file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #fbdca-;h4htm or #fbdca-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#fbdca_/pg#fbdca-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#fb dca_/fbdca-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/etruscan tombpain#jjpoul ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,superscripted characters are enclosed by curly brackets immediately after a caret character 7example3 inscriptionum ,graecarum1#c7 ,page headings1 marked as sidenotes1 are placed at the beginning of the relevant paragraph4 ,footnotes are located at the end of each chapter4 ,,etruscan ,,tomb ,,paintings 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,oxford ,university ,press ,london ,edinburgh ,glasgow ,copenhagen ,new ,york ,toronto ,melbourne ,cape ,town ,bombay ,calcutta ,madras ,shanghai ,humphrey ,milford ,publisher to the ,,university 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 #8,,la ,,bella ,,ballerina' ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,francesca ,,giustiniani ,after the facsimile of the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek ,frontispiece ,,etruscan ,,tomb ,,paintings ,their ,subjects and ,significance by ,,frederik ,,poulsen ,keeper of the ,classical ,department of the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek1 ,copenhagen ,fellow of the ,danish ,royal ,society ,translated by ,ingeborg ,andersen1 ,m4,a4 ,illustration3 ,publisher's ,device ,oxford ,at the ,clarendon ,press #aibb ,,to ,,my ,,friend ,,in ,,studies ,,and ,,travels ,,ove ,j,,rgensen1 ,m4,a4 ,,preface ,the following sketch is based upon investigations made in the ,etruscan ,tombs at ,corneto and ,chiusi1 and on comparison of the original wall-paintings with the facsimiles and drawings made from them and preserved in the ,helbig ,museum in the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek4 ,it was originally published in ,danish1 in #aiai1 as a guide to students in that ,department4 ,i am greatly indebted to ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 of the ,british ,museum1 for his revision of the translation4 ,meanwhile the first volume of the promised work of ,fritz ,weege 7,etruskische ,malerei1 ,halle1 #aiba7 has appeared1 copiously and splendidly illustrated4 ,the text contains general views concerning ,etruscan religion and society rather than descriptions of the paintings themselves1 and ,i cannot refrain from saying that ,i find ,weege's statements and opinions1 and the parallels which he adduces1 too often more fanciful than convincing1 in spite of the vast erudition displayed therein4 ,i do not find anything in my own text which ,i feel inclined to alter after reading his book4 ,,frederik ,,poulsen4 ,,copenhagen1 ,january #aiba4 ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,facing page #a ,wall-painting from the ,tomba ,campana #g #b ,main picture in the ,tomba dei ,tori at ,corneto #g #c ,back wall in the ,tomba degli ,auguri #aa #d ,right main wall in the ,tomba degli ,auguri #ab #e ,part of the left main wall in the ,tomba degli ,auguri4 7,after a coloured drawing in the ,helbig ,museum7 #ab #f ,painting from the ,tomba del ,pulcinella #ab #g ,left main wall of the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni #ae #h ,back wall of the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni #ae #i ,picture from the ,tomba del ,morto at ,corneto #af #aj ,picture from the ,tomba del ,triclinio #af #aa #8,la bella ballerina' in the ,tomba ,francesca ,giustiniani ,frontispiece #ab ,right main wall in the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni #ai #ac ,back wall in the ,tomba delle ,leonesse at ,corneto #bj #ad ,left main wall in the ,tomba del ,barone #bj #ae ,right main wall in the ,tomba delle ,bighe #bb #af ,etruscan terracotta head in the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek #bb #ag ,part of the small frieze in the ,tomba delle ,bighe4 7,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf7 #bb #ah ,wall-painting from the ,tomba del ,morente3 the lassoing of the horse #bd #ai ,part of the small frieze in the ,tomba delle ,bighe4 7,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf7 #bd #bj ,part of the ,tomba della ,scimmia at ,chiusi #bd #ba ,part of the small frieze in the ,tomba delle ,bighe4 7,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf7 #bg #bb ,part of the small frieze in the ,tomba delle ,bighe4 7,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf7 #bg #bc ,symposium in the ,tomba delle ,bighe #bg #bd ,back wall in the ,tomba dei ,leopardi 7,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf4 ,pl4 #i7 #ca #be ,married couple on an ,etruscan cinerary urn #ca #bf ,picture from the ,tomba degli ,scudi at ,corneto #ce #bg ,picture from the ,tomba degli ,scudi at ,corneto4 7,after a coloured drawing in the ,helbig ,museum7 #ce #bh ,arnth ,velchas and wife on couch4 ,picture in the ,tomba dell' ,orco 7,after a coloured drawing in the ,helbig ,museum7 #cf #bi ,head of ,arnth ,velchas' wife4 ,from the ,tomba dell' ,orco #cg #cj ,back wall in the ,tomba del ,vecchio #cg #ca ,symposium in the ,tomba ,golini at ,orvieto #ch #cb ,wall-painting in the ,tomba ,golini #ch #cc ,kitchen interior in the ,tomba ,golini #dj #cd ,painting in the ,tomba del ,letto funebre1 at ,corneto #dj #ce ,demon in the ,tomba dell' ,orco #di #cf ,picture in the ,tomba dell' ,orco at ,corneto #ej #cg ,hades1 ,persephone and ,geryon in the ,tomba dell' ,orco #ej #ch ,drawing from ,michelangelo's sketch-book #ea #ci ,wall-painting from the ,tomba ,franois at ,vulci #ed #dj ,painting in the ,tomba ,golini at ,orvieto #ed #da ,painting from the ,tomba della ,pulcella #ed #db ,relief on a tomb altar from ,chiusi4 ,in the ,barracco ,collection in ,rome #ef #dc ,cinerary urn from ,chiusi #ef #dd ,roman sarcophagus in the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek #eh #de ,procession of the dead in the ,tomba del ,tifone #eh #df ,painted frieze in the ,tomba del ,cardinale #eh #dg ,part of the frieze in the ,tomba del ,cardinale #eh ,,etruscan ,,tomb-,,paintings ,i ,the tombs and tomb-paintings of ,etruria constitute a field of archaeology in which the investigator is particularly apt to be reminded of numerous sins of omission and to be haunted by a painfully uneasy conscience4 ,indeed1 the older archaeologists have less reason to plead guilty before the bar of science than those of more recent times4 ,when the discovery and excavation of the ,etruscan tombs began to make headway in the twenties of the nineteenth century1 publications in text and illustrations followed comparatively close upon the discoveries4 ,the first misfortune1 however1 took place when three of the most interesting tombs were published1 the ,tomba delle ,bighe1 the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni1 and the ,tomba del ,barone4 ,sidenote3 ,,stackelberg ,,and ,,kestner ,it was the major-domo of the ,bishop of ,corneto1 ,vittorio ,masi1 who first opened them together with other tombs in the vicinity of ,corneto4 ,in the spring of #ahbg he invited two ,german barons1 ,stackelberg1 an able archaeologist1 and ,kestner1 the ,hanoverian ambassador in ,rome1 to inspect them1 and1 if they so desired1 to survey1 draw1 and publish the pictures in the tombs4 ,the two men arrived1 accompanied by ,thrmer1 a ,bavarian architect1 to find the tombs themselves despoiled of their accessories1 but the walls covered with wonderful pictures dating from the sixth and fifth centuries ,b4,c4 ,they set to work immediately1 studying and copying the pictures in the richest of the tombs1 the ,tomba delle ,bighe4 ,stackelberg made five charming water-colours in order to save the colouring for posterity2 ,thrmer executed eleven careful drawings4 ,in all1 the two men painted and drew two hundred and twenty-five figures1 and the whole of the material is now preserved in the ,archaeological ,seminar of the ,university of ,strasburg4 ,in his diary ,stackelberg gives a vivid description of the discomfort which they experienced1 drawing by torchlight in the cold1 dank tomb-chamber1 and only emerging now and then into the warm ,italian spring sunlight in order to recuperate or to enjoy a light repast on the top of the tumulus1 commanding a view of the sea4 ,to this were added fatiguing social duties2 local patriotism was aroused in ,corneto2 the noble families in the town vied in displaying hospitality to the ,germans1 and big banquets were held1 at which sonnets were recited to the #8heroes' who once slept in the tombs4 ,the drawing and copying of the colours on the walls in the ,tomb of the ,chariots1 as well as in the ,tomb of the ,inscriptions and in the ,tomb of the ,baron--so called after ,baron ,kestner--were rightly considered the chief matter1 because in the very first summer after they were opened1 the dampness of the tombs in a few weeks ruined large portions of them1 especially in the ,tomba delle ,bighe4 ,after his return to ,rome1 ,baron ,stackelberg caught typhoid fever and did not recover till late in the winter4 ,in the next spring he went to ,germany1 where his excavations had created such an immense sensation that even the aged ,goethe asked ,stackelberg to dine with him in ,weimar and studied the drawings with the greatest interest4 ,but1 in spite of the national enthusiasm called forth by the excavations1 the projected great work came to nothing2 the coloured plates of the paintings1 with the then existing means of reproduction1 promised to be so expensive that the publishers took alarm4 ,pending these negotiations1 the paintings from the three tombs were published in ,french and ,italian works in very poor and incorrect reproductions1 and no other reproductions were available till #aiaf1 when the ,german archaeologist1 ,weege1 at last managed to bring out an admirable publication of the ,tomba delle ,bighe1 the most important of the three tombs4#a ,similar uncoloured1 not very reliable drawings continued to be the method of reproducing the ,etruscan tomb-paintings in the following decades2 after these drawings were made the reproductions in handbooks like ,jules ,martha's ,l',art trusque 7,paris1 #ahhi74 ,an ,englishman1 ,george ,dennis1 in his ,cities and ,cemeteries of ,etruria 7,london1 #ahgh71 gives a vivid description of ,tuscan scenery and of the ancient tombs4 ,at times he rises to a lyrical enthusiasm2 for instance1 in his description of a dancing figure1 #8la bella ballerina di ,corneto'1 in the ,tomba ,francesca ,giustiniani4 ,but neither ,dennis nor any later visitor procured copies which come up to their enthusiasm2 in fact1 the beautiful ballerina has never even been drawn or photographed1 and is not to be found in any work on archaeology or art4 ,dennis's book throws a dreadful light upon contemporary excavation4 ,about ,veii1 he writes that the greater part of the district belongs to the ,queen of ,sardinia1 who in the excavating season positively lets out tracts of land to ,roman dealers1 who rifle the tombs of everything convertible into cash and then cover them in with earth4 ,he describes such an excavation at ,vulci3 a tomb being opened1 nothing but pottery was found2 the excavators1 in their disgust1 smashed and destroyed everything1 in spite of the ,english traveller's protests and entreaties4 ,this took place on the estate of the ,princess of ,canino4#b ,sidenote3 ,,modern ,,literature ,this happened in the sixties4 ,in the seventies such vandalism comes to an end2 but the publications do not improve4 ,for example1 in the excellent article on the ,tomba ,franois at ,vulci which ,krte published in the ,archologisches ,jahrbuch for #ahig1 the illustrations are poor3 and it was not until #aijg that ,krte published1 in the second volume of the ,antike ,denkmler1 beautiful coloured reproductions of the paintings in three tombs at ,corneto1 the ,tomba dei ,tori1 the ,tomba delle ,leonesse1 and the ,tomba della ,pulcella4 ,a popular description by ,mary ,lovett ,cameron1 ,old ,etruria and ,modern ,tuscany 7,london1 #aiji71 marks no progress as far as the illustrations are concerned1 and the text is amateurish and superficial4#c ,von ,stryk's dissertation1 ,die etruskischen ,kammergrber1 published at ,dorpat in #aiaj1 is unillustrated3 the text is full of errors1 and in the discursive descriptions no account is taken of the difference between the present state of the tomb-paintings and that revealed by the earlier publications4 ,weege's above-mentioned article on the ,tomba delle ,bighe and the ,tomba dei ,leopardi only appeared in #aiaf3 here at last the entire material is utilized--the old drawings and descriptions1 modern photographs1 and the author's own careful notes4 ,according to a prospectus recently issued1 a larger work on ,etruscan tomb-paintings1 by the same author1 is shortly to appear2 it will be awaited with interest4 ,it is to be hoped that ,mr4 ,weege's book will supply a want which is felt the more acutely when we consider the growing interest in antique painting displayed in the last decades4 ,in #aijd ,furtwngler1 with the assistance of the painter ,reichhold1 began the publication of the great work on the masterpieces of ,greek vase-painting 7,griechische ,vasenmalerei71 which was continued by ,hauser3 part of the third volume is now published4 ,in #aijf appeared the first instalment of ,paul ,hermann's great collection of plates after antique1 especially ,pompeian1 wall-painting2 this work1 which is still in progress1 contains beautiful reproductions with and without colours 7,denkmler der ,malerei des ,altertums74 ,finally1 in #aiad1 ,walther ,riezler published a splendid work on the white ,attic lekythoi 7,weissgrndige attische ,lekythen74 ,but during these years nobody thought of bringing to light the treasures hidden away in the sepulchral chambers of ,corneto1 ,chiusi1 and ,orvieto1 although these pictures were much more exposed to destruction than either the vases in the well-guarded rooms of the ,museums or the ,pompeian wall-paintings4 ,for after heavy showers the floors of the deeply sunk tombs of ,corneto are under water1 and the damp then loosens the tufa of the walls so that the layer of stucco1 on which the colours are laid al fresco1 peels off4 ,the heavy iron doors which the ,italian ,government has placed before the entrances are worse than useless1 because they shut the moisture in and prevent the tombs from getting dry4 ,if these doors had been placed at the top of the stairs leading to the tombs1 thus changing place with the lattice doors which are now there1 all would have been well4 ,at ,corneto1 it is moisture which demolishes the stucco layer1 varying from to #a cm4 in thickness1 and bleaches the colours--red chalk1 vermilion1 lime-colour1 ochre1 cobalt1 and copper colours1 at ,chiusi it is the drought which most frequently destroys the paintings1 the colours here being laid directly on the stone walls4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,ny ,,carlsberg ,,facsimiles ,we have1 therefore1 every reason to be deeply grateful to the late ,carl ,jacobsen who1 at the beginning of the nineties1 had the ,etruscan tomb-paintings facsimiled on their actual scale4 ,a somewhat similar experiment had already been tried1 and the result is a number of facsimiles preserved in the ,museo ,gregoriano of the ,vatican1 but these are more decorative than exact4 ,at first1 the ,italian painters1 to whom ,helbig1 at the request of ,carl ,jacobsen1 entrusted the task--the first was ,marozzi--evidently imagined that ,carl ,jacobsen wanted these paintings as mural decorations for his museum and had no artistic or scientific aim in ,view1 and letters from ,helbig show that1 as late as #ahie1 he did not scruple to let ,becchi1 the painter1 fill in a damaged head from a picture in the ,tomba dei ,vasi ,dipinti after the reproduction in ,monumenti1 vol4 ix 7#ahgj74 ,the first copies sent to the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek were therefore of the same #8picture-postcard' colouring as the earlier ones in the ,museo ,gregoriano1 but gradually ,carl ,jacobsen increased the rigour of his demands for conscientious exactitude1 and the facsimiles now on exhibition in the ,helbig ,museum of the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek are almost all executed according to the more modern and better principles of copying4 ,to be sure1 these copies still leave a great deal to be desired in the way of scientific exactitude2 ,i have been able myself to ascertain this by a careful comparison with notes taken from the originals in the tombs of ,corneto1 and ,weege more especially has pointed out rather grave mistakes in the copies of the paintings from the ,tomba delle ,bighe4 ,but these may be supplemented by a series of beautiful coloured drawings dating from the last years of ,jacobsen's life3 they are framed and constitute a whole picture-book open to the public in the ,helbig ,collection4 ,a large number of ground plans and decorative details are included in these drawings1 in addition to the most important of the paintings1 and here the copying has been executed with great accuracy4 ,the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek1 then1 thanks to ,carl ,jacobsen1 is the place where investigators can most easily form an idea of the development of ,etruscan wall-painting1 far more easily than in ,florence where the late ,director1 ,milani1 ordered new copies which1 in my opinion1 are considerably inferior to those of ,carl ,jacobsen4 ,but for all that1 the facsimiles of the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek ought not to be the last word of science on the subject4 ,mr4 ,weege proposes1 as the method of the future1 the taking in the tombs themselves of gigantic photographs on which careful painters might add the colouring2 instead of two there will thus only be one possibility of distortion1 namely1 in the colours themselves4 ,but one might perhaps go still further and take large chromatic photographs which would fix both forms and colours for all time1 so that we might view the gradual destruction of the originals with less dismay than at present4 ,sidenote3 ,,future ,,reproductions ,a detailed estimate of the artistic significance and properties of the ,etruscan wall-paintings is not yet possible1 if only because no adequate pictures for reproduction exist4 ,what can be done--and what will be attempted in the following pages--is to give an account of the content