,! ,cambridge ,manuals ( ,sci5ce & ,lit]ature ,,l9ks ,,) ,,! ,,pa/ ,,9 ,,! ,,plant ,,_w ,,cambridge ,,univ]sity ,,press ,london3 ,,fett] ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,manag] ,ed9burgh3 #ajj1 ,,pr9ces ,,/reet ,london3 ,h4 ,k4 ,,lewis1 #acf1 ,,g[] ,,/reet1 ,w4,c4 ,b]l93 ,a4 ,,a%] ,,& ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,bombay & ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,ltd4 ,all rights res]v$ ,illu/ration3 ,sequoia magnifica ,kn[lton1 9 ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k4 7,f a photograph k9dly suppli$ by ,pr(4 ,kn[lton47 ,see p4 #ajd4 ,,l9ks ,,) ,,! ,,pa/ ,,9 ,,! ,,plant ,,_w ,,by ,a4 ,c4 ,,sew>d1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,pr(essor ( ,botany 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge ,cambridge3 at ! ,univ]sity ,press #aiaa ,cambridge3 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,john ,,clay1 ,m4,a4 ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press ,) ! exception ( ! coat ( arms at ! foot1 ! design on ! title page is a reproduction ( "o us$ by ! e>lie/ kn[n ,cambridge pr9t]1 ,john ,sib]*1 #aeba ,,preface ,,my object 9 writ+ ?is book is prim>ily to call att5tion to "s ( ! _m que/ions :i* are rais$ by an enquiry into ! relative antiquity ( exi/+ plants1 & to illu/rate ! nature ( ! evid5ce af=d$ by ! records ( ! rocks4 ,"o may agree ) ! dictum1 ',!re is b "o art--to omit1' b to practise ?is art is (t5 a difficult task4 ,:ile fully consci\s ( ! incomplet5ess ( ! treatm5t ( ! subjects dealt ) 9 ^! pages1 & ( defects 9 ! me?od ( pres5tation1 ,i hope t ,i may succe$ 9 attract+ "s ( my read]s :o are already int]e/$ 9 liv+ plants to ! /udy ( plants ( =m] ages4 ,i am greatly indebt$ to my colleague ,dr ,c4 ,e4 ,moss = read+ ! pro(s & = _m valuable sugge/ions4 ,i wi% to ?ank ,mr & ,mrs ,clem5t ,reid1 ,pr(4 ,mac,dougal ( ! ,arizona ,des]t ,laboratory1 ,pr( ,campbell ( ,/an=d ,univ]sity1 ,pr( ,f4 ,h4 ,kn[lton ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,national ,museum1 ,wa%+ton1 ,mr ,a4 ,g4 ,tansley1 ,pr( ,yapp1 & ,mr ,w4 ,r4 ,wel* = photographs :i* !y h all[$ me to reproduce4 ,z on _m previ\s occasions1 ,i am indebt$ to my wife = contribut+ draw+s4 ,a4 ,c4 ,,sew>d4 ,botany ,s*ool1 ,cambridge4 ,july #aiaa4 ,! numb]s 9 brackets int]sp]s$ 9 ! text ref] to ! ,bibliography at ! end ( ! volume4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,preface vii ,,*ap4 ,i4 ,introductory3 ! ,longevity ( ,trees1 etc4 #a ,,ii4 ,! ,geographical ,di/ribution ( ,plants #ae ,,iii4 ,! ,geological ,record #ci ,,iv4 ,pres]vation ( ,plants z ,fossils #ef ,v4 ,f]ns2 _! ,di/ribution & ,antiquity #ga ,,vi4 ,! ,r$wood & ,mammo? ,trees ( ,cali=nia #ie ,,vii4 ,! ,arauc>ia family #ajf ,,viii4 ,! ,maid5 ,hair ,tree #aba ,bibliography #acd ,index #aci 99 99 99 99 99 ,l9ks ) ! ,pa/ ,,erratum ,page #gh4 ,omit l9es #e1 #f1 & #g1 f ,"o to b inclusive4 ,transcrib] ,note3 ,?is correction has be5 appli$4 ,"h is ! orig9al s5t5ce3-- ,"o filmy species ( ,todea is repres5t$ 9 ! ,briti% flora by ,todea radicans 9 ! ,kill>ney di/rict ( ,irel&2 b ! maximum developm5t ( ! g5us is 9 ,new ,zeal&4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,*apt] ,i ,,introductory3 ,,! ,,longevity ,,( ,,trees1 ,,etc4 ',believe me :o h tri$4 ,?\ wilt f9d some?+ m 9 woods ?an 9 books4 ,trees & rocks w tea* :at ?\ can/ n he> f a ma/]4' ,/ ,b]n>d4 ,! rec5t publication 9 ! daily press ( in/ances ( human longevity "u ! head+ ',l9ks ) ! ,pa/' prompt$ a comp>ison betwe5 ! l5g? ( "t repres5t$ by ! duration ( a tree & ! lifetime ( a human be+4 ,! comp>ison ( s+le lives sugge/$ ! fur!r /ep ( contra/+ ! antiquity ( ! olde/ family-hi/ories ) ! remot5ess ( ! p]iod to :i* x is possible to trace ! ance/ry ( exi/+ memb]s ( ! plant k+dom4 ,my prim>y object 9 ^! pages is n to deal ) famili> cases ( longevity 9 trees1 b to consid] 9 ! fir/ place "s ( ! problems connect$ ) ! orig9 ( ! pres5t ,briti% flora1 & !n to describe a few examples ( diff]5t types ( plants ^: ance/ors fl\ri%$ dur+ p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory long ages be=e ! adv5t ( ! human race4 ,9 deal+ ) plants ( =m] ages we are confront$ ) ! difficulty ( =m+ an adequate conception ( ! l5g? ( "t embrac$ by geological p]iods 9 comp>ison ) ! duration ( ! hi/oric era4 ,"s ( ! ',selections f ! ,greek ,papyri' rec5tly edit$ by ,dr ,milligan 7,cambridge #aiaj7 ref] to common-place ev5ts 9 t]ms famili> to u 9 mod]n lett]s3 we =get ! int]val ( #bjjj ye>s :i* has elaps$ s9ce !y 7 writt54 ,simil>ly1 ! close agreem5t betwe5 exi/+ plants & species :i* liv$ 9 remote epo*s speaks ( cont9uity ?r\gh ! ages1 & bridges across an ext5t ( "t too great to be express$ by ord9>y /&>ds ( measurem5t4 ,t]ms ( ye>s :5 ext5d$ beyond ! limits to :i* our m9ds are accu/om$ cease to h any def9ite mean+4 ,:ile !re is a c]ta9 academic int]e/ 9 discussions z to ! age ( ! e>? z express$ 9 ye>s1 we are utt]ly unable to realise ! significance ( ! *ronology employ$4 ,aft] speak+ ( ! futility ( attempt+ to introduce *ronological precision into p]iods s rec5t z ^? :i* come into ! purview ( ar*aeologi/s1 ,mr ,rice ,holmes sugge/s a me?od bett] adapt$ to our p[]s4 ,he says--',asc5d ! hill on :i* /&s ,dov] ,ca/le1 & gaze ^u ,cape ,grisnez1 let ! wat]s b5ea? y disappe>2 across ! *alk t once spann$ ! *annel l a bridge m5 walk$ f ! :ite cliff t m>ks ! horizon to :]e y /&4 ,no ari?metical *ronology c spur ! imag9ation to flights l ^!7#a74' ,on ! o!r h&1 ! use 9 "s c\ntry di/ricts 9 ,brita9 ( sp9dles almo/ id5tical ) in/rum5ts us$ 9 sp9n+ by ! anci5t ,egyptians1 & simil> survivals describ$ by ! au?or ( a book entitl$ ,! ,pa/ 9 ! ,pres5t7#b71 br+ )9 ! range ( our vision an e>ly phase ( ! hi/oric era4 ,! rude implem5ts /ill fa%ion$ by ! fl9t-knapp]s ( ,br&on 9 ,suffolk connect ! pres5t ) ! ,palaeoli?ic age4 ,measur$ f ! /&po9t ( hi/oric reckon+1 survivals f prehi/oric days appeal to u z p]si/5t types :i* h rema9$ un*ang$ 9 a con/antly *ang+ _w4 ,9 "o ( 8 essays ,weismann quotes an old ,g]man say+ ) reg>d to comp>ative longevity1 :i* ass]ts t 'a wr5 lives ?ree ye>s1 a dog ?ree times z long z a wr5' & s on 9 a regul>ly asc5d+ s]ies3 ! life ( a de] is e/imat$ at ?ree times t ( a cr[ & an oak ?ree times t ( a de]1 :i* means t1 comput$ on ?is basis1 an oak lives ne>ly #bj1jjj ye>s7#c76 ,?is fanciful illu/ration ( ! relative longevity ( an oak is ! expression ( a tru?1 namely ! sup]iority ( trees ov] animals 9 reg>d to ! duration ( life4 ,z a sev5te5?-c5tury translator ( ,pl9y's ,natural ,hi/ory writes1 ',9 old times trees 7 ! v temples ( ! gods3 & accord+ to t anti5t mann]1 ! pla9e & simple peasants ( ! c\ntry1 sav\r+ /ill ( antiquity1 d at ?is day consecrate to "o ,god or o!r1 ! goodlie/ & faire/ trees t !y c meet )al4' ,oaks gr[+ 9 ,pl9y's day 9 ! ,h]cynian =e/ are said to h be5 !re 'ev] s9ce ! creation ( ! _w7#d74' ,sir ,joseph ,hook]1 9 an acc\nt ( "s ,pale/9e oaks1 gives a draw+ ( a fam\s tree at ,mamre1 kn[n z ,abraham's ,oak1 :i* is suppos$ to m>k ! spot :]e ! ,patri>* pit*$ 8 t5t7#e74 ,examples su* z ^!1 ?\gh ( no sci5tific value1 s]ve to illu/rate ! well-f\nd$ belief 9 ! extraord9>y longevity ( trees4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( evid5ce to ! contr>y1 x w\ld be ra% to d5y ! possibility t ,william ! ,conqu]or's ,oak 9 ,w9dsor ,=e/1 describ$ by ,l\don 9 8 ,arboretum ,britannicum & m5tion$ by lat] writ]s1 may be a survival f ! reign ( ! k+ ^: "n x be>s4 ,al?\gh x is seldom possible to /ate ) confid5ce ! exact age ( old oaks & yews fam$ = l5g? ( days1 !re c be no d\bt z to ! enorm\s antiquity ( _m ( our trees ^: ye>s are 'sacr$ ) _m a my/]y4' ,! section ( a trunk ( "o ( ! mammo? trees ( ,cali=nia 7,sequoia gigantea7 exhibit$ 9 ! ,natural ,hi/ory dep>tm5t ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 %[s on its poli%$ surface #acce conc5tric r+s d5ot+ successive increm5ts ( wood produc$ by ! activity ( a cyl9d] ( cells situat$ betwe5 ! h>d woody tissue & ! b>k4 ,x is g5]ally assum$ t ea* ye> a tree produces a s+le r+1 ?\gh1 z is well kn[n1 an e/imate ( age calculat$ on ?is assumption _c be reg>d$ z m ?an an approximation to ! tru?4 ,if ?is giant tree1 :i* 0 fell$ 9 #ahij1 0 !n #acce ye>s old1 x _h already rea*$ an age ( ov] two c5turies :5 ,*>lemagne 0 cr[n$ ,emp]or at ,rome4 ,! conc5tric r+s on a tree trunk owe _! exi/5ce to c]ta9 /ructural diff]5ces betwe5 ! wood =m$ 9 ! spr+ & 9 ! late summ]4 ,9 ,sequoia1 z 9 o!r memb]s ( ! great class ( cone-be>+ trees1 ! wood is compos$ ( comp>atively n>r[ elem5ts :i* s]ve to c>ry wat] f ! roots to ! bran*es & leaves4 ,z spr+ succe$s w9t] ! inactivity ( ! plant-ma*9e is foll[$ by a p]iod ( en]getic life2 op5+ buds & elongat+ %oots create a dem& = a pl5tiful supply ( asc5d+ sap1 & 9 response to ?is ! tree produces a fre% cyl9d] ( wood compos$ ( relatively wide conduct+ tubes4 ,aft] ! fir/ ru% ( life is succe$$ by a phase ( m uni=m & g5tl] activity1 ! dem& = wat] becomes less exact+ & ! wood :i* is =m$ dur+ ! re/ ( ! gr[+ season consi/s ( n>r[] wat]-pipes4 ,a p]iod ( re/ ensues1 until 9 ! foll[+ spr+ new lay]s ( l>g] tubes are laid d[n 9 juxtaposition to ! n>r[] elem5ts ( ! late/ phase ( ! prec$+ summ]4 ,?is alt]nation ( l>g] & small] tubes produces ! appe>ance ( conc5tric r+s on a cross-section ( a tree4 ,x is n ! pause 9 ! active life ( ! plant :i* is responsible = ! effect ( r+s1 b ! fact t ! wood produc$ imm$iately be=e & imm$iately aft] ! pause is n /ructurally id5tical4 ,9 trees gr[n "u ! m uni=m conditions ( c]ta9 tropical regions1 ! annual r+s are ei!r feebly develop$ or abs5t2 = example1 9 "s ,indian oaks ! wood %[s no conc5tric r+s ( gr[?4 ,/at$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 r+s ( gr[? 9 ! wood ( a tree are ! expression ( a p[] possess$ by ! plant ( regulat+ ! /ructure ( its compon5t elem5ts 9 response to ! v>y+ nature ( ! ext]nal /imuli4 ,9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 = example aft] ! de/ruction ( ! "y buds by cat]pill>s1 ! tree makes a special ef=t to repair ! loss by produc+ a new set ( %oots4 ,?is may be record$ by ! occurr5ce ( two conc5tric r+s 9 "o season4 ,an extreme in/ance ( dep>ture f ! normal has rec5tly be5 describ$7#f7 9 :i* a tree ( ,!obroma cacao 7! cocoa tree71 plant$ 9 ,ceylon 9 ! summ] ( #ahic & fell$ 9 ,janu>y #aija1 aft] a life ( j ov] #g ye>s1 0 f\nd to h #bb r+s 9 its /em4 ,9 ?is case ! tree %$ its leaves ?ree times a ye>1 & ea* break 9 ! uni=mity ( its vital activities 0 regi/]$ by ! apposition ( :at "u ord9>y conditions are spok5 ( z spr+ & late-summ] wood4 ,at ,ad5 trees /at$ by natives to be v old %[$ only five or six r+s ( wood1 a fact connect$ ) ! almo/ complete lack ( ra9 & ) ! uni=m conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,! degree ( accuracy to be all[$ to e/imates ( age f\nd$ on ! numb] ( 'annual' r+s is1 h[ev]1 ( second>y importance 9 comp>ison ) ! enorm\sly great] hold on life possess$ by trees z contra/$ ) ! high] animals4 ,e>ly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury ! ,swiss botani/ ,a4 ,p4 de ,c&olle express$ ! op9ion t trees d n die f s5ile decay1 b only z ! result ( injury or disease4 ,trees are con/ruct$ on a plan fundam5tally diff]5t f t und]ly+ ! /ructure ( ! highly complex human organism1 & are ?us end[$ ) a sort ( pot5tial immortality4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t "s ( ! l>ge corals 9 ! ,r$ ,sea :i* are /ill t5ant$ by liv+ polyps may h be5 gr[+ 9 ! days ( ! ,ph>aohs4 ,! coral polyp repres5ts ! gr[+ portion ( a lifeless mass ( rock :i* is con/antly ext5d$ by ! activity ( ! organism at ! summit ( ea* bran*4 ,betwe5 a coral-reef & a tree !re are _m ess5tial diff]5ces1 b a r\gh analogy may be recognis$4 ,a tree1 unlike ! high] animals1 does n rea* a /age at :i* ! :ole ( its sub/ance atta9s a condition ( p]man5ce & fixity4 ,x consi/s ( a complex bran*+-sy/em 9 :i* ea* %oot increases 9 l5g? by virtue ( ! y\?ful vig\r ( its apex3 to a l>ge ext5t ! tree z a :ole consi/s ( lifeless mat]ial incapable ( fur!r gr[?1 z is ! case ( ! old] portions ( a coral-reef2 b ! regul> increase 9 gir? ( ! trunk & its bran*es demon/rates t ?is comp>ison is only p>tially true1 & t ! p[] ( gr[? 9 a tree is n conf9$ to ! extremities ( ! y\nge/ %oots4 ,! tip ( e twig is compos$ ( m9ute cells end[$ ) a pot5tiality ( developm5t l t :i* *>act]ises ! embryonic tissues ( a se$l+ j em]g$ f ! se$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( its gr[?1 ea* bran*1 by means ( its liv+ & divid+ cells1 contributes to ! sev]al p>ts ( ! complex me*anism ( ! tree4 ,:ile ! great] numb] ( cells acquire a p]man5t =m & lose ! p[] ( fur!r developm5t1 !re rema9s a cyl9d] ( cells end[$ ) p]petual y\?4 ,?is cyl9d] ( liv+ cells1 kn[n z ! cambium1 ext5ds betwe5 ! wood & b>k f "o end ( ! tree to ! o!r3 by its p]iodic activity x adds new lay]s ( tissue ea* ye> & ?us1 by increas+ ! am\nt ( conduct+ tubes = ! transport ( wat] & = ! di/ribution ( elaborat$ food1 x enables ! tree to respond to ! increas+ dem&s :i* are ! necess>y accompanim5t ( increas+ size4 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t 9 ! spr+ :5 ! sap fl[s mo/ vigor\sly ! cambial cyl9d] produces l>g] tubes1 & aft]w>ds :5 ! tree settles d[n to its normal life1 ^! are succe$$ by n>r[] & /rong] tubes4 ,^! lat] =m$ elem5ts s]ve also an important me*anical purpose2 by ! /r5g? ( _! walls !y increase ! support+ p[] ( ! tree & enable x to su/a9 ! add$ burd5 ( ! annual increase 9 ! weight & ext5t ( its spread+ bran*es4 ,x is ! p]si/5ce ( p]man5tly juv5ile tissue 9 c]ta9 regions ( a tree1 toge!r ) ! rem>kable p[] ( repair+ injuries & %$d+ effete p>ts1 t con/itute "s ( ! mo/ /rik+ contra/s betwe5 ! high] animals & plants4 ,! embryo oak 9 ! e>li] /ages ( developm5t consi/s entirely ( actively gr[+ cells2 by degrees diff]5tiation ( ! embryonic tissues results 9 ! localisation ( regions ( cell-production at ! tips ( ! elongat+ /em & root4 ,^! apical gr\ps ( cells are1 9 fact1 portions ( ! embryonic organism :i* p]si/ s long z ! plant lives4 ,?is cont9uity betwe5 ! gr[+ tip ( an old oak /em & ! cells ( ! undiff]5tiat$ embryo af=ds "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable examples 9 nature ( a l9k betwe5 ! pa/ & ! pres5t4 ,if we pass beyond ! /ret* ( "t repres5t$ by ! life ( a s+le tree1 a few successive g5]ations suffice to c>ry our retrospect back to ! days :5 =e/s ( oaks1 bir*es1 & o!r trees imp$$ ! progress ( ! ,roman invad]s1 &1 a /age f>!r back1 to ! age ( ,neoli?ic man ^: rema9s are occasionally f\nd 9 our hea?s & moors & 9 ! subm]g$ =e/s r\nd our coa/4 ,! blocks ( oak & bee*1 "s ( :i* are z s\nd z :5 fir/ fell$1 rec5tly discov]$ bel[ ! f\ndations ( p>ts ( ,w9*e/] ,ca!dral con/ruct$ at ! end ( ! twelf? or 9 ! op5+ ye>s ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 are relics ( ,norman =e/s4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "s excavations at ,brigg 9 ,l9coln%ire 9 #ahhf a dug-out boat 0 f\nd ne>ly #ej feet long & f #d to #e feet 9 bread?4 ,! /em ( ! oak f :i* ! canoe _h be5 fa%ion$ %[s no sign ( bran*+ = a l5g? ( ov] #dj feet1 a fact :i* po9ts to ! gr[? ( ! tree 9 a =e/ :]e ! race = light induc$ ! developm5t ( clean column> /ems4 ,! ,brigg 'dug-out1' n[ 9 ! ,hull ,museum1 0 discov]$ 9 an old alluvial valley ( ! ,an*olme riv]1 =m]ly connect$ ) ! ,humb]1 & x may be t x 0 us$ by ,neoli?ic man z a f]ry = riv]-s]vice7#g74 ,f ! p]iod claim$ by ar*aeologi/s we pass by gradual /ages into ! doma9 ( ! geologi/4 ,z ,huxley wrote1 ':5 ev5 ! dim light ( ,ar*aeology fades1 !re yet rema9s ,palaeontology1 :i*444 has br\ght to daylight once m ! exuvia ( anci5t populations1 ^: _w 0 n our _w1 :o h be5 buri$ 9 riv] b$s immemorially dry1 or c>ri$ by ! ru% ( wat]s into caves1 inaccessible to inundation s9ce ! dawn ( tradition7#h74' ,! l5g? ( "t repres5t$ by a succession ( long-liv$ individuals ( ! same species becomes enorm\sly ext5d$ :5 we pass to ! hi/ory ( families1 & dis9t] f ! s$im5ts ( o!r ages ! rema9s ( ext9ct types4 ,z we desc5d ! geological s]ies famili> types gradually disappe>1 & ?r\gh a succession ( *ang+ floras we p5etrate to ! fragm5t>y records conta9$ 9 ! old] rocks until ! abs5ce ( docum5ts sets a limit to our que/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,p9us sylve/ris ,l9n1 9 ! ,black ,wood ( ,ranno*4 7,photograph by ,mr ,a4 ,g4 ,tansley47 ,! ,scots p9e %>es ) ! oak1 ! bee*1 ! asp51 ! yew1 & sev]al o!r trees ! "r to be includ$ 9 ! native flora ( ,brita94 ,9 ! peat-b$s ( ,scotl& ev5 up to #cjjj feet above sea-level ! /umps ( p9es occur 9 abundance1 & 9 _m places rec5t rese>*es h reveal$ ! occurr5ce ( successive =e/s ( p9es1 oaks1 & spruces sep>at$ f "o ano!r by ! accumulations ( swampy vegetation7#i74 ,! spruce fir has long ceas$ to be a memb] ( ! ,briti% flora1 b 9 a few localities 9 ! ,scotti% ,highl&s pat*es ( primeval p9e =e/s rema94 ,! accompany+ photograph 7,fig4 #a71 tak5 by my fri5d ,mr ,a4 ,g4 ,tansley1 9 ! ,black ,wood ( ,ranno* 9 nor?-we/ ,p]?%ire1 %[s a few trees ( ,p9us sylve/ris gr[+ 9 _! native soil3 ! =m ( ! old] tree 7,a7 sugge/s comp>ison ) t ( a well-gr[n bee* su* z we are famili> ) 9 ,engli% plantations4 ,?is spread+ dome-%ap$ habit seems to be a peculi>ity ( ! ,highl& tree1 & is "o ( ! *>act]s :i* h l$ "s botani/s to reg>d x z a v>iety 7,p9us sylve/ris v>4 scotica7 ( ! ord9>y ,scots p9e4 ,?\gh x is d\btful if any relics ( primeval p9e woods are left 9 ,engl&1 abundant evid5ce ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( ! ,scots p9e is af=d$ by ! subm]g$ =e/s expos$ at l[-tide on _m p>ts ( ! ,engli% & ,wel% coa/s & at ! base ( "s ( ! ,engli% peat moors4 ,dur+ ! con/ruction ( ! ,b>ry docks on ! nor? coa/ ( ! ,bri/ol ,*annel a few ye>s ago1 ! expos$ sections ( peat & =e/ b$s 7 inve/igat$ by ,dr ,/rahan & by ,mr ,clem5t ,reid4 ,!re is evid5ce ( a subsid5ce ( ! l& to an ext5t ( #ee feet s9ce ! =mation ( ! l[] peat-b$s conta9+ oak1 hazel1 will[1 & o!r trees4 ,! p9e1 unkn[n 9 ,wales dur+ ! hi/oric p]iod1 0 recognis$ 9 ! ,b>ry cutt+4 ,! occurr5ce ( a poli%$ fl9t implem5t assigns a date to ! upp]mo/ portion ( ?is old l&-surface7#aj74 ,x is impossible )9 ! limits ( a small volume to discuss 9 detail ! evid5ce furni%$ by ! records ( ! rocks z to ! relative antiquity ( ! diff]5t con/itu5ts ( ! pres5t vegetation ( ,brita94 ,9 lat] *apt]s a few select$ plants are describ$ :i* are pre-em95tly anci5t types4 ,be=e pass+ to ! consid]ation ( ! data on :i* ! geological hi/ory ( plants is bas$1 brief ref]5ce may be made to "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ & difficult problems ( botanical rese>*1 namely ! hi/ory ( ! ,briti% flora4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,geographical ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,plants ',no speculation is idle or fruitless t is n oppos$ to tru? or to probability1 & :i*1 :il/ x co-ord9ates a body ( well e/abli%$ facts1 does s )\t viol5ce to nature1 & ) a due reg>d to ! possible results ( future discov]ies4' ,sir ,joseph ,hook]4 ,9 ! vegetation ( ! ,briti% ,isles ! lead+ rle is play$ by t l>ge gr\p to :i* ! t]m ,fl[]+ ,plants is frequ5tly appli$4 ,?is gr\p1 includ+ ! two sub-divisions ,dicotyl$ons & ,monocotyl$ons1 is kn[n by ! "n ,angiosp]ms1 a designation d5ot+ ! important fact t ! se$s are develop$ 9 an ov>y or protective se$-case 71 a vessel or box74 ,! fact t ^! highly elaborat$ products ( developm5t made _! appe>ance1 s f> z we "k1 at a comp>atively late /age 9 ! hi/ory ( ! plant-_w1 atte/s _! effici5cy z a class & demon/rates ! rapidity ) :i* !y h ov]spread ! surface ( ! e>? z successful competitors 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,z ,d>w9 wrote 9 a lett] to ,sir ,joseph ,hook] 9 #ahha1 ',no?