,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,argumentation ,,and ,,debate ,illustration ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,boston ,,chicago ,,dallas ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,limited ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melbourne ,,the ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,of ,,canada1 ,ltd4 ,,toronto ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,argumentation ,,and ,,debate ,,by ,,victor ,,alvin ,,ketcham1 ,b4,a41 ,,ll4,b4 ,,assistant ,,professor ,,in ,,the ,,ohio ,,state ,,university ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #aiag ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #aiad1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,set up and electrotyped4 ,published ,may1 #aiad4 ,reprinted ,january1 #aiae2 ,july1 #aiaf2 ,march1 #aiag4 ,norwood ,press3 ,berwick ,smith ,co41 ,norwood1 ,mass41 ,u4,s4,a4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,preface ,the object of this book is to furnish practical directions for the preparation and presentation of oral and written arguments4 ,teachers of ,argumentation and ,debate have come to realize that interest can best be stimulated and practical results best secured by omitting the theoretical forms of reasoning at first1 and leading the student directly to the actual work of building up an argument4 ,the technical name of a logical process has little to do with its practical application4 ,this fact is well illustrated by the constant use of arguments in our conversation3 moreover1 the student who enters upon this work is sufficiently advanced to appreciate the difference between truth and error4 ,for these reasons the book is divided into two parts1 the first of which deals with the ,practice of ,argumentation and ,debate4 ,after the student has had some experience in constructing and presenting arguments he is better fitted to make practical application of the theoretical principles of argumentation which are presented in the second part of this book under the head of the ,theory of ,argumentation and ,debate4 ,those teachers who prefer to follow the old order of presentation can do so by taking up the ,theory of ,argumentation and ,debate after completing the chapter on ,collecting ,evidence and before taking up the chapter on ,constructing the ,brief4 ,since ,argumentation and ,debate has come to be a regular course of study in almost every college and university and in many of our larger preparatory and high schools1 there has been a tendency among text-book writers to multiply rules regarding every phase of the subject4 ,by consulting various works it will be found that no less than sixteen different rules have been formulated for the construction of the brief alone4 ,one book contains as many as thirteen of these4 ,to the average student the result is confusion rather than enlightenment4 ,one of the objects of the author has been to remedy this condition of affairs by attempting to state clear-cut rules1 which1 though covering all contingencies1 are limited to what is essential and practical4 ,in regard to illustrations and examples the same idea has been carried out4 ,the order in which the subjects are discussed is that dictated by actual practice4 ,the object has been to lead the student step by step1 to point out all the difficulties along the way1 and to show by precept and example how they may be overcome4 ,after the essential definitions are given and the importance of the subject upon which he is entering is set forth1 the student is shown where to find1 and how to choose and express1 a proposition for argument4 ,he is then directed how to analyze that proposition for the purpose of finding out what he must do in order to establish its truth or falsity4 ,next1 he is informed of the sources of evidence bearing upon the proposition1 and how such evidence is to be collected and used4 ,directions for constructing a brief out of this evidence are then presented and the way in which the finished argument is to be developed is set forth4 ,the psychological development of an argument is here for the first time given full consideration4 ,following this the student is shown how to defend his own argument and overthrow that of his opponent4 ,finally1 instructions are given for delivering the argument in the most effective manner4 ,even without the aid of an instructor the student could follow the argumentative process through to the end4 ,the exercises given are intended to be practical and to assure a thorough working knowledge of the discussion4 ,the material in the appendix may be used at the discretion of the instructor4 ,the prevalence of references to the ,lincoln-,douglas ,debates is intentional and arises from the fact that the circumstances under which these debates occurred1 the personalities of the participants1 and the argumentative excellence of the discussions make them especially useful to the student4 ,the writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to all those who have heretofore written upon this subject as well as to the students whom it has been his pleasure to instruct4 ,he wishes especially to acknowledge the assistance of ,professor ,raymond ,m4 ,alden1 who gave a careful reading to the greater part of the manuscript and made many helpful suggestions4 ,,victor ,,alvin ,,ketcham4 ,,columbus1 ,,ohio1 ,february #a1 #aiad4 ,,contents ,,part ,i ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,argumentation ,,and ,,debate ,,chapter ,i ,,definition ,,and ,,importance ,,of ,,argumentation ,section ,page ,i4 ,definitions #c ,,ii4 ,the ,object of ,argumentation #e ,,iii4 ,educational ,importance of ,argumentation #f ,,iv4 ,practical ,importance of ,argumentation #g ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,proposition ,i4 ,the ,subject-,matter of the ,proposition #i #a4 ,the subject must be interesting #i #b4 ,subjects for first practice should be those of which the debater has a general knowledge #aa #c4 ,the subject must be debatable #ab ,,ii4 ,the ,wording of the ,proposition #ac #a4 ,the proposition should be so narrowed as to embody only one central idea #ad #b4 ,the proposition should be stated in the affirmative #ae #c4 ,the proposition should contain no ambiguous words #af #d4 ,the proposition should be worded as simply and as briefly as is consistent with the foregoing requirements #ah ,,chapter ,,iii ,,analyzing ,,the ,,proposition ,i4 ,the ,importance of ,analysis #ba ,,ii4 ,essential ,steps in ,analysis #bb #a4 ,a broad view of the subject #bb #b4 ,the origin and history of the question #bc #c4 ,definition of terms #bd #d4 ,narrowing the question #bg 7#a7 ,excluding irrelevant matter #bg 7#b7 ,admitting matters not vital to the argument #bh #e4 ,contrasting the affirmative arguments with those of the negative #bi ,,iii4 ,the ,main ,issues #cf ,,chapter ,,iv ,,evidence ,i4 ,sources of ,evidence #ci #a4 ,personal knowledge #ci #b4 ,personal interviews #dj #c4 ,personal letters #da #d4 ,current literature #db #e4 ,standard literature #de #f4 ,special documents #df 7#a7 ,reports and pamphlets issued by organizations #df 7#b7 ,reports and documents issued by the government #dh ,,ii4 ,recording ,evidence #ea #a4 ,use small cards or sheets of paper of uniform size #ec #b4 ,place only one fact or point on each card #ec #c4 ,write only on one side of the card #ec #d4 ,express the idea to be put on the card in the simplest and most direct terms #ed #e4 ,make each card complete in itself #ed #f4 ,in recording material for refutation put an exact statement of the argument to be refuted at the top of the card #ee #g4 ,state the main issue or subject to which the evidence relates at the top of the card #ee #h4 ,state the source from which the evidence is taken at the bottom of the card #ef ,,iii4 ,selecting ,evidence #eh #a4 ,the evidence must come from the most reliable source to which it can be traced #eh #b4 ,a person quoted as authority must be unprejudiced1 in full possession of the facts1 and capable of giving expert testimony on the point at issue #fj #c4 ,evidence should be examined to determine whether there are attendant circumstances which will add to its weight #fb #d4 ,the selection of evidence must be fair and reasonable #fd #e4 ,the position and arguments of the opposition should be taken into consideration #fe #f4 ,that evidence which will appeal most strongly to those to whom the argument is to be addressed should be selected #ff ,,iv4 ,the ,amount of ,evidence ,required #fh ,,chapter ,v ,,constructing ,,the ,,brief ,i4 ,the ,purpose of the ,brief #gb ,,ii4 ,method of ,constructing the ,brief #gc ,,iii4 ,rules for ,constructing the ,brief #gf #a4 ,a brief should be composed of three parts3 ,introduction1 ,proof1 and ,conclusion #gf #b4 ,each statement in a brief should be a single complete sentence #gg #c4 ,the relation which the different statements in a brief bear to each other should be indicated by symbols and indentations #gg #d4 ,the introduction should contain the main issues together with a brief statement of the process of analysis by which they were found #gi #e4 ,the main statements in the proof should correspond to the main issues set forth in the introduction1 and should read as reasons for the truth of the proposition #hd #f4 ,every statement in the proof must read as a reason for the statement to which it is subordinate #he #g4 ,statements introducing refutation must state clearly the argument to be refuted #hg #h4 ,the conclusion should be a summary of the main arguments just as they stand in the proof of the brief and should close with an affirmation or denial of the proposition in the exact words in which it is phrased #hi ,specimen student brief #ia ,,chapter ,,vi ,,constructing ,,the ,,argument ,i4 ,attention--,aroused by the ,introduction #ie #a4 ,kinds of attention #if ,a4 ,natural attention #if ,b4 ,assumed attention #ig #b4 ,methods of securing proper attention #ih ,a4 ,immediate statement of purpose #ih ,b4 ,illustrative story #ajj ,c4 ,quotations #aja ,,ii4 ,interest--,maintained by the ,proof #ajb #a4 ,necessity #ajc #b4 ,methods of maintaining interest #ajc ,a4 ,appropriate treatment #ajc a4 ,adaptation to speaker or writer #ajc b4 ,adaptation to audience or reader #ajc c4 ,adaptation to time or occasion #ajf ,b4 ,logical structure #ajf ,c4 ,style #ajg a4 ,elements of style #ajh 7#a7 ,vocabulary #ajh 7#b7 ,sentences #aji 7#c7 ,paragraphs #aaj b4 ,qualities of style #aaj 7#a7 ,clearness #aaj 7#b7 ,force #aag 7#c7 ,elegance #abj ,,iii4 ,desire--,created by the ,conclusion #aba #a4 ,necessity #aba #b4 ,interest #abb ,a4 ,convenience #abb ,b4 ,pleasure #abc ,c4 ,profit #abc #c4 ,jealousy1 vanity1 and hatred #abd #d4 ,ambition #abd #e4 ,generosity #abe #f4 ,love of right and justice #abe #g4 ,love of country1 home1 and kindred #abe ,,chapter ,,vii ,,rebuttal ,i4 ,preparation for ,rebuttal #abi #a4 ,sources of material for rebuttal #abi ,a4 ,material acquired in constructing the argument #abi ,b4 ,books1 papers1 and documents #aca ,c4 ,questions #acc #b4 ,arrangement of rebuttal material #aci ,a4 ,classification of cards #adj ,b4 ,arranging books1 papers1 and documents #adb ,c4 ,the summary and closing plea #adc ,,ii4 ,presentation of ,rebuttal #adf #a4 ,attention to argument of opponent #adf #b4 ,selecting arguments to be refuted #adg #c4 ,reading quotations #adi #d4 ,teamwork #adi #e4 ,treatment of opponents #aej #f4 ,the summary and closing plea #aeb ,,chapter ,,viii ,,delivering ,,the ,,argument ,i4 ,methods of delivering the argument #aec #a4 ,reading #aec #b4 ,memorizing the argument verbatim #aed #c4 ,memorizing the argument by ideas #aee ,,ii4 ,physical preparation for delivery #aeh #a4 ,position #aei #b4 ,voice #afj #c4 ,emphasis #afb #d4 ,key1 rate1 and inflection #afb #e4 ,gesture #afd #f4 ,transitions #afe #g4 ,presenting charts #aff ,,iii4 ,mental preparation for delivery #afg #a4 ,directness #afg #b4 ,earnestness #afi #c4 ,confidence #agj ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,argumentation ,,and ,,debate ,,chapter ,i ,,inductive ,,argument ,i4 ,the ,application of ,processes of ,reasoning to ,argumentation #age ,,ii4 ,inductive ,reasoning #agf ,,iii4 ,the ,application of ,inductive ,reasoning to ,inductive ,argument #agi ,,iv4 ,requirements for an ,effective ,inductive ,argument #ahb #a4 ,perfect inductions #ahb #b4 ,imperfect inductions #ahc ,a4 ,the number of specific instances supporting the conclusion must be sufficiently large to offset the probability of coincidence #ahc ,b4 ,the class of persons1 events1 or things about which the induction is made must be reasonably homogeneous #ahe ,c4 ,the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion must be fair examples #ahf ,d4 ,careful investigation must disclose no exceptions #ahg ,e4 ,the conclusion must be reasonable #ahh ,,chapter ,,ii ,,deductive ,,argument ,i4 ,deductive ,reasoning #aij ,,ii4 ,the ,application of ,deductive ,reasoning to ,deductive ,argument #aif ,,iii4 ,the ,enthymeme #bja ,,chapter ,,iii ,,argument ,,from ,,causal ,,relation ,i4 ,argument from ,effect to ,cause #bjh #a4 ,the alleged cause must be sufficient to produce the effect #baj #b4 ,no other cause must have intervened between the alleged cause and the effect #baa #c4 ,the alleged cause must not have been prevented from operating #bab ,,ii4 ,argument from ,cause to ,effect #bac #a4 ,the observed cause must be sufficient to produce the alleged effect #bae #b4 ,when past experience is invoked it must show that the alleged effect has always followed the observed cause #bae #c4 ,no force must intervene to prevent the observed cause from operating to produce the alleged effect #baf #d4 ,the conclusion established should be verified by positive evidence whenever possible #bag ,,iii4 ,argument from ,effect to ,effect #bah ,,chapter ,,iv ,,argument ,,from ,,analogy ,i4 ,the two factors in the analogy must be alike in all particulars which affect the conclusion #bbh ,,ii4 ,the alleged facts upon which the analogy is based must be true #bca ,,iii4 ,the conclusion established by the analogy should be verified by positive evidence whenever possible #bcb ,,chapter ,v ,,fallacies ,i4 ,fallacies of ,induction #bce #a4 ,the number of specific instances relied upon to support the conclusion should be determined #bce #b4 ,the class of persons1 events1 or things about which the induction is made should be scrutinized with a view to determining whether it is homogeneous #bcf #c4 ,whether or not the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion are fair examples should be determined #bcf #d4 ,a search should be made for exceptions to the rule stated by the induction #bcg #e4 ,the induction should be examined with a view to determining its reasonableness #bcg ,,ii4 ,fallacies of ,deduction #bch #a4 ,material fallacies #bch #b4 ,logical fallacies #bci 7#a7 ,the undistributed middle #bci 7#b7 ,the illicit process #bdd 7#c7 ,irrelevancy of the premises1 or ignoring the question #bde ,a4 ,the appeal to passion1 prejudice1 or humor #bdf ,b4 ,the personal attack upon an opponent #bdf ,c4 ,the personal attack upon the person or persons concerned in the controversy #bdf ,d4 ,the appeal to custom and tradition #bdg ,e4 ,shifting ground #bdh ,f4 ,refuting an argument which has not been advanced #bdh ,g4 ,arguing on a related proposition #bdh 7#d7 ,begging the question #bdi ,a4 ,arguing in a circle #bdi ,b4 ,directly assuming the point at issue #bej ,c4 ,indirectly assuming the point at issue #bea ,,iii4 ,fallacies of ,causal ,relation #beb #a4 ,fallacies of the argument from effect to cause #beb 7#a7 ,mistaking coincidence for cause #bec 7#b7 ,mistaking an effect for a cause #bed 7#c7 ,mistaking a subsequent cause for a real cause #bed 7#d7 ,mistaking an insufficient cause for a sufficient cause #bee #b4 ,fallacies of the argument from cause to effect #bee #c4 ,fallacies of the argument from effect to effect #bef ,,iv4 ,fallacies of the ,argument from ,analogy #bef ,,chapter ,,vi ,,refutation ,i4 ,revealing a ,fallacy #bfa ,,ii4 ,reductio ad ,absurdum #bfb ,,iii4 ,the ,dilemma #bfc ,,iv4 ,residues #bfe ,v4 ,inconsistencies #bfg ,,vi4 ,adopting an ,opponent's ,evidence #bfh ,,part ,i ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,argumentation ,,and ,,debate ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,argumentation ,,and ,,debate ,,chapter ,i ,,definition ,,and ,,importance ,,of ,,argumentation ,i4 ,definitions4 ,argumentation is the art of persuading others to think or act in a definite way4 ,it includes all writing and speaking which is persuasive in form4 ,the salesman persuading a prospective customer to buy goods1 the student inducing his fellow-student to contribute to the funds of the athletic association1 the business or professional man seeking to enlarge his business and usefulness1 and the great orator or writer whose aim is to control the destiny of nations1 all make use of the art of argumentation to attain their various objects4 ,these illustrations serve but to indicate the wide field of thought and action which this subject includes4 ,each instance in this broad field1 which demands the use of the art of argumentation1 is subject to the same general laws that govern the construction and presentation of formal arguments4 ,formal arguments may be either written or oral1 but by far the greater benefit to the student of argumentation results from the delivery of oral arguments1 for it is in this form that he will be most frequently railed upon to use his skill4 ,debating is the oral presentation of arguments under such conditions that each speaker may reply directly to the arguments of the opposing speaker4 ,the debate is opened by the first speaker for the affirmative4 ,he is then followed by the first speaker for the negative1 each side speaking alternately until each man has presented his main speech4 ,after all the main speeches have been delivered the negative opens the rebuttal4 ,the speakers in rebuttal alternate negative and affirmative4 ,this order gives the closing speech to the affirmative4 ,practice in this kind of formal debate should go hand in hand with the study of the text after the first five chapters have been mastered4 ,the first arguments1 however1 should be individual arguments written out for the purpose of enabling the student to apply the rules regarding their form and development4 ,a proposition in argumentation is the formal statement of a subject for debate4 ,it begins with the word 8,resolved10--followed by the statement of the subject matter of the controversy1 and worded in accordance with the rules laid down in the next chapter4 ,in formal debate it is always expressed2 as for example1 8,resolved1 that the ,federal ,government should levy a progressive income tax40 ,in other forms of argumentation it may be only implied1 as in the case of the salesman selling goods1 the student soliciting subscriptions1 the business man arguing for consolidation1 or the politician pleading for reform4 ,nevertheless1 it is always advisable for the speaker or writer to have clearly in mind a definite proposition as a basis upon which to build his argument4 ,the proposition for the salesman might be1 8,resolved1 that ,james ,fox ought to buy a piano20 for the student solicitor1 8,resolved1 that ,george ,clark ought to give ten dollars to the athletic fund20 for the business man1 8,resolved1 that all firms engaged in the manufacture of matches should consolidate20 and for the politician1 8,resolved1 that the tariff schedule on necessaries should be lowered40 ,this framing of a definite1 clear-cut proposition will prevent wandering from the subject and give to the argument the qualities of clearness1 unity1 and relevancy4 ,referring to the definition with which this chapter opened the student should note that it defines argumentation as an art4 ,while it is true that argumentation must be directed in accordance with scientific principles1 and while it is also true that it has an intimate relation with the science of logic1 yet it is primarily an art in which skill1 tact1 diplomacy1 and the finer sensibilities must be utilized to their fullest extent4 ,in this respect argumentation is an art as truly as music1 sculpture1 poetry1 or painting4 ,the successful debater must be a master of this art if he hopes to convince and persuade real men to his way of thinking and thus to direct their action4 ,,ii4 ,the object of argumentation4 ,the object of argumentation is not only to induce others to accept our opinions and beliefs in regard to any disputed matter1 but to induce them to act in accordance with our opinions and beliefs4 ,the end of argumentation is action4 ,the form which this action is to take depends upon the nature of the disputed matter4 ,it may be only an action of the mind resulting in a definite belief which will exert an influence in the world for good or evil4 ,it may be the desire of the one who argues to persuade his hearers to advocate his opinions and beliefs and thus spread his doctrines to many other individuals4 ,it may be that some more decided physical action is desired1 such as the casting of a vote1 or the purchase of a certain article or commodity4 ,it may be the taking up of arms against a state1 race1 or nation1 or the pursuit of a definite line of conduct throughout the remainder of the life of the individual addressed4 ,these and many other phases of action may be the objects of the debater4 ,,iii4 ,educational importance of argumentation4 ,from the standpoint of mental discipline no study offers more practical training than does argumentation4 ,it cultivates that command of feeling and concentration of thought which keeps the mind healthily active4 ,the value of this kind of mental exercise cannot be overestimated4 ,especially is it valuable when the arguments are presented in the form of a debate1 in which the speaker is assigned to defend a definite position and must reply to attacks made on that position4 ,such work brings forth the best powers of mind possessed by the student4 ,it cultivates quickness of thought1 and the ability to meet men on their own ground and conduct a successful encounter on the battlefield of ideas4 ,another faculty of mind which debating develops is tact in the selection and presentation of material4 ,since the object of debate is action1 it is not enough that the speaker show his position to be the correct one4 ,he must do more than this2 he must make the hearer desire to act in accordance with that position4 ,otherwise the speaker will be in the same position as the savage who induces his fellows to conform to his ideas by the use of a club1--the moment the influence of the club is removed the subject immediately reverts to his former habits of thought and action4 ,if you convince a man that he is wrong by the mere force of argument1 he may be unable to answer your argument but he will feel like a man who has been whipped in a physical encounter--though technically defeated he still holds to his former opinions4 ,there is much truth in the old saying that1 8,he who is convinced against his will is of the same opinion still40 ,therefore1 the debater must do more than merely convince his hearer2 he must persuade him4 ,he must appeal to the reason1 it is true1 but he must also appeal to the emotions in such a way as to persuade his hearer to take some definite action in regard to the subject of dispute4 ,thus there are two things which the debater must attempt--conviction and persuasion4 ,if he convinces his hearer without persuading him1 no action is likely to follow4 ,if he persuades his hearer by appealing to his emotions1 the effect of his efforts will be short lived4 ,therefore1 the debater must train himself to persuade his hearer to act in accordance with his wishes as well as to find reasons for such action and give them4 ,finally1 debating cultivates the ability to use clear and forcible language4 ,practice of this kind gives the student a wealth of expression and a command of language which is not otherwise possible4 ,the obligation to reply directly to one's opponents makes it necessary for the student to have such command of his material that he can make it apply directly to the arguments he has just heard4 ,the educational value of debating is greater than that of any other form of oral or written composition because it cultivates3 7#a7 ,the command of feeling and concentration of thought which keep the mind healthily active1 7#b7 ,the ability to state a clear-cut proposition1 and to analyze it keenly by sifting the essential from the trivial1 thus revealing the real point at issue1 7#c7 ,the ability to find reasons and give them1 7#d7 ,the power to state facts and conditions with that tact and diplomacy which success demands1 7#e7 ,the power to persuade as well as convince1 7#f7 ,the power of clear and forcible expression4 ,certainly any subject which tends to develop these qualities ought to receive the most careful attention of the student4 ,,iv4 ,practical importance of argumentation4 ,from the practical standpoint no study offers better preparation for the everyday affairs of life than does argumentation and debate4 ,success in life is largely a matter of reducing every situation to a definite1 clear-cut proposition1 analyzing that proposition or picking out the main points at issue1 and then directing one's efforts to the solution of the problem thus revealed4 ,to be more concrete3 ,one young man accepts the first situation which is brought to his notice when he graduates1 and stays in a mediocre position for years2 another young man thinks carefully over the matter1 picks out a place where he is most likely to succeed1 and secures rapid promotion4 ,instances might be multiplied indefinitely to show the practical value of argumentative training4 ,the man who is an expert in the use of argument holds the master key to success in all lines4 ,it is an invaluable asset to every one who has to deal with practical affairs4 ,it matters not whether you are to address one individual or a thousand--whether you wish to persuade to a certain course of action1 your employer1 a committee1 a board of directors1 a town council1 the senate of the ,united ,states1 or an auditorium full of people1 knowledge of the use and application of the rules of argumentation1 and good training in the art of debate is a most valuable asset4 ,the business world1 the professional world1 and the political world eagerly welcome the man who can think and who can effectively present his thoughts4 ,in every business1 in every profession1 and in every department of government the skilled debater becomes the leader of men4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,proposition ,i4 ,the subject-matter of the proposition4 ,argumentation demands a definite concrete subject4 ,this subject must be one about which there is a dispute2 as for example1 the liquor question4 ,there is a great controversy as to what ought to be done in this matter4 ,many people contend that ,prohibition1 or the absolute forbidding of the making or selling of all intoxicating liquors1 is the best method of procedure4 ,on the other hand many people contend that ,high ,license1 or the regulating of the sale of such liquor1 is the best method of procedure4 ,this is a proper subject for a written argument or an oral debate1 because the writer or speaker may take either ,prohibition or ,high ,license and show why1 and in what way1 it would benefit the community4 ,if he defends ,prohibition he must prove that it will benefit the community more than ,high ,license4 ,if he defends ,high ,license he must prove that it will benefit the community more than ,prohibition4 ,this example illustrates what is meant by a definite1 concrete subject about which there is a dispute4 ,in selecting a subject for debate the following requirements should be carefully observed3 #a4 ,the subject must be interesting4 ,the subject must be one in which both speaker and audience have a real interest4 ,if the argument is written the subject must be one in which the readers are interested4 ,with this object in view1 the question selected should be practical rather than theoretical4 ,that is1 it should be a question the final determination of which will affect the welfare of the individual1 the community1 or the nation4 ,no longer can interest be aroused in a discussion of whether the pen is mightier than the sword1 or whether fire is more destructive than water4 ,objectionable in like manner are the following questions taken from a book on debating published in #ahfi3 8,who is the most useful to society3 the farmer or the mechanic801 8,from which do we derive the greatest amount of pleasure3 hope or memory801 8,are lawyers a benefit or a curse to society801 8,is there more pleasure in the pursuit than in the possession of a desired object801 8,who most deserves the esteem of mankind3 the poet1 the statesman1 or the warrior801 and 8,whether there is more pleasure derived from the eye or the ear80 ,these and all similar subjects should be avoided chiefly because they lack interest1 since no practical result can follow their determination4 ,as well might one try to interest a modern audience in the discussions of the ancient schoolmen1 who grew eloquent over a dispute as to how many angels could dance on the point of a needle1 whether there could be two hills without an intervening valley1 and whether ,god could make a yardstick with only one end4 ,if men are to be interested the speaker or writer must get close to the questions which affect their everyday life at home and at work4 ,if he does this and his ideas are worth defending he will always find willing hearers and readers4 ,among interesting subjects for debate1 questions of a local character hold an important place4 ,the advisability of building a town hall1 an athletic field1 or a new bridge is very often more productive of genuine interest than some weighty problem of national politics4 ,such questions come close to the tax-payers and residents of any community1 and at the same time appeal to their pride1 prejudice1 and ambition4 ,if the student will but look about him he will find an abundance of controverted local matter which will furnish excellent subjects for oral or written arguments4 ,after the student has exhausted local subjects he may turn his attention to the broader controversies of state and nation4 ,here the questions of taxation1 tariff1 commerce1 and international affairs afford ample scope for the full development of the debater's powers4 ,the list of subjects in the appendix may be found helpful in making a proper selection1 but preference should always be given to questions in which the people at large are showing an active interest at the time of the debate4 ,what this interest is may be determined by consulting the current numbers of the most widely circulating magazines and newspapers1 such as the 8,independent10 8,nation10 8,harper's ,weekly10 and the various city newspapers4 #b4 ,subjects for first practice should be those of which the debater has a general knowledge3 ,since the object of the first few debates is to make the student familiar with rules and forms1 the subjects chosen should be within the range of his information and experience4 ,for this purpose subjects of a local character are best adapted4 ,the student should have had some actual practice in debating before he attempts to take up questions which require extended investigation4 ,such propositions as those relating to the tariff1 taxation1 municipal problems1 and ,federal control of industrial and commercial activities should be reserved for more mature efforts4 ,the following subjects are fair examples of desirable questions for first practice3 7#a7 ,should students who attain a rank of ninety per cent1 or higher1 in their daily work be excused from examinations81 7#b7 ,should gymnasium work be made compulsory81 7#c7 ,should first year students at ---- be allowed to engage in intercollegiate athletics81 7#d7 ,should the class rushes at the beginning of the college year be discontinued81 7#e7 ,should the game of football be abolished8 #c4 ,the subject must be debatable4 ,if the first two requirements in regard to the choosing of a subject are observed it is not probable that the question will be undebatable4 ,however1 since it is always advisable to keep as far as may be from one-sided questions1 it is well to give this requirement some consideration4 ,in the first place1 the question must not be obviously true or obviously false4 ,the clearest examples of subjects objectionable because obviously true are found in geometry4 ,it is plain that an intelligent debate cannot be held on the proposition1 8,resolved1 that the sum of the three angles of a triangle is always equal to two right angles40 ,equally useless from the standpoint of argumentation is it to dispute that 8,all men are mortal10 that 8,huxley was a great scientist10 or that 8,health is more desirable than sickness40 ,nevertheless questions just as obvious as these are sometimes debated because their real character is concealed under cover of confused language4 ,the following question is a good example of this1 8,resolved1 that breach of trust in high office is reprehensible40 ,a moment's thought will convince the reader that such a proposition is not debatable because obviously true4 ,on the other hand propositions which are obviously false are sometimes worded so as to have an appearance of validity4 ,such is the following1 8,resolved1 that the only way to benefit humanity is to destroy the trusts40 ,to prove this proposition it is necessary to show that education1 religion1 and commerce cannot be made to benefit humanity4 ,the proposition is not debatable because it is obviously false4 ,in the second place1 the question must be one which is capable of approximate proof4 ,it is not debatable if it cannot be proved approximately true or false4 ,the debater must be able1 by means of reasoning based upon the facts of the case1 to arrive at a conclusion either for or against the proposition4 ,to make this possible1 there must be a common standard of comparison4 ,this common standard does not exist in the proposition 8,resolved1 that the lawyer is of more use to society than the doctor10 because their work is entirely unlike and both are necessary to the well-being of modern society4 ,on the other hand it does exist in the proposition 8,resolved1 that ,federal control of life insurance companies is preferable to ,state control40 ,this question hinges on the comparative efficiency of the two means of control1 namely1--,federal and ,state1 both of which are governmental in character4 ,therefore a common standard of comparison exists which enables the debater to show why one or the other method should be adopted4 ,thus far we have dealt with the subject-matter of the proposition and have seen that it must meet the three foregoing requirements4 ,we must now turn our attention to the phrasing of this subject in such a way that it will form a suitable proposition for debate4 ,,summary ,,of ,,requirements ,,for ,,the ,,subject-,,matter ,,of ,a ,,proposition #a4 ,the subject must be interesting4 #b4 ,subjects for first practice should be those of which the debater has a general knowledge4 #c4 ,the subject must be debatable4 ,,ii4 ,the wording of the proposition4 ,to those unfamiliar with the art of debate it often seems that when the subject is chosen but a moment's time is required to whip it into the form of an acceptable proposition for a debate4 ,this1 however1 is not the case2 the work is only half done4 ,after an interesting1 suitable1 and debatable subject has been chosen there still remains the important task of expressing that subject in proper form4 ,the subject for debate should be stated in the form of a resolution4 ,one form of such resolution would be1 8,resolved1 that the ,federal government should levy a progressive income tax40 ,a mere statement of the subject is not enough4 ,one may write a description of 8,the ,panama ,canal10 or a narrative on 8,the ,adventures of a ,civil ,engineer in ,panama10 or an exposition on 8,the ,cost of ,building the ,panama ,canal10 but for an argument one must take one side or the other of a resolution1 as for example1 8,resolved1 that the ,united ,states should fortify the ,panama ,canal40 ,this resolution is usually termed the ,proposition1 and corresponds to the motion1 resolution1 or bill presented in deliberative assemblies such as state legislatures or the branches of ,congress4 ,the proposition must contain one definite issue4 ,in it there must be no ambiguous words or phrases4 ,otherwise the debate is liable to degenerate into a mere quibble over words or a dispute as to the meaning of the proposition4 ,hence no issues will be squarely joined and after the debate is over1 neither the debaters1 the judges1 nor the audience will feel satisfied or have reason to believe that any progress has been made toward a right solution of the question4 ,the proposition for debate should be worded in accordance with the following rules3 #a4 ,the proposition should be so narrowed as to embody only one central idea4 ,in the beginning there is always a tendency to make the proposition cover too broad a field4 ,this is rather a defect of wording than of subject-matter4 ,let us take a proposition which is too broad1 and narrow it so that it will contain but a single idea4 ,for this purpose we may select the proposition1 8,resolved1 that freshmen should not be permitted to take part in athletics40 ,as it stands1 this proposition includes all freshmen everywhere and prohibits them from taking part in athletics of every kind4 ,in other words the field which it covers is too broad4 ,the proposition treats of two things1 freshmen and athletics4 ,let us first make the provision in regard to freshmen definite1 that is1 narrow it down to a field with definite limits4 ,we can do this by making it apply only to the freshmen of ,columbia ,university or of any other specified institution4 ,thus the collecting of material as well as the determination of the issues involved becomes a much simpler matter4 ,in the second place let us make the provision in regard to athletics more definite4 ,as the proposition stands it excludes freshmen from all athletics whatsoever1 including inter-class and inter-society as well as intercollegiate4 ,here again the field is too wide and some restriction must be placed upon the subject-matter4 ,therefore we insert the word 8intercollegiate0 before the word 8athletics0 in order that the field for discussion may be narrowed down to a single1 definite issue4 ,with these modifications the proposition now stands1 8,resolved1 that freshmen at ,columbia ,university should not be permitted to take part in intercollegiate athletics10 which is an entirely satisfactory proposition because it narrows the field of discussion to one definite1 central idea4 ,though this difficulty will doubtless present itself in a variety of forms1 the principles stated above as well as the illustration1 if kept in mind by the student1 will enable him to keep clear of this fault4 #b4 ,the proposition should be stated in the affirmative4 ,the first argument is always presented by the affirmative4 ,upon the affirmative rests the burden of proof and if the affirmative proves nothing the decision goes to the negative4 8,he who affirms must prove40 ,the affirmative has the burden of proving the proposition to be true1 the negative that of proving it false4 ,therefore the proposition must be worded in the affirmative4 ,this insures that some progress will have been made at the end of the first speech4 ,the burden of proof rests upon the party who has the risk of non-persuasion4 ,the risk of non-persuasion rests upon the party who would fail if no evidence were introduced4 ,we have seen that the affirmative would fail if no evidence were introduced1 because he who alleges must prove4 ,therefore the risk of non-persuasion rests on the affirmative4 ,to be more concrete1 if you are attempting to prove to a friend that he ought to do 7or ought not to do7 a certain thing1 you take the risk of not persuading him to do the thing that you ask1 i4 e4 the risk of non-persuasion is on you4 ,likewise the salesman who approaches a customer with the purpose of selling him a bill of goods incurs this same risk of non-persuasion1 because he may not be able to induce the customer to buy4 ,since1 as in the above cases1 the affirmative must be given a chance to prove something before the negative can reply1 the proposition should always be worded in the affirmative4 #c4 ,the proposition should contain no ambiguous words4 ,after the proposition has been narrowed down to a single idea and has then been stated in the affirmative1 it should be carefully scrutinized in order to determine whether it contains any ambiguous words4 ,ambiguous words have a meaning so broad that they may be taken in more than one sense4 ,such a word is 8,anarchist40 ,this word may refer to a lawless individual bent on assassination1 or to a peaceable individual who has merely the beliefs of an anarchist with no intention of putting them into practice4 ,almost all general terms such as 8,anarchist10 8,monroe ,doctrine10 8,civilization10 8,policy10 and 8,trusts10 should be avoided because they tend to make the proposition ambiguous4 ,when such terms are used they should be almost invariably accompanied by explanatory words4 ,the words selected for use in the proposition should have but one meaning and should be so plain that there can be no reasonable dispute as to their significance4 ,if this rule is not complied with the discussion will become a foolish quibble over the meaning of the proposition rather than an intelligent debate upon the merits of the question4 ,in the question1 8,resolved1 that trusts should be suppressed by law10 there are three ambiguous words1 7#a7 trusts1 7#b7 suppressed1 and 7#c7 law4 ,while these words may not be ambiguous in ordinary speaking or writing1 they are not sufficiently definite to be used in a proposition4 ,the word 8,trust0 has several meanings and several shades of meaning4 ,among these is the meaning which has recently been given to it1 indicating a combination of firms engaged in some special line of business1 as for example1 8,the ,sugar ,trust01 8,the ,oil ,trust01 8,the ,steel ,trust01 etc4 ,even this one meaning has different variations4 ,the term 8trust0 as used in this sense may refer to a mere combination of manufacturers1 to a monopoly1 or to a monopoly in restraint of trade4 ,in order to make the meaning of the proposition clear we may strike out the ambiguous term 8trusts0 and insert 8monopolies in restraint of trade40 ,the word 8suppressed0 in this connection may have two well defined meanings4 ,it may mean either destruction or regulation4 ,if the intent is that the question shall hinge on whether or not monopolies in restraint of trade should be destroyed or wiped out altogether1 the word 8dissolved0 or 8destroyed0 should be used4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it is intended that the issue shall be whether such organizations be allowed to exist in their present form1 but subject to governmental regulation which will suppress their evil effects on trade1 the word 8regulated0 should be used4 ,for the purpose in hand let us choose the latter meaning4 ,the term 8law0 is also somewhat ambiguous1 because there is more than one legal agency which could deal with such organizations4 ,therefore we will make plain which agency is intended by modifying the word 8law0 by the word 8,federal40 ,this makes the proposition1 as corrected1 read1 8,resolved1 that monopolies in restraint of trade should be regulated by ,federal law40 ,the proposition as thus worded is fairly free from ambiguity and leaves little opportunity for quibbling over the meaning of the words in which it is stated4 ,the proposition must be so worded as to have the same meaning for both the affirmative and the negative1 and this meaning must be absolutely clear and unambiguous4 #d4 ,the proposition should be worded as briefly and simply as is consistent with the foregoing requirements4 ,after the proposition has been worded in accordance with the foregoing rules it should be carefully scrutinized to determine whether or not there is a simpler form in which it may be cast without sacrificing any of its excellencies4 ,the simpler the wording of the proposition the easier will be the work of determining the main issues and the subsequent work of preparing the argument4 ,in dealing with broad general problems such as questions of finance1 commerce1 and taxation1 it sometimes happens that some issue is brought in which is aside from the real merits of the controversy and yet so vitally connected with it as to be logically inseparable4 ,either side may present such material1 with disastrous results if their opponents have dealt solely with the real merits of the controversy4 ,an instance of this difficulty appeared in the debates of one of the ,inter-,state leagues4 ,for three or four successive years the questions chosen for the annual debates were of the character indicated above4 ,in many of the debates one or the other side of the controversy would bring up the constitutionality of the proposed measures4 ,the charge would be made that the proposition could not be decided in the affirmative because the proposed measure was contrary to the constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,in almost every case this question vitally affected the final adoption of the resolution1 although it could well be excluded from a discussion on the merits of the problem4 ,the question was especially exasperating1 inasmuch as the judges for the debates were almost always selected from the bench of the ,supreme ,court of the states composing the league and from the ,federal ,courts4 ,it was finally determined by the official board of the league to append the phrase 8,constitutionality conceded10 to all propositions in which there was any likelihood that the question of constitutionality could be made an issue4 ,thus in one instance the proposition adopted was1 8,resolved1 that the ,federal ,government should levy a progressive inheritance tax4 ,constitutionality conceded40 ,this did not in any way interfere with the simple wording of the proposition1 and it did effectually prevent the debate from hinging on an issue which would have prevented a full discussion of the merits of the question4 ,this method of excluding undesirable matter is preferable to an attempt to include any restriction in the body of the proposition4 ,the latter method is quite likely to lead to difficulties1 in the form of ambiguities and their attendant evils1 almost impossible to foresee when the proposition is framed4 ,in conclusion1 the debater must not forget that time spent in selecting a proper subject and wording it in accordance with the foregoing rules is time well spent4 ,it will make the great task which lies before him much easier1 and it will enable him to arrive at definite conclusions4 ,,summary ,,of ,,requirements ,,for ,,wording ,,the ,,proposition #a4 ,the proposition should be so narrowed as to embody only one central idea4 #b4 ,the proposition should be stated in the affirmative4 #c4 ,the proposition should contain no ambiguous words4 #d4 ,the proposition should be worded as briefly and simply as is consistent with the foregoing rules4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,selecting ,,and ,,phrasing ,,the ,,proposition #a4 ,write out three propositions in accordance with the rules stated in this chapter4 ,the subject-matter of these propositions should be purely local in character as suggested in the first and second sections4 #b4 ,phrase1 in proper form1 one proposition on each of the following subjects4 ,a4 ,sunday baseball4 ,b4 ,interstate commerce4 ,c4 ,labor unions4 ,d4 ,united ,states ,senators4 ,e4 ,prohibition4 ,f4 ,reciprocity4 #c4 ,apply the appropriate rules to each of the following propositions and point out where each is defective4 ,resolved1 that-- ,a4 ,we derive more pleasure from hope than from memory4 ,b4 ,wit and humor are the same4 ,c4 ,education ought to be compulsory4 ,d4 ,the law is a better profession than medicine4 ,e4 ,the ,federal ,government should levy a tax on large incomes and limit the amount of wealth which one man may possess4 ,f4 ,it is expedient for the ,united ,states to build a larger navy4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,analyzing ,,the ,,proposition ,i4 ,the importance of analysis4 ,the subject for argument has been determined and it has been reduced to a satisfactory proposition4 ,the next step is to analyze this proposition4 ,it is well to consider first the importance of this analysis in order that its true value may be appreciated1 and this preliminary step be not passed over hurriedly4 ,upon the success of the analysis depends in large measure the success of the argument4 ,this is true because the analysis shows just what must be proved in order to sustain or overthrow the proposition4 ,if the work has been done carefully the student will have confidence in the solidity of his argument4 ,he cannot feel secure if he suspects that his analysis is defective4 ,the question of analysis is not only of supreme importance in relation to a particular proposition for discussion1 but it is also of the greatest importance in all the practical affairs of life4 ,no mental quality is so necessary as the analytical habit of mind4 ,practically all the men whom history calls great have possessed in a large degree the habit of analyzing everything4 ,lincoln was in the habit of applying this analytical process not only to great affairs of state but to anything and everything which came beneath his notice4 ,he analyzed the actions of his fellow men1 the workings of a machine1 the nature of moral principles1 and the significance of political movements4 ,he was continually penetrating to the point of things1 visible and invisible1 and laying it bare4 ,everything which comes up for personal action should be analyzed and the vital point at issue determined4 ,nothing should be done blindly or in a spirit of trusting to luck or chance4 ,instead of voting as the majority seem to be voting in a class meeting1 analyze the issue and vote according to the light revealed by that analysis4 ,instead of entering some business or profession blindly and in the hope that something will turn up1 analyze the situation and determine rationally what ought to be done4 ,for the right determination of these practical affairs no better preparation can be made than the careful analysis of propositions for debate4 ,,ii4 ,essential steps in analysis4 #a4 ,a broad view of the subject4 ,in the first place the student must know something about the subject-matter of the proposition4 ,if the question is of a local character and one with which he is familiar1 the work of analysis may be begun at once4 ,the proposition can be scrutinized1 its exact meaning determined1 and the proof for its establishment or overthrow decided upon4 ,if the question be one with which the student is not familiar1 his first duty is to become acquainted in a general way with the subject-matter4 ,he should carefully examine the proposition to see just what subject-matter is included and then consult someone familiar with its substance1 or read some material which appears to treat the subject in a general way4 ,here confusion is likely to result if an attempt is made to substitute reading for thinking4 ,the mind of the investigator should be kept open1 free1 and independent4 ,he should not allow the opinions of men1 either oral or written1 to cause him to depart from the precise wording of the proposition4 ,his present object is to determine its limits1 meaning and significance4 ,when a general knowledge of the subject has been acquired1 sufficient to enable the student to reason about the question1 he should next consider the origin and history of the question4 #b4 ,the origin and history of the question4 ,the meaning of a question must be determined in the light of the conditions which gave rise to its discussion4 ,for this reason it is well to find out just how this question came to be a subject of debate4 ,for example1 the people of this country a few years ago were debating the proposition1 8,resolved1 that the ,federal ,government should control all life insurance companies operating within the ,united ,states40 ,to one unacquainted with the facts of the case at that time the proposition appears at first glance to lack point4 ,why should anyone want ,federal control of insurance companies8 ,what difference does it make as to who controls them or whether they are controlled at all8 ,these questions are answered directly when we come to study the origin of the proposition4 ,until within a few months of the discussions no one had thought of debating this proposition4 ,the insurance companies had always been under the control of the states in which they operated4 ,then suddenly it came to light that these companies were grossly mismanaged4 ,dishonesty had characterized the administration of their affairs4 ,this served to cast grave doubt on the efficiency of state control4 ,therefore the stronger arm of the ,federal government was suggested as a remedy for the evils which the states had been unable to prevent4 ,the real heart of the controversy1 which a study of the origin of the question revealed was 8,will the control of insurance companies by the ,federal government be more efficient than that exercised by the state governments80 ,thus the real point at issue was made clear through the origin of the question4 ,in the search for the main issues1 the history of the question is often important4 ,however1 the tendency of the inexperienced debater is to dwell too long upon this part of the argument4 ,actual practice often reveals the fact that such a history causes the audience or reader to lose interest4 ,this is especially true if its bearing on the argument is not immediately shown4 ,the history of the question should1 however1 receive serious consideration1 and any facts which bear directly upon its solution should be stated in brief and concise form4 ,when the question has undergone a change because of shifting conditions1 its history becomes especially important4 ,very often the original significance of a controversy becomes entirely changed by subsequent happenings4 ,in such a case the history of the question should be resorted to for the purpose of finding out the changes through which the original dispute has passed and determining the exact issues involved at the present time4 #c4 ,definition of terms4 ,before proceeding farther it is well to examine each word in the proposition4 ,now that a general idea of the significance of the proposition has been obtained1 and the main point of the controversy reached through the study of the origin and history of the question1 the task of defining terms may be undertaken in an intelligent manner4 ,let it be understood at the outset that a dictionary definition is not satisfactory4 ,a dictionary gives every meaning which can be attached to a given word and thus covers a broad1 general field4 ,but when a word is used in a proposition for debate it is used in a special and restricted sense4 ,the meaning depends largely on the context of the proposition4 ,the origin and history of the question1 the meaning which expert writers on this particular subject have attached to the words1 and the present conditions must be considered in determining the precise meaning of the terms4 ,the words of a proposition which need definition are very often so grouped that the meaning of a phrase or combination of words taken as a whole must be determined4 ,here it is plain that dictionary definitions1 even if satisfactory in other respects1 would be entirely inadequate4 ,in the question in the last chapter1 8,resolved1 that monopolies in restraint of trade should be regulated by ,federal law10 we find a necessity for the definition of both a term and a phrase4 ,the term 8regulate0 may not in this instance be given the broad meaning which a dictionary definition attaches to it4 ,we must first look at the context of the proposition in order to find out to what field of authority we should go for a proper definition4 ,the proposition specified regulation by ,federal law2 therefore we must go to the law for our definition of the term which indicates the action the law is to take4 ,but even here we need not be satisfied with the broad legal definition of the term 8regulate40 ,the field included by the question is obviously a commercial field4 ,the agencies which would come under this regulation are for the most part engaged in interstate commerce4 ,therefore the power to regulate would be placed under that clause of the ,united ,states constitution which expressly gives ,congress the power to regulate commerce4 ,we may then rely upon the definition which the courts have placed upon the term 8regulate0 when used in this connection4 ,by consulting ,black's ,constitutional ,law1#a an eminent authority on this subject1 we find that the power to 8regulate0 has never been held to include the power to destroy4 ,this eliminates a possible meaning4 ,by consulting some of the decisions of the ,united ,states courts in which this term has been defined1 we are given to understand that to 8regulate0 commerce implies that 8an intention to promote and facilitate it1 and not to hamper or destroy it1 is naturally to be attributed to ,congress40 7,texas ,p4 ,r4 ,co4 v4 ,interstate ,commerce ,commission1 #afb ,u4 ,s41 #aig2 ,interstate ,commerce ,commission v4 ,alabama ,midland ,ry4 ,co41 #gd ,fed41 #gae74 ,therefore we are warranted in concluding that to 8regulate0 in this proposition means such control by the ,federal law as will promote the best commercial interests of the country at large4 ,footnote #a3 ,p4 #aid4 ,it is thus seen that both the definition of the term and the source from which it is taken are determined by the context of the proposition4 ,if the context of the proposition shows that legal definitions are required1 legal authorities must be consulted4 ,if the context of the proposition shows that an economic definition is required1 economic authorities should be consulted4 ,in whatever field of knowledge the context of the proposition lies1 the authoritative definitions generally accepted in these branches of learning should be consulted4 ,in defining the phrase 8monopolies in restraint of trade0 the student should consult the same class of authorities utilized in defining the term 8regulate40 ,the generally accepted definitions used by prominent writers may be relied upon with safety1 since they are usually taken directly from authoritative reports and decisions4 ,one of the most important requisites of a definition is that it be reasonable4 ,it must appear1 in the light of all the circumstances of the case1 to be the most obvious and natural definition which can possibly be produced4 ,in no case must it appear that the speaker or writer has laboriously searched for a definition which will conform to his view of the proposition4 ,equally fatal is a highly technical definition which ignores its evident meaning4 ,no trickery based upon a technicality should be tolerated4 ,the definition presented must be so reasonable that everyone concerned 7with the possible exception of one's opponents7 will willingly admit its validity4 #d4 ,narrowing the question4 ,the next step in the analysis of the question is to narrow it down to the points which must be proved4 ,now that the meaning of the question is well understood this task ought not to be difficult4 ,nevertheless it demands the most earnest efforts of the student4 ,there are two steps in this process1 7a7 ,excluding irrelevant matter1 7b7 ,admitting matters not vital to the argument4 7a7 ,excluding irrelevant matter4 ,the first task is to cut away all surplusage4 ,the proposition as it now stands1 should be closely examined in order to determine just what must be proved4 ,neither the affirmative nor the negative should undertake the burden of proving more than is necessary4 ,in the discussion of the proposition 8,resolved1 that ,prohibition is preferable to ,high ,license10 it is not necessary for the affirmative to prove that temperance is a virtue4 ,the task before these debaters is to show only that prohibition is preferable to high license as a method of dealing with the liquor traffic4 ,it is not necessary for the negative to attempt to prove that temperance is not a virtue2 their task is to show only that high license is preferable to prohibition4 ,it is true that temperance as an abstract virtue is very closely related to the subject-matter of the proposition1 but it is not one of the real points at issue4 ,when the question has been narrowed down to the method of dealing with the liquor traffic1 each side may prove this point in the way which appears most effective4 ,each may assert that its method of control is preferable because theory and practice show it to be better for 7a7 social1 7b7 political1 and 7c7 economic reasons4 ,any other division of the subject which seems effective may be adopted4 ,it is evident from the above illustration that certain matters which are relevant to the general subject should be eliminated in order that the audience may understand just what must be proved4 ,everything that is not relevant to the proposition as stated should be excluded4 7b7 ,admitting matters not vital to the argument4 ,since the debater should not attempt to prove more than is necessary he should admit1 in the beginning1 such matters as may be admitted without detriment4 ,great care should be exercised at this point2 nothing should be admitted the full bearing and significance of which the debater does not understand4 ,only matters which may be admitted with safety should be included4 ,otherwise an opponent may seize upon the admitted matter and turn it to his own advantage4 ,furthermore1 the language used in making an admission should be carefully guarded lest an opponent ingeniously attach to it a meaning which was not intended4 ,with these cautions in mind it is well to continue the process of narrowing the question by admitting matters not vital to the argument4 ,these admissions should be made in the beginning in order that they may appear in their true light as free admissions4 ,for example1 in the last question discussed both sides may safely admit that neither plan will wholly eliminate intemperance4 ,the object is to adopt the plan which will minimize the effect of this evil4 ,in the question1 8,resolved1 that physical valuation of the property of a corporation is the best basis for fixing taxation values10 the affirmative may safely admit that no basis for fixing taxation values will work absolute justice to all tax-payers4 ,this places the affirmative speakers in position to make plain to their hearers that the method advocated will come nearer to the goal of absolute justice than any other plan4 ,in advocating any reform it is usually best to admit that it is not a cure-all for existent evils1 but that it will remedy such evils to a greater extent than any other measure4 ,in conclusion1 it is well to remember that these admissions and exclusions should be made plain rather than elaborate4 ,they should be stated in the introduction of the argument with such brevity and clearness that the audience will realize that it is being led directly to the vital issues4 #e4 ,contrasting the affirmative arguments with those of the negative4 ,thus far we have been concerned with finding out the vital point at issue4 ,it is here that the term question is most aptly applied to the proposition for debate1 because when this vital point is revealed it is always found to appear in the form of a question4 ,to be more specific1 we found that in analyzing the proposition1 8,resolved1 that the ,federal ,government should control all life insurance companies operating within the ,united ,states10 the vital point at issue as revealed by a study of the origin of the question was 8,will the control of insurance companies by the ,federal ,government be more efficient than that exercised by the ,state ,governments80 ,this treatment reveals the main point at issue in the form of a question4 ,it shows that the issue is between ,state control on one side as compared with ,federal control on the other4 ,the affirmative must advocate ,federal control and the negative must defend ,state control4 ,the burden of proof is on the affirmative1 for it must show that a change should be made in existing conditions4 ,the risk of non-persuasion is upon the affirmative1 because1 if the position advocated cannot be maintained1 existing conditions will continue4 ,it is well to remember that the burden of proof remains with the affirmative throughout the debate4 ,it is frequently said that the burden of proof 8shifts10 that is1 that when the affirmative has produced enough evidence to make out a prima facie case1 and has shown reason why the plan ought to be adopted1 then the burden of proof shifts to the negative and it becomes the duty of the negative to show why the plan should not be adopted4 ,this is not the correct view of the situation1 for the affirmative is bound to prove the proposition in the face of all opposition4 ,therefore the burden of proof never 8shifts20 it is the duty of producing evidence which 8shifts40 ,when the affirmative shows reason why the proposition should be maintained1 it puts upon the negative the duty of producing evidence to show that the affirmative reasoning is unsound or that there are more weighty arguments in favor of the negative4 ,thus it is that the duty of producing evidence shifts from one side to the other1 but the burden of proof remains on the same party throughout the discussion4 ,the question upon which the debate hinges must be answered in one way by one side and in just the opposite way by the opponents of that side4 ,in the question above referred to1 8,will the control of insurance companies by the ,federal ,government be more efficient than that exercised by the ,state ,governments801 the affirmative must answer 8,yes0 and the negative must answer 8,no40 ,at this point the next task of the analyst begins4 ,he must determine the main reasons why the affirmative should answer 8,yes0 and the negative should answer 8,no40 ,these main reasons when discovered and contrasted1 those on the affirmative with those on the negative1 will reveal the main issues of the proposition4 ,when these are found the process of analysis is completed4 ,in undertaking the task of contrasting the affirmative contentions with those of the negative1 the student must assume an absolutely unbiased attitude toward the proposition4 ,the importance of this impartial viewpoint cannot be too strongly emphasized4 ,to be able to view any subject with a mind free from prejudice is a most valuable asset4 ,with this proper mental attitude toward the proposition the analyst must take up both sides of the question and find the main arguments in support of each4 ,he should not be deluded into thinking that it is only necessary to study one side of the question4 ,a lawyer in preparing his case always takes into consideration the position of his opponent4 ,in fact1 so important is this task that many lawyers develop their antagonist's case before beginning work on their own1 and it frequently happens that more time is devoted to the arguments of the opposition than to the case upon which the lawyer is engaged4 ,this careful study of an opponent's arguments must always be included in the work of the debater1 not only in the analysis of the question but throughout the entire argumentative process4 ,the way in which this part of the analytical process should be carried out is best made plain by a concrete example4 ,we will take the proposition 8,resolved1 that immigration into the ,united ,states should be further restricted by law40 ,the origin of the question is found in the alarm shown by some people over the large number of undesirable foreigners coming to our shores4 ,the question is 8,should any of the immigrants now coming to our shores be prohibited from coming80 ,the affirmative say 8,yes10 and the negative1 8,no40 ,now to take the impartial viewpoint1 why should there be any further restriction of immigration2 why should the affirmative say 8,yes0 and the negative 8,no08 ,one of the chief affirmative arguments is that some of these immigrants are having a bad effect upon our country4 ,some of them are anarchists2 some are members of criminal societies such as the ,black ,hand2 some group by themselves in certain portions of large cities and form what are known as 8,little ,germanys01 8,little ,spains01 8,little ,italys01 etc42 some have contagious diseases2 some have a very low standard of living and thus tend to drag down the standard of living of the ,american workman2 some are illiterate and do not make good citizens2 some are easily made the dupes of city bosses and ward 8heelers0 and thus exert a harmful influence in our political affairs4 ,these and various other reasons may be brought to support the affirmative argument that immigration is having a bad effect upon our country4 ,in considering the matter carefully we come to the conclusion that these are the chief reasons why immigration should be further restricted4 ,now1 the unskilled debater would probably be content with framing these reasons into an argument and would proceed with a feeling that his position was impregnable4 ,the skilled debater1 however1 does not feel content until he has viewed the whole subject impartially4 ,why do we not have more stringent immigration laws8 ,it must be that the present laws are thought to be satisfactory4 ,why are they satisfactory8 ,it must be because they now exclude the worst class of immigrants4 ,upon investigation we find this to be true4 ,let us look at the problem from a slightly different point of view4 ,why do we allow all of these immigrants to come in8 ,they must be necessary to our welfare4 ,they are necessary to develop the natural resources of our country2 they add to the national power of production1 they possess a money value as laborers2 they ultimately become ,american citizens1 and their children1 educated in our public schools1 become the most ardent of young ,americans4 ,the above reflections from the standpoint of the negative lead us to ask a few questions which must be answered before we can answer the main question upon which the proposition hinges1 namely3 8,should any of the immigrants now coming into the ,united ,states be prohibited from coming80 ,these questions are1 so far as we have been able to determine3 8,are the present immigration laws satisfactory801 8,do we need all the immigrants now coming to us801 8,do the immigrants now coming to us have a bad effect upon our country80 ,these questions if answered 8,yes0 will establish the affirmative1 and likewise if answered 8,no0 will establish the negative4 ,we may therefore conclude that these three questions contain the main issues of the proposition4 ,the issues may be stated in different forms1 but1 if resolved to their essential elements1 they will ultimately be found in these three questions4 ,the next step in contrasting the arguments is to write them down in such form that corresponding arguments can be set over against each other4 ,for convenience we adopt the following form3 ,proposition3--,immigration should be further restricted by law4 ,affirmative argument ,negative argument ,immigration should be further ,immigration should not be further restricted1 because restricted1 because ,i4 ,it is a detriment to the ,i4 ,it is a benefit to the country1 for country1 for #a4 ,we now admit extreme #a4 ,the worst elements are now socialists and excluded4 anarchists4 #b4 ,they form undesirable #b4 ,they are soon assimilated4 groups of foreigners in the congested parts of cities4 #c4 ,they lower the standard of #c4 ,they furnish examples of living of the ,american thrift to ,american workman4 workmen4 #d4 ,many of the immigrants now #d4 ,they ultimately become good admitted do not make good citizens4 citizens4 ,,ii4 ,the present laws are not ,,ii4 ,the present laws are satisfactory1 for satisfactory1 for #a4 ,black ,hand societies show #a4 ,no law would exclude all that undesirable persons undesirable immigrants4 are admitted4 #b4 ,diseased persons are #b4 ,all persons having admitted4 contagious diseases are excluded4 #c4 ,steamship lines help to #c4 ,custom house officials are evade the immigrant laws4 diligent in enforcing the laws4 #d4 ,paupers are admitted4 #d4 ,paupers are not admitted4 ,,iii4 ,we do not need all the ,,iii4 ,we need all the immigrants now immigrants now coming to us1 coming to us1 for for #a4 ,the great necessity for #a4 ,we need them to develop our laborers to develop our natural resources4 natural resources has passed4 ,by contrasting the arguments thus tabulated we derive the following main issues4 ,i4 ,is immigration under existing conditions a detriment or a benefit to the country8 7,the answer depends upon the answers to these subordinate questions47 #a4 ,is the undesirable element excluded8 #b4 ,have the immigrants assimilated readily8 #c4 ,do they exert a detrimental influence upon the standard of living of the ,american workman8 #d4 ,do they make good citizens8 ,,ii4 ,are the present laws satisfactory8 #a4 ,are they the most effective in excluding undesirable immigrants that it is possible to enact8 #b4 ,do they exclude diseased persons8 #c4 ,do the present laws exclude paupers8 #d4 ,are the present laws enforced8 ,,iii4 ,do we need all the immigrants now coming to us8 #a4 ,do we still need all the immigrants we can get to develop our natural resources8 ,this arrangement of the affirmative and negative arguments places the whole matter1 so far as it has been worked out1 before the student in tangible form4 ,it also affords a basis for the formal statement of the main issues4 ,the plan of analysis thus set forth should now be examined with a critical eye4 ,here arise some of the most difficult problems of argumentation4 ,in the first place1 is the analysis presented an exhaustive one8 ,does it include the entire field of argument8 ,it includes the proposed immigration laws and their probable effects4 ,it includes the present laws and their effects4 ,from these two facts it is evident that the analysis covers the entire field of the proposed change in the immigration laws4 ,before passing final judgment upon the thoroughness of the analysis1 there are at least two other plans which may be applied to the question to see whether either of them will afford a better method of treatment than the foregoing4 ,the first of these plans includes the division of the question into three parts2 viz4 7#a7 political1 7#b7 social1 and 7#c7 economic4 ,an examination of the question just discussed will show that all the material suggested in the formal analysis could be grouped under one or the other of these heads4 ,for example1 the anarchists1 ,black ,hand societies1 etc4 would come under 8political20 the question of assimilation would come under 8social20 while the effect upon the ,american workman and the question of the development of our natural resources would come under 8economic40 ,this division may be applied to many questions1 but it is well suited to only a limited number4 ,in fact1 some eminent authorities are of the opinion that it is almost never to be recommended4 ,it is not as well adapted to the immigration question as the division already made1 for the reason that it would be necessary to include some of the subject-matter under two separate heads4 ,for example1 the ,little ,spains1 ,little ,italys1 etc41 mentioned above1 might require treatment under the social and political divisions and even under the heading of economics4 ,this is objectionable1 because it requires a duplication of the statement of facts under each head1 and also because it is not conducive to the clean1 clear-cut thinking which is the result of a sharp division of the subject into parts which do not overlap4 ,the second plan of analysis1 which forms a good working basis for many propositions1 is that of dividing the subject into three parts1 namely1 7#a7 ,necessity1 7#b7 ,practicability1 and 7#c7 ,justice4 ,this division of the subject is often applicable to propositions which advocate the adoption of some new plan of action1 as1 8,resolved1 that the ,federal ,government should levy a progressive inheritance tax10 or 8,resolved1 that cities of the ,united ,states1 having a population of over #e1jjj1 should adopt the commission form of government40 ,these and similar questions may be analyzed by one of the two plans stated above1 but it is well to beware adopting one or the other of these methods merely because it affords an easy way out of the task of analyzing the proposition4 ,that analysis of a question should be adopted which reveals the main issues of the proposition in the clearest and most direct manner4 ,,summary ,,of ,,essential ,,steps ,,in ,,analysis #a4 ,a broad view of the subject4 #b4 ,the origin and history of the question4 #c4 ,definition of terms4 #d4 ,narrowing the question4 7#a7 ,excluding irrelevant matter4 7#b7 ,admitting matters not vital to the argument4 #e4 ,contrasting the affirmative arguments with those of the negative4 ,,iii4 ,the main issues4 ,the process of analysis with which we are dealing has revealed the main issues of the proposition4 ,it now becomes the duty of the debater to arrange the issues in logical and climactic order4 ,the most forcible array of argument should come at the end4 ,for example1 in the question just analyzed the logical as well as the climactic order of arrangement for the main issues on the affirmative would be as follows3 ,i4 ,the present laws are not satisfactory4 ,,ii4 ,we do not need all the immigrants now coming to us4 ,,iii4 ,immigration 7under the present system7 is a detriment to the country4 ,this analysis should be the result of a thorough study of both sides of the whole proposition4 ,if the task has been well done no change in the essential elements of the analysis will become necessary4 ,however1 as the investigation of the subject progresses1 and the work of collecting evidence leads the student into a more intimate acquaintance with the proposition1 it may be found advisable to make some alterations in the analysis first written out4 ,such alterations should be made only after careful deliberation1 for it often happens that1 in investigating a subject at close range1 one loses the broad general view which is necessary to an intelligent analysis4 ,it may even become necessary for a beginner to change his entire plan after he has made a more thorough investigation of the subject4 ,in such an event the work originally spent in analysis should not be regarded as lost1 because it is absolutely necessary that the student have some definite plan as a basis for his investigation4 ,if it does no more than show him that he is wrong1 the time spent on it cannot be said to be wasted4 ,in any event1 the student should keep his mind open for the reception of ideas which will make his analysis clearer1 briefer1 and more forcible4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,analysis #a4 ,write out a complete analysis of one of the local questions phrased for ,exercise #a1 ,chapter ,,ii4 #b4 ,show the importance of the origin and history of the question in the analysis of each of the following propositions3 7#a7 ,three-fourths of a jury should be competent to render a verdict in all criminal cases4 7#b7 ,public libraries should be open on ,sundays4 7#c7 ,the growth of large fortunes should be checked by a graduated income tax4 7#d7 ,united ,states senators should be elected by direct vote of the people4 7#e7 ,national party lines should be discarded in municipal elections4 7#f7 ,the membership of the national ,house of ,representatives should be considerably reduced4 #c4 ,define the terms which need defining in the above propositions4 ,from what source or sources should these definitions be taken8 #d4 ,write out a complete analysis of one of the questions given under ,exercise #b4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,evidence ,the analysis of the question has revealed the main issues4 ,the next step in the argumentative process is to prove the truth of these main issues by producing evidence4 ,evidence consists of the material by which the truth or falsity of a proposition is proved4 ,it is an error to use the terms 8proof0 and 8evidence0 as synonymous4 ,proof is the result or effect of evidence2 evidence is the material of proof4 ,a thing is not proved until sufficient evidence has been produced to establish it4 ,the most accurate logicians make this distinction and it is well to observe it in the study of argumentation4 ,a given fact is not proof of the truth of a statement unless it alone is sufficient to establish such truth2 otherwise it is merely evidence tending to show that the statement is true4 ,this distinction should be kept clearly in mind1 and no fact should be offered as complete proof when it is only evidence tending to support a given proposition4 ,the student is now confronted with the necessity of establishing his proposition by presenting evidence in support of the main issues4 ,the first problem which naturally comes to him is3 8,where shall ,i go to find this evidence80 ,in answering this question the student should consult carefully1 one by one1 each of the following3 ,i4 ,sources of evidence3 #a4 ,personal knowledge4 ,before turning to outside sources the student should carefully examine the contents of his own mind to determine just how much he really knows about the subject4 ,he should1 however1 distinguish between exact knowledge and mere conjecture4 ,his exact knowledge1 gained from whatever source1 is perfectly valid from the standpoint of evidence providing it can be proved4 ,the line between exact knowledge and mere conjecture is determined by the ability of the student to lay his hands upon sufficient evidence to prove the thing that he believes to be true4 #b4 ,personal interviews4 ,if the question is a local one personal interviews are both practicable and valuable4 ,interviews with persons who are connected in some way with the subject of dispute1 or who are in a position to have exact knowledge of the subject-matter1 or who are taking an active part in the local discussion of the subject1 are a most important source of evidence4 ,interviews with such persons not only give the student facts1 reasons1 and opinions1 but they usually reveal other sources to which he can go directly4 ,for example1 in a local debate on the question of whether the city1 or the street railway company should bear the expenses of building a bridge which they used in common1 the debaters obtained personal interviews with all the city officials having anything to do with the bridge1 and with the officials of the street railway company4 ,prominent citizens and business men of the city were also interviewed4 ,these interviews were productive of a large amount of material in the form of facts1 reasons1 illustrations1 opinions1 and references to other sources of material4 ,in the discussion of any local question the debater will usually find the parties concerned willing1 and even eager to give him 8ammunition0 for the debate4 ,in collecting evidence on questions which deal with the problems of commerce1 taxation1 economics1 politics1 and education1 the student will usually find some men whose opinions are entitled to careful consideration and with whom interviews may be arranged4 ,whether these men are quoted as authority will1 of course1 depend upon their known reputation in the branch of knowledge upon which their opinion is asked4 ,even if the debater does not think it best to quote the person interviewed1 he may gain from him much valuable help4 ,arguments reasoned out from the facts of a case depend for their worth upon the validity of the reasoning process and not upon their source4 ,therefore the arguments of any well-informed1 intelligent person1 if based upon facts and logically sound1 can be utilized4 ,moreover1 such persons are often able to give information regarding sources of evidence which may have escaped notice4 ,the college student would do well to consult the members of the faculty whose work would make them familiar with the subject-matter of the argument4 ,the student should by no means pass lightly over this source of material4 ,in fact1 such sources should be exhausted before a more extended search for evidence is entered upon4 ,furthermore1 a discussion of the subject with these well-informed people will beget new ideas and give a breadth of view regarding the subject which will be helpful in subsequent investigation4 #c4 ,personal letters4 ,after the student has gained some knowledge regarding the most eminent authorities on the subject under discussion1 he may feel at liberty to address some of them with a personal letter4 ,this letter should be brief and to the point1 stating just what is wanted4 ,if questions are asked they should be brief and plain4 ,the use to which the reply is to be put should be stated4 ,if the question is one with which national1 state1 or municipal officials are concerned personal letters may be written to them4 ,if this is carefully done in accordance with the foregoing suggestions1 a prompt reply is almost always assured4 ,an opinion expressed in a personal letter from a national or state official1 or any information given by him1 is usually looked upon with considerable respect4 ,still another class of men to whom personal letters may be written with profit consists of the well known officials of large sectional and national associations such as the ,american ,bar ,association1 the ,american ,federation of ,labor1 and the ,national ,manufacturers ,association4 ,the officials of these and other similar associations are usually well pleased to be consulted upon the questions in which their opinions are regarded with respect4 ,although the debater should not carry on a correspondence campaign for material1 yet he should not hesitate to write for facts and opinions which are of vital importance4 #d4 ,current literature4 ,current literature offers the most prolific field of information on subjects of general interest4 ,this source of material is always available to the debater4 ,his first efforts should be directed to finding out what this field contains that bears directly on the subject4 ,with this object in view he should consult ,the ,reader's ,guide1 ,poole's ,index and the ,annual ,library ,index4 ,here he will find all the important magazine articles that have been written on any subject4 ,the title of the article1 the name of the writer1 the magazine in which it is found1 together with the date1 volume1 and page1 are given exactly4 ,this opens a great storehouse of information4 ,in consulting these guides to periodic literature the investigator should exercise his ingenuity as well as his imagination in determining under what topics he will find his material listed4 ,in investigating the proposition 8,resolved1 that ,congress should immediately provide for an increase in the navy10 the student must not be content with merely looking up the articles found listed in the guide under the topic 8,navy40 ,he should also look under 8,battleships01 8,warships01 8,dreadnoughts01 8,international ,peace01 8,foreign ,affairs01 etc4 ,at the end of these lists cross-references to related subjects will be found and these should also be consulted4 ,the student should go over the list of articles carefully and make out a bibliography#b of magazine references4 ,titles of all articles which appear to have a bearing on the subject should be taken down in full4 ,this process of going over the lists in search of pertinent articles should be repeated from time to time throughout the investigation1 because as the student's knowledge of the subject broadens he will get more clearly in mind the exact nature of the information which he requires4 ,the bibliography will save much time in getting at the most valuable material in current literature4 ,footnote #b3 ,a bibliography 7as the term is here used7 is a list of books and periodicals on any one subject with exact references to volumes1 page1 etc4 ,the student can now select from the great number of articles before him those which appear to be most valuable4 ,the most valuable articles are those which 7a7 bear directly upon some main issue of the question and 7b7 are written by recognized authorities on the subject4 ,if the writer of any particular article is unknown to the student he should consult 8,who's ,who in ,america40 ,here are arranged in alphabetical order the names of all the men in ,america who have attained distinction in any line of endeavor4 ,in connection with each name there is given a brief biography which sets forth the positions that individual has held1 honors which have been bestowed upon him1 important work in which he has been engaged1 and any other