,transcrib] ,note3 ,text emphasis d5ot$ z ,italics4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,agriculture4 ---------- ,,f>m]s' ,,bullet9 ,no4 #fg4 ---------- ,,=e/ry ,,= ,,f>m]s4 ,,by ,b4 ,e4 ,,f]n[1 ,*ief ( ! ,division ( ,=e/ry4 ---------- ,repr9t$ f ! ,ye>books ( ! ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture = #ahid & #ahie4 ,illu/ration ,,wa%+ton3 ,,gov]nm5t ,,pr9t+ ,,(fice4 #ahih4 ---------- ,,lett] ,,( ,,transmittal4 ,u4 ,s4 ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture1 ,division ( ,=e/ry1 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c41 ,decemb] #d1 #ahig4 ,sir3 ,i h ! honor to recomm5d t ! two articles contribut$ by me to ! ,ye>books = #ahid & = #ahie on =e/ry = f>m]s be repr9t$ z a ,f>m]s' ,bullet94 ,! articles conta9 in=mation 9 popul> =m reg>d+ ! gr[? ( trees1 ! plant+ ( a =e/1 treatm5t ( ! wood lot1 ! cultivation ( ! wood crop1 influ5ce ( trees1 etc4 ,a wid] di/ribution ( ?is in=mation1 = :i* !re is /ill consid]able dem&1 w\ld1 ,i believe1 result 9 acqua9t+ f>m]s ) a subject ! importance ( :i* has n always be5 duly recogniz$4 ,v respectfully1 ,b4 ,e4 ,f]n[1 ,*ief4 ,approv$3 ,james ,wilson1 ,secret>y4 --------------- ,,cont5ts4 ---------- ,page4 ,h[ trees gr[ #c ,food mat]ials & conditions ( gr[? #c ,soil conditions #d ,light conditions #f ,physiology ( tree gr[? #i ,sap up & sap d[n #aj ,progress ( developm5t #aa ,gr[? 9 l5g? & ramification #aa ,gr[? 9 ?ickness #ad ,=m developm5t #ag ,rate ( gr[? #ai ,reproduction #ba ,h[ to plant a =e/ #bb ,:at trees to plant #bc ,me?ods ( plant+ #bf ,h[ to treat ! wood lot #bh ,improvem5t cutt+s #bi ,me?ods ( reproduc+ ! wood crop #ca ,size ( op5+s #cd ,w9d mantle #cd ,coppice #ce ,plan ( managem5t #cg ,h[ to cultivate ! wood crop #cg ,effect ( light on wood production #ch ,numb] ( trees p] acre #ch ,we$+ & clean+ ! crop #dj ,me?ods ( ?9n+ #dj ,:at trees to remove #da ,! relation ( =e/s to f>ms #db ,! =e/ wat]s ! f>m #dd ,! =e/ temp]s ! f>m #de ,! =e/ protects ! f>m #de ,! =e/ supplies ! f>m ) useful mat]ial #df ,,=e/ry ,,= ,,f>m]s4 ,! foll[+ five *apt]s h be5 writt5 ) ! view ( aid+ f>m]s :o own small timb] tracts or wood lots1 or :o wi% to plant "s "p ( _! l& to =e/4 ,?is c\ntry v>ies s greatly 9 soil1 climate1 & flora t x is only possible1 )9 ! limits assign$ = ! pres5t discussion1 to outl9e g5]al pr9ciples ev]y:]e applicable4 ,nev]!less1 :]ev] sugge/ions h approximat$ ! lay+ d[n ( rules ( practice1 ! writ] has _h ma9ly 9 m9d ! conditions preval5t 9 our nor!a/]n ,/ates4 ,moreov]1 = ! reason already ref]r$ to1 limitation ( space1 x has n be5 possible to give m ?an a compreh5sive view1 )\t mu* detail4 ,! succe$+ *apt]s %\ld be read connect$ly1 z !y are m or less int]dep5d5t4 ,! fir/ treats ( ! behavior ( a =e/ plant2 ! second1 ( ! pr9ciples :i* %\ld guide ! plant] 9 sett+ a crop2 ! ?ird1 ( ! mann] 9 :i* a natural =e/ crop %\ld be produc$2 ! f\r? po9ts out h[ ! crop %\ld be manag$ aft]w>ds 9 ord] to secure ! be/ results 9 quantity & quality ( mat]ial2 :ile ! fif? *apt] is devot$ to a consid]ation ( ! relation ( =e/s to f>ms4 #a4 ,,h[ ,,trees ,,gr[4 ,trees1 l mo/ o!r plants1 orig9ate f se$1 build up a body ( cell tissues1 =m foliage1 fl[]1 & fruit1 & take up food mat]ial f ! soil & air1 :i* !y conv]t into cellulose & o!r comp\nds1 f :i* all _! p>ts are =m$4 ,!y rely1 l o!r plants1 ^u moi/ure1 heat1 & light z ! means ( p]=m+ ! functions ( gr[?4 ,yet !re are "s peculi>ities 9 _! behavior1 _! life & gr[?1 :i* require special att5tion on ! "p ( a tree gr[] or =e/ plant]1 & ^! we %all briefly discuss4 ,,food ,,mat]ials ,,& ,,conditions ,,( ,,gr[?4 ,trees d]ive _! food & solid sub/ance 9 "p f ! air & 9 "p f ! soil4 ,! solid "p ( _! bodies is made up ( cellulose1 :i* consi/s l>gely ( c>bon 7#dd p] c5t ( its weight71 ) hydrog5 & oxyg5 add$ 9 almo/ ! same proportions z 9 wat]4 ,! c>bon is d]iv$ f ! c>bonic acid ( ! air1 :i* ent]s into ! leaves &1 "u ! influ5ce ( light1 air1 & wat]1 is !re decompos$2 ! oxyg5 is exhal$2 ! c>bon is reta9$ & comb9$ ) elem5ts d]iv$ f ! wat]1 =m+ comp\nds1 su* z />*1 sug>1 etc41 :i* are us$ z food mat]ials1 pass+ d[n ! tree ?r\gh its out] lay]s to ! v tips ( ! roots1 mak+ new wood all along ! bran*es1 trunk1 & roots4 ,?is process ( food prep>ation1 call$ assimilation1 c be c>ri$ on only 9 ! gre5 p>ts1 & 9 ^! only :5 expos$ to light & air2 h5ce foliage1 air1 & light at ! top are ess5tial pr]equisites = tree gr[?1 & h5ce1 o!r conditions be+ favorable1 ! m foliage & ! bett] develop$ x is1 & ! m light ?is foliage has at its disposal = its "w1 ! m vigor\sly w ! tree gr[4 ,9 g5]al1 !re=e1 prun+1 s9ce x r$uces ! am\nt ( foliage1 r$uces also1 = ! "t1 ! am\nt ( wood =m$2 & j s %ad+1 r$uc+ ! activity ( foliage1 r$uces ! gr[? ( wood4 ,,soil ,,conditions4 ,f ! soil trees take ma9ly wat]1 :i* ent]s ?r\gh ! roots & is c>ri$ ?r\gh ! y\ng] "p ( ! tree to ! leaves1 to be us$ 9 "p on its passage = food & wood =mation & 9 "p to be giv5 up to ! air by transpiration4 ,9 a vigor\sly gr[+ tree ! solid wood sub/ance itself w conta9 half its weight 9 ! =m ( wat] *emically comb9$1 & ! tree1 9 addition1 w conta9 f #dj to #fe p] c5t & m ( its dry weight 9 wat] me*anically or hygroscopically held4 ,?is la/1 :5 ! tree is cut1 v l>gely evaporates2 yet well-season$ wood /ill conta9s #aj to #ab p] c5t ( su* wat]4 ,! weight ( a gre5 tree1 a p9e1 = in/ance1 is made up1 9 r\nd numb]s1 ( ab\t #cj p] c5t ( c>bon & #gj p] c5t or wat]1 ei!r *emically or hygroscopically held1 :ile a bir* conta9s a /ill l>g] p]c5tage ( wat]4 ,! l>ge/ "p ( ! wat] :i* passes ?r\gh ! tree is transpir$--i4 e41 giv5 (f to ! air 9 vapor4 ,! am\nts ?us transpir$ dur+ ! season v>y greatly ) ! species ( tree1 its age1 ! am\nt ( foliage at "w1 ! am\nt ( light at its disposal1 ! climatic conditions 7ra91 temp]ature1 w9ds1 relative humidity71 & ! season4 ,^! am\nts are1 h[ev]1 v l>ge :5 comp>$ ) ! quantity reta9$2 s t :ile an acre ( =e/ may /ore 9 its trees1 say1 #a1jjj p\nds ( c>bon1 #ae to #bj p\nds ( m9]al sub/ances1 & #e1jjj p\nds ( wat] 9 a ye>1 x w h transpir$--tak5 up f1 ! soil & return$ to ! air--f #ejj1jjj to #a1ejj1jjj p\nds ( wat] 7"o-qu>t] to "o-half z mu* z agricultural crops74 ,m9]al sub/ances are tak5 up only 9 v small quantities1 & ^! are mo/ly ! common] sorts1 su* z lime1 pota%1 magnesia1 & nitrog54 ,^! are c>ri$ 9 solution to ! leaves1 :]e !y are us$ 7z p]haps also on _! passage ?r\gh ! tree71 ) a "p ( ! wat]1 9 food prep>ation4 ,! ma9 "p ( ! m9]al sub/ances tak5 up rema9s1 h[ev]1 z ! wat] transpires1 9 ! leaves & "y twigs1 & is return$ to ! soil :5 ! leaves are %$ or :5 ! tree is cut & ! bru% left to decompose & make humus4 ,h5ce ! improvem5t ( ! f]tility ( ! soil by wood crops is expla9$1 ! m9]als be+ return$ 9 m soluble =m to ! soil2 z also ! fact t wood crops d n exhau/ ! soil ( its m9]als1 provid$ ! leaves & litt] are all[$ to rema9 on ! gr\nd4 ,= ?is reason !re is no necessity ( alt]nat+ wood crops1 z f> z _! m9]al ne$s are conc]n$2 ! same k9d ( trees c be gr[n on ! same soil cont9u\sly1 provid$ ! soil is n all[$ to det]iorate f o!r causes4 ,z ! foliage c p]=m its "w ( food assimilation only :5 suffici5t wat] is at its disposal1 ! am\nt ( gr[? is also dep5d5t n only on ! pres5ce ( suffici5t s\rces ( supply1 b also on ! opportunity _h by ! roots to utilize ! supply1 & ?is opportunity is dep5d5t ^u ! condition ( ! soil4 ,if ! soil is compact1 s t ! ra9 wat] c n p5etrate readily1 & runs (f sup]ficially1 or if x is ( co>se gra9 & s deep t ! wat] rapidly s9ks out ( rea* ( ! roots & c n be drawn up by capill>y action1 ! wat] supply is ( no avail to ! plants2 b if ! soil is por\s & mod]ately deep 7dep? be+ ! di/ance f ! surface to ! imp5etrable subsoil1 rock1 or gr\nd wat]7 ! wat] n only c p5etrate b also c readily be rea*$ & tak5 up by ! roots4 ,! moi/ure ( ! soil be+ ! mo/ important elem5t 9 x = tree gr[?1 ! greate/ att5tion mu/ be giv5 to its cons]vation & mo/ advantage\s di/ribution ?r\gh ! soil4 ,no trees gr[ to ! be/ advantage 9 v dry or v wet soil1 al?\gh "s c live & almo/ ?rive 9 su* unfavorable situations4 ,a mod]ately b ev5ly moi/ soil1 por\s & deep en\gh or fissur$ en\gh to be well dra9$1 & yet ( su* a /ructure t ! wat] supplies f ! dep?s c readily be drawn up & become available to ! roots--t is ! soil on :i* all trees gr[ mo/ ?riftily4 ,! agriculturi/ procures ?is condition ( ! soil z f> z possible by pl[+1 dra9age1 & irrigation1 & he tries by cultivat+ to keep ! soil f compact+ aga91 z x does "u ! influ5ce ( ! beat+ ra9 & ( ! dry+ out ( ! upp] lay]s by sun & w9d4 ,! =e/ gr[] c n rely ^u su* me?ods1 because !y are ei!r too exp5sive or entirely impracticable4 ,he may1 inde$1 pl[ = 8 fir/ plant+1 & cultivate ! "y trees1 b 9 a few ye>s ?is la/ op]ation w become impossible & ! effects ( ! fir/ op]ation w be lo/4 ,he mu/1 !re=e1 atta9 8 object 9 ano!r mann]1 namely1 by %ad+ & mul*+ ! soil4 ,! %ad+ is done at fir/ by plant+ v closely1 s t ! gr\nd may be protect$ z soon z possible f sun & w9d1 & by ma9ta9+ ! %ade well ?r\gh\t ! p]iod ( gr[?4 ,?is %ade is ma9ta9$1 if necess>y1 by m plant+1 & 9 case ! ma9 crop 9 lat] life ?9s out inord9ately 9 ! cr[ns or tops1 or by ! accid5tal dea? ( trees1 x may ev5 become desirable to introduce an und]bru%4 ,! mul*+ is done by all[+ ! fall5 leaves & twigs to rema9 & decay1 & =m a cov] ( ri* mold or humus4 ,?is protective cov] p]mits ! ra9 & sn[ wat]s to p5etrate )\t at ! same "t compact+ ! soil1 keep+ x granul> & 9 be/ condition = conduct+ wat]1 & at ! same "t prev5t+ evaporation at ! surface4 ,! soil moi/ure1 !re=e1 is be/ ma9ta9$ by prop] soil cov]1 :i*1 h[ev]1 is ne$ful only 9 naturally dry soils4 ,wet soils1 al?\gh support+ tree gr[?1 d n1 if con/antly wet1 produce satisfactory wood crops1 ! gr[? be+ v sl[4 ,h5ce !y mu/ be dra9$ & _! wat] level sunk bel[ ! dep? ( ! root sy/em4 ,irrigation is g5]ally too exp5sive to be appli$ to wood crops1 except p]haps 9 ! arid regions1 :]e ! b5efit ( ! %elt] belt may w>rant ! exp5se4 ,att5tion to favorable moi/ure conditions 9 ! soil requires ! selection ( su* k9ds ( trees z %ade well = a long "t1 to plant closely1 to protect ! woody und]gr[? 7b n we$s71 & to leave ! litt] on ! gr\nd z a mul*4 ,diff]5t species1 to be sure1 adapt !mselves to diff]5t degrees ( soil moi/ure1 & ! crop %\ld !re=e be select$ ) ref]5ce to its adaptation to available moi/ure supplies4 ,:ile1 z /at$1 all trees ?rive be/ ) a mod]ate & ev5 supply ( moi/ure1 "s c get along ) v little1 l ! conif]s1 especially p9es2 o!rs c exi/ ev5 ) an excessive supply1 z ! bald cypress1 honey locu/1 "s oaks1 etc4 ,! climate1 h[ev]1 mu/ also be consid]$ 9 ?is connection1 = a tree species1 al?\gh succe$+ well en\gh on a dry soil 9 an atmosph]e :i* does n require mu* transpiration1 may n d s 9 a dri] climate on ! same soil4 ,9 ! selection ( diff]5t k9ds ( trees = diff]5t soils1 ! wat] conditions ( ! soil %\ld1 !re=e1 det]m9e ! *oice4 ,,light ,,conditions4 ,to insure ! l>ge/ am\nt ( gr[?1 full enjoym5t ( sunlight is ne$$4 ,b z light is almo/ always accompani$ by heat & relative dryness ( air1 :i* dem&s wat] f ! plant1 & may increase transpiration f ! leaves inord9ately1 mak+ !m pump too h>d1 z x 71 "y se$l+s ( tree species ^: foliage is n built = su* /ra9s require p>tial %ad+ = ! fir/ ye> or two4 ,! conif]s belong to ?is class4 ,9 lat] life ! light conditions ex]t a ?reefold influ5ce on ! developm5t ( ! tree1 namely1 ) ref]5ce to soil conditions1 ) ref]5ce to =m developm5t1 & ) ref]5ce to am\nt ( gr[?4 ,! art ( ! =e/] consi/s 9 regulat+ ! light conditions s z to secure ! full b5efit ( ! /imulat+ effect ( light on gr[?1 )\t its det]iorat+ influ5ces on ! soil & on =m developm5t4 ,z we h se51 %ade is desirable 9 ord] to pres]ve soil moi/ure4 ,n[1 :ile "y trees ( all k9ds1 dur+ ! bru% /age ( developm5t1 h a r d5se foliage1 z !y gr[ old] !y v>y 9 habit1 especially :5 gr[+ 9 ! =e/4 ,"s1 l ! bee*1 ! sug> maple1 ! hemlock1 & ! spruce1 keep up a d5se cr[n2 o!rs1 l ! *e/nut1 ! oaks1 ! walnut1 ! tulip tree1 & ! :ite p9e1 ?9 out m & m1 & :5 fully gr[n h a mu* less d5se foliage2 ,anally1 !re are "s :i* d n keep up a d5se %ade = any l5g? ( "t1 l ! black & honey locu/1 ) _! small1 ?9 leaves2 ! catalpa1 ) its l>ge b few leaves at ! end ( ! bran*lets only1 & ! l>*1 ) its %ort1 scatt]$ bun*es ( ne$les4 ,s we c e/abli% a comp>ative scale ( trees ) ref]5ce to ! am\nt ( %ade :i* !y c give cont9u\sly1 z d5sely foliag$ & ?9ly foliag$1 9 v>i\s gradations4 ,if we plant$ all bee* or sug> maple1 ! desirable %ad+ ( ! soil w\ld nev] be lack+1 :ile if we plant$ all locu/ or catalpa ! sun w\ld soon rea* ! soil & dry x out1 or p]mit a gr[? ( grass or we$s1 :i* is worse1 because ^? transpire /ill l>g] quantities ( wat] ?an ! b>e gr\nd evaporates or an und]gr[? ( woody plants w\ld transpire4 ,( c\rse1 a d5sely foliag$ tree has _m m leaves to %$ ?an a ?9ly foliag$ "o1 & !re=e makes m litt]1 :i* increases ! favorable mul* cov] ( ! soil4 ,ano!r reason = keep+ ! gr\nd well %ad$ is t ! litt] !n decomposes sl[ly1 b into a desirable humus1 :i* acts favorably ^u ! soil1 :ile if ! litt] is expos$ to light1 an undesirable1 p>tly decompos$ raw humus is apt to be =m$4 ,favorable soil conditions1 !n1 require %ade1 :ile wood gr[? is increas$ by full enjoym5t ( light2 to satisfy bo? requirem5ts1 mix$ plant+1 ) prop] selection ( %ade-endur+ & light-ne$+ species1 is resort$ to4 ,z ! diff]5t species af=d %ade 9 diff]5t degrees1 s !y require = _! developm5t diff]5t degrees ( light4 ,! d5se foliage ( ! bee*1 ) a l>ge numb] ( leaves 9 ! int]ior ( ! cr[n1 proves t ! leaves c exi/ & p]=m _! "w ) a small am\nt ( light2 ! bee* is a %ade-endur+ tree4 ,! scanty foliage ( ! bir*es1 popl>s1 or p9es %[s t ^! are light-ne$+ trees2 h5ce !y are nev] f\nd "u ! d5se %ade ( ! =m]1 :ile ! %ade-endur+ c develop satisfactorily "u ! light %ade ( ! ?9-foliag$ k9ds4 ,v favorable soil conditions increase ! %ade endurance ( ! latt]1 & climatic conditions also modify _! relative position 9 ! scale4 ,all trees ultimately ?rive be/--i4 e41 gr[ mo/ vigor\sly--9 ! full enjoym5t ( light1 b _! en]gy !n goes into bran*+4 ,cr[d$ toge!r1 ) ! side light cut (f1 ! l[] lat]al bran*es soon die & fall1 :ile ! ma9 en]gy ( gr[? is put into ! %aft & ! height gr[? is /imulat$4 ,! d5s] %ade ( ! %ade-endur+ k9ds1 if plac$ z neighbors to light-ne$+ ones1 is mo/ effective 9 produc+ ?is result1 provid$ t ! light is n cut (f at ! top2 & ?us1 9 practice1 advantage is tak5 ( ! relative requirem5ts = light ( ! v>i\s species4#a #a ,?is relation ( ! diff]5t species to v>y+ light conditions2 _! comp>ative %ad+ value & %ade endurance1 is "o ( ! mo/ important facts to be obs]v$ & utiliz$ by ! =e/]4 ,european =e/]s h done ?is1 b s9ce !y _h to deal ) only a few species & ov] a limit$ t]ritory1 !y c\ld q readily classify _! trees ) ref]5ce to _! %ade endurance1 & take x = grant$ t %ade endurance & d5sity ( foliage or %ad+ value 7 m or less id5tical4 ,) our great weal? ( useful species x w be necess>y & pr(itable to be m exact 9 ! classification4 ,! =e/] f9ds 9 close plant+ & 9 mix$ gr[? a means ( secur+ tall1 cle> trunks1 free f knots1 & he is able1 moreov]1 by prop] regulation ( light conditions1 to influ5ce ! =m developm5t1 & also ! quality ( 8 crop1 s9ce sl[ gr[? & rapid gr[? produce wood ( diff]5t "*4 ,!re are "s species :i*1 al?