,transcriber's ,note ,italic text is enclosed in underscores2 superscripts are shown as #abc2 subscripts are shown as #abc4 ,other notes appear at the end of this e,book4 ,illustration ,,locomotive ,,engine ,,running ,,and ,,management3 ,a ,treatise on ,locomotive ,engines1 ,,showing ,,their ,,performance ,,in ,,running ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,trains ,,with ,,economy ,,and ,,dispatch2 ,,also ,,directions ,,regarding ,,the ,,care1 ,,management1 ,,and ,,repairs ,,of ,,locomotives ,,and ,,all ,,their ,,connections4 ,,by ,,angus ,,sinclair1 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,brotherhood ,,of ,,locomotive ,,engineers1 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,society ,,of ,,mechanical ,,engineers1 ,,associate ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,railway ,,master ,,mechanics' ,,association1 ,,associate ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,naval ,,institute1 ,,etc4 ,,tenth ,,edition4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,john ,,wiley ,,and ,,sons4 #ahhh4 ,,copyright1 #ahhd1 ,,by ,,john ,,wiley ,,sons4 ,,electrotyped ,,and ,,printed ,,by ,,rand1 ,,avery1 ,,and ,,company1 ,,boston1 ,,mass4 ,,preface4 ,while following the occupation of a locomotive engineer1 ,i often observed peculiarities about the working of my engine1 while running1 that ,i did not entirely understand4 ,as ,i was perfectly aware1 even before making my first trip on a locomotive engine1 that there is no effect without a cause1 ,i never felt satisfied to accept any thing as incomprehensible without investigation1 and fell into the habit of noting down facts about the working of the engine1 with the view of studying out1 at leisure1 any thing which was not quite clear4 ,when1 some years ago1 ,i abandoned engine-running to take charge of the round-house at the mechanical headquarters of the ,burlington1 ,cedar ,rapids1 and ,northern ,railway1 in ,iowa1 the practice of keeping notes was continued4 ,the work connected with the ordinary repairing of running-engines1 the emergency repairing executed to get engines ready hurriedly to meet the traffic demands on a road then chronically short of power1 and diagnosing the numerous diseases that locomotives are heir to1 provided ample material for voluminous notes4 ,those notes formed the raw material from which this book was constructed4 ,the original intention was1 to publish a book on ,locomotive ,engine ,running alone1 and the first portion of the work was prepared with that idea in view2 but1 before the articles were finished1 ,i joined the editorial staff of the ,american ,machinist4 ,the correspondence in the office of that paper convinced me that an urgent demand existed1 among engineers1 machinists1 and others1 for plainly given information relating to numerous operations connected with the repairing and maintenance of locomotives4 ,to meet this demand1 the chapters on 8,valve-,motion0 and all the succeeding part of the book were written4 ,most of that matter was originally written for the pages of the ,american ,machinist1 but was afterwards re-arranged for the book4 ,in preparing a book for the use of engineers1 firemen1 machinists1 and others interested in locomotive matters1 it has been my aim to treat all subjects discussed in such a way that any reader would easily understand every sentence written4 ,no attempt is made to convey instruction in any thing beyond elementary problems in mechanical engineering1 and all problems brought forward are treated in the simplest manner possible4 ,the practice of applying to books for information concerning their work1 is rapidly spreading among the engineers and mechanics of this school-spangled country2 and this book is published in the hope that its pages may furnish a share of the needed assistance4 ,those men1 who1 ,socrates-like1 search for knowledge from the recorded experience of others1 are the men1 who1 in the near future1 will take leading places in our march of national progress4 ,to such men1 who are earnestly toiling up the steep grade of ,self-help1 this book is respectfully dedicated4 ,,angus ,,sinclair4 ,,new ,,york ,,city1 ,jan4 #a1 #ahhe4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition4 ,i desire to thank the railroad world and the technical press for the kind reception they have extended to my book4 ,the necessity for publishing the third edition within three months after the first one was issued1 indicates that the book was wanted4 ,in the present edition ,i have corrected a few errors1 and made some necessary alterations1 that will add to the value of the book4 ,,angus ,,sinclair1 ,,new ,,york1 ,april #f1 #ahhe4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,engineers ,,and ,,their ,,duties #a ,attributes that make a ,good ,engineer4--,how ,engineering ,knowledge and ,skill are ,acquired4--,public ,interest in ,locomotive ,engineers4--,ignorance versus ,knowledge4-- ,illiterate ,engineers not wanted in ,america4--,growing ,importance of ,engineers' ,duties4--,individuality of ,american ,engineers4--,necessity for ,class ,improvement4-- ,the ,skill of ,engineers influences ,operating ,expenses4-- ,methods of ,self-improvement4--,observing ,shop ,operations4-- ,where ,ignorance was ,ruin4--,prejudice against studying ,books4--,the ,kind of ,knowledge gained from ,books4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,how ,,locomotive ,,engineers ,,are ,,made #aa ,reliable ,men needed to run ,locomotives4--,early ,methods of making ,locomotive ,engineers4--,practice of raising ,engineers from ,machinists and ,technical-school ,graduates not found satisfactory4--,experience demonstrated that ,firemen made the ,best ,engineers4--,difficulties of running ,locomotives at ,night1 and during ,bad ,weather4--,kind of ,men to be chosen as ,firemen4--,modern ,methods of selecting ,firemen4--,first ,trips4--,popular ,misconception of a ,fireman's ,duties4--,learning ,firemen's ,duties4--,a ,good ,fireman makes a ,good ,engineer4--,learning an ,engineer's ,duties4--,conditions of ,engine ,running that vanquish the ,inexperienced ,man4--,learning to keep the ,locomotive in ,running-order4--,methods of ,promotion on our ,leading ,roads4--,nature of ,examination to be passed4--,master ,mechanics on the ,best ,method of ,educating ,young ,men for ,engineers4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,inspection ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive #cj ,locomotive ,inspectors4--,good ,engineers ,inspect their own ,engines4--,what comes of neglecting ,systematic ,inspection of ,locomotives4--,confidence on the ,road derived from ,inspection4--,inspection on the ,pit4--,outside ,inspection4--,oil-cups4--,inspection of ,running-gear4-- ,attentions to the ,boiler4--,miscellaneous ,attentions4-- ,reward of ,thorough ,inspection4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,getting ,,ready ,,for ,,the ,,road #ci ,raising ,steam4--,precautions against ,scorching ,boilers4-- ,starting the ,fire4--,fireman's ,first ,duties4--,saving the ,grates4--,supplies4--,engineer's ,first ,duties4--,reaching his ,engine in ,good ,season4--,oiling the ,machinery4-- ,quantity of ,oil that ,different ,bearings need4--,leaving the ,engine-house4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,running ,a ,,fast ,,freight ,,train #dh ,running ,freight ,trains4--,the ,engine4--,the ,train4--,the ,division4--,pulling out4--,hooking back the ,links4-- ,working the ,steam ,expansively4--,advantage of ,cutting-off ,short4--,boiler ,pressure ,best for ,economical ,working4-- ,running with ,low ,steam4--,the ,throttle-lever4--,management of the ,fire4--,conditions that demand ,good ,firing4-- ,highest ,type of ,fireman4--,scientific ,methods of ,good ,firemen4--,the ,medium ,fireman4--,the ,hopelessly ,bad ,fireman4--,who is to ,blame for ,bad ,firing8 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,getting ,,up ,,the ,,hill #fa ,special ,skill and ,attention required to get a ,train up a ,steep ,grade4--,getting ,ready for the ,grade4--,working up the ,hill4--,wheel-slipping4--,how to use ,sand4-- ,slippery ,engines4--,feeding the ,boiler4--,choice of ,pump and ,injector4--,fall of ,boiler-temperature not indicated by the ,steam-gauge4--,some ,effects of ,injudicious ,boiler-feeding4--,careful ,feeding and ,firing preserve ,boilers4--,operating the ,dampers4--,loss of ,heat through ,excess of ,air4--,loss of ,heat from ,bad ,dampers4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,finishing ,,the ,,trip #gd ,running over ,ordinary ,track4--,stopping-places4--,knowledge of ,train-rights4--,precautions to be observed in approaching and passing ,stations4--,the ,best ,rules must be ,supplemented by ,good ,judgment4--,operating ,single ,tracks ,safely4--,causes of ,anxiety to ,engineers4--,acquaintance with the ,road4--,final ,duties of the ,trip4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,running ,a ,,fast ,,passenger ,,train #hb ,average ,speed4--,speed between ,jersey ,city and ,philadelphia4--,requisites of a ,high-speed ,locomotive4-- ,making up the ,fire4--,getting ready for the ,trip4--,the ,train to be pulled4--,the ,start4--,getting the ,train over the ,road4--,how the ,engineer did his ,work4--,qualifications that make a ,successful ,engineer4--,how the ,firing was done4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,hard-,,steaming ,,engines #ib ,importance of ,locomotives ,steaming ,freely4--,essentials for ,good-steaming ,engines4--,causes ,detrimental to making ,steam4--,petticoat-pipe4--,the ,smoke-stack4--,obstructions to ,draught4--,choking the ,netting with ,oil4--,silicious ,deposit on ,flue-sheet4--,the ,extended ,smoke-box4-- ,steam-pipes leaking4--,defects of ,grates4--,lime1 ,scale1 and ,mud4--,preventing ,accumulation of ,mud in ,boilers4-- ,temporary ,cures for ,leaky ,flues4--,good ,management ,makes ,engines ,steam4--,intermittent ,boiler-feeding4--,too ,much ,piston ,clearance4--,badly ,proportioned ,smoke-stacks4--,the ,exhaust ,nozzles4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,shortness ,,of ,,water4--,,pump ,,disorders #aji ,trouble develops ,natural ,energy4--,shortness of ,water a ,serious ,predicament4--,how to deal with ,shortness of ,water4--,watching the ,water-gauges4--,what to do when the ,tender is found empty between ,stations4--,a ,trying ,position4--,watching the ,strainers4--,care of ,pumps4-- ,how the ,condition of ,pumps can be tested4--,lift of ,pump-valves4--,keep ,pipes tight1 and ,packing in ,order4-- ,sand in the ,pump-chambers4--,delivery ,orifice choked with ,lime ,sediment4--,minor ,pump ,troubles4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,injectors #aai ,invention of the ,injector4--,trying to find out how the ,injector worked4--,the ,principle of the ,injector's ,action4--,different ,forms of ,injector4--,a ,heater-pipe acting as an ,injector4--,skill and ,reflection ,needed in ,repairing ,injectors4--,care of ,injectors4--,the ,most ,common ,causes of ,derangement4--,how to ,keep an ,injector in ,good ,order4--,curious ,cases of ,trouble with an ,injector4-- ,common ,defects4--,care of ,injectors in ,winter4--,sellers ,injector4--,the ,nathan ,manufacturing ,company's ,monitor ,injector4--,the ,korting ,injector4--,the ,hancock ,inspirator4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,boilers ,,and ,,fire-,,boxes #acf ,care of ,locomotive ,boilers4--,factor of ,safety4--,boiler ,explosions4--,preservation of ,boilers4--,causing ,injury to ,boilers4--,dangers of ,mud and ,scale4--,blowing off ,boilers4--,over-pressure4--,relieving ,over-pressure4-- ,bursted ,flues4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,accidents ,,to ,,the ,,valve-,,motion #adc ,running ,worn-out ,engines4--,care and ,energy defy ,defeat4-- ,watching the ,exhaust4--,the ,attentive ,ear detects ,deterioration of ,valves4--,locating the ,four ,exhaust ,sounds4--,identifying ,defects by ,sound of the ,steam4-- ,accidents ,prevented by attending to the ,note of ,warning from the ,exhaust4--,neglecting a ,warning4--,how an ,eccentric-strap ,punched a ,hole in a ,fire-box4--,interest in the ,valve-motion among ,engineers4--,trouble with the ,valve-motion4--,a ,wrong ,conclusion4--,locating ,defects of the ,valve-motion4--,position of ,eccentrics4--,method of ,setting ,slipped ,eccentrics4--,slipped ,eccentric-rods4-- ,detecting the ,cause of a ,lame ,exhaust4--,what to do when ,eccentrics1 ,straps1 or ,rods ,break4--,different ,ways of securing the ,cross-head4--,broken ,tumbling-shaft4-- ,broken ,valve-stem1 or ,valve-yoke4--,when a ,rocker-shaft or ,lower ,rocker-arm ,breaks4--,miscellaneous ,accidents to ,valve-motion4--,broken ,steam-chest ,cover4--,steam-pipe ,bursted4--,testing the ,valves4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,accidents ,,to ,,cylinders ,,and ,,steam ,,connections #afb ,importance of the ,piston in the ,train of ,mechanism4--,causes that lead to ,broken ,cylinder-heads4--,broken ,cylinder-heads often ,preventable4--,when a ,main ,rod breaks4--,crank-pin broken4--,throttle disconnected4--,oiling the ,valves when the ,throttle is ,disconnected4--,what causes a ,disconnected ,throttle4--,bursting a ,dry ,pipe4--,other ,throttle ,accidents4--,pounding of the ,working-parts4--,some ,causes of ,pounding4--,locating a ,mysterious ,pound4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,off ,,the ,,track4--,,accidents ,,to ,,running-,,gear #agb ,getting ,ditched4--,dealing with ,sudden ,emergencies4-- ,stopping a ,freight ,train in ,case of ,danger4--,saving the ,heating ,surfaces4--,getting the ,engine on the ,track4-- ,understanding the ,running-gear4--,broken ,driving-spring4-- ,equalizer ,broken4--,accidents to ,trucks4--,broken ,frame4-- ,broken ,driving ,axles1 ,wheels1 and ,tires4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,connecting-,,rods1 ,,side ,,rods1 ,,and ,,wedges #ahb ,care of ,locomotive ,rods4--,functions of ,connecting-rods4-- ,effects of ,bad ,fitting4--,striking ,points and ,clearance4-- ,watching ,rods on the ,road4--,side ,rods4--,adjustment of ,side ,rods4--,keying ,side ,rods4--,difficulty in locating ,defects4--,pounding in ,driving-boxes and ,wedges4-- ,importance of having ,wedges properly ,fitted4--,influence of ,half-round ,brasses4--,position of ,boxes while setting up ,wedges4--,necessity for keeping ,boxes and ,wedges ,clean4-- ,temperature of the ,box to be considered4--,small ,disorders that cause ,rough ,riding4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,valve-,,motion #aii ,the ,locomotive ,slide-valve4--,invention and ,application of the ,slide-valve4--,description of the ,slide-valve4-- ,primitive ,slide-valve4--,outside ,lap4--,some ,effects of ,lap4--,inside ,lap4--,the ,extent of ,lap usually adopted4-- ,first ,application of ,lap4--,the ,allen ,valve4--,advantages of the ,allen ,valve4--,case where the ,allen ,valve proved its ,value4--,inside ,clearance4--,lead4--,operation of the ,steam in the ,cylinders4--,back ,pressure in the ,cylinders4--,effect of too ,much ,inside ,lap4--,running into a ,hill4--,compression4--,definition of an ,eccentric4-- ,early ,application of the ,eccentric4--,relative ,motion of ,piston and ,crank1 ,slide-valve1 and ,eccentrics4--,attempts to ,abolish the ,crank4--,valve ,movement4--,effect of ,lap on the ,eccentric's ,position4--,angular ,advance of ,eccentrics4--,angularity of ,connecting-rod4--,effect on the ,valve-motion of ,connecting-rod ,angularity4--,aids to the ,study of ,valve-motion4--,events of the ,piston ,stroke4--,what ,happens ,inside the ,cylinders when an ,engine is ,reversed4--,events of the ,stroke in ,reversed ,motion4-- ,purpose of ,relief-valve on ,dry ,pipe4--,using ,reverse-motion as a ,brake4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,shifting-,,link #bbi ,early ,reversing ,motions4--,invention of the ,link4-- ,construction of the ,shifting ,link4--,action of the ,link4-- ,valve-motion of a ,fast ,passenger ,locomotive4--,effect of changing ,valve-travel4--,weak ,points of the ,link-motion4-- ,why ,decreasing the ,valve-travel ,increases the ,period of ,expansion4--,influence of ,eccentric ,throw on the ,valve4-- ,harmony of ,working-parts4--,adjustment of ,link4--,slip of the ,link4--,radius of ,link4--,increase of ,lead4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,setting ,,the ,,valves #bdf ,the ,men who learn ,valve-setting4--,best way to learn ,valve-setting4--,preliminary ,operations4--,connecting ,eccentric-rods to ,link4--,marking the ,valve-stem4--,length of the ,valve-rod4--,accuracy ,essential in ,locating the ,dead ,center ,points4--,finding the ,dead ,centers4--,turning ,wheels and ,moving ,eccentrics4--,setting by the ,lead ,opening4-- ,ascertaining the ,point of ,cut-off4--,adjustment of ,cut-off4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,laying ,,out ,,link-,,motion #beg ,preliminary ,explanations4--,definition of ,terms used4-- ,conditions4--,problems ,involved in ,laying ,out ,link-motion4--,to find the ,position of ,crank when the ,piston is at ,full and ,half ,stroke4--,to find the ,center ,line of ,motion and the ,amount of ,offset in the ,lower ,rocker-arm4--,to find the ,relative ,positions of ,crank-pin and ,eccentrics when the ,piston is at ,full and ,half ,stroke4--,to determine the ,correct ,length of the ,eccentric-rods4--,to find the ,position of the ,center of ,saddle-pin4--,to ,find the ,position of the ,center of ,lifting-shaft and the ,length of its ,arms4--,dimensions of ,locomotives4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,stevens ,,valve-,,gear #bhg ,description of ,motion4--,arrangement of the ,motion4--,valve ,movement4--,valve-stems and ,stuffing-boxes4--,how ,movement of ,valve is ,governed4--,how ,exhaust ,lead is ,controlled4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,joy ,,valve-,,gear #bib ,description of ,motion4--,how to ,apply this ,gear to ,american ,locomotives4--,construction ,directions4--,how ,lap and ,lead are ,regulated4--,advantages claimed for the ,motion4-- ,action of the ,motion4--,rules for laying down the ,center ,lines of the ,motion4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,steam ,,engine ,,indicator #cjc ,purpose of the ,indicator4--,description of ,instrument4-- ,operation of the ,indicator4--,lines of the ,diagram4-- ,data ,necessary for ,analyzing the ,diagram4--,advantages of ,indicating ,locomotives4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,air-,,brake #cji ,invention of the ,westinghouse ,atmospheric ,brake4--,distinct ,classes of ,inventions4--,benefits conferred on ,train ,men by ,good ,brakes4--,first ,trials of the ,westinghouse ,atmospheric ,brake4--,first ,roads that ,adopted the ,westinghouse ,brake4--,outlines of the ,atmospheric ,brake4-- ,how ,eastern ,railroads kept aloof from the ,westinghouse ,brake4--,lesson of the ,revere ,railroad ,accident4--,weak ,points of the ,atmospheric ,brake4--,the ,westinghouse ,automatic ,air-brake4--,life-saving ,value of the ,automatic ,brake4--,first ,railroads that adopted the ,westinghouse ,automatic ,air-brake4--,essential ,parts of the ,westinghouse ,automatic ,air-brake4--,the ,air-pump4--,how the ,air-pump ,works4--,how the ,air-end ,operates4--,air-pump ,disorders4-- ,puny ,difficulties ,vanquish the ,ignorant ,engineer4--,causes that make ,brakes ,inoperative often ,easily ,remedied4--,care of the ,air-pump4--,pump ,packing4--,how ,steam ,passages get ,choked4--,sagacity needed in ,repairing ,air-pumps4--,gradual ,degeneration of the ,air-pump4--,causes that make a ,pump ,pound4--,the ,triple ,valve4--,action of the ,triple ,valve4-- ,to prevent creeping on of ,brakes4--,how to ,apply and ,release the ,brake4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,eames ,,vacuum ,,brake #cda ,efficiency of the ,brake on the ,elevated ,railroads4-- ,operation of the ,brake4--,the ,diaphragm4--,the ,ejector4-- ,care of the ,brake4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,power ,,of ,,locomotives ,,and ,,train ,,resistances #cdf ,calculating ,power of ,locomotives4--,proportion of ,adhesion to ,traction4--,estimating ,tractive ,power4--,horse-power of ,locomotives4--,formulas of ,train ,resistances4--,experiments of ,train ,resistances on the ,erie ,railway4--,conditions that ,increase ,train ,resistances4--,resistance of ,curves4--,work done by a ,locomotive pulling a ,train4--,record of ,fast ,express ,train made by ,professor ,p4 ,h4 ,dudley's ,dynagraph ,car4--,calculations of ,weight of ,trains that ,locomotives can ,pull4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,water ,,for ,,locomotive ,,boilers #cei ,how ,water gets mixed with ,lime4--,expense entailed by using ,bad ,water4--,efforts of ,master ,mechanics to secure ,good ,water4--,loss of ,faith in ,purifying ,methods4-- ,scale-making ,agencies4--,to ,ascertain the ,quality of ,water4--,appliances needed in ,testing ,water4--,preparing for the ,experiments4--,lime held in ,solution by ,free ,carbonic ,acid4--,test for ,lime ,salts4--,test for ,sulphate of ,lime4--,test for ,carbonate of ,magnesia4--,test for ,salts of ,iron4--,test for ,chlorine4--,learning the ,manipulation of ,tests4--,making ,qualitative ,tests4--,the ,soap-test for ,hardness4--,modification of the ,clark ,soap-test4--,applying the ,soap-test4--,difficulties of purifying ,water for ,locomotives4--,mud4--,carbonate of ,lime4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,examination ,,for ,,locomotive ,,engineers #cgf ,principal ,duties of an ,engineer4--,carrying ,water in ,boiler4--,procedure when ,short of ,water4-- ,boiler-foaming4--,disconnecting the ,engine4--,slipping an ,eccentric4--,breaking a ,valve-yoke4--,cylinder-packing ,blowing4--,broken ,rocker-arm4--,broken ,link-hanger4-- ,broken ,side ,rods4--,throttle ,disconnected4--,broken ,tires4 ,,locomotive ,,engine ,,running4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,engineers ,,and ,,their ,,duties4 ,,attributes ,,that ,,make ,a ,,good ,,engineer4 ,the locomotive engine which reaches nearest perfection1 is one which performs the greatest amount of work at the least cost for fuel1 lubricants1 wear and tear of machinery1 and of the track traversed3 the nearest approach to perfection in an engineer1 is the man who can work the engine so as to develop its best capabilities at the least cost4 ,poets are said to be born1 not made4 ,the same may be said of engineers4 ,one man may have charge of an engine for only a few months1 and yet exhibit thorough knowledge of his business1 displaying sagacity resembling instinct concerning the treatment necessary to secure the best performance from his engine3 another man1 who appears equally intelligent in matters not pertaining to the locomotive1 never develops a thorough understanding of the machine4 ,,how ,,engineering ,,knowledge ,,and ,,skill ,,are ,,acquired4 ,a man who possesses the natural gifts necessary for the making of a good engineer1 will advance more rapidly in acquiring mastery of the business than does one whom ,nature intended for a ditcher4 ,but there is no royal road to the knowledge requisite for making a first-class engineer4 ,the capability of handling an engine can be acquired by a few months' practice4 ,opening the throttle1 and moving the reverse lever1 require but scanty skill2 there is no great accomplishment in being able to pack a gland1 or tighten up a loose nut2 but the magazine of practical knowledge1 which enables an engineer to meet every emergency with calmness and promptitude1 is obtained only by years of experience on the footboard1 and by assiduous observation while there4 ,,public ,,interest ,,in ,,locomotive ,,engineers4 ,ever since the incipiency of the railroad system1 a close interest has been manifested by the general public in the character and capabilities of locomotive engineers4 ,this is natural1 for no other class of men hold the safe-keeping of so much life and property in their hands4 ,,ignorance ,,versus ,,knowledge4 ,two leading pioneers of railway progress in ,europe took diametrically opposite views of the intellectual qualities best calculated to make a good engineer4 ,george ,stephenson preferred intelligent men1 well educated and read up in mechanical and physical science2 ,brunel recommended illiterate men for taking charge of engines1 on the novel hypothesis1 that1 having nothing else in their heads1 there would be abundant room for the acquirement of knowledge respecting their work4 ,in every test of skill1 the intelligent men proved victors4 ,,illiterate ,,engineers ,,not ,,wanted ,,in ,,america4 ,no demand for illiterate or ignorant engineers has ever arisen in ,america4 ,many men who have spent an important portion of their lives on the footboard1 have risen to grace the highest ranks of the mechanical and social world4 ,the pioneer engines1 which demonstrated the successful working of locomotive power1 were run by some of the most accomplished mechanical engineers in the country4 ,as an engine adapted to the work it has to perform1 the ,american locomotive is recognized to have always kept ahead of its compeers in other parts of the world4 ,no inconsiderable part of this superiority is due to the fact1 that nearly all the master mechanics who control the designing of our locomotives have had experience in running them1 and thereby understand exactly the qualities most needed for the work to be done4 ,,growing ,,importance ,,of ,,engineers' ,,duties4 ,the safe and punctual operation of our railroads has always depended to a great extent upon the discriminating care of the engineer4 ,the present tendency of railroad operating is to increase his responsibility4 ,every advance in brake improvement increases the duties of the enginemen1 and upon them will soon devolve the entire management and control of trains while in motion4 ,,individuality ,,of ,,american ,,engineers4 ,writing on the fitness of various railroad employs for their duties1 that eminent authority1 ,ex-,railroad-,commissioner ,charles ,f4 ,adams1 jun41 says1 8,in discussing and comparing the appliances used in the practical operating of railroads in different countries1 there is one element1 however1 which can never be left out of the account4 ,the intelligence1 quickness of perception1 and capacity for taking care of themselves1--that combination of qualities1 which1 taken together1 constitute individuality1 and adaptability to circumstances1--vary greatly among the railroad employs of different countries4 ,the ,american locomotive engineer1 as he is called1 is especially gifted in this way4 ,he can be relied on to take care of himself and his train under circumstances which in other countries would be thought to insure disaster40 ,,necessity ,,for ,,class ,,improvement4 ,while ,american locomotive engineers can confidently invite comparison between their own mechanical and intellectual attainments and those of their compeers in any nation under the sun1 there still remains ample room for improvement4 ,if they are not advancing1 they are retrograding4 ,the engineer who looks back to companions of a generation ago1 and says that we know as much as they did1 but no more1 implies the assertion that his class is going backward4 ,on very few roads1 and in but rare instances1 can this grave charge be made1 that the engineers are falling behind in the intellectual race4 ,on the contrary1 there are signs all around us of substantial work in the cause of intellectual and moral advancement4 ,,the ,,skill ,,of ,,engineers ,,influences ,,operating ,,expenses4 ,no class of railroad-men affects the expenses of operating so directly as engineers do4 ,the daily wages paid to an engineer is a trifling sum compared to the amount he can save or waste by good or bad management of his engine4 ,fuel wasted1 lubricants thrown away1 supplies destroyed1 and machinery abused1 leading to extravagant running repairs1 make up a long bill by the end of each month1 where enginemen are incompetent4 ,every man with any spark of manliness in his breast will strive to become master of his work2 and1 stirred by this ambition1 he will avoid wasting the material of his employer just as zealously as if the stores were his own property2 and only such men deserve a position on the footboard4 ,the day has passed away when an engineer was regarded as perfectly competent so long as he could take his train over the road on time4 ,nowadays a man must get the train along on schedule time to be tolerated at all1 and he is not considered a first-class engineer unless he possesses the knowledge which enables him to take the greatest amount of work out of the engine with the least possible expense4 ,to accomplish such results1 a thorough acquaintance with all details of the engine is essential1 so that the entire machine may be operated as a harmonious unit1 without jar or pound3 the various methods of economizing heat must be intimately understood1 and the laws which govern combustion should be well known so far as they apply to the management of the fire4 ,,methods ,,of ,,self-,,improvement4 ,to obtain this knowledge1 which gives power1 and directly increases a man's intrinsic value1 young engineers and aspiring firemen must devote a portion of their leisure time to the form of self-improvement relating to the locomotive4 ,socrates1 a sagacious old ,greek philosopher1 believed that the easiest way to obtain knowledge was by persistently asking questions4 ,young engineers can turn this system to good account4 ,never feel ashamed to ask for information where it is needed1 and do not imagine that a man has reached the limit of mechanical knowledge when he knows how to open and shut the throttle-valve4 ,the more a man progresses in studying out the philosophy of the locomotive and its economical operation1 the more he gets convinced of his own limited knowledge4 ,a young engineer who seeks for knowledge by questioning his elders must not feel discouraged at a rebuff4 ,men who refuse to answer civilly questions asked by juniors searching for information1 are generally in the dark themselves1 and attempt by rudeness to conceal their own ignorance4 ,,observing ,,shop ,,operations4 ,the system in vogue in most of our ,states1 especially in the ,west1 of taking on men for firemen who have received no previous mechanical training1 leaves a wide field open for engineering instruction4 ,such men can not spend too much time watching the operations going on in repair-shops2 every detail of round-house work should be closely observed2 the various parts of the great machine they are learning to manage should be studied in detail4 ,no operation of repairs is too trifling to receive strict attention4 ,where the machinists are examining piston-packing1 facing valves1 reducing rod-brasses1 or lining down wedges1 the ambitious novice will1 by close watching of the work1 obtain knowledge of the most useful kind4 ,looking on will not teach him how to do the work1 but interesting himself in the procedure is a long step in the direction of learning4 ,repairing of pumps and injectors is interesting work1 full of instructive points which may prove invaluable on the road4 ,the rough work performed by the men who change truck-wheels1 put new brasses in oil-boxes1 and replace broken springs1 is worthy of close attention2 for it is just such work that enginemen are most likely to be called upon to perform on the road in cases of accident4 ,to obtain a thorough insight into the working of the locomotive1 no detail of its construction is too trifling for attention4 ,the unison of the aggregate machine depends upon the harmonious adjustment of the various parts2 and1 unless a man understands the connection of the details1 he is never likely to become skillful in detecting derangements4 ,,where ,,ignorance ,,was ,,ruin4 ,i knew a case where the neglect to learn how minor work about the engine was done1 proved fatal to the prospects of a young engineer4 ,a new engine-truck box had been adopted shortly before he went running2 and1 although he had often seen the cellar taken down by the round-house men when they were packing the trucks1 he never paid close attention to how it was done4 ,as the new plan was a radical change from the old practice1 taking down the new cellar was a little puzzling at first to a man who did not know how to do it4 ,one day this young engineer took out an engine with the new kind of truck1 and a journal got running hot4 ,he crept under the truck among snow and slush1 to take the cellar down for packing2 but he struggled half an hour over it1 and could not get the thing down4 ,then the conductor came along1 to see what was the matter2 and1 being posted on such work1 he perceived that the young engineer did not know how to take the cellar out of the box4 ,the conductor helped the engineer to do a job he should have needed no assistance with4 ,the story was presently carried to headquarters with additions1 and was the means of returning the young engineer to the left-hand side4 ,,prejudice ,,against ,,studying ,,books4 ,there is a silly prejudice in some quarters against engineers applying to books for information respecting their engines4 ,engineers are numerous who boast noisily that all their knowledge is derived from actual experience1 and they despise theorists who study books1 drawings1 or models in acquiring particulars concerning the construction or operation of the locomotive parts4 ,such men have nothing to boast of4 ,they never learn much1 because ignorant egotism keeps them blind4 ,they keep the ranks of the mere stopper and starter well filled4 ,,the ,,kind ,,of ,,knowledge ,,gained ,,from ,,books4 ,the books on mechanical practice which these ultra practical men despise1 contain in condensed form the experience and discoveries that have been gleaned from the hardest workers and thinkers of past ages4 ,the product of long years of toilful experiment1 where intense thought has furrowed expansive brows1 and weary watching has whitened raven locks1 is often recorded on a few pages4 ,a mechanical fact which an experimenter has spent years in discovering and elucidating1 can be learned and tested by a student in as many hours4 ,the man who despises book-knowledge relating to any calling or profession1 rejects the wisdom begotten of former recorded labor4 ,a careful perusal of ,forney's ,catechism of the ,locomotive will teach the young engineer valuable lessons about his engine which can be daily substantiated by practice4 ,in nearly every instance1 reading such a work acts as a stimulant to the perceptive faculties of an engineer4 ,an explanation of a point helps to throw new light on something that was hazy1 but now appears perfectly clear4 ,an assertion made that a man does not agree with provokes thought1 and thought leads to investigation4 ,a writer may continually present matters at variance with the views of a reader1 and yet be the means of imparting valuable knowledge4 ,when an engineer wishes to gain a thorough knowledge of the valve-motion1--and most of us pride ourselves on what we know about this subject1--he may go in for a systematic study of ,auchincloss on ,link and ,valve ,motions4 ,here he will obtain information that can never be reached by mere practice with the actual motion2 yet access to1 and observation of1 the working-motion1 will engrave the principles upon his memory so that they can never be forgotten4 ,porter on the ,indicator is a good source from whence accurate knowledge respecting the expansive working of steam can be obtained4 ,many other springs of knowledge flow clear and free4 ,what is needed is the inclination to receive and the determination to obtain4 ,when a man is searching honestly for information upon mechanical subjects1 he will quickly find means of gratifying his desire4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,how ,,locomotive ,,engineers ,,are ,,made4 ,,reliable ,,men ,,needed ,,to ,,run ,,locomotives4 ,locomotive engine running is one of the most modern of trades1 consequently its acquirement has not been controlled by the exact methods associated with ancient guild apprenticeships4 ,nevertheless1 graduates to this business do not take charge of the iron horse without the full meed of experience and skill requisite for performing their duties successfully4 ,the man who runs a locomotive engine on our crowded railroads has so much valuable property1 directly and indirectly1 under his care1 so much of life and limb depending upon his skill and ability1 that railroad companies are not likely to intrust the position to those with a suspicion of incompetency resting upon them4 ,,early ,,methods ,,of ,,making ,,locomotive ,,engineers4 ,the prevailing methods of raising locomotive engineers have been evolved from experience with the kind of men best adapted to fill the position4 ,in the early days of the railroad world1 when such men as ,george ,stephenson1 ,horatio ,allen1 ,john ,b4 ,jervis1 ,ross ,winans1 and other pioneer engineers1 demonstrated the successful operation of the locomotive1 they usually turned over the care of their engines to the men who had assisted in constructing the machines1 or in putting them together4 ,this was the best that could be done at the time2 and the men selected generally proved competent for the trust reposed in them2 but it gave rise to a belief that no man could run a locomotive successfully unless he were a machinist4 ,the possession of mechanical skill necessary for making repairs was considered the best recommendation for an engineer4 ,under this system1 all that a machinist was required to do1--so that he could graduate as a full-fledged engineer1--was to practice moving engines round in the yard for a few days1 when he was reported ready for the road4 ,akin to this sentiment was that which recommended youths of natural mechanical ability for the position of locomotive engineer without subjecting them to any previous special training4 ,graduates from mechanical institutes were deemed capable of running an engine as soon as they were perfectly certain about how to start and stop the machine4 ,the late ,alexander ,l4 ,holley used to relate an anecdote of this kind of an engineer4 ,during a severe winter storm1 the train ,holley was traveling on got firmly stalled in a snow-bank4 ,in its struggles with the frozen elements1 the engine got short of water2 and ,holley found the engineer trying to fill the boiler by shoveling snow down the smoke-stack6 ,,practice ,,of ,,raising ,,engineers ,,from ,,machinists ,,and ,,technical-,,school ,,graduates ,,not ,,found ,,satisfactory4 ,but it came to pass that more light in the matter of engine-running dawned upon the minds of railroad managers4 ,they discovered that expertness in effecting repairs on locomotives was not so essential in an engineer as was the less pretentious ability of working the engine so that the train would be pulled over the road safely and on time3 they perceived but scanty merit in inherited mechanical genius which did not inspire a youth with sagacity enough to see that certain destruction would befall the heating-surface when he attempted to run without water in the boiler4 ,experience demonstrated1 that1 to manage an engine on the road so that its best work should be developed at the least cost1 certain traits of skill and training were necessary1 which were altogether different from the culture that made a man smart at constructing or repairing machinery4 ,it was found that one man might be a good machinist1 and yet make no kind of a decent runner2 a second man would be equally expert in both capacities2 while a third man1 who never could do a respectable job with tools1 developed into an excellent engineer4 ,one of the best millwrights ,i ever knew1 a man who achieved considerable celebrity for skill in his craft1 became a fireman with the ambition of becoming a locomotive runner4 ,he fired acceptably for two years1 then was promoted1 but quickly found that he could not run an engine1 and acknowledged that to be the case by returning to the left side4 ,he was too nervous1 and lacked confidence in himself4 ,overweening egotism is not an attractive feature in a man's character2 but1 every thing else being equal1 it is the self-confident man that makes the successful engineer4 ,,experience ,,demonstrated ,,that ,,firemen ,,made ,,the ,,best ,,engineers4 ,the experiment of raising locomotive engineers from machinists and mechanical empirics was the uncertain groping in the dark for the right man to fill the right place4 ,when the search for pretentious men proved unsatisfactory1 the right men were found at hand1 accumulating the necessary experience on the fireman's side of the engine4 ,then it became a recognized fact1 that1 to take hold and run an engine to advantage1 a man must learn the business by working as fireman4 ,there have been frequent cases of men becoming successful locomotive engineers without any previous training as firemen1 but they were the exceptions that proved the rule4 ,,difficulties ,,of ,,running ,,locomotives ,,at ,,night1 ,,and ,,during ,,bad ,,weather4 ,in the matter of speed alone1 there is much to learn before a man can safely run a locomotive4 ,during daylight a novice will generally be half out in estimating speed2 and his judgment is merely wild guess-work1 regulated more by the condition of the track than by the velocity his train is reaching4 ,on a smooth piece of track1 he thinks he is making twenty-five miles an hour1 when forty miles is about the correct speed3 then he strikes a rough portion of the road-bed1 and concludes he is tearing along at thirty miles an hour1 when he is scarcely reaching twenty miles2 since the first lurchy spot made him shut off twenty per cent of the steam4 ,at night the case is much worse1 especially when the weather proves unfavorable4 ,on a wild1 stormy night1 the accumulated experience of years on the footboard1 which trains a man to judge of speed by sound of the revolving-wheels1 and to locate his position between stations from a tree1 a shrub1 a protruding bank1 or any other trifling object that would pass unnoticed by a less cultivated eye1 is all needed to aid an engineer in working along with unvaried speed without jolt or tumult4 ,on such a night1 a man strange to the business can not work a locomotive1 and exercise proper control over its movements4 ,he may place the reverse lever-latch in a certain notch1 and keep the steam on2 he can regulate the pump after a fashion1 and watch that the water shall not get too low in the boiler2 he can shut off in good season while approaching stations1 and blunder into each depot by repeatedly applying steam2 but he exerts no control over the train1 knows nothing of what the engine is doing1 and is constantly liable to break the train in two4 ,a diagram of his speed would fluctuate as irregularly as the profile lines of a bluffy country4 ,this is where a machinist's skill does not apply to locomotive-running until it is supplemented by an intimate knowledge of speed1 of facility at handling a train1 and keeping the couplings intact1 and of insight into the best methods of economizing steam4 ,these are essentials which every man should possess before he is put in charge of a locomotive on the road4 ,the great fund of practical knowledge which stamps the first-class engineer1 is amassed by general labor during years of vigilant observation on the footboard1 amidst many changes of fair and foul weather4 ,as passing through the occupation of fireman was the only way men could obtain practical knowledge of engine-running before taking charge1 railroad officials all over the world gradually fell into the way of regarding that as the proper channel for men to traverse before reaching the right-hand side of the locomotive4 ,,kind ,,of ,,men ,,to ,,be ,,chosen ,,as ,,firemen4 ,as the pay for firemen rules moderately good1 even when compared with other skilled labor2 and as the higher position of engineer looms like a beacon not far ahead1--there is always a liberal choice of good men to begin work as firemen4 ,most railroad companies recognize the importance of exercising judgment and discretion in selecting the men who are to run as their future engineers4 ,sobriety1 industry1 and intelligence are essential attributes in a fireman who is going to prove a success in his calling4 ,lack in any one of these qualities will quickly prove fatal to a fireman's prospects of advancement4 ,sobriety is of the first importance1 because a man who is not strictly temperate should not be tolerated for a moment about a locomotive1 since he is a source of danger to himself and others2 industry is needed to lighten the burden of a fireman's duties1 for oftentimes they are arduous beyond the conception of strangers2 and wanting in the third quality1 intelligence1 a man can never be a good fireman in the wide sense of the word1 since one deficient in mental tact never rises higher than a human machine4 ,an intelligent fireman may be ignorant of the scientific nomenclature relating to combustion1 but he will be perfectly familiar with all the practical phenomena connected with the economical generation of steam4 ,such a man does not imagine that he has reached the limit of locomotive knowledge when he understands how to keep an engine hot1 and can shine up the jacket4 ,every trip reveals something new about his art1 every day opens his vision to strange facts about the wonderful machine he is learning to manage4 ,and so1 week by week1 he goes on his way1 attending cheerfully to his duties1 and accumulating the knowledge that will eventually make him a first-class locomotive engineer4 ,,modern ,,methods ,,of ,,selecting ,,firemen4 ,on the various roads throughout the ,north ,american continent1 there is great diversity of practice in the selection of men for the position of fireman4 ,on numerous roads1 especially in the ,western ,states1 men are taken from all occupations2 no preliminary training being deemed necessary before putting a man on an engine as fireman4 ,a list of applicants is kept by the master mechanic1 and likely men recommended for firemen4 ,when a man is wanted1 the first one who can be found conveniently is sent out2 and the engineer must break him in as best he can4 ,on other roads1 again1 the men intended for firemen are taken to work about the round-house1 and are employed in helping with the cleaning1 repairing1 and preparing of locomotives for the road4 ,this plan is greatly in vogue in ,europe1 and on certain of the older roads of ,america2 and it has many features to recommend it over the practice of placing men entirely devoid of railroad experience upon engines4 ,it is better for the men themselves1 since working about engines familiarizes each to some extent with the work he is expected to do as an engineer's helper1 for that is really a fireman's position2 it is better for the company1 since the officers get the opportunity of observing a man's habits before he receives training that entails some expense2 it is better for the engineer1 since his assistant is not entirely strange to the work he is expected to do4 ,,first ,,trips4 ,a youth entirely unacquainted with all the operations which a fireman is called upon to perform1 finds the first trip a terribly arduous ordeal1 even with some previous experience of railroad work4 ,when his first trip introduces him to the locomotive and to railroad life at the same time1 the day is certain to be a record of personal tribulation4 ,to ride for ten or twelve hours on an engine for the first time1 standing on one's feet1 and subject to the shaking motion1 is intensely tiresome1 even if a man has no work to do4 ,but when he has to ride during that period1 and in addition has to shovel six or eight tons of coal1 most of which has to be handled twice1 the job proves no sinecure4 ,then1 the posture of his body while doing work is new2 he is expected and required to pitch coal upon certain exact spots1 through a small door1 while the engine is swinging about so that he can scarcely keep his feet2 his hands get blistered with the shovel1 and his eyes grow dazzled from the resplendent light of the fire4 ,then come the additional side duties of taking water1 shaking the grates1 cleaning the ash-pan1 or even the fire1 where bad coal is used1 filling oil-cans1 and trimming lamps1 to say nothing of polishing and keeping things clean and tidy4 ,by the time all these duties are attended to1 the young fireman does not find a great deal of leisure to admire the passing scenery4 ,,popular ,,misconception ,,of ,a ,,fireman',s ,,duties4 ,a great many idle young fellows1 ignorant of railroad affairs1 imagine that a fireman's principal work consists in ringing the bell1 and showing himself off conspicuously in coming into stations4 ,they look upon the business as being of the heroic kind1 and strive to get taken on as firemen4 ,if a youth of this kind happens to succeed1 and starts out on a run of one hundred and fifty miles with every car a heavy engine will pull stuck on behind1 his visions of having reached something easy are quickly dispelled4 ,like nearly every other occupation1 that of fireman has its drawbacks to counterbalance its advantages2 and the drawbacks weigh heaviest during the first ten days4 ,the man who enters the business under the delusion that he can lead a life of semi-idleness must change his views1 or he will prove a failure4 ,the man who becomes a fireman with a spirit ready and willing to overcome all difficulties1 with a cheerful determination to do his duty with all his might1 is certain of success2 and to such a man the work becomes easy after a few weeks' practice4 ,,learning ,,firemen',s ,,duties4 ,practice1 combined with intelligent observation1 gradually makes a man familiar with the best styles of firing1 as adapted to all varieties of engines2 and he gets to understand intimately all the qualities of coal to be met with1 good1 bad1 and indifferent4 ,as his experience widens1 his fire management is regulated to accord with the kind of coal on hand1 the steaming properties of the engine1 the weight of the train1 the character of the road and of the weather4 ,firing1 with all the details connected with it1 is the central figure of his work1 the object of pre-eminent concern2 but a good man does not allow this to prevent him from attending regularly and exactly to his remaining routine duties4 ,a ,,good ,,fireman ,,makes ,a ,,good ,,engineer4 ,there is a familiar adage among railroad men1 that a good fireman is certain to make a good engineer2 and it rarely fails to come out true4 ,to hear some firemen of three months' standing talk1 a stranger might conclude that they knew more about engine running than the oldest engineer in the district4 ,these are not the good firemen4 ,good firemen learn their own business with the humility born of earnestness1 and they do not undertake to instruct others in matters beyond their own knowledge4 ,it is the man who goes into the heart of a subject1 who understands how much there is to learn1 and is therefore modest in parading his own acquirements1 that succeeds4 ,,learning ,,an ,,engineer',s ,,duties4 ,when a fireman has mastered his duties sufficiently to keep them going smoothly1 he begins to find time for watching the operations of the engineer4 ,he notes how the boiler is fed2 and1 upon his knowledge of the engineer's practice in this respect1 much of his firing is regulated4 ,the different methods of using the steam by engineers1 so that trains can be taken over the road with the least expenditure of coal1 are engraven upon the memory of the observant fireman4 ,many of the acquirements which commend a good fireman for promotion are learned by imperceptible degrees1--the knowledge of speed1 for instance1 which enables a man to tell how fast a train is running on all kinds of track1 and under all conditions of weather4 ,there would be no use in one strange to train service going out for a few runs to learn speed4 ,he might learn nearly all other requisites of engine running before he was able to judge within ten miles of how fast the train was going under adverse circumstances4 ,the same may be said of the sound which indicates how an engine is working4 ,it requires an experienced ear to detect the false note which indicates that something is wrong4 ,amidst the mingled sounds produced by an engine and train hammering over a steel track1 the novice hears nothing but a medley of confused noises1 strange and meaningless as are the harmonies of an opera to an untutored savage4 ,but the trained ear of an engineer can distinguish a strange sound amidst all the tumult of thundering exhaust1 screaming steam1 and clashing steel1 as readily as an accomplished musician can detect a false note in a many-voiced chorus4 ,upon this ability to detect growing defects which pave the way to disaster1 depends much of an engineer's chances of success in his calling4 ,this kind of skill is not obtained by a few weeks' industry3 it is the gradual accumulation of months and years of patient labor4 ,,conditions ,,of ,,engine ,,running ,,that ,,vanquish ,,the ,,inexperienced ,,man4 ,i once knew a machine-shop foreman1 a man of extensive experience in building and repairing engines1 who took a locomotive out on trial trip4 ,a side-rod pin began to run hot2 and1 although he was leaning out of the cab-window1 he did not observe any thing wrong till a drop of babbitt struck him in the eye4 ,an experienced engineer watching the rods would have detected the condition of affairs before babbitt was thrown4 ,a difficult thing for an inexperienced man to control in running a locomotive at night1 when the conditions of adhesion are bad1 is the slipping of the drivers4 ,slipping is a simple matter enough to those who feel it in the vibrations of the engine2 but the novice has not this sensitiveness to slipping vibration developed1 and he must depend upon his eyesight or his hearing to detect it4 ,on a dark1 stormy night1 the eye is useless as a means of judging as to the regularity of the revolving wheels3 the howling wind or rain1 rattling on the cab1 drowns the sound of the exhaust4 ,under circumstances of this kind1 an engine might jerk the pins out before the empirical engineer discovered the wheels were slipping4 ,,learning ,,to ,,keep ,,the ,,locomotive ,,in ,,running-,,order4 ,as his acquaintance with the handling and ordinary working of the locomotive extends1 the aspiring fireman learns all about the packing of glands1 and how they should be kept so as to run to the best advantage3 he displays an active interest in every thing relating to lubrication1 from the packing of a box-cellar to the regulating of a rod-cup4 ,when the engineer is round keying up rods1 or doing other necessary work about his engine1 the ambitious fireman should give a helping hand1 and thereby become familiar with the operations that are likely to be of service when he is required to draw upon his own resources for doing the same work4 ,of late years the art of locomotive construction has been so highly developed1 the amount of strain and shocks to which each working part is subjected has been so well calculated and provided against1 that breakages are really very rare on roads where the motive-power is kept in first-class condition4 ,consequently1 firemen gain comparatively small insight1 on the road1 into the best and quickest methods of disconnecting engines1 or of fixing up mishaps promptly1 so that a train may not be delayed longer than is absolutely necessary4 ,a fireman must get this information beyond the daily routine of his experience4 ,he must search for the knowledge among those competent to give it4 ,persistent inquiry among the men posted on these matters2 observation amidst machine-shop and round-house operations2 and careful study of locomotive construction1 so that a clear insight into the physiology of the machine may be obtained1--will prepare one to meet accidents1 armed with the knowledge which vanquishes all difficulties4 ,reflecting on probable or possible mishaps1 and calculating what is best to be done under all contingencies that can be conceived1 prepare a man to act promptly when a breakdown occurs4 ,,methods ,,of ,,promotion ,,on ,,our ,,leading ,,roads4 ,in the method of promotion of firemen1 considerable diversity of practice is followed by the different railroads4 ,on certain roads1 with well-established business1 and little fluctuation of traffic1 firemen begin work on switch engines1 and are promoted by seniority1 or by selection through the various grades of freight trains1 thence to passenger service1 from whence they emerge as incipient engineers4 ,a more common practice1 and one almost invariably followed in the ,west1 is for firemen to begin as extra men1 in place of firemen who are sick or lying off4 ,from firing extra1 they get advanced1 if found competent and deserving1 to regular engines4 ,then1 step by step1 they go ahead to the best paying runs1 till their turn for being 8set up0 comes round4 ,passenger engines are not fired by any but experienced men1 but the oldest firemen do not always claim passenger-runs4 ,for learning the business of engine-running1 freight service is considered most valuable2 and many ambitious firemen prefer the hard work of a freight engine on this account4 ,,nature ,,of ,,examination ,,to ,,be ,,passed4 ,when a fireman has obtained the experience that recommends him for promotion1 on nearly all well-regulated roads he is subjected to some form of examination before being put in charge of an engine4 ,in some cases this examination is quite thorough4 ,the tendency to require firemen to pass such an ordeal is extending1 and its beneficial effect upon the men is unquestioned4 ,the usual form of examination is1 for officers connected with the locomotive department to question the candidate for promotion on matters relating to the management of the locomotive1 and how he would proceed in the event of certain mishaps befalling the engine4 ,parties belonging to the traffic department propound questions relating to road-rules1 train-rights1 understanding of time-card1 and so on4 ,,master ,,mechanics ,,on ,,the ,,best ,,method ,,of ,,educating ,,young ,,men ,,for ,,engineers4 ,the ,master ,mechanics' ,association appointed a committee to investigate the 8best manner of educating young men for locomotive engineers10 and the following report was made3-- 8,considering this subject to be of vital importance to the ,association1 and to the public in general1 and that proper care and attention have not been given to it in the past1 the committee have spared no pains to get all the information they possibly could on this subject1 knowing and feeling that men selected to fill the responsible position of locomotive engineers must possess faculties1 that1 as a general thing1 do not belong to all the human race2 and1 as locomotive engineers have to be selected from the ranks of firemen1 they feel that due care and caution should be exercised in selecting young men for firemen4 ,now1 to arrive at a proper conclusion1--one that would be satisfactory to the ,association and to the railways of the country1--your committee sent circulars to all the master mechanics in the ,united ,states1 ,canada1 and ,mexico4 ,we sent out five hundred and thirty-two circulars1 to which we received seventy-six replies2 being an average of one answer to every seven sent4 ,many of these replies contain very valuable information1 and were from many of the leading roads of this country1 ,canada1 and ,mexico4 ,your committee beg leave to return thanks for the answers to their circular4 8,the opinions given us by the different master mechanics who replied1 were as follows3 ,five recommended that none but machinists should be locomotive engineers2 nineteen thought that nothing more was needed than to have a young man fire from three to four years with good1 competent engineers1 to make him a good runner2 fifty-two thought that one year in the shop and round-house1 with two to three years' firing1 was necessary to make a competent engineer2 many recommended that young men1 while firing1 read and study books that would give them a general knowledge of the locomotive1 such as ,forney's ,catechism of the ,locomotive1 and several other works of that kind4 ,many of the replies admitted that machinists would make the best runners if they would consent to fire one year after having learned their trade1 as they would then have the advantage of knowing all about the construction of the locomotive4 ,of course1 when speaking of that class of men1 they meant bright1 intelligent young machinists1 men with nerve and energy1 and quick to act in cases of emergency4 ,of course1 there are some who would never make engineers1 no matter what opportunities were given them4 ,if young men of this kind would consent to run one year or more as firemen1 we could select our locomotive engineers from among that class2 but they will not do it1 from the belief that they are just as competent to run a locomotive as the best engineer on the road for which they are working3 and1 if they are given an opportunity to run an engine1 they are certain to make a failure4 ,this being the fact1 we are compelled to select our engineers from among the ranks of the firemen1 as the best and safest runners4 ,now1 this being the class of men from which we have to select our engineers1 some uniform mode of instructing them for the responsible position that many of them will have to fill in the future1 will have to be adopted by the different railroads in ,america4 ,your committee would therefore recommend the following3-- 8,all master mechanics should have full control of the engineers and firemen in the employ of their respective roads1 with full power to hire and discharge the same1--of course1 recognizing the rights that the general managers or superintendents have to order the discharge of any engineer or fireman for neglect of duty4 8#ast1 ,the qualifications for the position of fireman on all the railways in ,america should be as follows3 ,the applicant should be from eighteen to twenty-four years old1 able-bodied1 and in good health1 with a good common-school education1 and a fair knowledge of arithmetic1 and of sober and steady habits4 ,all applicants should be required to make application in their own handwriting1 signing it in the presence of the master mechanic1 or the person he may appoint to hire that class of men4 ,in selecting men for firemen1 great care should be exercised4 ,the master mechanic should endeavor1 so far as lies in his power1 to select energetic1 smart1 and active young men1--men of nerve1 and presence of mind1 quick to act in cases of emergency which may occur in the position they may be selected to fill in the future4 ,if we select men of that kind1 there will be very little difficulty in educating them up to the proper standard to fill the place of engineers4 8#b;d1 ,there should be three grades of firemen1 classed as junior1 intermediate1 and senior firemen1--the young man just commencing1 to be classed as junior fireman1 and so on up to senior fireman2 the senior fireman receiving the highest pay for his services1 the others in proportion4 ,when a fireman has fired four years1 and is worthy of promotion1 and fully competent to run a locomotive1 there may be no vacancies in the engineer force on the road by which he may be employed4 ,in that case we recommend that he receive a small amount more per day than the senior fireman 7say from fifteen to twenty cents per day more71 and be ranked as veteran fireman4 ,on the road which one of your committee represents in this convention1 this custom has been in vogue for a number of years1 and has worked exceedingly well4 ,all the engineers on this road have been educated under this rule1 and to-day no engineers in the country rank higher than they do4 8,proper care should be taken1 in selecting young men for firemen1 as to their ability to distinguish colors in a practicable1 common-sense way4 ,we recommend that all railroads having a sufficient number of employs to justify them in so doing1 have a reading-room and library for their firemen and engineers1 in which the other employs could participate4 ,the library1 to some extent1 should consist of works on the locomotive engine that a man with a fair education could understand4 ,while we do not think it essentially necessary1 still we believe it would be beneficial to some extent to let firemen work one year out of the four in the shop and round-house1 so that they might obtain a more perfect knowledge of all the parts of the locomotive4 8,young men consisting of the class we have mentioned1 are certain to make good runners2 and there will be no difficulty1 at the proper time1 in selecting good junior engineers from among that class of men4 ,all opportunities possible should be given firemen to get such knowledge of the theory and movements of the different parts of the locomotive as would be beneficial to them when they enter on their career as engineers4 ,to accomplish this end1 monthly lectures might be given in the reading-room by men of good practical common sense1 who fully understand what they are talking about4 ,if possible1 these lectures should be given by one of the engineers4 ,the firemen would learn more from him1 as they would better understand what he was saying2 he having formerly been one of them4 8,your committee is convinced1 that1 if the mode recommended by them is adopted generally throughout the country1 a large majority1 if not all1 of the firemen1 would be educated to a point from which there would be no difficulty in selecting men who will make good and reliable engineers4 8#c;d1 ,the fireman now being competent to run a locomotive1 and being placed in charge of one1 has yet some few things to learn that he did not have the opportunity of learning1 from the fact that he was not running the engine4 ,while he may run carefully1 and avoid accidents1 he has to learn to run his engine with economy in the consumption of fuel and the cost of repairs4 ,to learn this1 and to give the young engineer an opportunity to become a first-class man in his occupation1 we recommend there be three grades of engineers1--first1 second1 and third grades1--and that the remuneration they receive be according to grade2 the fireman just promoted ranking in the third grade2 after one year's service he enters the second grade2 when two years have passed1 he enters the first grade1 and becomes a first-class locomotive engineer40 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,inspection ,,of ,,the ,,locomotive4 ,,locomotive ,,inspectors4 ,on railroads where the system of 8long runs0 for locomotives prevails1 there is a locomotive inspector employed1 whose duty it is to thoroughly examine every available point about every engine that arrives at his station1 and find out what repairs are needed1 and to detect the incipient defects which lead to disaster on the road4 ,some roads that do not practice long runs have an inspector who examines every engine4 ,this plan is very effectually used on the elevated railroads of ,new ,york1 and has much to do with the immunity from accident of their engines4 ,these inspectors are not employed to exempt engineers from looking over their engines1 but merely to supplement their care4 ,in some cases engineers are brought sharply to task if they overlook any important defect which is discovered by the inspector4 ,,good ,,engineers ,,inspect ,,their ,,own ,,engines4 ,the engineer who has a liking for his work1 and takes pride in making his engine perform its part1 so as to show the highest possible record1 does not require the fear of an inspector behind him as an incentive to properly examine his engine1 and keep it in the best running-order4 ,he recognizes the fact1 that upon systematic and regular inspection of the engine while at rest1 depends in a great measure his success as a runner1 and his exemption from trouble4 ,,what ,,comes ,,of ,,neglecting ,,systematic ,,inspection ,,of ,,locomotives4 ,the man who habitually neglects the business of inspecting his engine1 and leaves to luck his chances of getting over the road safely1 soon finds that the worst kind of luck is always overtaking him on the road4 ,a careful man may have a run of bad luck occasionally1 but the careless man meets with nothing else4 ,among a great many men who have failed as runners1 ,i can recall numerous cases where carelessness about the engine was the only and direct cause which led them to failure4 ,one of the most successful engineers that ever pulled a throttle on the ,erie ,railroad was asked by a young runner to what cause he attributed his extraordinary good fortune4 ,his reply was1 8,i never went out without giving my engine a good inspection40 ,this man had been running nearly half a century1 and never needed to have his engine hauled to the round-house4 ,,confidence ,,on ,,the ,,road ,,derived ,,from ,,inspection4 ,when a locomotive is thundering over a road ahead of a heavy train in which may be hundreds of human beings1 the engineer ought to understand that the safety of this freight of lives depends to a great extent upon his care and foresight4 ,as the train rushes through darkened cuttings1 spans giddy bridges1 or rounds curves edged by deep chasms1 no one can understand better than the engineer the importance of having every nut and bolt about the engine in good condition1 and in its proper place4 ,the consciousness that every thing is right1 the knowledge that a thorough inspection at the beginning of the journey proved the locomotive to be in perfect condition1 give a wonderful degree of comfort and confidence to the engineer as he urges his train along at the best speed of the engine4 ,,inspection ,,on ,,the ,,pit4 ,between the time of an engine's return from one trip and its preparation for another1 a thorough examination of all the machinery and running-gear should be made while the engine is standing over a pit4 ,monkey-wrench in one hand1 and a torch in the other if necessary1 the engineer ought to enter the pit at the head of the engine1 and make the inspection systematically4 ,the engine-truck1 with all its connections1 comes in for the first scrutiny4 ,now is the time to guard against the loss of bolts or screws1 which leads to the loss of oil-box cellars on the road4 ,this is also the proper time to examine the condition of the oil-box packing4 ,the engineers of my acquaintance who are most successful in getting trains over the road on time1 attend to the packing of the truck-boxes themselves4 ,nothing is more annoying on the road than hot boxes4 ,they are a fruitful source of delay and danger1 and nothing is better calculated to prevent such troubles than good packing and clear oil-holes4 ,the shop-men who are kept for attending to this work are sometimes careless4 ,they can hardly be expected to feel so strongly impressed with the importance of having boxes well packed as the engineer1 who will be blamed for any delay4 ,he should1 therefore1 know from personal inspection that the work is properly done4 ,when the engineer is satisfied that the truck1 pilot-braces1 center-castings1 and all their connections1 are in proper condition1 he passes on to the motion4 ,his trained eye scans every bolt1 nut1 and key in search of defects4 ,the eccentrics are examined1 to see that set screws and keys are all tight4 ,men who have wrestled over the setting of eccentrics on the road are not likely to forget this part4 ,eccentric-straps are another point of solicitude4 ,a broken eccentric-strap is a very common cause of break-down1 and these straps very seldom break through weakness or defect of the casting4 ,in nearly all cases the break occurs through loss of bolts1 or on account of oil-passages getting stopped up4 ,the links are carefully gone over1 then the wedges and pedestal braces come in for an examination which brings the assurance that no bolts are missing1 or wedge-bolts loose4 ,passing along1 the careful engineer finds many points that claim his attention2 and1 when he gets through1 he feels comfortably certain that no trouble from that part of the engine will be experienced during the coming trip4 ,the runners who do not follow this practice are not aware of how much there is to be seen under a locomotive when the examination is undertaken in a comprehensive manner4 ,,outside ,,inspection4 ,in going round the outside of the engine1 the most important points for examination are the guides and the rods4 ,guide-bolts1 rod-bolts1 and keys1 with the set screws of the latter1 are the minuti most likely to give trouble if neglected4 ,in going about the engine oiling1 or for any other purpose1 it is a good thing to get in the habit of searching for defects4 ,when a man trains himself to do this1 it is surprising how natural it comes to make running inspections4 ,as he oils the eccentric-straps1 he sees every bolt and nut within sight2 as he drops some oil on the rods1 he identifies the condition of the keys1 set screws1 or bolts2 while oiling the driving-boxes1 the springs can be conveniently examined2 and1 when he reaches the engine-trucks with the oil-can1 he is sure to be casting his searching eyes over the portions of the running-gear within sight4 ,,oil-,,cups4 ,the oil-cups should be carefully examined1 to see that they are in good feeding-order4 ,a great many feeders have been invented1 which guarantee to supply oil automatically2 but ,i have never yet seen the cup which could long dispense with personal attention4 ,and this does not apply to locomotives alone1 but to all kinds of machinery4 ,the worst sort of oil-cup will perform its functions fairly in the hands of a capable man1 and the most pretentious cup will soon cease to lubricate regularly if the engineer neglects it4 ,the oil-cups should be cleaned out at regular intervals3 for mud1 cinders1 and dust work in2 and they sometimes retain glutinous matter from the oil1 which forms a sticky mixture that prevents the oil from running4 ,the eccentric-strap cups and the tops of the driving-boxes should receive similar attention4 ,in looking round an engine1 it is a good plan to watch the different oil-cups to see