of the pictures and of the main lines of their development4 ,even that is not superfluous4 ,investigators have never really given themselves time to enter deeply into the spirit and content of these pictures1 or to ask themselves the question which arises1 one may say1 with every picture1 namely1 how far the representation is a loan from ,greek art and civilization1 and how far it bears the local ,etruscan stamp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,,wall-,,painting ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,campana ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,,main ,,picture ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,dei ,,tori ,,at ,,corneto ,,footnotes3 #a ,jahrbuch des deutschen archologischen ,instituts1 xxxi4 #aiaf1 p4 #ajf ff4 #b ,cities and ,cemeteries1 p4 #aai4 #c ,the same is true of the second edition of ,luigi ,dasti's ,notizie di ,tarquinia-,corneto1 #aiaj4 ,,ii ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,campana ,,at ,,veii ,the first stage of development is represented by the ,tomba ,campana at ,veii4 ,this tomb was discovered in #ahdc1 and a good description of it is given by ,canina in ,antica ,citt di ,veii 7#ahdg71 but it has never been published with adequate illustrations4 ,a new and thorough treatment of the ornamentation and motives of its pictures is given in a ,leipzig dissertation by ,andreas ,rumpf 7,die ,wandmalereien in ,veii1 #aiae74 ,but this1 too1 is without illustrations4 ,the central doorway of the back wall is provided with an ornamental painted border and flanked by paintings in yellow1 grey1 and red on a blue ground4 ,the work is primitive4 ,the ornamentation is akin to that of ,greek vase-painting of the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,the pictures are purely decorative3 animals and fabulous animals such as lion1 sphinx1 deer1 and panther fill the surface side by side with lotus-flowers and palmettes4 ,there is no narrative element4 ,to be sure1 ,weege1 like others before him1 has tried to construe one of the pictures 7fig4 #a7 into a mythological scene3 the boy on the horse1 which is led by the bridle by a man walking behind1 is thought to be a dead man on his way to ,hades1 and the man with the loin-cloth1 carrying an axe over his shoulder1 to the left in front of the horse1 to be the ,etruscan death-god and conductor of souls1 ,charun1 to whom we shall return later4 ,weege also thinks that the animal crouching on the back of the horse is a hunting leopard4 ,but1 apart from the rather puzzling question1 what the hunting leopard has to do with the ride to ,hades1 the animal is not a hunting leopard at all3 it is a feline animal with a short tail1 while the hunting leopard has a long tail4 ,the animal was only placed there to fill up the space1 thus illustrating the poverty of ideas in these pictures4 ,moreover1 as the man with the axe is not characterized as ,charun1 either by colour or by dress1 it seems unnecessary to force a mythological explanation4 ,the human figures in this picture1 as in the ,melian vases of the seventh century ,b4,c41 are purely decorative3 they ride when the space above the back of the horse has to be filled in1 and they walk when a long1 narrow field makes the human figure more appropriate than a seated or walking animal as a means of filling the space4 ,the absurd alternation of colours within the same figure1 every single animal being coloured in compartments of yellow and red and having alternately red and yellow legs1 affords a good instance of purely decorative conception and suggests the idea of woven tapestry4 ,hence it is an all but obvious conclusion to imagine1 as prototype of this painting1 some magnificently coloured wall-tapestry imported into ,etruria in the seventh century ,b4,c4 from ,crete or one of the islands in the ,aegean ,sea1 to the vase-paintings of which the ornamentation of the tomb shows close affinity4#d ,thus there is in these pictures neither any action nor any reference to death or the tomb4 ,they serve as a decorative ornamentation of the tomb-chamber1 like the six painted shields in the inner chamber of the tomb1 which suggest those #8brass circles' mentioned by ,livy 7,,viii1 #bj1 #h7 as common votive offerings in early ,rome4 ,we can imagine the home of a rich ,etruscan in the seventh century decorated with similar frescoes3 painted tapestries and painted shields as substitutes for real wall-tapestries and metal shields4#e ,the ,tomba ,campana is the most impressive but not the only representative of this earliest class of tombs1 in the ornamentation of which only decorative considerations have been kept in view4 ,tombs at ,cosa1 ,chiusi1 ,magliano1 and ,caere contain still more primitive paintings of the same sort1 but they are badly preserved and still more imperfectly described4#f ,,footnotes3 #d ,cp4 ,fr4 ,poulsen1 ,der ,orient and die frhgriechische ,kunst1 p4 #abh1 where ,i tried to prove that the pictures of the tomb are influenced by the art and style of decoration of the island of ,cyprus4 ,rumpf 7op4 cit4 #ej7 was nearer the mark in perceiving the connexion with the decorative art of ,crete and the ,cyclades in the seventh century ,b4,c4 ,the horsemen1 in particular1 recall the frieze from ,prinia in ,crete1 ,bollettino d',arte1 #aijh1 p4 #deg ff4 #e ,shields were also common mural decorations with the early ,greeks1 cp4 ,poulsen1 ,orient1 p4 #gg1 and ,alcaeus1 fragm4 #ae 7,bergk74 #f ,see the summary account in ,rumpf1 op4 cit4 #fa ff4 ,,iii ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,dei ,,tori ,,at ,,corneto ,the next stage in the development is represented by the ,tomba dei ,tori at ,corneto1 discovered in #ahib and admirably published by ,g4 ,krte in ,antike ,denkmler4#g ,the back wall of the main chamber in this tomb has two doors1 and it is between these that the one large figure painting is placed1 again in such a way as to suggest a tapestry stretched on the wall 7fig4 #b74 ,but now the picture has a narrative content1 inasmuch as a scene from the ,greek cycle of myths is depicted3 ,achilles watches for the ,trojan prince ,troilus at a well4 ,achilles1 to the left1 wears a crested ,corinthian helmet1 sword1 greaves1 and red loin-cloth4 ,troilus is naked and only decorated with armlets and elegant shoes4 ,he wears his hair long1 according to ,ionic fashion1 and in his hand he carries a goad 7kentron74 ,this is1 as a rule1 only used when two horses are ridden1 and the drawing shows traces of double contours near the head and the right leg of the horse2 it is probable1 therefore1 that two horses were originally planned4 ,in this picture also1 the proportions of man and horse are impossible1 but progress is perceptible in the monochromatic treatment of the body and legs of the horse4 ,on the other hand1 the old manner of painting in stripes or compartments is still retained in the running chimera in the pediment above2 it also lingers for a very long time in the pedimental figures of the following period4 ,the style is ,ionic of the first half of the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,a truly ,ionian monster1 created under ,oriental influence1 is the human-faced bull in the pediment above the door1 one of the two bulls from which the tomb derives its name1 and which are omitted here because of the obscene groups on either side of them4 ,other decorative details point to ,cyrene and ,egypt1 especially the characteristic frieze of lotuses and pomegranates1 which corresponds with the ,cyrenaic vases of the sixth century ,b4,c41 and the stylized flower-bed under the belly of the horse1 which has its origin in ,egyptian and its parallels in ,phoenician and in orientalizing ,greek art4#h ,in this tomb the painting is not executed al fresco but in a yellowish-white pigment which unfortunately scales off in large flakes4 ,thus in the ,tomba dei ,tori1 besides a decorative treatment of the wall surface with friezes1 we have a main picture with a mythological subject1 painted in the ,greek spirit and perhaps actually executed by a ,greek mural painter4 ,we do not find even the slightest allusion to death or entombment1 or the least trace of any ,etruscan characteristics4 ,the inscription in the large frieze is of interest because it shows the ,etruscan language in its archaic form1 with a rich vocalization which must have made it much more euphonious than the language spoken later1 in the fourth or following centuries4 ,the inscription runs3 #8arnth spuriana suthil hece ce fariceka1' and means1 #8,aruns ,spurinna monumentum sepulcrale 444 condidit1 adornavit1' or the like4#i ,,footnotes3 #g ,,ii1 ,tafel #da1 and ,hilfstafel #a-h4 #h ,poulsen1 ,orient1 p4 #fg4 #i ,i am greatly indebted to ,professor ,o4 ,a4 ,danielsson of ,upsala for information about this as well as about other inscriptions1 and for numerous linguistic suggestions on the general subject of my treatise4 ,,iv ,a considerable group of ,etruscan tomb-paintings1 dating from the middle of the sixth century1 show in their composition close connexion with ,ionic vase-painting1 especially with the so-called ,caeretan hydriae1 while their main pictures tell us something about the ,etruscans themselves and their conceptions of ,life and ,death and ,eternity4 ,only in the animal friezes beneath the painted roof-supports does the old decorative conception of the human and animal figure still linger2 elsewhere the pictures now have content and meaning4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,degli ,,auguri ,we may take the ,tomba degli ,auguri in ,corneto1 discovered in #ahgh1 as our starting-point4 ,there are coloured drawings as well as full-sized facsimiles of its pictures in the ,helbig ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,back ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,degli ,,auguri ,the middle of the back wall of this tomb is occupied by a painted door flanked by two men in white chitons and short black cloaks lined with red2 on their feet are peaked shoes4 ,they raise both arms in a gesture of lament1 #8beating their foreheads' as the ancient texts have it4#aj ,with this scene 7fig4 #c7 the key-note is struck3 the living stand at the door of the tomb and moan for the dead1 a subject specially appropriate to the decoration of the walls of a tomb4 ,the scenes on the main walls are also associated with the funeral ceremonies4 ,on the right-hand main wall 7fig4 #d7 a boy is seen to the left in a white tunic with black dots1 carrying a stool and raising one arm and his face to a man who1 dressed in a red and brown cloak and brown shoes1 seems to beckon to the boy with his right hand1 gesticulating at the same time with his left4 ,between them a small figure is seated who reminds one of the small boys in the ,greek tomb reliefs #8weeping on their cold knees'4 ,to the right is another man clad in chiton and mantle1 gesticulating violently with his left hand1 and carrying a crook in his right4 ,above him1 and above the excited man to the right1 runs the inscription3 #8,tevarath'1 probably meaning umpire 71 74 ,for now follow representations of athletic contests3 two wrestlers engaging in the initial grips1 the elder bearded1 the younger beardless3 between them are seen the prizes--metal bowls2 these are supposed to be arranged in the background1 but owing to the lack of perspective they seem to be in the way of the combatants4 ,this scene throws light on the preceding one3 the man with the crook is evidently not an augur1 as originally conjectured because of the staff and the flying birds1 but the umpire who has to see that no unfair tricks are used2 the other man is the spectator who has not yet seated himself1 but beckons to the slave-boy to bring him the stool on which he will sit down like the ,roman knights of later times who brought their own stools into the orchestra of the theatre4 ,on the other hand1 the mourning1 crouching slave-boy seems to repeat the death lament of the back wall4 ,here already1 then1 we can observe the curious fragmentariness of the scenes in ,etruscan art3 they look as if they had been cut out of more comprehensive wholes1 and put together without logical sequence4 ,clarity and unity are wanting4 ,there is not the sustained composition or the pleasure in detailed narrative which are regular in ,greek and ,egyptian art4 ,the ,etruscan artist is content with hints and fragments4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,del ,,pulcinella ,to the right of the wrestlers1 on the same main wall1 is a particularly interesting representation3 beneath the inscription ,phersu1 a man1 dressed and masked like a punchinello1 is leading a dog in a long leash which is wound round his antagonist and ends in a wooden collar round the neck of the dog4 ,the ferocious blood-hound has inflicted bleeding wounds on the legs and thighs of the antagonist1 and the antagonist1 whose head is muffled in a sack1 is vainly trying to disentangle himself from the leash and to hit the dog with a club4 ,the explanation of this exciting and brutal contest1 to which no parallel can be found in ,greek art1 is evidently that ,phersu tries to make his dog bite his antagonist to death before the latter can get his head out of the sack and hit man and dog with his club4 ,if the club-bearer succeeds in freeing himself from the sack and the dog1 ,phersu has only one chance3 to run away4 ,as runner1 he has his legs stiffened with thongs1 and in the much damaged fresco on the left main wall of the tomb we see the flight of ,phersu 7fig4 #e7 and 7not reproduced7 the club-bearer pursuing him4 ,they are separated by a pair of pugilists who are boxing to the accompaniment of flutes1 again an evidence of ,etruscan indifference to incongruities in the composition4 ,the escaping ,phersu is painted alone in another tomb at ,corneto1 the ,tomba del ,pulcinella1 the name of which is derived from this figure1 but here he is placed beside a horseman 7fig4 #f71 who represents the equestrian processions at funerals1 to which we shall turn our attention later4 ,the ,tomba del ,pulcinella1 which was discovered in #ahgb1 also dates from the sixth century ,b4,c41 and like the ,tomb of the ,augur it bears the stamp of ,ionic art1 especially in the receding contours of the crown of the head and in the plump forms of the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,right ,,main ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,degli ,,auguri ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,left ,,main ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,degli ,,auguri ,after a coloured drawing in the ,helbig ,museum ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,painting ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,pulcinella ,in these two sepulchres1 then1 we are confronted with representations which are associated not only with death and the tomb1 but also with ,etruscan local customs and national character4 ,it is true that prize-fights and wrestling contests in connexion with obsequies are known in the ,greek civilized world as well1 for instance from the description in the ,iliad of the funeral of ,patroclus1 and lingered for a long time especially in the outskirts of the ,greek world--thus ,king ,nicocles of ,cyprus1 in the beginning of the fourth century ,b4,c41 honoured his deceased father with choral dancing1 athletic games1 horse-races1 trireme races4#aa ,but we know of no example from ,hellas of a fight like that between ,phersu1 accompanied by his blood-hound1 and the muffled club-bearer3 a fight the attraction of which1 apart from its sanguinary character1 evidently depended on the disparity of the weapons1 as it did in the combat between gladiator and retiarius1 the man armed with net and trident1 in the ,roman arenas of a later day4#ab ,sidenote3 ,,gladiators ,,in ,,etruria ,from the ,greek author ,athenaeus1#ac we learn that the gladiatorial games originated in ,campania1 where they were introduced as entertainments at banquets1 but that the ,romans adopted them from the ,etruscans4 ,this tradition is confirmed by the facts that the name applied to the leader and trainer of the ,roman gladiatorial school1 lanista1 is of ,etruscan origin1 and that the person1 who even in late ,rome#ad dragged the corpses from the arena1 the so-called ,dispater1 was furnished with satyr-ears and a mask with savage features1 and carried a hammer1 thus being a faithful copy of the ,etruscan death-god1 ,charun4#ae ,moreover1 as the ,etruscans in the heyday of their glory1 in the sixth and fifth centuries ,b4,c41 also ruled over ,campania1 it is most natural to attribute to them1 and not to the ,campanian ,graeculi1 the doubtful honour of being the actual #8inventors' of gladiatorial combats4 ,these combats were a piquant and exciting substitute for actual human sacrifices in honour of the deceased noble or the gods1 and as one of the parties was given a chance to save his life the practice may even be considered an advance in humanity4 ,etruscan obscurity and inconsistency lead to curious confusion in the transition from mythological pictures to funereal scenes4 ,thus we find on the front of an early archaic ,etruscan terracotta sarcophagus1 now in the ,british ,museum1#af a representation in relief1 manifestly inspired by ,greek mythology1 of a battle scene with men and women as spectators2 at one end of the sarcophagus1 the left1 leave-taking before marching out to battle2 on the back1 a banqueting-scene1 evidently representing the funeral feast1 since the relief on the other end of the sarcophagus shows four mourning women1 two of them holding drinking-bowls in their hands4 ,,footnotes3 #aj 1 ,dionys4 ,halicarn4 x4 #i2 #8frontem ferire'1 ,cicero1 ,epist4 ad ,attic4 i4 #a2 for other instances see ,sittl1 ,gebrden der ,griechen and ,rmer1 p4 #ba4 #aa ,isocrates ix4 #a4 #ab ,with reference to phersu1 which is supposed to be synonymous with and the origin of the ,latin persona1 see ,pauly-,wissowa1 vi4 #gge1 and ,s4,p4 ,cortsen1 ,vocabulorum ,etruscorum interpretatio in ,nord4 ,tidsskr4 for ,filologi1 #aiag1 p4 #agd4 #ac iv4 #aec f4 #ad ,tertullian1 ,ad nation4 i4 #aj4 #ae ,pauly-,wissowa1 iii4 #bagh4 #af ,b #fcj4 ,figured in ,terra-cotta ,sarcophagi in ,british ,museum1 pl4 ix-xi4 ,v ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,delle ,,iscrizioni ,a good idea of the different sort of athletic contests at the great ,etruscan funerals is given by the wall-paintings in