,illustration3 ,,geology ,,and          
,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the ,,ancient      
,,world4      ,,the ,,extinct ,,animals 
,,restored ,,by ,b4 ,,waterhouse        
,,hawkins4 ,f4,g4,s4 ,f4,l4,s4          
,,published ,,for ,,the ,,crystal       
,,palace ,,library1 ,,by ,,bradbury     
,,evans1 #aa1      ,,bouverie ,,st4     
,,maclure  ,,co4 ,,lith4 ,,to ,,the     
,,queen4                                
,,geology ,,and ,,inhabitants           
,,of ,,the                              
,,ancient ,,world4                      
,,described ,,by                        
,,richard ,,owen1 ,f4,r4,s4             
,,the ,,animals ,,constructed ,,by ,b4  
,w4 ,,hawkins1 ,f4,g4,s4                
,,crystal ,,palace ,,library1           
,,and               ,,bradbury  ,,evans1
 #aa1 ,,bouverie ,,street1 ,,london4    
#ahed4                                  
,,bradbury ,,and ,,evans1               
,,printers ,,to ,,the ,,crystal ,,palace
 ,,company1                             
,,whitefriars4                          

,,contents4                             
,,page    ,,introduction                
#e        ,,the ,,secondary ,,island    
#g    ,,chalk ,,formation               
#i        ,,the ,,mosasaurus            
#aj        ,,the ,,pterodactyle         
#aa    ,,wealden ,,formation            
#ad        ,,the ,,iguanodon            
#ad        ,,the ,,hyl,,osaurus         
#ag    ,,oolite ,,formation             
#ai        ,,the ,,megalosaurus         
#ai        ,,pterodactyles ,,of ,,the   
,,oolite                                
#bb        ,,teleosaurus                
#bb    ,,lias ,,formation               
#be        ,,enaliosauria               
#be        ,,the ,,ichthyosaurus        
#be        ,,ichthyosaurus ,,platyodon  
#bi        ,,ichthyosaurus              
,,tenuirostris                          
#cj        ,,ichthyosaurus ,,communis   
#cj        ,,plesiosaurus               
#ca        ,,plesiosaurus               
,,macrocephalus                         
#ca        ,,plesiosaurus               

,,dolichodeirus                         
#cb        ,,plesiosaurus ,,hawkinsii   
#cc    ,,new ,,red ,,sandstone          
#ce        ,,batrachia                  
#ce        ,,labyrinthodon              
,,salamandroides                        
#cf        ,,labyrinthodon              
,,pachygnathus                          
#ch        ,,dicynodon                  
#ch        ,illustration3 uncaptioned   
,,geology ,,and ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,the
 ,,ancient ,,world4                     
,,introduction4      ,before entering   
upon a description of the restorations  
of the ,extinct  ,animals1 placed on the
 ,geological ,islands in the great      
,lake1 a brief  account may be premised 
of the principles and procedures adopted
 in  carrying out this attempt to       
present a view of part of the animal    
creation of former periods in the       
earth's history4    ,those extinct      
animals were first selected of which the
 entire1 or nearly  entire1 skeleton had
 been exhumed in a fossil state4 ,to    

accurate  drawings of these skeletons an
 outline of the form of the entire      
animal  was added1 according to the     
proportions and relations of the skin   
and  adjacent soft parts to the         
superficial parts of the skeleton1 as   
yielded  by those parts in the nearest  
allied living animals4 ,from such an    
outline of the exterior1 ,mr4           
,waterhouse ,hawkins prepared at once a 
miniature model form in clay4    ,this  
model was rigorously tested in regard to
 all its proportions with  those        
exhibited by the bones and joints of the
 skeleton of the fossil  animal1 and the
 required alterations and modifications 
were successively  made1 after repeated 
examinations and comparisons1 until the 
result  proved satisfactory4    ,the    
next step was to make a copy in clay of 
the proof model1 of the  natural size of
 the extinct animal3 the largest known  
fossil bone1 or  part1 of such animal   
being taken as the standard according to
 which the  proportions of the rest of  

the body were calculated agreeably with 
those  of the best preserved and most   
perfect skeleton4 ,the model of the full
  size of the extinct animal having been
 thus prepared1 and corrected by        
renewed comparisons with the original   
fossil remains1 a mould of it was       
prepared1 and a cast taken from this    
mould1 in the material of which the     
restorations1 now exposed to view1 are  
composed4    ,there are some very rare  
and remarkable extinct animals of which 
only  the fossil skull and a few        
detached bones of the skeleton have been
  discovered3 in most of these the      
restoration has been limited to the     
head1 as1 for example1 in the case of   
the ,mosasaurus2 and only in two        
instances--those1 viz41 of the          
,labyrinthodon and ,dicynodon--has ,mr4 
,hawkins taken upon himself the         
responsibility of adding the trunk to   
the  known characters of the head1 such 
addition having been made to  illustrate
 the general affinities and nature of   

the fossil1 and the kind  of limbs      
required to produce the impressions of  
the footprints1 where  these have been  
detected and preserved in the petrified 
sands of the  ancient sea-shores trodden
 by these strange forms of the          
,reptilian  class4    ,with regard to   
the hair1 the scales1 the scutes1 and   
other modifications  of the skin1 in    
some instances the analogy of the       
nearest allied living  forms of animals 
has been the only guide2 in a few       
instances1 as in that  of the           
,ichthyosaurus1 portions of the         
petrified integument have been          
fortunately preserved1 and have guided  
the artist most satisfactorily in  the  
restoration of the skin and soft parts  
of the fins2 in the case of  other      
reptiles1 the bony plates1 spines1 and  
scutes have been discovered  in a fossil
 state1 and have been scrupulously      
copied in the attempt to  restore the   
peculiar tegumentary features of the    
extinct reptiles1 as  e4g4 in the       

,hylosaurus4    ,in every stage of this 
difficult1 and by some it may be        
thought1  perhaps1 too bold1 attempt to 
reproduce and present to human gaze and 
contemplation the forms of animal life  
that have successively flourished       
during former geological phases of time1
 and have passed away long ages  prior  
to the creation of man1 the writer of   
the following brief notice  of the      
nature and affinities of the animals so 
restored feels it a duty1  as it is a   
high gratification to him1 to testify to
 the intelligence1  zeal1 and peculiar  
artistic skill by which his ideas and   
suggestions  have been realised and     
carried out by the talented director of 
the  fossil department1 ,mr4 ,waterhouse
 ,hawkins4 ,without the combination of  
science1 art1 and manual skill1 happily 
combined in that gentleman1 the  present
 department of the ,instructive         
,illustrations at the ,crystal  ,palace 
could not have been realised4           
,the ,secondary ,island4    ,the most   

cursory observation of the surface of   
the earth shows that it  is composed of 
distinct substances1 such as clay1      
chalk1 lias1  limestone1 coal1 slate1   
sandstone1 c42 and a study of such      
substances1  their relative position and
 contents1 has led to the conviction    
that  these external parts of the earth 
have acquired their present condition   
gradually1 under a variety of           
circumstances1 and at successive        
periods1  during which many races of    
animated beings1 distinct both from     
those of  other periods and from those  
now living1 have successively peopled   
the  land and the waters2 the remains of
 these creatures being found buried  in 
many of the layers or masses of mineral 
substances1 forming the crust  of the   
earth4    ,the object of the ,islands in
 the ,geological ,lake is to demonstrate
 the  order of succession1 or           
superposition1 of these layers or       
strata1 and to  exhibit1 restored in    
form and bulk1 as when they lived1 the  