that they are not working loose4 ,many cups that are strewed over the country could be saved by a little more attention4 ,a cup flying off a rod when an engine is running fast becomes a dangerous projectile4 ,i have known several cases where cups went back through the cab-window4 ,i have also seen several cases where cups worked off the guides or cross-head1 and got between the guides1 doing serious damage4 ,one instance was that of an engine out on the trial-trip4 ,it smashed the cross-head to pieces1 and let the piston through the cylinder-head4 ,,inspection ,,of ,,running-,,gear4 ,a sharp tap with a hammer on the tread of the cast-iron wheel will produce a clear1 ringing sound if the wheel is in good order4 ,the drivers can generally be effectively inspected by the eye4 ,if oil be observed working out between the wheel and axle1 attention is demanded2 for the wheel may be getting loose4 ,moisture and dirt issuing from between the tire and wheel indicate that the former is becoming loose1 and this is a common occurrence when the tires are worn thin4 ,when a wheel is running so that the flange is cutting itself on the rail1 something is wrong1 which also demands immediate attention4 ,oblique travel of wheels may be produced by various causes4 ,if the axles of the driving-wheels are not secured at right angles to the frames1 and parallel with each other1 the wheels will run tangentially to the track1 according to the inclination of the axles4 ,violent strains or concussions1 such as result from engines jumping the track about switches1 sometimes spring the frames1 and twist the axle-box jaws away from their true position enough to cause cutting of flanges without disabling the engine4 ,tires wearing unevenly in consequence of one being harder than the other1 produce a similar effect4 ,where there are movable wedges forward and aft of the boxes1 the wheels are often thrown out of square by unskillful manipulation of these wedges4 ,engineers running engines of this kind should leave the forward wedges alone4 ,sometimes the center-pin of the engine-truck gets moved from the true central position1 leading the drivers towards the ditch4 ,diagnosing the cause of wheel-cutting is no simple matter1 and it is a wise plan for engineers to allow the shop-men to devise a remedy4 ,,attentions ,,to ,,the ,,boiler4 ,on our well-regulated roads1 engineers are not required to inspect their boilers2 as expert boiler-makers1 who can readily detect a broken stay-bolt1 or broken brace1 have to make periodical examinations4 ,but a prudent engineer will keep a sharp lookout for indications that show weak points about any part of the boiler or fire-box4 ,this department can not receive too much vigilance4 ,a seam or stay-bolt leaking is a sign of distress1 and should receive immediate attention4 ,leaks under the jacket should never be neglected1 although they are hard to reach2 for they may proceed from the beginning of a dangerous rupture4 ,a leak starting in the boiler-head should make the engineer ascertain that none of the longitudinal braces have broken4 ,i once had some rivet-heads on my boiler-head start leaking1 and presently the water-glass broke4 ,after shutting off the cocks1 ,i found that the boiler-head was bulged out4 ,i reduced the pressure on the boiler as quickly as possible4 ,when the boiler was inspected1 it was found that two of the longitudinal braces were broken1 and the head-sheet was bent out two inches4 ,,miscellaneous ,,attentions4 ,if an engineer is going to take out an engine the first time after it has been in the shop for repairs1 it is a good plan to examine the tank to see if the workmen have left it free from bagging1 greasy waste1 and other impediments1 which are not conducive to the free action of pumps or injectors4 ,keeping the tank clean at all times saves no end of trouble through derangement to feeding-apparatus4 ,the smoke-box door should be opened regularly1 and the petticoat-pipe and cone examined4 ,these things wear out by use1 and it is better to have them renewed or repaired before they break down on the road4 ,a cone dropping down through failure of the braces makes a troublesome accident on the road4 ,i have known of several cabs being badly damaged by fire through the cone dropping down1 and closing up the stack4 ,where engines have extended smoke-boxes1 the nettings and deflectors must be inspected at frequent intervals4 ,,reward ,,of ,,thorough ,,inspection4 ,to go over an engine in the manner indicated1 requires perseverance and industry4 ,the work will1 however1 bring its full reward to every man who practices the care and watchfulness entailed by regular and systematic inspection4 ,it is the sure road to success4 ,he who regards his work from a higher plane than that of mere labor well done1 will experience satisfaction from the knowledge1 that1 understanding the nobility of his duties1 he performed them with the vigor and intelligence worthy of his responsible calling4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,getting ,,ready ,,for ,,the ,,road4 ,,raising ,,steam4 ,it used to be the universal custom1 that1 when an engine arrived from a trip1 the fire was drawn1 and the engine put into the round-house for ten or twelve hours before another run was undertaken4 ,during this period of inaction1 the boiler partly cooled down4 ,when the engine was wanted again1 a new fire was started in time to raise steam4 ,the system of long runs1 introduced on many roads1 has changed this2 and engines are now generally kept hot1 unless they have to be cooled down for washing out1 or repairs4 ,when an engine comes in off a trip1 the fire is cleaned from clinker and dead cinders1 and the clean fire banked4 ,it is found that this plan keeps the temperature of the boiler more uniform than is possible with the cooling-down practice1 and that the fire-box sheets are not so liable to crack1 or the tubes to become leaky4 ,where it is still the habit to draw the fire at the end of each trip1 a supply of good wood is kept on hand for raising steam4 ,to raise steam from a cold boiler1 some theorists recommend the starting of a fire mild enough to raise the temperature about twenty degrees an hour4 ,the exigencies of railroad service prevent this slow method from being practicable1 and the ordinary practice is to raise steam as promptly as possible when it is wanted4 ,,precautions ,,against ,,scorching ,,boilers4 ,the first consideration before starting a fire in a locomotive1 is to ascertain that the boiler contains the proper quantity of water4 ,the men who attend to the starting of fires should be instructed not to depend upon the water-glass for the level of the water1 but to see that it runs out of the gauge-cocks4 ,i have known several cases where boilers were burned through those firing up being deceived by a false show of water in the glass1 and starting the fire when the boiler was empty4 ,if the boiler has been filled with water through the feed-pipes by the round-house hose1 care should be taken to see that the check-valves are not stuck up4 ,where there is sand in the water1 it frequently happens1 that1 in filling up with a hose1 all the valves get sanded1 and do not close properly4 ,when there is steam on the boiler1 this source of danger will generally be indicated at once by the steam and water blowing back into the tank2 but1 where the boiler is cold1 the water flows back so silently and slowly1 that the crown-sheet may be dry before the peril is discovered4 ,,starting ,,the ,,fire4 ,the water being found or made right1 the next consideration is the grates4 ,before throwing in the wood1 all loose clinkers left upon the grates should be cleaned off3 care should be taken1 to see that the grates are in good condition1 and connected with the shaker levers4 ,this is also the time to see that no accumulation of cinders is left on the brick arch1 the water-table1 or in the combustion chamber1 should the engine be provided with either of these appliances4 ,in starting the fire1 it is considered the best plan to put enough wood in the fire-box to raise sufficient steam to operate the blower before the fire needs replenishing4 ,to do the job in a clean1 workman-like manner1 the fire should be started from below3 otherwise every part of the cab will be veneered with soot and dust1 and the bright work tarnished4 ,,fireman',s ,,first ,,duties4 ,on most roads1 the engineer and fireman are required to be at their engine from fifteen minutes to half an hour before train-time4 ,a good fireman will reach the engine in time to perform his preliminary duties deliberately and well4 ,he will have the dust brushed off from the cab-furnishing1 and from the conspicuous parts of the engine1 the deck swept clean1 the coal watered1 and the oil-cans ready for the engineer4 ,his fire is attended to1 and its make-up regulated1--the kind of coal used1 the train to be pulled1 and the character of the road on the start4 ,with an easy or down grade1 for a mile or two on the start1 the fire does not need to be so well made up as when the start is made on a heavy pull4 ,but every intelligent fireman gets to understand in a few weeks just what kind of a fire is needed4 ,it is the capability of perceiving this and other matters promptly1 that distinguishes a good from an indifferent fireman4 ,when a young fireman possesses these 8true workman0 perceptions1 and is of an industrious1 aspiring disposition1 anxious to become master of his calling1 he will prove a reliable help to the engineer2 and his careful attention to the work will insure comfort and success on every trip4 ,there must be a certain amount of work done on the engine1 to get a train along2 and1 if the fireman can not do his part efficiently1 it will fall upon the engineer1 who must get it done somehow4 ,,saving ,,the ,,grates4 ,an important duty1 which is never neglected by first-class firemen1 before taking the engine away from the round-house1 is that of looking to the grates1 and seeing that the ash-pan is clean4 ,when grates get burned1 in nine cases out of ten it happens through neglecting the ash-pan4 ,some varieties of bituminous coal have an inveterate tendency to burn the grates4 ,such coal usually contains an excess of sulphur1 which has a strong affinity for iron1 and at certain temperatures unites with the surface of the grates1 forming a sulphuret of iron4 ,neglecting the ash-pan1 and letting hot ashes accumulate1 prepares the way for bad coal to act on the grates4 ,keeping the ash-pan clear of hot ashes is the best thing that can be done to save grates1 since that prevents the iron from becoming hot enough to combine with sulphur4 ,,supplies4 ,before starting out1 the fireman ought to ascertain that all the supplies necessary for the trip are in the boxes2 that the requisite flags1 lanterns1 and other signals are on hand1 and that all the lamps are trimmed4 ,he should also know to a certainty that all his fire-irons are on the tender1 that the latter is full of water1 and that the sand-box is full of sand4 ,these look like numerous duties as preliminary to starting1 but they are all necessary2 and the fireman who attends to them all with the greatest regularity1 will be valued accordingly4 ,nearly all firemen are ambitious to become engineers4 ,the best method they can pursue1 to show that they are deserving of promotion1 is to perform their own duties regularly and well4 ,a first-class fireman will save his wages each trip over the expenditure made by the mediocre fireman3 a persistently bad fireman should be sent to another calling without delay4 ,few railroad companies can afford the extravagance of a set of bad firemen4 ,,engineer',s ,,first ,,duties4 ,try the water4 ,that is the most important call upon the engineer when he first enters the cab4 ,if the engine has a glass water-gauge1 he should ascertain by the gauge-cocks if the water-level shown in the glass be correct4 ,a water-glass is a great convenience on the road1 but it should only be relied on as an auxiliary to the gauge-cocks4 ,many engineers have come to grief through reposing too implicit confidence in the water-glass4 ,engineer ,williams was considered one of the most reliable men on the ,a4 ,b4 road4 ,with an express train he started out on time one morning2 and he had run only two miles when the boiler went up in the air1 with fatal results to both occupants of the cab4 ,an examination of the wreck showed unmistakable evidence of overheated sheets4 ,circumstantial evidence indicated that the glass had deceived the engineer by a false water-level4 ,when he pulled out1 the fire-box sheets1 which were of copper1 became weakened by the heat1 so that the crown-sheet gave way2 the re-action of the released steam tearing the boiler to pieces4 ,numerous less serious accidents originating from the same cause might be cited4 ,,reaching ,,his ,,engine ,,in ,,good ,,season4 ,an engineer who has a proper interest in his work1 and thoroughly appreciates the importance of it1 will reach his engine in time to perform the duties of getting her ready for the road leisurely1 without rush or hurry4 ,although a good fireman may relieve the engineer of many preliminary duties1 the engineer himself should be certain that the necessary supplies and tools are on the engine1 and that water is in the tank1 and the sand-box filled4 ,,oiling ,,the ,,machinery4 ,oiling the machinery is such an important part of an engineer's work1 and the success of a fast run is so dependent upon this being properly done1 that it should never be performed hurriedly4 ,although practice with short stoppages at stations may have got an engineer into the way of rushing round an engine1 and oiling at express-speed1 it is no reason why the first oiling of the trip should not be carefully and deliberately attended to when there is an opportunity4 ,in addition to filling oil-cups1 lubricators1 and oil-boxes1 this is a good time to complete the inspection1 which assures the engineer that every thing about the engine is in proper running-order4 ,when any thing in the way of repairs has been done to the engine since she came off the last trip1 special attention has generally to be given to the parts worked at4 ,new wheels require close care with the packing of the boxes2 rod-brasses reduced entail an additional supply of oil to the pins for the first few miles2 guides closed should insure a free supply of oil till it is found that the cross-heads run cool4 ,,quantity ,,of ,,oil ,,that ,,different ,,bearings ,,need4 ,while oiling1 the engineer should bear in mind that it is of paramount importance that the rubbing-surfaces receive lubrication sufficient to keep them from heating2 but1 while making sure that no bearings shall run dry1 lavish pouring of oil should be avoided4 ,there are still too many cases to be noticed1 of men pouring oil on the machinery without seeming to comprehend the exact wants4 ,we are constantly seeing cases where oil-cups waste their measure of oil through neglect in adjusting the feeders4 ,a steady supply1 equal to the requirements1 is what a well-regulated cup provides4 ,with the ordinary quality of mineral oil1 six drops will lubricate the back end of a main rod for one mile when the engine is pulling a load4 ,this applies to eight-wheel engines on passenger service4 ,heavier small-wheeled engines will require a quarter more oil4 ,guides can be kept moist with five drops of oil to the mile4 ,a dry1 sandy road will require a more liberal supply4 ,with good feeders1 properly attended to1 the supply can equal the demand with close accuracy4 ,an oil-cup which runs out the oil faster than it is needed1 wastes stores1 besmears every thing with a coating of grease1 and is likely to leave the rubbing-surfaces to suffer by running dry before it can be replenished4 ,a cup in that condition also advertises the engineer to be incompetent4 ,,leaving ,,the ,,engine-,,house4 ,before moving the engine out of the house1 the cylinder-cocks should be opened so that water1 or the steam condensed in warming the pipes and steam-chest1 may escape4 ,after ringing the bell1 and giving workmen employed about the engine time to get out of the way1 the throttle should be opened a little1 and the engine moved out slowly and carefully4 ,if there is a sufficient pressure of steam in the boiler1 and the engine refuses to move1 something is wrong4 ,never force an engine4 ,any work which may have been performed upon it while in the house will probably indicate the nature of the defect4 ,the most common cause of stalling engines in the house is a miscalculation of the piston-travel1 permitting it to push against the cylinder-head4 ,sometimes1 however1 the setting of the valves is at fault4 ,i knew a case where the machinist connected the backing-up eccentric-strap with the top of the link1 and the mistake was not discovered till they attempted to move the engine out of the house4 ,another blunder1 the result of gross carelessness1 was where a cold chisel was left in the steam-chest4 ,but a more representative case was that which happened to ,engineer ,amos1 on the ,b4 ,c4 road4 ,his engine had the piston-packing set up2 and the following morning1 when he tried to take it out of the house1 it would not pass a certain point4 ,thinking that the packing was set up rather tight1 he backed for a start1 determined to make it go over on the run4 ,he succeeded1 too1 but a hammer which had been left in the cylinder went out through the cover4 ,while running from the round-house to the train1 is a good time to carefully watch the working of the various parts of the engine4 ,should any defects exist1 they are better to be detected now than after the engine is out with a train4 ,the brakes can be tested conveniently at this time1 and the working of the water-pumps tried4 ,all these matters are regularly attended to by the successful engineer3 they are habitually neglected by the unlucky man1 and misfortune never loses sight of him4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,running ,a ,,fast ,,freight ,,train4 ,,running ,,freight ,,trains4 ,by far the greater proportion of ,american locomotive engineers are employed on freight service4 ,on most roads1 the freight engines constitute from seventy-five to ninety per cent of the whole locomotive equipment4 ,on this kind of service1 locomotive engineers learn their business by years of hard practice in getting trains over the road as nearly as possible on time4 ,on the best of roads1 there is much hardship to be undergone1 working ahead through every discouragement of bad weather or hard-steaming engines4 ,the man who brings the most energy1 good sense1 and perseverance to his aid1 will come out most successfully above these difficulties4 ,every department of locomotive engine running has difficulties peculiar to itself4 ,every kind of train needs to be handled understandingly1 to show the best results2 but1 ,i think1 getting a heavy fast freight train on time1 over a hilly road1 having a single track1 requires the highest degree of locomotive engineering skill4 ,therefore1 ,i have selected that form of train as the first subject of description4 ,,the ,,engine4 ,the engine that takes the train over the road weighs #ce tons1 and has #a1ajj square feet of heating-surface for generating steam for cylinders #ag by #bd inches1 which1 through the pistons1 transmit power to wheels #fj inches diameter4 ,the engine is an ordinary eight-wheeled bituminous coal-burning ,american type of locomotive1 built by one of our best makers1 and well adapted for pulling any kind of train over a ,western railroad4 ,,the ,,train4 ,this consists of #bj loaded cars1 making an aggregate weight of #dej tons4 ,,the ,,division4 ,the physical character of the country1 which is rolling prairie1 makes the road undulatory1--up hill1 then down grade1 with occasional stretches of level track4 ,some of the gradients rise to sixty feet to the mile1 extending over two miles without sagging a foot4 ,sound steel rails1 well tied1 are supported by a graveled road-bed1 making an excellent track1 and presenting a good opportunity for fast running where high speed is needed4 ,the train is run on card-time1 stopping about every twelve miles4 ,like all other ,western roads1 the stations are unprotected by signals2 and the safety of trains is secured mostly by vigilance on the part of the engineer and other train-men4 ,,pulling ,,out4 ,when the engineer gets the signal to go1 he drops the reverse lever into the full forward notch1 gives the engine steam gently1 with due care to avoid breaking couplings1 and pulls the sand-lever4 ,a slight sprinkling of sand only is dropped on the rails1 which keeps the engine from slipping while getting the train under way4 ,a clear1 level fire is burning over the grates before the start is made1 and this suffices till the most crowded switches are passed3 so1 when the signal to start is given1 the fireman closes the fire-door1 and opens the damper2 these duties not preventing him from keeping a lookout for signals4 ,,hooking ,,back ,,the ,,links4 ,as the engine gets the train into motion1 the engineer gradually hooks up the links4 ,this is not done by a sudden jerk as soon as the engine will move1 with the steam cutting off short4 ,he waits for that till the train is well under the control of the engine1 hooking up gradually4 ,some men think that it is best to get the valves up to short travel as soon as possible1 without reflecting that it is better for the motion to let the engine be going freely before hooking up short4 ,i have often seen men coming into terminal stations with a heavy fire and the safety-valves blowing1 and the engine toiling slowly along with the links hooked up to eight inches cut4 ,in cases of this kind1 a runner may better work the engine well down1 so that the valve will travel freely over the seat4 ,by doing so when the engine is working slow and heavy1 there will be less wear to the valves1 and less danger of breaking a valve yoke4 ,it is only in cases where there is an advantage in saving steam1 that benefit is derived from working the engine close hooked back4 ,there is a right time for all things1 and working steam expansively is no exception to the rule4 ,,working ,,the ,,steam ,,expansively4 ,at the right time1 our engineer gets the reverse lever notched up2 for he knows1 that to obtain the greatest amount of work out of the engine1 with the least possible expenditure of fuel1 the links must be hooked back as far as can be done consistently with making the required speed4 ,some engines will not steam freely when run close back if they are burning coal that needs a strong draught4 ,this is the exception1 however1 and most engines will steam best in this position2 and many of those that fail to steam well cutting off short are not properly fired1 or the draught appliances need adjusting4 ,most firemen who run with a heavy fire fail worst with engines that steam indifferently when hooked up4 ,engineers should give this their attention1 and do every thing possible to make the engine steam while working with the lever as near the center notch as can be done while handling the train4 ,,advantage ,,of ,,cutting ,,off ,,short4 ,when the links are notched close towards the center1 the travel of the valves is so short that they close the steam-ports shortly after the beginning of the stroke1 at six1 nine1 or twelve inches of the piston's travel1 as the case may be1 permitting the steam to push the piston along the remainder of the stroke by its expansive power4 ,steam at a high pressure is as full of potential energy as a compressed spiral spring1 and is equally ready to stretch itself out when the closing of the port imprisons it inside the cylinder2 and1 by this act of expanding1 it exerts immense useful energy1 which would escape into the smoke-stack unutilized if the cylinders were left in communication with the boiler till the release took place4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that a boiler pressure of ten tons is exerted upon the piston from the beginning to the middle of the stroke1 and is then cut off4 ,during the remainder of the stroke1 the steam will continue to press upon the piston with a regularly diminishing force1 till1 at the end of the stroke1 if release does not take place earlier1 it will still have a pressure of five tons4 ,the work performed by the steam during the latter part of the stroke is pure gain1 due to its expansive principle4 ,if the steam is cut off earlier1 at a third or fourth of the piston travel1 the gain will be correspondingly great4 ,with the slide-valve link-motion used on locomotives1 the steam can not be held to the end of the stroke2 but the principle of expansion holds good during the period the steam is held in the cylinders after the cut-off4 ,the observing engineer of any experience does not require to have the advantages of working his engine expansively impressed upon his attention4 ,his fuel-record has done that more eloquently than pen can write4 ,,boiler ,,pressure ,,best ,,for ,,economical ,,working4 ,there is a close and constant relation between the boiler pressure carried1 and the useful work obtained from expansion of steam4 ,the higher the pressure1 the greater elasticity the steam possesses4 ,the tendency of modern steam engineering is1 to employ intensely high boiler pressure1 expanding the steam by means of excellent valve-gear in steam-jacketed cylinders1 so that it is reduced to low tension before escaping into the atmosphere1 or into the condenser1 as the case may be4 ,wonderfully economical results have been obtained in this manner1--results which can never be approached in locomotive practice while the ordinary slide-valve is used4 ,but1 while we can not hope to rival the record of high-class automatic cut-off engines1 their methods can teach us useful lessons4 ,it is advisable to keep the steam constantly close to the blowing-off point4 ,during a day's trip1 considerably less water will be evaporated when a tension of #adj pounds is carried1 than will be required with a pressure of #ajj pounds or under4 ,and1 where less water is evaporated1 a smaller quantity of fuel will be consumed in doing the work4 ,running with a low head of steam is a wasteful practice1 for several good reasons4 ,the comparatively light pressure upon the surface of the water allows the steam to pass over damp1 or mixed with a light watery spray1 which diminishes its energy2 since the wet steam contains less expansive medium than dry steam4 ,it requires nearly the same expenditure of fuel to evaporate water at the pressure of the atmosphere alone1 that it does to make steam at the higher working tensions3 consequently1 the work obtained by the expansion of the high-pressed steam is clear gain over the results to be obtained by working at a low pressure4 ,this is a very important principle in economical steam engineering4 ,engineers who are accustomed to making long runs between water-tanks1 when every gallon is needed to carry them through1 know that their sure method of getting over the dry division successfully1 is to carry steam close to the popping-point1 pull the throttle wide open1 hug the links close to the center1 and see that no loss occurs through the safety-valves4 ,,running ,,with ,,low ,,steam4 ,there are engineers who habitually carry merely sufficient steam to get them along on time1 under the mistaken belief that they are working economically4 ,john ,brown runs steadily1 and takes as good care of his engine as any man on the ,a4 ,b4 road2 but he dislikes to hear the steam escaping from the safety-valves1 and prevents it from doing so by habitually using steam thirty pounds below the blowing-pressure4 ,the consequence is1 that he always makes a bad record on the coal-list1 compared with the other passenger men4 ,,the ,,throttle-,,lever4 ,in the interest of economy1 the throttle-lever should be kept wide open when practicable1 and the speed regulated by the reverse-lever4 ,experiments with the indicator have demonstrated beyond a doubt1 that running with the throttle-valve partly closed1 wire-draws the steam before it reaches the cylinders1 whereby the initial pressure is materially reduced1 and its power for expansive work seriously diminished4 ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,fire4 ,the engine has moved only a few rods from the depot when the steam shows indications of blowing off2 and then the fireman sets to work1--not to pile a heap of coal indiscriminately into the fire-box4 ,that is the style of the dunce whose natural avocation is grubbing stumps4 ,ours is a model train1 and a model fireman furnishes the power to keep it going4 ,he throws in four or five shovelfuls at each firing1 scattering the coal along the sides of the fire-box1 shooting a shower close to the flue-sheet1 and dropping the required quantity under the door4 ,with the quick intuition of a man thoroughly master of his business1 our model fireman perceives at a glance1 on opening the door1 where the thinnest spots are2 and they are promptly bedded over4 ,the glowing1 incandescent mass of fire1 which shines with a blinding light that rivals the sun's rays1 dazzles the eyes of the novice1 who sees in the fire-box only a chaotic gleam2 but the experienced fireman looks into the resplendent glare1 and reads its needs or its perfections4 ,the fire is maintained nearly level2 but the coal is supplied so that the sides and corners are well filled1 for there the liability to drawing air is most imminent4 ,with this system closely followed1 there is no difficulty experienced in keeping up a steady head of steam4 ,but constant attention must be bestowed upon his work by the fireman4 ,from the time he reaches the engine1 until the hostler takes charge at the end of the journey1 he attends to his work1 and to that alone2 and by this means he has earned the reputation of being one of the best firemen on the road4 ,his rule is1 to keep the fire up equal to the work the engine has to do1 never letting it run low before being replenished1 never throwing in more coal than the keeping up of steam calls for4 ,the coal is broken up moderately fine1 a full supply being prepared before the fire-door is opened2 and every shovelful is scattered in a thin shower over the fire1--never pitched down on one spot4 ,some men never acquire the art of scattering the coal as it leaves the shovel2 and1 as a result1 they never succeed in making an engine steam regularly4 ,their fire consists of a series of coal-heaps4 ,under these heaps1 clinkers are prematurely formed2 and between them spaces are created1 through which cold air comes1 and rushes straight for the flues1 without assimilating with the gases of combustion1 as every breath of air which enters the fire-box ought to do4 ,,conditions ,,that ,,demand ,,good ,,firing4 ,roads that are hilly require far more skillful management to get a train along than is called for on level roads1 and the greater part of the extra dexterity is needed from the fireman4 ,to get a heavy train up a steep hill1 it is generally run at a high speed before reaching the grade1 so that the momentum of the train can be utilized in climbing the ascent4 ,running for a hill is a particularly trying time on the fireman2 for the engine is rushing at a high speed1 and often working heavily4 ,this ordeal must be prepared for in advance1 by having the fire well made up1 and kept at its heaviest by frequent firing4 ,when the engine gets right on to the grade1 toiling up with decreasing speed1 every pound of steam is needed to save doubling1 and steady watchfulness is required to prevent a relapse of steam2 but the danger of the engine 8turning0 the fire is not nearly so great as it was when running fast for the hill4 ,,highest ,,type ,,of ,,fireman4 ,the highest type of fireman is one1 who1 with the smallest quantity of fuel1 can keep up a good head of steam without wasting any by the safety-valves4 ,he endeavors to strike this mean of success by keeping an even fire2 but it sometimes happens1 that the closest care will not prevent the steam from showing indications of blowing off4 ,when this is the case1 he keeps it back by closing the dampers1 or1 if that is not sufficient1 opens the door a few inches4 ,immense harm is done to flues and fire-boxes by injudicious firing4 ,,scientific ,,methods ,,of ,,good ,,firemen4 ,it is not necessary that a man should be deeply read in natural philosophy1 to understand intimately what are actually the scientific laws of the business of firing4 ,mr4 ,lothian ,bell1 the eminent metallurgist1 somewhere expresses high admiration for the exact scientific methods attained in their work by illiterate puddlers4 ,although they knew nothing about chemical combinations or processes1 they manipulated the molten mass so that1 with the least possible labor1 the iron was separated from its impurities4 ,in a similar way1 firemen skillful in their calling have1 by a process of induction1 learned the fundamental principles of heat-development4 ,by experiments1 carefully made1 they perceive how the greatest head of steam can be kept up with the smallest cargo of coal2 and they push their perceptions into daily practice4 ,if an accomplished scientist were to ride on the engine1 observing the operations of a first-class fireman1 he would find that nearly all the carbon of the coal combined with its natural quantity of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide1 thereby giving forth its greatest heat-power2 and that the hydro-carbons1 the volatile gases of the coal1 performed their share of calorific duty by burning with an intensely hot flame4 ,he would find that these hydro-carbon gases1 although productive of high-power duty when properly consumed1 were ticklish to manage just right1 for they would pass through the flues without producing flame if they were not fully supplied with air2 and1 if the supply of air were too liberal1 it would reduce the temperature of the fire-box below the igniting-point for these gases1 which is higher than red-hot iron1 and they would then escape in the form of worthless smoke4 ,our model fireman manages to consume these gases as thoroughly as they can be consumed in a locomotive fire-box4 ,,the ,,medium ,,fireman4 ,john ,barton is considered a first-class fireman by some men4 ,he works hard to keep up steam1 and is never satisfied unless the safety valves are screaming4 ,he carries a heavy fire all the time2 and1 when the pop-valves rise1 he pulls the door open till they subside1 gets in a few shovelfuls more coal1 closes the door till the steam blows off again1 and repeats the operation of throwing open the door4 ,this man has learned only the half of his business4 ,he has got through his head how to keep up steam1 but he has not acquired the more delicate operation of keeping it down wisely and well4 ,training with an intelligent engineer anxious to make a good fuel-record1 will1 in a few months1 improve ,barton wonderfully4 ,barton is the medium fireman4 ,,the ,,hopelessly ,,bad ,,fireman4 ,behind him comes ,tom ,jackson1 the man of indiscriminately heavy firing4 ,tom's sole aim is to get over the road with the least possible expenditure of personal exertion4 ,he tumbles in a fire as if he were loading a wagon1 the size of the door being his sole gauge for the lumps4 ,when the fire-box is filled to the neighborhood of the door1 he climbs up on the seat1 and reclines there till the steam begins to go back through drawing air3 then he gets down again1 and repeats the filling-up process1 intent only on getting upon the seat-box with as little delay as possible4 ,his firing is regulated by the appearance of the smoke issuing from the stack4 ,so long as it continues of murky blackness1 he reclines in happiness3 when the first streaks of transparency appear in the smoke1 he becomes unhappy1 but gets up1 and suppresses smoke-consumption by smothering the flames with green coal4 ,if by any chance the engine steams so freely that the safety-valves blow1 the door is jerked wide open1 and kept there till she cools down4 ,so the round goes4 ,a hot1 scorching fire1 which heats the sheets and flues to their highest temperature1 is continually being interrupted by the sudden cooling from a heavy load of damp coal1 or a chilling current of cold air4 ,no wonder1 that1 with such treatment1 leaky flues1 weeping stay-bolts1 and pouring mud-rings1 make their own protests1 often reiterated on the pages of round-house work-books4 ,,who ,,is ,,to ,,blame ,,for ,,bad ,,firing8 ,the destruction inflicted upon the heating-surface of locomotives by the changes of temperature due to bad firing1 should be charged to the engineer4 ,the fireman commits the havoc1 but the engineer is more to blame for allowing it to be done4 ,engineers often permit firemen to do their work badly rather than have words about it4 ,but this is mistaken policy4 ,a little firmness in the start will convince the worst of firemen that they must strive to fire properly1 or quit2 and a man who is indisposed to do his work well1 deserves his walking-papers without delay4 ,there is no kindness in retaining a hopelessly bad fireman on an engine4 ,as a fireman1 he is a continual loss to his employers2 he is no credit to his fellow-workmen2 and if1 by the mistaken forbearance of engineers1 he ever reaches the right-hand side1 he will be a reproach to the engineering fraternity4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,getting ,,up ,,the ,,hill4 ,,special ,,skill ,,and ,,attention ,,required ,,to ,,get ,a ,,train ,,up ,a ,,steep ,,grade4 ,in the last chapter1 some details were given of the methods pursued in starting out with a heavy fast freight train4 ,where a train of that kind has to climb heavy grades1 special skill and attention are needed in making the ascent successfully4 ,,getting ,,ready ,,for ,,the ,,grade4 ,the track for the first two miles from the starting-point is nearly level1 permitting the engineer and fireman to get ready for a long pull not far distant4 ,at the second mile-post a light descending grade is reached1 which lasts one mile1 and is succeeded by an ascending grade two and a half miles long1 rising fifty-five feet to the mile4 ,,working ,,up ,,the ,,hill4 ,at the top of the descending grade1 the engineer shuts off the steam while the fireman oils the valves3 then he puts on a little steam1 using a light throttle while the train is increasing in speed1 until the base of the ascent is nearly reached1 when he gets the throttle full open1 letting the engine do its best work in the first notch off the center4 ,by this time the train is swinging along thirty miles an hour1 and is well on to the hill before the engine begins to feel its load4 ,decrease of speed is just becoming perceptible when the valve-travel gets the benefit of another notch1 and the engine pulls at its load with renewed vigor4 ,but soon the steepness of the ascent asserts itself in the laboring exhausts2 and the reverse-lever is advanced another notch1 to prevent the speed from getting below the velocity at which the engine is capable of holding the train on this grade4 ,while the engineer is careful to maintain the speed within the power of his locomotive1 he is also watchful not to increase the valve-travel faster than his fire can stand it2 for1 were he to jerk the lever two or three notches ahead at the beginning of the pull1 the chances would be that he would 8turn0 its fire1 or tear it up so badly that the steam would go back on him before he got half a mile farther on4 ,before the train is safe over the summit1 it will probably be necessary to have the engine working down to #ah inches3 but the advance to this long valve-travel is made by degrees2 each increase being dependent upon1 and regulated by1 the speed4 ,the quadrant is notched to give the cut-off at #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 #ah1 and #ba inches4 ,repeated experiments1 carefully watched1 have convinced the engineer of this locomotive1 that its maximum power is exerted in the #ah-;inch notch2 so he never puts the lever down in the 8corner0 on a hill4 ,a great many engines act differently1 however1 showing increased power for every notch advanced4 ,if the cars in the train should prove easy running1--and there are great differences in cars in this respect1--it may not be necessary to hook the engine below #ae inches1 or even #ab will suffice for some trains2 but this can only be determined by seeing how it holds the speed in the various notches4 ,,wheel-,,slipping4 ,as the engine gets well on to the grade1 and is exerting heavy tractive power1 the wheels are liable to commence slipping2 and it is very important that they should be prevented from doing so4 ,an ounce of prevention is known to be worth a pound of cure2 and it pays an engineer to assure himself that no drips from pump-glands1 or feed-pipes1 or cylinder-cocks1 or from any other fountain1 are dropping upon the rails ahead of the driving-wheels4 ,there is no use telling an engineer of the decreased adhesion which the drivers exert on half-wet rails1 from what they do on those that are clean and dry4 ,knowing the difference in this respect1 every engineer should endeavor to prevent the wetting of the rails by leaks from his engine2 for hundreds of engines get 8laid down0 on hills from slipping induced by this very cause4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,sand4 ,the first consideration in this regard is to have clean1 dry sand1 and easy-working box-valves4 ,then the engineer should know how far the valves open by the distance he draws the lever4 ,in starting from a station1 or working at a point where slipping is likely to commence1 the valves should be opened a little1 and a slight sprinkling of sand dropped on the rails4 ,this often serves the purpose of preventing slipping just as well as a heavy coating of sand4 ,and it has none of the objectionable features of thick sanding4 ,trains often get stalled on grades by the sand-valves being allowed to run too freely4 ,it is not an uncommon occurrence for engineers to open the valves wide1 and let all the sand run upon the rails that the pipe will carry1 so that a solid crust covers each rail1 and every wheel on the train gets clogged with the powdered silica2 and1 after the train has passed over1 a coating is left for the next one that comes along4 ,the wheels scatter their burden of powdered sand into the axle-boxes1 and it grinds its way inside the rod-brasses1 and part of it gets wafted upon the guides2 and in all these positions it is matter decidedly in the wrong place4 ,and this body of sand under the wheels increases the resistance in the same way1 as a wagon is harder to pull among gravel than it is on a clean1 hard road3 the indiscreet engineer complains about the train being stiff to haul2 and the chances are1 that he goes twice up the hill before the whole train is got over4 ,uncle ,toby's plan is1 when pulling on a heavy grade1 to open the valve enough to let the drivers leave a slight white impression on the rails4 ,if they slip1 he gives a few particles more sand1 but decreases the supply again so soon as the drivers will hold with the diminished quantity4 ,uncle ,toby seldom needs to double a hill4 ,,slippery ,,engines4 ,these remarks apply to ordinary engines with ordinary rail-conditions4 ,occasionally we find an engine inveterately given to slipping1 and no conditions seem able to keep it down4 ,such an engine is as ready to whirl its wheels as an ugly mule is to kick up its heels1 and upon as little provocation4 ,with a dirty1 half-wet rail1 an engine of this kind loses half its power4 ,the causes that make an engine bad for slipping are various4 ,very hard steel tires1 or excess of cylinder power1 are the most frequent causes of slipping2 but badly worn tires sometimes produce a similar effect2 or the blame may rest in a short-wheel base1 deficient in weight1 or in too flexible driving-springs4 ,to get a slippery engine over the road when the rails are moist and dirty1 requires the exercise of unmeasured patience by the engineer4 ,job was a cantankerous old ,arab beside the engineer who passes cheerfully through this ordeal4 ,the tendency of an engine to slip may be checked to some extent by working with the lever well ahead towards full stroke1 and throttling the steam4 ,this gives a more uniform piston-pressure than is possible while working expansively4 ,of two evils1 it is best to choose the least4 ,the smallest in this case is losing the benefits of expansion1 and getting over the road4 ,,feeding ,,the ,,boiler4 ,some engineers claim that the most economical results can be obtained from an engine by running with the water as low as possible1 consistent with safety4 ,they hold1 that1 so long as the water is sufficiently high to cover the heating-surfaces1 there is enough to make steam from2 and the ample steam-room remaining above the water1 assures a more perfect supply of dry steam for the cylinders than can be had from the more contracted space left above a high-water line4 ,old engineers1 running locomotives furnished with entirely reliable feeding-apparatus1 may be able to carry a low-water level advantageously1 especially with light trains and level roads2 but with ordinary men1 average pumps or injectors1 and the common run of roads1 a high-water level is safest4 ,with a high-water level the temperature of the boiler can be kept nearly uniform2 for the increased volume of water holds an accumulated store of heat1 which is not readily affected by the feed4 ,and the surplus store is convenient to draw upon in making the best of a time-order1 or in getting over a heavy grade4 ,then1 if the pumps or injectors fail1 a full boiler of water often enables a man to examine the delinquent feeding-apparatus1 and set it going2 whereas1 with low water1 the only resource would be to dump the fire4 ,,choice ,,of ,,pump ,,and ,,injector4 ,the engine on this train has one pump and one injector4 ,the pump is preferred for ordinary feeding-purposes1 and is kept graduated to supply the needs of the boiler while the engine is working1 without the foot-cock being moved4 ,on a heavy pull1 the pump in this condition would not keep up the water-level2 so the injector is called upon to make up the deficiency4 ,when the engine gets upon the heavy part of the grade1 it makes steam very freely2 and1 when the indications of getting hot appear1 the injector is started4 ,during the remainder of the ascent1 the water is supplied as liberally as it can be carried2 and the top of the grade finds the engine with a full boiler4 ,this enables the engineer to preserve a tolerably even boiler temperature2 for in running down the long descent which follows1 where the engine runs two miles without working steam1 the pump can be shut off1 and sudden cooling of the boiler avoided4 ,the preservation of flues and fire-box sheets depends very much upon the manner of feeding the water4 ,some men are intensely careless in this matter4 ,in climbing a grade1 they let the water run down till there is scarcely enough left to cover the crown-sheet when they reach the summit4 ,then they dash on the feed1 and plunge cold water into the hot boiler1 which is then peculiarly liable to be easily cooled down1 owing to the limited quantity of hot water it contains4 ,the fact of having the steam shut off1 greatly aggravates the evil2 for there is then no intensity of heat passing through the flues to counteract the chilling effect of the feed-water4 ,if it is necessary to pump while running with the steam shut off1 the blower should be kept going2 which will1 in some measure1 prevent the change of temperature from being dangerously sudden4 ,there will probably be some loss from steam blowing off1 but that is the smaller of two evils4 ,engineers are not likely to feed the boiler too lavishly when working hard1 for the injection of cold water instantly shows its effect by reducing the steam-pressure4 ,but this is not the case when running with the throttle closed4 ,the circulation in the boiler is then so sluggish1 that the temperature of the water may be reduced many degrees1 while the steam continues to show its highest pressure4 ,writers on physical science tell us that the temperature of water and steam in a boiler is always the same1 and varies according to pressure2 that1 at the atmosphere's pressure1 water boils at #bab degrees1 and produces steam of the same temperature4 ,at #aj pounds above the atmospheric pressure1 the water will not evaporate into steam until it has reached a temperature of #bdj degrees1 and so on3 as the pressure increases1 the temperature of water and steam rises4 ,but under all circumstances1 while the water and steam remain in the same vessel1 their temperature is the same4 ,this is an acknowledged law of physical science2 yet every locomotive engineer of reflection1 who has run on a hilly road1 knows that circumstances daily happen where the law does not hold good4 ,,fall ,,of ,,boiler-,,temperature ,,not ,,indicated ,,by ,,the ,,steam-,,gauge4 ,if an engine1 of the class represented as pulling our train1 passes over the top of the grade with half an inch of water in the glass1 there will be about #gjj gallons in the boiler4 ,now1 suppose it runs down the hill without using steam1 and keeps pumping till the water rises six inches in the glass1 there will be about #bjj gallons more water in the boiler4 ,it is no unusual thing to do this with a mild fire1 and yet have no diminished tension of steam shown by the gauge1 although #bjj gallons of water of about #fj degrees have been injected amongst #gjj gallons at #cfa degrees1 the temperature due to a steam-pressure of #adj pounds4 ,this ought to reduce the mean temperature below #cjj degrees1 yet the pointer of the steam-gauge keeps indicating #adj4 ,that the pressure of steam and the temperature of the water do not accord1 is shown directly the throttle is opened to perform work4 ,the brisk circulation due to the rush of steam through the dry pipe now brings the temperature of water and steam to equilibrium1 and backward the index of the steam-gauge travels4 ,the steam-pressure goes back faster than is due to the supply drawn for the cylinders2 because the latent heat of the steam passes into the water1 helping to bring the whole contents of the boiler to an even temperature4 ,,some ,,effects ,,of ,,injudicious ,,boiler-,,feeding4 ,meanwhile1 with an engine operated in this fashion1 the train will probably stand for fifteen minutes1 till sufficient steam is raised to proceed with4 ,the fact that newly injected water does not immediately rise in temperature to the heat indicated by the pressure-gauge1 can also be tested by filling up a boiler with an injector while the engine is at rest on a side-track4 ,working an injector causes greater circulation than feeding with a pump1 and the water goes into the boiler at a higher temperature4 ,for this reason the injector is superior to the pump as a feeding-medium4 ,but1 if the engineer pulls out directly after filling up the boiler with an injector1 the steam will go down a few pounds1 no matter how good a fire may be on the grates4 ,on level roads1 the pump or injector should be set to supply the needs of the boiler2 and a skillful engineer can regulate this so well1 that the foot-cock has seldom to be moved4 ,the best results in getting trains over the road1 and in preserving boilers1 are obtained in this way4 ,the runner who adopts the intermittent system of feeding is always in trouble1 or1 as the boys say1 8he is always nowhere40 ,,careful ,,feeding ,,and ,,firing ,,preserve ,,boilers4 ,a case where the conservative effect of careful firing and feeding was strikingly illustrated1 came under the author's notice a year or two ago4 ,during the busiest part of the season1 the fire-box of a freight engine belonging to a ,western road became so leaky that the engine was really unfit for service4 ,engines1 like individuals1 soon lose their reputation if they fail to perform their required duties for any length of time4 ,this engine1 8#bi10 soon became the aversion of train-men4 ,the loquacious brakeman1 who can instruct every railroad-man how to conduct his business1 but is lame respecting his own work1 got presently to making big stories out of the amazing quantity of water and coal that 8#bi0 could get away with1 and how many trains she would hold in the course of a trip4 ,the road was suffering from a plethora of freight1 and extreme scarcity of engines2 and on this account the management was reluctant to take this weakling into the shop4 ,so the master mechanic turned 8#bi0 over to ,engineer ,macleay1 who was running on a branch where delays were not likely to hold many trains4 ,mac deliberated about taking his 8time0 in preference to the engine1 which others had rejected1 but finally concluded to give the bad one a fair trial4 ,the first trip convinced the somewhat observant engineer that the tender fire-box was peculiarly susceptible to the free use of the pump1 and to sudden changes of the fire's intensity of heat4 ,so he directed the fireman to fire as evenly as possible1 never to let the grates get bare enough to let cold air pass through1 to keep the door closed except when firing1 to avoid violent shaking of the grates1 and never to throw more than three or four shovelfuls of coal into the fire-box at one time4 ,his own method was1 to feed with persistent regularity1 to go twice over heavy parts of the division in preference to distressing the engine by letting the water get low1 and then filling up rapidly4 ,this system soon began to tell on the improved condition of the fire-box4 ,the result was1 that1 within a month after taking the engine1 ,mac was pulling full trains on time2 and this he continued to do for five months1 till it was found convenient to take the engine in for rebuilding4 ,,operating ,,the ,,dampers4 ,according to the mechanical dictionary1 a damper is a device for regulating the admission of air to a furnace1 with which the fire can be stimulated1 or the draught cut off1 when necessary4 ,some runners regard locomotive dampers in a very different light4 ,they seem to think the openings to the ash-pan are merely holes made to let air in1 and ashes out2 that doors are placed upon them1 which troublesome rules require to be closed at certain points of the road to prevent causing fires4 ,those who have made their business a study1 however1 understand that locomotive dampers are as useful1 when properly managed1 as are the dampers of the base-burner which cheers their homes in winter weather4 ,to effect perfect combustion in the fire-box1 a certain quantity of oxygen1 one of the constituents of common air1 is required to mix with the carbon and carbureted hydrogen of the coal4 ,the combination takes place in certain fixed quantities4 ,if the quantity of air admitted be deficient1 a gas of inferior calorific power will be generated4 ,on the other hand1 when the air-supply is in excess of that needed for combustion1 the surplus affects the steam-producing capabilities of the fire injuriously2 since it increases the speed of the gases1 lessening the time they are in contact with the water-surface1 and a violent rush of air reduces the temperature of portions of the fire-box below the heat at which carbureted hydrogen burns4 ,,loss ,,of ,,heat ,,through ,,excess ,,of ,,air4 ,in the fire-boxes of ,american engines1 where double dampers are the rule1 far more loss of heat is occasioned by excess of air than there is waste of fuel through the gases not receiving their natural supply of oxygen4 ,the blast from the nozzles creates an impetuous draught through the grates2 and when to this is added the rapid currents of air impelled into the open ash-pan by the violent motion of the train1 the fire-box is found to be the center of a furious wind-storm4 ,the excess of this storm can be regulated by keeping the front damper closed1 and letting the engine draw its supply of air through the back damper4 ,when the fire begins to get dirty1 and the air-passages between the grates become partly choked1 the forward damper can be opened with advantage4 ,so long as an engine steams freely with the front damper closed1 it is an indication that there is no necessity for keeping it open4 ,with vicious1 heavy firing1 all the air that can be injected into the fire-box is needed to effect indifferently complete combustion2 and the man who follows this wasteful practice can not get too much air through the fire4 ,consequently1 it is only with moderately light firing that regulation of draught can be practiced4 ,running with the front damper open all the time is hard on the bottom part of the fire-box1 and the ever-varying attrition of cold wind is responsible for many a leaky mud-ring4 ,,loss ,,of ,,heat ,,from ,,bad ,,dampers4 ,in ,britain1 where far more attention has been devoted to economy of fuel than has been bestowed upon the matter this side of the ,atlantic1 locomotives are provided with ash-pans that are practically air-tight1 and the damper-doors are made to close the openings4 ,in many instances1 the levers that operate the dampers have notched sectors1 so that the quantity of air admitted may equal the necessities of the fire4 ,british locomotives1 as a rule1 show a better record in the use of their fuel than is found in ,american practice2 and a high percentage of the saving is due to the superior damper arrangements4 ,imagine the trouble and expense there would be with a kitchen-stove that had no appliance for closing the draught6 ,yet some of our locomotive builders turn out their engines with practically no means of regulating the flow of air beneath the fire4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,finishing ,,the ,,trip4 ,,running ,,over ,,ordinary ,,track4 ,the hill which our train encounters nearly at the beginning of the journey is the ,pons ,asinorum of the division4 ,the style in which it is ascended shows what kind of an engine pulls the train1 and it tests in a searching manner the ability of the engineer4 ,our engine has got over the summit successfully2 and the succeeding descent is accomplished with comfort to the engine1 and security to the train4 ,and so the rest of the trip goes on4 ,the train speeds merrily along through green1 rolling prairies1 away past leafy woodlands and flowery meadows3 it cuts a wide swath through long cornfields1 startles into wakefulness the denizens of sleek farmhouses1 and raises a rill of excitement as it bounds through quiet villages4 ,but every change of scene1 every varied state of road-bed1--level track1 ascending or descending grade1--is prepared for in advance by our engine-men4 ,their engine is found in proper time for each occasion1 as it requires the exertion of great power1 or permits the conservation of the machine's energy4 ,over long stretches of undulatory track the train speeds2 each man attending to his work so closely that the index of the steam-gauge is almost stationary1 and the water does not vary an inch in the glass4 ,this is accomplished by regular firing and uniform boiler-feeding1 two operations which must go together to produce creditable results4 ,,stopping-,,places4 ,there are few stops to be made1 and these are mostly at water-stations4 ,here the fireman is ready to take in water with the least possible delay2 and1 while he is doing so1 the engineer hurries around the engine1 feeling every box and bearing1 and dropping a fresh supply of oil where necessary4 ,and1 while going thus around1 he glances searchingly over the engine1 his eye seeking to detect absent nuts1 or missing bolts or pins3 any thing wrong may now be observed and remedied4 ,at the coaling-stations the fireman finds time to rake out the ash-pan1 and the engineer bestows upon the engine and tender a leisurely inspection besides oiling around4 ,,knowledge ,,of ,,train-,,rights4 ,next to studying the idiosyncrasies of his engine1 our model engineer prides himself on his intimate acquaintance with the details of the time-table4 ,the practice becoming so common on our best-regulated railroads1 of examining candidates for promotion to the position of engineer on their knowledge of the time-table1 has a very salutary effect upon aspiring firemen1 and induces them to acquire familiarity with the rules governing train-service1 which they never forget4 ,our engineer is well posted on all the rules relating to the movement of trains2 his mind's eye can glance over the division1 and note meeting or passing points2 and the relative rights of each train stand blazoned forth in bold relief before his mental vision4 ,this knowledge regulates his conduct while nearing stations2 for1 although every stopping-point is approached cautiously1 those places where trains may be expected to be found1 are run into with vigilant carefulness1 the train being under perfect control4 ,depending blindly upon conductors and brakemen to keep safe control of the train at dangerous points is opening the gate of trouble4 ,an engineer is jointly responsible with the conductor for the safety of his train1 and he should make certain that every precaution is taken to get over the road without accident4 ,,precautions ,,to ,,be ,,observed ,,in ,,approaching ,,and ,,passing ,,stations4 ,running past stations where trains are standing side-tracked1 requires to be done with special care1 particularly in the case of passenger trains2 for1 at such points1 there is danger of persons getting injured by stepping inadvertently past a car or a building1 in front of a moving train4 ,this peril is guarded against by reducing the speed as far as practicable1 after whistling to warn all concerned1 by ringing the engine-bell1 and keeping a sharp lookout from the cab4 ,,the ,,best ,,rules ,,must ,,be ,,supplemented ,,by ,,good ,,judgment4 ,rules framed by the officers of our railways for the guidance of employes are always safe to follow as far as they go1 and neglect of their behests will soon entail disaster4 ,but circumstances sometimes arise in train-service to which no rule applies1 and the men in charge must follow the dictates of their judgment4 ,this happens often1 especially on new roads2 and the men who prove themselves capable of wrestling successfully with unusual occurrences1 of overcoming difficulties suddenly encountered1 are nature's own railroaders4 ,it is this practice of acting judiciously and promptly1 without the aid of codified directions1 which gives to ,american railroad men their striking individuality1 known to the men of no other nation following the same calling4 ,european railway servants carry ponderous books of 8rules and regulations0 in their pockets1 and these rules are expected to furnish guidance for every contingency2 so1 when an engine-driver or guard gets into an unusual dilemma1 he turns over the pages of his rule-book for counsel and direction4 ,the ,american engineer or conductor under similar circumstances takes the safe side1 and goes ahead4 ,,operating ,,single ,,tracks ,,safely4 ,for many years to come1 the great majority of our railroads will be single tracks1 as they now are4 ,the operating of single-track roads is only done safely by the exercise of unsleeping vigilance on the part of all concerned in the movement of trains4 ,delays sometimes occur through mistaken excess of caution1 as in the case of an engineer in ,iowa1 who mistook the lantern of a benighted farmer for the headlight of an approaching train1 and backed to the nearest telegraph station2 or that of a conductor in ,michigan1 who side-tracked his train to let the evening star pass4 ,such mistakes make pleasantry among train-men1 but all acknowledge that it is better to err on the safe side than to run recklessly into danger4 ,on this subject the remarks of ,kirkman are strongly applicable4 ,writing on the 8intelligent discrimination exercised by train men10 he says1 8,it is observable in the practical application of the system under which trains are operated1 that the employes connected with the train service do not always attach the significance to specific signals or rules that would naturally be supposed4 ,especially is this so in reference to use of signals4 ,their acquaintance with the every-day working of trains teaches them that allowance must always be made for the ignorance1 stupidity1 or thoughtlessness of employes2 and they strive constantly to protect themselves1 and the passengers and property intrusted to their care1 from the fatal effects that would oftentimes follow a blind obedience to the orders given them4444 ,the engineer of an irregular train that is running under special telegraphic instructions at the rate of sixty miles an hour1 can not depend implicitly upon the accuracy of the reports he receives in reference to the location and intention of other trains4444 ,his orders are to proceed4 ,he has been trained to obey4 ,outwardly he is unconcerned1 but inwardly he is filled with apprehension2 and1 as he proceeds on his course1 he scrutinizes the track with an intensity and a sagacity that never wearies40 ,,causes ,,of ,,anxiety ,,to ,,engineers4 8,the anxiety upon the part of the engineer is not occasioned by fear for his personal safety1 though that doubtless has its influence2 but it is the knowledge born of observation and experience1 that blind adherence to orders1 no matter what the circumstances1 or from whom emanating1 may not only cost him his life1 but may involve the lives of many others1--the lives of people believing in him1 and trusting in him1 and as unconscious of danger as they are helpless to avoid it40 ,,acquaintance ,,with ,,the ,,road4 ,next in importance to knowing well how to manage the engine1 and intimate familiarity with the time-table and its rules1 comes acquaintance with the road4 ,in the light of noonday1 when all nature seems at peace1 when every object can be seen distinctly1 the work of running over a division is as easy as child's play4 ,but when thick darkness covers the earth1 when the fitful gleam of the headlight shines on a mass of rain so dense that it seems like a water-wall rising from the pilot1 or when blinding clouds of snow obliterate every bush and bank1 it is important that the engineer should know every object of the wayside4 ,a person unaccustomed to the business1 who rides on a locomotive tearing through the darkness on a stormy night1 sees nothing around but a black chaos made fitfully awful by the glare from the fire-box door4 ,but even in the wildest tempest1 when elemental strife drowns the noise of the engine1 the experienced engineer attends to his duties calmly and collectedly4 ,a cutting or embankment1 a culvert or crossing1 a tree or bush1 is sufficient to mark the location2 and every mile gives landmarks trifling to the uninitiated1 but to the trained eye significant as a lighted signal4 ,one indicates the place to shut off steam for a station1 another tells that the train is approaching a stiff-pull grade2 and the engine-men act on the knowledge imparted4 ,and so the round of the work goes4 ,working and watching keep the train speeding on its journey4 ,nothing is left to chance or luck3 every movement1 every variation of speed1 is the effect of an unseen control4 ,as a stately ship glides on its voyage obedient as a thing of life to the turn of the steersman's wheel2 so the king of inland transportation1 the locomotive engine1 the monarch of speed1 the ideal of power in motion1 pursues its way1 annihilating space1 binding nations into a harmonious unit1 and all the time submissive to the lightest touch of the engineer's hand4 ,to get a freight train promptly over the road day after day1 or night after night1 an engineer must know the road intimately1 not only marking the places where steam must be shut off for stations or grades1 but every sag and rise must be engraved on his memory4 ,then he will be prepared to take advantage of slight descents to assist in getting him over short pulls1 where1 otherwise1 he would lose speed2 and the same knowledge will avail him to avoid breaking the train in two while passing over the short depressions in the track's alignment1 called sags in the ,west4 ,,final ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,trip4 ,with an engine properly fired1 there is but little special preparation needed for closing up the trip without waste of fuel4 ,the fire is regulated so that a head of steam will be retained sufficient to take the engine into the round-house after the fire-box is cleaned out4 ,in drawing the fire1 the blower should be used as sparingly as possible2 for its blast rushes a volume of cold air through the flues1 which is apt to start leaks4 ,many engineers find flues1 or stay-bolts1 which were dry at the end of one trip1 leaking when the engine is taken out for the next run4 ,in nine cases out of ten1 the cause has been too much blower4 ,so soon as the ash-pan is cleaned out1 the dampers should be closed so that the fire-box and flues may cool down gradually4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,running ,a ,,fast ,,passenger ,,train4 ,materials for the following notes were taken during a trip on the ,pennsylvania ,railroad3-- ,,average ,,speed4 ,the ,new ,york and ,chicago limited express train1 run on the ,pennsylvania system of railroads1 passes over the distance of #iab miles between the two cities in twenty-five hours and twenty-nine minutes1 making an average speed of #ce4bi miles an hour4 ,all the known resources of mechanical science have been ransacked to produce appliances for reducing delays1 so that the highest possible percentage of the time provided for the journey should be devoted to running4 ,water for steam-making is collected1 as the train runs along1 from troughs placed in the middle of the track2 a system of absolute block signals1 controlled by vigilant train-dispatchers1 provides a clear line2 and stops are made only for the purpose of changing the locomotives at the end of divisions4 ,the lines over which the train runs traverse a multitude of cities and towns1 most of them having the streets crossing the track on the level2 and a great many other railroads are crossed at grade4 ,therefore1 although the actual stops between ,jersey ,city and ,chicago are only seven1 a run exceeding ten miles without meeting with the necessity of checking the speed is rare4 ,,speed ,,between ,,jersey ,,city ,,and ,,philadelphia4 ,the run of ninety miles from ,jersey ,city to ,philadelphia is made at an average speed of #de miles an hour1 leaving an average of #cd miles an hour for the remainder of the journey4 ,to keep on time1 some parts of the first division must be traversed at a speed over #fj miles an hour1 while #ej miles an hour must be maintained over a considerable portion of the other divisions4 ,,requisites ,,of ,a ,,high-,,speed ,,locomotive4 ,the first essential for a high-speed locomotive is the means of generating steam freely as fast as it is used up by the cylinders4 ,the next consideration is properly designed steam-distribution gear1 and well-proportioned machinery1 so that the heat energy produced by the boiler may be converted into useful work in propelling the engine with the least possible loss of power4 ,to handle the fast trains between ,new ,york and ,philadelphia1 the mechanical talent of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad1 aided by fifty years' inherited experience1 has produced the form of engine known as ,class ,k4 ,this is an anthracite-coal-burning locomotive1 with #a1bje square feet of heating-surface to supply steam to cylinders #ah inches by #bd inches1 which turn two pairs of coupled drivers #gh inches in diameter4 ,the traction force of the engine is thus 7#ahb #bd7_/gh #ii4fi pounds for each pound of effective pressure per square inch of the pistons4 ,the valves are the plain slide1 with #a inch outside lap1 no inside lap1 #a_/af inch lead in full gear1 and a full travel of #e inches4 ,the steam-ports are #af inches long and #a inches wide2 while the exhaust port is #c inches wide1 securing free emission of steam4 ,,making ,,up ,,the ,,fire4 ,locomotives belonging to this company are not permitted to cool down1 unless the fire has to be drawn that work may be done4 ,at the end of a trip1 the fire is cleaned and banked to wait for the next run4 ,by getting to the round-house two hours before train-time1 we find our engine receiving the first work of preparation for the trip4 ,the fire is spread over the grates1 and a fresh supply of coal laid over the whole fire4 ,to make an engine steam freely with anthracite coal1 it is very important that the fire should be properly burned through before starting out4 ,about two hours' time is needed for this1 so that the mass of coal will get properly ignited without the aid of the blower4 ,a fire that has to be forced along with the blower never proves satisfactory4 ,,getting ,,ready ,,for ,,the ,,trip4 ,the engineer and fireman reach the round-house about half an hour before train-time1 and each proceeds to do his own line of work preparing the engine for the run4 ,the engineer attends to oiling round1--an important matter where ninety miles have to be passed without stopping4 ,each bearing and rubbing surface is provided with an oil-cup1 with feed carefully regulated to supply the required lubrication4 ,mechanical ingenuity has arranged excellent methods for securing regular lubrication1 but the care and skill of the engineer are needed to keep them working properly4 ,as he moves round the engine1 his trained eye detects the smallest defect2 and1 as he examines every cup and reservoir1 the touch in time that prevents delay is given wherever needed4 ,at the same time the machinery gets a final inspection1 and the air-pump is started going4 ,meanwhile1 the fireman has been attending to his duties1--giving the fire its finishing touches1 filling oil-cans1 and brushing the dust off the cab-fittings4 ,now we back up to the train4 ,the air-hose is coupled1 two minutes' fast pumping of the air-pump charges the car reservoirs with their full pressure of air1 and we are ready for the start4 ,while waiting for the signal1 ,i look into the fire-box1 and see a furnace #aj feet long and #db inches wide