,transcriber ,note3 ,text emphasis denoted as ,italics4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture4 ---------- ,,farmers' ,,bulletin ,no4 #fg4 ---------- ,,forestry ,,for ,,farmers4 ,,by ,b4 ,e4 ,,fernow1 ,chief of the ,division of ,forestry4 ---------- ,reprinted from the ,yearbooks of the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture for #ahid and #ahie4 ,illustration ,,washington3 ,,government ,,printing ,,office4 #ahih4 ---------- ,,letter ,,of ,,transmittal4 ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,division of ,forestry1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 ,december #d1 #ahig4 ,sir3 ,i have the honor to recommend that the two articles contributed by me to the ,yearbooks for #ahid and for #ahie on forestry for farmers be reprinted as a ,farmers' ,bulletin4 ,the articles contain information in popular form regarding the growth of trees1 the planting of a forest1 treatment of the wood lot1 the cultivation of the wood crop1 influence of trees1 etc4 ,a wider distribution of this information1 for which there is still considerable demand1 would1 ,i believe1 result in acquainting farmers with a subject the importance of which has not always been duly recognized4 ,very respectfully1 ,b4 ,e4 ,fernow1 ,chief4 ,approved3 ,james ,wilson1 ,secretary4 --------------- ,,contents4 ---------- ,page4 ,how trees grow #c ,food materials and conditions of growth #c ,soil conditions #d ,light conditions #f ,physiology of tree growth #i ,sap up and sap down #aj ,progress of development #aa ,growth in length and ramification #aa ,growth in thickness #ad ,form development #ag ,rate of growth #ai ,reproduction #ba ,how to plant a forest #bb ,what trees to plant #bc ,methods of planting #bf ,how to treat the wood lot #bh ,improvement cuttings #bi ,methods of reproducing the wood crop #ca ,size of openings #cd ,wind mantle #cd ,coppice #ce ,plan of management #cg ,how to cultivate the wood crop #cg ,effect of light on wood production #ch ,number of trees per acre #ch ,weeding and cleaning the crop #dj ,methods of thinning #dj ,what trees to remove #da ,the relation of forests to farms #db ,the forest waters the farm #dd ,the forest tempers the farm #de ,the forest protects the farm #de ,the forest supplies the farm with useful material #df ,,forestry ,,for ,,farmers4 ,the following five chapters have been written with the view of aiding farmers who own small timber tracts or wood lots1 or who wish to plant some part of their land to forest4 ,this country varies so greatly in soil1 climate1 and flora that it is only possible1 within the limits assigned for the present discussion1 to outline general principles everywhere applicable4 ,nevertheless1 wherever suggestions have approximated the laying down of rules of practice1 the writer has had mainly in mind the conditions prevalent in our northeastern ,states4 ,moreover1 for the reason already referred to1 limitation of space1 it has not been possible to give more than a comprehensive view1 without much detail4 ,the succeeding chapters should be read connectedly1 as they are more or less interdependent4 ,the first treats of the behavior of a forest plant2 the second1 of the principles which should guide the planter in setting a crop2 the third1 of the manner in which a natural forest crop should be produced2 the fourth points out how the crop should be managed afterwards in order to secure the best results in quantity and quality of material2 while the fifth chapter is devoted to a consideration of the relation of forests to farms4 #a4 ,,how ,,trees ,,grow4 ,trees1 like most other plants1 originate from seed1 build up a body of cell tissues1 form foliage1 flower1 and fruit1 and take up food material from the soil and air1 which they convert into cellulose and other compounds1 from which all their parts are formed4 ,they rely1 like other plants1 upon moisture1 heat1 and light as the means of performing the functions of growth4 ,yet there are some peculiarities in their behavior1 their life and growth1 which require special attention on the part of a tree grower or forest planter1 and these we shall briefly discuss4 ,,food ,,materials ,,and ,,conditions ,,of ,,growth4 ,trees derive their food and solid substance in part from the air and in part from the soil4 ,the solid part of their bodies is made up of cellulose1 which consists largely of carbon 7#dd per cent of its weight71 with hydrogen and oxygen added in almost the same proportions as in water4 ,the carbon is derived from the carbonic acid of the air1 which enters into the leaves and1 under the influence of light1 air1 and water1 is there decomposed2 the oxygen is exhaled2 the carbon is retained and combined with elements derived from the water1 forming compounds1 such as starch1 sugar1 etc41 which are used as food materials1 passing down the tree through its outer layers to the very tips of the roots1 making new wood all along the branches1 trunk1 and roots4 ,this process of food preparation1 called assimilation1 can be carried on only in the green parts1 and in these only when exposed to light and air2 hence foliage1 air1 and light at the top are essential prerequisites for tree growth1 and hence1 other conditions being favorable1 the more foliage and the better developed it is1 and the more light this foliage has at its disposal for its work1 the more vigorously will the tree grow4 ,in general1 therefore1 pruning1 since it reduces the amount of foliage1 reduces also1 for the time1 the amount of wood formed2 and just so shading1 reducing the activity of foliage1 reduces the growth of wood4 ,,soil ,,conditions4 ,from the soil trees take mainly water1 which enters through the roots and is carried through the younger part of the tree to the leaves1 to be used in part on its passage for food and wood formation and in part to be given up to the air by transpiration4 ,in a vigorously growing tree the solid wood substance itself will contain half its weight in the form of water chemically combined1 and the tree1 in addition1 will contain from #dj to #fe per cent and more of its dry weight in water mechanically or hygroscopically held4 ,this last1 when the tree is cut1 very largely evaporates2 yet well-seasoned wood still contains #aj to #ab per cent of such water4 ,the weight of a green tree1 a pine1 for instance1 is made up1 in round numbers1 of about #cj per cent of carbon and #gj per cent or water1 either chemically or hygroscopically held1 while a birch contains a still larger percentage of water4 ,the largest part of the water which passes through the tree is transpired--i4 e41 given off to the air in vapor4 ,the amounts thus transpired during the season vary greatly with the species of tree1 its age1 the amount of foliage at work1 the amount of light at its disposal1 the climatic conditions 7rain1 temperature1 winds1 relative humidity71 and the season4 ,these amounts are1 however1 very large when compared with the quantity retained2 so that while an acre of forest may store in its trees1 say1 #a1jjj pounds of carbon1 #ae to #bj pounds of mineral substances1 and #e1jjj pounds of water in a year1 it will have transpired--taken up from1 the soil and returned to the air--from #ejj1jjj to #a1ejj1jjj pounds of water 7one-quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops74 ,mineral substances are taken up only in very small quantities1 and these are mostly the commoner sorts1 such as lime1 potash1 magnesia1 and nitrogen4 ,these are carried in solution to the leaves1 where they are used 7as perhaps also on their passage through the tree71 with a part of the water1 in food preparation4 ,the main part of the mineral substances taken up remains1 however1 as the water transpires1 in the leaves and young twigs1 and is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed or when the tree is cut and the brush left to decompose and make humus4 ,hence the improvement of the fertility of the soil by wood crops is explained1 the minerals being returned in more soluble form to the soil2 as also the fact that wood crops do not exhaust the soil of its minerals1 provided the leaves and litter are allowed to remain on the ground4 ,for this reason there is no necessity of alternating wood crops1 as far as their mineral needs are concerned2 the same kind of trees can be grown on the same soil continuously1 provided the soil is not allowed to deteriorate from other causes4 ,as the foliage can perform its work of food assimilation only when sufficient water is at its disposal1 the amount of growth is also dependent not only on the presence of sufficient sources of supply1 but also on the opportunity had by the roots to utilize the supply1 and this opportunity is dependent upon the condition of the soil4 ,if the soil is compact1 so that the rain water can not penetrate readily1 and runs off superficially1 or if it is of coarse grain and so deep that the water rapidly sinks out of reach of the roots and can not be drawn up by capillary action1 the water supply is of no avail to the plants2 but if the soil is porous and moderately deep 7depth being the distance from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil1 rock1 or ground water7 the water not only can penetrate but also can readily be reached and taken up by the roots4 ,the moisture of the soil being the most important element in it for tree growth1 the greatest attention must be given to its conservation and most advantageous distribution through the soil4 ,no trees grow to the best advantage in very dry or very wet soil1 although some can live and almost thrive in such unfavorable situations4 ,a moderately but evenly moist soil1 porous and deep enough or fissured enough to be well drained1 and yet of such a structure that the water supplies from the depths can readily be drawn up and become available to the roots--that is the soil on which all trees grow most thriftily4 ,the agriculturist procures this condition of the soil as far as possible by plowing1 drainage1 and irrigation1 and he tries by cultivating to keep the soil from compacting again1 as it does under the influence of the beating rain and of the drying out of the upper layers by sun and wind4 ,the forest grower can not rely upon such methods1 because they are either too expensive or entirely impracticable4 ,he may1 indeed1 plow for his first planting1 and cultivate the young trees1 but in a few years this last operation will become impossible and the effects of the first operation will be lost4 ,he must1 therefore1 attain his object in another manner1 namely1 by shading and mulching the soil4 ,the shading is done at first by planting very closely1 so that the ground may be protected as soon as possible from sun and wind1 and by maintaining the shade well throughout the period of growth4 ,this shade is maintained1 if necessary1 by more planting1 and in case the main crop in later life thins out inordinately in the crowns or tops1 or by the accidental death of trees1 it may even become desirable to introduce an underbrush4 ,the mulching is done by allowing the fallen leaves and twigs to remain and decay1 and form a cover of rich mold or humus4 ,this protective cover permits the rain and snow waters to penetrate without at the same time compacting the soil1 keeping it granular and in best condition for conducting water1 and at the same time preventing evaporation at the surface4 ,the soil moisture1 therefore1 is best maintained by proper soil cover1 which1 however1 is needful only in naturally dry soils4 ,wet soils1 although supporting tree growth1 do not1 if constantly wet1 produce satisfactory wood crops1 the growth being very slow4 ,hence they must be drained and their water level sunk below the depth of the root system4 ,irrigation is generally too expensive to be applied to wood crops1 except perhaps in the arid regions1 where the benefit of the shelter belt may warrant the expense4 ,attention to favorable moisture conditions in the soil requires the selection of such kinds of trees as shade well for a long time1 to plant closely1 to protect the woody undergrowth 7but not weeds71 and to leave the litter on the ground as a mulch4 ,different species1 to be sure1 adapt themselves to different degrees of soil moisture1 and the crop should therefore be selected with reference to its adaptation to available moisture supplies4 ,while1 as stated1 all trees thrive best with a moderate and even supply of moisture1 some can get along with very little1 like the conifers1 especially pines2 others can exist even with an excessive supply1 as the bald cypress1 honey locust1 some oaks1 etc4 ,the climate1 however1 must also be considered in this connection1 for a tree species1 although succeeding well enough on a dry soil in an atmosphere which does not require much transpiration1 may not do so in a drier climate on the same soil4 ,in the selection of different kinds of trees for different soils1 the water conditions of the soil should1 therefore1 determine the choice4 ,,light ,,conditions4 ,to insure the largest amount of growth1 full enjoyment of sunlight is needed4 ,but as light is almost always accompanied by heat and relative dryness of air1 which demands water from the plant1 and may increase transpiration from the leaves inordinately1 making them pump too hard1 as it were1 young seedlings of tree species whose foliage is not built for such strains require partial shading for the first year or two4 ,the conifers belong to this class4 ,in later life the light conditions exert a threefold influence on the development of the tree1 namely1 with reference to soil conditions1 with reference to form development1 and with reference to amount of growth4 ,the art of the forester consists in regulating the light conditions so as to secure the full benefit of the stimulating effect of light on growth1 without its deteriorating influences on the soil and on form development4 ,as we have seen1 shade is desirable in order to preserve soil moisture4 ,now1 while young trees of all kinds1 during the brush stage of development1 have a rather dense foliage1 as they grow older they vary in habit1 especially when growing in the forest4 ,some1 like the beech1 the sugar maple1 the hemlock1 and the spruce1 keep up a dense crown2 others1 like the chestnut1 the oaks1 the walnut1 the tulip tree1 and the white pine1 thin out more and more1 and when fully grown have a much less dense foliage2 ,anally1 there are some which do not keep up a dense shade for any length of time1 like the black and honey locust1 with their small1 thin leaves2 the catalpa1 with its large but few leaves at the end of the branchlets only1 and the larch1 with its short1 scattered bunches of needles4 ,so we can establish a comparative scale of trees with reference to the amount of shade which they can give continuously1 as densely foliaged and thinly foliaged1 in various gradations4 ,if we planted all beech or sugar maple1 the desirable shading of the soil would never be lacking1 while if we planted all locust or catalpa the sun would soon reach the soil and dry it out1 or permit a growth of grass or weeds1 which is worse1 because those transpire still larger quantities of water than the bare ground evaporates or an undergrowth of woody plants would transpire4 ,of course1 a densely foliaged tree has many more leaves to shed than a thinly foliaged one1 and therefore makes more litter1 which increases the favorable mulch cover of the soil4 ,another reason for keeping the ground well shaded is that the litter then decomposes slowly1 but into a desirable humus1 which acts favorably upon the soil1 while if the litter is exposed to light1 an undesirable1 partly decomposed raw humus is apt to be formed4 ,favorable soil conditions1 then1 require shade1 while wood growth is increased by full enjoyment of light2 to satisfy both requirements1 mixed planting1 with proper selection of shade-enduring and light-needing species1 is resorted to4 ,as the different species afford shade in different degrees1 so they require for their development different degrees of light4 ,the dense foliage of the beech1 with a large number of leaves in the interior of the crown1 proves that