,transcriber ,note ,text emphasis denoted by ,italics4 ,revised6 ,u4 ,s4 ,,department ,,of ,,agriculture4 ,,farmers' ,,bulletin ,no4 #ed ,,some ,,common ,,birds ,,in ,,their ,,relation ,,to ,,agriculture4 ,,by ,f4 ,e4 ,l4 ,,beal1 ,b4 ,s41 ,,assistant ,,ornithologist1 ,,biological ,,survey4 ,may1 #ahig4 ,illustration ,,washington3 ,,government ,,printing ,,office4 #ahih4 ,,contents4 ,page4 ,introduction #c ,the cuckoos 7,coccyzus americanus and ,c4 erythophthalmus7 7fig4 #a7 #e ,the woodpeckers 7figs4 #b-e7 #f ,the kingbird 7,tyrannus tyrannus7 7fig4 #f7 #aa ,the phbe 7,sayornis phbe7 7fig4 #g7 #ac ,the bluejay 7,cyanocitta cristata7 7fig4 #h7 #ad ,the crow 7,corvus americanus7 #ae ,the bobolink1 or ricebird 7,dolichconyx oryzivorus7 7fig4 #i7 #ag ,the redwinged blackbird 7,agelaius phniceus7 7fig4 #aj7 #ai ,the meadow lark1 or old field lark 7,sturnella magna7 7fig4 #aa7 #ba ,the ,baltimore oriole 7,icterus galbula7 7fig4 #ab7 #bc ,the crow blackbird1 or grackle 7,quiscalus quiscula7 7fig4 #ac7 #bd ,the sparrows 7fig4 #ad7 #bf ,the rose-breasted grosbeak 7,zamelodia ludoviciana7 7fig4 #ae7 #bh ,the swallows 7fig4 #af7 #cj ,the cedarbird 7,ampelis cedrorum7 7fig4 #ag7 #ca ,the catbird 7,galeoscoptes carolinensis7 7fig4 #ah7 #cc ,the brown thrasher 7,harporhynchus rufus7 7fig4 #ai7 #cd ,the house wren 7,troglodytes adon7 7fig4 #bj7 #ce ,the robin 7,merula migratoria7 7fig4 #ba7 #cg ,the bluebird 7,sialia sialis7 7fig4 #bb7 #ci ,,some ,,common ,,birds ,,in ,,their ,,relation ,,to ,,agriculture4 ,,introduction4 ,it has long been known that birds play an important part in relation to agriculture1 but there seems to be a tendency to dwell on the harm they do rather then on the good4 ,whether a bird is injurious or beneficial depends almost entirely upon what it eats1 and in the case of species which are unusually abundant or which depend in part upon the farmer's crops for subsistence the character of the food often becomes a very practical question4 ,if crows or blackbirds are seen in numbers about cornfields1 or if woodpeckers are noticed at work in an orchard1 it is perhaps not surprising that they are accused of doing harm4 ,careful investigation1 however1 often shows that they are actually destroying noxious insects1 and also that even those which do harm at one season may compensate for it by eating noxious species at another4 ,insects are eaten at all times by the majority of land birds1 and during the breeding season most kinds subsist largely and rear their young exclusively on this food4 ,when insects are unusually plentiful1 they are eaten by many birds which ordinarily do not touch them4 ,even birds of prey resort to this diet1 and when insects are more easily obtained than other fare1 the smaller hawks and owls live on them almost entirely4 ,this was well illustrated during the recent plague of ,rocky ,mountain locusts in the ,western ,states1 when it was found that locusts were eaten by nearly every bird in the region1 and that they formed almost the entire food of a large majority of the species4 ,within certain limits1 birds feed upon the kind of food that is most accessible4 ,thus1 as a rule1 insectivorous birds eat the insects that are most easily obtained1 provided they do not have some peculiarly disagreeable property4 ,it is not probable that a bird habitually passes by one kind of insect to look for another which is more appetizing1 and there seems little evidence in support of the theory that tire selection of food is restricted to any particular species of insect1 for it is evident that a bird eats those which by its own method of seeking are most easily obtained4 ,thus1 a ground-feeding bird eats those it finds among the dead leaves and grass2 a flycatcher1 watching for its prey from some vantage point1 captures entirely different kinds2 and the woodpecker and warbler1 in the tree tops1 select still others4 ,it is thus apparent that a bird's diet is likely to be quite varied1 and to differ at different seasons of the year4 ,in investigating the food habits of birds1 field observation can be relied on only to a limited extent1 for it is not always easy to determine what a bird really eats by watching it4 ,in order to be positive on this point1 it is necessary to examine the stomach contents4 ,when birds are suspected of doing injury to field crops or fruit trees1 a few individuals should be shot and their stomachs examined4 ,this will show unmistakably whether or not the birds are guilty4 ,in response to a general demand for definite information regarding the food habits of our native birds1 the biological ,survey of the ,department of ,agriculture has for some years past been conducting a systematic investigation of the food of species which are believed to be of economic importance4 ,thousands of birds' stomachs have been carefully examined in the laboratory1 and all the available data respecting the food brought together4 ,the results of the investigations relating to birds of prey1 based on an examination of nearly #c1jjj stomachs1 were published in #ahic1 in a special bulletin entitled ,the ,hawks and ,owls of the ,united ,states4 ,many other species have been similarly studied and the results published1 either in special bulletins or as articles in the yearbooks4 ,the present bulletin contains brief abstracts of the results of food studies of about #cj grain and insect eating birds belonging to #aj different families4#a #a ,the limits of this bulletin preclude giving more than a very brief statement regarding the food of each bird1 but more detailed accounts of some of the species will be found in the following reports of the ,biological ,survey 7formerly ,division of ,ornithology and ,mammalogy73 ,the ,cuckoos--,bulletin ,no4 #i1 #ahih1 pp4 #a-ad2 ,crow--,bulletin ,no4 #f1 #ahie1 pp4 #a-ih2 ,woodpeckers--,bulletin ,no4 #g1 #ahie1 pp4 #a-ci2 ,kingbird--,annual ,report ,secretary of ,agriculture for #ahic1 pp4 #bcc-bcd2 ,redwinged ,blackbird--,yearbook for #ahig1 pp4 #cdi-cea2 ,baltimore ,oriole--,yearbook for #ahie1 pp4 #dbf-dcj2 ,grackles--,yearbook for #ahid1 pp4 #bcc-bdh2 ,meadowlark--,yearbook for #ahie1 pp4 #dbj-dbf2 ,cedarbird--,annual ,report ,secretary of ,agriculture for #ahib1 pp4 #aig-bjj2 ,catbird1 ,brown ,thrasher1 and ,wren--,yearbook for #ahie1 pp4 #dje-dah4 ,these species comprise among others the crow blackbirds and ricebirds1 against which serious complaints have been made on account of the damage they do to corn1 wheat1 rice1 and other crops2 and also the cuckoos1 grosbeaks1 and thrashers1 which are generally admitted to be beneficial1 but whose true value as insect destroyers has not been fully appreciated4 ,the practical value of birds in controlling insect pests should be more generally recognized4 ,it maybe an easy matter to exterminate the birds in an orchard or grain field1 but it is an extremely difficult one to control the insect pests4 ,it is1 certain1 too1 that the value of our native sparrows as weed destroyers is not appreciated4 ,weed seed forms an important item of the winter food of many of these birds1 and it is impossible to estimate the immense numbers of noxious weeds which are thus annually destroyed4 ,if birds are protected and encouraged to nest about the farm and garden1 they will do their share in destroying noxious insects and weeds1 and a few hours spent in putting up boxes for bluebirds1 martins1 and wrens will prove a good investment4 ,birds are protected by law in many ,states1 but it remains for the agriculturalists to see that the laws are faithfully observed4 ,,the ,,cuckoos4 7,coccyzus americanus and ,c4 erythophthalmus7 ,two species of cuckoos1 the yellow-billed 7fig4 #a7 and the black-billed1 are common in the ,united ,states east of the ,plains1 and a subspecies of the yellow-billed extends westward to the ,pacific4 ,while the two species are quite distinct1 they do not differ greatly in food habits1 and their economic status is practically the same4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,yellow-billed cuckoo4 ,an examination of #aee stomachs has shown that these cuckoos are much given to eating caterpillars1 and1 unlike most birds1 do not reject those covered with hair4 ,in fact1 cuckoos eat so many hairy caterpillars that the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain there1 so that when the stomach is opened and turned inside out1 it appears to be lined with a thin coating of fur4 ,an examination of the stomachs of #dj black-billed cuckoos1 taken during the summer months1 showed the remains of #ijj caterpillars1 #dd beetles1 #if grasshoppers1 #ajj sawflies1 #cj stink bugs1 and #ae spiders4 ,in all probability more individuals than these were represented1 but their remains were too badly broken for recognition4 ,most of the caterpillars were hairy1 and many of them belonged to a genus that lives in colonies and feeds on the leaves of trees1 including the apple tree4 ,one stomach was filled with larv of a caterpillar belonging to the same genus as the tent caterpillar1 while others contained that species4 ,other larv were those of large moths1 for which the bird seems to have a special fondness4 ,the beetles were mainly click beetles and weevils1 with a few ,may beetles4 ,the sawflies were all found in two stomachs1 one of which contained no less than #ajj in the larval stage4 ,of the yellow-billed cuckoo1 #aji stomachs 7collected from ,may to ,october1 inclusive7 were examined4 ,the contents consisted of #a1hfe caterpillars1 #ic beetles1 #bdb grasshoppers1 #cg sawflies1 #fi bugs1 #f flies1 and #hf spiders4 ,most of the caterpillars belonged to hairy species and many of them were of large size4 ,one stomach contained #bej ,american tent caterpillars2 another #bag fall webworms4 ,in places where tent caterpillars are abundant they seem to constitute a large portion of the food of these two birds4 ,the beetles were distributed among several families1 but all more or less harmful to agriculture4 ,in the same stomach which contained the tent caterpillars were two ,colorado potato beetles2 in another were three goldsmith beetles and remains of several other large beetles4 ,besides grasshoppers were several katydids and tree crickets4 ,the sawflies were in the larval stage1 in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that they are commonly called false caterpillars1 and perhaps this likeness may be the reason the cuckoos eat them so freely4 ,the bugs consisted of stink bugs and cicadas or dog-day harvest flies1 with the single exception of one wheel bug1 which was the only