facts which might tend to give weight to his utterances4 ,foreign authorities should be investigated by consulting the encyclopedias1 the ,who's ,who volume 7if available7 of the particular country to which the writer belongs1 or by referring to other prominent writers4 ,throughout the entire investigation 8,who's ,who in ,america0 should be consulted as an authority on the standing of men to whose work the debater wishes to refer4 ,this method of using 8,who's ,who0 and the bibliography brings the student directly to the best sources of material which can be found in current literature4 ,as indicated above1 the real criterion of the value of an article in a magazine is the standing of the man who wrote it4 ,however1 certain periodicals have come to be looked upon with such respect by students and scholars that all articles appearing in them are given considerable weight4 ,this reputation which is sustained by certain publications results from the care with which the editors have selected the material put into the magazine4 ,they have been careful to allow only capable writers to contribute to their periodicals in the past1 and1 we may assume 7although this is sometimes a violent assumption7 that this careful supervision will continue in the future4 ,moreover1 the editorials of these magazines are looked upon as good authority4 ,for the convenience of the student the following list of magazines is suggested as reliable sources of evidence4 7#a7 ,the ,north ,american ,review4 7#b7 ,the ,literary ,digest4 7#c7 ,the ,independent4 7#d7 ,world's ,work4 7#e7 ,review of ,reviews4 7#f7 ,the ,annals of the ,american ,academy of ,political and ,social ,science4 7#g7 ,columbia ,university ,studies in ,history1 ,economics1 and ,public ,law4 ,the last two publications are somewhat different from the others mentioned in the list1 but they are included because they are important and are usually available in libraries having the other publications enumerated4 ,this list is not intended as a complete and exhaustive list but merely as a suggestion to the student in search of material4 ,it is not intended to depreciate the value of any publication not included in the list4 ,however1 the student should beware of relying upon material found in any magazine merely because the publication poses as a magazine instead of as a newspaper or story book4 ,some of the popular magazines which appear to be manufactured for the sole purpose of being sold1 make an attempt at sensationalism rather than truth4 ,such periodicals should never be relied upon as authority4 ,another source of evidence found in current literature is the technical and professional magazine4 ,almost every trade and profession has one or more reliable magazines4 ,in the fields of medicine1 law1 banking1 contracting1 engineering1 etc41 are many periodicals4 ,each offers articles by reliable writers on almost all phases of the particular branch of learning to which the magazine is devoted4 ,prominent among the technical magazines that may be quoted as authority is the ,engineering ,news4 ,this periodical offers much valuable material on all the important engineering problems of the day4 ,magazine articles1 outside of the technical and professional magazine1 are usually written for the layman2 hence the subjects are usually presented in a manner easy to understand4 ,this is especially important to the student at the beginning of his investigation when his knowledge of the subject is limited4 ,simplicity of treatment and accuracy of statement combined with an almost boundless range of subject-matter make current literature a most valuable source of evidence4 #e4 ,standard literature4 ,under this head are included all the reliable encyclopedias1 reference works1 text-books1 and books on special subjects written by experts and authorities4 ,for brief1 accurate1 and authoritative articles of a general character1 the encyclopedias are most valuable4 ,the best works of this class are ,britannica1 ,chambers'1 ,nelson's1 ,johnson's1 ,appleton's1 ,appleton's ,annual ,cyclopedia1 and ,bliss' ,encyclopedia of ,social ,reform4 ,text-books and special works by authorities on all subjects are very numerous4 ,for this source of material it is best to consult the catalogue of a library4 ,here will be found under the author's name all of his works that are in the library4 ,after the student has found out by personal interviews1 reading current literature1 etc41 who are the most reliable writers on the subject in hand1 he should always consult this index of authors to determine whether any of their books are available4 ,the catalogue of the library usually classifies the books also according to subject-matter4 ,therefore by consulting this catalogue all the books on this particular subject contained in the library may be made accessible4 ,here again1 as in the case of the index to periodic literature1 the investigator must use his ingenuity in determining under what heads he may find his most valuable material4 #f4 ,special documents4 7#a7 ,reports and pamphlets issued by organizations4 ,in order to gain access to this sort of material it is usually necessary to write to the headquarters of the organizations4 ,in most cases their reports and other printed matter may be had for the asking1 although in some cases a charge is made4 ,the student1 however1 can usually obtain sufficient material of this character without any cost to himself other than the small outlay necessary for postage4 ,in the larger schools and colleges it is now becoming customary for the debating teams to have letter heads printed4 ,these state the name of the institution or of the debating league to which the institution belongs1 the names of the members of the team1 and the question for debate4 ,while this procedure is unnecessary for class debates or written arguments1 or even for society or college debates1 it is at least desirable in the preparation for an intercollegiate debate such as is held between members of large debating leagues4 ,by this use of letter heads in writing to the officials of organizations1 as well as to private individuals1 a full and more careful response is almost always secured4 ,however1 in most cases a request for reports or other material1 with a statement of the use to which they are to be put1 is all that is necessary to bring a prompt reply4 ,almost all the important trades and professions have national organizations which are ready to aid in the distribution of knowledge in their several spheres4 ,among organizations of a professional character may be mentioned the ,american ,bar ,association1 the ,american ,chemical ,society1 and the ,national ,education ,association4 ,among industrial organizations1 the ,american ,federation of ,labor1 and the ,national ,manufacturers ,association are probably the most important4 ,organizations having for their object the bringing about of certain reforms in our social or political life are always willing to send material for use in the discussion of questions in which they are interested4 ,among these may be mentioned the ,international ,reform ,bureau1 the ,anti-,saloon ,league1 the ,lake ,mohonk ,conference on ,international ,arbitration1 the ,american ,peace ,society1 and the ,new ,york ,reform ,club4 ,it is well worth while for the student who is investigating any of the questions in which these associations are interested to write them for material4 ,in special branches of learning there are various organizations which publish both reports of their meetings and special reports on subjects connected with their work4 ,the ,american ,historical ,association1 and the ,american ,economic ,association belong to this class4 ,other organizations of this character will be brought to the attention of the student before he has advanced far in the study of any proposition4 7#b7 ,reports and documents issued by the government4 ,government documents and reports1 especially those issued by the ,federal government1 are among the most valuable sources of evidence4 ,the authors or compilers of these reports are men whose official positions enable them to obtain accurate information4 ,furthermore1 these men have usually passed a civil service1 or other examination1 and thus demonstrated their ability to perform the tasks assigned2 or on account of favorable reputation have been elected or appointed to fill the positions for which they are well qualified4 ,their action is taken purely as governmental agents and1 from the nature of their office and the requirements of public opinion1 that action and all information gathered conform approximately to the facts4 ,for these reasons governmental reports and documents are looked upon as the highest authority on the subjects with which they deal1 and anyone who argues can offer no better evidence than a basis of fact backed up by definite references to official government documents4 ,one of the most useful documents of this class is the ,united ,states ,census ,report4 ,this report contains not only the population statistics but also other funds of information even more valuable to the student4 ,in it there are vital statistics1 statistics on labor1 manufacturing1 commerce1 and a multitude of other subjects which the student dealing with any economic or commercial proposition cannot overlook4 ,if accurate information is required regarding any phase of our national growth or present activity the census report should be consulted before any other source of evidence4 ,another most important source of evidence is the ,report of the ,united ,states ,industrial ,commission4 ,this report comprises nineteen volumes1 the last of which 7,vol4 #ai7 contains valuable material1 together with the recommendations of the commission1 in regard to almost all the leading industrial and economic questions which are now being discussed4 ,the report as a whole covers the entire industrial field in this country and offers a reliable and exhaustive fund of information4 ,in the ,congressional ,record can be found discussions1 both affirmative and negative1 of all the public questions which have come before either branch of ,congress4 ,this source of material is very suggestive but it is not always trustworthy4 ,it should not be quoted in itself as an authority4 ,the mere fact that one may refer to a certain volume and page of the ,congressional ,record on which a certain statement appears is no proof of the truth of that statement4 ,the material which it contains is mainly the reports of speeches4 ,the record is official and authoritative so far as concerns what was said in those speeches4 ,however1 the value of the thing said depends upon the man who said it4 ,therefore1 the debater should quote ,representative ,douglas1 or ,senator ,burton as saying so-and-so which is found in such a volume and on such a page of the ,congressional ,record4 ,with this caution in mind1 viz41 that it is the man who is quoted and not the mere fact of its appearance in the ,congressional ,record that gives weight to a statement1 the student should utilize this source of evidence4 ,the index of these records is decidedly awkward for a beginner1 but the material contained therein is so important that some little time may well be spent in making the acquaintance of the indexing system4 ,the ,congressional ,record is indexed under three heads1 7#a7 names1 7#b7 subjects1 and 7#c7 bills by their official numbers4 ,a great mass of material will be found under subjects1 but after the student has accustomed himself to using the index he can readily find the material which he desires to read4 ,the ,congressional ,documents which contain reports from the executive departments and the legislative committees are divided for each session of ,congress into six groups3 7#a7 ,senate ,executive ,documents1 7#b7 ,senate ,miscellaneous1 7#c7 ,senate ,reports 7of committees71 7#d7 ,house ,executive ,documents1 7#e7 ,house ,miscellaneous1 7#f7 ,house ,reports 7of committees74 ,a ,document ,index for each session of ,congress will be found in connection with these volumes4 ,any school or library1 or in fact any individual1 may obtain valuable lists of government publications by writing to the ,library of ,congress or to the ,superintendent of ,documents4 ,from time to time the ,library of ,congress publishes special books and articles on such subjects as ,taxation of ,inheritance1 ,tariffs of ,foreign ,nations1 ,capital and ,labor1 and many other questions of national importance4 ,in addition to the publications of the national government1 reports issued by the various states and municipalities should be investigated4 ,for example1 in discussing a question of taxation the amount of tax derived by each state from a certain source may become important4 ,if this information cannot be found already compiled1 it may be obtained by writing to the secretary1 treasurer1 or auditor of each state and asking for the report in which such information is published4 ,if it be a source of taxation used only in a part of the states1 the student should compile a list of the states in which it is used and write to the officials in those states only4 ,in the discussion of municipal problems1 such as municipal ownership of public utilities1 the commission form of city government1 etc41 it is well to write to the cities in which these plans have been tried and get such reports as will show the results4 ,a careful investigation of all the sources here set forth will yield information sufficiently broad and varied for the argumentative discussion of any subject4 ,however1 the student may well consult other text-books on ,argumentation and ,debate for the purpose of getting suggestions regarding the sources of material which will be useful to him4 ,books of briefs for debates and reports of debates are published1 which give helpful suggestions regarding material or evidence on many of the most important questions4 ,as advancement is made in the practical work of investigating subjects for argumentative treatment1 facility in utilizing the sources of evidence will be acquired4 ,at first the time spent in the investigation of some sources1 especially standard literature and government documents1 may not appear to yield the practical results which time well expended ought to yield4 ,here a word of caution is necessary1 for time spent in this manner should never be regarded as wasted4 ,it is not wasted1 because the student is acquiring the power to investigate subjects on his own responsibility1 and the ability to skim rapidly over large masses of material and select only the things that are really useful4 ,it is only after long periods of such diligent work that the student can feel himself master of the resources of great libraries1 and an expert in the use of the sources of evidence4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,evidence #a4 ,personal knowledge4 #b4 ,personal interviews4 #c4 ,personal letters4 #d4 ,current literature4 #e4 ,standard literature4 #f4 ,special documents4 7#a7 ,reports and pamphlets issued by organizations4 7#b7 ,reports and documents issued by the government4 ,,ii4 ,recording evidence4 ,after an acquaintance with the sources of evidence is gained the necessity for some orderly method or system of taking notes becomes apparent4 ,this is the next important step in argumentation4 ,the investigator should not rely upon his memory4 ,notes should be taken on every source of evidence discussed in the preceding section4 ,an idea rarely becomes our own until it has been expressed in our own words4 ,as ideas on the subject for discussion occur to the debater's mind they should be recorded in order that they may be at hand when required4 ,opinions expressed and information acquired in personal interviews should be recorded either during the interview or immediately after4 ,it is preferable to devote one's attention exclusively to an interview1 and then record the results as soon as possible after its termination4 ,even the ideas expressed in personal letters and extracts from them should be written down by the student in order that he may have them in convenient form for reference4 ,the futility of reading without taking notes is apparent at first thought4 ,notes should be taken at the time the reading is done4 ,all important matters of fact and all quotable matters should be recorded during the reading4 ,even if a particular fact does not appear to bear directly on the phase of the subject under discussion1 it should1 nevertheless1 be recorded4 ,it may later prove to be valuable evidence4 ,the notes taken should be full and complete4 ,this requirement applies to the substance of the material and not to its form4 ,in most cases the reader should be able to condense the contents of a page into a few words4 ,the point or points which the writer regarded as vital should be grasped by the reader and put down in a brief note4 ,statistics found in different places should be assembled and reduced to tabular form4 ,the student must not only read1 but he must think as well4 ,new ideas1 new combinations of circumstances1 new relations made evident by grouping facts should all be carefully investigated and noted4 ,reading should be an intelligent process1 not mere drudgery4 ,the reader should assimilate1 not merely store up1 the knowledge gained from books4 ,in the recording of evidence the following rules should be strictly observed3 #a4 ,use small cards or sheets of paper of uniform size4 ,a note-book or large sheets of paper should never be used4 ,to do so is to invite confusion4 ,with several points on one sheet of paper or in a note-book and recorded in the order in which they were found in the reading1 the student is not left free to group the ideas or points to form his argument2 no classification is possible1 and the notes taken become mere masses of material4 ,the best form in which to record material is by the use of the ordinary filing cards which may be obtained at almost any book store4 ,these cards should be about three by five inches in size and of fairly heavy stock4 ,ruled cards with a red line at the top are the kind most frequently used4 ,if these cards cannot be obtained1 small pieces of paper of this same convenient size should be used4 #b4 ,place only one fact or point on each card4 ,never put more than one fact or point on the same card4 ,even though the facts to be recorded are intimately related in their present position1 the reader should use a separate card for each4 ,when the investigator is ready to use these facts the relation may be unimportant or may be entirely changed by the manner in which he wishes to use them4 ,one statement may be used to support one argument1 while another may be used to support an entirely separate argument4 ,furthermore1 when this material is utilized in constructing the brief1 the student must be left free to arrange his material in the most logical manner4 ,to put more than one point on a card greatly hampers this work4 #c4 ,write on only one side of the card4 ,the handling of these cards becomes a very awkward process if writing is placed on both sides4 ,otherwise the process is simplicity itself4 ,to depart from this rule in a single instance may involve the loss of an important point of evidence4 ,this point may remain forgotten on the back of a card used frequently4 #d4 ,express the idea to be put on the card in the simplest and most direct terms4 ,in the reading1 an idea should be considered only in its relation to the reader's present purpose4 ,when this view is taken the condensation of lengthy articles into a few terse expressions becomes an easy matter4 ,moreover1 it trains the reader to grasp the point1 and to express that point in the simplest and most direct manner4 ,this training enables the reader to cover a much wider field than would otherwise be possible4 #e4 ,each card should be complete in itself4 ,by a strict application of ,rule #d the student ought soon to acquire such facility in condensation that each card will be complete in itself4 ,it is very awkward to have one idea or point written on several cards4 ,when such an arrangement cannot be avoided the cards should1 of course1 be lettered or numbered to indicate their proper order4 ,these cards should be placed by themselves in company with other like series and kept separate from the single cards4 ,some manner of distinguishing such series of cards should be devised4 ,the first series which it is necessary to make in order to record a complete point1 or idea1 or argument may be marked ,a#a1 ,a#b1 ,a#c1 etc4 ,the second series may be marked ,b#a1 ,b#b1 ,b#c1 etc4 ,while this method may be adopted in unusual cases1 the general rule should seldom be departed from4 ,by diligent efforts at intelligent condensation1 almost every point1 idea1 fact1 or argument may be put upon a single card4 ,the observance of this rule will insure a good command of the material on the part of the investigator and will reduce the evidence to convenient form4 ,the same rule should apply to the use of quotations4 ,seldom if ever should a lengthy quotation be used4 ,if some passages are especially clear and forcible they should be quoted exactly and put in quotation marks4 ,omissions should be indicated by the use of dots1 thus3 444 ,condensations by the student1 included in the quotation1 or any comments or explanations1 should be enclosed in brackets1 thus4 #f4 ,material for refutation should be preceded 7at the top of the card7 by an exact statement of the argument to be refuted4 ,in some cases a single word or phrase may be sufficient to indicate the argument to which the refutation is intended to apply1 but in most cases this argument should be indicated fully by means of a complete statement4 ,this condensing of the arguments of the opposition into brief1 intelligible statements will also be of great use when the material is put into either the main argument or the rebuttal4 #g4 ,the main issue or subject to which the evidence relates should be stated at the top of the card4 ,the subject stated at the top of the card should represent exactly the subject-matter on the card4 ,if this subject-matter comes clearly under one of the main issues which the analysis has revealed this main issue may be stated at the top of the card as its subject4 ,if1 however1 the student is unable to determine exactly under what main issue the fact recorded on the card will come1 he should state a subject at the top of the card which will indicate precisely the material found upon it4 ,the classification of the card can then be left to a later part of the process4 ,in investigating a subject in which the main issues have been determined to be 7#a7 ,necessity1 7#b7 ,practicability1 and 7#c7 ,justice1 a card which states one of the evils which the proposed plan is designed to remedy should not be marked 8,justice20 it should be marked 8,necessity10 because it is this particular evil and like evils which make the adoption of the proposed measure necessary4 ,if the card relates to some special topic that the main issue is too broad to identify1 then that special topic and not the broad main issue should be stated at the top of the card4 ,for example1 a card coming under ,necessity may still more appropriately be classed under ,political ,influence1 because that title more nearly indicates the evidence stated on the card4 ,therefore the subject should be ,political ,influence4 ,later1 when the cards are being used in the construction of the brief1 this card may be placed with others under the title ,political ,influence and then all the cards under this topic placed with those covering other topics under the head of ,necessity4 #h4 ,the source from which the evidence is taken should be definitely stated at the bottom of the card4 ,this should be done at the time the cards are written out4 ,otherwise the reference when wanted1 either cannot be found or can be found only with great loss of time4 ,the exact reference is important not only to show definitely the source of authority from which the evidence is taken1 but also to enable the student to return to the same source for further details in case they become necessary4 ,in the case of a letter or a personal interview the name of the authority consulted should be given together with the date of the letter or the time and place of the interview4 ,a magazine article should be referred to by the name of the magazine1 with the volume and page4 ,the name of the writer should also be given unless the article is an editorial1 in which case that fact should be stated4 ,a report or document in several volumes should be quoted by volume and page4 ,books should be referred to by their author1 title1 and page4 ,the following diagram shows the form in which evidence should be recorded3 ,subject ,authority ,evidence ,source of ,evidence4 ,for example1 a student in preparing for a class debate on the tariff question handed in a number of cards on the necessity for protection1 of which the following is a sample3 ,subject3 ,authority3 ,protection not needed4 ,richard ,t4 ,ely4 8,our quondam infant industries have for the most part1 attained a very vigorous maturity1 and in some instances have become belligerent and prone to monopolistic bullying40 ,source3 ,outlines of ,economics1 p4 #cab4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,requirements ,,for ,,recording ,,evidence #a4 ,use small cards or sheets of paper of a uniform size4 #b4 ,place only one fact or point on each card4 #c4 ,write only on one side of the card4 #d4 ,express the idea to be put on the card in the simplest and most direct terms4 #e4 ,each card should be complete in itself4 #f4 ,material for refutation should be preceded at the top of the card by an exact statement of the argument to be refuted4 #g4 ,the main issues or subjects to which the evidence relates should be stated at the top of the card4 #h4 ,the source from which the evidence is taken should be definitely stated at the bottom of the card4 ,,iii4 ,selecting evidence4 ,all the reliable evidence obtainable should be collected before the selection of the exact evidence which is to go into the argument is begun4 ,if the student has confined his collecting to the sources of evidence suggested in the first section of this chapter1 the presumption will be in favor of its reliability4 ,this presumption may be strengthened and in some instances turned into certainty by a selection made in accordance with the rules which it is the object of this section to present4 ,it is of the utmost importance that a large amount of evidence from which to construct the brief and argument be available4 ,it is only in this way that the strongest evidence obtainable can be brought to the support of the argument4 ,all the evidence used must be relevant but not all the evidence that is relevant need be used4 ,the following rules should be observed in the selection of evidence3 #a4 ,the evidence must come from the most reliable source to which it can be traced4 ,all the evidence collected must have back of it some reliable source1 as indicated in the discussion of ,sources of ,authority4 ,the more trustworthy this source the more valuable is the evidence and the greater the weight given to it4 ,therefore 8the evidence must come from the most reliable source to which it can be traced40 ,every fact offered in evidence comes from some definite source4 ,if this source cannot be found the fact should be discarded as worthless4 ,to illustrate1 in the investigation of a subject1 a fellow-student may know some fact which is a most important piece of evidence in your favor4 ,he may tell you about this fact1 but you would not think of going into the debate and quoting one of your fellow-students as authority4 ,therefore you will at once ask the student from what source he obtained knowledge of the fact4 ,he may reply that he has seen it in a newspaper article4 ,but since a newspaper is usually of little value as an authority1 you cannot rely upon its statement4 ,therefore you inquire from what source the newspaper obtained it4 ,by consulting the newspaper it is found that the statement is made in an editorial which comments upon an article found in the ,north ,american ,review4 ,you must then consult the number of the ,north ,american ,review to which reference is made4 ,this is fairly reliable1 and anyone would feel justified in quoting it as the source of his evidence1 although he would not feel justified in quoting the statement of a fellow-student or the statement of a newspaper4 ,if the statement is one which is an opinion of the editor of the ,north ,american ,review1 or if for any other reason it cannot be traced back of this source1 ,north ,american ,review1 volume and page1 should be quoted as the source of the evidence4 ,but suppose that the statement can be traced to its original source4 ,to be more concrete1 let us assume that the statement is to the effect that there is a surplus of over one million dollars in the ,united ,states treasury4 ,for such a statement the ,north ,american ,review is not the most reliable source4 ,in this case the most reliable source is the ,report of the ,treasurer of the ,united ,states1 which can be found in almost any library4 ,when this fact is located the student should make an exact statement of the amount of the surplus and refer to the ,report of the ,united ,states ,treasurer4 ,thus the fact to be used is traced through the statement of a fellow-student1 through the editorial in the newspaper1 through the article in the ,north ,american ,review1 back to its original and trustworthy source--the ,report of the ,treasurer of the ,united ,states4 ,in this manner every fact presented must be traced to its most trustworthy source4 ,in quoting the opinions of individuals the same principle should be applied4 ,the greater the learning1 ability1 and reputation of the person quoted1 the greater is the weight attached to his opinions4 ,in almost every branch of human endeavor and in every field of knowledge there are a few men who possess especial ability4 ,by common consensus of opinion these men are regarded as authorities and their statements of fact or judgment are accepted as the most trustworthy4 ,for example1 the statements of ,ely1 ,seligman1 and ,seager in the field of economics1 and the statements of ,j4 ,p4 ,morgan1 and ,andrew ,carnegie in the field of industry and finance1 are regarded as good authority4 ,in chemistry the statements of ,dr4 ,ira ,remsen would be considered good1 while in regard to psychology one could do no better than to quote the opinions of ,hugo ,mnsterberg4 ,regarding the wireless telegraph1 ,marconi would be the most reliable source1 while in the field of arial navigation the opinion of the ,wright brothers could be quoted as the most reliable4 ,instances of reputable sources of evidence could be cited sufficient in number to cover many pages1 but the few here suggested will serve to illustrate the class of authority to which all points of evidence should be traced4 #b4 ,a person quoted as authority must be unprejudiced1 in full possession of the facts1 and capable of giving expert testimony on the point at issue4 ,in the preceding section reliable sources of evidence have been indicated in a general way4 ,it is1 however1 by no means possible in the treatment of all subjects to cite authorities so universally accepted4 ,the opinions of persons who are not known to the general public may be given weight by means of their official position1 their special work or investigation in any line1 or by the favorable statements of recognized authorities regarding them or their work4 ,as previously suggested1 ,who's ,who in ,america1 is a storehouse of information regarding such people4 ,an opinion or even a statement of fact is not likely to be looked upon with favor unless it comes from an unprejudiced source4 ,it is not so much the question of actual prejudice existing in the mind of the person quoted as it is the surrounding circumstances which would naturally tend to cause prejudice4 ,for example1 the statement of ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller1 in regard to the beneficent effect of monopolies on trade and commerce1 might be perfectly sincere1 but since ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller has a financial interest in the maintaining of a monopoly1 it would not be advisable to quote his statements in their favor4 ,such statements are not only easily refuted but they lack weight because they do not appear to come from an unprejudiced source4 ,in like manner the ,president of the ,brewers' ,association would not be accepted as authority on any matter connected with the prohibition of the liquor traffic4 ,from the very circumstance of his position he is presumed to be prejudiced against such prohibition4 ,the person cited as authority should have no financial interest in the subject on which he is quoted4 ,he should be in a position to be unprejudiced4 ,the person quoted as authority must be in full possession of all the necessary facts4 ,very often this knowledge of facts may be presumed from the position which the authority occupies4 ,the ,secretary of the ,navy is presumed to be in full possession of all the general facts concerning his department4 ,the captain of a battleship would be presumed to know all the essential facts in regard to his ship4 ,an engineer on the ,panama ,canal would be presumed to be in a position to know1 and actually to know1 facts connected with the duties of his position4 ,the authority quoted must be in full possession of the facts which he is quoted to prove1 or upon which his opinion is based4 ,regarding the capability of an authority to give expert evidence much has been said4 ,it is well to remember1 however1 that the opinion of fact or judgment must be in the field of the authority's professional knowledge4 ,the most eminent chemist in the ,united ,states would not be considered proper authority on an economic question2 much less would the most eminent economist be considered good authority on some problem in chemistry4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states might be quoted as the highest authority on the political situation1 while his opinion on some technical problem of engineering would fall before a counter opinion by an eminent engineer4 ,in quoting an authority to establish an important point in evidence it is often advisable to show directly that he is unprejudiced1 in full possession of the facts1 and capable of giving expert testimony4 #c4 ,evidence should be examined to determine whether there are attendant circumstances which will add to its weight4 ,it often happens that evidence which is good in itself is given still greater weight by some special circumstances4 ,the law recognizes and gives much weight to 8,declarations against ,interest10 and such declarations are as valuable in argumentation as in law4 ,a declaration against interest is a statement of fact or opinion made by a party before the subject became a matter of controversy1 which statement is now against the interest of the person making it4 ,to illustrate1 let us suppose that ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller had made a statement opposing the formation of monopolies4 ,at present he wishes to argue in favor of monopolies4 ,the statement which he previously made and which was an expression against monopolies now becomes a 8declaration against interest40 ,likewise any statement made in regard to a subject before the party making it becomes interested therein financially may be used against him when the matter becomes one of controversy and he wishes to take a different position4 ,of equal value is the opinion frankly expressed1 by one whose personal interests are opposed to the statement made4 ,such statements are sometimes made by public spirited men in the interests of right and justice4 ,an illustration in point is that of the banker who admitted that the postal savings bank would be a benefit to the people at large1 although he recognized the fact that it would injure the business of the private banker1 a class to which he himself belonged4 ,such statements are of the utmost importance when they come from leading members of the class against which they constitute admissions4 ,statements made by persons who express their views in accordance with what appears to them to be right and without the knowledge that they are talking against their own interests may likewise be used as admissions4 ,such were the statements of a citizen who favored the building of an elevated railroad in his city4 ,he believed that such a highway would relieve the congested condition of the streets and thus benefit the public4 ,when the route for the proposed road was definitely located he found that it would result in irreparable damage to his private business4 ,although he at once changed his view on the subject1 his previous admissions were used against him with such effect that his new arguments had no weight in the final determination of the matter4 ,it very often happens that a well known authority frequently used by the opponents of a proposition has changed his opinions or expressed himself more definitely in such a way as to favor the speaker's contentions4 ,advantage should always be taken of such a state of affairs4 ,it is a most strategic move to be able to quote an opponent's authority against him4 ,one should be sure1 however1 that the authority quoted is such as will be accepted4 ,otherwise it is better to attack the validity of this authority4 ,the above suggestions and illustrations are offered purely by way of inducing the student to keep a sharp lookout for points in his favor4 ,there are many ways in which the attendant circumstances may be used to give greater weight to the evidence offered4 #d4 ,the selection of evidence must be fair and reasonable4 ,an advocate of any cause1 public or private1 must have as a basis for his argument a genuine regard for right and justice4 ,therefore he is bound to exercise due care in making sure that the selection of evidence is fair and reasonable4 ,no one who argues can gain any permanent advantage from the use of unfair methods4 ,in using quotations from authority be sure that the words used indicate exactly the position of that authority4 ,by skillful omissions a reputable authority may be made to defend almost any position4 ,in the use of statistics the temptation to juggle is sometimes strong4 ,statistics1 by skillful combinations and omissions1 can be made to prove an absolute lie4 ,in discussing the income from a kind of state tax which is utilized in all the most important states in the ,union1 the student who selected the states of ,nevada1 ,south ,dakota1 and ,rhode ,island to show that the income derived from the tax was a substantial source of revenue1 must have succeeded only in proving to his audience that he had had great difficulty in finding states in which the tax had proved to be a success4 ,had he been able to produce statistics to show that ,massachusetts1 ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,illinois and other large and populous states were using his form of taxation with success1 his chance of persuading his hearers would have been incalculably increased4 ,not only must evidence be fairly selected but it must be reasonable as well4 ,no statement which is contrary to the usual experience of the individuals addressed should be made unless it is based upon indisputable authority4 ,facts outside the pale of usual human experience are always regarded with distrust4 ,abnormal conditions1 such as the existence of unusual misery or vice among certain classes1 oppression1 glaring social1 industrial1 or political evils1 must always be kept within the bounds of possibility and based upon reliable authority4 ,the temptation is often strong to cite instances on account of their sensational character and the probable striking effect upon the audience or readers4 ,such material is sometimes very important1 but if it even approaches the border of impossibility it should be fortified by the strongest evidence4 ,the value of certain evidence may be greatly increased if it can be shown to be reasonable4 ,if surrounding circumstances can be introduced to show that the evidence is either cause or effect and therefore something naturally to be expected under the conditions stated1 it will be accepted almost without question4 ,all evidence should be carefully considered from the two standpoints of fairness and reasonableness4 ,to offer unfair evidence is dishonorable4 ,it is the method of the swindler and the trickster4 ,it is especially reprehensible in the student of argumentation1 whose first duty is to uphold the truth4 #e4 ,the position and arguments of the opposition should be taken into consideration4 ,argument implies opposition4 ,it may not be active opposition1 it may be only passive4 ,arguments advanced for the purpose of inducing a change meet conservatism1 prejudice1 and the natural feeling of distrust with which any change is contemplated4 ,these obstacles to success must be met squarely4 ,it is by this means alone that they can be overcome4 ,in the analysis of the question the necessity of finding the main contentions on both sides was made plain4 ,we have now reached a point at which these contentions become of great importance4 ,the arguments of the opposition must never be disregarded4 ,many important advantages besides the economy of time and material1 come from the selection of such evidence as will uphold the constructive argument and at the same time overthrow the opposition4 ,the selection and rejection of evidence must be determined from this standpoint4 #f4 ,that evidence should be selected which will appeal most strongly to those to whom the argument is to be addressed4 ,in presenting an argument the writer or speaker must not always rely upon his own judgment as the criterion of the value of evidence4 ,he must take the standpoint of those who are to hear or read4 ,this attitude presupposes that the evidence offered is reliable4 ,if a speaker or writer knows that evidence presented is unreliable but will nevertheless be accepted by his auditors or readers1 he is perpetrating a fraud if he offers it4 ,that reliable evidence which is most likely to appeal to those before whom it is to be placed should be selected4 ,the arguer should put himself in the position of the persons to be persuaded1 and ask himself the question1 8,what evidence would most strongly appeal to me and induce me to believe and act in the manner desired if ,i were the person to be persuaded80 ,the accuracy with which the advocate can perform this feat often measures his success4 ,it requires the highest order of constructive imagination4 ,he must view his position with all the prejudices and preconceived ideas1 as well as the personal interests1 of the persons to be persuaded4 ,he must1 for the time being1 lose his character as an advocate and assume that of the reader or hearer4 ,in quoting opinions of authority this attitude of mind becomes most important4 ,if the argument is to be addressed to an individual1 the opinion or action should be cited of some person in whom that individual reposes confidence4 ,if you wish to persuade ,john ,jones to follow a certain course of action1 and you are aware that his most intimate friend and the one to whom he looks as a model of discretion and good judgment is ,smith1 you can do no better than to quote the opinion of ,smith1 if ,smith has expressed himself as favoring your contentions or if he has followed the course of action which you desire ,jones to follow4 ,in addressing an organization of workmen it is effective to quote the opinions of their high officials in whom they repose trust and confidence4 ,likewise in addressing the members of any trade1 profession1 business1 religious faith1 or political party1 the opinions of persons high in their particular field of endeavor may always be quoted4 ,sources of authority with which the audience is likely to be in sympathy should be especially emphasized4 ,in selecting evidence with which to prove the truth or falsity of a proposition too much care cannot be exercised4 ,the foregoing rules should be adhered to strictly4 ,they should assert themselves automatically4 ,it is not enough for the student to have these rules of argumentation so well in mind that he can recite them in class and give them when asked for in an examination2 he should have them so well in mind that they become a part of the argumentative process4 ,if these rules can be remembered only with difficulty they will not be used1 because it would involve too much trouble to stop and apply each rule to every fact and opinion offered in evidence4 ,after the rules are thoroughly mastered1 a half-hour's practice in their application will serve to fix the habit of judicious selection of evidence so well in mind that the process will become automatic4 ,these suggestions in regard to the rules for selecting evidence apply with equal aptness to all other rules in this book4 ,the person who wishes to become a master of argumentation must be able to command the rules of the art4 ,,summary ,,of ,,rules ,,for ,,selecting ,,evidence #a4 ,the evidence must come from the most reliable source to which it can be traced4 #b4 ,a person quoted as authority must be unprejudiced1 in full possession of the facts1 and capable of giving expert testimony on the point at issue4 #c4 ,the evidence should be examined to determine whether there are any attendant circumstances which will add to its weight4 #d4 ,the selection of evidence must be fair and reasonable4 #e4 ,the position and arguments of the opposition should be taken into consideration4 #f4 ,that evidence which will appeal most strongly to those to whom the argument is to be addressed should be selected4 ,,iv4 ,the amount of evidence required4 ,the investigator must not stop collecting evidence until he has amassed a sufficient amount to prove his proposition4 ,naturally the question is at once asked1 8,what is the amount of evidence required to prove a proposition80 ,to answer this question in a satisfactory manner some careful thought is required4 ,since we are regarding argumentation as a practical art1 and since when we consider it in this way we must conclude that its end is action1 we are forced to admit that the amount of evidence is not sufficient unless it actually produces the result aimed at1--namely1 the action of the person or persons addressed in a manner which conforms to the wishes of the arguer4 ,it is therefore plain that the amount of evidence required varies with individual cases4 ,the arguer must consider the importance of the question to those to whom the argument is addressed1 as well as their prejudices and personal interests4 ,he must consider these things in their relation to the present situation and then determine the amount of evidence in accordance with what his judgment tells him is required4 ,if the argument is to be passed upon by judges whose duty it is to reach a conclusion but who are not personally interested in the result1 the following rule may be applied3 ,sufficient evidence must be produced to satisfy an unprejudiced mind beyond a reasonable doubt4 ,in relying upon the above rule we must eliminate prejudice1 personal interest1 and results terminating in active or prolonged action4 ,therefore if prejudice or personal interest exists in any particular case1 the first duty is to remove this prejudice or nullify the personal interest4 ,if active or prolonged action is desired evidence sufficient in amount to induce this action must be produced4 ,with these two limitations the rule stated above may be accepted as the measure of the amount of evidence required4 ,there are1 of course1 some facts which may be presented without relying upon any special evidence or authority for their truth4 ,all facts which are matters of common knowledge come within this class4 ,geographical facts1 such as the fact that ,boston1 ,new ,york1 and ,savannah are seaports2 historical facts1 such as the fact that ,alaska was purchased from ,russia2 political facts1 such as the fact that the ,southern ,states are largely adherents of the ,democratic ,party2 and things which must have happened in the ordinary course of nature1 such as the presumed death of a person born two hundred years ago1 all may be stated without evidence to support them4 ,in determining the amount of evidence to be offered it is sometimes necessary to consider the different sources from which it is derived4 ,care should be taken not to place too great reliance upon one source4 ,for example1 in a debate on the prohibition question one speaker quoted statistics from a bulletin issued by the ,anti-,saloon ,league1 he relied for proof of his facts upon a committee report of the ,anti-,saloon ,league1 he offered the opinion of the ,president of the ,anti-,saloon ,league1 and finally quoted from the argument of a lawyer who is employed by the ,anti-,saloon ,league4 ,aside from the charge of prejudice which might be made against this evidence1 it is readily seen that too much reliance is placed in one authority4 ,it might well be termed 8an ,anti-,saloon ,league argument40 ,no person is willing to accept some other person's opinion or evidence in preference to his own1 but if a number of authorities have arrived at substantially the same conclusion1 or can offer evidence which points to the same conclusion1 and there has been no collusion between them1 any reasonable person will give such conclusions his most serious consideration4 ,furthermore1 if the speaker or writer indicates that his evidence comes from various sources1 it inspires confidence in his words1 since the variety of the evidence offered indicates that the investigation has been broad and thorough4 ,the process of collecting evidence set forth in this chapter may be used in other fields besides that of argumentation4 ,every individual has frequent occasion to collect evidence regarding certain subjects connected with his business or occupation4 ,whatever the occasion for investigation the method of collecting evidence herein presented can be used to great advantage4 ,the student of argumentation is cautioned to follow explicitly the directions contained in this chapter4 ,all the available sources of evidence should be consulted4 ,the rules regarding the recording of evidence should be adhered to strictly4 ,the recorded evidence should be carefully studied1 with the view of determining its relative importance1 according to the rules laid down for the selection of evidence4 ,the student should feel satisfied in his own mind that he has secured an amount of evidence sufficient to establish each main issue4 ,then after these tasks are completed he can turn his attention to the next great step in argumentation1--the ,construction of the ,brief4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,collecting ,,evidence #a4 ,make out a list of topics under which you would look for material on the following propositions3 a4 ,the ,united ,states should impose a tariff for revenue only4 b4 ,the ,united ,states should provide for an immediate increase in the navy4 c4 ,intercollegiate football should be abolished4 d4 ,children under fourteen years of age should be prohibited by law from working in factories4 e4 ,marriage and divorce should be controlled by ,federal law4 #b4 ,what sources of evidence would you consult in regard to each of the above propositions8 ,state one or more items 7books1 magazine articles1 persons1 or documents7 under each source4 #c4 ,write out and hand in for inspection ten cards on one of the above propositions4 ,these cards should show the application of all the rules given for recording evidence4 #d4 ,apply to these cards the rules to be observed in selecting evidence4 ,does any one of these cards or any combination of the cards show evidence sufficient in amount to prove any one contention8 ,,chapter ,v ,,constructing ,,the ,,brief ,the construction of a brief is a most interesting task1 for the bringing of order out of chaos always gives a thrill of satisfaction to the active thinker4 ,it indicates the mastery of the human mind over material facts and conditions4 ,in this as in all other spheres of endeavor the joy of victory possesses him who overcomes4 ,the work of constructing a brief is usually looked upon by the uninitiated with considerable apprehension4 ,it is regarded as a most difficult task1 and so it is4 ,but the difficulty of the task is greatly overshadowed by the pleasure which may be derived from it1 providing the preliminary work has been done thoroughly4 ,every step in the argumentative process up to this point must have been taken with diligence4 ,if this work has been well done the student finds himself in the possession of a large amount of evidence4 ,the analysis of the proposition and the collecting of the evidence have given the student a broad outlook over the field to be covered by the brief4 ,now1 to get the most comprehensive view of this field1 he must look at it from the standpoint of the ,purpose of the ,brief4 ,i4 ,the purpose of the brief4 ,the purpose of the brief is to furnish a solid framework for the argument4 ,it indicates definitely the path which the argument is to follow4 ,it maps out a continuous course of procedure ending at the conclusion which it is the purpose of the argument to establish4 ,to develop one of the above figures of speech still further1 we may regard the brief as the framework of the vehicle which carries the argument along the straight road which leads to persuasion4 ,the brief enables the writer or speaker to present his arguments in logical order1 to indicate the relation which the evidence bears to the arguments1 and to give unity and coherence to the finished product4 ,without a well constructed brief an argument will inevitably be more or less rambling and incoherent2 with a well constructed brief each piece of evidence can be utilized in the place where it will do the most good4 ,the facts of evidence can be arranged in climactic order and the proper proportion given to the completed structure4 ,by keeping these objects in mind the work of building a brief out of the evidence collected may be intelligently begun4 ,,ii4 ,method of constructing the brief4 ,the work of constructing the brief should be begun with all the evidence1 which has been collected and recorded on cards or slips of paper1 ready at hand4 ,by this time the investigator has probably determined whether he wishes to make any alteration in his original analysis4 ,if any alterations seem advisable they should be made before proceeding4 ,the analysis of the question reveals the main issues4 ,in order to make the work of construction as simple as possible let us suppose that the evidence has been collected on the affirmative of the following proposition3 8,resolved1 that all cities in the ,united ,states having a population of over #ejjj should adopt the commission form of city government40 ,the analysis of the question has shown that in order to establish the truth of this proposition it is necessary to prove these three main issues3 7#a7 ,that the proposed plan is necessary1 7#b7 ,that the proposed plan is good in theory1 and 7#c7 ,that the proposed plan works well in practice4 ,each of these three main issues should be written on a separate piece of paper1 an extra slip of paper should be marked 8,introduction10 and still another 8,refutation40 ,these five slips of paper should be spread out on a table and the work of classifying the cards begun4 ,all cards containing facts or opinions which show the necessity for the plan should be placed on the paper marked 8,the proposed plan is necessary10 those dealing with theory should be placed on the paper marked 8,the proposed plan is good in theory10 and those dealing with the practical side of the question should be placed on the paper marked 8,the proposed plan works well in practice40 ,to be more concrete1 suppose we have one card which contains a statement from the mayor of ,galveston1 ,texas1 in which he says that the commission form of city government has worked successfully in that city2 another card on which are statistics showing that the practical operation of the commission plan in ,des ,moines1 ,iowa1 has resulted in reducing the governmental expenses of that city2 and still another card which shows that ,grand ,rapids1 ,michigan1 has successfully used the commission form of city government for ten years4 ,all of these cards would1 of course1 be placed under the heading 8,the proposed plan works well in practice40 ,cards treating the origin1 history1 and other matters discussed in the analysis of the question should be placed under 8,introduction10 while cards containing material for refutation should be placed under 8,refutation40 ,sometimes there will arise a question as to which of two heads most properly includes the material on a particular card4 ,in such a case the student must use his best judgment4 ,if the point is very important and the doubt great1 a duplicate card may be made out and one card placed under each heading4 ,then when the brief is being written out a more intelligent decision can be made4 ,such difficulties as this1 however1 are infrequent1 providing proper care has been taken in making the analysis of the question4 ,the main issues should be distinct from each other and the line of demarcation between them should be clear cut4 ,if this requirement is complied with1 the classification of the cards in the manner above described is a comparatively simple matter4 ,now that the cards have been divided1 each pile can be more easily studied than could the large original pile4 ,a half-hour spent in arranging and rearranging the cards and in reading them over in various connections will yield more information regarding the way in which the argument should be put together than a whole day spent in unaided pondering4 ,the cards should be examined with the object in view of making a subdivision of the material under each main issue4 ,to illustrate1 an examination of the cards under the first main issue above discussed1 viz4 8,that the proposed plan of city government is necessary10 reveals the fact that this main issue 8necessity0 may be discussed under three heads3 7#a7 ,political necessity1 7#b7 ,social necessity1 7#c7 ,financial necessity4 ,now we proceed to divide the pack of cards on necessity into three parts1 corresponding to the above division4 ,this is done in the same manner in which the original pack was divided into five packs4 ,each of these smaller packs should then be carefully examined in order to determine whether a further subdivision is advisable4 ,the process should be continued until all the recorded evidence is classified4 ,then each pack of cards should be carefully labelled with the name of the subdivision to which it belongs1 and kept1 with its fellows of the same subdivision1 under the division to which they belong1 and all the members of each division should be kept under the main issue to which they belong4 ,the student must in the same way make himself familiar with1 and classify1 the cards under the headings of 8,introduction0 and 8,refutation40 ,next comes the task of arranging these groups of cards in their proper order4 ,in making this arrangement two principles should be kept constantly in mind4 ,in the first place the order of arrangement must be logical2 in the second place the divisions should be arranged in climactic order wherever possible4 ,the strongest argument should be put last unless there is an important logical objection to putting it in that position4 ,in arranging the order of the main issues above discussed1 8necessity0 should be placed first1 because the necessity for a thing paves the way for its adoption4 ,it is the logical beginning4 ,theory should be placed second1 and last of all the argument 8practice10 because nothing can constitute a stronger argument in favor of the adoption of a plan than to show that it has already worked well in many instances4 ,this arrangement is not only the climactic order1 but from the psychological standpoint it makes the strongest impression4 ,the process of arranging groups in their logical order should be carried on until the cards comprising the smallest group are placed in what appears to be the order dictated by logical sequence and climactic effect4 ,after the evidence has been duly arranged in accordance with the method just explained1 the task of writing out the brief formally may be commenced4 ,,iii4 ,rules for constructing a brief4 #a4 ,a brief should be composed of three parts3 ,introduction1 ,proof1 and ,conclusion4 ,the three parts of the brief1 ,introduction1 ,proof1 and ,conclusion1 should bear a well regulated proportion to each other4 ,the tendency of the beginner is to make the introduction too long3 a two page introduction to a three page brief is absurd4 ,the proof should occupy by far the greater part of the brief1 the introduction should be as compact as is consistent with its purpose1 and the conclusion should be shorter than the introduction4 #b4 ,each statement in a brief should be a single complete sentence4 ,the sentences of the brief must be grammatically correct4 ,each idea should be carefully thought out and presented in a short1 simple1 direct1 and comprehensive sentence1 for long and complicated sentences lead to ambiguity4 ,moreover1 the sentence must contain but one central idea1 which must be stated completely4 ,mere topics are not sufficient4 ,the word 8,practicable0 should not be made to represent the entire statement that 8,the commission form of city government is practicable10 but the complete statement should be written out4 #c4 ,the relation which the different statements in a brief bear to each other should be indicated by symbols and indentations4 ,every statement in the brief must stand either directly or indirectly as a reason for the truth of the proposition4 ,if a statement stands as direct proof of the proposition1 this fact must be indicated2 if as indirect1 this fact must also be indicated4 ,the statements which stand as direct proof should be marked with the same kind of symbols and indented in the same way4 ,this enables the reader to glance over the brief and see the main issues standing out distinctly from the subordinate statements4 ,the system of symbols used is immaterial1 providing they serve the purpose above indicated4 ,for the sake of uniformity1 however1 it is suggested that the student adhere to the following plan3 ,this proposition is true1 for ,i444444444444444444444444444444441 for ,a4444444444444444444444444444441 for #a44444444444444444444444444441 for a444444444444444444444444441 for 7#a744444444444444444444441 for 7a7444444444444444444441 for 7x74444444444444444441 for 7y74444444444444444441 for ,b4444444444444444444444444444441 for #a44 etc4 ,,ii44444444444444444444444444444441 for ,a44444444444 etc4 ,b4444444444 etc4 ,the above symbols with their appropriate indentations are sufficient in variety for almost any brief4 ,to make this plan more concrete let us suppose that the proposition is held to be true for two reasons4 ,these reasons then are the main issues1 and are cordinate so far as subject-matter is concerned2 therefore they are placed with the symbols ,i and ,,ii1 which are next to the left hand margin of the paper4 ,there are two main reasons for ,i1 and these are marked ,a and ,b1 with a greater indentation from the left hand margin than ,i4 ,there is one reason for ,a and it is marked #a with a slightly greater indentation from the margin than ,a4 ,if there were two reasons the second one would be marked #b with the same indentation as #a4 ,that is1 the same arrangement applies throughout the entire system that applies to ,i and ,,ii1 and ,a and ,b4 ,there is one reason for #a and it is marked a with a slightly greater indentation2 the reason for a is marked 7#a71 and the reason for 7#a7 is marked 7a74 ,there are two facts which prove the truth of 7a7 and they are marked 7x7 and 7y74 ,in this way the entire brief1 whether long or short1 is worked out and the relation existing between all its parts clearly shown4 #d4 ,the introduction should contain the main issues1 together with a brief statement of the process of analysis by which they were found4 ,as previously stated1 in making the analysis of a proposition an unprejudiced standpoint must be taken4 ,this is true because the object is to find the statements which if proved will establish the truth of the proposition4 ,since it is the object of the introduction to set forth the main issues it must contain nothing but the process of analysis by which these issues were derived4 ,there must be no statements which require proof and none which indicate a prejudice in favor of one side or the other4 ,a long introduction must be avoided1 because it is almost sure to contain irrelevant matter4 ,furthermore1 a reader or hearer is not going to keep in mind all the history1 conditions1 definitions1 and limitations which a long introduction may properly include1 unless they are briefly expressed and lead straight to the heart of the controversy4 ,again1 a long introduction is tiresome4 ,the writer once heard a prominent ,united ,states ,senator say1 after acting as judge of a college debate3 8,boil down your introduction4 ,the men who pass on what you have to say1 whether in business1 politics1 or education1 want to know what you believe and why you believe it4 ,get at the #8because' part of your speech without delay40 ,the process of analysis may have been long and laborious1 but once the main issues have been found it is easy to point out the way to them4 ,in the ,lincoln-,douglas ,debates1 which are masterpieces of this kind of work1 the introductions are exceedingly short as compared with the length of the speeches4 ,no time is wasted in getting to the points at issue4 ,a carefully worked out analysis may be presented briefly for it is seldom necessary to an understanding of the question to discuss its origin1 its history1 the admitted matter and the contentions of both sides4 ,seldom is it important to discuss more than two of these topics4 ,those phases of analysis which afford the shortest route to the main issues should be chosen4 ,while some brief writers prefer to give the whole process of analysis1 this makes the brief unnecessarily long4 ,suppose that you went into the forest for the purpose of finding a certain tree4 ,you began a systematic search in which you traveled back and forth through the forest for three days4 ,at last you found the tree4 ,it is but a half-hour's walk from the edge of the forest4 ,would you take those to whom you wish to show the tree over the path which you traveled in the three days' search1 or would you lead them directly to it8 ,the answer is obvious4 ,why1 then1 should we weary the reader or hearer with a long introduction in which all the steps taken in search of the main issues are set forth1 when we can state one or two of these steps and arrive at the main issues without delay8 ,lincoln1 in his first inaugural address1 shows the virtue of a brief introduction4 ,he might have dwelt long upon the origin of the question which he feared would sever the ,union2 he might have given extensively the history of slavery and the controversies resulting from it2 he might have compounded definitions based upon the highest authorities2 and all of this would have been relevant matter for the introduction of his speech4 ,moreover1 there is no doubt that all of these matters had been considered by him in his analysis of the question4 ,but when he wished to lead his hearers to the main issues which his analysis revealed1 he chose the simplest and most direct route4 ,after a brief introductory sentence he employed the process of elimination to cut away all extraneous matter by saying3 8,i do not consider it necessary at present for me to discuss those matters of administration about which there is no special anxiety or excitement40 ,then he at once took up the subjects of slavery and secession1 to which his elimination of extraneous material had narrowed the question4 ,the same brevity and directness characterizes ,lincoln's introduction to his ,cooper ,institute speech4 ,here a statement of admitted matter forms the means by which the point at issue is reached4 ,this offers an introduction which is impartial1 since both sides indorsed it1 and the main issues arose out of the different interpretation which the ,lincoln-,republicans and the ,douglas-,democrats placed upon it4 ,the crucial part of the introduction is as follows3 8,in his speech last autumn at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 as reported in the ,new ,york #8,times' ,senator ,douglas said3 #8,our fathers1 when they framed the government under which we live1 understood this question just as well1 and even better1 than we do now4' ,i fully indorse this1 and ,i adopt it as a text for this discourse4 ,i so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and an agreed starting-point for a discussion between ,republicans and that wing of the ,democracy headed by ,senator ,douglas4 ,it simply leaves the inquiry3 ,what was the understanding those fathers had of the question mentioned80 ,it is seen that these statements bring us directly to the point at issue through the statement of admitted matter4 ,the adoption of this admitted matter makes necessary some definitions4 ,lincoln gives these with clearness and exactness4 8,the frame of government under which we live10 is the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 8,the fathers0 that framed this constitution were the thirty-nine men who signed the original instrument4 ,the 8question0 which these fathers understood1 8just as well1 and even better1 than we do now10 was3 8,does the proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or anything in the constitution1 forbid our ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in our ,federal ,territories80 ,then ,lincoln continues3 8,upon this1 ,senator ,douglas holds the affirmative1 and the ,republicans the negative4 ,this affirmation and denial form an issue2 and this issue--this question--is precisely what the text declares our fathers understood 8better than we40 ,let us now inquire whether the 8thirty-nine10 or any of them1 ever acted upon this question2 and if they did1 how they acted upon it--how they expressed that better understanding40 ,thus ,lincoln brings his hearers to the proof of his argument--to the point where it introduces evidence to show that the great majority of these men answered the question by voting for the prohibition of slavery4 ,now let us write out a formal brief of this introduction and thus determine just what matters it really includes4 ,,negative ,,brief ,,proposition3 ,resolved1 that the proper division of local from ,federal authority or the ,constitution1 forbids our ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in our ,federal territories4 ,,introduction ,i4 ,statement of admitted matter4 ,a4 ,the framers of the ,constitution understood this question better than we do4 ,,ii4 ,definition of terms4 ,a4 8,the frame of government under which we live0 is the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 #a4 ,the original ,constitution4 #b4 ,the amendments4 ,b4 8,the fathers0 were the thirty-nine men who signed the original document4 ,c4 ,the 8question0 which these fathers understood 8just as well1 and even better1 than we do now10 is3 8,does the proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or anything in the ,constitution1 forbid our ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in our ,federal ,territories8 ,,iii4 ,the question is1 therefore1 8,did the framers of the constitution understand that the ,federal ,government is prohibited from controlling slavery in the territories80 ,the affirmative answers ,the negative answers ,no1 ,yes1 for3 for3 #a4 their words and actions #a4 their words and actions prove that the ,federal prove that the ,federal ,government is prohibited ,government is given from controlling slavery power to control slavery in the territories4 in the territories4 #b4 ,the first ,congress framed #b4 ,the first ,congress which annulments which deny contained sixteen of the this power4 8thirty-nine0 exercised this power4 ,,iv4 ,the special issues resulting from this clash of opinion are3 #a4 ,did the words and actions of the framers of the ,constitution show that the ,federal ,government is prohibited from controlling slavery in the territories8 #b4 ,did the ,first ,congress1 which contained a part of these framers and which understood their intentions1 show that it believed the ,federal ,government to be prohibited from controlling slavery in the territories8 ,the foregoing introduction shows well the brevity and directness which should characterize the first division of a brief4 ,the subject-matter indicates the impartial manner in which the subject is discussed throughout the introduction4 ,nothing is stated which requires proof4 ,the speaker selects common ground upon which both parties to the controversy have agreed to stand4 ,from this position he leads his opponents by logical steps to the arguments which he advances4 ,when the student has once found the main issues he should eliminate all useless steps in the analysis and present with clearness and force the necessary parts of the process which lead directly to the proof4 #e4 ,the main statements in the proof should correspond to the main issues set forth in the introduction1 and should read as reasons for the truth of the proposition4 ,the object of the introduction to the brief is to set forth the main issues4 ,in like manner the object of the proof is to set forth the evidence which supports these main issues4 ,therefore the main issues constitute the main headings of the second division of the brief4 ,moreover1 these main issues must all read directly as reasons for the truth of the proposition4 ,to illustrate this rule1 let us consider the following example4 ,,brief ,,proposition3 ,resolved1 that the policy of protection should be abandoned by the ,united ,states4 ,,introduction ,i4 7,first part of introduction omitted7 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,the clash of opinion reveals the following issues3 ,a4 ,is protection sound in theory8 ,b4 ,is protection sound in practice8 ,,proof ,i4 ,protection is unsound in theory1 for ,a4 444 ,b4 4441 etc4 ,,ii4 ,protection is unsound in practice1 for ,a4 444 ,b4 4441 etc4 ,the above example sets forth the form in which these main issues appear in the proof of the brief4 ,the validity of the reasoning which connects the main issues with the proposition may be tested by putting the word 8because0 or 8for0 after the proposition and reading it in connection with each main issue2 thus3 ,a4 ,the policy of protection should be abandoned by the ,united ,states because 7or for7 protection is unsound in theory4 ,b4 ,the policy of protection should be abandoned by the ,united ,states because 7or for7 protection is unsound in practice4 ,each main issue should be tested in the manner suggested above4 ,this will show whether the proper logical relation exists between the main issues and the proposition4 ,a further test may be applied by inverting the order of the main issues and the proposition and joining the two by the word 8therefore10 as follows3 ,a4 ,protection is unsound in theory2 therefore the policy of protection should be abandoned by the ,united ,states4 ,b4 ,protection is unsound in practice2 therefore the policy of protection should be abandoned by the ,united ,states4 ,but the words 8hence0 or 8therefore10 should never be used in a brief1 because they reverse the natural order and make the main statements subordinate4 ,after making sure that each main issue is stated so that it reads as a reason for the truth of the proposition1 the arguer must next amass the evidence1 which has been classified1 in support of each of the main issues4 #f4 ,every statement in the proof must read as a reason for the statement to which it is subordinate4 ,in the same way in which the main issues must read as reasons for the truth of the proposition1 every statement in the proof1 down to the smallest subdivision1 must read as a reason for the statement of the next higher order4 ,there must be no break in this firm logical structure4 ,a chain is only as strong as its weakest link4 ,if any break or weakness shows in the chain of argument1 reaching from the detailed facts up to the proposition itself1 the whole argument must be discarded and a new one built in its place4 ,to illustrate this rule clearly1 let us take a section from the proof of the following proposition3 ,resolved1 that all combinations of capital intended to monopolize industries should be prohibited by the ,federal ,government4 ,,introduction 7,omitted7 ,,proof ,i4 ,combinations of capital are unnecessary1 for ,a4 ,the concentration of capital is possible without them1 for #a4 ,many individuals and partnerships have enough capital to produce commodities in the most economical units4 #b4 ,trades are sufficiently large to admit many great competitors4 ,b4 ,combinations of capital are not necessary to resist labor organizations1 for #a4 ,labor unions do not have a complete monopoly of labor1 for a4 ,strikes are often a failure1 for 7#a7 7,here cite specific instances from your personal knowledge in which strikes have failed47 #b4 ,associations for the purpose of resisting labor unions are possible without combinations of capital4 ,,ii4 ,combinations of capital are a social evil1 for ,a4 ,they encourage gambling and speculation1 for #a4 ,they practice 8watering stock10 for a4 7,cite a number of specific instances47 #b4 ,they inflate or depress the value of stocks at will4 ,b4 ,they concentrate wealth in the hands of a few men1 for #a4 ,john ,d4 ,rockefeller gained his immense wealth from the ,standard ,oil monopoly4 #b4 7,cite several other specific examples like the above47 ,c4 ,they discourage individual enterprise1 for #a4 ,independent producers are driven out of business4 #b4 ,an individual cannot build up a business for himself4 ,,iii4 ,combinations of capital are an economic evil1 for ,a4 ,they limit natural production4 ,b4 ,they destroy competition1 for #a4 ,they absorb large producers4 #b4 ,they crush small producers4 ,c4 ,they raise prices1 for #a4 ,they gain control of the market for this purpose4 ,,iv4 ,the prohibition of combinations of capital by the ,federal ,government is practicable1 for ,a4 ,the power is given to the ,federal ,government by the ,constitution1 for #a4 ,congress is given power to regulate interstate commerce1 for a4 ,art4 #a1 ,sec4 #h grants this power4 #b4 ,the ,united ,states courts have jurisdiction over these matters1 for a4 ,art4 #a1 ,sec4 #h confers this power upon them4 ,in the above section taken from a completed brief enough evidence is introduced to show clearly the relation which must exist between each statement4 ,numbers ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv indicate the main issues4 ,under ,i1 ,a and ,b read as reasons for the truth of ,i4 ,under ,a1 #a and #b read as reasons for the truth of ,a and so on throughout the brief4 ,each statement is connected with the preceding statement1 to which it is subordinate1 by means of the conjunction 8for40 ,these statements must make complete sense and show their logical relation when connected by this conjunction3 as in ,,ii4 ,combinations of capital are a social evil1 for ,a4 ,they encourage gambling and speculation4 ,the rule stated at the beginning of this section is one of the most important guides to correct brief making and every part of the proof should be thoroughly tested by reference to it4 #g4 ,statements introducing refutation must show clearly the argument to he refuted4 ,refutation may be introduced at any point in the brief where objections arise in connection with the constructive argument4 ,it should always be placed in its logical position1 which is under the argument to which the objection is made4 ,only the strong objections which appear to be obvious hindrances to logical progress should be considered4 ,any stubborn objections which need to be cleared away before the argument can proceed with safety should be introduced4 ,the argument to be refuted should be clearly stated1 and the refutation should be set forth in the same way and subject to the same rules as the other parts of the brief4 ,an example of the proper introduction of refutation in a constructive argument is shown in the speech of ,roscoe ,conkling delivered at the ,republican ,convention in ,chicago in #ahhj1 in which he nominated ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant for ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,the chief objection to ,grant's candidacy was that he had already served two terms as ,president4 ,the precedent1 set by ,washington1 that no man should serve more than two terms as ,president1 had always been followed and had become one of the well established political customs of the country4 ,here was certainly a strong objection to the constructive argument of the speaker4 ,therefore the refutation is introduced where the speaker attempts to show that ,grant's character as a man and his great services to his country entitle him to the presidency4 ,in brief form a statement of the refutation would be as follows3 ,a4 ,refutation4 ,the argument that ,grant should not be nominated because he has already served two terms as ,president is unsound1 for #a4 ,it is absurd to say that because we have tried ,grant twice and found him faithful we ought not to trust him again4 ,refutation should always be introduced in the manner which the above illustration indicates4 ,first the series of symbols under which it should come should be determined2 then the word ,refutation should be placed opposite that symbol1 followed by the formal statement that 8,the argument that 444 is unsound1 for40 ,for a further illustration of the manner in which refutation ought to appear the student should consult the completed brief at the end of this chapter4 #h4 ,the conclusion should be a summary of the main arguments just as they stand in the proof of the brief1 and should close with an affirmation or denial of the proposition in the exact words in which it is phrased4 ,a conclusion must be forcible and to the point4 ,it should review the main issues and show at a glance their relation to the proposition4 ,the conclusion to the brief given at the end of this chapter is a good example of the form in which a conclusion should be stated4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,rules ,,for ,,constructing ,,the ,,brief #a4 ,a brief should be constructed in three parts3 ,introduction1 ,proof1 and ,conclusion4 #b4 ,each statement in a brief should be a single complete sentence4 #c4 ,the relation which the different statements in a brief bear to each other should be indicated by symbols and indentations4 #d4 ,the introduction should contain the main issues together with a brief statement of the process of analysis by which they were found4 #e4 ,the main statements of the proof should correspond to the main issues set forth in the introduction and should read as reasons for the truth of the proposition4 #f4 ,every statement in the proof must read as a reason for the statement to which it is subordinate4 #g4 ,statements introducing refutation must show clearly the argument to be refuted4 #h4 ,the conclusion should be a summary of the main arguments just as they stand in the proof of the brief1 and should close with an affirmation or denial of the proposition in the exact words in which it is phrased4 ,the following brief written by a student taking his first course in argumentation shows clearly the application of all the above rules4 ,it is not given as an example of a perfect brief on the proposition stated but it furnishes proper suggestions to the person whose experience in drawing briefs is not extensive4 ,in studying this brief the student should observe the relation between the statements under each main topic1 the method of building up the structure of the brief so that the relation of the various parts to the proposition is clear1 and the fact that in each case every statement rests upon a sound foundation4 ,the citation of good authority and the reliable source from which it was obtained are given wherever an authority is required4 ,the brief may be criticised on the ground that too much reliance is placed upon one source of evidence4 ,as suggested in the chapter on ,evidence the exact reference to authority should always be given in order that its value may lend weight to the argument4 ,furthermore1 the student is thus enabled to refer again to his source of evidence for further information in case it becomes necessary4 ,in conclusion1 the student must not forget that these rules should be thoroughly mastered and that a conscious application of them must be made in the actual practice of brief-drawing4 ,it is only by this means that they can be made a part of the argumentative equipment4 ,after the brief is drawn it should be carefully examined and tested by the above rules4 ,if certain parts evince weakness1 these should be strengthened by rearrangement1 or by supplying more and stronger evidence4 ,the student may be compelled to return again and again to his source of evidence in order to find material of which he has need4 ,if the steps preceding the construction of the brief have been carefully attended to1 he will find himself so familiar with the subject-matter of the proposition that such work will be undertaken with the delight and interest which the keen investigator feels when he is close on the trail of matter which will prove his conclusions4 ,,affirmative ,,brief ,,proposition3 ,resolved1 that the ,federal ,government should levy a progressive income tax4 ,,introduction ,i4 ,recently the question of an income tax has aroused great interest4 ,a4 ,an amendment to the constitution has been proposed recently which will provide for this tax4 ,b4 ,the proposed amendment has caused the matter to be considered carefully by the public4 ,c4 ,many eminent men have given opinions regarding the advisability of adopting the proposed tax4 ,,ii4 ,the following definition is adopted1 ,the progressive income tax is simply a tax levied upon the income of an individual1 the rate of tax increasing as the amount of the income of the individual increases4 ,,iii4 ,the contentions of the affirmative and the negative are as follows3 ,those who advocate the adoption of ,those who oppose the adoption of this income tax support the this income tax support the following contentions3 following contentions3 ,a4 ,the income tax is ,a4 ,the income tax is not necessary4 necessary4 ,b4 ,the income tax is ,b4 ,the income tax is practicable4 impracticable4 ,c4 ,the income tax is just4 ,c4 ,the income tax is unjust4 ,,iv4 ,through this clash of opinions we reach the following issues3 ,a4 ,is the income tax necessary8 ,b4 ,is the income tax practicable8 ,c4 ,is the income tax just8 ,,proof ,i4 ,the progressive income tax is necessary1 for ,a4 ,it is necessary in meeting national exigencies1 for #a4 ,in case of war the customs duties would cease or be impaired and the government would be without another source from which to draw revenue were not the income tax available4 7,norris ,brown1 ,u4 ,s4 ,senator from ,neb4 in ,outlook1 #id3 #bag47 #b4 ,governor ,hughes of ,new ,york believes this power 7that of levying the income tax7 should be held by the ,federal ,government so as to equip it with the means of meeting national exigencies4 7,outlook1 #id3 #aaj47 #c4 ,refutation4 ,the argument that the income tax is not necessary on the grounds that other taxes can be made to cover all necessities is unsound1 for a4 ,in case of war with a great commercial nation when the country would be in the greatest need of revenues1 the collection of imposts would cease or be materially diminished4 7,justice ,harlan of the ,u4 ,s4 ,supreme ,court in his dissenting opinion in the ,pollock ,case4 ,outlook1 #id3bag47 ,,ii4 ,the progressive income tax is practicable1 for ,a4 ,experience shows it to be practicable1 for #a4 ,during the great ,civil ,war millions of dollars were collected from this source when the government was in need4 7,norris ,brown in ,outlook1 #id3baf47 #b4 ,it has proved practicable in ,england and ,italy4 8,income taxation gains in economy and productiveness and wins increasing approbation as the years go by40 7,professor ,ely1 ,professor of ,economics in the ,university of ,wisconsin1 in ,outlines of ,economics1 p4 #fce47 ,,iii4 ,the progressive income tax is just1 for ,a4 ,the tax bears upon the individual according to his ability to pay1 for #a4 ,it tends to relieve the poor from taxation and place it upon the rich who are able to bear it4 7,philip ,s4 ,post in ,outlook1 #he3ejd47 ,b4 ,it makes each individual bear his share of taxation1 for #a4 ,income is as good1 and perhaps better than any other single measure of ability to pay and the tax is in accordance with this idea4 7,professor ,ely in ,outlines of ,economics1 p4 #fce47 #b4 ,the income