilson4 ,vol4 ,,xvi41 ,"p ,,vii4 #ahgj4 ,die ,temp]atur-v]hltnisse 9 d5 arktis*5 ,region54 ,von ,dr4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xvi41 ,heft ,,vii4 #ahgj4 ,prelim9>y ,reports ( ! ,second ,g]man ,nor? ,pol> ,exp$ition1 & ( m9or ,exp$itions1 9 #ahgj4 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 ,prelim9>y ,report ( ! ,exp$ition = ! ,exploration ( ! ,nova-,zembla ,sea 7! sea betwe5 ,spitzb]g5 & ,nova ,zembla71 by ,lieut5ants ,weypre*t & ,pay]1 ,june to ,septemb]1 #ahga4 ,by ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,vol4 ,,xvii4 #ahga4 ,d] ,golf/rom o/wrts vom ,nordkap4 ,von ,a4 ,midd5dorff4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,i4 #ahga4 ,kapitn ,e4 ,h4 ,johannes5's ,umfahrung von ,n[aja ,seml im ,somm] #ahgj1 und norwegis*] ,f9walfang /li* vom ,nordkap4 ,von ,?4 v4 ,heugl94 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,i4 #ahga4 ,die ,nordpol-,exp$ition51 das sag5hafte ,gillis-l& und d] ,golf/rom im ,pol>me]e4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 #e ,nov4 #ahgj4 ,?4 v4 ,heugl9's ,aufnahm5 9 ,o/-,spitzb]g54 ,begleitworte zur neu5 ,k>te dieses ,gebiets4 ,tafel #i4 #ahgj4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,v4 #ahga4 ,die zweite deuts*e ,nordpol>-,exp$ition1 #ahfigj4 ,s*litt5reise an d] ,k/e ,grnl&s na* ,nord51 #h ,mrz#bg ,april1 #ahgj4 ,von ,ob]-,lieut5ant ,julius ,pay]4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,v4 #ahga4 ,die ,entdeckung des ,kais] ,franz ,josef-,fjordes 9 ,o/-,grnl&1 ,augu/1 #ahgj4 ,von ,ob]-,lieut5ant ,julius ,pay]4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,v4 #ahga4 ,die ,ers*liessung e9es ,!iles des nrdli*5 ,eisme]es dur* die ,fahrt5 und ,beoba*tung5 d] norwegis*5 ,seefahr] ,torkilds51 ,ulve1 ,mack ,qvale1 und ,n$revaag im k>is*5 ,me]e1 #ahgj4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,,iii4 #ahga4 ,die zweite deuts*e ,nordpol>-,exp$ition1 #ahfigj4 ,s*litt5reise na* ,ard5caple ,inlet1 #hbi ,mai1 #ahgj4 ,von ,ob]-,lieut5ant ,julius ,pay]4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,,xi4 #ahga4 ,e9 ,w9t] unt] dem ,pol>kreise4 ,von ,ob]-,lieut5ant ,julius ,pay]4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,,xi4 #ahga4 ,die ,entdeckung e9es (f55 ,pol>me]es dur* ,pay] und ,weypre*t im ,septemb]1 #ahga4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,,xi4 #ahga4 ,james ,lamont's ,nordfahrt1 ,mai-,augu/1 #ahga4 ,die ,entdeckung5 von ,weypre*t1 ,pay]1 ,tobies51 ,mack1 ,c>ls51 ,ulve1 und ,smy? im ,somm]1 #ahga4 ,/& d] ,nordpol>frage zu ,ende des ,jahres #ahga4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,,xii4 #ahga4 ,das ,inn]e von ,grnl&4 ,von ,dr4 ,rob]t ,br[n4 ,b& ,,xvii41 ,heft ,x4 #ahga4 ,capta9 ,t4 ,torkilds5's ,cruise f ,troms to ,spitzb]g51 ,july #bf to ,septemb] #bf1 #ahga4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 #ahgb4 ,! ,sea nor? ( ,spitzb]g51 & ! mo/ nor!rn ,meteorological ,obs]vations4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 #ahgb4 ,results ( ! ,obs]vations ( ! ,deep-sea ,temp]ature 9 ! ,sea betwe5 ,gre5l&1 ,nor!rn ,europe1 & ,spitzb]g54 ,by ,pr(essor ,h4 ,mhn4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 #ahgb4 ,! ,norwegian ,cruises to ,nova ,zembla & ! ,k>a ,sea 9 #ahga4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 #ahgb4 ,! ,cruises 9 ! ,pol> ,sea 9 #ahgb4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 #ahgb4 ,! ,cruise ( ,smy? & ,ulve1 ,june #ai to ,septemb] #bg1 #ahga4 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 #ahgb4 ,die fnfmonatli*e ,s*iffb>keit des sibiris*5 ,eisme]es um ,n[aja ,semlja1 erwies5 dur* die norwegis*5 ,seefahr] 9 #ahfi und #ahgj1 ganz besond]s ab] 9 #ahga4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xviii41 ,heft ,x4 #ahgb4 ,die neu5 norwegis*5 ,aufnahm5 des nord/li*5 ,!iles von ,n[aja ,semlja dur* ,mack1 ,drma1 ,c>ls51 u4 ,a41 #ahga4 ,von ,dr4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xviii41 ,heft ,x4 #ahgb4 ,na*ri*t5 b] die sieb5 zurckgekehrt5 ,exp$ition5 unt] ,graf ,wilts*ek1 ,altmann1 ,johns51 ,nils51 ,smi?1 ,gray1 ,:ymp]2 die drei b]w9t]ungs-,exp$ition52 die ,am]ikanis*e1 ,s*w$is*e1 /]rei*is*-,ung>is*e2 und die zwei neu53 die norwegis*e ,w9t]-,exp$ition und diej5ige unt] ,kapitn ,mack4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xviii41 ,heft ,,xii4 #ahgb4 ,konig ,k>l-,l& im ,o/5 von ,spitzb]g5 und se9e ,errei*ung und ,aufnahme dur* norwegis*e ,s*iff] im ,somm] #ahgb4 ,von ,pr(essor ,h4 ,mhn4 ,b& ,,xix41 ,heft ,,iv4 #ahgc4 ,resultate d] ,beoba*tung5 ange/ellt auf d] ,fahrt des ,dampf]s 8,alb]t0 na* ,spitzb]g5 im ,novemb] und ,dezemb]1 #ahgb4 ,von ,pr(essor ,mhn4 ,b& ,,xix41 ,heft ,,vii4 #ahgc4 ,die am]ikanis*e ,nordpol>-,exp$ition unt] ,c4 ,f4 ,hall1 #ahgac4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xix41 ,heft ,,viii4 #ahgc4 ,die ,trift d] ,hall's*5 ,nordpol>-,exp$ition1 #af ,augu/ bis #ae ,oktob]1 #ahgb1 und die ,s*oll5fahrt d] #bj bis zum #cj ,april1 #ahgc4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xix41 ,heft ,x4 #ahgc4 ,das (f5e ,pol>me] be/tigt dur* das ,treibholz an d] ,nordwe/k/e von ,grnl&4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xx41 ,heft ,v4 #ahgd4 ,das arktis*e ,fe/l& und ,pol>me]4 ,von ,dr4 ,joseph ,*avanne4 ,b& ,,xx41 ,heft ,,vii4 #ahgd4 ,die ,umkehr d] ,hall's*5 ,pol>-,exp$ition na* d5 ,aussag5 d] ,(fizi]e4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xx41 ,heft ,,vii4 #ahgd4 ,die zweite /]rei*is*-ung>is*e ,nordpol>-,exp$ition unt] ,weypre*t und ,pay]1 #ahgbd4 ,von ,dr4 ,a4 ,pet]mann4 ,b& ,,xx41 ,heft ,x4 #ahgd4 ,beitrge zur ,klimatologie und ,meteorologie des ,o/-pol>-,me]es4 ,von ,pr(essor ,mhn4 ,b& ,,xx41 ,heft ,v4 #ahgd4 ,kapitn ,david ,gray's ,reise und ,beoba*tung5 im o/-grnlndis*5 ,me]e1 #ahgd1 und se9e ,ansi*t5 b] d5 be/5 ,weg zum ,nordpol4 ,orig9al-,mit!ilung5 an ,a4 ,pet]mann1 d4,d41 ,pet]head1 ,dezemb]1 #ahgd4 ,b& ,,xxi41 ,heft ,,iii4 #ahge4 ,,viii4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,pap]s ,,by ,,! ,,au?or ,,to ,,:i* ,,ref]5ce ,,is ,,made ,,9 ,,?is ,,volume4 ,on ! ,influ5ce ( ! ,tidal ,wave on ! ,e>?'s ,rotation & on ! ,accel]ation ( ! ,moon's ,mean ,motion4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,april1 #ahfd4 ,on ! ,nature ( ,heat-vibrations4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,may1 #ahfd4 ,on ! ,cause ( ! ,cool+ ,effect produc$ on ,solids by ,t5sion4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,may1 #ahfd4 ,on ! ,physical ,cause ( ! ,*ange ( ,climate dur+ ,geological ,epo*s4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,augu/1 #ahfd4 ,on ! ,physical ,cause ( ! ,subm]g5ce ( ! ,l& dur+ ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,! ,read]1 ,septemb] #bnd & ,octob] #ad?1 #ahfe4 ,on ,glacial ,subm]g5ce4--,! ,read]1 ,decemb] #bnd & #i?1 #ahfe4 ,on ! ,ecc5tricity ( ! ,e>?'s ,orbit4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,janu>y1 #ahff4 ,glacial ,subm]g5ce on ! ,supposition t ! ,int]ior ( ! ,globe is 9 a ,fluid ,condition4--,! ,read]1 ,janu>y #ac?1 #ahff4 ,on ! ,physical ,cause ( ! ,subm]g5ce & ,em]g5ce ( ! ,l& dur+ ! ,glacial ,epo*1 ) a ,note by ,pr(essor ,sir ,william ,?omson4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,april1 #ahff4 ,on ! ,influ5ce ( ! ,tidal ,wave on ! ,motion ( ! ,moon4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,augu/ & ,novemb]1 #ahff4 ,on ! ,reason :y ! ,*ange ( ,climate 9 ,canada s9ce ! ,glacial ,epo* has be5 less complete ?an 9 ,scotl&4--,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[1 #ahff4 ,on ! ,ecc5tricity ( ! ,e>?'s ,orbit1 & its ,physical ,relations to ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,febru>y1 #ahfg4 ,on ! ,reason :y ! ,diff]5ce ( ,read+ betwe5 a ,!rmomet] expos$ to direct ,sun%9e & "o %ad$ dim9i%es z we asc5d 9 ! ,atmosph]e4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #ahfg4 ,on ! ,*ange 9 ! ,obliquity ( ! ,ecliptic2 its ,influ5ce on ! ,climate ( ! ,pol> ,regions & ,level ( ! ,sea4--,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[1 vol4 ii41 p4 #agg4 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,june1 #ahfg4 ,rem>ks on ! ,*ange 9 ! ,obliquity ( ! ,ecliptic1 & its ,influ5ce on ,climate4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,augu/1 #ahfg4 ,on c]ta9 ,hypo!tical ,elem5ts 9 ! ,!ory ( ,gravitation & g5]ally receiv$ ,conceptions reg>d+ ! ,con/itution ( ,matt]4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,decemb]1 #ahfg4 ,on ,geological ,"t1 & ! probable ,date ( ! ,glacial & ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ,p]iod4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,may1 ,augu/1 & ,novemb]1 #ahfh4 ,on ! ,physical ,cause ( ! ,motions ( ,glaci]s4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #ahfi4 ,sci5tific ,op9ion1 ,april #ad?1 #ahfi4 ,on ! ,influ5ce ( ! ,gulf-/ream4--,geol4 ,mag41 ,april1 #ahfi4 ,sci5tific ,op9ion1 ,april #ba/ & #bh?1 #ahfi4 ,on ,mr4 ,murphy's ,!ory ( ! ,cause ( ! ,glacial ,climate4--,geol4 ,mag41 ,augu/1 #ahfi4 ,sci5tific ,op9ion1 ,septemb] #a/1 #ahfi4 ,on ! ,op9ion t ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e loses by ,radiation m ,heat ?an ! ,nor!rn1 & ! suppos$ ,influ5ce t ?is has on ,climate4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,septemb]1 #ahfi4 ,sci5tific ,op9ion1 ,septemb] #bi? & ,octob] #f?1 #ahfi4 ,on ,two ,riv] ,*annels buri$ "u ,drift belong+ to a ,p]iod :5 ! ,l& /ood sev]al hundr$ feet high] ?an at pres5t4--,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,ed9burgh1 vol4 i41 p4 #ccj4 ,on ,ocean-curr5ts3 ,ocean-curr5ts 9 ,relation to ! ,di/ribution ( ,heat ov] ! ,globe4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,febru>y1 #ahgj4 ,on ,ocean-curr5ts3 ,ocean-curr5ts 9 ,relation to ! ,physical ,!ory ( ,secul> ,*anges ( ,climate4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #ahgj4 ,! ,b\ld] ,clay ( ,cai?ness a ,product ( ,l&-ice4--,geol4 ,mag41 ,may & ,june1 #ahgj4 ,on ! ,cause ( ! ,motion ( ,glaci]s4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,septemb]1 #ahgj4 ,on ,ocean-curr5ts3 ,on ! ,physical ,cause ( ,ocean-curr5ts4 ,exam9ation ( ,lieut5ant ,maury's ,!ory4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,octob]1 #ahgj4 ,on ! ,transport ( ! ,wa/dale ,granite ,b\ld]s4--,geol4 ,mag41 ,janu>y1 #ahga4 ,on a ,me?od ( det]m9+ ! ,mean ,?ickness ( ! ,s$im5t>y ,rocks ( ! ,globe4--,geol4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #ahga4 ,mean ,?ickness ( ! ,s$im5t>y ,rocks4--,geol4 ,mag41 ,june1 #ahga4 ,on ! ,age ( ! ,e>? z det]m9$ f ,tidal ,ret>dation4--,nature1 ,augu/ #bd?1 #ahga4 ,ocean-curr5ts3 ,on ! ,physical ,cause ( ,ocean-curr5ts4 ,exam9ation ( ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s ,!ory4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,octob]1 #ahga4 ,ocean-curr5ts3 ,fur!r ,exam9ation ( ! ,gravitation ,!ory4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,febru>y1 #ahgd4 ,ocean-curr5ts3 ,! ,w9d ,!ory ( ,oceanic ,circulation4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #ahgd4 ,ocean-curr5ts4--,nature1 ,may #ba/1 #ahgd4 ,! ,physical ,cause ( ,ocean-curr5ts4--,phil4 ,mag41 ,june1 #ahgd4 ,am]ican ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce & ,art1 ,septemb]1 #ahgd4 ,on ! ,physical ,cause ( ! ,subm]g5ce & ,em]g5ce ( ! ,l& dur+ ! ,glacial ,epo*4--,geol4 ,mag41 ,july & ,augu/1 #ahgd4 ,,index4 ,absolute heat+-p[] ( ocean-curr5ts1 #bc am\nt ( heat receiv$ f ! sun p] day1 #bf ,adhm>1 ,m41 !ory f\nd$ ^u a mi/ake 9 reg>d to radiation1 #ha1 #he on subm]g5ce1 #cfh on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #edb ,arial curr5ts increas$ 9 action by =mation ( sn[ & ice1 #gf function (1 /at$1 #ea heat convey$ by1 #bg ,africa1 ,s\?1 glacial & int]-glacial p]iods (1 #bdb b\ld] clay ( ,p]mian age1 #cjj ,age & orig9 ( ! sun1 #cdf ,air1 on absorption ( rays by1 #ei :5 humid1 absorbs rays :i* agree ) x 9 p]iod1 #ei :5 p]fectly dry incapable ( absorb+ radiant heat1 #ei ,airy1 ,pr(essor1 e>?'s axis ( rotation p]man5t1 #g ,aitk5's1 ,mr41 exp]im5t on d5sity ( pol> wat]1 #abi ,al& isl&s1 /riation (1 #ddg ,alt]nate cold & w>m p]iods1 #bcf ,all]muir1 /riations on summit (1 #dda ,am]ica1 l[ temp]ature 9 ,janu>y1 #gb ?ickness ( ice-%eet ( ,nor?1 #cha ,&]son1 ,capta9 ,sir ,james1 nev] obs]v$ a /one on an iceb]g1 #bhb ,ant>ctic regions1 mean summ] temp]ature (1 bel[ freez+-po9t1 #fc ,ant>ctic ice-cap1 probable ?ickness (1 #cge diagram repres5t+ ?ickness (1 #cgg ?ickness (1 e/imat$ f iceb]gs1 #chd ,ant>ctic sn[fall1 e/imates (1 #chb ,aphelion1 glacial conditions at maximum :5 w9t] sol/ice is at1 #gg ,arago1 ,m41 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #ecf ,arctic climate1 influ5ce ( ocean-curr5ts on1 dur+ glacial p]iod1 #bfj ,arctic regions1 influ5ce ( ,gulf-/ream on climate (1 #de mean summ] temp]ature (1 #fc ,arctic regions1 am\nt ( heat receiv$ by1 p] unit surface1 #aie w>m p]iods be/ m>k$ 91 #beh w>m int]-glacial p]iods 91 #behbfe /ate (1 dur+ glacial p]iod1 #bfj evid5ce ( w>m p]iods 91 #bfa occurr5ce ( rec5t trees 91 #bfa1 #bfe evid5ce ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods1 #bic w>m climate dur+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod 91 #bie glacial p]iod dur+ ,c>bonif]\s age 91 #big w>m climate dur+ ,p]mian p]iod 91 #cja li/ ( pap]s relat+ to1 #eef ,arctic ,ocean1 area (1 #aie accord+ to gravitation !ory ought to be w>m] ?an ,atlantic 9 torrid zone1 #aie heat convey$ into1 by curr5ts1 comp>$ ) t receiv$ by x f ! sun1 #aie block$ up ) pol> ice1 #ddd ,armagh1 b\ld] b$s (1 #bii ,arran1 ,isl& (1 glacial conglom]ate ( ,p]mian age 91 #bii ,a/ronomical causes ( *ange ( climate1 #aj ,a/ronomy & geology1 suppos$ analogy betwe51 #cee ,atlantic1 atmosph]ic pressure on middle (1 #cc inability (1 to heat ! s\?-we/ w9ds )\t ! ,gulf-/ream1 #cd mean annual temp]ature (1 #cf mean temp]ature (1 rais$ by ,gulf-/ream1 #cf1 #dj iso!rmal l9es (1 comp>$ ) ^? ( ! ,pacific1 #df area (1 f equator to ,tropic ( ,canc]1 #aid inquiry :e!r ! area (1 is suffici5t to supply heat accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory1 #aid ,atlantic1 ,nor?1 heat receiv$ by1 f torrid zone by curr5ts1 #aid accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory ought to be w>m] 9 temp]ate regions ?an 9 ! torrid zone1 #aie great dep? ( w>m wat] 91 #aih ,nor?1 an imm5se :irlpool1 #baf above ! level ( equator1 #bba probable antiquity (1 #cfg f ,sc&9avia to ,gre5l& probably fill$ ) ice1 #dea ,atmosph]e-pressure 9 ,atlantic a cause ( s\?