,transcriber ,notes ,text emphasis is denoted as ,italics4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,,farmers ,,bulletin ,no4 #fcj ,,some ,,common ,,birds ,,useful to the ,,farmer ,,from a purely practical point of view the most important of the relations of native birds to man are the economic4 ,the esthetic value of birds is great--greater1 indeed1 than that of any other group of animals2 and that this is a real and especially treasured value is not to be denied4 ,but it is in their relation to insect and other enemies of crops that birds are most directly associated with the welfare of mankind1 and their value in this particular should be made as widely known as possible4 ,this bulletin is one of a series designed to assist in doing this4 ,not all birds are beneficial1 and all facts tending to show in which class each species belongs will be set forth4 ,the useful kinds far outnumber the injurious1 however1 and so great is their value as insect destroyers in the ,united ,states that to them may be given the credit of being one of the greatest controlling factors in limiting the development of insect pests and in preventing many disastrous outbreaks4 ,in the following pages are discussed the habitat1 food habits1 and relation to agriculture of more than #ej species of birds common to farming sections4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,issued ,february #ac1 #aiae2 revised ,april1 #aibf ,,some ,,common ,,birds ,,useful ,,to ,,the ,,farmer4#a ,by ,f4 ,e4 ,l4 ,beal1 ,late ,assistant ,biologist1 ,division of ,food ,habits ,research1 ,bureau of ,biological ,survey4 #a ,this bulletin is largely a revision of ,farmers' ,bulletin #ed1 by ,prof4 ,f4 ,e4 ,l4 ,beal4 ,the parts relating to the crow and blue ,jay were contributed by ,e4 ,r4 ,kalmbach1 assistant biologist1 and the discussion of the nighthawk and bobwhite by ,w4 ,l4 ,mc,atee1 in charge4 ,food ,habits ,research4 ,professor ,beal1 author of the remainder of the bulletin1 died ,october #a1 #aiaf4 ,,contents ,page4 ,page4 ,the bluebirds #b ,bullock oriole #ad ,the robins #c ,the meadowlarks #ad ,the titmice #d ,the red-winged blackbirds #ae ,the wrens #f ,bobolink #ag ,brown thrasher #g ,crow #ag ,catbird #g ,blue jay #ai ,the swallows #h ,pacific coast jays #bj ,towhee #i ,the phbes #ba ,the sparrows #i ,the kingbirds #bc ,house finch #aa ,nighthawk #bd ,the grackles #ab ,the woodpeckers #be ,brewer blackbird #ab ,the cuckoos #bg ,baltimore oriole #ac ,bobwhite #bh ,,whether a bird is beneficial or injurious depends almost entirely upon what it eats4 ,in the case of species which are very abundant1 or which feed to some extent on the crops of the farmer1 the question of their average diet becomes one of supreme importance1 and only by stomach examinations can it be satisfactorily answered4 ,field observations are at best but fragmentary and inconclusive and lead to no final results4 ,birds are often accused of eating this or that product of cultivation1 when an examination of the stomachs shows the accusation to be unfounded4 ,accordingly1 the ,biological ,survey has conducted for some years a systematic investigation of the food of those species which are most common about the farm and garden4 ,within certain limits birds eat the kind of food that is most accessible1 especially when their natural food is scarce or wanting4 ,thus they sometimes injure the crops of the farmer who has unintentionally destroyed their natural food in his improvement of swamp or pasture4 ,most of the damage done by birds and complained of by farmers and fruit growers arises from this very cause1 the berry-producing shrubs and seed-bearing weeds have been cleared away1 and the birds have no recourse but to attack the cultivated grain or fruit which has replaced their natural food supply4 ,the great majority of land birds subsist upon insects during the period of nesting and molting1 and also feed their young upon them during the first few weeks4 ,many species live almost entirely upon insects1 taking vegetable food only when other subsistence fails4 ,it is thus evident that in the course of a year birds destroy an incalculable number of insects1 and it is difficult to overestimate the value of their services in restraining the great tide of insect life4 ,in winter1 in the northern part of the country1 insects become scarce or entirely disappear4 ,many species of birds1 however1 remain during the cold season and are able to maintain life by eating vegetable food1 as the seeds of weeds4 ,here again is another useful function of birds in destroying these weed seeds and thereby lessening the growth of the next year4 ,in the following pages are discussed the food habits of more than #ej birds belonging to #ab families4 ,many are eastern forms which are represented in the ,west by slightly different species or subspecies1 but unless the food habits differ they are not separately described4 ,in some cases specific percentages of food are given1 but for the most part the statements are made without direct reference to the data on which they are based4 ,,the ,,bluebirds4 ,the eastern bluebird#b 7fig4 #a71 one of the most familiar and welcome of our feathered visitors1 is a common inhabitant of all the ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains from the ,gulf of ,mexico to southern ,canada4 ,in the ,mississippi valley it winters as far north as southern ,illinois1 and in the ,east as far as ,pennsylvania4 ,it is one of the earliest northern migrants1 and everywhere is hailed as a harbinger of spring4 ,very domestic in habits1 it frequents orchards and gardens1 and builds its nests in cavities of trees1 crannies in farm buildings1 or boxes provided for its use4 #b ,sialia sialis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,bluebird4 ,length1 about #f inches4 ,the bluebird has not been accused1 so far as known1 of stealing fruit or of preying upon crops4 ,an examination of #hee stomachs showed that #fh per cent of the food consists of insects and their allies1 while the other #cb per cent is made up of various vegetable substances1 found mostly in stomachs taken in winter4 ,beetles constitute #ba per cent of the whole food1 grasshoppers #bb1 caterpillars #aj1 and various other insects #i1 while a number of spiders and myriapods1 about #f per cent1 comprise the remainder of the animal diet4 ,all these are more or less harmful1 except a few predacious beetles1 which amount to #i per cent4 ,in view of the large consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars1 we may at least condone this offense1 if such it may be called4 ,the destruction of grasshoppers is very noticeable in ,august and ,september1 when these insects make up about #ec per cent of the diet4 ,it is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed more by abundance than by choice4 ,predacious beetles are eaten in spring1 as they are among the first insects to appear2 but in early summer caterpillars form an important part of the diet1 and these are later replaced by grasshoppers4 ,beetles are eaten at all times1 except when grasshoppers are more easily obtained4 ,so far as its vegetable food is concerned the bluebird is positively harmless4 ,the only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted of a few blackberry seeds1 and even these probably belonged to wild rather than cultivated varieties4 ,following is a list of the various seeds which were found2 ,blackberry1 chokeberry1 juniperberry1 pokeberry1 partridgeberry1 greenbrier1 ,virginia creeper1 bittersweet1 holly1 strawberry bush1 false spikenard1 wild sarsaparilla1 sumac 7several species71 rose haws1 sorrel1 ragweed1 grass1 and asparagus4 ,this list shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply its needs and how easily1 by encouraging the growth of some of these plants1 many of which are highly ornamental1 the bird may be induced to make its home on the premises4 ,two species of bluebirds inhabit the ,western ,states--the mountain bluebird#c and the western bluebird4#d ,in their food habits they are even more to be commended than their eastern relative4 ,their insect food is obtainable at all times of the year1 and the general diet varies only in the fall1 when some fruit1 principally elderberries1 is eaten1 though an occasional blackberry or grape is also relished4 ,in an examination of #bag stomachs of the western bluebird1 animal matter 7insects and spiders7 was found to the extent of #hb per cent and vegetable matter to the extent of #ah per cent4 ,the bulk of the former consists of bugs1 grasshoppers1 and caterpillars4 ,grasshoppers1 when they can be obtained1 are eaten freely during the whole season4 ,caterpillars also are a favorite food and are eaten during every month of the year2 ,march is the month of greatest consumption1 with #ej per cent1 and the average for the year is #bj per cent4 ,two stomachs taken in ,january contained #fd and #ej per cent1 respectively1 of caterpillars4 ,beetles also are eaten and comprise mostly harmful species4 #c ,sialia currucoides4 #d ,sialia mexicana subspecies4 ,the vegetable matter consists of weed seeds and small fruits4 ,in ,december a few grapes are eaten1 but elderberries are the favorites whenever they can be found4 ,it is only when these are in their greatest abundance that vegetable exceeds animal food4 ,,the ,,robins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,robin4 ,length1 about #aj inches4 ,the robin#e 7fig4 #b71 in many parts of the country one of the most cherished of our birds1 is found throughout the ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 and is represented farther west and south by slightly different subspecies4#f1 #g ,it breeds far north through ,canada1 and is found even in ,alaska4 ,although the great bulk of the species leaves the ,northern ,states in winter1 a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps1 where wild berries furnish abundant food4 ,the robin is an omnivorous feeder and its food habits have sometimes caused apprehension to the fruit grower1 for it is fond of cherries and other small fruits1 particularly the earlier varieties4 ,for this reason many complaints have been lodged against robins1 and it has been necessary to permit the killing of the birds in some fruit-growing regions4 #e ,planesticus migratorius4 #f ,planesticus migratorius propinquus4 #g ,planesticus migratorius achrusterus4 ,examinations of #a1bcf stomachs show that #db per cent of its food is animal matter1 principally insects1 while the remainder is made up largely of small fruits or berries4 ,over #af per cent consists of beetles1 about one-third of which are useful ground beetles1 taken mostly in spring and fall when other insects are scarce4 ,grasshoppers make up about #e per cent of the whole food1 but in ,august they comprise #ag per cent4 ,caterpillars form about #i per cent1 while the rest of the animal food1 about #aa per cent1 is made up of various insects1 with a few spiders1 snails1 and angleworms4 ,all the grasshoppers1 caterpillars1 and bugs1 with a large portion of the beetles1 are injurious1 and it is safe to say that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robin's food4 ,vegetable food forms #eh per cent of the stomach contents1 over #db per cent being wild fruits and only a little more than #h per cent being possibly cultivated varieties4 ,cultivated fruit amounting to about #be per cent was found in the stomachs in ,june and ,july1 but only a trifle in ,august4 ,wild fruit1 on the contrary1 is eaten every month and constitutes a staple food during half the year4 ,no less than #fe species of fruit were identified in the stomachs2 of these1 the most important were #d species of dogwood1 #c of wild cherries1 #c of wild grapes1 #d of greenbrier1 #b of holly1 #b of elder2 and cranberries1 huckleberries1 blueberries1 barberries1 service berries1 hackberries1 and persimmons2 together with #d species of sumac and various other seeds not strictly fruit4 ,the depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and earlier fruits1 few1 if any1 complaints being made that it eats apples1 peaches1 pears1 grapes1 or even late cherries4 ,by the time these are ripe the forests and hedges are teeming with wild fruits which the bird evidently finds more to its taste4 ,the cherry1 unfortunately for man1 ripens so early that it is almost the only fruit accessible at a time when the bird's appetite has been sharpened by a long-continued diet of insects1 earthworms1 and dried berries1 and it is no wonder that at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten4 ,while the robin takes some cultivated fruits1 it must be remembered that1 being a natural enemy of the insect world1 it has been working during the whole season to make that crop a possibility1 and when the fruit ripens the robin already has a standing account with the farmer for services rendered1 with the credits up to this time entirely on his side4 ,much has been written about the delicate discrimination of birds for choice fruit and their selection of only the finest and costliest varieties4 ,this is contrary to observed facts4 ,birds1 unlike human beings1 seem to prefer fruit that1 like the mulberry1 is sweetly insipid1 or that1 like the chokecherry or holly1 has some astringent or bitter quality4 ,the so-called black alder1 a species of holly1 has bright scarlet berries tasting as bitter as quinine1 that ripen late in ,october and remain on the bushes through ,november4 ,though frost grapes1 the fruit of the ,virginia creeper1 and several species of dogwood are abundant at the same time1 the birds have been found to eat the berries of the holly to a considerable extent4 ,it is1 moreover1 a remarkable fact that the wild fruits upon which birds largely feed are those which man neither gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation4 ,where wild fruit is not abundant1 a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the birds4 ,the ,russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse bearer1 ripening at the same time as the cherry4 ,so far as observation has gone1 most