\gh light-foliag$ & giv+ comp>atively little %ade1 are yet %ade-endur+--i4 e41 c subsi/1 al?\gh n develop favorably1 "u %ade2 ! oaks are examples ( ?is k9d4 ,o!rs1 l ! black *]ry1 be> a d5se cr[n = ! fir/ tw5ty ye>s1 p]haps1 seem+ly indicat+ great %ade endurance2 b ! fact t ! species nam$ soon cle>s itself ( its bran*es & f9ally has a ?9 cr[n1 indicates t x is light-ne$+1 ?\gh a good %ad] = ! fir/ p]iod ( its life4 ,o!rs1 aga91 l ! catalpa1 :i* is %ady & %ade-endur+1 z ! difficulty ) :i* x cle>s itself indicates1 leaf out s late & lose _! foliage s e>ly t _! %ad+ value is !reby impair$4 ,black locu/ & honey locu/1 on ! o!r h&1 leave no d\bt ei!r z to _! light-ne$+ or _! inf]ior %ad+ quality4 ,t soil conditions & climatic conditions also modify cr[n developm5t & %ade endurance has be5 well recogniz$ abroad1 b 9 our c\ntry ?is influ5ce is ( mu* m importance on acc\nt ( ! great v>iation 9 ^? conditions4 ,?us ! box eld]1 an excell5t %ad] 9 c]ta9 portions ( ! ,we/1 is a failure z soil cov] 9 o!rs :]e x nev]!less w gr[4 ,we see1 !n1 t 9 det]m9+ ! %ad+ value z well z ! %ade endurance ( "o species 9 comp>ison ) ano!r1 ) ref]5ce to =e/ry purposes1 n only soil & climate b also ! "* ( foliage & its l5g? ( season mu/ be consid]$4 ,,physiology ,,( ,,tree ,,gr[?4 ,z we h se51 root & foliage are ! ma9 life organs ( ! tree4 ,! trunk & bran*es s]ve to c>ry ! cr[n upw>d & expose x to ! light1 :i* is necess>y 9 ord] to prep>e ! food & increase ! volume ( ! tree1 & also z conductors ( food mat]ials up & d[n betwe5 root & foliage4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! roots1 too1 aside f giv+ /ability to ! tree1 s]ve only z conductors ( wat] & food mat]ial2 only ! y\nge/ p>ts1 ! fibr\s roots1 beset ) innum]able f9e hairs1 s]ve to take up ! wat] & m9]als f ! soil4 ,^! f9e roots1 root hairs1 & "y p>ts are !re=e ! ess5tial portion ( ! root sy/em4 ,a tree may h a f9e1 vigor\s-look+ root sy/em1 yet if ! "y p>ts & fibr\s roots are cut (f or all[$ to dry out1 :i* !y readily d--"s k9ds m s ?an o!rs--!reby los+ _! p[] to take up wat]1 su* a tree is apt to die4 ,"u v favorable moi/ure & temp]ature conditions1 h[ev]1 ! old roots may ?r[ out n[ spr\ts & replace ! fibr\s roots4 ,"s species1 l ! will[s1 popl>s1 locu/s1 & o!rs1 are especially capable ( do+ s4 ,all trees t transplant easily probably possess ?is capacity ( r5ew+ ! fibr\s roots readily1 or else are less subject to dry+ out4 ,b x may be /at$ z a probable fact t mo/ transplant$ trees :i* die soon aft] ! plant+ d s because ! fibr\s roots h be5 curtail$ too mu* 9 tak+ up1 or else h be5 all[$ to dry out on ! way f ! nurs]y or =e/ to ! place ( plant+2 !y 7 really dead be=e be+ set4 ,conif]s--p9es1 spruces1 etc4--are especially s5sitive2 maples1 oaks1 catalpas1 & apples w1 9 ?is respect1 /& a good deal ( abuse4 ,h5ce1 9 transplant+1 ! fir/ & =emo/ c>e ( ! =e/1 gr[]1 besides tak+ ! sapl+ up ) lea/ injury1 is ! prop] protection ( its root fib]s aga9/ dry+ out4 ,! wat]1 ) ! m9]als 9 solution1 is tak5 up by ! roots :5 ! soil is w>m en\gh1 b to enable ! roots to act !y mu/ be closely pack$ ) ! soil4 ,x is convey$ mo/ly ?r\gh ! out]1 :i* are ! y\ng]1 lay]s ( ! wood ( root1 trunk1 & bran*es to ! leaves4 ,"h1 z we h se51 "u ! influ5ce ( light & heat x is 9 l>ge "p transpir$ & 9 "p comb9$ ) ! c>bon into organic comp\nds1 sug>1 etc41 :i* s]ve z food mat]ials4 ,^! travel f ! leaf into ! bran*let1 & d[n ?r\gh ! out] lay]s ( ! trunk to ! v tips ( ! root1 =m+ new wood all ! way1 new buds1 :i* l5g!n into %oots1 leaves1 & fl[]s1 & also new rootlets4 ,to live & gr[1 !re=e1 ! roots ne$ ! food elaborat$ 9 ! leaves1 j z ! leaves ne$ ! wat] s5t up f ! roots4 ,h5ce ! int]dep5d5ce ( root sy/em & cr[n1 :i* mu/ be kept 9 proportion :5 transplant+4 ,at lea/1 ! root sy/em mu/ be suffici5t to supply ! ne$s ( ! cr[n4 ,,sap ,,up ,,& ,,sap ,,d[n4 ,! gr[+ tree1 9 all its p>ts1 is m or less saturat$ ) wat]1 & z ! leaves1 "u ! influ5ce ( sun & w9d & atmosph]ic conditions g5]ally transpire1 new supplies are tak5 9 ?r\gh ! roots & convey$ to ! cr[n4 ,?is movem5t takes place ev5 9 w9t]1 9 a slight degree1 to supply ! loss ( wat] by evaporation f ! bran*es4 ,9 ! gr[+ season x is s active z to become noticeable2 h5ce ! say+ t ! sap is up1 or ris+1 & :51 t[>d ! end ( ! season1 ! movem5t becomes less1 ! sap is said to be d[n4 ,b ?is movem5t ( wat] is always upw>d2 h5ce ! notion t !re is a /ream upw>d at "o season & 9 "o "p ( ! tree1 & a /ream d[nw>d at ano!r season & p]haps 9 ano!r "p ( ! tree1 is errone\s4 ,! d[nw>d movem5t is ( food mat]ials1 & ! two movem5ts ( wat] upw>d & food d[nw>d take place simultane\sly1 & dep5d1 9 "p at lea/1 "o ^u ! o!r1 ! food be+ c>ri$ to ! "y p>ts1 :]ev] requir$1 by a process ( diffusion f cell to cell kn[n z osmosis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--,physiological importance ( diff]5t p>ts ( ! tree2 pa?ways ( wat] & food mat]ials4 7,s*ematic47 ,^! food mat]ials are1 by ! life processes ( ! active cells1 *ang$ 9 *emical composition z ne$ be1 f sug>1 :i* is soluble1 into />*1 :i* is insoluble1 & back into sug>1 & comb9$ ) nitrog5\s sub/ances to make ! cell-=m+ mat]ial1 protoplasm 7fig4 #a74 ,9 ! fall1 :5 ! leaves cease to elaborate food1 bo? ! upw>d & ! d[nw>d movem5t1 m or less simultane\sly1 come to re/ 7! surplus ( food mat]ials1 z />*1 & sometimes z sug>1 be+ /or$ = ! w9t] 9 c]ta9 cell tissues71 to beg9 aga9 simultane\sly :5 9 spr+ ! temp]ature is high en\gh to reawak5 activity1 :5 ! /or$ food ( la/ ye> is dissolv$ & />t$ on its voyage4 ,! exact mann] 9 :i* ?is movem5t ( wat] upw>d & food mat]ials d[nw>d takes place1 & ! =ces at "w1 are n yet fully und]/ood1 nor is !re absolute c]ta9ty z to ! p>ts ( ! tree 9 :i* ! movem5t takes place4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t :ile all ! s-call$ sapwood is capable ( conduct+ wat] 7! he>twood is probably n71 ! mo/ active movem5t ( bo? wat] & food mat]ials takes place 9 ! cambium 7! gr[+ cells imm$iately b5ea? ! b>k7 & y\nge/ p>ts ( ! b>k4 ,! d$uctions f ^! processes important to ! plant] are3 ,t injury to ! liv+ b>k or ba/ means injury to gr[?1 if n de/ruction to life2 t dur+ ! p]iod ( vegetation transplant+ c be done only ) great caution2 t ! be/ "t to move trees is 9 ! fall1 :5 ! leaves h dropp$ & ! movem5t ( wat] & food mat]ials has mo/ly ceas$1 or 9 spr+1 be=e ! movem5t beg9s aga91 ! w9t] be+ objectionable only because ( ! difficulty ( work+ ! soil & ( keep+ ! roots protect$ aga9/ fro/4 ,all ?+s consid]$1 spr+ plant+1 be=e activity 9 ! tree has begun1 is ! be/1 al?\gh x is n impossible to plant at o!r times4 ,,progress ,,( ,,developm5t4 ,l ! :eat or corn plant1 ! tree se$ require z conditions = spr\t+ suffici5t moi/ure1 w>m?1 & air4 ,tree se$s1 h[ev]1 diff] f gra9 9 t mo/ ( ! k9ds lose _! p[] ( g]m9ation easily2 ) few exceptions 7locu/1 p9e1 spruce71 !y c n be kept = any l5g? ( "t4 ,! fir/ leaves =m$ (t5 diff] ess5tially 9 %ape f ^? ( ! mature tree1 :i* may cause _! be+ conf\nd$ ) o!r plants1 we$s1 etc4 ,! little se$l+s ( _m1 especially ! conif]s1 are q delicate1 & rema9 v small ! fir/ season2 !y ne$1 !re=e1 ! protect+ %ade ( "m trees1 or artificial %ad+1 & also protection aga9/ we$s4 ,! am\nt ( light or %ade giv5 requires c>eful regulation = "s ( !m2 too mu* light & heat w kill !m1 & s w too mu* %ade4 ,?is acc\nts = ! failure ( _m se$l+s t spr+ up 9 ! virg9 =e/4 ,! plant]1 !n1 is requir$ to "k ! nature & ! ne$s ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( se$s & se$l+s1 s z to provide favorable conditions1 :5 he w avoid s[+ 9 ! op5 field su* z require ! c>e :i* x is impracticable to give outside ( ! nurs]y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,bud developm5t ( bee*4 ,b1 z x w\ld be if all =m$ buds 7 to live2 ,a1 z x is1 _m buds fail+ to develop4 ,,gr[? ,,9 ,,l5g? ,,& ,,ramification4 ,:ile ! /alk ( :eat or corn gr[s = "o season1 exhau/s itself 9 se$ production1 & !n dies1 ! tree cont9ues to gr[ f season to season1 9 l5g? z well z 9 ?ickness4 ,! gr[? 9 l5g? ( %aft & bran*es proce$s f buds1 made up ( cell tissues1 :i* c subdivide & l5g!n into %oots1 z well z make leaves4 ,^! buds are =m$ dur+ summ]1 & :5 w9t] beg9s conta9 embryo leaves1 m or less develop$1 "u ! protect+ cov] ( scales 7fig4 #c74 ,:5 spr+ /imulates ! "y plant to new activity1 ! buds swell1 %$ _! scales1 di/5d _! cells1 increas+ _! numb] by subdivision1 & ?us ! leaves exp&1 & ! bud l5g!ns into a %oot & twig4 ,dur+ ! season new buds are =m$1 & ! :ole process repeats itself f ye> to ye>1 giv+ rise to ! ramification & height gr[? ( ! tree4 ,! end buds be+ mo/ly /rong] & bett] develop$1 ! ma9 axis ( tree or bran* increases m rapidly ?an ! re/4 ,all ^! buds orig9ate f ! y\nge/1 c5tral "p ( ! %oot1 ! pi?1 & h5ce :5 ! tree gr[s 9 ?ickness1 envelop+ ! base ( ! limbs1 _! connection ) ! pi? c always be trac$4 ,?is is ! usual mann] ( bud =mation2 9 addition1 s-call$ adv5titi\s buds maybe =m$ f ! "y liv+ wood 9 lat] life1 :i* are n connect$ ) ! pi?4 ,su* buds are ^? :i* develop into spr\ts f ! /ump :5 ! tree is cut2 also ^? :i* give rise to :at are kn[n z wat] spr\ts4 ,_m buds1 al?\gh =m$1 are1 h[ev]1 n develop$ at once1 & p]haps n at all1 especially z ! tree gr[s old]2 ^! ei!r die or rema9 dormant1 (t5 = a hundr$ ye>s1 to spr+ into life :5 necess>y 7fig4 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,buds ( maple4 ,a1 longitud9al section ?r\gh tip ( a maple twig2 g1 end bud2 s1 lat]al buds2 l1 sc>s ( leaves ( la/ season4 ,b1 cross-section ?r\gh end bud1 %[+ fold$ leaves 9 c5t] & scales surr\nd+ !m4 ,! fact t ea* ord9>y limb />ts z a bud f ! pi? is an important "o to ! timb] gr[]2 x expla9s knotty timb] & gives him ! h9t t 9 ord] to obta9 cle> timb] ! bran*es fir/ =m$ mu/ be soon remov$1 ei!r by ! knife or by prop] %ad+1 :i* kills ! bran*es & ?us cle>s ! %aft4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,dormant bud1 ,k1 on a #ab-ye> old bran* ( bee*4 ,! bud is /ill capable ( developm5t & is connect$ ) ! pi?1 mm1 ( ! /em by a l9e trace ( pi?1 ,s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,section ?r\gh a #ab-ye> old /em ( bee*1 %[+ mann] ( bud & limb =mation1 a1 dormant buds2 b1 _! trace ( pi? ext5d+ to ! pi? ( ! /em2 c1 a limb :i* />t$ two ye>s ago f a dormant bud2 d1 normal limb2 e1 a limb dead = f\r ye>s2 f1 adv5titi\s buds4 ,! plant] has x also 9 8 p[] to influ5ce ! =m developm5t ( ! tree by remov+ "s ( ! buds1 giv+ !reby bett] *ance to ! rema9+ ones4 ,?is prun+ ( buds is1 :]e practicable1 (t5 bett] practice ?an ! prun+ ( limbs4 ,s9ce ! tree does n gr[ 9 l5g? except by its buds x is evid5t t a limb :i* />t$ to gr[ at ! height ( #f feet has its base always #f feet f ! gr\nd1 & if all[$ to gr[ to size1 mu/ be surr\nd$ by ! wood :i* accumulates on ! ma9 /em or trunk4 ,if a limb is kill$ & brok5 (f e>ly1 only a sl5d] /ub compos$ entirely ( rapidly decay+ sapwood1 is left1 occasion+1 !re=e1 only a small defect 9 ! he>t ( ! tree2 b if left to gr[ to consid]able age1 ! base ( ! limb is encas$ by ! wood ( ! /em1 :i*1 :5 ! tree is cut into lumb]1 appe>s z a knot4 ,! long] ! limb has be5 all[$ to gr[1 ! f>!r out is ! timb] knotty & ! ?ick] is ! knot4 ,if ! limb rema9$ alive1 ! knot is s\nd1 closely gr[n toge!r ) ! fib]s ( ! tree4 ,if ! limb di$ (f1 ! rema9+ /ub may behave 9 diff]5t ways4 ,9 p9es x w be l>gely compos$ ( he>twood1 v res9\s & durable2 sep>at$ f ! fib]s ( ! ov]gr[+ wood1 x =ms a loose knot1 :i* is apt to fall out ( a bo>d1 leav+ a hole4 ,9 broad-leav$ trees1 :]e no res9 assi/s 9 ! process ( heal+1 ! /ub is apt to decay1 & ?is decay1 caus$ by ! gr[? ( fungi1 is apt to p5etrate into ! tree 7fig4 #f74 ,9 p>ks & or*>ds1 prun+ is resort$ to1 & ! cuts are pa9t$ or t>r$ to avoid ! decay4 ,9 well-manag$ =e/s & d5se woods 9 g5]al1 ! light is cut (f1 ! limb is kill$ :5 "y & breaks away1 ! %aft cle>s itself1 & ! s\nd trunk furni%es a good grade ( mat]ial4 ,! diff]5ce 9 developm5t ( ! bran* sy/em1 :e!r 9 full enjoym5t ( light1 9 op5 /&1 or ) ! side light cut (f1 9 d5se position1 is %[n 