,a ,,beg9n]',s ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,transcrib]'s ,notes ,punctuation has be5 /&>diz$4 ,*>act]s 9 small caps h be5 replac$ by all caps4 ,non-pr9table *>act]i/ics h be5 giv5 ! foll[+ ,italic text3 -- text emphasiz$ text )9 bold text3 -- text4 ,?is book 0 writt5 9 a p]iod :5 _m words _h n become /&>diz$ 9 _! spell+4 ,words may h multiple spell+ v>iations or inconsi/5t hyph5ation 9 ! text4 ,^! h be5 left un*ang$ unless indicat$ ) a ,transcrib]'s ,note4 ,! symbol #8' indicates ! description 9 p>5!sis has be5 add$ to an illu/ration4 ,?is may be ne$$ if !re is no caption or if ! caption does n describe ! image adequately4 ,index ref]5ces h n be5 *eck$ = accuracy4 ,footnotes are id5tifi$ 9 ! text ) a numb] 9 brackets #b & h be5 accumulat$ 9 a s+le section at ! end ( ! text4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes are us$ :5 mak+ corrections to ! text or to provide additional in=mation = ! mod]n read]4 ,^! notes are id5tifi$ 9 ! text by a symbol1 & are accumulat$ 9 a s+le section at ! end ( ! book4 ,illu/ration3 ,,immanuel ,,kant 7,! ,puttri*'s*e ,portrait ( ,kant 0 pr9t$ 9 ! ,kant-,/udi5 9 #aijf & is said by ,pr(essor ,vaih+] to be "o ( ! be/ lik5esses ( ! ,knigsb]g philosoph]4 ,! "n ( ! arti/ 0 ,puttri*1 & ! orig9al pa9t+ goes back be=e #agih4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ?is portrait ( ,kant 0 us$ by ! sculptor1 ,rau*1 z 8 model = ! /atue ( ,kant ^u ! memorial monum5t ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great47 ,a ,,beg9n]',s ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,,by ,,h]b]t ,,erne/ ,,cu%man1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,ph4,d4 ,sometime ,pr(essor ( ,philosophy 9 ,tufts ,college ,lectur] ( ,philosophy 9 ,h>v>d ,college ,lectur] ( ,philosophy 9 ,d>tm\? ,college ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,mod]n ,,philosophy ,illu/ration3 7 ,colophon7 ,,bo/on ,,new ,,york ,,*icago ,,h\ghton ,,miffl9 ,,company ,! ,riv]side ,press ,cambridge ,,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,,h]b]t ,,erne/ ,,cu%man ,,all ,,rights ,,res]v$ ,,preface ,! p$agogical purpose ( ?is hi/ory ( philosophy is /at$ 9 ! ,preface to ! fir/ volume4 ,x may be desirable 9 ?is place to re/ate :at t purpose is4 ,?is book is int5d$ z a text-book = sket*-c\rses 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,x is writt5 = ! /ud5t r ?an = ! tea*]4 ,x is a hi/ory ( philosophy ^u ! backgr\nd ( geography & ( lit]>y & political hi/ory4 ,s9ce ! book is int5d$ = ! /ud5t1 x makes ! tea*] all ! m necess>y2 = x puts into ! h&s ( ! /ud5t an outl9e ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy & into ! h&s ( ! tea*] ! class-room "t = inspir+ ! /ud5t ) 8 own int]pretations4 ,9 mak+ use ( geographical maps1 contempor>y lit]ature1 & political hi/ory1 ?is book is m]ely employ+ = p$agogical reasons ! /ock ( in=mation ) :i* ! /ud5t is furni%$1 :5 he beg9s ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,! summ>ies1 tables1 & o!r g5]alizations are employ$1 z 9 text-books 9 o!r subjects1 z helps to ! memory4 ,!re=e ! book has ! s+le purpose ( arrang+ & organiz+ ! mat]ial ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy = ! beg9n]4 ,! /ud5t w be impress$ ) ! %ort "t-l5g? ( ! mod]n p]iod comp>$ ) ! trem5d\sly long /ret*es ( ! p]iods ( antiquity4 ,! mod]n p]iod is only f\r hundr$ & fifty ye>s 9 l5g?1 if we take ! date #adec z its beg9n+4 ,comp>$ to ! tw5ty-two hundr$ ye>s ( anci5t & m$ival life1 ! p]iod ( mod]n life seems v %ort4 ,fur!rmore ! /ud5t :o has foll[$ ! philosophy ( antiquity mu/ h obs]v$ h[ (t5 philosophy arose out ( e?nic situations 9 :i* :ole civilizations 7 involv$4 ,he w f9d t mod]n philosophy 9 ?is respect /&s 9 contra/ ) ! philosophy ( anci5t times4 ,) ! dec5traliz+ ( mod]n ,europe1 philosophy has also become dec5traliz$4 ,?is does n mean t philosophical movem5ts h includ$ few] p 9 _! sweep1 b t ! movem5ts h _h %ort] life1 ! transitions h be5 quick]1 & ! epo*s h be5 brief]4 ,mod]n civilization is subjective2 & its philosophy is !reby m te*nical1 & m difficult to und]/& & to int]pret ?an ! philosophy ( antiquity4 ,!re are _m helpful books 9 ,engli% on ! hi/ory ( mod]n philosophy1 & ! /ud5t %\ld h !m at h&4 ,i call att5tion especially to ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 = its judici\s selection f ! orig9al s\rces2 to ,royce1 ,_s ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1 *apt]s iii to x2 to ,euck51 ,! ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #cjc to #eah2 & to ! ,summ>ies 9 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 ,p>ts ,,iv to ,,vii4 ,besides ^! !re are valuable hi/ories ( mod]n philosophy by ,falck5b]g1 ,hffd+ 7#b vols471 ,web]1 ,ueb]weg 7vol4 ii71 ,calk9s1 ,dew+1 & ,rog]s4 ,to fri5ds :o h read p>ts ( ! manuscript1 ,i desire to ackn[l$ge my indebt$ness = _m wise criticisms & sugge/ions2 especially to ,pr(essor ,w4 ,a4 ,neilson1 ,pr(essor ,r4 ,b4 ,p]ry1 ,dr4 ,b4 ,a4 ,g4 ,full]1 & ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,woods ( ,h>v>d ,univ]sity2 to ,pr(essor ,m>y ,w4 ,calk9s ( ,wellesley ,college2 to ,pr(essor ,w4 ,p4 ,montague ( ,columbia ,univ]sity2 & to ,pr(essor ,s4 ,p4 ,cap5 ( ,cl>k ,college4 ,,tufts ,,college1 ,decemb]1 #aiaj4 ,,cont5ts ,,volume ,,ii4 ,,mod]n ,,philosophy 7#adec ,,to ,,! ,,pres5t ,,"t7 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,*>act]i/ics ,,& ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,mod]n ,,p]iod #a ,,! ,,difficulty ,,9 ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,mod]n ,,philosophy #a ,,! ,,p]iods ,,( ,,mod]n ,,philosophy #b ,,! ,,causes ,,( ,,! ,,decay ,,( ,,! ,,civilization ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages #d 7a7 ,! ,int]nal ,causes #d 7#a7 ,! ,intellectual ,me?ods 7 ,self-,de/ructive #d 7#b7 ,! ,/&>d ( ,tru? became a ,d\ble ,/&>d #e 7#c7 ,! ,developm5t ( ,my/icism #e 7#d7 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,nom9alism #e 7b7 ,! ,ext]nal ,causes #f ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,r5aissance 7#adec-afij7 #h ,,! ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance #h 7a7 ,! ,new ,man ( ! ,r5aissance #h 7b7 ,! ,new ,univ]se ( ! ,r5aissance #i 7#a7 ,! ,trans=mation ( ! ,physical ,univ]se #i 7#b7 ,! ,re/oration ( ! ,_w ( ,antiquity #aj ,,! ,,significance ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance ,,9 ,,hi/ory #aa ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,dec5tralization ,,( ,,europe #ac ,,! ,,two ,,p]iods ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance3 ,,! ,,humani/ic 7#adec-afjj72 ,,! ,,natural ,,sci5ce 7#afjj-afij7 #ae 7a7 ,! ,simil>ities ( ! ,two ,p]iods #af 7b7 ,! ,diff]5ces ( ! ,two ,p]iods #af 7#a7 ,! ,c\ntries :i* p>ticipate 9 ! ,r5aissance diff] 9 ! ,two ,p]iods #af 7#b7 ,! ,intellectual ,/&>ds diff] 9 ! ,two ,p]iods #ag 7#c7 ,! ,sci5tific ,me?ods 9 ! ,two ,p]iods 7 ,diff]5t #ah 7#d7 ,! ,attitude ( ! ,*ur* t[>d ,sci5ce diff]s 9 ! ,two ,p]iods #ai ,a ,,brief ,,contra/ ,,( ,,! ,,two ,,p]iods,a ,,summ>y ,,( ,,! ,,discussion ,,above #ba ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,humani/ic ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance 7#adec-afjj7 #bb ,,! ,,long ,,li/ ,,( ,,repres5tatives ,,( ,,! ,,humani/ic ,,p]iod #bb ,,nicolas ,,( ,,cusa 7#adja-adfd7 #bd ,,p>acelsus 7#adic-aeda7 #be ,,giordano ,,bruno 7#aedh-afjj7 #bg ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,bir?places ,,( ,,! ,,*ief ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance #cj ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,natural ,,sci5ce ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance 7#afjj-afij7 #ca ,,! ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,natural ,,sci5ce ,,p]iod #ca ,,! ,,ma!matical ,,a/ronom]s #cb ,,galileo ,,galilei 7#aefd-afda7 #cf ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,francis ,,bacon1 ,,b>on ,,v]ulam 7#aefa-afbf7 #ci ,,! ,,position ,,( ,,bacon ,,9 ,,philosophy #ci ,,! ,,aim ,,( ,,bacon #db ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,bacon #dc 7a7 ,bacon's ,criticism ( ! ,pa/ #dd 7b7 ,bacon's ,positive ,con/ruction #de ,,! ,,engli% ,,natural ,,sci5ce ,,movem5t #df ,,?omas ,,hobbes ,,& ,,8 ,,contempor>ies #dg ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi7 #di #a4 ,z a ,classical ,s*ol> 7#aehh-afbh7 #di #b4 ,z ,ma!matician 7#afbh-afch7 #di #c4 ,z ,philosoph] 7#afch-afea7 #ej #d4 ,z ,controv]siali/ 7#afea-affh7 #ej #e4 ,z ,classical ,s*ol> 7#affh-afgi7 #ej ,,! ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,! ,,?\ght ,,( ,,hobbes #ej #a4 ,8 ,premature ,bir? #ej #b4 ,8 ,fa!r #ea #c4 ,! ,new ,ma!matical ,sci5ce #eb ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,pr9ciple ,,9 ,,! ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,hobbes #eb ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,hobbes #ed ,,! ,,k9ds ,,( ,,bodies #ee ,,hobbes',s ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,ma!matical ,,!ory ,,to ,,psy*ology #ef ,,hobbes',s ,,application ,,( ,,! ,,ma!matical ,,!ory ,,to ,,politics #eh ,,! ,,r5aissance ,,9 ,,engl& ,,aft] ,,hobbes #fa ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,! ,,rationalism ,,( ,,! ,,natural ,,sci5ce ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance #fb ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,rationalism #fb ,,! ,,m5tal ,,conflict ,,9 ,,desc>tes #fe ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,philosophical ,,writ+s ,,( ,,desc>tes 7#aeif-afej7 #ff #a4 ,z ,*ild & ,/ud5t 7#aeif-afac7 #ff #b4 ,z ,travel] 7#afac-afbh7 #ff #c4 ,z ,writ] 7#afbi-afej7 #fg #d4 ,9 ,/ockholm 7#afdi-afej7 #fg ,,! ,,two ,,conflict+ ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,! ,,?\ght ,,( ,,desc>tes #fg ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,desc>tes #fi ,,induction,,provisional ,,d\bt,,! ,,ultimate ,,c]ta9ty ,,( ,,consci\sness #gj ,,d$uction,,! ,,implications ,,( ,,consci\sness #gb ,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,god #gc ,,! ,,reality ,,( ,,matt] #ge ,,god ,,& ,,! ,,_w #gg ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,god ,,to ,,matt] #gg ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,god ,,to ,,m9ds #gh ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,m9d ,,& ,,body #gh ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,desc>tes #hj ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,! ,,occasionali/s ,,& ,,sp9oza ,,to ,,desc>tes #ha ,,portrait ,,( ,,sp9oza #hd ,,! ,,hi/orical ,,place ,,( ,,sp9oza #hd ,,! ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,sp9oza #hf #a4 ,8 ,jewi% ,tra9+ #hf #b4 ,8 ,impulse f ! ,new ,sci5ce,desc>tes' ,influ5ce #hf #c4 ,8 ,acqua9tance ) ! ,collegiants #hg ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,philosophical ,,writ+s ,,( ,,sp9oza 7#afcb-afgg7 #hh #a4 ,9 ,israel 7#afcb-afef7 #hi #b4 ,9 ,retirem5t 7#afef-affc7 #hi #c4 ,9 ! ,public ,eye 7#affc-afgg7 #ij ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,sp9oza #ij ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,sp9oza',s ,,philosophy #ia ,,?ree ,,c5tral ,,problems ,,9 ,,sp9oza',s ,,tea*+ #ic ,,! ,,pan!ism ,,( ,,sp9oza,,! ,,all-,,inclusiv5ess ,,( ,,god #id ,,! ,,my/icism ,,( ,,sp9oza #ih ,,sp9oza',s ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,salvation #ajb ,,summ>y ,,( ,,sp9oza',s ,,tea*+ #ajf ,,leibnitz ,,z ,,! ,,f9i%] ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance ,,& ,,! ,,=]unn] ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t #ajg ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,leibnitz 7#afdf-agaf7 #ajh #a4 ,leipsic & ,univ]sity ,life 7#afdf-afff7 #aaa #b4 ,ma9z & ,diplomacy 7#afff-afgb7 #aaa #c4 ,p>is & ,sci5ce 7#afgb-afgf7 #aaa #d4 ,hanov] & ,philosophy 7#afgf-agaf7 #aab ,,! ,,?ree ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,! ,,?\ght ,,( ,,leibnitz #aab 7#a7 ,8 ,e>ly ,classical ,/udies #aab 7#b7 ,! ,new ,sci5ce & 8 own ,discov]ies #aac 7#c7 ,political ,pressure = ,religi\s ,reconciliation #aad ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,leibnitz #aae ,,! ,,imm$iate ,,problem ,,= ,,leibnitz #aah ,,! ,,result ,,( ,,leibnitz',s ,,exam9ation ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,sci5ce,a ,,plurality ,,( ,,metaphysical ,,sub/ances #aai #a4 ,leibnitz fir/ scrut9iz$ ! ,sci5tific ,conception ( ,motion #aai #b4 ,leibnitz next exam9$ ! ,sci5tific ,conception ( ! ,atom #abj #c4 ,leibnitz !n id5tifi$ ,=ce ) ! ,metaphysical ,atom #aba ,,! ,,d\ble ,,nature ,,( ,,! ,,monads #abb ,,! ,,two ,,=ms ,,( ,,leibnitz',s ,,conception ,,( ,,! ,,unity ,,( ,,sub/ances #abe ,,! ,,intr9sic ,,unity ,,( ,,! ,,monads,,! ,,philosophical ,,unity #abe ,,! ,,sup]impos$ ,,unity ,,( ,,! ,,monads,,! ,,!ological ,,unity #abi ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,enlight5m5t 7#afij-agha7 #acb ,,! ,,em]g5ce ,,( ,,! 8,,new ,,man0,,individualism #acb ,,! ,,practical ,,presupposition ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t,,! ,,indep5d5ce ,,( ,,! ,,individual #acd ,,! ,,metaphysical ,,presupposition ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t #ace ,,! ,,problems ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t #ace 7a7 ,utilit>ian ,problems #acf 7b7 ,que/ions ( ,criticism #ach ,a ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t ,,9 ,,engl&1 ,,france1 ,,& ,,g]many #adj ,,! ,,_m ,,gr\ps ,,( ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t #adj ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,bir?places ,,( ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,influ5tial ,,?9k]s ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t #add ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,john ,,locke #ade ,,! ,,enlight5m5t ,,9 ,,great ,,brita9 #ade ,,john ,,locke1 ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s 7#afcb-agjd7 #adg #a4 ,/ud5t ,life 7#afcb-afff7 #adg #b4 ,z ,politician 7#afff-afhc7 #adh #c4 ,z ,philosophical ,au?or 7#afhc-afia7 #adi #d4 ,z ,controv]siali/ 7#afia-agjd7 #adi ,,! ,,s\rces ,,( ,,locke',s ,,?\ght #aej #a4 ,8 ,puritan ,ance/ry #aej #b4 ,8 ,tra9+ 9 ,tol]ance #aej #c4 ,! ,sci5tific ,influ5ce #aea #d4 ,! ,political ,influ5ce #aeb ,,summ>y #aec ,,! ,,purpose ,,( ,,locke #aec ,,two ,,sides ,,( ,,locke',s ,,philosophy #aee 7a7 ,! ,negative ,side,locke & ,s*ola/icism #aef 7b7 ,! ,positive ,side,! ,new ,psy*ology & ,epi/emology #aeg ,,locke',s ,,psy*ology #aeh ,,locke',s ,,!ory ,,( ,,k #afj ,,locke',s ,,practical ,,philosophy #afb ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,locke #afc ,,! ,,engli% ,,dei/s #afd ,,! ,,engli% ,,morali/s #aff ,,*ronological ,,table ,,( ,,! ,,engli% ,,morali/s #afh ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,b]keley ,,& ,,hume #afi ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,george ,,b]keley 7#afhe-agec7 #afi #a4 ,8 ,e>ly ,tra9+ 7#afhe-agjg7 #afi #b4 ,z ,au?or 7#agjg-agba7 #agj #c4 ,z ,prie/ & ,mission>y 7#agba-agec7 #aga ,,! ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,! ,,?\ght ,,( ,,b]keley #agb ,,! ,,purpose ,,( ,,b]keley #agc ,,b]keley',s ,,g5]al ,,relation ,,to ,,locke ,,& ,,hume #agd ,,b]keley',s ,,po9ts ,,( ,,agreem5t ,,) ,,locke #age ,,! ,,negative ,,side ,,( ,,b]keley',s ,,philosophy #agf #a4 ,z %[n 9 ,g5]al 9 8 ,analysis ( ,ab/ract ,ideas #agg #b4 ,z %[n 9 ,p>ticul> 9 8 ,analysis ( ,matt] #agg ,,! ,,positive ,,side ,,( ,,b]keley',s ,,philosophy #agi #a4 ,esse e/ ,p]cipi #agi #b4 ,! ,exi/5ce ( ,m9d is assum$ by ,b]keley #ahj #c4 ,spiritual ,sub/ances are ,suffici5t to expla9 all ,ideas #aha ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,david ,,hume 7#agaa-aggf7 #ahc #a4 ,p]iod ( ,tra9+ 7#agaa-agcd7 #ahd #b4 ,p]iod ( ,philosoph] 7#agcd-ageb7 #ahe #c4 ,p]iod ( ,politician 7#ageb-aggf7 #ahe ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,! ,,?\ght ,,( ,,hume #ahf ,,dogmatism1 ,,ph5om5alism1 ,,& ,,skepticism #ahg ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,ideas #ahi ,,! ,,association ,,( ,,ideas #aia ,,! ,,association ,,( ,,contiguity #aic ,,! ,,association ,,( ,,resemblance #aid #a4 ,ma!matics #aid #b4 ,! ,conception ( ,sub/ance3 ,hume's ,attack on ,!ology #aie ,,! ,,association ,,( ,,causation3 ,,hume',s ,,attack ,,on ,,sci5ce #aif ,,! ,,ext5t ,,& ,,limits ,,( ,,human ,,k #aii ,,hume',s ,,!ory ,,( ,,religion ,,& ,,e?ics #bjj ,,! ,,scotti% ,,s*ool #bja ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,enlight5m5t ,,9 ,,france ,,& ,,g]many #bjc ,,! ,,situation ,,9 ,,france ,,9 ,,! ,,enlight5m5t #bjc ,,! ,,engli% ,,influ5ce ,,9 ,,france #bjf ,,! ,,two ,,p]iods ,,( ,,! ,,fr5* ,,enlight5m5t #bjg ,,! ,,intellectual ,,enlight5m5t 7#agbi-agfb7,,voltaire1 ,,montesquieu1 ,,& ,,! ,,encyclop,,di/s #bjh ,,voltaire 7#afid-aggh7 #bji ,,! ,,encyclop,,di/s #baa ,,! ,,social ,,enlight5m5t 7#agfb-aghi7 #bac ,,r\sseau 7#agab-aggh7 #bac ,,! ,,g]man ,,enlight5m5t 7#agdj-agha7 #baf ,,! ,,introductory ,,p]iod 7#afdh-agdj74 ,,absolutism #bag #a4 ,! ,rise ( ,prussia #bah #b4 ,! ,e>ly ,g]man ,lit]ature #bai #c4 ,! ,pieti/ic ,movem5t #bai #d4 ,! ,trans=mation ( ,leibnitz's ,rationalism #bbj ,,summ>y ,,( ,,! ,,lit]>y ,,enlight5m5t ,,( ,,g]many 7#agdj-agha7 #bbc ,,! ,,political ,,enlight5m5t ,,( ,,g]many,,fr$]ick ,,! ,,great #bbd ,,! ,,c\rse ,,( ,,! ,,g]man ,,enlight5m5t #bbf ,,less+ #bbh ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,kant #bcj ,,! ,,conv]g5ce ,,( ,,philosophical ,,influ5ces ,,9 ,,g]many #bcj ,,! ,,?ree ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,g]man ,,philosophy #bca ,,! ,,two ,,p]iods ,,( ,,g]man ,,philosophy #bcb ,,! ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,kant #bcc #a4 ,pietism #bcc #b4 ,! ,leibnitz-,wolffian ,philosophy #bcc #c4 ,! ,physics ( ,newton #bcd #d4 ,! ,humanit>ianism ( ,r\sseau #bcd #e4 ,! ,skepticism ( ,hume #bce ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,kant 7#agbd-ahjd7 #bce ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,kant #bch ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,kant #bci ,,! ,,?reefold ,,_w ,,( ,,kant,,subjective ,,/ates1 ,,?+s-,,9-,,!mselves1 ,,& ,,ph5om5a #bdj ,,! ,,_w ,,( ,,k #bdc ,,! ,,place ,,( ,,syn!sis ,,9 ,,k #bde ,,! ,,judgm5ts ,,indisp5sable ,,to ,,human ,,k #bdh ,,! ,,pro( ,,( ,,! ,,validity ,,( ,,human ,,k #beb #a4 ,9 :at does ! ,validity ( ,s5se-,p]ception consi/8 #bec #b4 ,9 :at does ! ,validity ( ! ,und]/&+ consi/8 #bee ,,has ,,! ,,reason ,,by ,,itself ,,any ,,validity8 #bfj ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,s\l #bfb ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se #bfd ,,! ,,idea ,,( ,,god #bfe ,,conclusion #bfh ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,critique ,,( ,,practical ,,reason3 ,,! ,,e?ics ,,( ,,kant #bfi ,,! ,,moral ,,law ,,& ,,! ,,two ,,que/ions ,,conc]n+ ,,x #bga #a4 ,! ,fir/ ,"q conc]n+ ! ,moral ,law #bgb #b4 ,! ,second ,"q conc]n+ ! ,moral ,law #bgc ,,! ,,moral ,,po/ulates #bge #a4 ,! ,po/ulate ( ,fre$om #bgf #b4 ,! ,po/ulate ( ! ,immortality ( ! ,s\l #bgf #c4 ,! ,po/ulate ( ! ,exi/5ce ( ,god #bgf ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,g]man ,,ideali/s #bgh ,,idealism ,,aft] ,,kant #bgh ,,fi*te1 ,,s*ell+1 ,,& ,,hegel #bgi ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,t[ns ,,& ,,o!r ,,important ,,places ,,connect$ ,,) ,,! ,,g]man ,,ideali/s #bhj ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,fi*te 7#agfb-ahad7 #bhb #a4 ,8 ,education 7#agfb-agij7 #bhc #b4 ,disciple%ip ( ,kant 7#agij-agid7 #bhc #c4 ,8 ,life at ,j5a 7#agid-agii7 #bhd #d4 ,8 ,life at ,b]l9 7#agii-ahad7 #bhd ,,! ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,fi*te',s ,,tea*+ #bhe ,,:y ,,we ,,philosophize #bhf ,,! ,,moral ,,awak5+ #bhg ,,! ,,c5tral ,,pr9ciple ,,9 ,,fi*te',s ,,philosophy #bhh ,,! ,,moral ,,_w #bij ,,god ,,& ,,man #bib ,,:at ,a ,,moral ,,reality ,,involves #bic #a4 ,x involves ! ,consci\sness ( ,some?+ ,else #bic #b4 ,x involves a ,contradiction #bid ,,romanticism #bie ,,goe! ,,z ,a ,,romantici/ #big ,,romanticism ,,9 ,,philosophy #bii ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,s*ell+ 7#agge-ahed7 #cjj #a4 ,e>li] ,p]iod 7#agge-agig7 #cjb #b4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,nature 7#agig-ahjj7 #cjb #c4 ,! ,transc5d5tal ,philosophy 7#ahjj-ahja7 #cjb #d4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,id5tity 7#ahja-ahjd7 #cjc #e4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,fre$om & ,god 7#ahjd-ahji7 #cjc #f4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,my?ology & ,revelation 7#ahji-ahed7 #cjc ,a ,,brief ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,fi*te ,,& ,,s*ell+ ,,z ,,philosoph]s #cjc ,,s*ell+',s ,,philosophy ,,( ,,nature #cje ,,s*ell+',s ,,transc5d5tal ,,philosophy #cjg ,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,id5tity #caj ,,s*ell+',s ,,religi\s ,,philosophy #caa ,,hegel ,,& ,,! ,,culm9ation ,,( ,,idealism #cab ,,:y ,,hegel ,,rema9s ,,to-,,day ,,! ,,repres5tative ,,( ,,kant #cad ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,hegel 7#aggj-ahca7 #cae #a4 ,=mative ,p]iod 7#aggj-agif7 #cag #b4 ,=mulation ( 8 ,philosophy 7#agif-ahjf7 #cag #c4 ,developm5t ( 8 ,philosophy 7#ahjf-ahca7 #cag ,,realism1 ,,my/icism1 ,,& ,,idealism #cah ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,hegel',s ,,idealism #cba ,,! ,,cosmic ,,unity #cbb ,,! ,,cosmic ,,law #cbf ,,hegel',s ,,application ,,( ,,8 ,,!ory #cbh ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,?+-,,9-,,itself #ccj ,,h]b>t ,,& ,,s*op5hau] #ccj ,,johann ,,fri$ri* ,,h]b>t #ccb ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,h]b>t 7#aggf-ahda7 #ccc ,,! ,,contradictions ,,( ,,exp]i5ce #ccd ,,! ,,argum5t ,,= ,,realism #ccd ,,! ,,_m ,,reals ,,& ,,nature ,,ph5om5a #ccg ,,! ,,s\l ,,& ,,m5tal ,,ph5om5a #cch ,,ar?ur ,,s*op5hau] ,,& ,,8 ,,philosophical ,,relations #cdj ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,s*op5hau] 7#aghh-ahfj7 #cdb #a4 ,p]iod ( ,education 7#aghh-ahac7 #cdc #b4 ,p]iod ( ,lit]>y ,production 7#ahac-ahca7 #cdc #c4 ,p]iod ( ,retirem5t 7#ahca-ahfj7 #cdc ,,! ,,influ5ces ,,^u ,,s*op5hau]',s ,,?\ght #cdc ,,! ,,_w ,,z ,,w ,,& ,,! ,,_w ,,z ,,idea #cde ,,! ,,w ,,z ,,irrational ,,reality #cdg ,,! ,,mis]y ,,( ,,! ,,_w ,,z ,,idea,,pessimism #cdh ,,! ,,way ,,( ,,deliv]ance #cdi ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury #ceb ,,! ,,return ,,to ,,realism #ceb ,,! ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,realism ,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury #cec ,,mod]n ,,philosophy ,,& ,,g]man ,,idealism #cee ,,! ,,philosophical ,,problems ,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury #cef #a4 ,! ,problem ( ! ,function+ ( ! ,s\l #ceg #b4 ,! ,problem ( ! ,conception ( ,hi/ory #cfj ,,index #cfe ,,illu/rations ,,immanuel ,,kant ,frontispiece ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,dec5tralization ,,( ,,europe #ac ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,bir?places ,,( ,,! ,,*ief ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance #cj ,,b>u* ,,de ,,sp9oza #hd ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,bir?places ,,( ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,influ5tial ,,?9k]s ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t #add ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,t[ns ,,& ,,o!r ,,important ,,places ,,connect$ ,,) ,,! ,,g]man ,,ideali/s #bhj ,a ,,beg9n]',s ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,,volume ,,ii ,,mod]n ,,philosophy 7#adec ,,to ,,! ,,pres5t ,,"t7 ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,*>act]i/ics ,,& ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,mod]n ,,p]iod ,! ,difficulty 9 ! ,/udy ( ,mod]n ,philosophy4 ,beside ! great spans ( anci5t & m$ival civilizations1 ! #dej ye>s ( ! mod]n p]iod seem brief4 ,! road is inde$ relatively %ort f m$ival times to ! c5tury 9 :i* we live1 & yet x proves difficult to ! /ud5t :o travels x = ! fir/ "t4 ,ev5 = ! mod]n m9d ! /udy ( mod]n philosophy is inh]5tly m difficult ?an t ( ! anci5t & m$ival4 ,! prec$+ p]iods pres5t new po9ts ( view1 b ^!1 once atta9$1 lead along comp>atively easy ways4 ,! *ief difficulty ( ! prec$+ p]iods is ov]come :5 _! peculi> view ( ?+s is ga9$2 b ! /ud5t ( mod]n philosophy is confront$ ) difficulties all along ! way4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 mod]n philosophy is v complex because x is a conflict ( v>i\s aspirations4 ,x has nei!r ! objectivity ( anci5t ?\ght nor ! logical consi/5cy ( m$ival ?\ght4 ,x arises f subjective motives1 ^: %ad+s are difficult to trace4 ,! task is r5d]$ h>d] by ! fact t intimations ( ! problems 9 ! hi/ory ( mod]n philosophy are on ! :ole pres5t 9 ! beg9n]'s m9d2 & yet at ! same "t 8 m9d possesses1 besides ^!1 _m m$ival notions z well4 ,= ! /ud5t to pass successfully ?r\gh ! entire l5g? ( mod]n ?\ght f ,cusanus to ,sp5c] means1 !re=e1 two ?+s = him3 7#a7 he mu/ ga9 an insight into ! dep? & significance ( 8 own half-=m$ ideas2 7#b7 he mu/ transc5d or give up entirely 8 m$ival notions4 ,if !re=e philosophy repres5ts ! epo* t produces x1ei!r z ! c5tral pr9ciple or z ! m>g9al & ult]ior developm5t ( t epo*1! mod]n c come to an und]/&+ ( ! hi/ory ( mod]n philosophy only by com+ to an und]/&+ ( himself & 8 own inn] reflections4 ,?is w expla9 :y ! %ort p]iod ( mod]n ?\ght is traditionally divid$ into comp>atively _m p]iods4 ,^! subord9ate p]iods r+ out ! *anges ?r\gh :i* ! mod]n man feels t he himself has bl9dly pass$ 9 8 inn] life4 ,mod]n philosophy is no m local & tempor>y ?an ! anci5t2 x is no less a "p ( a social movem5t2 b ! mod]n man is m alive to ! diff]5tiations ( mod]n ?\ght ?an he is to ^? ( antiquity4 ,! ,p]iods ( ,mod]n ,philosophy4 ,! divisions ( ! hi/ory ( mod]n philosophy are z foll[s3 #a4 ,! ,r5aissance 7#adec-afij7;f ! end ( ! ,middle ,ages to ! publication ( ,locke's ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+4 #b4 ,! ,enlight5m5t 7#afij-agha7to ! publication ( ,kant's ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 #c4 ,g]man ,philosophy 7#agha-ahca7to ! dea? ( ,hegel4 #d4 ,! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury ,philosophy 7#ahbj-! pres5t "t74 ,! ,r5aissance1 ! fir/ p]iod1 cov]s m ?an half ( ! l5g? ( mod]n times4 ,x is sometimes call$ ! spr+time ( mod]n hi/ory1 al?\gh x is long] ?an all ! o!r seasons toge!r4 ,x is to be not$ t two epo*-mak+ books =m ! divid+ l9es betwe5 ! fir/ ?ree p]iods4 ,! transition f ! ,r5aissance to ! ,enlight5m5t is signaliz$ by ,locke's great ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+1 :i* express$ = "o hundr$ ye>s ! political & philosophical op9ions ( we/]n ,europe4 ,! transition f ! ,enlight5m5t to ,g]man ,philosophy 0 9 its turn signaliz$ by ! appe>ance ( ,kant's ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 & ?is book may be said to h be5 fundam5tal to human ?9k+ ev] s9ce4 ,!re is "o po9t fur!r to be notic$ 9 ^! divisions1 & t is ! ov]lapp+ ( ! la/ two p]iods4 ,g]man philosophy ends practically ) ! dea? ( ,hegel 9 #ahca1 & ! mod]n ,evolution movem5t began at lea/ t5 ye>s be=e1 ab\t #ahbj4 ,no great philosophical treatise m>ks ! division "h1 = ! ,evolution movem5t _h its beg9n+s 9 ,g]man philosophy & 9 ! discov]ies & practical inv5tions ( natural sci5ce4 ,evolution1 h[ev]1 became a reaction ^u ! la/ phases ( ,g]man philosophy1 & !n =m$ a di/9ct movem5t4 ,! book t =mulat$ ! ,evolution movem5t mo/ fully appe>$ sev]al ye>s aft] ! !ory 0 "u way4 ,?is 0 ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species1 publi%$ 9 #ahei4 ,locke's ,essay & ,kant's ,critique are !re=e ! mo/ influ5tial philosophical int]pretations ( ! hi/ory ( mod]n times s9ce its e>ly beg9n+s 9 ! ,r5aissance4 ,! ,causes ( ! ,decay ( ! ,civilization ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! social /ructure ( ! m$ival "t weak5$ & broke ap>t1 9 ! fir/ place because ( c]ta9 inh]5t defects 9 its organism2 9 ! second place because ( "s rem>kable discov]ies1 inv5tions1 & hi/orical *anges4 ,we may call ^! 7#a7 ! int]nal causes & 7#b7 ! ext]nal causes ( ! fall ( ! civilization ( ! ,middle ,ages4 7a7 ,! ,int]nal ,causes 7 inh]5t weaknesses 9 m$ival intellectual life1 & alone w\ld h be5 suffici5t to br+ m$ival society to an end4 7#a7 ,! intellectual me?ods ( ! ,middle ,ages 7 self-de/ructive me?ods4 ,we may take s*ola/icism z ! be/ expression ( ! intellectual life ( ! ,middle ,ages1 & s*ola/icism ev5 9 its ripe/ p]iod us$ ! me?od ( d$uctive logic4 ,s*ola/icism did n employ induction f obs]vation & exp]im5t1 b proce$$ on ! pr9ciple t ! m univ]sal logically a conception is1 ! m real x is4 7,see vol4 i1 p4 #cee47 ,on ?is pr9ciple s*ola/icism set z its only task to p5etrate & cl>ify dogma4 ,its !ism 0 a logical !ism4 ,ev5 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ! great classic s*oolman1 us$ =mal logic 7dialectics7 z ! me?od ( obta9+ ! tru?4 ,aft] him 9 ! latt] "p ( ! ,middle ,ages1 logic in/ead ( be+ a me?od became an end4 ,x 0 /udi$ = its own sake4 ,?is naturally deg5]at$ into ^w-splitt+ & quibbl+1 into ! comm5t+ ^u ! texts ( ?is ma/] & t1 into arid v]bal discussions4 ,! religi\s ord]s fritt]$ away _! "t on v]bal que/ions ( trifl+ importance4 ,! lifetime ( su* intellectual employm5t is always a limit$ "o4 7#b7 ,! /&>d ( ! tru? ( ?+s 9 ! ,middle ,ages became a d\ble /&>d1 & 0 !re=e self-de/ructive4 ,o/5sibly !re 0 only "o /&>d1infallible dogma4 ,really !re 7 two /&>ds1reason & dogma4 ,! employm5t ( logical me?ods impli$ ! human reason z a valid /&>d4 ,logic is ! me?od ( human reason+4 ,to use logic to cl>ify dogma1 to employ ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle to supplem5t ! ,bible1 to def5d fai? by argum5t1 am\nt$ 9 effect to support+ revelation by reason4 ,x 0 ! same z def5d+ ! infallible & reveal$ by ! fallible & secul>4 ,x 0 ! erect+ ( a d\ble /&>d4 ,x call$ ! infallible into "q4 ,x 0 ! (f]+ ( excuses = :at is suppos$ly beyond suspicion4 ,! s*ola/ic made fai? ! object ( ?\ght1 & !reby enc\rag$ ! _s ( free inquiry4 7#c7 ,! developm5t ( ,my/icism 9 ! ,middle ,ages 0 a p[]ful factor t l$ to its dissolution4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 an elem5t ( my/icism 9 ! doctr9e ( ! *ur* f ,/4 ,augu/9e onw>ds1 & 9 ! ,e>ly ,p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages my/icism _h no indep5d5ce4 ,b my/icism is ess5tially ! direct communion ) ,god on ! "p ( ! individual4 ,! int]m$i>y (fices ( ! *ur* are contradictory to ! _s ( my/icism4 ,x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 to f9d 9 ! la/ p]iod ( s*ola/icism num]\s indep5d5t my/ics z repres5tatives ( ! t5d5cy ( individuali/ic religion1 :i* 0 to result 9 ! ,prote/antism ( ! ,r5aissance4 7#d7 ,! doctr9e ( ,nom9alism 0 ! f\r? important elem5t to be m5tion$ t l$ to ! dissolution ( ! civilization ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,?is 0 easily suppress$ by ! *ur* au?orities 9 ! e>ly m$ival c5turies1 :5 x 0 a purely logical doctr9e & _h no empirical sci5tific basis4 ,9 ! lat] ye>s1 h[ev]1 nom9alism ga9$ great /r5g? ) ! acquisition ( k ( ! nature _w4 ,nom9alism turn$ man's att5tion away f ! affairs ( ! _s4 ,x incit$ him to modify ! realism ( dogma4 ,x po9t$ out ! importance ( practical exp]i5ce4 ,x emphasiz$ individual op9ion1 neglect$ tradition1 & plac$ its hope 9 ! possibilities ( sci5ce r ?an 9 ! spiritual actualities ( religion4 7b7 ,! ,ext]nal ,causes consi/$ ( c]ta9 important ev5ts t br\ght ! ,middle ,ages to a close & introduc$ ! ,r5aissance4 ,^! ev5ts caus$ great social *anges by demoli%+ ! geographical & a/ronomical conceptions ( m$ival "t :i* _h become a "p ( *ur* tradition4 ,fir/ to be m5tion$ are ! inv5tions :i* belong to ! ,middle ,ages1 b :i* came into common use n be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,^! play$ an important "p 9 ! total *ange ( ! society :i* foll[$4 ,!y 7 ! magnetic ne$le1 gunp[d]1 :i* 0 influ5tial 9 de/roy+ ! feudal sy/em1 & pr9t+1 :i* w\ld h fail$ 9 its effect _h n at ! same "t ! manufacture ( pap] be5 improv$4 ,moreov] at ! end ( ! fifte5? & ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury occurr$ ! foll[+ ev5ts3 #adec4 ,con/ant9ople fell & its ,greek s*ol>s migrat$ to ,italy4 #adib4 ,columbus discov]$ ,am]ica1 an a*ievem5t :i* 0 made possible by ! use ( ! magnetic ne$le4 #adih4 ,vasco da ,gama discov]$ ! all-sea r\te to ,india & !reby *ang$ ! c\rse ( ! _w's comm]ce4 #aeah4 ,! ,prote/ant ,re=mation 0 begun by ,lu!r4 #aecj4 ,cop]nicus wrote 8 ,de revolutionibus orbium1 9 :i* he ma9ta9$ t ! e>? mov$ ar\nd ! sun4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,r5aissance#a 7#adec-afij7 ,! ,g5]al ,"* ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,! causes t l$ to ! decl9e ( ! society ( ! ,middle ,ages 7 ( c\rse ! same t u%]$ 9 ! p]iod ( ! ,r5aissance1! fir/1 ! longe/1 & ! mo/ hopeful p]iod ( mod]n times4 ,! g5]al *>act]ization ( ?is p]iod may be express$ 9 a s+le phrase1a ,new ,man 9 a ,new ,univ]se4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ne$s explanation4 7a7 ,! ,new ,man ( ! ,r5aissance 0 di/9ctly a man ) a c\ntry4 ,! fusion ( ! ,g]man & ,roman peoples 9 ! ,d>k ,ages be=e ,*>lemagne 7#hjj7 0 n[ complet$4 ,! fusion did n result 9 a homog5e\s :ole1 b 9 gr\ps :i* =m$ ! nations ( ,europe4 ,! "t :5 ?is gr\p+ 0 practically f9i%$ is a difficult problem1 into :i* we w n inquire4 ,9 a real s5se x nev] 0 nor w be end$4 ,we "k t ! nations began to =m ab\t ! ye> #ajjj1 & :5 we exam9e ! hi/ory ( ! ,r5aissance we f9d ,italians1 ,g]mans1 ,fr5*1 ,dut*1 & ,engli% ) di/9ctive national *>act]i/ics4 ,we f9d ! ,r5aissance fir/ c5traliz$ among ! ,italians & ,g]mans1 & !n lat] among ! ,engli%1 ! p ( ! ,l[ ,c\ntries1 & ! ,fr5*4 ,! ,italian is a new ,roman & ! ,g]man a new ,teuton4 ,! undef9$ nationalities ( ! ,middle ,ages n[ become cle>-cut4 ,philosophy also becomes n[ m or less ( a national conc]n4 7b7 ,a ,new ,univ]se is n[ op5$ to ! 8,new ,man0 ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,n only 9 m5tal equipm5t1 b 9 scope = 8 activity1 does ! ,european ( ! ,r5aissance diff] f ! m$ival man4 ,! _w is actually a new _wnew 9 its geographical outl9es & its a/ronomical relations2 new 9 its intellectual /ores f ! pa/4 ,! physical _w t support$ 8 body & ! intellectual _w t refre%$ 8 m9d 7 newly discov]$ by ! man ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,we mu/ exam9e ^! two new worlds m 9 detail4 #a4 ,! physical univ]se _h und]gone a wond]ful trans=mation = man4 ,our n9ete5? c5tury has (t5 be5 look$ ^u z a p]iod ( extraord9>y discov]ies2 b no discov]ies h ev] s revolutioniz$ ! human m9d z ^? enum]at$ above z 8! ext]nal causes ( ! fall ( ! society ( ! ,middle ,ages40 ,?9k h[ new t old _w mu/ h seem$ to ! common p :o _h suppos$ x to be flat1 z well z to ! sci5ti/s :o _h hypo!tically suppos$ x to be solidh[ new x mu/ h seem$ :5 !y f\nd t x _h be5 actually circumnavigat$6 ,h[ ! horizon ( m5's m9ds mu/ h wid5$ :5 new cont95ts 7 discov]$ by sailors & new cele/ial worlds 7 f\nd by ! telescope ( ! a/ronom]s6 ,discov]y l$ to exp]im5t1 & ! :ole new physical _w 0 trans=m$ by ! new physical sci5ce ( ,galileo into a me*anical ord]4 ,x 0 a wond]ful new mat]ial _w t 0 discov]$ & sci5tifically reorganiz$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,:]eas ! common man 9 m$ival "t _h f\nd little joy 9 liv+1 ! common man n[ look$ ^u ! _w z a magnific5t opportunity4 ,:]eas ! m$ival man _h turn$ f ! disord]s ( ?is wick$ _w to contemplation ( ! bless$ness ( heav51 ! man ( ! ,r5aissance came =? f ! cloi/] & engag$ 9 trade & adv5ture4 ,! e>? & ! ?+s !re9 _h sudd5ly become objects ( emotional int]e/4 #b4 ,n only 0 a new geographical & physical _w discov]$ at ?is "t1 b also ! intellectual _w ( antiquity 0 re/or$4 ,= m ?an a ?\s& ye>s 9 we/]n ,europe ! lit]ature ( ! ,greeks & ,romans _h be5 a ?+ ( %r$s & pat*es1 & ev5 !n read only 9 ,lat9 translations4 ,n[ ! ,european _h come into possession ( a l>ge "p ( x & 0 read+ x 9 ! orig9al4 ,he 0 ar\s$ to ! wond]ful intellectual life ( ! ,age ( ,p]icles4 ,! int]e/ 9 anci5t lit]ature1 :i* _h be5 />t$ by ,dante1 ,petr>*1 & ,boccaccio 9 ! ?irte5? & f\rte5? c5turies1 became an absorb+ & controll+ =ce at ?is "t4 ,! real int]e/ began ) ! /imulus receiv$ by ! com+ ( ! ,greek s*ol>s to ,italy f ! ,ea/3 fir/ ! ecclesia/ical embassy 9 #adch1 & aft]w>d 9 #adec ! l>ge numb] ( refugees f ,con/ant9ople at ! "t ( its capture by ! ,turks4 ,^u ^! refugees ! patronage ( ! great ,italian nobles*iefly p]haps 9 ,flor5ce0 lavi%ly be/[$4 ,! ,platonic ,academy 0 f\nd$4 ,le>n$ exp\nd]s ( ! new le>n+ arose1,ple?o1 ! two ,picos1 ,f9c9us1 ,reu*l94 ,( all ! philosophies ( antiquity ,platonism 0 favor$1 & x 0 int]pret$ 9 a my/ical mann]4 ,ari/otle & ,*ri/ianity 7 look$ ^u z m]e int]pretations ( ,plato4 ,nev]!less ! ,r5aissance s*ol>s 7 int]e/$ 9 all ! new lit]>y mat]ial f ! ,ea/4 ,!y /udi$ ! ,jewi% ,cabala & its my/ic numb]s4 ,!y reviv$ ,skepticism1 ,eclecticism1 ,/oicism1 & ,epicureanism4 ,ari/otle 0 repres5t$ by two antagoni/ic s*ools2 & ,taurellus oppos$ bo? & appeal$ to ! s*ol>ly _w to return to ,*ri/ianity4 ,! ,significance ( ! ,r5aissance 9 ,hi/ory4 ,we h above *>act]iz$ ! ,r5aissance z a "t 9 :i* a 8new man0 f\nd himself liv+ 9 a 8new univ]se40 ,b ! old _w ( m$ival sci5ce1 culture1 & conv5tional mann]s _h by no means be5 entirely outgr[n & disc>d$4 ,p]iods ( hi/ory d n 8leave _! l[-vault$ pa/0 z easily z a man may ?r[ away 8 coat4 ,m$ival sci5ce & !ology /ill rema9$1 n only z a backgr\nd b also z an aggressive social factor ev]y:]e4 ,m$ival s*ola/icism 0 some?+ ) :i* ! ,r5aissance _h always to reckon4 ,s*ola/icism modifi$1 frequ5tly re/rict$1 & ev5 direct$ ! ?\ght ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,consequ5tly :5 we =m our f9al e/imate ( ! place ( ! ,r5aissance 9 ! mod]n movem5t1 we mu/ n ov]look ! cons]vative =ce ( ! m$ival in/itutions exi/+ dur+ ! p]iod4 ,! 8new man0 liv$ 9 a 8new univ]se02 & 8 problem 0 h[ to expla9 ! relation ( t 8new univ]se0 to himself s t 8 explanation w\ld n antagonize ! "t-honor$ traditions ( ! *ur*4 ,?is 0 ! con/ructive problem t gave ! ,r5aissance its place 9 hi/ory4 ,! fir/ impression1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,r5aissance ^u ! read] is t x /&s = no con/ructive problem :atev]4 ,! *anges t u%] 9 ! ,r5aissance seem to speak ( an epo* t is entirely negative1 de/ructive1 & revolution>y4 ,! p]iod seems f "o side to be a decl>ation aga9/ "t-honor$ traditions4 ,! 8new man0 _h ris5 sup]ior to dogma & to ,ari/otle4 ,intellectual f]m5tation _h set 91 & nev] _h s _m attempts at innovation be5 s /r5u\sly s\ght4 ,! love = novelty fill$ ! human m9d1 & ! imag9ation ran riot4 ,! movem5t t[>d mod]n individualism appe>$ 9 ! dec5tralization t at ?is "t 0 ev]y:]e tak+ place4 ,lat91 = example1 ceas$ to be ! "o language = educat$ m51 & ! mod]n languages came into use4 ,rome ceas$ to be ! only religi\s c5tre1 & ,witt5b]g1 ,london1 & ,g5eva became c5tres4 ,!re 0 no long] "o *ur*1 b _m sects4 ,sci5tific c5tres became num]\s4 ,_m ( ! univ]sities _h aris5 indep5d5tly1 & n[ ,ox=d1 ,vi5na1 ,heidelb]g1 ,prague1 & num]\s univ]sities 9 ,italy & ,g]many af=d$ opportunities = /udy equal to ^? ( ,p>is4 ,to ! man :o looks ^u ! ,classic ,p]iod ( ,s*ola/icism 9 ! ,middle ,ages z ! gold5 age ( unit$ fai?1to t man ! ,r5aissance w appe> only z ! beg9n+ ( ! dis9tegration & revolution t he sees 9 mod]n times4 ,illu/ration3 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,dec5tralization ,,( ,,europe ,,9 ,,! ,,sixte5? ,,c5tury 7,note t ,rome1 ,witt5b]g1 ,london1 & ,g5eva are ! religi\s c5tres2 t ,p>is1 ,ox=d1 ,heidelb]g1 & ,prague are ! educational c5tres2 & t ,europe is divid$ into _m nations7 ,b a deep] insight into ! ,r5aissance %[s t its revolution>y1 negative1 & spectacul> aspect is n its :ole significance4 ,no d\bt a /rong1 univ]sal1 & well-c5traliz$ gov]nm5t & a unity ( fai? are social ideals4 ,! rev]5ce 9 :i* ! "n ( ,rome 0 held long aft] ! empire _h be5 de/roy$1 & ! reluctance ) :i* ! fir/ ,prote/ants sep>at$ !mselves f ! ,ca?olic *ur*1 %[ t ! loss ( su* a unity is a real loss4 ,b ! *ur* ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 n ! c>ri] ( all ! treasure ( ! pa/1 nor c\ld ! *ur* ) its own inh]5t limitations /& z repres5tative ( mod]n times4 ,! new problem :i* ! ,r5aissance fac$ might be de/ructive ( mu* ( ! traditional pa/1 b x conta9$ _m new elem5ts4 ,! 8new man0 f\nd himself 9 a 8new univ]se40 ,he 0 oblig$ to und]take ! solution ( a f> deep] problem ?an antiquity _h ev] attempt$4 ,he mu/ ori5t himself 9 a l>g] _w ?an ! pa/ _h ev] imag9$4 ,he mu/ d ?is 9 ! v pres5ce ( m$ival in/itutions1 :i* _h n lo/ _! spiritual nor _! temporal p[]4 ,! con/ructive problem be=e ! man ( ! ,r5aissance 0 !re=e an exce$+ly complex "o4 ,h[ %\ld he expla9 8 relation to ! 8new univ]se0 9 a way t w\ld n antagonize tradition8 ,x 0 a new problem1 a real problem 9 :i* ! traditional factor 0 always p]si/5tly pres5t4 ,!re 7 two motifs :i* give to ! problem ( ! ,r5aissance its con/ructive "*4 ,^! 7 naturalism & subjectivism4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! ,r5aissance is ! p]iod :5 ! naturalism ( ! ,greeks 0 recov]$4 ,by naturalism is meant ! love = e>?ly life4 ,( ?is ! m$ival *ur* & ! m$ival "t _h little or no?+4 ,! *ur* _h be5 born out ( ! revulsion f ! e>?ly1 & x rose on ! aspiration = ! sup]natural4 ,! ,r5aissance 01 on ! contr>y1 born out ( a passionate joy 9 nature1 :i* joy 0 int5sifi$ by ! unexpect$ possession ( ! lit]ature ( ! pa/ & by ! discov]y ( new l&s beyond ! seas4 ,man felt n[ ! happ9ess & dignity ( e>?ly liv+ & ! wor? ( ! body z well z ! s\l4 ,9 ! next place1 ! ,r5aissance is m>k$ by ! rise ( subjectivism4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( our book we h already giv5 ! mean+ ( subjectivism 7see vol4 i1 p4 #b71 & we h *>act]iz$ mod]n civilization z subjective 9 di/9ction f ! anci5t z objective & ! ,middle ,ages z traditional4 ,we h also f\nd1 z we h gone on1 ! beg9n+s ( subjectivism 9 ! ,sophi/s1 ,/oics1 & ,*ri/ians4 ,b 9 ! ,r5aissance = ! fir/ "t does ! individual z a rational self ga9 ! c5tral position4 ,?is is subjectivism3 ! individual is n only ! int]pret] ( ! univ]se1 b also its m5tal creator4 ,( ! subjective motif 9 mod]n times ! ,r5aissance m>ks ! inauguration1 & ,g]man ,idealism ! culm9ation4 ,:ile ! _w ( ! anci5ts 0 cosmo-c5tric & ! m$ival _w 0 !o-c5tric1 ! _w ( ! mod]n man is ego-c5tric4 ,! love ( life1 & ! love ( life because ! individual feels 8 own capacity = life?is is ! situation pres5t$ to ! man ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,?us 9 ! re/oration ( naturalism & 9 ! con/ruction ( subjectivism did ! ,r5aissance /& = positive upbuild+1 9 spite ( ! fact t 9 all ?is ! p]iod 0 con/ra9$ by ! p[]ful tradition ( ! *ur*4 ,! ,two ,p]iods ( ! ,r5aissance3 ,! ,humani/ic 7#adec-afjj72 ,! ,natural ,sci5ce 7#afjj-afij74 ,! ,r5aissance is divid$ into two p]iods at ! ye> #afjj4 ,! reason = tak+ ?is date z a division l9e w soon appe>4 ,! p]iod be=e #afjj we call ! ,humani/ic1 or ! p]iod ( ! ,humanities2 ! p]iod aft] ?is date ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod4 7a7 ,! ,simil>ities ( ! ,two ,p]iods4 ,^! two p]iods are alike 9 hav+ ! same motives4 ,bo? feel ! same urg5t ne$ 7#a7 = new k1 7#b7 = a new /&>d by :i* to measure _! new k1 7#c7 = a new me?od ( ga9+ k4 ,f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( ! ,r5aissance ! 8new man0 0 feel+ 8 way ab\t1 0 try+ to ori5t & readju/ himself 9 8 8new univ]se40 ,he 0 seek+ new acquisitions to 8 ri* /ores ( k1 to sy/ematize 8 k by "s correct me?od1 & to set up "s /&>d by :i* 8 k might be te/$4 7b7 ,! ,diff]5ces ( ! ,two ,p]iods4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s m>k$ diff]5ces 9 ! c>ry+ out ( ^! motives by ea* p]iod1 & to ^! we mu/ give our att5tion4 7#a7 ,! ,c\ntries :i* p>ticipate 9 ! ,r5aissance diff] 9 ! ,two ,p]iods4 ,9 ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod ,italy & ,g]many 7 *iefly conc]n$4 ,!re are two reasons = ?is4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ^! c\ntries _h be5 engag$ 9 comm]ce ) ! ,ori5t1 _h become prosp]\s & m or less acqua9t$ ) ! culture ( ! ,ori5t4 ,9 ! second place1 ,italy _h be5 ! refuge ( ! ,greek s*ol>s2 :5 ! colony ( ,greek refugees 9 ,flor5ce _h di$ out 9 #aebj1 nor!rn]s l ,erasmus1 ,agricola1 ,reu*l91 ! ,/ephani1 & ,budu _h luckily already made !mselves ma/]s ( ! ,greek language & lit]ature1 & _h c>ri$ _! le>n+ into ,g]many4 ,9 ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod ! ,r5aissance _h practically become dead bo? 9 ,g]many & 9 ,italy4 ,! reason = ?is is n f> to seek4 ,9 ,italy1 9 #aefc1 ! ,c\ncil ( ,tr5t _h fix$ ! dogma ( ! *ur* & _h made x impossible = ! *ur* to assimilate any?+ m f antiquity4 ,! s-call$ ,c\nt]-,re=mation set 91 & ,italy became dumb "u ! p]secutions ( ! ,inquisition4 ,fur!rmore1 ! discov]y ( ! sea-r\te to ! ,ea/ _h turn$ comm]ce away f ,italy4 ,:5 we look to ,g]many1 we f9d a simil> situation4 ,! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> 7#afah-afdh7 _h deva/at$ ! l& & _h made intellectual life :olly impossible4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ! ,l[ ,c\ntries repres5t ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod 9 ! ,r5aissance4 ,by ! ,w> ( ,lib]ation 7#aefh-afdh7 ,holl& became ! ,european c\ntry :]e ! greate/ fre$om ( ?\ght 0 grant$1 & x prov$ itself an asylum = ?9k]s & s*ol>s4 ,france1 ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 0 ! c5tre ( ma!matical rese>*4 ,9 ,engl& ! brilliant ,elizabe?an era _h already begun4 7#b7 ,! ,intellectual ,/&>ds diff] 9 ! ,two ,p]iods4 ,! ,humani/ic ,p]iod has be5 well *>act]iz$ z ! "t ( 8! /ruggle ( traditions40 ,naturally en\gh1 ) ! revival ( ,greek le>n+ ! ?9k]s ( ! fir/ p]iod ( ! ,r5aissance w\ld try to solve ! new problems by ! /&>ds :i* !y f\nd 9 antiquity4 ,:at did ,ari/otle1 ,plato1 ! ,epicureans say 9 matt]s ( sci5ce8 ,:at /&>ds did !y yield = solv+ ! new problems ( ! 8new univ]se08 ,! traditions ( antiquity 7 !re=e reviv$2 & ! cont5tion 01 ,:i* %\ld be tak5 z a /&>d8 ,among all ! anci5t sy/ems neo-,platonism became ! mo/ prom95t4 ,x dom9at$ ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod because its /hetic "* & its my/ical explanations appeal$ to ! susceptible m9d ( t "t4 ,nev]!less1 ! sway ( neo-,platonism 0 n absolute4 ,! 8/ruggle ( traditions0 cont9u$ ?r\gh\t ! p]iod1 z appe>s 9 ! s*isms ( ! *ur* & 9 ! lit]>y & philosophical cont5tions4 ,! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod1 9 its hope ( f9d+ a /&>d to expla9 ! problems ( ! 8new univ]se10 discov]$ a new /&>d )9 ! 8new univ]se0 itself4 ,no tradition ( antiquity _h prov$ itself adequate to ! situation4 ,no?+ c\ld be f\nd 9 ,plato & ,ari/otle to give a !oretic /&>d = ! new discov]ies & inv5tions4 ,nature disclos$ its own /&>d )9 itself4 ,! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod said nature facts mu/ be expla9$ by nature facts4 ,b ! "q w naturally be ask$1 ,:y did ! ?9k]s ( ?is p]iod1 :5 ! !ories ( antiquity 7 f\nd to be inadequate1 turn to nature r ?an else:]e = an explanation ( nature8 ,! answ] to ?is is f\nd 9 ! great successes ( ! physical a/ronom]s1 :o _h />t$ _! inve/igations at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod1 & _h rea*$ ! z5i? ( _! glory at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod4 ,! discov]ies ( ,galileo 7 especially important4 7#c7 ,! ,sci5tific ,me?ods 9 ! ,two ,p]iods 7 ,diff]5t4 ,! me?od usually employ$ 9 ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod 0 magic4 ,?is fir/ p]iod tri$ to expla9 nature facts ( ! 8new univ]se0 by ref]r+ !m to ag5cies 9 ! spiritual _w4 ,9 _! neo-,platonic nature-wor%ip ! s*ol>s ( ?is p]iod imag9$ t ! control ( nature 0 to be obta9$ by a fanciful l9k+ ( ! p>ts ( nature to ! spirits suppos$ to be 9 nature4 ,! ,bible is ! product ( ! spiritual _w1 s :y is n ! 8new nature-_w0 inspir$ f ! same s\rce8 ,god is ! fir/ cause ( all ?+s2 ,he is 9 all ?+s & ea* f9ite ?+ mirrors ,him4 ,all ?+s h s\ls4 ,to ga9 control ov] nature1 "s all-controll+ =mula mu/ be f\nd :i* w reveal ! secret ( ! control ( spirits ov] nature2 & to ma/] ! spirits t control nature is to control nature h]self4 ,h5ce arose1 z ! me?ods ( ?is fir/ p]iod1 magic1 trance-m$ium%ip1 necromancy1 al*emy1 conjurations1 & a/rology4 ,antiquity c\ld (f] 7& especially is ?is true ( ,platonism7 only spiritual causes = nature facts1h5ce ! se>* 9 ?is "t = ! philosoph]'s /one4 ,!re 0 nev] a bl9d] grop+ aft] a me?od4 ,! sci5tific me?od us$ 9 ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod 0 ! ma!matical4 ,! _w ( exp]i5ce 0 f\nd to co9cide ) ! numb] sy/em1 & !re=e ma!matics 0 us$ z ! symbol to det]m9e ! =m ( nature ev5ts4 ,induction & d$uction 7 us$ 9 diff]5t comb9ations4 ,! p]iod has be5 *>act]iz$ z ! "t ( 8! /rife ( me?ods40 ,induction & d$uction became 9 fact ! new me?ods ( f9d+ ! tru? ab\t ! 8new _w40 ,:atev] is cle> & di/9ct1 l ! axioms1 mu/ be tak5 z true4 ,all o!r k mu/ be d$uc$ f ^! axiomatic c]ta9ties4 ,9 contra/ ) ! magical me?ods ( ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod1 :i* po9t beyond nature = an explanation ( nature1 "h 9 ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod ma!matics ne$ n lead ! explanation f>!r ?an nature h]self4 7#d7 ,! ,attitude ( ! ,*ur* t[>d ,sci5ce diff]s 9 ! ,two ,p]iods4 ,9 ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod ! attitude ( ! *ur* t[>d ! new le>n+ 0 n yet def9$4 ,?is 0 because ! be>+ ( ! new le>n+ ^u dogma 0 n yet und]/ood4 ,on ! "o h&1 on matt]s ^u :i* ! *ur* _h cle>ly decl>$ itself1 x 0 easily se5 :at c\ld & :at c\ld n be believ$4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! significance ( mu* ( ! weal? ( ! newly acquir$ le>n+ c\ld n at fir/ be fully det]m9$4 ,! en?usiasm = sci5ce 0 s widespread1 & ! new discov]ies 7 s _m1 t ! *ur* 0 unable to "k :at 0 consi/5t ) dogma & :at 0 n4 ,at ! outset ! *ur* 0 incl9$ to treat ! new sci5ce ) contemptu\s tol]ation4 ,nev]!less1 9 spite ( ! new intellectual intoxication !re 0 no real fre$om ( ?\ght4 ,! position ( sci5ce 0 m]ely prec>i\s1 unc]ta91 & undef9$4 ,9 ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod ?is unc]ta9ty 0 dispell$ because dogma came into viol5t conflict ) sci5ce4 ,x 0 soon f\nd t que/ions 9 physics involv$ metaphysics1 & t ! new sci5ce t\*$ ! *ur* doctr9es at e po9t4 ,9 #aefc ! *ur* au?orities at ! ,c\ncil ( ,tr5t settl$ dogma = all "t4 ,great conflicts arose betwe5 ! *ur* & ! secul>iz+ _s4 ,! sci5ti/ became w>y4 ,he tri$ to avoid any intrusion ^u ! field ( !ology1 & he insi/$ t 8 own field exi/$ q indep5d5t ( !ological dogma4 ,b practically x 0 impossible = sci5ce n to take h]etical positions1 & ?is 0 especially true ( ! ,rationali/ic ,s*ool1 :i* tri$ to con/ruct a new s*ola/icism4 ,safe indep5d5ce ( ?\ght 0 n ga9$ until ! next p]iod 7! ,enlight5m5t71 & ?is 0 br\ght to pass by political *anges4 ,a ,brief ,contra/ ( ! ,two ,p]iods,a ,summ>y ( ! ,discussion above4 ,! ,humani/ic ,p]iod4 7#a7 ,! ,"t#adec-afjj4 7#b7 ,! ,c\ntries ,conc]n$,italy & ,g]many4 7#c7 ,! ,intellectual ,/&>ds,neo-,platonism & o!r !ories ( antiquity4 7#d7 ,! ,me?odmagic4 7#e7 ,! ,relation ( ,sci5ce to ! ,*ur*prec>i\s & unc]ta94 ,! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod4 7#a7 ,! ,"t#afjj-afij4 7#b7 ,! ,c\ntries ,conc]n$,engl&1 ,france1 & ! ,l[ ,c\ntries4 7#c7 ,! ,intellectual ,/&>d! me*anism ( nature facts4 7#d7 ,! ,me?odinduction & ma!matical d$uction 9 v>i\s comb9ations4 7#e7 ,! ,relation ( ,sci5ce to ! ,*ur*s def9itely /at$ z to be plac$ 9 conflict ) dogma4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,humani/ic ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance 7#adec-afjj7 ,! ,long ,li/ ( ,repres5tatives ( ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod4 ,!re 0 a revival ( s*ola/icism1,paulus ,b>bus ,soc9as 7d4 #adid71 ,cajetan 7d4 #aecd71 ,f]r>i5sis 7d4 #aebh71 ,mel*ior ,cano 7d4 #aefj71 ,dom9icus de ,soto 7d4 #aefj71 ,dom9icus ,banez 7d4 #afjd71 ,john ( ,/4 ,?omas 7d4 #afdd71 ,vasquez 7d4 #afjd71 ,toletus 7d4 #aeif71 ,fonseca 7d4 #aeii71 ,su>ez 7d4 #afag71 ,john ! ,engli%man 7d4 #adhc71 ,johannes ,magi/ri 7d4 #adhb71 ,antonius ,trombetta 7d4 #aeah71 ,maurice ! ,iri%man 7d4 #aeac74 ,among ! ,humani/s 7 ,ple?o1 ,bess>ion 7d4 #adgb71 ,lor5zo ,valla 7d4 #adeg71 ,m>silio ,fic9o 7d4 #adii71 ,giovanni ,pico della ,mir&ola 7d4 #adid71 ,francesco ,pico della ,mir&ola 7d4 #aecc71 ,!odore ( ,gaza 7d4 #adgh71 ,agricola 7d4 #adhe71 ,george ( ,trebizond 7d4 #adhd71 ,ju/us ,lipsius 7d4 #afjf71 ,s*oppe 7b4 #aefb71 ,p>acelsus 7d4 #aeda71 ,reu*l9 7d4 #aebb71 ,fludd 7d4 #afcg71 ,montaigne 7d4 #aeib71 ,*>ron 7d4 #afjc71 ,san*ez 7d4 #afcb71 ,pomponatius 7d4 #aecj71 ,a*ill9i 7d4 #aeah71 ,nifo 7d4 #aedf71 ,petrus ,ramus 7d4 #aegb71 ,scalig] 7d4 #aeeh74 ,! ,italian nature philosoph]s 7 ,c>dano 7d4 #aegf71 ,telesio 7d4 #aehh71 ,patrizzi 7d4 #aeig71 ,bruno 7d4 #afjj71 ,campanella 7d4 #afci74 ,! notable sci5ti/s 7 ,cusanus 7d4 #adfd71 ,cop]nicus 7d4 #aedc71 ,ty*o ,brahe 7d4 #afja71 ,kepl] 7d4 #afca74 ,! ,prote/ant ,my/ics 7 ,lu!r 7d4 #aedf71 ,zw+li 7d4 #aeca71 ,franck 7d4 #aede71 ,weigel 7d4 #aehh71 ,boehme 7d4 #afbd74 ,! political philosoph]s 7 ,mac*iavelli 7d4 #aebg71 ,?omas ,m 7d4 #aece71 ,jean ,bod9 7d4 #aeig71 ,g5tilis 7d4 #afaa71 ,al?usius 7d4 #afch71 ,hugo ,grotius 7d4 #afde74 ,z examples ( ! fir/ epo* ( ! ,r5aissance#b we h select$ ,cusanus 7#adja-adfd71 ,p>acelsus 7#adic-aeda71 & ,bruno 7#aedh-afjj74 ,^! ?ree m5 w repres5t fairly well ! wide int]e/s ( ?is epo*1 & m especially its neo-,platonic _s & its me?ods4 ,! read] w see f _! dates t ! lives ( ^! ?ree philosoph]s ne>ly cov] ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod4 ,cusanus liv$ dur+ ! la/ half c5tury ( ! ,middle ,ages & ! fir/ decade ( ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod2 ,p>acelsus's life cov]s ! middle ( ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod2 ,bruno liv$ dur+ ! la/ "p ( ! p]iod1 & 8 dea? 7#afjj7 co9cides ) ! la/ ye> ( ! p]iod4 ,all ?ree 7 neo-,platoni/s4 ,!y _h be5 s impress$ ) ! nature-_w t _h op5$ be=e !m t !y 7 my/ic nature-wor%ip]span!i/s1 to :om neo-,platonism became ! true/ philosophical /&>d4 ,all ?ree 7 sci5ti/s 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,yet ,cusanus1 ! c>d9al ( ! *ur*1 & ,bruno1 ! speculative philosoph]1 contribut$ m to sci5ce ?an ,p>acelsus1 :o aspir$ to m$ical sci5ce4 ,?is seem+ inconsi/5cy 9 _! lives is n difficult to expla94 ,p>acelsus m]ely reflects ! sci5ce ( ! "t2 :ile ,cusanus & ,bruno anticipate ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod! "o by 8 empirical discov]ies1 ! o!r by 8 my/ic speculations :i* 7 almo/ prophecies4 ,nicolas ( ,cusa 7#adja-adfd74 ,mod]n ,g]man s*ol>s place ,nicolas ( ,cusa 7,nicolas ,cusanus7 ) ,bacon & ,desc>tes1 z ! lead]s ( ! mod]n philosophical movem5t4 ,nicolas liv$ two hundr$ ye>s be=e ,desc>tes & "o hundr$ ye>s be=e ,bacon4 ,! ,g]man e/imate ( him %[s at lea/ t he 0 mod]n 9 8 ?\ght1 al?\gh he belongs 9 "t to ! ,middle ,ages = ! mo/ "p4 ,he liv$ :5 ! ,middle ,ages 7 pass+ ov] into ! ,r5aissance4 ,8 pr9cipal "w1 ! ,idiota1 0 publi%$ 9 #adej1 :5 ! ,r5aissance 0 on ! ?re%old4 ,he 0 c]ta9ly a =]unn] ( mod]n times4 ,he 0 a ,g]man1 a c>d9al1 & is n[ rev]5c$ by lib]al ,ca?olics z "o ( _! deepe/ ?9k]s4 ,cusanus 0 a sci5ti/ ( no small m]it4 ,he di$ be=e ! great discov]ies 7 made2 b he anticipat$ ,cop]nicus 9 8 belief t ! e>? rotat$ on its axis2 he anticipat$ ,bruno 9 conceiv+ space to be b\ndless & "t un5d+2 he propos$ a re=m 9 ! cal5d>2 he 0 ! fir/ to h a map ( ,g]many engrav$4 ,he condemn$ ! preval5t sup]/itions ( ! *ur* & ! use ( magic 9 expla9+ nature ev5ts4 ,?us he anticipat$ ! sci5ce ( ! "t ( ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 & ,desc>tes1 & transc5d$ 8 own p]iod4 ,9 o!r respects ,cusanus belongs 9 ?is p]iod ) ,bruno & ,p>acelsus4 ,he did n seek to discov] a new me?od2 b he turn$ back to ! reviv$ traditional ,greek sy/ems = an explanation ( ! 8new _w40 ,he f\nd 9 ! my/ic numb]s ( ,plato & ! ,py?agoreans ! pr9ciple ( all sci5tific inve/igation4 ,! _w ( nature ph5om5a mu/ be acc\nt$ = by ! spiritual _w4 ,cusanus uses almo/ ! id5tical language ( ,bruno1 :5 he says t ! _w is ! mirror ( ,god & t man is an epitome ( ! univ]se4 ,9 ! neo-,platonic _s ( ! ,humani/s1 he reg>d$ ! _w z a s\l-possess+ & articulate ,on5ess4 ,al?\gh a sci5ti/1 he conceiv$ sci5ce to be only a conjecture1 :i* 9 its unreality reveals ! inn] int]connections ( ! real _w! _w ( ! _s4 ,p>acelsus 7#adic-aeda74 ,p>acelsus did n transc5d 8 "t z did ,cusanus4 ,he m]ely express$ x4 ,he 0 ! expon5t ( its sci5ce z ,bruno 0 ! repres5tative ( its poetic speculation4 ,p>acelsus 0 a mu*-travel$ ,swiss1 :o tri$ to re=m ! practice ( m$ic9e by a k9d ( magical *emi/ry4 ,! poet ,br[n+ makes 8 adv5tures ! basis ( a poem4 ,z a physician ,p>acelsus c\ld employ ! magic arts )\t mu* dang] ( ! *>ge ( h]esy1 = ! practice ( ! magic art 0 !oretically ju/ifi$ by ! neo-,platonism ( ! "t4 ,! ,fau/ ( ,goe! is at fir/ a ,p>acelsus4 ,! univ]sal _s beh9d nature pres5ts itself 9 an inf9ite numb] ( spiritual individuals4 ,nature facts are to be und]/ood & ma/]$ by und]/&+ ! activities ( ^! spiritual =ces4 ,9 ?is way m$ic9e became a brew+ ( t9ctures1 magical dr9ks1 & secret rem$ies4 ,x 0 an al*emy :i* grew to ! proportions ( a sci5ce4 ,! al*emi/s ( ! "t expect$ to discov] a panacea aga9/ disease1 :i* w\ld give !m ! highe/ p[]4 ,?is is ! mean+ ( ! 8philosoph]'s /one10 :i* 0 to heal all diseases1 transmute ev]y?+ into gold1 & br+ all spirits into ! p[] ( its possessor4 ,p>acelsus ?us turn$ back to ,greek hylozoism = ! tru? ab\t physiology & ! cure ( disease2 & he met ) "s degree ( p]sonal success1 = 8 physics _h _m adh]5ts bo? 9 !ory & 9 practice4#c ,9 ! neo-,platonic mann] ,p>acelsus conceiv$ ! _w z fundam5tally a develop+ vital pr9ciple 7,vulcanus74 ,man is ?is cosmic =ce individualiz$ 7,ar*u74 ,! laws t op]ate 9 ! _w are ! same z 9 man1 except t 9 man !y are hidd54 ,! /udy ( nature's laws1 z !y lie op51 w reveal h[ ^? same laws op]ate 9 a human be+4 ,n[ ! vital pr9ciple 9 nature manife/s itself 9 ?ree realms3 ! t]re/rial1 ! a/ral or cele/ial1 & ! spiritual or div9e4 ,! ,ar*u or vital pr9ciple 9 man mu/ h ! same realms ( activity4 ,!re is man's body1 :i* gets its /r5g? f ! t]re/rial realm ( nature2 man's m9d1 :i* is n\ri%$ by ! />s2 man's s\l1 t fe$s on fai? 9 ,*ri/4 ,p]fect heal?1 !re=e1 consi/s 9 ! sympa!tic int]action ( ^! ?ree realms 9 man4 ,a complete m$ic9e consi/s ( physics1 a/ronomy1 & !ology4 ,b ,p>acelsus 0 a *emi/1 & ! t]re/rial nature ( man 0 8 peculi> int]e/4 ,! !ologian may prescribe = ! human s\l1 & x is ! duty ( ! a/ronom] to c>e = ! human intellect2 b ! practical physician mu/ und]/& ! human body4 ,"h is ! ,ar*u imprison$ 9 ! gross t]re/rial body6 ,x is 9 cont9ual w>f>e ) t body4 ,:at is ! nature ( t body :i* is s ho/ile to ! human vital pr9ciple8 ,"h ,p>acelsus introduces 8 /range *emical analysis :i* *>act]izes him z a ,r5aissance physician4 ,nature has ?ree ess5ces ( :i* all bodies are compos$3 7#a7 m]cury1 t makes bodies liquid2 7#b7 sulphur1 t makes !m combu/ible2 7#c7 salt1 t makes !m rigid4 ,^! ess5ces are comp\nd$ 9 su* a way t f !m ! f\r elem5tse>?1 air1 wat]1 & fireare d]iv$4 ,ea* "o ( ^! elem5ts is controll$ by elem5tal spirits4 ,! e>? is controll$ by gnomes1 ! wat] by und9es1 ! air by sylphs1 & ! fire by salam&]s4 ,?us ! *emical analysis ( ,p>acelsus discov]s f\r sets ( spirits ) :i* ! physician is oblig$ to deal4 ,gnomes1 sylphs1 und9es1 & salam&]s are 9 w>f>e ) ! human vital pr9ciple = control4 ,:5 ! ,ar*u is 9 any way *eck$ by ^!1 !re is disease2 :5 ! ,ar*u has !m "u control1 ! man has heal?4 ,! m$ic9es t ! physician adm9i/]s are det]m9$ by _! effectiv5ess 9 help+ ! ,ar*u 9 its battle aga9/ ! ho/ile spirits4 ,?is makes m$ic9e a field = ! magician 9 ! control ( spirits4 ,giordano ,bruno 7#aedh-afjj74 ,! neo-,platonic _s ( ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod rea*$ its mo/ complete developm5t 9 ! /hetic philosophy ( ,giordano ,bruno4 ,he sang ! _w-joy ( ! /hetic ,r5aissance4 ,italy orda9$ him prie/1 exil$ him z h]etic1 & !n burn$ him at ! /ake z recalcitrant4 ,italy has produc$ v few great speculators s9ce 8 day4 ,! ,c\ncil ( ,tr5t met :5 he 0 fifte5 ye>s old2 already ! c\nt]-,re=mation _h begun 9 ,italy1 & ,italy 0 soon to become an intellectually arid wa/e4 ,! influ5ce ( ,bruno appe>s 9 ,sp9oza & p]haps 9 ,leibnitz4 ,8 "o contribution to mod]n sci5ce 0 9 8 inspir$ conception t because ,god is inf9ite1 ! _w is inf9ite 9 space & "t4 ,! philosoph]s :o influ5c$ 8 ?\ght 7 ,py?agoras1 ,plato1 ,plot9us1 & ,lucretius4 ,! fundam5tal ?\ght ( ! ,humani/ic ,p]iod 0 express$ by ,bruno 9 8 imag9ative conception ( ! div9e beauty ( ! liv+ ,all4 ,poet z well z philosoph]1 he 0 consum$ by a love = nature z a beautiful religi\s object4 ,he revolt$ f all asceticism & s*ola/icism4 ,! 8new _w0 9 :i* he f\nd himself 0 to him ! emblem ( ,god4 ,! ?\ght ( t *ief ( neo-,platoni/s1 ,plot9us1 ( ! beauty ( ! univ]se _h nev] be5 s sympa!tically reg>d$ z by ! ,r5aissance2 9 ! h&s ( ,bruno ?is beauty became ! manife/ation ( ! div9e ,idea4 ,philosophy1 /hetics1 & religion 7 id5tical to him4 ,to express 8 ?\ght he employ$ ! usual neo-,platonic symbol ( ! all-=m+ & all-animat+ light4 ,bruno 0 no pati5t /ud5t ( natural ph5om5a z su*1 b a lov] ( ! great illum9ation ( nature facts by ! great s\l beh9d !m4 ,he 0 n int]e/$ 9 any s+le gr\p ( ph5om5a1 z 0 ,p>acelsus2 b he lov$ !m all z a religion4 ,n only ext]nally b int]nally is ! univ]se an et]nal h>mony4 ,:5 "o gazes ^u x ) ! en?usiasm ( a poet1 its app>5t defects w vani% 9 ! h>mony ( ! :ole4 ,man ne$s no special !ology1 = ! _w is p]fect because x is ! life ( ,god4 ,bruno is a univ]sali/ic optimi/ & a my/ic poet4 ,be=e ?is cosmic h>mony man %\ld nev] utt] compla9t1 b %\ld b[ 9 rev]5ce4 ,true sci5ce is religion & morality4 ,s9ce ,bruno conceiv$ no !odicy 7pro( ( ! goodness & ju/ice ( ,god7 to be necess>y1 he did n def9e 9 exact t]ms 8 conception ( ,god4 ,nev]!less1 to escape ! *>ge ( a!ism1 he di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! univ]se & ! _w4 ,= him ,god ! univ]se nature matt] ! pr9ciple imman5t 9 ! _w4 ,! 8_w10 on ! o!r h&1 ! sum-total ( nature ph5om5a4 ,! 8_w0 is ! body ( ,god1 & ,god is ! s\l ( ! 8_w40 ,god is natura naturans2 ! _w is natura naturata#d4 ,j z ! sum ( ! p>ts ( man's body does n equal ! man himself1 s to id5tify ,god ) ! totality ( objects ( nature is a!ism 9 ! true s5se4 ,x is to make ,god a f9ite be+1 al?\gh v big4 ,9 opposition to ?is1 ,bruno conceives ,god z ! "o sub/ance manife/+ himself ?r\gh all ?+s4 ,?is is to magnify ,god & to make him really omnipres5t4 ,nev]!less1 ,bruno is involv$ 9 all ! inconsi/5cies ( ! ,my/ic4 ,9 a neo-,platonic fa%ion he frequ5tly speaks ( ,god z if he 7 a plural numb] ( atoms4 ,god is n only ! _w unity1 b 9 e p>ticle ( ! _w is ,he writ small4 ,! elem5ts ( ! _w are monads1 & ea* is ! mirror ( ! ,all4 ,! ,absolute is ! primal unity2 & yet 9 ! p>adoxical fa%ion 9 :i* ! neo-,platoni/ is s successful1 ,bruno says t all creation is unfold$ out ( ,god & is includ$ 9 him4 ,! speculative poet is s 9 love ) ! _w t he does n /op to make consi/5t ! di/9ctions :i* he has drawn4 ,! natura naturans & ! natura naturata1 ! unity & plurality ( ! _w1 are ! two aspects ( ! reality 9 8 own life& t reality is ,god4 ,illu/ration3 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,bir?places ,,( ,,! ,,*ief ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance 7,! names ( ! philosoph]s are giv5 9 brackets b5ea? ! t[ns 9 :i* !y 7 born7 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,natural ,,sci5ce ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance 7#afjj-afij7e ,! ,philosoph]s ( ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod4 #a4 ,galileo1 #aefd-afda1 & ! gr\p ( sci5ti/s4 #b4 ,bacon1 #aefa-afbf4 #c4 ,hobbes1 #aehh-afgi4 #d4 ,! ,rationali/s4 ,desc>tes1 #aeif-afej4 ,sp9oza1 #afcb-afgg4 ,leibnitz1 #afdf-agaf4 ,c\ntries o!r ?an ,italy & ,g]many come ^u ! philosophic /age dur+ ! eighty-n9e ye>s ( ! p]iod ( teem+ natural sci5ce4 ,engl& is repres5t$ by ,bacon & ,hobbes1 ,france by ,desc>tes1 ,holl& by ! ,jew1 ,sp9oza1 &1 at ! end ( ! p]iod1 ,g]many by ,leibnitz4 ,/ill ,italy yields ! mo/ influ5tial ?9k] ( !m all1,galileo1 :o is ! mo/ prom95t ( a long s]ies ( a/ronom]s com+ f _m c\ntries4 ,! mo/ completely repres5tative is ,desc>tes1 :o 0 ! f\nd] ( ! ,rationali/ic s*ool2 = he 0 n only int]e/$ 9 ma!matics itself1 b 9 ! application ( ma!matics to metaphysical que/ions4 ,nei!r z influ5tial z ,galileo1 nor z compreh5sive z ,desc>tes1 ! ,engli%m51 ,bacon & ,hobbes1 7 nev]!less important z ! =]unn]s ( ! ,engli% empirical s*ool4 ,sp9oza is m ( a 8_w's philosoph]0 ?an any ( ! o!rs1 & he jo9s 9 8 doctr9e ! s*ola/icism ( ! ,middle ,ages & ! ma!matics ( ! ,r5aissance2 :ile ,leibnitz occupies ! position betwe5 ! ,enlight5m5t & ! ,r5aissance4 ,! ,ma!matical ,a/ronom]s4 ,aft] en?usia/ically canvass+ ! traditional !ories ( antiquity1 ! ,humani/s _h be5 unable to f9d "o :i* w\ld expla9 & organize ! newly accumulat$ mat]ials ( _! 8new _w40 ,b work+ 9 m or less n>r[ circles1 natural sci5ce _h already made a beg9n+ 9 ! mid/ ( ! ,humani/s4 ,beg9n+ ) ,cop]nicus1 an int]e/ 9 physics & a/ronomy _h be5 ar\s$1 b 9 ^! e>ly days x 0 m speculative ?an empirical4 ,! speculations ( ! a/ronom]s _h b little influ5ce ^u _! own "t4 ,h[ev]1 :5 ! anci5t !ories prov$ inadequate to expla9 ! facts ( ! 8new _w10 & especially :5 ! empirical rese>*es ( ,galileo confirm$ ! speculations ( 8 pr$ecessors1 ! ,r5aissance turn$ away f antiquity to nature h]self = an explanation4 ,?is 0 ab\t ! ye> #afjj1 ! ye> ( ! beg9n+ ( ! ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod4 ,! mo/ prom95t ( ^! a/ronom]s 7 ,cop]nicus1 #adgc-aedc1 a ,pole4 ,bruno1 #aedh-afjj1 an ,italian4 ,ty*o ,brahe1 #aedf-afja1 a ,dane4 ,kepl]1 #aega-afcj1 a ,g]man4 ,galileo1 #aefd-afda1 an ,italian4 ,huygh5s1 #afbi-afie1 a ,holl&]4 ,newton1 #afdb-agbb1 an ,engli%man4 ,:ile ! greate/ ( ^! sci5ti/s is ,newton1 :o belongs to ! next p]iod1 ! mo/ influ5tial is ,galileo4 ,mod]n me?ods 9 sci5ce began ) ,galileo4 ,( ! f\r pr$ecessors ( ,galileo ?ree,cop]nicus1 ,ty*o ,brahe1 & ,brunoare 9 _s ,humani/s2 = _! f9al explanation ( nature is ! _w ( spirits4 ,kepl] belongs to bo? ! ,humani/ic & ,natural ,sci5ce p]iods2 = at fir/ he con/ruct$ 8 natural sci5ce by an amalgamation ( ! doctr9e ( spirits & ! ,cop]nican !ory2 b 9 ! latt] "p ( 8 life he adopt$ completely ! me*anical view ( nature4 ,! above sci5ti/s may be divid$ = conv5i5ce into two gr\ps3 7#a7 ! speculative sci5ti/s be=e ,galileo2 7#b7 ,galileo & ! foll[+ empirical inve/igators4 ,= f\rte5 c5turies ! anci5t ,ptolemaic a/ronomy _h be5 reg>d$ by ! le>n$ z beyond "q4 ,al?\gh complex & unwieldy1 x expla9$ all ph5om5a satisfactorily en\gh z !y appe>$ to ! s5ses2 & x br\ght ph5om5a into a sy/em4 7,! ,ptolemaic sy/em has be5 fully describ$ 9 vol4 i1 pp4 #cbb ff47 ,to recapitulate x3 ! _w-all 0 conceiv$ z a holl[ sph]e ) ! e>? z ! c5tre & ! fix$ />s 9 ! p]iph]y1 :ile ! planets 7 suppos$ to move 9 epicycles4 ,! univ]se 0 divid$ into ! heav5ly & t]re/rial realms1 :i* 7 occupi$ by v>i\s spirits4 ,god resid$ outside ?is holl[ sph]e & held x1 z x 71 9 8 lap4 ,! hi/ory ( ! *anges lead+ up to our mod]n a/ronomical conception makes a vivid *apt]4 ,h[ ,cop]nicus contribut$ ! idea ( plac+ ! sun at ! c5tre ( ?+s1 ,kepl] ! idea ( ! orbits ( ! planets z ellipses1 ,bruno ! idea ( ! b\ndlessness ( space & "t1 & h[ ,galileo1 corroborat+ ^! !ories by empirical inve/igations1 0 put "u ! ban ( ! *ur*all ?is %[s :at h]oism mu/ h be5 requir$ to te> d[n a "t-honor$ & firmly intr5*$ traditional conception4 ,probably ! speculative a/ronom]s 7 n consci\s t !y 7 und]m9+ ! :ole a/ronomical /ructure1 & probably _! sole motive 0 to simplify ! ,ptolemaic conception1 n to de/roy x4 ,= ,cop]nicus accept$ ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 except t he put ! sun in/ead ( ! e>? at ! c5tre1 & !reby simplifi$ x by mak+ _m ( ! epicycles unnecess>y2 & ,kepl] simplifi$ x fur!r by supplant+ ! epicycles ) ellipses4 ,h[ev]1 ! result 0 inevitably an entirely new conception ( ! univ]se1 & ) x a new conception ( ! relation among p>ticul> mat]ial ?+s4 ,x 0 9 ?is way t new sci5tific me?ods arose4 ,! univ]se n[ comes to be reg>d$ z a me*anism1 & :at 0 =m]ly look$ ^u z ! influ5ce ( spirits or z ,provid5tial guidance becomes an imp]sonal law ( causal necessity4 ,9 ! heav5s above & ! e>? b5ea? !re are no long] vital =ces & sup]natural influ5ces4 ,! univ]se becomes a homog5e\s :ole ?r\gh\t1 9 :i* !re is no diff]5ce betwe5 ! fall ( an apple & ! revolution ( ! planets1 no di/9ction betwe5 t]re/rial & cele/ial sph]es4 ,! ,*ri/ian heav5 is n[h]e 9 x2 ! ,m$ival spirits are bani%$ f x4 ,! ,greek gods h be5 pu%$ out1 & ! ,*ri/ian ,god has be5 made to /& aside4 ,! dem& t ! new conception ( ! univ]se be v]ifi$ 9 concrete exp]im5ts1 if x 7 to replace ! old ,ptolemaic sy/em1 ! revival ( ! /udy ( ,ar*im$es1 ! rivalry 9 trade & inv5tions among ! ,italian t[ns1 7 ?ree causes = ! dem& = great] exactness4 ,inve/igation1 exp]im5t1 & inv5tion came into vogue4 ,magic1 al*emy1 a/rology1 & conjurations 7 no long] accept$ z s]i\s me?ods4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages d$uction _h be5 purely ! logical employm5t ( ! syllogism 9 !ological discussions1 :ile induction1 s f> z x 0 us$ at all1 _h be5 ! ref]5ce ( nature ph5om5a to spiritual =ces4 ,n[ d$uction & induction#f come to be us$ = o!r purposes1 & ma!matics is necess>ily conjo9$ ) bo?4 ,! new ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod is ess5tially a 8/rife ( me?ods02 x is ! p]iod :5 ! true plan ( sci5tific proc$ure is be+ det]m9$4 ,x is "h t ! importance & influ5ce ( ,galileo is se5 ^u mod]n sci5ce & philosophy4 ,! influ5ce ( ma!matics 9 mod]n times grew up f ^! a/ronomical beg9n+s among ! ,humani/s2 & ! ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod ) its cont5tion z to me?ods 0 ! imm$iate result4 ,bacon1 = example1 reg>d$ f9al causes z "o ( ! 8idols40 ,hobbes ma9ta9$ t physics has only to d ) effici5t causes2 ,desc>tes held t x is audaci\s 9 man to ?9k ( read+ ! purposes ( ,god 9 nature2 :ile ,sp9oza ?\ght x absurd to attribute div9e purpose to nature4 ,by degrees ev]y?+ 9 nature came to be reg>d$ z a me*anism1 & !re 0 no di/9ction betwe5 ! animate & ! inanimate4 ,! discov]y ( ! me*anical circulation ( ! blood by ,h>vey1 9 #afbf1 became a vigor\s impulse t[>d ! me*anical /udy ( animal life4 ,desc>tes reg>d$ animals z complex automata & on ?is l9e he publi%$ essays on dioptrics1 musical law1 & ! ftus4 ,hobbes appli$ me*anical law to psy*ological ph5om5a4 ,! /udy ( reflex action 0 c>ri$ on ) great vigor 9 ! ,l[ ,c\ntries & ,france4 ,! me*anical !ory 0 r5d]$ complete 9 ?is e>ly "t by ! exclusion ( ! s\l f ! explanation ( ! body ( man1 j z ,god _h be5 pu%$ into ! backgr\nd ( ! univ]se4 ,galileo ,galilei 7#aefd-afda74g ,! dates ( ! life ( ,galileo %[ him to h be5 a y\ng] contempor>y ( ,bruno1 &1 l ,bruno1 to h be5 a victim ( ! ecclesia/ical reaction t 0 sweep+ away all sci5tific fre$om 9 ,italy4 ,b :ile ,bruno belong$ bo? *ronologically & 9 _s to ! fir/ p]iod ( ! ,r5aissance1 ,galileo is ! true beg9n] ( ! second p]iod4 ,bruno 0 a philosoph] ( nature1 :ile ,galileo 0 a true sci5ti/4 ,galileo gave to all future ?\ght a wisely =mulat$ me?od ( deal+ ) ! new mat]ials ( ! nature _w4 ,8 laws ( projectiles1 fall+ bodies1 & ! p5dulum creat$ a new !ory ( motion4 ,he set ! hypo!sis ( ,cop]nicus ^u an exp]im5tal basis & made ! future "w ( ,newton possible4 ,he 0 pr(essor at ! ,univ]sities ( ,padua & ,pisa1 & he 0 ma!matician & philosoph] at ! c\rt ( ,tuscany4 ,t he p]jur$ himself & !reby sav$ 8 life f ! ,inquisition1 !re is no d\bt2 b in/ead ( dea? he _h an old age ( great bitt]ness4 ,he gave op5 adh]5ce to ! ,cop]nican sy/em 9 #afaj1 :5 he con/ruct$ a telescope & discov]$ ! satellites ( ,jupit]2 & aft] ?is !re foll[$ discov]y aft] discov]y1 l ! spots on ! sun & ! phases ( ,v5us1 :i* latt] discov]y confirm$ ! ,cop]nican hypo!sis4 ,he inv5t$ ! hydro/atic balance1 ! proportional compass1 ! !rmoscope1 microscope1 & telescope4 ,8 two mo/ notewor?y writ+s are ,! ,dialogue conc]n+ ! ,two ,mo/ ,important ,_w-,sy/ems1 & ,inve/igations into ,two ,new ,sci5ces4 ,z to me?od1 ,galileo object$ to =mal logic1 t x is n a means ( discov]+ new tru?1 al?\gh valuable z a corrective ( ?\ght4 ,new tru? is discov]$ :5 we frame an hypo!sis f c]ta9 exp]i5ces1 & !n inf] ! tru? ( o!r cases f t hypo!sis4 ,! hypo!sis is fir/ =m$ by induction f a few *>act]i/ic cases2 ! inf]5ce to o!r cases is made by d$uction4 ,he !re=e l9k$ induction & d$uction closely toge!r1 & conceiv$ !m z necess>ily complem5t>y 9 sci5tific inve/igation4 ,ei!r induction or d$uction alone is absurd & impossible4 ,by induction alone we %\ld be oblig$ to exam9e all cases1 an impossible und]tak+4 ,by d$uction alone we %\ld be 9 ! same /raits z ! ,s*ola/ics1 & nev] discov] new laws4 ,we mu/ beg9 ) our p]ceptual exp]i5ces & make an induction f !m2 !n we mu/ br+ ma!matics into use 9 con/ruct+ ! hypo!sis f :i* to d$uce 7calculate7 new cases4 ,?is is ! true1 mod]n me?od & reveals ! great g5ius ( ,galileo4 ,a ma!matical law nev] exactly co9cides ) any p>ticul> concrete relations4 ,a ma!matical law is an hypo!sis or ideal con/ruction4 ,:at value1 !n1 has a ma!matical law = sci5ce8 ,! orbits ( planets#h are describ$ z ellipses1 b no actual planet moves 9 a p]fect ellipse4 ,! ellipse is an hypo!tical1 ma!matical orbit = a planet :i* has no di/urb+ influ5ces ^u x4 ,we get at su* a law by ! me?od ( concomitant v>iations2#i & ! value ( x consi/s 9 ! simplification & sy/em t x gives ! facts4 ,= example1 kn[+ t a planet w\ld move 9 an ellipse if x suff]$ no p]turbations1 & !n kn[+ ! influ5ces ^u any p>ticul> planet1 we c calculate its orbit4 ,ma!matical law1 al?