the leaves can exist and perform their work with a small amount of light2 the beech is a shade-enduring tree4 ,the scanty foliage of the birches1 poplars1 or pines shows that these are light-needing trees2 hence they are never found under the dense shade of the former1 while the shade-enduring can develop satisfactorily under the light shade of the thin-foliaged kinds4 ,very favorable soil conditions increase the shade endurance of the latter1 and climatic conditions also modify their relative position in the scale4 ,all trees ultimately thrive best--i4 e41 grow most vigorously--in the full enjoyment of light1 but their energy then goes into branching4 ,crowded together1 with the side light cut off1 the lower lateral branches soon die and fall1 while the main energy of growth is put into the shaft and the height growth is stimulated4 ,the denser shade of the shade-enduring kinds1 if placed as neighbors to light-needing ones1 is most effective in producing this result1 provided that the light is not cut off at the top2 and thus1 in practice1 advantage is taken of the relative requirements for light of the various species4#a #a ,this relation of the different species to varying light conditions2 their comparative shading value and shade endurance1 is one of the most important facts to be observed and utilized by the forester4 ,european foresters have done this1 but since they had to deal with only a few species and over a limited territory1 they could quite readily classify their trees with reference to their shade endurance1 and take it for granted that shade endurance and density of foliage or shading value were more or less identical4 ,with our great wealth of useful species it will be necessary and profitable to be more exact in the classification4 ,the forester finds in close planting and in mixed growth a means of securing tall1 clear trunks1 free from knots1 and he is able1 moreover1 by proper regulation of light conditions1 to influence the form development1 and also the quality of his crop1 since slow growth and rapid growth produce wood of different character4 ,there are some species which1 although light-foliaged and giving comparatively little shade1 are yet shade-enduring--i4 e41 can subsist1 although not develop favorably1 under shade2 the oaks are examples of this kind4 ,others1 like the black cherry1 bear a dense crown for the first twenty years1 perhaps1 seemingly indicating great shade endurance2 but the fact that the species named soon clears itself of its branches and finally has a thin crown1 indicates that it is light-needing1 though a good shader for the first period of its life4 ,others1 again1 like the catalpa1 which is shady and shade-enduring1 as the difficulty with which it clears itself indicates1 leaf out so late and lose their foliage so early that their shading value is thereby impaired4 ,black locust and honey locust1 on the other hand1 leave no doubt either as to their light-needing or their inferior shading quality4 ,that soil conditions and climatic conditions also modify crown development and shade endurance has been well recognized abroad1 but in our country this influence is of much more importance on account of the great variation in those conditions4 ,thus the box elder1 an excellent shader in certain portions of the ,west1 is a failure as soil cover in others where it nevertheless will grow4 ,we see1 then1 that in determining the shading value as well as the shade endurance of one species in comparison with another1 with reference to forestry purposes1 not only soil and climate but also the character of foliage and its length of season must be considered4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,tree ,,growth4 ,as we have seen1 root and foliage are the main life organs of the tree4 ,the trunk and branches serve to carry the crown upward and expose it to the light1 which is necessary in order to prepare the food and increase the volume of the tree1 and also as conductors of food materials up and down between root and foliage4 ,a large part of the roots1 too1 aside from giving stability to the tree1 serve only as conductors of water and food material2 only the youngest parts1 the fibrous roots1 beset with innumerable fine hairs1 serve to take up the water and minerals from the soil4 ,these fine roots1 root hairs1 and young parts are therefore the essential portion of the root system4 ,a tree may have a fine1 vigorous-looking root system1 yet if the young parts and fibrous roots are cut off or allowed to dry out1 which they readily do--some kinds more so than others--thereby losing their power to take up water1 such a tree is apt to die4 ,under very favorable moisture and temperature conditions1 however1 the old roots may throw out now sprouts and replace the fibrous roots4 ,some species1 like the willows1 poplars1 locusts1 and others1 are especially capable of doing so4 ,all trees that transplant easily probably possess this capacity of renewing the fibrous roots readily1 or else are less subject to drying out4 ,but it may be stated as a probable fact that most transplanted trees which die soon after the planting do so because the fibrous roots have been curtailed too much in taking up1 or else have been allowed to dry out on the way from the nursery or forest to the place of planting2 they were really dead before being set4 ,conifers--pines1 spruces1 etc4--are especially sensitive2 maples1 oaks1 catalpas1 and apples will1 in this respect1 stand a good deal of abuse4 ,hence1 in transplanting1 the first and foremost care of the forest1 grower1 besides taking the sapling up with least injury1 is the proper protection of its root fibers against drying out4 ,the water1 with the minerals in solution1 is taken up by the roots when the soil is warm enough1 but to enable the roots to act they must be closely packed with the soil4 ,it is conveyed mostly through the outer1 which are the younger1 layers of the wood of root1 trunk1 and branches to the leaves4 ,here1 as we have seen1 under the influence of light and heat it is in large part transpired and in part combined with the carbon into organic compounds1 sugar1 etc41 which serve as food materials4 ,these travel from the leaf into the branchlet1 and down through the outer layers of the trunk to the very tips of the root1 forming new wood all the way1 new buds1 which lengthen into shoots1 leaves1 and flowers1 and also new rootlets4 ,to live and grow1 therefore1 the roots need the food elaborated in the leaves1 just as the leaves need the water sent up from the roots4 ,hence the interdependence of root system and crown1 which must be kept in proportion when transplanting4 ,at least1 the root system must be sufficient to supply the needs of the crown4 ,,sap ,,up ,,and ,,sap ,,down4 ,the growing tree1 in all its parts1 is more or less saturated with water1 and as the leaves1 under the influence of sun and wind and atmospheric conditions generally transpire1 new supplies are taken in through the roots and conveyed to the crown4 ,this movement takes place even in winter1 in a slight degree1 to supply the loss of water by evaporation from the branches4 ,in the growing season it is so active as to become noticeable2 hence the saying that the sap is up1 or rising1 and when1 toward the end of the season1 the movement becomes less1 the sap is said to be down4 ,but this movement of water is always upward2 hence the notion that there is a stream upward at one season and in one part of the tree1 and a stream downward at another season and perhaps in another part of the tree1 is erroneous4 ,the downward movement is of food materials1 and the two movements of water upward and food downward take place simultaneously1 and depend1 in part at least1 one upon the other1 the food being carried to the young parts1 wherever required1 by a process of diffusion from cell to cell known as osmosis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,physiological importance of different parts of the tree2 pathways of water and food materials4 7,schematic47 ,these food materials are1 by the life processes of the active cells1 changed in chemical composition as need be1 from sugar1 which is soluble1 into starch1 which is insoluble1 and back into sugar1 and combined with nitrogenous substances to make the cell-forming material1 protoplasm 7fig4 #a74 ,in the fall1 when the leaves cease to elaborate food1 both the upward and the downward movement1 more or less simultaneously1 come to rest 7the surplus of food materials1 as starch1 and sometimes as sugar1 being stored for the winter in certain cell tissues71 to begin again simultaneously when in spring the temperature is high enough to reawaken activity1 when the stored food of last year is dissolved and started on its voyage4 ,the exact manner in which this movement of water upward and food materials downward takes place1 and the forces at work1 are not yet fully understood1 nor is there absolute certainty as to the parts of the tree in which the movement takes place4 ,it appears1 however1 that while all the so-called sapwood is capable of conducting water 7the heartwood is probably not71 the most active movement of both water and food materials takes place in the cambium 7the growing cells immediately beneath the bark7 and youngest parts of the bark4 ,the deductions from these processes important to the planter are3 ,that injury to the living bark or bast means injury to growth1 if not destruction to life2 that during the period of vegetation transplanting can be done only with great caution2 that the best time to move trees is in the fall1 when the leaves have dropped and the movement of water and food materials has mostly ceased1 or in spring1 before the movement begins again1 the winter being objectionable only because of the difficulty of working the soil and of keeping the roots protected against frost4 ,all things considered1 spring planting1 before activity in the tree has begun1 is the best1 although it is not impossible to plant at other times4 ,,progress ,,of ,,development4 ,like the wheat or corn plant1 the tree seed require as conditions for sprouting sufficient moisture1 warmth1 and air4 ,tree seeds1 however1 differ from grain in that most of the kinds lose their power of germination easily2 with few exceptions 7locust1 pine1 spruce71 they can not be kept for any length of time4 ,the first leaves formed often differ essentially in shape from those of the mature tree1 which may cause their being confounded with other plants1 weeds1 etc4 ,the little seedlings of many1 especially the conifers1 are quite delicate1 and remain very small the first season2 they need1 therefore1 the protecting shade of mother trees1 or artificial shading1 and also protection against weeds4 ,the amount of light or shade given requires careful regulation for some of them2 too much light and heat will kill them1 and so will too much shade4 ,this accounts for the failure of many seedlings that spring up in the virgin forest4 ,the planter1 then1 is required to know the nature and the needs of the various kinds of seeds and seedlings1 so as to provide favorable conditions1 when he will avoid sowing in the open field such as require the care which it is impracticable to give outside of the nursery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,bud development of beech4 ,b1 as it would be if all formed buds were to live2 ,a1 as it is1 many buds failing to develop4 ,,growth ,,in ,,length ,,and ,,ramification4 ,while the stalk of wheat or corn grows for one season1 exhausts itself in seed production1 and then dies1 the tree continues to grow from season to season1 in length as well as in thickness4 ,the growth in length of shaft and branches proceeds from buds1 made up of cell tissues1 which can subdivide and lengthen into shoots1 as well as make leaves4 ,these buds are formed during summer1 and when winter begins contain embryo leaves1 more or less developed1 under the protecting cover of scales 7fig4 #c74 ,when spring stimulates the young plant to new activity1 the buds swell1 shed their scales1 distend their cells1 increasing their number by subdivision1 and thus the leaves expand1 and the bud lengthens into a shoot and twig4 ,during the season new buds are formed1 and the whole process repeats itself from year to year1 giving rise to the ramification and height growth of the tree4 ,the end buds being mostly stronger and better developed1 the main axis of tree or branch increases more rapidly than the rest4 ,all these buds originate from the youngest1 central part of the shoot1 the pith1 and hence when the tree grows in thickness1 enveloping the base of the limbs1 their connection with the pith can always be traced4 ,this is the usual manner of bud formation2 in addition1 so-called adventitious buds maybe formed from the young living wood in later life1 which are not connected with the pith4 ,such buds are those which develop into sprouts from the stump when the tree is cut2 also those which give rise to what are known as water sprouts4 ,many buds1 although formed1 are1 however1 not developed at once1 and perhaps not at all1 especially as the tree grows older2 these either die or remain dormant1 often for a hundred years1 to spring into life when necessary 7fig4 #d74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,buds of maple4 ,a1 longitudinal section through tip of a maple twig2 g1 end bud2 s1 lateral buds2 l1 scars of leaves of last season4 ,b1 cross-section through end bud1 showing folded leaves in center and scales surrounding them4 ,the fact that each ordinary limb starts as a bud from the pith is an important one to the timber grower2 it explains knotty timber and gives him the hint that in order to obtain clear timber the branches first formed must be soon removed1 either by the knife or by proper shading1 which kills the branches and thus clears the shaft4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,dormant bud1 ,k1 on a #ab-year old branch of beech4 ,the bud is still capable of development and is connected with the pith1 mm1 of the stem by a line trace of pith1 ,s4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,section through a #ab-year old stem of beech1 showing manner of bud and limb formation1 a1 dormant buds2 b1 their trace of pith extending to the pith of the stem2 c1 a limb which started two years ago from a dormant bud2 d1 normal limb2 e1 a limb dead for four years2 f1 adventitious buds4 ,the planter has it also in his power to influence the form development of the tree by removing some of the buds1 giving thereby better chance to the remaining ones4 ,this pruning of buds is1 where practicable1 often better practice than the pruning of limbs4 ,since the tree does not grow in length except by its buds it is evident that a limb which started to grow at the height of #f feet has its base always #f feet from the ground1 and if allowed to grow to size1 must be surrounded by the wood which accumulates on the main stem or trunk4 ,if a limb is killed and broken off early1 only a slender stub composed entirely of rapidly decaying sapwood1 is left1 occasioning1 therefore1 only a small defect in the heart of the tree2 but if left to grow to considerable age1 the base of the limb is encased by the wood of the stem1 which1 when the tree is cut into lumber1 appears as a knot4 ,the longer the limb has been allowed to grow1 the farther out is the timber knotty and the thicker is the knot4 ,if the limb remained alive1 the knot is sound1 closely grown together with the fibers of the tree4 ,if the limb died off1 the remaining stub may behave in different ways4 ,in pines it will be largely composed of heartwood1 very resinous and durable2 separated from the fibers of the overgrowing wood1 it forms a loose knot1 which is apt to fall out of a board1 leaving a hole4 ,in broad-leaved trees1 where no resin assists in the process of healing1 the stub is apt to decay1 and this decay1 caused by the growth of fungi1 is apt to penetrate into the tree 7fig4 #f74 ,in parks and orchards1 pruning is resorted to1 and the cuts are painted or tarred to avoid the decay4 ,in well-managed forests and dense woods in general1 the light