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #g74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,section ?r\gh p>tly decay$ knot 9 oak wood4 a1 wood ( knot2 b & c1 wood callus ( ! /em cov]+ ! w\nd2 %ad$ portion1 decay$ wood1 black "p1 a cavity rema9+4 ,bo? trees />t alike2 ! "o reta9s its bran*es1 ! o!r loses !m gradually1 ! /ubs be+ 9 "t ov]gr[n2 f9ally ! second has a cle> %aft1 ) a cr[n conc5trat$ at ! top1 :ile ! fir/ is beset ) bran*es & bran* /ubs = its :ole l5g? 7fig4 #h74 ,:5 ripp$ op5 l5g?wise1 ! int]ior exhibits ! condition %[n 9 figure #i1 ! dead p>ts ( ! knot be+ indicat$ 9 heavi] %ad+4 ,s9ce ! br&ies gr[ 9 m or less regul> :orls1 sev]al knots1 /umps1 or limbs are met e #f to #bd in*es ?r\gh ! entire /em4 ,h5ce1 9 =e/ plant+1 trees are plac$ & kept = "s "t close toge!r1 9 ord] to decrease ! bran*+ 9 ! l[] "p ( ! tree & ?us produce a clean bole & cle> lumb]4 ,,gr[? ,,9 ,,?ickness4 ,! "y se$l+ & ! "y %oot ( ! old] tree mu* resemble 9 int]ior /ructure t ( any h]bace\s plant1 be+ compos$ ( a l>ge am\nt ( pi?1 loose squ>i% cells1 & a few bundles ( long fib]s symmetrically di/ribut$ ab\t ! c5t]1 ! :ole cov]$ ) a ?9 sk9 or epid]mis4 ,ea* /r& or bundle ( fib]s1 call$ fibro-vascul> 7fib]-vessel7 bundles1 consi/s ( two k9ds1 namely1 wood fib]s on ! inn] side & ba/ fib]s ( diff]5t /ructure on ! out] side4 ,betwe5 ^! two sets ( fib]s1 ! ba/ & ! wood1 !re is a r[ ( cells :i* =m ! really active1 gr[+ "p ( ! plantlet1 ! cambium4 ,! cambium cells are actively subdivid+ & exp&+1 giv+ (f wood cells to ! int]ior & ba/ cells to ! ext]ior1 & ext5d+ at ! same "t side-wise1 until at ! end ( ! season n only are ! wood & ba/ portions increas$ 9 l9es radiat+ f ! c5t]1 b ! cambium lay]1 ! wood cells1 & ! ba/ cells ( all ! bundles 7scatt]$ at ! beg9n+7 jo9 at ! sides to =m a complete r+1 or r holl[ cyl9d]1 ar\nd ! c5tral pi?4 ,only "h & !re ! pi? cells rema91 int]rupt+ ! wood cyl9d] & giv+ rise to ! sy/em ( cells kn[n z m$ull>y rays4 ,! cross-section n[ %[s a comp>atively small am\nt ( pi? & ba/ or b>k & a l>g] body ( /rong wood fib]s4 ,! new %oot at ! end1 to be sure1 has ! same appe>ance & arrangem5t z ! "y plantlet _h1 ! pi? prepond]at+1 & ! cont9u\s cyl9d] ( cambium1 ba/1 & wood be+ sep>at$ into /r&s or bundles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,developm5t 9 & out ( ! =e/4 ,a1 "y tree alike4 ,9 bo? cases2 ,b & ,c1 successive /ages ( tree gr[n 9 ! op52 ,b & ,c1 correspond+ /ages ( ! tree gr[n 9 ! =e/4 ,numb]s ref] to annual gr[? 9 height4 ,dur+ ! season1 ?r\gh ! activity ( ! cambial "p ( ! bundles1 ! same *anges take place 9 ! new %oot z did ! previ\s ye> 9 ! "y se$l+1 :ile at ! same "t ! cambium 9 ! ye>l+ "p also actively subdivides1 =m+ new wood & ba/ cells1 & ?us a second r+1 or r cyl9d]1 is =m$4 ,! cambium ( ! "y %oot is always a cont9uation ( t ( ! r+ or cyl9d] =m$ ! ye> be=e1 & ?is cambium cyl9d] always keeps mov+ outw>d1 s t at ! end ( ! season1 :5 activity ceases1 x is always ! la/ m9ute lay] ( cells on ! outside ( ! wood1 betwe5 wood prop] & b>k4 ,x is "h1 !re=e1 t ! life ( ! tree lies1 & any injury to ! cambium mu/ int]f]e ) ! gr[? & life ( ! tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--,tree 9 & out ( ! =e/4 ,d1 tree gr[n 9 ! op52 ,d1 tree gr[n 9 ! =e/4 ,! fir/ wood cells :i* ! cambium =ms 9 ! spr+ are usually or always ( a m op5 /ructure1 ?9-wall$1 & ) a l>ge op5+ or lum51 comp>able to a bl[n-up pap] bag2 s l>ge1 9 fact1 sometimes1 is ! lum5 t ! wid? ( ! cells c be se5 on a cross-section ) ! nak$ eye1 z1 = in/ance1 9 oak1 a%1 elm1 ! s-call$ pores are ?is op5 wood =m$ 9 spr+4 ,! cells1 :i* are =m$ lat] 9 summ]1 h mo/ly ?ick walls1 are closely cr[d$ & compress$1 & %[ a v small op5+ or lum51 be+ comp>able1 p]haps1 to a v ?ick wood5 box4 ,!y appe> 9 ! cross-section n only d5s] b ( a deep] color1 on acc\nt ( _! cr[d$1 compress$ condition & ?ick] walls4 ,s9ce at ! beg9n+ ( ! next season aga9 ?9-wall$ cells ) wide op5+s or lum9a are =m$1 ?is diff]5ce 9 ! appe>ance ( spr+ wood & summ] wood enables u to di/+ui% ! lay] ( wood =m$ ea* ye>4 ,?is annual r+ is m conspicu\s 9 ,"s k9ds ?an 9 o!rs4 ,9 ! s-call$ r+ por\s woods1 l oak1 a%1 elm1 ! r+s are easily di/+ui%$ by ! op5 spr+ wood2 9 ! conif]s1 especially p9es1 by ! d>k-color$ summ] wood2 :ile 9 maple1 bir*1 tulip1 etc41 only a ?9 l9e ( flatt5$1 h5ce d>k] & regul>ly align$1 summ] cells1 (t5 h>dly recognizable1 di/+ui%es ,! r+s f ea* o!r4 ,cutt+ ?r\gh a tree1 !re=e1 we c n only asc]ta9 its age by c\nt+ its annual lay]s 9 ! cross-section1 b also det]m9e h[ mu* wood is =m$ ea* ye> 7fig4 #aj74 ,we c1 9 fact1 retrace ! hi/ory ( its gr[?1 ! vicissitudes ?r\gh :i* x has pass$1 by ! record pres]v$ 9 its r+ gr[?4 ,to asc]ta9 ! age ( a tree correctly1 h[ev]1 we mu/ cut s ne> to ! gr\nd z to include ! gr[? ( ! fir/ ye>'s little plantlet2 any section high] up %[s z _m ye>s too few z x took ! tree to rea* t height4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,sections ( logs %[+ ! relative developm5t ( knots4 ,e1 f tree gr[n 9 ! op52 ,e1 f tree gr[n 9 a d5se =e/2 a & c1 :orls ( knots2 b1 dead limb2 sk1 s\nd knot2 dk1 dead knot4 ,?is annual-r+ =mation is ! rule 9 all c\ntries :i* h di/9ct seasons ( summ] & w9t] & tempor>y cessation ( gr[?4 ,only exceptionally a tree may fail to make its gr[? ?r\gh\t its :ole l5g? on acc\nt ( loss ( foliage or o!r causes2 & occasionally1 :5 its gr[? has be5 di/urb$ dur+ ! season1 a second>y r+1 resembl+ ! annual r+1 & di/+ui%able only by ! exp]t1 may appe> & m> ! record4 ,to ! =e/ plant] ?is *apt] on r+ gr[? is ( great importance1 because n only does ?is feature ( tree life af=d ! means ( wat*+ ! progress ( 8 crop1 calculat+ ! am\nt ( wood =m$1 & !refrom det]m9+ :5 x is mo/ pr(itable = him to h>ve/ 7namely1 :5 ! annual or p]iodic wood gr[? falls bel[ a c]ta9 am\nt71 b s9ce ! proportion ( summ] wood & spr+ wood det]m9es l>gely ! quality ( ! timb]1 & s9ce he has x 9 8 p[] to influ5ce ! prepond]ance ( ! "o or o!r by adaptation ( species to soils & by _! managem5t1 r+ gr[? furni%es an index = regulat+ ! quality ( 8 crop4 ,,=m ,,developm5t4 ,if a tree is all[$ to gr[ 9 ! op51 x has a t5d5cy to bran*1 & makes a l[ & spread+ cr[n4 ,9 ord] to l5g!n its %aft & to r$uce ! numb] ( bran*es x is necess>y to n>r[ its gr[+ space1 to %ade its sides s t ! l[] bran*es & _! foliage d n receive light en\gh to p]=m _! functions4 ,:5 ! side %ade is d5se en\gh1 ^! bran*es die & f9ally break (f "u ! influ5ce ( w9ds & fung\s gr[?2 wood !n =ms ov] ! sc>s & we get a clean %aft :i* c>ries a cr[n high up beyond ! rea* ( %ade f neighbors4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,s*eme to ,illu/rate ! arrangem5t ( annual gr[?4 #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41 repres5t ! p>ts ( ! /em gr[n dur+ ! fir/1 second1 ?ird1 etc41 tw5ty ye>s ( ! life ( ! tree1 k1 knots2 ! %ad$ "p ( ea* is ! dead knot ( lumb]4 ,! bran*es be+ prev5t$ f spread+ out1 ! %aft is =c$ to gr[ upw>d1 & h5ce1 :5 cr[d$ by o!rs1 trees become tall] & m cyl9drical 9 =m1 :ile 9 ! op51 :]e !y c spread1 !y rema9 l[] & m conical 9 =m 7figs4 #aa1 #ab74 ,!re are1 to be sure1 diff]5t natural types ( developm5t1 "s1 l ! walnuts1 oaks1 bee*es1 & ! broad-leav$ trees g5]ally1 hav+ great] t5d5cy to spread ?an o!rs1 l spruces1 firs1 & conif]s 9 g5]al1 :i* l5g!n _! %aft 9 pref]5ce to spread+1 ev5 9 ! op54 ,?is t5d5cy to spread+ is also influ5c$ by soil conditions & climate1 z well z by ! age ( ! tree4 ,:5 ! trees cease to gr[ 9 height1 _! cr[ns broad51 & ?is takes place soon] 9 %all[ soils ?an 9 deep1 moi/ ones2 b ! t5d5cy c be *eck$ & all c be made to develop ! %aft at ! exp5se ( ! bran*es by prop] %ad+ f ! sides4 ,x foll[s t ! =e/ plant]1 :o desires to produce long & clean %afts & be/ work+ quality ( timb]1 mu/ secure & ma9ta9 side %ade by a close /&1 :ile ! l&scape g>d5]1 :o desires *>act]i/ic =m1 mu/ ma9ta9 an op5 /& & full enjoym5t ( light = 8 trees4 ,n[1 z we h se51 diff]5t species af=d diff]5t am\nts ( %ade1 & 9 proportion to ! %ade :i* !y af=d c !y endure %ade4 ,! bee* or sug> maple or spruce1 :i* ma9ta9 a l>ge am\nt ( foliage "u ! d5se %ade ( _! own cr[n1 %[ t _! leaves c live & functionate ) a small am\nt ( light4 ,!y are %ade-endur+ trees4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! black walnut1 ! locu/1 ! catalpa1 ! popl>s1 & ! l>* %[ by ! mann] 9 :i* _! cr[ns ?9 out1 ! foliage be+ conf9$ to ! ends ( ! bran*es1 t _! leaves require m light--!y are light-ne$+ trees2 s t ! scale :i* arranges ! trees accord+ to ! am\nt ( %ade !y ex]t s]ves also to measure _! %ade endurance4 ,9 mak+1 !re=e1 mix$ plantations1 ! diff]5t k9ds mu/ be s gr\p$ & manag$ t ! %ady trees w n outgr[ & ov]top ! light-ne$+2 ! latt] mu/ ei!r h ! />t ( ! =m] or mu/ be quick] gr[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,oak tree gr[n 9 ! op54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,maple tree gr[n 9 ! =e/4 ,,rate ,,( ,,gr[?4 ,n only d diff]5t species gr[ m or less rapidly 9 height & gir?1 b !re is 9 ea* species a diff]5ce 9 ! rate ( gr[? dur+ diff]5t p]iods ( life1 & a diff]5ce 9 ! p]si/5ce ( gr[?4 ,x /&s to reason t trees gr[ diff]5tly 9 diff]5t soils & situations1 & h5ce we c n comp>e diff]5t species ) respect to _! rate ( gr[? except z !y gr[ "u ! same conditions4 ,?us ! black walnut may gr[ z fa/ z or fa/] ?an ! a% on a ri*1 deep1 moi/1 w>m soil1 b w soon fall to ! re> 9 a wett]1 cold]1 & %all[] soil4 ,giv5 ! same conditions1 "s species w />t on a rapid upw>d gr[? at once1 l ! popl>s1 asp51 locu/1 & silv] maple1 mak+ rapid progress 7! mo/ rapid f _! t5? to _! fifte5? ye>71 b decreas+ soon 9 rate & rea*+ _! maximum height e>ly4 ,o!rs1 l ! spruce1 bee*1 & sug> maple1 w beg9 sl[ly1 (t5 occupy+ sev]al1 sometimes z _m z #aj to #ae1 ye>s be=e !y appe> to gr[ at all1 _! en]gy all go+ into root gr[?4 ,!n comes a p]iod ( m & m accel]at$ gr[?1 :i* rea*es its maximum rate at #be or #cj ye>s2 & :5 ! cottonwood or asp5 has rea*$ ! end ( its gr[? 9 height ! spruce or p9e is /ill at its be/ rate1 & cont9ues to gr[ = a long "t at t rate2 9 lat] life ! rate decreases1 yet height gr[? sometimes does n cease altoge!r = c5turies4 ,z a rule1 ! light-ne$+ species are ! ones :i* %[ ! rapid height gr[? at ! />t1 :ile ! %ade-endur+ are sl[ at ! />t1 b p]si/5t gr[]s4 ,?is fact is important 9 expla9+ ! alt]nations ( =e/ gr[? 9 nature2 ! p]si/5t %ade-endur+ species cr[d out ! light-ne$+1 & ! latt] rapidly take possession ( any op5+s t fire or /orm has made4 ,x is also important ) ref]5ce to ! managem5t ( wood crops & />t+ ( mix$ plantations2 ! light-ne$+ species mu/ be mix$ only ) su* %ade-endur+ species z are sl[] gr[]s ?an !mselves4 ,! diamet] gr[? %[s also p]iodic *anges 9 its rate1 & is1 ( c\rse1 influ5c$ 9 ! same way by soil1 climate1 & light conditions1 z ! height gr[?4 ,9 ! juv5ile or bru% /age1 la/+ #f to #aj ye>s 9 light-ne$+ & #bj to #dj ye>s 9 %ade-endur+ species1 ! diamet] gr[s comp>atively little1 all en]gy be+ direct$ to height gr[? & root gr[?4 ,:5 ! cr[n has be5 def9itely =m$1 m food mat]ial is available = wood =mation1 & ! increase 9 foliage is accompani$ by a m rapid increase ( trunk diamet]2 9 favorable situations1 ! highe/ rate occurs betwe5 ! =tie? & sixtie? ye>s2 9 ! poor] situations1 betwe5 ! fiftie? & eightie? ye>s1 :i* rate cont9ues = "s "t4 ,!n comes a p]iod ( sl[] rate1 :i* f9ally 9 old age dw9dles d[n almo/ to z]o4 ,b nei!r ! diamet] gr[? nor ! wid? ( ! annual r+s alone tells u directly :at am\nt ( wood is =m+4 ,! out] r+s1 be+ laid ov] a l>g] circumf]5ce1 al?\gh ?9n] ?an ! prec$+ r+s1 may yet h great] cubic cont5ts4 ,! /atem5ts ( diamet] gr[? are1 !re=e1 mislead+ if we are int]e/$ 9 kn[+ h[ mu* wood is =m+4 ,accord+ly ! gr[? 9 volume mu/ be consid]$ sep>ately1 z det]m9$ by ! enl>gem5t ( ! cross-section area & ! height4 ,! gr[? 9 volume or mass accretion is q small 9 "y trees1 s t :5 wood is cut "y ! smalle/ am\nt ( crop p] ye> is h>ve/$1 :ile1 if x is all[$ to gr[1 an increase m ?an proportionate to ! numb] ( ye>s may be obta9$4 ,only :5 ! tree has a fully develop$ cr[n does x beg9 to make mu* wood4 ,its volume gr[? progresses !n at a uni=m rate1 & cont9ues to d s = decades1 & sometimes = a c5tury or m4 ,on poor] sites ! rate is sl[]1 b rema9s long] on ! increase1 :ile on good sites ! maximum rate is soon rea*$4 ,( c\rse1 9 a =e/1 :]e light conditions are n mo/ favorable1 because =m developm5t & soil conditions require %ade1 ! total wood =mation is less ?an 9 an isolat$ tree1 favorably plac$4 ,j s ! dom9ant trees 9 a =e/--i4 e41 ^? :i* h _! cr[ns above all o!rs--%[1 ( c\rse1 ! advantage !y h ov] ! inf]ior trees :i* are suff]+ f ! %ade ( _! neighbors4 ,f9ally1 if we w\ld take into consid]ation an entire =e/ gr[?1 & det]m9e1 = in/ance1 h[ mu* wood an acre ( su* =e/ produces at diff]5t p]iods1 we mu/ n ov]look ! fact t ! numb] ( trees p] acre *anges z ! trees gr[ old]4 ,"s ( !m are ov]%ad$ & cr[d$ out by ! o!rs1 s t a "y gr[? ( spruce might />t ) #ajj1jjj little se$l+s to ! acre1 ( :i* 9 ! tw5tie? ye> only #aj1jjj w\ld be alive1 :ile 9 ! =tie? ye> ! numb] w\ld be r$uc$ to #a1bjj1 & 9 ! hundr$? ye> to #bhj4 ,h5ce ! rate ( gr[? ( any s+le tree gives no idea ( :at ! acre ( =e/ w d4 ,tims1 :ile a s+le good :ite p9e might gr[ ! fa/e/ 9 volume :5 ab\t "o hundr$ ye>s old1 !n mak+ wood at ! rate (1 say1 #a4e cubic feet p] ye>1 an acre ( p9e on good soil1 conta9+ ab\t #a1fjj trees1 may make ! mo/ wood 9 ! ?irtie? ye>1 !n gr[+ at ! rate ( #agj cubic feet p] acre1 :ile 9 ! hundr$? ye> ! rate w\ld n exce$ #gj cubic feet2 & an acre ( p9e 9 a poor] location1 ) ab\t #a1djj trees1 may make ! mo/ wood 9 ! =tie? ye>1 at ! rate ( #ajj cubic feet p] acre4 ,f ! consid]ation ( ! relation ( light conditions to soil conditions1 to =m developm5t1 & to rate ( gr[?1 we may make ! foll[+ d$uctions ( int]e/ to ! =e/ plant]3 ,9 ord] to secure ! be/ results 9 wood production1 9 quantity & quality1 at ! same "t pres]v+ favorable soil conditions1 ! =e/ %\ld be compos$ ( v>i\s species1 a mixture ( light-ne$+ & %ade-endur+ k9ds4 ,! light-ne$+ ones %\ld be ( quick] gr[?2 ! %ady ones1 9 l>g] numb]s1 %\ld be sl[] gr[]s4 ,= ! fir/ fifte5 to tw5ty-five ye>s ! plantation %\ld be kept z d5se z possible1 to secure cle> %afts & good gr[? 