,a ,,beginner',s ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation has been standardized4 ,characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps4 ,non-printable characteristics have been given the following ,italic text3 -- text emphasized text within bold text3 -- text4 ,this book was written in a period when many words had not become standardized in their spelling4 ,words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text4 ,these have been left unchanged unless indicated with a ,transcriber's ,note4 ,the symbol #8' indicates the description in parenthesis has been added to an illustration4 ,this may be needed if there is no caption or if the caption does not describe the image adequately4 ,index references have not been checked for accuracy4 ,footnotes are identified in the text with a number in brackets #b and have been accumulated in a single section at the end of the text4 ,transcriber's ,notes are used when making corrections to the text or to provide additional information for the modern reader4 ,these notes are identified in the text by a symbol1 and are accumulated in a single section at the end of the book4 ,illustration3 ,,immanuel ,,kant 7,the ,puttrich'sche ,portrait of ,kant was printed in the ,kant-,studien in #aijf and is said by ,professor ,vaihinger to be one of the best likenesses of the ,knigsberg philosopher4 ,the name of the artist was ,puttrich1 and the original painting goes back before #agih4 ,it is interesting to note that this portrait of ,kant was used by the sculptor1 ,rauch1 as his model for the statue of ,kant upon the memorial monument of ,frederick the ,great47 ,a ,,beginner',s ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,,by ,,herbert ,,ernest ,,cushman1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,ph4,d4 ,sometime ,professor of ,philosophy in ,tufts ,college ,lecturer of ,philosophy in ,harvard ,college ,lecturer of ,philosophy in ,dartmouth ,college ,,vol4 ,,ii ,,modern ,,philosophy ,illustration3 7 ,colophon7 ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,company ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge ,,copyright1 #aiaa1 ,,by ,,herbert ,,ernest ,,cushman ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved ,,preface ,the pedagogical purpose of this history of philosophy is stated in the ,preface to the first volume4 ,it may be desirable in this place to restate what that purpose is4 ,this book is intended as a text-book for sketch-courses in the history of philosophy4 ,it is written for the student rather than for the teacher4 ,it is a history of philosophy upon the background of geography and of literary and political history4 ,since the book is intended for the student1 it makes the teacher all the more necessary2 for it puts into the hands of the student an outline of the history of philosophy and into the hands of the teacher the class-room time for inspiring the student with his own interpretations4 ,in making use of geographical maps1 contemporary literature1 and political history1 this book is merely employing for pedagogical reasons the stock of information with which the student is furnished1 when he begins the history of philosophy4 ,the summaries1 tables1 and other generalizations are employed1 as in text-books in other subjects1 as helps to the memory4 ,therefore the book has the single purpose of arranging and organizing the material of the history of philosophy for the beginner4 ,the student will be impressed with the short time-length of the modern period compared with the tremendously long stretches of the periods of antiquity4 ,the modern period is only four hundred and fifty years in length1 if we take the date #adec as its beginning4 ,compared to the twenty-two hundred years of ancient and medival life1 the period of modern life seems very short4 ,furthermore the student who has followed the philosophy of antiquity must have observed how often philosophy arose out of ethnic situations in which whole civilizations were involved4 ,he will find that modern philosophy in this respect stands in contrast with the philosophy of ancient times4 ,with the decentralizing of modern ,europe1 philosophy has also become decentralized4 ,this does not mean that philosophical movements have included fewer people in their sweep1 but that the movements have had shorter life1 the transitions have been quicker1 and the epochs have been briefer4 ,modern civilization is subjective2 and its philosophy is thereby more technical1 and more difficult to understand and to interpret than the philosophy of antiquity4 ,there are many helpful books in ,english on the history of modern philosophy1 and the student should have them at hand4 ,i call attention especially to ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 for its judicious selection from the original sources2 to ,royce1 ,spirit of ,modern ,philosophy1 chapters iii to x2 to ,eucken1 ,the ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #cjc to #eah2 and to the ,summaries in ,windelband1 ,history of ,philosophy1 ,parts ,,iv to ,,vii4 ,besides these there are valuable histories of modern philosophy by ,falckenberg1 ,hffding 7#b vols471 ,weber1 ,ueberweg 7vol4 ii71 ,calkins1 ,dewing1 and ,rogers4 ,to friends who have read parts of the manuscript1 ,i desire to acknowledge my indebtedness for many wise criticisms and suggestions2 especially to ,professor ,w4 ,a4 ,neilson1 ,professor ,r4 ,b4 ,perry1 ,dr4 ,b4 ,a4 ,g4 ,fuller1 and ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,woods of ,harvard ,university2 to ,professor ,mary ,w4 ,calkins of ,wellesley ,college2 to ,professor ,w4 ,p4 ,montague of ,columbia ,university2 and to ,professor ,s4 ,p4 ,capen of ,clark ,college4 ,,tufts ,,college1 ,december1 #aiaj4 ,,contents ,,volume ,,ii4 ,,modern ,,philosophy 7#adec ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time7 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,characteristics ,,and ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,period #a ,,the ,,difficulty ,,in ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,modern ,,philosophy #a ,,the ,,periods ,,of ,,modern ,,philosophy #b ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,decay ,,of ,,the ,,civilization ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages #d 7a7 ,the ,internal ,causes #d 7#a7 ,the ,intellectual ,methods were ,self-,destructive #d 7#b7 ,the ,standard of ,truth became a ,double ,standard #e 7#c7 ,the ,development of ,mysticism #e 7#d7 ,the ,doctrine of ,nominalism #e 7b7 ,the ,external ,causes #f ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,renaissance 7#adec-afij7 #h ,,the ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance #h 7a7 ,the ,new ,man of the ,renaissance #h 7b7 ,the ,new ,universe of the ,renaissance #i 7#a7 ,the ,transformation of the ,physical ,universe #i 7#b7 ,the ,restoration of the ,world of ,antiquity #aj ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,history #aa ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,decentralization ,,of ,,europe #ac ,,the ,,two ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance3 ,,the ,,humanistic 7#adec-afjj72 ,,the ,,natural ,,science 7#afjj-afij7 #ae 7a7 ,the ,similarities of the ,two ,periods #af 7b7 ,the ,differences of the ,two ,periods #af 7#a7 ,the ,countries which participate in the ,renaissance differ in the ,two ,periods #af 7#b7 ,the ,intellectual ,standards differ in the ,two ,periods #ag 7#c7 ,the ,scientific ,methods in the ,two ,periods were ,different #ah 7#d7 ,the ,attitude of the ,church toward ,science differs in the ,two ,periods #ai ,a ,,brief ,,contrast ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,periods,a ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,discussion ,,above #ba ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,humanistic ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance 7#adec-afjj7 #bb ,,the ,,long ,,list ,,of ,,representatives ,,of ,,the ,,humanistic ,,period #bb ,,nicolas ,,of ,,cusa 7#adja-adfd7 #bd ,,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda7 #be ,,giordano ,,bruno 7#aedh-afjj7 #bg ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,birthplaces ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance #cj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,natural ,,science ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance 7#afjj-afij7 #ca ,,the ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,science ,,period #ca ,,the ,,mathematical ,,astronomers #cb ,,galileo ,,galilei 7#aefd-afda7 #cf ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,francis ,,bacon1 ,,baron ,,verulam 7#aefa-afbf7 #ci ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,bacon ,,in ,,philosophy #ci ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,bacon #db ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,bacon #dc 7a7 ,bacon's ,criticism of the ,past #dd 7b7 ,bacon's ,positive ,construction #de ,,the ,,english ,,natural ,,science ,,movement #df ,,thomas ,,hobbes ,,and ,,his ,,contemporaries #dg ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi7 #di #a4 ,as a ,classical ,scholar 7#aehh-afbh7 #di #b4 ,as ,mathematician 7#afbh-afch7 #di #c4 ,as ,philosopher 7#afch-afea7 #ej #d4 ,as ,controversialist 7#afea-affh7 #ej #e4 ,as ,classical ,scholar 7#affh-afgi7 #ej ,,the ,,influences ,,upon ,,the ,,thought ,,of ,,hobbes #ej #a4 ,his ,premature ,birth #ej #b4 ,his ,father #ea #c4 ,the ,new ,mathematical ,science #eb ,,the ,,fundamental ,,principle ,,in ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,hobbes #eb ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,hobbes #ed ,,the ,,kinds ,,of ,,bodies #ee ,,hobbes',s ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,mathematical ,,theory ,,to ,,psychology #ef ,,hobbes',s ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,mathematical ,,theory ,,to ,,politics #eh ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,england ,,after ,,hobbes #fa ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,rationalism ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,science ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance #fb ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,rationalism #fb ,,the ,,mental ,,conflict ,,in ,,descartes #fe ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,philosophical ,,writings ,,of ,,descartes 7#aeif-afej7 #ff #a4 ,as ,child and ,student 7#aeif-afac7 #ff #b4 ,as ,traveler 7#afac-afbh7 #ff #c4 ,as ,writer 7#afbi-afej7 #fg #d4 ,in ,stockholm 7#afdi-afej7 #fg ,,the ,,two ,,conflicting ,,influences ,,upon ,,the ,,thought ,,of ,,descartes #fg ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,descartes #fi ,,induction,,provisional ,,doubt,,the ,,ultimate ,,certainty ,,of ,,consciousness #gj ,,deduction,,the ,,implications ,,of ,,consciousness #gb ,,the ,,existence ,,of ,,god #gc ,,the ,,reality ,,of ,,matter #ge ,,god ,,and ,,the ,,world #gg ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,god ,,to ,,matter #gg ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,god ,,to ,,minds #gh ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,mind ,,and ,,body #gh ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,descartes #hj ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,occasionalists ,,and ,,spinoza ,,to ,,descartes #ha ,,portrait ,,of ,,spinoza #hd ,,the ,,historical ,,place ,,of ,,spinoza #hd ,,the ,,influences ,,upon ,,spinoza #hf #a4 ,his ,jewish ,training #hf #b4 ,his ,impulse from the ,new ,science,descartes' ,influence #hf #c4 ,his ,acquaintance with the ,collegiants #hg ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,philosophical ,,writings ,,of ,,spinoza 7#afcb-afgg7 #hh #a4 ,in ,israel 7#afcb-afef7 #hi #b4 ,in ,retirement 7#afef-affc7 #hi #c4 ,in the ,public ,eye 7#affc-afgg7 #ij ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,spinoza #ij ,,the ,,fundamental ,,principle ,,of ,,spinoza',s ,,philosophy #ia ,,three ,,central ,,problems ,,in ,,spinoza',s ,,teaching #ic ,,the ,,pantheism ,,of ,,spinoza,,the ,,all-,,inclusiveness ,,of ,,god #id ,,the ,,mysticism ,,of ,,spinoza #ih ,,spinoza',s ,,doctrine ,,of ,,salvation #ajb ,,summary ,,of ,,spinoza',s ,,teaching #ajf ,,leibnitz ,,as ,,the ,,finisher ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,,and ,,the ,,forerunner ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment #ajg ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,leibnitz 7#afdf-agaf7 #ajh #a4 ,leipsic and ,university ,life 7#afdf-afff7 #aaa #b4 ,mainz and ,diplomacy 7#afff-afgb7 #aaa #c4 ,paris and ,science 7#afgb-afgf7 #aaa #d4 ,hanover and ,philosophy 7#afgf-agaf7 #aab ,,the ,,three ,,influences ,,upon ,,the ,,thought ,,of ,,leibnitz #aab 7#a7 ,his ,early ,classical ,studies #aab 7#b7 ,the ,new ,science and his own ,discoveries #aac 7#c7 ,political ,pressure for ,religious ,reconciliation #aad ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,leibnitz #aae ,,the ,,immediate ,,problem ,,for ,,leibnitz #aah ,,the ,,result ,,of ,,leibnitz',s ,,examination ,,of ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,science,a ,,plurality ,,of ,,metaphysical ,,substances #aai #a4 ,leibnitz first scrutinized the ,scientific ,conception of ,motion #aai #b4 ,leibnitz next examined the ,scientific ,conception of the ,atom #abj #c4 ,leibnitz then identified ,force with the ,metaphysical ,atom #aba ,,the ,,double ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,monads #abb ,,the ,,two ,,forms ,,of ,,leibnitz',s ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,substances #abe ,,the ,,intrinsic ,,unity ,,of ,,the ,,monads,,the ,,philosophical ,,unity #abe ,,the ,,superimposed ,,unity ,,of ,,the ,,monads,,the ,,theological ,,unity #abi ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,enlightenment 7#afij-agha7 #acb ,,the ,,emergence ,,of ,,the 8,,new ,,man0,,individualism #acb ,,the ,,practical ,,presupposition ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment,,the ,,independence ,,of ,,the ,,individual #acd ,,the ,,metaphysical ,,presupposition ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment #ace ,,the ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment #ace 7a7 ,utilitarian ,problems #acf 7b7 ,questions of ,criticism #ach ,a ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment ,,in ,,england1 ,,france1 ,,and ,,germany #adj ,,the ,,many ,,groups ,,of ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment #adj ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,birthplaces ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,influential ,,thinkers ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment #add ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,john ,,locke #ade ,,the ,,enlightenment ,,in ,,great ,,britain #ade ,,john ,,locke1 ,,life ,,and ,,writings 7#afcb-agjd7 #adg #a4 ,student ,life 7#afcb-afff7 #adg #b4 ,as ,politician 7#afff-afhc7 #adh #c4 ,as ,philosophical ,author 7#afhc-afia7 #adi #d4 ,as ,controversialist 7#afia-agjd7 #adi ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,locke',s ,,thought #aej #a4 ,his ,puritan ,ancestry #aej #b4 ,his ,training in ,tolerance #aej #c4 ,the ,scientific ,influence #aea #d4 ,the ,political ,influence #aeb ,,summary #aec ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,locke #aec ,,two ,,sides ,,of ,,locke',s ,,philosophy #aee 7a7 ,the ,negative ,side,locke and ,scholasticism #aef 7b7 ,the ,positive ,side,the ,new ,psychology and ,epistemology #aeg ,,locke',s ,,psychology #aeh ,,locke',s ,,theory ,,of ,,knowledge #afj ,,locke',s ,,practical ,,philosophy #afb ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,locke #afc ,,the ,,english ,,deists #afd ,,the ,,english ,,moralists #aff ,,chronological ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,moralists #afh ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,berkeley ,,and ,,hume #afi ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,george ,,berkeley 7#afhe-agec7 #afi #a4 ,his ,early ,training 7#afhe-agjg7 #afi #b4 ,as ,author 7#agjg-agba7 #agj #c4 ,as ,priest and ,missionary 7#agba-agec7 #aga ,,the ,,influences ,,upon ,,the ,,thought ,,of ,,berkeley #agb ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,berkeley #agc ,,berkeley',s ,,general ,,relation ,,to ,,locke ,,and ,,hume #agd ,,berkeley',s ,,points ,,of ,,agreement ,,with ,,locke #age ,,the ,,negative ,,side ,,of ,,berkeley',s ,,philosophy #agf #a4 ,as shown in ,general in his ,analysis of ,abstract ,ideas #agg #b4 ,as shown in ,particular in his ,analysis of ,matter #agg ,,the ,,positive ,,side ,,of ,,berkeley',s ,,philosophy #agi #a4 ,esse est ,percipi #agi #b4 ,the ,existence of ,mind is assumed by ,berkeley #ahj #c4 ,spiritual ,substances are ,sufficient to explain all ,ideas #aha ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,david ,,hume 7#agaa-aggf7 #ahc #a4 ,period of ,training 7#agaa-agcd7 #ahd #b4 ,period of ,philosopher 7#agcd-ageb7 #ahe #c4 ,period of ,politician 7#ageb-aggf7 #ahe ,,influences ,,upon ,,the ,,thought ,,of ,,hume #ahf ,,dogmatism1 ,,phenomenalism1 ,,and ,,skepticism #ahg ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,ideas #ahi ,,the ,,association ,,of ,,ideas #aia ,,the ,,association ,,of ,,contiguity #aic ,,the ,,association ,,of ,,resemblance #aid #a4 ,mathematics #aid #b4 ,the ,conception of ,substance3 ,hume's ,attack on ,theology #aie ,,the ,,association ,,of ,,causation3 ,,hume',s ,,attack ,,on ,,science #aif ,,the ,,extent ,,and ,,limits ,,of ,,human ,,knowledge #aii ,,hume',s ,,theory ,,of ,,religion ,,and ,,ethics #bjj ,,the ,,scottish ,,school #bja ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,enlightenment ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,germany #bjc ,,the ,,situation ,,in ,,france ,,in ,,the ,,enlightenment #bjc ,,the ,,english ,,influence ,,in ,,france #bjf ,,the ,,two ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,enlightenment #bjg ,,the ,,intellectual ,,enlightenment 7#agbi-agfb7,,voltaire1 ,,montesquieu1 ,,and ,,the ,,encyclop,,dists #bjh ,,voltaire 7#afid-aggh7 #bji ,,the ,,encyclop,,dists #baa ,,the ,,social ,,enlightenment 7#agfb-aghi7 #bac ,,rousseau 7#agab-aggh7 #bac ,,the ,,german ,,enlightenment 7#agdj-agha7 #baf ,,the ,,introductory ,,period 7#afdh-agdj74 ,,absolutism #bag #a4 ,the ,rise of ,prussia #bah #b4 ,the ,early ,german ,literature #bai #c4 ,the ,pietistic ,movement #bai #d4 ,the ,transformation of ,leibnitz's ,rationalism #bbj ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,literary ,,enlightenment ,,of ,,germany 7#agdj-agha7 #bbc ,,the ,,political ,,enlightenment ,,of ,,germany,,frederick ,,the ,,great #bbd ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,enlightenment #bbf ,,lessing #bbh ,,chapter ,x4 ,,kant #bcj ,,the ,,convergence ,,of ,,philosophical ,,influences ,,in ,,germany #bcj ,,the ,,three ,,characteristics ,,of ,,german ,,philosophy #bca ,,the ,,two ,,periods ,,of ,,german ,,philosophy #bcb ,,the ,,influences ,,upon ,,kant #bcc #a4 ,pietism #bcc #b4 ,the ,leibnitz-,wolffian ,philosophy #bcc #c4 ,the ,physics of ,newton #bcd #d4 ,the ,humanitarianism of ,rousseau #bcd #e4 ,the ,skepticism of ,hume #bce ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,kant 7#agbd-ahjd7 #bce ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,kant #bch ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,kant #bci ,,the ,,threefold ,,world ,,of ,,kant,,subjective ,,states1 ,,things-,,in-,,themselves1 ,,and ,,phenomena #bdj ,,the ,,world ,,of ,,knowledge #bdc ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,synthesis ,,in ,,knowledge #bde ,,the ,,judgments ,,indispensable ,,to ,,human ,,knowledge #bdh ,,the ,,proof ,,of ,,the ,,validity ,,of ,,human ,,knowledge #beb #a4 ,in what does the ,validity of ,sense-,perception consist8 #bec #b4 ,in what does the ,validity of the ,understanding consist8 #bee ,,has ,,the ,,reason ,,by ,,itself ,,any ,,validity8 #bfj ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,the ,,soul #bfb ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,the ,,universe #bfd ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,god #bfe ,,conclusion #bfh ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,critique ,,of ,,practical ,,reason3 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,kant #bfi ,,the ,,moral ,,law ,,and ,,the ,,two ,,questions ,,concerning ,,it #bga #a4 ,the ,first ,question concerning the ,moral ,law #bgb #b4 ,the ,second ,question concerning the ,moral ,law #bgc ,,the ,,moral ,,postulates #bge #a4 ,the ,postulate of ,freedom #bgf #b4 ,the ,postulate of the ,immortality of the ,soul #bgf #c4 ,the ,postulate of the ,existence of ,god #bgf ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,german ,,idealists #bgh ,,idealism ,,after ,,kant #bgh ,,fichte1 ,,schelling1 ,,and ,,hegel #bgi ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,university ,,towns ,,and ,,other ,,important ,,places ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,german ,,idealists #bhj ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,fichte 7#agfb-ahad7 #bhb #a4 ,his ,education 7#agfb-agij7 #bhc #b4 ,discipleship of ,kant 7#agij-agid7 #bhc #c4 ,his ,life at ,jena 7#agid-agii7 #bhd #d4 ,his ,life at ,berlin 7#agii-ahad7 #bhd ,,the ,,influences ,,upon ,,fichte',s ,,teaching #bhe ,,why ,,we ,,philosophize #bhf ,,the ,,moral ,,awakening #bhg ,,the ,,central ,,principle ,,in ,,fichte',s ,,philosophy #bhh ,,the ,,moral ,,world #bij ,,god ,,and ,,man #bib ,,what ,a ,,moral ,,reality ,,involves #bic #a4 ,it involves the ,consciousness of ,something ,else #bic #b4 ,it involves a ,contradiction #bid ,,romanticism #bie ,,goethe ,,as ,a ,,romanticist #big ,,romanticism ,,in ,,philosophy #bii ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,schelling 7#agge-ahed7 #cjj #a4 ,earlier ,period 7#agge-agig7 #cjb #b4 ,the ,philosophy of ,nature 7#agig-ahjj7 #cjb #c4 ,the ,transcendental ,philosophy 7#ahjj-ahja7 #cjb #d4 ,the ,philosophy of ,identity 7#ahja-ahjd7 #cjc #e4 ,the ,philosophy of ,freedom and ,god 7#ahjd-ahji7 #cjc #f4 ,the ,philosophy of ,mythology and ,revelation 7#ahji-ahed7 #cjc ,a ,,brief ,,comparison ,,of ,,fichte ,,and ,,schelling ,,as ,,philosophers #cjc ,,schelling',s ,,philosophy ,,of ,,nature #cje ,,schelling',s ,,transcendental ,,philosophy #cjg ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,identity #caj ,,schelling',s ,,religious ,,philosophy #caa ,,hegel ,,and ,,the ,,culmination ,,of ,,idealism #cab ,,why ,,hegel ,,remains ,,to-,,day ,,the ,,representative ,,of ,,kant #cad ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,hegel 7#aggj-ahca7 #cae #a4 ,formative ,period 7#aggj-agif7 #cag #b4 ,formulation of his ,philosophy 7#agif-ahjf7 #cag #c4 ,development of his ,philosophy 7#ahjf-ahca7 #cag ,,realism1 ,,mysticism1 ,,and ,,idealism #cah ,,the ,,fundamental ,,principles ,,of ,,hegel',s ,,idealism #cba ,,the ,,cosmic ,,unity #cbb ,,the ,,cosmic ,,law #cbf ,,hegel',s ,,application ,,of ,,his ,,theory #cbh ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,thing-,,in-,,itself #ccj ,,herbart ,,and ,,schopenhauer #ccj ,,johann ,,friedrich ,,herbart #ccb ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,herbart 7#aggf-ahda7 #ccc ,,the ,,contradictions ,,of ,,experience #ccd ,,the ,,argument ,,for ,,realism #ccd ,,the ,,many ,,reals ,,and ,,nature ,,phenomena #ccg ,,the ,,soul ,,and ,,mental ,,phenomena #cch ,,arthur ,,schopenhauer ,,and ,,his ,,philosophical ,,relations #cdj ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,schopenhauer 7#aghh-ahfj7 #cdb #a4 ,period of ,education 7#aghh-ahac7 #cdc #b4 ,period of ,literary ,production 7#ahac-ahca7 #cdc #c4 ,period of ,retirement 7#ahca-ahfj7 #cdc ,,the ,,influences ,,upon ,,schopenhauer',s ,,thought #cdc ,,the ,,world ,,as ,,will ,,and ,,the ,,world ,,as ,,idea #cde ,,the ,,will ,,as ,,irrational ,,reality #cdg ,,the ,,misery ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,as ,,idea,,pessimism #cdh ,,the ,,way ,,of ,,deliverance #cdi ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #ceb ,,the ,,return ,,to ,,realism #ceb ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,realism ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #cec ,,modern ,,philosophy ,,and ,,german ,,idealism #cee ,,the ,,philosophical ,,problems ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century #cef #a4 ,the ,problem of the ,functioning of the ,soul #ceg #b4 ,the ,problem of the ,conception of ,history #cfj ,,index #cfe ,,illustrations ,,immanuel ,,kant ,frontispiece ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,decentralization ,,of ,,europe #ac ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,birthplaces ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance #cj ,,baruch ,,de ,,spinoza #hd ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,birthplaces ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,influential ,,thinkers ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment #add ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,university ,,towns ,,and ,,other ,,important ,,places ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,german ,,idealists #bhj ,a ,,beginner',s ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,,volume ,,ii ,,modern ,,philosophy 7#adec ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time7 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,characteristics ,,and ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,modern ,,period ,the ,difficulty in the ,study of ,modern ,philosophy4 ,beside the great spans of ancient and medival civilizations1 the #dej years of the modern period seem brief4 ,the road is indeed relatively short from medival times to the century in which we live1 and yet it proves difficult to the student who travels it for the first time4 ,even for the modern mind the study of modern philosophy is inherently more difficult than that of the ancient and medival4 ,the preceding periods present new points of view1 but these1 once attained1 lead along comparatively easy ways4 ,the chief difficulty of the preceding periods is overcome when their peculiar view of things is gained2 but the student of modern philosophy is confronted with difficulties all along the way4 ,in the first place1 modern philosophy is very complex because it is a conflict of various aspirations4 ,it has neither the objectivity of ancient thought nor the logical consistency of medival thought4 ,it arises from subjective motives1 whose shadings are difficult to trace4 ,the task is rendered harder by the fact that intimations of the problems in the history of modern philosophy are on the whole present in the beginner's mind2 and yet at the same time his mind possesses1 besides these1 many medival notions as well4 ,for the student to pass successfully through the entire length of modern thought from ,cusanus to ,spencer means1 therefore1 two things for him3 7#a7 he must gain an insight into the depth and significance of his own half-formed ideas2 7#b7 he must transcend or give up entirely his medival notions4 ,if therefore philosophy represents the epoch that produces it1either as the central principle or as the marginal and ulterior development of that epoch1the modern can come to an understanding of the history of modern philosophy only by coming to an understanding of himself and his own inner reflections4 ,this will explain why the short period of modern thought is traditionally divided into comparatively many periods4 ,these subordinate periods ring out the changes through which the modern man feels that he himself has blindly passed in his inner life4 ,modern philosophy is no more local and temporary than the ancient2 it is no less a part of a social movement2 but the modern man is more alive to the differentiations of modern thought than he is to those of antiquity4 ,the ,periods of ,modern ,philosophy4 ,the divisions of the history of modern philosophy are as follows3 #a4 ,the ,renaissance 7#adec-afij7;from the end of the ,middle ,ages to the publication of ,locke's ,essay on the ,human ,understanding4 #b4 ,the ,enlightenment 7#afij-agha7to the publication of ,kant's ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 #c4 ,german ,philosophy 7#agha-ahca7to the death of ,hegel4 #d4 ,the ,nineteenth ,century ,philosophy 7#ahbj-the present time74 ,the ,renaissance1 the first period1 covers more than half of the length of modern times4 ,it is sometimes called the springtime of modern history1 although it is longer than all the other seasons together4 ,it is to be noted that two epoch-making books form the dividing lines between the first three periods4 ,the transition from the ,renaissance to the ,enlightenment is signalized by ,locke's great ,essay on the ,human ,understanding1 which expressed for one hundred years the political and philosophical opinions of western ,europe4 ,the transition from the ,enlightenment to ,german ,philosophy was in its turn signalized by the appearance of ,kant's ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 and this book may be said to have been fundamental to human thinking ever since4 ,there is one point further to be noticed in these divisions1 and that is the overlapping of the last two periods4 ,german philosophy ends practically with the death of ,hegel in #ahca1 and the modern ,evolution movement began at least ten years before1 about #ahbj4 ,no great philosophical treatise marks the division here1 for the ,evolution movement had its beginnings in ,german philosophy and in the discoveries and practical inventions of natural science4 ,evolution1 however1 became a reaction upon the last phases of ,german philosophy1 and then formed a distinct movement4 ,the book that formulated the ,evolution movement most fully appeared several years after the theory was under way4 ,this was ,darwin's ,origin of ,species1 published in #ahei4 ,locke's ,essay and ,kant's ,critique are therefore the most influential philosophical interpretations of the history of modern times since its early beginnings in the ,renaissance4 ,the ,causes of the ,decay of the ,civilization of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the social structure of the medival time weakened and broke apart1 in the first place because of certain inherent defects in its organism2 in the second place because of some remarkable discoveries1 inventions1 and historical changes4 ,we may call these 7#a7 the internal causes and 7#b7 the external causes of the fall of the civilization of the ,middle ,ages4 7a7 ,the ,internal ,causes were inherent weaknesses in medival intellectual life1 and alone would have been sufficient to bring medival society to an end4 7#a7 ,the intellectual methods of the ,middle ,ages were self-destructive methods4 ,we may take scholasticism as the best expression of the intellectual life of the ,middle ,ages1 and scholasticism even in its ripest period used the method of deductive logic4 ,scholasticism did not employ induction from observation and experiment1 but proceeded on the principle that the more universal logically a conception is1 the more real it is4 7,see vol4 i1 p4 #cee47 ,on this principle scholasticism set as its only task to penetrate and clarify dogma4 ,its theism was a logical theism4 ,even ,thomas ,aquinas1 the great classic schoolman1 used formal logic 7dialectics7 as the method of obtaining the truth4 ,after him in the latter part of the ,middle ,ages1 logic instead of being a method became an end4 ,it was studied for its own sake4 ,this naturally degenerated into word-splitting and quibbling1 into the commenting upon the texts of this master and that1 into arid verbal discussions4 ,the religious orders frittered away their time on verbal questions of trifling importance4 ,the lifetime of such intellectual employment is always a limited one4 7#b7 ,the standard of the truth of things in the ,middle ,ages became a double standard1 and was therefore self-destructive4 ,ostensibly there was only one standard1infallible dogma4 ,really there were two standards1reason and dogma4 ,the employment of logical methods implied the human reason as a valid standard4 ,logic is the method of human reasoning4 ,to use logic to clarify dogma1 to employ the philosophy of ,aristotle to supplement the ,bible1 to defend faith by argument1 amounted in effect to supporting revelation by reason4 ,it was the same as defending the infallible and revealed by the fallible and secular4 ,it was the erecting of a double standard4 ,it called the infallible into question4 ,it was the offering of excuses for what is supposedly beyond suspicion4 ,the scholastic made faith the object of thought1 and thereby encouraged the spirit of free inquiry4 7#c7 ,the development of ,mysticism in the ,middle ,ages was a powerful factor that led to its dissolution4 ,there is1 of course1 an element of mysticism in the doctrine of the church from ,st4 ,augustine onwards1 and in the ,early ,period of the ,middle ,ages mysticism had no independence4 ,but mysticism is essentially the direct communion with ,god on the part of the individual4 ,the intermediary offices of the church are contradictory to the spirit of mysticism4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 to find in the last period of scholasticism numerous independent mystics as representatives of the tendency of individualistic religion1 which was to result in the ,protestantism of the ,renaissance4 7#d7 ,the doctrine of ,nominalism was the fourth important element to be mentioned that led to the dissolution of the civilization of the ,middle ,ages4 ,this was easily suppressed by the church authorities in the early medival centuries1 when it was a purely logical doctrine and had no empirical scientific basis4 ,in the later years1 however1 nominalism gained great strength with the acquisition of knowledge of the nature world4 ,nominalism turned man's attention away from the affairs of the spirit4 ,it incited him to modify the realism of dogma4 ,it pointed out the importance of practical experience4 ,it emphasized individual opinion1 neglected tradition1 and placed its hope in the possibilities of science rather than in the spiritual actualities of religion4 7b7 ,the ,external ,causes consisted of certain important events that brought the ,middle ,ages to a close and introduced the ,renaissance4 ,these events caused great social changes by demolishing the geographical and astronomical conceptions of medival time which had become a part of church tradition4 ,first to be mentioned are the inventions which belong to the ,middle ,ages1 but which came into common use not before the beginning of the ,renaissance4 ,these played an important part in the total change of the society which followed4 ,they were the magnetic needle1 gunpowder1 which was influential in destroying the feudal system1 and printing1 which would have failed in its effect had not at the same time the manufacture of paper been improved4 ,moreover at the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century occurred the following events3 #adec4 ,constantinople fell and its ,greek scholars migrated to ,italy4 #adib4 ,columbus discovered ,america1 an achievement which was made possible by the use of the magnetic needle4 #adih4 ,vasco da ,gama discovered the all-sea route to ,india and thereby changed the course of the world's commerce4 #aeah4 ,the ,protestant ,reformation was begun by ,luther4 #aecj4 ,copernicus wrote his ,de revolutionibus orbium1 in which he maintained that the earth moved around the sun4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,renaissance#a 7#adec-afij7 ,the ,general ,character of the ,renaissance4 ,the causes that led to the decline of the society of the ,middle ,ages were of course the same that ushered in the period of the ,renaissance1the first1 the longest1 and the most hopeful period of modern times4 ,the general characterization of this period may be expressed in a single phrase1a ,new ,man in a ,new ,universe4 ,this1 however1 needs explanation4 7a7 ,the ,new ,man of the ,renaissance was distinctly a man with a country4 ,the fusion of the ,german and ,roman peoples in the ,dark ,ages before ,charlemagne 7#hjj7 was now completed4 ,the fusion did not result in a homogeneous whole1 but in groups which formed the nations of ,europe4 ,the time when this grouping was practically finished is a difficult problem1 into which we will not inquire4 ,in a real sense it never was nor will be ended4 ,we know that the nations began to form about the year #ajjj1 and when we examine the history of the ,renaissance we find ,italians1 ,germans1 ,french1 ,dutch1 and ,english with distinctive national characteristics4 ,we find the ,renaissance first centralized among the ,italians and ,germans1 and then later among the ,english1 the people of the ,low ,countries1 and the ,french4 ,the ,italian is a new ,roman and the ,german a new ,teuton4 ,the undefined nationalities of the ,middle ,ages now become clear-cut4 ,philosophy also becomes now more or less of a national concern4 7b7 ,a ,new ,universe is now opened to the 8,new ,man0 of the ,renaissance4 ,not only in mental equipment1 but in scope for his activity1 does the ,european of the ,renaissance differ from the medival man4 ,the world is actually a new worldnew in its geographical outlines and its astronomical relations2 new in its intellectual stores from the past4 ,the physical world that supported his body and the intellectual world that refreshed his mind were newly discovered by the man of the ,renaissance4 ,we must examine these two new worlds more in detail4 #a4 ,the physical universe had undergone a wonderful transformation for man4 ,our nineteenth century has often been looked upon as a period of extraordinary discoveries2 but no discoveries have ever so revolutionized the human mind as those enumerated above as 8the external causes of the fall of the society of the ,middle ,ages40 ,think how new that old world must have seemed to the common people who had supposed it to be flat1 as well as to the scientists who had hypothetically supposed it to be solidhow new it must have seemed when they found that it had been actually circumnavigated6 ,how the horizon of men's minds must have widened when new continents were discovered by sailors and new celestial worlds were found by the telescope of the astronomers6 ,discovery led to experiment1 and the whole new physical world was transformed by the new physical science of ,galileo into a mechanical order4 ,it was a wonderful new material world that was discovered and scientifically reorganized at the beginning of the ,renaissance4 ,whereas the common man in medival time had found little joy in living1 the common man now looked upon the world as a magnificent opportunity4 ,whereas the medival man had turned from the disorders of this wicked world to contemplation of the blessedness of heaven1 the man of the ,renaissance came forth from the cloister and engaged in trade and adventure4 ,the earth and the things therein had suddenly become objects of emotional interest4 #b4 ,not only was a new geographical and physical world discovered at this time1 but also the intellectual world of antiquity was restored4 ,for more than a thousand years in western ,europe the literature of the ,greeks and ,romans had been a thing of shreds and patches1 and even then read only in ,latin translations4 ,now the ,european had come into possession of a large part of it and was reading it in the original4 ,he was aroused to the wonderful intellectual life of the ,age of ,pericles4 ,the interest in ancient literature1 which had been started by ,dante1 ,petrarch1 and ,boccaccio in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries1 became an absorbing and controlling force at this time4 ,the real interest began with the stimulus received by the coming of the ,greek scholars to ,italy from the ,east3 first the ecclesiastical embassy in #adch1 and afterward in #adec the large number of refugees from ,constantinople at the time of its capture by the ,turks4 ,upon these refugees the patronage of the great ,italian nobleschiefly perhaps in ,florencewas lavishly bestowed4 ,the ,platonic ,academy was founded4 ,learned expounders of the new learning arose1,pletho1 the two ,picos1 ,fincinus1 ,reuchlin4 ,of all the philosophies of antiquity ,platonism was favored1 and it was interpreted in a mystical manner4 ,aristotle and ,christianity were looked upon as mere interpretations of ,plato4 ,nevertheless the ,renaissance scholars were interested in all the new literary material from the ,east4 ,they studied the ,jewish ,cabala and its mystic numbers4 ,they revived ,skepticism1 ,eclecticism1 ,stoicism1 and ,epicureanism4 ,aristotle was represented by two antagonistic schools2 and ,taurellus opposed both and appealed to the scholarly world to return to ,christianity4 ,the ,significance of the ,renaissance in ,history4 ,we have above characterized the ,renaissance as a time in which a 8new man0 found himself living in a 8new universe40 ,but the old world of medival science1 culture1 and conventional manners had by no means been entirely outgrown and discarded4 ,periods of history do not 8leave their low-vaulted past0 as easily as a man may throw away his coat4 ,medival science and theology still remained1 not only as a background but also as an aggressive social factor everywhere4 ,medival scholasticism was something with which the ,renaissance had always to reckon4 ,scholasticism modified1 frequently restricted1 and even directed the thought of the ,renaissance4 ,consequently when we form our final estimate of the place of the ,renaissance in the modern movement1 we must not overlook the conservative force of the medival institutions existing during the period4 ,the 8new man0 lived in a 8new universe02 and his problem was how to explain the relation of that 8new universe0 to himself so that his explanation would not antagonize the time-honored traditions of the church4 ,this was the constructive problem that gave the ,renaissance its place in history4 ,the first impression1 however1 of the ,renaissance upon the reader is that it stands for no constructive problem whatever4 ,the changes that usher in the ,renaissance seem to speak of an epoch that is entirely negative1 destructive1 and revolutionary4 ,the period seems from one side to be a declaration against time-honored traditions4 ,the 8new man0 had risen superior to dogma and to ,aristotle4 ,intellectual fermentation had set in1 and never had so many attempts at innovation been so strenuously sought4 ,the love for novelty filled the human mind1 and the imagination ran riot4 ,the movement toward modern individualism appeared in the decentralization that at this time was everywhere taking place4 ,latin1 for example1 ceased to be the one language for educated men1 and the modern languages came into use4 ,rome ceased to be the only religious centre1 and ,wittenberg1 ,london1 and ,geneva became centres4 ,there was no longer one church1 but many sects4 ,scientific centres became numerous4 ,many of the universities had arisen independently1 and now ,oxford1 ,vienna1 ,heidelberg1 ,prague1 and numerous universities in ,italy and ,germany afforded opportunities for study equal to those of ,paris4 ,to the man who looks upon the ,classic ,period of ,scholasticism in the ,middle ,ages as the golden age of united faith1to that man the ,renaissance will appear only as the beginning of the disintegration and revolution that he sees in modern times4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,decentralization ,,of ,,europe ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century 7,note that ,rome1 ,wittenberg1 ,london1 and ,geneva are the religious centres2 that ,paris1 ,oxford1 ,heidelberg1 and ,prague are the educational centres2 and that ,europe is divided into many nations7 ,but a deeper insight into the ,renaissance shows that its revolutionary1 negative1 and spectacular aspect is not its whole significance4 ,no doubt a strong1 universal1 and well-centralized government and a unity of faith are social ideals4 ,the reverence in which the name of ,rome was held long after the empire had been destroyed1 and the reluctance with which the first ,protestants separated themselves from the ,catholic church1 show that the loss of such a unity is a real loss4 ,but the church of the ,middle ,ages was not the carrier of all the treasure of the past1 nor could the church with its own inherent limitations stand as representative of modern times4 ,the new problem which the ,renaissance faced might be destructive of much of the traditional past1 but it contained many new elements4 ,the 8new man0 found himself in a 8new universe40 ,he was obliged to undertake the solution of a far deeper problem than antiquity had ever attempted4 ,he must orient himself in a larger world than the past had ever imagined4 ,he must do this in the very presence of medival institutions1 which had not lost their spiritual nor their temporal power4 ,the constructive problem before the man of the ,renaissance was therefore an exceedingly complex one4 ,how should he explain his relation to the 8new universe0 in a way that would not antagonize tradition8 ,it was a new problem1 a real problem in which the traditional factor was always persistently present4 ,there were two motifs which give to the problem of the ,renaissance its constructive character4 ,these were naturalism and subjectivism4 ,in the first place1 the ,renaissance is the period when the naturalism of the ,greeks was recovered4 ,by naturalism is meant the love for earthly life4 ,of this the medival church and the medival time had little or nothing4 ,the church had been born out of the revulsion from the earthly1 and it rose on the aspiration for the supernatural4 ,the ,renaissance was1 on the contrary1 born out of a passionate joy in nature1 which joy was intensified by the unexpected possession of the literature of the past and by the discovery of new lands beyond the seas4 ,man felt now the happiness and dignity of earthly living and the worth of the body as well as the soul4 ,in the next place1 the ,renaissance is marked by the rise of subjectivism4 ,at the beginning of our book we have already given the meaning of subjectivism 7see vol4 i1 p4 #b71 and we have characterized modern civilization as subjective in distinction from the ancient as objective and the ,middle ,ages as traditional4 ,we have also found1 as we have gone on1 the beginnings of subjectivism in the ,sophists1 ,stoics1 and ,christians4 ,but in the ,renaissance for the first time does the individual as a rational self gain the central position4 ,this is subjectivism3 the individual is not only the interpreter of the universe1 but also its mental creator4 ,of the subjective motif in modern times the ,renaissance marks the inauguration1 and ,german ,idealism the culmination4 ,while the world of the ancients was cosmo-centric and the medival world was theo-centric1 the world of the modern man is ego-centric4 ,the love of life1 and the love of life because the individual feels his own capacity for lifethis is the situation presented to the man of the ,renaissance4 ,thus in the restoration of naturalism and in the construction of subjectivism did the ,renaissance stand for positive upbuilding1 in spite of the fact that in all this the period was constrained by the powerful tradition of the church4 ,the ,two ,periods of the ,renaissance3 ,the ,humanistic 7#adec-afjj72 ,the ,natural ,science 7#afjj-afij74 ,the ,renaissance is divided into two periods at the year #afjj4 ,the reason for taking this date as a division line will soon appear4 ,the period before #afjj we call the ,humanistic1 or the period of the ,humanities2 the period after this date the ,natural ,science ,period4 7a7 ,the ,similarities of the ,two ,periods4 ,these two periods are alike in having the same motives4 ,both feel the same urgent need 7#a7 for new knowledge1 7#b7 for a new standard by which to measure their new knowledge1 7#c7 for a new method of gaining knowledge4 ,from the beginning to the end of the ,renaissance the 8new man0 was feeling his way about1 was trying to orient and readjust himself in his 8new universe40 ,he was seeking new acquisitions to his rich stores of knowledge1 to systematize his knowledge by some correct method1 and to set up some standard by which his knowledge might be tested4 7b7 ,the ,differences of the ,two ,periods4 ,there are1 however1 some marked differences in the carrying out of these motives by each period1 and to these we must give our attention4 7#a7 ,the ,countries which participate in the ,renaissance differ in the ,two ,periods4 ,in the ,humanistic ,period ,italy and ,germany were chiefly concerned4 ,there are two reasons for this4 ,in the first place1 these countries had been engaged in commerce with the ,orient1 had become prosperous and more or less acquainted with the culture of the ,orient4 ,in the second place1 ,italy had been the refuge of the ,greek scholars2 when the colony of ,greek refugees in ,florence had died out in #aebj1 northerners like ,erasmus1 ,agricola1 ,reuchlin1 the ,stephani1 and ,budus had luckily already made themselves masters of the ,greek language and literature1 and had carried their learning into ,germany4 ,in the ,natural ,science ,period the ,renaissance had practically become dead both in ,germany and in ,italy4 ,the reason for this is not far to seek4 ,in ,italy1 in #aefc1 the ,council of ,trent had fixed the dogma of the church and had made it impossible for the church to assimilate anything more from antiquity4 ,the so-called ,counter-,reformation set in1 and ,italy became dumb under the persecutions of the ,inquisition4 ,furthermore1 the discovery of the sea-route to the ,east had turned commerce away from ,italy4 ,when we look to ,germany1 we find a similar situation4 ,the ,thirty ,years' ,war 7#afah-afdh7 had devastated the land and had made intellectual life wholly impossible4 ,on the other hand1 ,england1 ,france1 and the ,low ,countries represent the ,natural ,science ,period in the ,renaissance4 ,by the ,war of ,liberation 7#aefh-afdh7 ,holland became the ,european country where the greatest freedom of thought was granted1 and it proved itself an asylum for thinkers and scholars4 ,france1 through the influence of the ,university of ,paris1 was the centre of mathematical research4 ,in ,england the brilliant ,elizabethan era had already begun4 7#b7 ,the ,intellectual ,standards differ in the ,two ,periods4 ,the ,humanistic ,period has been well characterized as the time of 8the struggle of traditions40 ,naturally enough1 with the revival of ,greek learning the thinkers of the first period of the ,renaissance would try to solve the new problems by the standards which they found in antiquity4 ,what did ,aristotle1 ,plato1 the ,epicureans say in matters of science8 ,what standards did they yield for solving the new problems of the 8new universe08 ,the traditions of antiquity were therefore revived2 and the contention was1 ,which should be taken as a standard8 ,among all the ancient systems neo-,platonism became the most prominent4 ,it dominated the ,humanistic ,period because its sthetic character and its mystical explanations appealed to the susceptible mind of that time4 ,nevertheless1 the sway of neo-,platonism was not absolute4 ,the 8struggle of traditions0 continued throughout the period1 as appears in the schisms of the church and in the literary and philosophical contentions4 ,the ,natural ,science ,period1 in its hope of finding a standard to explain the problems of the 8new universe10 discovered a new standard within the 8new universe0 itself4 ,no tradition of antiquity had proved itself adequate to the situation4 ,nothing could be found in ,plato and ,aristotle to give a theoretic standard for the new discoveries and inventions4 ,nature disclosed its own standard within itself4 ,the ,natural ,science ,period said nature facts must be explained by nature facts4 ,but the question will naturally be asked1 ,why did the thinkers of this period1 when the theories of antiquity were found to be inadequate1 turn to nature rather than elsewhere for an explanation of nature8 ,the answer to this is found in the great successes of the physical astronomers1 who had started their investigations at the beginning of the ,humanistic ,period1 and had reached the zenith of their glory at the beginning of the ,natural ,science ,period4 ,the discoveries of ,galileo were especially important4 7#c7 ,the ,scientific ,methods in the ,two ,periods were ,different4 ,the method usually employed in the ,humanistic ,period was magic4 ,this first period tried to explain nature facts of the 8new universe0 by referring them to agencies in the spiritual world4 ,in their neo-,platonic nature-worship the scholars of this period imagined that the control of nature was to be obtained by a fanciful linking of the parts of nature to the spirits supposed to be in nature4 ,the ,bible is the product of the spiritual world1 so why is not the 8new nature-world0 inspired from the same source8 ,god is the first cause of all things2 ,he is in all things and each finite thing mirrors ,him4 ,all things have souls4 ,to gain control over nature1 some all-controlling formula must be found which will reveal the secret of the control of spirits over nature2 and to master the spirits that control nature is to control nature herself4 ,hence arose1 as the methods of this first period1 magic1 trance-mediumship1 necromancy1 alchemy1 conjurations1 and astrology4 ,antiquity could offer 7and especially is this true of ,platonism7 only spiritual causes for nature facts1hence the search in this time for the philosopher's stone4 ,there was never a blinder groping after a method4 ,the scientific method used in the ,natural ,science ,period was the mathematical4 ,the world of experience was found to coincide with the number system1 and therefore mathematics was used as the symbol to determine the form of nature events4 ,induction and deduction were used in different combinations4 ,the period has been characterized as the time of 8the strife of methods40 ,induction and deduction became in fact the new methods of finding the truth about the 8new world40 ,whatever is clear and distinct1 like the axioms1 must be taken as true4 ,all other knowledge must be deduced from these axiomatic certainties4 ,in contrast with the magical methods of the ,humanistic ,period1 which point beyond nature for an explanation of nature1 here in the ,natural ,science ,period mathematics need not lead the explanation farther than nature herself4 7#d7 ,the ,attitude of the ,church toward ,science differs in the ,two ,periods4 ,in the ,humanistic ,period the attitude of the church toward the new learning was not yet defined4 ,this was because the bearing of the new learning upon dogma was not yet understood4 ,on the one hand1 on matters upon which the church had clearly declared itself1 it was easily seen what could and what could not be believed4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the significance of much of the wealth of the newly acquired learning could not at first be fully determined4 ,the enthusiasm for science was so widespread1 and the new discoveries were so many1 that the church was unable to know what was consistent with dogma and what was not4 ,at the outset the church was inclined to treat the new science with contemptuous toleration4 ,nevertheless1 in spite of the new intellectual intoxication there was no real freedom of thought4 ,the position of science was merely precarious1 uncertain1 and undefined4 ,in the ,natural ,science ,period this uncertainty was dispelled because dogma came into violent conflict with science4 ,it was soon found that questions in physics involved metaphysics1 and that the new science touched the church doctrines at every point4 ,in #aefc the church authorities at the ,council of ,trent settled dogma for all time4 ,great conflicts arose between the church and the secularizing spirit4 ,the scientist became wary4 ,he tried to avoid any intrusion upon the field of theology1 and he insisted that his own field existed quite independent of theological dogma4 ,but practically it was impossible for science not to take heretical positions1 and this was especially true of the ,rationalistic ,school1 which tried to construct a new scholasticism4 ,safe independence of thought was not gained until the next period 7the ,enlightenment71 and this was brought to pass by political changes4 ,a ,brief ,contrast of the ,two ,periods,a ,summary of the ,discussion above4 ,the ,humanistic ,period4 7#a7 ,the ,time#adec-afjj4 7#b7 ,the ,countries ,concerned,italy and ,germany4 7#c7 ,the ,intellectual ,standards,neo-,platonism and other theories of antiquity4 7#d7 ,the ,methodmagic4 7#e7 ,the ,relation of ,science to the ,churchprecarious and uncertain4 ,the ,natural ,science ,period4 7#a7 ,the ,time#afjj-afij4 7#b7 ,the ,countries ,concerned,england1 ,france1 and the ,low ,countries4 7#c7 ,the ,intellectual ,standardthe mechanism of nature facts4 7#d7 ,the ,methodinduction and mathematical deduction in various combinations4 7#e7 ,the ,relation of ,science to the ,churchso definitely stated as to be placed in conflict with dogma4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,humanistic ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance 7#adec-afjj7 ,the ,long ,list of ,representatives of the ,humanistic ,period4 ,there was a revival of scholasticism1,paulus ,barbus ,socinas 7d4 #adid71 ,cajetan 7d4 #aecd71 ,ferrariensis 7d4 #aebh71 ,melchior ,cano 7d4 #aefj71 ,dominicus de ,soto 7d4 #aefj71 ,dominicus ,banez 7d4 #afjd71 ,john of ,st4 ,thomas 7d4 #afdd71 ,vasquez 7d4 #afjd71 ,toletus 7d4 #aeif71 ,fonseca 7d4 #aeii71 ,suarez 7d4 #afag71 ,john the ,englishman 7d4 #adhc71 ,johannes ,magistri 7d4 #adhb71 ,antonius ,trombetta 7d4 #aeah71 ,maurice the ,irishman 7d4 #aeac74 ,among the ,humanists were ,pletho1 ,bessarion 7d4 #adgb71 ,lorenzo ,valla 7d4 #adeg71 ,marsilio ,ficino 7d4 #adii71 ,giovanni ,pico della ,mirandola 7d4 #adid71 ,francesco ,pico della ,mirandola 7d4 #aecc71 ,theodore of ,gaza 7d4 #adgh71 ,agricola 7d4 #adhe71 ,george of ,trebizond 7d4 #adhd71 ,justus ,lipsius 7d4 #afjf71 ,schoppe 7b4 #aefb71 ,paracelsus 7d4 #aeda71 ,reuchlin 7d4 #aebb71 ,fludd 7d4 #afcg71 ,montaigne 7d4 #aeib71 ,charron 7d4 #afjc71 ,sanchez 7d4 #afcb71 ,pomponatius 7d4 #aecj71 ,achillini 7d4 #aeah71 ,nifo 7d4 #aedf71 ,petrus ,ramus 7d4 #aegb71 ,scaliger 7d4 #aeeh74 ,the ,italian nature philosophers were ,cardano 7d4 #aegf71 ,telesio 7d4 #aehh71 ,patrizzi 7d4 #aeig71 ,bruno 7d4 #afjj71 ,campanella 7d4 #afci74 ,the notable scientists were ,cusanus 7d4 #adfd71 ,copernicus 7d4 #aedc71 ,tycho ,brahe 7d4 #afja71 ,kepler 7d4 #afca74 ,the ,protestant ,mystics were ,luther 7d4 #aedf71 ,zwingli 7d4 #aeca71 ,franck 7d4 #aede71 ,weigel 7d4 #aehh71 ,boehme 7d4 #afbd74 ,the political philosophers were ,macchiavelli 7d4 #aebg71 ,thomas ,more 7d4 #aece71 ,jean ,bodin 7d4 #aeig71 ,gentilis 7d4 #afaa71 ,althusius 7d4 #afch71 ,hugo ,grotius 7d4 #afde74 ,as examples of the first epoch of the ,renaissance#b we have selected ,cusanus 7#adja-adfd71 ,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda71 and ,bruno 7#aedh-afjj74 ,these three men will represent fairly well the wide interests of this epoch1 and more especially its neo-,platonic spirit and its methods4 ,the reader will see from their dates that the lives of these three philosophers nearly cover the ,humanistic ,period4 ,cusanus lived during the last half century of the ,middle ,ages and the first decade of the ,humanistic ,period2 ,paracelsus's life covers the middle of the ,humanistic ,period2 ,bruno lived during the last part of the period1 and his death 7#afjj7 coincides with the last year of the period4 ,all three were neo-,platonists4 ,they had been so impressed with the nature-world that had opened before them that they were mystic nature-worshiperspantheists1 to whom neo-,platonism became the truest philosophical standard4 ,all three were scientists in different degrees4 ,yet ,cusanus1 the cardinal of the church1 and ,bruno1 the speculative philosopher1 contributed more to science than ,paracelsus1 who aspired to medical science4 ,this seeming inconsistency in their lives is not difficult to explain4 ,paracelsus merely reflects the science of the time2 while ,cusanus and ,bruno anticipate the ,natural ,science ,periodthe one by his empirical discoveries1 the other by his mystic speculations which were almost prophecies4 ,nicolas of ,cusa 7#adja-adfd74 ,modern ,german scholars place ,nicolas of ,cusa 7,nicolas ,cusanus7 with ,bacon and ,descartes1 as the leaders of the modern philosophical movement4 ,nicolas lived two hundred years before ,descartes and one hundred years before ,bacon4 ,the ,german estimate of him shows at least that he was modern in his thought1 although he belongs in time to the ,middle ,ages for the most part4 ,he lived when the ,middle ,ages were passing over into the ,renaissance4 ,his principal work1 the ,idiota1 was published in #adej1 when the ,renaissance was on the threshold4 ,he was certainly a forerunner of modern times4 ,he was a ,german1 a cardinal1 and is now reverenced by liberal ,catholics as one of their deepest thinkers4 ,cusanus was a scientist of no small merit4 ,he died before the great discoveries were made2 but he anticipated ,copernicus in his belief that the earth rotated on its axis2 he anticipated ,bruno in conceiving space to be boundless and time unending2 he proposed a reform in the calendar2 he was the first to have a map of ,germany engraved4 ,he condemned the prevalent superstitions of the church and the use of magic in explaining nature events4 ,thus he anticipated the science of the time of ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 and ,descartes1 and transcended his own period4 ,in other respects ,cusanus belongs in this period with ,bruno and ,paracelsus4 ,he did not seek to discover a new method2 but he turned back to the revived traditional ,greek systems for an explanation of the 8new world40 ,he found in the mystic numbers of ,plato and the ,pythagoreans the principle of all scientific investigation4 ,the world of nature phenomena must be accounted for by the spiritual world4 ,cusanus uses almost the identical language of ,bruno1 when he says that the world is the mirror of ,god and that man is an epitome of the universe4 ,in the neo-,platonic spirit of the ,humanists1 he regarded the world as a soul-possessing and articulate ,oneness4 ,although a scientist1 he conceived science to be only a conjecture1 which in its unreality reveals the inner interconnections of the real worldthe world of the spirit4 ,paracelsus 7#adic-aeda74 ,paracelsus did not transcend his time as did ,cusanus4 ,he merely expressed it4 ,he was the exponent of its science as ,bruno was the representative of its poetic speculation4 ,paracelsus was a much-traveled ,swiss1 who tried to reform the practice of medicine by a kind of magical chemistry4 ,the poet ,browning makes his adventures the basis of a poem4 ,as a physician ,paracelsus could employ the magic arts without much danger of the charge of heresy1 for the practice of the magic art was theoretically justified by the neo-,platonism of the time4 ,the ,faust of ,goethe is at first a ,paracelsus4 ,the universal spirit behind nature presents itself in an infinite number of spiritual individuals4 ,nature facts are to be understood and mastered by understanding the activities of these spiritual forces4 ,in this way medicine became a brewing of tinctures1 magical drinks1 and secret remedies4 ,it was an alchemy which grew to the proportions of a science4 ,the alchemists of the time expected to discover a panacea against disease1 which would give them the highest power4 ,this is the meaning of the 8philosopher's stone10 which was to heal all diseases1 transmute everything into gold1 and bring all spirits into the power of its possessor4 ,paracelsus thus turned back to ,greek hylozoism for the truth about physiology and the cure of disease2 and he met with some degree of personal success1 for his physics had many adherents both in theory and in practice4#c ,in the neo-,platonic manner ,paracelsus conceived the world as fundamentally a developing vital principle 7,vulcanus74 ,man is this cosmic force individualized 7,archus74 ,the laws that operate in the world are the same as in man1 except that in man they are hidden4 ,the study of nature's laws1 as they lie open1 will reveal how those same laws operate in a human being4 ,now the vital principle in nature manifests itself in three realms3 the terrestrial1 the astral or celestial1 and the spiritual or divine4 ,the ,archus or vital principle in man must have the same realms of activity4 ,there is man's body1 which gets its strength from the terrestrial realm of nature2 man's mind1 which is nourished by the stars2 man's soul1 that feeds on faith in ,christ4 ,perfect health1 therefore1 consists in the sympathetic interaction of these three realms in man4 ,a complete medicine consists of physics1 astronomy1 and theology4 ,but ,paracelsus was a chemist1 and the terrestrial nature of man was his peculiar interest4 ,the theologian may prescribe for the human soul1 and it is the duty of the astronomer to care for the human intellect2 but the practical physician must understand the human body4 ,here is the ,archus imprisoned in the gross terrestrial body6 ,it is in continual warfare with that body4 ,what is the nature of that body which is so hostile to the human vital principle8 ,here ,paracelsus introduces his strange chemical analysis which characterizes him as a ,renaissance physician4 ,nature has three essences of which all bodies are composed3 7#a7 mercury1 that makes bodies liquid2 7#b7 sulphur1 that makes them combustible2 7#c7 salt1 that makes them rigid4 ,these essences are compounded in such a way that from them the four elementsearth1 air1 water1 and fireare derived4 ,each one of these elements is controlled by elemental spirits4 ,the earth is controlled by gnomes1 the water by undines1 the air by sylphs1 and the fire by salamanders4 ,thus the chemical analysis of ,paracelsus discovers four sets of spirits with which the physician is obliged to deal4 ,gnomes1 sylphs1 undines1 and salamanders are in warfare with the human vital principle for control4 ,when the ,archus is in any way checked by these1 there is disease2 when the ,archus has them under control1 the man has health4 ,the medicines that the physician administers are determined by their effectiveness in helping the ,archus in its battle against the hostile spirits4 ,this makes medicine a field for the magician in the control of spirits4 ,giordano ,bruno 7#aedh-afjj74 ,the neo-,platonic spirit of the ,humanistic ,period reached its most complete development in the sthetic philosophy of ,giordano ,bruno4 ,he sang the world-joy of the sthetic ,renaissance4 ,italy ordained him priest1 exiled him as heretic1 and then burned him at the stake as recalcitrant4 ,italy has produced very few great speculators since his day4 ,the ,council of ,trent met when he was fifteen years old2 already the counter-,reformation had begun in ,italy1 and ,italy was soon to become an intellectually arid waste4 ,the influence of ,bruno appears in ,spinoza and perhaps in ,leibnitz4 ,his one contribution to modern science was in his inspired conception that because ,god is infinite1 the world is infinite in space and time4 ,the philosophers who influenced his thought were ,pythagoras1 ,plato1 ,plotinus1 and ,lucretius4 ,the fundamental thought of the ,humanistic ,period was expressed by ,bruno in his imaginative conception of the divine beauty of the living ,all4 ,poet as well as philosopher1 he was consumed by a love for nature as a beautiful religious object4 ,he revolted from all asceticism and scholasticism4 ,the 8new world0 in which he found himself was to him the emblem of ,god4 ,the thought of that chief of neo-,platonists1 ,plotinus1 of the beauty of the universe had never been so sympathetically regarded as by the ,renaissance2 in the hands of ,bruno this beauty became the manifestation of the divine ,idea4 ,philosophy1 sthetics1 and religion were identical to him4 ,to express his thought he employed the usual neo-,platonic symbol of the all-forming and all-animating light4 ,bruno was no patient student of natural phenomena as such1 but a lover of the great illumination of nature facts by the great soul behind them4 ,he was not interested in any single group of phenomena1 as was ,paracelsus2 but he loved them all as a religion4 ,not only externally but internally is the universe an eternal harmony4 ,when one gazes upon it with the enthusiasm of a poet1 its apparent defects will vanish in the harmony of the whole4 ,man needs no special theology1 for the world is perfect because it is the life of ,god4 ,bruno is a universalistic optimist and a mystic poet4 ,before this cosmic harmony man should never utter complaint1 but should bow in reverence4 ,true science is religion and morality4 ,since ,bruno conceived no theodicy 7proof of the goodness and justice of ,god7 to be necessary1 he did not define in exact terms his conception of ,god4 ,nevertheless1 to escape the charge of atheism1 he distinguished between the universe and the world4 ,for him ,god the universe nature matter the principle immanent in the world4 ,the 8world10 on the other hand1 the sum-total of nature phenomena4 ,the 8world0 is the body of ,god1 and ,god is the soul of the 8world40 ,god is natura naturans2 the world is natura naturata#d4 ,just as the sum of the parts of man's body does not equal the man himself1 so to identify ,god with the totality of objects of nature is atheism in the true sense4 ,it is to make ,god a finite being1 although very big4 ,in opposition to this1 ,bruno conceives ,god as the one substance manifesting himself through all things4 ,this is to magnify ,god and to make him really omnipresent4 ,nevertheless1 ,bruno is involved in all the inconsistencies of the ,mystic4 ,in a neo-,platonic fashion he frequently speaks of ,god as if he were a plural number of atoms4 ,god is not only the world unity1 but in every particle of the world is ,he writ small4 ,the elements of the world are monads1 and each is the mirror of the ,all4 ,the ,absolute is the primal unity2 and yet in the paradoxical fashion in which the neo-,platonist is so successful1 ,bruno says that all creation is unfolded out of ,god and is included in him4 ,the speculative poet is so in love with the world that he does not stop to make consistent the distinctions which he has drawn4 ,the natura naturans and the natura naturata1 the unity and plurality of the world1 are the two aspects of the reality in his own lifeand that reality is ,god4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,birthplaces ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance 7,the names of the philosophers are given in brackets beneath the towns in which they were born7 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,natural ,,science ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance 7#afjj-afij7e ,the ,philosophers of the ,natural ,science ,period4 #a4 ,galileo1 #aefd-afda1 and the group of scientists4 #b4 ,bacon1 #aefa-afbf4 #c4 ,hobbes1 #aehh-afgi4 #d4 ,the ,rationalists4 ,descartes1 #aeif-afej4 ,spinoza1 #afcb-afgg4 ,leibnitz1 #afdf-agaf4 ,countries other than ,italy and ,germany come upon the philosophic stage during the eighty-nine years of the period of teeming natural science4 ,england is represented by ,bacon and ,hobbes1 ,france by ,descartes1 ,holland by the ,jew1 ,spinoza1 and1 at the end of the period1 ,germany by ,leibnitz4 ,still ,italy yields the most influential thinker of them all1,galileo1 who is the most prominent of a long series of astronomers coming from many countries4 ,the most completely representative is ,descartes1 who was the founder of the ,rationalistic school2 for he was not only interested in mathematics itself1 but in the application of mathematics to metaphysical questions4 ,neither as influential as ,galileo1 nor as comprehensive as ,descartes1 the ,englishmen1 ,bacon and ,hobbes1 were nevertheless important as the forerunners of the ,english empirical school4 ,spinoza is more of a 8world's philosopher0 than any of the others1 and he joins in his doctrine the scholasticism of the ,middle ,ages and the mathematics of the ,renaissance2 while ,leibnitz occupies the position between the ,enlightenment and the ,renaissance4 ,the ,mathematical ,astronomers4 ,after enthusiastically canvassing the traditional theories of antiquity1 the ,humanists had been unable to find one which would explain and organize the newly accumulated materials of their 8new world40 ,but working in more or less narrow circles1 natural science had already made a beginning in the midst of the ,humanists4 ,beginning with ,copernicus1 an interest in physics and astronomy had been aroused1 but in these early days it was more speculative than empirical4 ,the speculations of the astronomers had but little influence upon their own time4 ,however1 when the ancient theories proved inadequate to explain the facts of the 8new world10 and especially when the empirical researches of ,galileo confirmed the speculations of his predecessors1 the ,renaissance turned away from antiquity to nature herself for an explanation4 ,this was about the year #afjj1 the year of the beginning of the ,natural ,science period4 ,the most prominent of these astronomers were ,copernicus1 #adgc-aedc1 a ,pole4 ,bruno1 #aedh-afjj1 an ,italian4 ,tycho ,brahe1 #aedf-afja1 a ,dane4 ,kepler1 #aega-afcj1 a ,german4 ,galileo1 #aefd-afda1 an ,italian4 ,huyghens1 #afbi-afie1 a ,hollander4 ,newton1 #afdb-agbb1 an ,englishman4 ,while the greatest of these scientists is ,newton1 who belongs to the next period1 the most influential is ,galileo4 ,modern methods in science began with ,galileo4 ,of the four predecessors of ,galileo three,copernicus1 ,tycho ,brahe1 and ,brunoare in spirit ,humanists2 for their final explanation of nature is the world of spirits4 ,kepler belongs to both the ,humanistic and ,natural ,science periods2 for at first he constructed his natural science by an amalgamation of the doctrine of spirits and the ,copernican theory2 but in the latter part of his life he adopted completely the mechanical view of nature4 ,the above scientists may be divided for convenience into two groups3 7#a7 the speculative scientists before ,galileo2 7#b7 ,galileo and the following empirical investigators4 ,for fourteen centuries the ancient ,ptolemaic astronomy had been regarded by the learned as beyond question4 ,although complex and unwieldy1 it explained all phenomena satisfactorily enough as they appeared to the senses2 and it brought phenomena into a system4 7,the ,ptolemaic system has been fully described in vol4 i1 pp4 #cbb ff47 ,to recapitulate it3 the world-all was conceived as a hollow sphere with the earth as the centre and the fixed stars in the periphery1 while the planets were supposed to move in epicycles4 ,the universe was divided into the heavenly and terrestrial realms1 which were occupied by various spirits4 ,god resided outside this hollow sphere and held it1 as it were1 in his lap4 ,the history of the changes leading up to our modern astronomical conception makes a vivid chapter4 ,how ,copernicus contributed the idea of placing the sun at the centre of things1 ,kepler the idea of the orbits of the planets as ellipses1 ,bruno the idea of the boundlessness of space and time1 and how ,galileo1 corroborating these theories by empirical investigations1 was put under the ban of the churchall this shows what heroism must have been required to tear down a time-honored and firmly intrenched traditional conception4 ,probably the speculative astronomers were not conscious that they were undermining the whole astronomical structure1 and probably their sole motive was to simplify the ,ptolemaic conception1 not to destroy it4 ,for ,copernicus accepted the ,ptolemaic system1 except that he put the sun instead of the earth at the centre1 and thereby simplified it by making many of the epicycles unnecessary2 and ,kepler simplified it further by supplanting the epicycles with ellipses4 ,however1 the result was inevitably an entirely new conception of the universe1 and with it a new conception of the relation among particular material things4 ,it was in this way that new scientific methods arose4 ,the universe now comes to be regarded as a mechanism1 and what was formerly looked upon as the influence of spirits or as ,providential guidance becomes an impersonal law of causal necessity4 ,in the heavens above and the earth beneath there are no longer vital forces and supernatural influences4 ,the universe becomes a homogeneous whole throughout1 in which there is no difference between the fall of an apple and the revolution of the planets1 no distinction between terrestrial and celestial spheres4 ,the ,christian heaven is nowhere in it2 the ,medival spirits are banished from it4 ,the ,greek gods have been pushed out1 and the ,christian ,god has been made to stand aside4 ,the demand that the new conception of the universe be verified in concrete experiments1 if it were to replace the old ,ptolemaic system1 the revival of the study of ,archimedes1 the rivalry in trade and inventions among the ,italian towns1 were three causes for the demand for greater exactness4 ,investigation1 experiment1 and invention came into vogue4 ,magic1 alchemy1 astrology1 and conjurations were no longer accepted as serious methods4 ,in the ,middle ,ages deduction had been purely the logical employment of the syllogism in theological discussions1 while induction1 so far as it was used at all1 had been the reference of nature phenomena to spiritual forces4 ,now deduction and induction#f come to be used for other purposes1 and mathematics is necessarily conjoined with both4 ,the new ,natural ,science period is essentially a 8strife of methods02 it is the period when the true plan of scientific procedure is being determined4 ,it is here that the importance and influence of ,galileo is seen upon modern science and philosophy4 ,the influence of mathematics in modern times grew up from these astronomical beginnings among the ,humanists2 and the ,natural ,science period with its contention as to methods was the immediate result4 ,bacon1 for example1 regarded final causes as one of the 8idols40 ,hobbes maintained that physics has only to do with efficient causes2 ,descartes held that it is audacious in man to think of reading the purposes of ,god in nature2 while ,spinoza thought it absurd to attribute divine purpose to nature4 ,by degrees everything in nature came to be regarded as a mechanism1 and there was no distinction between the animate and the inanimate4 ,the discovery of the mechanical circulation of the blood by ,harvey1 in #afbf1 became a vigorous impulse toward the mechanical study of animal life4 ,descartes regarded animals as complex automata and on this line he published essays on dioptrics1 musical law1 and the ftus4 ,hobbes applied mechanical law to psychological phenomena4 ,the study of reflex action was carried on with great vigor in the ,low ,countries and ,france4 ,the mechanical theory was rendered complete in this early time by the exclusion of the soul from the explanation of the body of man1 just as ,god had been pushed into the background of the universe4 ,galileo ,galilei 7#aefd-afda74g ,the dates of the life of ,galileo show him to have been a younger contemporary of ,bruno1 and1 like ,bruno1 to have been a victim of the ecclesiastical reaction that was sweeping away all scientific freedom in ,italy4 ,but while ,bruno belonged both chronologically and in spirit to the first period of the ,renaissance1 ,galileo is the true beginner of the second period4 ,bruno was a philosopher of nature1 while ,galileo was a true scientist4 ,galileo gave to all future thought a wisely formulated method of dealing with the new materials of the nature world4 ,his laws of projectiles1 falling bodies1 and the pendulum created a new theory of motion4 ,he set the hypothesis of ,copernicus upon an experimental basis and made the future work of ,newton possible4 ,he was professor at the ,universities of ,padua and ,pisa1 and he was mathematician and philosopher at the court of ,tuscany4 ,that he perjured himself and thereby saved his life from the ,inquisition1 there is no doubt2 but instead of death he had an old age of great bitterness4 ,he gave open adherence to the ,copernican system in #afaj1 when he constructed a telescope and discovered the satellites of ,jupiter2 and after this there followed discovery after discovery1 like the spots on the sun and the phases of ,venus1 which latter discovery confirmed the ,copernican hypothesis4 ,he invented the hydrostatic balance1 the proportional compass1 the thermoscope1 microscope1 and telescope4 ,his two most noteworthy writings are ,the ,dialogue concerning the ,two ,most ,important ,world-,systems1 and ,investigations into ,two ,new ,sciences4 ,as to method1 ,galileo objected to formal logic1 that it is not a means of discovering new truth1 although valuable as a corrective of thought4 ,new truth is discovered when we frame an hypothesis from certain experiences1 and then infer the truth of other cases from that hypothesis4 ,the hypothesis is first formed by induction from a few characteristic cases2 the inference to other cases is made by deduction4 ,he therefore linked induction and deduction closely together1 and conceived them as necessarily complementary in scientific investigation4 ,either induction or deduction alone is absurd and impossible4 ,by induction alone we should be obliged to examine all cases1 an impossible undertaking4 ,by deduction alone we should be in the same straits as the ,scholastics1 and never discover new laws4 ,we must begin with our perceptual experiences and make an induction from them2 then we must bring mathematics into use in constructing the hypothesis from which to deduce 7calculate7 new cases4 ,this is the true1 modern method and reveals the great genius of ,galileo4 ,a mathematical law never exactly coincides with any particular concrete relations4 ,a mathematical law is an hypothesis or ideal construction4 ,what value1 then1 has a mathematical law for science8 ,the orbits of planets#h are described as ellipses1 but no actual planet moves in a perfect ellipse4 ,the ellipse is an hypothetical1 mathematical orbit for a planet which has no disturbing influences upon it4 ,we get at such a law by the method of concomitant variations2#i and the value of it consists in the simplification and system that it gives the facts4 ,for example1 knowing that a planet would move in an ellipse if it suffered no perturbations1 and then knowing the influences upon any particular planet1 we can calculate its orbit4 ,mathematical law1 although ideal1 is the common rule under which all nature phenomena can be brought4 ,however1 only by measurements founded on the tests of observation and experiment can we know how far the claims of such deduction are supported4 ,measure everything measurable1 and calculate the measurement of those things not directly measurable4 ,nature1 therefore1 must be called upon to explain her own phenomena4 ,since the laws of nature are found by investigating nature phenomena as we experience them1 the laws must be a part of nature and can be found nowhere else4 ,to explain nature phenomena by referring them to spiritual influence is no real explanation4 ,to say that ,god moves the planets is to involve the subject in mystery4 ,here is where ,galileo shows that he does not belong to the ,scholastics or the ,mystics or the ,humanists4 ,he searched for some constant element1 and not for a 8vital force0 behind nature phenomena4 ,he declared this constant element to be motionmeasurable motion4 ,he is the author of the theory that mechanics is the mathematical theory of motion4 ,science was therefore taken by him out of the paralyzing grip of the theologian4 ,the ,life of ,francis ,bacon1 ,baron ,verulam 7#aefa-afbf74 ,francis ,bacon was a native of ,london and received his university education at ,cambridge4 ,he was in the ,english diplomatic service at an early age1 but he later returned to ,london and took up the legal profession4 ,at the age of thirty-two he entered ,parliament and became immediately distinguished as a debater4 ,at forty-three he became legal adviser of the crown1 and when he was fifty-six he