useful insect eaten1 unless the spiders be counted as such4 ,,the ,,woodpeckers4 ,five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout the eastern ,united ,states1 and in the west are replaced by others of similar habits4 ,several species remain in the northern ,states through the entire year1 while others are more or less migratory4 ,farmers are prone to look upon woodpeckers with suspicion4 ,when the birds are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking at the bark1 and fresh holes are found in the tree1 it is concluded that they are doing harm4 ,careful observers1 however1 have noticed that1 excepting a single species1 these birds rarely leave any important mark on a healthy tree1 but that when a tree is affected by wood-boring larv the ,insects are accurately located1 dislodged1 and devoured4 ,in case the holes from which the borers are taken are afterwards occupied by colonies of ants1 these ants in turn are drawn out and eaten4 ,two of the best known woodpeckers1 the hairy woodpecker 7,dryobates villosus7 7fig4 #b7 and the downy woodpecker 7,d4 pubescens71 including their races1 range over the greater part of the ,united ,states1 and for the most part remain throughout the year in their usual haunts4 ,they differ chiefly in size1 for their colors are practically the same1 and the males1 like other woodpeckers1 are distinguished by a scarlet patch on the head4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,hairy woodpecker4 ,an examination of many stomachs of these two birds shows that from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects1 chiefly noxious4 ,wood-boring beetles1 both adults and larv1 are conspicuous1 and with them are associated many caterpillars1 mostly species that burrow into trees4 ,next in importance are the ants that live in decaying wood1 all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten in great quantities4 ,many ants are particularly harmful to limber1 for if they find a small spot of decay in the vacant burrow of some wood-borer1 they enlarge the hole1 and as their colony is always on the increase1 continue to eat away the wood until the whole trunk is honey-combed4 ,moreover1 these insects are not accessible to other birds1 and could pursue their career of destruction unmolested were it not that the woodpeckers1 with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such work1 dig out and devour them4 ,it is thus evident that woodpeckers are great conservators of forests4 ,to them1 more than to any other agency1 we owe the preservation of timber from hordes of destructive insects4 ,one of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker1 or golden-winged woodpecker 7,colaptes auratus7 7fig4 #c71 which is generally distributed throughout the ,united ,states from the ,atlantic ,coast to the ,rocky ,mountain4 ,it is there replaced by the red-shafted flicker 7,c4 cafer71 which extends westward to the ,pacific4 ,the two species are as nearly identical in food habits as their environment will allow4 ,the flickers1 while genuine woodpeckers1 differ somewhat in habits from the rest of the family1 and are frequently seen upon the ground searching for food4 ,like the downy and hairy woodpeckers1 they eat wood-boring grubs and ants1 but the number of ants eaten is much greater4 ,two of the flickers' stomachs examined were completely filled with ants1 each stomach containing more than #c1jjj individuals4 ,these ants belonged to species which live in the ground1 and it is these insects for which the flicker is searching when running about in the grass1 although some grasshoppers are also taken4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,flicker4 ,the red-headed woodpecker 7,melanerpes erythrocephalus7 7fig4 #d7 is well known east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 but is rather rare in ,new ,england4 ,unlike some of the other species1 it prefers fence posts and telegraph poles to trees as a foraging ground4 ,its food therefore naturally differs from that of the preceding species1 and consists largely of adult beetles and wasps1 which it frequently captures on the wing1 after the fashion of flycatchers4 ,grasshoppers also form an important part of the food4 ,the red-head has a peculiar habit of selecting very large beetles1 as shown by the presence of fragments of several of the largest species in the stomachs4 ,among the beetles were quite a number of predaceous ground beetles1 and unfortunately some tiger beetles1 which are useful insects4 ,the red-head has been accused of robbing the nests of other birds2 also of attacking young birds and poultry and peeking out their brains1 but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this charge it is probable that the habit is rather exceptional4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,red-headed woodpecker4 ,it has been customary to speak of the smaller woodpeckers as sapsuckers1 under the belief that they drill holes in the bark of trees for the purpose of drinking the sap and eating the inner bark4 ,close observation1 however1 has fixed this habit upon only one species1 the yellow-bellied woodpecker1 or sapsucker 7,sphyrapicus varius7 7fig4 #e74 ,this bird has been shown to be guilty of pecking holes in the bark of various forest trees1 and sometimes in that of apple trees1 from which it drinks the sap when the pits become filled4 ,it has been proved1 however1 that besides taking the gap the bird captures large numbers of insects which are attracted by the sweet fluid1 and that these form a very considerable portion of its diet4 ,in some cases the trees are injured by being thus punctured1 and die in a year or two1 but since comparatively few are touched the damage is not great4 ,it is equally probable1 moreover1 that the bird fully compensates for this injury by the insects it consumes4 ,the vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied1 but consists largely of small fruits and berries4 ,the downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such fruits as dogwood1 ,virginia creeper1 and others1 with the seeds of poison ivy1 sumac1 and a few other shrubs4 ,the flicker also eats a great many small fruits and the seeds of a considerable number of shrubs and weeds4 ,none of the three species is much given to eating cultivated fruits or crops4 ,the red-head has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit1 such as apples1 and also of taking considerable corn4 ,the stomach examinations show that to some extent these charges are substantiated but that the habit is not prevalent enough to cause much damage4 ,it is quite fond of mast1 especially beechnuts1 and when these nuts are plentiful the birds remain north all winter1 instead of migrating as is their usual custom4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,yellow-bellied woodpecker4 ,half the food of the sapsucker1 aside from sap1 consists of vegetable matter1 largely berries of the kinds already mentioned1 and also a quantity of the inner bark of trees1 more of which is eaten by this species than by any other4 ,many other woodpeckers are found in ,america1 but their food habits agree in the main with those just described4 ,those birds are certainly the only agents which can successfully cope with certain insect enemies of the forests1 and1 to some extent1 of fruit trees also4 ,for this reason1 if for no other1 they should be protected in every possible way4 ,,the ,,kingbird 7,tyrannus tyrannus7 ,the kingbird 7fig4 #f7 ,is essentially a lover of the orchard1 and wherever the native groves have been replaced by fruit trees this pugnacious bird takes up its abode4 ,it breeds in all of the ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and less commonly in the ,great ,basin and on the ,pacific ,coast4 ,it migrates south early in the fall1 and generally leaves the ,united ,states to spend the winter in more southern latitudes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,kingbird4 ,the kingbird manifests its presence in many ways4 ,it is somewhat boisterous and obtrusive1 and its antipathy for hawks and crows is well known4 ,it never hesitates to give battle to any of these marauders1 no matter1 how superior in size1 and for this reason a family of kingbirds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard4 ,on one occasion in the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair of kingbirds1 whose nest was near by1 that the would-be robber was glad to escape without his prey4 ,song birds that nest near the kingbird are similarly protected4 ,in its food habits this species is largely insectivorous4 ,it is a true flycatcher by nature1 and takes a large part of its food on the wing4 ,it does not1 however1 confine itself to this method of hunting1 but picks up some insects from trees and weeds1 and even descends to the ground in search of myriapods or thousand legs4 ,the chief complaint against the kingbird is that it preys largely upon honeybees2 and this charge has been made both by professional bee keepers and others4 ,many observers have seen the bird at work near hives1 and there is no reason to doubt the honesty of their testimony4 ,one bee raiser in ,iowa1 suspecting the kingbirds of feeding upon his bees1 shot a number near his hives1 but when the birds' stomachs were examined by an expert entomologist not a trace of honeybees could be found4 ,the ,biological ,survey has made an examination of #bha stomachs collected in various parts of the country1 but found only #ad containing remains of honeybees4 ,in these #ad stomachs there were in all #ej honeybees1 of which #dj were drones1 #d were certainly workers1 and the remaining #f were too badly broken to be identified as to sex4 ,the insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of this bird are noxious species1 largely beetles--,may beetles1 click beetles 7the larv of which are known as wire worms71 weevils1 which prey upon fruit and grain1 and a host of others4 ,wasps1 wild bees1 and ants are conspicuous elements of the food1 far outnumbering the hive bees4 ,during summer many grasshoppers and crickets1 as well as leaf hoppers and other bugs1 are also eaten4 ,among the flies were a number of robber flies--insects which prey largely upon other insects1 especially honeybees1 and which have been known to commit in this way extensive depredations4 ,it is thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these flies actually does good work for the apiarist4 ,nineteen robber flies were found in the stomachs examined2 these may be considered more