+ is m extraord9>y 9 ! hi/ory ( ! vegetable k+dom1 z x seems to me1 ?an ! app>5tly v sudd5 or abrupt developm5t ( ! high] plants7#aa74' ,9 ano!r lett] 7#ahgi7 to ! same fri5d we read1 ',! rapid developm5t z f> z we c judge ( all ! high] plants )9 rec5t geological times is an abom9able my/]y7#ab74' ,mak+ all[ance = ! probability1 or inde$ c]ta9ty1 t ! imp]fection ( ! geological record t5ds to exagg]ate ! app>5t sudd5ness ( ! appe>ance ( ?is vigor\s class1 & all[+ = ! fact t our k ( ! records ( ! rocks 9 :i* ! highe/ plants fir/ occur is v incomplete1 we _c escape f ! conclusion t ?is rec5tly evolv$ gr\p spread ) amaz+ rapidity4 ,v>i\s reasons may be sugge/$ 9 explanation ( ! dom9ant position :i* ! ,angiosp]ms hold 9 ! floras ( ! _w4 ,z an in/ance ( _! rapid increase dur+ ! ,cretace\s epo*#a1 ! p]iod :i* has furni%$ ! e>lie/ satisfactory records ( ,fl[]+ ,plants1 ! foll[+ /atem5t by an ,am]ican writ] may be quot$3--',! rapidity ) :i* x i4e4 ! gr\p ( ,fl[]+ ,plants advanc$1 conqu]+ or supplant+ all rivals1 may be bett] und]/ood :5 we rememb] t x =ms #he ( ! flora ( ! ,dakota gr\p '2 t is a s]ies ( s$im5t>y rocks 9 ,dakota ref]r$ by geologi/s to ! middle ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod7#ac74 ,9 ! ,weald5 rocks ( ,engl&1 :i* are ri* 9 ! rema9s ( ,l[] ,cretace\s plants1 no und\bt$ ,fl[]+ ,plant has s f> be5 f\nd4 #a ,= ! position ( ! ,cretace\s & o!r sy/ems 9 ! geological s]ies1 see ! table on page #db4 ,! m effici5t protection ( ! ovules1 ! g]ms :i*1 aft] f]tilisation1 become ! se$s1 ! extraord9>y v>iety 9 ! floral me*anisms = assi/+ cross-poll9ation1 ! arrangem5ts = nurs+ ! embryo1 & ! /ructural features ( ! wood 9 relation bo? to rapid transport ( wat] & to ! /orage ( food1 are factors :i* h probably contribut$ to ! success ( ! ,angiosp]ms4 ,! degree ( weight to assign to ea* contribut+ cause _c z yet be satisfactorily det]m9$1 b ! g5]al "q rais$ by ! rec5t orig9 ( ^! late/ products ( evolution (f]s a promis+ field = "w4 ,:ile admitt+ our inability at pres5t to d m ?an sugge/ possibilities1 we may enc\rage rese>* by speculation4 ,! memb]s ( ! ,vegetable ,k+dom plac$ next to ! ,fl[]+ ,plants are ! ,gymnosp]ms or nak$-se$$ 71 nak$7 plants1 includ+ 7i7 ! ,conif]s1 e4g4 p9es1 firs1 l>*es1 ! yew1 etc41 7ii7 a small gr\p ( plants kn[n z ! ,cycads1 ^: exi/+ memb]s1 n[ almo/ conf9$ to a few tropical regions1 are ! desc5dants ( a vigor\s race repres5t$ by _m species 9 ! floras ( ! ,mesozoic epo*4 ,a ?ird sub-division ( ! ,gymnosp]ms1 ! ,g9kgoales1 is repres5t$ by a s+le survivor1 :i* is describ$ 9 a lat] *apt] z "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable l9ks ) ! pa/ 9 ! plant k+dom4 ,! ,gymnosp]ms are geologically v mu* old] ?an ! ,angiosp]ms4 ,memb]s ( ?is class play$ a prom95t "p 9 ! vegetation ( ! ,coal age & x is c]ta9 t !y exi/$ 9 ! /ill old] ,devonian p]iod4 ,! only o!r gr\p to :i* ref]5ce is made 9 lat] *apt]s is t ( ! ,f]ns1 "o ( ! sub-divisions ( a l>ge class kn[n z ! ,vascul> ,cryptogams or ,pt]idophyta4 ,^! plants1 l ! ,gymnosp]ms1 are repres5t$ 9 ! olde/ floras ( :i* recognisable rema9s h be5 pres]v$4 ,! ma9 gr\ps ( ! vegetable k+dom1 f\nd$ on exi/+ plants1 are di/+ui%$ by well-def9$ diff]5ces2 !y are comp>able ) sep>ate twigs ( a tree spr++ f l>g] bran*es & ^! aga9 unit+ bel[ 9 a common trunk4 ,! vegetation ( to-day repres5ts only ! t]m9al portions ( ! upp] bran*es4 ,z we desc5d ! geological s]ies1 records ( ext9ct types are f\nd :i* enable u ei!r to trace ! sep>ate bran*es to a common orig9 or to recognise a conv]g5ce t[>ds a common /ock4 ,7 a botani/ to f9d himself 9 a =e/ ( ! ,coal age he w\ld exp]i5ce great difficulty 9 assign+ "s ( ! plants to _! sy/ematic position3 *>act]s n[ reg>d$ z di/+ui%+ features ( di/9ct gr\ps w\ld be met ) 9 comb9ation 9 a s+le individual4 ,x is by ! discov]y ( su* g5]alis$ types1 :i* s]ve z f+]-po/s po9t+ ! way to l9es ( evolution1 t ! /ud5t ( pre-exi/+ plants has be5 able to ?r[ light on ! relative antiquity ( exi/+ =ms1 & to trace t[>ds a common ance/ry plants :i* n[ %[ b little indication ( consangu9ity4 ,conf9+ our att5tion to ! dom9ant gr\p ( plants 9 ! ,briti% flora1 namely ! ,fl[]+ ,plants1 we may pr(itably consid] ! "q1 ?\gh we _c satisfactorily answ] x1--:i* memb]s ( ?is gr\p are entitl$ to be reg>d$ z ! mo/ anci5t inhabitants8 ,! pa/ hi/ory ( our native plants1 & _! geographical range1 n only 9 ! ,briti% ,isles b on ! ,cont95t ( ,europe1 are subjects well wor?y ( ! att5tion ( field-botani/s ^: int]e/s are apt to be conf9$ )9 too n>r[ b\nds4 ,!re are num]\s problems relat+ to ! composition ( ! pres5t vegetation ( ,brita9 :i* might be discuss$ 9 ref]5ce to ! relative antiquity ( plants2 b 9 a s+le *apt] x is impossible to d m ?an call att5tion to c]ta9 consid]ations :i* are frequ5tly ov]look$ by /ud5ts ( ,briti% species4 ,x is cu/om>y to speak ( ! ,briti% flora z consi/+ = ! mo/ "p ( species introduc$ into ?is c\ntry by natural means1 :ile "s plants owe _! introduction to human ag5cy or are 'escapes' f cultivation4 ,x is by no means an easy task 9 "s in/ances to decide :e!r a species is native or introduc$1 b 9 "s cases1 a few ( :i* are m5tion$1 !re is no d\bt z to ! ali5 nature ( ! plants4 ,! t]m 'native' ne$s a ^w ( explanation4 ,x is n int5d$ to convey ! idea t a plant s designat$ came into exi/5ce on ,briti% soil & spread !nce to o!r regions2 b by native species we mean su* z h rea*$ ?is c\ntry by migration f o!r l&s1 or x may be 9 "s in/ances h actually orig9at$ 9 ?is "p ( ,europe4 ,"o ( ! be/ kn[n ali5s 9 ,brita9 is ! ,am]ican wat]-we$1 ,elodea canad5sis 7or ,ana*>is als9a/rum71 :i* 0 discov]$ ab\t sixty ye>s ago 9 a canal ne> ,m>ket ,h>bor\gh 9 ,leice/]%ire7#ad74 ,9 all probability ?is ,nor? ,am]ican species 0 introduc$ into ,engl& ) timb]4 ,once e/abli%$1 x spread ?r\gh ! wat]ways ) al>m+ rapidity & became a s]i\s pe/4 ,elodea af=ds an admirable in/ance ( ! s]i\s int]f]5ce ) ! balance ( ,nature by ! introduction ( a new competitor into an environm5t conducive to vigor\s developm5t4 ,ano!r =eign wat]-plant1 ,naias gram9ea1 = ! importation ( :i* ,egyptian cotton may be responsible1 has be5 record$ f ! ,r$di% canal ne> ,man*e/]7#ae74 ,?is ,african & ,asiatic species occurs 9 ,europe only z a coloni/2 x is said to h be5 introduc$ into ,italy ) ,ea/ ,indian rice4 ,a m rec5t case ( ali5 immigration due to un9t5tional human ag5cy is t ( ,potamogeton p5nsylvanicus1 a pond-we$ ( ,canada1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,jamaica1 & else:]e4 ,specim5s ( ?is species 7 fir/ notic$ 9 #aijg 9 a canal ne> ,halifax close to ! efflu5t f a cotton mill4 ,s9ce its discov]y ! plant has slightly ext5d$ its range4 ,x is sugge/$ by ,mr ,b5nett1 :o fir/ id5tifi$ ! ali51 t its fruits 7 br\ght to ?is c\ntry 9 goods f ! ,unit$ ,/ates7#af74 ,( ! introduction ( ^! & o!r =eign plants we h satisfactory records2 b !re are _m o!rs :i* may owe _! pres5ce to man's ag5cy1 ?\gh we h no in=mation z to _! arrival4 ,x has long be5 recognis$ t sev]al memb]s ( ! ,briti% flora are relat$ to ,sc&9avian species4 ,! ,sc&9avian flora1 z ,sir ,joseph ,hook] says 9 8 well-kn[n pap] on ! ',outl9es ( ! ,di/ribution ( ,arctic plants1' 'n only girdles ! globe 9 ! ,arctic ,circle1 & dom9ates ov] all o!rs 9 ! ,nor? ,temp]ate ,zone ( ! ,old ,_w1 b intrudes conspicu\sly into e o!r temp]ate flora1 :e!r 9 ! nor!rn or s\!rn hemisph]e1 or on ! ,alps ( tropical c\ntries'7#ag74 ,! view g5]ally held is t dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod ?is ,arctic flora 0 driv5 ,s\?1 & aid$ by l&-bridges1 :i* 7 aft]w>ds subm]g$1 _m ( ! nor!rn migrants f\nd a m cong5ial home 9 ,brita94 ,x is h[ev] by no means improbable t ?is conclusion may h to be consid]ably modifi$4 ,mr & ,mrs ,reid1 z ! result ( _! c>eful analysis ( ! ,pre-,glacial ,flora ( ,brita91 express ! op9ion t '! pre-glacial plants sugge/ climatic conditions almo/ id5tical ) ^? n[ exi/+1 ?\gh slightly w>m]' 7#bg1 #b74 ,x is notewor?y t ! li/ ( plants giv5 9 _! pap] does n include any typical ,arctic species4 ,! occurr5ce on ! m\nta9s ( ,scotl& & else:]e ( su* plants z ,sil5e acaulis1 ,dryas octopetala1 ,saxifraga oppositifolia & o!r ,saxifrages1 ,rubus *amaemorus 7! ,cl\db]ry71 & ! dw>f ,bir* illu/rate ! ,arctic-,alp9e elem5t 9 our flora4 ,! op9ion is held by _m ,swiss botani/s t _! ,alp9e species h 9 l>ge measure be5 d]iv$ f non-glaciat$ p>ts ( ! ,pyr5ees1 t is f a region :i* 0 presumably able to reta9 its flora at a "t :5 m nor!rn l&s 7 expos$ to extreme ,arctic conditions4 ,my fri5d ,dr ,moss believes t "s ( ! s-call$ ,sc&9avian plants came to ,brita9 f ,c5tral ,europe aft] ! retreat ( ! ice2 if ?is view is correct x means t "s at lea/ ( our ,arctic-,alp9e plants rea*$ ^! isl&s by a s\!rn r ?an by a nor!rn r\te4 ,int]e/+ examples ( f>-travell$ nor!rn plants rec5tly describ$ by ,pr(essor ,engl] ( ,b]l9 af=d additional illu/rations ( ! g5]al pr9ciples enunciat$ _m ye>s ago by ,sir ,joseph ,hook]4 ,a species ( fl[]+ ,ru%1 ,luzula spicata v>4 sim5sis1 occurs at an altitude ( #cfjj metres 9 ,abyss9ia & on ,kilimanj>o4 ,luzula spicata is f\nd 9 ! :ole ( ! ,arctic & ,sub>ctic belt 9 ,scotl&1 ,auv]gne1 ! ,jura m\nta9s1 & else:]e4 ,! species probably began its c>e] 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e :]e x grew abundantly on ! high] gr\nd 9 ! ,arctic ,circle3 x ev5tually travell$ along ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,&es & appe>$ 9 ,mexico "u a guise suffici5tly di/9ct to w>rant ! use ( ano!r "n1 ,luzula racemosa4 ,9 an ea/]n direction x rea*$ ! ,himalayas & is repres5t$ 9 ,abyss9ia by a closely alli$ =m4 ,f ,abyss9ia to ,kilimanj>o ,luzula spicata '_h to travel a long di/ance2 b x is n impossible t x ei!r /ill exi/s or has exi/$ previ\sly on a few ( ! high m\nta9s betwe5 ,abyss9ia & ,k5ia1 f :i*1 hav+ advanc$ to ! ,kilimanj>o1 x aga9 produc$ new =ms4444 ,at any rate1 x is impossible to d )\t di/ribution ( se$s ( alp9e plants by air-curr5ts or by birds f "o m\nta9 to ! o!r 9 expla9+ ! hi/ory ( di/ribution'7#ah74 ,! majority ( ,briti% plants are id5tical ) species 9 ,c5tral & ,nor!rn ,europe3 ( ^!1 "s are among ! mo/ widely spread ,engli% species1 e4g4 ! ,daisy & ,primrose1 :ile o!rs1 su* z ! ,oxlip 7,primula elatior71 are conf9$ to ! ,ea/]n c\nties1 & o!rs1 su* z ! ,*$d> ,p9k 7,dian?us caesius71 are re/rict$ to ,we/]n c\nties4 ,be=e consid]+ a small section ( ! ,briti% flora :i* is ! mo/ int]e/+ f ! po9t ( view ( orig91 a %ort digression may be all[$ 9 ord] to call att5tion to ! importance ( a bran* ( sci5ce :i* ,d>w9 spoke ( z 't gr& subject1 t almo/ key/one ( ! laws ( creation1 geographical di/ribution1' & 9 #ahdg ref]r$ to z 't noble subject ( :i* we z yet b dimly see ! full be>+4' ,x 0 l>gely z ! results ( 8 /udy ( di/ribution 9 ! ,galapagos ,isl&s t ,d>w9 det]m9$ to 'collect bl9dly e sort ( fact :i* be>s anyway on :at are species4' ,! acceptance ( ! view 't ea* species 0 fir/ produc$ )9 a s+le region'7#ai71 raises ! subject ( geographical di/ribution to a f> high] plane ?an x occupi$ 9 pre-,d>w9ian days4 ,al?\gh mo/ p are famili> ) "s ( ! common] means by :i* plants are able to colonise new gr\nd ?r\gh ! adaptation ( _! fruits & se$s to v>i\s me?ods ( transport1 ! conception ( a plant z a /ation>y organism t5ds to prev5t due all[ance be+ made = ! comp>ative facility ) :i*1 9 ! c\rse ( successive g5]ations1 a species is able to w&] f place to place4 ,! individual animal is end[$ ) p[]s ( locomotion enabl+ x to seek new fe$+-gr\nds & to avoid enemies2 b ) ! exception ( "s ( ! simple/ =ms a plant _c move--'le mat9 la laisse o la tr\ve le soir4' ,! rate ( travel may or may n be rapid1 b 9 a comp>atively %ort "t1 if ! conditions are fav\rable1 a tree may spread ov] a wide area4 ,mr ,ridley1 ,director ( ! ,botanic ,g>d5s1 ,s+apore1 writes z foll[s 9 ref]5ce to ! rate ( travel ( "o ( ! common ,malayan trees 7,%orea leprosula71 :i* be>s w+$ fruits p>ticul>ly well adapt$ to w9d-transport3 ',if we assume t a tree fl[]s & fruits at #cj ye>s ( age & ! fruits are dissem9at$ to a di/ance ( #ajj y>ds1 t ! fur!/ fruits always g]m9ate & s cont9ue 9 "o direction1 x w be se5 t "u su* mo/ fav\rable circum/ances ! species c only spread #hjj y>ds 9 #ajj ye>s1 & w\ld take #eh1fff ye>s to migrate #ajj miles'7#bj74 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o type ( di/ribution--:at is call$ discont9u\s di/ribution--to :i* special att5tion %\ld be direct$ on acc\nt ( its intimate association ) que/ions relat+ to ! pa/ hi/ory ( liv+ organisms4 ,_m examples might be quot$ f bo? ! animal & plant k+doms 9 support ( ! view t discont9u\s di/ribution is a crit]ion ( antiquity4 ,:5 id5tical or v ne>ly id5tical plants occur 9 regions sep>at$ f "o ano!r by areas 9 :i* ! p>ticul> species is unkn[n1 ! inf]5ce is ei!r t ! surviv+ individuals are remnants ( a l>ge numb] =m]ly di/ribut$ ov] a wid] cont9u\s area1 or t 9 ! c\rse ( evolution simil> conditions 9 widely sep>at$ areas l$ to ! production ( id5tical types4 ,! =m] view is mu* ! m probable3 x is consi/5t ) ! conclusions arriv$ at on o!r gr\nds z to ! connexion betwe5 discont9u\s di/ribution & anci5t l9eage4 ,! explanations ( ! widespread occurr5ce among diff]5t races ( simil> objects or leg5ds af=d an analog\s case4 ,z ,dr ,&rew ,lang po9ts out 9 ,cu/om & ,my?1 x is held by "s /ud5ts t ! use ( ! bull ro>]--to cite a specific in/ance--by diff]5t peoples d5otes desc5t f a common /ock1 ?\gh he consid]s ! m probable explanation to be t simil> m9ds1 work+ ) simple means t[>ds simil> ends1 might evolve ! bull ro>] & its my/ic uses any:]e4 ,! ,c$>s ( ,lebanon af=d an int]e/+ example ( discont9u\s di/ribution4 ,!y illu/rate h[ a species1 :i* may be assum$ to h orig9at$ 9 "o region1 9 ! c\rse ( its w&]+s may und]go slight *anges until1 at a lat] /age :5 ! plants h disappe>$ f p>ts ( ! once-cont9u\s area1 ! rema9+ outly+ gr\ps ( individuals are spok5 ( "u diff]5t specific names4 ,! c$>s ( ,lebanon1 kn[n z ,c$rus libani1 occur z isolat$ gr\ps on ! ,lebanon hills z outli]s ( ! l>g] =e/s ( ! ,taunus #bej miles di/ant4 ,! ,african c$>1 ,c$rus atlantica1 is sep>at$ f ! ,lebanon c$> by a di/ance ( #adjj miles4 ,approximately ! same di/ance divides ! ,lebanon c$> f ! deod>1 ,c$rus deod>a1 :i* ext5ds f ,afghani/an along ! ,himalayas almo/ to ! conf9es ( ,nepal4 ,sir ,joseph ,hook] reg>ds ! ?ree c$>s z v>ieties ( "o species :i* once =m$ a cont9u\s =e/3 he attributes ! pres5t discont9u\s di/ribution1 9 "p at lea/1 to ! effects ( a w>m] succe$+ a cold] climate4 ,! less fav\rable conditions drove ! vegetation ( ! l[l&s to seek m cong5ial habitats at high] altitudes4 ,9 ?is connexion x is int]e/+ to f9d t 9 ,alg]ia ! c$> is conf9$ to ! high] gr\nd :]e ! sn[ lies long 9 ! spr+7#ba74 ,! ,tulip ,tree ( ,nor? ,am]ica & ,c5tral ,*9a af=ds "o ( _m examples ( exi/+ fl[]+ plants :i* illu/rate ! close connexion betwe5 pres5t di/ribution & pa/ hi/ory4 ,! g5us ,liriod5dron1 (t5 cultivat$ 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 is n[ repres5t$ by two species1 ! be/ kn[n ( :i*--! ,tulip ,tree1 ,liriod5dron tulip]a--ext5ds f ,v]mont to ,florida & we/w>ds to ,lake ,mi*igan & ,arkansas4 ,! leaves be> a sup]ficial resemblance to ^? ( ! ,sycamore1 b are z a rule easily di/+ui%$ by ! truncat$ =m ( ! apex2 ! specific "n 0 sugge/$ by ! tulip-l =m ( ! fl[]s4 ,fossil leaves ( ,liriod5dron are n uncommon 9 ! ,cretace\s rocks ( ,disco ,isl& 9 latitude #gj ,n41 :]e !y occur ) o!r fl[]+ plants :i* be> /rik+ te/imony to ! mildness ( ! ,cretace\s climate 9 high nor!rn latitudes4 ,"o ( ! associat$ fl[]+ plants is a species ( ,artoc>pus1 describ$ by ,dr ,na?or/ z ,artoc>pus ,dicksoni :i* be>s a close resemblance to ,a4 incisa ! bread-fruit tree ( ! s\!rn tropics ( ! ,old ,_w4 ,)\t attempt+ to deal fully ) ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,liriod5dron1 x may be confid5tly /at$ t ! records ( ! rocks are consi/5t ) ! idea ( antiquity sugge/$ by ! pres5t di/ribution ( ! two surviv+ species4 ,isl&s su* z ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&1 situat$ a %ort di/ance f a cont95t1 conta9 _m plants :i* are widely spread 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w1 toge!r ) a v small numb] peculi> to ! ,briti% ,isles ?\gh closely alli$ to species on ! neighb\r+ cont95t or to plants f>!r afield4 ,! occasional recognition ( species previ\sly believ$ to be conf9$ to ,brita9 t5ds to r$uce ! %ort li/ ( our endemic types4 ,an enquiry into ! orig9 ( an isl& flora involves a consid]ation ( ! data 9 reg>d to *anges 9 level & relative di/ribution ( l& & wat] 9 ! c\rse ( geological evolution4 ,x is g5]ally agre$ t at no di/ant date1 9 a geological s5se4 ,great ,brita9 & ,irel& 7 unit$ to ! cont95t4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r fact to reckon )1 namely ! preval5ce ( ,arctic conditions 9 nor!rn ,europe :5 a ?ick %eet ( ice spread ov] ! great] "p ( ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! sev]ity ( ! climate dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod 0 su* z to de/roy a l>ge proportion ( ! vegetation4 ,! "q is1 7 all ! fl[]+ plants de/roy$ or 7 "s ( ! h>di] species able to survive1 ei!r on ! high] peaks :i* kept _! heads above ! level ( ! ice or on ! s\!rn fr+e ( ,engl& beyond ! ice-cov]$ region8 ,x is impossible to give a def9ite answ]3 ! probability is t ne>ly all ! pre-,glacial species 7 de/roy$1 b x is n impossible t "s ,alp9e-,arctic plants escap$ ext9ction1 :ile o!rs retreat$ to m s\!rn & less ,arctic areas by means ( a l&-connexion ) ,france or cross$ ! int]v5+ sea by ocean-curr5ts1 by animal ag5cy1 or by w9d4 ,al?\gh we possess b imp]fect in=mation z to ! ext5t & duration ( l&-bridges betwe5 ,brita9 & ! cont95t1 !re are no special difficulties 9 ! way ( acc\nt+ = ! pres5ce ( ,sc&9avian1 ,g]manic1 & o!r elem5ts 9 ! ,briti% flora4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 o!r & m difficult problems to consid] 9 ref]5ce to a small gr\p ( fl[]+ plants :i* are met ) 9 ! we/ & s\? ( ,irel&1 also1 to a less ext5t1 9 ,cornwall & 9 a few o!r localities 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&4 ,9 ,connem>a 9 ! we/ ( ,irel&1 :]e h>d fro/s are unkn[n & w9t] sn[s are r>e1 !re are ?ree k9ds ( ,hea?1 ,/ ,dabeoc's ,hea? 7,daboecia polifolia71 ! ,m$it]ranean ,hea? 7,erica m$it]ranea7 & ,erica ,mackaii :i* are n f\nd else:]e 9 ! ,briti% ,isles or 9 ! :ole ( nor!rn ,europe1 b reappe> 9 ! ,pyr5ees4 ,! ,london ,pride 7,saxifraga umbrosa71 ano!r ,pyr5ean plant1 gr[s on ! s\? & we/ coa/ ( ,irel& f ,wat]=d to ,donegal4 ,arbutus ,un$o1 ! ,/rawb]ry tree1 :i* fl\ri%es 9 ! ,kill>ney di/rict ( ,c\nty ,k]ry & occurs 9 neighb\r+ localities1 has a wide di/ribution 9 ! ,m$it]ranean region4 ,devon%ire & ,cornwall possess two o!r ,hea?s1 ,erica cili>is1 :i* ext5ds into ,dorset%ire & occurs 9 nor? ,brittany1 & ,erica vagans1 bo? ,pyr5ean species1 :ile a ,m$it]ranean plant4 ,gladiolus illyricus1 gr[s 9 ! ,new ,=e/4 ,9 #ahdf ,edw>d ,=bes dealt ) ! problems pres5t$ by ! di/ribution ( ,briti% plants 9 an essay :i* has ex]cis$ a f>-rea*+ influ5ce4 ,:5 ,=bes publi%$ 8 "w1 comp>atively little 0 kn[n z to ! possibilities ( transport ( se$s & fruits across b>ri]s ( wat]7#bb74 ,8 conviction t ! kn[n means ( disp]sal 7 insuffici5t to acc\nt = ! pres5ce ( ,m$it]ranean or ,lusitanian plants 9 ,irel& l$ him to turn to geology = a solution ( ! problem4 ,he 0 ?us l$ to put =w>d ! view t 9 ! c\rse ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod :51 z we "k f palaeontological evid5ce1 ! climate ( nor? & we/ ,europe 0 mu* w>m] ?an x is n[1 & long-be=e ! beg9n+ ( ! climatic *anges :i* culm9at$ 9 ! ,glacial p]iod1 !re 0 a l&-connexion betwe5 ! we/ ( ,irel& & ! s\?