9 height2 !n x %\ld be ?9n$1 to increase cr[n developm5t & diamet] gr[?2 ! ?9n+1 h[ev]1 is n to be s sev]e t ! cr[ns c n close up aga9 9 two or ?ree ye>s2 ! ?9n+ is to be repeat$ aga9 & aga91 always favor+ ! be/ develop$ trees4 ,,reproduction4 ,all trees reproduce !mselves naturally f se$4 ,man c secure _! reproduction also f cutt+s or lay]s2 & "s k9ds c reproduce !mselves by %oots f ! /ump :5 ! p>5t tree has be5 cut4 ,?is latt] capacity is possess$ 9 a v>y+ degree by diff]5t species2 *e/nuts1 oaks1 elms1 maples1 popl>s1 & will[s are mo/ excell5t spr\t]s2 mo/ conif]s d n spr\t at all1 & ! %oots ( ^? t d spr\t soon die 7,sequoia or ,cali=nia r$wood seems to be an exception74 ,spr\ts ( broad-leav$ trees develop diff]5tly f se$l+s1 gr[+ v rapidly at fir/1 b soon less5+ 9 ! rate ( gr[? & nev] atta9+ ! height & p]haps n ! diamet] ( trees gr[n f ! se$2 !y are also %ort] liv$4 ,) age ! /umps lose _! capacity = spr\t+4 ,to secure be/ results1 ! p>5t tree %\ld be cut close to ! gr\nd 9 e>ly spr+1 avoid+ sev]e fro/1 & a %>p cut %\ld be made :i* w n sev] ! b>k f ! trunk4 ,n all trees be> se$ e ye>1 & pl5tiful se$ production1 especially 9 a =e/1 occurs1 z a rule1 p]iodically4 ,! p]iods diff] ) species1 climate1 & season4 ,n all se$s c g]m9ate1 & 9 "s species ! numb] ( se$s t c g]m9ate is v small1 & !y lose _! p[] ( g]m9ation :5 kept a few h\rs1 l ! will[s4 ,o!rs1 if kept till !y h become dry1 w lie ov] 9 ! soil a ye> or m be=e g]m9at+4 ,! same ?+ w occur if !y are cov]$ too deep 9 ! soil1 provid$ !y g]m9ate at all "u su* conditions4 ,9 ord] to g]m9ate1 se$s mu/ h w>m?1 air1 & moi/ure4 ,! prep>ation ( a se$ b$ is1 !re=e1 necess>y 9 ord] to supply ^! conditions 9 mo/ favorable comb9ation4 ,9 ! natural =e/ millions ( se$s rot or dry )\t spr\t+1 & millions ( se$l+s spr\t1 b soon p]i% "u ! too d5se %ade ( ! "m trees4 ,man1 desir+ to reproduce a valuable wood crop1 _c af=d to be z lavi% z nature1 & mu/ !re=e improve ^u nature's me?ods1 mak+ m c>eful prep>ation = ! production ( 8 crop1 ei!r by gr[+ ! se$l+s 9 nurs]ies & transplant+ !m1 or else by cutt+ away ! old gr[? 9 su* a mann] z to secure to ! "y self-gr[n crop bett] *ances = life & developm5t4 #b4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,plant ,a ,,=e/4 ,=e/ plant+ & tree plant+ are two diff]5t ?+s4 ,! or*>di/1 :o plants = fruit2 ! l&scape g>d5]1 :o plants = =m2 ! roadside plant]1 :o plants = %ade1 all h objects 9 view diff]5t f t ( ! =e/ plant]1 & !re=e select & use _! plant mat]ial diff]5tly4 ,!y deal ) s+le individual trees1 ea* "o by itself de/9$ = a def9ite purpose4 ,! =e/]1 on ! o!r h&1 plants a crop l ! f>m]2 he deals n ) ! s+le se$ or plant1 b ) masses ( trees2 ! individual tree has value to him only z ap>t ( ! :ole4 ,x may come to h>ve/ = its timb]1 or x may n come to h>ve/1 & yet h answ]$ its purpose z a "p ( ! :ole 9 %ad+ ! gr\nd1 or act+ z nurse or =w>d] z long z x 0 necess>y4 ,8 object is n to gr[ trees1 b to produce wood1 ! l>ge/ am\nt ( ! be/ quality p] acre1 :e!r x be /or$ 9 "o tree or 9 _m1 & 8 me?ods mu/ be direct$ to t end4 ,z f> z ! mann] ( sett+ out plants or s[+ se$s is conc]n$1 ! same g5]al pr9ciples & ! same c>e 9 manipulation are applicable z 9 any o!r plant+1 except z ! coat ( op]at+ on s ,l>ge a scale may necessitate less c>eful me?ods ?an ! g>d5] or nurs]yman c af=d to apply2 ! ne>]1 h[ev]1 ! p]=mance ( plant+ c be br\ght to ! c>eful mann] ( ! g>d5]1 ! sur] ! success4 ,! pr9ciples und]ly+ su* me?ods h be5 discuss$ 9 ! *apt] ,h[ trees gr[2 9 ! pres5t *apt] x is propos$ to po9t out briefly ! special consid]ations :i* %\ld guide ! =e/ plant] 9 p>ticul>4 ,,:at ,,trees ,,to ,,plant4 ,adaptability to climate is ! fir/ requisite 9 ! species to be plant$4 ,x is be/ to *oose f ! native gr[? ( ! region :i* is kn[n to be adapt$ to x4 ,) reg>d to species n native1 ! reliance mu/ be plac$ ^u ! exp]i5ce ( neighbor+ plant]s & ^u exp]im5t 7at fir/ on a small scale71 aft] /udy ( ! requirem5ts ( ! k9ds propos$ = trial4 ,adaptation mu/ be /udi$1 n only ) ref]5ce to temp]ature ranges & ra9fall1 b especially ) ref]5ce to atmosph]ic humidity & requirem5ts ( transpiration4 ,_m species h a wide range ( natural di/ribution1 & h5ce ( climatic adaptation4 ,if su* are to be us$1 x is important to secure se$s f t "p ( ! range ( natural di/ribution :]e ! plants mu/ be h>die/1 i4 e41 ! colde/ & drie/ region 9 :i* x occurs1 :i* insures h>dy qualities 9 ! (fspr+4 ,= in/ance1 ! ,d\glas spruce f ! humid & ev5ly temp]$ ,pacific ,slope w n be z h>dy z t gr[n f se$ collect$ on ! dry & frigid slopes ( ! ,rockies4 ,lack ( att5tion to ?is requisite acc\nts = _m failures4 ,x mu/ also be kept 9 m9d t1 :ile a species may be able to gr[ 9 ano!r ?an its native climate1 its wood may n !re h ! same valuable qualities :i* x develops 9 its native habitat4 ,adaptability to soil mu/ be /udi$ less ) ref]5ce to m9]al con/itu5ts ?an to physical condition4 ,dep? & moi/ure conditions1 & ! /ructure ( ! soil1 :i* influ5ces ! movem5t ( wat] 9 x1 are ! mo/ important elem5ts4 ,:ile all trees ?rive be/ 9 a moi/ to fre% soil ( mod]ate dep? 7f #b to #d feet7 & granul> /ructure1 "s c adapt !mselves to dri] or wett]1 %all[1 & compact soils4 ,fissures 9 rocks into :i* ! roots c p5etrate (t5 /& = dep? ( soil1 & usually aid 9 ma9ta9+ favorable moi/ure conditions4 ,9 soils ( great dep? 7i4 e41 f ! surface to ! imp5etrable subsoil7 & ( co>se /ructure wat] may dra9 away s fa/ z n to be available to ! roots4 ,soil moi/ure mu/ always be /udi$ 9 conjunction ) atmosph]ic moi/ure2 =1 :ile a species may ?rive 9 an arid soil1 :5 ! dem&s ( transpiration are n great1 x may n d s :5 aridity ( atmosph]e is add$4 ,trees ( ! swamp are apt to be indiff]5t to soil moi/ure & to ?rive q well1 if n bett]1 9 dri] soils4 ,adaptability to site4--,:ile a species may be well adapt$ to ! g5]al climatic conditions ( a region1 & 9 g5]al to ! soil1 !re /ill rema9s to be consid]$ its adaptability to ! p>ticul> site1 "u :i* t]m we may comprise ! total effect ( g5]al climate1 local climate1 & soil4 ,! g5]al climatic conditions are locally influ5c$1 especially by ! slope1 exposure1 or aspect1 & ! surr\nd+s4 ,?us we "k t ea/]n exposures are m liable to fro/1 we/]n exposures m liable to damage f w9ds1 s\!rn m apt to be hot & to dry out1 & nor!rn to be cool] & damp]1 hav+ 9 consequ5ce a %ort] p]iod ( vegetation4 ,holl[s & l[l&s are m expos$ to fro/s & m subject to v>iations 9 soil moi/ure1 etc4 ,h5ce = ^! v>i\s situations x is advisable to select species :i* c be/ )/& su* local dang]s4 ,! use value1 or utility1 ( ! species is next to be consid]$4 ,?is mu/ be done ) ref]5ce to ! comm]cial & dome/ic dem&1 & ! l5g? ( "t x takes ! species to atta9 its value4 ,! great] v>iety ( purposes a wood may s]ve--i4 e41 ! great] its g5]al utility--& ! soon] x atta9s its use value ! bett]4 ,:ite p9e = ! nor!a/]n ,/ates z a wood is l ! apple among fruits1 mak+ an all-r\nd useful mat]ial 9 l>ge quantities p] acre 9 %ort "t4 ,tulip popl>1 applicable to a wid] climatic range1 is almo/ z valuable1 :ile oak1 a%1 & hickory are /&>d woods 9 ! m>ket4 ,o!r woods are ( limit$ application4 ,?us ! black locu/1 :i* gr[s mo/ quickly into useful po/s1 has only a limit$ m>ket1 mu* m limit$ ?an x %\ld h2 hickory soon furni%es valuable hoop poles f ! ?9n+s1 & lat] ! be/ wagon mat]ial1 n1 h[ev]1 l>ge quantities 9 a %ort "t2 :ile black walnut ( good quality is v high 9 price1 ! m>ket is also limit$1 & ! d>k color ( ! he>twood1 = :i* x is priz$1 is atta9$ only by old trees4 ,! black *]ry1 us$ = simil> purposes1 atta9s its value mu* soon]4 ,by plant+ v>i\s species toge!r1 v>iety ( usefulness may be secur$ & ! c]ta9ty ( a m>ket increas$4 ,! =e/ value ( ! species is only 9 "p express$ by its use value4 ,z has be5 %[n 9 ano!r place1 ! composition ( ! crop mu/ be su* z to insure ma9t5ance ( favorable soil conditions1 z well z satisfactory developm5t ( ! crop itself4 ,"s species1 al?\gh ( high use value1 l a%1 oak1 etc1 are poor pres]v]s ( soil conditions1 all[+ grass & we$s to ent] ! plantation & to det]iorate ! soil "u _! ?9 foliage4 ,o!rs1 l bee*1 sug> maple1 box eld]1 etc41 al?\gh ( less use value1 be+ d5se foliag$ & pres]v+ a %ady cr[n = a long "t1 are ( great =e/ value z soil improv]s4 ,aga91 z ! value ( logs dep5ds l>gely on _! fre$om f knots1 /raightness1 & l5g?1 x is ( importance to secure ^! qualities4 ,"s valuable species1 if gr[n by !mselves1 make crook$ trunks1 d n clean _! %afts ( bran*es1 & are apt to spread r ?an l5g!n4 ,if plant$ 9 close companion%ip ) o!rs1 !y are =c$ by ^! nurses or =w>d]s to make bett] gr[?s & clean _! %afts ( bran*es4 ,fur!rmore1 f f9ancial consid]ations1 x is well to "k t "s species develop m rapidly & produce l>g] quantities ( useful mat]ial p] acre ?an o!rs2 ?us ! :ite p9e is a big cropp]1 &1 comb9+ ) ?is a tol]ably good %ad+ quality1 & be+ 9 addition capable ( easy reproduction1 x is ( highe/ =e/ value4 ,h5ce1 z ! object ( =e/ry is to make money f cont9u$ wood crops1 use value & =e/ value mu/ bo? be consid]$ 9 ,! selection ( mat]ials = =e/ plant+4 ,mutual relation%ip ( diff]5t species1 ) ref]5ce especially to _! relative height gr[? & _! relative light requirem5ts1 mu/ be consid]$ 9 />t+ a mix$ plantation4 ,mix$ =e/ plantations 7made ( sev]al k9ds7 h s _m advantages ov] pure plantations 7made ( "o k9d7 t !y %\ld be pref]r$1 except = v p>ticul> reasons4 ,mix$ plantations are capable ( produc+ l>g] quantities ( bett] & m v>i$ mat]ial1 pres]ve soil conditions hott]1 are less liable to damage f w9ds1 fires1 & insects1 & c be m readily reproduc$4 ,! foll[+ g5]al rules %\ld guide 9 mak+ up ! composition ( a mix$ plantation3 a4 ,%ade-endur+ k9ds %\ld =m ! bulk 7five-eigh?s to sev5-eigh?s7 ( ! plantation1 except on specially favor$ soils :]e no det]ioration is to be fe>$ f plant+ only light-ne$+ k9ds1 & 9 :i* case ^? may ev5 be plant$ by !mselves4 b4 ,! light-ne$+ trees %\ld be surr\nd$ by %ade-endur+ ( sl[] gr[?1 s t ! =m] may n be ov]topp$1 b h ! necess>y light & be =c$ by side %ade to /raight gr[?4 c4 ,%ade-endur+ species may be gr[n 9 admixture ) ea* o!r :5 _! rate ( height gr[? is ab\t equal1 or :5 ! sl[]-gr[+ k9d c be protect$ aga9/ ! quick]-gr[+ 7= in/ance1 by plant+ a l>g] proportion ( ! =m] 9 gr\ps or by cutt+ back ! latt]74 d4 ,! m valuable timb] trees :i* are to =m ! ma9 crop %\ld be s dispos$ individually1 & plant$ 9 su* numb]s among ! second>y crop or nurse crop1 t ! latt] c be ?9n$ out fir/ )\t di/urb+ ! =m]4 ,:]e a plantation ( light-foliag$ trees has be5 made 7black walnut1 = in/ance71 x c be greatly improv$ by "u-plant+ d5sely ) a %ade-endur+ k9d1 :i* w *oke out we$ gr[?1 improve ! soil1 & !reby advance ! gr[? ( ! plantation4 ,! selection & prop] comb9ation ( species ) ref]5ce to ?is mutual relation%ip to ea* o!r & to ! soil are ! mo/ important elem5ts ( success4 ,availability ( ! species also /ill ne$s consid]ation 9 ?is c\ntry2 =1 al?\gh a species may be v well adapt$ to ! purpose 9 h&1 x may be too difficult to obta9 mat]ial = plant+ 9 quantity or at reasonable prices4 ,:ile ! bee* is "o ( ! be/ species = %ade endurance1 & h5ce = soil cov]1 se$l+s c n be _h z yet 9 quantity4 ,we/]n conif]s1 al?\gh promis+ good mat]ial = =e/ plant+1 are at pres5t too high pric$ = g5]al use4 ,"s ea/]n trees c be secur$ readily--ei!r _! se$ or se$l+s--f ! native woods2 o!rs mu/ be gr[n 9 nurs]ies be=e !y c be plac$ 9 ! field4 ,:e!r to procure se$s or plants1 & if ! latt]1 :at k9d1 dep5ds ^u a numb] ( consid]ations4 ,! ma9 crop1 t :i* is to furni% ! bett] timb]1 _h be/ be plant$ ) nurs]y-gr[n plants1 if ( sl[-gr[+ k9ds1 p]haps once transplant$1 ) well-develop$ root sy/ems1 ! plants 9 no case to be m ?an #b to #c ye>s old4 ,! second>y or nurse crop may !n be s[n or plant$ ) y\ng] & less co/ly mat]ial tak5 f ! woods or gr[n 9 se$ b$s1 or else cutt+s may be us$4 ,9 "s localities--= in/ance1 ! ,we/]n pla9s--! g]m9at+ ( se$s 9 ! op5 field is s unc]ta91 & ! life ( ! "y se$l+s = ! fir/ ye> or two s prec>i\s1 t ! use ( se$s 9 ! field c n be recomm5d$4 ,9 su* locations c>eful selection & treatm5t ( ! plant+ mat]ial accord+ to ! h>d%ips :i* x mu/ enc\nt] c alone insure success4 ,se$l+s f #f to #ab in*es high furni% ! be/ mat]ial4 ,! plant+ ( l>ge-siz$ trees is n exclud$1 b is exp5sive & h5ce (t5 impracticable1 besides be+ less sure ( success1 s9ce ! l>g]-siz$ tree is apt to lose a great] proportion ( its roots 9 transplant+4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,plant+4 ,prep>ation ( soil is = ! purpose ( secur+ a favorable />t = ! "y crop2 its effects are lo/ aft] ! fir/ few ye>s4 ,mo/ l& t is to be devot$ to =e/ plant+ does n admit ( z c>eful prep>ation z = agricultural crops1 nor is x necess>y :]e ! climate is hot too sev]e & ! soil n too compact to prev5t ! "y crop f e/abli%+ itself4 ,?