-we/ w9ds1 #cc ,atmosph]e1 on diff]5ce betwe5 black-bulb$ & %ad$ !rmomet] 9 upp] /rata (1 #edg ,au/ralia1 evid5ce ( ice-action 9 conglom]ate (1 #bie ,ayr%ire1 ice-action dur+ ,silurian p]iod 91 #bic ,bakewell1 ,mr4 ,r41 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #edj ,banks's ,l&1 discov]y ( anci5t =e/ 91 #bfa ,pr(essor ,he]1 on fossiliz$ wood (1 #cji ,ball1 ,mr41 objection to ,canon ,moseley's results1 #eja ,baltic curr5t1 #aga ,baltic1 glaciation ( isl&s 91 #ddh ,baltic glaci]1 passage (1 ov] ,d5m>k1 #ddi ,ba?1 groov$ rock surfaces (1 #dfd ,bay-ice gr9ds b does n /riate rocks1 #bgg ,bel*]1 ,sir ,e41 tree dug up by1 9 latitude #ge ,n41 #bfc c>bonif]\s fossils f\nd 9 arctic regions by1 #bih ,belle-,isle1 ,/rait (1 obs]vations on action ( iceb]gs 91 #bgf ,bell1 ,mr4 ,a41 on ,m$it]ranean =ms 9 glacial b$ at ,gre5ock1 #bed ,belt1 ,mr4 ,?omas1 !ory ( ! cause ( glacial epo*s1 #dae ,b5nie1 ,mr4 ,james1 on surface geology1 #dfh on deposits fill+ buri$ *annel1 #dhf ,blan=d1 ,mr41 on ice-action dur+ ,c>bonif]\s age 9 ,india1 #big ,bor+s1 evid5ce ( int]-glacial b$s f1 #bed exam9ation ( drift by1 #dfg j\rnals (1 #dhc1 #dhd ,b\ld] clays ( =m] glacial epo*s1 :y s r>e1 #bfi a product ( l&-ice1 #bhd if =m$ f iceb]gs mu/ be /ratifi$1 #bhd sc>city ( fossils 91 #bhe =m$ *iefly f rock on :i* x lies1 #bhe ( ,cai?ness a product ( l&-ice1 #dce on summit ( ,all]muir1 #dda ,b\ld]s1 h[ c>ri$ f a l[] to a high] level1 #ebg ,b\ss+ault on absorption ( c>bon by vegetation1 #dbh ,brita91 climate (1 affect$ mo/ by s\?-ea/]n portion ( ,gulf-/ream1 #cc ,br[n1 ,dr4 ,r41 cit$ on ,gre5l& ice-%eet1 #cgh1 #chj on inl& ice ( ,gre5l&1 #bhd on cretace\s =mation ( ,gre5l&1 #cje on ,mioc5e b$s ( ! ,disco di/rict1 #caj ,br[n1 ,mr4 ,rob]t1 on gr[? ( coal plants1 #dba ,br[n & ,dickeson1 on s$im5t ( ,mississippi1 #ccj ,bu*an1 ,mr41 on atmosph]e-pressure 9 ! ,atlantic1 #cc on =ce ( ! w9d1 #bbj ,bu*anan1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,y41 on v]tical di/ribution ( heat ( ! ocean1 #eej ,buckl&1 ,dr41 obs]vations by1 on occurr5ce ( r$ *alk on ,cotteswold hills1 #dei ,buff1 ,pr(essor1 on oceanic circulation1 #ade ,buri$ riv] *annels1 #dff *annel f ,kilsy? to ,grangem\?1 #dfh section at ,grangem\?1 #dgd f ,kilsy? to ,clyde1 #dha n excavat$ by sea nor by ice1 #dfi o!r examples (1 #dhhdid ,cai?ness1 difficulty ( acc\nt+ = ! orig9 ( ! b\ld] clay (1 #dce ,cai?ness1 b\ld] clay (1 a product ( l&-ice1 #dce b\ld] clay n =m$ by iceb]gs1 #dcg !ories reg>d+ ! orig9 ( ! b\ld] clay (1 #dcg :y ! ice 0 =c$ ov] x1 #ddd ,pr(essor ,geikie & ,b4 ,n4 ,pea* on pa? ( ice ov]1 #dec ,cambrian conglom]ate ( ,islay1 #bib ,campbell1 ,mr41 obs]vations (1 on iceb]gs1 #bgf on suppos$ /riation ( rocks by l>ge iceb]gs1 #bgh evid5ce t riv]-ice does n /riate rocks1 #bgi ,canada1 *ange ( climate less complete ?an 9 ,scotl&1 #ga ,c>bonif]\s p]iod ( arctic regions1 #bih evid5ce ( glacial epo* dur+1 #bifbih temp]ate climate (1 #dbb ,c>bonif]\s lime/one1 mode ( =mation1 #dcc ,c>p5t]'s1 ,dr41 objections exam9$1 #ada !ory1 me*anics (1 #ade idea ( a v]tical circulation /at$1 #aec ,c>p5t]'s1 ,dr41 radical error 9 !ory (1 #aee on diff]5ce ( d5sity betwe5 wat]s ( ,atlantic & ,m$it]ranean1 #afh !ory1 inadequacy (1 #aia e/imate ( !rmal "w ( ,gulf-/ream1 #aii ,*>p5ti]'s1 ,m41 !ory ( glaci]-motion1 #eac ,c>se clays1 date (1 #dje ,cattegat1 ice-m>k+s on %ore (1 #ddf ,cave & riv] deposits1 #bea ,*alk1 erratic blocks f\nd 91 #cjd dbris1 conclusion ( ,mr4 ,se>les ,wood1 #dfj ,*all5g]'s temp]ature-s\nd+s at equator1 #aai crucial te/ ( ! w9d & gravitation !ories1 #bbj ,*amb]s1 ,dr4 ,rob]t1 on /riat$ pavem5ts1 #bee obs]vations on glaciation ( ,go?l&1 #ddf ,*ampla9 ,lake1 int]-glacial b$ (1 #bda ,*apelhall1 anci5t buri$ *annel at1 #dia int]-glacial s&-b$1 #bdd ,*>t %[+ ! agreem5t betwe5 sy/em ( curr5ts & sy/em ( w9ds1 #bab ,*ri/ian/adt1 cross$ by ,baltic glaci]1 #dej ,circulation )\t diff]5ce ( level1 #agf ,climate1 ,secul> *anges (1 int5sifi$ by reaction ( physical causes1 #ge1 #gf affect$ mo/ by temp]ature ( ! surface ( gr\nd1 #hh ocean-curr5ts 9 relation to1 #bbf cold conditions (1 inf]r$ f abs5ce ( fossils1 #bhh cold condition (1 difficulty ( det]m9+1 f fossil rema9s1 #bhi w>m1 ( arctic regions dur+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod1 #bie r\gh sket* ( ! hi/ory (1 dur+ ! la/ #fj1jjj ye>s1 #dji ( ,coal p]iod int]-glacial 9 "*1 #dbj alt]nate *anges (1 dur+ ,coal p]iod1 #dbf ,climates1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,geikie on difficulty ( detect+ evid5ce ( anci5t glacial conditions1 #bhi evid5ce (1 f anci5t sea-bottoms1 #bhi ,coal an int]-glacial =mation1 #dbj ,coal b$s1 alt]nate subm]g5ce & em]g5ce dur+ =mation (1 #dbd pres]vation (1 by subm]g5ce1 #dbf ,coal p]iod1 flatness ( ! l& dur+1 #dcj ,coal plants1 conditions necess>y =1 pres]vation (1 #dbc ,coal seams1 ?ickness (1 indicative ( l5g? ( int]-glacial p]iods1 #dbh ,coal seams1 "t occupi$ 9 =mation (1 #dbi ,coal /rata1 on abs5ce ( ice-action 91 #dbi ,coal measures1 oscillations ( sea-level dur+ =mation (1 #dbe ,cold p]iods be/ m>k$ 9 temp]ate regions1 #beh ,cold+1 ,dr41 oceanic circulation1 #ie ,confusion ( ideas 9 ref]5ce to ! ag5cy ( pol> cold1 #agi ,cont95tal ice1 inadequate conceptions (1 #che abs5ce (1 dur+ glacial epo*s ( ,coal p]iod1 #dcb ,contort$ drift ne> ,musselburgh1 #dfe ,cook1 ,capta91 description ( ,s&wi* ,l& by1 #fj on ,s\? ,georgia1 #fj ,cornwall1 /riat$ rocks (1 #dfd ,cotteswold hills1 r$ *alk f ,york%ire f\nd on1 #dei ,c\?ony1 ,mr41 on action ( iceb]gs1 #bge ,c\tts1 ,mr4 ,j41 on buri$ *annel1 #dic ,craig1 ,mr4 ,rob]t1 on int]-glacial b$s at ,ov]ton ,hillhead & ,cr(!ad1 #bdg ,craiglockh>t hill1 int]-glacial b$ (1 #bde 8,crawl+0 !ory consid]$1 #ejg 8,crevasses10 orig9 (1 accord+ to molecul> !ory1 #eba ,cretace\s p]iod1 evid5ce ( ice-action dur+1 #cjccje ,cretace\s age1 evid5ce ( w>m p]iods dur+1 #cjd ,cretace\s =mation ( ,gre5l&1 #cje ,cr(!ad1 int]-glacial b$ at1 #bdh ,crom] =e/ b$1 #bej ,crosskey1 ,rev4 ,mr41 comp>ison ( ,clyde & ,canada %ell b$s1 #ga on s\!rn %ells 9 ,clyde b$s1 #bec ,croydon1 block ( granite f\nd 9 *alk at1 #cjc ,crucial te/ ( ! w9d & gravitation !ories1 #bbj ,cry/allization1 =ce (1 a cause ( glaci]-motion1 #ebc ,curr5ts1 effects ( _! /oppage on temp]atures ( equator & poles1 #db produc$ by saltness neutralize ^? produc$ by temp]ature1 #ajf ,dalag]1 excursion 9 ,gre5l& by1 #cgh ,dana1 ,pr(essor1 on action ( iceb]gs1 #bge on /riations by iceb]gs1 #bge on ?ickness ( ice-%eet ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 #cha ,d>w91 ,mr41 on alt]nate cold & w>m p]iods1 #bca on migration ( plants & animals dur+ glacial epo*1 #cie on peat ( ,falkl& ,isl&s1 #dbb ,date ( ! #dj-;foot bea*1 #dji ,date :5 conditions 7 fav\rable to =mations ( ! ,c>se clay1 #dji ,davis' ,/raits1 curr5t (1 #acb ,dawk9s1 ,mr4 ,boyd1 on ! animals ( cave & riv] deposits1 #bea ,dawson1 ,pr9cipal1 on esk] ( ,c>bonif]\s age1 #bif on habitats ( coal plants1 #dbd ,deflection ( ocean-curr5ts *ief cause ( *ange ( climate1 #fh ,de la ,be*e1 ,sir ,h4 ,t41 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #eci ,de ,mairan1 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #ebh ,d5m>k1 cross$ by ,baltic glaci]1 #ddideb ,d5udation1 me?od ( measur+ rate (1 #cbi z a measure ( geological "t1 #cbi measur$ by s$im5t ( ,mississippi1 #ccj subarial rate (1 #cca law :i* det]m9es rate (1 #ccc m>9e1 trifl+1 #ccg ,deposition1 rates (1 g5]ally adopt$1 q arbitr>y1 #cfj rate (1 det]m9$ by rate ( d5udation1 #cfb range (1 re/rict$ to a n>r[ fr+e surr\nd+ ! cont95ts1 #cfd area (1 #cfe dur+ glacial epo* probably less ?an pres5t1 #cff ,deposits f iceb]gs _c be :olly un/ratifi$1 #dcg ,despretz1 tables by1 ( temp]ature ( maximum d5sity ( sea-wat]1 #aag ,desor1 ,m41 on tropical fauna ( ! ,eoc5e =mation 9 ,switz]l&1 #cjf ,d]by%ire1 breaks 9 lime/one (1 m>ks ( cold p]iods1 #dcd ,d]by%ire lime/one a product ( int]-glacial p]iods1 #dcd ,devon%ire1 b\ld] clay discov]$ 91 #dfc ,diagram illu/rat+ desc5t ( wat] f equator to poles1 #aee %[+ v>iations ( ecc5tricity1 #cac illu/rative ( fluidity ( int]ior ( ! e>?1 #cif %[+ =mation ( coal b$s1 #dbf ,dick1 ,mr41 *alk fl9ts 9 b\ld] clay1 #ded ,dick1 ,mr4 ,r41 on buri$ *annel1 #dia ,diff]5ce ( level ess5tial to gravitation !ory1 #agf ,dilatation ( sea-wat] by increase ( temp]ature calculat$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 #aaf ,disco di/rict1 ,dr4 ,r4 ,br[n cit$ on ,mioc5e b$s (1 #caj ,disco ,isl&1 ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod (1 #cjgcjh ,di/ribution1 h[ effect$ by ocean-curr5ts1 #bca ,dove1 ,pr(essor1 me?od ( con/ruct+ normal temp]ature tables by1 #dj on mean annual temp]ature1 #dja ,dov]1 mass ( coal imb$d$ 9 *alk f\nd at1 #cjc ,drayson1 ,lieut5ant-,colonel1 on obliquity ( ecliptic1 #daj ,drayson1 ,lieut5ant-,colonel1 !ory ( ! cause ( ! glacial epo*1 #daj ,drift1 exam9ation by bor+s1 #dfg ,drumry1 deep surface deposits at1 #dhb ,dubuat's1 ,m41 exp]im5ts1 #ahb exp]im5ts by1 on wat] fl[+ d[n an incl9e1 #abj ,duncan1 ,capta91 on "u curr5t 9 ,davis' ,/rait1 #acd ,drnt5 lignite b$s1 #bdj ,drnt5 b$s an example ( int]-glacial coal =mation1 #dcc ,durham1 buri$ riv] *annel at1 #dhh ,e>?'s axis ( rotation p]man5t1 #g ,e>?1 mean temp]ature (1 increas$ by wat] at equator1 #cj n habitable )\t ocean-curr5ts1 #ed mean temp]ature (1 greate/ 9 aphelion1 #gg1 #gh c5tre ( gravity (1 effects ( ice-cap on1 #cgj1 #cga ,ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 ,mr4 ,/ockwell's rese>*es reg>d+1 #ed prim>y cause ( *ange ( climate1 #ed prim>y cause ( glacial epo*s1 #gg h[ x affects ! w9ds1 #bbh tables (1 #cadcba its influ5ce on temp]ature1 #cbc explanation ( tables (1 #cbd ,de ,m>ian1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #ebh ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,h]s*el1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #ebi p9us1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #ebi ,r4 ,kirwan1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #ebi ( planet>y orbits1 sup]ior limits z det]m9$ by ,lagrange1 ,lev]ri]1 & ,mr4 ,/ockwell1 #eca ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #ebi1 #ece ,m4 ,arago1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #ecf ,b>on ,humboldt1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #ech ,sir ,h4 ,t4 de la ,be*e1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #eci ,pr(essor ,phillips1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #eci ,mrs4 ,som]ville1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #edj ,l4 ,w4 ,mee*1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #edj ,mr4 ,r4 ,bakewell1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #edj ,m4 ,jean ,reynaud1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #eda ,m4 ,adhm>1 on influ5ce (1 on climate1 #edb ,equator1 r$uction ( level by d5udation1 #ccf ,ecliptic1 suppos$ effect ( a *ange ( obliquity (1 #h *anges (1 effects on climate1 #cihdag obliquity (1 ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson on1 #daj ,em]g5ce1 physical cause (1 #cfh ,engl&1 int]-glacial b$s (1 #bdi glacial orig9 ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one (1 #bid ice-action dur+ ,p]mian p]iod 91 #bih ,nor? (1 ice-%eet (1 #def ice-%eet ( ,s\? (1 #dfc ,eoc5e p]iod1 total abs5ce ( fossils 9 flys*1 #bhf glacial epo* (1 #cje ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e p]iods1 date (1 #ceg ,equator1 heat receiv$ p] squ>e mile at1 #bf temp]ature ( e>? increas$ by wat] at1 #cj & poles1 effects ( /oppage ( curr5ts on temp]ature (1 #db surface-curr5ts w>m] ?an ! "u curr5ts1 #ib heat transf]r$ by curr5ts f s\!rn hemisph]e comp>$ ) t receiv$ by l& at1 #ic temp]ature s\nd+s at1 #aai temp]ature ( sea at1 decreases mo/ rapidly at ! surface1 #aai heat receiv$ by ! ?ree zones comp>$ ) t receiv$ by !1 #aid migration across1 #bcd glaciation (1 #bcd ,equatorial curr5t1 displacem5t (1 #bbi ,erratic blocks 9 /ratifi$ rocks1 evid5ce ( =m] l&-ice1 #bfi 9 *alk1 #cjd :y n f\nd 9 coal /rata1 #dcb ,erratics ext5d fur!r s\? 9 ,am]ica ?an 9 ,europe1 #gb ,e!ridge1 ,r41 jun41 on glacial conglom]ate 9 ,au/ralia ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one age1 #bie ,europe1 influ5ce ( ,gulf-/ream on climate (1 #ca effect ( deflection ( ,gulf-/ream on condition (1 #fh glacial condition (1 if ,gulf-/ream 0 /opp$1 #ga riv] sy/ems (1 unalt]$ s9ce glacial p]iod1 #cic ,f>aday1 ,pr(essor1 on cause ( regelation1 #eed ,f>oe ,isl&s glaciat$ by l&-ice f ,sc&9avia1 #dej ,f]rel1 ,mr41 on ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory1 #abf argum5t f ! tides1 #ahd ,f9dlay1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,g41 objection by1 consid]$1 #ca1 #bjc e/imate ( heat convey$ by ,gulf-/ream1 #bjf ,fi%]1 ,rev4 ,o41 on ! trail ( ,norwi*1 #bea on glacial subm]g5ce1 #chg ,fitzroy1 ,admiral1 on temp]ature ( ,atlantic1 #cf ,fluid molecules cry/allize 9 int]/ices1 #ebc ,fluvio-m>9e b$s ( ,norwi*1 #bej 8,flys*0 ( ,eoc5e p]iod1 abs5ce ( fossils 91 #bhf ( ,switz]l& ( glacial orig91 #cjf ,fogs prev5t ! sun's heat f melt+ ice & sn[ 9 arctic regions1 #fj ,=bes1 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d41 me?od adopt$ by1 ( asc]ta9+ temp]atures1 #dh on temp]ature ( equator & poles1 #dh on ! conductivity ( diff]5t k9ds ( rock1 #hf on und]gr\nd temp]ature1 #hf exp]im5ts by1 on ! p[] ( diff]5t rocks to /ore up heat1 #hf ,=e/ b$ ( ,crom]1 #bej ,=m] glacial p]iods1 #bffcaj :y s little kn[n (1 #bff geological evid5ce (1 #bib ,france1 evid5ce ( ice-action dur+ ,c>bonif]\s p]iod 91 #bif ,fras]burgh1 glaciation (1 #dej cross$ by ,nor? ,sea ice1 #ded ,fundam5tal problem ( geology1 #a ,ganges1 am\nt ( s$im5t convey$ by1 #cca ,gases1 radiation (1 #ch ,ga/aldi1 ,m41 on ! ,mioc5e glacial epo* ( ,italy1 #cjf ,geikie1 ,pr(essor1 on geological ag5cies1 #a on int]-glacial b$s ( ,scotl&1 #bdc rem>ks on int]-glacial b$s1 #bde on /riat$ pavem5ts1 #bef on ice-m>k+s on ,sc&9avian coa/1 #bha /riat$ /ones f\nd 9 c>bonif]\s conglom]ate by1 #bif on s$im5t ( ,european riv]s1 #ccb on mod]n d5udation1 #ccb sugge/ion reg>d+ ! loess1 #deb on /riation ( ,cai?ness1 #dec on buri$ *annel at ,*apelhall1 #dia & ,mr4 ,james1 on glacial conglom]ate ( ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s age1 #bif ,geikie1 ,mr4 ,james1 on ,cr(!ad int]-glacial b$1 #bdh on ! gravels ( ,switz]l&1 #bfh on difficulty ( recognis+ =m] glacial p]iods1 #bhi on ,cambrian conglom]ate ( nor?