\gh ideal1 is ! common rule "u :i* all nature ph5om5a c be br\ght4 ,h[ev]1 only by measurem5ts f\nd$ on ! te/s ( obs]vation & exp]im5t c we "k h[ f> ! claims ( su* d$uction are support$4 ,measure ev]y?+ measurable1 & calculate ! measurem5t ( ^? ?+s n directly measurable4 ,nature1 !re=e1 mu/ be call$ ^u to expla9 h] own ph5om5a4 ,s9ce ! laws ( nature are f\nd by inve/igat+ nature ph5om5a z we exp]i5ce !m1 ! laws mu/ be a "p ( nature & c be f\nd n[h]e else4 ,to expla9 nature ph5om5a by ref]r+ !m to spiritual influ5ce is no real explanation4 ,to say t ,god moves ! planets is to involve ! subject 9 my/]y4 ,"h is :]e ,galileo %[s t he does n belong to ! ,s*ola/ics or ! ,my/ics or ! ,humani/s4 ,he se>*$ = "s con/ant elem5t1 & n = a 8vital =ce0 beh9d nature ph5om5a4 ,he decl>$ ?is con/ant elem5t to be motionmeasurable motion4 ,he is ! au?or ( ! !ory t me*anics is ! ma!matical !ory ( motion4 ,sci5ce 0 !re=e tak5 by him out ( ! p>alyz+ grip ( ! !ologian4 ,! ,life ( ,francis ,bacon1 ,b>on ,v]ulam 7#aefa-afbf74 ,francis ,bacon 0 a native ( ,london & receiv$ 8 univ]sity education at ,cambridge4 ,he 0 9 ! ,engli% diplomatic s]vice at an e>ly age1 b he lat] return$ to ,london & took up ! legal pr(ession4 ,at ! age ( ?irty-two he ent]$ ,p>liam5t & became imm$iately di/+ui%$ z a debat]4 ,at =ty-?ree he became legal advis] ( ! cr[n1 & :5 he 0 fifty-six he 0 made ,"l ,*ancellor4 ,aft] a brilliant c>e] 9 public (fice he 0 accus$ & convict$ ( brib]y & corruption1 depos$ f (fice1 & heavily f9$4 ,8 mo/ notable writ+s are 8 ,essays1 two p>ts ( 8 uncomplet$ ,in/auratio ,magna1 viz41 ,de ,dignitate et ,augm5tis ,sci5ti>um & ,novum ,organum1 & 8 ,new ,atlantis1 a ,utopian fragm5t4 ,! ,position ( ,bacon 9 ,philosophy4 ,tradition has frequ5tly plac$ ,bacon z ! f\nd] ( mod]n philosophy4 ,?is e/imate is due to a rem>k by ,did]ot1 :i* 0 repeat$ by _m ,fr5* writ]s4 ,! e/imate1 h[ev]1 re/s on a misappreh5sion ( ,bacon's influ5ce4 ,bacon 0 m ( a ,humani/ ?an a te*nical philosoph]1 & 9 8 con/ructive philosophy he seems n only to h _h no influ5ce ^u 8 contempor>ies1 b also to h be5 un9flu5c$ by !m4 ,he 0 unconsci\s ( ! influ5ce ( ,kepl] & ,galileo & _! mighty sci5tific con/ructions4 ,bacon's ,novum ,organum1 :i* embodies 8 sci5tific me?ods1 _h no influ5ce ^u 8 own "t1 nor 0 x read 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,its influ5ce 0 fir/ felt 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,h[ev]1 all ?is mu/ be qualifi$ 9 "o respect4 ,bacon's ,new ,atlantis did h an imm$iate influ5ce4 ,! ideal ( a college ( sci5ce1 :i* ,bacon pres5t$ 9 8 ,new ,atlantis1 0 n only ! cause ( ! "w ( ,did]ot 9 8 ,encyclop$ia 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 b :at is m important1 x _h effect 9 8 own "t4 ,x l$ to ! f\nd+ ( ! ,royal ,society1 ?irty-six ye>s aft] ,bacon's dea?1 & lat] to ! f\nd+ ( simil> academies abroad4 ,:ile ! read] may be confus$ by ! conflict+ e/imates ( ,bacon1 ! words ( 8 own c\ntryman1 ,sir ,david ,brew/]1 may be accept$ z embody+ ! tru?3 8,_h ,bacon nev] liv$1 ! /ud5t ( nature w\ld h f\nd 9 ! works & writ+s ( ,galileo n only ! pr9ciples ( inductive philosophy1 b also its practical application to ! noble/ ef=ts ( inv5tion & discov]y40 ,s f> f be+ ! f\nd] ( mod]n sci5ce1 ,bacon develop$ only "o side ( x1 ! inductive side1 & t )\t success4 ,he id5tifi$ d$uction ) ! ,ari/otelian syllogism1 & he 0 !re=e unaw>e ( ! importance ( ! use ( ma!matics 9 ! me?od ( d$uction4 ,he did n seem to h ! slighte/ idea t ma!matics 0 go+ to be ! sci5tific me?od2 consequ5tly sci5ce has gone mu* fur!r ?an ,bacon dream$ x w\ld g4 ,bacon's importance 9 ! ,r5aissance does n consi/ 9 8 contribution to ! cont5t ( philosophy or to 8 successful =mulation ( ! sci5tific me?od4 ,:]e9 !n lies ! value ( ,bacon's "w z a philosoph]8#aj ,bacon 0 ! fir/ 9 ,engl& to collect ! fruits ( ! ,r5aissance & give !m a secul> "*4 ,tak+ !m out ( ! h&s ( ! !ologian1 he1 a lawy]1 8gave !m a legal exi/5ce by ! mo/ eloqu5t plea t has ev] be5 made = !m40 ,x 0 a "t :5 philosophy & sci5ce 7 pass+ out ( ! h&s ( ! !ologian2 & ,bacon1 feel+ t sci5ce1 includ+ philosophy1 %\ld be secul>iz$1 drew a %>p l9e betwe5 ! "w ( sci5ce & t ( !ology4 ,out ( 8 great contempt = antiquity1 ,bacon voic$ = ,engl& ! contempor>y reaction aga9/ ! old s*ola/ic me?ods4 ,he set up ! ideal & gave directions = foll[+ x4 ,he issu$ ! call to g f ab/ractions back to ?+s4 ,a man ( worldly wisdom & pung5cy1 8 nature 0 buoyant 9 its belief 9 ! com+ age4 ,he _h confid5ce am\nt+ to an optimism t f9al pr9ciples w\ld be f\nd to expla9 all ! p>ticul>s ( ! 8new _w40 ,he 0 a prophet :o outl9$ 8 prophecy4 ,he felt t n only nature b all ! activities ( man w\ld be r$uc$ to "s simple pr9ciples4 ,he %>$ & express$ ! confid5ce ( 8 "t t wond]ful ?+s 7 to be reveal$2 t no?+ is impossible to man1 provid$ man hits ^u ! "r key to nature's secrets4 ,j z e age1 t feels itself ^u ! ?re%old ( a new epo*1 writes ,utopias1#aa s ,bacon wrote ! ,new ,atlantis1 ! ,utopian fragm5t1 = 8 age4 ,?is is ! lit]>y expression ( 8 optimism ab\t ! future ( a di/9ctively secul> sci5ce4 ,! _w ( ! ,new ,atlantis is ! _w ( new ma*9es4 ,bacon's mo/ ambiti\s sci5tific contribution to ! same end is 8 ,in/auratio ,magna4 ,( ?is only two p>ts 7 complet$3 ,de ,dignitate et ,augm5tis ,sci5ti>um & ,novum ,organum4 ,bacon is be/ kn[n 9 philosophy by ! second "p1 :i* 0 ?us nam$ to contra/ x ) ! 8old0 ,organum ( ,ari/otle4 ,! high influ5ce t ,bacon ga9$ lat] among philosoph]s may !re=e be acc\nt$ = by ! association ( 8 em95t position & wond]ful p]sonality ) 8 bold expression ( ?is cong5ial utilit>ianism4 ,ev5 9 t ri* ,elizabe?an age ( ,engli% lit]ature1 he 0 prom95t z a writ] & politician4 ,he _h occupi$ high political positions "u ,james ,i2 b 8 peculi> p]sonality w\ld 9 itself h attract$ att5tion1 = 8 g5ius 0 su* t any ( ! products ( t ageev5 ! plays ( ,%akespe>eh seem$ possible to him4 ,pope describes him z 8! wise/1 brighte/1 meane/ ( mank9d40 ,macaulay says 9 8 essay1 ,bacon1 t !re 7 _m ?+s t he lov$ m ?an virtue & _m t he fe>$ m ?an guilt4 ,8 c>e] %[s t he lov$ himself1 weal?1 & le>n+4 ,8 unusual love = le>n+ may be safely tak5 z 8 excuse = 8 unscrupul\s lu/ = weal?4 ,8 great v]satility prev5t$ 8 success 9 any "o direction1 b he _h ! p[] ( express+ ! feel+ ( 8 impressive age & ( becom+ its p]sonal repres5tative4 ,! ,aim ( ,bacon4 ,bacon s\ght to secul>ize philosophy by mak+ x ! same z sci5ce4 ,x 0 ! age :5 ,nature 0 conceiv$ to be id5tical ) ! _w ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,bacon /ood 9 ?is age z ! =mulator ( ! sci5tific usefulness ( philosophy4 ,philosophy is to ameliorate social conditions & enri* human life by br++ nature "u control4 ,anci5t & m$ival times _h n be5 occupi$ ) ! improvem5t ( human society1 b ,bacon 0 inspir$ ) ! feel+ ( ! mod]n /atesman = su* improvem5t4 ,! true te/ ( philosophy1 accord+ to ,bacon1 is :at x w d4 ,t philosophy is wor? :ile :i* w effectively remove ! weigh+ conditions ^u human society1 s t !re are no long] two classes1^? t sacrifice & ^? t satisfy _! ambitions4 ,?is dom9ant utilit>ian motive 9 ,bacon sets him 9 opposition to pure !oretical & contemplative k1 & makes him ! fa!r ( utilit>ianism & positivism#ab 9 ,engl&4#ac ,k is ! only k9d ( p]man5t p[]1 & man c ma/] ! _w :5 he gives up v]bal discussions & belief 9 magic4 ,man mu/ ga9 a positive insight into nature4 ,sci5ce & philosophy mu/ be sep>at$ f !ology1 & philosophy mu/ be r$uc$ to sci5ce4 ,?us :ile aim+ to give a tangible =m to ! s*ola/ic doctr9e ( ! 8tw(old tru?10 ,bacon ?r\gh 8 utilit>ianism miss$ ! goal rea*$ by ,galileo & ,desc>tes4 ,! ,me?od ( ,bacon4 ,bacon says t ! me?od ( ! sci5ti/ %\ld n be l t ( ! spid] t sp9s a web out ( himself1 nor l t ( ! ant :i* m]ely collects mat]ial1 b l t ( ! bee :i* collects1 assimilates1 & trans=ms4 ,bacon's orig9al inspiration _h be5 8 respect = me?od1 & ?is grew m pron\nc$4 ,philosophy1 i4 e4 sci5ce1 is me?od4 ,) ,bacon we see ! beg9n+ ( philosophy cut loose f p]sonality & ov]-valu$ because x _h me*anical accuracy4 ,nev]!less1 ! me?od ( ,bacon 0 v compreh5sive4 ,x includ$ on ! "o h& a critical survey ( ! pa/1 & on ! o!r an anticipatory programme = ! sci5ce ( ! future4 ,let u n[ turn to ^! two aspects ( 8 me?od4 7a7 ,bacon's criticism ( ! pa/ 0 a tr5*ant criticism ( prevail+ philosophy1 & am\nt$ to a break ) ! pa/4 ,bacon felt t :at pass$ = sci5ce 9 8 day 0 b a pret5ce4 ,9 ! pres5ce ( ! facts ( life traditional sci5ce 0 b empty words4 ,! e>ly ?9k]s are n ! anci5ts4 ,we are ! anci5ts1 = we embody 9 ourselves all ! prec$+ c5turies4 ,?us does ,bacon sw+ f ! m$ival bl9d acceptance ( ! pa/ to an equally bl9d rejection ( ! pa/4 ,b :y did ! anci5t ?9k]s err8 ,n because !y 7 n m5 ( tal5t1 nor because !y lack$ 9 intellectual opportunity2 b because _! me?od ( proc$ure l$ !m a/ray4 ,! e>ly ?9k]s foll[$ wrong pa?s1 & _! results1 :i* we n[ possess1 are va94 ,:at mu/ be our attitude 9 ! pres5ce ( ?is traditional philosophy8 ,we mu/ dispossess ourselves ( ! prejudices t h misl$ ! pa/1 = !y =m ! ob/acles to our true k ( ! _w4 ,! roots ( ! errors t h infect$ philosophy are 8fanta/ic1 cont5ti\s1 & delicate le>n+40 ,we mu/ n1 inde$1 tru/ to our e-day p]ceptions2 = al?\gh sci5ce is bas$ on our p]ceptions1 our e-day p]ceptions are corrupt$ by our uncritical habits ( ?\ght4 ,?us !re h aris5 p]v]sions & falsifications1 ( :i* we mu/ fir/ ( all be rid4 ,bacon calls ^! ,idols4#ad ,idols are false images1 t int]v5e betwe5 u & ! tru? & are mi/ak5 = reality4 ,bacon makes f\r g5]al classes ( ,idols3 7#a7 ,! ,idols ( ! ,tribe1 or ! presuppositions common to ! human race4 7#b7 ,! ,idols ( ! ,cave1#ae or individual prejudices due to natural individual disposition1 situation 9 life1 etc4 7#c7 ,! ,idols ( ! ,=um1 or ! traditional mean+s ( words1 by :i* we sub/itute ! ^w = ! idea4 ,^! are ! wor/ illusions4 7#d7 ,! ,idols ( ! ,!atre1#af ! !ories or philosophic dogma1 :i* comm& disciple%ip f gr\ps ( m5 & h n be5 subject$ to our own criticism4 ,bacon's classification ( our prejudices z ,idols is a critical attempt to sep>ate1 9 :at passes = k1 ! subjective1 :i* has become traditional1 f ! real4 ,logic1 religion1 & poetry h _h a bad effect on sci5ce1 z is especially %[n 9 ! !atrical "* ( philosophy4 7b7 ,hav+ dispossess$ ourselves ( our prejudices or ,idols1 we are ready to proce$ to a positive con/ruction ( a sci5tific me?od ( "w4 ,by :at1 9 g5]al1 ought sci5ce to be guid$8 ,by induction & exp]i5ce4 ,bacon sugge/s ! foll[+ /eps = ! sci5ce ( ! future3 7#a7 ,!re mu/ be an exhau/ive collection ( p>ticul> in/ances4 7#b7 ,!re mu/ !n be an analysis & comp>ison ( ^! in/ances1 = to ,bacon induction 0 n a m]e enum]ation ( s+le in/ances4 ,negative in/ances1 & in/ances ( diff]5ce ( degree1 mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,ha/y g5]alizations mu/ be avoid$1 & we mu/ asc5d gradually f ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al4 7#c7 ,! simple 8=m0 ( ! ph5om5on mu/ be discov]$4 ,( ! f\r causes ( ,ari/otle1 ,bacon emphasizes ! 8=mal40 ,by 8=m0 ,bacon means ! nature t is always pres5t :5 ! ph5om5on is pres5t1 abs5t :5 ! ph5om5on is abs5t1 & increases or decreases ) ! ph5om5on4 ,! 8=m0 is ! abid+ ess5ce ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! ,engli% ,natural ,sci5ce ,movem5t4 ,! natural sci5ce movem5t 9 ,engl& ?us receiv$ at ! />t ! impression ( ! sob] ,anglo-,saxon m9d4 ,?r\gh its entire hi/ory ,engli% philosophy diff]$ f t ( ! ,cont95t4 ,"h at ! outset ! ,engli%man is skeptical1 n only ( s*ola/ic d$uctions f dogma1 b also ( d$uctions ( all k9ds4#ag ,he pref]s ! sl[ road ( pati5t empirical discov]y4 ,ev5 pure contemplative k & ! d$uctions ( ma!matics h little *>m = him4 ,to be sure1 induction ev5 9 ! h&s ( an ,engli%man dem&s by its nature ! e/abli%m5t ( a g5]al pr9ciple1 b ,bacon w\ld h refus$ to use su* a d$uction to e/abli% a new tru? 9 ! way t ,galileo us$ 8 ma!matical hypo!ses4 ,accord+ to ,bacon1 an hypo!sis is true only s f> z x has already receiv$ ! indisp5sable sanction ( exp]i5ce4 ,?omas ,hobbes#ah & 8 ,contempor>ies4 ,dur+ a c]ta9 p]iod ,bacon _h "u him a secret>y by ! "n ( ,?omas ,hobbes4 ,"h 0 an obscure man turn+ to philosophy because ( 8 int]e/ 9 politics2 ^: po9t ( atta*m5t to philosophy 0 ! me*anical !ory ( nature1 s univ]sally accept$ by ! sci5ti/s ( t "t4 ,no contempor>y ( ,hobbesnei!r ,bacon1 ,desc>tes1 nor ,galileo_h s sy/ematic a philosophy4 ,no o!r man succe$$ bett] 9 express+ all t 0 9 8 m9d4 ,hobbes 0 "o ( a l>ge gr\p ( political !ori/s ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,:5 ! m$ival idea ( ! univ]sal ,*ri/ian /ate1 su* z 0 embodi$ 9 ,augu/9e's ,city ( ,god1 0 no long] held1 _m ( ! ,humani/s tri$ to con/ruct !oretical sy/ems ( political gov]nm5t t w\ld meet ! dem&s ( ! "t4 ,mac*iavelli1 ,?omas ,m1 ,bod91 ,al?usius1 & ,grotius#ai belong to ?is gr\p4 ,hobbes is be/ kn[n 9 mod]n times z a writ] on ?is aspect ( morals & politics2 b politics is only a "p ( 8 g5]al me*anical sy/em ( ! univ]se4 ,he is ! =]unn] ( mod]n mat]ialism1 & 8 peculi> !ory ( society is only an exemplification ( ?is !ory4 ,9 pass+ f ,bacon to ,hobbes we come to a v diff]5t type ( man4 ,bacon _h ris5 to fame by 8 own g5ius1 9 spite ( ! ho/ility ( 8 p[]ful relatives2 ,hobbes 0 a h>d-head$ man1 ) a n>r[ outlook1 b ) und\bt$ tal5ts1 :i* 7 fo/]$ all 8 life "u ! patronage ( ! ,devon%ire family4 ,bacon 0 a practical politician2 ,hobbes 0 a doctr9aire & !oretical political writ]4 ,( ! volum9\s lit]>y rema9s ( ,bacon 8 philosophy =ms b a small "p2 ,hobbes _h a g5]al philosophical sy/em1 ) :i* 8 classical & !ological /udies h connection4 ,9 ! succe$+ *apt] we %all review ! philosophy ( ! rationali/1 ,desc>tes1 :o 0 a contempor>y ( ,hobbes4 ,we %all f9d t ,desc>tes & ,hobbes are alike 9 ?is3 t bo? employ$ ,galileo's ma!matical !ory z au?oritative4 ,!y diff]$1 h[ev]1 9 ! way 9 :i* !y us$ ,galileo's !ory4 ,desc>tes r$uc$ ma!matics to ! rational1 & conceiv$ x to be ! in/rum5t ( ! reason2 ,hobbes r$uc$ ! rational to ! ma!matical1 & conceiv$ ! reason z a =m ( me*anics4 ,! />t+-po9t ( ,desc>tes 0 ! subjective1 & he 0 held at a /&/ill until ! relation ( ?\ght & me*anics 0 solv$ by him4 ,! po9t ( view ( ,hobbes 0 objective1 & s9ce all 0 me*anical1 he discuss$ only incid5tally ! relation betwe5 ?\ght & me*anical exi/5ce4 ,hobbes conceiv$ ! _w 9 ! t]ms ( only "o s]ies1 ! me*anical4 ,desc>tes' ma9 motive 0 to pres]ve ! rational2 &1 consequ5tly1 ! _w to him consi/$ ( a d\ble or duali/ic s]ies ( t]ms4 ,we !re=e place ,desc>tes1 ) ,sp9oza & ,leibnitz1 9 a gr\p call$ ,rationali/s4 ,hobbes 0 a mat]iali/1 & 8 greatness consi/$ 9 go+ ! full l5g? ( mat]ialism3 he w5t beyond all ! sci5ti/s ( 8 "t by ext5d+ ! me*anical !ory to ! m5tal life4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi74 ,! life ( ,hobbes falls into five natural p]iods4 ,9 8 fir/ & la/ p]iods he 0 ! classical s*ol>4 ,dur+ 8 middle p]iod ( ab\t ?irte5 ye>s he 0 ! philosoph]4 ,fur!rmore1 at "o "t he 0 absorb$ 9 ma!matics & at ano!r 9 controv]sy4 ,8 p]iod z ma!matician 0 begun n until he 0 =ty ye>s old1 & 0 prep>atory to 8 creative philosophical p]iod1 :i* 0 begun :5 he 0 ab\t fifty4 #a4 ,z a ,classical ,s*ol> 7includ+ 8 e>ly ye>s7 7#aehh-afbh7! fir/ =ty ye>s ( 8 life4 ,at ,ox=d 7#afjc-afjh72 fir/ j\rney abroad 7#afjh-afab72 beg9n+ ( 8 relations ) ! ,devon%ire family & also ( 8 acqua9tance ) ! 8new sci5ce02 "t ( leisurely /udy 7#afab-afbh7 & acqua9tance ) ,bacon1 ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury1 & ,b5 ,jonson2 translation ( ,?ucydides 7#afbh74 #b4 ,z ,ma!matician 7#afbh-afch74 ,second j\rney abroad 7#afbi-afca7 = eighte5 mon?s z tutor to ! son ( ,sir ,g]vase ,clifton2 reads ,euclid :ile abroad2 ?ird j\rney abroad 7#afcd-afcg71 :5 he meets ,galileo2 beg9s to develop ! conception ( motion & s5sation2 by #afch he is c\nt$ among ! notable philosoph]s & he meets ! ,p>isian sci5ti/s1 ,m]s5ne & ,gass5di4 #c4 ,z ,philosoph] 7#afch-afea74 ,plans 8 philosophy "u title ( ,elem5ts ( ,philosophy3 ,de ,corpore1 ,de ,hom9e1 & ,de ,cive1 :i* is int]rupt$ by ! ,engli% ,revolution2 ,elem5ts ( ,law 78little treatise07 writt5 9 #afdj1 read by a few 9 manuscript1 publi%$ )\t 8 cons5t 9 #afej 9 two p>ts3 ,human ,nature & ,de ,corpore ,politico2 flees to ,p>is 7#afdj7 & ent]s aga9 ! sci5tific circle at ,p>is2 criticises ,desc>tes' ,m$itations2 ,de ,cive publi%$ 7#afdb71 :i* is ,de ,corpore ,politico enl>g$2 acts = a "t z tutor to ,*>les ,,ii 9 ,p>is2 engages ^u 8 g5]al philosophical !ory 7#afdb-afde72 ,lib]ty & ,necessity1 writt5 7#afdf71 publi%$ 7#afed72 ,levia?an publi%$ 7#afea74 #d4 ,z ,controv]siali/ 7#afea-affh74 ,flees back to ,london 7#afea72 ,de ,corpore1 publi%$ 7#afee72 ,behemo?1 writt5 7#affh71 proscrib$ & n publi%$ until aft] 8 dea?2 controv]sies ) ,bramhall1 ,w>d1 ,wallis1 & ,boyle2 ,de ,hom9e1 publi%$ 7#afeh74 #e4 ,z ,classical ,s*ol> 7#affh-afgi74 ,translation ( ,iliad & ,odyssey 7#afge74 ,9 ,moleswor?'s edition 7#ahci-ahde71 ,hobbes' ,lat9 works occupy five volumes1 ! ,engli% elev54 ,! ,elem5ts ( ,philosophy! ,de ,corpore1 ,de ,hom9e1 & ,de ,cive7 n publi%$ 9 ! sequ5ce 9 :i* !y 7 plann$1 b1 on acc\nt ( political exig5cies1 9 ! above ord]4 ,! ,influ5ces ^u ! ,?\ght ( ,hobbes4 #a4 ,! premature bir? ( ,hobbes _h no inconsid]able influ5ce ^u 8 life4 ,:5 8 "m 0 c>ry+ him1 %e _h suff]$ a great fright1 at ! ann\ncem5t ( ! approa* ( ! ,spani% ,armada4 ,0 x 9 consequ5ce ( ?is t ,hobbes's life 0 a s]ies ( panics & controv]sies8 ,he 0 extremely cons]vative 9 politics4 ,he saw ! new *anges )\t sympa?y ) ei!r p>ty1 & he _h no political idealsonly fe>4 ,! "t 9 :i* he liv$ re9=c$ ?is natural cons]vatism4 ,:5 he 0 translat+ ,?ucydides1 ,buck+ham 0 assass9at$ & ! ,petition ( ,rights 0 pres5t$4 ,h5ry ,,iv ( ,france _h be5 assass9at$ n _m ye>s be=e1 & ! ,puritan elem5t _h become a di/urb+ factor 9 ,engl&4 ,8 /udy & 8 alliance ) ! ,devon%ire family confirm$ him 9 8 cons]vative position4 ,all signs ( ! "t po9t$ t[>d dec5tralization ( gov]nm5t1 t[>d w> & rebellion4 ,9 fe> he 0 8! fir/ t fl$0 to ,france at ! beg9n+ ( ! tr\bles ( ,*>les ,i2 9 fe> he fl$ back to ,london elev5 ye>s lat]1 le/ ! ,roman ,ca?olics1 :om 8 ,levia?an _h (f5d$1 %\ld murd] him4 ,hobbes 0 aga9 9 great panic ov] ! ,london fire & look$ ^u x z a div9e p5alty1 on acc\nt ( ! impurity ( ! ,engli% c\rt4 ,hobbes 0 always 9 fright le/ he might n h peace4 #b4 ,! fa!r ( ,hobbes 0 "o ( ! unwor?y cl]gym5 ( ! ,engli% ,e/abli%$ ,*ur* 9 ! reign ( ,elizabe?4 ,he 0 a dissolute man1 & aft] _m escapades he ab&on$ 8 family4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is ,hobbes always _h an antipa?y t[>d ! (fices ( ! *ur* & t[>d !ology4 ,al?\gh he claim$ to be a communicant1 8 allegiance 0 only nom9al1 z 8 !ory w %[4 #c4 ,hobbes 0 v mu* influ5c$ by ! new ma!matical sci5ce4 ,8 ye>s at ,ox=d left little impression ^u him1 & he 0 b little int]e/$ 9 ! s*ola/icism :i* 0 taught !re4 ,yet 8 tw5ty ye>s on ! ,cont95t br\ght him into ! mid/ ( ! sci5tific circles ( ,italy & ,france4 ,he 0 well along into maturity :5 he felt ?is influ5ce4 ,on 8 second j\rney1 he read ,euclid = ! fir/ "t4 ,he 0 !n =ty-?ree4 ,on 8 ?ird j\rney1 he met ,galileo & ! ,fr5* sci5ti/s1 ,m]s5ne & ,gass5di1 & x 0 !n t he began 8 reflections conc]n+ motion & s5sation4 ,! writ+s ( ,kepl]1 ,desc>tes1 & ,galileo influ5c$ him mightily4 ,al?\gh he act$ z ,bacon's secret>y aft] ! latt]'s fall1 ,bacon's influ5ce ^u him 0 little & has be5 ov]e/imat$4 ,! m5tal p[]s ( ,bacon & 8 secret>y 7 diff]5t1 & ,bacon knew no?+ ( ! ma!matical me?od4 ,hobbes %[s to "s degree ! empirical t5d5cy ( 8 nationality1 & he believ$ t k mu/ spr+ f exp]i5ce4 ,fur!r ?an ?is1 ! me?od t ,bacon pursu$ does n appe> 9 him4 ,! mission ( ,hobbes 0 to con/ruct a me*anical view ( ! _w4 ,( ! ?ree influ5ces ^u ,hobbes1 8 inh]it$ timidity is se5 9 8 cons]vative political !ory2 ! influ5ce ( 8 fa!r is se5 9 8 !ory ( religion2 ! influ5ce ( ! 8new0 ma!matical sci5ce is se5 9 8 :ole philosophy1 especially 9 8 psy*ology4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple 9 ! ,tea*+ ( ,hobbes4 ,! assumption f :i* ,hobbes d$uc$ 8 entire philosophy 0 ! me*anical conception ( ! physical _w1! *>act]i/ic philosophical assumption ( 8 age4 ,hobbes's contempor>ies1 bo? ! natural sci5ti/s & ! philosoph]s1 _h1 h[ev]1 on ! :ole1 re/rict$ ! conception ( me*anism to ! physical _w4 ,hobbes diff]$ f !m all 9 univ]saliz+ ! conception4 ,he ext5d$ its application f ! physical ov] ^u ! m5tal realm1 & !reby r$uc$ ! m5tal _w to physics4 ,he /at$ ?is me*anical pr9ciple 9 two p>ts3 all t exi/s is body2 all t occurs is motion4 ,hobbes applies ?is assumption to ! physical _w & x gives him mat]ialism2#bj he applies x to k & x gives him s5sationalism2#ba he applies x to ! w & x gives him det]m9ism2#bb he applies x to morals & politics & x gives him naturalism4#bc ,body is nature2 body is ev]y?+4 ,body is ! fir/ t]m lead+ ?r\gh man up to ! ,/ate4 ,) ,hobbes1 z ) o!rs ( 8 "t1 ! political field 0 ! :ole gr\nd to be p5etrat$4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple1 by :i* ,hobbes ?\ght ! :ole field 0 to be expla9$1 is body 9 motion4 ,! m5tal _w became drawn into ! physical1 & !reby 8 me*anical conception became ! m natural4 ,!re 0 "o realm :i* ,hobbes left unt\*$ by 8 pr9ciple3 ! realm ( ! _s1 i4 e4 ,god1 s\ls1 angels4 ,! sci5ce ( bodies _c deal ) ! sup]natural1 = ! sup]natural does n consi/ ( bodies 9 motion4 ,matt] & m9d are homog5e\s2 matt] & _s are n4 ,! contra/ 9 ,hobbes is n betwe5 matt] & m9d1 ! mat]ial & ! psy*ical1 b betwe5 matt] & _s1 ! mat]ial & ! supra-mat]ial4 ,! ,me?od ( ,hobbes4 ,hobbes made ! me?od ( ,galileo 8 own4 ,he believ$ t all k is root$ 9 ma!matics4 ,!re is "o true me?od ( treat+ all subjects3 ! ma!matical calculation ( !m z motions ( bodies4 ,k consi/s 9 us+ words z ! signs ( exp]i5ce & 9 reckon+ ) !m4 ,sci5tific ?\ght is ! comb9ation ( signs4 ,x is ! rationaliz+ ( our exp]i5ces4 ,sci5ce has a tru? 9 itself & /&s z a rationally organiz$ _w1 q diff]5t f ! _w ( exp]i5ce :i* x has organiz$4 ,! _w ( bodies 9 causally relat$ motions is su* an organiz$ _w1 ! mo/ sy/ematiz$ & mo/ simply con/ruct$ _w t sci5ce c devise4 ,b h[ does ! sci5ti/ proce$8 ,he beg9s ) a ph5om5on1 :i* is a body 9 motion1 & f9ds out ! causes ( ! ph5om5on1 :i* causes are no?+ m nor less ?an ! elem5ts ( ! ph5om5on 9 "q4 ,!n ! sci5ti/ proce$s f ! causes to o!r ph5om5al effects4 ,^! new effects are l ! orig9al ph5om5on & its causes1bodies 9 motion4 ,?us ! _w ( ! sci5ti/ is a _w ( causes & effects1 = 8! natural reason ( man is busily fly+ up & d[n among ! creatures1 & br++ back a true report ( _! ord]1 causes1 & effects40 ,?us we f9d ,hobbes to be a nom9ali/ 7see vol4 i1 p4 #ceh7 :o1 nev]!less1 us$ ! d$uctive me?odr a /range comb9ation4 ,l all 8 ,engli% successors1 he employ$ induction & d$uction1 b ! two processes nev] became fus$4#bd ,moreov] = induction he has no me?od4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ! writ+s ( ,hobbes appe>$ seems to h be5 ! sport ( outw>d ev5ts1 = !y 7 n writt5 accord+ to 8 orig9al plan4 ,on 8 return f 8 ?ird j\rney to ! ,cont95t 7#afch71 ,hobbes1 !n fifty ye>s old1 _h adopt$ ! me*anical !ory & _h plann$ 8 philosophy4 ,8 compreh5sive "w 0 to be call$ ! ,elem5ts ( ,philosophy1 & 0 to be divid$ into ?ree p>ts3 ,de ,corpore1 treat+ physical bodies2 ,de ,hom9e1 treat+ man z a psy*ological individual2 ,de ,cive1 treat+ man z ! citiz5 ( a ,/ate4 ,hobbes's philosophy 0 !re=e to be a univ]sal philosophy1 & he int5d$ to br+ 8 works out 9 logical ord]fir/1 ! sci5ce ( physics1 !n ( human nature1 & la/ ( society4 ,h[ev]1 ! gr[+ di/urbances 9 ! political _w at t "t mov$ him to publi% sev]al treatises on politics fir/1 & 8 physics & psy*ology m ?an fifte5 ye>s lat]4 ,! ,k9ds ( ,bodies4 ,!re are two k9ds ( bodies1 natural & artificial4 ,natural bodies are ^? belong+ to ! physical _w4 ,! artificial bodies are ! in/itutions ( society1 ( :i* ! mo/ important is ! ,/ate4 ,man belongs to bo? classes ( bodieshe has a physical nature & he is a memb] ( ! ,/ate4 ,man is ! connect+ l9k betwe5 natural & artificial bodies4 ,philosophy is !re=e divid$ into ?ree p>ts3 physics1 :i* treats ( purely natural bodies2 psy*ology1 :i* treats ( man 9 8 rle z a natural individual2 politics1 :i* treats ( man 9 social congregations ) 8 fell[s4 ,look+ at ! situation f ! o!r end1 political bodies are decomposable into m51 m5 are 9 turn decomposable into physical bodies4 ,political bodies are dep5d5t on ! psy*ical nature ( m51 & ! psy*ical nature ( m5 is dep5d5t on ! nature ( physical bodies1 i4 e4 on bodies & _! motions4 ,?us all bodies1 natural & artificial1 mu/ be expla9$ 9 t]ms ( motion1 if !y are expla9$ sci5tifically4 ,physical bodies are ! fir/ t]m lead+ up ?r\gh man to ! la/ t]m 9 ! s]ies1 :i* is ! ,/ate4 ,hobbes's ,application ( ! ,ma!matical ,!ory to ,psy*ology4 ,al?\gh ! prime int]e/ ( ,hobbes lay 9 ! political life ( man1 he nev]!less made an orig9al contribution to psy*ology4 ,he snat*$ ! sci5ce ( m5tal ph5om5a f ! h&s ( ! s*ola/ic !ologian & made x = ! fir/ "t an indep5d5t sci5ce4 ,psy*ology _h be5 bas$ ^u ! assumptions ( ! !ologian2 = ^! ,hobbes sub/itut$ ! assumptions ( ! ma!matician4 ,consci\sness became 9 8 h&s n a s\l1 b ! motion ( bodies4 ,x is describ$ by him z 8! movem5t ( c]ta9 p>ts ( ! organic body40 ,! /ates ( consci\sness1 su* z s5sations1 p]ceptions1 etc41 are bra9 movem5ts or ! ref9$ movem5ts ( atoms 9 ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,memory & imag9ation are 8decay+ s5sations02 ?\ght is ! sum ( sev]al s5sations2 exp]i5ce is ! totality ( s5sations b\nd toge!r by ! rigid laws ( association4 ,hobbes 0 ! fa!r ( :at is kn[n z ! ,associational ,psy*ology1 or ! !ory t consci\sness is compos$ ( m5tal atoms "u fix$ laws ( association4 ,b al?\gh ,hobbes took psy*ology out ( ! h&s ( ! !ologian & made x a me*anical sci5ce1 he did n id5tify x ) physics4 ,x is /ill psy*ology4 ,! m5tal /ates are ! physical motion ( bodies1 b !y are n ext]nal motions1 nor are !y ! copies ( ! ext]nal motions ( bodies4 ,m5tal /ates are bra9 movem5ts2 !y are ! result ( ext]nal motions4 ,!y come ab\t 9 ?is way4 ,a mov+ body 9 ! out] _w makes an impression on ! s5se organ1 & ?is motion is transmitt$ by ! n]ves to ! he>t & bra94 ,a reaction is effect$ 9 ! bra91 & ?is is a m5tal /ate4 ,! bra9 trans=mations1 & n ! movem5t ( ! ext]nal object1 is t ( :i* we are consci\s4 ,! m5tal /ate is an 8app>ition0 ( ! actual fact 9 ! ext]nal _w2 x is an effect 9 a causal s]ies4 ,our p]ception ( light is1 = example1 a modification ( ! c]ebral sub/ance1 & n ( ! ext]nal body itself4 ,we deceive ourselves :5 we ?9k t ! s5sations ( light1 s\nd1 heat are outside u4 ,^! qualities ( ?+s are modifications ( ourselves4 ,!re is no?+ ext]nal to u1 except ! motions ( bodies :i* are ! causes ( ^! modifications4 ,! ext]nal _w is no d\bt real1 b we h no k ( xno k ( aught save ! motions ( bodies )9 ourselves4 ,?is is ! po9t ( view ( all subsequ5t ,engli% philosophy3 ! sub/ance ( ?+s is q diff]5t f our k ( !m4 ,! sub/ance ( ?+s is real2 b is n ! object ( our k4 ,! object ( our k is a modification ( ourselves4 ,! indep5d5ce ( k ) ref]5ce to !ology on ! "o side1 & to physical reality on ! o!r1 is well illu/rat$ 9 ,hobbes's discussion ( language4 ,spee* consi/s ( words1 :i* are only ! c\nt]s ( ?+s4 ,words are m>k]s by :i* m5 may "k a ?+ z 8seam5 m>k a rock40 ,sci5ce consi/s 9 _! manipulation4 ,sci5ce comb9es !m by addition & subtraction into judgm5ts & syllogisms1 & !reby con/ructs a body ( demon/rat$ pr9ciples4 ,words are only c\nt]s1 & he is a fool :o mi/akes ! c\nt] = ! co9 ( reality4 ,words only repres5t reality1 & ! law ( _! use is ma!matics4 ,tru? & falsity are t]ms t are conc]n$ ) ! correct or incorrect manipulation ( ^! v]bal c\nt]s & n ) real ?+s4 ,hobbes's ,application ( ! ,ma!matical ,!ory to ,politics4 ,9 ! same way t mat]ial bodies 9 motion give rise to m5tal /ates1 & m5tal /ates z bodies 9 motion give rise to ! human consci\sness1 s m5 z individuals are ! s\rce ( ! artificial body1! ,/ate4 ,9 e individual man ! impulse to self-pres]vation is innate1 & is1 9 fact1 8 absolute & univ]sal *>act]i/ic4 ,j z ! law ( ! me*anical association ( ideas is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! human m9d1 s ! me*anical law ( self-pres]vation is ! pr9ciple ( man's e?ical & political life4 ,all our political in/itutions are ! result ( ! /riv+ ( m5 = self-pres]vation4 ,9 8 natural /ate:51 z ,hobbes conceiv$1 man liv$ )\t social organizationman _h no o!r /&>d = conduct ?an 8 own self-int]e/2 9 ! artificial political /ate1 :i* man has con/ruct$1 self-int]e/ is /ill 8 motive4 ,egoism is ! sole work+ pr9ciple ( human be+s bo? be=e & aft] !y live 9 societies2 b ! political /ate is ! mo/ +5i\s contrivance :i* egoism has hit ^u = its own pr(it4 ,hobbes conceiv$ t ! orig9al /ate ( man1 :i* "u ! "n ( 8/ate ( nature0 0 a common problem 9 ! ,r5aissance1 0 a condition 9 :i* e man 0 mak+ w> aga9/ e o!r man4 7,comp>e ,locke & ,r\sseau47 ,b su* a condition ( ?+s 0 obvi\sly self-de/ructive4 ,consequ5tly man arbitr>ily & artificially =m$ ! political ,/ate to avoid ?is self-de/ructive1 int]nec9e w>f>e4 ,"u ! circum/ances x 0 ! mo/ effective way 9 :i* man c\ld ga9 8 p]sonal ends1 = ! political ,/ate 0 ! only possible means to peace4 ,9 ! 8/ate ( nature0 ! "r ( e man to ev]y?+ 0 ! equival5t ( ! "r ( e man to no?+4 ,s m5 made a compact ) "o ano!r "u :i* ea* rel9qui%$ a portion ( 8 rights 9 ord] t ea* might h a portion ( !m secure4 ,b :at gives security to ?is compact8 ,! sov]eign to :i* ! p[]s ( ! _m h ?us be5 delegat$4 ,:at is ! sov]eign8 ,x is ! s\l ( ! ,/ate1 ! g5]al w1repres5t$ by a s+le p]son 9 a mon>*y1 by an assembly 9 a republic4 ,?is sov]eign1 9 :om ! contract is ve/$1 is absolute2 = ! sov]eign 0 n a p>ty to ! orig9al contract1 s9ce he did n !n exi/4 ,! contract 0 made among ! individuals1 at t "t 9 a 8/ate ( nature40 ,s long z ! ,/ate pres]ves its p[] among ! p1 ! p mu/ r5d] _! ob$i5ce to ! ,/ate1to ! sov]eign 9 :om ! contract 0 ve/$4 ,! might ( ! political ,/ate makes "r4 ,:atev] ! ,/ate comm&s is "r2 :atev] is =bidd5 is wrong4 ,!re 0 no "r & wrong 9 ! 8/ate ( nature10 only ! possible & ! impossible4 ,an act is a crime :5 x breaks ! contract1 & ?us ! gr\nd ( morality is political legislation4 ,ev5 ! religion ( ! p is det]m9$ by ! ,/ate4 ,any political ,/ate is bett] ?an a revolution4 ,"h 0 philosophical ju/ification ( ,*>les ,i4 ,a rev]sion to w> is a rev]sion to ! 8/ate ( nature40 ,:5 ,hobbes 0 9 ,france z a refugee he wrote ! ,levia?an1 :i* conta9$ ?is doctr9e ( political society4 ,he pres5t$ a vellum-b\nd copy to ,*>les ,,ii1 hop+ to ga9 favor ) t pr9ce4 ,h[ev]1 ! ,levia?an1 un=tunately = ,hobbes's purpose1 conta9$ two p>agraphs t antagoniz$ ! royali/s & ! ,ca?olics4 ,"o 01 t :5 a commonweal? is unable to protect its citiz5s 9 peace1 t commonweal? is dissolv$ & a new sov]eign commonweal? is =m$4 ,! second 01 t :ile ! sov]eign /ate %all decide :at ! religion ( its p %all be1 no religion is infalliblenei!r ,anglican1 ,ca?olic1 nor ,puritan4 ,! religion t ! sov]eign makes legal is only a tempor>y "o2 ! true religion w come n until ! ,la/ ,judgm5t4 ,! *ur* is subord9ate to ! ,/ate1 l ev]y?+ else1 & x does n matt] mu* :at ! ,/ate religion %all be1 provid$ !re be peace4 ,religion is only a sup]/ition re/+ on a defective k ( nature1 & x is ( little consequ5ce :at p>ticul> religion ! ,/ate makes b9d+4 ,x h>dly ne$ be said t ! ,levia?an pleas$ nei!r ,*>les ,,ii nor ! ,ca?olics4 ,! sequel ( its publication 0 t ,hobbes fl$ back to ,engl& f fe> ( assass9ation4 ,! ,r5aissance 9 ,engl& aft] ,hobbes4 ,! philosophies ( ,bacon & ,hobbes d n exhau/1 b m]ely repres5t ! philosophy ( ,engl& dur+ ! ,r5aissance4 ,empiricism#be _h to wait = ,locke 9 ! next p]iod be=e x became dom9ant4 ,aft] ,hobbes ,s*ola/icism 0 n>r[ly conf9$ to limit$ circles & appe>$ "u ! =m ( ,skepticism or ( ,platonism1 neo-,platonism1 or ,my/icism4 ,! reaction t[>d ,platonism 0 c5tr$ 9 a gr\p ( e?ical s*ol>s1 call$ ! ,cambridge ,s*ool4 ,x includ$ ,culv]well1 ,cudwor?1 ,h5ry ,m1 & ,cumb]l&4 ,?is ,platonic movem5t 0 %ort-liv$4 ,! sci5tific _s1 repres5t$ 9 ! ,r5aissance by ,bacon & ,hobbes1 dom9at$ ! next p]iod1! ,enlight5m5t1& we %all f9d x spread+ its influ5ce ov] ,france & ,g]many 9 ! =m t ,locke gave to x4 ,b ! hi/ory ( ! philosophy ( ! ,r5aissance is n yet complet$4 ,contempor>y ) ,bacon & ,hobbes1 !re 0 a movem5t on ! ,cont95t :i* 0 m *>act]i/ic ( ! ,r5aissance1 & inde$ m important to x ?an ! movem5t 9 ,engl&4 ,?is 0 ! s*ool ( ,rationali/s1 to :i* we n[ turn4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,rationalism ,,( ,,! ,,natural ,,sci5ce ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,r5aissance ,! ,nature ( ,rationalism4 ,al?\gh ! new sci5ce grew apace1 x 0 n altoge!r a safe vocation4 ,natural sci5ce involves metaphysical que/ions at e po9t4 ,! sci5ti/ at ?is "t1 !re=e1 f\nd himself (t5 9 delicate relations ) ! jeal\s *ur* gu>dians4 ,a sci5tific explanation ( ! univ]se might antagonize ! *ur* dogma conc]n+ ,god1 creation1 & ! f9al outcome ( ! _w4 ,! *ur* doctr9e conc]n+ ! s\l1 too1 its nature & its immortality1 its relation to ! body1 might be antagoniz$ by physiological & psy*ological discussions4 ,9 su* dilemmas z ^! ! natural sci5ti/ 0 n successful 9 pret5d+ to isolate himself entirely f !ology & 9 assum+ an attitude ( alo(ness to x4 ,galileo might decl>e t1 :atev] ! results ( 8 inve/igations 9 physics might be1 !y _h no?+ to d ) ! ,bible2 b he sorr[fully f\nd t ! ,inquisition ?\ght o!rwise4 ,cop]nicus f\nd t 8 a/ronomical !ories came into conflict ) *ur* dogma1 & he 0 torm5t$ by 8 bi%op4 ,kepl] sp5t 8 lat] ye>s 9 a deadly /ruggle ) bo? ,prote/antism & ,ca?olicism4 ,bacon & ,hobbes liv$ 9 a c\ntry :]e _! p]sonal safety 0 fairly secure1 nev]!less ,bacon disguis$ 8 position by us+ l>ge words & ,hobbes 0 untr\bl$ because he accept$ ! religion ( 8 sov]eign4 ,if ! position ( ^? 0 difficult :o tri$ to keep !mselves /rictly )9 ! limits ( sci5ce1 h[ mu* m fraught ) p]sonal dang] 0 ! position ( ^? :o op5ly con/ruct$ a new metaphysics8 ,x w\ld mean t a *all5ge 0 issu$ to ! old ,s*ola/icism by ! same human reason t _h already *all5g$ & ov]?r[n ! old sci5ce4 ,! gr\p ( m5 :o did ?is 7 ! ,rationali/s4 ,! ,rationali/s 7 int]e/$ 9 sci5ce1 b !y 7 m int]e/$ 9 ! metaphysical problems t sci5ce ar\s$4 ,! human reason _h be5 successful 9 ! recon/ruction ( physics by ! use ( ma!matics4 ,:y %\ld x n also be able to recon/ruct metaphysics & set x1 too1 ^u a ma!matical basis8 ,! lead]s ( ?is s*ool 7 ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz1 & ! ,occasionali/s1,malebran*e & ,geul9cx4 ,! ,rationali/s advanc$ a new conception n only ( nature1 b ( ,god2 new !ories n only ( ! human body1 b ( ! s\l4 ,_! task 0 ! dang]\s "o ( bravely invad+ ! hi!rto impregnable realms ( ! _s4 ,! task ( ! ,rationali/s 0 r5d]$ ! m difficult because1 = ! fir/ "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,european ?\ght1 ! inn] & out] worlds _h be5 completely sund]$4 ,= ! fir/ "t d we meet ) a cle>-cut & positive dualism4 ,! hi/ory ( ! gr[? ( ?is dualism _h be5 a long "o1 & to x ! ,greek ,sophi/1 ! ,/oic1 & ! ,*ri/ian _h ea* contribut$ 8 %>e4 ,h[ev]1 ,galileo & 8 fell[ sci5ti/s 9 ?is p]iod ( ! ,r5aissance _h s recon/ruct$ ! old 8_w ( nature0 t x _h become irreconcilable to ! 8_w ( grace40 ,^! sci5ti/s believ$ t nature mu/ be made to expla9 itself2 its ev5ts mu/ be conceiv$ z necessitat$2 its processes z hav+ ! inevitabl5ess ( a ma*9e4 ,f ! revolutions ( ! planets to ! circulation ( ! blood1 ! movem5ts ( nature c be measur$4 ,! law ( nature1 t is conceiv$ to und]lie all ?is sci5ce1 is me*anical causation4 ,! rese>*es ( ! sci5ti/s ( ! ,r5aissance _h yield$ a ri* _w ( brute1 inevitable1 & sci5tific facts1 & ^! /ood 9 absolute fundam5tal contra/ to ! _w ( spiritual facts :i* 7 embodi$ 9 ! *ur* dogma4 ,app>5tly ! problem ( reconcil+ ! 8_w ( nature0 & ! 8_w ( grace0 _h be5 solv$ by ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as 9 m$ival times4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 ! 8_w ( nature0 _h be5 s recon/ruct$ t ! "q 0 re-op5$4 ,h[ is ! new 8_w ( nature0 to be br\ght into h>moni\s relation ) t old1 p]si/5t1 & settl$ dogma ( ! *ur*8 ,h[ c ! newly conceiv$ me*anism ( nature be h>moniz$ ) ! realm ( free consci\s spirits1 )\t giv+ up ! conception ( ,god z a rational be+1 & also )\t depriv+ ! s\l ( its p[] ( initiation8 ,! new sci5ce _h !re=e made x especially difficult on ! "o h& to reconcile a me*anical univ]se ) an omnipot5t ,god1 & on ! o!r to reconcile ! me*anical human body ) ! free s\l4 ,! /ruggle ( ! ,r5aissance ) ! ,middle ,ages is !re=e conc5trat$ 9 ! developm5t ( ! doctr9e ( ?is ,rationali/ ,s*ool4 ,x is /udi$ "h ev5 bett] ?an by read+ ! two p]iods side by side4 ,9 ,rationalism ! ,s*ola/icism ( ! ,middle ,ages & ! ,sci5ce ( ! ,r5aissance meet4 ,rationalism 0 a new sci5ce1 b x 0 a new !ology z well4 ,x 0 a new s*ola/ic philosophy2 =1 :ile ! ,rationali/s ?\ght t !y 7 giv+ ! dea? bl[ to m$ival philosophy1 !y 7 in/ead only replac+ x ) ano!r s*ola/icism4 ,9 _! attempt1 by means ( ! me*anical !ory1 to get an absolute sy/em ( k ^u :i* ?\ght c re/1 ! ,rationali/s 7 act+ 9 ! _s ( ! s*oolm54 ,9 fact1 no s*oolman ev] %[$ m vigor or m dogmatic confid5ce 9 8 philosophy4 ,to ! ma!matical eye ( ! ,rationali/ !re 0 absolutely no?+ my/]i\s 9 ! physical univ]se or 9 ! spiritual realm4 ,all ?+s 9 heav5 & e>? c\ld be made cle>4 ,! decl>ation ( ! ,rationali/s 0 ! call ( fre$om1 b x 0 z haz>d\s z x 0 ambiti\s2 & ! *ur* ) its assur$ revelations always /ood oppos$ to ! realization ( fre$om4 ,s we %all f9d ,desc>tes sp5d+ 8 :ole life try+ to trim 8 sails t he may n (f5d ! ,inquisition2 ,sp9oza sav+ himself f bo? ! ,jews & ! ,*ri/ians by liv+ 9 obscurity & publi%+ no?+2 ,leibnitz con/ruct+ philosophy ) ! av[$ purpose ( reconcil+ sci5ce & religion4 ,! ,m5tal ,conflict 9 ,desc>tes4 ,! /rife betwe5 ! _s ( ! ,middle ,ages & t ( ! ,r5aissance appe>s 9 ,desc>tes m /rik+ly ?an 9 any o!r ?9k] ( ?is "t4 ,he %[s1 on ! "o h&1 all ! cons]vatism ( a *ur*man ( m$ival "t 9 8 respect = in/itutional au?ority2 on ! o!r h&1 8 intellectual activity places him among ! lead+ sci5ti/s ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,9 no o!r ?9k] does ! conflict betwe5 ! ,old & ! ,new appe> s unsettl+2 9 none does ! antagonism betwe5 ! s*ola/ic _w ( spiritual ?+s & ! me*anical _w ( sci5ce appe> s irreconcilable4 ,he suff]$ a life-long m5tal /rife1 = )9 himself m$ivalism & sci5ce 7 engag$ 9 an un5d+ dramatic /ruggle4 ,! philosophy ( ,desc>tes 0 a compromise betwe5 8 traditions & 8 sci5tific g5ius2 & 8 philosophy nev] ov]came 8 conflict+ motives4 ,! admir]s ( ,desc>tes h call$ him ! fa!r ( mod]n ?\ght1 & ?is is p>tly true4 ,! fa!r ( ! mod]n sci5tific me?od 0 ,galileo4 ,desc>tes1 on ! o!r h&1 po9t$ out ! inconte/able pr9ciple f :i* mod]n ?\ght has proce$$2 he won 8 place 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy by attempt+ to h>monize ! old s*ola/icism ) ! new sci5ce "u ?is s+le pr9ciple4 ,! ,life & ,philosophical ,writ+s ( ,desc>tes 7#aeif-afej74bf 7#a7 ,z ,*ild & ,/ud5t 7#aeif-afac74 ,at home until he 0 eight ye>s old 7#aeif- #afjd74 ,at ! ,jesuit s*ool at ,la ,fl*e until he 0 sev5te5 7#afjd-afac74 7#b7 ,z ,travel] 7#afac-afbh74 ,desc>tes /udies 8! book ( ! _w40 ,at ,p>is 7#afac-afag71 9 retirem5t & /udy4 ,9 ,holl& 7#afag-afai71 nom9ally atta*$ to ! army ( ,maurice4 ,fir/ ,j\rney 7#afai-afba71 go+ ?r\gh ,bav>ia1 ,au/ria1 nor? to ! %ores ( ! ,baltic & back to ,holl&4 ,! great] "p ( ^! two ye>s 7 sp5t 9 ,bohemia1 enroll$ 9 ! army ( ! ,emp]or4 ,he 0 on ?is j\rney :5 8 m5tal crisis occurr$1at ,neub]g1 9 ,au/ria1 9 #afai4 ,x 0 !n t he discov]$ ei!r analytical geometry or ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( 8 philosophy4 ,9 ,p>is aga91 #afbc4 ,second ,j\rney 7#afbc-afbe71 to ,switz]l& & ,italy1 mak+ a pilgrimage to ! %r9e ( ,loretto4 7#c7 ,z ,writ] 7#afbi-afej74 ,9 ,holl& 7#afbi-afdi74 ,= ! sake ( absolute seclusion f inquisitive visitors1 ,desc>tes *ang$ 8 resid5ce 9 ,holl& tw5ty-f\r times & liv$ 9 ?irte5 places4 ,all 8 correspond5ce pass$ ?r\gh ,m]s5ne4 ,dur+ ^! tw5ty ye>s he made ?ree j\rneys to ,france4 ,?us ?is p]iod ( absolute retirem5t became 8 p]iod ( lit]>y production1 *iefly betwe5 ! ye>s #afce & #afdd4 ,he wrote 8 ,me?od 7#afce-afcg74 ,m$itations 7#afbi-afda74 ,le ,monde 7#afcj-afcb71 publi%$ po/hum\sly4 ,pr9ciples 7#afda-afdd74 ,passions 7#afdf-afdi74 7#d7 ,9 ,/ockholm1 ,sw$5 7#afdi-afej74 ,! romantic side ( ! life ( ,desc>tes appe>s 9 8 book on ! ,passions1 :i* he wrote = ! ,pr9cess ,elizabe?1 & also 9 8 acceptance ( ! invitation ( ! ,que5 ( ,sw$5 to reside at h] c\rt & become h] tutor4 ,he di$ !re f ! rigors ( ! climate aft] a resid5ce ( "o ye>4 ,! ,two ,conflict+ ,influ5ces ^u ! ,?\ght ( ,desc>tes4 ,on ! "o h&1 all ! ties ( inh]itance1 family influ5ce1 & e>ly education alli$ ,desc>tes ) ! _s ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,a delicate con/itution made him %r9k f public controv]sy & ! public eye4 ,he ev5 made a half apology = 8 pursuit ( sci5ce by say+ t he 0 seek+ to re=m 8 own life1 & t x 0 absurd = an individual to attempt to re=m a /ate4 ,8 family on bo? sides belong$ to ! l&$ g5try1 & he 0 !re=e b\nd by ca/e to ! support ( in/itutional au?ority4 ,he 0 educat$ 9 ! ,jesuit s*ool ( ,la ,fl*e1 & ?is mo/ cons]vative ( ecclesia/ical influ5ces re/ra9$ him f foll[+ ! logical conclusions ( 8 own ?\ght4 ,he 0 !re=e bo? physically timid & intellectually alo(4 ,9 #afcb he 0 ab\t to publi% ,le ,monde1 :i* 0 a sci5tific description ( ! orig9 & nature ( ! univ]se1 & agrees 9 "p ) ! ,cop]nican !ory4 ,x 0 a treatise :i* w\ld naturally conflict ) ! tea*+ ( ! *ur*4 ,he le>n$ ( ! trial ( ,galileo at ,rome1 & he nev] d>$ to publi% ! book4 ,! rival _s speak+ 9 ,desc>tes 0 ! new sci5tific _s ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,he _h a g5ius = ma!matics ev5 :5 he 0 at s*ool at ,la ,fl*e4 ,on 8 go+ to ,p>is he became ! c5tre ( ! mo/ notable sci5tific circle 9 ,francea circle compos$ ( su* m5 z ! ,abb ,claude ,picot1 ! physician ,villebressieux1 ! optician ,f]ri]1 ! ma!matician ,m]s5ne1 & _m o!r sci5ti/s & !ologians4 ,b he became dissatisfi$ & made "s long j\rneys 9 ord] to /udy 8! book ( ! _w40 ,8 discov]y ( 8 me?od & 8 philosophical pr9ciple 0 ! result4 ,9 ma!matics he 0 ! discov]] ( analytical geometry & 0 ! fir/ to repres5t p[]s by expon5ts2 9 physics he /at$ ! pr9ciple ( ! refraction ( light 9 trigonometrical =m2 he expla9$ ! ra9b[2 he weigh$ ! air4 ,! same indu/ri\s application ( ! new sci5tific me?ods t yield$ great results 9 sci5ce1 also result$ 9 8 developm5t ( 8 philosophy4 ,love = orig9al discov]y made ,desc>tes disda9ful ( all sci5tific au?orities & ev5 contemptu\s ( 8 notable contempor>ies1 ,galileo & ,h>vey4 ,he m5tions by "n ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,epicurus1 ,campanella1 ,telesio1 & ,bruno1 b he claim$ t he le>n$ no?+ f any "o except ,kepl]4 ,he felt himself to be above criticism1 & 9 8 self-arrogat+ dogmatism he is ! type ( ! mod]n practical individuali/4 ,he def9$ tru? z c&or to "o's self1 & bo? 9 8 practical life & 9 8 !oretical ideal !re is an entire abs5ce ( utilit>ianism4 ,! ,me?od ( ,desc>tes4 ,bo? sci5ce & s*ola/icism %[ !mselves 9 ! me?od ( ,desc>tes4 ,he attempt$ to con/ruct a philosophical me?od entirely 9 ! sci5tific _s ( ! ,r5aissance1 b 9 ! application ( x he %[$ 8 s*ola/ic tra9+4 ,surfeit$ ) inadequate & traditional me?ods he felt ! ne$ ( "s s+le pr9ciple by :i* all k might be sy/ematiz$1 & he 0 sure t ma!matics w\ld furni% ! key4 ,rational sci5ce 0 to ,desc>tes only ma!matics4 ,tru? is to be f\nd n 9 metaphysics1 nor 9 empirical sci5ce4 ,desc>tes' philosophical aim 0 to e/abli% a univ]sal ma!matics4 ,desc>tes 0 n entirely fai?ful to ,galileo's ma!matical pr9ciple 9 8 employm5t ( x1 & 8 influ5ce 9 metaphysics 0 !reby all ! great]2 = 9 ! developm5t ( 8 me?od he f\nd assi/ance 9 ! traditional s*ola/ic me?ods4 ,desc>tes 0 orig9al 9 insi/+ ^u f9d+ ! exi/5ce ( an absolute & und5iable pr9ciple be=e any progress c\ld be made4 ,su* an absolute pr9ciple c be obta9$ only by an inductive sift+ ( all ideas4 ,f ?is all fur!r tru?s mu/ be obta9$ by d$uction4 ,e true philosophy mu/ !re=e be an induction or analysis ( ideas1 & secondly1 a d$uction or syn!sis4 ,! great contribution ( ,desc>tes 0 !re=e ?is3 to ! inductive me?od ( ,bacon & ! d$uctive me?od ( ,galileo1 he add$ an absolute pr9ciple :i* mu/ be tak5 z ! basis ( bo? induction & d$uction4#bg ,induction,provisional ,d\bt,! ,ultimate ,c]ta9ty ( ,consci\sness4 ,! philosophical proclamation ( ,desc>tes 0 *>act]i/ically ,fr5*1 = he dem&$ ! same return to an uncorrupt$ nature = ! und]/&+ t ,r\sseau _m ye>s lat] dem&$ = ! he>t4 ,! fir/ /ep ( ,desc>tes 0 also ,fr5* 9 its dem& = absolute cle>ness1 :i* f 8 y\? _h %[n him to be s passionately fond ( ma!matics4 ,! way to su* cle>ness is ?r\gh provisional d\bt4 ,let u purify ! und]/&+ by deliv]+ x ( ! rubbi% ( traditional op9ions1 tak5 ^u ! say-s ( o!rs4 ,by ?is negative induction ( receiv$ k1 let u see if !re is any?+ positive & c]ta94 ,9 ,desc>tes's ,m$itations1 9 8a dramatic dialogue ) himself10 he portrays 8 own intellectual /ruggle to ga9 uncontam9at$ tru?4 ,he makes an induction ( all k9ds ( k & *all5ges ea* z x appe>s4 ,no?+ is to be accept$ z true until x has prov$ itself true4 ,all facts are subject$ to rigid scrut9y4 ,desc>tes d\bts ! te/imony ( ! s5ses1 ! exi/5ce ( ! mat]ial _w1 ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,b ?is induction is provisional1 ev5 if x is radical4 ,:ile none ( ! usually accept$ tru?s are f\nd by him to be und5iable & absolute1 yet ,desc>tes has an ult]ior purpose 9 *all5g+ !m4 ,greek skepticism _h no fur!r end ?an d\bt1 :ile at ! o!r extreme ,anselm & ! or?odox s*ola/ics _h refus$ to d\bt at all4 ,! me?od ( ,desc>tes is contra/$ bo? ) t ( ,anselm & ) t ( ! ,skeptics1 = he d\bts 9 ord] t he may "k4 ,dubito ut intelligam4 ,d\bt is necess>y1 b only z a means to an end2 & t end is k4 ,desc>tes proclaim$ = ! mod]n individual ! privilege & ! duty ( rationaliz+ 8 own beliefs4 ,9 su* an inductive sift+ ( traditional beliefs1 are !re any t c be call$ k8 ,is !re "o ^: reliability _c be successfully d\bt$8 ,n a s+le "o1 except ! ?9k+ process itself4 ,i am c]ta9 t ,i am consci\s4 ,ev5 :5 9 my univ]sal d\bt ,i say t no?+ is c]ta91 ,i am at lea/ c]ta9 t ,i d\bt4 ,i am1 !re=e1 contradict+ my univ]sal skepticism4 ,to d\bt is to ?9k2 9 d\bt+1 consci\sness is ass]t+ its exi/5ce4 ,skepticism is self-contradictory4 ,an induction ( our ideas reveals at lea/ ?is "o absolutely c]ta9 pr9ciple3 ,i1 z ?9k+1 am4 ,cogito ergo sum4 ,my own exi/5ce is an intuitive tru? t accompanies e /ate ( m9d4 ,?is is ! be/ kn[n portion ( ,desc>tes's philosophy1 & p]haps x is 9 "p to ! ,lat9 =mula ( x t x owes its widespread acceptance4 ,x is criticis$ z trifl+1 ev5 if x be true2 & z reason+ 9 a circle4 ,yet x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,desc>tes does n int5d ! ergo sum 78!re=e ,i am07 to be a conclusion ( a syllogism ( :i* ,cogito 78,i ?9k07 is ! m9or premise4 ,?is =mula is n an inf]5ce1 b an intuition1 :i* is reveal$ by induction z ! c]ta9 backgr\nd ( all k4 ,?ree ?+s are to be le>n$ f ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple1 said ,desc>tes3 7#a7 ,! fir/ is t man has ga9$ a crit]ion ( tru?4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( ?is pr9ciple t makes x reliable & c]ta9 is its cle>ness & di/9ctness4 ,cle>ness & di/9ctness ( ideas is ! pro( ( _! tru?4 ,all true ideas w !re=e h ! ma!matical & intuitive c]ta9ty t ! idea ( ! exi/5ce ( ! self has4 7#b7 ,! second lesson f ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple is t ! exi/5ce ( ! s\l is m c]ta9 ?an t ( ! body4 ,! s\l is m important & indep5d5t ?an ! body4 ,?is is ! subjective po9t ( view ( mod]n times4 ,! mod]n man views ! _w z ! repres5tation or ! creation ( 8 ?9k+ s\l4 7#c7 ,! ?ird lesson f ?is pr9ciple conc]ns ! nature ( ! s\l4 ,h[ long d y exi/8 ,z long z y ?9k4 7,sum cogitans47 ,true exi/5ce is rational ?9k+1 & ,god alone has x4 ,feel+s & passions are obscure ideas4 ,d$uction,! ,implications ( ,consci\sness4 ,= ,desc>tes reality lies )9 ! ,self2 & ! next "q be=e him is h[ to get out ( ! ,self4 ,k t is conf9$ to ! ,self & its /ates is call$1 te*nically1 solipsism4 ,su* k am\nts to little2 inde$1 x is n k at all4 ,c]ta9ty ( self-exi/5ce is ! m9imum am\nt ( km]ely ! />t+ po9t ( k4 ,desc>tes proposes to escape f ?is solipsism by ! use ( logic4 ,8 me?od f ?is po9t on is o/5sibly d$uctive1 al?\gh he introduces by ! side door o!r ideas ?an ! idea ( ,self to make 8 pro( complete4 ,desc>tes ma9ta9s t any idea w be z true z ! consci\sness t accompanies x1 j z a proposition 9 geometry p>takes ( ! tru? ( ! axioms f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,n[ my consci\sness conta9s _m ideas2 "s ( !m seem to be ! product ( my imag9ation2 "s seem to be adv5titi\s2 "s are innate4 ,x is ^u ! innate ideas t ,desc>tes dep5ds to get him out ( 8 solipsism1 = !y are n creat$ by ! ,self & !y h ! qualities ( tru?a consci\s cle>ness & di/9ctness4 ,among ^! innate ideas is ! idea ( ,god z a p]fect be+4 ,! ,exi/5ce ( ,god4#bh ,z a d$uction f consci\sness1 ! idea ( ,god w\ld prove to be a v useful "o to ,desc>tes1 provid$ x _h reality4 ,= x is evid5t t consci\sness c te/ify only to ! exi/5ce ( itself & its own /ates4 ,h[ d ,i "k ! reality ( any?+ else8 ,am ,i conf9$ )9 ! circle ( my own ?9k+8 ,is all t ,i c say ( ?is or t1 8,x is real to me08 ,are all ?+s only ! phantasmagoria ( my own bra91 te/ify+ only to ! exi/5ce ( myself8 ,desc>tes ?\ght t ! idea ( ,god reliev$ him ( ?is solipsism4 ,if he c\ld demon/rate ,god's exi/5ce1 he w\ld !n be able to demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( ! mat]ial univ]se4 ,! problem 0 s highly important to ,desc>tes t he ?rew x into sev]al diff]5t argum5ts4 ,! complications ) :i* ^! argum5ts are fill$ mu/ be pass$ ov] "h1 & ! argum5ts /at$ 9 _! simple/ =ms4 7a7 ,two are ontological argum5ts1 t is1 argum5ts f ! "* ( ! conception ( ,god's nature4 7#a7 ,a ,simple ,d$uction4 ,if ,i h 9 my consci\sness any idea z cle> & di/9ct z my idea ( ,myself1 x mu/ h exi/5ce l ,myself4 ,my idea ( ,god has j t cle>ness & di/9ctness2 & !re=e ,god exi/s4 7#b7 ,! ,geometrical ,argum5t1 s call$ by ,desc>tes4 ,"s ideas h prop]ties s immutable t1 :5 we ?9k ! ideas1 we necess>ily ?9k _! prop]ties4 ,su* is ! idea ( a triangle2 :5 ,i ?9k ( a triangle1 ,i mu/ ?9k ( x z hav+ its ?ree angles equal to two "r angles4 ,su* is also my idea ( ,god2 ,i mu/ ?9k ( him z p]fect & exi/+4 ,he w\ld n be ,god1 i4 e4 a p]fect ,be+1 if ,he did n exi/4 ,! read] w recognize ?is z a re-/atem5t ( ! argum5t by ,/4 ,anselm4 ,z su* x rais$ a tempe/ ( controv]sy 9 ,desc>tes' "t1 & 0 attack$ f all sides4 7b7 ,two are causal argum5ts1 t is1 bas$ on ! assumption ( ! equality ( cause & effect4 ,only "o ( ^! argum5ts w be cit$ "h4 ,?is is kn[n z ,! ,c>tesian ,argum5t4 ,i h an idea ( a p]fect ,be+4 ,?is idea mu/ h an adequate cause4 ,!re=e ,god mu/ exi/1 = only ,he1 & no imp]fect be+1 c be ! adequate cause ( my idea ( p]fection4 ,! ontological argum5ts giv5 by ,desc>tes are evid5tly d$uctions f ! c]ta9ty ( self-consci\sness4 ,! "q :i* we imm$iately raise conc]n+ !m is1 ,are !y true8 ,z to ! causal argum5ts1 ,desc>tes is break+ away f 8 orig9al assumption1 viz41 t self-consci\sness is ! only c]ta9ty1 & is introduc+ ano!r assumption1 viz41 ! c]ta9ty ( ! law ( cause4 ,! "q1 !n1 t ! ?\ghtful /ud5t asks1 is1 ,does ,desc>tes really escape f 8 solipsism8 ,! ,reality ( ,matt]4 ,x w be se5 t ,desc>tes is try+ to d$uce f ! c]ta9ty ( ! idea ( self-consci\sness ! c]ta9ty ( o!r ideas1 z propositions are d$uc$ 9 geometry f axioms4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god is an implication ( human consci\sness4 ,n[ ,desc>tes po9ts out t ! exi/5ce ( matt] is impli$ 9 ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,desc>tes is int]e/$ 9 mat]ial sci5ce1 & x is important = him to prove ! reality ( matt]4 ,"h aga9 8 s*ola/ic tra9+ comes into play4 ,s9ce ,god has all ! attributes ( a p]fect be+1 ,he mu/ be v]aci\s4 ,if !re 7 no ,god1 b only a deceiv+ ,devil1 ! ext]nal _w might be only a fiction1 creat$ to deceive u4 ,b ,god exi/s1 & we c tru/ t ,he w\ld n cont9ually deceive m5 ab\t ! exi/5ce ( nature4 ,an a!i/ c\ld h no sci5ce1 b to ,desc>tes1 8,god's 9 ,8 heav5 ,all's "r ) ! _w40 ,( c\rse1 man is con/antly 9 error ab\t ! "* ( physical ?+s1 b ^! errors arise f 8 mis9t]pretation ( !m4 ,nature 9 "s =m lies be=e man1 or else ,god 9 ,8 tru?fulness does n exi/4 ,! ess5ce ( matt] is ext5sion 7see bel[71 & :atev] my int]pretation ( x1 some?+ ext5d$ lies be=e me to be int]pret$4 ,?is is ! skeleton ^u :i* ,desc>tes con/ructs 8 !ory4 ,ev5 ?is cursory exam9ation ( x %[s ! obvi\s attempt to expla9 8! _w ( grace0 by ! me?od ( ma!matics1 & x is q consi/5t ) ! _s ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god & ! exi/5ce ( matt] are d$uc$ 9 turn f ! axiom ( all ?\ght1 ! ,self2 :ile matt] is fur!r describ$ z ! ext5d$ or ! measurable4 ,?us ,desc>tes has tri$ to con/ruct a bridge betwe5 ! s*ola/ic concepts & ! sci5ce ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,! ?ree realities1 ! ,self1 ,god1 & matt]1 :i* ,desc>tes (t5 speaks ( z intuitively c]ta91 h obvi\sly a diff]+ cog5cy4 ,! reality ( consci\sness is ! gr\nd f :i* ! o!r two are d]iv$4 ,9 ass]t+ its primacy1 he is voic+ ! _s ( ! ,r5aissance ev5 m cle>ly ?an did ,galileo & ,bacon4 ,= ,desc>tes 9 ?is has gone back ( ! objective facts to a s+le subjective pr9ciple2 :]eas ! d$uctive pr9ciples ( ,galileo 7 objective4 ,9 ?is respect ,desc>tes is ! f\nd] ( ! subjective me?od ( mod]n ?\ght1 & 9 id5tify+ ! ,self z ! reason he became ! f\nd] ( rationalism4 ,9 any case he e/abli%$ a backgr\nd = epi/emology1 or ! !ory ( k4 ,b 9 8 d]ivation ( ! o!r two realities,god & matt]he %[s h[ p]si/5t 0 ! s*ola/ic curr5t 9 8 ?\ght4 ,al?\gh he decl>$ !m to be intuitively kn[n1 !y evid5tly are n s 9 ! same s5se t self-consci\sness is2 & he felt oblig$ to support !m by traditional s*ola/ic argum5ts4 ,god & ! ,_w4 ,leav+ ^! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ,desc>tes1 we n[ come to a consid]ation ( a few ( ! details ( 8 philosophy4 ,desc>tes' _w is a dualism 9 :i* consci\s be+ /&s 9 contra/ ) space objects4 ,god is relat$ to ! _w ( m9d on ! "o h& & to ! _w ( matt] on ! o!r4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ,desc>tes came ^u ! ?ree sub/ances! ,self1 ,god1 & matt]is1 h[ev]1 n ! ord] ( _! reality4 ,9 reality ,god is ! prim>y sub/ance1 = ,he dep5ds only ^u ,himself4 ,matt] & ! ,self are relative or creat$ sub/ances1 = !y dep5d ^u ,god4 ,matt] & m9d h diff]5t modes ( appe>+3 ! modes ( matt] are =m1 size1 position1 & motion4 ,! modes ( m9d are ideas1 judgm5ts1 & w4 ,?us m9d is s ess5tially diff]5t f matt]1 z c be se5 9 _! respective modes1 t ,god /&s 9 a diff]5t relation to ea*4 ,! ,relation ( ,god to ,matt]4 ,desc>tes "h inve/igates ! realm 9 :i* he has ! deepe/ int]e/2 b he makes a concession at ! v beg9n+4 ,he dive/s ?+s ( _! qualities & f9ds ! ess5ce ( matt] to be ext5sion4 ,qualities are n resid5t 9 ?+s1 b are ! result ( our s5sations4 ,s5se-p]ception is k ( qualities1 & !re=e obscure k2 :ile cle> or intellectual k is ( quantities4 ,b !re is "o quality common to matt]1ext5sion4 ,space1 ext5sion1 & matt] are ! same4 ,!re is no space t is empty1 no matt] t is n ext5d$4 ,an ext5d$ or mat]ial body has1 h[ev]1 9 itself no pr9ciple ( motion4 ,x _c move itself4 ,x mu/ be mov$ by an ext]nal cause1 & ! :ole univ]se mu/ be a me*anism ^: movem5ts h _! fir/ cause 9 ,god4 ,matt] 9 its modes ( motion & re/ has ,god z its fir/ cause or unmov$ mov]2 & "u matt] is includ$ ev]y?+ ext5d$1inanimate objects1 ! l[] animals1 & ! bodies ( m54 ,to ?is _w ( matt] ,god /&s 9 ! relation ( an inv5tor to 8 ma*9e4 ,! ,relation ( ,god to ,m9ds4 ,! ess5tial nature ( m9ds is ?\ght4 ,m9d is !re=e diff]5t f matt] because x is unext5d$ & free4 ,! two relative sub/ances h no?+ 9 common except t !y are relat$ to ,god4 ,! relation ( ,god to m9ds is1 h[ev]1 v diff]5t f ,8 relation to matt]4 ,god is n ! unmov$ mov] ( m9ds1 b ,he is ! p]fect & inf9ite m9d to :i* our f9ite m9ds turn z _! ideal4 ,god ?9ks & wills p]fectly :at we ?9k & w imp]fectly4 ,he is n ! me*anical b ! teleological cause ( m9ds1 _! ens p]fectissimum1 ! goal ( all m5tal aspiration4 ,! ,relation ( ,m9d & ,body4 ,9 proportion z ,desc>tes cle>ly def9$ m9d & body1 & ref]r$ ea* back to its own pr9ciple1 ! impossibility ( connect+ ! two became app>5t4 ,desc>tes int5d$ t 8 !ory %\ld1 above ev]y?+ else1 cle> philosophy ( all obscurities4 ,s he divid$ ! _w into two relative sub/ances1m9d & matt]1ea* op]at+ 9 its own realm1 ea* exclusive ( ! o!r4 ,! int5tion ( ,desc>tes is to be a consi/5t duali/4 ,b !re 0 "o po9t :]e1 ) "o eye on ! *ur*1 he _h to qualify = e?ical consid]ations 8 sci5tific pr9ciple ( matt]4 ,t is ! po9t :]e ! human body acts ^u ! s\l & ! s\l acts ^u ! body4 ,!re 0 little tr\ble = ,desc>tes 9 conceiv+ ! movem5ts ( inanimate bodies1 plants1 & all ! l[] animals z purely me*anical & automatic1 ) _! fir/ cause 9 ,god4 ,f 8 own inve/igations he felt oblig$ to reg>d _m ( ! human functions z automatic also4 ,b 8 e?ical & !ological int]e/s compell$ him to ?9k ( man z exalt$ above ! re/ ( creation4 ,!ology has always be5 9 a s5se ari/ocratic1 & has drawn a l9e betwe5 man & o!r ?+s4 ,man alone has a s\l 9 8 body4 ,! s\l ( man is immortal & free1 & mu/ !re=e h control ov] ! body2 nev]!less ! s\l ( man mu/ be consci\s ( ! impressions t come ?r\gh ! body4 ,"h ! sci5ce ( ! ,r5aissance & ! s*ola/icism ( ! ,middle ,ages refuse to be reconcil$ 9 ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes4 ,:5 x became a "q betwe5 ,desc>tes' sci5tific !ory ( matt] op]at+ itself me*anically & ! *ur* doctr9e ( a spiritual w op]at+ ! matt] ( ! human body1 ! sci5tific !ory _h to yield4 ,h[ does ,desc>tes yield gracefully to ! !ological requirem5ts & br+ toge!r ! two unlike worlds ( matt] & m9d 9 ! human p]sonality8 ,desc>tes' explanation ( ! relation ( human m9d & body rem9ds u ( ! my?ical explanations ( ,p>acelsus4 ,! s\l is unit$ to all p>ts ( ! body1 b its po9t ( contact ) ! body is ! p9eal gl&1 & ?is contact is made possible ?r\gh ! animal spirits 7spiritus animales7 or ! fire atoms 9 ! blood1 a reviv$ ,greek conception4 ,! p9eal gl& is a ganglion 9 ! c5tre ( ! bra91 :i* biologi/s tell u is a defunct eye1 b :i* ,desc>tes conceiv$ to be ! seat ( ! s\l4 ,desc>tes ma9ta9$ t ! animal spirits1 hav+ be5 di/ill$ by ! he>t1 asc5d by me*anical laws f ! he>t to ! bra91 & !n desc5d to ! n]ves & muscles4 ,:5 !y pass ?r\gh ! p9eal gl&1 !y come 9 contact ) ! s\l4 ,! s\l ex]cises influ5ce on ! body by slightly mov+ ! gl& & div]t+ ! animal spirits4 ,9 ?is way ! emotions & s5sations are to be expla9$4 ,! movem5t ( ! p9eal gl& by ! animal spirits causes s5sations 9 ! s\l2 ! movem5t ( ! gl& by ! s\l *anges ! movem5t ( ! animal spirits1 & is an exhibition ( free action4 ,b ?is does n add to or subtract f ! en]gy4 ,x m]ely *anges ! direction ( en]gy4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,desc>tes4 ,al?\gh ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes 0 =bidd5 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d1 0 proscrib$ by ! ,calv9i/s 9 ,holl&1 & 8 works 7 plac$ ^u ! ,index by ! ,ca?olics1 x creat$ a pr(\nd impression on ! !ology1 sci5ce1 & lit]ature ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,x spread ov] ,europe 9 a some:at simil> way to ! ,d>w9ian evolution !ory 9 mod]n times4 ,its success 0 imm5se1 _m /&>d m5 ralli$ to its support1 & ev]y?+ be=e ,desc>tes 0 consid]$ to be antiquat$4 ,among philosoph]s 8 doctr9e _h an int]nal developm5t 9 a natural way along ! l9es ( ! problems :i* he _h left unsolv$4 ,a philosophical developm5t1 ! s\rce ( :i* c be trac$ directly back to ,desc>tes1 w5t on until ,kant publi%$ 8 ,critique 9 #agha4 ,?is has lat] be5 call$ ! ,s*ool ( ,rationalism 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,holl&4 ,! mo/ important memb]s ( ?is s*ool! ,occasionali/s1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz1 & ,wolffwe %all consid] 9 _! place4 ,desc>tes _h an important imm$iate foll[+ 9 ! gr\p1 :o g by ! "n ( ,occasionali/s2 b 8 mo/ important successor1 :o c h>dly be call$ 8 disciple1 0 ,sp9oza4 ,desc>tes' me?od _h a peculi> fate4 ,8 foll[]s misund]/ood x1 exactly rev]s$ x1 & obta9$ v fruitful results4 ,desc>tes himself _h hop$ to see induction employ$ 9 mo/ metaphysical problems4 ,he reg>d$ d$uction z ( use only 9 proce$+ f "o self-evid5t fact to ano!r4 ,b ! foll[+ ,rationali/s us$ ! d$uctive me?od entirely & tri$ to sy/ematize e?ics aft] ! mann] ( ,euclid4 ,!y d$uc$ _! sy/ems f "s assum$ pr9ciple4 ,?is t5d5cy 0 fir/ se5 9 ! ,port ,royal logic1 & 0 complet$ by ,sp9oza4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,occasionali/s & ,sp9oza to ,desc>tes4 ,! developm5t ( ! doctr9es ( ! ,occasionali/s & ,sp9oza f ,desc>tes 0 an attempt to make cle> ! conception ( sub/ance4 ,s9ce sub/ance 0 ! mo/ important s*ola/ic category1 x is easy to see :y ,sp9oza's tea*+ became ?or\ghly s*ola/ic4 ,desc>tes _h us$ ! t]m 8sub/ance0 9 a v loose way to apply to ,god z inf9ite1 & to m9ds & bodies z f9ite4 ,he speaks ( ,god z ! only sub/ance1 & yet ( consci\sness & bodies z creat$ sub/ances4 ,su* ambiguity mu/ be ov]come1 if a philosophy :i* prid$ itself on mak+ ev]y?+ 8cle> & di/9ct0 0 to /&4 ,desc>tes _h fall5 %ort ( ju/ify+ 8 attempt to put metaphysics completely ^u a ma!matical basis1 al?\gh ?is _h be5 8 orig9al problem4 ,! obscurity ( ! spiritual _w /ill rema9$1 because ,desc>tes _h left ! concept ( ! spiritual sub/ance undef9$4 ,! _w ( ! _s 0 /ill an unkn[n c\ntry4 ,! spiritual sub/ance _h n be5 made cle> & di/9ct1 & !re /ill rema9$ ! ontological problem ( ! relation betwe5 m9d & matt]1 & ! psy*ological problem ( ! relation betwe5 ! individual s\l & its body4 ,desc>tes _h1 h[ev]1 def9$ cle>ly ! concept ( ! sub/ance ( matt]! sub/ance ) :i* ! natural sci5ti/ works4 ,he _h accompli%$ ?is1 to be sure1 by de/roy+ ! ess5tial di/9ctions betwe5 mat]ial ?+s4 ,a 8?+0 is ess5tially a sub/ance 9 :i* _m qualities inh]e1 e4 g4 a piece ( sug> hav+ :it5ess1 sweetness1 etc4 ,mat]ial sub/ances 7 alike 9 t all 7 ess5tially ext5sion4 ,all else besides ext5sion 9 any p>ticul> f9ite ?+ 0 a modification ( ext5sion4 ,a lump ( sug> 0 ess5tially ! same z a lump ( salt 9 t bo? 7 ext5sion2 ! saltness1 sweetness1 etc41 7 second>y4 ,n[ ?is makes ! nature ( bodies v cle>2 & ,desc>tes propos$ to r$uce ! sub/ance ( ! /ates ( m9d to ! same cle>ness1 b he did n d x4 ,he 0 int]e/$ 9 natural sci5ce & he develop$ 8 rationalism only ) ref]5ce to matt]4 ,bodies are p>ts ( space or corpuscles1 :i* are ma!matically inf9itely divisible1 b p]ceptually are n fur!r divisible4 ,z f> z he w5t1 ,desc>tes 0 cle> en\gh4 ,! ,occasionali/s & ,sp9oza repres5t ! second /age 9 ! developm5t ( ,rationalism4 ,bo? tri$ by mak+ cle> ! mean+ ( spiritual sub/ance to def9e ! relation%ip ( ,god to ! mat]ial _w4 ,bo? tri$ to /ate ! problem 9 o!r words1 to ov]come ! dualism betwe5 m9d & matt]1 & to recon/ruct ! old 8_w ( grace0 s t x w\ld be consi/5t ) ! new _w ( sci5ce4 ,! ,occasionali/s1 ^: *ief expon5ts 7 ,malebran*e & ,geul9cx1 we %all dismiss ) only a few words1 :ile consid]able att5tion mu/ be giv5 to ! tea*+ ( ,sp9oza4 ,malebran*e tri$ to d = ! m5tal _w :at ,desc>tes _h done = ! _w ( matt]4 ,s9ce no k is possible except 9 ,god1 he claim$ t ! modes ( f9ite m9dsour ideas1 judgm5ts1 imag9ationsare alike 9 ess5ce 9 be+ modifications ( ! univ]sal reason ( ,god4 ,god is s f> ! 8place ( m9ds0 z space is ! place ( bodies4 ,all our ideas p>ticipate 9 ,god's reason1 & all our volitions are ! modifications ( ! w ( ! ,div9e1 j z bodies are modifications ( ext5sion4 ,:at !n is ! relation1 ask$ ,geul9cx1 betwe5 bodily movem5t & ! /ates ( consci\sness8 ,:y does my arm move :5 ,i wi% to move x8 ,by ! m$iatory p[] ( ,god4 ,! ?\ght 9 my m9d is ! 8occasional cause0 ( ! movem5t ( my arm1 :ile ,god is ! true cause ( ! movem5t4 ,! movem5t ( ! human body is !re=e1 l ! movem5t ( all matt]1 a cont9u\s miracle caus$ by an ev] wat*ful ,deity1 :o keeps body & m9d 9 h>mony4 ,sp9oza complet$ 8 pan!ism be=e ,malebran*e _h prep>$ ! way4 ,he =mulat$ a complete doctr9e ( sub/ance1 conceiv+ mat]ial bodies to be ess5tially ! same 9 be+ modes ( ext5sion1 & m5tal ph5om5a to be ess5tially alike 9 be+ modes ( ?\ght4 ,b m important 0 8 fur!r tea*+ t on t acc\nt ! two s]ies h no relation to ea* o!r4 ,t is to say1 ,sp9oza r$uc$ ! :ole difficulty to cle>ness & di/9ctness by r$uc+ ! ?ree sub/ances ( ,desc>tes to "o4 ,= ?is reason ,sp9oza 0 a m complete ,rationali/ ?an ,desc>tes2 & he 0 assi/$ 9 ?is con/ruction ( a ma!matical ,rationalism by two facts3 he held himself /rictly to ! d$uctive me?od1 & he 0 free f social & ecclesia/ical ties4 ,sp9oza is ! true/ utt]ance ( 8 "t 9 its ef=t to make all ?+s cle>2 & ?is is n contradict$ by ! fact t he _h little influ5ce 9 %ap+ contempor>y ?\ght4 ,illu/ration3 ,,b>u* ,,de ,,sp9oza 7,pollock 7,sp9oza1 ,8 ,life & ,philosophy1 p4 xxvi7 says t only ?ree ( ! portraits ( ,sp9oza may reasonably be consid]$ au!ntic4 ,"o is a m9iature ( ! philosoph] 9 ! ,summ] ,palace at ! ,hague2 ! second is a pa9t+ 9 ! ,t[n ,museum at ! ,hague2 ! ?ird is ! "o giv5 "h1 :i* is an engrav+ f\nd 9 copies ( ! orig9al edition ( ,sp9oza's ,po/hum\s ,works 7#afgg74 ,?is portrait seems to be some:at idealiz$1 b ( ! ?ree x is ! mo/ arti/ic & lifelike47 ,! ,hi/orical ,place ( ,sp9oza4#bi ,sp9oza did n get full /&+ nor 0 he widely read1 until ,less+1 "o hundr$ ye>s lat]1 resurrect$ 8 tea*+ & ,goe! adopt$ x4 ,he produc$ :at ! ,r5aissance 0 /riv+ =1 b :at ! ,r5aissance c\ld n yet grasp1! complete logical =mulation ( its deepe/ ?\ght4 ,sp9oza produc$ ! only great conception ( ! _w dur+ ?is p]iod1 & x excit$ ! ho/ility ( contempor>y ,ca?olics1 ,prote/ants1 & free-?9k]s alike4 ,! product ( 8 ?9k+ 0 a new sy/ematic s*ola/icism1 :i*1 if ! "t _h be5 ready = x1 w\ld h entirely sup]s$$ ! m$ival4 ,he succe$$ 9 plac+ metaphysics ^u a sci5tific & ma!matical basis1 = 8 philosophy 0 n only logical 9 its cont5t b ma!matical 9 its =m4 ,sp9oza's philosophy is ! ,r5aissance expression ( m$ival s*ola/icism1! expression ( t rationalism t und]lies bo? ! ?\ght ( ! ,middle ,ages & ! ,r5aissance4 ,x is z if ,?omas ,aqu9as _h be5 transport$ into ! ,r5aissance1 & f9d+ t sci5ce w\ld n support & expla9 dogma1 _h con=m$ dogma sy/ematically to ! new sci5ce4 ,ma!matically sci5ce 0 ! new dogma4 ,sp9oza is ! la/ ^w ( m$ivalism1 al?\gh 8 language is ! sci5ce ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,! utt]ance ( ,sp9oza s\nds /range because1 :ile 8 ?\ght is m$ival1 8 expression & =m are sci5tific4 ,sp9ozism _h a revival 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4#cj ,x =m$ ! backgr\nd ( ! philosophy ( ,h]d] & t ( ! au?or ( ! ,wolf5bttel ,fragm5ts4 ,! connection ( ,less+ & ,sp9oza 0 a matt] ( active controv]sy at t "t4 ,sp9oza 0 ! great influ5ce ^u ,goe!4 ,9 ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 ,engl& ,col]idge reproduc$ f ,sp9oza's ,e?ics ! doctr9e ( an all-p]vad+ love & reason4 ,sp9oza /rove be=e ev]y?+ else = a unit>y sy/em1 & yet x is int]e/+ to see h[ mu* he has be5 honor$ f diff]5t qu>t]s4 ,arti/s1 religi\s devotees1 poets1 ideali/s1 mat]iali/s1 & sci5ti/s h f\nd 9 him _! true/ expression4 ,?is is n only because ea* has f\nd some?+ diff]5t1 b because 8 philosophy _h actually a _m-sid$ "*4 ,8 tea*+ _h ! advantage ( be+ ?or\ghly radical4 ,bad sy/ems ( philosophy are impossible1 because !y are contradictory4 ,:ile no "o kn[s t any sy/em corresponds to fact1 /ill x is possible t a radical sy/em may h su* correspond5ce4 ,sp9oza's sy/em is compreh5sive1 & !re=e has /ruck sympa!tic *ords 9 diff]+ ?9k]s4 ,! ,influ5ces ^u ,sp9oza4 #a4 ,8 ,jewi% ,tra9+4 ,sp9oza 0 born a ,jew & rema9$ a memb] ( ! ,synagogue until he 0 excommunicat$ at ! age ( tw5ty-f\r4 ,al?\gh he 0 ! orig9al g5ius :o transc5ds 8 limitations1 8 "y m9d 0 m\ld$ aft] ! ,jewi% type4 ,he receiv$ ! /rictly religi\s tra9+ ( ! ,jewi% boy 9 ! ,jewi% academy at ,am/]dam1 :]e he le>n$ a trade 9 connection ) 8 /udies4 ,he /udi$ ! ,talmud1 m$ival ,jewi% philosophy1 especially ! writ+s ( ,maimonides 7twelf? c5tury71 & ! ,cabali/ic lit]ature4 ,9 a ,jewi% curriculum ! classical languages _h no place2 & ma!matics1 except ari?metic1 0 g5]ally ov]look$4 ,8 e>ly in/ruction emphasiz$ above ev]y?+ else ! unity & ! supremely transc5d5t1 !i/ic "* ( ,god4 ,h[ev]1 8 sep>ation f ! ,synagogue at ?is e>ly age c\ld n b modify 8 !ology4 ,x made him a free ,jew4 ,he 0 no long] "u ! re/ra9ts ( ,jewi% traditions4 ,:ile he nev] ab&on$ 8 belief 9 ,god z a unity1 he gave up 8 belief 9 ! transc5d5t !i/ic ,god ( ! ,hebrew prophets2 & he diff]$ f ! contempor>y ,jewi% ,cabali/ic tea*+ ( emanations f ,god4 ,he seems to h s modifi$ ! or?odox ,hebrew conception ( ,god t x r resembles t ( ! m$ival my/ic ,*ri/ian4 ,p]haps ! influ5ce ( ,bruno ^u 8 ?\ght may acc\nt = its f9al %ape4 #b4 ,8 ,impulse f ! ,new ,sci5ce,desc>tes' ,influ5ce4 ,! 8free ?9k+0 = :i* ,sp9oza 0 excommunicat$ by ! ,synagogue 0 obta9$ fir/ f 8 in/ruction 9 ! s*ool ( ,van d] ,ende1 a physician ( d>+ naturali/ic t5d5cies4 ,?is 0 :5 he 0 eighte54 ,sp9oza _h already le>n$ ,italian & ,fr5*2 ,spani%1 ,portuguese1 ,dut*1 & ,hebrew 7 8 native tongues2 ,van d] ,ende taught him ,g]man & ,lat91 & introduc$ him to ! sci5ce ( ! "t4 ,x 0 !n t he read ,desc>tes1 ^: philosophy he made ! basis ( 8 own4 ,sp9oza 0 n an inv5tive g5ius l ,desc>tes & ,leibnitz1 b he 0 m rigidly sy/ematic ?an ei!r4 ,he 0 by nature a ?9k] :o 0 oblig$ to c>ry 8 ?\ght ?r\gh to its logical conclusions4 ,he _h already1 at ?is e>ly age ( eighte51 begun to make indep5d5t !ological excursions4 ,consequ5tly ! ma!matical me?ods ( ,desc>tes furni%$ him a me?od1 & ,van d] ,ende gave him ! enc\ragem5t = c>ry+ out 8 indep5d5t ?9k+ unrel5t+ly to its logical end4 ,to /ate 8 modifi$ ,jewi% conception ( ,god 9 ma!matical t]ms became 8 task1 & 8 success 9 ?us /at+ x1 ) ,desc>tes z a />t+ po9t1 made him ! mo/ complete repres5tative ( ,rationalism4 #c4 ,8 ,acqua9tance ) ! ,collegiants4 ,aft] 8 expulsion f 8 k9dr$1 he liv$ = sev5 ye>s ) a sect ( ,bapti/ ,quak]s call$ ,collegiants4 ,?is 0 a diss5t+ religi\s body )\t prie/s or set =ms ( wor%ip4 ,! memb]s 7 simple1 pi\s p1 :o reg>d$ moral liv+ z sup]ior to cre$2 & ,sp9oza's life 9 _! mid/ mu/ h det]m9$ to "s degree ! l9es ( 8 ?\ght4 ,to a man ( ,sp9oza's simplicity ( m9d & k9dly disposition1 ! ,collegiants w\ld prove to be n only cong5ial companions 9 8 h\rs ( di/ress1 b !y w\ld confirm 8 own love = ! e?ical z an ideal4 ,sp9oza says t ! motive ( 8 philosophy is a practical "o2 t he is seek+ t :i* w\ld 8enable me to enjoy cont9u\s & supreme & un5d+ happ9ess40 ,he is seek+ a !ory ( life t w\ld aid 9 allay+ ! unre/ ( 8 "t2 & he is ! only philosoph] :o has call$ 8 metaphysics ,e?ics4 ,! human5ess ( 8 doctr9e1 ! practical purpose ( 8 writ+s1 & ! e?ical ideal t in=m$ 8 :ole life _h at lea/ _! re9=cem5t1 & p]haps _! orig91 9 8 contact ) ! ,collegiants dur+ ?is critical p]iod4 ,8 life ) ?is sect influ5c$ him 9 8 refusal to accept ! *air ( philosophy at ! ,univ]sity ( ,heidelb]g1 & to rema9 cont5t to be ! obscure gr9d] ( optical l5ses4 ,! ,life & ,philosophical ,writ+s ( ,sp9oza#ca 7#afcb-afgg74 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy pres5ts 9 ! p]son ( ,sp9oza a lovable1 int]e/+1 & /rik+ "*1 z well z ! au?or ( "o ( ! pr(\nde/ ( philosophical sy/ems4 ,8 life 0 "o ( social isolation & retirem5t r ?an ( solitude4 ,! ,jews to :om he belong$ liv$ a k9d ( d\ble exile!y 7 exil$ f _! home 9 ,spa91 & !y liv$ by !mselves ap>t f ! p ( ,am/]dam4 ,:5 ,sp9oza 0 excommunicat$ by 8 bre?r51 he suff]$1 !re=e1 a ?reefold exile4 ,moreov]1 ,sp9oza 0 n only excommunicat$ by 8 p1 b he 0 hat$ by ! contempor>y ,ca?olics1 ,prote/ants1 & ! prevail+ ,c>tesian s*ool4 ,ev5 ! free-?9k]1 ,hume1 spoke ( him z 8! infam\s ,sp9oza10 & ano!r philosoph] describ$ 8 philosophy z 8! hide\s hypo!sis ( ,sp9oza40 ,b 8 isolation 0 f> f solitude1 & he _h _m em95t & fai?ful fri5ds & a notable correspond5ce4 ,( 8 %ort life ( =ty-five ye>s1 he sp5t tw5ty-f\r1 or m ?an half1 z a memb] ( ! ,jewi% synagogue4 ,dur+ ! next sev5 ye>s he f\nd refuge among ! ,collegiants4 ,9 ! la/ f\rte5 ye>s ( 8 life he became widely kn[n1 ma9ly ?r\gh ! ,!ological-,political ,tract1 publi%$ 9 #afgj1 ! only "o ( 8 writ+s :i* he himself publi%$4 ,?is br\ght him ! call to ! ,univ]sity ( ,heidelb]g1 :i* he decl9$4 ,8 life may be conv5i5tly divid$ into ?ree p]iods1 z foll[s3 #a4 ,9 ,israel 7#afcb-afef74 ,sp9oza 0 educat$ at ! ,jewi% academy at ,am/]dam1 :]e he /udi$ !ology & le>n$ a trade1 accord+ to ! ,jewi% cu/om4 ,?is trade 0 ! gr9d+ ( optical l5ses2 t is1 he became an optician1 & ?is requir$ "s k ( ma!matics & physics4 ,dur+ ^! ye>s he got in/ruction f ,van d] ,ende 9 sci5ce & ,lat94 ,he also read ,desc>tes & le>n$ _m languages4 ,he wrote a comp5dium ( a ,hebrew ,gramm>1 ( :i* ! date is d\btful4 ,9 #afef he 0 excommunicat$ by ! synagogue4 ,! *>ges br\ght aga9/ him 7 t3 7#a7 he d5i$ t ! ,old ,te/am5t taught ! doctr9e ( immortality2 7#b7 he affirm$ t angels may be only phantoms or ideas 9 m5's m9ds2 7#c7 he affirm$ t ,god may h a body4 #b4 ,9 ,retirem5t 7#afef-affc74 ,sp9oza sp5t ?is "t ) ! ,collegiants1 & ?is 0 8 mo/ fruitful intellectual p]iod4 ,he br\ght 8 ontology1 e?ics1 politics1 & physics into a unifi$ sy/em2 & he =mulat$ 8 !ory ( det]m9ism & 8 ma!matical me?od4 ,9 #afeh-affa he 0 writ+ 8 s-call$ ,%ort ,treatise1 8conc]n+ ,god1 man & 8 well-be+40 ,?is 0 ! fir/ draft ( 8 ,e?ics4 ,9 #afef-affb he 0 writ+ 8 ,improvem5t ( ! ,und]/&+4 ,9 #affb-affc he wrote a summ>y ( ! pr9ciples ( ,desc>tes4 #c4 ,9 ! ,public ,eye 7#affc-afgg74 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ,sp9oza liv$ at or ne> ! ,hague1 :]e he _h _m visitors & a l>ge correspond5ce4#cb ,he 0 an intimate fri5d ( ! bro!rs ,de,witte1 :o made s l>ge a "p ( ! political hi/ory ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 #affb-affe he 0 writ+ 8 ,e?ics1 8 monum5tal "w4 ,9 #affc-afgj he wrote & publi%$ ! ,!ological-,political ,treatise1 ! only "w publi%$ dur+ 8 life4 ,al?