than an equivalent for the four worker honeybees already mentioned4 ,a few caterpillars are eaten1 mostly belonging to the group commonly known as cutworms1 all the species of which are harmful4 ,about #aj per cent of the food consists of small native fruits1 comprising some twenty common species of the roadsides and thickets1 such as dogwood berries1 elder berries and wild grapes4 ,the bird has not been reported as eating cultivated fruit to an injurious extent1 and it is very doubtful if this is ever the case1 for cherries and blackberries are the only ones that might have come from cultivated places1 and they were found in but few stomachs4 ,three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of the kingbird--7#a7 that about #ij per cent consists of insects1 mostly injurious species2 7#b7 that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees is much less prevalent than has been supposed1 and probably does not result in any great damage2 and 7#c7 that the vegetable food consists almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value4 ,these facts1 taken in connection with its well-known enmity for hawks and crows1 entitle the kingbird to a place among the most desirable birds of the orchard or garden4 ,,the ,,ph,,be4 7,sayornis phbe47 ,among the early spring arrivals at the ,north1 none more welcome than the phbe 7fig4 #g74 ,though1 naturally building its nest under an overhanging cliff of rock or earth1 or in the mouth of a cave1 its preference for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any great distance from a farmhouse except where a bridge spans some stream1 affording a secure spot for a nest4 ,its confiding disposition has rendered it a great favorite1 and consequently it is seldom disturbed4 ,it breeds throughout the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 and winters from the ,south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states southward4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,phbe4 ,the phbe subsists almost exclusively upon insects1 most of which are caught upon the wing4 ,an examination of #hj stomachs showed that over #ic per cent of the year's food consists of insects and spiders1 while wild fruit constitutes the remainder4 ,the insects belong chiefly to noxious1 species1 and include many click beetles4 ,may beetles1 and weevils4 ,grasshoppers in their season are eaten to a considerable extent1 while wasps of various species1 many flies of species that annoy cattle1 and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly4 ,it is evident that a pair of phbes must materially reduce the number of insects near a garden or field1 as the birds often1 if not always1 raise two broods a year1 and each brood numbers from four to six young4 ,the vegetable portion of the food is unimportant1 and consists mainly of a few seeds1 with small fruits1 such as wild cherries1 elder berries1 and juniper berries4 ,the raspberries and blackberries found in the stomachs were the only fruits that might have banged to cultivated varieties1 and the quantity was trifling4 ,there is hardly a more useful species than the phbe about the farm1 and it should receive every encouragement4 ,to furnish nesting boxes is unnecessary1 as it usually prefers a more open situation1 like a shed1 or a nook under the eaves1 but it should be protected from cats and other marauders4 ,,the ,,blue ,,jay4 7,cyanocitta cristata47 ,the blue jay 7fig4 #h7 is a common bird of the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 and remains throughout the year in most of its range1 although its numbers are somewhat reduced in winter in the ,northern ,states4 ,during spring and summer the jay is forced to become an industrious hunter for insects1 and is not so conspicuous a feature of the landscape as when it roams the country at will after the cares of the nesting season are over4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,blue ,jay4 ,ornithologists and field observers in general declare that a considerable portion of its food in spring and early summer consists of the eggs and young of small birds1 and some farmers accuse it of stealing corn to an injurious extent in the fall4 ,while there may be some truth in these accusations1 they have almost certainly been exaggerated4 ,no doubt many jays have been observed robbing nests of other birds1 but thousands have been seen that were not so engaged4 ,in an investigation of the food of the blue jay #bib stomachs were examined1 which showed that animal matter comprised #bd per cent and vegetable matter #gj per cent of the bird's diet4 ,so much has been said about the nest robbing habits of the jay that special search was made for traces of birds or birds' eggs in the stomachs1 with the result that shells of small birds' eggs were found in three and the remains of young birds in only two stomachs4 ,such negative evidence is not sufficient to controvert the great mass of testimony upon this point1 but it shows that the habit is not so prevalent as has been believed4 ,besides birds and their eggs1 the jay eats mice1 fish1 salamanders1 snails1 and crustaceans1 which altogether constitute but little more than #a per cent of its diet4 ,the insect food is made up of beetles1 grasshoppers1 caterpillars1 and a few species of other orders1 all noxious1 except some #c per cent of predaceous beetles4 ,thus something more than #ai per cent of the whole food consists of harmful insects4 ,in ,august the jay1 like many other birds1 turns its attention to grasshoppers1 which constitute nearly one-fifth of its food during that month4 ,at this time1 also1 most of the other noxious insects1 including caterpillars1 are consumed1 though beetles are eaten chiefly in spring4 ,the vegetable food is quite varied1 but the item of most interest is grain4 ,corn was found in #gj stomachs1 wheat in #h1 and oats in #b--;all constituting #ai per cent of the total food4 ,corn is evidently the favorite grain1 but a closer inspection of the record shows that the greater part was eaten during the first five months of the year1 and that very little was taken after ,may1 even in harvest time1 when it is abundant4 ,this indicates that most of the corn is gleaned from the fields after harvest1 except what is stolen from cribs or gathered in ,may at planting time4 ,the jay's favorite food is mast 7i4 e41 acorns1 chestnuts1 chinquapins1 etc471 which was found in #aeh of the #bib stomachs and amounted to more than #db per cent of the whole food4 ,in ,september corn formed #ae and mast #ce per cent1 while in ,october1 ,november1 and ,december corn dropped to an almost inappreciable quantity and mast amounted to #fd1 #hb1 and #hc per cent1 respectively4 ,and yet in these months corn is abundant and everywhere easily accessible4 ,the other elements of food consist of a few seeds and wild fruits1 among which grapes and blackberries predominate4 ,the results of the stomach examination show1 7#a7 that the jay eats many noxious insects2 7#b7 that its habit of robbing the nests of other birds is much less common1 than has been asserted2 and 7#c7 that it does little harm to agriculture1 since all but a small amount of the corn eaten is waste grain4 ,,the ,,crow4 7,corvus americanus47 ,there are few birds so well known as the common crow1 and unlike most other species he does not seem to decrease in numbers as the country becomes more densely populated4 ,the crow is commonly regarded as a blackleg and a thief4 ,without the dash and brilliancy of the jay1 or the bold savagery of the hawk1 he is accused of doing more mischief than either4 ,that he does pull up sprouting corn1 destroy chickens1 and rob the nests of small birds has been repeatedly proved4 ,nor are these all of his sins4 ,he is known to eat frogs1 toads1 salamanders1 and some small snakes1 all harmless creatures that do some good by eating insects4 ,with so many charges against him1 it may be well to show why he should not be utterly condemned4 ,the examination of a large number of stomachs1 while confirming all the foregoing accusations1 has thrown upon the subject a light somewhat different from that derived slowly from field observation4 ,it shows that the bird's nesting habit1 as in the case of the jay1 is not so universal as has been supposed2 and that1 so far from being a habitual nest robber1 the crow only occasionally indulges in that reprehensible practice4 ,the same is true in regard to destroying chickens1 for he is able to carry off none but very young ones1 and his opportunities for capturing them are somewhat limited4 ,neither are many toads and frogs eaten1 and as frogs are of no great practical value1 their destruction is not a serious matter2 but toads are very useful1 and their consumption1 so far as it goes1 must be counted against crow4 ,turtles1 crayfishes1 and snails1 of which he eats quite a large number1 may be considered neutral1 while mice may be counted to his credit4 ,in his insect food1 however1 the crow makes amends for sins in the rest of his dietary1 although even here the first item is against him4 ,predaceous beetles are eaten in some numbers throughout the season1 but the number is not great4 ,may beetles1 dor-bugs1 or ,june bugs1 and others of the same family1 constitute the principal food during spring and early summer1 and are fed to the young in immense quantities4 ,other beetles1 nearly all of a noxious character1 are eaten to a considerable extent4 ,grasshoppers are first taken in ,may1 but not in large numbers until ,august1 when1 as might be expected1 they form the leading article of diet1 showing that the crow is no exception to the general rule that most birds subsist1 to a large extent1 upon grasshoppers in the month of ,august4 ,many bugs1 some caterpillars1 mostly cutworms1 and some spiders are also eaten--all of them either harmful or neutral in their economic relations4 ,of the insect diet ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,schwarz says3 ,the facts1 on the whole1 speak overwhelmingly in favor of the crow4 ,probably the most important item in the vegetable food is corn1 and by pulling up the newly sprouted seeds the bird renders himself extremely obnoxious4 ,observation and experiments with tame crows show that hard1 dry corn is never eaten if anything else is to be had1 and if fed to nestlings it is soon disgorged4 ,the reason crows resort to newly planted fields is that the kernels of corn are softened by the moisture of the earth1 and probably become more palatable in the process of germination1 which changes the