birds seem to prefer its fruit to any other4 ,it is believed that a number of mulberry trees planted around the garden or orchard would fully protect the more valuable fruits4 ,,the ,,titmice4 ,birds of the titmouse family1 though insignificant in size1 are far from being so in the matter of food habits4 ,what they lack in size of body they more than make up in numbers of individuals4 ,while in the case of some larger birds1 as1 for instance1 the flicker1 there is one pair of eyes to look for food for one large stomach1 we have in the case of the ten times as numerous titmice an equivalent stomach capacity divided into #aj parts1 each furnished with a pair of eyes and other accessories1 as wings and feet4 ,as against the one place occupied by the larger bird1 #aj are being searched for food at the same time by the smaller species4 ,the character of the food of titmice gives a peculiar value to their services1 for it consists largely of the small insects and their eggs that wholly escape the search of larger birds4 ,throughout the year most of the species of this group remain on their range1 so that they are constantly engaged in their beneficial work1 continuing it in winter when the majority of their coworkers have sought a milder clime4 ,it is at this season that the titmice do their greatest good1 for when flying and crawling insects are no more to be found1 the birds must feed upon such species as they find hibernating in crevices1 or upon the eggs of insects laid in similar places4 ,in winter's dearth of moving insects the search for such animal food as may be found is perforce thorough and unremitting4 ,within the boundaries of the ,united ,states are some #ag species of titmice1 with nearly as many races or subspecies1 so that there is no portion of the country lacking one or more forms4 ,the western coast region is peculiarly rich ,in representatives of the family4 ,in the eastern portion of the country the best-known and most widely distributed species is the common black-capped chickadee#h 7fig4 #c74 ,this bird1 or some of its subspecies1 occupies the whole of that part of the ,united ,states north of the latitude of ,washington and extends into ,canada4 ,it is a prolific breeder1 usually rearing from six to eight young in a brood4 #h ,penthestes atricapillus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,black-capped chickadee4 ,length1 about #e inches4 ,examination of #bhi stomachs of this chickadee shows that its food consists of #fh per cent animal matter 7insects7 and #cb per cent vegetable matter4 ,the former is made up of small caterpillars and moths and their eggs4 ,prominent among the latter are the eggs of the tent caterpillar moths1 both the orchard and forest species4 ,as these are two of our most destructive insects1 the good done by the chickadee in devouring their eggs needs no comment4 ,during the winter the chickadee's food is made up of larv1 chrysalids1 and eggs of moths1 varied by a few seeds1 but as spring brings out hordes of flying1 crawling1 and jumping insects1 the bird varies its diet by taking also some of these4 ,flies and bugs are the favorites until the weather becomes quite warm1 when beetles and small wasps also are enjoyed4 ,among the bugs may be mentioned the plant lice and their eggs which are eaten in winter4 ,the beetles nearly all belong to the group of snout beetles1 more commonly known as weevils4 ,these insects are mostly of small size1 and nearly all are known to the farmer or fruit raiser as pests4 ,seventeen of them were found in one stomach4 ,grasshoppers do not at any time constitute an important element of the food of the chickadee1 as they are too large for so small a bird2 moreover1 they are for the most part terrestrial ,insects1 while the bird is essentially arboreal4 ,small wasps and ants are eaten to some extent ,spiders constitute an ,important element of the food and are eaten at all times of the year1 the birds locating them when they are hibernating in winter1 as well as when they are active in summer4 ,the vegetable food of the chickadee consists largely of small seeds1 except in summer1 when they are replaced by pulp of wild fruit4 ,the wax from the seeds of poison ivy ,is eaten during the winter months1 but the seeds themselves are not taken4 ,in this respect the chickadee differs from most other birds1 which swallow the seeds whole2 these1 after digesting the wax1 pass the seeds through the alimentary canal1 or regurgitate them1 and so scatter them broadcast to reproduce the noxious plants4 ,in the southern part of the country the ,carolina chickadee#i and the tufted tit#aj replace the black-cap1 but their food habits are so similar that there is practically no difference in the work done4 ,in the ,west several other species occur2 one of the most interesting is the bush tit#aa which1 with several subspecies1 occupies the whole ,pacific coast region4 ,they are active1 social little creatures1 and except for a short time during the breeding season are found in flocks1 flitting from tree to tree1 busily hunting for ,insects and their eggs4 ,the contents of #ff stomachs of these birds were found to consist mostly of injurious insects to the extent of #hc per cent4 ,of these the most important was a small hemipterous insect which amounted to more than half of the stomach contents4 ,these insects are of considerable economic importance1 as they frequently infest grapevines and other plants to a harmful extent ,several stomachs were almost exclusively filled with these minute creatures1 some containing as many as #ajj individuals4 #i ,penthestes carolinensis4 #aj ,bolophus bicolor4 #aa ,psaltriparus minimus4 ,perhaps the most important and interesting insect found was the black olive scale1 which occurred in #bd stomachs and amounted to a little more than #ah per cent of the food4 ,in addition1 a number of the stomachs were more or less filled with another scale1 which was not further identified4 ,a number of small snout beetles 7weevils7 were eaten and some small caterpillars2 there were also the remains of a spider4 ,the vegetable food of the species seemed to consist mostly of seeds1 but they were so broken up as to defy recognition4 ,a little fruit pulp and a little mast were also found4 ,among the stomachs of the bush tits examined were those of one brood of eight nestlings about #aj days old4 ,the vegetable matter in these stomachs was only three-fourths of #a per cent and consisted of one seed and some rubbish4 ,the animal matter was made up of beetles1 wasps1 bugs1 caterpillars and pup1 and spiders4 ,the greatest interest lies in the fact that every one of these stomachs contained pup of the codling moth1 on an average of over five to each4 ,the oak tree in which these birds were found was in a belt of timber near a neglected orchard which the parent birds used as a foraging ground1 and they did their best to remedy the neglect of the owner4 ,as feeding and digestion in the case of nestling birds is almost continuous during the hours of daylight1 the above record would be several times repeated during a day's feeding4 ,there were probably not less than a dozen nests of the bush tit along the border of this orchard1 and these birds must have exerted a great restrictive influence upon the increase of the codling moth1 as well as of other insects in that vicinity4 ,,the ,,wrens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,house wren4 ,length1 about #d inches4 ,the diminutive house wren#ab 7fig4 #d7 frequents barns and gardens1 and particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed4 ,he makes his nest in a hollow where perhaps a woodpecker had a domicile the year before1 but he is a pugnacious character1 and if he happens to fancy one of the boxes put up for bluebirds1 he does not hesitate to take it ,he is usually not slow to avail himself of boxes1 gourds1 tin cans1 or empty jars placed for his accommodation4 #ab ,troglodytes adon4 ,in food habits the house wren is entirely beneficial4 ,he may be said to live upon animal food alone1 for an examination of #hh stomachs showed that #ih per cent of the contents was made up of insects or their allies1 and only #b per cent was vegetable food1 including bits of grass and similar matter1 evidently taken by accident with the insects4 ,half of this food consisted of grasshoppers and beetles2 the remainder of caterpillars1 bugs1 and spiders4 ,as the wren is a prolific breeder1 frequently rearing in a season from #ab to #af young1 a family of these birds must cause considerable reduction in the number of insects in a garden4 ,wrens are industrious foragers1 searching every tree1 shrub1 and vine for caterpillars1 and examining every post and rail of the fence and every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders4 ,the house wren is only one of a numerous group of small birds of similar habits4 ,there are within the limits of the ,united ,states #bh species and subspecies of wrens1 occupying more or less completely the whole country from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,with the exception of the marsh wrens1#ac they all appear to prefer some cosy nook for a nesting site1 and1 as it happens1 the farm buildings afford just the place desired4 ,this has led several of the wrens to seek out the habitations of man1 and he is benefited by their destruction of noxious insects4 ,wrens have rarely been accused of harm1 and their presence should be encouraged except when undue interference with the nests of other birds is noted4 #ac ,telmatodytes palustris and ,cistotherus stellaris4 ,,brown ,,thrasher4 ,the brown thrasher#ad 7fig4 #e7 breeds throughout the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 and winters in the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states4 ,it visits the garden or orchard1 its nest1 however1 being in dense shrubbery or groves4 ,the thrasher's favorite time for singing is in early morning1 when1 perched on the top of a bush or tree1 it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which would do credit to the mockingbird4 ,indeed1 in the ,south1 where the latter bird is abundant1 the thrasher is known as the sandy mocker4 #ad ,toxostoma rufum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,brown thrasher4 ,length1 about #aa inches4 ,the food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects4 ,an examination of #fcf stomachs showed #ei per cent of vegetable and #da per cent of animal food1 practically all insects1 and mostly taken in spring before fruit was ripe4 ,half the insects were beetles and the remainder chiefly grasshoppers1 caterpillars1 bugs1 and spiders4 ,a few predacious beetles were eaten1 but on the whole the work of the species as an insect destroyer may be considered beneficial4 ,eight per cent of its food is made up of fruits like raspberries and currants which are or may be cultivated1 but the raspberries at least are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties4 ,grain1 made up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn1 is merely a trifle1 amounting to only #c per cent4 ,though some of the corn may be taken from newly planted fields1 it is amply paid for by the destruction of ,may beetles which are eaten at the same time4 ,the rest of the food consists of wild fruit or seeds4 ,taken all in all1 the brown thrasher is a useful bird1 and probably does as good work in its secluded retreats as it would about the garden1 for the swamps and groves are no doubt the breeding grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack the crops of the farmer4 ,,catbird4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,catbird4 ,length1 about #i inches4 ,the catbird#ae 7fig4 #f71 like the thrasher1 is a lover of thickets and delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines1 greenbriers1 and shrubs1 where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food in abundance4 ,it is found throughout the ,united ,states west to the ,rocky ,mountains1 and extends also from ,washington1 ,idaho1 and ,utah northward into the ,provinces of ,canada4 ,it winters in the ,southern ,states1 ,cuba1 ,mexico1 and ,central ,america4 #ae ,dumetella carolinensis4 ,reports from the ,mississippi ,valley indicate that the catbird is sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers4 ,the reason for such reports may possibly be found in the fact that on the prairies fruit-bearing shrubs1 which afford so large a part of this bird's food1 are conspicuously absent ,with the settlement of this region comes an extensive planting of orchards1 vineyards1 and small-fruit gardens1 which furnish shelter and nesting sites for the catbird as well as for other species4 ,there is in consequence a large increase in the numbers of the birds1 but no corresponding gain in the supply of native fruits upon which they were accustomed to feed4 ,under these circumstances what is more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruit for their food4 ,the remedy is obvious3 ,cultivated fruits can be protected by the simple expedient of planting the wild species which are preferred by the birds4 ,some experiments with catbirds in captivity show that the ,russian mulberry is preferred to any cultivated fruit4 ,the stomachs of #fde catbirds were examined and found to contain #dd per cent of animal 7insect7 and #ef per cent of vegetable food4 ,ants1 beetles1 caterpillars1 and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the animal food1 the remainder being made up of bugs1 miscellaneous insects1 and spiders4 ,one-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated fruits1 or those which may be cultivated1 as strawberries1 raspberries1 and blackberries2 but while we debit the bird with the whole of this1 it is probable--and in the eastern and well-wooded part of the country almost certain--that a large part is obtained from wild vines4 ,the rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit1 as cherries1 dogwood1 sour gum1 elderberries1 greenbrier1 spiceberries1 black alder1 sumac1 and poison ivy4 ,although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying small fruit1 it can not on the whole be considered injurious4 ,on the contrary1 in most parts of the country it does far more good than harm4 ,,the ,,swallows4 ,seven common species of swallows are found within the limits of the ,united ,states1 four of which have abandoned to some extent their primitive nesting habits and have attached themselves to the abodes of man4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,barn swallow4 ,length1 about #g inches4 ,in the eastern part of the country the barn swallow#af 7fig4 #g7 now builds exclusively under roofs1 having entirely abandoned the rock caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested4 ,more recently the cliff swallow#ag has found a better nesting site under the eaves of buildings than was afforded by the overhanging cliffs of earth or stone which it once used and to which it still resorts occasionally in the ,east and habitually in the unsettled ,west4 ,the martin#ah and the white-bellied1 or tree1 swallow#ai nest either in houses supplied for the purpose1 in abandoned nests of woodpeckers1 or in natural crannies in rocks4 ,the northern violet-green swallow1#bj the rough-winged swallow1#ba and the bank swallow#bb still live in practically such places as their ancestors chose4 #af ,hirundo erythrogastra4 #ag ,petrochelidon lunifrons4 #ah ,progne subis4 #ai ,iridoprocne bicolor4 #bj ,tachycineta thalassina4 #ba ,stelgidopteryx serripennis4 #bb ,riparia riparia4 ,field observation convinces an ordinarily attentive person that the food of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in mid-air or picked from the tops of tall grass or weeds4 ,this observation is borne out by an examination of stomachs1 which shows that the food is made up of many small species of beetles which are much on the wing2 many species of flies1 together with large quantities of flying ants2 and a few insects of similar kinds4 ,most of these are either injurious or annoying1 and the numbers destroyed by swallows are not only beyond calculation but almost beyond imagination4 ,unlike many other groups of birds1 the six species of swallows found in the ,eastern ,states extend in a practically unchanged form across the continent1 where they are reinforced by the northern1 or ,pacific-coast1 violet-green swallow4 ,it is a mistake to tear down from the eaves of a barn the nests of a colony of cliff swallows1 for so far from disfiguring a building they make a picturesque addition to it1 and the presence of swallows should be encouraged by every device4 ,it is said that cliff and barn swallows may be induced to build their nests in a particular locality1 otherwise suitable1 by providing a quantity of mud to be used by them as mortar4 ,barn swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable of the barn1 while martins and white-bellied swallows will be grateful for boxes like those for the bluebird1 but placed in a higher situation4 ,,towhee4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,towhee4 ,length1 about #h inches4 ,the towhee1 chewink1 or ground robin#bc 7fig4 #h71 as it is variously known1 inhabits nearly the whole of the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains4 ,it breeds from the ,middle ,states northward and winters in the southern half of the country4 ,naturally associated with the catbird and brown thrasher1 it lives in much the same places1 though it is more given to haunting hedgerows along roads and fences4 ,after snow has disappeared in early spring an investigation of the rustling so often heard among the leaves near a fence or in a thicket will frequently disclose a towhee hard at work scratching for his dinner after the manner of a hen2 and in these places and along the sunny border of woods old leaves will be found overturned where the bird has been searching for hibernating beetles and larv4 ,the good which the towhee does in this way can hardly be overestimated1 since the death of a single insect at this time1 before it has had an opportunity to deposit its eggs1 is equivalent to the destruction of a host later in the year4 ,the towhee has also been credited with visiting potato fields and feeding upon the potato beetle4 ,its vegetable food consists of seeds and small wild fruits1 but no complaint on this score is known to have been made4 ,so for as observation goes1 the bird never touches either cultivated fruit or grain2 in fact1 it is too shy and retiring even to stay about gardens for any length of time4 #bc ,pipilo erythrophthalmus4 ,,the ,,sparrows4#bd #bd ,the sparrows here mentioned are all native species4 ,a full account of the ,english1 or house1 sparrow 7,passer domesticus71 including its introduction1 habits1 and depredations1 was published ,in ,bull4 ,no4 #a of the ,division of ,ornithology in #ahhi4 ,for information in regard to combating the ,english sparrow1 see ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture ,leaflet #fa1 ,english ,sparrow ,control4 ,sparrows are not obtrusive birds1 either in plumage1 song1 or action4 ,there are some #dj species1 with nearly as many subspecies1 in ,north ,america4 ,not more than half a dozen forms are generally known in any one locality4 ,all the species are more or less migratory1 but so widely are they distributed that there is probably no part of the country where some can not be found throughout the year4 ,while sparrows are noted seed eaters1 they do not by any means confine themselves to a vegetable diet4 ,during the summer1 and especially in the breeding season1 they eat many insects and feed their young largely upon the same food4 ,examination of stomachs of three species--the song sparrow#be 7fig4 #i71 chipping sparrow1#bf and field sparrow#bg 7fig4 #aj7--shows that about one-third of the food consists of insects1 comprising many injurious beetles1 as snout beetles or weevils1 and leaf beetles4 ,many grasshoppers are eaten4 ,in the case of the chipping sparrow these insects form one-eighth of the food4 ,grasshoppers would seem to be rather large morsels1 but the bird probably confines itself to the smaller species2 indeed1 the greatest amount 7over #cf per cent7 is eaten in ,june1 when the larger species are still young and the smaller most numerous4 ,besides the insects already mentioned1 many wasps and bugs are taken4 ,predacious and parasitic hymenopterous insects and predacious beetles1 all useful1 are eaten only to a slight extent1 so that as a whole the insect diet of the native sparrows may be considered beneficial4 ,there are several records of potato-bug larv eaten by chipping sparrows4 #be ,melospiza melodia4 #bf ,spizella passerina4 #bg ,spizella pusilla4 ,their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds4 ,this might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon grain1 but the stomachs examined show only one kind1 oats1 and but little of that4 ,the great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed seeds1 which form almost the entire diet during winter1 and the amount consumed is immense4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--,song sparrow4 ,length1 about #f inches4 ,in the agricultural region of the upper ,mississippi ,valley1 by roadsides1 on borders of cultivated fields1 or in abandoned fields1 wherever they can obtain a foothold1 masses of rank weeds spring up and often form almost impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter for immense numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold and the most terrible blizzards4 ,a person visiting one of these weed patches on a sunny morning in ,january1 when the thermometer is #bj or more below zero1 will be struck with the life and animation of the busy little inhabitants4 ,instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen1 they may be seen flitting from branch to branch1 twittering and fluttering1 and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort4 ,if one of them is captured it will be found in excellent condition2 in fact1 a veritable ball of fat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--;,field sparrow4 ,length1 about #e inches4 ,the snowbird#bh and tree sparrow#bi are perhaps the most numerous of all the sparrows4 ,examination of many stomachs shows that in winter the tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds4 ,probably each bird consumes about one-fourth of an ounce a day4 ,in an article contributed in #ahha to the ,new ,york ,tribune the writer estimated the amount of weed seed annually destroyed by these birds in ,iowa4 ,on the basis of one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird1 and an average of #aj birds to each square mile1 remaining in their winter range #bjj days1 there would be a total of #a1gej1jjj pounds1 or #hge tons of weed seed consumed in a single season by this one species4 ,large as are these figures1 they unquestionably fall far short of the reality4 ,the estimate of #aj birds to a square mile is very conservative1 for in ,massachusetts1 where the food supply is less than in the ,western ,states1 the tree sparrow is even more abundant than this in winter4 ,the writer has known places in ,iowa where several thousand tree sparrows could be seen within the space of a few acres4 ,this estimate1 moreover1 is for a single species1 while1 as a matter of fact1 there are at least half a dozen birds 7not all sparrows7 that habitually feed during winter on these seeds4 ,farther south the tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-throated sparrow1#cj the white-crowned sparrow1#ca the fox sparrow1#cb the song sparrow1 the field sparrow1 and several others2 so that all over the land a vast number of these seed eaters are at work during the colder months reducing next year's crop of worse than useless plants4 #bh ,junco hyemalis4 #bi ,spizella monticola4 #cj ,zonotrichia albicollis4 #ca ,zonotrichia leucophrys4 #cb ,passerella iliaca4 ,,house ,,finch ,of all the sparrow groups1 there is probably no member1 unless it be the exotic form known as the ,english sparrow1#cc that has by reason of ,its food habits called down so many maledictions upon ,its head as the house finch1#cd red head1 or linnet1 as it is variously called4 ,this bird1 like the other members of its family1 is by nature a seed eater1 and before the beginning of fruit raising in ,california probably subsisted upon the seeds of weeds1 with an occasional taste of some wild berry4 ,now1 however1 when orchards have extended throughout the length and breadth of the ,state and every month from ,may to ,december sees some ripening fruit1 the linnets take their share4 ,as their number ,is legion1 the sum total of the fruit that they destroy is more than the fruit raiser can well spare4 ,as the bird has a stout beak1 it has no difficulty in breaking the skin of the hardest fruit and feasting upon the pulp1 thereby spoiling the fruit and giving weaker-billed birds a chance to sample and acquire a taste for what they might not otherwise have molested4 ,complaints against this bird have been many and loud1 more especially in the years when fruit crops first came to be an important factor in the prosperity of the ,pacific coast4 ,at that time the various fruits afforded the linnets a new and easily obtained food1 while cultivation had reduced their formerly abundant supply of weed seed4 ,when the early fruit growers saw their expected golden harvest suddenly snatched away or at least much reduced in value by the little marauders1 it is no wonder that they were exasperated and wished to destroy the authors of the mischief4 #cc ,passer domesticus4 #cd ,carpodacus mexicanus frontalis4 ,in order to test the matter thoroughly and ascertain whether these birds ate any other kind of food that might to some extent offset the damage inflicted upon the fruit1 the horticulturists and ornithologists of ,california were requested to secure a number of the stomachs of these birds and send them to the ,biological ,survey4 ,an agent was also sent to the fruit-raising sections1 who watched the birds in the orchards and collected a number of them4 ,in this way #a1bjf stomachs were obtained and carefully examined1 and the result shows that animal food 7insects7 constituted #b4dd per cent and vegetable food #ig4ef per cent of the stomach contents1 not counting gravel4 ,so small a proportion of animal food can not1 of course1 mean a great destruction of insects4 ,as these stomachs were collected in every month1 with the greater number taken during the summer1 it is evident that whatever good one may expect from the linnet must not be looked for in this direction4 ,unlike most of the sparrow family1 the linnet does not feed its young upon ,insects to any great extent4 ,the contents of the stomachs of a number of nestlings were carefully examined1 and the only animal food was found to consist of wooly plant lice4 ,these also constituted the great bulk of the animal food eaten by adults4 ,the vegetable food of the species consists of three principal items--grain1 fruit1 and weed seeds4 ,grain amounts to less than #a per cent in ,august1 which is the month of greatest consumption1 and the average for the year is a trifle more than one-fourth of #a per cent4 ,fruit attains its maximum in ,september1 when it amounts to #bg per cent of the whole food1 but the average for the year is only #aj per cent4 ,the seeds of weeds constitute the bulk of the diet of the linnet1 and in ,august1 the month of least consumption1 amount to about #fd per cent of the food4 ,the average for the year is #hf per cent4 ,from the foregoing it is evident that whatever the linnet's sins may be1 grain eating is not one of them4 ,in view of the great complaint made against its fruit-eating habits1 the small quantity found in the stomachs taken is somewhat of a surprise4 ,but it must be remembered that the stomach contents do not tell the whole story4 ,when a bird takes a single peck from a cherry or an apricot1 it spoils the whole fruit1 and in this way may ruin half a dozen in taking a single meal4 ,it is safe to say that the fruit pulp found ,in the stomach does not represent more