filled up with coal to a depth of #aj inches4 ,it takes about a ton and a half of coal to make this fire ready for the road4 ,the fire was level on the surface2 but the greatest depth was in the front1 where the grates slope downward4 ,the fire-box alone gives a heating-surface of #abj square feet4 ,,the ,,train ,,to ,,be ,,pulled4 ,the train consists of five ,pullman sleeping-cars and one dining-car1 the six cars weighing #bjj tons4 ,the engine and tender1 in working order1 weigh #gd tons1 which gives a total weight of #bgd tons to be moved by the force exerted by the pistons4 ,,the ,,start4 ,as the signal is given to start1 the engineer drops the links full forward by means of the steam reverse gear1 pulls the throttle lever open1 and the engine responds by moving forward4 ,a sprinkling of sand is dropped upon the rails1 the throttle-valve is opened a little wider1 and with resounding exhausts the engine is working into speed4 ,from the start1 the necessity of pushing forward1 and utilizing every second of time1 is recognized4 ,the train has not moved more than its own length when a speed of ten miles an hour is reached4 ,the engineer now hooks back the links to cut off at ten inches1 pulls the throttle wide open1 and 8lets her go40 ,while waiting at the station1 steam was kept down to #acj pounds by the injector and heater4 ,the injector was shut off just before starting4 ,when we got out about half a mile1 the steam-gauge began to point towards #adj1 the popping pressure2 and the engineer started the injector1 and it was kept going continually during the remainder of the trip4 ,it is a ,no4 #i ,sellers1 and can supply the boiler during the heaviest work without reaching the limit of its capacity4 ,there is a ,no4 #h injector on the fireman's side1 but it is never used to run by4 ,the injector and air-pump are two things about these engines that seldom need to be touched on the road after they are set to work4 ,,getting ,,the ,,train ,,over ,,the ,,road4 ,the first two miles out of ,jersey ,city a grade of about #dj feet is ascended1 but the summit is reached in four minutes2 then the links are hooked up to the #h-;inch cut-off1 which is the ordinary running-point with this train4 ,next mile is passed in #he seconds1 but is finished by shutting off steam to let the engine roll over a bridge4 ,here the valves are oiled1 a duty which is repeated three times during the trip4 ,although steam was shut off for only about #cjj yards1 the speed was perceptibly reduced2 and it took a minute and a half to make the next mile4 ,three miles succeeding that were traversed in #c minutes1 one of them being run in #ei seconds2 but again a demand for reduced speed intervened in the shape of the street-crossings of ,newark1--the city being approached by a sharp curve4 ,here the speed was reduced to #ab miles an hour1 and two miles were run at a rate under #cj miles an hour4 ,a spurt is again made2 and the second mile1 after getting clear of the street-crossings1 is passed in #fc seconds1 the next mile in #fa seconds1 when another reduction of speed for ,elizabeth streets and a railroad crossing takes place4 ,after passing this town1 a speed of one mile in #eg seconds was attained1 several miles having been traversed in a minute each3 then came the watering-point1 where the speed was reduced under #bj miles an hour4 ,thus it was through the whole trip1--a struggle to get up speed3 then comes the necessity for dissipating part of the power gained in raising the load to the required velocity4 ,the engine maintained a speed of sixty miles an hour easily enough2 but it was a laborious proceeding1 increasing the speed in a couple of miles from a mile in two minutes to a mile in one minute4 ,several heavy grades were ascended1 one of them three miles long1 which reduced the speed in the second two miles to #cj miles an hour1 although the links were dropped to ten inches cut-off4 ,the highest speed attained during the run was a mile in #ee seconds4 ,the greatest speed was reached with the links hooked back to cut-off at #g inches4 ,it is well understood by engineers running these trains1 that high velocity can only be attained with the lever well notched back4 ,sixty miles an hour is nearly the maximum speed these engines will make cutting off at #h inches1 and the train is so heavy that the amount of steam represented by that cut-off is needed to maintain the speed on curves or slightly ascending grades4 ,the fastest running is done under the favorable conditions of a straight1 level track1 or descending grade1 where the engine can handle the train at #f or #g inches cut-off4 ,when running over #fj miles an hour1 if the lever be advanced a notch the speed will decrease2 for more steam gets into the cylinders than can be exhausted at the high piston velocity1 and back pressure ensues1 which acts as a brake upon the engine4 ,even with the big driving-wheels of this locomotive1 the piston-speed at #fj miles an hour is very high4 ,in traversing a mile in one minute1 the wheels make #beh revolutions1 giving a piston-speed of #a1jcd feet4 ,,how ,,the ,,engineer ,,did ,,his ,,work4 ,the engineer exhibited remarkable skill and intelligence in handling the engine4 ,the water was carried steady without any fluctuation1 which enabled the fireman to maintain the steam at an even pressure4 ,where the speed had to be reduced1 no more braking was done than was absolutely necessary2 and the brake was applied so gradually1 that it was hard to distinguish that the speed was not being reduced merely through natural loss of inertia4 ,every time the steam was shut off1 the links were dropped1 giving the valves full travel4 ,many engineers do not recognize the urgent necessity for doing this4 ,they will shut off steam1 and leave the engine running hooked up1 a practice which proves destructive to valves1 their seats1 pistons1 and cylinders4 ,take the case of this engine cutting off at six inches of the stroke4 ,as the piston moves from the point of cut-off to the point of release1 a partial vacuum is formed in the cylinder2 and1 as soon as the valve opens the exhaust1 the hot1 cinder-laden gases from the smoke-box rush in through the nozzles to fill the void in the cylinder4 ,during the return stroke1 compression begins about eight inches before the completion of the stroke2 and1 as the compression is too great for the valve to hold down1 it is jerked violently away from its seat1 causing the clattering so well known where engines are running hooked up after the steam is shut off4 ,i have known several cases of valves getting 8cocked0 from this cause alone4 ,,qualifications ,,that ,,make ,a ,,successful ,,engineer4 ,the ability to manage his engine skillfully1 so that its best powers may be economically developed1 is the first requisite of a good engineer2 but that qualification must be supplemented by others scarcely less essential4 ,sagacity1 sound judgment1 judicious self-reliance1 are attributes which advance men in all callings2 and they are peculiarly valuable possessions for the man who presides over the safety of a railway train4 ,it would be hard to find a business where capacity for suddenly adapting circumstances to ends is likely to prove so useful as it is to an engineer4 ,some men get along smoothly with engine and train so long as every thing goes on regularly1--trains on time1 and engines in perfect order4 ,but let the least difficulty arise1 and they succumb like a house of cards4 ,imbecile1 helpless creatures1 they are vanquished by the first cloud of trouble4 ,their true vocation is away from railways4 ,self-confidence is not always popular2 but the engineer who is perfectly satisfied with his own ability to grapple successfully with every emergency1 to overcome every difficulty1 and avoid every danger1 is the individual who gets trains promptly over the road4 ,he who possesses adaptability for railroading acquires a mastery of the work quickly1 but mere affinity for the calling will not invest a man with the aggregation of facts respecting the business which are requisite for meeting the emergencies of train service4 ,this must be acquired by industry and observation4 ,,how ,,the ,,firing ,,was ,,done4 ,the fireman's part of the work of getting the train over the road was no less skillfully done than that of the engineer4 ,during the first seven miles of the trip1 he did nothing for the fire other than crack up some coal-lumps4 ,all the coal burned was broken down to pieces about the size of two bricks4 ,when he seemed to think the proper time had come1 he glanced at the fire1 then threw in one shovelful of coal4 ,to pitch coal upon the right spot in a fire-box ten feet long1 requires considerable skill when the engine is swinging at a mile-a-minute speed2 but this youth seemed equal to the task4 ,he did not pile in a load of coal1 and then climb up into the cab1 to wait for it to burn1 as is the practice of the poor fireman4 ,after he began to fire1 he kept at it4 ,about every two minutes he got in a shovelful of coal4 ,when the engine was working hard getting into speed1 he varied his intervals of firing2 but he worked on a system1 which was to keep up the body of fire1 and maintain the temperature as nearly even as possible4 ,he followed scientific methods1 whether he understood any thing about science or not4 ,he never hesitated about the spot where the coal was going1 but pitched it in1 and closed the door quickly1 waiting till the turn for the next installment came round4 ,by this means the steam never felt the chilling effect that results from heavy-charge firing4 ,the steam-gauge index kept pointing at #ace as steadily as if it had been fastened there4 ,about eight miles from ,philadelphia the fireman stopped putting in coal1 and in the remainder of the run he several times used the hoe to level the fire4 ,when we stopped at the station1 about four inches of glowing cinders covered the grates4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,hard-,,steaming ,,engines4 ,,importance ,,of ,,locomotives ,,steaming ,,freely4 ,as the purpose of a locomotive engine attached to a train is to take that train along on time1 and as engines are generally rated to pull cars according to their size1 it is of the utmost importance that they should make steam freely enough to keep up an even pressure on the boiler while the cylinders are drawing the supply necessary to maintain speed4 ,a locomotive that does not generate steam as fast as the cylinders use it1 is like a lame horse on the road1 a torture to itself1 and to every one connected with it4 ,,essentials ,,for ,,good-,,steaming ,,engines4 ,to steam freely1 an engine must be built according to sound mechanical principles4 ,the locomotives constructed by our best manufacturers1 the engines which keep the trains on our first-class roads moving like clock-work1 are designed according to proportions which experience has demonstrated to be productive of the most satisfactory results for power and speed1 combined with economy4 ,there are certain characteristics common to all good makers4 ,the valve-motion is planned to apply steam to the pistons at nearly boiler pressure1 with the means of cutting off early in the stroke1 and retaining the steam long enough in the cylinders to obtain tangible benefits from its expansive principle4 ,liberal heating-surface is provided in the boiler1 its extent being regulated by the size of the cylinders to be supplied with steam4 ,with a good valve-motion1 and plenty of heating-surface served with the products of good coal1 an engine must steam freely if it is not prevented from doing so by malconstruction or adjustment of minor parts1 or by the wasting of heat in the boiler or in the cylinders4 ,an engine of that kind will steam if it is managed with any degree of skill4 ,but as the best lathe ever constructed will turn out poor work under the hands of a blundering machinist1 so the best of locomotives will make a bad record when run without care or skill4 ,regular feeding--the water supplied at a rate to equal the quantity evaporated1 which will maintain a nearly level gauge--is an essential point in successful running4 ,it is hardly second in importance to skillful firing4 ,,causes ,,detrimental ,,to ,,making ,,steam4 ,when an engine is steaming badly1 almost the first action of an experienced engineer is to examine the petticoat-pipe4 ,the influence which this pipe exercises on the steaming qualities of an engine has already been adverted to1 but its importance can not be too strongly urged upon the attention of the young engineer4 ,it is one of the most successful devices invented for regulating the vacuum in the smoke-box1 so that the currents of hot gases shall flow evenly through all the flues4 ,any thing which interferes to disturb the flow of these currents1 crowding them away from any section of the flue-surface1 will have a prejudicial effect upon the steam4 ,the pipe may be set too high to produce an even draught1 or the fault may be in the opposite direction4 ,its diameter may not be suitable for the conditions of smoke box and stack1 or its shape may be at fault4 ,not unfrequently the pipe is fastened obliquely1 so that the blast impinges on the side of the stack1 producing evil results2 or the braces which keep it in position occasionally break1 and the draught is permitted to shoot in every direction but the direct way to the atmosphere1 and the effect is immediately apparent on the steam-gauge4 ,,petticoat-,,pipe4 ,the petticoat-pipe performs1 in relation to draught1 functions of a similar nature to those performed by the tubes of an injector in inducing the flow of water2 and its efficiency is reduced by the same disturbing agencies4 ,the pipe must have a size in proportion to the diameter of stack1 and it must be set so that it shall deliver the exhaust-steam to make a straight shoot through the stack4 ,when these conditions are properly arranged1 the exhaust-steam goes through the stack like a piston1 leaving a vacuum behind4 ,the petticoat-pipe is a device confined mainly to ,american locomotives2 and its purpose is to regulate the draught in the smoke-box so that the currents of hot gases are drawn uniformly through the flues1 the top1 bottom1 and sides getting about the same heating intensity as passes through the middle rows4 ,the opportunity for the exhibition of good firing depends greatly upon the petticoat-pipe being constructed properly1 and secured at the right position4 ,it is impracticable to lay down a positive rule for dimensions and best position of these pipes1 for engines of the same proportions frequently require different petticoat-pipe arrangements to make them steam freely4 ,for our #ag #bd engine1 there is a petticoat-pipe #aa inches in diameter1 with a flare1 at bottom1 #ag inches wide4 ,the pipe reaches within #c inches of the bottom of the stack1 and is set one inch above the nozzle4 ,this gives good results in our case4 ,when engines with sufficient heating-surface do not steam freely1 the trouble nearly always lies in malproportioned or badly set petticoat-pipes4 ,sometimes a very small change in the position of this pipe will have a wonderful effect upon the steaming qualities of the engine4 ,if the pipe is set too high1 most of the draught will pass through the lower flues2 and the upper rows will become filled with soot1 and many of them are likely to get choked with fine ashes1 which remains there for want of draught to force it out4 ,should it be too low1 the bottom rows of flues will suffer from the effect of defective draught4 ,when the petticoat-pipe is just right1 the flues will look uniformly clean inside1 which can be ascertained by a close inspection of the smoke-box4 ,in addition to making the engine lose the benefit of its full heating-surface1 a badly arranged petticoat-pipe concentrates the draught so much that it tears the fire to pieces at one particular point2 and the only resource for the man who wishes to keep up steam is to fire heavily1 thereby preventing cold air from being drawn through the crevices4 ,many engines will not steam with a light fire1 and yet do well with a heavy body of coal on the grates4 ,in nearly every instance of this kind1 the fault lies in the petticoat-pipe2 and1 if this is properly adjusted1 the engine will be found capable of carrying a light fire1 and will show far more economical results than could be reached with heavy firing4 ,some engineers assume that the petticoat-pipe must be right when an engine steams freely1 even though a heavy fire is necessary to produce this result4 ,this is a mistake4 ,it may be badly set or badly proportioned1 only a degree smaller than it is where the engine will not steam to keep the train going4 ,by closely watching the action of the blast on the fire of an engine that calls for heavy firing1 the engineer learns where the fault lies4 ,when the engine is laboring on a hard pull1 he should open the door2 and if he finds1 that1 in a particular section of the fire-box1 the smaller pieces of coal are dancing and glowing with an incandescence more brilliant than the other parts1 and if he finds that this is repeatedly the case1 he may conclude that the nozzles are too small1 or the petticoat-pipe is working the mischief with his coal-account4 ,should the nozzles be the proper size1 he had better lose no time in beginning to experiment with this pipe4 ,he can lower it a quarter of an inch at a time1 and mark the effects of the change on the fire4 ,should that produce no improvement1 he may try raising it2 or1 if there is a movable sleeve on the top1 that may be set in different positions4 ,an engineer can test a petticoat-pipe much better by manipulating it on the road than in the round-house4 ,if no change of position will improve the working of the pipe1 one of different dimensions should be tried4 ,perseverance in this line will bring the right thing in the end4 ,i knew an engineer who tried five different petticoat-pipes before the proper one was reached4 ,such a thing causes labor1 and needs patience2 but it pays when the fuel-account for running ten thousand miles comes in4 ,,the ,,smoke-,,stack4 ,the ordinary purpose of the smoke-stack is to convey the smoke and exhausted gases to the atmosphere4 ,if it is intended to perform its functions in a straightforward manner1 it is made about the same diameter as the cylinders1 and its highest altitude rises from #ad to #ae feet above the rail4 ,the stack is a simple-enough article to look at1 yet a vast amount of inventive genius has been expended upon attempts to expand its natural functions4 ,attempts have been made to utilize it as an apparatus for consuming smoke1 and hundreds of patents hang upon it as a spark-arrester4 ,patentees1 in pushing their hobby1 seem occasionally to forget that a locomotive requires some draught1 as a means of generating steam2 and stacks are frequently so hampered with patent spark-arresters that the means of making steam are seriously curtailed4 ,were it not for the danger of raising fires by spark-throwing1 it would be more economical to use engines with clear smoke-stacks2 and the extended front end1 with open stack1 is a good move in this direction4 ,,obstructions ,,to ,,draught4 ,every obstruction to free draught entails the use of strong artificial means to overcome it4 ,the usual resort is contracted nozzles1 which induce a sharp blast1 and use up more fuel than would be required with an open passage to the atmosphere4 ,among the obstacles to free steaming1 that come under the category of obstructed draught1 may be placed a wide cone fastened low1 and netting with fine meshes4 ,when the draught passage is interrupted to a pernicious extent by spark-arresting appliances1 their effects can be perceived on the fire when steam is shut off2 for the flame and smoke prefer the fire-box door to the stack as a means of exit4 ,sometimes steam-making is hindered by the netting getting gummed up with spent lubricants and dirt from the cylinders4 ,cases occur where this gum has to be burned off before free draught can be obtained4 ,waste soaked with coal-oil will generally burn off the objectionable coating4 ,,choking ,,the ,,netting ,,with ,,oil4 ,gumming of the netting is usually caused by carelessness in oiling the valves4 ,some runners will shut off for a minute while the fireman oils the valves1 and the lubricant scarcely gets time to reach the steam-chest when the throttle is opened wide again2 and instead of soaking over valves and cylinders1 and into the remotest part of piston-packing1 the oil goes through the stack with the first puff of steam4 ,it is best1 in oiling the valves1 to leave the cup-plugs open long enough for the oil to be sucked out of the pipes4 ,then1 when steam is applied1 it should be done by slightly opening the throttle1 so that it will work the oil into the piston-packing2 and1 after a few turns run this way1 there will be no loose oil left to defile the netting4 ,,silicious ,,deposit ,,on ,,flue-,,sheet4 ,certain kinds of coal deposit a hard1 silicious substance upon the back flue-sheet1 which gradually accumulates till the draught is seriously impeded4 ,this1 of course1 prevents the full benefit of the hot gases being obtained2 and consequently the steam goes down4 ,flues stopped up with cinders produce a similar effect4 ,the flues getting choked up with cinders is not always an indication that the petticoat-pipe is performing its duty improperly4 ,stopping up of flues is often caused by wild1 unskillful firing4 ,a shovelful of coal pitched high1 deposits part of its load direct in the flues2 and some pieces that are a close fit do not go through4 ,they stick half way2 and small cinders soon follow1 that quickly close up the entire passage4 ,,the ,,extended ,,smoke-,,box4 ,by this arrangement1 the spark-arresting device is transferred from the smoke-stack to the smoke-box1 and the exhaust steam escapes direct to the atmosphere1 without meeting obstruction from a cone or netting4 ,the netting is generally an oblong screen1 extending from above the upper row of flues to the top of the extended smoke-box1 some distance ahead of the stack4 ,this presents a wide area of netting for the fire-gases to pass through4 ,the draught through the flues is regulated by an apron or diaphragm-plate1 extending downwards at an acute angle from the upper part of the flue-sheet4 ,with the long exhaust-pipe used with the extended smoke-box1 the tendency of the exhaust is to draw the fire-gases through the upper row of flues4 ,the diaphragm-plate performs the same duties here1 of regulating the draught through the flues equally1 as the petticoat-pipe does with the diamond-stack4 ,it is of great consequence1 for the successful working of the engine1 that the draught should be properly regulated3 otherwise there will be trouble for want of steam4 ,when an engine having an extended smoke-box does not steam properly1 experiments should be made with the diaphragm fastened at different angles1 till the point is reached where equal draught through the flues is obtained4 ,closing the nozzles1 as a means of improving the steaming of such an engine1 is certain to make matters worse4 ,,steam-,,pipes ,,leaking4 ,the blowing of steam-pipe joints in the smoke-box is very disastrous to the steaming qualities of a locomotive4 ,this has a double action against keeping up steam4 ,all that escapes by leaking is so much wasted1 and its presence in the smoke-box interrupts the draught4 ,if the steam-pipe joints are leaking badly1 they can be heard when the fire-door is open and the engine working steam4 ,some experienced engineers can detect the action of leaky steam-pipe joints on the fire2 but the safest way to locate this trouble is by opening the smoke-box door1 and giving the engine steam4 ,,defects ,,of ,,grates4 ,grates that are fitted so close as to curtail the free admission of air below the fire prevent an engine from steaming freely4 ,the effect of this will be most apparent when the fire begins to get dirty4 ,this is not a common fault4 ,i once knew of an engine's steaming being very seriously impaired by two or three fingers in one section of grate being broken off4 ,the engine steamed well with a light fire1 till1 in dumping the fire at the end of a journey1 the men knocked some of the fingers off4 ,next trip1 it seemed a different engine4 ,nothing but heavy firing would keep up an approach at working-pressure4 ,i experimented with the petticoat-pipe without satisfaction1 assured myself that no leaks existed among the pipes2 the stack1 with its connections1 was faultless2 and the engineer was puzzled4 ,the defect was discovered by watching the effect of the blast upon the fire4 ,signs of air-drawing were often to be seen at the point where the broken fingers were4 ,this was where the mischief lay4 ,too much cold air came through1 unless the opening were bedded over by heavy fire4 ,a drop-grate that did not close properly had a similar effect upon another engine which came under the author's notice2 and a change1 which shut the opening1 effected a perfect remedy4 ,,lime1 ,,scale1 ,,and ,,mud4 ,in calcareous regions1 where the water-supply for locomotives is drawn from wells1 the most common cause for bad-steaming engines is leaky heating-surfaces1 or water-surfaces incrusted with lime deposits4 ,when he sees water pouring from flues and stay-bolts1 an engineer has no difficulty in divining the reason why his engine steams poorly2 nor need he be far-seeing to perceive a remedy in the boiler-maker's calking-tools skillfully applied4 ,the case of incrustation is1 however1 more difficult to comprehend in all its bearings4 ,when water containing lime-salts touches the hot flues or fire-box1 evaporation takes place2 and the solid substance previously in solution is left behind1 and adheres to the heating-surfaces1 gradually forming a refractory scale which is an indifferent conductor of heat4 ,as this scale becomes thick1 it stands up1 like a non-conducting barrier1 between the water and the hot sheets2 and it takes a much greater expenditure of heat to evaporate the water inside1 just as a kettle coated with scale is much harder to boil than a clean one4 ,when a boiler gets badly fouled with scale and mud1 these impurities exercise a pernicious effect upon the steaming qualities of a locomotive4 ,,preventing ,,accumulation ,,of ,,mud ,,in ,,boilers4 ,mud-drums1 with blow-off cocks attached1 serve to check the growth of this evil when the engineer is careful to make frequent use of these appliances2 and a strong pressure of washing-out water1 poured frequently through the boiler1 has an excellent cleansing effect3 but some kinds of scale defy mud-drums and the best methods of washing out1 leaving the only resort to be the removal of flues for cleansing4 ,the filling up of a boiler with scale and mud1 so as to prevent the engine from steaming freely1 is necessarily a gradual process2 and an observant engineer has time to note the change1 and recommend the proper remedy4 ,,temporary ,,cures ,,for ,,leaky ,,flues4 ,leaky flues or stay-bolts may sometimes be dried up temporarily by putting bran1 or any other substance containing starch1 in the feed-water4 ,care must be taken not to use this remedy too liberally1 or it will cause foaming4 ,it is1 however1 a sort of granger resort1 and is seldom tried except to help an engine to the nearest point where calking can be done4 ,,good ,,management ,,makes ,,engines ,,steam4 ,no engine steams so freely but that it will get short under mismanagement4 ,the locomotive is designed to generate steam from water kept at a nearly uniform temperature4 ,if an engine is pulling a train which requires the evaporation of #a1ejj gallons of water each hour1 there will be #be gallons pumped into the boiler every minute4 ,when this goes on regularly1 all goes well2 but if the runner shuts the feed for five minutes1 and then opens it to allow #ej gallons a minute to pass through the pump1 the best engine going will show signs of distress4 ,where this fluctuating style of feeding is indulged in1--and many careless runners are habitually guilty of such practices1--no locomotive can retain the reputation of doing its work economically4 ,,intermittent ,,boiler-,,feeding4 ,the case of ,fred ,bemis1 who still murders locomotives on a road in ,indiana1 is instructive in this respect4 ,fred was originally a butcher2 and1 had he stuck to the cleaver1 he might have passed through life as a fairly intelligent man4 ,but he was seized with the ambition to go railroading1 and struck a job as fireman4 ,he never displayed any aptitude for the business1 and was a poor fireman all his time through sheer indifference4 ,but he had no specially bad habits2 and1 in the course of years1 he was 8set up40 ,he had the aptitude for seeing a thing done a thousand times without learning how to do it4 ,all his movements with an engine were spasmodic4 ,starting from a station with a roaring fire and full boiler1 the next stopping-point loomed ahead2 and to get there as soon as possible was his only thought4 ,he would keep the reverse-lever in the neighborhood of the 8corner10 and pound the engine along4 ,the pump would be shut off to keep the steam from going back too fast1 till the water became low3 then the feed would be opened wide1 and the steam drowned down4 ,in vain a heavy fire would be torn to pieces by vigorous shaking of the grates4 ,the steam would not rally1 and he would crawl into the next station at a wagon pace4 ,a laboring blower and shaker-bar would resuscitate the energies of the engine in a few minutes if the flues and fire-box were not leaking too badly1 and the injector would provide the water for starting on2 but no experience of delay and trouble seemed capable of teaching ,bemis the lesson how to work the engine properly4 ,he soon became the terror of train men1 and the boiler-makers worked incessantly on his fire-box4 ,but he is still there1 although he will not make an engineer if he runs for a century4 ,,too ,,much ,,piston ,,clearance4 ,on one of our leading railroads a locomotive was rebuilt1 and fitted with the extension smoke-box1 which was an experiment for that road1 and consequently was looked upon with some degree of distrust4 ,when the engine was put on the road1 it was found that it did not steam satisfactorily4 ,of course1 it was at once concluded that the draught arrangements were to blame2 and experiments were made1 with the view of adjusting the flow of gases through the tubes to produce better results4 ,the traveling engineer of the road had charge of the job1 and he proceeded industriously to work at locating the trouble4 ,he tried every thing in the way of adjusting the smoke-box attachments that could be thought of1 but nothing that was done improved the steaming qualities of the engine4 ,he then proceeded to search for trouble in some other direction4 ,the result of his examination was the discovery that the engine was working with three-fourth inch clearance at each end of the cylinders4 ,this1 he naturally concluded1 entailed a serious waste of steam2 so he had the clearance reduced to one-fourth inch4 ,when the engine got out after this change1 it steamed very satisfactorily2 and the extension smoke-box is no longer in disrepute on that road4 ,,badly ,,proportioned ,,smoke-,,stacks4 ,mistakes are frequently made when the open stack is adopted1 as is practicable with the extended smoke-box1 of making the stack too wide for the exhaust4 ,this leads to deficiency of draught for the steam that is passing through the stack1 because the steam does not fill the stack like a piston creating a clean vacuum behind it4 ,where an engine fails to steam freely after being equipped with an extended smoke-box1 attention should be directed to the proportion of stack diameter to the size of cylinders4 ,,the ,,exhaust ,,nozzles4 ,locomotives1 with their limited heating-surface1 require intense artificial draught to produce steam rapidly4 ,many devices have been tried to stimulate combustion1 and generate the necessary heat2 but none have proved so effectual and reliable as contracted exhaust orifices4 ,as the intermittent rush of steam from the cylinders to the open atmosphere escapes from the contracted openings of the exhaust-pipe1 it leaves a partial vacuum in the smoke-box1 into which the gases from the fire-box flow with amazing velocity4 ,as the area of the exhaust nozzles is increased1 the pressure of steam passing through becomes lessened1 and the height of the vacuum in the smoke-box is decreased4 ,consequently1 with wide nozzles1 the velocity of the gases through the flues is slower than with narrow ones2 for there is less suction in the smoke-box to draw out the fire products3 and1 where the gases pass slowly through the flues1 there is more time given for the water to abstract the heat4 ,any change or arrangement which will retain the gases of combustion one-tenth of a second longer in contact with the heat-extracting surfaces1 will wonderfully increase the evaporative service of a ton of coal4 ,experiments with the pyrometer1 an instrument for measuring high temperatures1 have shown that the gases passing through the smoke-box vary from #djj degrees up to #ijj degrees ,fahrenheit2 and they show that increase of smoke-box temperature keeps pace with contracted nozzles4 ,from this1 engineers can understand why lead gaskets do not keep blower-joints in a smoke-box tight1 the melting-point of lead being #fbg degrees4 ,inordinately contracted nozzles are objectionable in another way4 ,they cause back pressure in the cylinders1 and thereby decrease the effective duty of the steam4 ,double nozzles are preferable to single ones2 because with the latter the steam has a tendency to shoot over into the other cylinder1 and cause back pressure4 ,engineers anxious to make a good record1 try to run with nozzles as wide as possible4 ,contracted nozzles destroy power by back pressure3 they tear the fire to pieces with the violent blast1 and they hurry the heat through the flues so fast that its temperature is but slightly diminished when it passes into the atmosphere4 ,the engineer1 who1 by intelligent care1 reduces his smoke-box temperature #ajj degrees1 is worthy to rank as a master in his calling4 ,the other day an engineer came into the round-house1 and said1 8,you had better put #c inch nozzles in my engine3 ,i think she will get along with that increase of size40 ,he had been using #c inch nozzles4 ,the change was accordingly made4 ,when he returned from the next trip1 he expressed a doubt about the advantage of the change4 ,but it happened that his own fireman was off1 and a strange man was sent out1 who1 although a good fireman1 failed to keep up steam satisfactorily4 ,on the following trip1 however1 the fireman who belonged to the engine1 returned1 and found no difficulty in getting all the steam required4 ,but this fireman is one who would stand far up among a thousand competitors4 ,considerable practice and intelligent thoughtfulness1 combined with unfailing industry1 have developed in this man an excellence in fire management seldom attained4 ,he follows a unique system1 which seems his own4 ,it is the method of firing light carried to perfection4 ,his coal is all broken down fine1 and lies within easy reach4 ,his movements are cool and deliberate1 no hurry1 no fuss4 ,when he opens the door1 his loaded shovel is ready to deposit its cargo over the spot which a glance shows him to be the thinnest portion of the fire4 ,on the parts of the run where the most steam is needed1 he fires one shovelful at brief intervals1 keeping it up right along4 ,in this way the steam never feels the cooling effect of fresh fire1 for the contents of the fire-box are kept nearly uniform4 ,this plan is a near approach to the automatic stoker which mechanical visionaries predict will effect perfect firing in the vague future4 ,to follow out such a system requires perseverance and self-denial1 but these are well rewarded to the man whose work is his pride4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,shortness ,,of ,,water4--,,pump ,,disorders4 ,,trouble ,,develops ,,natural ,,energy4 ,trouble and affliction are known to have a purifying and elevating effect upon human character2 difficulties encountered in the execution of work1 develop the skill of the true artisan2 and trouble on the road1 or accidents to locomotives1 furnish the engineer with opportunities for developing natural energy1 ingenuity1 and perseverance1 if these attributes are in him1 or they publish to his employers his lack of these important qualities4 ,one of the most serious sources of trouble that an engineer can meet with on the road1 is shortness of water4 ,,shortness ,,of ,,water ,a ,,serious ,,predicament4 ,deficiency of steam with a locomotive that is expected to get a train along on time1 is a very trying condition for an engineer to endure4 ,but a more trying and more dangerous ordeal1 is want of water4 ,where steam is employed as a means of applying power1 water must be kept constantly over the heating-surfaces while the fire is incandescent1 or their destruction is inevitable4 ,with a boiler which evaporates water rapidly1 and in such large quantities as that of the locomotive1 the most perfect feeding apparatus is necessary4 ,nearly all locomotives are well supplied in this respect4 ,good pumps or efficient injectors provide the engineer with excellent appliances for feeding the boiler under ordinary circumstances4 ,but conditions sometimes occur where the best of pumps1 or the most reliable of injectors1 fail to force water into the boiler4 ,,how ,,to ,,deal ,,with ,,shortness ,,of ,,water4 ,when from any cause he finds the boiler getting short of water1 the engineer should resort to all known methods within his power to overcome the difficulty1 by removing the obstacle that is preventing the feeding apparatus from operating4 ,but1 while doing so1 the safety of his fire-box and flues should not be overlooked for a moment4 ,the utmost care must be taken to quench the fire before the water gets below the crown-sheet4 ,this can be performed most effectually by knocking the fire out2 but sometimes the temporary increase of heat1 occasioned by the act of drawing the fire1 is undesirable2 and1 in such a case1 the safest plan is to dampen the fire by throwing wet earth1 or fine coal saturated with water1 upon it4 ,or a more urgent case still may intervene1 when drenching the fire with water is the only means of saving the sheets from destruction4 ,this should be a last resort1 however2 for it is a very clumsy way of saving the fire-box1 and is liable to do no small amount of mischief4 ,cold water thrown upon hot steel sheets1 causes such sudden contraction1 that cracks1 or even rupture1 may ensue4 ,,watching ,,the ,,water-,,gauges4 ,as 8burning his engine0 is the greatest disgrace that can professionally befall an engineer1 every man worthy of the name guards against a possibility of being caught short of water unawares1 by frequent testing of the gauge-cocks4 ,it is not enough to have a good-working water-glass4 ,if an engineer is ambitious to avoid trouble1 he runs by the gauge-cocks1 using the glass as an auxiliary4 ,careful experiments have demonstrated the fact1 that the water-glass1 working properly1 is a more certain indication of the water-level than gauge-cocks2 for1 when the boiler is dirty1 the water rises above its natural level1 and rushes at the open gauge-cock4 ,this can be proved when water is just below a gauge-cock level4 ,if the cock is opened slightly1 steam alone passes out2 but1 when the full opening is made1 water comes4 ,but water will not come through a gauge-cock1 unless the water-level is in its proximity2 and an engineer can tell1 when his gauge shows a mixture of steam1 that the water shown is not to be relied upon4 ,it is not 8solid40 ,on the other hand1 a water-glass out of order sometimes shows a full head of water when the crown-sheet is red-hot4 ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,when ,,the ,,tender ,,is ,,found ,,empty ,,between ,,stations4 ,the most natural cause for pumps or injectors ceasing to work1 is absence of water from the tender4 ,this condition comes round on the road occasionally1 where engineers neglect to fill up at water-stations1 or where there are long runs between points of water-supply4 ,when an engineer finds himself short of water1 and the means of replenishing his tank too distant to reach1 even with the empty engine1 he should bank or smother the fire1 and retain sufficient water in the boiler to raise steam on when he has been assisted to the nearest water-tank4 ,this will save tedious delay1 especially where an engine has no pumps4 ,occasionally1 from miscalculations or through accidents1 the fire has to be quenched1 and insufficient water is left in the boiler to start a fire on safely4 ,in this event1 buckets can be resorted to1 and the boiler filled at the safety-valves1 should there be no assistance1 or means of pumping up4 ,every possible means should be exhausted to get the engine in steam1 before a runner requests to have his engine towed in cold4 ,a ,,trying ,,position4 ,i once knew a case where an engineer inadvertently passed a water-tank without filling his tender4 ,he had a heavy train1 and was pushing along with a heavy fire1 on a severe1 frosty night1 when every creek and slough by the wayside was lost in heavy ice4 ,presently his pump stopped working1 and he spent some time trying to start it before he discovered that the tender was empty4 ,by the time this fact became known1 his boiler-water was low1 and a heavy fire kept the steam screaming at the safety-valves4 ,he had no dump-grate1 and the fire was too heavy to draw4 ,it seemed a clear case of destroying the fire-box and flues4 ,but he was a man of many resources4 ,first1 he tried to get water through the gauge-cock--he had only one gauge--to quench the fire1 but found the plan would not work4 ,then he filled up the fire-box nearly to the crown-sheet with the smallest coal on the tender1 and partly smothered the fire4 ,he then partly opened the smoke-box door1 and started for the water-station4 ,after getting the engine going1 he hooked the reverse-lever in the center1 and kept the throttle wide open1 to make the most of the steam-supply4 ,he saved his engine4 ,,watching ,,the ,,strainers4 ,when the top of a tank is in bad order1 and permits cinders and small pieces of coal to fall through rivet-holes1 or through seams1 the engineer may look out for grief with his pumps or injectors4 ,on the first signs of the water failing1 he should examine the strainers2 and he will probably find that these copper perforations1 which stand like wardens guarding the safety of the pumps and injectors1 have accumulated a mass of cinders that obstructs the flow of the water4 ,,care ,,of ,,pumps4 ,mechanical prognostications seem to indicate that pumps1 as locomotive attachments1 have outgrown their usefulness1 and that their days are numbered4 ,they have done good service while no better method of feeding locomotive boilers was known2 but1 since the advent of injectors1 pumps have begun to disappear4 ,they still hold their own1 however1 on a great many roads2 and a description of their management will be of general interest4 ,,how ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,pumps ,,can ,,be ,,tested4 ,if an engineer is in the habit of pumping regularly1 and of watching his engine closely1 he can tell immediately from the steam when the pump stops working4 ,then he will open the pet-cock2 and its action will indicate1 to some extent1 where the trouble lies4 ,if the pet-cock throws a feeble stream of water1 the trouble probably is in the lower valve4 ,if that sticks up1 or part of the bottom cage breaks1 the plunger will push the water back into the feed-pipe on the return stroke1 consequently there will be no pressure to throw a strong stream through the pet-cock4 ,when the upper or pressure-valve is damaged1 or is stuck up1 the pet-cock will throw a full stream during the inward stroke of the plunger2 but1 on the outward stroke1 the plunger will draw the water out of the branch-pipe1 and air will be sucked in at the open pet-cock4 ,when the check-valve is damaged1 or stuck up1 steam and water will blow back through the branch-pipe when the pet-cock is left open4 ,if the steam thus escaping from the check-valves heats the pump and valves to a high temperature1 it will be prevented from working1 from several causes4 ,the heat generates a low form of steam1 which fills up the space behind the plunger2 therefore1 no vacuum is formed to draw the water4 ,not infrequently the pump-valves expand so much from the heat1 that they stick fast away from their seats4 ,if the pump has stopped through the presence of impurities on either of the valves or cages1 the engineer knows that he may remove the obstruction by steam-pressure2 so1 after letting the feed-pipe fill with water1 he opens the heater-cock1 and closes the foot-cock1 letting the steam and water blow through the pump4 ,if he considers the obstruction to be in the strainer1 and has not time to stop and take it down1 he blows steam from the heater through to the tender1 which gives temporary relief4 ,if any of the pump-valves are stuck up1 and can not be got back to their seats by blowing water and steam through them1 the engineer will take a soft hammer1 and tap the seats lightly1 with good prospects of remedying the defect4 ,in case no improvement can be effected in that way1 and there is no other feeding-medium to rely upon1 the engineer can take down the top or bottom chamber in a few minutes to remove any impurities that may be keeping the pump from working4 ,he will then be likely to find a piece of packing that has passed through the pump1 bushing1 or some other foreign substance1 jammed between the cage and the valve1 keeping the latter immovable4 ,or the trouble may be a broken valve or cage1 which will render the pump useless till repaired4 ,,lift ,,of ,,pump-,,valves4 ,when a pump-valve has much lift1 it is very liable to pound itself or the cage so heavily that breakage occurs4 ,the proper lift required for pump-valves depends to some extent upon the diameter of the valves themselves1 those of liberal thickness requiring less lift than a valve of narrow compass4 ,the engine pulling our train has pump-valves two and one-half inches in diameter3 the pump-plunger1 being worked from the cross-head1 has a diameter of two inches4 ,the bottom valve has three-thirty-seconds of an inch of lift1 the middle valve has one-eighth of an inch of lift1 and the check-valve rises one-fourth of an inch4 ,these dimensions produce very satisfactory results for all speeds4 ,the pump performs its work with remarkable smoothness1 is free from pounding or fluctuating1 and gives no trouble about repairs4 ,engines employed on fast passenger service have their valve-lifts one-thirty-second of an inch less than this one1 and slow freight engines are regulated to rise one-sixteenth of an inch more than the dimensions given4 ,,keep ,,pipes ,,tight1 ,,and ,,packing ,,in ,,order4 ,in order to insure the regular and satisfactory working of a pump1 care should be taken to prevent leaks about the feed-pipes or heater-pipes3 the packing should be kept in good order1 and the chamber-joints should be perfectly air-tight4 ,during the outward stroke of the plunger1 a vacuum should be produced inside the pump1 into which the water rushes4 ,if this vacuum gets partly filled with air or vapor1 the working of the pump will be unsatisfactory4 ,nothing is so liable to produce this undesirable condition as badly packed glands or leaky joints4 ,a poor pump can often be made to produce fair work1 by attention and care bestowed upon its attachment2 and lack of care will soon render the best-constructed pump unreliable4 ,,sand ,,in ,,the ,,pump-,,chambers4 ,the pump has one arch-enemy1 which comes off victor in every conflict4 ,that is sand4 ,the railway idiom which uses the word 8sand0 to express courage1 originated in the knowledge of how certainly and quickly a handful of sand would vanquish the best pump that mechanical skill might produce4 ,the grit works its way among the packing1 and tears and cuts the plunger out of shape3 it insinuates itself up between the cages and valves1 and holds the latter so fast that hard hammering is often needed to dissolve the compact4 ,proper washing out of the tank1 cleansing of feed-pipes1 and the use of water free from sand1 is the only sure remedy for this evil4 ,where an engineer is situated so that he must take water containing sand in suspension1 partial relief will be obtained by giving the valves free side-room in the cages2 but an injector will be found much superior to a pump as a means of putting sand-contaminated water into a boiler4 ,,delivery ,,orifice ,,choked ,,with ,,lime ,,sediment4 ,when a pump begins to show distress from over-pressure1--which will be indicated by the breaking out of joints1 the rejection of stuffing and box-packing1 and the bursting of branch-pipe1--the orifice between the check and the boiler should be examined2 for that aperture often becomes almost closed by the accumulation of lime-salts4 ,,minor ,,pump ,,troubles4 ,where the feed-pipes and other connections are perfectly air-tight1 some pumps will pound badly when the water is shut off4 ,this can be prevented by making a minute hole in the feed-pipe2 or a more convenient place is the upper part of the heater-pipe1 away above the water-level4 ,should the valves of a pump be leaky on their seats1 the pump will not work satisfactorily4 ,where the lower valve is not properly ground on the seat1 the plunger sucks air from the feed-pipe1 or through the joints or packing1 and1 at the return stroke1 compresses part of the air in the pump1 and forces the remainder back into the feed-pipe through the leaky valve4 ,this process goes on after the feed is put on2 the accumulated air stands like a cushion between the plunger and the water2 and the pump will not go to work until the pet-cock is opened1 when the air rushes out1 permitting the water to flow in4 ,engineers having pumps that will not work till the pet-cock is opened1 should have the suction-valve ground in2 and they will find a decided improvement from the operation4 ,for slow train service1 pumps perform the service of boiler-feeding fairly well2 but1 for fast passenger trains1 a pump should not be tolerated4 ,a pump can not be constructed for high-speed engines that will throw water regularly at high velocity of stroke4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,injectors4 ,injectors have made remarkably rapid strides into public favor during the last ten years4 ,it is a safe prediction to say1 that1 before the end of another decade1 there will be no new pumps put upon locomotives4 ,so long as injectors were imperfectly understood1 and were used with no regularity1 they retained the name of being unreliable2 but1 so soon as they began to be made the sole feeding-medium for locomotive boilers1 they had to be worked regularly1 and kept in order1 which quickly made their merits recognized4 ,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,injector4 ,the feed injector was invented by ,henri ,giffard1 an eminent ,french scientist and ronaut4 ,its successful action was discovered during a series of experiments made with the view of devising light machinery that might be used to propel balloons4 ,although ,giffard designed the most perfect balloon that was ever constructed1 the injector was not used upon it2 and the invention was laid aside1 and almost forgotten4 ,during the course of a sea-voyage1 ,giffard happened to meet ,stewart of the engineering firm1 ,sharp1 ,stewart1 ,co41 of ,manchester1 ,england4 ,in the course of a conversation on the feeding of boilers1 ,giffard remembered his injector1 and mentioned its method of action4 ,stewart was struck with the simplicity of the device1 and undertook to bring it out in ,england1 which he shortly afterwards did1 representing the interests of the inventor so long as the original patents lasted4 ,by his advice1 ,william ,sellers ,co4 of ,philadelphia were given control of the ,american patents4 ,seldom has an invention caused so much astonishment and wild speculation among mechanics1 and even among scientists1 as the injector did for the first few years of its use4 ,scientists were not long in discovering the philosophy of the injector's action1 but that knowledge spread more slowly among mechanics4 ,it was regarded as a case of perpetual motion1--the means of doing work without power1 or1 as ,americans expressed it1 by the same means a man could raise himself by pulling on his boot-straps4 ,,trying ,,to ,,find ,,out ,,how ,,the ,,injector ,,worked4 ,among the mechanics ,i associated with1 the injector was spoken of as a machine having a secret method of action4 ,there was supposed to be some part inside1 where a vacuum was formed1 which sent the water into the boiler4 ,we were all familiar with the vacuum of condensing engines1 and it was a convenient solution of the mystery4 ,i remember committing what we regarded as a heinous sin1 in trying to find out the secret of the injector4 ,on a ,sunday forenoon in a ,scotch town1 where it was considered next to a crime to miss going to church1 three of us stole quietly into an engine-house1 and took an injector apart1 when we knew the foreman1 like a pious man1 was listening to the sermon4 ,all our plans had been laid the previous day1 and the necessary tools laid conveniently at hand4 ,the feeling of disappointment we experienced at finding nothing to explain the working of the thing1 is still vivid in my memory4 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,injector',s ,,action4 ,the principle of the injector's action is that of induced currents1 which is much more popularly understood to-day than it was twenty-five years ago4 ,a current of any kind has a tendency to induce a movement in the same direction of any body it passes over or touches4 ,thus1 we are all familiar with the fact that a current of air called wind1 passing over the surface of a body of water1 sets waves in motion1 and dashes the water high up on the shore above its original level4 ,in the same way1 a jet of steam moving very rapidly1 when injected into a body of water under favorable conditions1 imparts a portion of its motion1 and starts momentum sufficient to overcome the original pressure of the steam4 ,that is how the injector is made to force water into a boiler against the same pressure the steam is starting from4 ,the principle is now utilized in the arts for many useful purposes4 ,the ordinary locomotive blast1 blowers1 steam siphons1 steam-jets1 jet exhausters1 and argand burners1 are common instances of its application4 ,when the action of the injector is closely examined1 its mystery as a source of power disappears2 for it is found that an amount of heat equal to the mechanical equivalent of work done1 is used up during the operation of feeding4 ,thus1 when a given quantity of heat units pass from the throttle to work the injector1 the whole of the heat does not return to the boiler along with the feed-water1 as was first supposed to be the case2 but a portion of heat representing the foot pounds of work done is dissipated1 besides other losses incident to leakage1 radiation1 and convection4 ,,different ,,forms ,,of ,,injector4 ,there are a great many different forms of injectors in use1 but all of them conform to certain elementary principles in their mode of action4 ,steam passes from the boiler through the steam-pipe and receiving-tube ,a 7,fig4 #a7 at a high velocity1 and1 combining with the water at the point ,b1 condenses1 but imparts considerable momentum to the water1 which rushes along into the delivery pipe1 raises the check-valve1 and passes into the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,the tubes of the injector are arranged so that a concentrated jet of steam shall impinge upon the water to force it through passages that are designed in the best form for maintaining the solidity of the current4 ,the speed imparted to the water represents the work performed by the steam1 and upon this velocity depends the successful action of the injector4 ,as the current of water for starting the injector could not be induced against the constant pressure on the check-valve1 which equals the pressure at the throttle1 an overflow is provided where the water can flow unchecked till the necessary momentum is obtained1 when the overflow is closed4 ,all deviations in construction from the elementary injector shown in ,fig4 #a are made for the purpose of extending the action of the injector under varied conditions1 for making it work automatically under different pressures of steam1 and for improving its capacity to lift water above its natural level4 ,a ,,heater-,,pipe ,,acting ,,as ,,an ,,injector4 ,before the invention of the injector1 cases occasionally happened of the heater-pipe acting as an injector4 ,where the end of the heater pipe was carried through the feed-pipe1 and pointed towards the check-valve1 starting the heater under favorable conditions would carry the water into the boiler4 ,a great many old engineers relate instances where this has happened4 ,,skill ,,and ,,reflection ,,needed ,,in ,,repairing ,,injectors4 ,injectors can be kept in good order with less work than is needed to keep a pump going1 but the highest kind of mechanical skill is required for the injector when repairs must be done4 ,almost any kind of machinist can fit a new chamber or plunger into a pump4 ,many men who will do this job satisfactorily will get badly left when they try to put a defective injector in order4 ,to do such work1 thoughtful reflection is called for1 besides the hand that can do accurate fitting4 ,a workman who may be good on guides or cross-heads or links1 takes an injector apart that will not work1 and can perceive nothing wrong with it1 because he has not got the philosophy of the thing through his head2 and he must have that before he can have insight into the probable cause of derangement4 ,,care ,,of ,,injectors4 ,when an engineer finds that an injector refuses to work1 his first resort should be the strainer4 ,that gets choked with cinders or other impurities so frequently1 that no time should be lost in examining it4 ,one day1 when ,i was running a round-house1 an engineer came in breathless1 with the information that his engine was blocked in the yard1 and he must dump his fire1 as he could not get his injector to work4 ,the thermometer stood at twenty degrees below zero1 and an ,iowa blizzard was blowing2 so the prospect of a dead engine in the yard meant some distressingly cold labor4 ,i asked1 the first thing1 if he had tried the strainer2 and his answer was1 that the strainer was all right1 for the injector primed satisfactorily1 but broke every time he put on a head of steam4 ,i went out to the engine1 and had the engineer try to work the injector4 ,by watching the overflow stream1 ,i easily perceived that the injector was not getting enough water1 although it primed4 ,an examination showed that the strainer was full of cinders1 and the injector went to work all right when the obstruction to the water was removed4 ,,the ,,most ,,common ,,causes ,,of ,,derangement4 ,sand and cinders are the greatest cause of failures with injectors2 as they are1 indeed1 with all water-feeding apparatus4 ,i knew a case where water for a locomotive1 running on a short branch1 was taken out of a sandy creek with a siphon4 ,the tank had generally about six inches of sand in the bottom4 ,the engine had a pump and an injector2 but all the feeding had to be done by the latter1 for the pump never worked a gallon of water4 ,the injector worked the water through when it seemed a quarter sand4 ,in a short time the sand destroyed the tubes of the injector1 for it acted on them the same way as a sand-blast does in cutting files or glass4 ,a very common cause of failure of injectors1 is leakage of steam through throttle-valve or check-valve1 keeping the injector so hot that no vacuum can be formed to make it prime4 ,a great many injector-checks have been turned out too light for ordinary service1 while others are made in a shape that will always leave the valve away from the seat when they stop working4 ,then the engineer has to run forward1 and pound the check with a hammer to keep the steam from blowing back2 and that soon ruins the casting4 ,check-valves set in a horizontal position are worthless with water that contains grit4 ,,how ,,to ,,keep ,,an ,,injector ,,in ,,good ,,order4 ,to preserve a good working injector1 the engineer should see that all the pipes and joints are kept perfectly tight4 ,it is hard to keep pipes and joints tight when they are subjected to the continual jars a locomotive must stand2 but injectors can not be depended on where there is a possibility of air mixing with the water4 ,leaky joints or pipes are particularly troublesome to lifting injectors2 for air passes in1 and keeps the steam-jet from forming a vacuum4 ,at first the injector will merely be difficult to start2 but1 as the leaks get worse1 there will be no starting it at all4 ,then1 the air mixing with the water is detrimental to the working of all injectors1 as its tendency is to decrease the speed of the water4 ,the compact molecules of water form a cohesive body1 which the steam can strike upon with telling force to keep it in motion4 ,when the water is mixed with air1 it lacks the element of compactness2 and the steam-jet strikes a semi-elastic body1 which does not receive momentum readily4 ,this mixture of steam and air does not act solidly on the check-valve1 but makes the water pass in with a bubbling sound1 as if the valve were moving up and down2 and the stream of water breaks very readily when it is working in this way4 ,,curious ,,cases ,,of ,,trouble ,,with ,,an ,,injector4 ,i ran a ,sellers improved injector on a locomotive about a year1 and it was an excellent feeding apparatus2 but ,i several times had curious cases of trouble in getting it to work4 ,once it began drawing air2 and ,i could not find out where the air was coming from1 for the pipes seemed all tight4 ,but the air was going through1 for ,i could hear its mutterings2 and the water kept breaking1 which was an annoyance on the road4 ,a heater-pipe was attached to the injector feed-pipe2 and ,i afterward found out that the air was getting in at the top joint of this pipe1 which did not show a leak1 being above the water4 ,another time ,i had almost a failure with this injector out in the snow4 ,i was out with a snow-plow1 opening the road through enormously deep snow-drifts4 ,we had worked on one bank for several days2 and we made water by shoveling snow into the tank1 which was melted by blowing steam through the heaters and injector4 ,cinders were passed into the tank very freely with the snow1 and presently ,i began to have trouble with my injector4 ,i took it apart several times1 and cleaned out cinders1 when it went to work all right again4 ,but a time came when it refused to work when there were no cinders inside1 and it seemed that no amount of coaxing would make it start4 ,it would prime all right2 but1 so soon as ,i gave it steam1 the water would break4 ,driven to my wits' end1 ,i made the fireman try to work the injector1 while ,i went down and watched its action4 ,everything seemed tight3 ,i had examined the strainer1 and there appeared no reason why it should not operate as well as it ever did4 ,while watching it1 ,i saw a drop of water oozing out at the stem of the overflow-valve2 but ,i reasoned1 8,that can not affect the working of the injector1 because it is ahead of where the water starts40 ,but1 seeing that the thing would persist in not working1 ,i put a bit of packing in the overflow-stem1 thinking it will do no harm any way2 and then the injector went to work all right1 and ,i had no more trouble with it4 ,so a defect that may seem trifling1 sometimes proves serious to an injector4 ,,common ,,defects4 ,as maintaining unbroken speed on the water put in motion is the first essential in keeping an injector in good working-order1 any thing that has a tendency to reduce that speed will jeopardize its action4 ,a variety of influences combine to reduce the original efficiency of an injector4 ,those with fixed nozzles are constructed with the orifices of a certain size1 and in the proportion to each other which experiment has demonstrated to be best for feeding with the varied steam-pressures4 ,when these orifices get worn out of the proper size1 the injector will work badly2 and nothing will cure it but new tubes4 ,the tubes sometimes get loose inside the shell of the injector1 and drop down out of line4 ,the water will then strike against the side of the next tube1 or on some point out of the true line1 scattering it into spray1 which contains no energy to force itself into the boiler4 ,a machinist examining a defective injector1 should always make sure that the tubes are not loose4 ,injectors that suffer from this defect will not work without a high pressure of steam4 ,injectors suffering from incrusted water-passages will generally work best with the steam low4 ,cases of the latter kind are common in calcareous districts4 ,i have known instances where injectors got so incrusted with lime that the passages were almost closed4 ,joints about injectors that are kept tight by packing must be closely watched4 ,many an injector that failed to work satisfactorily has been entirely cured by packing the ram-gland4 ,,care ,,of ,,injectors ,,in ,,winter4 ,during severe frosty weather1 an injector can be kept in order much easier than a pump2 but it needs constant watching and intelligent supervision4 ,to keep an injector clear of danger from frost1 it should be fitted up so that all the pipes can be thoroughly drained1 by frost-cocks put in for that purpose4 ,bends in the pipes1 where water could stand1 should be avoided as far as possible2 and1 where they can not be avoided1 the lowest point should contain a frost-cock4 ,to run an injector successfully1 thoughtful care is requisite on the part of the engineer2 and1 where this is given1 the injector will prove itself a very economical boiler-feeder4 ,,sellers ,,injector4 ,when the ,giffard injector was first introduced into this country1 by ,william ,sellers ,co41 ,philadelphia1 it was a very defective boiler-feeder2 but that firm effected great improvements1 and led the way for making the injector the popular boiler-feeder it is to-day4 ,they made the instrument self-adjusting1 and improved its design1 so that it would automatically feed1 however much the pressure of the boiler varied4 ,after numerous changes1 the injector of #ahgf was produced1 which is shown by a sectional view in ,fig4 #b4 ,the ,sellers injector of to-day remains substantially the same as it was when exhibited at the ,centennial ,exposition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,referring to ,fig4 #b1 ,a is the receiving-tube1 which will be closed to the admission of steam by the valve ,x4 ,a hollow spindle passing through the receiving-tube into the combining-tube1 is secured to the rod ,b2 and the valve ,x is fitted to this spindle in such a way1 that the latter can be moved a slight distance 7until the stop shown in the figure engages with valve ,x7 without raising the valve ,x from its seat4 ,a second valve1 ,w1 secured to the rod ,b1 has its seat in the upper side of the valve ,x1 so that it can be opened 7thus admitting steam to the center of the spindle7 without raising the valve ,x from its seat1 if the rod ,b is not drawn out any farther1 after the stop on the hollow spindle comes in contact with the valve ,x4 ,d is the delivery-tube1 ,o an overflow opening into space ,c1 ,k the check-valve in delivery-pipe1 and ,p ,r the waste-valve4 ,the upper end of the combining-tube has a piston ,n ,n attached to it1 capable of moving freely in a cylindrical portion of the shell ,m ,m2 and the lower end of the combining-tube slides in a cylindrical guide formed in the upper end of the delivery-tube4 ,the rod ,b is connected to a cross-head1 which is fitted over the guide-rod ,j2 and a lever ,h is secured to the cross-head4 ,a rod ,l1 attached to a lever on the top end of the screw waste-valve1 passes through an eye that is secured to the lever ,h2 and stops ,t1 ,q1 control the motion of this rod1 so that the waste-valve is closed when the lever ,h has its extreme outward throw1 and is opened when the lever is thrown in so as to close the steam-valve ,x2 while the lever can be moved between the positions of the stops ,p1 ,q1 without affecting the waste-valve4 ,a latch ,v is thrown into action with teeth cut in the upper side of the guide-rod ,j1 when the lever ,h is drawn out to its full extent1 and then moved back2 and this click is raised out of action as soon as it has been moved in far enough to pass the last tooth on the rod ,j4 ,an air-vessel is arranged in the body of the instrument1 as shown in the figure1 for the purpose of securing a continuous jet when the injector and its connections are exposed to shocks1 especially such as occur in the use of the instrument on locomotives4 ,the manipulation required to start the injector is exceedingly simple1--much more so in practice1 indeed1 than it can be rendered in description4 ,moving the lever ,h until contact takes place between valve ,x and stop on hollow spindle1 which can be felt by the hand upon the lever1 steam is admitted to the center of the spindle1 and1 expanding as it passes into the delivery-tube ,d and waste-orifice ,p1 lifts the water through the supply-pipe into the combining-tube around the hollow spindle1 acting after the manner of an ejector or steam-siphon4 ,as soon as solid water issues through the waste-orifice ,p1 the handle ,h may be drawn out to its full extent1 opening the steam-valve ,x1 and closing the waste-valve1 when the action of the injector will be continuous as long as steam and water are supplied to it4 ,,the ,,nathan ,,manufacturing ,,company',s ,,monitor ,,injector4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,one of the most successful and enduring injectors in use is the ,monitor1 the distinguishing feature of which is1 that the injector is constructed with fixed nozzles1 that insure great durability1 combined with certainty of action4 ,the ,monitor injector is shown in section in ,fig4 #c4 ,to start the injector1 the middle cock is opened1 which is the lifting-jet4 ,when water appears at the overflow1 the steam-valve is opened1 and the lifting-jet closed4 ,the work of the injector is regulated by the lazy-cock1 which is the bottom handle4 ,a movable valve1 operated by an eccentric on the stem1 is now employed as a lazy-cock2 a common cock having been found troublesome during frosty weather4 ,the combining-tube is attached to the line-check1 and can be taken out with the check1 which provides an easy means of effecting examination or repairs4 ,,the ,,korting ,,injector4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,an examination of ,fig4 #d will show that this injector is a double-tube instrument2 the first tube being proportioned for raising and delivering the water under pressure to the second one1 which completes the operation of forcing the water into the boiler4 ,this arrangement enables the injector to be worked through a wide range of steam-pressures without any adjustment of parts4 ,by making the first tube proportionately small1 a high power of suction is obtained1 which enables the injector to feed water of such high temperature that it may be delivered into the boiler above the boiling-point4 ,the ,korting injector is operated entirely by one handle1 and requires no instruction to teach its working4 ,the feed is regulated by the patent combined regulation-valve and dirt-stop1 which regulates the supply of water1 and prevents the possibility of dirt reaching the injector4 ,,the ,,hancock ,,inspirator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,fig4 #e gives a cross-section of the ,hancock inspirator4 ,it consists essentially of a lifting-jet and lifting-nozzle1 combined with a forcing-jet and force-nozzle or injector2 steam being admitted to both of these nozzles whenever the inspirator is working1 to deliver the supply-water to the force-nozzle1 and to force it through the nozzle into the boiler4 ,although both the lifting and forcing nozzles are fixed1 their proportion1 one to the other1 is such that the inspirator requires no adjustment for changes in steam-pressure or water-supply2 the waste-valve being kept closed while the instrument is in operation1 except at the time of starting4 ,the duplex nozzle arrangement of the ,hancock inspirator enables that instrument to feed water of high temperature4 ,in this respect it will act as well as the ordinary pump1 besides having all the advantages of an injector4 ,a form of inspirator is made specially for locomotive service1 which is operated by a single handle4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,boilers ,,and ,,fire-,,boxes4 ,,care ,,of ,,locomotive ,,boilers4 ,the present tendency of steam engineering1 in the effort to increase the work performed in return for every pound of fuel consumed1 is to employ steam of very high pressure4 ,the greater the initial pressure of the steam1 the greater are the advantages to be derived from its expansive principle4 ,to resist successfully the enormous aggregate of pressure to which locomotive boilers are subjected1 a well-constructed strong boiler is absolutely necessary2 and the various railroad companies throughout the country meet the required conditions in an admirable manner1 as is evidenced by the remarkable exemption of such boilers from serious accidents4 ,although the locomotive is the most intensely pressed boiler in common use1 that supreme disaster1 an explosion1 is of rare occurrence1 considering the vast number of boilers doing service all over the ,states4 ,this result is due to constant care in the construction1 in the maintenance1 and in the management1 