\gh receiv$ ) horror1 x 0 widely read4 ,x aim$ to %[ t ! ,bible is hi/ory4 ,9 #afgc he decl9$ ! call to ! ,univ]sity ( ,heidelb]g4 ,j be=e 8 dea?1 9 #afgg1 he wrote ! fragm5t ( ! ,political ,treatise4 ,! ,me?od ( ,sp9oza4 ,! me?od :i* ,sp9oza employ$ 9 writ+ 8 ,e?ics mu/ n be reg>d$ by ! read] z a fanta/ic dress t he caprici\sly *ose4 ,x _h = ,sp9oza a real & n m]ely an ext]nal significance4 ,on tak+ up ! book1 "o f9ds philosophy treat$ exactly z ,euclid treat$ 8 geometry4 ,beg9n+ ) a numb] ( def9itions & axioms1 !re are d$uc$1 /ep by /ep1 propositions ) app5d$ s*olia & coroll>ies4 ,to ,sp9oza ?is 0 n press+ philosophy into an artificial & rigid =m1 b 0 only ! natural mode ( philosophical expression4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 if ! new me?od ( sci5ce _h prov$ itself successful 9 treat+ physical ph5om5a1 :y %\ld n ! same me?od h ! same success ) problems ( ! _w ( ! _s& 9 ?is way br+ ! two worlds into h>mony8 ,by d$uction "o c\ld !n arrive at absolute c]ta9ty & unassailable pro( ( ! solutions ( metaphysical problems t _h long vex$ ! ,middle ,ages4 ,) ! p]fect geometrical me?od all problems 9 heav5 & e>? c\ld be solv$4 ,9 ! second place1 ! religi\s conviction ( ,sp9oza t all ?+s come f ,god requir$ ! d$uctive me?od to expla9 !m4 ,! ord] 9 :i* we %\ld /udy ph5om5a %\ld correspond to ! real ord] 9 :i* !y /& to ,god4 ,god is ! gr\nd or reason ( ?+s1 & all are d]iv$ f ,him z consequ5ts4 ,! d$uction ( ! relation ( f9ite ?+s to ,god w correspond to ! real relation 9 :i* ,god /&s to !m4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple 9 ,sp9oza's ,philosophy4 ,! philosophy ( ,sp9oza seems to be ,c>tesian 9 e respect except "o2 & t "o diff]5ce 0 l ! leav5 9 ! lumpx trans=m$ 8 philosophy into a radically diff]5t "o f t ( ,desc>tes4 ,sp9oza's po9t ( dep>ture 0 ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes1 all 8 presuppositions are ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ,desc>tes1 & ! /ructure ( 8 sy/em seems to be t ( ,desc>tes4 ,he has ! same respect = ! p[] ( ! reason to "k all tru?1 ! same fai? 9 ! omnipot5ce ( ! ma!matical me?od1 ! same g5]al conception ( sub/ance1 ! same idea ( ! qualitative diff]5ce betwe5 ! worlds ( ?\ght & ext5sion1 ! same belief 9 ! me*anical /ructure ( ! _w ( nature4 ,he made ^! 8 own & acc5tuat$ !m4 ,b he add$ to ^! a new & trans=m+ pr9ciple3 he conceiv$ t ! sub/ance1 ,god1 is n m]ely "o object ( k1 b ,he is ! only object ( k4 ,he is ! only sub/ance1 & f9ite ?+s are only modifications ( ,him4 ,f9ite ?+s are alike at bottom1 & to "k !m truly is to "k ,god4 ,?is new pr9ciple trans=ms all ! ,c>tesian elem5ts 9 ,sp9oza's tea*+4 ,x *anges ! ,c>tesian !ism into a pan!ism2 x supplants ,desc>tes' !ological or?odoxy ) a naturalism & ,desc>tes' doctr9e ( fre$om ) a det]m9ism2 & x turns ! cultur$ alo(ness ( ,desc>tes into a b5evol5t my/icism4 ,?is new pr9ciple becomes 8! head ( ! corn]40 ,! on5ess & univ]sality ( ,god is ! s+le proposition f :i* ,sp9oza d$uc$ 8 :ole philosophy4 ,god is ! ultimate gr\nd ^: exi/5ce mu/ be real1 because x is conceiv$4 ,! intr9sic s*ola/icism ( ! philosophy ( ,sp9oza appe>s 9 8 def9ition ( sub/ance1 = x is only a cond5s$ /atem5t ( ,/4 ,anselm's argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,sp9oza says1 8,by sub/ance ,i mean t :i* is 9 itself & conceiv$ ?r\gh itself alone40 ,!re are1 !re=e1 two k9ds ( ?+s3 ! ?+ t has exi/5ce 9 itself & ! ?+s t h exi/5ce 9 some?+ else4 ,god /&s alone 9 ! fir/ class2 all o!r ?+s make up ! second class4 ,sp9oza's _w is divid$ into two p>ts3 ,god & ! modes ( ,god4 ,god is self-explanatory & self-exi/5t1 :ile ev]y?+ else is expla9$ ?r\gh ,him4 ,! only object ( k & ! s+le presupposition ( exi/5ce is ,god4 ,9 a phrase t has become classic1 ,novalis describ$ ,sp9oza z a 8,god-intoxicat$ man40 ,?ree ,c5tral ,problems 9 ,sp9oza's ,tea*+4 ,we h already not$ t ,sp9oza 0 ! *ief expon5t ( 8cle>ness & di/9ctness0 9 ?is epo* :5 all my/]ies 7 to be reveal$4 ,he s\ght to articulate a metaphysics t w\ld spread out ! plan ( ! _w l a demon/ration 9 geometry4 ,8 def9ition ( sub/ance is p]fectly intelligible2 he accept$ ! ma!matical analysis ( ! mat]ial _w into a _w ( ext5sion1 & t ( ! _w ( consci\s /ates into "o ( ?\ghtall ?is = ! sake ( simplification & cle>ness4 ,h[ simple su* a philosophy at ! fir/ blu% appe>s! _w is ,god & 8 modifications4 ,z a matt] ( fact x is "o ( ! _m examples ( ! irony ( hi/ory t ! philosophy ( ,sp9oza is "o ( ! mo/ difficult to int]pret4 ,its difficulties d n arise f its hav+ a novel po9t ( view1 = on ! contr>y x is "o t appeals /rongly to ! popul> imag9ation4 ,its difficulties arise f its v simplicity1 =1 aft] all1 human life is s ri* & v>i$ t a simple =mula w h>dly express x4 ,f beg9n+ to end ,sp9oza's ?\ght has a vagu5ess = :i* ! beg9n] 9 va9 /rives to f9d ! cause4 ,! cause lies 9 ! seem+ly simple pr9ciple t ,god is all t really exi/s1 & yet ! _w consi/s ( ,god & o!r ?+s4 ,f ,sp9oza's ef=t to simplify matt]s em]g$ ?ree c5tral problems3 7#a7 ,! problem ( ! all-inclusiv5ess ( ,god! problem ( pan!ism2 7#b7 ,! problem ( ! unity ( ,god! problem ( my/icism2 7#c7 ,! problem ( ! salvation ( manan e?ical problem4 ,we %all n[ consid] ^! problems 9 ord]4 ,! ,pan!ism ( ,sp9oza,! ,all-,inclusiv5ess ( ,god4 ,t ,sp9oza's philosophy is a pan!ism appe>s at ! outset 9 8 conception ( sub/ance2 = ! sub/ance is all t really is4 ,desc>tes _h conceiv$ ( ?ree sub/ances1,god z ! absolute sub/ance1 & m9d & matt] z ! two relative sub/ances4 ,b to ,sp9oza !re c be only "o sub/ance2 = if !re 7 two or m1 no "o w\ld be sub/ance1 s9ce ea* w\ld be conceiv$ ?r\gh ! o!rs4 ,if we ?9k at all1 we mu/ ?9k ( sub/ance z all-inclusive4 ,"o might suppose t ?is prelim9>y /atem5t w\ld be all t ,sp9oza c\ld say ab\t life3 all t really is1 is sub/ance2 o!r ?+s d n exi/4 ,b t w\ld be a mis9t]pretation ( ,sp9oza4 ,he does n mean t f9ite ?+s are m]e no?+s4 ,!y exi/ z unrealities2 !y exi/ z negations ( ! sub/ance4 ,if y prick into ! f9ite _w1 x does n collapse1 l a balloon4 ,x /ill exi/s z an unreality4 ,no p]son ev] _h ! idea ( inf9ity s pr(\ndly z did ,sp9oza4 ,8 idea ( inf9ity is n m]ely t ( ! inf9ity ( "t & space1 :i* inde$ af=ds a trem5d\s v>iety ( possible con/ructions1 s9ce space & "t are ea* inf9ite4 ,to ,sp9oza ! inf9ity ( ! sub/ance is mu* m ?an ^! possible comb9ations ( "t & space1 = correspond+ to ! "t & space s]ies is a s]ies ( m5tal /ates4 ,e ev5t has a reason4 ,e "o ( ! inf9ity ( ev5ts 9 ! _w ( ext5sion is p>allel$ by "s /ate ( ?\ght4 ,b ?is is by no means ! :ole /ory ab\t ,sp9oza's conception ( inf9ity4 ,besides ! inf9ite _w ( "t & space & ! inf9ite _w ( correspond+ ?\ght1 ! sub/ance to ,sp9oza possesses an inf9ity ( o!r attributes1 ea* ( :i* is inf9ite4 ,sp9oza piles up inf9ities ^u inf9ities1 & ?us conceives ! sub/ance z an inf9ity 9 an ov]:elm+ s5se4 ,only two ( ! inf9ite modes appe> to our limit$ human disc]nm5t3 ! inf9ity ( ! mode ( ext5sion1 & ! inf9ity ( ! mode ( ?\ght4 ,sp9oza beg9s at once to tell u ab\t ! =ms 9 :i* ! all-inclusive ,god appe>s to u4 ,fir/1 ! sub/ance has two attributes1 ?\ght & ext5sion4 ,an attribute is 8t :i* ! intellect p]ceives z con/itut+ ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance40 ,ea* attribute 9 its turn manife/s itself 9 modes3 ?\ght appe>s 9 ! modes ( intellect & w1 ext5sion 9 ! modes ( re/ & motion4 ,sub/ance ,god4 ,attributes ,?\ght ,ext5sion4 ,modes ,intellect ,w ,motion ,re/4 ,?is b>e skeleton ( our ri* & v>i$ _w appe>s v mu* ! same z t :i* "o might f9d b5ea? ,desc>tes' philosophy4 ,h[ev]1 ,sp9oza's conception ( sub/ance trans=ms x into a framework ( a v diff]5t k9d ( philosophy4 ,s9ce ,god is ! inclusive reality ( x all1 we h "h a pan!ism in/ead ( a dualism4 ,! anti!sis :i* 9 ,desc>tes' philosophy 0 betwe5 ext5sion & ?\ght1 n[ 9 ,sp9oza's tea*+ is betwe5 ,god & o!r ?+s4 ,:at is ! place ( ! attributes & modes 9 ! all-embrac+ & real sub/ance8 ,z to ! attributes1 ,sp9oza ma9ta9$ t we1 z f9ite be+s1 d n "k ,god 9 ,8 "* z sub/ance1 b t ,he always appe>s to u ?r\gh ,8 attributes ( ?\ght & ext5sion4 ,!re are only ^! two attributes t ! human m9d c "k1 al?\gh ,god z an inf9ite be+ mu/ possess an inf9ite numb] ( su* attributes4 ,9 our human _w all ?+s are ei!r ?\ght-?+s or ext5sion-?+s4 ,ea* ( ^! two attributes is inf9ite aft] its k9d4 ,ea* fully expresses an aspect ( ,god )\t depreciat+ ! value ( ! o!r4 ,ea* is fully adequate1 j z a table may be bo? :ite & h>d )\t ei!r quality infr++ ^u ! o!r4 ,! attributes are ! sub/ance made m concrete4 ,! modes are 9 turn modifications ( ! attributes & m concrete expressions ( !m & ( ! sub/ance4 ,ea* mode is inf9ite aft] its k9d4 ,s9ce ,god exi/s only 9 reality1 ,he w\ld n supposably see f ,8 po9t ( view ! _w laid out 9 attributes & modes2 = ^! are only human ways ( int]pret+ ,him4 ,:ile ! critics agree t ! modes are human int]pretations ( ! attributes & !re=e unreal1 !y disagree ab\t ! relation ( ! attributes to ,god4 ,"s ma9ta9 t ! attributes are m]ely human ways ( see+ ! sub/ance1 analog\sly to ! modesz if we saw ,god n[ z ?\ght & n[ z ext5sion2 o!rs ma9ta9 t ,god is no?+ o!r ?an ! sum ( ! attributes2 ( ext5sion1 ?\ght1 & ! unkn[n1 inf9ite1 o!r attributes4 ,! difficulty lays b>e ! n]ve ( ! problem ( pan!ism1 & probably ,sp9oza 0 n cle> 9 8 own m9d ab\t ! relation ( ! attributes to ! sub/ance4 ,sp9oza speaks m def9itely ^u ?is same problem ( ! relation ( ! modes to ,god4 ,is ,god ! sum-total ( all exi/5t ?+s1 or is ,he ! pr9ciple beh9d !m8 ,sp9oza says t ,god is bo?4 ,god is ! cause ( ! _w1 n cause 9 ! way t ! t]m is commonly us$ nor 9 ! s5se t ,desc>tes us$ x4 ,god is n to exi/5t ?+s ! fir/ cause or ! unmov$ mov] ( matt]1 or ! teleological cause ( ?\ght1 z 9 ,desc>tes4 ,he is cause 9 ! s5se t a triangle is ! cause ( its own ?ree sides4 ,he is ! rational gr\nd 7ratio ess5di7 or ! logical reason = ! be+ ( ?+s4 ,9 ?is s5se ,god may be reg>d$ z ! cause bo? 9 ! s5se t ,he is ! sum-total ( exi/5t ?+s or modes 7natura naturata71 & 9 ! s5se t ,he is ! imman5t & en]giz+ pr9ciple ( exi/5t ?+s 7natura naturans74 ,^! conceptions z well z _! phrases ,sp9oza probably got f ,bruno4 ,! _w is1 !re=e1 relat$ to ,god 9 t x foll[s directly f ! nature ( ,god2 ,god is relat$ to ! _w 9 t ,he is ! logical gr\nd ( ! _w4 ,is ,god ! creator ( ! _w8 ,no1 ,he is ! _w4 ,is ,god a p]son8 ,is ,he a self-consci\s be+ l ourselves1an individual8 ,no4 ,! ?\ght-aspect ( ,god includes our ?\ght1 b x is ! v diff]5t inf9ite ?\ght2 ! ext5sion-aspect ( ,god includes our body1 b x is ! v diff]5t inf9ite body4 ,god has s\l & body & an inf9ite numb] ( o!r aspects4 ,god isan un*ang+1 self-dep5d5t be+1 ^: modifications are necess>ily det]m9$ 9 _! relation to ,him & to "o ano!r4 ,sp9oza conceiv$ ! "* ( ,god exactly f ! nature ( geometry4 ,j z all geometrical conclusions foll[ f ! nature ( space & exi/ 9 det]m9$ & fix$ relations to "o ano!r1 s ev]y?+ f9ite foll[s f ! nature ( ! ,inf9ite1 & ea* f9ite ?+ is 9 a rigid *a9 ( f9ite ?+s ( its own k9da *a9 )\t beg9n+ or end4 ,! necessity ( ! div9e nature appe>s 9 all1 n z a s]ies ( emanations f ,god1 b 9 a s]ies1 ea* memb] ( :i* is det]m9$ equally by ,him4 ,! ,my/icism ( ,sp9oza4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( man1 my/icism 9 speculative or religi\s ?\ght has ref]5ce to ! imm$iate appreh5sion ( ,god4 ,my/icism frequ5tly accompanies pan!ism1 & f ! po9t ( view ( ,god ref]s to ! on5ess ( ,8 all-inclusive nature4 ,sp9oza's pan!ism is also a my/icism :i* involves ! imm$iate appreh5sion ( ! div9e by ! human2 x involves ! on5ess ( ,god & man4 ,m (t5 ?an o!rwise my/icism is animat$ by a religi\s motive1 & ,sp9oza's philosophy is pr(\ndly religi\s4 ,we h already se5 simil> my/icism 9 ! ,orphic-,py?agorean sect :i* =m$ s great a p]il to ,greek culture 9 ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 9 ! neo-,py?agoreans & neo-,platoni/s at ! beg9n+ ( ?is era1 9 _m ( ! *ur*m5 ( ! ,middle ,ages1 especially ,scotus ,erig5a & ,mei/] ,eckh>t4 ,bruno & _m ( ! ,humani/s 7 my/ics1 & if we %\ld wi% to g outside our field1 we %\ld f9d my/icism to be ! prevail+ attitude ( m9d ( ! great ,ori5tal peoples4 ,my/icism frequ5tly is accompani$ by belief 9 occult spiritual appe>ances1 b t is n necess>ily ! case2 nor 0 x ! case ) ,sp9oza4 ,sp9oza's my/icism 0 purely intellectual4 ,al?\gh a religi\s philosophy ) an imm$iate e?ical be>+ ^u conduct1 x 0 a sci5tific relationalism t c\ld n tol]ate ! miracul\s & ! abnormal psy*ological ph5om5a 7su* z clairvoyance1 halluc9ations1 etc474 ,sp9oza is1 on ! contr>y1 di/+ui%$ z a my/ic because he int]pret$ ! univ]se 9 entirely non-human t]ms4 ,8 great s]vice to my/icism lies 9 dive/+ ! reality ( life ( e human attribution & lay+ b>e a ma!matical skeleton4 ,! desire ( ! p]iod to f9d a great] unity 9 life 0 respond$ to by him 9 a ma!matical my/icism4 ,to him ! univ]se is n only divid$ into p>ts1 n only is !re no opposition betwe5 ,god & ! _w1 b life is s completely a rational ?+ t no exceptional ph5om5a c occur4 ,he believ$ t any description ( ,god or ( nature 9 an?ropomorphic t]ms disunites life4 ,sp9oza dehumaniz$ ! univ]se1 conceiv+ matt] to consi/ ( elem5ts1 & conceiv+ _s to consi/ ( simple ideas4 ,he resolv$ ! p]sonality ( man into p>ts = ! sake ( ! unity ( ! univ]se1 & he obta9$ sci5tific cle>ness at ! exp5se ( humanity4 ,?us1 in/ead ( be+ able to say ) ,desc>tes1 8,i ?9k & !re=e ,i am10 ,sp9oza c\ld say1 & wi%$ only to say1 8,god ?9ks0 7,deus cogitat74 ,l ! usual speculative my/ic1 ,sp9oza describ$ 8 ,god 9 ! t]ms ( =mal d$uctive logic4 ,god is ! mo/ real be+1 ens realissimum4 ,:at is ! mo/ real be+ to a my/ic8 ,w\ld reality conta9 any f9ite quality su* z ! _w ar\nd u conta9s8 ,c y say t ,god has ?is p>ticul> faculty1 or is end[$ ) t concrete attribute8 ,does ,god enjoy1 love1 hate2 does ,he create & de/roy8 ,b h[ c ,god be ! real unity ( ! _w unless ,he conta9s 9 ,himself ev]y?+ 9 ! f9ite _w8 ,we approa* "h ! ?re%old ( ! problem ( ! concrete univ]sal1 :i* has engag$ ! att5tion ( s mu* ( mod]n philosophy4 ,a concrete univ]sal is all-inclusive ( f9ite exi/5ce1 b at ! same "t is a self-consi/5t unity4 ,9 contra/ ) ! concrete univ]sal is ! ab/ract univ]sal1 :i* is a unity1 b outside ( :i* all f9ite exi/5ce falls4 ,:ile x 0 und\bt$ly ! concrete univ]sal t ,sp9oza s\ght1 8 me?od c\ld lead to no?+ m concrete ?an ! ab/ract univ]sals ( ,plato & ! ,s*oolm54 ,! _w ( f9ite ?+s is includ$ by ,sp9oza's ,god 9 ! same way t blocks are includ$ by a /r+ :i* has be5 ti$ ar\nd !m4 ,sp9oza's ,god is ! mo/ ab/ract entity :i* x is possible to conceive4 ,all f9ite ?+s fall outside ,him4 ,no quality c be pr$icat$ ( ,him1 = to def9e ,him is to limit ,him4 ,aft] ! mann] ( ! 8negative !ology0 7see vol4 i1 p4 #bhc71 ,sp9oza refus$ to ascribe any quality to ,god4 ,he does n feel1 ?9k1 or w z we d1 nor c ext5sion be ascrib$ to ,him 9 ! s5se ( f9ite spaces4 ,we c say only t ,he is n ?is & n ?is4 ,sp9oza's conception ( ,god is rea*$ by dropp+ (f all det]m9ate qualities1 until ! mo/ g5]al & mo/ ab/ract t]m is ga9$4 ,! b>r5ness ( ?is logical conception1 its absolute empt9ess & ab/ractness1 makes all description ( x impossible4 ,god is a bloodless entity1 an absolute logical necessity & ! mo/ ab/ract univ]sal4 ,outside ( ,him falls all t we call life4 ,if ?is is ,god's "*1 is ,he ev]y?+ or no?+8 ,if ! process ( ab/raction rises s f> above e limitation to an ens realissimum et g5]alissimum1to ! mo/ real & mo/ g5]al entity1if all cont5t falls away f ,god1 :at does su* an empty =m am\nt to8 ,! p>adox 9 ,sp9oza's philosophy appe>s "h z 9 ! case ( all my/icism= ! my/ic revels 9 p>adoxes4 ,?is empty g5]ality is all t really is4 ,god is ev]y?+1 & ,sp9oza po9ts out empirical pro( ( ?is by insi/+ t ! transitory life ( man has its only mean+ 9 su* a sub/ance4 ,god is n ?is p>ticul> ?+ nor aga9 t f9ite det]m9ation1 b ,he is all ^!4 ,he is ! timeless reality ( ! temporal _w1 ! inf9ity ( f9ite ?+s1 ! necessity ( cont+5t nature4 ,:5 !re=e ,sp9oza speaks ( ,god z hav+ an intellectual love = ,himself1 & :5 he says t ! attributes ( ?\ght & ext5sion con/itute ! ess5ce ( ! sub/ance1 he is n giv+ f9ite *>act]i/ics to ,god4 ,he is /ruggl+ ) language to express ! inh]5t p>adox ( 8 philosophy4 ,moreov]1 ! del9eation ( ! f9ite _w ) ,god z a backgr\nd1 z x appe>s f ! po9t ( view ( a human be+1 is an inadequate pres5tation ( ,sp9oza's pr(\nd conception ( ,god4 ,= ! sub/ance is n m]ely a neutral po9t nor ! c5tral po9t ( ! univ]se4 ,! sub/ance is all4 ,all ?+s h nei!r _! explanation nor _! exi/5ce 9 !mselves4 ,god alone has an exi/5ce t expla9s itself1 & ,he is ! reality & ess5ce ( all f9ite ?+s4 ,god is imman5t 9 ! _w4 ,j z ! sides ( a triangle get _! mean+ f ! triangle itself1 s ! significance ( ! attributes & modes ( ! sub/ance lies 9 ! sub/ance4 ,! unity ( ,sp9oza's ,god is fur!r sugge/$ by ! relation ( ! attributes ( ?\ght & ext5sion1 h[ev] sep>ate !y mu/ appe> 9 _! quality & causal dep5d5ce4 ,bo? are aspects ( ! same sub/ance1 9 ! "o case 9 ! =m ( ext5sion1 & 9 ! o!r 9 ! =m ( ?\ght4 ,9 ! all-inclusive nature ( ,god1 presumably ea* mom5t has an inf9ite numb] ( correlative mom5ts correspond+ to ! inf9ite numb] ( ! attributes ( ,god4 ,s9ce to human be+s only two ( ^! worlds lie 9 sight1 only two correspond+ modes appe>1 b always two4 ,?is correspond5ce ( ! physical & psy*ical ?r\gh\t nature is call$ 9 lat] times panpsy*ism2 9 ! relation ( ! body & m9d ( a human be+ x is call$ psy*o-physical p>allelism4 ,?is correspond5ce help$ ,sp9oza to solve ! app>5t dualism ( ! two worlds4 ,:ile ideas are det]m9$ only by ideas1 & motions by motions1 bo? s]ies po9t bel[ to ! div9e sub/ance :i* is ! significance ( bo?4 ,!y are l ! top & bottom sides ( a piece ( pap]1 nei!r side con/itut+ ! piece ( pap]1 b bo? be+ necess>y to x4 ,! sub/ance is imman5t 9 ?\ght z well z 9 ext5sion4 ,bo? ?\ght & ext5sion are aspects ( ,god4 ,! relation ( ?\ght & ext5sion ?r\gh ! ,deity discloses ! moni/ic "* ( ,sp9oza's philosophy & seems to prove t he _c be a mat]iali/1 al?\gh "s critics h said t he is4 ,! same reality is se51 n[ z consci\sness & n[ z ext5sion4 ,sp9oza's ,doctr9e ( ,salvation4 ,sp9oza divid$ 8 ,e?ics into five p>ts4 ,! fir/ is a treatm5t ( ! nature ( ,god2 ! second1 ( ! nature & orig9 ( ! m9d2 ! ?ird1 ( ! emotions2 ! f\r?1 ( human bondage2 ! fif?1 ( human fre$om4 ,?is mo/ important writ+ ( ,sp9oza1 ! only treatise on metaphysics :i* has be5 call$ ,e?ics1 is a practical philosophy ( life & r$emption4 ,! divisions ( x1 z !y appe> above1 %[ t ! philosophy ( life is look$ at f two po9ts ( view3 ) ref]5ce to ! nature ( ,god1 & ) ref]5ce to ! nature ( man4 ,we h above discuss$ ! fir/ po9t1,sp9oza's conception ( ,god1 :om he reg>ds z pan!i/ic & my/ic4 ,b ,sp9oza's conception ( ! nature ( ! human be+ 9 relation to su* a ,god is ! o!r pole ( ?is subject4 ,! problem ( life f ! human po9t ( view involves prim>ily ! "q ( human fre$om4 ,human fre$om & human bondage are conditions t dep5d ^u ! human z well z ! div9e nature4 ,by ,sp9oza's elim9at+ ! human elem5t f ! nature ( ,god1 man himself has be5 r$uc$ by ,sp9oza to an insignificant detail 9 a ma*9e-l univ]se4 ,yet = man 9 8 littl5ess ,sp9oza hews out a way to ,god 9 ,8 greatness by 8 my/ic recon/ruction ( ! univ]se4 ,exi/5ce 9 ,sp9oza's pan!i/ic my/icism is1 aft] all1 a sph]e ( wond]ful gr&eur = man1m wond]ful & ( wid] utility ?an ! exi/5ce :i* man is ord9>ily suppos$ to possess4 ,s9ce ,god is ! reality ( ev]y?+1 man is deifi$2 ev5 ! loss ( man's ess5tial humanity is ! apo!osis ( man4 ,human salvation & fre$om consi/ 9 be+ l ,god2 bondage consi/s 9 be+ unlike ,him1 9 mi/ak+ ! unreality ( life = ,8 reality4 ,we are end[$ ) ! ability ( =m+ an adequate idea ( ,god by means ( our reason1 b we are also end[$ ) ! faculties ( s5sation1 emotion1 & imag9ation4 ,! latt] faculties make man a passive creature1 = !y br+ him into dep5d5ce ^u ! ?+s t act ^u him & into bondage to !m4 ,we are passive :5 our activities are limit$ by su* limit$ objects4 ,:ile a passion seems to be ! mo/ active & turbul5t ( our faculties1 if we look at x m closely1 we f9d t in/ead ( be+ active ourselves dur+ a passion1 we are be+ act$ ^u by an ext]nal object4 ,only z we are purely rational1only ?r\gh ! reason1are we purely active4 ,x is !n t we are l ,god1 free l ,him1 & !n d we rise f insignificance to greatness4 ,!n we transc5d our false ideas ( fre$om & become necess>y be+s1 = 9 ,god fre$om is necessity4 ,to be free f ! passions & ! f9ite ?+s ( ! _w we mu/ und]/& _! nature2 = to und]/& a ?+ is to be deliv]$ f x4 ,an illusion is n an illusion :5 we "k x to be su*4 ,to see t all ! passions1 s5sations1 imag9ations1 & all ! o!r modes ( ?\ght are human limitations1 is to dwell )9 ! reason4 ,sp9oza's fre$om is n1 z w be se51 fre$om 9 ! ord9>y psy*ological mean+ ( ! t]m1 b is ! metaphysical fre$om ( be+ id5tical ) ! deity & det]m9$ by no f9ite ?+4 ,fre$om is rational k4 ,nev]!less1 fre$om is e?ical also1 = x consi/s 9 ov]com+ ! passions by reason4 ,fre$om1 !re=e1 has two sides3 an escape f ! emotions & an escape f obscure ideas! goal 9 bo? cases be+ ! life ( reason4 ,to atta9 fre$om is to see ! _w z ,god sees x1 :i* is ! same z ! reason sees x4 ,?is is to see ea* f9ite ?+ z et]nal4 ,any concrete ?+ may be reg>d$ by ! human be+ z a f9ite & isolat$ ?+ out ( all relation to o!r objects2 or ! same ?+ may be reg>d$ z a detail ( inf9ity4 ,look$ at by itself1 a ?+ is se5 p>tially & falsely1 = no f9ite ?+ has its explanation 9 itself4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 se5 truly :5 x is reg>d$1 to use ,sp9oza's own celebrat$ phrase1 8"u a c]ta9 =m ( et]nity0 7sub specie aet]nitatis74 ,?is conception ( et]nity is "o ( ! mo/ admirable 9 ,sp9oza's tea*+4 ,:5 man rises ?r\gh ! reason to ! consci\sness ( ! et]nity ( ! tru? ( a ?+1 ! ?+ itself is trans=m$1 & ! man himself has ga9$ salvation4 ,any circle t ,i may draw is imp]fect1 e leaf ^u ! =e/ trees is defective1 all moral activities are want+1 if reg>d$ 9 _! "t-limitations4 ,b bel[ all ! imp]fections ( ! univ]se is its absolute ma!matical p]fectness4 ,!re is no?+ s abortive & evil t x does n h its aspect ( et]nity4 ,side by side ) ,sp9oza's conception ( inf9ity is 8 conception ( et]nity4 ,inf9ity is ev]la/+ness1 et]nity is quality ( be+4 ,et]nity has no ref]5ce to "t4 ,"o m9ute may be et]nal4 ,! inf9ity ( ! sub/ance is "o aspect2 ! et]nity ( ! sub/ance is ano!r4 ,t et]nity ga9$ ?r\gh ! reason is salvation & immortality4 ,god is reason1 & by ! act ( ! reason d we become "o ) ,him4 ,our k is1 !re=e1 ! measure ( our morality4 ,k & morality are ! same2 & :atev] increases our und]/&+ is morally good2 :atev] dim9i%es our und]/&+ is morally wrong4 ,nev]!less1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! philosoph]1 !re is no?+ 9 ! _w t is morally good or bad1no?+ :i* m]its 8 hatr$1 love1 fe>1 contempt1 or pity1s9ce all t occurs is necess>y4 ,! philosoph]'s k ( ! det]m9ism ( ! _w lifts him above ! usually conceiv$ _w ( f9ite ?+s to ?is my/ic _w1 recon/ruct$ by 8 intellectual love ( nature or ,god4 ,love = ,god w give to ev]y?+ its prop] value4 ,x is ! highe/ =m ( human activity4 ,love = ,god is an absolutely dis9t]e/$ feel+1 & is n !re=e l human love1 :i* is ! pass+ f a less /ate to a great]4 ,love = ,god is peace1 resignation1 & cont5tm5t1 = x is on5ess ) ,god4 ,9 fact1 ! love ( man = ,god is ! love ( ,god = man2 x is ! love ( ,god = ,himself1 s9ce man _c love ,god )\t becom+ ,god4 ,?us man intellectually recognizes 8 on5ess ) ,god1 & rejoices4 ,immortality is absorption 9 ! et]nal & necess>y sub/ance ( ! _w4 ,x is a common misconception t immortality is duration aft] dea?2 immortality consi/s 9 look+ at ?+s "u ! aspect ( et]nity4 ,! f9ite man p]i%es1 b man's real self1 :i* is ,god1 survives4 ,summ>y ( ,sp9oza's ,tea*+4 ,! rationalism ( ,sp9oza is ! f9al ^w ( s*ola/ic realism4 ,x is a ma!matical s*ola/icism 9 :i* ! attempt is to make cle> by ! me?od ( d$uction all metaphysical problems4 ,t ! philosophical tea*+ ( ,sp9oza is inspir+ & ennobl+1 no "o w ga9say4 ,t 8 philosophy is n cle>1 is also true4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( 8 discussion1 _s is subord9at$ to nature2 at ! end1 nature is subord9at$ to _s4 ,! result is t "u ! h&s ( ,sp9oza ,god has become a pure ab/raction & )\t cont5t1 ! _w is an illusion1 dualism is sup]s$$ by a moni/ic p>allelism1 individual activity gives way & becomes a pan!i/ic det]m9ism4 ,yet amid all ?is a recon/ruct$ _w arises 9 :i* man is recomp5s$ = all 8 losses by 8 p>ticipation 9 inf9ity & et]nity4 ,leibnitz#cc z ! ,f9i%] ( ! ,r5aissance & ! ,=]unn] ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,leibnitz is ! la/ ( ! rem>kable gr\p ( ,rationali/s ( ! ,r5aissance1 :o s fully repres5t ! _s ( its ,natural ,sci5ce epo*4 ,b ,leibnitz also c>ries u into ! next p]iod ( mod]n philosophy! ,enlight5m5t4 ,he is ! transition philosoph]4 ,if ! read] w exam9e ! dates ( 8 life1 he w obs]ve t ,leibnitz liv$ until tw5ty-five ye>s aft] ! ,enlight5m5t 0 u%]$ 9 by ,locke's ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ 7#afij74 ,b z ,leibnitz _h already =m$ 8 own philosophy by ! ye> #afhf1 ev5 s v]satile a m9d z 8 c\ld n !n r5\nce ! ,rationali/ic po9t ( view = a new "o4 ,"s ( 8 writ+s1 su* z 8 ,correspond5ce ) ,cl>k & ,bayle1 8 ,!odicy1 & 8 ,new ,essays1 %[ t he p>ticipat$ 9 ! new movem5t ( ! next p]iod4 ,yet ! majority ( 8 philosophical writ+s %[ him to be a ,rationali/4 ,al?\gh he may be call$ ! 8fa!r ( ! ,enlight5m5t10 ! body ( 8 ?\ght belongs to ! ,r5aissance4 ,8 ma9 motive 0 t :i* animat$ all ,rationali/s( /at+ !ology 9 sci5tific t]ms4 ,! imm$iate occasion = 8 do+ ?is 0 ! political necessity ( peace among ! religi\s bodies ( ,g]many4 ,! ef=t ( ,leibnitz to re/ore ! individual to 8 c5tral place 9 ! univ]se 0 a second>y motive4 ,x nev]!less makes him ! =]unn] ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,( ! ,rationali/s1 ,leibnitz speaks = ! future1 j z ,sp9oza = ! pa/4 ,leibnitz unites ! ,r5aissance & ! ,enlight5m5t1 j z ,sp9oza jo9s ! ,r5aissance & ! ,middle ,ages4 ,sp9oza is ! ,rationali/ :o utt]s ! f9al ^w ( s*ola/ic realism1 :ile ,leibnitz presages ! com+ individualism4 ,sp9oza's philosophy is sci5ce buri$ 9 traditionalism2 ,leibnitz's is sci5ce break+ ?r\gh traditionalism4 ,sp9oza h>ks back to univ]sals & p>ticul>s1 sub/ance & =ms2 ,leibnitz po9ts =w>d to vortex r+s1 en]gy1 & dynamics4 ,f ,leibnitz's orig9al purpose to rationalize !ology1 & to succe$ :]e ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza _h fail$1 !re em]ges a new motive4 ,he no long] lays ! emphasis entirely ^u ! univ]sal1 b he %ifts x 9 "p to ! p>ticul>4 ,! pan!ism ( ,sp9oza _h sy/ematiz$ ! individual out ( its reality4 ,leibnitz's conception ( ! individual z dynamic & 8 conception ( ! importance ( ! inf9itesimal r$eem ! individual & br+ ,leibnitz into m mod]n times4 ,to classify ,leibnitz z a ,rationali/ is1 !re=e1 n to describe him fully4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,leibnitz 7#afdf-agaf74 ,comp>$ ) ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz _h a life t 0 long 9 "t & ri* 9 exp]i5ce4 ,desc>tes di$ at #ed & ,sp9oza at #de1 :ile ,leibnitz liv$ to be #gj4 ,9 /rik+ contra/ ) ,sp9oza's c>e]1 !re 0 no "t 9 ! life ( ,leibnitz aft] 8 graduation f ! univ]sity t he 0 n 9 public s]vice4 ,he held ! (fices t w\ld naturally g to ! hang]-on ( pr9ces"s ( !m gr&iose ones4 ,:ile !oretically ! int]e/s ( ! ?ree ,rationali/s 7 ! same1 ,leibnitz diff]$ f 8 pr$ecessors 9 t 8 /udy ( philosophical problems always grew out ( "s practical problem or political occasion4 ,leibnitz 0 n an academic ?9k]1 & 8 8writ+s 7 call$ =? to e/imate "s rec5t book1 to outl9e ! sy/em = ! use ( a fri5d1 to meet "s special difficulty1 or to answ] "s def9ite criticism40 ,philosophy 0 only "o ( ! int]e/s ( ,leibnitz4 ,he 0 juri/1 hi/orian1 diplomat1 ma!matician1 physical sci5ti/1 !ologian1 & philologi/4 ,leibnitz 0 z mu* at home ) ! !ories ( ,plato & ,ari/otle ( anci5t "t1 ) ^? ( ,/4 ,?omas & ,duns ,scotus ( m$ival "t1 z ) ! sci5ce ( ,desc>tes & ,galileo4 ,he 0 precoci\s1 _h a prodigi\s memory & a reactive m9d4 ,9 ! weal? ( 8 in=mation & ! productiv5ess ( 8 g5ius1 he /&s ) ,ari/otle z unequal$4 ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 & ,leibnitz belong$ to ! inn] circle ( s*ol>s ( ! "t1 b ,leibnitz 0 also 9 p]sonal t\* ) political affairs & 9 intimate acqua9tance ) _m ( ! important rul]s4 ,he 0 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,elector ( ,ma9z & lat] ( ,george ,i ( ,engl& :5 ,george 0 only ,elector ( ,hanov]4 ,he 0 di/+ui%$ by ,pet] ! ,great ( ,russia & ,ern/ ,augu/1 ,emp]or ( ,g]many4 ,he correspond$ ) ,eug5e ( ,savoy & he 0 ambassador to ,l\is ,,xiv ( ,france4 ,sophie ,*>lotte ( ,hanov]1 :o m>ri$ ! ,k+ ( ,prussia1 0 especially int]e/$ 9 him1 & he wrote = h] 8 ,!odicy4 ,! ?ree great ,rationali/s came f diff]5t /rata ( society4 ,desc>tes 0 a nobleman's son1 & he volunt>ily rel9qui%$ ! life t ,leibnitz 0 ambiti\s to enjoy4 ,sp9oza came f ! l[] class4 ,leibnitz 0 ! son ( a college pr(essor & belong$ to ! upp] middle class4 ,! ambitions ( ,leibnitz rea*$ = l>ge ends1 z (t5 happ5s among educat$ p 9 ! middle walks ( life4 ,among o!r ?+s1 he tri$ to reconcile ! ,ca?olics & ,prote/ants1 & he tri$ to univ]salize language by gett+ univ]sal *>act]s = all languages4 ,! lit]>y production ( ,leibnitz 0 enorm\s1 consi/+ ( "s l5g?y works1 b ma9ly ( correspond5ce 7at "o "t ) a ?\s& p]sons7 & ( diss]tations to le>n$ j\rnals & societies4 ,no "o book conta9s 8 philosophy! ,monadology com+ ! ne>e/ to do+ s4 ,8 mo/ consid]able "w is 8 ,!odicy4 ,he himself publi%$ 9 book =m only two works3 8 univ]sity diss]tation on ,individuation & ! ,!odicy4#cd ,9 spite ( 8 _m successes1 ! life ( ,leibnitz 0 n happy4 ,f dea? or o!r causes 8 noble patrons *ang$1 until he 0 left )\t a patron4 ,8 life w5t f bad to worse1 & 8 dea? occurr$ almo/ unnotic$4 ,! sev5ty ye>s ( ,leibnitz's life fall into f\r p]iods4 ,t he pass$ ?r\gh ?ree ( ^! p]iods by ! "t he 0 ?irty %[s ! voracity & v]satility ( 8 m5tal p[]s dur+ _! =mative & acquisitive /ate4 ,x also reveals ! unusual l5g? ( 8 productive p]iod1f 8 ?irtie? to 8 sev5tie? ye>4 ,t5 ye>s aft] 8 productive p]iod began1 :5 he 0 =ty1 he _h complet$ 8 philosophical !ory1 s t ! la/ ?irty ye>s ( 8 life 7 free = its elaboration & elucidation1 & 9 "p = 8 dep>ture f x4 ,! details ( ,leibnitz's life are z foll[s3 #a4 ,leipsic & ,univ]sity ,life 7#afdf-afff74 ,leibnitz 0 ! son ( a pr(essor ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipsic4 ,he ent]$ ! ,univ]sity at ! age ( fifte52 receiv$ 8 ba*elor's degree at sev5te51 & 8 doctor's degree at ,altdorf at ! age ( tw5ty4 ,he 0 (f]$ a pr(essor%ip on acc\nt ( 8 !sis1 b he decl9$4 ,he publi%$ z 8 ba*elor's !sis1 ,! ,pr9ciple ( ,individuation 7#affc74 #b4 ,ma9z & ,diplomacy 7#afff-afgb74 ,meet+ ,b>on ,john ( ,bo9eburg1 :o became 8 patron1 ,leibnitz w5t ) him to ,ma9z1 & ent]$ ! s]vice ( ! ,elector ( ,ma9z4 ,at ?is "t ,leibnitz wrote _m pamphlets at ! ,elector's reque/1 on ! religi\s & political que/ions ( ! day4 ,he wrote ,a ,new ,physical ,hypo!sis 9 #afga4 #c4 ,p>is & ,sci5ce 7#afgb-afgf74 ,leibnitz began ?is p]iod ) a diplomatic mission to ! c\rt ( ,l\is ,,xiv 9 #afgb2 b dur+ ! ye> bo? ,bo9eburg & ! ,elector di$1 & ,ma9z 0 no long] 8 home nor diplomacy 8 int]e/4 ,he rema9$ 9 ,p>is 7& ,london7 ?ree ye>s long]1 & sp5t ! "t 9 acquir+ ! 8new sci5ce40 ,9 ,p>is he met ,arnauld ! ,c>tesian1 ,ts*irnhaus5 ! ,g]man ma!matician1 logician1 & mo/ discrim9at+ critic ( ,sp9oza1 & he /udi$ ) ,huygh5s ! ,dut* ma!matician4 ,9 ,london he met ,boyle1 ! *emi/1 ,old5burg1 secret>y ( ! ,academy ( ,sci5ce1 ,coll9s1 ! ma!matician1 & he correspond$ ) ,newton4 ,on 8 return to ,hanov] he call$ on ,sp9oza1 :o %[$ him ! manuscript ( ! ,e?ics4 #d4 ,hanov] & ,philosophy 7#afgf-agaf74 ,leibnitz became c\rt c\ncilor & libr>ian to ! ,duke ( ,hanov] 7,brunswick-,lneburg74 ,he 0 involv$ 9 a multitude ( adm9i/rative1 hi/orical1 & political tasks1 & he c>ri$ on an enorm\s correspond5ce4 ,among o!r ?+s he wrote ! hi/ory ( ! reign+ family1 :i* necessitat$ 8 go+ to ,rome & ,vi5na4 ,9 #afhd he publi%$ 8 discov]y ( ! diff]5tial calculus1 ov] :i* arose ! celebrat$ controv]sy z to :e!r he or ,newton made ! prior discov]y4 ,9 #afhf1 9 8 =tie? ye>1 he con/ruct$ 8 philosophical sy/em4 ,h[ev]1 he %[$ 8 affiliation to ! com+ age by introduc+ into 8 sy/em 9 #afig ! t]m 8monad40 ,ne>ly all 8 important works 7 produc$ 9 ?is p]iod4 ,9 #agjj he f\nd$ ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces 9 ,b]l94 ,he 0 in/rum5tal 9 ! f\nd+ ( an academy at ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 & he plann$ academies at ,dresd5 & ,vi5na4 ,! ,?ree ,influ5ces ^u ! ,?\ght ( ,leibnitz4 7#a7 ,8 ,e>ly ,classical ,/udies4 ,! fa!r ( ,leibnitz1 :o 0 a pr(essor ( moral philosophy at ,leipsic1 di$ :5 8 son 0 "y4 ,left mu* to himself1 ! boy sp5t 8 "t 9 8 fa!r's libr>y4 ,at eight ye>s he _h acquir$ ,lat92 at twelve he _h read ,s5eca1 ,pl9y1 ,qu9tilian1 ,h]odotus1 ,x5ophon1 ,cic]o1 ,plato1 ! ,roman hi/orians1 ! ,greek & ,lat9 fa!rs4 ,he became s absorb$ 9 s*ola/ic /udies t 8 fri5ds fe>$ t he w\ld n leave !m1 8n kn[+ t my m9d c\ld n be satisfi$ ) only "o k9d ( ?+40 ,!re c be no "q t ?is s*ola/ic tra9+ gave him a fir/ h& & sympa!tic appreciation ( s*ola/ic philosophy4 ,! ,ari/otelian conception ( cosmic purpose1 :i* he got at ?is "t1 nev] left him4 ,among ! writ]s ( ! ,natural ,sci5ce ,p]iod he alone return$ to ,ari/otle4 ,he made ,ari/otle's teleological cause an integral "p ( 8 doctr9e4 ,8 motto f9ally became1 9 8 ,!odicy1 8,ev]y?+ is be/ 9 ?is be/ ( possible worlds40 ,:ile = a "t he turn$ f ,ari/otle to ,desc>tes1 9 8 f9al con/ruction ( 8 !ory he borr[$ m f ,ari/otle4 7#b7 ,! ,new ,sci5ce & ,8 ,own ,discov]ies4 ,leibnitz 0 m =tunate ?an _m ( 8 contempor>ies 9 t 8 univ]sity _h already includ$ 9 its curriculum ! /udy ( ma!matics4 ,at ! age ( fifte5 he 0 devot+ himself to ma!matics at ,j5a1 & he said t ! /udy ( ,kepl]1 ,galileo1 & ,desc>tes made him feel z ?\gh 8transport$ into a diff]5t _w40 ,lat] 9 life he said ( himself1 t at fifte5 he _h decid$ to give up ! s*ola/ic !ory ( ,=ms = ! ma!matical explanation ( ! _w4 ,he became acqua9t$ ) ! !ories ( ,hobbes & ,gass5di 9 #afgj1 :5 he 0 at ,ma9z4 ,9 #afgb1 at ! age ( tw5ty-six1 :5 he 0 9 ,p>is1 he made himself possessor ( all t ! celebrat$ circle ( ,p>isian sci5ti/s _h to tea*4 ,he _h gone to ,p>is a duali/2 he return$ to 8 native l& ) ! ,ari/otelian teleology side by side 9 8 m9d ) ! ,sp9ozi/ic conception ( id5tity & necessity1 ! ,sp9ozi/ic me?od1 & ! ma!matical !ory ( ! significance ( inf9itely small p>ticles4 ,! next t5 ye>s 7#afgf-afhf7 7 sp5t 9 ov]com+ 8 own dualism by sy/ematiz+ ^! new !ories acquir$ f s _m s\rces4 ,9 #afhj he _h univ]saliz$ ! concept ( =ce s z to apply x to bo? s\ls & bodies4 ,9 #afhd he publi%$ 8 discov]y ( ! diff]5tial calculus1 9 :i* he has _h to %>e honors ) ,newton4 ,9 #afhe he ass]t$ t ! c5tres ( =ce h individuality4 ,he 0 l$ to ?is conclusion on acc\nt ( ! discov]y ( small organisms by ! microscopes ( ,swamm]dam & ,leeuw5hoek4 ,9 #afhf he successfully organiz$ 8 collect$ mat]ial into 8 f9al sy/em1 al?\gh x 0 n until elev5 ye>s lat] 7#afig7 t he call$ ^! c5tres 8monads40 ,probably he got ! t]m 8monad0 n f ,bruno1 b f ! my/ic *emi/1 ,van ,helmont4 ,n only ! cont5t1 b ! =m ( 8 philosophy 0 det]m9$ by 8 ma!matical /udies4 ,8 philosophical diction is rem>kably lucid4 ,ma!matics re9=c$ 8 e>ly resolve 89 words to atta9 cle>ness & 9 matt] usefulness40 ,8 lat] discussions conta9 _m t]ms t he _h borr[$ directly f ma!matics4 7#c7 ,political ,pressure = ,religi\s ,reconciliation4 ,:5 ,fr$]ick ! ,wise ( ,saxony 9 #aeai refus$ ! cr[n ( ,emp]or1 ,g]many 0 ?r[n into int]nal /rife t 9 "o hundr$ & ?irty ye>s de/roy$ all its mat]ial weal? & depopulat$ ! c\ntry4 ,?is t]m9at$ 9 ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> 7#afah-afdh7 & ! ,peace ( ,we/phalia4 ,leibnitz 0 born two ye>s be=e peace 0 decl>$4 ,he 0 ! fir/ ,g]man sci5ti/ 9 two hundr$ ye>s4 ,bo? ,ca?olics & ,prote/ants 7 we>y ( /rife1 & !re 0 a g5]al movem5t t[>d religi\s reconciliation4 ,?us religi\s amity 0 ! mo/ urg5t public "q4 ,pietism _h be5 "o ( ! movem5ts 9 ,g]many dur+ ! recov]y ( ! c\ntry f ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 & x repres5t$ ! be/ side ( ,g]man civilization at t "t4 ,x 0 a reaction on ! "o side aga9/ ! me*anical !ory ( ! sci5ti/s1 & on ! o!r aga9/ ! de/ructive /rife ( ! old & new confessions4 ,! "m ( ,leibnitz 0 n only a ,prote/ant1 b also a ,pieti/1 s t ! subject ( religion e>ly =m$ an important "p ( h] son's tra9+4 ,:5 he ent]$ ! diplomatic s]vice ( ! ,elector ( ,ma9z ! "q ( religi\s reconciliation took practical =m = him4 ,no d\bt 8 philosophy z a !ory ( reconciliation grew out ( su* practical issues1 z !y 7 pres5t$ to him at ,ma9z4 ,leibnitz _h1 !re=e1 a "p 9 ! religi\s reaction 9 ,g]many 9 ! la/ ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 :i* aim$ to reconcile ! div]g5t int]e/s ( religion & sci5ce4 ,he tri$ to effect ?is 9 no ext]nal way1 by pat*+ toge!r irreconcilable elem5ts1 b 9 an int]nal way1 by an exam9ation ( fundam5tal pr9ciples4 ,) 8 e>ly tra9+1 8 !ological read+1 & 8 wide public exp]i5ce1 ,leibnitz 0 fitt$ to take a prom95t "p 9 ! movem5t = reconciliation4 ,! ,me?od ( ,leibnitz4 ,al?\gh ! philosoph]s :o imm$iately foll[$ ,sp9oza did n d>e to accept 8 philosophical conclusions1 !y adopt$ 8 me?od4 ,!y unit$ x ) ! syllogi/ic processes ( =mal logic = ! d$uction ( all k4 ,?is me?od became v preval5t1 z is se5 9 ! practices ( ! ,g]man ,c>tesians & 9 ! prep>ation ( academic text-books4 ,examples ( ?is are ,jung1 ,weigel1 :o 0 ,leibnitz's tea*]1 & ,puff5dorf1 :o tri$ to d$uce by ! geometrical me?od ! entire sy/em ( natural "r f a s+le pr9ciple ( human ne$4 ,9 ! next c5tury ,wolff us$ ?is me?od 9 writ+ 8 ,lat9 text-books4 ,:5 ?is aspect ( ,sp9oza's tea*+ 0 ga9+ a foo?old 9 ,g]many1 ,leibnitz came into sympa?y ) x ?r\gh 8 tea*]1 ,weigel1 & at fir/ 0 "o ( its mo/ ard5t support]s4 ,9 je/ he %[$ by ?is geometrical1 syllogi/ic me?od 9 sixty propositions t ! ,c\nt ,palat9e ( ,neub]g mu/ be elect$ ,k+ ( ! ,poles4 ,9 s]i\sness he believ$ t all philosophical controv]sies w\ld cease :5 philosophy %\ld be /at$ l a ma!matical calculation4 ,hobbes's !ory ( words z c\nt]s to be us$ 9 conceptual reckon+1 ! univ]sal =mulas ( ! ,art ( ,lull & ! pa9s :i* ,bruno _h tak5 = its improvem5t1 ! ,c>tesian belief t ! geometrical me?od w\ld prove to be an art ( inv5tionall ^! 7 influ5ces ^u ,leibnitz1 t committ$ him to ! me?od ( ,sp9oza & made him pursue t me?od en]getically4 ,leibnitz 0 "p ( ! widespread movem5t ( ! "t to =m a ,l+ua ,adamicaa univ]sal language1 :i* %\ld discov] fundam5tal philosophical conceptions & ! logical op]ations ( _! comb9ations4 ,9 brief1 ,leibnitz hop$ to =m a philosophical calculus4 ,:at1 ask$ ,leibnitz1 are ! highe/ tru?s :i* 9 _! comb9ation yield all k8 ,:at are ! tru?s1 s imm$iately & intuitively c]ta91 t !y =ce !mselves ^u ! m9d z self-evid5t & !reby =m ! gr\nd = ! d$uction ( all k8 ,!y are ( two classes3 7#a7 ,! univ]sal tru?s ( ! reason1 & 7#b7 ,! facts ( exp]i5ce4 ,! tru?s ( ! reason are =ev] true2 ! facts ( exp]i5ce h a tru? = t s+le in/ance4 ,b bo? are true 9 !mselves & n f d$uction f any?+ else4 ,!y are 8fir/ tru?s10 = a ?+ is true if x c be d$uc$ f ! reason or te/$ z an exp]i5c$ fact4 ,! two k9ds ( tru? are ! rational or a priori1 & ! empirical or a po/]iori4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! />t+ po9t ( ! ,rationalism ( ,leibnitz & ! ,enlight5m5t ( ,locke appe>s "h4 ,locke said1 8,!re is no?+ 9 ! m9d t does n come f ! s5ses40 8,except ! m9d itself & its op]ations10 add$ ,leibnitz 9 comm5t4 ,b !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two k9ds ( tru?4 ,! tru?s ( ! reason are cle> & di/9ct2 ! tru?s ( exp]i5ce are cle> b n di/9ct4 ,leibnitz is1 be x obs]v$1 mak+ a di/9ction betwe5 ! two t]ms ( ! pet phrase ( ! ,rationali/s8cle> & di/9ct ideas40 ,he means t rational tru? is s transp>5t t x is impossible to conceive its opposite2 t empirical tru? is only cle>1 & its opposite is ?9kable4 ,x is impossible to ?9k t ! ?ree angles ( a triangle equal any?+ b two "r angles1 b x is possible to ?9k t its side1 :i* is n[ two in*es1 may be f\r in*es4 ,?us em]ge ! two logical pr9ciples ^u :i* ,leibnitz f\nd$ 8 philosophy3 rational tru?s dep5d ^u ! ,pr9ciple ( ,contradiction2 empirical tru?s dep5d ^u ! ,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t ,reason4 ,at fir/ ,leibnitz conceiv$ t ?is di/9ction betwe5 tru?s did n apply to ,god1 b only to man4 ,man mu/ rejoice 9 ! few rational tru?s 9 8 possession & be cont5t ) m]ely e/abli%+ ! actuality ( 8 exp]i5ces4 ,! div9e reason c1 h[ev]1 see ! impossibility ( ! opposite bo? 9 rational & 9 empirical tru?4 ,lat] on ,leibnitz conceiv$ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two k9ds ( tru? to be absolute4 ,t is1 9 ! nature ( ?+s ! two tru?s diff]4 ,! rational tru? has no opposite1 b is a necess>y tru?2 ! empirical tru? has an opposite1 & is a cont+5t tru?4 ,leibnitz ?us %[s ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ^u :i* k is bas$1 b :at does he say ab\t ! logical me?od ( _! comb9ation8 ,no?+4 ,no "o w\ld ev] suspect f ,leibnitz's philosophical rema9s t he _h plann$ a sy/em ( philosophy accord+ to ! me?od ( ,sp9oza4 ,! _m pamphlets ( ,leibnitz on _m scatt]$ subjects %[ h[ f> %ort he fell ( 8 ideal ( a univ]sal philosophical calculus4 ,he 0 too v]satile1 8 int]e/s 7 too div]sifi$1 to c>ry ?r\gh s sl[ & plodd+ a task4 ,he m]ely /at$ ! pr9ciples ^u :i* a sy/ematic symbolic philosophy might re/1 )\t develop+ ^! pr9ciples 9 a logical way4 ,l ,bacon1 ,leibnitz conceiv$ a me?od t 0 m ( a hope ?an an accompli%m5t4 ,! ,imm$iate ,problem = ,leibnitz4 ,p]haps ,leibnitz 0 call$ away f ?is purely !oretical problem ( me?od by ! practical problem ( reconcil+ sci5ce & religion1 :i* problem 9 8 day _h become p>ticul>ly acute4 ,= sci5ce _h made rapid /rides s9ce ! days ( ,desc>tes1 _h drawn v f> away f religion1 & ,leibnitz's attempt to reconcile sci5ce & religion 0 mu* m difficult ?an t ( ! prec$+ ,rationali/s4 ,leibnitz _h accept$ ! mo/ radical results ( sci5ce1 b he saw t sci5ce _h yield$ only a me*anical view ( ! _w4 ,politics dem&$ 9 ! exig5cies ( t h\r "s pr9ciple ( unity4 ,he s\ght to f9d "s philosophical pr9ciple = ! liv+1 religi\s "* ( ! univ]se1 & a pr9ciple t at ! same "t w\ld pres]ve ! results ( sci5ce4 ,he !re=e s\ght to leave ! conception ( me*anical nature intact & g beh9d x = a teleological pr9ciple4 ,he exam9$ ! me*anical pr9ciples ( ! sci5ce ( 8 day & f\nd !m emb$d$ 9 a deep] metaphysical pr9ciple4 ,! ,result ( ,leibnitz's ,exam9ation ( ! ,pr9ciples ( ,sci5ce#ce;,a ,plurality ( ,metaphysical ,sub/ances4 ,:at 0 ! develop$ sci5tific pr9ciple ( ,leibnitz's "t8 ,& :at 0 ! result ( 8 analysis ( x8 ,! pr9ciple 0 ! ma!matical pr9ciple ( ,galileo 9 m complex =m1 = !re _h be5 add$ to x s9ce ,galileo's day ! concept ( ! atom4 ,t is to say1 ! fundam5tal sci5tific pr9ciple 0 t nature consi/s ( ! measurable movem5ts ( atoms4 ,f 8 analysis ( ?is1 ,leibnitz obta9$ z foll[s 8 conception ( a plural numb] ( sub/ances1 :i* he call$ monads4 #a4 ,leibnitz fir/ scrut9iz$ ! sci5tific conception ( motion4 ,8 analysis ( motion into inf9itely small impulses by ! me?od employ$ by ,galileo1 ,huygh5s1 & ,newton _h already l$ him to "o important discov]y! diff]5tial calculus4 ,n[ he scrut9izes x fur!r & discov]s t ! fundam5tal gr\nd ( motion is =ce4 ,:ile ,leibnitz 0 9 entire agreem5t ) o!r sci5ti/s 9 _! ef=t to r$uce all ph5om5a to motion1 he insi/$ t motion 0 n by any means ! fundam5tal ?+4 ,he calls ! ,c>tesian conception ( motion ! ante*amb] ( true philosophy4 ,!re is no absolute motion nor absolute re/4 ,motion & re/ are relative to ea* o!r4 ,desc>tes' !ory t !re is cons]vation ( motion is incorrect4 ,motion & re/ are ! ph5om5al *anges ( =ce4 ,=ce alone is con/ant & cons]v$4 ,physics po9ts b5ea? itself to metaphysics2 motion po9ts to =ce4 ,=ce is :at is fundam5tal 9 nature4 ,=ce is 8t :i* 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s br+s ab\t a *ange 9 ! future40 ,!re=e =ce z ! sub/ance ( nature is sup]-spatial & immat]ial1 & !re=e ! basis ( ! new physics ought to be dynamic metaphysical sub/ance4 #b4 ,leibnitz next exam9$ ! sci5tific conception ( ! atom4 ,gass5di1 "o ( t celebrat$ gr\p ( ,p>isian sci5ti/s1 _h be5 ! au?or ( ! introduction ( ,greek atomism into mod]n ?\ght4 ,x _h be5 g5]ally accept$ by sci5ti/s & comb9$ ) ! ma!matical hypo!sis ( ,galileo4 ,leibnitz _h kn[n ,gass5di 9 ,p>is1 & he took ! h>d1 inela/ic atoms ( ,gass5di "u exam9ation4 ,he agre$ t ! atomi/ 0 p]fectly correct 9 say+ t mat]ial bodies consi/ ( simple p>ts or atoms4 ,b ,leibnitz insi/$ t ! atomi/ err$ 9 ?9k+ su* simple p>ts to be physical4 ,h[ev] simple ! p>ts might physically appe> to be1 !y 7 n really simple4 ,h[ev] small a bit ( matt] may be1 x may be divid$ aga91 & ! divid+ process may g on to inf9ity4 ,! atom is ! ext5d$1 & ! ext5d$ _c be simple or real4 ,sub/ance mu/ be unext5d$1 & ! mat]iali/s 7 wrong 9 attribut+ sub/ance to ! ext5d$4 ,is !re any?+ simple t has a qualitative "*8 ,is !re any?+ real bel[ ! physical atoms8 ,yes1 ! metaphysical atoms4 ,! indivisible1 immat]ial unit lies b5ea? ! physical atom1 & 9 ord] to rea* x we mu/ pass b5ea? ! physical into ! metaphysical4 ,?is immat]ial or metaphysical atom is call$ by ,leibnitz ! monad2 & ?us is ,leibnitz's !ory call$ monadology4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( po9ts1 or units1 or 8simples40 ,!re is ! ma!matical po9t1 :i* is simple en\gh1 b x is only imag9>y4 ,!re is ! physical po9t1 or atom1 :i* is real b n simple4 ,!re is1 la/ly1 ! metaphysical po9t1 or monad1 :i* is bo? real & simple4 ,! metaphysical po9t is ! only true po9t4 ,to call ! mat]ial atoms real1 only %[s 8! feebl5ess ( ! imag9ation1 :i* is glad to re/1 & is1 !re=e1 9 ha/e to make an end ( division & analysis40 #c4 ,leibnitz !n id5tifi$ =ce1 z ! sub/ance ( motion1 ) ! metaphysical atom1 z ! sub/ance ( ! mat]ial atom4 ,! result 0 ! monad1 z he conceiv$ x4 ,! monads are ! pr9ciples ( active work+4 ,!y are ! sup]-spatial & immat]ial pr9ciples 9 :i* ! me*anical pr9ciples ( ! univ]se h _! roots & mean+4 ,nature is n dead2 x is n m]ely ext5d$4 ,x is alive1 resi/ant1 & reproductive4 ,if1 z ,sp9oza taught1 !re 7 only "o sub/ance1 nature w\ld be non-resi/ant & passive4 ,b z a matt] ( fact !re are _m sub/ances act+ = !mselves1 _m bodies resi/+ o!r bodies4 ,!y are ! c5tres ( sep>ate activity1 & !re are z _m =ces z !re are ?+s4 ,!re is no body )\t movem5t1 no movem5t )\t =ce4 ,?us does ,leibnitz re9troduce vitalism 9 a matur] =m ?an is se5 9 neo-,platonism4 ,life becomes ! pr9ciple ( nature4 ,purpose is plac$ at ! c5tre ( ?+s4 ,! ,d\ble ,nature ( ! ,monads4 ,! /ud5t w f9d t ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz is spok5 ( z a pluralism1 b ! /ud5t w also f9d t ,leibnitz devot$ ne>ly all 8 /r5g? to prove t ! _w is aft] all a unity4 ,leibnitz analyz$ ! _w into a plural numb] ( p>ts1 & ! "q !n ) him 01 h[ to put ^! p>ts toge!r aga9 9 an organic unity4 ,?is accompli%m5t w\ld dep5d a good deal ^u 8 conception ( ! nature ( ! p>ts4 ,! monads h a d\ble "*4 ,leibnitz conceiv$ ! monad 7#a7 z a =ce c5tre & 7#b7 z an immat]ial s\l4 ,?is makes an equival5ce ( psy*ical & physical attributes :i* rem9ds u ( ! ,/oics' 8fi]y reason0 ( ,god4 ,! ^w 8=ce10 z ,leibnitz uses x1 squ9ts bo? t[>d physics & t[>d psy*ology4 ,b su* ambiguity ab\t ! monads1 ! corn]/ones 9 ,leibnitz's philosophy1 assi/s ,leibnitz's reconciliation at ! />t4 ,"h1 9 a m9iature1 ! physical & spiritual lie 9 unity4 ,! monad is conceiv$ z a s\l-atom4 ,leibnitz came to philosophy ) a m9d saturat$ ) ! ma!matical ideas ( ! cont9u\s1 ! inf9itesimal1 & ! possible4 ,he ?\ght ( ! monads z pot5tialities or possibilities4 ,he look$ ^u ! _w z ess5tially a develop+ _w4 ,beh9d ! facts t seem to u inflexible1 lies ! great _w ( g5]at+ =ce4 ,explanation ( ! actual c be made only 9 view ( :at ! actual may be & has be54 ,let u enl>ge ! scope ( man by s wid5+ 8 conception ( ! actual t x w include ! possible4 ,leibnitz also spoke ( ! monads z inf9itesimal4 ,he !reby lift$ ! conception ( ! inf9itesimal f ! realm ( ma!matics into t ( metaphysics1 j z ,hobbes univ]saliz$ ! conception ( me*anics by lift+ x to metaphysics4 ,leibnitz1 !re=e1 did n reg>d ! limits ( p]ception z ! limits ( nature3 ! reality ( a nature object mu/ be too small to be ! object ( p]ception4 ,9 ! same way he made use ( 8 ma!matical conception ( cont9uity4 ,leibnitz's conception ( nature-cont9uity is "o ( 8 contributions to philosophy4 ,)9 itself ! _w ( nature consi/s ( a cont9u\s gradation f ! l[] to ! high] =ms2 & also ! _w ( nature is cont9u\s ) ! _w ( ! _s4 ,!re are no leaps 9 ! s]ies f matt] to ,god4 ,seem+ diff]5ces 9 k9d are only diff]5ces 9 degree2 = example1 evil is only ! abs5ce ( good2 matt] is only an obscure idea ( _s4 ,b ?is ,leibnitzian atomism consi/s ( s\l-atoms4 ,^! monads1 ^! =ce-c5tres are s\ls1 & ! ma!matical qualities h a place 9 ,leibnitz's description ( ! psy*ical p[]s ( ! monad4 ,! monad is a s\l1 = s\l is ! only sub/ance 9 ! univ]se t may pass ?r\gh _m *anges & x1 itself1 n *ange4 ,! self is ! only subject ( :i* _m pr$icates may be ass]t$1 :ile x1 itself1 may n be ! pr$icate ( any o!r subject4 ,! idea ( myself und]lies all my m5tal /ates4 ,! monad is an entele*y1 or an entity hav+ its purpose )9 itself4 ,all its attributes are conta9$ )9 itself1 & x is1 !re=e1 by nature1 suffici5t unto itself4 ,x is an individual :i* passes f "o /ate to ano!r1 mov$ by its 8con/itutional appetition40 ,among ! psy*ical p[]s none is m important 9 ,leibnitz's description ( ! monad ?an its p[] ( repres5tation4 ,repres5tation is ! g5]al function ( ! monadf ! l[e/ to ! highe/ monad4 ,?is means t ea* monad is ! _w =ce1 yet 9 a p>ticul> =m1a _w sub/ance1 b 9 "s peculi> aspect4 ,e monad is a microcosm4 ,ea* repres5ts ! _w s f> z x is consci\s ( its own activity4 ,b x is evid5t t all ?+s 9 ! univ]se are n consci\s1 & !re=e all s\l-monads are n consci\s4 ,9 s\ls !re are1 !re=e1 m ?an consci\s ?\ghts!re are ?\ghts t are unconsci\s4 ,among ! ,rationali/s ,leibnitz is ! fir/ to give significance to ! s-call$ unconsci\s /ates t =m s important a place 9 mod]n psy*ology4 7,b see ,plot9us47 ,z a wave is compos$ ( small p>ticles ( wat]1 s ! m9d is made up ( a myriad ( unconsci\s /ates4 ,! consci\s /ate is ! g5]al effect ( ! :ole4 ,a s\l-monad conta9s 9 itself at all times repres5tations ( ! :ole _w1 "s obscure1 "s cle>4 ,?is p[] ( univ]sal repres5tation makes ! monad a microcosm4 ,:at we call k ( ! ext]nal _w is our repres5tation ( x )9 ourselves4 ,?is repres5tation is possible to u because we reproduce x 9 m9iature4 ,s9ce ! monad directly p]ceives only itself & its own /ates1 x foll[s t ! m cle>ly & di/9ctly x is consci\s ( its own activities1 ! m adequately does x repres5t ! cosmos4 ,! conv]se is also truet ! m a monad repres5ts ! cosmos1 ! m truly does x repres5t itself4 ,9 8 developm5t ( 8 description ( ! monad1 ,leibnitz hits ^u two cat*-phrases1 "o ( :i* pres5ts 8 doctr9e ( ! physical isolation ( ! monad1 ! o!r pres5ts ! doctr9e ( its ideal psy*ical unity4 ,^! phrases are3 8! monads are w9d[less0 & 8! monads mirror ! univ]se40 ,by 8w9d[less0 ,leibnitz means t ea* monad is 8l a sep>ate _w1 self-suffici5t1 indep5d5t ( e o!r creature40 8,hav+ no w9d[s by :i* any?+ c ent] or dep>t10 ! monad c p]ceive only its own /ates4 ,:atev] happ5s to x comes f itself alone z a purely int]nal pr9ciple4 ,! monad's developm5t is self-developm5t & n ! result ( ext]nal *anges4 ,nev]!less ! monad is a 8mirror ( ! univ]se40 ,9 ?is psy*ical qualification ( ! nature ( ! monad1 its physical isolation vani%es & ! way is op5 = a unity ( monads1 :i* w\ld h o!rwise seem$ to be physically hopelessly sund]$4 ,h[ is x possible = ea* ( ! numb]less monads1 all s diff]5t1 to 8mirror ! univ]se08 ,! answ] is f\nd 9 _! psy*ical p[] ( repres5tation4 ,! ,two ,=ms ( ,leibnitz's ,conception ( ! ,unity ( ! ,sub/ances4 ,! pr9ciple ( unity among ! monads is call$ by ,leibnitz a pre/abli%$ h>mony4 ,he pres5t$ ?is pr9ciple ( h>mony 9 two ways4 ,9 "p ! h>mony comes out ( _! con/itution1 z he conceiv$ x to be4 ,9 "p ,leibnitz artificially sup]impos$ x ^u ! monads = !ological reasons4 ,9 ei!r case x is pre/abli%$4 ,! ,intr9sic ,unity ( ! ,monads,! ,philosophical ,unity4 ,!re is a family resemblance among ! monads4 ,! l[e/ reproduces ! univ]se 9 obscure & elem5t>y repres5tations4 ,m9]als & plants are sleep+ monads ) entirely unconsci\s ideas4 ,animals are dream+ monads4 ,man is a wak+ monad4 ,! highe/ monad is ,god1 :o reproduces ! univ]se 9 cle> & di/9ct ideas4 ,betwe5 ,god & matt] !re is a s]ies ( monads1 grad$ z to ! cle>ness ( _! ideas4 ,all conta9 ! univ]se by repres5tation4 ,all are b\nd toge!r accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( cont9uity2 plants are l[] animals & animals are less p]fect m54 ,man is a monad ^: consci\s activity has ris5 to ! height ( self-consci\sness1 ) ! cognate p[] ( reason4 ,!re is no in]t matt]2 no s\l-less bodies nor body-less s\ls4 ,! smalle/ portion ( du/ is ! habilim5t ( animalcul4 ,no?+ is dead1 & nature is a gradation ( monads 9 diff]+ degrees ( activity4 ,metaphysically ! monads are isolat$1 yet 9 nature z we see !m1 !y live 9 gr\ps1 & compose ! ?+s :i* we call plants1 animals1 & m54 ,an organic ?+ is a comb9ation ( monads ) a c5tral rul+ monad4 ,?is c5tral monad is ! s\l ( ! gr\p2 ! subord9ate ones =m ! body ( ! organism4 ,! influ5ce ( ! s\l or rul+ monad ^u ! body-monads is purely ideal4 ,!y all /rive = ! same end1 :i* ! s\l repres5ts m cle>ly4 ,! gr\p acts spontane\sly & toge!r1 n f any outside influ5ce4 ,an inanimate object diff]s f su* a liv+ organism1 inasmu* z x is a gr\p ( monads )\t a s\l or a rul+1 c5tral monad2 & !re=e su* a monad is bo? s\l & body4 ,!re is !re=e no dualism betwe5 s\l & body 9 any creatures1 = body is only obscure or unconsci\s activity4 ,! body consi/s ( monads hav+ a confus$ s5se ( _! activity4 ,?is cont9uity & unity )9 ! _w1 z ,leibnitz sees x1 is only ! logical developm5t ( ! unity ) :i* he orig9ally end[$ 8 monads4 ,al?\gh he />ts ! monads z 8w9d[less10 he also says t 8!y mirror ! univ]se40 ,!y are s conceiv$ z to be orig9ally physically sep>at$1 b psy*ologically & ideally unit$4 8,_! natural h>mony resides 9 an ideal ( p]fect activity1 :ile 9 actual exi/5ce !y are indep5d5t40 ,! ideal :i* unites !m is ,god1 ! la/ t]m 9 ! grad$ s]ies ( ! monads4 ,he is ! monad ( monads1 because ,he is p]fect1 consci\s activity4 ,j z ! v>i\s gr\ps ( monads are rul$ by a c5tral s\l-monad1 s ! _w ( ^! gr\ps is an hi]>*y1 :i* d]ives its unit>y & h>moni\s "* f ?is dom9at+ monad4 ,! _w may be lik5$ to a pyramid ) ,god at ! apex4 ,! _w is l a ma*9e :i* diff]s f o!r ma*9es1 9 t its p>ts are little ma*9es4 ,al?\gh ! p>ts seem to op]ate sep>ately1 !y are "u ! dom9at+ control ( ,god4 ,god is _! intr9sic unity & ! univ]se is a pre/abli%$ h>mony4 ,a comp>ison ) ,sp9oza's conception ( ! _w ( nature br+s out ,leibnitz's mean+ effectively4 ,bo? philosoph]s conceive nature ph5om5a to be "u ! law ( me*anical causation4 ,to ,sp9oza1 h[ev]1 all ph5om5a are qualitatively alike2 !re are no grades or di/9ctions ( value betwe5 !m4 ,all are modes ( sub/ance & all illusions 9 ! sight ( ,god4 ,to ,sp9oza ph5om5a are homog5e\s4 ,leibnitz's e/imate ( ! _w ( nature is q diff]5t1 & = him nature has a f> ri*] end[m5t4 ,! ph5om5a ( nature are n homog5e\s4 ,_! diff]5ce does n consi/ 9 _! cont5t1 b 9 ! degree 9 :i* !y repres5t ! univ]se4 ,! law ( nature is a unify+ pr9ciple t gives unit>y individuality to ! memb]s "u ! law4 ,! individuality ( ! t]ms ( ! nature-s]ies is impli$ 9 ! v nature ( ! law ( necessity1 & on ! o!r h&1 ! individual t]ms1 = _! "p1 trans=m ! law ( necessity into a pr9ciple ( unity t is high] ?an b>e necessity4 ,9 a necessitat$ s]ies1 ,leibnitz po9ts out1 ea* t]m is det]m9$ by ! prec$+1 & 9 turn ea* t]m det]m9es ! ev5ts t foll[4 ,?us1 :ile nature ph5om5a are a s]ies & a necessitat$ s]ies1 x is a s]ies ^: exi/5ce dep5ds ^u ea* ev5t hav+ n only its place1 b its unique place4 ,no o!r ev5t c fill t place1 & ! conditions t give ! ev5t its place con/itute its individuality4 ,e f9ite ev5t has1 s to speak1 its =mula1 & ?is gives individuality to ea* t]m ( ! s]ies1 :i* appe>$ to ,sp9oza only z a homog5e\s1 ma!matical1 & *>act]less mode4 ,life is mean+ful to ,leibnitz1 because ea* memb] ( ! necessitat$ s]ies ( ev5ts has its unique "p to play4 ,! *anges ( life are to ,sp9oza void ( mean+1 because he conceives !m to be undiff]5tiat$4 ,! law ( me*anical necessity became "u ,leibnitz's h&s a pr9ciple ( h>mony1 a teleological pr9ciple4 ,ev5 9 ! necessitat$ ma!matical s]ies1 su* z ,sp9oza conceiv$ ! _w to be1 ,leibnitz believ$ t necessity implies individuality & individuality implies purpose4 ,h[ vital1 !re=e1 does life n[ appe>1 ) its me*anical memb]s trans=m$ into liv+ units6 ,univ]sal /riv+ or =ce fills nature1 & ! surg+ ( individual =ces gives a new mean+ to ! unity ( ! :ole4 ,! me*anical s]ies! physiological *anges ( our bodies & ! effici5t causes 9 natureare only ! expression ( ! inn] teleological developm5t4 ,leibnitz po9ts out sev]al pregnant pr9ciples t are aspects ( ?is pre/abli%$ b intr9sic h>mony4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 nature has no breaks & abhors a vacuum2 & ! s]ies is a cont9u\s "o1! law ( cont9uity4 ,memb] foll[s memb] 9 cont9u\s & grad$ ord]4 ,_! qualitative diff]5ces are diff]5ces ( quality ( activity4 ,re/ & motion1 good & evil1 are diff]5ces ( degree4 ,9 ! second place1 !re is no?+ sup]flu\s2 no two ?+s 9 nature are alike4 ,if !y 7 alike1 !y w\ld be id5tical! law ( ! id5tity ( indisc]nibles4 ,al?\gh !re is no absolute anti!sis or contra/ betwe5 ?+s1 !re is no absolute lik5ess4 ,e monad mu/ be diff]5tiat$ f e o!r intr9sically1 i4 e4 accord+ to its p]fect$ activity4 ,!re=e1 9 ! ?ird place1 e memb] has an excuse = be+! law ( suffici5t reason4 ,e memb] has its "p to p]=m & no o!r c act z an und]/udy = x4 ,h[ev] insignificant any memb] may appe> to be1 x is z unique z its bigg] neighbor4 ,! ,sup]impos$ ,unity ( ! ,monads,! ,!ological ,unity4 ,! intr9sic unity ( ! monads is d]iv$ naturally f ! monads !mselves1 b x is an unatta9$ ideal = :i* !y /rive4 ,:5 ,leibnitz turns 8 philosophy into a !odicy1 or ju/ification ( ! nature ( ,god1 ?is unity ( ! _w takes on a diff]5t =m & assumes a !ological importance4 ,! unity is no long] an intr9sic unity1 ) no actual b only ideal exi/5ce dep5d+ ^u ! highe/ monad 9 ! s]ies1 b is an actual p]sonality :o exi/s ap>t f ! _w4 ,! _w is 8 et]nal purpose4 ,probably ?is conception 0 always 9 ! backgr\nd ( ,leibnitz's ?\ght1 b x _c be d$uc$ f 8 philosophy4 ,x is a conception aft]w>ds sup]impos$ ^u 8 philosophy4 ,leibnitz n[ conceives ,god n z an ideal goal1 b z a p]fect & actual p]son1 ^: reason impell$ ,him to con/ruct ! be/ possible _w4 ,! _w 9 :i* we live is ! _w ,he *ose4 ,x is p]fectly conceivable t ! _w c\ld be diff]5t4 ,:y1 among all ! possible worlds1 did ,god *oose to con/ruct ?is _w8 ,!re is no reason 9 logic1 b 9 fact4 ,!re 0 no necessity = its con/ruction4 ,! fact is ! excell5ce ( ! _w4 ,sp9oza said t all possible worlds exi/4 ,leibnitz said ?is be/ possible _w exi/s4 ,look ab\t y2 is x n s8 ,! be/ possible _w is a _w ( free ag5ts1 ^: acts are rew>d$ or puni%$ accord+ to _! des]ts4 ,if we discov] :at seems to be inexplicable evil1 we mu/ reg>d x z an incid5t 9 ! h>mony ( ! :ole4 ,! _w w\ld be less good )\t evil4 ,!re is no m evil ?an !re ought to be4 ,! _w :i* ,god conceiv$ to be ! be/ possible?is _wis a _w ( lights & %ades4 ,evil comes f ! free ag5cy ( man1 & ,god is n responsible = x4 ,x is bett] to h evil & free ag5cy ?an no evil & no free ag5cy4 ,evil aft] all is n positive1 & is only due to ! indi/9ct ideas ( man4 ,x is ! abs5ce ( good1 z cold is ! abs5ce ( heat4 ,?us a pre/abli%$ h>mony 0 con/ruct$ by ,leibnitz t does n come out ( 8 orig9al philosophical premises4 ,leibnitz us$ 8 celebrat$ figure ( ! two clocks to illu/rate ! h>mony ( ! monads4 ,two clocks keep ! same "t1 n because !y influ5ce "o ano!r 7int]action71 nor because ! mak] moves ! h&s ( "o 7,occasionalism71 b because !y h be5 ?us con/ruct$ by an intellig5t ,creator4 ,?us ! h>mony ( ! _w implies a p]sonal ,god4 ,leibnitz's philosophical ,rationalism "h pass$ into !ology1 & 8 metaphysics became an e?ics4 ,leibnitz began ) a monadology1 & by means ( ! conception ( h>mony pass$ to an optimism4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,enlight5m5t 7#afij-agha7cf ,! ,em]g5ce ( ! 8,new ,man10,individualism4 ,9 pass+ to ?is p]iod we %\ld recall ! two objects ( int]e/ t di/+ui% mod]n f m$ival ?\ght3 ! 8new man0 ( mod]n ,europe2 & ! 8new univ]se0new 9 its geographical outl9es & 9 its intellectual mat]ials4 ,we h already f\nd t ! two hundr$ & m ye>s ( ! ,r5aissance1 ! fir/ p]iod ( mod]n ?\ght1 0 absorb$ 9 exploit+ ! second ( ^! objects! 8new univ]se40 ,9 fact ! 8new man0 _h be5 s int]e/$ 9 ! 8new univ]se0 t he _h n ?\ght ( /udy+ himself4 ,he _h sy/ematiz$ ! great weal? ( 8 acquisitions & _h con/ruct$ great sy/ems ( sci5ce & metaphysics4 ,?is second p]iod ( mod]n ?\ght! ,enlight5m5tbeg9s :5 ! 8new man0 turns away f 8 intellectual /ruggles ) 8 environm5t & attempts to und]/& 8 own nature4 ,?us ! m important ( ! two objects em]ges la/2 & ?is turn to self-reflection con/itutes ! c5tury ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,! ,r5aissance _h be5 subjective & spectacul>2 ! ,enlight5m5t 0 subjective & tragic4 ,! m5tal activity ( ! ,r5aissance _h be5 vital1 spontane\s1 & unconsci\s1 l ! awak5+ f sleep2 t ( ! ,enlight5m5t 0 self-consci\s & attitud9iz+4 ,! man ( ! ,r5aissance _h be5 9 love ) nature2 ! man ( ! ,enlight5m5t 0 9 love ) himself4 ,l ! ,greek ,sophi/ic ,illum9ation1 :i* is its p>allel 9 anci5t hi/ory1 ! ,enlight5m5t turn$ away f cosmological & metaphysical problems4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! philosophy ( ! ,enlight5m5t p5etrat$ all dep>tm5ts ( life & f\nd expression 9 practical que/ions4 ,erdmann has well express$ ! mean+ ( ^! n9e decades ( ! ,enlight5m5t z 8an ef=t to raise man1 s f> z he is a rational individual1 into a position ( supremacy ov] ev]y?+40 ,x 0 dur+ ?is p]iod1 :i* we are n[ ab\t to ent]1 t ,h]d] br\ght into curr5cy 9 ,g]many ! ^w 8humanity40 ,9 ,engl& ! same s5tim5t 0 utt]$ by ,pope 9 #agcb 9 8 ,essay on ,man3 8,"k !n ?yself1 presume n ,god to scan2 ,! prop] /udy ( mank9d is man40 ,! ,enlight5m5t m>ks1 !re=e1 ! rise ( mod]n individualism2 & ! conc]ns ( ! individual become ! important object ( consid]ation4 ,! novelty ( ! great discov]ies & inv5tions ( ! ,r5aissance _h lo/ its lu/re4 ,! 8new univ]se0 _h become old & famili>1 b ?r\gh 8 accompli%m5ts ! 8new man0 _h begun to feel ! /r5g? ( 8 lib]at$ p[]s4 ,= _h n ! wond]ful _w ( ! ,r5aissance be5 8 own accompli%m5t8 ,_h n all its notable con/ructions be5 ! creations ( 8 p[]s8 ,! 8/ruggle ( traditions0 to revive antiquity & to incorporate ! 8new univ]se0 ^u an old basis2 ! 8/rife ( me?ods0 to reorganize ! 8new _w0 ^u a new basisreveal$ ?is great fact3 t man has 8_w wisdom40 ,man 9 8 supremacy occupies ! entire =egr\nd1 & int]e/ 9 ! 8new univ]se0 fades away4 ,! 8new univ]se0 is n[ se5 9 ! light ( "o's p]sonal int]e/s4 ,man is supreme1 & to 8 ^w !re c be no exception4 ,!re is con/ant ref]5ce dur+ ?is "t to ! 8light ( reason0to a bright inn]1 rational illum9ation 9 contra/ to ! vag>ies ( my/icism & ! obscurities ( dogmatism4 ,! wor%ip ( g5ius arises & ) x a contempt = ! un5light5$4 8,?us w\ld ,i speak1 7 ,i ,*ri/10 said ,bahrdt4 ,no wond] t ,goe! describ$ ! ,enlight5m5t z an age ( self-conceit6 ,! ,practical ,presupposition ( ! ,enlight5m5t,! ,indep5d5ce ( ! ,individual4 ,! 8new man0 em]g$ f ! ,r5aissance z ! mo/ important object ( consid]ation1 & dur+ ! ,enlight5m5t !re 0 nev] ! slighte/ "q ab\t 8 indep5d5ce4 ,! individual became ! orig9al datum ( ?is p]iod into :i* we are n[ ent]+2 he 0 consid]$ to be ! only ?+ t is self-intelligible2 he 0 ! />t+-po9t f :i* all social relation%ips 7 to be expla9$4 ,among ! _m problems t arose1 ! indep5d5t exi/5ce ( ! individual rema9$ unque/ion$4 ,x 0 ! p]iod ( 8lib]ty1 equality1 & frat]nity40 ,! problems 7 ab\t ! relations ( ! individual2 nev] ab\t ! individual himself1 = conc]n+ ! individual no problem c\ld arise4 ,! individual rejoic+ 9 ! exub]ance ( 8 own p[]s1 ! 8monad enjoy+ himself10 dom9at$ ev]y?+4 ,! monadology ( ! ,r5aissance became an atomism 9 ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,! individual 0 ! practical assumption ( ! p]iod4 ,! ,metaphysical ,presupposition ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,!re 0 a metaphysical backgr\nd to ?is practical assumption ( ! individual4 ,?is 0 ! ,c>tesian dualism ( m9d & matt]4 ,al?\gh ! eighte5? c5tury despair$ ( a successful metaphysical con/ruction ( ! 8new univ]se10 & al?\gh its att5tion 0 rivet$ on an analysis ( human relation%ips1 x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! p]iod 0 )\t its metaphysical bias4 ,su* is n ! nature ( human hi/ory2 & if an epo* refuses to discuss metaphysical que/ions1 x is because x assumes "s metaphysics z true4 ,! assumption ( ! indep5d5t individual implies ! indep5d5t exi/5ce ( matt]4 ,! ,enlight5m5t assum$ ! ,c>tesian !ory z correct4 ,:ile _m 7 ! polemics aga9/ metaphysical speculation1 ! ,c>tesian dualism 0 nev]!less 9 control4 ,"h )9 is ! indep5d5t exi/5ce ( m9d2 & x w\ld naturally foll[ t !re )\t is ! equally indep5d5t exi/5ce ( matt]4 ,! conception might fade into a gho/-l dualism1 z 9 ,b]keley & ,hume1 b ! dualism nev] entirely vani%$4 ,?is has s9ce be5 kn[n z ! philosophy ( 8common s5se10 & is to-day ! easy attitude ( ^? n int]e/$ 9 metaphysical discussions4 8,common s5se0 means ! op9ion ( ! majority z to tru?4 ,mo/ p to-day1 z !n1 accept )\t "q "s sort ( dualism1 usually ! dualism ( m9d & body4 ,! ,problems ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,! area ( inquiry 0 ?us v mu* re/rict$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,nature lies beyond our k54 ,god is /ill m incompreh5sible4 ,f ! /udy ( nature & ,god1 let u turn to a /udy ( ! problems ( ! inn] life4 ,yet :ile ! field ( /udy 0 re/rict$1 ! problems )9 x 7 multitud9\s1 & !re 0 an a/oni%+ bread? & univ]sality1 a t5acity ( ev]y?+1 a disda9fulness ( no?+4 ,)9 its own field ! ,enlight5m5t s\ght to sy/ematize & to /& by any idea 9 spite ( all opposition4 ,! imag9ation took bold flights &1 f ! /&po9t ( ! inn] individual life1 tri$ to trans=m its _w4 ,ov]load$ ) balla/1 x tri$ to reconcile ! irreconcilable & to ov]look ! brute facts ( exi/5ce4 ,! problems arise f an age t is self-op9ionat$1 self-torm5t+1 & subjective4 ,! problems ( ?is age may be divid$ into two classes1utilit>ian & critical1bo? hav+ ref]5ce to ! individual man 9 8 relations4 ,^! include ! problems ( psy*ology1 epi/emology1 sociology1 economics1 politics1 etc4 ,!re 01 = example1 ! problem ( our k ( ! ext]nal _w1 ( ! validity ( innate ideas z ! basis ( k1 ( ! rational basis ( religion4 ,?\ght 0 v al]t at ?is "t1 z is always ! case 9 times ( great individualism1 & ?\ght c\ld move ) great rapidity ov] ! wide range ( su* subjects4 7a7 ,utilit>ian ,problems4 ,! ,enlight5m5t 0 curi\s ab\t ! int]e/s1 ! happ9ess1 & ! _m p[]s ( ! individual4 ,empirical psy*ologi/s & brilliant e?ical s*ol>s appe>$4 ,h[ mu* c man "k1 & :at are ! limits & ext5t ( 8 k8 ,! ,rationali/s ( ! ,r5aissance _h accept$ )\t "q ! m$ival tea*+ t a gr\p ( our ideas is innate & !re=e ,god-giv54 ,! ,middle ,ages _h be5 built up on reveal$ k4 ,b to ! ?9k]s ( ! ,enlight5m5t ! mo/ important ideasyea1 ! only ideas ( s]vice to uare ^? d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,we %\ld be happi] if we conf9$ ourselves to ! facts ( e-day life1 & did n try to deal ) ?+s beyond exp]i5ce4 ,let u give metaphysical !ories to ! ,*ur*man4 ,empirical psy*ology ?us took ! place ( metaphysics1 & became kn[n z philosophy4 ,x 0 ! favorite sci5ce ( ! "t1 & ! basis ( e?ics & epi/emology4 ,philosophy ?us came out ( ! s*ool1 & became a public utility4 ,x 0 bas$1 to be sure1 ^u !ological preconceptions1 b x 0 to be put to ! s]vice ( man4 ,x 0 to be an in/rum5t ( discov]y z well z a means ( grace4 ,) ?is psy*ological inc5tive great s*ools ( morali/s arose1 especially 9 ,engl&3 /udy+ morality z bas$ on ! intellect1 on ! feel+s1 on au?ority1 on ! association ( ideas4 ,empirical psy*ology l$ to self-inspection1 & ?is is ! age :5 self-inspection 0 univ]sal4 ,x is ! age ( ! f\nd+ ( 8societies = ! obs]vation ( man40 ,x is ! age ( s5tim5tal di>y writ+4 ,r\sseau wrote 8 autobiography 9 ,france1 & x 0 foll[$ by a flood ( autobiographies 9 ,g]many4 ,ev5 memoirs ( su* sc\ndrels z ,laukh>dt 7 writt5 & read z matt]s ( public int]e/4 ,religion1 too1 took ! =m ( p]sonal exp]i5ces & individual conv]sions2 & ! *ur* 0 m int]e/$ 9 ! exp]i5ces ( ! sav$ ?an 9 ! dogma ( salvation4 ,! ,me?odi/ movem5t arose 9 ,engl& & spread ov] ! cont95t & to ,am]ica4 ,individual op9ions 7 m important ?an conv5tions2 fri5d%ips ?an m>riage2 societies ?an corporations4 ,! hi/orical 0 lo/ to view because ! p]sonal & p>ticul> occupi$ ! =egr\nd4 ,gibbon said1 8,all ideas 7 equally true 9 ! eyes ( ! p1 equally false 9 ! eyes ( ! philosoph]s1 equally useful 9 ! eyes ( ! magi/rates40 7b7 ,que/ions ( ,criticism4 ,9 ! second place1 ! ,enlight5m5t is a p]iod ( criticism & /&s 9 contra/ ) ! con/ructive ,rationalism ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,f ,locke's invective aga9/ innate ideas to ,hume's skepticism ( ! law ( cause1 f ,voltaire's exam9ation ( ! f\ndations ( religion to ,r\sseau's polemic aga9/ society1 ! age 0 "o ( ! criticism ( au?ority4 ,! psy*ologi/s1 morali/s1 dei/s1 & sociologi/s 7 revolutioni/sall /rik+ directly or indirectly at absolute political sov]eignty1 aga9/ ! !oretical dogmatism & ! c]emoni\s morality 9 :i* ! ,r5aissance 0 complac5t4 ,! revolution began 9 ! realm ( ! intellect & spread to political society4 ,x 0 natural t ! beg9n+s %\ld be made 9 ! app>5tly h>mless !oretical exam9ation ( ! gr\nds ( k & ! pr9ciples ( morality2 b ! outcome 0 a g5]al sweep ( hi/orical criticism1 9 :i* au?ority & sci5ce1 ! *ur*1 ! /ate1 & education came "u c5sure4 ,! _s ( man 0 impati5t4 ,man became indiff]5t to 8le>n+40 ,9 contra/ ) ! ,r5aissance1 ?is 0 a "t :5 books 7 little read1 prop] names infrequ5tly appe>$ 9 writ+s1 au?orities 7 little cit$4 ,let man /udy himself if he w\ld le>n ab\t hi/ory & und]/& ! _w4 ,man /&s above ! s*ol>1 ! ,*ri/ian1 ! ,g]man4 ,he is indep5d5t ( tradition1 & %\ld sub/itute ! useful = ! hi/orical4 ,cosmopolitanism takes ! place ( patriotism4 ,! ,enlight5m5t is practical & yet imag9ative4 ,its criticism aims to /rip man ( all 8 artificialities & to f9d 8 natural /ate4 ,its emphasis is negative & de/ructive4 ,! revolt ( ! ,enlight5m5t aga9/ ! pa/ appe>$ 9 rem>kable *anges 9 ! political map ( ,europe4 ,m$ival ,europe 0 break+ to pieces4 ,! ,r5aissance _h be5 a p]iod ( social absolutism 9 :i* ! despotic p[]s ( ,mac*iavelli & ,ri*elieu 7 typical ( its political life4 ,9 ?is p]iod new-com]s =c$ _! way into politics & ! ,enlight5m5t 0 m>k$ by ! rise ( ,russia1 ,prussia1 & ! ,am]ican colonies4 ,france & ,au/ria1 repres5t+ ! pa/1 7 array$ aga9/ ,engl& & ,prussia1 repres5t+ ! future ( ,europe4 ,! conflict betwe5 !m 0 t ( ! old idea ( milit>y despotism1 non-comm]ce1 & non-tol]ation aga9/ ! new _s ( individual fre$om4 ,f ! ,peace ( ,we/phalia 7#afdh7 to ! ,sev5 ,ye>s' ,w> 7#agef-agfc7 occurr$ _m conflicts :i* presag$ ! break+ d[n ( ! old b\nd>ies4 ,! old rgime receiv$ its dea?