most  remarkable and characteristic of  
the extinct animals and plants of each  
stratum4    ,the series of mineral      
substances and strata represented in the
 smaller  island have been called by    
geologists 8secondary formations10      
because  they lie between an older      
series termed 8primary10 and a newer    
series  termed 8tertiary30 the term     
8formation0 meaning any assemblage of   
rocks  or layers which have some        
character in common1 whether of origin1 
age1  or composition4#a    ,following   
the secondary formations as they descend
 in the earth1 or  succeed each other   
from above downwards1 and as they are   
shown1  obliquely tilted up out of their
 original level position from left to   
right1 in the ,secondary ,island1 they  
consist3 #ast1 of the ,chalk or         
,cretaceous group2 #bnd1 the ,wealden2  
#crd1 the ,oolite2 #dth1 the ,lias2 and 
#eth1 the ,new ,red ,sandstone4         
,,the ,,chalk4      ,the chalk          
formations or 8cretaceous group of beds0

 include strata of  various mineral     
substances2 but the white chalk which   
forms the cliffs  of ,dover and the     
adjoining coasts1 and the downs and     
chalk quarries of  the ,south of        
,england1 is the chief and most         
characteristic formation4  ,chalk1      
immense as are the masses in which it   
has been deposited1 owes  its origin to 
living actions2 every particle of it    
once circulated in  the blood or vital  
juices of certain species of animals1 or
 of a few  plants1 that lived in the    
seas of the secondary period of         
geological  time4 ,white chalk consists 
of carbonate of lime1 and is the result 
of  the decomposition chiefly of        
coral-animals 7,madrepores1 ,millepores1
  ,flustra1 ,cellepora1 c471 of         
sea-urchins 7,echini71 and of           
shell-fishes 7,testacea71 and of the    
mechanical reduction1 pounding1  and    
grinding of their shells4 ,such         
chalk-forming beings still exist1 and   
continue their operations in various    

parts of the ocean1 especially in  the  
construction of coral reefs and islands4
    ,every river that traverses a       
limestone district carries into the sea 
a  certain proportion of caustic lime in
 solution3 the ill effects of the       
accumulation of this mineral are        
neutralised by the power allotted to    
the above-cited sea-animals to absorb   
the lime1 combine it with               
carbonic-acid1 and precipitate or       
deposit it in the condition of          
insoluble chalk1 or carbonate of lime4  
,the entire cretaceous series includes  
from above downwards3      ,maestricht  
beds of yellowish chalk4    ,upper white
 chalk with flints4    ,lower white     
chalk without flints4    ,upper         
green-sand4    ,gault4    ,lower        
green-sand and ,kentish rag4    ,the    
best known and most characteristic large
 extinct animal of the chalk  formations
 is chiefly found in the uppermost and  
most recent division1  and is called    
,no4 #a4--,the ,mosasaurus4             

7,mosasaurus ,hoffmanni1 ,hoffmann's    
,mosasaur47    ,of this animal almost   
the entire skull has been discovered1   
but not  sufficient of the rest of the  
skeleton to guide to a complete         
restoration of the animal4 ,the head    
only1 therefore1 is shown1 of the       
natural size1 at the left extremity of  
the ,secondary ,island4    ,the first or
 generic name of this animal is derived 
from the locality1  ,maestricht1 on the 
river ,meuse 7,lat4 ,mosa71 in ,germany1
 where its  remains have been chiefly   
discovered1 and from the ,greek word    
sauros1  a lizard1 to which tribe of    
animals it belongs4 ,its second name    
refers  to its discoverer1 ,dr4         
,hoffmann1 of ,maestricht1 surgeon to   
the forces  quartered in that town in   
#aghj4 ,this gentleman had occupied his 
leisure  by the collection of the       
fossils from the quarries which were    
then  worked to a great extent at       
,maestricht for a kind of yellowish     
stone of  a chalky nature1 and belonging

 to the most recent of the secondary    
class  of formations in geology4 ,in one
 of the great subterraneous quarries or 
galleries1 about five hundred paces from
 the entrance1 and ninety feet  below   
the surface1 the quarrymen exposed part 
of the skull of the  ,mosasaurus1 in a  
block of stone which they were engaged  
in detaching4 ,on  this discovery they  
suspended their work1 and went to inform
 ,dr4  ,hoffmann1 who1 on arriving at   
the spot1 directed the operations of the
  men1 so that they worked out the block
 without injury to the fossil2 and  the 
doctor then1 with his own hands1 cleared
 away the matrix and exposed  the jaws  
and teeth1 casts of which are shown in  
the cretaceous rock of  the ,island4    
,this fine specimen1 which ,hoffmann had
 added with so much pains and care  to  
his collection1 soon1 however1 became a 
source of chagrin to him4 ,one  of the  
canons of the cathedral at ,maestricht1 
who owned the surface of  the soil      
beneath which was the quarry whence the 

fossil had been  obtained1 when the fame
 of the specimen reached him1 pleaded   
certain  feudal rights to it4 ,hoffmann 
resisted1 and the canon went to law4    
,the  ,chapter supported the canon1 and 
the decree ultimately went against the  
poor surgeon1 who lost both his specimen
 and his money--being made to pay  the  
costs of the action4 ,the canon did not1
 however1 long enjoy  possession of the 
unique specimen4 ,when the ,french army 
bombarded  ,maestricht in #agie1        
directions were given to spare the      
suburb in which  the famous fossil was  
known to be preserved2 and after the    
capitulation  of the town it was seized 
and borne off in triumph4 ,the specimen 
has  since remained in the museum of the
 ,garden of ,plants at ,paris4    ,this 
skull of the ,mosasaurus measures four  
and a half feet long and two  and a half
 feet wide4 ,the large pointed teeth on 
the jaws are very  conspicuous2 but1 in 
addition to these1 the gigantic reptile 
had teeth  on a bone of the roof of the 

mouth 7the pterygoid71 like some of the 
modern lizards4 ,the entire length of   
the animal has been estimated at  about 
thirty feet4 ,it is conjectured to have 
been able to swim well1 and  to have    
frequented the sea in quest of prey3 its
 dentition shows its  predatory and     
carnivorous character1 and its remains  
have hitherto been  met with exclusively
 in the chalk formations4 ,besides the  
specimens from  ,st4 ,peter's ,mount1   
,maestricht1 of which the               
above-described skull is the  most      
remarkable1 fossil bones and teeth of   
the ,mosasaurus have been  found in the 
chalk of ,kent1 and in the green-sand--a
 member of the  cretaceous series--in   
,new ,jersey1 ,united ,states of        
,america4 ,no animal  like the          
,mosasaurus is now known to exist4      
,nos4 #b  #c4--,the ,pterodactyle4      
,nos4 #b and #c are restorations of a   
flying reptile or dragon1 called        
,pterodactyle1 from the ,greek words    
pteron1 a wing1 and dactylos1 a  finger2

 because the wings are mainly supported 
by the outer finger1  enormously        
lengthened and of proportionate         
strength1 which1  nevertheless1 answers 
to the little finger of the human hand4 
,the wings  consisted of folds of skin1 
like the leather wings of the bat2 and  
the  ,pterodactyles were covered with   
scales1 not with feathers3 the head1    
though somewhat resembling in shape that
 of a bird1 and supported on a  long and
 slender neck1 was provided with long   
jaws1 armed with teeth2  and altogether 
the structure of these extinct members  
of the reptilian  class is such as to   
rank them amongst the most extraordinary
 of all the  creatures yet discovered in
 the ruins of the ancient earth4        
,remains of the ,pterodactyle were first
 discovered1 in #aghd1 by ,prof4        
,collini1 in the lithographic slate of  
,aichstadt1 in ,germany1 which slate  is
 a member of the oolitic formations3 the
 species so discovered was at  first    
mistaken for a bird1 and afterwards     