of the locomotive boiler4 ,like the conservation of liberty1 eternal vigilance is the price of safety4 ,,factor ,,of ,,safety4 ,there is perfect safety in using a boiler so long as a good margin of resisting power is maintained above the tendency within to tear the sheets asunder4 ,this margin is very low for locomotive boilers generally1 hence the greater necessity for care in maintenance and management4 ,years ago the mechanical world established by practice a rule making one-fifth of the ultimate strength of a boiler its safe working-pressure4 ,that is1 a boiler carrying #adj pounds working-pressure should be capable of withstanding a tension of #gjj pounds to the square inch before rupture ensues4 ,locomotive practice in this country does not provide much more than half of that margin of safety4 ,when deterioration or accident reduces this margin1 danger begins4 ,,boiler ,,explosions4 ,certain mechanical empirics and impractical quasi-scientists have at various times attempted to surround the cause of boiler explosions with a halo of mystery4 ,but our most accomplished scientists who have made the subject a special study1 and our best mechanical experts who have devoted years of patient experiment and research to the investigation of boiler explosion1 attribute the terrible phenomenon to intelligible causes alone4 ,the conclusions of the practical part of the mechanical world are well summed in one sentence in one of the annual reports of the ,master ,mechanics' ,association4 ,it says1 8,explosions originate from over-pressure3 it matters not whether the whole boiler1 or a portion of it1 is too weak to resist the pressure40 ,,preservation ,,of ,,boilers4 ,the preservation of a boiler depends very much upon the care and attention bestowed upon it by the engineer1 and no other person is so much interested in its safety4 ,to prevent undue strains from being put upon the boiler1 the engineer should see that the safety-valves and the steam-gauge are kept in proper order4 ,to secure this1 the steam-gauge should be tested at least once a month4 ,the rule established on well-conducted roads1 prohibiting engineers from interfering with safety-valves1 is a very judicious one2 and no persons are more interested in its strict observance than the engineers themselves4 ,,causing ,,injury ,,to ,,boilers4 ,some men are idiotic enough to habitually screw down safety-valves1 that the engine may be able to overcome heavy grades without doubling4 ,this is criminal recklessness1 and all train men are interested in its suppression4 ,low water has often been blamed falsely as the cause of disaster to boilers2 a theory having prevailed1 that permitting the water to become low led to the generation of an explosive gas which no sheet could withstand4 ,that theory was exploded long ago2 but1 nevertheless1 it is certain that low water paves the way for explosions by deteriorating the fire-box sheets1 and destroying stay-bolts4 ,a careful engineer watches to prevent his engine from getting 8scorched0 even slightly2 for the smallest scorching may yield a harvest of trouble1 even after many days4 ,the danger of scorching is most imminent when an engine is foaming badly from the effects of impurities in the feed-water or in the boiler4 ,at such a time the water rises so lavishly with the steam1 that the gauges are no indication of the true water-level4 ,the steam must be shut off to find the true level of the water4 ,where this trouble is experienced1 the engineer should err on the safe side1 even though untold patience is needed to work the engine along with the boiler full of water4 ,,dangers ,,of ,,mud ,,and ,,scale4 ,mud within the boiler1 and scales adhering to the heating surface1 are dangerous enemies to the preservation of boilers2 and engineers should strive to prevent their evil effects by rooting them out so far as practicable4 ,much can be banished by washing out frequently2 and scales can1 to some extent1 be prevented by selecting the softest water on the road4 ,if water in a tank is so hard that it makes soap curdle instead of lather when a man attempts to wash with it1 that tank should be avoided as far as possible4 ,,blowing ,,off ,,boilers4 ,the sudden cooling down of boilers1 by blowing them off while hot1 is a most pernicious practice1 which is responsible for many cracked sheets and broken stay-bolts4 ,it also tends to make a boiler scale the heating surfaces rapidly4 ,every time a boiler is blown out hot1 if the water contains calcareous solution1 a coat of mud is left on the heating surfaces1 which dries hard while the steel is hot4 ,if a piece of scale taken from a boiler periodically subjected to this blowing-out process be closely examined1 it will be found to consist of thin layers1 every one representing a period of blowing off1 just as plainly as the lamin of our rocks indicate the method of their formation4 ,when a boiler must be cooled down quickly for washing out or other purposes1 the steam should be blown off1 and the boiler gradually filled up with water4 ,then open the blow-off cock1 and keep water running in about as fast as it runs out until the temperature gets even with the atmosphere4 ,the boiler may now be emptied without injury4 ,or another good plan is to blow off about two gauges of water under a pressure of forty or fifty pounds of steam1 then cool down the boiler gradually1 to prepare for washing4 ,although the dangers of blowing off hot boilers1 and then rushing in cold water to wash out1 are well known and acknowledged1 yet the practice is still followed on many roads where more intelligent action might be expected4 ,,over-,,pressure4 ,should it happen from any cause that the safety-valves fail to relieve the boiler1 and the steam runs up beyond a safe tension1 the situation is critical2 but the engineer should not resort to any method of giving sudden relief4 ,to jerk the safety-valve wide open at such a time is a most dangerous proceeding4 ,a disastrous explosion lately occurred to a locomotive boiler from this cause4 ,the safety-valves had been working badly2 and1 while the engine was standing on a side track1 they allowed the steam to rise considerably above the working-pressure4 ,when the engineer perceived this1 he threw open the safety-valve by means of a relief lever1 and the boiler instantly went into fragments4 ,cases have occurred where the quick opening of a throttle-valve has produced a similar result4 ,the proximate cause of such an accident was the violent motion of water and steam within the boiler1 induced by the sudden diminution of pressure at one point2 but the real cause of the disaster was a weak boiler1--a boiler with insufficient margin of resisting power4 ,the weakest part of a boiler is its strongest point4 ,this may seem paradoxical1 but a moment's reflection will show that the highest strength of a boiler merely reaches to the point where it will give out4 ,hence engineers should see that a boiler is properly examined for unseen defects so soon as signs of distress appear4 ,leaky throat-sheets or seams1 stay-heads dripping1 or incipient cracks1 are indications of weakness2 and their call should be attended to without delay4 ,,relieving ,,over-,,pressure4 ,when an engineer finds the steam rising beyond a safe pressure1 he should reduce it by opening the heaters1 starting the injector1 dampening the fire1 or even by blowing the whistle4 ,the whistle offers a convenient means of getting rid of superfluous steam1 and its noise can be stopped by tying a rag between the bell and the valve opening4 ,,bursted ,,flues4 ,should any boiler attachment1 such as a check-valve or blow-off cock1 blow out or break off1 no time should be lost in quenching the fire4 ,that is the first consideration4 ,a bursted flue will generally save an engineer the labor of extinguishing the fire4 ,in this case an engineer's efforts should be directed to reducing the pressure of steam as quickly as possible1 so that he may be able to plug the flue before the water gets out of the boiler4 ,flue-plugs and a rod for holding them are very requisite articles2 but1 in driving flue-plugs1 care must be exercised not to hammer too hard1 or a broken flue-sheet may result4 ,plugs are often at hand without a rod to hold them4 ,in such an emergency1 a hard wooden rail can be used2 the plug being fastened to the end by means of nails and wire1 or even wet cord4 ,where no iron plug is available1 a wooden plug driven well in1 away from the reach of the fire1 may prevent a bursted flue from leaking1 and enable the engine to go along2 but wooden plugs are very unreliable for such a purpose4 ,they may hold if the rupture in the flue should be some distance inside2 but1 should the cause of leaking be close to the flue-sheet1 a wooden plug will burn out in a few minutes4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,accidents ,,to ,,the ,,valve-,,motion4 ,,running ,,worn-,,out ,,engines4 ,some of our most successful engineers1 the men who pull our most important trains daily on time1 attribute their good fortune in avoiding delays1 to training they received in youth1 while running or firing worn-out engines that could only be kept going by constant attention and labor4 ,in such cases men must resort to innumerable makeshifts to get over the road2 they have frequently to dissect the machinery to remedy defects2 they learn in the impressive school of experience how a broken-down engine can best be taken home1 and how breaking down can best be prevented4 ,firemen and young engineers1 generally feel aggrieved at being assigned to run on worn-out engines1--the scrap heaps as they are called3 but the man who has not passed through this ordeal has missed a ,golconda of experience2 his potentialities are petrified without reaching action4 ,,care ,,and ,,energy ,,defy ,,defeat4 ,among a certain class of seafaring men1 the captain of a ship who fails from any cause to bring his vessel safely into port1 is regarded as disgraced2 and1 therefore1 a true sailor will use superhuman efforts to prevent his ship from becoming derelict1 often preferring to follow it to the bottom rather than abandon his trust4 ,in many instances the sentiments and traditions of seamen teach railroad men valuable lessons4 ,the sacrifice of life is not desired or expected of engineers in their care of the vessel they command2 but every engineer worthy of the name will spare no personal exertion1 will shrink from no hardship1 that will be necessary to prevent his charge from becoming derelict4 ,once ,i heard a hoary engineer1 who had become gray on the footboard1 make the proud boast1 8,my engine never was towed in40 ,his calm words conveyed an eloquent sermon on care and perseverance4 ,he had been in many hard straits1 he had been in collisions1 he had been ditched with engines1 but had always managed to get them home without assistance4 ,,watching ,,the ,,exhaust4 ,what the beating pulse is as an aid to the physician in diagnosing diseases1 the sound of the exhaust is to the engineer as a means of enabling him to distinguish between perfective and defective working of the locomotive4 ,the ability to detect a slight derangement by the sound of the exhaust1 can only be acquired by practice in watching those steam-notes day after day1 as they play their tune of labor through the smoke-stack4 ,when the steam-ports are even1 and the valves correctly set1 with tight piston-packing1 and valves free from leaks1 the notes of the exhaust will sound forth in regular succession in sharp1 ringing1 clear tones1 every puff seeming to cut the steam clean off at the top of the stack4 ,there is a long array of defects represented in the journey from this case of apparently perfect steam performance1 to that where the exhaust steam escapes as an unbroken roar mixed with uncertain1 wheezy coughs4 ,,the ,,attentive ,,ear ,,detects ,,deterioration ,,of ,,valves4 ,the deterioration of piston-packing1 and the rounding of valve-seats1 which produce an asthmatic exhaust1 may be followed in their downward course if the engineer gets into the habit of listening to the exhaust1 and marking its changes4 ,it is very important that he should do so4 ,the man whose ear from long practice has become sensitive to a false tone of the exhaust1 needs not to make experiments1 by applying steam to the engine while it stands in various positions1 in order to find out where a blow comes from1--whether it is in the pistons or in the valves4 ,,locating ,,the ,,four ,,exhaust ,,sounds4 ,leaning out of the cab-window1 he watches the crank as it revolves1 and compares the noise made by the blowing steam with the crank position4 ,when pulling on a heavy grade is an excellent time for noting imperfections in the working of valves and pistons2 for the movements are comparatively slow1 while the pressure of steam on the working-parts is so heavy that any leak sounds prominently forth4 ,the observing engineer perceives that the four sounds of the exhaust1 due to each revolution of the drivers1 occur a few inches before the crank reaches1 first1 the forward center1 second1 the bottom quarter1 third1 the back center1 fourth1 the top quarter4 ,the first and third position exhausts emit the steam from the forward and back strokes of the right-hand piston3 the second and fourth exhausts are due to discharges of the steam that has been propelling the left-hand piston4 ,with these facts impressed upon his mind1 he will understand1 that if an intermittent blow occurs during the periods when the crank is traveling from the forward center to the bottom quarter1 or from the back center to the top quarter1 the chances will be that the right-hand piston needs to be examined4 ,for the greatest pressure of steam follows the piston just after the beginning of each stroke1 and that is the time a blow will assert itself4 ,should the blow occur while the right-hand crank is moving from the bottom quarter to the back center1 or from the top quarter to the forward center1 it will indicate that the left-hand piston is at fault4 ,for at these periods the left-hand cylinder is receiving its greatest pressure of steam4 ,,identifying ,,defects ,,by ,,sound ,,of ,,the ,,steam4 ,it is generally understood that an intermittent or recurring blow belongs to the pistons1 and that a constant blow comes from the valves4 ,but sometimes the valves blow intermittently1 being tight at certain points of the travel1 and leaky at other points4 ,to distinguish between the character of these blows is sometimes a little difficult except to the thoroughly practiced ear4 ,the sound of the blow can be heard best when the door is open1 and the novice should not fail to listen for it under that condition4 ,the valve blow is a sort of wheeze1 with the suggestion of a whistle in it3 the piston makes a clean1 honest blow1 which would break into a distinct roar if enough steam could get through4 ,but a whistling sound in the exhaust is1 by no means1 a certain indication of the valves blowing through2 for sometimes the nozzles get clogged up with a gummy substance from the lubricating oils1 and a distinct whistling exhaust results therefrom4 ,with a watchful ear1 the progress of degeneration in the valves can be noted day after day2 for it is a decay which goes on by degrees1--the inevitable slow destruction that friction inflicts upon rubbing surfaces4 ,pistons are more erratic in their calls for attention4 ,with them it is quite common for a stalwart blow to start out without any warning1 the cause generally being broken packing-rings4 ,the various kinds of steam packing seem more liable to have broken rings than the old-fashioned spring packing1 but they generally run longer with less attention4 ,,accidents ,,prevented ,,by ,,attending ,,to ,,the ,,note ,,of ,,warning ,,from ,,the ,,exhaust4 ,the habit of closely watching the exhaust is likely to prove serviceable in more ways than in keeping the engineer posted on the condition of the steam-distribution gear4 ,its sound often acts as a danger alarm1 which should never go unheeded4 ,many an engine has gone home on one side1 and not a few have been towed in cold1 through accidents to the valve-gear1 which could have been prevented had the engineer attended to the warning voice of a false exhaust4 ,the nuts work off an eccentric-strap bolt2 and it drops out1 letting the strap open far enough to cause an uneven valve-travel4 ,if the engineer hears this1 and stops immediately to examine the machinery1 he is likely to detect the defect before the strap breaks4 ,again1 one side of a valve yoke may have snapped1 leaving the other side to bear the load2 or bolts belonging to different parts of the links or eccentric-straps may be working out1--so that the uniformity of the valve-travel is affected2 and the same result may be produced by the eccentrics getting loose4 ,young engineers1 to whom these pages are addressed1 should make up their minds that an engine never exhausts an irregular note without something being the matter which does not admit of running to a station before being examined4 ,it may only be an eccentric slipped a little way1 a mishap that is not calculated to result disastrously2 but1 on the other hand1 it is probably something of a more dangerous character4 ,,neglecting ,a ,,warning4 ,engineer ,joy of the ,d4 ,e4 road went in with a broken eccentric-strap4 ,questioning him about the accident brought out the fact1 that1 in starting from a station1 he heard the engine make two or three curious exhausts2 but he was running on a time-order1 and did not wish to cause delay by stopping to examine the engine4 ,but he had not gone half a mile when he found it necessary to stop and disconnect the engine1 and by doing so held an express train forty minutes4 ,,how ,,an ,,eccentric-,,strap ,,punched ,a ,,hole ,,in ,a ,,fire-,,box4 ,a representative case of neglecting a plain warning happened on an ,illinois road some time ago4 ,john ,thomas was pulling a freight train up a grade1 when1 to use his own words1 8,the engine began to exhaust in the funniest way you ever heard4 ,she would get on to three legs for an engine length or so1 then she would work as square and true as she ever did1 but only for a few turns1 when she got to limping again40 ,this runner knew that something was wrong1 and he determined to examine the engine at the next stopping-point4 ,but delays in such a case are full of peril4 ,when he got over the grade1 and shut off steam1 there was a tumultuous rattling of the reverse-lever1 succeeded by a fearful pounding about the machinery2 a tearing up of road-bed sent a shower of sand and gravel over the train2 then a scream from escaping steam and water drowned all other noises1 and the engine was enveloped in a cloud of blinding vapor4 ,the forward bolt of one of the eccentric-strap rods had worked out1 and allowed the end of the rod to drop on the track4 ,then it doubled up1 and tore away the whole side of the motion2 and part of a broken eccentric-strap knocked a hole in the fire-box4 ,here was the progress towards destruction4 ,a small pin got lost1 which permitted the nut of an important bolt to unscrew itself2 then this bolt1 with many a warning jar and jerk1 escaped from its place in the link2 and the conditions for a first-class break-down had come round4 ,,interest ,,in ,,the ,,valve-,,motion ,,among ,,engineers4 ,whenever locomotive engineers congregate in the round-house1 in the lodge or division room1 a fruitful theme of conversation and discussion is the valve-motion4 ,curious opinions are often heard expressed upon this complex subject4 ,there are comparatively few men who understand it properly3 but it has a fascination which attracts all alike1 the wise and the ignorant2 and the man who is altogether uncertain about the true meaning of lap and lead1 expansion and compression1 is generally more loquacious on valve-motion than the engineer who has made the subject an industrious study4 ,,trouble ,,with ,,the ,,valve-,,motion4 ,however well each may understand his business1 in one respect all engineers are in perfect harmony2 that is1 in hating to encounter trouble with the valve-gear on the road4 ,the valves being the lungs of the machine1 any injury or defect to their connections strikes at a vital organ4 ,with a good valve-motion1 and valves properly set1 the steam is distributed so that nearly an equal amount is admitted through each part in regular rotation2 the release taking place in even succession4 ,this makes the exhaust notes uniform in pitch and period4 ,a sudden departure from this uniformity indicates that something is wrong with the valve-motion4 ,it should be the signal to stop1 and institute a searching examination4 ,in doing so1 avoid jumping at conclusions regarding the cause of the irregularity1 and coolly examine1 separately1 each part whose motion influences the valve-travel4 ,a ,,wrong ,,conclusion4 ,fred ,bemis missed his luck by jumping too readily at conclusions4 ,something happened to his engine2 and he stopped by compulsion1 and found it would not move either way4 ,he felt certain that both eccentrics on one side had slipped2 and1 considering himself equal to setting any number of eccentrics1 he got down1 and fixed them in what he supposed was the proper position4 ,but1 on trying to move the engine1 he found it still refused to go4 ,he kept working at those eccentrics without result till his water got low1 and he was compelled to dump the fire2 the consequence being1 that the engine went cold1 and was towed home4 ,when an examination was made1 it was found that a broken valve-yoke was the cause of trouble4 ,,locating ,,defects ,,of ,,the ,,valve-,,motion4 ,when any thing goes wrong with the valve-motion1 the first point of investigation is1 to find out which side is at fault4 ,this can be ascertained by opening the cylinder-cocks1 and giving the engine steam4 ,with the reverse-lever in forward motion1 the forward cylinder-cocks should show steam when the crank-pins are traveling below the axle1 and the back cocks should blow when the pins make their similar revolution above the axle4 ,any departure from this method of steam distribution will make one side work against the other4 ,when the engineer has satisfied himself on which side the defect lies1 he will do well to thoroughly examine the eccentrics with their straps and rods1 the links with their hangers and saddles1 the rocker box and arms with all the bolts and pins connecting these articles4 ,what might be regarded as a trifling defect1 sometimes makes an engine lame4 ,i have known a loose valve-stem key put an engine badly out of square4 ,eccentric-rods1 slipping1 often produce this effect4 ,when the eccentrics are found in the proper position1 the rocker-box secure in the shaft1 and all the bolts1 pins1 and keys in good order1 and in their proper positions1 the fault may be looked for in the steam-chest4 ,,position ,,of ,,eccentrics4 ,with engines where keys are not used to secure the eccentrics to the shaft1 their slipping on the road is a common occurrence4 ,eccentric-strap oil-passages getting stopped up1 or neglect in not oiling these straps or the valves1 puts an unnecessary tension on the eccentrics1 which often results in their slipping on the shaft4 ,engineers ought to mark the proper position for eccentrics on the shaft2 so that1 when slipping happens1 it can be adjusted without the delay that often occurs in calculating the right position4 ,when the crank-pin is on the forward center1 the body of the go-ahead eccentric is above the axle1 and the body of the back-up eccentric is below the axle1 each of the eccentrics being advanced about #a_/af of the revolution from the right angle position towards the crank-pin2 or1 to state it more accurately1 the center of the eccentric is advanced a horizontal distance to equal the lap and lead of the valve4 ,if the valve had neither lap nor lead1 the eccentrics would stand exactly at right angles to the crank4 ,as it is1 both of them have a tendency to hug the crank2 the eccentric which regulates the distribution of steam following the crank4 ,every engineer should familiarize himself with the correct position of eccentrics1 so that1 when trouble happens with the valve-gear on the road1 he will experience no difficulty in grappling with the mishap4 ,,method ,,of ,,setting ,,slipped ,,eccentrics4 ,the slipping of one eccentric is a trifling matter1 which can be quickly remedied if the set screws are in a position where they can be reached conveniently4 ,if it is a go-ahead eccentric1 set the engine on the center of the disabled side1--no matter which center1--put the reverse-lever in the back notch of the quadrant1 and scratch a line with a knife on the valve-stem close to the gland4 ,then put the lever in the forward notch1 and move the slipped eccentric till the line appears in the point where it was made4 ,fasten the set screws1 and the engine will be found true enough to proceed with the train4 ,care must be taken in moving the eccentric to see that the full part is not placed in the same position as the other one1 or they will both be set for back motion4 ,a back-up eccentric slipped1 while the go-ahead one remains intact1 can be adjusted in a similar way2 the scratch on the valve-stem being made with the engine in full forward motion1 and the adjustment of the eccentric done in full back motion4 ,the philosophy of this method is1 that the valve is in nearly the same position at the beginning of the stroke for the forward or back motion2 and the position of the eccentric1 which has not moved1 is used to find the proper place for the one which slipped4 ,should the unusual circumstance of both eccentrics on one side slipping overtake an engineer1 he will have to pursue a different method of adjustment4 ,the most systematic plan is to place the engine on the forward center1 and set the go-ahead eccentric above the axle1 and the back-up eccentric below the axle4 ,with the reverse-lever in the forward notch1 advance the top eccentric till the front cylinder-cock shows steam1 which can be ascertained by blocking the wheels1 and slightly opening the throttle4 ,that will put the go-ahead eccentric near enough to the proper position for running4 ,for the back-up eccentric1 pull the reverse-lever into back motion1 and turn the eccentric towards the crank-pin till steam appears at the front cylinder-cock2 and that part of the motion will be right4 ,or the back-up eccentric can be set by the forward eccentric in the manner described where one eccentric has slipped4 ,,slipped ,,eccentric-,,rods4 ,where slotted rods are used1 they frequently slip1 making the engine lame4 ,the cause of trouble in such a case can be identified by moving the engine slowly1 with the cylinder-cocks open4 ,the disturbance to the regularity of the valve's motion1 caused by a slipped rod1 will admit steam prematurely on one end of the cylinder1 while it delays the admission on the other end4 ,the valve is made to travel more on one side of the exhaust center than on the other4 ,lengthening or shortening the valve-stem has a similar effect1 but this makes the engine lame in both gears2 while the slipping of an eccentric-rod only makes the engine lame in the motion that the rod belongs to4 ,this is subject to a slight modification1 however2 for the back-motion eccentric being badly out of square1 will affect the correctness of the forward motion1 when the engine is working close hooked up4 ,but in full motion it will not be perceptible4 ,,detecting ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,a ,,lame ,,exhaust4 ,if in moving the engine ahead slowly1 with the cylinder-cocks open1 it is found that steam is admitted to the cylinder before the piston has nearly reached the center or dead point1 or that the back cylinder-cock does not show steam till after the piston has passed the back center1 the eccentric-rod is too long4 ,the rod being too short produces precisely an opposite effect4 ,the steam arrives late on the back stroke1 and ahead of time on the forward stroke4 ,this is different from the action of the steam where an eccentric has slipped4 ,in that case1 there will be pre-admission of steam before the beginning of both strokes1 or post-admission1 that is1 late arrival of steam1 for both strokes4 ,take a go-ahead eccentric for example4 ,if it slips backward on the shaft1 its effect will be to delay the admission of steam till after the beginning of each stroke2 and1 if it slips forward1 the result will be to accelerate the lead of the valve opening the steam-port before the piston has reached the commencement of each stroke4 ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,when ,,eccentrics1 ,,straps1 ,,or ,,rods ,,break4 ,when either of these accidents happens1 the safest plan is to take down both straps and rods on the defective side4 ,some engineers leave the back-up eccentric strap and rod on1 when the forward strap or rod has broken2 but it is a little risky under certain conditions4 ,after getting the eccentric straps and rods down1 drop the link-hanger away from the tumbling-shaft1 disconnect the valve-stem1 and tie the valve-rod to the hand-rail4 ,then set the valve in the middle of the seat1 so that it will cover both the steam-ports1 and hold it in that position by pinching the stem with the gland1 which is done by screwing up the gland obliquely4 ,take down the main rod1 and block the cross-head securely at the back end of the guides4 ,good hardwood blocking prepared beforehand should be used for this purpose1 and it ought to be fastened with a rope or marline4 ,a neater plan for holding the cross-head in place is described by ,frank ,c4 ,smith1 in the ,torch4 ,he says1 8,have the blacksmith make a hook out of a piece of inch and a half round iron2 also a piece about fifteen inches long by one and a half thick1 and four inches wide1 with a hole through the center for the shank of the hook to pass through4 ,this shank is threaded for a nut4 ,now1 when it is necessary to block a piston1 get it to the back end1 pass the hook around the wrist of the cross-head1 and the other end through the straight piece which bears against the yoke supporting the back end of the guides2 run up a nut on the shank of the hook1 hard against the cross-piece1 and the piston is secured40 ,the piston being properly fastened1 it is a wise supplement to the work to tie the cylinder-cocks open1 or to take them out altogether4 ,the engine is now ready to proceed on one side4 ,young engineers can not be too strongly impressed with the necessity for having the cross-head properly secured before trying to move the engine4 ,i have repeatedly known of serious damage being caused by placing too much confidence in weak blocking4 ,taking out the cylinder-cocks is a wise security against accidents of this kind2 for1 should a little steam be passing through the valve1 it has a port of escape without putting heavy pressure on the piston4 ,,different ,,ways ,,of ,,securing ,,the ,,cross-,,head4 ,in regard to the method of securing the piston when one side of an engine is taken down1 there is considerable diversity of opinion among engineers4 ,some men maintain that the proper and quick plan is1 merely to move the piston to one end of the cylinder1 pushing the valve in the same direction1 so that the steam-port will be open at the end away from the piston4 ,this will keep the cylinder full of steam1 and hold the piston from moving4 ,but1 if by any accident the valve should be moved to the opposite end of the seat1 steam would get to the wrong end of the cylinder1 and the piston would certainly smash out the head4 ,another risky plan1 practiced by men economical of work1 is to place the valve on the center of the seat1 and let the piston go without fastening4 ,these slipshod methods do not pay4 ,,broken ,,tumbling-,,shaft4 ,this accident is very serious2 but it need not disable the engine1 although it will lessen the engineer's power to manage it freely4 ,to get the engine going1 calculate the position the links must stand in to pull the train1 and cut pieces of wood to fit between the block and the top and bottom of the links1 so that the latter may be kept in the required position4 ,for forward motion1 there will be short pieces in the top1 and long pieces in the bottom4 ,when back motion is needed1 reverse the pieces of wood4 ,a common plan is to use one piece of wood1 working the engine in full gear4 ,the same treatment will keep an engine going when the tumbling-shaft arms1 the reach-rod1 the link-hanger1 or the saddle-pin breaks4 ,the failure of a link-hanger or saddle-pin will only necessitate the blocking of one side4 ,,broken ,,valve-,,stem1 ,,or ,,valve-,,yoke4 ,for a valve-stem broken1 the eccentric-strap or link need not be interfered with4 ,if the break is outside the steam-chest1 take down the valve-stem rod1 and set the valve on the middle of the seat2 take down the main rod1 and secure the piston as previously directed4 ,with a valve-stem broken inside the chest1 or a valve-yoke broken1 a little additional work is necessary4 ,the steam-chest cover must now come up1 and the valve be secured in its proper place by pieces of wood1 or any other material that will keep it from moving2 and the stuffing-box must be closed1 to prevent escape of steam through the space vacated by the valve-stem4 ,,when ,a ,,rocker-,,shaft ,,or ,,lower ,,rocker-,,arm ,,breaks4 ,a broken rocker-shaft1 or the fracture of the lower arm1 entails the taking down of both eccentrics and the link1 besides the main rod1 and the securing of the valves and piston4 ,the breaking of an upper rocker-arm is equivalent to a broken valve-stem1 and requires the same treatment4 ,,miscellaneous ,,accidents ,,to ,,valve-,,motion4 ,accidents to the valve-seat1 such as the breaking of a bridge1 can be fixed for running the engine home on one side1 by covering the ports1 and stripping that side of the engine1 just as had to be done for a broken valve-yoke4 ,if a serious break in a bridge occurs1 it is indicated by a tremendous blow through the exhaust port1 out by the stack4 ,a mishap of much less consequence than a broken bridge is a 8cocked0 valve1 and the small mishap is very liable to be mistaken for the greater one4 ,where the yoke is tight fitted1 or out of true with the line of the stem1 some engines have a trick of raising the valve away from the seat1 and holding it there4 ,this generally happens going into a station2 and1 when steam is applied in starting out1 an empty roar sounds through the stack4 ,moving the valve with the reverse-lever by quick jerks will generally reseat a cocked valve1 but sometimes it gets stuck so fast that it has to be hammered out of the yoke4 ,when a locomotive shows the symptoms which indicate a broken valve1 a broken bridge1 or a cocked valve1 the engineer should exhaust every means of testing the matter from the outside before he begins an interior inspection by raising the steam-chest cover4 ,if jerking the valve with the reverse-lever1 or moving the engine a little1 will not stop the blow1 he should disconnect the valve-stem1 and shake the valve by that means4 ,when a valve breaks1 disabling its side of the engine so badly that it can not be used1 the valve should be taken out1 and a piece of strong pine-plank secured over the ports4 ,,broken ,,steam-,,chest ,,cover4 ,a very serious and troublesome accident1 which may come under the head of steam-distribution gear1 is the breaking of a steam-chest1 or of a steam-chest cover4 ,it takes skillful management to get an engine along when this has happened4 ,the most effectual way to restrain loss of steam when a chest or cover has broken1 is to slack up the steam-pipe1 and slip a piece of iron plate1 lined with sheet-rubber1 leather1 canvas1 or any other substance that will help to make a steam-tight joint1 into the lower joint of the steam-pipe4 ,if this is properly done1 it ends the trouble1 when the joints are tightened up4 ,but the difficulties in the way of loosening steam-pipe joints in a hot smoke-box are often insurmountable1 especially when the nuts and bolts are solid from corrosion1 which is generally the case where they have not been touched for months4 ,in such a case it is better to resort to the more clumsy contrivance of fitting pieces of wood into the openings to the steam-passage1 and bracing them in place by means of the steam-chest bolts4 ,a man of any ingenuity can generally1 by this means1 save himself the humiliation of being towed home1 and yet avoid spending much time over the operation4 ,when the engineer has succeeded in securing means for preventing the escape of steam1 the main rod must be taken down1 and the valve-stem rod disconnected from the rocker-arm4 ,in this instance the piston needs no further attention1 after the main rod has been disconnected2 for there will be no ingress of steam to the cylinder to endanger its safety4 ,,steam-,,pipe ,,bursted4 ,the breaking of a steam-pipe in the smoke-box is even a more harassing mishap than a bursted steam-chest or cover4 ,the only remedy for this is the fastening of an iron plate to the top joint of the steam-pipe1 thereby closing up the opening4 ,a heavy plug of hard wood may be driven into the opening1 and braced there for a short run2 but such a stopper is hard to keep in place1 owing to the shrinkage caused by the intense heat of the smoke-box4 ,,testing ,,the ,,valves4 ,an experienced engineer will most easily determine the existence of leaks between the valves and their seats when the engine is working1 and the indications of that weakness have already been noticed4 ,but it sometimes happens that a man wishes to test the condition of the valves when the engine is at rest4 ,this can be most readily accomplished by placing the engine so that the rocker-arm stands in the vertical position4 ,open the smoke-box door so that the exhaust nozzles can be seen4 ,now block the wheels1 and give the engine steam4 ,if the valve blows1 the steam will be seen issuing from the nozzle on the side under examination4 ,as the tendency of a slide-valve is to wear the seat concave1 it sometimes happens that a valve is tight on the center1 yet leaky in other positions4 ,moving the valve with the reverse-lever as far as can be done without opening the steam-port1 will sometimes demonstrate this4 ,the cranks should be placed on the eighths positions when the valves are being tested4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,accidents ,,to ,,cylinders ,,and ,,steam ,,connections4 ,,importance ,,of ,,the ,,piston ,,in ,,the ,,train ,,of ,,mechanism4 ,the piston is an autocratic member of the machine4 ,for thousands of miles it toils to push the engine ahead1 every thing going smoothly so long as it is confined to its recurring journey2 but let any attachment break1 or a key fly out that will increase the piston's travel1 and away the piston goes1 right through a cylinder-head4 ,,causes ,,that ,,lead ,,to ,,broken ,,cylinder-,,heads4 ,the causes which most commonly lead the piston to smash out cylinder-heads1 are broken cross-heads1 broken piston-rods1 and broken main-rods4 ,a main crank-pin or wrist-pin breaking1 is almost certain to leave one end of the cylinder a wreck4 ,these may be termed the major causes for breaking out cylinder-heads2 but there are numerous minor causes1 which are scarcely less destructive4 ,a piston-rod key begins to work loose4 ,it is hammered down occasionally1 which does not improve its fit2 and some day it jumps out altogether1 letting the piston go on a voyage of discovery4 ,a machinist of the careless sort has been examining a piston's packing1 and1 in screwing up the follower-bolts1 one of them gets a twist too much4 ,drilling out a follower-bolt is a troublesome operation1 so ,mr4 ,careless lets it go4 ,on the road this head drops out1 and a broken cylinder-head is the consequence4 ,one of the worst causes of breakage to a cylinder that ,i have ever seen1 was caused by the packing-ring of the piston catching in the steam-passage4 ,part of the ring broke off1 and wedged itself between the advancing piston and the cylinder4 ,the wedge split the cylinder open1 and the remainder of the piston acted like a pulverizer upon the fragment of the cylinder4 ,,broken ,,cylinder-,,heads ,,often ,,preventable4 ,the causes which eventually lead to broken cylinder-heads often originate from preventable strains4 ,thus1 cross-heads are frequently fractured by main-rod connections pounding2 and weaknesses1 that ultimately bring crank-pins to disaster1 originate in a similar way4 ,a loose piston-key is liable to crack the piston-rod1 if it does not give trouble by jumping out4 ,loose guides have a tendency to spring piston-rods1 and throw unnecessary strain upon them4 ,pistons lined out of true1 are dangerous for the same reason4 ,a pump-plunger working out of line1 or badly secured in the lug1 throws a distressing load upon the cross-head4 ,and so the list of potential accidents grows4 ,like the steady water-drop that wears into the adamantine rock1 trifling defects1 assisted by time's action1 prove stronger than the most massive machine4 ,when any thing happens to permit the piston to break out a cylinder-head1 the engine can be put in running trim by taking off the valve-rod and main-rod1 and setting the valve on the center of the valve-seat4 ,blocking the cross-head is unnecessary1 if the break will allow the escaping steam to pass through2 for then no further tension can be put upon the piston to cause further damage4 ,if1 by an extraordinary freak of good luck1 a piston-rod breaks without causing other damage1 the cylinder-head must be taken off1 and the piston removed4 ,then cover the ports1 and take down the main-rod on that side4 ,or1 if the cross-head is all right1 the main-rod may be left untouched4 ,when the cross-head breaks1 it generally entails taking out the piston1 centering the valve1 and taking down the main-rod on that side4 ,,when ,a ,,main-,,rod ,,breaks4 ,with a broken main-rod which does not knock out the cylinder-head1 the main-rod and valve-rod should be taken down1 the valve secured on the center of the seat1 and the cross-head blocked with the piston at the back end of the cylinder4 ,,crank-,,pin ,,broken4 ,for a broken main crank-pin1 the above method of stripping the engine will do with the addition of taking down both side-rods4 ,an accident which disables one side-rod1 requires that the other one shall be taken down also1 or there will be trouble when the engine is attempted to be run with one side-rod4 ,the rod might go all right so long as no slipping happened4 ,but1 if the engine began to slip while passing over the center1 the side-rod would have no leverage on the back crank to slip its wheel2 and a broken rod or crank-pin would almost certainly ensue4 ,a broken side-rod1 that is not accompanied by other damage1 requires both side-rods to be taken down4 ,all the inconvenience arising from this is1 that the engine is more liable to slip4 ,but1 with dry rails1 an engine can get along very well without its side-rods4 ,,throttle ,,disconnected4 ,any accident to the throttle-valve or its attachments1 which deprives the engineer of power to shut off steam1 is very dangerous1 and calls for prompt action4 ,lose no time in reducing the head of steam to fifty or sixty pounds1 or to the pressure where the engine can easily be managed with the reverse-lever4 ,with the aid of a power-brake1 an engineer can get along fairly with a light train1 after an accident has happened which prevents the closing of the steam from the cylinders2 but constant vigilance and thoughtful labor are needed4 ,,oiling ,,the ,,valves ,,when ,,the ,,throttle ,,is ,,disconnected4 ,the greatest difficulty will be experienced in oiling the valves1 unless the steam-chests are provided with the automatic feeders1 which work with steam on4 ,if he is running on an undulatory road1 an engineer can oil the valves from the cab1 by letting the steam down at the top of a hill1 and running down at a high speed4 ,it can also generally be done on a level track1 by letting the fire burn low1 getting up the best speed the engine will attain1 then putting the feed full on4 ,as the steam drops suddenly1 put the reverse-lever in full motion2 and the chances are1 that the valves can be oiled4 ,,what ,,causes ,a ,,disconnected ,,throttle4 ,the most common causes of trouble with the throttle are the breaking or working out of one of the bolts that operate the valve within the dome1 the breaking of a valve-rod1 or working off of nuts that should secure the connection4 ,where the throttle fails with the valve closed1 and the engineer finds it necessary to take the dome-cover off to prevent his engine from being hauled in1 he will generally find the trouble to lie with the connections mentioned1 or with the bolts belonging to the bell-crank1 that is located near the bottom of the stand-pipe4 ,sometimes the nuts on the top of the throttle-valve stem work off3 but1 in such a case1 there is no difficulty in opening the valve2 it is when the engineer wants to close it1 that the discomfiture comes in4 ,some steam-pipes are provided with a release-valve near the throttle1 to relieve the pipe from intense back-pressure when the engine is reversed4 ,the sudden reversing of an engine sometimes jerks this valve out of its seat1 leaving an open passage between the boiler and steam-chest4 ,this acts like a mild case of unshipped throttle1 and must be controlled in a similar way4 ,,bursting ,a ,,dry ,,pipe4 ,the bursting of a dry pipe is similar in effect to the action of a throttle becoming disconnected while open2 and it may even prove harder to control1 according to the size of the opening4 ,engineer ,halliday had a trying time with a case of this kind4 ,while swinging along the ,e41 ,f41 ,g4 road1 with a heavy train of freight1 a herd of horses ran in from an open crossing-gate1 and started up the track just in front of the engine4 ,as there was a bridge a short distance ahead1 ,halliday reversed the engine in his anxiety to prevent an accident4 ,the train stopped for an instant1 when the engine began to push it back4 ,halliday tried to throw the lever to the center1 but never before had he felt such a pressure acting upon it4 ,again and again he tried to throw the lever over2 but every time it proved too formidable a struggle1 and the catch found its way into the full-back notch4 ,meanwhile1 the train was gaining speed in the wrong direction1 and a passenger train was not many miles behind4 ,beginning to realize the true state of affairs1 ,halliday called for brakes1 opened the fire-box door1 closed the dampers1 and started the injector4 ,then he directed the fireman to throw some bucketfuls of water upon the fire1 while he tied down the whistle-lever1 letting the steam blow4 ,the promptest means for reducing the pressure of steam were now in operation1 and his next move was to try the reverse-lever again4 ,both men grasped the lever1 and1 by a combined effort1 forced it past the center2 and ,samson's hair was cut4 ,it was afterwards found that a long rent had opened in the dry pipe1 letting the full boiler pressure upon the valves1 which moved hard through being dry2 the hot gases pumped through them in reverse motion having licked off every trace of lubricating unguent4 ,,other ,,throttle ,,accidents4 ,cases of serious trouble resulting from accidents to throttle connections would be easy to multiply4 ,two incidents with similar originating conditions1 but with very different results1 will suffice4 ,engineer ,phelps was pulling a full train of coal over rails that were neither wet nor dry1 and had just enough frost upon them to be wicked4 ,he was having a bad time slipping1 but was working patiently along1 when the throttle became disconnected with the valve open4 ,the engine at once started on a whirl of slipping that threatened disaster1 but it was immediately controlled by the engineer pulling the reverse-lever to the center notch4 ,engineer ,cook of the ,f41 ,g41 ,h4 road1 was not so fortunate when the stem of his throttle-valve broke on a slippery day4 ,as the wheels began spinning round1 ,cook lost his head1 and kept working at the throttle-lever to try to stop4 ,seeing this was of no avail1 he grasped the sand-lever1 and tugged vigorously at the valves4 ,a season of tumult succeeded2 and1 when the engine stopped presently1 it was found to be a deplorable wreck4 ,it was hard to tell1 from the look of the ruin1 what part of the locomotive broke first2 but the crank-pins on one side were cleaned off1 and the piston was out through the cylinder-head4 ,the side-rod on the other side broke close to the strap1 and was twisted up like a spiral spring4 ,,pounding ,,of ,,the ,,working-,,parts4 ,it is good for an ambitious young engineer1 who desires to thoroughly master his calling1 to walk occasionally into the room where a well-managed automatic cut-off engine is at work1 and watch its smooth1 noise-less movements4 ,there he may find an ideal of how an engine should run4 ,the nature of the work performed by a locomotive engine prevents it from being operated noiselessly1 and the smoothness of its action must always compare unfavorably with a well-constructed stationary engine2 but the connections which transmit the power of a locomotive should be free from knock or jar1 if they are properly proportioned1 and skillfully put together4 ,,some ,,causes ,,of ,,pounding4 ,to an engineer with a well-regulated mind1 a pound about the engine is a source of continual irritation4 ,if a pound arises from a cause which can be remedied by an engineer1 the careful man will soon perform the necessary work to end the noise4 ,sometimes the origin of a pound is hard to discover3 very often it is beyond the power of the engineer to stop it4 ,some makes of locomotives always pound when working in full gear4 ,with such an engine1 a nervous engineer will fuss1 pushing up wedges until they stick fast1 and cause no end of grief to get them down again4 ,he will key up the main-rod connections till they run hot1 and he will prophesy that the engine is going to pieces4 ,but the engine hangs together all the same1 and is only suffering from want of lead1 or want of compression4 ,where an engine is deficient in the cushioning to the piston1 due to compression or lead1 the momentum of the piston and connecting-rod is suddenly checked at the end of each stroke4 ,the concussion to these working-parts is so great that pounding will be produced4 ,as the engine gets hooked towards the center1 this pounding will cease1 because the lead opening increases as the motion is notched back4 ,the most common causes for pounding with locomotives are worn main-rod connections1 and driving-boxes too loose in the jaws1 or the brasses loose in the driving-boxes4 ,if side-rods are out of tram1 or have the brasses badly worn1 they sometimes pound when passing the centers4 ,a cross-head will pound when the guides are worn very open4 ,this last defect is liable to cause a bent piston-rod4 ,a piston makes a tremendous pound when a badly connected rod allows it to touch a cylinder-head1 and a very ominous pound is produced when the spider gets loose on the piston-rod1 and a piston-rod loose in the cross-head will make itself heard all over the engine4 ,,locating ,a ,,mysterious ,,pound4 ,several years ago a very troublesome and mysterious pound caused the writer a great deal of annoyance4 ,he was running an old engine1 with cylinders that had been bored out until no counter-bore was left4 ,the piston had worn a seat leaving a small ridge at the end of its back travel4 ,the main-rod was taken down one day2 and1 in putting it up again1 the travel of the piston was slightly altered4 ,the engine started out with a pound1 and kept it up4 ,if any of my readers have been working an engine that seemed to hang together merely by luck1 away on construction work on the wild prairies1 with no machine-shops in the rear to appeal to for aid or counsel1 with all his own repairing to do without tools or skilled assistance1 they will understand the difficulty experienced in locating that pound at the back end of the cylinder4 ,a cylinder loose on the frame1 or a broken frame1 will jar the whole machine2 and both of these defects are serious1 and demand increased care in taking the engine along with the train4 ,loose driving-box brasses produce a pound which is sometimes difficult to locate4 ,in searching for the cause of a pound1 it is a good plan to place the engine with one of the cranks on the quarter1 block the wheels1 and have the fireman open the throttle a little1 and reverse the engine with the steam on4 ,by closely watching in turn each connection1 as the steam through the piston gives a pull or a thrust to the cross-head1 the defect which causes the pound may be located4 ,never run with a serious pound inside of a cylinder4 ,it is an almost certain indication that a smash is imminent4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,off ,,the ,,track4--,,accidents ,,to ,,running-,,gear4 ,,getting ,,ditched4 ,there is something pathetic in the spectacle of a noble locomotive1 whose speed capabilities are so wonderful1 lying with its wheels in the air1 or sunk to the hubs in mud or gravel4 ,kindred sights are1 a ship thrown high and dry upon the beach1 away from the element that gives it power and beauty2 or a monster whale1 the leviathan of the deep1 lying stranded and helpless upon the shore4 ,few engineers have run many years without getting their engine off the track in some way1--over the ends of switches1 by jumping bad track1 or getting into the ditch through some serious accident1 collision or otherwise4 ,most of them have felt that shock of the engine thumping over the ties1 and momentarily wondered in what position it was going to stop2 doing all in their power1 meanwhile1 to stop1 and prevent damage4 ,,dealing ,,with ,,sudden ,,emergencies4 ,of course1 an engineer's first duty is to conduct his engine in a way that will avoid accident so far as human foresight can aid in doing so2 but1 when an accident is inevitable1 his next duty is to use every exertion towards reducing its severity4 ,the most common form of serious accident occurring on our railroads is a collision4 ,rear-end collisions occur most frequently1 although head-to-head collisions annually claim many victims4 ,when an accident of this kind is impending1 the engineer generally has but a few seconds of warning2 but these brief seconds well utilized often save many lives1 and impress the principal actor with the stamp of true heroism4 ,rounding a curve at a high speed1 an engineer perceives another train approaching4 ,quick as thought he shuts off steam1 applies the brake1 reverses the engine1 and opens the sand-valves and the throttle4 ,this will take about ten seconds' time2 and1 if the engine is running thirty miles an hour1 the train will pass over forty-four feet each second4 ,assuming that no reduction of speed has taken place till all the appliances for stopping are in operation1 four hundred and forty feet will be passed over as a preliminary to stopping4 ,with the automatic ,westinghouse brake1 application and retarding power are almost simultaneous4 ,until he has applied all means of reducing speed1 an engineer rarely or never consults his own safety1 however certain death may be staring him in the face4 ,but after the brakes are known to be doing their work1 aided by sanded rails1 and steam working against the piston1 personal safety is considered4 ,a glance at the position of the two trains tells if they are coming violently together2 and the engineer jumps off1 or remains on the engine1 as he deems best4 ,this applies to trains equipped with continuous brakes4 ,,stopping ,a ,,freight ,,train ,,in ,,case ,,of ,,danger4 ,with freight trains where the means of stopping are not immediately under the hand of the engineer1 he must call for brakes on the first indication of danger1 and do all that a reversed engine can achieve to aid in stopping the train4 ,where a driver brake is used1 the engineer will have to watch the reversed engine2 because the wheels will soon begin sliding1 even on thick sand1 and their retarding power will be seriously diminished4 ,to prevent this1 the engineer should let off the driver brake1 and open the cylinder-cocks1 till the wheels begin to revolve1 when the brake may be applied again4 ,working and watching in this way greatly assist in stopping a train1 and preventing the flattening of wheels4 ,,saving ,,the ,,heating ,,surfaces4 ,should the engine get into the ditch1 the engineer's first duty is to save the engine from getting burned1 unless saving of life1 or protecting the train1 demands his attention4 ,if the engine is in a position where the flues or fire-box crown will be left without water1 the fire should be quenched as quickly as possible4 ,sand or gravel thrown over the fire1 and then saturated with water1 is a good and prompt way of extinguishing the fire4 ,,getting ,,the ,,engine ,,on ,,the ,,track4 ,it can be understood in a few minutes after derailment whether or not the engine can be put back on the track without assistance4 ,sometimes a pull from another engine is all that is required3 again1 nothing can be done without the aid of heavy tools to raise it up4 ,in this case1 no time should be lost in sending for the wrecking outfit4 ,it often happens that an engine gets off the track while switching among sidings1 and sinks down in the road-bed so as to be helpless4 ,in an event of this kind1 jacking up a few inches will often enable the engine to work back to the rails4 ,before beginning to hoist with the screw-jacks1 some labor can generally be saved by putting pieces of iron between the bottom of the driving-boxes and the pedestal-braces4 ,as the wheels begin to rise out of the gravel1 pieces of plank or wooden wedges should be driven under them to hold good every inch raised4 ,where the attempt is made to work an engine on the rails by means of wrecking-frogs1 wooden filling should be laid down crosswise to prevent the wheels from sinking between the ties1 should they slip off the frogs4 ,where jacking up has to be resorted to1 there is often difficulty experienced in getting up the engine-truck2 as raising the frame usually leaves the truck behind in the mire4 ,the best plan is1 to jack up the front of the engine to the desired level1 then with a rail well manned pry up the truck1 and hold it in position by driving shims under the wheels4 ,an engine will generally go on the rails easiest the way it comes off4 ,when a derailed engine is being pulled on the track by another engine1 the work should be done carefully1 and with proper deliberation4 ,when every thing is made ready for a pull1 some men act as if the best plan was to start both engines off with full throttle2 and this often leaves the situation worse than it was at first4 ,when truck-wheels stand at an angle to the track1 it is often necessary to jerk them in line by attaching a chain or rope to one side4 ,a wrecking-frog should be laid in front of the wheel outside the rail1 and blocking before the inside wheel1 sufficient to raise the tread of the wheel above the level of the rail4 ,then move ahead slowly1 and the chances are that the wheels will go on the rails4 ,sometimes the easiest way is to open the track at a joint1 move it aside to the line of the wheels1 and spike it there1 then draw or run the engine on4 ,having an engine off the track1 is a position where good judgment is more potent than a volume of written directions4 ,,understanding ,,the ,,running-,,gear4 ,the driving-wheels1 axles1 boxes1 frames1 with the trucks and all their attachments1 are somewhat dirty articles to handle4 ,the examination of how they are put together1 and how they are hanging together1 is pursued under soiling circumstances4 ,perhaps this is the reason these things are studied less than they ought to be4 ,to creep under a greasy locomotive to examine wheels1 axles1 and truck-boxes1 is not a dignified proceeding by any means2 but it is a very useful one4 ,the running-gear is the fundamental part of the machine1 and its whole make-up should be thoroughly understood4 ,the builds of trucks are so multifarious that no specified directions can be given respecting accidents happening to them4 ,there is1 therefore1 the greater need for an engineer's familiarizing himself with the make-up of his running-gear1 so that1 when an accident happens1 he will know exactly what to do4 ,disraeli said3 8,there is nothing so likely to happen as the unexpected40 ,this applies very aptly to railroad engineering4 ,industrious accumulation of knowledge respecting every part of the machine is the proper way to defy the unexpected4 ,,broken ,,driving-,,spring4 ,the running-gear of some engines is so arranged1 that1 in case a driving-spring breaks on the road1 it can readily be replaced if a spare spring is carried4 ,with the average run of engines1 however1 and the accumulating complication of brake-gear attached to the frames1 the replacing of a driving-spring is a tedious operation1 that would involve too much delay with an engine attached to a train4 ,consequently engineers seldom attempt to change a broken spring4 ,they merely remove the attachments likely to shake out of place1 and block the engine up so as to get home safely4 ,when a forward driving-spring breaks1 it is generally best to take the spring out with its saddle and hangers4 ,then run the back drivers up on wedges to take the weight off the forward drivers1 and put a piece of hard wood or a rubber spring between the top of the box and the frame4 ,now run the forward drivers on the wedges1 which will take the weight off the back drivers1 and with a pinch-bar pry up the end of the equalizer till that lever stands level1 and block it in that position by jamming a piece of wood between it and the frame4 ,for a back driving-spring1 this order of procedure should be reversed4 ,a back driving-spring is often hard to get out of its position2 and it sometimes can be left in place1 as it is not very liable to cause mischief4 ,where a spring drops its load through a hanger breaking1 the mishap can occasionally be remedied by chaining the spring to the frame4 ,should this prove impracticable1 the same process must be followed as that which was made necessary by a broken spring4 ,,equalizer ,,broken4 ,for a broken equalizer1 all the pieces likely to shake off1 or to be caught by the revolving wheels1 must come out2 and both driving-boxes on that side must be blocked on top with wood or rubber4 ,where good screw-jacks are carried1 it will often prove time-saving to raise the engine by jacking up at the back end of the frame instead of running it up on wedges4 ,where the wedge plan is likely to prove easiest1 it must be adopted only on a straight track2 and then too much care can not be used to prevent the wheels from leaving the rails4 ,,accidents ,,to ,,trucks4 ,the breaking of an engine-truck spring which transmits the weight to the boxes by means of an equalizer1 requires that the equalizer should be taken out1 and the frame blocked above the boxes4 ,this blocking above the boxes is necessary to prevent the two unyielding iron surfaces1 which would otherwise come together1 from hammering each other to pieces4 ,wood or rubber has more elasticity1 and acts as a spring4 ,whatever may be the form of truck used1 if the breaking of a spring allows the rigid frame to drop upon the top of one or more boxes1 it must be raised1 and a yielding substance inserted1 if the engine is to be run even at a moderate speed1 and the engineer wishes to avoid further breakage4 ,sometimes truck-springs1 especially with tanks1 are so arranged that the removal of one will take away the support of the frame at that point4 ,in such a case1 a cross-tie or other suitable piece of wood must be fitted into the place to support the weight which the spring held up4 ,,broken ,,frame4 ,a broken truck-frame can generally be held together by means of a chain1 and a piece of broken rail or wooden beam to act as a 8splice40 ,should a truck-wheel or axle break1 it can be chained up to enable the engine to reach the nearest side track where new wheels may be procured1 or the broken parts fastened so that the engine may proceed carefully home4 ,the back wheel of an engine-truck can be chained up securely to a rail or cross-tie placed across the top of the engine-frame4 ,if an accident happens to the front wheels1 and it proves impracticable to get a sound pair1 the truck should be turned round when a side track is reached4 ,an accident to the wheels or axle of a tender-truck can be managed in the same way as an engine-truck1 but the cross-beam to support the chained weight must be placed across the top of the tender4 ,a bent axle or broken wheel that prevents a truck from following the rail1 can be run to the nearest side track by fastening the wheels so that they will slide on the rails4 ,,broken ,,driving ,,axles1 ,,wheels1 ,,and ,,tires4 ,accidents of this nature often disable the engine entirely2 but sometimes the breakage occurs in such a way that the engine can run itself home1 or into a side track1 by good and careful management4 ,driving-axles generally break in the box1 or between the box and the wheel4 ,when this happens to a main driving-axle1 or when any thing happens to the forward driving-wheel or tire of such a serious nature that the engine can not be moved until the wheel is raised away from the rail1 the engineer's first duty is to take down the main rod on that side1 and secure the piston1 then to take down both of the side rods4 ,cases could be cited where engineers have brought in engines with broken axles without disconnecting any thing1 but these men did not take the safe side by a long way4 ,the rods being disconnected1 run the disabled wheel up on a wedge or block of wood1 and secure it in the raised position by driving blocking between the axle-box and the pedestal-brace4 ,to get the box high enough in the jaws1 it is sometimes necessary to remove the spring and saddle from the top of the box4 ,a wheel may break and not fall to pieces1 but still be dangerous to use1 except for moving along slowly4 ,a tire may break1 and yet remain on the wheel1 only requiring the most careful handling4 ,on the other hand1 the breaking of a wheel or tire may render the wheel useless1 when it must be raised from the rail the same way as was recommended for a broken axle1 and the same precautions in regard to stripping that side of the engine must all be taken4 ,in the event of an accident happening which disables both forward drivers1 they must both be raised from the rails1 and the engine pulled in1 the truck and hind drivers supporting the weight4 ,both side rods must come down4 ,the breaking of back driving-axles1 or accidents to wheels or tires1 is very difficult to manage2 because the weight must be supported in some way4 ,the first act when such a mishap occurs1 is to take down both side rods4 ,if the engine can be moved to the nearest side track without further change1 take it there2 now jack up the back part of the engine1 and fasten two pieces of rail by chaining or otherwise to the frames of the engine1 their ends resting on the tank-deck1 so that1 when the jacks are lowered1 the tank will help to support the hind part of the engine4 ,i have seen a case where one piece of rail was pushed into the draw-bar casting1 and it held the engine up through a journey of seventy miles4 ,if one of the back driving-wheels can be used1 it lessens the weight that has to be borne by any lever contrivance4 ,when one wheel is disabled1 it must be blocked up in the jaws2 and1 should both wheels be rendered useless1 they must both be held up1 so that as much as possible of the weight may be thrown upon the forward drivers4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,connecting-,,rods1 ,,side ,,rods1 ,,and ,,wedges4 ,,care ,,of ,,locomotive ,,rods4 ,when it is found that an engineer runs his engine for months on arduous train service1 and has no trouble with his rods1 he may safely be credited with knowing his business1 and attending to it skillfully4 ,in regard to the keeping of the machinery in working-order1 the engineer's duties are mostly of a supervisory nature4 ,when piston-rings get blowing1 when guides need closing1 or when a pump gets working badly1 he reports the matter2 and the work is done so that the defect is remedied4 ,with the rods it is different4 ,although he does not file the brasses himself1 he exerts great influence1 for good or evil1 in the way he manipulates the keys1 and by the care he takes of the rods4 ,injudicious keying of rods is responsible for more accidents than the mistakes in any other one direction1 with1 perhaps1 the exception of the current mistake of the hind brakeman1 who supposes there is no use in going back to flag when his train has stopped between stations4 ,,functions ,,of ,,connecting-,,rods4 ,the functions of rods being to transmit the motion of the pistons to the running-gear1 they have very heavy duty to perform4 ,the conflicting strains and shocks to which a locomotive is subjected while running over a rough track at high speed1 are1 in many instances1 sustained by the rods3 hence it is of special importance that this portion of the motion should be kept in good order4 ,main rods convey the power developed in the cylinders to the crank-pins by a succession of pulls and thrusts equal in vigor to the aggregate of steam-pressure exerted on the piston4 ,to endure this alternating tension and compression without injury to the working-parts1 it is of the utmost importance that the connections should be close fitted1 yet free enough to prevent unnecessary friction4 ,in fitting up main-rod brasses1 it does not matter in what position the crank stands1 so long as it is convenient for doing the work4 ,but1 if the engine has been in service since the pins were turned1 they should be calipered through their horizontal diameter when the crank is on the center2 since it is well known that the pins have a tendency to wear flat on the sides at right angles to the crank's length4 ,the back ends of the main-rod brasses should be fitted brass to brass2 for that form of doing the work makes the most secure job1 and gives the connection all the advantages of a solid box1 preventing the straps and brasses from being knocked out of shape by hammering each other1--a result that surely follows the open brasses method of fitting back ends of main-rods4 ,leaving the forward end brasses a little open is not injurious to that connection1 because the line of strain is not so varied as that of the back end4 ,,effects ,,of ,,bad ,,fitting4 ,when the work of fitting a set of back-end brasses is completed1 they should be put in the strap1 and tried on the pin4 ,if1 after being keyed close together1 they revolve on the pin without pinching1 the fit is not too tight4 ,it is of the greatest consequence1 in fitting rod-brasses1 to ascertain1 beyond doubt1 that the brasses have been bored out true1 and that they fit in the strap so that the line of strain shall be in line with the cross-head and crank-pins4 ,it occasionally happens1 through bad workmanship1 that when the back end of a rod is keyed up1 and the front end not connected1 the rod does not point straight to the cross-head pin1 but in a line some distance to the right or left4 ,the distance may be very small1 yet sufficient to cause no small amount of trouble4 ,by some pinching and jamming1 a rod in this condition can be connected up2 but it is almost sure to run hot4 ,and a rod in this condition will never run satisfactorily till it is taken down and fitted by a competent machinist4 ,the back end may be all right1 and the forward end suffering from oblique fitting4 ,this is even more common than the first case1 and the effect is the same4 ,a rod in this condition1 besides displaying a tendency to run hot1 will keep jerking the cross-head from side to side on the guides1 and will probably make the cross-head chafe the guides at certain points4 ,rods never run cool1 and free from jar1 unless they are fitted to transmit the power in a direct line between the pins4 ,,striking ,,points ,,and ,,clearance4 ,before putting up main rods1 the striking points of the pistons should be located and marked on the guides4 ,then1 when the rods are put up1 the clearance should be divided equally between the two ends4 ,the identification of these points is of greater interest to the engineer who is running the engine than to any other person2 for upon their correctness the success of his running may1 to some extent1 depend4 ,an engine may go out with the clearance badly divided1 and run all right for a few days1 and the driving of a key may then cause the piston to strike the head4 ,a forcible instance of this kind once came under my observation4 ,a careless machinist1 in working on main-rod brasses1 had mixed the liners1 and shortened the rod1 till the piston began to touch the back head4 ,when the engine was working light1 there was just a slight jar2 but1 when the load was heavy1 the jar became a distinct pound4 ,the engineer could not locate the knock1 and was disposed to think it was in the driving-box4 ,one day that he slipped the engine badly1 steam began to issue from the back cylinder-head1 which was cracked by a blow from the piston4 ,the cause of the pound was then discovered4 ,,watching ,,rods ,,on ,,the ,,road4 ,when an engineer starts out with an engine after the rod-brasses have been filed1 he should make them a special object of attention4 ,if he can not shake the connection laterally with his hands when there is room for movement within the collars1 he should slack up the key till he can do so2 for some one has made a mistake in fitting4 ,so long as the rod passes the center without jar when the engine is working hard in full gear1 the brasses are tight enough4 ,after running a few miles with newly fitted brasses1 the rod will generally need keying up2 for liners that were comparatively loose when put up1 get driven compactly together1 leaving lost motion4 ,although a connection may be put together brass to brass1 there is still some work