the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni at ,corneto1 described and copied by ,stackelberg and ,kestner in #ahbg1ag and represented in the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek by facsimiles and coloured drawings executed in #aijg1 after a chemical treatment of the plaster stucco1 which brought out a number of details more plainly4 ,the pictures are of the same period as those of the ,augur tomb1 and of similar style4 ,the numerous inscriptions from which the tomb has derived its title seem to be mostly proper names4 ,each of the three wall-surfaces of this tomb1 which contains only one chamber1 has a false painted door in the middle4 ,of the first figures on the left main wall1 two pugilists1 only very little is preserved 7fig4 #g74 ,they are contending1 like the two wrestlers to the right of them1 one of whom has lifted the other from the ground1 to the accompaniment of the flute-player who is standing between the two groups4 ,this and many other ,etruscan paintings confirm the statement of ,aristotle#ah that the ,etruscans made their boxers perform to the sound of the flute4 ,flute-playing was so popular that masters scourged their slaves and caused their cooks to work in the kitchen to the sound of the flute2 and here again the ,romans adopted the ,etruscan tradition and gave their flute-players a recognized position in the community1 as is shown by the amusing story about the strike of the ,roman flute-players#ai3 the flute-players left ,rome in disgust and went in a body to ,tibur1 and the only device the ,romans could think of was to make the excellent fellows drunk and cart them back to ,rome1 where the citizens made haste to confirm the ancient privileges of the flute-players and to add several new ones in order to make the awakening more pleasant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,left ,,main ,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,iscrizioni4 ,after a coloured drawing in the ,helbig ,museum ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,back ,,wall ,,of ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,iscrizioni ,on the other side of the false door the equestrian procession begins and is continued on the back wall to the central false door 7fig4 #h74 ,four young naked horsemen1 some of them with staves in their hands1 are received by a naked youth who carries a palm-branch over his shoulder4 ,apart from the nakedness1 which must be attributed to the influence of ,greek art1 this equestrian procession is genuinely ,etruscan4 ,appian derives the festive processions at triumphs and funerals from ,etruscan prototypes1 while ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus finds their prototypes in ,hellas4 ,but it cannot be denied that ,dionysius's description of these pompae in early ,rome#bj suggests ,etruria3 first came young horsemen1 then foot-soldiers2 after these1 athletes with their sexual organs covered 7in contrast to ,greek custom71 then the tripartite chorus of dancers in purple cloaks and bronze belts1 then the grotesque dancers1 flute-players1 lyre-players1 and thurifers1 and finally the procession of chariots with the images of the gods4 ,in the following pages we shall make acquaintance with all these groups in the ,etruscan world of art4 ,the equestrian procession is presumably the preliminary to a horse-race4 ,the nobles of ,etruria were celebrated for their race-horses and often sent their chariot-teams to the games in early ,rome4#ba ,it is a characteristic fact that one of the few ,etruscan words given by the ,greek lexicographer ,hesychius is no other than the word for horse1 according to the ,greek version4#bb ,to the right of the false door in the back wall three jolly dancers are seen3 the first has his brow wreathed1 carries a drinking-bowl in hand1 and wears boots1 red skirt1 and blue neckerchief4 ,the figure is shown by the flesh tint to be male1 not female as stated in ,carl ,jacobsen's catalogue4 ,after him dances the flute-player1 with red boots1 blue loin-cloth1 and red chaplet1 and last comes a naked dancing youth with boots1 necklace1 and chaplet4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,del ,,morto ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,del ,,triclinio ,dancers appear in a number of ,etruscan tomb-paintings1 and abandon themselves to their gambols with a frenzy which might seem incompatible with death and entombment4 ,in the ,tomba del ,morto at ,corneto1 dating from the same period1 we find traces of a pirouetting dancer close to the couch of the dead and the lamenting mourners2 the dance was thus as important as the funeral lament 7fig4 #i74 ,the finest representations of ,etruscan mourning dancers are found in the ,tomba del ,triclinio1 which dates from the beginning of the fifth century ,b4,c43 the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek contains several earlier1 inferior facsimiles1 made from the copies in the ,museo ,gregoriano and only touched up at ,corneto by the painter ,mariani2#bc and some more recent ones carefully executed on the spot 7fig4 #aj74 ,on each wall three female and two male dancers are seen among trees2 fillets and singing-birds appear in the foliage4 ,the male dancers play on lyre and flute2 the dancing-girls have castanets and the foremost a strap or chaplet with bells over her shoulder4 ,similar chaplets with bells are often seen hanging on the walls in pictures representing the symposia in honour of the dead 7see below71 and bear witness to the childish predilection of the ,etruscans for gipsy-like noise and merry-making4 ,the most beautiful dancing-girl1 however1 in any ,etruscan tomb is the already mentioned #8bella ballerina di ,corneto'1 discovered on a wall in the ,tomba ,francesca ,giustiniani4 ,we give this figure1 which has never been reproduced1 after the facsimile in the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek which arrived there shortly before the death of ,carl ,jacobsen and gave him one of the last pleasures in his life 7fig4 #aa74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,picture ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,morto ,,at ,,corneto ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,picture ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,triclinio ,when ,i examined the original in the tomb at ,corneto ,i made the following notes3 the drapery 7chiton71 which is ornamented with a pattern of dotted rosettes1 is distinctly preserved from the hips down to the elegant fluttering edge4 ,much of the middle part of the body has been destroyed2 the fluttering ends of the red scarf across the shoulders are visible to right and left4 ,the upper part of the body and the shoulders are also well preserved4 ,the right arm is raised1 and visible from shoulder to elbow2 a faint outline of the left arm is also visible4#bd ,of the head1 the brow1 the beginning of the nose1 the ear1 the green fluttering head-dress1 the red hair with a loosened tress in front of the ear have been preserved4 ,to the spectator the picture still conveys an impression of joy1 of graceful movement1 and of filmy fluttering draperies4 ,sidenote3 ,,etruscan ,,dance ,,and ,,song ,here also we find ,etruscan tradition continued on ,roman soil1 not only in the dancers of the festival processions1 but in the tradition that ,etruscan dancers1 ludii or ludiones1 were imported to ,rome to dance at the great festivals4 ,the ,greeks compared the ,roman reel to the ,dionysiac #8cancan'1 1 while its ,roman name is tripudium2 it was danced at every period of ,roman history by the ,salii1 the ancient priesthood of the ,roman war-god1 on the chief festival of the god1 ,march #ai4 ,according to ,livy 7vii4 #b4 #d-g7 the earliest ,roman poetry1 the coarse ,fescennines1 originated in the text which accompanied the dance of the ludiones1 and the fact that the dancers during the ,fescennines daubed their faces with minium supports the theory of ,etruscan influence1 which also makes itself felt in the custom observed by the ,roman triumphators1 who in the earliest times daubed their whole bodies with minium4 ,for we know that the ,etruscans coated the images of their gods with minium at their festivals1 and that the ,romans gave the ancient terracotta statue of the ,capitoline ,jupiter a similar coat of #8war paint' at the high festivals1 a task which it fell to the censors to superintend4#be ,the red minium was meant to heighten the natural red-brown hue of the men2 it produced an artificial virile complexion1 just as white lead and chalk served to emphasize the pale feminine hue4#bf ,the primitive nature of the verses connected with these dances is shown by the song of the ,salii1 the burden of which is the five times repeated #8triumpe' 7jump67 and the text of which runs3 #8,help us1 lares1 let not the evil disease fall upon any more of us1 ,mars6 ,be satisfied1 cruel ,mars6 ,jump on to the threshold4 ,cease jumping4 ,help us1 ,mars6' ,at the triumphs also1 #8carmina incondita'1 as ,livy tells us1 were sung 7iv4 #bj4 #b71 and we venture to think that ,etruscan poetry was no better than this1 and that the disappearance of the texts1 which accompanied the dances1 is no great loss4 ,varro mentions tragedies in the ,etruscan language1 but they were undoubtedly versions of the ,greek ones1 even worse than those made for the ,romans by ,livius ,andronicus4 ,apart from some religious and a little historical literature1 and a number of recipes for the gathering of simples1 capable of rousing the admiration of the ,greeks for #8the descendants of the ,tyrrhenians1 the people skilled in medical lore'1#bg no tradition of any ,etruscan intellectual life in writing or poetry has been handed down to posterity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,right ,,main ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,iscrizioni ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,delle ,,iscrizioni ,sidenote3 ,,laurel ,,decorations ,we pass on to the right main wall in the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni 7fig4 #ab7 where dancers in a row with drinking-bowls in their hands alternate with servants carrying wine in large bowls4 ,that the funeral dance was animated by free indulgence in wine is often exemplified in the tombs4 ,in the ,tomba delle ,leonesse1 named after the beasts of prey in the pediment1 which are really hunting leopards1 a red-brown lad to the right is dancing with a girl2 to the left is a woman with castanets1 and in the centre1 flanked by a flute-player and a lyre-player1 stands the wine-bowl wreathed with fresh leaves 7fig4 #ac71 #8the wine-bowl filled with joy1' in ,xenophanes' words4 ,evidently the ,etruscans drank heavily to celebrate the memory of their dead1 as ,xenophon relates of another barbarian tribe1 the ,odrysians4#bh ,to the right of the false door of the same main wall in the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni 7fig4 #ab71 a man in a loin-cloth with a laurel branch in each hand is greeting another man1 who carries chaplets and rests one leg on the cushions of a couch4 ,laurel branches constantly recur in the reliefs of the ,etruscan cinerary urns1 where the death lament round the bier of the deceased is reproduced1 and it seems probable that laurel branches were carried round the house and used for wall decoration in the house of the deceased on the funeral day1 for the purpose of purification4 ,this decoration of the walls1 then1 would be the subject of our picture1 together with the other preparations for the funeral1 as shown by the paintings4#bi ,perhaps it was a general custom of the ,etruscans to decorate their walls on festival days with laurel branches1 just as the ,egyptians decorated theirs with lotus1 and this would often account for all the foliage which appears in the backgrounds of the paintings alternating with suspended chaplets1 even where the action--the death lament 7fig4 #i7 or the symposium--takes place indoors4 ,in other cases1 however1 as in the ,tomba dei ,tori 7fig4 #b7 and in the ,tomba del ,triclinio 7fig4 #aj71 there is no doubt that real trees and open-air scenes are represented1 but even there the chaplets are often seen hanging--on the wall4 ,again a proof of the want of clarity in ,etruscan art6 ,trees1 however1 in the background of scenes with figures are also found on ,south ,italian vases of the same time1 and thus seem to be a common ,italic trait4 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,kestner1 ,annali i 7#ahbi71 p4 #aja ff4 #ah ,athenaeus iv4 #aed;a4 #ai ,livy ix4 #cj4 #e-aj4 ,plutarch1 ,aetia ,romana1 #ee4 #bj ,dionys4 ,halicarn4 vii4 #gb-c4 #ba ,livy i4 #ce4 #i4 #bb ,hesych4 s4 v4 ,the word is not mentioned in ,s4,p4 ,cortsen's ,vocabulorum ,etruscorum interpretatio in ,nordisk ,tidsskr4 for ,filologi1 #aiag2 no doubt because he considers ,hesychius's statement insufficiently authoritative4 ,cp4 ,skutsch1 ,pauly-,wissowa1 vi4 #gge4 #bc ,helbig's letters of ,june #ba and ,december #aj1 #ahie4 #bd ,thus the facsimile at this point gives more than ,i at any rate could see3 on the other hand1 less as far as brow and nose are concerned4 #be ,plutarch1 ,aetia ,romana #ih4 #bf ,plautus1 ,truculentus #bij1 #bid1 ,mostellaria #bei ff4 ,in ,greece also1 women used white lead as paint3 ,lysias i4 #ad and #ag4 #bg ,quotation from ,aeschylus by ,theophrastus 7who endorses the opinion73 ,history of ,plants ix4 #ae4 #a4 #bh ,hellenica iii4 #b4 #e4 #bi ,cp4 ,tacitus1 ,histor4 iv4 #ec1 on the inauguration of the rebuilt ,capitolium3 'spatium omne quod templo dicabatur evinctum vittis coronisque2 ingressi milites1 quis fausta nomina1 felicibus ramis4' ,,vi ,contemporary with the group of the ,tomba degli ,auguri and the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni is the ,tomba del ,barone1 discovered at ,corneto in #ahbg and named1 as already mentioned1 after ,baron ,kestner4 ,after the paintings of this tomb ,stackelberg executed a fine water-colour1 and ,thrmer a number of drawings1 now in the ,university of ,strasburg4 ,the style--both in the shape of the heads and in the treatment of the draperies--is still ,ionic1 but the proportions are more slender1 probably owing to ,chian or ,attic influence4 ,composition and technique are both unique in the paintings of this tomb4 ,we content ourselves with reproducing one main wall1 the left 7fig4 #ad71 where a black horse with light grey hoofs1 mane1 and tail1 is led by a man wearing red boots and a brown mantle lined with green4 ,he is speaking with one hand raised to a woman in a long grey chiton1 a brown mantle lined with green1 and a brown cap4 ,then comes a man with green boots leading a brown horse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,back ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,leonesse ,after a drawing in the ,helbig ,museum ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,,left ,,main ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,barone ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,del ,,barone ,similar quiet pictures are found on the other two walls of the tomb2 on the back wall a man is standing with his arm round a young flute-player's neck1 and is greeted by a woman4 ,the dress of the woman is ,etruscan2 the subjects also are probably ,etruscan--the preparations for the pompa and the dancing feast4 ,but everything breathes coolness and calm1 and we miss the usual jollity4 ,the technique is equally remarkable4 ,it is not the usual fresco painting3 experiments have been made with size-paint1 that is1 an attempt at painting in distemper on the plaster stucco covering the walls4 ,the attempt has failed2 the colour has run in large blotches4 ,these two characteristics of the artist of the ,tomba del ,barone are of great interest because the ,german archaeologist1 ,gustav ,krte1 has demonstrated the existence of marks made by ,greek artisans on the walls of this tomb4 ,it was not in ,etruscan1 but in ,greek letters that the artist indicated the amount of his day's work1 with a view to his wages4 ,the explanation1 then1 seems to be the following3 a ,greek decorator was charged with the task of ornamenting the walls of the tomb1 and he did it1 as far as the dresses are concerned1 according to local tradition2 but he experimented boldly with a new technical process1 the success of which was prevented by the dampness of the rock-wall2 and he composed his pictures with a grandeur of line and a tranquillity in execution which make one think of the pediment of a ,greek temple4 ,in the light of this it is easier to realize how much of the ,etruscan temperament there really is in the other paintings1 all ,greek influence on style notwithstanding4 ,it must be noted here that artisans' marks are the only written evidence left by the decorative painters of ,etruria2 artists' signatures are unknown1 whether in ,greek or in ,etruscan4 ,the ,etruscan nobles1 like the ,roman later1 evidently employed ,greek artists1 but granted them no social position4 ,,vii ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,in the next period the predominant stylistic influence is ,attic4 ,a whole group of tombs dates from about #ejj ,b4,c43 they are thus contemporaneous with the severe red-figured vase-paintings4 ,very ,attic and1 at the same time1 like a complete pictorial procession1 representing everything which took place at a great ,etruscan funeral1 is the ,tomba delle ,bighe1 previously mentioned and now published by ,weege4 ,as the pictures in this tomb are clearer and more complete than most ,etruscan paintings1 we will take some of them as a starting-point for a closer examination of the facts of ,etruscan life4 ,there are two friezes on the three walls of the tomb3 a narrower and lighter above2 and a broader one below1 in which the figures are painted on a deep red ground2 the height of the friezes is respectively #cf and #ij cm41 and they are separated by a broad1 coloured band4 ,the narrow frieze with the dark figures on light ground still reminds one of the black-figured ,attic vases1 whereas the lower purple frieze1 in which the skin of the men is reserved in a somewhat lighter red1 that of the women in white1 recalls the red-figured vase-paintings1 all differences notwithstanding4 ,on the right-hand main wall 7fig4 #ae71 in the broad frieze1 men and women are dancing in honour of the dead among laurel branches4 ,there are the usual ecstasy and the familiar animated gestures with the big fan-like hands1 reminding one of