was made ,lord ,chancellor4 ,after a brilliant career in public office he was accused and convicted of bribery and corruption1 deposed from office1 and heavily fined4 ,his most notable writings are his ,essays1 two parts of his uncompleted ,instauratio ,magna1 viz41 ,de ,dignitate et ,augmentis ,scientiarum and ,novum ,organum1 and his ,new ,atlantis1 a ,utopian fragment4 ,the ,position of ,bacon in ,philosophy4 ,tradition has frequently placed ,bacon as the founder of modern philosophy4 ,this estimate is due to a remark by ,diderot1 which was repeated by many ,french writers4 ,the estimate1 however1 rests on a misapprehension of ,bacon's influence4 ,bacon was more of a ,humanist than a technical philosopher1 and in his constructive philosophy he seems not only to have had no influence upon his contemporaries1 but also to have been uninfluenced by them4 ,he was unconscious of the influence of ,kepler and ,galileo and their mighty scientific constructions4 ,bacon's ,novum ,organum1 which embodies his scientific methods1 had no influence upon his own time1 nor was it read in the seventeenth century4 ,its influence was first felt in the eighteenth century4 ,however1 all this must be qualified in one respect4 ,bacon's ,new ,atlantis did have an immediate influence4 ,the ideal of a college of science1 which ,bacon presented in his ,new ,atlantis1 was not only the cause of the work of ,diderot in his ,encyclopedia in the eighteenth century1 but what is more important1 it had effect in his own time4 ,it led to the founding of the ,royal ,society1 thirty-six years after ,bacon's death1 and later to the founding of similar academies abroad4 ,while the reader may be confused by the conflicting estimates of ,bacon1 the words of his own countryman1 ,sir ,david ,brewster1 may be accepted as embodying the truth3 8,had ,bacon never lived1 the student of nature would have found in the works and writings of ,galileo not only the principles of inductive philosophy1 but also its practical application to the noblest efforts of invention and discovery40 ,so far from being the founder of modern science1 ,bacon developed only one side of it1 the inductive side1 and that without success4 ,he identified deduction with the ,aristotelian syllogism1 and he was therefore unaware of the importance of the use of mathematics in the method of deduction4 ,he did not seem to have the slightest idea that mathematics was going to be the scientific method2 consequently science has gone much further than ,bacon dreamed it would go4 ,bacon's importance in the ,renaissance does not consist in his contribution to the content of philosophy or to his successful formulation of the scientific method4 ,wherein then lies the value of ,bacon's work as a philosopher8#aj ,bacon was the first in ,england to collect the fruits of the ,renaissance and give them a secular character4 ,taking them out of the hands of the theologian1 he1 a lawyer1 8gave them a legal existence by the most eloquent plea that has ever been made for them40 ,it was a time when philosophy and science were passing out of the hands of the theologian2 and ,bacon1 feeling that science1 including philosophy1 should be secularized1 drew a sharp line between the work of science and that of theology4 ,out of his great contempt for antiquity1 ,bacon voiced for ,england the contemporary reaction against the old scholastic methods4 ,he set up the ideal and gave directions for following it4 ,he issued the call to go from abstractions back to things4 ,a man of worldly wisdom and pungency1 his nature was buoyant in its belief in the coming age4 ,he had confidence amounting to an optimism that final principles would be found to explain all the particulars of the 8new world40 ,he was a prophet who outlined his prophecy4 ,he felt that not only nature but all the activities of man would be reduced to some simple principles4 ,he shared and expressed the confidence of his time that wonderful things were to be revealed2 that nothing is impossible to man1 provided man hits upon the right key to nature's secrets4 ,just as every age1 that feels itself upon the threshold of a new epoch1 writes ,utopias1#aa so ,bacon wrote the ,new ,atlantis1 the ,utopian fragment1 for his age4 ,this is the literary expression of his optimism about the future of a distinctively secular science4 ,the world of the ,new ,atlantis is the world of new machines4 ,bacon's most ambitious scientific contribution to the same end is his ,instauratio ,magna4 ,of this only two parts were completed3 ,de ,dignitate et ,augmentis ,scientiarum and ,novum ,organum4 ,bacon is best known in philosophy by the second part1 which was thus named to contrast it with the 8old0 ,organum of ,aristotle4 ,the high influence that ,bacon gained later among philosophers may therefore be accounted for by the association of his eminent position and wonderful personality with his bold expression of this congenial utilitarianism4 ,even in that rich ,elizabethan age of ,english literature1 he was prominent as a writer and politician4 ,he had occupied high political positions under ,james ,i2 but his peculiar personality would in itself have attracted attention1 for his genius was such that any of the products of that ageeven the plays of ,shakespearehave seemed possible to him4 ,pope describes him as 8the wisest1 brightest1 meanest of mankind40 ,macaulay says in his essay1 ,bacon1 that there were many things that he loved more than virtue and many that he feared more than guilt4 ,his career shows that he loved himself1 wealth1 and learning4 ,his unusual love for learning may be safely taken as his excuse for his unscrupulous lust for wealth4 ,his great versatility prevented his success in any one direction1 but he had the power of expressing the feeling of his impressive age and of becoming its personal representative4 ,the ,aim of ,bacon4 ,bacon sought to secularize philosophy by making it the same as science4 ,it was the age when ,nature was conceived to be identical with the world of the natural sciences4 ,bacon stood in this age as the formulator of the scientific usefulness of philosophy4 ,philosophy is to ameliorate social conditions and enrich human life by bringing nature under control4 ,ancient and medival times had not been occupied with the improvement of human society1 but ,bacon was inspired with the feeling of the modern statesman for such improvement4 ,the true test of philosophy1 according to ,bacon1 is what it will do4 ,that philosophy is worth while which will effectively remove the weighing conditions upon human society1 so that there are no longer two classes1those that sacrifice and those that satisfy their ambitions4 ,this dominant utilitarian motive in ,bacon sets him in opposition to pure theoretical and contemplative knowledge1 and makes him the father of utilitarianism and positivism#ab in ,england4#ac ,knowledge is the only kind of permanent power1 and man can master the world when he gives up verbal discussions and belief in magic4 ,man must gain a positive insight into nature4 ,science and philosophy must be separated from theology1 and philosophy must be reduced to science4 ,thus while aiming to give a tangible form to the scholastic doctrine of the 8twofold truth10 ,bacon through his utilitarianism missed the goal reached by ,galileo and ,descartes4 ,the ,method of ,bacon4 ,bacon says that the method of the scientist should not be like that of the spider that spins a web out of himself1 nor like that of the ant which merely collects material1 but like that of the bee which collects1 assimilates1 and transforms4 ,bacon's original inspiration had been his respect for method1 and this grew more pronounced4 ,philosophy1 i4 e4 science1 is method4 ,with ,bacon we see the beginning of philosophy cut loose from personality and over-valued because it had mechanical accuracy4 ,nevertheless1 the method of ,bacon was very comprehensive4 ,it included on the one hand a critical survey of the past1 and on the other an anticipatory programme for the science of the future4 ,let us now turn to these two aspects of his method4 7a7 ,bacon's criticism of the past was a trenchant criticism of prevailing philosophy1 and amounted to a break with the past4 ,bacon felt that what passed for science in his day was but a pretence4 ,in the presence of the facts of life traditional science was but empty words4 ,the early thinkers are not the ancients4 ,we are the ancients1 for we embody in ourselves all the preceding centuries4 ,thus does ,bacon swing from the medival blind acceptance of the past to an equally blind rejection of the past4 ,but why did the ancient thinkers err8 ,not because they were not men of talent1 nor because they lacked in intellectual opportunity2 but because their method of procedure led them astray4 ,the early thinkers followed wrong paths1 and their results1 which we now possess1 are vain4 ,what must be our attitude in the presence of this traditional philosophy8 ,we must dispossess ourselves of the prejudices that have misled the past1 for they form the obstacles to our true knowledge of the world4 ,the roots of the errors that have infected philosophy are 8fantastic1 contentious1 and delicate learning40 ,we must not1 indeed1 trust to our every-day perceptions2 for although science is based on our perceptions1 our every-day perceptions are corrupted by our uncritical habits of thought4 ,thus there have arisen perversions and falsifications1 of which we must first of all be rid4 ,bacon calls these ,idols4#ad ,idols are false images1 that intervene between us and the truth and are mistaken for reality4 ,bacon makes four general classes of ,idols3 7#a7 ,the ,idols of the ,tribe1 or the presuppositions common to the human race4 7#b7 ,the ,idols of the ,cave1#ae or individual prejudices due to natural individual disposition1 situation in life1 etc4 7#c7 ,the ,idols of the ,forum1 or the traditional meanings of words1 by which we substitute the word for the idea4 ,these are the worst illusions4 7#d7 ,the ,idols of the ,theatre1#af the theories or philosophic dogma1 which command discipleship from groups of men and have not been subjected to our own criticism4 ,bacon's classification of our prejudices as ,idols is a critical attempt to separate1 in what passes for knowledge1 the subjective1 which has become traditional1 from the real4 ,logic1 religion1 and poetry have had a bad effect on science1 as is especially shown in the theatrical character of philosophy4 7b7 ,having dispossessed ourselves of our prejudices or ,idols1 we are ready to proceed to a positive construction of a scientific method of work4 ,by what1 in general1 ought science to be guided8 ,by induction and experience4 ,bacon suggests the following steps for the science of the future3 7#a7 ,there must be an exhaustive collection of particular instances4 7#b7 ,there must then be an analysis and comparison of these instances1 for to ,bacon induction was not a mere enumeration of single instances4 ,negative instances1 and instances of difference of degree1 must be taken into account4 ,hasty generalizations must be avoided1 and we must ascend gradually from the particular to the general4 7#c7 ,the simple 8form0 of the phenomenon must be discovered4 ,of the four causes of ,aristotle1 ,bacon emphasizes the 8formal40 ,by 8form0 ,bacon means the nature that is always present when the phenomenon is present1 absent when the phenomenon is absent1 and increases or decreases with the phenomenon4 ,the 8form0 is the abiding essence of the phenomenon4 ,the ,english ,natural ,science ,movement4 ,the natural science movement in ,england thus received at the start the impression of the sober ,anglo-,saxon mind4 ,through its entire history ,english philosophy differed from that of the ,continent4 ,here at the outset the ,englishman is skeptical1 not only of scholastic deductions from dogma1 but also of deductions of all kinds4#ag ,he prefers the slow road of patient empirical discovery4 ,even pure contemplative knowledge and the deductions of mathematics have little charm for him4 ,to be sure1 induction even in the hands of an ,englishman demands by its nature the establishment of a general principle1 but ,bacon would have refused to use such a deduction to establish a new truth in the way that ,galileo used his mathematical hypotheses4 ,according to ,bacon1 an hypothesis is true only so far as it has already received the indispensable sanction of experience4 ,thomas ,hobbes#ah and his ,contemporaries4 ,during a certain period ,bacon had under him a secretary by the name of ,thomas ,hobbes4 ,here was an obscure man turning to philosophy because of his interest in politics2 whose point of attachment to philosophy was the mechanical theory of nature1 so universally accepted by the scientists of that time4 ,no contemporary of ,hobbesneither ,bacon1 ,descartes1 nor ,galileohad so systematic a philosophy4 ,no other man succeeded better in expressing all that was in his mind4 ,hobbes was one of a large group of political theorists of the ,renaissance4 ,when the medival idea of the universal ,christian state1 such as was embodied in ,augustine's ,city of ,god1 was no longer held1 many of the ,humanists tried to construct theoretical systems of political government that would meet the demands of the time4 ,macchiavelli1 ,thomas ,more1 ,bodin1 ,althusius1 and ,grotius#ai belong to this group4 ,hobbes is best known in modern times as a writer on this aspect of morals and politics2 but politics is only a part of his general mechanical system of the universe4 ,he is the forerunner of modern materialism1 and his peculiar theory of society is only an exemplification of this theory4 ,in passing from ,bacon to ,hobbes we come to a very different type of man4 ,bacon had risen to fame by his own genius1 in spite of the hostility of his powerful relatives2 ,hobbes was a hard-headed man1 with a narrow outlook1 but with undoubted talents1 which were fostered all his life under the patronage of the ,devonshire family4 ,bacon was a practical politician2 ,hobbes was a doctrinaire and theoretical political writer4 ,of the voluminous literary remains of ,bacon his philosophy forms but a small part2 ,hobbes had a general philosophical system1 with which his classical and theological studies have connection4 ,in the succeeding chapter we shall review the philosophy of the rationalist1 ,descartes1 who was a contemporary of ,hobbes4 ,we shall find that ,descartes and ,hobbes are alike in this3 that both employed ,galileo's mathematical theory as authoritative4 ,they differed1 however1 in the way in which they used ,galileo's theory4 ,descartes reduced mathematics to the rational1 and conceived it to be the instrument of the reason2 ,hobbes reduced the rational to the mathematical1 and conceived the reason as a form of mechanics4 ,the starting-point of ,descartes was the subjective1 and he was held at a standstill until the relation of thought and mechanics was solved by him4 ,the point of view of ,hobbes was objective1 and since all was mechanical1 he discussed only incidentally the relation between thought and mechanical existence4 ,hobbes conceived the world in the terms of only one series1 the mechanical4 ,descartes' main motive was to preserve the rational2 and1 consequently1 the world to him consisted of a double or dualistic series of terms4 ,we therefore place ,descartes1 with ,spinoza and ,leibnitz1 in a group called ,rationalists4 ,hobbes was a materialist1 and his greatness consisted in going the full length of materialism3 he went beyond all the scientists of his time by extending the mechanical theory to the mental life4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi74 ,the life of ,hobbes falls into five natural periods4 ,in his first and last periods he was the classical scholar4 ,during his middle period of about thirteen years he was the philosopher4 ,furthermore1 at one time he was absorbed in mathematics and at another in controversy4 ,his period as mathematician was begun not until he was forty years old1 and was preparatory to his creative philosophical period1 which was begun when he was about fifty4 #a4 ,as a ,classical ,scholar 7including his early years7 7#aehh-afbh7the first forty years of his life4 ,at ,oxford 7#afjc-afjh72 first journey abroad 7#afjh-afab72 beginning of his relations with the ,devonshire family and also of his acquaintance with the 8new science02 time of leisurely study 7#afab-afbh7 and acquaintance with ,bacon1 ,herbert of ,cherbury1 and ,ben ,jonson2 translation of ,thucydides 7#afbh74 #b4 ,as ,mathematician 7#afbh-afch74 ,second journey abroad 7#afbi-afca7 for eighteen months as tutor to the son of ,sir ,gervase ,clifton2 reads ,euclid while abroad2 third journey abroad 7#afcd-afcg71 when he meets ,galileo2 begins to develop the conception of motion and sensation2 by #afch he is counted among the notable philosophers and he meets the ,parisian scientists1 ,mersenne and ,gassendi4 #c4 ,as ,philosopher 7#afch-afea74 ,plans his philosophy under title of ,elements of ,philosophy3 ,de ,corpore1 ,de ,homine1 and ,de ,cive1 which is interrupted by the ,english ,revolution2 ,elements of ,law 78little treatise07 written in #afdj1 read by a few in manuscript1 published without his consent in #afej in two parts3 ,human ,nature and ,de ,corpore ,politico2 flees to ,paris 7#afdj7 and enters again the scientific circle at ,paris2 criticises ,descartes' ,meditations2 ,de ,cive published 7#afdb71 which is ,de ,corpore ,politico enlarged2 acts for a time as tutor to ,charles ,,ii in ,paris2 engages upon his general philosophical theory 7#afdb-afde72 ,liberty and ,necessity1 written 7#afdf71 published 7#afed72 ,leviathan published 7#afea74 #d4 ,as ,controversialist 7#afea-affh74 ,flees back to ,london 7#afea72 ,de ,corpore1 published 7#afee72 ,behemoth1 written 7#affh71 proscribed and not published until after his death2 controversies with ,bramhall1 ,ward1 ,wallis1 and ,boyle2 ,de ,homine1 published 7#afeh74 #e4 ,as ,classical ,scholar 7#affh-afgi74 ,translation of ,iliad and ,odyssey 7#afge74 ,in ,molesworth's edition 7#ahci-ahde71 ,hobbes' ,latin works occupy five volumes1 the ,english eleven4 ,the ,elements of ,philosophythe ,de ,corpore1 ,de ,homine1 and ,de ,civewere not published in the sequence in which they were planned1 but1 on account of political exigencies1 in the above order4 ,the ,influences upon the ,thought of ,hobbes4 #a4 ,the premature birth of ,hobbes had no inconsiderable influence upon his life4 ,when his mother was carrying him1 she had suffered a great fright1 at the announcement of the approach of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,was it in consequence of this that ,hobbes's life was a series of panics and controversies8 ,he was extremely conservative in politics4 ,he saw the new changes without sympathy with either party1 and he had no political idealsonly fear4 ,the time in which he lived reinforced this natural conservatism4 ,when he was translating ,thucydides1 ,buckingham was assassinated and the ,petition of ,rights was presented4 ,henry ,,iv of ,france had been assassinated not many years before1 and the ,puritan element had become a disturbing factor in ,england4 ,his study and his alliance with the ,devonshire family confirmed him in his conservative position4 ,all signs of the time pointed toward decentralization of government1 toward war and rebellion4 ,in fear he was 8the first that fled0 to ,france at the beginning of the troubles of ,charles ,i2 in fear he fled back to ,london eleven years later1 lest the ,roman ,catholics1 whom his ,leviathan had offended1 should murder him4 ,hobbes was again in great panic over the ,london fire and looked upon it as a divine penalty1 on account of the impurity of the ,english court4 ,hobbes was always in fright lest he might not have peace4 #b4 ,the father of ,hobbes was one of the unworthy clergymen of the ,english ,established ,church in the reign of ,elizabeth4 ,he was a dissolute man1 and after many escapades he abandoned his family4 ,in consequence of this ,hobbes always had an antipathy toward the offices of the church and toward theology4 ,although he claimed to be a communicant1 his allegiance was only nominal1 as his theory will show4 #c4 ,hobbes was very much influenced by the new mathematical science4 ,his years at ,oxford left little impression upon him1 and he was but little interested in the scholasticism which was taught there4 ,yet his twenty years on the ,continent brought him into the midst of the scientific circles of ,italy and ,france4 ,he was well along into maturity when he felt this influence4 ,on his second journey1 he read ,euclid for the first time4 ,he was then forty-three4 ,on his third journey1 he met ,galileo and the ,french scientists1 ,mersenne and ,gassendi1 and it was then that he began his reflections concerning motion and sensation4 ,the writings of ,kepler1 ,descartes1 and ,galileo influenced him mightily4 ,although he acted as ,bacon's secretary after the latter's fall1 ,bacon's influence upon him was little and has been overestimated4 ,the mental powers of ,bacon and his secretary were different1 and ,bacon knew nothing of the mathematical method4 ,hobbes shows to some degree the empirical tendency of his nationality1 and he believed that knowledge must spring from experience4 ,further than this1 the method that ,bacon pursued does not appear in him4 ,the mission of ,hobbes was to construct a mechanical view of the world4 ,of the three influences upon ,hobbes1 his inherited timidity is seen in his conservative political theory2 the influence of his father is seen in his theory of religion2 the influence of the 8new0 mathematical science is seen in his whole philosophy1 especially in his psychology4 ,the ,fundamental ,principle in the ,teaching of ,hobbes4 ,the assumption from which ,hobbes deduced his entire philosophy was the mechanical conception of the physical world1the characteristic philosophical assumption of his age4 ,hobbes's contemporaries1 both the natural scientists and the philosophers1 had1 however1 on the whole1 restricted the conception of mechanism to the physical world4 ,hobbes differed from them all in universalizing the conception4 ,he extended its application from the physical over upon the mental realm1 and thereby reduced the mental world to physics4 ,he stated this mechanical principle in two parts3 all that exists is body2 all that occurs is motion4 ,hobbes applies this assumption to the physical world and it gives him materialism2#bj he applies it to knowledge and it gives him sensationalism2#ba he applies it to the will and it gives him determinism2#bb he applies it to morals and politics and it gives him naturalism4#bc ,body is nature2 body is everything4 ,body is the first term leading through man up to the ,state4 ,with ,hobbes1 as with others of his time1 the political field was the whole ground to be penetrated4 ,the fundamental principle1 by which ,hobbes thought the whole field was to be explained1 is body in motion4 ,the mental world became drawn into the physical1 and thereby his mechanical conception became the more natural4 ,there was one realm which ,hobbes left untouched by his principle3 the realm of the spirit1 i4 e4 ,god1 souls1 angels4 ,the science of bodies cannot deal with the supernatural1 for the supernatural does not consist of bodies in motion4 ,matter and mind are homogeneous2 matter and spirit are not4 ,the contrast in ,hobbes is not between matter and mind1 the material and the psychical1 but between matter and spirit1 the material and the supra-material4 ,the ,method of ,hobbes4 ,hobbes made the method of ,galileo his own4 ,he believed that all knowledge is rooted in mathematics4 ,there is one true method of treating all subjects3 the mathematical calculation of them as motions of bodies4 ,knowledge consists in using words as the signs of experience and in reckoning with them4 ,scientific thought is the combination of signs4 ,it is the rationalizing of our experiences4 ,science has a truth in itself and stands as a rationally organized world1 quite different from the world of experience which it has organized4 ,the world of bodies in causally related motions is such an organized world1 the most systematized and most simply constructed world that science can devise4 ,but how does the scientist proceed8 ,he begins with a phenomenon1 which is a body in motion1 and finds out the causes of the phenomenon1 which causes are nothing more nor less than the elements of the phenomenon in question4 ,then the scientist proceeds from the causes to other phenomenal effects4 ,these new effects are like the original phenomenon and its causes1bodies in motion4 ,thus the world of the scientist is a world of causes and effects1 for 8the natural reason of man is busily flying up and down among the creatures1 and bringing back a true report of their order1 causes1 and effects40 ,thus we find ,hobbes to be a nominalist 7see vol4 i1 p4 #ceh7 who1 nevertheless1 used the deductive methodrather a strange combination4 ,like all his ,english successors1 he employed induction and deduction1 but the two processes never became fused4#bd ,moreover for induction he has no method4 ,the order in which the writings of ,hobbes appeared seems to have been the sport of outward events1 for they were not written according to his original plan4 ,on his return from his third journey to the ,continent 7#afch71 ,hobbes1 then fifty years old1 had adopted the mechanical theory and had planned his philosophy4 ,his comprehensive work was to be called the ,elements of ,philosophy1 and was to be divided into three parts3 ,de ,corpore1 treating physical bodies2 ,de ,homine1 treating man as a psychological individual2 ,de ,cive1 treating man as the citizen of a ,state4 ,hobbes's philosophy was therefore to be a universal philosophy1 and he intended to bring his works out in logical orderfirst1 the science of physics1 then of human nature1 and last of society4 ,however1 the growing disturbances in the political world at that time moved him to publish several treatises on politics first1 and his physics and psychology more than fifteen years later4 ,the ,kinds of ,bodies4 ,there are two kinds of bodies1 natural and artificial4 ,natural bodies are those belonging to the physical world4 ,the artificial bodies are the institutions of society1 of which the most important is the ,state4 ,man belongs to both classes of bodieshe has a physical nature and he is a member of the ,state4 ,man is the connecting link between natural and artificial bodies4 ,philosophy is therefore divided into three parts3 physics1 which treats of purely natural bodies2 psychology1 which treats of man in his rle as a natural individual2 politics1 which treats of man in social congregations with his fellows4 ,looking at the situation from the other end1 political bodies are decomposable into men1 men are in turn decomposable into physical bodies4 ,political bodies are dependent on the psychical nature of men1 and the psychical nature of men is dependent on the nature of physical bodies1 i4 e4 on bodies and their motions4 ,thus all bodies1 natural and artificial1 must be explained in terms of motion1 if they are explained scientifically4 ,physical bodies are the first term leading up through man to the last term in the series1 which is the ,state4 ,hobbes's ,application of the ,mathematical ,theory to ,psychology4 ,although the prime interest of ,hobbes lay in the political life of man1 he nevertheless made an original contribution to psychology4 ,he snatched the science of mental phenomena from the hands of the scholastic theologian and made it for the first time an independent science4 ,psychology had been based upon the assumptions of the theologian2 for these ,hobbes substituted the assumptions of the mathematician4 ,consciousness became in his hands not a soul1 but the motion of bodies4 ,it is described by him as 8the movement of certain parts of the organic body40 ,the states of consciousness1 such as sensations1 perceptions1 etc41 are brain movements or the refined movements of atoms in the nervous system4 ,memory and imagination are 8decaying sensations02 thought is the sum of several sensations2 experience is the totality of sensations bound together by the rigid laws of association4 ,hobbes was the father of what is known as the ,associational ,psychology1 or the theory that consciousness is composed of mental atoms under fixed laws of association4 ,but although ,hobbes took psychology out of the hands of the theologian and made it a mechanical science1 he did not identify it with physics4 ,it is still psychology4 ,the mental states are the physical motion of bodies1 but they are not external motions1 nor are they the copies of the external motions of bodies4 ,mental states are brain movements2 they are the result of external motions4 ,they come about in this way4 ,a moving body in the outer world makes an impression on the sense organ1 and this motion is transmitted by the nerves to the heart and brain4 ,a reaction is effected in the brain1 and this is a mental state4 ,the brain transformations1 and not the movement of the external object1 is that of which we are conscious4 ,the mental state is an 8apparition0 of the actual fact in the external world2 it is an effect in a causal series4 ,our perception of light is1 for example1 a modification of the cerebral substance1 and not of the external body itself4 ,we deceive ourselves when we think that the sensations of light1 sound1 heat are outside us4 ,these qualities of things are modifications of ourselves4 ,there is nothing external to us1 except the motions of bodies which are the causes of these modifications4 ,the external world is no doubt real1 but we have no knowledge of itno knowledge of aught save the motions of bodies within ourselves4 ,this is the point of view of all subsequent ,english philosophy3 the substance of things is quite different from our knowledge of them4 ,the substance of things is real2 but is not the object of our knowledge4 ,the object of our knowledge is a modification of ourselves4 ,the independence of knowledge with reference to theology on the one side1 and to physical reality on the other1 is well illustrated in ,hobbes's discussion of language4 ,speech consists of words1 which are only the counters of things4 ,words are markers by which men may know a thing as 8seamen mark a rock40 ,science consists in their manipulation4 ,science combines them by addition and subtraction into judgments and syllogisms1 and thereby constructs a body of demonstrated principles4 ,words are only counters1 and he is a fool who mistakes the counter for the coin of reality4 ,words only represent reality1 and the law of their use is mathematics4 ,truth and falsity are terms that are concerned with the correct or incorrect manipulation of these verbal counters and not with real things4 ,hobbes's ,application of the ,mathematical ,theory to ,politics4 ,in the same way that material bodies in motion give rise to mental states1 and mental states as bodies in motion give rise to the human consciousness1 so men as individuals are the source of the artificial body1the ,state4 ,in every individual man the impulse to self-preservation is innate1 and is1 in fact1 his absolute and universal characteristic4 ,just as the law of the mechanical association of ideas is the fundamental principle of the human mind1 so the mechanical law of self-preservation is the principle of man's ethical and political life4 ,all our political institutions are the result of the striving of men for self-preservation4 ,in his natural statewhen1 as ,hobbes conceived1 man lived without social organizationman had no other standard for conduct than his own self-interest2 in the artificial political state1 which man has constructed1 self-interest is still his motive4 ,egoism is the sole working principle of human beings both before and after they live in societies2 but the political state is the most ingenious contrivance which egoism has hit upon for its own profit4 ,hobbes conceived that the original state of man1 which under the name of 8state of nature0 was a common problem in the ,renaissance1 was a condition in which every man was making war against every other man4 7,compare ,locke and ,rousseau47 ,but such a condition of things was obviously self-destructive4 ,consequently man arbitrarily and artificially formed the political ,state to avoid this self-destructive1 internecine warfare4 ,under the circumstances it was the most effective way in which man could gain his personal ends1 for the political ,state was the only possible means to peace4 ,in the 8state of nature0 the right of every man to everything was the equivalent of the right of every man to nothing4 ,so men made a compact with one another under which each relinquished a portion of his rights in order that each might have a portion of them secure4 ,but what gives security to this compact8 ,the sovereign to which the powers of the many have thus been delegated4 ,what is the sovereign8 ,it is the soul of the ,state1 the general will1represented by a single person in a monarchy1 by an assembly in a republic4 ,this sovereign1 in whom the contract is vested1 is absolute2 for the sovereign was not a party to the original contract1 since he did not then exist4 ,the contract was made among the individuals1 at that time in a 8state of nature40 ,so long as the ,state preserves its power among the people1 the people must render their obedience to the ,state1to the sovereign in whom the contract was vested4 ,the might of the political ,state makes right4 ,whatever the ,state commands is right2 whatever is forbidden is wrong4 ,there was no right and wrong in the 8state of nature10 only the possible and the impossible4 ,an act is a crime when it breaks the contract1 and thus the ground of morality is political legislation4 ,even the religion of the people is determined by the ,state4 ,any political ,state is better than a revolution4 ,here was philosophical justification of ,charles ,i4 ,a reversion to war is a reversion to the 8state of nature40 ,when ,hobbes was in ,france as a refugee he wrote the ,leviathan1 which contained this doctrine of political society4 ,he presented a vellum-bound copy to ,charles ,,ii1 hoping to gain favor with that prince4 ,however1 the ,leviathan1 unfortunately for ,hobbes's purpose1 contained two paragraphs that antagonized the royalists and the ,catholics4 ,one was1 that when a commonwealth is unable to protect its citizens in peace1 that commonwealth is dissolved and a new sovereign commonwealth is formed4 ,the second was1 that while the sovereign state shall decide what the religion of its people shall be1 no religion is infallibleneither ,anglican1 ,catholic1 nor ,puritan4 ,the religion that the sovereign makes legal is only a temporary one2 the true religion will come not until the ,last ,judgment4 ,the church is subordinate to the ,state1 like everything else1 and it does not matter much what the ,state religion shall be1 provided there be peace4 ,religion is only a superstition resting on a defective knowledge of nature1 and it is of little consequence what particular religion the ,state makes binding4 ,it hardly need be said that the ,leviathan pleased neither ,charles ,,ii nor the ,catholics4 ,the sequel of its publication was that ,hobbes fled back to ,england from fear of assassination4 ,the ,renaissance in ,england after ,hobbes4 ,the philosophies of ,bacon and ,hobbes do not exhaust1 but merely represent the philosophy of ,england during the ,renaissance4 ,empiricism#be had to wait for ,locke in the next period before it became dominant4 ,after ,hobbes ,scholasticism was narrowly confined to limited circles and appeared under the form of ,skepticism or of ,platonism1 neo-,platonism1 or ,mysticism4 ,the reaction toward ,platonism was centred in a group of ethical scholars1 called the ,cambridge ,school4 ,it included ,culverwell1 ,cudworth1 ,henry ,more1 and ,cumberland4 ,this ,platonic movement was short-lived4 ,the scientific spirit1 represented in the ,renaissance by ,bacon and ,hobbes1 dominated the next period1the ,enlightenment1and we shall find it spreading its influence over ,france and ,germany in the form that ,locke gave to it4 ,but the history of the philosophy of the ,renaissance is not yet completed4 ,contemporary with ,bacon and ,hobbes1 there was a movement on the ,continent which was more characteristic of the ,renaissance1 and indeed more important to it than the movement in ,england4 ,this was the school of ,rationalists1 to which we now turn4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,rationalism ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,science ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,the ,nature of ,rationalism4 ,although the new science grew apace1 it was not altogether a safe vocation4 ,natural science involves metaphysical questions at every point4 ,the scientist at this time1 therefore1 found himself often in delicate relations with the jealous church guardians4 ,a scientific explanation of the universe might antagonize the church dogma concerning ,god1 creation1 and the final outcome of the world4 ,the church doctrine concerning the soul1 too1 its nature and its immortality1 its relation to the body1 might be antagonized by physiological and psychological discussions4 ,in such dilemmas as these the natural scientist was not successful in pretending to isolate himself entirely from theology and in assuming an attitude of aloofness to it4 ,galileo might declare that1 whatever the results of his investigations in physics might be1 they had nothing to do with the ,bible2 but he sorrowfully found that the ,inquisition thought otherwise4 ,copernicus found that his astronomical theories came into conflict with church dogma1 and he was tormented by his bishop4 ,kepler spent his later years in a deadly struggle with both ,protestantism and ,catholicism4 ,bacon and ,hobbes lived in a country where their personal safety was fairly secure1 nevertheless ,bacon disguised his position by using large words and ,hobbes was untroubled because he accepted the religion of his sovereign4 ,if the position of those was difficult who tried to keep themselves strictly within the limits of science1 how much more fraught with personal danger was the position of those who openly constructed a new metaphysics8 ,it would mean that a challenge was issued to the old ,scholasticism by the same human reason that had already challenged and overthrown the old science4 ,the group of men who did this were the ,rationalists4 ,the ,rationalists were interested in science1 but they were more interested in the metaphysical problems that science aroused4 ,the human reason had been successful in the reconstruction of physics by the use of mathematics4 ,why should it not also be able to reconstruct metaphysics and set it1 too1 upon a mathematical basis8 ,the leaders of this school were ,descartes1 ,spinoza1 ,leibnitz1 and the ,occasionalists1,malebranche and ,geulincx4 ,the ,rationalists advanced a new conception not only of nature1 but of ,god2 new theories not only of the human body1 but of the soul4 ,their task was the dangerous one of bravely invading the hitherto impregnable realms of the spirit4 ,the task of the ,rationalists was rendered the more difficult because1 for the first time in the history of ,european thought1 the inner and outer worlds had been completely sundered4 ,for the first time do we meet with a clear-cut and positive dualism4 ,the history of the growth of this dualism had been a long one1 and to it the ,greek ,sophist1 the ,stoic1 and the ,christian had each contributed his share4 ,however1 ,galileo and his fellow scientists in this period of the ,renaissance had so reconstructed the old 8world of nature0 that it had become irreconcilable to the 8world of grace40 ,these scientists believed that nature must be made to explain itself2 its events must be conceived as necessitated2 its processes as having the inevitableness of a machine4 ,from the revolutions of the planets to the circulation of the blood1 the movements of nature can be measured4 ,the law of nature1 that is conceived to underlie all this science1 is mechanical causation4 ,the researches of the scientists of the ,renaissance had yielded a rich world of brute1 inevitable1 and scientific facts1 and these stood in absolute fundamental contrast to the world of spiritual facts which were embodied in the church dogma4 ,apparently the problem of reconciling the 8world of nature0 and the 8world of grace0 had been solved by ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas in medival times4 ,now1 however1 the 8world of nature0 had been so reconstructed that the question was re-opened4 ,how is the new 8world of nature0 to be brought into harmonious relation with that old1 persistent1 and settled dogma of the church8 ,how can the newly conceived mechanism of nature be harmonized with the realm of free conscious spirits1 without giving up the conception of ,god as a rational being1 and also without depriving the soul of its power of initiation8 ,the new science had therefore made it especially difficult on the one hand to reconcile a mechanical universe with an omnipotent ,god1 and on the other to reconcile the mechanical human body with the free soul4 ,the struggle of the ,renaissance with the ,middle ,ages is therefore concentrated in the development of the doctrine of this ,rationalist ,school4 ,it is studied here even better than by reading the two periods side by side4 ,in ,rationalism the ,scholasticism of the ,middle ,ages and the ,science of the ,renaissance meet4 ,rationalism was a new science1 but it was a new theology as well4 ,it was a new scholastic philosophy2 for1 while the ,rationalists thought that they were giving the death blow to medival philosophy1 they were instead only replacing it with another scholasticism4 ,in their attempt1 by means of the mechanical theory1 to get an absolute system of knowledge upon which thought can rest1 the ,rationalists were acting in the spirit of the schoolmen4 ,in fact1 no schoolman ever showed more vigor or more dogmatic confidence in his philosophy4 ,to the mathematical eye of the ,rationalist there was absolutely nothing mysterious in the physical universe or in the spiritual realm4 ,all things in heaven and earth could be made clear4 ,the declaration of the ,rationalists was the call of freedom1 but it was as hazardous as it was ambitious2 and the church with its assured revelations always stood opposed to the realization of freedom4 ,so we shall find ,descartes spending his whole life trying to trim his sails that he may not offend the ,inquisition2 ,spinoza saving himself from both the ,jews and the ,christians by living in obscurity and publishing nothing2 ,leibnitz constructing philosophy with the avowed purpose of reconciling science and religion4 ,the ,mental ,conflict in ,descartes4 ,the strife between the spirit of the ,middle ,ages and that of the ,renaissance appears in ,descartes more strikingly than in any other thinker of this time4 ,he shows1 on the one hand1 all the conservatism of a churchman of medival time in his respect for institutional authority2 on the other hand1 his intellectual activity places him among the leading scientists of the ,renaissance4 ,in no other thinker does the conflict between the ,old and the ,new appear so unsettling2 in none does the antagonism between the scholastic world of spiritual things and the mechanical world of science appear so irreconcilable4 ,he suffered a life-long mental strife1 for within himself medivalism and science were engaged in an unending dramatic struggle4 ,the philosophy of ,descartes was a compromise between his traditions and his scientific genius2 and his philosophy never overcame his conflicting motives4 ,the admirers of ,descartes have called him the father of modern thought1 and this is partly true4 ,the father of the modern scientific method was ,galileo4 ,descartes1 on the other hand1 pointed out the incontestable principle from which modern thought has proceeded2 he won his place in the history of philosophy by attempting to harmonize the old scholasticism with the new science under this single principle4 ,the ,life and ,philosophical ,writings of ,descartes 7#aeif-afej74bf 7#a7 ,as ,child and ,student 7#aeif-afac74 ,at home until he was eight years old 7#aeif- #afjd74 ,at the ,jesuit school at ,la ,flche until he was seventeen 7#afjd-afac74 7#b7 ,as ,traveler 7#afac-afbh74 ,descartes studies 8the book of the world40 ,at ,paris 7#afac-afag71 in retirement and study4 ,in ,holland 7#afag-afai71 nominally attached to the army of ,maurice4 ,first ,journey 7#afai-afba71 going through ,bavaria1 ,austria1 north to the shores of the ,baltic and back to ,holland4 ,the greater part of these two years were spent in ,bohemia1 enrolled in the army of the ,emperor4 ,he was on this journey when his mental crisis occurred1at ,neuberg1 in ,austria1 in #afai4 ,it was then that he discovered either analytical geometry or the fundamental principle of his philosophy4 ,in ,paris again1 #afbc4 ,second ,journey 7#afbc-afbe71 to ,switzerland and ,italy1 making a pilgrimage to the shrine of ,loretto4 7#c7 ,as ,writer 7#afbi-afej74 ,in ,holland 7#afbi-afdi74 ,for the sake of absolute seclusion from inquisitive visitors1 ,descartes changed his residence in ,holland twenty-four times and lived in thirteen places4 ,all his correspondence passed through ,mersenne4 ,during these twenty years he made three journeys to ,france4 ,thus this period of absolute retirement became his period of literary production1 chiefly between the years #afce and #afdd4 ,he wrote his ,method 7#afce-afcg74 ,meditations 7#afbi-afda74 ,le ,monde 7#afcj-afcb71 published posthumously4 ,principles 7#afda-afdd74 ,passions 7#afdf-afdi74 7#d7 ,in ,stockholm1 ,sweden 7#afdi-afej74 ,the romantic side of the life of ,descartes appears in his book on the ,passions1 which he wrote for the ,princess ,elizabeth1 and also in his acceptance of the invitation of the ,queen of ,sweden to reside at her court and become her tutor4 ,he died there from the rigors of the climate after a residence of one year4 ,the ,two ,conflicting ,influences upon the ,thought of ,descartes4 ,on the one hand1 all the ties of inheritance1 family influence1 and early education allied ,descartes with the spirit of the ,middle ,ages4 ,a delicate constitution made him shrink from public controversy and the public eye4 ,he even made a half apology for his pursuit of science by saying that he was seeking to reform his own life1 and that it was absurd for an individual to attempt to reform a state4 ,his family on both sides belonged to the landed gentry1 and he was therefore bound by caste to the support of institutional authority4 ,he was educated in the ,jesuit school of ,la ,flche1 and this most conservative of ecclesiastical influences restrained him from following the logical conclusions of his own thought4 ,he was therefore both physically timid and intellectually aloof4 ,in #afcb he was about to publish ,le ,monde1 which was a scientific description of the origin and nature of the universe1 and agrees in part with the ,copernican theory4 ,it was a treatise which would naturally conflict with the teaching of the church4 ,he learned of the trial of ,galileo at ,rome1 and he never dared to publish the book4 ,the rival spirit speaking in ,descartes was the new scientific spirit of the ,renaissance4 ,he had a genius for mathematics even when he was at school at ,la ,flche4 ,on his going to ,paris he became the centre of the most notable scientific circle in ,francea circle composed of such men as the ,abb ,claude ,picot1 the physician ,villebressieux1 the optician ,ferrier1 the mathematician ,mersenne1 and many other scientists and theologians4 ,but he became dissatisfied and made some long journeys in order to study 8the book of the world40 ,his discovery of his method and his philosophical principle was the result4 ,in mathematics he was the discoverer of analytical geometry and was the first to represent powers by exponents2 in physics he stated the principle of the refraction of light in trigonometrical form2 he explained the rainbow2 he weighed the air4 ,the same industrious application of the new scientific methods that yielded great results in science1 also resulted in his development of his philosophy4 ,love for original discovery made ,descartes disdainful of all scientific authorities and even contemptuous of his notable contemporaries1 ,galileo and ,harvey4 ,he mentions by name ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,epicurus1 ,campanella1 ,telesio1 and ,bruno1 but he claimed that he learned nothing from any one except ,kepler4 ,he felt himself to be above criticism1 and in his self-arrogating dogmatism he is the type of the modern practical individualist4 ,he defined truth as candor to one's self1 and both in his practical life and in his theoretical ideal there is an entire absence of utilitarianism4 ,the ,method of ,descartes4 ,both science and scholasticism show themselves in the method of ,descartes4 ,he attempted to construct a philosophical method entirely in the scientific spirit of the ,renaissance1 but in the application of it he showed his scholastic training4 ,surfeited with inadequate and traditional methods he felt the need of some single principle by which all knowledge might be systematized1 and he was sure that mathematics would furnish the key4 ,rational science was to ,descartes only mathematics4 ,truth is to be found not in metaphysics1 nor in empirical science4 ,descartes' philosophical aim was to establish a universal mathematics4 ,descartes was not entirely faithful to ,galileo's mathematical principle in his employment of it1 and his influence in metaphysics was thereby all the greater2 for in the development of his method he found assistance in the traditional scholastic methods4 ,descartes was original in insisting upon finding the existence of an absolute and undeniable principle before any progress could be made4 ,such an absolute principle can be obtained only by an inductive sifting of all ideas4 ,from this all further truths must be obtained by deduction4 ,every true philosophy must therefore be an induction or analysis of ideas1 and secondly1 a deduction or synthesis4 ,the great contribution of ,descartes was therefore this3 to the inductive method of ,bacon and the deductive method of ,galileo1 he added an absolute principle which must be taken as the basis of both induction and deduction4#bg ,induction,provisional ,doubt,the ,ultimate ,certainty of ,consciousness4 ,the philosophical proclamation of ,descartes was characteristically ,french1 for he demanded the same return to an uncorrupted nature for the understanding that ,rousseau many years later demanded for the heart4 ,the first step of ,descartes was also ,french in its demand for absolute clearness1 which from his youth had shown him to be so passionately fond of mathematics4 ,the way to such clearness is through provisional doubt4 ,let us purify the understanding by delivering it of the rubbish of traditional opinions1 taken upon the say-so of others4 ,by this negative induction of received knowledge1 let us see if there is anything positive and certain4 ,in ,descartes's ,meditations1 in 8a dramatic dialogue with himself10 he portrays his own intellectual struggle to gain uncontaminated truth4 ,he makes an induction of all kinds of knowledge and challenges each as it appears4 ,nothing is to be accepted as true until it has proved itself true4 ,all facts are subjected to rigid scrutiny4 ,descartes doubts the testimony of the senses1 the existence of the material world1 the existence of ,god4 ,but this induction is provisional1 even if it is radical4 ,while none of the usually accepted truths are found by him to be undeniable and absolute1 yet ,descartes has an ulterior purpose in challenging them4 ,greek skepticism had no further end than doubt1 while at the other extreme ,anselm and the orthodox scholastics had refused to doubt at all4 ,the method of ,descartes is contrasted both with that of ,anselm and with that of the ,skeptics1 for he doubts in order that he may know4 ,dubito ut intelligam4 ,doubt is necessary1 but only as a means to an end2 and that end is knowledge4 ,descartes proclaimed for the modern individual the privilege and the duty of rationalizing his own beliefs4 ,in such an inductive sifting of traditional beliefs1 are there any that can be called knowledge8 ,is there one whose reliability cannot be successfully doubted8 ,not a single one1 except the thinking process itself4 ,i am certain that ,i am conscious4 ,even when in my universal doubt ,i say that nothing is certain1 ,i am at least certain that ,i doubt4 ,i am1 therefore1 contradicting my universal skepticism4 ,to doubt is to think2 in doubting1 consciousness is asserting its existence4 ,skepticism is self-contradictory4 ,an induction of our ideas reveals at least this one absolutely certain principle3 ,i1 as thinking1 am4 ,cogito ergo sum4 ,my own existence is an intuitive truth that accompanies every state of mind4 ,this is the best known portion of ,descartes's philosophy1 and perhaps it is in part to the ,latin formula of it that it owes its widespread acceptance4 ,it is criticised as trifling1 even if it be true2 and as reasoning in a circle4 ,yet it must be remembered that ,descartes does not intend the ergo sum 78therefore ,i am07 to be a conclusion of a syllogism of which ,cogito 78,i think07 is the minor premise4 ,this formula is not an inference1 but an intuition1 which is revealed by induction as the certain background of all knowledge4 ,three things are to be learned from this fundamental principle1 said ,descartes3 7#a7 ,the first is that man has gained a criterion of truth4 ,the characteristic of this principle that makes it reliable and certain is its clearness and distinctness4 ,clearness and distinctness of ideas is the proof of their truth4 ,all true ideas will therefore have the mathematical and intuitive certainty that the idea of the existence of the self has4 7#b7 ,the second lesson from this fundamental principle is that the existence of the soul is more certain than that of the body4 ,the soul is more important and independent than the body4 ,this is the subjective point of view of modern times4 ,the modern man views the world as the representation or the creation of his thinking soul4 7#c7 ,the third lesson from this principle concerns the nature of the soul4 ,how long do you exist8 ,as long as you think4 7,sum cogitans47 ,true existence is rational thinking1 and ,god alone has it4 ,feelings and passions are obscure ideas4 ,deduction,the ,implications of ,consciousness4 ,for ,descartes reality lies within the ,self2 and the next question before him is how to get out of the ,self4 ,knowledge that is confined to the ,self and its states is called1 technically1 solipsism4 ,such knowledge amounts to little2 indeed1 it is not knowledge at all4 ,certainty of self-existence is the minimum amount of knowledgemerely the starting point of knowledge4 ,descartes proposes to escape from this solipsism by the use of logic4 ,his method from this point on is ostensibly deductive1 although he introduces by the side door other ideas than the idea of ,self to make his proof complete4 ,descartes maintains that any idea will be as true as the consciousness that accompanies it1 just as a proposition in geometry partakes of the truth of the axioms from which it is derived4 ,now my consciousness contains many ideas2 some of them seem to be the product of my imagination2 some seem to be adventitious2 some are innate4 ,it is upon the innate ideas that ,descartes depends to get him out of his solipsism1 for they are not created by the ,self and they have the qualities of trutha conscious clearness and distinctness4 ,among these innate ideas is the idea of ,god as a perfect being4 ,the ,existence of ,god4#bh ,as a deduction from consciousness1 the idea of ,god would prove to be a very useful one to ,descartes1 provided it had reality4 ,for it is evident that consciousness can testify only to the existence of itself and its own states4 ,how do ,i know the reality of anything else8 ,am ,i confined within the circle of my own thinking8 ,is all that ,i can say of this or that1 8,it is real to me08 ,are all things only the phantasmagoria of my own brain1 testifying only to the existence of myself8 ,descartes thought that the idea of ,god relieved him of this solipsism4 ,if he could demonstrate ,god's existence1 he would then be able to demonstrate the existence of the material universe4 ,the problem was so highly important to ,descartes that he threw it into several different arguments4 ,the complications with which these arguments are filled must be passed over here1 and the arguments stated in their simplest forms4 7a7 ,two are ontological arguments1 that is1 arguments from the character of the conception of ,god's nature4 7#a7 ,a ,simple ,deduction4 ,if ,i have in my consciousness any idea as clear and distinct as my idea of ,myself1 it must have existence like ,myself4 ,my idea of ,god has just that clearness and distinctness2 and therefore ,god exists4 7#b7 ,the ,geometrical ,argument1 so called by ,descartes4 ,some ideas have properties so immutable that1 when we think the ideas1 we necessarily think their properties4 ,such is the idea of a triangle2 when ,i think of a triangle1 ,i must think of it as having its three angles equal to two right angles4 ,such is also my idea of ,god2 ,i must think of him as perfect and existing4 ,he would not be ,god1 i4 e4 a perfect ,being1 if ,he did not exist4 ,the reader will recognize this as a re-statement of the argument by ,st4 ,anselm4 ,as such it raised a tempest of controversy in ,descartes' time1 and was attacked from all sides4 7b7 ,two are causal arguments1 that is1 based on the assumption of the equality of cause and effect4 ,only one of these arguments will be cited here4 ,this is known as ,the ,cartesian ,argument4 ,i have an idea of a perfect ,being4 ,this idea must have an adequate cause4 ,therefore ,god must exist1 for only ,he1 and no imperfect being1 can be the adequate cause of my idea of perfection4 ,the ontological arguments given by ,descartes are evidently deductions from the certainty of self-consciousness4 ,the question which we immediately raise concerning them is1 ,are they true8 ,as to the causal arguments1 ,descartes is breaking away from his original assumption1 viz41 that self-consciousness is the only certainty1 and is introducing another assumption1 viz41 the certainty of the law of cause4 ,the question1 then1 that the thoughtful student asks1 is1 ,does ,descartes really escape from his solipsism8 ,the ,reality of ,matter4 ,it will be seen that ,descartes is trying to deduce from the certainty of the idea of self-consciousness the certainty of other ideas1 as propositions are deduced in geometry from axioms4 ,the existence of ,god is an implication of human consciousness4 ,now ,descartes points out that the existence of matter is implied in the existence of ,god4 ,descartes is interested in material science1 and it is important for him to prove the reality of matter4 ,here again his scholastic training comes into play4 ,since ,god has all the attributes of a perfect being1 ,he must be veracious4 ,if there were no ,god1 but only a deceiving ,devil1 the external world might be only a fiction1 created to deceive us4 ,but ,god exists1 and we can trust that ,he would not continually deceive men about the existence of nature4 ,an atheist could have no science1 but to ,descartes1 8,god's in ,his heaven ,all's right with the world40 ,of course1 man is constantly in error about the character of physical things1 but these errors arise from his misinterpretation of them4 ,nature in some form lies before man1 or else ,god in ,his truthfulness does not exist4 ,the essence of matter is extension 7see below71 and whatever my interpretation of it1 something extended lies before me to be interpreted4 ,this is the skeleton upon which ,descartes constructs his theory4 ,even this cursory examination of it shows the obvious attempt to explain 8the world of grace0 by the method of mathematics1 and it is quite consistent with the spirit of the ,renaissance4 ,the existence of ,god and the existence of matter are deduced in turn from the axiom of all thought1 the ,self2 while matter is further described as the extended or the measurable4 ,thus ,descartes has tried to construct a bridge between the scholastic concepts and the science of the ,renaissance4 ,the three realities1 the ,self1 ,god1 and matter1 which ,descartes often speaks of as intuitively certain1 have obviously a differing cogency4 ,the reality of consciousness is the ground from which the other two are derived4 ,in asserting its primacy1 he is voicing the spirit of the ,renaissance even more clearly than did ,galileo and ,bacon4 ,for ,descartes in this has gone back of the objective facts to a single subjective principle2 whereas the deductive principles of ,galileo were objective4 ,in this respect ,descartes is the founder of the subjective method of modern thought1 and in identifying the ,self as the reason he became the founder of rationalism4 ,in any case he established a background for epistemology1 or the theory of knowledge4 ,but in his derivation of the other two realities,god and matterhe shows how persistent was the scholastic current in his thought4 ,although he declared them to be intuitively known1 they evidently are not so in the same sense that self-consciousness is2 and he felt obliged to support them by traditional scholastic arguments4 ,god and the ,world4 ,leaving these fundamental principles of ,descartes1 we now come to a consideration of a few of the details of his philosophy4 ,descartes' world is a dualism in which conscious being stands in contrast with space objects4 ,god is related to the world of mind on the one hand and to the world of matter on the other4 ,the order in which ,descartes came upon the three substancesthe ,self1 ,god1 and matteris1 however1 not the order of their reality4 ,in reality ,god is the primary substance1 for ,he depends only upon ,himself4 ,matter and the ,self are relative or created substances1 for they depend upon ,god4 ,matter and mind have different modes of appearing3 the modes of matter are form1 size1 position1 and motion4 ,the modes of mind are ideas1 judgments1 and will4 ,thus mind is so essentially different from matter1 as can be seen in their respective modes1 that ,god stands in a different relation to each4 ,the ,relation of ,god to ,matter4 ,descartes here investigates the realm in which he has the deepest interest2 but he makes a concession at the very beginning4 ,he divests things of their qualities and finds the essence of matter to be extension4 ,qualities are not resident in things1 but are the result of our sensations4 ,sense-perception is knowledge of qualities1 and therefore obscure knowledge2 while clear or intellectual knowledge is of quantities4 ,but there is one quality common to matter1extension4 ,space1 extension1 and matter are the same4 ,there is no space that is empty1 no matter that is not extended4 ,an extended or material body has1 however1 in itself no principle of motion4 ,it cannot move itself4 ,it must be moved by an external cause1 and the whole universe must be a mechanism whose movements have their first cause in ,god4 ,matter in its modes of motion and rest has ,god as its first cause or unmoved mover2 and under matter is included everything extended1inanimate objects1 the lower animals1 and the bodies of men4 ,to this world of matter ,god stands in the relation of an inventor to his machine4 ,the ,relation of ,god to ,minds4 ,the essential nature of minds is thought4 ,mind is therefore different from matter because it is unextended and free4 ,the two relative substances have nothing in common except that they are related to ,god4 ,the relation of ,god to minds is1 however1 very different from ,his relation to matter4 ,god is not the unmoved mover of minds1 but ,he is the perfect and infinite mind to which our finite minds turn as their ideal4 ,god thinks and wills perfectly what we think and will imperfectly4 ,he is not the mechanical but the teleological cause of minds1 their ens perfectissimum1 the goal of all mental aspiration4 ,the ,relation of ,mind and ,body4 ,in proportion as ,descartes clearly defined mind and body1 and referred each back to its own principle1 the impossibility of connecting the two became apparent4 ,descartes intended that his theory should1 above everything else1 clear philosophy of all obscurities4 ,so he divided the world into two relative substances1mind and matter1each operating in its own realm1 each exclusive of the other4 ,the intention of ,descartes is to be a consistent dualist4 ,but there was one point where1 with one eye on the church1 he had to qualify for ethical considerations his scientific principle of matter4 ,that is the point where the human body acts upon the soul and the soul acts upon the body4 ,there was little trouble for ,descartes in conceiving the movements of inanimate bodies1 plants1 and all the lower animals as purely mechanical and automatic1 with their first cause in ,god4 ,from his own investigations he felt obliged to regard many of the human functions as automatic also4 ,but his ethical and theological interests compelled him to think of man as exalted above the rest of creation4 ,theology has always been in a sense aristocratic1 and has drawn a line between man and other things4 ,man alone has a soul in his body4 ,the soul of man is immortal and free1 and must therefore have control over the body2 nevertheless the soul of man must be conscious of the impressions that come through the body4 ,here the science of the ,renaissance and the scholasticism of the ,middle ,ages refuse to be reconciled in the philosophy of ,descartes4 ,when it became a question between ,descartes' scientific theory of matter operating itself mechanically and the church doctrine of a spiritual will operating the matter of the human body1 the scientific theory had to yield4 ,how does ,descartes yield gracefully to the theological requirements and bring together the two unlike worlds of matter and mind in the human personality8 ,descartes' explanation of the relation of human mind and body reminds us of the mythical explanations of ,paracelsus4 ,the soul is united to all parts of the body1 but its point of contact with the body is the pineal gland1 and this contact is made possible through the animal spirits 7spiritus animales7 or the fire atoms in the blood1 a revived ,greek conception4 ,the pineal gland is a ganglion in the centre of the brain1 which biologists tell us is a defunct eye1 but which ,descartes conceived to be the seat of the soul4 ,descartes maintained that the animal spirits1 having been distilled by the heart1 ascend by mechanical laws from the heart to the brain1 and then descend to the nerves and muscles4 ,when they pass through the pineal gland1 they come in contact with the soul4 ,the soul exercises influence on the body by slightly moving the gland and diverting the animal spirits4 ,in this way the emotions and sensations are to be explained4 ,the movement of the pineal gland by the animal spirits causes sensations in the soul2 the movement of the gland by the soul changes the movement of the animal spirits1 and is an exhibition of free action4 ,but this does not add to or subtract from the energy4 ,it merely changes the direction of energy4 ,the ,influence of ,descartes4 ,although the philosophy of ,descartes was forbidden in the ,university of ,oxford1 was proscribed by the ,calvinists in ,holland1 and his works were placed upon the ,index by the ,catholics1 it created a profound impression on the theology1 science1 and literature of the seventeenth century4 ,it spread over ,europe in a somewhat similar way to the ,darwinian evolution theory in modern times4 ,its success was immense1 many standard men rallied to its support1 and everything before ,descartes was considered to be antiquated4 ,among philosophers his doctrine had an internal development in a natural way along the lines of the problems which he had left unsolved4 ,a philosophical development1 the source of which can be traced directly back to ,descartes1 went on until ,kant published his ,critique in #agha4 ,this has later been called the ,school of ,rationalism in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,holland4 ,the most important members of this schoolthe ,occasionalists1 ,spinoza1 ,leibnitz1 and ,wolffwe shall consider in their place4 ,descartes had an important immediate following in the group1 who go by the name of ,occasionalists2 but his most important successor1 who can hardly be called his disciple1 was ,spinoza4 ,descartes' method had a peculiar fate4 ,his followers misunderstood it1 exactly reversed it1 and obtained very fruitful results4 ,descartes himself had hoped to see induction employed in most metaphysical problems4 ,he regarded deduction as of use only in proceeding from one self-evident fact to another4 ,but the following ,rationalists used the deductive method entirely and tried to systematize ethics after the manner of ,euclid4 ,they deduced their systems from some assumed principle4 ,this tendency was first seen in the ,port ,royal logic1 and was completed by ,spinoza4 ,the ,relation of the ,occasionalists and ,spinoza to ,descartes4 ,the development of the doctrines of the ,occasionalists and ,spinoza from ,descartes was an attempt to make clear the conception of substance4 ,since substance was the most important scholastic category1 it is easy to see why ,spinoza's teaching became thoroughly scholastic4 ,descartes had used the term 8substance0 in a very loose way to apply to ,god as infinite1 and to minds and bodies as finite4 ,he speaks of ,god as the only substance1 and yet of consciousness and bodies as created substances4 ,such ambiguity must be overcome1 if a philosophy which prided itself on making everything 8clear and distinct0 was to stand4 ,descartes had fallen short of justifying his attempt to put metaphysics completely upon a mathematical basis1 although this had been his original problem4 ,the obscurity of the spiritual world still remained1 because ,descartes had left the concept of the spiritual substance undefined4 ,the world of the spirit was still an unknown country4 ,the spiritual substance had not been made clear and distinct1 and there still remained the ontological problem of the relation between mind and matter1 and the psychological problem of the relation between the individual soul and its body4 ,descartes had1 however1 defined clearly the concept of the substance of matterthe substance with which the natural scientist works4 ,he had accomplished this1 to be sure1 by destroying the essential distinctions between material things4 ,a 8thing0 is essentially a substance in which many qualities inhere1 e4 g4 a piece of sugar having whiteness1 sweetness1 etc4 ,material substances were alike in that all were essentially extension4 ,all else besides extension in any particular finite thing was a modification of extension4 ,a lump of sugar was essentially the same as a lump of salt in that both were extension2 the saltness1 sweetness1 etc41 were secondary4 ,now this makes the nature of bodies very clear2 and ,descartes proposed to reduce the substance of the states of mind to the same clearness1 but he did not do it4 ,he was interested in natural science and he developed his rationalism only with reference to matter4 ,bodies are parts of space or corpuscles1 which are mathematically infinitely divisible1 but perceptually are not further divisible4 ,as far as he went1 ,descartes was clear enough4 ,the ,occasionalists and ,spinoza represent the second stage in the development of ,rationalism4 ,both tried by making clear the meaning of spiritual substance to define the relationship of ,god to the material world4 ,both tried to state the problem in other words1 to overcome the dualism between mind and matter1 and to reconstruct the old 8world of grace0 so that it would be consistent with the new world of science4 ,the ,occasionalists1 whose chief exponents were ,malebranche and ,geulincx1 we shall dismiss with only a few words1 while considerable attention must be given to the teaching of ,spinoza4 ,malebranche tried to do for the mental world what ,descartes had done for the world of matter4 ,since no knowledge is possible except in ,god1 he claimed that the modes of finite mindsour ideas1 judgments1 imaginationsare alike in essence in being modifications of the universal reason of ,god4 ,god is so far the 8place of minds0 as space is the place of bodies4 ,all our ideas participate in ,god's reason1 and all our volitions are the modifications of the will of the ,divine1 just as bodies are modifications of extension4 ,what then is the relation1 asked ,geulincx1 between bodily movement and the states of consciousness8 ,why does my arm move when ,i wish to move it8 ,by the mediatory power of ,god4 ,the thought in my mind is the 8occasional cause0 of the movement of my arm1 while ,god is the true cause of the movement4 ,the movement of the human body is therefore1 like the movement of all matter1 a continuous miracle caused by an ever watchful ,deity1 who keeps body and mind in harmony4 ,spinoza completed his pantheism before ,malebranche had prepared the way4 ,he formulated a complete doctrine of substance1 conceiving material bodies to be essentially the same in being modes of extension1 and mental phenomena to be essentially alike in being modes of thought4 ,but more important was his further teaching that on that account the two series have no relation to each other4 ,that is to say1 ,spinoza reduced the whole difficulty to clearness and distinctness by reducing the three substances of ,descartes to one4 ,for this reason ,spinoza was a more complete ,rationalist than ,descartes2 and he was assisted in this construction of a mathematical ,rationalism by two facts3 he held himself strictly to the deductive method1 and he was free from social and ecclesiastical ties4 ,spinoza is the truest utterance of his time in its effort to make all things clear2 and this is not contradicted by the fact that he had little influence in shaping contemporary thought4 ,illustration3 ,,baruch ,,de ,,spinoza 7,pollock 7,spinoza1 ,his ,life and ,philosophy1 p4 xxvi7 says that only three of the portraits of ,spinoza may reasonably be considered authentic4 ,one is a miniature of the philosopher in the ,summer ,palace at the ,hague2 the second is a painting in the ,town ,museum at the ,hague2 the third is the one given here1 which is an engraving found in copies of the original edition of ,spinoza's ,posthumous ,works 7#afgg74 ,this portrait seems to be somewhat idealized1 but of the three it is the most artistic and lifelike47 ,the ,historical ,place of ,spinoza4#bi ,spinoza did not get full standing nor was he widely read1 until ,lessing1 one hundred years later1 resurrected his teaching and ,goethe adopted it4 ,he produced what the ,renaissance was striving for1 but what the ,renaissance could not yet grasp1the complete logical formulation of its deepest thought4 ,spinoza produced the only great conception of the world during this period1 and it excited the hostility of contemporary ,catholics1 ,protestants1 and free-thinkers alike4 ,the product of his thinking was a new systematic scholasticism1 which1 if the time had been ready for it1 would have entirely superseded the medival4 ,he succeeded in placing metaphysics upon a scientific and mathematical basis1 for his philosophy was not only logical in its content but mathematical in its form4 ,spinoza's philosophy is the ,renaissance expression of medival scholasticism1the expression of that rationalism that underlies both the thought of the ,middle ,ages and the ,renaissance4 ,it is as if ,thomas ,aquinas had been transported into the ,renaissance1 and finding that science would not support and explain dogma1 had conformed dogma systematically to the new science4 ,mathematically science was the new dogma4 ,spinoza is the last word of medivalism1 although his language is the science of the ,renaissance4 ,the utterance of ,spinoza sounds strange because1 while his thought is medival1 his expression and form are scientific4 ,spinozism had a revival in the eighteenth century4#cj ,it formed the background of the philosophy of ,herder and that of the author of the ,wolfenbttel ,fragments4 ,the connection of ,lessing and ,spinoza was a matter of active controversy at that time4 ,spinoza was the great influence upon ,goethe4 ,in the nineteenth century in ,england ,coleridge reproduced from ,spinoza's ,ethics the doctrine of an all-pervading love and reason4 ,spinoza strove before everything else for a unitary system1 and yet it is interesting to see how much he has been honored from different quarters4 ,artists1 religious devotees1 poets1 idealists1 materialists1 and scientists have found in him their truest expression4 ,this is not only because each has found something different1 but because his philosophy had actually a many-sided character4 ,his teaching had the advantage of being thoroughly radical4 ,bad systems of philosophy are impossible1 because they are contradictory4 ,while no one knows that any system corresponds to fact1 still it is possible that a radical system may have such correspondence4 ,spinoza's system is comprehensive1 and therefore has struck sympathetic chords in differing thinkers4 ,the ,influences upon ,spinoza4 #a4 ,his ,jewish ,training4 ,spinoza was born a ,jew and remained a member of the ,synagogue until he was excommunicated at the age of twenty-four4 ,although he was the original genius who transcends his limitations1 his young mind was moulded after the ,jewish type4 ,he received the strictly religious training of the ,jewish boy in the ,jewish academy at ,amsterdam1 where he learned a trade in connection with his studies4 ,he studied the ,talmud1 medival ,jewish philosophy1 especially the writings of ,maimonides 7twelfth century71 and the ,cabalistic literature4 ,in a ,jewish curriculum the classical languages had no place2 and mathematics1 except arithmetic1 was generally overlooked4 ,his early instruction emphasized above everything else the unity and the supremely transcendent1 theistic character of ,god4 ,however1 his separation from the ,synagogue at this early age could not but modify his theology4 ,it made him a free ,jew4 ,he was no longer under the restraints of ,jewish traditions4 ,while he never abandoned his belief in ,god as a unity1 he gave up his belief in the transcendent theistic ,god of the ,hebrew prophets2 and he differed from the contemporary ,jewish ,cabalistic teaching of emanations from ,god4 ,he seems to have so modified the orthodox ,hebrew conception of ,god that it rather resembles that of the medival mystic ,christian4 ,perhaps the influence of ,bruno upon his thought may account for its final shape4 #b4 ,his ,impulse from the ,new ,science,descartes' ,influence4 ,the 8free thinking0 for which ,spinoza was excommunicated by the ,synagogue was obtained first from his instruction in the school of ,van der ,ende1 a physician of daring naturalistic tendencies4 ,this was when he was eighteen4 ,spinoza had already learned ,italian and ,french2 ,spanish1 ,portuguese1 ,dutch1 and ,hebrew were his native tongues2 ,van der ,ende taught him ,german and ,latin1 and introduced him to the science of the time4 ,it was then that he read ,descartes1 whose philosophy he made the basis of his own4 ,spinoza was not an inventive genius like ,descartes and ,leibnitz1 but he was more rigidly systematic than either4 ,he was by nature a thinker who was obliged to carry his thought through to its logical conclusions4 ,he had already1 at this early age of eighteen1 begun to make independent theological excursions4 ,consequently the mathematical methods of ,descartes furnished him a method1 and ,van der ,ende gave him the encouragement for carrying out his independent thinking unrelentingly to its logical end4 ,to state his modified ,jewish conception of ,god in mathematical terms became his task1 and his success in thus stating it1 with ,descartes as a starting point1 made him the most complete representative of ,rationalism4 #c4 ,his ,acquaintance with the ,collegiants4 ,after his expulsion from his kindred1 he lived for seven years with a sect of ,baptist ,quakers called ,collegiants4 ,this was a dissenting religious body without priests or set forms of worship4 ,the members were simple1 pious people1 who regarded moral living as superior to creed2 and ,spinoza's life in their midst must have determined to some degree the lines of his thought4 ,to a man of ,spinoza's simplicity of mind and kindly disposition1 the ,collegiants would prove to be not only congenial companions in his hours of distress1 but they would confirm his own love for the ethical as an ideal4 ,spinoza says that the motive of his philosophy is a practical one2 that he is seeking that which would 8enable me to enjoy continuous and supreme and unending happiness40 ,he is seeking a theory of life that would aid in allaying the unrest of his time2 and he is the only philosopher who has called his metaphysics ,ethics4 ,the humaneness of his doctrine1 the practical purpose of his writings1 and the ethical ideal that informed his whole life had at least their reinforcement1 and perhaps their origin1 in his contact with the ,collegiants during this critical period4 ,his life with this sect influenced him in his refusal to accept the chair of philosophy at the ,university of ,heidelberg1 and to remain content to be the obscure grinder of optical lenses4 ,the ,life and ,philosophical ,writings of ,spinoza#ca 7#afcb-afgg74 ,the history of philosophy presents in the person of ,spinoza a lovable1 interesting1 and striking character1 as well as the author of one of the profoundest of philosophical systems4 ,his life was one of social isolation and retirement rather than of solitude4 ,the ,jews to whom he belonged lived a kind of double exilethey were exiled from their home in ,spain1 and they lived by themselves apart from the people of ,amsterdam4 ,when ,spinoza was excommunicated by his brethren1 he suffered1 therefore1 a threefold exile4 ,moreover1 ,spinoza was not only excommunicated by his people1 but he was hated by the contemporary ,catholics1 ,protestants1 and the prevailing ,cartesian school4 ,even the free-thinker1 ,hume1 spoke of him as 8the infamous ,spinoza10 and another philosopher described his philosophy as 8the hideous hypothesis of ,spinoza40 ,but his isolation was far from solitude1 and he had many eminent and faithful friends and a notable correspondence4 ,of his short life of forty-five years1 he spent twenty-four1 or more than half1 as a member of the ,jewish synagogue4 ,during the next seven years he found refuge among the ,collegiants4 ,in the last fourteen years of his life he became widely known1 mainly through the ,theological-,political ,tract1 published in #afgj1 the only one of his writings which he himself published4 ,this brought him the call to the ,university of ,heidelberg1 which he declined4 ,his life may be conveniently divided into three periods1 as follows3 #a4 ,in ,israel 7#afcb-afef74 ,spinoza was educated at the ,jewish academy at ,amsterdam1 where he studied theology and learned a trade1 according to the ,jewish custom4 ,this trade was the grinding of optical lenses2 that is1 he became an optician1 and this required some knowledge of mathematics and physics4 ,during these years he got instruction from ,van der ,ende in science and ,latin4 ,he also read ,descartes and learned many languages4 ,he wrote a compendium of a ,hebrew ,grammar1 of which the date is doubtful4 ,in #afef he was excommunicated by the synagogue4 ,the charges brought against him were that3 7#a7 he denied that the ,old ,testament taught the doctrine of immortality2 7#b7 he affirmed that angels may be only phantoms or ideas in men's minds2 7#c7 he affirmed that ,god may have a body4 #b4 ,in ,retirement 7#afef-affc74 ,spinoza spent this time with the ,collegiants1 and this was his most fruitful intellectual period4 ,he brought his ontology1 ethics1 politics1 and physics into a unified