supposed to be a large kind of  bat1 but
 had its true reptilian nature          
demonstrated by ,baron ,cuvier1 by  whom
 it was called the ,pterodactylus       
longirostris1 or ,long-beaked           
,pterodactyle3 it was about the size of 
a curlew4    ,a somewhat larger         
species--the ,pterodactylus macronyx1 or
 ,long-clawed  ,pterodactyle--was       
subsequently discovered by the ,rev4    
,dr4 ,buckland1 in  the lias formation  
of ,lyme ,regis3 its wings1 when        
expanded1 must have  been about four    
feet from tip to tip4 ,the smallest     
known species--the  ,pterodactylus      
brevirostris1 or ,short-beaked          
,pterodactyle--was  discovered in the   
lithographic slate at ,solenhofen1      
,germany1 and has  been described by    
,professor ,soemmering4    ,remains of  
the largest known kinds of ,pterodactyle
 have been discovered  more recently in 
chalk-pits1 at ,burham1 in ,kent4 ,the  
skull of one of  these species--the     
,pterodactylus ,cuvieri--was about      

twenty inches in  length1 and the animal
 was upborne on an expanse of wing of   
probably not  less than eighteen feet   
from tip to tip4 ,the restored specimen 
of this  species is numbered #c4    ,a  
second very large kind of               
,pterodactyle--the ,pterodactylus       
compressirostris1 or ,thin-beaked       
,pterodactyle--had a head from fourteen 
to sixteen inches in length1 and an     
expanse of wing1 from tip to tip1 of    
fifteen feet4 ,the remains of this      
species have also been found in the     
chalk of ,kent4 ,from the same formation
 and locality a third large kind  of    
,pterodactyle1 although inferior in size
 to the two foregoing1 has  been        
discovered1 called the ,pterodactylus   
conirostris1 and also--until  the       
foregoing larger kinds were             
discovered--,pterodactylus giganteus4   
,the long1 sharp1 conical teeth in the  
jaws of the ,pterodactyles indicate     
them to have preyed upon other living   
animals2 their eyes were large1 as  if  

to enable them to fly by night4 ,from   
their wings projected fingers1          
terminated by long curved claws1 and    
forming a powerful paw1 wherewith  the  
animal was enabled to creep and climb1  
or suspend itself from trees4  ,it is   
probable1 also1 that the ,pterodactyles 
had the power of swimming2  some kinds1 
e4g41 the ,pterodactylus ,gemmingi1 had 
a long and stiff  tail4 8,thus10 writes 
,dr4 ,buckland1 8like ,milton's ,fiend1 
all qualified  for all services and all 
elements1 the creature was a fit        
companion for  the kindred reptiles that
 swarmed in the seas1 or crawled on the 
shores  of a turbulent planet4          
#8,the ,fiend1    ,o'er bog1 or steep1  
through strait1 rough1 dense1 or rare1  
,with head1 hands1 wings1 or feet1      
pursues his way1    ,and swims1 or      
sinks1 or wades1 or creeps1 or flies4'  
,paradise ,lost1 ,book ,,ii40           
,,the ,,wealden4      ,the ,wealden is a
 mass of petrified clay1 sand1 and      
sandstone1 deposited  from the fresh or 

brackish water of probably some great   
estuary1 and  extending over parts of   
the counties of ,kent1 ,surrey1 and     
,sussex4 ,this  fresh-water formation   
derives its name from the 8,weald0 or   
8,wold0 of  ,kent1 where it was first   
geologically studied1 and where it is   
exposed  by the removal of the chalk1   
which covers or overlies it1 in other   
parts  of the ,south of ,england4       
,the ,wealden is divided into three     
groups of strata1 which succeed each    
other in the following descending       
order3--    #ast4 ,weald ,clay1         
sometimes including thin beds of sand   
and shelly  limestone1 forming beds of  
from #adj to #bhj feet in depth or      
vertical  thickness4    #bnd4 ,hastings 
,sand1 in which occur some clays and    
calcareous grits1  forming beds of from 
#djj to #ejj feet in depth4    #crd4    
,purbeck ,beds1 so called from being    
exposed chiefly in the ,isle of         
,purbeck1 off the coast of ,dorsetshire1
 where it forms the quarries of  the    

limestone for which ,purbeck is famous3 
the beds of limestones and  marls are   
from #aej to #bjj feet in depth4        
,nos4 #d  #e4--,the ,iguanodon4         
7,iguanodon ,mantelli1 ,conybeare47     
,one afternoon1 in the spring of #ahbb1 
an accomplished lady1 the wife of  a    
medical practitioner1 at ,lewes1 in     
,sussex1 walking along the  picturesque 
paths of ,tilgate ,forest1 discovered   
some objects in the  coarse conglomerate
 rock of the quarries of that locality1 
which1 from  their peculiar form and    
substance1 she thought would be         
interesting to  her husband1 whose      
attention had been directed1 during his 
professional  drives1 to the geology and
 fossils of his neighbourhood4    ,the  
lady was ,mrs4 ,mantell3 her husband1   
the subsequently distinguished          
geologist1 ,dr4 ,mantell1#b perceived   
that the fossils discovered by his  wife
 were teeth1 and teeth of a large and   
unknown animal4    8,as these teeth10   
writes the doctor1 8were distinct from  

any that had  previously come under my  
notice1 ,i felt anxious to submit them  
to the  examination of persons whose    
knowledge and means of observation were 
more extensive than my own4 ,i therefore
 transmitted specimens to some of  the  
most eminent naturalists in this country
 and on the continent4 ,but  although my
 communications were acknowledged with  
that candour and  liberality which      
constantly characterise the intercourse 
of scientific  men1 yet no light was    
thrown upon the subject1 except by the  
illustrious  ,baron ,cuvier1 whose      
opinions will best appear by the        
following extract  from the             
correspondence with which he honoured   
me3--    8#8,these teeth are certainly  
unknown to me2 they are not from a      
carnivorous animal1 and yet ,i believe  
that they belong1 from their  slight    
degree of complexity1 the notching of   
their margins1 and the thin  coat of    
enamel that covers them1 to the order of
 reptiles4    8#8,may we not here have a

 new animal6--a herbivorous reptile8    
,and1 just as  at the present time with 
regard to mammals 7land-quadrupeds with 
warm  blood71 it is amongst the         
herbivorous that we find the largest    
species1  so also with the reptiles at  
the remote period when they were the    
sole  terrestrial animals1 might not the
 largest amongst them have been         
nourished by vegetables8    8#8,some of 
the great bones which you possess may   
belong to this animal1  which1 up to the
 present time1 is unique in its kind4   
,time will confirm  or confute this     
idea1 since it is impossible but that   
one day a part of  the skeleton1 united 
to portions of jaws with the teeth1 will
 be  discovered4'0    8,these remarks10 
,dr4 ,mantell proceeds to say1 8induced 
me to pursue my  investigations with    
increased assiduity1 but hitherto they  
have not been  attended with the desired
 success1 no connected portion of the   
skeleton  having been discovered4 ,among
 the specimens lately connected1 some1  

however1 were so perfect1 that ,i       
resolved to avail myself of the         
obliging offer of ,mr4 ,clift 7to whose 
kindness and liberality ,i hold  myself 
particularly indebted71 to assist me in 
comparing the fossil  teeth with those  
of the recent ,lacert in the ,museum of 
the ,royal  ,college of ,surgeons4 ,the 
result of this examination proved highly
  satisfactory1 for in an ,iguana which 
,mr4 ,stutchbury had prepared to        
present to the ,college1 we discovered  
teeth possessing the form and  structure
 of the fossil specimens40 7,phil4      
,trans41 #ahbe1 p4 #ahj47 ,and he       
afterwards adds3--8,the name ,iguanodon1
 derived from the form of the  teeth1   
7and which ,i have adopted at the       
suggestion of the ,rev4 ,w4             
,conybeare17 will not1 it is presumed1  
be deemed objectionable40 7,ib4 p4      
#ahd47    ,the further discovery which  
,baron ,cuvier's prophetic glance saw   
buried  in the womb of time1 and the    
birth of which verified his conjecture  