-bl[ at ! h&s ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great 9 ! ,sev5 ,ye>s' ,w>2 & a half-c5tury lat] 7#ahjf7 ! ,holy ,roman ,empire came to an end4 ,9 all c\ntries !re 7 vigor\s political movem5ts 9 support ( ! rights ( ! individual4 ,9 ,engl& ! ,h\se ( ,commons began to rise to p[] & ! colonies 9 ,am]ica to ass]t _! indep5d5ce4 ,9 ,france ! ,b\rbon family 0 fa/ los+ its grip1 to be completely ov]?r[n 9 ! ,fr5* ,revolution 7#aghi74 ,! curr5t 0 entirely 9 ! same direction 9 ,g]many4 ,?is 0 ! "t ( ,adam ,smi? & ! rise ( economic !ories4 ,x is a matt] ( no little significance t ?is p]iod f ! po9t ( view ( philosophy beg9s ) ,locke's psy*ological ,essay & ends ) ,kant's ,critique2 & f ! po9t ( view ( politics x beg9s ) ! ,revolution ( #afhh 9 ,engl&1 & ends ) a revolution 9 ,france & ano!r 9 ! ,am]ican colonies4 ,a ,comp>ison ( ! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many4 ,! individualism ( ! ,enlight5m5t express$ itself z a rationalism 9 ,g]many1 z a s5sationalism & deism 9 ,france1 & z a deism & an empiricism 9 ,engl&4 ,nev]!less all its phases may be f\nd 9 ea* "o ( ^! c\ntries4 ,! outcome ( ! movem5t 9 ! ?ree c\ntries is1 h[ev]1 v diff]5t4 ,9 ,engl& ! ,enlight5m5t pass$ into a philosophical reaction 9 ! s-call$ ,scotti% ,s*ool2 9 ,france1 x result$ 9 a political revolution2 9 ,g]many1 x m]g$ ) a great lit]>y movem5t & result$ 9 a creative idealism4 ,! ,_m ,gr\ps ( ,philosoph]s ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,a comp>ison ( ! li/s ( philosoph]s ( ?is ) ^? ( o!r p]iods reveals an extraord9>y numb] ( names4 ,! ,r5aissance1 = example1 %[s ab\t half z _m names ( consequ5ce1 al?\gh x is ab\t twice z long4 ,! ,enlight5m5t teems ) philosoph]s1 = its secul> life 0 p]meat$ ) ! reflective _s4 ,! philosoph]s are also (t5 notable m51 ^: names are famili> to ! mod]n read]4 ,nev]!less ! numb] ( con/ructive philosoph]s 0 exce$+ly few4 ,only ,locke1 ,b]keley1 & ,hume c be f\nd ^: importance equals t ( ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 ,galileo1 ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 & ,leibnitz4 ,9 p]sonal tal5ts & importance to _! age ! o!rs seem to g 9 gr\ps or to be "p ( ! secul> _s4 ,on ! :ole ! hi/ory ( ! ,enlight5m5t is t ( social movem5ts1 & ! philosoph]s seem to be ! expon5ts ( su* movem5ts4 ,"s ( ^! important gr\ps are z foll[s3 ,9 ,engl&4 #a4 ,associationali/ ,psy*ologi/s3 ,pet] ,br[n 7d4 #agce71 ,h>tley 7#agjd-ageg71 ,se>* 7#agje-aggd71 ,prie/ley 7#agcc-ahjd71 ,tooke 7#agcf-ahab71 ,erasmus ,d>w9 7#agca-ahjb71 ,?omas ,br[n 7#aggh-ahbj74 #b4 ,moral ,philosoph]s3 ,%aftesbury 7#afga-agac72 morality bas$ on intellect1 ,samuel ,cl>ke 7#afge-agbi72 ,wolla/on 7#afei-agbd72 morality bas$ on feel+1 ,hut*eson 7#afid-agdg72 ,home 7#afif-aghb72 ,burke 7#agcj-agig72 ,f]guson 7#agbd-ahaf72 ,adam ,smi? 7#agbc-agij72 morality bas$ on au?ority1 ,butl] 7#afib-ageb72 ,paley 7#agdc-ahje72 e?ics bas$ on associational psy*ology1 ,b5?am 7#agdh-ahcb72 9 an isolat$ e?ical position1 ,m&eville 7#afgj-agcc72 ! ,platoni/1 ,price 7#agbc-agia74 #c4 ,! ,dei/s3 ,tol& 7#afgj-agbb71 ,coll9s 7#afgf-agbi71 ,t9dal 7#afef-agcc71 ,*ubb 7#afgi-agdg71 ,morgan 7d4 #agdc71 ,bol+broke 7#afgh-agea74 #d4 ,! ,scotti% ,s*ool ( ,philosophy3 ,?omas ,reid 7#agaj-agif71 ,oswald 7d4 #agic71 ,beattie 7d4 #ahje71 ,dugald ,/ew>t 7#agec-ahbh74 ,9 ,france4 #a4 ,skeptics3 ,bayle 7#afdg-agjf71 ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh71 ,maup]tuis 7#afih-agei71 d',alemb]t 7#agag-aghc71 ,buffon 7#agjg-aghh71 ,rob9et 7#agce-ahbj74 #b4 ,! ,s5suali/s3 ,la ,mettrie 7#agji-agea71 ,bonnet 7#agbj-agic71 ,condillac 7#agae-aghj71 ,cabanis 7#ageg-ahjh74 #c4 ,! ,encyclopdi/s3 ,did]ot 7#agac-aghd71 ,voltaire1 d',alemb]t1 ,r\sseau 7#agab-aggh71 ,turgot1 ,jauc\rt1 ,duclos1 ,grimm 7#agbc-ahjg71 ,holba* 7#agbc-aghi71 ,helvetius 7#agae-agga74 #d4 ,! ,political ,economi/s & ,con/itutionali/s3 ,montesquieu 7#afhi-agee71 ,quesnay1 ,turgot1 ,morelly1 ,mably4 #e4 ,! ,s5tim5tali/3 ,r\sseau 7#agab-aggh71 ! mo/ notable figure ( ,france dur+ ! ,enlight5m5t4 #f4 ,philosophical ,revolutioni/s3 ,/4 ,lamb]t 7#agaf-ahjc71 ,volney 7#ageg-ahbj71 ,condorcet 7#agdc-agid71 ,g>at 7#agdi-ahcc74 ,9 ,g]many4 #a4 ,?omasius 7#afee-agbh71 ! fir/ ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 #b4 ,! ,wolffians3 ,wolff 7#afgi-aged71 ,bilf+]1 ,knutz5 7d4 #agea71 ,gotts*$ 7#agjj-agff71 ,baumg>t5 7#agad-agfb74 #c4 ,! ,geometrical ,me?od & its ,oppon5ts3 ,hans*1 ,pl\cquet1 ,cr\saz1 ,rdig] 7#afga-agca71 ,crusius 7#agab-agge71 ,budde1 ,bruck]1 ,ti$emann1 ,lossius1 ,platn]4 #d4 ,! ,psy*ologi/s & ,relat$ ,philosoph]s3 ,krug]1 ,h5ts*1 ,weiss1 ,irw+1 ,moritz 7#ageg-agic71 ,bas$[ 7#agbc-agij71 ,pe/alozzi1 & ,sulz]4 #e4 ,! ,indep5d5t ,philosoph]s3 ,lamb]t 7#agbh-aggg71 ,tet5s 7#agcf-ahje74 #f4 ,! ,dei/s3 ,s*midt1 ,seml] 7#agbe-agia71 ,reim>us 7#afii-agfh71 ,edelmann4 #g4 ,! ,pieti/s3 ,sp5] 7#afce-agje71 ,francke 7#affc-agbg71 ,arnold1 ,dippel4 #h4 ,! ,popul> ,philosoph]s3 ,m5delssohn 7#agbi-aghf71 ,nicolai 7#agcc-ahaa71 ,bas$[1 ,abbt1 ,engel1 ,f$]1 ,me9]s1 ,g>ve4 #i4 ,! ,writ] on ,philosophical ,religion3 ,less+ 7#agbi-agha74 #aj4 ,! ,writ] on ,fai? ,philosophy3 ,h]d] 7#agdd-ahjc74 ,! philosoph]s ( greate/ importance 9 ?is p]iod are giv5 bel[4 ,to help ! read] keep 9 m9d contempor>y philosophical influ5ces o!r names are giv5 ) !m 9 a p>allel table4 ,bacon #aefa ,hobbes #aehh ,desc>tes #aeif #afbf ,sp9oza ,locke #afcb #afcb ,newton #afdb ,leibnitz #afej #afdf #afgg #afgi ,wolff #afgi ,b]keley ,voltaire #afhe #afid #agjd ,hume #agaa ,r\sseau #agaf #agab ,less+ #agbg #agbi #agec #aged #aggf #aggh #aggh #agha ,illu/ration3 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,bir?places ,,( ,,"s ,,( ,,! ,,influ5tial ,,?9k]s ,,( ,,! ,,enlight5m5t 7#afij-agha7 7,note t ! names ( ! philosoph]s are giv5 9 brackets b5ea? ! names ( ! t[ns & cities7 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,john ,,locke ,! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,great ,brita94 ,! hi/ory ( ! philosophy ( ,great ,brita9 includes ! tea*+s ( ,locke1 ,b]keley1 ,hume1 & ! ,scotti% ,s*ool4 ,) ! exception ( ! tea*+s ( ! reaction>y ,scotti% ,s*ool1 all ! important philosophical tea*+s appe> 9 ! fir/ half ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,we ne$ to und]/&1 fir/1 ! philosophical position ( ,locke1 :o 0 ! fa!r ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,we %all !n see h[ 8 doctr9e develop$ 9 ?ree diff]5t directions3 7#a7 z ,deism1a rational ,*ri/ianity1 7#b7 z an associational psy*ology 9 e?ics1 7#c7 z a !ory ( k 9 ! philosophies ( ,b]keley & ,hume4 ,our discussion ( ! philosophy ( ,bacon & ,hobbes has be5 foll[$ by t ( ,rationalism4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a mi/ake = ! read] to inf]1 z we are ab\t to take up ! /udy ( ,locke1 t a long p]iod ( "t int]v5$ betwe5 ,hobbes & ,locke4 ,a *ronological comp>ison ( _! lives %[s t !y 7 contempor>ies = =ty-sev5 ye>s4 ,bo? liv$ ?r\gh ! reign ( ,*>les ,i1 dur+ ! ,commonweal? & ! ,re/oration4 ,hobbes di$ elev5 ye>s be=e ,locke publi%$ 8 only philosophical essay4 ,we mu/ rememb]1 too1 t ! ,engli% empirical philosoph]s ( ! ,enlight5m5t 7 n insulat$ f ! ,rationali/s ( ! ,cont95t4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re 0 a lively int]*ange ( ideas4 ,desc>tes influ5c$ ,hobbes & ,hobbes influ5c$ ,sp9oza4 ,! influ5ce ( ,desc>tes ^u ,locke 0 n inconsid]able1 & ,leibnitz felt ! influ5ce ( ,locke4 ,b]keley & ,leibnitz arriv$ at ideali/ic conclusions f indep5d5t po9ts ( view4 ,bacon alone seems to /& ap>t bo? f 8 contempor>ies & f 8 imm$iate foll[]s4 ,! ,engli% ,enlight5m5t 0 ! natural developm5t ( ! ,engli% ,r5aissance4 ,locke 0 ! successor ( ,bacon & ,hobbes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,engli% ,enlight5m5t is simil> to :at w5t on 9 ,france & ,g]many4 ,! fir/ half ( ! ,engli% ,enlight5m5tf #afij to #agej0 absorb$ 9 philosophical discussions2 dur+ ! second half1 ! p]iod ab&on$ philosophy1 & 0 engag$ entirely 9 politics4 ,! classes t won 9 ! ,revolution ( #afhh _h little tr\ble 9 ma9ta9+ _! place ( p[]4 ,! peaceful com+ ( ,william & ,m>y gave well-ord]$ conditions = intellectual developm5t & = a p[]ful lit]>y movem5t4 ,! ,jacobites 7 cru%$1 & !re ensu$ a p]iod ( political peace4 ,9 ! latt] half ( ! c5tury1 h[ev]1 ano!r set ( topics came to ! front4 ,aft] #agej politics sup]s$$ philosophy2 & :]eas ! ke5e/ ,engli% m9ds _h be5 employ$ ^u ! !oretical 8/udy ( mank9d0 9 lit]ature & philosophy1 !y n[ became engag$ 9 practical political que/ions4 ,political p>ties develop$4 ,! ,c\rt 0 array$ aga9/ ! families ( ! ,revolution1 ! ,am]ican tr\ble1 & ! ,wilkite agitations 7 loom+ l>ge4 ,engl& 0 suck$ into ! political mael/rom t 0 involv+ all ,europe4 ,in/ead ( dei/ic controv]sies ) ! !ological or?odoxy1 dang]\s political que/ions 7 appe>+4 ,in/ead ( ,hume's ,essay & ,butl]'s ,analogy we h ,burke's spee*es1 ,adam ,smi?'s ,weal? ( ,nations1 ,junius's ,lett]s1 & political pamphlets4 ,9 ! fir/ half ( ! p]iod ,bol+broke _h left politics = philosophy2 9 ! second half ,prie/ley left 8 laboratory = politics4 ,! great *ange 9 ,engli% intellectual int]e/s is %[n 9 ,hume himself4 ,9 #ageb he turn$ f philosophy1 because !re 0 s little int]e/ 9 ! subject1 to ! writ+ ( 8 hi/ory ( ,engl&4 ,!ology 0 p>alyz$2 deism 0 no long] ridicul$2 or?odoxy slumb]$ 9 its victory4 ,! only philosophic tones came f ,france1 :]e ,voltaire1 ! ,encyclopdi/s1 & ,r\sseau 7 c>ry+ out a movem5t t _h its orig9 9 ,engl&2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 f ,scotl& & its reaction>y s*ool4 ,b ! political movem5t always rema9$ political 9 ,engl&1 because its in/itutions 7 n inflexible & because ! ,engli% p are by nature con/itutional4 ,9 ,engl& !re has nev] be5 a revolution1 9 ! true s5se1 b ,engl&'s progress has always be5 controll$ by tradition4 ,ev5 ! revolution 9 ! ,engli% colonies 9 ,am]ica 0 caus$ by an abridgm5t ( con/itutional rights1 & n by political !ory1 al?\gh ! =mal ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce 0 fram$ "u ! influ5ce ( ,fr5* philosoph]s4 ,john ,locke1 ,life & ,writ+s 7#afcb-agjd74cg ,! life ( ,locke falls into f\r p]iods4 #a4 ,/ud5t ,life 7#afcb-afff74 ,locke pass$ 8 fir/ f\rte5 ye>s at home1 :i* 7 ! tr\blesome ye>s ( ! ,civil ,w>4 ,! next six ye>s 7 sp5t at ! ,we/m9/] ,s*ool 9 ,london4 ,! la/ f\rte5 ye>s ( ?is p]iod 7 sp5t1 fir/ z /ud5t & !n z lectur] 9 ,ox=d4 ,he took 8 ,ox=d degrees 9 #affj1 ! ye> ( ! ,re/oration & ! ye> 9 :i* ! ,briti% ,royal ,society 0 f\nd$ at ,ox=d4 ,8 dislike = ! classics1 :i* 0 begun at ! ,we/m9/] ,s*ool1 0 confirm$ by 8 ,ox=d /udies4 ,consequ5tly1 dur+ ! ye>s ( 8 p]functory lectur+ at ,ox=d 7#affj-afff71 8 ma9 int]e/ 0 9 physics4 ,he 0 engag$ 9 *emical1 meteorological1 & especially m$ical obs]vations4 ,he 0 also engag$ 9 an amateur m$ical practice1 9 p>tn]%ip ) an old physician4 ,! fir/ turn+ po9t 9 8 life came 9 #afff1 :5 he 0 call$ to att5d ! fir/ ,"l ,%aftesbury1 :o _h fall5 ill at ,ox=d4 ,?is accid5tal meet+ 0 ! beg9n+ ( a la/+ fri5d%ip ) ! ,%aftesbury family1 su/a9$ by _! common love = political1 religi\s1 & intellectual lib]ty4 ,! fir/ ,"l ,%aftesbury 0 ! mo/ notable /atesman 9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,,ii2 ! ?ird ,"l ,%aftesbury 0 ! greate/ ( ,engli% e?ical s*ol>s4 ,locke 0 ! tru/$ fri5d & b5efici>y ( ! fir/ ,"l ,%aftesbury1 ! tutor ( ! second1 & influ5c$1 m ?an any "o else1 ! e?ical productions ( ! ?ird4 ,locke wrote "s notes 9 ?is p]iod on ! ,roman ,commonweal?1 an essay on tol]ation1 & made records ( physical obs]vations4 #b4 ,z ,politician 7#afff-afhc74 ,dur+ ^! sev5te5 ye>s ,locke's outw>d =tunes 7 intimately connect$ ) ! political c>e] ( ,%aftesbury4 ,he held public (fice4 ,he 0 made a memb] ( ! ,royal ,society 9 #affh4 ,! w9t] ( #afgj-afga 0 important = 8 intellectual =tunes & m>ks ano!r turn+ po9t 9 8 life4 ,x 0 !n t he />t$ ! inquiry t l$ to 8 fam\s ,essay4#ch ,! ,essay 0 9 ! process ( developm5t dur+ ! next n9ete5 ye>s4 ,he pass$ f\r ye>s 9 retirem5t & 9 /udy 9 ,france 7#afge-afgi74 ,he also at ?is "t fir/ conceiv$ 8 ,essays on ,gov]nm5t4 ,%aftesbury fl$ to ,holl& 9 ,novemb]1 #afhb1 & ,locke a few mon?s lat] foll[$ him4 #c4 ,z ,philosophical ,au?or 7#afhc-afia74 ,! ye> #afhi divides ?is p]iod into two important p>ts4 ,! fir/ "p 7#afhc-afhi7 is n only ! p]iod ( 8 exile 9 ,holl&1 b x is ! "t 9 :i* he is compos+ & complet+ 8 ?ree mo/ important lit]>y works1,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+1 ! two ,treatises on ,gov]nm5t1 ! ?ree ,epi/les on ,tol]ance4 ,dur+ ! second "p 7#afhi-afia7 he publi%$ ^!1 :i* 0 ! "t imm$iately foll[+ 8 return to ,engl&4 ,newton's ,pr9cipia 0 publi%$ 9 #afhg1 & ,locke's ,essay 9 #afij! "o ! f\ndation ( mod]n physical sci5ce1 ! o!r ! beg9n+ ( mod]n psy*ology4 ,! appe>ance ( ^! two works toge!r ) ! ,revolution 9 #afhh makes ?is po9t ( "t an important "o 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 #d4 ,z ,controv]siali/ 7#afia-agjd74 ,locke !n began to write ^u almo/ e conceivable subject1! co9+ ( silv] money1 ! rais+ ( ! value ( money1 ! culture ( olives1 etc4 ,he 0 also v busy 9 def5d+ 8 philosophy aga9/ attacks4 ,= him1 until #agjj ! p]iod 0 "o ( controv]sy4 ,at t "t he retir$ f all activity1 & aft] f\r ye>s ( fail+ heal? di$ 9 #agjd4 ,8 p]iod ( production 0 conf9$ to ! elev5 ye>s betwe5 #afhi & #agjj4 ,! ,s\rces ( ,locke's ,?\ght4 #a4 ,8 ,puritan ,ance/ry4 ,! ance/ry ( ,locke is little kn[n1 & n mu* t appe>s 9 8 p]sonality c be expla9$ by x4 ,bo? 8 fa!r & "m 7 ,puritans1 & he seems to h inh]it$ ! sev]e piety1 prud5t1 self-reliant indu/ry1 & love ( lib]ty1 t 7 common 9 ,engli% ,puritan families ( ! middle class 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,dur+ ! fir/ f\rte5 ye>s he 0 s*ool$ by 8 p>5ts4 #b4 ,8 ,tra9+ 9 ,tol]ance4 ,if ,locke inh]it$ 9 ! lea/ degree any temp] ( intol]ance f 8 ,puritan ance/ry x entirely disappe>$ ) 8 exp]i5ces be=e & dur+ 8 life at ! ,univ]sity ( ,ox=d4 ,9 #afdf1 at ! ,we/m9/] ,s*ool1 8 m9d revolt$ at ! cruel intol]ance on bo? sides 9 ! ev5ts j succe$+ ! ,civil ,w>4 ,he also rebell$ at ! /]n s*ola/ic tra9+ :i* he receiv$4 ,^! negative influ5ces 7 supplem5t$ by positive inc5tives to fre$om & tol]ation dur+ 8 univ]sity life4 ,john ,ow5 0 ! lib]al ,vice-,*ancellor ( ,ox=d at t "t1 & ! univ]sity grant$ fre$om ( ?\ght to all ,prote/ants4 ,locke felt ,ow5's influ5ce ?r\gh\t 8 :ole life4 ,! fact t ,locke's intimate fri5d at ,ox=d 0 ,pr(essor ,pococke1 ! mo/ outspok5 ,royali/ 9 ! univ]sity1 %[s t :atev] ,puritanism !re 0 9 ,locke's nature _h be5 ameliorat$4 ,tol]ance & lib]ty ( op9ion became n[ ! key-note 9 ! life ( ,john ,locke4 8,a g5tle disposition1 great love = 8 fri5ds1 an hone/ seek+ aft] tru?1 & a firm fai? 9 ! importance ( p]sonal & political fre$om are ! traits mo/ rem>kable 9 ,locke z we "k him f 8 books & lett]s40 ,8 tol]ation 0 n ( ! same sort z t ( 8 contempor>y ,leibnitz4 ,leibnitz s\ght to reconcile discordant elem5ts by comb9+ !m into a new dogmatic !ory2 ,locke neglect$ disagreem5ts1 s\ght no p]fect h>mony1 b po9t$ out a via m$ia t any individual might take4 ,leibnitz set =? a metaphysical sy/em2 ,locke gave a practical me?od4 ,he _h great directness1 & 0 a man ( hone/y ( ?\ght4 ,n be+ a p>tisan he _h no side to def5d2 & he 0 n a p>tisan because philosophy 0 n 8 trade4 ,philosophy 0 to ,locke ! accompli%m5t ( a g5tleman :o 0 int]e/$ 9 ! puzzles ( life4 ,8 diction is = ord9>y p2 x is simple & express$ 9 %ort ,anglo-,saxon words4 ,he %[s no logic ( ?\ght2 & :ile any s5t5ce is admirable1 ! p>agraph & ! page are dull4 ,8 ,essay is a *aos ( pla9 tru?s1 only "h & !re illum9at$ by imag9ation4 ,he %[s no poetic p[]1 & ! _w 9 :i* he liv$ nev] fir$ 8 imag9ation4 ,he /udi$ ! human m9d z he w\ld read ! !rmomet]4 ,to our fa!rs 8 ,essay 0 a philosophical ,bible4 ,to u ! ,essay /&s1 n l a completely plann$ build+1 b l an enl>g$ cottage1 v habitable1 b mak+ no s+le impression4 #c4 ,! ,sci5tific ,influ5ce4 ,z a fell[-c\ntryman ( ,ockam & ! two ,bacons1 ,locke %[s ! same anti-my/ical & positivi/ t5d5cies4 ,he 0 a ?or\gh ,engli%man 9 ta/e & temp]am5t4 ,:5 ! 8new philosophy0 0 f9d+ its way into ! ,ox=d circle1 he 0 "o ( ! fir/ to welcome x4 ,x came to ! ,univ]sity ?r\gh books2 ! lectur]s 7 /ill true to ,ari/otle4 ,desc>tes1 ,hobbes1 & ,bacon 7 widely read1 z 0 also ,gass5di's exposition ( ,epicurus4 ,locke himself writes conc]n+ ! influ5ce ( ,desc>tes ^u him4 ,he gave up all ?\ght ( becom+ a cl]gyman2 & 8 p]sonal fri5d%ip = ,bayle1 a fam\s *emi/1 & = ,syd5ham1 a no less fam\s physician1 int]e/$ him 9 ! empirical me?od z !y appli$ x to *emi/ry & !rapeutics4 ,he ow$ 8 philosophical awak5+ to ,desc>tes & ! ,port ,royal logic4 ,! lucidity ( ,desc>tes came to him z an inspiration ( intellectual lib]ty2 al?\gh he aft]w>ds us$ ! pr9ciples t ,desc>tes _h taught him to controv]t 8 tea*]'s doctr9e4 ,dur+ ! fir/ p]iod ( ,locke's life 7#afcb-afff7 he 0 no?+ m ?an a /ud5t ( m$ic9e & a meteorological obs]v]4 ,he 0 ! retir$ s*ol> :o l$ s placid a life t x port5d$ no?+ notewor?y4 ,he 0 a cr$itable s*ol> & tea*]1 b 8 life 0 negative 9 "*4 ,he _h pass$ ?r\gh /irr+ times1 & !y did n /ir him4 #d4 ,! ,political ,influ5ce4 ,locke's int]e/ 9 politics began :5 he 0 ?irty-f\r ye>s old:5 he met ,"l ,a%ley at ,ox=d4 ,= fifte5 ye>s he %>$ ! home & =tune ( ?is mo/ rem>kable man ( affairs 9 ! reign ( ,*>les ,,ii4 ,?is ,"l ,a%ley 7,e>l ( ,%aftesbury7 fl$ to ,holl& 9 #afhb1 & di$ !re ! next ye>4 ,aft] ! dea? ( 8 patron ,locke left ,engl& = exile 9 ,holl& until #afhi1 :5 he return$ to ,engl& ) ,william & ,m>y4 ,9 ,holl& he f\nd a brilliant company1 exil$ f all c\ntries2 & he =m$ an intimate fri5d%ip ) ,limbor*1 ! lead] ( lib]al !ology 9 ,holl&4 ,"s ( ! "t he liv$ ) a ,quak]4 ,locke's fri5d%ip ) ,%aftesbury & 8 resid5ce 9 ,holl& confirm$ him 9 8 belief 9 political lib]ty4 ,s :5 ,william ent]$ ,engl& & ne$$ lit]>y ju/ification = ! ,revolution1 he got x 9 ,locke's two ,treatises on ,gov]nm5t4 ,locke ?us became ! philosophical def5d] & intellectual repres5tative ( ! ,revolution t n[ aft] fifty ye>s _h rea*$ its culm9ation4 ,summ>y4 ,on ! :ole1 ! inh]it$ ,puritanism ( ,locke 0 easily modifi$ n only by 8 own mod]ate disposition1 b also by 8 sci5tific int]e/s & by 8 l>ge political exp]i5ces4 ,he naturally grew to be ! apo/le ( ! via m$ia betwe5 traditionalism & empiricism4 ,he publi%$ practically no?+ be=e he 0 sixty ye>s old4 ,aft] 8 return f exile 8 pr9cipal works appe>$ 9 swift succession4 ,two accid5ts =m$ turn+-po9ts 9 8 life4 ,8 accid5tal meet+ ) ,%aftesbury 9 #afff turn$ him to politics2 & secondly1 at an in=mal meet+ ( fri5ds 9 ! w9t] ( #afgj-afga ! "q ab\t ! nature ( s5sations 0 accid5tally rais$1 out ( :i* grew 8 great ,essay4 ,8 life 0 prim>ily "o ( affairs & ( l>ge acqua9tance ) m5 & ?+s4 ,to him life 0 ! fir/ ?+1 8 int]e/ 9 politics came second1 & 8 philosophy ?ird4 ,t 8 ideas %\ld h be5 ! basis ( extreme philosophical & political beliefs on ! ,cont95t is natural en\gh :5 "o rememb]s ! p]ils ( mis9t]pretation to ! man :o prea*es ! doctr9e ( ! via m$ia4 ,! ,purpose ( ,locke4 ,9 ! hi/orical p]spective ( two c5turies we to-day see ,locke 9 8 ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ deliv]+ ! inaugural address ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,he is mak+ ! fir/ =mal decl>ation ( ! intellectual rights ( ! individual 9 a l5g?y1 dry1 & erudite psy*ological diss]tation4 ,( c\rse he nev] knew ! hi/orical importance ( 8 own "w4 ,x grew out ( ! ne$ ( ! h\r4 ,he w\ld h be5 a/oni%$ to f9d himself ! spokesman ( ! c5tury ( ,fr5* ,encyclopdi/s1 mat]iali/s1 & revolutioni/s1 ( ,engli% dei/s1 ( ,g]man ,illum9ati1 ( ,hume1 & ( ,voltaire4 ,he _h 9 m9d to answ] ! re/rictions ( ! high *ur*man on ! "o h&1 & ! arrogant claims ( ! a!i/s on ! o!r1 z to ! p[] ( ! human intellect4 ,he /ates t 8 design is to 8inquire into ! orig9al c]ta9ty & ext5t ( human k40 ,9 ?is decl>ation ,locke =e%ad[s ,kant1 b he falls %ort ( ! insight ( ,kant4 ,= ,locke speaks = ! _s ( ! eighte5? & n ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & 7#a7 he mu/ keep )9 ! range ( concrete facts2 7#b7 he mu/ /ate only :at c be /at$ cle>ly2 & 7#c7 he mu/ be practical4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 9 its l>g] mean+ a decl>ation ( human fre$om4 ,locke %[s :at limitations ! human intellect has1 :at x c & :at x _c "k4 ,:5 ! ,enlight5m5t got mom5tum1 x =got ! limitations to k t ! sob] ,locke _h set d[n1 & read 9 8 words only a decl>ation ( lic5se4 ,! ,essay diff]s f any previ\s mod]n philosophical writ+4 ,man & n ! univ]se is ! subject4 ,= ! fir/ "t we f9d an exam9ation ( ! laws ( m9d1 & n ( ! laws ( ! univ]se4 ,b x is ! via m$ia = :i* ,locke /&s1 & n ! lawless excesses ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,! human reason is n all-kn[+_c solve all problems1 is n end[$ ) div9e ideas2 on ! o!r h&1 ! human reason is n m]ely a /r+ ( s5sations4 ,! human reason is j ?is3 x is human4 ,x /&s midway betwe5 div9e intuition & animal s5sation4 ,man is free1 b free "u 8 own limitations4 8,if by ?is inquiry x may be ( use to prevail ) ! busy m9d ( man to be m cauti\s 9 m$dl+ ) ?+s beyond its compreh5sionwe %\ld !n n be s =w>d1 out ( affection = univ]sal k1 to p]plex ourselves & o!rs ) disputes ab\t ?+s1 to :i* our und]/&+s are n suit$ & ( :i* we h n any notions at all40 ,human fre$om /&s betwe5 ! absolute fre$om ( ,god & ! absolute necessity ( ! animal4 ,human fre$om lies )9 ! limits & b\nds ( human ideas! via m$ia2 & analysis ( ^? ideas w %[ :at ^? limits & b\nds are4 ,!re c be no k )\t ideas4 ,"s ideas may be errone\s & out ( all relation to reality4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re may be ideas to :i* no exp]i5ces fit4 ,intellectual fre$om consi/s 9 hav+ n isolat$ ideas1 b ideas 9 _! relations1 t is1 9 ! =m ( judgm5ts4 ,locke 0 mov$ 9 mak+ 8 analysis ( ideas by a g5]al moral purpose to correct ! faults & fallacies 9 mank9d & 9 himself4 8,man's faculties 7 giv5 him to procure ! happ9ess :i* ?is _w is capable (10 says ,locke1 & x might h be5 ,bacon :o _h said x4 ,! se>* = ! via m$ia is ju/ifi$ by its practical & utilit>ian ends4 ,! via m$ia is ! way ( fre$om4 ,two ,sides ( ,locke's ,philosophy4 ,! se>* = ! via m$ia is an attempt to f9d 8! limits & ext5t ( human k40 ,?is involv$ ,locke 9 a discrim9ation z to :at %\ld be accept$ & :at reject$ ( ! pa/4 ,x gives 8 philosophy a positive & a negative aspect4 ,9 brief1 on its negative side he makes a %[ ( reject+ ! entire pa/ by reject+ all innate ideas1 b really he inconsi/5tly accept$ f ! pa/ its conception ( sub/ance & ( individuality4 ,on its positive side he builds up f exp]i5ce a !ory ( k :i* he divides into intuitive1 demon/rative1 & probable4 ,t is to say1 :ile ,locke affirms t all our k mu/ be d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 x nev] occurs to him to d\bt ! traditional ,c>tesian !ory ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 man1 & matt]4 7a7 ,! ,negative ,side,locke & ,s*ola/icism4 ,locke issu$ an av[$ defiance to s*ola/icism 9 ! introduction ( 8 ,essay4 ,( ! f\r books into :i* ! ,essay is divid$1 ! fir/ 0 compos$ la/ & add$ z an introductory decl>ation ( indep5d5ce4 ,if x _h be5 ! only "p ev] writt51 ! an>*ism ( ! eighte5? c5tury w\ld h be5 "r 9 f9d+ its ju/ification 9 ! ,essay4 ,to a mod]n m9d ?is fir/ book looks h>mless en\gh1 b 9 ,locke's "t x _h a deep sociological & political mean+4 ,x expresses 8 practical moral defiance ( traditional m$ivalism4 8,!re exi/ no innate ideas10 says ,locke4 ,innate ideas mean to him ! tyranny ( traditionunexam9$ & unsub/antiat$ beliefs1 conceptions unv]ifi$ by fact4 ,!y /& = *ur* dogma impos$ ^u ! un?9k+ masses1 ! absolutism ( mon>*y & ! div9e "r ( k+s1 ! inh]it$ sup]/itions ab\t nature4 ,sp9oza _h d$uc$ 8 entire philosophy f ! innate idea ( sub/ance2 ,desc>tes _h f\nd at lea/ ?ree innate ideas2 ,leibnitz believ$ all ideas innate4 ,locke pleads = ! p]sonal "r to exam9e all ideas4 ,locke's critics h claim$ t no philosoph] ev] ma9ta9$ ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,locke attack$ !m4 ,locke 0 aim+ at some?+ m vuln]able ?an innate ideas !mselveshe 0 attack+ ! m$ival habit ( ! individual :o takes a ?+ z true because ! ?+ has ! weight ( traditional au?ority4 7b7 ,! ,positive ,side,! ,new ,psy*ology & ,epi/emology4 ,if inh]it$ ideas h no weight = ,locke1 he 0 b\nd to %[ ! k9d ( ideas ^u :i* we c rely4 ,! m9d ent]s ^u life ) no /ock ( ideas 9 trade2 h[ d !y arise8 ,! logical outcome ( ,locke's disclaim] ( s*ola/ic psy*ology oblig$ him to con/ruct a new psy*ology & !ory ( k4 ,he mu/ (f] a psy*ology z a con/ructive programme = ! individualism ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,9 8 second book ,locke /ates ! positive side ( 8 doctr9e by say+ t ! m9d is l a :ite pap] )\t any orig9al m>k+s2 t x gets its m>k+s f ! impressions made ^u x4 ,?us to d5y innate ideas & to affirm t all ideas are empirically ar\s$1 are ! negative & positive sides ( ! same doctr9e ( individualism4 ,!y are two ways ( say+ t ! m9d ( ! individual is free to judge = itself ( ! tru? or fals5ess ( its exp]i5ces4 ,9 8 d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas1 9 8 use ( ! =mula t 8no?+ is 9 ! intellect t has n be5 fir/ 9 ! s5se10 or 9 8 employm5t ( ! figure ( ! 8:ite piece ( pap]10 ,locke does n int5d to /ate any?+ fur!r ?an t ! m9d is free4 ,he m]ely means t ! individual />ts )\t trammels & prejudices4 ,he does n mean t ! m9d is completely passive & at ! m]cy ( its environm5t1 z 8 ,fr5* foll[]s int]pret$ him4 ,locke is a s5sationali/1 b he does n belong to t class :o believe t our m5tal /ates are m]ely translat$ s5sations1 & t ! m9d itself is m]ely passive4 ,he believes t ! m9d does n create its ideas1 b t !y are pres5t$ to x4 ,! m9d has orig9al p[]s ^u :i* x c reflect4 ,! m9d c op]ate ) its ideas & make !m into comp\nds4 ,?us "o mu/ read ,locke's ,essay to ! end to get 8 d\ble po9t ( view4 ,9 ! second & ?ird books he frequ5tly discusses ! cont5ts ( ! m9d z if ! m9d 7 passive1 9 ! mann] ( mod]n psy*ologi/s4 ,9 ! f\r? book he develops an epi/emology on ! assumption t ! m9d is active & free4 ,locke's ,psy*ology4 ,! second & ?ird books ( ! ,essay are a discussion ( ! empirical s\rces ( our ideas4 ,"o notes ! ,c>tesian dualism ( m9d & matt] 9 ! backgr\nd4 ,all ideas h _! s\rce ei!r ext]nally 9 ! impressions ^u ! bodily s5ses1 or int]nally 9 ! op]ations ( ! m9d itself4 ,! s\rces ( ideas are ei!r s5sations or reflections1 or1 z ,locke calls !m1 8out] & inn] p]ceptions40 ,locke also calls !m 8simple ideas10 be+ ! units out ( :i* ! complex ideas are con/ruct$4 ,we und]/& easily en\gh :at ,locke means by s5sations1 b 8reflections0 is a ^w peculi> to him1 :i* has n be5 tak5 up by philosophy4 ,he means by 8reflections0 a consci\sness ( ! ma*9]y ( ! m9d4 ,we are1 t is to say1 consci\s ( our will+1 lov+1 rememb]+1 etc4 ,z to ! ord] ( _! appe>ance 9 ! m9d1 ! s5sations are prior to ! reflections & are ! occasion = ! appe>ance ( ! reflections4 ,! reflections are n ! process ( transmitt+ ! s5sations1 b !y are ! lat] & me*anical transmutation ( ! s5sations4 ,x is important to note t ?r\gh\t ,locke's psy*ological analysis1 he reg>ds ! m9d z passive1 ev5 ) respect to ! ideas ( reflection4 ,! reflections1 z faculties ( ! m9d1 are dep5d5t on ! s5sations1 & bo? s5sations & reflections make impressions ^u a passive m9d4 ,^! 8simple0 ideas come into ! crucible ( ! m9d & =m 8complex0 ideas ( v>i\s sorts4 ,!re are ?ree g5]al classes ( ^! complex ideas3 sub/ances1 modes1 & relations4 ,! con/ruction ( 8complex ideas0 out ( 8simple ideas0 & ! objects to :i* ! complex ideas ref] receive a great v>iety ( illu/ration at ,locke's h&s1 b ! details ( 8 l5g?y discussion ne$ n deta9 u4 ,he is v pa9/ak+2 he %[s h>d common s5se2 b he is defici5t 9 logical classification & he (t5 betrays mu* indecision4 ,8 ,essay is ( encyclopdic "* 9 its d]ivation ( all common notions f 8simple ideas40 ,! laws ( association =m ! *emi/ry by :i* he welds ! 8simple ideas0 toge!r4 ,?us f> ,locke is empirical & consi/5t4 ,h[ev]1 ! duali/ic backgr\nd ( ! ?\ght ( 8 age makes him deviate f 8 av[$ empiricism4 ,besides ! cle> & simple ideas ( s5sation & reflection ,locke introduces ! idea ( ! ,self4 ,:at is ! idea ( ,self8 ,x is n a s5sation nor a reflection4 ,x is n a complex idea1 d]iv$ f s5sations & reflections4 8,x is an int]nal1 infallible p]ception t we are40 ,x is an accompanim5t ( ! processes ( ?\ght4 ,x /&s beside ! ideas1 :i* are empirically d]iv$1 z an unexpla9$ rema9d]4 ,! result ( ,locke's psy*ological analysis is !re=e t ! inn] _w ( ! m9d consi/s ( ! comb9ation ( ! simple ideas ( s5sation & reflection plus ! unexpla9$ idea ( ! ,self4 ,locke's ,!ory ( ,k4 ,al?\gh ,locke says t ! purpose ( 8 ,essay is to %[ ! limits & ext5t ( human k1 he does n rea* ?is until ! la/ book4 ,! fir/ ?ree books =m a long introduction to ! f\r? book & 8 real !me4 ,"h = ! fir/ "t he treats ! m9d z active2 & "h = ! fir/ "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght ! attempt is made to %[ :at que/ions man c answ] ) c]ta9ty1 :at ) probability1 & :at are beyond man's k4 ,all ! difficulties 9 ! assumptions ( ! ,enlight5m5t come out 9 ,locke's treatm5t ( 8 ma9 !me4 ,locke def9es k z ! 8p]ception ( ! agreem5t or disagreem5t ( our ideas10 & yet he says t k is real only z ideas agree ) ?+s4 ,t is to say1 ,locke _h assum$ 79 ,book ,,ii ( ! ,essay7 ! exi/5ce ( ! mat]ial sub/ance ( ?+s ( ! out] _w1 j z he assum$ ! exi/5ce ( ! spiritual ,self-sub/ance ( ! inn] _w4 ,:at is ! nature ( ! out] mat]ial sub/ance8 ,locke hesitates1 & ! be/ he c answ] is1 8,x is ! unkn[n support & cause ( ! union ( sev]al di/9ct1 simple ideas40 ,sub/ance1 to ,locke1 is a ^w = some?+ unkn[n4 ,b does ! m9d "k no?+ ab\t sub/ance8 ,:at in=mation d our ideas convey to u ( sub/ance8 ,we h ?is k3 we "k ! prim>y or con/ant1 un*angeable qualities ( sub/ances1 & ! second>y or v>iable qualities ( sub/ances4 ,! prim>y qualities ( bodies are ! same z _! effects 9 u1 su* z ! ext5sion ( bodies1 _! solidity1 movem5t & re/1 duration & position 9 "t4 ,! second>y 8are no?+ 9 ! objects !mselves b p[]s to produce v>i\s s5sations 9 u by _! prim>y qualities40 ,second>y qualities are s\nds1 colors1 etc4 ,9 ?is confus$ /atem5t x w\ld seem t sub/ance /&s z m]ely ! nom9al support ( ! prim>y qualities1 & ! prim>y qualities are ! cause ( ! second>y qualities4 ,?us ! individual /&s =? free 9 ! developm5t ( 8 ideas1 b he is an individual circumscrib$ by 8 duali/ic _w4 ,he belongs to ! _w ( an unexpla9$ spiritual sub/ance on ! "o h&1 & he is surr\nd$ by a _w ( an unkn[n mat]ial sub/ance on ! o!r4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( k3 intuitive1 demon/rative1 & probable4 ,locke says t ! individual is intuitively c]ta9 ( 8 own ideas4 ,! individual has also demon/rative khe c reason logically & ma!matically4 ,b ,locke's real problem does n lie ) intuitive & demon/rative k4 ,! "q t conc]n$ him 0 r1 ,:at is ! "* ( our k ( ! ext]nal _w8 ,! individual 9 ! ,enlight5m5t liv$ 9 a spiritual indep5d5ce ( matt]1 yet he _h a feel+ ( unc]ta9ty ab\t 8 hold ^u a _w ( matt] s diff]5t f himself4 ,x 0 a _w =eign to 8 spiritual ess5ce4 ,) ! deep5+ ( ! m9d )9 itself & ) its gr[+ indep5d5ce1 ! equally indep5d5t mat]ial _w grew m difficult & di/ant4 ,locke feels ?is difficulty4 ,h[ c man "k ?is ext]nal _w8 ,h[ c ! individual1 ) all 8 fre$om1 br+ ! ext]nal _w "u 8 control8 ,besides ! c]ta9ty ( intuitive & demon/rative k1 !re is a ?ird k9d accord+ to ,locke4 ,?is is ! probable k ( ! nature _w4 ,we are c]ta9 ( our s5sations1 b we are n c]ta9 ( :at our s5sations report4 ,! highe/ degree :i* our k ( ! ext]nal _w c atta9 is probability1 or an inf]5ce f _m s\rces4 ,su* k is m]e op9ion1 :i* supplem5ts c]ta9 k & op]ates 9 ! l>ge field ( our daily exi/5ce4 ,! spiritual individual /&s 9 a k9d ( twilight region ) ! dull wall ( ! mat]ial _w ( probable exi/5ce loom+ up be=e him1 ! outl9es ( :i* he c b>ely disc]n4 ,on ei!r side ( ?is twilight exi/5ce lies ! broad daylight ( intuitive & demon/rative k1 & ar\nd x all ! absolute d>kness ( ignorance4 ,our k is mu* less ?an our ignorance because our k is limit$ to our ideas & _! comb9ations4 ,locke's ,practical ,philosophy4 ,locke pursu$ ! via m$ia 9 8 discussion ( ! practical problems t 7 at t "t ( burn+ importance 9 ,engli% society4 ,he always kept 9 m9d ! spiritual man :o is circumscrib$ by 8 own limitations4 ,morally1 religi\sly1 & politically ! individual has to con=m to ! conditions 9 :i* he lives4 ,b morality1 religion1 & gov]nm5t _c get _! au?ority f ideas inborn 9 ! m9d4 ,all are ! outgr[?s ( exp]i5ce4 ,! moral law1 = example1 is a law ( nature1 al?\gh at ! same "t x is a law ( ,god4 ,x arises f exp]i5ce1 & at ! same "t x has its root 9 ,god4 ,to obey x is to be happy1 to disobey x is to be unhappy4 ,! revelation ( religion1 too1 may transc5d exp]i5ce1 b x mu/ n contradict exp]i5ce4 ,9 bo? religion & morality ! individual mu/ be ! f9al judge1 = he is ! arbit] ( 8 own happ9ess4 ,individual happ9ess is ( m value ?an all else4 ,religi\s tol]ation is !re=e "o ( ! fir/ pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t1 & betwe5 ! *ur* & ! /ate !re %\ld be no conflict4 ,locke's political philosophy is along ! same via m$ia4 ,9 8 ,treatises on ,gov]nm5t he seeks to make good ! title ( ,k+ ,william to ! ,briti% ?rone4 ,he ju/ifies ! "r ( ! individual to revolt "u c]ta9 conditions4 ,political gov]nm5t is n a sacr$ innate idea1 b has aris5 out ( exp]i5ce z conducive to ! happ9ess ( man4 ,! individuals & ! gov]nm5t make a contract to s]ve ea* o!r4 ,:5 ei!r violates ! contract1 ! ,/ate is at an end4 ,to ! advocates ( ! div9e rights ( k+s1 l ,film]1 political law ant$at$ 8nature02 to ,hobbes1 law came aft] 8nature02 to ,locke1 law is 8nature40 ,to ,film] 8nature0 0 a gold5 age2 to ,hobbes x 0 a %ock+ /ate to be got rid (2 to ,locke 8nature0 is h>mony4 ,?us accord+ to ,locke ! individual has ?r\gh 8 exp]i5ces con/ruct$ 8 morality1 8 religion1 & 8 gov]nm5t because !y are conducive to 8 happ9ess1 & at ! same "t !y h _! gr\nd 9 ! 8nature0 ( ?+s4 ,! individual /&s free among !m1 ! c5tral figure 9 ! _w4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,locke4 ,! philosophy ( ,locke became ! f\nta9-head ( ! _m div]g5t s*ools ( ?\ght ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,8 ,essay did n conta9 any?+ fundam5tally new1 & its pres5tation has little orig9ality2 b x voic$ ! ?\ght ( ! eighte5? c5tury s easily1 & ) su* skillful avoidance ( pitfalls1 t x made ,locke ! mo/ widely read & ! mo/ influ5tial philosoph] ( 8 "t4 ,f\r sep>ate movem5ts _h _! s\rce 9 him3 7#a7 ,f 8 !ory ( k1 9 :i* ! emphasis is laid ^u ! m9d z active1 came ! empirical idealism ( ,b]keley & ,hume2 7#b7 f 8 psy*ological analysis 9 ! second & ?ird books ( ! ,essay1 9 :i* ! m9d is reg>d$ z passive1 came ! s5sationalism ( ! ,fr5*2 7#c7 f 8 !ory ( religion came ,deism2 7#d7 f 8 associationali/ic e?ics came ! utilit>ian e?ical !ories ( ! ,engli% morali/s4 ,! mo/ con/ructive foll[]s ( ,locke 7 ,b]keley & ,hume4 ,! o!rs may be call$ ! less] ,lockian s*ools2 = al?\gh !y may h ex]cis$ a mu* great] influ5ce ^u _! own "t1 !y 7 nev]!less only p>tial int]pret]s ( ,locke4 ,we %all deal briefly ) ,deism & ,e?ics 9 ,engl&1 next consid] at l5g? ! philosophies ( ,b]keley & ,hume1 & !n pres5t 9 a summ>y b articulate way ! developm5t ( ! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,france & ,g]many4 ,! ,engli% ,dei/s4 ,we h se5 h[ ,rationalism1 especially 9 ! case ( ,desc>tes1 tri$ at ! beg9n+ to recon/ruct !ology )\t break+ ) e/abli%$ dogma4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 rationalism & reveal$ religion %[$ signs ( divorce4 ,"s ( ! rationali/s came to take ! /& t if reason c und]/& ! nature ( ,god1 revelation is ei!r incr$ible or sup]flu\s4 ,! reveal$ religions diff]4 ,! god ( ! m$ival p is n ! same z ! god ( ! hea!n nor z ! ,jehovah ( ! ,jews4 ,!re are _m religions & _m sects 9 ea* religion4 ,!re mu/ be to !m all a common basis1 :i* is ! true religion4 ,?is 0 ! cre$ ( ,deism or ,natural ,religion4 ,positive religions are only ! corruptions ( natural religion1 or ! religion ( reason4 ,deism s\ght to sep>ate religion f special revelations1 :i* 7 look$ ^u z ! irrational elem5ts ( religion4 ,bacon & ,desc>tes _h fre$ natural sci5ce f *ur* dogma2 ,hobbes _h fre$ psy*ology f ! same dogma2 ,grotius _h fre$ ! conception ( law f dogma4 ,! ,dei/s w\ld free religion f dogma4 ,deism 0 f\nd$ on ?ree pr9ciples2 7#a7 ! orig9 & tru? ( religion may be sci5tifically inve/igat$2 7#b7 ! orig9 ( religion is ! consci5ce2 7#c7 positive religions are deg5]ate =ms ( natural religion4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! ,enlight5m5t 0 dei/ical1 & ! movem5t 0 p[]ful 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many4 ,deism 0 q consi/5t ) ! c5tral pr9ciple ( ?is p]iod! self-suffici5cy ( ! individual4 ,9 ,engl& ! fir/ dei/ 0 ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury 7#aeha-afdh71 ) 8 8five fundam5tal propositions ( religion40 ,! body ( ,engli% dei/s1 h[ev]1 got _! cue f ,locke's id5tification ( ! moral law ) ! law ( nature2 b ,locke himself 0 n a dei/4 ,! lit]ature ( deism co9cides = ! mo/ "p ) ! ,engli% moral philosophy ( ! p]iod1 b usually ! gr\p ( ,engli% dei/s is suppos$ to include only ,tol&1 ,*ubb1 ,t9dal1 ,coll9s1 ,morgan1 & ,bol+broke4 ,^! m5 liv$ 9 ! fir/ half ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,!y 7 mu* despis$ by ! s*ol>s ( ! "t z be+ m]e dabbl]s 9 lett]s4 8,!y 7 b a ragg$ regim5t ^: :ole ammunition ( le>n+ 0 a trifle :5 comp>$ ) ! abundant /ores ( a s+le light ( or?odoxy2 :il/ 9 speculative ability !y 7 *ildr5 by ! side ( _! antagoni/s40#ci ,! ,engli% dei/s pass$ f view at ! end ( ! fir/ half ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 cru%$ by ! weight ( ! attack ^u !m4 ,! m p[]ful or?odoxy1 ) its great] tal5t1 0 itself rationali/ic1 & c\ld beat !m on _! own gr\nd4 ,! *ur*m5 %[$ t ! objections aga9/ ! ,god ( revelation w\ld be equally effective aga9/ ! dei/ic ,god ( nature4 ,! classic argum5t along ?is l9e aga9/ ! dei/s is ,bi%op ,butl]'s ,analogy ( ,religion4 ,! battle 0 unequal1 & ! "* ( ! books publi%$ dur+ ! controv]sy reveals ! inequality ( ! conte/4 ,! dei/ic publications 7 small & %abby octavos1 & 7 publi%$ anonym\sly4 ,! or?odox publications 7 solid octavos & qu>tos 9 h&some b9d+s1 ) ! cr$5tials ( p[]ful signatures4 ,ev5 if ! or?odoxy _h n employ$ ! arm ( ! law aga9/ ! dei/s1 ! dei/s w\ld h be5 brok5 by ! intellectual =ce aga9/ !m4 ,! ,engli% ,morali/s4 ,j z ! motive ( ! dei/s 0 to free religion f ! au?ority ( !ology1 s ! motive ( ! celebrat$ gr\p ( ,engli% morali/s ( ! ,enlight5m5t 0 to f9d a basis = morality outside ( *ur* dogma4 ,_m ( ! ,engli% morali/s 7 also dei/s 9 belief4 ,_! numb] is legion1 z ! li/ giv5 bel[ w %[4 ,! greate/ among !m 0 ,%aftesbury4 ,! s*ool began ) ,hobbes & receiv$ mom5tum f ! associational psy*ology ( ,locke4 ,all ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p s\ght to f9d an ultimate basis = morality"s seek+ x ) ,locke 9 exp]i5ce1 o!rs 9 innate ideas4 ,yet ! />t+-po9t ) ea* ( ^! morali/s seems to be ,hobbes & 8 selfi% e?ics1 = ne>ly all e?ical s*ol>s h 8 e?ics 9 m9d1 ei!r to attack or to def5d4 ,= _m ye>s ,hobbes 0 reg>d$ by e?ical s*ol>s ei!r z an evil _s or z an inspir$ g5ius4 ,9 any case1 8 influ5ce 0 felt 9 e?ical discussion = a long "t4 ,*ronological ,table ( ! ,engli% ,morali/s4 #aejj #afjj #agjj #ahjj ,hobbes #hh 44 #gi 44 44 44 44 44 44 ,cudwor? 44 #ag #hh 44 44 44 44 44 44 ,locke 44 #cb 44 #jd 44 44 44 44 44 ,cumb]l& 44 44 #cb 44 #ah 44 44 44 44 ,wolla/on 44 44 #ei #bd 44 44 44 44 44 ,m&eville 44 44 #gj 44 #cc 44 44 44 44 ,%aftesbury 44 44 #ga #ac 44 44 44 44 44 ,cl>ke 44 44 #ge 44 #bi 44 44 44 44 ,b]keley 44 44 #he 44 44 #ec 44 44 44 ,pope 44 44 #hh 44 #dd 44 44 44 44 ,butl] 44 44 #ib 44 44 #eb 44 44 44 ,hut*eson 44 44 #id 44 #dg 44 44 44 44 ,edw>ds 44 44 44 #jc 44 #eh 44 44 44 ,h>tley 44 44 44 #je 44 #eg 44 44 44 ,tuck] 44 44 44 #je 44 44 #gd 44 44 ,reid 44 44 44 #aj 44 44 #if 44 44 ,hume 44 44 44 #aa 44 44 #gf 44 44 ,smi? 44 44 44 #bc 44 44 #ij 44 44 ,price 44 44 44 #bc 44 44 #ia 44 44 ,paley 44 44 44 44 #dc 44 44 #je 44 ,b5?am 44 44 44 44 #dg 44 44 #cb 44 ,/ew>t 44 44 44 44 44 #ec 44 #bh 44 ,:ewell 44 44 44 44 44 44 #ie 44 #ff ,mill 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #jf #gc ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,b]keley ,,& ,,hume ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,george ,b]keley 7#afhe-agec74 ,9 ,bi%op ,b]keley we h ! f9e/ type ( ,iri% m9d4 ,9 8 brilliant m5tal p[]s & ideali/ic !ory he rem9ds u ( t wond]ful ,iri% s*ol> ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ,john ,scotus ,erig5a4 ,b]keley 0 acutely critical1 & yet he possess$ a *ildlike religi\s fai?4 ,he comb9$ an insatiable long+ = k ) an ard5t mission>y zeal4 8,b]keley 0 a born *ild ( ,plato1 a l9eal desc5dant ( a race ^: orig9 is af> (f & is div9e40#dj ,he 0 "o ( ^? exceptional m9ds t beg9 to br+ =? _! intellectual (fspr+ :5 !y are "y4 ,b]keley began to publi% at ! age ( tw5ty-f\r1 ,hume at tw5ty-eight1 ,desc>tes at =ty-"o1 ,locke at fifty-eight4 ,we %all divide ! life ( ,b]keley into ?ree p]iods4 #a4 ,8 ,e>ly ,tra9+ 7#afhe-agjg74 ,no?+ is kn[n ( ,b]keley's e>ly ye>s1 except t he 0 born 9 ,kilk5ny1 ,irel&4 ,he 0 educat$ at ! ,eton ( ,irel&1 ! ,kilk5ny s*ool1 :]e ,swift _h be5 a pupil2 & x is kn[n t "o ( ,b]keley's s*oolmates 0 ,?omas ,prior4 ,b]keley ent]$ ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl91 at fifte51 & graduat$ at n9ete54 ,s*ola/icism 0 /ill influ5tial at ,tr9ity1 b new sci5ces1 su* z botany1 *emi/ry1 & anatomy1 _h be5 add$ to ! curriculum4 ,!re1 too1 ! "y ,b]keley f\nd t ,locke's ,essay 0 mu* discuss$1 & t ,newton1 ,boyle1 ,malebran*e1 ,desc>tes1 & ,leibnitz 7 widely read4 ,f ?is e>ly date ,b]keley began to keep a book ( 8 own philosophical reflections1 call+ x 8 ,commonplace ,book4 ,f x & f 8 philosophy x w\ld appe> t ,locke & ,malebran*e 7 ! mo/ p[]ful philosophical influ5ces ^u him4 #b4 ,z ,au?or 7#agjg-agba74 ,b]keley rema9$ at ,dubl9 z tutor & fell[ five ye>s aft] 8 graduation4 ,9 #agji he 0 orda9$ deacon 9 ! ,engli% *ur*4 ,he publi%$ two ma!matical tracts 9 #agjg1 8 ,!ory ( ,vision 9 #agji1 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k 9 #agaj4 ,! ,!ory ( ,vision & ! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k 7 practically a /atem5t ( 8 philosophy4 ,!y h be5 comp>$ ?us3 ! ,!ory ( ,vision tea*es t 8all t we see is our s5sation02 ! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k tea*es t 8all t exi/s is our k40 ,b]keley !n w5t to ,london1 :]e he 0 admitt$ to ! c\rt ( ,que5 ,anne & also to ! circle t includ$ ,/eele1 ,swift1 ,addison1 & ,pope4 ,b]keley %[$ himself humble1 wise1 consid]ate1 & unselfi%1 & al?\gh he 0 %ock$ at ! c\rt life1 he on 8 side *>m$ e "o :om he met4 ,he want$ to make 8 idealism bett] und]/ood1 & s he publi%$ x 9 ! =m ( a dialogue betwe5 a reali/ & an ideali/4 ,?is publication 0 call$ ,?ree ,dialogues betwe5 ,hylas & ,philon\s 7#agac74 ,he !n made two j\rneys to ! ,cont95t#agac-agad & #agaf-agbj;& sp5t mu* ( ! "t 9 ,italy1 :]e he absorb$ its lit]ature4 ,! ,s\? ,sea sw9dle turn$ him to economics1 & 9 #agba he publi%$ an ,essay t[>d ,prev5t+ ! ,ru9 ( ,great ,brita94 #c4 ,z ,prie/ & ,mission>y 7#agba-agec74 ,b]keley 0 appo9t$ ,dean ( ,d]ry 9 #agba at a sal>y ( #aajj4 ,al?\gh he ?rew himself into 8 "w ) 8 accu/om$ zeal1 !re _h already appe>$ 9 8 m9d ! conception ( an ideal society1 :]e *ur* & /ate w\ld be unit$4 ,he 0 disgu/$ ) ! worn-out ,european society1 & want$ to remove ! y\? to a colony :]e !re w\ld be no temptations4 ,he rais$ a l>ge sum ( money = ?is purpose1 & obta9$ ! promise ( a grant f ! gov]nm5t ( #bj1jjj1 gave up 8 dean]y1 & sail$ = ,am]ica4 ,he int5d$ to settle 9 ,b]muda & !re to f\nd an ideal ,/ate1 :i* %\ld also be a c5tre = ! conv]sion ( ! ,am]ican ,indians to ,*ri/ianity4 ,! promis$ grant f ! ,engli% gov]nm5t did n come1 & ,b]keley got no f>!r ?an ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 :]e he liv$ ?ree ye>s4 ,:ile at ,newport he wrote ,alciphron1 ! ,m9ute ,philosoph]1 & publi%$ x 9 ,engl& 9 #agcb4 ,! records ( ,tr9ity ,*ur* 9 ,newport %[ t he prea*$ !re _m ,sundays4 ,he gave sev]al books to ,h>v>d & ,yale ,colleges4 ,at ,newport he 0 visit$ by ,samuel ,johnson1 an ,episcopal mission>y1 :o aft]w>ds became presid5t ( ,k+'s ,college 9 ,new ,york4 ,johnson 0 conv]t$ to ,b]keley's idealism1 & ?r\gh ,johnson ! doctr9e 0 receiv$ by ,jona?an ,edw>ds1 8 pupil4 ,f #agcd to #ageb ,b]keley 0 ,bi%op ( ,cloyne4 ,he 0 devot$ to mission>y "w among ! poor1 & _m ( 8 p be+ afflict$ ) an epidemic ( influ5za1 he treat$ !m effectively ) t>-wat]a rem$y he _h le>n$ f ! ,indians4 ,he publi%$ ,siris1 an essay on ! philosophical virtues ( t>-wat]1 9 #agdd4 ,9 #ageb he w5t to ,ox=d to live1 & 9 #agec he di$4 ,! ,influ5ces ^u ! ,?\ght ( ,b]keley4 ,b]keley's philosophy %[s little developm5t aft] 8 fir/ publications4 ,) ! exception ( ,siris1 :i* conta9s mu* ,platonic idealism1 ! lat] works ( ,b]keley are sc>cely m ?an an elaboration ( 8 e>ly ?\ght 9 ! ,!ory ( ,vision & ! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,nature4 ,we %\ld inf]1 !re=e1 t ! only philosophical influ5ces ^u ,b]keley 7 ! orig9al spr+s at :i* he drank z a y\?4 ,moreov]1 he always speaks ) ! dogmatic c]ta9ty ( "o :o has drawn 8 mat]ial f b few s\rces4 ,nev] does he exhibit ! indecision ( a man :o is emb>rass$ by _m po9ts ( view4 ,! two *ief influ5ces ^u him 7 ,locke & ,malebran*e4 ,! influ5ce ( ,locke 0 p>tly ( ! nature ( a reaction3 ,b]keley accept$ ,locke's psy*ological analysis1 b react$ f ,locke's 8common s5se0 dualism z e>ly z ! "t ( 8 /ud5t life at ,tr9ity4 ,malebran*e1 ) 8 !ory ( 8occasional causes10 re9=c$ 8 op9ion along ! l9e t 8 reaction took4 ,b ,b]keley's own incisive g5ius _h a relatively great] influ5ce 9 dictat+ ! c\rse ( 8 philosophy ?an is usually ! case4 ,8 m9d 0 precoci\s1 f]tile1 & cont9u\sly v]satile4 ,fur!rmore1 ,b]keley's simple religi\s nature seems to h be5 an important factor 9 det]m9+ 8 intellectual belief4 ,8 peculi> idealism c\ld take root only 9 a m9d inspir$ by fai?4 ,! ,purpose ( ,b]keley4 ,! life & tea*+ ( ,b]keley 7 d$icat$ to ! true int]e/s ( religion4 ,he may be call$ ! religi\s ,enlight5]4 ,he w\ld n1 l ! dei/s1 /rip religion b>e ( dogma1 b he w\ld unlimb] dogma & rational philosophy s t !y w\ld be ( s]vice to religion4 ,8 purpose 0 to free s*ola/icism on ! "o h&1 & rationalism on ! o!r1 f ab/ractions & obscure t]ms1 & !reby br+ ab\t a union ( fai? & k4 ,b]keley look$ ^u himself z a crusad] :o w\ld retake ! ,holy ,l& = ! spiritual individual4 ,we h rem>k$ t "o ( ! presuppositions ( ?is p]iod ( ! ,enlight5m5t is ! indep5d5ce ( ! individual4 ,! individual ar\nd :i* ,b]keley's philosophy c5tres is ! spiritual individual1 & is !re=e unique ev5 = ?is p]iod4 ,su* an individual is sup]ior to 8 environm5t because he belongs n to a mat]ial _w1 b to a community ( religi\s be+s :o c talk & walk ) ,god4 ,! ,engli% ,enlight5m5t pass$ f ,locke to ,b]keley4 ,! inn] life came into complete asc5d5cy & ! spiritual individual em]g$4 ,f ! ,lockian philosophy1 ) its _m contradictory motives1 !re appe>$ ! audaci\s "o-sid$ philosophy ( ,b]keley1 ) its proclamation ( ! reign ( spirituality4 ,x /ood 9 m>k$ contra/ ) ! developm5t ( ! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,francea developm5t ( mat]ialism & mat]ial atoms4 ,! spectral al?\gh /ubborn b\nd>ies ( ! unkn[able mat]ial _w1 :i* ,locke suppos$ to %ut ar\nd ! p[]s ( ! human intellect1 crumbl$ be=e ! h& ( ,b]keley4 ,! casual read] ( ! hi/ory ( ?\ght is1 h[ev]1 (t5 disconc]t$ at ! appe>ance ( su* a philosophy z ,b]keley's 9 ?is p]iod ( empiricism1 & especially z ! imm$iate foll[] ( ,locke4 ,! ,engli% s*ool is call$ ! empirical s*ool1 & yet ,b]keley is also call$ an ideali/4 ,b we mu/ rememb] t empiricism & idealism are n anti!tical4 ,empiricism ref]s to ! s\rce ( our k2 x means t all our k is prim>ily d]iv$ f s5se-p]ceptions4 ,^! s5se-p]ceptions may be ( two k9ds3 !y may be 7#a7 psy*ological facts1 or 7#b7 mat]ial facts4 ,b]keley 01 l ,locke & ,hume1 an empirici/ ( ! fir/ class2 & yet because he d5i$ ! indep5d5t exi/5ce ( mat]ial facts1 he 0 also an ideali/4 ,he 0 an empirical ideali/1 j z ! ,fr5* philosoph]s ( ! ,enlight5m5t 7 empirical mat]iali/s4 ,! critic may f9d t ,b]keley is n a consi/5t empirici/1 to be sure1 b nei!r 0 ,locke4 ,b]keley />t$ out by affirm+ ! te/imony ( exp]i5ce aga9/ s*ola/ic speculation & ab/raction2 yet all along he assum$ ! s*ola/ic conception ( m9d4 ,nev]!less1 ?is assumption ( ! individual makes ,b]keley a true *ild ( ! ,enlight5m5t4#da ,b]keley's ,g5]al ,relation to ,locke & ,hume4 ,! gr[? ( ?is ,engli% s*ool f ,locke to ,hume is n difficult to und]/& or to rememb]4 ,x is n s mu* a page 9 ! hi/ory ( metaphysics 7! nature ( reality7 z 9 epi/emology 7! !ory ( k74 ,locke asks1 ,:at c we "k8 ,& he replies to 8 own "q1 t we c "k our 8ideas40 ,at ! same "t he assumes ! exi/5ce ( a spiritual sub/ance on ! "o side1 & a mat]ial sub/ance on ! o!r4 ,nei!r ( ^! is an idea1 9 ! s5se t x is an object ( k4 ,! advance ( ,b]keley f ,locke & ( ,hume f ,b]keley 0 "o ( cancellation4 ,b]keley cancell$ ! mat]ial sub/ance1 because ! mat]ial sub/ance is n an idea4 ,hume !n consi/5tly en\gh ask$1 ,:y n = ! same reason cancel ! spiritual sub/ance8 ,! spiritual sub/ance is n an idea or object ( k4 ,we h no m "r to assume x ?an ! mat]ial sub/ance4 ,! only ?+s we "k to exi/ are our ideas4 ,! developm5t ( ! ,engli% s*ool may be briefly put z foll[s3 ,locke1 ,spiritual sub/anceideasmat]ial sub/ance4 ,b]keley1 ,spiritual sub/anceideas4 ,hume1 ideas4 ,hume is ,locke made logically consi/5t4 ,b]keley w5t only halfway4 ,hume among ^! ?ree 0 ! only self-consi/5t empirici/4 ,on ! assumption t all k is d]iv$ f s5se-p]ception ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% empirical s*ool 0 a hi/ory ( ! re/riction ( k4 ,b]keley's ,po9ts ( ,agreem5t ) ,locke4 ,b]keley />ts f ,locke's psy*ological analysis z ! basis ( 8 own !ory4 ,! purely sci5tific aspect ( ! cont5ts ( m9d z classifi$ by ,locke does n call = p>ticul> criticism f him4 ,logical classification does n seem to conc]n him v mu*1 & :ile he accepts ,locke's analysis1 he (t5 calls ,locke's classes by o!r names4 ,he commits himself to ,locke's psy*ological empiricism 9 ! fir/ s5t5ce 9 8 ,pr9ciples3 8,x is evid5t to any "o :o takes a survey ( ! objects ( k1 t !y are ei!r ideas actually impr9t$ on ! s5ses2 or else su* z are p]ceiv$ by att5d+ to ! passions & op]ations ( ! m9d2 or1 la/ly1 ideas =m$ by ! help ( memory & imag9ationei!r comp\nd+1 divid+1 or b>ely repres5t+ ^? orig9ally p]ceiv$ 9 ! a=esaid ways40 ,our k1 !re=e1 deals only ) ideas4 ,!re are ! simple ideas ( s5sation & reflection1 & ideas comp\nd$ f ^!4 ,besides accept+ ! psy*ological analysis ( ,locke1 ,b]keley also adopts )\t "q ! assumption common to ,locke & all ! philosoph]s ( ! ,enlight5m5t1! assumption ( ! indep5d5ce ( ! individual s\l4 8,b besides all ! endless v>iety ( ideas or objects ( k1 !re is likewise some?+ t kn[s or p]ceives !m:at ,i call m9d1 _s1 s\l1 or self4 ,by :i* ,i d n d5ote any "o ( my ideas1 b a ?+ entirely di/9ct f !m1 :]e9 !y exi/1 or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 :]eby !y are p]ceiv$40 ,b]keley1 !re=e1 7#a7 agrees ) ,locke t all k is d]iv$ f s5se-p]ception1 i4 e4 he agrees ) ,locke's empirical psy*ology1 & 7#b7 he also agrees ) "o ( ,locke's assumptions1 viz41 t ! spiritual sub/ances exi/4 ,! ,negative ,side ( ,b]keley's ,philosophy4 ,we h n[ po9t$ out ,b]keley's g5]al relation to ,locke & ,hume1 & m 9 p>ticul> 8 agreem5ts ) ,locke4 ,we are n[ prep>$ to exam9e ! tea*+ ( ,b]keley by itself4 ,b]keley 0 oblig$ to devote a good deal ( "t to ! negative side ( 8 philosophy4 ,j z ,locke c\ld n con/ruct an empirical psy*ology until he _h disclaim$ all allegiance to innate ideas1 s ,b]keley c\ld n con/ruct an idealism until he _h br\ght to be> 9 a polemical fa%ion all 8 =ces aga9/ ab/ract ideas4 ,( 8 two ma/]pieces he devotes ! entire essay on ! ,!ory ( ,vision & a good "p ( 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,nature to ?is end4 #a4 ,9 pro( ( ?is he advances 8 analysis ( ab/ract ideas4 ,he n only d5ies t ab/ract ideas h a correspond+ ext]nal reality1 b he ev5 d5ies t ab/ract ideas exi/ 9 ! m9d itself4 ,! deception 9 ab/ract ideas arises f ! use ( words z g5]al t]ms4 ,words are always g5]al2 ideas are always p>ticul>4 ,!re is nev] an idea t exactly corresponds to a ^w4 ,words are useful n z a conveyance ( ideas1 b = incit+ m5 to action & ar\s+ ! passions4 ,:5ev] a ^w is us$1 :at we ?9k ( is ! p>ticul> s5se1 idea1 or gr\p ( s5se objects t give rise to x4 ,= example1 ! ^w 8yell[0 _c be employ$ by u except 9 connection ) ! ?\ght ( "s p>ticul> yell[ ?+4 ,b]keley is a nom9ali/ ( ! extreme/ type4 #b4 ,aga9 ,b]keley seeks to %[1 by demoli%+ ! di/9ction betwe5 prim>y & second>y qualities1 t matt] z an ab/ract idea has no exi/5ce4 ,?is di/9ction 0 z old z ! ,greek1 ,democritus1 & 0 accept$ by ,locke4 ,we h already describ$ x3 ( a ?+ l a lump ( sug>1 ! s5se qualities ( :it5ess1 r\ghness1 sweetness1 etc41 are second>y because !y dep5d ^u our s5sations = _! exi/5ce2 !y are ! ways 9 :i* our organisms are affect$1 & n true copies ( ?+s2 ! ma!matical qualities1 =m1 size1 d5sity1 imp5etrability1 are prim>y because !y exi/ indep5d5t ( our s5ses & are true copies ( ?+s4 ,hobbes _h already %[n t su* a di/9ction is errone\s1 & ,b]keley foll[$ him by ma9ta9+ t all qualities are second>y4 ,! size & imp5etrability ( a body dep5ds z mu* on s5se-p]ception z its sweetness & color4 ,at "s l5g? 9 8 ,!ory ( ,vision ,b]keley takes up ! "q ( ! solidity1 or ?ird dim5sion1 ( a mat]ial body1 & %[s t x is an inf]5ce dep5d+ on s5sations aris+ f ! conv]g5ce ( ! two eyes & complicat$ by ! s5sations ( t\*4 ,b]keley pr(ess$ to be plead+ ! cause ( ! man 9 ! /reet :o wants a philosophy t is real 8common s5se40 ,he ma9ta9$ t ! conception ( matt] is only a philosophical subtlety = ^? philosoph]s :o seek = some?+ beyond p]ception4 ,! man 9 ! /reet wi%es to expla9 ?+s z he f9ds !m1 & n to seek my/]i\s ab/ractions :i* philosoph]s say 9 "o brea? t we "k1 & 9 ano!r t we _c "k4 ,!re=e1 :ile ,b]keley agre$ ) ,locke's assumption ( ! exi/5ce ( ! spiritual sub/ance1 he dep>t$ f ,locke 9 d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( a mat]ial sub/ance4 ,b]keley accept$1 !re=e1 "o ( ! two assumptions common to ! ,enlight5m5t1 b he d5i$ ! o!r4 ,n[ ,b]keley 0 try+ to prove a !sis4 ,he 0 controll$ by ! ideal ( 8 ard5t religi\s nature to free religion f false philosophy4 ,he felt t ! foes ( religiona!ism & mat]ialism_h employ$ effectively ab/ract ideas1 :i* _h be5 "o ( ! weapons ( religion1 aga9/ religion itself4 ,b]keley conc5trat$ 8 attack aga9/ ! traditional s*ola/ic conception ( ab/ract ideas 9 g5]al & ! ab/ract idea ( matt] 9 p>ticul>4 ,ab/ract ideas h no exi/5ce2 ! idea ( a mat]ial sub/ance is an ab/ract idea & !re=e has no exi/5ce4 ,b]keley 0 b\nd f ! beg9n+ ( 8 religi\s crusade to expla9 away ! exi/5ce ( mat]ial sub/ance4 ,! ,positive ,side ( ,b]keley's ,philosophy4#db ,9 ! con/ruction ( 8 !ory 9 a positive way ,b]keley abridg$ ! dualism ( 8common s5se10 & ass]t$ t ! abridg$ =m 0 bett]4 ,he conv]t$ ! dualism into a religi\s hypo!sis1 b x 0 a dualism /ill1a dualism ( m9ds & _! ideas4 ,b]keley !n set to "w to %[ h[ mu* bett] 8 !ory w\ld expla9 ! problems ( k4 8,b]keley s\ght to humanize sci5ce40 ,he set ! _s free by reliev+ x ( ! falsities ( ! old duali/ic assumption1 b ! usefulness ( 8 abridgm5t lay 9 its solution n ( metaphysical1 b ( epi/emological problems4 #a4 ,b]keley's !ory may be summ$ up 9 8 own abbreviat$ /atem5t ( x1,esse e/ p]cipi 7to be is to be p]ceiv$74 ,or x may be /at$ 9 t figurative & (t-quot$ p>agraph1 8,"s tru?s !re are s ne> & obvi\s to ! m9d t a man ne$ only op5 8 eyes to see !m4 ,su* ,i take ?is important "o to be1 viz41 t all ! *oir ( heav5 & ! furniture ( ! e>?1 9 a ^w all ^? bodies :i* compose ! mighty frame ( ! _w1 h n any subsi/5ce )\t a m9dt _! be+ is to be p]ceiv$ or kn[n40 ,or we may /ate ,b]keley's position 9 ! t]ms ( a mod]n int]pret]#dc ( him3 8,all objects are m5tally disc]n$2 all objects are m5tally con/itut$40 ,b]keley means t ! exi/5ce & "* ( all objects are )9 ! conf9es ( consci\sness1 & !re are no objects outside ( consci\sness4 ,z s5se-p]ceptions !y h reality2 z memories !y lose _! w>m? & di/9ctness2 b !y are n objects at all :5 nei!r p]ceiv$ nor rememb]$4 ,^! objects are always color$ by ! s5se-p]ception4 ,!y are receiv$ ?r\gh ! consci\sness1 & con/itut$ by ! consci\sness4 ,m9ds & _! ideas are all t exi/4 #b4 ,b]keley does n try to prove ! exi/5ce ( ! m9d or s\l1 nor does he attempt to %[ t we p]ceive ! s\l4 ,b 9 ! _s ( ! ,enlight5m5t he h>dly que/ions its reality4 ,he takes its exi/5ce = grant$1 & l ! philosoph]s ( ! p]iod he makes a direct appeal to consci\sness4 8,i "k ,i am consci\s ( my own be+40 ,l ,locke & ,desc>tes he alleges ! direct intuition ( ! self4 ,9 ! ,pr9ciples he speaks ( 8a notion ( our own m9ds or spirits40 ,s9ce ! ideas are copies ( o!r ideas1 !re c be no idea ( ! s\l2 b ! 8notion is l ! _s t kn[s x40 ,we h !re=e direct k or notion ( ourselves 9 kn[+ our ideas2 we h direct k ( some?+ sup]ior to ! ideas1 an activity ^: reality consi/s n 9 be+ p]ceiv$1 b 9 p]ceiv+4 ,inde$1 he made ! ass]tion 9 8 ,commonplace ,book1 :i* he began 9 college1 t no?+ prop]ly does exi/ b consci\s p]sons4 ,all o!r ?+s are n s mu* exi/5ces z signs ( ! exi/5ces ( p]sons4 ,"o is absolutely c]ta9 ( :at "o means by 8,i40 #c4 ,spiritual sub/ances are suffici5t & adequate to expla9 all ideas4 ,!re is no difficulty 9 expla9+ ! images ( our own m9ds1 = our m9ds control !m4 ,b :at expla9s ! exi/5ce ( our p]cepts ov] :i* we h no control8 ,:at sub/antial support h !y if we remove ! 8mat]ial hypo!sis08 ,suppose ,i grant t ,i exi/ & h control ( my imag9ative ideas1 & t o!r m9ds exi/ & h control ( _! imag9ative ideas1 h[ !n1 ,i ask ,b]keley1 am ,i to expla9 ! great _w ( p]ceptions ov] :i* nei!r ,i nor o!r m5 h control8 ,b]keley's g5]al psy*ological position mu/ be summ>iz$ "h 9 ord] to answ] ?is important "q4 ,x is z foll[s3 7#a7 ,all ?+s are no?+ m ?an p]ceptions4 7#b7 ,all ideas1 bo? p]ceptions & images1 are passive1 & mu/ be caus$ by some?+ 9 itself active4 7#c7 ,s\ls are active & ! cause ( ideas4 ,! "q !n is1 ,:at s\l is ! cause ( our p]ceptions8 ,p]ceptions are ideas1 are passive1 b !y are ! ideas ( :om8 ,repudiate ! mat]ial sub/ance1 & :at is ! cause ( p]ceptions8 ,p]ceptions are n orig9at$ by me2 !y _c be self-orig9at$1 because !y are passive & n active2 !y _c be orig9at$ by a mat]ial sub/ance1 because x does n exi/4 ,_! orig9 mu/ be s\ght 9 ! inf9ite _s1 or ,god4 ,if y w exam9e ! ideas :i* con/itute :at we call nature objects1 y w obs]ve ^! significant *>act]i/ics ab\t !m1 to :i* att5tion has already be5 call$4 ,!y h1 z we h said1 a /r5g?1 livel9ess1 di/9ctness1 & ord]l9ess t di/+ui% !m f imag9ations4 ,!y are ,god speak+ to u 9 ,8 ord]ly way4 ,nature objects are ! language ( ,god4 ,! regul>ity & dep5dability ( ! _w ( nature reveal ! "* ( ! ,be+ ^: language ! _w ( nature is4 ,!y reveal a ,be+ :o is intellig5t1 inf9ite1 omnipot5t1 & b5evol5t4 ,! regul>ity ( ! *ang+ seasons1 ! con/ancy ( ! heav5ly bodies to _! orbits1 ! provision ( ! e>? = manall ! laws ( nature are ! language ( an ord]ly ,be+4 ,n[ we see ! importance ( ,b]keley's deviation f ,locke 9 8 7,b]keley's7 conception ( all ideas z passive4 ,all ideas be+ passive1 !re mu/ be a cause ( !m4 ,! only active causes are spirits4 ,i am ! cause or p]ceiv] ( my own imag9ations4 ,i p]ceive ano!r's movem5ts & "k t ano!r p]son or _s mu/ be ! cause4 ,:5 nature speaks 9 its inv>iable & purposive h>mony1 ,i "k t an inf9ite _s is ! cause4 ,we are inde$ liv+ 9 a society ( spirits1 :o speak to "o ano!r 9 _! own language4 ,! doctr9e ( ,b]keley /rikes beg9n]s & p :o temp]am5tally _c und]/& x1 z absurd4 ,! r$uction ( ! trees1 sky1 etc41 to ideas is a !ory t has br\ght d[n all k9ds ( ridicule ^u x4 ,:5 ,dr4 ,johnson he>d ( x1 he is said to h /amp$ 8 foot ^u ! gr\nd1 & !reby refut$ x4 ,byron is quot$ z say+1 8,if !re is no matt]1 & ,b]keley has prov$ x1 x is no matt] :at he said40 ,o!rs h ask$ if we eat & dr9k ideas & are clo!d ) ideas4 ,b ,b]keley nev] d\bt$ ! exi/5ce ( mat]ial objects1 & ! po9t ( 8 !ory is miss$ if we ?9k t he did4 ,:at he d5i$ is ! exi/5ce ( an unkn[n sub/ance1 matt]1 beh9d ext]nal objects4 8,! table ,i write on exi/s1 t is1 ,i see & feel x2 & if ,i 7 out ( my /udy ,i %\ld say x exi/$1 mean+ !reby t if ,i 7 9 my /udy ,i might p]ceive x or t "s o!r p]son does p]ceive x40 ,ano!r "q has be5 ask$ ( ,b]keley :i* goes deep]4 ,if to be is to be p]ceiv$1 :at exi/5ce has a tree 9 ! =e/ t no "o has ev] p]ceiv$4 ,:at exi/5ce h pa/ ev5ts t are =gott58 ,b]keley has consid]$ ?is objection & has answ]$ x4 ,:5 he says t exi/5ce dep5ds ^u p]ception1 he does n mean m]ely my own p]ception4 ,b]keley is n :at 9 philosophy is call$ a solipsi/ 7solus & ipse71 i4 e4 "o :o believes t no?+ exi/s b himself & 8 modifications4 ,a ?+ may h exi/5ce 9 ! m9d ( "s "o else4 ,if ! ?+ has nev] be5 p]ceiv$ by any human be+1 x is p]ceiv$1 if ! ?+ exi/s1 by ! m9d ( ,god4 ,! mod]n sci5ti/ assumes ! exi/5ce ( matt] 9 ! :ole univ]se4 ,b]keley assumes ! exi/5ce ( a p]ceiv+ ,god4 ,"o is ! mat]iali/ic & ! o!r ! religi\s explanation ( ! univ]se4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,david ,hume#dd 7#agaa-aggf74 ,hume's life be>s "s m>ks ( ext]nal resemblance to ,b]keley's4 ,aft] p]iods ( tra9+ t diff]$ v greatly 9 po9t ( discipl9e1 b 7 almo/ ! same 9 po9t ( "t1 bo? produc$1 at ab\t ! age ( tw5ty-five1 _! mo/ important philosophical works4 ,bo? turn$ f philosophy to o!r pursuits,b]keley to mission>y "w at ! age ( ?irty-six1 & ,hume to politics at ! age ( =ty-"o4 ,!re ! resemblance betwe5 ! two m5 ceases2 = !y 7 antipodal by nature1 & animat$ by diff]5t purposes4 ,! en?usia/ic nature ( ,b]keley is 9 m>k$ contra/ ) ! unimpassion$ nature ( ! ,scot4 ,hume 0 unimag9ative to ! la/4 ,he 0 unimpress$ by ! leg5ds ( ! bord] :]e he liv$2 he _h no love = nature & no appreciation ( art4 8,:ile ,hume's intellect 0 imp]ial1 8 sympa?ies 7 prov9cial40 ,b]keley's sympa?ies 7 imp]ial & 8 intellect 0 9 _! s]vice4 ,hume 0 a man ( k9dly disposition & ( mod]ate temp]1 yet he 0 va91 & int]e/$ above ev]y?+ else 9 8 own reputation4 ,no object seem$ wor? :ile to him1 unless x made = ! improvem5t ( 8 tal5ts 9 lit]ature4 ,! failure ( ! ,treatise 0 a bl[ f :i* he nev] recov]$4 ,always aft]w>d he _h an eye to popul>ity1 & ?is is important 9 mak+ up our judgm5t ab\t him4 ,all 8 works aft] ! ,treatise 7 writt5 to please 8 read]s & = p]sonal success4 ,locke ! ,engli%man1 ,b]keley ! ,iri%man1 & ,hume ! ,scot*man came f ! same middle class ( society1 _h univ]sity tra9+1 7 engag$ 9 public s]vice1 & are to be class$ 9 ! same empirical s*ool ( philosophy4 ,b !y 7 p]sonally v diff]5t k9ds ( m51 & 7 types1 al?\gh p]haps n repres5tatives1 ( _! nationalities4 #a4 ,p]iod ( ,tra9+ 7#agaa-agcd74 ,hume 0 born 9 ,ed9burgh & liv$ !re & at ,n9ewells on ! bord]4 ,he 0 a /ud5t at ,ed9burgh ,univ]sity 7#agbc-agbf7 & /udi$ law ! next ye>4 ,he 0 9 bus9ess 9 ,bri/ol 9 #agcd4 ,9 all ! occupations ( ?is p]iod he 0 unhappy4 #b4 ,p]iod ( ,philosoph] 7#agcd-ageb74 ,f #agcd to #agcg ,hume 0 9 retirem5t 9 ,france1 especially at ,la ,fl*e1 :]e he wrote 8 ,treatise on ,human ,nature4 ,he return$ to ,ed9burgh 9 #agcg & publi%$ 8 ,treatise 7#agci-agdj74 ,x 0 read by nobody & 0 an absolute failure4 ,s he rewrote ,book ,i 9 #agdh & call$ x ! ,enquiry conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+4 ,hume's full /atem5t ( 8 !ory ( k is conta9$ 9 ! ,treatise & n 9 ! ,enquiry4 ,he rewrote ,book ,,iii 9 #agea & call$ x ! ,enquiry conc]n+ ,pr9ciples ( ,morals1 8( all my writ+s1 incomp>ably ! be/10 & 9 #ageg he publi%$ ,book ,,ii z an ,essay on ! ,passions 9 ,f\r ,diss]tations4 ,he became acqua9t$ ) ,adam ,smi? 9 #agdj2 he publi%$ ,essays1 ,moral & ,political1 9 #agda-agdb1 & 0 a tutor 9 #agde1 because he ne$$ money4 ,9 #agdf-agdh he became secret>y 9 ! ,engli% milit>y embassy to ,vi5na4 ,9 #agea1 ! same ye> t he 0 reca/+ ! ?ird book ( ! ,treatise1 he wrote 8 ,dialogues conc]n+ ,natural ,religion1 :i* 0 n publi%$ until #aggi4 ,8 autobiography 0 also publi%$ po/hum\sly4 #c4 ,p]iod ( ,politician 7#ageb-aggf74 ,9 #ageb ,hume publi%$ 8 ,political ,disc\rses1 8! only "w ( m9e t 0 successful on its fir/ publication40 ,9 #aged-agfa1 :ile ,libr>ian at ,ed9burgh1 he wrote & publi%$ 8 ,hi/ory ( ,engl&4 ,?is "w 0 ! fir/ s]i\s attempt s9ce ! ,revolution to give an imp>tial acc\nt ( ! e>li] /ruggles aga9/ ! ,/u>ts4 ,?r\gh x he at la/ got great fame1 & =tune foll[$ 9 its wake4 ,9 #ageg came 8 re/atem5t ( ,book ,,ii ( ! ,treatise4 ,9 #agfc-agfe ,hume 0 secret>y ( ! ,engli% ,embassy at ,p>is1 & he 0 made mu* ( by ,fr5* society4 ,! ?\ght ( ! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t _h advanc$ f> en\gh to ent]ta9 him & 8 doctr9es4 ,hume met ,r\sseau at ?is "t4 ,lat] ,hume 0 visit$ by ,r\sseau 9 ,engl& & 0 badly treat$ by ! ecc5tric ,fr5*man4 ,he says t ,r\sseau s9s at ! f\ndation4 ,hume 0 appo9t$ ,"u ,secret>y ( ,/ate 9 #agff2 he return$ to ,ed9burgh 9 #agfi1 & di$ 9 #aggf4 ,influ5ces ^u ! ,?\ght ( ,hume4 ,! writ+s ( ,hume %[ no erudition1 & = t reason x is unc]ta9 :at 7 all ! s\rces f :i* he drew4 ,he does n m5tion ,desc>tes1 = example1 al?\gh he wrote 8 ,treatise at ,la ,fl*e 9 ! %ad[ ( ! s*ool :]e ,desc>tes 0 educat$4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ,hume 0 influ5c$ at lea/ by ! ,greek philosoph]s ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod1 & by ,locke4 ,dur+ ! ye>s aft] ,hume's /ud5t life at ! univ]sity1 he por$ ov] ! writ+s ( ! ,roman ,/oics 9 ! libr>y at ,n9ewells1 & he felt ! influ5ce ( ,cic]o1 ,s5eca1 & ,plut>*4 ,hume read ext5sively1 & he react$ f 8 read+4 ,he became s dissatisfi$ ) ! pa/ t he put x aside1 9 ! belief t ! true philosophy _h n yet be5 writt54 ,9 ?is reaction f ! pa/ he 0 influ5c$ along ! l9es ( ,locke & ,b]keley4 ,he admir$ ! advance t ,b]keley _h made ov] ,locke1 & naturally took a fur!r /ep 9 ! same direction4 ,hume 0 also acqua9t$ ) ! writ+s ( ,hobbes & ) ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% !ories ( morals4 ,9 #agdj he became acqua9t$ ) ,adam ,smi?1 ! political economi/1 & ,hume's ,political ,disc\rses 7#ageb7 anticipat$ ,smi?'s classic ,weal? ( ,nations4 ,at ?is "t 7#ageb7 he turn$ ) all o!r ,engli%m5 f ! discussion ( philosophical to political topics4 ,!re are _m po9ts ( resemblance betwe5 ,smi? & ,hume1 especially 9 _! e?ical doctr9e4 ,dogmatism1 ,ph5om5alism1 & ,skepticism4 ,hume lik$ to speak ( himself z a skeptic1 b philosophically speak+ he 0 skeptical only ( ! dogmatic ,rationalism ( ! ,r5aissance1 :i* _h made unlimit$ claims = ! human reason4 ,hume ma9ta9$ 9 ! _s ( ! ,enlight5m5t t ! human m9d deals ) ideas & n ) reality4 ,human k has !re=e its limits4 ,m consi/5tly ?an ,locke or any "o else 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 he tri$ to %[ ! limits & ext5t ( human k4 ,pure skepticism is ! d5ial t !re is any su* ?+ z tru?2 pure dogmatism w\ld be ! d$uctive explanation ( all problems f a set ( infallible pr9ciples4 ,x w\ld be h>d to f9d an absolutely true example ( skepticism or dogmatism1 = g5]ally philosophical !ories are a mixture ( dogmatism & skepticism4 ,pyrrho is (t5 giv5 z an example ( ! pure skeptic1 b ,pyrrho1 l all o!r ,greeks1 nev] = a mom5t d\bt$ ! exi/5ce ( an ext]nal1 mat]ial object 7vol4 i1 *apt] xii74 ,sp9oza is a fairly good example ( a pure dogmati/1 b he develop$ 8 ,e?ics by means ( int]polat$ pr9ciples n 9 8 orig9al assumptions4 ,a ?or\gh-go+ skeptic w\ld h to be a mod]nn a ,greek:o w\ld d5y t tru? c be kn[n & t ?+s exi/4 ,?is 0 n ,hume's cont5tion4 ,he affirm$ ! validity 7#a7 ( ma!matical reason+ 7#b7 & ( matt]s ( fact1 & 7#c7 ! probability ( ! natural sci5ces4 ,hume may correctly be call$ a ph5om5ali/1 a positivi/1 or an agno/ic4 ,s f> z he ma9ta9$ t !re are "s ?+s :i* ! reason _c "k1 he is an agno/ic4 ,9 8 affirmation t we c "k ideas & only ideas1 he is a positivi/4 ,9 8 affirmation t ideas are ! only exi/5ces1 he is a ph5om5ali/4 ,are ext]nal objects ! cause ( s5sations8 ,exp]i5ce is dumb4 ,h ext]nal objects an exi/5ce8 ,exp]i5ce is dumb4 ,are s\ls ! sub/ance ( our ?\ghts8 ,exp]i5ce is dumb4 ,b ma!matics has tru?1 exp]i5ce is beyond "q1 & ! work+s ( nature are probable4 ,we %all f9d ,hume to be ! ke5e/ critical m9d ( ?is critical p]iod ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,he is pr(\ndly s]i\s 9 8 exam9ation ( ! roots ( ! intellectual life4 ,he is pa/-ma/] 9 ! art ( rais+ que/ions4 ,he n only %[s t ! fundam5tal !oretical problems are /ill unsolv$1 b he also calls to acc\nt ! hi!rto unte/$ assumptions ( practical life4 ,b ?is is criticism1 positivism1 ph5om5alism1 or agno/icism1 & n skepticism4 ,he speaks ( 8 doctr9e z l t ( ! ,middle ,academy1 9 contra/ ) t ( ,pyrrho4 ,he says t excessive skepticism upsets activity1 employm5t1 & common occupations4 ,! conclusions ( ! intellect nev] agree ) our natural in/9cts4 ,e "t positive skepticism appe>s1 nature de/roys x4 ,hume's conclusion z to ! practical attitude ( ! positivi/ t[>d life c be/ be /at$ 9 8 own words 7,treatise1 ,book ,i1 ,conclusion73 8,%all we !n e/abli% x = a g5]al maxim1 t no ref9$ or elaborate reason+ is ev] to be receiv$8 ,if we embrace ?is pr9ciple1 we run into ! mo/ manife/ absurdities4 ,if we reject x 9 favor ( ^? reason+s1 we subv]t entirely ! human und]/&+4 ,we h1 !re=e1 no *oice left1 b betwe5 a false reason & none at all4 ,mo/ =tunately x happ5s t s9ce reason is incapable ( dispell+ ^! cl\ds1 nature suffices to t purpose1 & cures me ( ?is philosophical melan*oly4 ,i d9e1 ,i play a game ( backgammon1 ,i conv]se1 & am m]ry ) my fri5ds4,no3 ,if ,i mu/ be a fool1 z all :o reason or believe any?+ c]ta9ly are1 my follies %all at lea/ be natural & agreeable4 ,9 all ! incid5ts ( life we ought /ill to pres]ve our skepticism4 ,:]e reason is lively & mixes itself ) "s prop5sity x ought to be ass5t$ to40 ,! ,orig9 ( ,ideas4 ,locke did n proce$ to ! con/ruction ( 8 !ory ( k until he _h disclaim$ at l5g? 8 belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas4 ,b]keley w5t fur!r & made 8 polemic aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( all ab/ract ideas4 ,hume w5t /ill fur!r & d5i$ t any ideas exi/$ except ^? d]iv$ f impressions4 ,locke's attack ^u innate ideas 0 an attack ^u unv]ifi$ tradition2 ,b]keley's attack ^u ab/ract ideas 0 an attack ^u mat]ialism2 ,hume made a g5]al attack ^u rationalism4 ,! psy*ology ( ,hume is ?us made simple4 ,x is a cancellation ( ! factors incompatible ) /rict empiricism! factors :i* he f\nd 9 ,locke & ,b]keley4 ,hume's empirical psy*ology is simply ?is3 e idea is ! image or copy ( an impression4 ,:at is an impression8 ,impressions are ( two classes3 7#a7 s5sations or out] impressions2 7#b7 feel+s or emotions or inn] impressions4 ,impressions are nev] mi/ak51 because !y always h a v lively & vivid "*4 ,:at is an idea8 ,x is ! copy ( an impression4 ,an idea %\ld nev] be mi/ak5 = an impression1 because x is fa9t] & m feeble ?an ! impression ( :i* x is ! copy4 ,= example1 ! s5sation ( yell[ is m vigor\s ?an ! ?\ght ( yell[2 ! feel+ ( ang] m vivid ?an ! ?\ght ( ang]4 ,impressions are simple & elem5tal4 ,c we g back ( !m & f9d _! orig98 ,we _c4 ,we receive impressions2 e*oes ( impressions l+] z ideas2 ideas may be comp\nd$ ) o!r ideas4 ,hume deals 9 8 criticism mo/ly ) ! comp\nd+ or comb9+ ( ideas1 b ?is is ! sum & sub/ance ( 8 psy*ological analysis ( our m5tal life4 ,! foll[+ table w help u4 ,s5sations or out] ,impressions impressions 7 orig9al7 ,feel+s or inn] impressions ,p]ceptions 7 m5tal ,memories or an exact /ates7 reproduction ( an impression or ( a ,ideas comb9ation ( impressions 7 d]iv$7 ,imag9ation or a comb9ation1 sep>ation1 & transposition ( impressions accord+ to ! imag9ation's own laws4 ,x %\ld be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! above classes are n cord9ate accord+ to ,hume4 ,impressions are prior to ideas1 & ( ! impressions ! feel+s or inn] impressions are 8po/]ior to ! s5sations & d]iv$ f !m40 ,hume is a s5sationali/1 = ! mo/ orig9al ( ! impressions are s5sations4 ,! ,association ( ,ideas4 ,s9ce no?+ c ent] ! m9d except ?r\gh ! two portals ( out] & inn] impressions1 e idea 9 ! m9d is ! copy ( "o or sev]al impressions4 ,h[ !n c !re be any su* ?+ z error8 ,error arises f ! und]/&+ & imag9ation 9 _! manipulation ( ! impressionsf ! faculties ( ! m9d comb9+1 sep>at+1 & transpos+ ! impressions & _! memories4 ,an idea result+ f su* transposition may & (t5 is ref]r$ to an impression diff]5t f ! "o ( :i* x is ! copy4 ,:at does ,hume mean by ! faculties & p[]s ( ! m9d8 ,he does n mean t ! m9d ) its functions exi/s z a reality1 s9ce all t exi/ are impressions & ! copies ( impressions or ideas4 ,hume means by m5tal faculties & p[]s ! v>i\s modes by :i* ideas comb9e4 ,hume makes no di/9ction betwe5 memory1 imag9ation1 judgm5t1 conception1 etc41 except 7#a7 z diff]5t gr\p+s ( ideas & 7#b7 z accompani$ by diff]5t feel+s4 ,! :ole m5tal life & ! faculties ( ! m5tal life are no?+ b an association ( ideas4 ,isolat$ ideas are expla9$ z copies ( isolat$ impressions2 & f ^! ideas are d]iv$ gr\ps ( ideas :i* we call tra9s ( ?\ght4 ,:y d ideas gr\p !mselves toge!r8 ,! only answ] is t x is ! nature ( ideas4 ,hume frequ5tly speaks ( ^! associative relations z 8! mann] ( conceiv+ ideas40 ,he also says t !re is a 8g5tle =ce0 or 8det]m9ation0 ( ! ideas to relate !mselves ) o!r ideas4 ,giv5 ! impressions & _! relations1 & ,hume w expla9 ! :ole kn[+ process4 ,associative relations take an important place 9 ,hume's !ory1 b "s critics say t !y are int]lop]s2 t he has introduc$ !m by a back door2 t !y are n m5tion$ 9 8 psy*ological inv5tory4 ,b to ,hume !re is no?