-we/ ( ,scotl&1 #bic on ice-action 9 ,ayr%ire dur+ ,silurian p]iod1 #bic on b\ld] conglom]ate ( ,su!rl&1 #cja on buri$ *annels1 #dib ,geogr4 ,mit!ilung51 li/ ( pap]s 91 relat+ to arctic regions1 #eef ,geological ag5cies climatic1 #b ,geological pr9ciple1 nature (1 #d ,geological climates1 !ories (1 #f ,geological "t1 #caacei measurable f a/ronomical data1 #caa :y x has be5 ov]-e/imat$1 #cbe me?od ( measur+1 #cbh1 #cbi ,pr(essor ,ramsay on1 #cdc ,geology1 fundam5tal problem (1 #a a dynamical sci5ce1 #e & a/ronomy1 suppos$ analogy betwe51 #cee ,g]man ,pol> ,exp$ition on d5sity ( pol> wat]1 #aea li/ ( pap]s relat+ to1 #eef ,g]man ,ocean once dry l&1 #dgi ,g]many1 ,pr(essor ,ramsay on ,p]mian breccia (1 #cjj ,gibralt> curr5t1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory (1 #afg cause (1 #bae ,glacial conditions increas$ by reaction ( v>i\s physical causes1 #ge rea* maximum :5 w9t] sol/ice arrives at aphelion1 #gg ,glacial epo*1 date (1 #cbg circum/ances :i* %[ rec5t date (1 #cda ,mr4 ,belt's !ory ( cause (1 #dae ,glacial epo*s dep5d5t ^u deflection ( ocean-curr5ts1 #fh caus$ prim>ily by ecc5tricity1 #gg :y s little kn[n (1 =m]ly1 #bff b\ld] clays ( =m]1 :y s r>e1 #bfi geological evid5ce ( =m]1 #bib ,glacial p]iod 9 ,am]ica m sev]e ?an 9 ,we/]n ,europe1 #gc mean temp]ature ( ! e>? greate/ at aphelion dur+1 #gh records (1 fa/ disappe>+1 #bgj ( ! ,eoc5e =mation1 #cje ,glacial p]iods1 indirect evid5ce (1 9 ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e =mations1 #bhg difficulty ( det]m9+1 f fossil rema9s1 #bhi ,glacial subm]g5ce result+ f displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 #chi ,glaciation a cause ( subm]g5ce1 #cij rema9s (1 f\nd *iefly on l& surfaces1 #bfg ( ,sc&9avia inexplicable by !ory ( local glaci]s1 #ddh ,glaci] des ,bois1 #dig ,glaci]-motion1 ,canon ,moseley's !ory (1 #ejg ,pr(essor ,james ,?omson's !ory (1 #eab ,m4 ,*>p5ti]'s !ory (1 #eac molecul>1 #eaf ,glaci]-motion1 pres5t /ate ( ! "q1 #ead molecul> !ory (1 #eadebg heat necess>y to1 #eae due to =ce ( cry/allization1 #ebc due *iefly to int]nal molecul> pressure1 #ebc ,glaci]s1 pressure ex]t$ by1 #bgd physical cause ( ! motion (1 #dieebg difficulties 9 acc\nt+ = motion (1 #die ,glasg[1 actual ,janu>y temp]ature (1 #bh above normal1 #gb ,godw9-,au/51 ,mr41 on ice-action dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod 9 ,france1 #bif on evid5ce ( ice-action dur+ ,cretace\s p]iod1 #cjc on mass ( coal f\nd 9 *alk at ,dov]1 #cjd on ! flatness ( ! l& dur+ ,coal p]iod1 #dcj ,go?l&1 glaciation (1 #ddf ,grangem\?1 buri$ riv] *annel at1 #dfh surface-drift (1 #dhd ,gravitation1 ! :ole "w (1 p]=m$ by desc5t ( wat] d[n ! slope1 #aed ( sun's mass1 #cdh insuffici5t to acc\nt = sun's heat1 #cdi1 #cej ,gravitation !ory1 its relation to ! !ory ( ,secul> *anges ( climate1 #ig ?ree modes ( det]m9+ x1 #aae me*anics (1 #ade ( ! ,gibralt> curr5t1 #afg inadequacy (1 #aia crucial te/ (1 #bbj ( ! sun's heat1 #cdfcee ,gravity1 =ce (1 impell+ wat] f equator to poles1 #aai1 #abj =ce (1 ins5sible at a %ort di/ance bel[ ! surface1 #abj "w p]=m$ by1 #aej diagram illu/rat+ ! action (1 9 produc+ curr5ts1 #aee am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by1 due solely to diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 equatorial & pol> wat]s1 #afd specific diff]5ce 91 betwe5 wat] ( ,atlantic & ,m$it]ranean insuffici5t to produce curr5ts1 #afi c5tre (1 displacem5t1 by pol> ice-cap1 #cfh ,gre5l&1 summ] w>m if free f ice1 #ei receives z mu* heat 9 summ] z ,engl&1 #ff cont95tal ice free f clay or mud1 #bhd ,nor?1 w>m climate dur+ ,oolitic p]iod 91 #cjb ,cretace\s =mation (1 #cje ,gre5l&1 evid5ce ( w>m conditions dur+ ,mioc5e p]iod 91 #cjg ,pr(essor ,he] cit$ on ,mioc5e flora (1 #cjh1 #cji /ate (1 dur+ glacial p]iod1 #bei effect ( removal ( ice f1 #bfj ,gre5l& ice-%eet1 probable ?ickness (1 #cgh invad$ ! ,am]ican cont95t1 #dde ,gre5l& inl& ice1 #cgi ,gulf-/ream1 e/imate ( its volume1 #bd ,unit$ ,/ates' coa/ survey (1 #bd absolute am\nt ( heat convey$ by1 #be1 #bf heat convey$ by1 comp>$ ) t c>ri$ by arial curr5ts1 #bg heat convey$ by1 comp>$ ) t receiv$ by ! frigid zone f ! sun1 #bg influ5ce on climate ( ,europe1 #ca effici5cy (1 due to ! sl[ness ( its motion1 #cb climate ( ,brita9 influ5c$ by s\?-ea/]n portion (1 #cc heat convey$ by1 comp>$ ) t d]iv$ by temp]ate regions f ! sun1 #cd heat (1 express$ 9 foot-p\nds ( en]gy1 #ce mean temp]ature ( ,atlantic increas$ "o-f\r? by1 #cf ! only curr5t t c heat arctic regions1 #de influ5ce (1 on climate ( arctic regions1 #de ! comp5sat+ w>m curr5t1 #df palontological objections to influ5ce (1 #ec ag5cies :i* deflect !1 9 glacial p]iods1 #fi result1 if /opp$1 #ga l>ge portion ( ! heat d]iv$ f s\!rn hemisph]e1 #id ,lieut4 ,maury on propulsion (1 by specific gravity1 #ajb contradictory nature (1 ! causes suppos$ by ,lieut4 ,maury = !1 #aaj high] temp]ature (1 consid]$ by ,lieut4 ,maury z ! real cause ( its motion1 #aaa am\nt ( heat convey$ by1 n ov]-e/imat$1 #aig am\nt ( heat convey$ by1 #aib am\nt ( heat convey$ by1 comp>$ ) t by g5]al oceanic circulation1 #aid heat convey$ by1 comp>$ ) t receiv$ by torrid zone f ! sun1 #aid heat convey$ by1 into ,arctic ,ocean comp>$ ) t receiv$ by x f ! sun1 #aie ,capt4 ,n>es's obs]vations (1 #aih ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s e/imate ( ! !rmal "w (1 #aii ,gulf-/ream1 volume & temp]ature (1 accord+ to ,mr4 ,a4 ,g4 ,f9dlay1 #bjc1 #bjf errone\s notion reg>d+ dep? (1 #bjg li/ ( pap]s relat+ to1 #eef ,haughton1 ,pr(essor1 on rec5t trees 9 arctic regions1 #bfc on fragm5ts ( granite 9 c>bonif]\s lime/one1 #bif on coal b$s ( arctic regions1 #bih on ,ammonites ( ,oolitic p]iod 9 arctic regions1 #cjc ,hayes1 ,dr41 on ,gre5l& ice-%eet1 #cgi ,heat receiv$ f ! sun p] day1 #bf receiv$ by temp]ate regions f ! sun1 #cd radiant1 absorb$ by ice rema9s ins5sible1 #fj sun's1 am\nt (1 /or$ up 9 gr\nd1 #hg transf]r$ f s\!rn to nor!rn hemisph]e1 #ic int]nal1 suppos$ influ5ce (1 #agf receiv$ by ! ?ree zones comp>$ ) t receiv$ by ! equator1 #aid am\nt radiat$ f ! sun1 #cdf receiv$ by pol> regions #aa1gjj ye>s ago1 #djc necess>y to glaci]-motion1 #eae h[ transmitt$ ?r\gh ice1 #eag ,heat-vibrations1 nature (1 #edd ,hea?1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,d41 on glacial subm]g5ce1 #chg ,he]1 ,pr(essor1 on ,drnt5 lignite b$s1 #bda on ,mioc5e flora ( ,gre5l&1 #cjhcaj on ,mioc5e flora ( ,spitzb]g51 #cji ,hills1 ice-m>k+s on summits (1 z evid5ce ( cont95tal ice1 #deh ,helmholtz's gravitation !ory ( sun's heat1 #cdh ,h5d]son1 ,mr4 ,john1 on int]-glacial b$ at ,r$hall qu>ry1 #bdg ,h]s*el1 ,sir ,john1 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity1 #aa e/imate ( ! ,gulf-/ream by1 #be on ! am\nt ( ! sun's heat1 #bf on inadequacy ( specific gravity to produce ocean-curr5ts1 #aaf 8 objections to specific gravity n accept$1 #aag on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #ebi ,home1 ,mr4 ,milne1 on buri$ riv] *annels1 #dgh ,hook]1 ,sir ,w41 on tree dug up by ,capt4 ,bel*]1 #bfd ,hook]1 ,dr41 on prepond]ance ( f]ns among coal plants1 #dba ,horne1 ,mr4 ,j41 on conglom]ates ( ,isle ( ,man1 #bie ,hoxne1 int]-glacial b$ (1 #bda ,hudson's ,bay1 l[ mean temp]ature (1 9 ,june1 #fb ,hull1 ,pr(essor1 on ice-action dur+ ,p]mian age 9 ,irel&1 #bii on equable temp]ature ( ,coal p]iod1 #dba on e/u>9e orig9 ( coal measures1 #dbd ,hull1 buri$ *annel at1 #dhi ,humboldt1 ,b>on1 on loss ( heat f radiation1 #hb on rate ( gr[? ( coal1 #dbi on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #ech ,humphreys & ,abbot on s$im5t ( ,mississippi1 #ccj ,ice1 lat5t heat (1 #fj ,ice1 effects ( removal (1 f pol> regions1 #fd heat absorb$ by1 employ$ :olly 9 me*anical "w1 #fj slope necess>y = motion ( cont95tal1 #cge does n %e> 9 ! solid /ate1 #eaf h[ heat is transmitt$ ?r\gh1 #eag h[ x c asc5d a slope1 #ebe h[ x c excavate a rock bas91 #ebe ,iceb]gs d n /riate sea-bottom1 #bgb m>k+s made by1 are soon effac$1 #bgc ex]t+ little pressure p]=m little "w1 #bgc behavi\r (1 :5 /r&$1 #bgd action (1 on sea-bottoms1 #bgd rocks gr\nd smoo?1 b n /riat$ by1 #bgf /ones seldom se5 on1 #bha evid5ce (1 9 ,mioc5e =mation ( ,italy1 #cjg comp>ative ?ickness ( arctic & ant>ctic1 #cha great ?ickness ( ant>ctic1 #chb ,ice-cap1 effects (1 on ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 #cfi probable ?ickness ( ant>ctic1 #cge evid5ce f iceb]gs z to ?ickness ( ant>ctic1 #chcche ,ice-m>k+s1 mod]n1 obs]v$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 #bhj ,ice-%eet1 probable ?ickness ( 9 ,gre5l&1 #chj ( nor? ( ,engl&1 #def ,ice-worn pebbles f\nd on summit ( ,all]muir1 #dda ,icel&1 lignite ( ,mioc5e age 91 #cjh probably glaciat$ by l&-ice f ,nor? ,gre5l&1 #dea ,india1 evid5ces ( glacial action ( ,c>bonif]\s age 91 #big ,indian ,ocean1 l[ temp]ature at bottom1 #abc ,int]nal heat1 no influ5ce on climate1 #f suppos$ influ5ce (1 #agf ,int]-tropical regions1 great] portion ( moi/ure falls z ra91 #bi ,int]-glacial b$ at ,slitrig1 #bdc at ,*apelhall1 #bdd ( ,craiglockh>t hill1 #bde at ,kilmaurs1 #bdh ,int]-glacial b$s1 ,pr(essor ,geikie on1 #bdc ( ,drnt51 #bdj ( ,scotl&1 #bdc ( ,engl&1 #bdi at ,norwi*1 #bej evid5ce (1 f bor+s1 #bed ,int]-glacial "* ( cave & riv] deposits1 #bea ,int]-glacial climate dur+ ,old ,r$ ,s&/one p]iod 9 arctic regions1 #bie ,int]-glacial p]iods1 #bcf reason :y ov]look$1 #bcg ( ,switz]l&1 #bci evid5ce (1 f %ell-b$s1 #beb evid5ce f /riat$ pavem5ts (1 #bee reasons :y s few ve/iges rema9 (1 #beg 9 arctic regions1 #behbfe ( ,silurian age 9 arctic regions1 #bic ( ,c>bonif]\s age 9 arctic regions1 #big ( ,eoc5e =mation 9 ,switz]l&1 #cjf =mation ( coal dur+1 #dbj l5g? (1 indicat$ by ?ickness ( coal-seams1 #dbh ,+lefield1 ,capta91 erect trees f\nd 9 ,gre5l& by1 #cji ,irel&1 on ice-action dur+ ,p]mian age 91 #bii ,isbi/]1 ,mr41 on c>bonif]\s lime/one ( arctic regions1 #big ,islay1 ,cambrian conglom]ate (1 #bib ,italy1 glacial epo* ( ,mioc5e p]iod 91 #cjf ,jack1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,l41 on deflection ( ice across ,engl&1 #dfa ,jamieson1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,f41 on b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness1 #dce op9ion t ,cai?ness 0 glaciat$ by float+ ice1 #dcg on ?ickness ( ice 9 ! nor? ,highl&s1 #dci glaciation ( headl& ( ,fras]burgh1 #dej1 #dee ,janu>y temp]ature ( ,glasg[ & ,cumb]l&1 diff]5ce betwe51 #gb ,jeffreys1 ,mr4 ,gwyn1 on ,sw$i% glacial %ell b$s1 #bec ,john/on1 ,dr4 ,a4 ,kei?1 on coa/-l9e ( ! globe1 #ccg ,j\le's1 ,dr41 exp]im5ts on ! !rmal effect ( t5sion1 #eeb ,judd1 ,mr41 on b\ld]s ( ,jurassic age 9 ! ,highl&s1 #cjb ,jukes1 ,mr41 on w>m climate ( ,nor? ,gre5l& dur+ ,oolitic p]iod1 #cjb ,july1 :y hott] ?an ,june1 #hi ,kane1 ,dr41 on mean temp]ature ( ,von ,r5ssela] ,h>b\r1 #fb ,k>oo b$s1 glacial "* (1 #cja evid5ce ( subtropical dur+ deposition (1 #cja ,kelv91 anci5t b$ (1 #dha ,kiels51 ,mr41 excursion ^u ,gre5l& ice-%eet1 by1 #cgh ,kilm\rs1 int]-glacial b$ at1 #bdh ,kirwan1 ,ri*>d1 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #ebi ,kyles ( ,bute1 s\!rn %ell b$ 91 #bec ,labrador1 mean temp]ature (1 = ,janu>y1 #gb ,mr4 ,pack>d on glacial ph5om5a (1 #bhb ,lagrange1 ,m41 on ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 #ed table ( sup]ior limits ( ecc5tricity1 #eca ,l& at equator w\ld reta9 ! heat at equator1 #cj radiates heat fa/] ?an wat]1 #ia elevation (1 w n expla9 glacial epo*1 #cia subm]g5ce & em]g5ce dur+ glacial epo*1 #cfhcig successive upheavals & depressions (1 #cia ,l&-ice necess>ily ex]ts enorm\s pressure1 #bgd evid5ce ( =m]1 f erratic blocks on /ratifi$ deposits1 #bfi ,l&-surfaces1 rema9s ( glaciation f\nd *iefly on1 #bfg 7anci5t7 sc>city (1 #bfh ,laplace1 ,m41 on obliquity ( ecliptic1 #cih ,laughton1 ,mr41 on cause ( ,gibralt> curr5t1 #bae ,lei? ,walk1 int]-glacial b$ at1 #bdf ,lev]ri]1 ,m41 on sup]ior limit ( ecc5tricity1 #ed on obliquity ( ecliptic1 #cih table1 by1 ( sup]ior limits ( ecc5tricity1 #eca =mul1 (1 #cab ,lignite b$s ( ,drnt51 #bdj ,loess1 orig9 (1 #deb ,london1 temp]ature (1 rais$ #dj degrees by ,gulf-/ream1 #dc ,lomonds1 ice-worn pebbles f\nd on1 #dci ,lubbock1 ,sir ,j41 on cave & riv] deposits1 #beb ,lucy1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c41 on glaciation ( ,we/ ,som]set1 #dfc on nor!rn d]ivation ( drift on ,cotteswold hills1 #dfj ,lyell's1 ,sir ,c41 !ory ( ! effect ( di/ribution ( l& & wat]1 #h on action ( riv]-ice1 #bhj on tropical "* ( ! fauna ( ! ,cretace\s =mation1 #cje on w>m conditions dur+ ,mioc5e p]iod 9 ,gre5l&1 #cjg on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity1 #cbd on s$im5t ( ,mississippi1 #cca on comp>ison ( exi/+ rocks ) ^? remov$1 #cfb on subm]g$ areas dur+ ,t]ti>y p]iod1 #cib on *ange ( obliquity ( ecliptic1 #dah on climate be/ adapt$ = coal plants1 #dbj on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #ebi1 #ece ,mack9to%1 ,mr41 obs]vations on ! glaciation ( ,wa/dale ,crag1 #deg ,magellan1 ,/raits (1 temp]ature at midsumm]1 #fa ,mahony1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,a41 on ,cr(!ad int]-glacial b$1 #bdh ,ml> ,lake cross$ by ice1 #ddg ,man1 ,isle (1 ,mr4 ,cumm+ on glacial orig9 ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one (1 #bid ,m>s1 unc]ta9ty z to its climatic condition1 #hj objection f pres5t condition (1 #gi ,m>9e d5udation trifl+1 #ccg ,m>kham1 ,clem5ts1 on d5sity ( ,gulf-/ream wat]1 #abi on motion ( iceb]gs 9 ,davis' ,/raits1 #acc ,m>t9s's1 ,pr(essor ,*>les1 objections1 #gi ,ma!ws1 ,mr41 on ,canon ,moseley's exp]im5t1 #dii ,maury1 ,lieut5ant1 8 e/imate ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 #be 8 !ory exam9$1 #ie on temp]ature z a cause ( diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 #ajb on diff]5ce ( saltness z a cause ( ocean-curr5ts1 #ajc discussion ( 8 views ( ! causes ( ocean-curr5ts1 #ajd 8 objection to w9d !ory ( ocean-curr5ts1 #baa ,mc,clure1 ,capta91 discov]y ( anci5t =e/ 9 ,banks's ,l&1 #bfa ,me*am1 ,lieut5ant1 discov]y ( rec5t trees 9 ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&1 #bfa ,me*anics ( gravitation !ory1 #ade ,m$it]ranean %ells 9 glacial %ell b$ ( ,udevalla1 #bec %ells 9 glacial b$s at ,gre5ock1 #bed ,mee*1 ,mr41 on am\nt ( sun's rays cut (f by ! atmosph]e1 #bf on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #edj ,melville ,isl&1 summ] temp]ature (1 #fe discov]y ( rec5t trees 91 #bfb plants f\nd 9 coal (1 #bih ,m] de ,glace1 ,pr(essor ,tyndall's obs]vations on1 #dih ,meteoric !ory ( sun's heat1 #cdg ,me?od ( measur+ rate ( d5udation1 #cbi ,mill]1 ,hugh1 on abs5ce ( hills 9 ! l& ( ! ,coal p]iod1 #dca ,migration ( plants & animals1 h[ influ5c$ by ocean-curr5ts1 #bca across equator1 #bcd ,milli*51 rem>kable section ( drift at1 #dhc ,mioc5e glacial p]iod1 #bhf ,mioc5e p]iod1 glacial epo* (1 9 ,italy1 #cjf ,mioc5e1 w>m p]iod (1 9 ,gre5l&1 #cjg ,mioc5e & ,eoc5e p]iods1 date (1 #ceg ,mississippi1 am\nt ( s$im5t 91 #ccj volume (1 #ccj ,mit*ell1 ,mr41 on cause ( ,gulf-/ream1 #aca ,molecul> !ory ( orig9 ( ,crevasses10 #eba