tax reaches certain members of the professional class who under existing laws largely escape taxation through lack of tangible property4 7,philip ,s4 ,post in ,outlook1 #he3eid47 ,,conclusion ,i4 ,since the income tax is necessary in meeting national exigencies where other revenues fail2 ,,ii4 ,since experience shows that the income tax is practicable2 ,,iii4 ,since the progressive income tax is just because it bears upon the individual according to his ability to pay2 ,therefore1 the ,federal ,government should levy a progressive income tax4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,constructing ,,the ,,brief #a4 ,let each student select some subject in which he is interested and follow the argumentative process up to and including1 the construction of the brief4 #b4 ,write out a full and complete brief of one of the arguments given in the appendix4 #c4 ,after the briefs have been written out the instructor should have the students exchange1 and give them an opportunity in class to point out the defects in each other's work4 #d4 ,without regard to order or form1 let the instructor dictate all the statements in a short brief1 and let the student reconstruct a correct brief out of these statements4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,constructing ,,the ,,argument ,the last step has left us with the completed brief1--sound1 logical1 and comprehensive4 ,in some cases the task ends here1 the brief being constructed for its own sake and left to stand as a cold1 formal1 logical framework upholding the truth of the proposition4 ,in this form it may be laid by for those who are to pass upon its validity1 or the advisability of adopting or rejecting the proposition which it supports2 or the author may explain its structure in an extemporaneous speech4 ,more often1 however1 the brief is but the framework of the argument which is to be built upon it1 giving the whole structure grace and strength4 ,in this final process great care must be taken to make sure that the naked framework is entirely covered4 ,no rough edges or angular corners should be left protruding from the finished product4 ,the whole structure must be made attractive1 and impressive1 just as the steel framework of a great building is enveloped in solid walls of stone and marble made elegant by the sculptor's art4 ,the distinction between conviction and persuasion1 which was pointed out in a previous chapter1 again enters into the argumentative process4 ,for purposes of discussion we may assume that the brief itself produces conviction because it shows clearly that the proposition is right4 ,but the naked brief is as cold and formal as a proposition in geometry4 ,hence it is the task of the written or spoken argument1 based upon that brief1 to arouse the emotions so that it may move the will and thus end in persuasion4 ,now1 if every individual were a perfectly rational being the brief would be all that would be necessary to arouse to action1 because by itself it shows what is right and what ought to be done4 ,but real men in everyday life are not perfectly rational beings4 ,their reasoning processes are influenced by environment1 education1 prejudices1 and acquired habits of thought4 ,the emotions of men1 too1 play a large part in shaping their conduct4 ,therefore1 a process must be instituted in their minds which reaches persuasion through their combined thoughts and feelings4 ,from the psychological standpoint we may divide this process into three stages1 ,i41 ,attention2 ,,ii41 ,interest2 and ,,iii41 ,desire4 ,from the argumentative standpoint we may divide the process into three parts corresponding to the three parts of the brief1 viz41 ,i41 ,introduction2 ,,ii41 ,proof2 and ,,iii41 ,conclusion4 ,now it will be seen that the psychological process bears a logical relation to the argumentative process1 and that this relation is one of cause and effect4 ,the end of all argument is action4 ,if the argument is successful it creates in their order the mental and emotional conditions of attention1 interest1 and desire4 ,that is1 the introduction1 proof1 and conclusion of the argument result in the attention1 interest1 and desire of the individual mind4 ,these processes begin at the same point1 since the introduction secures the attention of the reader or hearer2 they proceed along the argumentative road together1 since the proof must maintain the active interest of the reader or hearer2 and they end at the same point1 because the conclusion1 if successful1 leaves the mind with a desire for action4 ,briefly stated1 the introduction arouses the attention2 the proof maintains the interest2 and the conclusion creates the desire4 ,i4 ,attention--aroused by the introduction4 ,the first duty of a written argument is to get itself read2 the first duty of an oral argument is to get itself heard2 therefore the argument must attract the attention of the reader or listener in the beginning or introduction and must hold his attention throughout the proof4 ,if attention is not secured at the beginning of the argument it is seldom secured at all1 for the reader will throw the uninteresting argument aside in disgust1 while the listener will allow his thoughts to wander to other subjects4 ,thus it is evident that the necessity for arousing the attention by means of the introduction is very great4 ,in order that we may clearly apprehend the relation which should exist between the introduction and attention let us consider1 #a4 ,the kinds of attention1 and #b4 ,the methods of securing proper attention by means of the introduction4 #a4 ,kinds of attention4 ,a4 ,natural attention4 ,natural attention requires no effort of the will to bring the mind to bear upon the subject in hand4 ,the human mind1 when not engaged on some definite object1 attends in an effortless way to practically every marked change in the circumstances with which it is surrounded4 ,to things that meet our approval we give our attention willingly1 but if we are displeased or bored by any happening we give our attention unwillingly4 ,therefore the object of the introduction is to please in order that attention may be given willingly4 ,when a speaker walks out on a platform and faces the audience he at once attracts the spontaneous attention of practically everybody in that audience4 ,this much is easy4 ,the problem that now confronts the speaker is to begin his speech by saying something which will turn this spontaneous attention into fixed attention4 ,by fixed attention is meant such attention as willingly follows the train of thought which the speaker has to present4 ,if the introduction is properly prepared this fixed attention will be the result1 but if the introduction is not properly prepared the natural attention of the audience quickly degenerates into what we may term ,assumed ,attention4 ,b4 ,assumed attention4 ,this kind of attention is not given willingly1 but is assumed by the audience merely because it happens that the speaker has placed himself on the platform and there is nothing left for the audience to do but to listen to him4 ,now this assumed attention on the part of the listeners may pass through several degrees of intensity1 depending upon the kind of audience and the degree of the lack of skill with which the speaker proceeds4 ,at first the speaker is treated to the ordinary manner of any audience not especially interested in what is being said4 ,this attitude quickly degenerates into indifference1 a point at which the audience does not care what the speaker says or whether he says anything4 ,such a condition as this often continues throughout an entire speech1 and the sooner the speaker realizes that fact and brings his argument to an end the better4 ,the next stage of assumed attention is that of abstraction4 ,at this stage the speaker does not even receive the indifferent attention of the listeners4 ,the mind of each individual before him wanders off to some subject in which he is interested personally and the speaker might just as well be talking to empty seats4 ,usually this is the least desirable stage of assumed attention4 ,under some conditions1 however1 it is possible to reach a still less desirable stage1 which we may call1 for the purpose of making an exhaustive division of this subject1 incivility4 ,at this stage the individuals of the audience manifest their displeasure by talking among themselves1 and making uncomplimentary remarks about the speaker4 ,the above discussion will serve to make clear the kind of attention the speaker must attempt to create by means of his introduction4 ,we shall now consider some of the methods by which the proper kind of attention may be secured4 #b4 ,methods of securing proper attention4 ,a4 ,immediate statement of purpose4 ,one of the most effective methods of securing the natural attention of the audience is by an immediate statement of the purpose of the discourse4 ,it will be remembered that in the preparation of the brief the student was cautioned against the evils of a long introduction4 ,he will also recall that the introduction was to contain only the main issues and the essential steps in the analysis by which they were reached4 ,this same brevity should characterize the introduction to the argument4 ,the audience is naturally interested in what the speaker believes and the reasons for his arguing in favor of or against the proposition4 ,therefore he may gain the fixed attention by stating at once just what he purposes to do4 ,an extreme form of this kind of introduction would be as follows3 8,there are two reasons why we maintain that the ,federal ,government should levy a progressive inheritance tax2 first1 because the national government needs it as a source of revenue2 and second1 because it will remedy the evils resulting from #8swollen' fortunes4 8,the ,federal ,government needs this tax as a source of revenue because1 etc40 ,this introduction is an immediate statement of the purpose of the argument and will secure the attention of either reader or hearer4 ,in addressing an audience there are some cases in which just such an introduction should be used2 for example1 when previous speakers have dwelt upon the analysis of the question1 or have given full dissertations on the origin or history of the subject1 or lengthy definitions of terms and explanations of processes of reasoning4 ,again1 such an introduction may be used when the time limit is very short or where the audience is presumed to be thoroughly familiar with the subject under discussion4 ,lincoln uses this method in introducing his discussion on the necessity of a settlement of the slavery struggle1 as the following introduction to his ,springfield speech will show3 8,if we could first know where we are1 and whither we are tending1 we could better judge what to do and how to do it4 ,we are now far in the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to the slavery agitation4 ,under the operation of that policy1 that agitation has not only not ceased1 but has constantly been augmented4 ,in my opinion it will not cease until a crisis shall have been reached and passed4 #8,a house divided against itself cannot stand4' ,i believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free4 ,i do not expect the ,union to be dissolved2 ,i do not expect the house to fall2 but ,i do expect it will cease to be divided4 ,it will become all one thing or all the other4 ,either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it1 and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction1 or its advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the states1 old as well as new1 ,north as well as ,south40 ,in this introduction it is seen that ,lincoln comes at once to the point3 8,i believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free40 ,he makes his introduction complete by repeating this idea so that no one can fail to understand the point he is making4 ,the two sentences which precede his statement and the three sentences which follow it state the same idea in different forms4 ,in an introduction the speaker must not only make his position so plain that it can be understood1 but he must make it so plain that it cannot be misunderstood4 ,this is what ,lincoln does in the introduction to his ,springfield speech and it is what must be done in every effective speech of this character4 ,the introduction quoted above touches lightly upon the origin and history of the question with the simple statement3 8,we are now far into the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to slavery agitation4 ,under the operation of that policy1 that agitation has not only not ceased1 but has been constantly augmented40 ,more extended statements of the history here alluded to are given further on in the argument at such places as they are needed4 ,here in the ,introduction merely the significant results of origin and history are stated in the briefest possible form4 ,this method of stating the introduction well illustrates the application of the general principle that extensive treatment of facts of origin and history should not be allowed to interfere with the immediate statement of the purpose of the argument4 ,b4 ,illustrative story4 ,sometimes the fixed attention of the audience or reader may be gained by the use of an illustrative story4 ,no speaker or writer should attempt to use this method of introduction unless he is absolutely confident of his ability to carry it through successfully4 ,a story must conform to the following rules before it can1 with safety1 be adopted for the purpose of an introduction3 7#a7 ,the story must be interesting4 7#b7 ,the story must be well told4 7#c7 ,the story must be obviously connected with the point which the arguer wishes to bring out4 ,if the story be of the comic variety1 and is to be told orally1 the speaker must make sure that the audience will laugh with him and not at him4 ,nothing is more fatal to natural attention than a story which 8falls flat40 ,regarding the aptness of the story as illustrating the point which the speaker wishes to make1 it need only be suggested that the connection must be obvious4 ,if any explanation is required after the story is told it usually serves to kill attention rather than to create it4 ,the connection must be so obvious that the speaker is able to lead his auditors skillfully from the story directly to the point at issue4 ,c4 ,quotations4 ,a third method of introducing an argument is by the giving of a familiar quotation1 or a quotation of the opposing speaker or someone concerned in the controversy4 ,such a quotation must be very plainly connected with the subject1 and its bearing on the point which the speaker wishes to make must be evident4 ,in this respect the requirements of an introductory story and an introductory quotation are identical4 ,an example of an introduction in which a quotation is used is that of the speech of ,roscoe ,conkling in which he urges the nomination of ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant for ,president4 ,this introduction begins as follows3 8,when asked what state he hails from ,our sole reply shall be ,he comes from ,appomattox1 ,and its famous apple-tree40 ,likewise a speech advocating the adoption of free silver in our monetary system began with 8,there is a tide in the affairs of men1 ,which taken at the flood leads on to fortune40 ,in some cases the quotation may be used merely to secure the immediate attention of the audience4 ,in such a case it must bear directly on the circumstances of the occasion1 as when the third speaker in a college contest took advantage of the two preceding speakers1 who had both forgotten their speeches and had been compelled to retire from the platform1 by beginning his speech with the quotation1 8,lord ,god of ,hosts1 be with us yet ,lest we forget1 lest we forget40 ,the effort was a decided success1 if success were to be judged by the amusement of the audience1 but it only prolonged the time required to get the attention of the audience fixed on the serious subject which the speaker wished to present4 ,such a quotation may attract attention1 and if that is all that is required1 well and good2 but the usual requirement is to attract attention in such a way that it will be fixed on the subject in hand4 ,therefore the temptation to attempt comedy should be carefully guarded against1 and quotations should be used which will procure more substantial results4 ,of the three methods for securing proper attention herein given the first is by far the most important and the most useful4 ,the second and third methods should be attempted only when the circumstances are most favorable as measured by the principles stated in this discussion4 ,the student must keep constantly in mind the object to be gained by the introduction1 namely1--the natural fixed attention of the audience4 ,,ii4 ,interest--maintained by the proof4 #a4 ,necessity4 ,the necessity of maintaining the attention of the reader or hearer throughout the proof is obvious4 ,no permanent results can follow an argument which is not fully comprehended4 ,even though the closing paragraphs arouse the emotions1 and a strong persuasive appeal is made in the conclusion1 they only result in persuasion1 and we have learned that in an effective argument conviction and persuasion must exist together4 #b4 ,methods of maintaining interest4 ,a4 ,appropriate treatment4 ,the task of maintaining the interest of auditors or readers is made much easier if the writer will pause in his preparation and consider the appropriateness of his treatment of the subject4 ,in order to make this treatment appropriate three factors must be considered3 7#a7 ,the speaker or writer1 7#b7 ,the audience or reader1 7#c7 ,the time or occasion4 ,the argument in order to be effective must be especially adapted to all of these factors4 a4 ,adaptation to speaker or writer4 ,the writer of an argument1 whether the argument is to be written out for the purpose of being read or whether it is to be delivered in the form of a speech1 must take into consideration his own power and ability4 ,with these clearly in mind he must present his subject in a way which seems natural and spontaneous4 ,never should an attempt be made to imitate the manner of any particular speaker or writer4 ,such attempts always appear unnatural1 strained1 and artificial1 as in truth they are4 ,the keynote of adapting a speech to the speaker is sincerity4 ,sincerity begets naturalness4 ,to be sincere and know that he is in the right leads the speaker to treat his subject in a manner which will show forth the best qualities of his character4 ,the argument should manifest the utmost fairness4 ,it should be clear that the speaker or writer desires truth and justice to prevail4 ,when stating an opponent's position for purposes of refutation the speaker or writer should be sure that his statements are fair and reasonable and will bear the inspection of unprejudiced judges4 ,if genuine sincerity and absolute fairness are put into an argument they will go far toward adapting it to the personality of the author4 b4 ,adaptation to audience or reader4 ,as a basis for this sort of adaptation a real sympathy with those to whom the argument is to be addressed is essential4 ,in fact the arguer must be able to take their view of the subject4 ,he must realize that an argument which is to be presented to a working-man must be1 in a way1 different from one which is to be presented to a banker4 ,to be sure1 the essence of the argument may be the same1 but when the task of developing the brief into a finished product is undertaken1 these different standpoints must be considered4 ,not only must this adaptation be considered from the standpoint of those engaged in different occupations in life1 but the predominating political1 social1 religious1 and scholastic temperament must also be considered4 ,especially is this true if the beliefs of the audience or readers differ from those of the speaker or writer4 ,usually the speaker realizes the importance of the latter situation but very often does not know just how to meet it4 ,here again sympathy is the keynote4 ,nothing should be said which will give offense4 ,the speaker must prepare carefully each step in his argument so as to lead the audience with him4 ,in the beginning a common basis must be found1 then the true attitude of the arguer may be made apparent as he proceeds4 ,an instance of this gradual leading on of the audience is found in 8,julius ,caesar10 where ,mark ,antony addresses the citizens after the murder of ,caesar4 ,the statements of 8a plain blunt man0 attach a much different significance to the 8honorable men0 at the close of the argument from that which was given in its beginning4 ,had ,antony reversed the order of his speech he would have been deliberately killed instead of being hailed as a leader4 ,he adapted his argument to his audience4 ,he led them along step by step until in the end they arrived at the inference which he wished to establish and then with a fiery conclusion he aroused in them the desire for action4 ,not once did he lose their interest1 because his treatment of the subject-matter took into account their personal1 financial1 social1 and political welfare4 ,this classical example illustrates well the maintaining of interest by that method of appropriate treatment which adapts the argument to the audience4 ,an example of a speaker addressing an audience of an entirely different class from that to which he himself belongs is that of ,booker ,t4 ,washington on the occasion of the opening of the ,atlanta ,exposition4 ,mr4 ,washington had great difficulty in determining how he should take up his subject4 ,but he was wise enough to apply the principle of sympathy with his audience1 and the result was an address which stands as a monument to his wisdom4 ,he1 himself1 says that3 8,no two audiences are exactly alike4 ,it is my aim to reach and talk to the heart of each individual audience1 taking it into my confidence much as ,i would a person4 ,when ,i am speaking to an audience ,i care little for how what ,i am saying is going to sound in the newspapers1 or to another audience1 or to an individual4 ,at the time1 the audience before me absorbs all my sympathy1 thought1 and energy40 ,again he says1 referring to the occasion above mentioned1 8,i was determined to say nothing that ,i did not feel from the bottom of my heart to be true and right40 ,lincoln had some very strong misgivings about the reception of his ,cooper ,institute speech4 ,it is said that he felt 8miseries of embarrassment from his sense of the unaccustomed conditions1 the critical and refined audience1 his own ungainliness1 and his ill-fitting and wrinkled clothes40 ,but after he began to speak his embarrassment disappeared4 ,it was merged into sympathy with his audience1 the people of ,new ,york ,city1 for whom he had especially prepared the address4 ,how well he succeeded in his adaptation we all know1 and ,nicolay and ,hay say in their account3 8,yet1 such was the apt choice of words1 the easy precision of sentences1 the simple strength of propositions1 the fairness of every point he assumed1 and the force of every conclusion he drew that his listeners followed him with the interest and delight a child feels in its easy mastery of a plain sum in arithmetic40 ,every speech must be so adapted to the audience that it will maintain just this kind of interest from the beginning to the close4 c4 ,adaptation to time or occasion4 ,the final requirement of appropriate treatment is that the argument be suited to the time or occasion4 ,every kind of occasion has an individuality born of its environment4 ,the political argument of a candidate for office will have a somewhat different setting from the same argument delivered in the halls of congress4 ,a brief for an argument might well serve for both occasions1 but when that argument is written out the time or occasion of its presentation must be considered4 ,the arguer can almost always foresee the circumstances of the particular occasion or time of presentation and thus adapt his argument to them4 ,formal college or intercollegiate debates before competent judges and with a definite limit as to the length of the speech would demand that the brief be developed in the most terse and direct manner possible2 whereas the same argument to be delivered before a ,political ,science ,club1 with no judges and no time limit1 might be developed much more fully and adapted to the occasion in a widely different manner4 ,in conclusion1 we must not forget that an argument intended to be read must be adapted to the writer1 the reader and the time2 whereas1 an argument written for oral delivery must be adapted to the speaker1 the audience1 and the occasion4 ,b4 ,logical structure4 ,the very fact that a discourse is to take the form of an argument causes those to whom it is addressed to look for logical structure and clear reasoning4 ,this expectation must not be ignored4 ,the argument must not only be logical1 but it must appear logical4 ,this logical structure can be clearly set forth when the argument is written out1 by means of frequent statements of the divisions of the argument and their relation to each other1 summaries1 and transition sentences and paragraphs4 ,the arguer should first tell what he has to prove1 then show all along that he is proving it1 and finally call attention to the fact that he has proved it4 ,if this is well done the logical structure of the argument is made obvious4 ,the argument must also show logical progress4 ,we have already seen the necessity of making the introduction as brief as is consistent with the other requirements4 ,this requirement regarding brevity must be observed throughout the development of the brief4 ,every statement must be developed to such an extent as to bring out clearly the central thought1 but when this has been done the writer must pass at once to the next point1 thus showing that some real progress is being made4 ,an argument which moves slowly tires the reader or hearer4 ,therefore the temptation to elaborate a point in the brief upon which the writer has a large amount of information should be carefully guarded against4 ,each argument must be stated clearly1 with supporting evidence to the point1 and the proof furnished by the evidence plainly shown4 ,this logical progress will aid greatly in maintaining interest in the proof of the argument4 ,c4 ,style4 ,style is the manner of selecting and arranging words1 sentences1 and paragraphs in such a way that they will produce an intended effect upon the reader or hearer4 ,from this definition it will be seen at once that style is a very important factor in argumentation4 ,the argument is constructed with the express purpose of producing an intended effect upon the reader or hearer1 and style is a necessary aid4 ,the outward appearance of things enhances their usefulness4 ,manufacturers are on the constant lookout for designs which are really artistic and pleasing to the eye4 ,it is even claimed that the appearance of food affects its digestion4 ,certainly1 therefore1 an argument ought to possess such style that it will appear in the most favorable light4 ,style1 however1 must not be considered an external thing4 ,it is not a trick by which an argument may be decorated for parade4 ,style is the thought and the man behind that thought4 ,it is the thought presented in all its native force and completeness2 it is the man with all his earnestness and sincerity put into his words4 ,no writer or speaker can obtain good style by imitating that of another person4 ,it must be the natural expression of his own personality4 a4 ,elements of style4 7#a74 ,vocabulary4 ,the selection of the words in which the argument is expressed is highly important4 ,the manuscript should be repeatedly revised with the object of securing a clear and forcible diction4 ,a general term should not be used where a concrete term can be employed4 ,all unusual words should be eliminated and replaced with words which are familiar4 ,connotation may enter into the diction of an argument as well as into other forms of prose4 ,there is a fitness possessed by certain words to express certain shades of meaning which must be utilized by the arguer4 ,this regard for the connotative significance of words should guide in their selection throughout the argument4 ,significant expressions and combinations of words should also be brought in for the purpose of heightening the effect of the argument4 ,these combinations may be such as are used for political campaign watchwords4 ,greater force may be given to them by repetition1 as in the case of the sturdy ,roman orator who always closed his speech with the words 8,carthage must be destroyed40 ,alliteration may also be employed with good effect1 as in the case of the college debater who1 when opposing a further increase in our navy1 designated a battleship as 8,a devilish device designed to murder men40 ,such suggestions bring ideas to the mind with so much vividness that the impression which they make is not easily effaced4 7#b74 ,sentences4 ,in framing the sentences of an argument the writer must consider whether it is designed for oral delivery or merely for the purpose of being read4 ,if the latter1 the rules of ordinary composition furnish a sufficient guide1 but1 if the former purpose is to be considered special attention must be given to sentence-structure4 ,the writer should test each sentence as it is written by actually reading it aloud or by building a mental concept of the way in which it will sound when stated orally4 ,the meaning must be plain1 since if the hearer does not grasp it as the sentence is spoken he cannot grasp it at all4 ,to aid in this clearness1 long and involved sentence-structure should be avoided4 ,short1 terse sentences should predominate4 ,both balanced and periodic sentences may be made to contribute to the oratorical quality which an argument should possess1 but they must not interfere with that brevity which makes for clearness4 ,the following extract from the argument of ,daniel ,webster in the ,white murder trial well illustrates the clearness which results from the use of terse sentences4 8,the criminal law is not founded in a principle of vengeance4 ,it does not punish that it may inflict suffering4 ,the humanity of the law feels and regrets every pain it causes1 every hour of restraint it imposes1 and more deeply still every life it forfeits4 ,but it uses evil as a means of preventing greater evil4 ,it seeks to deter from crime by the example of punishment4 ,this is its true1 and only true main object4 ,it restrains the liberty of the few offenders1 that the many who do not offend may enjoy their liberty4 ,it takes the life of a murderer that other murders may not be committed40 7#c74 ,paragraphs4 ,a paragraph should be devoted to each subdivision of the argument4 ,each paragraph must be a complete unit4 ,its length should vary with the importance of the subdivision to which it is confined4 ,the sentence in the brief which it is designed to elaborate should stand as the key sentence of the paragraph4 b4 ,qualities of style4 7#a74 ,clearness4 ,the most important quality of style is clearness4 ,clearness is a valuable aid to interest1 for the human mind delights in lucidity4 ,the audience or reader will seldom take the trouble to figure out exactly what idea is intended to be conveyed4 ,most audiences are lazy and must be assisted to think4 ,the way in which a conclusion is to be reached must be pointed out to them4 ,hence the necessity of making plain an argument which is to be delivered orally is especially great4 ,error can easily be smuggled into an argument under cover of confused language1 but clearness shows forth the argument in such a light that any mistake must be apparent4 ,this satisfies the minds of those addressed1 because they can see and judge for themselves4 ,moreover1 there is a quality of elegance coming from perfect clearness which carries conviction with it4 ,if clearness is lacking1 grave errors may be lurking in the obscure phrasing of the discourse and the reader or hearer cannot feel satisfied in his own mind4 ,therefore1 for the sake of the writer and for the sake of those to whom the argument is addressed1 clearness should be the predominating quality of style4 ,it is not amiss at this point to quote in full the famous description of eloquence from ,webster's oration on ,adams and ,jefferson4 ,it is not only a description but it is a great example of the thing described4 ,the student will do well to ponder over it and try to realize the full significance of every statement4 8,clearness1 force1 and earnestness are the qualities which produce conviction4 ,true eloquence1 indeed1 does not consist in speech4 ,it cannot be brought from far4 ,labor and learning may toil for it1 but they will toil in vain4 ,words and phrases may be marshalled in every way1 but they cannot compass it4 ,it must exist in the man1 in the subject1 and in the occasion4 ,affected passion1 intense expression1 and pomp of declamation1 all may aspire to it2 they cannot reach it4 ,it comes1 if it comes at all1 like the outbreaking of a fountain from the earth1 or the bursting forth of volcanic fires1 with spontaneous1 original1 native force4 ,the graces taught in the schools1 the costly ornaments and studied contrivances of speech1 shock and disgust men1 when their own lives1 and the fate of their wives1 their children1 and their country1 hang on the decision of the hour4 ,then words have lost their power1 rhetoric is vain1 and all elaborate oratory contemptible4 ,even genius itself then feels rebuked and subdued1 as in the presence of higher qualities4 ,then patriotism is eloquent2 then self-devotion is eloquent4 ,the clear conception outrunning the deductions of logic1 the high purpose1 the firm resolve1 the dauntless spirit1 speaking on the tongue1 beaming from the eye1 informing every feature1 and urging the whole man onward1 right onward to his object1--this1 this is eloquence2 or rather it is something greater and higher than all eloquence1--it is action1 noble1 sublime1 godlike action40 ,simplicity of expression is an important aid to clearness4 ,no speaker should strive for effect alone4 ,the simplest words and the simplest sentences should be chosen4 ,fine writing or high sounding language should be avoided4 ,the writer should make use of that directness which characterizes his conversation when he is in earnest4 ,concreteness is a most important aid to clearness1 for general statements make little impression upon the average mind4 ,to secure the best effect concrete particulars must be used to amplify and illustrate all general statements4 ,this not only makes the meaning of the speaker more clear but it also gives a force and vigor to the idea presented4 ,in fact1 some writers have named concreteness as the most important aid to force4 ,in ,alden's ,art of ,debate a speaker during the time of the ,chicago strike is quoted as having moved his hearers to enthusiasm by declaring3 8,if necessary1 every regiment in the ,united ,states army must be called out1 that the letter dropped by the girl ,jennie1 at some country post-office back in ,maine1 may go on its way to her lover in ,san ,francisco1 without a finger being raised to stop its passage40 ,this is concreteness as distinguished from generality4 ,how much less clear and less forcible would be the general abstract statement that 8,if necessary1 the whole force of the ,united ,states army will be called into action for the purpose of preventing interference with the mails40 ,instead of making the general statement 8,there has been a constant improvement in the methods devised by man for killing his fellow men in war10 the idea would be more concrete if expressed in the following terms3 8,ever since ,shamgar slew the opposing army of the ,philistines with an oxgoad man has been improving the instruments of war until to-day we have the modern dreadnought weighing thousands of tons and costing millions of dollars40 ,or1 the idea can be presented in a still more concrete manner by stating the following facts3 8,ever since ,david1 the shepherd boy1 picked a pebble from the brook2 placed it in his sling2 threw it and killed ,goliath1 man has been improving the method of throwing things at his fellow men1 in order to kill them1 until to-day we have the thirteen inch gun1 which throws a projectile weighing one thousand pounds a distance of thirteen miles40 ,these concrete instances when elaborated become illustrations or illustrative instances4 ,in fact1 the last statement given above might be dignified with the name illustration4 ,lincoln in his ,cooper ,institute speech aptly illustrated the attitude of the ,south toward secession when he said3 8,but you will not abide the election of a ,republican ,president6 ,in that supposed event you say you will destroy the ,union6 and then1 you say1 the crime of having destroyed it will be upon us6 ,that is cool4 ,a highwayman holds a pistol to my ear and mutters through his teeth #8,stand and deliver or ,i shall kill you1 and then you will be a murderer4'0 ,again ,lincoln uses a most clear and forcible illustration in his ,springfield speech when he presents the following argument from analogy3 8,we cannot absolutely know that all these adaptations are the result of preconcert4 ,but when we see a lot of framed timbers1 different portions of which we know have been gotten out at different times and places and by different workmen1--,stephen1 ,franklin1 ,roger1 and ,james1 for instance1--and when we see these timbers joined together1 and see they exactly make the frame of a house or a mill1 all the tenons and mortices exactly fitting1 and all the lengths and proportions of the different pieces exactly adapted to their respective places1 and not a piece too many or too few1--not omitting even scaffolding1--or1 if a single piece be lacking1 we see the place in the frame exactly fitted and prepared yet to bring the piece in--in such a case1 we find it impossible not to believe that ,stephen and ,franklin and ,roger and ,james all understood one another from the beginning1 and all worked upon a common plan or draft drawn up before the first blow was struck40 ,such concrete illustrations as are contained in the above quotation should abound in every argument4 ,the homelier the illustration1 the more pronounced the effect4 ,it requires no especial insight into human nature to see that such incidents as those quoted above will hold the interest of the audience or reader much more effectively than cold1 formal1 generalized statements4 ,therefore1 the student should make use of concreteness1 and1 in fact of all rhetorical devices1 for the purpose of making his argument clear and interesting4 ,even narratives of some extended length may be introduced when they are especially pertinent to the point at issue4 ,clearness is aided by making plain in the argument that unity which exists in the brief4 ,all matter which does not tend to explain or prove the main proposition should be excluded4 ,it is dangerous for the arguer to enter into lengthy explanations1 for they may be but digressions from the main argument4 ,it is of course assumed that the brief possesses unity4 ,the temptation to include matter merely because of its interest is always strong1 but the student must apply the test of immediate relevancy and be guided by it4 ,the final acceptance of the argument by the reader or hearer is aided or hindered by his impression of the unity or solidity of its construction4 ,the brief should be strictly followed in order that unity may be apparent4 ,coherence is also an important aid to clearness4 ,the coherence which exists in the brief must be expressed in the argument4 ,the connective 8for10 which is used in the brief to show the relation subordinate statements bear to the main statements1 must be expanded in rhetorical style so as to bring out plainly the force of the relation which it expresses4 ,in the effort to secure coherence the arguer should not hesitate to repeat the main issues or even to show how they stand as proof of the proposition4 ,every fact of evidence must be made to stand out distinctly as proof for some statement in the argument4 ,otherwise the evidence will be mere dead weight1 loading down instead of supporting the contentions of the arguer4 ,connective words1 such as 8for10 8because10 8hence10 8therefore0 should abound throughout the proof for the purpose of showing precisely what relation exists between a fact and a statement1 or a statement and a main issue1 or a main issue and the proposition4 ,every fact of evidence must be clearly connected with the statement which it proves2 every statement supported by evidence must be connected directly with the main issue which it proves2 and every main issue must be connected directly with the proposition which it proves4 ,this must be done not by inference1 but by an expressed connection4 ,the connection may appear so obvious that it seems foolish to put it in words1 but experience shows that the connective must be expressed or it will not be comprehended4 ,if the connections are not expressed the argument will appear incoherent4 ,therefore1 transitional sentences must be used frequently4 ,when two or more facts of evidence are offered in support of one statement the words 8,first01 8,second01 and 8,third01 or 8,moreover01 8,again01 8,furthermore0 should be used4 ,at the end of the enumeration what all these facts tend to show regarding the proposition should be stated4 ,coherence is not obtained by chance4 ,to obtain it requires the greatest care in the original writing out of the argument4 ,a careful process of revision must then be instituted to make sure that no fact of evidence is left standing without its appropriate relation to the proposition being clearly stated4 ,any break in coherence may mean the loss of part or all of the evidence offered in support of a main issue4 ,one of the classical examples of argument noteworthy for its coherence1 and the one most often recommended for study in connection with the subject of coherence1 is ,burke's ,speech on ,conciliation4 ,in that part of the argument which treats of the ,american love of freedom1 the skill displayed in making transition from part to part1 and the general effect of coherence which results from this treatment are most conspicuous4 ,the following extracts taken from a portion of the argument will illustrate ,burke's method of making his discourse coherent4 ,the dots indicate omissions4#c ,footnote #c3 ,after reading the selections here given the student will do well to make a study of the speech itself and scrutinize closely the substance of the parts which these statements serve to connect as well as the manner of connection4 ,the first sentence may be taken as the main issue which ,burke intends to offer evidence to prove2 then come the sentences which mark the connection of the most important facts of evidence offered in support of the issue2 and finally the summary which again calls attention to the connection existing between these pieces of evidence and the proposition contained in the first statement4 8,in the character of the ,americans1 a love of freedom is the predominating feature which marks and distinguishes the whole 444 this 7results7 from a great variety of powerful causes4444 ,first1 the people of the colonies are descendants of ,englishmen4444 ,their governments are popular in a high degree4444 ,if anything were wanting to this necessary operation of the form of government1 religion would have given it complete effect4444 ,the people are ,protestants2 and of the kind which is most adverse to all implicit submission of mind and opinion4444 7,the ,church of ,england tends to offset this influence in the ,southern colonies74 ,there is1 however1 a circumstance attending these colonies1 which in my opinion1 fully counterbalances this difference4444 ,it is1 that in ,virginia they have a vast multitude of slaves4 ,where this is the case in any part of the world1 those who are free are by far the more proud and jealous of their freedom4444 ,permit me1 ,sir1 to add another circumstance in our colonies1 which contributes no mean part towards the growth and effect of this untractable spirit4 ,i mean their education4 ,in no country perhaps in the world is the law so general a study4444 ,the last cause of this disobedient spirit in the colonies is hardly less powerful than the rest1 as it is not merely moral1 but laid deep in the natural constitution of things4 ,three thousand miles of ocean lie between you and them4444 ,then1 ,sir1 from these six capital sources3 of descent2 of form of government2 of religion in the northern provinces2 of manners in the southern2 of education2 of the remoteness of the situation from the first mover of government2 from all these causes a fierce spirit of liberty has grown up44440 ,these transition sentences seem to imply a strong coherent argument1 and1 when taken in connection with the context1 they form an almost perfect example of argumentative coherence4 ,usually the first sentence of a paragraph developing a new argument is the transition sentence4 ,sometimes a more extended transition becomes necessary1 in which case more than one sentence1 or even an entire paragraph1 may be devoted to the transition from one part to another4 ,all of the methods suggested above may be properly employed in giving the argument coherence4 ,in this discussion of clearness many things have been considered which must be taken into account when reading the discussions of ,force and ,elegance4 ,no division of style can be absolute nor can a complete exposition of its qualities be attempted without much repetition4 ,the student must therefore treat this division of subject-matter as helpful only in emphasizing the qualities which his argumentative writing and speaking should possess4 7#b74 ,force4 ,we speak of a 8forcible argument0 with respect because it indicates something substantial4 ,force must pervade any writing or speaking which aims to arouse to action4 ,the material must be presented in an impressive manner4 ,by so doing we create a keener interest and bring to the minds of our readers or hearers a more vivid realization of the significance of our argument4 ,therefore after all the devices heretofore considered have been employed to make the argument interesting1 the finished product should be considered with a view to determining whether it is the most forcible piece of work that can be produced4 ,perhaps some slight change in the way in which these devices have been employed will give a better effect4 ,if so1 the modification should be carefully attended to in order that the argument may possess in its highest degree the quality of force4 ,the force of an argument depends in large measure upon the proper use of emphasis4 ,emphasis is the means by which attention is called to the importance or special significance of any portion of the argument4 ,one of the ways in which any part of the subject-matter may be emphasized is by expanding or dwelling upon that part4 ,this must always be done with due consideration for the other parts of the argument4 ,hence it happens that proportion is used as a means to secure emphasis4 ,the writer must determine the really vital parts of his argument and aim to give emphasis to them alone1 because every point cannot be emphasized4 ,an attempt to emphasize everything results in no emphasis whatever4 ,everything must not be on the same dead level1 because if it is the audience or reader will soon lose interest4 ,we sometimes speak of the important points as the 8high places0 in the argument4 ,these 8high places0 must exist1 because it is impossible for the reader or hearer to remember all the details of a lengthy argument4 ,he will1 however1 remember the important points1 providing they have been properly emphasized4 ,we now turn to the methods by which the best use can be made of the space devoted to the emphasizing of any particular point4 ,the use of metaphors1 similes1 and epigrams is an effective mode of emphasis4 ,an apt metaphor or simile will remain in the minds of readers or hearers long after the trend of the argument is forgotten4 ,another method frequently employed for the purpose of securing emphasis is that of the rhetorical question4 ,since such a question implies an answer favorable to the party asking it1 it must appear plainly that the answer is bound to be as he desires4 ,in the ,lincoln-,douglas debates both speakers made frequent use of this method1 and ,webster1 in emphasizing the necessity of finding the murderer of ,captain ,john ,white asks1 8,should not all the peaceable and well disposed naturally feel concerned1 and naturally exert themselves to bring to punishment the authors of the secret assassination8 ,was it a thing to be slept upon or forgotten8 ,did you1 gentlemen1 sleep quite as quietly in your beds after this murder as you did before8 ,was it not a case for rewards1 for meetings1 for committees1 for the united efforts of all the good1 to find out a band of murderous conspirators1 of midnight ruffians1 and to bring them to the bar of justice and law80 ,the use of repetition for the purpose of emphasis is most important4 ,in employing this method care should be taken not to overdo it1 as such a process is always fatal to interest4 ,the central idea should be repeated1 but the phrasing should be skillfully varied so as to prevent the repetition from becoming monotonous4 ,furthermore1 the point of view should be changed4 ,this not only serves to change the manner in which the idea is presented but will help to hold the interest4 ,perhaps one point of view will appeal more strongly to some people than to others4 ,hence by changing the point of view the greatest number of people are influenced4 ,it must be kept in mind1 however1 that it is not the point of view of the writer which changes but merely the point of view from which he presents the part of the argument to be emphasized4 7#c74 ,elegance4 ,as has already been suggested1 the appearance of an argument has a great deal to do with the manner in which it is received4 ,by appearance is meant the way in which it appears to the mind of the person addressed4 ,if it appears to be a stiff1 formal1 arrogant piece of work it may only excite intellectual curiosity instead of arousing interest and creating desire4 ,the argument must appeal with freshness and vivacity to the person addressed4 ,it is no small task to form an elegant forensic from a solid1 rigid brief4 ,from the student's study of ease1 grace1 elegance1 and rhythm as found in books of rhetoric1 he will have obtained a fair idea of the quality of elegance and can make an intelligent effort to secure it in his own work4 ,but the most effective way in which to acquire a sense of elegance is by the study of those masterpieces of argument which possess this quality to a high degree4 ,rules cannot be formulated nor practicable principles laid down for obtaining this quality4 ,just as the musician acquires a sense of what is proper and what is not proper in his art1 so1 must the writer of an argument acquire a sense of what is proper and what is not proper by a study of the works of those who have been masters in the art of argumentation4 ,the simple elegance of ,lincoln's style1 the impressive elegance of the style of ,webster1 and the fiery elegance of which ,patrick ,henry was master1 must be studied earnestly by the student4 ,the orations of ,webster1 the speeches of ,burke1 and the arguments of ,lincoln should be read over and over again4 ,favorite passages should be committed to memory and all the speeches should be read for the purpose of being enjoyed4 ,this will impart a wealth of expression and an elegance of style which can be obtained in no other way4 ,in considering the subject of 8,interest--,maintained by the ,proof0 let the student remember that all the methods herein suggested stand ready to aid him in his supreme desire to be heard if he will but master them and make them his servants4 ,,iii4 ,desire--created by the conclusion4 ,attention has been previously called to the fact that the practical application of introduction1 proof1 and conclusion to the creating of attention1 interest1 and desire is approximate rather than absolute4 ,the main part of the argument which is contained in the proof carries forward the work of persuasion4 ,it creates a desire to understand the whole truth about the proposition discussed4 ,when we say that the desire is created by the conclusion we mean that all the good effect produced by the proof is summed up and presented in such a forcible manner that it awakens the desire for action4 ,the proof has maintained the interest of those to whom the argument is addressed4 ,it has established a firm basis in rational desire4 ,the object of the conclusion is to arouse emotions sufficient to move the will4 ,in order that it may do this it should be in the form of an appeal for the adoption or defeat of the resolution4 ,to understand the way in which this plea or appeal should be made it is necessary to understand the forces which influence the individual to act4 ,these forces are known as the qualities of want4 ,the desire to act results from one or more of the following seven causes4 #a4 ,necessity4 ,if the proof which has been presented for or against the proposition shows that the proposed measure is necessary the conclusion should make necessity the basis of the plea4 ,necessity is a strong basis for an argument4 ,if a thing is a necessity1 all reasonable persons will agree that it should be adopted1 providing there is no predominating circumstance which makes its adoption inadvisable4 ,lincoln urged upon his hearers the necessity of settling the slavery question1 ,patrick ,henry urged the necessity of resistance to the tyranny of ,england1 and ,daniel ,webster urged the necessity of holding the ,union inviolate4 ,by showing that a thing is necessary1 that disaster will follow inaction1 orators have aroused the energies of men in order that great reforms might prevail4 ,the speaker who can show that the cause of action which he advocates is necessary to the state1 to the community1 or to the individual has made a strong plea for its adoption4 #b4 ,interest4 ,by an appeal to interest we do not mean anything unworthy of either speaker or hearer4 ,legitimate self-interest is perhaps the strongest motive which incites men to action4 ,this trait of the human character should not be lost sight of by the student of argumentation4 ,in one way or another almost every proposition may be made to appeal to the self-interest of the individual4 ,for the purpose of being systematic we may consider this self-interest under the three heads1 ,convenience1 ,pleasure1 and ,profit4 ,a4 ,convenience4 ,if it can be shown that the adoption of a definite course of action will be for the convenience of the individual a strong point in its favor has been established4 ,if emphasis can be placed upon the fact that it will be for the convenience of the community as a whole the argument will be still stronger1 for some people love to flatter themselves that they are considering the interests of their fellow men as well as of themselves1 and many people are honest in this impulse4 ,moreover1 this public spirit is an actual factor in determining the actions of men4 ,such an argument is especially valuable in discussing local questions4 ,in advocating the building of a new bridge1 the granting of concessions to a proposed railroad or street car line the appeal to the convenience of the people of the community is very strong4 ,by the application of a little ingenuity in connecting the points of the argument with the everyday life of the people to whom it is addressed1 the effectiveness of the conclusion may be greatly increased4 ,b4 ,pleasure4 ,the average person is inclined to accept that which is pleasing to him and reject that which is displeasing4 ,in the construction of the proof we have been trying to keep interest alive by presenting our subject in an interesting manner4 ,in the conclusion we must sum up this matter in such a way as to conform to the pleasure of those addressed4 ,the building of a new theatre1 a town hall1 or a park may be made to appeal to many interests of the community1 but after all is said the fact remains that the main justification for such buildings rests upon the pleasure which they give to individual members of the community4 ,as in the case of convenience1 this element of pleasure may be utilized with practical results in the closing plea4 ,c4 ,profit4 ,the strongest appeal to self-interest can be made by showing that the action advocated will result in profit to the individual4 ,by showing that a proposed plan of taxation will result in lowering the yearly amount of tax which ,john ,jones will have to pay1 you will probably secure the vote of ,john ,jones in favor of your proposition4 ,by showing that the purchase of a potato digger will increase the amount of money which a farmer can make raising potatoes1 you have gone far toward convincing that farmer that he should buy a potato digger4 ,by showing that consolidation will yield greater profit to the business man you have done much to persuade him to join the combination4 ,by showing that the lowering of the tariff schedule will reduce the cost of living you may induce many persons to advocate a lower tariff4 ,in every argument self-interest plays an important part4 ,the conclusion should therefore leave firmly fixed in the mind of the reader or hearer the fact that the action advocated will be for his best interests4 #c4 ,jealousy1 vanity1 and hatred4 ,an appeal to the baser passions of mankind is not to be commended4 ,nevertheless1 we are here treating of real arguments in a real world4 ,since the end of argumentation is action1 and since jealousy1 vanity1 and hatred are motives which stir men to action1 we must consider them4 ,personal motives may furnish subsidiary inducements to action4 ,the jealousy which one business man feels toward his competitor may induce him to adopt new methods of doing business in order that he may outdo his rival4 ,the vanity which a manufacturer feels in the superiority of his goods may be the determining factor in the adoption of improved machinery4 ,the hatred which the honest citizen entertains for boss rule may be the determining factor in deciding the way he will vote4 ,the ingenuity of the student must be employed in trying to fathom the unseen causes which guide the activities of his fellows4 #d4 ,ambition4 ,the ambition of an individual to excel in his business1 trade1 or profession2 the ambition of a community to have the best social and educational advantages2 and the ambition of a nation to outreach the world in trade and commerce1 may all form the substantial basis for action4 ,by appealing to this praiseworthy ambition the emotional element is added to the element of intellectual conviction4 #e4 ,generosity4 ,every human being is moved at times by generous impulses which may arise from a variety of causes4 ,the arguer should study these causes and attempt to stimulate the impulses4 ,dignify the position of those to whom the appeal is made by showing them that they can well afford to be generous4 #f4 ,love of right and justice4 ,the arguer should never fail to leave his hearers with the conviction that he champions a just cause4 ,this appeal can always be made1 because under no circumstances should anyone champion a cause which is unjust4 ,in this age people as a whole are willing to do the right thing1 despite the actions of particular individuals or groups of individuals to the contrary4 ,abstract justice in its application to the particular proposition should form the basis of the final plea4 #g4 ,love of country1 home1 and kindred4 ,the hearts of men have always been stirred by the appeal to patriotism4 ,action in its most intense form will follow the right appeal to love of country4 ,the protection of home and kindred has from the dawn of history been the prime motive in all great world movements4 ,other causes may appear on the surface1 but underlying these1 in one form or another is this primal cause4 ,wars are waged and nations built up or overthrown because of the use or abuse of this power4 ,therefore the speaker must make a broad application of his particular argument in the closing paragraph4 ,with these fundamental suggestions in mind regarding the attitude which the conclusion should take1 we will now turn to the form in which it is to be presented4 ,the conclusion must conform to the brief by summing up the main arguments and putting them clearly before the audience4 ,this summary is necessary in order to make the proof clear and forcible4 ,it should contain the main issues1 and1 whenever practicable1 the subordinate reasons supporting them1 in order that the chief points in the proof of the proposition may be recalled by the audience4 ,an example of the simple summary which is often quoted as a model1 is the conclusion of the argument made by ,daniel ,webster in the case of ,ogden v4 ,saunders3-- 8,to recapitulate what has been said1 we maintain1 first1 that the ,constitution1 by its grants to ,congress and its prohibitions to the states1 has sought to establish one uniform standard of value1 or medium of payment4 ,second1 that1 by like means1 it has endeavored to provide for one uniform mode of discharging debts1 when they are to be discharged without payment4 ,third1 that these objects are connected1 and that the first loses much of its importance1 if the last1 also1 be not accomplished4 ,fourth1 that1 reading the grant to ,congress and the prohibition on the states together1 the inference is strong that the ,constitution intended to confer an exclusive power to pass bankrupt laws on ,congress4 ,fifth1 that the prohibition in the tenth section reaches to all contracts1 existing or in the future1 in the same way that the other prohibition1 in the same section1 extends to all debts1 existing or in the future4 ,sixthly1 that1 upon any other construction1 one great political object of the ,constitution will fail of its accomplishment40 ,again in the argument on the ,presidential ,protest he summarizes with effect and concludes3-- 8--,we have not sought this controversy2 it has met us and been forced upon us4 ,in my judgment1 the law has been disregarded1 and the ,constitution transgressed2 the fortress of liberty has been assaulted1 and circumstances have placed the ,senate in the breach2 and1 although we may perish in it1 ,i know we shall not fly from it4 ,but ,i am fearless of consequences4 ,we shall hold on1 ,sir1 and hold out1 till the people themselves come to its defense4 ,we shall raise the alarm1 and maintain the post1 till they whose right it is shall decide whether the ,senate be a faction1 wantonly resisting lawful power1 or whether it be opposing1 with firmness and patriotism1 violations of liberty1 and inroads upon the ,constitution40 ,in concluding this chapter on constructing the argument1 let us again revert to the fact that the conclusion must be presented in such a way as to create a desire for action4 ,the conclusion must 8clinch0 the argument4 ,the time has come for the reader or hearer to act1 or determine upon action4 ,all the labor spent upon the introduction in arousing and fixing the attention1 and all the labor spent upon the proof in maintaining the interest and building a firm basis for persuasion in rational conviction1 is now lost unless the conclusion rises supreme above these and presents a culmination forcible and commanding4 ,the conclusion should reap the harvest of persuasion sown throughout the argument4 ,the emotions must be aroused as they have not been aroused in the presentation of the proof2 they must be stimulated to the highest pitch4 ,the conclusion must command the best powers of the speaker or writer4 ,it must unite the audience1 the subject1 and the personality of him who presents the argument into one mighty current of thought and emotion which leads onward to action4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,rebuttal ,rebuttal consists of defending the constructive argument and weakening or destroying opposing arguments4 ,rebuttal is both defense and attack4 ,refutation is attack alone4 ,in formal debate rebuttal refers to the final speech made by each debater after he has presented his constructive argument and his opponents have had a chance to reply4 ,the main speech in a formal debate is usually of ten minutes' duration while the rebuttal speech is of five minutes' duration4 ,furthermore1 after the first affirmative speaker has opened the debate it is customary for each succeeding speaker to introduce his main argument with a short rebuttal speech of one or two minutes1 or he may introduce rebuttal at any point in his main speech4 ,the rebuttal speech must introduce no new argument1 but is limited to a discussion of the validity of the arguments already presented4 ,after the salesman has presented his goods and the reasons why the prospective customer should buy1 he must answer the questions regarding those reasons and the objections which are made to them4 ,furthermore1 he must overthrow any reasons for not buying which may be advanced by the customer4 ,in arguing with a single individual regarding the advisability of any course of action the arguer must defend his own position as well as overthrow that of his opponent4 ,in organizations and deliberative bodies the speaker who proposes any plan or measure must be prepared to answer any objections which may be made to it2 and must also be prepared to weaken or destroy the arguments which may be advanced in support of other plans or measures which conflict with his own4 ,it is thus seen that a knowledge of the preparation and presentation of rebuttal is almost indispensable to the student who would make practical application of the theory and practice of argumentation4 ,since our work is to take the form of debating1 we shall consider the subject largely from this standpoint4 ,nevertheless1 the student should constantly keep in mind the broader application of the principles which are used in formal debating4 ,i4 ,preparation for rebuttal4 ,rebuttal should never be considered lightly from the standpoint of preparation4 ,the speaker who relies on the 8spur0 of the moment is quite sure to find that when the moment arrives it has no 8spur40 ,the rebuttal should be prepared as carefully as the constructive argument4 ,it demands exact and far-reaching knowledge4 ,furthermore1 it demands absolute command of that knowledge in order that it may be used effectively4 ,in this preparation the student should consider the sources from which he may derive the appropriate material1 and the proper arrangement of that material after it has been collected4 #a4 ,sources of material for rebuttal4 ,a4 ,material acquired in constructing the argument4 ,the investigation which preceded and accompanied the construction of the brief and argument should have yielded a wide knowledge of the subject4 ,much of the material gathered could not be used because of limitations of time or space1 because of its not being adapted to use in the argument as it was to be presented1 or because of the abundance of better material4 ,the student will therefore have in his possession a large number of facts which were not used4 ,these should be carefully reviewed in order that the 8stock in trade0 of rebuttal material may be invoiced4 ,the student should then revert to his original analysis and examine his opponents' position with a critical eye4 ,he should measure carefully the strength of that position and compare it with his own4 ,all the sources which were consulted in the beginning should again be made to yield information4 ,this can now be done with ease1 because the preparation of the constructive argument has given the student a firm grasp upon the subject-matter4 ,every possible point of attack which the constructive argument presents must be fortified by full and complete rebuttal material4 ,the debater should begin at his argument as a starting point and work back along the line of evidence supporting each general assertion4 ,since it was impracticable to put into the argument all the evidence supporting any one contention1 the student must now have this evidence at hand in order to support his argument at the point where the attack can be made4 ,it is almost impossible to construct an argument which cannot be attacked in a plausible manner1 but it is entirely possible to construct an argument which can be defended successfully4 ,after the constructive argument has been fortified1 the main contentions of the opposition1 which the analysis of the question has revealed1 must receive careful attention4 ,every possible line of attack which the opposition may advance should be considered4 ,the student cannot hope to determine beforehand the form in which these arguments will be presented4 ,nevertheless1 if his analysis of the proposition has been made in a thorough manner1 and if his preparation has been thorough1 he cannot fail to have grasped the underlying arguments of his opponents' position4 ,these should now be refuted with the best material which the debater can find4 ,he must be as diligent in ferreting out evidence which will overthrow his opponents' position as he was in searching for evidence with which to support his own4 ,no available source of evidence should be neglected4 ,every weak point in the opposing argument should be exposed and 8ammunition0 with which to attack these weak places should be collected4 ,this material should be tabulated on cards in the same form that was used in tabulating material for the constructive argument4 ,the following specimens of rebuttal cards1 prepared by students for an inter-class debate1 may prove suggestive4 ,injustice4 ,d4 ,a4 ,wells4 8,taxation in aid of private enterprises is to load the tables of the few with bounty1 that the many may partake of the crumbs that fall therefrom40 ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,taxation1 p4 #bib4 ,test of ,ability4 ,philip ,s4 ,post4 8,by successive stages more equitable standards of taxation have been reached1 until now there is a general acceptance of the maxim that income is the best test by which to measure a man's ability40 ,outlook1 ,vol4 #he1 p4 #ejc 7#aijg74 ,equality of ,sacrifice4 ,r4 ,t4 ,ely4 8,an income tax honestly assessed and honestly collected answers the canon of ,equality of ,sacrifice40 ,taxation in ,american ,states1 p4 #hi4 ,b4 ,books1 papers1 and documents4 ,it often happens that the question has been debated previously4 ,in such cases books1 papers1 and documents may be found which contain 8ready-made0 rebuttal arguments4 ,the debater should never rely on these alone4 ,the preparation suggested in the last section is an absolute prerequisite to successful work in rebuttal4 ,however1 these ready-made arguments should be searched out carefully and made to form a part of the material for rebuttal4 ,such evidence is of course subject to the same requirement regarding its worth and validity as the sources of material consulted in constructing the main argument4 ,the student should now go over his cards carefully and consider the various books1 papers1 or documents from which his information was derived4 ,any of these books1 papers1 or documents which stand as authority for vital facts1 or for facts about which there is likely to be a dispute1 should be taken out and placed with the other material which is to be used in rebuttal4 ,especially should this be done in cases where the debater feels that he has authority which is probably better than that which his opponents will be able to quote4 ,for example1 a government document makes a very effective showing when it is quoted as contradicting the statement of some unknown magazine writer4 ,in like manner statistics from the ,united ,states ,census ,reports will prevail over statistics found in an address delivered by some partisan leader4 ,since such conflicts of authority are likely to arise it is important that the debater have at hand the original sources of the information which forms the basis of his argument or rebuttal4 ,moreover1 a recognized authority sometimes changes his opinion4 ,in this case the debater should be careful to provide himself with the book1 paper1 or document which contains his latest views on the subject discussed4 ,these become especially valuable when the opposition relies upon the old views of the authority quoted4 ,in this1 as in all other cases of authority1 the usual tests of sufficiency apply4 ,c4 ,questions4 ,the skillful asking of questions is a most important matter in debating4 ,these are often asked in the main argument1 but it is in the rebuttal that the answers are usually threshed out4 ,if the questions are not asked originally in the rebuttal they should at least be reverted to during this part of the debate4 ,no debater can consider himself thoroughly prepared who has not framed some effective questions and who is not ready to answer questions which may be asked by his opponents4 ,the interrogatories which are intended to be discussed in the rebuttal are not rhetorical questions1 but questions calling for definite answers4 ,there are two well defined uses to which these questions may be put4 ,first1 they may be used to compel an opponent to take a definite position on some issue which he appears to be attempting to evade4 ,second1 they may be used to force an opponent into a dilemma1 in which position he will be at a disadvantage without regard to the answer which he gives4 ,very often an opponent is more skillful in evading the real point at issue than he is in debating it4 ,in such cases a question or series of questions may be necessary in order to compel him to discuss the subject of dispute4 ,sometimes an opponent intentionally evades the real point at issue because he knows his position is weak and seeks to cover up the real defect under a plausible show of language4 ,in both of these situations the use of direct questions is effective4 ,the wording of these questions should receive the same careful consideration which is bestowed upon the wording of a proposition4 ,the questions must be clear and unambiguous and must call for definite and direct answers4 ,no opportunity for evasion should be allowed4 ,furthermore1 these questions must be worded forcibly and emphasized in such a way that an opponent will not dare to leave them unanswered4 ,on the other hand1 if an opponent propounds certain questions to which answers are demanded1 the debater must either answer these questions satisfactorily or show good reason why they should remain unanswered4 ,in the famous ,lincoln-,douglas debates1 which began ,august1 #aheh1 questions were frequently asked by both parties4 ,in the first debate1 which was held at ,ottawa1 ,illinois1 ,douglas asked ,lincoln seven distinct questions4 ,in the second debate which was held at ,freeport1 ,lincoln restated these questions and answered them briefly and to the point in the following manner3 8,in the course of that opening argument ,judge ,douglas proposed to me seven distinct interrogatories4 ,in my speech of an hour and a half1 ,i attended to some other parts of his speech1 and incidentally1 as ,i thought1 answered one of the interrogatories then4 ,i then distinctly intimated to him that ,i would answer the rest of his interrogatories on condition only that he would agree to answer as many for me4 ,he made no intimation at the time of the proposition1 nor did he in his reply allude at all to that suggestion of mine4 ,i do him no injustice in saying that he occupied at least half of his reply in dealing with me as though ,i had refused to answer his interrogatories4 ,i now propose that ,i will answer any of the interrogatories1 upon condition that he will answer questions from me not exceeding the same number4 ,i give him an opportunity to respond4 ,the ,judge remains silent4 ,i now say that ,i will answer his interrogatories1 whether he answers mine or not2 and that after ,i have done so ,i shall propound mine to him4 8,i have supposed myself1 since the organization of the ,republican party at ,bloomington1 in ,may1 #ahef1 bound as a party man by the platforms of the party1 then and since4 ,if in any interrogatories which ,i shall answer ,i go beyond the scope of what is within these platforms1 it will be perceived that no one is responsible but myself4 8,having said this much1 ,i will take up the ,judge's interrogatories as ,i find them printed in the ,chicago ,times1 and answer them seriatim4 ,in order that there may be no mistake about it1 ,i have copied the interrogatories in writing1 and also my answers to them4 ,the first one of these interrogatories is in these words3 ,question #a--#8;,i desire to know whether ,lincoln to-day stands1 as he did in #ahed1 in favor of the unconditional repeal of the ,fugitive ,slave law8' ,answer--,i do not now1 nor ever did1 stand in favor of the unconditional repeal of the ,fugitive ,slave law4 ,question #b--#8;,i desire him to answer whether he stands pledged to-day1 as he did in #ahed1 against the admission of any more ,slave ,states into the ,union even if the people want them8' ,answer--,i do not now1 nor ever did1 stand pledged against the admission of any more ,slave ,states into the ,union4 ,question #c--#8;,i want to know whether he stands pledged against the admission of a new ,state into the ,union with such a ,constitution as the people of that state may see fit to make8' ,answer--,i do not stand pledged against the admission of a new ,state into the ,union1 with such a ,constitution as the people of that ,state may see fit to make4 ,question #d--#8;,i want to know whether he stands to-day pledged to the abolition of slavery in the ,district of ,columbia8' ,answer--,i do not stand to-day pledged to the abolition of slavery in the ,district of ,columbia4 ,question #e--#8;,i desire him to answer whether he stands pledged to the prohibition of the slave trade between the different states8' ,answer--,i do not stand pledged to the prohibition of the slave trade between the different states4 ,question #f--#8;,i desire to know whether he stands pledged to prohibit slavery in all the ,territories of the ,united ,states1 north as well as south of the ,missouri ,compromise line8' ,answer--,i am impliedly1 if not expressly1 pledged to a belief in the right and duty of ,congress to prohibit slavery in all the ,united ,states ,territories4 ,question #g--#8;,i desire him to answer whether he is opposed to the acquisition of any new territory unless slavery is first prohibited therein8' ,answer-,i am not generally opposed to honest acquisition of territory2 and1 in any given case1 ,i would or would not oppose such acquisition1 according as ,i might think such acquisition would or would not aggravate the slavery question among ourselves4 8,now1 my friends1 it will be perceived upon an examination of these questions and answers1 that so far ,i have only answered that ,i was not pledged to this1 that1 or the other4 ,the ,judge has not framed his interrogatories to ask me anything more than this1 and ,i have answered in strict accordance with the interrogatories1 and have answered truly1 that ,i am not pledged at all upon any of the points to which ,i have answered4 ,but ,i am not disposed to hang upon the exact form of his interrogatory4 ,i am rather disposed to take up at least some of these questions1 and state what ,i really think of them40 ,in the above example of the use of questions and answers it will be noted that ,lincoln emphasizes his fairness by offering to answer his opponent's questions provided that opponent will do the same with questions which he propounds4 ,when ,judge ,douglas does not accept this proposition1 ,lincoln follows up his just course of conduct by declaring that he will answer his opponent's questions whether that opponent will answer his or not4 ,he then makes an introductory statement in which he limits the responsibility of his answers strictly to himself4 ,he next takes up each question and answers it briefly and directly4 ,he concludes these answers with a paragraph in which he shows that he has answered the questions strictly in accordance with the form in which they were asked4 ,then he again shows his fairness and even liberality toward his opponent by taking up the more important questions and giving a full and complete discussion of each one4 ,after this fair and comprehensive treatment ,lincoln proceeds to propound his questions to ,judge ,douglas in the following manner4 8,i now proceed to propound to the ,judge the interrogatories so far as ,i have framed them4 ,i will bring forward a new installment when ,i get them ready4 ,i will bring them forward now only reaching to number four4 ,the first one is3-- ,question #a--;,if the people of ,kansas shall1 by means entirely unobjectionable in all other respects1 adopt a ,state constitution1 and ask admission into the ,union under it1 before they have the requisite number of inhabitants according to the ,english bill1--some ninety-three thousand1--will you vote to admit them8 ,question #b--;,can the people of a ,united ,states ,territory1 in any lawful way1 against the wish of any citizen of the ,united ,states1 exclude slavery from its limits prior to the formation of a ,state constitution8 ,question #c--;,if the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states shall decide that ,states cannot exclude slavery from their limits1 are you in favor of acquiescing in1 adopting1 and following such a decision as a rule of political action8 ,question #d--;,are you in favor of acquiring additional territory1 in disregard of how such acquisition may affect the nation on the slavery question80 ,the foregoing examples of questions and answers will give an idea of the way in which they may be used in a formal debate4 ,the third interrogatory propounded by ,lincoln illustrates well the type of question which is designed to force an opponent into a dilemma4 ,this inquiry is an example of the great analytical ability of ,lincoln1 as the following circumstances will show4 ,the ,dred ,scott decision by the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court had held that ,congress did not have the power to exclude slavery from any of the territories4 ,lincoln regarded this decision as wrong and said so4 ,douglas denounced ,lincoln for his attitude in the matter and declared that it was unpatriotic1 disloyal1 and revolutionary for any man to criticize a decision of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court4 ,on the other hand ,lincoln denounced ,douglas on the ground that he1 acting in conjunction with other ,democrats1 was engaged in a conspiracy to nationalize slavery4 ,in support of this charge he offered reasonable evidence1 and showed that the conspirators' efforts would be complete providing they could get a decision of the ,supreme ,court which would declare that a state could not exclude slavery from its borders4 ,lincoln charged ,douglas with active attempts to secure this decision4 ,it was under these circumstances that ,lincoln asked the third question1 viz43--8,if the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states shall decide that the ,states cannot exclude slavery from their limits1 are you in favor of acquiescing in1 adopting1 and following such decision as a rule of political action80 ,if ,douglas answered this question in the affirmative it would put him in the position of substantiating ,lincoln's charge of conspiracy4 ,this would be very embarrassing for ,douglas and give ,lincoln a decided advantage4 ,on the other hand1 ,douglas's position would be just as embarrassing and his opponent would reap as great an advantage1 if he answered in the negative1 for then he would be opposing a decision of the ,supreme ,court1--the very thing for which he had so bitterly denounced ,lincoln4 ,the question was so worded that an affirmative or a negative answer would be equally disastrous4 ,by a judicious use of such questions the debater may direct the discussion along the narrow channel which it should take1 and bring out in a forcible way any defects in his opponents' position4 ,no debater should consider himself thoroughly prepared for rebuttal until he has worked out carefully a list of questions framed in accordance with the principles here suggested4 ,another form of attack which properly belongs under this heading is that of demanding a definite plan4 ,if the speaker is upholding the negative in a debate on the question of the inheritance tax1 he should demand that the next affirmative speaker show a definite plan of taxation4 ,if the opponent refuses to present a definite plan he may be charged with impracticability1 vagueness1 and a fear that no plan which he might present could be defended safely4 ,on the other hand if he presents a definite plan it may be easy to point out glaring defects in its construction4 ,in either case the demanding of a definite plan may be made to work to the advantage of the debater4 ,if a definite plan is demanded it is usually best to reply that the discussion is on principles not plans4 ,in this way attention may be called to the underlying principles of the controversy and it can be shown that1 after the difficulties which they present have been solved1 a discussion of a definite plan will be in order and its construction will then be a simple matter4 ,this method of procedure1 both as regards the demanding of a definite plan and the answering of that demand1 affords ample scope for the argumentative mind to display its breadth of perception and its keenness in analysis4 #b4 ,arrangement of rebuttal material4 ,after a satisfactory amount of rebuttal material has been collected the debater must arrange this material in such a way that any particular part of it will be readily accessible4 ,since the amount of evidence must necessarily be so large1 that all of it cannot be kept in mind at one time1 some easy method of classification is necessary which will include everything that may be of use when the rebuttal is to be presented4 ,the importance of this systematic classification becomes apparent when the debater stops to reflect that he has enough rebuttal material for a one or two hour speech1 while the actual time which is allowed for its presentation in a formal debate is usually five or six minutes4 ,even if there is no time limit the debater must not weary the audience by long delays while he searches for material4 ,the debater must know exactly where each piece of evidence may be found4 ,it is not sufficient that he have a vague recollection that somewhere in his notes is an authoritative fact which will refute the argument his opponent has just advanced4 ,he must know just where to find that fact4 ,if his opponent has misquoted statistics from the ,report of the ,united ,states ,industrial ,commission it is not sufficient for him to know that somewhere within the nineteen volumes of that report is a small table of statistics which will prove his opponent to be wrong4 ,he must be able to turn to the exact volume and page4 ,he may be confident that an authority1 which he has quoted as favoring his position1 is really on his side of the case2 but if he cannot give an exact reference to the place where such authority is to be found1 his opponent may dispute the assertion with impunity4 ,these and many similar situations which are bound to arise in actual debating make it plain that the task of arranging material is a very important part of the preparation for rebuttal4 ,a4 ,classification of cards4 ,the rebuttal cards should all be classified under a sufficient number of headings to cover the entire field of the evidence collected4 ,the exact number of headings will1 of course1 vary with different questions4 ,there must be1 however1 a sufficient number of divisions to separate the cards into groups small enough to be handled easily4 ,on the other hand the number of divisions must not be so great as to become confusing in themselves4 ,in actual practice from four to eight divisions are sufficient for practical purposes4 ,in a debate on the proposition1 8,resolved1 that the ,united ,states should make no discrimination between the immigrants from ,china and those from other countries10 the rebuttal cards were divided into the following groups2 7#a7 ,economic influence1 7#b7 ,social influence1 7#c7 ,political influence4 ,if the number of cards in any one group is too large to be handled easily1 that group may be divided under two or more sub-heads4 ,for example1 in the division above made the topic 8,social influences0 was found to include a much larger number of cards than either of the other subdivisions2 hence it was divided into two sub-heads1 7a7 assimilation1 7b7 morality and crime4 ,this careful division of the material will make the debater so familiar with all his rebuttal evidence that he can without hesitation lay his hands upon just what is wanted4 ,the work of locating particular points of evidence must be done with dispatch4 ,time is valuable1 for the debater will soon be called upon