is cut off1 the limb is killed when young and breaks away1 the shaft clears itself1 and the sound trunk furnishes a good grade of material4 ,the difference in development of the branch system1 whether in full enjoyment of light1 in open stand1 or with the side light cut off1 in dense position1 is shown in the accompanying illustration 7fig4 #g74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,section through partly decayed knot in oak wood4 a1 wood of knot2 b and c1 wood callus of the stem covering the wound2 shaded portion1 decayed wood1 black part1 a cavity remaining4 ,both trees start alike2 the one retains its branches1 the other loses them gradually1 the stubs being in time overgrown2 finally the second has a clear shaft1 with a crown concentrated at the top1 while the first is beset with branches and branch stubs for its whole length 7fig4 #h74 ,when ripped open lengthwise1 the interior exhibits the condition shown in figure #i1 the dead parts of the knot being indicated in heavier shading4 ,since the brandies grow in more or less regular whorls1 several knots1 stumps1 or limbs are met every #f to #bd inches through the entire stem4 ,hence1 in forest planting1 trees are placed and kept for some time close together1 in order to decrease the branching in the lower part of the tree and thus produce a clean bole and clear lumber4 ,,growth ,,in ,,thickness4 ,the young seedling and the young shoot of the older tree much resemble in interior structure that of any herbaceous plant1 being composed of a large amount of pith1 loose squarish cells1 and a few bundles of long fibers symmetrically distributed about the center1 the whole covered with a thin skin or epidermis4 ,each strand or bundle of fibers1 called fibro-vascular 7fiber-vessel7 bundles1 consists of two kinds1 namely1 wood fibers on the inner side and bast fibers of different structure on the outer side4 ,between these two sets of fibers1 the bast and the wood1 there is a row of cells which form the really active1 growing part of the plantlet1 the cambium4 ,the cambium cells are actively subdividing and expanding1 giving off wood cells to the interior and bast cells to the exterior1 and extending at the same time side-wise1 until at the end of the season not only are the wood and bast portions increased in lines radiating from the center1 but the cambium layer1 the wood cells1 and the bast cells of all the bundles 7scattered at the beginning7 join at the sides to form a complete ring1 or rather hollow cylinder1 around the central pith4 ,only here and there the pith cells remain1 interrupting the wood cylinder and giving rise to the system of cells known as medullary rays4 ,the cross-section now shows a comparatively small amount of pith and bast or bark and a larger body of strong wood fibers4 ,the new shoot at the end1 to be sure1 has the same appearance and arrangement as the young plantlet had1 the pith preponderating1 and the continuous cylinder of cambium1 bast1 and wood being separated into strands or bundles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,development in and out of the forest4 ,a1 young tree alike4 ,in both cases2 ,b and ,c1 successive stages of tree grown in the open2 ,b and ,c1 corresponding stages of the tree grown in the forest4 ,numbers refer to annual growth in height4 ,during the season1 through the activity of the cambial part of the bundles1 the same changes take place in the new shoot as did the previous year in the young seedling1 while at the same time the cambium in the yearling part also actively subdivides1 forming new wood and bast cells1 and thus a second ring1 or rather cylinder1 is formed4 ,the cambium of the young shoot is always a continuation of that of the ring or cylinder formed the year before1 and this cambium cylinder always keeps moving outward1 so that at the end of the season1 when activity ceases1 it is always the last minute layer of cells on the outside of the wood1 between wood proper and bark4 ,it is here1 therefore1 that the life of the tree lies1 and any injury to the cambium must interfere with the growth and life of the tree4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,tree in and out of the forest4 ,d1 tree grown in the open2 ,d1 tree grown in the forest4 ,the first wood cells which the cambium forms in the spring are usually or always of a more open structure1 thin-walled1 and with a large opening or lumen1 comparable to a blown-up paper bag2 so large1 in fact1 sometimes1 is the lumen that the width of the cells can be seen on a cross-section with the naked eye1 as1 for instance1 in oak1 ash1 elm1 the so-called pores are this open wood formed in spring4 ,the cells1 which are formed later in summer1 have mostly thick walls1 are closely crowded and compressed1 and show a very small opening or lumen1 being comparable1 perhaps1 to a very thick wooden box4 ,they appear in the cross-section not only denser but of a deeper color1 on account of their crowded1 compressed condition and thicker walls4 ,since at the beginning of the next season again thin-walled cells with wide openings or lumina are formed1 this difference in the appearance of spring wood and summer wood enables us to distinguish the layer of wood formed each year4 ,this annual ring is more conspicuous in ,some kinds than in others4 ,in the so-called ring porous woods1 like oak1 ash1 elm1 the rings are easily distinguished by the open spring wood2 in the conifers1 especially pines1 by the dark-colored summer wood2 while in maple1 birch1 tulip1 etc41 only a thin line of flattened1 hence darker and regularly aligned1 summer cells1 often hardly recognizable1 distinguishes ,the rings from each other4 ,cutting through a tree1 therefore1 we can not only ascertain its age by counting its annual layers in the cross-section1 but also determine how much wood is formed each year 7fig4 #aj74 ,we can1 in fact1 retrace the history of its growth1 the vicissitudes through which it has passed1 by the record preserved in its ring growth4 ,to ascertain the age of a tree correctly1 however1 we must cut so near to the ground as to include the growth of the first year's little plantlet2 any section higher up shows as many years too few as it took the tree to reach that height4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,sections of logs showing the relative development of knots4 ,e1 from tree grown in the open2 ,e1 from tree grown in a dense forest2 a and c1 whorls of knots2 b1 dead limb2 sk1 sound knot2 dk1 dead knot4 ,this annual-ring formation is the rule in all countries which have distinct seasons of summer and winter and temporary cessation of growth4 ,only exceptionally a tree may fail to make its growth throughout its whole length on account of loss of foliage or other causes2 and occasionally1 when its growth has been disturbed during the season1 a secondary ring1 resembling the annual ring1 and distinguishable only by the expert1 may appear and mar the record4 ,to the forest planter this chapter on ring growth is of great importance1 because not only does this feature of tree life afford the means of watching the progress of his crop1 calculating the amount of wood formed1 and therefrom determining when it is most profitable for him to harvest 7namely1 when the annual or periodic wood growth falls below a certain amount71 but since the proportion of summer wood and spring wood determines largely the quality of the timber1 and since he has it in his power to influence the preponderance of the one or other by adaptation of species to soils and by their management1 ring growth furnishes an index for regulating the quality of his crop4 ,,form ,,development4 ,if a tree is allowed to grow in the open1 it has a tendency to branch1 and makes a low and spreading crown4 ,in order to lengthen its shaft and to reduce the number of branches it is necessary to narrow its growing space1 to shade its sides so that the lower branches and their foliage do not receive light enough to perform their functions4 ,when the side shade is dense enough1 these branches die and finally break off under the influence of winds and fungous growth2 wood then forms over the scars and we get a clean shaft which carries a crown high up beyond the reach of shade from neighbors4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,scheme to ,illustrate the arrangement of annual growth4 #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41 represent the parts of the stem grown during the first1 second1 third1 etc41 twenty years of the life of the tree1 k1 knots2 the shaded part of each is the dead knot of lumber4 ,the branches being prevented from spreading out1 the shaft is forced to grow upward1 and hence1 when crowded by others1 trees become taller and more cylindrical in form1 while in the open1 where they can spread1 they remain lower and more conical in form 7figs4 #aa1 #ab74 ,there are1 to be sure1 different natural types of development1 some1 like the walnuts1 oaks1 beeches1 and the broad-leaved trees generally1 having greater tendency to spread than others1 like spruces1 firs1 and conifers in general1 which lengthen their shaft in preference to spreading1 even in the open4 ,this tendency to spreading is also influenced by soil conditions and climate1 as well as by the age of the tree4 ,when the trees cease to grow in height1 their crowns broaden1 and this takes place sooner in shallow soils than in deep1 moist ones2 but the tendency can be checked and all can be made to develop the shaft at the expense of the branches by proper shading from the sides4 ,it follows that the forest planter1 who desires to produce long and clean shafts and best working quality of timber1 must secure and maintain side shade by a close stand1 while the landscape gardener1 who desires characteristic form1 must maintain an open stand and full enjoyment of light for his trees4 ,now1 as we have seen1 different species afford different amounts of shade1 and in proportion to the shade which they afford can they endure shade4 ,the beech or sugar maple or spruce1 which maintain a large amount of foliage under the dense shade of their own crown1 show that their leaves can live and functionate with a small amount of light4 ,they are shade-enduring trees4 ,on the other hand1 the black walnut1 the locust1 the catalpa1 the poplars1 and the larch show by the manner in which their crowns thin out1 the foliage being confined to the ends of the branches1 that their leaves require more light--they are light-needing trees2 so that the scale which arranges the trees according to the amount of shade they exert serves also to measure their shade endurance4 ,in making1 therefore1 mixed plantations1 the different kinds must be so grouped and managed that the shady trees will not outgrow and overtop the light-needing2 the latter must either have the start of the former or must be quicker growers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,oak tree grown in the open4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,maple tree grown in the forest4 ,,rate ,,of ,,growth4 ,not only do different species grow more or less rapidly in height and girth1 but there is in each species a difference in the rate of growth during different periods of life1 and a difference in the persistence of growth4 ,it stands to reason that trees grow differently in different soils and situations1 and hence we can not compare different species with respect to their rate of growth except as they grow under the same conditions4 ,thus the black walnut may grow as fast as or faster than the ash on a rich1 deep1 moist1 warm soil1 but will soon fall to the rear in a wetter1 colder1 and shallower soil4 ,given the same conditions1 some species will start on a rapid upward growth at once1 like the poplars1 aspen1 locust1 and silver maple1 making rapid progress 7the most rapid from their tenth to their fifteenth year71 but decreasing soon in rate and reaching their maximum height early4 ,others1 like the spruce1 beech1 and sugar maple1 will begin slowly1 often occupying several1 sometimes as many as #aj to #ae1 years before they appear to grow at all1 their energy all going into root growth4 ,then comes a period of more and more accelerated growth1 which reaches its maximum rate at #be or #cj years2 and when the cottonwood or aspen has reached the end of its growth in height the spruce or pine is still at its best rate1 and continues to grow for a long time at that rate2 in later life the rate decreases1 yet height growth sometimes does not cease altogether for centuries4 ,as a rule1 the light-needing species are the ones which show the rapid height growth at the start1 while the shade-enduring are slow at the start1 but persistent growers4 ,this fact is important in explaining the alternations of forest growth in nature2 the persistent shade-enduring species crowd out the light-needing1 and the latter rapidly take possession of any openings that fire or storm has made4 ,it is also important with reference to the management of wood crops and starting of mixed plantations2 the light-needing species must be mixed only with such shade-enduring species as are slower growers than themselves4 ,the diameter growth shows also periodic changes in its rate1 and is1 of course1 influenced in the same way by soil1 climate1 and light conditions1 as the height growth4 ,in the juvenile or brush stage1 lasting #f to #aj years in light-needing and #bj to #dj years in shade-enduring species1 the diameter grows comparatively little1 all energy being directed to height growth and root growth4 ,when the crown has been definitely formed1 more food material is available for wood formation1 and the increase in foliage is accompanied by a more rapid increase of trunk diameter2 in favorable situations1 the highest rate occurs between the fortieth and sixtieth years2 in the poorer situations1 between the fiftieth and eightieth years1 which rate continues for some time4 ,then comes a period of slower rate1 which finally in old age dwindles down almost to zero4 ,but neither the diameter growth nor the width of the annual rings alone tells us directly what amount of wood is forming4 ,the outer rings1 being laid over a larger circumference1 although thinner than the preceding rings1 may yet have greater cubic contents4 ,the statements of diameter growth are1 therefore1 misleading if we are interested in knowing how much wood is forming4 ,accordingly the growth in volume must be considered separately1 as determined by the enlargement of the cross-section area and the height4 ,the growth in volume or mass accretion is quite small in young trees1 so that when wood is cut young the smallest amount of crop per year is harvested1 while1 if it is allowed to grow1 an increase more than proportionate to the number of years may be obtained4 ,only when the tree has a fully developed crown does it begin to make much wood4 ,its volume growth progresses then at a uniform rate1 and continues to do so for decades1 and sometimes for a century or more4 ,on poorer sites the rate is slower1 but remains longer on the increase1 while on good sites the maximum rate is soon reached4 ,of course1 in a forest1 where light conditions are not most favorable1 because form development and soil conditions require shade1 the total wood formation is less than in an isolated tree1 favorably placed4 ,just so the dominant trees in a forest--i4 e41 those which have their crowns above all others--show1 of course1 the advantage they have over the inferior trees which are suffering from the shade of their neighbors4 ,finally1 if we would take into consideration an entire forest growth1 and determine1 for instance1 how much wood an acre of such forest produces at different periods1 we must not overlook the fact that the number of trees per acre changes as the trees grow older4 ,some of them are overshaded and crowded out by the others1 so that a young growth of spruce might start with #ajj1jjj little seedlings to the acre1 of which in the twentieth year only #aj1jjj would be alive1 while in the fortieth year the number would be reduced to #a1bjj1 and in the hundredth year to #bhj4 ,hence the rate of growth of