+ my/]i\s ab\t ! association ( ideas4 ,!y are comb9$1 transpos$1 augm5t$1 & dim9i%$ accord+ to fix$ rules "u me*anical laws4 ,_! relation%ip takes place )\t fre$om4 ,impressions occur 9 ! way !y happ5 to occur4 ,ideas comb9e 9 ! way !y happ5 to comb9e4 ,relations betwe5 ideas are accid5tal & ext]nal4 ,!re is only "o quality ( ideas t does n dep5d on its accid5tal relation to o!r ideas4 ,?is is ! quality ( non-contradiction4 ,?is is ! necess>y prop]ty ( an impression4 ,an impression mu/ be :at x is1 & _c be conceiv$ z hav+ prop]ties contr>y to its own nature4 ,! quality ( id5tity 9 an impression is intr9sic & necess>y4 ,accord+ to ,hume1 !re are ?ree fundam5tal ways 9 :i* ideas associate1 call$ ! ?ree laws ( association4 7#a7 ,!re is ! law ( resemblance or contra/1 by :i* ! occurr5ce ( a ?+ calls up a simil> ?+ or its opposite4 ,ma!matics is bas$ ^u ?is law ( ! resemblance1 ! contr>iety1 & ! quantitative relations ( ideas4 7#b7 ,!re is ! law ( contiguity 9 "t & space1 by :i* ?+s happ5+ toge!r 9 "t & space are recall$ toge!r4 ,^u ?is law are bas$ ! descriptive & exp]im5tal sci5ces4 7#c7 ,!re is ! law ( causation1 ^u :i* religion & ! metaphysics ( ! _w ( nature are bas$4 ,! "q ) ,hume is1 ,h[ is he to expla9 all ^! laws ( association z d]iv$ f impressions8 ,if !y _c be d]iv$ f impressions1 !n 8 !ory t all k is d]iv$ f impressions goes to ! wall4 ,! ,rationali/s & ev5 8 pr$ecessors1 ,locke & ,b]keley1 _h conceiv$ ma!matical propositions & causation z und]iv$ & 9 ! nature ( ?+s4 ,if ,hume is to e/abli% 8 doctr9e ( complete s5sational empiricism1 "h is 8 te/4 ,^! associations1 & n isolat$ impressions1 are ! objects ( human int]e/1 inquiry1 & inve/igation4 ,hume makes a fur!r r$uction ( associations by 8 well-kn[n classification ( !m z ei!r 8relations ( ideas0 or 8matt]s ( fact40 ,associations ( contiguity & associations ( causation are 8matt]s ( fact10 :ile associations ( resemblance are 8relations ( ideas40 ,fur!rmore1 ,hume looks ^u associations ( contiguity z ^? ( out] impressions1 associations ( resemblance z ^? ( inn] impressions1 :ile associations ( causation are n :at !y are alleg$ to be1 b are d]iv$ f "s inn] impressions4 #a4 ,contiguity ,out] ,descriptive ,matt]s association impressions ,sci5ces ,objects ( ( ,fact ,k #b4 ,causation ,inn] ,metaphysics association#de impressions ,relations #c4 ,resemblance ,inn] ,ma!matics ( ,ideas association impressions ,! ,association ( ,contiguity4 ,?is is ! mo/ elem5t>y ( ! ?ree classes ( association1 & conc]ns ! spatial & temporal ord] 9 :i* impressions come to u4 ,two impressions come at ! same "t or 9 succession1 & :5 "o ( !m is rememb]$1 ! o!r is likely to be rememb]$ also4 ,we see a man & he> 8 "n2 :5 we rememb] ! man's face1 we may rememb] 8 "n also4 ,hume ma9ta9s t ?is association ( succession or coexi/5ce is giv5 ) ! impressions !mselves4 ,x is ! ord] ( ! out] impressions4 ,we p]ceive ! ord] ( ! out] impressions ) ! same c]ta9ty t we p]ceive ! cont5ts ( ! impressions4 ,?is is ! only c]ta9ty we h ab\t 8matt]s ( fact10a c]ta9ty ( ! exact ord] ( our imm$iate out] impressions4 ,we "k ! ord] 9 :i* our impressions d occur1 b1 z we %all see1 :5 we argue f ?is t our impressions mu/ recur 9 ! same ord] we are involv$ 9 a fallacy4 ,any ord] may recur4 ,! fact t ! sun rises 9 ! ea/ to-day does n make c]ta9 t x w rise 9 ! ea/ to-morr[4 ,x is only a matt] ( probability1 h[ev] _m times repeat$4 ,!re is no c]ta9 sci5ce ( 8matt]s ( fact40 ,! ,association ( ,resemblance4 ,?is is a cle> & di/9ct association :i* is giv5 ) ! impressions4 ,:5 we h an impression1 we see intuitively its simil>ity or diff]5ce to o!r impressions1 & ! degrees ( lik5ess & unlik5ess4 ,! face ( "o man rem9ds u ( ano!r man1 or we contra/ x ) a brute's face4 ,?is association conc]ns only inn] impressions1 :ile ! association ( contiguity conc]ns out] impressions4 ,?is has to d ) ! 8relation ( ideas10 :ile ! association ( contiguity has to d ) 8matt]s ( fact40 #a4 ,ma!matics4 ,b !re is ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! association ( resemblance & t ( contiguity^u resemblance is f\nd$ a demon/rative sci5ce4 ,?is is ma!matics! sole demon/rative sci5ce4 ,! subject-matt] ( ma!matics consi/s ( ! possible relations betwe5 ! cont5ts ( our ideas! possible relations betwe5 our inn] impressions4 ,^! relations are intuitively kn[n by u1 & out ( !m we get a sci5ce ( complete c]ta9ty4 ,we make a comp>ison betwe5 ! magnitudes 9 ! cont5ts ( ideas1 & we analyze _! regul>ity4 ,?is is ma!matics1 & x is a p]fectly legitimate sci5ce4 ,because x conf9es itself to ! relations betwe5 ideas1 & has no?+ to d ) 8matt]s ( fact10 x c be a demon/rative sci5ce4 ,all ma!matical k is re/rict$ to ! /udy & v]ification ( ideas1 & has !re=e no?+ to d ) ! ext]nal _w4 #b4 ,! ,conception ( ,sub/ance3 ,hume's ,attack on ,!ology4 ,b ! association ( resemblance has be5 made ! basis ( a common illusion4 ,x has be5 made to transc5d its prop] sph]e ( a relation%ip among inn] impressions2 & resemblance betwe5 ideas has be5 tak5 by p g5]ally to mean metaphysical id5tity or sub/ance4 ,x has be5 trans=m$ f a relation%ip betwe5 ideas to a relation%ip betwe5 8matt]s ( fact40 ,n[ sub/ance is evid5tly n an association giv5 ) ! impressions1 l _! temporal & spatial ord] 9 ! association ( contiguity1 nor is x m]e impression ( resemblance4 ,sub/ance is ! conception ( an unkn[n1 indescribable some?+ back ( impressions4 ,!re is ! conception ( ! mat]ial sub/ance or matt]1 & ! spiritual sub/ance or ! s\l4 ,h[ did su* illusory conceptions arise8 ,if ,hume rejects !m z matt]s ( real k1 he mu/ nev]!less expla9 _! psy*ological orig94 ,! illusory idea ( sub/ance orig9ates f ! simil>ity ( ! frequ5t conjo9+ ( c]ta9 impressions4 ,! impressionssweet1 r\gh1 :ite1 etc4occur toge!r s (t5 t ! imag9ation creates ! conception ( ! sub/ance ( sug> beh9d !m4 ,?is arises n f ! fir/ exp]i5ce1 b aft] ! association ( impressions has be5 obs]v$ a l>ge numb] ( times4 ,f ! frequ5t association ( ideas arises ! feel+ ( _! necess>y coexi/5ce4 ,?us d we come to h ! idea ( a mat]ial sub/ance4 ,hume evid5tly foll[s ,b]keley 9 8 criticism ( mat]ial sub/ance4 ,b ,b]keley w5t only halfway4 ,b]keley _h f\nd t bodies 7 only conjunctions ( s5sations1 & he _h reject$ z mean+less ! unkn[n sub/ance beh9d !m4 ,he did n see t ! same attack c\ld be made ^u spiritual sub/ances4 ,b]keley's argum5t aga9/ ! sub/ance ( ! *]ry c\ld be us$ aga9/ ! ,ego or ! ,s\l4 ,h ,i ! impression ( my ,ego8 ,c ,i t\* x or see x8 ,! simple te/ %[s t ,i "k no?+ ab\t x1 & ,i _c affirm :e!r or n x exi/s4 ,b if ! conception ( ! ,s\l has no reality z an object ( k1 h[ c x be psy*ologically expla9$8 ,h[ does x arise 9 ! m9d8 ,! idea ( ! ,s\l is due to ! frequ5t reappe>ance ( ! same tra9s ( ?\ght 9 my m9d4 ,_! simil>ity gives rise to ! feel+ t a metaphysical id5tity1 or ,s\l1 exi/s beh9d !m4 ,! ,association ( ,causation3 ,hume's ,attack on ,sci5ce4 ,among ! _m traditional conceptions ^u :i* ,hume turn$ 8 critical exam9ation1 t ( causation occupies ! mo/ ( 8 att5tion4 ,he discusses x bo? 9 ! ,treatise & 9 ! ,enquiry4 ,he is ! fir/ philosoph] s9ce ,ari/otle to give x compreh5sive treatm5t4 ,he saw t all philosophical1 !ological1 & inde$ sci5tific k re/s ^u ?is conception ( causation4 ,x 0 accept$ )\t "q by ! ,s*ola/ics ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ! ,rationali/s ( ! ,r5aissance1 & ! sci5ti/s ( 8 own "t4 ,if ! conception is valid1 ,hume's criticism goes = naught2 = 8by means ( t relation we c g beyond ! evid5ce ( our memory & s5ses40 ,9 t case :at becomes ( ,hume's psy*ological analysis t all k consi/s ( impressions & ideas8 ,& if ,hume's psy*ology falls1 all 8 criticism ( ! spiritual & ! mat]ial sub/ance falls also4 ,^u ! validity ( ! concept ( cause dep5d _m ( ! s*ola/ic argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ^: exi/5ce we c demon/rate al?\gh ,he is n an object ( s5se impression4 ,imag9ation c !n g on unre/rict$2 = ,god is accept$ n only z cause1 b z fir/ or uncaus$ cause4 ,desc>tes1 ,leibnitz1 & ev5 ,b]keley & ,locke _h accept$ ! causal argum5t = ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 al?\gh ! latt] two _h pret5d$ to re/rict k to s5se-p]ceptions & ideas4 ,aga91 ! causal concept has be5 ! f\ndation = ! belief 9 a function+ s\l beh9d ! m5tal & physical activities ( a human be+2 & on ! same causal concept man has argu$ f s5sations to _! mat]ial sub/rate4 ,all ?is is unw>rant$ & unre/rict$ k because x 8goes beyond ! memory & s5ses40 ,n only !ology1 b sci5ce itself has gone 8beyond ! memory & s5ses40 ,hume d>es to d\bt ! c]ta9ty ( ! causal pr9ciple ev5 9 sci5tific k4 ,is !re any necess>y connection among ev5ts s t ) c]ta9ty we c pr$ict ! occurr5ce ( "o ev5t if ano!r is giv58 ,is !re 9 nature & hi/ory any causal law s b9d+ t e ev5t is a necess>y result ( :at has gone be=e & a necess>y cause ( :at w come8 ,! "q ( cause is1 !re=e1 p>am\nt ) ,hume4 ,if he is successful 9 impea*+ cause z he has be5 9 ! case ( sub/ance1 sci5tific !ory mu/ fall ) !ological dogma4 ,9 8 review ( ! conceptions ( "t & space 7association by contiguity71 ,hume _h f\nd succession to be a quality ( impressions & to be giv5 ) !m4 ,b t is all t c be said! relation is "o ( "t ord]1 b n a relation t is necess>y4 ,! out] impressions happ5 to occur ?us & ?us2 !y ne$ n h occurr$ ?us1 & may nev] occur 9 ?is ord] aga94 ,?is temporal ord] is n by any means a causal ord]4 ,! idea ( cause is t ( p[] transf]r$1 b we h no impression ( p[]4 ,impressions come z sequ5ces1 n z consequ5ces or z p[]s4 ,sequ5ces ( impressions are ! only 8matt]s ( fact02 consequ5ces are n 8matt]s ( fact40 ,!y mu/1 !re=e1 be only 8relations betwe5 ideas0 & h no objective reality4 ,f ,hume's po9t ( view ?is is suffici5t to %[ t cause is n valid & real4 ,to d5y t we h ! concept ( cause w\ld1 h[ev]1 be nons5se4 ,we d h ! concept1 & h[ is its psy*ological orig9 to be expla9$8 ,h[ does ! idea arise8 ,x does n orig9ate 7#a7 z an a priori concept1 i4 e4 by an analysis ( ideas1 nor 7#b7 z an out] impression1 i4 e4 a s5sation1 nor 7#c7 z memory1 s9ce memories are images ( impressions4 ,! idea ( cause orig9ates f an inn] impressiona /rong & lively feel+ connect$ ) ! imag9ation4 ,b h[ does x happ5 t ! feel+ is s /rong t x makes u believe ! idea1 ) :i* x is connect$1 is a reality8 ,! feel+ does n arise f a s+le in/ance ( conjunction ( two impressions1 b f ! conjunction ( two ideas repeat$ _m times4 ,! belief 9 cause is a feel+ orig9at+ 9 ! con/ant conjunction ( impressions4 ,?is expla9s :y ! ideas t fire w burn1 t poison w kill1 t wat] w wetare s lively4 ,! conjunction occurs _m times1 & an inn] necessity or compulsion arises to imag9e ! second impression aft] ! fir/4 ,giv5 ! fir/ idea1 we le>n to expect ! second4 ,repetition produces no?+ new 9 objects1 b x produces 9 ! m9d a new feel+ to pass f "o idea to ! idea usually att5d+ x4 ,necessity exi/s 9 ! m9d & n 9 ! objects4 ,! ,ext5t & ,limits ( ,human ,k4 ,:at remnants ( k rema9 aft] ,hume has appli$ 8 de/ructive criticism8 ,8 critics w\ld answ] t1 if ,hume _h be5 consi/5t1 no k :atev] w\ld rema94 ,^u ! basis ( pure positivism1 t all k is compos$ ( impressions & _! copies1 k is an impossibility4 ,b he introduc$ an additional elem5t1 8relations10 t made k possible because x af=d$ syn!sis & all[$ di/9ctions4 ,tak+ ,hume's doctr9e z x /&s1 8 results are ^!4 ,!re are two classes ( sci5ces1 ! =mal & ! empirical4 ,! =mal includes logic & ma!matics1 & consi/s ( k ( relations betwe5 ideas4 ,su* k has c]ta9ty & validity4 ,empirical sci5ces consi/ 9 k ( matt]s ( fact4 ,su* k nev] am\nts to m ?an probability4 ,!re is no c]ta9ty or demon/ration 9 natural sci5ce4 ,its results call =? n conviction1 b belief4 ,beyond ^! subjects we h no k :atev]4 ,metaphysics & !ology are only fictions4 ,beyond impressions & ! copies ( impressions we c make no ass]tions4 ,! t5d5cy ( ?\ght to tr5* beyond its own t]ritory is ! cause ( all our metaphysical difficulties4 ,x tries to d :at x 0 n int5d$ to d1 & ! result is ab/ract ideas4 ,reason & ! relation ( resemblance give u ! errone\s idea ( spiritual & mat]ial sub/ance2 imag9ation & ! relation ( cause give ! errone\s idea ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( nature4 ,hume's ,!ory ( ,religion & ,e?ics4 ,hume is s true an empirici/ to ! end t he is a rem>kable exception among ! philosoph]s ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,he alone among philosoph]s %[s ! hi/orical s5se 9 ! application ( 8 positivism to religion & morals4 ,9 g5]al ! ,enlight5m5t took no acc\nt ( ! pa/2 9 ?is ,hume diff]s f 8 contempor>ies4 ,hume 0 ! de/roy] ( deism because he advanc$ hi/orical evid5ce aga9/ deism4 ,deism _h ?ree pr9ciples3 t religion is ! object ( sci5tific inve/igation2 t religion _h its orig9 9 ! reason2 & t 8natural religion0 is ! olde/ =m4 ,hume agre$ to ! fir/ proposition1 b he reveal$ 8 hi/orical in/9ct by %[+ t religion did n orig9ate 9 ! reason1 b 9 ! feel+s2 & t n 8natural religion10 b idolatry1 etc41 is ! olde/ =m4 ,fur!rmore1 he /ood almo/ alone among philosoph]s ( ! p]iod 9 build+ e?ics ^u ! feel+s r ?an ^u ! intellect4 ,! e?ical motives ( man are pleasure & pa91 & n an idea ( ! reason4 ,hume's hi/oric s5se l$ him to ?is conclusion4 ,bo? morals & religion %\ld be empirically inve/igat$4 ,z 9 sci5ce1 s 9 !m ! mo/ cog5t conclusions are only probable & n intuitive4 ,our moral activities are "u ! same k9d ( law ( cause t exi/s 9 ! _w ( nature-ph5om5a4 ,! w is det]m9$ by ! feel+s1 & ! reason is ! slave ( ! passions4 ,our moral judgm5t is bas$ on ! feel+ ( sympa?y 7,adam ,smi?74 ,x is practically probable t !re is a purpose 9 ! _w & !re=e a ,god4 ,b ?is _c be e/abli%$4 ,on ! same pr9ciple ( probability ! _w may h gr[n up me*anically or by *ance4 ,religion is naturally reasonable en\gh1 b its doctr9es _c be prov$4 ,! ,scotti% ,s*ool4 ,?is s*ool repres5ts 9 ,great ,brita9 ! reaction f ! s5sualism ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,! ,scotti% ,s*ool 0 ! ,briti% reply to ,hume1 j z ,kant 0 ! ,g]man reply4 ,!y 7 ! late eighte5? c5tury reactions 9 two c\ntries to ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,! tea*+ ( ,kant 01 h[ev]1 also ! beg9n+ ( a new movem5t & a new p]iod4 ,! ,scotti% ,s*ool has no su* importance4 ,?omas ,reid 7#agaj-agif7 0 ! f\nd]4 ,reid admitt$ t ,b]keley & ,hume drew legitimate conclusions f ,locke's g5]al assumption t ! objects ( ?\ght are n ?+s1 b ideas4 ,!re=e ,reid ma9ta9$ t ,locke's position mu/ be giv5 up4 ,/ill empiricism rema9s t5able & mu/ be appli$ to ! ph5om5a ( m9d4 ,:at are ! data ( consci\sness8 ,n individual ideas1 z ,locke said1 b complex ideas or judgm5ts4 ,! elem5ts w be discov]$ lat] by analysis ( ^! complex /ates :i* are fir/ giv54 ,! m9d is n a blank piece ( pap] ^u :i* simple *>act]s are fir/ inscrib$1 & !n lat] ! und]/&+ introduc$ to =m judgm5ts & ! reflection to add belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( objects4 ,our k />ts r f judgm5ts1 :i* involve c]ta9 orig9al tru?s or 8natural judgm5ts40 ,mank9d possesses ! faculty ( 8common s5se10 & ?is faculty makes ^! tru?s a common possession4 ,among ! pr9ciples t 8common s5se0 includes are self-consci\sness1 ! reality ( objects p]ceiv$1 & ! pr9ciple ( cause4 ,! ,scotti% ,s*ool call$ att5tion to ! importance ( self-obs]vation4 ,! memb]s ( ! s*ool made _! attack ^u s5sualism f ! po9t ( empirical psy*ology4 ,philosophy became 9 _! h&s ! p]fect+ ( psy*ology z a sci5ce ( inn] obs]vation4 ,?us !y 7 9 accord ) ! s*ool ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 al?\gh oppos$ to its s5suali/ic outcome4 ,! prom95t memb]s ( ! s*ool 7 ,reid1 ,dugald ,/ew>t1 ,br[n1 & ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,enlight5m5t ,,9 ,,france ,,& ,,g]many#df ,! ,situation 9 ,france 9 ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,! hi/orian ( ! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t has to take acc\nt ( ! reign ( two k+s2 t ( ,l\is ,,xiv 7#afdc-agae72 & t ( ,l\is ,,xv 7#agae-aggd74 ,toge!r !y cov] ! long p]iod ( "o hundr$ & ?irty-"o ye>s4 ,! reign ( ,l\is ,,xv m>ks ! actual developm5t ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 :ile t ( ,l\is ,,xiv conta9s ! causes4 ,! long reign ( sev5ty-two ye>s ( ,l\is ,,xiv _h be5 an absolute1 arbitr>y1 & p]sonal gov]nm5t4 ,x _h be5 an age unsurpass$ 9 lit]ature & eloqu5ce1 b also an age 9 :i* all ^? subjects t did n r$\nd to ! glory ( ! *ur* 7 suppress$4 ,x _h be5 ! age ( ,molire1 ,corneille1 ,rac9e1 ,la ,fonta9e1 & ,fnelon2 an age :5 art 0 enc\rag$1 b also an age 9 :i* political & philosophical orig9ality w\ld n presume to brea!4 ,betwe5 ,desc>tes' dea? 9 #afej & ! dea? ( ,l\is ,,xiv 9 #agae1 "o f9ds a s+le philosoph]1 ,pi]re ,bayle1 & he _h to leave ,france4 ,! ,newtonian physics 0 n accept$ 9 ,france until #agcb;=ty-five ye>s aft] its publication 9 ,engl&4 ,^u ! dea? ( ,l\is ,,xiv ! arti/ic glories ( 8 reign lo/ all _! value = ! nation4 ,9 _! place 0 set ! problem ( ! mat]ial mis]y ( ! nation1 :i* _h be5 caus$ by ! long w>s & ! extravagance ( pat]nal gov]nm5t4 ,! reign ( ,l\is ,,xv see!s ) ! /ruggle ( social =ces4 ,x is a p]iod 9 :i* ! individual is /riv+ to ga9 8 rights "u ! in/itutions t h s long repress$ him4 ,! developm5t ( ! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t is id5tical ) ! /ruggle = political lib]ty4 ,9 no o!r p]iod ( hi/oryexcept p]haps ! ,age ( ,p]iclesis ! hi/ory ( philosophic ?\ght s intimately connect$ ) political hi/ory4 ,! fifty-n9e ye>s ( ! reign ( ,l\is ,,xv are fill$ ) excit+ ev5ts :i* int]e/ bo? ! philosoph] & ! hi/orian4 ,! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t is ! 8reaction aga9/ t protective & int]f]+ _s :i* rea*$ its z5i? "u ,l\is ,,xiv40 ,) ,l\is ,,xv ! magnific5ce & ! utility ( ecclesia/ical & political absolutism c\ld n be ma9ta9$4 ,= ! hi]>*y ( ! *ur* 0 unable long] to keep up its claim ( indep5d5ce & morality2 & ! ,/ate 0 rapidly exhau/+ its p[] by exhau/+ its f9ancial res\rces4 ,ea* ev5t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,france 9 ! eighte5? c5tury _h !re=e two aspectsea* l$ to ! ,revolution1 & ea* 0 a /ep 9 ! developm5t ( ! ,enlight5m5t ( ! individual4 ,! pione]s 9 ! movem5t c\ld n h be5 consci\s ( ! end to :i* _! criticism w\ld lead2 b to u look+ back ^u ! c5tury ! result seems inevitable4 ,a comp>ison ) ! situation 9 ,engl& is int]e/+4 ,:ile 9 ,engl& ! political & ecclesia/ical in/itutions 7 s ela/ic t !y c\ld )\t dis9tegrat+ absorb ! movem5t ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 & :ile !y 7 s little b\nd to traditional in/itutions t ! gr[? 9 individualism w\ld be con/itutional1 ! situation 9 ,france 0 exactly opposite4 7#a7 ,9 ,france ! *ur* & ! political in/itutions _h become inela/ic bodies "u ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,!y _h rea*$ ! limit ( _! developm5t4 ,s deeply root$ 9 absolutism & special privileges 7 !y t !y 7 n op5 to innovation or re=m4 ,dur+ ! reign ( ,l\is ,,xv ! only "q 01 :i* w\ld be cru%$! new individualism or ! old in/itutions4 ,no compromise 0 possible4 ,! in/itutions1 hav+ surviv$ _! usefulness1 gave way4 7#b7 ,9 ! next place ! ,fr5* *ur* & /ate _h = _m ye>s be5 id5tifi$ ) oppression & tyranny1 :ile ! ,engli% p _h )9 a c5tury ga9$ _m ne$$ re=ms by behead+ "o k+ & =c+ out ano!r4 ,consequ5tly ! ,engli% gov]nm5t ( ! eighte5? c5tury 0 id5tifi$ ) ! lib]ty ( ! individual4 ,9 ,engl& political & religi\s speculation foll[$ & did n prec$e political re=ms4 ,9 ,france ! opposite 0 true4 ,to ! m9d ( ! ,fr5* p ! *ur* repres5t$ only sup]/ition1 & ! /ate only pr(ligacy & tyranny4 ,! m !y seem$ to support ea* o!r 9 "o social /ructure1 ! m rapid1 virul5t1 & excessive w\ld naturally be ! reaction aga9/ bo? :5 once individualism got a foot+4 ,! result 0 t :ile 9 ,engl& ! ,enlight5m5t always rema9$ critical & negative1 9 ,france x became an ob/9ate & positive dogmatism4 ,beh9d ,fr5* criticism 0 develop+ a philosophical cre$4 ,! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t 0 a social cause & a self-su/a9+ idea4 ,! ,fr5* philosoph]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 on ! :ole1 7 n sup]ior m5 intellectually1 = !y 7 incl9$ to make ! small look l>ge & ! l>ge great4 ,b al?\gh _! p]spective 0 inaccurate1 !y _h an en?usia/ic fai? 9 progress & humanity4 ,! ,engli% ,influ5ce 9 ,france4 ,l\is ,,xiv & 8 two pr$ecessors _h made ,p>is ! intellectual c5tre ( ,europe1 & up to #afij x _h no rival4 ,! ,fr5* language _h tak5 its place beside ! ,lat9 z ! language ( sci5ce4 ,! circle ( sci5ti/s exi/+ j be=e & at ! beg9n+ ( ,l\is ,,xiv's reign _h its equal n[h]e 9 ,europe4 ,we rememb] h[ ,hobbes f\nd ,euclid 9 ,p>is1 ,locke sp5t f\r ye>s at or ne> ,p>is1 ,leibnitz ga9$ !re all 8 ma!matical erudition & tra9+4 ,dur+ ! sev5te5? c5tury ,p>is 0 ! c5tre ( s*ola/ic influ5ce1 & ?is is se5 directly or indirectly 9 ! writ+s ( all sev5te5? c5tury philosoph]s4 ,! ,engli% _h tak5 _! cue f ! ,fr5*2 b on ! o!r h&1 x is d\btful if z late z ! dea? ( ,l\is !re 7 a half doz5 ,fr5*m5 t knew ! ,engli% language4 ,ab\t ! "t ( ! publication ( ,locke's ,essay ! intellectual c5tre ( gravity began to move f ,p>is to ,london4 ,! f\nd+ ( ! ,royal ,society 9 ,ox=d 9 #affj 0 ! beg9n+ ( ! organization ( ,briti% sci5tific influ5ce4 ,newton's physics 7#afhg7 !n began to supplant ! ,c>tesian physics1 & ,locke's psy*ological doctr9es ! dogmatism ( ! ,rationali/s1 among ! ?9k]s ( we/]n ,europe4 ,newtonian physics & ,engli% empiricism became ! sci5tific wat*words ( ! eighte5? c5tury2 & al?\gh ! ,fr5* 7 late 9 accept+ !m1 x is said t at ! end ( ! ,enlight5m5t !re 0 no cultur$ ,fr5*man :o c\ld n read ,engli%4 ,we f9d t su* notable ,fr5*m5 z ,voltaire1 ,montesquieu1 ,buffon1 ,brissot1 ,helvetius1 ,g\rnay1 ,jussieu1 ,lafayette1 ,maup]tuis1 ,mirabeau1 ,rol&1 & ,r\sseau visit$ ,engl& dur+ ! p]iod f ! dea? ( ,l\is ,,xiv to ! ,revolution4 ,poets1 ma!maticians1 hi/orians1 naturali/s1 philologi/s1 philosoph]s1 & essayi/s all agre$ to ! necessity ( /udy+ ! language & p on :om _! fa!rs _h n deign$ to wa/e ?\ght except 9 contempt4 ,b p]haps ! political motive 0 q z /rong z ! sci5tific 9 turn+ ! ,fr5* ( ! eighte5? c5tury t[>d ,engl&4 ,! ,engli% gov]nm5t 0 ! example ( political lib]ty ( t "t4 ,! ris+ inquisitive ?9k]s ( ,france _h no alt]native b to turn to free ,engl& = spiritual support aga9/ _! own decrepit tyranny4 ,! fir/ ,fr5* visitors 7 amaz$ at ,engli% prosp]ity1 ev5 ?\gh ! cr[n _h decreas$ 9 p[]amaz$ at ! lib]ty ( ! press & ,p>liam5t1 amaz$ at ! control ( ! rev5ues by ! repres5tative body4 ,engl& ?us became ! s*ool = all ! ?9k]s ( ,europe1 & ?r\gh h] lit]ature taught ! lesson ( political lib]ty fir/ to ,france1 & !n to all ,europe4 ,! ,two ,p]iods ( ! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t4 ,! eighte5? c5tury divides itself 9 ,france mu* ! same z x does 9 ,engl&4 ,!re are two p]iods3 ! fir/ ext5d+ to ! middle ( ! c5tury1 :5 ! ,enlight5m5t ( ! individual is ?\ght to lie 9 intellectual cultivation2 ! second1 :5 8 salvation becomes social & practical4 ,! fir/ p]iod is dom9at$ by ,voltaire1 & advanc$ by ,montesquieu & ! ,encyclopdi/s2 ! second is dom9at$ by ,r\sseau1 & results 9 ! ,revolution4 ,! two p]iods h a common fundam5tal motive1 al?\gh ! means us$ are radically diff]5t4 ,bo? repres5t a gradual progression t[>d ! elevation ( ! individual 9 8 reaction aga9/ ! in/itutions ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,b ! fir/ 0 an intellectual ,enlight5m5t & all t ?is means1 :ile ! second 0 emotional & social4 ,! fir/ 0 ari/ocratic1 :ile ! second 0 democratic4 ,yet ! :ole movem5t 0 a gradual filt]+ ( ! doctr9e ( individualism f ! upp] to ! l[] classes4 ,x naturally took ! =m1 fir/1 ( intellectual culture1 & !n ( an appeal to spontaneity4 ,! intellectual !ories ( ! fir/ p]iod 7 b\nd to f9d practical expression 9 ! second4 ,9 ! fir/ p]iod ! *ampions ( ! anci5t mon>*y 7 =c$ to def5d x on _! oppon5ts' own gr\ndt ( rationality4 ,9 ! second p]iod1 ! mon>*i/s _h to *ange _! battlegr\nd & make "s practical re=ms4 ,9 ! fir/1 ! attack 0 made pr9cipally on ! *ur*1 9 ! second on society4 ,:ile ! attack on ! /ate began e>ly1 x atta9$ significance n until ! middle ( ! c5tury4 ,! ,intellectual ,enlight5m5t 7#agbi-agfb74 ,voltaire1 ,montesquieu1 & ! ,encyclopdi/s4 ,! fir/ repres5tatives ( ! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t 7 ,voltaire & ,montesquieu4 ,voltaire w5t to ,engl& 9 #agbf1 & ,montesquieu 9 #agbh1 & !y bo? return$ to ,france 9 #agbi4 ,voltaire publi%$ 8 ,lett]s on ! ,engli% 9 #agcd & 8 ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ,newton 9 #agch4dg ,montesquieu _h publi%$ a fi]ce invective aga9/ ! political in/itutions ( ,france 9 #agba1 a discussion ( ! decad5ce ( ! ,romans 9 #agcd1 & 8 fam\s ,_s ( ! ,laws 9 #agdh1 sell+ tw5ty-two editions 9 eighte5 mon?s4 ,voltaire introduc$ & esp\s$ ! religi\s !ory ( ,locke 9 dei/ic =m1 & ,montesquieu exp\nd$ ,locke's !ory ( gov]nm5t4 ,_! writ+s 7 widely read by ! upp] classes1 & ?is !oretical revolution>y movem5t aga9/ all exi/+ in/itutions got mom5tum ab\t #agce4 ,! aim ( ?is movem5t 0 entirely ari/ocratic4 ,! solution ( ! exi/+ pr$icam5t 9 ,france lay = !m 9 ! great] c>e ( ! masses by an enlight5$ tyranny4 ,! dualism ( ! classes 0 always assum$4 ,! few are to be cultur$2 = !m reason is to take ! place ( dogma4 ,! masses are n am5able to reason1 h no capacity = education1 & = !m religion suffices4 ,to free ! individual f t]ror ( ! sup]natural1 to release 8 morality f ,jesuitical dom9ance1 to give him intellectual indep5d5ce ( /ate & *ur*?is 0 ! work+ idea ( ! intellectual ,enlight5m5t4 ,?\ght %\ld be free1 & ! consci5ce ( ! individual %\ld be untrammel$1 because ! reason is a suffici5t guide4 ,be+ ?us rationali/ic1 ! movem5t 0 ari/ocratic4 ,a new ari/ocracy %\ld be sub/itut$ = ! oldan ari/ocracy ( ! cultur$ in/ead ( ! corrupt & ignorant1 :o 7 !n ! dom9ant ,fr5* classes 9 *ur* & /ate4 ,! illum9ati %\ld p>ticipate 9 ! exi/+ political privileges4 ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh74dh ,voltaire 0 a dei/ :5 he w5t to ,engl&1 & he 0 !re=e v mu* impress$ by ! preval5t ,engli% deism4 ,among ! ,engli% dei/s1 ,bol+broke _h ! greate/ influ5ce ov] him1 & he 0 ! 8direct prog5itor ( ,voltaire's religi\s op9ions40 ,bol+broke's light & sup]cili\s infidelity ( ! man ( ! _w 0 suit$ to ,voltaire4 ,a univ]sal g5ius1 ,voltaire wrote on e subject2 b 8n "o ( 8 books b be>s m>ks ( 8 soj\rn 9 ,engl&40 ,he read ) famili>ity all ! ,engli% philosoph]s1,hobbes1 ,b]keley1 ,cudwor?1 ,locke2 b always return+ to ,locke4 8,h>ass$1 we>i$1 a%am$ ( hav+ s\ght s _m tru?s & f\nd s _m *im]as1 ,i return$ l a prodigal son to 8 fa!r & ?rew myself into ! arms ( t mode/ man :o nev] pret5ds to "k :at he does n "k2 :o 9 tru? has no enorm\s possessions1 b ^: sub/ance is well assur$40 ,9 8 ,philosophical ,lett]s ,voltaire makes invidi\s comp>isons betwe5 ,locke's ,empiricism & ,desc>tes' ,rationalism1 betwe5 ,engli% ,deism & ,fr5* ,ca?olicism1 & betwe5 ! ,engli% gov]nm5t & ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t4 ,t[>d ,*ri/ianity1 z he saw x 9 8 own c\ntry1 8 hatr$ am\nt$ to fanaticism4 ,8 /rictures 7 s sca?+ t ,*ri/ians h look$ ^u him z an a!i/4 ,he 01 h[ev]1 a dei/1 :o believ$ t1 :ile we c "k ,god's exi/5ce1 we _c "k 8 nature4 ,he 0 fond ( br++ all dogma "u criticism1 & 8:ile he d5i$ no?+1 he ca/ suspicion ^u ev]y?+40 ,he call$ himself ! 8ignorant philosoph]40 ,to him a!ism 0 pref]able to dogma & sup]/ition4 ,8 passion = invective aga9/ ! ,fr5* cl]gy 0 s great t 8 con/ructive /atem5ts ab\t ,god & immortality 7 cold & imp]sonal4 ,! ,encyclopdi/s4#di ,9 mod]n times ! ,fr5* h be5 unequal$ 9 _! encyclopdias & diction>ies4 ,! fam\s ,encyclopdie or ,dictionnaire ,raisonn 0 :at its "n implies4 ,x 0 publi%$ 9 sev5te5 volumes dur+ ! ye>s f #agea to #agff1 & _h an addition ( elev5 volumes ( plates 7#agff-aggb74 ,?irty ?\s& copies 7 pr9t$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & 9 #aggd x 0 translat$ into f\r =eign languages4 ,! mov+ _s & editor-9-*ief 0 ,did]ot 7#agac-aghd7 & 8 *ief assi/ant d',alemb]t4 ,!y 7 assi/$ by _m notable ,fr5* writ]s l ,voltaire1 ,r\sseau1 ,grimm1 von ,holba*1 etc41 :o wrote sep>ate articles4 ,!re 0 a ho/ ( unsolicit$ contributors4 ,two ye>s be=e ! ,encyclopdia1 ,buffon _h begun to publi% 8 ,natural ,hi/ory 9 =ty-?ree volumes1 ! la/ volume appe>+ 9 #aghi4 ,! ,encyclopdia _h two pr$ecessors1,bacon's *apt] on ,exp]im5tal ,hi/ory & ,*amb]s's ,encyclopdia4 ,! articles 9 ! ,encyclopdia 7 presumably sci5tific explanations alphabetically arrang$1 su* z w\ld appe> 9 any "w ( ! sort4 ,frequ5tly !y 7 disguis$ attacks ^u exi/+ ,fr5* in/itutions4 ,(t5 a detail$ description1 z on ! subject 8,taxes0 or 8,god10 w\ld reveal exi/+ ,fr5* conditions4 ,z ,comte says1 8,! ,encyclopdia furni%$ a rally+ gr\nd = ! mo/ div]g5t ef=ts )\t any sacrifice ( ess5tial indep5d5ce1 & made a mass ( incoh]5t speculation appe> l a coh]5t sy/em40 ,! two successive p]iods ( ! movem5t ( ! ,enlight5m5t unite 9 ! ,encyclopdia aga9/ ! common enemy ( au?ority4 ,!re are two ?+s to be notic$ 9 connection ) ! ,encyclopdia3 ! m5 :o wrote x w5t mu* fur!r t[>d individualism & skepticism ?an did ,voltaire2 & ! ,encyclopdia rea*$ a wid] circle & diff]5t classes ?an did ! works ( ,voltaire4 ,in/ead ( ! deism ( ,voltaire we f9d contributions f skeptics1 a!i/s1 & mat]iali/s1m5 :o are becom+ m negative 9 _! op9ions z ! c5tury advances4 ,! ?or\gh-go+ agno/icism ( ! ,encyclopdi/ gr\p rea*$ a po9t :]e x ceas$ to be a philosophy4 ,did]ot _h said t ! fir/ /ep 9 philosophy is unbelief1 & 8 associates w5t s f> z to ?9k t unbelief is all ( philosophy4 ,_! extreme s5sationalism1 naturalism1 & mat]ialism sometimes appe>$ 9 disguis$ =m 9 ! ,encyclopdia1 b m (t5 9 indep5d5t writ+s4 ,! ,encyclopdia became ! s\rce ( in=mation = ev]ybody4 ,x spread in=mation among all classes & und]m9$ _! rev]5ce = ,fr5* in/itutions4 ,! result 0 t :at _h be5 sacr$ to ! c\rt & ! labor] because x 0 traditional1 n[ became ! object ( scorn to all4 ,! mo/ pr(\nd ( ! s5sationali/s ( ?is "t 0 ,condillac 7#agae-aghj71ej :o does n1 h[ev]1 appe> to be connect$ ) ! ,encyclopdia4 ,he publi%$ 8 ,treatise on ,s5sations 9 #aged1 :i* r$uc$ ,locke's psy*ological analysis to a pure s5sationalism4 ,! well-kn[n figurative /atue end[$ only ) ! s5se ( smell 0 conceiv$ by him4 ,he introduc$ ,locke's psy*ology into ,france1 :5ce x 0 c>ri$ into ,g]many4 ,! ,social ,enlight5m5t 7#agfb-aghi74 ,! second p]iod ( ! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t beg9s ) ! publication ( ,r\sseau's ,contrat ,social 9 #agfb & culm9ates 9 ! ,revolution4 ,! influ5ce ( ,r\sseau dom9ates ! second p]iod z t ( ,voltaire dom9at$ ! fir/4 ,voltaire _h nev] aim$ at a social revolution4 ,8 objective po9t 0 to re9/ate ! und]/&+1 to emancipate ! individual by self-culture & by fre$om ( ?\ght4 ,he 0 n hi/orian en\gh to see t he c\ld n revolutionize intellectual ,france )\t pull+ d[n ! social /ructure4 ,he did n realize t 9 /rik+ at ! tyranny ( ! *ur* he 0 deal+ a fatal bl[ at ! /ructure ( ,fr5* society4 ,! lit]>y f5c+ betwe5 ,voltaire & ! adroit *ur*m5 might h be5 amus+1 _h ! issue n be5 s s]i\s4 ,b al?\gh sup]ficial & va91 ,voltaire 0 d[nright 9 e>ne/4 ,at "o "t x seem$ z if ! intellectual ,enlight5m5t w\ld "w itself out 9 ! *ur*4 ,b ! causes ( ! revolt 7 too deeply social1 ! malady aga9/ :i* ,voltaire 0 aim+ 0 too vital2 & besides1 at t mom5t att5tion 0 be+ direct$ to ! "* ( ! ,/ate itself4 ,r\sseau 7#agab-aggh74ea ,r\sseau began at ! po9t :]e ,voltaire left (f4 ,he 0 "u ! influ5ce ( ,voltaire at ! fir/ & receiv$ f ,voltaire 8 orig9al productive impulse4 ,b ! concrete "r ( individuals1 & n _! ab/ract intellectual fre$om1 0 :at appeal$ to ,r\sseau4 ,/rict mod]ation & lit]>y fre$om 7 too negative1 half-he>t$1 = a re=m] ( ,r\sseau's type4 ,public op9ion 0 n to be f\nd 9 ,v]sailles1 z ,voltaire ?\ght1 b 9 ! /reets ( ,p>is4 ,! ,revolution !n came to a head1 & we f9d ! s*ools ( ,voltaire & ,r\sseau lock+ horns4 ,voltaire's !ory ( mod]ation 0 repres5t$ 9 ! ,con/itu5t ,assembly & ! upp] & middle classes1 :ile ,r\sseau's radicalism 0 introduc$ 9 ! ,conv5tion & fully exp\nd$ 9 ! sections ( ! ,commune ( ,p>is :i* attack$ ! ,conv5tion4 ,hi/ory %[s h[ impossible ! aim ( ea* s*ool 01 & h[ ! conte/ _h to be f\ght ov] aga9 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,r\sseau liv$ a w&]+ & adv5tur\s life1 full ( halluc9ations & self-creat$ tr\ble4 ,he made _m fri5ds1 only to qu>rel ) !m4 ,he 0 half insane1 & 8 c>e] inspires bo? disgu/ & admiration4 ,8 num]\s works fill tw5ty-two volumes1 ! mo/ important ones be+ two prize essays publi%$ 9 #agej & #aggc1 :i* repres5t ! negative side ( 8 doctr9e2 ,hlose1 #agfa2 ,emile1 #agfb2 ,le ,contrat ,social1 #agfb2 & 8 ,confessions1 :i* conta9 8 con/ructive ?\ght4 ,r\sseau 0 at fir/ a contributor to ! ,encyclopdia1 b at he>t he c>$ no?+ = ! diffusion ( k & art4 ,he did n und]/& ! compreh5sive intellectual ambition ( ,did]ot2 he res5t$ ! utilit>ianism ( ,helvetius & ! mat]ialism ( ,holba*4 ,:5 he wrote 8 prize essay 9 #agej1 he sudd5ly p]ceiv$ h[ absurd ! intellectual ,enlight5m5t 0 amid ! di/ress+ social /ate ( ,france4 ,he turn$ aga9/ bo? ! exi/+ ord] & ! w\ld-be intellectual re=m]s4 ,! temporal ord] ( ?+s 0 to him awry4 ,/udy1 k1 & cultivation 7 to him only a gloss ov] ! deep-ly+ degradation4 ,society1 z x is con/ruct$1 is artificial1 & all organization is a tyranny4 ,god exi/s1 & ,he is good4 ,man 0 good until civilization & art invad$ 8 simplicity1 corrupt$ 8 virtues1 & trans=m$ him into a suff]+ & a s9ful be+4 ,r\sseau's call 0 t ( an>*ism4 ,x 0 a condemnation ( ! entire pa/4 ,sweep all ! s-call$ civilization away1 & level inequalities4 ,g back to nature2 & 9 ! simplicity ( t idyllic /ate let *ildr5 gr[ up undirect$ except by _! own uncorrupt$ in/9ct1t 8immortal & cele/ial voice40 ,9 an age tir$ ( oppression & corruption ,r\sseau /ruck a sympa!tic *ord :i* made ! intellectual ,enlight5m5t s\nd false4 ,8 contempor>ies did n inquire into ! motives ( ! mean lunatic4 ,!y did n !n see t he 0 a doctr9aire hold+ up an unpractical ideal 9 contra/ ) _! pres5t /ate4 ,he alone 9 all ,france 0 ! "o to appeal to man's self-respect4 ,he alone appeal$ to ! only motives t w result 9 action1! human emotions4 ,8 plea 0 = e ,fr5*man1 & 8 words = ! un=tunate 7 giv5 ) su* eloqu5ce t ! =tunate 7 compell$ to li/54 ,!y 7 a maje/ic language ( wide compassion & sympa?y4 ,he saw 9 ! ,fr5* mon>*y ! greate/ mis]y = ! greate/ numb]1 & no "o ( its support]s appe>$ to ! p s g5]\s & true z he4 ,8 influ5ce n only ^u 8 own "t b ^u ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 extraord9>y1 & "s h said t he is ! greate/ mod]n4 ,at all ev5ts he s\nd$ ! keynote ( our own civilization1 especially 9 art1 lit]ature1 & education2 = he %[$ ! fundam5tal correlation betwe5 ,nature & ! passions4 ,r\sseau taught a s5tim5tal deism1 9 :i* s5tim5t is ! ess5tial "p4 ,! ,revolution 0 ! natural consummation ( ! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,france4 ,! imm$iate issues out ( :i* x grew 7 ! practical ones ( f9ance1 legislation1 economics1 & policy4 ,! gr[? 9 ! physical sci5ces 7beg9n+ #agfj71 9 ! /udy ( political sci5ce1 9 ! !ory ( gov]nm5t1 z well z ! f9ancial di/ress ( ! ,fr5* gov]nm5t1 ! success ( ! ,am]ican ,revolution1 ! advance ( ! ,fr5* middle class to a position ( p[]1 ! fooli% & half-he>t$ measures ( ! ,fr5* /atesm5all ^! 7 factors t at ! end br\ght on ! crisis4 ,yet ! words ( ,r\sseau1 fall+ on fruitful soil1 7 ! real cause4 ,9 ! ye>s imm$iately prec$+ ! ,revolution !re 0 a _w-wide agitation1 an en?usiasm = nature1 an exaltation ( man1 & a contempt = ! age & = ! society !n exi/+4 ,!re 0 a vague pres5tim5t ( imp5d+ *ange1 :i* mo/ p 7 prep>$ to welcome4 ,?9k]s 7 full ( illusions4 ,ev5 su* despots z ,fr$]ick ! ,great1 ,ca!r9e ( ,russia1 & ,joseph ( ,au/ria affect$ a radicalism1 & ,spa91 ,portugal1 & ,tuscany1 z well z ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many1 7 mov$ ) great humanit>ian s5tim5ts4 ,! debate 0 univ]sal z to ! condition ( ! human race4 ,r\sseau 0 ! eloqu5t expression ( ?is _w-wide movem5t4 ,! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t 7#agdj-agha74 ,z ! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,france1 s ! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,g]many _h its introductory p]iod4 ,! hi/ory ( ,g]many f ! end ( ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> 7#afdh7 to ! publication ( ,kant's ,critique 7#agha71 or #acc ye>s1 is divid$ into two p]iods at ! ye> #agdj1 :5 ,fr$]ick ! ,great 0 cr[n$4 ,! p]iod f #agdj to #agha1 or =ty-"o ye>s1 is ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t4 ,! p]iod f #afdh to #agdj1 or n9ety-two ye>s1 is introductory to ! ,enlight5m5t1 &1 z 9 ,france1 a p]iod ( absolutism4 ,! ,introductory ,p]iod 7#afdh-agdj74 ,absolutism4 ,! _s ( absolutism1 bo? politically & intellectually1 dom9at$ ,g]many f ! end ( ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> 7#afdh7 to ! cr[n+ ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great 7#agdj74 ,absolutism dom9at$ ,g]many & ,france a full "o hundr$ ye>s4 ,!re are "s diff]5ces betwe5 ! two c\ntries1 h[ev]4 ,x began & end$ 9 ,g]many ab\t ?irty-five ye>s lat] ?an 9 ,france4 ,aga91 9 ,france x grew 9 spl5dor f ! ef=ts ( ,ri*elieu & ,l\is ,,xiii 7#afaj7 to ! great protective idea ( ,l\is ,,xiv1 :o = sev5ty-two ye>s rul$ z absolute political & intellectual dictator4 ,9 ,g]many1 on ! o!r h&1 x 0 a spectre hov]+ ov] a dis9tegrat+ & decay+ nation once kn[n z ! ,holy ,roman ,empire1 b s9ce ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> only a collection ( /ates "u a nom9al c5tral gov]nm5t4 ,! idea ( absolutism prevail$ none ! less1 = )9 ! sev]al /ates ea* mon>* 0 dictator z to ! religi\s1 intellectual1 & political op9ions ( 8 subjects4 ,politically & socially ! ,holy ,roman ,empire 0 9 /rik+ contra/ to ! p[] & spl5dor ( contemporane\s ,france4 ,! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> _h left ! empire absolutely desolate4 ,! l& 0 impov]i%$1 ! nation disrupt$1 & ! population r$uc$ f sev5te5 millions be=e ! w> to five millions aft] ! w>4 ,! w> _h be5 a g5]ation long & x _h degrad$ ! nation4 ,x _h settl$ no?+4 ,x left ! p poor & ! pr9ces absolute )9 _! respective /ates4 ,! upp] classes ev]y:]e1 except at ,weim>1 _h become pr(ligate4 ,! univ]sities 7 r$uc$ to a position bel[ :at !y 7 9 ! ,r5aissance4 ,! pr9ce ( ea* /ate e/abli%$ ! religion = 8 /ate1 s t practically no religi\s lib]ty _h be5 ga9$4 ,lu!rans1 ,calv9i/s1 & ,ca?olics 7 exhau/$1 b 7 /ill antagoni/ic4 ,!re 0 no moral activity among ! ,or?odox2 (t5 !y set _! own immorality up to prove ! absolutism ( _! respective dogma4 ,! w> left ,g]many politically pro/rate & intellectually /agnant4 ,9 ! ye>s t foll[ ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> x is possible to detect movem5ts t are ! beg9n+s ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,x is an important po9t t ,g]many 0 resuscitat$ f s\rces t lay )9 h] own civilization4 ,! ,fr5* ,enlight5m5t & ! intellectual fre$om ( mod]n ,france 7 due l>gely to ! influ5ce ( =eign ideas f ,engl&4 ,! se$s ( ! ,g]man intellectual revival 7 develop$ on h] own soil4 ,^? beg9n+s are 7#a7 ! rise ( ,prussia2 7#b7 ! e>ly ,g]man lit]ature2 7#c7 ! ,pieti/ic movem5t2 7#d7 ! trans=mation ( ,leibnitz's rationalism4 #a4 ,! rise ( ! little electorate ( ,br&5burg to ! p[]ful k+dom ( ,prussia 9 #agdj 0 ! political basis ( ! ,enlight5m5t t foll[$4 ,no /ate _h suff]$ m dur+ ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>4 ,! entire population 0 r$uc$ to less ?an a million1 & ,b]l91 ! capital1 _h only ?ree hundr$ citiz5s4 ,! gov]nm5t 0 z h>%ly absolute z else:]e4 ,! rights ( ! citiz5s 7 entirely tak5 away by ! ?ree pr9ces :o rul$ ov] ,prussia betwe5 #afdh & #agdj4 ,b a p[]ful k+dom 0 built up1 ) a /rong & patriotic army4 ,x ext5d$ its dom9ions & 0 a refuge = ,prote/ants1 :o fl$ to x 9 l>ge numb]s4 ,x came to be fe>$ by all ! ,g]man /ates1 & 9 ! latt] "p ( ?is p]iod x _h to be reckon$ ) 9 ! c\ncils ( ,europe4 ,itself an absolutism1 x 0 ! vigor\s political body t alone c\ld de/roy ! traditional absolutism ( ! ,hapsburgs & ! ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,puff5dorf decl>$ t ! old ,empire ) its feeble sov]eignties 0 a mon/]4 ,x 0 a mon/] spectrea /ubborn political idea t hov]$ ov] ,europe4 ,fr$]ick ! ,great's mission 9 ! next p]iod 0 to de/roy x4 #b4 ,! meagre ,g]man lit]ature ( ?is e>ly p]iod 0 also an important factor 9 ! developm5t ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,poor1 inde$1 x 04 ,nev] 0 ,g]man lit]>y production s l[4 ,be=e ! w> ! ,g]mans _h tak5 ,greek z _! model2 aft] ! w> !y copi$ ! language1 mann]s1 & me?ods ( ! ,fr5* ( ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,! e>ly lit]ature 0 rul$ 9 ! same _s ( absolutism by ,opitz until #agjj1 & aft] him by ,gotts*$1 especially 9 ! ye>s f #agcj to #agdj4 ,x 0 = only a small fraction ( ! p1 & 0 9 ! int]e/s ( ! deprav$ ari/ocrats ( ! c\rts4 ,su* p$antic absolutism 0 ! basis ( ! reaction 9 ! next p]iod ( ! lit]>y ,enlight5m5t1 :i* prov$ ! r$emption ( ,g]many4 #c4 ,! ,pieti/ic movem5t 0 ! ?ird factor t w5t to make up ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t4 ,x 0 a positive expression ( religi\s individualism1 simil> 9 its position to ! ,prussian /ate 9 its indep5d5t gr[? 9 politics4 ,x 0 a religi\s movem5t outside ! *ur*4 ,its two lead]s 7 ,sp5] 7#afce-agje7 & ,francke 7#affc-agbg74 ,! movem5t ent]$ ,g]many f ! ,ne!rl&s2 & ! memb]s 7 dev\t & holy m5 consecrat$ to good de$s4 ,! ,pieti/s 7 n h]oic figures l ! e>ly ,lu!rans1 b !y /ood = :at ,lu!r _h 9 8 e>ly p]iod taught4 ,!y oppos$ ecclesia/ical =malism1 & !y proclaim$ ! ne$ ( p]sonal reg5]ation & ( ! univ]sal prie/hood4 ,!y /ood = religi\s fre$om4 ,!y made no onslaught ^u ! *ur*1 b !y 7 cont5t ) sav+ individuals4 ,pietism unit$ at fir/ ) ,rationalism( :i* we %all next speakaga9/ or?odoxy1 b :5 ! two _h won _! victory !y qu>rel$4 ,al?\gh ! ,pieti/ic movem5t lat] became itself conv5tional1 x furni%$ ! gr\nd = ! religi\s fre$om ( ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,dur+ ^! hundr$ ye>s ( ,g]man religi\s absolutism1 ! ,pieti/s repres5t ! moral activity among religi\s bodies4 #d4 ,! *ief s\rce ( ! ,enlight5m5t 0 ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz4 ,9 turn+ back to ! life ( ?is di/+ui%$ ,g]man ! read] w rememb] t he 0 ! 8fir/ sci5ti/ 9 two hundr$ ye>s10 & t he 0 ! ,rationali/ :o presag$ ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,leibnitz 0 born 9 #afdf1 j two ye>s be=e ! w> clos$1 & he di$ 9 #agaf1 "o ye> aft] ! dea? ( ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,he liv$ dur+ ^? unfruitful ye>s aft] ! w> & be=e ! ,enlight5m5t2 & 8 philosophy /&s out prom95tly f ! l[ plane ( ! intellectual activity ( t "t4 ,9 #afhf he complet$ ! con/ruction ( 8 philosophy by introduc+ ! conception ( ! individual z a dynamic c5tre4 ,_m ,g]man philosoph]s1 ab\t ! "t ( ,leibnitz1 _h lat] tri$ to free philosophy f its te*nical difficulties & make x readable = ! p z ! ,fr5* ,encyclopdia 0 = ! ,fr5* p4 ,among ^! 7 ,ts*irnhaus5 7#afea-agjh71 ,m5delssohn 7#agbi-aghf71 & ,tet5s 7#agcf-ahje71 b ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t = _m reasons did n come ab\t l ! ,fr5* 9 ! popul>iz+ ( philosophy4 ,! philosophy ( ,leibnitz did rea* ! p directly1 b ! p 7 /irr$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( lit]ature r ?an ( philosophy4 ,leibnitz's philosophy became ! dom9ant ?\ght only 9 ! univ]sities & academic circles1 & rema9$ s until ! publication ( ,kant's ,critique 9 #agha4 ,! ,halle pr(essor1 ,wolff 7#afgi-aged71 develop$ & trans=m$ x1 n to its advantage1 into an absolutism1 & "u ! "n ( ! ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy x 0 ! canon = ! ,g]man s*ools4 ,once e/abli%$ 9 ! univ]sities x rema9$ un*ang$ !re ev5 by ! invasion ( ,fr5* ?\ght t p5etrat$ o!r ,g]man circles4 ,ev5 ,voltaire's resid5ce at ! c\rt at ,b]l9 7#agej7 _h no influ5ce ^u ! ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy ( ! ,b]l9 ,academy4 ,! dogmatic absolutism ( ?is philosophy rema9$ impregnable 9 academic circles & 0 ! la/ to be dislodg$& !n only by a ,g]man4 ,!re 0 little progress among ^! ,rationali/s1 once _! doctr9e _h be5 ca/1 except 9 incorporat+ 9 an eclectic fa%ion ! doctr9e ( o!rs4 ,wolff sy/ematiz$ ! unord]$ & desultory doctr9es ( ,leibnitz = ! purpose ( tea*+ !m logically4 ,?is 0 9 #agjf1 :5 by ! aid ( ,leibnitz he obta9$ ! pr(essor%ip ( ma!matics at ,halle4 ,he met ) in/ant success4 ,! rationalism ( 8 doctr9e is se5 f ! title ( _m ( 8 works1 :i* are ,reasonable ,?\ghts on ,god1 ,reasonable ,?\ghts on ! ,p[]s ( ! ,human ,und]/&+1 etc4 ,he lectur$ at ,halle until #agbc1 :5 he 0 expell$ by ! !ological influ5ce4 ,8 return to ,halle 9 #agdj 0 co9cid5t ) ! cr[n+ ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great & ! beg9n+ ( ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t4 ,we c note a few g5]al aspects ( 8 tea*+4 ,he employ$ ! ,g]man language 9 8 lectures1 foll[+ ,?omasius1 :o 0 ! fir/ to d x4 ,leibnitz _h writt5 9 lett]s & treatises = ! few1 & _h us$ ei!r ,lat9 or ,fr5*4 ,wolff exp&$ ,leibnitz's doctr9e1 broadly & sup]ficially1 = a l>g] public1 9 ! ,g]man tongue4 ,he sy/ematiz$ ,leibnitz's tea*+1 & !reby c\ld dissem9ate x4 ,b 9 do+ ?is he s ton$ d[n ,leibnitz's lead+ ideas t !y lo/ all _! peculi> =ce4 ,= in/ance1 he taught t only ! human m9d has ! p[] ( repres5tation2 & aga91 t pre/abli%$ h>mony applies only to ! relation ( ! s\l & body ( ! human monad4 ,9 g5]al1 he s ext5d$ ! ,leibnitz pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason t x appli$ to all dep>tm5ts1 & 0 r$uc$ to ! pr9ciple ( id5tity4 ,! _w is a huge me*anism design$ = div9e ends4 ,rationality is assum$ to be ev]y:]e1 & k ( its exi/5ce is to be obta9$ only by d$uction f evid5t pr9ciples4 ,! result 0 t ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz 0 r$uc$ to a commonplace & empty rationalisma purely d$uctive affair4 ,wolff und]took to demon/rate ev]y?+1 & to make intelligible :at is above reason4 ,! ,wolffian philosophy 0 a rev]sion to m$ival s*ola/icism1 s9ce x solv$ all problems by pro( ?r\gh ! cog5cy ( ma!matical & logical processes4 ,tru? is a matt] ( def9ition & classification4 ,?us ,wolff produc$ a philosophy t 0 p$antic & =mal1 cle> b %all[4 ,x 0 ,leibnitzian ) ,leibnitz omitt$2 x 0 a ?or\gh-go+ dogmatism1 because no problem 0 difficult to x2 x 0 a rationalism1 because to x all tru? is ! deliv]ance ( ! reason & none is d]iv$ f exp]i5ce4 ,! ,wolffian ,rationalism became a factor 9 ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t on ! "o h& by comb9+ ) ,pietism1 & on ! o!r ?r\gh its translation into ! new ,g]man lit]ature4 ,9 itself ! ,wolffian ,rationalism 0 a dogmatism t m]ely supplant$ ! dogmatic s*ola/icism ( ,melan*?on & ,lu!r4 ,x lo/ its absolutism 9 its comb9ation ) ,pietism1 & became a p]sonal & individuali/ic religion4 ,x also lo/ its absolutism & became m l ! philosophy ( ,leibnitz ?r\gh its translation into ! lit]>y writ+s ( ,less+ & ,h]d]2 & ?us 0 subord9at$ to an incid5t 9 individual culture4 ,summ>y ( ! ,lit]>y ,enlight5m5t ( ,g]many 7#agdj-agha74 ,! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t 0 ?us made possible by ! political gr[? ( ,prussia1 by ! developm5t ( a meagre lit]ature1 by ! rise ( ,pietism1 & by ! ,wolffian int]pretation ( ,leibnitz's philosophy4 ,all ^! 7 important features ( ! c5tury foll[+ ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>4 ,! ye> #agdj is ! beg9n+ ( ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t4 ,x m>ks ! cr[n+ ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great1 ! decl9e ( ! influ5ce ( ,gotts*$ 9 lit]ature1 & ,wolff's return to ,halle4 ,! arrival ( ,voltaire 9 ,b]l9 7#agej7 is an important factor 9 ! rise ( ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t4 ,! _s ( ! ,enlight5m5t 0 at its height tw5ty ye>s lat] 7#agfj71 contemporane\s ) ! ,sev5 ,ye>s' ,w> 7#agef-agfc7 & ) ! publication by ,less+ 9 #agei ( 8 ,lett]s conc]n+ ! mo/ ,mod]n ,lit]ature4 ,9 ^! ,lett]s ,less+ gave ! dea?-bl[ to ,gotts*$ism1 & e/abli%$ ! ,enlight5m5t on a firm basis4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by ! ,/orm & ,/ress movem5t 7#aggc-aghg71 :i* br\ght ! ,enlight5m5t prop] to an end4 #agcj-agej ,p]iod ( ,exp]im5tation,gotts*$1 ! ,swiss1 ! ,anacreontici/s1 etc4 #agdj ,! ,enlight5m5t inaugurat$! cr[n+ ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great1 ! decl9e ( ,gotts*$ism1 ! return ( ,wolff to ,halle4 #agej ,! com+ ( ,voltaire to ,b]l94 #agea-aghj ,less+ & ! ,enlight5m5t4 #aggc-aghg ,/orm & ,/ress ,p]iod4,! ,enlight5m5t prop] at an end4#eb #aghg-ahje ,classicism4 7,s*ill] d4 #ahje74 #agie-ahej 7approximately7 ,! ,romantic ,movem5t4 #ahej- ,! ,reali/ic ,movem5t4 ,! ,political ,enlight5m5t ( ,g]many,fr$]ick ! ,great4 ,political *anges prec$$ & did n foll[ philosophical !ories 9 ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t4 ,g]many 0 !re=e l ,engl& & unlike ,france 9 ?is respect4 ,! com+ ( ,fr$]ick to ! ?rone ( ! n[ p[]ful ,prussia1 ! re=ms t he inaugurat$1 ! religi\s tol]ation t he grant$1 8 recall ( ,wolff to ,halle1 8 av[$ support ( intellectual ?+s1 & especially ! ,sev5 ,ye>s' ,w> 7#agef-agfc7 7 ! political gr\ndwork t made possible ! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,g]many4 ,fr$]ick himself is ! great figure 9 ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t1 j z ,voltaire is 9 ! ,fr5*4 ,fr$]ick accompli%$ 9 concrete acts = political ,europe :at ,voltaire accompli%$ = ecclesia/ical ,europe4 ,voltaire de/roy$ ! ecclesia/ical absolutism ( ! spiritual p[]1 :ile ,fr$]ick de/roy$ ! absolutism s long connect$ ) ! "n ( ! ,holy ,roman ,empire & ! ,h\se ( ,hapsburg4 ,be=e he di$1 he _h fre$ ! ,g]man /ates f ! dom9ance ( ,au/ria1 & _h giv5 to ! ,empire its dea?-bl[4 ,9 ! ,sev5 ,ye>s' ,w> he _h giv5 to mod]n ,europe an example ( a new political ideal 9 an autocrat :o pr(ess$ to be ! s]vant ( ! ,/ate4 ,8 :ole ?\ght 0 ^u ! advancem5t ( 8 ,/ate4 ,he set up ! pr9ciple ( ! equality ( 8 subjects be=e ! law1 & ! pr9ciple ( religi\s & philosophical lib]ty4 ,9 8 ext]nal /ruggles ) ,au/ria & 9 ! int]nal con/ruction ( 8 k+dom ,fr$]ick is ! prote/ ( ! ,enlight5m5t aga9/ ! arbitr>y despotism ( political ,europe4 ,! example ( ,fr$]ick 0 an inspiration to all ,g]many4 ,kant calls ! eighte5? c5tury ! ,age ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great4 ,fr$]ick _h made 8 subjects feel t !y 7 ,prussians1 or1 z ,goe! puts x1 8,fritz*e0 7,fritz's m572 t ! great foe ( ! ,g]man p 0 ! ,g]man ,empire z p]sonifi$ by ! ,au/rians & ,saxons4 ,:5 he _h conduct$ to a successful issue a deadly w> ( sev5 ye>s s+le h&$ aga9/ ! comb9$ =ce ( m ?an half ( ,europe1,au/ria1 ,russia1 & ,france1 all repres5t+ political absolutism1he inspir$ patriotism n only 9 8 own subjects1 b 9 ! p ( _m o!r ,g]man /ates4 ,re=ms 7 und]tak5 9 ,bav>ia1 ,bad51 ,saxony1 ,brunswick1 etc41 & by ,ca!r9e ( ,russia & ,joseph ( ,au/ria4 ,fur!rmore1 ,fr$]ick himself 0 p]sonally enlight5$2 he look$ ^u himself z ! greate/ among ^? ( enlight5$ intellects4 ,he _h become d5ationaliz$ by 8 e>ly tra9+4 ,8 fa!r 0 fond ( :at 0 ,g]man1 8 "m ( :at 0 ,engli%1 & he himself ( :at 0 ,fr5*4 ,he _h /udi$ ,bayle1 read ,fr5* philosophy1 & become acqua9t$ ) ! rationalism ( ,wolff & ! empiricism ( ,locke4 ,he 0 at "o "t an a!i/ & mat]iali/2 b deism 0 8 natural attitude ( m9d1 = he emphasiz$ morality above speculation4 ,conceiv+ himself1 z ! mo/ enlight5$1 to be ! great s]vant ( ! ,/ate1 he und]took ! enlight5m5t ( 8 p4 ,all ,prussia mu/ be enlight5$ by him1 & !re=e no re/rictive in/itutions1 su* z guilds & corporations1 c\ld be p]mitt$4 ,! be/ man %\ld rule1 & he 0 ! be/ man4 ,s9ce ! p are incapable ( look+ aft] !mselves1 !y mu/ be compell$ "u 8 b5evol5t autocracy to be enlight5$1 rational1 & happy4 ,! ,c\rse ( ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t4 ,:y did n ! movem5t become z 9 ,france a political revolution8 ,!re are ?ree reasons :y x did n3 7#a7 ! re=ms t ! ,g]man pr9ces adopt$ 7 wise2 7#b7 ,g]many 0 compos$ ( segregat$ /ates 9 :i* conc]t$ action 0 difficult2 7#c7 a new intellectual & /hetic curr5t 0 begun by ,less+1 ( :om we %all speak4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,g]many po9t$ to ! same result z 9 ,france4 ,f #agfj to #aghj x look$ z if ,g]many z well z ,france w\ld witness a trem5d\s social upheaval4 ,f #aggc to #aghg1 ,g]many 0 /irr$ by ! ,/orm & ,/ress movem5t4 ,fr$]ick himself _h po9t$ to ! ,engli% p>liam5t>y gov]nm5t z ! 8model = our days40 ,! mo/ ( ! ,g]man ?9k]s 7 at he>t republicans1,klop/ock1 ,s*ill]1 ,kant4 ,e man 9 ,g]many became a little ,fr$]ick1 & tri$ to enlight5 ^? :o 7 inf]ior to him4 ,! movem5t ext5d$ to ! s*oolroom4 ,secret societies 7 =m$ ( k9dr$ enlight5$ s\ls to enlight5 ! _w4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! societies 0 ! ,illum9ati4 ,! aim ( ^! 0 to free m5 f national & civil ties1 f p$antry1 intol]ance1 political & !ological slav]y4 ,! human he>t is ! basis ( society1 & ! only wor?y object ( /udy4 ,! ,illum9ati includ$ ev5 pr9ces among its memb]s4 ,x 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aggf & prohibit$ 9 #aghf4 ,!re 0 a di/9ctive ,/orm & ,/ress lit]ature4 ,?is 0 set 9 motion by ,r\sseau's ,hlose & ,emile1 :i* 7 widely read 9 ,g]many4 ,writ]s glorifi$ ! individual1 call$ m5 back to primitive & uncorrupt$ nature1 d5\nc$ civilization1 & = tw5ty ye>s x almo/ seem$ z if ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t _h turn$ f ! intellectual a*ievem5ts ( ,less+1 & w\ld foll[ ! s5tim5tal appeal ( ,r\sseau4 ,h]d] 0 p>ticul>ly prom95t 9 ?is movem5t1 also ,goe! & ,s*ill] 9 _! e>ly writ+s4 ,( ! ?ree factors t sav$ ,g]many f a political revolution1 p]haps ! mo/ pot5t 0 ! new1 fre%1 lit]>y ideas ( ,less+4 ,if ,fr$]ick is ! orig9ator ( ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t1 ,less+ is ! savior ( x4 ,! ,enlight5m5t 9 ,engl& /opp$ ) ! ph5om5alism ( ,hume1 9 ,france ) ! ,revolution1 b 9 ,g]many x has 9 a s5se cont9u$ ev5 to ! pres5t day4 ,! classic p]iod ( ,goe! & ,s*ill]1 ! mod]n sci5tific a*ievem5ts ( ! ,g]mans1 h _! p]petual s\rce 9 ,less+4 ,he n only gave ! dea?-bl[ to ! p$antic absolutism ( ! intellectual pa/1 b he set ! movem5t ^u a p]man5t intellectual basis1 ^u :i* x has /ood aga9/ ! assaults ( s5tim5talism = a hundr$ & fifty ye>s4 ,less+4 ,g4 ,e4 ,less+ 7#agbi-agha7 0 n only a s\nd s*ol>1 b a poli%$ man ( ! social _w4 ,he 0 a writ] ( epigrams1 fables1 & com$ies1 a dramatic & lit]>y critic1 a translator & essayi/1 a /ud5t ( philosophy & ecclesia/ical hi/ory1 & a writ] ^u art4 ,8 ,na?an ! ,wise is1 aft] ,goe!'s ,fau/1 ! greate/ lit]>y production ( ,g]man ?\ght4 ,) him ,g]man lit]ature beg9s4 ,he reject$ ! ,fr5* models accept$ by ,gotts*$2 he introduc$ ,%akespe>e to ! ,g]mans2 & he surpass$ all 8 contempor>ies 9 lit]>y & arti/ic re=m1 social enlight5m5t1 & religi\s emancipation4 ,less+ & ,w9ckelmann 7 ! fir/ to spread a love = ! pa/ by a critical /udy ( x4 ,less+ 0 n a viol5t iconocla/ l ,voltaire1 b a discrim9at+ critic4 ,he said t if ,leibnitz _h wi%$ = an int]pret]1 he w\ld n h *os5 ,wolff4 ,! new lit]>y writ]s1 ,less+ & ,h]d]1 9 _! insi/5ce ^u subjectivity & intuition1 r ?an ,wolff1 7 ! true int]pret]s ( ,leibnitz4 ,less+ diff]$ f ! ,enlight5m5t 9 8 conception ( ! pres5t 9 its cont9uity ) ! pa/4 ,h]d]1 too1 0 int]e/$ 9 developm5t4 ,less+ po9t$ to ! p]fect models 9 ! pa/2 ,h]d] to ! orig9s ( ?+s4 ,bo? believ$ 9 an imman5t ,god & ! h>mony ( ! univ]se4 ,at ?is "t ! problems 9 /hetics came to light1 & ) !m ! creation ( 8_w lit]ature10 :i* drew f all hi/orical ?\ghtf antiquity1 ! ,r5aissance1 & ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,! ,pieti/s1 ! ,wolffians1 & ! lit]>y writ]s agre$ 9 tak+ ! subjective po9t = _! view ( life4 ,?us ,leibnitz appe>s ?r\gh ,less+ z a motive p[] 9 ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t4 ,less+'s doctr9e ( individuality s transc5d$ t ( ! ,/orm & ,/ress ,p]iod t he 0 n und]/ood by x4 ,8 enlight5$ individual suppresses 8 individuality4 ,b 8 pr9ciples 7 s fundam5tal t ! ,/orm & ,/ress ,p]iod prov$ to be only an int]ruption1 & ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t 0 p]petuat$4 ,he ?us project$ himself beyond ! eighte5? c5tury by ! in/rum5ts ( t c5tury4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,kant#ec ,! ,conv]g5ce ( ,philosophical ,influ5ces 9 ,g]many4 ,! intellectual ?or\ghf>e f ! pa/ into our mod]n times does n pass 9 ! eighte5? c5tury ?r\gh ,engl&1 nor yet ?r\gh ,france1 b by way ( ,g]many4 ,traditional ,france end$ ) ! ,fr5* political revolution1 :ile ! ,engli% empirical movem5t prov$ its own inconsi/5cy 9 ! ph5om5alism ( ,hume4 ,9 ,g]many alone1 at ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 !re 0 a r5ew$ & brilliant intellectual life4 ,9 its creative productions x has be5 comp>$ by ! ,g]mans to ! ,sy/ematic ,p]iod ( ,greek ?\ght 7f ! dea? ( ,socrates to t ( ,ari/otle74 ,bo? p]iods appe>$ :5 ! political =tunes ( ! respective c\ntries 7 at _! l[e/ ebb4 ,!re 7 six l>ge influ5ces t conv]g$ ^u ?is epo*1 "s ( :i* we h already not$ z beg9n+ ev5 z f> back z ! p]iod introductory to ! ,enlight5m5t 7#afdh-agdj7 7see pp4 #bag ff474 ,"s are lat] 9 _! orig9 or come f a =eign s\rce4 ,let u m]ely enum]ate !m "h4 7#a7 ,pietism1 ! religi\s influ5ce t began ) ,sp5] 7#afce7 & swept ,g]many 9 ! eighte5? c5tury2 7#b7 ,! s5tim5talism ( ,r\sseau2 7#c7 ,! empirical psy*ology ( ,locke among ! y\ng] ,g]mans2 7#d7 ,! ,rationalism ( ! ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy1 :i* 0 mo/ p[]ful 9 academic circles2 7#e7 ,! ma!matical rigorism ( ! nature-philosophy ( ,newton2 7#f7 ,! new lit]>y writ]s 9 _! insi/5ce ^u subjectivity & intuition4 ,! ,?ree ,*>act]i/ics ( ,g]man ,philosophy4 ,g]man philosophy w be se5 to h ?ree *>act]i/ics4 7#a7 ,x is s*ola/ic or academic4 ,x is ! philosophy ( ! pr(essors ( univ]sities4 ,at ! same "t x mu/ be said to be ! expression ( ! social g5ius ( ! ,g]man p4 ,napoleon te/ifi$ to ?is :5 he said1 8,! ,engli% inhabit ! sea1 ! ,fr5* ! l&1 ! ,g]mans ! air40 7#b7 ,?is ,g]man philosophy is my/ical4 ,x is pr(\nd r ?an ext]nal4 ,x is n f\nd$ ^u ext]nal exp]i5ce1 b ^u a que/ion+ ( ! inn] & spiritual life4 ,x is inw>d1 religi\s1 & spiritual1 l ! philosophy ( ,plato4 ,"o ( ! mo/ accurate int]pret]s ( ,kant has po9t$ out ! _m simil>ities betwe5 ,kant & ,plato 7see ,pauls51 ,immanuel ,kant74 7#c7 ,g]man philosophy 0 nev]!less cosmic1 or a description ( ! _w4 ,^! m5 :om we are n[ to /udy 7 n ignorant ( ! _w or ( sci5ce4 ,political life (f]$ !m no attractions4 ,! s\l ( man 0 reg>d$ by !m z too noble to be engross$ 9 ext]nal ?+s4 ,z ,madame ,de ,/al said ( ! "t1 8,!re 0 no?+ to d save = him ^: conc]n 0 ) ! univ]se40 ,m51 h[ev]1 took ! inn] po9t ( view1 & reg>d$ all ?+s ) ref]5ce to x4 ,! ,g]mans tri$ to humanize ! univ]se4 ,!y look$ ^u nature z work+ out unconsci\sly ^? processes :i* consci\sly took place 9 man4 ,! contemplation ( beauty is n t ( an ext]nal _w1 b ( ! inmo/ nature ( reality4 ,?us individuality & cosmic reality are "o & ! same4 ,life has a joyful outlook1 n because our tasks are easy1 b because our /r5g? is equal to !m2 = is n ,god 9 u8 ,! ,two ,p]iods ( ,g]man ,philosophy4 ,g]man philosophy is divid$ into two epo*s3 7#a7 ! p]iod ( ! =mation ( ! critical !ory ( k by ,kant2 7#b7 ! p]iod ( ! metaphysical developm5t ( ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 ,hegel1 ,h]b>t1 & ,s*op5hau]4 ,kant belongs bo? to ! ,enlight5m5t & to ,g]man idealism4 ,he is ! po9t ( conv]g5ce ( ! intellectual =ces t prec$$ him & ! po9t ( dep>ture ( ! ideali/s :o foll[$ him4 ,= ?is reason hi/orians diff] z to ! p]iod 9 :i* he is to be plac$4 ,9 "o s5se he is ! transition f ! ,enlight5m5t1 9 ano!r s5se he is ! introduction ( ,g]man idealism4 ,b 9 reality he =ms an epo* betwe5 ! two4 ,al?\gh ! dualism1 :i* 0 always ! backgr\nd ( ! philosophy ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 =m$ too ! backgr\nd ( 8 ?\ght1 al?\gh he on ! o!r h& look$ ^u 8 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason z only an introduction to a metaphysics1 :i* he nev] wrote1 nev]!less he occupies a unique place 9 draw+ up = 8 "t & = ! future a new conceptual /&>d by :i* ! new problems might be criticis$4 ,! problem t ,kant set be=e himself 0 epi/emological & n "o ( metaphysics4 ,aft] ,kant !re appe>$ a gr[? ( metaphysics4 ,! great ,g]man ideali/ic sy/ems appe>$4 ,at fir/ ! ,kantian !ory 0 misund]/ood1 b at ,j5a1 !n ! *ief intellectual c5tre 9 ,g]many1 !re 0 =m$ a little gr\p ( ,kantians "u ! lead]%ip ( ,rhe9hold4 ,j5a is ne> ,weim> 7see map p4 #bhj71 :i* 0 ! ma9 lit]>y city ( ,g]many1 & ! resid5ce ( ,goe!4 ,! poetry ( ,weim> & ! philosophy ( ,j5a /imulat$ ea* o!r4 ,s*ill] is a notable example ( ! influ5ce ( ,kant ^u ! lit]ature ( ! "t4 ,9 philosophy ,kant 0 foll[$ by ! v>i\s sy/ems ( ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 ,hegel1 ,h]b>t1 & ,s*op5hau]1 :i* built a metaphysical sup]/ructure ^u ! ,kantian f\ndation4 ,! ,influ5ces ^u ,kant4 ,! developm5t ( ,kant's ?\ght 0 modifi$ by influ5ces f at lea/ five diff]5t s\rces4 #a4 ,pietism4 ,?is 0 ! e>lie/ influ5ce ^u 8 life1 & 0 due to 8 p>5ts & to ,f4 ,a4 ,s*ultze1 ! tea*] ( ! high s*ool ( ,knigsb]g4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ?is e?ical ,puritanism 0 a moral reaction aga9/ ! =malism ( ! *ur*es 9 ! p]iod aft] ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>4 ,kant nev] lo/ 8 atta*m5t = ! ,pieti/s2 & 8 lat] rigori/ic e?ical !ory1 z well z 8 own p]sonal life1 sprang f 8 e>ly ,pieti/ic tra9+4 ,s*ill] wrote to ,goe!1 8,!re is always some?+ ab\t ,kant1 z ab\t ,lu!r1 :i* rem9ds "o ( ! monk1 :o has inde$ quitt$ 8 cloi/]1 b :o c nev] q rid himself ( its traces40 #b4 ,! ,leibnitz-,wolffian ,philosophy4 ,?is influ5ce came dur+ 8 academic tra9+ 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,knigsb]g1 :i* he ent]$ ^u at ! age ( sixte5 ye>s4 ,?is 0 9 #agdj1 ! same ye> 9 :i* ,fr$]ick 0 cr[n$ & ,wolff 0 recall$ to ,halle1! "t :5 ! ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy 0 at ! fullness ( control ( ,g]many4 ,x mu/ n be =gott5 t ?is philosophy rema9$ dom9ant 9 ,g]man academic circles until ,kant's own !ory supplant$ x 9 ! n9eties4 ,kant 0 an av[$ disciple ( ! ,wolffian s*ool = ! next tw5ty ye>s 7until #agfj71 & he nev] %ook (f ! ,wolffian metaphysical dualism4 #c4 ,! ,physics ( ,newton4 ,to 8 univ]sity tra9+ ,kant 0 indebt$ also = 8 acqua9tance ) ,newton4 ,! antagonism betwe5 ! metaphysics ( ,wolff & ! physics ( ,newton 01 at lea/ at ! beg9n+ ( ,kant's c>e]1 ( decisive importance 9 8 developm5t4 ,"o ( ,kant's tea*]s at ! univ]sity 0 ,m>t9 ,knutz51 ^: lectures includ$ philosophy1 ma!matics1 & natural sci5ce4 ,?r\gh p]sonal int]c\rse ) ,knutz51 ! "y ,kant 0 introduc$ to ! ,wolffian philosophy1 & also to ! ,newtonian ma!matics & physics4 ,dur+ 8 activity z a tea*] ,kant %[$1 ev5 into 8 lat] p]iod1 a pr$ilection = natural sci5ce1 especially = physical geography & an?ropology4 ,! same ye> 9 :i* he ent]$ ^u 8 c>e] z tea*] 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,knigsb]g 7#agee71 he publi%$ 8 celebrat$ ,!ory ( ! ,heav5s1 9 :i* he anticipat$ ,laplace by =ty ye>s 9 ! =mulation ( ! nebul> hypo!sis4 #d4 ,! ,humanit>ianism ( ,r\sseau4 ,kant got f ,r\sseau a new evaluation ( man4 ,kant _h ! advantage ( a prolong$ y\?ful developm5t4 ,he 0 well into 8 ?irties :5 ! movem5t1 begun by ,less+1 became a social =ce 9 ,g]many4 ,a new political consci\sness appe>$ among ! ,g]man p1 due to ! influ5ce ( ,fr$]ick ! ,great & to t ( ! ,fr5*m51 ,voltaire & ,r\sseau4 ,kant 0 ?irty-eight 79 #agfb7 :5 he read ,r\sseau's ,emile4 ,kant _h be5 br\ght up 9 ! common tea*+ ( ! e>ly "p ( ! ,enlight5m5t to despise ! ignorant masses ( p4 ,?r\gh ,r\sseau he receiv$ 9 words ( au?ority ! conception ( ! inh]5t dignity ( ! individual man4 ,?r\gh ?is conception sci5ce & speculation came to h a new value to ,kant4 ,!y 7 no long] ends 9 !mselves1 b ! means = moral developm5t4 ,! moral 9 its primacy ov] ! intellectual came to be a p]man5t feature 9 ,kant's doctr9e4 ,8 e>ly ,pietism 0 confirm$1 & ,r\sseau replac$ ,newton 9 8 reg>d4 #e4 ,! ,skepticism ( ,hume4 ,! influ5ce ( ,hume's skepticism 0 felt by ,kant j be=e 8 elev5 ye>s ( sil5ce1 :5 he became engag$ 9 8 con/ruction ( 8 critical problem4 ,b ,hume influ5c$ ,kant 9 a negative way4 ,! classic & (t-quot$ expression ( ,kant1 t ,hume awoke him f 8 8dogmatic slumb]10 ref]s to ! dogmatism ( ! empirical s*ool to :i* ,hume belong$1 & n to t ( ! rationali/ic s*ool ( ,wolff4 ,to ,kant bo? empiricism & rationalism 7 dogmatic2 ! "o because x assum$ ! validity ( s5sations1 ! o!r because x assum$ ! exi/5ce ( innate ideas4 ,?us ,hume effect$ a reaction 9 ,kant aga9/ ,hume's own doctr9e4 ,b 9 ?us react+ f ,hume1 ,kant saw t ! answ] 0 to be f\nd n 9 ! rationalism ( ,wolff1 b 9 an ideal conception ( space & "t4 ,hume's influ5ce 0 ! la/ be=e ,kant firmly e/abli%$ 8 !ory ( k 9 8 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd74 ,! ext]nal *anges 9 ! life ( ,immanuel ,kant 7 ! fewe/ possible4 ,he 0 born at ,knigsb]g 9 #agbd2 he w5t to ! s*ool ( t city & !n to its univ]sity1 & !n act$ 9 ! capacity ( tutor 9 families 9 ! prov9ce ( ,knigsb]g4 ,he became privat-doc5t 9 ! univ]sity at ! age ( ?irty-"o1 & pr(essor ( logic & metaphysics at ! age ( =ty-f\r4 ,he 0 call$ to ! ,univ]sity ( ,halle 9 #aggh1 b he refus$ to leave ,knigsb]g4 ,9 fact1 ,kant nev] w5t outside ! prov9ce1 & b little outside ! city4 ,nev]!less1 9 ! eighties he saw himself become ! mo/ important figure 9 ,knigsb]g1 & 9 ! n9eties ! mo/ important p[] 9 ,g]man academic circles4 ,9 #agid he came "u ! c5sure ( ! reaction>y gov]nm5t ( ,fr$]ick ,william ,,ii & 80 oblig$ to refra9 9 ! future f all public addresses on religion40 ,?is 0 ! only out] conflict 9 8 life4 ,9 #ahjd1 at ! age ( eighty1 he di$4 ,! ext]nals ( 8 life 7 f ! beg9n+ to ! end an undeviat+ r\t9e18 lectures1 8 daily walk1 8 d9n] ) fri5ds1 8 h\rs ( reflection ^u 8 great problem4 ,^! h be5 made ! subject ( _m descriptions4#ed ,! life ( ,kant is notable because x is ! hi/ory ( an unusual s+l5ess ( devotion to ! solution ( a speculative problem4 ,8 y\?ful po9t ( dep>ture 0 ! rationalism ( ,wolff2 8 po9t ( atta9m5t 0 ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 ,betwe5 ^! two po9ts 8 hi/ory 0 a s]ies ( m5tal rev]sals4 ,kant spoke ( 8 life z divid$ into two p>ts at ! ye> #aggj2 8 pre-critical & 8 critical p]iods4 ,at t "t !re 0 a *ange 9 ! =m z well z ! cont5t ( 8 writ+s4 ,8 pre-critical writ+s possess a graceful1 fl[+ /yle2 8 critical works are heavy & artificial 9 _! /ructure1 & reveal ! labor ) :i* 8 ?\ght tri$ to reconcile cont5d+ motifs4 ,s f> z ! cont5t ( ,kant's ?\ght is conc]n$ ! pre-critical p]iod w be se5 to fall into two subdivisions at ! ye> #agfj4 ,kant's life may !re=e be divid$ into ?ree epo*s3 7#a7 #agbd-agfj1 ! p]iod :5 he 0 a ,wolffian rationali/2 7#b7 #agfj-aggj1 ! p]iod :5 he 0 an empirical skeptic2 7#c7 #aggj-ahjd1 ! p]iod :5 he 0 a critical epi/emologi/4 ,9 ! fir/ p]iod he accept$ ! rationalism ( ,wolff1 b 8 ma9 int]e/1 z %[n by 8 writ+s1 0 9 natural sci5ce4 ,he 0 inspir$ by ! natural philosophy ( ,newton1 :i*1 9 ! latt] "p ( ?is p]iod1 l$ him to mi/ru/ ! metaphysics ( ,wolff4 ,t is to say1 he began to suspect t ! m]e logical op]ation ( concepts by ! 8pure reason0 c\ld n be a /atem5t ab\t ?+s 9 ! real _w4 ,9 ! next t5 ye>s8 second p]iodhe became conv9c$ t ! metaphysics ( ! rationali/s 0 impossible1 & yet t ! metaphysics ( ! empirical s*ool ( ! ,engli% 0 equally absurd4 ,8 writ+s dur+ ?is "t are m /rictly devot$ to que/ions ( metaphysics & epi/emology4 ,!n came 8 critical p]iod4 ,?is 0 inaugurat$ by 8 celebrat$ ,diss]tation ( #aggj1 foll[$ by a p]iod ( elev5 ye>s ( lit]>y sil5ce1 a sil5ce brok5 by ! publication ( 8 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason 9 #agha4 ,betwe5 #agha & #agij appe>$ ! m mature works f ,kant's p54 ,among !m 7 ! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason 7#aghh7 & ! ,critique ( ,judgm5t 7#agij71 =m$ on ! model ( ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason4 ,besides ^!1 8 m9or writ+s 7 v num]\s1 & "o notes an essay by him 9 ! la/ ye> ( 8 life4 ,b ! writ+s ( ,kant aft] #agij treat 9 ! ma9 ( ! philosophy ( law & conduct1 & %[ !mselves to be ! writ+s ( 8 decl9+ ye>s4 ,! ,problem ( ,kant4 ,! problem :i* ,kant plac$ be=e himself 0 t ( epi/emology4 ,epi/emology is ! !ory ( k1 & ,kant set to "w to inve/igate ! kn[+ process4 ,! peculi> significance ( ,kant re/s ^u ! fact t out ( ! v>i\s influ5ces conv]g+ ^u him & 8 "t he matur$ a new conception ( ! problem & ( ! me?od ( proc$ure ( philosophy4 ,he 0 conv9c$ t ! problem ( 8 "t 0 n "o ( metaphysical speculation1 al?\gh he felt ! value ( su* speculation 9 ! regions ( religion & morals4 ,yet he saw t ! metaphysical rationalism ( ,wolff _h prov$ itself inadequate because x 0 m]ely ! logical op]ation ( concepts1 & _h n dealt ) real relations4 ,he 0 equally sure t ! empirical metaphysics ( ! ,engli%m5 0 inadequate because x 0 nev] c]ta9 ( any tru?4 ,rational metaphysics 0 logically true1 b n real2 empirical metaphysics 0 real en\gh1 b nev] true4 ,s ,kant det]m9$ to f9d out ! relation betwe5 ! logical process ( ?\ght & ! reality ( ?+s4 ,he felt t ! fir/ problem 9 8 "t to be fac$ & settl$ 0 ! problem ( k1! epi/emological problem4 ,he plann$ to face lat] ! metaphysical problem1 b he delay$ ?is until too late 9 8 old age4 ,! problem ( ,kant c be put 9 ! simple "q1 ,:at c we "k8 ,! metaphysical problem t he def]r$ 01 ,:at is real8 ,yet 8 problem 0 n ne>ly s simple z ?is /atem5t w\ld seem to make x2 = ! epi/emological problem :i* he set himself 0 complicat$ by ! ,wolffian metaphysical dualism :i* he always presuppos$4 ,s9ce ,kant agre$ ) ! ,wolffian dualism! !ory t a great gulf sep>ates m9d & matt]8 qu]y ab\t k 0 n ! simple "q1 ,:at c we "k8 b ! long] "q1 ,:at c we "k ab\t ! ext]nal _w8 ,! ,me?od ( ,kant4 ,!re is b\nd up ) ! epi/emological problem a new me?od ( proc$ure 9 solv+ x4 ,h[ %all we f9d out :at we c "k8 ,kant calls 8 me?od ! critical me?od4 ,x is n only a criticism 9 a g5]al s5se1 9 t x weighs c>efully ! conditions ( k4 ,x is also criticism 9 ! special s5se ( conf9+ itself to a re/rict$ field4 ,kant po9t$ out t two me?ods may be employ$1 ! dogmatic & ! transc5d5tal4 ,he ass]t$ t ! dogmatic me?od _h be5 employ$ 9 ! pa/ & _h prov$ itself fallaci\s4 ,:at is ! dogmatic me?od8 ,all philosophy 0 dogmatic to ,kant :i* s\ght to f9d out :at k is true by %[+ h[ x orig9at$ & develop$4 ,dogmatism is no solution2 x is m]ely a psy*ological trac+ ( ideas to _! s\rces4 ,^! s\rces w be ei!r innate ideas1 if we are rationali/s1 or s5sations1 if we are empirici/s4 ,! true me?od is ! transc5d5tal or critical me?od4 ,:at is ?is me?od8 ,x is a /udy ( ! nature ( ! reason itself4 ,x is an exam9ation ( ! 8pure reason0 to see if its judgm5ts h 9 any in/ance a univ]sality beyond human exp]i5ce1 & yet are necess>y to human exp]i5ce4 ,! logic ( su* judgm5ts mu/ be absolutely reliable2 & yet at ! same "t ! judgm5ts mu/ be applicable to ! _w ( ?+s4 ,! me?od be+ transc5d5tal1 su* judgm5ts are transc5d5tal2 n because !y transc5d our exp]i5ce1 b because !y are necess>y to exp]i5ce4 ,! transc5d5tal is n :at is *ronologically b :at is rationally prior4 ,! transc5d5tal is ! indisp5sable to k4 ,! critical me?od is ! f9d+ ( ?is indisp5sable condition4 ,kant w\ld se>* ! :ole field ( ! reason = ?is4 ,s9ce to ,kant ?9k+1 feel+1 & will+ are ! fundam5tal =ms ( ! reason1 he s\ght ! realm ( ?\ght = ! transc5d5tal pr9ciples ( k1 t ( ! w = ! transc5d5tal pr9ciples ( morality1 t ( feel+ = ! transc5d5tal pr9ciples ( beauty4 ,! ,?reefold ,_w#ee ( ,kant,subjective ,/ates1 ,?+s-9-,!mselves1 & ,ph5om5a4 ,9 8 se>* = ^? indisp5sable conditions ( k ( ! ext]nal _w1 ,kant unfolds ! ?reefold "* ( ! realm ( human life4 ,to ,wolff ! _w _h be5 tw(old4 ,9 o!r words1 ,wolff _h conceiv$ ! _w z dual1 9 :i* !re 0 a correspond5ce1 "p by "p1 ( indep5d5t reality to ! /ates ( consci\sness4 ,to ,wolff reality is indep5d5t ( consci\sness1 & yet we are consci\s ( t reality4 ,n[ ,kant nev] gave up entirely ! ,wolffian dualism1 b he came to see t 9 su* a situation !re c\ld be no k4 ,= h[ c we be consci\s ( :at is absolutely indep5d5t ( u8 ,consequ5tly ,kant plund]$ ! ,wolffian worlds ( indep5d5t realities to build up an int]m$iate _w1a _w ( ph5om5a4 ,he dissolv$ ! %>pness ( ,wolff's dualism into a _w ) ?ree divisions2 & he gave to ea* division a new epi/emological value4 ,^! 7 ! realm ( ! subjective /ates or ! inn] consci\sness ( ! individual1 ! _w ( ph5om5a or ! realm ( k1 & ! _w ( absolute reality or t ( ?+s-9-!mselves4 ,! value ( ! _w ( ph5om5a consi/s 9 its be+ ! realm ( k4 ,! o!r two realms h values ( _! own1 :i* we %all describe bel[4 ,wolff's tw(old _w may be ?us comp>$ ) ,kant's ?reefold _w3 ,wolff4 ,kant4 #a4 ,m9d4 #a4 ,subjective /ates4 #b4 ,ph5om5a! realm ( k4 #b4 ,matt]4 #c4 ,?