modification (1 #ebc ,moore1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,c>rick1 on ice-action ( ,silurian age 9 ,wigt[n%ire1 #bic ,moore1 ,mr4 ,*>les1 on groov$ rocks 9 ,ba? di/rict1 #dfd ,morlot1 ,m41 on int]-glacial p]iods ( ,switz]l&1 #bdj ,moseley1 ,canon1 exp]im5t to det]m9e unit ( %e>1 #dih on motion ( glaci]s1 #dih unit ( %e> unc]ta91 #ejd 8 !ory exam9$1 #ejg ,motion ( ! sea1 h[ communicat$ to a great dep?1 #acf ,motion 9 space1 orig9 ( sun's heat1 #cec ,mhry1 ,m41 on circumpol> bas91 #acc1 #eef ,mundsley1 fre%wat] b$s (1 #bej ,muncke on ! expansion ( sea-wat]1 #aah ,mur*ison1 ,sir ,r41 on s\!rn %ells at ,worce/]1 #bec on trees 9 arctic regions1 #bfb on /riation ( isl&s 9 ! ,baltic1 #ddh ,murphy's1 ,mr41 !ory1 #ff ,musselburgh1 section ( contort$ drift ne>1 #dfe ,n>es1 ,capta91 on l[ temp]ature ( ant>ctic regions1 #fd discov]y ( great dep? ( w>m wat] 9 ,nor? ,atlantic1 #aih e/imate ( volume & temp]ature ( ,gulf-/ream1 #aih temp]ature s\nd+s by1 #aai1 #bbb !rmal condition ( ,s\!rn ,ocean1 #bbe ,natal1 b\ld] clay (1 #cjj ,newb]ry1 ,pr(essor1 on int]-glacial peat-b$ ( ,ohio1 #bdi on b\ld] ( qu>tzite f\nd 9 seam ( coal1 #bif ,ni*olson1 ,dr41 on ,wa/dale ,crag1 #deg ,nicol1 ,pr(essor1 on int]-glacial buri$ *annel1 #bdd ,nord5skjld1 ,pr(essor1 on inl& ice ( ,gre5l&1 #cgi ,nor? ,sea r5d]$ %all[ by drift deposits1 #ddc ,nor!rn seas probably fill$ ) l&-ice dur+ glacial p]iod1 #dch ,nor!rn hemisph]e1 condition (1 :5 depriv$ ( heat f ocean-curr5t1 #fh ,norway1 s\!rn species 9 glacial %ell b$s1 #bec ,norwi* ,crag1 its glacial "*1 #bdi ,norwi* fluvio-m>9e b$s1 #bej ,norwi* int]-glacial b$s1 #bej ,obliquity ( ecliptic1 its effects on climate1 #cihdai *ange (1 influ5ce on sea-level1 #djc ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson on1 #daj ,mr4 ,belt on *ange (1 #dae ,sir ,*>les ,lyell on *ange (1 #dah ,ocean1 imp]fect conception ( its area1 #ace condition (1 inconsi/5t ) ! gravitation !ory1 #acf l[ temp]ature at bottom a result ( "u curr5ts1 #adb circulation1 pressure z a cause (1 #ahg antiquity (1 #cfg ,ocean-curr5ts1 absolute heat+ p[] (1 #bc influ5ce (1 on normal temp]atures ov]look$1 #dj maximum effects (1 rea*$ at equator & poles1 #di comp5satory at only "o po9t1 #di heat+ effects (1 greate/ at ! poles1 #ej cool+ effects (1 greate/ at equator1 #ej e>? n habitable )\t1 #ea result ( deflection into ,s\!rn ,ocean1 #fh palontological objections aga9/ influ5ce (1 #ec deflection (1 ! *ief cause ( *anges ( climate1 #fh h[ deflect$ by ecc5tricity1 #fi deflect$ by trade-w9ds1 #gj temp]ature ( s\!rn hemisph]e l[]$ by transf]5ce ( heat to nor!rn hemisph]e by1 #ib take _! rise 9 ! ,s\!rn ,ocean1 #ib cause (1 nev] specially exam9$ by physici/s1 #ie if due to specific gravity1 /ronge/ on cold hemisph]e1 #ig if due to ecc5tricity1 /ronge/ on w>m hemisph]e1 #ig if due to specific gravity1 act only by desc5t1 #ii mode by :i* specific gravity causes1 #ajj1 #aja ! true me?od ( e/imat+ ! am\nt ( heat convey$ by1 #bjg due to sy/em ( w9ds1 #bab sy/em (1 agrees ) ! sy/em ( ! w9ds1 #bac h[ !y mutually int]sect1 #bai 9 relation to climate1 #bbf direction (1 dep5ds on direction ( w9ds1 #bbg causes :i* deflect1 affect climate1 #bbh 9 relation to di/ribution ( plants & animals1 #bca effects (1 on ,gre5l& dur+ glacial p]iod1 #bfj p9us on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #ebi ,ohio int]-glacial b$s1 #bdi ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 evid5ce ( ice-action 9 conglom]ate (1 #bid1 #bie ,oolite ( ,su!rl&%ire1 #ded ,oolitic p]iod1 evid5ce ( ice-action dur+1 #cjacjc w>m climate 9 ,nor? ,gre5l& dur+1 #cjb ,organic rema9s1 abs5ce (1 9 glacial conglom]ate ( ,upp] ,mioc5e p]iod1 #bhf ,organic life1 paucity (1 a *>act]i/ic ( glacial p]iods1 #bhg ,orkney ,isl&s1 glaciat$ by l&-ice1 #ddd ,osborne1 ,capta91 rem>ks on rec5t =e/ trees 9 arctic regions1 #bfb1 #bfc ,oudemans1 ,dr41 on planet ,m>s1 #hj ,ov]ton ,qu>ry1 int]-glacial b$ 91 #bdg ,pacific ,ocean1 dep? (1 #adg ,pack>d1 ,mr41 on glacial ph5om5a ( ,labrador1 #bhb ,page1 ,pr(essor1 on temp]ate climate ( ,coal p]iod1 #dbb on "* ( coal plants1 #dba on old wat]c\rse at ,hailes qu>ry1 #dij ,palontological objections aga9/ influ5ce ( ocean-curr5ts1 #ec ,palontological evid5ce ( la/ glacial p]iod1 #bhe ,p>ry1 ,capta91 discov]y ( rec5t trees 9 ,melville ,isl& by1 #bfb ,pea*1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w41 on int]-glacial b$ at ,lei? ,walk1 #bdf on b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness1 #dcf on /riat$ rock surfaces 9 ,cornwall1 #dfd ,pea*1 ,mr4 ,b4 ,n41 on /riation ( ,cai?ness1 #dec ,p5gelly1 ,mr4 ,w41 on rais$ bea*es1 #djg ,p]igee1 ne>ness ( sun 91 cause ( sn[ & ice1 #gd ,p]ihelion1 w>m conditions at maximum :5 w9t] sol/ice is at1 #gg ,p]mian p]iod1 evid5ce ( ice-action 91 #bihcjc ,p]?%ire hills1 ice-worn surfaces at elevations ( #b1bjj feet on !1 #ddj ,pet]mann1 ,dr4 ,a41 on ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory1 #ach on !rmal condition ( ! sea1 #ach *>t ( ,gulf-/ream & ,pol> curr5t1 #bai ,geogr4 ,mit!ilung5 (1 li/ ( pap]s 9 relation to arctic regions1 #eef ,phillips1 ,pr(essor1 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #eci ,poisson's !ory ( hot & cold p>ts ( space1 #g ,pol> regions1 effect ( removal ( ice f1 #fd influ5ce ( ice on climate1 #fd l[ summ] temp]ature (1 #ff ,pol> cold consid]$ by ,dr4 ,c>p5t] ! primum mobile ( ocean-curr5ts1 #agc confusion ( ideas reg>d+ its influ5ce1 #ahj influ5ce (1 accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 #ahj ,pol> ice-cap1 displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity by1 #cfh ,port ,b[51 mean temp]ature (1 #fc ,portobello1 /riat$ pavem5ts ne>1 #bee1 #bef ,po/-t]ti>y =mations1 hypo!tical ?ickness (1 #cff ,p\illet1 ,m41 on ! am\nt ( ! sun's heat1 #bf on am\nt ( sun's rays cut (f by ! atmosph]e1 #bf ,pratt1 ,ar*deacon1 on glacial subm]g5ce1 #chg ,pre/wi*1 ,pr(essor1 on ,hoxne int]-glacial b$1 #bda ,pressure z a cause ( circulation1 #ahg ,pr9ciples ( geology1 nature (1 #d ,pr9ce ,patrick's ,isl&1 discov]y ( rec5t tree 91 #bfa ,radiation1 rate (1 increases ) increase ( temp]ature1 #cg ( gases1 #ch ! way by :i* ! e>? loses heat1 #ci h[ affect$ by sn[ cov]+ ! gr\nd1 #eh h[ affect$ by humid air1 #ei accel]at$ by increas$ =mation ( sn[ & ice1 #ge ,rais$ bea*es1 date (1 #djg ,mr4 ,p5gelly on1 #djg ,ramsay1 ,pr(essor1 on glacial orig9 ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,nor? ( ,engl&1 #bid on ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 #cfg on geological "t1 #cdc on ice-action dur+ ,p]mian p]iod1 #bih on b\ld]s ( ,p]mian age 9 ,natal1 #cja on ?ickness ( /ratifi$ rocks ( ,brita91 #bfg1 #cfa ,r$hall ,qu>ry1 int]-glacial b$ 91 #bdg ,r$ ,sea1 :y almo/ ra9less1 #cj ,regelation1 rationale (1 #ebj1 #eed ,pr(essor ,james ,?omson on cause (1 #eed ,pr(essor ,f>aday on cause (1 #eed ,regnault1 ,m41 on specific heat ( s&/one1 #hf ,reynaud1 ,jean1 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #eda ,rh9e1 anci5t1 b$ 9 ,g]man ,ocean1 #dhj ,ridge betwe5 ,capes ,trafalg> & ,sp>tel1 influ5ce (1 #afg ,r9k1 ,dr41 on inl& ice ( ,gre5l&1 #chj ,riv]-ice1 effect (1 #bgi ,riv]-ice does n produce /riations1 #bgi ,riv] sy/ems1 c>ry+-p[] measure ( d5udation1 #ccf ,riv] valleys1 h[ /riat$ across1 #ebe ,rob]tson1 ,mr4 ,david1 on ,cr(!ad & ,hillhead int]-glacial b$s1 #bdg1 #bdh on =am9if]a 9 r$ clay1 #dhe ,rock-bas9s1 h[ excavat$ by ice1 #ebe ,rocks remov$ by d5udation1 #cfa ,ross1 ,capt4 ,sir ,james1 on ,s\? ,%etl&1 #fa on temp]ature ( ant>ctic regions 9 summ]1 #fc ,s&wi* ,l&1 description by ,capt4 ,cook1 #fj cold summ]s (1 n due to latitude1 #fd ,salt]1 ,mr41 on c>bonif]\s fossils ( arctic regions1 #bih on w>m climate ( ,nor? ,gre5l& dur+ ,oolitic p]iod1 #cjb ,saltness ( ! ocean1 diff]5ce (1 z a cause ( motion1 #ajc 9 direct opposition to temp]ature 9 produc+ ocean-curr5ts1 #ajd ,sc&9avian ice1 track (1 #ddg ,sc&9avian ice-%eet 9 ! ,nor? ,sea1 #ddd ,scoresby1 ,dr41 on condition ( arctic regions 9 summ]1 #eh1 #fb on d5sity ( ,gulf-/ream wat]1 #abi ,scotl&1 int]-glacial b$s (1 #bdcbdi evid5ce ( ice-action 9 c>bonif]\s conglom]ate (1 #bif buri$ "u ice1 #dci ice-%eet (1 9 ,nor? ,sea1 #ddb :y ice-%eet 0 s ?ick1 #deb ,sea1 height (1 at equator above poles1 #aai rise (1 due to comb9$ effect ( ecc5tricity & obliquity1 #djc bottoms n /riat$ by iceb]gs1 #bgb ,sea & l&1 pres5t arrangem5t indisp5sable to life1 #eb ,sea-level1 oscillations (1 9 relation to di/ribution1 #cid oscillations (1 dur+ =mation ( coal measures1 #dbd rais$1 by melt+ ( ant>ctic ice-cap1 #chh influ5ce ( obliquity ( ecliptic on1 #djc ,section ( ,mid-,atlantic1 #bbb ,section across ant>ctic ice-cap1 #cgg ,s$im5t>y rocks exi/+ fragm5t>y1 #cfa ( ! globe1 mean ?ickness (1 hi!rto unkn[n1 #cfa h[ mean ?ickness might be det]m9$1 #cfb mean ?ickness (1 ov]-e/imat$1 #cfd ,%e>+-=ce ( ice1 #dif mom5t>y loss (1 #eah ,%etl& isl&s glaciat$ by l&-ice f ,sc&9avia1 #dej ,%etl&1 ,s\?1 glacial condition (1 #fa ,%ell-b$s1 evid5ce ( w>m int]-glacial p]iods f1 #beb ,%ells ( ! b\ld] clay ( ,cai?ness1 #dej ,%ore-ice1 /riations produc$ by1 9 ,bay ( ,fundy1 #bhj ,silurian p]iod1 ice-action 9 ,ayr%ire dur+1 #bic evid5ce 9 ,wigt[n%ire ( ice-action dur+1 #bic ,slitrig1 int]-glacial b$ (1 #bdc ,slope ( surface ( maximum d5sity has no p[] to produce motion1 #abj f equator to pole1 errone\s view reg>d+1 #abj ,smi?1 ,mr4 ,leigh1 temp]ature s\nd+s1 #abi ,smi?1 ,mr41 ( ,jordanhill1 on /riat$ pavem5ts1 #bef ,sn[1 h[ radiation is affect$ by1 #eh common 9 summ] 9 arctic regions1 #fb rate ( accumulation (1 increas$ by sun's rays be+ cut (f by fogs1 #ge =mation increas$ by radiation1 #ge ,som]set1 ,we/1 glaciation (1 #dfc ,som]ville1 ,mrs41 on influ5ce ( ecc5tricity on climate1 #edj ,s\? ,africa1 glaciation (1 #bdb b\ld] clay ( ,p]mian age 91 #cjj ,s\? ( ,engl& ice-%eet1 #dfc ,s\? ,%etl&1 glacial condition (1 at mid summ]1 #fa ,s\?-we/ w9ds1 heat convey$ by1 n d]iv$ f equatorial regions1 #bh heat convey$ by1 d]iv$ f ,gulf-/ream1 #bh ,s\!rn hemisph]e1 pres5t ext5sion ( ice on1 due p>tly to ecc5tricity1 #gh :y cold] ?an nor!rn1 #haib absorbs m heat ?an ! nor!rn1 #ij l[] temp]ature (1 due to ocean-curr5ts1 #ib surface curr5ts f1 w>m] ?an "u curr5ts to1 #ib glacial & int]-glacial p]iods (1 #bdb ,s\!rn ,ocean1 !rmal condition (1 #bbe ,specific gravity c act only by caus+ wat] to desc5d a slope1 #ii mode ( action 9 caus+ ocean-curr5ts1 #ajj inadequacy (1 to produce ocean-curr5ts demon/rat$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 #aaf ,spitzb]g51 ,gulf-/ream & "u curr5t at1 #acd ,mioc5e flora (1 #cji ,/ell> space1 temp]ature (1 #ce receiv$ temp]ature (1 probably too high1 #ci ,/ew>t1 ,pr(essor ,balf\r1 exp]im5t on radiation1 #cg on cause ( glacial cold1 #gi ,/irl+1 ,mr41 on old wat]c\rse ne> ,grangem\?1 #dha ,/4 ,john's ,riv]1 action ( ice on banks (1 #bgi ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 action ( ice on bank ( riv]1 #bgi ,/ockwell1 ,mr41 on ecc5tricity ( e>?'s orbit1 #ed on obliquity ( ecliptic1 #cii table ( sup]ior limits ( ecc5tricity1 #eca ,/one1 ,mr41 on ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 #cbb ,/[1 ,g4 ,w41 on glacial b$s ( ,s\? ,africa1 #bdb on ,k>oo b$s1 #cja ,/ri1 direction (1 %[ ! clay ( ,cai?ness came f ! sea1 #dcf ,/riations oblit]at$ r ?an produc$ by iceb]gs1 #bgd ,/riat$ pavem5ts :y s seldom obs]v$1 #bef evid5ce ( int]-glacial p]iods f1 #bee ,/riat$ /ones f\nd 9 conglom]ate ( ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s age by ,pr(essor ,geikie1 #bif 9 ,p]mian breccias1 #bii 9 ! glacial conglom]ate ( ! ,sup]ga1 ,tur91 #cjf ,/ratifi$ rocks may be =m$ at all possible rates1 #cfj rate ( =mation (1 z e/imat$ by ,pr(essor ,huxley1 #cfc ,/ruve1 ,m41 =mula ( obliquity ( ecliptic1 #djd ,subarial d5udation1 rate (1 #cca ,subm>9e =e/s1 #dji 7anci5t71 coal seams ! rema9s (1 #dbh ,subm]g5ce1 physical causes (1 #cfh co9cid5t ) glaciation1 #chi ( l& result+ f melt+ ( ant>ctic ice-cap1 #chi h[ affect$ by fluidity ( int]ior ( ! e>?1 #cie necess>y = pres]vation ( coal plants1 #dbc frequ5t dur+ =mation ( coal b$s1 #dbf ,subsid5ce insuffici5t to acc\nt = g5]al subm]g5ce1 #cij necess>y to accumulation ( coal seams1 #dbg ,sun suppos$ by "s to be a v>iable />1 #h maximum & m9imum di/ance (1 #ee rays (1 cut (f by fogs 9 ice-cov]$ regions1 #fj ne>ness 9 p]igee a cause ( sn[ & ice1 #gd total am\nt ( heat radiat$ f1 #cdf age & orig9 (1 #cdf s\rce ( its en]gy1 #cdg heat (1 orig9 & *ief s\rce (1 #cdi orig9ally an inc&esc5t mass1 #cej en]gy (1 may h orig9ally be5 d]iv$ f motion 9 space1 #cee ,surface curr5ts :i* cross ! equator w>m] ?an ! comp5satory "u curr5ts1 #ib ,surface curr5ts f poles to equator1 accord+ to ,maury1 produc$ by saltness1 #ajh ,su!rl&1 ,dr41 obs]vations by1 on /r&+ ( iceb]gs1 #bge te/imony1 t iceb]gs d n /riate rocks1 #bgh on ! b\ld] clay ( ,natal1 #cjj ,su!rl&1 b\ld] conglom]ate ( ,oolitic p]iod (1 #cjb ,sw$51 ,s\!rn1 %ells 9 glacial %ell b$s (1 #bec ,switz]l&1 int]-glacial p]iod (1 #bci ,m4 ,morlat on int]-glacial p]iods (1 #bdj gravels (1 by ,mr4 ,james ,geikie1 #bfh ,eoc5e glacial epo* 91 #cje ,table ( ,june temp]atures 9 diff]5t latitudes1 #fe s\nd+s 9 temp]ate regions1 #bbb ,tables ( ecc5tricity1 #cadcba ( ecc5tricity1 explanation (1 #cbb ,tay1 valley (1 /riat$ across1 #ebf anci5t buri$ *annel (1 #dij ,temp]ate regions1 cold p]iods be/ m>k$ 91 #beh ,temp]ature ( space1 #ecb reasons :y x %\ld be reconsid]$1 #ci ,temp]ature 7mean7 ( equator & poles comp>$1 #da :y s l[ 9 pol> regions dur+ summ]1 #ff h[ diff]5ce ( specific gravity is caus$ by1 #ajb high]1 ( ! wat]s ( ,gulf-/ream consid]$ by ,lieut5ant ,maury z ! real causes ( its motion1 #aaa ( sea at equator decreases mo/ rapidly at ! surface1 #aai ( ,gre5l& 9 ,mioc5e p]iod1 #caj ( poles :5 obliquity 0 at its sup]ior limit1 #djb ,t5sion1 effect (1 on ice1 #ebb ! cause ( ! cool+ effect produc$ by1 #eeb ,t]ti>y p]iod1 climate (1 error 9 reg>d to1 #bhh ,!rmal condition ( ,s\!rn ,ocean1 #bbe ,?ibet1 table-l& (1 #dah ,?omson1 ,pr(essor ,james1 on cause ( regelation1 #eed !ory ( glaci]-motion1 #eab ,?omson1 ,mr4 ,james1 on glacial conglom]ate 9 ,arran1 #bii on ice-action 9 ,cambrian conglom]ate ( ,islay1 #bib ,?omson1 ,pr(essor ,wyville1 on ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s !ory1 #abi cit$1 #acj !rmal condition ( ! sea1 #ach ,?omson1 ,sir ,w41 am\nt ( int]nal heat pass+ ?r\gh e>?'s cru/1 #adb on limit to age ( ! globe1 #cdc on influ5ce ( ice-cap on sea-level1 #cgb climate n affect$ by int]nal heat1 #f e>?'s axis ( rotation p]man5t1 #g on volume & mass ( ! sun1 #cdg ,tidal wave1 effect ( friction1 #ccf ,tides1 suppos$ argum5t f1 #ahd ,"t1 geological1 #caacei z repres5t$ by geological ph5om5a1 #cbf repres5t$ by exi/+ rocks1 #cfa ,torrid zone1 annual quantity ( heat receiv$ by1 p] unit ( surface1 #aid ,t[ncr(t f>m1 section ( *annel at1 #dgd ,t[son1 ,mr41 on iceb]gs ( ,s\!rn ,ocean1 #chc ,trade-w9ds 7anti71 heat convey$ by1 ov]-e/imat$1 #bh 7anti7 d]ive _! heat f ! ,gulf-/ream1 #cb ( w>m hemisph]e ov]borne by ^? ( cold hemisph]e1 #gj causes :i* det]m9e ! /r5g? (1 #gj /ronge/ on glaciat$ hemisph]e1 #gj reaction ^u trade-w9ds by =mation ( sn[ & ice1 #gf influ5ce (1 9 turn+ ocean-curr5ts on w>m hemisph]e1 #ig d n expla9 ! ant>ctic curr5t1 #baa ,tiddeman on ,nor? ( ,engl& ice-%eet1 #deh displacem5t (1 #bcj ,transport ( b\ld]s & rubbi% ! prop] function ( iceb]gs1 #bha ,trafalg>1 effect ( ridge betwe5 ,capes ,sp>tel & on ,gibralt> curr5t1 #afg ,turn]1 ,pr(essor1 on arctic seal f\nd at ,grangem\?1 #dhe ,tylor1 ,alfr$1 on d5udation ( ,mississippi bas91 #ccc ,tyndall1 ,pr(essor1 on heat 9 aque\s vap\r1 #bi on sift$ rays1 #dg on dia!rmancy ( air1 #ei on glacial epo*1 #gh ,udevalla1 ,m$it]ranean %ell 9 glacial %ells1 b$ (1 #bec ,"u curr5ts to s\!rn hemisph]e cold] ?an surface curr5ts f1 #ib produc$ by saltness1 fl[ f equator to poles1 #ajf acc\nt = cold wat] at equator1 #abd1 #adb 9 ,davis' ,/rait1 #acd take pa? ( lea/ resi/ance1 #acj :y consid]$ improbable1 #ace difficulty reg>d+1 obviat$1 #bag !ory (1 #bag ,und]gr\nd temp]ature1 ,pr(essor ,j4 ,d4 ,=bes on1 #hf ,und]gr\nd temp]ature ex]ts no influ5ce on ! climate1 #hh absolute am\nt ( heat d]iv$ f1 #adb suppos$ influ5ce (1 #agf ,uni=mity1 mod]n doctr9e (1 #cbe ,unit$ ,/ates' coa/ survey ( ,gulf-/ream1 #bd hydrographic dep>tm5t1 pap]s publi%$ by1 #eef ,un/ratifi$ b\ld] clay mu/ be ! product ( l&-ice1 #dcg ,upsala & ,/ockholm /riat$ by ,baltic glaci]1 #ddg ,v]tical circulation1 ,lieut5ant ,maury's !ory (1 #ajh accord+ to ,dr4 ,c>p5t]1 #aec ,v]tical desc5t ( pol> column caus$ by extra pressure ( wat] ^u x1 #aed effects (1 & slope1 ! same1 :e!r p]=m$ simultane\sly or alt]nately1 #aei ( pol> column illu/rat$ by diagram1 #afj ,v]tical di/ribution ( heat 9 ! ocean1 ,mr4 ,bu*anan's !ory1 #eej ,vogt1 ,pr(essor1 on ,drnt5 lignite b$1 #bda ,w>m hemisph]e made w>m] by increas$ reaction ( physical causes1 #gf ,w>m p]iods be/ m>k$ 9 arctic regions1 #beh 9 arctic regions1 evid5ce (1 #bfa bett] repres5t$ by fossils ?an cold p]iods1 #bhh evid5ce (1 dur+ ,cretace\s age1 #cjd ,w>m int]-glacial p]iods 9 arctic regions1 #behbfe ,wat] at equator ! be/ means ( di/ribut+ heat d]iv$ f ! sun1 #cj ,wat]1 a worse radiator ?an l&1 #ia ,wa/dale granite b\ld]s1 difficulty ( acc\nt+ = transport (1 #def ,wa/dale ,crag glaciat$ by cont95tal ice1 #deg ,weibye1 ,m41 /riation obs]v$ by1 #bhj ,wilkes1 ,lieut5ant1 on cold exp]i5c$ 9 ant>ctic regions 9 summ]1 #fc ,well+ton ,s\nd1 anci5t trees f\nd at1 #bfe ,w9t]-drift ( ice on coa/ ( ,labrador1 #bgf ,we/ w9ds1 moi/ure (1 d]iv$ f ,gulf-/ream1 #bi ,w9d1 "w 9 impell+ curr5ts1 #bai ,w9ds1 ocean-curr5ts produc$ by1 #bab sy/em (1 agrees ) ! sy/em ( ocean-curr5ts1 #bac ,w9d !ory ( oceanic circulation1 #baj crucial te/ (1 #bbj ,wigt[n%ire1 ice-action dur+ ,silurian age1 #bic ,"w p]=m$ by desc5t ( pol> column1 #aeg ,wood1 ,mr4 ,ni*olas1 on buri$ *annel1 #dhh ,wood1 ,jun41 ,mr4 ,se>les1 middle drift1 #bej on occurr5ce ( *alk dbris 9 s\?-we/ ( ,engl&1 #dfj ,woodw>d1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,b41 on b\ld] clay 9 ,devon%ire1 #dfc ,wuns*1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,a41 on glacial conglom]ate 9 ,arran1 #bii ,y>e1 anci5t buri$ *annel (1 #dhi ,"y1 ,mr4 ,j41 objection consid]$1 #dhb ,york%ire drift common 9 s\? ( ,engl&1 #dfj ,z5g]1 ,pr(essor1 on ! moon's influ5ce on climate1 #cbd ,,! ,,end4 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,virtue ,,& ,,co41 ,,city ,,road1 ,,london4 ,,! ,,great ,,ice ,,age1 ,,& ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,! ,,antiquity ,,( ,,man4 ,by ,,james ,,geikie1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 ,f4,g4,s41 c41 ( ,h4,m4 ,geological ,survey4 ,) ,maps1 ,*>ts1 & num]\s illu/rations4 ,demy #hvo1 #bds4 8,!re is a great *>m 9 ! well-balanc$ union ( cultivat$ p[]s ( obs]vation & analytical me?od1 ) consid]able imag9ation & mu* poetical feel+1 :i* runs ?r\gh ! pages ( ?is volume4444 ,we h indicat$ b imp]fectly ! philosophical _s :i* m>ks e /ep ( inquiry into ! wond]s ( ?is #8,great ,ice ,age1' & we /rongly recomm5d ! volume to all :o are prep>$ to read ?\ghtfully1 & weigh ! evid5ces ( tru? c>efully1 9 ! assurance ( f9d+ t !re are inde$1 #8,s]mons 9 ,/ones4'0--,a!num4 8,e /ep 9 ! process is trac$ ) admirable p]spicuity & fullness by ,mr4 ,geikie4444 ,?is book w m>k an epo* 9 ! sci5tific /udy ( ! ,ice ,age40--,saturday ,review4 8,! book %[s ev]y:]e ! m>ks ( acute obs]vation1 wide rese>*1 & s\nd reason+4 ,x pres5ts 9 a readable =m ! *ief features ( ! great ,ice ,age1 & illu/rates !m v amply f ^? great tracts ( ,scotl& 9 :i* glaciation has left its mo/ di/9ct & mo/ endur+ m>ks40--,spectator4 8,no "o c p]use ?is mo/ int]e/+ book )\t feel+ grateful to ,mr4 ,geikie = 8 ma/]ly summ+-up ( ! evid5ce1 & appreciat+ ! _s ( sci5tific c&\r ) :i* he /ates 8 conclusions4 ,at once 9 respect ( its matt] & its tone1 ! "w =ms a valuable contribution to our sci5tific lit]ature40--,scotsman4 8,by f> ! mo/ important contribution to ! *apt] ( ,geological inquiry t has yet appe>$4 ,we c assure our read]s t !y w f9d 9 ,mr4 ,geikie's book an admirable & satisfactory summ>y ( ! pres5t condition ( op9ion on "s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( geological que/ions :i* are "h discuss$ 9 an agreeable & readable mann]40--,we/m9/] ,review4 8,?is "w1 )\t any sacrifice ( sci5tific accuracy & complet5ess1 is s cle>1 & s free f te*nicalities1 z to be intelligible to any read] ( ord9>y education4 ,= k & comm& ( 8 subject1 = skill 9 ! arrangem5t ( 8 facts1 & = ! cle>ness ) :i* he reasons out 8 conclusions1 ,mr4 ,geikie occupies a high place z a sci5tific writ]40--,academy4 8,! mo/ compreh5sive & lucid int]pretation t has be5 giv5 ( ! ,great ,ice ,age40--,ed9burgh ,c\rant4 8,x (f]s to ! /ud5t ( geology by f> ! complete/ acc\nt ( ! p]iod yet publi%$1 & is *>act]iz$ ?r\gh\t by refre%+ vig\r ( diction & orig9ality ( ?\ght40--,glasg[ ,h]ald4 8,c be cordially recomm5d$ bo? to ! geologi/ & ! g5]al read]4 ,! explanations are s full1 & ! me?od ( h&l+ s free f te*nicality1 t ) a mod]ate am\nt ( att5tion ! book may be und]/ood1 & its reason+ foll[$1 by ^? :o _h previ\sly little or no geological k40--,nature4 ,,daldy1 ,,isbi/]1 ,,co41 #ef1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,,london4 ,,works ,,( ,,travel1 ,,sci5ce1 ,,& ,,philosophy4 ,lett]s f ,abroad4 ,by ,dean ,,al=d4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 8,z ! season approa*es1 & ! highway ( ,italian travel w be ?rong$ aga91 we are sure read]s :o contemplate a trip to ,rome & ! ,s\?1 to ,c5tral or ,nor!rn ,italy1 w f9d him a k9d1 g5ial1 & ent]ta9+ companion1 :o w %[ !m :at to see1 & h[ to see x4 ,at any "t1 /ay-at-home travell]s w read ! volume ) int]e/1 & ! descriptions ( ! s9s & %ames ( ,rome--/ill pagan ,rome--w1 we tru/1 confirm 9 _m m9ds a he>ty det]m9ation to resi/ ! adv5t ( ,romi% impo/ure 9 our own c\ntry40--,eclectic ,review4 ,! ,reign ( ,law4 ,by ! ,duke ( ,,argyll4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 ,p's ,edition 7sixte5?71 limp clo?1 #bs4 #f;d4 8,!re are few books 9 :i* a ?\ghtful read] w f9d m t he w desire to rememb]40--,times4 8,%[s a bread? ( ?\ght1 a fre$om f prejudice1 & a p[] ( cle> exposition r>e 9 all ages & all c\ntries4 ,x is z unansw]able z x is attractive40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 8,a ma/]ly book4444 ,/rong1 s\nd1 mature1 able ?\ght f its fir/ page to its la/40--,spectator4 ,primeval ,man4 ,an ,exam9ation ( ,"s ,rec5t ,speculations4 ,by ! ,duke ( ,,argyll4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #ds4 #f;d4 8,?is is p]haps ! mo/ cle>1 graceful1 po9t$1 & precise piece ( e?ical reason+ publi%$ = a qu>t] ( a c5tury4 ,its great end is to %[ t x is impossible to pursue any inve/igation ( man's hi/ory f ! purely physical side4 ,its reason+ seems z absolutely conclusive aga9/ ! uphold]s ( ! #8natural selection' !ory4 ,! book is wor?y ( a place 9 e libr>y1 z skilfully popul>is+ sci5ce1 & yet sacrific+ no?+ ei!r ( its dignity or ( its usefulness40--,noncon=mi/4 ,iona4 ,by ! ,duke ( ,,argyll4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 8,pleasantly & unaffect$ly writt51 x is well fitt$ to dis*>ge :at we take to be ! ma9 object ( su* a "w1 t ( guid+ p to a subject & sett+ !m to ?9k ab\t x4 ,we are n a%am$ to confess t we put d[n ! ,duke's little book ) a wi% to "k m ab\t ,iona & ,/4 ,columba ?an we knew :5 we began x4 ,we ?ank him = a pretty little book40--,saturday ,review4 ,walks ab\t ! ,city & ,environs ( ,j]usalem4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,b>tlett4 ,) #be ,/eel ,engrav+s & num]\s ,woodcut ,illu/rations4 ,small #dto1 clo? gilt extra1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,gems1 ,jewels1 ,co9s1 & ,m$als1 ,anci5t & ,mod]n4 ,by ,,ar*ibald ,,bill+1 ,m4,d41 ,a4,m41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,new & ,*eap] ,edition1 revis$ & correct$4 ,demy #hvo1 clo? gilt extra1 #bas4 ,holiday ,lett]s4 ,by ,m4 ,,be?am ,,edw>ds1 ,au?or ( 8,a ,w9t] ) ! ,swall[s10 c4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 8,miss ,edw>ds' ,lett]s =m a delightful volume4 ,h] /yle is lively & vivid1 t\*$ "h & !re ) a c]ta9 qua9t & piquant hum\r1 & in/9ct ) a /rong appreciation ( ! gr& & beautiful1 :e!r 9 natural sc5]y or works ( ,art40--,daily ,news4 ,sundays ,abroad4 ,by ,,?omas ,,gu?rie1 ,d4,d4 ,second ,?\s&4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 8,_m w welcome a volume :i* gives u1 9 ,dr4 ,gu?rie's =cible language1 ! /ory ( ,savon>ola1 ! surpris+ deliv]ance ( ! ,m$ici1 notices ( evangelical prea*]s1 su* z ,dr4 ,de ,sanctis at ,flor5ce1 & ,comba 9 ,v5ice1 & "s v int]e/+ *apt]s relat+ to ! *ur*es ( ! ,wald5sian valleys40--,graphic4 ,walks 9 ,rome4 ,by ,,augu/us ,j4 ,c4 ,,h>e4 ,f\r? ,edition4 #b vols4 cr[n #hvo1 #bas4 8,! be/ h&book ( ! city & environs ( ,rome ev] publi%$4444 ,x _c be too mu* comm5d$40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,,by ,,! ,,same ,,au?or4 ,,days ,,ne> ,,rome4 ,) m ?an #ajj ,illu/rations by ! ,au?or4 ,second ,edition4 #b vols1 cr[n #hvo1 #bds4 8,mr4 ,h>e is ! v p>agon ( cic]ones1 & 8 writ+s are ! true model ( t descriptive lit]ature :i* is design$ to please & to in/ruct4 ,! am\nt ( in=mation :i* is cr[d$ into ^! two delightful volumes is simply m>vell\s40--,h\r4 8,mr4 ,h>e probably kn[s ,italy bett] ?an almo/ any ,engli%man liv+4444 ,! in=mation :i* x af=ds w enable any "o :o c>es to see m ( ! g5u9e native life ( ,italy 9 a mon? ?an mo/ pilgrims to ! ,p59sula see 9 a lifetime40--,_w4 ,,w&]+s ,,9 ,,spa94 ,) ,illu/rations by ! ,au?or4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 8,we recollect no book t s vividly recalls ! c\ntry to ^? :o h visit$ x1 & we recomm5d int5d+ t\ri/s to c>ry x ) !m z a companion ( travel40--,times4 8,"h is ! ideal book ( travel 9 ,spa91 :i* exactly anticipates ! requirem5ts ( ev]ybody :o is =tunate en\gh to be go+ to t en*ant$ l&1 & :i* ably consoles ^? :o are n s happy1 by supply+ ! imag9ation f ! da9tie/ & mo/ delici\s ( its /ores40--,spectator4 ,a ,ye> at ! ,%ore4 ,by ,,philip ,,h5ry ,,gosse1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,) #cf ,illu/rations1 pr9t$ 9 ,col\rs4 ,?ird ,?\s&4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #is4 8,a delici\s book delici\sly illu/rat$40--,illu/rat$ ,london ,news4 ,walks 9 ,flor5ce4 ,by ,,susan & ,,joanna ,,horn]4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,?ird ,edition4 #b vols4 cr[n #hvo1 #bas4 8,no "o c read x )\t wi%+ to visit ,flor5ce1 & no "o ought to visit ,flor5ce )\t hav+ read x40--,times4 8,a "w :i*1 by ! accuracy ( its in=mation1 ! exactness ( its detail1 & ! ref9$ ta/e conspicu\s 9 e page1 proves its au?ors to be wor?y inh]itors ( ! hon\r$ "n !y be>4 ,h5ce=w>d x w be z indisp5sable to e intellig5t visitor to ! #8,city ( ,fl[]s1' z ,mr4 ,h>e's is = #8,! ,et]nal ,city4'0--,gu>dian4 ,! ,regul> ,swiss ,r\nd4 ,9 ,?ree ,trips4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,,h>ry ,,jones1 ,m4,a4 ,) ,illu/rations by ,,:ymp]4 ,small #hvo1 #cs4 #f;d4 8,conta9s mu* valuable in=mation = ! inexp]i5c$ t\ri/40--,patriot4 8,mr4 ,jones' book w no d\bt f9d & please _m read]s2 ! brisk & po9t$ /yle ( ! book w give pleasure 9 itself40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,popul> ,lectures on ,sci5tific ,subjects4 ,by ,sir ,,john ,f4 ,w4 ,,h]s*el1 ,b>t4 ,eigh? ,?\s&4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 8,a book ( mo/ pr(\nd & romantic sci5tific *>m40--,spectator4 ,t[n ,geology4 ,by ,,*>les ,,k+sley4 ,f\r? ,?\s&4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #es4 8,a ma/]piece ( popul> sci5tific exposition40--,e*o4 8,! au?or "h compresses )9 ! briefe/ compass ! results ( _m ye>s' ?\ght & obs]vation1 & illu/rates 8 facts & sugge/ions ) s+ul> felicity ( language4 ,n ev5 ,pr(essor ,huxley c\ld convey sci5tific in=mation 9 a /yle m /raight=w>d & transp>5t40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,god's ,glory 9 ! ,heav5s4 ,a ,survey ( ,rec5t ,a/ronomical ,discov]y & ,speculation 9 connection ) ! ,religi\s ,que/ions to :i* !y give rise4 ,by ,,william ,,leit*1 ,d4,d41 late ,pr9cipal ( ,que5's ,college1 ,canada4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,f\r? ,edition4 ,cr[n #hvo1 clo? extra1 #ds4 #f;d4 8,we _c conclude our notice ( ,dr4 ,leit*'s book )\t dwell+ ^u ! admirable mann] 9 :i* ! a/ronomical facts conta9$ 9 x are bl5d$ ) practical obs]vations & ! highe/ & mo/ ennobl+ s5tim5ts4 ,x is ?us t books on popul> sci5ce %\ld ev] be writt540--,read]4 ,! ,egyptian ,sket*book4 ,by ,,*>les ,g4 ,,lel&4 ,po/ #hvo1 #gs4 #f;d4 8,x confirms its au?or z *ief ( all liv+ humori/s1 & ! fir/ ?+ ! read] w probably d aft] f9i%+ ! la/ *apt] w be to read ! sket*es all ov] aga940--,h\r4 ,ea/w>d3 ,travels 9 ,egypt1 ,pale/9e1 & ,syria4 ,by ,,norman ,,macleod1 ,d4,d4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,fif? ,?\s&4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 8,! mo/ enjoyable book on ! ,holy ,l& we h ev] read40--,noncon=mi/4 8,?is h&some volume1 ?\gh n a novel1 is a novelty among books ( travel4 ,! g5ial1 manly _s ( ! au?or gives a human col\r+ to e sc5e1 & keeps awake 9 u z we accompany him an increas+ sympa?y40--,daily ,news4 ,peeps at ! ,f> ,ea/4 ,a ,famili> ,acc\nt ( a ,visit to ,india4 ,by ,,norman ,,macleod1 ,d4,d4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 ,second ,?