\s&s ( acres 9 ,g]many are plant$ annually )\t any soil prep>ation1 ye>l+ p9e se$l+s be+ set ) a dibble 9 ! unprep>$ gr\nd4 ,?is abs5ce ( prep>ation is ev5 necess>y 9 s&y soils1 l t enc\nt]$ 9 ! s&-hills ( ,nebraska1 :i* may1 if di/urb$1 be bl[n out & %ift$4 ,9 o!r cases a p>tial removal ( a too rank und]gr[? or soil cov] & a %all[ sc>ify+ or hoe+ is resort$ to1 or else furr[s are ?r[n up & ! trees set out 9 !m4 ,9 l& t has be5 till$1 deep pl[+ 7#aj to #ab in*es7 & ?or\gh pulv]iz+ give ! be/ *ances = ! "y crop to />t4 ,= special conditions1 v dry or v moi/ situations1 special me?ods are requir$4 ,! be/ me?ods = plant+ 9 ! semi>id regions ( ! f> ,we/ h n yet be5 develop$4 ,?or\gh cultivation1 z = agricultural crops1 ) subsequ5t culture1 is successful1 b exp5sive4 ,a plan :i* might be tri$ w\ld consi/ 9 break+ ! raw prairie 9 ,june & turn+ ov] a %all[ sod1 s[+ a crop ( oats or alfalfa1 h>ve/+ x ) a high /ubble1 !n op5+ furr[s = plant+ & leav+ ! gr\nd betwe5 furr[s undi/urb$1 s z to secure ! l>ge/ am\nt ( dra9age into ! furr[s & a mul* betwe5 ! r[s4 ,! "t = plant+ dep5ds on climatic & soil conditions & ! conv5i5ce ( ! plant]4 ,spr+ plant+ is pref]able except 9 s\!rn latitudes1 especially 9 ! ,we/1 :]e ! w9t]s are sev]e & ! fall apt to be dry1 ! soil !re=e n 9 favorable condition = plant+4 ,! "t = fall plant+ is aft] ! leaves h fall52 = spr+ plant+1 be=e or j :5 life beg9s anew4 ,9 ord] to be ready 9 "t = spr+ plant+1 x is a good practice to take up ! plants 9 ! fall & heel !m 9 ov] w9t] 7cov]+ !m1 closely pack$1 9 a dry tr5* ( soil74 ,conif]s c be plant$ lat] 9 spr+ & e>li] 9 fall ?an broad-leav$ trees4 ,! d5sity ( ! trees is a matt] 9 :i* mo/ plant]s fail4 ,! advantages ( close plant+ lie 9 ! quick] %ad+ ( ! soil1 h5ce ! bett] pres]vation ( its moi/ure & improv$ gr[? & =m developm5t ( ! crop4 ,^! advantages mu/ be balanc$ aga9/ ! increas$ co/ ( close plant+4 ,! clos] ! plant+1 ! soon] w ! plantation be self-su/a9+ & ! sur] ! success4 ,if plant$ 9 squ>es1 or1 bett] /ill1 9 qu9cunx ord] 7! trees 9 e o!r r[ alt]nat+ at equal di/ances71 :i* is mo/ desirable on acc\nt ( ! m sy/ematic "w possible & ! m complete cov] :i* x makes1 ! di/ance %\ld n be m ?an #d feet1 unless = special reasons & conditions1 :ile #b feet ap>t is n too close1 & /ill clos] plant+ is done by nature ) ! be/ success4 ,! foll[+ numb]s ( trees p] acre are requir$ :5 plant+ at di/ances z indicat$3 #a by #a feet #ai1cfj #b by #d feet #f1dde #a by #b feet #ad1ebj #c by #c feet #d1hdj #b by #b foot #aj1hij #c by #d feet #c1fcj #b by #c feet #g1bfj #d by #d feet #b1gbb ,to decrease exp5se1 ! bulk ( ! plantation may be made ( ! *eape/ k9ds ( trees t may s]ve z soil cov] & second>y or nurse crop1 ! ma9 crop ( f #cjj to #fjj trees to consi/ ( bett] k9ds1 & ) bett] plant+ mat]ial1 ma9ly ( light-ne$+ species4 ,^! %\ld be ev5ly dispos$ ?r\gh ! plantation1 ea* closely surr\nd$ by ! nurse crop4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 und]/ood t n all trees gr[ up2 a con/ant *ange 9 numb]s by ! dea? 7or else timely removal7 ( ! ov]%ad$ takes place1 s t ! f9al crop %[s at #ajj ye>s a close cov]1 ) h>dly #cjj trees to ! acre4 ,aft]-culture is n entirely avoidable1 especially "u unfavorable climatic conditions1 & if ! plant+ 0 n close en\gh4 ,%all[ cultivation betwe5 ! r[s is ne$$ to prev5t we$ gr[? & to keep ! soil op51 until x is %ad$ by ! "y trees1 :i* may take a ye> ) close plant+ & two or ?ree ye>s ) r[s #d by #d feet ap>t1 ! "t v>y+ also ) ! species4 ,x is r>e t a plantation succe$s 9 all its p>ts2 gaps or fail places occur1 z a rule1 & mu/ be fill$ 9 by additional plant+ z soon z possible1 if ( l>g] ext5t ?an c be clos$ up 9 a few ye>s by ! neighbor+ gr[?4 ,:5 ! soil is protect$ by a complete leaf canopy1 ! =e/ crop may be consid]$ z e/abli%$1 & ! aft]-treatm5t w consi/ ( judici\s ?9n+4 #c4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,treat ,,! ,,wood ,,lot4 ,9 ! nor!a/]n ,/ates x is ! cu/om to h connect$ ) ! f>m apiece ( virg9 woodl&1 commonly call$ ! wood lot4 ,its object prim>ily is to supply ! f>m] ) ! firewood1 f5ce mat]ial1 & su* dim5sion timb]s z he may ne$ f "t to "t = repairs on build+s1 wagons1 etc4 ,z a rule1 ! wood lot occupies1 z x ought to1 ! poor] "p ( ! f>m1 ! rocky or /ony1 ! dry or ! wet portions1 :i* are n well fitt$ = agricultural crops4 ,z a rule1 x is treat$ z x ought n to be1 if ! int5tion is to h x s]ve its purpose cont9u\sly2 x is cut & cull$ )\t reg>d to its reproduction4 ,z f> z firewood supplies g1 ! c>eful f>m] w fir/ use ! dead & dy+ trees1 brok5 limbs1 & leav+s1 :i* is q prop]4 ,! c>eless man avoids ! extra labor :i* su* mat]ial requires1 & takes :atev] splits be/1 no matt] :e!r ! mat]ial c\ld be us$ = bett] purposes or n4 ,:5 x comes to ! cutt+ ( o!r mat]ial1 f5ce rails1 po/s1 or dim5sion timb]1 ! g5]al rule is to g into ! lot & select ! be/ trees ( ! be/ k9d = ! purpose4 ,?is looks at fir/ sight l ! natural1 mo/ practical way ( do+4 ,x is ! me?od :i* ! lumb]man pursues :5 he culls ! =e/1 & is1 f 8 po9t ( view p]haps1 ju/ifiable1 = he only desires to secure at once :at is mo/ pr(itable 9 ! =e/4 ,b = ! f>m]1 :o proposes to use 8 wood lot cont9u\sly = supplies ( ?is k9d1 x is a me?od detrim5tal to 8 object1 & 9 "t x leaves him ) a lot ( poor1 useless timb] :i* encumb]s ! gr\nd & prev5ts ! gr[? ( a bett] crop4 ,our woods are mo/ly compos$ ( _m species ( trees2 !y are mix$ woods4 ,"s ( ! species are valuable = "s special purposes1 o!rs are applicable to a v>iety ( purposes1 & aga9 o!rs furni% b poor mat]ial = any?+ b firewood1 & ev5 = t use !y may n be ( ! be/4 ,among ! mo/ valuable 9 ! nor!a/]n woods we %\ld m5tion ! :ite p9e--k+ ( all--! :ite a%1 :ite & *e/nut oak1 hickories1 tulip tree1 black walnut1 & black *]ry1 ! la/ ?ree be+ n[ ne>ly exhau/$2 next1 spruce & hemlock1 r$ p9e1 sug> maple1 *e/nut1 v>i\s oaks ( ! black or r$ oak tribe1 sev]al species ( a% & bir*1 black locu/2 la/ly1 elms & s(t maples1 basswood1 popl>s1 & sycamore4 ,n[1 by ! common practice ( cull+ ! be/ x is evid5t t gradually all ! be/ trees ( ! be/ k9ds are tak5 out1 leav+ only inf]ior trees or inf]ior k9ds--! we$s among trees1 if "o may call !m su*--& ?us ! wood lot becomes well-nigh useless4 ,x does n supply t = :i* x 0 int5d$2 ! soil1 :i* 0 ( little use = any?+ b a timb] crop be=e1 is /ill fur!r det]iorat$ "u ?is treatm5t1 & be+ compact$ by ! con/ant runn+ ( cattle1 ! />t+ ( a crop ( se$l+s is made ne>ly impossible4 ,x w\ld n pay to turn x into tillage gr\nd or pa/ure2 ! f>m has by s mu* lo/ 9 value4 ,9 o!r words1 in/ead ( us+ ! int]e/ on 8 capital1 int]e/ & capital h be5 us$ up toge!r2 ! goose t laid ! gold5 egg has be5 kill$4 ,?is is n necess>y if only a little sy/em is br\ght into ! managem5t ( ! wood lot & ! smalle/ c>e is tak5 to avoid det]ioration & secure reproduction4 ,,improvem5t ,,cutt+s4 ,! fir/ c>e %\ld be to improve ! crop 9 its composition4 ,in/ead ( cull+ x ( its be/ mat]ial1 x %\ld be cull$ ( its we$s1 ! poor k9ds1 :i* we d n c>e to reproduce1 & :i*1 l all o!r we$s1 propagate !mselves only too readily4 ,?is we$+ mu/ n1 h[ev]1 be done all sit once1 z x c\ld be 9 a field crop1 = 9 a full-gr[n piece ( woodl& ea* tree has a value1 ev5 ! we$ trees1 z soil cov]4 ,! great secret ( success 9 all crop production lies 9 ! regulat+ ( wat] supplies2 ! manur+ 9 "p & ! cultivat+ entirely1 z well z dra9age & irrigation1 are means to ?is end4 ,9 =e/ry ^! means are usually n practicable1 & h5ce o!r means are resort$ to4 ,! pr9cipal ( ^! is to keep ! soil z mu* z possible "u cov]1 ei!r by ! %ade :i* ! foliage ( ! tall trees furni%es1 or by t f ! und]bru%1 or by ! litt] :i* accumulates & 9 decay+ =ms a humus cov]1 a mo/ excell5t mul*4 ,a comb9ation ( ^! ?ree conditions1 viz1 a d5se cr[n cov]1 woody und]bru% :]e ! cr[n cov] is int]rupt$1 & a heavy lay] ( well-decompos$ humus1 gives ! be/ result4 ,"u su* conditions1 fir/ ( all1 ! ra91 be+ int]cept$ by ! foliage & litt]1 rea*es ! gr\nd only gradually1 & !re=e does n compact ! soil z x does 9 ! op5 field1 b leaves x granul> & op51 s t ! wat] c readily p5etrate & move 9 ! soil4 ,secondly1 ! surface evaporation is consid]ably r$uc$ by ! %ade & lack ( air circulation 9 ! d5se woods1 be t m moi/ure rema9s = ! use ( ! trees4 ,:5 ! %ade ( ! cr[ns ov]head 7! s-call$ cr[n cov]1 or canopy17 is p]fect1 b little und]gr[? w be se52 b :]e ! cr[n cov] is int]rupt$ or imp]fect1 an und]gr[? w appe>4 ,if ?is is compos$ ( "y trees1 or ev5 %rubs1 x is an advantage1 b if ( we$s1 & especially grass1 x is a mis=tune1 because ^! transpire a great deal m wat] ?an ! woody plants & all[ ! soil to det]iorate 9 /ructure & !re=e 9 wat] capacity4 ,"s we$s & grasses1 to be sure1 are capable ( exi/+ :]e b little light rea*es ! soil4 ,:5 !y appe> x is a sign to ! =e/] t he mu/ be c>eful n to ?9 out ! cr[n cov] any m4 ,:5 ! m light-ne$+ we$s & grasses appe> x is a sign t too mu* light rea*es ! gr\nd1 & t ! soil is already det]iorat$4 ,if ?is /ate cont9ues1 ! heavy dra9 :i* ! transpiration ( ^! we$s makes ^u ! soil moi/ure1 )\t any appreciable cons]vative action by _! %ade1 w injure ! soil /ill fur!r4 ,! ov]head %ade or cr[n cov] may be imp]fect because !re are n en\gh trees on ! gr\nd to close up ! int]spaces ) _! cr[ns1 or else because ! k9ds ( trees :i* make up ! =e/ d n yield mu* %ade2 ?us x c easily be obs]v$ t a bee*1 a sug> maple1 a hemlock1 is s d5sely foliag$ t b little light rea*es ! soil ?r\gh its cr[n canopy1 :ile an a%1 an oak1 a l>*1 :5 full gr[n1 9 ! =e/1 all[s a good deal ( light to p5etrate4 ,h5ce1 9 our we$+ process = ! improvem5t ( ! wood crop1 we mu/ be c>eful n to int]rupt ! cr[n cov] too mu*1 & !reby det]iorate ! soil conditions4 ,& = ! same reason1 9 ! selection ( ! k9ds t are to be left or to be tak5 out1 we %all n only consid] _! use value b also _! %ad+ value1 try+ to br+ ab\t su* a mixture ( %ady & less %ady k9ds z w insure a cont9u\sly satisfactory cr[n cov]1 ! %ade-endur+ k9ds to occupy ! l[] /ratum 9 ! cr[n canopy1 & to be m num]\s ?an ! light-ne$+4 ,! =e/]1 !re=e1 wat*es fir/ ! conditions ( 8 soil cov]1 & 8 next c>e is = ! condition ( ! ov]head %ade1 ! cr[n cov]2 = a *ange 9 ! condition ( ! latt] br+s *ange into 8 soil conditions1 &1 inv]sely1 f ! *anges 9 ! plant cov] ( ! soil he judges :e!r he may or may n *ange ! light conditions4 ,! *anges ( ! soil cov] tea* him m (t5 :5 to let alone ?an :5 to g on ) 8 op]ations ( ?9n+ out2 t is to say1 he c r>ely /op %ort ( t condition :i* is mo/ favorable4 ,h5ce ! improvem5t cutt+s mu/ be made ) caution & only v gradually1 s t no det]ioration ( ! soil conditions be invit$4 ,we h repeat$ ?is injunction aga9 & aga91 because all success 9 ! managem5t ( future wood crops dep5ds ^u ! c>e be/[$ ^u ! ma9t5ance ( favorable soil conditions4 ,z ! object ( ?is we$+ is n only to remove ! undesirable k9ds f ! pres5t crop1 b to prev5t z mu* z possible _! reappe>ance 9 subsequ5t crops1 x maybe advisable to cut su* k9ds z spr\t readily f ! /ump 9 summ] "t--,june or ,july--:5 ! /umps are1 likely to die )\t spr\t+4 ,x may take sev]al ye>s' cutt+ to br+ ! composition ( ! ma9 crop into su* a condition z to satisfy u4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,reproduc+ ,,! ,,wood ,,crop4 ,!n comes ! p]iod ( utiliz+ ! ma9 crop4 ,z we propose to keep ! wood lot z su*1 & desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood crop 9 place ( ! old "o1 ?is latt] mu/ be cut always ) a view to t reproduction4 ,!re are v>i\s me?ods pursu$ = ?is purpose 9 l>ge =e/ry op]ations :i* are n practicable on small areas1 especially :5 ^! are expect$ to yield only small am\nts ( timb]1 & ^! little by little z requir$4 ,x is possible1 to be sure1 to cut ! entire crop & replant a new "o1 or else to use ! ax skillfully & br+ ab\t a natural reproduction 9 a few ye>s2 b we want 9 ! pres5t case to l5g!n out ! p]iod dur+ :i* ! old crop is cut1 & h5ce mu/ resort to o!r me?ods4 ,!re are ?ree me?ods practicable4 ,we may cle> n>r[ /rips or b&s entirely1 expect+ ! neighbor+ gr[? to furni% ! se$ = cov]+ ! /rip ) a new crop--! /rip me?od2 or we c take out s+le trees "h & !re1 rely+ aga9 on an aft] gr[? f se$ %$ by ! surr\nd+ trees--! selection me?od2 or1 f9ally1 in/ead ( s+le trees1 we may cut entire gr\ps ( trees h]o & !re 9 ! same mann]1 ! gaps to be fill$1 z 9 ! o!r cases1 ) a "y crop f ! se$ ( ! surr\nd+ trees1 & ?is we may call ! gr\p me?od4 ,9 ! /rip me?od1 9 ord] to secure suffici5t se$+ ( ! cle>$ /rip1 ! latt] mu/ n be s broad t ! se$ f ! neighbor+ gr[? c n be c>ri$ ov] x by ! w9d4 ,9 ord] to get ! be/ results f ! c>ry+ p[] ( ! w9d 7z well z to avoid w9dfalls :5 ! old gr[? is sudd5ly op5$ on ! w9dw>d side7 ! /rips %\ld be locat$ on ! side opposite ! prevail+ w9ds4 ,oaks1 bee*1 hickory1 & nut trees 9 g5]al ) heavy se$s w n se$ ov] any consid]able bread? ( /rip1 :ile ) maple & a% ! bread? may be made twice z great z ! height ( ! timb]1 & ! "m trees ) light] se$s1 l spruce & p9e1 or bir* & elm1 maybe able to cov] /rips ( a bread? ( #c or #d & ev5 #h times _! height4 ,b su* broad /rips are haz>d\s1 s9ce ) insuffici5t se$ fall1 or fail ye>s 9 ! se$1 ! /rip may rema9 expos$ to sun & w9d = sev]al ye>s )\t a good cov] & det]iorate4 ,x is saf]1 !re=e1 to make ! /rips no broad] ?an j ! height ( ! neighbor+ timb]1 9 :i* case n only has ! se$ bett] *ance ( cov]+ ! gr\nd1 b ! soil & se$l+s h m protection f ! "m crop4 ,9 hilly c\ntry ! /rips mu/ n be made 9 ! direction ( ! slope1 = ! wat] w\ld wa% out soil & se$4 ,e ye>1 !n1 or f "t to "t1 a new /rip is to be cle>$ & reg5]at$4 ,b if ! fir/ /rip fail$ to cov] itself satisfactorily1 ! op]ation is /opp$1 = x w\ld be unwise to remove ! se$ trees fur!r by an additional cle>+4 ,accord+ly1 ?is me?od %\ld be us$ only :]e ! k9ds compos+ ! "m crop are frequ5t & abundant se$]s & give assurance ( rese$+ ! /rips quickly & successfully4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,%[+ plan ( gr\p sy/em 9 reg5]at+ a =e/ crop4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 successive gr\ps ( "y timb]1 #a be+ ! olde/1 #d ! y\nge/1 #e old timb]2 a1 w9d mantle1 specially manag$ to secure protection4 ,! o!r two me?ods h great] *ances ( success 9 t !y pres]ve ! soil conditions m surely1 & !re is m assurance ( se$+ f ! neighbor+ trees on all sides4 ,! selection me?od1 by :i* s+le trees are tak5 out all ov] ! =e/1 is ! same z has be5 practic$ by ! f>m] & lumb]man hi!rto1 only !y h =gott5 to look aft] ! "y crop4 ,millions ( se$ may fall to ! gr\nd & g]m9ate1 b p]i% f ! excessive %ade ( ! "m trees4 ,if we wi% to be successful 9 e/abli%+ a new crop1 x w be necess>y to be ready ) ! ax all ! "t & give light z ne$$ by ! "y crop4 ,! op5+s made by tak+ out s+le trees are s small t !re is great dang] ( ! "y crop be+ lo/1 or at lea/ imp$$ 9 its developm5t1 because x is impracticable to come 9 "t to its relief ) ! ax4 ,! be/ me?od1 !re=e1 9 all respects1 is ! gr\p me?od :i* n only secures cont9u\s soil cov]1 *ances = full se$+1 & m satisfactory light conditions1 b requires loss c>eful att5tion1 or at lea/ p]mits m fre$om ( movem5t & adaptation to local conditions 7fig4 #ac74 ,x is especially adapt$ to mix$ woods1 z x p]mits secur+ = ea* species ! mo/ desirable light conditions by mak+ ! op5+s l>g] or small]1 accord+ z ! species we wi% to favor 9 a p>ticul> gr\p dem& m or less %ade4 ,fur!r1 :5 diff]5t species are ripe = reg5]ation at diff]5t times1 ?is plan makes x possible to take !m 9 h& z ne$$4 ,aga91 we c beg9 ) "o gr\p or we c take 9 h& sev]al gr\ps simultane\sly1 z may be desirable & practicable4 ,we />t our gr\ps ( new crop ei!r :]e a "y gr[? is already on ! gr\nd1 enl>g+ ar\nd x1 or :]e old timb] has rea*$ its highe/ usefulness & %\ld be cut 9 ord] t we may n lose ! l>g] gr[? :i* "y trees w\ld make2 or else we *oose a place :i* is b poorly /ock$1 :]e1 if x is n reg5]at$1 ! soil is likely to det]iorate fur!r4 ,! *oice is affect$ fur!r by ! consid]ation t dry situations %\ld be tak5 9 h& e>li] ?an ^? 