the figures in archaic ,greek vase-painting and plastic art4#cj ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,tutulus--,,chariot ,,race ,especially splendid is the female flute-player who turns round as she dances1 her light chiton and red cloak fluttering about her2 she can almost compare with #8la bella ballerina'4 ,the dancing-women all wear the high ,etruscan wreathed cap1 the so-called tutulus1 which in the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni is also worn by a male dancer4 ,we meet with it again in ,etruscan terracotta sculpture4 ,the fashion is of ,oriental origin1 and goes back1 ultimately1 to the pointed 'sugar-loaf hat' of the ,hittites4 ,it probably reached ,etruria by way of ,cyprus1 where it is frequently seen in reliefs of the seventh century ,b4 ,c4 ,in ,etruria the pointed woollen cap became part of the national dress4#ca ,rome of course adopted the headgear and preserved the ,etruscan tradition in the priesthoods2 a purple tutulus adorned the ,roman ,flaminicae1 and certain secondary priests wore a tutulus down to the time of ,tertullian4#cb ,in early ,rome all women wore the tutulus1 and under it a head-cloth such as is shown in ,etruscan terracottas 7fig4 #af72 this is clear from a description of a ,roman mourning scene in ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus 7xi4 #ci71 where the women tear their many and various fillets and hair-ornaments off their heads4#cc ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,right ,,main ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,etruscan ,,terra-,,cotta ,,head ,,in ,,the ,,ny ,,carlsberg ,,glyptotek ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,small ,,frieze ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,the dancing scene1 in the painted frieze referred to above 7fig4 #ae71 ends at the sideboard on the left1 which bears a number of metal bowls3 a cup-bearer1 partially obliterated in the original1 is just putting down a vessel4 ,the wine to inspire the dancers is ready4 ,in the narrow frieze--the most beautiful and most carefully executed of those in the tomb1 but very badly copied in the facsimile of the ,glyptotek--we see the preparations for a chariot race4 ,the horses are being led out and harnessed to the chariot4 ,we reproduce1 after ,stackelberg's drawing1 the most interesting part of the frieze 7fig4 #ag71 in which three young men are busy harnessing two horses to the light1 two-wheeled chariot1 the ,biga4 ,the chariot is represented in foreshortening1 and the shaft is lifted up by a naked boy4 ,the young men have each one foot strongly foreshortened4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,we find here the same experimentation with this new and difficult problem1 as in the ,greek vase-paintings of about #ejj ,b4 ,c41 in the vases of ,euthymides and ,euphronius4 ,the horse to the right is blue1 that to the left grey1 both have red hoofs and red harness1 and two youths1 with a sort of shawl round their loins1 are busily engaged with them1 striking them on the flanks to get them into place4 ,these two excellent figures are quite misdrawn and misconstrued in the ,ny ,carlsberg facsimile1 the draughtsman not having realized that they are seen from behind4 ,we have1 therefore1 preparations for a chariot race2 in a wall-painting in the ,tomba del ,morente at ,corneto we have a still earlier phase represented1 the lassoing of the horse which is to be harnessed 7fig4 #ah72 here the horse is red1 with blue mane and tail4 ,the disposition of the colours is no more naturalistic in ,etruscan wall-painting than in the pediments of ,greek temples3 in applying the colours1 the painter's object was purely decorative4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,,wall-,,painting ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,morente ,,the ,,lassoing ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,small ,,frieze ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,tomba ,,della ,,scimmia ,,at ,,chiusi ,after the preparations comes the ceremonial parade of the racing chariots past the stands2 three chariots are seen in a row 7fig4 #ae73 the first has not yet begun to move1 the horses are pawing the ground impatiently1 and the groom is standing at their heads trying to pacify them2 the second chariot has already started1 and the team of the third chariot is going a little faster1 a fine crescendo which reminds one of good ,greek art rather than of ,etruscan4 ,to the left are the stands for the spectators1 which are continued on the back wall2 similar stands are seen in the corner where back wall and left main wall adjoin4 ,we give1 after ,stackelberg's drawing1 the two parts from the first-mentioned corner 7fig4 #ai74 ,on elevated platforms1 bounded above by lines evidently meant to indicate curtains which might be drawn before the #8box' against sun or heavy showers1 men and women are seated and show their absorption in the games by their eager gestures4 ,the foremost woman to the right actually greets the procession of chariots with her raised hand4 ,she is a matron wearing a shawl 7epiblema7 over the arms1 and the back of her head1 and under that a tutulus4 ,next to her sits a young girl with a tutulus1 noble in bearing and gesture like a young goddess4 ,then follows a varied company of youths1 women1 and a bearded man4 ,the young man1 who is represented partly frontal with his chin resting on his hand and the head and left leg frontal1 is of special interest4 ,the problem of foreshortening has been very neatly solved4 ,under the wooden floor of the stands the common folk are disporting themselves1 some of them engrossed in anything but the games4 ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,audience ,in order to understand the significance of this representation one has to realize that such detailed pictures of spectators at athletic games are unknown in ,greek art4 ,the nearest parallel is the assembly of the gods1 the ,olympian spectators1 in the frieze of the ,treasury of the ,siphnians at ,delphi1#cd and in the ,parthenon frieze1 between which the ,tomba delle ,bighe chronologically occupies an intermediate position1 about twenty-five years later than the former1 and about fifty years earlier than the latter4 ,at the same time we learn that female spectators were also present2 this was not so at the ,olympic games1 but seems to have been a common ,italic custom4 ,the stands1 too1 appear typically ,italic2 on such the spectators were seated at those athletic games and contests which in earlier times1 according to ,vitruvius 7v4 #a71 were held in the market-places of ,italian towns4 ,amphitheatres were not known till the first century ,b4,c41 but if one imagines these market-places on festival days with such wooden stands built up on all four sides1 and these stands curved round at the corners in order that the spectators might see better1 one can understand how the shape of the amphitheatre originated4#ce ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,della ,,scimmia ,,at ,,chiusi ,within the sphere of ,etruscan painting also1 this is the only large representation of an audience4 ,elsewhere the artist limited himself to the individual figure as representative of the spectators2 thus in the ,tomba della ,scimmia 7the ,monkey ,tomb7 at ,chiusi1 the only spectator is a lady dressed in black and sheltered by a sunshade2 she is seated on a high chair without a back 7diphros71 her feet on a footstool 7fig4 #bj74 ,the tomb was discovered in #ahdf by ,franois4 ,the pictures are executed in a thin colour1 probably a sort of water-colour1 applied directly to the stone without an intermediate layer of stucco2 a similar technique is employed in the other and larger tomb at ,chiusi1 the ,tomba ,casuccini4 ,the four walls are decorated with scenes from the race-course and the palaestra4 ,behind the lady on the wall which is reproduced1 we see two men in rapid motion and with ample gestures probably intended to render the bustle and hurry at the funeral1 which is also represented1 as we have seen1 by one of the figures in the ,augur tomb 7cp4 fig4 #d74 ,the sunshade carried by the #8widow' was an ,oriental fashion1 but in the fifth century ,b4,c4 the women of ,greece had adopted it1 as is shown by the ,knights of ,aristophanes 7l4 #acdh 74 ,to the left the usual flute-player is standing1 and the round dais in front of him is not an altar1 but1 as ,milani was the first to point out1 the small table on which prizes were placed4#cf ,next comes a girl with a censer on her head4 ,she is generally taken to be a female juggler1 but carrying a tall object on one's head is still a common practice with the women of the ,south1 and censers 7thymiateria71 as we learn from ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 were always carried at the #8pompae' in early ,rome2 at the high festivals they were placed in front of the ,roman doorways4#cg ,they were sometimes of costly material4#ch ,but our woman seems to be standing on a platform1 and the near presence of the flute-player1 and the turning of her body and position of her arms1 seem to indicate some difficult dance performed with the big object borne on her head in a small1 limited space2 hence a kind of old ,etruscan dervish-dance of which we have no other knowledge4 ,the two figures next to her are a big and a small man who are cooling their bleeding noses with sponges3 the artist gives the atmosphere of the scene after the fight4 ,on one of the other walls in this tomb the boxers are ready for action1 raising their cestus-bound fists against each other1 one hand closed for attack1 the other open for defence1 as frequently described in the ancient authors4#ci ,cicero tells us that boxers sighed and groaned1 in order to increase the force of the blow4#dj ,these cestus fights must have been terrible4 ,the guard1 nowadays less1 was then more important than the blow1 for it was too dangerous to take the risk of being hit by one's opponent when attacking him1 even if one was confident that one's own blow would be the harder2 one had to play for an opening1 at the same time guarding against the single blow which was sufficient to knock a man out4 ,finally1 on the extreme left of the picture 7fig4 #bj7 we meet with a scene which is repeated in another picture in the same tomb1 as well as in the ,tomba del ,triclinio3 a rider seated sideways and at the same time leading another horse4 ,the race with a led horse was an ,oriental custom1 and appears for the first time on the ,phoenician metal bowls of the eighth and seventh centuries ,b4,c4 ,this seat1 sideways on the horse1 is of ,scythian origin1 and in ,greek art usually characterizes the ,amazons4 ,the ,etruscans1 with their passion for difficult games1 evidently combined the two in order to make the races as exciting as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,small ,,frieze ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,small ,,frieze ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,symposium ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,in the small frieze on the back wall of the ,tomba delle ,bighe we find a rider with a led horse1 dressed in tunic and helmet1 and seated astride2 we reproduce part of it after ,stackelberg's water-colour 7fig4 #ba74 ,to the left of him we see a naked man standing on one leg and nursing his raised left leg4 ,it was formerly conjectured that he was playing leap-frog with the young man planting the jumping-pole in the ground behind him1 but it is not usual to play leap-frog on one leg1 and ,weege has pointed out the same position in athletic scenes on ,greek vases and supposes it to be a kind of preparatory exercise4 ,his supposition is correct3 any modern acrobat would recognize it as one of his exercises2 the contraction of the muscles by nursing right and left knee in turn4 ,acrobats practise this exercise when travelling1 to keep themselves fit when they are unable to train4 ,,footnotes3 #cj ,cp4 ,fr4 ,poulsen1 ,delphi1 fig4 #dd4 #ca ,daremberg-,saglio1 s4 v4 ,tutulus4 ,fr4 ,poulsen1 ,der ,orient und die frhgriech4 ,kunst1 p4 #ig1 fig4 #ii1 and p4 #ajg4 ,martha1 ,l'art trusque1 p4 #cjf1 fig4 #bjf 7,cyprus74 ,antike ,denkmler iii1 pl4 #a4 #cb ,in the same manner the ,roman priests used flint knives in their cult1 and their razors had to be of copper1 and1 as late as ,roman imperial times1 they used black vessels 7nigrum catinum71 corresponding to the ,etruscan bucchero vases1 at sacrifices4 ,livy i4 #bd4 #i3 ,juvenal vi4 #cdc4 ,cp4 ,mller-,deecke1 ,die ,etrusker ii4 p4 #bge4 #cc ,the ,latin name of the head-cloth is struppus1 and from that a festival at ,falerii1 struppearia1 derived its name4 ,it comes from ,ionia1 and is mentioned in the poems of ,sappho 774 #cd ,fr4 ,poulsen1 ,delphi1 fig4 #dd4 #ce ,cp4 ,daremberg-,saglio and ,pauly-,wissowa1 s4 v4 ,amphitheatrum4 #cf ,museo archeol4 di ,firenze1 p4 #cjc4 #cg ,livy xxix4 #ad4 #ac4 #ch ,cicero1 ,in ,verrem iv4 #df4 ,see also ,karl ,wigand1 ,thymiateria4 #ci ,for instance in ,apollonius ,rhodius1 ,argonautica ii4 #fh4 #dj ,cicero1 ,tusculanae disputationes ii4 #ef4 ,,viii ,sidenote3 ,,palaestra ,,life ,we will not dwell on all the forms of wrestling contests and boxing matches which appear in the small frieze of the ,bighe tomb1 but only describe a part of the left main wall1 which presents an important and difficult problem 7fig4 #bb74 ,to the left of a young man in a himation 7not reproduced7 we see the lower part of a statue of a deity1 who would seem1 from the faint traces in ,stackelberg's water-colour1 to have wings on his ankles4 ,if so1 it is ,hermes1 the protector of the palaestra1 and the black object in front of him is a small altar4 ,on the other side of the altar a boy1 accompanied by one of the caretakers of the palaestra1 clad in a blue mantle and carrying a knotted stick1 is standing with his hand raised4 ,this usually indicates the adorer praying to the divinity for victory in the contest4 ,an absolutely ,greek palaestra interior6 ,we have now escaped from the sphere of the customary rude games held at the ,etruscan funerals1 and the question arises whether the ,etruscan knew real palaestra life of the ,greek type or not4 ,in the ,oscan towns of ,lucania and ,campania the youths were devoted to ,greek sports1 and ,weege is therefore inclined1 in view especially of this picture1 to believe the same of the nobles of ,etruria at the height of their glory in the sixth and fifth centuries ,b4,c4 ,but this is a dangerous inference4 ,wherever else we meet with ,etruscan athletic types they are rough and lumbering of build and evidently professionals4 ,in the ,tomba delle ,bighe a ,greek artist has been at work2 this was already admitted by ,stackelberg and ,kestner1 and the same view is held in our own times4 ,although the artist has complied with the demands of his patron more fully than the ,greek artist in the ,tomba del ,barone1 who only troubled himself to do so as far as dress was concerned1 but for the rest painted entirely in the spirit of his native country1 ,greek influence1 nevertheless1 has penetrated everywhere4 ,it is seen1 for instance1 in the incongruities of the picture3 the spectators in the corners1 suggesting actual athletic games2 then this interior from a ,greek palaestra1 which might be interpreted1 however1 as part of a public contest2 next comes the prize table1 as in the ,tomba della ,scimmia1 but on both sides himation-clad boys are seen1 loitering like typical figures of the everyday life of the palaestra1 who have absolutely nothing to do with the concentrated excitement of the sports in the arena4 ,to the left of the low table we see a little armed dancer1 with helmet1 shield1 and spear1 in ,greek nudity1 not fully dressed like the gladiator in the ,tomba della ,scimmia2 his lance is bent zigzag-wise1 apparently an ,etruscan peculiarity4 ,with the ,greeks also1 the armed dance--the pyrrhiche--formed part of the sepulchral festival1 especially in ,cyprus and ,crete1 where it was called prylis2#da and the custom may very well have been adopted by the ,etruscans4 ,,footnotes3 #da ,aristotle1 fragm4 #eai ,r4 ,scholia to ,homer's ,iliad xxiii4 #acj4 ,a similar dancer or armed runner appears in the ,tomba ,casuccini at ,chiusi2 both remind us in posture of the ,tbingen armed runner 7,bulle1 ,der schne ,mensch1 pl4 #hi74 ,,ix ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,delle ,,bighe ,,symposium ,similar incongruities1 due to ,greek artists1 or at any rate ,greek art1 having set a ,greek stamp on the wall-painting of ,etruria1 meet us in the representations of symposia4 ,again we can take the ,bighe tomb as our starting-point 7fig4 #bc74db ,three festive couches are seen with two young men on each4 ,the youths are naked to the waist1 and have sumptuous gold necklaces1 red or blue mantles1 and chaplets on their heads4 ,some of them hold flat drinking-bowls1 some eggs1 and others have branches in their hands--all this1 however1 we only learn from the old copies3 they are reclining on metal couches1 whereas the tables in front of them are wooden1 as is clearly proved by the colours employed4 ,we may wonder that the couches are of metal1 for according to the literary tradition the first metal couches came to ,rome as late as #ahg ,b4,c4 ,nevertheless1 ivory and golden couches are already mentioned by ,plautus2 this may1 however1 be due to the ,greek text on which he based his comedy 7,stichus #cgg74 ,the ,etruscans1 at any rate1 knew bronze couches at least three hundred years earlier1 and this is corroborated by the find of an actual bronze banqueting-couch in a tomb at ,corneto4#dc ,the couches are covered with many-coloured woven or embroidered bolsters and cushions2 these also are mentioned in the ,roman comedies as ornaments of couches4#dd ,ducks appear beneath the couches1 and the guests are attended by three naked lads3 a flute-player1 a boy holding a branch1 and another with a ladle1 which are wrongly reproduced in the ,ny ,carlsberg facsimile as a staff4 ,the symposium has begun1 the tables having been cleared4 ,only young beardless men are seen feasting together1 and nothing informs us who they are or why they are drinking4 ,all that is certain is the luxury and pomp which seem to have characterized ,etruscan houses and which are especially manifest in the jingling necklaces and the material and appointment of the festive couch4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,back ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,dei ,,leopardi ,after ,arch4 ,jahrb4 #aiaf1 pl4 #i ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,married ,,couple ,,on ,,an ,,etruscan ,,cinerary ,,urn ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,dei ,,leopardi--,,hunting ,,leopards ,new problems arise with the large symposium scene in the ,tomba dei ,leopardi at ,corneto1 which was discovered in #ahge and has now been described in an exemplary manner by ,weege in the article mentioned above4 ,the pictures are among the best preserved in the whole of ,etruria1 and date from about the same time as the ,bighe tomb1 about #ejj ,b4,c4 ,the tomb takes its name from the two almost life-sized leopards in the pediment 7fig4 #bd74 ,they have been neatly proved by ,weege to be hunting leopards4 ,as early as the days of ancient ,egypt leopards were trained for hunting purposes1 and hunting leopards appear in ,greek vase-paintings and ,etruscan wall-paintings1 for instance1 in the earlier tombs such as the ,tomba delle ,leonesse and the ,tomba del ,triclinio1 where the animal lies beneath a couch4 ,in the ,middle ,ages the hunting leopard was still trained in the ,east1 and is therefore depicted in the paintings of the ,renaissance--for instance in the pictures of ,gentile da ,fabriano and ,benozzo ,gozzoli--as seated on the cruppers of the horses behind the ,magi or their servants4#de ,in modern ,india leopards are still trained to hunt4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,dei ,,leopardi ,beneath the two long-bodied hunting leopards we see the main picture of the back wall 7fig4 #bd7 representing a symposium4 ,on the couch to the left two youths are reclining1 on each of the two others a youth and a young girl4#df ,the young men are attired in mantles1 the girls in chitons and mantles2 all wear garlands4 ,in their hands they hold either chaplets1 drinking-bowls1 or round objects usually supposed to be eggs4 ,similar #8eggs' appear in numerous ,etruscan banqueting-scenes3 in the ,tomba del ,triclinio1 del ,letto funebre1 della ,pulcella1 degli ,scudi1 c41 and as egg-shells are frequently found in the tombs at ,corneto1 and eggs must therefore have been offered to the dead#dg--;as the most nourishing of foods1 and one which stimulates in particular the procreative force--it is not improbable that the old interpretation is the correct one4 ,weege supposes them to be ballot-balls used to decide who should be the master of the symposium 7symposiarch71 but this was usually decided by throwing dice4 ,a third conceivable interpretation1 which ,i think might be acceptable in certain cases where a man and a woman hand each other these round objects1 is that they are rings4 ,in ,plautus's ,asinaria 7#ggh7 it is spoken of as typical of two young lovers reclining on one couch at the symposium that one of them gives the other his or her ring to look at4 ,beneath and above the banqueting-couch we find the previously noted laurel branches--not laurel trees as ,weege calls them--the familiar adornment of the walls4 ,the guests are served by two naked pages3 one of these1 who holds a jug1 beckons to the other1 who holds a small jug and a strainer1 to make haste4 ,how necessary it was to strain the wine is seen from the description of the elder ,cato4 ,the ,latin word for cleaning the wine-jars of the grape-skins deposited by the wine is deacinare4#dh ,,footnotes3 #db ,the large frieze with dancing scenes on the left main wall was already badly damaged in #ahbg4 ,a copy of it1 now in the ,vatican1 is mere fiction1 and has unfortunately served as basis for the large facsimile in the ,glyptotek4 ,on the other hand1 its damaged state is correctly represented in the small drawing of the tomb in the ,glyptotek4 #dc ,blmner1 ,rmische ,privataltertmer1 p4 #aah4 #dd ,on ,etruscan cinerary urns and terracotta sarcophagi the covers are as a rule strongly scalloped4 ,these are presumably the tonsilia tappetia referred to by ,plautus 7,pseudolus #ade ff474 ,they usually came from ,alexandria and were decorated with pictures of wild beasts1 whereas the bed coverlets proper came from ,campania4 #de ,these cheetahs were brought alive to ,italy1 if not actually used for hunting by the princes of the ,renaissance4 ,for among ,pisanello's drawings in the ,codex ,vallardi in the ,louvre is a fine study of one of these animals from the life2 it wears a collar round its neck1 showing that it was led on a leash4 ,i owe this reference to ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill4 #df ,dennis and ,stryk are mistaken in speaking of a youth and a girl on the left couch2 the error is due to the damaged condition of the colouring4 #dg ,cp4 ,juvenal1 ,satires v4 #hb1 where eggs are referred to as a common course at funerals4 #dh ,cato1 ,de re rustica #bf4 ,in the ,greek pictures of symposia also the slave boy carries a strainer1 4 ,x ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,hetaerae ,this wall-painting is apparently a faithful copy of a ,greek painted representation of a symposium with hetaerae1 and this is also ,weege's view of the scene4 ,in his opinion1 those who take part in the drinking bouts of the young men are not married or respectable women1 but hetaerae4 ,it seems to me that such a representation in a tomb would argue a complete dissolution of family relations in ancient ,etruria1 whether we choose to interpret the pictures as scenes from life1 or as an expression of the wish that the next life might take the form of nothing more or less than a revel with hetaerae4 ,weege maintains1 further1 that hetaerae reclined at table1 whereas wives sat with their husbands3 but this is contrary to the express literary tradition1 according to which the ,greeks were shocked because the ,etruscan women reclined at table with men #8under the same coverlet'4 ,the earliest authority for this statement is ,aristotle#di and1 according to this and other accounts of the fourth century ,b4,c41 the free intercourse between men and women gave rise to much immorality1 the women abandoning themselves to the strange men with whom they reclined4#ej ,it would have been absurd for the ,greeks to take offence at this if it did not apply to free-born women of good family1 but only to hetaerae1 who in ,hellas did exactly the same4 ,how things were with the ,greeks in this respect is made sufficiently clear by a passage in the orator ,isaeus#ea3 #8,no one would dare to serenade married women1 and neither do the married women attend banquets with their husbands1 nor do they consider it proper to partake of meals with strangers1 especially chance acquaintances'4 ,with this severe ,athenian custom we must compare these scandalized ,greek outbursts1 and1 at the same time1 we must remember that in the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,etruscan civilization and morals were already on the decline1 so that an original latitude1 which in the beginning of the fifth century was natural and did not affect the morals of domestic life1 may at this time have been abused4 ,incidentally1 we are able to ascertain the degree of exaggeration in another ,greek account of the same time concerning the luxuriousness of the ,etruscans#eb3 #8,they reclined on flowered cushions drinking out of sumptuous silver bowls and attended by servants in costly dresses1 sometimes by naked women4' ,in the ,etruscan paintings there are numerous naked pages in attendance1 just as in the ,greek symposium pictures1 but not a single naked handmaid4 ,as to the question whether respectable women reclined or sat at table1 invariable rules did not exist in ,etruria any more than they existed in ancient ,rome1 where we know that ,jupiter alone reclined at the lectisternia 7the sacred banquets given by the state7 whereas ,juno and ,minerva sat2 furthermore1 in the last century of the republic1 respectable women sat with the men at banquets1 while brides reclined4#ec ,the practice of brides reclining can hardly1 however1 be accounted for except as a case of adherence to an ancient and honourable custom which was superseded by later and severer notions4 ,etruscan works of art1 however1 give sufficient information to confute the whole of ,weege's hetaera theory4 ,man and woman are often seen reclining together on ,etruscan sarcophagi and cinerary urns1 and on the face of it it would seem improbable that a man would have himself pictured on his sarcophagus with a hetaera4 ,dr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,cortsen kindly informs me that this view is confirmed by the fact that two of these cinerary urns with a pair of figures on the lid have an inscription in which the word tusurthi or tusurthir occurs--one of the few ,etruscan words the signification of which is certain3 it means #8spouses'4#ed ,and if we look at the type of womanhood represented in several of the recumbent couples on the later urns1 when realism prevails in ,etruscan portrait sculpture1 the appellation hetaera becomes as preposterous as that of matrons is certain 7fig4 #be74ee ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,picture ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,degli ,,scudi ,,at ,,corneto ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,picture ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,degli ,,scudi ,after a coloured drawing in the ,helbig ,museum ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,degli ,,scudi ,but proof is furnished by the tomb-paintings themselves4 ,in the ,tomba degli ,scudi at ,corneto1 discovered in #ahgj1 and1 to judge by the style1 dating from the end of the fifth century ,b4 ,c41 the wife 7as might be expected7 is pictured sitting with her husband1 who is reclining on the couch with a drinking-bowl in his left hand1 his right resting on the woman's shoulder 7fig4 #bf74 ,according to the inscription the man's name is ,velthur ,velcha1 that of the woman ,ravnthu ,aprthnai 7the family name is in the nominative and is a woman's name1 the ,latin ,abortennia2 so the family of the mother was the more distinguished74 ,the figure and the diadem of the woman recall those of the ,hera ,borghese and determine the date of the tomb4 ,on the table in front of the couch are a bowl1 a cake 7pyramis71 and a heap of fruits3 or they may be the #8ball-cakes' 7spirae or spaeritae7 referred to by ,cato 7,de agricultura #hb74 ,at the foot of the couch a lyre-player and a flute-player accompany the meal with music1 recalling a statement of ,cicero's#ef that at banquets in early ,rome the sound of stringed instruments and flutes was deemed indispensable4 ,on the whole1 it might perhaps be as well to abandon all theories of the austere morals of early ,rome4 ,the patrician families of the first centuries of the republic undoubtedly lived a life which in pomp and luxury vied with the life of the nobility of the ,etruscan towns4 ,again1 in the painting on the back wall of this tomb1 where the recumbent man is a priest 7cechaneri71 the wife is seated with her husband 7fig4 #bg74 ,as to the priesthood1 it must be borne in mind that the priestly office was hereditary in the ,etruscan noble families4 ,the statue of ,juno at ,veii1 for instance1 might only be touched by a priest of a certain family4#eg ,it was especially the art of divination1 however1 which was reserved for the noblemen and their wives4#eh ,even when the ,romans had conquered ,etruria they continued to support the efforts of the ,etruscans to confine initiation into the art of divination to the nobility4 ,even ,cicero1 in his book on the ideal ,state1 maintains that omens and presages must be submitted to haruspices1 and the nobles of ,etruria must teach the #8disciplina'4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,dell',,orco ,in the pictures of the ,scudi tomb the wife1 as we have seen1 is sitting4 ,but in the ,tomba dei ,vasi ,dipinti1 besides a man and a woman1 two children are present at the symposium1 which would be inconceivable in a hetaera picture2 and in a picture in the front chamber of the ,tomba dell',orco at ,corneto1 discovered in #ahfh and dating from the same period as the ,scudi tomb1 there are traces of a man and a woman reclining together1 and the inscription informs us that the woman is a free-born woman named ,velia--the family name has unfortunately been destroyed--and that she is married to ,arnth ,velchas1 a descendant of one of the noblest families in ,etruria 7fig4 #bh74 ,with this1 then1 the last and final proof of the untenability of the hetaera theory has been adduced3 this woman1 whose head is one of the most beautiful in the sepulchral chambers of ,etruria 7fig4 #bi71 reclines with her husband on the couch in the picture in the tomb1 even as she was buried with him in the tomb itself4 ,a failure to appreciate this fact would imply a complete denial of ,etruscan family feeling and pride of race4 ,the dancing women1 on the other hand1 for instance1 the woman in the ,tomba delle ,leonesse already cited above1 and another1 still more wanton1 who in the ,tomba degli ,bacchanti foots it with a fat dancer1 must be interpreted as hetaerae4 ,they illustrate the phrase of ,plautus3 #8prostibile est tandem8 stantem stanti savium dare amicum amicae8' ,to the same category of hired dancers belongs the man to the left of the one who is dancing with inverted cithara4#ei ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,arnth ,,velchas ,,and ,,wife ,,on ,,couch ,,picture ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,dell' ,,orco ,after a coloured drawing in the ,helbig ,museum ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,,head ,,of ,,arnth ,,velchas' ,,wife ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,dell' ,,orco ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,back ,,wall ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,vecchio ,generally speaking1 what has made doubt or error possible in the matter is the fact that the pictures1 as we have already said1 in form suggest ,greek pictures of hetaerae2 symposia of any other kind between men and women were unknown in ,hellas4 ,and to what extent the influence of ,greek art has prevailed is shown by the picture of a momentary phase of emotion in the ,tomba ,querciola1 where a couple reclining on the couch are kissing each other1 a motive as suitable to a ,greek hetaera picture as it is incongruous in a picture representing family life after death4#fj ,another source of error is the pronounced sensualism of these pictures2 in a sepulchral painting as early as the sixth century1 the main picture of the ,tomba del ,vecchio1 we see on a banqueting-couch1 under the wreaths and chaplets with bells hanging on the wall1 a hoary old rou in vivacious conversation with his beautiful young wife who holds a garland1 a hypothymis1 under his nose 7fig4 #cj74fa ,this picture is typically ,etruscan in its combination of wine and love4 #8,as soon as we had eaten1' sings the ,greek poet ,dromon1#fb #8the slave girl removed the tables2 one brought us water for washing1 and we washed ourselves2 then we seized again the wreaths of violets and bound our brows with garlands4' ,the ,etruscans seem to have followed the ,greek rules minutely1 but like the ,egyptians they let the free-born women partake of the festivity of the symposium itself4 ,,footnotes3 #di ,athenaeus i4 #bc d4 ,on the ,etruscan custom of reclining at table1 like the ,greeks1 and unlike the men of the ,homeric age and later the ,macedonians1 who sat1 see ,athenaeus i4 #ag f1 #ah a4 #ej ,athenaeus xii4 #eag;d4 ,cp4 ,dionys4 ,halic4 ix4 #af4 #ea ,isaeus iii4 #ad4 #eb ,athenaeus iv4 #aec d4 7 ,timaeus1 fragm4 #ah in ,mller1 ,fragmenta histor4 ,graecorum74 #ec ,friedlnder1 ,sittengeschichte ,roms i4 #dgb1 #dgh1 #dic f4 #ed ,corpus inscriptionum ,etruscarum1 #cheh1 #chfj4 #ee ,the ,etruscan character for immorality is chiefly due to ,theopompus 7fragm4 #bbb in ,mller1 ,fragm4 hist4 ,graec4 i4 p4 #cae71 but he gives similar descriptions of the ,thessalians1 and seems to have specialized in chroniques scandaleuses4 ,of equal value is his information that the ,sybarites loved the ,etruscans because of their luxuriousness 7,athenaeus xii4 #eai b74 ,it is regrettable that ,theophrastus' work on the ,etruscans is lost2 it would have provided information of quite a different character4 7,cp4 the ,scholia to ,pindar1 ,pythia ii4 #c47 #ef ,de oratore iii4 #aig4 #eg ,livy v4 #bb4 #e4 #eh ,the most famous of all the ,etruscan women versed in divination is the wise but guileful ,tanaquil1 who played a political part in ,rome3 ,livy i4 #cd4 #ei 1 like ,apollo in the contest with ,marsyas 7,apollodorus1 ,bibliotheca i4 #d4 #b74 #fj ,in the same picture we also find a representation of a true ,greek motive1 kottabos4 ,another momentary motive appears in the ,tomba d',orfeo e d',euridice at ,corneto 7,monumenti v4 pl4 #ag71 a slave pulling off his master's slippers4 #fa ,hypothymides were first used #8by the ,aeolians and ,ionians who wore them round their necks1 as we learn from the poems of ,anacreon and ,alcaeus' 7,athenaeus xv4 #fgh d72 ,cp4 ,plutarch1 ,quaest4 conviv4 iii4 probl4 #a1 #c4 ,in ,ionia the women perfumed their bosoms and wore wreaths of flowers round their #8delicate necks'1 as ,sappho says 7,athenaeus xv4 #fgd c-d74 #fb ,athenaeus ix4 #dji e4 ,,xi ,sidenote3 ,,symposia ,but we can go still further and establish beyond the possibility of doubt that where men alone are gathered at the symposium of eternity1 the pictures represent the heads of the families who ordered the tombs and had them decorated4 ,to be sure1 the pictures of the sixth and the beginning of the fifth centuries do not give us any information as to this--even the symposium in the ,tomba delle ,bighe is without inscription2 but in this respect also the sepulchral paintings become more communicative after the middle of the fifth century4 ,in the ,tomba ,golini at ,orvieto1 discovered in #ahfc and called after its discoverer1 and1 to judge from its style1 contemporary with the ,tomba degli ,scudi and the front chamber of the ,tomba dell',orco1 we see in the symposium on the back wall 7fig4 #ca7 two men on the same couch drinking to the accompaniment of the two familiar musicians4 ,beneath the couch we can make out dimly a servant1 and a hunting leopard1 probably feeding2 both have their names attached3 that of the animal is ,kankru4 ,in ,egyptian reliefs also1 dating from the ,fifth ,dynasty1 we occasionally find names attached to the domestic