+s-9-!mselves4 #a4 ,! realm ( subjective /ates evid5tly is n a realm ( k4 ,= x is ! realm ( intuition & imm$iate appreh5sion ( ! individual's own ideas & s5sations2 & ?is is n :at we mean by k4 ,?is subjective _w is t 9 :i* ,i live alone4 ,x is a realm ( :i* nobody else is consci\s1 a realm :i* gives to me my individuality4 ,! only connect+ l9kage betwe5 my v>i\s purely subjective /ates is ! accid5tal ord] ( "t 9 :i*1 empirically or by association1 !y occur4 ,animal intellig5ce possesses only su* s5se-p]ceptions & s5sations1 & ^! are modifications ( its subjective consci\sness4 ,su* a m5tal con/itution has n ! capacity = k1 b only ! haphaz>d association ( ideas4 ,kant look$ ^u ! cont5t ( subjective consci\sness z ! object only ( psy*ological inve/igation4 #b4 ,! realm ( ?+s-9-!mselves is n to ,kant ! realm ( k4 ,by ?+s-9-!mselves ,kant di/9ctly does n mean ?+s-=-u1 n mat]ial bodies1 n nature objects4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,kant has plund]$ ! mat]ial realm ( ! duali/4 ,! ?+s-9-!mselves :i* are left beh9d z a residuum lie outside all s5se-p]ception & s beyond all k4 ,a div9e intellig5ce might h ! ?+s-9-!mselves z objects ( k1 b n we human be+s4 ,! ?+-9-itself is ! unkn[n & unkn[able4 ,b if ?is realm ( ?+s-9-!mselves is s absolutely indep5d5t ( u t we _c 9 any way "k x1 h[ c we say t x exi/s8 ,kant replies to ?is3 :ile we _c say :at a ?+-9-itself is1 we are oblig$ to say t x is4 ,= al?\gh beyond ev5 our s5se-p]ception1 x /&s z a necess>y po/ulate to p]ception1 z a m]e 8problem40 ,kant also calls ?+s-9-!mselves ,n\m5a1 & reg>ds !m z 8limit+ concepts0 to ! div9e non-s5su\s intellig5ce4 ,_! reality is z little to be d5i$ z affirm$4 #c4 ,kant po9t$ out t betwe5 or beside ! realm ( subjectivity & t ( ! ?+s-9-!mselves lies ! realm ( human k1 :i* we 9 our e-day spee* call physical nature1 & to :i* he gave ! "n 8! _w ( ph5om5a0 or 8! _w ( exp]i5ce40 ,! subjective _w is appreh5d$ by ! individual alone1 ! _w ( ?+s-9-!mselves is kn[n by no human be+1 b ! _w ( ph5om5a is ! common object ( k ( humanity4 ,ph5om5a are n ?+s-9-!mselves1 b ?+s-=-u2 !y are physical nature1 an int]relat$ totality = u4 ,!y con/itute n absolute reality1 b a reality relative to u4 ,ph5om5a are exp]i5ces 9 _! relations2 su* relat$ exp]i5ces are objects ( k1 & 9 _! ?or\ghly organiz$ & sy/ematic =m !y con/itute nature4 ,?us ! dualism :i* we ord9>ily meet1 l ! 8two _w0 !ory ( ,wolff1 has _m diff]5ces f ?is critical !ory ( ,kant ) its ?reefold divisions ( "o _w4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important is t 9 ,kant's !ory ! correspond5ce betwe5 /ates ( consci\sness & reality has disappe>$4 ,reality t\*es consci\sness only at "o po9t1at t po9t :]e s5sations arise4 ,s5sations m>k ! b\nd>y betwe5 unkn[n reality & consci\s life4 ,on ! side ( reality all is d>kness2 on ! side ( consci\s life all is ! creation ( our complex syn!tic activity4 ,) ! b\nd>y l9e ( s5sation z a base1 ! two realms ext5d 9 opposite directions4 ,9 value ! realm ( our consci\s life is only relative2 t ( reality or ?+s-9-!mselves is absolute4 ,! ,_w ( ,k4 ,!re is ?is to be obs]v$ ab\t ! ?reefold realm ( ,kant3 ! realm ( subjectivity & t ( k toge!r make up our consci\s life4 ,"o is ! realm ( ! consci\s individual1 & ! o!r ! realm ( ! consci\sness ( humanity4 ,kant conceiv$ ?is fur!r di/9ction betwe5 ! two realms3 9 a purely subjective /ate ! m9d is entirely passive & its cont5t is )\t control2 9 a /ate ( kn[+ ! m9d is actively engag$ 9 collect+ & relat+ its ideas4 ,?is is call$ by ,kant syn!sis4 ,:5 ,kant 0 =mulat+ 8 problem1 !re gradually came to him 9 cle>] outl9e ! syn!tic nature ( ! activity ( ! human reason4 ,he felt m & m t ! secret ( ! kn[+ process 0 to be expla9$ by its function ( comb9+ _m exp]i5ces into a unity4 ,?is conception ( syn!sis is :at sep>ates ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason f all ! previ\s writ+s ( ,kant4 ,fur!rmore1 ! ?ree books ( ! ,critique are expositions ( ! diff]5t /ages 9 :i* m5tal syn!sis completes itself3 9 7#a7 p]ception1 7#b7 und]/&+1 & 7#c7 reason4 ,! kn[+ activity ( man develops 9 ^! ?ree diff]5t =ms ( syn!sis1 9 :i* ea* l[] /age is ! cont5t ( ! high]4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! c5tral factor 9 k8 ,x is ! syn!tic p[] ( ! m9d4 ,! m9d is n m]ely passively aw>e ( its s5sations z !y come s]iatim1 b x actively relates !m & holds !m toge!r4 ,! m9d is a dynamic ag5t ^: activity consi/s 9 syn!siz+ 9 ! pres5t mom5t its exp]i5ces ( ! pa/4 ,! human m9d is n l a curta9 ^u :i* /]eopticon pictures appe> & !n disappe> 9 turn4 ,x reta9s its pictures1 al?\gh !y are no long] be+ ?r[n ^u ! scre54 ,suppose we he> ! tick+ ( a clock4 ,n[ if we _h no syn!tic p[]1 all we %\ld appreh5d w\ld be "o1 "o1 "o1& s on4 ,b we d h syn!tic p[]1 & we say "o1 two1 ?ree1 & s on4 ,we c\nt 9 a s]ies 9 :i* ea* t]m includes ! prec$+ t]m4 ,two includes "o1 & ?ree includes two1 etc4 ,?is is k4 ,x is cumulative exp]i5ce4 ,! exp]i5ce ( tw5ty animals1 ea* hav+ "o exp]i5ce1 is n ! same z ! exp]i5ce ( "o man hav+ tw5ty exp]i5ces4 ,9 va9 w\ld nature act on man if ! m9d ( man ?r\gh memory & imag9ation did n c>ry ov] exp]i5ces4 ,s ! important ?+ is n :at happ5s1 b :at p[] ! human m9d has4 ,k1 !n1 to ,kant is ! unify+ ( ! manifold4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 two aspects to k2 ! passive s5sations & ! active p[] ( syn!sis4 ,s5sations1 on ! "o h&1 are ! raw mat]ial out ( :i* reason ?r\gh its v>i\s =ms creates ! f9i%$ fabric ( k4 ,s5sations are ! cont5t ( k4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is ! active unify+ p[] ( ! reason4 ,k consi/s ( s5sations & syn!sis 9 conjunction4 ,reason alone deals ) 8?\ght relations0 or imag9ations1 :5ev] x tries to treat objects ( :i* s5sations are n ! raw mat]ial4 ,s5sations alone1 h[ev]1 are only subjective /ates4 ,! (t-quot$ say+s ( ,kant1 t 8,only 9 exp]i5ce is ! tru?10 & t 8,conception )\t p]ception is empty1 p]ception )\t conception is bl9d10 ref] to ! re/riction ( k to ! s5se-mat]ials & to ! syn!tic function ( ! reason4 ,! ,place ( ,syn!sis 9 ,k4 ,:at position does syn!sis occupy 9 ! total process ( k8 ,is syn!sis "o ( ! factors or elem5ts ( k8 ,is syn!sis on ! same level ) ! s5sations1 ! feel+s1 ! imag9ations8 ,no1 x is v diff]5t4 ,! syn!sis t ,kant is describ+ is n ! product or conclusion f an inf]5ce4 ,kant does n mean by syn!sis ! comb9ation ( facts z a result1 su* z a biologi/ might make 9 fram+ ! law ( ! habits ( animals f 8 obs]vation ( !m4 ,! syn!sis t ,kant is talk+ ab\t is n s mu* ! result ( comb9+ exp]i5ces z ! act ( comb9+ !m4 ,! frame ( ! unifi$ manifold1 ! law ( its unification1 ! act ( b9d+ ! isolat$ exp]i5ces toge!r is syn!sis4 ,syn!sis occupies a high] level ?an ! elem5ts ( k or k itself4 ,syn!sis is ! kn[+ process r ?an ! kn[n product4 ,x is con/itutive2 x is creative2 x conditions exp]i5ce & puts ! mat]ial ( exp]i5ce toge!r4 ,x mu/ n be ?\ght to be a volunt>y act ( ! m9d1 :i* ! m9d w or w n d1 z x pleases4 ,:5 ! m9d acts1 x syn!sizes4 ,fur!rmore1 ! syn!tic function+ ( all human m9ds ev]y:]e is ! same4 ,h[ev] mu* _! s5sations diff]1 !y comb9e & ord]ly arrange _! s5se-mat]ials 9 ! same ways4 ,! syn!sis ( ! human m9d is ! s\rce ( ! univ]sality belong+ to k2 ! s5sations1 ! 8giv510 are ! s\rce ( ! diff]5ce 9 k4 ,k is ! result ( m9ds t function 9 absolutely ! same ways2 & we %\ld nev] h k if ! ord] & l9kage ( ! _w dep5d$ on ! accid5t ( exp]i5ce4 ,take1 = example1 su* laws z ^? ( ma!matics or ! physical law ( cause4 ,^! are ! same = ev]ybody4 ,!y are univ]sal laws4 ,! ord9>y conception ( !m z indep5d5t pr9ciples ( an indep5d5t nature _w w n acc\nt = _! necessity = ev]ybody & _! univ]sality4 ,z indep5d5t pr9ciples !y w\ld diff] = diff]5t peoples j z s5sations diff]4 ,9 t case we %\ld h no k4 ,human be+s c\ld n !n ?9k ab\t ! same ?+s1 nor reason "u ! same guid+ pr9ciples4 ,h[ev]1 we d ?9k alike1 we h ! same geometry1 ! same physical laws1 ! same "t-e/imates2 & simply because we function alike syn!tically4 ,k is ?us ! common possession ( humanity because ! syn!tic function+ ( ! diff]5t individual m5 is id5tically ! same4 ,a v good way to get at ,kant's c5tral pr9ciple ( syn!sis is to draw ?is picture4 ,suppose t besides ! race ( human be+s ) its own peculi> way ( ord]+ its _w1 !re 7 a race ( angels end[$ ) its own p[]s1 ano!r ( hobgobl9s likewise end[$ ) its own p[]s1 & s on to x1 y1 & z racesany numb] y please4 ,:at w\ld be ! situation8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ea* "o ( ! gr\ps w\ld be absolutely isolat$ f ea* ( ! o!rs4 ,no "o w\ld h ! p[] to "k ev5 ! exi/5ce ( ! o!rs4 ,no "o race w\ld ev5 h any?+ 9 common ) ! o!rs4 ,! _w ( ea* w\ld be diff]5t4 ,9 ! next place ea* w\ld be try+ to int]pret reality1 & 9 do+ s1 ea* w\ld con/ruct & ord] a _w ( reality ( its own4 ,! memb]s ( ea* race w\ld h a _w 9 common & ! memb]s w\ld "k "o ano!r4 ,b t is all4 ,! memb]s ( ea* race w\ld n be able to get outside _! own p[]s ( syn!sis4 ,9 ,holy ,writ ! home ( ! angels has be5 sometimes describ$ z hav+ no "t & space1 b ?is means only t space & "t are aspects ( our m5tal syn!sis & n ( !irs4 ,we live 9 our _w ( our int]pretative con/ruction ( reality1 & !y 9 !irs4 ,! same w\ld h to be said ( x1 y1 & z4 ,none w\ld live 9 a _w ( absolute reality4 ,b ea* w\ld live 9 a _w made diff]5t f all ! o!r worlds by ! diff]+ m5tal p[]s ( ea* race4 ,yet ! memb]s ( ea* race w\ld inhabit a _w 9 common because ! individuals ( ea* _h common m5tal p[]s4 ,! p>ticul> _w t human be+s inhabit is call$ physical nature1 ^: laws are kn[n z ! laws ( sci5ce4 ,h[ c x be "o _w 9 :i* s _m millions ( diff]5t human be+s live8 ,because ^! millions ( human be+s are "u ! same fundam5tal rational laws1 & !y con/ruct ! _w 9 a common fa%ion4 ,! laws ( nature are1 aft] all1 ! laws ( our own m9ds4 ,!y are ! laws ( reason4 ,! laws ( nature are n ! laws ( absolute reality1 b ! laws ( ! human int]pretation ( reality4 ,all ! l9kage ( facts1 all ! law & ord] ( our univ]se1 all ! comb9ation ( ! v>iety ( objects ( k9 a ^w1 ! entire body ( sci5ce or ! _w ( physical nature is a human m5tal syn!sis4 ,does indep5d5t absolute reality exi/8 ,yes2 b x exi/s beh9d ! sc5es = u z = ! angels4 ,m5tal syn!sis is con/itutive ( ! _w 9 :i* we are actually engag$m5tal syn!sis is %ot ?r\gh & ?r\gh all our exp]i5ces4 ,m5tal syn!sis is ! framework ( ! univ]se1 & !re=e ,kant says1 8,! _w is my repres5tation40 ,! ,judgm5ts ,indisp5sable to ,human ,k4 ,x w be se5 f ! above discussion t ,kant does n believe t an idea or a s5sation tak5 by itself con/itutes k4 ,k consi/s ( s5sations fram$ toge!r 9 a syn!sis4 ,t is1 ideas mu/ be tak5 toge!r ) o!r ideas4 ,?is is call$ 9 gramm> a proposition1 hav+ a subject & a pr$icate4 ,9 logic x is call$ a judgm5t4 ,! only way a human be+ c express k is 9 ! =m ( judgm5ts1 b all judgm5ts ( human be+s are n necess>ily k4 ,judgm5ts are divid$ by ,kant into two l>ge classes1analytic & syn!tic4 ,! l>ge class ( analytic judgm5ts are n expressions ( k4 ,:at is an analytic judgm5t8 ,an analytic judgm5t m]ely expresses 9 ! pr$icate some?+ t is conta9$ 9 ! usual mean+ ( ! subject4 ,su* a judgm5t articulates ! mean+ ( an idea by emphasiz+ "s ( its well-kn[n attributes4 ,?us we say1 8,gold is yell[40 ,su* a /atem5t ab\t 8gold0 does n %[ any k4 ,x is call$ sometimes an explicative /atem5t4 ,x is tautolog\s1 b n on t acc\nt trivial4 ,let u look !n to syn!tic judgm5ts to see if !y express k4 ,b fir/1 :at is a syn!tic judgm5t8 ,a syn!tic judgm5t is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate is n conta9$ 9 ! usual mean+ ( ! subject4 ,x is a /atem5t ( some?+ new ab\t ! subject 9 h&4 ,= example1 ! judgm5t1 8,! wat* is yell[0 is a syn!tic judgm5t because ! pr$icate 8yell[0 is n a necess>y "p ( ! mean+ ( 8wat*40 ,a syn!tic judgm5t !re=e br+s two ideas toge!r 9 a new relation4 ,x !reby enri*es k & is ! expression ( discov]y4 ,! syn!tic judgm5t is (t5 call$ ampliative4 7,! d\ble mean+ :i* ,kant gives ! t]m 8syn!tic0 ne$ n confuse u4 ,syn!sis is us$ by ,kant to mean ! fram+ con/itution ( ! m9d1 & also z "o ( ! results ( ! activity ( ! m9d1 i4 e4 a class ( judgm5ts4 ,9 ! fir/ s5se all judgm5ts1 bo? analytic & syn!tic1 are expressions ( syn!sis47 ,are all syn!tic judgm5ts expressions ( k8 ,kant replies t !y c]ta9ly are n4 ,he po9ts out t !re are two classes ( syn!tic judgm5ts3 "o class he calls a po/]iori & ! o!r a priori4 ,by a po/]iori he means judgm5ts f\nd$ 9 "s s5se-p]ception1 :i* are p>ticul> judgm5ts or judgm5ts t are inf]5ces f a great] or less induction ( s5se-p]ceptions4 ,= example1 if ,i say1 8,to-day is w>m10 or t 8,swans1 s f> z ,i h obs]v$1 are :ite10 ,i am mak+ a syn!tic judgm5t1 because ,i am jo9+ two ideas 9 a new relation1 & ,i am also mak+ an a po/]iori judgm5t1 because x is a /atem5t f\nd$ ^u s5se-p]ception4 ,n[ ,kant rules su* judgm5ts out f ^? t con/itute true k4 ,?is w\ld rule out ev5 empirical g5]alizations ( high probability1 su* z 8,! sun rises 9 ! ea/40 ,a po/]iori judgm5ts1 or ^? f\nd$ on exp]i5ce1 h[ev] l>ge1 d n give u k1 b m]ely probability4 ,! cases ^u :i* su* judgm5ts are f\nd$ are always limit$1 & !re may be exceptions beyond our obs]vation4 ,! only k9d ( judgm5ts t are ! expression ( true k mu/1 !re=e1 be syn!tic judgm5ts t are a priori4 ,t is to say1 !y mu/ express "s new relation betwe5 ideas t is also univ]sally & necess>ily true4 ,by a priori ,kant means ! univ]sal & necess>y2 &1 fur!rmore1 he ma9ta9s t ! univ]sal & necess>y1 & no?+ else1 con/itutes k4 ,he po9ts out t we make su* judgm5ts4 ,:5 we say t ! ?ree angles ( a triangle equal two "r angles1 or t e ev5t has a cause1 we are say+ some?+ univ]sal & necess>y1 some?+ n f\nd$ on exp]i5ce4 ,no "o w\ld admit t !re 7 exceptions to ^! propositions4 ,! "q1 !n1 t ,kant tries to answ] 9 8 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason is1 ,h[ are syn!tic judgm5ts a priori possible8 ,or s9ce to ,kant k consi/s ( syn!tic judgm5ts a priori1 "u :at conditions is k possible8#ef ,= ! sake ( cle>ness1 let u /ate ?is problem ( ,kant 9 ano!r way4 ,x is ! nature ( man to try by m]e ?9k+ to discov] ! nature ( reality4 ,! dogmatic s*ool ( ,rationali/s _h attempt$1 )\t call+ 9 exp]i5ce to its aid1 to weave out ( pure ?\ght answ]s to ! que/ions ab\t ,god1 immortality1 & nature4 ,x _h ma9ta9$ t cle> & di/9ct notions h a reality correspond+ to !m1 & are !re=e real4 ,judgm5ts =m$ 9 ?is way are analytic a priori2 b x is evid5t t :ile su* analyses ( ?\ght h a cog5cy = ?\ght1 !y d n necess>ily h a correspond+ reality4 ,on ! o!r h&1 conclusions bas$ on exp]i5ce h a k9d ( validity = ! real _w1 b !y yield no c]ta9 tru? ab\t x4 ,^! are syn!tic judgm5ts a po/]iori4 ,if ,hume is "r 9 say+ t ^! are ! only judgm5ts deal+ ) nature1 !n we h no c]ta9 tru? ab\t nature4 ,!y give g5]alizations t are useful on ! :ole1 b _! conclusions range only f possibility to high probability1 & nev] rea* c]ta9ty4 ,besides 7#a7 conceptual k & 7#b7 8k ( matt]s ( fact10 ,kant po9t$ out t !re is a ?ird k9d4 ,?is is ! only valid k9d4 ,?is k is bas$ on syn!tic judgm5ts a priori4 ,su* k arises indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 i4 e4 is a priori1 & yet is valid = exp]i5ce1 i4 e4 is syn!tic4 ,hume's /atem5t t su* k is syn!tic a po/]iori is n accept$ by ,kant4 ,kant is1 !re=e1 b\nd to %[ h[ ?is ?ird class ( syn!tic judgm5ts a priori is possible1 & h[ pure ?\ght c be b9d+ on exp]i5ce4 ,! ,pro( ( ! ,validity ( ,human ,k4 ,if we turn n[ to review :at we h said ab\t ,kant1 we f9d t he und]takes to solve ! problem1 ,h[ c we "k8 by a critical /udy ( ! =ms ( ! reason4 ,we h f\nd t ! reason is ess5tially a syn!tic p[]1 & is ! framework ( ! _w ( ph5om5a to :i* k is limit$4 ,k is ! complex ?+1 consi/+ ( s5sations z its wo( & syn!sis z its w>p4 ,to answ] ! "q1 ,"u :at conditions is k possible8 we mu/ /udy n s5sations1 b syn!sis 9 its sev]al =ms4 ,if ,kant c %[ t ! m9d furni%es ! a priori1 t is1 ! univ]sal & necess>y =ms to k1 he ?9ks he has prov$ 8 case4 ,he has !n expla9$ :y human k is valid & ?us prov$ t human k is valid4 ,n[ ,kant tries to %[ :at ! special a priori =ms ( k are & 9 :at ! validity ( su* =ms consi/s4 ,9 ! fir/ book ( ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 ! /hetic1 he und]takes to %[ :at ! a priori =ms ( ma!matics are & h[ !y make k valid by be+ =ms ( m5tal syn!sis4 ,9 ! next "p ( ! ,critique1 ! ,analytic1 he tries to %[ :at ! a priori =ms ( ! k ( physical sci5ce are & h[ !y make physical sci5ce valid & objective4 ,9 ! la/ "p1 ! ,dialectic1 he discusses ! a priori =ms ( ! reason & %[s :y !y h no validity 9 k4 ,^! are ?ree /ages 9 :i* ! kn[+ activity develops z ?ree diff]5t =ms ( syn!sis4 ,! /ages are p]ception1 und]/&+1 & reason4 ,ea* high] /age has ! l[] z its cont5t4 ,f9i%$ k involves p]ceptions1 reproductions 9 ! und]/&+1 & a recognition ( ! :ole by a ?9k+ subject4 ,p]ception1 und]/&+1 & reason are n sep>ate acts1 b diff]5t levels ( "o consci\sness4 ,^! w be tak5 up 9 succession4 #a4 ,9 ,:at does ! ,validity ( ,s5se-,p]ception ,consi/8 ,kant po9ts out3 7#a7 ,s5se-p]ception has 7a7 a cont5t ( s5se qualities1 l s\nd1 color1 etc41 & 7b7 ! relations ( space & "t4 7#b7 ,space & "t orig9ally belong to ! subject z its =ms ( s5se-p]ception1 & are n introduc$ f )\t by exp]i5ce4 7#c7 ,by means ( space & "t a priori k is possible4 ,if !re is any validity 9 p]ceptual k1 x dep5ds ^u ! con/itution ( space & "t2 n ^u ! "* ( ! empirical cont5t1 or ! s5sations4 ,! "q ab\t ! validity ( s5se-p]ception1 !n1 is a "q ab\t ! reliability ( ma!matics4 ,!re are two elem5ts 9 s5se-p]ception3 a necess>y & con/ant1 & a *ang+ & accid5tal4 ,space & "t are ! con/ant elem5t4 ,!y are homog5e\s1 & always "o & ! same 9 quality4 ,!y are unities1 = !re is only "o space & "o "t1 & ! _m spaces & times are only divisions ( ?is on5ess4 ,all ! diff]5ces 9 space & "t are due to ! relation & movem5ts ( bodies1 & are n inh]5t 9 space & "t !mselves4 ,h[ is ?is unity & homog5eity ( space & "t to be expla9$8 ,by assum+ t space & "t are orig9al & uni=m functions ( p]ception1 ! =ms ( p]ception1 ! ways ( appreh5sion1 ! 8preh5sile organs ( our s5sibility40 ,!y are ! ways 9 :i* we syn!size on ! l[] level ( consci\sness4 ,if !y 7 giv5 9 exp]i5ce1 !re is no reason :y ! sev]al spaces & times %\ld n be intr9sically diff]5t1 l diff]5t bodies ) diff]5t qualities4 ,h[ev]1 by conceiv+ !m to be m5tal syn!ses 9 ! level ( p]ception1 !y expla9 ! univ]sality ( ! laws ( ma!matics4 ,!y are ! color$ spectacles t all human be+s we>2 or1 to use ano!r figure1 !y are ! m\ld into :i* all s5sations are run4 ,be+ ! un*angeable =ms ( our s5su\s receptivity1 !y h a validity = ! entire compass ( p]ception4 ,!y are univ]sal because "o exp]i5ce ( space & "t is valid = all spaces & times2 !y are necess>y because we _c ?9k ( objects ap>t f !m2 !y are p]ceptual syn!ses because !y increase k4 ,( c\rse we are unconsci\s ( ?is p]ceptual syn!sis ( ! s5sory elem5ts 9 space & "t4 ,! process takes place automatically4 ,we c nev]!less analyze ! process aft] x has tak5 place1 & speak ( ! s5sations z ! mat]ials ( k1 & ! =ms ( space & "t z ! a priori elem5ts4 ,b 9 actual consci\s exp]i5ce1 s5sations nev] come to u 9 _! rawness4 ,!y are nev] turn$ ov] to ! und]/&+ unless !y be> ! /amp ( space & "t4 ,! process ( k1 !re=e1 />ts ) complex mat]ialcomplex because x has be5 syn!siz$ bel[ consci\sness4 ,9 o!r words1 p]ceptions come into ! process ( k ) two aspects3 7#a7 _! p]man5t & necess>y =m2 & 7#b7 _! accid5tal & *ang+ cont5t4 #b4 ,9 ,:at does ! ,validity ( ! ,und]/&+ ,consi/8 ,kant's discussion ( ! syn!sis ( ! und]/&+ is giv5 9 ! ,analytic1 ! second "p ( 8 ,critique4 ,8 treatm5t ( ! und]/&+ is simil> to t ( p]ception4 ,! und]/&+1 be x rememb]$1 is reg>d$ by ,kant z ! second /age 9 ! process ( a complete syn!sis ( k4 ,x is syn!sis on a high] level ?an p]ception4 ,inde$1 p]ception is ! mat]ial :i* ! und]/&+ syn!sizes4 ,z 9 ! /hetic ,kant seeks to %[3 7#a7 ! a priori factors ( ! und]/&+ & 7#b7 t ^! a priori factors give to k its validity4 ,! unify+ pr9ciple ( p]ception is ! ma!matical2 b physical nature1 :i* is ! subject-matt] ( ! /udy ( ! und]/&+1 is m ?an ma!matical1 m ?an an aggregate ( space & "t =ms1 m ?an %apes & motions4 ,nature exi/s z a connect$ sy/em ( sub/ances1 causes1 etc4 ,natural sci5ce possesses besides its ma!matical basis a numb] ( g5]al a priori pr9ciples = ! validity ( its conclusions4 ,kant's task 0 !re=e only begun by %[+ t p]ception possesses ! univ]sal & syn!tic pr9ciples ( space & "t4 ,p]ception is only ! beg9n+ ( k4 ,x is n k1 b only subjective consci\sness4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! und]/&+ is ! faculty ( k1 & !re=e ,kant seeks to po9t out its a priori or univ]sal elem5ts1 & by _! pres5ce prove its validity4 ,s9ce ! days ( ,ari/otle ! g5]al t]ms us$ 9 reason+ h be5 call$ categories4 ,any class-t]m or g5us may be call$ a category4 ,!re are c]ta9 summa g5]a1 ! mo/ ext5sive classes or classes ) ! l[e/ connotation1 t h be5 traditionally kn[n z categories1 because ev]y?+ t c be affirm$ 9 a judgm5t mu/ come "u "s "o or o!r ( !m4 ,ari/otle names t51sub/ance1 quality1 quantity1 etc4 ,b ^! ,ari/otelian categories are classes ( analytical relations1 su* z =mal logic treats4 ,!y are ! classes ( ! attributes & relations into :i* objects may be analyz$4 ,^! evid5tly are n :at ,kant is seek+4 ,he is 9 se>* ( syn!tic categories4 ,he is look+ = ! syn!tic =ms ( ! und]/&+ itself1 :i* trans=m p]ceptions into objects ( k4 ,he is n look+ m]ely = ab/ract conceptions4 ,= ideas become nature objects only :5 !y are ?\ght z ?+s ) qualities univ]sal to e human m9d4 ,! und]/&+ creates out ( ! p]ceptions ! objects ( ?\ght :i* =m ! nature-_w2 & ! categories ( ! und]/&+ are ! con/itutive pr9ciples ( su* objects4 ,! categories are ! relat+ =ms ( syn!sis ?r\gh :i* objects arise4 ,! mo/ difficult "p ( ! ,critique is call$ ! 8,d$uction ( ! ,categories10 9 :i* ,kant attempts to d]ive ! syn!tic =ms ( ! und]/&+ f ! v>i\s k9ds ( judgm5t4 ,kant's li/ is curi\s b unimportant1 & only two ( ^! categories are useful1sub/ance & cause4 ,he divides ! categories into f\r g5]al k9ds & enum]ates ?ree categories ( ea* ( ^! k9ds1 z foll[s3 ,categories ( ,quantity1,unity1 ,plurality1 ,totality4 ,categories ( ,quality1,reality1 ,negation1 ,limitation4 ,categories ( ,relation1,sub/ance1 ,cause1 ,reciprocity4 ,categories ( ,modality1,possibility1 ,exi/5ce1 ,necessity4 ,^! categories occupy ! same position 9 ! und]/&+ t space & "t d 9 ! p]ception1!y are ! a priori pr9ciples4 ,9 respect to !m ! p]ceptions are ! a po/]iori mat]ial4 ,! categories are pure1 innate1 & transc5d5tal4 ,!y are ! inn] nature ( ! und]/&+4 ,?us ! objects ( ! und]/&+ conta9 bo? a priori & a po/]iori factors1 & are syn!ses ( manifolds4 ,p]ception syn!sizes s5sations1 :ile ! und]/&+ syn!sizes p]ceptions1 & /ates ! syn!sis 9 ! =m ( a judgm5t4 ,hav+ nam$ ! a priori =ms ( ! und]/&+1 h[ does ,kant %[ t by _! means our k ( nature has validity8 ,because :5 ! und]/&+ functions1 x prescribes ^! =ms to p]ception4 ,impressions w\ld rema9 vague & =mless1 if we did n ?9k !m2 by means ( ?\ght we weld impressions into objects & give !m a coh]5t reality4 ,?is is exactly :at is meant by und]/&+4 ,if nature 7 an indep5d5t ?+ & prescrib$ laws to ! und]/&+1 ! laws w\ld nev] be univ]sal & necess>y4 ,! univ]sality ( ! laws ( nature c be expla9$ only by suppos+ t ! und]/&+ prescribes its laws to nature1 n to nature z a ,?+-9-,itself1 b only s f> z x appe>s 9 s5se-p]ception4 ,univ]sal & necess>y k ( nature is possible only if ! connections & relations ( nature are absolutely id5tical ) ! modes ( ?\ght4 ,! categories ( ! und]/&+ h objective validity1 !re=e1 because ! laws ( ! und]/&+ are ! fundam5tal laws ( nature4 ,! und]/&+ has giv5 su* laws to nature4 ,a priori & !re=e univ]sal & necess>y1 syn!tic & !re=e creative1 ! _w consi/s ( objects "u laws ( ! und]/&+4 ,!re are z _m k9ds ( natural objects z !re are categories ( ! und]/&+4 ,if we w exam9e :at we call ! _w ( nature1 we %all f9d t _m ( its objects h nev] be5 p]ceiv$4 ,man has only p>tly explor$ ! e>?1 & !re are va/ regions 9 space t he has nev] se54 ,he has nev] se5 ! ,s\? ,pole1 & ! ,nor? ,pole only rec5tly2 he has nev] se5 ! o!r side ( ! moon1 & !re are myriads ( />s beyond ev5 ! rea* ( 8 telescope4 ,^! are n p]ceptible ?+s1 & yet !y are ! objects ( ! und]/&+objects ( k4 ,h[ is x possible8 ,x w\ld n be possible if ! laws ( nature 7 limit$ to ! empirically p]ceiv$ facts4 ,x is possible because ! laws ( ! und]/&+ are ! laws ( nature & apply ev]y:]e1 :e!r ! ?+ is actually p]ceiv$ or n4 ,! moon mu/ h ano!r side because ! human und]/&+ conceives all sub/ances 9 ?is way2 ! law ( cause & effect obta9s beyond ! />s1 & at ! ,s\? ,pole1 ev5 ?\gh !y h nev] be5 p]ceiv$4 ,! _w ( physical objects1 or 9 o!r words ! _w ( objects ( ! und]/&+1 consi/s ( bo? possible & actually p]ceiv$ objects4 ,if ! laws ( nature 7 prescrib$ by nature to ! m9d1 !n ! _w ( objects w\ld consi/ only ( actually p]ceiv$ objects4 ,b look at ! _w ( nature a little m closely4 ,x is "o :ole _w ) v _m ?+s 9 x4 ,:y is ?is ! case8 ,w\ld x ev] be s if our k ( ! _w 0 simply a reproduction ( :at ! _w pres5t$ to u8 ,( c\rse n4 ,!re w\ld be z _m diff]5t worlds z !re are human be+s4 ,! :ol5ess1 ! on5ess ( our _w ( _m ?+s to _m individuals indicates n only t ! und]/&+ is ! s\rce ( ! laws ( ! _w1 b also t ! faculties ( und]/&+ 9 all ! millions ( human be+s h a transc5d5tal unity4 ,k has !re=e a /rong] pro( ( its validity1 s9ce :at is k = "o human be+ is k = all4 ,e individual man is consci\s ( ! contra/ betwe5 8 own subjective _w & ! _w ( k :i* he %>es ) o!r m54 ,8 own ideas h a movem5t ( _! own & h no validity beyond !mselves2 ! ideas :i* he %>es ) o!rs1 h[ev]1 are valid = all o!rs because ^! ideas are beyond ! control ( any "o man4 ,ea* individual man has to ackn[l$ge ?is control ( 8 k z resid+ 9 some?+ beyond himself4 ,! categories ( ea* man's und]/&+ cop]ate exactly ) ^? ( e o!r man4 ,! individual man is n actually consci\s ( ?is process ( cop]ation 9 exp]i5ce1 b he accepts ! objective necessity ( x4 ,! individual consci\sness is n !re=e ! creator ( ! objects ( k2 r consci\sness 9 g5]al! consci\sness ( humanityis ! creator4 ,kant is n a solipsi/1 b an ideali/4 ,a high] consci\sness1 a sup]-consci\s ,self1 mu/ be assum$ to expla9 ! compactness ( human k4 ,kant does n call ?is sup]-consci\s ,self ! 8s\l0 or 8_s10 b ! 8,i ?9k0 or ! 8transc5d5tal ego10 or by ! m clumsy phrase 8! transc5d5tal unity ( app]ception40 ,he contra/s x ) :at he calls ! 8empirical ego0 on ! gr\nd t x is ! ego always id5tical ) itself1 r ?an ! ,self at ?is or t p>ticul> mom5t4 ,x is ! ,self z ?9k] r ?an ! ,self z ?\ght ab\t4 ,! sup]-consci\s ,self is always self-active & nev] dep5d5t ^u empirical conditions4 ,x mu/ be accept$ z ! po/ulate ( all k4 ,x is ! univ]sal ,self1 & ?r\gh x ! categories ( ! human und]/&+ become univ]saliz$4 ,j z space & "t are ! unify+ =ms ( syn!tic consci\sness on its l[] level2 j z ! categories ( ! und]/&+ are ! unify+ =ms ( ! syn!tic consci\sness on a high] level2 s ! univ]sal ,self mu/ be po/ulat$ to expla9 ! univ]sality ( ! categories4 ,x is a po/ulate only because x1 n kn[n 9 exp]i5ce1 is necess>y to expla9 ! unity ( k4 ,?is !oretical conception ( ! ,self by ,kant is ?us v diff]5t f ! traditional notion ( ! s\l4 ,has ! ,reason by ,itself any ,validity8 ,:5 ,kant calls 8 criticism ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 he uses ! t]m 8,reason0 9 a wide s5se z ! :ole kn[+ process4 ,9 ! ,dialectic he treats ! ,reason 9 a n>r[ s5se1 z if x 7 a special faculty l ! p]ception or und]/&+4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 a confus+ use ( t]ms1 l 8 use ( ! t]m 8,syn!sis02 b x %\ld cause no difficulty provid$ ! two uses are kn[n be=eh&4 ,! t]m 8,ideas0 is also us$ 9 two s5ses4 ,9 ?is place x has a special use4 ,:ile usually an idea means any ?\ght1 "h x means ! syn!tic =m ( ! special faculty ( ! reason1 j z ! categories are ! =m ( ! und]/&+1 & space & "t ! =m ( s5se-p]ception4 ,! syn!tic =ms ( ! ,reason are ! ?ree ,ideas1 viz41 ,god1 ! s\l1 & ! totality ( ! univ]se4 ,:at is ! (fice ( ?is special faculty ( ! ,reason & its ,idea-=ms8 ,!y repres5t ,kant's way ( /at+ ! natural t5d5cy ( ! human m9d to get f its k ! greate/ possible unity ) ! greate/ possible ext5sion4 ,consci\sness is a syn!sis :i* is nev] satisfi$ 9 be+ p>tial & incomplete4 ,! p>tial syn!ses ( its faculties ( p]ception & und]/&+ d n satisfy x4 ,p]ception & und]/&+ tell u no?+ ab\t ,god1 ab\t ! s\l1 & ab\t ! totality ( ! univ]se1 = ^! faculties are fett]$ to exp]i5ce4 ,yet ,god1 ! s\l1 & ! totality ( ! univ]se are v important matt]s4 ,s ! ,reason leaps ov] ! b\nd>ies ( exp]i5ce1 & ?9ks x is ju/ifi$ 9 poa*+ 9 ! t]ritory =bidd5 to k4 ,! ,reason is n cont5t ) ! p>tial & relational k ( ma!matics & ( physical sci5ce1 b x w\ld deal ) ! unrelat$ & ! uncondition$4 ,inde$1 we ne$ only se>* our own m9ds to see h[ true ,kant is to fact4 ,we f9d t we ourselves are n satisfi$ ) condition$ ?+s1 :i* mu/ be expla9$ by o!r condition$ ?+s4 ,on ! contr>y1 we long to "k ! absolutely uncondition$1 :i* alone w expla9 all conditions4 ,we are =ev] seek+ to make our syn!sis complete1 & to r5d] a rational & complete acc\nt ( :at is nev]!less impossible to our k4 ,n[ x is evid5t t ! ,ideas ( ! ,reason are n indisp5sable to k 9 ! s5se t ! categories ( ! und]/&+ & ! =ms ( s5se p]ception are indisp5sable4 ,cause1 "t1 & space ent] into all k4 ,physical & ma!matical laws exi/ z facts1 & ne$ no pro( = _! exi/5ce4 ,kant ask$ ab\t !m1 8,h[ are syn!tic a priori judgm5ts possible80 ,b conc]n+ ! judgm5ts ( ! ,reason1 he asks a diff]5t "q3 n ,h[ are !y possible1 b ,are !y possible8 ,! ,reason & its ?ree ,ideas give :at ,kant calls transc5d5t k 9 di/9ction f ! transc5d5tal k ( ! und]/&+ & its categories4 ,by transc5d5t k he means t :i* is beyond ! limits ( possible exp]i5ce2 :ile transc5d5tal k ref]s to k ab\t ! necess>y pr9ciples ( exp]i5ce4 ,kant1 h[ev]1 is will+ to ackn[l$ge t ! ,ideas ( ! ,reason h a legitimate use4 ,!y are 8regulative pr9ciples0 9 t1 by %[+ :at our limitations are1 !y also %[ t human k is n ! f9al goal4 ,_! illegitimate use appe>s :5 !y make a %[ ( be+ true k4 ,bo? sci5ce & !ology w be ! ga9]s :5 ! ,ideas are no long] us$ illegitimately4 ,kant says t he has de/roy$ k ( ,god & ! s\l 89 ord] to make room = fai?40 ,! ,idea ( ! ,s\l4 ,rational psy*ology _h taught t ! s\l _h direct & intuitive k ( itself4 ,f ! "t :5 ,desc>tes =mulat$ 8 fam\s 8,cogito ergo sum10 ?is conception ( self-consci\sness has be5 popul>4 ,i c h myself z ! direct object ( my own ?\ght4 ,^u ! basis ( su* assum$ intuitive k t ea* s\l has ( itself1 ! ,rationali/s _h ascrib$ ! qualities ( simplicity1 sub/antiality1 spirituality1 & immortality to ! s\l4 ,kant d5ies t we h any su* self-k4 ,if we turn back to 8 def9ition ( k we f9d x to be a syn!sis ( a manifold4 ,k1 to be k1 mu/ 7#a7 be bas$ ^u s5sations1 & on t acc\nt 7#b7 consi/ only ( ph5om5a4 ,! s\l is n ph5om5al1 b ! deepe/ k9d ( reality4 ,h[ c ,i h k ( my s\l8 ,! s\l is spiritual & n ph5om5al1 ev5 accord+ to ! ,rationali/ic philosophy4 ,!re=e ! s\l is preclud$ f be+ an object ( k4 ,fur!rmore ! ,rationali/s' conception ( ! s\l z simple & immortal w\ld make x an impossible object ( k4 ,an object ( k is n simple1 b is ! unity ( a manifold4 ,! unify+ or syn!siz+ function is n an object to itself4 ,s5sations are syn!siz$ by space & "t into p]ceptions2 b space & "t are n objects = ! s5sations4 ,9 und]/&+1 !re=e1 ! 8,i ?9k10 :i* syn!sizes ! p]ceptions into judgm5t1 _c be an object = ! und]/&+4 ,kant po9ts out t we mu/ be c>eful to di/+ui% betwe5 ! transc5d5tal & ! empirical ego4 ,we h ref]r$ to ?is di/9ction already4 ,9 ,kant's criticism ( k he ma9ta9$ t !re mu/ be po/ulat$ a 8syn!tic unity ( app]ception10 if k is possible4 ,b su* an ego is only a po/ulate2 we c h no k ( x nor c we say :at x is4 ,we "k t ! imm$iacy ( exp]i5ce or ! sam5ess ( k f mom5t to mom5t dem&s ?is4 ,?is is ! transc5d5tal ego1 a k9d ( univ]sal syn!tic backgr\nd4 ,b ?is is diff]5t f ! empirical ego1 :i* ,i c "k z an object ( exp]i5ce4 ,! empirical ego is :at ,i c "k ( myself at any "ta gr\p ( s5sations1 feel+s1 or ?\ghts4 ,n[ su* gr\ps *ange f mom5t to mom5t4 ,my k ( myself consi/s only ( my mom5t>y1 *ang+ self4 ,?is *ang+ self is n ! immortal1 simple1 & id5tical s\l ( :i* ! ,rationali/s h be5 speak+4 ,! empirical self is complex & transitory2 x is an object ( k1 & x is n !re=e ! same z ! immortal s\l4 8,i ?9k ,i0 is impossible4 8,i ?9k me0 is possible4 ,to make ! 8,i0 an object is to commit a fallacy4 ,! ,idea ( ! ,univ]se4 ,! contradiction 9 reason+ ab\t matt]s beyond ! te/ ( exp]i5ce appe>s %>ply ) ref]5ce to problems ab\t ! _w z a totality4 ,! inh]5t self-contradiction ( ! reason attract$ ,kant's att5tion v e>ly ) ref]5ce to ! problems ( inf9ity4 ,su* self-contradictions 7 put into f9al %ape by ,kant 9 ! ,critique 9 ! f\r foll[+ s-call$ ant9omies3 7#a7 ,! ant9omy ( creation4 ,!sis3 ,! _w mu/ h a beg9n+ 9 "t & be inclos$ 9 f9ite space4 ,anti!sis3 ,! _w is et]nal & inf9ite4 7#b7 ,! ant9omy ( immortality 7or ! simple74 ,!sis3 ,! _w is ultimately divisible into simple p>ts :i* _c be fur!r divid$4 ,anti!sis3 ,! _w is compos$ ( p>ts subject to fur!r division1 & no simple ?+ exi/s 9 ! _w4 7#c7 ,! ant9omy ( fre$om4 ,!sis3 ,!re is fre$om2 !re are ph5om5a t _c be acc\nt$ = by necessity4 ,anti!sis3 ,!re is no fre$om1 b ev]y?+ takes place entirely accord+ to ! necess>y laws ( nature4 7#d7 ,! ant9omy ( !ology4 ,!sis3 ,!re is a necess>y be+ ei!r z "p or z cause ( ! _w4 ,anti!sis3 ,!re exi/s nei!r )9 nor )\t ! _w an absolutely necess>y be+4 ,critics h po9t$ out t ^! problems z ?us /at$ by ,kant are n altoge!r cosmological problems1 b include ! contradictions ( psy*ology & !ology2 t is1 all ! contradictions ( ! ,reason :5 x is us$ dialectically4 ,!y %[ h[ bo? ,rationalism & ,empiricism1 z metaphysical !ories1 are 9 _! nature contradictory4 ,:5 ! univ]se is treat$ z an object ( k1 contradictory propositions c be ma9ta9$4 ,! contradictories are bo? prov$ & refut$4 ,9 respect to ! fir/ two ant9omies1 bo? !ses & anti!ses are false2 9 respect to ! la/ two1 bo? !ses & anti!ses may be true1 if !y ref] to diff]5t worlds4 ,if ! ,ideas are appli$ only to ! _w ( ph5om5a1 !y involve inexplicable contradiction4 ,! ,idea ( free w & uncondition$ be+ may apply to ! _w ( ,n\m5a2 :ile ! ,idea ( necessity & condition$ be+ may apply to ! _w ( ph5om5a4 ,! ,idea ( ,god4 ,! ,idea ( ! s\l involves u 9 a p>alogism1 ! ,idea ( ! univ]se z a :ole involves u 9 inextricable difficulties & contradictions2 ! ,idea ( ,god _c be demon/rat$4 ,kant does n d5y t ,god exi/s4 ,he m]ely ma9ta9s t we _c make ,god an object ( k4 ,! ,idea ( ,god is to ,kant ! expression ( ! ne$ ( ! ,reason = a p]fect unity4 ,9 "o ( 8 e>li] writ+s ,kant _h con/ruct$ a conception ( ,god1 :i* is ! same z appe>s 9 ! ,critique4 ,god1 purely z a conception1 is con/ruct$ by ,kant z ! sum total ( reality1 ! ens realissimum1 :o s includes all f9ite qualities 9 ,himself t !y d n limit ,him4 ,he is ! primal cause ( ! possibility ( all be+4 ,n[1 c su* an ,idea h objective validity8 ,no2 ! ,idea ( a sum total ( all t is conceivable is n an object ( possible exp]i5ce4 ,only p>ticul> ?+s or ph5om5a are realities = u4 ,god z ! transc5d+ total ( p>ticul> ?+s c h only a conceptual reality & a validity = ?\ght4 ,! total has ! reality t any idea has4 ,?is is ,kant's g5]al criticism ( ! dialectic ,idea ( ,god4 ,b ! g5]al conception ( ,god _h play$ s important a "p 9 traditional philosophy t ,kant felt x necess>y to exam9e ! ?ree important intellectual pro(s = ,8 exi/5ce 9 ord] to %[ _! falsity4 ,he takes up fir/ ! ontological pro( ( ,god's exi/5ce1 :i* orig9at$ ) ,/4 ,anselm & _h be5 accept$ by ! ,rationali/s4 ,! ,idea ( ,god is ! idea ( a p]fect be+4 ,a be+ w\ld n be p]fect :o did n exi/4 ,!re=e ! ,idea ( a p]fect be+ mu/ include ! quality 8exi/5ce0 among its pr$icates4 ,! ess5ce ( ,god mu/ involve ,8 exi/5ce1 because ! unreality ( ! ens realissimum _c be ?\ght4 ,kant replies ?us3 8,be+ is no real pr$icate40 ,x is n a quality l love1 p[]1 or goodness1 = x adds no?+ to ! cont5t ( ! subject4 8,a hundr$ doll>s conta9s no m cont5t ?an a hundr$ possible or conceptual doll>s40 ,we _c reason f ! concept ( ! actual to its exi/5ce4 ,! only te/ ( actuality is p]ception4 ,! cosmological pro(1 :i* ,kant exam9es next1 is an argum5t f ! exi/5ce ( cont+5t ph5om5a to ! exi/5ce ( an uncondition$ reality4 ,!re mu/ be "s uncaus$ cause ( exi/+ caus$ ph5om5a4 ,kant's reply is ?is3 ,cause has no mean+ if x is appli$ beyond ! b\nds ( exp]i5ce4 ,)9 exp]i5ce all causes are ! results ( causes1 & !re=e an uncaus$ cause is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,e exi/+ ?+ is cont+5t4 ,a necess>y be+ c be only a ?\ght1 & w\ld n be p[]ful4 ,x w\ld n be z p[]ful z a v great f9ite be+ :i* _h exi/5ce4 ,! physico-teleological argum5t comes next "u ,kant's criticism4 ,?is argum5t is bas$ ^u ! inf]5ce t intellig5t design f\nd 9 nature implies an intellig5t design] ( nature4 ,kant replies z foll[s3 ,ev5 grant+ t ! _w exhibits ! design ( beauty1 goodness1 & purpose 9 its con/ruction1 su* a beautiful1 good1 & purposeful _w w\ld only prove ! exi/5ce ( an ar*itect & n ! exi/5ce ( a creator4 ,kant po9ts out1 h[ev]1 t ?is pro( is ! olde/1 cle>e/1 & ! mo/ popul>2 & he ?9ks x des]ves to be treat$ ) respect on t acc\nt4 ,! wond] & magnific5ce ( nature mu/ free man f ! oppression ( any subtle argum5t aga9/ ! significance ( nature4 ,nev]!less ,kant feels t ?is pro( lacks intellectual cog5cy2 = x is possible t nature is freely act+ & has p[] )9 itself4 ,! conclusion ( ! ,dialectic1 9 :i* ! ,reason attempts ?r\gh its ,ideas to so> beyond exp]i5ce1 is t su* speculation has nev] add$ to our k4 ,m]e conceptual ?\ght _c be k ( ! reality ( ! s\l1 ,god1 & ! _w4 ,/ill1 ! ,ideas ( ! reason are an integral "p ( ! human m9d1 & !y mu/ h _! purpose4 ,!y _c be v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 9 :i* alone is tru?1 b !y c regulate exp]i5ce4 ,!y are 8regulative ,ideas0 9 t our exp]i5ce is bett] gov]n$ if we act z if !re 7 a s\l1 z if ,god exi/$1 & z if ! _w 7 a totality ( relat$ ?+s4 ,moreov]1 :ile speculation _c prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ! immortality ( ! s\l1 & ! fre$om ( ! w1 a!i/ic speculation is unable to prove ! contr>y ( all ^! propositions4 ,! ,ideas ( ! ,reason cle> ! way = fai? bas$ on morality4 ,conclusion4 ,! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason is :at its "n implies1a criticism ( our consci\s p[]s4 ,x po9ts out ! limits & ext5t ( human k4 ,9 "o s5se1 x is con/ructive2 = x e/abli%es aga9/ skepticism ! conclusion t k has a validity )9 its own limits4 ,9 ano!r s5se1 x is de/ructive2 = x %[s aga9/ dogmatism h[ futile our intellectual /riv+ is to explore _m regions t h be5 consid]$ ! prop] realm ( k4 ,no k is possible t is transc5d5tno k beyond ! limits ( exp]i5ce4 ,exp]i5ce ties our m5tal p[]s to itself4 ,exp]i5ce is ! b\nd>y ( ! und]/&+4 ,reality1 ! ,?+s-9-,!mselves1 are unkn[n & unkn[able4 ,b transc5d5tal k is possible4 ,)9 exp]i5ce !re are ! transc5d5tal factors t on ! "o h& trans=m s5sations into ph5om5a1 & on ! o!r give to ^! ph5om5a a validity = all mank9d4 ,^! transc5d5tal factors make k reliable1 b !y add n "o :it to its cont5t4 ,on acc\nt ( ^! transc5d5tal factors we c be rational ) "o ano!r & memb]s ( "o _w ( humanity4 ,! value ( k is n less5$1 b is def9$4 ,our _w ( ph5om5al exi/5ce is n[ accurately assess$ z a _w ( relative reality4 ,x is plac$ 9 its prop] p]spective4 ,x is se5 z our own int]pretation ( :at is really real4 ,?is is v important2 = al?\gh ! re/rict$ =m ( our m5tal p[]s )holds u f kn[+ reality1 we may nev]!less ?9k x4 ,! pure intellection ( reality w be ( value1 if 9 "s o!r way its cont5ts c be assur$4 ,kant n[ po9ts out t ?is assurance is f\nd 9 ! moral w4 ,! ,problem ( ! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason3 ,! ,e?ics ( ,kant4 8,two ?+s fill ! m9d ) ev] new & increas+ admiration & awe1 ! (t5] & ! long] we reflect ^u !m3 ! />ry heav5s above & ! moral law )940 ,9 ?is classic s5t5ce ,kant %[$ t he _h no desire to humiliate ! !oretical reason1 :i* is ! und]/&+4 ,he 0 m]ely assign+ x to its place among ! p[]s ( man1 9 ord] t x might d its prop] "w m effici5tly4 ,! _w ( morality & ! />ry heav5 impress$ ,kant equally4 ,kant w\ld n h ! und]/&+ *as+ w-o'-!-wisps4 ,aft] 8 criticism ( ! und]/&+ he turn$ to ! w1 or z he calls x ! practical reason1 & criticiz$ its functions & scope4 ,?is e?ical tea*+ ( ,kant appe>s 9 8 ,metaphysic ( ,morality & 9 ! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason4 ,8 e>ly ,pieti/ic education1 8 read+ ( ,r\sseau1 8 /udy ( ! ,engli% morali/s1 influ5c$ 8 !ory ( morals2 :ile 8 inve/igations into ! hi/ory ( civilization1 8 !oretical philosophy1 & 8 indep5d5t analysis ( ! e?ical feel+ m>k$ ! r\te :i* 8 e?ical developm5t took4 ,! _w ( morality to ,kant has primacy4 ,9 8 !ory x is ! real _w1 = comp>$ to x ! _w ( sci5tific ph5om5a1 ! _w ( ! !oretical reason1 is relative4 ,! c5tral idea 9 ,kant's !ory ( morals is t rational spontaneity is exactly ! same z fre$om4 ,?is contra/s 8 !ory ) ,h$onism4 ,! value ( man's life dep5ds on :at he does spontane\sly1 n on :at happ5s to him4 ,?is idea ( fre$om is ! c5tral ?\ght 9 all ,kant's discussions ( society4 ,9 8 !ory ( gov]nm5t ! republic is to be pref]r$ to ! mon>*y1 because ( ! opportunity to its citiz5s ( spontane\s fre$om2 9 religion ! true *ur* is compos$ ( free be+s wor%ip+ ,god freely2 9 education self-activity is ! sole pr9ciple ( gr[?4 ,e?ics is a sy/em ( ! pure rational laws ( fre$om1 j z sci5ce is a sy/em ( ! pure rational laws ( nature4 ,if e?ics has real validity its laws mu/ be1 z 9 sci5ce1 a priori or d]iv$ f ! reason itself1 & syn!tic or applicable to exp]i5ce ev]y:]e4 ,if ! moral law be valid x mu/ be indiff]5t z to its cont5t1 & yet valid = all cont5t irrespectively4 ,! s\rce ( ! pr9ciple ( morals is ?us ! same z t ( sci5ce3 x is a priori4 ,! pr9ciple ( morals is univ]sal 9 its application to exp]i5ce1 j z ! a priori syn!sis ( k is4 ,h[ev]1 j at t po9t ! diff]5ce is to be se5 betwe5 ! f\ndation ( sci5ce & t ( moralsbetwe5 ! reason z pure & ! reason z practical4 ,reason 9 ! =m ( k is re/rict$ to exp]i5ce2 b reason 9 ! =m ( ! w1 :ile applicable to exp]i5ce1 is n re/rict$ to exp]i5ce4 ,if ! und]/&+ is )\t ! cont5t ( exp]i5ce1 x is empty & useless4 ,! und]/&+ mu/ always be a syn!sis ( a manifold4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! practical reason ne$s no cont5t4 ,x is suffici5t 9 itself4 ,x ne$ n be obey$ any:]e nor h any concrete cont5t 9 ! ph5om5al _w4 ,x has no ref]5ce to :at is b to :at ought to be4 ,! _w ( morality & ! _w ( ph5om5a are diff]5t worlds4 ,! _w ( morality is absolute reality1 :ile ! _w ( k is only relative4 ,! _w ( morality is ! uncondition$1 :ile t ( k is condition$ by exp]i5ce4 ,morality applies n only to human be+s1 b to all rational be+s1 if any o!r rational be+s exi/4 ,k1 h[ev]1 belongs to human be+s alone4 ,! moral law has n its home 9 ! empirical1 b 9 ! transc5d5t1 intelligible _w1 :i* to k w\ld be ! _w ( ,?+s-9-,!mselves4 ,! ,moral ,law & ! ,two ,que/ions conc]n+ ,x4 ,! que/ions ( ! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason are ! same z ^? ( ! ,dialectic3 7#a7 ,is !re any a priori syn!sis8 ,?is is n ! "q ( ! ,analytic1 :i* is1 ,h[ is an a priori syn!sis possible8 7#b7 ,c ! human be+ be moral & /ill be a "p ( ! _w ( ph5om5a & necessity8 ,we %all n[ comm5t on ! fir/ ( ^! problems4 ,if ! w has validity1 x mu/ be ! expression ( "s univ]sal & necess>y pr9ciple4 ,c we f9d any su* a priori pr9ciple 9 our consci\sness8 #a4 ,! ,fir/ ,"q conc]n+ ! ,moral ,law4 ,if we se>* our consci\sness1 we %all f9d t !re are two classes ( inc5tives to action4 ,! fir/ are call$ ! incl9ations1 or p]haps bett] ! impulses4 ,we may w because we desire to ga9 some?+1 ( use1 pleasure1 p]fection1 etc4 ,su* an act ( w is dep5d5t ^u ! object t ar\ses x4 ,su* an act ( w w\ld n be an example = any "o else2 = ! circum/ances t call$ x =? w\ld be likely to be diff]5t 9 ea* case4 ,= example1 !re is no cons5sus z to pleasure among individual m52 & :at is pleasant to "o is unpleasant to ano!r4 ,! same is true ab\t objects ( use & ambition4 ,9 all ^! matt]s judgm5t does n help u 9 mak+ our selection1 = p :o are ! mo/ discrim9at+ (t5 are ! mo/ unhappy & useless4 ,all ^! ?+s are inde$ goods1 b !y are goods = ! mom5tgoods t are dep5d5t on some?+ else1 & n goods 9 !mselves4 ,!y are legitimate ends en\gh1 b !y are s transitory t !y _c be valid4 ,x is evid5t t :5 ! w is gov]n$ by incl9ation1 x is gov]n$ by an empirical 7a po/]iori71 & n by a univ]sal & necess>y 7a priori7 pr9ciple4 ,su* empirical pr9ciples are call$ by ,kant hypo!tical imp]atives4 ,let u look to ! reason itself to see if ! pr9ciple ( its practice lies !re2 = x is c]ta9 t we %all n f9d ! pr9ciple ( univ]sal validity = our w among our impulses4 ,! reason is a spontane\s syn!sis4 ,x is a fact t any "o may v]ify :o w se>* 8 consci\snesst man may w f reason4 ,! w may be impell$ f )91 & ne$ n be compell$ f )\t4 ,! w may be an imp]ative 9 itself1 proclaim+ its "r because x is reasonable1 ju/ify+ itself because x is reasonable1 function+ because x is ! function ( reason4 ,!n is ! w ! expression ( reason4 ,x is ! reason 9 practice4 ,! w is uncondition$ & free because x is ! uncondition$ reason act+4 ,x is !n autonom\s4 ,x has !n validity because ! reason is univ]sal & necess>y4 ,?is k9d ( will+ ,kant calls ! categorical imp]ative4 ,x is ! moral law4 ,x is a law unto itself1 & x is ! only basis = morality because x is ! univ]sally valid reason4 ,! categorical imp]ative is unique!re is no?+ l x 9 human nature4 ,x is ! "o k9d ( will+ t has absolute validity2 & t is because x is unique 9 hav+ itself = its own end4 ,! consci5ce may be said to be its expression 9 ! individual4 ,kant =mulates ! valid comm& ( ! moral law z1 8,act z if ! maxim f :i* y act 7 to become ?r\gh y\r w a univ]sal law ( nature40 ,! v>i\s maxims ( morality1 l 8,?\ %alt n lie10 occupy ! same position to ! w t ! categories d to ! und]/&+4 ,!y are ! =ms ( ! moral w4 ,actions %\ld proce$ f maxims r ?an f impulses1 & ! moral maxims are adapt$ = all be+s :o act rationally4 ,a specific act may become good because ! moral law1 t inspires x1 is good4 ,nev]!less 8no?+ c possibly be conceiv$ 9 ! _w or ev5 out ( x1 :i* c be call$ good )\t qualification1 except a good w40 ,! virtues or ! gifts ( =tune may be good & desirable2 !y may also be evil & mis*iev\s1 if !y are n ! expression ( ! moral w4 #b4 ,! ,second ,"q conc]n+ ! ,moral ,law4 ,?is leads u to ! answ] to ! second "q1 ,h[ c su* a purely necess>y & univ]sal pr9ciple be effective 9 human life8 ,( :at s]vice to man is a pr9ciple s =mal t if ! incl9ations cop]ate ) x1 ! act is no long] moral8 ,! moral law is n only transc5d5tal1 b x is transc5d5t1 = x does n h exp]i5ce z its cont5t4 ,x is its own cont5t4 ,x is indep5d5t ( all exp]i5ce 9 ?ree ways3 7#a7 ,9 orig91 x conta9s only a =mal pr9ciple2 7#b7 ,9 cont5t1 x conta9s only a =mal pr9ciple2 7#c7 ,9 validity1 x is n conc]n$ z to :e!r x is obey$ or n2 x decl>es :at ought to be1 ev5 if :at ought to be is nev] done4 ,! "q always arises ab\t ,kant's e?ics1 ,( :at s]vice c su* a remote & =mal pr9ciple be8 ,morality takes place 9 ! _w ( exp]i5ce2 & "h is ,kant's pr9ciple ( morality exi/+ 9 ! _w ( uncondition$ reality4 ,( ! usefulness ( su* a pr9ciple ,kant's explanation is n fully satisfactory4 ,8 e?ics is fundam5tally a rigorism1 f :i* he is unable to escape4 ,duty & incl9ation are 9 antagonism4 ,only ^? acts ( w are moral :i* are p]=m$ solely f ! s5se ( duty4 ,9 !mselves ! natural incl9ations are indiff]5t2 :5 !y oppose ! moral w1 !y become bad2 only :5 !y are inspir$ by ! moral w are !y ( e?ical s]vice4 ,moral action is !re=e n>r[$ to t 9 :i* ! imp]ative ( duty is consci\sly p>am\nt4 8,! fri5ds :om ,i love1 ,i gladly w\ld s]ve1 b to ?is incl9ation incites me2 ,& s ,i am =c$ f virtue to sw]ve1 s9ce my act ?r\gh affection delights me4 ,! fri5ds1 :om ?\ love/1 ?\ mu/ fir/ seek to scorn1 = to no o!r way c ,i guide !e2 ',tis alone ) disgu/ ?\ can/ rightly p]=m ! acts to :i* duty w\ld lead !e40#eg ,! ,moral ,po/ulates4 ,kant's e?ical !ory po9ts away f ! ph5om5al _w r ?an t[>d x4 ,to be sure1 ! natural incl9ations take ! color ( ! moral law :5 !y are inspir$ by x2 b ! moral law tells u ( ! _w ( reality r ?an ( ! _w ( ph5om5a4 ,! moral law %[s to man t he is m a resid5t ( ! _w ( reality ?an ( t ( ph5om5a4 ,man's nature is dual4 ,( its two sides! !oretical & ! moral! moral is prim>y4 ,fundam5tally man is a will+ ag5t r ?an a ?9k+ be+4 ,he is a ph5om5al be+1 b\nd to ! laws ( natural necessity2 b he is also a real uncondition$ be+1 because ! uncondition$ reason is 8 real self4 ,:at 0 implicat$ 9 ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason becomes explicit 9 ! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason4 ,! und]/&+ h9ts at :at ! w makes pla94 ,human k is a mixture ( transc5d5tal und]/&+ & empirical s5sations4 ,god's k w\ld be pure und]/&+2 ! k ( ! brutes is pure s5sations4 ,human morality1 h[ev]1 conta9s a dualism2 = ! practical morality ( man consi/s ( ! =mal moral law inspir+ ! s5sibilities al?\gh n he$+ !m4 ,! w z pure reason is ! activity ( ,god2 ! w z pure impulses is ! activity ( brutes4 ,b ! true realm ( man is ?is _w ( reason 9 :i* he is "o ) ,god1 al?\gh he is at ! same "t hamp]$ by be+ "p ( ! _w ( ph5om5a4 #a4 ,! ,po/ulate ( ,fre$om4 ,! uncondition$ moral law is ! basis ( fre$om = :i* all sci5tific k seeks 9 va94 ,an uncondition$ w is a free w4 ,! w bas$ ^u ! reason is bas$ ^u itself & is !re=e free4 ,! consci\sness ( ! moral law )9 u implies fre$om 9 its ex]cise4 ,! 8,i ought0 implies 8,i c40 ,we c h no k ( fre$om1 = 9 ! eye ( ! und]/&+ only causal necessity rules4 ,b ! reason comm&s z well z kn[s4 ,x /ates :at ought to be z well z :at is4 ,its m&ate implies fre$om1 z its k /ates exi/5ce4 ,:5 we w1 we act z if we 7 free1 & our fre$om is a po/ulate :i* _c be prov$ to ! und]/&+4 ,fre$om is n an object ( k1 b an act ( fai?4 ,fre$om z a po/ulate is ! condition ( morality1 & ! primacy ( ! w ov] ! pure reason is %[n 9 ! fact t x c gu>antee :at ! und]/&+ _c prove4 #b4 ,! ,po/ulate ( ! ,immortality ( ! ,s\l4 ,! goal ( ! incl9ations is happ9ess4 ,! goal ( ! w is virtue4 ,!re is no relation or correspond5ce betwe5 ! two 9 ?is _w4 ,a man may be happy & /ill n virtu\s2 he may be virtu\s & n happy4 ,s9ce a man belongs to bo? ! _w ( free spirits & ! _w ( necessity1 he is ?w>t$ 9 rea*+ = 8 highe/ good 9 ?is life4 ,8 highe/ good is ! union ( virtue & happ9ess4 ,if ?is is to be atta9$1 ano!r life mu/ be gu>ante$4 ,yet ?is is only a po/ulate & n a pro(4 ,:5 man wills1 he wills z if he 7 an immortal be+4 #c4 ,! ,po/ulate ( ! ,exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,fai? 9 rea*+ =w>d mu/ po/ulate ,god1 z alone able to v\*safe future h>mony betwe5 goodness & happ9ess & alone able to di/ribute ju/ly ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts t are s disproportionate 9 ?is _w4 ,:5 ,i w1 ,i w z if ,god exi/$4 ,:5 ,i w1 ,i create by my will+ my fre$om1 my immortality1 & ,god's exi/5ce4 ,b because my w is an uncondition$ law ( my real be+1 my fai? 9 ^! ?+s is well f\nd$4#eh ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,! ,,g]man ,,ideali/s ,idealism aft] ,kant4#ei ,kant's criticism _h be5 a f9e dissection ( ! processes ( k4 ,he _h laid sci5tific k op5 & sep>at$ x into its p>ts4 ,9 do+ ?is he _h act$ 9 ! _s ( 8 "t1 :i* _h be5 inaugurat$ by ,less+4 ,8 doctr9e became ! po9t ( dep>ture ( _m diff]+ sy/ems4 ,a mod]n ,g]man pr(essor 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l9 has be5 wont to say1 8,!re are t5 int]pretations ( ,kant's ,critique1 :i* are ! t5 k9ds ( philosophy at ! pres5t "t40 ,! incoh]5ce ( ,kant's philosophy made x fam\s4 ,he repres5t$ ! fir/ /age ( a social movem5t2 & l all social movem5ts ! _w ov]1 ! fir/ /age 0 critical1 self-inconsi/5t1 & de/ructive ( tradition4 ,! second /age is ! "o ^u :i* we n[ ent]1 & we %all f9d x to be recon/ructive along sev]al l9es4 ,criticism is always an inducem5t to new sy/ematization4 ,9 ,g]many1 aft] ,kant1 !re 0 naturally1 !re=e1 a great sy/ematic movem5t :i* its intellectually virile & _m-sid$ life 0 ready to express4 ,culture & philosophy w5t h& 9 h&4 ,j5a 0 ! c5tre ( ,kantianism & 0 9 close proximity to ,weim>1 ! c5tre ( ,g]man culture4 ,at ! "t t ! philosophy ( ,kant became popul>1 ! tea*+ ( ,sp9oza 0 resurrect$ f its long sleep & introduc$ into ,g]many4 ,kant 0 ! 8all-cru%+0 critic2 ,sp9oza 0 ! dogmatic my/ic4 ,_! opposition did n am\nt to a contradiction1 b 0 ( ! correlative sort4 ,kant & ,sp9oza became ! two intellectual foci ab\t :i* revolv$ ! ?\ght ( ! g5]ation aft] ,kant4 ,all ! succe$+ philosoph]s %[ ,kant's influ5ce ^u !m1 = !y all accept 8 epi/emology4 ,!y %[ ! influ5ce ( ,sp9oza 9 v>y+ degrees4 ,! philosoph]s :om we %all n[ meet may be divid$ into gr\ps4 ,! fir/ gr\p consi/s ( ,rhe9hold1 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,hegel4 ,^! took ! lead 9 de/roy+ ! ,kantian conception ( ! ?+-9-itself & 9 con/ruct+ a pure idealism4 ,! second gr\p consi/s ( ,h]b>t & ,s*op5hau]4 ,^! tri$ 9 diff]5t ways to develop a metaphysics ( ! ?+-9-itself4 ,a ?ird gr\p consi/$ ( ! old ,wolffian rationali/ic s*ool1 :i* 01 h[ev]1 unsuccessful 9 its opposition to ! spread ( ! doctr9es ( ,kant & ,sp9oza4 ,a summ>y ( ! lead]s ( ! ,g]man ?\ght ( ?is "t w\ld n be complete )\t m5tion1 la/ly1 ( ! miscellane\s gr\p ( lit]>y ,romantici/s1 ^: writ+s p>took ( ! philosophical _s4 ,! influ5ce ( ,sp9oza is especially prom95t 9 ?is gr\p4 ,jean ,paul ,ri*t] 7#agfc-ahbe7 0 ! =]unn] ( ?is movem5t1 & x includ$ ! names ( ,tieck1 ,wack5rod]1 ! two ,s*legels1 ,novalis1 ! two ,romantic wom51,doro!a & ,c>ol9e1,s*ill]1 & ,goe!4 ,! poet ,s*ill] did mu* to popul>ize ,kant's /hetic & moral doctr9es4 ,illu/ration3 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,t[ns ,,& ,,o!r ,,important ,,places ,,connect$ ,,) ,,! ,,g]man ,,ideali/s ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,hegel4 ,?is gr\p ( disciples ( ,kant c be und]/ood sympa!tically only 9 ! light ( _! age4 ,!y 7 n philosophical adv5tur]s1 o!rwise ! great repres5tative ( ! age1 ,goe!1 w\ld n h associat$ ) ,s*ell+ & ,hegel on equal t]ms4 ,!y /ood = ! revulsion ( ! p]iod aga9/ all ext]nal sy/ems1 & = ! realization ( a spiritual realm ( free spirits4 ,!y s\ght n a factiti\s & imag9>y condition1 b tri$ r to discov] ! ess5tials ( ! spiritual life4 ,!y w\ld reclaim reality spiritually1 & _! only defect 0 9 _! ha/e 9 c>ry+ out _! pr9ciples4 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,hegel are %>]s 9 "o common movem5t4 ,!y tri$ sy/ematically to pres5t ! evolution ( ! _w z an unbrok5 evolution ( ?\ght4 ,!y w5t back to ,kant1 b !y 7 bold] ?an he4 ,!y s\ght to transc5d ! limitations ( ?\ght :i* he _h laid d[n4 ,!y w\ld set ?\ght free1 &1 gaz+ 9 ^u _! own spirits1 !y w\ld f9d !re ! :ole inf9ite univ]se4 ,! spiritual realm seem$ to !m to be wid] ?an any "o _h suppos$4 ,x 0 a self-gov]n+ realm1 q diff]5t f ! _w ( matt]4 ,hi/ory to !m is cosmic & develops "u "o law ( progression4 ,x is an upw>d movem5t ( ass]tions1 negations1 & syn!ses4 ,life is cosmic spirituality4 ,= ,fi*te ! _s is a cosmic battle = moral ends2 = ,s*ell+ ! _s is a cosmic arti/ic con/ruction1 :i* trans=ms ! ext]nal & int]nal worlds into a "w ( liv+ art2 = ,hegel ! cosmic _s unfolds 9 a /rict & rigor\s logic1 ^: consummation is ?\ght ( ?\ght4 ,b :ile ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,hegel look at ! _w ea* 9 8 own way1 !y are memb]s ( "o common movem5t t[>d spiritual fre$om1 & t[>d ! re/abli%m5t ( metaphysics4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,fi*te 7#agfb-ahad74fj ,johann ,gottlieb ,fi*te 0 ! mo/ notable ( ! imm$iate disciples ( ,kant4 ,9 contra/ ) ! undi/urb$ & unev5tful s*ola/ic retirem5t ( 8 ma/]1 ,fi*te's life looms up z a s]ies ( conflicts1 sometimes ) extreme pov]ty & sometimes ) ho/ile =ces creat$ by 8 own /ubborn & irascible disposition4 ,fi*te's ext]nal life 0 ?r\gh\t "o ( curi\s contra/s1 bo? ( trag$y & romance4 ,8 love = ! moral & !ological appe>s 9 8 e>ly y\? 9 8 volunt>y self-d5ial & 9 8 s]mons to ! geese :i* he 0 h]d+4 ,aga91 he made prep>ation to become a prea*]1 b 8 intellectual tra9+ 9 ! univ]sity drove him to ab&on x4 ,he became a necessit>ian & tri$ to squ>e 8 life ) 8 philosophy1 al?\gh x weigh$ 8 he>t d[n4 ,!n came ! s-call$ 8,a!i/ic ,controv]sy0 :5 he 0 pr(essor at ,j5a1 & 8 defiance ( ! au?orities & 8 dismissal4 ,9 ! tumultu\s days at ,b]l9 he turn$ 8 metaphysics into patriotic appeals1 & w\ld h jo9$ ! army1 b 8 dea? int]v5$4 ,! inn] developm5t ( ,fi*te1 too1 0 diff]5t f t ( ,kant4 ,kant's inn] developm5t 0 co9cid5t ) 8 long life4 ,fi*te1 on ! o!r h&1 at ! age ( tw5ty-eight _h read & accept$ ,kant's philosophy1 & f\r ye>s lat] _h creat$ 8 own4 ,?is 0 only slightly modifi$ 9 8 lat] ye>s 9 ! direction ( ! pan!ism ( ,sp9oza4 ,kant's life 0 ap>t f ! political curr5t ( 8 "t1 :ile 8 doctr9e became fundam5tal = all future philosophy4 ,fi*te's life & philosophy 7 m expressive ( 8 "t1 b less la/+ 9 _! influ5ce4 ,fi*te is ! philosophic prea*] to 8 "t2 ,kant is ! in/ructor ( all "t4 ,fi*te's life may be divid$ into f\r p]iods1 :i* are m>k$ by c]ta9 ext]nal ev5ts4 #a4 ,8 ,education 7#agfb-agij74 ,he 0 ! son ( a poor ribbon-mak]4 ,z a boy he work$ = 8 fa!r1 & aga9 at ! equally humble employm5t ( h]d+ geese4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is latt] occupation t 8 wond]ful memory attract$ ! att5tion ( a philan?ropic nobleman1 :o gave him means = an education4 ,fi*te /udi$ !ology1 philosophy1 & philology at ,leipsic & ,j5a2 b he _h to face extreme pov]ty aga9 ^u ! dea? ( 8 b5efactor4 ,9 #aghh he got a position z tutor 9 ,zuri*1 & "h he met ,pe/alozzi1 ,lavat]1 & 8 future wife1 a niece ( ! poet1 ,klop/ock4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod 8 philosophy 0 a necessit>ianism1 :i* he _h evolv$ f ! !ology 9 :i* he 0 tra9$ & 8 read+ ( c]ta9 books on ,sp9oza4 #b4 ,disciple%ip ( ,kant 7#agij-agid74 ,fi*te return$ f ,zuri* to ,leipsic1 & 9 ! capacity ( tutor 9 philosophy he assi/$ a "y man 9 ! read+ ( ,kant's ,critique4 ,he 0 at once conv]t$ he>t & s\l to ! ,kantian doctr9e4 ,9 #agia he call$ on ,kant at ,knigsb]g & submitt$ to ,kant 8 ,critique ( ,revelation4 ,! next ye> he publi%$ ?is "w1 & by "s =tunate accid5t 8 "n z au?or 0 omitt$ f ! title-page4 ,! "w 0 attribut$ to ,kant1 & 0 widely read z a ma/]piece by ,kant4 ,kant _h to correct ! mi/ake1 :i*1 h[ev]1 made ! real au?or1 ,fi*te1 fam\s4 ,s he return$ to ,zuri* 9 #agic to m>ry ,frule9 ,rahn1 :o 0 h]self n[ 9 com=table circum/ances4 #c4 ,8 ,life at ,j5a 7#agid-agii74 ,! ye> #agid 0 ano!r mile/one 9 ! biography ( ,fi*te4 ,9 ?is ye> he 0 call$ to ,j5a1 !n ! pr9cipal univ]sity ( ,g]many1 to succe$ ,rhe9hold4 ,9 ?is ye> he publi%$ 8 philosophy 9 8 be/ kn[n "w1 ! ,wiss5s*aftslehre4 ,he rema9$ at ,j5a only five ye>s4 ,at fir/ 8 popul>ity exce$$ t ( ! popul> ,rhe9hold1 b he soon fill$ 8 life ) controv]sies4 ,he qu>rel$ ) ! /ud5ts & ! cl]gy1 & 9 #agii ! s-call$ 8,a!i/ic ,controv]sy0 arose1 9 :i* *>ges 7 br\ght aga9/ 8 tea*+ z a!ism4 ,brook+ no criticism ei!r ( 8 tea*+ or ( 8 (ficial position1 he defi$ ! au?orities ( ! univ]sity & 0 dismiss$4 #d4 ,8 ,life at ,b]l9 7#agii-ahad74 ,9 #agii ,fi*te w5t to ,b]l9 to live4 ,at fir/ he _h no academic affiliations1 b he f\nd a l>ge & sympa!tic public1 to :om he lectur$4 ,he 0 w>mly receiv$ by ! circle ( ,romantici/s1! ,s*legels1 ,tieck1 & ,s*lei]ma*]4 ,8 philosophical sy/em got little developm5t2 b ! influ5ce ( ,sp9oza appe>$ 9 8 tea*+4 ,he lectur$ ^u ! e?ical & religi\s aspects ( 8 philosophy1 & ^u political & social subjects4 ,9 #ahjh he deliv]$ 8 fam\s ,addresses to ! ,g]man ,p4 ,9 #ahaj ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l9 0 f\nd$ & he 0 call$ to ! *air ( philosophy1 b he 0 connect$ ) ! univ]sity only two ye>s4 ,= 9 #ahab came ! call to arms1 & ,fi*te 0 ) difficulty dissuad$ f enli/+4 ,he rema9$ 9 ,b]l9 & prea*$ to ! soldi]s 9 camp4 ,8 wife volunte]$ z hospital nurse & contract$ a fev]1 f :i* %e recov]$4 ,fi*te1 h[ev]1 :o nurs$ h] ?r\gh h] sickness1 di$ ( ! disease 9 #ahad4 ,! ,influ5ces ^u ,fi*te's ,tea*+4 ,any e/imate ( ! influ5ces ^u ,fi*te w\ld be di/ort$ t did n recognize ! calibre ( ! man himself4 ,fi*te 0 ess5tially a puritan re=m]4 ,he 0 impetu\s & life-lov+1 b )al a simple-m9d$ man4 ,all ! philosophical influ5ces :i* he 0 capable ( feel+ w\ld naturally be turn$ by him into e?ical & religi\s s]mons to rea* ! life ( m54 ,he mu/ be ?\ght ( z ! crusad] arm$ ) ab/ract tru?s1 :i* he wields ) a giant's /r5g? = ! moral uplift ( man4 ,x 0 natural !n t ! two pr9cipal influ5ces ^u ,fi*te's doctr9e %\ld be ,sp9oza & ,kant4 ,to be sure1 su* writ]s z ,less+1 ,r\sseau1 & ,pe/alozzi furni%$ him mu* mat]ial 9 8 e>ly ye>s1 & ! ,romantici/s 9 8 lat] ye>s4 ,8 wife1 ,johanna ,rahn1 0 also a s\rce ( p[] to him1 & ?r\gh h] influ5ce aft] _! m>riage 8 aim became cle>] & 8 "* lo/ mu* ( its h>%ness4 ,b ! two great influ5ces ^u ,fi*te 7 ! two great philosophical =ces ( ?is "t1 ,sp9oza & ,kant4 ,fi*te's philosophy has be5 describ$ z 8,sp9oza 9 t]ms ( ,kant10 & also z 8an inv]t$ or ideali/ic ,sp9ozism40 ,! influ5ce ( ,sp9oza ^u ,fi*te's ?\ght is se5 at bo? ends ( 8 life4 ,at ! beg9n+ he 0 an amateuri% ,sp9ozi/4 ,he f\nd t ! !ological tra9+ ( 8 boyhood 0 a necessit>ianism l ,sp9ozism4 ,he lo/ 8 fai? 9 ,*ri/ianity1 & he 0 unhappy because he f\nd ,sp9oza's doctr9e ( necessity 0 intol]able & yet unansw]able4 ,!n he read ,kant & f\nd a solution ( 8 difficulty )\t hav+ to *ange ! doctr9e ( ,sp9oza4 ,= ,kant _h plac$ beh9d ! necessitat$ _w ! free _s4 ,9 ! la/ p]iod ( ,fi*te's life ! influ5ce ( ! my/ical side ( ,sp9ozism appe>$1 ?r\gh ,fi*te's int]c\rse ) ! ,romantici/s 9 ,b]l94 ,:y ,we ,philosophize4 ,to ,fi*te philosophy 0 di/9ctly a p]sonal problem1 & we feel 9 all 8 words t he is wre/l+ ) 8 own nature4 ,he f\nd 9 8 m9d two v diff]5t classes ( ideas1 & he 0 c]ta9 t philosophical problems arise f _! antagonism4 ,on ! "o h& !re are ! ideas ab\t ! _w ( physical nature1 :i* are only our exp]i5ces "u ! law ( necessity4 ,on ! o!r h& !re are ! ideas ( ! individual consci\sness1 :i* are cont+5t & volunt>y4 ,:i* ( ^! two classes ( ideas is primal8 ,fi*te felt t all philosophical curiosity arose f ! contra/ ( ^! two classes2 ! solution ( philosophy & ! satisfaction ( our philosophical curiosity w\ld be rea*$ only by ! r$uction ( "o class to ! o!r4 ,fi*te calls ! philosoph] a dogmati/ :o seeks to r$uce volunt>y ideas1 :i* compose our individual consci\sness1 to ! necessitat$ s]ies4 ,sp9oza s\ght to d ?is1 & ! philosophy ( ,sp9oza depress$ ,fi*te z intol]able4 ,b !re is ! alt]native to ! philosoph] to expla9 ! necessitat$ s]ies by volunt>y consci\sness4 ,?is is idealism4 ,! mom5t a man beg9s to reflect1 he mu/ *oose betwe5 dogmatism1 i4 e4 necessit>ianism1 & idealism4 ,he is always confront$ by an ,ei!r-,or1 a *oice betwe5 fre$om & necessity4 ,! ,moral ,awak5+4 ,9 8 e>ly life ,fi*te saw to 8 despair no escape f ! philosophy ( necessity4 ,:5 he read ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason a great light came to him4 ,he flung himself imm$iately ^u ! side ( idealism4 ,he saw t necessitat$ ev5ts 7 ph5om5a1 & !re=e ! creations ( consci\sness4 ,consci\sness _c be ! slave ( necessitat$ ev5ts4 ,kant's philosophy 0 to ,fi*te a "w ( art ( ! free _s4 ,! _w _c conta9 man & compel him4 ,man may be oppress$ by ! _w1 b he c see t su* oppression is n real4 ,9 8 ,vocation ( ,man 7#ahjj7 he gave 9 autobiographical t]ms ! /ory ( ! awak5+ & developm5t ( ! individual m9d4 ,at fir/ "o is ov]:elm$ by ! sight ( ! necessitat$ ev5ts ( ! _w4 ,next he comes to believe t all ev5ts are m]e appe>ances1 & he is weigh$ d[n by ! /ill great] despair t no reality :atev] exi/s4 ,f9ally he f9ds ! rock ( hope amid ! sea ( appe>ances4 ,he f9ds an ultimate & irr$ucible fact 9 ! categorical imp]ative ( duty4 8,?\ mu/0 is above necessity1 above ! ph5om5a t are always r$ucible to o!r ph5om5a4 ,duty means ! fre$om ( my inn] life4 ,t !re is always lodg$ 9 me a duty to p]=m1 %[s t ,i am sup]ior to ph5om5a1 t ,i am a citiz5 ( ! sup]s5su\s _w4 ,?is 8heav5 does n lie beyond ! grave1 b already encompasses u1 & its light dawns 9 e human he>t40 8,t ,i myself am a freely act+ individual mu/ be ! fundam5tal ?\ght ( e true philosoph]40 ,e "o mu/ !re=e *oose betwe5 dogmatism & idealism1 if he w\ld n fall a victim to skeptical despair4 ,two motives w det]m9e "o's *oice3 "o !oretical1 ! o!r practical4 ,! prim>y motive is ! practical "o1 & s9ce dogmatism & idealism are equally consi/5t sy/ems1 man's *oice w dep5d ma9ly on ! mann] ( man he is4 ,if ! individual has a high s5se ( duty1 he w be dispos$ to believe 9 8 moral control ov] all 8 exp]i5ces1 h[ev] mu* !y may seem to be necessitat$4 ,consci\s fre$om w seem to him to be ! only satisfactory explanation ( practical life4 ,b !n !re w be ! additional !oretical motive4 ,! man t *ooses ei!r dogmatism or idealism mu/ !oretically make 8 _w consi/5t4 ,! dogmati/ _c expla9 ! consci\s facts 9 t]ms ( det]m9ism2 b1 ,fi*te ?9ks1 ! ideali/ c expla9 ! necessitat$ facts 9 t]ms ( consci\sness4 ,at any rate ! ideali/ has ! task ( re?9k+ 8 sci5tific k4 ,! ,c5tral ,pr9ciple 9 ,fi*te's ,philosophy4 ,h[ does ,fi*te attempt to draw up a consi/5t !ory s t he c ov]come ! dualism betwe5 ! necessitat$ facts ( physical nature & ! free /ates ( consci\sness8 ,z an ideali/ he mu/ re?9k ! k ( sci5ce4 ,b h[ is ?is to be done8 ,:at pr9ciple w he place at ! c5tral po9t ( consci\sness1 s to illum9ate ! manifold problems ( life t life's dualism w prove to be only app>5t aft] all8 ,"h z answ] we f9d ! outcome ( ,fi*te's /ruggle ) 8 own nature4 ,he believ$ t ! pr9ciple ( ! true philosophy ( life comes f ! /udy ( consci\sness4 ,! nature ( ! ,ego is ! subject = philosophical /udy4 ,:at is ! ess5ce ( ! ,ego or ! p]sonality8 ,x is activity1 w1 vitality2 n intellect & *angelessness4 ,b c we n get b5ea? ! activity ( ! p]sonality & ask1 ,:y does x act8 ,yes1 because x ought4 ,:5 we h said ?is we h said all4 ,! ess5ce ( ! vitality ( ! ,ego is moral obligation4 ,ought is ! f\ndation ( life2 x is ultimate gr\nd ( exi/5ce4 ,if we ask :y !re is an ought1 ! only answ] is1 !re ought to be4 ,! duty exi/s t y & ,i %all h a duty4 ,9 ord] to be1 ! ,ego mu/ act2 & x acts 9 response to duty4 ,?is activity is free activity4 ,! ,ego is uncondition$ because x is act+ out its own nature4 ,?us :5 ,fi*te is talk+ ab\t ! ,ego1 ! ought1 ! moral law or fre$om1 he is talk+ ab\t ! same ?+ 9 diff]5t guises4 ,fi*te plac$ moral fre$om z ! c5tral pr9ciple ( metaphysics & tri$ to re?9k ! _w ( necessitat$ exp]i5ces 9 t]ms ( moral fre$om4 ,he attempt$ to con/ruct a moni/ic view ( life1 ( :i* ! free moral p]sonality %\ld be its inn] vitality4 ,monism & lib]ty 0 ,fi*te's w>-cry4 ,reality is 9 u2 !re c be no reality indep5d5t ( u4 ,! morally free ,ego is ! c5tral pr9ciple ( life4 ,su* a message to ! ,g]man p w\ld appeal to two sides ( _! nature4 ,x w\ld appeal z a metaphysics to ! my/icism 9 _! blood2 x w\ld f9d also a practical response 9 ! humanit>ian & revolution>y _s ( t revolution>y "t4 ,be up & be do+1 = reality is n :at p commonly ?9k x is4 ,y\r environm5t is only app>5tly an indep5d5t exi/5ce beyond y\r control4 ,reality is n /atic4 ,re?9k x & make x dynamic4 ,n be+1 b act+1 & free act+1 is reality4 ,su* 0 ,fi*te's s]mon to ! ,g]mans ( 8 day4 ,8 !ory c be /at$ 9 ! t]ms ( ! ,greek ,h]acleitus1 8,all ?+s *ange10 provid$ ! *ange be ?\ght ( z moral activity4 ,to philosophize 0 to ,fi*te to ?9k ! univ]se z free moral activity1 to see inactivity n[h]e1 to free ourselves f dualism & to p>ticipate 9 ! univ]sal fre$om4 ,fre$om is high] ?an tru?4 ,exi/5ce is d]iv$ f ?\ght 9 action1 & ?us our exi/5ce & our environm5t may be %ap$ by u4 ,?\ght is ess5tially action1 & we %all educate ! _w only ?r\gh our own activity4 ,! ,moral ,_w4 ,fi*te _h a philosophy1 ! pr9ciples ( :i* he repeat$ ov] & ov] aga9 z a k9d ( habit4 ,he 0 a man ( few b great ideas4 ,he 0 inspir$ by "s g5]al conceptions :i* he did n c>efully elaborate4 ,8 philosophy c be express$ 9 few words1 & 8 po9t ( view is n difficult to feel4 ,nev]!less1 !re is great difficulty 9 re/at+ 8 mean+4 ,he ma9ta9$ t ,kant's e>ly philosophy 0 n truly ,kantian1 & t he1 ,fi*te1 repres5t$ ! true ,kant4 ,9 tak+ ?is /& he 0 oblig$ to d two ?+s3 to expla9 away ! ?+-9-itself1 & to re?9k ! _w ( necessitat$ nature 9 t]ms ( ! activity ( ! morally free ,ego4 ,if we />t f ! he>t ( exi/5ce! active ,ego! _w spreads out be=e u z a sy/em ( reason :i* has be5 creat$ by ! activity ( ! ,ego4 ,on ?is acc\nt ,fi*te's philosophy has be5 call$ subjective idealism4 ,9 su* a s*eme ( ?+s !re is no place = ! ,kantian ?+-9-itself4 ,all ,be+ is only an ext5d$ product ( ! active ,ego & ! object ( its k4 ,! ,ego acts because x mu/1 & !n reflects ^u its activity4 ,its k ( its activity is 9 grades f s5se-p]ception to complete k4 ,n[ ,kant _h ref]r$ s5sations to ! ?+-9-itself z _! s\rce4 ,b ?is is unnecess>y1 s9ce s5sations are only ! activity ( ! ,ego4 ,s5sations are ! gr\ndless1 free act ( ! ,ego4 ,!y appe> to be 8giv510 because !y appe> to be =eign & com+ f )\t4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 only ! l[e/ =m ( ! activity ( ! p]sonality!y are unconsci\s self-limitation ( ! ,ego4 ,! s5sations h no gr\nd t det]m9es !m1 b z ! l[e/ =m ( ! activity ( ! ,ego !y are absolutely free4 ,?us ! ?+-9-itself becomes sup]flu\s1 s9ce x is n necess>y to acc\nt = s5sations4 ,! next task = ,fi*te is to re?9k ! s]ies ( necessitat$ ev5ts ( physical nature4 ,if we w look at ^! ev5ts f ! po9t ( view ( ! will+ ,ego1 :i* is reality1 !y w be se5 to be products ( purposive action4 ,toge!r !y w make a _w ( connect$ rational activities r ?an a me*anical sy/em4 ,! necessity 9 nature is n causal1 b teleological4 ,x is n ! necessity l9k+ ! s]ies ( ev5ts toge!r1 b r ! l9k+ ( ea* ev5t to ! act+ ,ego1 & ?us ! connect+ ( ! :ole s]ies4 ,take ! ideali/'s position & ?is illum9at+ ?\ght w come to y3 a ?+ is n because some?+ else is1 b 9 ord] t some?+ else may be4 ,z moral be+s we h tasks4 ,z moral be+s we are ! imp]sonation ( duty1 & duty is reality4 ,^! ph5om5a t s tr\ble u because we ?9k !m necessitat$ are only cont+5t ^u ! p]=mance ( our duty4 ,! exi/5ce ( "o ?+ is n to be expla9$ by ! exi/5ce ( ano!r1 b by ! exi/5ce ( me1 an ,ego4 ,ph5om5a are little /eps t[>d great ends4 ,:5 ,i re?9k ! _w ,i see no causal relation%ip1 b ! teleological means = ! a*ievem5t ( purposes by /riv+ s\ls4 ,hi/ory & nature^! are ! mat]ial creat$ by human be+s = _! own activity4 ,we n only create our human drama1 b we create also ! /age ^u :i* x is p]=m$4 ,be+ is n ! cause ( ,do+1 b ,be+ is creat$ = ! sake ( ,do+4 ,:atev] is1 is to be expla9$ by :at ought to be4 8,! _w is ! !atre ( moral action40 8,nature is ! s5sible mat]ial ( duty40 ,god & ,man4 ,if ,fi*te reg>d$ ! human p]sonality f ?is moral height1 he w\ld naturally give a new mean+ to ,god1 ! absolute reality4 ,god is n a sub/ance1 a some?+ t 8is40 ,god is ! univ]sal moral process1 ! moral _w-ord]4 ,god is ! ,univ]sal ,ego1 a free1 _w-creat+ activity4 ,god 0 conceiv$ by ,fi*te z ,mat!w ,arnold's 8some?+ n ourselves t makes = righte\sness40 ,:5 ,i f9d 9 myself t duty is reality & n ?is or t fix$ & cry/alliz$ ?+1 :5 ,i f9d t my real self is moral function+ & n a tangible =m ( fle% & bones1 !n ,i take ! next /ep4 ,i !n f9d t ,god is univ]sal duty1 univ]sal moral function+1 9 :i* ,i am p>ticipat+4 ,we are n only "p ( ,godyea1 we are ,he4 ,z ! ,holy ,writ says1 8,ye are ,gods40 ,! absolute ,ego manife/s ,itself 9 our poor f9ite ,egos4 ,h[ dignifi$ our humble lot is made by ?9k+ t 9 our act+1 ,god is act+6 ,we are fight+ ,god's battle1 & ,8 victory is n won except z we w94 ,duty 9 u is ! cl>ion voice ( ,god1 & we are p]sons s f> z we express t voice4 ,x matt]s little :e!r ,i speak ( my own duty or ! moral purpose ( ! _w4 ,!y are ! same ?+4 ,?is enjo9$ labor ^u e rational s\l to p]=m 8 duty ( rea*+ high ideals1 ?r\gh 8 humble tasks1 ( 8fight+ ! good fight & keep+ ! fai?10 is to ,fi*te ! mean+ ( com+ to a consci\sness ( "o's self4 ,:at is myself1 my real self8 ,x is n ?is ph5om5al exi/5ce ) its appe>ance ( necessity4 ,x is ! et]nal & ev]la/+ duty )9 me4 ,:at is x to ?9k myself8 ,x is to ?9k my duty2 & to ?9k duty is to ?9k ,god4 ,:5 ,i come to consci\sness ( myself1 ! cosmic ord] is com+ s f> to self-consci\sness4 ,reality is s f> atta9$4 ,hi/ory is ! record ( ?is process ( ! moral ord] com+ to self-consci\sness4 ,9 8 lat] tea*+ ,fi*te succumb$ to ! victori\s ,sp9ozism ( ! p]iod4 ,he conceiv$ ,god z an ,ego ^: inf9ite impulse is direct$ t[>d ,himself2 he conceiv$ f9ite ?+s z products ( ?is inf9itely active consci\sness4 ,! f9ite products f9d _! vocation 9 imitat+ ! inf9ite produc]1 :i* imitation consi/s n 9 ! activity ( produc+ o!r f9ite ?+s ?r\gh ! categorical imp]ative1 b 9 ! 8bless$ life0 ( s9k+ into ! inf9ite4 ,:at a ,moral ,reality involves4 ,s9ce reality is ?is process ( moral developm5t1 its conditions w arise out ( itself & be its own creation4 ,s9ce ! _w is reason com+ to itself1 x mu/ develop its own conditions out ( its orig9al task4 ,all ! acts ( hi/ory mu/ be expla9$ z ! orig9al 8de$-act10 z ,fi*te calls x4 ,fi*te ?