than one-fifth of what is actually destroyed4 ,that the linnets are persistent and voracious eaters of early fruits1 especially cherries and apricots1 every fruit raiser hi ,california will bear testimony4 ,that the damage is often serious no one will deny4 ,it is noticeable1 however1 that the earliest varieties are the ones most affected2 also1 that in large orchards the damage is not perceptible1 while in small plantations the whole crop is frequently destroyed4 ,,the ,,grackles4 ,the crow blackbird or grackle#ce 7fig4 #aa7 in one or more of its subspecies is a familiar object in all the ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,throughout the year it is resident as far north as southern ,illinois1 and in summer extends its range into the ,canadian ,provinces4 ,in the ,mississippi ,valley it is one of the most abundant of birds1 preferring to nest in the artificial groves and windbreaks near farms instead of in the natural timber which it formerly used4 ,it breeds also in parks and near buildings1 often in considerable colonies4 ,farther east1 in ,new ,england1 it is only locally abundant1 though frequently seen in migration4 ,in the latter days of ,august and throughout ,september it is found in immense numbers before moving southward4 #ce ,quiscalus quiscula4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,purple grackle4 ,length1 about #ab inches4 ,the grackle is accused of many sins1 such as stealing grain and fruit and robbing the nests of other birds4 ,an examination of #b1cdf stomachs shows that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects1 most of which are injurious4 ,the bird also eats a few snails1 crawfishes1 salamanders1 small fish1 and occasionally a mouse4 ,the stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other birds' nests to any great extent1 as remains of birds and birds' eggs amount to less than half of #a per cent4 ,it is on account of its vegetable food that the grackle most deserves condemnation4 ,grain is eaten during the whole year1 and only for a short time in summer is other food attractive enough to induce the bird to alter its diet4 ,the grain taken in winter and spring probably consists of waste kernels from stubble4 ,the stomachs do not indicate that the bird pulls sprouting grain2 but the wheat eaten in ,july and ,august and the corn eaten in the fall are probably from fields of standing grain4 ,the total amount of grain consumed during the year constitutes #de per cent of the food1 but it is safe to say that at least half is waste grain and consequently of no value4 ,although the crow blackbird eats a few cherries and blackberries in their season1 and in the fall some wild fruit1 it apparently does no damage in this way4 ,large flocks of grackles no doubt do considerable injury to grain crops1 and there seems to be no remedy1 except the destruction of the birds1 which is in itself expensive4 ,during the breeding season1 however1 the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding them to its young1 which are reared almost entirely upon this food4 ,the bird does the greatest amount of good in spring1 when it follows the plow in search of large grubworms1 of which it is so fond that it sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them4 ,,brewer ,,blackbird4 ,the ,brewer blackbird#cf takes the place in the ,western ,states of the grackle1 or crow blackbird1 which lives in the ,mississippi ,valley and farther east and is very similar in appearance and habits4 ,it breeds east to the ,great ,plains and north into ,canada1 and winters over most of its breeding range in the ,united ,states and south to ,guatemala4 ,at home in fields1 meadows1 and orchards1 and about ranch buildings and cultivated lands generally1 it nests in bushes and weeds1 sometimes in trees1 and is very gregarious1 especially about barnyards and corrals4 ,the bird feeds freely in stockyards and in cultivated fields1 and when fruit is ripe does not hesitate to take a share ,during the cherry season in ,california the birds are much in the orchards4 ,in one case they were observed feeding on cherries1 but when a neighboring fruit grower began to plow his orchard almost every blackbird in the vicinity was upon the newly opened ground close after the plowman's heels in its eagerness to secure the insects turned up4 #cf ,euphagus cyanocephalus4 ,the laboratory investigation of this bird's food covered #cab stomachs1 collected in every month and representing especially the fruit and grain sections of southern ,california4 ,the animal portion of the food was #cb per cent and the vegetable #fh per cent4 ,caterpillars and their pup amounted to #ab per cent of the whole food and were eaten every month4 ,they include many of those pests known as cutworms4 ,the cotton-boll worm1 or corn-ear worm1 was identified in at least #aj stomachs1 and in #aa were found pup of the codling moth4 ,the animal food also included other insects1 and spiders1 sow bugs1 snails1 and eggshells4 ,the vegetable food may be divided into fruit1 grain1 and weed seeds4 ,fruit was eaten in ,may1 ,june1 and ,july1 not a trace appearing in any other month1 and was composed of cherries1 or what was thought to be such1 strawberries1 blackberries or raspberries1 and fruit pulp or skins not further identified4 ,however1 the amount1 a little more than #d per cent for the year1 was too small to make a bad showing1 and if the bird does no greater harm than is involved in its fruit eating it is well worth protecting4 ,grain amounts to #ed per cent of the yearly food and forms a considerable percentage in each month2 oats are the favorite and were the sole contents of #ad stomachs1 and wheat of #b1 but no stomach was completely filled with any other grain4 ,weed seeds1 eaten in every month to the extent of #i per cent of the food1 were found in rather small quantities and irregularly1 and appear to have been merely a makeshift4 ,stomachs of nestlings1 varying in age from #bd hours to some that were nearly fledged1 were found to contain #hi per cent animal to #aa per cent vegetable matter4 ,the largest items in the former were caterpillars1 grasshoppers1 and spiders4 ,in the latter the largest items were fruit1 probably cherries2 grain1 mostly oats2 and rubbish4 ,,baltimore ,,oriole4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,baltimore oriole4 ,length1 about #g ,inches4 ,brilliancy of plumage1 sweetness of song1 and food habits to which no exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of the ,baltimore oriole#cg 7fig4 #ab74 ,in summer it is found throughout the northern half of the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains4 ,its nest commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its plumage or the excellence of its song4 ,hanging from the tip of the outermost bough of a stately elm1 it is almost inaccessible to depredators and so strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the elements4 #cg ,icterus galbula4 ,observation both in the field and laboratory shows that caterpillars constitute the largest item of the fare of the oriole4 ,in #bjd stomachs they formed #cd per cent of the food1 and they are eaten in varying quantities during all the months in which the bird remains in this country4 ,the fewest are eaten in ,july1 when a little fruit also is taken4 ,the other insects consist of beetles1 bugs1 ants1 wasps1 grasshoppers1 and some spiders4 ,the beetles are principally click beetles1 the larv of which are among the most destructive insects known2 and the bugs include plant and bark lice1 both very harmful1 but so small and obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds4 ,ants are eaten mostly in spring1 grasshoppers in ,july and ,august1 and wasps and spiders with considerable regularity throughout the season4 ,during the stay of the oriole in the ,united ,states1 vegetable matter amounts to only a little more than #af per cent of its food1 so that the possibility of its doing much damage to crops is very limited4 ,the bird is accused of eating peas to a considerable extent1 but remains of such were found in only two cases4 ,one writer says that it damages grapes1 but none were found in the stomachs4 ,,bullock ,,oriole4 ,the ,bullock oriole#ch is practically a counterpart of the ,baltimore oriole1 taking the place of that species west of the ,plains and throughout the ,pacific coast region4 ,it does not essentially differ in its habits of nesting or in its food from its eastern relative1 but it is less beautiful in plumage4 ,the examination of #afb stomachs shows that #gi per cent of its food consists of insects1 with a few spiders1 a lizard1 a mollusk shell1 and eggshells4 ,beetles amounted to #ce per cent1 and all except a few ladybugs were harmful species4 ,ants were found in #ai stomachs1 and in one there was nothing else4 ,bees1 wasps1 etc41 were in #ef stomachs1 and entirely filled #b of them4 ,including the ants1 they amount to nearly #ae per cent of the food of the season4 #ch ,icterus bullocki4 ,one of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole's dietary was the black olive scale1 found in #de stomachs1 and amounting to #e per cent of the food4 ,in several cases these scales formed #hj per cent or more of the contents1 and in one1 #cj individual scales could be counted4 ,they were evidently a standard article of diet1 and were eaten regularly in every month of the oriole's stay except ,april4 ,hemipterous insects other than scales1 eaten quite regularly1 make up a little more than #e per cent of the food4 ,they were mostly stinkbugs1 leaf hoppers1 and tree hoppers4 ,plant lice were found in one stomach4 ,moths1 pup1 and caterpillars compose the largest item of the oriole's animal food2 the average consumption during its summer stay ,is a little more than #da per cent4 ,of these1 perhaps the most interesting were the pup and larv of the codling moth4 ,these were found in #bc stomachs1 showing that they are not an unusual article of diet4 ,no less than #ad of the pupal cases were found in one stomach1 and as they are very fragile many others may have been present1 but broken beyond recognition4 ,grasshoppers probably do not come much in the oriole's way4 ,they were eaten1 however2 to the extent of a little more than #c per cent4 ,but in spite of the fact that grasshoppers are eaten so sparingly1 #b stomachs1 both taken in ,june1 contained nothing else1 and another contained #ig per cent of them4 ,various insects and spiders1 with a few other items1 make up the rest of the animal food1 a little more than #e per cent4 ,spiders are not important in the oriole's food1 but are probably eaten whenever found4 ,they were identified in #dd stomachs1 but in small numbers4 ,the scales of a lizard were found in one stomach and the shell of a snail in another4 ,the vegetable contingent of the oriole's food is mostly fruit1 especially in ,june and ,july1 when it takes kindly to cherries and apricots1 and sometimes eats more than the fruit grower considers a fair share4 ,however1 no great complaint is made against the bird1 and it is probable that as a rule it does not do serious harm4 ,with such a good record as an insect eater it can well be spared a few cherries4 ,,the ,,meadowlarks4 ,the eastern meadowlark#ci 7fig4 #ac7 is a common and well-known bird occurring from the ,atlantic coast to the ,great ,plains1 where it gives way to the closely related western species1#dj which extends thence westward to the ,pacific4 ,it winters from our southern border as far north as the ,district of ,columbia1 southern ,illinois1 and occasionally ,iowa4 ,the western1 form winters somewhat farther north4 ,although it is a bird of the plains1 and finds its most congenial haunts in the prairies of the ,west1 it is at home wherever there is level or undulating land covered with grass or weeds1 with plenty of water at hand4 #ci ,sturnella magna4 #dj ,sturnella neglecta4 ,in the #a1ead stomachs examined1 animal food 7practically all insects7 constituted #gd per cent of the contents and vegetable matter #bf per cent4 ,as would naturally be supposed1 the insects were ground species1 as beetles1 bugs1 grasshoppers1 and caterpillars1 with a few flies1 wasps1 and spiders4 ,a number of the stomachs were collected when the ground was covered with snow1 but even these contained a large percentage of insects1 showing the bird's skill in finding proper food under adverse circumstances4 ,of the various insects eaten1 crickets and grasshoppers are the most important1 constituting #bf per cent of the food of the year and #gb per cent of the food in ,august4 ,it is scarcely necessary to mention the beneficial effect of a number of these birds on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper season4 ,of the #a1ead stomachs collected at all seasons of the year1 #ggh1 or more than half1 contained remains of grasshoppers1 and one was filled with fragments of #cg of these insects4 ,this seems to show conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred1 and are eaten whenever they can be found4 ,especially notable is the great number taken in ,august1 the month when grasshoppers reach their maximum abundance2 stomach examination shows that large numbers of birds resort at this time to this diet1 no matter what may be the food during the rest of the year4 ,next to grasshoppers1 beetles make up the most important item of the meadowlark's food1 amounting to #be per cent1 about one-half of which are predacious ground beetles4 ,the others are all harmful species4 ,forty-two individuals of different kinds of ,may beetles were found in the stomachs of meadowlarks1 and there were probably many more which were past recognition4 ,to this form and several closely allied ones belong the numerous white grubs1 which are among the worst enemies to many cultivated crops1 notably grasses and grains1 and to a less extent strawberries and garden vegetables4 ,in the larval stage they eat the roots of these plants1 and being large1 one individual may destroy several plants4 ,in the adult stage they feed upon the foliage of trees and other