any single tree gives no idea of what the acre of forest will do4 ,tims1 while a single good white pine might grow the fastest in volume when about one hundred years old1 then making wood at the rate of1 say1 #a4e cubic feet per year1 an acre of pine on good soil1 containing about #a1fjj trees1 may make the most wood in the thirtieth year1 then growing at the rate of #agj cubic feet per acre1 while in the hundredth year the rate would not exceed #gj cubic feet2 and an acre of pine in a poorer location1 with about #a1djj trees1 may make the most wood in the fortieth year1 at the rate of #ajj cubic feet per acre4 ,from the consideration of the relation of light conditions to soil conditions1 to form development1 and to rate of growth1 we may make the following deductions of interest to the forest planter3 ,in order to secure the best results in wood production1 in quantity and quality1 at the same time preserving favorable soil conditions1 the forest should be composed of various species1 a mixture of light-needing and shade-enduring kinds4 ,the light-needing ones should be of quicker growth2 the shady ones1 in larger numbers1 should be slower growers4 ,for the first fifteen to twenty-five years the plantation should be kept as dense as possible1 to secure clear shafts and good growth in height2 then it should be thinned1 to increase crown development and diameter growth2 the thinning1 however1 is not to be so severe that the crowns can not close up again in two or three years2 the thinning is to be repeated again and again1 always favoring the best developed trees4 ,,reproduction4 ,all trees reproduce themselves naturally from seed4 ,man can secure their reproduction also from cuttings or layers2 and some kinds can reproduce themselves by shoots from the stump when the parent tree has been cut4 ,this latter capacity is possessed in a varying degree by different species2 chestnuts1 oaks1 elms1 maples1 poplars1 and willows are most excellent sprouters2 most conifers do not sprout at all1 and the shoots of those that do sprout soon die 7,sequoia or ,california redwood seems to be an exception74 ,sprouts of broad-leaved trees develop differently from seedlings1 growing very rapidly at first1 but soon lessening in the rate of growth and never attaining the height and perhaps not the diameter of trees grown from the seed2 they are also shorter lived4 ,with age the stumps lose their capacity for sprouting4 ,to secure best results1 the parent tree should be cut close to the ground in early spring1 avoiding severe frost1 and a sharp cut should be made which will not sever the bark from the trunk4 ,not all trees bear seed every year1 and plentiful seed production1 especially in a forest1 occurs1 as a rule1 periodically4 ,the periods differ with species1 climate1 and season4 ,not all seeds can germinate1 and in some species the number of seeds that can germinate is very small1 and they lose their power of germination when kept a few hours1 like the willows4 ,others1 if kept till they have become dry1 will lie over in the soil a year or more before germinating4 ,the same thing will occur if they are covered too deep in the soil1 provided they germinate at all under such conditions4 ,in order to germinate1 seeds must have warmth1 air1 and moisture4 ,the preparation of a seed bed is1 therefore1 necessary in order to supply these conditions in most favorable combination4 ,in the natural forest millions of seeds rot or dry without sprouting1 and millions of seedlings sprout1 but soon perish under the too dense shade of the mother trees4 ,man1 desiring to reproduce a valuable wood crop1 cannot afford to be as lavish as nature1 and must therefore improve upon nature's methods1 making more careful preparation for the production of his crop1 either by growing the seedlings in nurseries and transplanting them1 or else by cutting away the old growth in such a manner as to secure to the young self-grown crop better chances for life and development4 #b4 ,,how ,,to ,,plant ,a ,,forest4 ,forest planting and tree planting are two different things4 ,the orchardist1 who plants for fruit2 the landscape gardener1 who plants for form2 the roadside planter1 who plants for shade1 all have objects in view different from that of the forest planter1 and therefore select and use their plant material differently4 ,they deal with single individual trees1 each one by itself destined for a definite purpose4 ,the forester1 on the other hand1 plants a crop like the farmer2 he deals not with the single seed or plant1 but with masses of trees2 the individual tree has value to him only as apart of the whole4 ,it may come to harvest for its timber1 or it may not come to harvest1 and yet have answered its purpose as a part of the whole in shading the ground1 or acting as nurse or forwarder as long as it was necessary4 ,his object is not to grow trees1 but to produce wood1 the largest amount of the best quality per acre1 whether it be stored in one tree or in many1 and his methods must be directed to that end4 ,as far as the manner of setting out plants or sowing seeds is concerned1 the same general principles and the same care in manipulation are applicable as in any other planting1 except as the coat of operating on so ,large a scale may necessitate less careful methods than the gardener or nurseryman can afford to apply2 the nearer1 however1 the performance of planting can be brought to the careful manner of the gardener1 the surer the success4 ,the principles underlying such methods have been discussed in the chapter ,how trees grow2 in the present chapter it is proposed to point out briefly the special considerations which should guide the forest planter in particular4 ,,what ,,trees ,,to ,,plant4 ,adaptability to climate is the first requisite in the species to be planted4 ,it is best to choose from the native growth of the region which is known to be adapted to it4 ,with regard to species not native1 the reliance must be placed upon the experience of neighboring planters and upon experiment 7at first on a small scale71 after study of the requirements of the kinds proposed for trial4 ,adaptation must be studied1 not only with reference to temperature ranges and rainfall1 but especially with reference to atmospheric humidity and requirements of transpiration4 ,many species have a wide range of natural distribution1 and hence of climatic adaptation4 ,if such are to be used1 it is important to secure seeds from that part of the range of natural distribution where the plants must be hardiest1 i4 e41 the coldest and driest region in which it occurs1 which insures hardy qualities in the offspring4 ,for instance1 the ,douglas spruce from the humid and evenly tempered ,pacific ,slope will not be as hardy as that grown from seed collected on the dry and frigid slopes of the ,rockies4 ,lack of attention to this requisite accounts for many failures4 ,it must also be kept in mind that1 while a species may be able to grow in another than its native climate1 its wood may not there have the same valuable qualities which it develops in its native habitat4 ,adaptability to soil must be studied less with reference to mineral constituents than to physical condition4 ,depth and moisture conditions1 and the structure of the soil1 which influences the movement of water in it1 are the most important elements4 ,while all trees thrive best in a moist to fresh soil of moderate depth 7from #b to #d feet7 and granular structure1 some can adapt themselves to drier or wetter1 shallow1 and compact soils4 ,fissures in rocks into which the roots can penetrate often stand for depth of soil1 and usually aid in maintaining favorable moisture conditions4 ,in soils of great depth 7i4 e41 from the surface to the impenetrable subsoil7 and of coarse structure water may drain away so fast as not to be available to the roots4 ,soil moisture must always be studied in conjunction with atmospheric moisture2 for1 while a species may thrive in an arid soil1 when the demands of transpiration are not great1 it may not do so when aridity of atmosphere is added4 ,trees of the swamp are apt to be indifferent to soil moisture and to thrive quite well1 if not better1 in drier soils4 ,adaptability to site4--,while a species may be well adapted to the general climatic conditions of a region1 and in general to the soil1 there still remains to be considered its adaptability to the particular site1 under which term we may comprise the total effect of general climate1 local climate1 and soil4 ,the general climatic conditions are locally influenced1 especially by the slope1 exposure1 or aspect1 and the surroundings4 ,thus we know that eastern exposures are more liable to frost1 western exposures more liable to damage from winds1 southern more apt to be hot and to dry out1 and northern to be cooler and damper1 having in consequence a shorter period of vegetation4 ,hollows and lowlands are more exposed to frosts and more subject to variations in soil moisture1 etc4 ,hence for these various situations it is advisable to select species which can best withstand such local dangers4 ,the use value1 or utility1 of the species is next to be considered4 ,this must be done with reference to the commercial and domestic demand1 and the length of time it takes the species to attain its value4 ,the greater variety of purposes a wood may serve--i4 e41 the greater its general utility--and the sooner it attains its use value the better4 ,white pine for the northeastern ,states as a wood is like the apple among fruits1 making an all-round useful material in large quantities per acre in short time4 ,tulip poplar1 applicable to a wider climatic range1 is almost as valuable1 while oak1 ash1 and hickory are standard woods in the market4 ,other woods are of limited application4 ,thus the black locust1 which grows most quickly into useful posts1 has only a limited market1 much more limited than it should have2 hickory soon furnishes valuable hoop poles from the thinnings1 and later the best wagon material1 not1 however1 large quantities in a short time2 while black walnut of good quality is very high in price1 the market is also limited1 and the dark color of the heartwood1 for which it is prized1 is attained only by old trees4 ,the black cherry1 used for similar purposes1 attains its value much sooner4 ,by planting various species together1 variety of usefulness may be secured and the certainty of a market increased4 ,the forest value of the species is only in part expressed by its use value4 ,as has been shown in another place1 the composition of the crop must be such as to insure maintenance of favorable soil conditions1 as well as satisfactory development of the crop itself4 ,some species1 although of high use value1 like ash1 oak1 etc1 are poor preservers of soil conditions1 allowing grass and weeds to enter the plantation and to deteriorate the soil under their thin foliage4 ,others1 like beech1 sugar maple1 box elder1 etc41 although of less use value1 being dense foliaged and preserving a shady crown for a long time1 are of great forest value as soil improvers4 ,again1 as the value of logs depends largely on their freedom from knots1 straightness1 and length1 it is of importance to secure these qualities4 ,some valuable species1 if grown by themselves1 make crooked trunks1 do not clean their shafts of branches1 and are apt to spread rather than lengthen4 ,if planted in close companionship with others1 they are forced by these nurses or forwarders to make better growths and clean their shafts of branches4 ,furthermore1 from financial considerations1 it is well to know that some species develop more rapidly and produce larger quantities of useful material per acre than others2 thus the white pine is a big cropper1 and1 combining with this a tolerably good shading quality1 and being in addition capable of easy reproduction1 it is of highest forest value4 ,hence1 as the object of forestry is to make money from continued wood crops1 use value and forest value must both be considered in ,the selection of materials for forest planting4 ,mutual relationship of different species1 with reference especially to their relative height growth and their relative light requirements1 must be considered in starting a mixed plantation4 ,mixed forest plantations 7made of several kinds7 have so many advantages over pure plantations 7made of one kind7 that they should be preferred1 except for very particular reasons4 ,mixed plantations are capable of producing larger quantities of better and more varied material1 preserve soil conditions hotter1 are less liable to damage from winds1 fires1 and insects1 and can be more readily reproduced4 ,the following general rules should guide in making up the composition of a mixed plantation3 a4 ,shade-enduring kinds should form the bulk 7five-eighths to seven-eighths7 of the plantation1 except on specially favored soils where no deterioration is to be feared from planting only light-needing kinds1 and in which case those may even be planted by themselves4 b4 ,the light-needing trees should be surrounded by shade-enduring of slower growth1 so that the former may not be overtopped1 but have the necessary light and be forced by side shade to straight growth4 c4 ,shade-enduring species may be grown in admixture with each other when their rate of height growth is about equal1 or when the slower-growing kind can be protected against the quicker-growing 7for instance1 by planting a larger proportion of the former in groups or by cutting back the latter74 d4 ,the more valuable timber trees which are to form the main crop should be so disposed individually1 and planted in such numbers among the secondary crop or nurse crop1 that the latter can be thinned out first without disturbing the former4 ,where a plantation of light-foliaged trees has been made 7black walnut1 for instance71 it can be greatly improved by under-planting densely with a shade-enduring kind1 which will choke out weed growth1 improve the soil1 and thereby advance the growth of the plantation4 ,the selection and proper combination of species with reference to this mutual relationship to each other and to the soil are the most important elements of success4 ,availability of the species also still needs consideration in this country2 for1 although a species may be very well adapted to the purpose in hand1 it may be too difficult to obtain material for planting in quantity or at reasonable prices4 ,while the beech is one of the best species for shade endurance1 and hence for soil cover1 seedlings can not be had as yet in quantity4 ,western conifers1 although promising good material for forest planting1 are at present too high priced for general use4 ,some eastern trees can be secured readily--either their seed or seedlings--from the native woods2 others must be grown in nurseries before they can be placed in the field4 ,whether to procure seeds or plants1 and if the latter1 what kind1 depends upon a number of considerations4 ,the main crop1 that which is to furnish the better timber1 had best be planted with nursery-grown plants1 if of slow-growing kinds1 perhaps once transplanted1 with well-developed root systems1 the plants in no case to be more than #b to #c years old4 ,the secondary or nurse crop may then be sown or planted with younger and less costly material taken from the woods or grown in seed beds1 or else cuttings may be used4 ,in some localities--for instance1 the ,western plains--the germinating of seeds in the open field is so uncertain1 and the life of the young seedlings for the first year or two so precarious1 that the use of seeds in the field can not be recommended4 ,in such locations careful selection and treatment of the planting material according to the hardships which it must encounter can alone insure success4 ,seedlings from #f to #ab inches high furnish the best material4 ,the planting of large-sized trees is not excluded1 but is expensive and hence often impracticable1 besides being less sure of success1 since the larger-sized tree is apt to lose a greater proportion of its roots in transplanting4 ,,methods ,,of ,,planting4 ,preparation of soil is for the