that  some of the great bones collected 
by ,dr4 ,mantell belonged to the same   
animal as the teeth1 was made by ,mr4   
,w4 ,h4 ,bensted1 of ,maidstone1 the    
proprietor of a stone-quarry of the     
,shanklin-sand formation1 in the  close 
vicinity of that town4 ,this gentleman  
had his attention one day1  in ,may1    
#ahcd1 called by his workmen to what    
they supposed to be  petrified wood in  
some pieces of stone which they had been
 blasting4 ,he  perceived that what they
 supposed to be wood was fossil bone1   
and with a  zeal and care which have    
always characterised his endeavours to  
secure  for science any evidence of     
fossil remains in his quarry1 he        
immediately  resorted to the spot4 ,he  
found that the bore or blast by which   
these  remains were brought to light1   
had been inserted into the centre of the
  specimen1 so that the mass of stone   
containing it had been shattered  into  
many pieces1 some of which were blown   
into the adjoining fields4  ,all these  

pieces he had carefully collected1 and  
proceeding with equal  ardour and       
success to the removal of the matrix    
from the fossils1 he  succeeded after a 
month's labour in exposing them to view1
 and in  fitting the fragments to their 
proper places4    ,this specimen is now 
in the ,british ,museum4    ,many other 
specimens of detached bones1 including  
vertebr or parts of  the back-bone1     
especially that part resting on the hind
 limbs1 and  called the 8pelvis10 bones 
of the limbs1 down to those that        
supported  the claws1 together with jaws
 and teeth1 which have since been       
successively discovered1 have enabled   
anatomists to reconstruct the  extinct  
,iguanodon1 and have proved it to have  
been a herbivorous  reptile1 of colossal
 dimensions1 analogous to the diminutive
 ,iguana in  the form of its teeth1 but 
belonging to a distinct and higher order
 of  reptiles1 more akin to the         
crocodiles4 ,the same rich materials1   
selecting the largest of the bones as a 

standard1 have served for the  present  
restorations 7,nos4 #d and #e7 of the   
animal1 as when alive3 all  the parts   
being kept in just proportion to the    
standard bones1 and the  whole being    
thus brought to the following           
dimensions3--      ,total length1 from  
the nose or muzzle      #cd  feet     #i
  inches4        to the end of the tail 
,greatest girth of the trunk            
#bj   0       #e     0    ,length of the
 head                          #c   0   
#f     0    ,length of the tail         
#ae   0       #f     0    ,the character
 of the scales is conjectural1 and the  
horn more than  doubtful1 though        
attributed to the ,iguanodon by ,dr4    
,mantell and most  geologists4    ,this 
animal probably lived near estuaries and
 rivers1 and may have  derived its food 
from the ,clathrari1 ,zami1 ,cycades1   
and other  extinct trees1 of which the  
fossil remains abound in the same       
formations  as those yielding the bones 
and teeth of the ,iguanodon4    ,these  

formations are the ,wealden and the     
,neocomian or green-sand3 the           
localities in which the remains of the  
,iguanodon have been principally  found1
 are the ,weald of ,kent and ,sussex3   
,horsham1 in ,sussex2 ,maidstone1  in   
,kent2 and the ,isle of ,wight4         
,restorations of the ,cycas and ,zamia  
are placed1 with the ,iguanodon1  on the
 ,wealden division of the ,secondary    
,island4                  ,no4 #f4--,the
 ,hylosaurus4 7,hylosaurus ,owenii47    
,the animal1 so called by its           
discoverer1 ,dr4 ,mantell1 belongs to   
the  same highly organised order of the 
class of reptiles as the ,iguanodon1    
that1 viz41 which was characterised by a
 longer and stronger sacrum and  pelvis1
 and by larger limbs than the reptiles  
of the present day  possess2 they were  
accordingly better fitted for           
progression on dry  land1 and probably  
carried their body higher and more      
freely above the  surface of the ground4
    ,visiting1 in the summer of #ahcb1 a

 quarry in ,tilgate ,forest1 ,dr4       
,mantell  had his attention attracted to
 some fragments of a large mass of      
stone1  which had recently been broken  
up1 and which exhibited traces of       
numerous pieces of bone4 ,the portions  
of the rock1 which admitted of  being   
restored together1 were cemented1 and   
then the rock was chiselled  from the   
fossil bones1 which consisted of part of
 the back-bone or  vertebral column1    
some ribs1 the shoulder bones called    
scapula and  coracoid1 and numerous long
 angular bones or spines which seemed to
 have  supported a lofty serrated or    
jagged crest1 extended along the middle 
of  the back1 as in some of the small   
existing lizards1 e4g41 the ,iguana3    
cut ,no4 #f4 ,many small dermal bones   
were also found1 which indicate the     
,hylosaurus to have been covered by hard
 tuberculate scales1 like those  of some
 of the ,australian lizards1 called     
,cyclodus4    ,this character of the    
skin1 and the serrated crest1 are       

accurately given  in the restoration1   
the major part of which1 however1 is    
necessarily at  present conjectural1 and
 carried out according to the general   
analogies  of the saurian form4 ,the    
size is indicated with more certainty   
according  to the proportions of the    
known vertebr and other bones4          
,illustration3 ,no4 #f4 ,diagram of the 
,slab containing the ,bones of          
,hylosaurus4                            
,,the ,,oolite4      ,the division of   
the secondary formations1 called        
8,oolite10 takes its  name from the most
 characteristic of its constituents1    
which is a  variety of limestone        
composed of numerous small grains1      
resembling the  8roe0 or eggs of a fish1
 whence the term1 7from the ,greek oon1 
an egg1  lithos1 a stone74 ,the oolite1 
however1 includes a great series of beds
  of marine origin1 which1 with an      
average breadth of thirty miles1 extend 
across ,england1 from ,yorkshire in the 
north-east to ,dorsetshire in the       

south-west4    ,the oolite series lies  
below the ,wealden1 and where this is   
wanting1  below the chalk1 and consists 
of the following subdivisions1          
succeeding  each other in the descending
 order3--                               
,oolite4      ,upper4    ,portland stone
 and sand4              ,kimmeridge     
clay4      ,middle4   ,coral rag4       
,oxford clay4      ,lower4    ,cornbrash
 and forest marble4              ,great 
oolite and ,stonesfield slate4          
,fuller's earth4              ,inferior 
oolite4    ,upon the portion of the     
island representing the oolite series1  
the most  conspicuous of the restored   
animals of that period is--             
,no4 #g4--,the ,megalosaurus4    ,the   
,megalosaurus1 as its name implies      
7compounded by its discoverer1 ,dr4     
,buckland1 from the ,greek megas1 great1
 and sauros1 lizard71 was a  lizard-like
 reptile of great size1 8of which10     
writes ,dr4 ,buckland1  8although no    
skeleton has yet been found entire1 so  

many perfect bones  and teeth have been 
discovered in the same quarries1 that we
 are nearly  as well acquainted with the
 form and dimensions of the limbs as if 
they  had been found together in a      
single block of stone40    ,the         
restoration of the animal has been      
accordingly effected1 agreeably  with   
the proportions of the known parts of   
the skeleton1 and in harmony  with the  
general characters of the order of      
reptiles to which the  ,megalosaurus    
belonged4 ,this order--the ,dinosauria  
7,gr4 deinos1 terribly  great sauros1 a 
lizard7--is that to which the two       
foregoing huge  reptiles of the ,wealden
 series belong1 viz41 the ,iguanodon and
  ,hylosaurus1 and is characterised by  
the modifications already  mentioned1   
that fitted them for more efficient     
progression upon dry  land4 ,the        
,iguanodon represented the herbivorous  
section of the order1  the ,hylosaurus  
appears1 from its teeth1 to have been a 
mixed feeder1  but the ,megalosaurus was