\ght t ! :ole bus9ess ( philosophy consi/s 9 %[+ :at is involv$ 9 ?is orig9al 8de$-act0 ( consci\sness1 ?is attempt ( consci\sness to ?9k itself4 ,s9ce self-consci\sness is reality1 ?is w be ! same z %[+ :at reality involves4 #a4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 consci\sness always involves ! consci\sness ( some?+ else4 ,to use ,fi*te's te*nical language1 ! ,ego posits itself 7s9ce x is a moral process7 & 9 ! same act x posits a non-,ego 7:i* is ! necess>y object ( consci\sness74 8,! absolute ,ego ass]ts a di/+ui%able ,ego aga9/ a di/+ui%able non-,ego40 ,x is l a boy :o feels ! call to become a lawy]4 ,he ass]ts himself 9 t call1 & at ! same "t 9 t ass]tion he creates 8 life's c>e]4 ,8 c>e] 9 ! law is 8 non-,ego4 ,bo? ! ,ego & ! non-,ego are creations ( t absolute ,ego1 :i* is ! ev] surg+ duty or ,god4 ,:ile bo? ! ,ego & ! non-,ego are ! creations ( t absolute ,ego1 :i* is cosmic duty or ,god1 yet ea* limits ! o!r4 ,ego & non-,ego are correlative t]ms2 bo? orig9ate 9 ! free act ( ,god4 ,! _w is1 !re=e1 ! creation ( ! real self z ! condition ( its own activity4 ,x ev5 creates its s5sations z ! giv5 mat]ials ( its k4 ,! _w is ! mat]ial ( duty put into s5se =ms4 ,:ile we create matt] 9 ord] t we may be active 9 x1 ! spatial & temporal =ms1 its categories1 limit our activities4 #b4 ,9 ! second place1 ?is awak5+ ( ! ,ego to a consci\sness ( itself involves a curi\s contradiction4 ,duty is by nature contradictory4 ,duty calls me to "k myself & to p]=m my task1 & yet 9 t call duty prev5ts ! task f be+ p]=m$4 ,9 attempt+ to "k duty completely ,i am always "u ! condition ( an oppos+ & limit+ non-,ego4 ,! non-,ego is ess5tial to ! ,ego & at ! same "t ?w>ts ! ,ego's full k ( itself4 ,s long z ! non-,ego exi/s1 no complete k ( myself is possible4 ,a limit+ non-,ego makes ! ,ego limit$1 & !re=e prev5ts complete k & fulfillm5t ( duty4 ,duty calls ^u u to p]=m a task1 b "u conditions su* t x _c be p]=m$4 ,s long z ! boy /rives 9 8 legal pr(ession1 duty appe>s2 b s long is duty r5d]$ incomplete4 ,moral progress is endless1 b t only %[s h[ cont5t$ we mu/ be ) ! process ( /riv+ & n ) "s /atic condition4 ,to /rive morally is reality2 ! goal is n[h]e4 ,! contradiction is se5 9 ! et]nal contra/ betwe5 :at is & :at ought to be1 betwe5 ! moral task & ! actual p]=mance4 ,we are "u ! requirem5t to p]=m1 & 9 ! requirem5t is ! re/ra9t4 ,! dialectic process is endless4 ,fir/ !re is ! /age :i* ,fi*te calls ! ,!sis 9 ! call ( ! absolute ,ego4 ,! next /age is ! ,anti!sis1 se5 9 ! mutually limit+ ,ego & non-,ego4 ,! next /age is ! ,syn!sis1 9 :i* "s accompli%m5t is ga9$1 b :i* becomes only ! ,!sis = ano!r ,anti!sis2 & s on inf9itely4 ,! t]ms ,!sis1 ,anti!sis1 & ,syn!sis are important1 = !y are employ$ by ,fi*te's successors1 ,s*ell+ & ,hegel4 ,romanticism4#fa 8,we seek ! plan ( nature 9 ! outside _w4 ,we ourselves are ?is plan4 ,:y ne$ we trav]se ! difficult roads ?r\gh physical nature8 ,! bett] & pur] road lies )9 our own m9d40 7,novalis47 ,romanticism 0 a great ,european movem5t :i* la/$ ab\t a c5tury f #agej to #ahej2 & x w\ld be p]fectly ju/ifiable to speak ( ! intellectual p]iod 9 ,g]many f ,less+ to ,he9e z ,romanticism4 ,r\sseau & ! ,fr5* ,revolutioni/s1 ,ossian1 ,scott1 ,wordswor?1 ,col]idge1 ,byron1 ,%elley1 ,keats1 & ,wagn] 7 9 ! =efront ( ?is _w-wide movem5t4 ,! ,/orm & ,/ress ,p]iod 0 a phase ( x2 & s ev5 0 ! ,p]iod ( ,classicism t foll[$4 ,goe! & ,s*ill] 7 ,romantici/s1 & ,classicism 0 only an episode 9 _! lives4 ,! ,p]iod ( ,g]man ,classicism 7#aghg-ahje7 0 diff]5t f ! ,classicism ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 because x 0 ?or\ghly infect$ ) ,romantic g]ms4 ,if "o is to take acc\nt ( ! diff]5t phases ( ,g]man ?\ght aft] ,less+1 "o m5tions fir/ ! ,/orm & ,/ress ,p]iod1 !n ,classicism1 & !n ! ,romantic movem5t prop] f #agie to #ahej4 ,"s ( ! lit]>y names connect$ ) ! ,romantic movem5t h already be5 m5tion$1,ri*t]1 ,tieck1 ,wack5rod]1 ,novalis1 ! ,s*legels1 ,s*ill]1 & ,goe!4 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,hegel are ! philosoph]s ( ?is ,romantic movem5t & embody its _s 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,! true philosophical expon5t ( x is ,s*ell+4 ,romanticism is an accid5tal & inadequate "n = ?is _w-wide lit]>y & philosophical movem5t4 ,9 g5]al x means ! exalt+ ( ! individual1 8:o admits no law above himself40 ,! ,romantic individuality is dom9at$ by unre/ra9$ fancy1 is animat$ by feel+ & passion1 & pref]s ! vague & my/ical to ! cle> & def9$4 ,9 lit]ature ,romanticism is contra/$ ) ,classicism4 ,! ,classici/ emphasizes ! type1 ! ,romantici/ ! individual4 ,! ,classici/ def]s to traditional =m & law2 ! ,romantici/ has no common canon ev5 ) o!r ,romantici/s except ! "r to disagree4 ,! only common pr9ciple among ,romantici/s is subjective! tru? ( ! individual intuitions1 :i* 9 ! case ( ! hi/orical ,romantici/s f\nd expression 9 ! play ( fi]cely egoi/ic wills seek+ self-realization4 ,! hi/orical ,romantic movem5t 0 a passionate & mighty reaction aga9/ ! previ\s %all[ intellectual life ) its n>r[ conv5tions4 ,romanticism 0 a revolt aga9/ ! p]iod ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 :i* scorn$ :at x c\ld n def9e4 ,^! ,romantici/s 7 discont5t$ ) typical ideas & ) logical reason+ ab\t !m4 ,!y *all5g$ ! univ]se1 because x 0 n ob$i5t to _! egoi/ic crav+s4 ,x is v cle> :at ! dang]s z well z ! greatness ( ?is ,g]man ,romanticism 74 ,! dang]s ( ! movem5t lay )9 itself1 9 its ari/ocratic exclusiv5ess1 its reluctance to face ! =ces ( evil1 its lack ( /r5g? & ( firmness ( "*4 ,yet ! age itself may be l>gely responsible = ^!4 ,its /r5g? lay also )91 9 its deep5+ ( self-consci\sness1 9 its rejuv5at+ & ennobl+ ! :ole expanse ( be+1 9 its intellectual conception ( man's mo/ intimate relations to himself1 to 8 companions1 & to ! _w ar\nd him4 ,sometimes1 inde$1 ! spiritual =ce ( ?is small b& %[s itself q capable ( /rong action 9 ! out] _w4 ,napoleon himself ascrib$ 8 d[nfall n prim>ily to diplomacy or to ! bayonet1 b to ! resi/ance ( ! ,g]man ,ideologi/s4 ,goe! z a ,romantici/4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! resurrection ( ,sp9oza's doctr9e & its acceptance z a model by ?is "t4 ,! ,romantici/s1 foll[+ ,sp9oza1 conceiv$ ( nature z a unity 9 :i* ! div9e manife/s itself 9 its fullness4 ,nature is ,reason 9 ,becom+4 ,s fitt+1 inde$1 = ! "t 0 ,sp9oza's pan!ism t ,goe!1 ! lit]>y expon5t ( ! p]iod1 made x ! c5tral pr9ciple ( 8 poetic ?\ght4 ,goe! c be und]/ood only z ! ,romantic ,sp9oza4 ,! philosophy t und]lies ,goe!'s "w is not$ "h z an example ( ! ,romantic movem5t4 ,l all ! ,romantic philosophy1 ,goe!'s philosophy 0 a p]sonal revelation1 & n a =mulat$ doctr9e = univ]sal application4 ,l all ! ,romantici/s1 ,goe! 0 a highly /rung p]sonality1 & 8 philosophy 0 conceiv$ to be true by himself only = himself4 ,he did n look ^u ! trivialities & ! conv5tions ( life z m]e limitations ( 8 p]sonality1 b z a fall f tru?4 ,tru? is realiz$ by man :5 he is 9 vital int]*ange ) ! univ]se4 ,!re=e ,goe! 0 9 full agreem5t ) ,sp9oza 9 long+ = emancipation f human littl5ess & 9 8 desire = ! inf9ite4 ,goe! diff]$ f ,sp9oza's pan!ism 9 8 own way2 = ,goe! conceiv$ man to h an indep5d5t function 9 ! inf9ite4 ,man makes 8 contribution to hi/ory & does n m]ely passively appropriate ! products ( ! _w ar\nd himself4 ,man reacts ^u ! _w1 he resi/s x1 & becomes alive to ! joy ( x4 ,to ,goe! ! _w _h a s\l1 because ! _w gives cle>ness to ! human s\l4 ,nature %[s h[ closely %e is relat$ to u by disclos+ to u h] inmo/ s\l4 ,"h 9 ,goe! is a my/icism 9 mod]n g>b1 an arti/ic view ( life4 ,besides1 ! _w expresses human exp]i5ces on a l>ge scale1 & ! way to nature's he>t is n to g beh9d nature-ph5om5a1 b ?r\gh !m4 ,! facts ( nature are real1 & our own life is l nature4 ,bo? move 9 prescrib$ orbits1 b bo? are empty if ! connection betwe5 !m is sev]$4 ,we f9d !re=e ! secret ( our life by return+ to nature1 & ?is is a return to ! spiritual :ole ( ?+s4 ,at diff]5t times ,goe! 0 pan!i/1 naturali/1 & !i/4 ,he believ$ t all f9ite life is div9e1 & is a syn!sis ( opposite =ces1 9 :i* individuality has a place4 ,humanity is rul$ by necess>y types1 yet )9 !m ! individual is free4 ,su* free individuals take _! objects f ! _w1 spiritually end[ ^! objects1 & ?us make art & e?ics v close to nature4 ,romanticism 9 ,philosophy4#fb ,! ,romantic movem5t 0 intr9sically speculative & naturally _h its repres5tatives 9 philosophy1 :i* is sy/ematic speculation4 ,fi*te & ,hegel1 b especially ,s*ell+1 are ! philosophical expon5ts ( ! revolution>y _s ( ! age4 ,all ?ree 7 demon/rators 9 philosophy ( ! tru?s & dreams held by ard5t s\ls1 b ,s*ell+'s sy/em reflect$ ! spiritual upheaval4 ,fi*te belongs to ! ,romantic movem5t inasmu* z he /rives = ! inf9ite1 b ,fi*te sep>ates himself f t movem5t by di/+ui%+ betwe5 consci\sness & its cont5t4 ,! true ,romantic _s appe>s 9 ,s*ell+! impulse to revel 9 intuitions1 9 symbolism1 to run riot fir/ 9 nature & art1 & aft]w>ds 9 religion4 ,! ,romantic philosoph]s 7 fri5ds & sympa?iz]s ( ! ,romantici/s1 liv+ 9 ! same city1 sometimes 9 ! same h\se1 & 7 memb]s ( ! same spiritual family4 ,b x mu/ be rememb]$ t !re 0 n "o ,romantici/ lead] ) _m imitators1 b t ea* ,romantici/ foll[$ out 8 own l9e4 ,:5 we speak ( ,s*ell+ z a ,romantic philosoph] we mean t he gives ! speculative t5d5cy ( ! _m ,romantici/s 8 own cle>] def9ition & =mulation4 ,! backgr\nd ( ,s*ell+'s philosophy is ! s\rce ( ! ,romantici/s' motives4 ,x may be /at$ "u ?ree head+s3 7#a7 ,man's ideal is to exp& 8 s\l until x becomes "o ) ,god4 7#b7 ,!re is no ,?+-9-,itself4 ,! f9ite _w is only a limitation ( ! ego4 7#c7 ,man & ! nature _w are ess5tially "o4 ,man has a k ( nature :5 he has a k ( himself4 ,9 read+ 8 own hi/ory he reads ! hi/ory ( nature4 ,! ,romantici/ drew a veil f ! face ( nature & f\nd !re 8 own _s4 ,! ,life & ! ,writ+s ( ,s*ell+ 7#agge-ahed74fc ,( ,s*ell+'s long life ( sev5ty-n9e ye>s1 ! fifte5 ye>s f #agie to #ahaj 7 ! mo/ important productive p]iod4 ,l ,b]keley1 he 0 a _m-sid$ g5ius1 & began to write brilliantly 9 8 e>ly ye>s4 ,he publi%$ 8 fir/ treatise at sixte5 ye>s1 & be=e he 0 tw5ty he publi%$ sev]al essays ( di/9ct m]it on ,fi*te's philosophy1 ! success ( :i* l$ to 8 call to ! *air ( philosophy at ,j5a4 ,all 8 te*nical works 7 writt5 9 an academic atmosph]e4 ,aft] #ahab he1 s fond ( writ+1 became sil5t4 ,he ev5 ceas$ to deliv] lectures at ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l9 :5 he f\nd t notes ( !m 7 publi%$ )\t 8 cons5t4 ,hegel1 9 comm5t+ on ,s*ell+1 said t ,s*ell+ lik$ to c>ry on 8 ?9k+ 9 public4 ,s*ell+ & ,fi*te may be /udi$ toge!r because !y are alike 9 develop+ "o side ( ,kant's doctr9e4 ,b _! c>e]s 7 v diff]5t4 ,contra/$ ) ,fi*te's life ( pov]ty1 /ruggle1 self-creat$ antagonisms1 long-delay$ victory1 & devotion to rigor\s morality1 is ,s*ell+'s life ( e>ly academic success1 prosp]ity1 & romantic fri5d%ips4 ,! life ( ,kant 0 "o ( inn] developm5t & outw>d r\t9e2 t ( ,fi*te ( e>ly =mulat$ ?\ght & ext]nal w>f>e4 ,s*ell+'s life1 on ! o!r h&1 does n /rike u z "o ( developm5t1 ei!r ext]nally or subjectively4 ,x 0 r a s]ies ( *anges4 ,he look$ ^u 8 own philosophy z a developm5t1 b its l9kage is ?read-l1 due to 8 wond]ful imag9ation & mobility ( ?\ght4 ,) 8 great sugge/ive p[]1 he dep5d$ m ^u analogy ?an logic2 8 argum5t & 8 philosophy lie be=e u z if ev] 9 process ( cont9u\s readaptation4 ,s*ell+ possess$ all ! f]vor & insight ( ! ,romantici/s1 & all _! egoism & caprice4 ,x is ev5 m difficult to *>act]ize 8 philosophy ?an t ( ,sp9oza4 ,he 0 moni/1 pan!i/1 & evolutioni/2 p>alleli/1 !osophi/1 & believ] 9 fre$om2 he accept$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity2 9 all ?is he 0 ! true ,romantici/4 ,s*ell+'s philosophy ( nature is intelligible only 9 ! light ( ! great arti/ic f]m5t ( 8 "t & z ! expression ( 8 /rong arti/ic p]sonality4 ,8 ideal ( arti/ic insight into nature became = him 8 idea ( sci5ce4 ,reality is nature1 & nature is a "w ( art1 self compos$ & self r5ew+4 ,! endeavor ( ,s*ell+ 0 to fa%ion all human exi/5ce into arti/ic =m4 ,at fir/ he look$ ^u nature z rational1 b lat] he 0 impress$ ) its irrationality4 ,s*ell+'s life may be divid$ into six p]iods on ! basis ( ! *anges ( 8 ?\ght3 #a4 ,e>li] ,p]iod 7#agge-agig74 ,s*ell+ 0 ! son ( ! *apla9 ( a cloi/] s*ool ne> ,tb+51 & 0 educat$ 9 hi/ory & speculative sci5ce 9 ! univ]sity ( t t[n4 ,aft] 8 univ]sity education he held ! position ( tutor 9 a nobleman's family at ,leipsic = two ye>s4 ,dur+ ?is "t he li/5$ to lectures at ! ,univ]sity ( ,leipsic on m$ic9e & physics4 ,be=e he 0 tw5ty he _h publi%$ sev]al notable essays on speculative matt]s1 among !m ,! ,ego z a ,pr9ciple 9 ,philosophy2 & 9 #agig ,ideas = a ,philosophy ( ,nature4 ,^! l$ to 8 call to a *air 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,j5a4 ,s*ell+ 0 e>ly acqua9t$ ) ! doctr9e ( ,leibnitz1 b ! mo/ p[]ful influ5ces ^u him at ?is "t 7 ,kant &1 especially1 ,fi*te4 #b4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,nature 7#agig-ahjj74 ,s*ell+ 0 call$ to ,j5a ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ,goe!1 ,s*ill]1 & ,fi*te2 & x 0 "h t he complet$ :at he _h begun at ,leipsic! supplem5tation ( ,fi*te's philosophy ) a ,philosophy ( ,nature 7writt5 #agih74 ,he 0 colleague ( ,fi*te & aft]w>ds a helpful fri5d ( ,hegel4 ,j5a 0 !n ! c5tre ( ! ,romantic movem5t1 ! mov+ _s ( :i* 0 ,c>ol9e1 ! wife ( ,augu/ ,s*legel4 ,s*ell+ 0 v successful at ,j5a z lectur]1 & 8 publications at ?is "t 7 v _m4 #c4 ,! ,transc5d5tal ,philosophy 7#ahjj-ahja74 ,:ile /ill at ,j5a he felt ! influ5ce ( ,s*ill]1 :o _h unit$ ! ideas ( ,kant & ,goe! into an /hetic ,idealism4 ,"u ?is influ5ce ,s*ell+ recon/ruct$ ! ,fi*tean philosophy ( ! ,ego on a ,romantic basis4 #d4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,id5tity 7#ahja-ahjd74 ,s*ell+ n[ und]took to put 8 reca/ philosophy ( ,fi*te ^u ! basis ( ,sp9ozism4 ,?is caus$ a break betwe5 him & ,fi*te & ,hegel4 ,9 #ahjc he m>ri$ ,c>ol9e1 ! divorc$ wife ( ,augu/ ,s*legel & ! idol ( ! ,romantic circle1 & ! same ye> accept$ a call to ! ,univ]sity ( ,wurzburg1 :]e he rema9$ ?ree ye>s 7#ahjc-ahjf74 #e4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,fre$om & ,god 7#ahjd-ahji74 ,! doctr9e ( ,s*ell+ n[ became my/ical & %[$ ! influ5ce ( ,boehme4 ,9 #ahjf ,s*ell+ 0 call$ to ! ,academy ( ,muni*4 #f4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,my?ology & ,revelation 7#ahji-ahed74 ,?is may be well call$ ,s*ell+'s p]iod ( sil5ce1 s f> z publication 0 conc]n$4 ,he :o _h p\r$ =? 8 ?\ghts 9 pr9t n[ became av]se to publi%+ any?+4 ,he accept$ ! call to ,muni* 9 #ahjf & rema9$ !re1 except+ 8 sev5 ye>s at ,erlang51 ?irty-five ye>s 7until #ahda74 ,dur+ ?is "t he 0 mu* "u ! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle1 neo-,platonism1 & ! ,gno/ics4 ,he _h fir/ an (ficial position at ! ,academy ( ,muni*2 !n he sp5t sev5 ye>s z tea*] at ! ,univ]sity ( ,erlang5 7#ahbj-ahbg72 & 9 #ahbg he ent]$ ! newly f\nd$ ,univ]sity ( ,muni*4 ,9 #ahda he 0 call$ to ,b]l9 to c\nt]act ! ,hegelian movem5t1 & he became a memb] ( ! ,academy ) ! privilege ( lectur+ at ! ,univ]sity4 ,he 0 n[ sixty-six1 & he sp5t ! rema9+ ye>s 9 elaborat+ 8 sy/em4 ,he di$ 9 #ahed4 ,a ,brief ,comp>ison ( ,fi*te & ,s*ell+ z ,philosoph]s4 ,we h already spok5 ( ! relation ( ,fi*te & ,s*ell+ to ! ,romantic movem5t4 ,:at is _! relation z philosoph]s8 ,fi*te's idealism is commonly call$ subjective because ( 8 emphasis ^u ! ,ego at ! exp5se ( ! non-,ego4 ,9 non-te*nical t]ms ,fi*te gave no adequate philosophy ( nature2 = 8 assumption 0 t nature is only mat]ial = ! reason4 ,nature to ,fi*te 0 only ! /age ^u :i* ! reason c\ld act4 ,fi*te's ke5 insight into human affairs bl9d$ him to ! mean+ ( nature4 ,! contribution ( ,s*ell+ to ! philosophy ( nature 0 n !re=e unwelcom$ by ,fi*te2 = he saw t su* a philosophy c\ld easily be develop$ f 8 po9t ( view1 provid$ nature be reg>d$ z a unity 9 ! s]vice ( ! reason4 ,9 brief1 ! developm5t ( ,s*ell+ ov] ,fi*te 0 ?is3 7#a7 ,s*ell+ add$ a sci5ce ( nature to ,fi*te's sci5ce ( m9d2 7#b7 ,!n he trans=m$ ,fi*te's philosophy ( m9d into an /hetic philosophy ( m9d2 7#c7 ,!n he tri$ 9 sev]al successive attempts to f9d a common metaphysical gr\nd = 8 own philosophy ( nature & 8 reca/ philosophy ( m9d4 ,:ile ! me?od ( ,s*ell+ 0 n diff]5t f t ( ,fi*te1 8 g5]al motive 0 diff]5t2 = to ,s*ell+ ! univ]se mu/ n be reg>d$ z ! creation ( an active moral ,ego1 b z hav+ an exi/5ce ( its own4 ,:ile = ,fi*te to ?9k is to produce1 = ,s*ell+ x is to reproduce4 ,to ! inve/igat+ m9d ( ,s*ell+ exp]i5ce & obs]vation are ! s\rces ( k2 yet x mu/ n be inf]r$ t ,s*ell+'s philosophy 0 inductive or t he d]iv$ ! ,ego f ! non-,ego1 z if ! ,ego _h be5 evolv$ f ! non-,ego4 ,^! 7 ! days be=e ! mod]n !ory ( evolution4 ,m9d does n h its s\rce 9 nature2 on ! contr>y1 m9d & nature h a common s\rce 9 ! ,reason4 ,!y h a p>allel exi/5ce & develop accord+ to ! same law4 ,nature is exi/+ ,reason1 m9d is ?9k+ ,reason4 ,s*ell+'s ,philosophy ( ,nature4 ,s*ell+ />t$ ) ,kant's e>ly conception ( nature z dynamict matt] exi/s ?r\gh ! int]play ( ! =ces ( attraction & repulsion4 ,! human organism is ! highe/ expression ( su* dynamic activity4 ,9 ! _w !re is no?+ dead4 ,matt] is ! l[e/ expression ( dynamic activity2 ! vegetable is next1 ! animal next1 & ! human bra9 is ! consummation ( ?is process ( productivity4 ,?us matt] on ! "o h& & m9d on ! o!r are ! two poles ( reason 9 nature4 ,ev]y?+ is life movem5t2 ev]y?+ is ! oscillation betwe5 two extremes1 ! int]play ( contr>y b correlative =ces4 ,9 romantic t]ms1 nature is ! ,self 9 ,becom+4 ,nature is a liv+ :ole :i* manife/s itself 9 an asc5d+ scale ( ri* & v>i$ =ces betwe5 matt] & m9d4 ,su* a conception met consi/5tly ! dem&s ( ?is ,romantic p]iod4#fd ,! high expectations ( ! physici/s ( ! previ\s c5tury _h be5 unfulfill$1 = !y _h n succe$$ 9 obta9+ a purely me*anical explanation ( ! d]ivation ( life f matt]4 ,d>w9 0 /ill to come4 ,m$ic9e1 :i* 0 at t "t %[+ great progress1 (f]$ no argum5t = ! me*anical conception ( ! _w4 ,!re _h1 h[ev]1 be5 _m discov]ies at ?is "t 9 electricity & magnetism2 & ^! my/]i\s qualities seem$ to repudiate ! me*anical !ory4 ,vitalism ?us usurp$ ! place ( ma!matics4 ,sp9oza r ?an ,galileo 0 ! model ( ! "t4 ,nature mu/ be conceiv$ z a unity 9 :i* ! ,div9e manife/s itself 9 its fullness4 ,all ^! influ5ces appe> 9 ,s*ell+'s fir/ philosophical und]tak+4 ,he /ates philosophically :at ,goe! /ates poetically4 ,nature is n to be describ$ 9 quantities nor measur$ by rule4 ,x transc5ds measurem5t4 ,x is to be truly und]/ood only z productivity hav+ organic life z its goal4 ,nature is rational life1 n me*anism4 ,ev]y?+ has its logically det]m9$ place4 ,s*ell+ us$ ! natural sci5ce ( 8 "t to %[ h[ ! connection ( =ces & _! trans=mation into "o ano!r 7 ! manife/ation ( div9e cosmic purpose4 ,! gaps he fill$ 9 ) teleological conceptions4 ,he us$ morphology ) ! same purpose z ,goe!4 ,he felt ! same ne$ ( a deep] mean+ ( nature ?an ma!matics c give! ne$ ( a rational purposeful mean+4 ,goe! %[s ?is 9 8 8,!ory ( ,colors0 :5 he looks ^u colors n z atomic movem5ts1 b z some?+ ess5tially qualitative4 ,s*ell+1 too1 0 n an evolutioni/ 9 ! mod]n s5se1 & he did n reg>d "o species z d]iv$ f ano!r4 ,he ?\ght ( species 9 an asc5d+ scale1 to be sure2 b he saw 9 ea* only ! prelim9>y /age to ! next1 & all z ! div9e expression4 ,"o accompli%m5t ( nature m]ely prec$es ano!r 9 "t4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury look$ back on ?is ,romantic sci5ce z m]ely a fit ( excessive s5tim5t t has imp$$ ! mod]n "w ( s]i\s inve/igation4 ,yet x may safely be said t ! n9ete5? c5tury has n settl$ ! "q1 & t nature w always ne$ a rational z well z a me*anical explanation4 ,s*ell+'s ,transc5d5tal ,philosophy4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,nature ends ) ! explanation ( s5sitivity2 & x is !re = ,s*ell+ t ! philosophy ( k beg9s4 ,:5 ?ree ye>s lat] ,s*ell+ 0 ready to recon/ruct ,fi*te's philosophy ( m9d:5 he 0 ready to break ) ,fi*tehe 0 influ5c$ by ! great *ange t _h come ov] ! ?\ght ( ! ,j5a ideali/s4 ,?is *ange 0 due curi\sly en\gh to ! philosophy ( ! intimate fri5d ( ,goe!1 ! poet ,s*ill]4 ,"h aga9 ! proximity ( ,weim> & ,j5a 0 ! cause ( ! reciprocal influ5ce ( philosophy & lit]ature4 ,s*ell+ 0 ! fir/ to give ?is new ?\ght its philosophical expression4 ,! !ory ( ,s*ill] is an /hetic idealism 9 :i* ! arti/ic function supplants ! moral law ( ,fi*te & ,kant1 & is ! fundam5tal reality ( life4 ,:5 ,s*ill]#fe re%ap$ ,kant's moral philosophy he 0 n conc]n$1 z might be suppos$1 m]ely ) /hetic results1 b ) conduct1 hi/ory1 & ! :ole sy/em ( metaphysics4 ,! problem always upp]mo/ 9 ,s*ill]'s m9d 0 ! place ( art & beauty 9 ! :ole sy/em ( ?+s4 ,s :5 he tri$ to reconcile ,kant's !oretical reason & ,kant's practical reason1 he naturally look$ to art = su* reconciliation4 ,:at is !re t is bo? necess>y & free8 ,beauty6 8,beauty is fre$om 9 ph5om5al appe>ance40 /hetic contemplation appreh5ds ! beautiful object1 & yet 9 s do+ x transc5ds all ! trammels & bonds ( exp]i5ce4 ,! arti/ic ec/asy is fre$om 9 necessity4 ,x is indep5d5t ( moral z well z intellectual rules4 ,beauty is z little an object ( s5se z ( w4 ,x does n h ! quality ( ne$ t belongs to s5se ph5om5a1 nor ( e>ne/ness t accompanies morality4 ,s5se is oblit]at$2 ! /irr+s ( ! w become sil5t4 ,t :i* appe>s 0 call$ by ,s*ill] ! 8play impulse40 ,t[>d ! education ( man ,s*ill] ?us (f]$ art1 :ile ,kant _h pres5t$ religion4 ,art ref9es ! feel+s1 temp]s ! s5su\s w1 & makes room = ! moral w4 ,yet ! moral w is n ! end2 = art is n only ! means ( education1 b ! goal z well4 ,complete life comes :5 ! conflict betwe5 morality & s5se disappe>s 9 arti/ic feel+4 8,only z man plays is he truly man40 ,! ideal t ,s*ill] =mulat$ = ?is ,romantic age 0 ! 8s*ne ,seele40 ,:ile 9 ! s\l ( man ! ,kantian rigori/ic moral law exi/s :5 s5se /&s 9 opposition to duty1 ! 8beautiful s\l0 does n "k conflict because its nature is ennobl$ by its own incl9ation4 ,?is /hetic humanism ,s*ill] expresses = 8 "t 9 anti!sis to ,kant's & ,fi*te's rigorism4 ,goe! imp]sonat$ ?is ideal 9 8 life & repres5t$ x 9 8 works4 ,! ,romantici/s c>ri$ ?is conception to its extreme bo? 9 _! practice & 9 _! lit]>y productions4 ,?us !y came to /& = an ari/ocracy ( culture1 & 9 !m 8e?ical g5iality0 culm9at$4 ,! ,romantici/ contra/$ himself ) ! 8,phili/9e0 :o lives accord+ to rules4 ,! ,romantici/ w\ld live out 8 own individuality z valuable 9 itself4 ,he sub/itut$ ! endless play ( ! imag9ation = ,fi*te's moral law1 & 0 frequ5tly v wayw>d & caprici\s4 ,?is is se5 9 ,s*legel's ,luc9de4 ,s*lei]ma*] ! prea*] tri$ to pres]ve ! purity ( ,s*ill]'s doctr9e4 ,9 8 con/ruction ( 8 own philosophy ( m9d ,s*ell+ adopt$ completely ,s*ill]'s !ory ( ! /hetic reason 9 :at he call$ ,transc5d5tal ,idealism4 ,he look$ ^u ! ,fi*tean anti!sis betwe5 !oretical & practical reason z ! same z t betwe5 ! unconsci\s & ! consci\s activity ( ! ,self4 ,!oretically1 or f ! po9t ( view ( ! und]/&+1 consci\sness is det]m9$ by ! unconsci\s2 practically1 or f ! po9t ( view ( ! w1 ! unconsci\s is ! creation ( consci\sness4 ,! practical or will+ ,self re-%apes ! products ( ! nature _w4 ,= a ?9k+ be+ is n m]ely a reflector or re-pres5t] ( ev5ts z !y occur 9 ! nature _wz nature produces !m4 ,?9k+ man is n m]ely passive4 ,he re-%apes & trans=ms nature ?r\gh ! fre$om ( 8 morality4 ,b nei!r ! s]ies ( passively appreh5d$ ev5ts1 nor ! s]ies ( ev5ts trans=m$ by ! active moral w1 is ev] complete4 ,nei!r z a passive product ( nature nor z a moral w is man a p]fect$ be+4 ,9 ei!r condition man p]petually feels ! contradiction1 s9ce he is nei!r :olly passive nor :olly active4 ,! antagonism betwe5 w & s5se is ev] pres5t4 ,man realizes ! fullness ( 8 ,ego1 :5 he transc5ds bo? w & s5se1 bo? morality & sci5ce1 9 ! consci\s-unconsci\s activity ( arti/ic g5ius4 ,?is is ! highe/ syn!sis4 ,9 ,s*ell+'s lectures deliv]$ at ,j5a on ! philosophy ( art1 aft] he _h writt5 8 ,transc5d5tal ,idealism1 he develop$ & appli$ ?is !ory & x det]m9$ ! subsequ5t developm5t ( /hetics 9 ! ,j5a circle4 ,kant _h previ\sly def9$ g5ius z intellect t works l nature2 ,s*ill] _h def9$ x z play+2 ,s*ell+ look$ ^u x z /hetic reason & ! climax ( ! philosophy ( m9d4 ,art1 & n logic1 is ! in/rum5t by :i* ! reason develops4 ,arti/ic reason is ! goal t[>d :i* ! reason aims4 ,! ,sy/em ( ,id5tity4 ,s*ell+ publi%$ 8 ,transc5d5tal ,idealism 9 #ahjj4 ,9 ! next ye> he publi%$ 8 ,sy/em ( ,id5tity 9 ! hope ( f9d+ "s common gr\nd = 8 two prec$+ po9ts ( view4 ,= ,nature is n absolute1 b is a limit$ objective ,ego2 & ,m9d is also n absolute1 b is also limit$1 al?\gh subjective4 ,! ,self p]ceives ! object z o!r ?an itself1 & 9 subsequ5t reflection x sees ! object z a =m ( its own deep] ,self4 ,subject & object1 m9d & nature1 are "o 9 reality4 ,! "q !n is1 ,does ! absolute ,self exi/8 ,yes1 b outside ! conditions ( exi/5ce & beyond all contradictions4 ,x is itself ! highe/ condition1 ! uncondition$ condition4 ,b :at is ! basis ( ^! two anti!tical aspects ( life8 ,! mo/ suitable "n t ,s*ell+ c\ld give x 0 ,id5tity or ,indiff]5ce2 = o!r names w\ld imply conditions4 ,9 ?is attempt to con/ruct an absolute ,idealism1 ,s*ell+ %[s ! influ5ce ( ,sp9oza4 ,id5tity rem9ds u ( ,sp9oza's sub/ance1a reality t is absolutely indiff]5t to bo? m5tal & nature ph5om5a1 & yet is ! reality ( bo?4 ,x is absolute reason undet]m9$ 9 its cont5t4 ,x 0 ?is turn+ to ,sp9ozism on ! "p ( ,s*ell+1 t made ,hegel break ) him & call 8 ,id5tity 8! night1 9 :i* all c[s are black40 ,s*ell+ ev5 came s mu* "u ! influ5ce ( ,sp9oza z to imitate ,sp9oza's =m ( pres5tation 9 ! ,e?ics4 ,b ,s*ell+ reg>d$ ! objective & subjective worlds n aft] ! mann] ( ,sp9oza z indep5d5t ( ea* o!r4 ,on ! contr>y he look$ ^u e ph5om5on z bo? ideal & real1 & z hav+ its logical place accord+ to ! degree 9 :i* ! two elem5ts are comb9$4 ,diff]5ces are :at con/itute ph5om5a2 ! ,absolute is ! ,indiff]5t4 ,s*ell+ illu/rates ?is by ! magnet1 :i* is itself an indiff]5ce ( opposite poles ( v>y+ int5sity4 ,9 ! nature s]ies ! objective factor pr$om9ates1 & 9 ! m5tal s]ies ! subjective factor4 ,! univ]se is ! mo/ p]fect "w ( art1 ! mo/ p]fect organism1 & ! be/ expression ( ,god4 ,s*ell+'s ,religi\s ,philosophy4 ,romanticism took a religi\s turn at ! beg9n+ ( ! eighte5? c5tury "u ! influ5ce ( ,s*lei]ma*]4#ff ,! motive ( ?is movem5t 0 ! ?\ght t religi\s feel+ lies bel[ art4 ,reason c be complet$ only 9 religion1 by :i* is meant n dogma1 nor morality1 b an /hetic relation to ! _w-gr\nd1 a pi\s feel+ ( absolute dep5d5ce4 ,x is ! feel+ ( be+ p]meat$ by ! ,absolute4 ,s*lei]ma*] taught 9 ! true ,romantic _s t religion is an individual matt] & is diff]5t f *ur* organization4 ,?us 9 ?is "t ( quickly pass+ %ades ( imag9ative ?\ght ,s*ill] idealiz$ ,greece & ,s*lei]ma*] ! ,middle ,ages4 ,susceptible z he 0 to e idea ( 8 "t1 ,s*ell+ embodi$ ?is tea*+ ( ,s*lei]ma*] 9 8 lat] tea*+4 ,) ! o!r ,romantici/s he expect$ t ! concept ( religion w\ld furni% a f9al basis = ! solution ( all problems1 ov]come all anti!ses 9 an inn] h>mony1 & br+ ab\t ! et]nal welf>e ( all4 ,s*ell+ n[ no long] call$ ! ,absolute ,indiff]5ce1 b ,god or ,inf9ity1 & he conceiv$ ,him z possess+ modes & pot5cies4 ,9 ! developm5t ( ?is new l9e ( ?\ght he introduc$ ! neo-,platonic doctr9e ( ,ideas z ,god's intuitions ( ,himself1 & z int]m$i>ies ) ! _w4 ,lat] ,s*ell+ pass$ ?r\gh ano!r *ange1 & ?is doctr9e grew "u 8 h&s into a !osophy & a !ory ( ! irrational4 ,! influ5ce ( ,s*ell+ 0 eclips$ by ,hegel aft] ,s*ell+ retir$ to ,muni*2 & ,s*ell+ saw 8 rival 9 control ( ,g]man academic ?\ght = _m ye>s4 ,b he _h ! satisfaction 9 8 old age ( be+ call$ by ! au?orities to ,b]l9 z ! (ficial spokesman aga9/ ! ,hegelian doctr9e4 ,hegel & ! ,culm9ation ( ,idealism4 ,we h divid$ ! philosoph]s aft] ,kant into two gr\ps2 7#a7 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+ & ! ,romantici/s1 & ,hegel2 7#b7 ,h]b>t & ,s*op5hau]4 ,9 ?is fir/ gr\p1 :i* we h at pres5t "u our eye1 ,fi*te is ! e?ical exhort]1 ,s*ell+ ! ,romantic nature-lov]1 & ,hegel ! intellectual sy/ematiz]4 ,fi*te's conception ( ,reality is always an e?ical ideal unrealiz$1 9 ^: cause m5 are call$ to fight = conviction's sake4 ,s*ell+ po9ts to ! beauty ( nature's productivity z a reality t lies hidd5 9 my/]y4 ,bo? ^! !ories %[ pr(\nd insight into life & bo? are expressive ( ! p]iod 9 its attitude t[>d life4 ,fi*te is ! type ( ! ,puritan ideali/2 ,s*ell+ ! type ( ! s5tim5tali/4 ,yet bo?1 ev5 f ! po9t ( view ( ! ,idealism ( ! p]iod1 7 p>tial expressions4 ,idealism 0 a social movem5t2 & l all social movem5ts mu/ run its c\rse4 ,x w\ld n /op until x _h culm9at$ 9 a full & sy/ematic =mulation4 ,?is 0 f\nd 9 ! philosophy ( ,hegel4 ,! social =ces ( ! eighte5? c5tury _h be5 ga!r+ a mom5tum1 :i* naturally came to a magnific5t climax4 ,on its political side ?is movem5t culm9at$ "u ! lead]%ip ( ! greate/ ( all political ideali/s1 ,napoleon ,bonap>te1 9 #ahae at ,wat]loo4 ,on its intellectual side x rea*$ its completion 9 ! philosophical sy/em ( ,hegel4 ,hegel di$ 9 #ahca1 & 8 intellectual k+dom1 l ! political k+dom ( ,napoleon1 0 imm$iately %att]$4 ,b ! obs]v] ( ! curr5ts ( hi/ory w f9d mu* significance 9 ! /ubborn p]si/5ce ( ! intellectual phase ( ! ,ideali/ic movem5t long aft] its political dom9ance _h gone4 ,hegel rul$ ! intellectual _w ( ,g]many f ,b]l9 = sixte5 ye>s aft] ! battle ( ,wat]loo1 & 8 philosophy 0 (ficially recogniz$ by ! ,b]l9 au?orities4 ,?is /ubbornness ( ! realm ( ideas c be exemplifi$ ?r\gh\t hi/ory1 = x requires m ?an "o political e>?quake to demoli% a well-organiz$ intellectual !ory4 ,hegel may be said to h drawn ! scatt]$ ?reads ( ! prec$+ ideali/s into a sy/em4 ,l !m1 he firmly gr\nd$ 8 philosophy on ! ,kantian epi/emology4 ,l !m also1 he s\ght to f9d absolute reality by means ( ! consci\s ,ego4 ,?is only means t all ?ree 7 ideali/s4 ,b ,fi*te's conception ( ! ,ego 0 only p>tially =m$4 ,x c\ld n be an absolute reality1 s9ce x ne$$ to be confront$ by a non-,ego 9 ord] to ass]t itself & live4 ,hegel 0 disc]n+ en\gh to see t ,reason 0 m fundam5tal ?an ei!r action1 purpose1 or consci\sness itself4 ,to him bo? ! ,ego & ! non-,ego 7 9 ess5ce ,reason4 ,! ,ego c\ld n "k t x _h creat$ ! non-,ego unless ! ,ego 0 9 ! beg9n+ rational4 ,to di/+ui% ! ,ego f ! non-,ego1 !re mu/ be "s gr\nd ( simil>ity ^u :i* bo? are bas$4 ,9 8 se>* = ?is gr\nd ,hegel at fir/ alli$ himself ) ,s*ell+4 ,! brilliancy ( ,s*ell+'s ?\ght dazzl$ him4 ,!n he saw t ,s*ell+ only l$ back to ! ab/ract univ]sal ( ,sp9oza4 ,a my/ical 8black night0 ,id5tity 0 n actual nor did x expla9 any?+ actual4 ,x m]ely said t ! ,absolutely ,real is unkn[able4 ,?is is too easy a solution ( ! complexity ( life4 ,hav+ nei!r mean+ nor actuality1 x _c expla9 ! actual concrete & mean+ful ?+s4 ,! ,absolutely ,real mu/ be a univ]sal1 b x mu/ also be concrete4 ,hi/ory has be5 ! ,reason 9 its toil & travail4 ,! ,absolutely ,real mu/ include hi/ory & x mu/ be ,reason4 ,) ,fi*te ! 8de$ act0 _h primacy1 ) ,s*ell+ ! /hetic feel+1 ) ,hegel ! ,reason z an articulat$ s]ies ( concepts4 ,:y ,hegel rema9s to-day ! ,repres5tative ( ,kant4 ,!re 7 sev]al reasons :y ,hegel rema9s ! repres5tative ( ,kant3 #a4 ,he _h m le>n+ & ability ?an ! o!r po/-,kantians4 #b4 ,8 own int]pretation 0 an int]pretation ( facts4 ,by ! o!r po/-,kantians ?+s are n repres5t$ z !y are1 b z !y h be5 trans=m$4 ,hegel1 h[ev]1 0 a respect] ( ?+s z !y are4 ,hegel 0 possess$ ( no s5tim5t4 ,he 0 a satiri/2 al?\gh a romantici/1 he 0 an encyclopdic hi/orian z well4 ,he 0 a philosoph] 9 t old-"t s5se ( wi%+ to "k ! nature ( ?+s4 #c4 ,he 0 =tunate 9 8 application ( ,kant's doctr9e to evolution4 ,x prov$ to be ! beg9n+ ( ! movem5t :i* appe>$ lat] 9 ,d>w94 ,p 7 go+ to be evolutioni/s 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & ,hegel play$ into _! h&s & help$ evolution4 #d4 ,hegel gave to 8 philosophy ! air ( or?odoxy4 ,9 ! n9ete5? c5tury !re 0 a desire = ,*ri/ianity t 0 or?odox4 ,hegel (f]$ no objection to all[+ t int]pretation to be plac$ ^u 8 philosophy4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca74fg ,! sl[ movem5t ( ,hegel's diction is p>allel$ by 8 gradual developm5t 9 ?\ght4 ,he 0 ! mo/ pa9/ak+ metaphysician t ev] complet$ a philosophy4 ,:ile he 0 lack+ 9 ! pa9ful hesitation t made ,kant consume s mu* "t 9 introductions z to h little = ! body ( 8 disc\rses & none = ! completion ( 8 philosophy1 he 0 nev]!less a plodd+1 c>eful1 & prosaic ?9k]4 ,z a boy he %[$ ^! traits )\t %[+ any pr$om9ant ta/e or capacity4 8,he 0 t un9t]e/+ "*! good boy :o takes prizes 9 e class1 includ+ ! prize = good conduct40 ,z a man he 0 %rewd & res]v$1 ov]be>+ to 8 inf]iors & oppon5ts1 & ev5 patroniz+ to 8 sup]iors4 ,he 0 ! type ( ! p$antic tea*] :o brooks no opposition4 ,l ,kant's1 8 life 0 entirely academic1 b unlike ,kant's1 8 exp]i5ce 0 9 _m univ]sity circles,tb+51 ,j5a1 ,heidelb]g1 & ,b]l94 ,8 ?irte5 ye>s at ,b]l9 7 rem>kable1 n only = 8 philosophical dom9ance1 b = 8 influ5ce 9 society & c\rt4 ,! (ficial recognition ( 8 philosophy by ! ,b]l9 au?orities 0 a detrim5t 9 ! end2 = imm$iately aft] 8 dea?1 9 #ahca1 x lo/ its influ5ce4 ,hegel _h succe$$ ,fi*te at ,b]l91 & by ! irony ( fate1 ,s*ell+1 already an old man 9 ,vi5na1 0 call$ by ! ,b]l9 au?orities to combat ,hegel's influ5ce4 ,hegel's foll[]s1 aft] 8 dea?1 became engag$ 9 angry disputes ov] _! int]pretations ( _! ma/]'s philosophy4 ,8 philosophy 0 attack$ by ,h]b>t4 ,! intellectual _w turn$ away f him to empirical discov]ies & ! doctr9e ( evolution4 ,9 tw5ty ye>s ,hegel's influ5ce 0 insignificant1 & to-day 8 "n is sc>cely m5tion$ 9 ! lecture room ( a ,g]man univ]sity4 ,8 influ5ce is1 h[ev]1 gr[+ & p[]ful 9 ,engl& & ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,/ill x mu/ be said t ev5 9 ,g]many no "o has s dom9at$ ! direction ( jurisprud5ce1 sociology1 !ology1 /hetics1 & hi/ory 7a sci5ce :i* ,hegel himself creat$74 ,hegel's erudition1 8 ability to sy/ematize1 8 p[] ( discrim9ation1 are suffici5t to expla9 su* influ5ce4 ,! illum9ation t 8 philosophy gives1 lies less 9 8 metaphysical !ory ?an 9 8 application ( x to hi/ory & tradition4 ,he won adh]5ts1 n by 8 ab/ruse argum5ts t s few c und]/&1 b by illu/ration2 n by 8 demon/ration ( ! ,absolute1 b by %[+ h[ t ,absolute is :at ! religi\s devotee seeks1 :at ! morali/ presupposes & ! hi/orian recognizes4 ,9 c>ry+ out 8 !ory 9 detail he arbitr>ily fitt$ 8 facts to 8 !ory1 especially 9 ! philosophy ( nature1 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 & hi/ory4 ,9 ! realm ( pure ?\ght1 :]e conceptual facts are dealt )1 ?is is n s app>5t4 ,he 0 successful1 = example1 9 ! sci5ce ( /hetics4 ,hegel's lit]>y /yle is difficult1 & 8 te*nicalities are almo/ b>b>\s4 ,he uses philosophical & common t]ms ) mean+s to suit himself4 ,he loves p>adoxical phrases1 & is p$antic 9 8 insi/5ce on sy/ematic arrangem5t4 #a4 ,=mative ,p]iod 7#aggj-agif74 ,hegel 0 born at ,/uttg>t 9 #aggj1 & 9 ! ye>s betwe5 #aghh & #agic he /udi$ philosophy1 !ology1 & ! classics 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,tb+54 ,among 8 companions !re 7 ,s*ell+ & ,hld]l94 ,f #agic to #agif he 0 a tutor 9 ,switz]l&1 :]e he made a fur!r /udy ( ,kant4 #b4 ,=mulation ( 8 ,philosophy 7#agif-ahjf74 ,hegel =mulat$ 8 philosophy = ! fir/ "t 9 ! f\r ye>s 7#agif-ahjj7 ( 8 life at ,frank=t1 :]e he 0 act+ 9 ! capacity ( tutor4 ,9 #ahja he became privat-doc5t at ,j5a ?r\gh ,s*ell+'s recomm5dation4 ,he edit$ a philosophical j\rnal ) ,s*ell+1 & ! two 7 fri5ds s long z ,hegel f\nd ,s*ell+'s assi/ance ( value to himself4 ,:51 9 #ahjc1 ,s*ell+ left ,j5a1 ,hegel began to criticize 8 =m] fri5d's philosophy4 ,hegel 0 appo9t$ pr(essor ( philosophy at ,j5a 9 #ahje4 #c4 ,developm5t ( 8 ,philosophy 7#ahjf-ahca74 #ahjf4 ,he wrote ! ,phnom5ologie1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #ahjg4 #ahjg4 ,! univ]sity 0 discont9u$ aft] ! battle ( ,j5a1 & ,hegel w5t to ,bamb]g to edit a newspap]4 #ahjg-ahae4 ,hegel 0 at ,nuremb]g z tea*] 9 its gymnasium1 & 9 #ahaa1 at ! age ( =ty-"o1 he m>ri$4 #ahab-ahac4 ,he publi%$ 8 ,logic4 #ahaf-ahag4 ,he 0 pr(essor ( philosophy at ,heidelb]g4 ,he publi%$ 8 ,encyclopdia1 :i* consi/s ( ?ree p>ts3 ,logic1 ,philosophy ( ,nature1 & ,philosophy ( ,m9d4 ,?is 0 enl>g$ 9 #ahbg4 #ahah4 ,hegel succe$$ ,fi*te at ,b]l91 :]e he met ) m>k$ success1 & :]e he ex]cis$ a v wide influ5ce4 ,:5 ,hegel came to ,b]l9 8 philosophical !ory 0 already =mulat$1 & 8 ?irte5 ye>s at ,b]l9 7 sp5t 9 illu/rat+ & v]ify+ x 9 hi/ory4 #ahca4 ,at ! height ( 8 fame1 he di$ ( *ol]a4 ,realism1 ,my/icism1 & ,idealism4 ,x w n be amiss at ?is po9t to contra/ ?ree ( ! great types ( human ?\ght1,realism & ,my/icism ) ! ,idealism ( :i* ,hegel 0 ! consummate expression4 ,! ,ideali/ic ,p]iod ( ,european ?\ght is conf9$ )9 ! =ty-"o ye>s betwe5 #agij & #ahca4 ,moreov] x is a _w-wide movem5t1 ! philosophical expression ( :i* is re/rict$ to ! ,g]man p4 ,my/icism & ,realism repres5t ! civilizations ( long] p]iods & ( _m peoples4 ,my/icism is1 = example1 ! attitude ( m9d frequ5tly f\nd 9 ! ,middle ,ages 9 ,europe1 & may be r\ghly said to be ! philosophy ( ! ,ori5tal peoples4 ,sp9oza 0 a belat$ my/ic & its be/ ,european expon5t2 & aga9/ ! revival ( ,sp9oza's ,my/icism dur+ ?is p]iod ,hegel z an ideali/ took 8 /&4 ,realism has be5 a popul> philosophy 9 all civilizations at all times1 & x 0 ! irony ( fate t ,realism foll[$ directly ^u ,hegel's long p]iod ( dom9ance z an ideali/4 ,mod]n sci5ce is bas$ on ,realism1 & s1 on ! :ole1 0 ,greek civilization4 ,9 contra/ to ,realism1 ,idealism repres5ts a few ye>s ( hi/ory & has be5 conf9$ to a limit$ civilization1 yet = pr(undity ( insight into ! mean+ ( life ,idealism is ! consummation ( human reflection4 ,s9ce 8philosophy l5ds itself to ext5d$ disc\rse10 x is q impossible to contra/ ^! !ories briefly 9 m ?an a crude way4 ,f ! my/ic's po9t ( view1 absolute reality is t :i* c be imm$iately appreh5d$4 ,h[ev]1 s9ce imm$iate intuition is always undet]m9$1 ! my/ic's reality is a v vague & ab/ract ?+1 al?\gh = him x is none ! less real4 ,su* a reality is n usually s\ght 9 ! 8_w ( nature02 = nature objects are v def9ite1 besides be+ v transitory4 ,! my/ic's _w ( reality is )92 !re=e ,god to ! my/ic is to be f\nd )9 ! s\l & is to be contra/$ ) ! unreality ( ! _w ( s5se4 ,!re is only "o reality1 & t is )9 ! s\l2 all else is an illusion4 ,reality is ga9$ by direct k & nev] by ! process ( logical reflection4 ,my/icism is frequ5tly alli$ ) /hetics2 ! love ( ,god is app>5tly ! same z ! love = a "w ( art2 ! imm$iate intuition t ! s\l has ( ,god app>5tly is ! same psy*ological process z ! arti/ic ec/asy ov] a ?+ ( beauty4 ,bo? result 9 ! absorption ( ! s\l 9 its object1 & 9 ! pres5ce ( ei!r all else seems illusory4 ,n[ ,realism is a !ory t is m easily def9$ ?an ,my/icism4 ,x is simply ! conception ( _m realities indep5d5t ( "o ano!r & ( ! ?9k+ m9d4 ,reality is n "o1 x is a plurality ( indep5d5t ?+s1 all ( :i* are indep5d5t ( ! ?9k+ process4 ,su* realities are n undef9$4 ,z 9 ,idealism1 our k ( !m is a def9ite matt] ( reflection2 b aga9/ ,my/icism1 su* def9ite k is pro( ( _! reality4 ,?is c be illu/rat$ by ! s]ies #a 444 #b4 ,let ! numb] 8#b0 repres5t ! reality or mean+ ( ! inf9ite s]ies1 :i*1 h[ev] f> ext5d$1 nev] rea*es 8#b40 ,let ! s]ies itself repres5t ! def9ite processes ( ph5om5al nature4 ,! ,reali/ w\ld say t only ! increas+ s]ies is real1 & ! 8#b0 is an unkn[able4 ,! ,reali/ admits t ! s]ies is fragm5t>y & incomplete1 b x is q def9ite & c]ta9ly ! be/ we c d4 ,x is at lea/ exact & sci5tific2 & ! goal ( sci5tific k belongs to ! realm ( ! atta9able4 ,on ! o!r h& ! ,my/ic ma9ta9s t1 s9ce exact k atta9s only ! *ang+ & ph5om5al1 exact k is illusory4 ,:5 we _c atta9 ! real by ef=t & s5se k1 :y wa/e our "t 9 seek+ to d s8 ,reality is "r at h&9 "o's self4 ,to ! ,my/ic ! inf9ite s]ies ( fractions is unreal1 because x is & always w be incomplete4 ,! ideal 8#b0 c be got by direct & intuitive k4 ,?us to ! ,reali/ ! inf9ite s]ies is real & ! goal 0#b0 is unreal1 :ile to ! ,my/ic ! 8#b0 is real & ! fractions ( exp]i5ce are unreal4 ,hegel felt pr(\ndly conv9c$ t nei!r ,realism ) its def9ite realities nor ,my/icism ) its undef9$ goal 0 an adequate explanation ( ! _w & life4 ,! truly real mu/ n only be def9ite1 b x mu/ also be all-inclusive4 ,x mu/ n on ! "o h& be incomplete1 nor on ! o!r mu/ x be vague4 ,x mu/ be bo? ! numb] 8#b0 & ! inf9ite s]ies lead+ to 8#b40 ,a truly & absolutely real mu/ be ! explanation ( ev]y?+ t happ5s1joy1 evil1 necessity 9 nature1 e lea/ ev5t & *ange4 ,9 ! light ( ! idealism ( ,hegel ! solutions ( ! ,my/ic & ! ,reali/ seem to fade 9 importance1 & ! problem ( life seems to gr[ 9 significance & mean+4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciples ( ,hegel's ,idealism4 ,9 contra/ ) ,my/icism & ,realism1 z well z ) ! doctr9e ( ,fi*te & ,s*ell+1 ,hegel tri$ to =mulate a conception ( ! univ]se t w\ld include ev]y?+ & yet be an organic :ole4 ,9 :at t]ms c ?is _w ( ri*ness & v>iety1 ( cord9ations & contradictions1 be conceiv$ z a s+le :ole8 ,h[ c x be "o & /ill be _m8 ,hegel saw cle>ly t ?is 0 8 problem4 ,! truly absolute mu/ be a unity1 & /ill be absolute4 ,!re are two fundam5tal pr9ciples ^u :i* 8 doctr9e re/s3 7#a7 ,! _w mu/ be conceiv$ 9 t]ms ( consci\sness4 ,to any "o :o has /udi$ ! pr9ciples ( psy*ology1 or :o has foll[$ ,kant's epi/emological analysis1 x is cle> t ! only real unities are consci\s unities4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( consci\sness is syn!sis4 ,?is is :at we mean by consci\sness1 & consci\sness is unique 9 ?is4 7#b7 ,! _w z a consci\s :ole mu/ be ess5tially a _w ( contradictions4 ,we mu/ accept contradiction & n consi/5cy z ! fundam5tal & explanatory pr9ciple ( life4 ,9 sci5ce & our ord9>y human problems we try to get results t are logically consi/5t4 ,?is is useful1 b 9 do+ s we d n get a full explanation4 ,we omit 9 su* calculations life's negations & incongruities4 ,b d n inconsi/5cies & negations & incongruities exi/8 ,!y c]ta9ly d2 ev]y?+ has its opposite2 & if we w take ! pa9s to obs]ve ! processes ( ?\ght1 we %all f9d t ?\ght is fundam5tally inconsi/5t4 ,:y d we usually reg>d ?\ght z a self-consi/5t process8 ,because our me?ods ( =mal logic are su*4 ,9 =mal logic we reason smoo?ly & consi/5tly f ! premises to ! conclusion4 ,if we look m deeply into ?\ght1 we %all f9d t su* consi/5cy is made possible by ignor+ ! inconsi/5cies necess>y to ! v be+ ( ?\ght4 ,! "q !re=e is n1 ,c ! cosmic :ole be conceiv$ z consi/5t8 b ,:at is ! law ( its inconsi/5cies8 ,let u consid] ^! two pr9ciples ( ! ,hegelian philosophy m 9 detail4 ,! ,cosmic ,unity4 ,hegel insi/s on ! old tru? t ?\ght is self-op]at+ )9 u4 ,?\ght belongs to our nature1 yet x controls our nature4 ,?\ght develops consequ5ces )\t reg>d to ! w & dem&s t contradictions %all be solv$4 ,x is n correct to say t we ?9k1 b r t ?9k+ goes on )9 u4 ,?\ght is ! life ( ! _w4 ,?\ght is a process :i* embraces all ?+s & projects !m4 ,hegel emancipates ?\ght f all ! limitations ( human m9ds4 ,he w\ld make ?\ght objective & trans=m reality into ?\ght4 ,?us ,hegel conceives t ?is self-op]at+ ?\ght )9 u is ess5tially ! reality ( ! univ]se4 ,?\ght is ! great cosmic und]curr5t t includes all ?+s 9 its sweep4 ,inde$1 ! univ]se _c be conceiv$ z a unity unless ! univ]se is conceiv$ z a cosmic consci\sness or reason4 ,! true /udy ( ! nature ( ! _w is cosmic logic1 & philosophy becomes 9 ,hegel's h&s panlogism1univ]sal logic4 ,kant re/rict$ ! categories ( ?\ght to ! human und]/&+2 ,hegel univ]salizes !m & !y become categories ( ! cosmos4 ,= if ! reality ( ! _w is consci\s reason1 ! categories are n only ! =ms ( ?\ght1 b also ! modes ( be+4 ,! categories are1 !re=e1 m compreh5sive ?an ,kant suppos$4 ,to use a t]m f ! ,middle ,ages1 !y are 8sub/antial =ms40 ,!y are at "o & ! same "t ! =ms t m\ld ?\ght & ! /ages ( et]nal creation4 ,! kn[+ process & ! cosmic process are "o & ! same"o writ small & ! o!r writ l>ge4 ,!y are n sep>ate f ea* o!r1 b are ! trans=mations ( "o ,be+4 ,if we w\ld /udy ! cosmic =ms1 let u /udy ?\ght-=ms4 ,logic is really ontology2 ! /udy ( ! g5ealogy ( ?\ght is ! /udy ( ,be+4 ,! real is reason1 & ! reason is real4 ,by reason ,hegel does n mean intuition or ev5 imm$iate p]ception1 :i* ,fi*te & ,s*ell+ claim$ to be ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! m9d4 ,! reason :i* ,hegel is talk+ ab\t is ! concept or g5]al notion4 ,all actuality is ! developm5t ( ! g5]al notion 9 a necess>y & self-creative movem5t4 ,hi/ory1 matt]1 & ?\ght are exhibitions ( ! div9e ,idea4 8,all ,be+ is ?\ght realiz$ & all ,becom+ is a developm5t ( ?\ght40 ,hegel's philosophy is a monism ( reason1a univ]saliz$ concept1 9 :i* ev]y?+ has its div9e place4 ,x is an all-embrac+ sy/em1 m\ld+ e dep>tm5t4 ,m9d & matt] are n aspects ( a reality :i* is beh9d !m1 b are ! modes ( t reality4 ,! cosmic reason is successively m9d & matt]1 & n ! pr9ciple ( m9d & nature4 ,9 ,s*ell+ ?+s proce$ f ! absolute4 ,9 ,hegel !y are ! absolute4 ,! absolute does n exce$ ?+s1 b is :olly 9 !m z _! organic unity4 ,ev]y?+ is "u ! conceptual labor ( ?\ght4 ,! important ?+ is to ref] all our complex /ates to ! unify+ cosmic concept & h "o illum9at+ idea4 ,absolute reason is absolute movem5t! p]petual movem5t ( life4 ,yet ?is absolute reason! reason t refuses to *ange accord+ to our likes & dislikesis its own law & goal4 ,! cosmos is ! law ( reason & has z its end its own unfold+ self-consci\sness4 ,x is n ! purpose ( philosophy1 accord+ to ,hegel1 to tell :at ! _w %\ld be1 b to recognize its nature z rational4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 be c>eful to di/+ui% ,hegel's conception ( ! unity ( ,god f t o!r conception ( ,him z a quantitative1 s+le1 & isolat$ unity4 ,an isolat$ & s+le ,be+ w\ld imply ! exi/5ce ( o!r isolat$ ,be+s4 ,su* an individual w\ld be limit$ by o!rs & dep5d5t ^u !m4 ,9 te*nical t]ms sam5ess ) "o's self implies diff]5ce f o!rs4 ,a good example ( ! conception ( an isolat$ ,god c be f\nd 9 mod]n !ology2 su* a ,god is a unity1 b ,he is only ! greate/ ( ! sev]al p[]s 9 ! univ]se4 ,su* an ,"o is n an absolute1 = ! ,"o to be absolute mu/ be all t !re is4 ,limitation implies some?+ else4 ,das ,wahre i/ das ,ganze4 ,b ,hegel does n mean by ! ,on5ess ( ,god an aggregation ( p>ts1 nor does he mean a sy/em or arrangem5t ( p>ts4 ,an aggregation ( p>ts1 h[ev] big1 is nev] complete & _c include all t !re is4 ,an aggregation1 ev5 if x includes ! pa/ & ! pres5t1 is n ,absolute4 ,! temporal s]ies po9ts to some?+ else to give x mean+2 & yet ,reality mu/ n /& outside any "p ( ! temporal s]ies4 ,! ,absolute ,reality mu/ include ! temporal s]ies1 & yet ! temporal s]ies is n 9 itself ,reality4 ,nei!r does ,hegel mean t ,reality is a sy/em or society ( individuals1 ^: k & w imply "o ano!r2 = su* an organization ( individuals also has its mean+ 9 some?+ bel[ x4 ,! ,absolute ,reality is a spiritual individual4 ,x is a unify+ consci\sness1 :i* is self-mov+1 subjective1 & active4 8,x is ! ,idea t ?9ks itself & is completely self-id5tical 9 its o!rness40 ,x _c be ab/ract ?\ght l ,sp9oza's ,god1 = ! ,absolute mu/ be actual4 ,nor does ,hegel mean by ,reality m]ely life or vitality1 z ,haeckel has conceiv$ x 9 mod]n times2 = ^!1 too1 are only ab/ract t]ms4 8,x is pure p]sonality :i* alone ?r\gh ! absolute dialectic encloses all )9 itself40 ,reality is an ,absolute ,cosmic ,_s engag$ 9 its self-discov]y & self-appropriation by means ( its own movem5t2 & ?is movem5t is reveal$ 9 art1 religion1 & philosophy4 ,! ,absolute is1 z ,%elley makes ! ,e>? picture man 9 ,prome!us ,unb\nd1 8,"o h>moni\s ,s\l ( _m a s\l1 ,^: nature is its own div9e control1 ,:]e all ?+s fl[ to all1 z riv]s to ! sea40 ,! panorama ( hi/ory is ! progressive k ( ! ,absolute appe>+ "u successively m adequate =ms4 ,morality is ! ,absolute 9 ev] enl>g+ social relations4 ,religion is ! ,absolute 9 p]sonal relations to man4 ,philosophy is ! ,absolute 9 reason$ appreh5sion ( himself4 ,! ,absolute is n to be conceiv$ 9 an?ropomorphic t]ms1 b is ! _w-process realiz$ z an individual self-consci\sness4 ,x is cosmic consci\sness become m significant4 ,x is ,be+ reg>d$ z an individuality & includ+ all developm5t4 ,! ,cosmic ,law4 ,if ! cosmic unity is a cosmic syn!tic consci\sness1 x mu/ be subject to ! law ( reason :i* is fundam5tal 9 consci\sness4 ,! process ( consci\sness is an unfold+4 ,x is an evolution1 b an evolution t is an unfold+4 ,ord9>ily biological evolution re/ricts itself to ! p>ticul> type "u consid]ation4 ,x does n take acc\nt ( ! fact t ! gr[? ( "o type means ! de/ruction ( ano!r4 ,x does n view nature 9 a univ]sal way & consid] con/ruction & de/ruction1 action & reaction1 equal4 ,x looks ^u developm5t z a process along a tang5t or l ! inf9ite s]ies ( numb]s4 ,b ! de/ructions1 ! defeats1 ! reciprocal retrogressions1 mu/ be acc\nt$ = 9 a truly ,absolute consci\sness4 ,evolution is n !re=e an upw>d advance1 b a clos$ circle4 ,! ,absolute is n !re=e a consi/5cy1 b includes contradictions2 & evolution _c truly be int]pret$ 9 quantitative b 9 qualitative t]ms1 z ! unfold+ ( consci\sness4 ,! only way to include ev]y?+ 9 ! ,absolute is to ?9k ( ! ,absolute z com+ to a consci\sness ( itself4 ,! ,absolute ,reality is ! same at any temporal beg9n+ or end+4 ,its mean+ is becom+ cle>] to itself alone4 ,su* cle>ness appe>s 9 ! cle>ness ) :i* ! categories :i* are ! =ms ( any consci\sness become relat$4 ,! task ( philosophy is n to und]/& ^! =ms toge!r or s]iatim1 b z mom5ts ( a unit>y developm5t4 ,!y are ! l9ks 9 ! developm5t ( ,_s1 ,god1 ! ,idea1 or ! ,absolute4 ,:at is ?is law ( spiritual circul> developm5t8 ,:at are ! categories ( ! cosmic ,ego8 ,h[ c ! cosmic organism take acc\nt ( ! contradictions z well z ! consi/5cies ( life8 ,! ?ree necess>y categories or ?ree fundam5tal conceptions ( ! cosmic consci\sness are 8to be10 8to be d5i$10 8to be transc5d$10,!sis1 its ,anti!sis1 & ! ,syn!sis ( ! two4 ,9 o!r words !y are ,ass]tion1 ,contradiction1 & ,return-to-itself4 ,! cosmic law is ! ,law ( ,negativity4 ,x is a dialectic process 9 ! union ( contradictories1 ( extremes meet+1 ( ! equality ( action & reaction4 ,9 ,hegel's h&s contradiction becomes ! v pr9ciple ( cosmic h>mony4 ,x is ! /ruggle ( ?\ght to compreh5d itself by us+ its own contradictory & creat$ exp]i5ces = su* compreh5sion4 8,! ph5om5on is ! aris+ & pass+ away :i* itself does n pass away1 b exi/s 9 itself4 ,x con/itutes ! movem5t & reality ( ! life ( tru?40 ,! law ( human consci\sness is ?is3 ,assume ! tru? ( any doctr9e4 ,exam9e x & y w f9d x 9 "s detail ass]t+ n only its own contradiction or opposite1 b also ! relation betwe5 its ass]tion & its contradiction4 ,! tru? lies 9 ! ass]tion t transc5ds ! two opposites4 ,! law ( ! cosmic consci\sness is ! same4 ,any /age ( hi/ory appe>s 9 ! consci\s assurance ( ! tru? ( ! pr9ciples ^u :i* hi/ory is f\nd$4 ,b any su* ass]tion by any epo* ar\ses opposition2 & ! next /age 9 hi/orical developm5t is ! ass]tion ( pr9ciples t syn!size ! ass]tion ( ! previ\s epo* & ! opposition to x4 ,! law ( consci\sness drives hi/ory to oppose its own self-ass]tions & !n to a deep] appreh5sion ( itself 9 a high] ass]tion1 until x f9ds re/ 9 ! k ( ! ,absolute ,ideat ,absolute ,tru? is cont9u\s contradiction4 ,p]haps ,hegel's mo/ notable contribution to mod]n ?\ght 0 8 emphasis ^u ! trem5d\s p[] ( negation & ! /imulat+ =ce 9 contradiction4 ,spiritual advance is made ?r\gh opposition4 ,hegel's ,application ( 8 ,!ory4 ,=mulat+ 8 !ory 9 #ahjj1 ,hegel sp5t ! mo/ ( 8 lit]>y c>e] 9 exemplify+ x4 ,! ,phnom5ologie 7#ahjg7 is an attempt to %[ ! natural hi/ory ( ?\ght 9 exp]i5ce4 ,he %[s !re ! s]ies ( /ages ?r\gh :i* ! m9d passes1/ages correspond+ to logic1 to ! gr[? ( ! individual1 & to society4 ,9 ! dialectic movem5t1 consci\sness views ! _w 9 an ext]nal way until x becomes self-consci\s2 !n reason is evolv$ z a syn!sis ( ! two3 i4 e4 ( ext]nal consci\sness & self-consci\sness4 ,reason !n develops by cont9ually turn+ back ^u itself into an e?ical1 religi\s1 &1 la/ly1 an absolute reason4 ,hegel wrote 8 ,logic 7#ahab7 z an application ( 8 !ory to ?\ghtreg>d+ ?\ght z consi/+ ( g5]al concepts4 ,!n came 8 ,encyclopdia 7#ahaf71 conta9+ 8 ,philosophy ( ,nature & ,philosophy ( ,m9d4 ,9 8 ,philosophy ( ,nature1 nature is reg>d$ z reveal+ ! same dialectic z logic1 b 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,nature1 !re=e1 /&s to logic z its anti!sis4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,m9d places m9d z ! syn!sis ( logic & nature1 & elaborates ! subject z m9d1 objective m9d1 & ! syn!sis ( ! two1 or ,absolute m9d4 ,?us ! dialectic ( ! ,logic is repeat$ & appli$ to ! ,philosophy ( ,nature & ! ,philosophy ( ,_s4 ,logic & hi/ory are !re=e p>allel4 ,! cont5t is always ! same 9 bo?2 & ! developm5t is always 9 logical =ms4 ,! ,absolute ,idea by diff]5tiation ) itself comes to itself3 7#a7 9 ,logic ?r\gh ,be+1 ,ess5ce1 & ,idea2 7#b7 9 ,nature ?r\gh matt]1 individual =ms1 & organism2 7#c7 9 ,_s ?r\gh consci\sness1 self-consci\sness1 reason1 "r1 morality1 social morality1 art1 religion1 philosophy4 ,logic is ! ,_s an-si*2 nature is ! _s fr-si*2 m9d is ! ,_s an-und-fr-si*4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,?+-,,9-,,itself ,h]b>t & ,s*op5hau]4 ,! ma9 l9e ( developm5t ( ! critical ,kantian movem5t 0 ! idealism ( ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,hegel4 ,x 0 ! mo/ p]fect expression ( ! p]iod ( ,g]man philosophy4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 s _m di/9ct elem5ts 9 ! ,kantian doctr9e1 & ^! 7 s loosely ti$ toge!r by ,kant1 t "o is n surpris$ to f9d _m div]g5t l9es ( its subsequ5t elaboration4 ,x is difficult to classify all ^! lat] philosoph]s4 ,b mo/ prom95t 9 ?is gr\p /ood ,h]b>t & ,s*op5hau]4 ,h]b>t 0 a ,reali/1 & ,s*op5hau] a volunt>i/ & pessimi/4 ,!y _h a common gr\nd & motive = _! respective philosophies1 & may be plac$ toge!r 9 ! second gr\p ( ! disciples ( ,kant4 ,!y 7 alli$ 7#a7 9 _! emphasis ^u ! importance ( ! ?+-9-itself & 7#b7 9 _! /rong opposition to ! ideali/ movem5t4 ,:ile bo? publi%$ _! pr9cipal writ+s be=e ! dea? ( ,hegel 9 #ahca1 bo? liv$ to ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury & bo? repres5t ! reaction aga9/ ! p]iod ( idealism4 ,!y speak m = ! subsequ5t n9ete5? c5tury ?an = ,g]man ideals & ,romanticism4 ,!y repres5t$ a c]ta9 feel+ ( ! "t t ,kant's doctr9e _h n receiv$ its due at ! h&s ( ! ,ideali/s4 ,"s philosoph]s _h rema9$ true to ,kant1 b !y c\ld n get ! public e> until !y 7 re9=c$ by ! positive sci5ce & hi/orical criticism ( ! second qu>t] ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b&s ( m5 _h ga!r$ to /udy ,kant ev5 :ile ,idealism 0 dom9ant4 ,^! 7 n pr(essional philosoph]s1 b politicians & o!rs engag$ 9 active s]vice4 ,kant himself 9 8 lat] ye>s prote/$ aga9/ 8 8false disciples40 ,fries & ,h]b>t1 ev5 ?\gh pupils ( ,fi*te1 7 true to ,kant2 & turn$ att5tion away f ideali/ic con/ruction to an exam9ation ( ! psy*ological f\ndations ^u :i* ! ,kantian criticism re/$4 ,h]b>t 0 ! mo/ prom95t ( ! empirical psy*ologi/s & physici/s :o turn$ away f ! speculative t5d5cy back to ,kant4 ,s*op5hau] 0 ! e>ly spokesman = t my/icism & pessimism :i* *>act]iz$ ! n9ete5? c5tury & appe>$ 9 ! music ( ,wagn]1 ! lit]ature ( ,ibs51 & ! philosophy ( ,von ,h>tmann & ,nietzs*e4 ,:at discr$it$ ,hegelianism 9 p>ticul> & philosophy 9 g5]al 9 ! eyes ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 7#a7 ! errors ( ,hegelianism z to facts2 7#b7 ! patroniz+ tone ( ! ,hegelians t[>d sci5ti/s l ,cop]nicus1 ,newton1 & ,lavoisi]2 & 7#c7 ! refusal ( ! ,hegelians to te/ hypo!ses by facts4 ,! opposition aga9/ ,hegel 0 aga9/ 8 pr9ciples1 8 me?od1 & 8 conclusions4 ,at ! d[nfall ( ,napoleon ! age gave up ! hope ( recon/ruct+ ! _w ei!r politically or philosophically4 ,! new _s 0 sci5tific & positive4 ,x tri$ to accept ! _w z x f\nd x1 & to expla9 x me*anically s f> z x c\ld be done4 ,?+s are n ! creation ( ?\ght1 & ?\ght _c *ange ! reality ( ?+s4 ,we mu/ obs]ve & exp]im5t1 s9ce we _c con/ruct4 ,we mu/ re/ore ! b\nd>ies ( ,kant4 ,yet bo? ,h]b>t & ,s*op5hau] 7 true to ! _s t inspir$ ,g]man idealism1 = !y c\ld n develop _! philosophy ( education1 psy*ology1 or art except ^u a metaphysical backgr\nd4 ,metaphysics 0 necess>y4 ,x 0 z necess>y a f\ndation to ! ,g]mans z e?ics to ! ,greeks & psy*ology to ! ,engli%4 ,johann ,fri$ri* ,h]b>t4#fh ,z 8a ,kantian ( ! ye> #ahbh0 ,h]b>t claim$ to h c>ri$ ! ,kantian doctr9e a /ep fur!r by disclos+ its psy*ological gr\nds4 ,he insi/$ t analysis 0 ! only true me?od2 & he cont5d$ aga9/ ,fi*te t x is impossible to d$uce ! !ory ( ! _w f a s+le pr9ciple4 ,an all-inclusive pr9ciple may be ! conclusion1 b n ! premise1 ( a philosophy4 ,?us 8 ?\ght mov$ 9 exactly ! opposite direction f ! monism ( ! ,ideali/s & ,s*lei]ma*]1 ) :i* he 0 9 con/ant ho/ility4 ,exp]i5ce prov$ to ,h]b>t ! exi/5ce ( indep5d5t realities2 & he c\ld n reconcile himself ) ! a priori doctr9e ( ! ideali/s1 :i* beg9s by d5y+ ! exi/5ce ( ! ,?+-9-,itself4 ,on ! contr>y1 philosophy to ,h]b>t _h ! ,?+-9-,itself z its *ief conc]n4 ,h]b>t did n see h[ p>adoxical 8 position mu/ beh[ futile mu/ be ! results ( attempt+ to "k ! unkn[able4 ,he 0 impress$ ) ! dep? ( ! problem ( exi/5ce1 & he felt t1 if x 0 to be expla9$ at all1 x mu/ be along sci5tific l9es1 especially 9 ! fields ( psy*ology & education4 ,! sci5tific me?od ( ,h]b>t 0 me*anics2 8 ,realism 0 ! result ( 8 me?od4 ,h]b>t's programme at ! beg9n+ ( 8 tea*+ at ,gtt+5 9 #ahjb 0 z foll[s3 ,he def9$ philosophy 9 a g5]al way by simplify+ ! concepts t und]lie ! diff]5t sci5ces4 ,?us he 7#a7 recon/ruct$ ,realism1 7#b7 re/or$ ! pr9ciple ( contradiction1 & 7#c7 e/abli%$ philosophy on ! same basis z sci5ce4 ,( all ! philosophical s*ools 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ! ,h]b>tian s*ool 0 ! mo/ num]\s & compact4 ,hegel's attitude _h driv5 _m ?9k]s into sci5ce1 & ! majority ( !m atta*$ !mselves to ,h]b>t = want ( some?+ bett]4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,h]b>t 7#aggf-ahda74 ,h]b>t 0 ! typical s*ol>4 ,he 0 a man ( quiet & cons]vative ta/es1 & 8 life 0 nev] di/urb$ by dramatic situations aris+ out ( contradictions 9 8 "* or environm5t4 ,8 days 7 sp5t 9 /udy1 lectur+1 & ef=ts = social education4 ,! philosophical influ5ces ^u 8 ?\ght 7 ,leibnitz1 ,kant1 & negatively ! ,ideali/s4 ,9 8 e>ly life he _h read ,leibnitz & ,kant1 & be=e he 0 eighte5 he _h read en\gh ( ,fi*te to be repell$ by 8 doctr9e4 ,9 #agif he 0 a /ud5t at ,j5a4 ,f ,j5a he w5t z tutor to ,switz]l&1 :]e he met ,pe/alozzi & laid ! f\ndation ( 8 own philosophy4 ,9 #ahjb he 0 call$ to ,gtt+51 :]e he became full pr(essor 9 #ahje4 ,9 #ahjf he publi%$ ,pr9cipal ,po9ts 9 ,metaphysics4 ,9 #ahji he 0 call$ to ,knigsb]g1 :]e he publi%$ 8 *ief works3 #ahac ,text-book ( ! ,introduction to ,philosophy4 #ahaf ,text-book ( ,psy*ology4 #ahbb ,possibility & ,necessity ( ,apply+ ,ma!matics to ,psy*ology4 #ahbd-ahbe ,psy*ology z a ,sci5ce4 #ahbh-ahbi ,g5]al ,metaphysics4 ,9 #ahcj he 0 call$ back to ,gtt+51 & he di$ 9 #ahda4 ,! ,contradictions ( ,exp]i5ce4 ,all ! conceptions ( practical life are self-contradictory & are !re=e vici\s4 ,?is applies n only to ! conceptions ( unreflect+ m9ds1 b also to ^? ( sci5ti/s & philosoph]s4 ,to philosophize is no?+ else ?an ?is3 to free our conceptions ( _! self-contradictions by simplify+ & revis+ !m4 ,we ?9k ( ! _w z consi/+ ( ?+s1 p]sons1 relations1 & laws2 b su* a view ( ! _w is f\nd$ ^u ! fallacy ( ?9k+ an object at ! same "t z "o & z _m4 ,?is g5]al fallacy takes f\r specific =ms3 inh]5ce1 *ange1 cont9uity1 & selfhood4 ,= example1 x is contradictory to ?9k ( a plant z "o ?+ 9 :i* _m qualities inh]e2 x is contradictory to ?9k ( a plant z ! same :5 x passes ?r\gh _m *anges2 x is contradictory to ?9k ( space z cont9u\s & yet divid$ into p>ts2 & x is contradictory to ?9k ( ! self z always ! same & yet z a /ream ( consci\s /ates4#fi ,! ,argum5t = ,realism4 ,?is inh]5t contradiction 9 human conceptions _h be5 a matt] ( obs]vation by philosoph]s = _m c5turies1 b x _h l$ to _m div]g5t conclusions4 ,! ,greek ,skeptics _h long ago obs]v$ x1 & _h conclud$ !re=e t !re is no su* ?+ z reality4 ,to !m ?\ght is discr$it$ because ! contradictions ( ?\ght are insoluble4 ,tru? does n exi/4 ,on ! o!r h& ,hegel develop$ 8 great dialectic sy/em ^u ! basis ( ^! contradictions4 ,is ?\ght self-contradictory8 ,yes4 ,b is ?\ght discr$it$ because x is self-contradictory8 ,by no means4 ,x is ! nature ( ?\ght to be self-contradictory1 & ! highe/ tru? is ! k ( ?is4 ,s ,hegel1 in/ead ( reject+ ! conception ( reality because ?\ght is contradictory1 incorporat$ contradictions into 8 conception ( ! ,be+ ( ! univ]se4 ,inde$1 he made contradictions ! 8head ( ! corn]0 ( 8 sy/em4 ,contradiction to ,hegel is cosmic law4 ,h[ev]1 9 su* a conception ,hegel _h to give up entirely ! pr9ciple ^u :i* =mal logic 0 f\nd$4 ,?is 0 ! pr9ciple t a ?+ _c be diff]5t f itself4 ,to ,hegel ! highe/ tru? 0 exactly ! oppositeev]y?+ is self-contradictory4 ,:ile ,h]b>t agre$ ) ! ,skeptics & ) ,hegel t exp]i5ce is self-contradictory1 he diff]$ f !m 9 ! inf]5ce :i* he drew f su* contradictions4 ,9 ackn[l$g+ ! contradictions ( exp]i5ce ,h]b>t did n f9d himself driv5 to ei!r "o ( ^! alt]natives4 ,philosophy did n mean = him skepticism4 ,on ! o!r h& he 0 repell$ by ! turn t ,hegel _h giv5 to logic1 & he refus$ to accept reason+ z a self-contradictory process4 ,he return$ to ! dem&s ( =mal logic & re/or$ ! pr9ciple ( contradiction#gj to ! place :i* x _h occupi$ dur+ ! ,enlight5m5t4 ,h]b>t took z 8 fundam5tal philosophical pr9ciple t exp]i5ces are n actual :5 !y are self-contradictory4 ,! self-contradictor9ess ( exp]i5ces %[s t !y are ph5om5a & n actualities4 ,x also %[s t !y h reality z _! gr\nd4 ,seem+ ?+s imply realities z ! gr\nd ( _! qualities2 seem+ occurr5ces imply actual relations betwe5 ! reals4 ,seem+ is j s mu* an indication ( ,be+4 ,consi/5cy lies beh9d ph5om5a4 ,! exi/5ce ( appe>ances mu/ be admitt$1 b appe>ances are appe>ances ( some?+4 ,if no?+ exi/$1 no?+ w\ld appe> to exi/2 & yet ?+s are n 9 reality :at !y appe> to be4 ,h]b>t agre$ ) ,kant t we c exp]i5ce only ph5om5a4 ,!re is also a simil>ity 9 ! two !ories z to ! relation%ip betwe5 ph5om5a & ! ?+-9-itself4 ,! simil>ity is1 h[ev]1 only sup]ficial4 ,kant reason$ f ! relativity ( ph5om5a to ! syn!tic unity ( app]ception1 i4 e4 to consci\sness 9 g5]al1 :ile ! ?+-9-itself 0 to ,kant an unkn[able & irr$ucible rema9d]4 ,to ,kant ph5om5a po9t$ to consci\sness r ?an to ?+s-9-!mselves4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,h]b>t reason$ f ph5om5a to ! exi/5ce ( ?+s-9-!mselves4 ,ph5om5a po9t to an indep5d5t1 objective reality r ?an to a ?9k+ subject4 ,:ile 9 ,kant's doctr9e ph5om5a dep5d = _! exi/5ce ^u ! creative p[] ( consci\sness1 to ,h]b>t consci\sness has no creative p[]1 b itself dep5ds on ! exi/5ce & indep5d5ce ( a plurality ( indep5d5t ,reals4 ,ev5 ! categories & ! =ms ( space & "t are n innate syn!tic =ms4 ,all are ! result ( ! relation%ips among indep5d5t ,reals1 :i* are ! spr+ ( all activity & exi/5ce4 ,h]b>t ?us gave to ! ?+s-9-!mselves all ! indep5d5t functions t ,kant attribut$ to consci\sness4 ,! ,_m ,reals & ,nature ,ph5om5a4 ,we mu/ remove ! contradictions ( exp]i5ce1 if we w\ld get at a true conception ( ,reality & ! mean+ ( ph5om5a4 ,! true way is 7#a7 to posit a plural numb] ( ,reals1 & 7#b7 to int]pret ! ph5om5a z d]iv$ f ! relation among ^! ,reals4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a multiplicity ( ,reals1 & n a s+le ,real1 is ne$$ to expla9 ! multiplicity ( ph5om5a4 ,h]b>t's doctr9e is !re=e a pluralism4 ,he conceives ! _m ,reals to exi/1 n 9 ph5om5al1 b 9 8intellectual space40 ,!y are n subject to any ph5om5al limitations :atsoev]2 !y may occupy "o po9t ( space at ! same "t4 ,_! nature _c be kn[n1 b we c say t !y h 8absolute position40 ,!y _c be limit$ nor negat$1 & ev5 _! plurality does n mean t !y limit "o ano!r4 ,9 ! second place1 ,h]b>t assumes a multiplicity ( relations4 ,:y d ! ,reals appe> z ph5om5a8 ,:y %\ld ! ,reals appe> to be ! qualities t inh]e 9 ?+s1 ! cont9uities ( ?+s1 & ! *anges ( ?+s8 ,h]b>t is n altoge!r satisfactory 9 8 explanation ( ?is problem4 ,x is ! problem ( ! unity ( ! manifold1 :i* ,kant c\ld expla9 z due to ! syn!tic p[] ( consci\sness2 b su* an explanation 0 preclud$ f ,h]b>t's ,realism4 ,h]b>t speaks ( two k9ds ( relations4 ,!re are ! actual relations among ! ,reals4 ,al?\gh ! ,reals are conceiv$ by ,h]b>t z simple & un*angeable1 he also ?9ks ( !m z 8com+ & go+ 9 intelligible space40 ,we c nev] "k :at ! nature ( ^! actual relations is4 ,! actual relations betwe5 two ,reals are n ess5tial to ei!r ,real1 nor c su* relations h _! basis 9 ! ,reals4 ,all t we c "k are ! seem+ relations among ?+s4 ,^! are ! relations ( ph5om5al space( inh]5ce1 cont9uity1 & *ange4 ,h]b>t calls ^! ph5om5al relations 8cont+5t views0 7zufallige ,ansi*t571 & looks ^u !m z hav+ a semi-exi/5ce4 ,t is to say1 ,h]b>t reg>ds ! _w ( exp]i5ce z a _w ( relations :i* are n ! actual relations among ,realities1 b m]ely ! ph5om5al relations1 or relations z !y appe> to u4 ,! ,s\l & ,m5tal ,ph5om5a4 ,ea* ,real has "o s+le function1 viz41 self-pres]vation2 & inasmu* z ! ,reals 8co-exi/10 !y mutually di/urb ea* o!r4 ,! di/urbances take ! =m ( inn] reactions on ! "p ( ! ,real 9 its ef=t at self-pres]vation4 ,prom95t among ! ,reals is ! ,s\l-real4 ,l all ! o!r ,reals1 x is unkn[able4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 imm$iate k ( its manife/ations 9 its self-pres]vation among ! o!r ,reals4 ,psy*ology is ! sci5ce ( ! relations :i* ! ,s\l-real be>s to o!r ,reals4 ,f ! conflict ( ! ,s\l ) o!r ,reals1 m5tal ph5om5a take _! rise4 ,consci\sness is1 !re=e1 n ! same z ! ,s\l2 x is ! sum-total ( ! acts ( ! ,s\l 9 self-pres]vation4 ,consci\sness is ! aggregate m5tal /ates1 & is n ess5tial to ! ,s\l4 ,nev]!less1 isolat$ s\ls d n ?9k2 !y h no /ates ( consci\sness4 ,consci\sness c arise only 9 a community ( ,reals4 ,our k consi/s !re=e ( ideas1 :i* are ! results ( ! di/urbance ( ! ,s\l-real by o!r ,reals4 ,^! ideas live )9 ! ,s\l1 :i* is m]ely an indiff]5ce po9t :]e !y are held toge!r4 ,! ideas 9 turn di/urb & inhibit "o ano!r1 & ! description ( our m5tal life is a description ( ! reciprocal t5sion ( ideas4 ,! t5sion among ! ideas modifies ! int5sity ( ea*1 & consci\sness ( an idea is proportional to its int5sity4 ,an idea is j on ! ?re%old ( consci\sness :5 x has ! l[e/ degree ( int5sity1 & is /ill actual4 ,:5 x drops bel[ t ?re%old x is *ang$ into an impulse4 ,! prim>y ideas are s5sations4 ,!y are n ! images ( ?+s1 b ! prim>y acts ( ! ,s\l 9 its attempt at self-pres]vation4 ,all o!r m5tal /ates1 l memory1 imag9ation1 feel+1 & w1 are to be describ$ z k9ds ( t5sion ( ! ideas4 ,feel+ & w are k9ds ( inhibitive t5sion4 ,! com+ ( s5sations & ! int]play ( s5sations c be r$uc$ to a me*anical law4 ,!re=e1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 psy*ology is ! 8/atics & me*anics ( ideas10 & mu/ be treat$ ma!matically4 ,h]b>t's contribution to mod]n ?\ght lies 9 8 psy*ology4 ,mod]n ?\ght has n accept$ 8 metaphysics1 b x has be5 influ5c$ to a n inconsid]able degree by 8 psy*ology4 ,h]b>t gave ! dea?-bl[ to ! old 8faculty psy*ology10 & he plac$ psy*ology ^u ! same basis z ! natural sci5ces4 ,! sci5ce ( psy*ology 0 n to ,h]b>t a discussion ( ! nature ( ! s\l1 = t is unkn[able4 ,x is ! /udy ( ! aggregate ( ! cont5ts ( consci\sness4 ,x is n a /udy ( psy*ical faculties1 b ( psy*ical elem5ts4 ,?is r$uces psy*ology to an atomism1 l o!r sci5ces1 & !reby frees x f ! influ5ce ( !ology4 ,?us 0 ! s-call$ mod]n psy*ology made possible by ,h]b>t4 ,h]b>t's !ory 0 also ( incalculable value to mod]n educational !ory4 ,! conception ( ! influ5ce ( environm5t ^u m5tal life1 ! !ory ( ! developm5t ( m5tal life1 ! natural me?od ( 8prep>ation1 pres5tation1 association1 sy/ematization1 & application0 ( an educational subject1 ! !ory ( ! correlation ( subjectsall are f\nd$ ^u 8 psy*ology4 ,h]b>t's attempt to apply ma!matics to ! laws ( psy*ological ph5om5a 0 n s =tunate4 ,at "o "t1 dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury1 psy*ologi/s hop$ mu* f ma!matics 9 _! sci5ce2 b ! hope has be5 practically ab&on$4 ,9 rec5t ye>s ! dem& = exactness has be5 met 9 psy*o-physics1 :i* op]ates ) ma!matics 9 a diff]5t way4 ,ar?ur ,s*op5hau]#ga & 8 ,philosophical ,relations4 ,s*op5hau] is gr\p$ ) ,h]b>t because 7#a7 bo? _h an especial dislike = ! ideali/ic developm5t t ! ,kantian movem5t took2 & 7#b7 bo? built _! !ories ^u int]pretations ( ! ,kantian ?+-9-itself4 ,:ile ,h]b>t 0 a ,reali/1 ,s*op5hau] 0 a ,my/ic2 :i* only %[s h[ !ories1 seem+ly v diff]5t1 c h ! same s\rce4 ,h]b>t's ,realism 0 an int]pretation ( ,kant's ?+-9-itself z _m realities2 :ile ,s*op5hau]'s ,my/icism 0 an int]pretation ( x z "o reality4 ,9 bo? !ories ! consci\sness1 & ) x ! reason1 7 conceiv$ z d]ivations ( ! ?+-9-itself4 ,! be/ approa* to ,s*op5hau]'s doctr9e c p]haps be made by contra/+ x ) 8 pet av]sion! doctr9e ( ,hegel4 ,s*op5hau] 0 to ,idealism :at ,mephi/opheles 0 to ,fau/he turn$ ,romanticism into pessimism4 ,! !ory ( empirical evolution1 :i* 0 to be highly develop$ 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 lay 9 !oretical g]m 9 ! tea*+ ( ! imm$iate foll[]s ( ,kant4 ,to ,hegel ! hi/orical developm5t ( ! cosmos is ! /ruggle ( reason1 :i* ) all its ess5tial contradictions is futilely /riv+ to come to itself4 ,to ,s*op5hau] ! hi/ory ( ! cosmos is also an endless /ruggle1 al?\gh a /ruggle 9 :i* all reason is abs5t4 ,hegel c\ld conceive ! hi/ory ( ! cosmos z a developm5t wor?y ( inve/igation4 ,s*op5hau]1 on ! contr>y1 took no int]e/ 9 hi/ory1 because to him x c\ld n be a developm5t4 ,to ,hegel1 ph5om5a =m an intimate "p ( ! cosmic /ruggle1 s9ce !y are ! cont5t ( ! cosmic-reason2 to ,s*op5hau]1 ph5om5a are ! surface illusions ( an ebulli5t1 unreason+ ,w4 ,z ! fir/ !oretical pessimi/ ( ,europe1 ,s*op5hau] express$ = ! n9ete5? c5tury "o ( its mo/ ess5tial *>act]i/ics4 ,he got scant recognition dur+ 8 lifetime on acc\nt ( ! vogue ( ,hegel2 b to-day x is ,s*op5hau]1 r ?an ,hegel1 :o has a popul> influ5ce1 & is widely read4 ,?is is p>tly on acc\nt ( 8 ma/]ly lit]>y /yle & p>tly by reason ( ! cont5t ( 8 doctr9e4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury 0 c>ri$ along ^u a /rong curr5t ( pessimism because ( 7#a7 indu/rial problems1 :i* involv$ _m e?ical consid]ations1 & because ( 7#b7 its break+ away f traditional religi\s ties4 ,s long z ! unb\nd$ optimism ( ,idealism prevail$1 ! _w _h little room = ,s*op5hau]'s tea*+2 b :5 ,realism ) its limitations took hold ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 !n did ,s*op5hau]'s day ( recognition come4 ,! popul> m9d has f\nd 9 ,s*op5hau] its be/ philosophical expression1 & repres5tatives ( 8 tea*+ h be5 num]\s4 ,among !m are ,ri*>d ,wagn] 7#ahac-ahhc7 ) 8 music dramas2 ,von ,h>tmann 7b4 #ahdb7 ) 8 !ory ( ! unconsci\s2 ,nietzs*e 7#ahdd-aijj7 ) 8 extreme /atem5t ( egoismt 9 view ( univ]sal evil1 ! only hope is 9 ! survival ( ! /ronge/ & 9 ! virtue ( selfi%ness4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,s*op5hau] 7#aghh-ahfj74 ,s*op5hau] 0 ! k9d ( g5ius :o is always an ali5 to ! _w ( m54 ,he liv$ a long1 lonely1 isolat$ life1 9 :i* 8 inh]it$ emotional & brood+ nature became m & m cynical & pessimi/ic4 ,ev5 9 8 pat]nal home he f\nd himself a /rang]4 ,8 fa!r pu%$ him into m]cantile bus9ess1 :i* he hat$2 & aft] ! dea? ( 8 fa!r 8 brilliant "m told him t he 0 welcome to h] ,weim> home only z a visitor4 ,! doors ( all academic circles 7 clos$ to him2 & he1 9 comm5t+ on x1 said t he _h fail$ to get an academic he>+1 because ! ,g]man did n believe 9 a metaphysics :i* 0 s express$ z to be und]/ood4 ,b ! cause ( 8 isolation lay ma9ly 9 himself4 ,he 0 neura/h5ic & peculi>! subject ( ill-temp]1 night-t]rors1 causeless depressions & dreads4 ,) ! g5ealogy ( ,s*op5hau]'s family on 8 fa!r's side be=e u1 :o c\ld wond]8! gr&mo!r insane1 "o uncle insane1 "o uncle idiotic1 "o neurotic1 & 8 fa!r a suicide4 ,s*op5hau]'s own peculi>ities 7 n pa?ological4 ,he _h a g5ius t blossom$ z e>ly 9 8 ye>s z ,hegel's blossom$ late4 ,he wrote 8 two important works be=e he 0 ?irty4 #a4 ,p]iod ( ,education 7#aghh-ahac74 ,! p>5ts ( ,s*op5hau] 7 weal?y1 & 9 #ahjc he travel$ ) !m 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,holl&4 ,9 #ahjd he ent]$ bus9ess1 :i* he gave up ! next ye> on ! dea? ( 8 fa!r4 ,9 #ahji he 0 busy /udy+ ! classics1 philosophy1 & ,h9du le>n+ 9 ,weim>1 ,gtt+51 & ,b]l94 #b4 ,p]iod ( ,lit]>y ,production 7#ahac-ahca74 ,9 #ahac he wrote ! ,f\r-fold ,root ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t ,reason1 9 ! ,?ur+ian =e/1 :5 o!r ,g]man "y m5 7 rally+ to arms aga9/ ,napoleon4 ,?is 0 accept$ z a doctorate !sis at ,j5a4 ,f #ahad to #ahai he liv$ 9 ,dresd5 at "w on ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea1 :i* is ! complete exposition ( 8 doctr9e4 ,! "w is divid$ into f\r p>ts3 #a4 ,!ory ( ,k2 #b4 ,description ( ! ,=ms ( ! ,w2 #c4 ,art z a ,deliv]ance f ! ,w2 #d4 ,morality z a ,deliv]ance f ! ,w4 ,9 #ahbj he got a position z ,privat-doc5t 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l94 ,?is 0 ! only ye> ( 8 tea*+ & 0 an utt] failure4 #c4 ,p]iod ( ,retirem5t 7#ahca-ahfj74 ,9 #ahca he w5t to ,frank=t-on-!-,ma9 to live alone & 9 retirem5t4 ,sl[ly he became kn[n & ga!r$ a little circle ( disciples ab\t him4 ,he di$ 9 #ahfj4 ,! ,influ5ces ^u ,s*op5hau]'s ,?