purpose of securing a favorable start for the young crop2 its effects are lost after the first few years4 ,most land that is to be devoted to forest planting does not admit of as careful preparation as for agricultural crops1 nor is it necessary where the climate is hot too severe and the soil not too compact to prevent the young crop from establishing itself4 ,thousands of acres in ,germany are planted annually without any soil preparation1 yearling pine seedlings being set with a dibble in the unprepared ground4 ,this absence of preparation is even necessary in sandy soils1 like that encountered in the sand-hills of ,nebraska1 which may1 if disturbed1 be blown out and shifted4 ,in other cases a partial removal of a too rank undergrowth or soil cover and a shallow scarifying or hoeing is resorted to1 or else furrows are thrown up and the trees set out in them4 ,in land that has been tilled1 deep plowing 7#aj to #ab inches7 and thorough pulverizing give the best chances for the young crop to start4 ,for special conditions1 very dry or very moist situations1 special methods are required4 ,the best methods for planting in the semiarid regions of the far ,west have not yet been developed4 ,thorough cultivation1 as for agricultural crops1 with subsequent culture1 is successful1 but expensive4 ,a plan which might be tried would consist in breaking the raw prairie in ,june and turning over a shallow sod1 sowing a crop of oats or alfalfa1 harvesting it with a high stubble1 then opening furrows for planting and leaving the ground between furrows undisturbed1 so as to secure the largest amount of drainage into the furrows and a mulch between the rows4 ,the time for planting depends on climatic and soil conditions and the convenience of the planter4 ,spring planting is preferable except in southern latitudes1 especially in the ,west1 where the winters are severe and the fall apt to be dry1 the soil therefore not in favorable condition for planting4 ,the time for fall planting is after the leaves have fallen2 for spring planting1 before or just when life begins anew4 ,in order to be ready in time for spring planting1 it is a good practice to take up the plants in the fall and heel them in over winter 7covering them1 closely packed1 in a dry trench of soil74 ,conifers can be planted later in spring and earlier in fall than broad-leaved trees4 ,the density of the trees is a matter in which most planters fail4 ,the advantages of close planting lie in the quicker shading of the soil1 hence the better preservation of its moisture and improved growth and form development of the crop4 ,these advantages must be balanced against the increased cost of close planting4 ,the closer the planting1 the sooner will the plantation be self-sustaining and the surer the success4 ,if planted in squares1 or1 better still1 in quincunx order 7the trees in every other row alternating at equal distances71 which is most desirable on account of the more systematic work possible and the more complete cover which it makes1 the distance should not be more than #d feet1 unless for special reasons and conditions1 while #b feet apart is not too close1 and still closer planting is done by nature with the best success4 ,the following numbers of trees per acre are required when planting at distances as indicated3 #a by #a feet #ai1cfj #b by #d feet #f1dde #a by #b feet #ad1ebj #c by #c feet #d1hdj #b by #b foot #aj1hij #c by #d feet #c1fcj #b by #c feet #g1bfj #d by #d feet #b1gbb ,to decrease expense1 the bulk of the plantation may be made of the cheapest kinds of trees that may serve as soil cover and secondary or nurse crop1 the main crop of from #cjj to #fjj trees to consist of better kinds1 and with better planting material1 mainly of light-needing species4 ,these should be evenly disposed through the plantation1 each closely surrounded by the nurse crop4 ,it is1 of course1 understood that not all trees grow up2 a constant change in numbers by the death 7or else timely removal7 of the overshaded takes place1 so that the final crop shows at #ajj years a close cover1 with hardly #cjj trees to the acre4 ,after-culture is not entirely avoidable1 especially under unfavorable climatic conditions1 and if the planting was not close enough4 ,shallow cultivation between the rows is needed to prevent weed growth and to keep the soil open1 until it is shaded by the young trees1 which may take a year with close planting and two or three years with rows #d by #d feet apart1 the time varying also with the species4 ,it is rare that a plantation succeeds in all its parts2 gaps or fail places occur1 as a rule1 and must be filled in by additional planting as soon as possible1 if of larger extent than can be closed up in a few years by the neighboring growth4 ,when the soil is protected by a complete leaf canopy1 the forest crop may be considered as established1 and the after-treatment will consist of judicious thinning4 #c4 ,,how ,,to ,,treat ,,the ,,wood ,,lot4 ,in the northeastern ,states it is the custom to have connected with the farm apiece of virgin woodland1 commonly called the wood lot4 ,its object primarily is to supply the farmer with the firewood1 fence material1 and such dimension timbers as he may need from time to time for repairs on buildings1 wagons1 etc4 ,as a rule1 the wood lot occupies1 as it ought to1 the poorer part of the farm1 the rocky or stony1 the dry or the wet portions1 which are not well fitted for agricultural crops4 ,as a rule1 it is treated as it ought not to be1 if the intention is to have it serve its purpose continuously2 it is cut and culled without regard to its reproduction4 ,as far as firewood supplies go1 the careful farmer will first use the dead and dying trees1 broken limbs1 and leavings1 which is quite proper4 ,the careless man avoids the extra labor which such material requires1 and takes whatever splits best1 no matter whether the material could be used for better purposes or not4 ,when it comes to the cutting of other material1 fence rails1 posts1 or dimension timber1 the general rule is to go into the lot and select the best trees of the best kind for the purpose4 ,this looks at first sight like the natural1 most practical way of doing4 ,it is the method which the lumberman pursues when he culls the forest1 and is1 from his point of view perhaps1 justifiable1 for he only desires to secure at once what is most profitable in the forest4 ,but for the farmer1 who proposes to use his wood lot continuously for supplies of this kind1 it is a method detrimental to his object1 and in time it leaves him with a lot of poor1 useless timber which encumbers the ground and prevents the growth of a better crop4 ,our woods are mostly composed of many species of trees2 they are mixed woods4 ,some of the species are valuable for some special purposes1 others are applicable to a variety of purposes1 and again others furnish but poor material for anything but firewood1 and even for that use they may not be of the best4 ,among the most valuable in the northeastern woods we should mention the white pine--king of all--the white ash1 white and chestnut oak1 hickories1 tulip tree1 black walnut1 and black cherry1 the last three being now nearly exhausted2 next1 spruce and hemlock1 red pine1 sugar maple1 chestnut1 various oaks of the black or red oak tribe1 several species of ash and birch1 black locust2 lastly1 elms and soft maples1 basswood1 poplars1 and sycamore4 ,now1 by the common practice of culling the best it is evident that gradually all the best trees of the best kinds are taken out1 leaving only inferior trees or inferior kinds--the weeds among trees1 if one may call them such--and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless4 ,it does not supply that for which it was intended2 the soil1 which was of little use for anything but a timber crop before1 is still further deteriorated under this treatment1 and being compacted by the constant running of cattle1 the starting of a crop of seedlings is made nearly impossible4 ,it would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or pasture2 the farm has by so much lost in value4 ,in other words1 instead of using the interest on his capital1 interest and capital have been used up together2 the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed4 ,this is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the management of the wood lot and the smallest care is taken to avoid deterioration and secure reproduction4 ,,improvement ,,cuttings4 ,the first care should be to improve the crop in its composition4 ,instead of culling it of its best material1 it should be culled of its weeds1 the poor kinds1 which we do not care to reproduce1 and which1 like all other weeds1 propagate themselves only too readily4 ,this weeding must not1 however1 be done all sit once1 as it could be in a field crop1 for in a full-grown piece of woodland each tree has a value1 even the weed trees1 as soil cover4 ,the great secret of success in all crop production lies in the regulating of water supplies2 the manuring in part and the cultivating entirely1 as well as drainage and irrigation1 are means to this end4 ,in forestry these means are usually not practicable1 and hence other means are resorted to4 ,the principal of these is to keep the soil as much as possible under cover1 either by the shade which the foliage of the tall trees furnishes1 or by that from the underbrush1 or by the litter which accumulates and in decaying forms a humus cover1 a most excellent mulch4 ,a combination of these three conditions1 viz1 a dense crown cover1 woody underbrush where the crown cover is interrupted1 and a heavy layer of well-decomposed humus1 gives the best result4 ,under such conditions1 first of all1 the rain1 being intercepted by the foliage and litter1 reaches the ground only gradually1 and therefore does not compact the soil as it does in the open field1 but leaves it granular and open1 so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil4 ,secondly1 the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade and lack of air circulation in the dense woods1 be that more moisture remains for the use of the trees4 ,when the shade of the crowns overhead 7the so-called crown cover1 or canopy17 is perfect1 but little undergrowth will be seen2 but where the crown cover is interrupted or imperfect1 an undergrowth will appear4 ,if this is composed of young trees1 or even shrubs1 it is an advantage1 but if of weeds1 and especially grass1 it is a misfortune1 because these transpire a great deal more water than the woody plants and allow the soil to deteriorate in structure and therefore in water capacity4 ,some weeds and grasses1 to be sure1 are capable of existing where but little light reaches the soil4 ,when they appear it is a sign to the forester that he must be careful not to thin out the crown cover any more4 ,when the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a sign that too much light reaches the ground1 and that the soil is already deteriorated4 ,if this state continues1 the heavy drain which the transpiration of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture1 without any appreciable conservative action by their shade1 will injure the soil still further4 ,the overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there are not enough trees on the ground to close up the interspaces with their crowns1 or else because the kinds of trees which make up the forest do not yield much shade2 thus it can easily be observed that a beech1 a sugar maple1 a hemlock1 is so densely foliaged that but little light reaches the soil through its crown canopy1 while an ash1 an oak1 a larch1 when full grown1 in the forest1 allows a good deal of light to penetrate4 ,hence1 in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop1 we must be careful not to interrupt the crown cover too much1 and thereby deteriorate the soil conditions4 ,and for the same reason1 in the selection of the kinds that are to be left or to be taken out1 we shall not only consider their use value but also their shading value1 trying to bring about such a mixture of shady and less shady kinds as will insure a continuously satisfactory crown cover1 the shade-enduring kinds to occupy the lower stratum in the crown canopy1 and to be more numerous than the light-needing4 ,the forester1 therefore1 watches first the conditions of his soil cover1 and his next care is for the condition of the overhead shade1 the crown cover2 for a change in the condition of the latter brings change into his soil conditions1 and1 inversely1 from the changes in the plant cover of the soil he judges whether he may or may not change the light conditions4 ,the changes of the soil cover teach him more often when to let alone than when to go on with his operations of thinning out2 that is to say1 he can rarely stop short of that condition which is most favorable4 ,hence the improvement cuttings must be made with caution and only very gradually1 so that no deterioration of the soil conditions be invited4 ,we have repeated this injunction again and again1 because all success in the management of future wood crops depends upon the care bestowed upon the maintenance of favorable soil conditions4 ,as the object of this weeding is not only to remove the undesirable kinds from the present crop1 but to prevent as much as possible their reappearance in subsequent crops1 it maybe advisable to cut such kinds as sprout readily from the stump in summer time--,june or ,july--when the stumps are1 likely to die without sprouting4 ,it may take several years' cutting to bring the composition of the main crop into such a condition as to satisfy us4 ,,methods ,,of ,,reproducing ,,the ,,wood ,,crop4 ,then comes the period of utilizing the main crop4 ,as we propose to keep the wood lot as such1 and desire to reproduce a satisfactory wood crop in place of the old one1 this latter must be cut always with a view to that reproduction4 ,there are various methods pursued for this purpose in large forestry operations which are not practicable on small areas1 especially when these are expected to yield only small amounts of timber1 and these little by little as required4 ,it is possible1 to be sure1 to cut the entire crop and replant a new one1 or else to use the ax skillfully and bring about a natural reproduction in a few years2 but we want in the present case to lengthen out the period during which the old crop is cut1 and hence must resort to other methods4 ,there are three methods practicable4 ,we may clear narrow strips or bands entirely1 expecting the neighboring growth to furnish the seed for covering the strip with a new crop--the strip method2 or we can take out single trees here and there1 relying again on an after growth from seed shed by the surrounding trees--the selection method2 or1 finally1 instead of single trees1 we may cut entire groups of trees hero and there in the same manner1 the gaps to be filled1 as in the other cases1 with a young crop from the seed of the surrounding trees1 and this we may call the group method4 ,in the strip method1 in order to secure sufficient seeding of the cleared strip1 the latter must not be so broad that the seed from the neighboring growth can not be carried over it by the wind4 ,in order to get the best results from the carrying power of the wind 7as well as to avoid windfalls when the old growth is suddenly opened on the windward side7 the strips should be located on the side opposite the prevailing winds4 ,oaks1 beech1 hickory1 and nut trees in general with heavy seeds will not seed over any considerable breadth of strip1 while with maple and ash the breadth may be made twice as great as the height of the timber1 and the mother trees with lighter seeds1 like spruce and pine1 or birch and elm1 maybe able to cover strips of a breadth of #c or #d and even #h times their height4 ,but such broad strips are hazardous1 since with insufficient seed fall1 or fail years in the seed1 the strip may remain exposed to sun and wind for several years without a good cover and deteriorate4 ,it is safer1 therefore1 to make the strips no broader than just the height of the neighboring