-we/ ( ! cont95t4 ,mr ,praeg]1 ^: "w on ! ,iri% flora is well kn[n to sy/ematic botani/s1 agrees ) ! conclusions ( ,=bes1 & sees 9 ! ,portuguese & ,m$it]ranean plants 'relics ( a vegetation :i* once spread along a bygone ,european coa/-l9e :i* /ret*$ unbrok5 f ,irel& to ,spa9'7#bc74 ,if ?is explanation is correct x entitles ,arbutus1 ,/ ,dabeoc's hea? & o!r memb]s ( ?is s\!rn gr\p to be reg>d$ z a v old section ( our flora4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r side to ! "q3 grant+ t a c]ta9 numb] ( ,iri% plants 7 able to )/& ! rig\rs ( an ,ice age1 x is h>dly likely t ! /rawb]ry tree & o!r s\!rn types1 :i* x is admitt$ fl\ri% 9 ! s\?-we/ ( ,irel& because ( ! mildness ( ! climate1 7 ( ! numb] ( ^? :i* endur$ an extreme ,arctic phase4 ,moreov]1 if ^! ,m$it]ranean species are survivals f ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 if !y h be5 isolat$ s9ce pre-,glacial days z an outli] ( a s\!rn flora1 we might fairly expect t dur+ ! long int]val betwe5 _! arrival & ! pres5t day new =ms w\ld h be5 produc$ closely relat$ to1 ?\gh n id5tical )1 ! p>5t types4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 has n be5 prov$ to be ! case4 ,d>w9 9 speak+ ( ,=bes' ,essay 9 a lett] to de ,c&olle 9 #ahfc says t he diff]s f mo/ ( 8 contempor>ies '9 ?9k+ t ! va/ cont95tal ext5sions ( ,=bes1 ,he]1 & o!rs are n only advanc$ )\t suffici5t evid5ce1 b are oppos$ to mu* weighty evid5ce'7#ab74 ,! alt]native view is to reg>d ,arbutus & its compatriots z po/-,glacial arrivals & n z survivals f a widely spread ,t]ti>y flora4 ,a rec5tly publi%$ acc\nt ( ! ,new ,flora ( ! volcanic isl& ( ,krakatau furni%es an in/ructive & rem>kable demon/ration ( ! facility ) :i* a completely /]ilis$ isl&1 sep>at$ by sev]al miles ( ocean f neighb\r+ l&s1 may be re/ock$ ) vegetation7#bd74 ,9 #ahhc ! isl& ( ,krakatau1 !n d5sely cov]$ ) a luxuriant tropical vegetation1 0 p>tially de/roy$ by a s]ies ( exceptionally viol5t volcanic explosions4 ,aft] ?is cata/rophe only a ?ird ( ! isl& 0 left3 ! surface 0 deeply cov]$ by pumice & volcanic a% & no ve/ige ( life rema9$4 ,9 #aijf a p>ty ( botani/s :o sp5t a few h\rs on ,krakatau collect$ #acg species ( plants3 ! vegetation 0 9 places s d5se t x 0 ) ! greate/ difficulty !y p5etrat$ beyond ! coa/al belt1 & "s ( ! trees _h rea*$ a height ( #ej feet4 ,! se$s & fruits ( ?is new flora h be5 c>ri$ by ocean-curr5ts1 by w9d1 & by ! ag5cy ( birds f o!r isl&s 9 ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago4 ,! ne>e/ isl&s1 except ! small isl& ( ,sebesi1 ab\t #ab miles di/ant1 are ,java & ,sumatra1 sep>at$ f ,krakatau by a /ret* ( wat] ab\t #be miles 9 bread?4 ,x is reasonable to wond] :e!r1 _h ,=bes kn[n ( ?is & simil> mod]n in/ances ( ! capabilities ( plants z travell]s1 he w\ld h adopt$ ! view he did4 ,9 ?is connexion x may be add$ t 9 rec5t ye>s ! glaciation ( ,irel& has be5 %[n to be m ext5sive ?an x 0 believ$ to be :5 ,=bes wrote 8 essay4 ,!re w\ld seem to be no insup]able objection to ! conclusion t ! ,m$it]ranean plants 9 ,irel& & 9 ! s\? ( ,engl& rea*$ _! pres5t home aft] ! retreat ( ! ice at ! end ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 & aft] ,irel& became an isl&4 ,a full consid]ation ( ! problem is beyond ! scope ( ?is book1 b ,i h briefly /at$ ! case1 n ) ! au?ority ( an exp]t b 9 ord] to draw att5tion to a p>ticul>ly fasc9at+ /udy 9 plant-migration4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,eriocaulon septangul>e ,)4 ,we/ ,connem>a4 7,photograph by ,mr ,w4 ,r4 ,wel*47 ,9 a volume by ,w4 ,canton entitl$ ,a ,*ild's book ( ,sa9ts a /ory is told 9 :i* ! pres5ce 9 ,irel& ( ,m$it]ranean species receives a m picturesque explanation4 ,! ,monk ,bresal 0 s5t to tea* ! bre?r5 9 a ,spani% mona/]y ! music ( ,iri% *oirs4 ,9 lat] ye>s ,bresal long$ = a sight ( 8 native l&1 ?\gh he lov$ 8 home & 'e rock1 tree1 & fl[]' 9 8 adopt$ c\ntry4 ,aft] return+ to ,irel&1 8 ?\ghts rev]t$ to ,spa92 'x appe>$ to him z ?\gh he 0 once aga9 9 a granite nook among ! rocks beside ! ,priory'2 he saw ! ice-plant ) its little />s ( :ite fl[]s spr9kl$ ) r$ 7! ,london ,pride7 & a small ev]gre5 tree f :i* he _h (t5 ga!r$ ! orange-sc>let b]ries 7,arbutus74 ,! ,prior ( ! ,spani% mona/]y ') heav5ly vision saw ,bresal gaz+ at ! ev]gre5 tree & ! ice-plant1 & turn+ to ! trees bless$ !m & comm5d$ !m to g & make real 8 dream4 ,z ,bresal bru%$ away 8 te>s he saw ) amazem5t at 8 feet ! ice-plant & h>d by ! ev]gre5 tree4' ,! plant repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #b is ano!r ,briti% species :i* tasks ! +5uity ( /ud5ts ( plant-geography4 ,?is is ! ,pipe ,wort 7,eriocaulon septangul>e71 ! sole repres5tative 9 ,europe ( a c]ta9 family ( ,monocotyl$ons3 x fl\ri%es 9 ! we/ ( ,irel& & 9 ! we/]n isl&s ( ,scotl& b n[h]e else 9 ,europe2 x is native on ! o!r side ( ! ,atlantic 9 ,canada & ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,mr ,praeg] 9 describ+ ! /rik+ mixture ( species 9 ! we/ ( ,irel& writes1 ',! pool f :i* we ga!r ! ,am]ican ,pipe ,wort is fr+$ ) ,pyr5ean ,hea!rs4 ,! cracks :i* are fill$ ) ! delicate gre5 foam ( ! maid5 hair are set 9 ,be>b]ry & ,spr+ ,g5tian2 ,hab5>ia intacta1 f> f its ,m$it]ranean home1 s5ds up its fl[]-spikes ?r\gh c>pets ( m\nta9 ,av5s2 & ,/ ,dabeoc's ,hea? & ! dw>f ,junip] /raggle toge!r ov] ! rocky knolls'7#be74 ,! pres5ce ( ,eriocaulon on ! we/]n edge ( ,europe may be attribut$ to migration 9 pre-,glacial days f ,nor? ,am]ica by way ( a l&-connexion1 ( :i* ,gre5l& & ,icel& repres5t surviv+ portions4 ,! op9ion held by ,=bes1 & advocat$ by "s lat] naturali/s1 t ! s\!rn companions ( ,eriocaulon 9 ! we/ ( ,irel& are survivors f a ,t]ti>y flora :i* h liv$ ?r\gh ! ,ice ,age1 is consi/5tly ext5d$ to ! ,pipe ,wort4 ,on ! o!r h&1 be=e yield+ to ! temptation to reg>d ^! ,am]ican & ,m$it]ranean species z l9ks ) ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 we mu/ be conv9c$ t ! possibilities ( po/-,glacial introduction1 ev5 )\t ! aid ( l&-bridges1 h be5 exhau/$4 ,! ,pipe ,wort is a botanical puzzle :i* af=ds a good example ( ! accession ( int]e/ to field-botany effect$ by a k ( ! di/ribution ( ! compon5t memb]s ( ! ,briti% flora4 ,! problem ( its pa/ hi/ory sugge/s an exp]im5tal enquiry into ! adaptability ( its se$s to disp]sal1 & emphasises ! importance ( ! co-op]ation ( botani/s & geologi/s 9 a common endeav\r to trace ! orig9 ( ,briti% plants4 ,9 addition to ! ,pipe ,wort1 m5tion may be made ( ?ree o!r ,am]ican fl[]+ plants recognis$ 9 ! ,iri% flora4 ,sisyr9*ium angu/ifolium record$ f ! we/ ( ,irel& is native 9 temp]ate ,nor? ,am]ica2 ! or*id1 ,spiran!s romanz(fiana1 met ) 9 ! s\? & nor? ( ,irel&1 is widely spread 9 ,canada & ! nor!rn ,/ates1 :ile ,sisyr9*ium cali=nicum1 a native ( ,cali=nia & ,oregon1 0 discov]$ by ,mr ,m>%all 9 m>%y mead[-l& ne> ,wex=d7#bf74 ,9 ! case ( ! m rec5tly discov]$ ,am]ican immigrants1 ! possibility ( human introduction mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 ?\gh !re are no special reasons = d\bt+ t "s1 z 9 ! case ( ,eriocaulon1 rea*$ ! ,iri% coa/ by natural ag5cies4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,geological ,,record ',all ! ,epo*s ( ! ,pa/ are only a few ( ! front c>riages1 & probably ! lea/ wond]ful1 9 ! van ( an int]m9able procession4' ,j4 ,b4 ,bury 7,! ,sci5ce ( ,hi/ory74 ,! portion ( ! e>?'s surface accessible to inve/igation is made up 9 "p ( accumulations ( old s$im5ts1 "s indi/+ui%able f ! %+le1 s&1 & mud n[ 9 process ( =mation by ! ceaseless action ( d5udation2 o!rs h be5 h>d5$1 g5tly fold$ or viol5tly contort$ & s f> alt]$ by cru/-movem5ts z to r5d] _! s$im5t>y orig9 well nigh unrecognisable4 ,x is ^! s$im5ts ( =m] ages1 ! du/ ( lo/ cont95ts1 9 :i* are pres]v$ ! majority ( ! fragm5t>y rema9s ( plants & animals1 ! flotsam & jetsam ( successive phases ( evolution4 ,! cru/ ( ! e>?1 z ,d>w9 wrote1 ') its imb$d$ rema9s mu/ n be look$ at z a well fill$ museum1 b z a poor collection made at haz>d & at r>e int]vals'7#ai74 ,x is f ?is imp]fect record t we seek to discov] ! relative antiquity ( ! sev]al gr\ps or g5]a ( liv+ plants1 & 9 ! /ructure ( ext9ct types we endeav\r to discov] connect+ l9ks betwe5 divisions ( ! plant k+dom :i* 9 ! c\rse ( evolution h reta9$ little or no signs ( a common desc5t4 ,sir ,joseph ,hook] 9 a lett] to ,d>w9 9 #ahei speaks ( 8 'conviction t we h n 9 a fossilis$ condition a fraction ( ! plants t h exi/$1 & t n a fraction ( ^? we h are recognisable specifically'7#ab74 ,consid]+ ! nature ( ! palaeontological docum5ts ! wond] is h[ mu* !y h taught u1 & we may look ) confid5ce to ! results ( future rese>* 9 a field ( :i* ! importance has only rec5tly be5 appreciat$4 ,) ! /rata ( s$im5t>y orig9 are frequ5tly associat$ igne\s rocks1 & 9 _m cont95tal regions1 z 9 ! majority ( oceanic isl&s1 ! cru/ ( ! e>? consi/s :olly ( volcanic mat]ial or ( rocks produc$ by ! gradual solidification ( molt5 magmas4 ,rocks compos$ ma9ly ( c>bonate ( lime1 su* z lime/ones & *alk1 be> witness to ocean b$s or to s$im5ts deposit$ on ! floors ( inl& seas beyond ! rea* ( l& detritus :]e coral reefs 7 re>$ or ! %ells & o!r calc>e\s skeletons ( animals suppli$ ! mat]ial = future l&4 ,9 su* rocks ! rema9s ( calc>e\s seawe$s are frequ5tly recognisable & occasionally1 z 9 ! ,engli% *alk1 fragm5ts ( wood te/ify to transport f a di/ant l&4 ,:ile !re is little difficulty 9 expla9+ ! nature ( mu* ( ! e>?'s cru/1 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! _w ! /rata are totally unfossilif]\s & closely simulate cry/all9e rocks4 ,9 _m cases x is believ$ t su* /rata repres5t anci5t s$im5ts :i* 9 ! c\rse ( ages h be5 r$uc$ by metamorphic ag5cies to a condition :i* has obscur$ or entirely oblit]at$ all traces ( _! pri/9e /ate4 ,s9ce ! pione] "w ( ,william ,smi?1 :o 9 ! e>ly days ( ! n9ete5? c5tury fir/ realis$ ! importance ( fossils z aids to ! det]m9ation ( relative age1 geologi/s h devot$ !mselves to ! task ( correlat+ ! s$im5t>y rocks ( ! _w1 us+ z crit]ia ! ord] ( sup]position ( ! /rata & ! nature ( _! organic rema9s4 ,! result has be5 to classify portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ into p]iods or *apt]s1 :i* toge!r con/itute a record ( geological evolution z complete z x is possible to obta9 f ! available data4 ,! accompany+ table %[s ! ord] ( sequ5ce ( ! epo*s1 :i* /& = t]ms ( ye>s ( a magnitude beyond our p[]s to grasp4 ,! division ( geological hi/ory into l>g] & small] p]iods does n imply ! recurr5ce ( sudd5 revolutions2 x is 9 "s measure dictat$ by consid]ations ( conv5i5ce1 b m p>ticul>ly by our ignorance ( c]ta9 /ages 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w due to ! imp]fection ( ! record4 ,,geological ,,table4 ,%[+ ! position 9 ! ,geological ,s]ies ( ! /rata ref]r$ to 9 ?is volume4 ,t]ti>y 7,ca9ozoic7 ,rec5t ,sup]ficial accumulations conta9+ human ,plei/oc5e rema9s 7,metal age1 ,neoli?ic & ,palaeoli?ic ages1 ,glacial deposits7 ,plioc5e ,crom] ,=e/-b$1 etc4 ,mioc5e ,abs5t f ,brita94 ,oligoc5e ,bovey ,tracey b$s1 etc4 ,eoc5e ,london ,clay1 etc4 ,second>y 7,mesozoic7 ,cretace\s ,*alk ,weald5 b$s ,purbeck & ,portl& b$s 7,upp] ,jurassic7 ,jurassic ,oolites 7,middle ,jurassic7 ,lias 7,l[] ,jurassic7 ,rhaetic b$s ,triassic ,keup] 7,m>ls ) rock-salt1 etc47 ,bunt] ,prim>y 7,palaeozoic7 ,p]mian ,r$ ,s&/ones1 etc4 ,magnesian lime/one ,coal ,measures ,c>bonif]\s ,mill/one ,grit ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ,devonian ,devonian lime/ones1 etc4 ,old ,r$ ,s&/ones ,silurian ,s&/ones1 %ales1 "s lime/one ,ordovician ,slates1 s&/ones1 ,volcanic rocks1 etc4 ,cambrian ,slates1 ,s&/ones1 etc4 ,pre-,cambrian ,slates1 ,volcanic rocks1 etc4 or ,ar*ean ,9 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! _w1 z = example ! nor?-we/ ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 ! ,malv]n ,hills1 ,sc&9avia1 & 9 _m o!r regions 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica1 geologi/s h recognis$ :at !y believe to be ! f\ndation /ones ( ! _w4 ,^! ,ar*aean rocks1 :i* und]lie ! olde/ fossilif]\s /rata1 belong to a p]iod ( geological evolution f :i* x appe>s to be hopeless to obta9 any light z to ! nature ( ! contempor>y organic _w4 ,! e>lie/ ve/iges ( life s f> discov]$ exhibit a high degree ( organisation1 :i* unmi/akably po9ts to _! be+ l9ks 9 a *a9 ext5d+ f> beyond ! limits ( ! olde/ ,cambrian /rata 9 :i* recognisable fossils fir/ occur4 ,! rocks ( ! ,cambrian & ,ordovician epo*s1 z repres5t$ by ! grits1 %ales1 slates & o!r s$im5t>y /rata 9 ,wales1 ,%rop%ire1 ! ,lake di/rict & else:]e1 ?\gh 9 places ri* 9 ! rema9s ( animals1 af=d no in=mation 9 reg>d to ! l& vegetation4 ,f ! succe$+ ,silurian epo* v little evid5ce has be5 glean$ z to ! nature ( ! flora1 & x is n until we come to ! s$im5t>y rocks ( ! ,devonian era t records ( plant-life occur 9 any abundance4 ,! almo/ complete lack ( botanical data 9 ! pre-,devonian =mations is 9 "p due to ! fact t ^! old] rocks consi/ to a l>ge ext5t ( m>9e deposits =m$ "u conditions unfav\rable to ! pres]vation ( plants4 ,t ! l&-surfaces ( ! old] ,palaeozoic eras support$ an abundant vegetation !re c be little d\bt4 ,! relics ( plant-life furni%$ by ! ,devonian & succe$+ =mations repres5t ! upp] bran*+-sy/ems ( a deeply root$ & spread+ tree1 ! l[e/ portions ( :i* h be5 de/roy$ or h left no sign ( _! exi/5ce4 ,9 desc5d+ ! ,geological s]ies1 we beg9 ) sup]ficial deposits1 su* z peat & riv]-gravels f\nd subsequ5tly to ! und]ly+ b\ld]-clay ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,! rema9s ( =e/ trees pres]v$ 9 ! peat & 9 subm]g$ =e/s r\nd ! coa/ connect ! vegetation ( ! hi/oric p]iod ) t ( ! ,neoli?ic age4 ,at ! base ( ! ,plei/oc5e s]ies1 ! "n giv5 to ! late/ *apt] ( geological hi/ory1 we f9d evid5ce ( ! preval5ce ( arctic conditions 9 ! widely spread b\ld]-clays & o!r deposits ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,f deposits ( po/-,glacial date abundant plant rema9s h be5 obta9$1 b we _c say ) any degree ( c]ta9ty :at proportion ( ^! plants rema9$ 9 ,brita9 dur+ ! ,ice age1 & :e!r ! great] "p ( ! vegetation1 ! relics ( :i* h be5 discov]$ 9 pre-,glacial b$s1 0 de/roy$ or driv5 s\? by ! advanc+ ice4 ,we may briefly consid] "s ( ! m int]e/+ facts br\ght to light by ! inve/igation ( ! fossil plants 9 ! ,l[] ,plei/oc5e & ,upp] ,t]ti>y b$s4 ,x is ma9ly to ! rese>*es ( ,mr ,clem5t ,reid into ! vegetation ( ,brita9 imm$iately prec$+ ! ,glacial p]iod1 t our k ( ?is phase ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,briti% flora is due4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,pre-,glacial plants f ,mundesley 7,a71 ,norfolk & ,pakefield 7,b1 ,c71 ,suffolk4 7,photographs by ,mr ,clem5t ,reid & ,mrs ,e4 ,m4 ,reid47 ,a4 ,bid5s trip>tita ,l9n4 7 #f72 ,b4 ,picea excelsa ,l9n4 7nat4 size74 ,c4 ,/ell>ia holo/ea ,l9n4 7 #ab74 ,on ! coa/ ( ,norfolk 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,crom] ! sections ( ! cliffs reveal ! exi/5ce ( a succession ( s&s1 clays1 & gravels und]ly+ ,glacial deposits2 ?is mat]ial 0 probably laid d[n ne> ! m\? ( ! anci5t ,rh9e1 :i* 9 ! latt] "p ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod fl[$ across a l[ area1 :i* is n[ occupi$ by ! %all[ s\!rn half ( ! ,nor? ,sea7#bg74 ,! plant-fragm5ts f\nd 9 ^! riv]-s$im5ts indicate a temp]ate climate4 ,among ! plants ( ?is pre-,glacial flora are _m famili> ,briti% species1 su* z ,cal?a palu/ris 7m>% m>igold71 species ( butt]-cup1 ,/ell>ia holo/ea 7great] /i*wort7 7,fig4 #c1 ,c71 ,bid5s trip>tita 7bur-m>igold7 7,fig4 #c1 ,a71 maple1 haw?orn1 ! ald]1 hazel1 ! yew1 ,scots p9e & num]\s o!rs4 ,if1 z is n improbable1 ^! pre-,glacial plants 7 swept away by ! subsequ5t arctic conditions1 ! great majority ( !m return$ to _! old home :5 a w>m] climate ensu$4 ,!re are h[ev] "s pre-,glacial plants1 su* z ! spruce fir 7,picea excelsa71 a cone ( :i* is %[n 9 ,fig4 #c1 ,b1 ! wat] *e/nut1 ,trapa natans 7,fig4 #d71 & a few o!r species no long] repres5t$ 9 ! ,briti% flora4 ,! g5us ,trapa is a /rik+ example ( a fl[]+ plant :i* has disappe>$ s9ce ! ,t]ti>y p]iod f _m p>ts ( ,europe1 includ+ ,engl&1 mo/ ( ,sw$51 & f sev]al regions 9 nor!rn ,europe4 ,x /ill gr[s 9 a few localities 9 ,switz]l& & 9 "s ( ! ,italian lakes4 ,9 pre-,glacial times ! wat] *e/nut 0 widely spread f ,portugal & ,engl& 9 ! we/ to ,sib]ia 9 ! ea/1 & its h>d f\r-prong$ nuts h be5 record$ f _m po/-,glacial peat-moors 9 ! nor? ( ,europe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,trapa natans ,l9n4 7nat4 size74 ,f ,mundesley4 7,photographs by ,mr & ,mrs ,reid47 ,f ! s-call$ ,crom] =e/-b$ & associat$ deposits on ! ,norfolk coa/ sev]al pre-,glacial plants h be5 obta9$1 indicat+ a temp]ate climate dur+ ?is phase ( ! ,plei/oc5e p]iod4 ,a few arctic species1 su* z ! dw>f bir* & arctic will[ obta9$ f ! deposits next above ! ,crom] =e/-b$1 h]ald ! ne> approa* ( glacial conditions4 ,x may be rem>k$ 9 pass+ t no satisfactory evid5ce has be5 discov]$ 9 ,brita9 ( ! exi/5ce ( man 9 ?is "p ( ,europe 9 pre-,glacial days3 x is1 h[ev]1 believ$ t fl9ts f ,t]ti>y /rata on ! cont95t %[ traces ( human workman%ip4 ,z ,sir ,edw9 ,ray ,lanke/] said 9 #aije1 ',x is n improbable t x 0 9 ! remote p]iod kn[n z ! ,l[] ,mioc5e--remote z comp>$ ) ! gravels 9 :i* ,eoli?s primitive /one implem5ts occur--t ,natural ,selection began to fav\r t increase 9 ! size ( ! bra9 ( a l>ge & n v p[]ful semi-erect ape'7#bh74 ,?\gh comp>atively rec5t 9 t]ms ( geological *ronology1 ! remot5ess1 accord+ to ord9>y conceptions ( "t1 ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod is br\ght home to u :5 we endeav\r to grasp ! fact t x 0 dur+ ?is *apt] 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory t "s ( our highe/ m\nta9-ranges1 su* z ! ,alps1 ! ,c>pa?ians1 & ,himalayas 7 =m$ by ! uplift+ ( piles ( m>9e s$im5ts4 ,f ,t]ti>y /rata 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 on ! ,hamp%ire coa/1 & 9 ! ,london bas9 num]\s fossil plants h be5 obta9$1 :i* af=d conv9c+ evid5ce ( climatic conditions mu* m g5ial ?an ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,! pres5ce ( palm leaves & ( a weal? ( o!r sub-tropical plants 9 ,l[] ,t]ti>y b$s 9 ,engl& reveals ! exi/5ce ( a flora diff]+ consid]ably bo? f t 9 ! upp]mo/ ,t]ti>y b$s ( ,norfolk & f ! mod]n ,briti% flora1 b closely alli$ to ! pres5t ,m$it]ranean flora4 ,! basaltic columns ( ! ,giants' ,causeway & ( ! ,/affa ,cave1 & ! t]rac$ rocks :i* =m s *>act]i/ic a feature 9 ! cont\rs ( ! ,inn] ,hebrides1 are portions ( lava-fl[s1 :i* 9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod 7 p\r$ out ov] a wide area ( l& /ret*+ f ! nor?