to answer the argument that is being presented4 ,moreover1 if he spends too much time looking over his cards and if the process requires all his attention1 he may lose some very important statement which is being made by his opponent4 ,in a formal debating contest it is sometimes advisable to have the alternate take charge of the entire mass of rebuttal material4 ,in this case the cards should be typewritten so that each member of the team can read any card as well as any other member of the team can read it4 ,the alternate sits at the table with the team and has all the rebuttal cards in a filing box before him4 ,then as each argument is brought up he quickly finds the most effective rebuttal material on that point and hands it over to the speaker who is to answer that argument4 ,this system of working allows the regular members of the team to give all their attention to what their opponents are saying4 ,the alternate performs the mechanical work of finding the particular evidence required4 ,with a team whose members have worked out the question together in a thorough manner1 this method is very effective4 ,b4 ,arranging books1 papers1 and documents4 ,following the suggestions regarding sources of material1 the debater will have before him a number of books1 papers1 and documents4 ,when the time comes to use these sources of material the debater cannot delay the discussion by hunting through them in an aimless fashion in search of the precise information which he needs4 ,he must be able to pick out the volume and turn to the exact page without hesitation and at a moment's notice4 ,this requisite demands the same systematized classification that was employed in the arranging of rebuttal cards4 ,one method of making this classification is to have a card index of the material4 ,the general topic to be refuted should be placed at the top of the card4 ,below this should be an exact reference to the book1 paper1 or document in which the material for refutation is found4 ,then when an opponent puts forth his argument it is only necessary to look it up in the card index and turn to the reference4 ,the places in the books1 papers1 and documents1 to which reference is made in the card index1 should be marked with long slips of paper extending beyond the tops of the books and having on the protruding parts the numbers of the pages which they mark4 ,furthermore1 the particular portions of the page which are applicable should be marked with marginal lines4 ,great care should be taken to mark only those passages which are exactly to the point2 otherwise too much time will be wasted in referring to matters which may be relevant but are of no value as proof4 ,this system of indexing material contained in books1 papers1 and documents will be found to be almost indispensable when the time for use arrives4 ,the debater must practice this system until he can manipulate it with ease and rapidity4 ,in the case of team work1 the alternate may have charge of this index1 which can be made a part of the large card classification4 ,he can then provide each rebuttal speaker with the proper material as the occasion for its use arrives4 ,of course1 in the case of a single speaker1 where only a very few volumes are to be used in the rebuttal the system of card indexing can be dispensed with1 but the system of marking the exact references by means of slips of paper and marginal lines should always be employed4 ,in the beginning the working of this system1 as that of any system1 will seem awkward and unwieldy2 but the debater must practice using it under all argumentative conditions4 ,in this way he will gain in the ease and rapidity with which he can manipulate its parts4 ,when this is accomplished he will have a most effective aid to the kind of rebuttal work which secures results4 ,the student must not fail to make his preparation in this respect thorough4 ,every detail must be mastered2 every rebuttal card must be so well in mind that a mere glance will be sufficient to reveal its contents4 ,the reading of rebuttal cards takes all the life out of a rebuttal argument4 ,this part of the argument more than any other must be delivered with native force and enthusiasm4 ,effective presentation in rebuttal follows only from the most thorough preparation4 ,c4 ,the summary and closing plea4 ,after the preparation above outlined has been completed one task yet remains4 ,the debater must have an effective conclusion for his rebuttal speech4 ,he must not rely upon a chance inspiration of the moment4 ,experience proves that for all but professional speakers1 and oftentimes even for them1 it is best to have a committed summary or closing plea4 ,in the case of a debating team the work of closing the argument should be left to the last speaker in rebuttal4 ,this summary should be the strongest statement that it is possible to produce4 ,all the main arguments that have been presented should be summarized4 ,the position of both sides of the controversy should be set forth in clear and vigorous language4 ,if questions have been asked1 or demands have been made of the opposition1 a direct and forcible reference to the effect of these questions or demands should be made4 ,then1 summoning all the powers of eloquent utterance of which he has command1 the speaker should make a closing plea for the adoption or defeat of the proposition4 ,examples of effective closing pleas are too numerous to need extended discussion4 ,in debating the proposition 8,resolved1 that the ,federal ,government should levy a progressive inheritance tax4 ,granted1 that such a tax would be held constitutional10 the last speaker for the affirmative delivered the following summary3 8,we have asked our opponents1 how will the enforcement of present laws reach the evils of congested wealth8 ,what are the benefits derived from the perpetuation of such fortunes8 ,where will you place the power of control1 at ,wall ,street or at ,washington8 ,have the gentlemen answered these questions to your satisfaction8 8,we have accepted the burden that devolved upon the affirmative and we have met that burden by showing that the ,federal government needs this revenue because of its rapidly increasing functions2 that it is practicable because it has twice been in actual operation2 and that as a ,federal tax it possesses the qualities of certainty1 elasticity1 and regularity4 8,we have clearly shown that as a regulative measure it is necessary for the reasons1 that the perpetuation of swollen fortunes is productive of industrial inequalities which are un-,american and of evils which it is beyond the power of ordinary legislation to control4 ,we have demonstrated its practicability by proposing a definite plan which will remedy the evil1 first1 by actually taking a part of these enormous accumulations1 and second1 by compelling their greater distribution4 ,finally we set forth the beneficial effects of such a measure upon public opinion--resulting in the greater responsibility of wealth and in removing the incentive to corruption4 8,in short1 while the gentlemen of the opposition are standing as the champions of swollen fortunes1 magnates1 and a governing aristocracy founded upon wealth and corruption with the center of power at ,wall ,street1 we stand for the suppression of corruption1 the resurrection of individual opportunity1 and government by the great mass of the common people with the center of power at ,washington4 ,the negative would foster an aristocracy2 we would perpetuate democracy4 8,we plead1 therefore1 that in passing upon this resolution1 you consider the welfare of the whole nation1 that you consider this measure as legislation complementary to the regulative laws already enacted2 that you consider the opinions of eminent statesmen1 and the conservative will of the people--in short1 that you adopt this resolution40 ,the conclusion for the final rebuttal speech should be prepared with the same care that is exercised in the preparation of the conclusion for the main argument4 ,it differs from the latter in that it takes more into account the arguments of the opposition4 ,it is the last chance the debater has to plead for his cause1 and he must make the most of his opportunity4 ,,ii4 ,presentation of rebuttal4 ,in the presentation of rebuttal all the principles which are laid down in the next chapter should be observed4 ,they are of equal importance and apply with equal force to both the main argument and the rebuttal speeches4 ,however1 the conditions under which the two speeches are delivered are very different and it is therefore necessary that we give special attention to the presentation of rebuttal4 ,the difficulty of the task which now confronts us is even greater than that which we must consider in connection with the delivery of the main argument4 ,the qualities of mind which success demands are of a higher order1 and the mental exercise involved is of greater value4 ,the ability to grasp the essential features of a situation as it presents itself1 the ability to analyze keenly and determine definitely and without hesitation upon a plain course of action1 and finally the power of presenting clearly and forcibly the conclusions which have been reached1 are all comprised in the art of debate4 #a4 ,attention to argument of opponent4 ,the first essential of rebuttal work is a keen interest in1 and attention to1 the opposing argument4 ,it is impossible to rebut an argument which has not been heard or one which was not understood4 ,if the preparation for rebuttal has been thorough and has conformed to the plan laid down in the first part of this chapter1 the student will be so familiar with the possible lines of discussion that he will have no difficulty in grasping his opponents' arguments4 ,the debater should experience a keen interest in the way in which the opposing speakers will present their arguments4 ,he must not let his mind wander from the subject for a single instant4 ,all his mental power must be concentrated on the business in hand4 ,he must not be confused by any unusual method of presentation4 ,if his preparation has been thorough no essentially new argument will be brought forth1 although arguments with which he is familiar are quite likely to be presented in a form with which he is unfamiliar4 ,he must grasp quickly the significance of such arguments and reduce them to terms in which they are clear to his own mind4 ,then he must correlate his own rebuttal material with what he has heard4 ,he must see the relation which each part bears to the whole and be able to weigh the relative values of the contentions4 ,the keynote of effective rebuttal is keen attention to the opposing argument4 #b4 ,selecting the arguments to be refuted4 ,no attempt should be made to refute everything which the opposing speaker presents4 ,in breaking a chain it is just as effective to break one link as it is to break every link4 ,the successful debater must analyze keenly and sift the essential from the trivial4 ,if his opponent is a skilled debater he will have certain definite main issues and definite evidence and reasoning4 ,the task of refutation is thus made easy4 ,the main issues are refuted directly by showing that he has not analyzed the question rightly1 or by showing mistakes in evidence or in processes of reasoning4 ,if his opponent is not skilled in debate his argument must be reduced to certain definite parts and then refuted in like manner4 ,very often the rebuttal cards will contain the exact arguments presented by an opponent1 but more often it becomes necessary for the speaker to select the vital parts of the opposing contentions and write them down briefly4 ,he should be sure that he states the exact position of his opponent4 ,otherwise he is thrown open to the charge of willful misrepresentation1 or carelessness1 or lack of ability in grasping what has been said4 ,only that which is vital should be selected and it should be written down either in clear-cut phrases1 or in the exact words of the opponent4 ,the latter plan is often most effective because it offers the least chance for a dispute as to what the argument really is4 ,on the other hand where the position of an opponent is unmistakable1 although somewhat ambiguously expressed1 a decided advantage is gained by stating his position in a better way than it has previously been stated4 ,in any event an argument is not selected for refutation until it has been set off from all subsidiary material by brief1 clear phrasing4 ,where several means of proving a proposition have been presented1 but only one of them could in reality stand as proof1 that is the one to discuss in rebuttal4 ,the debater should be constantly on the lookout for arguments or evidence which may be combined under one heading4 ,by a judicious combination of related arguments the destructive work of rebuttal may be made to cover a wider field4 ,furthermore1 much can be done to widen the field by means of ingeniously arranging the order of rebuttal arguments in such a way that certain arguments may be met by referring them to contentions which have already been answered4 ,in any event the debater should arrange his arguments in their most effective order4 ,when rebuttal is given in introducing the main argument1 it is well to begin by answering the last argument presented by the last speaker for the opposition4 ,this action on the part of the debater shows quickness and ability and is sure to make a favorable impression on the hearers4 ,this may be followed by a refutation of one or two points which have been especially emphasized by the preceding speaker1 after which the debater should swing naturally and easily into his main constructive argument4 ,furthermore1 as will be suggested in connection with the chapter on delivery1 the main speech should be so adapted to the contentions of the opposition that the whole constructive argument is used to tear down the case of the opposition as well as to be constructive of one's own case4 #c4 ,reading quotations4 ,the reading of exact quotations from authority usually plays a very important part in a debate4 ,especially is this true in cases where a dispute arises as to what a particular authority says on the point at issue4 ,for example1 if the controversy hinges on the exact wording of a decision of the ,supreme ,court1 the speaker who produces that decision and reads from it in the proper manner has gained a decided advantage4 ,the production of the large leather bound book1 in itself1 aids the effect which it is the speaker's intention to produce4 ,it is something tangible1 something which the audience can see2 it is the visual symbol of superior authority4 ,following out the preparation for this reading which has already been suggested1 the student should turn without hesitation to the passage to be read4 ,he must be so familiar with the wording that he can follow it with but an occasional glance at the printed page4 ,he must still look directly at the audience and refer to the book only for the purpose of guiding his reading4 ,he should read slowly and deliberately1 emphasizing those parts which bear directly on the point at issue4 ,if a statement contradicts flatly the contentions of the opposition it is well to read it over again in order to emphasize it more forcibly4 #d4 ,team work4 ,in a formal contest the individual debater must work with his team4 ,it is just as important that the members of a debating team work together as it is that the members of a football team work together4 ,in formal debating contests one team is pitted against another team4 ,it is not a struggle between the individuals composing the teams but a struggle between the teams themselves4 ,therefore each must sacrifice his own inclinations for the good of the team4 ,when there is a necessity for rebutting an argument which has been advanced by the opposition1 the next speaker must rebut such argument4 ,this must be done notwithstanding the fact that the rebuttal for that argument is a pet piece of property belonging to another member of the team who will speak later in the program4 ,this point cannot be emphasized too strongly4 #e4 ,treatment of opponents4 ,the object of debate is to reveal the truth4 ,one who speaks in public on any question is under obligation to inculcate right principles into the minds of his hearers4 ,vanity1 subterfuge1 resentment1 and malice have no place in debate4 ,only the truth should prevail2 and nothing but the truth will prevail in the end4 ,therefore the attitude of the debater toward his work must be one of sincerity and respect4 ,his whole personality should indicate this state of mind4 ,the use of invective1 ridicule1 or satire towards one's opponents is clearly out of keeping with this spirit1 and nothing of such a nature should be allowed to intrude itself into the discussion4 ,the day has passed when 8bullyragging0 the opposition passed for argument and won the respect of an audience4 ,the simple fact remains that an opponent's argument1 not his personality1 is to be refuted4 ,the moment invective1 ridicule1 or satire enter1 they drive out that spirit of calm inquiry after truth which should be the controlling spirit of every controversy4 ,although the hearers as a whole seem to acquiesce in a vindictive spirit1 laugh at sarcastic comments1 and appear interested in a belligerent attitude1 the moment the excitement has subsided a reaction sets in and their respect for the speaker who has amused and entertained them in this way is dead4 ,if an opponent has used these unkind weapons against you1 the most effective reply that you can make is to ignore them and begin at once a continuation of the discussion in a plain1 orderly manner4 ,it is both discourteous and unnecessary to accuse an opponent of dishonesty1 or misrepresentation4 ,if he has really indulged in these unfair means the evidence advanced in rebuttal will reveal that fact4 ,when any difference arises it is best to assume that the opponent is honestly mistaken4 ,a favorite method of ,lincoln's was to show that his opponent's conclusion appeared to be right on the first consideration1 but that a more extended investigation revealed the fact that it was unsound4 ,sometimes he even took great care to explain that he had himself formerly held the opinions which his opponents were attempting to defend1 and then by skillful use of evidence he would show why he had changed his own opinion4 ,in this way1 without giving offense to his opponents or to his audience1 he was able in many cases to win them to his cause without their looking upon him as an active agency in producing the change4 ,a debater must deal honestly with his opponents4 ,it is dishonest and immoral to present evidence in such a way that it will appear to show as true that which the debater knows to be untrue4 ,no concealment or suppression of fact designed to mislead the opposition should be tolerated4 ,sometimes vital issues are ignored or an attempt is made to conceal them under a display of confusing language4 ,such methods are reprehensible4 ,nothing but absolute fairness in the treatment of opponents will gain any permanent advantage1 for even from the selfish standpoint honesty and fairness are best4 ,a speaker cannot impress his audience with his fair-mindedness unless he is treating his opponents in a fair manner4 ,an appearance of fairness always gains a respectful hearing for a cause4 ,a man must be a man before he can be anything else4 ,that fine sense of personal courtesy which characterizes the gentleman1 and the earnest desire for truth which denotes the scholar1 are fundamental requisites for him who would persuade4 #f4 ,the summary and closing plea4 ,after the debater has answered what he conceives to be the essential arguments of the opposition1 he should present his final summary4 ,where a time limit is fixed beyond which he may not speak1 he must allow himself ample time to deliver this closing plea entire4 ,the necessity of stopping before the end is reached destroys the sense of completeness which this conclusion is designed to give the argument4 ,the form of this summary has been discussed in a previous section4 ,all aids to a persuasive delivery discussed in the chapter on delivering the argument must be employed to give force and conviction to this last appeal4 ,the end of the discussion has been reached1 and the debater1 if his preparation has been in accordance with the principles which we have considered1 has put forth his best efforts4 ,all the weeks or months of preparation must now be crystalized into one final effort1 and the speaker must realize his own responsibility4 ,he should feel sure that his cause will triumph1 and the fire and vigor of his delivery must manifest this fact to the audience4 ,he should remember that he is fighting for principles of right which are eternal4 ,even the defeat of the moment1 if it come to him1 should in no wise make him afraid4 ,victory should not elate1 nor defeat depress1 the spirit of truth which ever should be the sure foundation of those whose high calling it is to persuade men to act in accordance with that which is right4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,delivering ,,the ,,argument ,the statement is frequently made by those well versed in the art of public speaking that a poor speech well delivered is much better than a good speech poorly delivered4 ,again the statement is sometimes made that in judging the efficiency of an oral argument1 twenty-five per cent is counted on the substance while seventy-five per cent is counted on the delivery4 ,be that as it may1 the delivery of an argument is certainly a most important factor in determining its effect upon the hearer4 ,under the head of delivery we might include the whole field of public speaking and oratory1 but since we are treating only of argument we must confine our attention to those phases of public speaking which may be applied in a practical way to the oral delivery of argumentative discourse4 ,i4 ,methods of delivering the argument4 #a4 ,reading4 ,to read an argument is certainly the most ineffective way to present it4 ,after all the work of constructing the argument is accomplished1 it is certainly poor policy to intrust its delivery to the lazy method of reading it from the manuscript4 ,such a method presents all the disadvantages of speaking with none of the advantages of reading4 ,if the argument is read1 the reader can inform himself fully of its contents1 because he can read it slowly or rapidly as he chooses4 ,passages which he does not thoroughly understand may be re-read4 ,moreover1 he may go back over the argument and review its main points as well as scrutinize all the evidence offered to support them4 ,but if the argument is read from a manuscript1 the listener must receive it at the rate of delivery which is chosen by the reader4 ,he cannot1 as a general rule1 ask that the passages which are not clear to him1 be re-read1 and at the end he is not permitted to go back and ponder over parts which appear to him to be of doubtful validity1 nor can he very well question the evidence presented4 ,furthermore1 the reader1 being tied down to his manuscript1 cannot give the force or expression to the argument which would be possible were he speaking directly to the persons addressed4 ,he cannot see by the look of understanding or perplexity on their faces1 just what parts of his argument are clear and what parts are not clear to them4 ,again1 the sympathy which should exist between speaker and audience is almost entirely shut out4 ,a manuscript stands like the ,chinese wall between the speaker and his audience4 ,the defects of this method of delivering an argument are pointed out because there is a decided tendency on the part of college men1 and a few men of some reputation1 to adopt this manner of presentation1 which is certainly the easiest way but which is generally as ineffective as it is easy4 ,whenever it is important that real results be obtained1 whether in the class room1 in a formal debate1 or in real life1 this method should be avoided4 #b4 ,memorizing the argument verbatim4 ,the delivery of a speech memorized verbatim is certainly to be preferred to reading1 because it at least affords the speaker the opportunity of stating his case directly to his audience1 and permits the use of all the arts of declamation2 but since the speech is set in definite form it precludes the modification necessary to adapt the argument to the contentions advanced by the opposition4 ,in college debating this form of delivery is especially objectionable because from it the student derives little practical benefit4 ,as has already been pointed out1 the great value of debating lies in its training for the practical affairs of life by teaching the student to frame his argument on the spur of the moment1 adapt it to the conditions of the particular situation which he is facing1 and present it in an effective manner4 ,all of these advantages are lost if the argument is committed to memory verbatim4 #c4 ,memorizing the argument by ideas4 ,by this method the written argument which has been prepared is made the basis of the delivery4 ,it furnishes a substantial foundation for the speech4 ,the argument has gone through the process of construction according to the directions heretofore given4 ,it is1 therefore1 an efficient instrument of persuasion and the greatest results may be most surely obtained by the method of memorizing the argument by ideas4 ,the three steps in this process of memorizing are as follows3 ,first1 the argument should be read over slowly several times in order that the speaker may get an accurate view of the production as a whole4 ,in most cases the student will have this much accomplished by the time he has written out the argument in final form4 ,second1 the central idea of each paragraph should be memorized4 ,as a general rule1 the paragraphs will conform to the topics of the brief4 ,that is1 each topic in the brief1 with the possible exception of the lowest sub-topic1 will be developed by means of a separate paragraph4 ,the central idea will1 of course1 be the thought expressed by the statement in the brief which the paragraph is designed to develop4 ,however1 this idea should be committed in the form in which it appears in the finished argument1 and not in the form in which it appears in the brief4 ,in this way each idea will be grasped in its relation to the rest of the argument as well as in its relation to the manner in which it has been elaborated in the paragraph4 ,each idea presented should then be committed in its proper order so that the speaker can go through the entire argument and state the idea expressed in each paragraph4 ,third1 the idea contained in each sentence of the paragraph should be committed to memory4 ,if the student has honestly constructed his argument each statement in it means all and more than he expressed when he wrote it out1 therefore the committing of the idea contained in each sentence should not be difficult4 ,furthermore1 the idea should be grasped in its completeness without reference to the words in which it is expressed in the manuscript4 ,in most cases it is well to remember the key-word of each sentence1 which expresses the central thought4 ,sometimes more than one word is necessary for this purpose1 but in any event1 only those words which embody the heart of the thought1 should be committed4 ,all subsidiary words1 or words explaining1 expanding1 limiting1 or showing transitions or relations should not be committed1 but should be left for spontaneous utterance at the moment of delivery4 ,this method of memorizing gives naturalness1 directness1 and spontaneity to the delivery4 ,it trains the speaker to keep his mind firmly fixed on the subject in hand and it eliminates the danger of that monotony which is the result of verbatim memorizing4 ,perhaps the most important advantage of this method of delivery is the fact that it allows the speaker to adapt his argument to the contentions of his opponent4 ,since he has made himself thoroughly familiar with the material of his argument but has not tied himself to any set form of words1 his expression is flexible4 ,if the argument is to be delivered in a debate1 the speaker should practice delivering it so as to meet the various contentions which may be advanced by the opposition4 ,then when the time comes for the final presentation1 he will be prepared to so word his speech as to make it directly applicable to what has just been said on the other side4 ,practice of this kind is needed in everyday life without regard to the occupation in which the student may chance to engage4 ,there are other methods of delivery1 but we need not give them extended consideration4 ,the argument might be delivered extempore from the brief4 ,this method however1 is likely to be ineffective1 since the speaker does not express himself with definiteness and precision4 ,furthermore1 he is likely to occupy a great deal of time in presenting points which1 if carefully framed in forcible sentences1 could be stated directly and briefly4 ,again1 the tendency to ramble is great when the purely extempore method is used4 ,the speaker should first write out his argument even though he expects to follow what he has written only in a general way4 ,the very fact of his having written out the argument will tend to make more definite his own ideas of what he wishes to say4 ,it blazes the trail or wears a sort of path through the mind of the writer from which he is not likely to deviate far when the final delivery is made4 ,the method of extemporaneous delivery1 however1 is not well adapted to the presentation of a formal constructive argument1 because it is too loose and lacks the conciseness characterizing the method of committing by ideas4 ,after long periods of practice the student may be able to use the purely extemporaneous method with good effect1 but while he is a student he should keep to the well-beaten path4 ,still another method of delivery is to write out an introduction1 a conclusion1 and certain important passages1 and leave the rest to extemporaneous delivery4 ,this method may be used with considerable success providing the time limit is not a consideration1 and providing1 furthermore1 that the speaker is an expert in making the transitions from the committed to the uncommitted parts of his speech4 ,with the inexperienced speaker1 this method usually results in a rapid1 fiery delivery of the committed parts and a hesitating1 stammering1 and woefully ineffective delivery of the uncommitted portions4 ,this attracts the attention of the audience to the way in which the speech has been prepared and takes the attention away from the subject of the debate4 ,from every standpoint the method of committing by ideas is by far the best for both the experienced and the inexperienced speaker4 ,it gives him a command of his argument which inspires confidence4 ,there is not the haunting fear that the speech may be forgotten1 a fear which terrorizes the heart of all speakers who commit word for word4 ,if the debater chooses he may have a full outline of his argument written out on cards and take these with him when he goes to face the audience4 ,no attempt need be made to hide these notes1 for they are a legitimate safeguard against emergencies4 ,they should be carried boldly and laid on a table near the speaker so that he can refer to them readily if occasion demands4 ,he should never take cards or notes from his pocket4 ,such an action always gives the audience the impression that the speaker is trying to do something which is beyond his powers4 ,the notes should be referred to deliberately and only when it is absolutely necessary4 ,to refer too often to notes indicates a lack of thorough preparation and makes an unfavorable impression4 ,the notes should be ready for use1 but they should seldom be used4 ,in fact1 the best speakers usually leave their notes untouched4 ,,ii4 ,physical preparation for delivery4 ,much harm results from the advice so frequently given to the debater which counsels him to be natural4 ,if accepted in its proper significance this advice is sound and accords well with common sense4 ,too often1 however1 it is taken as a license to disregard all rules of physical training for public speaking1 and to give no thought to physical appearance and action while on the platform4 ,on the contrary these things are highly important4 ,in a sense1 physical preparation is composed of trifles2 such as1 matters of position1 gesture1 and so forth4 ,but it is these things that make for perfection1 and we are told with truth that perfection is no trifle4 ,the person who tells the inexperienced debater to be natural has failed to distinguish between natural and habitual4 ,james ,fox may have acquired a bad habit of standing1 when before an audience1 with all his weight on one foot4 ,we are then erroneously told that that is his natural way of standing because he always stands that way4 ,on the contrary1 that is his habitual way of standing1 for no normal individual naturally stands with all his weight thrown upon one foot4 ,such bad habits must be overcome and good habits formed and strengthened4 ,then1 and then only1 may we safely instruct the debater to be natural4 #a4 ,position4 ,the position of the debater on the platform should indicate ease and dignity of bearing4 ,it should give him an appearance of stability and should make easy and natural the use of gestures4 ,the speaker should not stand rigidly throughout his delivery in the same position which he first took4 ,he should move easily about the platform1 and all movements should be made deliberately1 not abruptly4 ,the position should not be changed too often but when a change is desired the speaker should not turn away from his audience or move sideways along the platform2 he should move back and up again in a ,v-shaped course4 ,the object of these suggestions is to enable the speaker to acquire ease and naturalness of bearing1 for nothing should be done in a stiff1 formal manner4 ,every position and movement should be so natural and spontaneous that the attention of the audience will not be diverted to the personal eccentricities of the speaker but will follow uninterruptedly the progress of his argument4 #b4 ,voice4 ,there is no set way of addressing the audience4 ,good form and manners vary with the locality4 ,neither is there a set method of delivering an argument4 ,individual peculiarities vary so widely and the style of delivery adapted to the personality of the debater is so difficult to attain that we can only point out the most common faults and explain general rules regarding delivery4 ,the best training in actual practice is debating under the direction of a competent instructor4 ,the voice of the speaker should be clear and strong4 ,we cannot give here any complete treatment of the methods of vocal training which make the voice clear and strong1 but1 where opportunity affords1 the student of debate should have a thorough training in the art of public speaking4 ,singing1 under proper instruction1 will also improve the volume and quality of the voice as well as give the speaker greater voice control4 ,a few practical suggestions regarding the use of the voice may be given some attention at this point4 ,it has been said that breath is the stuff of which the voice is made4 ,attention must therefore be given to proper breathing4 ,the entire lung capacity should be used4 ,the breath should be directed through the vocal chords so as to produce a pure tone4 ,the speaker should remember to keep the throat muscles relaxed and the tongue1 jaws1 and lips out of the way4 ,these organs of speech are to be used to mould into clear-cut words the stream of sound issuing from the vocal chords4 ,their function is not to suppress sound but to modify it4 ,words should be formed as near the lips as it is possible to make them4 ,the speaker must not fear to open his mouth and articulate distinctly4 ,most words should be formed just back of the front teeth4 ,so formed1 the sound is thrown out with force and resonance1 for the hard palate or roof of the mouth is a natural sounding board4 ,if the speaker forms his words far back in his mouth they issue only in incoherent mutterings4 ,since an argument must be heard to be believed1 the most thorough preparation up to this point may be entirely offset by a poor delivery4 ,the enunciation of the speaker should be so clear and distinct that the attention of those addressed will be fixed upon what he is saying1 not upon the way in which he is saying it4 ,every word should be pronounced distinctly4 ,vagueness in delivery is just as harmful as vagueness in language or substance4 ,if one word in a sentence is pronounced so ineffectively that it is not understood1 it may be impossible for the person hearing that sentence to grasp its meaning4 ,in any event it requires the listener to make the mental effort of figuring out what the sentence means1 and this mental effort tires the hearer1 prevents him from giving his undivided attention to the substance of the argument1 and ultimately results in his losing all interest in the discussion4 ,it is therefore plain that clear enunciation is a matter of fundamental importance4 ,a clear1 resonant voice is in itself a valuable asset for the debater4 ,it inspires respect and denotes self-reliance4 ,however1 loudness should not be confused with distinctness1 for mere loudness often accentuates1 rather than remedies poor articulation4 ,the world at large is more ready to believe a person who has a clear-cut1 distinct way of speaking than it is to believe one who utters his words in a slovenly manner4 ,it is often true that slovenly habits of speech indicate slovenly habits of thinking and even slovenly morals4 ,the habit of using the voice effectively1 however1 is not one which can be put on and taken off at will4 ,the voice must be used correctly in everyday conversation as well as in formal debating4 #c4 ,emphasis4 ,the debater must make plain the important parts of his argument by means of emphasis4 ,in speaking1 as in writing1 it is useless to try to emphasize everything4 ,only those parts which have been emphasized in writing out the argument should be emphasized in delivering it4 ,an attempt to emphasize everything results in no emphasis at all4 ,the speaker should therefore study his argument carefully and pick out the parts which are indispensable to his position4 ,the audience will not perform this task of picking out the most important passages2 the speaker must do it himself4 ,in the delivery these parts should be emphasized by means of gestures1 by speaking them more slowly and deliberately1 or by any other legitimate method4 #d4 ,key1 rate1 and inflection4 ,the debater should speak in his average key4 ,by key we mean the pitch of the voice in speaking4 ,by average key is meant that key to which the voice of the particular individual is especially adapted4 ,average key should not be confused with habitual key4 ,one may easily acquire the habit of speaking either above or below the average key4 ,the tendency of the inexperienced orator is usually to speak in a key which is too high4 ,this defect is tiresome to both audience and speaker and should be overcome at any cost1 for the debater should speak in a key which is easy and natural4 ,this enables him to derive the benefit of full inflection both upward and downward1 and bestows confidence and ease4 ,a common fault of the inexperienced speaker is a too rapid rate of delivery4 ,in the beginning of the speech it is especially important that every word be spoken slowly and distinctly4 ,at no part of the speech should the rate be so rapid as to prevent the audience from grasping the full significance of what is being said4 ,the average rate of delivery has been computed to be one hundred and twenty-five words per minute1 allowing for pauses and transitions2 but the rate should vary according to the speaker1 the subject1 and the audience4 ,first of all the rate should be adapted to the thought and to the emotion4 ,simple ideas can be presented rapidly1 while complex ideas must be presented slowly4 ,in all cases the audience should be given ample time to grasp the ideas presented4 ,with this caution in mind the speaker may dwell upon the important thoughts and emotions and pass lightly and quickly over the unimportant4 ,thought and emotion must be fully appreciated by the speaker at the time of delivery1 and this appreciation should be indicated in part by the rate of speaking4 ,in general it may be said that the emotions of awe1 grandeur1 reverence1 sorrow1 etc41 should be voiced with a slow movement1 while emotions of joy1 anger1 indignation1 enthusiasm1 etc41 should be voiced with a rapid movement4 ,however the student should be careful to avoid either a jerky or a drawling delivery4 ,these faults are due usually to a failure to dwell upon the vowel sounds4 ,no set rule can be established1 but all of these things should be considered by the speaker when he is preparing to deliver his argument4 ,inflection should be used to give variety to the argument1 to bring out the special significance of important passages1 and to show the bearing which the evidence has upon the general principles4 ,the amateur speaker usually varies his inflection according to the punctuation4 ,this is not a safe rule to follow4 ,the falling inflection indicates that the thought is complete1 but not that the end of the sentence has been reached4 ,in argumentative speaking the falling inflection is most frequently used because it indicates positive assertion4 ,it denotes confidence in what is being said4 ,on the other hand1 the rising inflection denotes doubt1 indecision1 negation1 or appeal4 ,it is often necessary to express all of these attitudes in delivering an argument2 but the falling inflection1 which denotes a positive statement1 should predominate4 #e4 ,gesture4 ,the memorizing of gestures is as ineffective as is the memorizing of words4 ,both tend to make the delivery mechanical and hence should be carefully avoided4 ,the student should never pick out certain emphatic parts in his discourse and seek to emphasize them by means of gestures which he has studied out and practiced4 ,in fact gesturing is not a necessity in the delivering of an argument4 ,it is certain that poor gesturing is worse than none at all4 ,gestures add to the effectiveness of an argument only when they are simple and natural4 ,as a general rule they are natural only when they are made spontaneously4 ,here1 again1 practice before a competent instructor1 or at least before a sensible critic1 is indispensable4 ,every gesture that is made must appear as a natural effort to be understood and believed4 ,the student should learn to use gestures1 not in connection with any particular argument but in connection with the expression of his own thought and feeling4 ,here1 again1 the instruction to be natural may prove misleading4 ,the speaker may be naturally awkward1 or at least his gesturing may be awkward1 and thus produce only a desire to laugh on the part of the audience4 ,this natural awkwardness must be overcome and replaced by a natural gracefulness4 ,the gestures used in argumentation need not be elaborate1 in fact simple gestures are more effective4 ,the gesture should seem to be a part of the thought or emotion1 and training should be resorted to only for the purpose of securing naturalness1 gracefulness1 and ease4 ,in gesturing1 only that which is natural in the right way1 that which enforces the thought instead of diverting attention from it1 is effective4 #f4 ,transitions4 ,the transition from one part of the speech to another should be clearly indicated4 ,in constructing the argument these transition points were made plain by means of transition sentences showing the division between the introduction and the proof1 the main issues of the proof and each subordinate issue1 and the proof and conclusion4 ,when the argument is to be delivered1 however1 the delivery should make these transition points stand out like white mile posts4 ,in this way two advantages are gained4 ,first1 the structure of the argument is vividly impressed upon the mind of the hearer4 ,second1 these transitions break the monotony of the speech and keep alive the interest of the audience4 ,in beginning each new main issue1 and often in beginning the presentation of an important piece of evidence1 the speaker should drop to the conversational tone4 ,he should talk directly to his audience as though it were an individual4 ,then he should gradually increase the force of his delivery until he is speaking in his strongest persuasive manner4 ,this method gives variety to the argument1 and thus prevents it from growing monotonous4 ,furthermore1 it insures a better appreciation of the argument as a whole4 ,other devices which may be used in connection with the above method for marking transitions are1 7#a7 varying the inflections1 7#b7 changing the rate of delivery1 7#c7 using appropriate gestures1 7#d7 changing the mode of emphasis1 7#e7 making use of pauses1 and 7#f7 changing position on the platform4 ,all of these devices must be used with skill and ease4 ,nothing should appear abrupt and fantastic1 but each part of the speech should be made to blend gracefully with the whole argument4 #g4 ,presenting charts4 ,in presenting a series of statistics the necessity for large charts1 which may be hung up at the back of the platform and explained by the speaker1 is almost absolute4 ,no audience can keep in mind a mass of statistics4 ,the oral presentation of figures makes little real impression upon the minds of the hearers and serves to confuse rather than to enlighten4 ,therefore these figures must be presented so that the audience can see them4 ,statistics should be carefully tabulated in accordance with the following form3 ,real ,estate ,personal ,property ,united ,states #gg3ac #bb3hg ,new ,england ,states #ga3ej #bh3ej ,middle ,states #hf3fj #ac3dj ,southern ,states #gj3gg #bi3bc ,western ,states #gd3ji #be3ia ,territories #df3ha #ec3ai ,source3 ,united ,states ,census ,report--#ahhj--,vol4 ,,vii--pp4 #ag4 ,the chart and the letters and figures upon it should be large enough to be seen clearly by all auditors4 ,to set forth tables of statistics is not the only use to which these charts may be put4 ,they may be used to illustrate territorial conditions by means of maps1 to show comparisons by means of lines1 squares1 or circles1 and for as many other purposes as the ingenuity of the speaker can invent4 ,in formal debating contests a set of carefully prepared charts usually gives a distinct advantage to their possessors4 ,they stand for something definite1 something which the judges and audience may see with their own eyes4 ,these charts may be hung up and left open1 but it is often better to have a thin sheet of paper pinned over them4 ,when a chart is to be used either the speaker or one of his colleagues may remove the sheet of paper4 ,it should then be left open to the gaze of the audience throughout the entire discussion4 ,if several charts are used and all of them cannot be left exposed to view1 the most important one should be placed in the favored position4 ,in explaining a chart the speaker should make use of his most conversational delivery4 ,he should take a light pointer in the hand nearest the chart and direct the attention of his hearers to the figures as he states them4 ,in doing this the speaker should always face the audience and talk to them instead of to the chart4 ,he should be so familiar with the material on the chart that he needs only to glance at it for the purpose of directing attention to each new figure as he starts to explain its significance4 ,a carefully prepared chart1 clearly explained in accordance with the foregoing directions1 is a valuable aid to interest and clearness in the delivery of any argument4 ,,iii4 ,mental preparation for delivery4 ,in the last section we concerned ourselves with matters relating to the form of delivery2 with things primarily physical4 ,we now turn to the substance of delivery and consider things primarily mental4 ,the attitude of mind which the speaker maintains toward his subject and his auditors is a powerful factor in persuasion4 #a4 ,directness4 ,clear1 intense thinking should always accompany the delivery of an argument4 ,the mental attitude of the speaker must be one of alert1 business-like attention4 ,with the attention of the speaker riveted upon the object of his argument1 the audience will be compelled to follow him straight to the conclusion4 ,the simple directness of the speaker who keeps his mind firmly fixed on his subject is irresistible4 ,no ostentation or striving after effect should be allowed to hold a place in the speaker's thoughts1 for the day of bombastic oratory is passed4 ,this is a practical age2 the world demands results1 and results demand directness4 ,simplicity of thought begets simplicity of expression1 and the orator with but a single idea underlying his argument has this irresistible power4 ,in delivering the argument the debater must forget himself1 so far as his preparation and personality are concerned1 and think only of what he is saying4 ,the simple conversational style in which two persons discuss a subject of vital interest to them is usually direct4 ,this directness comes from the vital interest of the speakers and their desire to make their ideas plain4 ,the same conversational directness should exist in debating4 ,very often the speaker can obtain greater directness by picking out two or three people in various parts of the audience and talking to them4 ,in a formal debating contest the debater sometimes picks out the judges and talks to them4 ,the use of this method does not ignore the rest of the audience1 because the debater is speaking to the audience as a whole1 and it does give force and directness to the delivery4 ,the greatest orators of modern times have been noted for their simplicity and natural directness4 ,in fact1 this was clearly the predominating characteristic of the style of ,abraham ,lincoln and ,wendell ,phillips2 and even ,webster1 highly endowed as he was with natural attributes which made his style grand rather than simple1 was above all else noted for his directness4 #b4 ,earnestness4 ,earnestness is the basis of persuasion4 ,the man who is in earnest about anything is bound to accomplish something4 ,by this earnestness we do not mean that which is assumed for the occasion1 but that earnestness which comes from deep convictions4 ,without the quality of earnestness the debater becomes a mere speaker of words4 ,for any particular occasion1 the speaker should prepare himself by forming in his own mind strong convictions regarding his subject4 ,in formal debating a speaker is sometimes compelled to argue against his convictions4 ,in such a case the best he can do is to present his position4 ,as a general rule the questions discussed in class and debating contests are so evenly balanced and so broad in their application that to arrive at a just conclusion requires more investigation than the ordinary debater can well undertake4 ,the debater should1 therefore1 be content to fulfil his function as a defender of the truth4 ,he should make his investigation thorough before championing any cause in real life4 ,having found the proper cause for the exercise of his skill he must first convince himself of its worth2 then only can he present his case with the earnestness of conviction4 ,in general the mental preparation of the speaker who strives for earnestness must begin far back in his career4 ,sincerity is not something which can be brought out for parade on special occasions4 ,the orator who wishes to impress his fellow men with his sincerity must in all his thoughts and actions be sincere himself4 ,if this fundamental preparation in common integrity does not exist within the speaker1 that fact will be recognized by his audience4 ,his words will carry neither weight nor conviction because the hearer must inevitably declare with ,emerson 8,what you are speaks so loud1 ,i cannot hear what you say40 ,the earnestness of the speaker must be the result of high principles1 lofty character1 and a firm and sincere conviction of the worth of his cause4 ,he must have a deep sympathy with his cause and with his auditors4 ,he must possess a wide knowledge of human nature which will enable him to appeal to the emotions of his hearers in a sympathetic manner4 ,he must take their point of view and feel as he would have them feel in regard to his subject4 ,then all the force of his being will awake to fortify and render invincible his argument4 ,in this way it will become a conquering instrument of persuasion4 ,the arts of the orator must be employed to lead men1 not to drive them4 ,the speaker must take the attitude that he is merely one of his audience who has found out something worth while and who earnestly desires to share his discovery with his neighbors4 ,anything approaching a patronizing air1 or an 8,i am holier 7or wiser7 than thou attitude10 is fatal to sympathy and earnestness4 ,he should follow the simple direct method of taking his hearers into his confidence and talking to them as though he feels that they are as wise and good as himself4 ,he should watch the expressions of sympathy or hostility on their faces and lead them quietly along the road of earnestness1 the end of which is persuasion4 #c4 ,confidence4 ,the speaker's confidence in himself and in his cause should be absolute4 ,the time for hesitation and self-questioning has passed when the speaker stands before his audience4 ,then he should feel himself master of the situation4 ,he must take the attitude of mind which befits an expert or a professional4 ,by this we do not mean an ostentatious show of knowledge or insolent superiority4 ,the directions contained in the last section should be a sufficient guarantee against such an attitude4 ,but the speaker must honestly think that he is engaged in an important and commendable undertaking and that he has the ability to carry it through successfully4 ,in order to do this he must assume an attitude of unbiased fairness and honesty4 ,his manner should indicate that he feels himself responsible for the truth4 ,he must never appear to be concealing anything from his hearers1 nor should he appear to be taking advantage of his opponents or depriving them of any credit to which they are justly entitled4 ,never should he misquote an opponent or put an unfavorable interpretation upon what that opponent has said4 ,an audience loves fair play and the knowledge that he is making a fair fight1 with everything above board1 gives confidence to the speaker4 ,a speaker should always exercise self-control4 ,at no time should he put all his force into the language which he uses4 ,he should always maintain a reserve force which will give a background of power to his delivery4 ,never should he allow his temper to be ruffled by anything that may happen during the discussion2 to indulge in an outburst of temper is positively belittling4 ,washington's advice to young men was 8,conquer the territory under your own hat40 ,this is an apt expression for the debater to keep constantly in mind4 ,the complete self-reliance which puts the speaker at his ease is acquired only by practice4 ,in fact1 many great speakers have gone through life facing a period of nervousness just before appearing before their audiences4 ,this trait1 however1 is not necessarily an evil4 ,the speaker should always appreciate the importance of the occasion and his own responsibility4 ,if he does this to the extent of having his emotions aroused it often makes his delivery more direct1 earnest1 and confident4 ,the point to be remembered is that he must have that confidence which convinces his hearers that his argument is the result of clean1 clear-cut thinking1 and persuades them to act in accordance with the truth which that argument reveals4 ,the power of a speaker does not exist in the development of any one trait4 ,he must study methods of delivery1 and must not weary of painstaking physical and mental preparation4 ,back of all of this must be the man himself1 entrenched in mental and moral strength4 ,no defect is too trifling to be overcome by constant vigilance1 no improvement so unimportant as not to merit the most arduous striving4 ,the student who is ambitious to acquire the art of persuasion should practice constantly and neglect no opportunity to appear before an audience4 ,for every principle gleaned from these pages the debater must provide himself with ninety-nine opportunities for practice4 ,it is only by actual practice that anyone can hope to travel far along the road which leads to the goal of perfection4 ,,part ,,ii ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,argumentation ,,and ,,debate ,,chapter ,i ,,inductive ,,argument ,all persons of average intelligence and education are able to distinguish an obviously sound argument from an obviously false argument4 ,no knowledge of argumentation or logic is necessary to enable such persons to perceive the truth of one or the falsity of the other4 ,however1 the line which separates the true from the false1 or the sound from the unsound1 is not always clearly marked4 ,in fact most arguments involve a consideration of so many factors that their truth or falsity is very difficult to determine4 ,it is for this reason that we must study the various theoretical forms in which an argument may be presented4 ,i4 ,the application of processes of reasoning to argumentation4 ,logic deals with the formal process of reasoning4 ,it tests the validity of a reasoning process by applying certain principles which will reveal its strength or weakness4 ,it is not essential to know the science of logic in order to reason or to argue well4 ,many of our most profound thinkers have possessed only a superficial knowledge of that subject4 ,a knowledge of the forms of reasoning which logic considers1 or of the names applied to them1 is by no means indispensable to an intelligent argument or debate4 ,nevertheless1 an exact knowledge of logical processes of reasoning as applied to the construction of arguments is absolutely indispensable to him who would become master of the ,art of ,argumentation and ,debate4 ,there are two uses to which the debater must put these correct processes of reasoning4 ,in the first place1 he must use them to test the validity of his own arguments4 ,in the second place1 he must use them to test the validity of his opponents' arguments4 ,both of these uses will suggest to the mind of the student the importance of the application of processes of reasoning to argumentation4 ,an argument is seldom presented in such a form that it is possible to apply logical reasoning processes to it as it stands4 ,usually some parts are omitted and others are expanded or modified for the purpose of greater effect in persuasion4 ,the student must therefore grasp the essential parts of his argument before he can arrange them in the formal manner which logic demands4 ,this very exercise of cutting up a discussion into parts for the purpose of determining whether it is rightly constructed is a mental exercise of unusual value4 ,furthermore1 it reveals any weak places in the argument and shows where it must be made strong if it is to be effective4 ,in like manner the debater is able to apply the same processes to the arguments of his opponents to show their weaknesses and enable him to direct his efforts toward these vulnerable points4 ,,ii4 ,inductive reasoning4 ,inductive reasoning is the process by which we arrive at a general conclusion through the observation of concrete particulars4 ,i have read ,treasure ,island and ,i found it interesting4 ,moreover1 ,i have read ,kidnapped1 ,david ,balfour1 ,prince ,otto1 and ,st4 ,ives1 all of which were interesting to me4 ,all of these books were written by ,robert ,louis ,stevenson1 and after ,i had read them ,i arrived at the general conclusion that all books written by ,robert ,louis ,stevenson were interesting4 ,i made use of this conclusion by searching in the library for other books by this same author1 for ,i felt sure that if ,i could find another of his books it would be interesting4 ,however1 we are not now concerned with the uses to be made of this process of reasoning1 but rather with its exact form4 ,the process by which ,i arrived at the conclusion that all of ,stevenson's works are interesting is a fair example of inductive reasoning4 ,i had five specific instances all pointing to the same conclusion4 ,i had observed five of ,stevenson's books and ,i reached a conclusion regarding all of them4 ,the conclusion included those which ,i had not read as well as those which ,i had read4 ,this process conforms to our definition that inductive reasoning is the process by which we arrive at a general conclusion through the observation of concrete particulars4 ,in this way we arrive at many conclusions upon which we rely in our daily life4 ,we go to a certain place at ten minutes past the hour for the purpose of boarding a street car which will take us to the city4 ,we do this because for many months we have been accustomed to go to this same place at this particular time and there we have always found a street car which took us to the city4 ,each one of the instances in which we have done this is a concrete particular tending to support the general conclusion that if we go to a certain place at a certain time we shall find a car which will take us to the city4 ,a further investigation of this process of inductive reasoning reveals the fact that it may be divided into two sharply defined classes1 7#a7 perfect inductions1 and 7#b7 imperfect inductions4 ,a perfect induction is one in which all the particular instances upon which a conclusion is based can be examined directly4 ,for example1 if ,i am aware that each one of the twenty men who are taking this course in ,argumentation expect to be civil engineers ,i may safely state the general conclusion that 8,all the men who are taking this course in ,argumentation expect to be civil engineers40 ,this is a perfect induction1 because ,i have included in the conclusion only those men who are taking this course2 there are only twenty men and investigation has shown that each of them expects to be a civil engineer4 ,therefore1 it is plain that there can be no opportunity for error4 ,every particular instance relied upon can be accounted for and no instance outside of these is brought within the conclusion4 ,the induction is therefore perfect4 ,an imperfect induction is one in which the conclusion extends beyond the concrete specific instances upon which it is based4 ,the examples already given regarding ,stevenson's novels and the street car are imperfect inductions4 ,i have not read all of ,stevenson's novels and ,i may yet find one that is not interesting to me4 ,regarding the induction about the street car1 it is sufficient to note that if the car were late or failed to appear at all1 the conclusion would be of no value in that specific instance4 ,likewise ,i may state the general inductive conclusion that all roses are fragrant4 ,i base this conclusion upon a great number of specific instances4 ,the rose that ,i plucked yesterday was fragrant2 those which ,i observed in the conservatory last month were fragrant2 the roses which bloom in my door-yard each summer are fragrant2 all the roses that ,i have known since ,i was old enough to notice such matters have been fragrant4 ,upon this great number of specific instances ,i base my inductive conclusion4 ,it will be observed1 however1 that my conclusion is not confined to the roses which ,i have seen but that it extends beyond and includes all roses of every kind everywhere4 ,it is therefore an imperfect induction4 ,as it stands it would be impossible to make this induction a perfect one1 because it would be an impossible task to examine every rose in the world4 ,the only way in which the induction can be made perfect is to restrict the conclusion to cover only the specific instances upon which it is based4 ,the conclusion would then be1 8,all the roses to which ,i have ever given attention were fragrant40 ,but it may not suit our purpose thus to restrict the conclusion4 ,we may wish to make use of it in its broad general significance4 ,every day we are compelled to act upon imperfect inductions1 as in the case of the street car4 ,in such cases we must resort to certain rules or tests whereby we can determine the probability of the truth of the imperfect induction4 ,we shall consider these rules or tests after we have discussed the application of inductive reasoning to inductive argument4 ,,iii4 ,the application of inductive reasoning to inductive argument4 ,we have seen the nature of the process of induction and have observed the distinction between the perfect and the imperfect4 ,let us now consider the application of the inductive process to arguments4 ,the occurrence of this process in all argumentative discourse is frequent4 ,a simple illustration of its application is furnished in connection with the proposition 8,resolved1 that the ,federal ,government should levy an income tax40 ,the affirmative in the course of its investigation finds that this tax has proved practicable in ,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england4 ,further investigation discloses the fact that these are the only countries in which this particular form of taxation has been adopted4 ,from these particular instances1 namely1--,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england1 the general inductive conclusion may be drawn that 8,the income tax has proved practicable in all the countries in which it has been adopted40 ,this is a perfect inductive conclusion4 ,in presenting this induction in an argument1 the conclusion should be stated first4 ,then each of the countries in which the income tax has been adopted should be discussed and evidence introduced to show that it has proved practicable in every case4 ,finally1 evidence should be brought forth to show that the countries named are the only ones in which the tax has been adopted4 ,the conclusion should be stated in the form of a summary1 which leaves the argument complete4 ,it is a perfect inductive argument4 ,while the reasoning process cannot be assailed1 the facts upon which the induction is based may be disproved4 ,those advancing the argument must therefore be sure that the facts alleged are supported by sufficient evidence1 while those seeking to overthrow the argument should be diligent in their search for evidence showing the weakness or impracticability of the tax in one or all of the countries cited4 ,from the above illustration it is plain that the validity of the reasoning of a perfect induction is easily determined4 ,the mind at once determines whether or not the specific instances presented warrant the conclusion reached4 ,the question of the validity of a perfect inductive argument is largely a question of fact4 ,with the imperfect induction1 however1 the situation is somewhat different1 for we have seen that the conclusion extends beyond the actual facts upon which it is based4 ,from an examination of several observed specific instances a conclusion is drawn which covers instances unobserved4 ,by it we pass from the known to the unknown4 ,this process is sometimes called the inductive hazard4 ,the application of this form of reasoning to argument is illustrated by the imperfect induction which is made by ,lincoln in his ,cooper ,institute ,address4 ,here he draws a conclusion as to what all the framers of the original ,constitution thought about the slavery problem1 by producing evidence to show what a part of them thought about it4 ,after introducing specific evidence to show what each of twenty-three of these men thought1 he says3 8,here then we have twenty-three of our thirty-nine fathers #8who framed the government under which we live'1 who have1 upon their official responsibility and their corporeal oaths1 acted upon the very question which the text affirms #8they understood just as well1 and even better1 than we do now'2 and twenty-one of them--a clear majority of the whole thirty-nine--so acting upon it as to make them guilty of gross political impropriety and willful perjury1 if1 in their understanding1 any proper division between local and ,federal authority1 or anything in the ,constitution they had made themselves1 and sworn to support1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in the ,federal ,territories4 ,thus the twenty-one acted2 and as actions speak louder than words1 so actions under such responsibility speak still louder4444 8,the remaining sixteen of the #8thirty-nine'1 so far as ,i have discovered1 have left no trace of their understanding upon the direct question of ,federal control in the ,federal ,territories4 ,but there is much reason to believe that their understanding upon that question would not have appeared different from that of their twenty-three compeers1 had it been manifested at all4444 8,the sum of the whole is that of our thirty-nine fathers who framed the original ,constitution1 twenty-one--a clear majority of the whole--certainly understood that no proper division of local from ,federal authority1 nor any part of the ,constitution1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in the ,federal ,territories2 while all the rest had probably the same understanding4 ,such1 unquestionably1 was the understanding of our fathers who framed the original ,constitution2 and the text affirms that they understood the question #8better than we4'0 ,the true test of an imperfect induction is not its sufficiency for the person who uses it1 but its sufficiency for those to whom it is addressed4 ,the argument is designed to produce a definite effect and in order to do this it must fulfil certain conditions4 ,even when these conditions are fulfilled the effect of the argument is problematical4 ,nevertheless1 in order to approach its maximum efficiency an inductive argument must meet the requirements explained in the following section4 ,,iv4 ,requirements for an effective inductive argument4 #a4 ,perfect inductions4 ,in a perfect induction in which we have seen that the conclusion includes only the specific instances that have actually been examined1 the only requirement is that the facts upon which it is based be true4 ,the student must observe the rules regarding the sufficiency of evidence4 ,he must be sure that he has introduced evidence which shows conclusively that each specific instance cited in support of the conclusion is true as a matter of fact4 ,if he allows conjecture to enter into any one of them he cannot claim for his argument the solidity which characterizes the perfect induction4 ,if in arguing for the necessity of additional sources of revenue for the ,united ,states government1 he has stated the perfect inductive conclusion that 8,the expenditures of the ,united ,states government for the last three years have greatly exceeded its receipts10 he must substantiate his induction by exact reference to the reports of the ,treasurer of the ,united ,states for the last three years4 ,an investigation of these references must reveal the fact that each of these years has shown a large deficit4 ,the greatest temptation against which the student will have to guard is that of careless generalization4 ,he may know that a conclusion includes four specific instances4 ,he may be certain that three of them support the conclusion1 but he is not quite sure about the fourth4 ,nevertheless he conjectures regarding its validity and heedlessly proceeds to his conclusion4 ,this is a bad habit to cultivate1 because it results in loose1 inaccurate thinking4 ,a perfect induction should never be stated in an argument until each specific instance upon which it is based1 and which it includes1 has been determined to be an unquestioned fact4 #b4 ,imperfect inductions4 ,the requirements for an imperfect induction are somewhat involved and demand the exercise of sound judgment in their application4 ,an imperfect induction can never be relied upon with the same confidence that may be reposed in a perfect induction4 ,this truth is apparent from the nature of the imperfect induction4 ,in order to measure up to a high standard of effectiveness an imperfect induction must comply with the following requirements4 ,a4 ,the number of specific instances supporting the conclusion must be sufficiently large to offset the probability of coincidence4 ,the problem of determining the number of specific instances which will justify us in relying upon an imperfect induction is most difficult4 ,as we shall presently see1 this number varies greatly with different classes of persons1 events1 and things about which we wish to reach conclusions4 ,but before we consider this difficulty we must be sure that we have enough instances at hand to eliminate the element of chance4 ,at least from the argumentative standpoint this is the most practical method of procedure4 ,suppose the student in his preparation for an argument finds that during the last year there has been a decrease in the value of manufactured articles produced in the state of ,texas1 that a similar decrease is shown in the state of ,new ,york1 and that statistics relating to the state of ,delaware show the same result4 ,these facts could not be used to support the conclusion that the value of manufactured products of all the states of the ,union has decreased during the last year1 because it may be only a coincidence that their value has decreased in the states named4 ,in all the other states of the ,union there may have been an increase4 ,the conclusion stated should belong to a perfect induction and could only stand upon proof of the fact that the value of the products manufactured in each and every one of the states showed a decrease4 ,moreover1 it would not be safe to state the conclusion that the value of manufactured products in general shows a falling off in value during the past year and to cite the three instances named in support of that contention4 ,in fact1 the probability of coincidence is too great to enable us to arrive at any inductive conclusion other than that the manufactured products of ,texas1 ,new ,york1 and ,delaware for the past year show a decrease in value4 ,the student must be constantly on guard against this loose method of inductive reasoning4 ,it is most prolific in indefinite and loosely stated conclusions seeking to masquerade under an appearance of validity4 ,he should always examine his own conclusions as well as those of his opponent for the purpose of finding out whether the instances used to support them are merely the result of chance or coincidence4 ,let us suppose that the decrease observed in the three states named above has suggested the probability of the truth of one of the conclusions4 ,the investigator should at once pick out a few of the most prominent manufacturing states and find statistics showing manufacturing values in them4 ,for example1 he might consult ,massachusetts1 ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,michigan1 ,illinois1 and ,wisconsin4 ,if the same decrease is found to have existed in these states the truth of the inductive conclusion becomes much more probable and at the same time the probability of coincidence becomes correspondingly less4 ,the student1 however1 should continue his investigations and examine the statistics regarding all the manufacturing states of the ,union4 ,he should then frame his conclusion in such a way that it will stand supported by the evidence of all the specific instances4 ,b4 ,the class of persons1 events1 or things about which the induction is made must be reasonably homogeneous4 ,after we have seen three or four elephants we feel pretty safe in saying that all elephants have trunks4 ,after we have seen three or four red schoolhouses we do not feel safe in saying that all schoolhouses are red4 ,the first class of objects is homogeneous1 the second is not4 ,therefore we may safely generalize regarding the appearance and characteristics of all elephants from the three or four specimens which have come beneath our notice4 ,as a class they possess in a marked degree common traits of character and appearance4 ,no one member of the species is radically different from any other member4 ,with schoolhouses1 however1 the situation is quite different4 ,all schoolhouses in a given community may be built alike and the first three or four seen by an individual might be painted red2 but since the class of schoolhouses is not homogeneous1 he cannot therefore correctly arrive at the imperfect inductive conclusion that all schoolhouses are red4 ,this illustration should indicate to the student who would employ imperfect induction that it is necessary to be careful in drawing a broad conclusion covering a class of persons1 events1 or things whose members he does not know to be reasonably homogeneous with respect to the point about which he wishes to argue4 ,to advance a step further in the consideration of this requirement1 we must remember that it applies only to the homogeneity of the particular characteristic of the class regarding which a conclusion is desired4 ,for example1 if it is desired to arrive at some conclusion regarding the color of all schoolhouses1 the inductive process could not well be applied because the class is by no means homogeneous in regard to this particular characteristic4 ,however1 if it is desired to arrive at a conclusion regarding the use to which all schoolhouses are put the imperfect induction may safely be used because the class is reasonably homogeneous in this characteristic4 ,c4 ,the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion must be fair examples4 ,in an imperfect inductive argument the instances upon which the conclusion is based must be fairly representative of the class of persons1 events1 or things which it includes4 ,a debater in an interscholastic contest took three examples of cities having the commission plan of city government as a basis for his argument in support of the proposition that all ,american cities should adopt the commission form of city government4 ,he began by showing that the three cities1--,galveston1 ,des ,moines1 and ,grand ,rapids1 were fair examples of ,american cities4 ,he showed that they did not represent the exceedingly large cities nor the exceedingly small cities but that they possessed the chief characteristics of both4 ,he produced evidence to prove that they were directly representative of nine-tenths of the cities in ,america and that the principles of government which would work well in these three cities1 taken as examples1 would work equally well in any ,american city4 ,he then showed that the commission plan of city government had worked well in the three examples which he had proved to be fairly representative of all ,american cities4 ,the greatest temptation to error is that of selecting examples or incidents which are most favorable to the debater's contentions4 ,such action is a flagrant violation of the great principle which should govern all argumentative discourse--the principle that truth should stand supreme over all contentions4 ,it is not only dishonest to select unfair examples1 but it is disloyal to those who uphold the debater in his efforts to persuade4 ,never should an example be presented which possesses characteristics unusual to the class which it purports to represent4 ,an earnest effort should always be made to obtain the fairest examples possible4 ,d4 ,careful investigation must disclose no exceptions4 ,a person should seldom rely upon his own uncontradicted experience to support an inductive conclusion4 ,the small child concludes that all children have fathers and mothers because it has a father and mother4 ,the tropical savage concludes that all parts of the earth are warm because the part in which he lives is warm4 ,similarly we find reasonable persons adopting like generalizations based upon their own uncontradicted experience4 ,the business man denounces all public officials as dishonest because he has found that two or three are dishonest4 ,the farmer denounces all lawyers as dishonest because one lawyer has treated him dishonestly4 ,in each of these cases it is evident that a little careful investigation would disclose enough exceptions to overthrow the conclusion4 ,the debater should examine his own inductions as well as those of his opponent for the purpose of discovering possible exceptions4 ,the man who declared that all trades-union men are anarchists would have found the exceptions to his rule so overwhelming as to make his conclusion appear ridiculous4 ,the difficulty is that the abnormal and exceptional instances which we know loom so large in our minds that they become prejudices and crowd out calm reason4 ,the few union men who have destroyed life and property should not be made the specific instances supporting an induction regarding the whole class of trades-union men4 ,the few college men who drink1 swear1 and carouse should not be made the specific instances supporting an induction regarding the whole class of college men4 ,every induction should be examined carefully for the purpose of discovering exceptions4 ,e4 ,the conclusion must be reasonable4 ,after all the foregoing requirements have been met there still remains one essential4 ,the conclusion must be reasonable4 ,this is the ultimate test of validity4 ,we have become so familiar with the usual course of nature that we instinctively question that which appears to run contrary thereto4 ,nothing occurs without an adequate cause4 ,upon this principle we base our judgment regarding all matters which transcend our own experience4 ,most of us have passed the superstitious days when the breaking of a looking glass was regarded as a sure sign that someone in the family would die before the end of the year4 ,even the time-honored ,friday and number thirteen with their attendant superstitious disasters no longer have a large following4 ,scientific investigation and the present age of commercialism have crowded out superstition and put common sense in its place4 ,the average mind is highly reasonable and requires some causal connection between the breaking of a looking glass and the death of a person4 ,it would refuse to believe that one caused the other1 or that one was the sign of the other1 even though there might be a hundred instances to warrant the induction and not one to contradict it4 ,the final requirement for an imperfect inductive argument is that it be reasonable4 ,,summary ,,of ,,requirements ,,for ,,an ,,imperfect ,,inductive ,,argument #a4 ,the number of specific instances supporting the conclusion must be sufficiently large to offset the probability of coincidence4 #b4 ,the class of persons1 events1 or things about which the induction is made must be reasonably homogeneous4 #c4 ,the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion must be fair examples4 #d4 ,careful investigation must disclose no exceptions4 #e4 ,the conclusion must be reasonable4 ,,exercises #a4 ,are the following inductions perfect or imperfect8 7#a7 ,all men are mortal4 7#b7 ,all ,irving's books are interesting 7or uninteresting74 7#c7 ,all the presidents of the ,united ,states who have been assassinated were ,republicans4 7#d7 8,pythagoras was misunderstood1 and ,socrates1 and ,jesus1 and ,luther1 and ,copernicus1 and ,galileo1 and ,newton1 and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh4 ,to be great is to be misunderstood40 ,emerson1 ,self-,reliance 7#e7 ,money is the root of all evil4 #b4 ,give in full the specific instances upon which each of the foregoing inductions is based4 #c4 ,apply the requirements for validity to each of the inductions in exercise one1 and state the result4 #d4 ,write an inductive argument of four hundred words4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,deductive ,,argument ,deductive argument consists of the application of deductive processes of reasoning to argumentative discourse4 ,this process of applying logical principles is somewhat more complicated than that involved in induction4 ,in some respects it is more important that the student thoroughly master deduction than it is that he master induction4 ,fallacies are more easily concealed in the deductive process than in the inductive process4 ,nevertheless1 when the fallacy is once detected it can be set forth clearly by anyone who understands this form of reasoning4 ,neither the inductive nor the deductive form of reasoning is often found alone4 ,most arguments contain both of these processes and in some cases they are very closely interwoven4 ,this fact necessitates a thorough study of both processes4 ,from this standpoint a knowledge of one form is as important as a knowledge of the other4 ,in order that we may thoroughly understand the application of the deductive process to argument we must first consider separately that process of reasoning4 ,i4 ,deductive reasoning4 ,by deductive reasoning we arrive at a conclusion regarding a particular person1 event1 or thing by reason of our knowledge regarding the whole class to which the particular person1 event1 or thing belongs4 ,in this sense it is the opposite of induction4 ,we conclude that a particular book is interesting because we know that all the books written by the author of this book are interesting4 ,we may say that deductive reasoning begins where inductive reasoning leaves off4 ,for example1 we found that we could arrive at the imperfect inductive conclusion that all of ,stevenson's books are interesting because each one of a number of his books which we had read was interesting4 ,since 7#a7 the number of specific instances cited were sufficient to offset the probability of coincidence1 7#b7 the class was fairly homogeneous1 7#c7 the examples were fair1 7#d7 we found upon investigation that there were no exceptions1 and 7#e7 from the character of the author and other circumstances the conclusion seemed reasonable1 we concluded that our induction was sound4 ,now1 taking this conclusion as true we may apply it to any one of ,stevenson's works not yet examined and thus determine that that work is interesting4 ,it must be kept in mind1 however1 that a deduction based upon an imperfect induction is no stronger than that imperfect induction4 ,the imperfect induction gains no strength by reason of its having a valid deduction based upon it4 ,nevertheless1 unsound arguments are often given a superficial appearance of validity by this means4 ,we may more clearly indicate the relation of the inductive and the deductive process by arranging the material of the foregoing illustration in the following manner4 ,a4 ,inductive process4 #a4 ,specific instances4 7#a7 ,treasure ,island1 written by ,stevenson is interesting4 7#b7 ,kidnapped1 written by ,stevenson is interesting4 7#c7 ,david ,balfour1 written by ,stevenson is interesting4 7#d7 ,prince ,otto1 written by ,stevenson is interesting4 7#e7 ,st4 ,ives1 written by ,stevenson is interesting4 #b4 ,conclusion3 ,all books written by ,stevenson are interesting4 ,b4 ,deductive process4 #a4 ,major ,premise3 ,all books written by ,stevenson are interesting4 #b4 ,minor ,premise3 ,the ,silverado ,squatters was written by ,stevenson4 #c4 ,conclusion3 ,therefore ,the ,silverado ,squatters is interesting4 ,it will be observed that the inductive conclusion forms the first statement1 the basis1 or what is called in logic1 the major premise of the deductive process4 ,by induction we build several specific instances into a conclusion1 and from that conclusion we reason down again to one particular instance4 ,this illustration should serve to make plain to the student the relation between induction and deduction and the reason why the two processes are so often combined in an argument4 ,in logic the deductive form presented above is called a syllogism4 ,it consists of three statements called ,major ,premise1 ,minor ,premise1 and ,conclusion4 ,this syllogism occurs in different forms1 but we are concerned with only the typical form above presented1 because it is to this form that we intend to reduce our own arguments and the arguments of our opponents in order that we may test their validity4 ,each statement in a syllogism is composed of two parts1 called terms4 ,the names of these terms as well as their proper location in the syllogism are indicated by the following form3 ,middle term4 ,major term4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #a4 ,major ,premise3 ,all college men should study argumentation4 ,minor term4 ,middle term4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #b4 ,minor ,premise3 ,paul ,morton is a college man4 ,minor term4 ,major term4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #c4 ,conclusion3 ,therefore ,paul ,mortonshould study argumentation4 ,the student will observe that each statement in the syllogism is composed of two terms and that each term appears twice in the entire syllogism1 but only once in any one statement4 ,the major term represents the largest element in the syllogism namely1--the class of persons who should study argumentation4 ,the minor term