timber1 in which case not only has the seed better chance of covering the ground1 but the soil and seedlings have more protection from the mother crop4 ,in hilly country the strips must not be made in the direction of the slope1 for the water would wash out soil and seed4 ,every year1 then1 or from time to time1 a new strip is to be cleared and regenerated4 ,but if the first strip failed to cover itself satisfactorily1 the operation is stopped1 for it would be unwise to remove the seed trees further by an additional clearing4 ,accordingly1 this method should be used only where the kinds composing the mother crop are frequent and abundant seeders and give assurance of reseeding the strips quickly and successfully4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,showing plan of group system in regenerating a forest crop4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 successive groups of young timber1 #a being the oldest1 #d the youngest1 #e old timber2 a1 wind mantle1 specially managed to secure protection4 ,the other two methods have greater chances of success in that they preserve the soil conditions more surely1 and there is more assurance of seeding from the neighboring trees on all sides4 ,the selection method1 by which single trees are taken out all over the forest1 is the same as has been practiced by the farmer and lumberman hitherto1 only they have forgotten to look after the young crop4 ,millions of seed may fall to the ground and germinate1 but perish from the excessive shade of the mother trees4 ,if we wish to be successful in establishing a new crop1 it will be necessary to be ready with the ax all the time and give light as needed by the young crop4 ,the openings made by taking out single trees are so small that there is great danger of the young crop being lost1 or at least impeded in its development1 because it is impracticable to come in time to its relief with the ax4 ,the best method1 therefore1 in all respects1 is the group method which not only secures continuous soil cover1 chances for full seeding1 and more satisfactory light conditions1 but requires loss careful attention1 or at least permits more freedom of movement and adaptation to local conditions 7fig4 #ac74 ,it is especially adapted to mixed woods1 as it permits securing for each species the most desirable light conditions by making the openings larger or smaller1 according as the species we wish to favor in a particular group demand more or less shade4 ,further1 when different species are ripe for regeneration at different times1 this plan makes it possible to take them in hand as needed4 ,again1 we can begin with one group or we can take in hand several groups simultaneously1 as may be desirable and practicable4 ,we start our groups of new crop either where a young growth is already on the ground1 enlarging around it1 or where old timber has reached its highest usefulness and should be cut in order that we may not lose the larger growth which young trees would make2 or else we choose a place which is but poorly stocked1 where1 if it is not regenerated1 the soil is likely to deteriorate further4 ,the choice is affected further by the consideration that dry situations should be taken in hand earlier than those in which the soil and site are more favorable1 and that some species reach maturity and highest use value earlier than others and should therefore be reproduced earlier4 ,in short1 we begin the regeneration when and where the necessity for it exists1 or where the young crop has the best chance to start most satisfactorily with the least artificial aid4 ,of course1 advantage should betaken of the occurrence of seed years1 which come at different intervals with different species4 ,if we begin with a group of young growth already on the ground1 our plan is to remove gradually the old trees standing over them when no longer required for shade1 and then to cut away the adjoining old growth and enlarge the opening in successive narrow bands around the young growth4 ,when the first band has seeded itself satisfactorily1 and the young growth has come to require more light 7which may take several years71 we remove another band around it1 and thus the regeneration progresses4 ,where no young growth already exists1 of course the first opening is made to afford a start1 and afterwards the enlargement follows as occasion requires4 ,,size ,,of ,,openings4 ,the size of the openings and the rapidity with which they should be enlarged vary1 of course1 with local conditions and the species which is to 'be favored1 the light-needing species requiring larger openings and quicker light additions than the shade-enduring4 ,it is difficult to give any rules1 since the modifications due to local conditions are so manifold1 requiring observation and judgment4 ,caution in not opening too much at a time and too quickly may avoid failure in securing good stands4 ,in general1 the first openings may contain from one-fourth to one-half an acre or more1 and the gradual enlarging may progress by clearing bands of a breadth not to exceed the height of the surrounding timber4 ,the time of the year when the cutting is to be done is naturally in winter1 when the farmer has the most leisure1 and when the wood seasons best after felling and is also most readily moved4 ,since it is expected that the seed fallen in the autumn will sprout in the spring1 all wood should1 of course1 be removed from the seed ground4 ,the first opening1 as well as the enlargement of the groups1 should not be made at once1 but by gradual thinning out1 if the soil is not in good condition to receive and germinate the seed and it is impracticable to put it in such condition by artificial means--hoeing or plowing4 ,it is1 of course1 quite practicable--nay1 sometimes very desirable--to prepare the soil for the reception and germination of the seed4 ,where undesirable undergrowth has started1 it should be cut out1 and where the soil is deteriorated with weed growth or compacted by the tramping of cattle1 it should be hoed or otherwise scarified1 so that the seed may find favorable conditions4 ,to let pigs do the plowing and the covering of acorns is not an uncommon practice abroad4 ,it is also quite proper1 if the reproduction from the seed of the surrounding mother trees does not progress satisfactorily1 to assist1 when an opportunity is afforded1 by planting such desirable species as were or were not in the composition of the original crop4 ,it may require ten1 twenty1 or forty years or more to secure the reproduction of a wood lot in this way4 ,a new growth1 denser and better than the old1 with timber of varying age1 will be the result4 ,the progress of the regeneration in groups is shown on the accompanying plan1 the different shadings showing the successive additions of young crop1 the darkest denoting the oldest parts1 first regenerated4 ,if we should make a section through any one of the groups1 this1 ideally represented1 would be like figure #ad1 the old growth on the outside1 the youngest new crop adjoining it1 and tiers of older growths of varying height toward the center of the group4 ,,wind ,,mantle4 ,on the plan there will be noted a strip specially shaded1 surrounding the entire plat 7fig4 #ac1 a71 representing a strip of timber which should surround the farmer's wood lot1 and which he should keep as dense as possible1 especially favoring undergrowth4 ,this part1 if practicable1 should be kept reproduced as coppice or by the method of selection1 i4 e41 by taking out trees hero and there4 ,when gaps are made1 they should be filled1 if possible1 by introducing shade-enduring kinds1 which1 like the spruces and firs and beech1 retain their branches down to the foot for a long time4 ,this mantle is intended to protect the interior against the drying influence of winds1 which are bound to enter the small wood lot and deteriorate the soil4 ,the smaller the lot1 the more necessary and desirable it is to maintain such a protective cover or wind-break4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,appearance of regeneration by group method4 ,,coppice4 ,besides reproducing a wood crop from the seed of mother trees or by planting1 there is another reproduction possible by sprouts from the stump4 ,this1 to be sure1 can be done only with broad-leaved species1 since conifers1 with but few exceptions1 do not sprout from the stump4 ,when a wood lot is cut over and over again1 the reproduction taking place by such sprouts we call coppice4 ,most wooded areas in the ,eastern ,states have been so cut that reproduction from seed could not take place1 and hence we have large areas of coppice1 with very few seedling trees interspersed4 ,as we have seen in the chapter on ,how trees grow1 the sprouts do not develop into as good trees as the seedlings4 ,they grow faster1 to be sure1 in the beginning1 but do not grow as tall and are apt to be shorter lived4 ,for the production of firewood1 fence1 and post material1 coppice management may suffice1 but not for dimension timber4 ,and even to keep the coppice in good reproductive condition1 care should be taken to secure a certain proportion of seedling trees1 since the old stumps1 after repeated cutting1 tail to sprout and die out4 ,soil and climate influence the success of the coppice2 shallow soils produce weaker but more numerous sprouts and are more readily deteriorated by the repeated laying bare of the soil2 a mild climate is most favorable to a continuance of the reproductive power of the stump4 ,some species sprout more readily than others2 hence the composition of the crop will change1 unless attention is paid to it4 ,in the coppice1 as in any other management of a natural wood crop1 a desirable composition must first be secured1 which is done by timely improvement cuttings1 as described in a previous section4 ,the best trees for coppice in the northeastern ,states are the chestnut1 various oaks1 hickory1 ash1 elm1 maples1 basswood1 and black locust1 which are all good sprouters4 ,when cutting is done for reproduction1 the time and manner are the main care4 ,the best results are probably obtained1 both financially and with regard to satisfactory reproduction1 when the coppice is cut between the twentieth and thirtieth years4 ,all cutting must be done in early spring or in winter1 avoiding1 however1 days of severe frost1 which is apt to sever the bark from the trunk and to kill the cambium4 ,cutting in summer kills the stump1 as a rule4 ,the cut should be made slanting downward1 and as smooth as possible1 to prevent collection of moisture on the stump and the resulting decay1 and as close as possible to the ground1 where the stump is less exposed to injuries1 and the new sprouts1 starting close to the ground1 may strike independent roots4 ,fail places or gaps should be filled by planting4 ,this can be readily done by bending to the ground some of the neighboring sprouts1 when #b to #c years old1 notching1 fastening them down with a wooden hook or a stone1 and covering them with soil a short distance 7#d to #f inches7 from the end4 ,the sprout will then strike root1 and after a year or so may be severed from the mother stock by a sharp cut 7fig4 #ae74 ,for the recuperation of the crop1 it is desirable to maintain a supply of seedling trees1 which may be secured either by the natural seeding of a few mother trees of the old crop which are left1 or by planting4 ,this kind of management1 coppice with seedling or standard trees intermixed1 if the latter are left regularly and well distributed over the wood lot1 leads to a management called standard coppice4 ,in this it is attempted to avoid the drawbacks of the coppice1 viz1 failure to produce dimension material and running out of the stocks4 ,the former object is1 however1 only partially accomplished1 as the trees grown without sufficient side shading are apt to produce branchy boles and hence knotty timber1 besides injuring the coppice by their shade4 ,,plan ,,of ,,management4 ,in order to harmonize the requirements of the wood lot from a sylvicultural point of view1 and the needs of the farmer for wood supplies1 the cutting must follow some systematic plan4 ,the improvement cuttings need not1 in point of time1 have been made all over the lot before beginning the cuttings for regeneration1 provided they have been made in those parts which are to be regenerated4 ,both the cuttings may go on simultaneously1 and this enables the farmer to gauge the amount of cutting to his consumption4 ,according to the amount of wood needed1 one or more groups may be started at the same time4 ,it is1 however1 desirable1 for the sake of renewing the crop systematically1 to arrange the groups in a regular order over the lot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,method of layering to produce new stocks in coppice wood4 #d4 ,,how ,,to ,,cultivate ,,the ,,wood ,,crop4 ,where only firewood is desired1 i4 e41 wood without special form1 size1 or quality1 no attention to the crop is necessary1 except to insure that it covers the ground completely4 ,nevertheless1 even in such a crop1 which is usually managed as coppice1#b some of the operations described in this chapter may prove advantageous4 ,where1 however1 not only quantity but useful quality of the crop is also to be secured1 the development of the wood crop may be advantageously influenced by controlling the supply of light available to the individual trees4 #b ,see page #ce for description of coppice4 ,it may be proper to repeat here briefly what has been explained in previous pages regarding the influence of light on tree development4 ,,effect ,,of ,,light ,,on ,,wood ,,production4 ,dense shade preserves soil moisture1 the most essential element for wood production2 a close stand of suitable kinds of trees secures this shading and prevents the surface evaporation of soil moisture1 making it available for wood production4 ,but a close stand also cuts off side light and confines the lateral growing space1 and hence prevents the development of side branches and forces the growth energy of the soil to expend itself in height growth2 the crown is carried up1 and long1 cylindrical shafts1 clear of branches1 are developed2 a close stand thus secures desirable form and quality4 ,yet1 since the quality of wood production or accretion 7other things being equal7 is in direct proportion to the amount of foliage and the available light1 and since an open position promotes the development of a larger crown and of more foliage1 an open stand tends to secure a larger amount of wood accretion on each tree4 ,on the other hand1 a tree grown in the open1 besides producing more branches1 deposits a larger proportion of wood at ,the base1 so that the shape of the bole becomes more conical1 a form which in sawing proves unprofitable2 whereas a tree grown in the dense forest both lengthens its shaft at the expense of branch growth and makes a more even deposit of wood over the whole trunk1 thus attaining a more cylindrical form4 ,while1 then1 the total amount of wood production per acre may be as large in a close stand of trees as in an open one 7within limits71 the distribution of this amount among a larger or smaller number of individual trees produces different results in the quality of the crop4 ,and since the size of a tree or log is important in determining its usefulness and value1 the sooner the individual trees reach useful size1 without suffering in other points of quality1 the more profitable the whole crop4 ,,number ,,of ,,trees ,,per ,,acre4 ,the care of the forester1 then1 should be to maintain the smallest number of individuals on the ground which will secure the greatest amount of wood growth in the most desirable form of which the soil and climate are capable1 without deteriorating the soil conditions4 ,he tries to secure the most advantageous individual development of single trees without suffering the disadvantages resulting from too open stand4 ,the solution of this problem requires the greatest skill and judgment1 and rules can hardly be formulated with precision1 since for every species or combination of species and conditions these rules must be modified4 ,in