\s&4 ,small #dto1 clo? gilt extra1 #bas4 8,x w\ld be difficult to po9t out 9 our popul> lit]ature a book :i* 9 any?+ l ! same compass conveys s full or s in/ructive a k ( ,briti% ,india4 ,dr4 ,macleod has ! gift ( insight into "*1 & 9 8 int]c\rse bo? ) natives & ,european resid5ts nev] fails to e/abli% a k9d ( freemasonry1 & to draw out ! mat]ial ( ?\ght & subsequ5t reflection4 ,8 "w has ?us an inn] dep? & a philosophical value beyond t ( a m]e record ( travel40--,saturday ,review4 ,?r\gh ,norm&y4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,macquoid1 ,au?or ( 8,patty10 c4 ,) #ij ,illu/rations4 ,second ,edition4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #abs4 8,writt5 9 a *e]ful _s1 x leaves a bright & pleasant impression ^u ! m9d2 & :ile ^? :o already "k ,norm&y w recognise ! tru? ( h] descriptions1 & sympa?ize ) h] en?usiasm1 ^? :o are yet 9 ignorance ( its attractions may be /irr$ by ,mrs4 ,macquoid's advocacy to ! am5dm5t ( _! education40--,saturday ,review4 8,! illu/rations are excell5t40--,a!num4 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,condition$3 ,sir ,william ,hamilton & ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 ,by ! late ,h4 ,l4 ,,mansel1 ,d4,d41 ,dean ( ,/4 ,paul's4 ,po/ #hvo1 #fs4 8,?is volume is di/+ui%$ by ! same cle>ness ( /yle1 cog5cy ( argum5t1 accuracy ( in=mation1 & ma/]y ( ! subjects1 :i* *>act]ize all ! o!r valuable productions ( ! au?or1 & is on ! po9ts criticiz$ a mo/ successful z well z a mo/ unsp>+ exposure ( ,mill's manifold errors40--,briti% ,qu>t]ly ,review4 ,! ,human ,intellect4 ,) an ,introduction ^u ,psy*ology & ! ,s\l4 ,by ,,noah ,,port]1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,presid5t ( ,yale ,college4 ,demy #hvo1 #afs4 8,9 ?is book ! be/ philosophical ?9k+ ( our day may be said to culm9ate4 ,n only is x by f> ! able/ psy*ological "w t ,am]ica has yet produc$1 x is unique among ourselves 9 its complet5ess & ability4 ,x is a "w ( :i* any s*ool or c\ntry might be pr\d1 & its =m z a manual makes x invaluable to /ud5ts40--,briti% ,qu>t]ly ,review4 8,dr4 ,port]'s "w pres5ts u ) a m complete & imp>tial survey ( ?is :ole region ( inquiry ?an has ev] be=e be5 (f]$ to ! /ud5t4 ,a man might appeal to su* a "w z a wor?y product ( a life40--,blackwood's ,magaz9e4 ,we/w>d by ,rail4 ,a ,j\rney to ,san ,francisco & ,back1 & a ,visit to ! ,mormons4 ,by ,w4 ,f4 ,,rae1 ,au?or ( 8,wilkes1 ,%]idan1 ,fox10 c4 ,) ,map4 ,?ird & ,*eap] ,edition4 ,small #hvo1 #ds4 #f;d4 8,mr4 ,rae unites ! p[] ( a ke5 & ?\ghtful obs]v] ) ! skill & tact ( a graphic del9eator4 ,! evid5t c&\r & s+l5ess ( purpose ) :i* he writes make him a tru/wor?y guide = ^? :o w\ld weigh aright ! inducem5ts = or aga9/ ! longe/ cont9u\s l& j\rney z yet op5$ ^u our planet40--,saturday ,review4 8,at once ! mo/ mod]n & ! mo/ reliable au?ority on ! increas+ly important subjects ) :i* x deals40--,we/m9/] ,review4 ,a ,summ] 9 ,skye4 ,by ! late ,,alex&] ,,smi?1 ,au?or ( 8,a ,life ,drama10 8,dream?orp10 c4 ,) ,illu/rations by ,r4 ,t4 ,,prit*ett4 ,f\r? ,?\s&4 ,cr[n #hvo1 #fs4 8,mr4 ,alex&] ,smi? speaks ( ,boswell's ,j\rnal z #8delici\s read+2' 8 own "w1 ?\gh aft] a v diff]5t fa%ion1 af=ds delici\s read+ also4 ,8 egotism is nev] (f5sive2 x is (t5 v *>m+4 ,if ! travell] is sometimes lo/ 9 ! essayi/1 :o w n pref] an ,elia to a ,p5nant80--,daily ,news4 ,lewsiana2 or1 ,life 9 ! ,out] ,hebrides4 ,by ,w4 ,,&]son ,,smi?1 ,au?or ( 8,(f ! ,*a940 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,po/ #hvo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 8,^? :o _c visit ^! ,out] ,hebrides & discov] /ill unkn[n beauties ) _! own eyes1 ought1 z ! next be/ ?+1 to view x ?r\gh ! eyes ( ! au?or ( #8,lewsiana4'0--,scotsman4 8,he is z en?usia/ic ab\t ! #8,lews' z ! au?or ( #8,! ,pr9cess ( ,?ule' himself4 ,he writes 9 a light1 agreeable1 & graphic /yle1 & has ! gift ( ! p5cil z well z ! p540--,_w4 ,our ,inh]itance 9 ! ,great ,pyramid4 ,by ,pr(essor ,c4 ,,piazzi ,,smy?1 ,a/ronom] ,royal = ,scotl&4 ,new & ,enl>g$ ,edition1 includ+ all ! mo/ important ,discov]ies up to ! ,pres5t ,"t4 ,) #ag ,explanatory ,plates4 ,po/ #hvo1 #ahs4 ,man & ,bea/1 ,"h & ,h]eaft]4 ,) ,illu/rative ,anecdotes4 ,by ! ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a41 ,au?or ( 8,homes )\t ,h&s10 c4 #b vols4 po/ #hvo1 #bas4 8,! book is delightful40--,briti% ,qu>t]ly ,review4 8,x is fill$ ) anecdotes :i* are v ent]ta9+40--,saturday ,review4 8,extremely readable & int]e/+4444 ,if ! talk runs on dogs1 cats1 can>ies1 horses1 elephants1 or ev5 pigs or ducks1 he :o has #8,man & ,bea/' at 8 f+]s' end may be sure ( a /ory good en\gh to cap ! be/ t is likely to be told40--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,footnotes3 #a ,trans4 ( ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii4 p4 #beb4 #b ,phil4 ,mag41 ,janu>y1 #ahfc4 #c ,a!num1 ,septemb] #bb1 #ahfj4 #d ,trans4 ,glasg[ ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iv41 p4 #cac4 #e ,see ,mr4 ,hopk9's rem>ks on ?is !ory1 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 viii4 #f ,see ,*ap4 xxv4 #g ,see ,*ap4 iv4 #h 8,treatise on ,a/ronomy10 #cae2 8,outl9es10 #cfh4 #i ,annuaire = #ahcd1 p4 #aii4 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,april1 #ahcd1 p4 #bbd4 #aj 8,cosmos10 vol4 iv4 p4 #dei 7,bohn's ,edition74 8,physical ,description ( ! ,heav5s10 p4 #ccf4 #aa ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,febru>y1 #ahfg1 p4 #abg4 #ab ,! ,gulf-/ream at ! n>r[e/ place exam9$ by ! ,coa/ ,survey1 & :]e also its velocity 0 greate/1 0 f\nd to be ov] #cj /atute miles broad & #a1iej feet deep4 ,b we mu/ n suppose t ?is repres5ts all ! w>m wat] :i* is receiv$ by ! ,atlantic f ! equator2 a great mass fl[s into ! ,atlantic )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! ,/raits ( ,florida4 #ac ,x is probable t a l>ge proportion ( ! wat] con/itut+ ! s\?-ea/]n bran* ( ! ,gulf-/ream is nev] cool$ d[n to #dj2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! nor?-ea/]n bran*1 :i* passes into ! arctic regions1 w be cool$ f> bel[ #dj1 probably bel[ #cj4 ,h5ce ,i _c be ov]-e/imat+ ! ext5t to :i* ! wat] ( ! ,gulf-/ream is cool$ d[n 9 fix+ ^u #dj z ! av]age m9imum temp]ature4 #ad 8,physical ,geography ( ! ,sea10 #bd1 #f? edition4 #ae 8,physical ,geography10 #ed4 #af ,trans4 ( ,roy4 ,soc4 ( ,ed941 vol4 xxi41 p4 #eg4 ,phil4 ,mag41 #d1 vol4 ix41 p4 #cf4 #ag 8,smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k10 vol4 ix4 #ah 8,heat z a ,mode ( ,motion10 art4 #bdj4 #ai ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ( ,ed941 vol4 xxv41 "p #b4 #bj ,see 8,smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k10 vol4 ix4 #ba 8,meteorology10 section #cf4 #bb ,comptes-,r5dus1 ,july #i1 #ahch4 ,taylor's 8,sci5tific ,memoirs10 vol4 iv41 p4 #dd 7#ahdf74 #bc ,! mean temp]ature ( ! ,atlantic betwe5 ! tropics & ! arctic circle1 accord+ to ,admiral ,fitzroy's *>t1 is ab\t #fj4 ,b he assigns f> too high a temp]ature = latitudes above #ej4 ,x is probable t #ef is n f> f ! tru?4 #bd ,! probable physical cause ( ?is w be consid]$ 9 ! ,app5dix4 #be ,! mean temp]ature ( ! equator1 accord+ to ,dove1 is #gig1 & t ( ! nor? pole #bc4 ,b z !re is1 ( c\rse1 "s unc]ta9ty reg>d+ ! actual mean temp]ature ( ! poles1 we may take ! diff]5ce 9 r\nd numb]s at #hj4 #bf ,trans4 ( ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed941 vol4 xxii41 p4 #ge4 #bg ,connaissance des ,temps = #ahfc 7,additions74 ,lagrange's det]m9ation makes ! sup]ior limit #jjgfda 7,memoirs ( ! ,b]l9 ,academy = #aghb1 p4 #bgc74 ,rec5tly ! labori\s task ( re-inve/igat+ ! :ole subject ( ! secul> v>iations ( ! elem5ts ( ! planet>y orbits 0 und]tak5 by ,mr4 ,/ockwell1 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,he has tak5 into acc\nt ! di/urb+ influ5ce ( ! planet ,neptune1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* 0 n kn[n :5 ,lev]ri]'s computations 7 made2 & he f9ds t ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit w always be includ$ )9 ! limits ( #j & #jjfichhh4 ,mr4 ,/ockwell's elaborate ,memoir1 ext5d+ ov] no few] ?an two hundr$ pages1 w be f\nd 9 ! eighte5? volume ( ! 8,smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k40 #bh ,:5 ! ecc5tricity is at its sup]ior limit1 ! absolute quantity ( heat receiv$ by ! e>? dur+ ! ye> is1 h[ev]1 ab\t "o ?ree-hundr$? "p great] ?an at pres5t4 ,b ?is does n affect ! "q at issue4 #bi ,scoresby's 8,arctic ,regions10 vol4 ii41 p4 #cgi4 ,daniell's 8,meteorology10 vol4 ii41 p4 #abc4 #cj ,tyndall1 8,on ,heat10 article #cfd4 #ca ,tyndall1 8,on ,heat10 article #cfd4 #cb ,see ,phil4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #ahgj1 p4 #cc ,capta9 ,cook's 8,second ,voyage10 vol4 ii41 pp4 #bcb1 #bce4 #cd 8,ant>ctic ,regions10 vol4 ii41 pp4 #cdecdi4 #ce ,ibid41 vol4 i41 p4 #afg4 #cf ,ibid41 vol4 ii41 p4 #cfb4 #cg ,ed9burgh ,philosophical ,j\rnal1 vol4 iv41 p4 #bff4 #ch ,scoresby's 8,arctic ,regions10 vol4 i41 p4 #cgh4 #ci ,ibid41 p4 #dbe4 #dj ,see ,mee*'s memoir 8,on ! ,int5sity ( ! ,sun's ,heat & ,light10 8,smi?sonian ,contributions10 vol4 ix4 #da 8,ant>ctic ,regions10 vol4 i41 p4 #bdj4 #db ,*all5g] ,reports1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #aj4 #dc ,see 8,smi?sonian ,contributions10 vol4 ix4 #dd ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxv41 p4 #cej4 #de ,trans4 ( ,glasg[ ,geol4 ,soc4 = #ahff4 #df ,revue des ,deux ,mondes = #ahfg4 #dg ,lett] to ! au?or1 ,febru>y1 #ahgj4 #dh 8,rvolutions de la ,m]10 p4 #cg 7second edition74 #di ,ed94 ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 iv41 p4 #bfb 7#ahba74 #ej ,phil4 ,mag41 #d1 vol4 xxviii41 p4 #aca4 ,read]1 ,decemb] #bnd1 #ahfe4 #ea ,?is po9t w be f\nd discuss$ at consid]able l5g? 9 ! ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,septemb]1 #ahfi4 #eb ,see ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,octob]1 #ahgj1 p4 #bei4 #ec ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society1 ,no4 #ach1 p4 #eif1 foot-note4 #ed ,! edition f :i* ,i quote1 unless ! contr>y is /at$1 is ! "o publi%$ by ,messrs4 ,t4 ,nelson & ,sons1 #ahgj1 :i* is a repr9t ( ! new edition publi%$ 9 #ahei by ,messrs4 ,sampson ,l[ & ,co4 #ee 8,physical ,geography10 article #eg4 #ef ,philosophical ,magaz9e1 vol4 xii4 p4 #a 7#ahch74 #eg 8,mmoires p> div]s ,savans10 tom4 i41 p4 #cah1 ,/4 ,pet]sburgh1 #ahca4 ,see also twelf? numb] ( ,meteorological ,pap]s1 publi%$ by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade1 #ahfe1 p4 #af4 #eh ,dubuat's 8,hydraulique10 tom4 i41 p4 #fd 7#ahaf74 ,see also ,briti% ,association ,report = #ahcd1 pp4 #dbb1 #dea4 #ei ,see ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society = ,decemb]1 #ahfh1 ,novemb]1 #ahfi4 ,lecture deliv]$ at ! ,royal ,in/itute1 ,nature1 vol4 i41 p4 #dij4 ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 xv4 #fj ,trans4 ( ,glasg[ ,geol4 ,soc4 = ,april1 #ahfg4 ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,febru>y1 #ahfg1 & ,june1 #ahfg 7,supplem5t74 #fa ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,febru>y1 #ahgj4 #fb 8,! ,dep?s ( ! ,sea10 pp4 #cgf & #cgg4 #fc 8,! ,?re%old ( ! ,unkn[n ,region10 p4 #ie4 #fd ,see 8,physical ,geography ( ! ,sea10 *ap4 ix41 new edition1 & ,dr4 ,a4 ,mhry 8,on ,ocean-curr5ts 9 ! ,circumpol> ,bas9 ( ! ,nor? ,hemisph]e40 #fe 8,dep?s ( ! ,sea10 ,nature = ,july #bh1 #ahgj4 #ff 8,memoir on ! ,gulf-/ream10 ,geographis*e ,mit!ilung51 vol4 xvi4 7#ahgj74 #fg ,dr4 ,c>p5t] 8,on ! ,gulf-/ream10 ,proce$+s ( ,royal ,geographical ,society = ,janu>y #i1 #ahga1 #bi4 #fh ,dr4 ,pet]mann's ,mit!ilung5 = #ahgb1 p4 #cae4 #fi ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society1 vol4 xvii41 p4 #ahg1 xviii41 p4 #dfc4 #gj ,! av]age dep? ( ! ,pacific ,ocean1 z f\nd by ! s\nd+s ( ,capta9 ,belknap1 ( ! ,u4,s4 /eam] ,tusc>ora1 made dur+ ,janu>y & ,febru>y1 #ahgd1 is ab\t #b1djj fa?oms4 ,! dep? ( ! ,atlantic is some:at less4 #ga ,proce$+s ( ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 xv41 #bb4 #gb ,x is a well-e/abli%$ fact t 9 pol> regions ! temp]ature ( ! sea decreases f ! surface d[nw>ds2 & ! ,g]man ,pol> ,exp$ition f\nd t ! wat] 9 v high latitudes is actually less d5se at ! surface ?an at consid]able dep?s1 ?us prov+ t ! surface-wat] c\ld n s9k 9 consequ5ce ( its great] d5sity4 #gc ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society1 vol4 xix41 p4 #bae4 #gd ,nature = ,july #f1 #ahga4 #ge ,s9ce ! above objection to ! ,gravitation ,!ory ( ! ,gibralt> ,curr5t 0 advanc$ ?ree ye>s ago1 ,dr4 ,c>p5t] appe>s to h ab&on$ ! !ory to a great ext5t4 ,he n[ admits 7,proce$+s ( ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 xviii41 pp4 #caiccd1 #ahgd7 t ! curr5t is almo/ :olly due n to diff]5ce ( specific gravity1 b to an excess ( evaporation 9 ! ,m$it]ranean ov] ! return by ra9 & riv]s4 #gf ,proce$+s ( ,royal ,society1 ,no4 #ach1 #bf4 #gg ,proce$+s ( ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,janu>y #i1 #ahga4 #gh ,ibid4 #gi ,see #bj1 #cd2 also ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report = #ahgb1 p4 #di1 & o!r places4 #hj ,see also to ! same effect ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahgb1 p4 #ej4 #ha ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,oct4 #ahga4 #hb ,! actual slope1 h[ev]1 does n am\nt to m ?an #a 9 #g1jjj1jjj4 #hc ,proc4 ( ,roy4 ,geog4 ,soc41 ,janu>y #i1 #ahga1 #bi4 #hd ,trans4 ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[ = ,april1 #ahfg2 ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,june1 #ahfg4 #he ,nature1 vol4 i41 p4 #eda4 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 vol4 xviii41 p4 #dgc4 #hf ,*apt] ,,ii4 #hg ,*apt] ,,ii4 #hh ,*apt] ,,ii4 #hi ,mr4 ,f9dlay consid]s t ! daily dis*>ge does n exce$ #ccc cubic miles 7,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep41 #ahfi1 p4 #afj74 ,my e/imate makes x #cgh cubic miles4 ,mr4 ,laughton's e/imate is #fcj cubic miles 7,pap] 8,on ,ocean-curr5ts10 ,j\rnal ( ,royal ,unit$-,s]vice ,in/itution1 vol4 xv474 #ij ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 xviii41 p4 #cic4 #ia ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,octob]1 #ahga1 p4 #bgd4 #ib ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,geographical ,society1 vol4 xv4 #ic ,phil4 ,mag41 ,febru>y1 #ahgj4 #id ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahfi1 ,sections1 p4 #afj4 #ie ,j\rnal ( ,royal ,unit$-,s]vice ,in/itute1 vol4 xv4 #if ,dr4 ,c>p5t] 7,proc4 ( ,roy4 ,geog4 ,soc41 vol4 xviii41 p4 #ccd7 misappreh5ds me 9 suppos+ t ,i attribute ! ,gibralt> curr5t :olly to ! ,gulf-/ream4 ,9 ! v page f :i* he d]ives or c\ld d]ive 8 op9ion z to