system2 and he formulated his theory of determinism and his mathematical method4 ,in #afeh-affa he was writing his so-called ,short ,treatise1 8concerning ,god1 man and his well-being40 ,this was the first draft of his ,ethics4 ,in #afef-affb he was writing his ,improvement of the ,understanding4 ,in #affb-affc he wrote a summary of the principles of ,descartes4 #c4 ,in the ,public ,eye 7#affc-afgg74 ,during this period ,spinoza lived at or near the ,hague1 where he had many visitors and a large correspondence4#cb ,he was an intimate friend of the brothers ,de,witte1 who made so large a part of the political history of the country4 ,in #affb-affe he was writing his ,ethics1 his monumental work4 ,in #affc-afgj he wrote and published the ,theological-,political ,treatise1 the only work published during his life4 ,although received with horror1 it was widely read4 ,it aimed to show that the ,bible is history4 ,in #afgc he declined the call to the ,university of ,heidelberg4 ,just before his death1 in #afgg1 he wrote the fragment of the ,political ,treatise4 ,the ,method of ,spinoza4 ,the method which ,spinoza employed in writing his ,ethics must not be regarded by the reader as a fantastic dress that he capriciously chose4 ,it had for ,spinoza a real and not merely an external significance4 ,on taking up the book1 one finds philosophy treated exactly as ,euclid treated his geometry4 ,beginning with a number of definitions and axioms1 there are deduced1 step by step1 propositions with appended scholia and corollaries4 ,to ,spinoza this was not pressing philosophy into an artificial and rigid form1 but was only the natural mode of philosophical expression4 ,for1 in the first place1 if the new method of science had proved itself successful in treating physical phenomena1 why should not the same method have the same success with problems of the world of the spiritand in this way bring the two worlds into harmony8 ,by deduction one could then arrive at absolute certainty and unassailable proof of the solutions of metaphysical problems that had long vexed the ,middle ,ages4 ,with the perfect geometrical method all problems in heaven and earth could be solved4 ,in the second place1 the religious conviction of ,spinoza that all things come from ,god required the deductive method to explain them4 ,the order in which we should study phenomena should correspond to the real order in which they stand to ,god4 ,god is the ground or reason of things1 and all are derived from ,him as consequents4 ,the deduction of the relation of finite things to ,god will correspond to the real relation in which ,god stands to them4 ,the ,fundamental ,principle in ,spinoza's ,philosophy4 ,the philosophy of ,spinoza seems to be ,cartesian in every respect except one2 and that one difference was like the leaven in the lumpit transformed his philosophy into a radically different one from that of ,descartes4 ,spinoza's point of departure was the philosophy of ,descartes1 all his presuppositions are the fundamental principles of ,descartes1 and the structure of his system seems to be that of ,descartes4 ,he has the same respect for the power of the reason to know all truth1 the same faith in the omnipotence of the mathematical method1 the same general conception of substance1 the same idea of the qualitative difference between the worlds of thought and extension1 the same belief in the mechanical structure of the world of nature4 ,he made these his own and accentuated them4 ,but he added to these a new and transforming principle3 he conceived that the substance1 ,god1 is not merely one object of knowledge1 but ,he is the only object of knowledge4 ,he is the only substance1 and finite things are only modifications of ,him4 ,finite things are alike at bottom1 and to know them truly is to know ,god4 ,this new principle transforms all the ,cartesian elements in ,spinoza's teaching4 ,it changes the ,cartesian theism into a pantheism2 it supplants ,descartes' theological orthodoxy with a naturalism and ,descartes' doctrine of freedom with a determinism2 and it turns the cultured aloofness of ,descartes into a benevolent mysticism4 ,this new principle becomes 8the head of the corner40 ,the oneness and universality of ,god is the single proposition from which ,spinoza deduced his whole philosophy4 ,god is the ultimate ground whose existence must be real1 because it is conceived4 ,the intrinsic scholasticism of the philosophy of ,spinoza appears in his definition of substance1 for it is only a condensed statement of ,st4 ,anselm's argument for the existence of ,god4 ,spinoza says1 8,by substance ,i mean that which is in itself and conceived through itself alone40 ,there are1 therefore1 two kinds of things3 the thing that has existence in itself and the things that have existence in something else4 ,god stands alone in the first class2 all other things make up the second class4 ,spinoza's world is divided into two parts3 ,god and the modes of ,god4 ,god is self-explanatory and self-existent1 while everything else is explained through ,him4 ,the only object of knowledge and the single presupposition of existence is ,god4 ,in a phrase that has become classic1 ,novalis described ,spinoza as a 8,god-intoxicated man40 ,three ,central ,problems in ,spinoza's ,teaching4 ,we have already noted that ,spinoza was the chief exponent of 8clearness and distinctness0 in this epoch when all mysteries were to be revealed4 ,he sought to articulate a metaphysics that would spread out the plan of the world like a demonstration in geometry4 ,his definition of substance is perfectly intelligible2 he accepted the mathematical analysis of the material world into a world of extension1 and that of the world of conscious states into one of thoughtall this for the sake of simplification and clearness4 ,how simple such a philosophy at the first blush appearsthe world is ,god and his modifications4 ,as a matter of fact it is one of the many examples of the irony of history that the philosophy of ,spinoza is one of the most difficult to interpret4 ,its difficulties do not arise from its having a novel point of view1 for on the contrary it is one that appeals strongly to the popular imagination4 ,its difficulties arise from its very simplicity1 for1 after all1 human life is so rich and varied that a simple formula will hardly express it4 ,from beginning to end ,spinoza's thought has a vagueness for which the beginner in vain strives to find the cause4 ,the cause lies in the seemingly simple principle that ,god is all that really exists1 and yet the world consists of ,god and other things4 ,from ,spinoza's effort to simplify matters emerged three central problems3 7#a7 ,the problem of the all-inclusiveness of ,godthe problem of pantheism2 7#b7 ,the problem of the unity of ,godthe problem of mysticism2 7#c7 ,the problem of the salvation of manan ethical problem4 ,we shall now consider these problems in order4 ,the ,pantheism of ,spinoza,the ,all-,inclusiveness of ,god4 ,that ,spinoza's philosophy is a pantheism appears at the outset in his conception of substance2 for the substance is all that really is4 ,descartes had conceived of three substances1,god as the absolute substance1 and mind and matter as the two relative substances4 ,but to ,spinoza there can be only one substance2 for if there were two or more1 no one would be substance1 since each would be conceived through the others4 ,if we think at all1 we must think of substance as all-inclusive4 ,one might suppose that this preliminary statement would be all that ,spinoza could say about life3 all that really is1 is substance2 other things do not exist4 ,but that would be a misinterpretation of ,spinoza4 ,he does not mean that finite things are mere nothings4 ,they exist as unrealities2 they exist as negations of the substance4 ,if you prick into the finite world1 it does not collapse1 like a balloon4 ,it still exists as an unreality4 ,no person ever had the idea of infinity so profoundly as did ,spinoza4 ,his idea of infinity is not merely that of the infinity of time and space1 which indeed affords a tremendous variety of possible constructions1 since space and time are each infinite4 ,to ,spinoza the infinity of the substance is much more than these possible combinations of time and space1 for corresponding to the time and space series is a series of mental states4 ,every event has a reason4 ,every one of the infinity of events in the world of extension is paralleled by some state of thought4 ,but this is by no means the whole story about ,spinoza's conception of infinity4 ,besides the infinite world of time and space and the infinite world of corresponding thought1 the substance to ,spinoza possesses an infinity of other attributes1 each of which is infinite4 ,spinoza piles up infinities upon infinities1 and thus conceives the substance as an infinity in an overwhelming sense4 ,only two of the infinite modes appear to our limited human discernment3 the infinity of the mode of extension1 and the infinity of the mode of thought4 ,spinoza begins at once to tell us about the forms in which the all-inclusive ,god appears to us4 ,first1 the substance has two attributes1 thought and extension4 ,an attribute is 8that which the intellect perceives as constituting the essence of the substance40 ,each attribute in its turn manifests itself in modes3 thought appears in the modes of intellect and will1 extension in the modes of rest and motion4 ,substance ,god4 ,attributes ,thought ,extension4 ,modes ,intellect ,will ,motion ,rest4 ,this bare skeleton of our rich and varied world appears very much the same as that which one might find beneath ,descartes' philosophy4 ,however1 ,spinoza's conception of substance transforms it into a framework of a very different kind of philosophy4 ,since ,god is the inclusive reality of it all1 we have here a pantheism instead of a dualism4 ,the antithesis which in ,descartes' philosophy was between extension and thought1 now in ,spinoza's teaching is between ,god and other things4 ,what is the place of the attributes and modes in the all-embracing and real substance8 ,as to the attributes1 ,spinoza maintained that we1 as finite beings1 do not know ,god in ,his character as substance1 but that ,he always appears to us through ,his attributes of thought and extension4 ,there are only these two attributes that the human mind can know1 although ,god as an infinite being must possess an infinite number of such attributes4 ,in our human world all things are either thought-things or extension-things4 ,each of these two attributes is infinite after its kind4 ,each fully expresses an aspect of ,god without depreciating the value of the other4 ,each is fully adequate1 just as a table may be both white and hard without either quality infringing upon the other4 ,the attributes are the substance made more concrete4 ,the modes are in turn modifications of the attributes and more concrete expressions of them and of the substance4 ,each mode is infinite after its kind4 ,since ,god exists only in reality1 ,he would not supposably see from ,his point of view the world laid out in attributes and modes2 for these are only human ways of interpreting ,him4 ,while the critics agree that the modes are human interpretations of the attributes and therefore unreal1 they disagree about the relation of the attributes to ,god4 ,some maintain that the attributes are merely human ways of seeing the substance1 analogously to the modesas if we saw ,god now as thought and now as extension2 others maintain that ,god is nothing other than the sum of the attributes2 of extension1 thought1 and the unknown1 infinite1 other attributes4 ,the difficulty lays bare the nerve of the problem of pantheism1 and probably ,spinoza was not clear in his own mind about the relation of the attributes to the substance4 ,spinoza speaks more definitely upon this same problem of the relation of the modes to ,god4 ,is ,god the sum-total of all existent things1 or is ,he the principle behind them8 ,spinoza says that ,god is both4 ,god is the cause of the world1 not cause in the way that the term is commonly used nor in the sense that ,descartes used it4 ,god is not to existent things the first cause or the unmoved mover of matter1 or the teleological cause of thought1 as in ,descartes4 ,he is cause in the sense that a triangle is the cause of its own three sides4 ,he is the rational ground 7ratio essendi7 or the logical reason for the being of things4 ,in this sense ,god may be regarded as the cause both in the sense that ,he is the sum-total of existent things or modes 7natura naturata71 and in the sense that ,he is the immanent and energizing principle of existent things 7natura naturans74 ,these conceptions as well as their phrases ,spinoza probably got from ,bruno4 ,the world is1 therefore1 related to ,god in that it follows directly from the nature of ,god2 ,god is related to the world in that ,he is the logical ground of the world4 ,is ,god the creator of the world8 ,no1 ,he is the world4 ,is ,god a person8 ,is ,he a self-conscious being like ourselves1an individual8 ,no4 ,the thought-aspect of ,god includes our thought1 but it is the very different infinite thought2 the extension-aspect of ,god includes our body1 but it is the very different infinite body4 ,god has soul and body and an infinite number of other aspects4 ,god isan unchanging1 self-dependent being1 whose modifications are necessarily determined in their relation to ,him and to one another4 ,spinoza conceived the character of ,god exactly from the nature of geometry4 ,just as all geometrical conclusions follow from the nature of space and exist in determined and fixed relations to one another1 so everything finite follows from the nature of the ,infinite1 and each finite thing is in a rigid chain of finite things of its own kinda chain without beginning or end4 ,the necessity of the divine nature appears in all1 not as a series of emanations from ,god1 but in a series1 each member of which is determined equally by ,him4 ,the ,mysticism of ,spinoza4 ,from the point of view of man1 mysticism in speculative or religious thought has reference to the immediate apprehension of ,god4 ,mysticism frequently accompanies pantheism1 and from the point of view of ,god refers to the oneness of ,his all-inclusive nature4 ,spinoza's pantheism is also a mysticism which involves the immediate apprehension of the divine by the human2 it involves the oneness of ,god and man4 ,more often than otherwise mysticism is animated by a religious motive1 and ,spinoza's philosophy is profoundly religious4 ,we have already seen similar mysticism in the ,orphic-,pythagorean sect which formed so great a peril to ,greek culture in the sixth century ,b4 ,c41 in the neo-,pythagoreans and neo-,platonists at the beginning of this era1 in many of the churchmen of the ,middle ,ages1 especially ,scotus ,erigena and ,meister ,eckhart4 ,bruno and many of the ,humanists were mystics1 and if we should wish to go outside our field1 we should find mysticism to be the prevailing attitude of mind of the great ,oriental peoples4 ,mysticism frequently is accompanied by belief in occult spiritual appearances1 but that is not necessarily the case2 nor was it the case with ,spinoza4 ,spinoza's mysticism was purely intellectual4 ,although a religious philosophy with an immediate ethical bearing upon conduct1 it was a scientific relationalism that could not tolerate the miraculous and the abnormal psychological phenomena 7such as clairvoyance1 hallucinations1 etc474 ,spinoza is1 on the contrary1 distinguished as a mystic because he interpreted the universe in entirely non-human terms4 ,his great service to mysticism lies in divesting the reality of life of every human attribution and laying bare a mathematical skeleton4 ,the desire of the period to find a greater unity in life was responded to by him in a mathematical mysticism4 ,to him the universe is not only divided into parts1 not only is there no opposition between ,god and the world1 but life is so completely a rational thing that no exceptional phenomena can occur4 ,he believed that any description of ,god or of nature in anthropomorphic terms disunites life4 ,spinoza dehumanized the universe1 conceiving matter to consist of elements1 and conceiving spirit to consist of simple ideas4 ,he resolved the personality of man into parts for the sake of the unity of the universe1 and he obtained scientific clearness at the expense of humanity4 ,thus1 instead of being able to say with ,descartes1 8,i think and therefore ,i am10 ,spinoza could say1 and wished only to say1 8,god thinks0 7,deus cogitat74 ,like the usual speculative mystic1 ,spinoza described his ,god in the terms of formal deductive logic4 ,god is the most real being1 ens realissimum4 ,what is the most real being to a mystic8 ,would reality contain any finite quality such as the world around us contains8 ,can you say that ,god has this particular faculty1 or is endowed with that concrete attribute8 ,does ,god enjoy1 love1 hate2 does ,he create and destroy8 ,but how can ,god be the real unity of the world unless ,he contains in ,himself everything in the finite world8 ,we approach here the threshold of the problem of the concrete universal1 which has engaged the attention of so much of modern philosophy4 ,a concrete universal is all-inclusive of finite existence1 but at the same time is a self-consistent unity4 ,in contrast with the concrete universal is the abstract universal1 which is a unity1 but outside of which all finite existence falls4 ,while it was undoubtedly the concrete universal that ,spinoza sought1 his method could lead to nothing more concrete than the abstract universals of ,plato and the ,schoolmen4 ,the world of finite things is included by ,spinoza's ,god in the same way that blocks are included by a string which has been tied around them4 ,spinoza's ,god is the most abstract entity which it is possible to conceive4 ,all finite things fall outside ,him4 ,no quality can be predicated of ,him1 for to define ,him is to limit ,him4 ,after the manner of the 8negative theology0 7see vol4 i1 p4 #bhc71 ,spinoza refused to ascribe any quality to ,god4 ,he does not feel1 think1 or will as we do1 nor can extension be ascribed to ,him in the sense of finite spaces4 ,we can say only that ,he is not this and not this4 ,spinoza's conception of ,god is reached by dropping off all determinate qualities1 until the most general and most abstract term is gained4 ,the barrenness of this logical conception1 its absolute emptiness and abstractness1 makes all description of it impossible4 ,god is a bloodless entity1 an absolute logical necessity and the most abstract universal4 ,outside of ,him falls all that we call life4 ,if this is ,god's character1 is ,he everything or nothing8 ,if the process of abstraction rises so far above every limitation to an ens realissimum et generalissimum1to the most real and most general entity1if all content falls away from ,god1 what does such an empty form amount to8 ,the paradox in ,spinoza's philosophy appears here as in the case of all mysticismfor the mystic revels in paradoxes4 ,this empty generality is all that really is4 ,god is everything1 and ,spinoza points out empirical proof of this by insisting that the transitory life of man has its only meaning in such a substance4 ,god is not this particular thing nor again that finite determination1 but ,he is all these4 ,he is the timeless reality of the temporal world1 the infinity of finite things1 the necessity of contingent nature4 ,when therefore ,spinoza speaks of ,god as having an intellectual love for ,himself1 and when he says that the attributes of thought and extension constitute the essence of the substance1 he is not giving finite characteristics to ,god4 ,he is struggling with language to express the inherent paradox of his philosophy4 ,moreover1 the delineation of the finite world with ,god as a background1 as it appears from the point of view of a human being1 is an inadequate presentation of ,spinoza's profound conception of ,god4 ,for the substance is not merely a neutral point nor the central point of the universe4 ,the substance is all4 ,all things have neither their explanation nor their existence in themselves4 ,god alone has an existence that explains itself1 and ,he is the reality and essence of all finite things4 ,god is immanent in the world4 ,just as the sides of a triangle get their meaning from the triangle itself1 so the significance of the attributes and modes of the substance lies in the substance4 ,the unity of ,spinoza's ,god is further suggested by the relation of the attributes of thought and extension1 however separate they must appear in their quality and causal dependence4 ,both are aspects of the same substance1 in the one case in the form of extension1 and in the other in the form of thought4 ,in the all-inclusive nature of ,god1 presumably each moment has an infinite number of correlative moments corresponding to the infinite number of the attributes of ,god4 ,since to human beings only two of these worlds lie in sight1 only two corresponding modes appear1 but always two4 ,this correspondence of the physical and psychical throughout nature is called in later times panpsychism2 in the relation of the body and mind of a human being it is called psycho-physical parallelism4 ,this correspondence helped ,spinoza to solve the apparent dualism of the two worlds4 ,while ideas are determined only by ideas1 and motions by motions1 both series point below to the divine substance which is the significance of both4 ,they are like the top and bottom sides of a piece of paper1 neither side constituting the piece of paper1 but both being necessary to it4 ,the substance is immanent in thought as well as in extension4 ,both thought and extension are aspects of ,god4 ,the relation of thought and extension through the ,deity discloses the monistic character of ,spinoza's philosophy and seems to prove that he cannot be a materialist1 although some critics have said that he is4 ,the same reality is seen1 now as consciousness and now as extension4 ,spinoza's ,doctrine of ,salvation4 ,spinoza divided his ,ethics into five parts4 ,the first is a treatment of the nature of ,god2 the second1 of the nature and origin of the mind2 the third1 of the emotions2 the fourth1 of human bondage2 the fifth1 of human freedom4 ,this most important writing of ,spinoza1 the only treatise on metaphysics which has been called ,ethics1 is a practical philosophy of life and redemption4 ,the divisions of it1 as they appear above1 show that the philosophy of life is looked at from two points of view3 with reference to the nature of ,god1 and with reference to the nature of man4 ,we have above discussed the first point1,spinoza's conception of ,god1 whom he regards as pantheistic and mystic4 ,but ,spinoza's conception of the nature of the human being in relation to such a ,god is the other pole of this subject4 ,the problem of life from the human point of view involves primarily the question of human freedom4 ,human freedom and human bondage are conditions that depend upon the human as well as the divine nature4 ,by ,spinoza's eliminating the human element from the nature of ,god1 man himself has been reduced by ,spinoza to an insignificant detail in a machine-like universe4 ,yet for man in his littleness ,spinoza hews out a way to ,god in ,his greatness by his mystic reconstruction of the universe4 ,existence in ,spinoza's pantheistic mysticism is1 after all1 a sphere of wonderful grandeur for man1more wonderful and of wider utility than the existence which man is ordinarily supposed to possess4 ,since ,god is the reality of everything1 man is deified2 even the loss of man's essential humanity is the apotheosis of man4 ,human salvation and freedom consist in being like ,god2 bondage consists in being unlike ,him1 in mistaking the unreality of life for ,his reality4 ,we are endowed with the ability of forming an adequate idea of ,god by means of our reason1 but we are also endowed with the faculties of sensation1 emotion1 and imagination4 ,the latter faculties make man a passive creature1 for they bring him into dependence upon the things that act upon him and into bondage to them4 ,we are passive when our activities are limited by such limited objects4 ,while a passion seems to be the most active and turbulent of our faculties1 if we look at it more closely1 we find that instead of being active ourselves during a passion1 we are being acted upon by an external object4 ,only as we are purely rational1only through the reason1are we purely active4 ,it is then that we are like ,god1 free like ,him1 and then do we rise from insignificance to greatness4 ,then we transcend our false ideas of freedom and become necessary beings1 for in ,god freedom is necessity4 ,to be free from the passions and the finite things of the world we must understand their nature2 for to understand a thing is to be delivered from it4 ,an illusion is not an illusion when we know it to be such4 ,to see that all the passions1 sensations1 imaginations1 and all the other modes of thought are human limitations1 is to dwell within the reason4 ,spinoza's freedom is not1 as will be seen1 freedom in the ordinary psychological meaning of the term1 but is the metaphysical freedom of being identical with the deity and determined by no finite thing4 ,freedom is rational knowledge4 ,nevertheless1 freedom is ethical also1 for it consists in overcoming the passions by reason4 ,freedom1 therefore1 has two sides3 an escape from the emotions and an escape from obscure ideasthe goal in both cases being the life of reason4 ,to attain freedom is to see the world as ,god sees it1 which is the same as the reason sees it4 ,this is to see each finite thing as eternal4 ,any concrete thing may be regarded by the human being as a finite and isolated thing out of all relation to other objects2 or the same thing may be regarded as a detail of infinity4 ,looked at by itself1 a thing is seen partially and falsely1 for no finite thing has its explanation in itself4 ,it is1 however1 seen truly when it is regarded1 to use ,spinoza's own celebrated phrase1 8under a certain form of eternity0 7sub specie aeternitatis74 ,this conception of eternity is one of the most admirable in ,spinoza's teaching4 ,when man rises through the reason to the consciousness of the eternity of the truth of a thing1 the thing itself is transformed1 and the man himself has gained salvation4 ,any circle that ,i may draw is imperfect1 every leaf upon the forest trees is defective1 all moral activities are wanting1 if regarded in their time-limitations4 ,but below all the imperfections of the universe is its absolute mathematical perfectness4 ,there is nothing so abortive and evil that it does not have its aspect of eternity4 ,side by side with ,spinoza's conception of infinity is his conception of eternity4 ,infinity is everlastingness1 eternity is quality of being4 ,eternity has no reference to time4 ,one minute may be eternal4 ,the infinity of the substance is one aspect2 the eternity of the substance is another4 ,that eternity gained through the reason is salvation and immortality4 ,god is reason1 and by the act of the reason do we become one with ,him4 ,our knowledge is1 therefore1 the measure of our morality4 ,knowledge and morality are the same2 and whatever increases our understanding is morally good2 whatever diminishes our understanding is morally wrong4 ,nevertheless1 from the point of view of the philosopher1 there is nothing in the world that is morally good or bad1nothing which merits his hatred1 love1 fear1 contempt1 or pity1since all that occurs is necessary4 ,the philosopher's knowledge of the determinism of the world lifts him above the usually conceived world of finite things to this mystic world1 reconstructed by his intellectual love of nature or ,god4 ,love for ,god will give to everything its proper value4 ,it is the highest form of human activity4 ,love for ,god is an absolutely disinterested feeling1 and is not therefore like human love1 which is the passing from a less state to a greater4 ,love for ,god is peace1 resignation1 and contentment1 for it is oneness with ,god4 ,in fact1 the love of man for ,god is the love of ,god for man2 it is the love of ,god for ,himself1 since man cannot love ,god without becoming ,god4 ,thus man intellectually recognizes his oneness with ,god1 and rejoices4 ,immortality is absorption in the eternal and necessary substance of the world4 ,it is a common misconception that immortality is duration after death2 immortality consists in looking at things under the aspect of eternity4 ,the finite man perishes1 but man's real self1 which is ,god1 survives4 ,summary of ,spinoza's ,teaching4 ,the rationalism of ,spinoza is the final word of scholastic realism4 ,it is a mathematical scholasticism in which the attempt is to make clear by the method of deduction all metaphysical problems4 ,that the philosophical teaching of ,spinoza is inspiring and ennobling1 no one will gainsay4 ,that his philosophy is not clear1 is also true4 ,in the beginning of his discussion1 spirit is subordinated to nature2 at the end1 nature is subordinated to spirit4 ,the result is that under the hands of ,spinoza ,god has become a pure abstraction and without content1 the world is an illusion1 dualism is superseded by a monistic parallelism1 individual activity gives way and becomes a pantheistic determinism4 ,yet amid all this a reconstructed world arises in which man is recompensed for all his losses by his participation in infinity and eternity4 ,leibnitz#cc as the ,finisher of the ,renaissance and the ,forerunner of the ,enlightenment4 ,leibnitz is the last of the remarkable group of ,rationalists of the ,renaissance1 who so fully represent the spirit of its ,natural ,science epoch4 ,but ,leibnitz also carries us into the next period of modern philosophythe ,enlightenment4 ,he is the transition philosopher4 ,if the reader will examine the dates of his life1 he will observe that ,leibnitz lived until twenty-five years after the ,enlightenment was ushered in by ,locke's ,essay on the ,human ,understanding 7#afij74 ,but as ,leibnitz had already formed his own philosophy by the year #afhf1 even so versatile a mind as his could not then renounce the ,rationalistic point of view for a new one4 ,some of his writings1 such as his ,correspondence with ,clark and ,bayle1 his ,theodicy1 and his ,new ,essays1 show that he participated in the new movement of the next period4 ,yet the majority of his philosophical writings show him to be a ,rationalist4 ,although he may be called the 8father of the ,enlightenment10 the body of his thought belongs to the ,renaissance4 ,his main motive was that which animated all ,rationalistsof stating theology in scientific terms4 ,the immediate occasion for his doing this was the political necessity of peace among the religious bodies of ,germany4 ,the effort of ,leibnitz to restore the individual to his central place in the universe was a secondary motive4 ,it nevertheless makes him the forerunner of the ,enlightenment4 ,of the ,rationalists1 ,leibnitz speaks for the future1 just as ,spinoza for the past4 ,leibnitz unites the ,renaissance and the ,enlightenment1 just as ,spinoza joins the ,renaissance and the ,middle ,ages4 ,spinoza is the ,rationalist who utters the final word of scholastic realism1 while ,leibnitz presages the coming individualism4 ,spinoza's philosophy is science buried in traditionalism2 ,leibnitz's is science breaking through traditionalism4 ,spinoza harks back to universals and particulars1 substance and forms2 ,leibnitz points forward to vortex rings1 energy1 and dynamics4 ,from ,leibnitz's original purpose to rationalize theology1 and to succeed where ,descartes and ,spinoza had failed1 there emerges a new motive4 ,he no longer lays the emphasis entirely upon the universal1 but he shifts it in part to the particular4 ,the pantheism of ,spinoza had systematized the individual out of its reality4 ,leibnitz's conception of the individual as dynamic and his conception of the importance of the infinitesimal redeem the individual and bring ,leibnitz into more modern times4 ,to classify ,leibnitz as a ,rationalist is1 therefore1 not to describe him fully4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,leibnitz 7#afdf-agaf74 ,compared with ,descartes and ,spinoza1 ,leibnitz had a life that was long in time and rich in experience4 ,descartes died at #ed and ,spinoza at #de1 while ,leibnitz lived to be #gj4 ,in striking contrast with ,spinoza's career1 there was no time in the life of ,leibnitz after his graduation from the university that he was not in public service4 ,he held the offices that would naturally go to the hanger-on of princessome of them grandiose ones4 ,while theoretically the interests of the three ,rationalists were the same1 ,leibnitz differed from his predecessors in that his study of philosophical problems always grew out of some practical problem or political occasion4 ,leibnitz was not an academic thinker1 and his 8writings were called forth to estimate some recent book1 to outline the system for the use of a friend1 to meet some special difficulty1 or to answer some definite criticism40 ,philosophy was only one of the interests of ,leibnitz4 ,he was jurist1 historian1 diplomat1 mathematician1 physical scientist1 theologian1 and philologist4 ,leibnitz was as much at home with the theories of ,plato and ,aristotle of ancient time1 with those of ,st4 ,thomas and ,duns ,scotus of medival time1 as with the science of ,descartes and ,galileo4 ,he was precocious1 had a prodigious memory and a reactive mind4 ,in the wealth of his information and the productiveness of his genius1 he stands with ,aristotle as unequaled4 ,descartes1 ,spinoza1 and ,leibnitz belonged to the inner circle of scholars of the time1 but ,leibnitz was also in personal touch with political affairs and in intimate acquaintance with many of the important rulers4 ,he was in the service of the ,elector of ,mainz and later of ,george ,i of ,england when ,george was only ,elector of ,hanover4 ,he was distinguished by ,peter the ,great of ,russia and ,ernst ,august1 ,emperor of ,germany4 ,he corresponded with ,eugene of ,savoy and he was ambassador to ,louis ,,xiv of ,france4 ,sophie ,charlotte of ,hanover1 who married the ,king of ,prussia1 was especially interested in him1 and he wrote for her his ,theodicy4 ,the three great ,rationalists came from different strata of society4 ,descartes was a nobleman's son1 and he voluntarily relinquished the life that ,leibnitz was ambitious to enjoy4 ,spinoza came from the lower class4 ,leibnitz was the son of a college professor and belonged to the upper middle class4 ,the ambitions of ,leibnitz reached for large ends1 as often happens among educated people in the middle walks of life4 ,among other things1 he tried to reconcile the ,catholics and ,protestants1 and he tried to universalize language by getting universal characters for all languages4 ,the literary production of ,leibnitz was enormous1 consisting of some lengthy works1 but mainly of correspondence 7at one time with a thousand persons7 and of dissertations to learned journals and societies4 ,no one book contains his philosophythe ,monadology coming the nearest to doing so4 ,his most considerable work is his ,theodicy4 ,he himself published in book form only two works3 his university dissertation on ,individuation and the ,theodicy4#cd ,in spite of his many successes1 the life of ,leibnitz was not happy4 ,from death or other causes his noble patrons changed1 until he was left without a patron4 ,his life went from bad to worse1 and his death occurred almost unnoticed4 ,the seventy years of ,leibnitz's life fall into four periods4 ,that he passed through three of these periods by the time he was thirty shows the voracity and versatility of his mental powers during their formative and acquisitive state4 ,it also reveals the unusual length of his productive period1from his thirtieth to his seventieth year4 ,ten years after his productive period began1 when he was forty1 he had completed his philosophical theory1 so that the last thirty years of his life were free for its elaboration and elucidation1 and in part for his departure from it4 ,the details of ,leibnitz's life are as follows3 #a4 ,leipsic and ,university ,life 7#afdf-afff74 ,leibnitz was the son of a professor of the ,university of ,leipsic4 ,he entered the ,university at the age of fifteen2 received his bachelor's degree at seventeen1 and his doctor's degree at ,altdorf at the age of twenty4 ,he was offered a professorship on account of his thesis1 but he declined4 ,he published as his bachelor's thesis1 ,the ,principle of ,individuation 7#affc74 #b4 ,mainz and ,diplomacy 7#afff-afgb74 ,meeting ,baron ,john of ,boineburg1 who became his patron1 ,leibnitz went with him to ,mainz1 and entered the service of the ,elector of ,mainz4 ,at this time ,leibnitz wrote many pamphlets at the ,elector's request1 on the religious and political questions of the day4 ,he wrote ,a ,new ,physical ,hypothesis in #afga4 #c4 ,paris and ,science 7#afgb-afgf74 ,leibnitz began this period with a diplomatic mission to the court of ,louis ,,xiv in #afgb2 but during the year both ,boineburg and the ,elector died1 and ,mainz was no longer his home nor diplomacy his interest4 ,he remained in ,paris 7and ,london7 three years longer1 and spent the time in acquiring the 8new science40 ,in ,paris he met ,arnauld the ,cartesian1 ,tschirnhausen the ,german mathematician1 logician1 and most discriminating critic of ,spinoza1 and he studied with ,huyghens the ,dutch mathematician4 ,in ,london he met ,boyle1 the chemist1 ,oldenburg1 secretary of the ,academy of ,science1 ,collins1 the mathematician1 and he corresponded with ,newton4 ,on his return to ,hanover he called on ,spinoza1 who showed him the manuscript of the ,ethics4 #d4 ,hanover and ,philosophy 7#afgf-agaf74 ,leibnitz became court councilor and librarian to the ,duke of ,hanover 7,brunswick-,lneburg74 ,he was involved in a multitude of administrative1 historical1 and political tasks1 and he carried on an enormous correspondence4 ,among other things he wrote the history of the reigning family1 which necessitated his going to ,rome and ,vienna4 ,in #afhd he published his discovery of the differential calculus1 over which arose the celebrated controversy as to whether he or ,newton made the prior discovery4 ,in #afhf1 in his fortieth year1 he constructed his philosophical system4 ,however1 he showed his affiliation to the coming age by introducing into his system in #afig the term 8monad40 ,nearly all his important works were produced in this period4 ,in #agjj he founded the ,academy of ,sciences in ,berlin4 ,he was instrumental in the founding of an academy at ,st4 ,petersburg1 and he planned academies at ,dresden and ,vienna4 ,the ,three ,influences upon the ,thought of ,leibnitz4 7#a7 ,his ,early ,classical ,studies4 ,the father of ,leibnitz1 who was a professor of moral philosophy at ,leipsic1 died when his son was young4 ,left much to himself1 the boy spent his time in his father's library4 ,at eight years he had acquired ,latin2 at twelve he had read ,seneca1 ,pliny1 ,quintilian1 ,herodotus1 ,xenophon1 ,cicero1 ,plato1 the ,roman historians1 the ,greek and ,latin fathers4 ,he became so absorbed in scholastic studies that his friends feared that he would not leave them1 8not knowing that my mind could not be satisfied with only one kind of thing40 ,there can be no question that this scholastic training gave him a first hand and sympathetic appreciation of scholastic philosophy4 ,the ,aristotelian conception of cosmic purpose1 which he got at this time1 never left him4 ,among the writers of the ,natural ,science ,period he alone returned to ,aristotle4 ,he made ,aristotle's teleological cause an integral part of his doctrine4 ,his motto finally became1 in his ,theodicy1 8,everything is best in this best of possible worlds40 ,while for a time he turned from ,aristotle to ,descartes1 in his final construction of his theory he borrowed more from ,aristotle4 7#b7 ,the ,new ,science and ,his ,own ,discoveries4 ,leibnitz was more fortunate than many of his contemporaries in that his university had already included in its curriculum the study of mathematics4 ,at the age of fifteen he was devoting himself to mathematics at ,jena1 and he said that the study of ,kepler1 ,galileo1 and ,descartes made him feel as though 8transported into a different world40 ,later in life he said of himself1 that at fifteen he had decided to give up the scholastic theory of ,forms for the mathematical explanation of the world4 ,he became acquainted with the theories of ,hobbes and ,gassendi in #afgj1 when he was at ,mainz4 ,in #afgb1 at the age of twenty-six1 when he was in ,paris1 he made himself possessor of all that the celebrated circle of ,parisian scientists had to teach4 ,he had gone to ,paris a dualist2 he returned to his native land with the ,aristotelian teleology side by side in his mind with the ,spinozistic conception of identity and necessity1 the ,spinozistic method1 and the mathematical theory of the significance of infinitely small particles4 ,the next ten years 7#afgf-afhf7 were spent in overcoming his own dualism by systematizing these new theories acquired from so many sources4 ,in #afhj he had universalized the concept of force so as to apply it to both souls and bodies4 ,in #afhd he published his discovery of the differential calculus1 in which he has had to share honors with ,newton4 ,in #afhe he asserted that the centres of force have individuality4 ,he was led to this conclusion on account of the discovery of small organisms by the microscopes of ,swammerdam and ,leeuwenhoek4 ,in #afhf he successfully organized his collected material into his final system1 although it was not until eleven years later 7#afig7 that he called these centres 8monads40 ,probably he got the term 8monad0 not from ,bruno1 but from the mystic chemist1 ,van ,helmont4 ,not only the content1 but the form of his philosophy was determined by his mathematical studies4 ,his philosophical diction is remarkably lucid4 ,mathematics reinforced his early resolve 8in words to attain clearness and in matter usefulness40 ,his later discussions contain many terms that he had borrowed directly from mathematics4 7#c7 ,political ,pressure for ,religious ,reconciliation4 ,when ,frederick the ,wise of ,saxony in #aeai refused the crown of ,emperor1 ,germany was thrown into internal strife that in one hundred and thirty years destroyed all its material wealth and depopulated the country4 ,this terminated in the ,thirty ,years' ,war 7#afah-afdh7 and the ,peace of ,westphalia4 ,leibnitz was born two years before peace was declared4 ,he was the first ,german scientist in two hundred years4 ,both ,catholics and ,protestants were weary of strife1 and there was a general movement toward religious reconciliation4 ,thus religious amity was the most urgent public question4 ,pietism had been one of the movements in ,germany during the recovery of the country from the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and it represented the best side of ,german civilization at that time4 ,it was a reaction on the one side against the mechanical theory of the scientists1 and on the other against the destructive strife of the old and new confessions4 ,the mother of ,leibnitz was not only a ,protestant1 but also a ,pietist1 so that the subject of religion early formed an important part of her son's training4 ,when he entered the diplomatic service of the ,elector of ,mainz the question of religious reconciliation took practical form for him4 ,no doubt his philosophy as a theory of reconciliation grew out of such practical issues1 as they were presented to him at ,mainz4 ,leibnitz had1 therefore1 a part in the religious reaction in ,germany in the last of the seventeenth century1 which aimed to reconcile the divergent interests of religion and science4 ,he tried to effect this in no external way1 by patching together irreconcilable elements1 but in an internal way1 by an examination of fundamental principles4 ,with his early training1 his theological reading1 and his wide public experience1 ,leibnitz was fitted to take a prominent part in the movement for reconciliation4 ,the ,method of ,leibnitz4 ,although the philosophers who immediately followed ,spinoza did not dare to accept his philosophical conclusions1 they adopted his method4 ,they united it with the syllogistic processes of formal logic for the deduction of all knowledge4 ,this method became very prevalent1 as is seen in the practices of the ,german ,cartesians and in the preparation of academic text-books4 ,examples of this are ,jung1 ,weigel1 who was ,leibnitz's teacher1 and ,puffendorf1 who tried to deduce by the geometrical method the entire system of natural right from a single principle of human need4 ,in the next century ,wolff used this method in writing his ,latin text-books4 ,when this aspect of ,spinoza's teaching was gaining a foothold in ,germany1 ,leibnitz came into sympathy with it through his teacher1 ,weigel1 and at first was one of its most ardent supporters4 ,in jest he showed by this geometrical1 syllogistic method in sixty propositions that the ,count ,palatine of ,neuberg must be elected ,king of the ,poles4 ,in seriousness he believed that all philosophical controversies would cease when philosophy should be stated like a mathematical calculation4 ,hobbes's theory of words as counters to be used in conceptual reckoning1 the universal formulas of the ,art of ,lull and the pains which ,bruno had taken for its improvement1 the ,cartesian belief that the geometrical method would prove to be an art of inventionall these were influences upon ,leibnitz1 that committed him to the method of ,spinoza and made him pursue that method energetically4 ,leibnitz was part of the widespread movement of the time to form a ,lingua ,adamicaa universal language1 which should discover fundamental philosophical conceptions and the logical operations of their combinations4 ,in brief1 ,leibnitz hoped to form a philosophical calculus4 ,what1 asked ,leibnitz1 are the highest truths which in their combination yield all knowledge8 ,what are the truths1 so immediately and intuitively certain1 that they force themselves upon the mind as self-evident and thereby form the ground for the deduction of all knowledge8 ,they are of two classes3 7#a7 ,the universal truths of the reason1 and 7#b7 ,the facts of experience4 ,the truths of the reason are forever true2 the facts of experience have a truth for that single instance4 ,but both are true in themselves and not from deduction from anything else4 ,they are 8first truths10 for a thing is true if it can be deduced from the reason or tested as an experienced fact4 ,the two kinds of truth are the rational or a priori1 and the empirical or a posteriori4 ,the difference between the starting point of the ,rationalism of ,leibnitz and the ,enlightenment of ,locke appears here4 ,locke said1 8,there is nothing in the mind that does not come from the senses40 8,except the mind itself and its operations10 added ,leibnitz in comment4 ,but there is a difference between these two kinds of truth4 ,the truths of the reason are clear and distinct2 the truths of experience are clear but not distinct4 ,leibnitz is1 be it observed1 making a distinction between the two terms of the pet phrase of the ,rationalists8clear and distinct ideas40 ,he means that rational truth is so transparent that it is impossible to conceive its opposite2 that empirical truth is only clear1 and its opposite is thinkable4 ,it is impossible to think that the three angles of a triangle equal anything but two right angles1 but it is possible to think that its side1 which is now two inches1 may be four inches4 ,thus emerge the two logical principles upon which ,leibnitz founded his philosophy3 rational truths depend upon the ,principle of ,contradiction2 empirical truths depend upon the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason4 ,at first ,leibnitz conceived that this distinction between truths did not apply to ,god1 but only to man4 ,man must rejoice in the few rational truths in his possession and be content with merely establishing the actuality of his experiences4 ,the divine reason can1 however1 see the impossibility of the opposite both in rational and in empirical truth4 ,later on ,leibnitz conceived the distinction between the two kinds of truth to be absolute4 ,that is1 in the nature of things the two truths differ4 ,the rational truth has no opposite1 but is a necessary truth2 the empirical truth has an opposite1 and is a contingent truth4 ,leibnitz thus shows the fundamental principles upon which knowledge is based1 but what does he say about the logical method of their combination8 ,nothing4 ,no one would ever suspect from ,leibnitz's philosophical remains that he had planned a system of philosophy according to the method of ,spinoza4 ,the many pamphlets of ,leibnitz on many scattered subjects show how far short he fell of his ideal of a universal philosophical calculus4 ,he was too versatile1 his interests were too diversified1 to carry through so slow and plodding a task4 ,he merely stated the principles upon which a systematic symbolic philosophy might rest1 without developing these principles in a logical way4 ,like ,bacon1 ,leibnitz conceived a method that was more of a hope than an accomplishment4 ,the ,immediate ,problem for ,leibnitz4 ,perhaps ,leibnitz was called away from this purely theoretical problem of method by the practical problem of reconciling science and religion1 which problem in his day had become particularly acute4 ,for science had made rapid strides since the days of ,descartes1 had drawn very far away from religion1 and ,leibnitz's attempt to reconcile science and religion was much more difficult than that of the preceding ,rationalists4 ,leibnitz had accepted the most radical results of science1 but he saw that science had yielded only a mechanical view of the world4 ,politics demanded in the exigencies of that hour some principle of unity4 ,he sought to find some philosophical principle for the living1 religious character of the universe1 and a principle that at the same time would preserve the results of science4 ,he therefore sought to leave the conception of mechanical nature intact and go behind it for a teleological principle4 ,he examined the mechanical principles of the science of his day and found them embedded in a deeper metaphysical principle4 ,the ,result of ,leibnitz's ,examination of the ,principles of ,science#ce;,a ,plurality of ,metaphysical ,substances4 ,what was the developed scientific principle of ,leibnitz's time8 ,and what was the result of his analysis of it8 ,the principle was the mathematical principle of ,galileo in more complex form1 for there had been added to it since ,galileo's day the concept of the atom4 ,that is to say1 the fundamental scientific principle was that nature consists of the measurable movements of atoms4 ,from his analysis of this1 ,leibnitz obtained as follows his conception of a plural number of substances1 which he called monads4 #a4 ,leibnitz first scrutinized the scientific conception of motion4 ,his analysis of motion into infinitely small impulses by the method employed by ,galileo1 ,huyghens1 and ,newton had already led him to one important discoverythe differential calculus4 ,now he scrutinizes it further and discovers that the fundamental ground of motion is force4 ,while ,leibnitz was in entire agreement with other scientists in their effort to reduce all phenomena to motion1 he insisted that motion was not by any means the fundamental thing4 ,he calls the ,cartesian conception of motion the antechamber of true philosophy4 ,there is no absolute motion nor absolute rest4 ,motion and rest are relative to each other4 ,descartes' theory that there is conservation of motion is incorrect4 ,motion and rest are the phenomenal changes of force4 ,force alone is constant and conserved4 ,physics points beneath itself to metaphysics2 motion points to force4 ,force is what is fundamental in nature4 ,force is 8that which in the present state of things brings about a change in the future40 ,therefore force as the substance of nature is super-spatial and immaterial1 and therefore the basis of the new physics ought to be dynamic metaphysical substance4 #b4 ,leibnitz next examined the scientific conception of the atom4 ,gassendi1 one of that celebrated group of ,parisian scientists1 had been the author of the introduction of ,greek atomism into modern thought4 ,it had been generally accepted by scientists and combined with the mathematical hypothesis of ,galileo4 ,leibnitz had known ,gassendi in ,paris1 and he took the hard1 inelastic atoms of ,gassendi under examination4 ,he agreed that the atomist was perfectly correct in saying that material bodies consist of simple parts or atoms4 ,but ,leibnitz insisted that the atomist erred in thinking such simple parts to be physical4 ,however simple the parts might physically appear to be1 they were not really simple4 ,however small a bit of matter may be1 it may be divided again1 and the dividing process may go on to infinity4 ,the atom is the extended1 and the extended cannot be simple or real4 ,substance must be unextended1 and the materialists were wrong in attributing substance to the extended4 ,is there anything simple that has a qualitative character8 ,is there anything real below the physical atoms8 ,yes1 the metaphysical atoms4 ,the indivisible1 immaterial unit lies beneath the physical atom1 and in order to reach it we must pass beneath the physical into the metaphysical4 ,this immaterial or metaphysical atom is called by ,leibnitz the monad2 and thus is ,leibnitz's theory called monadology4 ,there are three kinds of points1 or units1 or 8simples40 ,there is the mathematical point1 which is simple enough1 but it is only imaginary4 ,there is the physical point1 or atom1 which is real but not simple4 ,there is1 lastly1 the metaphysical point1 or monad1 which is both real and simple4 ,the metaphysical point is the only true point4 ,to call the material atoms real1 only shows 8the feebleness of the imagination1 which is glad to rest1 and is1 therefore1 in haste to make an end of division and analysis40 #c4 ,leibnitz then identified force1 as the substance of motion1 with the metaphysical atom1 as the substance of the material atom4 ,the result was the monad1 as he conceived it4 ,the monads are the principles of active working4 ,they are the super-spatial and immaterial principles in which the mechanical principles of the universe have their roots and meaning4 ,nature is not dead2 it is not merely extended4 ,it is alive1 resistant1 and reproductive4 ,if1 as ,spinoza taught1 there were only one substance1 nature would be non-resistant and passive4 ,but as a matter of fact there are many substances acting for themselves1 many bodies resisting other bodies4 ,they are the centres of separate activity1 and there are as many forces as there are things4 ,there is no body without movement1 no movement without force4 ,thus does ,leibnitz reintroduce vitalism in a maturer form than is seen in neo-,platonism4 ,life becomes the principle of nature4 ,purpose is placed at the centre of things4 ,the ,double ,nature of the ,monads4 ,the student will find that the philosophy of ,leibnitz is spoken of as a pluralism1 but the student will also find that ,leibnitz devoted nearly all his strength to prove that the world is after all a unity4 ,leibnitz analyzed the world into a plural number of parts1 and the question then with him was1 how to put these parts together again in an organic unity4 ,this accomplishment would depend a good deal upon his conception of the nature of the parts4 ,the monads have a double character4 ,leibnitz conceived the monad 7#a7 as a force centre and 7#b7 as an immaterial soul4 ,this makes an equivalence of psychical and physical attributes which reminds us of the ,stoics' 8fiery reason0 of ,god4 ,the word 8force10 as ,leibnitz uses it1 squints both toward physics and toward psychology4 ,but such ambiguity about the monads1 the cornerstones in ,leibnitz's philosophy1 assists ,leibnitz's reconciliation at the start4 ,here1 in a miniature1 the physical and spiritual lie in unity4 ,the monad is conceived as a soul-atom4 ,leibnitz came to philosophy with a mind saturated with the mathematical ideas of the continuous1 the infinitesimal1 and the possible4 ,he thought of the monads as potentialities or possibilities4 ,he looked upon the world as essentially a developing world4 ,behind the facts that seem to us inflexible1 lies the great world of generating force4 ,explanation of the actual can be made only in view of what the actual may be and has been4 ,let us enlarge the scope of man by so widening his conception of the actual that it will include the possible4 ,leibnitz also spoke of the monads as infinitesimal4 ,he thereby lifted the conception of the infinitesimal from the realm of mathematics into that of metaphysics1 just as ,hobbes universalized the conception of mechanics by lifting it to metaphysics4 ,leibnitz1 therefore1 did not regard the limits of perception as the limits of nature3 the reality of a nature object must be too small to be the object of perception4 ,in the same way he made use of his mathematical conception of continuity4 ,leibnitz's conception of nature-continuity is one of his contributions to philosophy4 ,within itself the world of nature consists of a continuous gradation from the lower to the higher forms2 and also the world of nature is continuous with the world of the spirit4 ,there are no leaps in the series from matter to ,god4 ,seeming differences in kind are only differences in degree2 for example1 evil is only the absence of good2 matter is only an obscure idea of spirit4 ,but this ,leibnitzian atomism consists of soul-atoms4 ,these monads1 these force-centres are souls1 and the mathematical qualities have a place in ,leibnitz's description of the psychical powers of the monad4 ,the monad is a soul1 for soul is the only substance in the universe that may pass through many changes and it1 itself1 not change4 ,the self is the only subject of which many predicates may be asserted1 while it1 itself1 may not be the predicate of any other subject4 ,the idea of myself underlies all my mental states4 ,the monad is an entelechy1 or an entity having its purpose within itself4 ,all its attributes are contained within itself1 and it is1 therefore1 by nature1 sufficient unto itself4 ,it is an individual which passes from one state to another1 moved by its 8constitutional appetition40 ,among the psychical powers none is more important in ,leibnitz's description of the monad than its power of representation4 ,representation is the general function of the monadfrom the lowest to the highest monad4 ,this means that each monad is the world force1 yet in a particular form1a world substance1 but in some peculiar aspect4 ,every monad is a microcosm4 ,each represents the world so far as it is conscious of its own activity4 ,but it is evident that all things in the universe are not conscious1 and therefore all soul-monads are not conscious4 ,in souls there are1 therefore1 more than conscious thoughtsthere are thoughts that are unconscious4 ,among the ,rationalists ,leibnitz is the first to give significance to the so-called unconscious states that form so important a place in modern psychology4 7,but see ,plotinus47 ,as a wave is composed of small particles of water1 so the mind is made up of a myriad of unconscious states4 ,the conscious state is the general effect of the whole4 ,a soul-monad contains in itself at all times representations of the whole world1 some obscure1 some clear4 ,this power of universal representation makes the monad a microcosm4 ,what we call knowledge of the external world is our representation of it within ourselves4 ,this representation is possible to us because we reproduce it in miniature4 ,since the monad directly perceives only itself and its own states1 it follows that the more clearly and distinctly it is conscious of its own activities1 the more adequately does it represent the cosmos4 ,the converse is also truethat the more a monad represents the cosmos1 the more truly does it represent itself4 ,in his development of his description of the monad1 ,leibnitz hits upon two catch-phrases1 one of which presents his doctrine of the physical isolation of the monad1 the other presents the doctrine of its ideal psychical unity4 ,these phrases are3 8the monads are windowless0 and 8the monads mirror the universe40 ,by 8windowless0 ,leibnitz means that each monad is 8like a separate world1 self-sufficient1 independent of every other creature40 8,having no windows by which anything can enter or depart10 the monad can perceive only its own states4 ,whatever happens to it comes from itself alone as a purely internal principle4 ,the monad's development is self-development and not the result of external changes4 ,nevertheless the monad is a 8mirror of the universe40 ,in this psychical qualification of the nature of the monad1 its physical isolation vanishes and the way is open for a unity of monads1 which would have otherwise seemed to be physically hopelessly sundered4 ,how is it possible for each of the numberless monads1 all so different1 to 8mirror the universe08 ,the answer is found in their psychical power of representation4 ,the ,two ,forms of ,leibnitz's ,conception of the ,unity of the ,substances4 ,the principle of unity among the monads is called by ,leibnitz a prestablished harmony4 ,he presented this principle of harmony in two ways4 ,in part the harmony comes out of their constitution1 as he conceived it to be4 ,in part ,leibnitz artificially superimposed it upon the monads for theological reasons4 ,in either case it is prestablished4 ,the ,intrinsic ,unity of the ,monads,the ,philosophical ,unity4 ,there is a family resemblance among the monads4 ,the lowest reproduces the universe in obscure and elementary representations4 ,minerals and plants are sleeping monads with entirely unconscious ideas4 ,animals are dreaming monads4 ,man is a waking monad4 ,the highest monad is ,god1 who reproduces the universe in clear and distinct ideas4 ,between ,god and matter there is a series of monads1 graded as to the clearness of their ideas4 ,all contain the universe by representation4 ,all are bound together according to the principle of continuity2 plants are lower animals and animals are less perfect men4 ,man is a monad whose conscious activity has risen to the height of self-consciousness1 with the cognate power of reason4 ,there is no inert matter2 no soul-less bodies nor body-less souls4 ,the smallest portion of dust is the habiliment of animalcul4 ,nothing is dead1 and nature is a gradation of monads in differing degrees of activity4 ,metaphysically the monads are isolated1 yet in nature as we see them1 they live in groups1 and compose the things which we call plants1 animals1 and men4 ,an organic thing is a combination of monads with a central ruling monad4 ,this central monad is the soul of the group2 the subordinate ones form the body of the organism4 ,the influence of the soul or ruling monad upon the body-monads is purely ideal4 ,they all strive for the same end1 which the soul represents more clearly4 ,the group acts spontaneously and together1 not from any outside influence4 ,an inanimate object differs from such a living organism1 inasmuch as it is a group of monads without a soul or a ruling1 central monad2 and therefore such a monad is both soul and body4 ,there is therefore no dualism between soul and body in any creatures1 for body is only obscure or unconscious activity4 ,the body consists of monads having a confused sense of their activity4 ,this continuity and unity within the world1 as ,leibnitz sees it1 is only the logical development of the unity with which he originally endowed his monads4 ,although he starts the monads as 8windowless10 he also says that 8they mirror the universe40 ,they are so conceived as to be originally physically separated1 but psychologically and ideally united4 8,their natural harmony resides in an ideal of perfect activity1 while in actual existence they are independent40 ,the ideal which unites them is ,god1 the last term in the graded series of the monads4 ,he is the monad of monads1 because ,he is perfect1 conscious activity4 ,just as the various groups of monads are ruled by a central soul-monad1 so the world of these groups is an hierarchy1 which derives its unitary and harmonious character from this dominating monad4 ,the world may be likened to a pyramid with ,god at the apex4 ,the world is like a machine which differs from other machines1 in that its parts are little machines4 ,although the parts seem to operate separately1 they are under the dominating control of ,god4 ,god is their intrinsic unity and the universe is a prestablished harmony4 ,a comparison with ,spinoza's conception of the world of nature brings out ,leibnitz's meaning effectively4 ,both philosophers conceive nature phenomena to be under the law of mechanical causation4 ,to ,spinoza1 however1 all phenomena are qualitatively alike2 there are no grades or distinctions of value between them4 ,all are modes of substance and all illusions in the sight of ,god4 ,to ,spinoza phenomena are homogeneous4 ,leibnitz's estimate of the world of nature is quite different1 and for him nature has a far richer endowment4 ,the phenomena of nature are not homogeneous4 ,their difference does not consist in their content1 but in the degree in which they represent the universe4 ,the law of nature is a unifying principle that gives unitary individuality to the members under the law4 ,the individuality of the terms of the nature-series is implied in the very nature of the law of necessity1 and on the other hand1 the individual terms1 for their part1 transform the law of necessity into a principle of unity that is higher than bare necessity4 ,in a necessitated series1 ,leibnitz points out1 each term is determined by the preceding1 and in turn each term determines the events that follow4 ,thus1 while nature phenomena are a series and a necessitated series1 it is a series whose existence depends upon each event having not only its place1 but its unique place4 ,no other event can fill that place1 and the conditions that give the event its place constitute its individuality4 ,every finite event has1 so to speak1 its formula1 and this gives individuality to each term of the series1 which appeared to ,spinoza only as a homogeneous1 mathematical1 and characterless mode4 ,life is meaningful to ,leibnitz1 because each member of the necessitated series of events has its unique part to play4 ,the changes of life are to ,spinoza void of meaning1 because he conceives them to be undifferentiated4 ,the law of mechanical necessity became under ,leibnitz's hands a principle of harmony1 a teleological principle4 ,even in the necessitated mathematical series1 such as ,spinoza conceived the world to be1 ,leibnitz believed that necessity implies individuality and individuality implies purpose4 ,how vital1 therefore1 does life now appear1 with its mechanical members transformed into living units6 ,universal striving or force fills nature1 and the surging of individual forces gives a new meaning to the unity of the whole4 ,the mechanical seriesthe physiological changes of our bodies and the efficient causes in natureare only the expression of the inner teleological development4 ,leibnitz points out several pregnant principles that are aspects of this prestablished but intrinsic harmony4 ,in the first place1 nature has no breaks and abhors a vacuum2 and the series is a continuous one1the law of continuity4 ,member follows member in continuous and graded order4 ,their qualitative differences are differences of quality of activity4 ,rest and motion1 good and evil1 are differences of degree4 ,in the second place1 there is nothing superfluous2 no two things in nature are alike4 ,if they were alike1 they would be identicalthe law of the identity of indiscernibles4 ,although there is no absolute antithesis or contrast between things1 there is no absolute likeness4 ,every monad must be differentiated from every other intrinsically1 i4 e4 according to its perfected activity4 ,therefore1 in the third place1 every member has an excuse for beingthe law of sufficient reason4 ,every member has its part to perform and no other can act as an understudy for it4 ,however insignificant any member may appear to be1 it is as unique as its bigger neighbor4 ,the ,superimposed ,unity of the ,monads,the ,theological ,unity4 ,the intrinsic unity of the monads is derived naturally from the monads themselves1 but it is an unattained ideal for which they strive4 ,when ,leibnitz turns his philosophy into a theodicy1 or justification of the nature of ,god1 this unity of the world takes on a different form and assumes a theological importance4 ,the unity is no longer an intrinsic unity1 with no actual but only ideal existence depending upon the highest monad in the series1 but is an actual personality who exists apart from the world4 ,the world is his eternal purpose4 ,probably this conception was always in the background of ,leibnitz's thought1 but it cannot be deduced from his philosophy4 ,it is a conception afterwards superimposed upon his philosophy4 ,leibnitz now conceives ,god not as an ideal goal1 but as a perfect and actual person1 whose reason impelled ,him to construct the best possible world4 ,the world in which we live is the world ,he chose4 ,it is perfectly conceivable that the world could be different4 ,why1 among all the possible worlds1 did ,god choose to construct this world8 ,there is no reason in logic1 but in fact4 ,there was no necessity for its construction4 ,the fact is the excellence of the world4 ,spinoza said that all possible worlds exist4 ,leibnitz said this best possible world exists4 ,look about you2 is it not so8 ,the best possible world is a world of free agents1 whose acts are rewarded or punished according to their deserts4 ,if we discover what seems to be inexplicable evil1 we must regard it as an incident in the harmony of the whole4 ,the world would be less good without evil4 ,there is no more evil than there ought to be4 ,the world which ,god conceived to be the best possiblethis worldis a world of lights and shades4 ,evil comes from the free agency of man1 and ,god is not responsible for it4 ,it is better to have evil and free agency than no evil and no free agency4 ,evil after all is not positive1 and is only due to the indistinct ideas of man4 ,it is the absence of good1 as cold is the absence of heat4 ,thus a prestablished harmony was constructed by ,leibnitz that does not come out of his original philosophical premises4 ,leibnitz used his celebrated figure of the two clocks to illustrate the harmony of the monads4 ,two clocks keep the same time1 not because they influence one another 7interaction71 nor because the maker moves the hands of one 7,occasionalism71 but because they have been thus constructed by an intelligent ,creator4 ,thus the harmony of the world implies a personal ,god4 ,leibnitz's philosophical ,rationalism here passed into theology1 and his metaphysics became an ethics4 ,leibnitz began with a monadology1 and by means of the conception of harmony passed to an optimism4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,enlightenment 7#afij-agha7cf ,the ,emergence of the 8,new ,man10,individualism4 ,in passing to this period we should recall the two objects of interest that distinguish modern from medival thought3 the 8new man0 of modern ,europe2 and the 8new universe0new in its geographical outlines and in its intellectual materials4 ,we have already found that the two hundred and more years of the ,renaissance1 the first period of modern thought1 was absorbed in exploiting the second of these objectsthe 8new universe40 ,in fact the 8new man0 had been so interested in the 8new universe0 that he had not thought of studying himself4 ,he had systematized the great wealth of his acquisitions and had constructed great systems of science and metaphysics4 ,this second period of modern thoughtthe ,enlightenmentbegins when the 8new man0 turns away from his intellectual struggles with his environment and attempts to understand his own nature4 ,thus the more important of the two objects emerges last2 and this turn to self-reflection constitutes the century of the ,enlightenment4 ,the ,renaissance had been subjective and spectacular2 the ,enlightenment was subjective and tragic4 ,the mental activity of the ,renaissance had been vital1 spontaneous1 and unconscious1 like the awakening from sleep2 that of the ,enlightenment was self-conscious and attitudinizing4 ,the man of the ,renaissance had been in love with nature2 the man of the ,enlightenment was in love with himself4 ,like the ,greek ,sophistic ,illumination1 which is its parallel in ancient history1 the ,enlightenment turned away from cosmological and metaphysical problems4 ,on the other hand1 the philosophy of the ,enlightenment penetrated all departments of life and found expression in practical questions4 ,erdmann has well expressed the meaning of these nine decades of the ,enlightenment as 8an effort to raise man1 so far as he is a rational individual1 into a position of supremacy over everything40 ,it was during this period1 which we are now about to enter1 that ,herder brought into currency in ,germany the word 8humanity40 ,in ,england the same sentiment was uttered by ,pope in #agcb in his ,essay on ,man3 8,know then thyself1 presume not ,god to scan2 ,the proper study of mankind is man40 ,the ,enlightenment marks1 therefore1 the rise of modern individualism2 and the concerns of the individual become the important object of consideration4 ,the novelty of the great discoveries and inventions of the ,renaissance had lost its lustre4 ,the 8new universe0 had become old and familiar1 but through his accomplishments the 8new man0 had begun to feel the strength of his liberated powers4 ,for had not the wonderful world of the ,renaissance been his own accomplishment8 ,had not all its notable constructions been the creations of his powers8 ,the 8struggle of traditions0 to revive antiquity and to incorporate the 8new universe0 upon an old basis2 the 8strife of methods0 to reorganize the 8new world0 upon a new basisrevealed this great fact3 that man has 8world wisdom40 ,man in his supremacy occupies the entire foreground1 and interest in the 8new universe0 fades away4 ,the 8new universe0 is now seen in the light of one's personal interests4 ,man is supreme1 and to his word there can be no exception4 ,there is constant reference during this time to the 8light of reason0to a bright inner1 rational illumination in contrast to the vagaries of mysticism and the obscurities of dogmatism4 ,the worship of genius arises and with it a contempt for the unenlightened4 8,thus would ,i speak1 were ,i ,christ10 said ,bahrdt4 ,no wonder that ,goethe described the ,enlightenment as an age of self-conceit6 ,the ,practical ,presupposition of the ,enlightenment,the ,independence of the ,individual4 ,the 8new man0 emerged from the ,renaissance as the most important object of consideration1 and during the ,enlightenment there was never the slightest question about his independence4 ,the individual became the original datum of this period into which we are now entering2 he was considered to be the only thing that is self-intelligible2 he was the starting-point from which all social relationships were to be explained4 ,among the many problems that arose1 the independent existence of the individual remained unquestioned4 ,it was the period of 8liberty1 equality1 and fraternity40 ,the problems were about the relations of the individual2 never about the individual himself1 for concerning the individual no problem could arise4 ,the individual rejoicing in the exuberance of his own powers1 the 8monad enjoying himself10 dominated everything4 ,the monadology of the ,renaissance became an atomism in the ,enlightenment4 ,the individual was the practical assumption of the period4 ,the ,metaphysical ,presupposition of the ,enlightenment4 ,there was a metaphysical background to this practical assumption of the individual4 ,this was the ,cartesian dualism of mind and matter4 ,although the eighteenth century despaired of a successful metaphysical construction of the 8new universe10 and although its attention was riveted on an analysis of human relationships1 it must not be supposed that the period was without its metaphysical bias4 ,such is not the nature of human history2 and if an epoch refuses to discuss metaphysical questions1 it is because it assumes some metaphysics as true4 ,the assumption of the independent individual implies the independent existence of matter4 ,the ,enlightenment assumed the ,cartesian theory as correct4 ,while many were the polemics against metaphysical speculation1 the ,cartesian dualism was nevertheless in control4 ,here within is the independent existence of mind2 and it would naturally follow that there without is the equally independent existence of matter4 ,the conception might fade into a ghost-like dualism1 as in ,berkeley and ,hume1 but the dualism never entirely vanished4 ,this has since been known as the philosophy of 8common sense10 and is to-day the easy attitude of those not interested in metaphysical discussions4 8,common sense0 means the opinion of the majority as to truth4 ,most people to-day1 as then1 accept without question some sort of dualism1 usually the dualism of mind and body4 ,the ,problems of the ,enlightenment4 ,the area of inquiry was thus very much restricted during this period4 ,nature lies beyond our ken4 ,god is still more incomprehensible4 ,from the study of nature and ,god1 let us turn to a study of the problems of the inner life4 ,yet while the field of study was restricted1 the problems within it were multitudinous1 and there was an astonishing breadth and universality1 a tenacity of everything1 a disdainfulness of nothing4 ,within its own field the ,enlightenment sought to systematize and to stand by any idea in spite of all opposition4 ,the imagination took bold flights and1 from the standpoint of the inner individual life1 tried to transform its world4 ,overloaded with ballast1 it tried to reconcile the irreconcilable and to overlook the brute facts of existence4 ,the problems arise from an age that is self-opinionated1 self-tormenting1 and subjective4 ,the problems of this age may be divided into two classes1utilitarian and critical1both having reference to the individual man in his relations4 ,these include the problems of psychology1 epistemology1 sociology1 economics1 politics1 etc4 ,there was1 for example1 the problem of our knowledge of the external world1 of the validity of innate ideas as the basis of knowledge1 of the rational basis of religion4 ,thought was very alert at this time1 as is always the case in times of great individualism1 and thought could move with great rapidity over the wide range of such subjects4 7a7 ,utilitarian ,problems4 ,the ,enlightenment was curious about the interests1 the happiness1 and the many powers of the individual4 ,empirical psychologists and brilliant ethical scholars appeared4 ,how much can man know1 and what are the limits and extent of his knowledge8 ,the ,rationalists of the ,renaissance had accepted without question the medival teaching that a group of our ideas is innate and therefore ,god-given4 ,the ,middle ,ages had been built up on revealed knowledge4 ,but to the thinkers of the ,enlightenment the most important ideasyea1 the only ideas of service to usare those derived from experience4 ,we should be happier if we confined ourselves to the facts of every-day life1 and did not try to deal with things beyond experience4 ,let us give metaphysical theories to the ,churchman4 ,empirical psychology thus took the place of metaphysics1 and became known as philosophy4 ,it was the favorite science of the time1 and the basis of ethics and epistemology4 ,philosophy thus came out of the school1 and became a public utility4 ,it was based1 to be sure1 upon theological preconceptions1 but it was to be put to the service of man4 ,it was to be an instrument of discovery as well as a means of grace4 ,with this psychological incentive great schools of moralists arose1 especially in ,england3 studying morality as based on the intellect1 on the feelings1 on authority1 on the association of ideas4 ,empirical psychology led to self-inspection1 and this is the age when self-inspection was universal4 ,it is the age of the founding of 8societies for the observation of man40 ,it is the age of sentimental diary writing4 ,rousseau wrote his autobiography in ,france1 and it was followed by a flood of autobiographies in ,germany4 ,even memoirs of such scoundrels as ,laukhardt were written and read as matters of public interest4 ,religion1 too1 took the form of personal experiences and individual conversions2 and the church was more interested in the experiences of the saved than in the dogma of salvation4 ,the ,methodist movement arose in ,england and spread over the continent and to ,america4 ,individual opinions were more important than conventions2 friendships than marriage2 societies than corporations4 ,the historical was lost to view because the personal and particular occupied the foreground4 ,gibbon said1 8,all ideas were equally true in the eyes of the people1 equally false in the eyes of the philosophers1 equally useful in the eyes of the magistrates40 7b7 ,questions of ,criticism4 ,in the second place1 the ,enlightenment is a period of criticism and stands in contrast with the constructive ,rationalism of the ,renaissance4 ,from ,locke's invective against innate ideas to ,hume's skepticism of the law of cause1 from ,voltaire's examination of the foundations of religion to ,rousseau's polemic against society1 the age was one of the criticism of authority4 ,the psychologists1 moralists1 deists1 and sociologists were revolutionistsall striking directly or indirectly at absolute political sovereignty1 against the theoretical dogmatism and the ceremonious morality in which the ,renaissance was complacent4 ,the revolution began in the realm of the intellect and spread to political society4 ,it was natural that the beginnings should be made in the apparently harmless theoretical examination of the grounds of knowledge and the principles of morality2 but the outcome was a general sweep of historical criticism1 in which authority and science1 the church1 the state1 and education came under censure4 ,the spirit of man was impatient4 ,man became indifferent to 8learning40 ,in contrast with the ,renaissance1 this was a time when books were little read1 proper names infrequently appeared in writings1 authorities were little cited4 ,let man study himself if he would learn about history and understand the world4 ,man stands above the scholar1 the ,christian1 the ,german4 ,he is independent of tradition1 and should substitute the useful for the historical4 ,cosmopolitanism takes the place of patriotism4 ,the ,enlightenment is practical and yet imaginative4 ,its criticism aims to strip man of all his artificialities and to find his natural state4 ,its emphasis is negative and destructive4 ,the revolt of the ,enlightenment against the past appeared in remarkable changes in the political map of ,europe4 ,medival ,europe was breaking to pieces4 ,the ,renaissance had been a period of social absolutism in which the despotic powers of ,macchiavelli and ,richelieu were typical of its political life4 ,in this period new-comers forced their way into politics and the ,enlightenment was marked by the rise of ,russia1 ,prussia1 and the ,american colonies4 ,france and ,austria1 representing the past1 were arrayed against ,england and ,prussia1 representing the future of ,europe4 ,the conflict between them was that of the old idea of military despotism1 non-commerce1 and non-toleration against the new spirit of individual freedom4 ,from the ,peace of ,westphalia 7#afdh7 to the ,seven ,years' ,war 7#agef-agfc7 occurred many conflicts which presaged the breaking down of the old boundaries4 ,the old rgime received its death-blow