represents the smallest element in the syllogism namely1--,paul ,morton1 the particular person about whom a conclusion is reached4 ,the middle term serves as an intermediary or connecting link which binds the minor term to the major term4 ,it does not appear in the conclusion but is cast away after it has served its purpose in assigning the minor term1--,paul ,morton1 to the major term1--those who should study argumentation4 ,in the typical form of the syllogism with which we are concerned the major premise should always be in the universal affirmative-form4 ,by universal affirmative is meant that the assertion is made with regard to the class as a whole as3 8,all men are mortal10 8,all laws should be obeyed10 8,all students should pay their bills10 etc4 ,no part of the class of persons1 events1 or things about which an assertion is made should be left outside the statement as would be the case if the statements read--8,some laws should be obeyed10 8,some students should pay their bills40 ,from the foregoing discussion it is evident that the deductive syllogism1 in order to be valid1 must be constructed in accordance with certain well defined rules4 ,in books of logic the student will find these rules discussed at some length and their application set forth in detail4 ,for our purpose it is only necessary to refer to them and keep them clearly in mind in connection with the discussion here given4 ,the rules of the syllogism with which we are concerned are as follows3 #a4 ,a syllogism must contain three terms1 ,major term1 ,minor term1 and ,middle term4 #b4 ,a syllogism must consist of three complete statements1 ,major ,premise1 ,minor ,premise1 and ,conclusion4 #c4 ,the middle term must be distributed at least once in the premises4 ,a term is distributed when it is universal in its application or taken in its whole length of meaning4 #d4 ,a term cannot be distributed in the conclusion unless it is distributed in the premises4 #e4 ,no conclusion can be drawn from two negative premises4 #f4 ,a negative conclusion always follows one negative premise and a negative conclusion cannot be obtained unless one of the premises is negative4 ,for the purpose of making more plain the relation between the terms and the statements in a syllogism let us consider the old method of graphical representation by means of circles4 ,i4 ,all college men should study argumentation4 ,,ii4 ,paul ,morton is a college man4 ,,iii4 ,paul ,morton should study argumentation4 ,from the diagrams on the following page it is seen that in the major premise the middle term must be wholly included within the major term4 ,the entire class of college men must be included within the class of those who should study argumentation4 ,not one single college man must be left outside the class4 ,in the minor premise the minor term must be clearly and unmistakably included within the middle term4 ,paul ,morton must be a college man4 ,he must not be a banker or a janitor4 ,in the conclusion the minor term must be included within the major term4 ,this position inevitably results from the two preceding situations4 ,if the middle term1 college men1 is wholly included within the major term1 those who should study argumentation1 and if the minor term1 ,paul ,morton1 is wholly included within the middle term1 college men1 then it cannot be otherwise than that the minor term is included within the major term4 ,in other words1 ,paul ,morton is definitely assigned to the class of those who should study argumentation4 ,illustration3 ,i ,,major ,,premise 7,major ,term7 ,men who should study argumentation 7,middle ,term7 ,college men ,illustration3 ,,ii ,,minor ,,premise 7,middle ,term7 ,college men 7,minor ,term7 ,paul ,morton ,illustration3 ,,iii ,,conclusion 7,major ,term7 ,men who should study argumentation 7,minor ,term7 ,paul ,morton ,we may represent the whole syllogism in the following manner3 ,illustration3 7,major ,term7 ,men who should study argumentation 7,middle ,term7 ,college men 7,minor ,term7 ,paul ,morton ,the student should be sure that he has mastered each step in the construction of a valid syllogism of the typical form before he passes on to the following section of this chapter4 ,,ii4 ,the application of deductive reasoning to deductive argument4 ,from our examination of the deductive process of reasoning we cannot but realize its importance when applied to the construction of an argument4 ,one cannot advance far into any argumentative discourse without encountering deduction in some form4 ,a student in a class debate defended the following proposition with the inductive arguments given below3 8,resolved that tariff should be imposed for revenue only40 ,in his introduction the student declared that the protective tariff should be removed4 ,in support of his contention he offered five substantial reasons which he claimed included the vital points at issue4 ,these reasons were as follows3 ,a4 ,high duties encourage the formation of trusts4 ,b4 ,the high cost of living results from protection4 ,c4 ,protection is unjust to the ,american people4 ,d4 ,protection breeds corruption4 ,e4 ,the usefulness of the protective tariff has long ceased4 ,each of the above reasons for the removal of the protective tariff is a deductive argument4 ,the complete deductive process is seen when we state each argument in syllogistic form4 ,a #a4 ,all things which encourage the formation of trusts should be abolished4 #b4 ,the protective tariff encourages the formation of trusts4 #c4 ,therefore the protective tariff should be abolished4 ,b #a4 ,all things which are the cause of the high cost of living should be abolished4 #b4 ,the protective tariff is a cause of the high cost of living4 #c4 ,therefore the protective tariff should be abolished4 ,c #a4 ,all things which are unjust to the ,american people should be abolished4 #b4 ,the protective tariff is unjust to the ,american people4 #c4 ,therefore the protective tariff should be abolished4 ,d #a4 ,all things which breed corruption should be abolished4 #b4 ,the protective tariff breeds corruption4 #c4 ,therefore the protective tariff should be abolished4 ,e #a4 ,all governmental policies the usefulness of which has long since ceased should be abolished4 #b4 ,the protective tariff is a governmental policy the usefulness of which has long since ceased4 #c4 ,therefore the protective tariff should be abolished4 ,each of the above syllogisms stands as an argument for the abolition of the protective tariff2 or1 to take the standpoint of the proposition each supports the contention that the tariff should be imposed for revenue only4 ,all of the five reasons lead to a single conclusion4 ,we may represent this relation by the following diagram3 ,illustration ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,,conclusion3 ,the protective tariff should be abolished4 ,this use of deductions is very simple1 but in dealing with a combination of induction and deduction the process may become very complicated4 ,for example1 the major premise of the first syllogism above stated has back of it another logical process of reasoning4 ,why should all things which encourage the formation of trusts be abolished8 ,what proof can we show to establish the conclusion 7in ,a1 the major premise7 that the formation of trusts should be discouraged rather than encouraged8 ,it must be established in a logical manner4 ,we may establish it by induction by showing that each one of a large number of trusts has had injurious effects4 ,after we have introduced positive evidence establishing a perfect or an imperfect induction we have laid a sufficiently strong foundation for the deductive syllogism4 ,on the other hand1 we may establish the major premise of the above syllogism by means of deduction4 ,to do this we might find evidence which would prove that trusts increase the cost of producing commodities and decrease their quality4 ,in this case it would be necessary to introduce evidence only along the line which would show that this evil was characteristic of all trusts4 ,this would be an induction1 because the general principle used as a major premise would be based upon specific instances4 ,beginning with this induction we would build up the following syllogism1 the conclusion of which supports the major premise of the foregoing syllogism4 #a4 ,all forms of business organization which increase the cost of producing commodities and decrease their quality are an industrial evil4 #b4 ,the trust is a form of business organization which increases the cost of production and decreases the quality of commodities4 #c4 ,therefore the trust is an industrial evil4 ,then to continue our deductive reasoning we would construct the following syllogism based upon the foregoing3 #a4 ,all industrial evils should be discouraged4 #b4 ,the formation of trusts is an industrial evil4 #c4 ,therefore the formation of trusts should be discouraged4 ,the exact phraseology has not been kept throughout the above line of reasoning1 because seldom in any practical work do we find the exact words repeated except for emphasis4 ,however1 it requires the exercise of only ordinary ingenuity to follow precisely the entire reasoning processes involved in the foregoing argument4 ,an excellent example of the use of the deductive syllogism for the purpose of showing that an opponent's deductive argument is unsound is the following extract from ,lincoln's reply to ,douglas in the ,fifth ,joint ,debate at ,galesburg3 8,in the second clause of the sixth article1 ,i believe it is1 of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states we find the following language1 #8,this ,constitution and the laws of the ,united ,states which shall be made in pursuance thereof1 and all the treaties made1 or which shall be made under the authority of the ,united ,states1 shall be the supreme law of the land2 and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby1 anything in the ,constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding4 8,the essence of the ,dred ,scott case is compressed into the sentence which ,i will now read1 #8,now as we have already said in an earlier part of this opinion1 upon a different point1 the right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the ,constitution4' ,i repeat it1 #8,the right of property in a slave is distinctly expressed and affirmed in the ,constitution4' ,what is it to be #8affirmed in the ,constitution8 ,made firm in the ,constitution1--so made that it cannot be separated from the ,constitution without breaking the ,constitution2 durable as the ,constitution1 and part of the ,constitution4 ,now remembering the provision of the ,constitution which ,i have read2 affirming that that instrument is the supreme law of the land2 that the ,judges of every state shall be bound by it1 any law or constitution of any state to the contrary1 notwithstanding2 that the right of property in a slave is affirmed in that ,constitution1 is made1 formed into1 and cannot be separated from it without breaking it2 durable as the instrument2 part of the instrument2 what follows as a short and even syllogistic argument from it8 ,i think it follows1 and ,i submit to the consideration of men capable of arguing whether as ,i state it1 in syllogistic form1 the argument has any faults in it8 7#a7 ,nothing in the constitution or laws of any state can destroy a right distinctly and expressly affirmed in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 7#b7 ,the right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 7#c7 ,therefore nothing in the ,constitution or laws of any state can destroy the right of property in a slave4 8,i believe that no fault can be pointed out in that argument2 assuming the truth of the premises1 the conclusion1 so far as ,i have capacity at all to understand it1 follows inevitably4 ,there is a fault in it as ,i think1 but the fault is not in the reasoning2 but the fault in fact is a fault of the premises4 ,i believe that the right of property in a slave is not expressly and distinctly affirmed in the ,constitution1 and ,judge ,douglas thinks it is4 ,i believe that the ,supreme ,court and the advocates of that decision may search in vain for the place in the ,constitution where the right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed4 ,i say1 therefore1 that ,i think one of the premises is not true in fact40 ,to give examples of all the forms in which deduction may be applied to argument is impossible4 ,the foregoing examples are merely suggestive4 ,they serve to make plain the practical use which can be made of this logical process4 ,the student must master the underlying principles herein suggested and apply them to his own work4 ,,iii4 ,the enthymeme4 ,an enthymeme is an incomplete syllogism4 ,it is a syllogism in which only one or two of the statements are expressed4 ,an example of an enthymeme is the following proposition1 8,the protective tariff should be abolished because it encourages the formation of trusts40 ,this is the form in which we most commonly encounter deductive reasoning4 ,seldom is the complete syllogism expressed4 ,it therefore becomes our task to construct from this enthymeme a complete syllogism4 ,our first duty1 then1 is to find out what parts of the syllogism are contained in the enthymeme and then strive to supply the missing parts4 ,usually the major premise is omitted4 ,this requires that it be supplied from a consideration of the minor premise and the conclusion4 ,in almost all cases the conclusion is expressed4 ,if it is not expressed it is clearly implied4 ,this supplies the minor term 7the thing about which something is said7 and the major term 7the thing that is said about it74 ,from these two terms it is usually easy to find a middle term which will serve as a connecting link4 ,the process of building syllogisms upon enthymemes is comparatively simple if the student will always find the conclusion and then divide it into the two terms of which it is composed4 ,in order to illustrate the application of the principles above expressed1 let us reduce an enthymeme to the syllogistic form4 ,we shall take for our example the enthymeme1 8,the railroads of the ,united ,states should be under ,federal control because they are a natural monopoly40 ,the parts of a syllogism which are expressed in this statement must be found and of these the conclusion should be first determined4 ,in this case the conclusion is 8,the railroads of the ,united ,states should be under ,federal control40 8,railroads of the ,united ,states10 is the minor term1 and 8should be under ,federal control0 is the major term4 ,now1 to represent what we have thus far discovered we apply the order of statements and terms which were employed in the discussion of ,deductive ,reasoning4 ,the result is as follows3 ,i4 ,major ,premise3 ,major term should be under ,federal control4 ,,ii4 ,minor ,premise3 ,minor term ,the railroads of the ,united ,states ,,iii4 ,conclusion3 ,minor term ,major term ,the railroads of the ,united ,statesshould be under ,federal control4 ,we thus have the entire syllogism completed with the exception of the middle term4 ,our next task is to find this middle term4 ,it must include the minor term and it must be included in the major term4 ,a reference to the diagrams given in connection with the discussion of ,deductive ,reasoning will make this plain4 ,with this requirement in mind we consider the enthymeme and find that the reason assigned for placing railroads under ,federal control is that they are a natural monopoly4 ,this gives us the middle term as it appears in the minor premise4 ,we then take this middle term and cast it into the universal affirmative form1 8,all natural monopolies40 ,we now have the enthymeme with which we started out1 reduced to the following syllogistic form3 ,major ,premise3 ,all natural monopolies should be under ,federal control4 ,minor ,premise3 ,the railroads of the ,united ,states are a natural monopoly4 ,conclusion3 ,therefore the railroads of the ,united ,states should be under ,federal control4 ,this places clearly before us the deductive argument contained in the enthymeme4 ,the syllogism is complete4 ,the statements and terms are in their proper order and form1 and the conclusion follows logically and inevitably from the premises4 ,the form of the syllogism as it stands is therefore sound4 ,if the two premises are true as a matter of fact1 the conclusion must be true4 ,having determined these matters we now scrutinize each of the premises to see whether there is sufficient evidence to establish its truth4 ,in the first place is it true that all natural monopolies should be under ,federal control8 ,what is a natural monopoly and why should it be under ,federal control8 ,all the sources of evidence must be searched for facts and statements of authority to substantiate this assertion4 ,on this point opinions differ and the student must strive to find out the truth for himself4 ,the other question which he must answer is1 8,are the railroads of the ,united ,states a natural monopoly80 ,here again the student must resort to the sources of evidence and by their aid answer the question in the affirmative or in the negative4 ,if he can introduce enough evidence to prove that all natural monopolies in the ,united ,states should be under ,federal control1 and that the railroads are a natural monopoly1 then he has completed a sound deductive argument in favor of the ,federal control of railroads4 ,this example ought to make clear the method of reducing an enthymeme to the syllogistic form and the use to which this form may then be put4 ,before leaving this subject a word of caution is necessary4 ,do not be confused by the form in which the enthymeme appears4 ,be sure that you have the real conclusion before you begin the construction of the rest of the syllogism4 ,if you have failed to grasp what the enthymeme really says you are liable to get a wrong conclusion1 and if you get a wrong conclusion the whole syllogism will be wrong4 ,high sounding oratorical phrases and sentences are often confusing4 ,plainness is sometimes avoided by the speaker for the express purpose of concealing a fault in his argument4 ,even truth expressed in an unusual form is often misleading when we seek to reduce it to logical terms4 ,some difficulty is usually experienced in reducing the beatitudes to the typical syllogistic form4 ,for example1 in reducing the enthymeme 8,blessed are the pure in heart1 for they shall see ,god10 the inexperienced student usually says that the conclusion is1 8,the blessed shall see ,god40 ,a syllogism built upon this conclusion would appear as follows3 #a4 ,all those who are pure in heart shall see ,god4 #b4 ,the blessed are pure in heart4 #c4 ,therefore the blessed shall see ,god4 ,this is a valid syllogism so far as the form is concerned2 but it is of no use in throwing light upon the truth or falsity of the enthymeme1 because the conclusion with which we started was not the true conclusion4 ,this fault is fatal to the success of the argument1 because after the syllogism is completed the student usually devotes his entire attention to proving the truth or falsity of the two premises and seldom gives any further attention to the conclusion4 ,another erroneous statement of the conclusion expressed in the above enthymeme is often given4 ,it is 8,all those who are blessed shall see ,god40 ,with this conclusion as a starting point we may construct the following syllogism3 #a4 ,all those who are blessed shall see ,god4 #b4 ,the pure in heart are blessed4 #c4 ,therefore the pure in heart shall see ,god4 ,again we have an invalid syllogism1 because the conclusion from which we built it is not the true conclusion expressed in the enthymeme4 ,likewise there are many pitfalls for him who seeks to find the true meaning of any statement worded in a manner different from that in which we are accustomed to speak4 ,the very difficulty1 however1 suggests the remedy4 ,the student should always reduce the complicated statement to plain1 ordinary1 everyday ,english before attempting to find the conclusion4 ,reducing the enthymeme under consideration in this manner we have this simple statement1 8,the pure in heart are blessed because they shall see ,god40 ,when we have put the statement in this form the real conclusion is readily seen4 ,it is 8,the pure in heart are blessed40 ,the remainder of the enthymeme is a statement of the reason why the pure in heart are blessed4 ,with this as a basis we easily construct a valid syllogism4 #a4 ,all those who shall see ,god are blessed4 #b4 ,the pure in heart shall see ,god4 #c4 ,therefore the pure in heart are blessed4 ,in closing this discussion it may be remarked that actual practice in the use of the deductive process as well as its application to argument is the only way in which real practical benefit may be derived from the knowledge here gained4 ,this knowledge should not be reserved for use in the class room but should be used all the time and everywhere4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,deductive ,,argument ,i4 ,construct valid syllogisms showing the reasoning involved in each of the following enthymemes3 #a4 ,since large corporations are gaining control of all industries a ,federal incorporation law should be enacted4 #b4 ,as swollen fortunes are an evil1 a progressive inheritance tax should be enacted4 #c4 ,commercial reciprocity between the ,united ,states and ,canada would be for the best interest of the ,united ,states because it would reduce the high cost of living4 #d4 ,because compulsory insurance has been successful in ,germany1 it should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 #e4 ,on account of the growth of the divorce evil in the ,united ,states1 there should be a ,federal law regulating marriage and divorce4 #f4 ,there should be a state censorship of the stage because many immoral productions are being brought before the public4 #g4 8,blessed are the meek for they shall inherit the earth40 ,,ii4 ,diagram1 by means of circles1 the syllogisms constructed under exercise ,i4 ,,iii4 ,state three instances in which you have recently employed deductive argument4 ,,iv4 ,write a deductive argument of not less than three hundred words4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,argument ,,from ,,causal ,,relation ,arguments from causal relation are divided into three classes1 ,i4 ,arguments from ,effect to ,cause1 ,,ii4 ,arguments from ,cause to ,effect1 and ,,iii4 ,arguments from ,effect to ,effect4 ,all arguments from causal relation may be classed under one or the other of these divisions4 ,these arguments are based upon a fact which human experience has demonstrated to be true--the fact that everything that occurs has back of it some adequate cause4 ,in ancient times this belief in the laws of universal causation did not exist4 ,hence every occurrence of any importance was attributed to the commands of one of the numerous heathen gods4 ,instead of attributing the defeat of a general to poor management it was customary to say1 8,the gods decreed that this general should be defeated in war40 ,we still have remnants of this belief4 ,these remnants consist of popular superstitions1 such as the supposition that ,friday is an unlucky day1 that the number thirteen is unlucky1 that the breaking of a looking glass portends bad luck1 or that the sight of a black cat in the path is sure to be followed by some disaster4 ,modern science has abolished most of these superstitions by pointing out the fact upon which all causal relation arguments are based1 viz4--that everything that happens has back of it a reasonable cause--or in other words1 if a thing is true there must be some sufficient reason for it4 ,so well has this fact been established that1 with the exception of the less enlightened members of society1 the belief in the laws of causation is universal4 ,upon this sound basis must every argument find its ultimate justification4 ,even inductions and deductions may be traced to their source where the law of cause and effect will finally determine their validity4 ,it is therefore of the utmost importance that we give careful consideration to this class of arguments4 ,as in the case of imperfect induction1 we are reasoning from the known to the unknown2 from things of which we are conscious to things that are beyond the realm of our perception4 ,we shall consider the form of these arguments and the conditions with which they must comply in order to be valid4 ,i4 ,argument from effect to cause4 ,the argument from effect to cause is one which relies upon an observed effect to prove the operation of an unobserved cause4 ,upon arising in the morning ,i observe that the ground which was bare the evening before is now white with snow4 ,therefore ,i reason that snow must have fallen during the night1 although no snow is now falling and ,i have not seen any snow in the actual process of falling4 ,the snow-covered ground is the effect which ,i observe and the unobserved fall of snow during the night is the only possible cause for this effect4 ,if a friend who has not yet seen the snow disputes my assertion that there was a snowfall during the night by saying that it is too warm to snow1 ,i may effectively establish my argument and refute his own by calling him to the window and pointing to the snow4 ,i should point to the effect as establishing the existence of the cause4 ,this would be conclusive evidence of the truth of my statement4 ,the argument from effect to cause is based upon things observed after the disputed fact4 ,this process is called a posteriori reasoning which means reasoning from that which comes after4 ,this is the process of reasoning employed by the detective in tracing a criminal4 ,the detective by means of skillful observations taken after a crime is committed reasons back to the person who is guilty4 ,the fact that the criminal has usually made an attempt to avoid leaving any traces that may be used as a basis of a posteriori reasoning makes this process a most interesting one and accounts for much of the popularity of detective stories4 ,this use of reasoning from effect to cause was first popularized by the detective stories of ,edgar ,allan ,poe and appears to have reached its climax in the ,adventures of ,sherlock ,holmes1 the creation of ,sir ,a4 ,conan ,doyle4 ,sherlock ,holmes possesses remarkable powers of observation4 ,he notices that a young lady who calls to see him has finger tips that are slightly spatulate4 ,from this effect he reasons back to the cause and determines that it is the result of much use of the piano4 ,from this and other observations he reasons that the young lady is a musician4 ,he observes that a farmer has a certain kind of mud on his boots and reasons that the man has just come from a particular town near ,london where such mud is to be found4 ,the certain kind of mud on the farmer's boots is the effect2 the recent presence of the farmer in that particular town near ,london is the cause4 ,observing the effect ,holmes reasons back to the cause1 or in other words1 he constructs an argument from effect to cause4 ,the application of this process of reasoning to the practice of argumentation and debate is easily seen4 ,the politician who says that the high cost of living is due to the growth of monopolies employs an argument from effect 7i4 e41 the high cost of living7 to cause 7i4 e41 the growth of monopolies74 ,the minister who declares that the prevalence of drunkenness is due to the licensed saloon expounds an argument from effect 7i4 e41 the prevalence of drunkenness7 to cause 7i4 e41 the licensed saloon74 ,the student who asserts that his class dues are excessive because the business of the class is poorly managed uses an argument from effect 7i4 e41 excessive class dues7 to cause 7i4 e41 poor management74 ,in order to be sound an argument from effect to cause must conform to the following requirements3 #a4 ,the alleged cause must be sufficient to produce the effect4 ,when the existence of a definite cause is alleged to have produced an observed effect1 the burden of proving the sufficiency of that cause rests upon him who asserts its operation4 ,no fault of reasoning is more common than that of regarding an insufficient cause as sufficient4 ,if a man is successful we attribute his success to one quality1 such as perseverance2 whereas his success may be due to a combination of qualities4 ,there may be a hundred other men who possess more perseverance and yet fail4 ,when a financial panic occurs we attribute it to the rule of a certain political party2 whereas the action of that party may have been the smallest of the factors causing the panic4 ,perseverance may be a quality contributing to success1 but perseverance alone is not sufficient to secure success4 ,the action of a political party may aid in producing a panic1 but seldom are conditions such that its action alone is sufficient to produce a panic4 ,the question of what is sufficient cause demands the exercise of sound judgment4 ,a fall of three feet would hardly be regarded as a sufficient cause for the death of a man2 a fall of one hundred feet would be regarded as sufficient cause for his death4 ,between these two extremes the individual judgment considering other circumstances connected with such an event1 must determine the adequacy of the cause to produce the result in any given case4 ,it is therefore plain that the debater who points to a result as produced by a definite cause must show the adequacy of that cause4 #b4 ,no other cause must have intervened between the alleged cause and the effect4 ,a clear field must be shown for the operation of the alleged cause4 ,this can be done by proving that no other cause could have produced the observed effect4 ,other causes which might possibly have produced the effect must be shown to have been inoperative or inadequate4 ,for example1 a student fails in his studies4 ,he is called before the delinquent board of the faculty and explains his failure by arguing that he has had poor health4 ,he alleges poor health as the cause of the observed effect--the failure in his studies4 ,a member of the board1 however1 is skeptical regarding the validity of the argument and asks him if it is not true that each week he attends the theatre at least once and sometimes as often as four times4 ,the student is forced to admit that such is the case4 ,further inquiry reveals the fact that he has been attending a dancing school one night each week2 that he belongs to a club which meets every ,tuesday and ,friday night2 and that he is known to spend much of his time in a public billiard room4 ,these facts show an independent cause 7i4 e41 general dissipation7 which has intervened between the alleged cause 7i4 e41 poor health7 and the effect 7i4 e41 failure in his studies74 ,the student has therefore failed to prove his argument that poor health1 which is a legitimate cause1 is responsible for his failure4 ,the evidence shows that general dissipation1 which is not a legitimate cause1 has intervened between the alleged cause and the effect4 ,if the student had been able to show that he had been diligent in his efforts1 had attended to business in a reasonable manner1 and that his previous record had been satisfactory he would have established his argument that ill health was the cause of his failure4 ,in every argument from effect to cause the adequacy of the alleged cause must first be shown and then evidence must be produced establishing the fact that no cause1 other than the one alleged1 produced the effect4 #c4 ,the alleged cause must not have been prevented from operating4 ,as stated in the preceding section the alleged cause must have a clear field for action4 ,not only must no other cause have intervened to produce the effect attributed to the alleged cause1 but no forces must have intervened to prevent the alleged cause from operating4 ,any circumstance which appears to have prevented the operation of the alleged cause should be examined carefully4 ,one morning a man was found dead near the railroad4 ,as there were some bruises on his body1 the cause of his death was attributed to his being struck by a local freight which passed that point at midnight4 ,no other train passed over this road at night and the man had been killed sometime within six or eight hours of the time when he was found4 ,the case seemed clear4 ,the result 7death7 was apparently due to the alleged cause 7a freight train74 ,investigation1 however1 revealed the fact that the freight train had not run that night on account of a wreck on a branch line4 ,therefore an outside force1--viz41 the wreck1 had prevented the alleged cause from operating4 ,hence it could not be the true cause4 ,the inquiry into the alleged cause ultimately resulted in the revealing of the true cause--willful murder4 ,in arguing from effect to cause the adequacy of the alleged cause must be proved1 the fact that no other cause intervened between the alleged cause and the observed effect must be clearly demonstrated1 and the circumstances of the case must show that the alleged cause was not prevented from operating4 ,with these requirements fulfilled such an argument may be regarded as sound4 ,it will be seen that the application of these rules requires sound judgment and practical common sense4 ,the argument will be effective in persuading others only when every requirement is met in a plain1 straightforward manner4 ,,ii4 ,argument from cause to effect4 ,the argument from cause to effect is one which relies upon an observed cause to prove or foretell the existence of an unobserved effect4 ,for example1 ,i observe that the temperature is very low2 the thermometer registers below zero and the exposed parts of my body tingle with cold when ,i am out of doors4 ,this is a cause of several effects4 ,one of them is that the pond near my home will be frozen over4 ,i observe the cause 7i4 e41 the low temperature7 and at once state the effect 7i4 e41 the ice on the pond74 ,the process by which ,i reached this conclusion is called a priori reasoning4 ,the conclusion is based upon circumstances observed before the disputed fact4 ,likewise1 ,i observe that it is now beginning to rain and that appearances indicate a heavy downpour4 ,i at once come to the conclusion that the path across the meadow will be muddy when ,i pass over it in half an hour from now4 ,this case differs from the preceding one only in the fact that in the first case the effect existed when the cause was observed1 whereas in the latter case the effect did not exist when the cause was observed4 ,in both cases the observed cause is the basis for determining the unobserved effect4 ,in this way we may reason from the past to the present1 from the remote past to the less remote past1 from the present to the future1 from the near future to the more remote future1 or from the past to the future4 ,the student will doubtless have observed that the argument from cause to effect as well as that from effect to cause is a special form of deduction4 ,the syllogistic form may be applied to either of these processes of reasoning for the purpose of testing their strength4 ,applying the syllogistic form to the a priori reasoning involved in one of the preceding illustrations we have3 ,a4 ,low temperature is always followed by the forming of ice4 ,b4 ,this is low temperature4 ,c4 ,therefore it is followed by the forming of ice4 ,applying the syllogistic form to the a posteriori reasoning involved in one of the examples given under the discussion of that process we have3 ,a4 ,all times when the ground is covered with snow are times when there has been a snowfall4 ,b4 ,this is a time when the ground is covered with snow4 ,c4 ,therefore this is a time when there has been a snowfall4 ,for the purpose of extreme simplicity we may represent these two processes by the following formula3 ,i4 ,a posteriori reasoning4 #a4 ,a is preceded by ,b #b4 ,this is ,a #c4 ,therefore it is preceded by ,b4 ,,ii4 ,a priori reasoning4 #a4 ,a is followed by ,b #b4 ,this is ,a #c4 ,therefore it is followed by ,b4 ,the advocates of a high protective tariff argue that if the tariff is removed financial disaster will overwhelm the country4 ,they support this contention by showing that the large manufacturing industries are now able to sell their products at a reasonable price2 import duties prevent foreign manufacturers from shipping their goods into this country and selling them much cheaper than our manufacturers can make them4 ,but if the tariff is removed foreign made goods will drive out ,american made goods1 as the foreign goods can be sold much cheaper4 ,therefore factories and mills must cease operations because there will be no demand for their products4 ,workmen will be thrown out of employment and capital will be idle4 ,starvation will overtake the working man and financial ruin will overtake the business man4 ,this is a typical example of an argument from cause to effect4 ,the operation of the cause 7the removal of the protective tariff7 will produce the alleged effect 7industrial disaster74 ,this argument appears to be valid1 but an equally plausible argument may be constructed against protection4 ,we must1 therefore1 look at the foundations of each argument for the purpose of determining its validity4 ,as in the case of argument from effect to cause we must exercise sound judgment in applying certain requirements to each particular argument4 ,an argument from cause to effect must conform to the following requirements3 #a4 ,the observed cause must be sufficient to produce the alleged effect4 ,this requirement implies absolute sufficiency of cause1 not probable sufficiency4 ,habitual inattention to business or professional duties is a sure cause for failure4 ,habitual drunkenness is a sure cause for ill health4 ,being run over by a locomotive is a sure cause of death4 ,there may be some exceptions to the above general rules1 but the certainty of the effect following the cause is so great that for all practical purposes we may rely absolutely upon the sequence4 #b4 ,when past experience is invoked it must show that the alleged effect has always followed the observed cause4 ,an observed cause may possibly have an alleged effect even though there is not one chance in a thousand that it will have this effect4 ,no valid argument can be constructed upon such a chance4 ,in pure science this rule is absolute4 ,a combination of the same chemicals under the same conditions always produces the same effect4 ,the bringing of a magnet near a piece of steel always results in the same effect so far as the force which one exerts upon the other is concerned4 ,when we depart from the realm of exact science the working out of the rule becomes less certain4 ,nevertheless1 if human experience has sanctioned the adoption of the rule we may rely upon it even though there are exceptions4 ,a rise in the tax rate is always followed by more revenue to the government4 ,a scarcity in the supply of iron is always followed by a rise in the price4 ,a drouth in the wheat belt is always followed by an increase in the price of flour4 ,there may be exceptions to these examples1 but the exceptions are so few and the number of instances supporting the rule is so great that we feel safe in relying upon it4 ,it is this kind of certainty1 rather than the absolute certainty of science1 which argumentation demands4 #c4 ,no force must intervene to prevent the observed cause from operating to produce the alleged effect4 ,a drouth in the wheat belt naturally causes an advance in the price of flour4 ,past experience has proved this to be the case1 and1 furthermore1 the cause is adequate to produce the alleged effect4 ,nevertheless1 a lowering of the duty on wheat might permit wheat from foreign countries to be imported in such quantities that there would be no rise in the price of flour4 ,the lowering of the duty on wheat would be another force intervening to prevent the observed cause 7the drouth in the wheat belt7 from producing the alleged effect 7the rise in the price of flour74 ,therefore we must always examine the circumstances of each case to determine whether there are any forces at work which will prevent the observed cause from producing the alleged effect4 #d4 ,the conclusion established should be verified by positive evidence wherever possible4 ,after all the other tests have been satisfied the argument from cause to effect may be established or overthrown by the production of positive evidence4 ,a disappears and ,b is accused of his murder4 ,a perfect case is made out and ,b is convicted and sentenced to death4 ,then ,a suddenly appears4 ,the innocence of ,b is effectively established4 ,cases of this kind are not unknown to the criminal law1 though unfortunately the missing man is usually discovered after his supposed murderer has been put to death4 ,this illustration suggests that too much care cannot be exercised in substantiating an argument from cause to effect4 ,the argument from cause to effect is most frequently employed in criminal trials4 ,in such cases the motive for committing the crime is regarded as the cause and the crime as the effect4 ,the argument is usually begun by proving the existence of strong motives such as an abnormal desire to acquire more money or property1 to work revenge on bitter enemies1 or to avert financial or domestic disaster4 ,with these strong motives shown it is easy to connect them with the crime4 ,this is the method of argument from cause to effect which is used by ,daniel ,webster in the ,white murder trial4 ,he showed clearly that the ,knapps believed that they could obtain the fortune of ,white by destroying his last will and murdering him4 ,he argued that this was the cause which produced the effect of murder4 ,the following extract from ,webster's speech before the jury will show the application made of the argument from cause to effect4 8,when we look back1 then1 to the state of things immediately on the discovery of the murder1 we see that suspicion would naturally turn at once1 not to the heirs at law1 but to those principally benefited by the will4 ,they1 and they alone1 would be supposed to have a direct object for wishing ,mr4 ,white's life terminated4 ,and1 strange as it may seem1 we find counsel now insisting1 that1 if no apology1 it is yet mitigation of the atrocity of the ,knapps' conduct in attempting to charge this foul murder on ,mr4 ,white1 the nephew and principal devisee1 that public suspicion was already so directed4 ,as if assassination of character were excusable in proportion as circumstances may render it easy4 ,their endeavors1 when they knew they were suspected themselves1 to fix the charge on others1 by foul means and by falsehood1 are fair and strong proof of their own guilt4 8,the counsel say that they might safely admit that ,richard ,crowninshield1 ,jr41 was the perpetrator of this murder4 8,but how could they safely admit that8 ,if that were admitted everything else would follow4 ,for why should ,richard ,crowninshield1 ,jr41 kill ,mr4 ,white8 ,he was not his heir2 nor was he his devisee2 nor his enemy4 ,what could be his motive8 ,if ,richard ,crowninshield1 ,jr41 killed ,mr4 ,white he did it at some one's procurement who himself had a motive4 ,and who having any motive1 is shown to have had any intercourse with ,richard ,crowninshield1 ,jr41 but ,joseph ,knapp and this principally through the agency of the prisoner at the bar8 ,it is the infirmity1 the distressing difficulty of the prisoner's case1 that his counsel cannot and dare not admit what they yet cannot disprove1 and what all must believe4 ,he who believes1 on this evidence1 that ,richard ,crowninshield1 ,jr41 was the immediate murderer cannot doubt that both the ,knapps were conspirators in that murder40 ,,iii4 ,argument from effect to effect4 ,an argument from effect to effect is one in which an argument from effect to cause is combined with an argument from cause to effect4 ,to illustrate this kind of argument we may explain a simple example frequently used in this connection4 ,a boy announces that there is skating this morning because the thermometer registers below zero4 ,now the thermometer registering below zero is not the cause of the skating4 ,both the registering of the thermometer and the skating are the effects of a common cause1 viz4--low temperature4 ,the boy has observed one of the effects and at once concludes that the other effect must exist4 ,his is an argument from effect to effect1 or to be more exact1 an argument from one effect of a cause to another effect of the same cause4 ,the whole process of reasoning involved as well as the relation between the two parts of an argument from effect to effect may be represented by the following tabulation3 ,a4 ,argument from effect to cause4 #a4 ,all times when the thermometer registers below zero are times when the temperature is far below freezing4 #b4 ,this is a time when the thermometer registers below zero4 #c4 ,therefore this is a time when the temperature is far below freezing4 ,b4 ,argument from cause to effect4 #a4 ,all times when the temperature is far below freezing are times when skating ice is formed4 #b4 ,this is a time when the temperature is far below freezing4 #c4 ,therefore this is a time when skating ice is formed4 ,the above analysis of the reasoning involved in an argument from effect to effect will suggest the method of procedure to be employed in testing its validity4 ,the first step consists of dividing the argument into the two essential processes employed1 viz4--argument from effect to cause1 and argument from cause to effect4 ,the second step consists of applying the rules already considered in connection with each of these processes to the parts revealed by the first step4 ,in this way the validity of any argument from effect to effect may be determined4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,requirements ,,for ,,arguments ,,from ,,causal ,,relation ,i4 ,arguments from ,effect to ,cause4 #a4 ,the alleged cause must be sufficient to produce the effect4 #b4 ,no other cause must have intervened between the alleged cause and the effect4 #c4 ,the alleged cause must not have been prevented from operating4 ,,ii4 ,argument from ,cause to ,effect4 #a4 ,the observed cause must be sufficient to produce the alleged effect4 #b4 ,when past experience is invoked it must show that the alleged effect has always followed the observed cause4 #c4 ,no other force must intervene to prevent the observed cause from operating to produce the alleged effect4 #d4 ,the conclusion established should be verified by positive evidence wherever possible4 ,,iii4 ,argument from ,effect to ,effect4 #a4 ,the argument must be resolved into its two parts1 the argument from effect to cause1 and the argument from cause to effect1 and the rules under ,i and ,,ii applied4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,argument ,,from ,,causal ,,relation ,i4 ,state the kind of argument involved in each of the following passages4 #a4 ,if a ,socialist president is elected1 financial disaster is sure to overtake our country4 #b4 ,this has been the coldest winter ever known in the ,united ,states4 ,the rapid destruction of our forests is directly responsible for this undesirable change of climate and we are to reap still further evils from this same cause4 #c4 ,since we have conclusive proof that the savages of the island have murdered this missionary1 we can no longer be in doubt as to what became of his companions4 #d4 8,every word uttered by a speaker costs him some physical loss2 and in the strictest sense1 he burns that others may have light--so much eloquence1 so much of his body resolved into carbonic acid1 water and urea40--,huxley4 #e4 8,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states is so concise and so general in its terms1 that even had ,america been as slowly moving a country as ,china1 many questions must have arisen on the interpretation of the fundamental law which would have modified its aspect4 ,but ,america has been the most swiftly expanding of all countries4 ,hence the questions that have presented themselves have often related to matters which the framers of the ,constitution could not have contemplated4 ,wiser than ,justinian before them or ,napoleon after them1 they foresaw that their work would need to be elucidated by a judicial commentary4 ,but they were far from conjecturing the enormous strain to which some of their expressions would be subjected in the effort to apply them to new facts40--,bryce4 #f4 8,the last cause of this disobedient spirit in the colonies is hardly less powerful than the rest1 as it is not merely moral but laid deep in the natural constitution of things4 ,three thousand miles of ocean lie between you and them4 ,no contrivance can prevent the effect of this distance in weakening government4 ,seas roll and months pass1 between the order and the execution2 and the want of a speedy explanation of a single point is enough to defeat a whole system40--,burke4 #g4 8,permit me1 ,sir1 to add another circumstance in our colonies1 which contributes no mean part towards the growth and effect of this untractable spirit4 ,i mean their education4 ,in no country perhaps in the world is the law so general a study4 ,the profession itself is numerous and powerful2 and in most provinces it takes the lead4 ,the greater number of the deputies sent to the ,congress were lawyers4 ,but all who read 7and most do read71 endeavor to obtain some smattering in that science4 ,i have been told by an eminent bookseller1 that in no branch of his business1 after tracts of popular devotion1 were so many books as those on the law exported to the plantations4 ,the colonists have now fallen into the way of printing them for their own use4 ,i hear that they have sold nearly as many of ,blackstone's ,commentaries in ,america as in ,england4 ,general ,gage marks out this disposition very particularly in a letter on your table4 ,he states that all the people in his government are lawyers1 or smatterers in the law2 and that in ,boston they have been enabled1 by successful chicane1 wholly to evade many parts of one of your capital penal constitutions4 ,the smartness of debate will say that this knowledge ought to teach them more clearly the rights of legislature1 their obligation to obedience1 and the penalties of rebellion4 ,all this is mighty well4 ,but my honorable and learned friend on the floor1 who condescends to mark what ,i say for animadversion1 will disdain that ground4 ,he has heard1 as well as ,i1 that when great honors and great emoluments do not win over this knowledge to the service of the ,state1 it is a formidable adversary to ,government4 ,if the spirit be not tamed and broken by these happy methods1 it is stubborn and litigious4 ,abeunt studia in mores4 ,this study renders men acute1 inquisitive1 dexterous1 prompt in attack1 ready in defence1 full of resources4 ,in other countries1 the people1 more simple1 and of a less mercurial cast1 judge of an ill principle in government only by an actual grievance2 here they anticipate the evil1 and judge of the pressure of the grievance by the badness of the principle4 ,they augur misgovernment at a distance2 and snuff the approach of tyranny in every tainted breeze40--,burke4 ,,ii4 ,attach definite circumstances to each of the foregoing arguments and then apply the requirements for validity to each one4 ,state the results4 ,,iii4 ,point out the kind of reasoning which may be employed in reaching each of the following conclusions4 #a4 ,the record of our debating teams as compared with that of our opponents shows that we shall win this debate4 #b4 ,harold ,small has been put on probation4 #c4 ,under these conditions an inheritance tax should be levied4 #d4 ,international arbitration will ultimately take the place of war as a method of settling disputes between nations4 ,,iv4 ,analyze completely the reasoning processes employed in ,exercise ,,iii4 ,where they may be reduced to syllogistic form1 determine the validity of the resulting syllogisms4 ,v4 ,write an argument from causal relation in support of any proposition which you wish to discuss4 ,employ each of the three classes of argument from causal relation4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,argument ,,from ,,analogy ,analogy is such a resemblance between some of the known characteristics of two different things as will lead to the conclusion that they are alike in other characteristics4 ,for example1 an egg and a seed are two different things but they have many characteristics in common4 ,from the characteristics in which we know that an egg is like a seed we reason that they must be alike in other characteristics which we know one to possess but which we do not know the other to possess4 ,we know that heat is required to develop an egg and by analogy we may conclude that heat is required to develop a seed4 ,in this1 as in other forms of reasoning1 we proceed from the known to the unknown4 ,the basis of inference is the general resemblance which one thing bears to another thing4 ,experience has led us to expect that when we find two different things alike in many points we shall find them alike in many other points regarding which no actual investigation has been made4 ,the argument applies the principle above suggested to the subject-matter of the discussion4 ,the standard illustration of this form of argument usually quoted in books of logic and argumentation is found in ,reid's ,intellectual ,powers4 ,it is as follows3-- 8,we may observe a very great similitude between this earth which we inhabit1 and the other planets1 ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,venus1 and ,mercury4 ,they all revolve around the sun1 as the earth does1 although at different distances and at different periods4 ,they borrow all their light from the sun1 as the earth does4 ,several of them are known to revolve on their axis like the earth1 and by that means have like succession of day and night4 ,some of them have moons that serve to give them light in the absence of the sun1 as our moon does to us4 ,they are all in their motions subject to the same law of gravitation as the earth is4 ,from all this similitude it is not unreasonable to think that these planets may1 like our earth1 be the habitation of various orders of living creatures4 ,there is some probability in this conclusion from analogy40 ,another frequently quoted illustration of the argument from analogy is the reply of ,abraham ,lincoln to those who urged him to carry on the war more vigorously4 8,gentlemen1 ,i want you to suppose a case for a moment4 ,suppose that all the property you were worth was in gold1 and you had put it in the hands of ,blondin1 the famous rope-walker1 to carry across the ,niagara ,falls on a tight rope4 ,would you shake the rope while he was passing over it1 or keep shouting to him1 #8,blondin1 stoop a little more6 ,go a little faster6' ,no1 ,i am sure you would not4 ,you would hold your breath as well as your tongue1 and keep your hands off until he was safely over4 ,now the government is in the same situation4 ,it is carrying an immense weight across a stormy ocean4 ,untold treasures are in its hands4 ,it is doing the best it can4 ,don't badger it6 ,just keep still and it will get you safely over40 ,the argument from analogy is most effective when a comparison is made to something that is plain1 ordinary1 and commonplace4 ,in this way abstract arguments may be made simple and concrete4 ,no debater of modern times has shown more discrimination in the use of material which would make an analogy strong and convincing than has ,lincoln4 ,the strength of the argument is greatly increased if it is apparent that the analogy is perfect so far as the point at issue is concerned4 ,in the following quotation no exercise of the imagination is necessary to bring the two factors of the analogy together4 ,the argument is presented by ,david ,dudley ,field in favor of the training of homeless children by the state4 8,the question of safety is more vital still4 ,every one of these boys may be a voter in ten or twenty years hence4 ,his vote will then be as potent as yours or mine4 ,in countries where the sovereign is a prince it has ever been thought prudent to bestow especial care upon the training of an heir to the throne4--,here the people are sovereign1 and the little boy1 now wandering about the streets1 neglected or led astray1 is in one sense joint heir to the throne4 ,every dictate of prudence points to his being fitted to fulfill the duties of his station40 ,the foregoing examples with the accompanying explanations will serve to make plain the meaning of argument from analogy and to suggest the innumerable circumstances under which it may be used4 ,seldom is a situation encountered in which an apt analogy cannot be employed4 ,the homelier the comparison1 the more vivid and lasting will be the impression conveyed1 provided1 of course1 that the analogy is apt and appropriate4 ,the search for an appropriate analogy is best begun by gaining a clear conception of the universal principle upon which the proposition is based4 ,the student must be able to see the broadest application of the reason which he offers in support of any particular contention4 ,having grasped this fundamental principle it is easy to see its application in other things of a more tangible form and which are more familiar to the average mind4 ,for example1 ,lincoln saw that it would not do to pursue the ,civil ,war too vigorously4 ,he realized that the government was in a very perilous position1 that every step must be taken with care and deliberation and that the least disturbance from those whose interests were at stake might mean failure and the loss of everything4 ,this was the principle underlying the situation which he was facing4 ,now1 he must make this situation plain and its gravity clear to those who were demanding that he hasten the progress of the war4 ,therefore he began looking for the application of this principle in something which was more familiar and more real and tangible4 ,the newspapers had been full of the wonderful feats of ,blondin1 the rope-walker4 ,in this circumstance ,lincoln saw an opportunity to give a tangible exhibition of the application of the principle under which he was acting4 ,the argument from analogy which he constructed is a model of completeness4 ,he compared abstract things which could not be seen and appreciated with tangible things which could be seen and appreciated4 ,he compared the ,government to ,blondin4 ,blondin1 walking on a rope across ,niagara ,falls1 was in a very dangerous position where it was necessary that he move slowly and cautiously because the least misstep would dash him to destruction4 ,the situation of the government was analogous4 ,it was engaged in a very dangerous undertaking1 a great civil war4 ,it had to move slowly and cautiously because the least misstep would mean destruction4 ,in order to make the analogy more complete ,lincoln supposed the case of ,blondin performing this feat carrying with him all the worldly possessions of the men who were urging that the war be pushed more vigorously4 ,the government was carrying out the dearest desire of the people1 the patriotic desire to save the grandest of all nations4 ,if the government failed it would mean the blighting of their dearest hopes and to many it would mean financial ruin4 ,therefore the analogy was complete in that particular4 ,now these men were here in ,washington doing the same thing to the government that they would be doing if1 under the above circumstances1 they shook the rope or scolded ,blondin while he was walking across ,niagara ,falls4 ,the forcibleness of the analogy and the vividness of the impression which it conveyed was an argument powerful enough to silence those who were demanding more aggressive action on the part of the government4 ,an argument from analogy is never conclusive proof of the truth or falsity of a proposition4 ,at best it creates only a high degree of probability4 ,its greatest use is to give force and vividness to an argument already established by other means4 ,nevertheless1 its probative value is great provided it is properly constructed4 ,the chance for error1 however1 is a constant source of danger to him who relies upon analogy1 for the very facts upon which it is based may constitute the reason for its falsity4 ,a large oil refining company was recently organized4 ,people were induced to buy stock in the new enterprise by means of argument from analogy4 ,it was argued that this company was similar to the ,standard ,oil ,company4 ,now it is well known that the ,standard ,oil ,company pays large dividends4 ,the argument was advanced by the promoters of the new organization that since it was similar to the ,standard ,oil ,company and since the latter corporation pays large dividends1 therefore the new corporation would pay large dividends4 ,the analogy1 of course1 proved untrustworthy4 ,the companies1 though similar in many ways1 were entirely different in one essential particular effecting the conclusion3 the old company had entirely monopolized the field of activity1 while the new company had no territory in which to work4 ,thus a false analogy led to the loss of many thousands of dollars4 ,instances of unsound arguments from analogy might be multiplied indefinitely4 ,it is therefore evident that certain requirements exist which must be strictly complied with if the argument from analogy is to prove effective4 ,the requirements necessary for a valid argument from analogy are as follows3 ,i4 ,the two factors in the analogy must be alike in all particulars which affect the conclusion4 ,the two factors in the analogy are the thing about which the analogy is made and the thing to which it is compared4 ,for example1 in the argument from analogy which we have quoted from ,lincoln1 the first factor is the position of the government during the ,civil ,war and the second factor is the rope-walker4 ,the former is the thing about which the argument is made2 the latter is the thing to which the first factor is compared4 ,these two parts exist in every argument from analogy and the first requirement is that they agree in everything which affects the conclusion4 ,the conclusion ,lincoln wished to establish was that the government must not be disturbed in its action because it was in a dangerous position4 ,a rope-walker crossing ,niagara ,falls must not be disturbed because he is in a dangerous position4 ,these are the facts which affect the conclusion in each case4 ,the two factors are alike in this particular4 ,from the above example it will be seen that the two factors must agree in the essential particulars4 ,what is essential depends upon the nature of the conclusion to be reached4 ,in particulars affecting things other than the conclusion to be established1 it matters not whether they agree or disagree4 ,in comparing an illegal private monopoly to a highwayman the particular method of robbing the victim is immaterial4 ,the fact that the two methods are not exactly alike does not weaken the force of the analogy4 ,burke made use of the argument from analogy in defending the policy of conciliation which he favored4 ,after urging that the colonies be granted representation in ,parliament1 he declared that so far as government was concerned there were four similar cases1--,ireland1 ,wales1 ,chester1 and ,durham4 ,he urged that the acts of ,parliament with regard to these territories be applied to ,america4 ,he then proceeded to show that the analogy was sound by pointing out that the two factors agreed in all particulars which affected the conclusion4 ,he said1 8,are not the people of ,america as much ,englishmen as the ,welsh8 ,the preamble of the ,act of ,henry the ,eighth says the ,welsh speak a language no way resembling that of his ,majesty's ,english subjects4 ,are the ,americans not as numerous8 ,if we may trust the learned and accurate ,judge ,barrington's account of ,north ,wales1 and take that as a standard to measure the rest there is no comparison4 ,the people cannot amount to above #bjj1jjj1 not a tenth part of the number in the colonies4 ,is ,america in rebellion8 ,wales was hardly ever free from it4 ,have you attempted to govern ,america by penal statutes8 ,you made fifteen for ,wales4 ,but your legislative authority is perfect with regard to ,america4 ,was it less perfect in ,wales1 ,chester1 and ,durham8 ,but ,america is virtually represented4 ,what6 does the electric force of virtual representation more easily pass over the ,atlantic than pervade ,wales1 which lies in your neighborhood--or than ,chester and ,durham1 surrounded by an abundance of representation that is actual and palpable8 ,but1 ,sir1 your ancestors thought this sort of virtual representation1 however complete1 to be totally insufficient for the freedom of inhabitants of territories that are so near and comparatively so inconsiderable4 ,how then can ,i think it sufficient for those which are infinitely greater and infinitely more remote80 ,it will be observed that there is a slight difference in the analogy here employed and the one of which ,lincoln made use4 ,in the latter the factors are entirely unlike1 in the former they are similar4 ,in all analogies similar to that employed by ,burke the points of similarity in the two factors must be clearly shown to bear directly upon the conclusion1 whereas if any points of difference exist they must be shown to have no vital bearing on the question at issue4 ,a failure to observe this application of the rule was made by a student who argued that because an income tax had worked well in other countries it would work well in the ,united ,states4 ,his opponent pointed out the unsoundness of the analogy by showing that the income tax proposed for the ,united ,states was a progressive tax1 whereas the income tax in the foreign countries cited was not a progressive tax4 ,he further revealed the falsity of the analogy by showing that the proposed income tax for the ,united ,states was to be levied by the national or ,federal government1 whereas the income tax in the foreign countries cited was levied by the states or smaller governmental units of those countries4 ,the analogy was shown to be false in that the two factors did not agree in all particulars affecting the conclusion because 7#a7 in one factor the tax was progressive while in the other it was not1 and 7#b7 in one factor the tax was levied by the national government and in the other it was not4 ,the argument from analogy can be made stronger if it is shown that what is true of the analogous case is much more likely to be true and to be true in a greater degree1 of the case in dispute4 ,the example of analogy quoted from ,burke shows this phase of the process4 ,some writers call this process an intensification of the argument from analogy4 ,in logic it is a fortiori reasoning4 ,the ,scriptures abound in this kind of argument1 such as 8,are not two sparrows sold for a farthing8 and one of them shall not fall on the ground without your ,father4 ,fear ye not therefore2 ye are of more value than many sparrows40 ,another passage illustrating the intensification of the argument from analogy is1 8,consider the ravens2 for they neither sow nor reap2 which neither have storehouse nor barn2 and ,god feedeth them2 how much more are ye better than the fowls80 ,in a debate on the proposition1 8,resolved1 that courses of instruction in the care and training of children should form a part of the curriculum of every college and university10 a speaker for the affirmative developed an analogy based upon the similarity between such a course and the practical courses in the ,college of ,agriculture on the raising of live stock4 ,he then gave force to his analogy by suggesting that if it were worth while to give college courses dealing with the raising of colts1 calves1 and pigs1 it certainly would be much more worth while to give courses dealing with the raising of children4 ,,ii4 ,the alleged facts upon which the analogy is based must be true4 ,the facts alleged to be true in regard to each of the factors in the analogy must be true as a matter of fact4 ,a deviation from the truth in either factor will invalidate the conclusion4 ,in arguing in favor of the municipal ownership and operation of the street railway system in an eastern city a debater declared that the proposed plan would be successful because it had been tried in ,chicago with great success4 ,he then spent much time in showing that so far as street railway ownership was concerned conditions in the two cities were exactly alike4 ,this argument from analogy1 however1 was promptly overthrown by the next speaker1 who introduced evidence which proved that the city of ,chicago did not own its street railway system4 ,the analogy was unsound because one of the alleged facts upon which it was based was not true4 ,the above example illustrates one of the chief sources of error in the use of this class of argument4 ,the student must be constantly on his guard when inspecting his own work and that of his opponent4 ,the argument from analogy demands extensive and accurate knowledge of both the factors involved and the result is almost always in favor of him whose knowledge of the subject-matter is the most comprehensive4 ,the temptation to color the facts in order to fit the analogy is sometimes great and to refrain from deceiving one's self as well as one's hearers requires a high degree of intellectual honesty4 ,in no other form of argument is the demand for absolute impartiality more imperative4 ,an analogy which extends beyond the sound foundation of real facts is a constant source of danger both for him who proposes it and for him who receives it4 ,all the alleged facts upon which this kind of argument is based must be true4 ,,iii4 ,the conclusion established by analogy should be verified by positive evidence whenever possible4 ,the suggestion has already been made that no matter how perfect an analogy may be1 it can never amount to absolute proof4 ,at its best analogy creates only a high degree of probability4 ,in order to strengthen the conclusion a diligent search should be made for other lines of reasoning which will fortify it4 ,one of the most important uses to which analogy may be put is to suggest possible conclusions which may be substantiated by other processes of reasoning1 as induction1 deduction1 or causal relation4 ,if two or more lines of reasoning can be made to support the same conclusion the probability of its truth is greatly strengthened2 hence its argumentative value is increased4 ,where all available processes of reasoning may be made to establish one conclusion the probability of its truth is so strengthened that it amounts to moral certainty1 but no cumulation of probabilities can ever amount to absolute certainty4 ,the fact that analogy must be substantiated by other processes of reasoning should not lead the student to underestimate its importance4 ,the examples and explanations which have been given should lead him to appreciate fully the fact that analogy has two well defined uses aside from its value as proof of the truth or falsity of a conclusion4 ,in the first place it is a most important agency in suggesting conclusions which may be verified or discredited by other processes of reasoning4 ,in the second place it affords a most valuable method of stating a case so plainly that even the most ignorant may understand4 ,a striking analogy makes a most vivid impression on the mind and is retained long after more formal processes of reasoning are forgotten4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,requirements ,,for ,,an ,,argument ,,from ,,analogy ,i4 ,the two factors in the analogy must be alike in all particulars which affect the conclusion4 ,,ii4 ,the alleged facts upon which the analogy is based must be true4 ,,iii4 ,the conclusion established by analogy should whenever possible be verified by positive evidence4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,analogy ,i4 ,apply the requirements for validity to each of the arguments from analogy quoted in this last chapter4 ,,ii4 ,suggest arguments from analogy in support of each of the following conclusions3 #a4 ,college students should be allowed to select their own courses of study4 #b4 ,a course in public speaking is a necessity for those who expect to teach4 #c4 ,the greatest moral strength is fostered among many temptations4 #d4 ,an inheritance tax is an exceedingly just method of taxation4 #e4 ,all colleges should be coducational4 #f4 ,military drill should be compulsory for all college freshmen4 #g4 ,the use of clear and correct ,english is a prerequisite to success in any profession4 ,,iii4 ,write an argument from analogy in support of one of the propositions given in the appendix4 ,,chapter ,v ,,fallacies ,a fallacy is an error in the argumentative process4 ,it may arise from a mistake in the process of reasoning or from a mistake regarding the facts upon which the reasoning is based4 ,the task of detecting and eliminating fallacies in his own argument and of detecting and exposing fallacies in the argument of his opponent is one of the most important phases of a debater's work4 ,self-evident fallacies are few4 ,a fallacy is almost always concealed under cover of language which makes it appear in the guise of valid reasoning4 ,it is usually embedded in an otherwise sound argumentative structure4 ,to detect and to separate it from that which is entirely trustworthy is one of the severest tests of argumentative skill4 ,just as in a mathematical computation one wrong figure will invalidate the accuracy of the result though all the other figures be correct1 so will one false statement in an argument produce the same disastrous effect4 ,a fallacy may occupy but a very small part of the argument and yet be fatal to the solidity of the entire structure4 ,it may consist of only one sentence in several pages of printed matter4 ,it may be but a single statement which makes an unwarranted transition or assumption4 ,nevertheless it is as fatal to the argument as though it comprised a greater part of the entire discussion4 ,while an opponent may cover up a fallacy with the deliberate intention to deceive1 yet the existence of most fallacies is not suspected by those who use them4 ,therefore the use of fallacious arguments is seldom evidence of dishonesty but is almost always the result of careless reasoning or inability to detect and remedy such errors4 ,to classify fallacies into groups for the purpose of discussion is a most difficult undertaking4 ,any division that can be made will not prove all inclusive and all exclusive in practical application4 ,hard and fast divisions are sure to overlap1 and a particular fallacy may be treated under one division or another according to the standpoint of the student and the combination of circumstances under which it exists4 ,for the purpose of this discussion we shall divide fallacies according to the kind of argument in which they occur and according to the form in which they are usually found4 ,this method of division will best serve our practical object1 which is the detecting and eliminating of fallacies4 ,i4 ,fallacies of ,induction4 ,in a perfect induction a fallacy may be detected by scrutinizing the conclusion to make sure that it includes only the specific instances upon which it is based1 and then examining each of these specific instances to see that it is true as a matter of fact4 ,if the conclusion includes more than the facts warrant or if the alleged facts are false the perfect induction is fallacious4 ,in searching for fallacies in an imperfect induction the rules which have already been pointed out as governing the construction of such an inductive argument should be applied4 ,in order to make a systematic search for fallacies in arguments involving this kind of reasoning1 the following steps should be taken4 #a4 ,the number of specific instances relied upon to support the inductive conclusion should be determined4 ,it is comparatively easy to determine the number of incidents claimed to support the conclusion1 provided they are all stated in the argument4 ,in such a case the searcher for fallacies merely counts these incidents and passes on to the next step in his investigation4 ,seldom1 however1 is the task so easy4 ,in most arguments the writer or speaker extends his conclusion far beyond the actual facts offered in its support4 ,often the speaker states that 8hundreds of other cases10 or 8incidents too numerous to mention10 or 8thousands of similar cases10 etc41 can be produced to show the validity of the induction4 ,the debater should never be overawed by such sweeping statements or allow them to cause him to cease his search for fallacies4 ,he must be insistent in his demand that the number of incidents upon which the conclusion is based be exactly stated or at least that the number be shown as large enough to offset the probability of coincidence4 ,the fallacy of the induction can then be shown to exist by pointing out that the number of incidents in support of the induction is not sufficiently great to warrant its acceptance4 #b4 ,the class of persons1 events1 or things about which the induction is made should be scrutinized with a view to determining whether it is homogeneous4 ,the discussion of this requirement for a valid imperfect induction which has been previously given will make plain the nature of the investigation under it4 ,a fallacy may be exposed in such an argument by showing that the class of persons1 events1 or things about which the induction is made is not homogeneous in respect to the particular about which the conclusion is stated4 #c4 ,whether or not the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion are fair examples should be determined4 ,it is usually easier to detect unfair examples in an opponent's argument than in one of the debater's own construction4 ,the person who uses an induction is almost always prejudiced in favor of the instances which support it1 but to the unprejudiced mind the fairness of a given example is not hard to determine4 ,it is therefore important that the investigator assume an unprejudiced attitude towards the examples offered as representative of the class about which the induction is made4 ,the existence of a fallacy in an argument based upon an imperfect induction may be repealed by showing that the specific instances cited in support of the conclusion are not fair examples4 #d4 ,a search should be made for exceptions to the rule stated by the induction4 ,one of the most effective ways to overthrow a generalization is to present exceptions4 ,even the existence of one exception will greatly weaken the effect of a conclusion1 while several exceptions1 clearly established1 will entirely destroy it4 ,to prove the existence of more exceptions to the rule than there are instances supporting it is to prove it entirely fallacious4 ,the search for exceptions should be made by the same means employed in finding instances to support the induction4 ,the fallacy of an induction may be shown by proving the existence of exceptions to the rule which it states4 #e4 ,the induction should be examined with a view to determining its reasonableness4 ,an induction which appears on its face to be contrary to usual experience is not an effective instrument of persuasion4 ,by showing that it is contrary to natural law or that no process of reasoning other than induction can be made to uphold it1 the student may weaken its force4 ,if clear proof of its validity can be established in this way it is not necessary that other methods of showing a fallacy be introduced4 ,the fallacy of an induction may be established by clear proof of its unreasonableness4 ,,ii4 ,fallacies of deduction4 ,a thorough study of the chapter on ,deductive ,argument has revealed the fact that such an argument in order to be valid must be constructed according to certain definite principles4 ,the knowledge of these principles thus acquired should enable the student to detect fallacies in this form of argument4 ,nevertheless1 some of the fallacies to which deduction is liable are so important and so easily concealed that a separate treatment of them is necessary4 ,fallacies of deduction may be divided into two classes1 #a4 ,material fallacies1 and #b4 ,logical fallacies4 #a4 ,material ,fallacies4 ,we have already learned that the deductive argument is seldom found in the form of a syllogism but is mostly encountered in the form of an enthymeme1 which must be reduced to the syllogistic form4 ,the method of reduction has been explained in the chapter on ,deductive ,argument and exercises in the use of that method have been given4 ,it is therefore assumed that the student is so familiar with this process that he can readily reduce any argument to the syllogistic form4 ,in the search for fallacies we may begin at this point4 ,after the argument has been reduced to syllogistic form our first task is to examine the major and minor premises for the purpose of discovering any material error1 or error of fact4 ,in constructing our own argument we have been cautioned to see to it that both of these statements in the syllogism are true4 ,now we are examining our own arguments or our opponents' arguments for the very purpose of finding out whether they contain any error4 ,a sophomore urges ,john ,pitt to come out for the class football team by saying that all sophomores ought to be candidates for places on the team4 ,reduced to the syllogistic form the argument would stand as follows3 #a4 ,all sophomores ought to be candidates for the class football team4 #b4 ,john ,pitt is a sophomore4 #c4 ,therefore ,john ,pitt ought to be a candidate for the class football team4 ,upon examining the major premise we find that it is not true as a matter of fact1 because it is obvious that one who is not physically capable of taking part in such a game ought not to do so even though he is a sophomore4 ,the deduction is therefore fallacious4 ,but suppose the major premise to be sound1 the next step in the search for fallacies would be to examine the minor premise and find out whether it is true as a matter of fact4 ,an examination of this premise may disclose the fact that ,john ,pitt is a junior4 ,the deduction is therefore fallacious1 because the minor premise is not true as a matter of fact4 ,a fallacy in a deductive argument may be exposed by showing that either the major premise or the minor premise is not true as a matter of fact4 #b4 ,logical fallacies4 ,we now come to the class of fallacies which inhere in deductive reasoning independent of the truth or falsity of the alleged facts contained in the premises4 ,these are called logical fallacies4 ,they consist of many forms of error in reasoning1 but we shall concern ourselves only with those most likely to be encountered4 ,these are four in number1 7#a7 ,the undistributed middle1 7#b7 ,the illicit process1 7#c7 ,irrelevancy of premises1 or ignoring the question1 and 7#d7 ,begging the question4 7#a74 ,the undistributed middle4 ,one of the most common errors of deductive argument is called the fallacy of the undistributed middle4 ,it consists of a defect in the major premise4 ,this defect is the failure of the major term to include the middle term4 ,the following syllogism is a typical illustration of this error3 #a4 ,some college men are successful in business4 #b4 ,henry ,winslow is a college man4 #c4 ,therefore ,henry ,winslow is successful in business4 ,the student will observe that the major term1 8men who are successful in business10 does not include the middle term1 8college men10 but only includes a part of that class of men4 ,this is true because the middle term reads 8,some college men40 ,therefore it is evident that there are some college men who are not successful in business as well as some who are4 ,to represent this defect graphically the device of circles employed in discussing the construction of valid deductions may again be used4 ,the result is as follows3 ,illustration ,it is thus made plain that some college men are within the class of those who are successful in business1 while some college men are not within that class4 ,now1 all that we know about ,henry ,winslow is that he is a college man4 ,therefore we cannot tell whether he belongs to that part of the class of college men who are successful in business1 or to that part of the class of college men which is not included in the class of men who are successful in business4 ,we may represent the complete fallacy as follows3 ,illustration ,illustration ,in order to eliminate the logical fallacy contained in the foregoing syllogism it would be necessary to include the middle term in the major term of the major premise4 ,the relation of the terms of the major premise would then be represented by the diagram above4 ,the completed syllogism would then read as follows3 #a4 ,all college men are successful in business4 #b4 ,henry ,winslow is a college man4 #c4 ,therefore ,henry ,winslow is successful in business4 ,the student must not delude himself with the false impression that he has remedied the defect and that the syllogism may therefore be used as the basis of a sound argument4 ,on the contrary he must now treat the result of his efforts as a new syllogism and begin the search for fallacies all over again4 ,the first step in this process1 as we have already seen1 is to inquire into the truth of the facts contained in the premises4 ,let us first examine the major premise4 ,is it true that all college men are successful in business8 ,a little investigation and reflection will prove that it is not4 ,therefore the argument is still as fallacious as it was in the beginning4 ,we have merely changed the logical fallacy into a material fallacy4 ,the result of our investigation has been to disclose the fallacy of an enthymeme which reads1 8,henry ,winslow is successful in business because he is a college man40 ,another form in which the fallacy of the undistributed middle appears in a manner less easy to detect is shown by the following syllogism3 #a4 ,all orators are men of great ability4 #b4 ,herbert ,lang is a man of great ability4 #c4 ,therefore ,herbert ,lang is an orator4 ,each of the premises in the above syllogism may be perfectly true as a matter of fact1 but it is obvious that there is something wrong with the syllogism as a whole4 ,the nature of the defect is not apparent until we begin to apply the rules for constructing a valid syllogism4 ,this reveals the fact that instead of the major term including the middle term1 the middle includes the major4 ,if we diagram the major premise by the system of circles previously employed the following result is obtained3 ,illustration ,if the conclusion to be established had been that ,herbert ,lang is a man of great ability and the minor premise had stated that ,herbert ,lang was an orator then the major premise as outlined above would have been perfectly valid4 ,but the conclusion that ,herbert ,lang is an orator does not follow from the fact that he is a man of great ability and that all orators are men of great ability4 ,the only fact that we can draw from these statements is that some men of great ability are orators4 ,because we say that all orators are men of great ability we cannot be sure of the converse1 that is1 that all men of great ability are orators4 ,only some of them are orators1 others may be ministers1 doctors1 lawyers1 or business men4 ,therefore all that we can conclude is that1 8,some men of great ability are orators40 ,it is now plain that when we construct the completed syllogism from this major premise1 the same defect will exist which was revealed in the preceding illustration4 #a4 ,some men of great ability are orators4 #b4 ,herbert ,lang is a man of great ability4 #c4 ,therefore ,herbert ,lang is an orator4 ,by examining the facts expressed in the invalid syllogism we have found that the fallacy consists of an undistributed middle term4 ,this fallacy becomes obvious in some propositions in which the conclusion shows the absurdity of the reasoning process4 ,if we could maintain that ,herbert ,lang is an orator because he is a man of great ability and all orators are men of great ability1 we could argue with equal reason that he is a ground hog because he is an animal and all ground hogs are animals4 7#b74 ,the illicit process4 ,the illicit process of either the major or minor term in the syllogism consists of one of these terms appearing in the conclusion in a form essentially different from that in which it appeared in the major or minor premises4 ,in this fallacy the major term which is in the affirmative form in the major premise becomes negative in the conclusion4 ,the following fallacious syllogism illustrates this error3 #a4 ,all football men are strong4 #b4 ,amos ,buck is not a football man4 #c4 ,therefore ,amos ,buck is not strong4 ,the fallacy is evident2 the class of football men does not include all the strong men4 ,there are some men who are not football men that are strong4 ,the fact that ,amos ,buck is not included in the class of football men does not prove that he is not included in the larger class of strong men4 ,to be more concrete