a well-established young crop the number of seedlings per acre varies greatly1 from #c1jjj to #ajj1jjj1 according to soil1 species1 and the manner in which it originated1 whether planted1 sown1 or seeded naturally4#c ,left to themselves1 the seedlings1 as they develop1 begin to crowd each other4 ,at first this crowding results only in increasing the height growth and in preventing the spread and full development of side branches2 by and by the lower branches failing to receive sufficient light finally die and break off--the shaft clears itself4 ,then a distinct development of definite crowns takes place1 and after some years a difference of height growth in different individuals becomes marked4 ,not a few trees fail to reach the general upper crown surface1 and1 being more or less overtopped1 we can readily classify them according to height and development of crown1 the superior or dominating ones growing more and more vigorously1 the inferior or dominated trees falling more and more behind1 and finally dying for lack of light1 and thus a natural reduction in numbers1 or thinning1 takes place4 ,this natural thinning goes on with varying rates at different ages continuing through the entire life of the crop1 so that1 while only #d1jjj trees per acre may be required in the tenth year to make a dense crown cover or normally close stand1 untouched by man1 in the fortieth year #a1bjj would suffice to make the same dense cover1 in the eightieth year #cej would be a full stand1 and in the one hundredth not more than #bej1 according to soil and species1 more or less4 ,as we can discern three stages in the development of a single tree--the juvenile1 adolescent1 and mature--so1 in the development of a forest growth1 we may distinguish three corresponding stages1 namely1 the thicket or brushwood1 the pole-wood or sapling1 and the timber stage4 ,during ,the thicket stage1 in which the trees have a bushy appearance1 allowing hardly any distinction of stem and crown1 the height growth is most rapid4 ,this period may last1 according to conditions and species1 from #e or #aj to #cj and even #dj years--longer on poor soils and with shade-enduring species1 shorter with light-needing species on good soils--and1 while it lasts1 it is in the interest of the wood grower to maintain the close stand1 which produces the long shaft1 clear of branches1 on which at a later period the wood that makes valuable1 clear timber1 may accumulate4 ,form development is now most important4 ,the lower branches are to die and break off before they become too large4 7,see illustrations of the progress of clearing1 on pp4 #ae and #af47 ,with light-needing species and with deciduous trees generally this dying off is accomplished more easily than with conifers4 ,the spruces and even the white pine require very dense shading to clear the shaft4 ,during this period it is only necessary to weed out the undesirable kinds1 such as trees infested by insect and fungus1 shrubs1 sickly1 stunted1 or bushy trees which are apt to overtop and prevent the development of their better neighbors4 ,in short1 our attention is now devoted mainly to improving the composition of the crop4 #c ,if the crop does not1 at #c to #e years of age1 shade the ground well1 with a complete crown cover1 or canopy1 it can not be said to be well established and should be filled out by planting4 ,,weeding ,,and ,,cleaning ,,the ,,crop4 ,this weeding or cleaning is easily done with shears when the crop is from #c to #e years old4 ,later1 mere cutting back of the undesirable trees with a knife or hatchet maybe practiced4 ,in well-made artificial plantations this weeding is rarely needed until about the eighth or tenth year4 ,but in natural growths the young crop is sometimes so dense as to inordinately interfere with the development of the individual trees4 ,the stems then remain so slender that there is danger of their being bent or broken by storm or snow when the growth is thinned out later4 ,in such cases timely thinning is indicated to stimulate more rapid development of the rest of the crop4 ,this can be done most cheaply by cutting swaths or lanes one yard wide and us far apart through the crop1 leaving strips standing4 ,the outer trees of the strip1 at least1 will then shoot ahead and become the main crop4 ,these weeding or improvement cuttings1 which must be made gradually and be repeated every two or three years1 are best performed during the summer months1 or in ,august and ,september1 when it is easy to judge what should be taken out4 ,,methods ,,of ,,thinning4 ,during the thicket stage1 then1 which may last from #aj to #be and more years1 the crop is gradually brought into proper composition and condition4 ,when the pole-wood stage is reached1 most of the saplings being now from #c to #f inches in diameter and from #ae to #be feet in height1 the variation in sizes and in appearance becomes more and more marked4 ,some of the taller trees begin to show a long1 clear shaft and a definite crown4 ,the trees can be more or less readily classified into height and size classes4 ,the rate at which the height growth has progressed begins to fall off and diameter growth increases4 ,now comes the time when attention must be given to increasing this diameter growth by reducing the number of individuals and thus having all the wood which the soil can produce deposited on fewer individuals4 ,this is done by judicious and often repeated thinning1 taking out some of the trees and thereby giving more light and increasing the foliage of those remaining2 and as the crowns expand1 so do the trunks increase their diameter in direct proportion4 ,these thinnings must1 however1 be made cautiously lest at the same time the soil is exposed too much1 or the branch growth of those trees which are to become timber wood is too much stimulated4 ,so varying are the conditions to be considered1 according to soil1 site1 species1 and development of the crop1 that it is well-nigh impossible1 without a long and detailed discussion1 to lay down rules for the proper procedure4 ,in addition the opinions of authorities differ largely both as to manner and degree of thinning1 the old school advising moderate1 and the new school severer thinnings4 ,for the farmer1 who can give personal attention to detail and whose object is to grow a variety of sizes and kinds of wood1 the following general method may perhaps be most useful3 ,first determine which trees are to be treated as the main crop or final harvest crop4 ,for this #cjj to #ejj trees per acre of the best grown and most useful kinds may be selected1 which should be distributed as uniformly as possible over the acre4 ,these1 then--or as many as may live till the final harvest--are destined to grow into timber and are to form the special favorites as much as possible4 ,they may at first be marked to insure recognition2 later on they will be readily distinguished by their superior development ,the rest1 which we will call the subordinate crop1 is then to serve merely as filler1 nurse1 and soil cover4 ,,what ,,trees ,,to ,,remove4 ,it is now necessary1 by careful observation of the surroundings of each of the final harvest crop trees1 or superiors1 as we may call them1 to determine what trees of the subordinate crop trees1 or inferiors1 must be removed4 ,all nurse trees that threaten to overtop the superiors must either be cut out or cut back and topped1 if that is practicable1 so that the crown of the superiors can develop freely4 ,those that are only narrowing in the superiors from the side1 without preventing their free top development1 need not be interfered with1 especially while they are still useful in preventing the formation and spreading of side branches on the superiors4 ,as soon as the latter have fully cleared their shafts1 these crowding inferiors must be removed4 ,care must be taken1 however1 not to remove too many at a time1 thus opening the crown cover too severely and thereby exposing the soil to the drying influence of the sun4 ,gradually1 as the crowns of inferiors standing farther away begin to interfere with those of the superiors1 the inferiors are removed1 and thus the full effect of the light is secured in the accretion of the main harvest crop2 at the same time the branch growth has been prevented and the soil has been kept shaded4 ,meanwhile thinnings may also be made in the subordinate crop1 in order to secure also the most material from this part of the crop4 ,this is done by cutting out all trees that threaten to be killed by their neighbors4 ,in this way many a useful stick is saved and the dead material1 only good for firewood1 lessened4 ,it is evident that trees which in the struggle for existence have fallen behind1 so as to be overtopped by their neighbors1 can not1 either by their presence or by their removal1 influence the remaining growth4 ,they are removed only in order to utilize their wood before it decays4 ,it may be well to remark again that an undergrowth of woody plants interferes in no way with the development of the main crop1 but1 on the contrary1 aids by its shade in preserving favorable moisture conditions4 ,its existence1 however1 shows in most cases that the crown cover is not as dense as it should be1 and hence that thinning is not required4 ,grass and weed growth1 on the other hand1 is emphatically disadvantageous and shows that the crown cover is dangerously open4 ,the answer to the three questions1 ,when to begin the thinnings1 ,how severely to thin1 and ,how often to repeat the operation1 must always depend upon the varying appearance of the growth and the necessities in each case4 ,the first necessity for interference may arise with light-needing species as early as the twelfth or fifteenth year2 with shade-enduring1 not before the twentieth or twenty-fifth year4 ,the necessary severity of the thinning and the repetition are somewhat interdependent4 ,it is better to thin carefully and repeat the operation oftener than to open up so severely at once as to jeopardize the soil conditions4 ,especially in younger growths and on poorer soil1 it is best never to open a continuous crown cover so that it could not close up again within #c to #e years2 rather repeat the operation oftener4 ,later1 when the trees have attained heights of #ej to #fj feet and clear boles 7which may be in #dj to #ej years1 according to soil and kind7 the thinning may be more severe1 so as to require repetition only every #f to #aj years4 ,the condition of the crown cover1 then1 is the criterion which directs the ax4 ,as soon as the crowns again touch or interlace1 the time has arrived to thin again4 ,in mixed growths it must not be overlooked that light-needing species must be specially protected against shadier neighbors4 ,shade-enduring trees1 such as the spruces1 beech1 sugar maple1 and hickories1 bear overtopping for a time and will then grow vigorously when more light is given1 while light-needing species1 like the pines1 larch1 oaks1 and ash1 when once suppressed1 may never be able to recover4 ,particular attention is called to the necessity of leaving a rather denser wind mantle all around small groves4 ,in this part of the grove the thinning must be less severe1 unless coniferous trees on the outside can be encouraged by severe thinning to hold their branches low down1 thus increasing their value as wind-breaks4 ,the thinnings1 then1 while giving to the final harvest crop all the advantage of light for promoting its rapid development into serviceable timber size1 furnish also better material from the subordinate crop4 ,at #fj to #gj years of age the latter may have been entirely removed and only the originally selected superiors remain on the ground1 or as many of them as have not died and been removed2 #bej to #djj of these per acre will make a perfect stand of most valuable form and size1 ready for the final harvest1 which should be made as indicated in the preceding chapter4 #e4--,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,forests ,,to ,,farms4 ,that all things in nature are related to each other and interdependent is a common saying1 a fact doubted by nobody1 yet often forgotten or neglected in practical life4 ,the reason is partly indifference and partly ignorance as to the actual nature of the relationship2 hence we suffer1 deservedly or not4 ,the farmer's business1 more than any other1 perhaps1 depends for its success upon a true estimate of and careful regard for this inter-relation1 he adapts his crop to the nature of the soil1 the manner of its cultivation to the changes of the seasons1 and altogether he shapes conditions and places them in their proper relations to each other and adapts himself to them4 ,soil1 moisture1 and heat are the three factors which1 if properly related and utilized1 combine to produce his crops4 ,in some directions he can control these factors more or less readily2 in others they are withdrawn from his immediate influence1 and he is seemingly helpless4 ,he can maintain the fertility of the soil by manuring1 by proper rotation of crops1 and by deep culture2 he can remove surplus moisture by ditching and draining2 he can1 by irrigation systems1 bring water to his crops1 and by timely cultivation prevent excessive evaporation1 thereby rendering more water available to the crop2 but he can not control the rainfall nor the temperature changes of the seasons4 ,recent attempts to control the rainfall by direct means exhibit one of the greatest follies and misconceptions of natural forces we have witnessed during this age4 ,nevertheless1 by indirect means the farmer has it in his power to exercise much greater control over these forces than he has attempted hitherto4 ,he can prevent or reduce the unfavorable effects of temperature changes2 he can increase the available water supplies1 and prevent the evil effects of excessive rainfall2 he can so manage the waters which fall as to get the most benefit from them and avoid the harm which they are able to inflict4 ,before attempting to control the rainfall itself by artifice1 we should study how to secure the best use of that which falls1 as it comes within reach of human agencies and becomes available by natural causes4 ,how poorly we understand the use of these water supplies is evidenced yearly by destructive freshets and floods1 with the accompanying washing of soil1 followed by droughts1 low waters1 and deterioration of agricultural lands4 ,it is claimed that annually in the ,united ,states about #bjj square miles of fertile soil are washed into brooks and rivers1 a loss of soil capital which can not be repaired for centuries4 ,at the same time millions of dollars are appropriated yearly in the river and harbor bills to dig out the lost farms from the rivers1 and many thousands of dollars' worth of crops and other property are destroyed by floods and overflows2 not to count the large loss from droughts which this country suffers yearly in one part or the other1 and which1 undoubtedly1 could be largely avoided1 if we knew how to manage the available water supplies4 ,the regulation1 proper distribution1 and utilization of the rain waters in humid as well as in arid regions--water management--is to be the great problem of successful-agriculture in the future4 ,one of the most powerful means for such water management lies in the proper distribution and maintenance of forest areas4 ,nay1 we can say that the most successful water management is not possible without forest management4 ,,the ,,forest ,,waters ,,the ,,farm4 ,whether forests increase the amount of precipitation within or near their limits is still an open question1 although there are indications that under certain conditions large1 dense forest areas may have such an effect4 ,at any rate1 the water transpired by the foliage is certain1 in some degree1 to increase the relative humidity near the forest1 and thereby increase directly or indirectly the water supplies in its neighborhood4 ,this much we can assert1 also1 that while extended plains and fields1 heated by the sun1 and hence giving rise to warm currents of air1 have the tendency to prevent condensation of the passing moisture-bearing currents1 forest areas1 