 decidedly carnivorous1 and1 probably1  
waged a  deadly war against its less    
destructively endowed congeners and     
contemporaries4        ,illustration3   
,no4 #g4 ,megalosaurus4    ,baron       
,cuvier estimated the ,megalosaurus to  
have been about fifty feet in  length2  
my own calculations1 founded on more    
complete evidence than had  been at the 
,baron's command1 reduce its size to    
about thirty-five  feet3#c but with the 
superior proportional height and        
capacity of  trunk1 as contrasted with  
the largest existing crocodiles1 even   
that  length gives a most formidable    
character to this extinct predatory     
reptile4    ,as the thigh-bone 7femur7  
and leg-bone 7tibia7 measure each nearly
  three feet1 the entire hind-leg1      
allowing for the cartilages of the      
joints1 must have attained a length of  
two yards3 a bone of the foot           
7metatarsal7 thirteen inches long1      
indicates that part1 with the toes  and 
claws entire1 to have been at least     

three feet in length4 ,the form  of the 
teeth shows the ,megalosaurus to have   
been strictly carnivorous1  and viewed  
as instruments for providing food for so
 enormous a reptile1  the teeth were    
fearfully fitted to the destructive     
office for which they  were designed4   
,they have compressed conical           
sharp-pointed crowns1 with  cutting and 
finely serrated anterior and posterior  
edges2 they appear  straight1 as seen   
when they had just protruded from the   
socket1 but  become bent slightly       
backwards in the progress of growth1 and
 the fore  part of the crown1 below the 
summit1 becomes thick and convex4    ,a 
minute and interesting description of   
these teeth will be found in ,dr4       
,buckland's admirable 8,bridgewater     
,treatise0 7vol4 i4 p4 #bch71 from which
  he concludes that the teeth of the    
,megalosaurus present 8a combination  of
 contrivances analogous to those which  
human ingenuity has adopted in  the     
construction of the knife1 the sabre1   

and the saw40 ,the fossils  which       
brought to light the former existence of
 this most formidable  reptile1 were    
discovered in #ahbc1 in the oolitic     
slate of ,stonesfield1  near ,oxford1   
and were described by ,dr4 ,buckland1 in
 the volume of the  8,geological        
,transactions0 for the year #ahbd4      
,remains of the ,megalosaurus have since
 been discovered in the 8,bath  oolite10
 which is immediately below the         
,stonesfield slate1 and in the          
8,cornbrash10 which lies above it4      
,vertebr1 teeth1 and some bones of the  
extremities have been discovered in the 
,wealden of ,tilgate ,forest1 ,kent1    
and in the ferruginous sand1 of the same
 age1 near ,cuckfield1 in ,sussex4      
,remains of the ,megalosaurus also occur
 in the ,purbeck limestone at  ,swanage 
,bay1 and in the oolite in the          
neighbourhood of ,malton1 in            
,yorkshire4    ,mr4 ,waterhouse         
,hawkins's restoration1 according to the
 proportions  calculated from the       

largest portions of fossil bones of the 
,megalosaurus  hitherto obtained1 yields
 a total length of the animal1 from the 
muzzle  to the end of the tail1 of      
thirty-seven feet2 the length of the    
head  being five feet1 the length of the
 tail fifteen feet2 and the greatest    
girth of the body twenty-two feet six   
inches4                      ,nos4 #h   
#i4--,pterodactyles of the ,oolite4     
,to the right of the ,hylosaurus1 on the
 rock representing the greater  oolite  
formation1 are restorations of species  
of ,pterodactyle  7,pterodactylus       
,bucklandi1 ,no4 #i71 smaller than and  
distinct from those  of the chalk       
formations4 ,the remains of ,buckland's 
,pterodactyle are  found pretty         
abundantly in the oolitic slate of      
,stonesfield1 near  ,oxford4            
,nos4 #aj  #aa4--,teleosaurus4    ,on   
the shore beneath the overhanging cliff 
of oolitic rock are two  restorations1  
,nos4 #aj and #aa1 of a large extinct   
kind of crocodile1 to  which the long   

and slender-jawed crocodile of the      
,ganges1 called  8,gavil0 or 8,gharril0 
by the ,hindoos1 offers the nearest     
resemblance at  the present day4        
,remains of the ancient extinct ,british
 gavials have  been found in most of the
 localities where the oolitic formations
 occur1  and very abundantly in the lias
 cliffs near ,whitby1 in ,yorkshire4    
,the  name ,teleosaurus 7telos1 the end1
 sauros1 a lizard71 was compounded  from
 the ,greek by ,professor ,geoffroy ,st4
 ,hilaire1 for a species of these       
fossil gavials1 found by him in the     
oolite stone at ,caen1 in ,normandy1    
and has reference to his belief that    
they formed one--the  earliest--extreme 
of the crocodilian series1 as this      
series has been  successively developed 
in the course of time on our planet4    
,the jaws are armed with numerous long1 
slender1 sharp-pointed1 slightly  curved
 teeth1 indicating that they preyed on  
fishes1 and the young or  weaker        
individuals of co-existing reptiles4    

,the nostril is situated more  at the   
end of the upper jaw than in the modern 
gavial3 the fore-limbs  are shorter1 and
 the hind ones longer and stronger than 
in the gavial1  which indicates that the
 ,teleosaur was a better swimmer2 the   
vertebr or  bones of the back are united
 by slightly concave surfaces1 not      
interlocked by cup and ball joints as in
 the modern crocodiles1 whence  it would
 seem that the ,teleosaur lived more    
habitually in the water1 and  less      
seldom moved on dry land2 and1 as its   
fossil remains have been  hitherto found
 only in the sedimentary deposits from  
the sea1 it may be  inferred that it was
 more strictly marine than the crocodile
 of the  ,ganges4    ,the first specimen
 of a ,teleosaur that was brought to    
light was from the  8alum-schale0 which 
forms one layer of the lofty lias cliffs
 of the  ,yorkshire coast1 near ,whitby4
 ,a brief description1 and figures1 of  
this  incomplete fossil skeleton were   
published by ,messrs4 ,wooller and      

,chapman1 in separate communications1 in
 the #ejth volume of the                
8,philosophical ,transactions10 in      
#ageh4 ,captain ,chapman observes1 8it  
seems to have been an alligator20 and   
,mr4 ,wooller thought 8it resembled  in 
every respect the ,gangetic gavial40    
,thus1 nearly a century ago1 the  true  
nature of the fossil was almost rightly 
understood1 and various  were the       
theories then broached to account for   
the occurrence of a  supposed ,gangetic 
reptile in a petrified state in the     
cliffs of  ,yorkshire4 ,it has required 
the subsequent progress of comparative  
anatomy to determine1 as by the         
characters above defined1 the essential 
distinction of the ,teleosaur from all  
known existing forms of  crocodilian    
reptiles4    ,very abundant remains1 and
 several species1 of the extinct genus  
have  been subsequently discovered3 but 
always in the oolitic and liassic       
formations of the secondary series of   
rocks4    ,the oolitic group of rocks   

are very rich in remains of both plants 
and  animals3 many reptiles of genera   
and species distinct from those here    
restored have been recognised and       
determined by portions of the  skeleton4
 ,extremely numerous are the remains of 
fishes1 chiefly of an  almost extinct   
order 7,ganoidei71 characterised by     
hard1 shining1  enamelled scales4 ,but  
the most remarkable fossils are those   
which  indisputably prove the existence1
 during the period of the 8,great0 or   
8,lower ,oolite10 of insectivorous and  
marsupial mammalia--i4e41 of  warm-blood
 quadrupeds1 which1 like the shrew or   
hedgehog1 fed on  insects1 and1 like the
 opossum1 had a pouch for the transport 
of the  young4 ,the lower jaw of one of 
these earliest known examples of the    
mammalian class1 found in the           
,stonesfield slate1 near ,oxford1 may be
  seen at the ,british ,museum1 to which
 it was presented by ,j4 ,w4 ,broderip1 
,esq41 ,f4,r4,s41 by whom it was        
described in the 8,zoological ,journal10