at the hands of ,frederick the ,great in the ,seven ,years' ,war2 and a half-century later 7#ahjf7 the ,holy ,roman ,empire came to an end4 ,in all countries there were vigorous political movements in support of the rights of the individual4 ,in ,england the ,house of ,commons began to rise to power and the colonies in ,america to assert their independence4 ,in ,france the ,bourbon family was fast losing its grip1 to be completely overthrown in the ,french ,revolution 7#aghi74 ,the current was entirely in the same direction in ,germany4 ,this was the time of ,adam ,smith and the rise of economic theories4 ,it is a matter of no little significance that this period from the point of view of philosophy begins with ,locke's psychological ,essay and ends with ,kant's ,critique2 and from the point of view of politics it begins with the ,revolution of #afhh in ,england1 and ends with a revolution in ,france and another in the ,american colonies4 ,a ,comparison of the ,enlightenment in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,the individualism of the ,enlightenment expressed itself as a rationalism in ,germany1 as a sensationalism and deism in ,france1 and as a deism and an empiricism in ,england4 ,nevertheless all its phases may be found in each one of these countries4 ,the outcome of the movement in the three countries is1 however1 very different4 ,in ,england the ,enlightenment passed into a philosophical reaction in the so-called ,scottish ,school2 in ,france1 it resulted in a political revolution2 in ,germany1 it merged with a great literary movement and resulted in a creative idealism4 ,the ,many ,groups of ,philosophers of the ,enlightenment4 ,a comparison of the lists of philosophers of this with those of other periods reveals an extraordinary number of names4 ,the ,renaissance1 for example1 shows about half as many names of consequence1 although it is about twice as long4 ,the ,enlightenment teems with philosophers1 for its secular life was permeated with the reflective spirit4 ,the philosophers are also often notable men1 whose names are familiar to the modern reader4 ,nevertheless the number of constructive philosophers was exceedingly few4 ,only ,locke1 ,berkeley1 and ,hume can be found whose importance equals that of ,bacon1 ,hobbes1 ,galileo1 ,descartes1 ,spinoza1 and ,leibnitz4 ,in personal talents and importance to their age the others seem to go in groups or to be part of the secular spirit4 ,on the whole the history of the ,enlightenment is that of social movements1 and the philosophers seem to be the exponents of such movements4 ,some of these important groups are as follows3 ,in ,england4 #a4 ,associationalist ,psychologists3 ,peter ,brown 7d4 #agce71 ,hartley 7#agjd-ageg71 ,search 7#agje-aggd71 ,priestley 7#agcc-ahjd71 ,tooke 7#agcf-ahab71 ,erasmus ,darwin 7#agca-ahjb71 ,thomas ,brown 7#aggh-ahbj74 #b4 ,moral ,philosophers3 ,shaftesbury 7#afga-agac72 morality based on intellect1 ,samuel ,clarke 7#afge-agbi72 ,wollaston 7#afei-agbd72 morality based on feeling1 ,hutcheson 7#afid-agdg72 ,home 7#afif-aghb72 ,burke 7#agcj-agig72 ,ferguson 7#agbd-ahaf72 ,adam ,smith 7#agbc-agij72 morality based on authority1 ,butler 7#afib-ageb72 ,paley 7#agdc-ahje72 ethics based on associational psychology1 ,bentham 7#agdh-ahcb72 in an isolated ethical position1 ,mandeville 7#afgj-agcc72 the ,platonist1 ,price 7#agbc-agia74 #c4 ,the ,deists3 ,toland 7#afgj-agbb71 ,collins 7#afgf-agbi71 ,tindal 7#afef-agcc71 ,chubb 7#afgi-agdg71 ,morgan 7d4 #agdc71 ,bolingbroke 7#afgh-agea74 #d4 ,the ,scottish ,school of ,philosophy3 ,thomas ,reid 7#agaj-agif71 ,oswald 7d4 #agic71 ,beattie 7d4 #ahje71 ,dugald ,stewart 7#agec-ahbh74 ,in ,france4 #a4 ,skeptics3 ,bayle 7#afdg-agjf71 ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh71 ,maupertuis 7#afih-agei71 d',alembert 7#agag-aghc71 ,buffon 7#agjg-aghh71 ,robinet 7#agce-ahbj74 #b4 ,the ,sensualists3 ,la ,mettrie 7#agji-agea71 ,bonnet 7#agbj-agic71 ,condillac 7#agae-aghj71 ,cabanis 7#ageg-ahjh74 #c4 ,the ,encyclopdists3 ,diderot 7#agac-aghd71 ,voltaire1 d',alembert1 ,rousseau 7#agab-aggh71 ,turgot1 ,jaucourt1 ,duclos1 ,grimm 7#agbc-ahjg71 ,holbach 7#agbc-aghi71 ,helvetius 7#agae-agga74 #d4 ,the ,political ,economists and ,constitutionalists3 ,montesquieu 7#afhi-agee71 ,quesnay1 ,turgot1 ,morelly1 ,mably4 #e4 ,the ,sentimentalist3 ,rousseau 7#agab-aggh71 the most notable figure of ,france during the ,enlightenment4 #f4 ,philosophical ,revolutionists3 ,st4 ,lambert 7#agaf-ahjc71 ,volney 7#ageg-ahbj71 ,condorcet 7#agdc-agid71 ,garat 7#agdi-ahcc74 ,in ,germany4 #a4 ,thomasius 7#afee-agbh71 the first of the ,enlightenment4 #b4 ,the ,wolffians3 ,wolff 7#afgi-aged71 ,bilfinger1 ,knutzen 7d4 #agea71 ,gottsched 7#agjj-agff71 ,baumgarten 7#agad-agfb74 #c4 ,the ,geometrical ,method and its ,opponents3 ,hansch1 ,ploucquet1 ,crousaz1 ,rdiger 7#afga-agca71 ,crusius 7#agab-agge71 ,budde1 ,brucker1 ,tiedemann1 ,lossius1 ,platner4 #d4 ,the ,psychologists and ,related ,philosophers3 ,kruger1 ,hentsch1 ,weiss1 ,irwing1 ,moritz 7#ageg-agic71 ,basedow 7#agbc-agij71 ,pestalozzi1 and ,sulzer4 #e4 ,the ,independent ,philosophers3 ,lambert 7#agbh-aggg71 ,tetens 7#agcf-ahje74 #f4 ,the ,deists3 ,schmidt1 ,semler 7#agbe-agia71 ,reimarus 7#afii-agfh71 ,edelmann4 #g4 ,the ,pietists3 ,spener 7#afce-agje71 ,francke 7#affc-agbg71 ,arnold1 ,dippel4 #h4 ,the ,popular ,philosophers3 ,mendelssohn 7#agbi-aghf71 ,nicolai 7#agcc-ahaa71 ,basedow1 ,abbt1 ,engel1 ,feder1 ,meiners1 ,garve4 #i4 ,the ,writer on ,philosophical ,religion3 ,lessing 7#agbi-agha74 #aj4 ,the ,writer on ,faith ,philosophy3 ,herder 7#agdd-ahjc74 ,the philosophers of greatest importance in this period are given below4 ,to help the reader keep in mind contemporary philosophical influences other names are given with them in a parallel table4 ,bacon #aefa ,hobbes #aehh ,descartes #aeif #afbf ,spinoza ,locke #afcb #afcb ,newton #afdb ,leibnitz #afej #afdf #afgg #afgi ,wolff #afgi ,berkeley ,voltaire #afhe #afid #agjd ,hume #agaa ,rousseau #agaf #agab ,lessing #agbg #agbi #agec #aged #aggf #aggh #aggh #agha ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,birthplaces ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,influential ,,thinkers ,,of ,,the ,,enlightenment 7#afij-agha7 7,note that the names of the philosophers are given in brackets beneath the names of the towns and cities7 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,john ,,locke ,the ,enlightenment in ,great ,britain4 ,the history of the philosophy of ,great ,britain includes the teachings of ,locke1 ,berkeley1 ,hume1 and the ,scottish ,school4 ,with the exception of the teachings of the reactionary ,scottish ,school1 all the important philosophical teachings appear in the first half of the eighteenth century4 ,we need to understand1 first1 the philosophical position of ,locke1 who was the father of the ,enlightenment4 ,we shall then see how his doctrine developed in three different directions3 7#a7 as ,deism1a rational ,christianity1 7#b7 as an associational psychology in ethics1 7#c7 as a theory of knowledge in the philosophies of ,berkeley and ,hume4 ,our discussion of the philosophy of ,bacon and ,hobbes has been followed by that of ,rationalism4 ,it would1 however1 be a mistake for the reader to infer1 as we are about to take up the study of ,locke1 that a long period of time intervened between ,hobbes and ,locke4 ,a chronological comparison of their lives shows that they were contemporaries for forty-seven years4 ,both lived through the reign of ,charles ,i1 during the ,commonwealth and the ,restoration4 ,hobbes died eleven years before ,locke published his only philosophical essay4 ,we must remember1 too1 that the ,english empirical philosophers of the ,enlightenment were not insulated from the ,rationalists of the ,continent4 ,on the contrary1 there was a lively interchange of ideas4 ,descartes influenced ,hobbes and ,hobbes influenced ,spinoza4 ,the influence of ,descartes upon ,locke was not inconsiderable1 and ,leibnitz felt the influence of ,locke4 ,berkeley and ,leibnitz arrived at idealistic conclusions from independent points of view4 ,bacon alone seems to stand apart both from his contemporaries and from his immediate followers4 ,the ,english ,enlightenment was the natural development of the ,english ,renaissance4 ,locke was the successor of ,bacon and ,hobbes4 ,on the other hand1 the ,english ,enlightenment is similar to what went on in ,france and ,germany4 ,the first half of the ,english ,enlightenmentfrom #afij to #agejwas absorbed in philosophical discussions2 during the second half1 the period abandoned philosophy1 and was engaged entirely in politics4 ,the classes that won in the ,revolution of #afhh had little trouble in maintaining their place of power4 ,the peaceful coming of ,william and ,mary gave well-ordered conditions for intellectual development and for a powerful literary movement4 ,the ,jacobites were crushed1 and there ensued a period of political peace4 ,in the latter half of the century1 however1 another set of topics came to the front4 ,after #agej politics superseded philosophy2 and whereas the keenest ,english minds had been employed upon the theoretical 8study of mankind0 in literature and philosophy1 they now became engaged in practical political questions4 ,political parties developed4 ,the ,court was arrayed against the families of the ,revolution1 the ,american trouble1 and the ,wilkite agitations were looming large4 ,england was sucked into the political maelstrom that was involving all ,europe4 ,instead of deistic controversies with the theological orthodoxy1 dangerous political questions were appearing4 ,instead of ,hume's ,essay and ,butler's ,analogy we have ,burke's speeches1 ,adam ,smith's ,wealth of ,nations1 ,junius's ,letters1 and political pamphlets4 ,in the first half of the period ,bolingbroke had left politics for philosophy2 in the second half ,priestley left his laboratory for politics4 ,the great change in ,english intellectual interests is shown in ,hume himself4 ,in #ageb he turned from philosophy1 because there was so little interest in the subject1 to the writing of his history of ,england4 ,theology was paralyzed2 deism was no longer ridiculed2 orthodoxy slumbered in its victory4 ,the only philosophic tones came from ,france1 where ,voltaire1 the ,encyclopdists1 and ,rousseau were carrying out a movement that had its origin in ,england2 and1 on the other hand1 from ,scotland and its reactionary school4 ,but the political movement always remained political in ,england1 because its institutions were not inflexible and because the ,english people are by nature constitutional4 ,in ,england there has never been a revolution1 in the true sense1 but ,england's progress has always been controlled by tradition4 ,even the revolution in the ,english colonies in ,america was caused by an abridgment of constitutional rights1 and not by political theory1 although the formal ,declaration of ,independence was framed under the influence of ,french philosophers4 ,john ,locke1 ,life and ,writings 7#afcb-agjd74cg ,the life of ,locke falls into four periods4 #a4 ,student ,life 7#afcb-afff74 ,locke passed his first fourteen years at home1 which were the troublesome years of the ,civil ,war4 ,the next six years were spent at the ,westminster ,school in ,london4 ,the last fourteen years of this period were spent1 first as student and then as lecturer in ,oxford4 ,he took his ,oxford degrees in #affj1 the year of the ,restoration and the year in which the ,british ,royal ,society was founded at ,oxford4 ,his dislike for the classics1 which was begun at the ,westminster ,school1 was confirmed by his ,oxford studies4 ,consequently1 during the years of his perfunctory lecturing at ,oxford 7#affj-afff71 his main interest was in physics4 ,he was engaged in chemical1 meteorological1 and especially medical observations4 ,he was also engaged in an amateur medical practice1 in partnership with an old physician4 ,the first turning point in his life came in #afff1 when he was called to attend the first ,lord ,shaftesbury1 who had fallen ill at ,oxford4 ,this accidental meeting was the beginning of a lasting friendship with the ,shaftesbury family1 sustained by their common love for political1 religious1 and intellectual liberty4 ,the first ,lord ,shaftesbury was the most notable statesman in the reign of ,charles ,,ii2 the third ,lord ,shaftesbury was the greatest of ,english ethical scholars4 ,locke was the trusted friend and beneficiary of the first ,lord ,shaftesbury1 the tutor of the second1 and influenced1 more than any one else1 the ethical productions of the third4 ,locke wrote some notes in this period on the ,roman ,commonwealth1 an essay on toleration1 and made records of physical observations4 #b4 ,as ,politician 7#afff-afhc74 ,during these seventeen years ,locke's outward fortunes were intimately connected with the political career of ,shaftesbury4 ,he held public office4 ,he was made a member of the ,royal ,society in #affh4 ,the winter of #afgj-afga was important for his intellectual fortunes and marks another turning point in his life4 ,it was then that he started the inquiry that led to his famous ,essay4#ch ,the ,essay was in the process of development during the next nineteen years4 ,he passed four years in retirement and in study in ,france 7#afge-afgi74 ,he also at this time first conceived his ,essays on ,government4 ,shaftesbury fled to ,holland in ,november1 #afhb1 and ,locke a few months later followed him4 #c4 ,as ,philosophical ,author 7#afhc-afia74 ,the year #afhi divides this period into two important parts4 ,the first part 7#afhc-afhi7 is not only the period of his exile in ,holland1 but it is the time in which he is composing and completing his three most important literary works1,essay on the ,human ,understanding1 the two ,treatises on ,government1 the three ,epistles on ,tolerance4 ,during the second part 7#afhi-afia7 he published these1 which was the time immediately following his return to ,england4 ,newton's ,principia was published in #afhg1 and ,locke's ,essay in #afijthe one the foundation of modern physical science1 the other the beginning of modern psychology4 ,the appearance of these two works together with the ,revolution in #afhh makes this point of time an important one in the history of the world4 #d4 ,as ,controversialist 7#afia-agjd74 ,locke then began to write upon almost every conceivable subject1the coining of silver money1 the raising of the value of money1 the culture of olives1 etc4 ,he was also very busy in defending his philosophy against attacks4 ,for him1 until #agjj the period was one of controversy4 ,at that time he retired from all activity1 and after four years of failing health died in #agjd4 ,his period of production was confined to the eleven years between #afhi and #agjj4 ,the ,sources of ,locke's ,thought4 #a4 ,his ,puritan ,ancestry4 ,the ancestry of ,locke is little known1 and not much that appears in his personality can be explained by it4 ,both his father and mother were ,puritans1 and he seems to have inherited the severe piety1 prudent1 self-reliant industry1 and love of liberty1 that were common in ,english ,puritan families of the middle class in the seventeenth century4 ,during the first fourteen years he was schooled by his parents4 #b4 ,his ,training in ,tolerance4 ,if ,locke inherited in the least degree any temper of intolerance from his ,puritan ancestry it entirely disappeared with his experiences before and during his life at the ,university of ,oxford4 ,in #afdf1 at the ,westminster ,school1 his mind revolted at the cruel intolerance on both sides in the events just succeeding the ,civil ,war4 ,he also rebelled at the stern scholastic training which he received4 ,these negative influences were supplemented by positive incentives to freedom and toleration during his university life4 ,john ,owen was the liberal ,vice-,chancellor of ,oxford at that time1 and the university granted freedom of thought to all ,protestants4 ,locke felt ,owen's influence throughout his whole life4 ,the fact that ,locke's intimate friend at ,oxford was ,professor ,pococke1 the most outspoken ,royalist in the university1 shows that whatever ,puritanism there was in ,locke's nature had been ameliorated4 ,tolerance and liberty of opinion became now the key-note in the life of ,john ,locke4 8,a gentle disposition1 great love for his friends1 an honest seeking after truth1 and a firm faith in the importance of personal and political freedom are the traits most remarkable in ,locke as we know him from his books and letters40 ,his toleration was not of the same sort as that of his contemporary ,leibnitz4 ,leibnitz sought to reconcile discordant elements by combining them into a new dogmatic theory2 ,locke neglected disagreements1 sought no perfect harmony1 but pointed out a via media that any individual might take4 ,leibnitz set forth a metaphysical system2 ,locke gave a practical method4 ,he had great directness1 and was a man of honesty of thought4 ,not being a partisan he had no side to defend2 and he was not a partisan because philosophy was not his trade4 ,philosophy was to ,locke the accomplishment of a gentleman who was interested in the puzzles of life4 ,his diction is for ordinary people2 it is simple and expressed in short ,anglo-,saxon words4 ,he shows no logic of thought2 and while any sentence is admirable1 the paragraph and the page are dull4 ,his ,essay is a chaos of plain truths1 only here and there illuminated by imagination4 ,he shows no poetic power1 and the world in which he lived never fired his imagination4 ,he studied the human mind as he would read the thermometer4 ,to our fathers his ,essay was a philosophical ,bible4 ,to us the ,essay stands1 not like a completely planned building1 but like an enlarged cottage1 very habitable1 but making no single impression4 #c4 ,the ,scientific ,influence4 ,as a fellow-countryman of ,ockam and the two ,bacons1 ,locke shows the same anti-mystical and positivist tendencies4 ,he was a thorough ,englishman in taste and temperament4 ,when the 8new philosophy0 was finding its way into the ,oxford circle1 he was one of the first to welcome it4 ,it came to the ,university through books2 the lecturers were still true to ,aristotle4 ,descartes1 ,hobbes1 and ,bacon were widely read1 as was also ,gassendi's exposition of ,epicurus4 ,locke himself writes concerning the influence of ,descartes upon him4 ,he gave up all thought of becoming a clergyman2 and his personal friendship for ,bayle1 a famous chemist1 and for ,sydenham1 a no less famous physician1 interested him in the empirical method as they applied it to chemistry and therapeutics4 ,he owed his philosophical awakening to ,descartes and the ,port ,royal logic4 ,the lucidity of ,descartes came to him as an inspiration of intellectual liberty2 although he afterwards used the principles that ,descartes had taught him to controvert his teacher's doctrine4 ,during the first period of ,locke's life 7#afcb-afff7 he was nothing more than a student of medicine and a meteorological observer4 ,he was the retired scholar who led so placid a life that it portended nothing noteworthy4 ,he was a creditable scholar and teacher1 but his life was negative in character4 ,he had passed through stirring times1 and they did not stir him4 #d4 ,the ,political ,influence4 ,locke's interest in politics began when he was thirty-four years oldwhen he met ,lord ,ashley at ,oxford4 ,for fifteen years he shared the home and fortune of this most remarkable man of affairs in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 ,this ,lord ,ashley 7,earl of ,shaftesbury7 fled to ,holland in #afhb1 and died there the next year4 ,after the death of his patron ,locke left ,england for exile in ,holland until #afhi1 when he returned to ,england with ,william and ,mary4 ,in ,holland he found a brilliant company1 exiled from all countries2 and he formed an intimate friendship with ,limborch1 the leader of liberal theology in ,holland4 ,some of the time he lived with a ,quaker4 ,locke's friendship with ,shaftesbury and his residence in ,holland confirmed him in his belief in political liberty4 ,so when ,william entered ,england and needed literary justification for the ,revolution1 he got it in ,locke's two ,treatises on ,government4 ,locke thus became the philosophical defender and intellectual representative of the ,revolution that now after fifty years had reached its culmination4 ,summary4 ,on the whole1 the inherited ,puritanism of ,locke was easily modified not only by his own moderate disposition1 but also by his scientific interests and by his large political experiences4 ,he naturally grew to be the apostle of the via media between traditionalism and empiricism4 ,he published practically nothing before he was sixty years old4 ,after his return from exile his principal works appeared in swift succession4 ,two accidents formed turning-points in his life4 ,his accidental meeting with ,shaftesbury in #afff turned him to politics2 and secondly1 at an informal meeting of friends in the winter of #afgj-afga the question about the nature of sensations was accidentally raised1 out of which grew his great ,essay4 ,his life was primarily one of affairs and of large acquaintance with men and things4 ,to him life was the first thing1 his interest in politics came second1 and his philosophy third4 ,that his ideas should have been the basis of extreme philosophical and political beliefs on the ,continent is natural enough when one remembers the perils of misinterpretation to the man who preaches the doctrine of the via media4 ,the ,purpose of ,locke4 ,in the historical perspective of two centuries we to-day see ,locke in his ,essay on the ,human ,understanding delivering the inaugural address of the eighteenth century4 ,he is making the first formal declaration of the intellectual rights of the individual in a lengthy1 dry1 and erudite psychological dissertation4 ,of course he never knew the historical importance of his own work4 ,it grew out of the need of the hour4 ,he would have been astonished to find himself the spokesman of the century of ,french ,encyclopdists1 materialists1 and revolutionists1 of ,english deists1 of ,german ,illuminati1 of ,hume1 and of ,voltaire4 ,he had in mind to answer the restrictions of the high churchman on the one hand1 and the arrogant claims of the atheists on the other1 as to the power of the human intellect4 ,he states that his design is to 8inquire into the original certainty and extent of human knowledge40 ,in this declaration ,locke foreshadows ,kant1 but he falls short of the insight of ,kant4 ,for ,locke speaks for the spirit of the eighteenth and not the nineteenth century1 and 7#a7 he must keep within the range of concrete facts2 7#b7 he must state only what can be stated clearly2 and 7#c7 he must be practical4 ,it was1 however1 in its larger meaning a declaration of human freedom4 ,locke shows what limitations the human intellect has1 what it can and what it cannot know4 ,when the ,enlightenment got momentum1 it forgot the limitations to knowledge that the sober ,locke had set down1 and read in his words only a declaration of license4 ,the ,essay differs from any previous modern philosophical writing4 ,man and not the universe is the subject4 ,for the first time we find an examination of the laws of mind1 and not of the laws of the universe4 ,but it is the via media for which ,locke stands1 and not the lawless excesses of the eighteenth century4 ,the human reason is not all-knowingcannot solve all problems1 is not endowed with divine ideas2 on the other hand1 the human reason is not merely a string of sensations4 ,the human reason is just this3 it is human4 ,it stands midway between divine intuition and animal sensation4 ,man is free1 but free under his own limitations4 8,if by this inquiry it may be of use to prevail with the busy mind of man to be more cautious in meddling with things beyond its comprehensionwe should then not be so forward1 out of affection for universal knowledge1 to perplex ourselves and others with disputes about things1 to which our understandings are not suited and of which we have not any notions at all40 ,human freedom stands between the absolute freedom of ,god and the absolute necessity of the animal4 ,human freedom lies within the limits and bounds of human ideasthe via media2 and analysis of those ideas will show what those limits and bounds are4 ,there can be no knowledge without ideas4 ,some ideas may be erroneous and out of all relation to reality4 ,on the other hand1 there may be ideas to which no experiences fit4 ,intellectual freedom consists in having not isolated ideas1 but ideas in their relations1 that is1 in the form of judgments4 ,locke was moved in making his analysis of ideas by a general moral purpose to correct the faults and fallacies in mankind and in himself4 8,man's faculties were given him to procure the happiness which this world is capable of10 says ,locke1 and it might have been ,bacon who had said it4 ,the search for the via media is justified by its practical and utilitarian ends4 ,the via media is the way of freedom4 ,two ,sides of ,locke's ,philosophy4 ,the search for the via media is an attempt to find 8the limits and extent of human knowledge40 ,this involved ,locke in a discrimination as to what should be accepted and what rejected of the past4 ,it gives his philosophy a positive and a negative aspect4 ,in brief1 on its negative side he makes a show of rejecting the entire past by rejecting all innate ideas1 but really he inconsistently accepted from the past its conception of substance and of individuality4 ,on its positive side he builds up from experience a theory of knowledge which he divides into intuitive1 demonstrative1 and probable4 ,that is to say1 while ,locke affirms that all our knowledge must be derived from experience1 it never occurs to him to doubt the traditional ,cartesian theory of the existence of ,god1 man1 and matter4 7a7 ,the ,negative ,side,locke and ,scholasticism4 ,locke issued an avowed defiance to scholasticism in the introduction of his ,essay4 ,of the four books into which the ,essay is divided1 the first was composed last and added as an introductory declaration of independence4 ,if it had been the only part ever written1 the anarchism of the eighteenth century would have been right in finding its justification in the ,essay4 ,to a modern mind this first book looks harmless enough1 but in ,locke's time it had a deep sociological and political meaning4 ,it expresses his practical moral defiance of traditional medivalism4 8,there exist no innate ideas10 says ,locke4 ,innate ideas mean to him the tyranny of traditionunexamined and unsubstantiated beliefs1 conceptions unverified by fact4 ,they stand for church dogma imposed upon the unthinking masses1 the absolutism of monarchy and the divine right of kings1 the inherited superstitions about nature4 ,spinoza had deduced his entire philosophy from the innate idea of substance2 ,descartes had found at least three innate ideas2 ,leibnitz believed all ideas innate4 ,locke pleads for the personal right to examine all ideas4 ,locke's critics have claimed that no philosopher ever maintained the existence of innate ideas in the sense in which ,locke attacked them4 ,locke was aiming at something more vulnerable than innate ideas themselveshe was attacking the medival habit of the individual who takes a thing as true because the thing has the weight of traditional authority4 7b7 ,the ,positive ,side,the ,new ,psychology and ,epistemology4 ,if inherited ideas have no weight for ,locke1 he was bound to show the kind of ideas upon which we can rely4 ,the mind enters upon life with no stock of ideas in trade2 how do they arise8 ,the logical outcome of ,locke's disclaimer of scholastic psychology obliged him to construct a new psychology and theory of knowledge4 ,he must offer a psychology as a constructive programme for the individualism of the ,enlightenment4 ,in his second book ,locke states the positive side of his doctrine by saying that the mind is like a white paper without any original markings2 that it gets its markings from the impressions made upon it4 ,thus to deny innate ideas and to affirm that all ideas are empirically aroused1 are the negative and positive sides of the same doctrine of individualism4 ,they are two ways of saying that the mind of the individual is free to judge for itself of the truth or falseness of its experiences4 ,in his denial of the existence of innate ideas1 in his use of the formula that 8nothing is in the intellect that has not been first in the sense10 or in his employment of the figure of the 8white piece of paper10 ,locke does not intend to state anything further than that the mind is free4 ,he merely means that the individual starts without trammels and prejudices4 ,he does not mean that the mind is completely passive and at the mercy of its environment1 as his ,french followers interpreted him4 ,locke is a sensationalist1 but he does not belong to that class who believe that our mental states are merely translated sensations1 and that the mind itself is merely passive4 ,he believes that the mind does not create its ideas1 but that they are presented to it4 ,the mind has original powers upon which it can reflect4 ,the mind can operate with its ideas and make them into compounds4 ,thus one must read ,locke's ,essay to the end to get his double point of view4 ,in the second and third books he frequently discusses the contents of the mind as if the mind were passive1 in the manner of modern psychologists4 ,in the fourth book he develops an epistemology on the assumption that the mind is active and free4 ,locke's ,psychology4 ,the second and third books of the ,essay are a discussion of the empirical sources of our ideas4 ,one notes the ,cartesian dualism of mind and matter in the background4 ,all ideas have their source either externally in the impressions upon the bodily senses1 or internally in the operations of the mind itself4 ,the sources of ideas are either sensations or reflections1 or1 as ,locke calls them1 8outer and inner perceptions40 ,locke also calls them 8simple ideas10 being the units out of which the complex ideas are constructed4 ,we understand easily enough what ,locke means by sensations1 but 8reflections0 is a word peculiar to him1 which has not been taken up by philosophy4 ,he means by 8reflections0 a consciousness of the machinery of the mind4 ,we are1 that is to say1 conscious of our willing1 loving1 remembering1 etc4 ,as to the order of their appearance in the mind1 the sensations are prior to the reflections and are the occasion for the appearance of the reflections4 ,the reflections are not the process of transmitting the sensations1 but they are the later and mechanical transmutation of the sensations4 ,it is important to note that throughout ,locke's psychological analysis1 he regards the mind as passive1 even with respect to the ideas of reflection4 ,the reflections1 as faculties of the mind1 are dependent on the sensations1 and both sensations and reflections make impressions upon a passive mind4 ,these 8simple0 ideas come into the crucible of the mind and form 8complex0 ideas of various sorts4 ,there are three general classes of these complex ideas3 substances1 modes1 and relations4 ,the construction of 8complex ideas0 out of 8simple ideas0 and the objects to which the complex ideas refer receive a great variety of illustration at ,locke's hands1 but the details of his lengthy discussion need not detain us4 ,he is very painstaking2 he shows hard common sense2 but he is deficient in logical classification and he often betrays much indecision4 ,his ,essay is of encyclopdic character in its derivation of all common notions from 8simple ideas40 ,the laws of association form the chemistry by which he welds the 8simple ideas0 together4 ,thus far ,locke is empirical and consistent4 ,however1 the dualistic background of the thought of his age makes him deviate from his avowed empiricism4 ,besides the clear and simple ideas of sensation and reflection ,locke introduces the idea of the ,self4 ,what is the idea of ,self8 ,it is not a sensation nor a reflection4 ,it is not a complex idea1 derived from sensations and reflections4 8,it is an internal1 infallible perception that we are40 ,it is an accompaniment of the processes of thought4 ,it stands beside the ideas1 which are empirically derived1 as an unexplained remainder4 ,the result of ,locke's psychological analysis is therefore that the inner world of the mind consists of the combination of the simple ideas of sensation and reflection plus the unexplained idea of the ,self4 ,locke's ,theory of ,knowledge4 ,although ,locke says that the purpose of his ,essay is to show the limits and extent of human knowledge1 he does not reach this until the last book4 ,the first three books form a long introduction to the fourth book and his real theme4 ,here for the first time he treats the mind as active2 and here for the first time in the history of thought the attempt is made to show what questions man can answer with certainty1 what with probability1 and what are beyond man's knowledge4 ,all the difficulties in the assumptions of the ,enlightenment come out in ,locke's treatment of his main theme4 ,locke defines knowledge as the 8perception of the agreement or disagreement of our ideas10 and yet he says that knowledge is real only as ideas agree with things4 ,that is to say1 ,locke had assumed 7in ,book ,,ii of the ,essay7 the existence of the material substance of things of the outer world1 just as he assumed the existence of the spiritual ,self-substance of the inner world4 ,what is the nature of the outer material substance8 ,locke hesitates1 and the best he can answer is1 8,it is the unknown support and cause of the union of several distinct1 simple ideas40 ,substance1 to ,locke1 is a word for something unknown4 ,but does the mind know nothing about substance8 ,what information do our ideas convey to us of substance8 ,we have this knowledge3 we know the primary or constant1 unchangeable qualities of substances1 and the secondary or variable qualities of substances4 ,the primary qualities of bodies are the same as their effects in us1 such as the extension of bodies1 their solidity1 movement and rest1 duration and position in time4 ,the secondary 8are nothing in the objects themselves but powers to produce various sensations in us by their primary qualities40 ,secondary qualities are sounds1 colors1 etc4 ,in this confused statement it would seem that substance stands as merely the nominal support of the primary qualities1 and the primary qualities are the cause of the secondary qualities4 ,thus the individual stands forth free in the development of his ideas1 but he is an individual circumscribed by his dualistic world4 ,he belongs to the world of an unexplained spiritual substance on the one hand1 and he is surrounded by a world of an unknown material substance on the other4 ,there are three kinds of knowledge3 intuitive1 demonstrative1 and probable4 ,locke says that the individual is intuitively certain of his own ideas4 ,the individual has also demonstrative knowledgehe can reason logically and mathematically4 ,but ,locke's real problem does not lie with intuitive and demonstrative knowledge4 ,the question that concerned him was rather1 ,what is the character of our knowledge of the external world8 ,the individual in the ,enlightenment lived in a spiritual independence of matter1 yet he had a feeling of uncertainty about his hold upon a world of matter so different from himself4 ,it was a world foreign to his spiritual essence4 ,with the deepening of the mind within itself and with its growing independence1 the equally independent material world grew more difficult and distant4 ,locke feels this difficulty4 ,how can man know this external world8 ,how can the individual1 with all his freedom1 bring the external world under his control8 ,besides the certainty of intuitive and demonstrative knowledge1 there is a third kind according to ,locke4 ,this is the probable knowledge of the nature world4 ,we are certain of our sensations1 but we are not certain of what our sensations report4 ,the highest degree which our knowledge of the external world can attain is probability1 or an inference from many sources4 ,such knowledge is mere opinion1 which supplements certain knowledge and operates in the large field of our daily existence4 ,the spiritual individual stands in a kind of twilight region with the dull wall of the material world of probable existence looming up before him1 the outlines of which he can barely discern4 ,on either side of this twilight existence lies the broad daylight of intuitive and demonstrative knowledge1 and around it all the absolute darkness of ignorance4 ,our knowledge is much less than our ignorance because our knowledge is limited to our ideas and their combinations4 ,locke's ,practical ,philosophy4 ,locke pursued the via media in his discussion of the practical problems that were at that time of burning importance in ,english society4 ,he always kept in mind the spiritual man who is circumscribed by his own limitations4 ,morally1 religiously1 and politically the individual has to conform to the conditions in which he lives4 ,but morality1 religion1 and government cannot get their authority from ideas inborn in the mind4 ,all are the outgrowths of experience4 ,the moral law1 for example1 is a law of nature1 although at the same time it is a law of ,god4 ,it arises from experience1 and at the same time it has its root in ,god4 ,to obey it is to be happy1 to disobey it is to be unhappy4 ,the revelation of religion1 too1 may transcend experience1 but it must not contradict experience4 ,in both religion and morality the individual must be the final judge1 for he is the arbiter of his own happiness4 ,individual happiness is of more value than all else4 ,religious toleration is therefore one of the first principles of government1 and between the church and the state there should be no conflict4 ,locke's political philosophy is along the same via media4 ,in his ,treatises on ,government he seeks to make good the title of ,king ,william to the ,british throne4 ,he justifies the right of the individual to revolt under certain conditions4 ,political government is not a sacred innate idea1 but has arisen out of experience as conducive to the happiness of man4 ,the individuals and the government make a contract to serve each other4 ,when either violates the contract1 the ,state is at an end4 ,to the advocates of the divine rights of kings1 like ,filmer1 political law antedated 8nature02 to ,hobbes1 law came after 8nature02 to ,locke1 law is 8nature40 ,to ,filmer 8nature0 was a golden age2 to ,hobbes it was a shocking state to be got rid of2 to ,locke 8nature0 is harmony4 ,thus according to ,locke the individual has through his experiences constructed his morality1 his religion1 and his government because they are conducive to his happiness1 and at the same time they have their ground in the 8nature0 of things4 ,the individual stands free among them1 the central figure in the world4 ,the ,influence of ,locke4 ,the philosophy of ,locke became the fountain-head of the many divergent schools of thought of the ,enlightenment4 ,his ,essay did not contain anything fundamentally new1 and its presentation has little originality2 but it voiced the thought of the eighteenth century so easily1 and with such skillful avoidance of pitfalls1 that it made ,locke the most widely read and the most influential philosopher of his time4 ,four separate movements had their source in him3 7#a7 ,from his theory of knowledge1 in which the emphasis is laid upon the mind as active1 came the empirical idealism of ,berkeley and ,hume2 7#b7 from his psychological analysis in the second and third books of the ,essay1 in which the mind is regarded as passive1 came the sensationalism of the ,french2 7#c7 from his theory of religion came ,deism2 7#d7 from his associationalistic ethics came the utilitarian ethical theories of the ,english moralists4 ,the most constructive followers of ,locke were ,berkeley and ,hume4 ,the others may be called the lesser ,lockian schools2 for although they may have exercised a much greater influence upon their own time1 they were nevertheless only partial interpreters of ,locke4 ,we shall deal briefly with ,deism and ,ethics in ,england1 next consider at length the philosophies of ,berkeley and ,hume1 and then present in a summary but articulate way the development of the ,enlightenment in ,france and ,germany4 ,the ,english ,deists4 ,we have seen how ,rationalism1 especially in the case of ,descartes1 tried at the beginning to reconstruct theology without breaking with established dogma4 ,gradually1 however1 rationalism and revealed religion showed signs of divorce4 ,some of the rationalists came to take the stand that if reason can understand the nature of ,god1 revelation is either incredible or superfluous4 ,the revealed religions differ4 ,the god of the medival people is not the same as the god of the heathen nor as the ,jehovah of the ,jews4 ,there are many religions and many sects in each religion4 ,there must be to them all a common basis1 which is the true religion4 ,this was the creed of ,deism or ,natural ,religion4 ,positive religions are only the corruptions of natural religion1 or the religion of reason4 ,deism sought to separate religion from special revelations1 which were looked upon as the irrational elements of religion4 ,bacon and ,descartes had freed natural science from church dogma2 ,hobbes had freed psychology from the same dogma2 ,grotius had freed the conception of law from dogma4 ,the ,deists would free religion from dogma4 ,deism was founded on three principles2 7#a7 the origin and truth of religion may be scientifically investigated2 7#b7 the origin of religion is the conscience2 7#c7 positive religions are degenerate forms of natural religion4 ,the tendency of the ,enlightenment was deistical1 and the movement was powerful in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,deism was quite consistent with the central principle of this periodthe self-sufficiency of the individual4 ,in ,england the first deist was ,herbert of ,cherbury 7#aeha-afdh71 with his 8five fundamental propositions of religion40 ,the body of ,english deists1 however1 got their cue from ,locke's identification of the moral law with the law of nature2 but ,locke himself was not a deist4 ,the literature of deism coincides for the most part with the ,english moral philosophy of the period1 but usually the group of ,english deists is supposed to include only ,toland1 ,chubb1 ,tindal1 ,collins1 ,morgan1 and ,bolingbroke4 ,these men lived in the first half of the ,enlightenment4 ,they were much despised by the scholars of the time as being mere dabblers in letters4 8,they were but a ragged regiment whose whole ammunition of learning was a trifle when compared with the abundant stores of a single light of orthodoxy2 whilst in speculative ability they were children by the side of their antagonists40#ci ,the ,english deists passed from view at the end of the first half of the eighteenth century1 crushed by the weight of the attack upon them4 ,the more powerful orthodoxy1 with its greater talent1 was itself rationalistic1 and could beat them on their own ground4 ,the churchmen showed that the objections against the ,god of revelation would be equally effective against the deistic ,god of nature4 ,the classic argument along this line against the deists is ,bishop ,butler's ,analogy of ,religion4 ,the battle was unequal1 and the character of the books published during the controversy reveals the inequality of the contest4 ,the deistic publications were small and shabby octavos1 and were published anonymously4 ,the orthodox publications were solid octavos and quartos in handsome bindings1 with the credentials of powerful signatures4 ,even if the orthodoxy had not employed the arm of the law against the deists1 the deists would have been broken by the intellectual force against them4 ,the ,english ,moralists4 ,just as the motive of the deists was to free religion from the authority of theology1 so the motive of the celebrated group of ,english moralists of the ,enlightenment was to find a basis for morality outside of church dogma4 ,many of the ,english moralists were also deists in belief4 ,their number is legion1 as the list given below will show4 ,the greatest among them was ,shaftesbury4 ,the school began with ,hobbes and received momentum from the associational psychology of ,locke4 ,all the members of this group sought to find an ultimate basis for moralitysome seeking it with ,locke in experience1 others in innate ideas4 ,yet the starting-point with each of these moralists seems to be ,hobbes and his selfish ethics1 for nearly all ethical scholars have his ethics in mind1 either to attack or to defend4 ,for many years ,hobbes was regarded by ethical scholars either as an evil spirit or as an inspired genius4 ,in any case1 his influence was felt in ethical discussion for a long time4 ,chronological ,table of the ,english ,moralists4 #aejj #afjj #agjj #ahjj ,hobbes #hh 44 #gi 44 44 44 44 44 44 ,cudworth 44 #ag #hh 44 44 44 44 44 44 ,locke 44 #cb 44 #jd 44 44 44 44 44 ,cumberland 44 44 #cb 44 #ah 44 44 44 44 ,wollaston 44 44 #ei #bd 44 44 44 44 44 ,mandeville 44 44 #gj 44 #cc 44 44 44 44 ,shaftesbury 44 44 #ga #ac 44 44 44 44 44 ,clarke 44 44 #ge 44 #bi 44 44 44 44 ,berkeley 44 44 #he 44 44 #ec 44 44 44 ,pope 44 44 #hh 44 #dd 44 44 44 44 ,butler 44 44 #ib 44 44 #eb 44 44 44 ,hutcheson 44 44 #id 44 #dg 44 44 44 44 ,edwards 44 44 44 #jc 44 #eh 44 44 44 ,hartley 44 44 44 #je 44 #eg 44 44 44 ,tucker 44 44 44 #je 44 44 #gd 44 44 ,reid 44 44 44 #aj 44 44 #if 44 44 ,hume 44 44 44 #aa 44 44 #gf 44 44 ,smith 44 44 44 #bc 44 44 #ij 44 44 ,price 44 44 44 #bc 44 44 #ia 44 44 ,paley 44 44 44 44 #dc 44 44 #je 44 ,bentham 44 44 44 44 #dg 44 44 #cb 44 ,stewart 44 44 44 44 44 #ec 44 #bh 44 ,whewell 44 44 44 44 44 44 #ie 44 #ff ,mill 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 #jf #gc ,,chapter ,,viii ,,berkeley ,,and ,,hume ,the ,life and ,writings of ,george ,berkeley 7#afhe-agec74 ,in ,bishop ,berkeley we have the finest type of ,irish mind4 ,in his brilliant mental powers and idealistic theory he reminds us of that wonderful ,irish scholar of the ,middle ,ages1 ,john ,scotus ,erigena4 ,berkeley was acutely critical1 and yet he possessed a childlike religious faith4 ,he combined an insatiable longing for knowledge with an ardent missionary zeal4 8,berkeley was a born child of ,plato1 a lineal descendant of a race whose origin is afar off and is divine40#dj ,he was one of those exceptional minds that begin to bring forth their intellectual offspring when they are young4 ,berkeley began to publish at the age of twenty-four1 ,hume at twenty-eight1 ,descartes at forty-one1 ,locke at fifty-eight4 ,we shall divide the life of ,berkeley into three periods4 #a4 ,his ,early ,training 7#afhe-agjg74 ,nothing is known of ,berkeley's early years1 except that he was born in ,kilkenny1 ,ireland4 ,he was educated at the ,eton of ,ireland1 the ,kilkenny school1 where ,swift had been a pupil2 and it is known that one of ,berkeley's schoolmates was ,thomas ,prior4 ,berkeley entered ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 at fifteen1 and graduated at nineteen4 ,scholasticism was still influential at ,trinity1 but new sciences1 such as botany1 chemistry1 and anatomy1 had been added to the curriculum4 ,there1 too1 the young ,berkeley found that ,locke's ,essay was much discussed1 and that ,newton1 ,boyle1 ,malebranche1 ,descartes1 and ,leibnitz were widely read4 ,from this early date ,berkeley began to keep a book of his own philosophical reflections1 calling it his ,commonplace ,book4 ,from it and from his philosophy it would appear that ,locke and ,malebranche were the most powerful philosophical influences upon him4 #b4 ,as ,author 7#agjg-agba74 ,berkeley remained at ,dublin as tutor and fellow five years after his graduation4 ,in #agji he was ordained deacon in the ,english church4 ,he published two mathematical tracts in #agjg1 his ,theory of ,vision in #agji1 his ,principles of ,human ,knowledge in #agaj4 ,the ,theory of ,vision and the ,principles of ,human ,knowledge were practically a statement of his philosophy4 ,they have been compared thus3 the ,theory of ,vision teaches that 8all that we see is our sensation02 the ,principles of ,human ,knowledge teaches that 8all that exists is our knowledge40 ,berkeley then went to ,london1 where he was admitted to the court of ,queen ,anne and also to the circle that included ,steele1 ,swift1 ,addison1 and ,pope4 ,berkeley showed himself humble1 wise1 considerate1 and unselfish1 and although he was shocked at the court life1 he on his side charmed every one whom he met4 ,he wanted to make his idealism better understood1 and so he published it in the form of a dialogue between a realist and an idealist4 ,this publication was called ,three ,dialogues between ,hylas and ,philonous 7#agac74 ,he then made two journeys to the ,continent#agac-agad and #agaf-agbj;and spent much of the time in ,italy1 where he absorbed its literature4 ,the ,south ,sea swindle turned him to economics1 and in #agba he published an ,essay toward ,preventing the ,ruin of ,great ,britain4 #c4 ,as ,priest and ,missionary 7#agba-agec74 ,berkeley was appointed ,dean of ,derry in #agba at a salary of #aajj4 ,although he threw himself into his work with his accustomed zeal1 there had already appeared in his mind the conception of an ideal society1 where church and state would be united4 ,he was disgusted with the worn-out ,european society1 and wanted to remove the youth to a colony where there would be no temptations4 ,he raised a large sum of money for this purpose1 and obtained the promise of a grant from the government of #bj1jjj1 gave up his deanery1 and sailed for ,america4 ,he intended to settle in ,bermuda and there to found an ideal ,state1 which should also be a centre for the conversion of the ,american ,indians to ,christianity4 ,the promised grant from the ,english government did not come1 and ,berkeley got no farther than ,newport1 ,r4 ,i41 where he lived three years4 ,while at ,newport he wrote ,alciphron1 the ,minute ,philosopher1 and published it in ,england in #agcb4 ,the records of ,trinity ,church in ,newport show that he preached there many ,sundays4 ,he gave several books to ,harvard and ,yale ,colleges4 ,at ,newport he was visited by ,samuel ,johnson1 an ,episcopal missionary1 who afterwards became president of ,king's ,college in ,new ,york4 ,johnson was converted to ,berkeley's idealism1 and through ,johnson the doctrine was received by ,jonathan ,edwards1 his pupil4 ,from #agcd to #ageb ,berkeley was ,bishop of ,cloyne4 ,he was devoted to missionary work among the poor1 and many of his people being afflicted with an epidemic of influenza1 he treated them effectively with tar-watera remedy he had learned from the ,indians4 ,he published ,siris1 an essay on the philosophical virtues of tar-water1 in #agdd4 ,in #ageb he went to ,oxford to live1 and in #agec he died4 ,the ,influences upon the ,thought of ,berkeley4 ,berkeley's philosophy shows little development after his first publications4 ,with the exception of ,siris1 which contains much ,platonic idealism1 the later works of ,berkeley are scarcely more than an elaboration of his early thought in the ,theory of ,vision and the ,principles of ,human ,nature4 ,we should infer1 therefore1 that the only philosophical influences upon ,berkeley were the original springs at which he drank as a youth4 ,moreover1 he always speaks with the dogmatic certainty of one who has drawn his material from but few sources4 ,never does he exhibit the indecision of a man who is embarrassed by many points of view4 ,the two chief influences upon him were ,locke and ,malebranche4 ,the influence of ,locke was partly of the nature of a reaction3 ,berkeley accepted ,locke's psychological analysis1 but reacted from ,locke's 8common sense0 dualism as early as the time of his student life at ,trinity4 ,malebranche1 with his theory of 8occasional causes10 reinforced his opinion along the line that his reaction took4 ,but ,berkeley's own incisive genius had a relatively greater influence in dictating the course of his philosophy than is usually the case4 ,his mind was precocious1 fertile1 and continuously versatile4 ,furthermore1 ,berkeley's simple religious nature seems to have been an important factor in determining his intellectual belief4 ,his peculiar idealism could take root only in a mind inspired by faith4 ,the ,purpose of ,berkeley4 ,the life and teaching of ,berkeley were dedicated to the true interests of religion4 ,he may be called the religious ,enlightener4 ,he would not1 like the deists1 strip religion bare of dogma1 but he would unlimber dogma and rational philosophy so that they would be of service to religion4 ,his purpose was to free scholasticism on the one hand1 and rationalism on the other1 from abstractions and obscure terms1 and thereby bring about a union of faith and knowledge4 ,berkeley looked upon himself as a crusader who would retake the ,holy ,land for the spiritual individual4 ,we have remarked that one of the presuppositions of this period of the ,enlightenment is the independence of the individual4 ,the individual around which ,berkeley's philosophy centres is the spiritual individual1 and is therefore unique even for this period4 ,such an individual is superior to his environment because he belongs not to a material world1 but to a community of religious beings who can talk and walk with ,god4 ,the ,english ,enlightenment passed from ,locke to ,berkeley4 ,the inner life came into complete ascendency and the spiritual individual emerged4 ,from the ,lockian philosophy1 with its many contradictory motives1 there appeared the audacious one-sided philosophy of ,berkeley1 with its proclamation of the reign of spirituality4 ,it stood in marked contrast with the development of the ,enlightenment in ,francea development of materialism and material atoms4 ,the spectral although stubborn boundaries of the unknowable material world1 which ,locke supposed to shut around the powers of the human intellect1 crumbled before the hand of ,berkeley4 ,the casual reader of the history of thought is1 however1 often disconcerted at the appearance of such a philosophy as ,berkeley's in this period of empiricism1 and especially as the immediate follower of ,locke4 ,the ,english school is called the empirical school1 and yet ,berkeley is also called an idealist4 ,but we must remember that empiricism and idealism are not antithetical4 ,empiricism refers to the source of our knowledge2 it means that all our knowledge is primarily derived from sense-perceptions4 ,these sense-perceptions may be of two kinds3 they may be 7#a7 psychological facts1 or 7#b7 material facts4 ,berkeley was1 like ,locke and ,hume1 an empiricist of the first class2 and yet because he denied the independent existence of material facts1 he was also an idealist4 ,he was an empirical idealist1 just as the ,french philosophers of the ,enlightenment were empirical materialists4 ,the critic may find that ,berkeley is not a consistent empiricist1 to be sure1 but neither was ,locke4 ,berkeley started out by affirming the testimony of experience against scholastic speculation and abstraction2 yet all along he assumed the scholastic conception of mind4 ,nevertheless1 this assumption of the individual makes ,berkeley a true child of the ,enlightenment4#da ,berkeley's ,general ,relation to ,locke and ,hume4 ,the growth of this ,english school from ,locke to ,hume is not difficult to understand or to remember4 ,it is not so much a page in the history of metaphysics 7the nature of reality7 as in epistemology 7the theory of knowledge74 ,locke asks1 ,what can we know8 ,and he replies to his own question1 that we can know our 8ideas40 ,at the same time he assumes the existence of a spiritual substance on the one side1 and a material substance on the other4 ,neither of these is an idea1 in the sense that it is an object of knowledge4 ,the advance of ,berkeley from ,locke and of ,hume from ,berkeley was one of cancellation4 ,berkeley cancelled the material substance1 because the material substance is not an idea4 ,hume then consistently enough asked1 ,why not for the same reason cancel the spiritual substance8 ,the spiritual substance is not an idea or object of knowledge4 ,we have no more right to assume it than the material substance4 ,the only things we know to exist are our ideas4 ,the development of the ,english school may be briefly put as follows3 ,locke1 ,spiritual substanceideasmaterial substance4 ,berkeley1 ,spiritual substanceideas4 ,hume1 ideas4 ,hume is ,locke made logically consistent4 ,berkeley went only halfway4 ,hume among these three was the only self-consistent empiricist4 ,on the assumption that all knowledge is derived from sense-perception the history of the ,english empirical school was a history of the restriction of knowledge4 ,berkeley's ,points of ,agreement with ,locke4 ,berkeley starts from ,locke's psychological analysis as the basis of his own theory4 ,the purely scientific aspect of the contents of mind as classified by ,locke does not call for particular criticism from him4 ,logical classification does not seem to concern him very much1 and while he accepts ,locke's analysis1 he often calls ,locke's classes by other names4 ,he commits himself to ,locke's psychological empiricism in the first sentence in his ,principles3 8,it is evident to any one who takes a survey of the objects of knowledge1 that they are either ideas actually imprinted on the senses2 or else such as are perceived by attending to the passions and operations of the mind2 or1 lastly1 ideas formed by the help of memory and imaginationeither compounding1 dividing1 or barely representing those originally perceived in the aforesaid ways40 ,our knowledge1 therefore1 deals only with ideas4 ,there are the simple ideas of sensation and reflection1 and ideas compounded from these4 ,besides accepting the psychological analysis of ,locke1 ,berkeley also adopts without question the assumption common to ,locke and all the philosophers of the ,enlightenment1the assumption of the independence of the individual soul4 8,but besides all the endless variety of ideas or objects of knowledge1 there is likewise something that knows or perceives themwhat ,i call mind1 spirit1 soul1 or self4 ,by which ,i do not denote any one of my ideas1 but a thing entirely distinct from them1 wherein they exist1 or1 which is the same thing1 whereby they are perceived40 ,berkeley1 therefore1 7#a7 agrees with ,locke that all knowledge is derived from sense-perception1 i4 e4 he agrees with ,locke's empirical psychology1 and 7#b7 he also agrees with one of ,locke's assumptions1 viz41 that the spiritual substances exist4 ,the ,negative ,side of ,berkeley's ,philosophy4 ,we have now pointed out ,berkeley's general relation to ,locke and ,hume1 and more in particular his agreements with ,locke4 ,we are now prepared to examine the teaching of ,berkeley by itself4 ,berkeley was obliged to devote a good deal of time to the negative side of his philosophy4 ,just as ,locke could not construct an empirical psychology until he had disclaimed all allegiance to innate ideas1 so ,berkeley could not construct an idealism until he had brought to bear in a polemical fashion all his forces against abstract ideas4 ,of his two masterpieces he devotes the entire essay on the ,theory of ,vision and a good part of his ,principles of ,human ,nature to this end4 #a4 ,in proof of this he advances his analysis of abstract ideas4 ,he not only denies that abstract ideas have a corresponding external reality1 but he even denies that abstract ideas exist in the mind itself4 ,the deception in abstract ideas arises from the use of words as general terms4 ,words are always general2 ideas are always particular4 ,there is never an idea that exactly corresponds to a word4 ,words are useful not as a conveyance of ideas1 but for inciting men to action and arousing the passions4 ,whenever a word is used1 what we think of is the particular sense1 idea1 or group of sense objects that give rise to it4 ,for example1 the word 8yellow0 cannot be employed by us except in connection with the thought of some particular yellow thing4 ,berkeley is a nominalist of the extremest type4 #b4 ,again ,berkeley seeks to show1 by demolishing the distinction between primary and secondary qualities1 that matter as an abstract idea has no existence4 ,this distinction was as old as the ,greek1 ,democritus1 and was accepted by ,locke4 ,we have already described it3 of a thing like a lump of sugar1 the sense qualities of whiteness1 roughness1 sweetness1 etc41 are secondary because they depend upon our sensations for their existence2 they are the ways in which our organisms are affected1 and not true copies of things2 the mathematical qualities1 form1 size1 density1 impenetrability1 are primary because they exist independent of our senses and are true copies of things4 ,hobbes had already shown that such a distinction is erroneous1 and ,berkeley followed him by maintaining that all qualities are secondary4 ,the size and impenetrability of a body depends as much on sense-perception as its sweetness and color4 ,at some length in his ,theory of ,vision ,berkeley takes up the question of the solidity1 or third dimension1 of a material body1 and shows that it is an inference depending on sensations arising from the convergence of the two eyes and complicated by the sensations of touch4 ,berkeley professed to be pleading the cause of the man in the street who wants a philosophy that is real 8common sense40 ,he maintained that the conception of matter is only a philosophical subtlety for those philosophers who seek for something beyond perception4 ,the man in the street wishes to explain things as he finds them1 and not to seek mysterious abstractions which philosophers say in one breath that we know1 and in another that we cannot know4 ,therefore1 while ,berkeley agreed with ,locke's assumption of the existence of the spiritual substance1 he departed from ,locke in denying the existence of a material substance4 ,berkeley accepted1 therefore1 one of the two assumptions common to the ,enlightenment1 but he denied the other4 ,now ,berkeley was trying to prove a thesis4 ,he was controlled by the ideal of his ardent religious nature to free religion from false philosophy4 ,he felt that the foes of religionatheism and materialismhad employed effectively abstract ideas1 which had been one of the weapons of religion1 against religion itself4 ,berkeley concentrated his attack against the traditional scholastic conception of abstract ideas in general and the abstract idea of matter in particular4 ,abstract ideas have no existence2 the idea of a material substance is an abstract idea and therefore has no existence4 ,berkeley was bound from the beginning of his religious crusade to explain away the existence of material substance4 ,the ,positive ,side of ,berkeley's ,philosophy4#db ,in the construction of his theory in a positive way ,berkeley abridged the dualism of 8common sense10 and asserted that the abridged form was better4 ,he converted the dualism into a religious hypothesis1 but it was a dualism still1a dualism of minds and their ideas4 ,berkeley then set to work to show how much better his theory would explain the problems of knowledge4 8,berkeley sought to humanize science40 ,he set the spirit free by relieving it of the falsities of the old dualistic assumption1 but the usefulness of his abridgment lay in its solution not of metaphysical1 but of epistemological problems4 #a4 ,berkeley's theory may be summed up in his own abbreviated statement of it1,esse est percipi 7to be is to be perceived74 ,or it may be stated in that figurative and oft-quoted paragraph1 8,some truths there are so near and obvious to the mind that a man need only open his eyes to see them4 ,such ,i take this important one to be1 viz41 that all the choir of heaven and the furniture of the earth1 in a word all those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world1 have not any subsistence without a mindthat their being is to be perceived or known40 ,or we may state ,berkeley's position in the terms of a modern interpreter#dc of him3 8,all objects are mentally discerned2 all objects are mentally constituted40 ,berkeley means that the existence and character of all objects are within the confines of consciousness1 and there are no objects outside of consciousness4 ,as sense-perceptions they have reality2 as memories they lose their warmth and distinctness2 but they are not objects at all when neither perceived nor remembered4 ,these objects are always colored by the sense-perception4 ,they are received through the consciousness1 and constituted by the consciousness4 ,minds and their ideas are all that exist4 #b4 ,berkeley does not try to prove the existence of the mind or soul1 nor does he attempt to show that we perceive the soul4 ,but in the spirit of the ,enlightenment he hardly questions its reality4 ,he takes its existence for granted1 and like the philosophers of the period he makes a direct appeal to consciousness4 8,i know ,i am conscious of my own being40 ,like ,locke and ,descartes he alleges the direct intuition of the self4 ,in the ,principles he speaks of 8a notion of our own minds or spirits40 ,since the ideas are copies of other ideas1 there can be no idea of the soul2 but the 8notion is like the spirit that knows it40 ,we have therefore direct knowledge or notion of ourselves in knowing our ideas2 we have direct knowledge of something superior to the ideas1 an activity whose reality consists not in being perceived1 but in perceiving4 ,indeed1 he made the assertion in his ,commonplace ,book1 which he began in college1 that nothing properly does exist but conscious persons4 ,all other things are not so much existences as signs of the existences of persons4 ,one is absolutely certain of what one means by 8,i40 #c4 ,spiritual substances are sufficient and adequate to explain all ideas4 ,there is no difficulty in explaining the images of our own minds1 for our minds control them4 ,but what explains the existence of our percepts over which we have no control8 ,what substantial support have they if we remove the 8material hypothesis08 ,suppose ,i grant that ,i exist and have control of my imaginative ideas1 and that other minds exist and have control of their imaginative ideas1 how then1 ,i ask ,berkeley1 am ,i to explain the great world of perceptions over which neither ,i nor other men have control8 ,berkeley's general psychological position must be summarized here in order to answer this important question4 ,it is as follows3 7#a7 ,all things are nothing more than perceptions4 7#b7 ,all ideas1 both perceptions and images1 are passive1 and must be caused by something in itself active4 7#c7 ,souls are active and the cause of ideas4 ,the question then is1 ,what soul is the cause of our perceptions8 ,perceptions are ideas1 are passive1 but they are the ideas of whom8 ,repudiate the material substance1 and what is the cause of perceptions8 ,perceptions are not originated by me2 they cannot be self-originated1 because they are passive and not active2 they cannot be originated by a material substance1 because it does not exist4 ,their origin must be sought in the infinite spirit1 or ,god4 ,if you will examine the ideas which constitute what we call nature objects1 you will observe these significant characteristics about them1 to which attention has already been called4 ,they have1 as we have said1 a strength1 liveliness1 distinctness1 and orderliness that distinguish them from imaginations4 ,they are ,god speaking to us in ,his orderly way4 ,nature objects are the language of ,god4 ,the regularity and dependability of the world of nature reveal the character of the ,being whose language the world of nature is4 ,they reveal a ,being who is intelligent1 infinite1 omnipotent1 and benevolent4 ,the regularity of the changing seasons1 the constancy of the heavenly bodies to their orbits1 the provision of the earth for manall the laws of nature are the language of an orderly ,being4 ,now we see the importance of ,berkeley's deviation from ,locke in his 7,berkeley's7 conception of all ideas as passive4 ,all ideas being passive1 there must be a cause of them4 ,the only active causes are spirits4 ,i am the cause or perceiver of my own imaginations4 ,i perceive another's movements and know that another person or spirit must be the cause4 ,when nature speaks in its invariable and purposive harmony1 ,i know that an infinite spirit is the cause4 ,we are indeed living in a society of spirits1 who speak to one another in their own language4 ,the doctrine of ,berkeley strikes beginners and people who temperamentally cannot understand it1 as absurd4 ,the reduction of the trees1 sky1 etc41 to ideas is a theory that has brought down all kinds of ridicule upon it4 ,when ,dr4 ,johnson heard of it1 he is said to have stamped his foot upon the ground1 and thereby refuted it4 ,byron is quoted as saying1 8,if there is no matter1 and ,berkeley has proved it1 it is no matter what he said40 ,others have asked if we eat and drink ideas and are clothed with ideas4 ,but ,berkeley never doubted the existence of material objects1 and the point of his theory is missed if we think that he did4 ,what he denied is the existence of an unknown substance1 matter1 behind external objects4 8,the table ,i write on exists1 that is1 ,i see and feel it2 and if ,i were out of my study ,i should say it existed1 meaning thereby that if ,i were in my study ,i might perceive it or that some other person does perceive it40 ,another question has been asked of ,berkeley which goes deeper4 ,if to be is to be perceived1 what existence has a tree in the forest that no one has ever perceived4 ,what existence have past events that are forgotten8 ,berkeley has considered this objection and has answered it4 ,when he says that existence depends upon perception1 he does not mean merely my own perception4 ,berkeley is not what in philosophy is called a solipsist 7solus and ipse71 i4 e4 one who believes that nothing exists but himself and his modifications4 ,a thing may have existence in the mind of some one else4 ,if the thing has never been perceived by any human being1 it is perceived1 if the thing exists1 by the mind of ,god4 ,the modern scientist assumes the existence of matter in the whole universe4 ,berkeley assumes the existence of a perceiving ,god4 ,one is the materialistic and the other the religious explanation of the universe4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,david ,hume#dd 7#agaa-aggf74 ,hume's life bears some marks of external resemblance to ,berkeley's4 ,after periods of training that differed very greatly in point of discipline1 but were almost the same in point of time1 both produced1 at about the age of twenty-five1 their most important philosophical works4 ,both turned from philosophy to other pursuits,berkeley to missionary work at the age of thirty-six1 and ,hume to politics at the age of forty-one4 ,there the resemblance between the two men ceases2 for they were antipodal by nature1 and animated by different purposes4 ,the enthusiastic nature of ,berkeley is in marked contrast with the unimpassioned nature of the ,scot4 ,hume was unimaginative to the last4 ,he was unimpressed by the legends of the border where he lived2 he had no love for nature and no appreciation of art4 8,while ,hume's intellect was imperial1 his sympathies were provincial40 ,berkeley's sympathies were imperial and his intellect was in their service4 ,hume was a man of kindly disposition and of moderate temper1 yet he was vain1 and interested above everything else in his own reputation4 ,no object seemed worth while to him1 unless it made for the improvement of his talents in literature4 ,the failure of the ,treatise was a blow from which he never recovered4 ,always afterward he had an eye to popularity1 and this is important in making up our judgment about him4 ,all his works after the ,treatise were written to please his readers and for personal success4 ,locke the ,englishman1 ,berkeley the ,irishman1 and ,hume the ,scotchman came from the same middle class of society1 had university training1 were engaged in public service1 and are to be classed in the same empirical school of philosophy4 ,but they were personally very different kinds of men1 and were types1 although perhaps not representatives1 of their nationalities4 #a4 ,period of ,training 7#agaa-agcd74 ,hume was born in ,edinburgh and lived there and at ,ninewells on the border4 ,he was a student at ,edinburgh ,university 7#agbc-agbf7 and studied law the next year4 ,he was in business in ,bristol in #agcd4 ,in all the occupations of this period he was unhappy4 #b4 ,period of ,philosopher 7#agcd-ageb74 ,from #agcd to #agcg ,hume was in retirement in ,france1 especially at ,la ,flche1 where he wrote his ,treatise on ,human ,nature4 ,he returned to ,edinburgh in #agcg and published his ,treatise 7#agci-agdj74 ,it was read by nobody and was an absolute failure4 ,so he rewrote ,book ,i in #agdh and called it the ,enquiry concerning ,human ,understanding4 ,hume's full statement of his theory of knowledge is contained in the ,treatise and not in the ,enquiry4 ,he rewrote ,book ,,iii in #agea and called it the ,enquiry concerning ,principles of ,morals1 8of all my writings1 incomparably the best10 and in #ageg he published ,book ,,ii as an ,essay on the ,passions in ,four ,dissertations4 ,he became acquainted with ,adam ,smith in #agdj2 he published ,essays1 ,moral and ,political1 in #agda-agdb1 and was a tutor in #agde1 because he needed money4 ,in #agdf-agdh he became secretary in the ,english military embassy to ,vienna4 ,in #agea1 the same year that he was recasting the third book of the ,treatise1 he wrote his ,dialogues concerning ,natural ,religion1 which was not published until #aggi4 ,his autobiography was also published posthumously4 #c4 ,period of ,politician 7#ageb-aggf74 ,in #ageb ,hume published his ,political ,discourses1 8the only work of mine that was successful on its first publication40 ,in #aged-agfa1 while ,librarian at ,edinburgh1 he wrote and published his ,history of ,england4 ,this work was the first serious attempt since the ,revolution to give an impartial account of the earlier struggles against the ,stuarts4 ,through it he at last got great fame1 and fortune followed in its wake4 ,in #ageg came his restatement of ,book ,,ii of the ,treatise4 ,in #agfc-agfe ,hume was secretary of the ,english ,embassy at ,paris1 and he was made much of by ,french society4 ,the thought of the ,french ,enlightenment had advanced far enough to entertain him and his doctrines4 ,hume met ,rousseau at this time4 ,later ,hume was visited by ,rousseau in ,england and was badly treated by the eccentric ,frenchman4 ,he says that ,rousseau sins at the foundation4 ,hume was appointed ,under ,secretary of ,state in #agff2 he returned to ,edinburgh in #agfi1 and died in #aggf4 ,influences upon the ,thought of ,hume4 ,the writings of ,hume show no erudition1 and for that reason it is uncertain what were all the sources from which he drew4 ,he does not mention ,descartes1 for example1 although he wrote his ,treatise at ,la ,flche in the shadow of the school where ,descartes was educated4 ,it is probable1 however1 that ,hume was influenced at least by the ,greek philosophers of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period1 and by ,locke4 ,during the years after ,hume's student life at the university1 he pored over the writings of the ,roman ,stoics in the library at ,ninewells1 and he felt the influence of ,cicero1 ,seneca1 and ,plutarch4 ,hume read extensively1 and he reacted from his reading4 ,he became so dissatisfied with the past that he put it aside1 in the belief that the true philosophy had not yet been written4 ,in this reaction from the past he was influenced along the lines of ,locke and ,berkeley4 ,he admired the advance that ,berkeley had made over ,locke1 and naturally took a further step in the same direction4 ,hume was also acquainted with the writings of ,hobbes and with the history of the ,english theories of morals4 ,in #agdj he became acquainted with ,adam ,smith1 the political economist1 and ,hume's ,political ,discourses 7#ageb7 anticipated ,smith's classic ,wealth of ,nations4 ,at this time 7#ageb7 he turned with all other ,englishmen from the discussion of philosophical to political topics4 ,there are many points of resemblance between ,smith and ,hume1 especially in their ethical doctrine4 ,dogmatism1 ,phenomenalism1 and ,skepticism4 ,hume liked to speak of himself as a skeptic1 but philosophically speaking he was skeptical only of the dogmatic ,rationalism of the ,renaissance1 which had made unlimited claims for the human reason4 ,hume maintained in the spirit of the ,enlightenment that the human mind deals with ideas and not with reality4 ,human knowledge has therefore its limits4 ,more consistently than ,locke or any one else in the ,enlightenment1 he tried to show the limits and extent of human knowledge4 ,pure skepticism is the denial that there is any such thing as truth2 pure dogmatism would be the deductive explanation of all problems from a set of infallible principles4 ,it would be hard to find an absolutely true example of skepticism or dogmatism1 for generally philosophical theories are a mixture of dogmatism and skepticism4 ,pyrrho is often given as an example of the pure skeptic1 but ,pyrrho1 like all other ,greeks1 never for a moment doubted the existence of an external1 material object 7vol4 i1 chapter xii74 ,spinoza is a fairly good example of a pure dogmatist1 but he developed his ,ethics by means of interpolated principles not in his original assumptions4 ,a thorough-going skeptic would have to be a modernnot a ,greekwho would deny that truth can be known and that things exist4 ,this was not ,hume's contention4 ,he affirmed the validity 7#a7 of mathematical reasoning 7#b7 and of matters of fact1 and 7#c7 the probability of the natural sciences4 ,hume may correctly be called a phenomenalist1 a positivist1 or an agnostic4 ,so far as he maintained that there are some things which the reason cannot know1 he is an agnostic4 ,in his affirmation that we can know ideas and only ideas1 he is a positivist4 ,in his affirmation that ideas are the only existences1 he is a phenomenalist4 ,are external objects the cause of sensations8 ,experience is dumb4 ,have external objects an existence8 ,experience is dumb4 ,are souls the substance of our thoughts8 ,experience is dumb4 ,but mathematics has truth1 experience is beyond question1 and the workings of nature are probable4 ,we shall find ,hume to be the keenest critical mind of this critical period of the ,enlightenment4 ,he is profoundly serious in his examination of the roots of the intellectual life4 ,he is past-master in the art of raising questions4 ,he not only shows that the fundamental theoretical problems are still unsolved1 but he also calls to account the hitherto untested assumptions of practical life4 ,but this is criticism1 positivism1 phenomenalism1 or agnosticism1 and not skepticism4 ,he speaks of his doctrine as like that of the ,middle ,academy1 in contrast with that of ,pyrrho4 ,he says that excessive skepticism upsets activity1 employment1 and common occupations4 ,the conclusions of the intellect never agree with our natural instincts4 ,every time positive skepticism appears1 nature destroys it4 ,hume's conclusion as to the practical attitude of the positivist toward life can best be stated in his own words 7,treatise1 ,book ,i1 ,conclusion73 8,shall we then establish it for a general maxim1 that no refined or elaborate reasoning is ever to be received8 ,if we embrace this principle1 we run into the most manifest absurdities4 ,if we reject it in favor of those reasonings1 we subvert entirely the human understanding4 ,we have1 therefore1 no choice left1 but between a false reason and none at all4 ,most fortunately it happens that since reason is incapable of dispelling these clouds1 nature suffices to that purpose1 and cures me of this philosophical melancholy4 ,i dine1 ,i play a game of backgammon1 ,i converse1 and am merry with my friends4,no3 ,if ,i must be a fool1 as all who reason or believe anything certainly are1 my follies shall at least be natural and agreeable4 ,in all the incidents of life we ought still to preserve our skepticism4 ,where reason is lively and mixes itself with some propensity it ought to be assented to40 ,the ,origin of ,ideas4 ,locke did not proceed to the construction of his theory of knowledge until he had disclaimed at length his belief in the existence of innate ideas4 ,berkeley went further and made his polemic against the existence of all abstract ideas4 ,hume went still further and denied that any ideas existed except those derived from impressions4 ,locke's attack upon innate ideas was an attack upon unverified tradition2 ,berkeley's attack upon abstract ideas was an attack upon materialism2 ,hume made a general attack upon rationalism4 ,the psychology of ,hume is thus made simple4 ,it is a cancellation of the factors incompatible with strict empiricismthe factors which he found in ,locke and ,berkeley4 ,hume's empirical psychology is simply this3 every idea is the image or copy of an impression4 ,what is an impression8 ,impressions are of two classes3 7#a7 sensations or outer impressions2 7#b7 feelings or emotions or inner impressions4 ,impressions are never mistaken1 because they always have a very lively and vivid character4 ,what is an idea8 ,it is the copy of an impression4 ,an idea should never be mistaken for an impression1 because it is fainter and more feeble than the impression of which it is the copy4 ,for example1 the sensation of yellow is more vigorous than the thought of yellow2 the feeling of anger more vivid than the thought of anger4 ,impressions are simple and elemental4 ,can we go back of them and find their origin8 ,we cannot4 ,we receive impressions2 echoes of impressions linger as ideas2 ideas may be compounded with other ideas4 ,hume deals in his criticism mostly with the compounding or combining of ideas1 but this is the sum and substance of his psychological analysis of our mental life4 ,the following table will help us4 ,sensations or outer ,impressions impressions 7 original7 ,feelings or inner impressions ,perceptions 7 mental ,memories or an exact states7 reproduction of an impression or of a ,ideas combination of impressions 7 derived7 ,imagination or a combination1 separation1 and transposition of impressions according to the imagination's own laws4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that the above classes are not cordinate according to ,hume4 ,impressions are prior to ideas1 and of the impressions the feelings or inner impressions are 8posterior to the sensations and derived from them40 ,hume is a sensationalist1 for the most original of the impressions are sensations4 ,the ,association of ,ideas4 ,since nothing can enter the mind except through the two portals of outer and inner impressions1 every idea in the mind is the copy of one or several impressions4 ,how then can there be any such thing as error8 ,error arises from the understanding and imagination in their manipulation of the impressionsfrom the faculties of the mind combining1 separating1 and transposing the impressions and their memories4 ,an idea resulting from such transposition may and often is referred to an impression different from the one of which it is the copy4 ,what does ,hume mean by the faculties and powers of the mind8 ,he does not mean that the mind with its functions exists as a reality1 since all that exist are impressions and the copies of impressions or ideas4 ,hume means by mental faculties and powers the various modes by which ideas combine4 ,hume makes no distinction between memory1 imagination1 judgment1 conception1 etc41 except 7#a7 as different groupings of ideas and 7#b7 as accompanied by different feelings4 ,the whole mental life and the faculties of the mental life are nothing but an association of ideas4 ,isolated ideas are