with their cooler1 moister air strata1 do not have such a tendency1 and local showers may therefore become more frequent in their neighborhood4 ,but1 though no increase in the amount of rainfall may be secured by forest areas1 the availability of whatever falls is increased for the locality by a well-kept and properly located forest growth4 ,the foliage1 twigs1 and branches break the fall of the raindrops1 and so does the litter of the forest floor1 hence the soil under this cover is not compacted as in the open field1 but kept loose and granular1 so that the water can readily penetrate and percolate2 the water thus reaches the ground more slowly1 dripping gradually from the leaves1 branches1 and trunks1 and allowing more time for it to sink into the soil4 ,this percolation is also made easier by the channels along the many roots4 ,similarly1 on account of the open structure of the soil and the slower melting of the snow under a forest cover in spring1 where it lies a fortnight to a month longer than in exposed positions and melts with less waste from evaporation1 the snow waters more fully penetrate the ground4 ,again1 more snow is caught and preserved under the forest cover than on the wind-swept fields and prairies4 ,all these conditions operate together1 with the result that larger amounts of the water sink into the forest soil and to greater depths than in open fields4 ,this moisture is conserved because of the reduced evaporation in the cool and still forest air1 being protected from the two great moisture-dissipating agents1 sun and wind4 ,by these conditions alone the water supplies available in the soil are increased from #ej to #fj per cent over those available on the open field4 ,owing to those two causes1 then--increased percolation and decreased evaporation--larger amounts of moisture become available to feed the springs and subsoil waters1 and these become finally available to the farm1 if the forest is located at a higher elevation than the field4 ,the great importance of the subsoil water especially and the influence of forest areas upon it has so far received too little attention and appreciation4 ,it is the subsoil water that is capable of supplying the needed moisture in times of drought4 ,,the ,,forest ,,tempers ,,the ,,farm4 ,another method by which a forest belt becomes a conservator of moisture lies in its wind-breaking capacity1 by which both velocity and temperature of winds are modified and evaporation from the fields to the leeward is reduced4 ,on the prairie1 wind-swept every day and every hour1 the farmer has learned to plant a wind-break around his buildings and orchards1 often only a single-row of trees1 and finds even that a desirable shelter1 tempering both the hot winds of summer and the cold blasts of winter4 ,the fields he usually leaves unprotected2 yet a wind-break around his crops to the windward would bring him increased yield1 and a timber belt would act still more effectively4 ,says a farmer from ,illinois3 ,my experience is that now in cold and stormy winters fields protected by timber belts yield full crops1 while fields not protected yield only one-third of a crop4 ,twenty-five or thirty years ago we never had any wheat killed by winter frost1 and every year we had a full crop of peaches1 which is now very rare4 ,at that time we had plenty of timber around our fields and orchards1 now cleared away4 ,not only is the temperature of the winds modified by passing over and through the shaded and cooler spaces of protecting timber bolts disposed toward the windward and alternating with the fields1 but their velocity is broken and moderated1 and since with reduced velocity the evaporative power of the winds is very greatly reduced1 so more water is left available for crops4 ,every foot in height of a forest growth will protect #a rod in distance1 and several bolts in succession would probably greatly increase the effective distance4 ,by preventing deep freezing of the soil the winter cold is not so much prolonged1 and the frequent fogs and mists that hover near forest areas prevent many frosts4 ,that stock will thrive better where it can find protection from the cold blasts of winter and from the heat of the sun in summer is a well-established fact4 ,,the ,,forest ,,protects ,,the ,,farm4 ,on the sandy plains1 where the winds are apt to blow the sand1 shifting it hither and thither1 a forest belt to the windward is the only means to keep the farm protected4 ,in the mountain and hill country the farms are apt to suffer from heavy rains washing away the soil4 ,where the tops and slopes are bared of their forest cover1 the litter of the forest floor burnt up1 the soil trampled and compacted by cattle and by the patter of the raindrops1 the water can not penetrate the soil readily1 but is earned off superficially1 especially when the soil is of1 day and naturally compact4 ,as a result the waters1 rushing over the surface down the hill1 run together in rivulets and streams and acquire such a force as to be able to move loose particles and even stones2 the ground becomes furrowed with gullies and runs2 the fertile soil is washed away2 the fields below are covered with silt2 the roads are damaged2 the water courses tear their banks1 and later run dry because the waters that should feed them by subterranean channels have been carried away in the flood4 ,the forest cover on the hilltops and steep hillsides which are not fit for cultivation prevents this erosive action of the waters by the same influence by which it increases available water supplies4 ,the important effects of a forest cover1 then1 are retention of larger quantities of water and carrying them off under ground and giving them up gradually1 thus extending the time of their usefulness and preventing their destructive action4 ,in order to be thoroughly effective1 the forest growth must be dense1 and1 especially1 the forest floor must not be robbed of its accumulations of foliage1 surface mulch and litter1 or its underbrush by fire1 nor must it be compacted by the trampling of cattle4 ,on the gentler slopes1 which are devoted to cultivation1 methods of underdraining1 such as horizontal ditches partly filled with stones and covered with soil1 terracing1 and contour plowing1 deep cultivation1 sodding1 and proper rotation of crops1 must be employed to prevent damage from surface waters4 ,,the ,,forest ,,supplies ,,the ,,farm ,,with ,,useful ,,material4 ,all the benefits derived from the favorable influence of forest bolts upon water conditions can be had without losing any of the useful material that the forest produces4 ,the forest grows to be cut and to be utilized2 it is a crop to be harvested4 ,it is a crop which1 if properly managed1 does not need to be replanted2 it reproduces itself4 ,when once established1 the ax1 if properly guided by skillful hands1 is the only tool necessary to cultivate it and to reproduce it4 ,there is no necessity of planting unless the wood lot has been mismanaged4 ,the wood lot1 then1 if properly managed1 is not only the guardian of the farm1 but it is the savings bank from which fair interest can be annually drawn1 utilizing for the purpose the poorest part of the farm4 ,nor does the wood lot require much attention2 it is to the farm what the workbasket is to the good housewife--a means with which improve the odds and ends of time1 especially during the winter1 when other farm business is at a standstill4 ,it may be added that the material which the farmer can secure from the wood lot1 besides the other advantages recited above1 is of far greater importance and value than is generally admitted4 ,on a well-regulated farm of #afj acres1 with its #d miles and more of fencing and with its wood fires in range and stove1 at least #be cords of wood are required annually1 besides material for repair of buildings1 or altogether the annual product of probably #dj to #ej acres of well-stocked forest is needed4 ,the product may represent1 according to location1 an actual stumpage value of from #a to #c per acre1 a sure crop coming every year without regard to weather1 without trouble and work1 and raised on the poorest part of the farm4 ,it is questionable whether such net results could be secured with the same steadiness from any other crop4 ,nor must it be overlooked that the work in harvesting this crop falls into a time when little else could be done4 ,wire fences and coal fires are1 no doubt1 good substitutes1 but they require ready cash1 and often the distance of haulage makes them rather expensive4 ,presently1 too1 when the virgin woods have been still further culled of their valuable stores1 the farmer who has preserved a sufficiently large and well-tended wood lot will be able to derive a comfortable money revenue from it by supplying the market with wood of various kinds and sizes4 ,the ,german ,state forests1 with their complicated administrations1 which eat up #d per cent of the gross income1 yield1 with prices of wood about the same as in our country1 an annual net revenue of from #a to #d and more per acre4 ,why should not the farmer1 who does not pay salaries to managers1 overseers1 and forest guards1 make at least as much money out of this crop when he is within reach of a market8 ,with varying conditions the methods would of course vary4 ,in a general way1 if he happens to have a virgin growth of mixed woods1 the first care would be to improve the composition of the wood lot by cutting out the less desirable kinds1 the weeds of tree growth1 and the poorly grown trees which impede the development of more deserving neighbors4 ,the wood thus cut he will use as firewood or in any other way1 and1 even if he could not use it at all1 and had to burn it up1 the operation would pay indirectly by leaving him a better crop4 ,then he may use the rest of the crop1 gradually cutting the trees as needed1 but he must take care that the openings are not made too large1 so that they can readily fill out with young growth from the seed of the remaining trees1 and he must also pay attention to the young aftergrowth1 giving it light as needed4 ,thus without ever resorting to planting he may harvest the old timber and have a now crop taking its place and perpetuate the wood lot without in any way curtailing his use of the same4 ,,farmers' ,,bulletins4 ,these bulletins are sent free of charge to any address upon application to the ,secretary of ,agriculture4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,only the following are available for distribution3 ,no4 #ae4 ,some ,destructive ,potato ,diseases3 ,what ,they ,are and ,how to ,prevent ,thorn4 ,pp4 #h4 ,no4 #af4 ,leguminous ,plants for ,green ,manuring and for ,feeding4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ah4 ,forage ,plants for the ,south4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #ai4 ,important ,insecticides3 ,directions ,for ,their ,preparation and ,use4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,no4 #ba4 ,barnyard ,manure4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #bb4 ,feeding ,farm ,animals4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #bc4 ,foods3 ,nutritive ,value and ,cost4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #bd4 ,hog ,cholera and ,swine ,plague4 ,pp4 #af4 ,no4 #be4 ,peanuts3 ,culture and ,uses4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #bf4 ,sweet ,potatoes3 ,culture and ,uses4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #bg4 ,flax for ,seed and ,fiber4 ,pp4 #af4 ,no4 #bh4 ,weeds2 and ,how to ,kill ,them4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #bi4 ,souring of ,milk1 and ,other ,changes in ,milk ,products4 ,pp4 #bh4 ,no4 #cj4 ,grape ,diseases on the ,pacific ,coast4 ,pp4 #af4 ,no4 #ca4 ,alfalfa1 or ,lucern4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #cb4 ,silos and ,silage4 ,pp4 #ca4 ,no4 #cc4 ,peach ,growing for ,market4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #cd4 ,meats3 ,composition and ,cooking4 ,pp4 #bi4 ,no4 #ce4 ,potato ,culture4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #cf4 ,cotton ,seed and ,its ,products4 ,pp4 #aj4 ,no4 #cg4 ,katir ,corn3 ,characteristics1 ,culture1 and ,uses4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,no4 #ch4 ,spraying for ,fruit ,diseases4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,no4 #ci4 ,onion ,culture4 ,pp4 #ca4 ,no4 #dj4 ,farm ,drainage4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #da4 ,fowls3 ,care and ,feeding4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #db4 ,facts ,about ,milk4 ,pp4 #bi4 ,no4 #dc4 ,sewage ,disposal on the ,farm4 ,pp4 #bb4 ,no4 #dd4 ,commercial ,fertilizers4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #de4 ,some ,insects ,injurious to ,stored ,grain4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #df4 ,irrigation in ,humid ,climates4 ,pp4 #bg4 ,no4 #dg4 ,insects ,affecting the ,cotton ,plant4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #dh4 ,the ,manuring of ,cotton4 ,pp4 #aj4 ,no4 #di4 ,sheep ,feeding4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ej4 ,sorghum as a ,forage ,crop4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ea4 ,standard ,varieties of ,chickens4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,no4 #eb4 ,the ,sugar ,beet4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,no4 #ec4 ,how to ,grow ,mushrooms4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,no4 #ed4 ,some ,common ,birds in ,their ,relation to ,agriculture4 ,pp4 #dj4 ,no4 #ee4 ,the ,dairy ,herd3 ,its ,formation and ,management4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ef4 ,experiment ,station ,work--,i4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #eg4 ,butter ,making on the ,farm4 ,pp4 #ae4 ,no4 #eh4 ,the ,soy ,bean as a ,forage ,crop4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ei4 ,bee ,keeping4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #fj4 ,methods of ,curing ,tobacco4 ,pp4 #aj4 ,no4 #fa4 ,asparagus ,culture4 ,pp4 #dj4 ,no4 #fb4 ,marketing ,farm ,produce4 ,pp4 #bh4 ,no4 #fc4 ,care of ,milk on the ,farm4 ,pp4 #dj4 ,no4 #fd4 ,ducks and ,geese4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,no4 #fe4 ,experiment ,station ,work--,,ii4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #ff4 ,meadows and ,pastures4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #fg4 ,forestry for ,farmers4 ,pp4 #dh4 ,no4 #fh4 ,the ,black ,rot of the ,cabbage4 ,pp4 #bb4 ,no4 #fi4 ,experiment ,station ,work--,,iii4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #gj4 ,the ,principal ,insect ,enemies of the ,grape4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #ga4 ,some ,essentials of ,beef ,production4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #gb4 ,cattle ,ranges of the ,southwest4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #gc4 ,experiment ,station ,work--,,iv4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #gd4 ,milk as ,food4 ,pp4 #ci4 ,no4 #ge4 ,the ,grain ,smuts4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,no4 #gf4 ,tomato ,growing4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #gg4 ,the ,liming of ,soils4 ,pp4 #ai4 ,no4 #gh4 ,experiment ,station ,work--,v4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #gi4 ,experiment ,station ,work--,,vi4 ,pp4 #bh4 ,no4 #hj4 ,the ,peach ,twig-borer--an ,important ,enemy of ,stone ,fruits4 ,pp4 #aj4 ,no4 #ha4 ,corn ,culture in the ,south4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,no4 #hb4 ,the ,culture of ,tobacco4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #hc4 ,tobacco ,soils4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #hd4 ,experiment ,station ,work--,,vii4 ,pp4 #hb4 ,no4 #he4 ,fish as ,food4 ,pp4 #cj4 ,no4 #hf4 ,thirty ,poisonous ,plants4 ,pp4 #cb4 ,no4 #hg4 ,experiment ,station ,work--,,viii4 7,in press47 ,no4 #hh4 ,alkali ,lands4 ,pp4 #bc4 ,no4 #hi4 ,cowpeas4 7,in press47 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,note ,illustrations were move so a to prevent splitting paragraphs4 ,minor typos corrected4 ,illustrations were obtained from the ,the ,internet ,archive and the ,university of ,north ,texas' ,,usda ,farmers' ,bulletins ,digital ,library4