 vol4  iii41 p4 #djh4    ,it is         
interesting to observe that the         
marsupial genera1 to which the  above   
fossil quadruped1 called                
,phascolotherium1 was most nearly       
allied1 are now confined to ,new ,south 
,wales and ,van ,diemen's ,land2 since  
it is in the ,australian seas that is   
found the ,cestracion1 a  cartilaginous 
fish which has teeth that are most like 
those fossil teeth  called ,acrodus and 
,psammodus1 so common in the oolite4 ,in
 the same  ,australian seas1 also1 near 
the shore1 the beautiful shell-fish     
called  ,trigonia is found living1 of   
which genus many fossil species occur in
  the ,stonesfield slate4 ,moreover1 the
 ,araucarian pines are now abundant1    
together with ferns1 in ,australia1 as  
they were in ,europe in the oolitic     
period4                                 
,,the ,,lias4      8,lias0 is an        
,english provincial name adopted in     
geology1 and applied to  a formation of 
limestone1 marl1 and petrified clay1    

which forms the base  of the oolite1 or 
immediately underlies that division of  
secondary  rocks4 ,the lias has been    
traced throughout a great part of       
,europe1  forming beds of a thickness   
varying from #ejj to #ajjj feet of the  
above-mentioned substances1 which have  
been gradually deposited from a  sea of 
corresponding extent and direction4 ,the
 lias abounds with marine  shells of    
extinct species1 and with remains of    
fishes that were clad  with large and   
hard shining scales4 ,of the higher or  
air-breathing  animals of that period1  
the most characteristic were the        
,enaliosauria4    ,the creatures called 
,enaliosauria or ,sea-lizards 7from the 
,greek  enalios1 of the sea1 and sauros1
 lizard71 were vertebrate animals1  or  
had back bones1 breathed the air like   
land quadrupeds1 but were  cold-blooded1
 or of a low temperature1 like          
crocodiles and other  reptiles4 ,the    
proof that the ,enaliosaurs respired    
atmospheric air  immediately1 and did   

not breathe water by means of gills like
 fishes1 is  afforded by the absence of 
the bony framework of the gill          
apparatus1 and  by the presence1        
position1 and structure of the air      
passages leading  from the nostrils1 and
 also by the bony mechanism of the      
capacious chest  or thoracic-abdominal  
cavity3 all of which characters have    
been  demonstrated by their fossil      
skeletons4 ,with these characters the   
,sea-lizards combined the presence of   
two pairs of limbs shaped like  fins1   
and adapted for swimming4    ,the       
,enaliosauria offer two principal       
modifications of their anatomical1  and 
especially their bony1 structure1 of    
which the two kinds grouped  together   
under the respective names of           
,ichthyosaurus and ,plesiosaurus  are   
the examples4                           
,the ,ichthyosaurus4    ,the genus      
,ichthyosaurus includes many species3 of
 which three of the  best known and most
 remarkable have been selected for      

restoration to  illustrate this most    
singular of the extinct forms of animal 
life4    ,the name 7from the ,greek     
ichthys1 a fish1 and sauros1 a lizard7  
indicates the closer affinity of the    
,ichthyosaur1 as compared with the      
,plesiosaur1 to the class of fishes4    
,the ,ichthyosaurs are remarkable for   
the shortness of the neck and the       
equality of the width of the back of    
the head with the front of the chest1   
impressing the observer of the  fossil  
skeleton with a conviction that the     
ancient animal must have  resembled the 
whale tribe and the fishes in the       
absence of any  intervening constriction
 or 8neck40    ,this close approximation
 in the ,ichthyosaurs to the form of the
 most  strictly aquatic back-boned      
7vertebrate7 animals of the existing    
creation is accompanied by an important 
modification of the surfaces  forming   
the joints of the back-bone1 each of    
which surfaces is hollow1  leading to   
the inference that they were originally 

connected together by  an elastic bag1  
or 8capsule10 filled with fluid--a      
structure which  prevails in the class  
of fishes1 but not in any of the whale  
or porpoise  tribe1 nor in any1 save a  
few of the very lowest and most         
fish-like1 of  the existing reptiles4   
,with the above modifications of the    
head1 trunk1 and limbs1 in relation  to 
swimming1 there co-exist corresponding  
modifications of the tail4 ,the  bones  
of this part are much more numerous than
 in the ,plesiosaurs1 and  the entire   
tail is consequently longer2 but it does
 not show any of  those modifications   
that characterise the bony support of   
the tail in  fishes4 ,the numerous      
8caudal vertebr0 of the ,ichthyosaurus  
gradually  decrease in size to the end  
of the tail1 where they assume a        
compressed  form1 or are flattened from 
side to side1 and thus the tail instead 
of  being short and broad1 as in fishes1
 is lengthened out as in crocodiles4    
,the very frequent occurrence of a      

fracture of the tail1 about one fourth  
of the way from its extremity1 in       
well-preserved and entire fossil        
skeletons1 is owing to that proportion  
of the end of the tail having  supported
 a tail-fin4 ,the only evidence which   
the fossil skeleton of a  whale would   
yield of the powerful horizontal        
tail-fin characteristic of  the living  
animal1 is the depressed or horizontally
 flattened form of  the bones supporting
 such fin4 ,it is inferred1 therefore1  
from the  corresponding bones of the    
,ichthyosaurus being flattened from side
 to  side1 that it possessed a          
tegumentary tail-fin expanded in the    
vertical  direction4 ,the shape of a fin
 composed of such perishable material is
 of  course conjectural1 but from       
analogies1 not necessary here to further
  enlarge upon1 it was probably like1 or
 nearly like1 that which the able       
artist engaged in the restoration of the
 entire form of the animal has  given to
 it4 ,thus1 in the construction of the  

principal swimming-organ  of the        
,ichthyosaurus we may trace1 as in other
 parts of its structure1 a  combination 
of mammalian 7beast-like71 saurian      
7lizard-like71 and  piscine 7fish-like7 
peculiarities4 ,in its great length and 
gradual  diminution we perceive its     
saurian character2 the tegumentary      
nature of  the fin1 unsustained by bony 
fin-rays1 bespeaks its affinity to the  
same  part in the mammalian whales and  
porpoises2 whilst its vertical position 
makes it closely resemble the tail-fin  
of the fish4    ,the horizontality of   
the tail-fin of the whale tribe is      
essentially  connected with their       
necessities as warm-blooded animals     
breathing  atmospheric air2 without this
 means of displacing a mass of water in 
the  vertical direction1 the head of the
 whale could not be brought with the    
required rapidity to the surface to     
respire2 but the ,ichthyosaurs1 not     
being warm-blooded1 or quick breathers1 
would not need to bring their  head to  

the surface so frequently1 or so        
rapidly1 as the whale2 and1  moreover1 a
 compensation for the want of           
horizontality of their tail-fin  was    
provided by the addition of a pair of   
hind-paddles1 which are not  present in 
the whale tribe4 ,the vertical fin was a
 more efficient organ  in the rapid     
cleaving of the liquid element1 when the
 ,ichthyosaurs were  in pursuit of their
 prey1 or escaping from an enemy4       
,that the ,ichthyosaurs occasionally    
sought the shores1 crawled on the       
strand1 and basked in the sunshine1 may 
be inferred from the bony  structure    
connected with their fore-fins1 which   
does not exist in any  porpoise1        
dolphin1 grampus1 or whale2 and for want
 of which1 chiefly1  those warm-blooded1
 air-breathing1 marine animals are so   
helpless when  left high and dry on the 
sands3 the structure in question in the 
,ichthyosaur is a strong osseous arch1  
inverted and spanning across  beneath   
the chest from one shoulder-joint to the