explained as copies of isolated impressions2 and from these ideas are derived groups of ideas which we call trains of thought4 ,why do ideas group themselves together8 ,the only answer is that it is the nature of ideas4 ,hume frequently speaks of these associative relations as 8the manner of conceiving ideas40 ,he also says that there is a 8gentle force0 or 8determination0 of the ideas to relate themselves with other ideas4 ,given the impressions and their relations1 and ,hume will explain the whole knowing process4 ,associative relations take an important place in ,hume's theory1 but some critics say that they are interlopers2 that he has introduced them by a back door2 that they are not mentioned in his psychological inventory4 ,but to ,hume there is nothing mysterious about the association of ideas4 ,they are combined1 transposed1 augmented1 and diminished according to fixed rules under mechanical laws4 ,their relationship takes place without freedom4 ,impressions occur in the way they happen to occur4 ,ideas combine in the way they happen to combine4 ,relations between ideas are accidental and external4 ,there is only one quality of ideas that does not depend on its accidental relation to other ideas4 ,this is the quality of non-contradiction4 ,this is the necessary property of an impression4 ,an impression must be what it is1 and cannot be conceived as having properties contrary to its own nature4 ,the quality of identity in an impression is intrinsic and necessary4 ,according to ,hume1 there are three fundamental ways in which ideas associate1 called the three laws of association4 7#a7 ,there is the law of resemblance or contrast1 by which the occurrence of a thing calls up a similar thing or its opposite4 ,mathematics is based upon this law of the resemblance1 the contrariety1 and the quantitative relations of ideas4 7#b7 ,there is the law of contiguity in time and space1 by which things happening together in time and space are recalled together4 ,upon this law are based the descriptive and experimental sciences4 7#c7 ,there is the law of causation1 upon which religion and the metaphysics of the world of nature are based4 ,the question with ,hume is1 ,how is he to explain all these laws of association as derived from impressions8 ,if they cannot be derived from impressions1 then his theory that all knowledge is derived from impressions goes to the wall4 ,the ,rationalists and even his predecessors1 ,locke and ,berkeley1 had conceived mathematical propositions and causation as underived and in the nature of things4 ,if ,hume is to establish his doctrine of complete sensational empiricism1 here is his test4 ,these associations1 and not isolated impressions1 are the objects of human interest1 inquiry1 and investigation4 ,hume makes a further reduction of associations by his well-known classification of them as either 8relations of ideas0 or 8matters of fact40 ,associations of contiguity and associations of causation are 8matters of fact10 while associations of resemblance are 8relations of ideas40 ,furthermore1 ,hume looks upon associations of contiguity as those of outer impressions1 associations of resemblance as those of inner impressions1 while associations of causation are not what they are alleged to be1 but are derived from some inner impressions4 #a4 ,contiguity ,outer ,descriptive ,matters association impressions ,sciences ,objects of of ,fact ,knowledge #b4 ,causation ,inner ,metaphysics association#de impressions ,relations #c4 ,resemblance ,inner ,mathematics of ,ideas association impressions ,the ,association of ,contiguity4 ,this is the most elementary of the three classes of association1 and concerns the spatial and temporal order in which impressions come to us4 ,two impressions come at the same time or in succession1 and when one of them is remembered1 the other is likely to be remembered also4 ,we see a man and hear his name2 when we remember the man's face1 we may remember his name also4 ,hume maintains that this association of succession or coexistence is given with the impressions themselves4 ,it is the order of the outer impressions4 ,we perceive the order of the outer impressions with the same certainty that we perceive the contents of the impressions4 ,this is the only certainty we have about 8matters of fact10a certainty of the exact order of our immediate outer impressions4 ,we know the order in which our impressions do occur1 but1 as we shall see1 when we argue from this that our impressions must recur in the same order we are involved in a fallacy4 ,any order may recur4 ,the fact that the sun rises in the east to-day does not make certain that it will rise in the east to-morrow4 ,it is only a matter of probability1 however many times repeated4 ,there is no certain science of 8matters of fact40 ,the ,association of ,resemblance4 ,this is a clear and distinct association which is given with the impressions4 ,when we have an impression1 we see intuitively its similarity or difference to other impressions1 and the degrees of likeness and unlikeness4 ,the face of one man reminds us of another man1 or we contrast it with a brute's face4 ,this association concerns only inner impressions1 while the association of contiguity concerns outer impressions4 ,this has to do with the 8relation of ideas10 while the association of contiguity has to do with 8matters of fact40 #a4 ,mathematics4 ,but there is this difference between the association of resemblance and that of contiguityupon resemblance is founded a demonstrative science4 ,this is mathematicsthe sole demonstrative science4 ,the subject-matter of mathematics consists of the possible relations between the contents of our ideasthe possible relations between our inner impressions4 ,these relations are intuitively known by us1 and out of them we get a science of complete certainty4 ,we make a comparison between the magnitudes in the contents of ideas1 and we analyze their regularity4 ,this is mathematics1 and it is a perfectly legitimate science4 ,because it confines itself to the relations between ideas1 and has nothing to do with 8matters of fact10 it can be a demonstrative science4 ,all mathematical knowledge is restricted to the study and verification of ideas1 and has therefore nothing to do with the external world4 #b4 ,the ,conception of ,substance3 ,hume's ,attack on ,theology4 ,but the association of resemblance has been made the basis of a common illusion4 ,it has been made to transcend its proper sphere of a relationship among inner impressions2 and resemblance between ideas has been taken by people generally to mean metaphysical identity or substance4 ,it has been transformed from a relationship between ideas to a relationship between 8matters of fact40 ,now substance is evidently not an association given with the impressions1 like their temporal and spatial order in the association of contiguity1 nor is it mere impression of resemblance4 ,substance is the conception of an unknown1 indescribable something back of impressions4 ,there is the conception of the material substance or matter1 and the spiritual substance or the soul4 ,how did such illusory conceptions arise8 ,if ,hume rejects them as matters of real knowledge1 he must nevertheless explain their psychological origin4 ,the illusory idea of substance originates from the similarity of the frequent conjoining of certain impressions4 ,the impressionssweet1 rough1 white1 etc4occur together so often that the imagination creates the conception of the substance of sugar behind them4 ,this arises not from the first experience1 but after the association of impressions has been observed a large number of times4 ,from the frequent association of ideas arises the feeling of their necessary coexistence4 ,thus do we come to have the idea of a material substance4 ,hume evidently follows ,berkeley in his criticism of material substance4 ,but ,berkeley went only halfway4 ,berkeley had found that bodies were only conjunctions of sensations1 and he had rejected as meaningless the unknown substance behind them4 ,he did not see that the same attack could be made upon spiritual substances4 ,berkeley's argument against the substance of the cherry could be used against the ,ego or the ,soul4 ,have ,i the impression of my ,ego8 ,can ,i touch it or see it8 ,the simple test shows that ,i know nothing about it1 and ,i cannot affirm whether or not it exists4 ,but if the conception of the ,soul has no reality as an object of knowledge1 how can it be psychologically explained8 ,how does it arise in the mind8 ,the idea of the ,soul is due to the frequent reappearance of the same trains of thought in my mind4 ,their similarity gives rise to the feeling that a metaphysical identity1 or ,soul1 exists behind them4 ,the ,association of ,causation3 ,hume's ,attack on ,science4 ,among the many traditional conceptions upon which ,hume turned his critical examination1 that of causation occupies the most of his attention4 ,he discusses it both in the ,treatise and in the ,enquiry4 ,he is the first philosopher since ,aristotle to give it comprehensive treatment4 ,he saw that all philosophical1 theological1 and indeed scientific knowledge rests upon this conception of causation4 ,it was accepted without question by the ,scholastics of the ,middle ,ages1 the ,rationalists of the ,renaissance1 and the scientists of his own time4 ,if the conception is valid1 ,hume's criticism goes for naught2 for 8by means of that relation we can go beyond the evidence of our memory and senses40 ,in that case what becomes of ,hume's psychological analysis that all knowledge consists of impressions and ideas8 ,and if ,hume's psychology falls1 all his criticism of the spiritual and the material substance falls also4 ,upon the validity of the concept of cause depend many of the scholastic arguments for the existence of ,god1 whose existence we can demonstrate although ,he is not an object of sense impression4 ,imagination can then go on unrestricted2 for ,god is accepted not only as cause1 but as first or uncaused cause4 ,descartes1 ,leibnitz1 and even ,berkeley and ,locke had accepted the causal argument for the existence of ,god1 although the latter two had pretended to restrict knowledge to sense-perceptions and ideas4 ,again1 the causal concept has been the foundation for the belief in a functioning soul behind the mental and physical activities of a human being2 and on the same causal concept man has argued from sensations to their material substrate4 ,all this is unwarranted and unrestricted knowledge because it 8goes beyond the memory and senses40 ,not only theology1 but science itself has gone 8beyond the memory and senses40 ,hume dares to doubt the certainty of the causal principle even in scientific knowledge4 ,is there any necessary connection among events so that with certainty we can predict the occurrence of one event if another is given8 ,is there in nature and history any causal law so binding that every event is a necessary result of what has gone before and a necessary cause of what will come8 ,the question of cause is1 therefore1 paramount with ,hume4 ,if he is successful in impeaching cause as he has been in the case of substance1 scientific theory must fall with theological dogma4 ,in his review of the conceptions of time and space 7association by contiguity71 ,hume had found succession to be a quality of impressions and to be given with them4 ,but that is all that can be saidthe relation is one of time order1 but not a relation that is necessary4 ,the outer impressions happen to occur thus and thus2 they need not have occurred thus1 and may never occur in this order again4 ,this temporal order is not by any means a causal order4 ,the idea of cause is that of power transferred1 but we have no impression of power4 ,impressions come as sequences1 not as consequences or as powers4 ,sequences of impressions are the only 8matters of fact02 consequences are not 8matters of fact40 ,they must1 therefore1 be only 8relations between ideas0 and have no objective reality4 ,from ,hume's point of view this is sufficient to show that cause is not valid and real4 ,to deny that we have the concept of cause would1 however1 be nonsense4 ,we do have the concept1 and how is its psychological origin to be explained8 ,how does the idea arise8 ,it does not originate 7#a7 as an a priori concept1 i4 e4 by an analysis of ideas1 nor 7#b7 as an outer impression1 i4 e4 a sensation1 nor 7#c7 as memory1 since memories are images of impressions4 ,the idea of cause originates from an inner impressiona strong and lively feeling connected with the imagination4 ,but how does it happen that the feeling is so strong that it makes us believe the idea1 with which it is connected1 is a reality8 ,the feeling does not arise from a single instance of conjunction of two impressions1 but from the conjunction of two ideas repeated many times4 ,the belief in cause is a feeling originating in the constant conjunction of impressions4 ,this explains why the ideas that fire will burn1 that poison will kill1 that water will wetare so lively4 ,the conjunction occurs many times1 and an inner necessity or compulsion arises to imagine the second impression after the first4 ,given the first idea1 we learn to expect the second4 ,repetition produces nothing new in objects1 but it produces in the mind a new feeling to pass from one idea to the idea usually attending it4 ,necessity exists in the mind and not in the objects4 ,the ,extent and ,limits of ,human ,knowledge4 ,what remnants of knowledge remain after ,hume has applied his destructive criticism8 ,his critics would answer that1 if ,hume had been consistent1 no knowledge whatever would remain4 ,upon the basis of pure positivism1 that all knowledge is composed of impressions and their copies1 knowledge is an impossibility4 ,but he introduced an additional element1 8relations10 that made knowledge possible because it afforded synthesis and allowed distinctions4 ,taking ,hume's doctrine as it stands1 his results are these4 ,there are two classes of sciences1 the formal and the empirical4 ,the formal includes logic and mathematics1 and consists of knowledge of relations between ideas4 ,such knowledge has certainty and validity4 ,empirical sciences consist in knowledge of matters of fact4 ,such knowledge never amounts to more than probability4 ,there is no certainty or demonstration in natural science4 ,its results call forth not conviction1 but belief4 ,beyond these subjects we have no knowledge whatever4 ,metaphysics and theology are only fictions4 ,beyond impressions and the copies of impressions we can make no assertions4 ,the tendency of thought to trench beyond its own territory is the cause of all our metaphysical difficulties4 ,it tries to do what it was not intended to do1 and the result is abstract ideas4 ,reason and the relation of resemblance give us the erroneous idea of spiritual and material substance2 imagination and the relation of cause give the erroneous idea of the fundamental principle of nature4 ,hume's ,theory of ,religion and ,ethics4 ,hume is so true an empiricist to the end that he is a remarkable exception among the philosophers of the ,enlightenment4 ,he alone among philosophers shows the historical sense in the application of his positivism to religion and morals4 ,in general the ,enlightenment took no account of the past2 in this ,hume differs from his contemporaries4 ,hume was the destroyer of deism because he advanced historical evidence against deism4 ,deism had three principles3 that religion is the object of scientific investigation2 that religion had its origin in the reason2 and that 8natural religion0 is the oldest form4 ,hume agreed to the first proposition1 but he revealed his historical instinct by showing that religion did not originate in the reason1 but in the feelings2 and that not 8natural religion10 but idolatry1 etc41 is the oldest form4 ,furthermore1 he stood almost alone among philosophers of the period in building ethics upon the feelings rather than upon the intellect4 ,the ethical motives of man are pleasure and pain1 and not an idea of the reason4 ,hume's historic sense led him to this conclusion4 ,both morals and religion should be empirically investigated4 ,as in science1 so in them the most cogent conclusions are only probable and not intuitive4 ,our moral activities are under the same kind of law of cause that exists in the world of nature-phenomena4 ,the will is determined by the feelings1 and the reason is the slave of the passions4 ,our moral judgment is based on the feeling of sympathy 7,adam ,smith74 ,it is practically probable that there is a purpose in the world and therefore a ,god4 ,but this cannot be established4 ,on the same principle of probability the world may have grown up mechanically or by chance4 ,religion is naturally reasonable enough1 but its doctrines cannot be proved4 ,the ,scottish ,school4 ,this school represents in ,great ,britain the reaction from the sensualism of the ,enlightenment4 ,the ,scottish ,school was the ,british reply to ,hume1 just as ,kant was the ,german reply4 ,they were the late eighteenth century reactions in two countries to the ,enlightenment4 ,the teaching of ,kant was1 however1 also the beginning of a new movement and a new period4 ,the ,scottish ,school has no such importance4 ,thomas ,reid 7#agaj-agif7 was the founder4 ,reid admitted that ,berkeley and ,hume drew legitimate conclusions from ,locke's general assumption that the objects of thought are not things1 but ideas4 ,therefore ,reid maintained that ,locke's position must be given up4 ,still empiricism remains tenable and must be applied to the phenomena of mind4 ,what are the data of consciousness8 ,not individual ideas1 as ,locke said1 but complex ideas or judgments4 ,the elements will be discovered later by analysis of these complex states which are first given4 ,the mind is not a blank piece of paper upon which simple characters are first inscribed1 and then later the understanding introduced to form judgments and the reflection to add belief in the existence of objects4 ,our knowledge starts rather from judgments1 which involve certain original truths or 8natural judgments40 ,mankind possesses the faculty of 8common sense10 and this faculty makes these truths a common possession4 ,among the principles that 8common sense0 includes are self-consciousness1 the reality of objects perceived1 and the principle of cause4 ,the ,scottish ,school called attention to the importance of self-observation4 ,the members of the school made their attack upon sensualism from the point of empirical psychology4 ,philosophy became in their hands the perfecting of psychology as a science of inner observation4 ,thus they were in accord with the school of the ,enlightenment1 although opposed to its sensualistic outcome4 ,the prominent members of the school were ,reid1 ,dugald ,stewart1 ,brown1 and ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,enlightenment ,,in ,,france ,,and ,,germany#df ,the ,situation in ,france in the ,enlightenment4 ,the historian of the ,french ,enlightenment has to take account of the reign of two kings2 that of ,louis ,,xiv 7#afdc-agae72 and that of ,louis ,,xv 7#agae-aggd74 ,together they cover the long period of one hundred and thirty-one years4 ,the reign of ,louis ,,xv marks the actual development of the ,enlightenment1 while that of ,louis ,,xiv contains the causes4 ,the long reign of seventy-two years of ,louis ,,xiv had been an absolute1 arbitrary1 and personal government4 ,it had been an age unsurpassed in literature and eloquence1 but also an age in which all those subjects that did not redound to the glory of the church were suppressed4 ,it had been the age of ,molire1 ,corneille1 ,racine1 ,la ,fontaine1 and ,fnelon2 an age when art was encouraged1 but also an age in which political and philosophical originality would not presume to breathe4 ,between ,descartes' death in #afej and the death of ,louis ,,xiv in #agae1 one finds a single philosopher1 ,pierre ,bayle1 and he had to leave ,france4 ,the ,newtonian physics was not accepted in ,france until #agcb;forty-five years after its publication in ,england4 ,upon the death of ,louis ,,xiv the artistic glories of his reign lost all their value for the nation4 ,in their place was set the problem of the material misery of the nation1 which had been caused by the long wars and the extravagance of paternal government4 ,the reign of ,louis ,,xv seethes with the struggle of social forces4 ,it is a period in which the individual is striving to gain his rights under the institutions that have so long repressed him4 ,the development of the ,french ,enlightenment is identical with the struggle for political liberty4 ,in no other period of historyexcept perhaps the ,age of ,periclesis the history of philosophic thought so intimately connected with political history4 ,the fifty-nine years of the reign of ,louis ,,xv are filled with exciting events which interest both the philosopher and the historian4 ,the ,french ,enlightenment is the 8reaction against that protective and interfering spirit which reached its zenith under ,louis ,,xiv40 ,with ,louis ,,xv the magnificence and the utility of ecclesiastical and political absolutism could not be maintained4 ,for the hierarchy of the church was unable longer to keep up its claim of independence and morality2 and the ,state was rapidly exhausting its power by exhausting its financial resources4 ,each event in the history of ,france in the eighteenth century had therefore two aspectseach led to the ,revolution1 and each was a step in the development of the ,enlightenment of the individual4 ,the pioneers in the movement could not have been conscious of the end to which their criticism would lead2 but to us looking back upon the century the result seems inevitable4 ,a comparison with the situation in ,england is interesting4 ,while in ,england the political and ecclesiastical institutions were so elastic that they could without disintegrating absorb the movement of the ,enlightenment1 and while they were so little bound to traditional institutions that the growth in individualism would be constitutional1 the situation in ,france was exactly opposite4 7#a7 ,in ,france the church and the political institutions had become inelastic bodies under ,louis ,,xiv4 ,they had reached the limit of their development4 ,so deeply rooted in absolutism and special privileges were they that they were not open to innovation or reform4 ,during the reign of ,louis ,,xv the only question was1 which would be crushedthe new individualism or the old institutions4 ,no compromise was possible4 ,the institutions1 having survived their usefulness1 gave way4 7#b7 ,in the next place the ,french church and state had for many years been identified with oppression and tyranny1 while the ,english people had within a century gained many needed reforms by beheading one king and forcing out another4 ,consequently the ,english government of the eighteenth century was identified with the liberty of the individual4 ,in ,england political and religious speculation followed and did not precede political reforms4 ,in ,france the opposite was true4 ,to the mind of the ,french people the church represented only superstition1 and the state only profligacy and tyranny4 ,the more they seemed to support each other in one social structure1 the more rapid1 virulent1 and excessive would naturally be the reaction against both when once individualism got a footing4 ,the result was that while in ,england the ,enlightenment always remained critical and negative1 in ,france it became an obstinate and positive dogmatism4 ,behind ,french criticism was developing a philosophical creed4 ,the ,french ,enlightenment was a social cause and a self-sustaining idea4 ,the ,french philosophers of the eighteenth century1 on the whole1 were not superior men intellectually1 for they were inclined to make the small look large and the large great4 ,but although their perspective was inaccurate1 they had an enthusiastic faith in progress and humanity4 ,the ,english ,influence in ,france4 ,louis ,,xiv and his two predecessors had made ,paris the intellectual centre of ,europe1 and up to #afij it had no rival4 ,the ,french language had taken its place beside the ,latin as the language of science4 ,the circle of scientists existing just before and at the beginning of ,louis ,,xiv's reign had its equal nowhere in ,europe4 ,we remember how ,hobbes found ,euclid in ,paris1 ,locke spent four years at or near ,paris1 ,leibnitz gained there all his mathematical erudition and training4 ,during the seventeenth century ,paris was the centre of scholastic influence1 and this is seen directly or indirectly in the writings of all seventeenth century philosophers4 ,the ,english had taken their cue from the ,french2 but on the other hand1 it is doubtful if as late as the death of ,louis there were a half dozen ,frenchmen that knew the ,english language4 ,about the time of the publication of ,locke's ,essay the intellectual centre of gravity began to move from ,paris to ,london4 ,the founding of the ,royal ,society in ,oxford in #affj was the beginning of the organization of ,british scientific influence4 ,newton's physics 7#afhg7 then began to supplant the ,cartesian physics1 and ,locke's psychological doctrines the dogmatism of the ,rationalists1 among the thinkers of western ,europe4 ,newtonian physics and ,english empiricism became the scientific watchwords of the eighteenth century2 and although the ,french were late in accepting them1 it is said that at the end of the ,enlightenment there was no cultured ,frenchman who could not read ,english4 ,we find that such notable ,frenchmen as ,voltaire1 ,montesquieu1 ,buffon1 ,brissot1 ,helvetius1 ,gournay1 ,jussieu1 ,lafayette1 ,maupertuis1 ,mirabeau1 ,roland1 and ,rousseau visited ,england during the period from the death of ,louis ,,xiv to the ,revolution4 ,poets1 mathematicians1 historians1 naturalists1 philologists1 philosophers1 and essayists all agreed to the necessity of studying the language and people on whom their fathers had not deigned to waste thought except in contempt4 ,but perhaps the political motive was quite as strong as the scientific in turning the ,french of the eighteenth century toward ,england4 ,the ,english government was the example of political liberty of that time4 ,the rising inquisitive thinkers of ,france had no alternative but to turn to free ,england for spiritual support against their own decrepit tyranny4 ,the first ,french visitors were amazed at ,english prosperity1 even though the crown had decreased in poweramazed at the liberty of the press and ,parliament1 amazed at the control of the revenues by the representative body4 ,england thus became the school for all the thinkers of ,europe1 and through her literature taught the lesson of political liberty first to ,france1 and then to all ,europe4 ,the ,two ,periods of the ,french ,enlightenment4 ,the eighteenth century divides itself in ,france much the same as it does in ,england4 ,there are two periods3 the first extending to the middle of the century1 when the ,enlightenment of the individual is thought to lie in intellectual cultivation2 the second1 when his salvation becomes social and practical4 ,the first period is dominated by ,voltaire1 and advanced by ,montesquieu and the ,encyclopdists2 the second is dominated by ,rousseau1 and results in the ,revolution4 ,the two periods have a common fundamental motive1 although the means used are radically different4 ,both represent a gradual progression toward the elevation of the individual in his reaction against the institutions of the seventeenth century4 ,but the first was an intellectual ,enlightenment and all that this means1 while the second was emotional and social4 ,the first was aristocratic1 while the second was democratic4 ,yet the whole movement was a gradual filtering of the doctrine of individualism from the upper to the lower classes4 ,it naturally took the form1 first1 of intellectual culture1 and then of an appeal to spontaneity4 ,the intellectual theories of the first period were bound to find practical expression in the second4 ,in the first period the champions of the ancient monarchy were forced to defend it on their opponents' own groundthat of rationality4 ,in the second period1 the monarchists had to change their battleground and make some practical reforms4 ,in the first1 the attack was made principally on the church1 in the second on society4 ,while the attack on the state began early1 it attained significance not until the middle of the century4 ,the ,intellectual ,enlightenment 7#agbi-agfb74 ,voltaire1 ,montesquieu1 and the ,encyclopdists4 ,the first representatives of the ,french ,enlightenment were ,voltaire and ,montesquieu4 ,voltaire went to ,england in #agbf1 and ,montesquieu in #agbh1 and they both returned to ,france in #agbi4 ,voltaire published his ,letters on the ,english in #agcd and his ,elements of the ,philosophy of ,newton in #agch4dg ,montesquieu had published a fierce invective against the political institutions of ,france in #agba1 a discussion of the decadence of the ,romans in #agcd1 and his famous ,spirit of the ,laws in #agdh1 selling twenty-two editions in eighteen months4 ,voltaire introduced and espoused the religious theory of ,locke in deistic form1 and ,montesquieu expounded ,locke's theory of government4 ,their writings were widely read by the upper classes1 and this theoretical revolutionary movement against all existing institutions got momentum about #agce4 ,the aim of this movement was entirely aristocratic4 ,the solution of the existing predicament in ,france lay for them in the greater care of the masses by an enlightened tyranny4 ,the dualism of the classes was always assumed4 ,the few are to be cultured2 for them reason is to take the place of dogma4 ,the masses are not amenable to reason1 have no capacity for education1 and for them religion suffices4 ,to free the individual from terror of the supernatural1 to release his morality from ,jesuitical dominance1 to give him intellectual independence of state and churchthis was the working idea of the intellectual ,enlightenment4 ,thought should be free1 and the conscience of the individual should be untrammeled1 because the reason is a sufficient guide4 ,being thus rationalistic1 the movement was aristocratic4 ,a new aristocracy should be substituted for the oldan aristocracy of the cultured instead of the corrupt and ignorant1 who were then the dominant ,french classes in church and state4 ,the illuminati should participate in the existing political privileges4 ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh74dh ,voltaire was a deist when he went to ,england1 and he was therefore very much impressed by the prevalent ,english deism4 ,among the ,english deists1 ,bolingbroke had the greatest influence over him1 and he was the 8direct progenitor of ,voltaire's religious opinions40 ,bolingbroke's light and supercilious infidelity of the man of the world was suited to ,voltaire4 ,a universal genius1 ,voltaire wrote on every subject2 but 8not one of his books but bears marks of his sojourn in ,england40 ,he read with familiarity all the ,english philosophers1,hobbes1 ,berkeley1 ,cudworth1 ,locke2 but always returning to ,locke4 8,harassed1 wearied1 ashamed of having sought so many truths and found so many chimeras1 ,i returned like a prodigal son to his father and threw myself into the arms of that modest man who never pretends to know what he does not know2 who in truth has no enormous possessions1 but whose substance is well assured40 ,in his ,philosophical ,letters ,voltaire makes invidious comparisons between ,locke's ,empiricism and ,descartes' ,rationalism1 between ,english ,deism and ,french ,catholicism1 and between the ,english government and the ,french government4 ,toward ,christianity1 as he saw it in his own country1 his hatred amounted to fanaticism4 ,his strictures were so scathing that ,christians have looked upon him as an atheist4 ,he was1 however1 a deist1 who believed that1 while we can know ,god's existence1 we cannot know his nature4 ,he was fond of bringing all dogma under criticism1 and 8while he denied nothing1 he cast suspicion upon everything40 ,he called himself the 8ignorant philosopher40 ,to him atheism was preferable to dogma and superstition4 ,his passion for invective against the ,french clergy was so great that his constructive statements about ,god and immortality were cold and impersonal4 ,the ,encyclopdists4#di ,in modern times the ,french have been unequaled in their encyclopdias and dictionaries4 ,the famous ,encyclopdie or ,dictionnaire ,raisonn was what its name implies4 ,it was published in seventeen volumes during the years from #agea to #agff1 and had an addition of eleven volumes of plates 7#agff-aggb74 ,thirty thousand copies were printed in the first instance1 and in #aggd it was translated into four foreign languages4 ,the moving spirit and editor-in-chief was ,diderot 7#agac-aghd7 and his chief assistant d',alembert4 ,they were assisted by many notable ,french writers like ,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 ,grimm1 von ,holbach1 etc41 who wrote separate articles4 ,there was a host of unsolicited contributors4 ,two years before the ,encyclopdia1 ,buffon had begun to publish his ,natural ,history in forty-three volumes1 the last volume appearing in #aghi4 ,the ,encyclopdia had two predecessors1,bacon's chapter on ,experimental ,history and ,chambers's ,encyclopdia4 ,the articles in the ,encyclopdia were presumably scientific explanations alphabetically arranged1 such as would appear in any work of the sort4 ,frequently they were disguised attacks upon existing ,french institutions4 ,often a detailed description1 as on the subject 8,taxes0 or 8,god10 would reveal existing ,french conditions4 ,as ,comte says1 8,the ,encyclopdia furnished a rallying ground for the most divergent efforts without any sacrifice of essential independence1 and made a mass of incoherent speculation appear like a coherent system40 ,the two successive periods of the movement of the ,enlightenment unite in the ,encyclopdia against the common enemy of authority4 ,there are two things to be noticed in connection with the ,encyclopdia3 the men who wrote it went much further toward individualism and skepticism than did ,voltaire2 and the ,encyclopdia reached a wider circle and different classes than did the works of ,voltaire4 ,instead of the deism of ,voltaire we find contributions from skeptics1 atheists1 and materialists1men who are becoming more negative in their opinions as the century advances4 ,the thorough-going agnosticism of the ,encyclopdist group reached a point where it ceased to be a philosophy4 ,diderot had said that the first step in philosophy is unbelief1 and his associates went so far as to think that unbelief is all of philosophy4 ,their extreme sensationalism1 naturalism1 and materialism sometimes appeared in disguised form in the ,encyclopdia1 but more often in independent writings4 ,the ,encyclopdia became the source of information for everybody4 ,it spread information among all classes and undermined their reverence for ,french institutions4 ,the result was that what had been sacred to the court and the laborer because it was traditional1 now became the object of scorn to all4 ,the most profound of the sensationalists of this time was ,condillac 7#agae-aghj71ej who does not1 however1 appear to be connected with the ,encyclopdia4 ,he published his ,treatise on ,sensations in #aged1 which reduced ,locke's psychological analysis to a pure sensationalism4 ,the well-known figurative statue endowed only with the sense of smell was conceived by him4 ,he introduced ,locke's psychology into ,france1 whence it was carried into ,germany4 ,the ,social ,enlightenment 7#agfb-aghi74 ,the second period of the ,french ,enlightenment begins with the publication of ,rousseau's ,contrat ,social in #agfb and culminates in the ,revolution4 ,the influence of ,rousseau dominates the second period as that of ,voltaire dominated the first4 ,voltaire had never aimed at a social revolution4 ,his objective point was to reinstate the understanding1 to emancipate the individual by self-culture and by freedom of thought4 ,he was not historian enough to see that he could not revolutionize intellectual ,france without pulling down the social structure4 ,he did not realize that in striking at the tyranny of the church he was dealing a fatal blow at the structure of ,french society4 ,the literary fencing between ,voltaire and the adroit churchmen might have been amusing1 had the issue not been so serious4 ,but although superficial and vain1 ,voltaire was downright in earnest4 ,at one time it seemed as if the intellectual ,enlightenment would work itself out in the church4 ,but the causes of the revolt were too deeply social1 the malady against which ,voltaire was aiming was too vital2 and besides1 at that moment attention was being directed to the character of the ,state itself4 ,rousseau 7#agab-aggh74ea ,rousseau began at the point where ,voltaire left off4 ,he was under the influence of ,voltaire at the first and received from ,voltaire his original productive impulse4 ,but the concrete right of individuals1 and not their abstract intellectual freedom1 was what appealed to ,rousseau4 ,strict moderation and literary freedom were too negative1 half-hearted1 for a reformer of ,rousseau's type4 ,public opinion was not to be found in ,versailles1 as ,voltaire thought1 but in the streets of ,paris4 ,the ,revolution then came to a head1 and we find the schools of ,voltaire and ,rousseau locking horns4 ,voltaire's theory of moderation was represented in the ,constituent ,assembly and the upper and middle classes1 while ,rousseau's radicalism was introduced in the ,convention and fully expounded in the sections of the ,commune of ,paris which attacked the ,convention4 ,history shows how impossible the aim of each school was1 and how the contest had to be fought over again in the nineteenth century4 ,rousseau lived a wandering and adventurous life1 full of hallucinations and self-created trouble4 ,he made many friends1 only to quarrel with them4 ,he was half insane1 and his career inspires both disgust and admiration4 ,his numerous works fill twenty-two volumes1 the most important ones being two prize essays published in #agej and #aggc1 which represent the negative side of his doctrine2 ,hlose1 #agfa2 ,emile1 #agfb2 ,le ,contrat ,social1 #agfb2 and his ,confessions1 which contain his constructive thought4 ,rousseau was at first a contributor to the ,encyclopdia1 but at heart he cared nothing for the diffusion of knowledge and art4 ,he did not understand the comprehensive intellectual ambition of ,diderot2 he resented the utilitarianism of ,helvetius and the materialism of ,holbach4 ,when he wrote his prize essay in #agej1 he suddenly perceived how absurd the intellectual ,enlightenment was amid the distressing social state of ,france4 ,he turned against both the existing order and the would-be intellectual reformers4 ,the temporal order of things was to him awry4 ,study1 knowledge1 and cultivation were to him only a gloss over the deep-lying degradation4 ,society1 as it is constructed1 is artificial1 and all organization is a tyranny4 ,god exists1 and ,he is good4 ,man was good until civilization and art invaded his simplicity1 corrupted his virtues1 and transformed him into a suffering and a sinful being4 ,rousseau's call was that of anarchism4 ,it was a condemnation of the entire past4 ,sweep all the so-called civilization away1 and level inequalities4 ,go back to nature2 and in the simplicity of that idyllic state let children grow up undirected except by their own uncorrupted instinct1that 8immortal and celestial voice40 ,in an age tired of oppression and corruption ,rousseau struck a sympathetic chord which made the intellectual ,enlightenment sound false4 ,his contemporaries did not inquire into the motives of the mean lunatic4 ,they did not then see that he was a doctrinaire holding up an unpractical ideal in contrast with their present state4 ,he alone in all ,france was the one to appeal to man's self-respect4 ,he alone appealed to the only motives that will result in action1the human emotions4 ,his plea was for every ,frenchman1 and his words for the unfortunate were given with such eloquence that the fortunate were compelled to listen4 ,they were a majestic language of wide compassion and sympathy4 ,he saw in the ,french monarchy the greatest misery for the greatest number1 and no one of its supporters appeared to the people so generous and true as he4 ,his influence not only upon his own time but upon the nineteenth century was extraordinary1 and some have said that he is the greatest modern4 ,at all events he sounded the keynote of our own civilization1 especially in art1 literature1 and education2 for he showed the fundamental correlation between ,nature and the passions4 ,rousseau taught a sentimental deism1 in which sentiment is the essential part4 ,the ,revolution was the natural consummation of the ,enlightenment in ,france4 ,the immediate issues out of which it grew were the practical ones of finance1 legislation1 economics1 and policy4 ,the growth in the physical sciences 7beginning #agfj71 in the study of political science1 in the theory of government1 as well as the financial distress of the ,french government1 the success of the ,american ,revolution1 the advance of the ,french middle class to a position of power1 the foolish and half-hearted measures of the ,french statesmenall these were factors that at the end brought on the crisis4 ,yet the words of ,rousseau1 falling on fruitful soil1 were the real cause4 ,in the years immediately preceding the ,revolution there was a world-wide agitation1 an enthusiasm for nature1 an exaltation of man1 and a contempt for the age and for the society then existing4 ,there was a vague presentiment of impending change1 which most people were prepared to welcome4 ,thinkers were full of illusions4 ,even such despots as ,frederick the ,great1 ,catherine of ,russia1 and ,joseph of ,austria affected a radicalism1 and ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,tuscany1 as well as ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 were moved with great humanitarian sentiments4 ,the debate was universal as to the condition of the human race4 ,rousseau was the eloquent expression of this world-wide movement4 ,the ,german ,enlightenment 7#agdj-agha74 ,as the ,enlightenment in ,france1 so the ,enlightenment in ,germany had its introductory period4 ,the history of ,germany from the end of the ,thirty ,years' ,war 7#afdh7 to the publication of ,kant's ,critique 7#agha71 or #acc years1 is divided into two periods at the year #agdj1 when ,frederick the ,great was crowned4 ,the period from #agdj to #agha1 or forty-one years1 is the ,german ,enlightenment4 ,the period from #afdh to #agdj1 or ninety-two years1 is introductory to the ,enlightenment1 and1 as in ,france1 a period of absolutism4 ,the ,introductory ,period 7#afdh-agdj74 ,absolutism4 ,the spirit of absolutism1 both politically and intellectually1 dominated ,germany from the end of the ,thirty ,years' ,war 7#afdh7 to the crowning of ,frederick the ,great 7#agdj74 ,absolutism dominated ,germany and ,france a full one hundred years4 ,there are some differences between the two countries1 however4 ,it began and ended in ,germany about thirty-five years later than in ,france4 ,again1 in ,france it grew in splendor from the efforts of ,richelieu and ,louis ,,xiii 7#afaj7 to the great protective idea of ,louis ,,xiv1 who for seventy-two years ruled as absolute political and intellectual dictator4 ,in ,germany1 on the other hand1 it was a spectre hovering over a disintegrating and decaying nation once known as the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 but since the ,thirty ,years' ,war only a collection of states under a nominal central government4 ,the idea of absolutism prevailed none the less1 for within the several states each monarch was dictator as to the religious1 intellectual1 and political opinions of his subjects4 ,politically and socially the ,holy ,roman ,empire was in striking contrast to the power and splendor of contemporaneous ,france4 ,the ,thirty ,years' ,war had left the empire absolutely desolate4 ,the land was impoverished1 the nation disrupted1 and the population reduced from seventeen millions before the war to five millions after the war4 ,the war had been a generation long and it had degraded the nation4 ,it had settled nothing4 ,it left the people poor and the princes absolute within their respective states4 ,the upper classes everywhere1 except at ,weimar1 had become profligate4 ,the universities were reduced to a position below what they were in the ,renaissance4 ,the prince of each state established the religion for his state1 so that practically no religious liberty had been gained4 ,lutherans1 ,calvinists1 and ,catholics were exhausted1 but were still antagonistic4 ,there was no moral activity among the ,orthodox2 often they set their own immorality up to prove the absolutism of their respective dogma4 ,the war left ,germany politically prostrate and intellectually stagnant4 ,in the years that follow the ,thirty ,years' ,war it is possible to detect movements that are the beginnings of the ,enlightenment4 ,it is an important point that ,germany was resuscitated from sources that lay within her own civilization4 ,the ,french ,enlightenment and the intellectual freedom of modern ,france were due largely to the influence of foreign ideas from ,england4 ,the seeds of the ,german intellectual revival were developed on her own soil4 ,those beginnings are 7#a7 the rise of ,prussia2 7#b7 the early ,german literature2 7#c7 the ,pietistic movement2 7#d7 the transformation of ,leibnitz's rationalism4 #a4 ,the rise of the little electorate of ,brandenburg to the powerful kingdom of ,prussia in #agdj was the political basis of the ,enlightenment that followed4 ,no state had suffered more during the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,the entire population was reduced to less than a million1 and ,berlin1 the capital1 had only three hundred citizens4 ,the government was as harshly absolute as elsewhere4 ,the rights of the citizens were entirely taken away by the three princes who ruled over ,prussia between #afdh and #agdj4 ,but a powerful kingdom was built up1 with a strong and patriotic army4 ,it extended its dominions and was a refuge for ,protestants1 who fled to it in large numbers4 ,it came to be feared by all the ,german states1 and in the latter part of this period it had to be reckoned with in the councils of ,europe4 ,itself an absolutism1 it was the vigorous political body that alone could destroy the traditional absolutism of the ,hapsburgs and the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,puffendorf declared that the old ,empire with its feeble sovereignties was a monster4 ,it was a monster spectrea stubborn political idea that hovered over ,europe4 ,frederick the ,great's mission in the next period was to destroy it4 #b4 ,the meagre ,german literature of this early period was also an important factor in the development of the ,enlightenment4 ,poor1 indeed1 it was4 ,never was ,german literary production so low4 ,before the war the ,germans had taken ,greek as their model2 after the war they copied the language1 manners1 and methods of the ,french of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the early literature was ruled in the same spirit of absolutism by ,opitz until #agjj1 and after him by ,gottsched1 especially in the years from #agcj to #agdj4 ,it was for only a small fraction of the people1 and was in the interests of the depraved aristocrats of the courts4 ,such pedantic absolutism was the basis of the reaction in the next period of the literary ,enlightenment1 which proved the redemption of ,germany4 #c4 ,the ,pietistic movement was the third factor that went to make up the ,german ,enlightenment4 ,it was a positive expression of religious individualism1 similar in its position to the ,prussian state in its independent growth in politics4 ,it was a religious movement outside the church4 ,its two leaders were ,spener 7#afce-agje7 and ,francke 7#affc-agbg74 ,the movement entered ,germany from the ,netherlands2 and the members were devout and holy men consecrated to good deeds4 ,the ,pietists were not heroic figures like the early ,lutherans1 but they stood for what ,luther had in his early period taught4 ,they opposed ecclesiastical formalism1 and they proclaimed the need of personal regeneration and of the universal priesthood4 ,they stood for religious freedom4 ,they made no onslaught upon the church1 but they were content with saving individuals4 ,pietism united at first with ,rationalismof which we shall next speakagainst orthodoxy1 but when the two had won their victory they quarreled4 ,although the ,pietistic movement later became itself conventional1 it furnished the ground for the religious freedom of the ,enlightenment4 ,during these hundred years of ,german religious absolutism1 the ,pietists represent the moral activity among religious bodies4 #d4 ,the chief source of the ,enlightenment was the philosophy of ,leibnitz4 ,in turning back to the life of this distinguished ,german the reader will remember that he was the 8first scientist in two hundred years10 and that he was the ,rationalist who presaged the ,enlightenment4 ,leibnitz was born in #afdf1 just two years before the war closed1 and he died in #agaf1 one year after the death of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,he lived during those unfruitful years after the war and before the ,enlightenment2 and his philosophy stands out prominently from the low plane of the intellectual activity of that time4 ,in #afhf he completed the construction of his philosophy by introducing the conception of the individual as a dynamic centre4 ,many ,german philosophers1 about the time of ,leibnitz1 had later tried to free philosophy from its technical difficulties and make it readable for the people as the ,french ,encyclopdia was for the ,french people4 ,among these were ,tschirnhausen 7#afea-agjh71 ,mendelssohn 7#agbi-aghf71 and ,tetens 7#agcf-ahje71 but the ,german ,enlightenment for many reasons did not come about like the ,french in the popularizing of philosophy4 ,the philosophy of ,leibnitz did reach the people directly1 but the people were stirred through the medium of literature rather than of philosophy4 ,leibnitz's philosophy became the dominant thought only in the universities and academic circles1 and remained so until the publication of ,kant's ,critique in #agha4 ,the ,halle professor1 ,wolff 7#afgi-aged71 developed and transformed it1 not to its advantage1 into an absolutism1 and under the name of the ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy it was the canon for the ,german schools4 ,once established in the universities it remained unchanged there even by the invasion of ,french thought that penetrated other ,german circles4 ,even ,voltaire's residence at the court at ,berlin 7#agej7 had no influence upon the ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy of the ,berlin ,academy4 ,the dogmatic absolutism of this philosophy remained impregnable in academic circles and was the last to be dislodgedand then only by a ,german4 ,there was little progress among these ,rationalists1 once their doctrine had been cast1 except in incorporating in an eclectic fashion the doctrine of others4 ,wolff systematized the unordered and desultory doctrines of ,leibnitz for the purpose of teaching them logically4 ,this was in #agjf1 when by the aid of ,leibnitz he obtained the professorship of mathematics at ,halle4 ,he met with instant success4 ,the rationalism of his doctrine is seen from the title of many of his works1 which are ,reasonable ,thoughts on ,god1 ,reasonable ,thoughts on the ,powers of the ,human ,understanding1 etc4 ,he lectured at ,halle until #agbc1 when he was expelled by the theological influence4 ,his return to ,halle in #agdj was coincident with the crowning of ,frederick the ,great and the beginning of the ,german ,enlightenment4 ,we can note a few general aspects of his teaching4 ,he employed the ,german language in his lectures1 following ,thomasius1 who was the first to do it4 ,leibnitz had written in letters and treatises for the few1 and had used either ,latin or ,french4 ,wolff expanded ,leibnitz's doctrine1 broadly and superficially1 for a larger public1 in the ,german tongue4 ,he systematized ,leibnitz's teaching1 and thereby could disseminate it4 ,but in doing this he so toned down ,leibnitz's leading ideas that they lost all their peculiar force4 ,for instance1 he taught that only the human mind has the power of representation2 and again1 that prestablished harmony applies only to the relation of the soul and body of the human monad4 ,in general1 he so extended the ,leibnitz principle of sufficient reason that it applied to all departments1 and was reduced to the principle of identity4 ,the world is a huge mechanism designed for divine ends4 ,rationality is assumed to be everywhere1 and knowledge of its existence is to be obtained only by deduction from evident principles4 ,the result was that the philosophy of ,leibnitz was reduced to a commonplace and empty rationalisma purely deductive affair4 ,wolff undertook to demonstrate everything1 and to make intelligible what is above reason4 ,the ,wolffian philosophy was a reversion to medival scholasticism1 since it solved all problems by proof through the cogency of mathematical and logical processes4 ,truth is a matter of definition and classification4 ,thus ,wolff produced a philosophy that was pedantic and formal1 clear but shallow4 ,it was ,leibnitzian with ,leibnitz omitted2 it was a thorough-going dogmatism1 because no problem was difficult to it2 it was a rationalism1 because to it all truth is the deliverance of the reason and none is derived from experience4 ,the ,wolffian ,rationalism became a factor in the ,german ,enlightenment on the one hand by combining with ,pietism1 and on the other through its translation into the new ,german literature4 ,in itself the ,wolffian ,rationalism was a dogmatism that merely supplanted the dogmatic scholasticism of ,melanchthon and ,luther4 ,it lost its absolutism in its combination with ,pietism1 and became a personal and individualistic religion4 ,it also lost its absolutism and became more like the philosophy of ,leibnitz through its translation into the literary writings of ,lessing and ,herder2 and thus was subordinated to an incident in individual culture4 ,summary of the ,literary ,enlightenment of ,germany 7#agdj-agha74 ,the ,german ,enlightenment was thus made possible by the political growth of ,prussia1 by the development of a meagre literature1 by the rise of ,pietism1 and by the ,wolffian interpretation of ,leibnitz's philosophy4 ,all these were important features of the century following the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,the year #agdj is the beginning of the ,german ,enlightenment4 ,it marks the crowning of ,frederick the ,great1 the decline of the influence of ,gottsched in literature1 and ,wolff's return to ,halle4 ,the arrival of ,voltaire in ,berlin 7#agej7 is an important factor in the rise of the ,german ,enlightenment4 ,the spirit of the ,enlightenment was at its height twenty years later 7#agfj71 contemporaneous with the ,seven ,years' ,war 7#agef-agfc7 and with the publication by ,lessing in #agei of his ,letters concerning the most ,modern ,literature4 ,in these ,letters ,lessing gave the death-blow to ,gottschedism1 and established the ,enlightenment on a firm basis4 ,this was followed by the ,storm and ,stress movement 7#aggc-aghg71 which brought the ,enlightenment proper to an end4 #agcj-agej ,period of ,experimentation,gottsched1 the ,swiss1 the ,anacreonticists1 etc4 #agdj ,the ,enlightenment inauguratedthe crowning of ,frederick the ,great1 the decline of ,gottschedism1 the return of ,wolff to ,halle4 #agej ,the coming of ,voltaire to ,berlin4 #agea-aghj ,lessing and the ,enlightenment4 #aggc-aghg ,storm and ,stress ,period4,the ,enlightenment proper at an end4#eb #aghg-ahje ,classicism4 7,schiller d4 #ahje74 #agie-ahej 7approximately7 ,the ,romantic ,movement4 #ahej- ,the ,realistic ,movement4 ,the ,political ,enlightenment of ,germany,frederick the ,great4 ,political changes preceded and did not follow philosophical theories in the ,german ,enlightenment4 ,germany was therefore like ,england and unlike ,france in this respect4 ,the coming of ,frederick to the throne of the now powerful ,prussia1 the reforms that he inaugurated1 the religious toleration that he granted1 his recall of ,wolff to ,halle1 his avowed support of intellectual things1 and especially the ,seven ,years' ,war 7#agef-agfc7 were the political groundwork that made possible the ,enlightenment in ,germany4 ,frederick himself is the great figure in the ,german ,enlightenment1 just as ,voltaire is in the ,french4 ,frederick accomplished in concrete acts for political ,europe what ,voltaire accomplished for ecclesiastical ,europe4 ,voltaire destroyed the ecclesiastical absolutism of the spiritual power1 while ,frederick destroyed the absolutism so long connected with the name of the ,holy ,roman ,empire and the ,house of ,hapsburg4 ,before he died1 he had freed the ,german states from the dominance of ,austria1 and had given to the ,empire its death-blow4 ,in the ,seven ,years' ,war he had given to modern ,europe an example of a new political ideal in an autocrat who professed to be the servant of the ,state4 ,his whole thought was upon the advancement of his ,state4 ,he set up the principle of the equality of his subjects before the law1 and the principle of religious and philosophical liberty4 ,in his external struggles with ,austria and in the internal construction of his kingdom ,frederick is the protest of the ,enlightenment against the arbitrary despotism of political ,europe4 ,the example of ,frederick was an inspiration to all ,germany4 ,kant calls the eighteenth century the ,age of ,frederick the ,great4 ,frederick had made his subjects feel that they were ,prussians1 or1 as ,goethe puts it1 8,fritzche0 7,fritz's men72 that the great foe of the ,german people was the ,german ,empire as personified by the ,austrians and ,saxons4 ,when he had conducted to a successful issue a deadly war of seven years single handed against the combined force of more than half of ,europe1,austria1 ,russia1 and ,france1 all representing political absolutism1he inspired patriotism not only in his own subjects1 but in the people of many other ,german states4 ,reforms were undertaken in ,bavaria1 ,baden1 ,saxony1 ,brunswick1 etc41 and by ,catherine of ,russia and ,joseph of ,austria4 ,furthermore1 ,frederick himself was personally enlightened2 he looked upon himself as the greatest among those of enlightened intellects4 ,he had become denationalized by his early training4 ,his father was fond of what was ,german1 his mother of what was ,english1 and he himself of what was ,french4 ,he had studied ,bayle1 read ,french philosophy1 and become acquainted with the rationalism of ,wolff and the empiricism of ,locke4 ,he was at one time an atheist and materialist2 but deism was his natural attitude of mind1 for he emphasized morality above speculation4 ,conceiving himself1 as the most enlightened1 to be the great servant of the ,state1 he undertook the enlightenment of his people4 ,all ,prussia must be enlightened by him1 and therefore no restrictive institutions1 such as guilds and corporations1 could be permitted4 ,the best man should rule1 and he was the best man4 ,since the people are incapable of looking after themselves1 they must be compelled under his benevolent autocracy to be enlightened1 rational1 and happy4 ,the ,course of the ,german ,enlightenment4 ,why did not the movement become as in ,france a political revolution8 ,there are three reasons why it did not3 7#a7 the reforms that the ,german princes adopted were wise2 7#b7 ,germany was composed of segregated states in which concerted action was difficult2 7#c7 a new intellectual and sthetic current was begun by ,lessing1 of whom we shall speak4 ,there is no doubt that the ,enlightenment in ,germany pointed to the same result as in ,france4 ,from #agfj to #aghj it looked as if ,germany as well as ,france would witness a tremendous social upheaval4 ,from #aggc to #aghg1 ,germany was stirred by the ,storm and ,stress movement4 ,frederick himself had pointed to the ,english parliamentary government as the 8model for our days40 ,the most of the ,german thinkers were at heart republicans1,klopstock1 ,schiller1 ,kant4 ,every man in ,germany became a little ,frederick1 and tried to enlighten those who were inferior to him4 ,the movement extended to the schoolroom4 ,secret societies were formed of kindred enlightened souls to enlighten the world4 ,the most important of these societies was the ,illuminati4 ,the aim of these was to free men from national and civil ties1 from pedantry1 intolerance1 political and theological slavery4 ,the human heart is the basis of society1 and the only worthy object of study4 ,the ,illuminati included even princes among its members4 ,it was established in #aggf and prohibited in #aghf4 ,there was a distinctive ,storm and ,stress literature4 ,this was set in motion by ,rousseau's ,hlose and ,emile1 which were widely read in ,germany4 ,writers glorified the individual1 called men back to primitive and uncorrupted nature1 denounced civilization1 and for twenty years it almost seemed as if the ,german ,enlightenment had turned from the intellectual achievements of ,lessing1 and would follow the sentimental appeal of ,rousseau4 ,herder was particularly prominent in this movement1 also ,goethe and ,schiller in their early writings4 ,of the three factors that saved ,germany from a political revolution1 perhaps the most potent was the new1 fresh1 literary ideas of ,lessing4 ,if ,frederick is the originator of the ,german ,enlightenment1 ,lessing is the savior of it4 ,the ,enlightenment in ,england stopped with the phenomenalism of ,hume1 in ,france with the ,revolution1 but in ,germany it has in a sense continued even to the present day4 ,the classic period of ,goethe and ,schiller1 the modern scientific achievements of the ,germans1 have their perpetual source in ,lessing4 ,he not only gave the death-blow to the pedantic absolutism of the intellectual past1 but he set the movement upon a permanent intellectual basis1 upon which it has stood against the assaults of sentimentalism for a hundred and fifty years4 ,lessing4 ,g4 ,e4 ,lessing 7#agbi-agha7 was not only a sound scholar1 but a polished man of the social world4 ,he was a writer of epigrams1 fables1 and comedies1 a dramatic and literary critic1 a translator and essayist1 a student of philosophy and ecclesiastical history1 and a writer upon art4 ,his ,nathan the ,wise is1 after ,goethe's ,faust1 the greatest literary production of ,german thought4 ,with him ,german literature begins4 ,he rejected the ,french models accepted by ,gottsched2 he introduced ,shakespeare to the ,germans2 and he surpassed all his contemporaries in literary and artistic reform1 social enlightenment1 and religious emancipation4 ,lessing and ,winckelmann were the first to spread a love for the past by a critical study of it4 ,lessing was not a violent iconoclast like ,voltaire1 but a discriminating critic4 ,he said that if ,leibnitz had wished for an interpreter1 he would not have chosen ,wolff4 ,the new literary writers1 ,lessing and ,herder1 in their insistence upon subjectivity and intuition1 rather than ,wolff1 were the true interpreters of ,leibnitz4 ,lessing differed from the ,enlightenment in his conception of the present in its continuity with the past4 ,herder1 too1 was interested in development4 ,lessing pointed to the perfect models in the past2 ,herder to the origins of things4 ,both believed in an immanent ,god and the harmony of the universe4 ,at this time the problems in sthetics came to light1 and with them the creation of 8world literature10 which drew from all historical thoughtfrom antiquity1 the ,renaissance1 and the ,enlightenment4 ,the ,pietists1 the ,wolffians1 and the literary writers agreed in taking the subjective point for their view of life4 ,thus ,leibnitz appears through ,lessing as a motive power in the ,german ,enlightenment4 ,lessing's doctrine of individuality so transcended that of the ,storm and ,stress ,period that he was not understood by it4 ,his enlightened individual suppresses his individuality4 ,but his principles were so fundamental that the ,storm and ,stress ,period proved to be only an interruption1 and the ,german ,enlightenment was perpetuated4 ,he thus projected himself beyond the eighteenth century by the instruments of that century4 ,,chapter ,x ,,kant#ec ,the ,convergence of ,philosophical ,influences in ,germany4 ,the intellectual thoroughfare from the past into our modern times does not pass in the eighteenth century through ,england1 nor yet through ,france1 but by way of ,germany4 ,traditional ,france ended with the ,french political revolution1 while the ,english empirical movement proved its own inconsistency in the phenomenalism of ,hume4 ,in ,germany alone1 at the close of the eighteenth century1 there was a renewed and brilliant intellectual life4 ,in its creative productions it has been compared by the ,germans to the ,systematic ,period of ,greek thought 7from the death of ,socrates to that of ,aristotle74 ,both periods appeared when the political fortunes of the respective countries were at their lowest ebb4 ,there were six large influences that converged upon this epoch1 some of which we have already noted as beginning even as far back as the period introductory to the ,enlightenment 7#afdh-agdj7 7see pp4 #bag ff474 ,some are later in their origin or come from a foreign source4 ,let us merely enumerate them here4 7#a7 ,pietism1 the religious influence that began with ,spener 7#afce7 and swept ,germany in the eighteenth century2 7#b7 ,the sentimentalism of ,rousseau2 7#c7 ,the empirical psychology of ,locke among the younger ,germans2 7#d7 ,the ,rationalism of the ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy1 which was most powerful in academic circles2 7#e7 ,the mathematical rigorism of the nature-philosophy of ,newton2 7#f7 ,the new literary writers in their insistence upon subjectivity and intuition4 ,the ,three ,characteristics of ,german ,philosophy4 ,german philosophy will be seen to have three characteristics4 7#a7 ,it is scholastic or academic4 ,it is the philosophy of the professors of universities4 ,at the same time it must be said to be the expression of the social genius of the ,german people4 ,napoleon testified to this when he said1 8,the ,english inhabit the sea1 the ,french the land1 the ,germans the air40 7#b7 ,this ,german philosophy is mystical4 ,it is profound rather than external4 ,it is not founded upon external experience1 but upon a questioning of the inner and spiritual life4 ,it is inward1 religious1 and spiritual1 like the philosophy of ,plato4 ,one of the most accurate interpreters of ,kant has pointed out the many similarities between ,kant and ,plato 7see ,paulsen1 ,immanuel ,kant74 7#c7 ,german philosophy was nevertheless cosmic1 or a description of the world4 ,these men whom we are now to study were not ignorant of the world or of science4 ,political life offered them no attractions4 ,the soul of man was regarded by them as too noble to be engrossed in external things4 ,as ,madame ,de ,stal said of the time1 8,there was nothing to do save for him whose concern was with the universe40 ,men1 however1 took the inner point of view1 and regarded all things with reference to it4 ,the ,germans tried to humanize the universe4 ,they looked upon nature as working out unconsciously those processes which consciously took place in man4 ,the contemplation of beauty is not that of an external world1 but of the inmost nature of reality4 ,thus individuality and cosmic reality are one and the same4 ,life has a joyful outlook1 not because our tasks are easy1 but because our strength is equal to them2 for is not ,god in us8 ,the ,two ,periods of ,german ,philosophy4 ,german philosophy is divided into two epochs3 7#a7 the period of the formation of the critical theory of knowledge by ,kant2 7#b7 the period of the metaphysical development of ,fichte1 ,schelling1 ,hegel1 ,herbart1 and ,schopenhauer4 ,kant belongs both to the ,enlightenment and to ,german idealism4 ,he is the point of convergence of the intellectual forces that preceded him and the point of departure of the idealists who followed him4 ,for this reason historians differ as to the period in which he is to be placed4 ,in one sense he is the transition from the ,enlightenment1 in another sense he is the introduction of ,german idealism4 ,but in reality he forms an epoch between the two4 ,although the dualism1 which was always the background of the philosophy of the ,enlightenment1 formed too the background of his thought1 although he on the other hand looked upon his ,critique of ,pure ,reason as only an introduction to a metaphysics1 which he never wrote1 nevertheless he occupies a unique place in drawing up for his time and for the future a new conceptual standard by which the new problems might be criticised4 ,the problem that ,kant set before himself was epistemological and not one of metaphysics4 ,after ,kant there appeared a growth of metaphysics4 ,the great ,german idealistic systems appeared4 ,at first the ,kantian theory was misunderstood1 but at ,jena1 then the chief intellectual centre in ,germany1 there was formed a little group of ,kantians under the leadership of ,rheinhold4 ,jena is near ,weimar 7see map p4 #bhj71 which was the main literary city of ,germany1 and the residence of ,goethe4 ,the poetry of ,weimar and the philosophy of ,jena stimulated each other4 ,schiller is a notable example of the influence of ,kant upon the literature of the time4 ,in philosophy ,kant was followed by the various systems of ,fichte1 ,schelling1 ,hegel1 ,herbart1 and ,schopenhauer1 which built a metaphysical superstructure upon the ,kantian foundation4 ,the ,influences upon ,kant4 ,the development of ,kant's thought was modified by influences from at least five different sources4 #a4 ,pietism4 ,this was the earliest influence upon his life1 and was due to his parents and to ,f4 ,a4 ,schultze1 the teacher of the high school of ,knigsberg4 ,it will be remembered that this ethical ,puritanism was a moral reaction against the formalism of the churches in the period after the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,kant never lost his attachment for the ,pietists2 and his later rigoristic ethical theory1 as well as his own personal life1 sprang from his early ,pietistic training4 ,schiller wrote to ,goethe1 8,there is always something about ,kant1 as about ,luther1 which reminds one of the monk1 who has indeed quitted his cloister1 but who can never quite rid himself of its traces40 #b4 ,the ,leibnitz-,wolffian ,philosophy4 ,this influence came during his academic training in the ,university of ,knigsberg1 which he entered upon at the age of sixteen years4 ,this was in #agdj1 the same year in which ,frederick was crowned and ,wolff was recalled to ,halle1the time when the ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy was at the fullness of control of ,germany4 ,it must not be forgotten that this philosophy remained dominant in ,german academic circles until ,kant's own theory supplanted it in the nineties4 ,kant was an avowed disciple of the ,wolffian school for the next twenty years 7until #agfj71 and he never shook off the ,wolffian metaphysical dualism4 #c4 ,the ,physics of ,newton4 ,to his university training ,kant was indebted also for his acquaintance with ,newton4 ,the antagonism between the metaphysics of ,wolff and the physics of ,newton was1 at least at the beginning of ,kant's career1 of decisive importance in his development4 ,one of ,kant's teachers at the university was ,martin ,knutzen1 whose lectures included philosophy1 mathematics1 and natural science4 ,through personal intercourse with ,knutzen1 the young ,kant was introduced to the ,wolffian philosophy1 and also to the ,newtonian mathematics and physics4 ,during his activity as a teacher ,kant showed1 even into his later period1 a predilection for natural science1 especially for physical geography and anthropology4 ,the same year in which he entered upon his career as teacher in the ,university of ,knigsberg 7#agee71 he published his celebrated ,theory of the ,heavens1 in which he anticipated ,laplace by forty years in the formulation of the nebular hypothesis4 #d4 ,the ,humanitarianism of ,rousseau4 ,kant got from ,rousseau a new evaluation of man4 ,kant had the advantage of a prolonged youthful development4 ,he was well into his thirties when the movement1 begun by ,lessing1 became a social force in ,germany4 ,a new political consciousness appeared among the ,german people1 due to the influence of ,frederick the ,great and to that of the ,frenchmen1 ,voltaire and ,rousseau4 ,kant was thirty-eight 7in #agfb7 when he read ,rousseau's ,emile4 ,kant had been brought up in the common teaching of the early part of the ,enlightenment to despise the ignorant masses of people4 ,through ,rousseau he received in words of authority the conception of the inherent dignity of the individual man4 ,through this conception science and speculation came to have a new value to ,kant4 ,they were no longer ends in themselves1 but the means for moral development4 ,the moral in its primacy over the intellectual came to be a permanent feature in ,kant's doctrine4 ,his early ,pietism was confirmed1 and ,rousseau replaced ,newton in his regard4 #e4 ,the ,skepticism of ,hume4 ,the influence of ,hume's skepticism was felt by ,kant just before his eleven years of silence1 when he became engaged in his construction of his critical problem4 ,but ,hume influenced ,kant in a negative way4 ,the classic and oft-quoted expression of ,kant1 that ,hume awoke him from his 8dogmatic slumber10 refers to the dogmatism of the empirical school to which ,hume belonged1 and not to that of the rationalistic school of ,wolff4 ,to ,kant both empiricism and rationalism were dogmatic2 the one because it assumed the validity of sensations1 the other because it assumed the existence of innate ideas4 ,thus ,hume effected a reaction in ,kant against ,hume's own doctrine4 ,but in thus reacting from ,hume1 ,kant saw that the answer was to be found not in the rationalism of ,wolff1 but in an ideal conception of space and time4 ,hume's influence was the last before ,kant firmly established his theory of knowledge in his ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd74 ,the external changes in the life of ,immanuel ,kant were the fewest possible4 ,he was born at ,knigsberg in #agbd2 he went to the school of that city and then to its university1 and then acted in the capacity of tutor in families in the province of ,knigsberg4 ,he became privat-docent in the university at the age of thirty-one1 and professor of logic and metaphysics at the age of forty-four4 ,he was called to the ,university of ,halle in #aggh1 but he refused to leave ,knigsberg4 ,in fact1 ,kant never went outside the province1 and but little outside the city4 ,nevertheless1 in the eighties he saw himself become the most important figure in ,knigsberg1 and in the nineties the most important power in ,german academic circles4 ,in #agid he came under the censure of the reactionary government of ,frederick ,william ,,ii and 8was obliged to refrain in the future from all public addresses on religion40 ,this was the only outer conflict in his life4 ,in #ahjd1 at the age of eighty1 he died4 ,the externals of his life were from the beginning to the end an undeviating routine1his lectures1 his daily walk1 his dinner with friends1 his hours of reflection upon his great problem4 ,these have been made the subject of many descriptions4#ed ,the life of ,kant is notable because it is the history of an unusual singleness of devotion to the solution of a speculative problem4 ,his youthful point of departure was the rationalism of ,wolff2 his point of attainment was the ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,between these two points his history was a series of mental reversals4 ,kant spoke of his life as divided into two parts at the year #aggj2 his pre-critical and his critical periods4 ,at that time there was a change in the form as well as the content of his writings4 ,his pre-critical writings possess a graceful1 flowing style2 his critical works are heavy and artificial in their structure1 and reveal the labor with which his thought tried to reconcile contending motifs4 ,so far as the content of ,kant's thought is concerned the pre-critical period will be seen to fall into two subdivisions at the year #agfj4 ,kant's life may therefore be divided into three epochs3 7#a7 #agbd-agfj1 the period when he was a ,wolffian rationalist2 7#b7 #agfj-aggj1 the period when he was an empirical skeptic2 7#c7 #aggj-ahjd1 the period when he was a critical epistemologist4 ,in the first period he accepted the rationalism of ,wolff1 but his main interest1 as shown by his writings1 was in natural science4 ,he was inspired by the natural philosophy of ,newton1 which1 in the latter part of this period1 led him to mistrust the metaphysics of ,wolff4 ,that is to say1 he began to suspect that the mere logical operation of concepts by the 8pure reason0 could not be a statement about things in the real world4 ,in the next ten yearshis second periodhe became convinced that the metaphysics of the rationalists was impossible1 and yet that the metaphysics of the empirical school of the ,english was equally absurd4 ,his writings during this time are more strictly devoted to questions of metaphysics and epistemology4 ,then came his critical period4 ,this was inaugurated by his celebrated ,dissertation of #aggj1 followed by a period of eleven years of literary silence1 a silence broken by the publication of his ,critique of ,pure ,reason in #agha4 ,between #agha and #agij appeared the more mature works from ,kant's pen4 ,among them were the ,critique of ,practical ,reason 7#aghh7 and the ,critique of ,judgment 7#agij71 formed on the model of the ,critique of ,pure ,reason4 ,besides these1 his minor writings were very numerous1 and one notes an essay by him in the last year of his life4 ,but the writings of ,kant after #agij treat in the main of the philosophy of law and conduct1 and show themselves to be the writings of his declining years4 ,the ,problem of ,kant4 ,the problem which ,kant placed before himself was that of epistemology4 ,epistemology is the theory of knowledge1 and ,kant set to work to investigate the knowing process4 ,the peculiar significance of ,kant rests upon the fact that out of the various influences converging upon him and his time he matured a new conception of the problem and of the method of procedure of philosophy4 ,he was convinced that the problem of his time was not one of metaphysical speculation1 although he felt the value of such speculation in the regions of religion and morals4 ,yet he saw that the metaphysical rationalism of ,wolff had proved itself inadequate because it was merely the logical operation of concepts1 and had not dealt with real relations4 ,he was equally sure that the empirical metaphysics of the ,englishmen was inadequate because it was never certain of any truth4 ,rational metaphysics was logically true1 but not real2 empirical metaphysics was real enough1 but never true4 ,so ,kant determined to find out the relation between the logical process of thought and the reality of things4 ,he felt that the first problem in his time to be faced and settled was the problem of knowledge1the epistemological problem4 ,he planned to face later the metaphysical problem1 but he delayed this until too late in his old age4 ,the problem of ,kant can be put in the simple question1 ,what can we know8 ,the metaphysical problem that he deferred was1 ,what is real8 ,yet his problem was not nearly so simple as this statement would seem to make it2 for the epistemological problem which he set himself was complicated by the ,wolffian metaphysical dualism which he always presupposed4 ,since ,kant agreed with the ,wolffian dualismthe theory that a great gulf separates mind and matterhis query about knowledge was not the simple question1 ,what can we know8 but the longer question1 ,what can we know about the external world8 ,the ,method of ,kant4 ,there is bound up with the epistemological problem a new method of procedure in solving it4 ,how shall we find out what we can know8 ,kant calls his method the critical method4 ,it is not only a criticism in a general sense1 in that it weighs carefully the conditions of knowledge4 ,it is also criticism in the special sense of confining itself to a restricted field4 ,kant pointed out that two methods may be employed1 the dogmatic and the transcendental4 ,he asserted that the dogmatic method had been employed in the past and had proved itself fallacious4 ,what is the dogmatic method8 ,all philosophy was dogmatic to ,kant which sought to find out what knowledge is true by showing how it originated and developed4 ,dogmatism is no solution2 it is merely a psychological tracing of ideas to their sources4 ,these sources will be either innate ideas1 if we are rationalists1 or sensations1 if we are empiricists4 ,the true method is the transcendental or critical method4 ,what is this method8 ,it is a study of the nature of the reason itself4 ,it is an examination of the 8pure reason0 to see if its judgments have in any instance a universality beyond human experience1 and yet are necessary to human experience4 ,the logic of such judgments must be absolutely reliable2 and yet at the same time the judgments must be applicable to the world of things4 ,the method being transcendental1 such judgments are transcendental2 not because they transcend our experience1 but because they are necessary to experience4 ,the transcendental is not what is chronologically but what is rationally prior4 ,the transcendental is the indispensable to knowledge4 ,the critical method is the finding of this indispensable condition4 ,kant would search the whole field of the reason for this4 ,since to ,kant thinking1 feeling1 and willing are the fundamental forms of the reason1 he sought the realm of thought for the transcendental principles of knowledge1 that of the will for the transcendental principles of morality1 that of feeling for the transcendental principles of beauty4 ,the ,threefold ,world#ee of ,kant,subjective ,states1 ,things-in-,themselves1 and ,phenomena4 ,in his search for those indispensable conditions of knowledge of the external world1 ,kant unfolds the threefold character of the realm of human life4 ,to ,wolff the world had been twofold4 ,in other words1 ,wolff had conceived the world as dual1 in which there was a correspondence1 part by part1 of independent reality to the states of consciousness4 ,to ,wolff reality is independent of consciousness1 and yet we are conscious of that reality4 ,now ,kant never gave up entirely the ,wolffian dualism1 but he came to see that in such a situation there could be no knowledge4 ,for how can we be conscious of what is absolutely independent of us8 ,consequently ,kant plundered the ,wolffian worlds of independent realities to build up an intermediate world1a world of phenomena4 ,he dissolved the sharpness of ,wolff's dualism into a world with three divisions2 and he gave to each division a new epistemological value4 ,these were the realm of the subjective states or the inner consciousness of the individual1 the world of phenomena or the realm of knowledge1 and the world of absolute reality or that of things-in-themselves4 ,the value of the world of phenomena consists in its being the realm of knowledge4 ,the other two realms have values of their own1 which we shall describe below4 ,wolff's twofold world may be thus compared with ,kant's threefold world3 ,wolff4 ,kant4 #a4 ,mind4 #a4 ,subjective states4 #b4 ,phenomenathe realm of knowledge4 #b4 ,matter4 #c4 ,things-in-themselves4 #a4 ,the realm of subjective states evidently is not a realm of knowledge4 ,for it is the realm of intuition and immediate apprehension of the individual's own ideas and sensations2 and this is not what we mean by knowledge4 ,this subjective world is that in which ,i live alone4 ,it is a realm of which nobody else is conscious1 a realm which gives to me my individuality4 ,the only connecting linkage between my various purely subjective states is the accidental order of time in which1 empirically or by association1 they occur4 ,animal intelligence possesses only such sense-perceptions and sensations1 and these are modifications of its subjective consciousness4 ,such a mental constitution has not the capacity for knowledge1 but only the haphazard association of ideas4 ,kant looked upon the content of subjective consciousness as the object only of psychological investigation4 #b4 ,the realm of things-in-themselves is not to ,kant the realm of knowledge4 ,by things-in-themselves ,kant distinctly does not mean things-for-us1 not material bodies1 not nature objects4 ,it must be remembered that ,kant has plundered the material realm of the dualist4 ,the things-in-themselves which are left behind as a residuum lie outside all sense-perception and so beyond all knowledge4 ,a divine intelligence might have the things-in-themselves as objects of knowledge1 but not we human beings4 ,the thing-in-itself is the unknown and unknowable4 ,but if this realm of things-in-themselves is so absolutely independent of us that we cannot in any way know it1 how can we say that it exists8 ,kant replies to this3 while we cannot say what a thing-in-itself is1 we are obliged to say that it is4 ,for although beyond even our sense-perception1 it stands as a necessary postulate to perception1 as a mere 8problem40 ,kant also calls things-in-themselves ,noumena1 and regards them as 8limiting concepts0 to the divine non-sensuous intelligence4 ,their reality is as little to be denied as affirmed4 #c4 ,kant pointed out that between or beside the realm of subjectivity and that of the things-in-themselves lies the realm of human knowledge1 which we in our every-day speech call physical nature1 and to which he gave the name 8the world of phenomena0 or 8the world of experience40 ,the subjective world is apprehended by the individual alone1 the world of things-in-themselves is known by no human being1 but the world of phenomena is the common object of knowledge of humanity4 ,phenomena are not things-in-themselves1 but things-for-us2 they are physical nature1 an interrelated totality for us4 ,they constitute not absolute reality1 but a reality relative to us4 ,phenomena are experiences in their relations2 such related experiences are objects of knowledge1 and in their thoroughly organized and systematic form they constitute nature4 ,thus the dualism which we ordinarily meet1 like the 8two world0 theory of ,wolff1 has many differences from this critical theory of ,kant with its threefold divisions of one world4 ,one of the most important is that in ,kant's theory the correspondence between states of consciousness and reality has disappeared4 ,reality touches consciousness only at one point1at that point where sensations arise4 ,sensations mark the boundary between unknown reality and conscious life4 ,on the side of reality all is darkness2 on the side of conscious life all is the creation of our complex synthetic activity4 ,with the boundary line of sensation as a base1 the two realms extend in opposite directions4 ,in value the realm of our conscious life is only relative2 that of reality or things-in-themselves is absolute4 ,the ,world of ,knowledge4 ,there is this to be observed about the threefold realm of ,kant3 the realm of subjectivity and that of knowledge together make up our conscious life4 ,one is the realm of the conscious individual1 and the other the realm of the consciousness of humanity4 ,kant conceived this further distinction between the two realms3 in a purely subjective state the mind is entirely passive and its content is without control2 in a state of knowing the mind is actively engaged in collecting and relating its ideas4 ,this is called by ,kant synthesis4 ,when ,kant was formulating his problem1 there gradually came to him in clearer outline the synthetic nature of the activity of the human reason4 ,he felt more and more that the secret of the knowing process was to be explained by its function of combining many experiences into a unity4 ,this conception of synthesis is what separates the ,critique of ,pure ,reason from all the previous writings of ,kant4 ,furthermore1 the three books of the ,critique are expositions of the different stages in which mental synthesis completes itself3 in 7#a7 perception1 7#b7 understanding1 and 7#c7 reason4 ,the knowing activity of man develops in these three different forms of synthesis1 in which each lower stage is the content of the higher4 ,what1 then1 is the central factor in knowledge8 ,it is the synthetic power of the mind4 ,the mind is not merely passively aware of its sensations as they come seriatim1 but it actively relates them and holds them together4 ,the mind is a dynamic agent whose activity consists in synthesizing in the present moment its experiences of the past4 ,the human mind is not like a curtain upon which stereopticon pictures appear and then disappear in turn4 ,it retains its pictures1 although they are no longer being thrown upon the screen4 ,suppose we hear the ticking of a clock4 ,now if we had no synthetic power1 all we should apprehend would be one1 one1 one1and so on4 ,but we do have synthetic power1 and we say one1 two1 three1 and so on4 ,we count in a series in which each term includes the preceding term4 ,two includes one1 and three includes two1 etc4 ,this is knowledge4 ,it is cumulative experience4 ,the experience of twenty animals1 each having one experience1 is not the same as the experience of one man having twenty experiences4 ,in vain would nature act on man if the mind of man through memory and imagination did not carry over experiences4 ,so the important thing is not what happens1 but what power the human mind has4 ,knowledge1 then1 to ,kant is the unifying of the manifold4 ,there are1 therefore1 two aspects to knowledge2 the passive sensations and the active power of synthesis4 ,sensations1 on the one hand1 are the raw material out of which reason through its various forms creates the finished fabric of knowledge4 ,sensations are the content of knowledge4 ,on the other hand1 there is the active unifying power of the reason4 ,knowledge consists of sensations and synthesis in conjunction4 ,reason alone deals with 8thought relations0 or imaginations1 whenever it tries to treat objects of which sensations are not the raw material4 ,sensations alone1 however1 are only subjective states4 ,the oft-quoted sayings of ,kant1 that 8,only in experience is the truth10 and that 8,conception without perception is empty1 perception without conception is blind10 refer to the restriction of knowledge to the sense-materials and to the synthetic function of the reason4 ,the ,place of ,synthesis in ,knowledge4 ,what position does synthesis occupy in the total process of knowledge8 ,is synthesis one of the factors or elements of knowledge8 ,is synthesis on the same level with the sensations1 the feelings1 the imaginations8 ,no1 it is very different4 ,the synthesis that ,kant is describing is not the product or conclusion from an inference4 ,kant does not mean by synthesis the combination of facts as a result1 such as a biologist might make in framing the law of the habits of animals from his observation of them4 ,the synthesis that ,kant is talking about is not so much the result of combining experiences as the act of combining them4 ,the frame of the unified manifold1 the law of its unification1 the act of binding the isolated experiences together is synthesis4 ,synthesis occupies a higher level than the elements of knowledge or knowledge itself4 ,synthesis is the knowing process rather than the known product4 ,it is constitutive2 it is creative2 it conditions experience and puts the material of experience together4 ,it must not be thought to be a voluntary act of the mind1 which the mind will or will not do1 as it pleases4 ,when the mind acts1 it synthesizes4 ,furthermore1 the synthetic functioning of all human minds everywhere is the same4 ,however much their sensations differ1 they combine and orderly arrange their sense-materials in the same ways4 ,the synthesis of the human mind is the source of the universality belonging to knowledge2 the sensations1 the 8given10 are the source of the difference in knowledge4 ,knowledge is the result of minds that function in absolutely the same ways2 and we should never have knowledge if the order and linkage of the world depended on the accident of experience4 ,take1 for example1 such laws as those of mathematics or the physical law of cause4 ,these are the same for everybody4 ,they are universal laws4 ,the ordinary conception of them as independent principles of an independent nature world will not account for their necessity for everybody and their universality4 ,as independent principles they would differ for different peoples just as sensations differ4 ,in that case we should have no knowledge4 ,human beings could not then think about the same things1 nor reason under the same guiding principles4 ,however1 we do think alike1 we have the same geometry1 the same physical laws1 the same time-estimates2 and simply because we function alike synthetically4 ,knowledge is thus the common possession of humanity because the synthetic functioning of the different individual men is identically the same4 ,a very good way to get at ,kant's central principle of synthesis is to draw this picture4 ,suppose that besides the race of human beings with its own peculiar way of ordering its world1 there were a race of angels endowed with its own powers1 another of hobgoblins likewise endowed with its own powers1 and so on to x1 y1 and z racesany number you please4 ,what would be the situation8 ,in the first place1 each one of the groups would be absolutely isolated from each of the others4 ,no one would have the power to know even the existence of the others4 ,no one race would even have anything in common with the others4 ,the world of each would be different4 ,in the next place each would be trying to interpret reality1 and in doing so1 each would construct and order a world of reality of its own4 ,the members of each race would have a world in common and the members would know one another4 ,but that is all4 ,the members of each race would not be able to get outside their own powers of synthesis4 ,in ,holy ,writ the home of the angels has been sometimes described as having no time and space1 but this means only that space and time are aspects of our mental synthesis and not of theirs4 ,we live in our world of our interpretative construction of reality1 and they in theirs4 ,the same would have to be said of x1 y1 and z4 ,none would live in a world of absolute reality4 ,but each would live in a world made different from all the other worlds by the differing mental powers of each race4 ,yet the members of each race would inhabit a world in common because the individuals of each had common mental powers4 ,the particular world that human beings inhabit is called physical nature1 whose laws are known as the laws of science4 ,how can it be one world in which so many millions of different human beings live8 ,because these millions of human beings are under the same fundamental rational laws1 and they construct the world in a common fashion4 ,the laws of nature are1 after all1 the laws of our own minds4 ,they are the laws of reason4 ,the laws of nature are not the laws of absolute reality1 but the laws of the human interpretation of reality4 ,all the linkage of facts1 all the law and order of our universe1 all the combination of the variety of objects of knowledgein a word1 the entire body of science or the world of physical nature is a human mental synthesis4 ,does independent absolute reality exist8 ,yes2 but it exists behind the scenes for us as for the angels4 ,mental synthesis is constitutive of the world in which we are actually engagedmental synthesis is shot through and through all our experiences4 ,mental synthesis is the framework of the universe1 and therefore ,kant says1 8,the world is my representation40 ,the ,judgments ,indispensable to ,human ,knowledge4 ,it will be seen from the above discussion that ,kant does not believe that an idea or a sensation taken by itself constitutes knowledge4 ,knowledge consists of sensations framed together in a synthesis4 ,that is1 ideas must be taken together with other ideas4 ,this is called in grammar a proposition1 having a subject and a predicate4 ,in logic it is called a judgment4 ,the only way a human being can express knowledge is in the form of judgments1 but all judgments of human beings are not necessarily knowledge4 ,judgments are divided by ,kant into two large classes1analytic and synthetic4 ,the large class of analytic judgments are not expressions of knowledge4 ,what is an analytic judgment8 ,an analytic judgment merely expresses in the predicate something that is contained in the usual meaning of the subject4 ,such a judgment articulates the meaning of an idea by emphasizing some of its well-known attributes4 ,thus we say1 8,gold is yellow40 ,such a statement about 8gold0 does not show any knowledge4 ,it is called sometimes an explicative statement4 ,it is tautologous1 but not on that account trivial4 ,let us look then to synthetic judgments to see if they express knowledge4 ,but first1 what is a synthetic judgment8 ,a synthetic judgment is one in which the predicate is not contained in the usual meaning of the subject4 ,it is a statement of something new about the subject in hand4 ,for example1 the judgment1 8,the watch is yellow0 is a synthetic judgment because the predicate 8yellow0 is not a necessary part of the meaning of 8watch40 ,a synthetic judgment therefore brings two ideas together in a new relation4 ,it thereby enriches knowledge and is the expression of discovery4 ,the synthetic judgment is often called ampliative4 7,the double meaning which ,kant gives the term 8synthetic0 need not confuse us4 ,synthesis is used by ,kant to mean the framing constitution of the mind1 and also as one of the results of the activity of the mind1 i4 e4 a class of judgments4 ,in the first sense all judgments1 both analytic and synthetic1 are expressions of synthesis47 ,are all synthetic judgments expressions of knowledge8 ,kant replies that they certainly are not4 ,he points out that there are two classes of synthetic judgments3 one class he calls a posteriori and the other a priori4 ,by a posteriori he means judgments founded in some sense-perception1 which are particular judgments or judgments that are inferences from a greater or less induction of sense-perceptions4 ,for example1 if ,i say1 8,to-day is warm10 or that 8,swans1 so far as ,i have observed1 are white10 ,i am making a synthetic judgment1 because ,i am joining two ideas in a new relation1 and ,i am also making an a posteriori judgment1 because it is a statement founded upon sense-perception4 ,now ,kant rules such judgments out from those that constitute true knowledge4 ,this would rule out even empirical generalizations of high probability1 such as 8,the sun rises in the east40 ,a posteriori judgments1 or those founded on experience1 however large1 do not give us knowledge1 but merely probability4 ,the cases upon which such judgments are founded are always limited1 and there may be exceptions beyond our observation4 ,the only kind of judgments that are the expression of true knowledge must1 therefore1 be synthetic judgments that are a priori4 ,that is to say1 they must express some new relation between ideas that is also universally and necessarily true4 ,by a priori ,kant means the universal and necessary2 and1 furthermore1 he maintains that the universal and necessary1 and nothing else1 constitutes knowledge4 ,he points out that we make such judgments4 ,when we say that the three angles of a triangle equal two right angles1 or that every event has a cause1 we are saying something universal and necessary1 something not founded on experience4 ,no one would admit that there were exceptions to these propositions4 ,the question1 then1 that ,kant tries to answer in his ,critique of ,pure ,reason is1 ,how are synthetic judgments a priori possible8 ,or since to ,kant knowledge consists of synthetic judgments a priori1 under what conditions is knowledge possible8#ef ,for the sake of clearness1 let us state this problem of ,kant in another way4 ,it is the nature of man to try by mere thinking to discover the nature of reality4 ,the dogmatic school of ,rationalists had attempted1 without calling in experience to its aid1 to weave out of pure thought answers to the questions about ,god1 immortality1 and nature4 ,it had maintained that clear and distinct notions have a reality corresponding to them1 and are therefore real4 ,judgments formed in this way are analytic a priori2 but it is evident that while such analyses of thought have a cogency for thought1 they do not necessarily have a corresponding reality4 ,on the other hand1 conclusions based on experience have a kind of validity for the real world1 but they yield no certain truth about it4 ,these are synthetic judgments a posteriori4 ,if ,hume is right in saying that these are the only judgments dealing with nature1 then we have no certain truth about nature4 ,they give generalizations that are useful on the whole1 but their conclusions range only from possibility to high probability1 and never reach certainty4 ,besides 7#a7 conceptual knowledge and 7#b7 8knowledge of matters of fact10 ,kant pointed out that there is a third kind4 ,this is the only valid kind4 ,this knowledge is based on synthetic judgments a priori4 ,such knowledge arises independently of experience1 i4 e4 is a priori1 and yet is valid for experience1 i4 e4 is synthetic4 ,hume's statement that such knowledge is synthetic a posteriori is not accepted by ,kant4 ,kant is1 therefore1 bound to show how this third class of synthetic judgments a priori is possible1 and how pure thought can be binding on experience4 ,the ,proof of the ,validity of ,human ,knowledge4 ,if we turn now to review what we have said about ,kant1 we find that he undertakes to solve the problem1 ,how can we know8 by a critical study of the forms of the reason4 ,we have found that the reason is essentially a synthetic power1 and is the framework of the world of phenomena to which knowledge is limited4 ,knowledge is the complex thing1 consisting of sensations as its woof and synthesis as its warp4 ,to answer the question1 ,under what conditions is knowledge possible8 we must study not sensations1 but synthesis in its several forms4 ,if ,kant can show that the mind furnishes the a priori1 that is1 the universal and necessary forms to knowledge1 he thinks he has proved his case4 ,he has then explained why human knowledge is valid and thus proved that human knowledge is valid4 ,now ,kant tries to show what the special a priori forms of knowledge are and in what the validity of such forms consists4 ,in the first book of the ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 the sthetic1 he undertakes to show what the a priori forms of mathematics are and how they make knowledge valid by being forms of mental synthesis4 ,in the next part of the ,critique1 the ,analytic1 he tries to show what the a priori forms of the knowledge of physical science are and how they make physical science valid and objective4 ,in the last part1 the ,dialectic1 he discusses the a priori forms of the reason and shows why they have no validity in knowledge4 ,these are three stages in which the knowing activity develops as three different forms of synthesis4 ,the stages are perception1 understanding1 and reason4 ,each higher stage has the lower as its content4 ,finished knowledge involves perceptions1 reproductions in the understanding1 and a recognition of the whole by a thinking subject4 ,perception1 understanding1 and reason are not separate acts1 but different levels of one consciousness4 ,these will be taken up in succession4 #a4 ,in ,what does the ,validity of ,sense-,perception ,consist8 ,kant points out3 7#a7 ,sense-perception has 7a7 a content of sense qualities1 like sound1 color1 etc41 and 7b7 the relations of space and time4 7#b7 ,space and time originally belong to the subject as its forms of sense-perception1 and are not introduced from without by experience4 7#c7 ,by means of space and time a priori knowledge is possible4 ,if there is any validity in perceptual knowledge1 it depends upon the constitution of space and time2 not upon the character of the empirical content1 or the sensations4 ,the question about the validity of sense-perception1 then1 is a question about the reliability of mathematics4 ,there are two elements in sense-perception3 a necessary and constant1 and a changing and accidental4 ,space and time are the constant element4 ,they are homogeneous1 and always one and the same in quality4 ,they are unities1 for there is only one space and one time1 and the many spaces and times are only divisions of this oneness4 ,all the differences in space and time are due to the relation and movements of bodies1 and are not inherent in space and time themselves4 ,how is this unity and homogeneity of space and time to be explained8 ,by assuming that space and time are original and uniform functions of perception1 the forms of perception1 the ways of apprehension1 the 8prehensile organs of our sensibility40 ,they are the ways in which we synthesize on the lower level of consciousness4 ,if they were given in experience1 there is no reason why the several spaces and times should not be intrinsically different1 like different bodies with different qualities4 ,however1 by conceiving them to be mental syntheses in the level of perception1 they explain the universality of the laws of mathematics4 ,they are the colored spectacles that all human beings wear2 or1 to use another figure1 they are the mould into which all sensations are run4 ,being the unchangeable forms of our sensuous receptivity1 they have a validity for the entire compass of perception4 ,they are universal because one experience of space and time is valid for all spaces and times2 they are necessary because we cannot think of objects apart from them2 they are perceptual syntheses because they increase knowledge4 ,of course we are unconscious of this perceptual synthesis of the sensory elements in space and time4 ,the process takes place automatically4 ,we can nevertheless analyze the process after it has taken place1 and speak of the sensations as the materials of knowledge1 and the forms of space and time as the a priori elements4 ,but in actual conscious experience1 sensations never come to us in their rawness4 ,they are never turned over to the understanding unless they bear the stamp of space and time4 ,the process of knowledge1 therefore1 starts with complex materialcomplex because it has been synthesized below consciousness4 ,in other words1 perceptions come into the process of knowledge with two aspects3 7#a7 their permanent and necessary form2 and 7#b7 their accidental and changing content4 #b4 ,in ,what does the ,validity of the ,understanding ,consist8 ,kant's discussion of the synthesis of the understanding is given in the ,analytic1 the second part of his ,critique4 ,his treatment of the understanding is similar to that of perception4 ,the understanding1 be it remembered1 is regarded by ,kant as the second stage in the process of a complete synthesis of knowledge4 ,it is synthesis on a higher level than perception4 ,indeed1 perception is the material which the understanding synthesizes4 ,as in the sthetic ,kant seeks to show3 7#a7 the a priori factors of the understanding and 7#b7 that these a priori factors give to knowledge its validity4 ,the unifying principle of perception is the mathematical2 but physical nature1 which is the subject-matter of the study of the understanding1 is more than mathematical1 more than an aggregate of space and time forms1 more than shapes and motions4 ,nature exists as a connected system of substances1 causes1 etc4 ,natural science possesses besides its mathematical basis a number of general a priori principles for the validity of its conclusions4 ,kant's task was therefore only begun by showing that perception possesses the universal and synthetic principles of space and time4 ,perception is only the beginning of knowledge4 ,it is not knowledge1 but only subjective consciousness4 ,on the other hand1 the understanding is the faculty of knowledge1 and therefore ,kant seeks to point out its a priori or universal elements1 and by their presence prove its validity4 ,since the days of ,aristotle the general terms used in reasoning have been called categories4 ,any class-term or genus may be called a category4 ,there are certain summa genera1 the most extensive classes or classes with the lowest connotation1 that have been traditionally known as categories1 because everything that can be affirmed in a judgment must come under some one or other of them4 ,aristotle names ten1substance1 quality1 quantity1 etc4 ,but these ,aristotelian categories are classes of analytical relations1 such as formal logic treats4 ,they are the classes of the attributes and relations into which objects may be analyzed4 ,these evidently are not what ,kant is seeking4 ,he is in search of synthetic categories4 ,he is looking for the synthetic forms of the understanding itself1 which transform perceptions into objects of knowledge4 ,he is not looking merely for abstract conceptions4 ,for ideas become nature objects only when they are thought as things with qualities universal to every human mind4 ,the understanding creates out of the perceptions the objects of thought which form the nature-world2 and the categories of the understanding are the constitutive principles of such objects4 ,the categories are the relating forms of synthesis through which objects arise4 ,the most difficult part of the ,critique is called the 8,deduction of the ,categories10 in which ,kant attempts to derive the synthetic forms of the understanding from the various kinds of judgment4 ,kant's list is curious but unimportant1 and only two of these categories are useful1substance and cause4 ,he divides the categories into four general kinds and enumerates three categories of each of these kinds1 as follows3 ,categories of ,quantity1,unity1 ,plurality1 ,totality4 ,categories of ,quality1,reality1 ,negation1 ,limitation4 ,categories of ,relation1,substance1 ,cause1 ,reciprocity4 ,categories of ,modality1,possibility1 ,existence1 ,necessity4 ,these categories occupy the same position in the understanding that space and time do in the perception1they are the a priori principles4 ,in respect to them the perceptions are the a posteriori material4 ,the categories are pure1 innate1 and transcendental4 ,they are the inner nature of the understanding4 ,thus the objects of the understanding contain both a priori and a posteriori factors1 and are syntheses of manifolds4 ,perception synthesizes sensations1 while the understanding synthesizes perceptions1 and states the synthesis in the form of a judgment4 ,having named the a priori forms of the understanding1 how does ,kant show that by their means our knowledge of nature has validity8 ,because when the understanding functions1 it prescribes these forms to perception4 ,impressions would remain vague and formless1 if we did not think them2 by means of thought we weld impressions into objects and give them a coherent reality4 ,this is exactly what is meant by understanding4 ,if nature were an independent thing and prescribed laws to the understanding1 the laws would never be universal and necessary4 ,the universality of the laws of nature can be explained only by supposing that the understanding prescribes its laws to nature1 not to nature as a ,thing-in-,itself1 but only so far as it appears in sense-perception4 ,universal and necessary knowledge of nature is possible only if the connections and relations of nature are absolutely identical with the modes of thought4 ,the categories of the understanding have objective validity1 therefore1 because the laws of the understanding are the fundamental laws of nature4 ,the understanding has given such laws to nature4 ,a priori and therefore universal and necessary1 synthetic and therefore creative1 the world consists of objects under laws of the understanding4 ,there are as many kinds of natural objects as there are categories of the understanding4 ,if we will examine what we call the world of nature1 we shall find that many of its objects have never been perceived4 ,man has only partly explored the earth1 and there are vast regions in space that he has never seen4 ,he has never seen the ,south ,pole1 and the ,north ,pole only recently2 he has never seen the other side of the moon1 and there are myriads of stars beyond even the reach of his telescope4 ,these are not perceptible things1 and yet they are the objects of the understandingobjects of knowledge4 ,how is it possible8 ,it would not be possible if the laws of nature were limited to the empirically perceived facts4 ,it is possible because the laws of the understanding are the laws of nature and apply everywhere1 whether the thing is actually perceived or not4 ,the moon must have another side because the human understanding conceives all substances in this way2 the law of cause and effect obtains beyond the stars1 and at the ,south ,pole1 even though they have never been perceived4 ,the world of physical objects1 or in other words the world of objects of the understanding1 consists of both possible and actually perceived objects4 ,if the laws of nature were prescribed by nature to the mind1 then the world of objects would consist only of actually perceived objects4 ,but look at the world of nature a little more closely4 ,it is one whole world with very many things in it4 ,why is this the case8 ,would it ever be so if our knowledge of the world was simply a reproduction of what the world presented to us8 ,of course not4 ,there would be as many different worlds as there are human beings4 ,the wholeness1 the oneness of our world of many things to many individuals indicates not only that the understanding is the source of the laws of the world1 but also that the faculties of understanding in all the millions of human beings have a transcendental unity4 ,knowledge has therefore a stronger proof of its validity1 since what is knowledge for one human being is knowledge for all4 ,every individual man is conscious of the contrast between his own subjective world and the world of knowledge which he shares with other men4 ,his own ideas have a movement of their own and have no validity beyond themselves2 the ideas which he shares with others1 however1 are valid for all others because these ideas are beyond the control of any one man4 ,each individual man has to acknowledge this control of his knowledge as residing in something beyond himself4 ,the categories of each man's understanding coperate exactly with those of every other man4 ,the individual man is not actually conscious of this process of coperation in experience1 but he accepts the objective necessity of it4 ,the individual consciousness is not therefore the creator of the objects of knowledge2 rather consciousness in generalthe consciousness of humanityis the creator4 ,kant is not a solipsist1 but an idealist4 ,a higher consciousness1 a super-conscious ,self1 must be assumed to explain the compactness of human knowledge4 ,kant does not call this super-conscious ,self the 8soul0 or 8spirit10 but the 8,i think0 or the 8transcendental ego10 or by the more clumsy phrase 8the transcendental unity of apperception40 ,he contrasts it with what he calls the 8empirical ego0 on the ground that it is the ego always identical with itself1 rather than the ,self at this or that particular moment4 ,it is the ,self as thinker rather than the ,self as thought about4 ,the super-conscious ,self is always self-active and never dependent upon empirical conditions4 ,it must be accepted as the postulate of all knowledge4 ,it is the universal ,self1 and through it the categories of the human understanding become universalized4 ,just as space and time are the unifying forms of synthetic consciousness on its lower level2 just as the categories of the understanding are the unifying forms of the synthetic consciousness on a higher level2 so the universal ,self must be postulated to explain the universality of the categories4 ,it is a postulate only because it1 not known in experience1 is necessary to explain the unity of knowledge4 ,this theoretical conception of the ,self by ,kant is thus very different from the traditional notion of the soul4 ,has the ,reason by ,itself any ,validity8 ,when ,kant calls his criticism the ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 he uses the term 8,reason0 in a wide sense as the whole knowing process4 ,in the ,dialectic he treats the ,reason in a narrow sense1 as if it were a special faculty like the perception or understanding4 ,this is1 of course1 a confusing use of terms1 like his use of the term 8,synthesis02 but it should cause no difficulty provided the two uses are known beforehand4 ,the term 8,ideas0 is also used in two senses4 ,in this place it has a special use4 ,while usually an idea means any thought1 here it means the synthetic form of the special faculty of the reason1 just as the categories are the form of the understanding1 and space and time the form of sense-perception4 ,the synthetic forms of the ,reason are the three ,ideas1 viz41 ,god1 the soul1 and the totality of the universe4 ,what is the office of this special faculty of the ,reason and its ,idea-forms8 ,they represent ,kant's way of stating the natural tendency of the human mind to get from its knowledge the greatest possible unity with the greatest possible extension4 ,consciousness is a synthesis which is never satisfied in being partial and incomplete4 ,the partial syntheses of its faculties of perception and understanding do not satisfy it4 ,perception and understanding tell us nothing about ,god1 about the soul1 and about the totality of the universe1 for these faculties are fettered to experience4 ,yet ,god1 the soul1 and the totality of the universe are very important matters4 ,so the ,reason leaps over the boundaries of experience1 and thinks it is justified in poaching in the territory forbidden to knowledge4 ,the ,reason is not content with the partial and relational knowledge of mathematics and of physical science1 but it would deal with the unrelated and the unconditioned4 ,indeed1 we need only search our own minds to see how true ,kant is to fact4 ,we find that we ourselves are not satisfied with conditioned things1 which must be explained by other conditioned things4 ,on the contrary1 we long to know the absolutely unconditioned1 which alone will explain all conditions4 ,we are forever seeking to make our synthesis complete1 and to render a rational and complete account of what is nevertheless impossible to our knowledge4 ,now it is evident that the ,ideas of the ,reason are not indispensable to knowledge in the sense that the categories of the understanding and the forms of sense perception are indispensable4 ,cause1 time1 and space enter into all knowledge4 ,physical and mathematical laws exist as facts1 and need no proof for their existence4 ,kant asked about them1 8,how are synthetic a priori judgments possible80 ,but concerning the judgments of the ,reason1 he asks a different question3 not ,how are they possible1 but ,are they possible8 ,the ,reason and its three ,ideas give what ,kant calls transcendent knowledge in distinction from the transcendental knowledge of the understanding and its categories4 ,by transcendent knowledge he means that which is beyond the limits of possible experience2 while transcendental knowledge refers to knowledge about the necessary principles of experience4 ,kant1 however1 is willing to acknowledge that the ,ideas of the ,reason have a legitimate use4 ,they are 8regulative principles0 in that1 by showing what our limitations are1 they also show that human knowledge is not the final goal4 ,their illegitimate use appears when they make a show of being true knowledge4 ,both science and theology will be the gainers when the ,ideas are no longer used illegitimately4 ,kant says that he has destroyed knowledge of ,god and the soul 8in order to make room for faith40 ,the ,idea of the ,soul4 ,rational psychology had taught that the soul had direct and intuitive knowledge of itself4 ,from the time when ,descartes formulated his famous 8,cogito ergo sum10 this conception of self-consciousness has been popular4 ,i can have myself as the direct object of my own thought4 ,upon the basis of such assumed intuitive knowledge that each soul has of itself1 the ,rationalists had ascribed the qualities of simplicity1 substantiality1 spirituality1 and immortality to the soul4 ,kant denies that we have any such self-knowledge4 ,if we turn back to his definition of knowledge we find it to be a synthesis of a manifold4 ,knowledge1 to be knowledge1 must 7#a7 be based upon sensations1 and on that account 7#b7 consist only of phenomena4 ,the soul is not phenomenal1 but the deepest kind of reality4 ,how can ,i have knowledge of my soul8 ,the soul is spiritual and not phenomenal1 even according to the ,rationalistic philosophy4 ,therefore the soul is precluded from being an object of knowledge4 ,furthermore the ,rationalists' conception of the soul as simple and immortal would make it an impossible object of knowledge4 ,an object of knowledge is not simple1 but is the unity of a manifold4 ,the unifying or synthesizing function is not an object to itself4 ,sensations are synthesized by space and time into perceptions2 but space and time are not objects for the sensations4 ,in understanding1 therefore1 the 8,i think10 which synthesizes the perceptions into judgment1 cannot be an object for the understanding4 ,kant points out that we must be careful to distinguish between the transcendental and the empirical ego4 ,we have referred to this distinction already4 ,in ,kant's criticism of knowledge he maintained that there must be postulated a 8synthetic unity of apperception10 if knowledge is possible4 ,but such an ego is only a postulate2 we can have no knowledge of it nor can we say what it is4 ,we know that the immediacy of experience or the sameness of knowledge from moment to moment demands this4 ,this is the transcendental ego1 a kind of universal synthetic background4 ,but this is different from the empirical ego1 which ,i can know as an object of experience4 ,the empirical ego is what ,i can know of myself at any timea group of sensations1 feelings1 or thoughts4 ,now such groups change from moment to moment4 ,my knowledge of myself consists only of my momentary1 changing self4 ,this changing self is not the immortal1 simple1 and identical soul of which the ,rationalists have been speaking4 ,the empirical self is complex and transitory2 it is an object of knowledge1 and it is not therefore the same as the immortal soul4 8,i think ,i0 is impossible4 8,i think me0 is possible4 ,to make the 8,i0 an object is to commit a fallacy4 ,the ,idea of the ,universe4 ,the contradiction in reasoning about matters beyond the test of experience appears sharply with reference to problems about the world as a totality4 ,the inherent self-contradiction of the reason attracted ,kant's attention very early with reference to the problems of infinity4 ,such self-contradictions were put into final shape by ,kant in the ,critique in the four following so-called antinomies3 7#a7 ,the antinomy of creation4 ,thesis3 ,the world must have a beginning in time and be inclosed in finite space4 ,antithesis3 ,the world is eternal and infinite4 7#b7 ,the antinomy of immortality 7or the simple74 ,thesis3 ,the world is ultimately divisible into simple parts which cannot be further divided4 ,antithesis3 ,the world is composed of parts subject to further division1 and no simple thing exists in the world4 7#c7 ,the antinomy of freedom4 ,thesis3 ,there is freedom2 there are phenomena that cannot be accounted for by necessity4 ,antithesis3 ,there is no freedom1 but everything takes place entirely according to the necessary laws of nature4 7#d7 ,the antinomy of theology4 ,thesis3 ,there is a necessary being either as part or as cause of the world4 ,antithesis3 ,there exists neither within nor without the world an absolutely necessary being4 ,critics have pointed out that these problems as thus stated by ,kant are not altogether cosmological problems1 but include the contradictions of psychology and theology2 that is1 all the contradictions of the ,reason when it is used dialectically4 ,they show how both ,rationalism and ,empiricism1 as metaphysical theories1 are in their nature contradictory4 ,when the universe is treated as an object of knowledge1 contradictory propositions can be maintained4 ,the contradictories are both proved and refuted4 ,in respect to the first two antinomies1 both theses and antitheses are false2 in respect to the last two1 both theses and antitheses may be true1 if they refer to different worlds4 ,if the ,ideas are applied only to the world of phenomena1 they involve inexplicable contradiction4 ,the ,idea of free will and unconditioned being may apply to the world of ,noumena2 while the ,idea of necessity and conditioned being may apply to the world of phenomena4 ,the ,idea of ,god4 ,the ,idea of the soul involves us in a paralogism1 the ,idea of the universe as a whole involves us in inextricable difficulties and contradictions2 the ,idea of ,god cannot be demonstrated4 ,kant does not deny that ,god exists4 ,he merely maintains that we cannot make ,god an object of knowledge4 ,the ,idea of ,god is to ,kant the expression of the need of the ,reason for a perfect unity4 ,in one of his earlier writings ,kant had constructed a conception of ,god1 which is the same as appears in the ,critique4 ,god1 purely as a conception1 is constructed by ,kant as the sum total of reality1 the ens realissimum1 who so includes all finite qualities in ,himself that they do not limit ,him4 ,he is the primal cause of the possibility of all being4 ,now1 can such an ,idea have objective validity8 ,no2 the ,idea of a sum total of all that is conceivable is not an object of possible experience4 ,only particular things or phenomena are realities for us4 ,god as the transcending total of particular things can have only a conceptual reality and a validity for thought4 ,the total has the reality that any idea has4 ,this is ,kant's general criticism of the dialectic ,idea of ,god4 ,but the general conception of ,god had played so important a part in traditional philosophy that ,kant felt it necessary to examine the three important intellectual proofs for ,his existence in order to show their falsity4 ,he takes up first the ontological proof of ,god's existence1 which originated with ,st4 ,anselm and had been accepted by the ,rationalists4 ,the ,idea of ,god is the idea of a perfect being4 ,a being would not be perfect who did not exist4 ,therefore the ,idea of a perfect being must include the quality 8existence0 among its predicates4 ,the essence of ,god must involve ,his existence1 because the unreality of the ens realissimum cannot be thought4 ,kant replies thus3 8,being is no real predicate40 ,it is not a quality like love1 power1 or goodness1 for it adds nothing to the content of the subject4 8,a hundred dollars contains no more content than a hundred possible or conceptual dollars40 ,we cannot reason from the concept of the actual to its existence4 ,the only test of actuality is perception4 ,the cosmological proof1 which ,kant examines next1 is an argument from the existence of contingent phenomena to the existence of an unconditioned reality4 ,there must be some uncaused cause of existing caused phenomena4 ,kant's reply is this3 ,cause has no meaning if it is applied beyond the bounds of experience4 ,within experience all causes are the results of causes1 and therefore an uncaused cause is a contradiction in terms4 ,every existing thing is contingent4 ,a necessary being can be only a thought1 and would not be powerful4 ,it would not be as powerful as a very great finite being which had existence4 ,the physico-teleological argument comes next under ,kant's criticism4 ,this argument is based upon the inference that intelligent design found in nature implies an intelligent designer of nature4 ,kant replies as follows3 ,even granting that the world exhibits the design of beauty1 goodness1 and purpose in its construction1 such a beautiful1 good1 and purposeful world would only prove the existence of an architect and not the existence of a creator4 ,kant points out1 however1 that this proof is the oldest1 clearest1 and the most popular2 and he thinks it deserves to be treated with respect on that account4 ,the wonder and magnificence of nature must free man from the oppression of any subtle argument against the significance of nature4 ,nevertheless ,kant feels that this proof lacks intellectual cogency2 for it is possible that nature is freely acting and has power within itself4 ,the conclusion of the ,dialectic1 in which the ,reason attempts through its ,ideas to soar beyond experience1 is that such speculation has never added to our knowledge4 ,mere conceptual thought cannot be knowledge of the reality of the soul1 ,god1 and the world4 ,still1 the ,ideas of the reason are an integral part of the human mind1 and they must have their purpose4 ,they cannot be verified by experience1 in which alone is truth1 but they can regulate experience4 ,they are 8regulative ,ideas0 in that our experience is better governed if we act as if there were a soul1 as if ,god existed1 and as if the world were a totality of related things4 ,moreover1 while speculation cannot prove the existence of ,god1 the immortality of the soul1 and the freedom of the will1 atheistic speculation is unable to prove the contrary of all these propositions4 ,the ,ideas of the ,reason clear the way for faith based on morality4 ,conclusion4 ,the ,critique of ,pure ,reason is what its name implies1a criticism of our conscious powers4 ,it points out the limits and extent of human knowledge4 ,in one sense1 it is constructive2 for it establishes against skepticism the conclusion that knowledge has a validity within its own limits4 ,in another sense1 it is destructive2 for it shows against dogmatism how futile our intellectual striving is to explore many regions that have been considered the proper realm of knowledge4 ,no knowledge is possible that is transcendentno knowledge beyond the limits of experience4 ,experience ties our mental powers to itself4 ,experience is the boundary of the understanding4 ,reality1 the ,things-in-,themselves1 are unknown and unknowable4 ,but transcendental knowledge is possible4 ,within experience there are the transcendental factors that on the one hand transform sensations into phenomena1 and on the other give to these phenomena a validity for all mankind4 ,these transcendental factors make knowledge reliable1 but they add not one whit to its content4 ,on account of these transcendental factors we can be rational with one another and members of one world of humanity4 ,the value of knowledge is not lessened1 but is defined4 ,our world of phenomenal existence is now accurately assessed as a world of relative reality4 ,it is placed in its proper perspective4 ,it is seen as our own interpretation of what is really real4 ,this is very important2 for although the restricted form of our mental powers withholds us from knowing reality1 we may nevertheless think it4 ,the pure intellection of reality will be of value1 if in some other way its contents can be assured4 ,kant now points out that this assurance is found in the moral will4 ,the ,problem of the ,critique of ,practical ,reason3 ,the ,ethics of ,kant4 8,two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe1 the oftener and the longer we reflect upon them3 the starry heavens above and the moral law within40 ,in this classic sentence ,kant showed that he had no desire to humiliate the theoretical reason1 which is the understanding4 ,he was merely assigning it to its place among the powers of man1 in order that it might do its proper work more efficiently4 ,the world of morality and the starry heaven impressed ,kant equally4 ,kant would not have the understanding chasing will-o'-the-wisps4 ,after his criticism of the understanding he turned to the will1 or as he calls it the practical reason1 and criticized its functions and scope4 ,this ethical teaching of ,kant appears in his ,metaphysic of ,morality and in the ,critique of ,practical ,reason4 ,his early ,pietistic education1 his reading of ,rousseau1 his study of the ,english moralists1 influenced his theory of morals2 while his investigations into the history of civilization1 his theoretical philosophy1 and his independent analysis of the ethical feeling marked the route which his ethical development took4 ,the world of morality to ,kant has primacy4 ,in his theory it is the real world1 for compared to it the world of scientific phenomena1 the world of the theoretical reason1 is relative4 ,the central idea in ,kant's theory of morals is that rational spontaneity is exactly the same as freedom4 ,this contrasts his theory with ,hedonism4 ,the value of man's life depends on what he does spontaneously1 not on what happens to him4 ,this idea of freedom is the central thought in all ,kant's discussions of society4 ,in his theory of government the republic is to be preferred to the monarchy1 because of the opportunity to its citizens of spontaneous freedom2 in religion the true church is composed of free beings worshiping ,god freely2 in education self-activity is the sole principle of growth4 ,ethics is a system of the pure rational laws of freedom1 just as science is a system of the pure rational laws of nature4 ,if ethics has real validity its laws must be1 as in science1 a priori or derived from the reason itself1 and synthetic or applicable to experience everywhere4 ,if the moral law be valid it must be indifferent as to its content1 and yet valid for all content irrespectively4 ,the source of the principle of morals is thus the same as that of science3 it is a priori4 ,the principle of morals is universal in its application to experience1 just as the a priori synthesis of knowledge is4 ,however1 just at that point the difference is to be seen between the foundation of science and that of moralsbetween the reason as pure and the reason as practical4 ,reason in the form of knowledge is restricted to experience2 but reason in the form of the will1 while applicable to experience1 is not restricted to experience4 ,if the understanding is without the content of experience1 it is empty and useless4 ,the understanding must always be a synthesis of a manifold4 ,on the other hand1 the practical reason needs no content4 ,it is sufficient in itself4 ,it need not be obeyed anywhere nor have any concrete content in the phenomenal world4 ,it has no reference to what is but to what ought to be4 ,the world of morality and the world of phenomena are different worlds4 ,the world of morality is absolute reality1 while the world of knowledge is only relative4 ,the world of morality is the unconditioned1 while that of knowledge is conditioned by experience4 ,morality applies not only to human beings1 but to all rational beings1 if any other rational beings exist4 ,knowledge1 however1 belongs to human beings alone4 ,the moral law has not its home in the empirical1 but in the transcendent1 intelligible world1 which to knowledge would be the world of ,things-in-,themselves4 ,the ,moral ,law and the ,two ,questions concerning ,it4 ,the questions of the ,critique of ,practical ,reason are the same as those of the ,dialectic3 7#a7 ,is there any a priori synthesis8 ,this is not the question of the ,analytic1 which is1 ,how is an a priori synthesis possible8 7#b7 ,can the human being be moral and still be a part of the world of phenomena and necessity8 ,we shall now comment on the first of these problems4 ,if the will has validity1 it must be the expression of some universal and necessary principle4 ,can we find any such a priori principle in our consciousness8 #a4 ,the ,first ,question concerning the ,moral ,law4 ,if we search our consciousness1 we shall find that there are two classes of incentives to action4 ,the first are called the inclinations1 or perhaps better the impulses4 ,we may will because we desire to gain something1 of use1 pleasure1 perfection1 etc4 ,such an act of will is dependent upon the object that arouses it4 ,such an act of will would not be an example for any one else2 for the circumstances that called it forth would be likely to be different in each case4 ,for example1 there is no consensus as to pleasure among individual men2 and what is pleasant to one is unpleasant to another4 ,the same is true about objects of use and ambition4 ,in all these matters judgment does not help us in making our selection1 for people who are the most discriminating often are the most unhappy and useless4 ,all these things are indeed goods1 but they are goods for the momentgoods that are dependent on something else1 and not goods in themselves4 ,they are legitimate ends enough1 but they are so transitory that they cannot be valid4 ,it is evident that when the will is governed by inclination1 it is governed by an empirical 7a posteriori71 and not by a universal and necessary 7a priori7 principle4 ,such empirical principles are called by ,kant hypothetical imperatives4 ,let us look to the reason itself to see if the principle of its practice lies there2 for it is certain that we shall not find the principle of universal validity for our will among our impulses4 ,the reason is a spontaneous synthesis4 ,it is a fact that any one may verify who will search his consciousnessthat man may will from reason4 ,the will may be impelled from within1 and need not be compelled from without4 ,the will may be an imperative in itself1 proclaiming its right because it is reasonable1 justifying itself because it is reasonable1 functioning because it is the function of reason4 ,then is the will the expression of reason4 ,it is the reason in practice4 ,the will is unconditioned and free because it is the unconditioned reason acting4 ,it is then autonomous4 ,it has then validity because the reason is universal and necessary4 ,this kind of willing ,kant calls the categorical imperative4 ,it is the moral law4 ,it is a law unto itself1 and it is the only basis for morality because it is the universally valid reason4 ,the categorical imperative is uniquethere is nothing like it in human nature4 ,it is the one kind of willing that has absolute validity2 and that is because it is unique in having itself for its own end4 ,the conscience may be said to be its expression in the individual4 ,kant formulates the valid command of the moral law as1 8,act as if the maxim from which you act were to become through your will a universal law of nature40 ,the various maxims of morality1 like 8,thou shalt not lie10 occupy the same position to the will that the categories do to the understanding4 ,they are the forms of the moral will4 ,actions should proceed from maxims rather than from impulses1 and the moral maxims are adapted for all beings who act rationally4 ,a specific act may become good because the moral law1 that inspires it1 is good4 ,nevertheless 8nothing can possibly be conceived in the world or even out of it1 which can be called good without qualification1 except a good will40 ,the virtues or the gifts of fortune may be good and desirable2 they may also be evil and mischievous1 if they are not the expression of the moral will4 #b4 ,the ,second ,question concerning the ,moral ,law4 ,this leads us to the answer to the second question1 ,how can such a purely necessary and universal principle be effective in human life8 ,of what service to man is a principle so formal that if the inclinations coperate with it1 the act is no longer moral8 ,the moral law is not only transcendental1 but it is transcendent1 for it does not have experience as its content4 ,it is its own content4 ,it is independent of all experience in three ways3 7#a7 ,in origin1 it contains only a formal principle2 7#b7 ,in content1 it contains only a formal principle2 7#c7 ,in validity1 it is not concerned as to whether it is obeyed or not2 it declares what ought to be1 even if what ought to be is never done4 ,the question always arises about ,kant's ethics1 ,of what service can such a remote and formal principle be8 ,morality takes place in the world of experience2 and here is ,kant's principle of morality existing in the world of unconditioned reality4 ,of the usefulness of such a principle ,kant's explanation is not fully satisfactory4 ,his ethics is fundamentally a rigorism1 from which he is unable to escape4 ,duty and inclination are in antagonism4 ,only those acts of will are moral which are performed solely from the sense of duty4 ,in themselves the natural inclinations are indifferent2 when they oppose the moral will1 they become bad2 only when they are inspired by the moral will are they of ethical service4 ,moral action is therefore narrowed to that in which the imperative of duty is consciously paramount4 8,the friends whom ,i love1 ,i gladly would serve1 but to this inclination incites me2 ,and so ,i am forced from virtue to swerve1 since my act through affection delights me4 ,the friends1 whom thou lovest1 thou must first seek to scorn1 for to no other way can ,i guide thee2 ',tis alone with disgust thou canst rightly perform the acts to which duty would lead thee40#eg ,the ,moral ,postulates4 ,kant's ethical theory points away from the phenomenal world rather than toward it4 ,to be sure1 the natural inclinations take the color of the moral law when they are inspired by it2 but the moral law tells us of the world of reality rather than of the world of phenomena4 ,the moral law shows to man that he is more a resident of the world of reality than of that of phenomena4 ,man's nature is dual4 ,of its two sidesthe theoretical and the moralthe moral is primary4 ,fundamentally man is a willing agent rather than a thinking being4 ,he is a phenomenal being1 bound to the laws of natural necessity2 but he is also a real unconditioned being1 because the unconditioned reason is his real self4 ,what was implicated in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason becomes explicit in the ,critique of ,practical ,reason4 ,the understanding hints at what the will makes plain4 ,human knowledge is a mixture of transcendental understanding and empirical sensations4 ,god's knowledge would be pure understanding2 the knowledge of the brutes is pure sensations4 ,human morality1 however1 contains a dualism2 for the practical morality of man consists of the formal moral law inspiring the sensibilities although not heeding them4 ,the will as pure reason is the activity of ,god2 the will as pure impulses is the activity of brutes4 ,but the true realm of man is this world of reason in which he is one with ,god1 although he is at the same time hampered by being part of the world of phenomena4 #a4 ,the ,postulate of ,freedom4 ,the unconditioned moral law is the basis of freedom for which all scientific knowledge seeks in vain4 ,an unconditioned will is a free will4 ,the will based upon the reason is based upon itself and is therefore free4 ,the consciousness of the moral law within us implies freedom in its exercise4 ,the 8,i ought0 implies 8,i can40 ,we can have no knowledge of freedom1 for in the eye of the understanding only causal necessity rules4 ,but the reason commands as well as knows4 ,it states what ought to be as well as what is4 ,its mandate implies freedom1 as its knowledge states existence4 ,when we will1 we act as if we were free1 and our freedom is a postulate which cannot be proved to the understanding4 ,freedom is not an object of knowledge1 but an act of faith4 ,freedom as a postulate is the condition of morality1 and the primacy of the will over the pure reason is shown in the fact that it can guarantee what the understanding cannot prove4 #b4 ,the ,postulate of the ,immortality of the ,soul4 ,the goal of the inclinations is happiness4 ,the goal of the will is virtue4 ,there is no relation or correspondence between the two in this world4 ,a man may be happy and still not virtuous2 he may be virtuous and not happy4 ,since a man belongs to both the world of free spirits and the world of necessity1 he is thwarted in reaching for his highest good in this life4 ,his highest good is the union of virtue and happiness4 ,if this is to be attained1 another life must be guaranteed4 ,yet this is only a postulate and not a proof4 ,when man wills1 he wills as if he were an immortal being4 #c4 ,the ,postulate of the ,existence of ,god4 ,faith in reaching forward must postulate ,god1 as alone able to vouchsafe future harmony between goodness and happiness and alone able to distribute justly the rewards and punishments that are so disproportionate in this world4 ,when ,i will1 ,i will as if ,god existed4 ,when ,i will1 ,i create by my willing my freedom1 my immortality1 and ,god's existence4 ,but because my will is an unconditioned law of my real being1 my faith in these things is well founded4#eh ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,german ,,idealists ,idealism after ,kant4#ei ,kant's criticism had been a fine dissection of the processes of knowledge4 ,he had laid scientific knowledge open and separated it into its parts4 ,in doing this he had acted in the spirit of his time1 which had been inaugurated by ,lessing4 ,his doctrine became the point of departure of many differing systems4 ,a modern ,german professor in the ,university of ,berlin has been wont to say1 8,there are ten interpretations of ,kant's ,critique1 which are the ten kinds of philosophy at the present time40 ,the incoherence of ,kant's philosophy made it famous4 ,he represented the first stage of a social movement2 and like all social movements the world over1 the first stage was critical1 self-inconsistent1 and destructive of tradition4 ,the second stage is the one upon which we now enter1 and we shall find it to be reconstructive along several lines4 ,criticism is always an inducement to new systematization4 ,in ,germany1 after ,kant1 there was naturally1 therefore1 a great systematic movement which its intellectually virile and many-sided life was ready to express4 ,culture and philosophy went hand in hand4 ,jena was the centre of ,kantianism and was in close proximity to ,weimar1 the centre of ,german culture4 ,at the time that the philosophy of ,kant became popular1 the teaching of ,spinoza was resurrected from its long sleep and introduced into ,germany4 ,kant was the 8all-crushing0 critic2 ,spinoza was the dogmatic mystic4 ,their opposition did not amount to a contradiction1 but was of the correlative sort4 ,kant and ,spinoza became the two intellectual foci about which revolved the thought of the generation after ,kant4 ,all the succeeding philosophers show ,kant's influence upon them1 for they all accept his epistemology4 ,they show the influence of ,spinoza in varying degrees4 ,the philosophers whom we shall now meet may be divided into groups4 ,the first group consists of ,rheinhold1 ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel4 ,these took the lead in destroying the ,kantian conception of the thing-in-itself and in constructing a pure idealism4 ,the second group consists of ,herbart and ,schopenhauer4 ,these tried in different ways to develop a metaphysics of the thing-in-itself4 ,a third group consisted of the old ,wolffian rationalistic school1 which was1 however1 unsuccessful in its opposition to the spread of the doctrines of ,kant and ,spinoza4 ,a summary of the leaders of the ,german thought of this time would not be complete without mention1 lastly1 of the miscellaneous group of literary ,romanticists1 whose writings partook of the philosophical spirit4 ,the influence of ,spinoza is especially prominent in this group4 ,jean ,paul ,richter 7#agfc-ahbe7 was the forerunner of this movement1 and it included the names of ,tieck1 ,wackenroder1 the two ,schlegels1 ,novalis1 the two ,romantic women1,dorothea and ,caroline1,schiller1 and ,goethe4 ,the poet ,schiller did much to popularize ,kant's sthetic and moral doctrines4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,university ,,towns ,,and ,,other ,,important ,,places ,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,german ,,idealists ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel4 ,this group of disciples of ,kant can be understood sympathetically only in the light of their age4 ,they were not philosophical adventurers1 otherwise the great representative of the age1 ,goethe1 would not have associated with ,schelling and ,hegel on equal terms4 ,they stood for the revulsion of the period against all external systems1 and for the realization of a spiritual realm of free spirits4 ,they sought not a factitious and imaginary condition1 but tried rather to discover the essentials of the spiritual life4 ,they would reclaim reality spiritually1 and their only defect was in their haste in carrying out their principles4 ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel are sharers in one common movement4 ,they tried systematically to present the evolution of the world as an unbroken evolution of thought4 ,they went back to ,kant1 but they were bolder than he4 ,they sought to transcend the limitations of thought which he had laid down4 ,they would set thought free1 and1 gazing in upon their own spirits1 they would find there the whole infinite universe4 ,the spiritual realm seemed to them to be wider than any one had supposed4 ,it was a self-governing realm1 quite different from the world of matter4 ,history to them is cosmic and develops under one law of progression4 ,it is an upward movement of assertions1 negations1 and syntheses4 ,life is cosmic spirituality4 ,for ,fichte the spirit is a cosmic battle for moral ends2 for ,schelling the spirit is a cosmic artistic construction1 which transforms the external and internal worlds into a work of living art2 for ,hegel the cosmic spirit unfolds in a strict and rigorous logic1 whose consummation is thought of thought4 ,but while ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel look at the world each in his own way1 they are members of one common movement toward spiritual freedom1 and toward the restablishment of metaphysics4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,fichte 7#agfb-ahad74fj ,johann ,gottlieb ,fichte was the most notable of the immediate disciples of ,kant4 ,in contrast with the undisturbed and uneventful scholastic retirement of his master1 ,fichte's life looms up as a series of conflicts1 sometimes with extreme poverty and sometimes with hostile forces created by his own stubborn and irascible disposition4 ,fichte's external life was throughout one of curious contrasts1 both of tragedy and romance4 ,his love for the moral and theological appears in his early youth in his voluntary self-denial and in his sermons to the geese which he was herding4 ,again1 he made preparation to become a preacher1 but his intellectual training in the university drove him to abandon it4 ,he became a necessitarian and tried to square his life with his philosophy1 although it weighed his heart down4 ,then came the so-called 8,atheistic ,controversy0 when he was professor at ,jena1 and his defiance of the authorities and his dismissal4 ,in the tumultuous days at ,berlin he turned his metaphysics into patriotic appeals1 and would have joined the army1 but his death intervened4 ,the inner development of ,fichte1 too1 was different from that of ,kant4 ,kant's inner development was coincident with his long life4 ,fichte1 on the other hand1 at the age of twenty-eight had read and accepted ,kant's philosophy1 and four years later had created his own4 ,this was only slightly modified in his later years in the direction of the pantheism of ,spinoza4 ,kant's life was apart from the political current of his time1 while his doctrine became fundamental for all future philosophy4 ,fichte's life and philosophy were more expressive of his time1 but less lasting in their influence4 ,fichte is the philosophic preacher to his time2 ,kant is the instructor of all time4 ,fichte's life may be divided into four periods1 which are marked by certain external events4 #a4 ,his ,education 7#agfb-agij74 ,he was the son of a poor ribbon-maker4 ,as a boy he worked for his father1 and again at the equally humble employment of herding geese4 ,it was during this latter occupation that his wonderful memory attracted the attention of a philanthropic nobleman1 who gave him means for an education4 ,fichte studied theology1 philosophy1 and philology at ,leipsic and ,jena2 but he had to face extreme poverty again upon the death of his benefactor4 ,in #aghh he got a position as tutor in ,zurich1 and here he met ,pestalozzi1 ,lavater1 and his future wife1 a niece of the poet1 ,klopstock4 ,during this period his philosophy was a necessitarianism1 which he had evolved from the theology in which he was trained and his reading of certain books on ,spinoza4 #b4 ,discipleship of ,kant 7#agij-agid74 ,fichte returned from ,zurich to ,leipsic1 and in the capacity of tutor in philosophy he assisted a young man in the reading of ,kant's ,critique4 ,he was at once converted heart and soul to the ,kantian doctrine4 ,in #agia he called on ,kant at ,knigsberg and submitted to ,kant his ,critique of ,revelation4 ,the next year he published this work1 and by some fortunate accident his name as author was omitted from the title-page4 ,the work was attributed to ,kant1 and was widely read as a masterpiece by ,kant4 ,kant had to correct the mistake1 which1 however1 made the real author1 ,fichte1 famous4 ,so he returned to ,zurich in #agic to marry ,frulein ,rahn1 who was herself now in comfortable circumstances4 #c4 ,his ,life at ,jena 7#agid-agii74 ,the year #agid was another milestone in the biography of ,fichte4 ,in this year he was called to ,jena1 then the principal university of ,germany1 to succeed ,rheinhold4 ,in this year he published his philosophy in his best known work1 the ,wissenschaftslehre4 ,he remained at ,jena only five years4 ,at first his popularity exceeded that of the popular ,rheinhold1 but he soon filled his life with controversies4 ,he quarreled with the students and the clergy1 and in #agii the so-called 8,atheistic ,controversy0 arose1 in which charges were brought against his teaching as atheism4 ,brooking no criticism either of his teaching or of his official position1 he defied the authorities of the university and was dismissed4 #d4 ,his ,life at ,berlin 7#agii-ahad74 ,in #agii ,fichte went to ,berlin to live4 ,at first he had no academic affiliations1 but he found a large and sympathetic public1 to whom he lectured4 ,he was warmly received by the circle of ,romanticists1the ,schlegels1 ,tieck1 and ,schleiermacher4 ,his philosophical system got little development2 but the influence of ,spinoza appeared in his teaching4 ,he lectured upon the ethical and religious aspects of his philosophy1 and upon political and social subjects4 ,in #ahjh he delivered his famous ,addresses to the ,german ,people4 ,in #ahaj the ,university of ,berlin was founded and he was called to the chair of philosophy1 but he was connected with the university only two years4 ,for in #ahab came the call to arms1 and ,fichte was with difficulty dissuaded from enlisting4 ,he remained in ,berlin and preached to the soldiers in camp4 ,his wife volunteered as hospital nurse and contracted a fever1 from which she recovered4 ,fichte1 however1 who nursed her through her sickness1 died of the disease in #ahad4 ,the ,influences upon ,fichte's ,teaching4 ,any estimate of the influences upon ,fichte would be distorted that did not recognize the calibre of the man himself4 ,fichte was essentially a puritan reformer4 ,he was impetuous and life-loving1 but withal a simple-minded man4 ,all the philosophical influences which he was capable of feeling would naturally be turned by him into ethical and religious sermons to reach the life of men4 ,he must be thought of as the crusader armed with abstract truths1 which he wields with a giant's strength for the moral uplift of man4 ,it was natural then that the two principal influences upon ,fichte's doctrine should be ,spinoza and ,kant4 ,to be sure1 such writers as ,lessing1 ,rousseau1 and ,pestalozzi furnished him much material in his early years1 and the ,romanticists in his later years4 ,his wife1 ,johanna ,rahn1 was also a source of power to him1 and through her influence after their marriage his aim became clearer and his character lost much of its harshness4 ,but the two great influences upon ,fichte were the two great philosophical forces of this time1 ,spinoza and ,kant4 ,fichte's philosophy has been described as 8,spinoza in terms of ,kant10 and also as 8an inverted or idealistic ,spinozism40 ,the influence of ,spinoza upon ,fichte's thought is seen at both ends of his life4 ,at the beginning he was an amateurish ,spinozist4 ,he found that the theological training of his boyhood was a necessitarianism like ,spinozism4 ,he lost his faith in ,christianity1 and he was unhappy because he found ,spinoza's doctrine of necessity was intolerable and yet unanswerable4 ,then he read ,kant and found a solution of his difficulty without having to change the doctrine of ,spinoza4 ,for ,kant had placed behind the necessitated world the free spirit4 ,in the last period of ,fichte's life the influence of the mystical side of ,spinozism appeared1 through ,fichte's intercourse with the ,romanticists in ,berlin4 ,why ,we ,philosophize4 ,to ,fichte philosophy was distinctly a personal problem1 and we feel in all his words that he is wrestling with his own nature4 ,he found in his mind two very different classes of ideas1 and he was certain that philosophical problems arise from their antagonism4 ,on the one hand there are the ideas about the world of physical nature1 which are only our experiences under the law of necessity4 ,on the other hand there are the ideas of the individual consciousness1 which are contingent and voluntary4 ,which of these two classes of ideas is primal8 ,fichte felt that all philosophical curiosity arose from the contrast of these two classes2 the solution of philosophy and the satisfaction of our philosophical curiosity would be reached only by the reduction of one class to the other4 ,fichte calls the philosopher a dogmatist who seeks to reduce voluntary ideas1 which compose our individual consciousness1 to the necessitated series4 ,spinoza sought to do this1 and the philosophy of ,spinoza depressed ,fichte as intolerable4 ,but there is the alternative to the philosopher to explain the necessitated series by voluntary consciousness4 ,this is idealism4 ,the moment a man begins to reflect1 he must choose between dogmatism1 i4 e4 necessitarianism1 and idealism4 ,he is always confronted by an ,either-,or1 a choice between freedom and necessity4 ,the ,moral ,awakening4 ,in his early life ,fichte saw to his despair no escape from the philosophy of necessity4 ,when he read the ,critique of ,pure ,reason a great light came to him4 ,he flung himself immediately upon the side of idealism4 ,he saw that necessitated events were phenomena1 and therefore the creations of consciousness4 ,consciousness cannot be the slave of necessitated events4 ,kant's philosophy was to ,fichte a work of art of the free spirit4 ,the world cannot contain man and compel him4 ,man may be oppressed by the world1 but he can see that such oppression is not real4 ,in his ,vocation of ,man 7#ahjj7 he gave in autobiographical terms the story of the awakening and development of the individual mind4 ,at first one is overwhelmed by the sight of the necessitated events of the world4 ,next he comes to believe that all events are mere appearances1 and he is weighed down by the still greater despair that no reality whatever exists4 ,finally he finds the rock of hope amid the sea of appearances4 ,he finds an ultimate and irreducible fact in the categorical imperative of duty4 8,thou must0 is above necessity1 above the phenomena that are always reducible to other phenomena4 ,duty means the freedom of my inner life4 ,that there is always lodged in me a duty to perform1 shows that ,i am superior to phenomena1 that ,i am a citizen of the supersensuous world4 ,this 8heaven does not lie beyond the grave1 but already encompasses us1 and its light dawns in every human heart40 8,that ,i myself am a freely acting individual must be the fundamental thought of every true philosopher40 ,every one must therefore choose between dogmatism and idealism1 if he would not fall a victim to skeptical despair4 ,two motives will determine one's choice3 one theoretical1 the other practical4 ,the primary motive is the practical one1 and since dogmatism and idealism are equally consistent systems1 man's choice will depend mainly on the manner of man he is4 ,if the individual has a high sense of duty1 he will be disposed to believe in his moral control over all his experiences1 however much they may seem to be necessitated4 ,conscious freedom will seem to him to be the only satisfactory explanation of practical life4 ,but then there will be the additional theoretical motive4 ,the man that chooses either dogmatism or idealism must theoretically make his world consistent4 ,the dogmatist cannot explain the conscious facts in terms of determinism2 but1 ,fichte thinks1 the idealist can explain the necessitated facts in terms of consciousness4 ,at any rate the idealist has the task of rethinking his scientific knowledge4 ,the ,central ,principle in ,fichte's ,philosophy4 ,how does ,fichte attempt to draw up a consistent theory so that he can overcome the dualism between the necessitated facts of physical nature and the free states of consciousness8 ,as an idealist he must rethink the knowledge of science4 ,but how is this to be done8 ,what principle will he place at the central point of consciousness1 so to illuminate the manifold problems of life that life's dualism will prove to be only apparent after all8 ,here as answer we find the outcome of ,fichte's struggle with his own nature4 ,he believed that the principle of the true philosophy of life comes from the study of consciousness4 ,the nature of the ,ego is the subject for philosophical study4 ,what is the essence of the ,ego or the personality8 ,it is activity1 will1 vitality2 not intellect and changelessness4 ,but can we not get beneath the activity of the personality and ask1 ,why does it act8 ,yes1 because it ought4 ,when we have said this we have said all4 ,the essence of the vitality of the ,ego is moral obligation4 ,ought is the foundation of life2 it is ultimate ground of existence4 ,if we ask why there is an ought1 the only answer is1 there ought to be4 ,the duty exists that you and ,i shall have a duty4 ,in order to be1 the ,ego must act2 and it acts in response to duty4 ,this activity is free activity4 ,the ,ego is unconditioned because it is acting out its own nature4 ,thus when ,fichte is talking about the ,ego1 the ought1 the moral law or freedom1 he is talking about the same thing in different guises4 ,fichte placed moral freedom as the central principle of metaphysics and tried to rethink the world of necessitated experiences in terms of moral freedom4 ,he attempted to construct a monistic view of life1 of which the free moral personality should be its inner vitality4 ,monism and liberty was ,fichte's war-cry4 ,reality is in us2 there can be no reality independent of us4 ,the morally free ,ego is the central principle of life4 ,such a message to the ,german people would appeal to two sides of their nature4 ,it would appeal as a metaphysics to the mysticism in their blood2 it would find also a practical response in the humanitarian and revolutionary spirit of that revolutionary time4 ,be up and be doing1 for reality is not what people commonly think it is4 ,your environment is only apparently an independent existence beyond your control4 ,reality is not static4 ,rethink it and make it dynamic4 ,not being1 but acting1 and free acting1 is reality4 ,such was ,fichte's sermon to the ,germans of his day4 ,his theory can be stated in the terms of the ,greek ,heracleitus1 8,all things change10 provided the change be thought of as moral activity4 ,to philosophize was to ,fichte to think the universe as free moral activity1 to see inactivity nowhere1 to free ourselves from dualism and to participate in the universal freedom4 ,freedom is higher than truth4 ,existence is derived from thought in action1 and thus our existence and our environment may be shaped by us4 ,thought is essentially action1 and we shall educate the world only through our own activity4 ,the ,moral ,world4 ,fichte had a philosophy1 the principles of which he repeated over and over again as a kind of habit4 ,he was a man of few but great ideas4 ,he was inspired by some general conceptions which he did not carefully elaborate4 ,his philosophy can be expressed in few words1 and his point of view is not difficult to feel4 ,nevertheless1 there is great difficulty in restating his meaning4 ,he maintained that ,kant's early philosophy was not truly ,kantian1 and that he1 ,fichte1 represented the true ,kant4 ,in taking this stand he was obliged to do two things3 to explain away the thing-in-itself1 and to rethink the world of necessitated nature in terms of the activity of the morally free ,ego4 ,if we start from the heart of existencethe active ,egothe world spreads out before us as a system of reason which has been created by the activity of the ,ego4 ,on this account ,fichte's philosophy has been called subjective idealism4 ,in such a scheme of things there is no place for the ,kantian thing-in-itself4 ,all ,being is only an extended product of the active ,ego and the object of its knowledge4 ,the ,ego acts because it must1 and then reflects upon its activity4 ,its knowledge of its activity is in grades from sense-perception to complete knowledge4 ,now ,kant had referred sensations to the thing-in-itself as their source4 ,but this is unnecessary1 since sensations are only the activity of the ,ego4 ,sensations are the groundless1 free act of the ,ego4 ,they appear to be 8given10 because they appear to be foreign and coming from without4 ,they are1 however1 only the lowest form of the activity of the personalitythey are unconscious self-limitation of the ,ego4 ,the sensations have no ground that determines them1 but as the lowest form of the activity of the ,ego they are absolutely free4 ,thus the thing-in-itself becomes superfluous1 since it is not necessary to account for sensations4 ,the next task for ,fichte is to rethink the series of necessitated events of physical nature4 ,if we will look at these events from the point of view of the willing ,ego1 which is reality1 they will be seen to be products of purposive action4 ,together they will make a world of connected rational activities rather than a mechanical system4 ,the necessity in nature is not causal1 but teleological4 ,it is not the necessity linking the series of events together1 but rather the linking of each event to the acting ,ego1 and thus the connecting of the whole series4 ,take the idealist's position and this illuminating thought will come to you3 a thing is not because something else is1 but in order that something else may be4 ,as moral beings we have tasks4 ,as moral beings we are the impersonation of duty1 and duty is reality4 ,these phenomena that so trouble us because we think them necessitated are only contingent upon the performance of our duty4 ,the existence of one thing is not to be explained by the existence of another1 but by the existence of me1 an ,ego4 ,phenomena are little steps toward great ends4 ,when ,i rethink the world ,i see no causal relationship1 but the teleological