starch of the grain to sugar4 ,the fact1 however1 remains that crows eat corn extensively only when it has been softened by germination or partial decay1 or before it is ripe and still in the milk4 ,experience has shown that they may be prevented from pulling up young corn by tarring the seed1 which not only saves corn but forces them to turn their attention to insects4 ,if they persist in eating green corn it is not so easy to prevent the damage2 but no details of extensive injury in this way have yet been presented and it is probable that no great harm has been done4 ,crows eat fruit to some extent1 but confine themselves for the most part to wild species1 such as dogwood1 sour gum1 and seeds of the different kinds of sumac4 ,they have also a habit of sampling almost everything which appears eatable1 especially when food is scarce4 ,for example1 they eat frozen apples found on the trees in winter1 or pumpkins1 turnips1 and potatoes which have been overlooked or neglected2 even mushrooms are sometimes taken1 probably in default of something better4 ,in estimating the economic status of the crow1 it must be acknowledged that he does some damage1 but1 on the other hand1 he should receive much credit for the insects which he destroys4 ,in the more thickly settled parts of the country the crow probably does more good than harm1 at least when ordinary precautions are taken to protect young poultry and newly-planted corn against his depredations4 ,if1 however1 corn is planted with no provision against possible marauders1 if hens and turkeys are allowed to nest and to roam with their broods at a distance from farm buildings1 losses must be expected4 ,,the ,,bobolink1 ,,or ,,ricebird4 7,dolichconyx oryzivorus7 ,the bobolink 7fig4 #i7 is a common summer resident of the ,united ,states1 north of about latitude #dj1 and from ,new ,england westward to the ,great ,plains1 wintering beyond our southern border4 ,in ,new ,england there are few birds1 if any1 around which so much romance has clustered2 in the ,south none on whose head so many maledictions have been heaped4 ,the bobolink1 entering the ,united ,states from the ,south at a time when the rice fields are freshly sown1 pulls up the young plants and feeds upon the seed4 ,its stay1 however1 is not long1 and it soon hastens northward1 where it is welcomed as a herald of summer4 ,during its sojourn in the ,northern ,states it feeds mainly upon insects and small seeds of useless plants2 but while rearing its young1 insects constitute its chief food1 and almost the exclusive diet of its brood4 ,after the young are able to fly1 the whole family gathers into a small flock and begins to live almost entirely upon vegetable food4 ,this consists for the most part of weed seeds1 since in the ,north these birds do not appear to molest grain to any great extent4 ,they eat a few oats1 but their stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain4 ,as the season advances they gather into larger flocks and move southward1 until by the end of ,august nearly all have left their breeding grounds4 ,on their way they frequent the reedy marshes about the mouths of rivers and on the inland waters of the coast region1 subsisting largely upon wild rice4 ,after leaving the ,northern ,states they are commonly known as reed birds1 and having become very fat are treated as game4 ,they begin to arrive on the rice fields in the latter part of ,august1 and during the next month make havoc in the ripening crop4 ,it is unfortunate that the rice districts lie exactly in the track of their fall migration1 since the abundant supply of food thus offered has undoubtedly served to attract them more and more1 until most of the bobolinks bred in the ,north are concentrated with disastrous effect on the south east coast when the rice ripens in the fall1 there was evidently a time when no such supply of food awaited the birds on their journey southward1 and it seems probable that the introduction of rice culture in the ,south1 combined with the clearing of the forests in the ,north1 thus affording a larger available breeding area1 has favored an increase in the numbers of this species4 ,the food habits of the bobolink are not necessarily easily inimical to the interests of agriculture4 ,it simply happens that the rice affords a supply of food more easily obtainable than did the wild plants which formerly occupied the same region4 ,were the rice fields at a distance from the line of migration1 or north of the bobolinks' breeding ground1 they would probably never be molested2 but lying1 as they do1 directly in the path of migration1 they form a recruiting ground1 where the birds can rest and accumulate flesh and strength for the long sea flight which awaits them in their course to ,south ,america4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,bobolink4 ,the annual loss to rice growers on account of bobolinks has been estimated at #b1jjj1jjj4 ,in the face of such losses it is evident that no mere poetical sentiment should stand in the way of applying any remedy which can be devised4 ,it would be unsafe to assume that the insects which the birds consume during their residence in the ,north can compensate for such destruction4 ,if these figures are any approximation to the truth1 the ordinary farmer will not believe that the bobolink benefits1 the ,northern half of the country nearly as much as it damages the ,southern half1 and the thoughtful ornithologist will be inclined to agree with him4 ,but even if the bird really does more harm than good1 what is the remedy6 ,for years the rice planters have been employing men and boys to shoot the birds and drive them away from the fields1 but in spite of the millions slain every year their numbers do not decrease4 ,in fact1 a large part of the loss sustained is not in the grain which the birds actually eat1 but in the outlay necessary to prevent them from taking it all4 ,at present there seems to be no effective remedy short of complete extermination of the species1 and this is evidently impracticable even were it desirable4 ,,the ,,redwinged ,,blackbird4 7,agelaius phniceus47 ,the redwinged1 or swamp1 blackbird 7fig4 #aj7 is found all over the ,united ,states and the region immediately to the north4 ,while common in most of its range1 its distribution is more or less local1 mainly on account of its partiality for swamps4 ,its nest is built near standing water1 in tall grass1 rushes1 or bushes4 ,owing to this peculiarity the bird may be absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps or marshes suitable for nesting4 ,it usually breeds in large colonies1 though single families1 consisting of a male with several wives1 may sometimes be found in a small slough1 where each of the females builds1 her nest and rears her own little brood1 while her liege lord displays his brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine4 ,in the ,upper ,mississippi ,valley it finds the conditions most favorable1 for the countless prairie sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow lakes form nesting sites for thousands of redwings2 and there are bred the immense flocks which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the ,west4 ,after the breeding season is over1 the birds collect in flocks to migrate1 and remain thus associated throughout the winter4 ,many complaints have been made against the redwing1 and several ,states have at times placed a bounty upon its head4 ,it is said to cause great damage to grain in the ,west1 especially in the ,upper ,mississippi ,valley2 and the rice growers of the ,south say that it eats rice4 ,no complaints have been received from the ,northeastern portion of the country1 where the bird is much less abundant than in the ,west and ,south4 ,an examination of #gbe stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms #gd per cent of the food1 while the animal matter1 mainly insects1 forms but #bf per cent4 ,a little more than #aj per cent consists of beetles1 mostly harmful species1 ,weevils1 or snout-beetles1 amount to #d per cent of the year's food1 but in ,june reach #be per cent4 ,as weevils are among the most harmful insects known1 their destruction should condone for at least some of the sins of which the bird has been accused4 ,grasshoppers constitute nearly #e per cent of the food1 while the rest of the animal matter is made up of various insects1 a few snails1 and crustaceans4 ,several dragon flies were found1 but these were probably picked up dead1 for they are too active to be taken alive1 unless by one of the flycatchers4 ,so far as the insect food as a whole is concerned1 the redwing may be considered entirely beneficial4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,redwinged blackbird4 ,the interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around the grain4 ,only three kinds1 corn1 wheat1 and oats1 were found in appreciable quantities in the stomachs1 and they aggregate but little more than #ac per cent of the whole food1 oats forming nearly half of this amount4 ,in view of the many complaints that the redwing eats grain1 this record is surprisingly small4 ,the crow blackbird has been found to eat more than three times as much4 ,in the case of the crow1 corn forms one-fifth of the food1 so that the redwinged blackbird1 whose diet is made up of only a trifle more than one-eighth of grain1 is really one of the least destructive species2 but the most important item of this bird's food is weed seed1 which forms practically the whole food in winter and about #eg per cent of the whole year's fare4 ,the principal weed seeds eaten are those of ragweed1 barn grass1 smartweed1 and about a dozen others4 ,that these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact that the birds begin to eat them in ,august1 when grain is still readily accessible1 and continue feeding on them even after insects become plentiful in ,april4 ,the redwing eats very little fruit and does practically no harm in the garden or orchard4 ,while it is impossible to dispute the mass of testimony which has accumulated concerning its grain-eating propensity1 the stomach examinations show that the habit must be local rather than general4 ,as the area of cultivation increases and the breeding grounds are curtailed1 the species is likely to become reduced in numbers and consequently less harmful4 ,nearly seven-eighths of the redwing's food is made up of weed seed or of insects injurious to agriculture1 indicating unmistakably that the bird should be protected1 except1 perhaps1 in a few places