plants1 and in this way add to the damage which they began in the earlier form4 ,as these enemies of husbandry are not easily destroyed by man1 it is obviously wise to encourage their natural foes4 ,among the weevils found in the stomachs the most important economically are the cotton-boll weevil and the recently introduced alfalfa weevil of ,utah4 ,several hundred meadowlarks were taken in the cotton-growing region1 and the boll weevil was found in #be stomachs of the eastern meadowlark and in #af of the western species4 ,of the former1 one stomach contained #bg individuals4 ,of #be stomachs of western meadowlarks taken in alfalfa fields of ,utah1 #ae contained the alfalfa weevil4 ,in one stomach #bc adults were found1 in another #cb adults and #gj larv1 still another had #aj adults and #dj larv1 and a fourth had #d adults and #ajj larv4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,meadowlark4 ,length1 about #aj inches4 ,caterpillars form a very constant element of the food1 and in ,may constitute over #bd per cent of the whole4 ,may is the month when the dreaded cutworm begins ,its deadly career1 and then the lark does some of its best work4 ,most of these caterpillars are ground feeders1 and are overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees1 but the meadowlark finds and devours them by thousands4 ,the remainder of the insect food is made up of ants1 wasps1 and spiders1 with some bugs1 including chinch bugs1 and a few scales4 ,the vegetable food consists of grain and weed and other hard seeds4 ,grain in general amounts to #aa per cent and weed and other seeds to #g per cent4 ,grain1 principally corn1 is eaten mostly in winter and early spring and consists1 therefore1 of waste kernels2 only a trifle is consumed in summer and autumn1 when it is most plentiful4 ,no trace of sprouting grain was discovered4 ,glover seed was found in only six stomachs1 and but little in each4 ,seeds of weeds1 principally ragweed1 barnyard grass1 and smartweed1 are eaten from ,november to ,april1 inclusive1 but during the rest of the year are replaced by insects4 ,briefly stated1 more than half of the meadowlark's food consists of harmful insects2 its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds or waste grain2 and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neutral insects and spiders4 ,a strong point in the bird's favor is that1 although naturally an insect eater1 it is able to subsist on vegetable food1 and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather farther than is necessary to find ground free from snow4 ,,the ,,red-,,winged ,,blackbirds4 ,the red-winged or swamp blackbird#da in its various forms 7fig4 #ad7 is found all over the ,united ,states and the region immediately to the north4 ,while common in most of its range1 its distribution is more or less local1 mainly on account of its partiality for marshes4 ,it builds its nest over or near standing water1 in tall grass1 rushes1 or bushes4 ,owing to this peculiarity the bird may be absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps or marshes suitable for nesting4 ,it usually breeds in large colonies1 though single families1 consisting of a male and several females1 may sometimes be found in a small slough1 where each female builds her nest and rears her own little brood4 ,while her liege lord displays his brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine4 ,in the upper ,mississippi ,valley the species finds most favorable conditions1 for the countless prairie sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow lakes afford nesting sites for thousands of red-wings2 and here are bred the immense flocks which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the ,west4 ,after the breeding season the birds congregate preparatory to migration1 and remain thus associated throughout the winter4 #da ,agelaius phniceus4 ,three species and several subspecies of red-wings are recognized1#db but practically no difference exists in the habits of these forms either in nesting or feeding1 except such as may result from local conditions4 ,most of the forms are found on the ,pacific side of the continent1 and may be considered as included in the following statements as to food and economic status4 #db ,agelaius phniceus 7#h forms71 ,agelaius gubernator1 and ,agelaius tricolor4 ,many complaints have been made against the red-wing1 and several ,states have at times placed a bounty upon its head4 ,it is said to cause great damage to grain in the ,west1 especially in the upper ,mississippi ,valley1 but few complaints come from the northeastern section1 where the bird is much less abundant than in the ,west and ,south4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,red-winged blackbird4 ,length1 about #i ,inches4 ,examination of #a1jhc stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms #gd per cent of the food1 while animal matter1 mainly ,insects1 forms but #bf per cent ,a little more than #aj per cent consists of beetles1 mostly harmful species4 ,weevils1 or snout beetles1 amount to #d per cent of the year's food1 but in ,june reach #be per cent4 ,as weevils are among the most harmful insects known1 their destruction should condone some1 at least1 of the sins of which the bird is accused4 ,grasshoppers constitute nearly #e per cent of the food1 while the rest of the animal matter is made up of various insects1 a few snails1 and crustaceans4 ,the few dragon flies found were probably picked up dead1 for they are too active to be taken alive1 unless by a bird of the flycatcher family4 ,so far as the insect food as a whole is concerned1 the red-wing may be considered entirely beneficial4 ,the interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around grain4 ,only three kinds1 corn1 wheat1 and oats1 were found in the stomachs in appreciable quantities4 ,they aggregate but little more than #ac per cent of the whole food1 oats forming nearly half of this amount4 ,field investigation has shown1 however1 that1 when local conditions are favorable1 large flocks of red-wings may do considerable damage4 ,conspicuous among such cases are the losses suffered by farmers to sweet corn in some of the northeastern ,states and to milo in the ,south and ,west4 ,in the rather limited grain-raising area of the ,imperial ,valley of ,california the annual damage to milo alone by enormous flocks of red-wings and yellow-headed blackbirds has been estimated to be fully #ej1jjj4 ,the most important item of the bird's food1 however1 is weed seed1 which forms practically all of its food in winter and about #eg per cent of the fare of the whole year4 ,the principal weed seeds eaten are those of ragweed1 barnyard grass1 and smartweed4 ,that these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact that the birds begin to eat them in ,august1 when grain is still readily obtainable1 and continue feeding on them even after insects become plentiful in ,april4 ,the red-wing eats very little fruit and does practically no harm to garden or orchard4 ,it is apparent that where moderately abundant1 the red-wing does more good than harm1 but in sections where it becomes excessively abundant a reduction in its numbers is justifiable4 ,,bobolink4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--;,bobolink1 ricebird1 or reed bird4 ,length1 about #g inches4 ,the bobolink1 ricebird1 or reedbird#dc 7fig4 #ae7 is a common summer resident of the ,united ,states1 north of about latitude #dj1 and from ,new ,england westward to the ,great ,plains1 wintering beyond our southern border4 ,in ,new ,england there are few birds about which so much romance clusters as this rollicking songster1 naturally associated with sunny ,june meadows2 but in the ,south there are none on whose head so many maledictions have been heaped on account of its fondness for rice4 ,during its sojourn in the ,northern ,states it feeds mainly upon insects and seeds of useless plants2 but while rearing its young1 insects constitute its chief food1 and almost the exclusive diet of its brood4 ,after the young are able to fly1 the whole family gathers into a small flock and begins to live almost entirely upon vegetable food4 ,this consists for the most part of weed seeds1 since ,in the ,north these birds do not appear to attack grain to any great extent4 ,they eat a few oats1 but their stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain4 ,as the season advances they gather into larger flocks and move southward1 until by the end of ,august nearly all have left their breeding grounds4 ,on their way they frequent the reedy marshes about the mouths of rivers and on the inland waters of the coast region and subsist largely upon wild rice4 ,in the ,middle ,states1 during their southward migration1 they are commonly known as reedbirds1 and1 becoming very fat1 are treated as game4 #dc ,dolichonyx oryzivorus4 ,formerly1 when the low marshy shores of the ,carolinas and some of the more southern ,states were devoted to rice culture the bobolinks made great havoc both upon the sprouting rice in spring and upon the ripening grain on their return migration in the fall4 ,while the damage is not so great as when this region was the center of rice production1 still it amounts to many thousands of dollars annually4 ,as a remedy1 an open season on ricebirds was provided in the ,coast ,states from ,new ,jersey to ,florida4 ,,crow4 ,in one or another of its geographic races the common crow#dd 7fig4 #af7 breeds in great numbers throughout the ,states east of the ,plains and from the ,gulf well up into ,canada1 while in less abundance it is found in ,california and in the ,northwestern ,states4 ,during the colder months a southern migratory movement brings most of these birds within the borders of the ,united ,states1 and at about the latitude of ,philadelphia and southern ,illinois we find them congregating nightly in roosts4 ,farmers dwelling in the vicinity of such roosts frequently suffer losses to shocked corn4 #dd ,corvus brachyrhynchos4 ,in fact1 none of our native birds so much concerns the average farmer of the ,eastern ,states as the common crow4 ,many of our present criticisms of this bird1 as its pulling sprouting corn1 feeding on ripening ears1 damaging fruits of various kinds1 destroying poultry and wild birds1 and disseminating diseases of live-stock1 were common complaints in the days of the early colonists4 ,many of the virtues of the crow1 now quite generally recognized1 also have been matters of record for many years4 ,in recent times1 however1 scientific study of these problems1 including the examination of the stomachs of hundreds of crows secured in every month of the year and under a variety of conditions1 has enabled us to render a much fairer verdict than was formerly possible4 ,the crow is practically omnivorous4 ,during spring and early summer any form of insect life seems to make a desirable item in its diet1 and in winter when hard pressed nothing in the animal or vegetable kingdoms which contains a morsel of nutriment is overlooked4 ,the insect food of the crow1 which comprises about a fifth of its yearly sustenance1 does much to atone for its misdemeanors4 ,grasshoppers1 ,may beetles and their larv 7white grubs71 caterpillars1 weevils1 and wireworms stand out prominently4 ,in #a1cdj stomachs of adults examined these highly ,injurious forms comprised over #hj per cent of the insect food4 ,grasshoppers are naturally taken in greatest abundance late in the season4 ,september being the month of largest consumption1 when they form about a fifth of the total food4 ,may beetles and white grubs are eaten in every month1 but occur most prominently in ,may4 ,in ,june caterpillars are a favorite food1 and weevils of various kinds are taken in varying quantities throughout summer and fall4 ,about half of the remaining #bj per cent of insect food is composed of beneficial ground beetles1 ladybirds1 predacious bugs1 and parasitic wasps1 and related forms1 the rest consisting of neutral or injurious forms4 ,numerous instances are on record where fields badly infested with white grubs or grasshoppers have been favorite resorts of crows1 whose voracity has resulted in a material suppression of the pest4 ,when the amount of food required to sustain the individual crow is considered1 the work of these birds appears all the more important ,single stomachs containing upward of #ej grasshoppers are not uncommon4 ,thus in its choice of insect food the crow is rendering an important service to the farmer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,crow4 ,length1 about #ai inches4 ,in the other animal food of the crow are several items of the utmost economic importance4 ,spiders are taken in considerable numbers in ,may and ,june1 but the yearly total is a little over #a per cent of the food4 ,in early spring crawfish are eagerly sought1 and other aquatic food1 as fish and mollusks1 lend variety to the crow's bill of fare the year round4 ,in the consumption of toads1 salamanders1 frogs1 and some snakes1 which together compose a little over #b per cent of the yearly food1 the crow is doubtless doing harm4 ,small rodents occurred in the stomachs collected nearly every month1 but it ,is often difficult to determine whether small mammals found in birds' stomachs were taken alive or found dead4 ,from its carrion-eating habits the crow has been unfairly criticized as a disseminator of live-stock diseases4 ,while this may be to some extent just1 the fact that there are many other important carriers which lie largely beyond our control1 shows that we must seek final relief only through the strictest methods of sanitation4 ,the nest-robbing habit of the crow1 long a serious criticism1 is verified by stomach analysis4 ,of the #a1ajc crows examined1 #dg had fed on wild birds or their eggs1 and the eggs of domestic fowls were found somewhat more frequently4 ,the crow's habit of rummaging about garbage piles may explain much of this latter material4 ,of the vegetable food1 corn1 which is eaten every month1 is the most important item and forms about #ch per cent of the