\ght4 ,! pr9cipal influ5ces ^u ,s*op5hau]'s ?\ght 7 ?ree3 7#a7 ,kant1 f :om he got 8 transc5d5tal !ory ( k 7he always consid]$ himself to be ,kant's true heir72 7#b7 ,plato1 f :om he got 8 =mulation ( et]nal ,ideas z (f]+ an escape f ! ,w2 7#c7 ! ,h9dus1 f :om he got 8 e?ical-,my/icism & ! confirmation ( 8 pessimism4 ,s*op5hau] is unique among ! philosoph]s ( ,europe1 because he d5i$ all = :i* ! ,enlight5m5t /ood4 ,ev5 su* reaction>ies aga9/ ! ,enlight5m5t z ,r\sseau 7 a "p ( its ess5tial _s2 = ! presupposition ( traditional !ology & philosophy has be5 t exi/5ce is ess5tially a h>mony4 ,s*op5hau]1 h[ev]1 appeal$ to ! discordances & ! sorr[ ( exi/5ce1 & drew ! inf]5ce t fundam5tally exi/5ce is irrational4 ,= ! s\rce ( ,s*op5hau]'s unique tea*+ we h to look1 !re=e1 f>!r ?an mod]n ,europe4 ,! prec$+ mod]n ,european philosoph]s :om we h /udi$1 develop$ _! philosophies f purely ,occid5tal s\rces4 ,s*op5hau] drew f ! ,ori5t z well z f ! ,occid5t4 ,! ,romantici/s _h re-discov]$ ,ori5talism4 ,! /udy ( ! ,h9dus _h be5 int]e/+ ,european s*ol>s s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,s*op5hau]1 :o 0 introduc$ to ,indian philosophy by ,goe!'s fri5d1 ,fr4 ,may]1 read ! ,upani%ads 9 a ,lat9 translation2 & !y contribut$ mu* to ! developm5t ( ! !ory :i* 8 own emotional & cynical nature _h presag$4 ,! ,h9dus _h long felt t ! ma9 problem ( exi/5ce is moral & physical evil4 ,s*op5hau] f\nd 9 ?is tea*+ ! /atem5t ( 8 own attitude4 ,he e/eem$ ! pr9ciples ( ,*ri/ianity & ,buddhism because _! c5tral requirem5t 0 fai? 9 a r$eem] r ?an a creator4 ,*ri/ianity _h no orig9al metaphysics1 b ,buddhism on acc\nt ( its metaphysics _h an especial importance 9 ,s*op5hau]'s eyes4 ,x 0 n only a pessimism1 b a philosophy ( pessimism4 ,our exi/5ce is only a bl9d /ruggle = enlight5m5t & arises out ( a fl[+ *a9 ( p]5nial re-bir?s4 ,man ne$s to be fre$ f ! illusion ( exi/5ce & releas$ f re-bir?4 ,! ,_w z ,w & ! ,_w z ,idea4 ,9 ,! ,f\r-fold ,root ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,suffici5t ,reason1 ,s*op5hau] summ>izes k z1 8,! _w is my pres5tation10 :i* is ,kant's !ory ( k4 ,a consci\s subject vitalizes all ?+s4 ,b ! pres5tations h no correspond+ reality 9 ! out] _w4 ,!y are creat$ by my own subjectivity f ! 8pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason40 ,?is has a f\rfold root3 logic1 cause1 ma!matics1 & w-activity4 8,! _w ( ph5om5a is my idea10 & 9 ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea ,s*op5hau] says1 8,?is is a tru? :i* holds good = ev]y?+ t lives & kn[s40 ,man alone c reflect ^u ?is tru?4 ,:5 man comes to ! realiz+ s5se t ! _w is an ideal con/ruction1 he beg9s to philosophize z to ! nature ( ! reality beh9d x4 ,we rememb] t ,h]b>t />t$ f ! same proposition4 ,h[ev]1 ,s*op5hau] dep>ts f ,kant's tea*+ 9 "o important respect3 al?\gh he agrees ) ,kant t ! ?+-9-itself _c be und]/ood by ideas or a *a9 ( reason+1 he holds t ! ?+-9-itself is kn[able4 ,! ,_w z ,idea is a _w ( appe>ances1 b we c "k ! ?+-9-itself by intuitionby 8! look ( g5ius40 ,! c]ta9ty ( ?is fir/-h& or imm$iate k %[s h[ poor our second-h& or m$iate k is4 ,= ev5 reason$ or m$iate k 9 its mo/ p]fect =m1 viz41 sci5ce1 is "u ! law ( cause & c !re=e reveal no?+ absolute4 ,sci5ce nev] gets bel[ ph5om5a4 ,if reason reveals only ! ,_w z ,idea1 :at revelation does intuition give ( ! ?+-9-itself8 ,intuition reveals ! ?+-9-itself to be ,w4 ,man f9ds1 fir/1 ! ,w to be 9 himself4 ,he f9ds x objectifi$ 9 8 own body & 9 its memb]s4 ,all ! memb]s ( ! body are /ructures ( "s function4 ,e "p is ! visible expression ( "s desire4 ,hung]1 spee*1 locomotion1 h _! diff]5t in/rum5ts4 ,w is imm$iately kn[n to u z ! reality 9 u4 ,9 spite ( ! exaltation ( ! reason by ! mod]n ,enlight5m5t1 is x n second>y to ,w8 ,= behold6 ,let me look beyond myself4 ,! revelation ( ! reality )9 myself illum9ates ! reality ( ! out] _w4 ,my ,w meets resi/ance 9 o!r ?+s4 ,! ev]la/+ /riv+ ( ! ,w appe>s 9 all nature4 ,x appe>s 9 ! fall ( a /one1 ! cry/alliz+ ( ! diamond9 all ! me*anical movem5ts ( matt]4 8,! impulse ) :i* wat]s hurry to ! ocean10 ! p]si/5ce ( ! magnet = ! pole1 ! p]5nial pu% ( vegetation1 ! motivation ( animals1 %[ by an analogy /rong] ?an any pro( t ! reality ( ! _w is fundam5tally ,w4 ,all nature is 9 reality ! 8,_w z ,w40 ,?is ,w is always "o & ! same4 ,only 9 ! 8,_w z ,idea0 d diff]5ces appe>4 ,w is common to all & is ! only reality4 ,diff]5ces are illusions1 & ! reason :i* exi/s only 9 man is "o ( ^? diff]5ces4 ,! ,_w z ,w & ! ,_w z ,idea d n /& 9 ! relation ( cause & effect1 b ! ,_w z ,idea is ! objectification ( ! ,_w z ,w4 ,w is to ph5om5a :at ess5ce is to expression4 ,w is ! fre$om t is )9 all ?+s2 & yet all ?+s are det]m9$ :5 !y h ! =m ( ideas4 ,!re is only "o ,w1 & s ! _w is 9 reality a unity4 ,9 ess5ce all ?+s are ! same9 appe>ance !y are diff]5t4 ,! ,w has no cont5t2 x wills to wto liveto be actual4 ,9 ! pan!ism ( ! ,w ! ,_w z ,idea is an illusion4 ,! ,w z ,irrational ,reality4 ,be=e ,s*op5hau]'s "t ,european my/icism _h be5 ( "o g5]al type4 ,h[ev] univ]sal ! "* ( illusory appe>ances _h be5 to ! ,european my/ics1 !re _h always be5 suppos$ beh9d ! veil a rational reality4 ,inde$1 ! illusions !mselves _h be5 pro( ( ! exi/5ce else:]e ( a gov]n+ reason4 ,! m$ival *ur*man (t5 prea*$ a my/icism1 & 8 exhortation to turn away f illusions ( 8! _w1 ! fle%1 & ! ,devil10 0 bas$ ^u ! comp5sation to be f\nd 9 ,heav5 & 9 ,god4 ,! ineffable re/ 9 ! bosom ( ,god 0 reason en\gh = av]t+ ! eyes f ! pass+ %[ ( s5su\s ?+s4 ,s*op5hau] n[ pres5ts to ! ,occid5t ano!r type ( my/icism1 & 9 ?is !re is no refuge f illusions4 ,?is conception _h long be5 common en\gh 9 ! ,ori5t4 ,! ,rubiyt ( ,om> ,khayym1 writt5 ab\t #aajj1 repres5ts fundam5tally ! attitude ( ! ,p]sians ( 8 "t4 8,he is said to h be5 especially hat$ by ! ,sufis1 ^: practice he ridicul$1 b ^: fai? am\nts to little m ?an 8 own :5 /ripp$ ( ! my/icism & =mal recognition ( ,islamism40 7,fitz,gerald47 ,b 9 ,europe ,s*op5hau]'s doctr9e 0 unique1 & he arriv$ at its con/ruction by /ripp+ my/icism ( all its religi\s elem5ts4 ,fai? & belief are elim9at$ because !y h no reality z _! object4 ,reason produces only a _w ( illusory ideas2 ! ,w is a reality1 b x is a reality :i* is only a bl9d urg5cyan in/9ctive bl9d =ce4 ,! ess5ce ( ?+s is undirect$ /riv+4 ,life is ! expression ( ! absolute unreason ( ! ,w4 ,x is a ,w )\t an object4 ,nature is ! objectification ( ! ,w t p]petually creates itself & is =ev] unsatisfi$1 unre/+1 & unhappy4 8,a ,mom5t's ,halta mom5t>y ta/e ,( ,be+ f ! ,well amid ! ,wa/e ,& ,lo6 ! phantom ,c>avan has rea*t ,! ,no?+ x set out f,oh1 make ha/e60#gb ,! ,mis]y ( ! ,_w z ,idea,pessimism4 ,! fundam5tal irrationality ( ! ,w reveals ! absolute mis]y ( ! ,_w z ,idea4 ,! despair ( pessimism foll[s f ! v nature ( ! ,w2 = x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,s*op5hau]'s pessimism does n m]ely mean t ! appe>ances ( life are illusory1 b t reality itself is irrational4 ,! ,_w z ,idea is ! objectification ( su* mis]y4 ,will+ has its s\rce 9 want1 & want arises f suff]+4 ,moreov] ! proportion ( our wants t are satisfi$ is v small4 ,to "o t is suppli$ !re are _m t are n4 ,fur!rmore1 :ile our desires la/ long1 _! satisfaction is %ort & scanty1 8l ! alms ?r[n to a begg> t keeps him alive to-day t 8 mis]y may be prolong$ to-morr[40 ,our ev]-spr++ wants make la/+ peace impossible4 ,! f9ite _w is n adequate to ! inf9ite crav+ :i* x conta9s1 & !re is no equation betwe5 ! c>es & ! satisfactions ( life4 ,! greate/ evil t c befall a creature is to h be5 born2 & ?is is a ?\s&-fold worse 9 man ?an 9 any o!r4 ,to live is to g f will+ to atta9+ & !n to will+ aga94 ,atta9m5t means new /riv+1 & ! ,w %[s 8! a*e ( ! n-yet-satisfi$40 ,aft] all is said & done1 satisfaction de/roys n only ! desire1 b ! satisfaction itself4 ,!re is no mean+ 9 life4 ,pa9 is positive2 pleasure is negative1 & is m]ely ! abs5ce ( or respite f pa94 ,! ,way ( ,deliv]ance4 ,! relief f mis]y t ,s*op5hau] (f]s is t+$ ) ! grim despair ( life itself4 ,x is an escape t he f9ds1 r ?an a hav5an escape t consi/s 9 giv+ up all t life means4 ,:y n1 !n1 give up life1 s9ce x is mis]y & torm5t8 ,b escape is n 9 suicide1 = ! act ( tak+ "o's own life is ! p]=mance ( ! greate/ act ( affirmation ( ! ,w2 & 9 ! ,buddhi/ic doctr9e ! suicidal s\l only passes by re-bir? 7metempsy*osis7 into ano!r =m ( ,w4 ,s*op5hau] uses two phrases t h become classic 9 ! description ( ! two attitudes possible to man3 7#a7 if man is m]ely a "p ( ! ,_w z ,idea he is 8affirm+ ! ,w to life02 & 7#b7 if he seeks a way ( deliv]ance he 8is d5y+ ! ,w to life40 ,suicide is an act ( affirmation ( ! ,w to life4 ,h[ may ! ,w be d5i$8 & s9ce we are 9 ess5ce ,w1 ! "q takes ?is =m1 ,h[ may ! ,w d5y ! ,w8 ,?is "q presupposes a transc5d5tal fre$om :i* may be s\ght 9 two ways3 "o 9 :i* ! fre$om is tempor>y & ! o!r 9 :i* x is p]man5t4 #a4 ,! tempor>y deliv]ance ( ! ,w may be f\nd 9 arti/ic contemplation 7,s*ill]'s dis9t]e/$ contemplation74 ,art deals n ) p>ticul> =ms1 b et]nal types 7,platonic ,ideas74 ,art isolates an et]nal object f out ! /ream ( ! _w's *anges1 & places x beyond all relations ( "t1 place1 & cause4 ,art n only removes its object f ! ,_w z ,idea1 b x removes ! contemplator z well4 ,! contemplat+ subject & ! contemplat$ object ?us become "o1 & ! subject is tempor>ily sav$1 = he is elevat$ above all desire & pa94 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is possible n to ! majority ( m51 b only to ^? few possess+ /hetic fancy1 & = !m only at int]vals4 ,music is rank$ by ,s*op5hau] z ! highe/ =m ( art1ev5 above poetry1& x is n surpris+ !re=e t among ! ,s*op5hau]ian wor%ip]s h be5 _m prom95t musicians4 #b4 ,b arti/ic ec/asy is too fleet+ & re/rict$ to (f] la/+ deliv]ance f ! affirmation ( ! ,w to life & ! ,_w z ,idea4 ,ano!r act ( transc5d5tal fre$om w br+ man into m complete fre$om2 b ?is act is a miracle & a my/]y1 s9ce x is ! complete trans=mation ( our nature4 ,?is act mu/ be sup]natural1 & ! *ur* is "r 9 call+ x a new bir? & a "w ( grace4 ,complete fre$om f ! ,w comes ?r\gh moral deliv]ance4 ,?is la/+ escape f ! ,w is op5 to ! man :o appreciates two facts3 t all /riv+ = happ9ess is va92 & t all m5 are alike manife/ations ( ! ,w4 ,to take ?is d\ble view ( life involves ! feel+ ( sympa?y ) o!rs 9 _! mis]y4 ,sympa?y is ?us ! only true moral motive & ! fundam5tal e?ical feel+4 ,! ,w 9 u is moral if we feel ano!r's hurt z our own4 ,b sympa?y is only a palliative1 & x does n remove ! cause ( disease4 ,! mis]y /ill exi/s1 & our sympa?y has only *ang$ its =m4 ,ev5 ?\gh our sympa?y goes out to ! :ole _w1 ! endless trag$y w\ld /ill pass on4 ,9 ! moral deliv]ance sympa?y c be made complete by absolute d5ial1 & ?is w come by asceticism1 mortification1 & complete eradication ( want & desire4 ,! ,h9du sannyasi %[s ! way4 ,?is is ! my/]y ( ! ,w4 ,b ,s*op5hau] is n q sure t extreme asceticism c be made effective1 s9ce we are full ( ,w4 ,at ! close ( 8 "w he says t ev5 if we c\ld be completely ascetic ! result w\ld be ,no?+ness4 8,9 ?y ,no?+ ,i hope to f9d ! ,,all40 ,s*op5hau] despairs ( deliv]ance = himself1 b does n c\nt x una*ievable by o!rs4 ,absolute deliv]ance ev5 by asceticism seems impossible to him4 ,! only hope is t ?r\gh art & sci5ce ! ,w may be "s "t ov]come4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury#gc ,! ,return to ,realism4 ,if ! hi/ory ( mank9d _h t]m9at$ ) ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! la/ t5d5cy ( ?\ght to be record$ w\ld h be5 ! return to ,realism4 ,! abbreviat$ acc\nt :i* foll[s ( ! philosophy ( ! n9ete5? c5tury w expla9 & illu/rate ?is t5d5cy4 ,be=e we set ?is =?1 h[ev]1 x may be well to def9e aga9 ! nature ( ,realism4 ,:at is ,realism8 ,9 g5]al x is ! belief t reality or realities exi/ q indep5d5t ( anybody's kn[+ !m4 ,moreov]1 ,realism has ! di/9ction ( be+ "o ( ! f\r great types ( metaphysical ?\ght4 ,^! types are ,realism1 ,my/icism1 ,critical-rationalism1 & ,idealism4#gd ,9 o!r words1 ,realism is an attitude ( m9d possible to a :ole civilization4 ,?is is :at is meant by a great philosophical type4 ,! ,idealism ( ! p]iod :i* we h j /udi$ is su* a type4 ,al?\gh ,g]many _h be5 ! lead+ repres5tative ( ,idealism1 ! spread ( philosophical & lit]>y ,idealism _h be5 _w-wide4 ,all nations _h %>$ 9 x4 ,b :5 ! great ev5ts & ! romanc+ _s ( t p]iod _h pass$1 ! reaction to ,realism 0 likewise felt ! _w ov]4 ,x is ! p]iod ( ?is reaction t we are briefly to consid]4 ,! ,"* ( ! ,realism ( ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury4 ,we h already discuss$ ! nature ( ! ,realism ( anci5t civilization z x appe>$ 9 ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas2 & we also h review$ ! v>iation ( ,plato's doctr9e 9 m$ival times4 ,bo? anci5t & m$ival societies give expression ?r\gh ,plato to ,reali/ic conceptionsanci5t society to an /hetic ,realism1 m$ival to an ecclesia/ical ,realism4 ,n[ 9 ! mod]n p]iod we f9d a /ill diff]5t k9d4 ,! ,realism ( ! n9ete5? c5tury has be5 t ( natural sci5ce4 ,! "q ( ! n9ete5? c5tury has be51 ,:at degree ( importance has ! sci5tific conception ( ph5om5a 9 our total conception ( life8 ,g]man ,idealism _h tak5 up ! natural sci5ce ( ! ,r5aissance & ! ,enlight5m5t1 & _h made x a "p ( a _w conceiv$ z cosmic ,reason4 ,b 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ! conception ( ! cosmic ,reason & t ( nature "p company4 ,! two conceptions beg9 to /& 9 anti!sis4 ,nature is conceiv$ z a reality exi/+ 9 sublime indep5d5ce4 ,democritus w9s 8 victory ov] ,sp9oza4 ,!re are two reasons = ?is3 7#a7 ,! ideas ( sci5ce are express$ ) a cle>ness & di/9ctness t is 9 m>k$ contra/ ) ! ideas ( ,g]man romanticism4 ,natural sci5ce is =mulat$ ma!matically & demon/rat$ 9 exp]i5ce1 & natural sci5ce moreov] does n require ! labor ( int]pretation4 7#b7 ,natural sci5ce proves its usefulness1 !reby respond+ to ! imp]ative ne$s ( ! economic *anges ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,9 ?is mod]n p]iod ! att5tion ( man has be5 rivet$ ^u 8 environm5t4 ,if at any "t ! man ( ! n9ete5? c5tury has seem$ to be int]e/$ 9 man1 ! int]e/ has really be5 9 man's relation to 8 environm5t4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury has *ampion$ ! necess>y laws & me*anical /ructure ( ! out] _w aga9/ man himself4 ,! univ]se has be5 en?ron$2 man has become its s]f4 ,human ef=t has become slave to its own progress4 ,"w has be5 apo!osiz$"w 9 ! out] _w1 "w ) ! h&s4 ,inv5tions 9 mat]ial ?+s h multipli$4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury has be5 ! p]iod ( /eam1 ( electricity1 ( ma*9]y1 ( factories1 ( ! enorm\s increase 9 ! numb] & size ( cities1 ( ! m9ute division ( labor4 ,social & economic r ?an metaphysical problems h comm&$ att5tion4 ,n ano!r & ideal _w1 b ?is pres5t _w1 is ! "o 9 :i* ! mod]n man has liv$4 ,! sci5ces h be5 specializ$ & man has become practical4 ,hegel w\ld h said ( our "t t ! cosmic ,reason _h be5 s engag$ 9 concrete & ext]nal realities1 t x _h _h no "t to turn )9 & scrut9ize itself4 ,if "o wi%es to turn back ! leaves ( hi/ory = c5turies simil> to ! n9ete5? 9 _! _s1 "o w f9d !m 9 ! ?ird & second c5turies ,b4 ,c4 & ! f\rte5? & fifte5? ( ! pres5t era4 ,nev]!less1 !re is ?is to be said ab\t mod]n ,realism 9 comp>ison ) ! ,realism ( prec$+ p]iods! prec$+ ,realism _h be5 critical1 negative 9 its practical results1 & usually an opposition to tradition or a reaction f x2 mod]n ,realism has be5 di/+ui%$ by its positive practical results1 its ambition = supremacy1 & its %ap+ ( ! :ole direction ( ! life ( man4 ,x has assum$ control ( religion1 art1 & social morality1 to ! end ( ! well-be+ ( ! :ole4 ,mod]n ,philosophy & ,g]man ,idealism4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury has be5 rem>kable 9 ! ext5t ( its hi/orical1 lit]>y1 & sci5tific productions4 ,x has be5 poor 9 its philosophical ideas1 :5 we comp>e x ) ! prec$+ romantic movem5t ( ! ,g]man ,ideali/s4 ,to be sure1 !re has be5 mu* philosophical lit]ature ) a great v>iety ( doctr9e1 b ! _m p]sonally impressive /ructures h on ! :ole be5 only ! re-%ap+ ( =m] ?\ght4 ,x has sometimes seem$ z if "s ( ! philosophic doctr9es ( ?is "t 7 ab\t to take orig9al %ape2 b none h ev] rea*$ x1 ) ! possible exception ( ! doctr9e ( hi/orical evolution4 ,! explanation ( ! uncreative "* ( mod]n ?\ght is f\nd 9 its relation to ! ,idealism :i* prec$$ x4 ,! ,g]man ,ideali/s _h conqu]$ ! _w ( ! _s1 b 9 spite ( all _! ef=ts ! realm ( empirical facts rema9$ /ubborn to all _! romanc+4 ,ev5 ,hegel1 ! greate/ among !m1 _h n succe$$ 9 completely p5etrat+ hi/ory by 8 dialectic law4 ,already 9 ! eighte5? c5tury a ,reali/ic movem5t _h be5 /irr+ 9 ,engl& & ,france1 & _h made notable a*ievem5ts4 ,s ! ,ideali/s turn$ to ! /udy ( ! facts ( lifep>tly 9 ord] to subord9ate !m to _! ,idealism1 p>tly because a great int]e/ _h appe>$ 9 ! /udy ( ! records ( ! pa/4 ,! orig9 & hi/ory ( religions1 ( law1 ( languages1 ( art1 ( in/itutions =m$ topics ( /udy )9 ! ,romantic circle4 ,a rem>kable li/ ( books 0 publi%$ by ! ,romantici/s on ^! subjects betwe5 ! date ( ! battle ( ,wat]loo 7#ahae7 & t ( ! dea? ( ,hegel 7#ahca74 ,aft] ,hegel di$ no adequate successors 9 speculative p[] came to take ! place ( ! old ,ideali/ic lead]s1 b ! int]e/ 9 empirical sci5ce 0 borne on by _m m5 ( g5ius4 ,! /udy ( empirical ph5om5a 0 ext5d$ to all bran*es2 biology & geology1 :i* 7 late 9 be+ /udi$ hi/orically1 began to occupy ! c5tre ( ! /age4 ,9 spite ( ! fact t ! ne>ness ( mod]n philosophical !ories bl9ds u to _! true p]spective1 yet ev5 n[ we c see t 9 comp>ison ) ! ,g]man ,idealism ! philosophical doctr9es ( ! n9ete5? c5tury are p>tial 9 _! survey ( ! field4 ,! :ole problem ( life 0 be=e ! eyes ( ! ,ideali/s2 ! mod]n _w ab\t #ahca %ift$ its att5tion to a critical scrut9y ( only "o "p ( t problem4 ,! philosophical problem to ! ,ideali/s 0 ! problem ( ! cosmos2 ! philosophical problem to ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 conc]n$ only ) a rexam9ation ( ! environm5t ( man4 ,! ,philosophical ,problems ( ! ,n9ete5? ,c5tury4 ,9 summ>iz+ :at we h above said1 we h be=e u a situation some?+ z foll[s4 ,idealism _h run its c\rse z a social attitude ( m9d1 & ab\t #ahca ! lead]s ( ,idealism _h di$ ) no "o to fill _! places4 ,b )9 ,idealism betwe5 #ahae & #ahca !re _h aris5 a great empirical int]e/ 9 ! orig9s ( hi/ory1 law1 philology1 etc4 ,side by side ) ?is empirical int]e/ !re _h come c]ta9 economic conditions t _h call$ =? & rew>d$ g5ius 9 natural sci5ce4 ,?us we f9d ev5 be=e ! f\r? decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury two /rong t5d5cies3 7#a7 a new conception ( ! mean+ ( hi/ory z an evolution f orig9s2 & 7#b7 a rem>kable int]e/ 9 ! natural sci5ces4 ,! two t5d5cies modifi$ ea* o!r4 ,! hi/orical view ( ! _w ex]cis$ a p[]ful influ5ce ^u natural sci5ce2 natural sci5ce _h to be reckon$ ) 9 ! writ+ ( hi/ory4 ,hi/ory & natural sci5ce 7 drawn toge!r1 b )\t produc+ a new philosophical conception t w\ld include !m bo?4 ,f ! int]action ( ^! two p[]ful t5d5cies ! great v>iety ( philosophical int]e/s 7 gr\p$ ar\nd two g5]al problems4 ,^! 7 7#a7 ,! problem ( ! function+ ( ! s\l2 7#b7 ,! problem ( ! conception ( hi/ory4 #a4 ,! ,problem ( ! ,function+ ( ! ,s\l4 ,) ! decl9e ( metaphysics & ! reaction f speculation1 psy*ology began to loos5 f its an*orage 9 philosophy4 ,psy*ology1 :i* _h be5 a /udy ( m9d1 n[ became ! /udy ( ! relation ( m9d & body4 ,! t5d5cy 0 /rong to make psy*ology an empirical sci5ce1 & by ! use ( ! me?ods ( sci5ce to become a "p ( physiology & biology4 ,philosophy has be5 a ne/ 9 :i* all ! sci5ces h be5 brood$4 ,psy*ology has be5 ! la/ to attempt to leave ! ne/1 & to-day 9 "s ( our l>ge univ]sities x is cord9at$ 9 ! curriculum ) ! natural sci5ces4 ,depriv$ ( a basis 9 philosophy1 psy*ology turn$ to natural sci5ce = support4 ,conc]n+ ! relation ( ! s\l to ! body _m solutions h be5 (f]$4 ,foll[+ ! ,s5sationali/1 ,cabanis1 :o di$ 9 #ahjh1 "s ( ! ,fr5* ,ideologi/s1 s-call$1 conclud$ t ! s\l is ev]y:]e det]m9$ by physical influ5ces1 su* z age1 sex1 temp]am5t1 climate1 etc42 "s said t ! m9d is a result ( bra9 activity2 "s develop$ ! conception ( phr5ology1 accord+ to :i* ! %ape ( ! skull det]m9es ! faculties ( ! m9d4 ,! ,fr5* ,ideologi/s diff]$ widely 9 _! int]pretations1 b on ! :ole ! basis ( ! movem5t 0 mat]ialism4 ,! hypo!sis ( phr5ology ar\s$ great int]e/ 9 ,engl&1 b ,john ,/u>t ,mill l$ ! movem5t back to ,hume's associational psy*ology4 ,he conceiv$ ! psy*ical & ! physical /ates z two sep>ate realms1 & he conclud$ t psy*ology z ! /udy ( ! laws ( m5tal /ates _c r$uce m5tal /ates to physical4 ,s ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,kant1 *ampion$ ! life ( inn] exp]i5ce4 ,( c\rse ! mat]iali/ic *all5ge ( ! s\l ar\s$ great heat 9 !ological circles4 ,! p]sonality ( ,god & ! nature ( ! s\l became burn+ que/ions1 & l$ to ! dissolution ( ! ,hegelian s*ool into 8! "r w+0 & 8! left w+40 ,hegel _h always ma9ta9$ 8 /&+ 9 or?odox circles z ! ,prussian 8,/ate philosoph]40 ,^? foll[]s :o compos$ ! 8"r w+0 tri$ to int]pret 8 doctr9e 9 accordance ) ! traditional !ological conception ( ! s\l2 ! 8left w+0 int]pret$ ,hegel z a pan!i/1 9 ^: doctr9e ! s\l c\ld n be consid]$ z a sub/ance ) immortality4 ,feu]ba* foll[$ ?is by inv]t+ ,hegelianism into a nom9ali/ic mat]ialism1 & conceiv$ ! s\l z nature 89 its o!rness40 ,9 #ahed1 at a conv5tion ( naturali/s 9 ,g]many1 ! mat]iali/ic conception ( ! s\l 0 f\nd to be widely spread among ! ,g]man physicians & naturali/s4 ,b ! contradiction betwe5 ! inf]5ces ( sci5ce & 8! ne$s ( ! he>t0 became a subject ( controv]sy1 & 9 #ahfj1 "u ! lead]%ip ( ,kuno ,fis*]1 ! 8return to ,kant0 0 begun1 :i* la/$ ?r\gh\t ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,!re are two names t /& out mo/ prom95tly 9 relation to ?is controv]sy ov] ! nature ( ! s\l3 !y are ^? ( ,lotze 7#ahag-ahha7 & ,fe*n] 7#ahja-ahhg74 ,!y are names t 7 conjur$ ) by ! g5]ation ( ,am]ican s*ol>s be=e ! pres5t4 ,lotze reg>d$ ! me*anical necessity ( nature z ! =m 9 :i* ! impulsive m5tal life ( man realizes its purposes4 ,e s\l !re=e has a life t consi/s ess5tially 9 purposeful relations ) o!r s\ls4 ,& ?is is possible only if ! lives ( m5 are "u an all-embrac+ ,provid5ce4 ,fe*n] *ose ano!r way to escape f ! mat]iali/ic t5d5cy4 ,he reg>d$ ! s\l & body z sep>ate & qualitatively diff]5t1 al?\gh exactly correspond+1 manife/ations ( "o unkn[n reality4 ,!re is a p>allelism betwe5 ! m5tal & ! physical1 9 :i* ! m5tal ph5om5a are kn[n only to ! individual p]ceiv+ !m4 ,z s5sations are ! surface waves ( a total individual consci\sness1 s ! consci\snesses ( human be+s are ! surface waves ( a univ]sal consci\sness4 ,! me*anical activity ( nature corresponds to ! consci\sness ( ,god4 ,we c inve/igate ?is correspond5ce by /udy+ ! correspond5ce betwe5 our own m5tal /ates & physical /ates4 ,?is is ! mod]n well-kn[n psy*ological me?od ( psy*o-physics4 ,we c measure psy*ical quantities by =mulat+ ma!matical laws ( _! occurr5ce4 ,our pres5t psy*ology has se5 a developm5t f all ^! e>li] explanations2 b ?is is a matt] ( contempor>y writ+ & n ( hi/ory4 #b4 ,! ,problem ( ! ,conception ( ,hi/ory4 ,! contra/ 9 ! ,kantian tea*+ betwe5 nature & m9d became an antagonism 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,:5 psy*ology 0 no long] a purely m5tal sci5ce1 social life 9 its hi/orical developm5t at fir/ )/ood ! vigor\s m>* ( ! natural sci5ce ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,b ! inroads ( sci5ce 9 psy*ology 7 duplicat$ 9 ! field ( sociology1 & ?us ! problem ( society 0 only ! problem ( ! s\l on a l>g] scale4 ,! fir/ =m t ?is problem took arose f ! opposition 9 ,france betwe5 ! traditional conception ( society & t ( ! philosophy ( ! ,revolution4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury ,fr5* philosophy has1 h[ev]1 a religi\s color+ t diff]5tiates x f t ( ! ,revolution4 ,augu/e ,comte#ge 7#agih-aheg7 /&s z ! *ief repres5tative ( ?is sci5tific r$uction ( society4 ,he pu%$ ! doctr9es ( ,hume & ,condillac to _! extreme 9 8 positivi/ sy/em ( social sci5ce4 ,he ma9ta9$ t human k _h z its objects ph5om5a 9 _! reciprocal relations1 b t !re is no?+ absolute at ! basis ( ^! ph5om5a4 ,! only absolute pr9ciple is1 ,all is relative4 ,!re is a hi]>*y ( sci5ces 9 :i* sociology is highe/4 ,sociology includes all ! prec$+ sci5ces1 & yet x is ! orig9al fact4 ,! fir/ social ph5om5on is ! family4 ,! /ages ( ! developm5t ( society are 7#a7 !ological1 7#b7 metaphysical1 & 7#c7 positivi/ic or sci5tific4 ,all m5tal life 9 detail1 & human hi/ory z a :ole1 are subject to ^! /ages ( gr[?4 ,9 ! positivi/ic /age mank9d w be ! object ( religi\s v5]ation1 & ! lives ( great m5 w be ju/ifi$ because !y h rais$ ! lives ( common m54 ,! democracy to :i* ,comte looks is "o rul$ by great m9ds1 & is n a socialism4 ,9 contra/ to ,comte's !ory is t ( ,buckle1 :o w\ld /udy hi/ory by discov]+ ! me*anical laws gov]n+ society4 ,:ile human hi/ory 0 ?us be+ invad$ by natural sci5ce & _h to def5d its autonomy aga9/ ! naturali/ic pr9ciple ( sci5ce1 natural sci5ce on ! o!r h& 0 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury invad$ by ! hi/orical pr9ciple ( evolution4 ,natural sci5ce becomes a hi/ory4 ,we h se5 t 9 ! ,romantic circle !re 0 great int]e/ 9 ! orig9 & developm5t ( law1 philology1 art1 etc4 ,9 ! beg9n+ & middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ?is int]e/ spread to an inve/igation ( ! orig9 ( animal life4 ,?is inve/igation has be5 ! mo/ notable 9 ?is c5tury1 because 7#a7 x includ$ 9 its scope ! s\rce & means ( progress ( ! human race2 & because 7#b7 x advanc$ a new conception ( developm5t4 ,developm5t n[ becomes evolution4 ,up to ! n9ete5? c5tury ! _w 0 look$ ^u z a grad$ s]ies ( types1 b no type 0 suppos$ to evolve into ano!r4 7,see vol4 i1 pp4 #ahj1 #aic2 vol4 ii1 p4 #cjf47 ,! !ory ( hi/orical evolution ( ! n9ete5? c5tury is notable because x advanc$ ! conception1 bas$ ^u empirical inve/igation1 t types are *ang$ into o!rs4 ,?is !ory1 among ^? ( ! c5tury1 comes ! ne>e/ to an orig9al philosophical doctr9e4 ,! book t became ! c5tre ( sci5tific int]e/ = _m ye>s 0 ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species1 publi%$ 9 #ahei4 ,! "n mo/ prom95tly l9k$ ) t ( ,d>w9 is t ( ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 :o attempt$ to make univ]sal ! pr9ciple ( developm5t & to =mulate its law4 ,! mod]n !ory ( ! hi/orical evolution ( animal life has re9=c$ ! me*anical pr9ciple ( nature1 :i* _h its orig9 9 ! m9ds ( ! philosoph]s ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,x has antagoniz$ ! !ological doctr9e ( creation2 x has relat$ ! animal & man by fill+ 9 ! supposably impassable gulf betwe5 !m2 x has advanc$ ! doctr9e ( *emical syn!sis aga9/ ! hylozoi/ic notion ( a vital pr9ciple2 x has pu%$ =w>d ) great assurance its !ories ( trans=mation & equival5ce ( =ces1 & ( ! action ( electricity z a sub/itute = ?\ght-activity2 x has %[n a wond]ful p>simony 9 giv+ a value to all ! facts ( hi/ory :i* _h hi!rto be5 conceiv$ z trivial2 & on ! o!r h& x has r$uc$ ! conception ( mighty cosmic cataclysms to a geological s]ies ( gradual gradations4 ,d>w9's place 9 ?is movem5t ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 ?is3 he tri$ to %[ t animal life c be expla9$ )\t ! aid ( f9al causes4 ,9 o!r words1 ! adaptation ( ! /ructure ( animals c be acc\nt$ = me*anically4 ,! factors involv$ 9 ! developm5t ( organic life ^u ! e>? 71 accord+ to ,d>w91 inf9ite diff]5tiation1 adaptation1 natural selection1 & ! survival ( ! fitte/4 ,n[ at ! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury !re seems to be a reaction f ! sci5tific positivism ( ! la/ c5tury4 ,?is has tak5 ! =m ( an extravagant my/icism1 al?\gh at he>t x is an optimism & an idealism4 ,,index ,abbott1 ,e4 ,a41 ,francis ,bacon1 #dj n4 ,absolute ,reality1 ( ,hegel1 #cad1 #caf1 #cba1 #cbc-cbf1 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,see ,reality4 ,absolutism1 _s (1 9 ,g]many1 f #afdh to #agdj1 #bag-bbc2 9 ,france1 #bag1 #bbe2 de/roy$ by ,fr$]ick ! ,great & ,less+1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bbi4 /hetic ,idealism1 ( ,s*ell+1 #cjb1 #cjd1 #cjg4 ,agno/icism1 ( ,hume1 #ahh4 ,al*emi/s1 !1 #be4 ,alemb]t1 ,jean le ,rond d'1 #baa4 ,al?usius1 ,johannes1 #dg4 ,am]ica1 discov]y (1 #f4 ,anacreontici/s1 !1 #bbd4 ,analysis4 ,see ,induction4 ,analytic judgm5ts1 ( ,kant1 #bdi-beb4 ,ant9omies1 ( ,kant1 #bfd1 #bfe4 ,anti!sis1 ( ,fi*te1 #bie2 ( ,hegel1 #cbg4 ,a po/]iori1 judgm5ts1 ( ,kant1 #bej-beb2 mat]ial1 ! p]ceptions1 #beg2 pr9ciple1 9 e?ics1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,a priori1 judgm5ts1 ( ,kant1 #bej-beb2 pr9ciples1 categories1 #beg1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,ar*u1 !1 ( ,p>acelsus1 #bf1 #bg4 ,ari/otle1 repres5t$ by two antagoni/ic s*ools 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #aa4 ,art1 9 ,s*ell+'s philosophy1 #cjh2 & 9 ,s*op5hau]'s philosophy1 #cei4 ,association ( ,ideas1 accord+ to ,hume1 #aia-aic2 by law ( contiguity1 #aib-aid2 by law ( resemblance1 #aib-aif2 by law ( causation1 #aib1 #aic1 #aif-aii4 ,associational ,psy*ology1 ,hobbes ! fa!r (1 #ef4 ,associationali/ ,psy*ologi/s1 #ada4 ,a/ronom]s1 ma!matical1 #cb-cf4 ,a!i/ic controv]sy1 ( ,fi*te1 #bhb1 #bhd4 ,atoms1 sci5tific conception (1 exam9$ by ,leibnitz1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba4 ,attributes1 accord+ to ,sp9oza1 #ie1 #if4 ,see ,qualities4 ,au]ba*1 ,b]?old1 ,sp9oza1 #hh n4 ,autobiographies1 _m ( !m writt5 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 #acg4 ,bacon1 ,francis1 #ca1 #ce2 life (1 #ci2 position (1 9 philosophy1 #ci-db2 8 ,new ,atlantis1 #dj-db2 ! aim (1 #db1 #dc2 8 me?od1 #dc-df2 comp>$ ) ,hobbes1 #dh2 seems to /& ap>t1 #adf4 ,baldw91 ,j4 ,m41 ,fragm5ts 9 ,philosophy1 #hd n4 ,ball1 ,w4 ,w4 ,r41 ,hi/ory ( ,ma!matics1 #cf n41 #dj n4 ,bayle1 ,pi]re1 #bjc4 ,beauty1 9 ,s*ell+'s philosophy1 #cjg4 ,be]s1 ,h4 ,a41 ,hi/ory ( ,romanticism 9 ,eighte5? ,c5tury1 #bie n42 ,hi/ory ( ,romanticism 9 ,n9ete5? ,c5tury1 #bie n4 ,b]keley1 ,george1 life & writ+s (1 #afi-agb2 ! influ5ces ^u 8 ?\ght1 #agb2 ! purpose (1 #agc1 #agd2 g5]al relation (1 to ,locke & ,hume1 #agd1 #age2 8 po9ts ( agreem5t ) ,locke1 #age1 #agf2 ! negative side ( 8 philosophy1 #agf-agi2 d5ies exi/5ce ( ab/ract ideas1 #agg-agi2 ! positive side ( 8 philosophy1 #agi-ahc2 & ,hume1 comp>$1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,blackwood ,classics1 ,desc>tes1 #gj n41 #gc n4 ,bod91 ,jean1 #dg4 ,body1 relation ( m9d &1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gh-hj2 9 ,leibnitz's philosophy1 #abf4 ,bohn's ,libr>ies1 ,sp9oza1 #ij n4 ,brahe1 ,ty*o1 #cb1 #cc4 ,br[n1 ,?omas1 #bjb4 ,br[n+1 ,rob]t1 ,p>acelsus1 #be1 #bf n4 ,bruno1 ,giordano1 #be1 #bg-cj1 #cb1 #cc4 ,buckle1 ,h4 ,t41 #cfb4 ,buffon1 ,g4 ,l4 ,l4 de1 #baa4 ,butl]1 ,joseph1 8 ,analogy ( ,religion1 #aff4 ,byron1 ,g4 ,g41 ,"l1 on ,b]keley1 #ahb4 ,caird1 ,e41 ,philosophy ( ,kant1 #bcf n4 ,calk9s1 ,m4 ,w41 ,p]si/5t ,problems 9 ,philosophy1 iv1 #ff n41 #gc n41 #aaj n4 ,cambridge ,s*ool1 !1 #fa4 ,campanella1 ,tommaso1 8 ,/ate ( ! ,sun1 #da n4 ,c>tesian argum5t1 !1 #gd1 #ge4 ,categorical imp]ative1 !1 ( ,kant1 #bgc4 ,categories1 ,ari/otelian & ,kantian1 #bef1 #beg2 ( ,hegel1 #cbc1 #cbg4 ,causation1 association (1 #aib1 #aic1 #aif-aii4 ,*ubb1 ,?omas1 #afe4 ,*ur*1 m$ival1 #ad2 attitude (1 t[>d sci5ce1 9 ! p]iod ( ! ,r5aissance1 #ai-ba1 #fb-fe2 accord+ to ,hobbes1 #fj4 ,civilization1 ( ! ,middle ,ages1 causes ( ! decay (1 #d-g2 mod]n1 is subjective1 #ae4 ,classicism1 ,g]man1 #bbd1 #bif4 ,col]idge1 ,s4 ,t41 & ,sp9oza1 #he4 ,collegiants1 !1 ,sp9oza's acqua9tance )1 #hg-hi4 ,coll9s1 ,an?ony1 #afe4 ,columbus1 ,*ri/oph]1 discov]s ,am]ica1 #f4 ,comte1 ,augu/e1 quot$ on ! ,encyclopdia1 #baa2 8 philosophy1 #cfj4 ,concomitant v>iations1 ! "n1 #ch n4 ,condillac1 ,e4 ,b4 de1 #bab4 ,consci\sness1 ultimate c]ta9ty (1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gj-gb2 implications (1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gb1 #gc2 9 ,fi*te's philosophy1 #bhf-bhh1 #bic2 9 ,s*ell+'s philosophy1 #cji2 9 ,hegel's philosophy1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbf1 #cbg2 9 ,h]b>t's philosophy1 #ccf1 #cch2 9 ,fe*n]'s philosophy1 #cei4 ,con/ant9ople1 fall (1 #f4 ,con/itutionali/s & ,political ,economi/s1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #adb4 ,contiguity1 association (1 #aib-aid4 ,cont9uity1 law (1 #abi4 ,contradictions1 ! _w a _w (1 accord+ to ,hegel1 #cba1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #cce2 ( exp]i5ce1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccd1 #cce4 ,cop]nicus1 ,nikolaus1 #g1 #cb-cd4 ,cosmic1 unity1 ( ,hegel1 #cbb-cbf2 law1 ( ,hegel1 #cbf-cbh4 ,c\nt]-,revolution1 !1 #ag4 ,criticism1 ! ,enlight5m5t a p]iod (1 #ach2 ,kant's me?od (1 #bci4 ,cusanus1 ,nicolas 7,nicolas ( ,cusa71 #bc-be4 ,d>w91 ,*>les ,rob]t1 8 ,orig9 ( ,species =mulat$ mo/ fully ! ,evolution movem5t1 #c1 #cfb4 ,dec5tralization ( ,europe & ( philosophy1 iv1 #ab1 #ac4 ,d$uction1 9 ! ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod1 #ai1 #ba1 #ce2 def9$1 #ce n42 use (1 accord+ to ,galileo1 #cg2 accord+ to ,bacon1 #dj1 #df2 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc2 use made (1 by ! foll[]s ( ,desc>tes1 #ha4 ,de$-act1 ( ,fi*te1 #bic4 ,deism1 & ,hume1 #bjj2 ( ,voltaire1 #baj4 ,dei/s1 ! ,engli%1 #ada1 #afd-aff2 ! ,g]man1 #adb4 ,desc>tes1 ,r51 #ca1 #ce2 comp>$ ) ,hobbes1 #dh1 #di2 ! m5tal conflict 91 #fe1 #ff2 life & philosophical writ+s (1 #ff1 #fg2 ! two conflict+ influ5ces ^u ! ?\ght (1 #fg-fi2 ! me?od (1 #fi1 #gj2 ! great contribution (1 an absolute pr9ciple1 #gj2 induction1 provisional d\bt1 ultimate c]ta9ty ( consci\sness1 accord+ to1 #gj-gb2 d$uction1 implications ( consci\sness1 accord+ to1 #gj1 #gb1 #gc2 8 pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 #gc-ge2 ! reality ( matt]1 accord+ to1 #ge-gg2 8 view ( ! relation ( ,god to ! _w1 #gg2 ( ,god to matt]1 #gg1 #gh2 ( ,god to m9ds1 #gh2 ( m9d & body1 #gh-hj2 influ5ce (1 #hj1 #ha2 relation ( ! ,occasionali/s & ,sp9oza to1 #ha-hd2 8 influ5ce on ,sp9oza1 #hg2 8 influ5ce on ,locke1 #ade1 #adf1 #aeb4 ,det]m9ism1 #ec4 ,dew+1 ,a4 ,s41 ,introduction to ,mod]n ,philosophy1 iv1 #h n41 #ccb n4 ,did]ot1 ,d5is1 #baa4 ,diff]5tial calculus1 discov]$ by ,leibnitz1 #aab1 #aad1 #aai4 ,discov]ies4 ,see ,inv5tions4 ,dogmatism1 def9$1 #ahg4 ,d\bt1 provisional1 ( ,desc>tes1 #gj-gb4 ,dualism1 ,c>tesian1 ( m9d & matt]1 assum$ 9 ! 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,enlight5m5t1 #adb4 ,individual1 indep5d5ce ( !1 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 #acd4 ,individualism1 movem5t t[>d1 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #ab1 #ae2 mod]n1 ! rise (1 #acb-acd2 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 its expression 9 ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,g]many1 #adj2 9 ,france1 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 #bjg-bji2 9 ,g]many1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbc1 #bbe-bbi2 ( ! ,romantic movem5t1 #bif4 ,induction1 9 ! ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod1 #ai1 #ba1 #ce2 def9$1 #ce n42 use (1 accord+ to ,galileo1 #cg2 accord+ to ,bacon1 #dj1 #df2 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gj-gb4 ,inf9ity1 ,sp9oza's idea (1 #id1 #ie1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,innate ,ideas1 ( ,desc>tes1 #gc1 #aef2 ( ,sp9oza1 #aef2 exi/5ce (1 d5i$ by ,locke1 #aef1 #aeg1 #ahi2 ( ,leibnitz1 #aeg4 ,intellectual ,enlight5m5t1 9 ,france1 #bjg-bab4 ,inv5tions1 ( ! ,middle ,ages1 #f1 #i2 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 #ced4 ,italian nature philosoph]s1 #bb4 ,italy1 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #aj1 #ab1 #af1 #ag1 #ba1 #ca4 ,james1 ,william1 ,hibb]t ,j\rnal1 #cae n42 ,pragmatism1 #ceb n4 ,j5a1 #bcc1 #bhd1 #cjb1 #cjg4 ,jewi% ,cabala1 !1 #aa4 ,johnson1 ,samuel1 presid5t ( ,k+'s ,college 9 ,new ,york1 #aga4 ,judgm5ts indisp5sable to k1 accord+ to ,kant 7analytic1 syn!tic1 a po/]iori1 a priori71 #bdh-beb4 ,kant1 ,immanuel1 8 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 m>ks ! transition f ! ,enlight5m5t to ,g]man ,philosophy1 #b-d1 #bcb2 ! influ5ces ^u1 #bcc-bce2 life & writ+s (1 #bce-bch2 ! problem (1 #bch1 #bci2 ! me?od (1 #bci1 #bdj2 ! ?reefold _w ( 7subjective /ates1 ?+s-9-!mselves1 & ph5om5a71 #bdj-bdc2 8 _w ( k1 #bdc-bde2 place ( syn!sis 9 k1 accord+ to1 #bde-bdh2 ! judgm5ts indisp5sable to k1 accord+ to1 #bdh-beb2 pro( ( ! validity ( human k1 accord+ to1 #beb-bfj2 validity ( s5se-p]ception consi/s 9 space & "t1 #bec-bee2 ! validity ( ! und]/&+1 #bee-bfj2 ! "q ( ! validity ( ! reason1 #bfj-bfb2 ! idea ( ! s\l1 #bfa-bfd2 ! idea ( ! univ]se1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bfe2 ! idea ( ,god1 #bfa1 #bfe-bfh2 summ>y ( ! !ory ( k conta9$ 9 ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 #bfh1 #bfi2 ! e?ics ( 7! problem ( ! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason71 #bfi-bga2 ! moral law & ! two que/ions conc]n+ x1 #bga-bge2 ! moral po/ulates1 #bge-bgg2 idealism aft]1 #bgh1 #bgi2 8 influ5ce ^u ,fi*te1 #bhe1 #bhf2 :y ,hegel rema9s to-day ! repres5tative (1 #cad1 #cae2 foll[]s ( 7,h]b>t & ,s*op5hau]71 #ccj-ccb4 ,kepl]1 ,johann1 #cb-cd4 ,khayym1 ,om>1 #cdg1 #cdh4 ,k1 9 ,hobbes's philosophy1 #eg2 9 ,desc>tes's philosophy1 #gg2 ,god ! only object (1 accord+ to ,sp9oza1 #ib2 ,locke's !ory (1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj-afb2 9 ,b]keley's philosophy1 #agf2 9 ,hume's philosophy1 #ahg1 #aii1 #bjj2 9 ,reid's philosophy1 #bjb2 ,kant's !ory (1 #bch1 #bci2 ,kant's _w (1 #bdc-bde2 ! place ( syn!sis 91 accord+ to ,kant1 #bde-bdh2 ! judgm5ts indisp5sable to1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bdh-beb2 human1 pro( ( ! validity (1 accord+ to ,kant1 #beb-bfb2 transc5d5t & transc5d5tal1 ( ,kant1 #bfb2 ( ! s\l1 #bfb-bfd2 ( ! univ]se1 #bfd1 #bfe2 ( ,god1 #bfe-bfh2 summ>y ( ,kant's !ory (1 conta9$ 9 ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason1 #bfh1 #bfi2 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cde4 ,knutz51 ,m>t91 tea*] ( ,kant1 #bcd4 ,lat91 be=e & 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #aj-ab4 ,leibnitz1 ,g4 ,w4 von1 #ca2 z ! f9i%] ( ! ,r5aissance & ! =]unn] ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #ajg1 #ajh2 life & writ+s (1 #ajh-aab2 8 e>ly classical /udies1 #aab1 #aac2 ! new sci5ce & 8 discov]ies1 #aac1 #aad2 influ5c$ by political pressure = religi\s reconciliation1 #aad1 #aae2 ! me?od (1 #aae-aah2 ! imm$iate problem = 7t ( reconcil+ sci5ce & religion71 #aah1 #aai2 ! result ( 8 exam9ation ( ! pr9ciples ( sci5ce1 a plurality ( metaphysical sub/ances1 #aai-abb2 8 exam9ation ( ! sci5tific conception ( motion1 #aai1 #abj2 8 exam9ation ( ! sci5tific conception ( ! atom1 #abj1 #aba2 8 !ory ( monadology1 #aba2 ! d\ble nature ( 8 monads1 #abb-abe2 ! two =ms ( 8 conception ( ! unity ( ! sub/ances1 #abe2 ! intr9sic 7philosophical7 unity ( 8 monads1 #abe-abi2 ! sup]impos$ 7!ological7 unity ( 8 monads1 #abi-aca2 8 tol]ation comp>$ ) t ( ,locke1 #aea2 8 philosophy1 a s\rce ( ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t1 #bbj-bbc2 8 philosophy develop$ & trans=m$ by ,wolff & ,?omasius1 #bba-bbc2 ,less+ & ,h]d] z int]pret]s (1 #bbh2 appe>s1 ?r\gh ,less+1 z a motive p[] 9 ,g]man ,enlight5m5t1 #bbi4 ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy1 #bba-bbc1 #bca2 influ5c$ ,kant1 #bcc1 #bcd4 ,less+1 ,g4 ,e41 & ,sp9oza1 connection (1 #he2 help$ save ,g]many f a political revolution1 #bbf-bbh2 gave ! dea?-bl[ to p$antic absolutism1 #bbh2 ,g]man lit]ature beg9s )1 #bbh2 z int]pret] ( ,leibnitz1 #bbh2 8 philosophy1 #bbi4 ,life1 9 ,leibnitz's philosophy1 #abh4 ,locke1 ,john1 8 ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+ m>ks ! transition f ! ,r5aissance to ! ,enlight5m5t1 #b-d2 8 g5]al position 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 #ade-adg2 8 life & writ+s1 #adg-aej2 ! s\rces ( 8 ?\ght1 #aej-aec2 8 ,puritan ance/ry1 #aej2 8 tra9+ 9 tol]ance1 #aej1 #aea2 ! sci5tific influ5ce on1 #aea1 #aeb2 ! political influ5ce on1 #aeb1 #aec2 ! purpose (1 #aec-aee2 two sides ( 8 philosophy1 #aee-aeh2 & s*ola/icism1 #aef1 #aeg2 8 psy*ology1 #aeg-afj2 8 epi/emology1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj-afb2 8 practical philosophy1 #afb1 #afc2 ! influ5ce (1 #afc1 #afd2 g5]al relation ( ,b]keley to1 #agd1 #age2 ,b]keley's po9ts ( agreem5t )1 #age1 #agf4 ,logic1 9 ! latt] "p ( ! ,middle ,ages1 /udi$ = its own sake1 #d2 9 ,hegel's philosophy1 #cbc1 #cbh4 ,london1 new religi\s c5tre 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #ab2 becomes an intellectual c5tre ab\t ! 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(1 iii1 iv2 difficulty 9 ! /udy (1 #a1 #b2 p]iods (1 #b-d2 & ,g]man idealism1 #cee1 #cef4 ,modes1 ( m9d & matt]1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gg2 ( ?\ght & ext5sion1 accord+ to ,sp9oza1 #ie1 #if4 ,monadology1 ,leibnitz's !ory (1 #aba4 ,monads1 ( ,leibnitz1 metaphysical atoms1 #aab1 #aad1 #aai1 #aba2 ! d\ble nature (1 #abb-abe2 conceiv$ z s\l-atoms1 #abb1 #abc1 #abf2 repres5tation ! g5]al function (1 #abd2 are w9d[less1 & mirror ! univ]se1 #abe1 #abg2 ! pr9ciple ( unity among1 call$ a pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1 #abe2 ! intr9sic 7philosophical7 unity (1 #abe-abi2 ! sup]impos$ 7!ological7 unity (1 #abi-aca4 ,montesquieu1 ,c4 de ,s4 de1 ,b>on1 #bjh4 ,moral1 awak5+1 !1 accord+ to ,fi*te1 #bhg1 #bhh2 fre$om1 ( ,fi*te1 #bhi1 #bij2 _w1 ( ,fi*te1 #bij-bib2 reality1 a1 :at x involves1 accord+ to ,fi*te1 #bic-bie4 ,moral ,philosoph]s1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #ada4 ,morali/s1 ,engli%1 !1 #aff-afh4 ,morality1 accord+ to ,hegel1 #cbf4 ,morals1 ,kant's !ory (1 #bfi-bgg4 ,m1 ,?omas1 8 ,utopia1 #da n41 #dg4 ,morley1 ,john1 ,did]ot1 #baa n4 ,motion1 9 ,galileo's philosophy1 #ch2 9 ,hobbes's philosophy1 #ec2 ,leibnitz's exam9ation ( ! sci5tific conception (1 #aai1 #abj4 ,music accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cej4 ,my/icism1 self-de/ructive1 #e2 ( ,sp9oza1 #ih-ajb2 & ,realism1 & ,idealism1 contra/$1 #cah-cba2 ( ,s*op5hau]1 #cdg2 ( tw5tie? c5tury1 #cfc4 ,my/ics1 ,prote/ant1 !1 #bc4 ,my?ology & ,revelation1 ,s*ell+'s philosophy (1 #cjc1 #caa1 #cab4 ,napoleon1 quot$1 #bca4 ,natura naturans & natura naturata1 #bi1 #cj1 #ig4 ,natural ,religion1 ! cre$ (1 #afe4 ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod1 !1 g5]al facts ab\t1 #ae-ba2 discussion ( 7,galileo1 ,bacon1 ,hobbes71 #ca-fa2 discussion ( ! ,rationalism (1 #fb-aca4 ,naturalism1 ( ! ,greeks1 recov]$ 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #ad2 9 ,hobbes1 #ec2 def9$1 #ec n4 ,nature1 9 ! ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod1 #ah2 9 ! philosophy ( ,p>acelsus1 #bg2 9 ,bruno's philosophy1 #bi1 #cj2 its two aspects1 natura naturans & natura naturata1 #bi1 #cj2 9 ! philosophy ( ! ,rationali/s1 #fc1 #fd2 cont9uity (1 accord+ to ,leibnitz1 #abc1 #abf1 #abh1 #abi2 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 #ace2 9 ! philosophy ( ,locke1 #afc2 accord+ to ,kant1 #bdh1 #bee1 #beh1 #bei2 z conceiv$ by ! ,romantici/s1 #big2 ,s*ell+'s philosophy (1 #cjj1 #cjd-cjf2 ph5om5a (1 & ! _m reals1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccg1 #cch2 9 ,s*op5hau]1 #cdh2 h[ conceiv$1 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 #cec2 accord+ to ,fe*n]1 #cei4 ,nature philosoph]s1 ,italian1 #bb4 ,neo-,platonism1 dom9at$ ! ,humani/ic p]iod1 #ag1 #ah1 #ba1 #bc1 #be1 #bg-bi4 ,new ,man1 9 a ,new ,univ]se1 phrase *>act]iz+ fir/ p]iod ( mod]n philosophy1 #h-ah2 ! em]g5ce ( !1 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 #acb-acd4 ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 #cb2 8 physics1 ,kant influ5c$ by1 #bcd4 ,nietzs*e1 ,fri$ri*1 #cdb1 #ceb n4 ,n9ete5? c5tury1 pessimi/ic1 #cda1 #cdb2 ! "* ( ! realism (1 #cec-cee2 ! b>r5ness ( ! philosophy (1 & ,g]man idealism1 #cee1 #cef2 ! philosophical problems (1 #cef-cfb4 ,n9ete5? ,c5tury ,philosophy1 ! f\r? p]iod ( mod]n philosophy1 #c1 #ceb-cfc4 ,nom9alism1 doctr9e (1 l$ to ! dissolution ( ! civilization ( ! ,middle ,ages1 #f4 ,n\m5a ( ,kant1 #bdb4 ,novalis4 ,see ,h>d5b]g4 ,occasionali/s1 !1 #fc1 #ha2 _! relation to ,desc>tes1 #ha-hc4 ,ow51 ,john1 ,locke influ5c$ by1 #aej4 ,ox=d ,univ]sity1 #ab4 ,panpsy*ism1 #ajb4 ,pan!ism1 def9$1 #id2 ( ,sp9oza1 #id-ih4 ,p>acelsus1 #bc1 #be-bg4 ,p>is1 ! c5tre ( s*ola/ic influ5ce 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 #bjf4 ,pauls51 ,fri$ri*1 cit$1 #bca2 on ,kant's syn!tic judgm5ts a priori1 #bea n4 ,p]ceptions1 ( ,b]keley1 #aha2 ( ,hume1 #aij4 ,see ,s5se-p]ception4 ,p]iods ( mod]n philosophy1 #b-d4 ,pessimism1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cdh-cea4 ,ph5om5a1 ! _w (1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bdb-bdc2 realities impli$ by1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccf2 nature1 & ! _m reals1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,ph5om5alism1 ( ,hume1 #ahg-ahi4 8,philosoph]'s /one1 !10 #be4 ,philosophical ,religion1 ,less+ a writ] on1 #adc4 ,philosophical ,revolutioni/s1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #adb4 ,philosophy1 accord+ to ,hegel1 #cbf2 mod]n1 b>r5 ( ideas1 #cee2 & ,g]man ,idealism1 #cee1 #cef4 ,phr5ology1 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 #ceh4 ,physics1 9 ,hobbes's philosophy1 #ef2 ( ,desc>tes1 #fh4 ,see ,sci5ce4 ,pietism1 & ,leibnitz1 #aae2 a factor 9 ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbc1 #bcj2 influ5c$ ,kant1 #bcc4 ,pieti/s1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #adb4 ,plato1 #de n4 ,platonic ,academy1 !1 ( ! ,r5aissance1 #aj4 ,platonism1 reaction t[>d1 aft] ,hobbes1 #fa4 ,plot9us1 #bh4 ,pluralism1 ( ,leibnitz1 #aai-abb4 ,political ,economi/s & ,con/itutionali/s1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #adb4 ,political philosoph]s1 #bc4 ,politics1 accord+ to ,hobbes1 #ef1 #eh-fj4 ,pope1 ,alex&]1 on ,bacon1 #db2 ,essay on ,man1 quot$1 #acc4 ,popul> ,philosoph]s1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #adb4 ,positivism1 ,bacon ! fa!r (1 9 ,engl&1 #dc2 def9$1 #dc n42 ( ,hume1 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,prague1 ,univ]sity (1 #ab4 ,pr9t+1 discov]y (1 #f4 ,prote/ant ,my/ics1 !1 #bc4 ,prussia1 rise (1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbc2 & ,fr$]ick ! ,great1 #bbd-bbf4 ,psy*ologi/s & relat$ philosoph]s1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #adb4 ,psy*ology1 9 ,hobbes's philosophy1 #ef-eh2 empirical1 took ! place ( metaphysics 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 #acg2 ( ,locke1 #aeg-afj2 ( ,hume1 #ahi2 ( ,h]b>t1 #cch-cdj2 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 #ceg4 ,see ,associational ,psy*ology1 ,associational ,psy*ologi/s4 ,psy*o-physical p>allelism1 ( ,sp9oza1 #ajb4 ,ptolemaic sy/em1 !1 #cc4 ,pyrrho1 ,skeptic philosoph]1 #ahg4 ,qualities1 prim>y & second>y1 9 ,locke's philosophy1 #afa2 9 ,b]keley's philosophy1 #agg1 #agh4 ,see ,attributes4 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 iv1 #dj n41 #dg n41 #ff n41 #hd n41 #ajg n41 #adg n41 #afi n41 #ahc n41 #bab n41 #bcf n41 #bhb n41 #cjj n41 #cae n41 #cdj n41 #ceb n41 #cfj n4 ,rationalism1 def9$1 #fa n42 ! nature (1 #fb-fe2 ,s*ool (1 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,holl&1 #hj2 ( ,wolff & ! ,leibnitz-,wolffians1 #bba-bbc1 #bca4 ,rationali/s1 !1 #ca1 #fc-fe4 ,see ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz4 ,realism1 ,my/icism1 & ,idealism1 contra/$1 #cah-cba2 ! argum5t =1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccd-ccf2 multiple1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccg1 #cch2 ! return to1 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 #ceb1 #cec2 ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! "* (1 #cec-cee4 ,reali/ic ,movem5t1 !1 #bbd4 ,reality1 ( ,fi*te1 #bhg-bie2 ( ,realism1 ,my/icism1 & ,idealism1 #cbj1 #cba2 impli$ by ph5om5a1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccf2 irrational1 ! w z1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cdg1 #cdh4 ,see ,absolute ,reality4 ,reason1 ! "q ( its validity1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bfj-bfb2 ! w ex]t$ f1 #bgb1 #bgc2 9 ,hegel's philosophy1 #cad1 #cbc4 ,reflections 9 ,locke's philosophy1 #aeh1 #aei4 ,re=mation1 ,prote/ant1 !1 #g4 ,reid1 ,?omas1 #bja1 #bjb4 ,religion1 accord+ to ,hobbes1 #fj2 & sci5ce1 ,leibnitz's attempt to reconcile1 #aah1 #aai2 9 ! ,enlight5m5t1 #acg2 ,philosophical1 ,less+ a writ] on1 #adc2 ( ! ,dei/s1 #afd1 #afe2 9 ,hume's philosophy1 #bjj1 #bja2 accord+ to ,hegel1 #cbf4 ,religi\s philosophy1 ( ,s*ell+1 #caa1 #cab4 ,r5aissance1 !1 ! fir/ p]iod ( mod]n philosophy1 #b-d2 g5]al "* (1 #h-aa2 significance (1 9 hi/ory1 #aa-ae2 ! problem (1 #ad2 two p]iods (1 #ae-ba2 discussion ( ! ,humani/ic p]iod (1 #bb-cj2 bir?places ( ! *ief philosoph]s ( 7map71 #cj2 discussion ( ! ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod ( 7,galileo1 ,bacon1 ,hobbes71 #ca-fa2 9 ,engl& aft] ,hobbes1 #fa2 discussion ( ! ,rationalism ( ! ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod (1 #fb-aca4 ,repres5tation1 ! g5]al function ( ,leibnitz's monads1 #abd1 #abf4 ,resemblance1 association by1 #aib-aif4 ,revelation & ,my?ology1 ,s*ell+'s ,philosophy (1 #cjc1 #caa1 #cab4 ,revolution1 ,fr5*1 !1 #bac1 #bad1 #baf4 ,revolutioni/s1 ,philosophical1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #adb4 ,ribot1 ,?odule1 ,g]man ,psy*ology ( ,to-day1 #ccb n4 ,ri*t]1 ,j4 ,p41 =]unn] ( ! lit]>y ,romantici/s1 #bgi4 ,rob]tson1 ,g4 ,c41 ,hobbes1 #dg n41 #ff n4 ,romantic philosoph]s1 !1 #bii4 ,romanticism1 #bbd2 ! p]iod (1 #bie1 #bif2 its mean+1 #bif1 #big2 9 philosophy1 #bii1 #cjj2 takes a religi\s turn at beg9n+ ( eighte5? c5tury1 #caa4 ,romantici/s1 !1 #bhd1 #bhe2 ,goe! z "o (1 #big-bii2 ! /hetic humanism (1 #cjh4 ,r\sseau1 ,j4 ,j41 ! mo/ notable figure ( ,france dur+ ! ,enlight5m5t1 #adb2 8 philosophy1 #bac-baf2 8 influ5ce1 #baf1 #bcj1 #bcd1 #bce4 ,royal ,society1 !1 #dj4 ,royce1 ,josiah1 ,_s ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1 iv1 #hd n41 #afi n41 #bcf n41 #bhb n41 #bii n41 #cae n41 #ceb n42 ,! ,_w & ! ,individual1 #ceb n4 ,salvation1 ,sp9oza's doctr9e (1 #ajb-ajf4 ,s*ell+1 ,f4 ,w4 ,j4 von1 & ,fi*te & ,hegel1 :at !y s\ght1 #bgi1 #bha1 #cab2 ! true ,romantic _s appe>s 91 #bii2 life & writ+s (1 #cjj-cjc2 8 philosophy ( ,nature1 #cjj1 #cjd-cjf2 8 philosophy *>act]iz$1 #cja2 8 transc5d5tal philosophy1 #cjb1 #cjg-caj2 8 sy/em ( id5tity1 #cjc1 #caj1 #caa2 & ,fi*te1 a brief comp>ison (1 z philosoph]s1 #cjc-cje2 8 religi\s philosophy1 #caa1 #cab4 ,s*ill]1 ,j4 ,c4 ,f4 von1 prom95t 9 ! ,/orm & ,/ress movem5t1 #bbg2 notable example ( ! influ5ce ( ,kant ^u lit]ature1 #bcc2 quot$ on ,kant1 #bcc2 ,arti/s1 ,lett]s on /hetic ,education1 #cjg n4 ,s*lei]ma*]1 ,f4 ,e4 ,d41 #cjh1 #caa4 ,s*ola/icism1 a self-de/ructive me?od1 #d2 m$ival1 ,r5aissance _h to reckon )1 #aa2 repres5tatives ( ! revival (1 #bb2 aft] ,hobbes1 #fa2 & ,locke1 #aef1 #aeg4 ,s*op5hau]1 ,ar?ur1 8 relation to ,kant1 #ccj-ccb2 & 8 philosophical relations1 #cdj-cdb2 & pessimism1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cdh1 #cdi-cea2 life & writ+s (1 #cdb1 #cdc2 ! influ5ces ^u 8 ?\ght1 #cdc-cde2 ! _w z w & ! _w z idea1 #cde-cdg2 ! w z irrational reality1 #cdg1 #cdh2 ! mis]y ( ! _w z idea1 #cdh1 #cdi2 ! way ( deliv]ance1 #cdi-cea4 ,s*ultze1 ,f4 ,a41 tea*] ( ,kant1 #bcc4 ,sci5ce1 attitude ( ! ,*ur* t[>d1 9 ! p]iod ( ! ,r5aissance1 #ai-ba2 mod]n me?ods 91 began ) ,galileo1 #cb1 #cg-ci2 9 ,bacon1 #dj-df2 9 ,hobbes1 #ed1 #eh2 & religion1 ,leibnitz's attempt to reconcile1 #aah1 #aai2 ,hume's attack on1 #aif-aii2 ,hume's two classes (1 #aii1 #bjj2 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury1 #cec-ceg2 invad$ by evolution1 #cfa4 ,see ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod1 ,physics4 ,sci5tific me?ods1 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #ah1 #ai4 ,sci5ti/s1 ( ! ,natural ,sci5ce p]iod1 #ca-ci1 #fb-fe4 ,see ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz4 ,scotti% ,s*ool ( ,philosophy1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #ada1 #bja1 #bjb4 ,self1 idea (1 9 ,locke's philosophy1 #aei1 #afj2 ( ,kant1 #bfj2 ( ,fi*te1 #bic2 ( ,s*ell+1 #cji1 #caj4 ,see ,ego4 ,s5sationalism1 #ec4 ,s5sationali/s4 ,see ,s5suali/s4 ,s5sations1 ( ,locke1 #aeh1 #aei2 ( ,kant1 #bde2 ( ,fi*te1 #bij1 #bia2 ( ,h]b>t1 #cci2 ( ,fe*n]1 #cei4 ,s5se-p]ception1 9 :at its validity consi/s1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bec-bee4 ,see ,p]ceptions4 ,s5suali/s1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #ada1 #bab4 ,s5tim5tali/1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t 7,r\sseau71 #adb4 ,sev5 ,ye>s' ,w>1 #bbe4 ,%aftesbury1 ,"l1 & ,locke1 #adh1 #aeb1 #aec4 ,%elley1 ,p4 ,b41 ,love's ,philosophy1 #cje n42 ,prome!us ,unb\nd quot$1 #cbe4 ,skepticism1 reviv$ by ,r5aissance s*ol>s1 #aa2 ( ,hume1 #ahg-ahi2 ( ,hume1 influ5c$ ,kant1 #bce4 ,skeptics1 !1 ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 #ada4 ,social ,enlight5m5t1 9 ,france1 #bac-baf4 ,sociology1 accord+ to ,comte1 #cfj4 ,solipsism1 ( ,desc>tes1 #gb2 def9$1 #ahc4 ,s\l1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gb1 #gi2 ! monad ( ,leibnitz conceiv$ z1 #abb1 #abc1 #abf2 accord+ to ,hume1 #aif2 ! idea ( !1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bfa-bfd2 ! po/ulate ( ! immortality (1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bgf2 9 ,h]b>t's philosophy1 #cch-cdj2 ! problem ( ! function+ (1 #ceg-cfj4 ,see ,m9d4 ,space & "t1 k possible by means (1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bec-bee4 ,sp5c]1 ,h]b]t1 ,education1 #dc n42 & evolution1 #cfb4 ,sp5]1 ,p4 ,j41 #bbj1 #bcj4 ,sp9oza1 ,b>u* de1 #ca1 #ce2 8 relation to ,desc>tes1 #ha-hd2 ! hi/orical place (1 #hd-hf2 influ5ce ( 8 ,jewi% tra9+ on1 #hf2 8 impulse f ! new sci5ce1 & ,desc>tes's influ5ce ^u1 #hf1 #hg2 8 acqua9tance ) ! ,collegiants1 #hg1 #hh2 life & philosophical writ+s (1 #hh-ij2 ! me?od (1 #ij1 #ia2 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 8 philosophy1 #ia1 #ib2 ?ree c5tral problems 9 8 tea*+1 #ic2 8 pan!ism1 #id-ih2 ! my/icism (1 #ih-ajb2 8 doctr9e ( salvation1 #ajb-ajf2 summ>y ( 8 tea*+1 #ajf2 8 conception ( ! _w comp>$ ) ,leibnitz's1 #abg2 & ,kant1 foci ( ! philosophy ( ! g5]ation aft] ,kant1 #bgh1 #bgi2 8 influ5ce ^u ,fi*te1 #bhe4 ,_s4 ,see ,m9d1 ,s\l4 ,spirituality ( ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 & ,hegel1 #bha4 ,/al1 ,madame de1 quot$1 #bca4 ,/ate1 !1 accord+ to ,hobbes1 #ee1 #eh-fj4 ,/ates1 ideal1 #da1 #dg4 ,/eph51 ,leslie1 ,hobbes1 #dg n42 ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,?\ght1 #aff n4 ,/ew>t1 ,dugald1 #ada1 #bjb4 ,/irl+1 ,j4 ,h41 ,textbook to ,kant1 #bcf n4 ,/oicism1 reviv$ by ,r5aissance s*ol>s1 #aa4 ,/orm & ,/ress movem5t1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bie1 #bif4 8,/rife ( me?ods1 !10 #ai1 #ce4 8,/ruggle ( traditions1 !10 #ag1 #ah4 ,subjective idealism1 ( ,fi*te1 #bij1 #cjd4 ,subjective /ates1 ! _w (1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bdj-bdb4 ,subjectivism1 ,r5aissance m>k$ by ! rise (1 #ad1 #ae4 ,sub/ance1 9 ,desc>tes's philosophy1 #gg1 #ha1 #hb2 9 ! philosophy ( ! ,occasionali/s & ,sp9oza1 #ha-hd1 #ia-ie1 #aja2 9 ,leibnitz's philosophy1 #aai-abb2 9 ,locke's philosophy1 #afj-afb2 accord+ to ,locke1 ,b]keley1 & ,hume1 #agd1 #age2 9 ,b]keley's philosophy1 #agf1 #agh2 ,hume's conception (1 #aie1 #aif1 ,suffici5t reason1 law (1 #abi4 ,suicide1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cdi4 ,sympa?y1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cej1 #cea4 ,syn!sis1 accord+1 to ,kant1 #bdd1 #bde2 ! place (1 9 k1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bde-bdh2 ( ,fi*te1 #bie2 ( ,hegel1 #cbg4 ,see ,d$uction4 ,syn!tic1 judgm5ts ( ,kant1 #bdi-beb4 ,taurellus1 #aa4 ,tet5s1 ,j4 ,n41 #bba4 ,!ology1 ,hume's attack on1 #aie1 #aif4 ,!sis1 ( ,fi*te1 #bie2 ( ,hegel1 #cbg4 ,?+s-9-!mselves1 ! _w (1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bdj-bdb1 #ccf2 h[ treat$ by ,fi*te1 #bij1 #bia2 h[ treat$ by ,s*ell+1 #cjj2 ! philosophy (1 #ccj-cea2 ! *ief conc]n ( philosophy1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccb2 impli$ by ph5om5a1 accord+ to ,h]b>t1 #ccf2 basis ( ,s*op5hau]'s philosophy1 #cdj2 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cde1 #cdf4 ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w>1 #bag4 ,?omasius1 ,*ri/ian1 #adb1 #bba4 ,?\ght1 9 ,sp9oza's philosophy1 #ie1 #aja1 #ajb2 9 ,hegel's philosophy1 #cbb1 #cce4 ,"t & space1 k possible by means (1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bec-bee4 ,t9dal1 ,mat!w1 #afe4 ,tol&1 ,john1 #afe4 ,transc5d5tal1 me?od1 ( ,kant1 #bci1 #bdj2 philosophy1 ( ,s*ell+1 #cjb1 #cjg-caj2 fre$om1 ( ,s*op5hau]1 #cdi-cea4 ,tr5t1 ,c\ncil (1 #af1 #bj4 ,tru?1 /&>d (1 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 self-de/ructive1 #e2 crit]ion (1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gb4 ,tru?s1 ( ,leibnitz1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,ts*irnhaus51 ,e4 ,w4 von1 #bba4 ,turn]1 ,william1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 #gc n4 ,ueb]weg1 ,fri$ri*1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 iv1 #bji n4 ,und]/&+1 9 :at its validity consi/s1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bee-bfj4 ,unity1 ( ,leibnitz1 #abb2 a pre/abli%$ h>mony1 #abe2 ! intr9sic 7philosophical71 #abe-abi2 ! sup]impos$ 7!ological71 #abi-aca2 cosmic1 ( ,hegel1 #cbb-cbf4 ,univ]sal1 concrete & ab/ract1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,univ]se1 ,man's relation to1 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #h-ah2 accord+ to ! ,ptolemaic sy/em1 #cc2 accord+ to ! ,cop]nican sy/em1 #cd2 ! idea ( !1 accord+ to ,kant1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bfe2 accord+ to ,s*ell+1 #cjd1 #caa4 ,see ,new ,man4 ,univ]sities1 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #ab2 t[ns conta9+ 7map71 #bhj4 ,utilit>ianism1 #dc4 ,utopias1 #da1 #dg4 ,van d] ,ende1 8 influ5ce on ,sp9oza1 #hg1 #hi4 ,vi5na1 ,univ]sity (1 #ab4 ,voltaire1 ,f4 ,m4 ,a4 de1 #bjh-baj1 #bbc4 ,wagn]1 ,ri*>d1 #cdb4 ,watson1 ,john1 ,h$oni/ic ,!ories1 #dg n4 ,web]1 ,e4 ,a41 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 iv1 #gj n41 #gc n41 #ajg n41 #ccb n41 #ceb n4 ,weim>1 #bcc1 #cjg4 ,w]na]1 ,r4 ,m41 ,romanticism & ! ,romantic ,s*ool 9 ,g]many1 #cjj n4 ,w1 !1 ,kant's !ory (1 #bfi-bgg2 ! _w z1 & z idea1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cde-cdg2 z irrational reality1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cdg1 #cdh2 suicide &1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cdi2 ! d5ial (1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cdi-cea4 ,w9delb&1 ,wilhelm1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 iv1 #h n41 #bc n41 #cj n41 #dg n41 #gj n41 #aai n41 #acb n41 #ahc n41 #bcj n41 #bcf n41 #bgh n41 #bhb n42 on ,kant's syn!tic judgm5ts a priori1 #bea n4 ,witt5b]g1 new religi\s c5tre 9 ! ,r5aissance1 #ab4 ,wolf5bttel ,fragm5ts1 #he4 ,wolff1 ,*ri/ian1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbh4 ,wolffians1 !1 #adb4 ,_w1 ( grace1 #fc1 #fd1 #gf1 #hc2 relation ( ,god to1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 #gg2 9 ,sp9oza's philosophy1 #ig2 !1 ,leibnitz's conception (1 z ! be/ possible1 #acj2 accord+ to ,goe!1 #bih2 9 t]ms ( consci\sness1 #cba2 a _w ( contradictions1 #cba2 z w & z idea1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cde-cdg2 z idea1 ! mis]y (1 accord+ to ,s*op5hau]1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,see ,univ]se4 ,footnotes4 #a - ,read ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #cjc-cba2 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 pp4 #cdh-cea2 ,dew+1 ,introduction to ,mod]n ,philosophy1 pp4 #eb-ed4 #b - ,read ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #cba-cca2 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #ceb-ced4 #c - ,read ,falck5b]g1 ,hi/4 ( ,mod]n ,phil41 pp4 #bg-bh2 ,br[n+1 ,p>acelsus2 ,goe!1 ,fau/1 l9es #a-afe4 #d - ,^! two phrases w be f\nd aga9 9 ! philosophy ( ,sp9oza4 ,nature is conceiv$ z hav+ two aspects3 "o is natura naturans1 or ,god z ! animat+ pr9ciple ( nature2 ! o!r is natura naturata1 or ! _w z mat]ializ$ =ms or effects4 #e - ,read ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #cgh-cgi4 #f - ,induction & d$uction are me?ods ( reason+4 ,induction is ! me?od ( beg9n+ ) p>ticul> cases & inf]r+ f !m a g5]al conclusion4 ,d$uction is ! opposite me?od ( reason+4 #g - ,read ,hffd+1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #age2 ,ball1 ,hi/4 ( ,ma?41 pp4 #bdi ff42 ,falck5b]g1 ,hi/4 ( ,mod4 ,phil41 pp4 #ei ff4 #h - ,an example us$ by ,galileo is ! law ( ! velocity ( fall+ bodies 9 empty space4 #i - ,! "n1 8concomitant v>iations10 0 lat] giv5 by ,john ,/u>t ,mill4 #aj - ,read ,ball1 ,hi/4 ( ,ma?41 pp4 #bec ff42 ,hffd+1 ,hi/4 ( ,mod4 ,phil41 vol4 i1 pp4 #ahd-ahf2 ,macaulay1 ,essay on ,bacon2 ,bacon1 ,essays1,/udies1 ,tru?1 ,fri5d%ip1 ,simulation1 & ,dissimulation2 ,abbott1 ,francis ,bacon2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #ccf-cdd2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #bd-ef4 #aa - ,bacon wrote 8 ,new ,atlantis 9 #afbc4 ,! same ye> ,campanella wrote 8 ,/ate ( ! ,sun1 & ! prec$+ ye> ,?omas ,m wrote 8 ,utopia4 #ab - ,utilit>ianism reg>ds adaptation to g5]al happ9ess z ! ideal ( society4 ,positivism1 broadly us$1 is t philosophy :i* limits ! scope ( ?\ght to ! obs]vation ( facts1 al?\gh ! obs]vations are inf]ior to ! facts4 ,! data & me?ods ( positivism are ! same z ^? ( natural sci5ce1 & oppos$ to ! a priori me?ods ( metaphysics4 #ac - ,9 ?is connection read ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 ,education4 #ad - ,bacon *ooses ! ^w ,idols1 because x is ! same z ! ,greek ^w = false =ms 7eidola1 74 #ae - ,bacon is "h allud+ to ,plato's my? ( ! cave4 ,read ,plato1 ,republic 7,j[ett's trans471 ,bk4 ,,vii1 #ead ,a-#ebj ,e4 #af - ,bacon is satirical "h & is lik5+ philosophical sy/ems to /age-plays4 #ag - ,b see ! contradiction 9 ! !ory ( ,hobbes4 #ah - ,read ,rob]tson1 ,hobbes 7,blackwood's ,phil4 ,classics71 pp4 #bjd-bjf2 ,falck5b]g1 ,hi/4 ,mod4 ,phil41 pp4 #ga-gb2 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 article1 8,hobbes02 ,leslie ,/eph51 ,hobbes2 ,watson1 ,h$oni/ic ,!ories1 pp4 #gc-id2 ,turn]1 ,hi/4 ,phil41 pp4 #ddc-ddf2 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ,phil41 p4 #chi2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #cei-cfj2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #eg-fi1 #hj-hd4 #ai - ,see also ! ideal ,/ates ( ,campanella & ,bacon1 p4 #da4 #bj - ,! !ory t ! assumption ( ext5d$1 imp5etrable1 et]nal1 & mov+ bodies expla9s ! univ]se4 #ba - ,! !ory t all k orig9ates 9 s5sations2 t all complex m5tal /ates 7l memory1 reason1 etc47 are only comb9ations ( elem5t>y s5sations4 #bb - ,! !ory t betwe5 alt]native c\rses ( conduct ! *oice decid$ ^u is fully acc\nt$ = by psy*ological & o!r pre-conditions4 #bc - ,! !ory sometimes mean+ mat]ialism1 sometimes positivism1 b sometimes1 z "h1 mean+ t man 9 all 8 op]ations is a product ( 8 environm5t4 #bd - ,read ,falck5b]g1 ,hi/4 ,mod4 ,phil41 p4 #gb1 = 8 quotation f ,grimm's criticism ( ! irreconcilable contradiction ( ! empirical & ! rational 9 ,hobbes4 #be - ,empiricism & ,rationalism h ref]5ce to ! s\rce ( tru?4 ,empiricism is ! !ory t tru? is to be f\nd 9 imm$iate s5se exp]i5ce4 ,! opposite !ory is ,rationalism1 :i* decl>es t ! reason is an indep5d5t s\rce ( k1 di/9ct f s5sation1 & hav+ a high] au?ority4 #bf - ,read ,rob]tson1 ,hobbes 7,blackwood ,phil4 ,classics71 p4 #dj2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #aag-adg2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #cea-cfb2 ,calk9s1 ,p]si/5t ,problems1 pp4 #dei-dfc4 #bg - ,read ,desc>tes1 ,me?od1 ,m$itations1 = ! dramatic /ruggle ( 8 inn] life2 ,falck5b]g1 ,hi/4 ,mod]n ,phil41 pp4 #hf-hh2 ,fis*]1 ,desc>tes & 8 ,s*ool1 p4 #aii2 ,blackwood ,classics1 ,desc>tes1 pp4 #add-adi2 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ,phil41 pp4 #chi ff42 ,hffd+1 ,hi/4 ,mod]n ,phil41 pp4 #bai ff42 ,web]1 ,hi/4 ,phil41 pp4 #cjf ff41 = an oppos+ op9ion ab\t ! place ( ,desc>tes4 #bh - ,read ,falck5b]g1 ,hi/4 ( ,mod]n ,phil41 pp4 #ib-id2 ,blackwood's ,classics1 ,desc>tes1 pp4 #aea-aec2 ,web]1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 p4 #caj2 ,calk9s1 ,p]si/5t ,problems 9 ,philosophy1 pp4 #be-cj2 ,turn]1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #dea f41 :i* pres5ts ,desc>tes' argum5ts z r$uc$ to two4 #bi - ,read ,royce1 ,_s ( ,mod]n ,phil41 *ap4 iii2 ,baldw91 ,fragm5ts 9 ,philosophy1 pp4 #bd-db2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #adh-aff2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #cfb-chj4 #cj - ,see page #bgi4 ,read ,goe!1 ,geheimnisse1 9 ?is connection4 #ca - ,read ,au]ba*1 ,sp9oza1 an hi/orical romance4 #cb - ,read ,bohn's ,libr>ies1 ,sp9oza1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #bge ff41 = ,sp9oza's int]e/+ correspond5ce ) notable m54 #cc - ,read ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #aii-bad2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #chh-dje2 ,web]1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 pp4 #cdc-cfi2 ,hibb51 ,phil4 ( ,enlight5m5t1 pp4 #afa-aic4 #cd - ,a good selection ( ,leibnitz's works = ! /ud5t to read is3 ,disc\rse on ,metaphysics 7#afij71 ,lett]s to ,arnauld1 ,monadology 7#agad71 ,new ,sy/em ( ,nature 7#afie71 ,pr9ciples ( ,nature & ,grace 7#agad71 ,introduction to ,new ,essays 7#agjd71 & ! ,!odicy 7#agaj74 ,see ,calk9s1 ,p]si/5t ,problems 9 ,phil41 p4 #gd1 note4 #ce - ,read ,hibb51 ,phil4 ( ,enlight5m5t1 *4 vii2 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #dbj-dbe4 #cf - ,read ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #dcg-ddj1 #ddg-ddi1 #ejj-ejb2 ,hibb51 ,phil4 ( ,enlight5m5t1 pp4 #c-ac1 #ah-bj4 #cg - ,read ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #bae-bag1 #bdh-bfb2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #chj-chh4 #ch - ,see ,essay1 introductory epi/le to ! read]4 #ci - ,read ,leslie ,/eph51 ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,?\ght1 vol4 i1 pp4 #hf-hh4 #dj - ,read ,royce1 ,_s ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1 p4 #hf2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #bfc-bgg4 #da - ,b]keley & ,hume 7 really also duali/s1 l ,locke & all o!r ,enlight5]s4 ,! ideas 7 sub/itut$ by !m = mat]ial sub/ances4 ,z objects ( k ! ideas 7 anti!tical to ! kn[+ process4 ,hume tri$ to ov]come ?is dualism1 b he 0 n successful 9 8 attempt4 #db - ,read ,hibb51 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 *ap4 iii4 #dc - ,hibb51 ,phil4 ( ,enlight5m5t1 p4 #fd4 #dd - ,read ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #cbf-cdb2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #dbj-dbb2 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #dgb-dgf4 #de - ,causal ev5ts are to ,hume m]ely alleg$ matt]s ( fact4 #df - ,read ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #dae-dbj4 #dg - ,voltaire's ,lett]s on ! ,engli% 7 writt5 9 #agbh1 publi%$ fir/ 9 ,london1 & appe>$ 9 ,france 9 #agcd4 ,8 ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ,newton 0 publi%$ 9 ,am/]dam 9 #agch1 b 0 n all[$ to be publi%$ 9 ,france until #agda4 #dh - ,read ,ueb]weg1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 vol4 ii1 pp4 #abd-abe4 #di - ,read ,morley1 ,did]ot1 vol4 i1 *4 v1 pp4 #aac-aga4 #ej - ,read ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #cdg-cge4 #ea - ,read ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #dbc-dcc4 #eb - ,9 a real s5se ! ,g]man ,enlight5m5t has nev] come to an end4 ,classicism & ! ,romantic movem5t 7 a cont9uation ( x4 #ec - ,read ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #ebi-eca4 #ed - ,read ! quotation f ,he9e 9 ,e4 ,caird1 ,phil4 ( ,kant1 vol4 i1 p4 #fc2 ,/irl+1 ,textbook to ,kant1 ,biographical ,sket*2 ,royce1 ,_s ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1 *ap4 iv2 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #ecb-ecd2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #cgf-dje1 #dbj-dbd2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #dce-deb4 #ee - ,! ^w 8_w0 is us$ = lack ( a bett]4 ,! read] is1 h[ev]1 aga9 rem9d$ t ,kant's problem is "o ( epi/emology & n ( metaphysics4 #ef - ,pauls5 says 7,immanuel ,kant1 ,8 ,life & ,tea*+1 p4 #ace7 t ?is =mula ( syn!tic judgm5ts a priori appe>s only 9 ! introduction to ! ,critique & 9 ,kant's lat] writ+s1 & x w\ld h be5 no mis=tune if ,kant _h nev] discov]$ x4 ,b ,w9delb& 7,hi/4 ( ,phil41 p4 #ecc1 n4 #b7 says1 8,no "o :o does n make ?is cle> to himself has any hope ( und]/&+ ,kant40 #eg - ,quot$ f ,falck5b]g1 ,hi/4 ( ,mod]n ,phil41 p4 #chg4 ,?is is a p>aphrase ( "s ( ,s*ill]'s v]ses 9 ,! ,philosoph]s1 a satirical poem ( philosophical !ories4 #eh - ,kant's !ory ( ,beauty1 discuss$ 9 8 ,critique ( ,judgm5t1 ?r\gh :i* he tries to reconcile ! antagonism ( k & morality1 is omitt$ "h4 #ei - ,read ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #efh-efi4 #fj - ,read ,royce1 ,_s ( ,mod]n ,phil41 *ap4 v2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #dhf-dij2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #dhf-dif1 #eaf-ece2 ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 pp4 #egi-eha4 #fa - ,read ,be]s1 ,hi/ory ( ,romanticism 9 ,eighte5? ,c5tury1 pp4 #a-be2 ,be]s1 ,hi/ory ( ,romanticism 9 ,n9ete5? ,c5tury1 pp4 #acb-aci4 #fb - ,read ,royce1 ,_s ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1 *4 vi4 #fc - ,read ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #deg-dfd1 #dij-did2 ,w]na]1 ,romanticism & ! ,romantic ,s*ool 9 ,g]many1 pp4 #acb-adc2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #ece-efh4 #fd - ,read ,%elley1 ,love's ,philosophy4 #fe - ,read ,s*ill]1 ,arti/s2 ,lett]s on /hetic ,education4 #ff - ,f4 ,e4 ,d4 ,s*lei]ma*]1 b4 #agfh2 educat$ 9 ! ,h]rnhut5 in/itutions & at ! ,univ]sity ( ,halle2 9 #agif prea*] at ! ,b]l9 ,*>it2 9 #ahjb c\rt prea*] at ,/olpe2 9 #ahjd pr(essor extraord9>y at ,halle2 9 #ahji prea*] at a *ur* 9 ,b]l92 9 #ahaj pr(essor 9 ,b]l9 ,univ]sity4 #fg - ,read ,royce1 ,_s ( ,mod]n ,phil41 *ap4 vii2 ,james1 ,hibb]t ,j\rnal1 #aijh-ji1 pp4 #fc ff42 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #did-ejg2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #efi-egd1 #ehc-eib1 #fad-fbh4 #fh - ,read ,ribot1 ,g]man ,psy*ology ( ,to-day1 pp4 #bd-fg2 ,web]1 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 pp4 #ecf-edc2 ,dew+1 ,introduction to ,mod]n ,philosophy1 pp4 #bcj-bce4 #fi - ,a discussion ( ^! contradictions c be f\nd 9 any text-book 9 metaphysics4 #gj - ,! 8pr9ciple ( contradiction0 9 logic is ! prohibition to commit contradiction4 #ga - ,read ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #eaj-eah2 ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #fbi-fga4 #gb - ,read ,rubiyt ( ,om> ,khayym1 ,fitz,gerald's translation1 #d? ed41 quatra9s xlvii-lxxiii2 ,goe!1 ,sorr[s ( ,w]!r1 z an example ( pessimism due ma9ly to environm5t4 #gc - ,read ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #gjc-gjh2 ,web]1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 #fi1 #gj2 ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #eah-ebc1 #ebd-eec1 #eei-egc2 ,nietzs*e1 ,also ,spra* ,z>a?u/ra2 ,james1 ,pragmatism1 ,lectures ,i1 ,,iv1 ,,vii2 ,royce1 ,_s ( ,mod4 ,phil41 ,lecture ,,ix4 #gd - ,royce1 ,! ,_w & ! ,individual1 vol4 i1 pp4 #fj f4 #ge - ,read ,r&1 ,mod]n ,classical ,philosoph]s1 pp4 #fgb-fhi4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes4 ,! foll[+ corrections h be5 made 9 ! text3 ,page xiv3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,9 :at does ! ,validity4444 - #8,p]sception' replac$ ) #8,p]ception' 7,validity ( ,s5se-,p]ception consi/87 ,page #h3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,! fusion did n result4444 - #8homog5\s' replac$ ) #8homog5e\s' 79 a homog5e\s :ole17 ,page #he3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,x =m$ ! backgr\nd4444 - #8,wolff5bttel' replac$ ) #8,wolf5bttel' 7,wolf5bttel ,fragm5ts7 ,page #aad3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,he 0 l$ to ?is conclusion4444 - #8,leeuw5hook' replac$ ) #8,leeuw5hoek' 7( ,swamm]dam & ,leeuw5hoek7 ,page #agd3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,b]keley />t$ out by4444 - #8speculalation' replac$ ) #8speculation' 7aga9/ s*ola/ic speculation & ab/raction27 ,page #bif3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,"s ( ! lit]>y names4444 - #8,wack5rode' replac$ ) #8,wack5rod]' 7,tieck1 ,wack5rod]1 ,novalis17 ,page #ccf3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,kant reason$ f ! relativity4444 - #8?+-x-itself' replac$ ) #8?+-9-itself' 7:ile ! ?+-9-itself 07 ,index ,campanella3 - #8,tommasso' replac$ ) #8,tommaso' 7,campanella1 ,tommaso7 ,index ,euck53 - #8#bbc' replac$ ) #8#bac' 7#bac n47 ,index ,hume3 - #8scepticism' replac$ ) #8skepticism' 7! skepticism (1 influ5c$ ,kant7 ,index ,sp9oza3 - #8fundan5tal' replac$ ) #8fundam5tal' 7! fundam5tal pr9ciple 97 ,index ,unity3 - #8pre/abi%$' replac$ ) #8pre/abli%$' 7a pre/abli%$ h>mony7