left for the engineer to do in the way of keying4 ,to do keying correctly needs considerable sagacity1 especially in the case of side rods4 ,in the case of back ends of main rods1 the key should be got down as soon as possible1 to hold the brasses immovably in the strap2 but1 after this point is reached1 there should be no more hammering on the key4 ,some men persist in pounding down keys that are already snug1 and the effect of their blows is to spring the brass out of shape4 ,a key acts as a wedge1 which it is2 and1 when the taper is slight1 the blow imparted by a hammer roughly used1 exerts an immense force in driving it down4 ,something must yield2 and the brass gets sprung towards the pin1 presenting a ridge for a rubbing surface1 which heats1 and causes delay4 ,after the key is once driven tight home1 its work is finished4 ,if the pin then indicates lost motion1 the rod should be taken down1 and the brasses reduced4 ,in the case of main rods1 this should be done at the first signs of pounding2 for lost motion entails heavy shocks upon the moving parts4 ,the front end of main rods requires to be very carefully watched1 and the connection kept free from jar4 ,where this part is kept regularly oiled1 and free from lost motion1 it gives scarcely any trouble2 but let the wrist-pin of the common cross-head once get cut through neglect1 and it is a difficult matter getting it in good running-order again4 ,the style of cross-head where the pin is part of the casting1 although greatly used1 is a most awkward article to fit up and keep in shape4 ,the form of cross-head which works between two guide-bars1 and has its axis in line with the piston-rod1 is becoming deservedly popular4 ,,side ,,rods4 ,many attempts have been made to dispense with side rods1 and they certainly are a troublesome part of the machinery to keep right2 but no better means of connecting driving-wheels has yet been devised4 ,the first method of coupling driving-wheels together1 so that more than one pair might be available for adhesion1 was by means of cogs and gearing4 ,this was improved on by an endless chain working over pocketed pulleys2 but even this was an extremely crude device1--working with tumultuous jerks1 and a noise like a stamping-mill4 ,one of the first real improvements1 which ,george ,stephenson effected on the locomotive1 was the inventing of side rods4 ,an essential element in locomotive construction needed to make side rods run with safety1 is1 that all the wheels connected shall be of the same circumference4 ,there is a practice on some roads of putting new tires on wheels just as they come from the rolling-mill1 without putting them in the lathe4 ,such tires are seldom accurate in size2 and they cause no end of trouble1 especially to side rods4 ,this is one of the economical practices that does not pay4 ,,adjustment ,,of ,,side ,,rods4 ,to connect driving-wheels so that they will run together in perfect harmony1 after ascertaining that they are the same size1 the next point is to secure the crank-pins at an equal distance from the centers of the wheels4 ,when this is done1 and the wheels are trammed parallel to the line of motion1 the rods will move on a plane with the centers of the crank-pins exactly the same distance apart as are the centers of the driving-axles4 ,the rods can be adjusted to the greatest advantage with the steam raised1 so that the heat of the boiler will make the frames about the same length as when the engine is at work4 ,the expansion due to the heat of the boiler is short when measured by a foot-rule1 but it affects the smooth action of the side rods to a remarkable extent4 ,before tramming for the side rods1 it is necessary to have the driving-box wedges set up just tight enough to let the driving-boxes move vertically in the jaws without sticking4 ,the distance between the centers of the driving-axles and the centers of the crank-pins having now been found equal1 the rods are fitted up2 each connection being secured a close fit to the pin1 with the brasses held brass to brass4 ,with the brasses bored out exactly to the size of the crank-pins1 and the rods accurately fitted1 a connection could be made which would bind the two sets of drivers to move as an unbroken unit1 were it not for the disturbing element which appears in the shape of rough track4 ,with uneven track and worn wheel-tires1 a tremendous tension is put on the rods where the connections are closely fitted4 ,provision is made for this source of danger by leaving the brasses of the back pins loosely fitted4 ,a yielding space is left between the brass and the pin1 not between the brass and the key or strap4 ,the latter connections must be perfectly snug1 or the strap will soon be pounded out of shape4 ,in the case of ten-wheel and consolidation engines1 the brasses of all wheels behind the leading pair should be bored out one-sixty-fourth larger than the pins1 which will generally be sufficient4 ,in case a pin is sprung1--which is no rare circumstance1--room enough must be left in the brass to let the pin pass over its tightest point without pinching4 ,the center is the proper position to put up side rods on4 ,some men like to fit side rods with the cranks on the eighths position2 holding that there the greatest strain comes on1 and1 consequently1 that there fitting up should be done4 ,that is a mistaken idea2 for rods may be put together on the eighths1 and yet bind the pins badly in passing the centers4 ,on the other hand1 if they pass the centers easily1 they will go round the remainder of the circle without danger4 ,,keying ,,side ,,rods4 ,when it is necessary for an engineer to key up side rods1 he should select a place where the track is straight1 and as even as possible4 ,then he should put the cranks on the center1 and take care that he can move the connections laterally after the job is done4 ,if he now moves the engine so that the cranks are on the other center1 and finds that the rod connections can still be moved1 that side is all right4 ,if the other side be treated in a similar manner1 his rods are not likely to give trouble4 ,with a worn-out engine and rough road-bed1 it is a difficult matter to preserve the true mean between loose and tight side-rod connections4 ,but1 in a case of doubt1 the loose side is the safe side4 ,yet most engineers are inclined to err on the side of danger1 for they will generally tighten up the rods to prevent them from rattling4 ,on a ,western road1 where solid-ended brasses were adopted1 it was often amusing to hear the engineers protesting against the noise the side rods made when the brasses began to get worn4 ,they would rattle from one end of the division to the other2 but they would not break pins1 or fracture themselves1 and tear the cab to pieces1 or ditch a train1 as happens so often from other rods being keyed to prevent noise4 ,sprung crank-pins and broken side rods are very often the result of injudicious keying4 ,,difficulty ,,in ,,locating ,,defects4 ,a locomotive has so many parts that bear a close relation to each other1 and that are so sympathetic when one of the parts becomes disordered1 that it is sometimes a difficult matter to immediately locate a complaint4 ,one of the signs of a defect1 in many of the parts1 or one of the consequences of it1 is a 8pound10--a complaint that we hear of in a locomotive about as frequently1 and with the same feeling1 as we do of malaria in the individual4 ,,pounding ,,in ,,driving-,,boxes ,,and ,,wedges4 ,but we will deal now with the pounds in a locomotive1 and will take the location in which we find the most and serious ones1--namely1 in the driving-boxes and wedges1--and see why they pound1 and what will prevent them from doing so4 ,the cause we will find1 if in the wedges1 is due to a rocking of the box in them1 or from causes arising from imperfect fitting when they were put up1 or lined up when the engine was in the shop4 ,this fitting of wedges on a locomotive that has done service is a matter of importance in the immediate present and future working of the parts themselves1 and of other parts of the locomotive as well4 ,on stripping a locomotive that has done much service1 it will be found that the working of the wedges on the face of the pedestal has worn it hollow1 or pounded furrows on it1 or has done both4 ,this occurs so frequently on the 8live0 wedge side1 that it may be taken as the rule1 rather than the exception1 to find the pedestal in this condition4 ,while it does not happen so frequently on the 8dead0 wedge side as on the other1 it will be found there also if the wedge has not been held by a fastening to the pedestal1 or securely fitted between the top of the frame and the pedestal binder-brace4 ,these defects will be found on the back of the wedge also1 and are produced by the same cause and same motion as those on the pedestal face4 ,these defects are the most frequent cause of the driving-box pounding1 or of the wedges rocking2 since thereby the wedges get thrown out of parallel to each other1 when it becomes necessary to adjust them during the service of the locomotive4 ,in refitting wedges1 these defects should be removed1 the pedestal face carefully straightened its entire length1 and the wedge-back fitted to it4 ,it is not only necessary that the pedestal face should be smooth1 but that it should be straight its entire length4 ,if not1 when it becomes necessary to adjust the wedge1 if the pedestal is high on the top end1 the wedge is thrown out at the top1 binding the box at that point1 and allowing it to swing at the bottom4 ,,importance ,,of ,,having ,,wedges ,,properly ,,fitted4 ,with the pedestal face in a proper condition to avoid displacement of the wedge1 when moved to different positions on it1 we should consider what will be the method of lining the wedges1 and what duty they have to perform4 ,this duty is merely to take up the lost motion between the pedestal and boxes2 and that1 from their shape1 they readily do from time to time4 ,while this duty is simple1 the wedges ought to do it without affecting any of the other parts of the locomotive1--a condition of perfection that can be reached only by having all the wedges perfectly parallel with the pedestals and with each other4 ,if the first condition is not complied with1 the result1 as stated1 will be the box swinging in the wedges4 ,if the latter1 then with the varying position of the boxes in the pedestal due to the engine settling on the springs1 or to the change of position from the motion of the springs when the locomotive is running1 we will have a varying distance between the centers of the wheels and length for the side rods4 ,many of the complaints we hear of rods not working properly1 are owing to this defect in wedges not being parallel1 by which the distances are varied1 and a strain thrown upon the rods that not only affects them1 but causes them in turn to bind the boxes against the wedges by trying to compress or extend to a length varying as often as the motion of the springs4 ,while the motion of the springs is not much in proportion to the length of the wedges1 and the varying distance between centers of wheels is in ratio to that proportion1 if the wedges are not parallel1 we must remember how often the motion is occurring1 and that1 no matter how slight the strain upon the rods may be1 we are putting it on a part of the locomotive that requires the minutest adjustment to enable it to do its work properly and safely4 ,,influence ,,of ,,half-,,round ,,brasses4 ,driving-boxes fitted with a half-round brass have a tendency to close at the bottom4 ,this tendency is continuous1 and becomes most marked as the brass wears down1 relieving the box of the strain put upon it by the tight-fitting brass4 ,with a properly fitted brass1 and a collar put up in good shape1 the box can not close much3 still1 there will be enough looseness to cause a slight pounding4 ,during the first few days' service of a locomotive after new driving-brasses of this shape are put in1 the compression on the brass1 resulting from the weight of the engine1 tends to close the bottom of the box1 and permits the box to rock4 ,this evil may be1 to some extent1 prevented by fitting the wedges slightly closer at the bottom4 ,this closing of the box at the bottom is not only an evil and annoyance in itself by causing pounding1 but is a further source of trouble by hastening the forming of a shoulder on the top of the wedge4 ,the tendency at all times is for the axle-box to wear a shoulder at the top and bottom of its travel1 even when the box retains its proper shape2 but1 when it is distorted by closing at the bottom1 the rubbing surfaces are put out of the true plane1 and wear takes place much more rapidly4 ,while the springs retain their position1 and impart to the axle-box a fixed range of motion1 no serious effect is felt from the worn wedges4 ,but when the locomotive is passing over rough frogs or bad rail-joints1 where the motion of the spring is increased1 the frame pounds down upon the box1 which for a moment becomes fastened in the narrow space between the shoulders of the wedges2 and an effort is needed for the box to relieve itself1 and allow the spring to resume its motion4 ,this causes the engine to ride hard in some instances1 where the condition of the track makes the box catch frequently4 ,sometimes the box will be unable to relieve itself without assistance1 and much loss of time and annoyance result when the wedge has to be pulled down to relieve the box4 ,the forming of the shoulder on top and bottom of the wedge may be anticipated and prevented by planing the part where the ridges form1 leaving a face just the length of the box plus the space covered by the motion of the springs4 ,not only does this aid in preventing the box from forming a shoulder1 but it also reduces the first cost of fitting the wedges by reducing the surface to be squared and finished true4 ,,position ,,of ,,boxes ,,while ,,setting ,,up ,,wedges4 ,with the wedges in a proper condition when the locomotive enters service1 we yet must care for them and adjust them from time to time1 when it is necessary to take up the lost motion between the pedestals and boxes4 ,when doing this work1 it is important that the position and condition of the driving-box should be considered4 ,the position of the box should be such that the wedge may be set up to the proper degree of tightness with certainty and without much labor4 ,it is important that a wheel position be found where the box would not be moved by the wedge when the latter is being adjusted4 ,this position will be found where the box is up against the dead wedge1 since the lost motion will then be between the box and the wedge to be moved4 ,to get all the driving-boxes in that position at one time is a difficult matter1 if it is to be done by pinching the wheels4 ,the position of the rods decides the direction of their action on the wheel by the thrust or pull upon the crank-pin4 ,if the rod is above the wheel center1 pinching behind the back wheel will force both the wheels and boxes on that side up against the dead wedge2 but1 should the rod be below the wheel center1 similar work with the pinch-bar will draw the forward box away from the dead wedge1 the side rod doing this by pulling on the crank-pin1--this is always supposing the dead wedge to be in the front pedestals4 ,the best position1 therefore1 to get an engine into for setting up all the wedges1 is1 with the side rods on the upper eighths2 for then pinching behind the back wheels will push all the boxes up to the dead wedges4 ,the work can then be done without putting unnecessary strain upon the wedge-bolts1 which are often found with the corners of the heads rounded off1 and the thread injured to such an extent that it will not screw through the binder-brace1--a condition of matters nearly always caused by trying to force up wedges without putting the engine in the proper position4 ,if the wedge-bolt1 from faulty construction1 or through injury1 is unable to move up the wedge1 driving is resorted to1 by which means it is battered on the end2 and the jarring of each blow causes the ashes and dirt on top to fall behind the wedge1 throwing it out of parallel1 and introducing material that will cause the wedge to cut4 ,the ashes and dirt that accumulate so readily on the top of wedges and boxes cause no end of trouble1 although the fact is not generally recognized2 and it will generally be fruitful labor to have these parts well cleaned off before beginning to set up wedges4 ,many complaints that are made1 of wedges not being properly adjusted1 proceed from the disturbance that follows grit introduced between the wedge and box4 ,,necessity ,,for ,,keeping ,,boxes ,,and ,,wedges ,,clean4 ,the growing practice of close and stated inspection of locomotives to detect defects1 before waiting for them to develop into breakages that cause trouble and delay to trains1 will give especially good results if applied to boxes and wedges4 ,if the wedges are taken down and examined at regular intervals1 the ridges that appear so readily on the face1 when oil-grooves are cut on the sides of the driving-box1 can be smoothed off before they cause distortion of the surface4 ,this is also a good time for a thorough cleaning of the pedestals and box1 and the oil-holes can be examined and opened out properly4 ,work of this kind often prevents boxes getting hot on the road1 with all the entailed delay and expense1 which frequently include changing engines if the train must be pushed on4 ,one turn of a hot box will often wear a brass more than the daily running for two years4 ,,temperature ,,of ,,the ,,box ,,to ,,be ,,considered4 ,one condition of the box to be considered1 when adjusting wedges1 is its temperature at the time the work is done1 and what that will be when the engine is in service4 ,adjusting wedges is often done as a preliminary step to lining and adjusting side rods2 and this is done1 on many roads1 on the shop-day when the locomotive is in for washing out and periodical repairs4 ,at that time1 the engine being cold1 the boxes will be at their lowest temperature1 and1 consequently1 at their smallest dimensions4 ,allowance should then be made with the wedges for some expansion of the boxes4 ,another condition that should be considered1 is how the box has been running4 ,a box that has been running hot or warm1 generally compels the wedge to be lowered to allow for extra expansion4 ,when this box has been repacked1 or otherwise cared for1 the wedge is again set up4 ,while doing this1 it should be remembered that a box that has been running hot is liable to be distorted1 and its journal bearing injured1 so that it is likely to run warm for some time1 till the brass comes to a smooth bearing4 ,if the wedge will not permit the box to expand1 it binds the journal1 and is likely to run still hotter1 and is liable to stick in the jaws4 ,,small ,,disorders ,,that ,,cause ,,rough ,,riding4 ,many complaints are made about pounds in driving-boxes and wedges1 when the trouble really exists elsewhere4 ,boxes with driving-spring saddles whose foot is but the width of the top or spring-band1 will oft-times1 if the band is not rounded where it rides on the saddle1 or is not fitted with a pin or other center bearing1 tip on the box with each motion of the spring4 ,or1 if the saddle is moved from its worn seat on the top of the box1 it will rock and pound4 ,again1 obstructions in the bearing of the spring equalizer that will prevent the full motion of the springs1 and bring them to a sudden stop1 will produce a motion resembling that caused by a stuck box4 ,attention to details that are sometimes considered the crude parts of a locomotive1 will often prove highly beneficial to the working of the locomotive2 and especially is this the case with the parts that transmit the motion of the springs4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,valve-,,motion4 ,,the ,,locomotive ,,slide-,,valve4 ,the nature of the service required of locomotive engines1 especially those employed on fast-train service1 makes it necessary that the steam-distribution gear shall be free from complication2 and1 for convenience in working the engine1 it is essential that means should be provided for reversing the motion promptly1 without endangering the working-parts4 ,the valve-gear should also be capable of regulating the admission and exhaust of steam1 so that the engine shall be able to maintain a high rate of speed1 or to exert a great tractive force4 ,these features are admirably combined in the valve-gear of the ordinary locomotive4 ,designers of this form of engine have given great consideration to the merit of simplicity4 ,numerous attempts have been made to displace the common ,d slide-valve1 but every move in that direction has ended in failure4 ,,invention ,,and ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,slide-,,valve4 ,the slide-valve1 in a crude form1 was invented by ,matthew ,murray of ,leeds1 ,england1 towards the end of last century2 and it was subsequently improved by ,watt to the ,d form4 ,it received but little application in ,england till the locomotive era4 ,oliver ,evans of ,philadelphia appears to have perceived the advantages possessed by the slide-valve1 for he used it on engines he designed years before locomotives came into service4 ,the ,d slide-valve was better adapted for high-speed engines than any thing tried during our early engineering days1 but it was on locomotives where it first properly demonstrated its real value4 ,the period of necessity brought the slide-valve into prominence2 and the galaxy of mechanical genius that heralded the locomotive into successful operation recognized its most valuable features1 and it soon obtained exclusive possession of that form of engine4 ,through good and evil report1 and against many attempts to displace it1 the slide-valve has retained a monopoly of high-speed reversible engines4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,slide-,,valve4 ,the slide-valve in common use is practically an oblong cast-iron box1 which rests and moves on the valve-seat4 ,in the valve-seat1 separated by partitions called bridges1 are three ports1 those at the ends being the openings of the passages for conveying steam to and from the cylinders1 while the middle port is in communication with the blast-pipe1 which conveys the exhausted steam to the atmosphere4 ,on the under side of the valve is a semicircular cavity1 which spans the exhaust-port and the bridges when the valve stands in its central position4 ,when the steam within the cylinder has performed its duty of pushing the piston towards the end of the stroke1 the valve cavity moves over the steam-port1 and allows the steam to pass into the exhaust-port1 thence into the exhaust-pipe4 ,the cavity under the valve thus acts as a door for the escape of the exhaust steam4 ,this is a very convenient and simple method of educting the steam2 and the process helps to balance the valve1 since the rush of escaping steam striking the under part of the valve tends to counteract the pressure that the steam in the steam-chest continually exerts on the top of the valve4 ,,primitive ,,slide-,,valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,in its primitive form1 the slide-valve was made merely long enough to cover the steam-ports when placed in the central position1 as shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,with a valve of this form1 the slightest movement had the effect of opening one end so that steam would be admitted to the cylinder1 while the other end opened the exhaust4 ,by such an arrangement1 steam was necessarily admitted to the cylinder during the whole length of the stroke2 since closing at one end meant opening at the other4 ,there were several serious objections to this system4 ,it was very difficult to give the engine cushion enough to help the cranks over the centers without pounding1 and a small degree of lost motion was sufficient to make the steam obstruct the piston during a portion of the stroke4 ,but the most serious drawback to the short valve was1 that it permitted no advantage to be taken of the expansive power of steam4 ,for several years after the advent of the locomotive1 the boiler pressure used seldom exceeded fifty pounds to the square inch4 ,with this tension of steam1 there was little work to be got from expansion with the conditions under which locomotives were worked2 but1 so soon as higher pressures began to be introduced1 the loss of heat entailed by permitting the full-pressure steam to follow the piston to the end of the stroke became too great to continue without an attempted remedy4 ,a very simple change served to remedy this defect1 and to render the slide-valve worthy of a prominent place among mechanical appliances for saving power4 ,,outside ,,lap4 ,the change referred to1 which so greatly enhanced the efficiency of the slide-valve1 consisted in lengthening the valve-face1 so that1 when the valve stood in the center of the seat1 the edges of the valve extended a certain distance over the induction ports1 as in ,fig4 #g4 ,this extension of the valve is called outside lap1 or simply lap4 ,the effect of lap is to close the steam-port before the piston reaches the end of the stroke1 and the point at which the steam-port is closed is known as the point of cut-off4 ,when the steam is cut off1 and confined within the cylinder1 it pushes the piston along by its expansive energy1 doing work with heat that would be lost were the cylinder left in communication with the steam-chest till the end of the stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,when a slide-valve is actuated by an eccentric connected directly with the rocker-arm or valve-stem1 the point of cut-off caused by the extent of lap1 remains the same till a change is made on the valve1 or on the throw of the eccentric1 unless an independent cut-off valve be employed4 ,locomotives having the old hook motion worked under this disadvantage2 because the hook could not vary the travel of the valve1 which is the method usually resorted to for producing a variable cut-off4 ,the link and other simple expansion gears perform their office of varying the cut-off in this way4 ,,some ,,effects ,,of ,,lap4 ,in addition to cutting off admission of steam before the end of the stroke1 lap requires the valve to be set in such a way that it has also the effect of leading to the exhaust-port being opened before the end of the stroke4 ,the point where the exhaust is opened is usually known as the point of release4 ,the change which causes release to happen before the piston completes its stroke1 leads to the closure of the exhaust-port before the end of the return stroke is reached1 which imprisons the steam remaining in the cylinder1 causing compression4 ,where a valve has no inside lap1 release and compression happen simultaneously2 that is1 the port at one end of the cylinder is opened to release the steam1 and that at the other end is closed1 letting the piston compress any steam remaining in the cylinder into the space left as piston clearance4 ,,inside ,,lap4 ,in some cases the inside edges of the valve cavity do not reach the edges of the steam-ports when the valve is on the middle of the seat1 but lap over on the bridge a certain distance1 as shown by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #g4 ,this is called inside lap1 and its effect upon the distribution of steam is to delay the release4 ,by this means it prolongs the period of expansion1 and hastens compression on the return stroke4 ,inside lap is an advantage only with slow-working engines4 ,when high speed is attempted with engines having much inside lap1 the steam does not have enough time to escape from the cylinders1 and the back pressure and compression become so great as to be very detrimental to the working of the engine4 ,as locomotive engineers have it1 the engine is 8logy40 ,,the ,,extent ,,of ,,lap ,,usually ,,adopted4 ,in locomotive practice1 the extent of lap varies according to the character of service the engine is intended to perform4 ,with ,american standard gauge engines1 the lap varies from inch to #a inch4 ,for high-speed engines1 the extent of lap ranges from to #a4 ,freight engines commonly get to outside lap1 and from #a_/af to inside lap4 ,with a given travel1 the greater the lap the longer will the period for expansion be4 ,,first ,,application ,,of ,,lap4 ,lap was applied to the slide-valve in this country before its advantage as an element of economy was understood in ,europe4 ,as early as #ahbi1 ,james of ,new ,york used lap on the valves of an engine used to run a steam-carriage2 and in #ahcb ,mr4 ,charles ,w4 ,copeland put a lap-valve on a steamboat engine1 and his father understood that its advantage was in providing for expansion of the steam4 ,within a decade after our first steam-operated railroad was opened1 the lap-valve became a recognized feature of the ,american locomotive2 but the cause of the saving of fuel1 effected by its use1 was not well comprehended4 ,many enlightened engineers attributed the saving to the early opening of the exhaust1 brought about where outside lap was used1 which they theorized reduced back pressure on the piston2 and in that way they accounted for the enhanced economy resulting from the application of lap4 ,it was not till ,colburn applied the indicator to the locomotive1 that the true cause of economy was demonstrated to be in the additional work taken from the steam by using it expansively4 ,,the ,,allen ,,valve4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,an improvement on the plain ,d slide-valve has been effected in a simple and ingenious manner in the ,allen valve1 which is receiving considerable favor for high-speed locomotives4 ,this valve is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the valve has a supplementary steam-passage1 ,a1 ,a1 cast above the exhaust cavity4 ,the valve and seat are so arranged1 that1 so soon as the outside edge of the valve begins to uncover the steam-port at ,b1 the supplementary passage begins receiving steam at ,c2 and this gives a double opening for the admission of steam to the port when the travel is short4 ,as the travel of the valve is always short when an engine is running at high speed1 the advantage of this double opening is very great2 for it has the effect of admitting the steam promptly at the beginning of the stroke1 and maintaining a full pressure on the piston till the point of cut-off4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,the ,,allen ,,valve4 ,with an ordinary valve cutting off at six inches1 and having five inches eccentric throw1 the port opening seldom exceeds inch4 ,it is a hard matter getting the full pressure of steam through such a small opening in the instant given for admission4 ,if an ,allen valve is used with that motion1 the opening will be double1 making inch1 which makes an important difference4 ,the practical effect of a change of this kind is that an engine will take a train along1 cutting off at six inches with the ,allen valve1 when1 with the ordinary valve1 the links would have to be dropped to eight or nine inches4 ,the valve can be designed to work on any valve-seat1 but the dimensions given in ,fig4 #h are those that have been found most satisfactory with our large passenger engines4 ,in designing an ,allen valve for an old seat1 it is sometimes advisable to widen the steam-ports a quarter of an inch or more1 by chamfering off the outside edges that amount4 ,care must be taken to prevent the valve from traveling so far as to put the supplementary port over the exhaust-port1 for that would allow live steam to pass through4 ,the proper dimensions can best be schemed out on paper before making the required change on the seat4 ,in very carefully conducted experiments made on the ,boston and ,albany ,railroad1 to compare the performance of the ,allen valve with an engine equipped with a common valve1 it was found that the ,allen valve effected a fuel saving of seven per cent4 ,,case ,,where ,,the ,,allen ,,valve ,,proved ,,its ,,value4 ,on one of the leading railroads in this country1 an engineer was running a locomotive on a fast train where it was a hard matter making the card-time4 ,a few minutes could be saved by passing a water-station2 but this was done at serious risk1 for the tender would nearly always be empty by the time the next water-station was reached4 ,the master mechanic of the road determined to equip this engine with the ,allen valve3 and1 after the change was made1 there was no risk in passing the water-station2 for there always was a good margin of water in the tank when the next watering-place was reached4 ,the engine seemed to steam better1 because the work was done with less steam2 and there was a decided saving of fuel4 ,the change made the engine smarter1 and there seems to be no limit to the speed it can make4 ,this valve can be applied to any locomotive with trifling expense4 ,when an engine is designed specially for the ,allen valve1 the steam ports and bridges are usually made a little wider than for the ordinary valve4 ,the only real difficulty in adopting the valve is getting the casting properly made1 so that the supplementary port will not be too rough for the passage of steam1 and the thin shell will be strong enough to stand the pressure4 ,,inside ,,clearance4 ,for high-speed locomotives1 where there is great necessity for getting rid of the exhaust steam quickly1 the valves are sometimes cut away at the edges of the cavity1 so that1 when the valve is placed in the middle of the seat1 it does not entirely cover the inside of either of the steam-ports4 ,this is called inside clearance4 ,in many instances inside clearance has been adopted in an effort to rectify mistakes made in designing the valve-motion1 principally to overcome defects caused by deficiency of valve-travel4 ,the fastest locomotives throughout the country do not require inside clearance1 because their valve-motion is so designed that it is not necessary4 ,inside clearance induces premature release1 and diminishes the period of expansion4 ,consequently inside clearance wastes steam1 and ought to be avoided4 ,,lead4 ,there are certain advantages gained in the working of a locomotive1 by having the valves set so that the steam-port will be open a small distance for admission of steam1 when the piston is at the beginning of the stroke4 ,this opening is called lead4 ,on the steam side of the valve the opening is called steam-lead3 on the exhaust side it is called exhaust-lead4 ,lead is generally produced by advancing the eccentric on the shaft1 its effect being to accelerate every event of the valve's movement2 viz41 admission1 cut-off1 release1 and compression4 ,in the most perfectly constructed engines1 there soon comes to be lost motion in the rod connections and in the boxes4 ,the effect of this lost motion is to delay the movement of the valves2 and1 unless they are set with a lead opening1 the stroke of the piston would in some instances be commenced before steam got into the cylinder4 ,it is also found in practice1 that this lost motion would cause a pounding at each change in the direction of the piston's travel1 unless there is the necessary cushion to bring the cranks smoothly over the centers4 ,without cushion1 the change of direction of the piston's travel is effected by a series of jerks that are hard on the working-parts4 ,so long as the lead opening at the beginning of the stroke is not advanced enough to produce injurious counter pressure upon the piston1 it improves the working of the engine by causing a prompt opening for steam admission at the beginning of the stroke4 ,this is the time that a full steam-pressure is wanted in the cylinder1 if economical working be a consideration4 ,a judiciously arranged lead opening is therefore an advantage2 since it increases the port opening at the proper time for admitting steam1 tending to give nearly boiler pressure in the cylinder at the beginning of the stroke4 ,with the shifting link-motion1 the amount of lead opening increases as the links are hooked back towards the center notch2 the magnitude of the increase1 in most cases1 being in direct proportion to the shortness of the eccentric-rods4 ,a common lead opening in full gear with the shifting link is #a_/af inch1 which often increases to inch in the center notch4 ,the tendency of wear and lost motion is to neutralize the lead1 so that1 when a locomotive motion gets worn1 increasing the lead will generally improve the working of the engine4 ,,operation ,,of ,,the ,,steam ,,in ,,the ,,cylinders4 ,as the work performed by a steam-engine is in direct proportion to the pressure exerted by the steam on the side of the piston which is pulling or pushing on the crank-pin1 it is important that the steam should press only on one side of the piston at once4 ,hence1 good engines have the valves operated so that1 by the time a stroke is completed1 the steam1 which was pushing the piston1 shall escape1 and not obstruct the piston during the return stroke1 and so neutralize the steam pressing upon the other side4 ,when an engine is working properly1 the steam is admitted alternately to each side of the piston2 and its work is done against a pressure on the other side not much higher than that of the atmosphere4 ,,back ,,pressure ,,in ,,the ,,cylinders4 ,when1 from any cause1 the steam is not permitted to escape promptly and freely from the cylinder at the end of the piston stroke1 a pressure higher than that of the atmosphere remains in the cylinder1 obstructing the piston during the return stroke1 and causing what is known as back pressure4 ,there is seldom trouble for want of sufficient opening to admit steam to the cylinders1 for the pressure is so great that the steam rushes in through a very limited space2 but1 when the steam has expanded two or three times1 its pressure is comparatively weak1 and needs a wide opening to get out in the short time allowed4 ,this is one reason why the exhaust-port is made larger than the admission-ports4 ,nearly all engines with short ports suffer more or less from back pressure1 but the most fruitful cause of loss of power through this source is the use of extremely contracted exhaust nozzles4 ,were it not for the necessity of making a strong artificial draught in the smoke-stack1 so that an intense heat shall be created in the fire-box1 quite a saving of power1 now lost by back pressure1 would be effected by having the exhaust opening as large as the exhaust-pipe4 ,this not being practicable with locomotives1 engineers should endeavor to have their nozzles as large as possible consistent with steam-making4 ,engines with very limited eccentric throw will often cause back pressure when hooked up1 through the valve not opening the port wide enough for free exhaust4 ,locomotives suffering from excessive back pressure are nearly always logy4 ,the engine can not be urged into more than moderate speed under any circumstances2 and all work is done at the expense of lavish waste of fuel1 for a serious percentage of the steam-pressure on the right side of the piston is lost by pressure on the wrong side4 ,it is like the useless labor a man has to do turning a grindstone with one crank1 while a boy is holding back on the other side4 ,the weight of obstruction done by the boy must be subtracted from the power exerted by the man to find the net useful energy exerted in turning the grindstone4 ,in the same way1 every pound of back pressure on a piston takes away a pound of useful work done by the steam on the other side4 ,,effect ,,of ,,too ,,much ,,inside ,,lap4 ,engines that have much inside lap to the valves are likely to suffer from back pressure when high speed is attempted4 ,the inside lap delays the release of the steam2 and1 where the piston's velocity is high the steam does not escape from the cylinder in time to prevent back pressure4 ,,running ,,into ,a ,,hill4 ,most of engineers are familiar with the tendency of some engines to 8run into a hill40 ,that is1 so soon as a hill is struck1 they suddenly slow down till a certain speed is reached1 when they will keep going4 ,this is generally produced by back pressure1 its obstructing effect being reduced when the engine is moving slow4 ,,compression4 ,the necessity which requires lap to be put on a slide-valve to produce an early cut-off1 in its turn causes compression1 by the valve passing over the steam-port1 and closing it entirely for a limited period towards the end of the return stroke4 ,as the cylinder contains some steam which did not pass out while the exhaust-port was open1 this is now squeezed into a diminishing space by the advancing piston4 ,in cases where too much steam was left in the cylinders through contracted nozzles or other causes1 or where1 through mistaken designing of the valve-motion1 the port is closed during a protracted period1 the steam in the cylinder gets compressed above boiler tension1 and loss of useful effect is the result4 ,under proper limits1 the closing of the port before the end of the stroke1 and the consequent compression of the steam remaining in the cylinder1 have a useful effect on the working of the engine by providing an elastic cushion1 which absorbs the momentum of the piston and its connections1 leading the crank smoothly over the center4 ,where it can be so arranged1 the amount of compression desirable for any engine is the degree that1 along with the lead1 will raise the pressure of the cylinder up to that of the boiler at the beginning of the stroke4 ,when this can be regulated1 the compression performs desirable service by cushioning the working-parts1 thereby preventing pounding1 and by filling up the clearance space and steam passages1 by that means saving live steam4 ,compression probably does some economical service by reheating the cylinder1 which has a tendency to get cooled down during the period of release1 and by re-evaporating the water1 which forms by condensation of steam in the cool cylinder4 ,engines that are running fast require more cushioning than those that run slow1 or at moderate speeds4 ,the link-motion1 by its peculiarity of hastening compression when the links are hooked up1 tends to make compression a useful service in fast running4 ,,definition ,,of ,,an ,,eccentric4 ,the reciprocating motion which causes the valves to open and close the steam-ports at the proper periods1 is1 with most locomotives1 imparted from eccentrics fastened upon the driving-axle4 ,an eccentric is a circular plate1 or disk1 which is secured to the axle in such a position that it will turn round on an axis which is not in the center of the disk4 ,the distance from the center of the disk to the point round which it revolves is called its eccentricity1 and is half the throw of the eccentric4 ,thus1 if the throw of an eccentric requires to be #e inches1 the distance between the center of the driving-axle and the center of the eccentric will be #b inches4 ,the movement of an eccentric is the same as that of a crank of the same stroke1 and the eccentric is preferred merely because it is more convenient for the purposes to which it is applied than a crank would be4 ,,early ,,application ,,of ,,the ,,eccentric4 ,on the early forms of locomotives1 a single eccentric was used to operate the valve for forward and back motion4 ,the eccentric was made with a half circular slot1 on which it could be turned to the position needed for forward or back motion4 ,it was held in the required position by a stop-stud fastened on the axle4 ,several forms of movable eccentrics were invented1 and received considerable application during the first decade of railroad operating2 but the best of them provided an extremely defective reversing motion4 ,the first engineer to apply two fixed eccentrics as a reversible gear was ,william ,t4 ,james of ,new ,york1 who made a steam carriage in #ahbi1 and worked the engine with four eccentrics1--two for each side4 ,the eccentrics were connected with a link1 but the merits of that form of connection were not then recognized here2 for it was not applied to locomotives till it became popular in ,england1 and was re-introduced to this country by ,rogers4 ,the advantage of the double fixed eccentrics seemed1 however1 to be recognized from the time ,james used them2 for the plan was adopted by our first locomotive builders4 ,the first locomotive built by ,long1 who started in #ahcc what was afterwards known as the ,norris ,locomotive ,works1 ,philadelphia1 had four fixed eccentrics4 ,,relative ,,motion ,,of ,,piston ,,and ,,crank1 ,,slide-,,valve1 ,,and ,,eccentrics4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,when a locomotive is running1 the wheels turn with something near a uniform speed2 but any part which receives a reciprocating motion from a crank or eccentric travels at an irregular velocity4 ,fig4 #i shows the relative motion of the crank-pin and piston during a half revolution4 ,the points in the path of the crank-pin marked ,a1 #a1 #b1 ,b1 #c1 #d1 ,c1 are at equal distances apart4 ,the vertical lines run from them to the points a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 represent the position of the piston in relation to the position of the crank-pin4 ,that is1 while the crank-pin traverses the half-circle1 ,a ,b ,c1 to make a half revolution1 the piston1 guided by the cross-head1 travels a distance within the cylinder equal to the straight line ,a ,c4 ,the crank-pin travels at nearly uniform speed during the whole of its revolution1 but the piston travels with an irregular motion4 ,thus1 while the crank-pin travels from ,a to #a1 the piston travels a distance equal to the space between ,a and a4 ,by the space between the lines1 it will be seen that the piston travels slowly at the beginning of the stroke1 gets faster as it moves along1 reaches its highest velocity about half stroke1 then slows down towards the end till it stops1 and is ready for the return stroke4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,abolish ,,the ,,crank4 ,certain mechanics and inventors have been terribly harassed over this irregular motion of the piston1 and numerous devices have been produced for the purpose of securing a uniform motion to the power transmitted4 ,these inventions have usually taken the shape of rotary engines4 ,probably the fault these people find with the reciprocating engine is one of its greatest merits1 for the piston stopping at the end of each stroke permits an element of time for the steam to get in and out of the cylinder4 ,,valve ,,movement4 ,the valve travels in a manner similar to the piston2 although its stroke is much shorter1 and its slow movement is towards the limit of travel4 ,the small circle in the figure shows the orbit of the eccentric's center1 and the valve-travel is equal to the rectilinear line across the circle4 ,if the valve opened the steam-ports at the outside of its travel1 the slow movement at that point would be an objection1 since the operation of opening would be slow3 but the valve opens the ports towards the middle of its travel1 when its velocity is greatest2 and1 the nearer to the mid travel the act of opening is done1 the more promptly it will be performed4 ,this has a good deal to do with making an engine 8smart0 in getting away from a station4 ,,effect ,,of ,,lap ,,on ,,the ,,eccentric',s ,,position4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,with the short valve without lap used on the earliest forms of locomotives1 the eccentric was set at right angles to the crank or 8square0 on the dotted line e1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,the least movement of the eccentric from its middle position had the effect of opening the steam-ports4 ,one advantage about an eccentric set in this position1 was that it opened and closed the ports when moving the valve at its greatest velocity4 ,lengthening the valve-face by providing lap entails a change in the location of the eccentric2 for1 were it left in the right-angle position1 the steam-port would remain covered till the eccentric had moved the valve a distance equal to the extent of the lap on one end1 and the piston would begin its stroke without steam4 ,,angular ,,advance ,,of ,,eccentrics4 ,the change made on the eccentric location is to advance it from e to ,f1 being a horizontal distance equal to the extent of lap and lead1 and known as the angular advance of the eccentric4 ,the centers ,f and ,b represent the full part1 or 8belly10 of the forward and back eccentrics in the position they should occupy1 where a rocker is employed1 when the piston is at the beginning of the backward stroke4 ,it will be perceived that the eccentrics both incline towards the crank-pin1 and the eccentric which is controlling the valve follows the crank-pin4 ,thus1 when the engine is running forward1 ,f follows the crank3 when she is backing1 ,b follows4 ,it is a good plan for an engineer to make himself familiar with the proper position of the eccentrics in relation to the crank1 for the knowledge is likely to save time and trouble when any thing goes wrong with the valve-motion4 ,with this knowledge properly digested1 a minute's inspection is always sufficient to decide whether or not any thing is wrong with the eccentrics4 ,,angularity ,,of ,,connecting ,,rod4 ,in following out the relative motion of the piston and crank1 we discover a disturbing factor in what is called the angularity of the connecting rod1 which has a curiously distorting effect on the harmony of the motion4 ,when the piston stands exactly in the mid-travel point1 the true length of the main rod will be measured from the center of the wrist-pin to the center of the driving-axle4 ,if a tram of this length be extended between these points1 this will be found correct1 as every machinist accustomed to working on rods knows4 ,now1 if the back end of the tram should be raised or lowered towards the points where the center of the crank-pin must be when the crank stands on the top or bottom quarter1 it will be found that the tram point will not reach the crank-pin center1 but will fall short a distance in proportion to the length of the main rod4 ,the dotted lines a and b in ,fig4 #aa show how far a rod #g times the length of the crank falls short4 ,a shorter rod will magnify this obliquity1 while a longer rod will reduce it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,effect ,,on ,,the ,,valve-,,motion ,,of ,,connecting-,,rod ,,angularity4 ,as the opening and closing of the steam-ports by the valves are regulated by the eccentrics1 which are subject to the same motion as the crank1 following it at an unvarying distance1 it is evident that their tendency will be to admit and cut off steam at a certain position of the crank's movement4 ,if the motion is planned to cut off at half stroke1 it will be apparent1 that1 in the backward stroke1 the piston will be past its mid travel before the crank-pin reaches the quarter1 so that end of the cylinder will receive steam during more than half the stroke4 ,on the forward stroke of the piston1 however1 the crank-pin will reach the quarter before the piston has attained half travel2 the consequence being1 that in this case steam is cut off too early4 ,the disturbing effect of the angularity of the connecting rod on the steam distribution thus tends to make the cut-off later in the backward stroke than in the forward stroke1 resulting in giving the forward end of the cylinder more steam than what is admitted in the back end4 ,the link-motion provides a convenient means of correcting the inequality of valve opening due to the connecting-rod angularity1 the details of which will be explained farther on4 ,,aids ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,valve-,,motion4 ,an engineer or machinist who wishes to study out this peculiarity of connecting-rod angularity1 will find that the use of a tram or long dividers will help him to comprehend it better than any letter-type description4 ,all through the study of the valve-motion1 there are numerous difficult problems encountered4 ,the use of a good model will be found an invaluable aid to the study of the valve-motion1 and every division of engineers or firemen should make a combined effort to furnish their meeting-room with a model of a locomotive valve-motion4 ,in no way can the spare time of the men connected with locomotive running be better employed than in the wide range for study presented by a well-devised model4 ,great aid can be obtained in the study of the valve-motion from good books devoted to the subject1 and they will impart more information than can be obtained by mere contact with the locomotive4 ,the valve and its movements are surrounded with so many complicated influences1 that an intelligent man may work for years about a locomotive doing valve setting occasionally1 and other gang boss work1 yet1 unless he studies the valve-motion by the aid of the drawing-board1 or by models1 which admit of changing sizes and dimensions1 he may know less about the cause of certain movements than the bright lad who has been a couple of years in the drawing-office4 ,the man who thinks he can study the valve-motion1 and understand its philosophy1 by merely running the engine1 deceives himself4 ,the engineer who never looks at a book or a paper in search of information about his engine1 knows very little about any thing not visible to the eye4 ,yet many men of this stamp1 by looking wise1 and by exercising a judicious use of silence1 pass among their fellows as remarkably profound4 ,but let a fireman1 in quest of locomotive knowledge1 put a question to such a man1 and he is immediately silenced with a 8,you ought to know better0 answer4 ,where the use of a model can not be obtained1 any one beginning the study of the valve-motion can assist himself by making a cross section of the valve and its seat1 similar to those published1 on a strip of thin wood or thick paper4 ,by slipping the valve on the seat1 its position at different parts of the stroke can be comprehended more clearly than by a mere description4 ,with a pair of dividers to represent the motion of the eccentric1 and strips of wood to act as eccentric1 and valve rod and rocker1 and some tacks to fasten them together1 a helpful model can be improvised on a table or board4 ,by the time a student gets a rig of this kind going1 he will see his way to contrive other methods of self-help4 ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,piston ,,stroke4 ,by the aid of ,fig4 #aj1 we will trace the relative movements of the crank and eccentric connections4 ,for the sake of simplicity1 the eccentric is represented as connecting directly with the rocker-arm4 ,the crank-pin being at the point ,a1 or the forward center1 the piston must be in the front of the cylinder1 or at the beginning of the backward stroke4 ,owing to the angular advance already referred to1 the eccentric center is at ,f2 and1 being a certain distance ahead of the middle position1 it has pushed the lower arm of the rocker from a to b1 drawing back the top arm1 which1 in its turn1 has moved the valve so that it is just beginning to admit steam at the forward port1 i4 ,as the crank-pin goes round1 the eccentric follows it1 opening the steam-port wider till the eccentric reaches the point of its travel nearest ,a1 the limit of the throw4 ,when the eccentric is at this point of its throw1 the valve must be at the outside of its travel2 and therefore the steam-port is wide open4 ,by this time the crank-pin is getting close up towards the quarter4 ,after passing this point1 the forward eccentric begins to draw the bottom rocker-pin towards the axle1 and to push the valve ahead1 this being the point where the valve changes its direction of motion1 just as the piston returns when the crank-pin passes the center4 ,when ,f reaches the point ,b1 the valve is in the same position it occupied at the beginning of the stroke2 but1 as it is traveling in the opposite direction1 a very small movement more closes the port1 cutting off steam4 ,when this happens1 the crank-pin has reached the point x4 ,when ,f gets to g1 it is on the central point of its throw2 so the valve must then be on the middle point of its travel1 with the exhaust cavity just covering the outside edges of the bridges1 the forward edge being ready to put the steam-port1 i1 in communication with the exhaust cavity4 ,this releases the steam from the forward end of the cylinder2 and at the same moment the inside edge of the valve covers the back port1 k1 causing the piston-head to compress any steam left in the back part of the cylinder4 ,when the piston reaches the beginning of the forward stroke1 the eccentric ,f has got to the point f1 and the valve is beginning to admit steam for the return stroke1 the events of which are similar to those described4 ,in actual practice1 the steam distribution is a little different from the manner that has been followed2 for the link-motion provides the means of equalizing the cut-off1 making it uniform for both strokes4 ,this changes the events of the stroke a little2 but the student who engraves in his mind the movements as they are represented in the diagram1 will not be far astray4 ,,what ,,happens ,,inside ,,the ,,cylinders ,,when ,,an ,,engine ,,is ,,reversed4 ,many men who have a fair understanding of the action of steam in an engine's cylinders during ordinary working1 have no idea of the operations performed in the cylinders when a locomotive is running in reverse motion4 ,all men who have had any thing to do with train service1 know1 that1 when an engine is reversed1 the action works to stop the train1 even if the locomotive should have no steam on the boiler2 but just in what way this result comes round they can not clearly perceive4 ,in hopes of throwing light upon this subject for those who have not studied it out1 we will follow the events of a stroke in reversed motion1 as we did in the ordinary working4 ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,stroke ,,in ,,reversed ,,motion4 ,supposing an engine to be running ahead1 and the necessity arises for stopping suddenly1 and the reverse-lever is pulled into the back notch4 ,when the crank-pin is on the forward center1 and therefore the piston at the forward end of the cylinder1 about to begin its backward stroke1 the valve has the forward port open a distance equal to the amount of lead1 as in ,fig4 #aj4 ,but1 as the back-up eccentric has control of the valve1 the latter is being pushed forward2 and it closes the forward port just as the piston begins to move back4 ,this shuts off all communication with the forward end of the cylinder2 and the receding piston creates a vacuum behind it1 just as a pump-plunger does under similar circumstances4 ,at this time the back end of the cylinder is open to the exhaust1 and the piston pushes out the air freely to the atmosphere4 ,by the time the piston travels about two inches1 the valve gets to its middle position2 and1 immediately after passing that point1 it opens the forward end of the cylinder to the exhaust1 and closes the back port4 ,when this event happens1 the vacuum in the forward end of the cylinder gets filled with hot gases1 that rush in from the smoke-box2 and the receding piston keeps drawing air into the cylinder in this way during the remainder of the stroke1 and air from that quarter seldom gets in without bringing a sprinkling of cinders4 ,the back steam-port is closed only during about two inches of the stroke1 while the lap of the valve is traveling over it4 ,about the time the piston reaches four inches of its travel1 the back steam-port is open to the steam-chest1 and the piston forces the air through the steam-pipes into the boiler during the remainder of the stroke4 ,the forward stroke is merely a repetition of the backward stroke described4 ,when it is necessary to reverse a locomotive1 it is a better plan to hook the lever clear back than to have it a notch or two past the center1 as some men persist in doing1 under the mistaken belief that they are in some way saving their engine from harsh usage4 ,when the link is reversed full1 the cylinders are merely turned into air-pumps4 ,when the links are put near the center1 the travel of the valve is reduced2 and the periods when the piston is creating a vacuum in one end of the cylinder1 and compressing the air in the other1 are prolonged4 ,the result is1 that1 when the exhaust is opened in the first case1 the gases rush in violently from the smoke-box1 carrying a heavy load of cinders3 in the other case1 the piston compresses the air in the cylinder so high that it jerks the valve away from its seat in trying to find outlet4 ,this causes the clattering noise in the steam-chest1 so well known in cases where engines are run without steam while the reverse-lever is near the center4 ,a locomotive with the piston-packing in bad order will not hold well running in reverse-motion4 ,some kinds of piston-packing do not seem to act properly when the engine is reversed1 especially at low speed4 ,where a valve has much inside lap1 there will be a vacuum in one end of the cylinder1 and compressed air in the other end4 ,with piston packing that requires pressure to expand it1 the void at one end of the cylinder may neutralize the pressure at the other by drawing the air through the piston4 ,this would be most liable to happen where the lever was kept near the center4 ,,purpose ,,of ,,relief-,,valve ,,on ,,dry ,,pipe4 ,should the throttle-valve close so tight that the compressed air from the cylinders can not pass into the boiler1 there is danger of bursting the steam-chest or some part of the steam-pipes4 ,the compressed air will lift most of the throttle-valves far enough to prevent any great danger from this source4 ,in some engines a relief-valve is secured in the dry pipe1 which provides a passage for this compressed air4 ,when the cylinder-cocks of an engine are opened when the motion is reversed1 they form an outlet to the compressed air1 and also admit air to the sucking end without letting the piston draw air so freely through the nozzles4 ,many cylinder-cocks are now made so that they will open automatically to permit the piston to draw air through them4 ,the reversed engine will stop nearly as well with the cylinder-cocks opened as when they are closed1 and it is much more easily handled with the cocks opened4 ,where the cocks are kept closed1 the rush of hot air from the smoke-box laps every trace of oil from the valve-seat1 and a heavy pressure--frequently above that of the boiler--is present in the steam-chest4 ,when the engine stops under these circumstances1 its tendency is to fly back2 and an engineer has some difficulty in controlling it with the reverse-lever till a few turns empty the chest and pipes4 ,,using ,,reverse-,,motion ,,as ,a ,,brake4 ,numerous attempts have been made to utilize the reversed engine as a brake for stopping the train1 and even by this means to save some of the power lost in stopping4 ,chatelier1 a ,french engineer1 experimented for many years on this mechanical problem4 ,he injected a jet of water into the exhaust-pipe1 which supplied low-tension steam to the cylinder1 instead of hot gas or air coming through the smoke-box4 ,this was pumped back into the boiler on the return stroke4 ,thus the act of stopping a train was used to compress a quantity of steam1 converting the work of stopping into heat1 which was forced into the boiler and retained to aid in getting the train into speed again4 ,modifications of this idea produce the car-starters that pass so frequently through our ,patent ,office4 ,as a means of conserving mechanical energy1 the ,chatelier brake was not a success2 but1 in the absence of better power brakes1 it met with some applications in ,europe4 ,some of our mountain railroads use it1 under the name of the water-brake1 as an auxiliary to the automatic brake4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,shifting ,,link4 ,,early ,,reversing ,,motions4 ,in the engineering practice of the world1 before the locomotive and marine engines came into use1 there was no need for devices to make engines rotate in more than one direction4 ,when the need for a reversible engine first arose1 it was met by very crude appliances4 ,locomotives were kept at work1 earning money for their owners1 which were reversed by the man in charge stopping the engine1 and by means of a wrench changing the position of the eccentric by hand4 ,a decided improvement on the wrench was the movable eccentric1 which was held in forward or back gear by stops2 the operation of reversing being done by a treadle or other attachment located near the engineer's position4 ,a serious objection to this form of reversing gear was1 that the abrasion of work enlarged the slot ends1 and wore out the stops1 leading to inaccuracy and frequent breakage4 ,a somewhat better form of reversing motion was a fixed eccentric1 with the means at the end of the eccentric-rod for engaging with the top or bottom of a rocker-shaft1 which operated the valve-stem4 ,this was the form of reversing motion used on the early ,baldwin engines4 ,numerous other appliances1 more or less defective1 were experimented with before the double fixed eccentrics were introduced4 ,till the link was applied to valve-motion1 the double eccentrics--an ,american invention--were the most important improvement that had been made on the locomotive valve-motion since the incipiency of the engine4 ,the ,v hook1 in connection with the double eccentrics1 made a fair reversing motion in comparison to any thing that had preceded it4 ,the objection to the hook was1 that1 when the necessity arose for reversing the engine while in motion1 much difficulty was experienced in getting the hook to catch the pin4 ,as a simple1 prompt1 and certain reversing motion1 the link was readily acknowledged to be far superior to any thing that had previously been tried4 ,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,link4 ,there is no doubt but the link was first applied to a steam engine by ,william ,t4 ,james of ,new ,york1 a most ingenious mechanic1 who also invented the double eccentrics4 ,james experimented a great deal about the period from #ahcj to #ahdj1 with steam carriages for common roads2 and it was in this connection that he invented the link4 ,his work having proved a commercial failure1 the improvements on the valve-motion were not recognized at the time2 although the probability is1 that ,long1 who started the ,norris ,locomotive ,works of ,philadelphia1 and brought out the double eccentrics upon the locomotives built there1 was indebted to ,james for the idea of a separate eccentric for each direction of engine movement4 ,the credit of inventing the ordinary shifting link is due to ,william ,howe of ,newcastle1 ,england4 ,this inventor was a pattern-maker in the works of ,robert ,stephenson ,co41 and he invented the link in #ahdb in practically its present form4 ,the idea of ,howe was to get out an improved reversing motion2 and he made a pencil-sketch of the link1 to explain his views to his employers4 ,the superintendent of the works was favorably disposed to the invention1 and ordered ,howe to make a pattern of the motion1 which was done2 and this was submitted to ,stephenson1 who approved of the link1 and directed that one should be tried on a locomotive4 ,although ,stephenson gave ,howe the means of applying his invention1 he does not seem to have perceived its actual value1 for the link was not patented2 and ,stephenson never failed to patent any device which he thought worth protecting4 ,the link-motion was applied to a locomotive constructed for the ,midland ,railway ,company1 and proved a success from the day it was put on4 ,seeing how satisfactorily the invention worked1 ,robert ,stephenson paid ,howe twenty guineas 7one hundred and five dollars7 for the device1 and adopted the link as the valve-gear for his locomotives4 ,this is how the shifting link comes to be called the 8,stephenson link10 and the credit for this invention was not extravagantly paid for4 ,the capability which the link possesses of varying the steam admission and release1 did not appear to be understood by the inventor2 nor was the mechanical world aware1 for some time after the link was brought into use1 that it could be employed to adjust the inequality of steam distribution1 due to the angularity of the connecting rod4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,shifting ,,link4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,as usually constructed for ,american locomotives1 the link is a slotted block curved to the arc of a circle1 with a radius about equal to the distance between the center of the driving-axle and the center of the rocker-pin4 ,the general plan of the link-motion is shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,fitted to slide in the link-slot is the block which encircles the rocker-pin4 ,the eccentric-rods are pinned to the back of the link2 the forward eccentric-rod connecting with the top1 and the back-up eccentric-rod with the bottom1 of the link4 ,bolted to the side and near the middle of the link is the saddle1 which holds the stud to which the hanger is attached2 this1 in its turn1 connecting with the lifting arm1 which is operated by the reversing rod that enables the engineer to place the link in any desired position4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,link4 ,regarded in its simplest form1 the action of the link in full gear is the same upon the valve movement as a single eccentric4 ,when the motion is working1 as in the figure1 with the eccentric-rod pin in line with the rocker-pin1 it will be perceived that the movement can not differ much from what it would be were the eccentric-rod attached to the rocker4 ,here the forward eccentric appears as controlling the movement of the valve4 ,putting the link in back motion brings the end of the backing eccentric-rod opposite the rocker-pin1 the effect being that the back-up eccentric then operates the valve4 ,when the link-block is shifted toward the center of the link1 the horizontal travel of the rocker-pin is decreased2 consequently1 the travel of the valve is reduced2 for1 with ordinary engines1 the travel of the valve in full gear equals the throw of the eccentrics1 the top and bottom rocker-arm being of the same length4 ,the motion transmitted from the eccentrics1 and their means of connection with the link1 make the latter swing as if it were pivoted on a center which had a horizontal movement equal to the lap and lead of the valve4 ,the extremities of the link1 or rather the points opposite the eccentric-rods1 swing a distance equal to the full throw of the eccentric4 ,the variation of valve-travel that can be effected by the link1 is from that of the eccentric throw in full gear down to a distance in mid gear which agrees with the extent of lap and lead4 ,the method of obtaining these various degrees of travel is by moving the link so that the block which encircles the rocker-pin shall approach the middle of the link4 ,when an engine is run with the lever in the center notch1 the supply of steam is admitted by the lead-opening alone4 ,in full gear the eccentric1 whose rod-end is in line with the rocker-pin1 exerts almost exclusive control over the valve movement2 but1 as the link-block gets hooked towards the center1 it comes to some extent under the influence of both eccentrics4 ,a thoughtful examination of ,fig4 #ab will throw light on the reason why the proper position of a slipped eccentric can be determined by the other eccentric when the engine is on the center4 ,in the cut1 the crank-pin is represented on the forward center2 and in that position the eccentric centers are both an equal distance in advance of the main shaft center4 ,it will be evident now that the valve must occupy practically the same position for forward or back gear1 as each of the eccentric-rods reaches the same distance forward4 ,putting the motion in back gear would bring the backup eccentric-rod pin to the position now occupied by the pin belonging to the forward eccentric-rod4 ,,valve-,,motion ,,of ,a ,,fast ,,passenger ,,locomotive4 ,reducing the travel of the valve by drawing the reverse-lever towards the center of the quadrant1 and consequently the link-block towards the middle of the link-slot1 not only hastens the steam cut-off1 but it accelerates in a like degree every other event of steam distribution throughout the stroke4 ,to explain this point1 let us take the motion of a well-designed engine in actual service1 which has done good economical work on fast train running4 ,the valve-travel is five inches1 lap one inch1 no inside lap1 lead in full gear #a_/af inch1 point of suspension #i_/af inch back of center of link4 ,,effect ,,of ,,changing ,,valve-,,travel4 ,when this engine is working in full gear1 the steam will be freely admitted behind the piston till about eighteen inches of the stroke1 when cut-off takes place2 and the release or exhaust opening will begin at about twenty-two inches of the stroke1 giving four inches for expansion of steam4 ,now1 if the links of this engine are hooked up so that the cut-off takes place at six inches of the stroke1 the steam will be released at sixteen inches of the stroke2 and at that point compression will begin at the other end of the cylinder4 ,,weak ,,points ,,of ,,the ,,link-,,motion4 ,this attribute which the link-motion possesses1 of accelerating the release and compression along with the cut-off1 is very detrimental to the economical operating of locomotives that run slow4 ,high-speed engines need the pre-release to give time for the escape of the steam before the beginning of the return stroke2 and the compression is economically utilized in receiving the heavy blow from the fast-moving1 reciprocating parts1 whose direction of motion has to be suddenly changed at the end of each stroke1 and in helping to raise the pressure promptly in the cylinder at the beginning of the stroke4 ,a locomotive1 on the other hand1 that does most of its work with a low-piston speed1 would not suffer from back