-ea/ ( ,irel&1 ?r\gh ! ,we/]n isles ( ,scotl&1 ! ,f>o isl&s1 to ,icel& & ,gre5l&4 ,:ile 9 ?is nor!rn region volcanic activity 0 be+ manife/$ on a /up5d\s scale1 a %all[ sea ext5d$ ov] "p ( :at is n[ ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl& 9 :i* 0 deposit$ a consid]able ?ickness ( s$im5t>y mat]ial d]iv$ f ! neighb\r+ l&4 ,9 ?is uprais$ sea-floor1 kn[n z ! ,london clay1 :i* is expos$ 9 ! ,isle ( ,%eppey & 9 _m o!r localities1 num]\s fossil fruits & fragm5ts ( wood occur 9 association ) m>9e %ells4 ,! fact t _m ( ! fruits 7 ripe at ! "t ( _! entombm5t l$ "s eighte5? c5tury writ]s to assign an autumn date to ! univ]sal deluge4 ,"o ( ! ,%eppey fruits may be m5tion$ z an especially int]e/+ sample ( ! e>ly ,t]ti>y flora1 namely ! g5us ,nipadites1 s nam$ f ! v close resemblance ( ! fossils to ! fruits ( ! exi/+ tropical plant ,nipa4 ,nipa fruticans1 sometimes describ$ z a /emless palm because ( ! abs5ce ( ! erect /em :i* is usually a *>act]i/ic feature ( palms1 gr[s 9 bracki% e/u>ies ( _m tropical c\ntries 7,fig4 #e1 ,a73 x has long leaves n unlike ^? ( ! date-palm & be>s clu/]s ( fruits z l>ge z a man's head2 a s+le fruit is two or ?ree in*es long & its h>d fibr\s %ell is *>act]is$ by f\r or five longitud9al ribs 7,fig4 #e1 ,b74 ,! fruits ( ,nipa1 :i* may be c>ri$ a consid]able di/ance by ocean-curr5ts )\t los+ ! p[] ( g]m9ation1 are con/antly f\nd ) o!r vegetable drift on ! bea*es ( tropical isl&s4 ,! discov]y ( fruits ( ,nipa 7or ,nipadites71 h>dly di/+ui%able f ^? ( ! exi/+ species1 9 ,t]ti>y b$s 9 ,engl&1 ,belgium1 9 ! ,p>is bas91 & 9 ,egypt af=ds a /rik+ in/ance ( *anges 9 ! geographical di/ribution ( an anci5t plant n[ re/rict$ to w>m] regions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,nipa fruticans1 ,?unb4 ,a4 ,on ! coa/ ( ! ,malay ,p59sula4 7,photograph by ,pr(4 ,yapp47 ,b4 ,head ( fruits 7#a_/e nat4 size74 ,f a specim5 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4 ,:ile ! high] memb]s ( ! ,cretace\s sy/em1 z se5 9 ! *alk cliffs & d[ns1 repres5t ! uprais$ calc>e\s accumulations on ! floor ( a fairly deep & cle> sea1 ! l[] memb]s te/ify to %all[] wat] )9 rea* ( riv]-borne s& & mud4 ',dur+ ! ,*alk p]iod1' z ,huxley wrote1 'n "o ( ! pres5t great physical features ( ! globe 0 9 exi/5ce4 ,our great m\nta9 ranges1 ,pyr5ees1 ,alps1 ,himalayas1 ,&es1 h all be5 upheav$ s9ce ! *alk 0 deposit$1 & ! ,cretace\s sea fl[$ ov] ! sites ( ,s9ai & ,ar>at'7#bi74 ,! ,weald5 /rata1 at ! base ( ! ,cretace\s sy/em1 z se5 on ! ,sussex coa/1 9 p>ts ( ! ,isle ( ,wight1 9 ! ,weald di/rict ( ,k5t & neighb\r+ c\nties1 po9t to ! exi/5ce ( a lake ov] a portion ( ! s\? ( ,engl& & ( ! ,engli% ,*annel4 ,! rema9s ( a ri* ,weald5 flora h be5 collect$ f ^! ,weald5 s$im5ts1 notably f ! plant-b$s ( ,ecclesb\rne ne> ,ha/+s1 9 :i*1 s f> z we "k1 fl[]+ plants play$ no "p or at mo/ occupi$ a v subord9ate position4 ,a few fossil leaves h be5 describ$ f rocks assign$ to a ,weald5 age1--& f ! old] ,/onesfield ,slate1 ( ,jurassic age1 a s+le leaf is record$1--:i* seem to be ^? ( ,dicotyl$ons2 b x is c]ta9 t ev5 9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod ! pres5t dom9ant gr\p 9 ! plant k+dom 0 9 its infancy & 9 _m regions probably unrepres5t$4 ,:5 we glance at ! geological table & consid] t 9 all ! floras f ! ,weald5 d[n to ! ,devonian p]iod1 fl[]+ plants play$ no "p1 we are able to appreciate ! fact ( _! rapid developm5t1 ref]r$ to 9 a previ\s *apt]1 :5 once ?is highe/ type _h become e/abli%$4 ,! rocks compris$ 9 ! ,jurassic sy/em ext5d f ,ea/ ,york%ire to ! coa/ ( ,dorset%ire2 !y consi/ ( a succession ( lime/ones1 clays1 s&/ones1 & a few ?9 b$s ( impure coal4 ,s$im5ts ( ?is age also occur1 ?\gh to a mu* less ext5t1 on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,scotl& & 9 a few places 9 ! ,inn] ,hebrides4 ,_m ( ! ,jurassic /rata conta9 only m>9e %ells1 & corals are occasionally abundant1 ?\gh 9 ! l[] memb]s ( ! sy/em 9 ! cliffs ne> ,lyme ,regis & at ,:itby fossil plants are fairly common4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 f ! middle ,jurassic b$s1 9 ! cliffs betwe5 ,:itby & ,sc>bor\gh1 & 9 "s inl& qu>ries 9 ,ea/ ,york%ire1 t we h obta9$ ! ri*e/ ,jurassic flora4 ,riv]s f a nor!rn l& lad5 ) s$im5t & c>ry+ drift-wood1 leaves & o!r plant fragm5ts1 deposit$ _! burd5 9 an e/u>y :i* occupi$ ! ea/]n edge ( ,york%ire4 ,s$im5t>y rocks laid d[n t[>ds ! close ( ! ,jurassic p]iod 9 ! isl& ( ,portl& 9 ! s\? & on ! ,su!rl& coa/ 9 ! nor? h furni%$ valuable records ( plant-life4 ,! passage f ! ,jurassic to ! und]ly+ ,triassic sy/em is =m$ by "s %ales & lime/ones 9 ,s\? ,wales conta9+ rema9s ( fi% & o!r m>9e organisms4 ,^! s-call$ ,rhaetic b$s are poorly repres5t$ 9 ! ,briti% area1 b on ! cont95t ( ,europe & 9 o!r regions ! s$im5ts ( ?is age bulk mu* m l>gely & h yield$ a ri* collection ( plants4 ,! rocks ( ! upp] division ( ! ,triassic sy/em1 z se5 9 ! ,midl&s1 po9t to ! preval5ce ( des]t conditions2 & 9 ! groov$ s&-poli%$ surfaces ( granite 9 ,*>nwood =e/ we h a glimpse ( a ,triassic l&scape4 ,! salt-be>+ /rata ( ?is p]iod 9 ,*e%ire & ,worce/]%ire sugge/ conditions p>allel$ at ! pres5t day 9 ! ,caspian & ,dead-,sea regions4 ,! vegetation ( ,brita91 & inde$ ( ! _w z a :ole1 seems to h und]gone b little *ange dur+ ! enorm\s lapse ( "t repres5t$ by ! s$im5ts compris$ betwe5 ! ,weald5 & ,triassic p]iods4 ,! ,l[] ,triassic flora af=ds evid5ce ( a *ange 9 ! facies ( ! vegetation & prep>es u = ! /ill great] diff]5ces reveal$ by a /udy ( ! ,p]mian & ,c>bonif]\s floras4 ,to ! /ud5t ( evolution ^! ,palaeozoic floras are ( special int]e/ on acc\nt ( ! facts !y h contribut$ 9 reg>d to ! desc5t & int]-relation%ip ( diff]5t bran*es ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,x is by a pati5t /udy ( ! waifs & /rays ( ! vegetation ( successive phases ( ! _w's hi/ory pres]v$ 9 s$im5t>y /rata1 t x has be5 possible to foll[ ! hi/ory ( _m exi/+ plants & to e/abli% l9ks betwe5 ! pres5t & ! pa/4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,pres]vation ,,( ,,plants ,,z ,,fossils ',"s :im ( ,nature lock$ !m fa/ 9 /one = u aft]?\ghts ( ,creation4' ,l[ell4 ,! failure ( ! e>li] naturali/s to grasp ! true significance ( fossils or ev5 to appreciate _! nature is an extraord9>y fact :5 we consid] ! pione] "w :i* !y accompli%$ 9 biological & geological sci5ce4 ,! foll[+ extract f ! writ+s ( s enlight5$ a man z ,john ,ray s]ves to illu/rate an almo/ incr$ible dis9cl9ation to admit :at seems to u ! obvi\s4 ,he wrote3--',yet ,i mu/ n dissemble t !re is a ,ph5om5on 9 ,nature1 :i* do? some:at puzzle u to reconcile ) ! prud5ce obs]vable 9 all its "w1 & seems /rongly to prove1 t ,nature do? sometimes lud]e1 & del9eates figures1 = no o!r end1 b = ! ornam5t ( "s /one1 & to ent]ta9 or gratify our curiosity1 & ex]cise our wits4 ,?is is1 ^? elegant impressions ( leaves & plants ^u cole-slate1 ! k ( :i*1 ,i mu/ confess myself to leave to my le>n$ & +5i\s fri5d ,mr ,edw>d ,lhwyd ( ,ox=d4444 ,he told me t ,mr ,woodw>d1 a ,london]1 %ew$ him v good draughts ( ! common female f]n1 naturally =m$ 9 cole4444 ,b ^! figures are m dilig5tly to be obs]v$ & consid]$444 ,dr ,woodw>d w h !m to be ! impressions ( ! leaves ( plants :i* 7 !re lodg$ at ! "t ( ! ,deluge'7#ca74 ,! ,mr ,woodw>d allud$ to by ,ray ?us express$ 8 views on fossils 9 an ,essay t[>ds ! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?3--',! :ole t]re/rial globe 0 tak5 all to pieces & dissolv$ at ! ,deluge1 ! p>ticles ( /one1 m>ble1 & all solid fossils dissev]$1 tak5 up into ! wat]1 & !n su/a9$ toge!r ) sea %ells & o!r animal & vegetable bodies2 ! pres5t e>? consi/s & 0 =m$ out ( t promiscu\s mass ( s&1 e>?1 %ells1 & ! re/ fall+ d[n aga91 & subsid+ f ! wat]'7#cb74 ,9 ! lat] "p ( ! sev5te5?-c5tury ,/5o1 a ,dane by bir? & ,pr(essor ( ,anatomy at ,padua1 by 8 recognition ( ! id5tity ( ! tee? 9 a %>k's head1 :i* he _h dissect$1 ) "s fossils f ,malta kn[n z ,glossopetrae1 e/abli%$ ! true nature ( fossils4 ,he also recognis$ a c]ta9 ord]ly sequ5ce 9 fossilif]\s /rata1 & 9 ! op9ion ( ,pr(essor ,sollas he is entitl$ to be consid]$ ! ',fa!r & ,f\nd]' ( ,geology7#cc74 ,x 0 by sl[ degrees t ! e>ly obs]v]s fre$ !mselves f ! obsession t ! rema9s ( animals & plants 9 ! e>?'s cru/ be> witness to a ,univ]sal ,deluge & are all id5tical ) exi/+ species4 ,! possibility t "s ( ! fossil plants 9 ,engli% /rata might be m cle>ly relat$ to =ms n[ met ) 9 w>m] regions 0 gradually realis$4 ,! publication ( ! ,orig9 ( ,species /imulat$ palaeontological rese>*1 & botani/s z well z zoologi/s turn$ to ! inve/igation ( ext9ct g5]a 9 se>* ( pro(s ( ! doctr9e ( evolution4 ,! common occurr5ce ( petrifi$ wood 9 rocks ( diff]5t ages is well kn[n4 ,fossil /ems are occasionally f\nd 9 _! natural position ( gr[?1 ! /ructural details be+ r5d]$ p]man5t by ! deposition ( silice\s or calc>e\s mat]ial f wat] drawn by capill>ity into ! dead b /ill s\nd tissues4 ,petrifi$ wood f ,upp] ,jurassic b$s is abundant 9 ! ,isl& ( ,purbeck2 an unusually long piece ( /em may be se5 9 ! small t[n ( ,portl& fix$ to ! wall ( a h\se4 ,"s ( ^! /ems h be5 ref]r$ by an ,am]ican au?or to ! ,arauc>ian family ( ,conif]s1 b ! /ructure is z a rule h>dly well en\gh pres]v$ to af=d satisfactory evid5ce = id5tification4 ,9 8 ,te/imony ( ! ,rocks1 ,hugh ,mill] speaks ( fossil wood f ! upp] b$s ( ! ,jurassic sy/em 9 suffici5t abundance on ! bea* at ,helmsdale 9 ,su!rl&%ire to be collect$ 9 c>t-loads2 x is /ill easy to pick up good specim5s on ! %+le bea* a %ort di/ance nor? ( ,helmsdale1 & a rec5t microscopical exam9ation %[$ t "s specim5s are pieces ( an ,arauc>ian tree4 ,impressive examples ( petrifi$ trees on a l>ge scale are to be se5 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,arizona & ! ,yell[/one ,p>k4 7,frontispiece47 ,9 ! nor!rn "p ( ,arizona ! c\ntry = ov] an area ( #aj squ>e miles is cov]$ ) tree trunks1 "s rea*+ #bjj feet 9 l5g? & a diamet] ( #aj feet4 ,! nature ( ! m9]alis+ sub/ance has giv5 rise to ! "n ,*alc$ony ,p>k = ?is ,triassic =e/7#cd74 ,a /rik+ example ( "o ( ! ,arizona trees is exhibit$ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum & 9 a neighb\r+ case is a spl5did petrifi$ /em1 #i ft4 9 height1 ( a conif] discov]$ 9 ,t]ti>y lavas 9 ,tasmania7#ce74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,section ( ! nor? face ( ,ame?y/ ,m\nta91 ,yell[/one ,p>k1 includ+ upw>ds ( #bjjj ft4 ( /rata4 ,! /eepness ( ! slope is exagg]at$4 7,aft] ,w4 ,h4 ,holmes47 ,figure #f illu/rates ! pres]vation ( a s]ies ( =e/s ( ,t]ti>y age 9 ! mass ( volcanic s$im5ts1 #bjjj feet 9 ?ickness1 kn[n z ,ame?y/ m\nta91 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k di/rict4 ,by ! wea!r+ away ( ! surr\nd+ volcanic mat]ial ! tall /ems ( ! trees are expos$ 9 places on ! m\nta9 sides l ! 'columns ( a ru9$ temple4' ,! height ( ! riv] at ! foot ( ! cliff is #fgjj ft4 above sea-level & ! m\nta9 rises to a height ( #idjj ft4 above ! sea4 ,9 ! l[] "p ( ! section ! volcanic /rata are se5 to re/ on a f\ndation ( old] rocks ,a1 & ^! 9 turn 7 laid d[n on ! erod$ surface ( a /ill m anci5t f\ndation1 ,b7#cf74 ,! section z a :ole af=ds a /rik+ demon/ration ( ! magnitude ( e>?-movem5ts s9ce ! la/ ( ^! =e/s 0 buri$ bel[ ! surface ( a sea 9 :i* ! volcanic mat]ial 0 deposit$4 ,! acc\nt ( ! ,yell[/one ,p>k section recalls ,d>w9's description 9 ! ,naturali/'s ,voyage7#cg7 ( sn[-:ite columns project+ f a b>e slope1 at an altitude ( #gjjj ft4 9 ! ,cordill]a4 ,! abundance ( drift-wood on ! coa/s ( "s c\ntries at ! pres5t day helps u to picture ! conditions "u :i* ! rema9s ( =m] =e/s h be5 pres]v$4 ,9 8 ,lett]s f ,high ,latitudes1 ,"l ,duff]9 gives ! foll[+ description ( drift-wood on ! %ores ( ,spitzb]g53--',a little to ! nor?w>d1 ,i obs]v$1 ly+ on ! sea-%ore innum]able logs ( drift-wood4 ,?is wood is float$ all ! way f ,am]ica by ! ,gulf ,/ream1 & z ,i walk$ f "o huge bole to ano!r1 ,i c\ld n help wond]+ 9 :at primeval =e/ ea* _h gr[n1 :at *ance _h orig9ally ca/ !m on ! wat]s1 & pilot$ !m to ?is des]t %ore'7#ch74 ,a photograph reproduc$ 9 ,amunds5's book on ,! ,nor? ,we/ ,passage %[s ! bea* on ! ,alaskan coa/ /rewn ) drift$ timb]7#ci74 ,= ! accompany+ photograph 7,fig4 #g7 ( ! flood-pla9 ( ! ,colorado ,riv]7#dj71 ,i am indebt$ to ,pr(essor ,mac,dougal ( ! ,des]t ,rese>* ,laboratory at ,tucson1 ,arizona1 :o 9 a rec5t lett] writes1 ',dur+ times ( high-wat] a ?9 %eet ( flood cov]s ! flat = _m miles & be>s drift-wood s ?ickly t x is difficult to pu% a boat ?r\gh x4' ,! drift-wood consi/s ( popl>1 will[1 p9e1 & junip]1 '! la/ two h be5 br\ght f ! upp] riv]1 f z f> away z a ?\s& miles4' ,a picture su* z ?is af=ds an admirable example ( ! weal? ( mat]ial available = pres]vation 9 a fossil /ate4 ,x is only 9 ! m9ority ( cases t ! accid5ts ( pres]vation ( fragm5ts ( anci5t floras h giv5 u ! means ( inve/igat+ ! int]nal /ructure ( ! plant organs4 ,x is f> m frequ5tly ! case t fossil plants are repres5t$ only by a c>bonis$ film on ! surface ( a piece ( %ale or o!r rock3 ! actual sub/ance ( ! plant has be5 conv]t$ into a ?9 lay] ( coal1 & ?\gh ! v5ation & o!r surface-features may be cle>ly reveal$1 ! int]nal tissues h be5 de/roy$4 ,if a lump ( clay conta9+ a piece ( f]n frond is heat$1 ! result is an impression ( ! leaf on ! h>d5$ matrix & a coaly sub/ance 9 place ( ! plant sub/ance4 ,x is occasionally possible by deta*+ a piece ( ! black film f a fossil1 & heat+ x ) nitric acid & *lorate ( pota% & !n dipp+ x 9 ammonia1 to obta9 a transp>5t prep>ation suitable = microscopical exam9ation ( ! cell-outl9es ( ! sup]ficial lay] ( ! leaf or o!r plant-fragm5t4 ,?is me?od ( exam9ation1 us$ by sev]al /ud5ts ( fossil plants & ) conspicu\s success by ,pr(essor ,na?or/ ( ,/ockholm1 (t5 af=ds valuable aids to id5tification4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,flood-pla9 ( ! delta ( ,rio ,colorado4 ,! hills 9 ! backgr\nd are #be miles di/ant4 7,f a photograph by ,pr(4 ,mac,dougal47 ,pieces ( plants emb$d$ 9 s&y s$im5t1 if n pres]v$ by petrifaction1 t is by ! introduction into ! tissues ( "s silice\s or calc>e\s solution1 gradually decay & _! fragm5t>y rema9s may be wa%$ away by p]colat+ wat]1 leav+ a holl[ m\ld 9 ! gradually h>d5+ s$im5t1 :i* is aft]w>ds fill$ ) s& or o!r mat]ial4 ,! plant itself is de/roy$1 b a ca/ is tak5 :i* 9 ! case ( f9e-gra9$ s$im5ts reproduces ! =m & surface-patt]n ( ! orig9al specim54 ,! incru/ation ( plants by ! falsely nam$ petrify+ spr+s ( ,kn>esbor\gh & o!r places illu/rate ano!r me?od ( fossilisation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,fl[] ( ,c9namomum prototypum ,conw4 pres]v$ 9 amb]4 #aj4 7,aft] ,conw5tz47 ,plants :i* owe _! pres]vation to amb] occur bo? z incru/ations & petrifactions4 ,?is fossil res9 occurs 9 ,t]ti>y1 ,cretace\s1 & ,jurassic rocks2 ! amb] f\nd 9 abundance on ! ,baltic coa/ ne> ,danzig & occasionally pick$ up on ! bea* 9 ,norfolk & ,suffolk comes f b$s ( ,t]ti>y age4 ,pieces ( ,p9e-wood h be5 describ$ f ! ,baltic b$s 9 :i* ! tissues are p]fectly pres]v$ z ! result ( ! conv]sion into amb] ( ! res9\s secretion :i* p]meates _! cells3 9 ?is case ! amb] is a petrify+ ag5t4 ,m frequ5tly ! pres]vation is due to incru/ation2 z res9 trickl$ d[n ! /ems ( ! ,t]ti>y p9es f an op5 w\nd1 fl[]s & leaves1 bl[n by ! w9d on to ! /icky surface1 7 ev5tually seal$ up 9 a transluc5t case ( amb]4 ,?\gh ! actual sub/ance may h gone1 ! m\ld :i* rema9s exhibits 9 wond]ful p]fection ea* sep>ate organ ( a fl[] or ! delicate hair-clu/]s on ! surface ( a leaf4 ,! fl[] repres5t$ 9 ,fig4 #h1 a species ( ,c9namon1 is "o ( sev]al specim5s describ$ by ! au?ors ( a monograph ( ,t]ti>y plants 9 ! ,baltic amb]7#da74 ,! fragm5ts ( plants pres]v$ 9 nodules ( calc>e\s rock occasionally met ) 9 "s ( ! ,lanca%ire & ,york%ire coal-seams are p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( ! possibilities ( petrifaction4 ,by cutt+ sections ( ^! nodules & gr9d+ !m to a transp>5t ?9ness1 ! mo/ delicate tissues ( ,c>bonif]\s plants are r5d]$ accessible to inve/igation "u ! high p[] ( a microscope4 ,z our att5tion is absorb$ by ! exam9ation ( ! details ( cell-/ructure x is easy to =get t ! section has n be5 cut f a liv+ plant1 b f ! twig ( a tree :i* grew 9 ! =e/s ( ! ,coal age4 ,! pres]vation is su* z to enable u n only to describe ! anatomy ( ^! ext9ct types ( vegetation1 b1 by ! application ( ! k ( ! relation betwe5 ! /ructure ( ! plant-ma*9e & its functions ga9$ by a /udy ( liv+ species1 x is possible 9 "s degree to picture ! plants ( ! ,coal p]iod z liv+ organisms & to see 9 ! /ructural framework a reflection ( ext]nal environm5t4 ,! recognition 9 ! g5]al ar*itectural plan ( ! ,palaeozoic plants1 z 9 _m ( ! f9] anatomical features1 ( ! close/ resemblance to plants ( ! mod]n _w produces an almo/ ov]:elm+ s5se ( cont9uity betwe5 ! pa/ & ! pres5t4 ,! plants ( ! ,palaeozoic p]iod1 ?\gh (t5 diff]+ consid]ably f ^? ( ! same class 9 ! floras ( to-day1 exhibit a rem>kably high type ( organisation4 ,"s ( ! mo/ abundant trees 9 ! =e/ ( ! ,coal age are decid$ly sup]ior 9 ! complexity ( _! /ructure1 z also 9 size1 to mod]n survivals ( ! same /ock4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ,monocotyl$ons & ,dicotyl$ons :i* n[ occupy ! highe/ place 9 ! hi]>*y ( plants h left no sign ( _! exi/5ce 9 any ( ! ,palaeozoic /rata4 ,! great] size ( "s ( ! ,palaeozoic plants1 & 9 "s respects ! m advanc$ /age ( evolution :i* !y repres5t z comp>$ ) _! ne>e/ relatives ( ! pres5t era1 mu/ be consid]$ 9 relation to _! m important & relatively high] position 9 ! plant-_w ?an t :i* is n[ held by _! dim9utive desc5dants4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 impossible to get away f ! conclusion t ! olde/ ,palaeozoic flora ( :i* we h an intimate k mu/ be ! product ( developm5t ( an age :i* is repres5t$ by a *apt] 9 ! hi/ory ( ! plant k+dom at lea/ z f> remov$ f ! beg9n+ z x is sep>at$ f ! *apt] n[ be+ writt54 ,examples might be quot$ 9 illu/ration ( ! risks att5d+ ! det]m9ation ( fossils by means ( ext]nal features alone1 b x may suffice to m5tion ! case ( a specim5 orig9ally describ$ z a fragm5t ( a ,cretace\s ,d9osaur "u ! "n ,aa*5osaurus multid5s4 ,by ! exam9ation ( ?9 sections ?is suppos$ bone 0 %[n to be a piece ( ,dicotyl$on\s wood7#db74 ,! me?ods ( pres]vation ( plants z fossils are num]\s & v>i$ & ! few examples select$ give b an incomplete idea ( ! subject3 = a full] treatm5t ( fossilisation ! read] is ref]r$ to m te*nical treatises 7#dh vol4 ,i474 ,! employm5t ( fossil plants z ',!rmomet]s ( ! ages' is a bran* ( ,palaeobotany to :i* a pass+ allusion may be p]mitt$ ?