 other2 and what is most  remarkable in 
the structure of this 8scapular0 arch1  
as it is called1  is1 that it closely   
resembles1 in the number1 shape1 and    
disposition of  its bones1 the same part
 in the singular aquatic mammalian      
quadruped of  ,australia1 called        
,ornithorhynchus1 ,platypus1 and        
,duck-mole4 ,the  ,ichthyosaurs1 when so
 visiting the shore1 either for sleep1  
or  procreation1 would lie1 or crawl    
prostrate1 or with the belly resting or 
dragging on the ground4    ,the most    
extraordinary feature of the head was   
the enormous magnitude of  the eye2 and 
from the quantity of light admitted by  
the expanded pupil  it must have        
possessed great powers of vision1       
especially in the dusk4  ,it is not     
uncommon to find in front of the orbit  
7cavity for the eye71  in fossil skulls1
 a circular series of petrified thin    
bony plates1  ranged round a central    
aperture1 where the pupil of the eye was
 placed4  ,the eyes of many fishes are  

defended by a bony covering consisting  
of  two pieces2 but a compound circle of
 overlapping plates is now found  only  
in the eyes of turtles1 tortoises1      
lizards1 and birds4 ,this curious       
apparatus of bony plates would aid in   
protecting the eyeball from the  waves  
of the sea when the ,ichthyosaurus rose 
to the surface1 and from  the pressure  
of the dense element when it dived to   
great depths2 and  they show1 writes    
,dr4 ,buckland1#d 8that the enormous    
eye1 of which they  formed the front1   
was an optical instrument of varied and 
prodigious  power1 enabling the         
,ichthyosaurus to descry its prey at    
great or little  distances1 in the      
obscurity of night1 and in the depths of
 the sea40    ,of no extinct reptile are
 the materials for a complete and exact 
restoration more abundant and           
satisfactory than of the ,ichthyosaurus2
  they plainly show that its general    
external figure must have been that  of 
a huge predatory abdominal fish1 with a 

longer tail1 and a smaller  tail-fin3   
scale-less1 moreover1 and covered by a  
smooth1 or finely  wrinkled skin        
analogous to that of the whale tribe4   
,the mouth was wide1 and the jaws long1 
and armed with numerous pointed  teeth1 
indicative of a predatory and           
carnivorous nature in all the  species2 
but these differed from one another in  
regard to the relative  strength of the 
jaws1 and the relative size and length  
of the teeth4    ,masses of masticated  
bones and scales of extinct fishes1 that
 lived in  the same seas and at the same
 period as the ,ichthyosaurus1 have been
  found under the ribs of fossil        
specimens1 in the situation where the   
stomach of the animal was placed2       
smaller1 harder1 and more digested      
masses1 containing also fish-bones and  
scales have been found1 bearing  the    
impression of the structure of the      
internal surface of the intestine  of   
the great predatory sea-lizard4 ,these  
digested masses are called              

8coprolites40    ,in tracing the        
evidences of creative power from the    
earlier to the later  formations of the 
earth's crust1 remains of the           
,ichthyosaurus are first  found in the  
lower lias1 and occur1 more or less     
abundantly1 through all  the            
superincumbent secondary strata up to1  
and inclusive of1 the chalk  formations4
 ,they are most numerous in the lias and
 oolite1 and the  largest and most      
characteristic species have been found  
in these  formations4                   
,no4 #ab4--;,ichthyosaurus platyodon4   
,this most gigantic species1 so called  
on account of the crown of the  tooth   
being more flattened than in other      
species1 and having sharp  edges1 as    
well as a sharp point1 was first        
discovered in the lias of  ,lyme ,regis1
 in ,dorsetshire4 ,fossil remains now in
 the ,british ,museum1  and in the      
museum of the ,geological ,society1     
fully bear out the  dimensions exhibited
 by the restoration of the animal as    

seen basking on  the shore between the  
two specimens of ,long-necked           
,plesiosaurs4 ,the head  of this species
 is relatively larger in proportion to  
the trunk1 than in  the ,ichthyosaurus  
communis or ,ichthyosaurus tenuirostris3
 the lower  jaw is remarkably massive   
and powerful1 and projects backwards    
beyond  the joint1 as far as it does in 
the crocodile4 ,in the skull of an      
individual of this species1 preserved in
 the apartments of the  ,geological     
,society of ,london1 the cavity for the 
eye1 or orbit1  measures1 in its long   
diameter1 fourteen inches4 ,the fore and
 hind  paddles are large and of equal   
size4    ,the lias of the valley of     
,lyme ,regis1 ,dorsetshire1 is the chief
  grave-yard of the ,ichthyosaurus      
platyodon2 but its remains are pretty   
widely distributed4 ,they have been     
found in the lias of ,glastonbury1 of   
,bristol1 of ,scarborough and ,whitby1  
and of ,bitton1 in ,gloucestershire2    
some vertebr1 apparently of this        

species1 have likewise been found in    
the lias at ,ohmden1 in ,germany4       
,no4 #ac4--;,ichthyosaurus tenuirostris4
    ,behind the ,ichthyosaurus          
platyodon1 is placed the restoration of 
the  ,ichthyosaurus tenuirostris1 or    
,slender-snouted ,fish-lizard4 ,the most
  striking peculiarity of this species  
is the great length and slenderness  of 
the jaw-bones1 which1 in combination    
with the large eye-sockets and          
flattened cranium1 give to the entire   
skull a form which resembles that  of a 
gigantic snipe or woodcock1 with the    
bill armed with teeth4 ,these  weapons1 
in the present species1 are relatively  
more numerous1 smaller1  and more       
sharply pointed than in the foregoing1  
and indicate that the  ,ichthyosaurus   
tenuirostris preyed on a smaller kind of
 fish4 ,the  fore-paddles are larger    
than the hind ones4 ,in the museum of   
the  ,philosophical ,institution1 at    
,bristol1 there is an almost entire     
skeleton of the present species which   

measures thirteen feet in length4  ,it  
was discovered in the lias of ,lyme     
,regis4 ,portions of jaws and other     
parts of the skeletons of larger        
individuals have been found fossil in   
the lias near ,bristol1 at              
,barrow-on-,soar1 in ,leicestershire1   
and at  ,stratford-on-,avon4 ,the       
,ichthyosaurus tenuirostris has also    
left its  remains in the lias formation 
at ,boll and ,amburg1 in ,wirtemberg1   
,germany4                          ,no4 
#ad4--;,ichthyosaurus communis4    ,of  
this species1 which was the most        
8common10 when first discovered in      
#ahbd1 but which has since been         
surpassed by other species in regard to 
the known number of individuals1 the    
head is restored1 as protruded from  the
 water1 to the right of the foregoing   
species4    ,the ,ichthyosaurus communis
 is characterised by its relatively     
large  teeth1 with expanded1            
deeply-grooved bases1 and round conical 
furrowed  crowns2 the upper jaw         

contains1 on each side1 from forty to   
fifty of  such teeth4 ,the fore-paddles 
are three times larger than the hind    
ones4  ,with respect to the size which  
it attained1 the ,ichthyosaurus communis
  seems only to be second to the        
,ichthyosaurus platyodon4 ,in the museum
  of the ,earl of ,enniskillen1 there is
 a fossil skull of the  ,ichthyosaurus  
communis which measures1 in length1 two 
feet nine  inches1 indicating an animal 
of at least twenty feet in length4      
,plesiosaurus4    ,the discovery of this
 genus forms one of the most important  
additions  that geology has made to     
comparative anatomy4 ,baron ,cuvier     
deemed 8its  structure to have been the 
most singular1 and its characters the   
most  monstrous1 that had been yet      
discovered amid the ruins of a former   
world40 ,to the head of a lizard it     
united the teeth of a crocodile1 a  neck
 of enormous length1 resembling the body
 of a serpent1 a trunk and  tail having 
the proportions of an ordinary          