where it is too abundant4 ,,the ,,meadow ,,lark1 ,,or ,,old ,,field ,,lark4 7,sturnella magna47 ,the meadow lark 7fig4 #aa7 is a common and well-known bird occurring from the ,atlantic ,coast to the ,great ,plains1 where it gives way to a closely related subspecies1 which extends thence westward to the ,pacific4 ,it winters from our southern border as far north as the ,district of ,columbia1 southern ,illinois1 and occasionally ,iowa4 ,although it is a bird of the plains1 finding its most congenial haunts in the prairies of the ,west1 it does not disdain the meadows and mowing lands of ,new ,england4 ,it nests on the ground and is so terrestrial in its habits that it seldom perches on trees1 preferring a fence rail or a telegraph pole4 ,when undisturbed1 it may be seen walking about with a peculiar dainty step1 stopping every few moments to look about and give its tail a nervous flirt or to sound a note or two of its clear whistle4 ,the meadow lark is almost wholly beneficial1 although a few complaints have been made that it pulls sprouting grain1 and one farmer claims that it eats clover seed4 ,as a rule1 however1 it is looked upon with favor and is not disturbed4 ,in the #bch stomachs examined1 animal food 7practically all insects7 constituted #gc per cent of the contents and vegetable matter #bg per cent4 ,as would naturally be supposed1 the insects were ground species1 such as beetles1 bugs1 grasshoppers1 and caterpillars1 with a few flies1 wasps1 and spiders4 ,a number of the stomachs were taken from birds that had been killed when the ground was covered with snow1 but still they contained a large percentage of insects1 showing the bird's skill in finding proper food under adverse circumstances4 ,of the various insects eaten1 crickets and grasshoppers are the most important1 constituting #bi per cent of the entire year's food and #fi per cent of the food in ,august4 ,it is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon this point1 but it can readily be seen what an effect a number of these birds must have on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper season4 ,of the #bch stomachs collected at all seasons of the year1 #agh1 or more than two-thirds1 contained remains of grasshoppers1 and one was filled with fragments at #cg of those insects4 ,this seems to show conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred and are eaten whenever they can be procured4 ,the great number taken in ,august is especially noticeable4 ,this is essentially the grasshopper month1 i4 e41 the month when grasshoppers reach their maximum abundance2 and the stomach examination has shown that a large number of birds resort to this diet in ,august1 no matter what may be the food during the rest of the year4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,meadow lark4 ,next to grasshoppers1 beetles make up the most important item of the meadow lark's food1 amounting to nearly #ba per cent1 of which about one-third are predaceous ground beetles4 ,the others are all harmful species1 and when it is considered that the bird feeds exclusively on the ground1 it seems remarkable that so few useful ground beetles are eaten4 ,many of them have a disgusting odor1 and possibly this may occasionally save them from destruction by birds1 especially when other food is abundant4 ,caterpillars1 too1 form a very constant element1 and in ,may constitute over #bh per cent of the whole food4 ,may is the month when the dreaded cutworm begins its deadly career1 and then the bird does some of its best work4 ,most of these caterpillars are ground feeders1 and are overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees2 but the meadow lark finds them and devours them by thousands4 ,the remainder of the insect food is made up of a few ants1 wasps1 and spiders1 with a few bugs1 including some cinch bugs4 ,the vegetable food consists of grain1 weed1 and other hard seeds4 ,grain in general amounts to #ad1 and weed and other seeds to #ab per cent4 ,the grain1 principally corn1 is mostly eaten in winter and early spring1 and must be therefore simply waste kernels2 only a trifle is consumed in summer and autumn1 when it is most plentiful4 ,no trace of sprouting grain was discovered4 ,clover seed was found in only six stomachs1 and but little in each4 ,seeds of weeds1 principally ragweed1 barn grass1 and smartweed1 are eaten from ,november to ,april1 inclusive1 but during the rest of the year are replaced by insects4 ,briefly stated1 more than half of the meadow lark's food consists of harmful insects2 its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds or waste grain1 and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neutral insects and spiders4 ,a strong point in the bird's favor is that1 although naturally an insect eater1 it is able to subsist on vegetable food1 and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather any farther than is necessary to find ground free from snow4 ,this explains why it remains for the most part in the ,united ,states during winter1 and moves northward as soon as the snow disappears from its usual haunts4 ,there is one danger to which the meadow lark is exposed4 ,as its flesh is highly esteemed the bird is often shot for the table1 but it is entitled to all possible protection1 and to slaughter it for game is the least profitable way to utilize this valuable species4 ,,the ,,baltimore ,,oriole4 7,icterus galbula47 ,brilliancy of plumage1 sweetness of song1 and food habits to which no exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of the ,baltimore oriole 7fig4 #ab74 ,in summer this species is found throughout the northern half of the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 and is welcomed and loved in every country home in that broad land4 ,in the ,northern ,states it arrives rather late1 and is usually first seen1 or heard1 foraging amidst the early bloom of the apple trees1 where it searches for caterpillars or feeds daintily on the surplus blossoms4 ,its nest commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its plumage or the excellence of its song4 ,hanging from the tip of the outermost bough of a stately elm1 it is almost inaccessible1 and so strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the elements4 ,by watching an oriole which has a nest one may see it searching among the smaller branches of some neighboring tree1 carefully examining each leaf for caterpillars1 and occasionally trilling a few notes to its mate4 ,observation both in the field and laboratory shows that caterpillars constitute the largest item of its fare4 ,in #aac stomachs they formed #cd per cent of the food1 and are eaten in varying quantities during all the months in which the bird remains in this country1 although the fewest are eaten in ,july1 when a little fruit is also taken4 ,the other insects consist of beetles1 bugs1 ants1 wasps1 grasshoppers1 and some spiders4 ,the beetles are principally click beetles1 the larv of which are among the most destructive insects known2 and the bugs include plant and bark lice1 both very harmful1 but so small and obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds4 ,ants are eaten mostly in spring1 grasshoppers in ,july and ,august1 and wasps and spiders with considerable regularity throughout the season4 ,vegetable matter amounts to only a little more than #aj per cent of the food during the bird's stay in the ,united ,states1 so that the possibility of the oriole doing much damage to crops is very limited4 ,the bird has been accused of eating peas to a considerable extent1 but remains of peas were found in only two stomachs4 ,one writer says that it damages grapes1 but none were found4 ,in fact1 a few blackberries and cherries comprised the only cultivated fruit detected in the stomachs1 the remainder of the vegetable food being wild fruit and a few miscellaneous seeds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,baltimore oriole4 ,,the ,,crow ,,blackbird1 ,,or ,,grackle4 7,quiscalus quiscula47 ,the crow blackbird 7fig4 #ac7 or one of its subspecies is a familiar object in all of the ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,it is a resident throughout the year as far north as southern ,illinois1 and in summer extends its range into ,british ,america4 ,in the ,mississippi ,valley it is one of the most abundant birds1 preferring to nest in the artificial groves and windbreaks near farms instead of the natural timber which it formerly used4 ,it breeds also in parks and near buildings1 often in considerable colonies4 ,farther east1 in ,new ,england1 it is only locally abundant1 though frequently seen in migration4 ,after ,july it becomes very rare1 or entirely disappears1 owing to the fact that it collects in large flocks and retires to some quiet place1 where food is abundant and where it can remain undisturbed during the molting season1 but in the latter days of ,august and throughout ,september it usually reappears in immense numbers before moving southward4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,crow blackbird4 ,it is evident that a bird so large and so abundant may exercise an important influence upon the agricultural welfare of the country it inhabits4 ,the crow blackbird has been accused of many sins1 such as stealing grain and fruit and robbing the nests of other birds2 but the farmers do not undertake any war of extermination against it1 and1 for the most part1 allow it to nest about the premises undisturbed4 ,an examination of #b1beh stomachs showed that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects1 of which the greater part are injurious4 ,the bird also eats a few snails1 crayfishes1 salamanders1 small fish1 and occasionally a mouse4 ,the stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other birds' nests to any great extent1 as remains of birds and birds' eggs amount to less than one half of #a per cent4 ,it is1 however1 on account of its vegetable food that the grackle is most likely to be accused of doing damage4 ,grain is eaten during the whole year1 and during only a short time in summer is other food attractive enough to induce the bird to alter its diet4 ,the grain taken in the winter and spring months probably consists of waste kernels gathered from the stubble4 ,the stomachs do not indicate that the bird pulls sprouting grain2 but the wheat eaten in ,july and ,august1 and the corn eaten in the fall1 are probably taken from fields of standing grain4 ,the total grain consumed during the year constitutes #de per cent of the whole