\gh x is only indirectly connect$ ) ! ma9 "q4 ,z "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ examples ( *ang$ climatic conditions reveal$ by a /udy ( fossil plants1 ref]5ce may be made to ! weal? ( mat]ial collect$ )9 ! ,arctic circle4 ,! problems sugge/$ by ! discov]y ( plants 9 rocks ( v>i\s ages 9 ,nor? ,sib]ia1 ,spitzb]g51 ,franz ,josef ,l&1 ,be> ,isl&1 ,gre5l&1 & 9 _m o!r localities 9 ! f> nor? are too difficult & f>-rea*+ to be discuss$ 9 ^! pages4 ,9 ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y /rata ( ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l& & ,disco ,isl& f #fi to #gb nor? latitude1 to ref] only to "o case1 a great numb] ( plants h be5 obta9$ by sev]al ( ! e>li] ,arctic explor]s & m rec5tly by memb]s ( "o ( ! ,pe>y ,exp$itions4 ,at ! pres5t day on ! fr+e ( l& on ! we/]n edge ( ,gre5l& :i* is n p]man5tly cov]$ ) ice1 a consid]able numb] ( h]bace\s plants are able to exi/ & to produce se$ dur+ _! conc5trat$ p]iod ( developm5t2 :ile trees are repres5t$ only by a few l[-gr[+ %rubs su* z ! dw>f ,junip]4 ,9 places accessible to inve/igation beyond ! ice-cov]$ hills ( nor!rn ,gre5l& ! rocks h be5 %[n to consi/ ( ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y s$im5ts conta9+ fossil plants associat$ ) seams ( coal4 ,f ^! b$s num]\s ,dicotyl$ons h be5 obta9$1 "s ( !m almo/ id5tical ) liv+ species *>act]i/ic ( sub-tropical or tropical c\ntries4 ,9 ! l[e/ ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies no ,dicotyl$ons h be5 f\nd1 b fl[]+ plants are abundant 9 ! high] ,cretace\s rocks4 ,all[+ = ! fact t closely alli$ species are (t5 able to live "u v diff]5t climatic conditions1 !re c be no d\bt t ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y floras ( ,gre5l& indicate an av]age temp]ature consid]ably high] ?an t :i* n[ prevails 9 ! w>me/ p>ts ( ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,9 ! f> s\? a fairly ri* ,jurassic flora has rec5tly be5 discov]$ by ! memb]s ( a ,sw$i% ,ant>ctic exp$ition 9 ,graham's ,l& 9 latitude #fcae ,s4 & longitude #eg ,w41 :i* 9 its g5]al facies be>s a close resemblance to ! ,jurassic flora ( ,york%ire4 ,al?\gh ! great majority ( ! records ( anci5t plants are difficult to int]pret by reason ( imp]fect pres]vation & because ( ! frequ5t sep>ation ( leaves1 /ems1 & reproductive organs1 ! /ud5t :o tries to piece toge!r ! disjecta membra ( ! floras ( ! pa/ %>es ! op9ion express$ by ! late ,m>quis ( ,saporta1--',si l'on s'atta*e les d*iffr]1 on oublie bi5 vite la s+ul>it des c>actres1 et le mauvais tat des pages4 ,la p5se se lve1 les ides se dvelopp5t1 le manuscrit se dr\le2 c'e/ la tombe qui p>le et livre son secret4' ,,*apt] ,v ,,f]ns2 ,,_! ,,di/ribution ,,& ,,antiquity ',x has be5 %[n t c]ta9 =ms p]si/ ) v little *ange1 f ! olde/ to ! newe/ fossilif]\s =mations2 & ?us %[ t progressive developm5t is a cont+5t1 & n a necess>y1 result ( ! nature ( liv+ matt]4' ,huxley4 ,! ,f]ns z a :ole repres5t a section ( ! vegetable k+dom :i* traces its ance/ry z f> into ! pa/ z any gr\p ( plants4 ,impressions ( leaves on ! %ales ( ! ,coal-measures & on rocks ( ! e>li] ,devonian p]iod are h>dly di/+ui%able 9 =m & 9 ! v5ation & %ape ( ! leaflets f ! f9ely divid$ fronds ( mod]n f]ns4 ,until a few ye>s ago ^! ,palaeozoic fossils 7 g5]ally reg>d$ z true f]ns1 & x 0 believ$ t f]ns play$ a conspicu\s "p 9 ! vegetation ( ! e>lie/ p]iods1 ( :i* we h any botanical k4 ,conclusions bas$ on ext]nal =m mu/ frequ5tly be revis$ 9 ! light ( m tru/wor?y evid5ce4 ,x 0 %[n 9 ! lat] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury by ! late ,pr(essor ,williamson ( ,man*e/]1 ^: rese>*es into ! plants ( ! ,coal age %$ a flood ( light on ! ance/ry & int]-relation%ip ( _m exi/+ plants1 t "s ( ! f]n-l leaves :i* h long be5 famili> to ^? :o se>* among ! %ales ( ! refuse heaps ( colli]ies1 7 borne on /ems diff]+ 9 anatomical features f ^? ( any kn[n f]n4 ,! inve/igation ( ! /ructure ( ! leaves & _! support+ /ems l$ to ! recognition ( c]ta9 ext9ct g5]a ( ,palaeozoic plants ( exceptional int]e/1 to :i* ! t]m g5]alis$ type is aptly appli$4 ,associat$ ) anatomical & o!r *>act]s su* z we n[ reg>d z ! attributes ( f]ns1 ^! plants exhibit o!r features n met ) 9 mod]n f]ns b *>act]i/ic ( a gr\p ( se$-be>+ plants kn[n z ! ,cycads4 ,rec5t rese>* has reveal$ ! exi/5ce ( sev]al su* g5]alis$ types :i*1 by _! comb9ation ( *>act]s n[ met ) 9 di/9ct sub-divisions ( ! plant-k+dom1 cle>ly indicate ! d]ivation ( ,f]ns1 & ,cycads z we "k !m to-day1 f a common /ock4 ,x 0 9 ! fir/ in/ance by means ( anatomical evid5ce--obta9$ by ! microscopical exam9ation ( sections ( petrifi$ fragm5ts ( /ems & leaves--t ! g5]alis$ nature ( ^! ,palaeozoic plants 0 recognis$4 ,no?+ 0 kn[n z to ! reproductive organs4 ,f]ns z n[ repres5t$ 9 ! floras ( ! _w are ess5tially se$-less plants4 ,z ! au?or ( ,hudibras wrote3 ',:o w\ld believe :at /range bugbe>s ,mank9d creates itself1 ( fe>s8 ,t spr+ l f]n1 t insect we$1 ,equivocally1 )\t se$4' ,! reproductive organs or spores borne on ! fronds ( a f]n produce1 on g]m9ation1 a ?9 gre5 /ructure1 kn[n z ! pro?allus1 less ?an an in* 9 l5g?3 ?is be>s ! sexual organs1 & z ! result ( ! union ( ! male & female cells1 ! embryo f]n-plant beg9s its exi/5ce z a p>asite on ! inconspicu\s pro?allus1 until aft] unfold+ its fir/ gre5 leaf & ?ru/+ a sl5d] root into ! gr\nd1 x />ts its c>e] z an indep5d5t organism#b4 ,9 ?is life-cycle ! se$ plays no "p4 #b ,! life-hi/ory ( a ,f]n is cle>ly describ$ by ,pr(4 ,b[] 9 a rec5t volume 9 ?is s]ies4 ,x is notewor?y t ! abs5ce ( any indication ( spore-capsules & spores1 9 ! case ( "s ( ! suppos$ f]n leaves f ! ,coal-measures1 caus$ "s suspicion 9 ! m9d ( an ,au/rian ,palaeobotani/ z to ! "r ( su* specim5s to be class$ among ! f]ns4 ,?is op9ion1 bas$ 9 ! fir/ place on negative evid5ce & b little reg>d$ by o!r au?ors1 has 9 rec5t ye>s be5 prov$ correct4 ,9 #aijd a pap] 0 read be=e ! ,royal ,society by ,pr(essor ,oliv] & ,dr ,scott7#dc7 9 :i* evid5ce 0 br\ght =w>d po9t+ to ! conclusion t "o ( ^! g5]alis$ plants bore true se$s4 ,subsequ5tly ,dr ,kid/on publi%$ an acc\nt ( "s specim5s ( ano!r ( ^! ,palaeozoic plants 9 :i* 0 actually %[n an organic connexion betwe5 und\bt$ se$s & pieces ( a f]n-l frond7#dd74 ,)\t ent]+ into fur!r details1 ^! & simil> discov]ies may be summ>is$ z foll[s3--,_m ( ! suppos$ ,f]n-fronds ( ,palaeozoic age1 p>ticul>ly ^? *>act]i/ic ( ! ,coal-measures1 are ! leaves ( plants :i* 9 _! anatomical *>act]s comb9$ features n[ %>$ by true ,f]ns & by ! ,cycads4 ,! reproductive organs ( ^! ,palaeozoic g5]a diff]$ widely f ^? ( exi/+ f]ns2 ! male organs1 :ile n unlike ! spore-capsules & spores ( c]ta9 f]ns1 recall ! male organs ( liv+ ,conif]s & ,cycads1 & ! female organs 7 repres5t$ by se$s ( a highly complex =m4 ,^! se$-be>+ plants h be5 call$ ,pt]idosp]ms1 a "n :i* expresses ! comb9ation ( f]n-l features ) "o ( ! di/+ui%+ attributes ( ! high] plants1 namely ! possession ( se$s4 ,! ance/ors ( ,pt]idosp]ms are z yet unkn[n2 x is1 h[ev]1 reasonable to assume t !re exi/$ 9 "s pre-,c>bonif]\s epo* a gr\p ( simple plants f :i* bo? ,f]ns & ,pt]idosp]ms 7 d]iv$4 ,9 ! =e/s ( ! ,coal age true ,f]ns probably occupi$ a subord9ate position 9 relation to ! ,pt]idosp]ms4 ,! "q ( ! relation%ip betwe5 diff]5t families ( rec5t f]ns & ! old] kn[n fossil memb]s ( ! gr\p is beyond ! scope ( ?is book4 ,evid5ce has be5 discov]$ 9 rec5t ye>s :i* w>rants ! /atem5t t1 al?\gh none ( ^? ,c>bonif]\s f]ns 7 g5]ically id5tical ) exi/+ =ms1 !y v cle>ly =e%ad[$ "s ( ^? /ructural features :i* *>act]ise m ?an "o family ( pres5t-day ,f]ns4 ,! records ( ! old] ,mesozoic =mations af=d abundant evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 types ( ,f]ns %[+ a v close resemblance to rec5t species4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,osmunda regalis ,l9n4 ,f]tile frond1 7#b_/e nat4 size47 ,an enquiry into ! geographical di/ribution ( liv+ ,f]ns reveals facts ( special int]e/ 9 connexion ) ! relative antiquity ( diff]5t g5]a & families4 ,! wide di/ribution ( ! ,brack5 f]n has already be5 ref]r$ to3 x is abundant 9 ,tasmania2 its vig\r 9 ! isl& is well illu/rat$ by ,mr ,ge(frey ,smi?'s /atem5t t con/ant att5tion is necess>y to keep x f invad+ newly op5$ c\ntry7#de74 ,on ,m\nt ,ophir 9 ! ,malay ,p59sula ! cosmopolitan brack5 occurs 9 association ) ! two g5]a ,matonia & ,dipt]is1 f]ns :i* are among ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( l9ks ) a remote pa/ & h a re/rict$ geographical range4 ,) ,osmunda regalis1 ! ,royal ,f]n1 ! ,brack5 is conspicu\s 9 ! m>% vegetation ( ! ,b]mudas2 x fl\ri%es on ! ,atlas ,m\nta9s1 9 ! ,can>y ,isl&s1 9 ,abyss9ia1 on ,mt ,k5ia1 9 ,briti% ,ea/ ,africa1 9 ! ,himalayas1 & is 9 fact g5]ally di/ribut$ 9 ! tropics 9 bo? ! nor? & s\? temp]ate zones4 ,! ,royal ,f]n 7,fig4 #i7 is ano!r ,briti% species ) a wide di/ribution2 x occurs 9 ,nor!rn ,asia & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 x is common 9 ! ,sib]ian =e/s & lives 9 sev]al tropical c\ntries1 ext5d+ to ,s\!rn ,india & ,cape ,colony1 & 9 ,s\? ,am]ica x is repres5t$ by a closely alli$ species4 ,?\gh at ! pres5t day ,osmunda regalis is "o ( ! r>e ,engli% ,f]ns1 its occurr5ce 9 ! subm]g$ =e/-b$s r\nd our coa/s & 9 pre-,glacial b$s po9ts to its =m] abundance 9 ! ,briti% area g5]ally4 ,! ,royal ,f]n is a memb] ( a family n[ repres5t$ by two g5]a1 ,osmunda & ,todea4 ,) ! exception ( ,todea b>b>a1 ) its l>ge spread+ fronds & a %ort root-cov]$ /em1 :i* occurs 9 ,au/ralia & ,cape ,colony1 all ! species ( ?is g5us are filmy f]ns ) semitransp>5t fronds adapt$ to a moi/ure-lad5 atmosph]e4 ,! maximum developm5t ( ! g5us is 9 ,new ,zeal&4 ,todea b>b>a af=ds an in/ance ( discont9u\s di/ribution2 x 0 no d\bt once widely spread 9 circumpol> regions & n[ survives only 9 ,s\? ,africa & 9 ,au/ralia4 ,!re are satisfactory reasons = reg>d+ ! ,brack5 ,f]n1 ) its _w-wide range 9 pres5t-day floras1 z a comp>atively mod]n species n[ 9 full vig\r4 ,its anatomical & o!r features are consi/5t ) ! view t x is a late product ( evolution1 & z yet no indication has be5 giv5 by ! records ( ! rocks ( an anci5t l9eage4 ,! ,osmunda family1 on ! o!r h&1 is und\bt$ly an extremely old bran* ( ! f]n gr\p4 ,a comp>ison ( ! ,royal ,f]n ) ! ,brack5 %[s t _! /ems are con/ruct$ on v diff]5t plans1 & we h good reasons = speak+ ( ! /ructural peculi>ities ( ! =m] z ^? ( a m primitive type4 ,moreov]1 ! discont9u\s geographical range ( "s memb]s ( ! ,osmunda family is 9 itself an indication ( antiquity4 ,!re is ano!r po9t :i* may h a be>+ 9 ?is "q ( antiquity1 namely ! fact t ! spores ( ,osmunda are gre5 & d n possess ! p[]s ( indurance inh]5t 9 ! spores ( ! majority ( f]ns :i* are n gre54 ,x has rec5tly be5 cont5d$ by ,pr(essor ,campbell ( ,/an=d ,univ]sity t ! delicate gre5 spores ( ! ,liv]worts1 plants closely alli$ to ! ,mosses1 con/itute an argum5t 9 fav\r ( ! antiquity ( ^! plants7#df74 ,c]ta9 ,liv]worts are cosmopolitan 9 _! range1 e4g4 ! g5]a ,riccia & ,m>*antia4 ,if c]ta9 g5]a are widely di/ribut$1 not)/&+ ! fact t _! reproductive cells1 by :i* disp]sal is effect$1 are ill-adapt$ to )/& unfav\rable conditions or to endure prolong$ desiccation1 x w\ld seem reasonable to conclude t _! emigration has be5 accompli%$ sl[ly & ) difficulty4 ,f]ns su* z ,osmunda1 ) gre5 & %ort-liv$ spores1 w\ld ?us be h&icapp$ 9 competition ) o!r g5]a provid$ ) m effici5t means ( disp]sal & bett] equipp$ = ! vicissitudes ( travel4 ,! inf]5ces z to antiquity d$uc$ f a /udy ( ! exi/+ species ( ,osmunda & ,todea receive /rik+ confirmation f ! te/imony ( fossils4 ,"s ( ! olde/ kn[n ,palaeozoic f]ns1 ?\gh diff]+ too widely f ! exi/+ ,osmundas & ,todeas to be includ$ 9 ! same family1 af=d di/9ct glimm]+s ( ,osmundace\s *>act]s1 :i* at a lat] p]iod became individualis$ 9 ! direct ance/ors ( ! mod]n =ms4 ,our k ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! ,osmunda family has rec5tly be5 consid]ably ext5d$ & plac$ on a firm] basis by ! rese>*es ( ,dr ,kid/on & ,pr(essor ,gwynne-,vaughan4 ,^! au?ors h recognis$ 9 "s exceptionally well-pres]v$ f]n-/ems f ,p]mian rocks 9 ,russia1 anatomical features :i* po9t unmi/akably to close relation%ip ) ! rec5t memb]s ( ! family7#dg77dh74 ,pass+ high] up ! geological s]ies1 f]tile f]n fronds ) spore-capsules & spores practically id5tical ) ^? ( ,osmunda h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,jurassic plant-b$s ( ,york%ire & 9 rocks ( approximately ! same age 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w4 ,f ,jurassic /rata 9 ,new ,zeal& a petrifi$ f]n-/em has be5 describ$ 7,osmundites ,dunlopi71 almo/ id5tical 9 /ructure ) ! surviv+ species4 ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y examples ( simil> f]ns might be quot$2 b en\gh has be5 said to e/abli% ! claim ( ! ,royal ,f]n & o!r memb]s ( ! ,osmunda-family to an ance/ry :i* possibly ext5ds ev5 f>!r back ?an t ( any o!r exi/+ family ( ,f]ns4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,glei*5ia dic>pa ,br4 7#a_/b nat4 size47 ,a brief ref]5ce may be made to ano!r f]n n[ repres5t$ by sev]al species widely dissem9at$ 9 tropical & sub-tropical c\ntries4 ,! g5us ,glei*5ia occurs abundantly 9 ! w>m] regions ( bo? ! ,old & ,new ,_w4 ,! fronds may usually be recognis$ by _! habit ( gr[? 7,fig4 #aj72 9 sev]al species ! ma9 axis is repeat$ly =k$ & a small bud betwe5 ! div]g5t bran*es ( ! =ks =ms a *>act]i/ic feature4 ,! leaflets are ei!r long & n>r[ l ! tee? ( a comb or %ort & bluntly r\nd$4 ,moreov] ! anatomy ( ! creep+ /em af=ds a ready means ( id5tification4 ,we h satisfactory evid5ce ( ! occurr5ce ( ,glei*5ia 9 ,european floras dur+ bo? ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s p]iods4 ,num]\s fragm5ts ( plants 7 obta9$ "s ye>s ago1 n f> f ,brussels1 f ! ,weald5 /rata 9 :i* ! fam\s skeletons ( ,iguanodon 7 discov]$4 ,visitors to ! ,natural ,hi/ory ,museum 9 ,brussels are no d\bt famili> ) ! skeletons ( ?is enorm\s h]bivor\s animal3 9 ! same gall]y are exhibit$ ! rema9s ( ! fossil plants f ! ,iguanodon b$s4 ,"s ( ^! fragm5ts are pieces ( f]n fronds id5tical 9 =m ) ^? ( exi/+ ,glei*5ias4 ,! microscopical exam9ation ( "s exceptionally well pres]v$ fragm5ts ( ,weald5 /ems discov]$ by ,pr(4 ,bomm] ( ,brussels enabl$ him to recognise ! ,glei*5ia type ( /ructure & ?us to confirm ! inconclusive evid5ce furni%$ by fragm5t>y leaves4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ records 9 reg>d to ! =m] occurr5ce ( ,glei*5ia 9 ,nor!rn ,europe we owe to ! late ,oswald ,he] ( ,zuri*1 :o has describ$ _m examples ( ,glei*5ia fronds f rocks ( ,l[] ,cretace\s age 9 ,disco ,isl& on ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l& 9 latitude #gj ,n4 ,! same type ( f]n is record$ also f upp] ,jurassic b$s 9 ! nor?-ea/ ( ,scotl&1 9 ! ,weald5 rocks ( ,sussex1 z well z f o!r ,european localities4 ,x is cle> t ! ,glei*5ia-family1 no long] repres5t$ 9 nor? temp]ate floras1 0 9 ! ,jurassic p]iod1 & especially 9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 widely spread 9 ,europe1 ext5d+ well )9 ! ,arctic circle4 ,x may be t ! orig9al home ( ,glei*5ia 0 9 ! f> ,nor? at a "t :5 climatic conditions 7 v diff]5t f ^? :i* n[ prevail4 ,glei*5ia1 l _m o!r nor!rn plants1 retreat$ to m s\!rn regions :]e1 9 ! w>m] c\ntries ( ! _w1 _m species /ill fl\ri% widely sep>at$ 9 space & "t f ! place ( _! bir?4 ,! f]ns s f> m5tion$ h a m or less ext5d$ di/ribution at ! pres5t day4 ,9 ! case ( ,pt]idium aquil9um1 ! cosmopolitan ,brack5 ,f]n1 wide range w\ld seem to be correlat$ ) comp>atively rec5t orig92 on ! o!r h&1 ! facts ( palaeobotany %[ t ! wide di/ribution ( ,osmunda1 a type ( f]n :i* diff]s 9 _m important respects f memb]s ( ! family 7,polypodiaceae7 to :i* ! ,brack5 belongs1 is n inconsi/5t ) an exceptionally anci5t family-hi/ory4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 g5]a ( f]ns :i* af=d rem>kable examples ( re/rict$ geographical di/ribution associat$ ) great antiquity4 ,! isl& ( ,juan ,f]n&ez1 #dbj miles (f ! coa/ ( ,*ili1 ! home = f\r ye>s ( ,alex&] ,selkirk 7to ^: adv5tures we owe ,defoe's creation ( ,rob9son ,crusoe71 is int]e/+ also f a botanical po9t ( view4 ,! vegetation ( ?is oceanic isl&1 #bj squ>e miles 9 area ) basaltic cliffs ris+ to a height ( #cjjj ft4 above ! sea1 includes m ?an #dj species ( f]ns1 eight ( :i* occur n[h]e else4 ,"o ( ^! endemic f]ns is ,?yrsopt]is elegans1 ! only repres5tative ( ! g5us2 x is readily di/+ui%$ by its l>ge & graceful f]tile fronds1 examples ( :i* may occasionally be se5 on a plant ( ?is species 9 ! ,royal ,g>d5s at ,kew3 ! sporangia are produc$ 9 circul> cups :i* replace ! ord9>y leaflets on ! l[] bran*es ( ! frond & hang f ! %ort axis l m9iature clu/]s ( grapes4 ,x is notewor?y t among ! fragm5t>y rema9s ( ! f]n vegetation ( ! ,jurassic flora 9 ,engl& & 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe specim5s occur ) f]tile segm5ts practically id5tical ) ^? ( ! ,juan ,f]n&ez species4 ,/ud5ts ( fossil plants are occasionally l$ away by ! temptation to id5tify imp]fect specim5s ) r>e exi/+ species to :i* !y exhibit a sup]ficial resemblance1 & ?is is well illu/rat$ by ! frequ5t use ( ! g5]ic "n ,?yrsopt]is = ,jurassic & ,l[] ,cretace\s f]ns :i* are too imp]fect to be det]m9$ ) any degree ( c]ta9ty ,we h1 h[ev]1 satisfactory gr\nds = ! ass]tion t ! ,juan ,f]n&ez f]n af=ds a /rik+ confirmation ( ! tru? ( ,d>w9's dictum t ',r>ity1 z geology tells u1 is ! precursor to ext9ction4' ,9 ?is remote oceanic isl&1 = reasons :i* we _c expla91 !re l+]s an isolat$ type :i* belongs to ano!r age4 ,! foll[+ passage1 :i* =ms a fitt+ introduction to an acc\nt ( two o!r g5]a ( anci5t f]ns1 is tak5 f a description ( an asc5t ( ,m\nt ,ophir 9 ! ,malay ,p59sula by ,dr ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace 9 8 well-kn[n book on ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago3--',aft] pass+ a little tangl$ jungle & swampy ?ickets1 we em]g$ into a f9e l(ty =e/4444 ,we asc5d$ /eadily up a mod]ate slope = sev]al miles1 hav+ a deep rav9e on ! left4 ,we !n _h a level plateau or %\ld] to cross1 aft] :i* ! asc5t 0 /eep] & ! =e/ d5s] till we came out ^u ! ,padang-,batu1 or /one-field4444 ,we f\nd x to be a /eep slope ( ev5 rock1 ext5d+ along ! m\nta9 side f>!r ?an we c\ld see4 ,p>ts ( x 7 q b>e1 b :]e x 0 crack$ & fissur$ !re grew a mo/ luxuriant vegetation1 among :i* ! pit*] plants 7 ! mo/ rem>kable4444 ,a few conif]ae ( ! g5us ,dacrydium "h fir/ appe>$1 & 9 ! ?ickets1 j above ! rocky surface1 we walk$ ?r\gh groves ( ^? spl5did f]ns1 ,dipt]is ,horsfieldii & ,matonia pect9ata1 :i* be> l>ge spread+ fronds on sl5d] /ems1 #f or #h feet high'7#di74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,matonia pect9ata4 ,a gr\p ( plants 9 a wood on ,gunong ,tundok1 ,m\nt ,ophir4 7,photograph by ,mr ,a4 ,g4 ,tansley47 ,! two g5]a ,matonia & ,dipt]is af=d exceptionally /rik+ examples ( survivals f ! pa/4 ,matonia is repres5t$ by two species1 ,matonia pect9ata 7,fig4 #aa71 :i* gr[s abundantly on ! upp] slopes ( ,padang-,batu 9 d5se ?ickets on ! rock faces :]e1 z ,mr ,tansley /ates1 its associates are a species ( ,glei*5ia1 ,dipt]is1 & a little ,pt]idium aquil9um 7,brack5 ,f]n74 ,matonia pect9ata occurs also on ,bornean m\nta9s at an altitude ( ov] #cjjj ft4 & desc5ds to ! coa/ on "s ( ! ,malay isl&s4 ,! o!r species ( ! g5us1 ,matonia s>m5tosa1 has s f> be5 f\nd 9 "o locality only1 ,niak1 ,s>awak1 :]e x 0 discov]$ by ,mr ,*>les ,hose4 ,matonia pect9ata has a creep+ /em cov]$ ) a ?ick felt ( br[n hairs be>+ tall fan-%ap$ fronds divid$ into num]\s comb-l bran*es ?ickly set ) n>r[ l9e> leaflets on :i* circul> clu/]s ( spore-capsules are sp>sely scatt]$4 ,9 "s respects ,matonia is unlike o!r f]ns2 ! fronds con/itute a /rik+ feature1 & ! anatomy ( ! /em is /ill m di/9ctive4 ,9 ! =m1 developm5t1 & arrangem5t ( ! sporangia 7spore-capsules7--organs :i* f ! con/ancy ( _! *>act]s h long be5 recognis$ z ! mo/ useful basis = classification--,matonia exhibits di/9ctive features4 ,9 ord] to emphasise ! isolat$ position ( ! g5us x has rec5tly be5 plac$ 9 a sep>ate family1 ! ,maton9eae1 ( :i* x is ! sole liv+ repres5tative4 ,! re/rict$ geographical range ( ,matonia1 consid]$ 9 connexion ) ! cle>ly m>k$ peculi>ities 9 /ructure & =m1 leads u to expect o!r evid5ce 9 support ( ! natural inf]5ce t ! g5us is a survivor ( a once m vigor\s & widely spread family4 ,if ,matonia 7 a rec5tly evolv$ type :i* has n spread f> f its orig9al home1 we %\ld expect x to con=m m closely ?an x does to o!r f]ns 9 ! ,malay region4 ,ev5 assum+ = ! sake ( argum5t t v>iation may occur p] saltum1 & new =ms may be produc$ diff]+ 9 m ?an ! f9] %ades ( small v>iation f _! p>5ts1 ! peculi> features ( ,matonia are too pron\nc$ & its individual *>act]i/ics too obvi\s to w>rant ! assumption ( rec5t production4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 f ! te/imony ( ! rocks t we obta9 confirmation ( ! op9ion t ^! ,malayan species are plants on ! v]ge ( ext9ction4 ,9 %ales ( ,jurassic age expos$ on ! ,york%ire coa/ at ,gri/horpe ,bay & 9 iron-/a9$ rocks ( ! same age betwe5 ,:itby & ,sc>bor\gh1 well pres]v$ leaves h be5 f\nd agree+ 9 ! %ape ( ! frond1 z also 9 ! =m ( ! leaflets & ( ! gr\ps ( sporangia :i* !y b>e1 ) ^? ( ,matonia pect9ata4 ,! exposure by a /roke ( ! hamm]1 on ! fractur$ surface ( a rock pick$ up on ! bea* at ,hayburn ,wyke 7a few miles s\? ( ,:itby71 ( a piece ( f]n frond :i* is unmi/akably closely alli$ to ! species describ$ by ,wallace on ,m\nt ,ophir1 e/abli%es a l9k betwe5 ! ,jurassic & ! pres5t era & pres5ts a fasc9at+ problem 9 geographical di/ribution4 ,^! fossil ,matonias are kn[n to /ud5ts ( anci5t plants z species ( ! g5us ,matonidium1 a "n adopt$ by a ,g]man botani/ = specim5s app>5tly id5tical ) ^? f ! ,york%ire coa/ discov]$ 9 slightly y\ng] rocks 7,weald57 9 ,nor? ,g]many4 ,! same type has be5 f\nd also 9 s$im5ts ( ,weald5 age on ! ,sussex coa/4 ,o!r leaf-impressions agree+ closely ) ^? ( ,matonidium h be5 obta9$ f ! ,york%ire ,jurassic rocks & ^! are assign$ to ano!r g5us ,laccopt]is1 an ext9ct memb] ( ! family ,maton9eae4 ,x is n m]ely 9 ! habit ( ! fronds & 9 ! %ape & v5ation ( ! leaflets t ^! fossil f]ns resemble ! exi/+ species1 b ! m important features exhibit$ by ! spore-capsules supply additional evid5ce4 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t ! /ems ( ,matonia are *>act]is$ by a type ( /ructure unkn[n 9 an id5tical =m 9 any o!r rec5t f]n4 ,a few ye>s ago ,pr(4 ,bomm] discov]$ fragm5ts ( leaves & /ems 9 ,weald5 b$s a few miles f ,brussels suffici5tly well pres]v$ to reveal ! details ( int]nal organisation4 ,"s ( ^! fossils 7 f\nd to possess /ructural features id5tical ) ^? ( ! ,malayan species ( ,matonia4 ,a full acc\nt ( ! fossil repres5tatives ( ! ,matonia family w\ld be out ( place 9 a g5]al essay on ,l9ks ) ! ,pa/1 b brief ref]5ce may be made to "s ( ! data :i* ?r[ light on ! geological hi/ory ( ! family4 ,9 /rata class$ by geologi/s z ,rhaetic1 a phase ( e>?