9 :i* ! soil & site are m favorable1 & t "s species rea* maturity & highe/ use value e>li] ?an o!rs & %\ld !re=e be reproduc$ e>li]4 ,9 %ort1 we beg9 ! reg5]ation :5 & :]e ! necessity = x exi/s1 or :]e ! "y crop has ! be/ *ance to />t mo/ satisfactorily ) ! lea/ artificial aid4 ,( c\rse1 advantage %\ld betak5 ( ! occurr5ce ( se$ ye>s1 :i* come at diff]5t int]vals ) diff]5t species4 ,if we beg9 ) a gr\p ( "y gr[? already on ! gr\nd1 our plan is to remove gradually ! old trees /&+ ov] !m :5 no long] requir$ = %ade1 & !n to cut away ! adjo9+ old gr[? & enl>ge ! op5+ 9 successive n>r[ b&s ar\nd ! "y gr[?4 ,:5 ! fir/ b& has se$$ itself satisfactorily1 & ! "y gr[? has come to require m light 7:i* may take sev]al ye>s71 we remove ano!r b& ar\nd x1 & ?us ! reg5]ation progresses4 ,:]e no "y gr[? already exi/s1 ( c\rse ! fir/ op5+ is made to af=d a />t1 & aft]w>ds ! enl>gem5t foll[s z occasion requires4 ,,size ,,( ,,op5+s4 ,! size ( ! op5+s & ! rapidity ) :i* !y %\ld be enl>g$ v>y1 ( c\rse1 ) local conditions & ! species :i* is to 'be favor$1 ! light-ne$+ species requir+ l>g] op5+s & quick] light additions ?an ! %ade-endur+4 ,x is difficult to give any rules1 s9ce ! modifications due to local conditions are s manifold1 requir+ obs]vation & judgm5t4 ,caution 9 n op5+ too mu* at a "t & too quickly may avoid failure 9 secur+ good /&s4 ,9 g5]al1 ! fir/ op5+s may conta9 f "o-f\r? to "o-half an acre or m1 & ! gradual enl>g+ may progress by cle>+ b&s ( a bread? n to exce$ ! height ( ! surr\nd+ timb]4 ,! "t ( ! ye> :5 ! cutt+ is to be done is naturally 9 w9t]1 :5 ! f>m] has ! mo/ leisure1 & :5 ! wood seasons be/ aft] fell+ & is also mo/ readily mov$4 ,s9ce x is expect$ t ! se$ fall5 9 ! autumn w spr\t 9 ! spr+1 all wood %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be remov$ f ! se$ gr\nd4 ,! fir/ op5+1 z well z ! enl>gem5t ( ! gr\ps1 %\ld n be made at once1 b by gradual ?9n+ out1 if ! soil is n 9 good condition to receive & g]m9ate ! se$ & x is impracticable to put x 9 su* condition by artificial means--hoe+ or pl[+4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 q practicable--nay1 sometimes v desirable--to prep>e ! soil = ! reception & g]m9ation ( ! se$4 ,:]e undesirable und]gr[? has />t$1 x %\ld be cut out1 & :]e ! soil is det]iorat$ ) we$ gr[? or compact$ by ! tramp+ ( cattle1 x %\ld be ho$ or o!rwise sc>ifi$1 s t ! se$ may f9d favorable conditions4 ,to let pigs d ! pl[+ & ! cov]+ ( acorns is n an uncommon practice abroad4 ,x is also q prop]1 if ! reproduction f ! se$ ( ! surr\nd+ "m trees does n progress satisfactorily1 to assi/1 :5 an opportunity is af=d$1 by plant+ su* desirable species z 7 or 7 n 9 ! composition ( ! orig9al crop4 ,x may require t51 tw5ty1 or =ty ye>s or m to secure ! reproduction ( a wood lot 9 ?is way4 ,a new gr[?1 d5s] & bett] ?an ! old1 ) timb] ( v>y+ age1 w be ! result4 ,! progress ( ! reg5]ation 9 gr\ps is %[n on ! accompany+ plan1 ! diff]5t %ad+s %[+ ! successive additions ( "y crop1 ! d>ke/ d5ot+ ! olde/ p>ts1 fir/ reg5]at$4 ,if we %\ld make a section ?r\gh any "o ( ! gr\ps1 ?is1 ideally repres5t$1 w\ld be l figure #ad1 ! old gr[? on ! outside1 ! y\nge/ new crop adjo9+ x1 & ti]s ( old] gr[?s ( v>y+ height t[>d ! c5t] ( ! gr\p4 ,,w9d ,,mantle4 ,on ! plan !re w be not$ a /rip specially %ad$1 surr\nd+ ! entire plat 7fig4 #ac1 a71 repres5t+ a /rip ( timb] :i* %\ld surr\nd ! f>m]'s wood lot1 & :i* he %\ld keep z d5se z possible1 especially favor+ und]gr[?4 ,?is "p1 if practicable1 %\ld be kept reproduc$ z coppice or by ! me?od ( selection1 i4 e41 by tak+ out trees h]o & !re4 ,:5 gaps are made1 !y %\ld be fill$1 if possible1 by introduc+ %ade-endur+ k9ds1 :i*1 l ! spruces & firs & bee*1 reta9 _! bran*es d[n to ! foot = a long "t4 ,?is mantle is int5d$ to protect ! int]ior aga9/ ! dry+ influ5ce ( w9ds1 :i* are b\nd to ent] ! small wood lot & det]iorate ! soil4 ,! small] ! lot1 ! m necess>y & desirable x is to ma9ta9 su* a protective cov] or w9d-break4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,appe>ance ( reg5]ation by gr\p me?od4 ,,coppice4 ,besides reproduc+ a wood crop f ! se$ ( "m trees or by plant+1 !re is ano!r reproduction possible by spr\ts f ! /ump4 ,?is1 to be sure1 c be done only ) broad-leav$ species1 s9ce conif]s1 ) b few exceptions1 d n spr\t f ! /ump4 ,:5 a wood lot is cut ov] & ov] aga91 ! reproduction tak+ place by su* spr\ts we call coppice4 ,mo/ wood$ areas 9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates h be5 s cut t reproduction f se$ c\ld n take place1 & h5ce we h l>ge areas ( coppice1 ) v few se$l+ trees int]sp]s$4 ,z we h se5 9 ! *apt] on ,h[ trees gr[1 ! spr\ts d n develop into z good trees z ! se$l+s4 ,!y gr[ fa/]1 to be sure1 9 ! beg9n+1 b d n gr[ z tall & are apt to be %ort] liv$4 ,= ! production ( firewood1 f5ce1 & po/ mat]ial1 coppice managem5t may suffice1 b n = dim5sion timb]4 ,& ev5 to keep ! coppice 9 good reproductive condition1 c>e %\ld be tak5 to secure a c]ta9 proportion ( se$l+ trees1 s9ce ! old /umps1 aft] repeat$ cutt+1 tail to spr\t & die out4 ,soil & climate influ5ce ! success ( ! coppice2 %all[ soils produce weak] b m num]\s spr\ts & are m readily det]iorat$ by ! repeat$ lay+ b>e ( ! soil2 a mild climate is mo/ favorable to a cont9uance ( ! reproductive p[] ( ! /ump4 ,"s species spr\t m readily ?an o!rs2 h5ce ! composition ( ! crop w *ange1 unless att5tion is paid to x4 ,9 ! coppice1 z 9 any o!r managem5t ( a natural wood crop1 a desirable composition mu/ fir/ be secur$1 :i* is done by timely improvem5t cutt+s1 z describ$ 9 a previ\s section4 ,! be/ trees = coppice 9 ! nor!a/]n ,/ates are ! *e/nut1 v>i\s oaks1 hickory1 a%1 elm1 maples1 basswood1 & black locu/1 :i* are all good spr\t]s4 ,:5 cutt+ is done = reproduction1 ! "t & mann] are ! ma9 c>e4 ,! be/ results are probably obta9$1 bo? f9ancially & ) reg>d to satisfactory reproduction1 :5 ! coppice is cut betwe5 ! tw5tie? & ?irtie? ye>s4 ,all cutt+ mu/ be done 9 e>ly spr+ or 9 w9t]1 avoid+1 h[ev]1 days ( sev]e fro/1 :i* is apt to sev] ! b>k f ! trunk & to kill ! cambium4 ,cutt+ 9 summ] kills ! /ump1 z a rule4 ,! cut %\ld be made slant+ d[nw>d1 & z smoo? z possible1 to prev5t collection ( moi/ure on ! /ump & ! result+ decay1 & z close z possible to ! gr\nd1 :]e ! /ump is less expos$ to injuries1 & ! new spr\ts1 />t+ close to ! gr\nd1 may /rike indep5d5t roots4 ,fail places or gaps %\ld be fill$ by plant+4 ,?is c be readily done by b5d+ to ! gr\nd "s ( ! neighbor+ spr\ts1 :5 #b to #c ye>s old1 not*+1 fa/5+ !m d[n ) a wood5 hook or a /one1 & cov]+ !m ) soil a %ort di/ance 7#d to #f in*es7 f ! end4 ,! spr\t w !n /rike root1 & aft] a ye> or s may be sev]$ f ! "m /ock by a %>p cut 7fig4 #ae74 ,= ! recup]ation ( ! crop1 x is desirable to ma9ta9 a supply ( se$l+ trees1 :i* may be secur$ ei!r by ! natural se$+ ( a few "m trees ( ! old crop :i* are left1 or by plant+4 ,?is k9d ( managem5t1 coppice ) se$l+ or /&>d trees int]mix$1 if ! latt] are left regul>ly & well di/ribut$ ov] ! wood lot1 leads to a managem5t call$ /&>d coppice4 ,9 ?is x is attempt$ to avoid ! drawbacks ( ! coppice1 viz1 failure to produce dim5sion mat]ial & runn+ out ( ! /ocks4 ,! =m] object is1 h[ev]1 only p>tially accompli%$1 z ! trees gr[n )\t suffici5t side %ad+ are apt to produce bran*y boles & h5ce knotty timb]1 besides injur+ ! coppice by _! %ade4 ,,plan ,,( ,,managem5t4 ,9 ord] to h>monize ! requirem5ts ( ! wood lot f a sylvicultural po9t ( view1 & ! ne$s ( ! f>m] = wood supplies1 ! cutt+ mu/ foll[ "s sy/ematic plan4 ,! improvem5t cutt+s ne$ n1 9 po9t ( "t1 h be5 made all ov] ! lot be=e beg9n+ ! cutt+s = reg5]ation1 provid$ !y h be5 made 9 ^? p>ts :i* are to be reg5]at$4 ,bo? ! cutt+s may g on simultane\sly1 & ?is enables ! f>m] to gauge ! am\nt ( cutt+ to 8 consumption4 ,accord+ to ! am\nt ( wood ne$$1 "o or m gr\ps may be />t$ at ! same "t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 desirable1 = ! sake ( r5ew+ ! crop sy/ematically1 to arrange ! gr\ps 9 a regul> ord] ov] ! lot4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,me?od ( lay]+ to produce new /ocks 9 coppice wood4 #d4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,cultivate ,,! ,,wood ,,crop4 ,:]e only firewood is desir$1 i4 e41 wood )\t special =m1 size1 or quality1 no att5tion to ! crop is necess>y1 except to insure t x cov]s ! gr\nd completely4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 9 su* a crop1 :i* is usually manag$ z coppice1#b "s ( ! op]ations describ$ 9 ?is *apt] may prove advantage\s4 ,:]e1 h[ev]1 n only quantity b useful quality ( ! crop is also to be secur$1 ! developm5t ( ! wood crop may be advantage\sly influ5c$ by controll+ ! supply ( light available to ! individual trees4 #b ,see page #ce = description ( coppice4 ,x may be prop] to repeat "h briefly :at has be5 expla9$ 9 previ\s pages reg>d+ ! influ5ce ( light on tree developm5t4 ,,effect ,,( ,,light ,,on ,,wood ,,production4 ,d5se %ade pres]ves soil moi/ure1 ! mo/ ess5tial elem5t = wood production2 a close /& ( suitable k9ds ( trees secures ?is %ad+ & prev5ts ! surface evaporation ( soil moi/ure1 mak+ x available = wood production4 ,b a close /& also cuts (f side light & conf9es ! lat]al gr[+ space1 & h5ce prev5ts ! developm5t ( side bran*es & =ces ! gr[? en]gy ( ! soil to exp5d itself 9 height gr[?2 ! cr[n is c>ri$ up1 & long1 cyl9drical %afts1 cle> ( bran*es1 are develop$2 a close /& ?us secures desirable =m & quality4 ,yet1 s9ce ! quality ( wood production or accretion 7o!r ?+s be+ equal7 is 9 direct proportion to ! am\nt ( foliage & ! available light1 & s9ce an op5 position promotes ! developm5t ( a l>g] cr[n & ( m foliage1 an op5 /& t5ds to secure a l>g] am\nt ( wood accretion on ea* tree4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a tree gr[n 9 ! op51 besides produc+ m bran*es1 deposits a l>g] proportion ( wood at ,! base1 s t ! %ape ( ! bole becomes m conical1 a =m :i* 9 saw+ proves unpr(itable2 :]eas a tree gr[n 9 ! d5se =e/ bo? l5g!ns its %aft at ! exp5se ( bran* gr[? & makes a m ev5 deposit ( wood ov] ! :ole trunk1 ?us atta9+ a m cyl9drical =m4 ,:ile1 !n1 ! total am\nt ( wood production p] acre may be z l>ge 9 a close /& ( trees z 9 an op5 "o 7)9 limits71 ! di/ribution ( ?is am\nt among a l>g] or small] numb] ( individual trees produces diff]5t results 9 ! quality ( ! crop4 ,& s9ce ! size ( a tree or log is important 9 det]m9+ its usefulness & value1 ! soon] ! individual trees rea* useful size1 )\t suff]+ 9 o!r po9ts ( quality1 ! m pr(itable ! :ole crop4 ,,numb] ,,( ,,trees ,,p] ,,acre4 ,! c>e ( ! =e/]1 !n1 %\ld be to ma9ta9 ! smalle/ numb] ( individuals on ! gr\nd :i* w secure ! greate/ am\nt ( wood gr[? 9 ! mo/ desirable =m ( :i* ! soil & climate are capable1 )\t det]iorat+ ! soil conditions4 ,he tries to secure ! mo/ advantage\s individual developm5t ( s+le trees )\t suff]+ ! disadvantages result+ f too op5 /&4 ,! solution ( ?is problem requires ! greate/ skill & judgm5t1 & rules c h>dly be =mulat$ ) precision1 s9ce = e species or comb9ation ( species & conditions ^! rules mu/ be modifi$4 ,9 a well-e/abli%$ "y crop ! numb] ( se$l+s p] acre v>ies greatly1 f #c1jjj to #ajj1jjj1 accord+ to soil1 species1 & ! mann] 9 :i* x orig9at$1 :e!r plant$1 s[n1 or se$$ naturally4#c ,left to !mselves1 ! se$l+s1 z !y develop1 beg9 to cr[d ea* o!r4 ,at fir/ ?is cr[d+ results only 9 increas+ ! height gr[? & 9 prev5t+ ! spread & full developm5t ( side bran*es2 by & by ! l[] bran*es fail+ to receive suffici5t light f9ally die & break (f--! %aft cle>s itself4 ,!n a di/9ct developm5t ( def9ite cr[ns takes place1 & aft] "s ye>s a diff]5ce ( height gr[? 