pressure if the steam were permitted to follow the piston close to the end of the stroke2 and a very short period of compression would suffice4 ,if the engine1 whose motion we have been considering1 instead of releasing at sixteen inches1 could allow the steam to follow the piston to twenty-two inches of the stroke1 after cutting off at six inches1 a very substantial gain of power would ensue4 ,and this would be well supplemented by avoiding loss of power1 did compression not begin till within two inches of the return stroke4 ,,why ,,decreasing ,,the ,,valve-,,travel ,,increases ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,expansion4 ,increase of expansion follows reduced valve-travel1 from a similar cause to that which produces expansion when lap is added to the edge of a slide-valve4 ,when the valve is made with the face merely long enough to cover the steam-ports1 there can be no expansion of the steam2 for1 so soon as the valve ceases to admit steam1 it opens the steam-port to the exhaust4 ,when lap is added1 however1 the steam is inclosed in the cylinder1 without egress for the time that it takes the lap to travel over the steam-port4 ,an arrangement of motion which will make the valve travel quickly over the port1 has a tendency to shorten the period for expansion2 while making the valve travel slowly over the port1 has the opposite effect1 and protracts expansion4 ,a valve with1 say1 five inches travel1 has a comparatively long journey to make during the stroke of the piston2 and the lap-edges will pass quickly over the steam-ports1--much more quickly than they will when the travel is reduced to three inches4 ,in a case of this kind1 there is more than the mere reduction of travel to be considered4 ,suppose the valve has one inch lap at each end4 ,when it stands on the middle of the seat1 it has a reciprocating motion of two and one-half inches at each side of that point to make4 ,at the beginning of the stroke1 it has been drawn aside one inch 7we will ignore the lead71 but still has one and one-half inch to travel before it begins to return4 ,on the other hand1 when the travel is reduced to three inches1 the valve has only one and one-half inch to travel away from the center2 and1 one inch being moved to draw the lap over the port1 there only remains one-half inch for the valve to move before it must begin returning4 ,this entails an early cut-off2 for the valve must pass over the ports with its slow motion1 and be ready to open the port on the other end1 before the return stroke4 ,thus a travel of five inches draws the outside edge of the valve one and one-half inch away from the outside of the steam-ports1 three inches travel only draws it one-half inch away1 and a greater reduction of travel decreases the opening in like proportion4 ,,influence ,,of ,,eccentric ,,throw ,,on ,,the ,,valve4 ,as reducing the travel of the valve diminishes the port opening1 a point is reached in cutting off early in the stroke where the port opening is hardly any more than the port opening due to the lead4 ,this is what makes long steam-ports essential for a successful high-speed locomotive4 ,the best-designed engines give an exceedingly limited port opening at short cut-offs1 and badly planned motion sometimes seriously detracts from the efficiency of the engine1 by curtailing the opening at the point where a very brief time is given for the admission of steam4 ,the magnitude of the eccentric throw exerts a direct influence on the port opening when cutting off early4 ,a long throw tends to increase the opening1 while a short throw reduces it4 ,the long-throw eccentric will draw the valve farther away from the edge of the steam-port1 when admitting steam for the same point of cut-off1 than a short-throw eccentric will move its valve4 ,for an ordinary #ag #bd inch locomotive1 the throw of eccentric should not be less than five inches1 unless the engine is intended entirely for slow running4 ,there are many engines running with eccentric throw less than five inches1 but they are invariably slow unless the valve-lap is very short4 ,with an ordinary lap1 an engine having an eccentric throw of #d inches needs so much angular advance to overcome the lap1 and provide lead1 that the rectilineal motion of the eccentric is very meager at the beginning of the stroke4 ,that is1 the center of the eccentric is traveling downward in its circular path1 which gives little motion to the valve1 just as the crank gives decreased motion to the cross-head when near the centers4 ,,harmony ,,of ,,working-,,parts4 ,hitherto we have regarded the link as merely performing the functions of transmitting the motion of the eccentrics to the valves1 with the additional capability of reducing the travel at the will of the engineer4 ,otherwise1 the motion of the link is intensely complex2 and its movements are susceptible to a multitude of influences1 which improve or disturb its action on the valve4 ,a good valve-motion is planned according to certain dimensions of all the working-parts2 and any change in their arrangement will almost invariably entail irregularities upon the link's movement1 which will radically affect the distribution of steam4 ,a link-motion schemed for an eccentric throw of #d inches will not work properly if the throw be increased to five inches3 a link with a radius of #eg inches can not be changed with impunity for one of #fj inches4 ,any change in the position of the tumbling-shaft or rocker-arms distorts the whole motion1 and any alteration in the length of the rods or hangers has a similar effect4 ,that the link may perform its functions properly1 all its connections must remain in harmony4 ,,adjustment ,,of ,,link4 ,a very important feature of the link is its property of adjustability1 which serves to neutralize the distorting effect of the connecting rod's angularity4 ,as has already been explained1 the angularity of the main rod tends to delay the cut-off during the backward stroke1 while it is accelerated in the forward stroke4 ,with the ordinary length of connections1 this irregularity would seriously affect the working of the engine4 ,but it is almost entirely overcome by the link1 which can be suspended in a way that will produce equality for the period of admission and point of cut-off for both strokes in one gear4 ,perfect equalization of admission and cut-off for both gears has been found impossible with the link-motion2 and designers are generally satisfied to adjust the forward motion1 and permit the back motion to remain untrue4 ,the point about the link which exercises the most potent influence on adjusting the cut-off1 is the position of the saddle1 or of its stud for connecting the hanger4 ,this stud is called the point of suspension4 ,raising the saddle away from the center of the link will effect adjustment of steam admission2 but in locomotive practice the saddle is nearly always located in the middle of the link1 there being practical objections against raising it4 ,equalization of steam distribution is produced by placing the hanger-stud or point of suspension some distance back of the center line of the link-slot1 the distance varying from inch to inch4 ,moving the hanger-stud affects the link's movement in a way that is equivalent to temporarily lengthening the eccentric-rod during a portion of the piston-stroke4 ,the length of the tumbling-shaft arms1 the length of hanger1 the location of the rockers and tumbling-shaft1 the radius of link1 and length of rods1 all exercise influence on the accurate adjustment of the valve-motion4 ,,slip ,,of ,,the ,,link4 ,in equalizing the valve-motion1 and overcoming the discrepancy of steam admission1 due to the angularity of the connecting rod by moving the link-hanger stud away from the center of the slot1 a new distortion is introduced4 ,the link-block being securely fastened to the bottom of the rocker-pin1 moves in the fixed arc traversed by that pin1 which is nearly horizontal4 ,the action of the eccentric-rods on the link1 on the other hand1 forces the latter to move with a sort of vertical motion at certain parts of the stroke1 making it slip on the block4 ,moving the hanger-stud back tends to increase this slip1 which will become excessive enough to seriously impair the efficiency of the motion if not kept within bounds by the designer4 ,where the slip is very great1 the motion will not be serviceable1 a consideration which can never be overlooked2 for the block will wear rapidly1 producing lost motion1 a very undesirable defect about any part of a link-gear4 ,with the long rods which prevail in locomotive practice1 designers have no difficulty in keeping the slip within practical bounds2 but with marine engines it is sometimes necessary to sacrifice equality of steam admission to the reduction of the slip4 ,the greatest amount of slip is in full gear1 and it diminishes as the link-block is moved towards the center4 ,placing the eccentric-rod pins back of the link-arc1 as is almost universally done in this country1 has a tendency to make the link slip on the block2 and care has to be taken not to locate these pins farther back than is actually necessary for other requirements of the link-motion's adjustment4 ,auchincloss1 who is a recognized authority for designing of link-motion1 gives four varieties of alterations capable of reducing the slip when it is found too great for a practicable motion4 ,his resorts are1 either to increase the angular advance1 reduce the travel1 increase the length of link1 or shorten the eccentric-rods4 ,one1 or a combination1 of these methods may be adopted1 as the designer finds most convenient4 ,,radius ,,of ,,link4 ,among the constructing engineers who plan link-motion1 there is considerable diversity of opinion about what radius of link helps to produce the best valve-motion4 ,the distance between the center of axle and center of lower rocker-pin may be accepted as approximately correct1 although some designers slightly increase beyond these points4 ,on the other hand1 the locomotives sent out from a leading building establishment have the radius of link drawn inch per foot short of the distance between the axle and rocker2 and the claim has been made1 that the arrangement produces an excellent motion4 ,a committee of the ,american ,master ,mechanics' ,association have placed themselves on record on this subject by asserting that the distance between the centers of axle and rocker-pin is the proper radius for the link4 ,that same committee recommended that the link-motion should be planned to give as long a link-radius as possible1 subject to the first-mentioned conditions4 ,it must be noted that the middle of the link-slot is the radius arc4 ,i knew of a case where the links for an altered locomotive were finished out of the true radius through the edge of the slot being taken as the radius-curve4 ,,increase ,,of ,,lead4 ,most of the men who are at all familiar with the valve-motion are aware of the fact1 that1 with the shifting link1 the lead increases as the link is notched towards the center4 ,where the valve has #a_/af inch lead in full gear1 it is no unusual thing to find it increase to inch lead opening at mid gear4 ,the phenomenon is better known than its cause is understood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,the relative positions of link and eccentric centers of an engine1 when the crank is on the forward center1 are shown in ,fig4 #ac2 the link being represented with the block in the center1 which represents mid gear4 ,it will be observed that the centers of the eccentrics f and b1 from which the rods receive direct influence1 are both some distance ahead of the center of the axle1 the one above1 the other below4 ,the eccentric-straps to which the rods are connected sweep round the eccentric circles1 and are controlled thereby4 ,when the link is moved up or down1 each eccentric-rod pin1 where it attaches to the link1 describes the arc of a circle with a radius drawn from its own eccentric4 ,if both rods were worked with a radius from the axle-center1 the link could be raised and lowered when the engine stands on the dead center1 without moving the rocker-pin at all2 but1 under the existing arrangement1 the link is influenced directly by one or other of the eccentrics1 whatever position in the link the block may stand4 ,when the engine is standing on the forward center1 with the link in mid gear1 as shown in ,fig4 #ac1 it will be readily perceived that the block stands at its farthest point away from the axle2 for the rods are so placed to reach their greatest horizontal distance ahead1 and consequently in this position the lead opening is greatest4 ,if the link be now lowered1 the backing eccentric-rod will immediately begin to pull the link back3 and1 as the pin of the forward eccentric-rod approaches the central line of motion1 it will also keep drawing the link back2 so that1 by the time the link is in full gear1 the lead opening will be considerably reduced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,when the engine stands on the back dead center1 as shown in ,fig4 #ad1 the eccentric centers will be on the other side of the axle1 and the eccentric-rods will be crossed4 ,while in mid gear1 the link-block is drawn closer to the axle than it would be in any other position of the link2 and consequently the lead opening is greatest4 ,if the link be now lowered1 the forward eccentric-rod will approach its horizontal position1 and consequently reaches farther on the central line of motion1 so it will push the link-block away from the axle1 thereby decreasing the lead4 ,pulling the link into back gear has a similar effect4 ,the tendency of a link-motion to increase the lead towards the center is made greater by shortening the eccentric-rods4 ,increasing the throw of eccentric inclines to accelerate the lead towards the center1 since it throws the eccentric centers farther apart4 ,for slow running1 hard-pulling locomotives1 where increase of lead is a disadvantage1 the tendency to increase the lead is sometimes restrained in forward gear by reducing the angular advance of the backing eccentric4 ,this expedient is1 however1 not necessary where proper care and intelligence have been bestowed in the original design of the motion4 ,in studying this part of the valve-motion1 a young machinist or engineer will obtain valuable assistance by cutting a link template out of a piece of pasteboard1 and using strips of wood as eccentric-rods4 ,with these he can test on a drawing-board or table the various positions of the link1 and note1 in a way that is easily understood1 the effect of changing the link into different positions4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,setting ,,the ,,valves4 ,,the ,,men ,,who ,,learn ,,valve-,,setting4 ,most of intelligent machinists engaged on engine-work1 make it an object of ambition to learn to set valves2 and the operation is mastered as soon as the opportunity offers4 ,it has been a practice in numerous shops for those who have the work of valve-setting to do1 to invest the operation with fictitious mystery1 to patiently disseminate the belief that valve-setting is an exceedingly difficult matter4 ,cases sometimes arise where the squaring of an engine's valves is really an arduous task1 requiring intimate familiarity with delicate methods of adjustment2 but valve-setting1 as it is usually practiced in building establishments1 in repairing-shops1 and in round-houses1 is merely a matter of plain measurement4 ,a man may be a first-class engineer without knowing how to set valves1 and familiar acquaintance with the operation will not increase his ability in managing his engine when merely getting a train over the road on time is the consideration2 but the method of valve-setting is so closely associated with an intelligent appreciation of the valve-motion's philosophy1 that most of engineers who take an extended interest in their business1 wish to acquire the knowledge of how the valves are set4 ,,best ,,way ,,to ,,learn ,,valve-,,setting4 ,the best way to learn valve-setting is by taking part in the work4 ,whatever can be said in books on a subject of this kind1 provides but an indifferent substitute for going through the actual operations4 ,but a man's ambition to learn may exceed his opportunities2 so1 for those who can not get a gang boss to direct them into the art of valve-setting1 this description will be made as plain as possible4 ,when an engine's valve-motion is designed1 the sizes of the different parts are arranged2 and1 if this business is done by a competent engineer1 there will only be trifling changes necessary in valve-setting4 ,,preliminary ,,operations4 ,let us suppose the engine to be an ordinary eight-wheel locomotive1 with cylinders #ag #bd inches4 ,let us assume that the top and bottom rocker-arms are straight1 of equal length1 and that the eccentric-rods are connected to the link so as to be opposite the block in full gear4 ,this will make the extreme travel of valve equal the eccentric's throw4 ,we will now look round to see that every thing connected with the motion is ready for valve-setting4 ,first1 it is necessary to see that the wedges are properly set up to hold the driving-boxes in about the same position they will occupy when the engine is at work4 ,,connecting ,,eccentric-,,rods ,,to ,,link4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,in looking over the motion1 it is well to note that the eccentric-rods are properly connected1--the forward eccentric-rod with the top1 the backward eccentric-rod with the bottom1 of the link4 ,when the crank-pin is on the forward center1 the eccentrics will occupy the position they appear in1 in ,fig4 #ae1 where the rods are open1 and nearly horizontal4 ,the full parts of both eccentrics are advanced towards the crank-pin1 so that the centers of the eccentrics are advanced from a perpendicular line drawn through center of axle1 a horizontal distance equal to the lap and lead4 ,when the crank-pin is on the back center1 the eccentric centers will be behind the axle1 and the rods will be crossed as they are seen in ,fig4 #af4 ,the reason why the rods must be crossed when the crank is in this position1 is1 that the forward eccentric center is below the axle1 and the backward eccentric center is above4 ,as the forward eccentric-rod maintains its connection with the top of the link1 and the backward eccentric-rod is at the opposite end1 crossing of the rods is inevitable4 ,this fact is worth imprinting on the memory1 for ,i have known of several cases where men got the rods up wrong by putting them open when the engine stood with the crank on the back center4 ,,marking ,,the ,,valve-,,stem4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,in ordinary practice1 valves are set with the steam-chest cover down1 and the position of the valve on the seat is identified by marks on the valve-stem4 ,before the cover is put down1 the valve is placed as in ,fig4 #ag1 just beginning to open the forward steam-port2 a thin piece of tin being generally used to gauge the opening4 ,when the valve stands in this position1 a tram is extended from a center punch-mark c1 on the stuffing-box1 straight along the valve-stem as far as it will reach2 and the point1 here located at a1 is marked4 ,the valve is then moved forward till it begins to uncover the back port1 when another measurement is made with the tram1 which locates the point b on the valve-stem4 ,whatever position the valve may stand on1 it may now be identified by the tram4 ,when the tram cuts the space half way between a and b1 the valve stands in the middle of the seat4 ,some machinists do not believe in tramming from the stuffing-box1 as the point is liable to be moved in tightening down the steam-chest cover4 ,these generally measure from a point on the cylinder casting1 but that practice has its drawbacks4 ,,length ,,of ,,the ,,valve-,,rod4 ,to prove the correct length of the valve-rod1 the rocker-arm is set at right angles to the valve-seat1 which is its middle position4 ,the valve must now stand on the middle of the seat1 which will be indicated by the tram point reaching the dividing point between a and b4 ,should the valve not be right when the rocker is in its middle position1 the rod must be altered to put it right4 ,,accuracy ,,essential ,,in ,,locating ,,the ,,dead ,,center ,,points4 ,before proceeding to set the valves1 a machinist can not be too careful in locating the exact dead centers4 ,some men conclude1 because there is little motion to the cross-head close to the end of the stroke1 that a slight movement of the wheel to one side or the other is of little consequence1 and makes no perceptible difference in the relative positions of piston and valve4 ,this is a serious mistake2 for1 although the piston is moving slowly1 the eccentric is proceeding at its ordinary speed1 and the valve is moving fast4 ,the loose1 quick methods of finding dead centers followed occasionally are not conducive to exactness1 and nothing but accuracy is permissible in valve-setting4 ,,finding ,,the ,,dead ,,centers4 ,the best way of finding the true center is by moving the cross-head a measured distance round its extreme travel1 recording the extent of movement on the driving-wheel tire1 whose motion is uniform2 then bisecting the distance between the marks on the tire1 when the dividing line will indicate the true center4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,thus3 ,turn the wheels forward till the cross-head reaches within one-half inch of its extreme travel1 as shown in ,fig4 #ah4 ,from a point a on the guide-block1 extend a tram on the cross-head1 and mark the extreme point reached b4 ,put a center punch-mark c on the wheel-cover1 or other convenient fixed point1 and from it extend a tram on the edge of the tire1 and scratch an arc d4 ,now1 with tram in hand1 watch the cross-head1 and have the wheels moved forward slowly4 ,when the cross-head passes the center1 and moves back till the tram extending from a will reach the point b1 stop the motion4 ,again tram from the wheel-cover point1 and describe a second arc on the tire1 which will be at e1 now moved to the position which d occupied when the previous measurement was taken4 ,with a pair of dividers bisect the distance between d and e4 ,mark the dividing point ,c with a center punch1 and put a chalk ring round it4 ,when the wheel stands so that the tram will extend from c to ,c1 the engine will be on the forward dead center4 ,all the other centers must be found by a similar process4 ,,turning ,,wheels ,,and ,,moving ,,eccentrics4 ,when a measurement is going to be made for fore gear1 the wheels must be turned forward2 and1 when it is for the back gear1 they must be turned backward4 ,enough movement of the wheel must be given to take up the lost motion every time the direction of movement is changed4 ,in moving an eccentric1 it should also be turned far enough in the opposite direction to take up the lost motion4 ,,setting ,,by ,,the ,,lead ,,opening4 ,put the reverse-lever in the full forward notch1 and place the engine on the forward center4 ,if the lead opening in full gear is to be #a_/af inch1 advance the forward eccentric till the point a 7,fig4 #ag7 on the valve-stem is that distance away from the tram point4 ,throw the reverse-lever into the full backward notch1 turn the wheels forward enough to take up the lost motion1 then turn them back to the forward center4 ,move the backward eccentric 7if it needs moving7 till the tram1 extended on the valve-stem1 strikes the same point that it reached for the forward motion4 ,it will be noted here1 that the valve occupies the same position for fore and back gear when the engine is on the center4 ,put the reverse-lever in the forward notch again1 and turn the wheels ahead till the back center point is reached4 ,now tram the valve-stem again1 and1 if the lead opening be the same for both gears as it was on the forward center1 that part of the setting is right4 ,it is a good plan to go over the points a second time to prove their correctness4 ,but it is not likely that the lead opening at the back end will be right on the first trial4 ,instead of having the correct lead1 the valve will probably lap over the port1 being what workmen call 8blind10 or it will have too much lead4 ,let us assume that our valve is #a_/af inch blind4 ,this indicates that the eccentric-rod is too long4 ,we shorten the rod till the valve is at the opening point1 and1 on turning the engine to the forward center again1 we will find that the valve there has lost its lead4 ,but our change has adjusted the valve movement1 so that on each center the valve is just beginning to open the steam-port4 ,advancing the eccentric to give one end #a_/af inch lead will now have the same effect upon the other end2 and1 assuming that the back motion has been subjected to similar treatment with a like result1 the lead opening on that side is right4 ,this process must now be repeated with the other side of the engine4 ,,ascertaining ,,the ,,point ,,of ,,cut-,,off4 ,the lead openings being properly arranged1 we will proceed to examine how the valves cut off the steam2 for it is important that about the same supply of steam should be furnished to each cylinder and to each end of the cylinders4 ,the angularity of the connecting rod tends to give a greater supply of steam to the forward than to the back end of the cylinder2 but this inequality is1 as has already been explained1 usually rectified by locating the hanger-stud a certain distance back of the link arc4 ,to prove the cut-off1 we will try the full gear first4 ,put the reverse-lever in the full forward notch1 starting from the forward center1 and turn the wheels ahead4 ,the motion of our engine has been designed so that the cut-off in full gear shall happen at #ah inches of the stroke4 ,with tram in hand1 watch the movement of the valve as indicated by the stem marks4 ,as the piston moves away from the forward end of the cylinder1 the valve will keep opening till nearly half stroke is reached1 when it will begin to return1 slowly at first1 but with increasing velocity as the point of cut-off is reached4 ,when the point a1 ,fig4 #ag1 gets so that it will be reached by the tram extended from c1 the motion must be stopped2 as that indicates the point of cut-off4 ,now measure on the guide how far the cross-head has traveled from the beginning of the stroke1 and mark it down with chalk4 ,then turn the wheels in the same direction past the back center1 and obtain the cut-off for the forward stroke in the same manner4 ,the cut-off for the other cylinder will be found in precisely the method described4 ,in addition to trying the cut-off in full gear1 it is usually tested at half stroke and at #f inches1 or with the reverse-lever in the notches nearest to these points4 ,some men begin at the first notch1 and follow the point of cut-off in every notch till the center is reached1 and do the same for back gear4 ,,adjustment ,,of ,,cut-,,off4 ,from various causes1 it often happens that the cut-off is unequal in the two strokes1 or one cylinder may be getting more steam than the other4 ,suppose1 that1 on one side of the engine1 the valve is cutting off at #ah inches in forward gear1 while at the other side it is cutting off at #ag inches of the stroke4 ,the most ready way to adjust that inequality is by shortening one link-hanger and lengthening the other till a mean is struck4 ,where the discrepancy is smaller1 it is adjusted by lengthening the hanger at the short side4 ,a harder inequality to adjust is where the valve cuts off earlier for one end of the cylinder than for the other4 ,in new work this is readily overcome by the saddle-stud1 but such a change is seldom admissible in old work4 ,when the points of cut-off have been noted down1 it will frequently happen1 that1 instead of both ends cutting off at #ah inches1 one end will show the cut at #ag inches1 while the other goes to #ai inches4 ,this indicates something wrong1 and demands a search for the origin of the unequal motion4 ,first ascertain if the rocker-arm is not sprung4 ,if that is all right1 examine the link1 which is probably sprung out of its true radius4 ,to straighten the rocker-arm is an easy matter1 but not so with case-hardened links2 although some men are very successful in springing them back4 ,where it is impracticable to remedy an unequal cut-off by correcting the origin of the defect1 several plans may be resorted to for obtaining the required adjustment4 ,one of the most common resorts is to equalize the forward motion by throwing out the back motion4 ,putting the rocker-arm away from its vertical position when the valve is in the middle of the seat1 by shortening or lengthening the valve-rod1 provides a means of adjustment4 ,sometimes the equality of lead opening is sacrificed to obtain equality of cut-off4 ,the changes necessary to obtain adjustment of a distorted motion can only be successfully arranged by one who has experience in valve-setting or in valve-motion designing4 ,in many shops the cut-off is adjusted for the point where the engine does most of the work1--say at #f inches4 ,other master mechanics direct the equalization to be made for half stroke1 while some take the mean between the half stroke and the ordinary working notch4 ,the final adjustments in valve-setting ought to be made when the engine is hot4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,a4 ,meyer4 ,,laying ,,out ,,link-,,motion4 ,fig4 #ai is an outline of a link-motion such as is generally applied to the ,american locomotive4 ,it can be adjusted to control the movement of the slide-valve in such a manner that equal portions of steam will be admitted alternately at each end of the cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,in the following article we propose to explain how this can be accomplished4 ,although we would not advise any person to be satisfied with approximate rules or constructions1 yet cases do occur where the approximate constructions1 being so very near correct1 on account of their simplicity1 are of greater practical value than the application of the rigid and more difficult theoretical rules4 ,by these remarks1 we do not wish the reader to understand that the following constructions are all done according to the rules of thumb--not by any means2 for all1 with the exception of a few points1 are theoretically correct4 ,at the end of this article1 we will point out those points which are1 and which are not1 approximately found2 so that the reader may feel satisfied that our construction may always be relied upon as being correct for all practical purposes4 ,in what follows1 the cylinder will always be regarded as lying on the right-hand side of the axle1 the link being between cylinder and axle1 and the axle located in the center of pedestal4 ,to avoid any misunderstanding1 we will explain the meaning of some of the terms used4 ,the length of crank is the distance from center of axle to center of crank-pin4 ,for convenience1 we shall call the total distance from center of eccentric-strap to the center of eccentric-pin in the link the length of the eccentric-rod4 ,the throw of eccentric is double the distance from center of axle to center of eccentric-wheel4 ,the length of the connecting rod is the distance from the center of crank-pin hole to center of cross-head pin-hole4 ,the length of link-hanger is the distance from center to center of holes4 ,,conditions4 ,since this article treats only on the adjustment of the link-motion1 the following items are supposed to be known and established3 ,the lap of valve1 which in this case will be three-fourths of an inch2 the throw of eccentrics1 #e inches2 the stroke of the piston1 #bd inches2 the position of the rocker1 as per ,fig4 #ai2 the length of the rocker-arms1 which are in this case of equal length2 length of link-hanger and all dimensions of link1 complete1 as shown in ,fig4 #ai2 and also the length of the connecting rod4 ,the adjustment of the link-motion may at first sight appear to be a difficult problem1 as we must have a knowledge of the relative motions of the piston and slide-valve2 but by reducing this problem to several elementary problems1 so that the laws governing the relative motions may be discovered and clearly defined1 a clear conception of our subject can be gained1 and the solution of our original problem can be accomplished with comparative ease4 ,in order to find what kind of elementary problems are applicable1 let us suppose that we are looking at a locomotive with a link-motion1 as shown in ,fig4 #ai1 applied and correctly adjusted4 ,now let us examine it1 commencing with the valve4 ,we find that the valve receives its motion from the upper rocker-arm1 and this receives its motion from the lower rocker-arm4 ,according to our conditions1 previously stated1 both of the rocker-arms are of the same length2 and1 therefore1 the arc described by the upper rocker-arm will be the same length as the arc described by the lower one4 ,we also notice that the link which moves the lower rocker-arm is held in position by the lifting-shaft arm4 ,the question1 then1 will naturally arise1 ,must this lifting-shaft arm have some particular length1 and the center of lifting-shaft have some particular position8 ,we answer1 8,yes20 and this is one of our elementary problems to solve4 ,again1 we notice that the saddle-pin is not in the center of the link2 and we ask again1 8,why80 ,to answer this will be another elementary problem4 ,the next we notice are our eccentric-rods4 ,these we find1 on examination1 to have some particular length2 and to find this length is another elementary problem4 ,next we examine our eccentrics3 these1 we find1 are fastened to the axle2 and1 since the crank is also fastened to the same axle1 it follows that there are some relative positions between them2 to find these positions is another elementary problem4 ,now let us look once more at the rocker1 and we find that the two rocker-arms are not in the same straight line3 hence1 to find the amount of offset is another elementary problem4 ,and1 lastly1 we must be able to find the position of crank-pin to correspond with the position of piston when at full stroke at either end of the cylinder1 and also when at half stroke moving in either direction4 ,here1 then1 we have all the elementary problems that are necessary to be understood for the solution of our original problem4 ,we will now explain all these problems1 in an order the reverse to that in which we stated them2 hence we have the following order3-- #ast1 ,to find position of crank at full and half stroke4 #b;d1 ,to find center line of motion1 and amount of offset in rocker-arms4 #c;d1 ,to find relative positions of crank-pin and eccentrics when at full and half stroke4 #dth1 ,to determine the correct length of eccentric-rods4 #eth1 ,to find position of saddle-pin4 #fth1 ,to find the position of the center of lifting-shaft and length of arms4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,problem #a1 ,,figs4 #bj and #ba4--,to find the position of crank when the piston is at full and half stroke4--,let the center of wheel and the axis of the cylinder be in the same straight line as ,,ad1 ,fig4 #bj4 ,with any point ,c as a center1 and a radius equal to the length of the crank1 describe a circle ,f1 ,f1 ,b1 ,b2 and let us call this the crank-pin circle4 ,the straight line ,,ad intersects the circumference of the circle in the points ,f and ,b4 ,the point ,f will be the center of crank-pin when piston is at full stroke at the forward end of the cylinder1 and point ,b will be the center of crank-pin when the piston is at full stroke at the rear end of the cylinder4 ,with the point ,f as a center1 and with a radius equal to the length of the connecting rod1 describe an arc intersecting the line ,,ad in the point ,f2 with the point ,b as a center1 and with the same radius1 describe an arc intersecting the straight line ,,ad in the point ,b2 and with the point ,c as a center1 and with the same radius1 describe an arc intersecting the straight line ,,ad in the point ,c4 ,point ,f will be the center of cross-head pin when the center of crank-pin is at ,f1 and ,b the center of cross-head pin when the crank-pin is at ,b1 and the point ,c will be the position of center of cross-head pin when piston is at half stroke4 ,with point ,c as a center1 and a radius equal to the length of the connecting rod1 describe an arc passing through the point ,c1 and intersecting the crank-pin circle in the points ,f and ,b3 these points will be the position of crank-pin when the piston is at half stroke1 or when the center of cross-head pin is at ,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,it often happens that the axis of the cylinder is above the center of axle4 ,when such is the case1 we must follow the construction as shown in ,fig4 #ba4 ,let two inches be the distance that the center of axis of cylinder is above the center of axle4 ,draw a straight line ,,ad through the center of axle ,c2 two inches above this draw a straight line ,,gh parallel to ,,ad2 this line will then pass through the axis of cylinder4 ,with the center of axle ,c on the straight line ,,ad as a center1 and a radius equal to the length of the crank1 describe a circle ,f1 ,f1 ,b1 ,b3 this circle will be the crank-pin circle4 ,with the point ,c as a center1 and a radius equal to the length of the connecting rod plus the length of the crank1 describe an arc intersecting the straight line ,,gh in the point ,f3 this point will be the position of the cross-head pin when the piston is at full stroke forward4 ,through the points ,f and ,c draw a straight line1 intersecting the crank-pin circle in the point ,f3 this point will be the position of the center of the crank-pin when the piston is at full stroke forward4 ,again1 with the point ,c as a center1 and a radius equal to the length of the connecting rod minus the length of the crank1 describe an arc intersecting the straight line ,,gh in the point ,b3 this point will be the position of the center of the cross-head pin when the piston is at full stroke in the rear end of the cylinder4 ,through the points ,b and ,c draw a straight line1 intersecting the crank-pin circle in the point ,b3 this point will be the position of the center of crank-pin when the piston is at full stroke in the rear end of the cylinder4 ,find a point ,c exactly central between the points ,b and ,f on the line ,,gh3 in other words1 bisect the distance ,b ,f by the point ,c4 ,with the point ,c as a center1 and a radius equal to the length of the connecting rod1 describe an arc intersecting the crank-pin circle in the points ,b and ,f3 these two points will be the center of crank-pin when the piston stands at half stroke4 ,in the link-motion1 as shown in ,fig4 #ai1 the axis of the cylinder is supposed to be #b inches higher than the center of axle4 ,for this reason the construction shown in ,fig4 #ba will hereafter be used4 ,,problem #b1 ,,fig4 #bb4--,to find the center line of motion and the amount of offset in the lower rocker-arm4--,let ,c be the center of axle3 through ,c draw the straight lines ,,ad and ,,kl perpendicular to ,,ad4 ,the center of rocker we find in ,fig4 #ai to be #cg inches in front of the center of axle1 and #g inches above4 ,we therefore continue our construction in ,fig4 #bb by drawing a straight line ,,mn #cg inches in front of1 and parallel to1 the straight line ,,kl1 and another straight line ,,op parallel to ,,ad1 and #g inches above it4 ,these two lines intersect in the point ,q1 and this point is the center of rocker4 ,with ,q as a center1 and a radius equal to the length of the lower rocker-arm1 describe the arc ,,rs3 through the point ,c draw a straight line ,,ct tangent to the arc ,,rs1 then ,,ct will be the center line of motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,to find the amount of offset in the lower rocker-arm1 let us place the center line of the upper rocker-arm perpendicular to a line drawn parallel to the valve surface3 but in our case this valve surface is parallel to the line ,,ad2 hence our line drawn parallel to the valve surface will also be parallel to the line ,,ad1 and the center line of upper rocker-arm will be perpendicular to ,,ad1 and coincide with the line ,,mn4 ,through the point ,q draw a straight line perpendicular to the line ,,ct1 and intersecting the arc ,,rs in the point ,u3 then the distance from the point ,u to the line ,,mn will be the amount of the offset in the lower rocker-arm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,problem #c1 ,,fig4 #bc4--,to find the relative positions of crank-pin and eccentrics when the piston is at full and half stroke4--,let ,c be the center of axle4 ,through ,c draw the horizontal line ,,ad1 and find the positions of center of crank-pin at full and half stroke2 namely1 the points ,f1 ,f1 ,b1 ,b1 as explained in ,problem #a1 and shown in ,fig4 #ba4 ,next draw the center line of motion as explained in ,problem #b and ,fig4 #bb4 ,with the point ,c as a center1 and a radius equal to the throw of the eccentric 7#b inches71 draw a circle2 and let us call this circle the 8eccentric-circle40 ,on the line of motion ,,ct1 lay off a point towards the rocker #ac_/af of an inch from ,c 7this being the sum of the lap and lead1-- of an inch for the lap1 and #a_/af of an inch for the lead73 through this point draw a straight line perpendicular to the line of motion ,,ct1 and intersecting the eccentric-circle in the points x and y4 ,the point x will be the center of the forward eccentric2 and the point y will be the center of backward eccentric when the center of crank-pin is at ,f1 full stroke forward4 ,through the points ,f and ,c draw a straight line1 intersecting the eccentric-circle in the point ,f4 ,the line ,,fc will represent the center line of crank2 and the distance between the points ,f and x1 measured on the eccentric-circle1 is the amount that the center of forward eccentric is set back of the center line of crank2 and the distance between the points ,f and y is the amount that the backward eccentric is set ahead of the center line of crank4 ,since both the crank and eccentrics are fastened to the same axle1 it follows1 that1 whatever position the center line of crank may be in1 the distances between center line of crank and eccentrics--that is1 the distances between ,f and x1 also ,f and y1 measured on the eccentric-circle--remain constant4 ,therefore1 to find the position of eccentrics when the crank stands at ,f 7half stroke71 draw the straight line ,,fc representing the center line of crank1 and intersecting the eccentric-circle in the point ,f4 ,from the point ,f1 lay off on the eccentric-circle a point with a distance equal to ,fx1 back of the center line of crank1 and indicate this point by x2 also from ,f measured on the same circle1 lay off a point in the front of the center line of crank1 and with a distance equal to ,fy1 and mark this point y2 then the point x will be the position of forward eccentric1 and the point y will be the position of backward eccentric when the crank-pin is at ,f4 ,in precisely the same manner we find the position of eccentrics when the center of crank-pin is at ,b 7full stroke back74 ,through the points ,c and ,b draw a straight line1 intersecting the eccentric-circle in the point ,b4 ,from the point ,b1 and with a distance equal to ,fx1 lay off a point on the eccentric-circle back of crank2 this point will be the position of forward eccentric when crank is at full stroke back2 and1 in order to distinguish this from the other position of eccentric1 call this point a3 also from ,b1 lay off in front of the crank the position of backward eccentric at a distance equal to ,fy1 and call this point b4 ,in the same manner find points a and b when the crank-pin is at ,b4 ,we have now found the position of eccentrics when the crank-pin stands in the following positions3-- ,full stroke forward ,f1 the forward eccentric will be at x4 ,half stroke forward ,f1 the forward eccentric will be at x4 ,full stroke back end ,b1 the forward eccentric will be at a4 ,half stroke back end ,b1 the forward eccentric will be at a4 ,full ,stroke forward ,f1 the backward eccentric will be at y4 ,half stroke forward ,f1 the backward eccentric will be at y4 ,full stroke back end ,b1 the backward eccentric will be at b4 ,half stroke back end ,b1 the backward eccentric will be at b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,problem #d1 ,,fig4 #bd4--,to determine the correct length of the eccentric-rods4--,let c be the center of axle4 ,through this point draw the horizontal line ,,ad1 also a line ,,kl perpendicular to ,,ad4 ,the only purpose for which these two lines are drawn in this problem1 as well as the others1 is to have some lines from which we can locate other lines or points4 ,locate the center of rocker1 and center lines of rocker-arms1 as explained in ,problem #b1 and shown in ,fig4 #bb2 the lower arm standing perpendicular to the center line of motion1 and the upper arm vertical4 ,when the arms stand in this position1 the rocker-pins will move through an equal distance on each side of these center lines during the time that the valve is making its full travel4 ,next find centers of eccentrics x and y when the crank is at full stroke forward2 also a and b when the crank is at full stroke back1 as explained in ,problem #c1 and shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,before we proceed1 let us give names to some of the lines1 as shown in ,fig4 #f;a 7p4 #bfh74 ,the arc c#a;c#b drawn through the center of opening of the link1 we will call the link-arc2 and the arc d#a;d#b drawn through the center of eccentric-rod pin-holes1 we will call the eccentric-rod pin-arc4 ,both of these arcs are drawn from the same center2 that is1 the center from which the link is drawn4 ,let us now cut a paper template1 as shown in ,fig4 #f;b 7link structure74 ,this template is cut so that1 if it is laid on the link1 ,fig4 #f;a1 the arc of the template c#c;c#d will coincide with the link-arc c#a;c#b1 and d#c;d#d with the eccentric-pin arc d#a;d#b1 the end of template d#c;c#c with the line d#a;c#a1 and the end d#d;c#d with d#b;c#b4 ,on this template join the points c#c;c#d by a straight line1 and bisect this line by the perpendicular line ee3 on this line the center of the saddle-pin will be located4 ,on one side of this line draw the line ff#a parallel to ee1 and on the other side draw f#b;f#c also parallel to ee2 the distance from the point f to the point f#b being equal to the distance between the centers of eccentric-rod pins1 and fe equal to ef#b4 ,the points f and f#b on the arc d#c;d#d indicate the position on the template of the centers of eccentric-rod pins4 ,on the center line of motion c,t1 lay off from v a point v#a towards the axle1 with a distance equal to c#a;d#a1 ,fig4 #f;a2 then with the point x as a center1 and cv#a as a radius1 describe the arc x#ax#b2 in this arc the upper eccentric-rod will be located as long as the center of forward eccentric remains at x4 ,with the point y as a center1 and cv#a as a radius1 describe the arc y#ay#b3 in this arc the center of lower eccentric-rod will be located as long as the backward eccentric remains at y4 ,with the point a as a center1 and cv#a as a radius1 describe an arc a#a;a#b3 in this arc the upper eccentric-rod pin will be located while the forward eccentric is at a4 ,with the point b as a center1 and cv#a as a radius1 describe the arc b#a;b#b2 and in this arc the center of lower eccentric-rod pin will be located when the backward eccentric is at b4 ,now adjust the template on the drawing so that the point f will be in the arc x#ax#b3 point f#b in the arc y#ay#b and the line ee coincide with the center line of motion c,t4 ,along the arc c#c;c#d of the template draw an arc on the paper4 ,next move the template so that the point f will be in the arc a#a;a#b1 the point f#b in the arc b#a;b#b1 and the line ee coincide with the center line of motion c,t1 and along the arc c#c;c#d of the template draw the second arc on the paper4 ,now1 if the distance measured on the arc ,,rs from the point v 7the center of the lower rocker-arm pin7 to the first arc drawn1 is equal to the distance measured on the arc ,,rs from v to the second arc1 the radius cv#a will be the correct length of the eccentric-rods4 ,but1 if the distance from v to the first arc is less than the distance from v to the second arc1 the length cv#a of the eccentric-rod will be too short4 ,in this case we must increase the length cv#a by adding an amount equal to one-half the difference of the distances from v to the first arc1 and from v to the second arc previously drawn2 and this last length so found will be the correct length of eccentric-rods4 ,it will be proper to remark here1 that the radius cv#a was assumed to be the correct length of eccentric-rods2 but since the rods cross each other when the eccentrics are at a and b1 and do not cross each other when at x and y1 the radius cv#a will always be a trifle short4 ,it is therefore necessary to make the correction as explained4 ,in every case1 the length of eccentric-rods must be so adjusted1 that1 when the line ee coincides with the center line of motion c,t1 the arc vv#b 7which is the amount that the rocker-pin is drawn towards the axle from the line ,qv when the eccentrics are at a and b7 must be equal to the arc vv#c 7which is the amount that the rocker-pin is moved towards the cylinders from the line ,qv when the eccentrics are at x and y72 the straight line ,qv being perpendicular to the center line of motion c,t4 ,,problem #e1 ,,fig4 #be4--,to find the position of the center of saddle-pin4--,for this problem we again call to our aid the paper template shown in ,fig4 #f;b4 ,we have already seen in ,problem #d that the center of saddle-pin will be located on the line ee drawn on this template3 it now only remains to determine the distance of this point from the link-arc c#c;c#d4 ,since the inequality between the crank-angle ,w and ,w#a1 ,fig4 #bc1 becomes the greatest when the crank stands at half stroke1 it is of the utmost importance to find such a position for the center of saddle-pin that equal portions of steam will be admitted alternately when the crank stands at half stroke4 ,or1 in other words1 the admittance of steam must cease at the moment that the piston has completed one-half stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,let us commence this problem as we began the others2 namely1 ,through the center of axle ,c1 ,fig4 #be1 draw the horizontal line ,,ad1 also the vertical line ,,lk4 ,find the position of crank at half stroke1 as shown in ,fig4 #ba4 ,next find the position of center line of motion ,,ct1 and position of rocker1 as shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,find the relative position of eccentrics and crank when at half stroke1 as shown in ,fig4 #bc4 ,now1 with a radius equal to the correct length of eccentric-rods1 previously determined 7shown in ,fig4 #bd71 describe from the point x as a center1 the arc x#a x#b2 also with the point y as a center1 and with the same radius1 the arc y#a y#b4 ,again1 from the point a as a center1 describe the arc a#a a#b2 also with the point b as a center1 describe the arc b#a b#b1 using the length of eccentric-rods as a radius for all the arcs4 ,when the center of the forward eccentric is at x1 the forward eccentric-rod pin will be located in the arc x#a x#b4 ,when the center of the forward eccentric is at a1 the forward eccentric-rod pin will be located in the arc a#a a#b4 ,when the backward eccentric is at y1 its eccentric-rod pin will be located in the arc y#a y#b4 ,when the center of the backward eccentric is at b1 the eccentric-rod pin will be located in the arc b#a b#b4 ,the next step is to find the relative position of the lower rocker-arm pin when steam is cut off at half stroke4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be;b4 ,in ,fig4 #h 7p4 #bgd7 we have placed the slide-valve centrally over the ports1 that is1 it laps over each steam-port an equal amount1 namely1 of an inch1 which is equal to the lap4 ,in this position of the valve1 the center line of the upper rocker-arm will stand perpendicular to the line drawn parallel to the valve-face1 and the center line of the lower rocker-arm will stand perpendicular to the center line of motion ,,ct3 hence the center line of upper rocker-arm ,,mq in ,fig4 #h will coincide with the line ,,mq in ,fig4 #be1 and the center of lower arm ,,qu in ,fig4 #h will coincide with the line ,,qu in ,fig4 #be4 ,now let us follow the relative movement of the valve and piston4 ,we find1 that1 when the piston commences its backward motion1 the valve moves in the same direction1 as shown by the arrow-points in ,fig4 #h;a2 and1 during the time that the piston is completing the half stroke1 the valve has finished its full travel backward1 and commenced moving forward1 as indicated by the arrow-points1 ,fig4 #h;b2 and1 at the time that the piston stands exactly at half stroke1 the forward edge of the valve is just closing the forward steam-port1 and consequently cutting off steam at half stroke when the piston is moving backward4 ,from this we see1 that1 when the piston has completed the half stroke when moving backward1 the center of the valve will be a little in the rear of the center of exhaust-port2 the distance between the center of valve and the center of exhaust-port being of an inch1 the amount of the lap3 the upper rocker-pin will stand of an inch behind the line ,,mq1 and the lower rocker-arm pin will be of an inch in front of the line ,,qu1 as shown in ,fig4 #h;b4 ,we therefore draw in ,fig4 #be a straight line parallel to ,,qu1 and of an inch in front of it3 this line will intersect the arc ,,rs in the point ,f#c2 and this point is the position of the center of lower rocker-arm pin when the crank stands at ,f1 and steam cut off at half stroke4 ,let the piston complete its backward stroke1 and then commence moving forward towards half stroke1 as shown by the arrow-point1 ,fig4 #h;c4 ,during this time the valve has completed its full travel forward1 and commenced traveling backward1 as indicated by the arrow-point1 ,fig4 #h;c2 and1 when the piston stands exactly at half stroke1 the rear edge of the valve is just closing the rear steam-port1 and consequently cutting off steam at half stroke when the piston is moving forward4 ,in this position the center line of the valve will be of an inch in front of the center of exhaust1 the center of the upper rocker-arm pin will be of an inch in front of the line ,,mq1 and lower rocker-pin of an inch in the rear of the line ,,qu1 as shown in ,fig4 #h;c4 ,we therefore draw in ,fig4 #be a line parallel to ,,qu1 and of an inch behind it2 this line will intersect the arc ,,rs in the point ,b#c2 and this point will be the position of the center of lower rocker-arm pin when the crank stands at ,b1 and steam cut off at half stroke4 ,now1 remember1 that when the crank stands at ,f1 ,fig4 #be1 the forward eccentric will be x1 and the backward eccentric at y2 and1 if the link is raised or lowered while the eccentrics remain at x and y1 the forward eccentric-rod pin will move in the arc x#a x#b1 and the backward eccentric-rod pin will move in the arc y#a y#b4 ,let us now find the position of link when steam is cut off at half stroke at either end of the cylinder4 ,the points ,f#c and ,b#c in ,fig4 #be being located1 place the paper template on the drawing so that the point f will lie in the arc x#ax#b1 and the point f#b in the arc y#ay#b1 and the link-arc c#c;c#d just touching the point ,f#c4 ,while the template is in this position1 draw on the paper along the edge c#c;c#d a portion of the link-arc1 and mark the position that the line ee occupied1 so that1 when the template is removed1 the line e#a;e#a can be drawn on the paper to represent the line ee of the template4 ,next place the template so that the point f will lie in the arc a#a a#b the point f#b in the arc b#a b#b and the link-arc c#c;c#d just touching the point ,b#c and1 while in this position1 draw part of the link-arc c#c;c#d on the paper1 mark the position that the line ee occupied1 and1 after the template is removed1 draw the line e#b;e#b on the paper to represent the line ee of the template4 ,now find by trial a point x#a on the line c#a;c#a1 and another point x#b on the line e#b;e#b1 so that the distances of these points from their link-arcs are equal1 and that a straight line drawn through them will be parallel to the center line of motion4 ,the distance from x#a to the link-arc--or1 which is the same thing1 the distance from the point x#b to the link-arc--will be the correct distance between the center of saddle-pin and the link-arc c#a;c#b1 ,fig4 #f;a4 ,or1 in other words1 the position of the point x#a or x#b1 ,fig4 #be1 will indicate the proper position of the point of suspension on the link4 ,for future reference1 let us mark this point of suspension on the template1 and indicate it by ,x1 ,fig4 #f;b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,problem #f1 ,,fig4 #bf4--,to find the position of the center of lifting-shaft and the length of its arms4--,in the last problem we found the point of suspension of the link1 so that it will cause the valve to cut off equal portions of steam when the piston stands at half stroke4 ,it now remains for us to find the position of the lifting-shaft and the length of the lifting-shaft arms1 so that the greatest equal amounts of steam will be admitted alternately at each end of the cylinder4 ,here a little difficulty arises which needs explanation1 so that our construction may not seem inconsistent to the reader4 ,it would be an easy matter to place our lifting-shaft to accomplish the object just stated2 but1 if we do this1 the lead will not be equal at each end of cylinder when the piston is at full stroke4 ,again1 if we locate our lifting-shaft in such a manner that equal lead will be obtained1 then the maximum cut-off will not be equal2 but the difference will be comparatively so small that it will not injure the working of the engine4 ,this small difference of the maximum cut-off is therefore considered among practical men of little or no importance1 but it is always considered good practice to have an equal lead at full stroke4 ,let us therefore adjust the lifting-shaft to obtain an equal lead1 and allow us to consider the maximum cut-off to be equal when the lead is equal at full stroke4 ,for this problem we have to combine all the foregoing problems4 ,through the center ,c of axle draw the horizontal line ,,ad1 and the line ,,kl perpendicular to it4 ,find the positions of crank at full and half stroke1 as per ,problem #a4 ,locate the rocker1 draw the center line of motion ,,ct1 and amount of offset in lower rocker-arm1 according to ,problem #b4 ,next1 locate the relative positions of eccentrics when the crank stands at full and half stroke1 as explained in ,problem #c4 ,then with a radius equal to the correct length of eccentric-rods1 as explained in ,problem #d1 draw ,from the point x as a center1 the arc x#a x#b 0 0 y 0 0 0 y#a y#b 0 0 x 0 0 0 x#a x#b 0 0 y 0 0 0 y#a y#b 0 0 a 0 0 0 a#a a#b ,from the point b as a center1 the arc b#a b#b 0 0 a 0 0 0 a#a a#b 0 0 b 0 0 0 b#a b#b ,from the point b as a center1 the arc b#a b#b 0 0 a 0 0 0 a#a a#b 0 0 b 0 0 0 b#a b#b ,locate the points ,b#c and ,f#c1 indicating the position of the center of lower rocker-pin when steam is cut off at half stroke2 find the points x#ax#b indicating the positions of the point of suspension when the link is lifted into the position to cut off at half stroke1 as explained in ,problem #e1 and shown in ,fig4 #be4 ,now1 in order to find the position of lifting-shaft and length of arms1 we must find four more additional points1--first1 the position of the point of suspension of the link when the piston is at full stroke forward end of cylinder1 and the crank-pin at ,f1 the valve having #a_/af of an inch lead1 and the engine moving forward1 as indicated by the arrow-point #a2 also the position of the point of suspension of the link when the piston is at full stroke at the opposite end of the cylinder1 valve #a_/af inch lead1 and engine going in the same direction4 ,to find these two points1 we must know the corresponding position of the center of lower rocker-pin4 ,in ,fig4 #h;a we see1 that when the piston is at full stroke forward1 and valve with #a_/af inch lead1 the center of valve is #ac_/af of an inch in the rear of the center line of exhaust1 and consequently the lower rocker-pin will be #ac_/af of an inch in front of the line ,,qu4 ,in the same manner we can show that the center of lower rocker-pin will be #ac_/af of an inch in the rear of the line ,,qu when the piston is at the opposite end of the cylinder4 ,let us now locate the positions of the lower rocker-pin in ,fig4 #bf1 by drawing a line parallel to and in front of ,,qu1 with #ac_/af of an inch between them3 this line will intersect the arc ,,rs in the point ,f#c1 and this point will be the center of lower rocker-pin when the piston is at full stroke forward4 ,draw another line #ac_/af of an inch in the rear of ,,qu and parallel to it3 this line will intersect arc ,,rs in the point ,b#c1 and this point will be the center of rocker-pin when the piston is at full stroke in the rear end of the cylinder4 ,now place the paper template with the line ee below the center line of motion ,,ct1 the point f#a on the arc x#ax#b1 the point f#b on the arc y#ay#b1 and the link-arc c#c;c#d just touching the point ,f#c1 and1 while in this position1 mark the point ,x of the template on the paper1 which can be done with the aid of a needle1 and indicate the point on the paper by x#c4 ,this point will be the position of the center of saddle-pin when the piston is at full stroke in the forward end of the cylinder1 the valve having #a_/af inch lead4 ,again1 slide the template along until the point f#a is on the arc a#a;a#b1 the point f#b on the arc b#a;b#b1 and the link-arc c#c;c#d in contact with the point ,b#c2 mark the point ,x of the template on the paper1 and indicate this point by x#d4 ,this point will be the position of the center of saddle-pin when the piston is at full stroke in the rear end of the cylinder1 the valve having #a_/af inch lead4 ,secondly1 to find the position of the point of suspension of the link when the piston is at full stroke in the forward end of the cylinder1 valve having #a_/af of an inch lead1 and the engine moving backward1 as indicated by the arrow-point #b2 also the position of the point of suspension of the link when the piston is at full stroke at the opposite end of the cylinder1 valve #a_/af of an inch lead1 engine going in the same direction4 ,for this purpose1 slide the template along until the line ee is above the line ,,ct1 and f#a in the arc a#a;a#b1 the point f#b in the arc b#a;b#b1 and the link-arc c#c;c#d in contact with the point ,b#c2 mark the point ,x on the paper1 and indicate this point by x#e4 ,this point will be the position of the center of saddle-pin when the piston is at full stroke in the rear end of the cylinder1 valve having #a_/af of an inch lead4 ,again1 slide the template along until the point f#a1 will be in the arc x#ax#b1 point f#b in the arc y#ay#b1 and the link-arc c#c;c#d in contact with the point ,f#c2 mark the point ,x on the paper1 and indicate this point by x#f4 ,this point will be the position of the center of saddle-pin 7or the point of suspension7 when the piston is at full stroke in the forward end of the cylinder1 valve #a_/af of an inch lead1 engine moving backward4 ,now1 once more1 with the point x#c as a center1 and with the length of the link-hanger as a radius1 describe an arc2 and with the point x#d as a center1 and the same radius1 describe another arc4 ,these two arcs will intersect each other in the point g4 ,again1 with the length of the link-hanger as a radius1 and the points x#ax#b as centers1 describe two arcs intersecting each other in the point g#a1 with the points x#ex#f as centers2 and1 with the same radius1 describe another two arcs intersecting each other in the point g#b4 ,lastly1 through the points g1 g#a;g#b1 draw an arc4 ,the center h1 from which the arc has been described1 will be the center of the lifting-shaft1 and the radius hg or hg#b will be the length of the lifting-shaft arms2 that is1 the length of the two arms to which the link-hangers are attached3 the length of the other lifting-shaft arm1 to which the reach-rod is attached1 is made to suit the other details of the engine4 ,when the admittance of steam ceases at the same time that the piston has reached the half stroke1 the practical man would say 8that the valve is cutting off equal at half stroke40 ,when the greatest equal volume of steam is admitted alternately in each end of the cylinder1 the valve is said to be cutting off equal when the link is in full gear4 ,it is always conceded among engineers1 that when the link-motion is adjusted to cut off equal at half stroke1 and also to cut off equal when the link is in full gear1 equal volumes of steam will be admitted alternately when the link hangs at any intermediate point4 ,if1 now1 we examine ,problem #e1 we find1 that1 to obtain an equal cut-off at half stroke1 it is necessary to find the proper position of saddle-pin4 ,again1 if we examine ,problem #f1 we find1 that1 in order to obtain an equal cut-off when the link is in full gear1 also an equal cut-off for any point between full gear and half stroke1 we have to determine the proper position of the center of lifting-shaft and the correct length of its arms4 ,lastly1 if we examine the first four problems1 we find them simply to be preparatory problems4 ,according to promise1 we will draw attention to those points which have been1 and others which have not been1 approximately found4 ,problems #a1 #b1 and #c are theoretically correct4 ,in ,problems #d1 #e1 and #f1 the use of the template will not be admitted for theoretical reasoning2 but1 if the construction is made with absolute accuracy1 the result will be theoretically correct4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following are a few dimensions of locomotives made by well-known makers3-- ,,dimensions ,,of ,,locomotives ,,baldwin4 ------------------------------- ,standard ,mogul ,consolidation ,passenger ,engine4 ,engine4 ,engine4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,dimensions of cylinders #ag #bd #ah #bd #bj #bd ,length of steam-ports #af #af #af ,width of steam-ports #a #a #a ,width of exhaust-port #b #b #b ,throw of eccentrics #e #e #e ,travel of valve #e #e #e ,outside lap of valve to ,inside lap of valve #a_/cb to #a_/cb #a_/cb ,distance between center of axle and center of rocker #ef #df #ha ,length of upper rocker-arm1 #aj #aj #aj ,length of lower rocker-arm1 #i #i #i ,length of link #ee #df #ha ,length of link-hanger #ac #ae #ae ,length of tumbling-shaft arm #ag #af #af ,length of connecting rod #ge #hj #aad ,distance between centers of eccentric-rod pins #aa-i_/af #aj #aj ,suspension of link back of link-center #aa_/af #a ,lead of valve in full gear #a_/af #a_/af #a_/af ,lead of valve in center #a ,,dimensions ,,of ,,locomotives--,continued4 ,,brooks4 ------------------------------- ,standard ,mogul ,consolidation ,passenger ,engine4 ,engine4 ,engine4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches ,dimensions of cylinders #ah #bd #ah #bd #bj #bd ,length of steam-ports #af #ae #af ,width of steam-ports #a #a #a ,width of exhaust-port #b #b #b ,throw of eccentrics #e #d #e ,travel of valve #e #e #e ,outside lap of valve #ac_/af ,inside lap of valve #a_/fd #a_/fd #a_/fd ,distance between center of axle and center of rocker #fe #ej #dj ,length of upper rocker-arm1 #aj #i #aj ,length of lower rocker-arm1 #aj #h #i ,length of link #fe #ej #dj ,length of link-hanger #ac #ac #ae ,length of tumbling-shaft arm #ag #ah #af ,length of connecting rod #if #hd #gg ,distance between centers of eccentric-rod pins #aa #aa-c_/af #aa ,suspension of link back of link-center ,lead of valve in full gear #a_/aj #a_/aj #a_/aj ,lead of valve in center ,,dimensions ,,of ,,locomotives--,continued4 ,,grant4 ------------------------------- ,standard ,mogul ,consolidation ,passenger ,engine4 ,engine4 ,engine4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,dimensions of cylinders #ag #bd #ah #bd #bj #bd ,length of steam-ports #af #af #af ,width of steam-ports #a #a #a ,width of exhaust-port #b #b #b ,throw of eccentrics #e #e #e ,travel of valve #e #e #e ,outside lap of valve ,inside lap of valve ,none4 #a_/af #a_/af ,distance between center of axle and center of rocker #fh-aa_/af #dj #hj ,length of upper rocker-arm1 #aj #i #i ,length of lower rocker-arm1 #aj #h #aj ,radius of link #fc #ci #hj ,length of link-hanger #ab #ad #ab ,length of tumbling-shaft arm #ag #af #ad ,length of connecting rod #he #fi #aab ,distance between centers of eccentric-rod pins #ab #ab #ab ,suspension of link back of link-center #a-c_/af ,lead of valve in full gear #a_/cb #a_/cb #a_/cb ,lead of valve in center #e_/af ,,dimensions ,,of ,,locomotives--,continued4 ,,pittsburg4 ------------------------------- ,standard ,mogul ,consolidation ,passenger ,engine4 ,engine4 ,engine4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,dimensions of cylinders #ag #bd #ah #bd #bj #bd ,length of steam-ports #ae #af #ah ,width of steam-ports #a #a #a ,width of exhaust-port #b #b #b ,throw of eccentrics #e #e #e ,travel of valve #e #e #e-g_/af ,outside lap of valve ,inside lap of valve #a_/cb #a_/cb ,distance between center of axle and center of rocker #ef #dh #bh ,length of upper rocker-arm1 #aa #aa #aa ,length of lower rocker-arm1 #aa #aj #aj ,radius of link #ef #dh #hj ,length of link-hanger #ad #ah #ah ,length of tumbling-shaft arm #ah #ae #ae ,length of connecting rod #hh #he #aad ,distance between centers of eccentric-rod pins #ab #ab #ab ,suspension of link back of link-center #i_/af ,lead of valve in full gear #a_/aj #a_/aj #a_/aj ,lead of valve in center #e_/af #aa_/cb ,,dimensions ,,of ,,locomotives--,continued4 ,,schenectady4 ------------------------------- ,standard ,mogul ,consolidation ,passenger ,engine4 ,engine4 ,engine4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,inches4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,dimensions of cylinders #ag #bd #ai #bd #bj #bd ,length of steam-ports #af #af #af ,width of steam-ports #a #a #a ,width of exhaust-port #b #b #b ,throw of eccentrics #e #e #e ,travel of valve #e #e #e ,outside lap of valve ,inside lap of valve #a_/cb #a_/cb #a_/cb ,distance between center of axle and center of rocker #fc #ed #de ,length of upper rocker-arm1 #aa #aj #aa ,length of lower rocker-arm1 #aj #i #aj ,radius of link #fc #ed #de ,length of link-hanger #ac #af #af ,length of tumbling-shaft arm #af #af #af ,length of connecting rod #ib #ij #gi ,distance between centers of eccentric-rod pins #ab #ab #ab ,suspension of link back of link-center ,lead of valve in full gear #a_/af #a_/af #a_/af ,lead of valve in center #e_/af #e_/af #e_/af ,,dimensions ,,of ,,locomotives--concluded4 ,,mason4 ------------------ ,standard ,mogul ,passenger ,engine4 ,engine4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,inches4 ,inches4 ,dimensions of cylinders #ah #bd #ai #bd ,length of steam-ports #ag #ah ,width of steam-ports #a #a ,width of exhaust-port #b #b ,throw of eccentrics #e #e ,travel of valve #e #e ,outside lap of valve ,inside lap of valve #a_/fd #a_/cb ,distance between center of axle and center of rocker #ch #di ,length of upper rocker-arm1 #i #i ,length of lower rocker-arm1 #i #i ,radius of link #eh #di ,length of link-hanger #aj #aj ,length of tumbling-shaft arm #bj #bj ,length of connecting rod #ia-c_/af #hd ,distance between centers of eccentric-rod pins #ab #ab ,suspension of link back of above link-center #c #c ,lead of valve in full gear #a_/af #a_/af ,lead of valve in center #e_/af #e_/af ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,stevens ,,valve-,,gear4 ,,description ,,of ,,motion ,this motion has been designed by ,a4 ,j4 ,stevens1 ,general ,master ,mechanic1 ,central ,pacific ,railroad1 to overcome the well-known objections to the link-motion1--viz41 letting the steam escape early in the stroke when the engine is running hooked up2 also1 the closing of the exhaust-port early1 leading to excessive compression4 ,the motion is developed from the ,walschaert motion1 well known in ,europe1 and applied to some extent to narrow-gauge engines in this country4 ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,motion ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,in the ,stevens motion two valves are employed1 one at each end of the cylinder1 as can be seen in ,fig4 #bg4 ,the valves have supplementary passages for steam and exhaust1 being an improvement on the ,allen valve4 ,valves without the supplementary exhaust-port have been designed by ,mr4 ,stevens for his engines1 and they are shown in two positions in the supplementary figures #b and #c p4 #bhh4 ,these valves closely resemble the ,allen valve2 but1 in operating1 steam is admitted to1 and exhausted from1 the cylinder through the same passage4 ,this arrangement provides double area of admission and double area for exhaust steam1--an important consideration1 especially with high piston speed4 ,,valve ,,movement ,the valves are actuated by two motions1--one taken from a single eccentric1 the other derived from a connection with the cross-head4 ,the single eccentric is used to give both forward and backward motion1 and is set in the proper angle to the crank to produce motion in either direction4 ,for reversing the motion of the valve1 a curved rocker-arm ,r 7,fig4 #bg7 is used1 on which moves a sliding-block r4 ,attached to the sliding-block is the link ,h1 which connects with the lap-and-lead lever ,d4 ,the lower end of this lever is attached by the link d to the cross-head1 from which the lever receives an oscillating motion4 ,this lever is suspended by a hanger from any convenient part of the engine4 ,projecting from one side of the lap-and-lead lever are two pins1 to which are connected the valve-stem rods m