means for the achievement of purposes by striving souls4 ,history and naturethese are the material created by human beings for their own activity4 ,we not only create our human drama1 but we create also the stage upon which it is performed4 ,being is not the cause of ,doing1 but ,being is created for the sake of ,doing4 ,whatever is1 is to be explained by what ought to be4 8,the world is the theatre of moral action40 8,nature is the sensible material of duty40 ,god and ,man4 ,if ,fichte regarded the human personality from this moral height1 he would naturally give a new meaning to ,god1 the absolute reality4 ,god is not a substance1 a something that 8is40 ,god is the universal moral process1 the moral world-order4 ,god is the ,universal ,ego1 a free1 world-creating activity4 ,god was conceived by ,fichte as ,matthew ,arnold's 8something not ourselves that makes for righteousness40 ,when ,i find in myself that duty is reality and not this or that fixed and crystallized thing1 when ,i find that my real self is moral functioning and not a tangible form of flesh and bones1 then ,i take the next step4 ,i then find that ,god is universal duty1 universal moral functioning1 in which ,i am participating4 ,we are not only part of ,godyea1 we are ,he4 ,as the ,holy ,writ says1 8,ye are ,gods40 ,the absolute ,ego manifests ,itself in our poor finite ,egos4 ,how dignified our humble lot is made by thinking that in our acting1 ,god is acting6 ,we are fighting ,god's battle1 and ,his victory is not won except as we win4 ,duty in us is the clarion voice of ,god1 and we are persons so far as we express that voice4 ,it matters little whether ,i speak of my own duty or the moral purpose of the world4 ,they are the same thing4 ,this enjoined labor upon every rational soul to perform his duty of reaching high ideals1 through his humble tasks1 of 8fighting the good fight and keeping the faith10 is to ,fichte the meaning of coming to a consciousness of one's self4 ,what is myself1 my real self8 ,it is not this phenomenal existence with its appearance of necessity4 ,it is the eternal and everlasting duty within me4 ,what is it to think myself8 ,it is to think my duty2 and to think duty is to think ,god4 ,when ,i come to consciousness of myself1 the cosmic order is coming so far to self-consciousness4 ,reality is so far attained4 ,history is the record of this process of the moral order coming to self-consciousness4 ,in his later teaching ,fichte succumbed to the victorious ,spinozism of the period4 ,he conceived ,god as an ,ego whose infinite impulse is directed toward ,himself2 he conceived finite things as products of this infinitely active consciousness4 ,the finite products find their vocation in imitating the infinite producer1 which imitation consists not in the activity of producing other finite things through the categorical imperative1 but in the 8blessed life0 of sinking into the infinite4 ,what a ,moral ,reality involves4 ,since reality is this process of moral development1 its conditions will arise out of itself and be its own creation4 ,since the world is reason coming to itself1 it must develop its own conditions out of its original task4 ,all the acts of history must be explained as the original 8deed-act10 as ,fichte calls it4 ,fichte thought that the whole business of philosophy consists in showing what is involved in this original 8deed-act0 of consciousness1 this attempt of consciousness to think itself4 ,since self-consciousness is reality1 this will be the same as showing what reality involves4 #a4 ,in the first place1 consciousness always involves the consciousness of something else4 ,to use ,fichte's technical language1 the ,ego posits itself 7since it is a moral process7 and in the same act it posits a non-,ego 7which is the necessary object of consciousness74 8,the absolute ,ego asserts a distinguishable ,ego against a distinguishable non-,ego40 ,it is like a boy who feels the call to become a lawyer4 ,he asserts himself in that call1 and at the same time in that assertion he creates his life's career4 ,his career in the law is his non-,ego4 ,both the ,ego and the non-,ego are creations of that absolute ,ego1 which is the ever surging duty or ,god4 ,while both the ,ego and the non-,ego are the creations of that absolute ,ego1 which is cosmic duty or ,god1 yet each limits the other4 ,ego and non-,ego are correlative terms2 both originate in the free act of ,god4 ,the world is1 therefore1 the creation of the real self as the condition of its own activity4 ,it even creates its sensations as the given materials of its knowledge4 ,the world is the material of duty put into sense forms4 ,while we create matter in order that we may be active in it1 the spatial and temporal forms1 its categories1 limit our activities4 #b4 ,in the second place1 this awakening of the ,ego to a consciousness of itself involves a curious contradiction4 ,duty is by nature contradictory4 ,duty calls me to know myself and to perform my task1 and yet in that call duty prevents the task from being performed4 ,in attempting to know duty completely ,i am always under the condition of an opposing and limiting non-,ego4 ,the non-,ego is essential to the ,ego and at the same time thwarts the ,ego's full knowledge of itself4 ,so long as the non-,ego exists1 no complete knowledge of myself is possible4 ,a limiting non-,ego makes the ,ego limited1 and therefore prevents complete knowledge and fulfillment of duty4 ,duty calls upon us to perform a task1 but under conditions such that it cannot be performed4 ,so long as the boy strives in his legal profession1 duty appears2 but so long is duty rendered incomplete4 ,moral progress is endless1 but that only shows how contented we must be with the process of striving and not with some static condition4 ,to strive morally is reality2 the goal is nowhere4 ,the contradiction is seen in the eternal contrast between what is and what ought to be1 between the moral task and the actual performance4 ,we are under the requirement to perform1 and in the requirement is the restraint4 ,the dialectic process is endless4 ,first there is the stage which ,fichte calls the ,thesis in the call of the absolute ,ego4 ,the next stage is the ,antithesis1 seen in the mutually limiting ,ego and non-,ego4 ,the next stage is the ,synthesis1 in which some accomplishment is gained1 but which becomes only the ,thesis for another ,antithesis2 and so on infinitely4 ,the terms ,thesis1 ,antithesis1 and ,synthesis are important1 for they are employed by ,fichte's successors1 ,schelling and ,hegel4 ,romanticism4#fa 8,we seek the plan of nature in the outside world4 ,we ourselves are this plan4 ,why need we traverse the difficult roads through physical nature8 ,the better and purer road lies within our own mind40 7,novalis47 ,romanticism was a great ,european movement which lasted about a century from #agej to #ahej2 and it would be perfectly justifiable to speak of the intellectual period in ,germany from ,lessing to ,heine as ,romanticism4 ,rousseau and the ,french ,revolutionists1 ,ossian1 ,scott1 ,wordsworth1 ,coleridge1 ,byron1 ,shelley1 ,keats1 and ,wagner were in the forefront of this world-wide movement4 ,the ,storm and ,stress ,period was a phase of it2 and so even was the ,period of ,classicism that followed4 ,goethe and ,schiller were ,romanticists1 and ,classicism was only an episode in their lives4 ,the ,period of ,german ,classicism 7#aghg-ahje7 was different from the ,classicism of the seventeenth century1 because it was thoroughly infected with ,romantic germs4 ,if one is to take account of the different phases of ,german thought after ,lessing1 one mentions first the ,storm and ,stress ,period1 then ,classicism1 and then the ,romantic movement proper from #agie to #ahej4 ,some of the literary names connected with the ,romantic movement have already been mentioned1,richter1 ,tieck1 ,wackenroder1 ,novalis1 the ,schlegels1 ,schiller1 and ,goethe4 ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel are the philosophers of this ,romantic movement and embody its spirit in different degrees4 ,the true philosophical exponent of it is ,schelling4 ,romanticism is an accidental and inadequate name for this world-wide literary and philosophical movement4 ,in general it means the exalting of the individual1 8who admits no law above himself40 ,the ,romantic individuality is dominated by unrestrained fancy1 is animated by feeling and passion1 and prefers the vague and mystical to the clear and defined4 ,in literature ,romanticism is contrasted with ,classicism4 ,the ,classicist emphasizes the type1 the ,romanticist the individual4 ,the ,classicist defers to traditional form and law2 the ,romanticist has no common canon even with other ,romanticists except the right to disagree4 ,the only common principle among ,romanticists is subjectivethe truth of the individual intuitions1 which in the case of the historical ,romanticists found expression in the play of fiercely egoistic wills seeking self-realization4 ,the historical ,romantic movement was a passionate and mighty reaction against the previous shallow intellectual life with its narrow conventions4 ,romanticism was a revolt against the period of the ,enlightenment1 which scorned what it could not define4 ,these ,romanticists were discontented with typical ideas and with logical reasoning about them4 ,they challenged the universe1 because it was not obedient to their egoistic cravings4 ,it is very clear what the dangers as well as the greatness of this ,german ,romanticism were4 ,the dangers of the movement lay within itself1 in its aristocratic exclusiveness1 its reluctance to face the forces of evil1 its lack of strength and of firmness of character4 ,yet the age itself may be largely responsible for these4 ,its strength lay also within1 in its deepening of self-consciousness1 in its rejuvenating and ennobling the whole expanse of being1 in its intellectual conception of man's most intimate relations to himself1 to his companions1 and to the world around him4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 the spiritual force of this small band shows itself quite capable of strong action in the outer world4 ,napoleon himself ascribed his downfall not primarily to diplomacy or to the bayonet1 but to the resistance of the ,german ,ideologists4 ,goethe as a ,romanticist4 ,we have already spoken of the resurrection of ,spinoza's doctrine and its acceptance as a model by this time4 ,the ,romanticists1 following ,spinoza1 conceived of nature as a unity in which the divine manifests itself in its fullness4 ,nature is ,reason in ,becoming4 ,so fitting1 indeed1 for the time was ,spinoza's pantheism that ,goethe1 the literary exponent of the period1 made it the central principle of his poetic thought4 ,goethe can be understood only as the ,romantic ,spinoza4 ,the philosophy that underlies ,goethe's work is noted here as an example of the ,romantic movement4 ,like all the ,romantic philosophy1 ,goethe's philosophy was a personal revelation1 and not a formulated doctrine for universal application4 ,like all the ,romanticists1 ,goethe was a highly strung personality1 and his philosophy was conceived to be true by himself only for himself4 ,he did not look upon the trivialities and the conventions of life as mere limitations of his personality1 but as a fall from truth4 ,truth is realized by man when he is in vital interchange with the universe4 ,therefore ,goethe was in full agreement with ,spinoza in longing for emancipation from human littleness and in his desire for the infinite4 ,goethe differed from ,spinoza's pantheism in his own way2 for ,goethe conceived man to have an independent function in the infinite4 ,man makes his contribution to history and does not merely passively appropriate the products of the world around himself4 ,man reacts upon the world1 he resists it1 and becomes alive to the joy of it4 ,to ,goethe the world had a soul1 because the world gives clearness to the human soul4 ,nature shows how closely she is related to us by disclosing to us her inmost soul4 ,here in ,goethe is a mysticism in modern garb1 an artistic view of life4 ,besides1 the world expresses human experiences on a large scale1 and the way to nature's heart is not to go behind nature-phenomena1 but through them4 ,the facts of nature are real1 and our own life is like nature4 ,both move in prescribed orbits1 but both are empty if the connection between them is severed4 ,we find therefore the secret of our life by returning to nature1 and this is a return to the spiritual whole of things4 ,at different times ,goethe was pantheist1 naturalist1 and theist4 ,he believed that all finite life is divine1 and is a synthesis of opposite forces1 in which individuality has a place4 ,humanity is ruled by necessary types1 yet within them the individual is free4 ,such free individuals take their objects from the world1 spiritually endow these objects1 and thus make art and ethics very close to nature4 ,romanticism in ,philosophy4#fb ,the ,romantic movement was intrinsically speculative and naturally had its representatives in philosophy1 which is systematic speculation4 ,fichte and ,hegel1 but especially ,schelling1 are the philosophical exponents of the revolutionary spirit of the age4 ,all three were demonstrators in philosophy of the truths and dreams held by ardent souls1 but ,schelling's system reflected the spiritual upheaval4 ,fichte belongs to the ,romantic movement inasmuch as he strives for the infinite1 but ,fichte separates himself from that movement by distinguishing between consciousness and its content4 ,the true ,romantic spirit appears in ,schellingthe impulse to revel in intuitions1 in symbolism1 to run riot first in nature and art1 and afterwards in religion4 ,the ,romantic philosophers were friends and sympathizers of the ,romanticists1 living in the same city1 sometimes in the same house1 and were members of the same spiritual family4 ,but it must be remembered that there was not one ,romanticist leader with many imitators1 but that each ,romanticist followed out his own line4 ,when we speak of ,schelling as a ,romantic philosopher we mean that he gives the speculative tendency of the many ,romanticists his own clearer definition and formulation4 ,the background of ,schelling's philosophy is the source of the ,romanticists' motives4 ,it may be stated under three headings3 7#a7 ,man's ideal is to expand his soul until it becomes one with ,god4 7#b7 ,there is no ,thing-in-,itself4 ,the finite world is only a limitation of the ego4 7#c7 ,man and the nature world are essentially one4 ,man has a knowledge of nature when he has a knowledge of himself4 ,in reading his own history he reads the history of nature4 ,the ,romanticist drew a veil from the face of nature and found there his own spirit4 ,the ,life and the ,writings of ,schelling 7#agge-ahed74fc ,of ,schelling's long life of seventy-nine years1 the fifteen years from #agie to #ahaj were the most important productive period4 ,like ,berkeley1 he was a many-sided genius1 and began to write brilliantly in his early years4 ,he published his first treatise at sixteen years1 and before he was twenty he published several essays of distinct merit on ,fichte's philosophy1 the success of which led to his call to the chair of philosophy at ,jena4 ,all his technical works were written in an academic atmosphere4 ,after #ahab he1 so fond of writing1 became silent4 ,he even ceased to deliver lectures at the ,university of ,berlin when he found that notes of them were published without his consent4 ,hegel1 in commenting on ,schelling1 said that ,schelling liked to carry on his thinking in public4 ,schelling and ,fichte may be studied together because they are alike in developing one side of ,kant's doctrine4 ,but their careers were very different4 ,contrasted with ,fichte's life of poverty1 struggle1 self-created antagonisms1 long-delayed victory1 and devotion to rigorous morality1 is ,schelling's life of early academic success1 prosperity1 and romantic friendships4 ,the life of ,kant was one of inner development and outward routine2 that of ,fichte of early formulated thought and external warfare4 ,schelling's life1 on the other hand1 does not strike us as one of development1 either externally or subjectively4 ,it was rather a series of changes4 ,he looked upon his own philosophy as a development1 but its linkage is thread-like1 due to his wonderful imagination and mobility of thought4 ,with his great suggestive power1 he depended more upon analogy than logic2 his argument and his philosophy lie before us as if ever in process of continuous readaptation4 ,schelling possessed all the fervor and insight of the ,romanticists1 and all their egoism and caprice4 ,it is even more difficult to characterize his philosophy than that of ,spinoza4 ,he was monist1 pantheist1 and evolutionist2 parallelist1 theosophist1 and believer in freedom2 he accepted the doctrine of the ,trinity2 in all this he was the true ,romanticist4 ,schelling's philosophy of nature is intelligible only in the light of the great artistic ferment of his time and as the expression of his strong artistic personality4 ,his ideal of artistic insight into nature became for him his idea of science4 ,reality is nature1 and nature is a work of art1 self composed and self renewing4 ,the endeavor of ,schelling was to fashion all human existence into artistic form4 ,at first he looked upon nature as rational1 but later he was impressed with its irrationality4 ,schelling's life may be divided into six periods on the basis of the changes of his thought3 #a4 ,earlier ,period 7#agge-agig74 ,schelling was the son of the chaplain of a cloister school near ,tbingen1 and was educated in history and speculative science in the university of that town4 ,after his university education he held the position of tutor in a nobleman's family at ,leipsic for two years4 ,during this time he listened to lectures at the ,university of ,leipsic on medicine and physics4 ,before he was twenty he had published several notable essays on speculative matters1 among them ,the ,ego as a ,principle in ,philosophy2 and in #agig ,ideas for a ,philosophy of ,nature4 ,these led to his call to a chair in the ,university of ,jena4 ,schelling was early acquainted with the doctrine of ,leibnitz1 but the most powerful influences upon him at this time were ,kant and1 especially1 ,fichte4 #b4 ,the ,philosophy of ,nature 7#agig-ahjj74 ,schelling was called to ,jena through the influence of ,goethe1 ,schiller1 and ,fichte2 and it was here that he completed what he had begun at ,leipsicthe supplementation of ,fichte's philosophy with a ,philosophy of ,nature 7written #agih74 ,he was colleague of ,fichte and afterwards a helpful friend of ,hegel4 ,jena was then the centre of the ,romantic movement1 the moving spirit of which was ,caroline1 the wife of ,august ,schlegel4 ,schelling was very successful at ,jena as lecturer1 and his publications at this time were very many4 #c4 ,the ,transcendental ,philosophy 7#ahjj-ahja74 ,while still at ,jena he felt the influence of ,schiller1 who had united the ideas of ,kant and ,goethe into an sthetic ,idealism4 ,under this influence ,schelling reconstructed the ,fichtean philosophy of the ,ego on a ,romantic basis4 #d4 ,the ,philosophy of ,identity 7#ahja-ahjd74 ,schelling now undertook to put his recast philosophy of ,fichte upon the basis of ,spinozism4 ,this caused a break between him and ,fichte and ,hegel4 ,in #ahjc he married ,caroline1 the divorced wife of ,august ,schlegel and the idol of the ,romantic circle1 and the same year accepted a call to the ,university of ,wurzburg1 where he remained three years 7#ahjc-ahjf74 #e4 ,the ,philosophy of ,freedom and ,god 7#ahjd-ahji74 ,the doctrine of ,schelling now became mystical and showed the influence of ,boehme4 ,in #ahjf ,schelling was called to the ,academy of ,munich4 #f4 ,the ,philosophy of ,mythology and ,revelation 7#ahji-ahed74 ,this may be well called ,schelling's period of silence1 so far as publication was concerned4 ,he who had poured forth his thoughts in print now became averse to publishing anything4 ,he accepted the call to ,munich in #ahjf and remained there1 excepting his seven years at ,erlangen1 thirty-five years 7until #ahda74 ,during this time he was much under the influence of ,aristotle1 neo-,platonism1 and the ,gnostics4 ,he had first an official position at the ,academy of ,munich2 then he spent seven years as teacher at the ,university of ,erlangen 7#ahbj-ahbg72 and in #ahbg he entered the newly founded ,university of ,munich4 ,in #ahda he was called to ,berlin to counteract the ,hegelian movement1 and he became a member of the ,academy with the privilege of lecturing at the ,university4 ,he was now sixty-six1 and he spent the remaining years in elaborating his system4 ,he died in #ahed4 ,a ,brief ,comparison of ,fichte and ,schelling as ,philosophers4 ,we have already spoken of the relation of ,fichte and ,schelling to the ,romantic movement4 ,what is their relation as philosophers8 ,fichte's idealism is commonly called subjective because of his emphasis upon the ,ego at the expense of the non-,ego4 ,in non-technical terms ,fichte gave no adequate philosophy of nature2 for his assumption was that nature is only material for the reason4 ,nature to ,fichte was only the stage upon which the reason could act4 ,fichte's keen insight into human affairs blinded him to the meaning of nature4 ,the contribution of ,schelling to the philosophy of nature was not therefore unwelcomed by ,fichte2 for he saw that such a philosophy could easily be developed from his point of view1 provided nature be regarded as a unity in the service of the reason4 ,in brief1 the development of ,schelling over ,fichte was this3 7#a7 ,schelling added a science of nature to ,fichte's science of mind2 7#b7 ,then he transformed ,fichte's philosophy of mind into an sthetic philosophy of mind2 7#c7 ,then he tried in several successive attempts to find a common metaphysical ground for his own philosophy of nature and his recast philosophy of mind4 ,while the method of ,schelling was not different from that of ,fichte1 his general motive was different2 for to ,schelling the universe must not be regarded as the creation of an active moral ,ego1 but as having an existence of its own4 ,while for ,fichte to think is to produce1 for ,schelling it is to reproduce4 ,to the investigating mind of ,schelling experience and observation are the sources of knowledge2 yet it must not be inferred that ,schelling's philosophy was inductive or that he derived the ,ego from the non-,ego1 as if the ,ego had been evolved from the non-,ego4 ,these were the days before the modern theory of evolution4 ,mind does not have its source in nature2 on the contrary1 mind and nature have a common source in the ,reason4 ,they have a parallel existence and develop according to the same law4 ,nature is existing ,reason1 mind is thinking ,reason4 ,schelling's ,philosophy of ,nature4 ,schelling started with ,kant's early conception of nature as dynamicthat matter exists through the interplay of the forces of attraction and repulsion4 ,the human organism is the highest expression of such dynamic activity4 ,in the world there is nothing dead4 ,matter is the lowest expression of dynamic activity2 the vegetable is next1 the animal next1 and the human brain is the consummation of this process of productivity4 ,thus matter on the one hand and mind on the other are the two poles of reason in nature4 ,everything is life movement2 everything is the oscillation between two extremes1 the interplay of contrary but correlative forces4 ,in romantic terms1 nature is the ,self in ,becoming4 ,nature is a living whole which manifests itself in an ascending scale of rich and varied forces between matter and mind4 ,such a conception met consistently the demands of this ,romantic period4#fd ,the high expectations of the physicists of the previous century had been unfulfilled1 for they had not succeeded in obtaining a purely mechanical explanation of the derivation of life from matter4 ,darwin was still to come4 ,medicine1 which was at that time showing great progress1 offered no argument for the mechanical conception of the world4 ,there had1 however1 been many discoveries at this time in electricity and magnetism2 and these mysterious qualities seemed to repudiate the mechanical theory4 ,vitalism thus usurped the place of mathematics4 ,spinoza rather than ,galileo was the model of the time4 ,nature must be conceived as a unity in which the ,divine manifests itself in its fullness4 ,all these influences appear in ,schelling's first philosophical undertaking4 ,he states philosophically what ,goethe states poetically4 ,nature is not to be described in quantities nor measured by rule4 ,it transcends measurement4 ,it is to be truly understood only as productivity having organic life as its goal4 ,nature is rational life1 not mechanism4 ,everything has its logically determined place4 ,schelling used the natural science of his time to show how the connection of forces and their transformation into one another were the manifestation of divine cosmic purpose4 ,the gaps he filled in with teleological conceptions4 ,he used morphology with the same purpose as ,goethe4 ,he felt the same need of a deeper meaning of nature than mathematics can givethe need of a rational purposeful meaning4 ,goethe shows this in his 8,theory of ,colors0 when he looks upon colors not as atomic movements1 but as something essentially qualitative4 ,schelling1 too1 was not an evolutionist in the modern sense1 and he did not regard one species as derived from another4 ,he thought of species in an ascending scale1 to be sure2 but he saw in each only the preliminary stage to the next1 and all as the divine expression4 ,one accomplishment of nature merely precedes another in time4 ,the nineteenth century looked back on this ,romantic science as merely a fit of excessive sentiment that has impeded the modern work of serious investigation4 ,yet it may safely be said that the nineteenth century has not settled the question1 and that nature will always need a rational as well as a mechanical explanation4 ,schelling's ,transcendental ,philosophy4 ,the ,philosophy of ,nature ends with the explanation of sensitivity2 and it is there for ,schelling that the philosophy of knowledge begins4 ,when three years later ,schelling was ready to reconstruct ,fichte's philosophy of mindwhen he was ready to break with ,fichtehe was influenced by the great change that had come over the thought of the ,jena idealists4 ,this change was due curiously enough to the philosophy of the intimate friend of ,goethe1 the poet ,schiller4 ,here again the proximity of ,weimar and ,jena was the cause of the reciprocal influence of philosophy and literature4 ,schelling was the first to give this new thought its philosophical expression4 ,the theory of ,schiller is an sthetic idealism in which the artistic function supplants the moral law of ,fichte and ,kant1 and is the fundamental reality of life4 ,when ,schiller#fe reshaped ,kant's moral philosophy he was not concerned1 as might be supposed1 merely with sthetic results1 but with conduct1 history1 and the whole system of metaphysics4 ,the problem always uppermost in ,schiller's mind was the place of art and beauty in the whole system of things4 ,so when he tried to reconcile ,kant's theoretical reason and ,kant's practical reason1 he naturally looked to art for such reconciliation4 ,what is there that is both necessary and free8 ,beauty6 8,beauty is freedom in phenomenal appearance40 sthetic contemplation apprehends the beautiful object1 and yet in so doing it transcends all the trammels and bonds of experience4 ,the artistic ecstasy is freedom in necessity4 ,it is independent of moral as well as intellectual rules4 ,beauty is as little an object of sense as of will4 ,it does not have the quality of need that belongs to sense phenomena1 nor of earnestness that accompanies morality4 ,sense is obliterated2 the stirrings of the will become silent4 ,that which appears was called by ,schiller the 8play impulse40 ,toward the education of man ,schiller thus offered art1 while ,kant had presented religion4 ,art refines the feelings1 tempers the sensuous will1 and makes room for the moral will4 ,yet the moral will is not the end2 for art is not only the means of education1 but the goal as well4 ,complete life comes when the conflict between morality and sense disappears in artistic feeling4 8,only as man plays is he truly man40 ,the ideal that ,schiller formulated for this ,romantic age was the 8schne ,seele40 ,while in the soul of man the ,kantian rigoristic moral law exists when sense stands in opposition to duty1 the 8beautiful soul0 does not know conflict because its nature is ennobled by its own inclination4 ,this sthetic humanism ,schiller expresses for his time in antithesis to ,kant's and ,fichte's rigorism4 ,goethe impersonated this ideal in his life and represented it in his works4 ,the ,romanticists carried this conception to its extreme both in their practice and in their literary productions4 ,thus they came to stand for an aristocracy of culture1 and in them 8ethical geniality0 culminated4 ,the ,romanticist contrasted himself with the 8,philistine0 who lives according to rules4 ,the ,romanticist would live out his own individuality as valuable in itself4 ,he substituted the endless play of the imagination for ,fichte's moral law1 and was frequently very wayward and capricious4 ,this is seen in ,schlegel's ,lucinde4 ,schleiermacher the preacher tried to preserve the purity of ,schiller's doctrine4 ,in his construction of his own philosophy of mind ,schelling adopted completely ,schiller's theory of the sthetic reason in what he called ,transcendental ,idealism4 ,he looked upon the ,fichtean antithesis between theoretical and practical reason as the same as that between the unconscious and the conscious activity of the ,self4 ,theoretically1 or from the point of view of the understanding1 consciousness is determined by the unconscious2 practically1 or from the point of view of the will1 the unconscious is the creation of consciousness4 ,the practical or willing ,self re-shapes the products of the nature world4 ,for a thinking being is not merely a reflector or re-presenter of events as they occur in the nature worldas nature produces them4 ,thinking man is not merely passive4 ,he re-shapes and transforms nature through the freedom of his morality4 ,but neither the series of passively apprehended events1 nor the series of events transformed by the active moral will1 is ever complete4 ,neither as a passive product of nature nor as a moral will is man a perfected being4 ,in either condition man perpetually feels the contradiction1 since he is neither wholly passive nor wholly active4 ,the antagonism between will and sense is ever present4 ,man realizes the fullness of his ,ego1 when he transcends both will and sense1 both morality and science1 in the conscious-unconscious activity of artistic genius4 ,this is the highest synthesis4 ,in ,schelling's lectures delivered at ,jena on the philosophy of art1 after he had written his ,transcendental ,idealism1 he developed and applied this theory and it determined the subsequent development of sthetics in the ,jena circle4 ,kant had previously defined genius as intellect that works like nature2 ,schiller had defined it as playing2 ,schelling looked upon it as sthetic reason and the climax of the philosophy of mind4 ,art1 and not logic1 is the instrument by which the reason develops4 ,artistic reason is the goal toward which the reason aims4 ,the ,system of ,identity4 ,schelling published his ,transcendental ,idealism in #ahjj4 ,in the next year he published his ,system of ,identity in the hope of finding some common ground for his two preceding points of view4 ,for ,nature is not absolute1 but is a limited objective ,ego2 and ,mind is also not absolute1 but is also limited1 although subjective4 ,the ,self perceives the object as other than itself1 and in subsequent reflection it sees the object as a form of its own deeper ,self4 ,subject and object1 mind and nature1 are one in reality4 ,the question then is1 ,does the absolute ,self exist8 ,yes1 but outside the conditions of existence and beyond all contradictions4 ,it is itself the highest condition1 the unconditioned condition4 ,but what is the basis of these two antithetical aspects of life8 ,the most suitable name that ,schelling could give it was ,identity or ,indifference2 for other names would imply conditions4 ,in this attempt to construct an absolute ,idealism1 ,schelling shows the influence of ,spinoza4 ,identity reminds us of ,spinoza's substance1a reality that is absolutely indifferent to both mental and nature phenomena1 and yet is the reality of both4 ,it is absolute reason undetermined in its content4 ,it was this turning to ,spinozism on the part of ,schelling1 that made ,hegel break with him and call his ,identity 8the night1 in which all cows are black40 ,schelling even came so much under the influence of ,spinoza as to imitate ,spinoza's form of presentation in the ,ethics4 ,but ,schelling regarded the objective and subjective worlds not after the manner of ,spinoza as independent of each other4 ,on the contrary he looked upon every phenomenon as both ideal and real1 and as having its logical place according to the degree in which the two elements are combined4 ,differences are what constitute phenomena2 the ,absolute is the ,indifferent4 ,schelling illustrates this by the magnet1 which is itself an indifference of opposite poles of varying intensity4 ,in the nature series the objective factor predominates1 and in the mental series the subjective factor4 ,the universe is the most perfect work of art1 the most perfect organism1 and the best expression of ,god4 ,schelling's ,religious ,philosophy4 ,romanticism took a religious turn at the beginning of the eighteenth century under the influence of ,schleiermacher4#ff ,the motive of this movement was the thought that religious feeling lies below art4 ,reason can be completed only in religion1 by which is meant not dogma1 nor morality1 but an sthetic relation to the world-ground1 a pious feeling of absolute dependence4 ,it is the feeling of being permeated by the ,absolute4 ,schleiermacher taught in the true ,romantic spirit that religion is an individual matter and is different from church organization4 ,thus in this time of quickly passing shades of imaginative thought ,schiller idealized ,greece and ,schleiermacher the ,middle ,ages4 ,susceptible as he was to every idea of his time1 ,schelling embodied this teaching of ,schleiermacher in his later teaching4 ,with the other ,romanticists he expected that the concept of religion would furnish a final basis for the solution of all problems1 overcome all antitheses in an inner harmony1 and bring about the eternal welfare of all4 ,schelling now no longer called the ,absolute ,indifference1 but ,god or ,infinity1 and he conceived ,him as possessing modes and potencies4 ,in the development of this new line of thought he introduced the neo-,platonic doctrine of ,ideas as ,god's intuitions of ,himself1 and as intermediaries with the world4 ,later ,schelling passed through another change1 and this doctrine grew under his hands into a theosophy and a theory of the irrational4 ,the influence of ,schelling was eclipsed by ,hegel after ,schelling retired to ,munich2 and ,schelling saw his rival in control of ,german academic thought for many years4 ,but he had the satisfaction in his old age of being called by the authorities to ,berlin as the official spokesman against the ,hegelian doctrine4 ,hegel and the ,culmination of ,idealism4 ,we have divided the philosophers after ,kant into two groups2 7#a7 ,fichte1 ,schelling and the ,romanticists1 and ,hegel2 7#b7 ,herbart and ,schopenhauer4 ,in this first group1 which we have at present under our eye1 ,fichte is the ethical exhorter1 ,schelling the ,romantic nature-lover1 and ,hegel the intellectual systematizer4 ,fichte's conception of ,reality is always an ethical ideal unrealized1 in whose cause men are called to fight for conviction's sake4 ,schelling points to the beauty of nature's productivity as a reality that lies hidden in mystery4 ,both these theories show profound insight into life and both are expressive of the period in its attitude toward life4 ,fichte is the type of the ,puritan idealist2 ,schelling the type of the sentimentalist4 ,yet both1 even from the point of view of the ,idealism of the period1 were partial expressions4 ,idealism was a social movement2 and like all social movements must run its course4 ,it would not stop until it had culminated in a full and systematic formulation4 ,this was found in the philosophy of ,hegel4 ,the social forces of the eighteenth century had been gathering a momentum1 which naturally came to a magnificent climax4 ,on its political side this movement culminated under the leadership of the greatest of all political idealists1 ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 in #ahae at ,waterloo4 ,on its intellectual side it reached its completion in the philosophical system of ,hegel4 ,hegel died in #ahca1 and his intellectual kingdom1 like the political kingdom of ,napoleon1 was immediately shattered4 ,but the observer of the currents of history will find much significance in the stubborn persistence of the intellectual phase of the ,idealistic movement long after its political dominance had gone4 ,hegel ruled the intellectual world of ,germany from ,berlin for sixteen years after the battle of ,waterloo1 and his philosophy was officially recognized by the ,berlin authorities4 ,this stubbornness of the realm of ideas can be exemplified throughout history1 for it requires more than one political earthquake to demolish a well-organized intellectual theory4 ,hegel may be said to have drawn the scattered threads of the preceding idealists into a system4 ,like them1 he firmly grounded his philosophy on the ,kantian epistemology4 ,like them also1 he sought to find absolute reality by means of the conscious ,ego4 ,this only means that all three were idealists4 ,but ,fichte's conception of the ,ego was only partially formed4 ,it could not be an absolute reality1 since it needed to be confronted by a non-,ego in order to assert itself and live4 ,hegel was discerning enough to see that ,reason was more fundamental than either action1 purpose1 or consciousness itself4 ,to him both the ,ego and the non-,ego were in essence ,reason4 ,the ,ego could not know that it had created the non-,ego unless the ,ego was in the beginning rational4 ,to distinguish the ,ego from the non-,ego1 there must be some ground of similarity upon which both are based4 ,in his search for this ground ,hegel at first allied himself with ,schelling4 ,the brilliancy of ,schelling's thought dazzled him4 ,then he saw that ,schelling only led back to the abstract universal of ,spinoza4 ,a mystical 8black night0 ,identity was not actual nor did it explain anything actual4 ,it merely said that the ,absolutely ,real is unknowable4 ,this is too easy a solution of the complexity of life4 ,having neither meaning nor actuality1 it cannot explain the actual concrete and meaningful things4 ,the ,absolutely ,real must be a universal1 but it must also be concrete4 ,history has been the ,reason in its toil and travail4 ,the ,absolutely ,real must include history and it must be ,reason4 ,with ,fichte the 8deed act0 had primacy1 with ,schelling the sthetic feeling1 with ,hegel the ,reason as an articulated series of concepts4 ,why ,hegel remains to-day the ,representative of ,kant4 ,there were several reasons why ,hegel remains the representative of ,kant3 #a4 ,he had more learning and ability than the other post-,kantians4 #b4 ,his own interpretation was an interpretation of facts4 ,by the other post-,kantians things are not represented as they are1 but as they have been transformed4 ,hegel1 however1 was a respecter of things as they are4 ,hegel was possessed of no sentiment4 ,he was a satirist2 although a romanticist1 he was an encyclopdic historian as well4 ,he was a philosopher in that old-time sense of wishing to know the nature of things4 #c4 ,he was fortunate in his application of ,kant's doctrine to evolution4 ,it proved to be the beginning of the movement which appeared later in ,darwin4 ,people were going to be evolutionists in the nineteenth century1 and ,hegel played into their hands and helped evolution4 #d4 ,hegel gave to his philosophy the air of orthodoxy4 ,in the nineteenth century there was a desire for ,christianity that was orthodox4 ,hegel offered no objection to allowing that interpretation to be placed upon his philosophy4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca74fg ,the slow movement of ,hegel's diction is paralleled by his gradual development in thought4 ,he was the most painstaking metaphysician that ever completed a philosophy4 ,while he was lacking in the painful hesitation that made ,kant consume so much time in introductions as to have little for the body of his discourses and none for the completion of his philosophy1 he was nevertheless a plodding1 careful1 and prosaic thinker4 ,as a boy he showed these traits without showing any predominant taste or capacity4 8,he was that uninteresting characterthe good boy who takes prizes in every class1 including the prize for good conduct40 ,as a man he was shrewd and reserved1 overbearing to his inferiors and opponents1 and even patronizing to his superiors4 ,he was the type of the pedantic teacher who brooks no opposition4 ,like ,kant's1 his life was entirely academic1 but unlike ,kant's1 his experience was in many university circles,tbingen1 ,jena1 ,heidelberg1 and ,berlin4 ,his thirteen years at ,berlin were remarkable1 not only for his philosophical dominance1 but for his influence in society and court4 ,the official recognition of his philosophy by the ,berlin authorities was a detriment in the end2 for immediately after his death1 in #ahca1 it lost its influence4 ,hegel had succeeded ,fichte at ,berlin1 and by the irony of fate1 ,schelling1 already an old man in ,vienna1 was called by the ,berlin authorities to combat ,hegel's influence4 ,hegel's followers1 after his death1 became engaged in angry disputes over their interpretations of their master's philosophy4 ,his philosophy was attacked by ,herbart4 ,the intellectual world turned away from him to empirical discoveries and the doctrine of evolution4 ,in twenty years ,hegel's influence was insignificant1 and to-day his name is scarcely mentioned in the lecture room of a ,german university4 ,his influence is1 however1 growing and powerful in ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,still it must be said that even in ,germany no one has so dominated the direction of jurisprudence1 sociology1 theology1 sthetics1 and history 7a science which ,hegel himself created74 ,hegel's erudition1 his ability to systematize1 his power of discrimination1 are sufficient to explain such influence4 ,the illumination that his philosophy gives1 lies less in his metaphysical theory than in his application of it to history and tradition4 ,he won adherents1 not by his abstruse arguments that so few can understand1 but by illustration2 not by his demonstration of the ,absolute1 but by showing how that ,absolute is what the religious devotee seeks1 what the moralist presupposes and the historian recognizes4 ,in carrying out his theory in detail he arbitrarily fitted his facts to his theory1 especially in the philosophy of nature1 the history of philosophy1 and history4 ,in the realm of pure thought1 where conceptual facts are dealt with1 this is not so apparent4 ,he was successful1 for example1 in the science of sthetics4 ,hegel's literary style is difficult1 and his technicalities are almost barbarous4 ,he uses philosophical and common terms with meanings to suit himself4 ,he loves paradoxical phrases1 and is pedantic in his insistence on systematic arrangement4 #a4 ,formative ,period 7#aggj-agif74 ,hegel was born at ,stuttgart in #aggj1 and in the years between #aghh and #agic he studied philosophy1 theology1 and the classics in the ,university of ,tbingen4 ,among his companions there were ,schelling and ,hlderlin4 ,from #agic to #agif he was a tutor in ,switzerland1 where he made a further study of ,kant4 #b4 ,formulation of his ,philosophy 7#agif-ahjf74 ,hegel formulated his philosophy for the first time in the four years 7#agif-ahjj7 of his life at ,frankfort1 where he was acting in the capacity of tutor4 ,in #ahja he became privat-docent at ,jena through ,schelling's recommendation4 ,he edited a philosophical journal with ,schelling1 and the two were friends so long as ,hegel found ,schelling's assistance of value to himself4 ,when1 in #ahjc1 ,schelling left ,jena1 ,hegel began to criticize his former friend's philosophy4 ,hegel was appointed professor of philosophy at ,jena in #ahje4 #c4 ,development of his ,philosophy 7#ahjf-ahca74 #ahjf4 ,he wrote the ,phnomenologie1 which was published in #ahjg4 #ahjg4 ,the university was discontinued after the battle of ,jena1 and ,hegel went to ,bamberg to edit a newspaper4 #ahjg-ahae4 ,hegel was at ,nuremberg as teacher in its gymnasium1 and in #ahaa1 at the age of forty-one1 he married4 #ahab-ahac4 ,he published his ,logic4 #ahaf-ahag4 ,he was professor of philosophy at ,heidelberg4 ,he published his ,encyclopdia1 which consists of three parts3 ,logic1 ,philosophy of ,nature1 and ,philosophy of ,mind4 ,this was enlarged in #ahbg4 #ahah4 ,hegel succeeded ,fichte at ,berlin1 where he met with marked success1 and where he exercised a very wide influence4 ,when ,hegel came to ,berlin his philosophical theory was already formulated1 and his thirteen years at ,berlin were spent in illustrating and verifying it in history4 #ahca4 ,at the height of his fame1 he died of cholera4 ,realism1 ,mysticism1 and ,idealism4 ,it will not be amiss at this point to contrast three of the great types of human thought1,realism and ,mysticism with the ,idealism of which ,hegel was the consummate expression4 ,the ,idealistic ,period of ,european thought is confined within the forty-one years between #agij and #ahca4 ,moreover it is a world-wide movement1 the philosophical expression of which is restricted to the ,german people4 ,mysticism and ,realism represent the civilizations of longer periods and of many peoples4 ,mysticism is1 for example1 the attitude of mind frequently found in the ,middle ,ages in ,europe1 and may be roughly said to be the philosophy of the ,oriental peoples4 ,spinoza was a belated mystic and its best ,european exponent2 and against the revival of ,spinoza's ,mysticism during this period ,hegel as an idealist took his stand4 ,realism has been a popular philosophy in all civilizations at all times1 and it was the irony of fate that ,realism followed directly upon ,hegel's long period of dominance as an idealist4 ,modern science is based on ,realism1 and so1 on the whole1 was ,greek civilization4 ,in contrast to ,realism1 ,idealism represents a few years of history and has been confined to a limited civilization1 yet for profundity of insight into the meaning of life ,idealism is the consummation of human reflection4 ,since 8philosophy lends itself to extended discourse10 it is quite impossible to contrast these theories briefly in more than a crude way4 ,from the mystic's point of view1 absolute reality is that which can be immediately apprehended4 ,however1 since immediate intuition is always undetermined1 the mystic's reality is a very vague and abstract thing1 although for him it is none the less real4 ,such a reality is not usually sought in the 8world of nature02 for nature objects are very definite1 besides being very transitory4 ,the mystic's world of reality is within2 therefore ,god to the mystic is to be found within the soul and is to be contrasted with the unreality of the world of sense4 ,there is only one reality1 and that is within the soul2 all else is an illusion4 ,reality is gained by direct knowledge and never by the process of logical reflection4 ,mysticism is frequently allied with sthetics2 the love of ,god is apparently the same as the love for a work of art2 the immediate intuition that the soul has of ,god apparently is the same psychological process as the artistic ecstasy over a thing of beauty4 ,both result in the absorption of the soul in its object1 and in the presence of either all else seems illusory4 ,now ,realism is a theory that is more easily defined than ,mysticism4 ,it is simply the conception of many realities independent of one another and of the thinking mind4 ,reality is not one1 it is a plurality of independent things1 all of which are independent of the thinking process4 ,such realities are not undefined4 ,as in ,idealism1 our knowledge of them is a definite matter of reflection2 but against ,mysticism1 such definite knowledge is proof of their reality4 ,this can be illustrated by the series #a 444 #b4 ,let the number 8#b0 represent the reality or meaning of the infinite series1 which1 however far extended1 never reaches 8#b40 ,let the series itself represent the definite processes of phenomenal nature4 ,the ,realist would say that only the increasing series is real1 and the 8#b0 is an unknowable4 ,the ,realist admits that the series is fragmentary and incomplete1 but it is quite definite and certainly the best we can do4 ,it is at least exact and scientific2 and the goal of scientific knowledge belongs to the realm of the attainable4 ,on the other hand the ,mystic maintains that1 since exact knowledge attains only the changing and phenomenal1 exact knowledge is illusory4 ,when we cannot attain the real by effort and sense knowledge1 why waste our time in seeking to do so8 ,reality is right at handin one's self4 ,to the ,mystic the infinite series of fractions is unreal1 because it is and always will be incomplete4 ,the ideal 8#b0 can be got by direct and intuitive knowledge4 ,thus to the ,realist the infinite series is real and the goal 0#b0 is unreal1 while to the ,mystic the 8#b0 is real and the fractions of experience are unreal4 ,hegel felt profoundly convinced that neither ,realism with its definite realities nor ,mysticism with its undefined goal was an adequate explanation of the world and life4 ,the truly real must not only be definite1 but it must also be all-inclusive4 ,it must not on the one hand be incomplete1 nor on the other must it be vague4 ,it must be both the number 8#b0 and the infinite series leading to 8#b40 ,a truly and absolutely real must be the explanation of everything that happens1joy1 evil1 necessity in nature1 every least event and change4 ,in the light of the idealism of ,hegel the solutions of the ,mystic and the ,realist seem to fade in importance1 and the problem of life seems to grow in significance and meaning4 ,the ,fundamental ,principles of ,hegel's ,idealism4 ,in contrast with ,mysticism and ,realism1 as well as with the doctrine of ,fichte and ,schelling1 ,hegel tried to formulate a conception of the universe that would include everything and yet be an organic whole4 ,in what terms can this world of richness and variety1 of cordinations and contradictions1 be conceived as a single whole8 ,how can it be one and still be many8 ,hegel saw clearly that this was his problem4 ,the truly absolute must be a unity1 and still be absolute4 ,there are two fundamental principles upon which his doctrine rests3 7#a7 ,the world must be conceived in terms of consciousness4 ,to any one who has studied the principles of psychology1 or who has followed ,kant's epistemological analysis1 it is clear that the only real unities are conscious unities4 ,the characteristic of consciousness is synthesis4 ,this is what we mean by consciousness1 and consciousness is unique in this4 7#b7 ,the world as a conscious whole must be essentially a world of contradictions4 ,we must accept contradiction and not consistency as the fundamental and explanatory principle of life4 ,in science and our ordinary human problems we try to get results that are logically consistent4 ,this is useful1 but in doing so we do not get a full explanation4 ,we omit in such calculations life's negations and incongruities4 ,but do not inconsistencies and negations and incongruities exist8 ,they certainly do2 everything has its opposite2 and if we will take the pains to observe the processes of thought1 we shall find that thought is fundamentally inconsistent4 ,why do we usually regard thought as a self-consistent process8 ,because our methods of formal logic are such4 ,in formal logic we reason smoothly and consistently from the premises to the conclusion4 ,if we look more deeply into thought1 we shall find that such consistency is made possible by ignoring the inconsistencies necessary to the very being of thought4 ,the question therefore is not1 ,can the cosmic whole be conceived as consistent8 but ,what is the law of its inconsistencies8 ,let us consider these two principles of the ,hegelian philosophy more in detail4 ,the ,cosmic ,unity4 ,hegel insists on the old truth that thought is self-operating within us4 ,thought belongs to our nature1 yet it controls our nature4 ,thought develops consequences without regard to the will and demands that contradictions shall be solved4 ,it is not correct to say that we think1 but rather that thinking goes on within us4 ,thought is the life of the world4 ,thought is a process which embraces all things and projects them4 ,hegel emancipates thought from all the limitations of human minds4 ,he would make thought objective and transform reality into thought4 ,thus ,hegel conceives that this self-operating thought within us is essentially the reality of the universe4 ,thought is the great cosmic undercurrent that includes all things in its sweep4 ,indeed1 the universe cannot be conceived as a unity unless the universe is conceived as a cosmic consciousness or reason4 ,the true study of the nature of the world is cosmic logic1 and philosophy becomes in ,hegel's hands panlogism1universal logic4 ,kant restricted the categories of thought to the human understanding2 ,hegel universalizes them and they become categories of the cosmos4 ,for if the reality of the world is conscious reason1 the categories are not only the forms of thought1 but also the modes of being4 ,the categories are1 therefore1 more comprehensive than ,kant supposed4 ,to use a term from the ,middle ,ages1 they are 8substantial forms40 ,they are at one and the same time the forms that mould thought and the stages of eternal creation4 ,the knowing process and the cosmic process are one and the sameone writ small and the other writ large4 ,they are not separate from each other1 but are the transformations of one ,being4 ,if we would study the cosmic forms1 let us study thought-forms4 ,logic is really ontology2 the study of the genealogy of thought is the study of ,being4 ,the real is reason1 and the reason is real4 ,by reason ,hegel does not mean intuition or even immediate perception1 which ,fichte and ,schelling claimed to be the fundamental principle of the mind4 ,the reason which ,hegel is talking about is the concept or general notion4 ,all actuality is the development of the general notion in a necessary and self-creative movement4 ,history1 matter1 and thought are exhibitions of the divine ,idea4 8,all ,being is thought realized and all ,becoming is a development of thought40 ,hegel's philosophy is a monism of reason1a universalized concept1 in which everything has its divine place4 ,it is an all-embracing system1 moulding every department4 ,mind and matter are not aspects of a reality which is behind them1 but are the modes of that reality4 ,the cosmic reason is successively mind and matter1 and not the principle of mind and nature4 ,in ,schelling things proceed from the absolute4 ,in ,hegel they are the absolute4 ,the absolute does not exceed things1 but is wholly in them as their organic unity4 ,everything is under the conceptual labor of thought4 ,the important thing is to refer all our complex states to the unifying cosmic concept and have one illuminating idea4 ,absolute reason is absolute movementthe perpetual movement of life4 ,yet this absolute reasonthe reason that refuses to change according to our likes and dislikesis its own law and goal4 ,the cosmos is the law of reason and has as its end its own unfolding self-consciousness4 ,it is not the purpose of philosophy1 according to ,hegel1 to tell what the world should be1 but to recognize its nature as rational4 ,we must1 therefore1 be careful to distinguish ,hegel's conception of the unity of ,god from that other conception of ,him as a quantitative1 single1 and isolated unity4 ,an isolated and single ,being would imply the existence of other isolated ,beings4 ,such an individual would be limited by others and dependent upon them4 ,in technical terms sameness with one's self implies difference from others4 ,a good example of the conception of an isolated ,god can be found in modern theology2 such a ,god is a unity1 but ,he is only the greatest of the several powers in the universe4 ,such an ,one is not an absolute1 for the ,one to be absolute must be all that there is4 ,limitation implies something else4 ,das ,wahre ist das ,ganze4 ,but ,hegel does not mean by the ,oneness of ,god an aggregation of parts1 nor does he mean a system or arrangement of parts4 ,an aggregation of parts1 however big1 is never complete and cannot include all that there is4 ,an aggregation1 even if it includes the past and the present1 is not ,absolute4 ,the temporal series points to something else to give it meaning2 and yet ,reality must not stand outside any part of the temporal series4 ,the ,absolute ,reality must include the temporal series1 and yet the temporal series is not in itself ,reality4 ,neither does ,hegel mean that ,reality is a system or society of individuals1 whose knowledge and will imply one another2 for such an organization of individuals also has its meaning in something below it4 ,the ,absolute ,reality is a spiritual individual4 ,it is a unifying consciousness1 which is self-moving1 subjective1 and active4 8,it is the ,idea that thinks itself and is completely self-identical in its otherness40 ,it cannot be abstract thought like ,spinoza's ,god1 for the ,absolute must be actual4 ,nor does ,hegel mean by ,reality merely life or vitality1 as ,haeckel has conceived it in modern times2 for these1 too1 are only abstract terms4 8,it is pure personality which alone through the absolute dialectic encloses all within itself40 ,reality is an ,absolute ,cosmic ,spirit engaged in its self-discovery and self-appropriation by means of its own movement2 and this movement is revealed in art1 religion1 and philosophy4 ,the ,absolute is1 as ,shelley makes the ,earth picture man in ,prometheus ,unbound1 8,one harmonious ,soul of many a soul1 ,whose nature is its own divine control1 ,where all things flow to all1 as rivers to the sea40 ,the panorama of history is the progressive knowledge of the ,absolute appearing under successively more adequate forms4 ,morality is the ,absolute in ever enlarging social relations4 ,religion is the ,absolute in personal relations to man4 ,philosophy is the ,absolute in reasoned apprehension of himself4 ,the ,absolute is not to be conceived in anthropomorphic terms1 but is the world-process realized as an individual self-consciousness4 ,it is cosmic consciousness become more significant4 ,it is ,being regarded as an individuality and including all development4 ,the ,cosmic ,law4 ,if the cosmic unity is a cosmic synthetic consciousness1 it must be subject to the law of reason which is fundamental in consciousness4 ,the process of consciousness is an unfolding4 ,it is an evolution1 but an evolution that is an unfolding4 ,ordinarily biological evolution restricts itself to the particular type under consideration4 ,it does not take account of the fact that the growth of one type means the destruction of another4 ,it does not view nature in a universal way and consider construction and destruction1 action and reaction1 equal4 ,it looks upon development as a process along a tangent or like the infinite series of numbers4 ,but the destructions1 the defeats1 the reciprocal retrogressions1 must be accounted for in a truly ,absolute consciousness4 ,evolution is not therefore an upward advance1 but a closed circle4 ,the ,absolute is not therefore a consistency1 but includes contradictions2 and evolution cannot truly be interpreted in quantitative but in qualitative terms1 as the unfolding of consciousness4 ,the only way to include everything in the ,absolute is to think of the ,absolute as coming to a consciousness of itself4 ,the ,absolute ,reality is the same at any temporal beginning or ending4 ,its meaning is becoming clearer to itself alone4 ,such clearness appears in the clearness with which the categories which are the forms of any consciousness become related4 ,the task of philosophy is not to understand these forms together or seriatim1 but as moments of a unitary development4 ,they are the links in the development of ,spirit1 ,god1 the ,idea1 or the ,absolute4 ,what is this law of spiritual circular development8 ,what are the categories of the cosmic ,ego8 ,how can the cosmic organism take account of the contradictions as well as the consistencies of life8 ,the three necessary categories or three fundamental conceptions of the cosmic consciousness are 8to be10 8to be denied10 8to be transcended10,thesis1 its ,antithesis1 and the ,synthesis of the two4 ,in other words they are ,assertion1 ,contradiction1 and ,return-to-itself4 ,the cosmic law is the ,law of ,negativity4 ,it is a dialectic process in the union of contradictories1 of extremes meeting1 of the equality of action and reaction4 ,in ,hegel's hands contradiction becomes the very principle of cosmic harmony4 ,it is the struggle of thought to comprehend itself by using its own contradictory and created experiences for such comprehension4 8,the phenomenon is the arising and passing away which itself does not pass away1 but exists in itself4 ,it constitutes the movement and reality of the life of truth40 ,the law of human consciousness is this3 ,assume the truth of any doctrine4 ,examine it and you will find it in some detail asserting not only its own contradiction or opposite1 but also the relation between its assertion and its contradiction4 ,the truth lies in the assertion that transcends the two opposites4 ,the law of the cosmic consciousness is the same4 ,any stage of history appears in the conscious assurance of the truth of the principles upon which history is founded4 ,but any such assertion by any epoch arouses opposition2 and the next stage in historical development is the assertion of principles that synthesize the assertion of the previous epoch and the opposition to it4 ,the law of consciousness drives history to oppose its own self-assertions and then to a deeper apprehension of itself in a higher assertion1 until it finds rest in the knowledge of the ,absolute ,ideathat ,absolute ,truth is continuous contradiction4 ,perhaps ,hegel's most notable contribution to modern thought was his emphasis upon the tremendous power of negation and the stimulating force in contradiction4 ,spiritual advance is made through opposition4 ,hegel's ,application of his ,theory4 ,formulating his theory in #ahjj1 ,hegel spent the most of his literary career in exemplifying it4 ,the ,phnomenologie 7#ahjg7 is an attempt to show the natural history of thought in experience4 ,he shows there the series of stages through which the mind passes1stages corresponding to logic1 to the growth of the individual1 and to society4 ,in the dialectic movement1 consciousness views the world in an external way until it becomes self-conscious2 then reason is evolved as a synthesis of the two3 i4 e4 of external consciousness and self-consciousness4 ,reason then develops by continually turning back upon itself into an ethical1 religious1 and1 lastly1 an absolute reason4 ,hegel wrote his ,logic 7#ahab7 as an application of his theory to thoughtregarding thought as consisting of general concepts4 ,then came his ,encyclopdia 7#ahaf71 containing his ,philosophy of ,nature and ,philosophy of ,mind4 ,in his ,philosophy of ,nature1 nature is regarded as revealing the same dialectic as logic1 but in the external world4 ,nature1 therefore1 stands to logic as its antithesis4 ,the ,philosophy of ,mind places mind as the synthesis of logic and nature1 and elaborates the subject as mind1 objective mind1 and the synthesis of the two1 or ,absolute mind4 ,thus the dialectic of the ,logic is repeated and applied to the ,philosophy of ,nature and the ,philosophy of ,spirit4 ,logic and history are therefore parallel4 ,the content is always the same in both2 and the development is always in logical forms4 ,the ,absolute ,idea by differentiation with itself comes to itself3 7#a7 in ,logic through ,being1 ,essence1 and ,idea2 7#b7 in ,nature through matter1 individual forms1 and organism2 7#c7 in ,spirit through consciousness1 self-consciousness1 reason1 right1 morality1 social morality1 art1 religion1 philosophy4 ,logic is the ,spirit an-sich2 nature is the spirit fr-sich2 mind is the ,spirit an-und-fr-sich4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,thing-,,in-,,itself ,herbart and ,schopenhauer4 ,the main line of development of the critical ,kantian movement was the idealism of ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel4 ,it was the most perfect expression of the period of ,german philosophy4 ,there were1 however1 so many distinct elements in the ,kantian doctrine1 and these were so loosely tied together by ,kant1 that one is not surprised to find many divergent lines of its subsequent elaboration4 ,it is difficult to classify all these later philosophers4 ,but most prominent in this group stood ,herbart and ,schopenhauer4 ,herbart was a ,realist1 and ,schopenhauer a voluntarist and pessimist4 ,they had a common ground and motive for their respective philosophies1 and may be placed together in the second group of the disciples of ,kant4 ,they were allied 7#a7 in their emphasis upon the importance of the thing-in-itself and 7#b7 in their strong opposition to the idealist movement4 ,while both published their principal writings before the death of ,hegel in #ahca1 both lived to the middle of the nineteenth century and both represent the reaction against the period of idealism4 ,they speak more for the subsequent nineteenth century than for ,german ideals and ,romanticism4 ,they represented a certain feeling of the time that ,kant's doctrine had not received its due at the hands of the ,idealists4 ,some philosophers had remained true to ,kant1 but they could not get the public ear until they were reinforced by the positive science and historical criticism of the second quarter of the nineteenth century4 ,bands of men had gathered to study ,kant even while ,idealism was dominant4 ,these were not professional philosophers1 but politicians and others engaged in active service4 ,kant himself in his later years protested against his 8false disciples40 ,fries and ,herbart1 even though pupils of ,fichte1 were true to ,kant2 and turned attention away from idealistic construction to an examination of the psychological foundations upon which the ,kantian criticism rested4 ,herbart was the most prominent of the empirical psychologists and physicists who turned away from the speculative tendency back to ,kant4 ,schopenhauer was the early spokesman for that mysticism and pessimism which characterized the nineteenth century and appeared in the music of ,wagner1 the literature of ,ibsen1 and the philosophy of ,von ,hartmann and ,nietzsche4 ,what discredited ,hegelianism in particular and philosophy in general in the eyes of the nineteenth century was 7#a7 the errors of ,hegelianism as to facts2 7#b7 the patronizing tone of the ,hegelians toward scientists like ,copernicus1 ,newton1 and ,lavoisier2 and 7#c7 the refusal of the ,hegelians to test hypotheses by facts4 ,the opposition against ,hegel was against his principles1 his method1 and his conclusions4 ,at the downfall of ,napoleon the age gave up the hope of reconstructing the world either politically or philosophically4 ,the new spirit was scientific and positive4 ,it tried to accept the world as it found it1 and to explain it mechanically so far as it could be done4 ,things are not the creation of thought1 and thought cannot change the reality of things4 ,we must observe and experiment1 since we cannot construct4 ,we must restore the boundaries of ,kant4 ,yet both ,herbart and ,schopenhauer were true to the spirit that inspired ,german idealism1 for they could not develop their philosophy of education1 psychology1 or art except upon a metaphysical background4 ,metaphysics was necessary4 ,it was as necessary a foundation to the ,germans as ethics to the ,greeks and psychology to the ,english4 ,johann ,friedrich ,herbart4#fh ,as 8a ,kantian of the year #ahbh0 ,herbart claimed to have carried the ,kantian doctrine a step further by disclosing its psychological grounds4 ,he insisted that analysis was the only true method2 and he contended against ,fichte that it is impossible to deduce the theory of the world from a single principle4 ,an all-inclusive principle may be the conclusion1 but not the premise1 of a philosophy4 ,thus his thought moved in exactly the opposite direction from the monism of the ,idealists and ,schleiermacher1 with which he was in constant hostility4 ,experience proved to ,herbart the existence of independent realities2 and he could not reconcile himself with the a priori doctrine of the idealists1 which begins by denying the existence of the ,thing-in-,itself4 ,on the contrary1 philosophy to ,herbart had the ,thing-in-,itself as its chief concern4 ,herbart did not see how paradoxical his position must behow futile must be the results of attempting to know the unknowable4 ,he was impressed with the depth of the problem of existence1 and he felt that1 if it was to be explained at all1 it must be along scientific lines1 especially in the fields of psychology and education4 ,the scientific method of ,herbart was mechanics2 his ,realism was the result of his method4 ,herbart's programme at the beginning of his teaching at ,gttingen in #ahjb was as follows3 ,he defined philosophy in a general way by simplifying the concepts that underlie the different sciences4 ,thus he 7#a7 reconstructed ,realism1 7#b7 restored the principle of contradiction1 and 7#c7 established philosophy on the same basis as science4 ,of all the philosophical schools in the nineteenth century the ,herbartian school was the most numerous and compact4 ,hegel's attitude had driven many thinkers into science1 and the majority of them attached themselves to ,herbart for want of something better4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,herbart 7#aggf-ahda74 ,herbart was the typical scholar4 ,he was a man of quiet and conservative tastes1 and his life was never disturbed by dramatic situations arising out of contradictions in his character or environment4 ,his days were spent in study1 lecturing1 and efforts for social education4 ,the philosophical influences upon his thought were ,leibnitz1 ,kant1 and negatively the ,idealists4 ,in his early life he had read ,leibnitz and ,kant1 and before he was eighteen he had read enough of ,fichte to be repelled by his doctrine4 ,in #agif he was a student at ,jena4 ,from ,jena he went as tutor to ,switzerland1 where he met ,pestalozzi and laid the foundation of his own philosophy4 ,in #ahjb he was called to ,gttingen1 where he became full professor in #ahje4 ,in #ahjf he published ,principal ,points in ,metaphysics4 ,in #ahji he was called to ,knigsberg1 where he published his chief works3 #ahac ,text-book of the ,introduction to ,philosophy4 #ahaf ,text-book of ,psychology4 #ahbb ,possibility and ,necessity of ,applying ,mathematics to ,psychology4 #ahbd-ahbe ,psychology as a ,science4 #ahbh-ahbi ,general ,metaphysics4 ,in #ahcj he was called back to ,gttingen1 and he died in #ahda4 ,the ,contradictions of ,experience4 ,all the conceptions of practical life are self-contradictory and are therefore vicious4 ,this applies not only to the conceptions of unreflecting minds1 but also to those of scientists and philosophers4 ,to philosophize is nothing else than this3 to free our conceptions of their self-contradictions by simplifying and revising them4 ,we think of the world as consisting of things1 persons1 relations1 and laws2 but such a view of the world is founded upon the fallacy of thinking an object at the same time as one and as many4 ,this general fallacy takes four specific forms3 inherence1 change1 continuity1 and selfhood4 ,for example1 it is contradictory to think of a plant as one thing in which many qualities inhere2 it is contradictory to think of a plant as the same when it passes through many changes2 it is contradictory to think of space as continuous and yet divided into parts2 and it is contradictory to think of the self as always the same and yet as a stream of conscious states4#fi ,the ,argument for ,realism4 ,this inherent contradiction in human conceptions had been a matter of observation by philosophers for many centuries1 but it had led to many divergent conclusions4 ,the ,greek ,skeptics had long ago observed it1 and had concluded therefore that there is no such thing as reality4 ,to them thought is discredited because the contradictions of thought are insoluble4 ,truth does not exist4 ,on the other hand ,hegel developed his great dialectic system upon the basis of these contradictions4 ,is thought self-contradictory8 ,yes4 ,but is thought discredited because it is self-contradictory8 ,by no means4 ,it is the nature of thought to be self-contradictory1 and the highest truth is the knowledge of this4 ,so ,hegel1 instead of rejecting the conception of reality because thought is contradictory1 incorporated contradictions into his conception of the ,being of the universe4 ,indeed1 he made contradictions the 8head of the corner0 of his system4 ,contradiction to ,hegel is cosmic law4 ,however1 in such a conception ,hegel had to give up entirely the principle upon which formal logic was founded4 ,this was the principle that a thing cannot be different from itself4 ,to ,hegel the highest truth was exactly the oppositeeverything is self-contradictory4 ,while ,herbart agreed with the ,skeptics and with ,hegel that experience is self-contradictory1 he differed from them in the inference which he drew from such contradictions4 ,in acknowledging the contradictions of experience ,herbart did not find himself driven to either one of these alternatives4 ,philosophy did not mean for him skepticism4 ,on the other hand he was repelled by the turn that ,hegel had given to logic1 and he refused to accept reasoning as a self-contradictory process4 ,he returned to the demands of formal logic and restored the principle of contradiction#gj to the place which it had occupied during the ,enlightenment4 ,herbart took as his fundamental philosophical principle that experiences are not actual when they are self-contradictory4 ,the self-contradictoriness of experiences shows that they are phenomena and not actualities4 ,it also shows that they have reality as their ground4 ,seeming things imply realities as the ground of their qualities2 seeming occurrences imply actual relations between the reals4 ,seeming is just so much an indication of ,being4 ,consistency lies behind phenomena4 ,the existence of appearances must be admitted1 but appearances are appearances of something4 ,if nothing existed1 nothing would appear to exist2 and yet things are not in reality what they appear to be4 ,herbart agreed with ,kant that we can experience only phenomena4 ,there is also a similarity in the two theories as to the relationship between phenomena and the thing-in-itself4 ,the similarity is1 however1 only superficial4 ,kant reasoned from the relativity of phenomena to the synthetic unity of apperception1 i4 e4 to consciousness in general1 while the thing-in-itself was to ,kant an unknowable and irreducible remainder4 ,to ,kant phenomena pointed to consciousness rather than to things-in-themselves4 ,on the other hand1 ,herbart reasoned from phenomena to the existence of things-in-themselves4 ,phenomena point to an independent1 objective reality rather than to a thinking subject4 ,while in ,kant's doctrine phenomena depend for their existence upon the creative power of consciousness1 to ,herbart consciousness has no creative power1 but itself depends on the existence and independence of a plurality of independent ,reals4 ,even the categories and the forms of space and time are not innate synthetic forms4 ,all are the result of the relationships among independent ,reals1 which are the spring of all activity and existence4 ,herbart thus gave to the things-in-themselves all the independent functions that ,kant attributed to consciousness4 ,the ,many ,reals and ,nature ,phenomena4 ,we must remove the contradictions of experience1 if we would get at a true conception of ,reality and the meaning of phenomena4 ,the true way is 7#a7 to posit a plural number of ,reals1 and 7#b7 to interpret the phenomena as derived from the relation among these ,reals4 ,in the first place1 a multiplicity of ,reals1 and not a single ,real1 is needed to explain the multiplicity of phenomena4 ,herbart's doctrine is therefore a pluralism4 ,he conceives the many ,reals to exist1 not in phenomenal1 but in 8intellectual space40 ,they are not subject to any phenomenal limitations whatsoever2 they may occupy one point of space at the same time4 ,their nature cannot be known1 but we can say that they have 8absolute position40 ,they cannot be limited nor negated1 and even their plurality does not mean that they limit one another4 ,in the second place1 ,herbart assumes a multiplicity of relations4 ,why do the ,reals appear as phenomena8 ,why should the ,reals appear to be the qualities that inhere in things1 the continuities of things1 and the changes of things8 ,herbart is not altogether satisfactory in his explanation of this problem4 ,it is the problem of the unity of the manifold1 which ,kant could explain as due to the synthetic power of consciousness2 but such an explanation was precluded from ,herbart's ,realism4 ,herbart speaks of two kinds of relations4 ,there are the actual relations among the ,reals4 ,although the ,reals are conceived by ,herbart as simple and unchangeable1 he also thinks of them as 8coming and going in intelligible space40 ,we can never know what the nature of these actual relations is4 ,the actual relations between two ,reals are not essential to either ,real1 nor can such relations have their basis in the ,reals4 ,all that we can know are the seeming relations among things4 ,these are the relations of phenomenal spaceof inherence1 continuity1 and change4 ,herbart calls these phenomenal relations 8contingent views0 7zufallige ,ansichten71 and looks upon them as having a semi-existence4 ,that is to say1 ,herbart regards the world of experience as a world of relations which are not the actual relations among ,realities1 but merely the phenomenal relations1 or relations as they appear to us4 ,the ,soul and ,mental ,phenomena4 ,each ,real has one single function1 viz41 self-preservation2 and inasmuch as the ,reals 8co-exist10 they mutually disturb each other4 ,the disturbances take the form of inner reactions on the part of the ,real in its effort at self-preservation4 ,prominent among the ,reals is the ,soul-real4 ,like all the other ,reals1 it is unknowable4 ,we have1 however1 immediate knowledge of its manifestations in its self-preservation among the other ,reals4 ,psychology is the science of the relations which the ,soul-real bears to other ,reals4 ,from the conflict of the ,soul with other ,reals1 mental phenomena take their rise4 ,consciousness is1 therefore1 not the same as the ,soul2 it is the sum-total of the acts of the ,soul in self-preservation4 ,consciousness is the aggregate mental states1 and is not essential to the ,soul4 ,nevertheless1 isolated souls do not think2 they have no states of consciousness4 ,consciousness can arise only in a community of ,reals4 ,our knowledge consists therefore of ideas1 which are the results of the disturbance of the ,soul-real by other ,reals4 ,these ideas live within the ,soul1 which is merely an indifference point where they are held together4 ,the ideas in turn disturb and inhibit one another1 and the description of our mental life is a description of the reciprocal tension of ideas4 ,the tension among the ideas modifies the intensity of each1 and consciousness of an idea is proportional to its intensity4 ,an idea is just on the threshold of consciousness when it has the lowest degree of intensity1 and is still actual4 ,when it drops below that threshold it is changed into an impulse4 ,the primary ideas are sensations4 ,they are not the images of things1 but the primary acts of the ,soul in its attempt at self-preservation4 ,all other mental states1 like memory1 imagination1 feeling1 and will1 are to be described as kinds of tension of the ideas4 ,feeling and will are kinds of inhibitive tension4 ,the coming of sensations and the interplay of sensations can be reduced to a mechanical law4 ,therefore1 according to ,herbart1 psychology is the 8statics and mechanics of ideas10 and must be treated mathematically4 ,herbart's contribution to modern thought lies in his psychology4 ,modern thought has not accepted his metaphysics1 but it has been influenced to a not inconsiderable degree by his psychology4 ,herbart gave the death-blow to the old 8faculty psychology10 and he placed psychology upon the same basis as the natural sciences4 ,the science of psychology was not to ,herbart a discussion of the nature of the soul1 for that is unknowable4 ,it is the study of the aggregate of the contents of consciousness4 ,it is not a study of psychical faculties1 but of psychical elements4 ,this reduces psychology to an atomism1 like other sciences1 and thereby frees it from the influence of theology4 ,thus was the so-called modern psychology made possible by ,herbart4 ,herbart's theory was also of incalculable value to modern educational theory4 ,the conception of the influence of environment upon mental life1 the theory of the development of mental life1 the natural method of 8preparation1 presentation1 association1 systematization1 and application0 of an educational subject1 the theory of the correlation of subjectsall are founded upon his psychology4 ,herbart's attempt to apply mathematics to the laws of psychological phenomena was not so fortunate4 ,at one time1 during the nineteenth century1 psychologists hoped much from mathematics in their science2 but the hope has been practically abandoned4 ,in recent years the demand for exactness has been met in psycho-physics1 which operates with mathematics in a different way4 ,arthur ,schopenhauer#ga and his ,philosophical ,relations4 ,schopenhauer is grouped with ,herbart because 7#a7 both had an especial dislike for the idealistic development that the ,kantian movement took2 and 7#b7 both built their theories upon interpretations of the ,kantian thing-in-itself4 ,while ,herbart was a ,realist1 ,schopenhauer was a ,mystic2 which only shows how theories1 seemingly very different1 can have the same source4 ,herbart's ,realism was an interpretation of ,kant's thing-in-itself as many realities2 while ,schopenhauer's ,mysticism was an interpretation of it as one reality4 ,in both theories the consciousness1 and with it the reason1 were conceived as derivations of the thing-in-itself4 ,the best approach to ,schopenhauer's doctrine can perhaps be made by contrasting it with his pet aversionthe doctrine of ,hegel4 ,schopenhauer was to ,idealism what ,mephistopheles was to ,fausthe turned ,romanticism into pessimism4 ,the theory of empirical evolution1 which was to be highly developed in the nineteenth century1 lay in theoretical germ in the teaching of the immediate followers of ,kant4 ,to ,hegel the historical development of the cosmos is the struggle of reason1 which with all its essential contradictions is futilely striving to come to itself4 ,to ,schopenhauer the history of the cosmos is also an endless struggle1 although a struggle