let us again make use of the diagrams4 ,from the diagram on page #bde it is seen that the fact that all football men are strong and that ,amos ,buck is not a football man1 does not prove anything regarding his strength4 ,he may be within the class of strong men or he may be outside4 ,hence the syllogism is fallacious4 ,usually the fallacy is not so apparent as in the above illustration but by reducing the statements to syllogistic form in the manner indicated above the error becomes apparent4 ,the minor term in a syllogism sometimes appears in the minor premise as undistributed or particular and then appears in the conclusion as distributed or universal4 ,this is another form of the illicit process4 ,the same result follows when the minor term becomes either larger or smaller or in any way different in the conclusion from what it was in the minor premise4 ,for example1 a business man says1 8,i will not send my son to college because some college men are #8sports' and ,i detest #8sports'40 ,this error in reasoning results from the failure to phrase each term in the same form throughout the syllogism4 ,a scrutiny of the terms of the syllogism will therefore reveal the presence of this fallacy4 ,illustration 7#c74 ,irrelevancy of the premises1 or ignoring the question4 ,this fallacy consists in ignoring the conclusion to be established and arguing toward some other conclusion4 ,in logic it is called ignoratio elenchi4 ,it is a very important fallacy1 because no error is more common than that of wandering from the real point at issue and discussing some related but irrelevant matter4 ,the error may arise from a deliberate attempt on the part of the speaker to deceive his hearers by taking their attention from the real point at issue1 from a failure to analyze the question properly1 or from inability to reason correctly4 ,in discussing this fallacy the first step is to analyze the argument in its relation to the point to be proved4 ,it should be reduced to the syllogistic form1 and the irrelevancy between the premises and the conclusion should be made plain4 ,after the premises are found it becomes an easy task to determine whether they establish the right conclusion or some other conclusion4 ,there are certain ways in which the question may be ignored that are so common that they demand special attention4 ,of these the most important are the following3 ,a4 ,the appeal to passion1 prejudice1 or humor4 ,very often the speaker1 instead of refuting the arguments of his opponent1 will attempt to cast ridicule upon them and thus by humorous treatment divert attention from the real point at issue4 ,very often the appeal is made to the passion or prejudice of the persons addressed instead of to their reason4 ,b4 ,the personal attack upon an opponent4 ,a favorite method of the old time lawyer was to 8bullyrag0 his opponent in a law suit and thus merge the case at issue into a personal conflict with the opposing counsel4 ,while this practice has long ago disappeared from the court room it is very often encountered in other places4 ,a speaker who has a weak case will sometimes attack the personal character of his opponent and thus seek to change the issue from a debate on the proposition to a wrangle over the personal virtues of the participants4 ,c4 ,the personal attack upon the person or persons concerned in the controversy4 ,we argue beside the point when we infer from the moral character1 position1 or conduct of an individual1 the truth or falsity of a particular proposition4 ,if the question is whether or not ,john ,jones killed ,john ,smith1 we make no progress by showing that ,john ,jones cheated ,john ,doe out of his farm4 ,if we are told that a certain person advocates prohibition it is no refutation of his arguments to call attention to the fact that he is a drunkard4 ,the validity of a drunkard's arguments in favor of prohibition are not affected by his conduct1 although their influence upon other persons would doubtless be greatly affected by it4 ,we always argue beside the point when we attempt to defend or condemn a principle by praising or condemning the person who advocates it4 ,neither can we establish the guilt or innocence of an accused person by praising or condemning traits of his character which have nothing to do with the charges against him4 ,d4 ,the appeal to customs and tradition4 ,the popular appeal to 8let well enough alone10 8what has been should be10 and other conservative arguments of this class entirely ignore the question at issue4 ,if the world had followed these precepts we should be no farther advanced to-day than at the beginning of time4 ,to follow them now would mean that all progress must cease4 ,a hundred years ago no argument could have convinced the average individual that man would be able to travel a mile a minute or that one man could hear another talk at a distance of one thousand miles1 or that a machine could be made which would talk4 ,twenty years ago few people could have been convinced that one could see through solid matter or that a man could fly1 or that a wireless telegraph was a possibility4 ,nevertheless all of these seemingly impossible things have come to pass4 ,similar things are constantly happening in the less material world of education1 politics1 and religion4 ,therefore small weight attaches to the argument which relies solely upon an appeal to custom and tradition4 ,e4 ,shifting ground4 ,this fallacy usually arises from using a word in a double capacity4 ,for instance1 8,every ,american citizen should be democratic in his conduct2 therefore he should vote the ,democratic ticket10 is an example of this fallacy4 ,here the term democratic is used in more than one sense4 ,it is first used to indicate an attitude of kindly sympathy towards one's fellow men2 then it is used to designate a political party4 ,likewise we might argue in an equally fallacious manner that because this country is a republic1 every man should vote the ,republican ticket4 ,the cause of this fallacy is usually a failure on the part of the arguer to define exactly his own position and to state the meaning of vital words used in the proposition4 ,an unscrupulous debater will take advantage of this fallacy as soon as he is cornered by shifting to a different meaning of the words employed4 ,whenever a debater begins to prove one proposition and ends by upholding another proposition he has shifted ground4 ,this fallacy is usually so concealed in a maze of words that its detection is difficult4 ,f4 ,refuting an argument which has not been advanced4 ,this form of ignoring the question may arise from a deliberate attempt to misrepresent the opposition or from an honest mistake as to just what argument has been advanced4 ,in either case it ignores the question at issue and is a useless expenditure of time and effort4 ,sometimes a debater cannot refute the arguments advanced by his opponents and he therefore seeks to occupy his time by arguing against contentions which he thought would be advanced but which in reality have not been mentioned4 ,it is far better not to argue at all than to ignore the real points at issue in this manner4 ,g4 ,arguing on a related proposition4 ,this is a very common way of ignoring the question4 ,for example1 in support of prohibition1 a debater often proves that temperance is a benefit to the community4 ,the real question is whether prohibition is advisable as a means of dealing with the liquor traffic4 ,the question as to whether temperance benefits the community is only related4 ,therefore to argue in support of the related question is to ignore the real one4 ,in a debate on the proposition 8,resolved1 that the compulsory arbitration of strikes is practicable in the ,united ,states0 the affirmative devoted its efforts to proving that the system would be of great advantage to the country and that it had worked well in ,new ,zealand4 ,the question1 whether compulsory arbitration is practicable in the ,united ,states1 was entirely ignored by its advocates arguing in support of two related propositions which might be stated as follows3 8,resolved1 that the compulsory arbitration of strikes would be of great advantage to the ,united ,states10 and 8,resolved1 that compulsory arbitration of strikes has worked well in ,new ,zealand40 ,the real question at issue was entirely ignored4 7#d74 ,begging the question4 ,to beg the question is to assume its truth or falsity without proof4 ,this does not mean a direct assumption of truth or falsity but an indirect assumption reached in a circuitous manner by an appearance of logical reasoning4 ,in logic this error is called petitio principi4 ,it may appear in many different forms but the following are the most frequently encountered3 ,a4 ,arguing in a circle4 ,this error involves more than one syllogism4 ,it begins by assuming the truth of a premise1 next upon this premise a conclusion is built and then finally this very conclusion is used in an attempt to prove the premise with which the syllogism was begun4 ,for example1 a student is urged to take the course in corporation law in the ,harvard ,law ,school because it is the best in the country4 ,when the student inquires why it is the best in the country he is told that it is the best because it is given in the ,harvard ,law ,school4 ,in other words no reason is given but the statement stripped of its semblance of reasoning is merely that the ,harvard ,law ,school is the best because it is the best4 ,an excellent example showing the refutation of a circular argument is found in ,percival and ,jelliffe's ,specimens of ,exposition and ,argument4 ,it is taken from the argument of ,felix ,adler against the evils of child labor in the ,united ,states4 8,there is one other argument so un-,american and so inhuman that ,i am almost ashamed to quote it1 and yet it has been used1 and ,i fear is secretly in the minds of some who would not openly stand for it4 ,a manufacturer standing near the furnace of a glasshouse and pointing to a procession of young ,slav boys who were carrying the glass on trays1 remarked #8,look at their faces1 and you will see that it is idle to take them from the glasshouse in order to give them an education2 they are what they are1 and will always remain what they are4' ,he meant that there are some human beings--and these ,slavs of the number--who are mentally irredeemable1 so fast asleep intellectually that they cannot be awakened2 designed by nature1 therefore1 to be hewers of wood and drawers of water4 ,this cruel and wicked thing was said of ,slavs2 it is the same thing which has been said from time immemorial by the slave owners of their slaves4 ,first they degrade human beings by denying them opportunity to develop their better nature2 no schools1 no teaching1 no freedom1 no outlook2 and then1 as if in mockery1 they point to the degraded condition of their victims as a reason why they should never be allowed to escape from it40 ,b4 ,directly assuming the point at issue4 ,in directly assuming the truth of the point at issue much language is employed which tends to conceal the lack of real proof4 ,stripped of their wealth of expression such so-called arguments appear as bare unsupported assertions4 ,the following is a good example of this fallacy3 8,up to the time when the crime was committed1 the character of the prisoner was above reproach1 for his conduct was always characterized by honest respect for law and order40 ,often a single word may directly assume the truth or falsity of the proposition under discussion4 ,in opposing the proposition 8,resolved1 that the boycott is a proper policy for organized labor10 the first speaker began by saying1 8,it is our purpose to prove that the wicked and pernicious system of boycotting is not a proper policy for organized labor40 ,this statement begged the whole proposition by assuming at the outset that boycotting is wicked and pernicious4 ,a subsequent speaker committed the same fallacy by saying1 8,we contend that there are ways by which organized labor can accomplish its purpose that are--unlike the boycott--legitimate and proper40 ,in some cases such question-begging words as those employed above are used in defining the terms of the proposition4 ,this manner of defining terms begs the question as effectively and directly as any of the other fallacious practices discussed under this heading4 ,c4 ,indirectly assuming the point at issue4 ,one of the most common ways of begging the question is to assume the truth of a broad general proposition which includes the one under discussion4 ,this does not directly assume the truth of the proposition1 but does it indirectly4 ,for instance1 a student declared that 8,our football team will win the championship1 because the captain of the team says we cannot lose it40 ,this begs the point at issue1 namely--whether our team will win the championship1 by assuming the truth of a broader proposition1 namely--that whatever the captain of the team says is true4 ,the same result follows the assumption of particular truths which the proposition involves4 ,in supporting the proposition1 8,resolved1 that the state should prescribe uniform text-books for the public schools0 a student attempted to prove that public instruction should be uniform throughout the state4 ,he thus assumed that uniform text-books would secure uniform public instruction throughout the state4 ,this was a particular proposition involved in the main proposition1 and it was the duty of the debater to show that uniform text-books would bring about uniform public instruction4 ,,iii4 ,fallacies of causal relation4 ,we have already considered the importance of causal relation in argumentation4 ,a relation clearly established between a cause and an effect affords a substantial basis for valid reasoning4 ,the failure to establish such relation results in error4 ,of course the causal relation may exist although undiscovered4 ,nevertheless1 the failure to show such relation should always be considered as a warning to look out for fallacies4 #a4 ,fallacies of the argument from effect to cause4 ,the argument from effect to cause may be shown to contain a fallacy by proving any one of the following contentions3 #a4 ,that the alleged cause was not sufficient to produce the effect4 #b4 ,that an independent cause intervened between the alleged cause and the effect4 #c4 ,that the alleged cause was prevented from operating4 ,in arguing from a known effect to an unknown cause certain fallacies occur with such frequency that we must give them special attention4 ,of these common errors the following are the most important3 7#a74 ,mistaking coincidence for cause4 ,most superstitions are due to this fallacy of mistaking coincidence for cause4 ,a black cat crosses our path as we are starting out on a journey4 ,if some misfortune overtakes us before our return our minds immediately revert to the old superstition that if a black cat crosses our path we must turn back and make a fresh start if we wish to ward off disaster4 ,the black cat is regarded by the superstitious as the cause of the disaster4 ,obviously there is no causal relation between the appearance of the black cat and the occurrence of the disaster4 ,it is merely a coincidence4 ,if we regard it in any other light we are mistaking coincidence for cause4 ,political campaign oratory abounds in this kind of fallacy4 ,one political party comes into power and a period of industrial prosperity follows4 ,the party leaders point to their administration as the cause of the prosperity4 ,on the other hand if a period of depression follows the election1 the opponents of the successful party point to it as the cause of the disaster4 ,seldom in such cases is any real causal relation established4 ,it is more often merely coincidence4 ,no fallacy is more inexcusable than that which asserts a mere prior occurrence as a cause4 ,because it rained last ,sunday and to-day ,i lose my pocketbook is no reason why ,i should maintain that last ,sunday's rain was the cause of my loss4 ,yet many arguments are advanced based upon a lack of causal relation as evident as that of the above coincidence4 ,in an inter-class debate one of the speakers maintained that the large number of ,chinese in a certain city was the cause of the greater amount of crime which existed in that city as compared with other cities of the same size4 ,no causal relation was established1 but the mere fact of the presence of the ,chinese was set forth as proof that the ,chinese were responsible for the crime4 ,one of the critics of the debate pointed out that it was just as reasonable to suppose that the unusually cold weather of the winter just passed was caused by the large number of ,congregationalists in the state4 ,even when two events are repeatedly associated so far as time is concerned we should not regard the repetition as proof of the causal relation but only as an indication that a causal relation probably exists4 ,we should not arrive at any definite conclusion until the existence of the causal relation has been finally established4 7#b74 ,mistaking an effect for a cause4 ,the fallacy of mistaking an effect for a cause consists in pointing to one effect as the cause of another effect when in reality both effects are the result of one cause4 ,for example1 a recent writer attributes the anarchistic tendency of the masses of ,russia to the arrogance of the soldiery in that country4 ,this reasoning is criticised on the ground that both the anarchistic tendencies of the masses and the arrogance of the soldiery are effects of the same cause1 viz4--the despotic government of ,russia4 7#c74 ,mistaking a subsequent cause for a real cause4 ,this fallacy arises when an effect is observed and in the search for the cause we accept something which in reality happened after the effect was observed4 ,a striking example of this fallacy occurred in a recent municipal election4 ,the increased cost of city government was charged to the present mayor4 ,his opponents pointed to him as the cause of this increase in the city's expenses4 ,the mayor's friends revealed the fallacy by showing that the expense had really been incurred under the former mayor4 ,the acts of the present mayor could not have been the cause of the increased expense because that expense had been incurred before he went into office4 ,therefore those who made the unjust charge had committed the fallacy of mistaking a subsequent cause for the real cause4 7#d74 ,mistaking an insufficient cause for a sufficient cause4 ,this fallacy differs from those previously discussed in that there exists some causal relation between the effect and the alleged cause4 ,the error consists of a failure to recognize the insufficiency of the cause to produce the effect without the help of some other cause4 ,in a discussion of the proposition1 8,resolved1 that department stores have proved a benefit to municipal communities10 one speaker argued that such stores were the cause of the low price at which small necessities such as hardware and dry-goods novelties could be purchased by the consumer4 ,the next speaker exposed the fallacy of this argument by admitting that department stores had been a factor in lowering the cost of such commodities1 but that this could not have been done except for the assistance of another and more powerful cause1 viz41--the invention of machinery by which such articles could be manufactured in enormous quantities4 #b4 ,fallacies of the argument from cause to effect4 ,fallacies of the argument from cause to effect may be exposed by showing #a4 ,that the observed cause is insufficient to produce the alleged effect4 #b4 ,that past experience shows that the alleged effect does not always follow the observed cause4 #c4 ,that an independent force has intervened to prevent the observed cause from operating4 #d4 ,that the conclusion established by the argument is overthrown by positive evidence4 ,it must be kept in mind that the argument from cause to effect is subject to errors similar to those discussed in connection with fallacies of the argument from effect to cause4 ,in his desire to predict the course of future events man is led to ignore the complex nature of human affairs4 ,a certain individual believes that if he puts all his money into a business and then gives all his attention to its management that that is a sufficient cause for success4 ,nevertheless1 so much depends upon the nature of the man and of the business that it is extremely difficult to foretell the effect4 ,the principle underlying this situation is common to practically every argument from cause to effect4 ,unless the fallacy is obvious it requires a broad and penetrating intellect to fathom it4 #c4 ,fallacies of the argument from effect to effect4 ,the fallacies of the argument from effect to effect are discovered by resolving it into the argument from effect to cause and from cause to effect1 of which it is composed1 and examining the validity of each of these processes4 ,,iv4 ,fallacies of the argument from analogy4 ,the chapter on ,argument from ,analogy treated of the requirements for validity to which such an argument must conform4 ,we may expose the fallacy of an argument from analogy by showing-- #a4 ,that the two factors in the analogy are not alike in all the particulars affecting the conclusion4 #b4 ,that the alleged facts upon which the analogy is based are not true4 #c4 ,that the conclusion established by analogy is disproved by positive evidence4 ,no test of an analogy is absolute4 ,its very nature makes it more susceptible to fallacy than are the other forms of argument4 ,at its best it creates only a high degree of probability4 ,as already stated1 its chief use is to give clearness and force to persuasive writing and speaking4 ,in the search for fallacies1 here as well as elsewhere1 the best guarantee of success is an unprejudiced mind equipped with a thorough working knowledge of all the argumentative processes of reasoning and of the numerous fallacies to which they are subject4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,fallacy ,i4 ,point out clearly the kind of fallacies1 if any1 involved in the following arguments4 #a4 ,the only people excluded from the privilege of voting are children1 idiots1 foreigners1 convicts1 and women4 ,how much longer will the civilized nations of the earth permit their women to be classed with the incompetent and the criminal classes of society8 #b4 ,political parties are a necessity to free institutions4 ,the ,united ,states is the oldest democracy on earth and in it political parties have always ruled4 #c4 ,the election of a ,republican president in #ahif was followed by a period of prosperity unrivalled in our history4 ,who can doubt that had a ,democratic president been elected it would have worked the beginning of a sure decline of our industrial supremacy8 #d4 ,the rapid increase in wages for the past twenty years shows the superior advantage gained by the organization of the working men4 #e4 ,is not the ,spanish-,american war proof of the fact that the government can meet its expenditures in time of great national emergencies without resorting to the income tax8 #f4 ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany are the great powers of ,europe4 ,both ,england and ,germany have signified their willingness to sign this treaty4 ,we are therefore certain that the great powers of ,europe will become parties to this treaty provided we give them the opportunity4 #g4 ,soon after the great flood the city of ,galveston was grappling with serious municipal problems4 ,by adopting the commission form of city government all these difficulties were solved4 ,therefore all ,american cities1 oppressed by governmental difficulties1 may secure prompt relief by adopting this plan of municipal administration4 #h4 7#a7 ,some ,italians are good musicians4 7#b7 ,this man is an ,italian4 7#c7 ,therefore this man is a good musician4 #i4 7#a7 ,all college students are interested in athletics4 7#b7 ,ira ,simpson is not a college student4 7#c7 ,therefore ,ira ,simpson is not interested in athletics4 #aj4 ,my opponent must remember that the finger of suspicion has pointed to him as the one who willfully misrepresented that great mine disaster4 ,does he dare to assert that he is now telling the truth8 #aa4 ,the capitalistic class has always oppressed the working man4 ,it has ground into the dust the man who toils for his living4 ,it has enjoyed its ill-gotten wealth by living in luxury while the laboring man has earned his bread by the sweat of his brow4 ,now1 my fellow workmen1 shall we cast our vote for one of the most vicious members of this class8 #ab4 ,never in its history has the town of ,grogan stooped to borrow money for public improvements4 ,no one will dare maintain that this time honored custom1 founded upon reason and common sense1 should now be broken4 #ac4 ,brown ,county is overwhelmingly ,republican in politics2 it is therefore quite probable that your cousin who lives in that county is a ,republican4 #ad4 ,the very foundation of this great republic is the idea of democracy4 ,why1 then1 should not every right minded citizen recognize his duty to support the ,democratic party in the coming election8 #ae4 ,this climate is very healthful1 for if it were not healthful the people who live here would not be free from disease4 #af4 ,there must be a substantial reason back of the opinion that the tariff should be lowered1 for the prevalence of this opinion throughout the country shows that it has a sound foundation4 #ag4 ,the inhuman method of killing murderers by electrocution should be abolished4 #ah4 ,it is evident that the recommendations of the ,simplified ,spelling ,board should be adopted because one of the members of that board is the most eminent authority on the ,english ,language in this country4 #ai4 ,the price of wheat is bound to increase rapidly within the next few months because the recent flood of the ,arkansas ,river has destroyed many hundred acres of this crop4 #bj4 ,james was quite sure that something disagreeable would occur because only last night he saw the new moon over his left shoulder4 #ba4 ,since this tax has worked well in ,england there can be no doubt of its practicability if it is adopted in the ,united ,states4 ,,ii4 ,each student should write out and bring to the class at least one fallacy which he has found in the conversation of his fellow-students4 ,,iii4 ,whenever possible use diagrams to show the fallacies in the specimens under ,i4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,refutation ,in discussing the ,practice of ,argumentation and ,debate we have considered the importance of refutation in both the main argument and in rebuttal4 ,we have seen that refutation must be introduced into the main arguments whenever the prominence of opposing arguments makes it necessary4 ,we have seen that rebuttal consists largely of refutation4 ,in fact1 rebuttal and refutation are used by some writers as synonymous terms4 ,however1 in the chapter on rebuttal a distinction was made by which that term was used to indicate the practical work of defending an argument and attacking an opponent4 ,in this chapter on ,refutation we shall consider the theory of the various methods employed in attacking an opponent's argument4 ,refutation is entirely destructive as distinguished from constructive argument4 ,while the work of rebuttal includes both a defense of one's own argument and an attack upon that of an opponent1 refutation consists of weakening or destroying the arguments of the opposition4 ,from the destructive nature of refutation it is plain that it must be adapted to the argument against which it is directed4 ,this involves keen powers of analysis and adaptation1 an exact knowledge of the theory and practice of argumentation1 and a thorough insight into both sides of the proposition under discussion4 ,the first essential in refutation is that the writer or speaker make perfectly plain the exact argument that he is refuting4 ,he must then show just how the refutation which he is making bears upon that argument4 ,finally he must show plainly that his refutation has weakened or destroyed the argument against which it was directed4 ,these three steps in refutation must be indicated plainly4 ,in refutation it is proper to establish a contrary proposition or to refer to the fact that such a contrary proposition has been established4 ,the actual destructive work may be accomplished in any legitimate manner4 ,of the methods employed in refutation the following are the most important4 ,i4 ,revealing a fallacy4 ,the chapter on fallacies has pointed out the argumentative defects of reasoning most frequently encountered4 ,the student must not assume that these errors will always occur in the exact form in which they have been treated in any text-book4 ,they are sure to appear in many and varied guises4 ,to identify and expose them requires the keenest qualities of mind4 ,each student should pride himself on his ability to detect a fallacy quickly and should look back with humiliation upon any occurrence when he has allowed a fallacious argument to pass by unchallenged4 ,familiarity with the valid forms of logical reasoning and with the errors to which they are subject are prerequisites to success4 ,it is not sufficient that the student have a vague feeling that there is something wrong with an argument2 he must be able to locate the defect exactly and to point it out to others in such a way that they will see it4 ,vagueness and ambiguity are the very substance of fallacies4 ,sometimes the student must use his knowledge of constructive logic to build up a parallel argument in the way it ought to stand and show more plainly by means of contrast the defects of the unsound argument4 ,in such cases it often happens that the evidence points in an opposite direction from that which is needed to support a valid argument4 ,all of these devices should be utilized in making plain the existence of fallacies4 ,,ii4 ,reductio ad absurdum4 ,this method of refutation adopts for the time being the argument of an opponent and then by carrying out that argument to its logical conclusion shows that it is absurd4 ,for example1 ,beecher answered those who favored the ,south1 during the late ,civil ,war1 because they were 8the weaker party10 by reducing their argument to an absurdity4 ,he said1 8,nothing could be more generous than your doctrine that you stand for the #8weaker' party in a controversy1 when that weak party stands for its own legitimate rights against imperious pride and power4 ,but who ever sympathized with a weak thief1 because three constables had got hold of him8 ,and yet the one thief in three policemen's hands is the weaker party4 ,i suppose you would sympathize with him40 ,the following quotation from ,laycock and ,scales' ,argumentation and ,debate still further illustrates this method of refutation4 8,this method is effective because of its simplicity and directness4 ,it also has in it an element of ridicule that is persuasive against an opponent4 ,william ,ellery ,channing1 in a reply to ,henry ,clay on the slavery question1 used this method as follows3-- 8#8,but this property1 we are told1 is not to be questioned on account of its long duration4 8,two hundred years have sanctioned and sanctified negro slaves as property40 ,nothing but respect for the speaker could repress criticism on this unhappy phraseology4 ,we will trust it escaped him without thought4 ,but to confine ourselves to the argument from duration2 how obvious the reply6 ,is injustice changed into justice by the practice of ages8 ,is my victim made a righteous prey because ,i have bowed him to the earth till he cannot rise8 ,for more than two hundred years heretics were burned1 and not by mobs1 not by lynch law1 but by the decrees of councils1 at the instigation of theologians1 and with the sanction of the laws and religions of nations2 and was this a reason for keeping up the fires1 that they had burned two hundred years8 ,in the eastern world1 successive despots1 not for two hundred years1 but for twice two thousand1 have claimed the right of life and death over millions1 and with no law but their own will1 have beheaded1 bowstrung1 starved1 tortured unhappy men without number who have incurred their wrath2 and does the lapse of so many centuries sanctify murder and ferocious power8' 8,again3--#8,but the great argument remains4 ,it is said that this property must not be questioned1 because it is established by law4 8,that is property which the law declares to be property40 ,thus human law is made supreme1 decisive1 in a question of morals4 ,thus the idea of an eternal1 immutable justice is set at naught4 ,thus the great rule of human life is made to be the ordinance of interested men4 ,but there is a higher tribunal1 a throne of equal justice1 immovable by the conspiracy of all human legislatures4 8,that is property which the law declares to be property40 ,then the laws have only to declare you1 or me1 or ,mr4 ,clay1 to be property1 and we become chattels and are bound to bear the yoke6 ,does not even man's moral nature repel this doctrine too intuitively to leave time or need for argument8'0 ,,iii4 ,the dilemma4 ,the dilemma is one of the most conclusive forms of refutation4 ,it consists in forcing upon an opponent a choice between two possible solutions to the question under discussion1 and then showing that both conclusions are unsound4 ,these two conclusions are called the 8horns of the dilemma40 ,it matters not which of the 8horns0 an opponent selects2 the result is disastrous4 ,for example1 ,lincoln used the dilemma against those who charged that the ,republicans stirred up insurrection among the slaves and pointed to ,john ,brown and his men as a specific example showing the truth of that charge4 ,lincoln said1 8,john ,brown was no ,republican2 and you have failed to implicate a single ,republican in his ,harper's ,ferry enterprise4 ,if any member of our party is guilty in that matter1 you know it or you do not know it4 ,if you do know it1 you are inexcusable for not designating the man and proving the fact4 ,if you do not know it1 you are inexcusable for asserting it1 and especially for persisting in the assertion after you have tried and failed to make the proof4 ,you need not be told that persisting in a charge which one does not know to be true1 is simply malicious slander40 ,in effect ,lincoln said1 8,you know it or you do not know it4 ,if you know it you are inexcusable4 ,if you do not know it you are inexcusable4 ,whichever horn of the dilemma you accept1 your conduct is inexcusable40 ,in order to be conclusive a dilemma must meet two requirements4 ,first1 there must be only two possibilities in the case2 the alternative must include these exactly4 ,second1 both members of the alternative1 or 8horns0 of the dilemma must be untenable4 ,to ignore or fail to comply with either of these requirements is fatal to this method of refutation4 ,lincoln1 in the following quotation1 shows that ,douglas has violated the first of these requirements4 ,he refuses to accept either of the horns of the dilemma which ,douglas has sought to force upon him1 by pointing out a third possibility4 ,on this third possibility1 overlooked by ,douglas1 he can stand with safety4 ,he says3-- 8,judge ,douglas finds the ,republicans insisting that the ,declaration of ,independence includes all men1 black as well as white1 and forthwith he boldly denies that it includes negroes at all1 and proceeds to argue gravely that all who contend it does1 do so only because they went to vote1 to eat and sleep1 and marry with negroes4 ,he will have it that they cannot be consistent else4 ,now ,i protest against this counterfeit logic which concludes that because ,i do not want a black woman for a slave ,i must necessarily want her for a wife4 ,i need not have her for either4 ,i can just leave her alone40 ,,iv4 ,residues4 ,the method of residues consists in stating all the possible conclusions regarding the controverted subject and then destroying all of these except one which is then regarded as the true conclusion4 ,for example1 there are three possibilities1 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,a and ,b are false4 ,therefore the presumption is that ,c is true4 ,it will be seen that this process is destructive and hence belongs with refutation4 ,this method of refutation must be used with great care4 ,it is absolutely essential that every possibility be included in the process4 ,if one possibility is overlooked the refutation is worthless4 ,this is true because no one can tell whether the known possibility is the true one or whether the possibility which has been omitted is the true one4 ,in such a case no conclusion is reached4 ,even when it is apparent that the entire field has been covered1 and that every possibility has been stated the residuary part should be supported by direct positive proof4 ,this will offset the suspicion1 which is otherwise ever present in the minds of those who are listening to or reading the argument1 that perhaps one possibility has been overlooked4 ,foster in his ,argumentation and ,debate quotes two excellent examples of this method of refutation4 ,the first of these is taken from ,burke's ,speech on ,conciliation4 ,after showing that a fierce spirit of liberty has developed in the ,american colonies ,burke asks what is to be done with that spirit4 ,answering his own question he says3-- 8#8,as far as ,i am capable of discerning there are but three ways of proceeding relative to this stubborn spirit which prevails in your colonies1 and disturbs your government4 ,these are--to change that spirit1 as inconvenient1 by removing the cause2 to prosecute it as criminal2 or to cope with it as necessary4 ,i would not be guilty of an imperfect enumeration2 ,i can think of but these three4 ,another has indeed been started1--that of giving up the colonies2 but it met so slight a reception that ,i do not think myself obliged to dwell a great while upon it4 ,it is nothing but a little sally of anger1 like the frowardness of peevish children1 who when they cannot get all they would have1 are resolved to take nothing4' 8,burke then proceeds to show that the first and second of these plans are impracticable1 and concludes with the following characteristic1 logical summary3-- 8#8,if1 then1 the removal of the causes of this spirit of ,american liberty be for the greater part1 or rather entirely1 impracticable2 if the ideas of criminal process be inapplicable--or if applicable1 are in the highest degree inexpedient--what way yet remains8 ,no way is open but the third and last--to comply with the ,american spirit as necessary2 or1 if you please1 to submit to it as a necessary evil4' 8,huxley1 in his first lecture on ,evolution1 presented three hypotheses regarding the origin of the universe3-- 8#8,so far as ,i know1 there are only three hypotheses which ever have been entertained1 or which well can be entertained1 respecting the past history of ,nature4 ,i will1 in the first place1 state the hypotheses1 and then ,i will consider what evidence bearing upon them is in our possession1 and by what light of criticism that evidence is to be interpreted4 8#8,upon the first hypothesis1 the assumption is that phenomena of ,nature similar to those exhibited by the present world have always existed2 in other words1 that the universe has existed from all eternity in what may be broadly termed its present condition4 8#8,the second hypothesis is1 that the present state of things has had only a limited duration2 and that at some period in the past1 a condition of the world1 essentially similar to that which we now know1 came into existence1 without any precedent condition from which it could have naturally proceeded4 ,the assumption that successive states of ,nature have arisen1 each without any relation of natural causation to an antecedent state1 is a mere modification of this second hypothesis4 8#8,the third hypothesis also assumes that the present state of things has had but a limited duration2 but it supposes that this state has been evolved by a natural process from an antecedent state1 and that from another1 and so on2 and on this hypothesis1 the attempt to assign any limit to the series of past changes is usually given up4' 8,huxley thus destroyed the first two hypotheses and left the third--since called the ,theory of ,evolution--standing alone4 ,following this indirect1 destructive method of proof1 ,huxley offered direct1 constructive proof of the probable soundness of the ,theory of ,evolution4 ,such positive proof should always be offered in corroboration of negative proof1 for the method of residues is1 at best1 only an indirect argument4 ,the chances of overlooking a possibility1 or of failing completely to destroy those dealt with1 are so great that the result of the indirect method should be reinforced by direct argument40 ,v4 ,inconsistencies4 ,when a witness testifies in a court of law he injures his own credibility as soon as one part of his story contradicts another part4 ,his entire account of the events about which he has been called to give testimony must be consistent4 ,any inconsistency may prove fatal to the acceptance of his testimony4 ,in like manner any inconsistency in an argument may prove fatal to its acceptance4 ,the exposure of such inconsistencies in an opponent's argument is one of the most important methods of refutation4 ,in most cases the difficulty of the task is greatly increased by the form in which such inconsistencies usually occur4 ,seldom are they apparent4 ,in most cases the error is revealed only after the argument has been carefully analyzed and the inconsistent parts stripped of their covering of confusing language4 ,the following quotation taken from the argument of ,lincoln in one of the ,lincoln-,douglas debates shows the application of this method4 ,douglas had maintained that slavery could be lawfully excluded from a territory in spite of the ,dred ,scott decision4 ,in refuting this argument by exposing the inconsistency which it contained1 ,lincoln said3-- 8,the ,dred ,scott ,decision expressly gives every citizen of the ,united ,states a right to carry his slaves into the ,united ,states ,territories4 ,now1 there was some inconsistency in saying that the decision was right1 and saying1 too1 that the people of the ,territory could lawfully drive slavery out again4 ,when all the trash1 the words1 the collateral matter1 was cleared away from it1--all the chaff was fanned out of it1--it was a bare absurdity3 no less than that a thing may be lawfully driven away from a place where it has a lawful right to be4 ,clear it of all the verbiage1 and that is the naked truth for his proposition--that a thing may be lawfully driven from the place where it has a lawful right to stay40 ,,vi4 ,adopting an opponent's evidence4 ,this method of refutation consists in taking evidence which an opponent has introduced in favor of his own argument and showing that in reality it supports the opposite contention4 ,this method of refutation is so effective that it should never be neglected when an opportunity to use it is presented4 ,the opportunity may arise from the failure of an opponent to grasp the full bearing of the evidence which he offers1 or it may arise from an unexpected turn in the discussion4 ,evidence may be introduced in the beginning of a discussion to support a particular contention by which it favors the writer or speaker who introduces it4 ,later this same evidence may be interpreted as supporting a contention entirely adverse to the writer or speaker who introduced it4 ,an excellent example of this method of refutation is found in ,bouton's ,lincoln and ,douglas ,debates in ,lincoln's ,cooper ,institute ,speech1 where he turns the warning of ,washington against those who had been quoting it against him4 8,some of you delight to flaunt in our faces the warning against sectional parties given by ,washington in his ,farewell ,address4 ,less than eight years before ,washington gave that warning1 he had1 as ,president of the ,united ,states1 approved and signed an act of ,congress enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the ,northwest ,territory1 which act embodied the policy of the ,government upon that subject up to and at the very moment he penned that warning2 and about one year after he penned it1 he wrote ,lafayette that he considered that prohibition a wise measure1 expressing in the same connection his hope that we should at some time have a confederacy of free states4 8,bearing this in mind1 and seeing that sectionalism has since risen upon this same subject1 is that warning a weapon in your hands against us1 or in our hands against you8 ,could ,washington himself speak1 would he cast the blame of that sectionalism upon us who sustain his policy1 or upon you who repudiate it8 ,we respect the warning of ,washington1 and we commend it to you1 together with his example pointing to the right application of it40 ,we have now considered the important methods of refutation4 ,their successful use depends upon the conscientious effort of the student4 ,just as a boy cannot hope to learn to swim by sitting on the bank of a stream and reading a book containing directions on how to swim1 so can no student hope to become successful in refutation by a study of the methods explained and illustrated in this chapter4 ,he must master the theory of refutation1 but it does not become an effective instrument in his hands until he has applied it in actual practice4 ,moreover1 just as the boy can better profit by the instructions regarding swimming after he has actually tried to swim1 so can the debater better profit by the theory of refutation after he has engaged in some real debates4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,refutation ,i4 ,point out the different methods of refutation employed in the arguments in ,appendix ,a2 ,appendix ,b2 ,appendix ,c4 ,,ii4 ,refute the following statements and name the method of refutation employed in each case4 #a4 ,high school courses should be wholly prescribed4 ,no electives should be offered4 #b4 ,so far as political rights are concerned all citizens should have equal privileges4 ,therefore women should have the right to vote4 #c4 ,the term of office of the ,president of the ,united ,states should be extended to eight years because we should not run the risk of losing the services of an efficient president at the end of four years4 #d4 ,our government should annex ,cuba because we must gain possession of all territory adjacent to1 or not separated by foreign possessions from1 the ,united ,states4 #e4 ,there is no ground for anticipating an immediate war with ,japan since she has been compelled to come to our terms in the recent disputes4 ,,iii4 ,what methods of refutation are employed by ,burke in his ,speech on ,conciliation8 ,by ,webster in his ,reply to ,hayne8 ,,iv4 ,in the next class debate point out and name all the methods of refutation employed by your opponents and yourself4 ,,appendices ,,appendix ,a3 ,,the ,,lincoln-,,douglas ,,debate ,,at ,,alton #bgc ,,appendix ,b3 ,,brief ,,of ,,the ,,lincoln-,,douglas ,,debate ,,at ,,alton #cag ,,appendix ,c3 ,,lincoln',s ,,cooper ,,institute ,,speech #cbd ,,appendix ,d3 ,,memorandum ,,of ,,agreement ,,for ,,high ,,school ,,debating ,,league ,,under ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,a ,,college ,,or ,,university #cdb ,,appendix ,e3 ,,debating ,,agreement ,,for ,a ,,league ,,composed ,,of ,,five ,,institutions #cdf ,,appendix ,f3 ,,memorandum ,,of ,,agreement ,,for ,a ,,triangular ,,debating ,,league #ceb ,,appendix ,g3 ,,propositions #cee ,,appendix ,a ,,the ,,lincoln-,,douglas ,,debate ,,at ,,alton ,,october #ae1 #aheh ,,senator ,,douglas',s ,,speech ,ladies and ,gentlemen3 ,it is now nearly four months since the canvass between ,mr4 ,lincoln and myself commenced4 ,on the #afth of ,june the ,republican ,convention assembled at ,springfield and nominated ,mr4 ,lincoln as their candidate for the ,united ,states ,senate1 and he1 on that occasion1 delivered a speech in which he laid down what he understood to be the ,republican creed and the platform on which he proposed to stand during the contest4 ,the principal points in that speech of ,mr4 ,lincoln's were3 ,first1 that this government could not endure permanently divided into ,free and ,slave ,states1 as our fathers made it2 that they must all become free or all become slave2 all become one thing1 or all become the other1--otherwise this ,union could not continue to exist4 ,i give you his opinions almost in the identical language he used4 ,his second proposition was a crusade against the ,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states because of the ,dred ,scott decision1 urging as an especial reason for his opposition to that decision that it deprived the negroes of the rights and benefits of that clause in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states which guarantees to the citizens of each ,state all the rights1 privileges1 and immunities of the citizens of the several ,states4 ,on the #ajth of ,july ,i returned home1 and delivered a speech to the people of ,chicago1 in which ,i announced it to be my purpose to appeal to the people of ,illinois to sustain the course ,i had pursued in ,congress4 ,in that speech ,i joined issue with ,mr4 ,lincoln on the points which he had presented4 ,thus there was an issue clear and distinct made up between us on these two propositions laid down in the speech of ,mr4 ,lincoln at ,springfield1 and controverted by me in my reply to him at ,chicago4 ,on the next day1 the #aath of ,july1 ,mr4 ,lincoln replied to me at ,chicago1 explaining at some length and reaffirming the positions which he had taken in his ,springfield speech4 ,in that ,chicago speech he even went further than he had before1 and uttered sentiments in regard to the negro being on an equality with the white man4 ,he adopted in support of this position the argument which ,lovejoy and ,codding and other ,abolition lecturers had made familiar in the northern and central portions of the ,state2 to wit1 that the ,declaration of ,independence having declared all men free and equal1 by divine law1 also that negro equality was an inalienable right1 of which they could not be deprived4 ,he insisted1 in that speech1 that the ,declaration of ,independence included the negro in the clause asserting that all men were created equal1 and went so far as to say that if one man was allowed to take the position that it did not include the negro1 others might take the position that it did not include other men4 ,he said that all these distinctions between this man and that man1 this race and the other race1 must be discarded1 and we must all stand by the ,declaration of ,independence1 declaring that all men were created equal4 ,the issue thus being made up between ,mr4 ,lincoln and myself on three points1 we went before the people of the ,state4 ,during the following seven weeks1 between the ,chicago speeches and our first meeting at ,ottawa1 he and ,i addressed large assemblages of the people in many of the central counties4 ,in my speeches ,i confined myself closely to those three positions which he had taken1 controverting his proposition that this ,union could not exist as our fathers made it1 divided into ,free and ,slave ,states1 controverting his proposition of a crusade against the ,supreme ,court because of the ,dred ,scott decision1 and controverting his proposition that the ,declaration of ,independence included and meant the negroes as well as the white men1 when it declared all men to be created equal4 ,i supposed at that time that these propositions constituted a distinct issue between us1 and that the opposite positions we had taken upon them we would be willing to be held to in every part of the ,state4 ,i never intended to waver one hair's breadth from that issue either in the north or the south or wherever ,i should address the people of ,illinois4 ,i hold that when the time arrives that ,i cannot proclaim my political creed in the same terms1 not only in the northern1 but in the southern part of ,illinois1 not only in the ,northern1 but the ,southern ,states1 and wherever the ,american flag waves over ,american soil1 that then there must be something wrong in that creed2 so long as we live under a common ,constitution1 so long as we live in a confederacy of sovereign and equal ,states1 joined together as one for certain purposes1 that any political creed is radically wrong which cannot be proclaimed in every ,state and every section of that ,union1 alike4 ,i took up ,mr4 ,lincoln's three propositions in my several speeches1 analyzed them1 and pointed out what ,i believed to be the radical errors contained in them4 ,first1 in regard to his doctrine that this government was in violation of the law of ,god1 which says that a house divided against itself cannot stand1 ,i repudiated it as a slander upon the immortal framers of our ,constitution4 ,i then said1 ,i have often repeated1 and now again assert1 that in my opinion our government can endure forever1 divided into ,free and ,slave ,states as our fathers made it1--each ,state having the right to prohibit1 abolish1 or sustain slavery1 just as it pleases4 ,this government was made upon the great basis of the sovereignty of the ,states1 the right of each ,state to regulate its own domestic institutions to suit itself2 and that right was conferred with the understanding and expectation that inasmuch as each locality had separate interests1 each locality must have different and distinct local and domestic institutions1 corresponding to its wants and interests4 ,our fathers knew when they made the government that the laws and institutions which were well adapted to the ,green ,mountains of ,vermont were unsuited to the rice plantations of ,south ,carolina4 ,they knew then1 as well as we know now1 that the laws and institutions which would be well adapted to the beautiful prairies of ,illinois would not be suited to the mining regions of ,california4 ,they knew that in a ,republic as broad as this1 having such a variety of soil1 climate1 and interest1 there must necessarily be a corresponding variety of local laws1--the policy and institutions of each ,state adapted to its condition and wants4 ,for this reason this ,union was established on the right of each ,state to do as it pleased on the question of slavery1 and every other question2 and the various ,states were not allowed to complain of1 much less interfere with1 the policy of their neighbors4 ,suppose the doctrine advocated by ,mr4 ,lincoln and the ,abolitionists of this day had prevailed when the ,constitution was made1 what would have been the result8 ,imagine for a moment that ,mr4 ,lincoln had been a member of the ,convention that framed the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 and that when its members were about to sign that wonderful document1 he had arisen in that ,convention as he did at ,springfield this summer1 and1 addressing himself to the ,president1 had said1 8,a house divided against itself cannot stand2 this government1 divided into ,free and ,slave ,states cannot endure1 they must all be free or all be slave2 they must all be one thing1 or all the other1--otherwise1 it is a violation of the law of ,god1 and cannot continue to exist20--suppose ,mr4 ,lincoln had convinced that body of sages that that doctrine was sound1 what would have been the result8 ,remember that the ,union was then composed of thirteen ,states1 twelve of which were slaveholding1 and one free4 ,do you think that the one ,free ,state would have outvoted the twelve slaveholding ,states1 and thus have secured the abolition of slavery8 ,on the other hand1 would not the twelve slaveholding ,states have outvoted the one free ,state1 and thus have fastened slavery1 by a constitutional provision1 on every foot of the ,american ,republic forever8 ,you see that if this ,abolition doctrine of ,mr4 ,lincoln had prevailed when the government was made1 it would have established slavery as a permanent institution in all the ,states1 whether they wanted it or not2 and the question for us to determine in ,illinois now1 as one of the ,free ,states1 is whether or not we are willing1 having become the majority section1 to enforce a doctrine on the minority which we would have resisted with our heart's blood had it been attempted on us when we were in a minority4 ,how has the ,south lost her power as the majority section in this ,union1 and how have the ,free ,states gained it1 except under the operation of that principle which declares the right of the people of each ,state and each ,territory to form and regulate their domestic institutions in their own way8 ,it was under that principle that slavery was abolished in ,new ,hampshire1 ,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 and ,pennsylvania2 it was under that principle that one-half of the slaveholding ,states became free2 it was under that principle that the number of ,free ,states increased until1 from being one out of twelve ,states1 we have grown to be the majority of ,states of the whole ,union1 with the power to control the ,house of ,representatives and ,senate1 and the power1 consequently1 to elect a ,president by ,northern votes1 without the aid of a ,southern ,state4 ,having obtained this power under the operation of that great principle1 are you now prepared to abandon the principle and declare that merely because we have the power you will wage a war against the ,southern ,states and their institutions until you force them to abolish slavery everywhere8 ,after having pressed these arguments home on ,mr4 ,lincoln for seven weeks1 publishing a number of my speeches1 we met at ,ottawa in joint discussion1 and he then began to crawfish a little1 and let himself down4 ,i there propounded certain questions to him4 ,amongst others1 ,i asked him whether he would vote for the admission of any more ,slave ,states1 in the event the people wanted them4 ,he would not answer4 ,i then told him that if he did not answer the question there1 ,i would renew it at ,freeport1 and would then trot him down into ,egypt1 and again put it to him4 ,well1 at ,freeport1 knowing that the next joint discussion took place in ,egypt1 and being in dread of it1 he did answer my question in regard to no more ,slave ,states in a mode which he hoped would be satisfactory to me1 and accomplish the object he had in view4 ,i will show you what his answer was4 ,after saying that he was not pledged to the ,republican doctrine of 8no more ,slave ,states10 he declared3 8,i state to you freely1 frankly1 that ,i should be exceedingly sorry to ever be put in the position of having to pass upon that question4 ,i should be exceedingly glad to know that there never would be another ,slave ,state admitted into this ,union40 ,here permit me to remark1 that ,i do not think the people will ever force him into a position against his will4 ,he went on to say3 8,but ,i must add1 in regard to this1 that if slavery shall be kept out of the ,territory during the ,territorial existence of any one given ,territory1 and then the people should1 having a fair chance and a clear field1 when they come to adopt a constitution1 if they should do the extraordinary thing of adopting a slave constitution uninfluenced by the actual presence of the institution among them1 ,i see no alternative1 if we own the country1 but we must admit it into the ,union40 ,that answer ,mr4 ,lincoln supposed would satisfy the old line ,whigs1 composed of ,kentuckians and ,virginians1 down in the southern part of the ,state4 ,now1 what does it amount to8 ,i desired to know whether he would vote to allow ,kansas to come into the ,union with slavery or not1 as her people desired4 ,he would not answer1 but in a roundabout way said that if slavery should be kept out of a ,territory during the whole of its ,territorial existence1 and then the people1 when they adopted a ,state ,constitution1 asked admission as a ,slave ,state1 he supposed he would have to let the ,state come in4 ,the case ,i put to him was an entirely different one4 ,i desired to know whether he would vote to admit a ,state if ,congress had not prohibited slavery in it during its ,territorial existence1 as ,congress never pretended to do under ,clay's ,compromise measures of #ahej4 ,he would not answer1 and ,i have not yet been able to get an answer from him4 ,i have asked him whether he would vote to admit ,nebraska1 if her people asked to come in as a ,state with a constitution recognizing slavery1 and he refused to answer4 ,i have put the question to him with reference to ,new ,mexico1 and he has not uttered a word in answer4 ,i have enumerated the ,territories1 one after another1 putting the same question to him with reference to each1 and he has not said1 and will not say1 whether1 if elected to ,congress1 he will vote to admit any ,territory now in existence with such a constitution as her people may adopt4 ,he invents a case which does not exist1 and cannot exist under this government1 and answers it2 but he will not answer the question ,i put to him in connection with any of the ,territories now in existence4 ,the contract we entered into with ,texas when she entered the ,union obliges us to allow four ,states to be formed out of the old ,state1 and admitted with or without slavery1 as the respective inhabitants of each may determine4 ,i have asked ,mr4 ,lincoln three times in our joint discussions whether he would vote to redeem that pledge1 and he has never yet answered4 ,he is as silent as the grave on the subject4 ,he would rather answer as to a state of the case which will never arise than commit himself by telling what he would do in a case which would come up for his action soon after his election to ,congress4 ,why can he not say whether he is willing to allow the people of each ,state to have slavery or not as they please1 and to come into the ,union1 when they have the requisite population1 as a ,slave or a ,free ,state as they decide8 ,i have no trouble in answering the question4 ,i have said everywhere1 and now repeat it to you1 that if the people of ,kansas want a ,slave ,state they have a right1 under the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 to form such a ,state1 and ,i will let them come into the ,union with slavery or without1 as they determine4 ,if the people of any other ,territory desire slavery1 let them have it4 ,if they do not want it1 let them prohibit it4 ,it is their business1 not mine4 ,it is none of our business in ,illinois whether ,kansas is a ,free ,state or a ,slave ,state4 ,it is none of your business in ,missouri whether ,kansas shall adopt slavery or reject it4 ,it is the business of her people1 and none of yours4 ,the people of ,kansas have as much right to decide that question for themselves as you have in ,missouri to decide it for yourselves1 or we in ,illinois to decide it for ourselves4 ,and here ,i may repeat what ,i have said in every speech ,i have made in ,illinois1 that ,i fought the ,lecompton ,constitution to its death1 not because of the slavery clause in it1 but because it was not the act and deed of the people of ,kansas4 ,i said then in ,congress1 and ,i say now1 that if the people of ,kansas want a ,slave ,state1 they have a right to have it4 ,if they wanted the ,lecompton ,constitution1 they had a right to have it4 ,i was opposed to that constitution because ,i did not believe that it was the act and deed of the people1 but1 on the contrary1 the act of a small1 pitiful minority acting in the name of the majority4 ,when at last it was determined to send that constitution back to the people1 and1 accordingly1 in ,august last1 the question of admission under it was submitted to a popular vote1 the citizens rejected it by nearly ten to one1 thus showing conclusively that ,i was right when ,i said that the ,lecompton ,constitution was not the act and deed of the people of ,kansas1 and did not embody their will4 ,i hold that there is no power on earth1 under our system of government1 which has the right to force a constitution upon an unwilling people4 ,suppose that there had been a majority of ten to one in favor of slavery in ,kansas1 and suppose there had been an ,abolition ,president and an ,abolition ,administration1 and by some means the ,abolitionists succeeded in forcing an ,abolition ,constitution upon those slaveholding people1 would the people of the ,south have submitted to that act for an instant8 ,well1 if you of the ,south would not have submitted to it a day1 how can you1 as fair1 honorable1 and honest men1 insist on putting a slave constitution on a people who desire a ,free ,state8 ,your safety and ours depend upon both of us acting in good faith1 and living up to that great principle which asserts the right of every people to form and regulate their domestic institutions to suit themselves1 subject only to the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,most of the men who denounced my course on the ,lecompton question objected to it1 not because ,i was not right1 but because they thought it expedient at that time1 for the sake of keeping the party together1 to do wrong4 ,i never knew the ,democratic party to violate any one of its principles1 out of policy or expediency1 that it did not pay the debt with sorrow4 ,there is no safety or success for our party unless we always do right1 and trust the consequences to ,god and the people4 ,i chose not to depart from principle for the sake of expediency on the ,lecompton question1 and ,i never intend to do it on that or any other question4 ,but ,i am told that ,i would have been all right if ,i had only voted for the ,english bill after the ,lecompton was killed4 ,you know a general pardon was granted to all political offenders on the ,lecompton question1 provided they would only vote for the ,english bill4 ,i did not accept the benefits of that pardon for the reason that ,i had been right in the course ,i had pursued1 and hence did not require any forgiveness4 ,let us see how the result has been worked out4 ,english brought in his bill referring the ,lecompton ,constitution back to the people1 with the provision that if it was rejected1 ,kansas should be kept out of the ,union until she had the full ratio of population required for member of ,congress1--thus in effect declaring that if the people of ,kansas would only consent to come into the ,union under the ,lecompton ,constitution1 and have a ,slave ,state when they did not want it1 they should be admitted with a population of #ce1jjj2 but that if they were so obstinate as to insist upon having just such a constitution as they thought best1 and to desire admission as a free ,state1 then they should be kept out until they had #ic1dbj inhabitants4 ,i then said1 and ,i now repeat to you1 that whenever ,kansas has people enough for a ,slave ,state she has people enough for a ,free ,state4 ,i was1 and am willing to adopt the rule that no ,state shall ever come into the ,union until she has the full ratio of population for a member of ,congress1 provided that rule is made uniform4 ,i made that proposition in the ,senate last winter1 but a majority of the ,senators would not agree to it2 and ,i then said to them1 ,if you will not adopt the general rule1 ,i will not consent to make an exception of ,kansas4 ,i hold that it is a violation of the fundamental principles of this government to throw the weight of ,federal power into the scale1 either in favor of the ,free or the ,slave ,states4 ,equality among all the ,states of this ,union is a fundamental principle in our political system4 ,we have no more right to throw the weight of the ,federal ,government into the scale in favor of the slaveholding than the ,free ,states1 and last of all should our friends in the ,south consent for a moment that ,congress should withhold its powers either way when they know that there is a majority against them in both ,houses of ,congress4 ,fellow-citizens1 how have the supporters of the ,english bill stood up to their pledges not to admit ,kansas until she obtained a population of #ic1dbj in the event she rejected the ,lecompton ,constitution8 ,how8 ,the newspapers inform us that ,english himself1 whilst conducting his canvass for re-election1 and in order to secure it1 pledged himself to his constituents that if returned he would disregard his own bill and vote to admit ,kansas into the ,union with such population as she might have when she made application4 ,we are informed that every ,democratic candidate for ,congress in all the ,states where elections have recently been held was pledged against the ,english bill1 with perhaps one or two exceptions4 ,now1 if ,i had only done as these anti-,lecompton men who voted for the ,english bill in ,congress1 pledging themselves to refuse to admit ,kansas if she refused to become a ,slave ,state until she had a population of #ic1dbj and then returned to their people1 forfeited their pledge1 and made a new pledge to admit ,kansas at any time she applied1 without regard to population1 ,i would have had no trouble4 ,you saw the whole power and patronage of the ,federal ,government wielded in ,indiana1 ,ohio1 and ,pennsylvania to re-elect anti-,lecompton men to ,congress who voted against ,lecompton1 then voted for the ,english bill1 and then denounced the ,english bill1 and pledged themselves to their people to disregard it4 ,my sin consists in not having given a pledge1 and then in not having afterward forfeited it4 ,for that reason1 in this ,state1 every postmaster1 every route agent1 every collector of the ports1 and every ,federal officeholder forfeits his head the moment he expresses a preference for the ,democratic candidates against ,lincoln and his ,abolition associates4 ,a ,democratic ,administration which we helped to bring into power deems it consistent with its fidelity to principle and its regard to duty to wield its power in this ,state in behalf of the ,republican ,abolition candidates in every county and every ,congressional ,district against the ,democratic party4 ,all ,i have to say in reference to the matter is1 that if that ,administration have not regard enough for principle1 if they are not sufficiently attached to the creed of the ,democratic party1 to bury forever their personal hostilities in order to succeed in carrying out our glorious principles1 ,i have4 ,i have no personal difficulty with ,mr4 ,buchanan or his ,cabinet4 ,he chose to make certain recommendations to ,congress1 as he had a right to do1 on the ,lecompton question4 ,i could not vote in favor of them4 ,i had as much right to judge for myself how ,i should vote as he had how he should recommend4 ,he undertook to say to me1 8,if you do not vote as ,i tell you1 ,i will take off the heads of your friends40 ,i replied to him1 8,you did not elect me4 ,i represent ,illinois1 and ,i am accountable to ,illinois1 as my constituency1 and to ,god2 but not to the ,president or to any other power on earth40 ,and now this warfare is made on me because ,i would not surrender my convictions of duty1 because ,i would not abandon my constituency1 and receive the orders of the executive authorities as to how ,i should vote in the ,senate of the ,united ,states4 ,i hold that an attempt to control the ,senate on the part of the ,executive is subversive of the principles of our ,constitution4 ,the ,executive department is independent of the ,senate1 and the ,senate is independent of the ,president4 ,in matters of legislation the ,president has a veto on the action of the ,senate1 and in appointments and treaties the ,senate has a veto on the ,president4 ,he has no more right to tell me how ,i shall vote on his appointments than ,i have to tell him whether he shall veto or approve a bill that the ,senate has passed4 ,whenever you recognize the right of the ,executive to say to a ,senator1 8,do this1 or ,i will take off the heads of your friends10 you convert this government from a republic into a despotism4 ,whenever you recognize the right of a ,president to say to a member of ,congress1 8,vote as ,i tell you1 or ,i will bring a power to bear against you at home which will crush you10 you destroy the independence of the representative and convert him into a tool of ,executive power4 ,i resisted this invasion of the constitutional rights of a ,senator1 and ,i intend to resist it as long as ,i have a voice to speak or a vote to give4 ,yet ,mr4 ,buchanan cannot provoke me to abandon one iota of ,democratic principles out of revenge or hostility to his course4 ,i stand by the platform of the ,democratic party1 and by its organization1 and support its nominees4 ,if there are any who choose to bolt1 the fact only shows that they are not as good ,democrats as ,i am4 ,my friends1 there never was a time when it was as important for the ,democratic party1 for all national men1 to rally and stand together1 as it is to-day4 ,we find all sectional men giving up past differences and continuing the one question of slavery2 and when we find sectional men thus uniting we should unite to resist them and their treasonable designs4 ,such was the case in #ahej1 when ,clay left the quiet and peace of his home1 and again entered upon public life to quell agitation and restore peace to a distracted ,union4 ,then we ,democrats1 with ,cass at our head1 welcomed ,henry ,clay1 whom the whole nation regarded as having been preserved by ,god for the times4 ,he became our leader in that great fight1 and we rallied around him the same as the ,whigs rallied around old ,hickory in #ahcb to put down nullification4 ,thus you see that whilst ,whigs and ,democrats fought fearlessly in old times about banks1 the tariff1 distribution1 the specie circular1 and the sub-treasury1 all united as a band of brothers when the peace1 harmony1 or integrity of the ,union was imperiled4 ,it was so in #ahej1 when ,abolitionism had even so far divided this country1 ,north and ,south1 as to endanger the peace of the ,union2 ,whigs and ,democrats united in establishing the ,compromise ,measures of that year1 and restoring tranquillity and good feeling4 ,these measures passed on the joint action of the two parties4 ,they rested on the great principle that the people of each ,state and each ,territory should be left perfectly free to form and regulate their domestic institutions to suit themselves4 ,you ,whigs and we ,democrats justified them in that principle4 ,in #ahed1 when it became necessary to organize the ,territories of ,kansas and ,nebraska1 ,i brought forward the bill on the same principle4 ,in the ,kansas-,nebraska bill you find it declared to be the true intent and meaning of the ,act not to legislate slavery into any ,state or ,territory1 nor to exclude it therefrom1 but to leave the people thereof perfectly free to form and regulate their domestic institutions in their own way4 ,i stand on that same platform in #aheh that ,i did in #ahej1 #ahed1 and #ahef4 ,the ,washington 8,union10 pretending to be the organ of the ,administration1 in the number of the #eth of this month1 devotes three columns and a half to establish these propositions2 first1 that ,douglas1 in his ,freeport speech1 held the same doctrine that he did in his ,nebraska bill in #ahed2 second1 that in #ahed ,douglas justified the ,nebraska bill upon the ground that it was based upon the same principle as ,clay's ,compromise ,measures of #ahej4 ,the 8,union0 thus proved that ,douglas was the same in #aheh that he was in #ahef1 #ahed1 and #ahej1 and consequently argued that he was never a ,democrat4 ,is it not funny that ,i was never a ,democrat8 ,there is no pretence that ,i have changed a hair's breadth4 ,the 8,union0 proves by my speeches that ,i explained the ,compromise ,measures of #ahej just as ,i do now1 and that ,i explained the ,kansas and ,nebraska bill in #ahed just as ,i did in my ,freeport speech1 and yet says that ,i am not a ,democrat1 and cannot be trusted1 because ,i have not changed during the whole of that time4 ,it has occurred to me that in #ahed the author of the ,kansas and ,nebraska bill was considered a pretty good ,democrat4 ,it has occurred to me that in #ahef1 when ,i was exerting every nerve and every energy for ,james ,buchanan1 standing on the same platform then that ,i do now1 that ,i was a pretty good ,democrat4 ,they now tell me that ,i am not a ,democrat1 because ,i assert that the people of a ,territory1 as well as those of a ,state1 have the right to decide for themselves whether slavery can or cannot exist in such ,territory4 ,let me read what ,james ,buchanan said on that point when he accepted the ,democratic nomination for the ,presidency in #ahef4 ,in his letter of acceptance1 he used the following language3 8,the recent legislation of ,congress respecting domestic slavery1 derived as it has been from the original and pure fountain of legitimate political power1 the will of the majority1 promises ere long to allay the dangerous excitement4 ,this legislation is founded upon principles as ancient as free government itself1 and1 in accordance with them1 has simply declared that the people of a ,territory1 like those of a ,state1 shall decide for themselves whether slavery shall or shall not exist within their limits40 ,dr4 ,hope will there find my answer to the question he propounded to me before ,i commenced speaking4 ,of course1 no man will consider it an answer who is outside of the ,democratic organization1 bolts ,democratic nominations1 and indirectly aids to put ,abolitionists into power over ,democrats4 ,but whether ,dr4 ,hope considers it an answer or not1 every fair-minded man will see that ,james ,buchanan has answered the question1 and has asserted that the people of a ,territory1 like those of a ,state1 shall decide for themselves whether slavery shall or shall not exist within their limits4 ,i answer specifically if you want a further answer1 and say that while under the decision of the ,supreme ,court1 as recorded in the opinion of ,chief ,justice ,taney1 slaves are property like all other property1 and can be carried into any ,territory of the ,united ,states the same as any other description of property1 yet when you get them there they are subject to the local law of the ,territory just like all other property4 ,you will find in a recent speech delivered by that able and eloquent statesman1 ,hon4 ,jefferson ,davis1 at ,bangor1 ,maine1 that he took the same view of this subject that ,i did in my ,freeport speech4 ,he there said3 8,if the inhabitants of any ,territory should refuse to enact such laws and police regulations as would give security to their property or to his1 it would be rendered more or less valueless in proportion to the difficulties of holding it without such protection4 ,in the case of property in the labor of man1 or what is usually called slave property1 the insecurity would be so great that the owner could not ordinarily retain it4 ,therefore1 though the right would remain1 the remedy being withheld1 it would follow that the owner would be practically debarred1 by the circumstances of the case1 from taking slave property into a ,territory where the sense of the inhabitants was opposed to its introduction4 ,so much for the oft-repeated fallacy of forcing slavery upon any community40 ,you will also find that the distinguished ,speaker of the present ,house of ,representatives1 ,hon4 ,jas4 ,l4 ,orr1 construed the ,kansas and ,nebraska bill in this same way in #ahef1 and also that great intellect of the ,south1 ,alex4 ,h4 ,stephens1 put the same construction upon it in ,congress that ,i did in my ,freeport speech4 ,the whole ,south are rallying to the support of the doctrine that if the people of a ,territory want slavery1 they have a right to have it1 and if they do not want it1 that no power on earth can force it upon them4 ,i hold that there is no principle on earth more sacred to all the friends of freedom than that which says that no institution1 no law1 no constitution1 should be forced on an unwilling people contrary to their wishes2 and ,i assert that the ,kansas and ,nebraska bill contains that principle4 ,it is the great principle contained in that bill4 ,it is the principle on which ,james ,buchanan was made ,president4 ,without that principle1 he never would have been made ,president of the ,united ,states4 ,i will never violate or abandon that doctrine1 if ,i have to stand alone4 ,i have resisted the blandishments and threats of power on the one side1 and seduction on the other1 and have stood immovably for that principle1 fighting for it when assailed by ,northern mobs1 or threatened by ,southern hostility4 ,i have defended it against the ,north and the ,south1 and ,i will defend it against whoever assails it1 and ,i will follow it wherever its logical conclusions lead me4 ,i say to you that there is but one hope1 one safety for this country1 and that is to stand immovably by that principle which declares the right of each ,state and each ,territory to decide these questions for themselves4 ,this government was founded on that principle1 and must be administered in the same sense in which it was founded4 ,but the ,abolition party really thinks that under the ,declaration of ,independence the negro is equal to the white man1 and that negro equality is an inalienable right conferred by the ,almighty1 and hence that all human laws in violation of it are null and void4 ,with such men it is no use for me to argue4 ,i hold that the signers of the ,declaration of ,independence had no reference to negroes at all when they declared all men to be created equal4 ,they did not mean negro1 nor the savage ,indians1 nor the ,feejee ,islanders1 nor any other barbarous race4 ,they were speaking of white men4 ,they alluded to men of ,european birth and ,european descent1--to white men1 and to none others1--when they declared that doctrine4 ,i hold that this government was established on the white basis4 ,it was established by white men for the benefit of white men and their posterity forever1 and should be administered by white men1 and none others4 ,but it does not follow by any means1 that merely because the negro is not a citizen1 and merely because he is not our equal1 that1 therefore1 he should be a slave4 ,on the contrary1 it does follow that we ought to extend to the negro race1 and to all other dependent races1 all the rights1 all the privileges1 and all the immunities which they can exercise consistently with the safety of society4 ,humanity requires that we should give them all these privileges2 ,christianity commands that we should extend those privileges to them4 ,the question then arises1 ,what are those privileges1 and what is the nature and extent of them8 ,my answer is1 that that is a question which each ,state must answer for itself4 ,we in ,illinois have decided it for ourselves4 ,we tried slavery1 kept it up for twelve years1 and finding that it was not profitable1 we abolished it for that reason1 and became a ,free ,state4 ,we adopted in its stead the policy that a negro in this ,state shall not be a slave and shall not be a citizen4 ,we have a right to adopt that policy4 ,for my part1 ,i think it is a wise and sound policy for us4 ,you in ,missouri must judge for yourselves whether it is a wise policy for you4 ,if you choose to follow our example1 very good2 if you reject it1 still well1--it is your business1 not ours4 ,so with ,kentucky4 ,let ,kentucky adopt a policy to suit herself4 ,if we do not like it1 we will keep away from it2 and if she does not like ours1 let her stay at home1 mind her own business1 and let us alone4 ,if the people of all the ,states will act on that great principle1 and each ,state mind its own business1 attend to its own affairs1 take care of its own negroes1 and not meddle with its neighbors1 then there will be peace between the ,north and ,south1 the ,east and the ,west1 throughout the whole ,union4 ,why can we not thus have peace8 ,why should we thus allow a sectional party to agitate this country1 to array the ,north against the ,south1 and convert us into enemies instead of friends1 merely that a few ambitious men may ride into power on a sectional hobby8 ,how long is it since these ambitious ,northern men wished for a sectional organization8 ,did any one of them dream of a sectional party as long as the ,north was the weaker section and the ,south the stronger8 ,then all were opposed to sectional parties2 but the moment the ,north obtained the majority in the ,house and ,senate by the admission of ,california1 and could elect a ,president without the aid of ,southern votes1 that moment ambitious ,northern men formed a scheme to excite the ,north against the ,south1 and make the people be governed in their votes by geographical lines1 thinking that the ,north1 being the stronger section1 would outvote the ,south1 and consequently they1 the leaders1 would ride into office on a sectional hobby4 ,i am told that my hour is out4 ,it was very short4 ,,mr4 ,,lincoln',s ,,reply ,ladies and ,gentlemen3 ,i have been somewhat1 in my own mind1 complimented by a large portion of ,judge ,douglas's speech1--,i mean that portion which he devotes to the controversy between himself and the present ,administration4 ,this is the seventh time ,judge ,douglas and myself have met in these joint discussions1 and he has been gradually improving in regard to his war with the ,administration4 ,at ,quincy1 day before yesterday1 he was a little more severe upon the ,administration than ,i had heard him upon any occasion1 and ,i took pains to compliment him for it4 ,i then told him to 8,give it to them with all the power he had02 and as some of them were present1 ,i told them ,i would be very much obliged if they would give it to him in about the same way4 ,i take it he has now vastly improved upon the attack he made then upon the ,administration4 ,i flatter myself he has really taken my advice on this subject4 ,all ,i can say now is to recommend to him and to them what ,i then commended1--to prosecute the war against one another in the most vigorous manner4 ,i say to them again3 8,go it1 husband6--,go it1 bear60 ,there is one other thing ,i will mention before ,i leave this branch of the discussion1--although ,i do not consider it much of my business1 anyway4 ,i refer to that part of the ,judge's remarks where he undertakes to involve ,mr4 ,buchanan in an inconsistency4 ,he reads something from ,mr4 ,buchanan1 from which he undertakes to involve him in an inconsistency2 and he gets something of a cheer for having done so4 ,i would only remind the ,judge that while he is very valiantly fighting for the ,nebraska bill and the repeal of the ,missouri ,compromise1 it has been but a little while since he was the valiant advocate of the ,missouri ,compromise4 ,i want to know if ,buchanan has not as much right to be inconsistent as ,douglas has8 ,has ,douglas the exclusive right1 in this country1 of being on all sides of all questions8 ,is nobody allowed that high privilege but himself8 ,is he to have an entire monopoly on that subject8 ,so far as ,judge ,douglas addressed his speech to me1 or so far as it was about me1 it is my business to pay some attention to it4 ,i have heard the ,judge state two or three times what he has stated to-day1--that in a speech which ,i made at ,springfield1 ,illinois1 ,i had in a very especial manner complained that the ,supreme ,court in the ,dred ,scott case had decided that a negro could never be a citizen of the ,united ,states4 ,i have omitted by some accident heretofore to analyze this statement1 and it is required of me to notice it now4 ,in point of fact it is untrue4 ,i never have complained especially of the ,dred ,scott decision because it held that a negro could not be a citizen1 and the ,judge is always wrong when he says ,i ever did so complain of it4 ,i have the speech here1 and ,i will thank him or any of his friends to show where ,i said that a negro should be a citizen1 and complained especially of the ,dred ,scott decision because it declared he could not be one4 ,i have done no such thing2 and ,judge ,douglas1 so persistently insisting that ,i have done so1 has strongly impressed me with the belief of a predetermination on his part to misrepresent me4 ,he could not get his foundation for insisting that ,i was in favor of this negro equality anywhere else as well as he could by assuming that untrue proposition4 ,let me tell this audience what is true in regard to that matter2 and the means by which they may correct me if ,i do not tell them truly is by a recurrence to the speech itself4 ,i spoke of the ,dred ,scott decision in my ,springfield speech1 and ,i was then endeavoring to prove that the ,dred ,scott decision was a portion of a system or scheme to make slavery national in this country4 ,i pointed out what things had been decided by the court4 ,i mentioned as a fact that they had decided that a negro could not be a citizen2 that they had done so1 as ,i supposed1 to deprive the negro1 under all circumstances1 of the remotest possibility of ever becoming a citizen and claiming the rights of a citizen of the ,united ,states under a certain clause of the ,constitution4 ,i stated that1 without making any complaint of it at all4 ,i