and n4 ,these pins are set upon the lever at points between #ij and #ahj degrees apart1 so as to give a differential movement to the valve1 which can not be obtained when the pins are set opposite on the lever4 ,,valve-,,stems ,,and ,,stuffing-,,boxes4 ,each valve has its own rod1 and separate connection with the lever4 ,in most instances the stem of the back valve is made hollow1 and the stem of the forward valve is passed through it1 so as to avoid the use of more than one stuffing-box upon the steam-chest2 but in several instances they have been fitted up with two stuffing-boxes1 the separate valve-stems working side by side4 ,,how ,,movement ,,of ,,valve ,,is ,,governed4 ,the valve being coupled up by independent rods to the lap-and-lead lever1 they will move together1 and in the same general direction1 from the action of the eccentric4 ,but besides this movement1 common to both1 each valve is controlled and acted on by the angular position of the two pins1 which results from the rotary or oscillating movement of the lap-and-lead lever upon its center2 and each valve1 instead of having a uniform rate of travel1 has a variable movement4 ,the degree of this variable movement is governed1 both by the distance of the pins from the center upon which the lever works and the length of the lever1 and can be increased or diminished by changing the position of one or the length of the other in construction4 ,the horizontal movement of the valve received from the lap-and-lead lever while the same is at mid travel1 is very slight1 while the piston or the cross-head is traveling very rapidly4 ,by this slow movement of the valve1 steam is retained in the cylinder until the piston has nearly completed its stroke2 and1 on the other hand1 the exhaust is kept open4 ,as the cross-head approaches either end of the stroke1 the action of the valves is very much accelerated1 receiving1 as they do1 their motion from the combined action of the lap-and-lead lever and the eccentric4 ,,how ,,exhaust ,,lead ,,is ,,controlled4 ,the exhaust lead is controlled by the pin in the lap-and-lead lever1 which is on the center1 or horizontal1 when the cross-head is at either end of the cylinder4 ,the steam lead is controlled by the pin that is vertical1 or above the center of the lap-and-lead lever1 when the cross-head is at either end of the stroke4 ,both steam and exhaust lead are uniform at all points of cut-off4 ,by this arrangement of the valve-gear and valves1 steam can be cut off at any point of the stroke 7by moving the sliding-block toward the center of the rocker-arm71 and is retained1 if desired1 to the last inch of the stroke4 ,in receiving1 the steam is evenly distributed at all points of the cut-off4 ,there are about as many pieces to this gearing as to the ordinary link-gear2 but it is considerably cheaper in construction1 and much more durable2 while it does away with two eccentrics1 and their straps and connections4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,joy ,,valve-,,gear4 ,,description ,,of ,,motion4 ,in this form of valve-gear1 eccentrics and their equivalents are entirely dispensed with4 ,the motion for the valve is taken direct from the connecting rod2 and by utilizing independently the backward and forward action of the rod1 due to the reciprocation of the piston1 and combining this with the vibrating action of the rod up and down1 a movement results which is employed to actuate the valves of engines using any combination of lap and lead desired1 and giving an almost mathematically correct cut-off for both sides of the piston for forward and backward motion1 and for all points of expansion intermediately4 ,the general outline of the motion can be understood by an examination of ,fig4 #bh1 which gives three views of the gear4 ,the sub-figures #a1 #b1 and #c show the motion in elevation1 plan1 and transverse section respectively4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,how ,,to ,,apply ,,this ,,gear ,,to ,,american ,,locomotives4 ,to apply this gear1 the valve and steam-chest are placed1 as is usually the case in ,american locomotives1 over the cylinders2 the valve-stem center being1 however1 in the same vertical plane as the cylinder center line1 immediately over it4 ,all the valve-motion is thus arranged on this plane1--perfectly central1--and there are no crooked or side strains4 ,to a point ,a on diagram1 about two-fifths along the connecting rod from the piston end1 a small hook-link is pinned4 ,from the lower end of this at ,d is jointed a lever ,e1 which1 of course1 moves with the connecting rod both backward and forward1 and up and down2 the point ,d1 in fact1 moving in a very irregular ellipse1 hereafter explained4 ,the fulcrum ,f of the lever ,e is carried in a block which slides in a slot-link ,,jk1 and from the upper end of this lever ,e the valve-stem rod ,g is carried to the valve4 ,this slot-link ,,jk is centered so as to be able to be inclined from the vertical either way4 ,when standing in the vertical position1 the engine is in mid-gear1 and the valve will only be opened for lead2 but this will be exact for each end1 and exact also on either side of the center line of the connecting rod4 ,when the slot-link is inclined forward to the front of the engine1 the engine is in full gear forward2 and1 when inclined backwards1 it is in full gear for going back4 ,placed in any intermediate position1 the cut-off is regulated for any required degree of expansion2 the front and back of the piston receiving equal cut-off1 or equal amounts of steam4 ,,construction ,,directions4 ,in laying out this valve-motion1 it is necessary to make the center or fulcrum ,f of the lever ,e coincide1 when the crank is at either extreme stroke1 with the center on which the slot-link ,,jk vibrates3 then these two centers coinciding when the engine stands at lead 7that is1 at either end of the stroke71 the slot-link ,,jk1 which is1 in fact1 the reversing agent1 may be put forward or backward through all degrees1 without moving the valve1 which thus has constant lead at all grades of expansion4 ,if1 however1 it is desired to give increasing or decreasing lead in the grades of expansion1 this may be given by varying the coincidence of these two centers accordingly1 or by under-correcting or over-correcting the action of the lever ,e1 by varying the position of ,d on the link ,b4 ,,how ,,lap ,,and ,,lead ,,are ,,regulated4 ,the lap and lead together are dependent on the distance between the center ,f of lever ,e1 and the center from which the motion is taken for the valve4 ,,advantages ,,claimed ,,for ,,the ,,motion4 ,the first advantage claimed for ,joy's valve-gear over the link-motion is1 that it is considerably less costly1 and that the working-parts are lighter4 ,the saving is not only in weight1 however1 but also in the greater simplicity of parts1 allowing increased facility for tooling and fitting4 ,it may be needless to point out how readily this valve-motion is adaptable to the requirements of the typical ,american locomotive1 considerably simplifying the present form of valve-motion1 by dispensing with the eccentrics and other working-parts1 and bringing the gear with all its strains into a direct line1 and also leaving the whole of the under part of the engine clear1 and permitting a considerable extension of the fire-box1--a most valuable feature4 ,all the parts are such that they can be readily made by machinery1 dispensing with hand labor except in putting them together4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,motion4 ,the action transmitted to the valve is altogether different from that transmitted by the link-gear1 as by this gear it results from the two distinct motions of the connecting rod imparted to the lever ,e2 and these two motions work variously1 with and against each other1 thus giving to the valve a resultant motion somewhat partaking of the nature of that produced by cams1 it really being an accelerated and retarded motion2 these accelerations and retardations being so arranged as to come at the right time on the revolution to give the desired result4 ,thus1 as the crank is passing over the center1 the lever ,e is not affecting the valve at all as a lever1 but the motion imparted to the valve is due to the center of ,e slipping down the curve of the slot-link ,j2 and this gives a smart opening of the lead with a continued smart opening of the port4 ,when the valve is fully open1 as the crank travels on1 the lever ,e has commenced acting on the valve2 but its center is still sliding down the slot-link ,,jk2 and the two movements are opposite and destroying1 or partially destroying1 each other1 producing a retardation of the valve-motion almost amounting to an arrest2 and thus is given a nearly straight line on a valve-path diagram where the port is kept fully open1 the crank still traveling on1 and approaching the time for the cut-off to be effected4 ,the lever ,e is in the best position to act as a lever at the same time that its center is completing its movement in the slot ,,jk1 and is commencing to return1 being practically still3 thus the lever action of ,e1 having full effect1 rapidly closes the port4 ,and so on for the revolution1 the time of release also getting its benefit4 ,,rules ,,for ,,laying ,,down ,,the ,,center ,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,lay down the center line aa 7,fig4 #bi7 of the cylinder1 and that of the valve-stem bb1 at the relative distances required for the engine to which the application is to be made2 the valve-stem center line being1 however1 in the plane of the vibration of the connecting rod4 ,draw the path of the crank-pin1 and the center lines of the connecting rod cc#a;c#a for both upper and lower positions when the piston is at half stroke4 ,take a point d on the center line of the connecting rod1 where its vibration between d#a and d#b is equal to about double the length of the full stroke of the valve 7it is better to allow rather more than less74 ,it may1 however1 be chosen very much to suit the other arrangements of the engine1 such as the position of the guides1 brackets1 etc41 getting1 however1 if possible1 a vibration of the connecting rod fully equal to double the stroke of the valve1 to avoid too great an angle of the slide-link when put over for full forward or backward gear4 ,having chosen the point d1 draw a vertical line zz through it and at right angles to aa1 and mark off the two points e1 e1 on each side1 these being the extreme positions of the point d on the connecting rod for front and back stroke2 from these points draw lines to a point f on the vertical1 so far down that the angle between them shall not be more than #ij1--less is better1 if there is room to allow of it 7these will represent the center lines of the first link pinned to the connecting rod74 ,the point f1 which will rise and fall with the vibration of the connecting rod1 is to be controlled as nearly as may be on the vertical line by a link pinned forward near the cylinder at f#a1 or1 if more convenient1 it can be pinned backward4 ,next1 on the valve-stem center line bb1 mark off on each side of the vertical zz the amount required for lap and lead together1 at g-g#a and g-g#b2 g-g#a being lap and lead for the front end of the cylinder1 and g-g#b being lap and lead for the back end of the cylinder4 ,then1 assuming the piston to be at the front of the cylinder1 and the centers of the connecting rod to be at hh#a 7h being the crank-pin71 the point d1 which we have chosen to take motion from1 will be at e#a1 and the link pinned to the connecting rod1 for transmitting motion to the valve1 will be at e#a f4 ,from a point on this link1 which has at first to be assumed1 say at j 7which will be about the half vibration of the connecting rod2 that is1 d#a to d71 draw the center line of the lever actuating the valve1 that is joining j and g2 the point where this line crosses the vertical zz1 will be the center or fulcrum of the lever1 and will also be the center of oscillation of the curved links in which the blocks carrying the center of the lever slide2 this center is marked m4 ,the function of the link e#a f1 and the attachment of the valve-lever to it at j1 is to eliminate the error in vibration of the lever1 center m1 which would otherwise arise from the arc passed through by the lower end of that lever4 ,although the position of the point j may be found by calculation1 it is much more quickly found by a tentative process2 and1 to test it the assumed point j be the correct one1 we mark off on each side of m1 vertically1 the correct vibration required1 n#a n#b1 which will be the same as the vibration of the connecting rod on the vertical line zz4 ,then apply the distance e#a--;j to d#a--;j#a and d#b j#b4 ,then1 if the length jm be applied to j#a n#a 7measuring from j#a71 and to j#b n#b 7measuring from j#b71 and the point m fall below n#a n#b in each case1 it will be necessary to take a point on e#a f higher than j2 or if1 on the other hand1 m falls above n#a n#b1 then a point must be taken on e#a f lower than j4 ,this point will generally be found on a second trial4 ,the point m1 as said1 now represents the center of oscillation for the links and the center or fulcrum of the lever4 ,and these must coincide1 when the piston is at each end of the stroke1 the lead being then fixed2 and the links can be pulled over from forward to backward1 or any point of expansion1 without altering the lead4 ,this may be taken as a test of the gear being set out correctly4 ,the point g will be the point of attachment for the valve-stem link1 which may be made any convenient length2 but1 from that length as a radius1 the curve of the links must be drawn from a center m#a on the parallel line m-m#a2 the angle at which this curve is set from the vertical 7which is mid-gear71 will give forward or backward gear1--the angle leaning forward s#a1 or to the front of the engine1 being forward gear1 and the reverse s#b being backward gear4 ,the amount of the angle1 marked on the curve of extreme vibration at s-s#a or s-s#b1 will be equal to one-quarter more than the full opening of the port at that angle 7that is1 if #a opening of port is required1 then the amount of angle s to s#a must be #a71 and the point of cut-off will be about #ge per cent4 ,laid out in this form1 the leads and cut-offs for both ends of the cylinder1 and for backward and forward going1 will be practically perfect and equal1 and the opening of ports also as near as possible equal4 ,if a longer cut-off than #ge per cent is required1 it is only necessary to increase the angle of the curve oo beyond s#a for forward gear1 or beyond s#b for backward gear4 ,it will be noticed1 that1 in this gear1 the lap and lead are entirely dependent on the action of the lever j1 m1 g1 as a lever1 and may be varied according to the length of mg4 ,and the opening of the port 7beyond the amount given as lead7 is dependent on the amount of angle imparted to the curved link oo1 and will be1 as above said1 about four-fifths of the amount of that angle from the vertical measured on the line of extreme vibration4 ,deviations from the above positions and proportions may be made without materially altering the correctness of the results4 ,thus1 if it is found necessary to raise or lower the center m1 to clear wheels1 frames1 or other gear1 this may be done till the angle of mm#a is out of the parallel of the cylinder center line up or down by one in thirteen 7#a in #ac72 it is not well to go beyond this2 but the lines mm#a and bb will be parallel1 and the position of the curve oo for mid-gear will be at right angles to mm#a4 ,again1 the point e#a may be taken either above or below the center line of the connecting rod1 if it be wished to avoid piercing the rod2 the pin at e#a being carried in a small bush or block attached above or below the connecting rod4 ,again1 for locomotives1 if the wheels are so small that the link e#a;f would come too low1 it may be cut short at the point j1 and this point connected by a link ll to a small return-crank p1 on the crank-pin2 the movement of the counter-crank being equal to that from to j#d4 ,the diagram is drawn for an engine where the center of the crank-axle is on the center line of the cylinder2 but if this be below1 as is usual in ,american locomotives1 then the base line on which to construct the diagram of the valve-gear itself will be the average center line assumed by the connecting rod for such lowering of the crank-axle center1 drawn from c1 the middle position1 to a point1 say r1 representing the lowered center of the axle4 ,the vertical zz will be at right angles to this new base line cr1 all the other processes following4 ,while the proportions shown on the diagram give the best average results1 these proportions may be varied within very wide limits1 according to the requirements of the design of the engine4 ,thus1 when the distance between the center of the cylinder and center of valve-stem is small1 as with a small cylinder and a long stroke1 the link e#a;f may be considerably lengthened3 the point j will thus be dropped1 and convenient angles for all the links1 etc41 will be maintained1 the room for the various movements being got below the center line of the cylinder when it can not be had above2 the reverse proportioning of the parts being made when the conditions are reversed1 as with a large diameter of cylinder and a short stroke4 ,this system of laying out the motion1 applies1 with a few modifications1 to the ,strong motion1 and to all others where the ellipse formed by the horizontal and vertical motion of the main rod is used to actuate the valves4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,steam ,,engine ,,indicator4 ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,indicator4 ,in the course of these pages1 reference has several times been made to the indicator4 ,this instrument is of great service to the steam engineer in helping him to determine with accuracy questions of steam distribution1 that1 without its aid1 would remain in the realms of speculation4 ,its diagram presents a reliable record of what is going on inside the cylinders of a steam engine2 and master mechanics who desire to run their engines economically1 can not afford to dispense with the accurate information imparted by the indicator respecting individual locomotives4 ,,description ,,of ,,instrument4 ,the indicator consists essentially of a small steam cylinder1 whose under side is connected by pipes to the main cylinder of the engine under inspection4 ,inside the indicator cylinder is a nicely fitting piston1 whose upward movement is resisted by a spring of known strength4 ,the piston-rod passes up through the top of the indicator cylinder2 and its extremity is connected with mechanism for operating a pencil1 and marking on a card a diagram whose lines coincide with the movement of the indicator piston4 ,,operation ,,of ,,the ,,indicator4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,fig4 #cj is a perspective view of the ,tabor indicator1 an instrument well adapted for application to high-speed engines1 such as the locomotive4 ,in ,fig4 #ca the indicator is shown in section4 ,the construction of the instrument can be well understood from a careful examination of these figures4 ,in the sectional figure1 the piston is seen with its rod encircled by the spring passing up through the top of the cylinder1 and connecting with the lever which operates the marking-pencil4 ,by ingeniously designed mechanism1 the lever is made to move the pencil in a perfectly straight vertical line4 ,the card to be marked is fastened in the paper drum attached to the indicator4 ,this drum receives a circular motion from a cord which is operated by the cross-head1 and this connection is so arranged that the drum will begin to move round just as the main piston begins its stroke4 ,the circular motion of the drum is continued till the piston reaches the end of its stroke1 when the drum reverses its movement1 and returns to the exact point from whence it started4 ,now the indicator cylinder being in communication with the main cylinder1 when the latter begins to take steam1 the pressure will be applied to the indicator piston1 which is pushed upward1 at the same time transmitting its movement to the pencil4 ,the indicator piston will rise and fall in accordance with the steam-pressure in the cylinder2 and1 the circular movement of the drum coinciding with the cross-head movement1 the pencil will describe a diagram which represents the pressure inside the main cylinder at the various points of the stroke4 ,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,diagram4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,fig4 #cb represents an indicator diagram1 such as might be taken from a locomotive with well-constructed valve-motion cutting off steam at about one-third of the stroke4 ,in the figure1 the line ,,ij represents the line that would be drawn by the pencil when no steam is admitted to the indicator piston2 so it is called the atmospheric line4 ,this is the neutral line of the diagram representing the position of the pencil when both sides of the indicator piston are exposed to the atmosphere3 hence it is the base line from which pressures either above or below are measured4 ,the line ,,ab is the admission line1 so called because its beginning ,a represents the point where the valve begins admitting steam to the cylinder3 ,,bc is the steam-line1 usually considered as beginning at the point of positive change in direction of the admission line4 ,admission of steam does not cease till the point ,d is reached1 but wire-drawing begins at ,c4 ,the curve ,,de is the expansion line1 and is traced while the valve is closed1 and previous to the opening of the exhaust2 the pressure falling by expansion4 ,at ,e1 release begins1 and the exhaust line extends to ,f2 from ,f to ,g is the line of counter-pressure1 drawn during the return stroke of the piston and while the exhaust is open2 and ,g to ,a is the compression line1 drawn during the return stroke after the exhaust-valve has closed4 ,,data ,,necessary ,,for ,,analyzing ,,the ,,diagram4 ,in proceeding to ascertain from the diagram calculations of the work done by the engine1 it will be remembered that vertical measurements represent pressures in the cylinder1 and horizontal measurements positions of the piston4 ,to understand the language of the diagram properly1 it is necessary that several things having reference to permanent or accidental conditions be known4 ,those absolutely necessary are1 the scale of the indicator spring1 the diameter of the engine cylinder and stroke of the piston1 the strokes made per minute1 and the boiler pressure4 ,it is also desirable to know the dimensions of steam-pipes1 steam-ports1 and exhaust nozzles4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,indicating ,,locomotives4 ,the purposes for which the indicator can be advantageously applied to locomotives1 are to show the condition of the valves and pistons1 and to prove whether or not the steam is used properly within the cylinders4 ,by its use the amount of power developed by the cylinders can be computed4 ,were the indicator used daily on locomotives1 much waste of coal now going on through steam being lost by leaky valves and pistons would be avoided4 ,the graphic tale of the diagram would force out of practice the ordinary habit of running engines with the steam throttled1 and indubitable proofs of ruinous back pressure would make contracted nozzles intolerable4 ,there is not room in a work of this kind to give the necessary information for those who wish to learn the operating of the indicator and the analysis of the diagram4 ,engineers who are ambitious to enter upon this line of study1 should secure one of the standard books treating the subject4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,air-,,brake4 ,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,atmospheric ,,brake4 ,in this exacting age1 the traveling public are much more disposed to find fault with systems that do not provide against fatalities resulting from human fallibility1 than to commend the perfection of appliances which annually save more lives than would be lost in a sanguinary war4 ,the ,westinghouse brake has performed this life-saving service1 yet its great conserving merit has been but feebly appreciated outside of railroad circles4 ,during the decade between #ahfj and #ahgj1 ,america became a reproach among nations for the frequency and disastrous nature of its railroad accidents4 ,to-day fewer railroad travelers in ,america lose their lives by accidents beyond their own control1 than the travelers in any country under the sun4 ,the credit of this immunity from fatal accidents is almost entirely due to the successful operation of the ,westinghouse and other brakes that followed the line suggested by this invention4 ,,distinct ,,classes ,,of ,,inventions4 ,inventions may be divided into two distinct classes4 ,far the more numerous class are those which effect improvements on recognized appliances4 ,the other is the rare and more valuable class1 to which belongs the original inventor who devises an entirely new method for performing a desired operation4 ,among this class of inventions may be noted ,watt's separate condenser1 which first rendered the steam engine a commercial success2 the multitubular boiler of ,nathan ,read1 which made a high-speed locomotive practicable2 and the air-brake of ,westinghouse1 which made fast traveling safe1 by putting the train speed under the control of the engineer4 ,,benefits ,,conferred ,,on ,,train ,,men ,,by ,,good ,,brakes4 ,to the traveling public the air-brake has proved a source of satisfaction by assuring exemption from accidents1 but its greatest blessing has been conferred upon train men4 ,being the greatest sufferers from railway accidents1 their risks of life and limb are greatly reduced2 and the agonizing helplessness that used to be so often experienced with trains that could not be stopped in time to avoid a disaster1 is almost unknown on our well-managed roads4 ,mind has become victor in its conflict with matter4 ,when necessary1 an engineer can run a train at a high velocity over crowded lines without having to shut off steam within a mile of each point where there may be another train obstructing the track1 or keep up his speed at the risk of his life4 ,people unacquainted with the inside operating of railroads have no idea of the difficulties train men had to contend with in getting fast trains over the road1 before continuous brakes were supplied4 ,the train had to be run on schedule time1 and all points where trains might be expected had to be approached with care4 ,this meant reduced speed2 and speed could not be reduced in short distances1 so the risk had to be taken of violating one rule to comply with another4 ,,first ,,trials ,,of ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,atmospheric ,,brake4 ,the ,westinghouse atmospheric brake was patented ,april #ac1 #ahfi2 and the first public trial took place on the ,panhandle road about the same time4 ,the trial was so satisfactory1 that the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company1 which have been always noted for their liberal patronage of every meritorious device likely to promote the efficiency and safety of railroad operating1 had a train equipped with the brake4 ,this was the ,walls accommodation train1 a kind of service where frequent stops were required1 and was therefore well calculated to demonstrate the true character of any brake4 ,a number of public trials were made with the brake thus fitted1 among which was one by the ,master ,mechanics' ,association in the middle of ,september1 #ahfi1 on the ,horseshoe ,bend on the ,pennsylvania ,railroad4 ,here a train of six cars1 running down a grade of #if feet to the mile1 at the rate of #cj miles an hour1 was stopped in a distance of #dbj feet4 ,such a feat was unprecedented at that time1 and attracted wide-spread attention4 ,in the following month1 official trials of the train were made by the officers of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad near ,philadelphia4 ,the train was then taken to ,chicago1 where numerous tests were made in the presence of leading ,western railroad officers4 ,so convincing were these trials of the decided efficiency of the brake1 that1 immediately afterwards1 the ,michigan ,central ,railroad and the ,chicago and ,north-,western ,railway each ordered a train to be fitted with the brake4 ,,first ,,roads ,,that ,,adopted ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,brake4 ,the first five sets of the ,westinghouse brake fittings made were got out in the shops belonging to the ,pennsylvania ,railroad ,company at ,altoona1 ,penn4 ,the first railroads to adopt the brake as a regular part of their equipment1 were the ,pennsylvania1 the ,pittsburg1 ,cincinnati1 and ,st4 ,louis1 the ,union ,pacific1 the ,chicago and ,north-,western1 and the ,michigan ,central ,railroads4 ,since the ,westinghouse atmospheric brake was first tried1 many changes in details have been made1 and numerous improvements have been effected2 but the essential points remain the same4 ,and the best forms of brakes subsequently got out by other inventors are founded on the ,westinghouse idea1 just as much as the numerous types of locomotives follow the design of ,stephenson's ,rocket4 ,,outlines ,,of ,,the ,,atmospheric ,,brake4 ,although the automatic air-brake is now becoming almost universal in ,american railroad practice1 most train men are familiar with the working of the atmospheric brake under the name of 8straight air40 ,when first invented1 the ,westinghouse brake consisted of an apparatus located on the locomotive for compressing air1 which was stored in an iron drum fastened somewhere about the engine4 ,underneath each car1 and connected with the ordinary brake attachments1 was a cylinder containing a piston1 which operated the brake4 ,the brake-cylinders were kept in communication with the air-drum on the locomotive by iron pipes4 ,connection between the cars where 8stretching0 and 8compression0 made the train vary in length1 was made by means of rubber flexible hose4 ,when the engineer wished to apply the brakes1 he admitted the compressed air into the supply pipes1 through a three-way cock at his hand4 ,this air entered the cylinders under the cars1 moving back the pistons which pulled the levers operating the brakes4 ,to release the brakes1 the air was permitted to escape out of the pipes into the atmosphere4 ,thus1 what is really a complicated operation was performed in a simple manner1 and by means of machinery not liable to get out of order readily4 ,the instant application of every brake on a long train was put in the hand of the engineer4 ,on the first indication of danger1 his hand became powerful beyond the magical forces conceived by the imagination of poets4 ,,how ,,eastern ,,railroads ,,kept ,,aloof ,,from ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,brake4 ,the growth of the ,westinghouse brake into public favor furnishes a curious commentary on the different degrees of enterprise to be found among railroad companies in the various sections of this country4 ,it was natural to suppose that railroads in the thickly settled ,states1 where trains had become too numerous for being safely operated with crude brakes1 and no signals1 would have been the first to adopt an improved appliance which gave promise of increased safety4 ,yet the railroads in the ,eastern ,states1 with a few creditable exceptions1 were among the last to patronize the ,westinghouse brake2 and they adopted it only when the influence of public opinion could no longer be ignored4 ,western railroads that ran through sparsely settled prairies1 where trains were rare1 and stopping room generally ample1 were among the first to encourage the inventor of the brake with their support4 ,,lesson ,,of ,,the ,,revere ,,railroad ,,accident4 ,during the first two years after it was invented1 the ,westinghouse brake made slow progress into practical application1 except in the ,west4 ,in the ancient ,state of ,massachusetts1 it was hardly known till the ,revere accident happened near ,boston4 ,this was the case of a crowded road being operated without signals or brakes1 except those of the most primitive description4 ,a fast express train ran into the rear end of an accommodation train1 killing twenty-nine persons1 and severely injuring fifty-seven others4 ,the engineer of the express train1 while running at a speed of twenty-five miles an hour1 saw the tail lights of the accommodation train when he was eight hundred feet away4 ,he whistled for brakes1 and reversed his engine2 but the train could not be stopped4 ,the railroad superintendents throughout the conservative ,state of ,massachusetts then received enlightenment respecting the existence of an efficient continuous brake in a vigorous fashion4 ,the ,revere accident conveyed its lessons in a terrible way1 but they were effectual in convincing railroad managers that they could not afford to dispense with a brake that proved itself to be reliable4 ,,weak ,,points ,,of ,,the ,,atmospheric ,,brake4 ,although the atmospheric brake could1 with light trains1 make stops within the shortest distance it was desirable to stop trains with safety to the passengers and rolling stock1 it possessed certain weak points which demanded remedy4 ,in case of a train breaking in two1--an accident which frequently happens1 especially on rough track1--there was danger of the engineer applying the brake without knowing that an interval existed between the cars1 and allowing the rear end of the train to crash into the forward part4 ,the signal given by the bell-rope breaking1 had a tendency to lead to an accident of this character4 ,another objection to straight air was1 that should derailment take place1 or any accident happen that would rupture the pipes or their connections1 the brake was rendered useless4 ,these weak features did not interfere with the working of ordinary traffic2 and as providing special appliances to meet cases of accident which are rare1 does not generally receive much consideration1 the brake might have been regarded as perfect enough for all practical purposes had it not failed to meet satisfactorily a condition of ordinary train service4 ,as the length of trains was increased1 it was found that the atmospheric brake was slow in action4 ,when a long array of pipes and many cylinders had to be charged with air from the drum on the locomotive after the necessity for applying the brake became apparent1 and before it would act1 some seconds were required for the operation4 ,every additional car put upon the train increased the length of pipes and the cylinders to be filled1 and so lengthened the time that elapsed between the instant danger was perceived and the time at which the brake began to perform its retarding work4 ,the increase of time might be only a few seconds1 but they would probably be priceless moments when an accident was impending4 ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,automatic ,,air-,,brake4 ,to overcome this line of weakness1 the ,westinghouse automatic air-brake was invented4 ,where good station signals are in use1 it has long been accepted as an axiom among railway authorities1 that a signal must be constructed so that it will indicate danger when any accident happens to its mechanism4 ,this principle was brought into practical application in the ,westinghouse automatic air-brake4 ,when any thing goes wrong with the brake apparatus1 its tendency is to apply the brake automatically4 ,a break in a pipe makes the brake fly on4 ,each car carries a supply of compressed air sufficient to apply its own brakes several times4 ,by the new arrangement1 the brakes on all the cars are applied almost simultaneously1 and instantly after the engineer turns the handle of his stopping-valve4 ,the brakes are applied by decreasing the pressure in the pipes2 so the breaking in two of the train1 or the fracture of an air-pipe or coupling1 sets the brakes on all the cars on the train1 whatever side of the break the cars may be on4 ,that in itself is an invaluable feature in a continuous brake1 and prevents cars from acting as battering-rams upon each other in cases of derailment4 ,,life-,,saving ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,automatic ,,brake4 ,every few days1 notices get into the public prints relating how frightful accidents were prevented by the prompt action of the automatic air-brake4 ,and hundreds of narrow escapes1 where this brake proves the preventive of destruction to life and property1 receive no record1 and are known only to the employes connected with the operating of trains4 ,to the men familiar with train service1 to those who are intimately acquainted with the life-saving effected by the automatic air-brake1 it seems surprising that railroads could have been operated without this or a similar appliance4 ,they certainly were not operated safely without it4 ,,first ,,railroads ,,that ,,adopted ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,automatic ,,air-,,brake4 ,patents for the ,westinghouse automatic air-brake were granted in ,march1 #ahgb4 ,during the succeeding winter1 trials of the brake were made by the ,pennsylvania ,railroad2 and it was shortly afterwards adopted by the ,philadelphia and ,reading ,railroad ,company as their standard brake for passenger trains4 ,the example of that company was soon followed by the ,st4 ,louis1 ,kansas ,city and ,northern1 the ,chicago and ,alton1 the ,toledo1 ,wabash and ,western1 and the ,st4 ,louis1 ,iron ,mountain and ,southern ,railroads1 all of which companies equipped their passenger rolling stock with the automatic air-brake within a few months4 ,,essential ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,automatic ,,air-,,brake4 ,the prominent features of the ,westinghouse automatic air-brake consist of the following leading parts3 ,an air-pump1 placed on the locomotive1 is operated by a steam cylinder1 which forces air into an iron drum or reservoir placed under the deck1 or in any other convenient part about the engine4 ,the air is compressed to the density considered necessary for the kind of train the locomotive usually pulls4 ,in the cab1 located conveniently to the hand of the engineer1 is the engineer's brake-valve1 commonly called the 8three-way cock10 which regulates the flow of air from the main reservoir into the main brake-pipes for supplying the auxiliary reservoirs with air4 ,this valve applies the train-brakes by letting the air escape from the main brake-pipes1 and releases them by again admitting the pressure of air into the pipes4 ,from the main reservoir1 the main brake-pipe connects with the engineer's valve1 and thence along the train1 supplying all the brakes with the air required4 ,under the floor of each car is fastened an auxiliary reservoir1 which holds a supply of air necessary for operating the brakes on that car4 ,so each car carries its own supply of air4 ,connected with each car-truck is a brake-cylinder1 in which is operated a piston that applies the brake4 ,the brake-levers connect with the piston-rod in such a manner1 that1 when the piston is forced out by the air-pressure1 the brake is applied4 ,attached to the auxiliary reservoir is the triple valve1 whose action connects the air-cylinder with the auxiliary reservoir4 ,,the ,,air-,,pump4 ,when the air-brake was first invented1 the distribution of steam within the cylinder was effected differently from what it is in modern pump-cylinders4 ,the steam-valve consisted of a double piston1 the heads having ports on their edges which admitted and released the steam4 ,this valve did not move up and down1 but received an oscillatory motion from a small auxiliary engine placed on the top of the steam cylinder-head4 ,the movements of the auxiliary engine were regulated by a reversing-rod 7popularly known as a kicker-rod71 working inside the main piston-rod4 ,this arrangement of steam distribution was somewhat complicated1 and liable to get out of order2 and it was superseded by the differential steam-valve movement now in use4 ,,how ,,the ,,air-,,pump ,,works4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc;a4 ,in ,fig4 #cc;a1 steam enters from the boiler at the nipple #ce1 and fills the steam-space between the heads of the main piston-valve #ae1 #af1 maintaining a constant pressure of steam there while the pump is at work4 ,the upper head of the main valve being of greater area than the lower one1 the tendency of the pressure is to raise the valve4 ,a downward movement of the valve is provided for by a separate single-headed piston-valve #bj1 working in a cylinder above the main valve4 ,the reversing-rod #ab operates a slide-valve #ac1 which regulates the admission and release of steam for the third piston4 ,in the cylinder shown in the engraving1 the main valve is down1 so that steam is passing into the lower end of the main cylinder4 ,two small ports can be seen close to the piston-head #af1 one above the other4 ,the upper port is open1 and is the admission port2 the lower port1 which is closed by the small piston1 is for exhausting the steam4 ,the main piston #g is on its upward stroke1 and the upper exhaust port seen above the piston-valve #ae is open1 while the steam port immediately below it is closed by the valve-piston in the same way that the exhaust port is closed at the other end4 ,when the main piston #g shall reach near the top of its upward stroke1 the plate #aj will strike on the projection on the reversing-rod1 pushing up the slide-valve #ac4 ,the upper edge of this slide-valve will cut the steam off the passage a1 and open the passage b to the exhaust4 ,this takes the steam away from the piston #bj1 and allows piston #ae to move upward1 closing the exhaust-port1 and opening the upper steam-port4 ,the same movement makes the piston #af close its steam-port1 and open the exhaust4 ,piston #g now begins to travel downward2 and1 when it reaches nearly to the bottom of the cylinder1 the plate #aj catches the knob on the end of the reversing-rod1 and pulls down the slide-valve #ac to the position it holds in the engraving4 ,steam then rushes through the passage a1 and makes the piston #bj push down the main valve4 ,that completes the circle of the operations in the steam cylinder4 ,,how ,,the ,,air-,,end ,,operates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc;b4 ,the operation of the air part of the pump is very simple4 ,while the main piston 7,fig4 #cc;b71 which is on the same rod as the piston of the steam cylinder1 is moving upward1 it is forcing the air out of the upper end of the cylinder up under the discharge-valve #cb1 and away through the proper passages to the main reservoir4 ,at the same time the lower end of the cylinder is being filled with air drawn through the lower receiving-valve #cd4 ,during the downward stroke of the piston1 the air will be delivered through the valve #cc1 and the upper part of the cylinder filled by air received through the upper valve #cd4 ,,air-,,pump ,,disorders4 ,an engineer who does not understand the principles of a locomotive's action1 is not likely to prove a valuable runner4 ,the men who are most successful in getting trains over the road with solar regularity2 the men who make the best records on the mileage sheets for economy in fuel and in lubricants2 who are lightest in repairs1 yet keep their engine going longest1--are those who comprehend the functions of every portion of the engine1 and what relation the various parts bear to each other4 ,with this knowledge clearly established in the mind of the runner1 his power to detect any thing wrong with his engine becomes instinctive4 ,trifling defects1 which neglect would develop into serious disabilities1 are rectified in time1 and the whole engine is maintained in smooth working-order by the harmony of its individual sections4 ,the mere stopper and starter is losing his hold on the locomotive service4 ,when he drops off entirely1 our mileage for each dollar expended will be decidedly increased4 ,the principles which apply to the running of a locomotive are equally applicable to the management of an air-brake1 with all its perfected connections4 ,this apparatus can not be properly managed unless the man who works it knows something about its action4 ,,puny ,,difficulties ,,vanquish ,,the ,,ignorant ,,engineer4 ,a great many engineers who run passenger trains1 and take an intelligent interest in the working of the locomotive1 whose technicalities they have thoroughly mastered1 display no desire whatever to understand the air-brake1 and are perfectly contented with its action so long as it will stop the train4 ,the air-pump1 so wonderfully interesting to those who understand its movements1 receives no more attention than is necessary to keep it going so that the required air-pressure is maintained4 ,they know how to start and stop the machine1 and they oil it regularly2 but these are the limits of their attentions4 ,should the pump happen to stop working1 the cause is mysterious1 like many other mysteries2 and the natural remedy suggested1 is to hit the thing on the head with a monkey-wrench4 ,should it not respond to this treatment by renewed action1 the hand-brakes are resorted to for the rest of the journey2 and the round-house foreman or machinist is required to do the head-work which locates the trouble4 ,a belief prevails among men who labor principally with their hands1 that laziness is exclusively physical4 ,this is a mistake4 ,it is a psychological fact1 well known to metaphysicians1 that mental laziness is prevalent enough to dwarf the minds of half the human race4 ,men who would willingly work with their hands during half their leisure time to keep their engines in proper condition for running1 have to be driven1 by fear or jealousy1 before they will force their mental faculties to do trifling labor in a new channel4 ,,causes ,,that ,,make ,,brakes ,,inoperative ,,often ,,easily ,,remedied4 ,any engineer of ordinary intelligence1 who will spend one hour a day for two weeks studying up the ,westinghouse instruction book1 will understand the brake so well1 from the pump to the hind end of the train1 that any imperfection happening to its working will be as readily located as an ordinary defect in a locomotive4 ,yet it is an intensely hard matter to induce men running passenger engines to go through this trifling mental exercise4 ,the consequence is1 that the brake sometimes becomes inoperative from causes so slight that men should be ashamed to report them2 and they would be so if they only comprehended how small a mole-heap became their mountain4 ,i knew a case where all the train men--that is to say1 engineer1 fireman1 conductor1 baggageman1 and brakemen--wrestled for twenty minutes over a triple valve1 trying to find out how to cut the air off a car2 and1 when the crowd was vanquished1 a colored porter came1 and showed them how the thing was done4 ,this was on a road where straight air was generally used4 ,one day some winters ago1 a passenger train on the road ,i worked for was delayed an hour or more at a station1 waiting for something4 ,when the engineer tried to start the air-pump1 it would not work4 ,he fumed and fussed over it for fifteen minutes1 gave it a liberal dose of copper hammer medicine1 and saturated it with oil1 but all to no purpose4 ,it would not pump a pound of air1 so the old-fashioned ,armstrong was called into operation4 ,in the course of its journey1 this train had to pass the round-house at headquarters2 and the engineer stopped to see if his pump could be given some quick remedy4 ,i happened to be the doctor consulted4 ,on learning the particulars of how the pump stopped working1 ,i set fire to a piece of greasy waste1 and held the flame to the check-valve of the air-drum2 and the pump went right to work4 ,all the trouble was1 that the check-valve was frozen in its seat4 ,i felt sorry for that engineer1 he appeared to be so thoroughly ashamed and crestfallen at being baffled by such a small trouble4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,air-,,pump4 ,to run an air-pump successfully1 the first requisite is that it should be managed intelligently1 and its wants attended to regularly4 ,an air-pump consists of numerous moving parts1 which should operate with the least possible amount of friction3 consequently1 it is important that the machine should be properly lubricated1--not deluged with grease for ten minutes1 and then run on the interest of the excess for two hours1 but sparingly furnished with clean oil1 which will keep the moving parts moist all the time4 ,to accomplish this1 the feeding-cup must be kept in proper working-order1 so that it will pass the oil regularly4 ,i have found a leading cause for air-pumps working unsatisfactorily to be in the intermittent feeding of the oil-cups4 ,some dirt gets into the cup1 obstructing its action1 and greater opening is given to make it feed2 then the oil goes through by spasms1 and the pump works irregularly2 for at one time the steam-piston is churning the oil1 and again it is working dry4 ,there is also a common abuse of the oil-can when any thing goes wrong with the pump2 for some men will then drench it with oil1 expecting that to make it work smoothly4 ,permanent injury is often done in this way1 especially where inferior oils are used1 which frequently contain mineral substances in suspension4 ,this solid matter is separated from the oil by the heat1 and settles in the small passages1 filling them up by degrees till eventually there is no channel left for the steam to pass through to reverse the steam-valve2 so the pump stops4 ,i once saw a runner trying to doctor a sick pump by pouring the stickiest kind of gummy valve-oil into an air-cylinder4 ,he gave the thing its quietus1 as other poor doctors sometimes do with their patients4 ,,pump ,,packing4 ,the stuffing-box packing is not generally supposed to exercise an important effect on the action of an air-pump2 yet ,i have seen cases where irregular action of the pump1 and serious loss of air1 resulted from bad packing4 ,soapstone and asbestos1 and other substances that become compact and rigid when cold1 are unsuitable for packing the air end of a pump4 ,after a little use1 material of this kind becomes so hard that no amount of screwing of the gland will make it tight2 and the greater part of the air at that end of the pump escapes through the stuffing-box instead of passing into the drum4 ,,how ,,steam ,,passages ,,get ,,choked4 ,around the bushings of the cylinder1 where the small reversing piston #bj works1 are diminutive steam passages1 very liable to get stopped up when foreign matter is attempted to be run through the cylinder4 ,such matter is occasionally introduced in various ways4 ,when rubber gaskets are used in the pipe connections leading to the cylinder1 the rubber often peels off in shreds1 or breaks off in small pieces1 which lodge around the bushing in the passages1 producing harassing annoyance4 ,so soon as those passages get obstructed1 or reduced below their correct size1 the pump begins to work badly4 ,machinists not well versed in the mysterious ways of air-pump disorders will now take that pump apart1 and find nothing the matter4 ,subsequent proceedings depend upon the nature of the man who has the job in hand4 ,if the machinist be of a conservative disposition1 he will put the apparatus together again without making any alteration1 and perhaps will relieve his mind by expressing a belief that the engineer does not know when an air-pump is in good shape4 ,another machinist1 of a more enterprising stamp1 must find something to change1 so he lengthens or shortens the reversing valve-rod #ab 7a favorite resort of small-knowledge tinkers71 which gives the pump the coup de grce2 and it has to be overhauled by a competent machinist before it again supplies the air to stop a train4 ,this competent man goes direct to the root of the trouble4 ,skill in this particular line of work convinces him1 after an examination1 that the moving parts require no repairs2 and knowledge begotten of experience1 supplemented by sound sense1 directs him where to look for the cause of defective operation4 ,,sagacity ,,needed ,,in ,,repairing ,,air-,,pumps4 ,men who meet with good success in repairing air-pumps1 and in determining1 from the action of the pump1 the probable cause of defect1 have to do a great deal of deep and sagacious thinking4 ,sometimes a defect1 simple enough in itself1 is extremely difficult to locate1 because it belongs to the unexpected order of occurrences4 ,here was an instance4 ,some small jobs had been done one day to the steam cylinder of a pump which had not been working quite satisfactorily4 ,when they tried to start it1 after being put together1 the pump would not work at all4 ,the machinist who did the job1 an eminently competent man at such work1 took the machine apart again1 but could detect no defect or maladjustment about it4 ,the steam cylinder1 with all its valves and rods and bushings1 was critically examined3 the air-pump1 with all its connections1 got a thorough inspection to no purpose4 ,when an ordinary man goes through the patient1 thoughtful labor needed for an examination of this kind1 and finds nothing wrong1 he is apt to get discouraged1 and confess himself beaten4 ,this man did not recognize the word beaten as applied to his work4 ,he reasoned1 8,this pump would work if it were all right4 ,it will not work1 so something must be wrong40 ,after exercising more patience and perseverance1 he discovered that the bushing #bc of the reversing valve 7usually called the kicking-rod valve7 had become loose1 and1 when the cap was screwed down1 it twisted the bushing round1 and closed the passages that lead steam to the reversing piston4 ,there are small grooves round the sides of the small steam passages to provide for the bushings being moved a little1 but these grooves had become gummed up so that they failed to serve their purpose of keeping the ports open4 ,,gradual ,,degeneration ,,of ,,the ,,air-,,pump4 ,the working and stationary parts within the cylinders of the air-pump are adjusted with nice exactness2 and1 when they remain in their normal condition1 the pump works smoothly1 and compresses air rapidly4 ,when wear1 or any other cause1 alters the dimensions of these parts1 the effect immediately becomes apparent in unsatisfactory working of the whole machine4 ,rods are adjusted so that valves or pistons shall cover and uncover steam passages1 and no superfluous movement is provided for4 ,the passages are so small that all the steam they convey is needed for the work of reversing the motion2 and if from any cause the valve or piston only partly uncovers the opening1 the necessary volume of steam does not get through4 ,a close observer of the pump's action can1 day by day1 perceive the gradual degeneration due to wear4 ,wear of the steam-cylinder connections is generally indicated by reduced power4 ,the pump will not do its work satisfactorily1 and has difficulty in keeping up the pressure of air4 ,this deterioration continues till the pump will stop1 unless its decay gets arrested by repairs4 ,when the valves of the air-pump are in correct order for doing good work1 the discharge-valves #cb and #cc have #a_/af1 and the suction-valves #cd lift4 ,the continual tapping of these valves on their seats has a tendency to wear out valves and seats1 making the lift greater than what is desirable4 ,any material increase of lift for the discharge-valve has a most injurious effect upon the motion of the pump1 especially if the suction-valve should happen to be leaky4 ,then the movement of the pistons will become fluctuating1 and subject to frequent stoppages4 ,the up-and-down motion of the piston is of a jerky character1 that makes the beholder suppose the thing is uncertain which way to go4 ,deterioration of air-valves is not1 however1 the only cause for that jerky motion so often observed in bad working pumps4 ,a bent reversing valve stem 7kicker-rod7 acts on the reversing valve with oblique pull and thrust1 which tend to move it away from the seat1 letting the steam pass the wrong way4 ,a broken main steam-valve ring has a similar effect2 for the steam passes to the wrong end of the valve1 destroying its equilibrium2 and there is nothing decisive about its reversal1 or about its motion after it is reversed4 ,its action resembles the movements of a vacillating human being4 ,it does not want to go in that direction1 but goes1 then keeps trying to change its mind during the rest of the journey4 ,obstructed steam passages will sometimes cause indecisive action of the pump before it gets bad enough to stop it altogether4 ,,causes ,,that ,,make ,a ,,pump ,,pound4 ,pounding on the heads is a somewhat common attribute of degenerated air-pumps4 ,broken or badly worn air-valves very often cause the pump to pound4 ,if the trouble should happen to be in the upper air-valve1 it will demonstrate its disorder by causing pounding on the upper head2 and the lower valve's malady will cause pounding on the lower head4 ,when a pump is suffering from indecisive motion1 or is pounding1 and the machinist does not feel certain about where the trouble lies1 he may safely examine the condition of the air-valves1--for they can be easily reached1--and in a great many cases the defect will be found there4 ,wear of the pin whereon the bottom of the main valve-rod rests1 or of the rod itself1 will induce pounding on the upper head by the main piston4 ,some runners think1 that1 by keeping the drain-cock of the steam-cylinder open all the time1 they secure dry steam4 ,the practice is pernicious1 and injurious to the pump3 for the piston receives so little cushion when the drain-cock is shut1 that it can not afford the decrease made by a permanently open cock2 and consequently the loss of cushion permits pounding on the lower head4 ,i have known of a disastrous effect being produced on a pump by putting a new gasket1 which proved too thick1 on the upper head4 ,it was the thinnest copper that could be found1 but it perceptibly lengthened the upper end of the cylinder so that the bottom knob on the reversing stem struck the reversing plate on the main piston before that action was due4 ,on several occasions ,i have had air-pumps reported to be working badly1 when all the trouble lay in the air-strainer being partly choked up by floating vegetable matter that had been sucked in with the air1 and failed to pass through the meshes4 ,in another case we had much difficulty in locating the defect1 with a pump that absolutely refused to work4 ,the boiler-makers had been working in the smoke-box1 and by some means the end of the exhaust-pipe got solidly stopped up with cinders4 ,as none of us had come across that particular cause of obstruction before1 we expended a good deal of labor searching for the trouble before we thought to disconnect the exhaust-pipe from the pump4 ,,the ,,triple ,,valve4 ,this is the part whose operation gives the brake its automatic action4 ,those who have opposed this form of brake have made great objection to the complicated nature of the triple valve4 ,but some familiarity with the device shows that it is far from being complex1 considering the functions it performs4 ,it is merely a piston-valve carrying a slide-valve along with it4 ,the arrangement of the parts of the triple valve is shown in ,fig4 #cd4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,the triple valve has a piston #e1 working in the chamber ,b1 and carrying with it the slide-valve #f4 ,air enters from the main pipe through the four-way cock #ac into the drain-cup ,a1 and passes to the chamber ,b1 forcing the piston up1 and uncovering a small feeding-groove in the upper part of the chamber1 which permits air to flow past the piston into the auxiliary reservoir1 while1 at the same time1 there is an open communication from the brake-cylinder to the atmosphere through the passages d1 e1 f1 and g4 ,air will continue to flow into the auxiliary reservoir until it contains the same pressure as the main brake-pipe4 ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,triple ,,valve4 ,to apply the brakes with their full force1 the compressed air in the main brake-pipe is permitted to escape1 when the greater pressure in the auxiliary reservoir forces the piston #e down below the feeding-groove1 thus preventing the return of air from the reservoir to the brake-pipe4 ,as the piston descends1 it moves with it the slide-valve #f1 so as to permit air to flow directly from the auxiliary reservoir into the brake-cylinder1 which forces the pistons out1 and applies the brakes4 ,the brakes are released by again admitting pressure into the main brake-pipe from the main reservoir2 which pressure1 being greater than that of the auxiliary reservoir1 forces the piston #e back to the position shown in the engraving1 recharges the reservoir1 and at the same time permits the air in the brake-cylinders to escape4 ,to apply the brakes gently1 a slight reduction is made in the pressure in the main brake-pipe1 which moves the piston down slowly until it is stopped by the graduating spring #i4 ,at this point1 the opening l in the slide-valve is opposite the port f1 and allows air from the auxiliary reservoir to feed through a hole in the side of the slide-valve1 and through the opening l into the brake-cylinder4 ,the passage l is opened and closed by a small valve #g1 which is attached to1 and moves with1 the piston #e1 provision being made for a limited motion of these parts without moving the valve #f4 ,when the pressure in the auxiliary reservoir has been reduced by expanding into the brake-cylinder until it is the same as the pressure in the main brake-pipe1 the graduating spring pushes the piston up until the small valve #g closes the feed opening l4 ,this causes whatever pressure is in the brake-cylinder to be retained1 thus applying the brake with a force proportionate to the reduction of pressure in the brake-pipe4 ,,to ,,prevent ,,creeping ,,on ,,of ,,brakes4 ,to prevent the application of the brakes1 from a slight reduction of pressure caused by leakage in the brake-pipe1 a semicircular groove is cut in the body of the car-cylinder1 #i_/fd of an inch in width1 #e_/fd of an inch in depth1 and extending so that the piston must travel three inches before the groove is covered by the packing leather4 ,a small quantity of air1 such as results from a leak1 passing from the triple valve into the car-cylinder1 has the effect of moving the piston slightly forward1 but not sufficiently to close the groove1 which permits the air to flow out past the piston4 ,if1 however1 the brakes are applied in the usual manner1 the piston will be moved forward1 notwithstanding the slight leak1 and will cover the groove4 ,it is very important that the groove shall be three inches long1 and shall not exceed in area the dimensions given above4 ,heretofore leakage valves have been used1 and also a leakage hole4 ,these leakage holes have been found to be too uncertain in their operation2 and consequently it is recommended that these holes should be closed1 and the grooves in the cylinders substituted1 as rapidly as possible4 ,when the handle of the four-way cock #ac is turned down1 there is a direct communication from main brake-pipe to the brake-cylinder1 the triple valve and auxiliary reservoir being cut out2 and the apparatus can be worked as a non-automatic brake1 by admitting air into the main brake-pipe and brake-cylinder1 to apply the brakes4 ,when from any cause it is desirable to have the brake inoperative on any particular car1 the four-way cock is turned to an intermediate position1 which shuts off the brake-cylinder and reservoir1 leaving the main brake-pipe unobstructed to supply air to the remaining vehicles4 ,the drain-cup ,a collects any moisture that may accumulate1 and is drained by unscrewing the bottom nut4 ,,how ,,to ,,apply ,,and ,,release ,,the ,,brake4 ,the brakes1 as has been explained1 are applied when the pressure in the brake-pipe is suddenly reduced1 and released when the pressure is restored4 ,it is of very great importance that every engineer should bear in mind that the air-pressure may sometimes reduce slowly1 owing to the steam-pressure getting low1 or from the stopping of the pump1 or from a leakage in some of the pipes when one or more cars are detached for switching purposes1 and that in consequence it has been found absolutely necessary to provide each cylinder with the leakage groove already referred to1 which permits a slight pressure to escape without moving the piston1 thus preventing the application of the brakes1 when the pressure is slowly reduced1 as would result from any of the above causes4 ,this provision against the accidental application of the brakes must be taken into consideration1 or else it will sometimes happen that all of the brakes will not be applied when such is the intention1 simply because the air has been discharged so slowly from the brake-pipe that it only represents a considerable leakage1 and thus allows the air under some cars to be wasted4 ,it is thus very essential to discharge enough air in the first instance1 and with sufficient rapidity1 to cause all of the leakage grooves to be closed1 which will remain closed until the brakes have been released4 ,in no case should the reduction in the brake-pipe for closing the leakage grooves be less than four or five pounds1 which will move all pistons out so that the brake-shoes will be only slightly bearing against the wheels4 ,after this first reduction1 the pressure can be reduced to suit the circumstances4 ,on a long train1 if the three-way cock be opened suddenly1 and then quickly closed1 the pressure in the brake-pipe1 as indicated by the gauge1 will be suddenly and considerably reduced on the engine1 and will then be increased by the air-pressure coming from the rear of the train3 hence it is important to always close the three-way cock slowly1 and in such a manner that the pressure1 as indicated by the gauge1 will not be increased2 or else the brakes on the engine and tender1 and sometimes on the first one or two cars1 will come off when they should remain on4 ,it is likewise very important1 while the brakes are on1 to keep the three-way cock in such a position that the brake-pipe pressure can not be increased by leakage from the main reservoir2 for any increase of pressure in the brake-pipe causes the brakes to come off4 ,on long down grades1 it is important to be able to control the speed of the train1 and at the same time to maintain a good working pressure4 ,this is easily accomplished by running the pump at a good speed1 so that the main reservoir will accumulate a high pressure while the brakes are on4 ,when1 after using the brake some time1 the pressure has been reduced to sixty pounds1 the train pipes and reservoirs should be recharged as much as possible before the speed has increased to the maximum allowed4 ,a greater time for recharging is obtained by considerably reducing the speed of the train just before recharging1 and by taking advantage of the variation in the grades4 ,there should not be any safety-valve or leaks in the main reservoir1 otherwise the necessary surplus pressure for quickly recharging can not be obtained4 ,to release the brakes with certainty1 it is important to have a higher pressure in the main reservoir than in the main pipe4 ,if an engineer feels that some of his brakes are not off1 it is best to turn the handle of the three-way cock just far enough to shut off the main reservoir1 and then pump up fifteen or twenty pounds extra1 which will insure the release of all of the brakes2 all of which can be done while the train is in motion4 ,for ordinary stops1 great economy in the use of air is effected by1 in the first instance1 letting out from eight to twelve pounds pressure while the train is at speed1 taking care to begin a sufficient distance from the station4 ,,pump ,,governor4 ,this is an important attachment which ought to be connected to all air-brake pumps4 ,it not only prevents the carrying of an excessive air-pressure by the engineers1 which often results in the sliding of the wheels1 but it also causes the accumulation of a surplus of air-pressure in the main reservoir1 while the brakes are applied1 which insures the release of the brakes without delay4 ,it also limits the speed of the pump1 and consequently the wear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd;b4 ,the pump governor is shown in ,fig4 #cd;b1 the object of which is to automatically cut off the supply of steam to the pump when the air-pressure in the train-pipe exceeds a certain limit1 say seventy pounds4 ,the operation of this governor is as follows3 the wheel #h is screwed down so as to permit the valve #aj to be unseated by the excess of pressure on the upper side of the valve1 permitting steam to pass through the openings ,a and ,b to the pump4 ,a connection is made from the train-pipe to the upper end of the governor1 and the compressed air passes around the stem #ad to the upper side of the diaphragm plate #ah1 which is held to its position by the spring #af1 which latter is of sufficient strength to resist a pressure of1 say1 seventy pounds per square inch on diaphragm4 ,as soon as the air-pressure on the diaphragm #ah exceeds this amount1 it forces the diaphragm down1 unseating the valve #ac1 and allowing the steam on the upper side of the valve #aj to escape through the exhaust #f1 which causes an excess of steam-pressure on the lower side of the valve #aj1 forcing the valve against its seat1 and cutting off the supply of steam to the pump4 ,when the pressure in the train-pipe is diminished by applying the brakes1 the diaphragm is restored to the position shown by the action of the spring #af4 ,the valve #ac is seated by the spring #ab2 and the steam-pressure1 passing through the port ,c1 accumulates on the upper side of the valve #aj1 forcing it down1 and opening the passage for steam to the pump until the air-pressure is again restored to the required limit of seventy pounds4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,eames ,,vacuum ,,brake4 ,,operation ,,of ,,the ,,brake4 ,the ,vacuum ,brake1 as the name implies1 is operated by means of a vacuum which is formed in the connections that act the part of the cylinder in the air-brake4 ,with an air-brake1 compressed air is made to do the work of applying the brakes by moving a piston to which the brake-lever is attached1 the air being carried throughout the train by means of iron pipes and rubber hose3 with the vacuum brake the work is done in a similar way with similar connections2 but1 instead of compressed air being forced inside the pipes and apparatus1 all the air is exhausted out1 and the natural pressure of the atmosphere is made to do the work4 ,,the ,,diaphragm4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,under each vehicle of a train1 as seen in ,fig4 #ce1 a diaphragm is securely fastened which performs the combined duties of cylinder and piston4 ,it consists of a kettle-shaped casting with a loose disk of heavy rubbered duck fastened over its mouth2 the center of the disk being provided with an iron plate1 through which passes an eye-bolt for forming connection with the brake-lever4 ,the inside of the diaphragm is connected to the pipe which passes along the train1 and has its front end connected with the ejector on the locomotive4 ,,the ,,ejector4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,the position of the ejector in the cut can be clearly seen in ,fig4 #cf1 where there is also a diaphragm to be seen under the deck where it is located when used to operate driver brakes4 ,the ejector is operated on the same principle as the water injector1 only it is used to lift air instead of water4 ,a cross-section of the injector is shown in ,fig4 #cf4 ,when the engineer wishes to apply the brake1 he pulls the handle #da 7broken off in the cut71 which opens the valve ,b#di1 and admits steam to the body of the ejector ,a#a4 ,the steam rushes upward round the end of the tube #e1 its velocity being accelerated in passing through the contracted opening left round the top of the tube4 ,passing through tubes #c and #f1 the steam shoots up in the form of a column with a hollow base2 the tube #e1 which is connected with the pipes and diaphragms on the train1 forming this base4 ,the effect of the steam passing out under these conditions is to induce a current through the tube #e1 which draws up the valve ,b#g1 and sucks the air out of the pipes and diaphragms4 ,a vacuum being thus formed in the diaphragms1 the atmosphere presses the flexible ends together4 ,this tendency to collapse is retarded by the brake-rod connections1 and the latter receive a pull equal to the combined atmospheric pressure on the diaphragm4 ,the brake-levers are arranged to transmit a proper tension to the brake-shoes for making the brake effective4 ,a vacuum gauge placed on the front of the ejector enables the engineer to regulate the power as he wants it4 ,the brake is released by pushing on the lever #bd1 which opens the valve #h1 and admits air into the brake-pipes4 ,the release-valve attachment is sidewise in vertical section cut through the handle1 and is put separate for convenience of illustration4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,brake4 ,the valve ,b#g of the ejector needs grinding occasionally2 and1 if the lift should be too great1 the valve will hammer the seat out of shape4 ,sometimes when waste or other fibrous impurities are sucked through the pipe1 they stick in this valve1 keeping it away from the seat4 ,the valve is very easily reached by taking off the cap ,o#d4 ,the steam-valve ,b#di needs about the same care as any other steam-valve1 and its troubles are of the same nature4 ,the shoulder at the top of the tube #e1 which is used to obstruct the steam1 thereby increasing the velocity of the quantity that passes1 sometimes gets cut into channels with