in which all reason is absent4 ,hegel could conceive the history of the cosmos as a development worthy of investigation4 ,schopenhauer1 on the contrary1 took no interest in history1 because to him it could not be a development4 ,to ,hegel1 phenomena form an intimate part of the cosmic struggle1 since they are the content of the cosmic-reason2 to ,schopenhauer1 phenomena are the surface illusions of an ebullient1 unreasoning ,will4 ,as the first theoretical pessimist of ,europe1 ,schopenhauer expressed for the nineteenth century one of its most essential characteristics4 ,he got scant recognition during his lifetime on account of the vogue of ,hegel2 but to-day it is ,schopenhauer1 rather than ,hegel1 who has a popular influence1 and is widely read4 ,this is partly on account of his masterly literary style and partly by reason of the content of his doctrine4 ,the nineteenth century was carried along upon a strong current of pessimism because of 7#a7 industrial problems1 which involved many ethical considerations1 and because of 7#b7 its breaking away from traditional religious ties4 ,so long as the unbounded optimism of ,idealism prevailed1 the world had little room for ,schopenhauer's teaching2 but when ,realism with its limitations took hold of the nineteenth century1 then did ,schopenhauer's day of recognition come4 ,the popular mind has found in ,schopenhauer its best philosophical expression1 and representatives of his teaching have been numerous4 ,among them are ,richard ,wagner 7#ahac-ahhc7 with his music dramas2 ,von ,hartmann 7b4 #ahdb7 with his theory of the unconscious2 ,nietzsche 7#ahdd-aijj7 with his extreme statement of egoismthat in view of universal evil1 the only hope is in the survival of the strongest and in the virtue of selfishness4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,schopenhauer 7#aghh-ahfj74 ,schopenhauer was the kind of genius who is always an alien to the world of men4 ,he lived a long1 lonely1 isolated life1 in which his inherited emotional and brooding nature became more and more cynical and pessimistic4 ,even in his paternal home he found himself a stranger4 ,his father pushed him into mercantile business1 which he hated2 and after the death of his father his brilliant mother told him that he was welcome to her ,weimar home only as a visitor4 ,the doors of all academic circles were closed to him2 and he1 in commenting on it1 said that he had failed to get an academic hearing1 because the ,german did not believe in a metaphysics which was so expressed as to be understood4 ,but the cause of his isolation lay mainly in himself4 ,he was neurasthenic and peculiarthe subject of ill-temper1 night-terrors1 causeless depressions and dreads4 ,with the genealogy of ,schopenhauer's family on his father's side before us1 who could wonder8the grandmother insane1 one uncle insane1 one uncle idiotic1 one neurotic1 and his father a suicide4 ,schopenhauer's own peculiarities were not pathological4 ,he had a genius that blossomed as early in his years as ,hegel's blossomed late4 ,he wrote his two important works before he was thirty4 #a4 ,period of ,education 7#aghh-ahac74 ,the parents of ,schopenhauer were wealthy1 and in #ahjc he traveled with them in ,england1 ,france1 and ,holland4 ,in #ahjd he entered business1 which he gave up the next year on the death of his father4 ,in #ahji he was busy studying the classics1 philosophy1 and ,hindu learning in ,weimar1 ,gttingen1 and ,berlin4 #b4 ,period of ,literary ,production 7#ahac-ahca74 ,in #ahac he wrote the ,four-fold ,root of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 in the ,thuringian forest1 when other ,german young men were rallying to arms against ,napoleon4 ,this was accepted as a doctorate thesis at ,jena4 ,from #ahad to #ahai he lived in ,dresden at work on ,the ,world as ,will and ,idea1 which is the complete exposition of his doctrine4 ,the work is divided into four parts3 #a4 ,theory of ,knowledge2 #b4 ,description of the ,forms of the ,will2 #c4 ,art as a ,deliverance from the ,will2 #d4 ,morality as a ,deliverance from the ,will4 ,in #ahbj he got a position as ,privat-docent in the ,university of ,berlin4 ,this was the only year of his teaching and was an utter failure4 #c4 ,period of ,retirement 7#ahca-ahfj74 ,in #ahca he went to ,frankfort-on-the-,main to live alone and in retirement4 ,slowly he became known and gathered a little circle of disciples about him4 ,he died in #ahfj4 ,the ,influences upon ,schopenhauer's ,thought4 ,the principal influences upon ,schopenhauer's thought were three3 7#a7 ,kant1 from whom he got his transcendental theory of knowledge 7he always considered himself to be ,kant's true heir72 7#b7 ,plato1 from whom he got his formulation of eternal ,ideas as offering an escape from the ,will2 7#c7 the ,hindus1 from whom he got his ethical-,mysticism and the confirmation of his pessimism4 ,schopenhauer is unique among the philosophers of ,europe1 because he denied all for which the ,enlightenment stood4 ,even such reactionaries against the ,enlightenment as ,rousseau were a part of its essential spirit2 for the presupposition of traditional theology and philosophy has been that existence is essentially a harmony4 ,schopenhauer1 however1 appealed to the discordances and the sorrow of existence1 and drew the inference that fundamentally existence is irrational4 ,for the source of ,schopenhauer's unique teaching we have to look1 therefore1 farther than modern ,europe4 ,the preceding modern ,european philosophers whom we have studied1 developed their philosophies from purely ,occidental sources4 ,schopenhauer drew from the ,orient as well as from the ,occident4 ,the ,romanticists had re-discovered ,orientalism4 ,the study of the ,hindus had been interesting ,european scholars since the beginning of the nineteenth century4 ,schopenhauer1 who was introduced to ,indian philosophy by ,goethe's friend1 ,fr4 ,mayer1 read the ,upanishads in a ,latin translation2 and they contributed much to the development of the theory which his own emotional and cynical nature had presaged4 ,the ,hindus had long felt that the main problem of existence is moral and physical evil4 ,schopenhauer found in this teaching the statement of his own attitude4 ,he esteemed the principles of ,christianity and ,buddhism because their central requirement was faith in a redeemer rather than a creator4 ,christianity had no original metaphysics1 but ,buddhism on account of its metaphysics had an especial importance in ,schopenhauer's eyes4 ,it was not only a pessimism1 but a philosophy of pessimism4 ,our existence is only a blind struggle for enlightenment and arises out of a flowing chain of perennial re-births4 ,man needs to be freed from the illusion of existence and released from re-birth4 ,the ,world as ,will and the ,world as ,idea4 ,in ,the ,four-fold ,root of the ,principle of ,sufficient ,reason1 ,schopenhauer summarizes knowledge as1 8,the world is my presentation10 which is ,kant's theory of knowledge4 ,a conscious subject vitalizes all things4 ,but the presentations have no corresponding reality in the outer world4 ,they are created by my own subjectivity from the 8principle of sufficient reason40 ,this has a fourfold root3 logic1 cause1 mathematics1 and will-activity4 8,the world of phenomena is my idea10 and in ,the ,world as ,will and ,idea ,schopenhauer says1 8,this is a truth which holds good for everything that lives and knows40 ,man alone can reflect upon this truth4 ,when man comes to the realizing sense that the world is an ideal construction1 he begins to philosophize as to the nature of the reality behind it4 ,we remember that ,herbart started from the same proposition4 ,however1 ,schopenhauer departs from ,kant's teaching in one important respect3 although he agrees with ,kant that the thing-in-itself cannot be understood by ideas or a chain of reasoning1 he holds that the thing-in-itself is knowable4 ,the ,world as ,idea is a world of appearances1 but we can know the thing-in-itself by intuitionby 8the look of genius40 ,the certainty of this first-hand or immediate knowledge shows how poor our second-hand or mediate knowledge is4 ,for even reasoned or mediate knowledge in its most perfect form1 viz41 science1 is under the law of cause and can therefore reveal nothing absolute4 ,science never gets below phenomena4 ,if reason reveals only the ,world as ,idea1 what revelation does intuition give of the thing-in-itself8 ,intuition reveals the thing-in-itself to be ,will4 ,man finds1 first1 the ,will to be in himself4 ,he finds it objectified in his own body and in its members4 ,all the members of the body are structures of some function4 ,every part is the visible expression of some desire4 ,hunger1 speech1 locomotion1 have their different instruments4 ,will is immediately known to us as the reality in us4 ,in spite of the exaltation of the reason by the modern ,enlightenment1 is it not secondary to ,will8 ,for behold6 ,let me look beyond myself4 ,the revelation of the reality within myself illuminates the reality of the outer world4 ,my ,will meets resistance in other things4 ,the everlasting striving of the ,will appears in all nature4 ,it appears in the fall of a stone1 the crystallizing of the diamondin all the mechanical movements of matter4 8,the impulse with which waters hurry to the ocean10 the persistence of the magnet for the pole1 the perennial push of vegetation1 the motivation of animals1 show by an analogy stronger than any proof that the reality of the world is fundamentally ,will4 ,all nature is in reality the 8,world as ,will40 ,this ,will is always one and the same4 ,only in the 8,world as ,idea0 do differences appear4 ,will is common to all and is the only reality4 ,differences are illusions1 and the reason which exists only in man is one of those differences4 ,the ,world as ,will and the ,world as ,idea do not stand in the relation of cause and effect1 but the ,world as ,idea is the objectification of the ,world as ,will4 ,will is to phenomena what essence is to expression4 ,will is the freedom that is within all things2 and yet all things are determined when they have the form of ideas4 ,there is only one ,will1 and so the world is in reality a unity4 ,in essence all things are the samein appearance they are different4 ,the ,will has no content2 it wills to willto liveto be actual4 ,in the pantheism of the ,will the ,world as ,idea is an illusion4 ,the ,will as ,irrational ,reality4 ,before ,schopenhauer's time ,european mysticism had been of one general type4 ,however universal the character of illusory appearances had been to the ,european mystics1 there had always been supposed behind the veil a rational reality4 ,indeed1 the illusions themselves had been proof of the existence elsewhere of a governing reason4 ,the medival churchman often preached a mysticism1 and his exhortation to turn away from illusions of 8the world1 the flesh1 and the ,devil10 was based upon the compensation to be found in ,heaven and in ,god4 ,the ineffable rest in the bosom of ,god was reason enough for averting the eyes from the passing show of sensuous things4 ,schopenhauer now presents to the ,occident another type of mysticism1 and in this there is no refuge from illusions4 ,this conception had long been common enough in the ,orient4 ,the ,rubiyt of ,omar ,khayym1 written about #aajj1 represents fundamentally the attitude of the ,persians of his time4 8,he is said to have been especially hated by the ,sufis1 whose practice he ridiculed1 but whose faith amounts to little more than his own when stripped of the mysticism and formal recognition of ,islamism40 7,fitz,gerald47 ,but in ,europe ,schopenhauer's doctrine was unique1 and he arrived at its construction by stripping mysticism of all its religious elements4 ,faith and belief are eliminated because they have no reality as their object4 ,reason produces only a world of illusory ideas2 the ,will is a reality1 but it is a reality which is only a blind urgencyan instinctive blind force4 ,the essence of things is undirected striving4 ,life is the expression of the absolute unreason of the ,will4 ,it is a ,will without an object4 ,nature is the objectification of the ,will that perpetually creates itself and is forever unsatisfied1 unresting1 and unhappy4 8,a ,moment's ,halta momentary taste ,of ,being from the ,well amid the ,waste ,and ,lo6 the phantom ,caravan has reacht ,the ,nothing it set out from,oh1 make haste60#gb ,the ,misery of the ,world as ,idea,pessimism4 ,the fundamental irrationality of the ,will reveals the absolute misery of the ,world as ,idea4 ,the despair of pessimism follows from the very nature of the ,will2 for it must be remembered that ,schopenhauer's pessimism does not merely mean that the appearances of life are illusory1 but that reality itself is irrational4 ,the ,world as ,idea is the objectification of such misery4 ,willing has its source in want1 and want arises from suffering4 ,moreover the proportion of our wants that are satisfied is very small4 ,to one that is supplied there are many that are not4 ,furthermore1 while our desires last long1 their satisfaction is short and scanty1 8like the alms thrown to a beggar that keeps him alive to-day that his misery may be prolonged to-morrow40 ,our ever-springing wants make lasting peace impossible4 ,the finite world is not adequate to the infinite craving which it contains1 and there is no equation between the cares and the satisfactions of life4 ,the greatest evil that can befall a creature is to have been born2 and this is a thousand-fold worse in man than in any other4 ,to live is to go from willing to attaining and then to willing again4 ,attainment means new striving1 and the ,will shows 8the ache of the not-yet-satisfied40 ,after all is said and done1 satisfaction destroys not only the desire1 but the satisfaction itself4 ,there is no meaning in life4 ,pain is positive2 pleasure is negative1 and is merely the absence of or respite from pain4 ,the ,way of ,deliverance4 ,the relief from misery that ,schopenhauer offers is tinged with the grim despair of life itself4 ,it is an escape that he finds1 rather than a havenan escape that consists in giving up all that life means4 ,why not1 then1 give up life1 since it is misery and torment8 ,but escape is not in suicide1 for the act of taking one's own life is the performance of the greatest act of affirmation of the ,will2 and in the ,buddhistic doctrine the suicidal soul only passes by re-birth 7metempsychosis7 into another form of ,will4 ,schopenhauer uses two phrases that have become classic in the description of the two attitudes possible to man3 7#a7 if man is merely a part of the ,world as ,idea he is 8affirming the ,will to life02 and 7#b7 if he seeks a way of deliverance he 8is denying the ,will to life40 ,suicide is an act of affirmation of the ,will to life4 ,how may the ,will be denied8 and since we are in essence ,will1 the question takes this form1 ,how may the ,will deny the ,will8 ,this question presupposes a transcendental freedom which may be sought in two ways3 one in which the freedom is temporary and the other in which it is permanent4 #a4 ,the temporary deliverance of the ,will may be found in artistic contemplation 7,schiller's disinterested contemplation74 ,art deals not with particular forms1 but eternal types 7,platonic ,ideas74 ,art isolates an eternal object from out the stream of the world's changes1 and places it beyond all relations of time1 place1 and cause4 ,art not only removes its object from the ,world as ,idea1 but it removes the contemplator as well4 ,the contemplating subject and the contemplated object thus become one1 and the subject is temporarily saved1 for he is elevated above all desire and pain4 ,this1 however1 is possible not to the majority of men1 but only to those few possessing sthetic fancy1 and for them only at intervals4 ,music is ranked by ,schopenhauer as the highest form of art1even above poetry1and it is not surprising therefore that among the ,schopenhauerian worshipers have been many prominent musicians4 #b4 ,but artistic ecstasy is too fleeting and restricted to offer lasting deliverance from the affirmation of the ,will to life and the ,world as ,idea4 ,another act of transcendental freedom will bring man into more complete freedom2 but this act is a miracle and a mystery1 since it is the complete transformation of our nature4 ,this act must be supernatural1 and the church is right in calling it a new birth and a work of grace4 ,complete freedom from the ,will comes through moral deliverance4 ,this lasting escape from the ,will is open to the man who appreciates two facts3 that all striving for happiness is vain2 and that all men are alike manifestations of the ,will4 ,to take this double view of life involves the feeling of sympathy with others in their misery4 ,sympathy is thus the only true moral motive and the fundamental ethical feeling4 ,the ,will in us is moral if we feel another's hurt as our own4 ,but sympathy is only a palliative1 and it does not remove the cause of disease4 ,the misery still exists1 and our sympathy has only changed its form4 ,even though our sympathy goes out to the whole world1 the endless tragedy would still pass on4 ,in the moral deliverance sympathy can be made complete by absolute denial1 and this will come by asceticism1 mortification1 and complete eradication of want and desire4 ,the ,hindu sannyasi shows the way4 ,this is the mystery of the ,will4 ,but ,schopenhauer is not quite sure that extreme asceticism can be made effective1 since we are full of ,will4 ,at the close of his work he says that even if we could be completely ascetic the result would be ,nothingness4 8,in thy ,nothing ,i hope to find the ,,all40 ,schopenhauer despairs of deliverance for himself1 but does not count it unachievable by others4 ,absolute deliverance even by asceticism seems impossible to him4 ,the only hope is that through art and science the ,will may be some time overcome4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century#gc ,the ,return to ,realism4 ,if the history of mankind had terminated with the nineteenth century1 the last tendency of thought to be recorded would have been the return to ,realism4 ,the abbreviated account which follows of the philosophy of the nineteenth century will explain and illustrate this tendency4 ,before we set this forth1 however1 it may be well to define again the nature of ,realism4 ,what is ,realism8 ,in general it is the belief that reality or realities exist quite independent of anybody's knowing them4 ,moreover1 ,realism has the distinction of being one of the four great types of metaphysical thought4 ,these types are ,realism1 ,mysticism1 ,critical-rationalism1 and ,idealism4#gd ,in other words1 ,realism is an attitude of mind possible to a whole civilization4 ,this is what is meant by a great philosophical type4 ,the ,idealism of the period which we have just studied is such a type4 ,although ,germany had been the leading representative of ,idealism1 the spread of philosophical and literary ,idealism had been world-wide4 ,all nations had shared in it4 ,but when the great events and the romancing spirit of that period had passed1 the reaction to ,realism was likewise felt the world over4 ,it is the period of this reaction that we are briefly to consider4 ,the ,character of the ,realism of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,we have already discussed the nature of the ,realism of ancient civilization as it appeared in ,plato's theory of ,ideas2 and we also have reviewed the variation of ,plato's doctrine in medival times4 ,both ancient and medival societies give expression through ,plato to ,realistic conceptionsancient society to an sthetic ,realism1 medival to an ecclesiastical ,realism4 ,now in the modern period we find a still different kind4 ,the ,realism of the nineteenth century has been that of natural science4 ,the question of the nineteenth century has been1 ,what degree of importance has the scientific conception of phenomena in our total conception of life8 ,german ,idealism had taken up the natural science of the ,renaissance and the ,enlightenment1 and had made it a part of a world conceived as cosmic ,reason4 ,but in the nineteenth century the conception of the cosmic ,reason and that of nature part company4 ,the two conceptions begin to stand in antithesis4 ,nature is conceived as a reality existing in sublime independence4 ,democritus wins his victory over ,spinoza4 ,there are two reasons for this3 7#a7 ,the ideas of science are expressed with a clearness and distinctness that is in marked contrast with the ideas of ,german romanticism4 ,natural science is formulated mathematically and demonstrated in experience1 and natural science moreover does not require the labor of interpretation4 7#b7 ,natural science proves its usefulness1 thereby responding to the imperative needs of the economic changes of the nineteenth century4 ,in this modern period the attention of man has been riveted upon his environment4 ,if at any time the man of the nineteenth century has seemed to be interested in man1 the interest has really been in man's relation to his environment4 ,the nineteenth century has championed the necessary laws and mechanical structure of the outer world against man himself4 ,the universe has been enthroned2 man has become its serf4 ,human effort has become slave to its own progress4 ,work has been apotheosizedwork in the outer world1 work with the hands4 ,inventions in material things have multiplied4 ,the nineteenth century has been the period of steam1 of electricity1 of machinery1 of factories1 of the enormous increase in the number and size of cities1 of the minute division of labor4 ,social and economic rather than metaphysical problems have commanded attention4 ,not another and ideal world1 but this present world1 is the one in which the modern man has lived4 ,the sciences have been specialized and man has become practical4 ,hegel would have said of our time that the cosmic ,reason had been so engaged in concrete and external realities1 that it had had no time to turn within and scrutinize itself4 ,if one wishes to turn back the leaves of history for centuries similar to the nineteenth in their spirit1 one will find them in the third and second centuries ,b4 ,c4 and the fourteenth and fifteenth of the present era4 ,nevertheless1 there is this to be said about modern ,realism in comparison with the ,realism of preceding periodsthe preceding ,realism had been critical1 negative in its practical results1 and usually an opposition to tradition or a reaction from it2 modern ,realism has been distinguished by its positive practical results1 its ambition for supremacy1 and its shaping of the whole direction of the life of man4 ,it has assumed control of religion1 art1 and social morality1 to the end of the well-being of the whole4 ,modern ,philosophy and ,german ,idealism4 ,the nineteenth century has been remarkable in the extent of its historical1 literary1 and scientific productions4 ,it has been poor in its philosophical ideas1 when we compare it with the preceding romantic movement of the ,german ,idealists4 ,to be sure1 there has been much philosophical literature with a great variety of doctrine1 but the many personally impressive structures have on the whole been only the re-shaping of former thought4 ,it has sometimes seemed as if some of the philosophic doctrines of this time were about to take original shape2 but none have ever reached it1 with the possible exception of the doctrine of historical evolution4 ,the explanation of the uncreative character of modern thought is found in its relation to the ,idealism which preceded it4 ,the ,german ,idealists had conquered the world of the spirit1 but in spite of all their efforts the realm of empirical facts remained stubborn to all their romancing4 ,even ,hegel1 the greatest among them1 had not succeeded in completely penetrating history by his dialectic law4 ,already in the eighteenth century a ,realistic movement had been stirring in ,england and ,france1 and had made notable achievements4 ,so the ,idealists turned to the study of the facts of lifepartly in order to subordinate them to their ,idealism1 partly because a great interest had appeared in the study of the records of the past4 ,the origin and history of religions1 of law1 of languages1 of art1 of institutions formed topics of study within the ,romantic circle4 ,a remarkable list of books was published by the ,romanticists on these subjects between the date of the battle of ,waterloo 7#ahae7 and that of the death of ,hegel 7#ahca74 ,after ,hegel died no adequate successors in speculative power came to take the place of the old ,idealistic leaders1 but the interest in empirical science was borne on by many men of genius4 ,the study of empirical phenomena was extended to all branches2 biology and geology1 which were late in being studied historically1 began to occupy the centre of the stage4 ,in spite of the fact that the nearness of modern philosophical theories blinds us to their true perspective1 yet even now we can see that in comparison with the ,german ,idealism the philosophical doctrines of the nineteenth century are partial in their survey of the field4 ,the whole problem of life was before the eyes of the ,idealists2 the modern world about #ahca shifted its attention to a critical scrutiny of only one part of that problem4 ,the philosophical problem to the ,idealists was the problem of the cosmos2 the philosophical problem to the nineteenth century was concerned only with a rexamination of the environment of man4 ,the ,philosophical ,problems of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,in summarizing what we have above said1 we have before us a situation something as follows4 ,idealism had run its course as a social attitude of mind1 and about #ahca the leaders of ,idealism had died with no one to fill their places4 ,but within ,idealism between #ahae and #ahca there had arisen a great empirical interest in the origins of history1 law1 philology1 etc4 ,side by side with this empirical interest there had come certain economic conditions that had called forth and rewarded genius in natural science4 ,thus we find even before the fourth decade of the nineteenth century two strong tendencies3 7#a7 a new conception of the meaning of history as an evolution from origins2 and 7#b7 a remarkable interest in the natural sciences4 ,the two tendencies modified each other4 ,the historical view of the world exercised a powerful influence upon natural science2 natural science had to be reckoned with in the writing of history4 ,history and natural science were drawn together1 but without producing a new philosophical conception that would include them both4 ,from the interaction of these two powerful tendencies the great variety of philosophical interests were grouped around two general problems4 ,these were 7#a7 ,the problem of the functioning of the soul2 7#b7 ,the problem of the conception of history4 #a4 ,the ,problem of the ,functioning of the ,soul4 ,with the decline of metaphysics and the reaction from speculation1 psychology began to loosen from its anchorage in philosophy4 ,psychology1 which had been a study of mind1 now became the study of the relation of mind and body4 ,the tendency was strong to make psychology an empirical science1 and by the use of the methods of science to become a part of physiology and biology4 ,philosophy has been a nest in which all the sciences have been brooded4 ,psychology has been the last to attempt to leave the nest1 and to-day in some of our large universities it is cordinated in the curriculum with the natural sciences4 ,deprived of a basis in philosophy1 psychology turned to natural science for support4 ,concerning the relation of the soul to the body many solutions have been offered4 ,following the ,sensationalist1 ,cabanis1 who died in #ahjh1 some of the ,french ,ideologists1 so-called1 concluded that the soul is everywhere determined by physical influences1 such as age1 sex1 temperament1 climate1 etc42 some said that the mind is a result of brain activity2 some developed the conception of phrenology1 according to which the shape of the skull determines the faculties of the mind4 ,the ,french ,ideologists differed widely in their interpretations1 but on the whole the basis of the movement was materialism4 ,the hypothesis of phrenology aroused great interest in ,england1 but ,john ,stuart ,mill led the movement back to ,hume's associational psychology4 ,he conceived the psychical and the physical states as two separate realms1 and he concluded that psychology as the study of the laws of mental states cannot reduce mental states to physical4 ,so ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 under the influence of ,kant1 championed the life of inner experience4 ,of course the materialistic challenge of the soul aroused great heat in theological circles4 ,the personality of ,god and the nature of the soul became burning questions1 and led to the dissolution of the ,hegelian school into 8the right wing0 and 8the left wing40 ,hegel had always maintained his standing in orthodox circles as the ,prussian 8,state philosopher40 ,those followers who composed the 8right wing0 tried to interpret his doctrine in accordance with the traditional theological conception of the soul2 the 8left wing0 interpreted ,hegel as a pantheist1 in whose doctrine the soul could not be considered as a substance with immortality4 ,feuerbach followed this by inverting ,hegelianism into a nominalistic materialism1 and conceived the soul as nature 8in its otherness40 ,in #ahed1 at a convention of naturalists in ,germany1 the materialistic conception of the soul was found to be widely spread among the ,german physicians and naturalists4 ,but the contradiction between the inferences of science and 8the needs of the heart0 became a subject of controversy1 and in #ahfj1 under the leadership of ,kuno ,fischer1 the 8return to ,kant0 was begun1 which lasted throughout the nineteenth century4 ,there are two names that stand out most prominently in relation to this controversy over the nature of the soul3 they are those of ,lotze 7#ahag-ahha7 and ,fechner 7#ahja-ahhg74 ,they are names that were conjured with by the generation of ,american scholars before the present4 ,lotze regarded the mechanical necessity of nature as the form in which the impulsive mental life of man realizes its purposes4 ,every soul therefore has a life that consists essentially in purposeful relations with other souls4 ,and this is possible only if the lives of men are under an all-embracing ,providence4 ,fechner chose another way to escape from the materialistic tendency4 ,he regarded the soul and body as separate and qualitatively different1 although exactly corresponding1 manifestations of one unknown reality4 ,there is a parallelism between the mental and the physical1 in which the mental phenomena are known only to the individual perceiving them4 ,as sensations are the surface waves of a total individual consciousness1 so the consciousnesses of human beings are the surface waves of a universal consciousness4 ,the mechanical activity of nature corresponds to the consciousness of ,god4 ,we can investigate this correspondence by studying the correspondence between our own mental states and physical states4 ,this is the modern well-known psychological method of psycho-physics4 ,we can measure psychical quantities by formulating mathematical laws of their occurrence4 ,our present psychology has seen a development from all these earlier explanations2 but this is a matter of contemporary writing and not of history4 #b4 ,the ,problem of the ,conception of ,history4 ,the contrast in the ,kantian teaching between nature and mind became an antagonism in the nineteenth century4 ,when psychology was no longer a purely mental science1 social life in its historical development at first withstood the vigorous march of the natural science of the nineteenth century4 ,but the inroads of science in psychology were duplicated in the field of sociology1 and thus the problem of society was only the problem of the soul on a larger scale4 ,the first form that this problem took arose from the opposition in ,france between the traditional conception of society and that of the philosophy of the ,revolution4 ,the nineteenth century ,french philosophy has1 however1 a religious coloring that differentiates it from that of the ,revolution4 ,auguste ,comte#ge 7#agih-aheg7 stands as the chief representative of this scientific reduction of society4 ,he pushed the doctrines of ,hume and ,condillac to their extreme in his positivist system of social science4 ,he maintained that human knowledge had as its objects phenomena in their reciprocal relations1 but that there is nothing absolute at the basis of these phenomena4 ,the only absolute principle is1 ,all is relative4 ,there is a hierarchy of sciences in which sociology is highest4 ,sociology includes all the preceding sciences1 and yet it is the original fact4 ,the first social phenomenon is the family4 ,the stages of the development of society are 7#a7 theological1 7#b7 metaphysical1 and 7#c7 positivistic or scientific4 ,all mental life in detail1 and human history as a whole1 are subject to these stages of growth4 ,in the positivistic stage mankind will be the object of religious veneration1 and the lives of great men will be justified because they have raised the lives of common men4 ,the democracy to which ,comte looks is one ruled by great minds1 and is not a socialism4 ,in contrast to ,comte's theory is that of ,buckle1 who would study history by discovering the mechanical laws governing society4 ,while human history was thus being invaded by natural science and had to defend its autonomy against the naturalistic principle of science1 natural science on the other hand was in the nineteenth century invaded by the historical principle of evolution4 ,natural science becomes a history4 ,we have seen that in the ,romantic circle there was great interest in the origin and development of law1 philology1 art1 etc4 ,in the beginning and middle of the nineteenth century this interest spread to an investigation of the origin of animal life4 ,this investigation has been the most notable in this century1 because 7#a7 it included in its scope the source and means of progress of the human race2 and because 7#b7 it advanced a new conception of development4 ,development now becomes evolution4 ,up to the nineteenth century the world was looked upon as a graded series of types1 but no type was supposed to evolve into another4 7,see vol4 i1 pp4 #ahj1 #aic2 vol4 ii1 p4 #cjf47 ,the theory of historical evolution of the nineteenth century is notable because it advanced the conception1 based upon empirical investigation1 that types are changed into others4 ,this theory1 among those of the century1 comes the nearest to an original philosophical doctrine4 ,the book that became the centre of scientific interest for many years was ,darwin's ,origin of ,species1 published in #ahei4 ,the name most prominently linked with that of ,darwin is that of ,herbert ,spencer1 who attempted to make universal the principle of development and to formulate its law4 ,the modern theory of the historical evolution of animal life has reinforced the mechanical principle of nature1 which had its origin in the minds of the philosophers of the ,renaissance4 ,it has antagonized the theological doctrine of creation2 it has related the animal and man by filling in the supposably impassable gulf between them2 it has advanced the doctrine of chemical synthesis against the hylozoistic notion of a vital principle2 it has pushed forward with great assurance its theories of transformation and equivalence of forces1 and of the action of electricity as a substitute for thought-activity2 it has shown a wonderful parsimony in giving a value to all the facts of history which had hitherto been conceived as trivial2 and on the other hand it has reduced the conception of mighty cosmic cataclysms to a geological series of gradual gradations4 ,darwin's place in this movement of the nineteenth century was this3 he tried to show that animal life can be explained without the aid of final causes4 ,in other words1 the adaptation of the structure of animals can be accounted for mechanically4 ,the factors involved in the development of organic life upon the earth were1 according to ,darwin1 infinite differentiation1 adaptation1 natural selection1 and the survival of the fittest4 ,now at the beginning of the twentieth century there seems to be a reaction from the scientific positivism of the last century4 ,this has taken the form of an extravagant mysticism1 although at heart it is an optimism and an idealism4 ,,index ,abbott1 ,e4 ,a41 ,francis ,bacon1 #dj n4 ,absolute ,reality1 of ,hegel1 #cad1 #caf1 #cba1 #cbc-cbf1 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,see ,reality4 ,absolutism1 spirit of1 in ,germany1 from #afdh to #agdj1 #bag-bbc2 in ,france1 #bag1 #bbe2 destroyed by ,frederick the ,great and ,lessing1 #bbe1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bbi4 sthetic ,idealism1 of ,schelling1 #cjb1 #cjd1 #cjg4 ,agnosticism1 of ,hume1 #ahh4 ,alchemists1 the1 #be4 ,alembert1 ,jean le ,rond d'1 #baa4 ,althusius1 ,johannes1 #dg4 ,america1 discovery of1 #f4 ,anacreonticists1 the1 #bbd4 ,analysis4 ,see ,induction4 ,analytic judgments1 of ,kant1 #bdi-beb4 ,antinomies1 of ,kant1 #bfd1 #bfe4 ,antithesis1 of ,fichte1 #bie2 of ,hegel1 #cbg4 ,a posteriori1 judgments1 of ,kant1 #bej-beb2 material1 the perceptions1 #beg2 principle1 in ethics1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,a priori1 judgments1 of ,kant1 #bej-beb2 principles1 categories1 #beg1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,archus1 the1 of ,paracelsus1 #bf1 #bg4 ,aristotle1 represented by two antagonistic schools in the ,renaissance1 #aa4 ,art1 in ,schelling's philosophy1 #cjh2 and in ,schopenhauer's philosophy1 #cei4 ,association of ,ideas1 according to ,hume1 #aia-aic2 by law of contiguity1 #aib-aid2 by law of resemblance1 #aib-aif2 by law of causation1 #aib1 #aic1 #aif-aii4 ,associational ,psychology1 ,hobbes the father of1 #ef4 ,associationalist ,psychologists1 #ada4 ,astronomers1 mathematical1 #cb-cf4 ,atheistic controversy1 of ,fichte1 #bhb1 #bhd4 ,atoms1 scientific conception of1 examined by ,leibnitz1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba4 ,attributes1 according to ,spinoza1 #ie1 #if4 ,see ,qualities4 ,auerbach1 ,berthold1 ,spinoza1 #hh n4 ,autobiographies1 many of them written in the ,enlightenment1 #acg4 ,bacon1 ,francis1 #ca1 #ce2 life of1 #ci2 position of1 in philosophy1 #ci-db2 his ,new ,atlantis1 #dj-db2 the aim of1 #db1 #dc2 his method1 #dc-df2 compared with ,hobbes1 #dh2 seems to stand apart1 #adf4 ,baldwin1 ,j4 ,m41 ,fragments in ,philosophy1 #hd n4 ,ball1 ,w4 ,w4 ,r41 ,history of ,mathematics1 #cf n41 #dj n4 ,bayle1 ,pierre1 #bjc4 ,beauty1 in ,schelling's philosophy1 #cjg4 ,beers1 ,h4 ,a41 ,history of ,romanticism in ,eighteenth ,century1 #bie n42 ,history of ,romanticism in ,nineteenth ,century1 #bie n4 ,berkeley1 ,george1 life and writings of1 #afi-agb2 the influences upon his thought1 #agb2 the purpose of1 #agc1 #agd2 general relation of1 to ,locke and ,hume1 #agd1 #age2 his points of agreement with ,locke1 #age1 #agf2 the negative side of his philosophy1 #agf-agi2 denies existence of abstract ideas1 #agg-agi2 the positive side of his philosophy1 #agi-ahc2 and ,hume1 compared1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ,blackwood ,classics1 ,descartes1 #gj n41 #gc n4 ,bodin1 ,jean1 #dg4 ,body1 relation of mind and1 according to ,descartes1 #gh-hj2 in ,leibnitz's philosophy1 #abf4 ,bohn's ,libraries1 ,spinoza1 #ij n4 ,brahe1 ,tycho1 #cb1 #cc4 ,brown1 ,thomas1 #bjb4 ,browning1 ,robert1 ,paracelsus1 #be1 #bf n4 ,bruno1 ,giordano1 #be1 #bg-cj1 #cb1 #cc4 ,buckle1 ,h4 ,t41 #cfb4 ,buffon1 ,g4 ,l4 ,l4 de1 #baa4 ,butler1 ,joseph1 his ,analogy of ,religion1 #aff4 ,byron1 ,g4 ,g41 ,lord1 on ,berkeley1 #ahb4 ,caird1 ,e41 ,philosophy of ,kant1 #bcf n4 ,calkins1 ,m4 ,w41 ,persistent ,problems in ,philosophy1 iv1 #ff n41 #gc n41 #aaj n4 ,cambridge ,school1 the1 #fa4 ,campanella1 ,tommaso1 his ,state of the ,sun1 #da n4 ,cartesian argument1 the1 #gd1 #ge4 ,categorical imperative1 the1 of ,kant1 #bgc4 ,categories1 ,aristotelian and ,kantian1 #bef1 #beg2 of ,hegel1 #cbc1 #cbg4 ,causation1 association of1 #aib1 #aic1 #aif-aii4 ,chubb1 ,thomas1 #afe4 ,church1 medival1 #ad2 attitude of1 toward science1 in the period of the ,renaissance1 #ai-ba1 #fb-fe2 according to ,hobbes1 #fj4 ,civilization1 of the ,middle ,ages1 causes of the decay of1 #d-g2 modern1 is subjective1 #ae4 ,classicism1 ,german1 #bbd1 #bif4 ,coleridge1 ,s4 ,t41 and ,spinoza1 #he4 ,collegiants1 the1 ,spinoza's acquaintance with1 #hg-hi4 ,collins1 ,anthony1 #afe4 ,columbus1 ,christopher1 discovers ,america1 #f4 ,comte1 ,auguste1 quoted on the ,encyclopdia1 #baa2 his philosophy1 #cfj4 ,concomitant variations1 the name1 #ch n4 ,condillac1 ,e4 ,b4 de1 #bab4 ,consciousness1 ultimate certainty of1 according to ,descartes1 #gj-gb2 implications of1 according to ,descartes1 #gb1 #gc2 in ,fichte's philosophy1 #bhf-bhh1 #bic2 in ,schelling's philosophy1 #cji2 in ,hegel's philosophy1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbf1 #cbg2 in ,herbart's philosophy1 #ccf1 #cch2 in ,fechner's philosophy1 #cei4 ,constantinople1 fall of1 #f4 ,constitutionalists and ,political ,economists1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #adb4 ,contiguity1 association of1 #aib-aid4 ,continuity1 law of1 #abi4 ,contradictions1 the world a world of1 according to ,hegel1 #cba1 #cbg1 #cbh1 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followers1 #ceh4 ,heidelberg1 ,university of1 #ab4 ,herbart1 ,j4 ,f41 as a follower of ,kant1 #ccj-ccb2 turns to the thing-in-itself1 #ccb2 his programme at the beginning of his teaching1 #ccb1 #ccc2 life and writings of1 #ccc1 #ccd2 his contradictions of experience1 #ccd2 his argument for realism1 #ccd-ccf2 the many reals and nature phenomena1 according to1 #ccg1 #cch2 the soul and mental phenomena1 according to1 #cch-cdj4 ,herbert of ,cherbury1 #afe4 ,herder1 ,j4 ,g4 von1 brought into currency the word 8humanity10 #acc2 prominent in the ,storm and ,stress movement1 #bbg2 true interpreter of ,leibnitz1 #bbh4 ,hibben1 ,j4 ,g41 ,philosophy of ,enlightenment1 #ajg n41 #aai n41 #acb n41 #agi n42 quoted on ,berkeley1 #ahj4 ,history1 conception of1 in the nineteenth century1 #ceg1 #cfj-cfc4 ,hobbes1 ,thomas1 #ca1 #ce1 #cf2 a political theorist1 #dg2 forerunner of modern materialism1 #dh1 #di2 compared with ,bacon1 #dh2 compared with ,descartes1 #dh2 life and writings of1 #di1 #ej2 the 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writings of1 #ahc-ahf2 compared with ,berkeley1 #ahc1 #ahd2 influences upon the thought of1 #ahf1 #ahg2 his ,skepticism and ,phenomenalism1 #ahg-ahi2 the origin of ideas1 according to1 #ahi-aia2 the association of ideas1 according to1 #aia-aic2 association1 by law of contiguity1 #aib-aid2 by law of resemblance1 #aib-aif2 association of causation1 #aib1 #aic1 #aif-aii2 mathematics in his philosophy1 #aid1 #aie2 his conception of substance1 #aie1 #aif2 his attack on theology1 #aie1 #aif2 his attack on science1 #aif-aii2 the extent and limits of human knowledge1 according to1 #aii1 #bjj2 his theory of religion and ethics1 #bjj1 #bja2 the skepticism of1 influenced ,kant1 #bce4 ,huyghens1 ,christian1 #cb4 ,idea1 the world as1 and as ,will1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cde-cdg2 the misery of the world as1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,idealism1 of ,berkeley1 #agd2 after ,kant1 #bgh1 #bgi2 subjective1 of ,fichte1 #bij1 #cjd2 sthetic1 of ,schelling1 #cjb1 #cjd1 #cjg2 ,transcendental1 of ,schelling1 #cji1 #caj2 ,hegel and the culmination of1 #cab-cad2 and ,realism1 and ,mysticism1 contrasted1 #cah-cba2 ,hegel's1 the fundamental principle of1 #cba1 #cbb2 ,german1 and modern philosophy1 #cee1 #cef4 ,idealists1 ,german1 treated1 #bgi-cbi4 ,ideas1 the proof of their truth1 according to ,descartes1 #gb2 innate1 of ,descartes1 #gc1 #aef2 innate1 of ,spinoza1 #aef2 innate1 denied by ,locke1 #aef1 #aeg1 #ahi2 innate1 of ,leibnitz1 #aeg2 source of1 according to ,locke1 #aeg-aei2 in the philosophies of ,locke1 ,berkeley1 and ,hume1 #agd1 #age2 abstract1 in ,berkeley's philosophy1 #agg1 #agi1 #ahi2 source of1 according to ,berkeley1 #aha-ahc2 origin of1 according to ,hume1 #ahg1 #ahi-aia2 association of1 according to ,hume1 #aia-aic2 association of1 by law of contiguity1 #aib-aid2 by law of resemblance1 #aib-aif2 ,kant's use of the term1 #bfa2 the three1 according to ,kant 7,god1 soul1 totality of the universe71 #bfa-bfh2 of ,fichte1 #bhf2 neo-,platonic1 in 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#ie1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,innate ,ideas1 of ,descartes1 #gc1 #aef2 of ,spinoza1 #aef2 existence of1 denied by ,locke1 #aef1 #aeg1 #ahi2 of ,leibnitz1 #aeg4 ,intellectual ,enlightenment1 in ,france1 #bjg-bab4 ,inventions1 of the ,middle ,ages1 #f1 #i2 in the nineteenth century1 #ced4 ,italian nature philosophers1 #bb4 ,italy1 in the ,renaissance1 #aj1 #ab1 #af1 #ag1 #ba1 #ca4 ,james1 ,william1 ,hibbert ,journal1 #cae n42 ,pragmatism1 #ceb n4 ,jena1 #bcc1 #bhd1 #cjb1 #cjg4 ,jewish ,cabala1 the1 #aa4 ,johnson1 ,samuel1 president of ,king's ,college in ,new ,york1 #aga4 ,judgments indispensable to knowledge1 according to ,kant 7analytic1 synthetic1 a posteriori1 a priori71 #bdh-beb4 ,kant1 ,immanuel1 his ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 marks the transition from the ,enlightenment to ,german ,philosophy1 #b-d1 #bcb2 the influences upon1 #bcc-bce2 life and writings of1 #bce-bch2 the problem of1 #bch1 #bci2 the method of1 #bci1 #bdj2 the threefold world of 7subjective states1 things-in-themselves1 and phenomena71 #bdj-bdc2 his world of knowledge1 #bdc-bde2 place of synthesis in knowledge1 according to1 #bde-bdh2 the judgments indispensable to knowledge1 according to1 #bdh-beb2 proof of the validity of human knowledge1 according to1 #beb-bfj2 validity of sense-perception consists in space and time1 #bec-bee2 the validity of the understanding1 #bee-bfj2 the question of the validity of the reason1 #bfj-bfb2 the idea of the soul1 #bfa-bfd2 the idea of the universe1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bfe2 the idea of ,god1 #bfa1 #bfe-bfh2 summary of the theory of knowledge contained in the ,critique of ,pure ,reason1 #bfh1 #bfi2 the ethics of 7the problem of the ,critique of ,practical ,reason71 #bfi-bga2 the moral law and the two questions concerning it1 #bga-bge2 the moral postulates1 #bge-bgg2 idealism after1 #bgh1 #bgi2 his influence upon ,fichte1 #bhe1 #bhf2 why ,hegel remains to-day the representative of1 #cad1 #cae2 followers of 7,herbart and ,schopenhauer71 #ccj-ccb4 ,kepler1 ,johann1 #cb-cd4 ,khayym1 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writings of1 #ajh-aab2 his early classical studies1 #aab1 #aac2 the new science and his discoveries1 #aac1 #aad2 influenced by political pressure for religious reconciliation1 #aad1 #aae2 the method of1 #aae-aah2 the immediate problem for 7that of reconciling science and religion71 #aah1 #aai2 the result of his examination of the principles of science1 a plurality of metaphysical substances1 #aai-abb2 his examination of the scientific conception of motion1 #aai1 #abj2 his examination of the scientific conception of the atom1 #abj1 #aba2 his theory of monadology1 #aba2 the double nature of his monads1 #abb-abe2 the two forms of his conception of the unity of the substances1 #abe2 the intrinsic 7philosophical7 unity of his monads1 #abe-abi2 the superimposed 7theological7 unity of his monads1 #abi-aca2 his toleration compared with that of ,locke1 #aea2 his philosophy1 a source of the ,german ,enlightenment1 #bbj-bbc2 his philosophy developed and transformed by ,wolff and ,thomasius1 #bba-bbc2 ,lessing and ,herder as interpreters of1 #bbh2 appears1 through ,lessing1 as a motive power in ,german ,enlightenment1 #bbi4 ,leibnitz-,wolffian philosophy1 #bba-bbc1 #bca2 influenced ,kant1 #bcc1 #bcd4 ,lessing1 ,g4 ,e41 and ,spinoza1 connection of1 #he2 helped save ,germany from a political revolution1 #bbf-bbh2 gave the death-blow to pedantic absolutism1 #bbh2 ,german literature begins with1 #bbh2 as interpreter of ,leibnitz1 #bbh2 his philosophy1 #bbi4 ,life1 in ,leibnitz's philosophy1 #abh4 ,locke1 ,john1 his ,essay on the ,human ,understanding marks the transition from the ,renaissance to the ,enlightenment1 #b-d2 his general position in the history of philosophy1 #ade-adg2 his life and writings1 #adg-aej2 the sources of his thought1 #aej-aec2 his ,puritan ancestry1 #aej2 his training in tolerance1 #aej1 #aea2 the scientific influence on1 #aea1 #aeb2 the political influence on1 #aeb1 #aec2 the purpose of1 #aec-aee2 two sides of his philosophy1 #aee-aeh2 and scholasticism1 #aef1 #aeg2 his psychology1 #aeg-afj2 his epistemology1 #aee1 #aef1 #aeh1 #afj-afb2 his practical philosophy1 #afb1 #afc2 the influence of1 #afc1 #afd2 general relation of ,berkeley to1 #agd1 #age2 ,berkeley's points of agreement with1 #age1 #agf4 ,logic1 in the latter part of the ,middle ,ages1 studied for its own sake1 #d2 in ,hegel's philosophy1 #cbc1 #cbh4 ,london1 new religious centre in the ,renaissance1 #ab2 becomes an intellectual centre about the time of the publication of ,locke's ,essay1 #bjf4 ,lotze1 ,r4 ,h41 #cei4 ,louis ,,xiv1 ,french ,king1 #bjc4 ,louis ,,xv1 ,french ,king1 #bjd4 ,macaulay1 ,t4 ,b41 ,essay on ,bacon1 #dj n42 on ,bacon1 #db4 ,macchiavelli1 ,niccol1 #dg4 ,magic1 in the ,humanistic period1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #be4 ,magnetic needle1 discovery of1 #f1 #g4 ,malebranche1 ,nicolas de1 #fc1 #hc4 ,man1 his relation to the universe in the ,renaissance1 #h-ah2 in the philosophy of ,paracelsus1 #bf2 in ,hobbes's philosophy1 #ee1 #eh2 in ,descartes's philosophy1 #gi2 in ,spinoza's philosophy1 #ajc2 in ,leibnitz's philosophy1 #abf2 in ,fichte's philosophy1 #bib1 #bic2 in ,schelling's philosophy1 #cjj1 #cji4 ,see ,new man4 ,materialism1 of ,hobbes1 #dh1 #di1 #ec2 defined1 #ec n42 of the nineteenth century1 #ceh4 ,mathematical ,astronomers1 the1 #cb-cf4 ,mathematical law1 according to ,galileo1 #cg1 #ch4 ,mathematics1 in the ,natural ,science period1 #ai1 #ba2 modern influence of1 grew from astronomical beginnings among the ,humanists1 #ce2 of ,hobbes1 #dh1 #ed1 #ef-fj2 of ,descartes1 #dh1 #fh1 #fi1 #gd1 #gf2 in ,spinoza's philosophy1 #ij1 #ia1 #ic1 #ii2 differential calculus1 discovered by ,leibnitz1 #aab1 #aad1 #aai2 in ,leibnitz's philosophy1 #aaf1 #abb1 #abc2 in ,hume's philosophy1 #aid1 #aie4 ,matter1 the reality of1 according to ,descartes1 #ge-gg1 #hb2 relation of ,god to1 according to ,descartes1 #gg1 #gh2 in ,berkeley's philosophy1 #agg1 #agh2 in ,schelling's philosophy1 #cje2 in ,hegel's philosophy1 #cbd4 ,mechanism1 of the world of ,hobbes1 #eb-ed4 ,medival1 man1 #i1 #aj2 science1 #aa2 institutions1 #aa2 church1 #ad2 world1 #ae4 ,mendelssohn1 ,moses1 #bba4 ,metaphysics1 ,cartesian1 assumed in the ,enlightenment1 #ace4 ,methodism1 rise of1 #acg4 ,middle ,ages1 the1 causes of the decay of the civilization of1 #d-g4 ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 #ch n41 #ceh4 ,mind1 relation of ,god to1 according to ,descartes1 #gh2 relation of body and1 according to ,descartes1 #gh-hj2 in the philosophy of the ,occasionalists1 #hc2 in the philosophy of ,locke1 #aef-afb2 in ,berkeley's philosophy1 #agf1 #ahj2 in ,hume's philosophy1 #aia2 in ,reid's philosophy1 #bjb2 of ,fichte and ,schelling1 #cjd2 in ,hegel's philosophy1 #cbd2 phenomena of1 according to ,herbart1 #cch-cdj4 ,see ,soul4 ,modern philosophy1 comparative short time-length of1 iii1 iv2 difficulty in the study of1 #a1 #b2 periods of1 #b-d2 and ,german idealism1 #cee1 #cef4 ,modes1 of mind and matter1 according to ,descartes1 #gg2 of thought and extension1 according to ,spinoza1 #ie1 #if4 ,monadology1 ,leibnitz's theory of1 #aba4 ,monads1 of ,leibnitz1 metaphysical atoms1 #aab1 #aad1 #aai1 #aba2 the double nature of1 #abb-abe2 conceived as soul-atoms1 #abb1 #abc1 #abf2 representation the general function of1 #abd2 are windowless1 and mirror the universe1 #abe1 #abg2 the principle of unity among1 called a pre-established harmony1 #abe2 the intrinsic 7philosophical7 unity of1 #abe-abi2 the superimposed 7theological7 unity of1 #abi-aca4 ,montesquieu1 ,c4 de ,s4 de1 ,baron1 #bjh4 ,moral1 awakening1 the1 according to ,fichte1 #bhg1 #bhh2 freedom1 of ,fichte1 #bhi1 #bij2 world1 of ,fichte1 #bij-bib2 reality1 a1 what it involves1 according to ,fichte1 #bic-bie4 ,moral ,philosophers1 of the ,enlightenment1 #ada4 ,moralists1 ,english1 the1 #aff-afh4 ,morality1 according to ,hegel1 #cbf4 ,morals1 ,kant's theory of1 #bfi-bgg4 ,more1 ,thomas1 his ,utopia1 #da n41 #dg4 ,morley1 ,john1 ,diderot1 #baa n4 ,motion1 in ,galileo's philosophy1 #ch2 in ,hobbes's philosophy1 #ec2 ,leibnitz's examination of the scientific conception of1 #aai1 #abj4 ,music according to ,schopenhauer1 #cej4 ,mysticism1 self-destructive1 #e2 of ,spinoza1 #ih-ajb2 and ,realism1 and ,idealism1 contrasted1 #cah-cba2 of ,schopenhauer1 #cdg2 of twentieth century1 #cfc4 ,mystics1 ,protestant1 the1 #bc4 ,mythology and ,revelation1 ,schelling's philosophy of1 #cjc1 #caa1 #cab4 ,napoleon1 quoted1 #bca4 ,natura naturans and natura naturata1 #bi1 #cj1 #ig4 ,natural ,religion1 the creed of1 #afe4 ,natural ,science period1 the1 general facts about1 #ae-ba2 discussion of 7,galileo1 ,bacon1 ,hobbes71 #ca-fa2 discussion of the ,rationalism of1 #fb-aca4 ,naturalism1 of the ,greeks1 recovered in the ,renaissance1 #ad2 in ,hobbes1 #ec2 defined1 #ec n4 ,nature1 in the ,natural ,science period1 #ah2 in the philosophy of ,paracelsus1 #bg2 in ,bruno's philosophy1 #bi1 #cj2 its two aspects1 natura naturans and natura naturata1 #bi1 #cj2 in the philosophy of the ,rationalists1 #fc1 #fd2 continuity of1 according to ,leibnitz1 #abc1 #abf1 #abh1 #abi2 in the ,enlightenment1 #ace2 in the philosophy of ,locke1 #afc2 according to ,kant1 #bdh1 #bee1 #beh1 #bei2 as conceived by the ,romanticists1 #big2 ,schelling's philosophy of1 #cjj1 #cjd-cjf2 phenomena of1 and the many reals1 according to ,herbart1 #ccg1 #cch2 in ,schopenhauer1 #cdh2 how conceived1 in the nineteenth century1 #cec2 according to ,fechner1 #cei4 ,nature philosophers1 ,italian1 #bb4 ,neo-,platonism1 dominated the ,humanistic period1 #ag1 #ah1 #ba1 #bc1 #be1 #bg-bi4 ,new ,man1 in a ,new ,universe1 phrase characterizing first period of modern philosophy1 #h-ah2 the emergence of the1 in the ,enlightenment1 #acb-acd4 ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 #cb2 his physics1 ,kant influenced by1 #bcd4 ,nietzsche1 ,friedrich1 #cdb1 #ceb n4 ,nineteenth century1 pessimistic1 #cda1 #cdb2 the character of the realism of1 #cec-cee2 the barrenness of the philosophy of1 and ,german idealism1 #cee1 #cef2 the philosophical problems of1 #cef-cfb4 ,nineteenth ,century ,philosophy1 the fourth period of modern philosophy1 #c1 #ceb-cfc4 ,nominalism1 doctrine of1 led to the dissolution of the civilization of the ,middle ,ages1 #f4 ,noumena of ,kant1 #bdb4 ,novalis4 ,see ,hardenberg4 ,occasionalists1 the1 #fc1 #ha2 their relation to ,descartes1 #ha-hc4 ,owen1 ,john1 ,locke influenced by1 #aej4 ,oxford ,university1 #ab4 ,panpsychism1 #ajb4 ,pantheism1 defined1 #id2 of ,spinoza1 #id-ih4 ,paracelsus1 #bc1 #be-bg4 ,paris1 the centre of scholastic influence in the seventeenth century1 #bjf4 ,paulsen1 ,friedrich1 cited1 #bca2 on ,kant's synthetic judgments a priori1 #bea n4 ,perceptions1 of ,berkeley1 #aha2 of ,hume1 #aij4 ,see ,sense-perception4 ,periods of modern philosophy1 #b-d4 ,pessimism1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cdh-cea4 ,phenomena1 the world of1 according to ,kant1 #bdb-bdc2 realities implied by1 according to ,herbart1 #ccf2 nature1 and the many reals1 according to ,herbart1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,phenomenalism1 of ,hume1 #ahg-ahi4 8,philosopher's stone1 the10 #be4 ,philosophical ,religion1 ,lessing a writer on1 #adc4 ,philosophical ,revolutionists1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #adb4 ,philosophy1 according to ,hegel1 #cbf2 modern1 barren of ideas1 #cee2 and ,german ,idealism1 #cee1 #cef4 ,phrenology1 in the nineteenth century1 #ceh4 ,physics1 in ,hobbes's philosophy1 #ef2 of ,descartes1 #fh4 ,see ,science4 ,pietism1 and ,leibnitz1 #aae2 a factor in the ,german ,enlightenment1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbc1 #bcj2 influenced ,kant1 #bcc4 ,pietists1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #adb4 ,plato1 #de n4 ,platonic ,academy1 the1 of the ,renaissance1 #aj4 ,platonism1 reaction toward1 after ,hobbes1 #fa4 ,plotinus1 #bh4 ,pluralism1 of ,leibnitz1 #aai-abb4 ,political ,economists and ,constitutionalists1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #adb4 ,political philosophers1 #bc4 ,politics1 according to ,hobbes1 #ef1 #eh-fj4 ,pope1 ,alexander1 on ,bacon1 #db2 ,essay on ,man1 quoted1 #acc4 ,popular ,philosophers1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #adb4 ,positivism1 ,bacon the father of1 in ,england1 #dc2 defined1 #dc n42 of ,hume1 #ahh1 #ahi4 ,prague1 ,university of1 #ab4 ,printing1 discovery of1 #f4 ,protestant ,mystics1 the1 #bc4 ,prussia1 rise of1 #bah1 #bai1 #bbc2 and ,frederick the ,great1 #bbd-bbf4 ,psychologists and related philosophers1 of the ,enlightenment1 #adb4 ,psychology1 in ,hobbes's philosophy1 #ef-eh2 empirical1 took the place of metaphysics in the ,enlightenment1 #acg2 of ,locke1 #aeg-afj2 of ,hume1 #ahi2 of ,herbart1 #cch-cdj2 in the nineteenth century1 #ceg4 ,see ,associational ,psychology1 ,associational ,psychologists4 ,psycho-physical parallelism1 of ,spinoza1 #ajb4 ,ptolemaic system1 the1 #cc4 ,pyrrho1 ,skeptic philosopher1 #ahg4 ,qualities1 primary and secondary1 in ,locke's philosophy1 #afa2 in ,berkeley's philosophy1 #agg1 #agh4 ,see ,attributes4 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 iv1 #dj n41 #dg n41 #ff n41 #hd n41 #ajg n41 #adg n41 #afi n41 #ahc n41 #bab n41 #bcf n41 #bhb n41 #cjj n41 #cae n41 #cdj n41 #ceb n41 #cfj n4 ,rationalism1 defined1 #fa n42 the nature of1 #fb-fe2 ,school of1 in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,holland1 #hj2 of ,wolff and the ,leibnitz-,wolffians1 #bba-bbc1 #bca4 ,rationalists1 the1 #ca1 #fc-fe4 ,see ,descartes1 ,spinoza1 ,leibnitz4 ,realism1 ,mysticism1 and ,idealism1 contrasted1 #cah-cba2 the argument for1 according to ,herbart1 #ccd-ccf2 multiple1 according to ,herbart1 #ccg1 #cch2 the return to1 in the nineteenth century1 #ceb1 #cec2 of the nineteenth century1 the character of1 #cec-cee4 ,realistic ,movement1 the1 #bbd4 ,reality1 of ,fichte1 #bhg-bie2 of ,realism1 ,mysticism1 and ,idealism1 #cbj1 #cba2 implied by phenomena1 according to ,herbart1 #ccf2 irrational1 the will as1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cdg1 #cdh4 ,see ,absolute ,reality4 ,reason1 the question of its validity1 according to ,kant1 #bfj-bfb2 the will exerted from1 #bgb1 #bgc2 in ,hegel's philosophy1 #cad1 #cbc4 ,reflections in ,locke's philosophy1 #aeh1 #aei4 ,reformation1 ,protestant1 the1 #g4 ,reid1 ,thomas1 #bja1 #bjb4 ,religion1 according to ,hobbes1 #fj2 and science1 ,leibnitz's attempt to reconcile1 #aah1 #aai2 in the ,enlightenment1 #acg2 ,philosophical1 ,lessing a writer on1 #adc2 of the ,deists1 #afd1 #afe2 in ,hume's philosophy1 #bjj1 #bja2 according to ,hegel1 #cbf4 ,religious philosophy1 of ,schelling1 #caa1 #cab4 ,renaissance1 the1 the first period of modern philosophy1 #b-d2 general character of1 #h-aa2 significance of1 in history1 #aa-ae2 the problem of1 #ad2 two periods of1 #ae-ba2 discussion of the ,humanistic period of1 #bb-cj2 birthplaces of the chief philosophers of 7map71 #cj2 discussion of the ,natural ,science period of 7,galileo1 ,bacon1 ,hobbes71 #ca-fa2 in ,england after ,hobbes1 #fa2 discussion of the ,rationalism of the ,natural ,science period of1 #fb-aca4 ,representation1 the general function of ,leibnitz's monads1 #abd1 #abf4 ,resemblance1 association by1 #aib-aif4 ,revelation and ,mythology1 ,schelling's ,philosophy of1 #cjc1 #caa1 #cab4 ,revolution1 ,french1 the1 #bac1 #bad1 #baf4 ,revolutionists1 ,philosophical1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #adb4 ,ribot1 ,thodule1 ,german ,psychology of ,to-day1 #ccb n4 ,richter1 ,j4 ,p41 forerunner of the literary ,romanticists1 #bgi4 ,robertson1 ,g4 ,c41 ,hobbes1 #dg n41 #ff n4 ,romantic philosophers1 the1 #bii4 ,romanticism1 #bbd2 the period of1 #bie1 #bif2 its meaning1 #bif1 #big2 in philosophy1 #bii1 #cjj2 takes a religious turn at beginning of eighteenth century1 #caa4 ,romanticists1 the1 #bhd1 #bhe2 ,goethe as one of1 #big-bii2 the sthetic humanism of1 #cjh4 ,rousseau1 ,j4 ,j41 the most notable figure of ,france during the ,enlightenment1 #adb2 his philosophy1 #bac-baf2 his influence1 #baf1 #bcj1 #bcd1 #bce4 ,royal ,society1 the1 #dj4 ,royce1 ,josiah1 ,spirit of ,modern ,philosophy1 iv1 #hd n41 #afi n41 #bcf n41 #bhb n41 #bii n41 #cae n41 #ceb n42 ,the ,world and the ,individual1 #ceb n4 ,salvation1 ,spinoza's doctrine of1 #ajb-ajf4 ,schelling1 ,f4 ,w4 ,j4 von1 and ,fichte and ,hegel1 what they sought1 #bgi1 #bha1 #cab2 the true ,romantic spirit appears in1 #bii2 life and writings of1 #cjj-cjc2 his philosophy of ,nature1 #cjj1 #cjd-cjf2 his philosophy characterized1 #cja2 his transcendental philosophy1 #cjb1 #cjg-caj2 his system of identity1 #cjc1 #caj1 #caa2 and ,fichte1 a brief comparison of1 as philosophers1 #cjc-cje2 his religious philosophy1 #caa1 #cab4 ,schiller1 ,j4 ,c4 ,f4 von1 prominent in the ,storm and ,stress movement1 #bbg2 notable example of the influence of ,kant upon literature1 #bcc2 quoted on ,kant1 #bcc2 ,artists1 ,letters on sthetic ,education1 #cjg n4 ,schleiermacher1 ,f4 ,e4 ,d41 #cjh1 #caa4 ,scholasticism1 a self-destructive method1 #d2 medival1 ,renaissance had to reckon with1 #aa2 representatives of the revival of1 #bb2 after ,hobbes1 #fa2 and ,locke1 #aef1 #aeg4 ,schopenhauer1 ,arthur1 his relation to ,kant1 #ccj-ccb2 and his philosophical relations1 #cdj-cdb2 and pessimism1 #cda1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cdh1 #cdi-cea2 life and writings of1 #cdb1 #cdc2 the influences upon his thought1 #cdc-cde2 the world as will and the world as idea1 #cde-cdg2 the will as irrational reality1 #cdg1 #cdh2 the misery of the world as idea1 #cdh1 #cdi2 the way of deliverance1 #cdi-cea4 ,schultze1 ,f4 ,a41 teacher of ,kant1 #bcc4 ,science1 attitude of the ,church toward1 in the period of the ,renaissance1 #ai-ba2 modern methods in1 began with ,galileo1 #cb1 #cg-ci2 in ,bacon1 #dj-df2 in ,hobbes1 #ed1 #eh2 and religion1 ,leibnitz's attempt to reconcile1 #aah1 #aai2 ,hume's attack on1 #aif-aii2 ,hume's two classes of1 #aii1 #bjj2 in the nineteenth century1 #cec-ceg2 invaded by evolution1 #cfa4 ,see ,natural ,science period1 ,physics4 ,scientific methods1 in the ,renaissance1 #ah1 #ai4 ,scientists1 of the ,natural ,science period1 #ca-ci1 #fb-fe4 ,see ,descartes1 ,spinoza1 ,leibnitz4 ,scottish ,school of ,philosophy1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #ada1 #bja1 #bjb4 ,self1 idea of1 in ,locke's philosophy1 #aei1 #afj2 of ,kant1 #bfj2 of ,fichte1 #bic2 of ,schelling1 #cji1 #caj4 ,see ,ego4 ,sensationalism1 #ec4 ,sensationalists4 ,see ,sensualists4 ,sensations1 of ,locke1 #aeh1 #aei2 of ,kant1 #bde2 of ,fichte1 #bij1 #bia2 of ,herbart1 #cci2 of ,fechner1 #cei4 ,sense-perception1 in what its validity consists1 according to ,kant1 #bec-bee4 ,see ,perceptions4 ,sensualists1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #ada1 #bab4 ,sentimentalist1 the1 of the ,enlightenment 7,rousseau71 #adb4 ,seven ,years' ,war1 #bbe4 ,shaftesbury1 ,lord1 and ,locke1 #adh1 #aeb1 #aec4 ,shelley1 ,p4 ,b41 ,love's ,philosophy1 #cje n42 ,prometheus ,unbound quoted1 #cbe4 ,skepticism1 revived by ,renaissance scholars1 #aa2 of ,hume1 #ahg-ahi2 of ,hume1 influenced ,kant1 #bce4 ,skeptics1 the1 of the ,enlightenment1 #ada4 ,social ,enlightenment1 in ,france1 #bac-baf4 ,sociology1 according to ,comte1 #cfj4 ,solipsism1 of ,descartes1 #gb2 defined1 #ahc4 ,soul1 according to ,descartes1 #gb1 #gi2 the monad of ,leibnitz conceived as1 #abb1 #abc1 #abf2 according to ,hume1 #aif2 the idea of the1 according to ,kant1 #bfa-bfd2 the postulate of the immortality of1 according to ,kant1 #bgf2 in ,herbart's philosophy1 #cch-cdj2 the problem of the functioning of1 #ceg-cfj4 ,see ,mind4 ,space and time1 knowledge possible by means of1 according to ,kant1 #bec-bee4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 ,education1 #dc n42 and evolution1 #cfb4 ,spener1 ,p4 ,j41 #bbj1 #bcj4 ,spinoza1 ,baruch de1 #ca1 #ce2 his relation to ,descartes1 #ha-hd2 the historical place of1 #hd-hf2 influence of his ,jewish training on1 #hf2 his impulse from the new science1 and ,descartes's influence upon1 #hf1 #hg2 his acquaintance with the ,collegiants1 #hg1 #hh2 life and philosophical writings of1 #hh-ij2 the method of1 #ij1 #ia2 the fundamental principle in his philosophy1 #ia1 #ib2 three central problems in his teaching1 #ic2 his pantheism1 #id-ih2 the mysticism of1 #ih-ajb2 his doctrine of salvation1 #ajb-ajf2 summary of his teaching1 #ajf2 his conception of the world compared with ,leibnitz's1 #abg2 and ,kant1 foci of the philosophy of the generation after ,kant1 #bgh1 #bgi2 his influence upon ,fichte1 #bhe4 ,spirit4 ,see ,mind1 ,soul4 ,spirituality of ,fichte1 ,schelling1 and ,hegel1 #bha4 ,stal1 ,madame de1 quoted1 #bca4 ,state1 the1 according to ,hobbes1 #ee1 #eh-fj4 ,states1 ideal1 #da1 #dg4 ,stephen1 ,leslie1 ,hobbes1 #dg n42 ,history of ,english ,thought1 #aff n4 ,stewart1 ,dugald1 #ada1 #bjb4 ,stirling1 ,j4 ,h41 ,textbook to ,kant1 #bcf n4 ,stoicism1 revived by ,renaissance scholars1 #aa4 ,storm and ,stress movement1 #bbd1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bie1 #bif4 8,strife of methods1 the10 #ai1 #ce4 8,struggle of traditions1 the10 #ag1 #ah4 ,subjective idealism1 of ,fichte1 #bij1 #cjd4 ,subjective states1 the world of1 according to ,kant1 #bdj-bdb4 ,subjectivism1 ,renaissance marked by the rise of1 #ad1 #ae4 ,substance1 in ,descartes's philosophy1 #gg1 #ha1 #hb2 in the philosophy of the ,occasionalists and ,spinoza1 #ha-hd1 #ia-ie1 #aja2 in ,leibnitz's philosophy1 #aai-abb2 in ,locke's philosophy1 #afj-afb2 according to ,locke1 ,berkeley1 and ,hume1 #agd1 #age2 in ,berkeley's philosophy1 #agf1 #agh2 ,hume's conception of1 #aie1 #aif1 ,sufficient reason1 law of1 #abi4 ,suicide1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cdi4 ,sympathy1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cej1 #cea4 ,synthesis1 according1 to ,kant1 #bdd1 #bde2 the place of1 in knowledge1 according to ,kant1 #bde-bdh2 of ,fichte1 #bie2 of ,hegel1 #cbg4 ,see ,deduction4 ,synthetic1 judgments of ,kant1 #bdi-beb4 ,taurellus1 #aa4 ,tetens1 ,j4 ,n41 #bba4 ,theology1 ,hume's attack on1 #aie1 #aif4 ,thesis1 of ,fichte1 #bie2 of ,hegel1 #cbg4 ,things-in-themselves1 the world of1 according to ,kant1 #bdj-bdb1 #ccf2 how treated by ,fichte1 #bij1 #bia2 how treated by ,schelling1 #cjj2 the philosophy of1 #ccj-cea2 the chief concern of philosophy1 according to ,herbart1 #ccb2 implied by phenomena1 according to ,herbart1 #ccf2 basis of ,schopenhauer's philosophy1 #cdj2 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cde1 #cdf4 ,thirty ,years' ,war1 #bag4 ,thomasius1 ,christian1 #adb1 #bba4 ,thought1 in ,spinoza's philosophy1 #ie1 #aja1 #ajb2 in ,hegel's philosophy1 #cbb1 #cce4 ,time and space1 knowledge possible by means of1 according to ,kant1 #bec-bee4 ,tindal1 ,matthew1 #afe4 ,toland1 ,john1 #afe4 ,transcendental1 method1 of ,kant1 #bci1 #bdj2 philosophy1 of ,schelling1 #cjb1 #cjg-caj2 freedom1 of ,schopenhauer1 #cdi-cea4 ,trent1 ,council of1 #af1 #bj4 ,truth1 standard of1 in the ,middle ,ages1 self-destructive1 #e2 criterion of1 according to ,descartes1 #gb4 ,truths1 of ,leibnitz1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,tschirnhausen1 ,e4 ,w4 von1 #bba4 ,turner1 ,william1 ,history of ,philosophy1 #gc n4 ,ueberweg1 ,friedrich1 ,history of ,philosophy1 iv1 #bji n4 ,understanding1 in what its validity consists1 according to ,kant1 #bee-bfj4 ,unity1 of ,leibnitz1 #abb2 a prestablished harmony1 #abe2 the intrinsic 7philosophical71 #abe-abi2 the superimposed 7theological71 #abi-aca2 cosmic1 of ,hegel1 #cbb-cbf4 ,universal1 concrete and abstract1 #ii1 #ajj4 ,universe1 ,man's relation to1 in the ,renaissance1 #h-ah2 according to the ,ptolemaic system1 #cc2 according to the ,copernican system1 #cd2 the idea of the1 according to ,kant1 #bfa1 #bfd1 #bfe2 according to ,schelling1 #cjd1 #caa4 ,see ,new ,man4 ,universities1 in the ,renaissance1 #ab2 towns containing 7map71 #bhj4 ,utilitarianism1 #dc4 ,utopias1 #da1 #dg4 ,van der ,ende1 his influence on ,spinoza1 #hg1 #hi4 ,vienna1 ,university of1 #ab4 ,voltaire1 ,f4 ,m4 ,a4 de1 #bjh-baj1 #bbc4 ,wagner1 ,richard1 #cdb4 ,watson1 ,john1 ,hedonistic ,theories1 #dg n4 ,weber1 ,e4 ,a41 ,history of ,philosophy1 iv1 #gj n41 #gc n41 #ajg n41 #ccb n41 #ceb n4 ,weimar1 #bcc1 #cjg4 ,wernaer1 ,r4 ,m41 ,romanticism and the ,romantic ,school in ,germany1 #cjj n4 ,will1 the1 ,kant's theory of1 #bfi-bgg2 the world as1 and as idea1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cde-cdg2 as irrational reality1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cdg1 #cdh2 suicide and1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cdi2 the denial of1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cdi-cea4 ,windelband1 ,wilhelm1 ,history of ,philosophy1 iv1 #h n41 #bc n41 #cj n41 #dg n41 #gj n41 #aai n41 #acb n41 #ahc n41 #bcj n41 #bcf n41 #bgh n41 #bhb n42 on ,kant's synthetic judgments a priori1 #bea n4 ,wittenberg1 new religious centre in the ,renaissance1 #ab4 ,wolfenbttel ,fragments1 #he4 ,wolff1 ,christian1 #bba1 #bbb1 #bbh4 ,wolffians1 the1 #adb4 ,world1 of grace1 #fc1 #fd1 #gf1 #hc2 relation of ,god to1 according to ,descartes1 #gg2 in ,spinoza's philosophy1 #ig2 the1 ,leibnitz's conception of1 as the best possible1 #acj2 according to ,goethe1 #bih2 in terms of consciousness1 #cba2 a world of contradictions1 #cba2 as will and as idea1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cde-cdg2 as idea1 the misery of1 according to ,schopenhauer1 #cdh1 #cdi4 ,see ,universe4 ,footnotes4 #a - ,read ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #cjc-cba2 ,windelband1 ,history of ,philosophy1 pp4 #cdh-cea2 ,dewing1 ,introduction to ,modern ,philosophy1 pp4 #eb-ed4 #b - ,read ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #cba-cca2 ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #ceb-ced4 #c - ,read ,falckenberg1 ,hist4 of ,modern ,phil41 pp4 #bg-bh2 ,browning1 ,paracelsus2 ,goethe1 ,faust1 lines #a-afe4 #d - ,these two phrases will be found again in the philosophy of ,spinoza4 ,nature is conceived as having two aspects3 one is natura naturans1 or ,god as the animating principle of nature2 the other is natura naturata1 or the world as materialized forms or effects4 #e - ,read ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #cgh-cgi4 #f - ,induction and deduction are methods of reasoning4 ,induction is the method of beginning with particular cases and inferring from them a general conclusion4 ,deduction is the opposite method of reasoning4 #g - ,read ,hffding1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #age2 ,ball1 ,hist4 of ,math41 pp4 #bdi ff42 ,falckenberg1 ,hist4 of ,mod4 ,phil41 pp4 #ei ff4 #h - ,an example used by ,galileo is the law of the velocity of falling bodies in empty space4 #i - ,the name1 8concomitant variations10 was later given by ,john ,stuart ,mill4 #aj - ,read ,ball1 ,hist4 of ,math41 pp4 #bec ff42 ,hffding1 ,hist4 of ,mod4 ,phil41 vol4 i1 pp4 #ahd-ahf2 ,macaulay1 ,essay on ,bacon2 ,bacon1 ,essays1,studies1 ,truth1 ,friendship1 ,simulation1 and ,dissimulation2 ,abbott1 ,francis ,bacon2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #ccf-cdd2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #bd-ef4 #aa - ,bacon wrote his ,new ,atlantis in #afbc4 ,the same year ,campanella wrote his ,state of the ,sun1 and the preceding year ,thomas ,more wrote his ,utopia4 #ab - ,utilitarianism regards adaptation to general happiness as the ideal of society4 ,positivism1 broadly used1 is that philosophy which limits the scope of thought to the observation of facts1 although the observations are inferior to the facts4 ,the data and methods of positivism are the same as those of natural science1 and opposed to the a priori methods of metaphysics4 #ac - ,in this connection read ,herbert ,spencer1 ,education4 #ad - ,bacon chooses the word ,idols1 because it is the same as the ,greek word for false forms 7eidola1 74 #ae - ,bacon is here alluding to ,plato's myth of the cave4 ,read ,plato1 ,republic 7,jowett's trans471 ,bk4 ,,vii1 #ead ,a-#ebj ,e4 #af - ,bacon is satirical here and is likening philosophical systems to stage-plays4 #ag - ,but see the contradiction in the theory of ,hobbes4 #ah - ,read ,robertson1 ,hobbes 7,blackwood's ,phil4 ,classics71 pp4 #bjd-bjf2 ,falckenberg1 ,hist4 ,mod4 ,phil41 pp4 #ga-gb2 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 article1 8,hobbes02 ,leslie ,stephen1 ,hobbes2 ,watson1 ,hedonistic ,theories1 pp4 #gc-id2 ,turner1 ,hist4 ,phil41 pp4 #ddc-ddf2 ,windelband1 ,hist4 ,phil41 p4 #chi2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #cei-cfj2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #eg-fi1 #hj-hd4 #ai - ,see also the ideal ,states of ,campanella and ,bacon1 p4 #da4 #bj - ,the theory that the assumption of extended1 impenetrable1 eternal1 and moving bodies explains the universe4 #ba - ,the theory that all knowledge originates in sensations2 that all complex mental states 7like memory1 reason1 etc47 are only combinations of elementary sensations4 #bb - ,the theory that between alternative courses of conduct the choice decided upon is fully accounted for by psychological and other pre-conditions4 #bc - ,the theory sometimes meaning materialism1 sometimes positivism1 but sometimes1 as here1 meaning that man in all his operations is a product of his environment4 #bd - ,read ,falckenberg1 ,hist4 ,mod4 ,phil41 p4 #gb1 for his quotation from ,grimm's criticism of the irreconcilable contradiction of the empirical and the rational in ,hobbes4 #be - ,empiricism and ,rationalism have reference to the source of truth4 ,empiricism is the theory that truth is to be found in immediate sense experience4 ,the opposite theory is ,rationalism1 which declares that the reason is an independent source of knowledge1 distinct from sensation1 and having a higher authority4 #bf - ,read ,robertson1 ,hobbes 7,blackwood ,phil4 ,classics71 p4 #dj2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #aag-adg2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #cea-cfb2 ,calkins1 ,persistent ,problems1 pp4 #dei-dfc4 #bg - ,read ,descartes1 ,method1 ,meditations1 for the dramatic struggle of his inner life2 ,falckenberg1 ,hist4 ,modern ,phil41 pp4 #hf-hh2 ,fischer1 ,descartes and his ,school1 p4 #aii2 ,blackwood ,classics1 ,descartes1 pp4 #add-adi2 ,windelband1 ,hist4 ,phil41 pp4 #chi ff42 ,hffding1 ,hist4 ,modern ,phil41 pp4 #bai ff42 ,weber1 ,hist4 ,phil41 pp4 #cjf ff41 for an opposing opinion about the place of ,descartes4 #bh - ,read ,falckenberg1 ,hist4 of ,modern ,phil41 pp4 #ib-id2 ,blackwood's ,classics1 ,descartes1 pp4 #aea-aec2 ,weber1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 p4 #caj2 ,calkins1 ,persistent ,problems in ,philosophy1 pp4 #be-cj2 ,turner1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #dea f41 which presents ,descartes' arguments as reduced to two4 #bi - ,read ,royce1 ,spirit of ,modern ,phil41 chap4 iii2 ,baldwin1 ,fragments in ,philosophy1 pp4 #bd-db2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #adh-aff2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #cfb-chj4 #cj - ,see page #bgi4 ,read ,goethe1 ,geheimnisse1 in this connection4 #ca - ,read ,auerbach1 ,spinoza1 an historical romance4 #cb - ,read ,bohn's ,libraries1 ,spinoza1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #bge ff41 for ,spinoza's interesting correspondence with notable men4 #cc - ,read ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #aii-bad2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #chh-dje2 ,weber1 ,history of ,philosophy1 pp4 #cdc-cfi2 ,hibben1 ,phil4 of ,enlightenment1 pp4 #afa-aic4 #cd - ,a good selection of ,leibnitz's works for the student to read is3 ,discourse on ,metaphysics 7#afij71 ,letters to ,arnauld1 ,monadology 7#agad71 ,new ,system of ,nature 7#afie71 ,principles of ,nature and ,grace 7#agad71 ,introduction to ,new ,essays 7#agjd71 and the ,theodicy 7#agaj74 ,see ,calkins1 ,persistent ,problems in ,phil41 p4 #gd1 note4 #ce - ,read ,hibben1 ,phil4 of ,enlightenment1 ch4 vii2 ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #dbj-dbe4 #cf - ,read ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #dcg-ddj1 #ddg-ddi1 #ejj-ejb2 ,hibben1 ,phil4 of ,enlightenment1 pp4 #c-ac1 #ah-bj4 #cg - ,read ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #bae-bag1 #bdh-bfb2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #chj-chh4 #ch - ,see ,essay1 introductory epistle to the reader4 #ci - ,read ,leslie ,stephen1 ,history of ,english ,thought1 vol4 i1 pp4 #hf-hh4 #dj - ,read ,royce1 ,spirit of ,modern ,philosophy1 p4 #hf2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #bfc-bgg4 #da - ,berkeley and ,hume were really also dualists1 like ,locke and all other ,enlighteners4 ,the ideas were substituted by them for material substances4 ,as objects of knowledge the ideas were antithetical to the knowing process4 ,hume tried to overcome this dualism1 but he was not successful in his attempt4 #db - ,read ,hibben1 ,the ,philosophy of the ,enlightenment1 chap4 iii4 #dc - ,hibben1 ,phil4 of ,enlightenment1 p4 #fd4 #dd - ,read ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #cbf-cdb2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #dbj-dbb2 ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #dgb-dgf4 #de - ,causal events are to ,hume merely alleged matters of fact4 #df - ,read ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #dae-dbj4 #dg - ,voltaire's ,letters on the ,english were written in #agbh1 published first in ,london1 and appeared in ,france in #agcd4 ,his ,elements of the ,philosophy of ,newton was published in ,amsterdam in #agch1 but was not allowed to be published in ,france until #agda4 #dh - ,read ,ueberweg1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 vol4 ii1 pp4 #abd-abe4 #di - ,read ,morley1 ,diderot1 vol4 i1 ch4 v1 pp4 #aac-aga4 #ej - ,read ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #cdg-cge4 #ea - ,read ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #dbc-dcc4 #eb - ,in a real sense the ,german ,enlightenment has never come to an end4 ,classicism and the ,romantic movement were a continuation of it4 #ec - ,read ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #ebi-eca4 #ed - ,read the quotation from ,heine in ,e4 ,caird1 ,phil4 of ,kant1 vol4 i1 p4 #fc2 ,stirling1 ,textbook to ,kant1 ,biographical ,sketch2 ,royce1 ,spirit of ,modern ,philosophy1 chap4 iv2 ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #ecb-ecd2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #cgf-dje1 #dbj-dbd2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #dce-deb4 #ee - ,the word 8world0 is used for lack of a better4 ,the reader is1 however1 again reminded that ,kant's problem is one of epistemology and not of metaphysics4 #ef - ,paulsen says 7,immanuel ,kant1 ,his ,life and ,teaching1 p4 #ace7 that this formula of synthetic judgments a priori appears only in the introduction to the ,critique and in ,kant's later writings1 and it would have been no misfortune if ,kant had never discovered it4 ,but ,windelband 7,hist4 of ,phil41 p4 #ecc1 n4 #b7 says1 8,no one who does not make this clear to himself has any hope of understanding ,kant40 #eg - ,quoted from ,falckenberg1 ,hist4 of ,modern ,phil41 p4 #chg4 ,this is a paraphrase of some of ,schiller's verses in ,the ,philosophers1 a satirical poem of philosophical theories4 #eh - ,kant's theory of ,beauty1 discussed in his ,critique of ,judgment1 through which he tries to reconcile the antagonism of knowledge and morality1 is omitted here4 #ei - ,read ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #efh-efi4 #fj - ,read ,royce1 ,spirit of ,modern ,phil41 chap4 v2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #dhf-dij2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #dhf-dif1 #eaf-ece2 ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 pp4 #egi-eha4 #fa - ,read ,beers1 ,history of ,romanticism in ,eighteenth ,century1 pp4 #a-be2 ,beers1 ,history of ,romanticism in ,nineteenth ,century1 pp4 #acb-aci4 #fb - ,read ,royce1 ,spirit of ,modern ,philosophy1 ch4 vi4 #fc - ,read ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #deg-dfd1 #dij-did2 ,wernaer1 ,romanticism and the ,romantic ,school in ,germany1 pp4 #acb-adc2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #ece-efh4 #fd - ,read ,shelley1 ,love's ,philosophy4 #fe - ,read ,schiller1 ,artists2 ,letters on sthetic ,education4 #ff - ,f4 ,e4 ,d4 ,schleiermacher1 b4 #agfh2 educated in the ,herrnhuten institutions and at the ,university of ,halle2 in #agif preacher at the ,berlin ,charit2 in #ahjb court preacher at ,stolpe2 in #ahjd professor extraordinary at ,halle2 in #ahji preacher at a church in ,berlin2 in #ahaj professor in ,berlin ,university4 #fg - ,read ,royce1 ,spirit of ,modern ,phil41 chap4 vii2 ,james1 ,hibbert ,journal1 #aijh-ji1 pp4 #fc ff42 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #did-ejg2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #efi-egd1 #ehc-eib1 #fad-fbh4 #fh - ,read ,ribot1 ,german ,psychology of ,to-day1 pp4 #bd-fg2 ,weber1 ,history of ,philosophy1 pp4 #ecf-edc2 ,dewing1 ,introduction to ,modern ,philosophy1 pp4 #bcj-bce4 #fi - ,a discussion of these contradictions can be found in any text-book in metaphysics4 #gj - ,the 8principle of contradiction0 in logic is the prohibition to commit contradiction4 #ga - ,read ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #eaj-eah2 ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #fbi-fga4 #gb - ,read ,rubiyt of ,omar ,khayym1 ,fitz,gerald's translation1 #dth ed41 quatrains xlvii-lxxiii2 ,goethe1 ,sorrows of ,werther1 as an example of pessimism due mainly to environment4 #gc - ,read ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #gjc-gjh2 ,weber1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 #fi1 #gj2 ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #eah-ebc1 #ebd-eec1 #eei-egc2 ,nietzsche1 ,also ,sprach ,zarathustra2 ,james1 ,pragmatism1 ,lectures ,i1 ,,iv1 ,,vii2 ,royce1 ,spirit of ,mod4 ,phil41 ,lecture ,,ix4 #gd - ,royce1 ,the ,world and the ,individual1 vol4 i1 pp4 #fj f4 #ge - ,read ,rand1 ,modern ,classical ,philosophers1 pp4 #fgb-fhi4 ,transcriber's ,notes4 ,the following corrections have been made in the text3 ,page xiv3 ,sentence starting3 ,in what does the ,validity4444 - #8,persception' replaced with #8,perception' 7,validity of ,sense-,perception consist87 ,page #h3 ,sentence starting3 ,the fusion did not result4444 - #8homogenous' replaced with #8homogeneous' 7in a homogeneous whole17 ,page #he3 ,sentence starting3 ,it formed the background4444 - #8,wolffenbttel' replaced with #8,wolfenbttel' 7,wolfenbttel ,fragments7 ,page #aad3 ,sentence starting3 ,he was led to this conclusion4444 - #8,leeuwenhook' replaced with #8,leeuwenhoek' 7of ,swammerdam and ,leeuwenhoek7 ,page #agd3 ,sentence starting3 ,berkeley started out by4444 - #8speculalation' replaced with #8speculation' 7against scholastic speculation and abstraction27 ,page #bif3 ,sentence starting3 ,some of the literary names4444 - #8,wackenrode' replaced with #8,wackenroder' 7,tieck1 ,wackenroder1 ,novalis17 ,page #ccf3 ,sentence starting3 ,kant reasoned from the relativity4444 - #8thing-it-itself' replaced with #8thing-in-itself' 7while the thing-in-itself was7 ,index ,campanella3 - #8,tommasso' replaced with #8,tommaso' 7,campanella1 ,tommaso7 ,index ,eucken3 - #8#bbc' replaced with #8#bac' 7#bac n47 ,index ,hume3 - #8scepticism' replaced with #8skepticism' 7the skepticism of1 influenced ,kant7 ,index ,spinoza3 - #8fundanental' replaced with #8fundamental' 7the fundamental principle in7 ,index ,unity3 - #8prestabished' replaced with #8prestablished' 7a prestablished harmony7