food1 but it is safe to say that at least half is waste grain1 and consequently of no value4 ,although the crow blackbird eats a few cherries and blueberries in their season1 and some wild fruit in the fall1 it apparently does no damage in this way4 ,large flocks of crow blackbirds no doubt do considerable injury to grain crops1 and there seems to be no remedy except the destruction of the birds1 which is in itself expensive4 ,during the breeding season1 however1 the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding them to its young1 which are reared almost entirely upon this food4 ,the bird does the greatest amount of good in spring1 when it follows the plow in search of large grub worms1 of which it is so fond that it sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them4 ,the farmer must decide for himself whether or not these birds cause more damage than can be repaid by insect destruction2 but when they destroy an entire crop it is no consolation to know that they have already eaten a multitude of insects which1 if left alone1 would have accomplished the same result4 ,,the ,,sparrows4#b #b ,the sparrows here mentioned are all native species4 ,for a full account of the ,english sparrow1 including its introduction1 habits1 and depredations1 see ,bull4 ,no4 #a of the ,division of ,ornithology1 published in #ahif4 ,sparrows are not obtrusive birds1 either in plumage1 song1 or action4 ,there are some forty species1 with nearly as many subspecies1 in ,north ,america1 but their differences1 both in plumage and habits1 are in most cases too obscure to be readily recognized1 and not more than half a dozen forms are generally known in any one locality4 ,all the species are more or less migratory1 but so widely are they distributed that there is probably no part of the country where some can not be found throughout the year4 ,while sparrows are noted seed eaters1 they do not by any means confine themselves to a vegetable diet4 ,during the summer1 and especially in the breeding season1 they eat many insects1 and probably feed their young largely upon the same food4 ,an examination of the stomachs of three species--the song sparrow 7,melospiza71 chipping sparrow 7,spizella socialis71 and field sparrow 7,spizella pusilla7 7fig4 #ad7--shows that about one third of the food consists of insects1 comprising many injurious beetles1 such as snout-beetles or weevils1 and leaf beetles4 ,many grasshoppers are eaten1 and in the case of the chipping sparrow these insects form one eighth of the food4 ,grasshoppers would seem to be rather large morsels1 but the bird probably confines itself to the smaller species2 indeed1 this is indicated by the fact that the greatest amount 7over #cf per cent7 is eaten in ,june1 when the larger species are still young and the small species most numerous4 ,besides the insects already mentioned1 many wasps and bugs are taken4 ,predaceous and parasitic ,hymenoptera and predaceous beetles1 all useful insects1 are eaten only to a slight extent1 so that as a whole the sparrows' insect diet may be considered beneficial4 ,their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds4 ,this might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon grain1 but the stomachs examined show only one kind--oats--and but little of that4 ,the great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed seed1 which form almost the entire diet during winter1 and the amount consumed is immense4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,field sparrow4 ,anyone acquainted with the agricultural region of the ,upper ,mississippi ,valley can not have failed to notice the enormous growth of weeds in every waste spot where the original sward has been disturbed4 ,by the roadside1 on the borders of cultivated fields1 or in abandoned fields1 wherever they can obtain a foothold1 masses of rank weeds spring up1 and often form impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter for immense numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold and the most terrible blizzards4 ,a person visiting one of these weed patches on a sunny morning in ,january1 when the thermometer is #bj or more below zero1 will be struck with the life and animation of the busy little inhabitants4 ,instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen1 they may be seen flitting from branch to branch1 twittering and fluttering1 and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort4 ,if one of them be killed and examined1 it will be found in excellent condition--in fact1 a veritable ball of fat4 ,the snowbird 7,junco hyemalis7 and tree sparrow 7,spizella monticola7 are perhaps the most numerous of all the sparrows4 ,the latter fairly swarms all over the ,northern ,states in winter1 arriving from the north early in ,october and leaving in ,april4 ,examination of many stomachs shows thats in ,winter the tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds2 and probably each bird consumes about one-fourth of an ounce a day4 ,in an article contributed to the ,new ,york ,tribune in #ahha the writer estimated the amount of weed seed annually destroyed by these birds in the ,state of ,iowa4 ,upon the basis of one-fourth of an ounce of seed eaten daily by each bird1 and supposing that the birds averaged ten to each square mile1 and that they remain in their winter range two hundred days1 we shall have a total of #a1gej1jjj pounds1 or #hge tons1 of weed seed consumed by this one species in a single season4 ,large as these figures may seem1 they certainly fall far short of the reality4 ,the estimate of ten birds to a square mile is much within the truth1 for the tree sparrow is certainly more abundant than this in winter in ,massachusetts1 where the food supply is less than in the ,western ,states1 and ,i have known places in ,iowa where several thousand could be seen within the space of a few acres4 ,this estimate1 moreover1 is for a single species1 while1 as a matter of fact1 there are at least half a dozen birds 7not all sparrows7 that habitually feed on these seeds during winter4 ,farther south the tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-throated sparrow1 the white-crowned sparrow1 the fox sparrow1 the song sparrow1 the field sparrow1 and several others2 so that all over the country there are a vast number of those seed eaters at work during the colder months reducing next year's crop of worse than useless plants4 ,in treating of the value of birds1 it has been customary to consider them mainly as insect destroyers2 but the foregoing illustration seems to show that seed eaters have a useful function1 which has never been fully appreciated4 ,,the ,,rose-,,breasted ,,grosbeak4 7,zamelodia ludoviciana47 ,the beautiful rose-breasted grosbeak 7fig4 #ae7 breeds in the northern half of the ,united ,states east of the ,missouri ,river1 but spends its winters beyond our boundaries4 ,unfortunately it is not abundant in ,new ,england1 and nowhere as plentiful as it should be4 ,it frequents groves and orchards rather than gardens or dooryards1 but probably the beauty of the male is the greatest obstacle to its increase2 the fully adult bird is pure black and white1 with a broad patch of brilliant rose color upon the breast and under each wing4 ,on account of this attractive plumage the birds are highly prized for ladies' hats2 and consequently heave been shot in season and out1 till the wonder is not that there are so few1 but that any remain at all4 ,when the ,colorado potato beetle first swept over the land1 and naturalists and farmers were anxious to discover whether or not there were any enemies which would prey upon the pest1 the grosbeak was almost the only bird seen to eat the beetles4 ,further observation confirmed the fact1 and there can be no reasonable doubt that where the bird is abundant it has contributed very much to the abatement of the pest which has been noted during the last decade4 ,but this is not the only good which the bird does1 for many other noxious insects besides the potato beetle are also eaten4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,rose-breasted grosbeak4 ,the vegetable food of the grosbeak consists of buds and blossoms of forest trees1 and seeds1 but the only damage of which it has been accused is the stealing of green peas4 ,the writer has observed it eating peas and has examined the stomachs of several that had been killed in the very act4 ,the stomachs contained a few peas and enough potato beetles1 old and young1 as well as other harmful insects1 to pay for all the peas the birds would be likely to eat in a whole season4 ,the garden where this took place adjoined a small potato field which earlier in the season had been so badly infested with the beetles that the vines were completely riddled4 ,the grosbeaks visited the field every day1 and finally brought their fledged young4 ,the young birds stood in a row on the topmost rail of the fence and were fed with the beetles which their parents gathered4 ,when a careful inspection was made a few days later1 not a beetle1 old or young1 could be found2 the birds had swept them from the field and saved the potatoes4 ,it is easy to advise measures either for increasing the numbers of this bird or inducing it to take up its residence on the farm4 ,naturally it inhabits thin1 open woods or groves1 and the change from such places to orchards would be simple--in fact1 has already been made in some parts of ,pennsylvania and ,ohio4 ,in ,new ,england the bird is somewhat rare1 and perhaps the best that can be done here or elsewhere it to see that it is thoroughly protected4 ,,the ,,swallows4 ,there are seven common species of swallows within the limits of the ,united ,states1 four of which have1 to some extent1 abandoned their primitive nesting habits and attached themselves to the abodes of man4 ,as a group1 swallows are gregarious and social in an eminent degree4 ,some species build nests in large colonies1 occasionally numbering thousands2 in the case of others only two or three pairs are found together2 while still others nest habitually in single pairs4 ,their habits are too familiar to require any extended description4 ,their industry and tirelessness are wonderful1 and during the day it is rare to see swallows at rest except just before their departure for the ,south1 when they assemble upon telegraph wires or upon the roofs of buildings1 apparently making plans for the journey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,barn swallow4 ,a noticeable characteristic of several of the