-hi/ory betwe5 ! ,triassic & ,jurassic eras 7see p4 #db71 species ( ,laccopt]is & alli$ =ms h be5 describ$ f sev]al o!r c\ntries2 f ,jurassic & ,weald5 /rata examples ( bo? ,laccopt]is & ,matonia h be5 f\nd 9 ,g]many1 ,portugal1 ,belgium1 ,au/ria1 & else:]e4 ,f rocks ( ,cretace\s age1 high] 9 ! s]ies ?an ! ,weald5 /rata1 well pres]v$ impressions ( a ,matonidium h be5 discov]$ 9 ,moravia4 ,! ,maton9eae 7 widely di/ribut$ 9 ,europe dur+ ! ,rhaetic & ,jurassic p]iods1 b1 s f> z we "k1 ! family did n survive 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e beyond ! limits ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,x is notewor?y t1 9 spite ( ! pres]vation ( ! rema9s ( ,jurassic & ,cretace\s floras 9 _m extra-,european regions1 notably 9 ,india1 ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 ,*9a1 & ,tonk91 no specim5s h be5 f\nd :i* c ) confid5ce be assign$ to ! ,maton9eae4 ,a s+le fossil has1 h[ev]1 be5 describ$ f ,que5sl& :i* may be a piece ( a ,laccopt]is frond4 ,!re is "s evid5ce t f]ns v simil> to ,matonia exi/$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica dur+ ! ,mesozoic p]iod4 ,x w\ld be 9 ! highe/ degree ra% to assume t ! ,maton9eae play$ no "p 9 ! ,jurassic vegetation ( ,india1 ,s\? ,africa1 & o!r s\!rn l&s1 b !re c be little d\bt t ! family 0 especially *>act]i/ic ( ,european floras dur+ a portion ( ! ,mesozoic era4 ,x w\ld seem t subsequ5t to ! ,weald5 p]iod ! ance/ors ( ,matonia dw9dl$ 9 numb]s & _! geographical range became mu* m re/rict$4 ,! records ( ,t]ti>y rocks h hi!rto add$ no?+ to our k ( ! di/ribution ( ! family subsequ5t to ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,all we c say is t ! exi/+ species ( ,matonia are ! la/ survivors ( a family :i* 9 ! ,jurassic p]iod ov]spread a wide area 9 ,europe & probably ext5d$ to ! o!r side ( ! ,atlantic4 ,expos$ to unfav\rable climatic conditions & possibly affect$ by ! revolution 9 ! plant _w consequ5t on ! appe>ance ( ! ,fl[]+ ,plants1 ! ,maton9eae gradually retreat$ beyond ! equator until ! two surviv+ species f\nd a la/ retreat 9 ! ,malayan region4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,dipt]is conjugata ,re94 &1 9 ! middle ( ! upp] "p ( ! photograph1 a frond ( ,matonia pect9ata ,r4 ,br[n4 ,m\nt ,ophir4 7,photograph by ,mr ,a4 ,g4 ,tansley47 ,! f]n spok5 ( by ,dr ,wallace z ,dipt]is ,horsfieldii 7p]haps bett] kn[n z ,dipt]is conjugata 7,fig4 #ab771 :i* gr[s ) ,matonia pect9ata on ,m\nt ,ophir & 9 ! ,malay region g5]ally1 is "o ( sev5 species ( a g5us *>act]is$ by a some:at wid] geographical range ?an ,matonia4 ,dipt]is conjugata ext5ds to ! ,philipp9es1 ,samoa1 ,fiji1 ,new ,cal$onia1 ,new ,gu9ea & ,c5tral ,*9a2 its fronds1 l ^? ( ,matonia1 are borne on long sl5d] /alks atta*$ to a creep+ /em2 !y h a broad lam9a divid$ by a deep m$ian s9us into two symmetrical halves & ea* half is cut up into segm5ts ) a saw-l edge4 ,sev]al /\t ribs spread ?r\gh ! lam9a f ! apex ( ! long /alk l ! op5 f+]s ( a h&2 f ^! ribs small] ve9s are giv5 (f at a wide angle1 & ^! 9 turn give rise to a reticulum ( f9] ve9s =m+ a skeletal sy/em l t 9 ! leaves ( an oak & _m o!r fl[]+ plants4 ,num]\s gr\ps ( spore-capsules are borne on ! l[] surface ( ! broad lob$ frond4 ,! leaves ( o!r species ( ,dipt]is h ! same type ( /ructure1 b 9 "s ! segm5tation ( ! lam9a is c>ri$ fur!r & ! leaf consi/s ( num]\s long & n>r[ segm5ts ) "o or two ma9 ribs4 ,dipt]is is repres5t$ 9 ! flora ( ,assam1 & x is int]e/+ to f9d t a species rec5tly discov]$ 9 ,borneo is m closely connect$ ) ! ,assam type ?an ) ^? ( ! ,malay region4 ,until a few ye>s ago ! g5us ,dipt]is 0 includ$ 9 ! l>ge family ,polypodiaceae ( :i* ne>ly all our ,briti% f]ns are memb]s1 b ! discov]y ( c]ta9 di/+ui%+ features 9 ! /ructure ( ! sporangia %[$ t ^! ,ea/]n & ,s\!rn species =m a fairly well-def9$ gr\p wor?y ( family rank4 ,9 ! ,rhaetic plant-b$s ( ,nor!rn & ,c5tral ,europe1 ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,tonk91 & else:]e1 num]\s fossil leaves h be5 discov]$ :i* 9 %ape1 v5ation1 & 9 ! mann] ( occurr5ce ( ! sporangia be> a close resemblance to species ( ,dipt]is4 ,f]ns ( ?is type 7 abundant 9 ! ,jurassic floras ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 & x is int]e/+ to f9d impressions ( ,dipt]is-l leaves bo? 9 ! ,jurassic rocks ( ! ,york%ire coa/ z well z 9 slightly new] b$s ( ! same geological p]iod on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,su!rl&4 ,x is impossible to say ) confid5ce h[ ne>ly ^! ,rhaetic & ,jurassic f]ns 7 relat$ to ! exi/+ species1 z our k ( !m is less complete ?an 9 ! case ( ! fossil repres5tatives ( ! ,maton9eae1 b !re c be no reasonable d\bt t 9 ,dipt]is z 9 ,matonia we h a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! pres5t & a remote pa/4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,r$wood ,,& ,,mammo? ,,trees ,,( ,,cali=nia ',y\r s5se is seal$1 or y %\ld he> !m tell ,! tale ( _! dim life1 ) all ,its compo/ ( exp]i5ce4444' ,w4 ,e4 ,h5ley4 ,s9ce _! introduction into ,engl& ab\t ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 ! two ,cali=nian species ,sequoia semp]vir5s 7! ,r$wood7 & ,sequoia gigantea 7! ,mammo? tree7 h become famili> z cultivat$ trees4 ,! "n ,sequoia1 said to be tak5 f ,sequoiah1 ! inv5tor ( ! ,*]okee alphabet1 0 in/itut$ 9 #ahdg1 :ile ! "n ,well+tonia1 (t5 us$ 9 horticulture ?\gh disc>d$ by botani/s 9 fav\r ( ! old] designation ,sequoia1 0 propos$ 9 #ahec4 ,bo? species are n[ conf9$ to a comp>atively small area 9 ,cali=nia3 _! re/rict$ geographical range1 consid]$ z an isolat$ fact1 might be reg>d$ z a sign ( rec5t orig94 ,! records ( ! rocks1 h[ev]1 af=d ample pro( t r>ity 9 ?is z 9 _m o!r in/ances is ! precursor ( ext9ction4 ,! fam\s groves ( ,m>iposa & ,calav]as repres5t ! la/ re/+-place ( giant survivors ( a race :i* =m]ly held its own 9 ,europe & 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! ,r$wood1 ,sequoia semp]vir5s1 occupies a n>r[ belt ( c\ntry1 r>ely m ?an #bj or #cj miles f ! coa/1 ?ree hundr$ miles long f ,mont]ey 9 ! s\? to ! fronti]s ( ,oregon2 x has a /rong] hold on exi/5ce ?an ,sequoia gigantea4 ,9 ,nor!rn ,cali=nia x /ill =ms pure =e/s on ! sides ( rav9es & on ! banks ( /reams4 ,! tap]+ trunk1 ris+ f a broad base to ov] #cjj ft41 gives (f %ort horizontal bran*es ?ickly set ) n>r[ spirally dispos$ leaves #a_/d-a_/b in* 9 l5g? arrang$ 9 two ranks l ! simil> leaves ( ! ,yew4 ,! l[] edge ( ea* leaf is decurr5t1 t is x runs a %ort di/ance d[n ! axis ( ! bran* in/ead ( t]m9at+ at ! po9t ( atta*m5t4 ,x is by pay+ att5tion to su* details z ?is z well z to m important features1 t we are able to connect fragm5t>y fossil twigs ) ^? ( exi/+ species4 ,! female 'fl[]s' h ! =m ( oblong cones f #c_/d to #a in* long3 ea* consi/s ( a c5tral axis be>+ cr[d$ w$ge-%ap$1 woody app5dages or cone-scales1 :i* gradually increase 9 bread? t[>ds ! expos$ di/al end *>act]is$ by its f\r slop+ sides & by a m$ian transv]se groove4 ,sev]al small se$s are borne on ! upp] surface ( ! cone-scales4 ,! small] & %ort-liv$ male fl[]s ne$ n be describ$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac1 ,sequoia gigantea4 ,k+'s ,co41 ,cali=nia4 7,f ,pr(4 ,d4 ,h4 ,campbell7 ,! o!r & bett] kn[n species ,sequoia gigantea 7,fig4 #ac7 has an ev5 m re/rict$ range & is conf9$ to groves on ! we/]n slopes ( ! ,si]ra ,nevada betwe5 #cjjj to #ijjj ft4 above sea-level4 ,?is tree is at once di/+ui%$ f ! ,r$wood by its ovate1 %>ply po9t$ & /iff] leaves :i* reta9 _! spiral disposition & closely surr\nd ! axis ( ! twigs l obliquely-set ne$les4 ,! cones are ( ! same type z ^? ( ,sequoia semp]vir5s1 b are broad] & may atta9 a l5g? ( #c-a_/b in*es 7#ie cm47 7,fig4 #ad74 ,ref]5ce has already be5 made to ,sequoia z a /rik+ illu/ration ( longevity4 ,x is also select$ z an equally impressive example ( a type v]g+ on ext9ction1 :i* play$ a prom95t "p 9 ! vegetation ( bo? we/ & ea/ dur+ ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y p]iods4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,sequoia gigantea ,torr4 7#g_/h nat4 size47 ,scraps ( bran*es ) leaves h>dly di/+ui%able f ^? ( ! exi/+ ,cali=nian trees are frequ5tly met ) 9 ,t]ti>y & ,mesozoic s$im5ts1 & ) !m occasionally occur cones too imp]fectly pres]v$ to af=d satisfactory evid5ce ( m ?an sup]ficial agreem5t ) ^? ( ! rec5t species4 ,! task ( deciph]+ ! pa/ hi/ory ( plants1 p>ticul>ly ( ! ,conif]s1 is accompani$ by _m difficulties & insidi\s temptations4 ,x is cle> f a critical exam9ation ( _m ( ! record$ in/ances ( fossil ,sequoias t ! g5]ic "n has be5 frequ5tly us$ by writ]s )\t adequate gr\nds4 ,! fragm5t>y specim5s available to ! botanical hi/orian _c z a rule be subject$ to microscopical inve/igation1 & ev5 a p>tial acqua9tance ) ! simil>ity ( ! foliage ( diff]5t types ( liv+ ,conif]s is suffici5t to conv9ce ! /ud5t ( ! ne$ ( self-control 9 ! id5tification ( ! fossils4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 easy to po9t out obvi\s pitfalls1 ?\gh difficult to ma9ta9 a judicial attitude 9 ! excitem5t ( endeav\r+ to int]pret docum5ts :i* are too incomplete to be id5tifi$ ) c]ta9ty4 ,if we put on "o side all records ( suppos$ fossil ,sequoias n bas$ on satisfactory data1 !re rema9s a weal? ( mat]ial te/ify+ to ! antiquity ( ! surviv+ species4 ,x is by no means improbable t ,conif]s closely alli$ to ! ,r$woods & ,mammo? trees ( ,cali=nia 7 repres5t$ 9 ,jurassic floras2 b hi!rto no pro( has be5 obta9$ ( ! occurr5ce ( a ,sequoia among ! ri* mat]ial af=d$ by ! ,jurassic plant-b$s ( ,york%ire & by b$s ( ! same age 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,a small cone has rec5tly be5 describ$ f /rata ne> ,b\logne belong+ to ! late/ phase ( ! ,jurassic p]iod1 :i* pres5ts a /rong resemblance 9 %ape & size & 9 ! =m ( ! cone-scales to ^? ( ! rec5t species4 ,?is specim51 ?\gh n conclusive1 is ! mo/ satisfactory indication ( a ,jurassic ,sequoia s f> discov]$4 ,f ,l[] ,jurassic rocks 9 ,madagasc> simil> cones h be5 record$ 9 association ) foliage-%oots l ^? ( ,sequoia gigantea1 b "h too ! evid5ce is n beyond suspicion4 ,9 plant-be>+ /rata ( ,weald5 age1 su* z are expos$ 9 ! cliff ne> ,ha/+s & 9 deposits ( ! same age 9 ,nor? ,g]many1 ,portugal1 & else:]e1 twigs & cones h be5 f\nd :i* may be ^? ( trees ne>ly alli$ to ! g5us ,sequoia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,sequoia ,c\ttsiae ,he]4 ,twigs 7,a7 & cone-scales 7,b7 f ,bovey ,tracey4 7 #c47 7,photographs by ,mr & ,mrs ,clem5t ,reid47 ,x is1 h[ev]1 9 ! s$im5t>y rocks ( ,cretace\s age1 r high] 9 ! s]ies ?an ^? 9 ! ,ha/+s cliffs1 & 9 ! succe$+ ,t]ti>y rocks1 t und\bt$ ,sequoias are met ) 9 abundance4 ,at ,bovey ,tracey 9 ,devon%ire !re is a bas9-%ap$ depression 9 ! granitic rocks ( ,d>tmoor fill$ ) clay1 gravel & s&--! flood-deposits ( a ,t]ti>y lake conta9+ waifs & /rays ( ! vegetation on ! surr\nd+ hills4 ,among ! commone/ plants is "o to :i* ! late ,oswald ,he] gave ! "n ,sequoia ,c\ttsiae1 & 8 ref]5ce ( ! specim5s to ! g5us ,sequoia has be5 confirm$ by ! rec5t rese>*es ( ,air & ,mrs ,clem5t ,reid7#ej74 ,?is ,t]ti>y 7,oligoc5e7 species is repres5t$ by sl5d] twigs almo/ id5tical ) ^? ( ,sequoia gigantea & by well-pres]v$ cone-scales & se$s 7,fig4 #ae74 ,moreov]1 x has be5 possible to exam9e microscopically ! /ructure ( ! c>bonis$ out] sk9 ( ! leaves & to demon/rate its agreem5t ) t ( ! sup]ficial tissue 9 ! leaves ( ! ,mammo? tree4 ,) ! ,bovey ,tracey ,sequoia are associat$ fragm5ts ( ,magnolia1 ,vitis1 & ,taxodium di/i*um1 ! swamp ,cypress ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 toge!r ) o!r types :i* h long ceas$ to exi/ 9 ,we/]n ,europe4 ,o!r ,briti% examples ( ,sequoia h be5 describ$ f ,t]ti>y b$s at ,b\rnem\?1 ! ,isle ( ,wight1 ,%eppey1 & ,antrim1 b ! mat]ial f ^! localities is inf]ior 9 pres]vation & _c be id5tifi$ ) ! same degree ( c]ta9ty z 9 ! case ( ! ,devon%ire specim5s4 ,! occurr5ce ( twigs & cones ( sev]al species ( ,sequoia 9 bo? ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y rocks 9 ,au/ria1 ,g]many1 ,italy1 ,france1 & else:]e1 %[s t ! ance/ors ( ! ,cali=nian trees 7 common 9 ! ,european region4 ,! exploration ( ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y rocks 9 ,arctic ,europe has reveal$ ! =m] exi/5ce 9 ,gre5l&1 ,spitzb]g51 & o!r m or less ice-cov]$ l&s ( plants :i* cle>ly d5ote a mild climate4 ,cones & bran*es ( ,sequoias h be5 f\nd 9 abundance 9 ,l[] ,t]ti>y b$s on ,disco ,isl& (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 & simil> evid5ce ( ! nor!rn ext5sion ( ! g5us has be5 obta9$ f ,spitzb]g54 ,dr ,na?or/ ( ,/ockholm speaks ( twigs ( ,sequoia 9 ! ,t]ti>y clays ( ,ellesm]e ,l& almo/ z p]fect z h]b>ium specim5s4 ,9 ,t]ti>y b$s on ! banks ( ! ,mack5zie ,riv]1 9 ,alaska1 ,saghali5 ,isl& & ,vanc\v] ,isl&1 & 9 ,upp] ,cretace\s rocks 9 ! ,que5 ,*>lotte ,isl&s1 rema9s ( ,sequoia h be5 discov]$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable in/ances ( ! pres]vation ( trees ( a bygone age is suppli$ by ! volcanic deposits ( ,l[] ,t]ti>y age expos$ on ! slopes ( ,ame?y/ m\nta9 9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k di/rict4 ,at diff]5t levels 9 ! volcanic & s$im5t>y mat]ial1 :i* is pil$ up to a height ( ov] #bjjj ft4 above ! valley1 z _m z fifte5 =e/s are repres5t$ by erect & pro/rate limbs ( petrifi$ trees 7,fig4 #f74 ,! microscopical exam9ation ( "s ( ^! trees has %[n t !y be> a /rik+ resemblance to ,sequoia semp]vir5s4 ,9 a photograph ( ^! petrifi$ =e/s by ! ,u4,s4 ,geological ,survey 7#cf1 #b7 "o sees liv+ ,conif]s side by side ) ! li*5-cov]$ & wea!r$ trunks ( ! fossil species 7,sequoia magnifica71 liv+ & ext9ct be+ at a di/ance h>dly di/+ui%able4 7,frontispiece47 ,9 conclud+ ?is brief survey ( ! fossil records ( ,sequoia1 ref]5ce may be made to ! discov]y ( petrifi$ wood 9 ,cretace\s rocks 9 ,s\? ,nevada1 possess+ ! anatomical features ( ,sequoia gigantea1 :i* %[s t close to ! pres5t home ( ! big trees _! ance/ors fl\ri%$ dur+ a p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory too remote to be measur$ by human reckon+4 ,! di/ribution ( ! ,t]ti>y & ,cretace\s ,sequoias w\ld appe> to h be5 ma9ly 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ext5d+ well )9 ! ,arctic circle4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 by no means improbable t ! ance/ors ( ,sequoia fl\ri%$ f> s\? ( ! equator4 ,ref]5ce has be5 made to ,jurassic fossils f ,madagasc> :i* h be5 comp>$ ) ! exi/+ species1 & f ,l[] ,t]ti>y b$s 9 ,new ,zeal& ! late ,b>on ,ett+%aus5 describ$ "s cones & twigs z ,sequoia novae zeel&icae :i* be> a close resemblance to ! exi/+ type4 ,! available evid5ce w\ld seem to po9t to a nor!rn orig9 ( ! g5us1 ?\gh all[ance mu/ be made = errone\s conclusions bas$ on negative evid5ce4 ,fur!r rese>* may well ext5d ! pa/ di/ribution ( ,sequoia 9 s\!rn l&s1 b ! data to h& po9t to ! conclusion t ! ,cali=nian trees repres5t ! survivors ( a type :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y p]iods ov] a wide area 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & 9 :at we n[ call ! ,cont95t ( ,europe4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,arauc>ia ,,family ',& s ! gr&eur ( ! ,=e/-tree ,comes n by ca/+ 9 a =mal m\ld1 ,b f its own div9e vitality4' ,wordswor?4 ,z an additional illu/ration ( exi/+ cone-be>+ trees :i* =m l9ks ) ! pa/ we may briefly consid] ! g5]a ,arauc>ia & ,aga?is1 ! two memb]s ( ! family ,arauc>ieae4 ,x is g5]ally agre$ t ! bran*es ( ! g5ealogical tree ( ?is family ext5d$ f>!r back into ! pa/ ?an 9 ! case ( ! majority ( ,conif]s4 ,by "s au?ors ! surviv+ repres5tatives ( ! ,arauc>ian /ock are consid]$ to h a /rong claim to be reg>d$ z ! mo/ primitive z well z ! olde/ ( cone-be>+ trees1 ?\gh ?is op9ion1 l _m o!rs1 is n held by botani/s z a :ole4 ,?is is n ! place to discuss matt]s ( controv]sy1 & ,i %all conf9e myself to a g5]al consid]ation ( ,arauc>ia & ,aga?is f ! po9t ( view ( _! pres5t di/ribution & ! "p !y play$ 9 ! vegetation ( ! ,mesozoic & ,t]ti>y epo*s4 ,9 #agda a plant f ,amboyna1 "o ( ! ,moluccas1 0 describ$ "u ! "n ,damm>a alba4 ,= ?is tree1 kn[n z ! ,amboyna ,f9e1 ! ,engli% botani/ ,salisbury in/itut$ ! g5]ic "n ,aga?is1 f a ,greek ^w 77 mean+ a ball ( /r+ & probably sugge/$ by ! =m ( ! cones1 :i* is ! designation usually adopt$ 9 botanical lit]ature in/ead ( ! pre-,l9nean t]m ,damm>a4 ,! be/ kn[n species ( ! g5us is ! ,kauri ,p9e1 probably ! f9e/ =e/ tree 9 ,new ,zeal& :]e x /ill fl\ri%es f ! ,nor? ,cape to latitude #ch ,s41 ?