9 diff]5t individuals becomes m>k$4 ,n a few trees fail to rea* ! g5]al upp] cr[n surface1 &1 be+ m or less ov]topp$1 we c readily classify !m accord+ to height & developm5t ( cr[n1 ! sup]ior or dom9at+ ones gr[+ m & m vigor\sly1 ! inf]ior or dom9at$ trees fall+ m & m beh9d1 & f9ally dy+ = lack ( light1 & ?us a natural r$uction 9 numb]s1 or ?9n+1 takes place4 ,?is natural ?9n+ goes on ) v>y+ rates at diff]5t ages cont9u+ ?r\gh ! entire life ( ! crop1 s t1 :ile only #d1jjj trees p] acre may be requir$ 9 ! t5? ye> to make a d5se cr[n cov] or normally close /&1 unt\*$ by man1 9 ! =tie? ye> #a1bjj w\ld suffice to make ! same d5se cov]1 9 ! eightie? ye> #cej w\ld be a full /&1 & 9 ! "o hundr$? n m ?an #bej1 accord+ to soil & species1 m or less4 ,z we c disc]n ?ree /ages 9 ! developm5t ( a s+le tree--! juv5ile1 adolesc5t1 & mature--s1 9 ! developm5t ( a =e/ gr[?1 we may di/+ui% ?ree correspond+ /ages1 namely1 ! ?icket or bru%wood1 ! pole-wood or sapl+1 & ! timb] /age4 ,dur+ ,! ?icket /age1 9 :i* ! trees h a bu%y appe>ance1 all[+ h>dly any di/9ction ( /em & cr[n1 ! height gr[? is mo/ rapid4 ,?is p]iod may la/1 accord+ to conditions & species1 f #e or #aj to #cj & ev5 #dj ye>s--long] on poor soils & ) %ade-endur+ species1 %ort] ) light-ne$+ species on good soils--&1 :ile x la/s1 x is 9 ! int]e/ ( ! wood gr[] to ma9ta9 ! close /&1 :i* produces ! long %aft1 cle> ( bran*es1 on :i* at a lat] p]iod ! wood t makes valuable1 cle> timb]1 may accumulate4 ,=m developm5t is n[ mo/ important4 ,! l[] bran*es are to die & break (f be=e !y become too l>ge4 7,see illu/rations ( ! progress ( cle>+1 on pp4 #ae & #af47 ,) light-ne$+ species & ) decidu\s trees g5]ally ?is dy+ (f is accompli%$ m easily ?an ) conif]s4 ,! spruces & ev5 ! :ite p9e require v d5se %ad+ to cle> ! %aft4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod x is only necess>y to we$ out ! undesirable k9ds1 su* z trees infe/$ by insect & fungus1 %rubs1 sickly1 /unt$1 or bu%y trees :i* are apt to ov]top & prev5t ! developm5t ( _! bett] neighbors4 ,9 %ort1 our att5tion is n[ devot$ ma9ly to improv+ ! composition ( ! crop4 #c ,if ! crop does n1 at #c to #e ye>s ( age1 %ade ! gr\nd well1 ) a complete cr[n cov]1 or canopy1 x c n be said to be well e/abli%$ & %\ld be fill$ out by plant+4 ,,we$+ ,,& ,,clean+ ,,! ,,crop4 ,?is we$+ or clean+ is easily done ) %e>s :5 ! crop is f #c to #e ye>s old4 ,lat]1 m]e cutt+ back ( ! undesirable trees ) a knife or hat*et maybe practic$4 ,9 well-made artificial plantations ?is we$+ is r>ely ne$$ until ab\t ! eigh? or t5? ye>4 ,b 9 natural gr[?s ! "y crop is sometimes s d5se z to inord9ately int]f]e ) ! developm5t ( ! individual trees4 ,! /ems !n rema9 s sl5d] t !re is dang] ( _! be+ b5t or brok5 by /orm or sn[ :5 ! gr[? is ?9n$ out lat]4 ,9 su* cases timely ?9n+ is indicat$ to /imulate m rapid developm5t ( ! re/ ( ! crop4 ,?is c be done mo/ *eaply by cutt+ swa?s or lanes "o y>d wide & u f> ap>t ?r\gh ! crop1 leav+ /rips /&+4 ,! out] trees ( ! /rip1 at lea/1 w !n %oot ahead & become ! ma9 crop4 ,^! we$+ or improvem5t cutt+s1 :i* mu/ be made gradually & be repeat$ e two or ?ree ye>s1 are be/ p]=m$ dur+ ! summ] mon?s1 or 9 ,augu/ & ,septemb]1 :5 x is easy to judge :at %\ld be tak5 out4 ,,me?ods ,,( ,,?9n+4 ,dur+ ! ?icket /age1 !n1 :i* may la/ f #aj to #be & m ye>s1 ! crop is gradually br\ght into prop] composition & condition4 ,:5 ! pole-wood /age is rea*$1 mo/ ( ! sapl+s be+ n[ f #c to #f in*es 9 diamet] & f #ae to #be feet 9 height1 ! v>iation 9 sizes & 9 appe>ance becomes m & m m>k$4 ,"s ( ! tall] trees beg9 to %[ a long1 cle> %aft & a def9ite cr[n4 ,! trees c be m or less readily classifi$ into height & size classes4 ,! rate at :i* ! height gr[? has progress$ beg9s to fall (f & diamet] gr[? increases4 ,n[ comes ! "t :5 att5tion mu/ be giv5 to increas+ ?is diamet] gr[? by r$uc+ ! numb] ( individuals & ?us hav+ all ! wood :i* ! soil c produce deposit$ on few] individuals4 ,?is is done by judici\s & (t5 repeat$ ?9n+1 tak+ out "s ( ! trees & !reby giv+ m light & increas+ ! foliage ( ^? rema9+2 & z ! cr[ns exp&1 s d ! trunks increase _! diamet] 9 direct proportion4 ,^! ?9n+s mu/1 h[ev]1 be made cauti\sly le/ at ! same "t ! soil is expos$ too mu*1 or ! bran* gr[? ( ^? trees :i* are to become timb] wood is too mu* /imulat$4 ,s v>y+ are ! conditions to be consid]$1 accord+ to soil1 site1 species1 & developm5t ( ! crop1 t x is well-nigh impossible1 )\t a long & detail$ discussion1 to lay d[n rules = ! prop] proc$ure4 ,9 addition ! op9ions ( au?orities diff] l>gely bo? z to mann] & degree ( ?9n+1 ! old s*ool advis+ mod]ate1 & ! new s*ool sev]] ?9n+s4 ,= ! f>m]1 :o c give p]sonal att5tion to detail & ^: object is to gr[ a v>iety ( sizes & k9ds ( wood1 ! foll[+ g5]al me?od may p]haps be mo/ useful3 ,fir/ det]m9e :i* trees are to be treat$ z ! ma9 crop or f9al h>ve/ crop4 ,= ?is #cjj to #ejj trees p] acre ( ! be/ gr[n & mo/ useful k9ds may be select$1 :i* %\ld be di/ribut$ z uni=mly z possible ov] ! acre4 ,^!1 !n--or z _m z may live till ! f9al h>ve/--are de/9$ to gr[ into timb] & are to =m ! special favorites z mu* z possible4 ,!y may at fir/ be m>k$ to insure recognition2 lat] on !y w be readily di/+ui%$ by _! sup]ior developm5t ,! re/1 :i* we w call ! subord9ate crop1 is !n to s]ve m]ely z fill]1 nurse1 & soil cov]4 ,,:at ,,trees ,,to ,,remove4 ,x is n[ necess>y1 by c>eful obs]vation ( ! surr\nd+s ( ea* ( ! f9al h>ve/ crop trees1 or sup]iors1 z we may call !m1 to det]m9e :at trees ( ! subord9ate crop trees1 or inf]iors1 mu/ be remov$4 ,all nurse trees t ?reat5 to ov]top ! sup]iors mu/ ei!r be cut out or cut back & topp$1 if t is practicable1 s t ! cr[n ( ! sup]iors c develop freely4 ,^? t are only n>r[+ 9 ! sup]iors f ! side1 )\t prev5t+ _! free top developm5t1 ne$ n be int]f]$ )1 especially :ile !y are /ill useful 9 prev5t+ ! =mation & spread+ ( side bran*es on ! sup]iors4 ,z soon z ! latt] h fully cle>$ _! %afts1 ^! cr[d+ inf]iors mu/ be remov$4 ,c>e mu/ be tak51 h[ev]1 n to remove too _m at a "t1 ?us op5+ ! cr[n cov] too sev]ely & !reby expos+ ! soil to ! dry+ influ5ce ( ! sun4 ,gradually1 z ! cr[ns ( inf]iors /&+ f>!r away beg9 to int]f]e ) ^? ( ! sup]iors1 ! inf]iors are remov$1 & ?us ! full effect ( ! light is secur$ 9 ! accretion ( ! ma9 h>ve/ crop2 at ! same "t ! bran* gr[? has be5 prev5t$ & ! soil has be5 kept %ad$4 ,mean:ile ?9n+s may also be made 9 ! subord9ate crop1 9 ord] to secure also ! mo/ mat]ial f ?is "p ( ! crop4 ,?is is done by cutt+ out all trees t ?reat5 to be kill$ by _! neighbors4 ,9 ?is way _m a useful /ick is sav$ & ! dead mat]ial1 only good = firewood1 less5$4 ,x is evid5t t trees :i* 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce h fall5 beh9d1 s z to be ov]topp$ by _! neighbors1 c n1 ei!r by _! pres5ce or by _! removal1 influ5ce ! rema9+ gr[?4 ,!y are remov$ only 9 ord] to utilize _! wood be=e x decays4 ,x may be well to rem>k aga9 t an und]gr[? ( woody plants int]f]es 9 no way ) ! developm5t ( ! ma9 crop1 b1 on ! contr>y1 aids by its %ade 9 pres]v+ favorable moi/ure conditions4 ,its exi/5ce1 h[ev]1 %[s 9 mo/ cases t ! cr[n cov] is n z d5se z x %\ld be1 & h5ce t ?9n+ is n requir$4 ,grass & we$ gr[?1 on ! o!r h&1 is emphatically disadvantage\s & %[s t ! cr[n cov] is dang]\sly op54 ,! answ] to ! ?ree que/ions1 ,:5 to beg9 ! ?9n+s1 ,h[ sev]ely to ?91 & ,h[ (t5 to repeat ! op]ation1 mu/ always dep5d ^u ! v>y+ appe>ance ( ! gr[? & ! necessities 9 ea* case4 ,! fir/ necessity = int]f]5ce may arise ) light-ne$+ species z e>ly z ! twelf? or fifte5? ye>2 ) %ade-endur+1 n be=e ! tw5tie? or tw5ty-fif? ye>4 ,! necess>y sev]ity ( ! ?9n+ & ! repetition are some:at int]dep5d5t4 ,x is bett] to ?9 c>efully & repeat ! op]ation (t5] ?an to op5 up s sev]ely at once z to jeop>dize ! soil conditions4 ,especially 9 y\ng] gr[?s & on poor] soil1 x is be/ nev] to op5 a cont9u\s cr[n cov] s t x c\ld n close up aga9 )9 #c to #e ye>s2 r repeat ! op]ation (t5]4 ,lat]1 :5 ! trees h atta9$ heights ( #ej to #fj feet & cle> boles 7:i* may be 9 #dj to #ej ye>s1 accord+ to soil & k9d7 ! ?9n+ may be m sev]e1 s z to require repetition only e #f to #aj ye>s4 ,! condition ( ! cr[n cov]1 !n1 is ! crit]ion :i* directs ! ax4 ,z soon z ! cr[ns aga9 t\* or int]lace1 ! "t has arriv$ to ?9 aga94 ,9 mix$ gr[?s x mu/ n be ov]look$ t light-ne$+ species mu/ be specially protect$ aga9/ %adi] neighbors4 ,%ade-endur+ trees1 su* z ! spruces1 bee*1 sug> maple1 & hickories1 be> ov]topp+ = a "t & w !n gr[ vigor\sly :5 m light is giv51 :ile light-ne$+ species1 l ! p9es1 l>*1 oaks1 & a%1 :5 once suppress$1 may nev] be able to recov]4 ,p>ticul> att5tion is call$ to ! necessity ( leav+ a r d5s] w9d mantle all ar\nd small groves4 ,9 ?is "p ( ! grove ! ?9n+ mu/ be less sev]e1 unless conif]\s trees on ! outside c be enc\rag$ by sev]e ?9n+ to hold _! bran*es l[ d[n1 ?us increas+ _! value z w9d-breaks4 ,! ?9n+s1 !n1 :ile giv+ to ! f9al h>ve/ crop all ! advantage ( light = promot+ its rapid developm5t into s]viceable timb] size1 furni% also bett] mat]ial f ! subord9ate crop4 ,at #fj to #gj ye>s ( age ! latt] may h be5 entirely remov$ & only ! orig9ally select$ sup]iors rema9 on ! gr\nd1 or z _m ( !m z h n di$ & be5 remov$2 #bej to #djj ( ^! p] acre w make a p]fect /& ( mo/ valuable =m & size1 ready = ! f9al h>ve/1 :i* %\ld be made z indicat$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]4 #e4--,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,=e/s ,,to ,,f>ms4 ,t all ?+s 9 nature are relat$ to ea* o!r & int]dep5d5t is a common say+1 a fact d\bt$ by nobody1 yet (t5 =gott5 or neglect$ 9 practical life4 ,! reason is p>tly indiff]5ce & p>tly ignorance z to ! actual nature ( ! relation%ip2 h5ce we suff]1 des]v$ly or n4 ,! f>m]'s bus9ess1 m ?an any o!r1 p]haps1 dep5ds = its success ^u a true e/imate ( & c>eful reg>d = ?is int]-relation1 he adapts 8 crop to ! nature ( ! soil1 ! mann] ( its cultivation to ! *anges ( ! seasons1 & altoge!r he %apes conditions & places !m 9 _! prop] relations to ea* o!r & adapts himself to !m4 ,soil1 moi/ure1 & heat are ! ?ree factors :i*1 if prop]ly relat$ & utiliz$1 comb9e to produce 8 crops4 ,9 "s directions he c control ^! factors m or less readily2 9 o!rs !y are )drawn f 8 imm$iate influ5ce1 & he is seem+ly helpless4 ,he c ma9ta9 ! f]tility ( ! soil by manur+1 by prop] rotation ( crops1 & by deep culture2 he c remove surplus moi/ure by dit*+ & dra9+2 he c1 by irrigation sy/ems1 br+ wat] to 8 crops1 & by timely cultivation prev5t excessive evaporation1 !reby r5d]+ m wat] available to ! crop2 b he c n control ! ra9fall nor ! temp]ature *anges ( ! seasons4 ,rec5t attempts to control ! ra9fall by direct means exhibit "o ( ! greate/ follies & misconceptions ( natural =ces we h witness$ dur+ ?is age4 ,nev]!less1 by indirect means ! f>m] has x 9 8 p[] to ex]cise mu* great] control ov] ^! =ces ?an he has attempt$ hi!rto4 ,he c prev5t or r$uce ! unfavorable effects ( temp]ature *anges2 he c increase ! available wat] supplies1 & prev5t ! evil effects ( excessive ra9fall2 he c s manage ! wat]s :i* fall z to get ! mo/ b5efit f !m & avoid ! h>m :i* !y are able to inflict4 ,be=e attempt+ to control ! ra9fall itself by artifice1 we %\ld /udy h[ to secure ! be/ use ( t :i* falls1 z x comes )9 rea* ( human ag5cies & becomes available by natural causes4 ,h[ poorly we und]/& ! use ( ^! wat] supplies is evid5c$ ye>ly by de/ructive fre%ets & floods1 ) ! accompany+ wa%+ ( soil1 foll[$ by dr\ghts1 l[ wat]s1 & det]ioration ( agricultural l&s4 ,x is claim$ t annually 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ab\t #bjj squ>e miles ( f]tile soil are wa%$ into brooks & riv]s1 a loss ( soil capital :i* c n be repair$ = c5turies4 ,at ! same "t millions ( doll>s are appropriat$ ye>ly 9 ! riv] & h>bor bills to dig out ! lo/ f>ms f ! riv]s1 & _m ?\s&s ( doll>s' wor? ( crops & o!r prop]ty are de/roy$ by floods & ov]fl[s2 n to c\nt ! l>ge loss f dr\ghts :i* ?is c\ntry suff]s ye>ly 9 "o "p or ! o!r1 & :i*1 und\bt$ly1 c\ld be l>gely avoid$1 if we knew h[ to manage ! available wat] supplies4 ,! regulation1 prop] di/ribution1 & utilization ( ! ra9 wat]s 9 humid z well z 9 arid regions--wat] managem5t--is to be ! great problem ( successful-agriculture 9 ! future4 ,"o ( ! mo/ p[]ful means = su* wat] managem5t lies 9 ! prop] di/ribution & ma9t5ance ( =e/ areas4 ,nay1 we c say t ! mo/ successful wat] managem5t is n possible )\t =e/ managem5t4 ,,! ,,=e/ ,,wat]s ,,! ,,f>m4 ,:e!r =e/s increase ! am\nt ( precipitation )9 or ne> _! limits is /ill an op5 "q1 al?\gh !re are indications t "u c]ta9 conditions l>ge1 d5se =e/ areas may h su* an effect4 ,at any rate1 ! wat] transpir$ by ! foliage is c]ta91 9 "s degree1 to increase ! relative humidity ne> ! =e/1 & !reby increase directly or indirectly ! wat] supplies 9 its neighborhood4 ,?is mu* we c ass]t1 also1 t :ile ext5d$ pla9s & fields1 heat$ by ! sun1 & h5ce giv+ rise to w>m curr5ts ( air1 h ! t5d5cy to prev5t cond5sation ( ! pass+ moi/ure-be>+ curr5ts1 =e/ areas1 ) _! cool]1 moi/] air /rata1 d n h su* a t5d5cy1 & local %[]s may !re=e become m frequ5t 9 _! neighborhood4 ,b1 ?