my views on ! subject 7,phil4 ,mag4 = ,m>*1 #ahgd1 p4 #ahb71 ,i di/9ctly /ate t 8! excess ( evaporation ov] t ( precipitation )9 ! ,m$it]ranean area w\ld ( itself produce a consid]able curr5t ?r\gh ! ,/rait40 ,t ! ,gibralt> curr5t is due to two causes1 7#a7 ! pressure ( ! ,gulf-/ream1 & 7#b7 excess ( evaporation ov] precipitation 9 ! ,m$it]ranean1 has always appe>$ to me s p]fectly obvi\s1 t ,i nev] held nor c\ld h held any o!r op9ion on ! subject4 #ig ,pap] read to ! ,ed9burgh ,botanical ,society on ,janu>y #h1 #ahgd4 #ih ,proc4 ,roy4 ,geog4 ,soc41 vol4 xviii41 p4 #cfb4 ,a m advantage\s section might h be5 *os51 b ?is w suffice4 ,! section ref]r$ to is %[n 9 ,plate ,,iii4 ,! peculi>ity ( ?is section1 z w be obs]v$1 is ! ?9ness ( ! w>m /rata at ! equator1 z comp>$ ) t ( ! heat$ wat] 9 ! ,nor? ,atlantic4 #ii ,! temp]ature ( column ,c 9 ,dr4 ,c>p5t]'s section is some:at less ?an t giv5 9 ! =ego+ table2 s t1 accord+ to t section1 ! diff]5ce ( level betwe5 column ,c & columns ,a & ,b w\ld be great] ?an my e/imate4 #ajj ,capta9 ,n>es's ,report1 ,july #cj1 #ahgd4 #aja ,see ,*apt] ,,iv4 #ajb ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,augu/1 #ahfd1 ,febru>y1 #ahfg1 ,m>*1 #ahgj2 see ,*ap4 ,,iv4 #ajc ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ( ,sci5ce = ,octob]1 #ahgd4 #ajd ,see a pap] by ,m4 ,morlot1 on 8,! ,po/-,t]ti>y & ,quat]n>y ,=mations ( ,switz]l&40 ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rnal1 ,new ,s]ies1 vol4 ii41 #ahee4 #aje ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,new ,s]ies1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bh4 #ajf ,vogt's 8,lectures on ,man10 pp4 #cahcba4 #ajg ,see ,mr4 ,pre/wi* on ,fl9t ,implem5ts1 ,phil4 ,trans4 = #ahfj & #ahfd4 ,lyell's 8,antiquity ( ,man10 ,second ,edition1 p4 #afh4 #ajh ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 ,new ,s]ies1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bh4 ,silliman's ,j\rn41 vol4 xlvii41 p4 #bei 7#ahdd74 #aji ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #ecd4 #aaj ,ibid41 vol4 xxviii41 p4 #ag4 #aaa 8,glacial ,drift ( ,scotl&10 p4 #ed4 #aab 8,glacial ,drift ( ,scotl&10 p4 #eh4 #aac ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 v41 p4 #bb4 #aad 8,glacial ,drift ( ,scotl&10 p4 #fd4 #aae ,trans4 ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii41 p4 #cia4 #aaf ,trans4 ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[1 vol4 iv41 p4 #adf4 #aag ,geol4 ,mag41 vi41 p4 #cia4 #aah ,see 8,memoirs ( ,geological ,survey ( ,scotl&10 ,explanation ( %eet #bb1 p4 #bi4 ,see also ,trans4 ,glasg[ ,geol4 ,soc41 iv41 p4 #aej4 #aai 8,great ,ice ,age10 p4 #cgd4 #abj 8,great ,ice ,age10 p4 #chd4 #aba 8,geological ,survey ( ,ohio1 #ahfi10 p4 #afe4 ,see also 8,great ,ice ,age10 *ap4 xxviii4 #abb ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 xxviii41 p4 #dce4 #abc ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report1 #ahfc4 #abd ,trans4 ,glasg[ ,nat4 ,hi/4 ,soc41 vol4 i41 p4 #aae4 #abe ,trans4 ( ! ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[1 vol4 iii41 p4 #acc4 ,see also 8,great ,ice ,age10 *aps4 xii4 & xiii4 #abf ,*ap4 ,,xxix4 #abg ,ed94 ,new ,phil4 ,j\rn41 vol4 liv41 p4 #bgb4 #abh 8,new] ,plioc5e ,geology10 p4 #abi4 ,john ,gray ,co41 ,glasg[4 #abi 8,glacial ,drift ( ,scotl&10 p4 #fg4 #acj 8,glacial ,drift ( ,scotl&10 p4 #ab4 #aca ,see ,*apt] ,,iv4 #acb 8,discov]y ( ! ,nor?-,we/ ,passage10 p4 #bac4 #acc 8,voyage ( ! ,resolute10 p4 #bid4 #acd ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xi41 p4 #edj4 #ace 8,mc,clure's ,nor?-,we/ ,passage10 p4 #bad4 ,second ,edition4 #acf 8,briti% ,association ,report = #ahee10 p4 #cha4 8,! ,la/ ( ! ,arctic ,voyages10 vol4 i41 p4 #cha4 #acg ,mr4 ,james ,geikie in=ms me t ! great accumulations ( gravel :i* occur s abundantly 9 ! l[ gr\nds ( ,switz]l&1 & :i* are1 und\bt$ly1 m]ely ! re-arrang$ mat]ials orig9ally br\ght d[n f ! ,alps z till & z mora9es by ! glaci]s dur+ ! glacial epo*1 r>ely or nev] yield a s+le scrat*$ or glaciat$ /one4 ,! action ( ! riv]s escap+ f ! melt+ ice has succe$$ 9 oblit]at+ all trace ( /ri4 ,x is ! same1 he says1 ) ! heaps ( gravel & s& 9 ! l[] gr\nds ( ,sw$5 & ,norway1 ,scotl& & ,irel&4 ,^! deposits are evid5tly 9 ! fir/ place m]ely ! mat]ials c>ri$ d[n by ! swoll5 riv]s t issu$ f ! gradually melt+ ice-fields & glaci]s4 ,! /ones ( ! gravel d]iv$ f ! demolition ( mora9es & till1 h lo/ all _! /ri & become 9 mo/ cases well wat]-worn & r\nd$4 #ach ,report on ,iceb]gs1 read be=e ! ,association ( ,am]ican ,geologi/s1 ,silliman's ,j\rnal1 vol4 xliii41 p4 #afc 7#ahdb74 #aci 8,manual ( ,geology10 p4 #fgg4 #adj ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ix41 p4 #cjf4 #ada ,dana's 8,manual ( ,geology10 p4 #fgg4 #adb ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ix41 p4 #cjf4 #adc 8,j\rnal10 vol4 i41 p4 #ch4 #add 8,%ort ,am]ican ,tramp10 pp4 #afh1 #agd4 #ade 8,%ort ,am]ican ,tramp10 pp4 #bcibda4 #adf 8,travels 9 ,nor? ,am]ica10 vol4 ii41 p4 #acg4 #adg ,ibid41 vol4 ii41 p4 #agd4 #adh ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 ,session #ahfeff1 p4 #ecg4 #adi 8,%ort ,am]ican ,tramp10 pp4 #gg1 #ha1 #aaa4 #aej 8,second ,visit10 vol4 ii41 p4 #cfg4 #aea 8,memoirs ( ,bo/on ,society ( ,natural ,hi/ory10 vol4 i4 7#ahfg71 p4 #bbh4 #aeb 8,antiquity ( ,man10 p4 #bfh4 ,?ird ,edition4 #aec 8,great ,ice ,age10 p4 #eab4 #aed ,brit4 ,assoc41 #ahgj1 p4 #hh4 #aee ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 v41 p4 #aj4 ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,april1 #ahfe1 p4 #bhi4 #aef 8,great ,ice ,age10 p4 #eab4 #aeg ,jukes' 8,manual ( ,geology10 p4 #dba4 #aeh ,see also ,qu>t]ly ,j\rnal ,geological ,society1 vol4 xi41 p4 #eaj4 #aei ,! ,read] = ,augu/ #ab1 #ahfe4 #afj 8,hi/ory ( ! ,isle ( ,man10 p4 #hf4 ,my colleague1 ,mr4 ,john ,horne1 9 8 8,sket* ( ! ,geology ( ! ,isle ( ,man10 ,trans4 ( ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii41 "p iii41 consid]s ?is conglom]ate to be ( ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s age4 #afa ,see ,selwyn1 8,phys4 ,geography & ,geology ( ,victoria40 #ahff4 pp4 #aeaf2 ,taylor & ,e!ridge1 ,geol4 ,survey ,vict41 ,qu>t] ,%eet #ac1 ,n4,e4 #afb ,report on ! ,geology ( ! ,di/rict ( ,ballan1 ,victoria4 #ahff4 p4 #aa4 #afc ,atrypa reticul>is4 #afd ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xii41 p4 #eh4 #afe 8,great ,ice ,age10 p4 #eac4 #aff 8,great ,ice ,age10 p4 #eac4 #afg ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report = #ahgc4 #afh ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xi41 p4 #eai4 #afi ,or?is resup9ata4 #agj ,prod4 semireticulatus v>4 ,m>t9i4 ,s[4 #aga 8,bel*]'s ,voyage10 vol4 ii41 p4 #cgg4 #agb 8,j\rnal ( a ,boat ,voyage ?r\gh ,rup]t-,l&10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bjh4 #agc ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xi41 p4 #aig4 #agd ,explanation ,memoir to ,%eet #dg1 8,geological ,survey ( ,irel&40 #age ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 xxix41 p4 #bij4 #agf 8,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,india10 vol4 i41 "p i4 #agg ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvi41 p4 #ead4 #agh ,ibid41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #edd4 #agi ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 xxix41 p4 #bij4 #ahj ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,dubl9 ,society = ,febru>y1 #aheg4 #aha ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xi41 p4 #eai4 #ahb 8,! ,la/ ( ! ,arctic ,voyages10 by ,capta9 ,sir ,e4 ,bel*]1 vol4 ii41 p4 #chi4 ,app5dix ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report = #ahee1 p4 #gi4 #ahc ,ibid41 vol4 ii41 p4 #cgi4 ,app5dix4 #ahd 8,manual ( ,geology10 pp4 #cie1 #dic4 #ahe ,app5dix to ,mc,clintock's 8,arctic ,discov]ies40 #ahf ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xiv41 p4 #bfb4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,report = #aheg1 p4 #fb4 #ahg ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xvi41 p4 #cbg4 ,geologi/1 #ahfj1 p4 #ch4 #ahh ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 xxix41 p4 #bij4 #ahi ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[1 vol4 v41 p4 #fd4 #aij 8,pr9ciples10 vol4 i41 p4 #bji4 ,elev5? ,edition4 #aia 8,memoirs ( ! ,royal ,academy ( ,sci5ce ( ,tur910 ,second ,s]ies1 vol4 xx4 ,i am indebt$ = ! above p>ticul>s to ,pr(essor ,ramsay1 :o visit$ ! spot along ) ,m4 ,ga/aldi4 #aib 8,antiquity ( ,man10 ,second ,edition1 p4 #bcg4 #aic ,dr4 ,rob]t ,br[n1 9 a rec5t ,memoir on ! ,mioc5e ,b$s ( ! ,disco ,di/rict 7,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,glasg41 vol4 v41 p4 #ee71 has add$ consid]ably to our k ( ^! deposits4 ,he describes ! /rata 9 detail1 & gives li/s ( ! plant & animal rema9s discov]$ by himself & o!rs1 & describ$ by ,pr(essor ,he]4 ,pr(essor ,nord5skjld has likewise increas$ ! data at our comm& 7,transactions ( ! ,sw$i% ,academy1 #ahgc72 & /ill fur!r evid5ce 9 fav\r ( a w>m climate hav+ prevail$ 9 ,gre5l& dur+ ,mioc5e times has be5 obta9$ by ! rec5t second ,g]man pol> exp$ition4 #aid ,! foll[+ are ,m4 ,lev]ri]'s =mul = comput+ ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit1 giv5 9 8 8,memoir0 9 ! ,connaissance des ,temps = #ahdc3-- ,ecc5tricity 9 7t7 ye>s aft] ,janu>y #a1 #ahjj h#b l#b :]e h #jjjjebf ,s9 7gt 7 #jjaffaa ,s9 7g#at #a7 #jjjbcff ,s9 7g#bt #b7 #jjajfbb ,s9 7g#ct #c7 - #jjahibe ,s9 7g#dt #d7 #jjaaghb ,s9 7g#et #e7 - #jjafiac ,s9 7g#ft #f7 & l #jjjjebf ,cos 7gt 7 #jjaffaa ,cos 7g#at #a7 #jjjbcff ,cos 7g#bt #b7 #jjajfbb ,cos 7g#ct #c7 - #jjahibe ,cos 7g#dt #d7 #jjaaghb ,cos 7g#et #e7 - #jjafiac ,cos 7g#ft #f7 g #bbehdb #abf #dc #ae g#a #cgacfd #a #bg #ba #bf g#b #bbdbgc #b #abf #dd #h g#c #ebihi #c #he #dg #de g#d #gegdg #d #ce #ch #dc g#e #agaebg #e #be #aa #cc g#f #aghfcc #f #de #bh #ei #aie ,see ,pr(essor ,c4 ,v4 ,z5g]'s pap] 8,on ! ,p]iodic ,*ange cf ,climate caus$ by ! ,moon10 ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,june1 #ahfh4 #aif ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,febru>y1 #ahfg4 #aig ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,may1 #ahfh4 #aih ,/ud5t's 8,elem5ts ( ,geology10 p4 #ia4 ,second ,edition4 #aii ,9 an int]e/+ memoir1 publi%$ 9 ! ,phil4 ,mag4 = #ahej1 ,mr4 ,alfr$ ,tylor e/imat$ t ! bas9 ( ! ,mississippi is be+ l[]$ at ! rate ( "o foot 9 #aj1jjj ye>s by ! removal ( ! s$im5t2 & he proce$s fur!r1 & reasons t "o foot remov$ (f ! g5]al surface ( ! l& dur+ t p]iod w\ld raise ! sea-level ?ree in*es4 ,_h x n be5 t ,mr4 ,tylor's att5tion 0 direct$ to ! effects produc$ by ! removal ( s$im5t 9 rais+ ! level ( ! ocean r ?an 9 l[]+ ! level ( ! l&1 he c\ld n h fail$ to p]ceive t he 0 9 possession ( a key to unfold ! my/]y ( geological "t4 #bjj ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,no4 #aeb1 #ahgd4 #bja ,i h tak5 = ! volume & mass ( ! sun ! values giv5 9 ,pr(essor ,sir ,william ,?omson's memoir1 ,phil4 ,mag41 vol4 viii4 7#ahed74 #bjb ,phil4 ,mag41 #d1 vol4 xi41 p4 #eaf 7#ahef74 #bjc ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,july1 #ahgb1 p4 #a4 #bjd 8,pr9ciples10 p4 #baj4 ,elev5? ,edition4 #bje 8,pr9ciples10 vol4 i41 p4 #ajg4 ,t5? ,edition4 #bjf ,! conception ( subm]g5ce result+ f displacem5t ( ! e>?'s c5tre ( gravity1 caus$ by a heap+ up ( ice at "o ( ! poles1 0 fir/ advanc$ by ,m4 ,adhm>1 9 8 "w 8,rvolutions de la ,m]10 #ahdb4 ,:5 ! views /at$ 9 ?is *apt] appe>$ 9 ! ,read]1 ,i 0 n aw>e t ,m4 ,adhm> _h writt5 on ! subject4 ,an acc\nt ( 8 mode ( view+ ! "q is giv5 9 ! ,app5dix4 #bjg ,pet]mann's ,geog4 ,mit!ilung51 #ahga1 ,heft4 x41 p4 #cgg4 #bjh ,geol4 ,mag41 #ahgb1 vol4 ix41 p4 #cfj4 #bji 8,op5 ,pol> ,sea10 p4 #acd4 #baj ,j\rnal ( ! ,royal ,geographical ,society1 #ahec1 vol4 xxiii4 #baa 8,physics ( ,arctic ,ice10 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 = ,febru>y1 #ahga4 #bab ,"s writ]s h object$ to ! conclusion t ! ant>ctic ice-cap is ?icke/ at ! pole1 on ! gr\nd t ! sn[fall !re is probably less ?an at l[] latitudes4 ,! fact is1 h[ev]1 ov]look$1 t ! great] ?ickness ( an ice-cap at its c5tre is a physical necessity n dep5d+ on ! rate ( sn[fall4 ,suppos+ ! sn[fall to be great] at1 say1 lat4 #gj ?an at #hj1 & great] at #hj ?an at ! pole2 nev]!less1 ! ice w cont9ue to accumulate till x is ?ick] at #hj ?an at #gj1 & at ! pole ?an x is at #hj4 #bac ,x is a pity t at pres5t no record is kept1 ei!r by ! ,bo>d ( ,trade or by ! ,admiralty1 ( rem>kable iceb]gs :i* may f "t to "t be met )4 ,su* a record might be ( little importance to navigation1 b x w\ld c]ta9ly be ( great s]vice to sci5ce4 #bad ,see ,*apt] ,,xxvii41 & also ,geol4 ,mag4 = ,may & ,june1 #ahgj1 & ,janu>y1 #ahga4 #bae ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,april1 #ahff1 p4 #cbc4 #baf ,ibid41 = ,m>*1 #ahff1 p4 #agb4 #bag ,read]1 ,febru>y #aj1 #ahff4 #bah ,9 a =m] pap] ,i consid]$ ! effects ( ano!r cause1 viz41 ! melt+ ( pol> ice result+ f an increase ( ! ,obliquity ( ! ,e>?'s ,orbit4--,trans4 ,glasg[ ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii41 p4 #agg4 ,phil4 ,mag41 ,june1 #ahfg4 ,see also ,*apt] ,,xxv4 #bai ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,novemb]1 #ahfh1 p4 #cgf4 #bbj ,phil4 ,mag41 ,novemb]1 #ahfh4 #bba 8,orig9 ( ,species10 *ap4 xi4 ,fif? ,edition4 #bbb ,lieut5ant-,colonel ,drayson 78,la/ ,glacial ,epo* ( ,geology07 & also ,mr4 ,belt 7,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 ,octob]1 #ahgd7 /ate t ,lev]ri] has lately inve/igat$ ! "q z to ! ext5t ( ! v>iation ( ! plane ( ! ecliptic1 & has arriv$ at results diff]+ consid]ably f ^? ( ,laplace2 viz41 t ! v>iation may am\nt to #d #eb1 :]eas1 accord+ to ,laplace1 x am\nts to only #a #ba4 ,i fe> !y are comp>+ ?