\gh ! occurr5ce ( sub-fossil trunks & pieces ( buri$ res9 %[s t ! ,kauri =e/s are gradually dw9dl+4 ,! /ems ( ?is species1 ,aga?is au/ralis1 rise l massive grey columns to a height ( #afj ft41 t]m9at+ 9 a succession ( spread+ bran*es giv5 (f 9 ti]s f ! ma9 trunk4 ,! ?ick n>r[ lanceolate leaves1 ) sev]al p>allel ve9s1 rea* a l5g? ( #b to #c in*es4 ,! female %oots h ! =m ( small & almo/ sph]ical cones consi/+ ( a c5tral axis be>+ ov]lapp+ spiral s]ies ( broadly triangul> scales 7,fig4 #af74 ,ea* scale c>ries a s+le se$ ) a l>ge w+ atta*$ to "o side :i* facilitates disposal by w9d4 ,o!r species ( ,aga?is occur 9 ! ,malay ,ar*ipelago1 ! ,philipp9es1 9 ,que5sl&1 9 ! ,new ,hebrides1 ,new ,cal$onia1 ! ,fiji ,isl&s1 & else:]e4 ,) ! exception ( ! ,au/ralian ,kauri 7,aga?is robu/a71 ) leaves l>g] & broad] ?an ^? ( ! ,new ,zeal& ,kauri1 ! g5us is ess5tially an isl& type4 ,) ! exception ( "s species ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e g5us ,podoc>pus1 !re are no ,conif]s ) foliage l t ( ,aga?is4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ! broad & ?9 s+le-se$$ scales & ! sph]ical cones1 9 "s species six in*es 9 l5g?1 :i* furni% ! mo/ tru/wor?y means ( id5tify+ ! g5us4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,a4 ,aga?is robu/a ,muell4 7mu* r$uc$74 ,b4 ,aga?is ,moorei ,l9d4 7#a_/b nat4 size74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,arauc>ia excelsa4 ,! upp] "p ( a small tree 9 ! ,cambridge ,botanic ,g>d54 7,mu* r$uc$47 ,! alli$ g5us ,arauc>ia1 ) ! exception ( two ,s\? ,am]ican species1 ! famili> ,monkey ,puzzle1 ,arauc>ia imbricata1 & a ,brazilian tree1 ,arauc>ia brasiliana1 is conf9$ )9 ! geographical area occupi$ by ,aga?is4 ,! "n ,arauc>ia 0 fir/ us$ by de ,jussieu 9 #aghi = a plant previ\sly ref]r$ to ! g5us ,p9us & describ$ z "o ( ! mo/ beautiful trees ( ,*ili4 ,?is species1 ,a4 imbricata1 introduc$ into ,engl& 9 #agif1 gr[s on ! s\!rn slopes ( ! ,&es &1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,kauri =e/s ( ,new ,zeal&1 buri$ /ems po9t to a wid] ext5sion ( ! =e/s 9 e>li] days4 ,! %>p & ?ick leaves ( ! ,monkey ,puzzle di/+ui% x f all o!r ,conif]s2 its l>ge almo/ sph]ical se$-be>+ cones1 m ?an half a foot 9 l5g?1 :i* may occasionally be se5 on well-gr[n ,briti% trees1 are unlike ^? ( o!r g5]a4 ,ea* ( ! deep & n>r[ scales be>s a s+le se$ emb$d$ 9 ! sub/ance ( ! scale & t]m9ates di/ally 9 a n>r[ upturn$ process4 ,"s species ( ,arauc>ia1 diff]+ consid]ably 9 ! =m ( ! leaves & 9 ! %ape & /ructure ( ! se$-scales f ! ,*ilian species1 are conv5i5tly plac$ 9 a di/9ct sub-division ( ! g5us ,arauc>ia4 ,( ?is type ! ,norfolk ,isl& ,p9e1 ,arauc>ia excelsa1 is ! be/-kn[n example 7,fig4 #ag74 ,x 0 introduc$ to ,kew by ,sir ,joseph ,banks 9 #agic1 soon aft] its discov]y by ,capta9 ,cook1 :o describes ! /ems ( ! ,norfolk ,isl& trees z resembl+ basaltic columns1 & relates h[ on approa*+ ! isl& ev]yone 0 satisfi$ t ! column> objects 7 trees1 'except our ,philosoph]s1 :o /ill ma9ta9$ !y 7 basaltes4' ,! leaves are %ort1 ab\t half an in* long1 lat]ally compress$ & slightly spread+ & sickle-%ap$--sometimes %ort] & broad] & ov]lapp+--arrang$ 9 cr[d$ spirals4 ,! scales ( ! broadly oval cones are s+le-se$$1 b diff] f ^? ( ,arauc>ia imbricata 9 hav+ ! se$ expos$ on ! surface & 9 ! great] bread? & ?9n] bord]s ( ! scales4 ,9 bo? ,arauc>ia & ,aga?is ! nature ( ! se$-scales con/itutes a di/+ui%+ feature4 ,! leaves ( ,arauc>ia imbricata diff] 9 =m f ^? ( o!r ,conif]s4 ,! foliage %oots ( ,arauc>ia excelsa & o!r species1 e4g4 ! v closely alli$ ,a4 ,cookii ( ! ,new ,hebrides & ,new ,cal$onia1 ?\gh n unlike ! bran*es ( a ,japanese ,conif] 7,cryptom]ia japonica71 (t5 cultivat$ 9 ,engl&1 af=d fairly tru/wor?y *>act]s = id5tification purposes4 ,! m9ute /ructure ( ! wood ( bo? ,arauc>ia & ,aga?is con/itutes an important di/+ui%+ feature & enables u to recognise on microscopical exam9ation ev5 a fragm5t ( wood ( ei!r ( ^! g5]a4 ,! small elongat$ cells or wat]-conduct+ elem5ts ( ! wood ( ! ,arauc>ieae are *>act]is$ by "o or two1 & occasionally z _m z ?ree or f\r1 contigu\s r[s ( pits on _! radial walls1 & ^! appe> 9 surface view z flatt5$ circles or polygonal areas4 ,^! details h be5 m5tion$ 9 ord] to %[ t ,arauc>ia & ,aga?is are suffici5tly di/9ct 9 _m respects f o!r ,conif]s to r5d] _! id5tification 9 a fossil /ate comp>atively easy1 at lea/ mu* easi] ?an ! recognition ( ! majority ( ! memb]s ( ! ,conif]ae4 ,x w\ld be go+ too f> to /ate def9itely t ,arauc>ieae1 z def9$ by ref]5ce to exi/+ species1 exi/$ dur+ ! ,palaeozoic p]iod2 on ! o!r h& x w\ld seem 9 a high degree probable t ! vegetation ( ! ,coal age & ( ! succe$+ ,p]mian p]iod includ$ trees 9 :i* c]ta9 ,arauc>ian *>act]s 7 cle>ly =e%ad[$4 ,! "n ,arauc>ioxylon 0 =m]ly appli$ to petrifi$ wood1 obta9$ f ,palaeozoic z well z f lat] =mations1 :i* agrees anatomically ) t ( ,arauc>ia & ,aga?is4 ,x has be5 %[n 9 rec5t ye>s t mu* ( ! ,palaeozoic wood ( ?is type ( /ructure belongs to ! ext9ct g5us ,cordaites1 a tree :i* play$ a prom95t "p 9 ! e>li] floras4 ,cordaites af=ds a good example ( a g5]alis$ type3 9 its wood-/ructure x resembles v closely ! exi/+ ,arauc>ieae2 its long /rap-l leaves are n unlike ^? ( "s species ( ,aga?is2 its male fl[]s h (t5 be5 comp>$ ) ^? ( ! ,maid5 ,hair tree1 ,g9kgo biloba1 & c]ta9 anatomical features =m connect+ l9ks betwe5 ?is ,palaeozoic g5us & ! ,cycads4 ,x is notewor?y t 9 ano!r ,palaeozoic g5us1 ,wal*ia1 ! leaf-be>+ bran*es are id5tical 9 appe>ance ) ^? ( ! ,norfolk ,isl& ,p9e 7,fig4 #ag7 & "s o!r species ( ,arauc>ia4 ,un=tunately our k ( ! reproductive organs ( ,wal*ia is insuffici5t to w>rant any def9ite /atem5t z to ! degree ( consangu9ity betwe5 ?is ,p]mian & ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s plant & ! ,arauc>ieae2 x is probable t 9 ,wal*ia we h a type n f> remov$ f ! l9e ( evolution :i* l$ to ,arauc>ia4 ,petrifi$ wood1 id5tifi$ z t ( ,wal*ia1 & exhibit+ ! ,arauc>ian type ( /ructure1 has be5 record$ f ,p]mian rocks ( ! ,vosges4 ,o!r in/ances might be quot$ 9 support ( ! view t ! ,palaeozoic floras includ$ a few plants ) :i* ! surviv+ ,arauc>ieae may fairly claim relation%ip4 ,pr(essor ,zeill] ( ,p>is has rec5tly describ$ "s fossil %oots f ,palaeozoic rocks 9 ,india "u ! "n ,arauc>ites ,oldhami on ! gr\nd ( ! simil>ity ( ! leaves to ^? ( ,arauc>ia imbricata4 ,simil>ly1 f ,triassic rocks sev]al fossils h be5 describ$ z closely alli$ to ,arauc>ia1 9 "s cases because ( anatomical resemblances & 9 o!rs on ! less satisfactory evid5ce furni%$ by a simil>ity 9 ! foliage %oots4 ,pr(essor ,jeffrey ( ,h>v>d has rec5tly giv5 an acc\nt ( a new type ( /em 7,woodwor?ia7 f ! petrifi$ ,triassic =e/ ( ,arizona possess+ "s ,arauc>ian *>act]s1 ?\gh diff]+ f exi/+ species ( ,arauc>ia 9 c]ta9 /ructural features1 a comb9ation ( *>act]s reg>d$ by ?is ,au?or z an indication ( relation%ip ) ! family ( ,conif]s1 :i* includes ! ,p9es1 ,firs1 ,l>*es & o!r well-kn[n nor!rn g5]a4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 f ! records ( ,jurassic rocks t we obta9 ! mo/ satisfactory in=mation z to ! great antiquity & ! v wide geographical range ( ! ance/ors ( ! rec5t g5us4 ,! plant-b$s ( ! ,york%ire coa/ af=d cle> evid5ce ( ! occurr5ce ( ,arauc>ian trees 9 ! woodl&s ( ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,petrifi$ wood has be5 f\nd at ,:itby1 associat$ ) jet1 %[+ ! m9ute /ructural *>act]i/ics ( ! surviv+ species ( ,arauc>ieae1 & x is n improbable t "s at lea/ ( ! ,:itby jet has be5 =m$ f ! wood ( ,arauc>ian plants4 ,! c>bonis$ rema9s ( leafy %oots pres]v$ 9 ! ,jurassic %ales ne> ,sc>bor\gh & on o!r p>ts ( ! ,york%ire coa/ include twigs h>dly di/+ui%able f ^? ( ,arauc>ia excelsa1 ?\gh ! resemblance ( ext]nal =m alone1 especially 9 ! case ( foliage %oots1 does n am\nt to pro( ( g5]ic id5tity4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 ! mu* m tru/wor?y evid5ce ( cones & se$-be>+ scales 9 :i* ! *>act]i/ic features ( liv+ species are cle>ly %[n4 ,se$-be>+ scales almo/ id5tical ) ^? ( ,arauc>ia excelsa & o!r rec5t species h long be5 kn[n f ! ,jurassic rocks ( ,york%ire4 ,f o!r p>ts ( ,engl& :]e samples ( ,jurassic floras are pres]v$1 z at ,/onesfield 9 ,ox=d%ire1 9 ,nor?ampton%ire & else:]e1 equally /rik+ examples ( und\bt$ ,arauc>ias h be5 f\nd4 ,fig4 #ah repres5ts "p ( a l>ge cone describ$ 9 #ahff by ,mr ,c>ru!rs f ,jurassic rocks at ,bruton 9 ,som]set%ire3 ?is specim51 n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum1 consi/s ( "o side ( a sph]ical cone ab\t #e in*es long & #e in*es broad2 9 size1 z 9 ! =m ( ! se$-scales1 x %[s a /rik+ lik5ess to ! cones ( ! ,au/ralian species ,arauc>ia ,bidwillii1 ! ,bunya ,bunya ( ,que5sl&4 ,o!r equally conv9c+ examples ( ,jurassic ,arauc>ian cones & se$s may be se5 9 ! museums ( ,york & ,nor?ampton4 ,on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,su!rl& !re is a n>r[ /rip ( ,jurassic b$s =m+ a l[ plat=m betwe5 ! granitic & ,old ,r$ ,s&/one hills & ! sea4 ,f ^! rocks ,hugh ,mill] describ$ sev]al fossil plants 9 8 ,te/imony ( ! ,rocks1 & an exam9ation ( a l>ge collection obta9$ f ?is di/rict by ! late ,dr ,m>cus ,gunn %[s t ,mill] 0 ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( ,arauc>ia z a memb] ( ?is nor!rn flora4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,arauc>ites spha]oc>pus ,c>r4 ,f ,jurassic rocks at ,bruton1 ,som]set%ire4 7,briti% ,museum1 #b_/c nat4 size47 ,!re is abundant evid5ce po9t+ to ! exi/5ce 9 ,brita9 dur+ ! ,jurassic p]iod1 & 9 ! e>ly days ( ! ,cretace\s epo*1 ( ,arauc>ian trees :i* diff]$ b slightly f ! mod]n species conf9$ to ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,9 sev]al localities 9 ,france1 ,g]many1 & o!r p>ts ( ! cont95t1 ,arauc>ian fossils h be5 recognis$ 9 ,jurassic rocks4 ,x is almo/ c]ta9 t "s foliage %oots & imp]fectly pres]v$ cones describ$ by ,dr ,na?or/ f ,upp] ,jurassic rocks 9 ,spitzb]g5 7 borne by a species ( ,arauc>ia4 ,cone-scales v simil> to ^? f ,york%ire h be5 discov]$ 9 ,weald5 b$s 9 ,cape ,colony1 & ,arauc>ian wood ( ,jurassic & ,cretace\s age has be5 f\nd 9 ,madagasc>4 ,f ,jurassic /rata 9 ,india & ,victoria 7,au/ralia71 z well z f ,upp] ,jurassic & ,l[] ,cretace\s rocks 9 ,virg9ia & else:]e 9 ! ea/]n ,unit$ ,/ates1 well pres]v$ ,arauc>ian fossils are record$4 ,9 a collection ( ,jurassic plants1 obta9$ a few ye>s ago by ! memb]s ( a ,sw$i% ,ant>ctic ,exp$ition 9 ,graham's ,l&1 ,dr ,na?or/ has recognis$ "s cone-scales ( ,arauc>ia1 :i* demon/rate a =m] ext5sion ( ! family beyond ! s\!rn limits ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,x is int]e/+ to f9d t :5 we asc5d high] 9 ! geological s]ies & pass beyond ! ,weald5 /rata to ! ,middle & ,upp] sub-divisions ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 evid5ce ( ! wide geographical di/ribution ( ! ,arauc>ieae is /ill abundant4 ,arauc>ian wood has be5 obta9$ 9 rocks class$ z ,upp] ,cretace\s 9 ,egypt1 9 ,ea/ ,africa1 9 ,dakota1 & else:]e4 ,9 ! s$im5t>y rocks ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod und\bt$ examples ( ,arauc>ia are less common1 ?\gh !re c be no d\bt t ! g5us 0 mu* m widely spread !n ?an x is at ! pres5t day4 ,! well-kn[n ,t]ti>y plant-b$s ( ,b\rnem\? h af=d$ specim5s ( foliage %oots :i* h be5 describ$ z a species ( ,arauc>ia1 ?\gh 9 ! abs5ce ( well-pres]v$ cones or petrifi$ wood we mu/ admit t ! data are inconclusive4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 legitimate to reg>d ! /rik+ simil>ity ( ! ,b\rnem\? twigs to ^? ( ,arauc>ia excelsa & ,a4 ,cookii z con/itut+ a fairly /rong case 9 fav\r ( ! p]si/5ce ( ,arauc>ia 9 ,we/]n ,europe up to ! e>li] /age ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,arauc>ian wood ( ,t]ti>y age is record$ f ,india1 :ile bran*es ) broad leaves l ^? ( ,arauc>ia imbricata h be5 f\nd 9 ,seym\r ,isl& & ! ,magellan ,/raits1 & specim5s ( ,t]ti>y wood are describ$ f ,patagonia4 ,at ! o!r end ( ! _w4 ,t]ti>y rocks on ! we/ coa/ ( ,gre5l& h yield$ fragm5ts :i* may be ref]r$ ) "s hesitation to ! g5us ,arauc>ia4 ,a few words mu/ be add$ 9 reg>d to ! rec5t discov]y by ,pr(essor ,jeffrey & ,dr ,hollick ( "s v int]e/+ ,cretace\s specim5s 9 ,new ,j]sey ( well-pres]v$ cone-scales & foliage %oots ( ext9ct plants closely relat$ to ! exi/+ species ( ,aga?is7#ea74 ,! ,am]ican fossils are p>ticul>ly valuable because _! pres]vation admits ( microscopical exam9ation ( ! tissues4 ,9 ,cretace\s rocks ( ,/at5 ,isl& & 9 o!r localities on ! ea/]n bord] ( ! nor!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 kite-%ap$ se$-be>+ scales almo/ id5tical 9 =m ) ^? ( rec5t species ( ,aga?is are fairly common fossils4 ,simil> specim5s h long be5 kn[n f ,t]ti>y rocks 9 we/]n ,gre5l&4 ,9 ! case ( "s ( ! ,am]ican examples ea* scale bore ?ree se$s in/ead ( a s+le se$ 9 liv+ species3 on acc\nt ( ?is diff]5ce ,pr(4 ,jeffrey & ,dr ,hollick h adopt$ a di/9ct g5]ic "n1 ,protodamm>a4 ,! =ego+ sket* is necess>ily f> f complete1 b x may s]ve z an illu/ration ( ! light :i* is ?r[n on ! pa/ hi/ory ( rec5t plants by ! inve/igation ( ! relics ( anci5t floras4 ,! family ,arauc>ieae n[ repres5t$ by a small numb] ( species :i*1 ) ! exception ( ! ,&ian & ,brazilian ,arauc>ias1 are re/rict$ to a small region 9 ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 0 "o ( ! mo/ widely spread sections ( ! se$-be>+ plants dur+ ! ,mesozoic era4 ,ance/ors ( ,arauc>ia mu/ h be5 common trees 9 ! ,european vegetation 9 ,jurassic & ,l[] ,cretace\s p]iods1 & ev5 z late z ! ,t]ti>y p]iod !re is evid5ce t repres5tatives ( ! family /ill l+]$ 9 ! nor?4 ,"o conclusion :i* seems almo/ unavoidable is t ! species ( ,arauc>ia & ,aga?is t survive1 9 "s cases only 9 "o or two small isl&s 9 ! ,s\? ,pacific1 h 9 ! c\rse ( successive ages w&]$ f ! o!r end ( ! _w4 ,_! migrations c be p>tially trac$ by ! fragm5ts emb$d$ 9 ,jurassic & lat] s$im5ts1 b we c only speculate z to ! causes :i* h contribut$ to ! *anges 9 ! =tunes ( ! family2 h[ mu* influ5ce may h be5 ex]t$ by *anges 9 physical conditions 9 ! environm5t1 & to :at ext5t ! production ( m successful types may h be5 ! dom9ant cause ( ! decl9e1 x is impossible to say4 ,"o ?+ at lea/ is c]ta91 t few exi/+ plants are bett] entitl$ to v5]ation z survivals f ! pa/ ?an are ! liv+ species ( ,arauc>ia4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,maid5 ,,hair ,,tree '444! trees ,t :isp] r\nd a temple become soon ,de> z ! temple's self4' ,keats4 ,! ,maid5 ,hair tree ( ,*9a & ,japan1 :i* 0 introduc$ into ,europe e>ly 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 has n[ become fairly well kn[n4 ,?\gh h>dy 9 ,engl&1 x requires w>m] summ]s = full developm5t & regul> fl[]+4 ,to botani/s ?is ,ea/]n tree is ( peculi> int]e/1 p>tly because ( ! isolat$ position x occupies 9 ! plant-k+dom & p>tly by reason ( its great antiquity4 ,!re is probably no o!r exi/+ tree :i* has s /rong a claim to be /yl$ a 'liv+ fossil1' to use a t]m appli$ by ,d>w9 to survivals f ! pa/4 ,9 #agab ! travell] ,kaempf] propos$ = ?is plant ! g5]ic "n ,g9kgo1 & ,l9naeus adopt$ ?is designation1 add+ ! specific "n biloba to d5ote ! bisection ( ! w$ge-%ap$ lam9a ( ! leaf into two div]g5t segm5ts4 ,9 #aggg ! ,engli% botani/ ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smi? express$ 8 disapproval ( :at he call$ ! unc\? "n ,g9kgo by sub/itut+ = ,g9kgo biloba ! title ,salisburia adiantifolia1 b z x is cu/om>y to reta9 names adopt$ or propos$ by ,l9naeus1 ! f\nd] ( ! b9om9al sy/em ( nom5clature1 ! correct botanical designation ( ! maid5 hair tree is ,g9kgo biloba4 ,m]e p]sonal pref]5ce su* z t ( ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,smi? = ,salisburia is n an adequate reason = reject+ an old] "n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,g9kgo biloba ,l9n4 7,slightly r$uc$47 ,9 its pyramidal habit ,g9kgo agrees g5]ally ) ! l>* & o!r ,conif]s4 ,l ! l>* & c$> x possesses two k9ds ( foliage %oots1 ! m rapidly gr[+ long %oots ) scatt]$ leaves & ! mu* %ort] dw>f-%oots :i* elongate slightly ea* ye> & be> sev]al leaves cr[d$ r\nd _! apex4 ,! leaves 7,fig4 #ai71 :i* are %$ ea* ye>1 are simil> 9 ! cuneate =m ( ! lam9a & 9 ! fan-l di/ribution ( ! =k$ ve9s1 to ! l>ge leaflets ( "s species ( maid5 hair f]ns3 ! ?9 lam9a c>ri$ by a sl5d] leaf-/alk is usually ab\t #c in*es across1 ?\gh 9 exceptional cases x may rea* a bread? ( #h in*es4 ,! lam9a is usually divid$ by a deep ,v-%ap$ s9us into two equal halves2 x may be entire ) an irregul>ly cr5ulate m>g91 or1 on se$l+s & vigor\s long %oots1 ! lam9a may be cut into sev]al w$ge-%ap$ segm5ts4 ,! male & female fl[]s are borne on sep>ate trees2 ! male consi/s ( a c5tral axis giv+ (f sl5d] bran*es1 ea* ( :i* ends 9 a small t]m9al knot & two elliptical capsules 9 :i* ! poll5 is produc$4 ,! female fl[]s h a /\t] axis :i* normally produces two se$s at ! apex4 ,! se$ is encas$ 9 a gre5 fle%y sub/ance &1 z 9 ! fruit ( a *]ry or plum1 ! k]nel is protect$ by a h>d woody %ell4 ,9 ! =m ( ! leaves & 9 ! /ructure ( ! fl[]s ,g9kgo pres5ts features :i* cle>ly di/+ui% x f ! ,conif]s1 ! class 9 :i*1 until rec5tly1 x 0 includ$4 ,9 #ahif ! ,japanese botani/ ,hirase made ! important discov]y t ! male reproductive cells ( ,g9kgo are l>ge motile bodies provid$ ) a spirally coil$ b& ( m9ute cilia--delicate hairs :i* by _! rapid la%+-movem5t propel ! cell ?r\gh wat]4 ,9 all ,fl[]+ ,plants & 9 ,conif]s ! male reproductive cells h no indep5d5t means ( locomotion2 !y are c>ri$ to ! female cell by ! =mation ( a sl5d] tube--! poll5-tube--produc$ by ! poll5-gra94 ,9 ! ,f]ns1 ,lycopods & ,horsetails--9 fact 9 all memb]s ( ! ,pt]idophyta--z also 9 ! ,mosses & ,liv]worts z well z 9 _m ( ! /ill l[] plants1 ! male cells swim to ! egg by ! la%+ ( cilia l ^? on ! male cells ( ,g9kgo4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ! male cells 0 consid]$ to be a fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 ! high] se$-be>+ plants & all o!r gr\ps ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,x 01 !re=e1 ) no ord9>y int]e/ t ,hirase's discov]y 0 receiv$1 z x broke d[n a di/9ction betwe5 ! two great divisions ( ! plant-_w :i* _h be5 g5]ally accept$ z fundam5tal2 ?\gh x is only fair to say t ! ,g]man botani/ ,h(mei/]1 a man ( exceptional orig9ality & p[] ( grasp+ ! ess5tial1 =esaw ! possibility t ?is arbitr>y b>ri] w\ld ev5tually be remov$4 ,! ,f]ns & o!r plants 9 :i* ! male cells are motile1 repres5t e>li] /ages 9 ! progress ( plant developm5t1 :5 ! pres5ce ( wat] 0 ess5tial = ! act ( f]tilisation1 a relic ( e>li] days :5 ! :ole plant-body 0 fitt$ = a life 9 wat]4 ,z high] types 7 produc$1 ! plant-ma*9]y became less dep5d5t on an aque\s habitat1 & ! loss ( organs ( locomotion 9 ! male cells is an in/ance ( ! k9d ( *ange accompany+ ! gradual adaptation to life on l&4 ,! idea ( ! gradual emancipation ( plants f a wat]y environm5t is express$ 9 a some:at extreme =m by ! au?or ( a book entitl$ ,! ,lessons ( ,evolution7#eb71 :o /ates t ! ocean is ! "m ( plant-life & t plants =m$ ! army :i* conqu]$ ! l&4 ,9 ,g9kgo we h a type :i*1 ?\gh simil> 9 mo/ respects to ! ,conif]s1 possesses 9 its motile reproductive cells a p]si/5t inh]itance f ! pa/4 ,! recognition ( ?is special feature af=d$ a s\nd reason1 especially :5 o!r peculi>ities are consid]$1 = remov+ ,g9kgo f ! ,conif]s & in/itut+ a new class-"n1 ,g9kgoales4 ,g9kgo is a g5]alis$ type1 l9k$ by diff]5t *>act]s bo? ) liv+ memb]s ( ! two classes ( nak$-se$$ plants & ) c]ta9 exi/+ ,palaeozoic g5]a4 ,x is a survivor ( a race :i* has n>r[ly escap$ ext9ction2 ! la/ ( a long l9e t has outliv$ its family & (f]s by its p]si/5ce an impressive in/ance ( ! pa/ 9 ! pres5t4 ,?