then went on and stated the other points decided in the case2 namely1 that the bringing of a negro into the ,state of ,illinois and holding him in slavery for two years here was a matter in regard to which they would not decide whether it would make him free or not2 that they decided the further point that taking him into a ,united ,states ,territory where slavery was prohibited by ,act of ,congress did not make him free1 because that ,act of ,congress1 as they held1 was unconstitutional4 ,i mentioned these three things as making up the points decided in that case4 ,i mentioned them in a lump1 taken in connection with the introduction of the ,nebraska bill1 and the amendment of ,chase1 offered at the time1 declaratory of the right of the people of the ,territories to exclude slavery1 which was voted down by the friends of the bill4 ,i mentioned all these things together1 as evidence tending to prove a combination and conspiracy to make the institution of slavery national4 ,in that connection and in that way ,i mentioned the decision on the point that a negro could not be a citizen1 and in no other connection4 ,out of this ,judge ,douglas builds up his beautiful fabrication of my purpose to introduce a perfect social and political equality between the white and black races4 ,his assertion that ,i made an 8especial objection0 7that is his exact language7 to the decision on this account1 is untrue in point of fact4 ,now1 while ,i am upon this subject1 and as ,henry ,clay has been alluded to1 ,i desire to place myself1 in connection with ,mr4 ,clay1 as nearly right before this people as may be4 ,i am quite aware what the ,judge's object is here by all these allusions4 ,he knows that we are before an audience having strong sympathies southward1 by relationship1 place of birth1 and so on4 ,he desires to place me in an extremely ,abolition attitude4 ,he read upon a former occasion1 and alludes1 without reading1 to-day to a portion of a speech which ,i delivered in ,chicago4 ,in his quotations from that speech1 as he has made them upon former occasions1 the extracts were taken in such a way as1 ,i suppose1 brings them within the definition of what is called garbling1--taking portions of a speech which1 when taken by themselves1 do not present the entire sense of the speaker as expressed at the time4 ,i propose1 therefore1 out of that same speech1 to show how one portion of it which he skipped over 7taking an extract before and an extract after7 will give a different idea1 and the true idea ,i intended to convey4 ,it will take me some little time to read it1 but ,i believe ,i will occupy the time that way4 ,you have heard him frequently allude to my controversy with him in regard to the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,i confess that ,i have had a struggle with ,judge ,douglas on that matter1 and ,i will try briefly to place myself right in regard to it on this occasion4 ,i said--and it is between the extracts ,judge ,douglas has taken from this speech1 and put in his published speeches3 8,it may be argued that there are certain conditions that make necessities and impose them upon us1 and to the extent that a necessity is imposed upon a man he must submit to it4 ,i think that was the condition in which we found ourselves when we established this government4 ,we had slaves among us1 we could not get our ,constitution unless we permitted them to remain in slavery1 we could not secure the good we did secure if we grasped for more2 and having by necessity submitted to that much1 it does not destroy the principle that is the charter of our liberties4 ,let the charter remain as our standard40 ,now1 ,i have upon all occasions declared as strongly as ,judge ,douglas against the disposition to interfere with the existing institution of slavery4 ,you hear me read it from the same speech from which he takes garbled extracts for the purpose of proving upon me a disposition to interfere with the institution of slavery1 and establish a perfect social and political equality between negroes and white people4 ,allow me while upon this subject briefly to present one other extract from a speech of mine1 more than a year ago1 at ,springfield1 in discussing this very same question1 soon after ,judge ,douglas took his ground that negroes were not included in the ,declaration of ,independence3 8,i think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men1 but they did not intend to declare all men equal in all respects4 ,they did not mean to say all men were equal in color1 size1 intellect1 moral development1 or social capacity4 ,they defined with tolerable distinctness in what they did consider all men created equal1--equal in certain inalienable rights1 among which are life1 liberty1 and the pursuit of happiness4 ,this they said1 and this they meant4 ,they did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality1 or yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them4 ,in fact1 they had no power to confer such a boon4 ,they meant simply to declare the right1 so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit4 8,they meant to set up a standard maxim for free society which should be familiar to all1--constantly looked to1 constantly labored for1 and even1 though never perfectly attained1 constantly approximated1 and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence1 and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people1 of all colors1 everywhere40 ,there again are the sentiments ,i have expressed in regard to the ,declaration of ,independence upon a former occasion1--sentiments which have been put in print and read wherever anybody cared to know what so humble an individual as myself chose to say in regard to it4 ,at ,galesburgh1 the other day1 ,i said1 in answer to ,judge ,douglas1 that three years ago there never had been a man1 so far as ,i knew or believed1 in the whole world1 who had said that the ,declaration of ,independence did not include negroes in the term 8all men40 ,i reassert it to-day4 ,i assert that ,judge ,douglas and all his friends may search the whole records of the country1 and it will be a matter of great astonishment to me if they shall be able to find that one human being three years ago had ever uttered the astounding sentiment that the term 8all men0 in the ,declaration did not include the negro4 ,do not let me be misunderstood4 ,i know that more than three years ago there were men who1 finding this assertion constantly in the way of their schemes to bring about the ascendency and perpetuation of slavery1 denied the truth of it4 ,i know that ,mr4 ,calhoun and all the politicians of his school denied the truth of the ,declaration4 ,i know that it ran along in the mouth of some ,southern men for a period of years1 ending at last in that shameful1 though rather forcible1 declaration of ,pettit of ,indiana1 upon the floor of the ,united ,states ,senate1 that the ,declaration of ,independence was in that respect 8a self-evident lie10 rather than a self-evident truth4 ,but ,i say1 with a perfect knowledge of all this hawking at the ,declaration without directly attacking it1 that three years ago there never had lived a man who had ventured to assail it in the sneaking way of pretending to believe it1 and then asserting it did not include the negro4 ,i believe the first man who ever said it was ,chief ,justice ,taney in the ,dred ,scott case1 and the next to him was our friend ,stephen ,a4 ,douglas4 ,and now it has become the catchword of the entire party4 ,i would like to call upon his friends everywhere to consider how they have come in so short a time to view this matter in a way so entirely different from their former belief2 to ask whether they are not being borne along by an irresistible current1--whither1 they know not4 ,in answer to my proposition at ,galesburgh last week1 ,i see that some man in ,chicago1 has got up a letter1 addressed to the ,chicago 8,times10 to show1 as he professes1 that somebody had said so before2 and he signs himself 8,an ,old ,line ,whig10 if ,i remember correctly4 ,in the first place1 ,i would say he was not an old line ,whig4 ,i am somewhat acquainted with old line ,whigs from the origin to the end of that party2 ,i became pretty well acquainted with them1 and ,i know they always had some sense1 whatever else you could ascribe to them4 ,i know there never was one who had not more sense than to try to show by the evidence he produces that some man had1 prior to the time ,i named1 said that negroes were not included in the term 8all men0 in the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,what is the evidence he produces8 ,i will bring forward his evidence1 and let you see what he offers by way of showing that somebody more than three years ago had said negroes were not included in the ,declaration4 ,he brings forward part of a speech from ,henry ,clay1--the part of the speech of ,henry ,clay which ,i used to bring forward to prove precisely the contrary4 ,i guess we are surrounded to some extent to-day by the old friends of ,mr4 ,clay1 and they will be glad to hear anything from that authority4 ,while he was in ,indiana a man presented a petition to liberate his negroes1 and he 7,mr4 ,clay7 made a speech in answer to it1 which ,i suppose he carefully wrote out himself and caused to be published4 ,i have before me an extract from that speech which constitutes the evidence this pretended 8,old ,line ,whig0 at ,chicago brought forward to show that ,mr4 ,clay didn't suppose the negro was included in the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,hear what ,mr4 ,clay said3 8,and what is the foundation of this appeal to me in ,indiana to liberate the slaves under my care in ,kentucky8 ,it is a general declaration in the act announcing to the world the independence of the thirteen ,american colonies1 that all men are created equal4 ,now1 as an abstract principle1 there is no doubt of the truth of that declaration2 and it is desirable1 in the original construction of society and in organized societies1 to keep it in view as a great fundamental principle4 ,but1 then1 ,i apprehend that in no society that ever did exist1 or ever shall be formed1 was or can the equality asserted among the members of the human race be practically enforced and carried out4 ,there are portions1 large portions1--women1 minors1 insane1 culprits1 transient sojourners1--that will always probably remain subject to the government of another portion of the community4 8,that declaration1 whatever may be the extent of its import1 was made by the delegations of the thirteen ,states4 ,in most of them slavery existed1 and had long existed1 and was established by law4 ,it was introduced and forced upon the colonies by the paramount law of ,england4 ,do you believe that in making that declaration the ,states that concurred in it intended that it should be tortured into a virtual emancipation of all the slaves within their respective limits8 ,would ,virginia and other ,southern ,states have ever united in a declaration which was to be interpreted into an abolition of slavery among them8 ,did any one of the thirteen colonies entertain such a design or expectation8 ,to impute such a secret and unavowed purpose1 would be to charge a political fraud upon the noblest band of patriots that ever assembled in council1--a fraud upon the ,confederacy of the ,revolution2 a fraud upon the union of those ,states whose ,constitution not only recognized the lawfulness of slavery1 but permitted the importation of slaves from ,africa until the year #ahjh40 ,this is the entire quotation brought forward to prove that somebody previous to three years ago had said the negro was not included in the term 8all men0 in the ,declaration4 ,how does it do so8 ,in what way has it a tendency to prove that8 ,mr4 ,clay says it is true as an abstract principle that all men are created equal1 but that we cannot practically apply it in all cases4 ,he illustrates this by bringing forward the cases of females1 minors1 and insane persons1 with whom it cannot be enforced2 but he says it is true as an abstract principle in the organization of society as well as in organized society and it should be kept in view as a fundamental principle4 ,let me read a few words more before ,i add some comments of my own4 ,mr4 ,clay says1 a little further on3 8,i desire no concealment of my opinions in regard to the institution of slavery4 ,i look upon it as a great evil1 and deeply lament that we have derived it from the parental government and from our ancestors4 ,but here they are1 and the question is1 ,how can they be best dealt with8 ,if a state of nature existed1 and we were about to lay the foundations of society1 no man would be more strongly opposed than ,i should be to incorporate the institution of slavery among its elements40 ,now1 here in this same book1 in this same speech1 in this same extract1 brought forward to prove that ,mr4 ,clay held that the negro was not included in the ,declaration of ,independence1 is no such statement on his part1 but the declaration that it is a great fundamental truth which should be constantly kept in view in the organization of society and in societies already organized4 ,but if ,i say a word about it2 if ,i attempt1 as ,mr4 ,clay said all good men ought to do1 to keep it in view2 if1 in this 8organized society10 ,i ask to have the public eye turned upon it2 if ,i ask1 in relation to the organization of new ,territories1 that the public eye should be turned upon it1--forthwith ,i am vilified as you hear me to-day4 ,what have ,i done that ,i have not the license of ,henry ,clay's illustrious example here in doing8 ,have ,i done aught that ,i have not his authority for1 while maintaining that in organizing new ,territories and societies1 this fundamental principle should be regarded1 and in organized society holding it up to the public view and recognizing what he recognized as the great principle of free government8 ,and when this new principle--this new proposition that no human being ever thought of three years ago--is brought forward1 ,i combat it as having an evil tendency1 if not an evil design4 ,i combat it as having a tendency to dehumanize the negro1 to take away from him the right of ever striving to be a man4 ,i combat it as being one of the thousand things constantly done in these days to prepare the public mind to make property1 and nothing but property1 of the negro in all the ,states of this ,union4 ,but there is a point that ,i wish1 before leaving this part of the discussion1 to ask attention to4 ,i have read and ,i repeat the words of ,henry ,clay3 8,i desire no concealment of my opinions in regard to the institution of slavery4 ,i look upon it as a great evil1 and deeply lament that we have derived it from the parental government and from our ancestors4 ,i wish every slave in the ,united ,states was in the country of his ancestors4 ,but there they are2 the question is1 ,how can they best be dealt with8 ,if a state of nature existed1 and we were about to lay the foundations of society1 no man would be more strongly opposed than ,i should be to incorporate the institution of slavery among its elements40 ,the principle upon which ,i have insisted in this canvass is in relation to laying the foundations of new societies4 ,i have never sought to apply these principles to the old ,states for the purpose of abolishing slavery in those ,states4 ,it is nothing but a miserable perversion of what ,i have said1 to assume that ,i have declared ,missouri1 or any other ,slave ,state1 shall emancipate her slaves2 ,i have proposed no such thing4 ,but when ,mr4 ,clay says that in laying the foundations of societies in our ,territories where it does not exist1 he would be opposed to the introduction of slavery as an element1 ,i insist that we have his warrant--his license--for insisting upon the exclusion of that element which he declared in such strong and emphatic language was most hateful to him4 ,judge ,douglas has again referred to a ,springfield speech in which ,i said 8a house divided against itself cannot stand40 ,the ,judge has so often made the entire quotation from that speech that ,i can make it from memory4 ,i used this language3 8,we are now far into the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to the slavery agitation4 ,under the operation of this policy1 that agitation has not only not ceased1 but has constantly augmented4 ,in my opinion it will not cease until a crisis shall have been reached and passed4 #8,a house divided against itself cannot stand4' ,i believe this government cannot endure permanently1 half slave and half free4 ,i do not expect the house to fall1 but ,i do expect it will cease to be divided4 ,it will become all one thing or all the other4 ,either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread of it1 and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction1 or its advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike lawful in all the ,states1--old as well as new1 ,north as well as ,south40 ,that extract and the sentiments expressed in it have been extremely offensive to ,judge ,douglas4 ,he has warred upon them as ,satan wars upon the ,bible4 ,his perversions upon it are endless4 ,here now are my views upon it in brief4 ,i said we were now far into the fifth year since a policy was initiated with the avowed object and confident promise of putting an end to the slavery agitation4 ,is it not so8 ,when that ,nebraska bill was brought forward four years ago last ,january1 was it not for the 8avowed object0 of putting an end to the slavery agitation8 ,we were to have no more agitation in ,congress2 it was all to be banished to the ,territories4 ,by the way1 ,i will remark here that1 as ,judge ,douglas is very fond of complimenting ,mr4 ,crittenden in these days1 ,mr4 ,crittenden has said there was a falsehood in that whole business1 for there was no slavery agitation at that time to allay4 ,we were for a little while quiet on the troublesome thing1 and that very allaying plaster of ,judge ,douglas stirred it up again4 ,but was it not understood or intimated with the 8confident promise0 of putting an end to the slavery agitation8 ,surely it was4 ,in every speech you heard ,judge ,douglas make1 until he got into this 8imbroglio10 as they call it1 with the ,administration about the ,lecompton ,constitution1 every speech on that ,nebraska bill was full of his felicitations that we were just at the end of the slavery agitation4 ,the last tip of the last joint of the old serpent's tail was just drawing out of view4 ,but has it proved so8 ,i have asserted that under that policy that agitation 8has not only not ceased1 but has constantly augmented40 ,when was there ever a greater agitation in ,congress than last winter8 ,when was it as great in the country as to-day8 ,there was a collateral object in the introduction of that ,nebraska policy1 which was to clothe the people of the ,territories with a superior degree of self-government1 beyond what they had ever had before4 ,the first object and the main one of conferring upon the people a higher degree of 8self-government0 is a question of fact to be determined by you in answer to a single question4 ,have you ever heard or known of a people anywhere on earth who had as little to do as1 in the first instance of its use1 the people of ,kansas had with this same right of 8self-government08 ,in its main policy and in its collateral object1 it has been nothing but a living1 creeping lie from the time of its introduction till to-day4 ,i have intimated that ,i thought the agitation would not cease until a crisis should have been reached and passed4 ,i have stated in what way ,i thought it would be reached and passed4 ,i have said that it might go one way or the other4 ,we might1 by arresting the further spread of it1 and placing it where the fathers originally placed it1 put it where the public mind should rest in the belief that it was in the course of ultimate extinction4 ,thus the agitation may cease4 ,it may be pushed forward until it shall become alike lawful in all the ,states1 old as well as new1 ,north as well as ,south4 ,i have said1 and ,i repeat1 my wish is that the further spread of it may be arrested1 and that it may be placed where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction4 ,i have expressed that as my wish4 ,i entertain the opinion1 upon evidence sufficient to my mind1 that the fathers of this government placed that institution where the public mind did rest in the belief that it was in the course of ultimate extinction4 ,let me ask why they made provision that the source of slavery--the ,african slave-trade--should be cut off at the end of twenty years8 ,why did they make provision that in all the new territory we owned at that time slavery should be forever inhibited8 ,why stop its spread in one direction1 and cut off its source in another1 if they did not look to its being placed in the course of its ultimate extinction8 ,again3 the institution of slavery is only mentioned in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states two or three times1 and in neither of these cases does the word 8slavery0 or 8negro race0 occur2 but covert language is used each time1 and for a purpose full of significance4 ,what is the language in regard to the prohibition of the ,african slave-trade8 ,it runs in about this way3 8,the migration or importation of such persons as any of the ,states now existing shall think proper to admit1 shall not be prohibited by the ,congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight40 ,the next allusion in the ,constitution to the question of slavery and the black race is on the subject of the basis of representation1 and there the language used is3 8,representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several ,states which may be included within this ,union1 according to their respective numbers1 which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons1 including those bound to service for a term of years1 and excluding ,indians not taxed1--three-fifths of all other persons40 ,it says 8persons10 not slaves1 not negroes2 but this 8three-fifths0 can be applied to no other class among us than the negroes4 ,lastly1 in the provision for the reclamation of fugitive slaves1 it is said3 8,no person held to service or labor in one ,state1 under the laws thereof1 escaping into another1 shall in consequence of any law or regulation therein be discharged from such service or labor1 but shall be delivered up1 on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due40 ,there again there is no mention of the word 8negro0 or of slavery4 ,in all three of these places1 being the only allusions to slavery in the instrument1 covert language is used4 ,language is used not suggesting that slavery existed or that the black race were among us4 ,and ,i understand the contemporaneous history of those times to be that covert language was used with a purpose1 and that purpose was that in our ,constitution1 which it was hoped and is still hoped will endure forever1--when it should be read by intelligent and patriotic men1 after the institution of slavery had passed from amongst us1--there should be nothing on the face of the great charter of liberty suggesting that such a thing as negro slavery had ever existed among us4 ,this is part of the evidence that the fathers of the government expected and intended the institution of slavery to come to an end4 ,they expected and intended that it should be in the course of ultimate extinction4 ,and when ,i say that ,i desire to see the further spread of it arrested1 ,i only say ,i desire to see that done which the fathers have first done4 ,when ,i say ,i desire to see it placed where the public mind will rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction1 ,i only say ,i desire to see it placed where they placed it4 ,it is not true that our fathers1 as ,judge ,douglas assumes1 made this government part slave and part free4 ,understand the sense in which he puts it4 ,he assumes that slavery is a rightful thing within itself1--was introduced by the framers of the ,constitution4 ,the exact truth is1 that they found the institution existing among us1 and they left it as they found it4 ,but in making the government they left this institution with many clear marks of disapprobation upon it4 ,they found slavery among them1 and they left it among them because of the difficulty--the absolute impossibility--of its immediate removal4 ,and when ,judge ,douglas asks me why we cannot let it remain part slave and part free1 as the fathers of the government made it1 he asks a question based upon an assumption which is itself a falsehood2 and ,i turn upon him and ask him the question1 when the policy that the fathers of the government had adopted in relation to this element among us was the best policy in the world1 the only wise policy1 the only policy that we can ever safely continue upon1 that will ever give us peace1 unless this dangerous element masters us all and becomes a national institution1--,i turn upon him and ask him why he could not leave it alone4 ,i turn and ask him why he was driven to the necessity of introducing a new policy in regard to it4 ,he has himself said he introduced a new policy4 ,he said so in his speech on the #bb;d of ,march of the present year1 #aheh4 ,i ask him why he could not let it remain where our fathers placed it4 ,i ask1 too1 of ,judge ,douglas and his friends why we shall not again place this institution upon the basis on which the fathers left it4 ,i ask you1 when he infers that ,i am in favor of setting the ,free and ,slave ,states at war1 when the institution was placed in that attitude by those who made the ,constitution1 did they make any war8 ,if we had no war out of it when thus placed1 wherein is the ground of belief that we shall have war out of it if we return to that policy8 ,have we had any peace upon this matter springing from any other basis8 ,i maintain that we have not4 ,i have proposed nothing more than a return to the policy of the fathers4 ,i confess1 when ,i propose a certain measure of policy1 it is not enough for me that ,i do not intend anything evil in the result1 but it is incumbent on me to show that it has not a tendency to that result4 ,i have met ,judge ,douglas in that point of view4 ,i have not only made the declaration that ,i do not mean to produce a conflict between the ,states1 but ,i have tried to show by fair reasoning1 and ,i think ,i have shown to the minds of fair men1 that ,i propose nothing but what has a most peaceful tendency4 ,the quotation that ,i happened to make in that ,springfield speech1 that 8a house divided against itself cannot stand10 and which has proved so offensive to the ,judge1 was part and parcel of the same thing4 ,he tries to show that variety in the domestic institutions of the different ,states is necessary and indispensable4 ,i do not dispute it4 ,i have no controversy with ,judge ,douglas about that4 ,i shall very readily agree with him that it would be foolish for us to insist upon having a cranberry law here in ,illinois1 where we have no cranberries1 because they have a cranberry law in ,indiana1 where they have cranberries4 ,i should insist that it would be exceedingly wrong in us to deny to ,virginia the right to enact oyster laws1 where they have oysters1 because we want no such laws here4 ,i understand1 ,i hope1 quite as well as ,judge ,douglas or anybody else1 that the variety in the soil and climate and face of the country1 and consequent variety in the industrial pursuits and productions of a country1 require systems of law conforming to this variety in the natural features of the country4 ,i understand quite as well as ,judge ,douglas that if we here raise a barrel of flour more than we want1 and the ,louisianians raise a barrel of sugar more than they want1 it is of mutual advantage to exchange4 ,that produces commerce1 brings us together1 and makes us better friends4 ,we like one another the more for it4 ,and ,i understand as well as ,judge ,douglas1 or anybody else1 that these mutual accommodations are the cements which bind together the different parts of this ,union2 that instead of being a thing to 8divide the house10--figuratively expressing the ,union1--they tend to sustain it2 they are the props of the house1 tending always to hold it up4 ,but when ,i have admitted all this1 ,i ask if there is any parallel between these things and this institution of slavery8 ,i do not see that there is any parallel at all between them4 ,consider it4 ,when have we had any difficulty or quarrel amongst ourselves about the cranberry laws of ,indiana1 or the oyster laws of ,virginia1 or the pine-lumber laws of ,maine1 or the fact that ,louisiana produces sugar1 and ,illinois flour8 ,when have we had any quarrels over these things8 ,when have we had perfect peace in regard to this thing which ,i say is an element of discord in this ,union8 ,we have sometimes had peace1 but when was it8 ,it was when the institution of slavery remained quiet where it was4 ,we have had difficulty and turmoil whenever it has made a struggle to spread itself where it was not4 ,i ask1 then1 if experience does not speak in thunder-tones1 telling us that the policy which has given peace to the country heretofore1 being returned to1 gives the greatest promise of peace again4 ,you may say1 and ,judge ,douglas has intimated the same thing1 that all this difficulty in regard to the institution of slavery is the mere agitation of office-seekers and ambitious ,northern politicians4 ,he thinks we want to get 8his place10 ,i suppose4 ,i agree that there are office-seekers amongst us4 ,the ,bible says somewhere that we are desperately selfish4 ,i think we would have discovered that fact without the ,bible4 ,i do not claim that ,i am any less so than the average of men1 but ,i do claim that ,i am not more selfish than ,judge ,douglas4 ,but is it true that all the difficulty and agitation we have in regard to this institution of slavery springs from office-seeking1 from the mere ambition of politicians8 ,is that the truth8 ,how many times have we had danger from this question8 ,go back to the day of the ,missouri ,compromise4 ,go back to the ,nullification question1 at the bottom of which lay this same slavery question4 ,go back to the time of the ,annexation of ,texas4 ,go back to the troubles that led to the ,compromise of #ahej4 ,you will find that every time1 with the single exception of the ,nullification question1 they sprung from an endeavor to spread this institution4 ,there never was a party in the history of this country1 and there probably never will be1 of sufficient strength to disturb the general peace of the country4 ,parties themselves may be divided and quarrel on minor questions1 yet it extends not beyond the parties themselves4 ,but does not this question make a disturbance outside of political circles8 ,does it not enter into the churches and rend them asunder8 ,what divided the great ,methodist ,church into two parts1 ,north and ,south8 ,what has raised this constant disturbance in every ,presbyterian ,general ,assembly that meets8 ,what disturbed the ,unitarian ,church in this very city two years ago8 ,what has jarred and shaken the great ,american ,tract ,society recently1 not yet splitting it1 but sure to divide it in the end8 ,is it not this same mighty1 deep-seated power that somehow operates on the minds of men1 exciting and stirring them up in every avenue of society1--in politics1 in religion1 in literature1 in morals1 in all the manifold relations of life8 ,is this the work of politicians8 ,is that irresistible power1 which for fifty years has shaken the government and agitated the people1 to be stilled and subdued by pretending that it is an exceedingly simple thing1 and we ought not to talk about it8 ,if you will get everybody else to stop talking about it1 ,i assure you ,i will quit before they have half done so4 ,but where is the philosophy or statesmanship which assumes that you can quiet that disturbing element in our society which has disturbed us for more than half a century1 which has been the only serious danger that has threatened our institutions1--,i say1 where is the philosophy or the statesmanship based on the assumption that we are to quit talking about it1 and that the public mind is all at once to cease being agitated by it8 ,yet this is the policy here in the ,north that ,douglas is advocating1--that we are to care nothing about it6 ,i ask you if it is not a false philosophy4 ,is it not a false statesmanship that undertakes to build up a system of policy upon the basis of caring nothing about the very thing that everybody does care the most about8--a thing which all experience has shown we care a very great deal about8 ,the ,judge alludes very often in the course of his remarks to the exclusive right which the ,states have to decide the whole thing for themselves4 ,i agree with him very readily that the different ,states have that right4 ,he is but fighting a man of straw when he assumes that ,i am contending against the right of the ,states to do as they please about it4 ,our controversy with him is in regard to the new ,territories4 ,we agree that when the ,states come in as ,states they have the right and the power to do as they please4 ,we have no power as citizens of the ,free ,states1 or in our ,federal capacity as members of the ,federal ,union through the ,general ,government1 to disturb slavery in the ,states where it exists4 ,we profess constantly that we have no more inclination than belief in the power of the government to disturb it2 yet we are driven constantly to defend ourselves from the assumption that we are warring upon the rights of the ,states4 ,what ,i insist upon is1 that the new ,territories shall be kept free from it while in the ,territorial condition4 ,judge ,douglas assumes that we have no interest in them1--that we have no right whatever to interfere4 ,i think we have some interest4 ,i think that as white men we have4 ,do we not wish for an outlet for our surplus population1 if ,i may so express myself8 ,do we not feel an interest in getting to that outlet with such institutions as we would like to have prevail there8 ,if you go to the ,territory opposed to slavery1 and another man comes upon the same ground with his slave1 upon the assumption that the things are equal1 it turns out that he has the equal right all his way1 and you have no part of it your way4 ,if he goes in and makes it a ,slave ,territory1 and by consequence a ,slave ,state1 is it not time that those who desire to have it a ,free ,state were on equal ground8 ,let me suggest it in a different way4 ,how many ,democrats are there about here 8,a thousand0 who have left ,slave ,states and come into the ,free ,state of ,illinois to get rid of the institution of slavery8 ,another voice3 8,a thousand and one40 ,i reckon there are a thousand and one4 ,i will ask you1 if the policy you are now advocating had prevailed when this country was in a ,territorial condition1 where would you have gone to get rid of it8 ,where would you have found your ,free ,state or ,territory to go to8 ,and when hereafter1 for any cause1 the people in this place shall desire to find new homes1 if they wish to be rid of the institution1 where will they find the place to go to8 ,now1 irrespective of the moral aspect of this question as to whether there is a right or wrong in enslaving a negro1 ,i am still in favor of our new ,territories being in such a condition that white men may find a home1--may find some spot where they can better their condition2 where they can settle upon new soil and better their condition in life4 ,i am in favor of this1 not merely 7,i must say it here as ,i have elsewhere7 for our own people who are born amongst us1 but as an outlet for free white people everywhere1 the world over1--in which ,hans1 and ,baptiste1 and ,patrick1 and all other men from all the world1 may find new homes and better their conditions in life4 ,i have stated upon former occasions1 and ,i may as well state again1 what ,i understand to be the real issue in this controversy between ,judge ,douglas and myself4 ,on the point of my wanting to make war between the ,free and the ,slave ,states1 there has been no issue between us4 ,so1 too1 when he assumes that ,i am in favor of introducing a perfect social and political equality between the white and black races4 ,these are false issues1 upon which ,judge ,douglas has tried to force the controversy4 ,there is no foundation in truth for the charge that ,i maintain either of these propositions4 ,the real issue in this controversy--the one pressing upon every mind--is the sentiment on the part of one class that looks upon the institution of slavery as a wrong1 and of another class that does not look upon it as a wrong4 ,the sentiment that contemplates the institution of slavery in this country as a wrong is the sentiment of the ,republican party4 ,it is the sentiment around which all their actions1 all their arguments1 circle1 from which all their propositions radiate4 ,they look upon it as a being a moral1 social1 and political wrong2 and while they contemplate it as such1 they nevertheless have due regard for its actual existence among us1 and the difficulties of getting rid of it in any satisfactory way and to all the constitutional obligations thrown about it4 ,yet1 having a due regard for these1 they desire a policy in regard to it that looks to its not creating any more danger4 ,they insist that it should1 as far as may be1 be treated as a wrong2 and one of the methods of treating it as a wrong is to make provision that it shall grow no larger4 ,they also desire a policy that looks to a peaceful end of slavery at some time1 as being wrong4 ,these are the views they entertain in regard to it as ,i understand them2 and all their sentiments1 all their arguments and propositions1 are brought within this range4 ,i have said1 and ,i repeat it here1 that if there be a man amongst us who does not think that the institution of slavery is wrong in any one of the aspects of which ,i have spoken1 he is misplaced1 and ought not to be with us4 ,and if there be a man amongst us who is so impatient of it as a wrong as to disregard its actual presence amongst us and the difficulty of getting rid of it suddenly in a satisfactory way1 and to disregard the constitutional obligations thrown about it1 that man is misplaced if he is on our platform4 ,we disclaim sympathy with him in practical action4 ,he is not placed properly with us4 ,on this subject of treating it as a wrong1 and limiting its spread1 let me say a word4 ,has anything ever threatened the existence of this ,union save and except this very institution of slavery8 ,what is it that we hold most dear amongst us8 ,our own liberty and prosperity4 ,what has ever threatened our liberty and prosperity1 save and except this institution of slavery8 ,if this is true1 how do you propose to improve the condition of things by enlarging slavery1--by spreading it out and making it bigger8 ,you may have a wen or cancer upon your person1 and not be able to cut it out1 lest you bleed to death2 but surely it is no way to cure it1 to engraft it and spread it over your whole body4 ,that is no proper way of treating what you regard a wrong4 ,you see this peaceful way of dealing with it as a wrong1--restricting the spread of it1 and not allowing it to go into new countries where it has not already existed4 ,that is the peaceful way1 the old-fashioned way1 the way in which the fathers themselves set us the example4 ,on the other hand1 ,i have said there is a sentiment which treats it as not being wrong4 ,that is the ,democratic sentiment of this day4 ,i do not mean to say that every man who stands within that range positively asserts that it is right4 ,that class will include all who positively assert that it is right1 and all who1 like ,judge ,douglas1 treat it as indifferent1 and do not say it is either right or wrong4 ,these two classes of men fall within the general class of those who do not look upon it as a wrong4 ,and if there be among you anybody who supposes that he1 as a ,democrat1 can consider himself 8as much opposed to slavery as anybody10 ,i would like to reason with him4 ,you never treat it as a wrong4 ,what other thing that you consider as a wrong do you deal with as you deal with that8 ,perhaps you say it is wrong1 but your leader never does1 and you quarrel with anybody who says it is wrong4 ,although you pretend to say so yourself1 you can find no fit place to deal with it as a wrong4 ,you must not say anything about it in the ,free ,states1 because it is not here4 ,you must not say anything about it in the ,slave ,states1 because it is there4 ,you must not say anything about it in the pulpit1 because that is religion1 and has nothing to do with it4 ,you must not say anything about it in politics1 because that will disturb the security of 8my place40 ,there is no place to talk about it as being a wrong1 although you say yourself it is a wrong4 ,but1 finally1 you will screw yourself up to the belief that if the people of the ,slave ,states should adopt a system of gradual emancipation on the slavery question1 you would be in favor of it4 ,you would be in favor of it4 ,you say that is getting it in the right place1 and you would be glad to see it succeed4 ,but you are deceiving yourself4 ,you all know that ,frank ,blair and ,gratz ,brown1 down there in ,st4 ,louis1 undertook to introduce that system in ,missouri4 ,they fought as valiantly as they could for the system of gradual emancipation which you pretend you would be glad to see succeed4 ,now1 ,i will bring you to the test4 ,after a hard fight they were beaten1 and when the news came over here1 you threw up your hats and hurrahed for ,democracy4 ,more than that1 take all the argument made in favor of the system you have proposed1 and it carefully excludes the idea that there is anything wrong in the institution of slavery4 ,the arguments to sustain that policy carefully excluded it4 ,even here to-day you heard ,judge ,douglas quarrel with me because ,i uttered a wish that it might some time come to an end4 ,although ,henry ,clay could say he wished every slave in the ,united ,states was in the country of his ancestors1 ,i am denounced by those pretending to respect ,henry ,clay for uttering a wish that it might some time1 in some peaceful way1 come to an end4 ,the ,democratic policy in regard to that institution will not tolerate the merest breath1 the slightest hint1 of the least degree of wrong about it4 ,try it by some of ,judge ,douglas's arguments4 ,he says he 8don't care whether it is voted up or voted down0 in the ,territories4 ,i do not care myself1 in dealing with that expression1 whether it is intended to be expressive of his individual sentiments on the subject1 or only of the national policy he desires to have established4 ,it is alike valuable for my purpose4 ,any man can say that who does not see anything wrong in slavery2 but no man can logically say it who does see a wrong in it1 because no man can logically say he don't care whether a wrong is voted up or voted down4 ,he may say he don't care whether an indifferent thing is voted up or down1 but he must logically have a choice between a right thing and a wrong thing4 ,he contends that whatever community wants slaves has a right to have them4 ,so they have1 if it is not a wrong4 ,but if it is a wrong1 he cannot say people have a right to do wrong4 ,he says that upon the score of equality1 slaves should be allowed to go in a new ,territory1 like other property4 ,this is strictly logical if there is no difference between it and other property4 ,if it and other property are equal1 his argument is entirely logical4 ,but if you insist that one is wrong and the other right1 there is no use to institute a comparison between right and wrong4 ,you may turn over everything in the ,democratic policy from beginning to end1 whether in the shape it takes on the statute book1 in the shape it takes in the ,dred ,scott decision1 in the shape it takes in conversation1 or the shape it takes in short maxim-like arguments1--it everywhere carefully excludes the idea that there is anything wrong in it4 ,that is the real issue4 ,that is the issue that will continue in this country1 when these poor tongues of ,judge ,douglas and myself shall be silent4 ,it is the eternal struggle between these two principles--right and wrong--throughout the world4 ,they are the two principles that have stood face to face from the beginning of time1 and will ever continue to struggle4 ,the one is the common right of humanity1 and the other the divine right of kings4 ,it is the same principle in whatever shape it develops itself4 ,it is the same spirit that says3 8,you work and toil and earn bread1 and ,i'll eat it40 ,no matter in what shape it comes1 whether from the mouth of a king who seeks to bestride the people of his own nation and live by the fruit of their labor1 or from one race of men as an apology for enslaving another race1 it is the same tyrannical principle4 ,i was glad to express my gratitude at ,quincy1 and ,i re-express it here1 to ,judge ,douglas1--that he looks to no end of the institution of slavery4 ,that will help the people to see where the struggle really is4 ,it will hereafter place with us all men who really do wish the wrong may have an end4 ,and whenever we can get rid of the fog which obscures the real question1 when we can get ,judge ,douglas and his friends to avow a policy looking to its perpetuation1--we can get out from among that class of men and bring them to the side of those who treat it as a wrong4 ,then there will soon be an end of it1 and that end will be its 8ultimate extinction40 ,whenever the issue can be distinctly made1 and all extraneous matter thrown out so that men can fairly see the real difference between the parties1 this controversy will soon be settled1 and it will be done peaceably1 too4 ,there will be no war1 no violence4 ,it will be placed again where the wisest and best men of the world placed it4 ,brooks1 of ,south ,carolina1 once declared that when this ,constitution was framed its framers did not look to the institution existing until his day4 ,when he said this1 ,i think he stated a fact that is fully borne out by the history of the times4 ,but he also said they were better and wiser men than the men of these days2 yet the men of these days had experience which they had not1 and by the invention of the cotton-gin it became a necessity in this country that slavery should be perpetual4 ,i now say that1 willingly or unwillingly1 purposely or without purpose1 ,judge ,douglas has been the most prominent instrument in changing the position of the institution of slavery which the fathers of the government expected to come to an end ere this1--and putting it upon ,brooks's cotton-gin basis2 placing it where he openly confesses he has no desire there shall ever be an end of it4 ,i understand ,i have ten minutes yet4 ,i will employ it in saying something about this argument ,judge ,douglas uses1 while he sustains the ,dred ,scott decision1 that the people of the ,territories can still somehow exclude slavery4 ,the first thing ,i ask attention to is the fact that ,judge ,douglas constantly said1 before the decision1 that whether they could or not1 was a question for the ,supreme ,court4 ,but after the court had made the decision he virtually says it is not a question for the ,supreme ,court1 but for the people4 ,and how is it he tells us they can exclude it8 ,he says it needs 8police regulation10 and that admits of 8unfriendly legislation40 ,although it is a right established by the ,constitution of the ,united ,states to take a slave into a ,territory of the ,united ,states and hold him as property1 yet unless the ,territorial ,legislature will give friendly legislation1 and1 more especially1 if they adopt unfriendly legislation1 they can practically exclude him4 ,now1 without meeting this proposition as a matter of fact1 ,i pass to consider the real constitutional obligation4 ,let me take the gentleman who looks me in the face before me1 and let us suppose that he is a member of the ,territorial ,legislature4 ,the first thing he will do will be to swear that he will support the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,his neighbor by his side in the ,territory has slaves and needs ,territorial legislation to enable him to enjoy that constitutional right4 ,can he withhold the legislation which his neighbor needs for the enjoyment of a right which is fixed in his favor in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states which he has sworn to support8 ,can he withhold it without violating his oath8 ,and1 more especially1 can he pass unfriendly legislation to violate his oath8 ,why1 this is a monstrous sort of talk about the ,constitution of the ,united ,states6 ,there has never been as outlandish or lawless a doctrine from the mouth of any respectable man on earth4 ,i do not believe it is a constitutional right to hold slaves in a ,territory of the ,united ,states4 ,i believe the decision was improperly made and ,i go for reversing it4 ,judge ,douglas is furious against those who go for reversing a decision4 ,but he is for legislating it out of all force while the law itself stands4 ,i repeat that there has never been so monstrous a doctrine uttered from the mouth of a respectable man4 ,i suppose most of us 7,i know it of myself7 believe that people of the ,southern ,states are entitled to a ,congressional ,fugitive ,slave law1--that is a right fixed in the ,constitution4 ,but it cannot be made available to them without ,congressional legislation4 ,in the ,judge's language1 it is a 8barren right10 which needs legislation before it can become efficient and valuable to the persons to whom it is guaranteed4 ,and as the right is constitutional1 ,i agree that the legislation shall be granted to it1--and that not that we like the institution of slavery4 ,we profess to have no taste for running and catching niggers1--at least1 ,i profess no taste for that job at all4 ,why then do ,i yield support to a ,fugitive ,slave law8 ,because ,i do not understand that the ,constitution1 which guarantees that right1 can be supported without it4 ,and if ,i believed that the right to hold a slave in a ,territory was equally fixed in the ,constitution with the right to reclaim fugitives1 ,i should be bound to give it the legislation necessary to support it4 ,i say that no man can deny his obligation to give the necessary legislation to support slavery in a ,territory1 who believes it is a constitutional right to have it there4 ,no man can1 who does not give the ,abolitionists an argument to deny the obligation enjoined by the ,constitution to enact a ,fugitive ,state law4 ,try it now4 ,it is the strongest ,abolition argument ever made4 ,i say if that ,dred ,scott decision is correct1 then the right to hold slaves in a ,territory is equally a constitutional right with the right of a slaveholder to have his runaway returned4 ,no one can show the distinction between them4 ,the one is express1 so that we cannot deny it4 ,the other is construed to be in the ,constitution1 so that he who believes the decision to be correct believes in the right4 ,and the man who argues that by unfriendly legislation1 in spite of that constitutional right1 slavery may be driven from the ,territories1 cannot avoid furnishing an argument by which ,abolitionists may deny the obligation to return fugitives1 and claim the power to pass laws unfriendly to the right of the slaveholder to reclaim his fugitive4 ,i do not know how such an argument may strike a popular assembly like this1 but ,i defy anybody to go before a body of men whose minds are educated to estimating evidence and reasoning1 and show that there is an iota of difference between the constitutional right to reclaim a fugitive1 and the constitutional right to hold a slave1 in a ,territory1 provided this ,dred ,scott decision is correct4 ,i defy any man to make an argument that will justify unfriendly legislation to deprive a slaveholder of his right to hold a slave in a ,territory1 that will not equally1 in all its length1 breadth1 and thickness1 furnish an argument for nullifying the ,fugitive ,slave law4 ,why1 there is not such an ,abolitionist in the nation as ,douglas1 after all4 ,,mr4 ,,douglas',s ,,rejoinder ,mr4 ,lincoln has concluded his remarks by saying that there is not such an ,abolitionist as ,i am in all ,america4 ,if he could make the ,abolitionists of ,illinois believe that1 he would not have much show for the ,senate4 ,let him make the ,abolitionists believe the truth of that statement1 and his political back is broken4 ,his first criticism upon me is the expression of his hope that the war of the ,administration will be prosecuted against me and the ,democratic party of this ,state with vigor4 ,he wants that war prosecuted with vigor2 ,i have no doubt of it4 ,his hopes of success and the hopes of his party depend solely upon it4 ,they have no chance of destroying the ,democracy of this ,state except by the aid of ,federal patronage4 ,he has all the ,federal officeholders here as his allies1 running separate tickets against the ,democracy to divide the party1 although the leaders all intend to vote directly the ,abolition ticket1 and only leave the greenhorns to vote this separate ticket who refuse to go into the ,abolition camp4 ,there is something really refreshing in the thought that ,mr4 ,lincoln is in favor of prosecuting one war vigorously4 ,it is the first war that ,i ever knew him to be in favor of prosecuting4 ,it is the first war that ,i ever knew him to believe to be just or constitutional4 ,when the ,mexican war was being waged1 and the ,american army was surrounded by the enemy in ,mexico1 he thought that war was unconstitutional1 unnecessary1 and unjust4 ,he thought it was not commenced on the right spot4 ,when ,i made an incidental allusion of that kind in the joint discussion over at ,charleston some weeks ago1 ,lincoln1 in replying1 said that ,i1 ,douglas1 had charged him with voting against supplies for the ,mexican war1 and then he reared up1 full length1 and swore that he never voted against the supplies2 that it was a slander2 and caught hold of ,ficklin1 who sat on the stand1 and said1 8,here1 ,ficklin1 tell the people that it is a lie40 ,well1 ,ficklin1 who had served in ,congress with him1 stood up and told them all that he recollected about it4 ,it was that when ,george ,ashmun1 of ,massachusetts1 brought forward a resolution declaring the war unconstitutional1 unnecessary1 and unjust1 that ,lincoln had voted for it4 8,yes10 said ,lincoln1 8,i did40 ,thus he confessed that he voted that the war was wrong1 that our country was in the wrong1 and consequently that the ,mexicans were in the right2 but charged that ,i had slandered him by saying that he voted against the supplies4 ,i never charged him with voting against the supplies in my life1 because ,i knew that he was not in ,congress when they were voted4 ,the war was commenced on the #acth day of ,may1 #ahdf1 and on that day we appropriated in ,congress ten millions of dollars and fifty thousand men to prosecute it4 ,during the same session we voted more men and more money1 and at the next session we voted more men and more money1 so that by the time ,mr4 ,lincoln entered ,congress we had enough men and enough money to carry on the war1 and had no occasion to vote for any more4 ,when he got into the ,house1 being opposed to the war1 and not being able to stop the supplies1 because they had all gone forward1 all he could do was to follow the lead of ,corwin of ,ohio1 and prove that the war was not begun on the right spot1 and that it was unconstitutional1 unnecessary1 and wrong4 ,remember1 too1 that this he did after the war had been begun4 ,it is one thing to be opposed to the declaration of a war1 another and very different thing to take sides with the enemy against your own country after the war has been commenced4 ,our army was in ,mexico at the time1 many battles had been fought2 our citizens1 who were defending the honor of their country's flag1 were surrounded by the daggers1 the guns1 and the poison of the enemy4 ,then it was that ,corwin made his speech in which he declared that the ,american soldiers ought to be welcomed by the ,mexicans with bloody hands and hospitable graves2 then it was that ,ashmun and ,lincoln voted in the ,house of ,representatives that the war was unconstitutional and unjust2 and ,ashmun's resolution1 ,corwin's speech1 and ,lincoln's vote were sent to ,mexico and read at the head of the ,mexican army1 to prove to them that there was a ,mexican party in the ,congress of the ,united ,states who were doing all in their power to aid them4 ,that a man who takes sides with the common enemy against his own country in time of war should rejoice in a war being made on me now1 is very natural4 ,and1 in my opinion1 no other kind of a man would rejoice in it4 ,mr4 ,lincoln has told you a great deal to-day about his being an old line ,clay ,whig4 ,bear in mind that there are a great many old ,clay ,whigs down in this region4 ,it is more agreeable1 therefore1 for him to talk about the old ,clay ,whig party than it is for him to talk ,abolitionism4 ,we did not hear much about the old ,clay ,whig party up in the ,abolition districts4 ,how much of an old line ,henry ,clay ,whig was he8 ,have you read ,general ,singleton's speech at ,jacksonville8 ,you know that ,general ,singleton was for twenty-five years the confidential friend of ,henry ,clay in ,illinois1 and he testified that in #ahdg1 when the ,constitutional ,convention of this ,state was in session1 the ,whig members were invited to a ,whig caucus at the house of ,mr4 ,lincoln's brother-in-law1 where ,mr4 ,lincoln proposed to throw ,henry ,clay overboard and take up ,general ,taylor in his place1 giving as his reason that1 if the ,whigs did not take up ,general ,taylor1 the ,democrats would4 ,singleton testifies that ,lincoln in that speech urged as another reason for throwing ,henry ,clay overboard1 that the ,whigs had fought long enough for principle1 and ought to begin to fight for success4 ,singleton also testified that ,lincoln's speech did not have the effect of cutting ,clay's throat1 and that he 7,singleton7 and others withdrew from the caucus in indignation4 ,he further states that when they got to ,philadelphia to attend the ,national ,convention of the ,whig party1 that ,lincoln was there1 the bitter and deadly enemy of ,clay1 and that he tried to keep him 7,singleton7 out of the ,convention because he insisted on voting for ,clay1 and ,lincoln was determined to have ,taylor4 ,singleton says that ,lincoln rejoiced with very great joy when he found the mangled remains of the murdered ,whig statesman lying cold before him4 ,now1 ,mr4 ,lincoln tells you that he is an old line ,clay ,whig6 ,general ,singleton testifies to the facts ,i have narrated1 in a public speech which has been printed and circulated broadcast over the ,state for weeks1 yet not a lisp have we heard from ,mr4 ,lincoln on the subject1 except that he is an old ,clay ,whig4 ,what part of ,henry ,clay's policy did ,lincoln ever advocate4 ,he was in ,congress in #ahdh-i1 when the ,wilmot ,proviso warfare disturbed the peace and harmony of the country1 until it shook the foundation of the ,republic from its centre to its circumference4 ,it was that agitation that brought ,clay forth from his retirement at ,ashland again to occupy his seat in the ,senate of the ,united ,states1 to see if he could not1 by his great wisdom and experience1 and the renown of his name1 do something to restore peace and quiet to a disturbed country4 ,who got up that sectional strife that ,clay had to be called upon to quell8 ,i have heard ,lincoln boast that he voted forty-two times for the ,wilmot ,proviso1 and that he would have voted as many times more if he could4 ,lincoln is the man1 in connection with ,seward1 ,chase1 ,giddings1 and other ,abolitionists1 who got up that strife that ,i helped ,clay to put down4 ,henry ,clay came back to the ,senate in #ahdi1 and saw that he must do something to restore peace to the country4 ,the ,union ,whigs and the ,union ,democrats welcomed him1 the moment he arrived1 as the man for the occasion4 ,we believed that he1 of all men on earth1 had been preserved by ,divine ,providence to guide us out of our difficulties1 and we ,democrats rallied under ,clay then1 as you ,whigs in ,nullification time rallied under the banner of old ,jackson1 forgetting party when the country was in danger1 in order that we might have a country first1 and parties afterward4 ,and this reminds me that ,mr4 ,lincoln told you that the slavery question was the only thing that ever disturbed the peace and harmony of the ,union4 ,did not ,nullification once raise its head and disturb the peace of this ,union in #ahcb8 ,was that the slavery question1 ,mr4 ,lincoln8 ,did not disunion raise its monster head during the last war with ,great ,britain8 ,was that the slavery question1 ,mr4 ,lincoln8 ,the peace of this country has been disturbed three times1 once during the war with ,great ,britain1 once on the tariff question1 and once on the slavery question4 ,his argument therefore that slavery is the only question that has ever created dissension in the ,union falls to the ground4 ,it is true that agitators are enabled now to use this slavery question for the purpose of sectional strife4 ,he admits that in regard to all things else1 the principle that ,i advocate1 making each ,state and ,territory free to decide for itself1 ought to prevail4 ,he instances the cranberry laws and the oyster laws1 and he might have gone through the whole list with the same effect4 ,i say that all these laws are local and domestic1 and that local and domestic concerns should be left to each ,state and each ,territory to manage for itself4 ,if agitators would acquiesce in that principle1 there never would be any danger to the peace and harmony of the ,union4 ,mr4 ,lincoln tries to avoid the main issue by attacking the truth of my proposition1 that our fathers made this government divided into ,free and ,slave ,states1 recognizing the right of each to decide all its local questions for itself4 ,did they not thus make it8 ,it is true that they did not establish slavery in any of the ,states1 or abolish it in any of them2 but finding thirteen ,states1 twelve of which were slave and one free1 they agreed to form a government uniting them together as they stood1 divided into ,free and ,slave ,states1 and to guarantee forever to each ,state the right to do as it pleased on the slavery question4 ,having thus made the government1 and conferred this right upon each ,state forever1 ,i assert that this government can exist as they made it1 divided into ,free and ,slave ,states1 if any one ,state chooses to retain slavery4 ,he says that he looks forward to a time when slavery shall be abolished everywhere4 ,i look forward to a time when each ,state shall be allowed to do as it pleases4 ,if it chooses to keep slavery forever1 it is not my business1 but its own2 if it chooses to abolish slavery1 it is its own business1--not mine4 ,i care more for the great principle of self-government1 the right of the people to rule1 than ,i do for all the negroes in ,christendom4 ,i would not endanger the perpetuity of this ,union1 ,i would not blot out the great inalienable rights of the white men1 for all the negroes that ever existed4 ,hence1 ,i say1 let us maintain this government on the principles that our fathers made it on1 recognizing the right of each ,state to keep slavery as long as its people determine1 or to abolish it when they please4 ,but ,mr4 ,lincoln says that when our fathers made this government they did not look forward to the state of things now existing1 and therefore he thinks the doctrine was wrong2 and he quotes ,brooks1 of ,south ,carolina1 to prove that our fathers then thought that probably slavery would be abolished by each ,state acting for itself before this time4 ,suppose they did2 suppose they did not foresee what has occurred1--does that change the principles of our government8 ,they did not probably foresee the telegraph that transmits intelligence by lightning1 nor did they foresee the railroads that now form the bonds of union between the different ,states1 or the thousand mechanical inventions that have elevated mankind4 ,but do these things change the principles of the government8 ,our fathers1 ,i say1 made this government on the principle of the right of each ,state to do as it pleases in its own domestic affairs1 subject to the ,constitution1 and allowed the people of each to apply to every new change of circumstances such remedy as they may see fit to improve their condition4 ,this right they have for all time to come4 ,mr4 ,lincoln went on to tell you that he does not at all desire to interfere with slavery in the ,states where it exists1 nor does his party4 ,i expected him to say that down here4 ,let me ask him1 then1 how he expects to put slavery in the course of ultimate extinction everywhere1 if he does not intend to interfere with it in the ,states where it exists8 ,he says that he will prohibit it in all ,territories1 and the inference is1 then1 that unless they make ,free ,states out of them he will keep them out of the ,union2 for1 mark you1 he did not say whether or not he would vote to admit ,kansas with slavery or not1 as her people might apply 7he forgot that1 as usual1 etc472 he did not say whether or not he was in favor of bringing the ,territories now in existence into the ,union on the principle of ,clay's ,compromise ,measures on the slavery question4 ,i told you that he would not4 ,his idea is that he will prohibit slavery in all the ,territories1 and thus force them all to become ,free ,states1 surrounding the ,slave ,states with a cordon of ,free ,states1 and hemming them in1 keeping the slaves confined to their present limits whilst they go on multiplying1 until the soil on which they live will no longer feed them1 and he will thus be able to put slavery in a course of ultimate extinction by starvation4 ,he will extinguish slavery in the ,southern ,states as the ,french general exterminated the ,algerines when he smoked them out4 ,he is going to extinguish slavery by surrounding the ,slave ,states1 hemming in the slaves1 and starving them out of existence1 as you smoke a fox out of his hole4 ,he intends to do that in the name of humanity and ,christianity1 in order that we may get rid of the terrible crime and sin entailed upon our fathers of holding slaves4 ,mr4 ,lincoln makes out that line of policy1 and appeals to the moral sense of justice and to the ,christian feeling of the community to sustain him4 ,he says that any man who holds to the contrary doctrine is in the position of the king who claimed to govern by divine right4 ,let us examine for a moment and see what principle it was that overthrew the divine right of ,george the ,third to govern us4 ,did not these ,colonies rebel because the ,british ,parliament had no right to pass laws concerning our property and domestic and private institutions without our consent8 ,we demanded that the ,british ,government should not pass such laws unless they gave us representation in the body passing them2 and this the ,british ,government insisting on doing1 we went to war1 on the principle that the ,home ,government should not control and govern distant colonies without giving them a representation4 ,now1 ,mr4 ,lincoln proposes to govern the ,territories without giving them a representation1 and calls on ,congress to pass laws controlling their property and domestic concerns without their consent and against their will4 ,thus1 he asserts for his party the identical principle asserted by ,george ,,iii4 and the ,tories of the ,revolution4 ,i ask you to look into these things and then tell me whether the ,democracy or the ,abolitionists are right4 ,i hold that the people of a ,territory1 like those of a ,state 7,i use the language of ,mr4 ,buchanan in his ,letter of ,acceptance71 have the right to decide for themselves whether slavery shall or shall not exist within their limits4 ,the point upon which ,chief ,justice ,taney expresses his opinion is simply this1 that slaves1 being property1 stand on an equal footing with other property1 and consequently that the owner has the same right to carry that property into a ,territory that he has any other1 subject to the same conditions4 ,suppose that one of your merchants was to take fifty or one hundred thousand dollars' worth of liquors to ,kansas4 ,he has a right to go there1 under that decision2 but when he gets there he finds the ,maine liquor law in force1 and what can he do with his property after he gets it there8 ,he cannot sell it1 he cannot use it2 it is subject to the local law1 and that law is against him1 and the best thing he can do with it is to bring it back into ,missouri or ,illinois and sell it4 ,if you take negroes to ,kansas1 as ,colonel ,jefferson ,davis said in his ,bangor speech1 from which ,i have quoted to-day1 you must take them there subject to the local law4 ,if the people want the institution of slavery1 they will protect and encourage it2 but if they do not want it they will withhold that protection1 and the absence of local legislation protecting slavery excludes it as completely as a positive prohibition4 ,you slaveholders of ,missouri might as well understand what you know practically1 that you cannot carry slavery where the people do not want it4 ,all you have a right to ask is that the people shall do as they please3 if they want slavery1 let them have it2 if they do not want it1 allow them to refuse to encourage it4 ,my friends1 if1 as ,i have said before1 we will only live up to this great fundamental principle1 there will be peace between the ,north and the ,south4 ,mr4 ,lincoln admits that1 under the ,constitution1 on all domestic questions1 except slavery1 we ought not to interfere with the people of each ,state4 ,what right have we to interfere with the people of each ,state8 ,what right have we to interfere with slavery any more than we have to interfere with any other question8 ,he says that this slavery question is now the bone of contention4 ,why8 ,simply because agitators have combined in all the ,free ,states to make war upon it4 ,suppose the agitators in the ,states should combine in one half of the ,union to make war upon the railroad system of the other half8 ,they would thus be driven to the same sectional strife4 ,suppose one section makes war upon any other particular institution of the opposite section1 and the same strife is produced4 ,the only remedy and safety is that we shall stand by the ,constitution as our fathers made it1 obey the laws as they are passed1 while they stand the proper test1 and sustain the decisions of the ,supreme ,court and the constituted authorities4 ,,appendix ,b ,,the ,,lincoln-,,douglas ,,debate ,,at ,,alton 7,prepared as an exercise in briefing by a class in written argumentation7 ,senator ,douglas's ,speech ,proposition3 ,vote for ,douglas and the ,democratic ,party ,introduction ,douglas states that there are three points at issue between ,lincoln and himself3 #a4 ,whether the ,union can exist half slave and half free4 #b4 ,whether the ,supreme ,court was in error in the ,dred ,scott ,decision4 #c4 ,whether the ,declaration of ,independence included the negroes4 ,proof ,proposition3 7,repeated7 ,vote for ,douglas and the ,democratic ,party1 because ,a4 ,the ,republican creed is wrong for the reason that it cannot be advocated everywhere1 for ,i4 ,any creed is radically wrong that cannot be proclaimed alike in every state in the ,union4 ,b4 ,refutation3 ,the argument that this government cannot exist half slave and half free is unsound1 for ,i4 ,each state decides upon its own institutions1 for a4 ,each state is sovereign4 ,,ii4 ,if the makers of the ,constitution had believed ,lincoln's doctrine1 they would have made a provision establishing slavery1 for a4 ,at that time twelve out of thirteen states were slave holding states4 ,,iii4 ,it would be unjust for the ,northern states to attack slavery in the slave states1 for a4 ,when the free states were in the minority the slave states did not interfere with them4 b4 ,it would violate the sovereignty of the states which is guaranteed them in the ,constitution4 ,c4 ,lincoln is undecided about the admission of more slave states1 for ,i4 ,he would not answer at ,ottawa4 ,,ii4 ,at ,freeport he said he would be very sorry to be put in a position to decide that question4 ,,iii4 ,he has not answered my question directly1 for a4 ,his answer depended upon whether slavery had been kept out during the state's whole territorial existence1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,he has not said1 and will not say1 whether1 if elected to ,congress1 he will vote to admit any territory now in existence with such a ,constitution as her people may provide4 ,v4 ,he will not say whether he will redeem our pledge with ,texas4 ,d4 ,douglas takes a clear and just stand on these questions1 for ,i4 ,he plainly states that he will let the people of any territory come into the ,union slave or free as they decide4 ,e4 ,douglas has stood by the principles he advocated1 for ,i4 ,he opposed the ,lecompton ,constitution because it did not represent the will of the people1 for a4 ,when it was submitted to the people of ,kansas last ,august it was rejected by a vote of ten to one4 ,,ii4 ,he refused to support the ,english bill1 for a4 ,he was right and honest in his opposition to the ,lecompton ,constitution4 b4 ,he believed that whenever ,kansas had enough people for a slave state she had enough people for a free state but the ,english bill was directly opposed to this principle1 for #a4 ,the bill provided that if ,kansas came in as a slave state it would be admitted with a population of #ce1jjj1 but if it desired admission as a free state it must have #ic1dbj inhabitants4 ,,iii4 ,he opposes the attempt on the part of the ,executive to control the ,senate1 for a4 ,it will lead to despotism4 ,,iv4 ,he stands on the same platform now that he stood on in #ahej1 #ahed1 and #ahef1 for a4 ,even the ,washington ,union admits this4 ,f4 ,the principle of letting the people of each state decide for themselves about slavery is the right principle1 for ,i4 ,it is the principle advocated by our leading statesmen and patriots1 for a4 ,james ,buchanan advocates it1 for #a4 ,he said so in his letter of acceptance after he received the ,democratic nomination for the ,presidency in #ahef4 b4 ,chief ,justice ,taney does not deny this principle4 c4 ,the ,honorable ,jefferson ,davis took the same view in his speech at ,bangor1 ,maine4 d4 ,the ,speaker of the ,house1 ,mr4 ,orr1 holds the same view4 e4 ,alex4 ,h4 ,stephens puts the same construction upon it that ,douglas does4 ,,ii4 ,the people believe it is right1 for a4 ,the people made ,james ,buchanan president on this same principle4 ,,iii4 ,it is the principle that can bring peace to the ,union1 for a4 ,if the people of all the states will act on this great principle1 and each state mind its own business1 take care of its own negroes1 and not meddle with its neighbors1 there will be no cause for dissension4 ,conclusion ,a4 ,a plea for peace by adopting the principles presented in the proof4 ,b4 ,a denunciation of those who seek to turn this public controversy to their own personal advantage4 ,,mr4 ,,lincoln',s ,,reply ,proposition3 ,vote for ,lincoln and the ,republican party4 ,introduction ,a4 ,lincoln advises ,judge ,douglas to continue the war upon the other wing of his party4 ,b4 ,douglas should not make too much of ,buchanan's inconsistency because he is inconsistent himself1 for he once championed the ,missouri ,compromise but now he opposes it4 ,proof ,proposition3 7,repeated7 ,vote for ,lincoln and the ,republican party1 because ,a4 ,refutation3 ,the statement that ,i have complained that the ,supreme ,court in the ,dred ,scott case had decided that a negro could never be a citizen of the ,united ,states is untrue1 for ,i4 ,no such idea can be found in my speech4 ,,ii4 ,the truth is that ,i mentioned the ,dred ,scott ,decision only as part of a conspiracy to make slavery national4 ,b4 ,douglas misrepresents my position on the ,declaration of ,independence1 for ,i4 ,he has garbled my ,chicago speech1 for a4 ,he omitted between two quotations four sentences necessary to my meaning4 ,,ii4 ,douglas has taken no notice of an extract from my ,springfield speech in which my views are clearly expressed4 ,,iii4 ,my position is the same as that of ,henry ,clay1 for a4 ,clay declared the ,declaration as an abstract principle is true and the new proposition of the ,dred ,scott ,decision is intended to make the negro nothing but property in all the states4 b4 ,refutation3 ,the statement that ,henry ,clay held that the negro was not included in the ,declaration of ,independence is untrue1 for #a4 ,he never expressed this belief4 #b4 ,the speech referred to in the ,chicago ,times as showing that this was ,mr4 ,clay's view shows precisely the opposite view1 for 7a7 ,he says that it is true as an abstract principle that all men are created equal1 but that we cannot practically apply it in all cases4 ,c4 ,lincoln still says that the proposition that 8,a house divided against itself cannot stand0 is true1 for ,i4 ,the agitation over slavery will not cease1 for a4 ,douglas' ,kansas-,nebraska bill has stirred up the whole discussion again1 for #a4 ,although the ,kansas-,nebraska bill was declared to be the end it has stirred up strife in the last ,congress and throughout the entire country4 b4 ,in its pretense to confer local self-government the ,kansas-,nebraska bill proved to be a lie4 ,,ii4 ,the framers of the ,constitution hoped to put slavery in a course of extinction1 for a4 ,they provided that the slave trade should cease after twenty years4 b4 ,the ,constitution does not contain the words 8slavery0 or 8negro race10 for #a4 ,its framers thought slavery a temporary thing4 #b4 ,fugitive slaves are not mentioned4 #c4 ,the representation clause avoids using these words4 ,,iii4 ,refutation3 ,the statement that the framers of the ,constitution introduced slavery is not true1 for a4 ,they found it but marked it with their disapproval4 ,,iv4 ,lincoln wishes to return to the policy of the framers of the ,constitution1 for a4 ,refutation3 ,the charge that the ,constitution has stirred up this agitation over slavery is false1 for #a4 ,the agitation has been stirred up by ,judge ,douglas and his friends4 b4 ,other local laws have not caused strife1 for #a4 ,the cranberry laws of ,indiana caused no strife4 #b4 ,the oyster laws of ,virginia have not caused strife4 c4 ,the slave traffic has caused trouble whenever it has attempted to extend itself1 for #a4 ,the ,missouri ,compromise and the ,annexation of ,texas prove this4 #b4 ,slavery has divided political parties and churches4 ,d4 ,the real issue between ,lincoln and ,douglas is not as to states1 it is whether ,congress shall exclude slavery from the territories while in a territorial condition1 for ,i4 ,i agree with ,douglas that the states have a right to determine for themselves about slavery4 ,,ii4 ,i differ from ,douglas as to the right of the people to take slaves into the territories of the ,united ,states1 for a4 ,we must preserve the territories for free white people the world over4 ,e4 ,fundamentally this controversy means that the ,republicans believe slavery to be wrong and the ,democrats believe it to be right1 for ,i4 ,the ,republicans insist that slavery shall grow no larger4 ,,ii4 ,the ,democrats never treat slavery as wrong1 for a4 ,when the proposition to abolish slavery in ,missouri failed the ,democrats rejoiced4 b4 ,douglas1 unlike ,clay1 does not care whether slavery is voted up or down4 c4 ,douglas looks to no end of the institution of slavery4 d4 ,douglas has been the most prominent instrument in placing slavery upon 8,brooks' cotton-gin basis0 where he openly confesses he has no desire to see it ended4 ,f4 ,judge ,douglas' position on the ,dred ,scott ,decision is a doctrine of lawlessness1 for ,i4 ,before the ,dred ,scott decision ,douglas said constantly1 that whether or not the people of the territories could exclude slavery was a question for the ,supreme ,court to decide4 ,now he says it is not a question for the ,supreme ,court1 but for the people4 ,,ii4 ,douglas's doctrine of local police regulation is contrary to the ,constitution1 for a4 ,the territories cannot withhold the legislation which a man needs for the enjoyment of a right fixed in his favor by the ,constitution4 ,,iii4 ,if such a right as ,judge ,douglas holds to be a right really exists then the fugitive slave law can be made of no effect by the same kind of action4 ,,mr4 ,,douglas',s ,,rejoinder ,proposition3 ,vote for ,douglas and the ,democratic party1 because ,a4 ,mr4 ,lincoln's tendency is toward abolitionism4 ,b4 ,lincoln's course in ,congress with reference to the ,mexican ,war was unpatriotic1 for ,i4 ,he voted that it was unnecessary1 unconstitutional1 and unjust1 after it had been begun4 ,c4 ,refutation3 ,lincoln's claim to be an old line ,clay ,whig is false1 for ,i4 ,in a caucus in #ahdg ,lincoln wanted to throw ,henry ,clay overboard and take up ,general ,taylor in his place4 ,,ii4 ,lincoln was the bitter enemy of ,clay in the ,national ,convention at ,philadelphia4 ,,iii4 ,singleton says that ,lincoln rejoiced greatly at ,clay's defeat4 ,,iv4 ,lincoln never supported any of ,clay's policies1 for a4 ,lincoln voted forty-two times for the ,wilmot ,proviso1 whereas ,clay opposed it4 ,d4 ,refutation3 ,lincoln's statement that the slavery question is the only thing that ever threatened the ,union is false1 for ,i4 ,nullification threatened the ,union in #ahcb4 ,,ii4 ,in #ahac the ,hartford ,convention threatened the ,union4 ,e4 ,the fathers made this government divided into free and slave states1 recognizing the right of each to decide all its local questions for itself1 for ,i4 ,they did not abolish or establish slavery in any of the states4 ,,ii4 ,refutation3 ,the statement that conditions have changed does not affect the question1 for a4 ,changed conditions do not change the principles of the government4 ,f4 ,lincoln advocates the identical principle asserted by ,george ,,iii and the ,tories of the ,revolution1 for ,i4 ,he wants ,congress to pass laws controlling the property and domestic concerns of the people in the territories1 without their consent and against their will4 ,g4 ,douglas's principle of local option on the slavery question is sufficient to preserve peace1 for ,i4 ,it preserves peace on all other local questions4 ,conclusion ,the only remedy and safety is that we stand by the ,constitution as our fathers made it1 obey the laws as they are passed1 while they stand the proper test1 and sustain the decisions of the ,supreme ,court and the constituted authorities4 ,,appendix ,c ,,lincoln',s ,,address ,,at ,,cooper ,,institute ,,february #bg1 #ahfj ,,mr4 ,,president ,,and ,,fellow-,,citizens ,,of ,,new ,,york3 ,the facts with which ,i shall deal this evening are mainly old and familiar2 nor is there anything new in the general use ,i shall make of them4 ,if there shall be any novelty1 it will be in the mode of presenting the facts1 and the inferences and observations following that presentation4 ,in his speech last ,autumn at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 as reported in the ,new ,york 8,times10 ,senator ,douglas said3 8,our fathers1 when they framed the government under which we live1 understood this question just as well1 and even better1 than we do now40 ,i fully indorse this1 and ,i adopt it as a text for this discourse4 ,i so adopt it because it furnishes a precise and an agreed starting-point for a discussion between ,republicans and that wing of the ,democracy headed by ,senator ,douglas4 ,it simply leaves the inquiry3 ,what was the understanding those fathers had of the question mentioned8 ,what is the frame of government under which we live8 ,the answer must be1 8,the ,constitution of the ,united ,states40 ,that ,constitution consists of the original1 framed in #aghg1 and under which the present government first went into operation1 and twelve subsequently framed amendments1 the first ten of which were framed in #aghi4 ,who were our fathers that framed the ,constitution8 ,i suppose the 8thirty-nine0 who signed the original instrument may be fairly called our fathers who framed that part of the present government4 ,it is almost exactly true to say they framed it1 and it is altogether true to say they fairly represented the opinion and sentiment of the whole nation at that time4 ,their names1 being familiar to nearly all1 and accessible to quite all1 need not now be repeated4 ,i take these 8thirty-nine10 for the present1 as being 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live40 ,what is the question which1 according to the text1 those fathers understood 8just as well1 and even better1 than we do now08 ,it is this3 ,does the proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or anything in the ,constitution1 forbid our ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in our ,federal ,territories8 ,upon this1 ,senator ,douglas holds the affirmative1 and ,republicans the negative4 ,this affirmation and denial form an issue2 and this issue--this question--is precisely what the text declares our fathers understood 8better than we04 ,let us now inquire whether the 8thirty-nine10 or any of them1 ever acted upon this question2 and if they did1 how they acted upon it--how they expressed that better understanding4 ,in #aghd1 three years before the ,constitution1 the ,united ,states then owning the ,northwestern ,territory1 and no other1 the ,congress of the ,confederation had before them the question of prohibiting slavery in that ,territory1 and four of the 8thirty-nine0 who afterward framed the ,constitution were in that ,congress1 and voted on that question4 ,of these1 ,roger ,sherman1 ,thomas ,mifflin1 and ,hugh ,williamson voted for the prohibition1 thus showing that1 in their understanding1 no line dividing local from ,federal authority1 nor anything else1 properly forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in ,federal territory4 ,the other of the four1 ,james ,mc,henry1 voted against the prohibition1 showing that for some cause he thought it improper to vote for it4 ,in #aghg1 still before the ,constitution1 but while the convention was in session framing it1 and while the ,northwestern ,territory still was the only ,territory owned by the ,united ,states1 the same question of prohibiting slavery in the ,territory again came before the ,congress of the ,confederation2 and two more of the 8thirty-nine0 who afterward signed the ,constitution were in that ,congress1 and voted on the question4 ,they were ,william ,blount and ,william ,few2 and they both voted for the prohibition--thus showing that in their understanding no line dividing local from ,federal authority1 nor anything else1 properly forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in ,federal territory4 ,this time the prohibition became a law1 being part of what is now well known as the ,ordinance of '#hg4 ,the question of ,federal control of slavery in the ,territories seems not to have been directly before the convention which framed the original ,constitution2 and hence it is not recorded that the 8thirty-nine10 or any of them1 while engaged on that instrument1 expressed any opinion on that precise question4 ,in #aghi1 by the first ,congress which sat under the ,constitution1 an act was passed to enforce the ordinance of '#hg1 including the prohibition of slavery in the ,northwestern ,territory4 ,the bill for this act was reported by one of the 8thirty-nine0--,thomas ,fitzsimmons1 then a member of the ,house of ,representatives from ,pennsylvania4 ,it went through all its stages without a word of opposition1 and finally passed both branches without ayes and nays1 which is equivalent to a unanimous passage4 ,in this ,congress there were sixteen of the thirty-nine fathers who framed the original ,constitution4 ,they were ,john ,langdon1 ,nicholas ,gilman1 ,wm4 ,s4 ,johnson1 ,roger ,sherman1 ,robert ,morris1 ,thos4 ,fitzsimmons1 ,william ,few1 ,abraham ,baldwin1 ,rufus ,king1 ,william ,patterson1 ,george ,clymer1 ,richard ,bassett1 ,george ,read1 ,pierce ,butler1 ,daniel ,carroll1 and ,james ,madison4 ,this shows that1 in their understanding1 no line dividing local from ,federal authority1 nor anything in the ,constitution1 properly forbade ,congress to prohibit slavery in the ,federal territory2 else both their fidelity to correct principle1 and their oath to support the ,constitution1 would have constrained them to oppose the prohibition4 ,again1 ,george ,washington1 another of the 8thirty-nine10 was then ,president of the ,united ,states1 and as such approved and signed the bill1 thus completing its validity as a law1 and thus showing that1 in his understanding1 no line