the fast moving steam striking it4 ,this reduces the promptness of the ejector's action1 but it is a form of deterioration that proceeds very slowly4 ,care must be taken to keep the drip-valves ,a and ,b#af in order1 otherwise there may be trouble with the ejector throwing water1 or freezing up if the engine stands where that apparatus will get cold in winter4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,power ,,of ,,locomotives ,,and ,,train ,,resistances4 ,,calculating ,,power ,,of ,,locomotives4 ,the capacity of engines is generally expressed in horse-power1 which is a measurable quantity2 but1 for several reasons1 that method of indicating power has not been usually applied to the locomotive4 ,when practical railroad men hear the size of cylinders1 the diameter of driving-wheels1 and the boiler dimensions of a locomotive1 mentioned1 they understand what kind of service the engine is adapted for1 and about the weight of train it can haul4 ,as it has been found necessary for designing and other purposes1 to estimate1 with some degree of accuracy1 the work a locomotive is capable of doing1 it has become usual to reckon the power of a locomotive by the tractive force it can exert upon the rails4 ,,proportion ,,of ,,adhesion ,,to ,,traction4 ,tractive force is the power which the pistons of the engine are capable of exerting through the driving-wheels1 to move the engine and train4 ,the efficiency of the engine's traction is dependent upon the adhesion of the wheels to the rails2 for1 where the adhesion is insufficient1 the pistons will slip the wheels1 and no useful effect will result4 ,to prevent the wheels of ordinary ,american engines from slipping on dry rails1 the weight resting on the drivers must be about five times the power exerted by the pistons to slip the wheels4 ,to prevent slipping on wet1 unwashed rails1 more than double the above weight would be needed4 ,in practice1 locomotives are not provided with weight enough to prevent the wheels from slipping on a greasy rail3 the sand-boxes provide the means of obtaining adhesion where the rails are in bad order4 ,a common practice is to place upon the drivers weight equal to about six times the power exerted to slip the wheels1 which leaves a small margin for wet rails4 ,many locomotives have power sufficient to slip the wheels on dry rails2 but such engines generally have boilers too small for the cylinders1 or the distribution of weight on the drivers is badly effected4 ,,estimating ,,tractive ,,power4 ,the easiest way of calculating the tractive power of a locomotive is by use of the following simple formula1 first propounded by ,pambour3-- d#b,lp ,t ---------4 ,d d the diameter of the cylinder in inches4 ,l the length of the stroke in inches4 ,d the diameter of driving-wheels in inches4 p the effective mean pressure on the piston in pounds per square inch4 ,t the equivalent tractive force at the rails in pounds4 ,this1 given in plain terms1 reads3 ,square the diameter of piston in inches2 multiply by the length of stroke in inches2 multiply by the mean pressure of steam per square inch1 and divide by the diameter of the drivers in inches4 ,we will apply the calculations to the case of the standard ,buchanan passenger engine2 the cylinders being #ag by #bd inches1 the drivers #fh inches in diameter1 and the effective pressure on pistons about #hj pounds4 ,the problem is worked thus3-- #ag inches diam4 of cylinders4 #ag ---- #bhi square of diameter4 #bd inches stroke of piston4 ---- #ficf #hj lbs4 per square inch4 ------ ,diam4 of drivers1 #fh7eedhhj7hafj ,this gives #h1afj pounds as the pressure exerted to turn the drivers1 which may be accepted as a close approximation to the truth4 ,in using this formula1 the mistake has frequently been made of taking the quotient to represent the power developed by one cylinder1 when1 in fact1 it gives the power of both4 ,a method of calculating the locomotive traction that is a good deal followed by our engineers1 is to ascertain the foot-pounds of work the engine is doing during each revolution of the drivers4 ,by dividing the total thus found by the circumference of the drivers in feet1 the force exerted through each foot that the engine moves is found4 ,taking the same engine1 the pistons #ag inches diameter1 give #bbf4ih square inches area4 ,this is multiplied by the mean effective pressure of steam1 giving #bbf4ih #hj #ahaeh4d pounds pressing on each piston through the whole stroke of four feet4 #ahaeh4d #b pistons4 ------- #cfcaf4h #d feet of stroke4 -------- #adebfg4b ,these figures show that #adebfg4b foot-pounds are exerted during each turn of the wheel1 whose circumference is #ag4hjbd2 therefore1 #adebfg #ag4hjbd #hafj1 the number of pounds exerted through each foot moved4 ,there is still another way of figuring out tractive power by calculating the rotational force and the leverage through which it is applied to the locomotive wheels4 ,the pressure of steam on the piston is productive of two strains on the crank-axle4 ,when the crank is on the dead center1 the pressure upon the crank-pin forces the axle against the axle-box without causing any tendency to rotate3 but1 when the crank-pin is on the quarter1 the full leverage of the crank is available for rotation2 the leverage increasing gradually as the crank gets away from the center4 ,the mean effort upon the crank-pin during one revolution of the crank is to the effort of the piston as 4#fcff is to #a4 ,now1 to find the traction of the locomotive1 we multiply the length of our crank1 which is #ab inches1 by 4#fcff1 which gives #g4fd as the length of the crank receiving constant pressure from the pistons4 ,the aggregate steam-pressure has already been found to be for each piston1 #ahaeh4d pounds4 ,this is multiplied by #g4fd2 and the product is divided by the radius of the wheel1 which is #cd inches1 giving as a quotient #djhj1 being the power exerted on one side of the engine4 ,that1 multiplied by #b1 gives #hafj pounds1--the same as was found by the other two methods4 ,,horse-,,power ,,of ,,locomotives4 ,when people wish to find the horse-power developed by a locomotive1 the indicator is generally employed1 and the calculations made from the diagram4 ,others figure out locomotive horse-power as they do that of other engines4 ,by this method1 the engine whose traction we have been investigating might have the horse-power calculated as follows3-- #bbf4ih square inches piston area4 #hj pounds mean pressure4 ------- #ahaeh4d piston pressure4 #d feet piston travel each revolution4 ------- #gbfcc4f #b cylinders4 -------- #adebfg4b #ade revolutions per minute4 -------- #bjjfcidd #ccjjj #fjh horse-power when running at a speed of #cj miles an hour4 ,no allowance has been made for frictional losses in any of these calculations4 ,one horse-power is equivalent to the work performed in raising #cc1jjj pounds one foot high in one minute4 ,one pound raised #cc1jjj feet high1 or #ccj pounds raised #ajj feet high1 would amount to the same thing4 ,one horse-power is usually spoken of as #cc1jjj foot-pounds2 and engineers in this country always calculate work by foot-pounds1--that is1 so many pounds raised a certain number of feet4 ,to indicate the capacity of any prime motor1 the foot-pounds of work it is capable of raising in a given time must be stated4 ,although the work is often done without any thing being raised vertically1 the power represented would be capable of raising the equivalent weight in the stated time4 ,,formulas ,,of ,,train ,,resistances4 ,the work which a locomotive performs in pulling a train is expended in overcoming the resistances due to wheel-friction1 gradients1 curves1 and atmospheric or wind pressure4 ,formulas have been propounded for calculating all train resistances1 but they are utterly untrustworthy for ,american railroad trains4 ,the best known formula of this kind is that given by ,d4 ,k4 ,clark in his ,railway ,machinery4 ,one calculation will show how misleading its figures are when applied to ,american railroad train resistances4 ,figured by the ,clark formula1 the total resistance per ton of a passenger train running at a speed of fifty miles an hour on a straight level track1 is #bb4f pounds4 ,by accurate records with his dynagraph car1 ,professor ,p4 ,h4 ,dudley found the total resistances of an express train running at a speed of fifty-one miles an hour1 to be #aa pounds4 ,the resistances are so much different under different conditions1 that nothing closer than a loose approximation can be calculated of the work done by a locomotive1 unless indicator or dynamometer tests are made4 ,,experiments ,,of ,,train ,,resistances ,,on ,,the ,,erie ,,railway4 ,in experiments made with a freight train on the ,erie ,railway in #ahha1 reported by ,mr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,wilder to the ,railway ,master ,mechanics' ,association1 it was found that the total resistance on a level track was from #c4be to #d4e pounds per ton at speeds under twenty miles an hour4 ,these figures will approximately represent the resistance due to wheel and axial friction in summer2 but this resistance will be higher during cold weather1 when the oil in the axle-boxes gets frozen4 ,track in bad condition will also tend to increase the wheel resistance1 and improperly constructed trucks and wheels will entail the use of more power to move the train4 ,where trucks are so defective that they do not maintain the wheels revolving in parallel planes1 the flanges of some of the wheels will rub on the rail1 increasing the resistance4 ,wheels out of round2 those having the axle out of center1 however slight2 wheels of different size on the same axle2 and numerous other car-truck disorders1--all contribute their share in making a train pull hard4 ,,conditions ,,that ,,increase ,,train ,,resistances4 ,in a calm day the atmospheric resistance is very slight under a speed of twenty miles an hour4 ,to a fast train1 atmospheric resistance becomes an important obstruction4 ,the atmosphere acts on the train in various ways1 that are hard to calculate with any degree of accuracy1--head resistance to the locomotive1 which is presumably equal to the exposed area of the front of the engine and cab in square feet multiplied by the air-pressure due to the speed2 then1 various parts of the cars present surfaces that the air strikes against1 and increases the resistance2 the raised and projecting roofs of passenger coaches offer an ample area for the wind to hold the train by2 and every opening between the cars permits the wind to obstruct1 to some extent1 each individual car4 ,where wind is blowing freely in a direction to strike the train on the side1 the resistance is greatly increased2 the retardation being due to the wind pushing the car sidewise1 so that the wheel-flanges rub against the rail1 and also to the wind obtaining a strong hold on the front of each car4 ,in the case of a freight train1 the resistance is greatly increased when the doors of cars are left open2 for every car in that condition acts like a parachute to reduce speed4 ,freight trains arranged with box cars and flat cars mixed1 obtain more than a fair share of obstruction from the atmosphere2 for every box car that has a space opened in front by a flat car1 gets nearly the full pressure of the wind in its front4 ,it pays in coal to incur some trouble and delay in putting box cars together4 ,that also enables the brakemen to get along the train more rapidly than where the cars are mixed4 ,in the experiments already alluded to on the ,erie ,railway1 it was found1 in the absence of wind1 that the first car of a freight-train produced atmospheric resistance equal to a surface of sixty-three feet1 multiplied by the air-pressure due to speed2 and that each subsequent car offered a resistance of twenty per cent of that due to the first car4 ,,resistance ,,of ,,curves4 ,curved track increases the resistance of trains in direct proportion to the shortness of curvature4 ,in ,european railways1 the character of the curves is nearly always denominated by the length of radius3 in this country1 a railroad curve is described as of so many degrees4 ,the degree of a curve is determined by the angle subtended at its center by a chord of #ajj feet4 ,to those who think of a curve by its radius1 it may be well to explain that a curve of one degree has a radius of #e1cgj feet1 and the radius of any curve can be ascertained by dividing these figures by the number of degrees4 ,,work ,,done ,,by ,a ,,locomotive ,,pulling ,a ,,train4 ,to pull a train up an ascending gradient1 the locomotive has to perform work similar to the operation of a pile-driving engine in raising its driving-block4 ,the train is the block raised by the locomotive2 and the lift is not vertical1 but up an inclined plane2 yet the amount of work done is reckoned in precisely the same way4 ,when the engine of a pile-driver raises a block weighing #a1jjj pounds a distance of #cj feet1 the work done is #a1jjj #cj #cj1jjj foot-pounds3 when a locomotive pulls a train weighing #a1jjj tons over one mile rising #cj feet1 the engine performs #cj1jjj foot-tons of work in that distance by raising the load alone4 ,the total amount of work done will also include the energy expended in overcoming wheel-friction and other ordinary train resistances4 ,to find the tractive force which the engine must exert through each foot of the mile traversed in pulling the train described1 we must divide the foot-pounds of work done1 by the distance over which the power was exerted4 ,thirty thousand foot-tons of work is #fj1jjj1jjj foot-pounds4 ,to this we will add #e pounds additional for every ton of the train for every foot advanced to cover wheel and wind resistances1 making #hf1djj1jjj foot-pounds of work that the engine has to perform in hauling the train one mile4 ,this1 divided by the number of feet in a mile1 will give #af1cfc pounds as the work the locomotive must perform through each foot1--an effort which is entirely within the capacity of many consolidation engines4 ,,record ,,of ,,fast ,,express ,,train ,,made ,,by ,,professor ,p4 ,h4 ,,dudley',s ,,dynagraph ,,car4 ,engineers interested in finding an approximation of the work done in taking a fast train over a railroad1 can make a close estimate by studying out the figures given below by ,professor ,dudley4 ,the table shows the performance of an ordinary locomotive upon a train composed of three eight-wheel and six twelve-wheel cars2 weight #bej tons2 working-weight of engine and tender1 #abf1jjj pounds2 cylinders of engine1 #ag by #bd inches2 diameter of drivers1 #gb inches2 weight on drivers1 #dh1jjj pounds2 blowing-pressure on boiler1 #ace pounds4 ,in starting the train1 the locomotive would record a tension of #aa1jjj to #ab1jjj pounds for one or two hundred feet of distance4 ,after hooking up1 the tension would decrease to about #b1hjj or #c1jjj pounds2 and1 with this pull1 the speed of #ej miles an hour was attained in the fifth mile4 ,as the speed increases1 the resistance of the air against the locomotive becomes greater1 and more of its own power is required to move itself4 ,in starting a train1 the working adhesion of the steel-tired drivers on dry steel rails is about #cc per cent of the weight upon them1 and reduces as the speed increases4 ,tabulation of ,part of a ,trip of the ,dynagraph ,car on a ,fast ,express ,train4 ,,key3 #a ,numbers of ,miles4 #b ,time in ,minutes and ,seconds per ,mile4 #c ,speed in ,miles per ,hour4 #d ,velocity of the ,wind in ,miles per ,hour4 #e ,approximate ,grades4 #f ,foot-,pounds of ,work shown by ,dynametrical ,curve per ,mile4 #g ,foot-,pounds of ,work per ,minute expressed in ,horse-,power4 #h ,approximate calculated ,foot-,pounds of ,work required to move the ,locomotive in ,horse-,power4 #i ,sum of ,columns #g and #h4 #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #a #b #ed #bj4fh ,level #bd1aaf1bcc #beb #b #a #cd #ch4ca #f4j ,down #e ft #c in #bj1jce1bec #cfi #bba #eij #c #a #bb #dc4ij #d4j ,down #e ft #c in #ag1gfc1bad #cih #bib #fij #d #a #af #dg4cd #c4j ,level #ae1ijd1bgc #chc #dah #gia #e #a #aa #ej4gj #d4e ,level #ad1hga1ebh #chb #djf #ghh #f #a #ac #di4ca #f4j ,up #ac feet #ae1bhd1faf #chc #djf #ghi #g #a #aa #ej4gj #f4j ,down #ah feet #ad1deh1dcj #cfi #dbf #gie #h #a #jh #eb4hi #e4j ,down #ac feet #ac1bai1acf #ced #dea #hje #i #a #jg #ec4gj #e4j ,down #h feet #aa1eff1gdd #cai #dhc #hjb #aj #a #ji #eb4aj #e4j ,down #e feet #aa1ggc1bic #caj #dda #gea #aa #a #jh #eb4hi #d4b ,level #aa1ggc1bic #caf #ddg #gfc #ab #a #ji #eb4aj #e4b ,down #h feet #ab1hjf1jch #ccg #def #gic #ac #a #aj #ea4dc #f4j ,level #ab1cib1idj #cbd #ddc #gfg #ad #a #aj #ea4dc #d4e ,level #ab1hjf1jch #cci #dbf #gfe #ae #a #aj #ea4dc #d4j ,level #ac1dbe1fhe #cea #dbj #gga #af #a #aj #ea4dc #c4e ,level #ac1bii1acf #cde #dae #gfj #ag #a #jh #eb4hi #c4j ,level #ac1hch1ghc #cga #ddc #had #ah #a #jh #eb4hi #e4j ,down #f feet #ac1bai1acf #ced #dfd #hah #ai #a #jh #eb4hi #c4j ,down #b feet #ac1bai1acf #ced #ddc #gig #bj #a #aa #ej4gj #c4e ,up #aj feet #ad1hch1ghc #cgi #djf #ghe #ba #a #ac #di4ca #c4j ,up #aj feet #ad1deh1dcj #cfb #chd #gdf #bb #a #jh #eb4hi #c4a ,level #ab1cib1idj #ccb #ddc #gge #bc #a #jg #ec4gj #c4a ,down #aj feet #ab1ahf1cia #ccc #dfb #gig ,the following calculations have been made1 to indicate the trains that various locomotives ought to pull4 ,weights of ,train which ,locomotives can haul at a ,speed of #bj ,miles an ,hour under ,ordinary ,conditions1 in ,tons of #b1jjj ,pounds 7not including the ,weight of ,engine and ,tender74 ,,type ,,of ,,locomotive4 --------------------------- ,type 8,a40,type 8,b40,type 8,c40 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,on straight track3 ,level #a1jif #a1ffd #b1bbf ,grade #bj feet per mile #edg #hdj #a1abh 0 #dj 0 0 #cej #ede #gcd 0 #fj 0 0 #bdi #cij #ebb 0 #hj 0 0 #ahh #cjb #daj 0 #ajj 0 0 #adh #bdb #ccj ,on #e-;degree curves3 ,level #iba #a1dja #a1hgf ,grade #bj feet per mile #dfd #gaf #ifb 0 #dj 0 0 #caj #dhe #fed 0 #fj 0 0 #bbg #cfj #dhh 0 #hj 0 0 #agc #bgi #chj 0 #ajj 0 0 #acg #bbe #cjh ,on #aj-;degree curves3 ,level #ffb #a1jac #a1ceh ,grade #bj feet per mile #dja #fba #hcf 0 #dj 0 0 #bgh #dgg #eij 0 #fj 0 0 #bjg #ccj #ddh 0 #hj 0 0 #afj #bfj #ced 0 #ajj 0 0 #abh #bab #bij ,under the most favorable conditions1 loads about fifty per cent greater than those given above may be hauled4 ,the calculations are for three types of engine1 designated in the column titles as ,type 8,a10 ,type 8,b10 and ,type 8,c20 these being as follows3-- ,type ,a4--,american locomotive1 with four driving-wheels1 and #ab1jjj pounds weight on each wheel1 the total weight of engine being #cf tons4 ,type ,b4--,mogul or ten-wheeled locomotive1 with six driving-wheels1 and #ab1jjj pounds weight on each wheel1 the total weight of engine being about #db tons4 ,type ,c4--,consolidation locomotive1 with eight driving-wheels1 and #ab1jjj pounds weight on each wheel1 the total weight of engine being about #ed tons4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,water ,,for ,,locomotive ,,boilers4 ,,how ,,water ,,gets ,,mixed ,,with ,,lime4 ,throughout a very wide area of territory in the ,united ,states and ,canada1 limestones1 or various forms of calcareous rocks1 constitute the upper rock stratum immediately underlying the subsoil of the great agricultural regions4 ,during the stupendous operations of ,nature in building up this continent1 the rocks have been subjected to vast disintegrating agencies3 they have been torn and eroded by huge masses of ice2 they have been burned by the rays of the unshadowed sun2 fractured by the congealing power resulting from deep-searching frost2 melted by water1--that most universal solvent in nature2 then scattered far and wide by ice and flood4 ,this process has been so complete1 that1 in the whole limestone territory1 all the earth seems charged with lime4 ,limestones are very sparingly soluble in pure water2 but the rain that falls from the clouds is not pure1 but contains a charge of carbonic acid that acts chemically upon the lime1 forming salts1 which the water readily dissolves4 ,owing to this circumstance1 there are few streams1 and fewer wells1 in the calcareous districts that are not contaminated with lime4 ,the water that passes into streams1 generally runs over surfaces that have been washed partly free from lime2 and1 in consequence of this1 creeks and rivers are not so badly tainted with lime-salts as the water in wells that stands saturating the rocks4 ,the appearance or taste of water gives no indication of the quantity of lime held in solution2 for the ice-cold well1 or sparkling spring1 that supplies water so pleasant to drink1 may yield so much lime-salts that the water would be ruinous to sheets and flues when used for boiler purposes4 ,,expense ,,entailed ,,by ,,using ,,bad ,,water4 ,considering the financial influence of the matter alone1 it might be supposed that parties building railroads would exercise diligence in selecting the best water that possibly could be secured for boiler purposes1 since the operating expenses are largely magnified by using impure water2 but for many years the subject appeared to receive no attention whatever from those best able to regulate the water supply1 and water stations were established without any consideration as to the character of the water available4 ,it is owing to the absence of care in the original locating of water stations1 that numerous tanks are to-day drawing their supply from bad wells1 where surface water could easily be obtained4 ,railroad companies are peculiarly conservative about making changes that entail expenditure of money3 and existing evils in the water supply arrangements are often continued1 because some expense would be incurred in making them2 although no kind of money expenditure would bring a more ample return in economy4 ,,efforts ,,of ,,master ,,mechanics ,,to ,,secure ,,good ,,water4 ,the paramount importance of the quality of water used in locomotive boilers1 has been long recognized by nearly all master mechanics2 for the effect of bad water is brought to their attention in an unmistakable manner4 ,the subject has been frequently before the ,master ,mechanics' ,association for investigation4 ,a report of a committee appointed at an early meeting to investigate the subject1 declares that 8,master mechanics have had the conviction forced home1 that impure water is the bane of good boilers20 and1 even then1 a vigorous effort was being made to eliminate the injurious ingredients from the water2 and the work was carried on in a hopeful and confident spirit1 which was indicated by the words of a subsequent report1 which asserted that 8,different waters differ widely in the component parts of the impurities they contain1 and each requires separate study and treatment20 but the committee were satisfied that the engineering and mechanical skill of railway men could readily devise a suitable appliance for each particular case4 ,in those days1 railroad men thought that they could1 by mechanical and chemical means1 purify bad water1 and render it suitable for boiler use4 ,purifying bad water proved about as difficult an undertaking as reforming the average bad man is recognized to be2 and few railroad men can now be found who believe a purifying process can be successfully performed on the large quantity of water needed for locomotive boiler feeding4 ,,loss ,,of ,,faith ,,in ,,purifying ,,methods4 ,the conclusion that artificial methods of purifying bad water can not be carried out in railroad water supply1 was not arrived at hastily4 ,it was reached by slow degrees1 and through the convincing ordeal of many disappointments1 with methods and nostrums that promised to effect the desired results4 ,experience demonstrated1 that1 in the limestone regions1 the proper and only way to avoid trouble from lime incrustation in locomotive boilers1 is to obtain soft water from streams1 or by collecting the rainfall in ponds or reservoirs4 ,,scale-,,making ,,agencies4 ,water1 as has been mentioned1 is the most universal solvent in nature2 and what is known as hard water contains many foreign ingredients1 but those that exercise such a pernicious influence upon locomotive boilers are lime and magnesia4 ,the scale-making lime appears in two forms1--sulphate of lime1 and carbonate of lime4 ,the former is the more dangerous and troublesome scale-making agent2 the latter is most frequently met with4 ,ordinary well-water will be found to contain solid matter in solution varying from #aj to #ajj grains to the gallon4 ,under #bj grains to the gallon of impurities may be considered fair water if the principal ingredient is carbonate of lime1 but that amount of sulphate will make highly objectionable boiler water4 ,where the use of well-water is unavoidable on a road1 quite a saving to boilers can be effected by ascertaining the quantity and character of the impurities received from each water-tank1 and directing the engineers to avoid those that contain the worst scale formers4 ,,to ,,ascertain ,,the ,,quality ,,of ,,water4 ,the proper way to ascertain with accuracy the character of water1 is to send specimens to a competent analytical chemist for quantitative analysis4 ,but1 as few railroad companies will incur the expense of having the water of the water stations systematically tested1 master mechanics may1 by a little labor1 study1 and practice1 learn to make tests for themselves that will indicate near enough for practical purposes the character of each water station supply4 ,as master mechanics are the railroad officials most directly interested in the kind of water supplied for locomotive use1 they ought to have direct control of all the water stations on the roads where they are in charge4 ,,appliances ,,needed ,,in ,,testing ,,water4 ,the chemical apparatus needed for the examination of well-water are1 a balance that will weigh accurately to half a grain2 an oil stove for evaporative purposes2 a few pint porcelain evaporating dishes2 a sand-bath1 which can be made from a piece of sheet-copper2 a dozen test tubes2 half a dozen vials to hold solutions of chemically pure chemicals2 some pieces of glass tubing2 a small mortar and pestle2 a supply of filtering-paper2 and the vessels needed for measuring accurately4 ,for the solution of the chemical re-agents to be used1 a supply of distilled water is necessary2 and water of this kind is also necessary to make comparisons with4 ,a piece of pure crystalline ice1 when melted1 will generally produce water pure enough for experimental purposes4 ,,preparing ,,for ,,the ,,experiments4 ,in bringing in water for examination1 it is best to have it drawn from the water-tank into a perfectly clean jug1 which should be corked and labeled4 ,weigh an evaporating dish1 noting down the exact weight1 and on a sand-bath evaporate one quart or half a gallon of the water to be inspected4 ,when the dish becomes dry1 rub off all dust that may be adhering to the bottom1 and weigh the dish4 ,the added weight will indicate approximately the total amount of solid matter in the water4 ,note that down1 and every other detail of the experiments4 ,,lime ,,held ,,in ,,solution ,,by ,,free ,,carbonic ,,acid4 ,sometimes a large quantity of bicarbonate of lime is held in solution by free carbonic acid1 which escapes as soon as the water is boiled1 leaving the lime to subside in the form of mud4 ,water of this kind may appear very hard1 yet not be very objectionable for boiler use2 since the deposit can be blown out if the blow-off cock is used freely4 ,to test this1 boil a pint of water for two or three minutes in a perfectly clean dish1 then pass it through a filter paper that has been previously dried and weighed4 ,when the operation is finished1 dry and weigh the filter paper again2 and the added weight will indicate the amount of solid matter held in solution by free carbonic acid gas4 ,,test ,,for ,,lime ,,salts4 ,superficial tests that will indicate the condition of the water from the coloring produced by the impurities combining with chemicals that take them out of solution1 can be made in the following manner3 ,five test tubes are half filled with water to be tested4 ,the first one will be examined for lime in any form4 ,a teaspoonful of aqua ammonia is put in the water for the purpose of stimulating the chemical action1 then twenty drops of a solution of oxalate of ammonia are added4 ,the degree of turbidity will indicate the quantity of lime in the water4 ,should the quantity of lime be very small1 the test tube would have to be kept in a warm place a few hours before the re-action showed itself4 ,,test ,,for ,,sulphate ,,of ,,lime4 ,the water in the second test tube will be examined for sulphate of lime4 ,a few drops of hydrochloric acid are first put into the water1 then twenty drops of chloride of barium4 ,a white precipitate1 which generally makes its appearance at once1 indicates the presence of sulphuric acid4 ,in water belonging to the calcareous regions1 it may safely be concluded that the sulphuric acid is held in the form of sulphate of lime4 ,an exception has sometimes to be made for water drawn from the vicinity of coal mines1 and such places1 where sulphate of iron abounds4 ,water that holds sulphuric acid in this form is readily identified by a test for iron salts4 ,when it is found that water gives a strong re-action indicating sulphate of lime1 the inference may safely be drawn that the tank it came from should be avoided4 ,,test ,,for ,,carbonate ,,of ,,magnesia4 ,the third test tube may be examined for carbonate of magnesia1 which is found freely mixed with the water of many wells4 ,put aqua ammonia in this tube1 and add twenty drops of a solution of phosphate of soda4 ,a crystalline precipitate will indicate the presence of magnesium4 ,where carbonate of magnesia is present in considerable quantities in water1 it sometimes forms along with lime a thick1 porous scale2 and in other cases it is apt to float on the top of the water1 causing trouble by making the boiler foam4 ,if an engine boiler has got scale formed from water free from magnesia1 and goes on to a division where this impurity abounds1 the magnesia will take off the old scale before it begins to form new incrustation4 ,a few pounds of common salt put into the tender daily will have a good effect in preventing trouble with magnesia2 since it forms chloride of magnesia1 which is a decided preventive of lime scale4 ,,test ,,for ,,salts ,,of ,,iron4 ,in the fourth test tube we will search for iron salts4 ,a solution of potassa or ammonia will produce1 should iron be present1 a whitish precipitate1 which presently turns to a dirty green1 and1 ultimately1 a reddish-brown color1 owing to its absorption of oxygen from the air4 ,a more delicate test for iron is ferro-cyanide of potassium1 or sulpho-cyanate of potassium2 but other mineral combinations might deceive a novice using these reagents into the belief that iron was present when it was not4 ,a light trace of iron in water is very common2 and1 so long as it is in minute quantities1 the salt seems quite innocent4 ,but occasionally water is found saturated with iron in the form known by chemists as ,fe,s,o#d4 ,then it is very objectionable for boiler-feeding2 since it exercises a strong corrosive action on the plates1 pitting and furrowing being a common result of its action4 ,scale formed by water of this character is nearly always a hard1 thin substance1 that sticks with intense tenacity1 and generally takes away part of the skin of the iron when it is taken off4 ,,test ,,for ,,chlorine4 ,the fifth tube we will examine for common salt1 which is nearly always present in water4 ,this test is done by dropping in some nitrate of silver solution1 which produces a white precipitate1 caused by the silver combining with the chlorine1 which is the principal element in common salt4 ,this is an excessively fine test1 and the nitrate of silver will detect an incredibly small trace of common salt in water4 ,the worst effect that common salt has in water1 is to cause priming4 ,where it is present to any great extent1 the blow-off cock should be used frequently on the road2 and a surface-cock is quite an aid in keeping the boiler in order4 ,water that is taken from wells or streams about cities1 and found to give strong chlorine re-actions1 is nearly always contaminated with sewage4 ,,learning ,,the ,,manipulation ,,of ,,tests4 ,practice in making superficial qualitative tests of water1 produces skill in reading the meaning of the various chemical re-actions4 ,this skill can be rapidly developed by practice on prepared specimens4 ,water for experiments on carbonate of lime can be prepared by dissolving calcite crystals or marble dust in hydrochloric acid1 or by mixing chalk with clean rain-water1 and filtering it till free from turbidity4 ,while the chalk is mixed with the water1 and unfiltered1 the specimen will be made stronger by blowing air from the lungs through a glass tube into the water4 ,a preparation for testing sulphate of lime may be made by dissolving some gypsum in distilled water4 ,fluid magnesia1 dropped into pure water1 will provide carbonate of magnesia specimens2 and ,epsom salts will give the magnesia re-action1 with the addition that it will indicate sulphuric acid under the chloride of barium test4 ,a grain of salt no larger than a pin-head dropped into a pint of distilled water1 will give a distinct chlorine test when nitrate of silver solution is added4 ,stronger1 or even weaker1 salt solution can be used by the experimenter while he is working into practice4 ,a small piece of sulphate of iron1 dissolved in water1 will provide a test for iron4 ,,making ,,qualitative ,,tests4 ,while pursuing the apprentice practice of tests with these solutions1 care must be taken to have the test tubes perfectly clean4 ,go over the tests in something like the following order4 ,the carbonate of lime test is to be made first4 ,four test tubes will be used4 ,in the first we put distilled water alone2 in the second we put ten drops of the chalk solution2 in the third we put twenty drops of the solution2 in the fourth we put thirty drops1 then add distilled water till all the test tubes are about two-thirds filled4 ,drop into each tube about the same quantity of oxalate of ammonia solution1 and the degree of turbidity will help to indicate the hardness of each specimen4 ,the first tube1 containing pure water1 will give no re-action if the chemicals are pure4 ,this process should be extended to all the other solutions1 and will be found very helpful4 ,in carrying out experiments of this kind1 much assistance will be obtained from having a work like ,stuckhardt's ,chemistry at hand for reference4 ,,the ,,soap-,,test ,,for ,,hardness4 ,most people are aware that hard water has a peculiar effect upon soap1 making it curdle instead of lather when used for washing purposes4 ,this peculiarity was made use of some years ago by ,dr4 ,clark of ,aberdeen1 ,scotland1 in devising a test for the hardness of water1 in which the quantity of a standard soap solution needed to produce a permanent lather on water1 indicated the degree of hardness of the water4 ,a modification of the ,clark process can be used very conveniently by master mechanics in making superficial tests of the hardness of water1 and the plan has the advantage of being easily applied4 ,with a test tube and a small bottle of soap-solution1 the investigator is ready at any time or place to make tests2 and a few minutes spent over each specimen will give him an idea of the value of the water for boiler purposes4 ,the original ,clark soap-test was made with a soap-solution of known strength1 of which a certain measured quantity was required to produce a permanent lather on a gallon of water containing a given quantity of carbonate of lime4 ,the degrees of hardness of other specimens were computed according to the quantity of the soap-solution required to produce a permanent lather4 ,preparing soap-solution of a certain strength1 and water of a certain hardness1 for the purpose of indicating a point for beginning the computations1 is a tedious operation2 and the soap-test can be used in a much simpler way4 ,while making numerous tests of water on the ,burlinglington1 ,cedar ,rapids1 and ,northern ,railway some years ago1 to ascertain the condition of water tanks at different seasons of the year1 and in examining the supply of proposed water stations on extensions of the road1 ,i used the following modification of the ,clark process3-- ,,modification ,,of ,,the ,,clark ,,soap-,,test4 ,the ,cedar ,river1 during its normal flow in summer1 contains about ten grains of solid matter1 mostly calcium carbonate1 to the ,american gallon of #eh1cgc grains4 ,this ,i considered good boiler-water1 and made it the standard of comparison for my tests4 ,beside the shop1 there is a well1 which the people who built the road dug for supplying boiler-water2 although the ,cedar ran a few rods distant4 ,this well-water contained about forty grains of solid matter to the gallon1 one-fourth of the impurity being sulphate of lime4 ,this water ,i made my 8awful example0 standard of comparison1 so that water approaching this in hardness was condemned4 ,the soap-solution ,i made by dissolving seventy grains of castile soap1 or white soap-powder1 in a pint of alcohol4 ,care must be taken that all the soap is dissolved1 and then it is best to keep the mixture in an even temperature not below #fj ,fahr4 ,the tests can be made more accurately by having the water under examination brought to the same temperature as the soap-solution4 ,,applying ,,the ,,soap-,,test4 ,in making the tests1 a measured quantity of the ,cedar water was put into a stoppered bottle4 ,one ounce of water put into a two-ounce bottle is a convenient quantity4 ,the soap-solution was then measured out with a pipette made to hold thirty drops1 and the bottle was well shaken after each measure till it was found that a lather was formed which held on for five minutes4 ,the operation was then repeated2 and the last charge from the pipette was put in1 drop by drop1 till the point where a permanent lather formed was noted4 ,a similar performance was gone through with the bad well-water1 and very little practice enabled the operator to ascertain where a specimen of water stood between the range of the good and bad water4 ,the soap-solution must be kept in a properly stoppered bottle2 and1 every time a new solution is made1 its strength must be tested in the above fashion4 ,the solution deteriorates when kept longer than a month or six weeks4 ,the degree of turbidity caused by the first charge of soap-solution1 is an indication to the practiced experimenter of the degree of hardness of the water4 ,most men interested in ascertaining the condition of boiler-water1 can devise means for obtaining water of known hardness wherewith to make comparative tests4 ,if water under examination prove very hard1 the test will be more accurately done by diluting it with its own volume of distilled water4 ,the soap-test is good for lime in all its forms1 and magnesia2 but the latter impurity uses up more soap than lime does4 ,so1 where magnesia abounds in water1 the specimen under trial will seem harder than it actually is4 ,magnesia is also slower than lime in acting upon the soap4 ,water that contains magnesia will produce a lather when enough solution is put in to overcome the lime present2 but if it be allowed to stand a few minutes1 till the magnesia acts1 the lather will not then form4 ,the presence of certain alkaline salts in water1 such as the carbonates and sulphates of soda and potash1 injuriously affects the soap-test by making the water appear softer than it is2 since they accelerate the forming of a permanent lather4 ,keeping these facts in mind will often prove of valuable service in making tests of water4 ,when the soap-test indicates that water contains hardening ingredients1 representing more than fifteen grains to the gallon1 other tests should be at once made to ascertain what the leading ingredients are4 ,,difficulties ,,of ,,purifying ,,water ,,for ,,locomotives4 ,the nostrums offered to railroad managers for purifying feed-water are legion1 but it is doubtful if a single remedy has proved entirely successful4 ,in most instances1 the material or means used have been worthless or impracticable2 but1 in other cases1 the appliances have not received justice from those attending their application4 ,most people underrate the magnitude of the task involved in undertaking to render the impurities of feed-water innocent in locomotive boilers4 ,the case of a learned professor who undertook to doctor the feed-water for locomotives on a prominent road1 where he made his arrangements for each engine using one thousand gallons of water a day1 is representative4 ,when provision has to be made for some engines using double that quantity each hour1 the difficulty of the transaction becomes apparent4 ,as has already been said1 ,i believe that obtaining soft surface-water is the proper way to avoid trouble with locomotive boilers2 but1 where this is impracticable1 considerable saving can be effected by 8doctoring0 the water if the operations are intelligently conducted4 ,,mud4 ,mud is the most universal impurity of feed-water2 and1 in many cases1 it causes the destruction or injury of sheets1 particularly the crown-sheets of fire-boxes4 ,where the water of a road is habitually muddy1 it would pay to filter the water1 or to have two tanks at each water station1 so that a system could be followed of letting the water settle in one tank while the other was in use4 ,the settled mud1 by this means1 could be washed out regularly before a tank were refilled4 ,,carbonate ,,of ,,lime4 ,dr4 ,clark1 inventor of the soap-test1 recommended a method of purifying water containing carbonate of lime1 which has been successfully followed in many places1 especially in ,england4 ,it consists of adding caustic lime to water containing carbonate of lime4 ,by this process1 #bh grains of caustic lime result in the precipitation of #ajj grains of lime carbonate4 ,or1 to put it in a practical shape1 where a tank contains #cj1jjj gallons of water1 each gallon being impregnated with #cj grains of lime carbonate1 #cf pounds of caustic lime will be sufficient to precipitate the whole of the impurity1 making a total deposit of #afd pounds4 ,,sulphate ,,of ,,lime4 ,where the water impurity is principally sulphate of lime1 the caustic lime remedy will not work2 but a precipitate of the objectionable compound can be made by treating the water with caustic baryta or caustic soda4 ,in the first case1 the baryta takes possession of the sulphuric acid holding the lime in solution1 allowing the latter to fall down as mud3 when the soda cure is applied1 the sulphuric acid deserts the lime1 and combines with the soda1 for which it has greater affinity1 leaving the lime to precipitate1 unless it be preserved in solution by the carbonic acid that accompanied the soda4 ,where the water contains a mixture of lime sulphate and carbonate1 the soda treatment may be advantageously used in combination with the caustic lime system4 ,attempts have frequently been made to purify water by putting chemicals into the locomotive tenders1 the impurity being precipitated in the boiler4 ,the leading objection to this system is1 that it leads to enormous quantities of sediment being deposited inside the boiler2 since1 in some instances1 the purifying substance is as bulky as the original impurity4 ,in other cases1 the chemical introduced into the boiler causes foaming4 ,let us take the case of water that contains fifteen grains of sulphate of lime to the gallon1 and is treated with sulphate of baryta4 ,to do so properly1 one grain of the chemical will be required for each grain of lime4 ,a freight engine uses seventy-five gallons of water to the mile1 and runs one hundred miles a day4 ,this is light service1 both for water and mileage2 yet1 within ten days1 nearly three hundred pounds of solid matter is injected into the boiler4 ,to purify water by injecting chemicals into locomotive boilers1 and prevent the boiler filling up rapidly with mud1 or giving trouble from foaming1 the blow-off cock and surface cock must be used so frequently as to be felt on the consumption of coal4 ,where purifying of feed-water must be done1 the right place to carry on the process is in the station tanks1 or in special appliances beside them4 ,by carefully watching the character of the impurities in the water1 and treating them with their proper precipitants1 labor and expense devoted to the purification of feed-water may bring in good returns3 where attempts are made to improve the water over a whole road by one method of treatment1 failure is certain4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,examination ,,for ,,locomotive ,,engineers4 ,the following is the form of questions put to firemen on one of the most prominent railroads in this country before they are admitted as competent for promotion1 and the kind of answers expected from those who are considered eligible for the higher position4 ,the form questions are not adhered to strictly1 and care is taken that a candidate for promotion does not commit the answers to memory without properly understanding the subject4 ,no fireman is promoted who does not satisfy the examiner that he understands the practical questions asked4 ,q4--,what are the principal duties of an engineer before attaching his engine to train8 ,a4--,to examine the engine carefully1 to see that all set-screws are in place1 and rod-keys secure2 that the engine is equipped with all necessary signals1 firing1 and hand-tools2 the necessary supply of water1 fuel1 and stores4 ,also1 to take a look at the flues and crown-sheet4 ,q4--,what is important1 in carrying water in the boiler1 as to height and regularity8 ,a4--,to carry water and steam in the top gauge-cocks when working steam1 and as uniformly as possible4 ,q4--,what is important in carrying water on grades1 and approaching a summit8 ,a4--,to carry the water sufficiently high to be sure that the front ends of the tubes are not exposed1 and1 in pitching over a summit1 to have sufficient water to cover and protect the crown-sheet1 after finding its level from the front or low end of the boiler4 ,q4--,should it be necessary1 after pitching over a summit1 to pump up a gauge or more of water1 what should be the condition of the fire8 ,a4--,the fire should be kept bright1 and burning freely4 ,q4--,why is this important8 ,a4--,to prevent chilling the flues1 causing them to leak4 ,q4--,should you have ample water after pitching over1 what should be the condition of the fire8 ,a4--,it should be leveled and settled down1 and covered over sufficiently to prevent unnecessary waste of steam or fuel4 ,q4--,should the pump or injectors fail on the road1 what would you do8 ,a4--,first1 smother down the fire1 stop promptly1 take off the hose1 and raise the tank-valves to ascertain that they are connected2 also see that the strainers are clear4 ,if all is found clear1 then try the injectors again2 and1 if the engine has a pump1 take it down1 and see that the valves are free1 and would also run water through the feed-pipes4 ,when all is open and free1 put them up1 and try them again4 ,q4--,should the water in the boiler get too low to allow you time for the examination1 what would you do8 ,a4--,draw the fire1 and send a messenger to the nearest telegraph office for assistance4 ,q4--,should the water in the boiler become disturbed1 and foam1 what would you do8 ,and how would you ascertain whether it was foaming1 or being over pumped8 ,a4--,as soon as the water is discovered discharging from the stack1 would at once shut off1 and ascertain the height of the water solid4 ,should the water drop below the second or third gauge1 would conclude there was foaming1 and would again gently open the throttle4 ,should the water again rise1 and discharge from the stack1 would put on both injectors1 open the surface blow1 and run carefully2 allowing the bad water to be worked off through the surface blow1 being very careful not to work the water in sufficient quantities through the cylinders as to endanger knocking out the heads2 and would occasionally shut off1 to see that the water was not being thrown off faster than the pumps or injectors were supplying it4 ,by this means1 the bad water would1 in most cases1 be worked out1 and1 with gentle usage1 would again settle4 ,q4--,should the blow-off cock be blown out1 or be broken off1 or a hole be broken in the boiler in any way1 what would you do8 ,a4--,draw the fire promptly1 and send a messenger to the nearest telegraph office for assistance4 ,would then disconnect1 and get the engine ready to be towed in when assistance arrived4 ,q4--,what portions of the engine would you disconnect in such a case8 ,a4--,take off main rods and valve-rods4 ,q4--,what is important to observe in setting up or adjusting wedges8 ,a4--,to have them so neatly adjusted that there will be no thump of the boxes1 and1 at the same time1 not so tight as to cramp1 and not allow them full and free play in the pedestals4 ,q4--,how would you go about setting them up8 ,a4--,would place the engine at half stroke on the right side1 block the left wheels1 admit a little steam1 and thump the boxes hard away from the wedges4 ,would then get under1 and put the wedges up solid with a short wrench1 and make a side mark on the pedestals at top of wedge1 then draw them down equally a scant one-eighth of an inch4 ,go over the left side in the same manner4 ,q4--,how would you key up1 or adjust1 the side rods of a ten-wheel engine8 ,a4--,would place the engine on a level and straight track1 and on a dead center2 then slack off all keys on that line of rods2 would then key the knuckle on center brass first1 leaving it sufficiently free on the pin to be moved laterally by hand4 ,then adjust the front and back ends in the same manner4 ,q4--,why should you place the engine on exact dead center1 and begin by keying the center brass first8 ,a4--,in order to insure keying the rods of proper length1 to allow them to pass the dead1 or rigid1 points without strain4 ,q4--,can the side rods be keyed too long or too short when not standing on dead center8 ,a4--,they can4 ,q4--,if too long or too short1 at what point of the stroke will the strain be8 ,a4--,while passing the dead1 or rigid1 points4 ,q4--,should you slip the right back motion eccentric on the road1 how would you reset it8 ,a4--,would place the engine on exact dead center on right side1 place the reverse-lever in full forward gear1 and make a mark on the valve-rod at the stuffing-box gland2 then place the reverse-lever in full back gear1 and turn the slipped eccentric until the mark on valve-rod came to its original position1 being careful to see that the full or throw of the eccentric was in position nearly opposite the forward eccentric2 then secure it there4 ,q4--,in what way does the mark you made on the valve-rod1 while in forward gear1 aid you in setting the slipped eccentric8 ,a4--,the forward motion eccentric being in proper position by placing the reverse-lever in full forward gear1 the valve is brought into proper position on the ports2 and the mark gives the position of the valve when the back motion eccentric is in its proper position1 thus setting the slipped eccentric by the good one4 ,q4--,should a valve-yoke break1 how would you test in order to determine which side was disabled8 ,a4--,would first place the engine at half stroke on right side1 and admit a little steam to the cylinders2 then move the reverse-lever from back to forward motion1 and1 if the steam could be shifted from the back to the forward cylinder-cock1 would conclude that the right yoke was good1 and would test the left side in the same way4 ,q4--,why would you place your engine at half stroke on the side you wished to test8 ,a4--,in order to get the full movement of the valve over the ports on that side4 ,q4--,after locating the broken yoke1 how would you disconnect8 ,a4--,would take off the steam-chest lid1 place the valve over the ports1 and block it there securely2 replace the lid1 take off the valve-rod1 take off the main rod1 block the cross-head1 and proceed with half train1 if freight2 if passenger1 would take the full train to the next telegraph office1 report1 and give judgment as to whether the engine would take entire train to its destination4 ,q4--,should you blow or break out a cylinder-head1 how would you disconnect8 ,a4--,first1 take off the valve-rod1 and close the ports with the valve1 and secure it by cramping with the stuffing-box gland2 take off main rod1 and block the cross-head4 ,q4--,should the cylinder packing drop and blow badly on the road1 how would you determine which side was down8 ,a4--,in starting from a station1 would notice the right cross-head1 and1 if the blow occurred when it was leaving each extreme end of the stroke1 would locate the blow in the right cylinder4 ,q4--,should it blow so badly as to make it necessary to set it out on the road1 what would be important for you to observe in setting it out8 ,a4--,would be careful to set the piston central in the cylinder1 using calipers if at hand1 and1 if not1 would use a stick of proper length1 and be careful only to set the packing to fill the cylinder neatly1 using as little power on the bolts as practicable2 lock the nuts securely1 and replace the follower1 being careful to screw the follower bolts home solid4 ,q4--,should you be running an engine which had but one pump1 it being on the right side1 and that side became disabled1 so that it would be necessary to disconnect it1 the injector be too small or fail to supply the boiler1 what would you do to avoid drawing the fire1 and being hauled home8 ,a4--,would disconnect the piston from the cross-head on the disabled side1 and take it out1 put up the main rod1 and work the cross-head1 which would give the use of the pump4 ,q4--,should you break the top rocker-arm1 how would you disconnect8 ,a4--,take off the valve-rod and broken arm1 close the ports1 and secure the valve with the stuffing-box gland1 and disconnect1 as in case of broken cylinder-head4 ,q4--,should the bottom rocker-arm break1 how would you disconnect8 ,a4--,as a rule1 would not take off eccentric-straps2 but with an engine badly worn1 and loose in link-hanger1 so that the link could play about freely when running1 would take off the eccentric-straps1 and disconnect1 as in case of broken cylinder-head4 ,q4--,should you break a link-hanger1 how would you disconnect8 ,a4--,if but a short distance to run1 and no stopping or shifting to do1 would run in without disconnecting1 after cautioning the crew to keep the train under good control1 and stop promptly when signaled to do so4 ,but1 if a long distance to run1 would disconnect1 as in case of broken cylinder-head4 ,q4--,in what way would you have lost control of your engine with broken link-hanger8 ,a4--,would only be able to reverse one side of the engine4 ,q4--,should you break an eccentric-strap1 how would you disconnect8 ,a4--,take off both eccentric-straps on that side1 and disconnect as in case of broken cylinder-head4 ,q4--,should you break the back section of a side rod on a six-wheel connected engine1 what would you do8 ,a4--,would take off both back sections1 and run in with main and forward wheels connected1 with about two-thirds of train4 ,q4--,should you break a forward section1 how would you disconnect8 ,a4--,would take off all side rods1 and run in without train4 ,q4--,should you break a main crank-pin close up to the wheel1 how would you disconnect8 ,a4--,would take off all side rods and the main rod on disabled side1 and run in without train4 ,q4--,should you be running an engine which had a slide throttle-valve1 and it would strip or disconnect inside the boiler partly open1 how would you manage8 ,a4--,would reduce the steam-pressure within easy control1 and state the trouble to the crew1 and caution them to act promptly when called upon to do so4 ,would work the train1 if freight1 to the nearest siding1 and back it off2 if passenger1 would keep the pressure within easy handling1 and work the train to the nearest telegraph office1 report1 and ask for orders4 ,q4--,should one of the forward tires on a ten-wheel engine break1 how would you manage8 ,a4--,would jack the wheel up the thickness of the tire1 take out the oil-cellar1 and cut a block to fit the bottom of the box and journal sufficiently thick to hold the axle up in its place when resting on the pedestal-brace2 would then run in without disconnecting1 provided the rod had not been bent or damaged by the broken tire4 ,would take in full train4 ,q4--,should you break a main tire1 how would you manage8 ,a4--,would first send messenger to nearest telegraph office1 and ask for assistance4 ,would then block up the axle and wheel the thickness of the tire1 slack off the side-rod keys1 and run in carefully without train4 ,q4--,should the back tire break1 how would you manage8 ,a4--,would take off the back section of rods1 block up the axle1 run very carefully1 especially around curves1 to nearest telegraph office1 report1 and ask for orders4 ,,index4 ,accidents to cylinders and steam connections1 #afb-aga4 ---- ---- eccentric-strap1 #chc4 ---- ---- link-hanger1 #chc4 ---- ---- running-gear1 #agb-aha4 ---- ---- valve-motion1 #adc-afa4 ,adhesion of locomotives1 #cdf4 ,air-pump disorders1 #cbb4 ,angularity of connecting-rod1 #bai4 ,angularity of connecting-rod1 effect of1 in valve-motion1 #bbj4 ,appliances for testing water1 #cfc4 ,ash-pan1 neglecting1 #db4 ,axles1 broken1 #agi4 ,baldwin locomotives1 #bhd4 ,boiler1 blowing off1 #aci4 ---- careful feeding preserves1 #gj4 ---- care of1 #acf-ach4 ---- explosions1 #acg4 ---- feeding1 #fe1 #hf1 #ajc4 ---- incrustation1 #aja1 #cfb4 ---- injudicious feeding of1 #fi4 ---- inspection of1 #cf4 ---- over-pressure on1 #adj4 ---- precautions against scorching1 #dj4 ---- preservation of1 #ach4 ---- temperature of1 #fg4 ---- water for locomotive1 #cei-cge4 ,boilers and fire-boxes1 #acf-adb4 ,books1 prejudice against1 #h4 ---- mechanical1 recommended1 #i4 ,brakes1 advantage of good1 #caj4 ---- atmospheric1 #cab4 ---- ,eames vacuum1 #cdj-cde4 ---- to apply and release1 #ccf4 ---- to prevent creeping on of1 #cce4 ---- ,westinghouse air1 #cji-cci4 ,brooks locomotives1 #bhd4 ,chemicals for testing water1 #cfc4 ---- ---- purifying boiler water1 #cgd4 ,collisions1 #agc4 ,connecting-rods1 side rods1 and wedges1 #ahb-aih4 ---- ---- angularity of1 #bai4 ---- ---- functions of1 #ahb4 ,crank1 attempts to abolish1 #bag4 ,cross-head1 methods of securing1 #aeg4 ---- pin broken1 #afd1 #chc4 ,curves1 resistance of1 #cec4 ,cut-off1 ascertaining point of1 #bec4 ---- adjustment of1 #bee4 ,cylinders1 accidents to1 #afb1 #cha4 ---- action of steam1 in reverse-motion1 #bbd4 ---- back pressure in1 #baa4 ---- compression in1 #bac4 ---- operation of steam in1 #baj4 ,dampers1 operating1 #ga4 ---- loss of heat from1 #gc4 ,dead center1 #bea4 ,diagram1 indicator1 #cjf4 ,diaphragm-plate1 #ii4 ---- vacuum brake1 #cda4 ,disconnecting engine1 #cgi4 ,draught appliances1 #ih4 ---- obstructions to1 #ig1 #ih4 ,driving-axles1 broken1 #agi4 ,driving-box1 #agi1 #aij1 #aif4 ,driving-trusses1 #aic4 ,driving-springs1 broken1 #agg4 ,dry pipe1 broken1 #aff4 ,dynagraph car1 #cee4 ,eames vacuum brake1 #cdj-cde4 ,eccentric1 angular advance of1 #bah4 ---- slipped1 #bcd1 #chj4 ---- description of1 #bad4 ---- early application of1 #bae4 ---- throw1 influence of1 #bch4 ---- position of1 #aeb1 #bah4 ---- rods1 position of1 #bdc4 ---- rods slipped1 #aed4 ---- strap broken1 #aee1 #chc4 ,educating engineers1 #be4 ,ejector1 ,eames brake1 #cdb4 ,emergencies1 dealing with sudden1 #agb4 ,engineers1 attributes that make good1 #a1 #hi4 ---- causes of anxiety to1 #gh4 ---- education for1 #be4 ---- examination for1 #cgf-chd4 ---- first duties of1 #dc1 #cgf4 ---- duties1 growing importance of1 #c4 ---- how made1 #aa1 #bi4 ---- illiterate men not wanted for1 #c4 ,engineers1 individuality of1 #c4 ---- interest in valve-motion among1 #adi4 ---- learning duties of1 #bj4 ---- public interest in1 #b4 ---- their duties1 #a-aj4 ,engines1 hard-steaming1 #ib-ajh4 ---- high-speed1 #hc4 ---- essentials of good-steaming1 #ib4 ---- slippery1 #fb4 ---- power of different kinds of1 #ceg4 ---- rough-riding1 #aig4 ,equalizer lever broken1 #agh4 ,examination for engineers1 #cgf-chd4 ---- ---- firemen1 #bd4 ,exhaust1 detecting cause of lame1 #aee4 ---- locating the four sounds of1 #add4 ---- note1 neglecting warning of false1 #adh4 ---- watching sound of1 #add4 ,finishing the trip1 #gd-ha4 ,fire1 attending to1 #gi4 ---- effect of excessive air on1 #gb4 ---- management of1 #ed4 ---- making up1 #hd4 ---- starting the1 #dj4 ,fire-boxes and boilers1 #acf-adb4 ,firemen1 bad1 #ei4 ---- first duties of1 #da4 ---- first trips as1 #ah4 ---- highest types of1 #eg4 ---- learning duties of1 #ai4 ---- make best engineers1 #ad4 ---- medium1 #eh4 ---- men chosen for1 #af4 ---- method of promoting1 #bc4 ---- method of selecting1 #ag4 ,firemen1 misconception of duties of1 #ai4 ---- qualifications for1 #bg4 ,firing1 conditions that demand good1 #ef4 ---- good1 #ee4 ---- effect of heavy1 #gb4 ---- engine of fast train1 #ij4 ---- scientific methods of1 #eg1 #ajg4 ---- whom to blame for bad1 #ei4 ,flues1 bursted1 #ada4 ---- leaky1 #ajb4 ,frames1 broken1 #agi4 ,freight train1 running a1 #dh-fj4 ,gauge1 water-glass1 #dc4 ,getting ready for the road1 #ci-dg4 ,getting up the hill1 #fa-gc4 ,grade1 getting train up a1 #fa4 ,grant locomotives1 #bhe4 ,grates1 saving the1 #db4 ---- defects of1 #ajj4 ,giffard injector1 #aai4 ,hancock inspirator1 #acd1 #ace4 ,hard-steaming engines1 #ib-ajh4 ,how engineers are made1 #aa-bi4 ,ignorance1 where disaster came of1 #g4 ,indicator1 #cjc-cjh4 ---- advantage of using1 #cjh4 ---- description of1 #cjc4 ---- diagram1 #cjf4 ---- operation of1 #cjd4 ---- ,tabor1 #cjd4 ,injectors1 chapter on1 #aai-ace4 ---- care of1 #abd-abh4 ---- choice of1 for feeding1 #ff1 #aji4 ---- disorders of1 #abe-abg4 ---- forms of1 #abc4 ---- ,hancock1 #ace4 ,injectors1 invention of1 #aji4 ---- ,korting1 #acc4 ---- ,monitor1 #acb4 ---- principle of action of1 #aba4 ---- repairing1 #abc4 ---- ,sellers1 #abi4 ---- trying to learn philosophy of1 #abj4 ,inspection of locomotives1 #cj-ch4 ,inspection of locomotives1 neglecting1 #ca4 ,inspirator1 ,hancock1 #ace4 ,joy valve-gear1 #bib-cjb4 ---- valve1 action of1 #bif4 ---- ---- advantage claimed for1 #bie4 ---- ---- construction directions1 #bid4 ---- ---- how applied1 #bib4 ---- ---- rules for laying out1 #bih4 ,knowledge and skill in engineering1 #a4 ---- versus ignorance1 #b4 ---- practical1 needed1 #ae4 ---- of train-rights1 #ge4 ,korting injector1 #acc4 ,laying out link-motion1 #beg-bhf4 ,lime1 effects of its presence in water1 #aja1 #cei4 ---- tests for salts of1 #cfd4 ,link-hanger1 broken1 #chc4 ,link-motion1 adjustment of1 #bci4 ---- conditions of laying out1 #bei4 ---- hanger-stud1 #bda4 ---- increase of lead1 #bdc4 ---- invention of1 #bcj4 ---- laying out1 #beg-bhf4 ---- position of rocker1 #bfd4 ,link-motion1 position of crank-pin and eccentrics1 #bfe4 ---- problems of laying out1 #bfj4 ---- radius1 #bdb4 ---- slip1 #bdj4 ---- weak points of1 #bce-beh4 ,links1 hooking up1 #ej4 ,locomotives1 adhesion of1 #cdf4 ---- difficulty of running at night1 #ad-ba4 ---- dimensions of1 #bhd-bhf4 ---- hard-steaming1 #ib4 ---- high-speed1 #hc4 ---- horse-power of1 #cej4 ---- importance of1 steaming freely1 #ib4 ---- inspection of1 #cj-ch4 ---- learning to keep1 in order1 #bb4 ---- power of different kinds1 #ceg4 ---- running worn-out1 #adc4 ---- slippery1 #fd4 ---- traction of1 #cdg4 ,mason locomotives1 #bhf4 ,monitor injector1 #acb4 ,mud-drums1 #ajb4 ,mud in boilers1 #aja1 #aci1 #cgc4 ,nathan injector1 #acb4 ,netting choked with oil1 #ih4 ,night1 difficulty of running at1 #ad4 ,nozzles1 exhaust1 #aje4 ,off the track1 #agb-aha4 ,oil-cups1 inspection of1 #cd1 #hd4 ,oil1 quality of1 needed for machinery1 #de4 ,passenger train1 running fast1 #hb-ia4 ,petticoat-pipe1 influence on steam-making of1 #ic4 ---- ---- size and position of1 #id4 ,piston1 clearance1 #ajd1 #ahd4 ---- events of stroke1 #bbb4 ---- irregular speed of1 #bae4 ---- setting out packing1 #chb4 ,pittsburg locomotives1 #bhe4 ,point of suspension of link1 #bda4 ,pounding of working-parts1 #afh-agj4 ---- in driving-boxes and wedges1 #aij4 ,power of locomotives1 #ceg4 ,pumps1 care of air1 #cbf4 ---- ---- ---- water1 #aac4 ---- causes that induce pounding in air1 #cca4 ---- choice of1 for feeding water1 #ff4 ---- disorders of air1 #cbb4 ---- disorders of water1 #aji-aah4 ---- gradual degeneration of air1 #cbi4 ---- lift of valves for water1 #aae4 ---- sand in chambers1 #aaf4 ---- testing water1 #aac4 ---- ,westinghouse air1 #cah4 ,raising steam1 #ci4 ,radius of link1 #bdb4 ,relief-valve on dry pipe1 #bbg4 ,reversing motions1 early1 #bbi4 ,road1 acquaintance with the1 #gi4 ---- getting ready for the1 #ci-dg4 ,rocker-arm1 broken1 #aeh4 ---- position of1 #bfd4 ,rocker-shaft1 broken1 #aeh4 ,rods1 eccentric1 #aed1 #bdc1 #bdh1 #bfh4 ---- keying up1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #cgi1 #chj4 ---- main1 #afd1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,rods1 side1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #ahh4 ---- watching1 on road1 #ahe4 ---- valve1 #bej4 ,rough-riding1 cause of1 #aig4 ,running-gear1 inspection of1 #ce1 #aig4 ---- understanding the1 #agf4 ,running fast freight train1 #dh-fj4 ---- ---- passenger train1 #hb-ia4 ,saddle-pin1 center of1 #bga4 ,sand1 use of1 #fc4 ---- in pump-chamber1 #aaf4 ,scale agencies that make lime1 #cfb4 ---- effects on steam-making1 #aja4 ,schenectady locomotives1 #bhf4 ,self-improvement1 methods of1 #e4 ,sellers injector1 #abi-aca4 ,setting the valves1 #bdf-bef4 ,shop1 observing work in1 #f4 ,soap-test for hard water1 #cfi-cgb4 ,short of water1 #aji-aah4 ,smoke-box1 extended1 #ii4 ---- temperature of1 #ajf4 ,shifting-link1 #bbi-bde4 ---- action of1 #bcc4 ---- construction of1 #bcb4 ---- slip1 #bdj4 ,side-rods1 #ahb1 #ahg1 #ahh4 ---- adjustment of1 #ahg1 #ahi1 #cgi1 #chj4 ,slide-valves1 clearance1 #bjh4 ---- described1 #bjj4 ---- detecting leakage of1 #ade4 ---- effect of changing travel1 #bcf4 ---- increase of lead1 #bdc4 ---- invention of1 #aii4 ---- lap1 #bjb-bje1 #bab4 ---- lead1 #bji4 ---- primitive form of1 #bja4 ,slide-valves1 movement of1 #bag4 ---- setting of1 #bdf-bef4 ---- testing for leaks1 #afa4 ,speed1 average of fast train1 #hb1 #hf-hh4 ---- requisites of high1 #hc4 ,springs1 broken driving1 #agg4 ,smoke-stack1 badly proportioned1 #aje4 ---- functions of1 #ig4 ,steam-engine indicator1 #cjc-cjh4 ,steam1 action of1 in reverse-motion1 #bdd4 ---- back pressure1 #baa4 ---- causes detrimental to making1 #ic4 ---- chest-cover broken1 #aei4 ---- compression of1 #bac4 ---- operation in cylinders1 #baj4 ---- pipes broken1 #afj4 ---- pipes leaking1 #ajj4 ---- pressure best for economy1 #eb4 ---- raising1 #ci4 ---- running with low pressure of1 #ed4 ---- working expansively1 #ea4 ,stephenson link1 #bca4 ,stevens valve-gear1 #bhg-bia4 ,stevens valve-gear1 control of exhaust-lead1 #bij4 ,stevens valve-gear1 description of1 #bhg4 ---- ---- valve-movement1 #bhi4 ,strainers1 #aac4 ,supplies1 #db4 ,tests of feed-water1 #cfc-cgb4 ---- ---- valves1 #afa4 ,throttle1 accidents to1 #afg4 ---- disconnected1 #afe1 #aff1 #chc4 ,throttle1 position of lever1 #ed4 ,tires1 broken1 #agi-chd4 ,track1 engine off the1 #agb4 ---- operating single1 #gg4 ---- replacing engine on1 #agd4 ,traction of locomotives1 #cdf4 ,train1 conditions that increase resistance of1 #ceb4 ,train1 fast passenger1 #hb4 ---- knowledge of rights of1 #ge4 ---- resistance formula1 #cea4 ---- resistances1 #cdf-ceh4 ---- running freight1 #dh4 ,travel of slide-valve1 #bcf4 ,triple valve1 #ccb4 ,trucks1 accidents to1 #agh4 ,tumbling-shaft1 broken1 #aeg4 ---- length of arms1 #bgg4 ,valve1 ,allen1 #bjf4 ,valve-motion1 accidents to1 #adc1 #aej1 #aeh4 ---- aids to study of1 #bba4 ---- chapter on1 #aii-bbh4 ---- compression1 #bac4 ---- effect of excessive inside lap1 #bab4 ---- effect of main-rod angularity on1 #bbj4 ---- interest in1 #adi4 ---- ,joy's1 #bib-cjc4 ---- locating defects of1 #aea4 ---- of fast passenger engine1 #bce4 ---- ,stevens1 #bhg-bia4 ,valve-setting1 #bdf-bhf4 ---- best way to learn1 #bdg4 ---- cut-off1 #bec4 ,valve-setting1 lead-opening1 #beb4 ---- men who learn1 #bdf4 ---- preliminary operations1 #bdg4 ,valve-stem1 broken1 #aeh4 ---- marking1 #bdi4 ,valve-travel1 effect of changing1 #bce4 ,valve-yoke1 broken1 #aeh1 #chj4 ,water1 expense of using bad1 #cfj4 ---- for locomotive boilers1 #cei-cge4 ---- how carried1 #hi1 #cgf4 ---- how to avoid getting short of1 #aaa4 ---- loss of faith in purifying methods1 #cfa4 ---- master-mechanics' attempts to purify1 #cfa4 ---- soap-test for hardness1 #cfi-cgb4 ---- short of1 #aaj1 #aab1 #cgg1 #cgh4 ---- tests of quality1 #cfc-cgb4 ,watching the exhaust1 #add4 ,wedges1 #ahb1 #aij1 #aib1 #aid-aif4 ,wheels1 broken1 #agi4 ---- slipping1 #fc4 ,westinghouse brake1 #cji-cci4 ---- air-pump1 #cah4 ---- air-pump disorders1 #cbb4 ---- air-brake1 essential parts1 #cag4 ---- air-brake1 first trials of1 #caa4 ---- air-brake1 invention of1 #cji4 ,working-parts1 harmony of1 #bci4 ---- pounding of1 #afh4 ,,wm4 ,,sellers ,,co4 7,,incorporated71 ,illustration ,,sole ,,patentees ,,and ,,makers ,,of ,,the ,,self-,,acting ,,injector ,,of #ahhg4 ,range of capacity over #fj per cent41 and can therefore be regulated to work continuously for the lightest or heaviest trains4 ,never fails to lift promptly hot or cold water4 ,no service on a locomotive is sufficiently severe to permanently stop its working4 ,should the jet break from any interruption of the steam or water supply1 the ,injector will ,,restart ,,itself as soon as the supply is resumed4 ,,adjusts ,,itself to varying steam pressures without waste of water4 ,increases quantity of water with increase of steam1 and vice versa4 ,very simple to operate4 ,started by pulling out the lever4 ,stopped by pushing in the lever4 ,descriptive ,circular ,price ,list sent on application to office and works1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,established1 #ahca4 ,annual ,capacity1 #fjj4 ,baldwin ,locomotive ,works ,,burnham1 ,,parry1 ,,williams ,,co41 ,,proprietors1 ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,illustration ,broad and ,narrow ,gauge ,locomotives4 ,mine ,locomotives4 ,plantation ,locomotives4 ,compressed ,air ,locomotives4 ,logging ,locomotives4 ,noiseless ,motors and ,steam ,street ,cars4 ,all important parts made to ,standard ,gauges and ,templates4 ,like parts of different engines of same class perfectly interchangeable4 ,,geo4 ,,westinghouse1 ,,jr41 ,president4 ,,john ,,caldwell1 ,treasurer4 ,t4 ,w4 ,,welsh1 ,superintendent4 ,w4 ,w4 ,,card1 ,secretary4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,westinghouse1 ,general ,agent4 ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,air ,,brake ,,company1 ,pittsburgh1 ,pa41 ,u4,s4,a41 ,,manufacturers ,,of ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,automatic ,,brake1 ,,westinghouse ,,locomotive ,,driver ,,brake1 ,,vacuum ,,brakes 7,westinghouse ,smith ,patents71 ,,westinghouse ,,air ,,brake4 ,the ,automatic ,freight ,brake is essentially the same apparatus as the ,automatic ,brake for passenger cars1 except that the various parts are one piece of mechanism1 and is sold at a very low price4 ,the saving in accidents1 flat wheels1 brakemen's wages1 and the increased speed possible with perfect safety1 will repay the cost of its application within a very short time4 ,the 8,,automatic0 has proved itself to be the most efficient train and safety brake known4 ,its application is instantaneous2 it can be operated from any car in the train1 if desired1 and should the train separate1 or a hose or pipe fail1 it applies automatically4 ,a ,,guarantee is given customers against ,,loss from ,,patent ,,suits on the apparatus sold them4 ,,full ,,information ,,furnished ,,on ,,application4 ,,pittsburgh ,,locomotive ,,and ,,car ,,works1 ,,pittsburgh1 ,,pa4 ,,manufacturers ,,of ,,locomotive ,,engines ,,for ,,broad ,,or ,,narrow ,,gauge ,,roads ,from standard designs1 or according to specifications1 to suit purchasers4 ,,tanks1 ,,locomotive ,,or ,,stationary ,,boilers ,furnished at ,short ,notice4 ,d4 ,a4 ,,stewart1 ,pres't4 ,d4 ,a4 ,,wightman1 ,sup't4 ,,wilson ,,miller1 ,sec4 and ,treas4 ,illustration ,,brooks ,,locomotive ,,works ,,dunkirk1 ,n4 ,y4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,brooks1 ,president and ,superintendent4 ,m4 ,l4 ,,hinman1 ,secretary and ,treasurer4 ,r4 ,j4 ,,gross1 ,traveling ,agent4 ,builders of all classes of ,,locomotive ,,engines4 ,all work constructed accurately to ,standard ,gauges and ,steel-,bushed ,templates4 ,we guarantee the interchangeability of like parts of different ,engines of the same class4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,standard ,,steel ,,works4 ,,tires ,,standard ,,tires ,,philadelphia ,,steel ,,castings ,from #a-d to #ae1jjj lbs4 weight1 ,true to pattern1 sound and solid1 of unequalled strength1 toughness1 and durability4 ,an invaluable substitute for forgings1 or for cast- iron requiring three-fold strength4 ,gearing of all kinds1 ,shoes1 ,dies1 ,hammer-,heads1 ,cross-,heads for ,locomotives1 etc4 #dj1jjj ,crank ,shafts1 and #cj1jjj ,gear ,wheels of this ,steel now running1 prove its superiority over other ,steel ,castings4 ,,specialties3 ,,crank ,,shafts1 ,,cross-,,heads1 ,,and ,,gearings1 ,steel ,castings of ,every ,description4 ,please send for ,circulars4 ,address ,,chester ,,steel ,,castings ,,co41 ,works1 ,,chester1 ,,penn4 ,office1 ,no4 #djg ,,library ,,street1 ,,philadelphia4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,inconsistent hyphenation was not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs1 outside quotations1 and usually close to their first reference in the text4 ,the index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,text uses both 8employs0 and 8employes04 ,some tables have been rearranged to make them narrower4