diet4 ,much of this1 however1 must be considered waste1 since over #fj per cent of it is consumed from the first of ,november to the end of ,march4 ,during the periods when corn is sprouting and when in the roasting-ear stage the crow is eating this grain at a rate considerably less than the yearly average1 and the months of smallest consumption are ,july and ,august4 ,at times1 however1 the damage to corn becomes a serious problem1 and were it not possible to make use of such deterrents as coal tar upon seed corn there would be little friendship for the crow in some sections of the ,east4 ,the pulling of corn is a trait most prevalent in small-field areas4 ,wheat and oats suffer similar damage at times1 especially in the ,northwestern ,states1 where these grains predominate4 ,about the only safeguard to ripening grain is the constant use of powder and shot or the scarecrow4 ,various kinds of cultivated fruits are also eaten1 and local damage to such crops as apples1 melons1 peas1 beans1 peanuts1 and almonds is occasionally reported4 ,in long1 rigorous winters1 the crow1 like other birds1 resorts to the fruit of numerous wild plants1 as dogwood1 sour gum1 hackberry1 smilax1 and the several species of sumac and poison ivy4 ,damage to the eggs of poultry may be reduced to a minimum by careful housing of lasting hens1 and the farmer can protect his sprouting grain to a large extent by the use of tar-coated seed4 ,it will be well also to keep the crow within reasonable numbers on game preserves and public parks where it is desired to encourage the nesting of smaller birds4 ,while legal protection is not needed for so wary an individual as the crow1 it seems well1 where local conditions have not aggravated some particular shortcomings of the bird1 to allow it to continue the good services gendered to man in the destruction of noxious insects4 ,,blue ,,jay4 ,the blue jay#de 7fig4 #ag7 is a conspicuous member of our bird population east of the ,plains1 especially in autumn when his brilliant plumage contrasts vividly with the brown foliage4 ,even in winter he stays with us1 though at this time he is less common along our northern border4 ,in spring and summer1 while by no means uncommon1 the blue jay is not so often noticed1 as the retiring disposition which he assumes during the breeding season assists in protecting him from enemies4 ,this also allows him to carry on with considerable impunity that inglorious practice of nest robbing of which1 in a measure1 he has been rightfully accused4 #de ,cyanocitta cristata4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,blue ,jay4 ,length1 about #aa inches4 ,examination of #ecj stomachs collected at all times of the year in #cj of our ,eastern ,states and ,canada shows that insects comprise about #bb per cent of the yearly sustenance4 ,about three-fourths of these are injurious1 the remainder being neutral or beneficial4 ,of the injurious insects1 grasshoppers form the largest portion2 in ,august nearly a fifth of the food4 ,caterpillars are conspicuous in ,july and ,august and at this time average about a tenth of the stomach contents4 ,both laboratory investigations and field observations have established the fact that in winter the eggs of the tent caterpillar and the hibernating larv of the brown-tail moth in ,new ,england are eagerly sought ,scarabid beetles form about #d per cent of the yearly food1 and click beetles and wire-worms about #a per cent4 ,of the beneficial forms1 ground beetles 7#c per cent7 and hymenopterous insects1 part of which are parasitic 7#b4e per cent71 are taken most frequently4 ,a few other invertebrates1 as spiders1 millipedes1 mollusks1 and crustaceans1 also are eaten throughout the year4 ,in the consideration of the vertebrate food of the blue jay we are confronted with the problem of the destruction of wild birds and their eggs4 ,special search was made for every possible trace of such material in the stomachs1 and in #f of the #ecj were found the remains of wild birds or their eggs4 ,in ,february two jays had killed a small bird apiece2 in ,may one had robbed a nest of eggs2 in ,june two had taken a small bird and a clutch of eggs1 respectively2 and in ,august another had robbed a nest ,as this trait of the jay appears to be most pronounced during its own breeding season1 it is quite possible for many birds which have suffered from its boldness early in the season to raise another brood unmolested4 ,thirty-nine of the #ecj jays examined had fed on hen's eggs4 ,much of this food1 however1 was picked up about rubbish heaps1 to which the jay1 like other members of the crow family1 is partial4 ,while the result of stomach analysis would appear to belittle this fault of the blue jay1 it is doubtless quite characteristic of the bird under favorable conditions4 ,complaint that the jay is the source of considerable damage to corn in the fall has been verified to a certain degree by stomach examination4 ,this grain is taken in every month of the year1 but in greater quantities during winter and early spring1 when much of it is necessarily waste1 and it forms about #ah per cent of the yearly food4 ,cultivated fruits of various kinds are eaten from ,june to the end of the year1 and the #ae per cent taken in ,july apparently justifies complaints against the bird on this score4 ,the favorite vegetable food of the blue jay is mast of various kinds1 acorns predominating1 but beechnuts1 chestnuts1 chinquaquins1 and hazelnuts also are relished4 ,this food is important in every month but ,july and ,august1 the yearly average being over #dc per cent1 and from ,october to ,march it constitutes about two-thirds of the diet4 ,occasionally harm is done by feeding also on cultivated nuts1 as pecans4 ,wild fruits are eaten during the summer and fall and constitute about #g per cent of the yearly sustenance4 ,the blue jay probably renders its best services to man in destroying grasshoppers late in the season and in feeding on hibernating insects and their eggs1 as it does in the case of the tent caterpillar and brown-tail moth4 ,such forest insects as buprestid beetles and weevils of various kinds also fall as its prey4 ,the blue jay's vegetable food1 with the exception of some cultivated fruit and corn in the fall1 is largely neutral4 ,the severest criticism against the species is the destruction of other birds and their eggs4 ,where we wish to attract birds in large numbers about our dooryards1 in our parks1 and in game preserves1 it will be well not to allow the jays to become too abundant4 ,,pacific ,,coast ,,jays4 ,in ,california and adjacent ,states two species of jays are much in evidence under several more or less well-marked forms4 ,the ,steller jay#df much resembles the eastern bird1 but it is more shy and retiring and seldom visits the orchard or vicinity of the ranch buildings4 ,stomach examination shows that its food does not radically differ from that of the eastern blue jay4 ,as is the case with that bird1 a very considerable part of the food consists of mast1 together with a little fruit and some insects4 ,the insects are largely wasps1 with some beetles and grasshoppers4 ,this jay also eats some grain1 which is probably waste or volunteer4 ,no complaints1 so far as known1 are made against this bird4 ,until it shall become less wary it is not likely to trespass to a serious extent upon the farmer's preserve4 #df ,cyanocitta stelleri4 ,the ,california jay1#dg although of a different genus1 more nearly resembles its eastern relative in food habits and actions4 ,it freely visits the stockyards near ranch buildings1 and orchards and gardens4 ,as a fruit stealer it is notorious4 ,one instance is recorded where seven jays were shot from a prune tree1 one after the other1 the dead bodies being left under the tree until all were killed4 ,so eager were the birds to get the fruit that the report of the gun and the sight of their dead did not deter them from coming to the tree4 ,in orchards in canyons or on hillsides adjacent to chaparral or other cover great mischief is done by this bird4 ,in one such case an orchard was under observation at a time when the prune crop was ripening1 and jays in a continuous stream were seen to come down a small ravine to the orchard1 prey upon the fruit1 and return4 #dg ,aphelocoma californica4 ,fruit stealing1 however1 is only one of the sins of the ,california jay4 ,that it robs hens' nests is universal testimony4 ,a case is reported of a hen having a nest under a clump of bushes2 every day a jay came to a tree a few rods away1 and when it heard the cackle of the hen announcing a new egg it flew at once to the nest4 ,at the same time the mistress of the house hastened to the spot to secure the prize1 but in most cases the jay won the race4 ,this is only one of many similar cases recounted4 ,the jays have learned just what the cackle of the hen means4 ,another case more serious is that related by a man engaged in raising white leghorn fowls on a ranch several miles up a canyon4 ,he stated that when the chicks were very young the jays attacked and killed them by a few blows of the beak and then pecked open the skull and ate out the brains4 ,in spite of all efforts to protect the chicks and kill the jays the losses in this way were serious4 ,examination of the stomachs of #cbf ,california jays shows that #bg per cent of the contents for the year consists of animal matter and #gc per cent of vegetable4 ,although the great bulk of the animal food is made up of insects1 the remains of eggshells and birds' bones appear much too often4 ,the insect food is fairly well distributed among the more common orders1 but grasshoppers are slightly the most numerous and constitute #d4e per cent of the year's food4 ,in ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 however1 the amount is #ad1 #ah1 and #ai per cent1 respectively4 ,four per cent of the food consists of wasps1 bees1 etc41 but in the three months named they constitute #ae1 #g1 and #i per cent1 respectively4 ,a worker honeybee found in each of two stomachs is rather surprising1 for it is unusual to find a bird like the jay eating these active and elusive insects1 which enter into the diet of the flycatchers4 ,the remainder of the insect food is pretty evenly distributed among beetles1 bugs1 flies1 and caterpillars4 ,eggshells were found in #ba stomachs and birds' bones in #e4 ,six stomachs contained the bones of mammals and two those of a lizard4 ,no bird has a worse reputation for nest robbing than has the eastern jay1 and yet of #ecj stomachs of the eastern species only #f contained eggshells or the bones of birds4 ,this comparison serves to show what a marauder and nest thief the ,california jay really is4 ,in its vegetable diet this bird much resembles its eastern relative1 the most remarkable difference being in the matter of fruit eating4 ,with greater opportunities the ,california bird has developed a greater appetite for fruit and indulges it to the fullest extent4 ,remains of fruit were found in #bbj of the #cbf stomachs4 ,the percentage for the year is only #af1 but for the four months of ,june1 ,july1 ,august1 and ,september it is #dd1 #cc1 #ec1 and #be1 respectively4 ,cherries1 apricots1 and prunes are the favorites among cultivated fruits1 and elderberries are relished to some extent4 ,grain1 which was found in #dh stomachs1 amounts to #f per cent of the food of the year4 ,practically all of it was taken in the four months above mentioned1 but it is not probable that much damage is done by the jay in this respect4 ,the major portion of the grain was oats4 ,what was not wild was probably simply scattered grain gleaned after the harvest4 ,mast is eaten by the ,california jay from ,september to ,march1 inclusive1 and constitutes during most of that period one of the principal elements of its food4 ,in this respect the bird shows a remarkable similarity to the eastern species4 ,a few weed seeds and other miscellaneous items make up the balance of the vegetable food4 ,in summing up from an economic point of view the character of the food of the ,california jay1 it must be conceded that it is not all that could be wished4 ,its taste for birds' eggs and fruit is entirely too pronounced1 and at present the species is superabundant in ,california4 ,while the natural food supply of the bird has been lessened by bringing the woods and brushy canyons under cultivation1 the same areas have been planted to fruit1 and naturally the jay takes the fruit as an acceptable substitute4 ,a considerable reduction of the bird's numbers would appear to be the only effective remedy4 ,,the ,,ph,,bes4 ,among the early spring arrivals to their northern homes none is more welcome than the phbe 7fig4 #ah74 ,the common phbe#dh breeds throughout the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 and winters from the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states southward4 ,its western relative1 the black phbe1#di is found from ,texas west to the ,pacific coast1 which it occupies as far north as ,washington1 replacing through most of this region the common or eastern form4 #dh ,sayornis phbe4 #di ,sayornis ,nigricans4 ,though naturally building its nest under an overhanging cliff of rock or earth1 or in the mouth of a cave1 the preference of the eastern species for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any great distance from a farmhouse1 except where a bridge spanning a stream affords a secure spot for a nest4 ,its confiding disposition renders it a great favorite1 and consequently it is seldom disturbed4 ,the phbe subsists almost exclusively upon insects1 most of which are caught upon the wing4 ,an examination of #cgj stomachs showed that over #hi per cent of the year's food consists of insects and spiders1 while wild fruit constitutes the remainder4 ,the insects belong chiefly to noxious species1 and include many click beetles4 ,may beetles1 and weevils4 ,other beetles1 belonging to #ba families that were identified1 make up #aj4fe per cent4 ,they appear to be eaten very regularly in every month1 but the most are taken in