animals depicted1 for instance ducks and pigeons4 ,of the two men reclining on the couch the foremost holds a drinking-bowl and an egg4 ,in the ,ny ,carlsberg facsimile he is represented as beardless1 but no doubt wrongly4 ,it is an elderly man2 his face is one of the earliest examples of naturalism in ,etruscan portraiture4 ,the other1 full-bearded1 holds a flat1 fluted vessel without foot1 presumably one of the celebrated ,etruscan golden vessels which are more minutely characterized in a symposium in the ,tomba della ,pulcella2 they were even introduced into ,athens1 where1 side by side with ,corinthian works in bronze1 they formed part of the decoration of a wealthy house1 and they are eulogized in a poem by ,critias1#fc one of ,athens' finest beaux esprits4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,golini ,,at ,,orvieto ,in this painting in the ,tomba ,golini the inscriptions give us much valuable information as to the connexion between the two persons4#fd ,above the first we read3 #8,vel lecates arnthial ruva larthialisa clan velusum nefs marniu spurana eprthnec tenve mechlum rasneas cleusinsl zilachnve pulum rumitrine thi malce clel lur4' ,in translation the text runs3 #8,vel ,lecates1 ,arnth's brother1#fe son of ,larth1 and descendant of ,vel4 ,he held the offices of ,maro urbanus 7spur means town7 and ,eprthne 7secular official title7 and was ,zilach 7dictator7 of the ,etruscan people in ,clusium4444' ,the rest is unintelligible4 ,it is interesting in the inscription to come across the name by which the ,etruscans called themselves1 rasneas2 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus 7i4 #cj7 was therefore justified in saying that the ,etruscans called themselves ,rasenas4 ,the name ,larth is common in ,etruscan inscriptions4 ,the ,romans knew it and called the well-known ,etruscan king by his full name1 ,lars ,porsenna 7in ,etruscan1 ,larth ,pursna74#ff ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,,symposium ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,golini ,,at ,,orvieto ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,,wall-,,painting ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,golini ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,golini ,we now turn to the inscription above the bearded man on the same couch2 his name is ,arnth ,leinies1 son of ,larth1 and descendant of ,vel2 his official titles follow1 and the inscription ends3 #8ruva lecates velus amce1' i4 e41 was brother of ,vel ,lecates4 ,thus we have two brothers reclining on the same couch1 and the inscription makes it probable that the other symposiasts1 too1 are not chance revellers1 but members of the same family1 united in the picture as they were in life and in the grave4 ,in the same tomb1 to the left of this scene1 we see a table1 bearing several metal vessels1 a thymiaterion1 and an ivory box for incense1 and flanked by two candelabra with lighted candles stuck into birds' beaks 7fig4 #cb74 ,the ,etruscans were considered inventors of the art of candlemaking and taught the ,romans to manufacture different kinds of candles1 from big wax candles--candelae and cerei--to cheap dips--sebaceae4 ,the ,italic peoples used candles and candlesticks until ,roman ,imperial times1 though in the last centuries they also had oil lamps1 the manufacture and use of which they had learned from the ,greeks2 the oldest clay lamps found in the northern part of ,italy date from about #cjj ,b4,c4#fg ,to the left of the table is seen a naked slave with a jug and a dish2 to the right a young man in a light-coloured1 sleeved chiton1 who has been conjectured to be another servant4 ,but again the inscription affords positive information3 #8,vel leinies larthial ruva arnthialum clan velusum prumaths avils semphs lupuce'2 i4e4 #8,vel ,leinies1 ,larth's brother1 son of ,arnth and descendant of ,vel2 he died 7lupuce7 at the age of #g4'fh ,so the boy is son of the hindmost man on the banqueting-couch and belongs to the noble family interred in the tomb4 ,,footnotes3 #fc ,athenaeus i4 #bh b4 #fd ,corpus inscr4 ,etrusc4 #ejic-d4 ,i am indebted to my friend1 ,dr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,cortsen1 for help in the interpretation of this and other ,etruscan inscriptions4 ,these are for the greater part incorrectly copied in the ,ny ,carlsberg facsimiles4 #fe ,that ruva means brother seems to be unanimously accepted1 though it only appears in the two inscriptions of this tomb4 #ff ,the name ,pursna or ,pursena has1 however1 never been found in any ,etruscan inscription4 ,the ,etruscan ,lar or ,larth has nothing to do with the ,roman ,las or ,lar4 ,cp4 ,schulze1 ,zur ,geschichte latein4 ,eigennamen1 #he4 #a2 ,pauli1 ,altital4 ,studien1 iv4 #fd ff4 #fg ,with reference to the use of tapers at the bier in antiquity see ,rushforth1 ,journal of ,roman ,studies1 v4 #aiae1 p4 #adi ff4 #fh ,cp4 ,vilh4 ,thomsen1 ,remarques sur la parent de la langue trusque1 ,bulletin de l',acadmie royale de ,danemark1 #ahii1 no4 #d1 p4 #cia4 ,,xii ,corresponding to the lassoing of the horse in the ,tomba del ,morente1 as a preparation for the chariot race1 we find in the ,tomba ,golini pictures of the preparations for the banquet which is celebrated in the pictures mentioned above4 ,in one of the pictures we see cattle1 venison1 and poultry hanging in the larder1 in another the cooking in the kitchen itself 7fig4 #cc72 like everything else in ,etruria1 it is accompanied by the flute4 ,to the left of the flute-player a woman is struggling with a sideboard piled with food2 to the right a naked slave with a loin-cloth is working at a small table1 using two small implements rather like plummets4 ,various interpretations have been advanced3 that he is kneading dough1 or grinding colours2 the latter explanation1 however1 is improbable in a kitchen scene4 ,besides these ,dennis proposes a third possibility--that he is chopping vegetables1 but he dares not commit himself to a decision4 ,the table itself1 at which the slave is standing1 seems to have a raised edge1 and thereby recalls the elder ,cato's recipe for the preparation of cheese cakes and puffs#fi3 #8,take a clean table1 a foot broad1 surround it with an edge 7balteus71 and then mix honey and cheese on it4' ,for puffs1 directions are given to belabour the dough with two sticks or staves 7rudes74 ,after all the procedure here is somewhat similar1 only that the dough is kneaded with pieces of metal and not with staves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,kitchen ,,interior ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,golini ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,painting ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,letto ,,funebre ,after a coloured drawing in the ,helbig ,museum ,sidenote3 ,,kitchen ,,scenes ,in these scenes from kitchen and wine-cellar1 where the wood is being chopped1#gj where the cooks are swinging the saucepans or working at the range1#ga where young slaves are struggling with sideboards covered with drinking-vessels1 the inscriptions contain the names of the slaves4 ,men desired to be served in the after-life by the same skilful slaves as in the present1 and it was therefore the custom in later times to add the names4 ,this reminds one of the ,egyptian tomb-reliefs1 where sometimes the serfs and the slave girls are designated only by the name and mark of the estate1 so that in a way each of them represents one of the estates of the deceased lord1 whereas in other cases they have their proper names attached and survive as personalities in the after-life4 ,,footnotes3 #fi ,de agricultura #gf and #hf4 #gj ,cp4 ,plautus1 ,pseudolus #aeh #8te cum securi caudicali praeficio provinciae4' #ga ,cp4 ,seneca1 ,epist4 #aad4 #bf #8adspice culinas nostras et concursantis inter tot ignes coquos4' ,,xiii ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,del ,,letto ,,funebre ,thus we see a slow transformation taking place in the ideas which inspired the ,etruscan tomb-paintings4 ,in the ,tomba del ,morto and the ,tomba degli ,auguri1 the representation of the death lament showed plainly that the main theme was the festival in honour of the dead2 and the memorial feast itself should probably in most cases be recognized in the banquet accompanied by the symposium or--as in the ,tomba delle ,iscrizioni--the preparations for it4 ,this conception is also clearly expressed in the sepulchral paintings of the fifth century ,b4,c41 such as the ,tomba del ,letto funebre1 where the main picture 7fig4 #cd7 represents an enormous couch with a footstool in front#gb2 on the tall pile of bolsters and coverlets rest two pairs of cushions1 each of them supporting a green chaplet encircling a pointed cap 7tutulus74 ,green festoons and a long red cord hang on the walls3 to the right of the couch are two symposiasts and two slaves2 the slaves face the big central couch1 and hold one an egg1 the other a loaf in their raised hands4 ,to the left of the picture are the flute-player and the sideboard with vases4 ,here we get an idea how a lectisternium was spread in honour of the dead1 in connexion with the symposium at a memorial feast4 ,the dead are represented by their headgear2 to that the slaves to the right are offering sacrifice1 to that the flute-player to the left sounds his notes4 ,how deeply1 in this direction also1 tradition influenced the ,romans1 and how long the practice lingered1 is seen from the description which the satirist ,persius gives 7iii4 #ajc7 of a noble ,roman lying in state3 ,hinc tuba1 candelae1 tandemque beatulus alto compositus lecto crassisque lutatus amomis in portam rigidas calces extendit3 at illum hesterni capite induto subiere ,quirites4 ,and then the horns1 the candles6 and the dead1 ,smeared with thick balms1 lies stiff on lofty bed1 ,heels pointing doorwards1 till he's borne away ,by new-capped citizens#gc of yesterday4 ,but the pictures in the ,tomba ,golini seem to indicate that the symposium is not only a ceremony on the funeral day or at memorial feasts1 but that the purpose is1 by means of the painting as well as by the undoubtedly splendid accessories of the tombs1 which were rifled and removed long ago1 to secure to the dead or the whole of the family1 who in course of time were interred in the tomb1 a happy and festive existence hereafter2 the same idea as in the ,egyptian tomb-reliefs1 the object of which was to safeguard the deceased against #8the second death'1 that is1 annihilation4 ,and just as the ,egyptian tomb-reliefs extend to all aspects of life in order that the dead may enjoy without restriction the sight of everything which made his life rich and festive1 from the industry of the slaves and artisans occupied in his service to his own boating and hunting expeditions in the papyrus thickets of the ,nile1 so the ,etruscan sepulchral paintings have a further object and treat subjects which are only intelligible if the end in view is to procure for the dead a full enjoyment of the delights of life1 and which cannot in any way be associated with funeral or funeral feast4 ,this applies especially to the hunting pictures of the sixth and fifth centuries ,b4,c41 found respectively in the ,tomba della ,caccia e della ,pesca and in the ,tomba ,querciola4 ,,footnotes3 #gb ,footstools were also used in ,rome for mounting the high couches4 ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina v4 #afh4 #gc i4 e4 slaves made free by his will1 and entitled to wear the cap of liberty4 ,,xiv ,sidenote3 ,,etruscan ,,imperialism ,sidenote3 ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,etruria ,sidenote3 ,,etruscan ,,influence ,,in ,,rome ,in the older group of tombs of the latter part of the sixth and the earlier part of the fifth centuries ,b4,c4 we find a bright and cheerful delight in the material pleasures of life1 and a clear confidence in the belief that the race1 whose means are sufficient to provide and adorn a sumptuous sepulchral chamber1 will also be permitted to enjoy all this--from wine and women to hunting and sanguinary games--in the hereafter4 ,thus it is not for nothing that these tombs synchronize with the time of ,etruscan imperialism4 ,previous to this1 the maritime power of ,etruria had made it dreaded and hated by the ,greeks1 whose ships were exposed to seizure and piracy as often as they ventured across the #8,tyrrhenian ,sea'1 so that the ,greeks had only one colony on the north coast of ,sicily1 and had great trouble in keeping up communications with the ,campanian ,kyme and with ,massilia4#gd #8,the savage ,etruscan' already appears in post-,homeric poetry1 where ,circe bears ,odysseus two children1 ,latinus and ,agrius 7the savage71 who represent the two principal races of ,italy1 the ,latins and the ,etruscans4 ,at length1 in #dgd ,b4,c41 the ,kymeans1 in alliance with ,hieron1 the ruler of ,syracuse1 succeeded in gaining a sea victory over the ,etruscan fleet1 which ,pindar has celebrated in the first ,pythian ,ode 7i4 #gb ff471 and after which ,hieron sent to ,olympia a bronze helmet with an inscription recording the victory1 now in the ,british ,museum4 ,this defeat was the first warning that the ,etruscans had reached the zenith of their power1 but as late as the latter part of the fourth century their piracy was still dangerous and troublesome to ,greek shipping1 as is seen from a passage of ,aristotle and an inscription of #cbe-cbd ,b4,c4#ge ,as a bulwark of their maritime power1 as early as the sixth century they had conquered ,corsica1 and on land they ruled from the plain of the ,po1 which they likewise conquered in the sixth century1 to the southernmost part of ,campania1 where they made ,capua itself submit to their power4#gf ,cato was justified in saying that almost the whole of ,italy in the days of old had been #8in the power of the ,tuscans'1#gg and when ,sophocles#gh would enumerate the districts of ,italy he mentions only three3 ,oinotria 7,south ,italy71 the ,tyrrhenian1 and the ,ligurian land4 ,when the ,athenians during the ,peloponnesian ,war undertook the desperate campaign against ,syracuse1 they allied themselves in #dae with the ,etruscans1 whose auxiliaries were amongst the bravest in the ,athenian offensive force4#gi ,in the period of the wall-paintings in question1 ,rome herself was also made subject to them and had to pay contributions to the powerful ,etruscan confederation1 after the king of ,clusium1 ,porsenna1 had seized the city in #ejh ,b4,c4 ,as is well known1 attempts were made by later historians to gloss over this capture of the town1 and the honorary decrees of the senate to ,porsenna are described as voluntary1 but tell quite plainly their own tale of subjection4#hj ,against the background of this event the contemporary ,tomba della ,scimmia at ,chiusi acquires a new interest2 it was constructed for one of those families which took part in the victory over ,rome4 ,but previous to this1 the names of the ,roman kings3 ,lucius ,tarquinius and ,tarquinius ,superbus--,tarquinius is the ,etruscan ,tarchna#ha--;bear witness to the dependence of ,rome1 which is also evident from the permanent ,etruscan occupation of the ,janiculum4 ,it is quite possible that the expulsion of ,tarquinius ,superbus does not mark the fall of the national monarchy1 but was simply an attempt to throw off the foreign yoke1 an attempt which led to ,porsenna's occupation of the city two years later and thus did not bring about the emancipation of the ,romans4#hb ,it is in this period of dependence that the ,etruscans left their mark on the laws and customs of ,rome1 that the three oldest ,roman tribes1 ,ramnes1 ,tities1 and ,luceres1 got their names1 which1 as stated by ,varro1#hc on the evidence of an ,etruscan tragedian ,volnius1 are ,etruscan1 a view shared by the modern philologist ,wilhelm ,schulze4#hd ,the insignia also of the ,roman officials1 such as the curule chair and the toga praetexta1#he and the twelve consular lictors with the fasces1#hf are rightly traced back to ,etruria4 ,for the ,etruscan confederation consisted of twelve towns1 and each of these chose a king who appeared at the gatherings followed by a lictor1 and only when they chose a common overlord and war-leader could he appear with twelve lictors4 ,it is therefore rather improbable that the ,roman kings appeared with twelve lictors in their train2 more probably this large retinue only became the privilege of the consuls after the suppression of ,etruria4 ,but it was upon the nobility of ,rome that those years of ,etruscan predominance left their deepest impress1 and it has thus been possible for ,wilhelm ,schulze1 through his investigations of ,etruscan and ,latin proper names1 to throw a remarkable light on the earliest history of ,rome and to prove that a great number of the oldest patrician families of ,rome were descendants of the ,etruscan ruling race1 and that intermarriage with ,etruscans1 and ,etruscan influence on ,rome1 persisted down to the end of the ,roman republic4#hg ,it is also beyond doubt that the peculiar ,roman system of patron and client1 by which clients attached themselves to a nobleman as followers 7cluentes71 added his name to their own1 and paid him dues in peace time1 though they were originally immune from military service1#hh was of ,etruscan origin1 nay1 was the essential feature in the structure of the ,etruscan community4 ,in course of time the ,roman clients became liable to military service1 obtaining at the same time civic rights1 and it is presumably this fact which accounts for ,rome's final victory over the ,etruscans1 whose proud ,lucumones reserved to themselves both civic privileges and military skill1 and were therefore doomed to extinction when luxury and effeminacy had sapped their strength4 ,sidenote3 ,,etruscan ,,nobility ,,and ,,clients ,but at the period of the tombs in question the blood of the nobility is still healthy and is in no need of regeneration4 ,this is the nobility whose long lances controlled ,italy1 and whose cavalry was so terrible in onset4#hi ,the pictures of the tombs show them at the death lament1 at feasts1 and on hunting expeditions1 at symposia1 where men and women freely indulge in wine and love1 and finally in the ,tomba delle ,bighe as spectators seated on the stands4 ,on the other hand1 the horsemen1 the dancers1 the dancing-women1 and the athletes are certainly of lower extraction1 hired servants like the corresponding performers in ,rome1 perhaps1 to some extent1 clients4 ,,footnotes3 #gd ,strabo vi4 p4 #daj 7 ,ephorus1 fragm4 #b in ,mller1 ,fragmenta historic4 graec4 i4 p4 #bdf74 ,the ingenious etymologist ,philochorus even derived the word #8tyrant' from ,tyrrhenians 7,philoch4 fragm4 #e in ,mller1 op4 cit474 #ge ,dittenberger1 ,sylloge inscriptionum ,graecarum1#c #cje1 with note #a4 #gf ,polybius ii4 #ag4 ,livy v4 #cc4 #g-h4 #gg ,origines #fb4 #gh ,dionys4 ,halic4 i4 #ab4 #gi ,thucydides vi4 #hh1 and vii4 #ed-e4 #hj ,dionys4 ,halic4 v4 #bf1 #ce1 #ci4 #ha ,schulze1 ,zur ,geschichte latein4 ,eigennamen1 p4 #ie f41 #bfb ff4 #hb ,dionys4 ,halic4 iii4 #de1 #dg ff4 #hc ,varro1 ,de lingua ,latina v4 #e2 ,livy i4 #ac4 #h4 #hd ,cp4 ,e4 ,kornemann1 ,klio xiv4 #aiad-ae1 p4 #aij4 #he ,livy i4 #h4 #c4 #hf ,dionys4 ,halic4 iii4 #fa-b4 #hg ,wilhelm ,schulze1 ,zur ,geschichte lateinischer ,eigennamen4 ,abh4 der kgl4 ,gesellsch4 der ,wissensch4 zu ,gttingen1 ,phil4-hist4 ,kl41 ,neue ,folge1 ,bd4 #e1 ,no4 #e1 p4 #fb ff4 #hh ,dionys4 ,halic4 ii4 #h1 #aj4 #hi ,livy iv4 #ah4 #h4 ,cp4 ix4 #bi4 #b1 where the ,etruscans are described as the most dangerous enemies of the ,romans4 ,,xv ,sidenote3 ,,decline ,,and ,,fall ,,of ,,etruria ,but domestic and foreign enemies destroyed this race of rulers4 ,at the beginning of the fourth century they were attacked simultaneously by the ,gauls from the north1 by the ,samnites#ij from the south-east1 and by the ,romans from the south4 ,the ,gauls inundated for some time the whole of ,etruria and presently captured ,rome as well1 but were driven back again to ,north ,italy4 ,the ,samnites seized ,capua2 but a far heavier blow was the loss of the great city of ,veii1 the southernmost city of ,etruria proper1 which was captured by the ,romans in #cif ,b4,c4#ia ,in spite of the alliance with ,carthage1 the maritime power of the ,etruscans also declined in the course of the fourth century1 but it was not until the third century that they received the death-blow at the hands of the ,romans and ,latins4 ,that they were still dangerous antagonists at the beginning of the third century may be seen from ,livy's account1 but at the end of the century1 during the second ,punic war1 their rebellious spirit was easily quelled1 and even ,hannibal could not tempt them to unite in revolt4#ib ,at that time the country was still rich1 as is plainly shown by the requisitions for ,scipio's army4#ic ,it was not until the following century that ,etruria sank into deep poverty2 in the time of the ,gracchi the country was almost a waste4#id ,plautus describes the ,etruscan people as very immoral2 in the ,cistellaria 7#efb7 the poet speaks of those who procure their dowry ignobly1 like the ,tuscans1 by selling their bodies1 and in the ,curculio 7#dhb7 the ,etruscan quarter of ,rome is referred to as #8inhabited by persons who sell themselves'4 ,then followed in the first century ,b4,c4 the military colonies of ,sulla1#ie which gradually ,romanized the country4 ,inscriptions1 especially from the borderland of ,umbria1 which had been partly ,etruscan1 bear ample witness to the way in which the language changed even within the old ,etruscan families4 ,about the middle of the first century parts of the country were ravaged by ,p4 ,clodius ,pulcher and his bands of soldiers4#if ,then comes the foundation of new military colonies by ,caesar and1 finally1 the complete ,romanization of the country under ,augustus4 ,propertius#ig describes1 not without pathos1 the extermination of the last ,etruscan strongholds during the ,perusian war in the year #dj ,b4,c43 #8eversosque focos antiquae gentis ,etruscae'4 ,the knowledge of the ,etruscan language was preserved all through antiquity by the ,etruscan soothsayers4 ,the emperor ,claudius was versed in ,etruscan1 and delivered a long address in the ,senate about the preservation of the old ,etruscan ritual against the invasion of new1 oriental elements4 ,the other emperors had1 as a rule1 an ,etruscan soothsayer in their suite1 whom they consulted before taking any important step1 and this custom survived down to the introduction of ,christianity4 ,julian the ,apostate was accompanied by hosts of ,etruscan soothsayers1 who1 however1 undoubtedly read the sacred books in the ,latin translation by ,tarquitius ,priscus1#ih and1 as late as #djh1 we learn that ,tuscan soothsayers and scribes still existed4 ,if any of them at that time could still read the language1 then ,etruscan1 as a dead and sacred language1 had survived the disappearance of the people by about half a millennium4#ii ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,demon ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,dell' ,,orco ,,footnotes3 #ij ,livy iv4 #cg4 #a-b4 #ia ,livy v4 #bb4 #h4 #ib ,livy xxvii4 #ba4 #f2 #ch4 #f4 #ic ,livy xxviii4 #de4 #ad-ah4 #id ,plutarch1 ,tiberius ,gracchus #h4 #ie ,as a punishment because the country had joined the party of ,marius4 ,plutarch1 ,marius #da4 #if ,cicero1 ,pro ,milone #bf1 #gd1 #hg4 #ig ii4 #a4 #bi4 ,the later authors speak of nothing but the corpulency and imbecility of the ,etruscans4 ,catullus1 ,carm4 #ci4 #ba4 ,virgil1 ,georg4 ii4 #aic2 ,aen4 xi4 #gcb4 ,diodorus v4 #dj4 #ih ,thulin1 ,pauly-,wissowa1 vii4 #bdcd4 #ii ,the best summary view of the ,etruscan civilization is still to be found in ,ottfried ,mller1 ,die ,etrusker1 in the second edition by ,deecke4 ,,xvi ,to this long1 sad period of national decline the later group of ,etruscan tomb-paintings and reliefs on cinerary urns form a remarkable and melancholy accompaniment4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,dell' ,,orco ,the continuity is unbroken2 the new creeps in1 at first1 without superseding the old subjects4 ,this is especially clear in the front room of the ,tomba dell' ,orco1 which dates from the latter part of the fifth century1 and from which we reproduced the beautiful married couple at the symposium 7figs4 #bh1 #bi72 in the same sepulchral chamber we see in a corner1 beneath a finely stylized vine1 a terrible death demon1 with large wings and a shock of wildly fluttering reddish hair1 which is sharply outlined on a blue background as if it were surrounded by a halo4 ,his beard is pointed1 his nose terminates in an eagle's beak2 over his shoulder a snake rears itself1 and the latchets of his shoes are snakes4 ,his dress consists of a sleeved chiton with belt and shoulder-straps1 and in his hand he carries a torch or a hammer4 ,the eyes roll horribly in the bluish face2 the colour of the skin recalls the blue-bottle fly 7fig4 #ce74 ,sidenote3 ,,underworld ,,scenes ,this death demon is painted isolated1 unconnected with the subjects of the rest of the paintings1 and could indeed be explained away as a decorative figure1 created1 to be sure1 by an imagination inflamed with terror4 ,but in the third room of the same tomb1 the pictures of which belong to the transition from the fifth to the fourth century1 a similar demon of the nether world is already represented in action 7fig4 #cf74 ,the inscription gives his name1 ,tuchulcha2 he has asses' ears1 two snakes rear themselves like horns above his brow1 and with a huge snake he threatens a long-haired youth who sits sorrowful on the rock1 with a himation round his loins2 his name1 according to the inscription1 is #8,these'4 ,he is the ,greek ,theseus1 and the young man opposite to him is ,pirithous2 the motive is their sufferings in the ,underworld1 where they had ventured down in order to abduct ,persephone4 ,but there broods over the scene a sinister spirit which is not ,greek4 ,thus we see behind the rock on which ,theseus is seated a loathsome snake with winged head1 and the remains of a blue demon with staff and chiton1 a kinsman of ,tuchulcha4 ,the appearance1 to the left of this weird phantasmagoria1 of the peaceful sideboard with its fine metal bowls#ajj and with a handsome naked slave as cup-bearer in front of it1 has undeniably a somewhat odd effect4 ,this is a reminiscence of the old joyous symposium scenes1 and a remarkable witness to the lack of clearness in the ,etruscan mind and to the fragmentary character of ,etruscan pictorial art4 ,a similar mixture of everyday life and myth would be inconceivable in ,egyptian or in ,greek art4 ,similarly1 in the ,tomba ,golini1 we see the side-table and the slave in immediate continuation of the picture representing the two enthroned rulers of the ,underworld--,hades and ,persephone 7inscriptions3 ,eita and ,phersipnai74 ,hades has a wolf-helmet and a snake-sceptre and is caressing ,persephone1 who has a bird-crowned sceptre in her left hand1 and rests her right hand on the knee of ,hades 7see above fig4 #cb74 ,her dress1 her face1 and her yellow hair under the golden diadem are all splendidly painted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,picture ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,dell' ,,orco ,,at ,,corneto ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,,hades1 ,,persephone ,,and ,,geryon ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,dell' ,,orco ,in later ,etruscan paintings we come upon two new groups of motives--fantastic pictures of the ,underworld1 and scenes from ,greek mythology4 ,sometimes they mingle as in the ,theseus and ,pirithous scene and in the pictures of ,hades and ,persephone4 ,hades and ,persephone recur in a painting in the third chamber of the ,tomba dell' ,orco 7inscription3 ,aita and ,phersipnei71 where weird mists roll about them1 and a figure with three heads1 ,gerun1 is standing before their throne 7fig4 #cg74 ,it is the ,geryon of the ,greeks1 but he is not the cowherd on the far-distant island ,erythra1 but a warrior in complete armour who seems to be receiving the commands of ,hades4 ,evidently the ,etruscans have made him the servant and champion of ,hades4 ,persephone has snakes in her hair and a curious collar which we meet again on the chitons of women in white ,attic lekythoi of the fifth century ,b4,c4#aja ,hades wears the traditional wolf-helmet4 ,it is remarkable that a head exactly similar to that of ,hades is found among ,michelangelo's sketches 7fig4 #ch71 which seems to indicate that ,michelangelo somewhere in ,tuscany saw and sketched an old ,etruscan tomb4 ,to be sure1 the snout of the animal reminds one of a pig's1 but the long ears and the fur are those of the wolf4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,dell' ,,orco ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,head of man surmounted by that of a pig4 ,in the other paintings of the ,tomba dell' ,orco we meet furthermore with ,agamemnon in the underworld1 and in front of him ,tiresias 7,hinthial ,teriasals it reads1 i4 e4 the shade of ,tiresias74 ,but in the second chamber of this tomb1 dating from the fourth century ,b4,c41 there is also a scene from ,greek mythology which has nothing to do with death and the underworld2 ,odysseus blinding the ,cyclops ,polyphemus 7inscriptions3 ,uthuste and ,cuclu74 ,we can here speak of a renaissance1 in so far as a scene from a ,greek myth formed the subject of the big picture of the beginning of the sixth century in the ,tomba dei ,tori 7cp4 fig4 #b74 ,but the aim of the later school of ,etruscan painters is not so much to adorn the tomb with a beautiful decorative panel after some ,greek prototype2 on the contrary1 they turn to the ,greek myths for the sake of their subjects and pick out motives which also give expression to the curious strain of cruelty inherent in the ,etruscan mind4 ,this is seen most clearly in the famous picture from the ,franois tomb at ,vulci1 discovered in #aheg by the ,italian painter ,alessandro ,franois4 ,the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek possesses a facsimile1 executed by the painter ,mariani after the original in the ,palazzo ,torlonia1 whither the ,prince ,torlonia had it removed together with other wall-paintings from the same tomb3 but the copy is too smooth to be trustworthy4 ,unfortunately1 permission to obtain another copy from the inaccessible ,palazzo is certainly not to be had4 ,the picture 7fig4 #ci7 represents the sacrifice of ,trojan captives on the grave of ,patroclus4 ,achilles 7,etruscan ,achle7 slaughters with his own hands the captured ,trojans 7,etruscan ,truials72 ,ajax1 son of ,oileus 7,aivas ,vilatas71 and ,ajax1 son of ,telamon 7,aivas ,tlamunus7 stand by1 ,agamemnon 7,achmemrun7 is also present1 and the shade of ,patroclus1 thirsting for the blood 7,hinthial ,patrucles71 as well as two truly ,etruscan figures1 a female winged genius of death1 ,vanth1 and the ,etruscan death-god1 ,charun1 coloured like the blue-bottle fly1 with hammer uplifted4 ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,fran,,ois ,sidenote3 ,,etruscan ,,cruelty ,this subject was chosen for the sake of the slaughter4#ajb ,sex and cruelty are1 to use a chemical expression1 the #8basic group' of the ,etruscan mind4 ,thus the same subject is found repeatedly on ,etruscan sarcophagi and vases1 and in the relief on a cinerary urn1 and may be compared with the most common and popular representation in ,etruscan reliefs3 ,eteocles and ,polynices killing each other4 ,even a motive like ,ajax falling on his own sword constantly recurs in ,etruscan art1 as well as the barbarous subject1 maschalismos 7maiming of slain enemies71 which is especially common on ,etruscan gems4#ajc ,a characteristic feature of the picture in the ,franois tomb is the deep wounds in the legs of the ,trojan captives2 they are meant to prevent attempts to escape and were evidently in keeping with ,etruscan custom4 ,for stress is laid on the cruelty of the ,etruscans towards prisoners of war by ,greek as well as by ,latin authors2 thus1 as early as the fifth century1 the inhabitants of ,caere1 after a sea victory1 stoned to death their ,phocaean captives#ajd2 and yet ,strabo writes of the ,caeretans that they were highly respected for their bravery and love of justice1 and because1 powerful as they were1 they refrained from piracy4 ,the ,romans knew better when they personified ,etruscan cruelty in ,mezentius1 ,king of ,caere1 who had living and dead tied together to rot side by side2 nor did the ,romans ever forget that the inhabitants of ,tarquinii once slaughtered three hundred and seven ,roman captives1#aje and they took bloody revenge on them4 ,the ,greeks also knew of the massacring of prisoners of war1 but they always cherished scruples about it and felt qualms1 as when ,themistocles was compelled to pay a tribute of slain captives to #8,dionysius1 the eater of raw flesh'4#ajf ,before we leave the ,franois tomb we must remind the reader of the existence of a remarkable series of pictures with subjects taken from the conflicts between ,etruria and ,rome in the time of the ,roman kings4#ajg ,,footnotes3 #ajj ,cp4 for the well-appointed table ,plautus's description of a liberal host 7,menaechmi #ajb73 #8tantas struices concinnat patinarias4' #aja ,walther ,riezler1 ,weissgrndige attische ,lekythen1 pl4 #gj4 #ajb ,it is to be observed that the ,etruscans thrust with the sword2 this also the ,romans inherited2 whereas the ,gauls cut and the ,iberians thrust as well as cut4 ,polybius ii4 #cc4 #f1 and iii4 #aad4 #ajc ,cp4 ,beazley1 ,lewes ,house ,collection of ,gems1 p4 #ch1 #gd f4 #ajd ,herodotus i4 #afg4 #aje ,livy vii4 #ae4 #aj2 #ai4 #c4 #ajf ,plutarch1 ,themistocles #ac4 #ajg ,krte1 ,jahrbuch des archol4 ,instit4 xii4 #ahig1 p4 #eh ff4 ,,xvii ,sidenote3 ,,charun ,,and ,,the ,,lasas ,the demons of the ,underworld who figure in the ,etruscan paintings are almost all sinister4 ,the devils brandishing torches and snakes1 familiar both from the paintings and from the reliefs on the cinerary urns1 remind one of ,livy's#ajh description of the fight of the ,tarquinians and the ,faliscans against the ,romans in #ced ,b4,c41 when a troop of ,etruscan priests1 armed with flaming torches and live snakes1 threw themselves in ecstatic fury on the ,roman armies1 who received them undauntedly and won the day4 ,charun1 also1 is a common figure on the ,etruscan sarcophagi and cinerary urns of the fourth and following centuries1 suggesting by his colour the demon of putrefaction1 ,eurynomus1 whom ,polygnotus had painted1 in his great picture of the ,underworld in the ,lesche of the ,cnidians at ,delphi1 seated snarling on the skin of a carrion-vulture1 his flesh the colour of a blue-bottle fly4#aji ,charun1 therefore1 is not identical with the old ferryman1 ,charon1 of the ,greeks2 he is the messenger of death1 the terrible fetcher of souls1 like ,charos in the popular ,greek belief of our own day4 ,only the #8,charon door' of the ,greek theatre indicates the existence of similar popular ideas among the ancient ,greeks4 ,the winged ,vanth in the ,franois tomb seems to be one of the benevolent demons of the underworld1 the ,lasas4 ,such a one also appears in a door panel in the ,tomba ,golini1 already frequently cited3 here she has wings1 snakes in her girdle1 and a scroll in her hand 7fig4 #dj74 ,she is evidently either receiving or escorting the dead1 a young man in a mantle1 who stands in a biga with running horses2 in the inscription above him the word ,larth can easily be read1 proving that he is not a professional charioteer1 but a young man of high standing4 ,his arrival in the underworld is greeted by a trumpeter1 painted over the door4 ,we may notice here that the #8,tyrrhenian trumpet' was famous far and wide and was even introduced into ,greece2 it is mentioned several times in ,greek tragedies4#aaj ,the curved trumpet here seen is also depicted on a wall in the ,tomba degli ,scudi at ,corneto and1 like the curved staff of the augurs1 was adopted by the ,romans1 who designated both of them by the name of lituus2 ,cicero maintains that the lituus-trumpet was the earlier of the two and gave its form and name to the lituus-staff1 the badge of the augurs4 ,the introduction of the lituus-staff was attributed to ,romulus1 and his sacred staff was said to have been rediscovered by a miracle in the time of ,camillus4#aaa ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,,wall-,,painting ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,fran,,ois ,,at ,,vulci ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,,painting ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,golini ,,at ,,orvieto ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,,painting ,,from ,,the ,,tomba ,,della ,,pulcella ,the scroll in the hand of the female demon1 referred to above1 presumably contained an account of the good actions of the dead1 to be used