\gh ,mrs ,bi%op 9 h] ,untrodd5 ,pa?s 9 ,japan speaks ( =e/s ( ,maid5 ,hair trees app>5tly 9 a wild /ate1 x is g5]ally believ$ t !y 7 cultivat$ specim5s4 ,mr ,h5ry :o has an exceptionally wide k ( ,*9ese vegetation tells u t 'all sci5tific travell]s 9 ,japan & ! lead+ ,japanese botani/s & =e/]s d5y its be+ indig5\s 9 any "p ( ,japan2 & botanical collectors h n obs]v$ x truly wild 9 ,*9a4' ,moreov]1 ,mr ,e4 ,h4 ,wilson1 aft] trav]s+ ! :ole ( ! di/rict :]e ,g9kgo 0 suppos$ to occur 9 a wild /ate1 says t he f\nd only cultivat$ trees4 ,!re is no reason to d\bt t ,*9a is ! la/ /ronghold ( ?is anci5t type :i* 9 an e>li] p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory ov]spread ! _w4 ,a brief summ>y ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,g9kgo & ( ! ,g9kgoales supplies ov]:elm+ te/imony to ! t5acity ( life ) :i* ! ,maid5 ,hair tree has p]si/$ ?r\gh ! ages4 ,x 0 po9t$ out 9 ! acc\nt ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,arauc>ia t ! records obta9$ f ,palaeozoic rocks1 :ile af=d+ evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ,c>bonif]\s & ,p]mian g5]a und\bt$ly alli$ to ! liv+ species1 d n enable u to speak ) c]ta9ty z to ! precise degree ( aff9ity4 ,simil>ly1 ,palaeozoic leaves h be5 describ$ z repres5tatives ( ! class ( :i* ,g9kgo is ! sole survivor1 b ! evid5ce on :i* ?is relation%ip is assum$ is by no means conclusive4 ,! g5]ic "n ,psygmophyllum has be5 appli$ to "s impressions ( ,g9kgo-l leaves discov]$ 9 ! ,upp] ,devonian rocks ( ,be> ,isl&1 a small remnant ( l& 9 ! ,arctic circle1 :i* has furni%$ valuable in=mation z to ! composition ( "o ( ! olde/ floras ( :i* satisfactory rema9s h be5 f\nd4 ,o!r examples ( ^! lob$1 w$ge-%ap$ leaves are record$ f ,c>bonif]\s rocks 9 ,g]many1 ,france1 & else:]e2 f ,p]mian /rata 9 ! ea/ ( ,russia & f ,palaeozoic b$s 9 ,cape ,colony & ,ka%mir4 ,a relation%ip betwe5 ,psygmophyllum & ,g9kgo is1 h[ev]1 by no means e/abli%$ & re/s solely on a resemblance 9 ! =m ( ! leaves4 ,! close correspond5ce 9 =m & v5ation betwe5 "s leaves f ,p]mian rocks 9 ! ,ural m\nta9s & f ,l[] ,p]mian b$s 9 ,france1 & ^? ( ! rec5t species1 is consid]$ by "s au?ors suffici5tly /rik+ to ju/ify ! ref]5ce ( ^! fossils to ! g5us ,g9kgo4 ,simil> leaves ( ,p]mian age1 :i* may also be relat$ to ! exi/+ species1 h be5 describ$ "u ! "n ,g9kgophyllum4 ,o!r specim5s ( ,palaeozoic age f ,nor? ,am]ica & else:]e h be5 assign$ to ! ,g9kgoales2 b 9 none ( ^! cases1 despite ! resemblance 9 leaf-=m1 is !re suffici5tly conv9c+ evid5ce ( close relation%ip to w>rant a def9ite ass]tion t ! plants 9 "q 7 memb]s ( ! gr\p ( :i* ,g9kgo alone rema9s4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 an und\bt$ fact t ! ,maid5 ,hair tree is connect$ by a long l9e ( ance/ors ) ! e>lie/ phase ( ! ,mesozoic era4 ,f _m p>ts ( ! _w l>ge collections ( fossil plants h be5 obta9$ f /rata ref]r$ to ! ,rhaetic p]iod1 or to ! upp] division ( ! ,triassic sy/em4 ,a comp>ison ( floras f ^! geological horizons 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w po9ts to a vegetation ext5d+ f ,au/ralia1 ,cape ,colony1 & ,s\? ,am]ica1 to ,tonk91 ! s\? ( ,sw$5 & ,nor? ,am]ica1 :i* 0 *>act]is$ by a great] uni=mity ?an is %[n by widely sep>at$ floras at ! pres5t day4 ,"o ( ! commone/ g5]a 9 ,rhaetic floras is t kn[n z ,bai]a2 ?is "n is appli$ to w$ge-%ap$ leaves ) a sl5d] /alk simil> 9 %ape & v5ation to ^? ( ,g9kgo1 b diff]+ 9 ! great] numb] & small] bread? ( ! segm5ts4 ,betwe5 ! deeply dissect$ leaf ( a typical ,bai]a ) its n>r[ l9e> lobes & ! entire or broadly lob$ leaf ( a ,g9kgo !re are _m connect+ l9ks1 & to "s specim5s ei!r "n might be appli$ ) equal fitness4 ,examples ( ,bai]a leaves1 9 "s cases associat$ ) fragm5ts ( reproductive organs1 are record$ f ,rhaetic rocks ( ,france1 ! s\? ( ,sw$51 ,tonk91 ,*ili1 ! ,arg5t9e1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,s\? ,africa1 & f o!r regions4 ,!re is abundant evid5ce po9t+ to ! almo/ _w-wide di/ribution ( ! ,g9kgoales1 z repres5t$ m especially by ,bai]a1 9 ! old] ,mesozoic floras4 ,9 ! lat] ,jurassic rocks ( ,york%ire true ,g9kgo leaves z well z ^? ( ! ,bai]a type are fairly common2 ) ! leaves h be5 f\nd pieces ( male & female fl[]s4 ,g9kgo & ,bai]a h be5 describ$ f ,jurassic rocks ( ,g]many1 ,france1 ,russia1 ,bornholm1 & else:]e 9 ,europe2 !y occur abundantly 9 ,middle ,jurassic rocks 9 nor!rn ,sib]ia1 & are repres5t$ 9 ! ,jurassic floras ( ,franz ,josef ,l&1 ! ,ea/ ,coa/ ( ,gre5l&1 & ,spitzb]g5 7,fig4 #bj74 ,! abundance ( ,g9kgo & ,bai]a leaves associat$ ) male fl[]s & se$s discov]$ 9 ,jurassic rocks1 approximately ( ! same geological age z ^? on ! ,york%ire coa/1 9 ,ea/ ,sib]ia & 9 ! ,amur di/rict1 has l$ to ! sugge/ion t ?is region may h be5 a c5tre :]e ! ,g9kgoales rea*$ _! maximum developm5t 9 ! ,mesozoic p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,fossil ,g9kgo leaves4 7#a_/b nat4 size47 ,a4 ,t]ti>y1 ,isl& ( ,mull4 ,b4 ,weald51 ,nor? ,g]many 7aft] ,s*5k74 ,c4 ,jurassic1 ,japan 7aft] ,yokoyama74 ,d4 ,jurassic1 ,au/ralia 7aft] ,/irl+74 ,e4 ,jurassic1 ,sib]ia 7aft] ,he]74 ,f4 ,jurassic1 ,turke/an4 ,g4 ,l[] ,cretace\s1 ,gre5l& 7aft] ,he]74 ,h4 ,jurassic1 ,cali=nia 7aft] ,fonta9e74 ,i4 ,jurassic1 ,york%ire4 ,j4 ,jurassic1 ,n4,e4 ,scotl& 7aft] ,/opes74 ,k4 ,weald51 ,franz ,josef ,l& 7aft] ,na?or/74 ,l4 ,rhaetic1 ,s\? ,africa4 ,m4 ,jurassic1 ,spitzb]g5 7aft] ,he]74 ,x %\ld be add$ t o!r g5]a ( ,jurassic & ,rhaetic fossils 9 addition to ,g9kgo & ,bai]a h be5 ref]r$ to ! ,g9kgoales1 ?\gh evid5ce ( su* aff9ity is n conv9c+4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 good reason to believe t ?is widespread gr\p 0 repres5t$ by sev]al g5]a 9 ! old] ,mesozoic floras4 ,! occurr5ce ( ! ,g9kgoales 9 ,jurassic rocks 9 ,k+ ,*>les ,l& & 9 ! ,new ,sib]ian ,isl&s 7lat4 #gh & #ge ,n471 9 ,c5tral ,*9a1 ,japan1 ,turke/an1 ,cali=nia1 ,oregon1 ,s\? ,africa1 ,au/ralia1 & ,graham's ,l& demon/rates ! cosmopolitan nature ( ! gr\p4 ,dur+ ! lat] "p ( ! ,jurassic p]iod & 9 ! ,weald5 floras bo? ,bai]a & ,g9kgo 7 abundant2 leaves are record$ f ,jurassic /rata 9 ! nor?-ea/ ( ,scotl&1 f ,l[] ,cretace\s or ,weald5 rocks 9 ,nor? ,g]many1 ,portugal1 ,vanc\v] ,isl&1 ,wyom+1 & ,gre5l&4 ,dur+ ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 or probably 9 ! e>li] days ( t era4 ,g9kgo fl\ri%$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ,alaska & 9 ! ,mack5zie ,riv] di/rict1 ,gre5l&1 ,saghali5 ,isl&1 & 9 sev]al ,european regions4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,iii ref]5ce 0 made to ! volcanic activity :i* *>act]is$ ! nor?-we/ ,european area 9 ! e>ly ,t]ti>y p]iod & result$ 9 ! =mation ( ! ?ick %eets ( basalt on ! nor?-ea/ coa/ ( ,irel& & 9 ! ,inn] ,hebrides4 ,!re 7 occasional pauses 9 ! volcanic activity1 dur+ :i* vegetation e/abli%$ itself on ! wea!r$ surface ( ! lava1 & left traces ( its exi/5ce 9 ! leaves & twigs pres]v$ 9 ! s$im5t>y mat]ial enclos$ betwe5 successive lava-floras4 ,at ,ardtun ,head 9 ! ,isle ( ,mull beautifully pres]v$ leaves ( ,g9kgo1 #b-d in*es 9 bread?1 ) ! m$ian s9us & ! v5ation *>act]i/ic ( ! leaves ( ! exi/+ plant1 h be5 discov]$ 9 a b$ ( clay :i* m>ks ! site ( a lake 9 a depression on ! lava-plateau4 ,! resemblance ( ^! ,t]ti>y leaves f ,mull to ^? ( ! surviv+ ,maid5 ,hair tree is s close z to sugge/ specific id5tity4 ,mr ,/>kie ,g>dn] & ,b>on ,ett+%aus5 h describ$ "s se$s f ! ,london clay 7,l[] ,t]ti>y7 9 ! ,isle ( ,%eppey z ^? ( ,g9kgo1 b ?is id5tification re/s on data too insuffici5t to be accept$ )\t hesitation4 ,! rec5t cultivation ( ,g9kgo biloba 9 ,brita9 may !re=e be spok5 ( z ! re-introduction ( a plant :i* 9 ! e>li] "p or 9 ! middle ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod fl\ri%$ 9 ! we/ ( ,scotl&1 & 0 abundant 9 ,engl& 9 ! e>li] ,jurassic p]iod4 ,x is impossible to say ) any confid5ce :]e ! ,g9kgoales fir/ made _! appe>ance1 :e!r 9 ! f> nor? or 9 ! s\?1 nor are we able to expla9 ! gradual decl9e ( s v5]able & vigor\s a race4 ,z we se>* among ! fragm5t>y h]b>ia scatt]$ ?r\gh ! s$im5t>y rocks 9 t comp>atively small portion ( ! e>?'s cru/ :i* is accessible to inve/igation1 we discov] evid5ce ( a %ift+ ( ! balance ( p[] among diff]5t classes ( plants 9 ! c\rse ( our survey ( successive floras4 ,plants n[ insignificant & few 9 numb] are f\nd to be desc5dants ( a long l9e ( ance/ors /ret*+ back to a remote antiquity :5 !y =m$ ! dom9ant class4 ,o!rs :i* fl\ri%$ 9 a =m] p]iod no long] survive1 ei!r !mselves or 9 direct desc5dants4 ',! ext9ction ( species has be5 involv$ 9 ! mo/ gratuit\s my/]y4' ,we c only speculate vaguely z to ! cause ( success or failure4 ,c]ta9 types 7 bett] arm$ = ! /ruggle = life1 & produc$ desc5dants able to hold _! own & to p]petuate ! race ?r\gh ! ages 9 an unbrok5 l9e4 ,o!rs _h a %ort] life & fell out ( ! ranks ( ! advanc+ & ev] *ang+ army4 ,to quote ,d>w9's words3',we ne$ n m>vel at ext9ction2 if we mu/ m>vel1 let x be at our own presumption 9 imag9+ = a mom5t t we und]/& ! _m complex cont+5cies on :i* ! exi/5ce ( ea* species dep5ds4' ,,bibliography ,_m ( ! books & pap]s deal+ ) subjects t\*$ ^u 9 ?is volume are n includ$ 9 ! foll[+ li/4 ,= ref]5ce to a m complete bibliography ! read] %\ld consult m te*nical treatises4 #a4 ,holmes1 ,t4 ,rice4 ,anci5t ,brita9 & ! invasions ( ,julius ,caes>4 ,ox=d1 #aijg4 #b4 ,mit*ell1 ,a4 ,! ,pa/ 9 ! ,pres5t2 :at is ,civilisation8 ,ed9burgh1 #ahhj4 #c4 ,weismann1 ,a4 ,essays ^u ,h]$ity & ,k9dr$ ,biological ,problems1 7,i4 ,! ,duration ( ,life47 ,vol4 ,i4 ,edit$ by ,e4 ,b4 ,p\lton1 ,s4 ,s*nl&1 & ,a4 ,e4 ,%ipley4 7,second ,edition47 ,ox=d1 #ahia4 #d4 ,! ,hi/orie ( ! ,_w1 commonly call$ ! ,naturall ,hi/oric ( ! ,c4 ,pl9ius ,secundus4 ,translat$ into ,engli% by ,philemon ,holl&4 ,london1 #afcd4 #e4 ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 ,on ,?ree ,oaks ( ,pale/9e4 ,trans4 ,l9nean ,society1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4 p4 #cha4 #ahfb4 #f4 ,holt]mann1 ,c>l4 ,d] ,e9fluss des ,klimas auf d5 ,bau d] ,pflanz5gewebe4 ,leipzig1 #aijg4 #g4 ,atk9son1 ,a4 ,notes on an ,anci5t ,boat f\nd at ,brigg4 ,ar*aeologia1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cfa4 #ahhg4 #h4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h4 ,man's ,place 9 ,nature & o!r ,an?ropological ,essays4 ,collect$ ,essays1 ,vol4 ,,vii4 7,on ! me?ods & results ( ,e?nology47 ,london1 #aija4 #i4 ,lewis1 ,f4 ,j4 ,! sequ5ce ( ,plant ,rema9s 9 ! ,briti% ,peat ,mosses4 ,sci5ce ,progress1 ,no4 #f4 ,octob]1 #aijg4 #aj4 ,/rahan1 ,a4 ,on subm]g$ ,l&-surfaces at ,b>ry1 ,glamorgan%ire4 ,) notes on ! ,fauna & ,flora by ,clem5t ,reid2 etc4 ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geological ,society1 ,vol4 ,,lii4 p4 #dgd4 #ahif4 #aa4 ,! ,life & ,lett]s ( ,*>les ,d>w94 ,edit$ by ,francis ,d>w94 #c ,vols4 ,london1 #ahhg4 #ab4 ,m ,lett]s ( ,*>les ,d>w94 ,edit$ by ,francis ,d>w9 & ,a4 ,c4 ,sew>d4 #b ,vols4 ,london1 #aijc4 #ac4 ,w>d1 ,le/] ,f4 ,! ,c\rse ( ,biologic ,evolution4 ,anniv]s>y ,address ( ! ,presid5t ( ! ,biological ,society4 ,wa%+ton1 #ahij4 #ad4 ,m>%all1 ,w4 ,ana*>is als9a/rum1 a new wat] we$4 7,repr9t$ f ! ,cambridge ,indep5d5t ,press47 ,london1 #aheb4 ,bailey1 ,c4 ,notes on ! /ructure1 ! occurr5ce 9 ,lanca%ire1 & ! s\rce ( orig91 ( ,naias gram9eus ,delile1 v>4 ,delilei magnus4 ,j\rnal ( ,botany1 ,vol4 ,,xxii4 p4 #cje4 #ahhd4 #ae4 ,weiss1 ,f4 ,h4 & ,h4 ,murray4 ,on ! occurr5ce & di/ribution ( "s ali5 aquatic plants 9 ! ,r$di% ,canal4 ,mem4 ,proc4 ,man*e/] ,lit4 & ,phil4 ,society1 ,vol4 ,,liii4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 #aiji4 #af4 ,b5nett1 ,a4 ,! ,halifax ,potamogeton4 ,naturali/1 ,no4 #fba4 ,octob]1 #aijh4 #ag4 ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 ,outl9es ( ! ,di/ribution ( ,arctic ,plants4 ,trans4 ,l9n4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,xxiii4 p4 #bea4 #ahfb4 #ah4 ,engl]1 ,a4 ,plants ( ! ,nor!rn ,temp]ate ,zone 9 _! transition to ! ,high ,m\nta9s ( ,tropical ,africa4 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 ,,xviii4 p4 #ebc4 #aijd4 #ai4 ,d>w91 ,c4 ,! ,orig9 ( ,species4 ,london1 #aijj4 #bj4 ,ridley1 ,h4 ,n4 ,on ! disp]sal ( se$s by w9d4 ,annals ( ,botany1 ,vol4 ,,xix4 p4 #cea4 #aije4 #ba4 ,hook]1 ,j4 ,d4 ,on ! ,c$>s ( ,lebanon1 ,taunus1 ,alg]ia1 & ,india4 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ,review1 #ahfb1 p4 #aa4 #bb4 ,=bes1 ,e4 ,on ! connection betwe5 ! di/ribution ( ! exi/+ ,fauna & ,flora ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 & ! geological *anges :i* h affect$ _! area4444 ,memoirs1 ,geological ,survey1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ccf4 #ahdf4 #bc4 ,praeg]1 ,r4 ,l4 ,! ,wild ,fl[]s ( ! ,we/ ( ,irel& & _! hi/ory4 ,j\rn4 ,r4 ,hort4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,xxxvi4 p4 #bii4 #aiaj4 #bd4 ,ern/1 ,a4 ,! ,new ,flora ( ! ,volcanic ,isl& ( ,krakatau4 ,translat$ by ,a4 ,c4 ,sew>d4 ,cambridge1 #aijh4 #be4 ,praeg]1 ,r4 ,l4 ,a ,t\ri/'s ,flora ( ! ,we/ ( ,irel&4 ,dubl91 #aiji4 ,r5dle1 ,a4 ,b4 ,sisyr9*ium cali=nicum ,dry&4 #bf4 ,j\rnal ( ,botany1 ,vol ,,xxxiv4 p4 #did4 #ahif4 ,m>%all1 ,e4 ,s4 ,sisyr9*ium cali=nicum 9 ,irel&4 ,ibid4 p4 #cff4 ,reid1 ,clem5t4 ,! ,orig9 ( ! ,briti% ,flora4 ,london1 #ahii4 #bg4 ,reid1 ,clem5t & ,eleanor ,m4 ,on ! ,pre-glacial ,flora ( ,brita9 ,j\rn4 ,l9n4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,xxviii4 p4 #bjf4 #aijh4 #bh4 ,lanke/]1 ,sir ,edw9 ,ray4 ,mature & ,man4 ,! ,romanes ,lecture4 ,ox=d1 #aije4 #bi4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h4 ,on a ,piece ( ,*alk4 ,collect$ ,essays1 ,vol4 ,,viii4 ,london1 #ahif4 #cj4 ,jukes-,br[ne1 ,a4 ,j4 ,! ,build+ ( ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,london1 #aiaa4 #ca4 ,ray1 ,j4 ,?ree ,physico-,!ological ,disc\rses1 etc4 7#bnd ,edition47 ,london1 #afic4 #cb4 ,woodw>d1 ,j4 ,an ,essay t[>d a ,natural ,hi/ory ( ! ,e>?4 ,london1 #afie4 #cc4 ,sollas1 ,w4 ,j4 ,! ,age ( ! ,e>?1 & o!r geological /udies4 ,london1 #aije4 #cd4 ,w>d1 ,l4 ,f4 ,/atus ( ! ,mesozoic ,floras ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,monograph #dh1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,surv4 #aije4 #ce4 ,arb]1 ,e4 ,a4 ,newell4 ,cupress9oxylon ,hook]i sp4 nov41 a l>ge silicifi$ tree f ,tasmania4 ,geological ,magaz9e1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,v41 p4 #g4 #aijd4 #a4 ,holmes1 ,w4 ,h4 ,fossil ,=e/s ( ! ,volcanic ,t]ti>y ,=mations ( ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k4 ,ann4 ,rep4 ,geol4 & ,geogr4 ,surv4 7,u4,s4,a471 #ahgh1 ,pt4 ,,ii4 p4 #dg4 #cf4 #b4 ,kn[lton1 ,f4 ,h4 ,fossil ,flora ( ! ,yell[/one ,national ,p>k4 ,monograph #cb1 ,u4 ,s4 ,geol4 ,survey1 ,pt4 ,,ii4 #ahii4 #cg4 ,d>w91 ,c4 ,j\rnal ( ,rese>*es into ! ,natural ,hi/ory & ,geology ( ! c\ntries visit$ dur+ ! voyage r\nd ! _w ( ,h4,m4,s4 ',beagle4' ,london1 #aijb4 #ch4 ,duff]91 ,"l4 ,lett]s f ,high ,latitudes4 ,london4 ,n4,d4 #ci4 ,amunds51 ,r4 ,! ,nor?-,we/ ,passage4 #b ,vols4 ,london14 #aijh4 #dj4 ,mac,dougal1 ,d4 ,t4 ,botanical ,explorations 9 ! ,s\?-we/4 ,j\rn4 ,new ,york ,botanical ,g>d51 ,vol4 ,v4 p4 #hi4 #aijd4 ,goepp]t1 ,h4 ,r4 & ,a4 ,m5ge4 ,die ,flora des ,b]n/e9s4 #da4 ,danzig1 #ahhc4 ,conw5tz1 ,h4 ,monographie d] baltis*5 ,b]n/e9bume4 ,danzig1 #ahij4 #db4 ,hovelacque1 ,m4 ,sur la ,nature vgtale de l',aa*5osaurus multid5s4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,belge de ,gol4 etc4 ,tome ,,iv4 p4 #ei4 #ahij4 #dc4 ,oliv]1 ,f4 ,w4 & ,d4 ,h4 ,scott4 ,on ! /ructure ( ! ,palaeozoic se$ ,lag5o/oma ,lomaxi4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,vol4 ,,cxcvii4 p4 #aic4 #aijd4 #dd4 ,kid/on1 ,r4 ,on ! fructification ( ,neuropt]is het]ophylla4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,royal ,soc4 ,london1 ,vol4 ,,cxcvii4 p4 #a4 #de4 ,smi?1 ,ge(frey4 ,a ,naturali/ 9 ,tasmania4 ,ox=d1 #aiji4 #df4 ,campbell1 ,d4 ,h4 ,on ! ,di/ribution ( ! ,hepaticae1 & its significance4 ,new ,phytologi/1 ,vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #bjc4 #aijg4 #dg4 ,kid/on1 ,r4 & ,d4 ,t4 ,gwynne-,vaughan4 ,on ! ,fossil ,osmundaceae4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,ed9burgh1 ,vols4 ,,xlv41 ,,xlvi4 #aijg-ji4 #dh4 ,sew>d1 ,a4 ,c4 ,fossil ,plants4 #b ,vols4 ,cambridge1 #ahih-aiaj4 #di4 ,wallace1 ,a4 ,r4 ,! ,malay ,ar*ipelago4 ,london1 #ahhf4 #ej4 ,reid1 ,c4 & ,eleanor ,m4 ,! ,lignite ( ,bovey ,tracey4 ,phil4 ,trans4 ,royal ,soc4 ,london1 ,vol4 #bja1 p4 #afa4 #aiaj4 #ea4 ,hollick1 ,a4 & ,e4 ,c4 ,jeffrey4 ,/udies ( ,cretace\s ,conif]\s rema9s f ,kreis*]ville1 ,new ,york4 ,mem4 ,new ,york ,bot4 ,g>d51 ,vol4 ,,iii4 #aiji4 #eb4 ,hutton1 ,f4 ,w4 ,! ,lessons ( ,evolution4 ,london1 #aijb4 ,,index ,aa*5osaurus multid5s1 #fh ,aga?is au/ralis1 #ajg ,a4 ,moorei1 #ajh ,a4 robu/a1 #ajh1 #aji ,amb]1 #fe1 #ff ,ame?y/ ,m\nta91 #ei1 #fj1 #ajd ,amunds51 ,e41 #fb ,ana*>is als9a/rum1 #bj ,angiosp]ms1 hi/ory (1 #af1 #ec1 #fi1 #gj ,annual r+s1 #e-i ,ant>ctic fossil plants1 #gj1 #aag ,arauc>ia ,bidwillii1 #aae ,a4 brasiliana1 #aji ,a4 ,cookii1 #aaa1 #aah ,a4 excelsa1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #aad1 #aae1 #aah ,a4 imbricata1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aac1 #aah ,arauc>ieae1 #ajf-abj ,arauc>ioxylon1 #aab ,arauc>ites ,oldhami1 #aac ,a4 spha]oc>pus1 #aaf ,arbutus ,un$o1 #ca-cc1 #cf ,ar*aean rocks1 #dc ,arctic plants1 #bb1 #bc1 #cj1 #fi1 #abg ,arctic-,alp9e plants1 #bb1 #bc ,arizona1 fossil =e/s (1 #ei ,artoc>pus1 #bh1 #bi ,bai]a1 #abi1 #aca ,banks1 ,sir ,joseph1 #aaj ,b>ry1 =e/ b$s at1 #ac ,b5nett1 ,a41 #ba ,bid5s trip>tita1 #df1 #dg ,bi%op1 ,mrs1 #abf ,bomm]1 ,c1 #gc1 #hb1 #hi ,bovey ,tracey1 fossil plants f1 #aja-ajc ,b[]1 ,pr(41 #gc ,brack5 ,f]n1 #ge1 #gg1 #hc1 #hg ,br&on1 fl9t-knapp]s (1 #c ,brigg1 dug-out boat f1 #aj1 #aa ,briti% flora1 #ai-ch ,cal?a palu/ris1 #dg ,campbell1 ,pr(4 ,d4 ,h41 #gi ,c&olle1 ,a4 ,p4 de1 #g1 #cc ,canton1 ,w41 #cd ,c>bonif]\s plants1 #ff-fh1 #gb-ge1 #abg ,c>ru!rs1 ,dr ,w41 #aae ,c$>s1 #bg ,*$d> ,p9k1 #bd ,c9namomum prototypum1 #fe1 #ff ,climate1 fossil plants &1 #fh1 #fi ,coal age1 plants ( !1 #ai1 #ff1 #fg ,connem>a1 #cj1 #ca ,cook1 ,capt41 #aaa ,coral polyps comp>$ ) plants1 #h ,cordaites1 #aab ,cornwall1 ,pyr5ean ,hea?s 91 #ca ,cretace\s plants1 #af1 #ag1 #ec1 #hb1 #aag ,crom] ,=e/ b$1 #dh ,cryptom]ia japonica1 #aaa ,cycads1 #aa1 #gb-gd ,daboecia polifolia1 #cj ,dacrydium1 #he ,dakota gr\p1 flora (1 #ag ,damm>a alba1 #ajg ,d>w91 ,c1 #af1 #bd1 #be1 #cc1 #ci1 #dj1 #fa1 #acc ,devon%ire1 ,pyr5ean ,hea?s 91 #ca ,dian?us caesius1 #bd ,dipt]is1 #gg1 #ib-id ,d4 conjugata1 #ib1 #ic ,d4 ,horsfieldii1 #hf1 #ic ,disco ,isl&1 ,fossil plants f1 #bh1 #fi1 #hb1 #ajc ,discont9u\s di/ribution1 #bf ,disp]sal ( plants1 rate (1 #be1 #bf ,di/ribution ( plants1 #ae-ch ,drift-wood1 #fa-fc ,dryas octopetala1 #bb ,duff]91 ,"l1 #fa ,elodea canad5sis1 #bj1 #ba ,engl]1 ,pr(41 #bc ,erica cili>is1 #ca ,e4 ,mackaii1 #ca ,e4 m$it]ranea1 #cj1 #ca ,e4 vagans1 #ca ,eriocaulon septangul>e1 #ce-ch ,ett+%aus51 ,b>on1 #aje1 #acb ,f]ns1 #ga-id ,fl[]+ plants1 see ,angiosp]ms ,=bes1 ,e41 #ca-cd1 #cg ,fossil plants1 z !rmomet]s1 #fh2 pres]vation (1 #ef-gj ,g>dn]1 ,j4 ,s41 #acb ,geographical di/ribution ( plants1 #ae-ch ,geological evolution ( ,brita91 #bi ,geological record1 #ci-ee ,geological table1 #db1 #dc ,geological "t1 #b1 #c1 #di ,g9kgo biloba1 #aac1 #abj-acc ,g9kgoales1 #ah1 #abj-acc ,g9kgophyllum1 #abh ,glacial p]iod1 effect on vegetation (1 #bi-cb1 #de1 #dg ,gladiolus illyricus1 #ca ,glei*5ia1 #ha-hc ,graham's ,l&1 #gj1 #aag ,gunn1 ,dr ,m>cus1 #aag ,gwynne-,vaughan1 ,pr(41 #hj ,gymnosp]ms1 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