spring and early summer4 ,may is the month of maximum consumption1 with #bj4dc per cent4 ,beetles altogether amount to #ae4c per cent1 which places them second in rank of the items of animal food4 ,the notorious cotton-boll weevil was found in six stomachs taken in the cotton fields of ,texas and ,louisiana1 and five individuals of the strawberry weevil were taken from one collected in ,texas4 ,many other beetles contained ,in the stomachs are equally harmful1 but are not so widely known4 ,such are the corn leaf-beetle1 which feeds upon corn2 the #ab-spotted cucumber beetle1 and the striped cucumber beetle1 both of which seriously injure and sometimes destroy cucumber and squash vines2 and the locust leaf miner1 which is sometimes so numerous that all the locust trees over large areas are blasted as by fire4 ,in the phbe's diet hymenopterous insects stand at the head1 as is the case with most of the flycatchers4 ,they are eaten with great regularity and are the largest item in nearly every month4 ,a few are useful parasitic species1 but these are offset by a number of sawfly larv1 which are very harmful insects4 ,ants were found in #bd stomachs4 ,no honeybees were identified4 ,in their season grasshoppers are much relished1 while wasps of various forms1 many flies of species that annoy cattle1 and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly4 ,it is evident that a pair of phbes must materially reduce the number of insects near a garden or field1 as the birds often1 if not always1 raise two broods a year1 and each brood numbers from four to six young4 ,there is hardly a more useful species about the farm than the phbe1 and it should receive every encouragement4 ,to furnish nesting boxes is helpful1 but not necessary1 as it usually prefers a more open situation1 like a shed or a nook under the eaves1 but it should be protected from cats and other marauders4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,phbe4 ,length1 about #f inches4 ,the black phbe has the same habits as its eastern relative1 both as to selection of food and nesting sites1 preferring for the latter purpose some structure of man1 as a shed or1 better still1 a bridge over a stream of water1 and the preference of the black phbe for the vicinity of water is very pronounced4 ,one may always be found at a stream' or pool and often at a watering trough by the roadside4 ,careful study of the habits of the bird shows that it obtains a large portion of ,its food about wet places4 ,while camping beside a stream in ,california the writer took some pains to observe the habits of the black phbe4 ,the nesting season was over1 and the birds had nothing to do but eat4 ,this they appeared to be doing all the time4 ,when first observed in the morning1 at the first glimmer of daylight1 a phbe was always found flitting from rock to rock1 although it was so dusky that the bird could hardly be seen4 ,this activity was kept up all day4 ,even in the evening1 when it was so dark that notes were written by the aid of the camp fire1 the phbe was still engaged in its work of collecting1 though it was difficult to understand how it could catch insects when there was scarcely light enough to see the bird4 ,exploration of the stream showed that every portion of it was patrolled by a phbe1 that each one apparently did not range over more than #ab or #ac rods of water1 and that sometimes two or three were in close proximity4 ,the number of insects destroyed in a year by the black phbe is enormous4 ,fortunately1 the examination of stomachs has supplemented observation in the field1 and we are enabled to give precise details4 ,of the #ccc stomachs examined1 every one contained insects as the great bulk of the food4 ,only #ae contained any vegetable food at all1 and in no case was it a considerable part of the contents of the stomach4 ,the insects eaten were mostly wasps1 bugs1 and flies1 but many beetles also were destroyed4 ,useful beetles belonging to three families amount to #b4h per cent of the food4 ,other beetles of harmful or neutral species reach #aj4e per cent4 ,wasps1 the largest item of the food1 were found in #beb stomachs and were the whole contents of #ae4 ,the average for the year is #ce per cent4 ,parasitic species were noted1 but they were very few4 ,ants were found in #dh stomachs1 and for a short time in midsummer they constitute a notable part of the food4 ,various wild bees and wasps make up the bulk of this item4 ,no honeybees were found4 ,bugs in various forms constitute #aj4ef per cent and are eaten in every month but ,may4 ,stinkbugs appear to be the favorites1 as they were contained in #aj stomachs4 ,plant lice were found in one stomach4 ,flies1 forming the second largest item1 were found in #ig stomachs and completely filled #c4 ,they constitute the most regular article in the black phbe's diet4 ,the maximum consumption occurs in ,april1 #fd4c per cent4 ,the black phbe well merits its title of flycatcher4 ,moths and caterpillars amount to #h4b per cent of the food4 ,they were found in #gb stomachs1 of which #ea contained the adult moths and #bh the larv or caterpillars4 ,one stomach was entirely filled with adults4 ,this is one of the few birds studied by the writer that eats more moths than caterpillars1 for as a rule the caterpillars are largely in excess4 ,flycatchers1 taking their food upon the wing1 would naturally prove exceptions to the rule4 ,crickets are evidently not a favorite food of the black phbe1 as they amount to only #b4de per cent4 ,they were found in #ci stomachs1 but usually the amount in each was small1 though one stomach was entirely filled with them4 ,grasshoppers did not appear4 ,dragon flies were eaten to some extent1 and these illustrate the fondness of the species for the neighborhood of water4 ,the vegetable matter eaten consisted chiefly of small wild fruits of no economic importance4 ,another phbe inhabiting the ,western ,states and breeding as far north as ,alaska is the ,say phbe4#ej ,investigation of its food was based on the examination of #hf stomachs1 and while none were available for the months when insects are most numerous1 the bird proved to be one of the most exclusively insectivorous of the family4 ,that it takes a few useful insects can not be denied1 but these are far outnumbered by the harmful ones it destroys1 and the balance is clearly in favor of the bird4 ,its vegetable food amounts to only #b per cent and is made up of a little wild fruit1 seeds1 and rubbish4 #ej ,sayornis sayus4 ,,the ,,kingbirds4 ,the well-known eastern kingbird#ea 7fig4 #ai7 is essentially a lover of the orchard1 though groves and the edge of forests were probably its original habitat4 ,it breeds in the ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and less commonly in the ,great ,basin and on the ,pacific coast4 ,its hostility to hawks and crows is proverbial1 and for this reason a family of kingbirds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard4 ,on one occasion in the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair of kingbirds whose nest was near by that the would-be robber was glad to escape without his prey4 ,song birds that nest near the kingbird are similarly protected4 #ea ,tyrannus tyrannus4 ,the kingbird is largely insectivorous4 ,it is a true flycatcher and takes on the wing a large part of its food4 ,it does not1 however1 confine itself to this method of hunting1 but picks up some insects from trees and weeds1 and even descends to the ground in search of myriapods or thousand legs4 ,the chief complaint against the species by both professional bee keepers and others has been that it preys largely upon honeybees4 ,one bee raiser in ,iowa1 suspecting the kingbirds of feeding upon his bees1 shot a number near his hives2 but when the stomachs of the birds were examined by an expert entomologist1 not a trace of honeybees could be found4 ,an examination of #ffe stomachs collected in various parts of the country1 was made by the ,biological ,survey1 but only #bb were found to contain remains of honeybees4 ,in these #bb stomachs there were in all #fa honeybees1 of which #ea were drones1 #h were certainly workers1 and the remaining #b were too badly broken to be further identified4 ,the insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of the bird are noxious species1 largely beetles--,may beetles1 click beetles 7the larv of which are known as wire-worms71 weevils1 which prey upon fruit and grain1 and a host of others4 ,wasps1 wild bees1 and ants are conspicuous elements of the food1 far outnumbering the hive bees4 ,during summer many grasshoppers and crickets1 as well as leaf hoppers and other bugs1 also are eaten4 ,in the stomachs examined were a number of robber files--insects which prey largely upon other insects1 including honeybees1 and which are known to commit in this way extensive depredations4 ,it is thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these flies actually does good work for the apiarist4 ,the #bf robber flies found in the stomachs may be considered more than an equivalent for the #h worker honeybees already mentioned4 ,a few caterpillars are eaten1 mostly belonging to the group commonly known as cutworms1 all the species of which are harmful4 ,about #aa per cent of the food consists of small native fruits1 comprising some #cj common species of the roadsides and thickets1 as dogwood berries1 elderberries1 and wild grapes4 ,the kingbird is not reported as eating cultivated fruit to an injurious extent1 and it is very doubtful if this is ever the case4 ,in the ,western ,states the ,arkansas kingbird#eb is not so domestic in its habits as its eastern relative1 preferring to live among scattering oaks on lonely hillsides1 rather than in orchards about ranch buildings4 ,the work it does1 however1 in the destruction of noxious insects fully equals that of any member of its family4 ,like other flycatchers1 it subsists mostly upon insects taken in mid-air1 though it eats a number of grasshoppers1 probably taken from the ground4 ,the bulk of its food consists of beetles1 bugs1 wasps1 and wild bees4 ,like its eastern representative1 it has been accused of feeding to an injurious extent upon honeybees4 ,in an examination of #fb stomachs of this species1 great care was taken to identify every insect or fragment that had any resemblance to a honeybee2 as a result1 #cj honeybees were identified1 of which #bi were males or drones and #a a worker4 ,these were contained in four stomachs1 and were the sole contents of three2 in the fourth they constituted #ii per cent of the food4 ,it is evident that the bee-eating habit is only occasional and accidental1 rather than habitual2 and it is also evident that if this ratio of drones to workers were maintained1 the bird would be of more benefit than harm to the apiary4 #eb ,tyrannus verticalis4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,kingbird4 ,length1 about #h inches4 ,the ,cassin kingbird#ec has a more southerly range than the ,arkansas flycatcher4 ,examination of a number of stomachs shows that its food habits are similar to those of others of the group4 #ec ,tyrannus vociferans4 ,three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of the kingbirds--7#a7 that about #ij per cent consists of insects1 mostly injurious species2 7#b7 that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees is much less prevalent than has been supposed1 and probably does not result in any great damage2 and 7#c7 that the vegetable food consists almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value4 ,all of the kingbirds are of the greatest importance to the farmer and fruit grower1 as they destroy vast numbers of harmful insects1 and do no appreciable damage to any product of cultivation4 ,,nighthawk4 ,the nighthawk1 or bull-bat1#ed breeds throughout most of the ,united ,states and ,canada1 and winters in ,south ,america4 ,it is strictly insectivorous1 and hence does no damage to crops4 ,the only charge that can be made against the bird is that it destroys some useful insects1 but these are greatly in the minority in its food4 #ed ,chordeiles virginianus4 ,nighthawks are so expert in flight that no insects can escape them4 ,in their capacious mouths they sweep up everything from the largest moths and dragon flies to the tiniest ants and gnats1 and in this way sometimes gather most remarkable collections of insects4 ,several stomachs have contained #ej or more different kinds1 and the number of individuals ran into the thousands4 ,nearly a fourth of the birds' total food is composed of ants4 ,these ,insects are generally annoying and often very injurious1 especially on account of their damage to stored products and because of their habit of fostering destructive plant lice4 ,more than a fifth of the nighthawk's food consists of ,june bugs1 dung beetles1 and other beetles of the leaf-chafer family4 ,these are the adults of white grubs1 noted pests1 and even as adults many members of the family are decidedly harmful4 ,numerous other injurious beetles1 as click beetles1 wood borers1 and weevils1 are relished4 ,true bugs1 moths1 flies1 grasshoppers1 and crickets also are important elements of the food4 ,several species of mosquitoes1 including the transmitter of malaria1 are eaten4 ,other well-known pests consumed by the nighthawk are ,colorado potato beetles1 cucumber beetles1 rice1 clover-leaf1 and cotton-boll weevils1 billbugs1 bark beetles1 squash bugs1 and moths of the cotton worm4 ,nighthawks are much less numerous than formerly1 chiefly because of wanton shooting4 ,they are given full legal protection almost everywhere1 and citizens should see that the law is obeyed4 ,the bird is far too useful and attractive to be persecuted4 ,,the ,,woodpeckers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,hairy woodpecker4 ,length1 about #i inches4 ,five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout the eastern ,united ,states1 and ,in the ,west are replaced by others of similar habits4 ,several species remain in the ,northern ,states through the entire year1 while others are more or