dividing local from ,federal authority1 nor anything in the ,constitution1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in ,federal territory4 ,no great while after the adoption of the original ,constitution1 ,north ,carolina ceded to the ,federal ,government the country now constituting the ,state of ,tennessee2 and a few years later ,georgia ceded that which now constitutes the ,states of ,mississippi and ,alabama4 ,in both deeds of cession it was made a condition by the ceding ,states that the ,federal government should not prohibit slavery in the ceded country4 ,besides this1 slavery was then actually in the ceded country4 ,under these circumstances1 ,congress1 on taking charge of these countries1 did not absolutely prohibit slavery within them4 ,but they did interfere with it--take control of it--even there1 to a certain extent4 ,in #agih ,congress organized the ,territory of ,mississippi4 ,in the act of organization they prohibited the bringing of slaves into the ,territory from any place without the ,united ,states1 by fine1 and giving freedom to slaves so brought4 ,this act passed both branches of ,congress without yeas and nays4 ,in that ,congress were three of the 8thirty-nine0 who framed the original ,constitution4 ,they were ,john ,langdon1 ,george ,read1 and ,abraham ,baldwin4 ,they all probably voted for it4 ,certainly they would have placed their opposition to it upon record if1 in their understanding1 any line dividing local from ,federal authority1 or anything in the ,constitution1 properly forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in ,federal ,territory4 ,in #ahjc the ,federal ,government purchased the ,louisiana country4 ,our former territorial acquisitions came from certain of our own ,states2 but this ,louisiana country was acquired from a foreign nation4 ,in #ahjd ,congress gave a territorial organization to that part of it which now constitutes the ,state of ,louisiana4 ,new ,orleans1 lying within that part1 was an old and comparatively large city4 ,there were other considerable towns and settlements and slavery was extensively and thoroughly intermingled with the people4 ,congress did not1 in the ,territorial ,act1 prohibit slavery2 but they did interfere with it--take control of it--in a more marked and extensive way than they did in the case of ,mississippi4 ,the substance of the provision therein made in relation to slaves was3 #ast4 ,that no slave should be imported into the ,territory from foreign parts4 #b;d4 ,that no slave should be carried into it who had been imported into the ,united ,states since the first day of ,may1 #agih4 #c;d4 ,that no slave should be carried into it1 except by the owner1 and for his own use as a settler2 the penalty in all cases being a fine upon the violator of the law1 and freedom to the slave4 ,this act also was passed without ayes or nays4 ,in the ,congress which passed it there were two of the 8thirty-nine40 ,they were ,abraham ,baldwin and ,jonathan ,dayton4 ,as stated in the case of ,mississippi1 it is probable they both voted for it4 ,they would not have allowed it to pass without recording their opposition to it if1 in their understanding1 it violated either the line properly dividing local from ,federal authority1 or any provision of the ,constitution4 ,in #ahai-bj came and passed the ,missouri question4 ,many votes were taken1 by yeas and nays1 in both branches of ,congress1 upon the various phases of the general question4 ,two of the 8thirty-nine0--,rufus ,king and ,charles ,pinckney--were members of that ,congress4 ,mr4 ,king steadily voted for slavery prohibition and against all compromises1 while ,mr4 ,pinckney as steadily voted against slavery prohibition and against all compromises4 ,by this1 ,mr4 ,king showed that1 in his understanding1 no line dividing local from ,federal authority1 nor anything in the ,constitution1 was violated by ,congress prohibiting slavery in ,federal territory2 while ,mr4 ,pinckney1 by his votes1 showed that1 in his understanding1 there was some sufficient reason for opposing such prohibition in that case4 ,the cases ,i have mentioned are the only acts of the 8thirty-nine10 or of any of them upon the direct issue1 which ,i have been able to discover4 ,to enumerate the persons who thus acted as being four in #aghd1 two in #aghg1 seventeen in #aghi1 three in #agih1 two in #ahjd1 and two in #ahai-bj1 there would be thirty of them4 ,but this would be counting ,john ,langdon1 ,roger ,sherman1 ,william ,few1 ,rufus ,king1 and ,george ,read each twice1 and ,abraham ,baldwin three times4 ,the true number of those of the 8thirty-nine0 whom ,i have shown to have acted upon the question which1 by the text1 they understood better than we1 is twenty-three1 leaving sixteen not shown to have acted upon it in any way4 ,here1 then1 we have twenty-three out of our thirty-nine fathers 8who framed the government under which we live10 who have1 upon their official responsibility and their corporal oaths1 acted upon the very question which the text affirms they 8understood just as well1 and even better1 than we do now02 and twenty-one of them--a clear majority of the whole 8thirty-nine0--so acting upon it as to make them guilty of gross political impropriety and wilful perjury if1 in their understanding1 any proper division between local and ,federal authority1 or anything in the ,constitution they had made themselves1 and sworn to support1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in the ,federal ,territories4 ,thus the twenty-one acted2 and1 as actions speak louder than words1 so actions under such responsibility speak still louder4 ,two of the twenty-three voted against ,congressional prohibition of slavery in the ,federal ,territories1 in the instances in which they acted upon the question4 ,but for what reasons they so voted is not known4 ,they may have done so because they thought a proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or some provision or principle of the ,constitution1 stood in the way2 or they may1 without any such question1 have voted against the prohibition on what appeared to them to be sufficient grounds of expediency4 ,no one who has sworn to support the ,constitution can conscientiously vote for what he understands to be an unconstitutional measure1 however expedient he may think it2 but one may and ought to vote against a measure which he deems constitutional if1 at the same time1 he deems it inexpedient4 ,it1 therefore1 would be unsafe to set down even the two who voted against the prohibition as having done so because1 in their understanding1 any proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or anything in the ,constitution1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in ,federal territory4 ,the remaining sixteen of the 8thirty-nine10 so far as ,i have discovered1 have left no record of their understanding upon the direct question of ,federal control of slavery in the ,federal ,territories4 ,but there is much reason to believe that their understanding upon that question would not have appeared different from that of their twenty-three compeers1 had it been manifested at all4 ,for the purpose of adhering rigidly to the text1 ,i have purposely omitted whatever understanding may have been manifested by any person1 however distinguished1 other than the thirty-nine fathers who framed the original ,constitution2 and1 for the same reason1 ,i have also omitted whatever understanding may have been manifested by any of the 8thirty-nine0 even on any other phase of the general question of slavery4 ,if we should look into their acts and declarations on those other phases1 as the foreign slave-trade1 and the morality and policy of slavery generally1 it would appear to us that on the direct question of ,federal control of slavery in ,federal ,territories1 the sixteen1 if they had acted at all1 would probably have acted just as the twenty-three did4 ,among that sixteen were several of the most noted anti-slavery men of those times--as ,dr4 ,franklin1 ,alexander ,hamilton1 and ,gouverneur ,morris--while there was not one now known to have been otherwise1 unless it may be ,john ,rutledge1 of ,south ,carolina4 ,the sum of the whole is that of our thirty-nine fathers who framed the original ,constitution1 twenty-one--a clear majority of the whole--certainly understood that no proper division of local from ,federal ,authority1 nor any part of the ,constitution1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control slavery in the ,federal ,territories2 while all the rest had probably the same understanding4 ,such1 unquestionably1 was the understanding of our fathers who framed the original ,constitution2 and the text affirms that they understood the question 8better than we40 ,but1 so far1 ,i have been considering the understanding of the question manifested by the framers of the original ,constitution4 ,in and by the original instrument1 a mode was provided for amending it2 and1 as ,i have already stated1 the present frame of 8the government under which we live0 consists of that original1 and twelve amendatory articles framed and adopted since4 ,those who now insist that ,federal control of slavery in ,federal ,territories violates the ,constitution1 point us to the provisions which they suppose it thus violates2 and1 as ,i understand1 they all fix upon provisions in these amendatory articles1 and not in the original instrument4 ,the ,supreme ,court1 in the ,dred ,scott case1 plant themselves upon the fifth amendment1 which provides that no person shall be deprived of 8life1 liberty1 or property without due process of law02 while ,senator ,douglas and his peculiar adherents plant themselves upon the tenth amendment1 providing that 8the powers not delegated to the ,united ,states by the ,constitution0 8are reserved to the ,states respectively1 or to the people40 ,now it so happens that these amendments were framed by the first ,congress which sat under the ,constitution--the identical ,congress which passed the act1 already mentioned1 enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the ,northwestern ,territory4 ,not only was it the same ,congress1 but they were the identical1 same individual men who1 at the same session1 and at the same time within the session1 had under consideration1 and in progress toward maturity1 these constitutional amendments1 and this act prohibiting slavery in all the territory the nation then owned4 ,the constitutional amendments were introduced before1 and passed after the act enforcing the ordinance of '#hg2 so that1 during the whole pendency of the act to enforce the ordinance1 the constitutional amendments were also pending4 ,the seventy-six members of that ,congress1 including sixteen of the framers of the original ,constitution1 as before stated1 were pre-eminently our fathers who framed that part of 8the government under which we live0 which is now claimed as forbidding the ,federal ,government to control slavery in the ,federal ,territories4 ,is it not a little presumptuous in anyone at this day to affirm that the two things which that ,congress deliberately framed1 and carried to maturity at the same time1 are absolutely inconsistent with each other8 ,and does not such affirmation become impudently absurd when coupled with the other affirmation1 from the same mouth1 that those who did the two things alleged to be inconsistent1 understood whether they really were inconsistent better than we--better than he who affirms that they are inconsistent8 ,it is surely safe to assume that the thirty-nine framers of the original ,constitution1 and the seventy-six members of the ,congress which framed the amendments thereto1 taken together1 do certainly include those who may be fairly called 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live40 ,and so assuming1 ,i defy any man to show that any one of them ever1 in his whole life1 declared that1 in his understanding1 any proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or any part of the ,constitution1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in the ,federal ,territories4 ,i go a step further4 ,i defy anyone to show that any living man in the world ever did1 prior to the beginning of the present century 7and ,i might almost say prior to the beginning of the last half of the present century71 declare that1 in his understanding1 any proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or any part of the ,constitution1 forbade the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in the ,federal ,territories4 ,to those who now so declare ,i give not only 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live10 but with them all other living men within the century in which it was framed1 among whom to search1 and they shall not be able to find the evidence of a single man agreeing with them4 ,now1 and here1 let me guard a little against being misunderstood4 ,i do not mean to say we are bound to follow implicitly in whatever our fathers did4 ,to do so would be to discard all the lights of current experience--to reject all progress1 all improvement4 ,what ,i do say is that if we would supplant the opinions and policy of our fathers in any case1 we should do so upon evidence so conclusive1 and argument so clear1 that even their great authority1 fairly considered and weighed1 cannot stand2 and most surely not in a case whereof we ourselves declare they understood the question better than we4 ,if any man at this day sincerely believes that a proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or any part of the ,constitution1 forbids the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in the ,federal ,territories1 he is right to say so1 and to enforce his position by all truthful evidence and fair argument which he can4 ,but he has no right to mislead others1 who have less access to history1 and less leisure to study it1 into the false belief that 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live0 were of the same opinion--thus substituting falsehood and deception for truthful evidence and fair argument4 ,if any man at this day sincerely believes 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live0 used and applied principles1 in other cases1 which ought to have led them to understand that a proper division of local from ,federal authority1 or some part of the ,constitution1 forbids the ,federal ,government to control as to slavery in the ,federal ,territories1 he is right to say so4 ,but he should1 at the same time1 brave the responsibility of declaring that1 in his opinion1 he understands their principles better than they did themselves2 and especially should he not shirk that responsibility by asserting that they 8understood the question just as well1 and even better1 than we do now40 ,but enough6 ,let all who believe that 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live understood this question just as well1 and even better1 than we do now10 speak as they spoke1 and act as they acted upon it4 ,this is all ,republicans ask--all ,republicans desire--in relation to slavery4 ,as those fathers marked it1 so let it be again marked1 as an evil not to be extended1 but to be tolerated and protected only because of and so far as its actual presence amongst us makes that toleration and protection a necessity4 ,let all the guaranties those fathers gave it be not grudgingly1 but fully and fairly maintained4 ,for this ,republicans contend1 and with this1 so far as ,i know or believe1 they will be content4 ,and now1 if they would listen--as ,i suppose they will not--,i would address a few words to the ,southern people4 ,i would say to them3 ,you consider yourselves a reasonable and a just people2 and ,i consider that in the general qualities of reason and justice you are not inferior to any other people4 ,still1 when you speak of us ,republicans1 you do so only to denounce us as reptiles1 or1 at the best1 as no better than outlaws4 ,you will grant a hearing to pirates or murderers1 but nothing like it to 8,black ,republicans40 ,in all your contentions with one another1 each of you deems an unconditional condemnation of 8,black ,republicanism10 as the first thing to be attended to4 ,indeed1 such condemnation of us seems to be an indispensable prerequisite--license1 so to speak--among you to be admitted or permitted to speak at all4 ,now can you or not be prevailed upon to pause and to consider whether this is quite just to us1 or even to yourselves8 ,bring forward your charges and specifications1 and then be patient long enough to hear us deny or justify4 ,you say we are sectional4 ,we deny it4 ,that makes an issue2 and the burden of proof is upon you4 ,you produce your proof2 and what is it8 ,why1 that our party has no existence in your section--gets no votes in your section4 ,the fact is substantially true2 but does it prove the issue8 ,if it does1 then in case we should1 without change of principle1 begin to get votes in your section1 we should thereby cease to be sectional4 ,you cannot escape this conclusion2 and yet1 are you willing to abide by it8 ,if you are1 you will probably soon find that we have ceased to be sectional1 for we shall get votes in your section this very year4 ,you will then begin to discover1 as the truth plainly is1 that your proof does not touch the issue4 ,the fact that we get no votes in your section is a fact of your making1 and not of ours4 ,and if there be fault in that fact1 that fault is primarily yours1 and remains so until you show that we repel you by some wrong principle or practice4 ,if we do repel you by any wrong principle or practice1 the fault is ours2 but this brings you to where you ought to have started--to a discussion of the right or wrong of our principle4 ,if our principle1 put in practice1 would wrong your section for the benefit of ours1 or for any other object1 then our principle1 and we with it1 are sectional1 and are justly opposed and denounced as such4 ,meet us1 then1 on the question of whether our principle1 put in practice1 would wrong your section2 and so meet us as if it were possible that something may be said on your side4 ,do you accept the challenge8 ,no6 ,then you really believe that the principle which 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live0 thought so clearly right as to adopt it1 and indorse it again and again1 upon their official oaths1 is in fact so clearly wrong as to demand your condemnation without a moment's consideration4 ,some of you delight to flaunt in our faces the warning against sectional parties given by ,washington in his ,farewell ,address4 ,less than eight years before ,washington gave that warning1 he had1 as ,president of the ,united ,states1 approved and signed an act of ,congress enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the ,northwestern ,territory1 which act embodied the policy of the government upon that subject up to and at the very moment he penned that warning2 and about one year after he penned it1 he wrote ,lafayette that he considered that prohibition a wise measure1 expressing in the same connection his hope that we should at some time have a confederacy of free ,states4 ,bearing this in mind1 and seeing that sectionalism has since arisen upon this same subject1 is that warning a weapon in your hands against us1 or in our hands against you8 ,could ,washington himself speak1 would he cast the blame of that sectionalism upon us1 who sustain his policy1 or upon you1 who repudiate it8 ,we respect that warning of ,washington1 and we commend it to you1 together with his example pointing to the right application of it4 ,but you say you are conservative--eminently conservative--while we are revolutionary1 destructive1 or something of the sort4 ,what is conservatism8 ,is it not adherence to the old and tried1 against the new and untried8 ,we stick to1 contend for1 the identical old policy on the point in controversy which was adopted by 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live02 while you with one accord reject1 and scout1 and spit upon that old policy1 and insist upon substituting something new4 ,true1 you disagree among yourselves as to what that substitute shall be4 ,you are divided on new propositions and plans1 but you are unanimous in rejecting and denouncing the old policy of the fathers4 ,some of you are for reviving the foreign slave-trade2 some for a ,congressional slave code for the ,territories2 some for ,congress forbidding the ,territories to prohibit slavery within their limits2 some for maintaining slavery in the ,territories through the judiciary2 some for the 8gur-reat pur-rinciple0 that 8if one man would enslave another1 no third man should object10 fantastically called 8popular sovereignty10 but never a man among you is in favor of ,federal prohibition of slavery in ,federal ,territories1 according to the practice of 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live40 ,not one of all your various plans can show a precedent or an advocate in the century within which our government originated4 ,consider1 then1 whether your claim of conservatism for yourselves1 and your charge of destructiveness against us1 are based on the most clear and stable foundations4 ,again1 you say we have made the slavery question more prominent than it formerly was4 ,we deny it4 ,we admit that it is more prominent1 but we deny that we made it so4 ,it was not we1 but you1 who discarded the old policy of the fathers4 ,we resisted1 and still resist1 your innovation2 and thence comes the greater prominence of the question4 ,would you have that question reduced to its former proportions8 ,go back to that old policy4 ,what has been will be again1 under the same conditions4 ,if you would have the peace of the old times1 re-adopt the precepts and policy of the old times4 ,you charge that we stir up insurrections among your slaves4 ,we deny it2 and what is your proof8 ,harper's ,ferry6 ,john ,brown66 ,john ,brown was no ,republican2 and you have failed to implicate a single ,republican in his ,harper's ,ferry enterprise4 ,if any member of our party is guilty in that matter1 you know it or you do not know it4 ,if you do know it1 you are inexcusable for not designating the man and proving the fact4 ,if you do not know it1 you are inexcusable for asserting it1 and especially for persisting in the assertion after you have tried and failed to make the proof4 ,you need not be told that persisting in a charge which one does not know to be true1 is simply malicious slander4 ,some of you admit that no ,republican designedly aided or encouraged the ,harper's ,ferry affair1 but still insist that our doctrines and declarations necessarily lead to such results4 ,we do not believe it4 ,we know we hold no doctrine1 and make no declaration1 which were not held to and made by 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live40 ,you never dealt fairly by us in relation to this affair4 ,when it occurred1 some important ,state elections were near at hand1 and you were in evident glee with the belief that1 by charging the blame upon us1 you could get an advantage of us in those elections4 ,the elections came1 and your expectations were not quite fulfilled4 ,every ,republican man knew that1 as to himself at least1 your charge was a slander1 and he was not much inclined by it to cast his vote in your favor4 ,republican doctrines and declarations are accompanied with a continual protest against any interference whatever with your slaves1 or with you about your slaves4 ,surely1 this does not encourage them to revolt4 ,true1 we do1 in common with 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live10 declare our belief that slavery is wrong2 but the slaves do not hear us declare even this4 ,for anything we say or do1 the slaves would scarcely know there is a ,republican party4 ,i believe they would not1 in fact1 generally know it but for your misrepresentations of us in their hearing4 ,in your political contests among yourselves each faction charges the other with sympathy with ,black ,republicanism2 and then1 to give point to the charge1 defines ,black ,republicanism to simply be insurrection1 blood1 and thunder among the slaves4 ,slave insurrections are no more common now than they were before the ,republican party was organized4 ,what induced the ,southampton insurrection1 twenty-eight years ago1 in which at least three times as many lives were lost as at ,harper's ,ferry8 ,you can scarcely stretch your very elastic fancy to the conclusion that ,southampton was 8got up by ,black ,republicanism40 ,in the present state of things in the ,united ,states1 ,i do not think a general1 or even a very extensive1 slave insurrection is possible4 ,the indispensable concert of action cannot be attained4 ,the slaves have no means of rapid communication2 nor can incendiary freemen1 black or white1 supply it4 ,the explosive materials are everywhere in parcels2 but there neither are1 nor can be supplied1 the indispensable connecting trains4 ,much is said by ,southern people about the affection of slaves for their masters and mistresses2 and a part of it1 at least1 is true4 ,a plot for an uprising could scarcely be devised and communicated to twenty individuals before some one of them1 to save the life of a favorite master or mistress1 would divulge it4 ,this is the rule2 and the slave revolution in ,hayti was not an exception to it1 but a case occurring under peculiar circumstances4 ,the gunpowder plot of ,british history1 though not connected with slaves1 was more in point4 ,in that case1 only about twenty were admitted to the secret2 and yet one of them1 in his anxiety to save a friend betrayed the plot to that friend1 and1 by consequence1 averted the calamity4 ,occasional poisonings from the kitchen1 and open or stealthy assassinations in the field1 and local revolts extending to a score or so1 will continue to occur as the natural results of slavery2 but no general insurrection of slaves1 as ,i think1 can happen in this country for a long time4 ,whoever much fears1 or much hopes1 for such an event1 will be alike disappointed4 ,in the language of ,mr4 ,jefferson1 uttered many years ago1 8,it is still in our power to direct the process of emancipation and deportation peaceably1 and in such slow degrees1 as that the evil will wear off insensibly2 and their places be1 pari passu1 filled up by free white laborers4 ,if1 on the contrary1 it is left to force itself on1 human nature must shudder at the prospect held up40 ,mr4 ,jefferson did not mean to say1 nor do ,i1 that the power of emancipation is in the ,federal ,government4 ,he spoke of ,virginia2 and1 as to the power of emancipation1 ,i speak of the slaveholding ,states only4 ,the ,federal ,government1 however1 as we insist1 has the power of restraining the extension of the institution--the power to insure that a slave insurrection shall never occur on any ,american soil which is now free from slavery4 ,john ,brown's effort was peculiar4 ,it was not a slave insurrection4 ,it was an attempt by white men to get up a revolt among slaves1 in which the slaves refused to participate4 ,in fact1 it was so absurd that the slaves1 with all their ignorance1 saw plainly enough it could not succeed4 ,that affair1 in its philosophy1 corresponds with the many attempts1 related in history1 at the assassination of kings and emperors4 ,an enthusiast broods over the oppression of a people till he fancies himself commissioned by ,heaven to liberate them4 ,he ventures the attempt which ends in little else than his own execution4 ,orsini's attempt on ,louis ,napoleon1 and ,john ,brown's attempt at ,harper's ,ferry1 were1 in their philosophy1 precisely the same4 ,the eagerness to cast blame on old ,england in the one case1 and on ,new ,england in the other1 does not disprove the sameness of the two things4 ,and how much would it avail you1 if you could by the use of ,john ,brown1 ,helper's book1 and the like1 break up the ,republican organization8 ,human action can be modified to some extent1 but human nature cannot be changed4 ,there is a judgment and a feeling against slavery in this nation1 which cast at least a million and a half of votes4 ,you cannot destroy that judgment and feeling--that sentiment--by breaking up the political organization which rallies around it4 ,you can scarcely scatter and disperse an army which has been formed into order in the face of your heaviest fire2 but if you could1 how much would you gain by forcing the sentiment which created it out of the peaceful channel of the ballot-box into some other channel8 ,what would that other channel probably be8 ,would the number of ,john ,browns be lessened or enlarged by the operation8 ,but you will break up the ,union rather than submit to a denial of your constitutional rights4 ,that has a somewhat reckless sound2 but it would be palliated1 if not fully justified1 were we proposing1 by the mere force of numbers1 to deprive you of some right plainly written down in the ,constitution4 ,but we are proposing no such thing4 ,when you make these declarations you have a specific and well-understood allusion to an assumed constitutional right of yours to take slaves into the ,federal ,territories1 and to hold them there as property4 ,but no such right is specially written in the ,constitution4 ,that instrument is literally silent about any such right4 ,we1 on the contrary1 deny that such a right has any existence in the ,constitution1 even by implication4 ,your purpose1 then1 plainly stated1 is that you will destroy the government1 unless you be allowed to construe and force the ,constitution as you please1 on all points in dispute between you and us4 ,you will rule or ruin in all events4 ,this1 plainly stated1 is your language4 ,perhaps you will say the ,supreme ,court has decided the disputed constitutional question in your favor4 ,not quite so4 ,but waiving the lawyer's distinction between dictum and decision the court has decided the question for you in a sort of way4 ,the court has substantially said1 it is your constitutional right to take slaves into the ,federal ,territories1 and to hold them there as property4 ,when ,i say the decision was made in a sort of way1 ,i mean it was made in a divided court1 by a bare majority of the judges1 and they not quite agreeing with one another in the reasons for making it2 that it is so made as that its avowed supporters disagree with one another about its meaning1 and that it was mainly based upon a mistaken statement of fact--the statement in the opinion that 8the right of property in a slave is distinctly and expressly affirmed in the ,constitution40 ,an inspection of the ,constitution will show that the right of property in a slave is not 8distinctly and expressly affirmed0 in it4 ,bear in mind1 the judges do not pledge their judicial opinion that such right is impliedly affirmed in the ,constitution2 but they pledge their veracity that it is 8distinctly and expressly0 affirmed there--8distinctly10 that is1 not mingled with anything else--8expressly10 that is in words meaning just that1 without the aid of any inference1 and susceptible of no other meaning4 ,if they had only pledged their judicial opinion that such right is affirmed in the instrument by implication1 it would be open to others to show that neither the word 8slave0 nor 8slavery0 is to be found in the ,constitution1 nor the word 8property0 even1 in any connection with language alluding to the thing slave1 or slavery2 and that wherever in that instrument the slave is alluded to1 he is called a 8person02 and wherever his master's legal right in relation to him is alluded to1 it is spoken of as 8service or labor which may be due0--as a debt payable in service or labor4 ,also it would be open to show1 by contemporaneous history1 that this mode of alluding to slaves and slavery1 instead of speaking of them1 was employed on purpose to exclude from the ,constitution the idea that there could be property in man4 ,to show all this is easy and certain4 ,when this obvious mistake of the judges shall be brought to their notice1 is it not reasonable to expect that they will withdraw the mistaken statement1 and reconsider the conclusion based upon it8 ,and then it is to be remembered that 8our fathers who framed the government under which we live0--the men who made the ,constitution--decided this same constitutional question in our favor long ago2 decided it without division among themselves when making the decision2 without division among themselves about the meaning of it after it was made1 and1 so far as any evidence is left1 without basing it upon any mistaken statement of facts4 ,under all these circumstances1 do you really feel yourselves justified to break up this government unless such a court decision as yours is shall be at once submitted to as a conclusive and final rule of political action8 ,but you will not abide the election of a ,republican president6 ,in that supposed event1 you say1 you will destroy the ,union2 and then1 you say1 the great crime of having destroyed it will be upon us6 ,that is cool4 ,a highwayman holds a pistol to my ear1 and mutters through his teeth1 8,stand and deliver1 or ,i shall kill you1 and then you will be a murderer60 ,to be sure1 what the robber demanded of me--my money--was my own2 and ,i had a clear right to keep it2 but it was no more my own than my vote is my own2 and the threat of death to me1 to extort my money1 and the threat of destruction to the ,union1 to extort my vote1 can scarcely be distinguished in principle4 ,a few words now to ,republicans4 ,it is exceedingly desirable that all parts of this great ,confederacy shall be at peace1 and in harmony one with another4 ,let us ,republicans do our part to have it so4 ,even though much provoked1 let us do nothing through passion and ill temper4 ,even though the ,southern people will not so much as listen to us1 let us calmly consider their demands1 and yield to them if1 in our deliberate view of our duty1 we possibly can4 ,judging by all they say and do1 and by the subject and nature of their controversy with us1 let us determine1 if we can1 what will satisfy them4 ,will they be satisfied if the ,territories be unconditionally surrendered to them8 ,we know they will not4 ,in all their present complaints against us1 the ,territories are scarcely mentioned4 ,invasions and insurrections are the rage now4 ,will it satisfy them if1 in the future1 we have nothing to do with invasions and insurrections8 ,we know it will not4 ,we so know1 because we know we never had anything to do with invasions and insurrections2 and yet this total abstaining does not exempt us from the charge and the denunciation4 ,the question recurs1 ,what will satisfy them8 ,simply this3 we must not only let them alone1 but we must somehow convince them that we do let them alone4 ,this1 we know by experience1 is no easy task4 ,we have been so trying to convince them from the very beginning of our organization1 but with no success4 ,in all our platforms and speeches we have constantly protested our purpose to let them alone2 but this has had no tendency to convince them4 ,alike unavailing to convince them is the fact that they have never detected a man of us in any attempt to disturb them4 ,these natural and apparently adequate means all failing1 what will convince them8 ,this1 and this only3 cease to call slavery wrong1 and join them in calling it right4 ,and this must be done thoroughly--done in acts as well as in words4 ,silence will not be tolerated--we must place ourselves avowedly with them4 ,senator ,douglas's new sedition law must be enacted and enforced1 suppressing all declarations that slavery is wrong1 whether made in politics1 in presses1 in pulpits1 or in private4 ,we must arrest and return their fugitive slaves with greedy pleasure4 ,we must pull down our free ,state constitutions4 ,the whole atmosphere must be disinfected from all taint of opposition to slavery1 before they will cease to believe that all their troubles proceed from us4 ,i am quite aware they do not state their case precisely in this way4 ,most of them would probably say to us1 8,let us alone2 do nothing to us1 and say what you please about slavery40 ,but we do let them alone--have never disturbed them--so that1 after all1 it is what we say which dissatisfies them4 ,they will continue to accuse us of doing1 until we cease saying4 ,i am also aware they have not as yet in terms demanded the overthrow of our free-,state constitutions4 ,yet those constitutions declare the wrong of slavery1 with more solemn emphasis than do all other sayings against it2 and when all these other sayings shall have been silenced1 the overthrow of these constitutions will be demanded1 and nothing be left to resist the demand4 ,it is nothing to the contrary that they do not demand the whole of this just now4 ,demanding what they do1 and for the reason they do1 they can voluntarily stop nowhere short of this consummation4 ,holding1 as they do1 that slavery is morally right and socially elevating1 they cannot cease to demand a full national recognition of it as a legal right and a social blessing4 ,nor can we justifiably withhold this on any ground save our conviction that slavery is wrong4 ,if slavery is right1 all words1 acts1 laws1 and constitutions against it are themselves wrong1 and should be silenced and swept away4 ,if it is right1 we cannot justly object to its nationality--its universality2 if it is wrong1 they cannot justly insist upon its extension--its enlargement4 ,all they ask we could readily grant1 if we thought slavery right2 all we ask they could as readily grant1 if they thought it wrong4 ,their thinking it right and our thinking it wrong is the precise fact upon which depends the whole controversy4 ,thinking it right1 as they do1 they are not to blame for desiring its full recognition as being right2 but thinking it wrong1 as we do1 can we yield to them8 ,can we cast our votes with their view1 and against our own8 ,in view of our moral1 social1 and political responsibilities1 can we do this8 ,wrong as we think slavery is1 we can yet afford to let it alone where it is1 because that much is due to the necessity arising from its actual presence in the nation2 but can we1 while our votes will prevent it1 allow it to spread into the national ,territories1 and to overrun us here in these free ,states8 ,if our sense of duty forbids this1 then let us stand by our duty fearlessly and effectively4 ,let us be diverted by none of those sophistical contrivances wherewith we are so industriously plied and belabored--contrivances such as groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong3 vain as the search for a man who should be neither a living man nor a dead man2 such as a policy of 8don't care0 on a question about which all true men do care3 such as ,union appeals beseeching true ,union men to yield to ,disunionists1 reversing the divine rule1 and calling1 not the sinners1 but the righteous to repentance2 such as invocations to ,washington1 imploring men to unsay what ,washington said and undo what ,washington did4 ,neither let us be slandered from our duty by false accusations against us1 nor frightened from it by menaces of destruction to the government1 nor of dungeons to ourselves4 ,let us have faith that right makes might1 and in that faith let us to the end dare to do our duty as we understand it4 ,,appendix ,d ,,memorandum ,,of ,,agreement ,,for ,,high ,,school ,,debating ,,league ,,under ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,a ,,college ,,or ,,university ,the ,bangor ,high ,school1 the ,bar ,harbor ,high ,school1 the ,bucksport ,east ,maine ,conference ,seminary1 and the ,foxcroft ,academy1 do hereby agree to form an ,interscholastic ,debating ,league4 ,the purpose of this ,league is to hold debates subject to the following conditions3 ,i ,the executive committee of the ,league shall consist of the principal of each of the above-named institutions and of the ,debate ,coach at the ,university of ,maine4 ,this committee shall meet once a year at such time and place as agreed upon by the schools and the ,university4 ,it shall have charge of all matters pertaining to the ,league1 subject to the provisions herein contained4 ,,ii ,the ,league shall hold two preliminary debates and one final debate each year1 according to the following plan3 ,the high schools and academies composing this ,league shall be divided into two equal groups4 ,each group shall hold a preliminary debate as herein provided4 ,the two winning schools shall then meet in a final debate to be held at the ,university of ,maine4 ,the executive committee shall determine at its first meeting the time1 place1 and method of rotation to be observed in holding contests for succeeding years4 ,,iii ,the questions for debate shall be selected in the following manner3 7#a7 ,for the preliminary contests4 ,on or before ,october first1 each school at which a debate is to be held shall submit to the visiting school a list of three propositions4 ,the visiting school shall thereupon select one of these propositions and choose the side which it wishes to defend4 ,on or before ,october fifteenth1 notice of this selection must be communicated to the school at which the debate is to be held4 7#b7 ,for the final contest4 ,immediately upon the announcement of a decision in a preliminary contest1 the principal of the winning school shall mail notice of the result to the ,debate ,coach of the ,university of ,maine4 ,the ,debate ,coach shall determine by lot the school which is to propose the list of propositions to its opponent4 ,notice of this fact shall immediately be sent to the school thus designated4 ,this school shall prepare immediately a list of three propositions and submit them to its opponent4 ,within three days the opposing school shall mail to the other school an announcement of the proposition which it has selected from the list proposed and shall state the side of the proposition which it wishes to defend4 ,,iv ,the judges for both the preliminary and final contests shall be selected in the following manner3 ,four weeks before the contest1 the school which has proposed the list of propositions shall submit to its opponent1 a list of twelve judges4 ,the opposing school shall select three persons from this list and return their names to the other school4 ,this school shall immediately attempt to secure the persons so named to act as judges4 ,if any or all of the persons selected refuse the invitation to serve1 the proposing school shall ask the visiting school to select substitute judges from the list4 ,the school making the final selection of judges may require at any time1 a new list of names from the opposing school4 ,no school shall propose as judge any person who is financially or officially interested in1 or a graduate or former student of1 such school4 ,v ,in the preliminary contests the visiting school shall bear all expenses of its own team4 ,the school at which the contest is held shall bear the expenses of procuring judges and shall have charge of all local arrangements4 ,in the final contest each participating school shall bear the expense of its own team and one-half the expense of the judges4 ,,vi ,each school shall select for its team three representatives and an alternate1 but no one shall be chosen who is not a bona fide student of the institution which he represents4 ,,vii ,each debater shall be allowed two speeches1 one of ten 7#aj7 minutes duration1 the other of five 7#e7 minutes4 ,the first series of speeches shall be opened by the affirmative1 and shall alternate between affirmative and negative speeches4 ,the second series shall be opened by the negative1 and shall alternate between negative and affirmative speeches4 ,,viii ,in preparing for any contest1 each school is entitled to three visits from a student of ,argumentation and ,debate in the ,university of ,maine4 ,this student ,coach will give such assistance as is asked for in the training of the debaters representing each school4 ,no charge will be made for this service1 but each school must bear the expense of the student sent to coach its team4 ,,ix ,in each contest the judges shall be instructed to award the decision on the merits of the argument as presented in the debate1 and not upon the merits of the question4 ,it is understood that effectiveness of style and manner of delivery are to be considered4 ,x ,this agreement may be amended at any time by the unanimous vote of the executive committee4 ,,xi ,at the close of the final contest1 the ,president of the ,university of ,maine1 or some one on his behalf1 will present to the winning team the ,university of ,maine ,interscholastic ,debating ,cup4 ,the name of the winning school and the year of the contest will be engraved upon the cup4 ,this cup will be kept in the possession of the winning school until within one week of the next annual contest4 ,at this time it shall be returned to the ,university of ,maine to be awarded to the school winning the final contest for that year4 ,,xii ,at the close of the final contest1 the ,president of the ,university of ,maine1 or some one on his behalf1 will present to the debater whose work is regarded by the judges as the most effective1 a scholarship to the value of #cj4jj good for one year in the above-named institution4 ,,xiii ,this agreement shall be in full force and operation when one of the two copies herewith submitted to each of the four institutions composing the ,league is signed by the principal of the institution and mailed to the ,head of the ,department of ,english at the ,university of ,maine4 ,,appendix ,e ,,debating ,,agreement ,,for ,a ,,league ,,composed ,,of ,,five ,,institutions ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,central ,,debating ,,circuit ,,of ,,america ,,article ,i ,,object4--,the object of this organization shall be to foster interest in debate by holding an annual contest in ,december on the ,friday evening one week before the opening of the holiday recess4 ,,article ,,ii ,,debating ,,boards4--,each university shall create a debating board a majority of whose members shall be of the faculty4 ,the members of this board shall be chosen annually as each university may deem wise4 ,the debating board shall have general supervision of all debating matters of the league affecting its university4 ,,article ,,iii ,,questions4--,on ,april first each university shall submit to each of the others a question properly stated for debate4 ,on ,april fifteenth each university shall send the five questions to each of the others arranged in the order of its choice4 ,the question ranked highest by all the universities shall be debated by all the teams4 ,in the case of a tie the selection from the tying questions shall be made by the ,president of ,yale ,university4 ,,article ,,iv ,,time ,,and ,,order ,,of ,,speaking4--,each speaker shall have seventeen minutes2 twelve minutes for opening and five for rebuttal1 but the order of rebuttal speeches on either side may be changed at the wish of the speakers on that side4 ,the negative shall lead in the rebuttal4 ,the visiting team shall support the negative4 ,,article ,v ,,judges4 7,contests for #aijf-aijg and #aiaj-aiaa7 ,contesting states4 ,place of contest4 ,residence of ,judge4 ,minnesota ,iowa ,city ,illinois ,iowa ,nebraska ,nebraska ,urbana ,iowa ,illinois ,wisconsin ,iowa ,madison ,illinois ,wisconsin ,minnesota ,illinois ,minneapolis ,iowa ,minnesota ,wisconsin ,wisconsin ,lincoln ,iowa ,nebraska 7,contests for #aijg-aijh and #aiaa-aiab7 ,illinois ,iowa ,city ,minnesota ,iowa ,nebraska ,wisconsin ,urbana ,iowa ,illinois ,minnesota ,madison ,illinois ,wisconsin ,iowa ,nebraska ,minneapolis ,wisconsin ,minnesota ,iowa ,lincoln ,minnesota ,nebraska 7,contests for #aijh-aiji and #aiab-aiac7 ,wisconsin ,iowa ,city ,illinois ,iowa ,nebraska ,minnesota ,urbana ,wisconsin ,illinois ,iowa ,nebraska ,madison ,illinois ,wisconsin ,minnesota ,iowa ,minneapolis ,wisconsin ,minnesota ,nebraska ,illinois ,lincoln ,iowa ,nebraska 7,contests for #aiji-aiaj and #aiac-aiad7 ,nebraska ,iowa ,city ,minnesota ,iowa ,illinois ,iowa ,urbana ,wisconsin ,illinois ,illinois ,madison ,minnesota ,wisconsin ,wisconsin ,minneapolis ,nebraska ,minnesota ,iowa ,minnesota ,lincoln ,iowa ,nebraska ,on ,april first each university shall submit judges according to the above schedule4 ,when a single state furnishes the judges for any contest it shall submit a list of #bd names to each of the two competing universities4 ,these lists shall be duplicates4 ,when two states furnish the judges they shall each submit a list of #ab names4 ,when a state furnishes judges for two or more contests it shall make up its several lists as impartially as possible with reference to the distribution of able men4 ,convenience and economy for the attending judges shall be a factor in their nomination in so far as may be consistent with the choice of able men4 ,not later than the first of ,october preceding the contest the visiting university shall send to the entertaining university a list of six candidates for judges chosen from the proper rolls4 ,not later than the same date the entertaining university shall send to its opponent a list of twelve judges chosen from the proper rolls4 ,each university shall arrange the opponent's list of candidates in the order of its choice4 ,each university shall have the right to challenge any or all of the number of the candidates submitted by its opponent on presentation of good and sufficient reason4 ,the challenge list1 together with objections1 shall be returned at once to the sender4 ,the list shall be completed and re-submitted not later than ,october twentieth4 ,it is further understood that any person recommended for judge who is a relative1 actual or prospective1 of any contestant1 or who is an alumnus of either university1 or who holds or has held1 any official relation with either university may be rejected4 ,the secretary of the entertaining university shall notify the judges by a joint note1 the form of which shall be as follows2 ,the state universities of 7name7 and 7name7 will hold a joint debate at 7place7 on 7date74 ,the specific wording of the proposition for debate is1 8,resolved1 that c-- ,we shall consider ourselves especially favored if you can be with us at 7place7 to hear and judge this contest4 7,insert a sentence here stating the names of the other judges who have been invited or who consented to serve47 ,we shall of course meet your entire expense4 ,trusting that we may have an early and favorable reply1 we remain1 ,respectfully yours1 ,a4 ,b41 ,university of -------- ,c4 ,d41 ,university of -------- ,the entertaining university shall sign the names of both secretaries to the letter and shall enclose a stamped envelop addressed to each for the reply4 ,before the contest the judges shall be entertained at a hotel and every semblance of an effort to influence them will be regarded as dishonorable conduct4 ,the secretary will secure two judges from the list of the entertaining university and one from the list of the opponent adhering strictly to the order recommended by the respective universities4 ,but if any name or names should be found on both lists they shall be first invited to serve4 ,the university submitting a list of names shall always report on the qualifications of the judges in the following respects2 ,i4 ,occupation4 ,,ii4 ,where educated4 ,,iii4 ,politics4 ,,iv4 ,religion4 ,v4 ,official relations with any university of the league at any time4 ,,article ,,vi ,,instructions ,,to ,,judges4--,each judge shall be instructed to decide for himself what constitutes effective debate1 except that he shall consider both thought and delivery4 ,without consultation he shall vote affirmative or negative on the merits of the debate1 not on the merits of the question4 ,he shall sign1 seal and deliver his vote to the presiding officer who shall open the votes and announce the decision4 ,,article ,,vii ,,expenses4--,each university shall pay all the expenses of its own debaters4 ,all other expenses of the contest shall be paid by the entertaining university4 ,,article ,,viii ,,conduct ,,of ,,the ,,debates4--,in the contests of this league all communication with the debaters1 by prompting or otherwise1 is forbidden2 also the introduction of both private correspondence and charts is debarred4 ,,article ,,ix ,,amendments4--,this constitution may be amended by the authorized representatives of the universities at any special meeting or by correspondence providing twenty days notice be given of the changes desired4 ,,article ,x ,,schedule4--,the schedule for debates shall be as follows3 ,first ,year ,minnesota shall send a team to ,iowa ,city ,nebraska 8 8 8 8 8 ,urbana ,iowa 8 8 8 8 8 ,madison ,illinois 8 8 8 8 8 ,minneapolis ,wisconsin 8 8 8 8 8 ,lincoln ,second ,year ,minnesota 8 8 8 8 8 ,madison ,nebraska 8 8 8 8 8 ,minneapolis ,iowa 8 8 8 8 8 ,lincoln ,illinois 8 8 8 8 8 ,iowa ,city ,wisconsin 8 8 8 8 8 ,urbana ,third ,year ,minnesota 8 8 8 8 8 ,urbana ,nebraska 8 8 8 8 8 ,madison ,iowa 8 8 8 8 8 ,minneapolis ,illinois 8 8 8 8 8 ,lincoln ,wisconsin 8 8 8 8 8 ,iowa ,city ,fourth ,year ,minnesota 8 8 8 8 8 ,lincoln ,nebraska 8 8 8 8 8 ,iowa ,city ,iowa 8 8 8 8 8 ,urbana ,illinois 8 8 8 8 8 ,madison ,wisconsin 8 8 8 8 8 ,minneapolis ,,appendix ,f ,,memorandum ,,of ,,agreement ,,for ,a ,,triangular ,,debating ,,league ,debating ,agreement between ,indiana ,university1 ,ohio ,state ,university1 and the ,university of ,illinois 7,adopted by the representatives of the three institutions at ,columbus1 ,june #ag1 #aije7 ,,article #a4--,this organization shall consist of the ,indiana ,university1 ,ohio ,state ,university1 and the ,university of ,illinois1 and shall be known as the ,state ,university ,debating ,league4 ,,article #b4--;,its affairs shall be conducted by an executive committee consisting of one member of the ,faculty of each institution1 to be selected by that institution4 7a7 ,one of these shall act as ,president1 one as ,vice ,president1 and one as ,secretary and ,treasurer1 each holding office for one year4 7b7 ,the three offices shall be filled by the representatives of the three institutions in rotation in the following order3 #aije-aijf ,presidency1 ,ohio ,state ,university1 ,vice ,presidency1 ,indiana ,university1 ,secretary and ,treasurership1 ,university of ,illinois2 #aijf-aijg ,presidency1 ,indiana ,university1 ,vice ,presidency1 ,university of ,illinois1 ,secretary and ,treasurership1 ,ohio ,state ,university2 #aijg-aijh ,presidency1 ,university of ,illinois1 ,vice ,presidency1 ,ohio ,state ,university1 ,secretary and ,treasurership1 ,indiana ,university2 and thereafter in the same rotation4 ,,article #c4--,the debates shall be held on the second ,friday in ,march--one at ,bloomington1 ,indiana1 one at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 and one at ,urbana1 ,illinois4 ,in the year #aije-aijf the teams shall come together as follows3 ,university of ,illinois and ,indiana ,university at ,bloomington2 ,indiana ,university and ,ohio ,state ,university at ,columbus2 ,ohio ,state ,university and ,university of ,illinois at ,urbana4 ,in the year #aijf-aijg ,ohio ,state ,university and ,indiana ,university at ,bloomington2 ,university of ,illinois and ,ohio ,state ,university at ,columbus2 ,indiana ,university and ,university of ,illinois at ,urbana2 and thereafter in the same biennial rotation4 ,,article #d4--7;a7 ,a question shall be proposed by each institution not later than the #eth of ,october preceding the debates4 7b7 ,the ,secretary shall at once send the three questions to the three institutions1 and they shall reply not later than the #beth of ,october1 each institution indicating its ranking of the three questions as first choice1 second choice1 third choice4 7c7 ,the ,secretary shall report the result of this vote not later than the #cjth of ,october1 and the question ranked highest in the vote shall be debated by all teams4 ,in case of a tie in the ranking the selection from the three questions shall be made by the ,president of the ,university of ,minnesota4 7d7 ,after the question has been chosen no modification shall be made in its wording and no definition permitted4 ,,article #e4--,the home team shall support the affirmative of the question and the visiting team the negative4 ,,article #f4--;,each speaker shall be allowed twelve minutes for a principal speech and five minutes for a rebuttal speech4 ,no time may be transferred from one speaker to another1 but the order of rebuttal speeches on either side may be changed at the wish of the speakers on that side4 8,the negative shall lead in rebuttal40 ,,article #g4--7;a7 ,the visiting institution shall not later than the #aeth of ,january nominate a list of twenty names of persons living within two hundred and fifty miles of the place of the debate1 no one of whom shall be or shall have been connected with any of the three institutions concerned either as officer1 teacher or student4 ,the home institution shall have the right of veto for cause to be explicitly stated to the other institution within two weeks thereafter1 and the visiting institution shall submit other names equal in number to those vetoed4 ,the home institution shall choose three persons from this list to act as judges4 7b7 ,each judge shall be provided with written instructions in the following form3 ,date444444444444444444 ,in rendering your decision1 you are asked to consider the merits of the debate and not the merits of the question4 ,you are the sole judges of what constitutes effective debating1 remembering that both thought and delivery are to be considered4 ,in my opinion the 444444444 team has done the most effective debating4 4444444444444444444444 ,judge 7c7 ,at the close of the debate each judge shall be permitted to withdraw1 and within #ae minutes shall present to the chairman in a sealed envelope his individual decision1 reached without conference with his colleagues4 ,,article #h4--;,each institution shall pay the expenses of its debaters4 ,all other expenses of each debate shall be paid by the entertaining institution4 ,,appendix ,g ,,propositions ,,political ,a4 ,legislative4 #a4 ,any further centralization of power in the ,federal ,government of the ,united ,states should be condemned4 #b4 ,united ,states senators should be elected by popular vote4 #c4 ,the ,house of ,representatives should elect its standing committees4 #d4 ,the state of should adopt the legislative referendum4 #e4 ,an amendment of the ,federal ,constitution should be adopted convening the first session of ,congress within a few months after the election and compelling the second session to adjourn several days before the following election4 #f4 ,the number of representatives to ,congress should be reduced4 #g4 ,all members of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives should be required to be present during the discussion of all proposed legislation1 unless prevented by illness4 #h4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt the ,swiss referendum4 #i4 ,the ,constitution should be so amended as to make the passing of amendments easier4 #aj4 ,the ,united ,states ,senate should adopt a closure rule4 #aa4 ,lobbying in ,congress and in the state legislatures should be prohibited by law4 #ab4 ,direct legislation by means of the initiative and referendum is desirable for our states and their subdivisions4 #ac4 ,the initiative and referendum offer a desirable relief from the evils arising from the dominance of special interests in our states and their municipalities4 ,b4 ,executive4 #ad4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states should be elected for one term of seven years1 and be ineligible for relection4 #ae4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states should be elected by direct vote of the people4 #af4 ,the ,president should be allowed to veto items in appropriation bills4 #ag4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states is justified in calling out the militia to subdue local disturbances1 without consent or request of state authorities4 #ah4 ,counties in which a lynching occurs should be placed under martial law until they give evidence of capacity to exercise effective local government1 not exceeding a term of one year4 #ai4 ,for the better protection of life1 liberty1 and property in rural districts a state constabulary is necessary4 ,c4 ,judicial4 #bj4 ,the recall of state and local judges by popular vote is desirable4 #ba4 ,a two-thirds vote of the jury should constitute a verdict in criminal cases4 #bb4 ,a two-thirds vote of the jury should constitute a verdict in civil cases4 #bc4 ,federal judges should be elected by popular vote4 #bd4 ,the jury system should be abolished4 #be4 ,the courts should be forbidden by law to issue 8blanket0 injunctions in labor disputes4 #bf4 ,the detention of innocent witnesses1 pending the trial of cases in court1 without adequate compensation and without proof of its necessity should be prohibited by law4 #bg4 ,state judges should be appointed by the governor to hold office during life or good behavior4 #bh4 ,the law governing judicial process should be so amended as to provide for the more speedy conduct of criminal cases1 and fewer opportunities for delay in the execution of the sentences imposed4 #bi4 ,it would be desirable to elect justices of the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court by popular vote4 ,d4 ,franchise4 #cj4 ,the right of suffrage should be limited to persons who can read and write4 #ca4 ,there should be an educational test as a qualification for voting4 #cb4 ,the white citizens of the ,south are justified in using all peaceable means to secure political supremacy4 #cc4 ,men and women should have equal suffrage4 #cd4 ,the admission to citizenship into the ,united ,states should be granted under stricter requirements as to a working knowledge of rights and duties of the privileges conferred4 #ce4 ,admission of aliens to the privileges of citizenship should be granted on more restrictive conditions4 #cf4 ,the admission of native-born and foreign-born citizens to the privilege of voting should be granted only upon evidence of due qualifications both as to knowledge of the rights and obligations and also of respect for the institutions and ideals of our national life4 ,e4 ,immigration4 #cg4 ,the immigration restrictions which now apply to the ,chinese should be extended so as to apply to the ,japanese4 #ch4 ,the ,united ,states should make no discrimination between the immigrants from ,china and those from other countries4 #ci4 ,admission of further immigration to the ,united ,states1 so long as the congestion of alien groups persist in our large cities1 should be subject to ,federal control of such arrivals for a definite period of years for purposes of better distribution with regard to the requirements of the different sections of the country4 #dj4 ,the immigration of all ,japanese and ,chinese laborers to the ,united ,states should be prohibited by law4 ,f4 ,miscellaneous4 #da4 ,party lines should be disregarded in all elections4 #db4 ,public advocacy of violent means for the subversion of government should be suppressed by law in the ,united ,states4 #dc4 ,the ,united ,states should have exclusive jurisdiction over ,behring ,sea4 #dd4 ,the sharing of public funds for purposes which ignore the constitutional separation of church and state is a menace to our ,federal1 ,state1 and ,municipal institutions and should be abandoned wherever inaugurated and prevented wherever existing or proposed4 #de4 ,the short ballot should be adopted in ,state and ,municipal governments4 #df4 ,the tendency of political platform making is to overburden the ,federal government with proposals whose nature and accomplishment are better adapted to ,state1 ,municipal1 and other local governmental agencies4 #dg4 ,congress should provide for uniform ,federal marriage and divorce laws4 ,constitutionality conceded4 #dh4 ,all cities in the ,united ,states of over #e1jjj inhabitants should adopt the commission form of government4 #di4 ,the 8,galveston ,plan0 of city government by a board of directors insures increase of efficiency combined with a decrease of corruption in city affairs4 #ej4 ,there should be a large and immediate increase in the ,united ,states ,navy4 #ea4 ,a political reformation in the ,united ,states looking to the formation of two new political parties is desirable4 #eb4 ,the states should adopt the recall for all state and local officers except members of the judiciary4 #ec4 ,a commission form of government is preferable to a mayor and council plan4 ,,economic ,a4 ,tariff4 #ed4 ,commercial reciprocity with ,canada would be for the best interest of the ,united ,states4 #ee4 ,the tariff on goods imported into the ,united ,states should be fixed by a bi-partisan commission4 #ef4 ,the ,united ,states should impose a tariff on imports from the ,philippines4 ,constitutionality conceded4 #eg4 ,the protective tariff should be removed from trust-made products4 #eh4 ,raw materials should be admitted to the ,united ,states free of duty4 #ei4 ,the tariff on raw materials is justified on the ground of the protection of ,american industry against foreign competition4 #fj4 ,sugar should be admitted to the ,united ,states free of duty4 #fa4 ,commercial reciprocity between the ,united ,states and ,south ,america would be for the best interests of the ,united ,states4 #fb4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt the policy of tariff for revenue only4 #fc4 ,steel should be admitted to the ,united ,states free of duty4 #fd4 ,all goods1 the price of which is controlled by a single capitalist or combination of capitalists1 should be admitted to the ,united ,states free of duty4 ,b4 ,taxation4 #fe4 ,the growth of large fortunes should be checked by means of national progressive income and inheritance taxes4 #ff4 ,the ,federal government should levy a progressive inheritance tax4 ,granted1 that such tax would be held constitutional4 #fg4 ,the ,federal government should levy a progressive income tax4 ,constitutionality conceded4 #fh4 ,the single tax as advocated by ,henry ,george1 would be an improvement over our present system of taxation4 #fi4 ,the tax on the issue of state banks should be repealed4 #gj4 ,that a graduated income tax would be a desirable addition to the ,federal system of taxation4 #ga4 ,a ,federal graduated income tax with an exemption of all incomes below #ejjj per annum would be a desirable modification of the system of ,federal taxation4 ,c4 ,corporations4 #gb4 ,congress should pass laws prohibiting corporate contributions to political campaign funds4 #gc4 ,the regulating power of ,congress should be extended over all corporations doing an interstate business4 ,constitutionality conceded4 #gd4 ,all corporations engaged in interstate commerce should be required to take out a ,federal license4 #ge4 ,physical valuation of the property of a corporation is the best basis for fixing the rate of taxation4 #gf4 ,railroad pooling is economically advantageous to the public4 #gg4 ,the price of 8trust-made0 products should be regulated by law4 #gh4 ,the ,national ,bureau of ,corporations should have control of industrial and commercial corporations doing interstate business1 similar to the control which the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission has over railroads4 #gi4 ,all corporations engaged in interstate commerce should be required to take out ,federal charters2 it being conceded that such a requirement would be constitutional and that ,federal license shall not be available as an alternative plan4 #hj4 ,the policy of regulating industrial corporations is preferable to the policy of dissolving them4 ,d4 ,labor4 #ha4 ,the ,new ,zealand system of compulsory arbitration should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 #hb4 ,a system of compulsory arbitration should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 #hc4 ,employers and employees of all public service corporations such as railroads1 street railways1 etc41 should be compelled to arbitrate labor disputes4 #hd4 ,members of trades-unions are justified in refusing to work with non-union men4 #he4 ,state boards of arbitration1 with compulsory powers1 should be established to settle all disputes between employers and employees4 #hf4 ,employers are justified in refusing recognition to labor unions4 #hg4 ,the history of trades-unions for the past ten years shows a tendency detrimental to the industrial development of the ,united ,states4 #hh4 ,the boycott is a legitimate means of enforcing the demands of organized labor4 #hi4 ,the growth of labor unions is a menace to liberties of the working man4 #ij4 ,the closed 8shop0 is justifiable4 #ia4 ,employers should be prohibited from setting up contributory negligence or negligence of a fellow servant as a bar to recovery of adequate compensation by an injured employee4 #ib4 ,the right to strike on the part of public employees should always be subject to referendum on the part of the community immediately concerned4 #ic4 ,it would be advisable to legalize the strike and the boycott4 #id4 ,the movement of organized labor for the closed shop should receive the support of public opinion4 #ie4 ,the best interests of the laboring classes would be advanced by the development of a separate labor party4 ,e4 ,public ,ownership4 #if4 ,the ,federal government should buy and operate the telegraph systems4 #ig4 ,municipalities in the ,united ,states of over #aj1jjj inhabitants should own and operate their systems for lighting and local transportation4 #ih4 ,the ,united ,states should own and operate the coal mines within its borders4 #ii4 ,the forests of the ,united ,states should be owned and operated by the ,federal government4 ,f4 ,miscellaneous4 #ajj4 ,the powers of the ,interstate ,commerce ,commission should be enlarged4 #aja4 ,the ,united ,states should subsidize our merchant marine4 #ajb4 ,it is economically advantageous to the ,united ,states to own territory in the tropics4 #ajc4 ,the amount of property transferable by inheritance should be limited by statute4 #ajd4 ,the existing systems of commercial distribution between producers and consumers is chiefly responsible for the high cost of living4 #aje4 ,the national debt should be paid as rapidly as possible4 #ajf4 ,mail order stores are a benefit to the public4 #ajg4 ,prison-made products should be excluded from the open market4 #ajh4 ,the labor of prisoners in the state penitentiary should be utilized in improving the highways of the state4 #aji4 ,the ,american coastwise traffic should pass through the ,panama ,canal toll free4 #aaj4 ,congress should be given the power by constitutional amendment to regulate manufactures and industry4 #aaa4 ,the ,federal government should establish a bank of the ,united ,states4 #aab4 ,the ,aldrich plan of a ,national ,reserve ,association should be adopted by the ,federal government4 #aac4 ,the ,federal government should regulate and supervise all fire and life insurance companies doing an interstate business4 #aad4 ,the ,federal government should grant financial aid to ships engaged in our foreign trade and owned by citizens of the ,united ,states4 #aae4 ,there should be some legislation providing for the guarantee of bank deposits4 #aaf4 ,the ,federal government should develop the waterway from the ,great ,lakes to the ,gulf4 #aag4 ,a system of compulsory industrial insurance covering accident1 sickness1 and old age should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 ,constitutionality conceded4 #aah4 ,the inland waterways of the ,united ,states should be extensively improved by the ,federal government4 #aai4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt a double monetary standard4 ,,social ,a4 ,the ,liquor ,problem4 #abj4 ,the elimination of private profits offers the best solution of the liquor problem4 #aba4 ,prohibition of the liquor traffic is preferable to any system of license1 wherever public opinion will sanction the passage and enforcement of such a law4 #abb4 ,the ,united ,states army should restablish the use of the canteen4 #abc4 ,the ,carolina ,dispensary ,system for controlling the use and sale of intoxicating liquors should be adopted in the state of 4 #abd4 ,state prohibition has failed wherever it has been adopted4 #abe4 ,prohibition is more conducive to temperance than high license4 ,b4 ,international ,peace4 #abf4 ,the ,united ,states should at once announce and carry out a policy of total disarmament4 #abg4 ,the present growth of armaments should be checked by mutual agreement between the nations4 #abh4 ,the ,united ,states should immediately provide for an increase in its navy4 #abi4 ,international peace is best promoted by extensive warlike preparations4 ,c4 ,insurance and ,pensions4 #acj4 ,the ,german system of compulsory insurance should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 #aca4 ,the ,federal government should control all life insurance companies4 #acb4 ,a system of compulsory industrial insurance should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 #acc4 ,the ,united ,states government should grant uniform pensions to all citizens over sixty years of age4 #acd4 ,the ,federal government should grant old-age pensions4 ,d4 ,the ,church4 #ace4 ,all church property should be taxed4 #acf4 ,the modern church should maintain more rigid rules regarding the personal conduct of its members4 #acg4 ,a union of all ,christian churches in the ,united ,states would further the cause of ,christianity4 ,e4 ,miscellaneous4 #ach4 ,sunday baseball should be prohibited4 #aci4 ,public libraries1 museums1 and art galleries should be open on ,sunday4 #adj4 ,lavish social entertainments should be condemned4 #ada4 ,in times of business depression the states and municipalities should furnish employment to the unemployed4 #adb4 ,capital punishment should be abolished4 #adc4 ,all cities of over #be1jjj population should establish free public employment bureaus4 #add4 ,state institutions should be established providing for the care and training of homeless children4 #ade4 ,the growth of monopolies shows a tendency toward ,socialism4 #adf4 ,congress should enact laws providing for the censorship of the stage4 #adg4 ,moving picture shows should be compelled to exhibit only such pictures as can be shown to have an educational or cultural value4 #adh4 ,the ,united ,states is moving toward ,socialism4 #adi4 ,the tendency of the population of the ,united ,states to concentrate in the cities is detrimental to the best interest of the people4 #aej4 ,children under sixteen years of age should be prohibited by ,federal law from working in factories4 #aea4 ,a maximum eight hour working day for all occupations should be established by state law4 #aeb4 ,vivisection should be prohibited by law4 #aec4 ,arctic and ,antarctic expeditions should be looked upon with disfavor by the public4 #aed4 ,the ,united ,states government should grant permanent copyright4 #aee4 ,automobiles should be prohibited from running more than fifteen miles an hour4 #aef4 ,railroads should be required by ,federal and state law to adopt all devices such as block signals1 steel passenger coaches1 etc41 which minimize the danger from wreck4 #aeg4 ,greater security should be given by law to wills and bequests4 #aeh4 ,the negro is not fitted to exercise the right of suffrage4 #aei4 ,there should be a state censorship of the stage4 #afj4 ,letter postage should be reduced to one cent4 #afa4 ,male citizens should be compelled to serve two years in the ,united ,states army4 #afb4 ,popular literature shows a decline in public morals4 #afc4 ,social settlement organizations offer the best means of conducting charitable work4 #afd4 ,the plea of insanity shall not be available as a bar to punishment for crime4 #afe4 ,newspapers should be prohibited from publishing matter which has a tendency to corrupt the public morals4 ,,educational ,a4 ,common ,school4 #aff4 ,the ,bible should be taught in the public schools4 #afg4 ,free text-books should be furnished to all pupils below the high school grade4 #afh4 ,the state should prescribe uniform text-books for the public schools4 #afi4 ,public funds should not be appropriated to aid private or sectarian schools4 #agj4 ,no prizes should be offered in public schools4 ,b4 ,high ,school4 #aga4 ,every high school should be compelled to maintain courses in manual training and domestic science4 #agb4 ,secret societies should be prohibited in public high schools4 #agc4 ,high school courses should be revised so as to furnish more practical educational training4 #agd4 ,the high school course as at present given by almost all high schools is of no practical value to the pupil who does not go to college4 #age4 ,military drill should be compulsory in all public high schools of the ,united ,states4 ,c4 ,college4 #agf4 ,the honor system of examinations should be adopted by all ,american colleges4 #agg4 ,freshmen at should not be permitted to engage in intercollegiate athletics4 #agh4 ,all college courses should be completely elective4 #agi4 ,athletics1 as now conducted1 are a detriment to ,american colleges4 #ahj4 ,no college should be located near a large city4 #aha4 ,denominational colleges should not receive financial aid from the state4 #ahb4 ,for the average student the small college is preferable to the large college4 #ahc4 ,admission to ,american colleges should be by examination only4 #ahd4 ,intercollegiate football should be abolished4 #ahe4 ,segregation of sexes in ,american colleges and universities is preferable to coducation4 #ahf4 ,students in college courses who attain the rank of ninety per cent or higher in daily work should be excused from examinations4 #ahg4 ,two years of college work should be required for admission to any course in law or medicine4 #ahh4 ,written term examinations should be abolished4 #ahi4 ,the class rushes at the beginning of the college year should be prohibited4 #aij4 ,chapel attendance at the ,university of should be compulsory4 #aia4 ,student government should be established at the ,university of 4 #aib4 ,the ,oxford type of university should be adopted in the ,united ,states4 #aic4 ,for the average man a college education is an aid to business success4 #aid4 ,the colleges of the state of should be combined into one centrally located university4 ,d4 ,miscellaneous4 #aie4 ,a ,national ,university should be established at ,washington4 #aif4 ,novels should not be placed in circulation by public libraries until two years after publication4 #aig4 ,the number of subjects taught in high schools and colleges should be greatly reduced4 #aih4 ,the recommendations of the simplified spelling board should be adopted throughout the ,united ,states4 #aii4 ,night trade schools should be established as a part of our system of public instruction4 #bjj4 ,industrial education will solve the negro race problem in the ,united ,states4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,the following pages contain advertisements of a few of the ,macmillan books on kindred subjects ,public ,speaking ,principles and ,practice ,,by ,,irvah ,,lester ,,winter ,assistant ,professor of ,public ,speaking in ,harvard ,university ,cloth1 #hvo1 ,new ,edition1 #b4jj ,,extracts ,,from ,,the ,,preface ,this book is designed to set forth the main principles of effective platform delivery1 and to provide a large body of material for student practice4 ,the work laid out may be used to form a separate course of study1 or a course of training running parallel with a course in debating or other original speaking4 ,it has been prepared with a view also to that large number who want to speak1 or have to speak1 but cannot have the advantage of a teacher4 ,much is therefore said in the way of caution1 and untechnical language is used throughout4 ,the discussion of principles in ,part ,one is intended as a help towards the student's understanding of his task1 and also as a common basis of criticism in the relation between teacher and pupil4 ,the preliminary fundamental work of ,part ,two1 ,technical ,training1 deals first with the right formation of tone1 the development of voice as such1 the securing of a fixed right vocal habit4 ,following comes the adapting of this improved voice to the varieties of use1 or expressional effect1 demanded of the public speaker4 ,after this critical detailed drill1 the student is to take the platform1 and apply his acquired technique to continued discourse1 receiving criticism after each entire piece of work4 ,the question as to what should be the plan and the content of ,part ,three1 ,platform ,practice1 has been determined simply by asking what are the distinctly varied conditions under which men most frequently speak4 ,it is regarded as profitable for the student to practice1 at least to some extent1 in all the several kinds of speech here chosen4 ,in thus cultivating versatility1 he will greatly enlarge his power of expression1 and will at length discover wherein lies his own special capability4 ,the principal aim in choosing the selections has been to have them sufficiently alive to be attractive to younger speakers1 and not so heavy as to be unsuited to their powers4 ,some of them have proved effective by use2 many others are new4 ,in all cases they are of good quality4 ,,by ,,craven ,,laycock ,,and ,,robert ,l4 ,,scales ,argumentation and ,debate ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4aj ,in this work the peculiar difficulties which stand in the way of making a text-book at once teachable1 practical1 and easily understood1 for use in teaching argumentation and debate1 have been overcome4 ,the treatment of the topics presented--the proposition1 the issues1 preliminary reading1 evidence1 kinds of arguments1 fallacies1 brief-drawing1 the principles of presentation1 refutation1 and debate--is lucid and interesting as well as highly profitable4 ,,by ,,edwin ,,dubois ,,shurter ,the ,rhetoric of ,oratory ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4aj 8,an unusually sensible and scientific treatment of the subject1 as helpful to the graduate who is already in the game of life as to teacher and student in secondary school and college4 ,it deals with the rhetoric of oratory1 rather than the elocution of oratory40--,journal of ,education4 ,,by ,,samuel ,b4 ,,harding ,select ,orations ,illustrating ,american ,political ,history ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4be ,every oration in this volume has exerted some great influence on political action or political opinion and reveals better than anything else the real spirit of the country at the time when it was delivered4 ,the essays were selected by ,samuel ,b4 ,harding1 ,professor of ,history in ,indiana ,university1 while ,john ,m4 ,clapp1 ,professor of ,english in ,lake ,forest ,university1 supplied the introduction on oratorical style and structure4 ,,by ,,milton ,,percival ,,and ,r4 ,a4 ,,jelliffe ,of ,oberlin ,college ,specimens of ,exposition and ,argument ,cloth1 #abmo1 #j4ij ,the selections in this volume1 chosen from a wide range of literature1 illustrate the different phases of argument such as persuasion1 refutation1 and controversy1 and the different types of exposition such as descriptions1 explanations1 definitions1 and interpretations4 8,it is not often that the student is given the opportunity to use a text-book at once so fascinating and so essentially practical40--,philadelphia ,public ,ledger4 ,edited by ,,edwin ,,dubois ,,shurter1 ,associate ,professor of ,public ,speaking in the ,university of ,texas1 ,new ,york4 ,representative ,college ,orations ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4be ,intended primarily to furnish selective material for critical analysis by students in the colleges1 the book will be of interest to the general reader as indicative of what college students of to-day are thinking and talking about4 ,as the only collection of college orations which attempts to cover the whole field1 the sixty-three orations here presented will furnish a better opportunity for comparison and a far greater variety of illustrative matter than has hitherto been available4 ,,by ,g4 ,r4 ,,carpenter ,,and ,w4 ,t4 ,,brewster ,modern ,english ,prose ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4aj 8,this book will prove of great service to ,english teachers4 ,the selections1 complete and unabridged as they are1 and made with nice discrimination1 will be welcomed by instructors who desire to place before their pupils some of the best examples of modern prose writing40--,,wilmot ,b4 ,,mitchell1 ,bowdoin ,college1 ,maine4 ,,by ,w4 ,t4 ,,brewster ,specimens of ,modern ,english ,literary ,criticism ,cloth1 #abmo #a4jj ,this book belongs to the realm of rhetoric rather than of literature or literary history4 ,it aims to use critical writing more completely than is done in any text-book of selections as an agent in rhetorical study and intellectual discipline4 ,the selections cover ,leslie ,stephen1 ,dr4 ,johnson1 ,macaulay1 ,henry ,james1 ,matthew ,arnold1 ,shelley1 ,coleridge1 and others1 with many notes and an excellent and comprehensive introduction4 ,studies in ,structure and ,style ,with an ,introduction by ,,george ,,rice ,,carpenter1 ,professor of ,rhetoric and ,english ,composition in ,columbia ,university ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4aj ,the author has used rare discrimination in selecting the essays which he discusses1 insisting that they should be of the highest class of modern literature and that they should serve as models to the student4 ,the analysis of structure and style in these volumes is most able1 and the book will be found a most valuable one as a text in the higher institutions of learning4 ,,by ,,wilbur ,l4 ,,cross ,the ,development of the ,english ,novel ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4ej 8,this thorough and comprehensive work on ,english fiction is based upon sound scholarship4 ,professor ,cross has mastered his material1 and his presentation is not only logical in its general classifications but entirely adequate in its particulars4 ,for these reasons it is an admirable text-book1 and the student will find1 besides the organic treatment of the whole1 a basis for an exhaustive study of independent periods40--,the ,washington ,star4 ,by ,,henry ,,seidel ,,canby1 ,ph4,d41 ,,frederick ,,erastus ,,pierce1 ,ph4,d41 ,,henry ,,noble ,,mccracken1 ,ph4,d41 ,,alfred ,,arundel ,,may1 ,m4,a41 ,,thomas ,,goddard ,,wright1 ,m4,a41 of the ,department of ,english ,composition in the ,sheffield ,scientific ,school of ,yale ,university1 ,new ,york4 ,english ,composition in ,theory and ,practice ,new and revised edition4 ,cloth1 #abmo1 #a4be ,the authors of this volume have combined in one book a set of directions for good writing1 based upon sound principles and written1 primarily1 for the student1 with a varied and extensive collection of examples drawn from all the forms of discourse1 and inclusive of both brief excerpts and complete essays1 arguments1 and stories4 ,additional supplementary material has been added in the several appendices4 ,the authors have endeavored to give to each of the four forms of discourse the proportionate space and the kind of treatment which the average student requires4 ,the whole composition1 the paragraph1 the sentence1 and the word have been discussed in their relation to ,exposition1 because1 for the average student1 it is the power to explain clearly which is of primary importance4 ,thus ,exposition has been given a predominant space4 ,the chapter on the ,sentence goes into minute detail because the average student1 at present1 does not understand the structure of the sentence2 the chapter on ,narrative deals with constructive problems mainly1 because it is in learning to construct a story that the ,freshman can best make ,narrative increase his powers of expression2 the chapter on ,description includes literary and esthetic problems1 because one variety of ,description can only thus be taught4 ,an order of succession for these various topics has been chosen after experiment with many classes4 ,nevertheless1 except that ,exposition must come first1 the instructor will find that the plan of this book permits any arrangement of subjects4 ,guided by the results of two years' remarkably extensive use of the first edition1 the authors revised and rewrote the entire book4 ,in the new edition1 therefore1 the defects of the earlier work do not appear1 while the general plan1 which proved so successful1 is1 of course1 retained4 ,hence the book is now unique in its effectiveness as a teaching text--one in which the actual difficulties of the student are clearly realized1 only to be met with practical1 definite and concrete means of overcoming them4 ,,published ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,publishers #fd-ff ,fifth ,avenue ,new ,york ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,transcriber',s ,,notes #a4 ,silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling4 #b4 ,archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain spellings retained as printed4 #c4 ,footnotes have been re-indexed using numbers4 #d4 ,enclosed italics font in underscores4 #e4 ,enclosed bold font in equals4