when he presented himself before the throne of ,hades4 ,the good genius herself is seen at work in a small panel of the ,tomba degli ,scudi1 where she is scratching an inscription on a tablet 7cp4 fig4 #bg71 while another holds a torch upside down4 ,both these figures are repeated in the reliefs of the ,etruscan cinerary urns and pass directly into the plastic art of ,roman sarcophagi as two allegorical figures3 ,fama1 who writes the merits of the dead on a tablet1 and the genius of ,death with torch inverted4 ,sidenote3 ,,ceremony ,,of ,,the ,,cerecloth ,a couple of flying genii appear already in the ,tomba della ,pulcella1 which belongs to the first half of the fifth century1 in the pointed pediment above the recess in which the ashes of the dead were deposited4 ,they carry between them a cloth which they seem to be laying down1 probably the cerecloth for the dead 7fig4 #da74aab ,perhaps this also explains the mysterious scene1 figured on two tomb altars from ,chiusi1 one of which is in the ,barracco ,collection 7fig4 #db71 the other in the ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek 7,catalogue ,no4 ,h4 #gf74 ,the motives of the reliefs on these limestone altars from ,chiusi and on the cinerary urns from the same town1 all dating from the sixth century1 are taken from the funeral1 like the subjects in the contemporary tomb-paintings1 and represent the lament of men and women over the dead on the bier1 the burial feast and the preparations for it1 and the wild dancing-scenes at the funeral4 ,it may thus be that the scene on the relief illustrated1 which seems to give a picture of the women's quarters1 represents the women of the house in the act of scrutinizing and choosing the cerecloth for the deceased2 meanwhile1 the house was probably draped with cloth1 and the dwellers of the house put on mourning4 ,presumably the mourning colour of the ,etruscans was white1 like that of the ,romans at a later date2 when in mourning1 the women of ,rome1 to the wonder of ,plutarch1 assumed white dresses and white headgear1 at the same time loosening their hair4#aac ,the hair flowing down upon the shoulders is also frequently seen in reliefs on cinerary urns4 ,but there is still something mysterious in this motive1 and an examination of the mutilated ash urn in the ,museum of ,chiusi 7fig4 #dc7 does not make it any clearer4 ,this urn has hitherto been explained as representing a marriage scene4 ,but as the opposite side of the urn represents scenes at the door of the tomb1 it is more natural to interpret this relief also as a death scene2 the flute-player and the two men with laurel branches we know from the funeral ceremonies 7cp4 p4 #ai71 and the curious scene to the right1 where two men draw a fringed cloth like a baldachin over a veiled centre figure1 each of whose arms is held by two side figures 7probably a man and a woman71 might then be conjectured to represent a sort of symbolic interment where the dead is placed in a sitting posture1 supported by the family1 instead of the normal posture1 full length on the bier4 ,it is to be hoped that future investigation may throw some light on this point1 and may also deal with the question whether the oft-recurring motive on the ,roman sarcophagi of two genii holding a cloth 7parapetasma7 between them1 as a background either for a scene or for the portrait of the deceased 7fig4 #dd71 can be traced to ,etruscan prototypes or not4 ,hitherto1 we have probably been too one-sided in attributing the types and symbols of the plastic art of ,roman sarcophagi to ,greek pictures1 and the investigation of the share of ,etruria therein would be a fine subject for a monograph4 ,,footnotes3 #ajh ,livy vii4 #ag4 #c-e4 ,cp4 iv4 #cc4 #b4 #aji ,pausanias x4 #bh4 #g-h4 #aaj ,sophocles1 ,ajax #ag4 ,aeschylus1 ,eumenides #efg4 ,euripides1 ,rhesus #ihh4 #aaa ,cicero1 ,de divinatione i4 #cj4 ,plutarch1 ,camillus #cb4 #aab ,an ,etruscan gem shows the dead ,ajax and a winged genius in the act of placing the cerecloth over him4 ,beazley1 ,the ,lewes ,house ,collection of ,ancient ,gems1 p4 #cd41 no4 #cg4 #aac ,plutarch1 ,aetia romana #bf and #ad4 ,,xviii ,sidenote3 ,,etruscan ,,demons ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,del ,,tifone ,but the benevolent genii and ,lasas are absolutely in the minority in the paintings and plastic art of ,etruria1 and become rarer as time goes on4 ,the mood rises from sinister gloom to wild terror4 ,two pictures will illustrate this climax4 ,in the ,tomba del ,tifone at ,corneto1 which was discovered in #ahcb and which is one of the grandest of the family vaults of ,etruria1 there is preserved1 besides the serpent-legged demons from which the tomb has derived its name1 a large wall-painting representing the journey of a young man to the realm of the dead 7fig4 #de74 ,to the left is seen an altar towards which the procession of mantle-clad youths moves2 they are led by a young demon with snakes in his hair1 and a torch and a snake in his hands4 ,the procession advances to the sound of a lituus-trumpet1 and the young men carry staves and seem to be the clients of the central figure4 ,the central figure is made conspicuous by walking without any attributes in the centre of the procession right in the front1 but over his right shoulder we see ,charun's clawlike hand1 and ,charun advances behind him like a black shadow1 characterized by pointed asses' ears1 snakes in his hair1 and his terrible hammer4 ,the high rank of the young man is made apparent by the inscription over his head3 #8,laris ,pumpus ,arnthal clan cechase1' i4 e4 ,laris ,pumpus1 son of ,arnth1 priest 7sacerdos74 ,here1 then1 we have another of the priestly aristocrats of ,etruria4 ,after him come two more companions with staffs1 and a trumpeter1#aad as well as two young men without any attributes1 and the scene is terminated by some dim figures1 one of which seems to be a woman with a snake in her hair and another to be of negroid type2 possibly these are the rulers of the underworld according to a later local ,etruscan conception4 ,one thing1 at any rate1 is plain1 that the dead youth1 in spite of his splendid following1 goes to meet a sorrowful fate4 ,what can the sound of the instruments avail when ,charun's claw is laid on his shoulder6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,,relief ,,on ,a ,,tomb ,,altar ,,from ,,chiusi ,in the ,barracco ,collection in ,rome ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,,cinerary ,,urn ,,from ,,chiusi ,sidenote3 ,,tomba ,,del ,,cardinale ,this tomb dates1 as far as can be judged by the style of the painting1 from the first half of the fourth century ,b4,c4#aae ,from the beginning of the next century dates the ,tomba del ,cardinale at ,corneto1 which was discovered shortly after #agfj1aaf then forgotten and filled in again1 and finally reopened in #aghfaag by ,cardinal ,garambi1 bishop of ,corneto4 ,it has suffered much by exposure to wind and weather and to tourists for more than a hundred and fifty years4 ,it has a narrow frieze with battle scenes1 doubtless mythological1 but the interest is centred in the long narrow frieze of pictures under the ceiling4 ,the subject of this is the march of the shades towards the other side 7fig4 #df74 ,a woman is drawn on a two-wheeled cart by two winged demons1 one light and the other blue-black1 both wearing the traditional garb of the genii of death1 familiar from the contemporary sarcophagi and cinerary urns3 a shirt with braces1 and high top boots4 ,this is perhaps the young woman who is mentioned in the inscription of the tomb3 #8,ramtha1 daughter of ,vel and ,vestrcni1 who was wife 7puia7 of ,larth ,lartha1 and who lived 7valce instead of svalce7 nineteen years4' ,a young man follows in a long cloak3 he turns round to a black1 winged demon carrying a hammer 7fig4 #dg74 ,beyond the gateway of the underworld behind him a devil of the same type is seated1 and then comes a crowd of young people driven along by two devils1 one of whom threatens them with his hammer4#aah ,a woman1 who looks back moaning1 is being brutally dragged along by two male demons1 and at the end of the procession two winged devils are seen hastening forward1 slender of limb and agile of movement1 like poisonous insects4 ,in a fragment of a frieze1 which is now badly damaged1 the ,charun devil was once more seen in the act of crushing a skull with his hammer4#aai ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,,roman ,,sarcophagus ,,in ,,the ,,ny ,,carlsberg ,,glyptotek ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,frieze ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,cardinale ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,,painted ,,frieze ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,cardinale ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,,procession ,,of ,,the ,,dead ,,in ,,the ,,tomba ,,del ,,tifone ,sidenote3 ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,hereafter ,this picture has a quality which reminds one of the frescoes in the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa1 but which is much more terrible because no hope of paradise atones for the horror4 ,the reliefs on contemporary cinerary urns tell the same tale4 ,to be sure1 the dead reclines fat and finely bedecked on the lid of these cinerary urns1 holding a drinking-bowl1 or1 if female1 a fan4 ,this is only tradition and has nothing to do with actual feeling4 ,it is clear enough that the old confident conception of the hereafter as an eternal symposium has been exploded4 ,to this the reliefs on the urns bear witness4 ,these reliefs1 if they do not directly evade the problem by choosing neutral scenes from ,greek mythology1 reveal a demoniac possession of appalling intensity4 ,we need no literature in order to realize that the ,etruscans under the pressure of disaster became another people1 pessimistic1 in terror of death1 and devoid of any resiliency which would allow them to indulge in the pleasures of life4 ,if this spiritual incubus descended upon the masses of the ,roman people we can better understand how it is that the poet ,lucretius can feel enthusiasm1 and can arouse it in others1 when he preaches the gospel of godlessness and the annihilation of the soul in death4#abj ,for of the ,etruscan people1 at any rate1 the words of ,lucretius#aba hold good3 ,omnia perfunctus vitai praemia marces4 ,all that life had to give1 thou hast enjoyed1 ,and now thou fadest4 ,,footnotes3 #aad ,trumpets at ,roman funeral processions are known from reliefs on sarcophagi4 ,rm4 ,mitt4 xxxiii4 #aijh1 pl4 iv 7pp4 #ah-be71 and ,cagnat and ,chabot1 ,manuel d',archol4 ,romaine1 p4 #ehf1 fig4 #cae4 ,notice in the second relief from ,amiternum1 ,rm4 ,mitt4 #aijh1 pl4 iv1 at the bottom1 how the banquet with the members of the family reclining on festive couches is also preserved in early ,rome 7second to first century ,b4,c474 #aae ,contemporary and akin in subject is the ,tomba ,bruschi at ,corneto4 ,monumenti1 viii1 pl4 #cf4 ,stryk1 ,kammergrber1 p4 #aja4 ,the processions here have quite a festive look2 a woman finds time to look at herself in a glass1 but the devils1 who appear in the crowds or lurk in the corners1 show that the occasion is a serious one4 #aaf ,caylus1 ,recueil d'antiquits iv4 7,paris1 #agfa71 #aab f4 #aag ,tiraboschi1 ,storia della lett4 ital41 ,venezia1 #agie1 i4 #ac ff4 footnote4 #aah ,similar motives on tombstones and ,etruscan gems4 ,cp4 ,grenier1 ,bologna villanovienne et trusque1 p4 #ddg4 ,ducati1 ,monumenti dei ,lincei xx4 pp4 #fjg-ab4 ,beazley1 ,lewes ,house ,collection of ,ancient ,gems1 p4 #cc1 no4 #cf 7pl4 #c74 #aai ,badly illustrated in ,inghirami1 ,monumenti etruschi iv4 pl4 xxvii4 #abj ,de rerum natura iii4 #iab ff4 #aba iii4 #ief4 ,,index ,the 99 indicates that the citation is in the notes4 ,a ,achilles1 #i1 #eb4 ,acrobats1 #bh4 ,aeschylus1 #ai991 #ed994 ,agamemnon1 #ea1 #eb4 ,ajax1 #eb4 ,altars1 #ee4 ,amphitheatres1 #be4 ,apollodorus1 #cf994 ,apollonius ,rhodius1 #bg994 ,appian1 #ae4 ,aristophanes1 #bf4 ,aristotle1 #ae1 #bi991 #cc1 #dd4 ,athenaeus1 #ac1 #ae991 #cc991 #cd991 #cg994 ,attic influence1 #bj1 #bb4 ,auguri1 ,tomba degli1 #aj f41 #da4 ,augustus1 #dh4 ,b ,bacchanti1 ,tomba dei1 #cf4 ,ballerina1 la bella1 #c1 #ag4 ,ballot-balls1 #cb4 ,barone1 ,tomba del1 #a1 #b1 #bj f41 #bi4 ,barracco ,collection1 #ee4 ,bells1 #ag1 #cg4 ,bighe1 ,tomba delle1 #a1 #b1 #bb ff41 #bh ff41 #df4 ,black vessels1 #bc994 ,bolsters1 #cj4 ,boxers1 see ,pugilists4 ,brass circles1 #h4 ,british ,museum1 #ad1 #dd4 ,bruschi1 ,tomba1 #eg994 ,c ,caccia1 ,tomba della1 #dc4 ,caere1 #h1 #eb f4 ,caeretan hydriae1 #aj4 ,cakes1 #ce1 #dj4 ,cameron1 ,mary ,lovett1 #c4 ,campana1 ,tomba1 #g f4 ,campania1 #ac f41 #bh1 #dd4 ,candelabra1 candles1 #ci4 ,cardinale1 ,tomba del1 #eh f4 ,casuccini1 ,tomba1 #bf1 #bi994 ,cato1 #cb1 #ce1 #dj1 #dd4 ,catullus1 #dh994 ,cerecloth1 #ee f4 ,chaplets1 #ag1 #bj1 #cg1 #db4 ,chariot race1 #bc4 ,charun1 #g1 #ad1 #eb ff41 #eg ff4 ,chiusi1 #e1 #h1 #bf1 #bi991 #ch1 #dd1 #ee4 ,cicero1 #aa991 #bf991 #bg1 #ce1 #dh991 #ed4 ,clients1 #df4 ,cloth1 #ee f4 ,clusium1 see ,chiusi4 ,copenhagen1 see ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek4 ,corneto1 #a-b and passim4 ,cortsen1 #ac991 #af991 #cd1 #ch994 ,cosa1 #h4 ,couches1 #cj1 #da f4 ,crete1 #h1 #bi4 ,critias1 #ch4 ,cyprus1 #h991 #bc1 #bi4 ,cyrene1 #i4 ,d ,dancers1 #af ff41 #ai1 #bb1 #bf1 #bi1 #cf4 ,danielsson1 #aj994 ,dasti1 #c994 ,deacinare1 #cb4 ,demons1 #di ff41 #ec ff41 #ef ff4 ,dennis1 #c1 #dj4 ,diodorus1 #dh994 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 #aa991 #ae1 #af991 #bc1 #bf1 #cc991 #dd991 #de991 #df994 ,dispater1 #ac4 ,door1 painted1 #aa1 #ae4 ,dromon1 #cg4 ,e ,eggs1 #ca1 #ch1 #db4 ,egypt #i f41 #bj1 #ca1 #ch1 #da1 #db4 ,equestrian procession1 #ac1 #ae f41 #bc1 #bd4 ,eteocles and ,polynices1 #eb4 ,etruria1 #dc ff4 and passim4 ,euphronius1 #bd4 ,euripides1 #ed994 ,euthymides1 #bd4 ,exercises1 preparatory1 #bg f4 ,f ,fama1 #ee4 ,fescennines1 #ah4 ,flaminicae1 #bc4 ,flute-players1 #ae1 #af1 #bb1 #bf1 #ce1 #dj1 #ef4 ,footstools1 #da4 ,franois1 ,tomba1 #c1 #ea ff4 ,g ,gauls1 #dg4 ,geryon1 #ej4 ,giustiniani1 ,tomba ,francesca1 #c4 ,gladiators1 #ac4 ,goethe1 #b4 ,golden vessels1 #ch4 ,golini1 ,tomba1 #cg ff41 #dj f41 #db1 #ej1 #ed4 ,gregoriano1 ,museo1 #e1 #ag4 ,h ,hades1 #ej4 ,helbig1 #e1 #f4 ,hermes1 #bh4 ,herodotus1 #eb994 ,hesychius1 #af4 ,hetaerae1 #cb ff4 ,hieron1 #dd4 ,hittites1 #bc4 ,horses1 #af4 ,hunting leopards1 #ca1 #ch4 ,hypothymis1 #cg4 ,i ,iliad1 #ac1 #bi994 ,india1 #ca4 ,inscriptions1 #aj1 #aa1 #ae1 #ba1 #cd1 #ce1 #ch f41 #dg f41 #ej f41 #eg1 #eh4 ,ionian style1 #i1 #aj f4 ,isaeus1 #cc4 ,iscrizioni1 ,tomba delle1 #a1 #b1 #ad ff41 #ai ff41 #da4 ,isocrates1 #ac994 ,j ,jacobsen1 ,carl1 #e1 #ag4 ,juvenal1 #bc991 #ca994 ,k ,kestner1 #a1 #ad1 #bj1 #bh4 ,kitchen-scenes1 #dj f4 ,kneading1 #dj f4 ,krte1 #c1 #i1 #ba1 #ec994 ,kyme1 #dd f4 ,l ,lanista1 #ac4 ,larth1 #ci1 #ed4 ,lasas1 #ed f4 ,lassoing of the horse1 #bd4 ,laurels1 #ai f41 #cb1 #ef4 ,lectisternia1 #cd1 #db4 ,lecythi1 #ea4 ,leonesse1 ,tomba delle1 #c1 #ai1 #ca4 ,leopardi1 ,tomba dei1 #cj f4 ,lesche1 #ec f4 ,letto funebre1 ,tomba del1 #da f4 ,lituus1 #ed1 #eg4 ,livy1 #h1 #ae991 #af991 #ah1 #bc991 #bf991 #ce991 #dd991 #df991 #dg1 #ec4 ,lucretius1 #ei4 ,ludii1 ludiones1 #ah4 ,lysias1 #ah994 ,m ,magliano1 #h4 ,martha1 ,jules1 #c1 #bc994 ,medical lore1 #ai4 ,melian vases1 #g f4 ,mezentius1 #ec4 ,michelangelo1 #ea4 ,milani1 #f1 #bf4 ,minium1 #ah4 ,morente1 ,tomba del1 #bd1 #dj4 ,morto1 ,tomba del1 #af1 #da4 ,mller-,deecke1 #bc991 #dh994 ,n ,naked pages1 #cc4 ,nicocles1 #ac4 ,ny ,carlsberg ,glyptotek1 #e and passim4 ,o ,odrysians1 #ai4 ,odysseus1 #ea4 ,olympic ,games1 #be4 ,orco1 ,tomba dell'1 #cf1 #di ff4 ,orfeo e d',eurydice1 ,tomba d'1 #cg994 ,orvieto1 #cg4 ,p ,palaestra1 scenes of the1 #bh f4 ,parapetasma1 #ef4 ,parthenon1 #be4 ,patroclus1 #eb4 ,pausanias1 #ed994 ,persephone1 #ej4 ,persius1 #db4 ,persona1 #ac994 ,phersu1 #ab4 ,philochorus1 #dc994 ,phoenicians1 #aj1 #bg4 ,pindar1 #dd4 ,plautus1 #ah991 #cj1 #cb1 #cf1 #da991 #dg1 #ej994 ,plutarch1 #ae991 #ah991 #dg991 #ec991 #ed991 #ee4 ,polybius1 #dd991 #ei994 ,polygnotus1 #ec f4 ,pompae1 #ae f4 ,porsenna1 #ci1 #dd1 #de4 ,priesthood1 #ce1 #eg4 ,prinia1 #h994 ,prisoners of war1 #eb f4 ,propertius1 #dh4 ,prylis1 #bi4 ,pugilists1 #ae1 #bg1 #bh4 ,pulcella1 ,tomba della1 #c1 #ch1 #ee4 ,pulcinella1 ,tomba del1 #ab f4 ,pyrrhiche1 #bi4 ,q ,querciola1 ,tomba1 #cf1 #dc4 ,r ,rasenas1 #ci4 ,reclining at table1 #cd1 #cf1 #eg994 ,riding sideways1 #bg4 ,rings1 #cb4 ,rome1 #de f4 and passim4 ,rumpf1 ,andreas1 #g f4 ,rushforth1 #ci994 ,ruva1 #ch994 ,s ,salii1 #ah4 ,samnites1 #dg4 ,sappho #bc991 #cg994 ,sarcophagi1 #ad1 #cd1 #ec1 #ee f41 #eg994 ,schulze1 ,wilh41 #ci991 #de1 #df994 ,scimmia1 ,tomba della1 #be f41 #bi1 #de4 ,scudi1 ,tomba degli1 #cd ff41 #ed4 ,seneca1 #da994 ,shields1 #h4 ,skutsch1 #af994 ,slaves1 #da4 ,soothsayers1 #dh4 ,sophocles1 #dd1 #ed994 ,spectators1 #bd f4 ,stackelberg1 #a1 #b1 #ad1 #bj1 #bc1 #bd1 #bg1 #bh4 ,stands1 #bd f4 ,strabo1 #dc994 ,struppus1 #bc994 ,stryk1 von1 #c f4 ,sunshade1 #bf4 ,symposia1 #bi ff41 #cg ff41 #db4 ,t ,tacitus1 #bj994 ,tapestries1 #h f4 ,tarquinius1 #de4 ,tarquitius ,priscus1 #dh4 ,technique1 #ba4 ,tertullian1 #ac991 #bc4 ,tevarath1 #aa4 ,theophrastus1 #ai991 #cd994 ,theopompus1 #cd994 ,theseus1 #di f4 ,thomsen1 ,vilh41 #dj994 ,thucydides1 #dd994 ,thulin1 #dh994 ,thrmer1 #a1 #bj4 ,thymiaterion1 #bf1 #ci4 ,tifone1 ,tomba del1 #ef f4 ,timaeus1 #cc994 ,tiresias1 #ea4 ,tomba1 see the different names4 ,tonsilia tappetia1 #cj994 ,tori1 ,tomba dei1 #c1 #i f41 #bj1 #ea4 ,torlonia1 #ea4 ,treasury of the ,siphnians1 #be4 ,triclinio1 ,tomba del1 #af f41 #bj1 #bg1 #ca4 ,tripudium1 #ah4 ,triumphators1 #ah4 ,troilus1 #i4 ,trumpets #ed1 #eg994 ,tuchulcha1 #di f4 ,tusurthi1 #cd4 ,tutulus1 #bb f41 #db4 ,tyrrhenians1 #dc4 ,u ,urns1 cinerary1 #ai1 #cj991 #cd1 #ec1 #ee1 #ef4 ,v ,vanth1 #eb1 #ed4 ,varro1 #ai1 #da991 #de4 ,vases1 #d1 #bj1 #bb ff4 ,vasi3 ,tomba dei ,v4 ,dipinti1 #e1 #cf4 ,vecchio1 ,tomba del1 #cg4 ,veii #c1 #g1 #ce1 #dg4 ,virgil1 #dh994 ,vitruvius1 #be4 ,volnius1 #de4 ,vulci1 #c1 #ea4 ,w ,weege1 #b1 #d1 #f1 #g1 #bb ff41 #bg1 #bh1 #ca f41 #cd4 ,wigand1 #bf994 ,women1 ,etruscan1 #cc4 ,wrestlers1 #aa1 #ae1 #bh4 ,x ,xenophanes1 #ai4 ,xenophon1 #ai4 ,,printed ,,in ,,england ,,at ,,the ,,oxford ,,university ,,press 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,variations in hyphenation has been standardised but all other spelling and punctuation remains unchanged4