less migratory4 ,farmers are prone to look upon woodpeckers with suspicion4 ,when the birds are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking holes in the bark1 it is concluded that they must be doing harm4 ,careful observers1 however1 have noticed that1 excepting a single species1 these birds rarely leave any conspicuous mark on a healthy tree1 except when it is affected by wood-boring larv1 which are accurately located1 dislodged1 and devoured by the woodpecker4 ,two of the best-known woodpeckers1 the hairy woodpecker#ee 7fig4 #bj7 and the downy woodpecker1#ef including their races1 range over the greater part of the ,united ,states4 ,they differ chiefly in size1 their colors being practically the same4 ,the males1 like those of many other woodpeckers1 are distinguished by a scarlet patch on the head4 ,an examination of many stomachs of these two species shows that from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects1 chiefly noxious kinds4 ,wood-boring beetles1 both adults and larv1 are conspicuous1 and with them are associated many caterpillars1 mostly species that burrow into trees4 ,next in importance are the ants that live in decaying wood1 all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten in great quantities4 ,many ants are particularly harmful to timber1 for if they find a small spot of decay in the vacant burrow of a wood borer1 they enlarge the hole1 and1 as their colony is always on the increase1 continue to eat away the wood until the whole trunk is honeycombed4 ,moreover1 they are not accessible to birds generally1 and could pursue their career of destruction unmolested were it not that the woodpeckers1 with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such work1 dig out and devour them4 ,it is thus evident that woodpeckers are great conservators of forests4 ,to them more than to any other agency we owe the preservation of timber from hordes of destructive insects4 #ee ,dryobates villosus4 #ef ,dryobates pubecens4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,flicker4 ,length1 about #ab inches4 ,one of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker1 or golden-winged woodpecker#eg 7fig4 #ba71 which is generally distributed throughout the ,united ,states from the ,atlantic coast to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,there it is replaced by the red-shafted flicker1#eh which extends westward to the ,pacific4 ,the two species are as nearly identical in food habits as their respective environments will allow4 ,the flickers1 while genuine woodpeckers1 differ somewhat in habits from the rest of the family1 and are frequently seen searching for food upon the ground4 ,like the downy and hairy woodpeckers1 they feed upon wood-boring grubs and ants1 but the number of ants eaten is much greater than that eaten by the other two species4 ,of the flickers' stomachs examined1 three were completely filled with ants4 ,two of these contained more than #c1jjj individuals each1 while the third contained fully #e1jjj4 ,these ants belong to species which live in the ground4 ,it is these insects for which the flicker searches when it runs about in the grass1 although some grasshoppers also are then taken4 ,the flicker's habit of pecking holes in buildings sometimes greatly annoys its human friends1 and it is particularly noticeable in the ,california species4 ,observation has shown that the object of the work is to obtain shelter for the winter4 ,in the ,east most of the flickers are migratory1 and only a few remain ,north where shelter is necessary4 ,these generally find a safe retreat in the hollow tree ,in which they nested4 ,in ,california1 however1 where the birds do not migrate1 trees are not so abundant as in the ,east1 and consequently buildings are brought into requisition1 and in them holes are drilled1 usually under the eaves1 where snug nights' lodgings are found4 ,often a dozen holes may be seen in one building4 ,barns or other outbuildings are usually selected1 though churches sometimes have been used4 #eg ,colaptes auratus4 #eh ,colaptes cafer collaris4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,red-headed woodpecker4 ,length1 about #i inches4 ,the red-headed woodpecker#ei 7fig4 #bb7 is well known east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 but ,is rather rare in ,new ,england4 ,unlike some of the other species1 it prefers fence posts and telegraph poles to trees as a foraging ground4 ,its food therefore naturally differs from that of the preceding species1 and consists largely of adult beetles and wasps which it frequently captures on the wing after the fashion of flycatchers4 ,grasshoppers also form an important part of the food4 ,among the beetles are a number of predacious ground species and some tiger beetles1 which are useful insects4 ,the red-head has been accused of robbing nests of other birds1 and of pecking out the brains of young birds and poultry2 but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this charge1 the habit probably is exceptional4 #ei ,melanerpes erythrocephalus4 ,the vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied1 but consists largely of small fruits and berries4 ,the downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such fruits as dogwood and ,virginia creeper and seeds of poison ivy1 sumac1 and a few other shrubs4 ,the flicker also eats a great many small fruits and the seeds of a considerable number of shrubs and weeds4 ,none of the three species is much given to eating cultivated fruits or crops4 ,the red-head has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit1 as apples1 and also of taking considerable corn4 ,stomach examinations show that to some extent these charges are substantiated1 but that the habit is not prevalent enough to cause much damage4 ,the bird is fond of mast1 especially beechnuts1 and when these nuts are plentiful it remains north all winter4 ,woodpeckers apparently are the only agents which can successfully cope with certain insect enemies of the forest1 and1 to some extent1 with those of fruit trees also4 ,for this reason1 if for no other1 they should be protected in every possible way4 ,,the ,,cuckoos4 ,two species of cuckoos are common ,in the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 the yellow-billed cuckoo#fj 7fig4 #bc7 and the black-billed cuckoo1#fa and in the ,west a relative of the yellow-bill1 the ,california cuckoo1#fb ranges from ,colorado and ,texas to the ,pacific coast4 ,while the two species are quite distinct1 the food habits of the yellow-bill and the black-bill do not greatly differ and their economic status is practically the same4 #fj ,coccyzus americanus4 #fa ,coccyzus erythyropthalmus4 #fb ,coccyzus americanus occidentalis4 ,examination of #aee stomachs has shown that these species are much given to eating caterpillars1 and1 unlike most birds1 do not reject those covered with hair4 ,in fact1 cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars that the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain there1 and often when the stomach is opened it appears to be lined with a thin coating of fur4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,yellow-billed cuckoo4 ,length1 about #ab inches4 ,an examination of the stomachs of #df black-billed cuckoos1 taken during the summer months1 showed the remains of #ijf caterpillars1 #dd beetles1 #if grasshoppers1 #ajj sawflies1 #cj stinkbugs1 and #ae spiders4 ,in all probability more individuals than these were represented1 but their remains were too badly broken for recognition4 ,most of the caterpillars were hairy1 and many of them belong to a genus that lives in colonies and feeds on the leaves of trees1 including the apple tree4 ,one stomach was filled with larv of a caterpillar belonging to the same genus as the tent caterpillar1 and possibly to that species4 ,other larv were those of large moths1 for which the bird seems to have a special fondness4 ,the beetles were for the most part click beetles and weevils1 as well as a few ,may beetles4 ,the sawflies were contained in two stomachs1 one of which held no less than #fj in the larval stage4 ,of the yellow-billed cuckoo1 #aji stomachs 7collected from ,may to ,october7 were examined4 ,they contained #a1hfe caterpillars1 #ic beetles1 #bdb grasshoppers1 #cg sawflies1 #fi bugs1 #f flies1 and #hf spiders4 ,as in the case of the black-billed cuckoo1 most of the caterpillars belonged to hairy species and many of them were of large size4 ,one stomach contained #bej ,american tent caterpillars2 another #bag fall webworms4 ,the beetles were distributed among several families1 all more or less harmful to agriculture4 ,in the same stomach which contained the tent caterpillars were #b ,colorado potato beetles2 in another were #c goldsmith beetles1 and remains of several other large beetles4 ,besides the ordinary grasshoppers were several katydids and tree crickets4 ,the sawflies were in the larval stage1 in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that they are commonly called false caterpillars by entomologists4 ,the bugs consisted of stinkbugs and cicadas1 or dog-day harvest flies1 with the single exception of one wheel bug1 which was the only useful insect eaten4 ,,bobwhite4 ,no bird is better known to country residents than the bobwhite#fc 7see illustration on title-page74 ,the bird's cheery calls the year round form part of the most pleasant associations of country life1 and its neat form and harmonious coloration1 and especially its confiding habits1 make it a general favorite4 #fc ,colinus virginianus4 ,any bushy fence row serves as a retreat for its nest1 or for winter shelter1 and weed-covered fields are its favorite feeding places4 ,weed seeds form more than half the total food and include those of all the worst weed pests of the farm4 ,among them may be mentioned crab1 cockspur1 witch1 and foxtail grasses1 sheep sorrel1 smartweed1 bindweed1 lamb's-quarters1 pigweeds1 corn cockle1 chickweed1 charlock1 partridge pea1 beggar lice1 nail grass1 rib grass1 ragweed1 and ,spanish needles4 ,acorns1 beechnuts1 chestnuts1 and pine seeds make up about #b4e per cent of the food1 and wild fruit about #aj per cent ,the fruits include berries of palmetto1 smilax1 wax myrtle1 mulberry1 sassafras1 blackberries and raspberries1 rose haws1 cherry1 sumac1 grapes1 sour gum1 blueberries1 honeysuckle1 partridgeberry1 and a number of others4 ,the bobwhite feeds to a slight extent upon buds and leaves1 including those of yellow and red sorrel1 cinquefoil1 and clover4 ,grain forms scarcely more than a sixth of the food1 and most of it is taken during winter and early spring when nothing but waste grain is available ,the habit of gleaning this after the harvest is beneficial to the farm1 for volunteer grain is not desirable1 especially where it serves to maintain certain insect and fungus pests4 ,although most of the grain and seed crops grown upon the farm are represented in bobwhite's dietary1 no significant damage can be attributed to the bird4 ,animal food1 chiefly insects1 composed nearly a sixth of the bird's subsistence4 ,from ,june to ,august1 inclusive1 when insects are most numerous1 their proportion in the food is about #cf per cent4 ,the variety of insect food is great and includes a number of the most destructive agricultural pests4 ,among them may be mentioned the ,colorado potato beetle1 #ab-spotted cucumber beetle1 bean leaf beetle1 squash ladybird1 wire-worms4 ,may beetles1 corn billbugs1 clover-leaf weevil1 army worm1 boilworm1 cutworms1 and chinch bug4 ,the food habits of the bobwhite undoubtedly are beneficial and the bird should be maintained in numbers on every farm4 ,this is not to say that all shooting should be prohibited1 for the bird is very prolific4 ,but its numbers should not be reduced below what the available nesting sites and range will support4 ,on the other hand the policy of absolute protection recently adopted by one of the ,states is not called for by strictly economic considerations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture ,,when ,,this ,,publication ,,was ,,last ,,printed ,secretary of ,agriculture ,henry ,a4 ,wallace4 ,under ,secretary ,rexford ,g4 ,tugwell4 ,assistant ,secretary ,m4 ,l4 ,wilson4 ,director of ,extension ,work ,c4 ,w4 ,warburton4 ,director of ,personnel ,w4 ,w4 ,stockberger4 ,director of ,information ,m4 ,s4 ,eisenhower4 ,director of ,finance ,w4 ,a4 ,jump4 ,solicitor ,seth ,thomas4 ,agricultural ,adjustment ,chester ,c4 ,davis1 ,administration ,administrator4 ,bureau of ,agricultural ,economics ,a4 ,g4 ,black1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,agricultural ,engineering ,s4 ,h4 ,mc,crory1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,animal ,industry ,john ,r4 ,mohler1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,biological ,survey ,j4 ,n4 ,darling1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,chemistry and ,soils ,h4 ,g4 ,knight1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,dairy ,industry ,o4 ,e4 ,reed1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,entomology and ,plant ,lee ,a4 ,strong1 ,chief4 ,quarantine ,office of ,experiment ,stations ,james ,t4 ,jardine1 ,chief4 ,food and ,drug ,administration ,walter ,g4 ,campbell1 ,chief4 ,forest ,service ,ferdinand ,a4 ,silcox1 ,chief4 ,grain ,futures ,administration ,j4 ,w4 ,t4 ,duvel1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,home ,economics ,louise ,stanley1 ,chief4 ,library ,claribel ,r4 ,barnett1 ,librarian4 ,bureau of ,plant ,industry ,frederick ,d4 ,richey1 ,chief4 ,bureau of ,public ,roads ,thomas ,h4 ,mac,donald1 ,chief4 ,weather ,bureau ,willis ,r4 ,gregg1 ,chief4 ,u4 ,s4 ,,government ,,printing ,,office3 #aice ,for sale by the ,superintendent of ,documents1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,price #e cents 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,notes ,all illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs4 ,there does not appear to be a footnote numbered #b1 therefore1 the one numbered #c and all following footnote numbers were decremented by #a4