\gh no increase 9 ! am\nt ( ra9fall may be secur$ by =e/ areas1 ! availability ( :atev] falls is increas$ = ! locality by a well-kept & prop]ly locat$ =e/ gr[?4 ,! foliage1 twigs1 & bran*es break ! fall ( ! ra9drops1 & s does ! litt] ( ! =e/ floor1 h5ce ! soil "u ?is cov] is n compact$ z 9 ! op5 field1 b kept loose & granul>1 s t ! wat] c readily p5etrate & p]colate2 ! wat] ?us rea*es ! gr\nd m sl[ly1 dripp+ gradually f ! leaves1 bran*es1 & trunks1 & all[+ m "t = x to s9k into ! soil4 ,?is p]colation is also made easi] by ! *annels along ! _m roots4 ,simil>ly1 on acc\nt ( ! op5 /ructure ( ! soil & ! sl[] melt+ ( ! sn[ "u a =e/ cov] 9 spr+1 :]e x lies a =tnight to a mon? long] ?an 9 expos$ positions & melts ) less wa/e f evaporation1 ! sn[ wat]s m fully p5etrate ! gr\nd4 ,aga91 m sn[ is caught & pres]v$ "u ! =e/ cov] ?an on ! w9d-swept fields & prairies4 ,all ^! conditions op]ate toge!r1 ) ! result t l>g] am\nts ( ! wat] s9k into ! =e/ soil & to great] dep?s ?an 9 op5 fields4 ,?is moi/ure is cons]v$ because ( ! r$uc$ evaporation 9 ! cool & /ill =e/ air1 be+ protect$ f ! two great moi/ure-dissipat+ ag5ts1 sun & w9d4 ,by ^! conditions alone ! wat] supplies available 9 ! soil are increas$ f #ej to #fj p] c5t ov] ^? available on ! op5 field4 ,ow+ to ^? two causes1 !n--increas$ p]colation & decreas$ evaporation--l>g] am\nts ( moi/ure become available to fe$ ! spr+s & subsoil wat]s1 & ^! become f9ally available to ! f>m1 if ! =e/ is locat$ at a high] elevation ?an ! field4 ,! great importance ( ! subsoil wat] especially & ! influ5ce ( =e/ areas ^u x has s f> receiv$ too little att5tion & appreciation4 ,x is ! subsoil wat] t is capable ( supply+ ! ne$$ moi/ure 9 times ( dr\ght4 ,,! ,,=e/ ,,temp]s ,,! ,,f>m4 ,ano!r me?od by :i* a =e/ belt becomes a cons]vator ( moi/ure lies 9 its w9d-break+ capacity1 by :i* bo? velocity & temp]ature ( w9ds are modifi$ & evaporation f ! fields to ! leew>d is r$uc$4 ,on ! prairie1 w9d-swept e day & e h\r1 ! f>m] has le>n$ to plant a w9d-break ar\nd 8 build+s & or*>ds1 (t5 only a s+le-r[ ( trees1 & f9ds ev5 t a desirable %elt]1 temp]+ bo? ! hot w9ds ( summ] & ! cold bla/s ( w9t]4 ,! fields he usually leaves unprotect$2 yet a w9d-break ar\nd 8 crops to ! w9dw>d w\ld br+ him increas$ yield1 & a timb] belt w\ld act /ill m effectively4 ,says a f>m] f ,ill9ois3 ,my exp]i5ce is t n[ 9 cold & /ormy w9t]s fields protect$ by timb] belts yield full crops1 :ile fields n protect$ yield only "o-?ird ( a crop4 ,tw5ty-five or ?irty ye>s ago we nev] _h any :eat kill$ by w9t] fro/1 & e ye> we _h a full crop ( pea*es1 :i* is n[ v r>e4 ,at t "t we _h pl5ty ( timb] ar\nd our fields & or*>ds1 n[ cle>$ away4 ,n only is ! temp]ature ( ! w9ds modifi$ by pass+ ov] & ?r\gh ! %ad$ & cool] spaces ( protect+ timb] bolts dispos$ t[>d ! w9dw>d & alt]nat+ ) ! fields1 b _! velocity is brok5 & mod]at$1 & s9ce ) r$uc$ velocity ! evaporative p[] ( ! w9ds is v greatly r$uc$1 s m wat] is left available = crops4 ,e foot 9 height ( a =e/ gr[? w protect #a rod 9 di/ance1 & sev]al bolts 9 succession w\ld probably greatly increase ! effective di/ance4 ,by prev5t+ deep freez+ ( ! soil ! w9t] cold is n s mu* prolong$1 & ! frequ5t fogs & mi/s t hov] ne> =e/ areas prev5t _m fro/s4 ,t /ock w ?rive bett] :]e x c f9d protection f ! cold bla/s ( w9t] & f ! heat ( ! sun 9 summ] is a well-e/abli%$ fact4 ,,! ,,=e/ ,,protects ,,! ,,f>m4 ,on ! s&y pla9s1 :]e ! w9ds are apt to bl[ ! s&1 %ift+ x hi!r & ?i!r1 a =e/ belt to ! w9dw>d is ! only means to keep ! f>m protect$4 ,9 ! m\nta9 & hill c\ntry ! f>ms are apt to suff] f heavy ra9s wa%+ away ! soil4 ,:]e ! tops & slopes are b>$ ( _! =e/ cov]1 ! litt] ( ! =e/ floor burnt up1 ! soil trampl$ & compact$ by cattle & by ! patt] ( ! ra9drops1 ! wat] c n p5etrate ! soil readily1 b is e>n$ (f sup]ficially1 especially :5 ! soil is (1 day & naturally compact4 ,z a result ! wat]s1 ru%+ ov] ! surface d[n ! hill1 run toge!r 9 rivulets & /reams & acquire su* a =ce z to be able to move loose p>ticles & ev5 /ones2 ! gr\nd becomes furr[$ ) gullies & runs2 ! f]tile soil is wa%$ away2 ! fields bel[ are cov]$ ) silt2 ! roads are damag$2 ! wat] c\rses te> _! banks1 & lat] run dry because ! wat]s t %\ld fe$ !m by subt]ranean *annels h be5 c>ri$ away 9 ! flood4 ,! =e/ cov] on ! hilltops & /eep hillsides :i* are n fit = cultivation prev5ts ?is erosive action ( ! wat]s by ! same influ5ce by :i* x increases available wat] supplies4 ,! important effects ( a =e/ cov]1 !n1 are ret5tion ( l>g] quantities ( wat] & c>ry+ !m (f "u gr\nd & giv+ !m up gradually1 ?us ext5d+ ! "t ( _! usefulness & prev5t+ _! de/ructive action4 ,9 ord] to be ?or\ghly effective1 ! =e/ gr[? mu/ be d5se1 &1 especially1 ! =e/ floor mu/ n be robb$ ( its accumulations ( foliage1 surface mul* & litt]1 or its und]bru% by fire1 nor mu/ x be compact$ by ! trampl+ ( cattle4 ,on ! g5tl] slopes1 :i* are devot$ to cultivation1 me?ods ( und]dra9+1 su* z horizontal dit*es p>tly fill$ ) /ones & cov]$ ) soil1 t]rac+1 & cont\r pl[+1 deep cultivation1 sodd+1 & prop] rotation ( crops1 mu/ be employ$ to prev5t damage f surface wat]s4 ,,! ,,=e/ ,,supplies ,,! ,,f>m ,,) ,,useful ,,mat]ial4 ,all ! b5efits d]iv$ f ! favorable influ5ce ( =e/ bolts ^u wat] conditions c be _h )\t los+ any ( ! useful mat]ial t ! =e/ produces4 ,! =e/ gr[s to be cut & to be utiliz$2 x is a crop to be h>ve/$4 ,x is a crop :i*1 if prop]ly manag$1 does n ne$ to be replant$2 x reproduces itself4 ,:5 once e/abli%$1 ! ax1 if prop]ly guid$ by skillful h&s1 is ! only tool necess>y to cultivate x & to reproduce x4 ,!re is no necessity ( plant+ unless ! wood lot has be5 mismanag$4 ,! wood lot1 !n1 if prop]ly manag$1 is n only ! gu>dian ( ! f>m1 b x is ! sav+s bank f :i* fair int]e/ c be annually drawn1 utiliz+ = ! purpose ! poore/ "p ( ! f>m4 ,nor does ! wood lot require mu* att5tion2 x is to ! f>m :at ! workbasket is to ! good h\sewife--a means ) :i* improve ! odds & ends ( "t1 especially dur+ ! w9t]1 :5 o!r f>m bus9ess is at a /&/ill4 ,x may be add$ t ! mat]ial :i* ! f>m] c secure f ! wood lot1 besides ! o!r advantages recit$ above1 is ( f> great] importance & value ?an is g5]ally admitt$4 ,on a well-regulat$ f>m ( #afj acres1 ) its #d miles & m ( f5c+ & ) its wood fires 9 range & /ove1 at lea/ #be cords ( wood are requir$ annually1 besides mat]ial = repair ( build+s1 or altoge!r ! annual product ( probably #dj to #ej acres ( well-/ock$ =e/ is ne$$4 ,! product may repres5t1 accord+ to location1 an actual /umpage value ( f #a to #c p] acre1 a sure crop com+ e ye> )\t reg>d to wea!r1 )\t tr\ble & "w1 & rais$ on ! poore/ "p ( ! f>m4 ,x is que/ionable :e!r su* net results c\ld be secur$ ) ! same /ead9ess f any o!r crop4 ,nor mu/ x be ov]look$ t ! "w 9 h>ve/+ ?is crop falls into a "t :5 little else c\ld be done4 ,wire f5ces & coal fires are1 no d\bt1 good sub/itutes1 b !y require ready ca%1 & (t5 ! di/ance ( haulage makes !m r exp5sive4 ,pres5tly1 too1 :5 ! virg9 woods h be5 /ill fur!r cull$ ( _! valuable /ores1 ! f>m] :o has pres]v$ a suffici5tly l>ge & well-t5d$ wood lot w be able to d]ive a com=table money rev5ue f x by supply+ ! m>ket ) wood ( v>i\s k9ds & sizes4 ,! ,g]man ,/ate =e/s1 ) _! complicat$ adm9i/rations1 :i* eat up #d p] c5t ( ! gross income1 yield1 ) prices ( wood ab\t ! same z 9 our c\ntry1 an annual net rev5ue ( f #a to #d & m p] acre4 ,:y %\ld n ! f>m]1 :o does n pay sal>ies to manag]s1 ov]se]s1 & =e/ gu>ds1 make at lea/ z mu* money out ( ?is crop :5 he is )9 rea* ( a m>ket8 ,) v>y+ conditions ! me?ods w\ld ( c\rse v>y4 ,9 a g5]al way1 if he happ5s to h a virg9 gr[? ( mix$ woods1 ! fir/ c>e w\ld be to improve ! composition ( ! wood lot by cutt+ out ! less desirable k9ds1 ! we$s ( tree gr[?1 & ! poorly gr[n trees :i* imp$e ! developm5t ( m des]v+ neighbors4 ,! wood ?us cut he w use z firewood or 9 any o!r way1 &1 ev5 if he c\ld n use x at all1 & _h to burn x up1 ! op]ation w\ld pay indirectly by leav+ him a bett] crop4 ,!n he may use ! re/ ( ! crop1 gradually cutt+ ! trees z ne$$1 b he mu/ take c>e t ! op5+s are n made too l>ge1 s t !y c readily fill out ) "y gr[? f ! se$ ( ! rema9+ trees1 & he mu/ also pay att5tion to ! "y aft]gr[?1 giv+ x light z ne$$4 ,?us )\t ev] resort+ to plant+ he may h>ve/ ! old timb] & h a n[ crop tak+ its place & p]petuate ! wood lot )\t 9 any way curtail+ 8 use ( ! same4 ,,f>m]s' ,,bullet9s4 ,^! bullet9s are s5t free ( *>ge to any address ^u application to ! ,secret>y ( ,agriculture4 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4 ,only ! foll[+ are available = di/ribution3 ,no4 #ae4 ,"s ,de/ructive ,potato ,diseases3 ,:at ,!y ,are & ,h[ to ,prev5t ,?orn4 ,pp4 #h4 ,no4 #af4 ,legum9\s ,plants = ,gre5 ,manur+ & = ,fe$+4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ah4 ,=age ,plants = ! ,s\?4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #ai4 ,important ,insecticides3 ,directions ,= ,_! ,prep>ation & ,use4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,no4 #ba4 ,b>ny>d ,manure4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #bb4 ,fe$+ ,f>m ,animals4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #bc4 ,foods3 ,nutritive ,value & ,co/4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #bd4 ,hog ,*ol]a & ,sw9e ,plague4 ,pp4 #af4 ,no4 #be4 ,peanuts3 ,culture & ,uses4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #bf4 ,sweet ,potatoes3 ,culture & ,uses4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #bg4 ,flax = ,se$ & ,fib]4 ,pp4 #af4 ,no4 #bh4 ,we$s2 & ,h[ to ,kill ,!m4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #bi4 ,s\r+ ( ,milk1 & ,o!r ,*anges 9 ,milk ,products4 ,pp4 #bh4 ,no4 #cj4 ,grape ,diseases on ! ,pacific ,coa/4 ,pp4 #af4 ,no4 #ca4 ,alfalfa1 or ,luc]n4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #cb4 ,silos & ,silage4 ,pp4 #ca4 ,no4 #cc4 ,pea* ,gr[+ = ,m>ket4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #cd4 ,meats3 ,composition & ,cook+4 ,pp4 #bi4 ,no4 #ce4 ,potato ,culture4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #cf4 ,cotton ,se$ & ,its ,products4 ,pp4 #aj4 ,no4 #cg4 ,katir ,corn3 ,*>act]i/ics1 ,culture1 & ,uses4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,no4 #ch4 ,spray+ = ,fruit ,diseases4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,no4 #ci4 ,onion ,culture4 ,pp4 #ca4 ,no4 #dj4 ,f>m ,dra9age4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #da4 ,f[ls3 ,c>e & ,fe$+4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #db4 ,facts ,ab\t ,milk4 ,pp4 #bi4 ,no4 #dc4 ,sewage ,disposal on ! ,f>m4 ,pp4 #bb4 ,no4 #dd4 ,comm]cial ,f]tiliz]s4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #de4 ,"s ,insects ,injuri\s to ,/or$ ,gra94 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #df4 ,irrigation 9 ,humid ,climates4 ,pp4 #bg4 ,no4 #dg4 ,insects ,affect+ ! ,cotton ,plant4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #dh4 ,! ,manur+ ( ,cotton4 ,pp4 #aj4 ,no4 #di4 ,%eep ,fe$+4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ej4 ,sorghum z a ,=age ,crop4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ea4 ,/&>d ,v>ieties ( ,*ick5s4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,no4 #eb4 ,! ,sug> ,beet4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,no4 #ec4 ,h[ to ,gr[ ,mu%rooms4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,no4 #ed4 ,"s ,common ,birds 9 ,_! ,relation to ,agriculture4 ,pp4 #dj4 ,no4 #ee4 ,! ,dairy ,h]d3 ,its ,=mation & ,managem5t4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ef4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,"w--,i4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #eg4 ,butt] ,mak+ on ! ,f>m4 ,pp4 #ae4 ,no4 #eh4 ,! ,soy ,bean z a ,=age ,crop4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ei4 ,bee ,keep+4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #fj4 ,me?ods ( ,cur+ ,tobacco4 ,pp4 #aj4 ,no4 #fa4 ,asp>agus ,culture4 ,pp4 #dj4 ,no4 #fb4 ,m>ket+ ,f>m ,produce4 ,pp4 #bh4 ,no4 #fc4 ,c>e ( ,milk on ! ,f>m4 ,pp4 #dj4 ,no4 #fd4 ,ducks & ,geese4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,no4 #fe4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,"w--,,ii4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #ff4 ,mead[s & ,pa/ures4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #fg4 ,=e/ry = ,f>m]s4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,no4 #fh4 ,! ,black ,rot ( ! ,cabbage4 ,pp4 #bb4 ,no4 #fi4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,"w--,,iii4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #gj4 ,! ,pr9cipal ,insect ,enemies ( ! ,grape4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ga4 ,"s ,ess5tials ( ,beef ,production4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #gb4 ,cattle ,ranges ( ! ,s\?we/4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #gc4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,"w--,,iv4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #gd4 ,milk z ,food4 ,pp4 #ci4 ,no4 #ge4 ,! ,gra9 ,smuts4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,no4 #gf4 ,tomato ,gr[+4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #gg4 ,! ,lim+ ( ,soils4 ,pp4 #ai4 ,no4 #gh4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,"w--,v4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #gi4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,"w--,,vi4 ,pp4 #bh4 ,no4 #hj4 ,! ,pea* ,twig-bor]--an ,important ,enemy ( ,/one ,fruits4 ,pp4 #aj4 ,no4 #ha4 ,corn ,culture 9 ! ,s\?4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #hb4 ,! ,culture ( ,tobacco4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #hc4 ,tobacco ,soils4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #hd4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,"w--,,vii4 ,pp4 #hb4 ,no4 #he4 ,fi% z ,food4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #hf4 ,?irty ,poison\s ,plants4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #hg4 ,exp]im5t ,/ation ,"w--,,viii4 7,9 press47 ,no4 #hh4 ,alkali ,l&s4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #hi4 ,c[peas4 7,9 press47 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib] ,note ,illu/rations 7 move s a to prev5t splitt+ p>agraphs4 ,m9or typos correct$4 ,illu/rations 7 obta9$ f ! ,! ,int]net ,ar*ive & ! ,univ]sity ( ,nor? ,texas' ,,usda ,f>m]s' ,bullet9s ,digital ,libr>y4