species is their attachment to man4 ,in the eastern part of the country the barn swallow 7,chelidon erythrogastra7 7fig4 #af7 now builds exclusively under roofs1 having entirely abandoned the rock caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested4 ,more recently the cliff swallow 7,petrochelidon lunifrons7 has found a better nesting site under the eaves of buildings than was afforded by the overhanging-cliffs of earth or stone which it once used1 and to which it still resorts occasionally in the ,east1 and habitually in the unsettled ,west4 ,the martin 7,progne subis7 and white-bellied swallow 7,tachycineta bicolor7 nest either in houses supplied for the purpose1 in abandoned nests of woodpeckers1 or in natural crannies in rocks4 ,the other species have not yet abandoned their primitive habitats1 but possibly may do so as the country becomes more thickly settled4 ,field observation will convince any ordinarily attentive person that the food of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in mid-air1 or perhaps in some cases picked from the tops of tall grass or weeds4 ,this observation is borne out by an examination of stomachs1 which shows that the food consists of many small species of beetles which are much on the wing2 many species of ,diptera 7mosquitoes and their allies71 with large quantities of flying ants and a few insects of similar kinds4 ,most of them are either injurious or annoying1 and the numbers destroyed by swallows are not only1 beyond calculation1 but almost beyond imagination4 ,the white-bellied swallow eats a considerable number of berries of the bayberry1 or wax myrtle4 ,during migrations and in winter it has a habit of roosting in these shrubs1 and it probably obtains the fruit at that time4 ,it is a mistake to tear down the nests of a colony of cliff swallows from the eaves of a barn1 for so far from disfiguring a building the nests make a picturesque addition1 and their presence should be encouraged by every device4 ,it is said that cliff and barn swallows can be induced to build their nests in a particular locality1 otherwise suitable1 by providing a quantity of mud to be used as mortar4 ,barn swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable of the barn1 while martins and white-bellied swallows will be grateful for boxes like those for the bluebird1 but placed in some higher situation4 ,,the ,,cedar ,,bird4 7,ampelis cedrorum47 ,the cedar waxwing1 or cherry bird 7fig4 #ag71 inhabits the whole of the ,united ,states1 but is much less common in the ,west4 ,although the great bulk of the species retires southward in winter1 the bird is occasionally found in every ,state during the colder months1 especially if wild berries are abundant4 ,its proverbial fondness for cherries has given rise to its popular name1 and much complaint has been made on account of the fruit eaten4 ,observation has shown1 however1 that its depredations are confined to trees on which the fruit ripens earliest1 while later varieties are comparatively untouched4 ,this is probably owing to the fact that when wild fruits ripen they are preferred to cherries1 and really constitute the bulk of the cedar bird's diet4 ,in #aeb stomachs examined animal matter formed only #ac and vegetable #hg per cent1 showing that the bird is not wholly a fruit eater4 ,with the exception of a few snails1 all the animal food consisted of insects1 mainly beetles--and all but one more or less noxious1 the famous elm leaf-beetle being among the number4 ,bark or scale lice were found in several stomachs1 while the remainder of the animal food was made up of grasshoppers1 bugs1 and the like4 ,three nestlings were found to have been fed almost entirely on insects4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,cedar bird4 ,of the #hg per cent of vegetable food1 #gd consisted entirely of wild fruit or seeds and #ac of cultivated fruit1 but a large part of the latter was made up of blackberries and raspberries1 and it is very doubtful whether they represented cultivated varieties4 ,cherry stealing is the chief complaint against this bird1 but of the #aeb stomachs only #i1 all taken in ,june and ,july1 contained any remains of cultivated cherries1 and these aggregate but #e per cent of the year's food4 ,as #da stomachs were collected in those months1 it is evident that the birds do not live to any great extent on cultivated cherries4 ,although the cherry bird is not a great insect destroyer1 it does some good work in this way1 since it probably rears its young mostly upon insect food4 ,on the other hand1 it does not devour nearly as much cultivated fruit as has been asserted1 and most1 if not all1 of the damage can be prevented4 ,the bird should therefore be considered a useful species1 and as such should be accorded all possible protection4 ,,the ,,catbird4 7,galeoscoptes carolinensis47 ,the catbird 7fig4 #ah71 like the thrasher1 is a lover of swamps1 and delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines1 greenbriars1 and shrubs1 where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food in abundance4 ,it is found throughout the ,united ,states west to the ,rocky ,mountains2 occurs also in ,washington1 ,idaho1 and ,utah1 and extends northward into ,british ,america4 ,it winters in the ,southern ,states1 ,cuba1 ,mexico1 and ,central ,america4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,catbird4 ,the catbird always attracts attention1 and the intruder upon its haunts soon understands that he is not welcome4 ,there is no mistaking the meaning of the sneering voice with which he is saluted1 and there is little doubt that this gave rise to the popular prejudice against the bird2 but the feeling has been increased by the fact that the species is sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers4 ,all such reports1 however1 seem to come from the prairie country of the ,west4 ,in ,new ,england1 according to the writer's experience the catbird is seldom seen about gardens or orchards2 the reason may possibly be found in the fact that on the prairies fruit-bearing shrubs which afford so large a part of this bird's food are conspicuously absent4 ,with the settlement of this region comes an extensive planting of orchards1 vineyards1 and small fruit gardens1 which furnish shelter and nesting sites for the catbird1 as well as for other species1 with a consequent large increase in their numbers1 but without providing the native fruits upon which they have been accustomed to feed4 ,under these circumstances1 what is more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruits for their supplies8 ,the remedy is obvious2 cultivated fruits can be protected by the simple expedient of planting wild species or others which are preferred by the birds4 ,some experiments with catbirds in captivity showed that the ,russian mulberry was preferred to any cultivated fruit that could be offered4 ,the stomachs of #bac catbirds wore examined and found to contain #dd per cent of animal 7insect7 and #ef per cent of vegetable food4#c ,ants1 beetles1 caterpillars1 and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the animal food1 the remainder being made up of bugs1 miscellaneous insects and spiders4 ,one-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated fruits1 or those which may be cultivated1 such as strawberries1 raspberries1 and blackberries2 but while we debit the bird with the whole of this1 it is probable--and in the eastern and well-wooded part of the country almost certain--that a large part was obtained from wild vines4 ,the rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit1 such as cherries1 dogwood1 sour gum1 elder berries1 greenbriar1 spice berries1 black alder1 sumac1 and poison ivy4 #c ,the investigation of the food of the catbird1 brown thrasher1 and house wren was made by ,mr4 ,sylvester ,d4 ,judd and published in the ,yearbook of the ,department of ,agriculture for #ahie1 pp4 #dje-dah4 ,although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying small fruit1 the bird can not be considered injurious4 ,on the contrary1 in most parts of the country it does far more good than harm1 and the evil it does can be reduced appreciably by the methods already pointed out4 ,,the ,,brown ,,thrasher4 7,harporhynchus rufus47 ,the brown thrasher 7fig4 #ai7 breeds throughout the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 and winters in the south ,atlantic and ,gulf ,states4 ,it occasionally visits the garden or orchard1 but nests in swamps or in groves standing upon low ground4 ,while it generally prefers a thickly grown retreat1 it sometimes builds in a pile of brush at a distance from trees4 ,on account of its more retiring habits it is not so conspicuous as the robin1 although it may be equally abundant4 ,few birds can excel the thrasher in sweetness of song1 but it is so shy that its notes are not heard often enough to be appreciated4 ,its favorite time for singing is the early morning1 when1 perched on the top of some tall bush or low tree1 it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which would do credit to a mockingbird4 ,indeed1 in the ,south1 where the latter bird is abundant1 the thrasher is known as the sandy mocker4 ,the food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects4 ,an examination of #aba stomachs showed #cj per cent of vegetable and #fd of animal food1 practically all insects1 and mostly taken in spring before fruit is ripe4 ,half the insects were beetles1 and the remainder chiefly grasshoppers1 caterpillars1 bugs1 and spiders4 ,a few predaceous beetles were eaten1 but1 on the whole1 its work as an insect destroyer may be considered beneficial4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,brown thrasher4 ,eight per cent of the food is made up of fruits like raspberries and currants which are or may be cultivated1 but the raspberries at least are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties4 ,grain1 made up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn1 is merely a trifle1 amounting to only #c per cent1 and though some of the corn may be taken from newly planted fields it is amply paid for by the ,may beetles which are eaten at the same time4 ,the rest of the food consists of wild fruit or seeds4 ,taken all in all1 the brown thrasher is a useful bird1 and probably does just as good work in its secluded retreats as it would about the garden1 for the swamps and groves are no doubt the breeding grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack the farmers' crops4 ,,the ,,house ,,wren4 7,troglodytes adon47 ,the diminutive house wren 7fig4 #bj7 frequents barns and gardens1 and particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed4 ,he makes his nest in a hollow branch where perhaps a woodpecker had a domicile the year before1 but he is a pugnacious character1 and if he happens to fancy one of the boxes that have been put up for the bluebirds he does not hesitate to take it4 ,he is usually not slow to avail himself of boxes1 gourds1 tin cans1 or empty jars placed for his accommodation4 ,as regards food habits1 the house wren is entirely beneficial4 ,practically1 he can be said to live upon animal food alone1 for an examination of #fb stomachs showed that #ih per cent of the stomach contents was made up of insects or their allies1 and only #b per cent was vegetable1 including bits of grass and similar matter1 evidently taken by accident with the insects4 ,half of this food consisted of grasshoppers and beetles2 the remainder of caterpillars1 bugs1 and spiders4 ,as the house wren is a prolific breeder1 frequently rearing from twelve to sixteen young in a season1 a family of these birds must cause considerable reduction in the number of insects in a garden4 ,wrens are industrious foragers1 searching every tree1 shrub1 or vine for caterpillars1 examining every post and rail of the fence1 and every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders4 ,they do not1 as a rule1 fly far afield1 but work industriously in the immediate vicinity of their nests4 ,in this way they become valuable aids in the garden or orchard1 and by providing suitable nesting boxes they may be induced to take up residence where their services will do most good4 ,their eccentricities in the selection of a home are well-known4 ,almost anything1 from an old cigar box to a tomato can1 an old teapot1 a worn-out boot1 or a horse's skull1 is acceptable1 provided it be placed well up from the ground and out of reach of cats and other prowlers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,house wren4 ,it does not seem possible to have too many wrens1 and every effort should be made to protect them and to encourage their nesting about the house4 ,,the ,,robin4 7,merula migratoria47 ,the robin 7fig4 #ba7 is found throughout the ,united ,states east of the ,great ,plains1 and is represented farther west by a slightly different subspecies4 ,it extends far north through ,canada1 and is found even in ,alaska4 ,although the great bulk of the species leaves the ,northern ,states in winter1 a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps1 where wild berries furnish an abundant supply of food4 ,the robin builds its nest in orchards and gardens1 and occasionally takes advantage of a nook about the house1 or under the shelter of the roof of a shed or outbuilding4 ,its food habits have sometimes caused apprehension to the fruit grower1 for it is fond of cherries and other small fruits1 particularly the earlier varieties4 ,for this reason many complaints have been lodged against it1 and some persons have gone so far as to condemn the bird4 ,the robin is1 however1 too valuable to be exterminated1 and choice fruit can be readily protected from its depredations4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,robin4 ,an examination of #ccj stomachs shows that over #db per cent of its food is animal matter1 principally insects1 while the remainder is made up largely of small fruits or berries4 ,over #ai per cent consists of beetles1 about one-third of which are useful ground beetles1 taken mostly in spring and fall1 when other insects are scarce4 ,grasshoppers makeup about one-tenth of the whole food1 but in ,august comprise over #cj per cent4 ,caterpillars form about ,g per cent1 while the rest of the animal food1 about #g per cent1 is made up of various insects1 with a few spiders1 snails1 and angle-worms4 ,all the grasshoppers1 caterpillars1 and bugs1 with in large portion of the beetles1 are injurious1 and it is safe to say that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robin's food4 ,vegetable food forms nearly #eh per cent of the stomach contents1 over #dg being wild fruits1 and only a little more than #d per cent being possibly cultivated varieties4 ,cultivated fruit amounting to about #be per cent was found in the stomachs in ,june and ,july1 but only a trifle in ,august4 ,wild fruit1 on the contrary1 is eaten in every month1 and constitutes a staple food during half the year4 ,no less than forty-one species were identified in the stomachs of these1 the most important were four species of dogwood1 three of wild cherries1 three of wild grapes1 four of greenbriar1 two of holly1 two of elder2 and cranberries1 huckleberries1 blueberries1 barberries1 service berries1 cranberries1 and persimmons1 with four species of sumac1 and various other seeds not strictly fruit4 ,the depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and earlier fruits1 and few1 if any1 complaints have been made against it on the score of eating apples1 peaches1 pears1 grapes1 or even late cherries4 ,by the time these are ripe the forests and hedges are teeming with wild fruits1 which the bird evidently finds more to its taste4 ,the cherry1 unfortunately1 ripens so early that it1 is almost the only fruit accessible at a time when the bird's appetite has been sharpened by a long-continued diet of insects1 earthworms1 and dried berries1 and it is no wonder that at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily eaten4 ,in view of the fact that the robin takes ten times as much wild as cultivated fruit1 it seems unwise to destroy the birds to save so little4 ,nor is this necessary1 for by a little care both may be preserved4 ,where much fruit is grown1 it is no great loss to give up one tree to the birds2 and in some cases the crop can be protected by scarecrows4 ,where wild fruit is not abundant1 a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the birds4 ,the ,russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse bearer1 ripening at the same time as the cherry1 and1 so far as observation has gone1 most birds scorn to prefer its fruit to any other4 ,it is believed that a number of these trees planted around the garden or orchard would fully protect the more valuable fruits4 ,many persons have written about the delicate discrimination of birds for choice fruit1 asserting that only the finest and costliest varieties are selected4 ,this is contrary to all careful scientific observation4 ,birds1 unlike human beings1 seem to prefer fruit like the mulberry1 that is sweetly insipid1 or that has some astringent or bitter quality like the chokecherry or holly4 ,the so-called black alder 7,ilex verticillata71 which is a species of holly1 has bright scarlet berries1 as bitter as quinine1 that ripen late in ,october1 and remain on the bushes through ,november1 and though frost grapes1 the fruit of the ,virginia creeper1 and several species of dogwood are abundant at the same time1 the birds eat the berries of the holly to a considerable extent1 as shown by the seeds found in the stomachs4 ,it is moreover a remarkable fact that the wild fruits upon which the birds feed largely are those which man neither gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation4 ,,the ,,bluebird4 7,sialia sialis47 ,the common and familiar bluebird 7fig4 #bb7 is an inhabitant of all the ,states east of the ,rocky ,mountains from the ,gulf of ,mexico northward into ,canada4 ,it winters as far north as southern ,illinois1 in the ,mississippi ,valley1 and ,pennsylvania in the east2 in spring it is one of the first migrants to arrive in the ,northern ,states1 and is always welcomed as an indication of the final breaking up of winter4 ,it frequents orchards and gardens1 where it builds its nest in hollow trees1 or takes advantage of a nesting box provided by the enterprising farmer's boy4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,bluebird4 ,so far as known1 this bird has not been accused of stealing fruit or of preying upon any crops4 ,an examination of #bje stomachs showed that #gf per cent of the food consists of insects and their allies1 while the other #bd per cent is made up of various vegetable substances1 found mostly in stomachs taken in winter4 ,beetles constitute #bh per cent of the whole food1 grasshoppers #bb1 caterpillars #aa1 and various insects1 including quite a number of spiders1 comprise the remainder of the insect diet4 ,all these are more or less harmful1 except a few predaceous beetles1 which amount to #h per cent1 but in view of the large consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars1 we can at least condone this offense1 if such it may be called4 ,the destruction of grasshoppers is very noticeable in the months of ,august and ,september1 when these insects form more than #fj per cent of the diet4 ,it is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed more by abundance than by choice4 ,predaceous beetles are eaten in spring1 as they are among the first insects to appear2 but in early summer caterpillars form an important part of the diet1 and are replaced a little later by grasshoppers4 ,beetles are eaten at all times1 except when grasshoppers are more easily obtained4 ,so far as its vegetable food is concerned1 the bluebird is positively harmless4 ,the only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted of a few blackberry seeds1 and even these more probably belonged to wild than cultivated varieties4 ,following is a list of the various seeds which were found3 ,blackberry1 chokeberry1 juniperberry1 pokeberry1 partridgeberry1 greenbriar1 ,virginia creeper1 bittersweet1 holly1 strawberry bush1 false spikenard1 wild sarsaparilla1 sumac 7several species71 rose haws1 sorrel1 ragweed1 grass1 and asparagus4 ,this list shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply its needs1 and indicates that by encouraging the growth of some of these plants1 many of which are highly ornamental1 the bird can be induced to make its home on the premises4 ,bluebirds are so well known that it seems unnecessary to urge anything more in their favor2 but in view of the fact that large numbers were destroyed during the severe storm of #ahie1 more than ordinary vigilance should be exercised in protecting them until they have regained their normal abundance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber ,note ,figures were moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs4 ,hyphenation was standardized to the most prevalent form used in the publication4