+s t are totally diff]5t2 viz41 ! v>iation ( ! plane ( ! ecliptic 9 relation to its mean position ) its v>iation 9 relation to ! equator4 ,laplace e/imat$ t ! plane ( ! ecliptic w\ld oscillate to ! ext5t ( #d #ec #cc on ea* side ( its mean position1 a result almo/ id5tical ) t ( ,lev]ri]1 :o makes x #d #ea #db4 ,b nei!r ( ^! geometricians ev] imag9$ t ! ecliptic c\ld *ange 9 relation to ! equator to ev5 "o-?ird ( t am\nt4 ,laplace demon/rat$ t ! *ange 9 ! plane ( ! ecliptic affect$ ! position ( ! equator1 caus+ x to v>y along ) x1 s t ! equator c\ld nev] possibly rec$e fur!r ?an #a #bb #cd f its mean position 9 relation to ! ecliptic 78,mcanique ,cle/e10 vol4 ii41 p4 #hef1 ,b[dit*'s ,translation2 see also ,laplace's memoir1 8,sur les ,v>iations de l',obliquit de l'cliptique10 ,connaissance des ,temps = #ahbg1 p4 #bcd71 & ,i am n aw>e t ,lev]ri] has arriv$ at a diff]5t conclusion4 #bbc ,memoir on ! ,secul> ,v>iations ( ! ,elem5ts ( ! ,orbits ( ! ,planets1 8,smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k10 vol4 xvii4 #bbd 8,smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k10 vol4 ix4 #bbe 8,di/ribution ( ,heat on ! ,surface ( ! ,globe10 p4 #ad4 #bbf ,*apt] ,,iv4 #bbg ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,june1 #ahff1 p4 #efd4 #bbh ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxi41 p4 #ahf4 #bbi 8,geological ,obs]v]10 p4 #ddf4 ,see also ,mr4 ,james ,geikie's valuable ,memoir1 8,on ! ,buri$ ,=e/s & ,peat ,mosses ( ,scotl&40 ,trans4 ( ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 vol4 xxiv41 & ,*amb]s' 8,anci5t ,sea-,m>g9s40 #bcj ,see ,lyell's 8,antiquity ( ,man10 ,second ,edition1 p4 #bhb2 8,elem5ts10 ,six? ,edition1 p4 #afb4 #bca ,9 ord] to det]m9e ! position ( ! sol/ice-po9t 9 relation to ! aphelion1 x w n d to assume1 z is commonly done1 t ! po9t makes a revolution f aphelion to aphelion 9 any regul> giv5 p]iod1 su* z #ba1jjj ye>s2 = x is p]fectly evid5t t ow+ to ! great irregul>ity 9 ! motion ( ! aphelion1 no two revolutions w probably be p]=m$ 9 ! same l5g? ( p]iod4 ,= example1 ! w9t] sol/ice 0 9 ! aphelion ab\t ! foll[+ dates3 #aa1gjj1 #cc1cjj1 & #fa1cjj ye>s ago4 ,"h are two consecutive revolutions1 ! "o p]=m$ 9 #ba1fjj ye>s & ! o!r 9 #bh1jjj ye>s2 ! diff]5ce 9 ! l5g? ( ! two p]iods am\nt+ to no few] ?an #f1djj ye>s4 #bcb ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvii41 p4 #bcb4 ,see also 8,! ,la/ ,glacial ,epo* ( ,geology10 by ! same au?or4 #bcc ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce1 ,octob]1 #ahgd4 #bcd ,! long] diamet] passes f long4 #ad #bc ,e4 to long4 #afe #cg ,w4 #bce 8,pr9ciples10 vol4 i41 p4 #bid4 ,elev5? ,edition4 #bcf ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,augu/1 #ahfd4 #bcg 8,elem5t>y ,geology10 p4 #cii4 #bch 8,! ,pa/ & ,pres5t ,life ( ! ,globe10 p4 #ajb4 #bci 8,memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey10 vol4 ii41 ,"p #b1 p4 #djd4 #bdj 8,coal ,fields ( ,great ,brita910 p4 #de4 ,?ird ,edition4 #bda 8,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es10 *ap4 xiii4 #bdb 8,coal ,fields ( ,great ,brita910 p4 #fg4 #bdc ,see 8,smi?sonian ,report = #aheg10 p4 #ach4 #bdd ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,may1 #ahfe1 p4 civ4 #bde 8,geology ( ,fife & ! ,lo?ians10 p4 #aaf4 #bdf 8,life on ! ,e>?10 p4 #acc4 #bdg ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xi41 p4 #ece4 #bdh ,ibid41 vol4 xii41 p4 #ci4 #bdi ,mill]'s 8,sket* ,book ( ,practical ,geology10 p4 #aib4 #bej ,f ,geological ,magaz9e1 ,may & ,june1 #ahgj2 ) a few v]bal corrections1 & a slight re-arrangem5t ( ! p>agraphs4 #bea ,see ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,novemb]1 #ahfh1 p4 #cgd4 #beb ,see ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,novemb]1 #ahfh1 pp4 #cffcgd4 #bec ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxi41 p4 #afe4 #bed ,specim5s ( ! /riat$ summit & b\ld] clay /ones are to be se5 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,museum ( ,sci5ce & ,art4 #bee ,phil4 ,mag4 = ,april1 #ahff4 #bef 8,trac+s ( ! ,nor? ( ,europe10 #ahej1 pp4 #dhea4 #beg ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ii41 p4 #cfd4 #beh 8,trac+s ( ! ,nor? ( ,europe10 by ,rob]t ,*amb]s1 pp4 #bei1 #bhe4 8,obs]vations sur les ,phnomnes d',erosion en ,norvge10 by ,m4 ,hrbye1 #aheg4 ,see also ,pr(essor ,erdmann's 8,=mations ,quat]naires de la ,sude40 #bei 8,glacial ,drift ( ,scotl&10 p4 #bi4 #bfj ,geological ,magaz9e1 vol4 ii41 p4 #cdc4 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,rep41 #ahfd 7sections71 p4 #ei4 #bfa ,trans4 ,roy4 ,soc4 ,ed941 vol4 vii41 p4 #bfe4 #bfb 8,trac+s ( ,icel& & ! ,f>oe ,isl&s10 p4 #di4 #bfc ,see ,*ap4 ,,xxiii4 #bfd ,mr4 ,?omas ,belt has subsequ5tly advanc$ 7,qu>t4 ,j\r4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxx41 p4 #dij71 a simil> explanation ( ! /eppes ( ,sib]ia4 ,he supposes t an ov]fl[ ( ice f ! pol> bas9 damm$ back all ! riv]s fl[+ nor?w>d1 & =m$ an imm5se lake :i* ext5d$ ov] ! l[l&s ( ,sib]ia1 & deposit$ ! great b$s ( s& & silt ) occasional fre%wat] %ells & elephant rema9s1 ( :i* ! /eppes consi/4 #bfe ,proc4 ,roy4 ,phys4 ,soc41 ,ed941 vols4 ii4 & iii4 #bff ,f ,geol4 ,mag4 = ,janu>y1 #ahga4 #bfg ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 xxvi41 p4 #eag4 #bfh ,briti% ,assoc4 ,report = #ahfd 7sections71 p4 #fe4 #bfi ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 xxvi41 p4 #ij4 #bgj ,geol4 ,mag41 vii41 p4 #cdi4 #bga ,trans4 ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 i41 p4 #acf4 #bgb ,geol4 ,mag4 = ,june1 #ahgj4 ,see ,*ap4 ,,xxvii4 #bgc ,?is 0 done by ,mr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,tiddeman ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,engl& 7,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc4 = ,novemb]1 #ahgb71 & ! result e/abli%$ ! correctness ( ! above op9ion z to ! exi/5ce ( a ,nor? ( ,engl& ice-%eet4 ,additional confirmation has be5 d]iv$ f ! important obs]vations ( ,mr4 ,d4 ,mack9to%1 & also ( ,mr4 ,good*ild1 ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,engl&4 #bgd ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 v41 p4 #eaf 7fir/ s]ies74 #bge ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xi41 p4 #dib4 8,memoir ( ! ,c\ntry ar\nd ,*elt5ham10 #aheg4 8,geology ( ! ,c\ntry ar\nd ,wood/ock10 #ahei4 #bgf ,geol4 ,mag41 vol4 vii41 p4 #dig4 #bgg ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvi41 p4 #ij4 #bgh ,my colleague1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,l4 ,jack4 #bgi ,! great] portion ( ?is *apt] is f ! ,trans4 ( ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,ed9burgh1 = #ahfi4 #bhj ,*apt] ,,xv41 p4 #bec4 #bha ,trans4 ( ! ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[1 vol4 iii41 "p i41 page #acc4 #bhb ,mr4 ,milne ,home has advanc$1 9 8 8,e/u>y ( ! ,fir? ( ,=?10 p4 #ia1 ! !ory t ?is tr\gh _h be5 scoop$ out dur+ ! glacial epo* by iceb]gs float+ ?r\gh ! ,midl& valley f we/ to ea/ :5 x 0 subm]g$4 ,! bottom ( ! tr\gh1 be x obs]v$1 at ! wat]%$ at ,kilsy?1 is #cjj feet above ! level ( its bottom at ,grangem\?2 & ?is ,mr4 ,milne ,home freely admits4 ,b he has n expla9$ h[ an iceb]g1 :i* c\ld float across ! %all[ wat] at ,kilsy?1 say1 #ajj feet deep1 c\ld manage to gr9d ! rocky bottom at ,grangem\?1 :]e x 0 n less ?an #djj feet deep4 8,! impetus acquir$ 9 ! ,kyle at ,kilsy?10 says ,mr4 ,milne ,home1 8w\ld keep !m mov+ on1 & ! prevail+ we/]ly w9ds w\ld also aid1 s t :5 grat+ on ! subjac5t c>bonif]\s rocks !y w\ld n h mu* difficulty 9 scoop+ out a *annel bo? wid] & deep] ?an at ,kilsy?40 ,b h[ c\ld !y 8grate on ! subjac5t c>bonif]\s rocks0 at ,grangem\?1 if !y manag$ to float at ,kilsy?8 ,surely an iceb]g t c\ld 8grate0 at ,grangem\? w\ld 8gr\nd0 at ,kilsy?4 #bhc ,trans4 ( ! ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[1 vol4 iii41 p4 #ada4 #bhd ,mr4 ,john ,"y & ,mr4 ,milne ,home advanc$ ! objection1 t sev]al trap dykes cross ! valley ( ! ,clyde ne> ,b[l+1 & come to s ne> ! pres5t surface ( ! l&1 t ! ,clyde at pres5t fl[s across !m ) a dep? n exce$+ #bj feet4 ,i fe> t ,mr4 ,"y & ,mr4 ,milne ,home h be5 mis9=m$ 9 reg>d to ! exi/5ce ( ^! dykes4 ,ab\t a mile above ,b[l+ !re are "o or two dykes :i* approa* to ! riv]-bank1 & may probably cross1 b ^! c\ld n possibly cut (f a *annel ent]+ ! ,clyde at ,b[l+4 ,9 none ( ! bor+s or excavations :i* h be5 made by ! ,clyde ,tru/ees has ! rock be5 rea*$ f ,b[l+ d[nw>ds4 ,i may also /ate t ! :ole ,midl& valley1 f ! ,=? ( ,clyde to ! ,fir? ( ,=?1 has be5 survey$ by ! (fic]s ( ! ,geological ,survey1 & only a s+le dyke has be5 f\nd to cross ! buri$ *annels1 viz41 "o 7,basalt rock7 runn+ ea/w>d f ,kilsy? to ! canal bridge ne> ,dullatur4 ,b z ?is is n f> f ! wat]%$ betwe5 ! two *annels x _c affect ! "q at issue4 ,see %eet #ca ( ,geological ,survey ,map ( ,scotl&4 #bhe ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,glasg[1 vol4 iv41 p4 #aff4 #bhf 8,great ,ice ,age10 *ap4 xiii4 #bhg ,see fur!r p>ticul>s 9 ,mr4 ,b5nie's pap] on ! ,surface ,geology ( ! di/rict ar\nd ,glasg[1 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ( ,glasg[1 vol4 iii4 #bhh ,see also ,smi?'s 8,new] ,plioc5e ,geology10 p4 #aci4 #bhi ,briti% ,association ,report = #ahfc1 p4 #hi4 ,geologi/ = #ahfc1 p4 #chd4 #bij ,see ,geological ,magaz9e1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ch4 #bia ,proc4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 iii41 #ahdj1 p4 #cdb4 #bib 8,antiquity ( ,man0 7,?ird ,edition71 p4 #bdi4 #bic 8,glacial ,drift ( ,scotl&10 p4 #fe4 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,glas41 vol4 i41 "p #b4 #bid 8,memoir1 ,geological ,survey ( ,scotl&10 ,%eet #bc1 p4 #db4 #bie ,mr4 ,rob]t ,dick _h previ\sly describ$1 9 ! ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 vol4 i41 p4 #cde1 portions ( ^! buri$ *annels4 ,he seems1 h[ev]1 to h ?\ght t !y =m$ "p ( "o & ! same *annel4 #bif ,a description ( ?is *annel 0 read to ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,society ( ,glasg[ by ,mr4 ,james ,c\tts1 ! p>ticul>s ( :i* w appe> 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,society4 #big 8,occasional ,pap]s10 pp4 #aff1 #bbc4 #bih ,memoir read be=e ! ,royal ,society1 ,janu>y #g1 #ahfi4 #bii 8,alp9e ,j\rnal10 ,febru>y1 #ahgj4 #cjj ,phil4 ,mag41 ,janu>y1 #ahgb4 #cja ,phil4 ,mag41 ,july1 #ahgj2 ,febru>y1 #ahga4 #cjb ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,janu>y1 #ahgj1 p4 #h2 ,proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,society = ,janu>y1 #ahfi4 #cjc ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,m>*1 #ahfi4 #cjd ,proce$+s ( ,bri/ol ,naturali/s' ,society1 p4 #cg 7#ahfi74 #cje ,ibid41 vol4 iv41 p4 #cg 7new s]ies74 #cjf ,phil4 ,mag41 ,s4 #d1 vol4 x41 p4 #cjc4 #cjg ,proce$+s ( ! ,bri/ol ,naturali/s' ,society1 vol4 iv41 p4 #ci 7new s]ies74 #cjh ,see ,philosophical ,transactions1 ,decemb]1 #aheg4 #cji ,!re is "o circum/ance t5d+ slightly to prev5t ! rupture ( ! glaci]1 :5 "u t5sion1 :i* ,i d n rememb] to h se5 notic$2 t is1 ! cool+ effect :i* is produc$ 9 solids1 su* z ice1 :5 subject$ to t5sion4 ,t5sion w\ld t5d to l[] ! temp]ature ( ! ice-molecules1 & ?is l[]+ ( temp]ature w\ld h ! t5d5cy ( freez+ !m m firmly toge!r4 ,! cause ( ?is cool+ effect w be expla9$ 9 ! ,app5dix4 #caj ,phil4 ,mag41 ,m>*1 #ahfi2 ,septemb]1 #ahgj4 #caa 8,=ms ( ,wat]10 p4 #abg4 #cab ,see text1 p4 #aj4 #cac ,ma!matical & ,physical ,s]ies1 vol4 xxxvi4 7#agfe74 #cad 8,memoirs ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,academy10 #agfa4 #cae ,! calculations "h ref]r$ to 7 made by ,lagrange ne>ly half a c5tury previ\s to ! appe>ance ( ?is pap]1 & publi%$ 9 ! 8,mmoires de l',acadmie de ,b]l910 = #aghb1 p4 #bgc4 ,lagrange's results diff] b slightly f ^? aft]w>ds obta9$ by ,lev]ri]1 z w be se5 f ! foll[+ table2 b z he _h assign$ errone\s values to ! masses ( ! small] planets1 p>ticul>ly t ( ,v5us1 ! mass ( :i* he e/imat$ at "o-half m ?an its true value1 full confid5ce c\ld n be plac$ 9 8 results4 ,sup]ior limits ( ecc5tricity z det]m9$ by ,lagrange1 ,lev]ri]1 & ,mr4 ,/ockwell3-- ,by ,lagrange4 ,by ,lev]ri]4 ,by ,mr4 ,/ockwell4 ,m]cury #jbbbjh #jbbefdf #jbcagahe ,v5us #jjhbga #jjhfgaf #jjgjfcbi ,e>? #jjgfda #jjgggdg #jjfichhh ,m>s #jadgbf #jadbbdc #jacifee ,jupit] #jjfjcf #jjfaedh #jjfjhbgd ,saturn #jjhdjh #jjhdiai #jjhdcbhi ,uranus -- #jjfdfff #jjggifeb ,neptune -- -- #jjadejff ,j4 ,c4 #caf 8,mm4 de l',acad4 royale des ,sci5ces40 #ahbg4 ,tom4 vii41 p4 #eih4 #cag ,absolute z]o is n[ consid]$ to be only #dic ,fah4 bel[ ! freez+-po9t1 & ,h]s*el himself has lately det]m9$ #bga bel[ ! freez+-po9t to be ! temp]ature ( space4 ,consequ5tly1 a decrease1 or an increase ( "o p] c5t4 9 ! mean annual am\nt ( radiation w\ld n produce any?+ l ! effect :i* is "h suppos$4 ,b ! mean annual am\nt ( heat receiv$ _c v>y mu* m ?an "o-t5? "p ( "o p] c5t4 ,9 %ort1 ! effect ( ecc5tricity on ! mean annual supply ( heat receiv$ f ! sun1 9 s f> z geological climate is conc]n$1 may be practically disreg>d$4--,j4 ,c4 #cah 8,pr9ciples ( ,geology10 p4 #aaj4 8,mr4 ,lyell1 h[ev]1 9 /at+ ! actual excess ( eight days 9 ! duration ( ! sun's pres5ce 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e ov] t 9 ! s\!rn z productive ( an excess ( light & heat annually receiv$ by ! "o ov] ! o!r hemisph]e1 appe>s to h misconceiv$ ! effect ( elliptic motion 9 ! passage "h cit$1 s9ce x is demon/rable t :atev] be ! ellipticity ( ! e>?'s orbit ! two hemisph]es mu/ receive equal absolute quantities ( light & heat p] annum1 ! proximity ( ! sun 9 p]igee exactly comp5sat+ ! effect ( its swift] motion4 ,?is foll[s f a v simple !orem1 :i* may be ?us /at$3 #8,! am\nt ( heat receiv$ by ! e>? f ! sun :ile describ+ any "p ( its orbit is proportional to ! angle describ$ r\nd ! sun's c5tre1' s t if ! orbit be divid$ into two portions by a l9e drawn 9 any direction ?r\gh ! sun's c5tre1 ! heats receiv$ 9 describ+ ! two unequal segm5ts ( ! ellipse s produc$ w be equal40 #cai ,:5 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit is at its sup]ior limit1 ! absolute quantity ( heat receiv$ by ! globe dur+ "o ye> w be increas$ by only #a_/cjj? "p2 an am\nt :i* c\ld produce no s5sible influ5ce on climate4--,j4 ,c4 #cbj ,sir ,*>les has rec5tly1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 adopt$ ! views advocat$ 9 ! pres5t volume1 viz41 t ! cold ( ! glacial epo* 0 br\ght ab\t n by a decrease1 b by an increase ( ecc5tricity4 7,see vol4 i4 ( 8,pr9ciples10 t5? & elev5? editions47 ,! decrease 9 ! mean annual quantity ( heat receiv$ f ! sun1 result+ f ! decrease 9 ! ecc5tricity ( ! e>?'s orbit--! a/ronomical cause to :i* he "h ref]s--c\ld h produc$ no s5sible effect on climate4--,j4 ,c4 #cba ,x is s+ul> t bo? ,arago & ,humboldt %\ld appe> to h be5 unaw>e ( ! rese>*es ( ,lagrange on ?is subject4 #cbb 8,rvolutions de la ,m]10 p4 #cg4 ,second ,edition4 #cbc ,see text1 p4 #cg4 #cbd ,see ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,decemb]1 #ahfg1 p4 #deg4 #cbe ,silliman's ,am]ican ,j\rnal = ,july1 #ahfd4 ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,septemb]1 #ahfd1 pp4 #aic1 #aif4 #cbf ,philosophical ,magaz9e = ,augu/1 #ahfe1 p4 #ie4 #cbg ,see text1 p4 #hj4 #cbh ,see text1 p4 #bbb4 #cbi ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 ,no4 #aeg1 #ahge4 #ccj ,see text1 p4 #ebb4 #cca ,phil4 ,trans4 = #ahei1 p4 #ia4 #ccb ,see text1 p4 #ebg4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 - ,text enclos$ by und]scores is 9 italics 7italics74 - ,blank pages h be5 remov$4 - ,obvi\s typographical errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 - ,"s spell+ & hyph5ation v>iations h be5 made consi/5t4