quadruped1 the ribs of a  chameleon1 and
 the paddles of a whale4 8,such10 writes
 ,dr4 ,buckland1 8are  the strange      
combinations of form and structure in   
the ,plesiosaurus1 a  genus1 the remains
 of which1 after interment for thousands
 of years  amidst the wreck of millions 
of extinct inhabitants of the ancient   
earth1 are at length recalled to light  
by the researches of the  geologist1 and
 submitted to our examination1 in nearly
 as perfect a  state as the bones of    
species that are now existing upon the  
earth40  7,op4 cit41 vol4 v4 p4 #bjc74  
,the first remains of this animal were  
discovered in the lias of ,lyme  ,regis1
 about the year #ahbc1 and formed the   
subject of the paper by the  ,rev4 ,mr4 
,conybeare 7now ,dean of ,llandaff71 and
 ,mr4 7now ,sir ,henry7 ,de la  ,beche1 
in which the genus was established and  
named ,plesiosaurus 7from  the ,greek   
words1 plesios and sauros1 signifying   
8near0 or 8allied  to10 and 8lizard071  
because the authors saw that it was more

 nearly  allied to the lizard than was  
the ,ichthyosaurus from the same        
formation4    ,the entire and           
undisturbed skeletons of several        
individuals1 of  different species1 have
 since been discovered1 fully confirming
 the  sagacious restorations by the     
original discoverers of the             
,plesiosaurus4 ,of these species three  
have been selected as the  subjects of  
,mr4 ,waterhouse ,hawkins's             
reconstructions and representations  of 
the living form of the strange reptiles4
                        ,no4            
#ae4--,plesiosaurus macrocephalus4      
,the first of these has been called1    
from the relatively larger size of  the 
head1 the ,plesiosaurus macrocephalus   
7,no4 #ae71 7,gr4 macros1  long1        
cephale1 head74 ,the entire length of   
the animal1 as indicated by  the largest
 remains1 and as given in the           
restoration1 is eighteen feet1  the     
length of the head being two feet1 that 
of the neck six feet2 the  greatest     

girth of the body yields seven feet4    
,illustration3 ,no4 #ae4 ,plesiosaurus  
macrocephalus4    ,although ,baron      
,cuvier and ,dr4 ,buckland both rightly 
allude to the  resemblance of the fins  
or paddles of the ,plesiosaur to those  
of the  whale1 yet this most remarkable 
difference must be borne in mind1 that1 
whereas the whale tribe have never more 
than one pair of fins1 the  ,plesiosaurs
 have always two pairs1 answering to the
 fore and hind limbs  of land           
quadrupeds2 and the fore-pair of fins1  
corresponding to those in  the whale1   
differed by being more firmly           
articulated1 through the medium  of     
collar-bones 7clavicles71 and of two    
other very broad and strong  bones      
7called coracoids71 to the trunk        
7thorax71 whereby they were the  better 
enabled to move the animal upon dry     
land4    ,remains of the ,plesiosaurus  
macrocephalus have been discovered in   
the  lias of ,lyme ,regis1 in           
,dorsetshire1 and of ,weston1 in        

,somersetshire4                         
,no4 #af4--,plesiosaurus dolichodeirus4 
,further to the left1 on the shore of   
the ,secondary ,island1 is a            
restoration of the ,plesiosaurus        
dolichodeirus1 or ,long-necked          
,plesiosaurus 7,no4 #af74 ,the head in  
this remarkable species is smaller1  and
 the neck proportionally longer than in 
the ,plesiosaurus  macrocephalus4 ,the  
remains of the ,long-necked ,plesiosaur 
have been  found chiefly at ,lyme       
,regis1 in ,dorsetshire4 ,the well known
 specimen of  an almost entire skeleton1
 formerly in the possession of ,his     
,grace the  ,duke of ,buckingham1 is now
 in the ,british ,museum4               
,no4 #ag4--,plesiosaurus ,hawkinsii4    
,the most perfect skeletons of the      
,plesiosaurus are those that have been  
wrought out of the lias at ,street1 near
 ,glastonbury1 by ,mr4 ,thomas          
,hawkins1 ,f4,g4,s41 and which have been
 purchased by the trustees of the       
,british ,museum4 ,a restoration is     

given by ,mr4 ,waterhouse ,hawkins1 at  
,no4  #ag1 of a species with characters 
somewhat intermediate between the       
,large-headed and ,long-necked          
,plesiosaurs1 and which has been called1
  after its discoverer1 ,plesiosaurus   
,hawkinsii4    ,the ,plesiosaurs        
breathed air like the existing          
crocodiles and the whale  tribe1 and    
appear to have lived in shallow seas and
 estuaries4 ,that the  ,long-necked     
,sea-lizard was aquatic is evident from 
the form of its  paddles2 and that it   
was marine is almost equally so1 from   
the remains  with which its fossils are 
universally associated2 that it may have
  occasionally visited the shore1 the   
resemblance of its extremities to  those
 of a turtle leads us to conjecture2 its
 motion1 however1 must have  been very  
awkward on land2 its long neck must have
 impeded its progress  through the      
water1 presenting a striking contrast to
 the organisation  which so admirably   
adapted the ,ichthyosaurus to cut its   

swift course  through the waves4 8,may  
it not1 therefore1 be concluded that it 
swam  upon1 or near the surface10 asks  
its accomplished discoverer1 8arching   
back its long neck like a swan1 and     
occasionally darting it down at the     
fish that happened to float within its  
reach8 ,it may perhaps have lurked  in  
shoal-water along the coast1 concealed  
among the sea-weed1 and1  raising its   
nostrils to a level with the surface    
from a considerable  depth1 may have    
found a secure retreat from the assaults
 of dangerous  enemies2 while the length
 and flexibility of its neck may have   
compensated for the want of strength in 
its jaws1 and its incapacity for  swift 
motion through the water1 by the        
suddenness and agility of the  attack   
which enabled it to make on every animal
 fitted for its prey  which came within 
its reach40#e    ,for the ,secondary    
,island three species of the            
,plesiosaurus have been  restored1 the  
,plesiosaurus macrocephalus1 the        

,plesiosaurus  dolichodeirus 7,gr4      
dolichos1 long1 deire1 neck71 and the   
,plesiosaurus ,hawkinsii4 ,the name     
8long-necked0 was given to the second   
of these species before it was known    
that many other species with long  and  
slender necks had existed in the seas of
 the same ancient period3  the third    
species is named after ,mr4 ,thomas     
,hawkins1 ,f4,g4,s41 the  gentleman by  
whose patience1 zeal1 and skill1 the    
,british ,museum has  been enriched with
 so many entire skeletons of these most 
extraordinary  extinct sea-lizards4     
,the remains of all these species occur 
in the lias at ,lyme ,regis1 and at     
,street1 near ,glastonbury2 but the     
,plesiosaurus ,hawkinsii is the most    
abundant in the latter locality4        
,illustration3 uncaptioned              
,,new ,,red ,,sandstone4      8,trias0  
is an arbitrary term applied in geology 
to the upper division of  a vast series 
of red loams1 shales1 and sandstones1   
interposed between  the lias and the    

coal1 in the midland and western        
counties of ,england4  ,this series is  
collectively called the 8,new ,red      
,sandstone formation10 to  distinguish  
it from the 8,old ,red ,sandstone       
formation10 of similar or  identical    
mineral character1 which lies           
immediately beneath the coal4    ,the   
animals which have been restored and    
placed on the lowest formation  of the  
,secondary ,island1 are peculiar to the 
8triassic10 or upper  division of the   
8,new ,red ,sandstone0 series1 which    
division consists1 in  ,england1 of     
saliferous 7salt-including7 shales and  
sandstones1 from #ajjj  to #aejj feet   
thick in ,lancashire and ,cheshire1     
answering to the  formation called      
8,keuper-sandstone0 by the ,german      
geologists2 and of  sandstone and       
quartzose conglomerate of #fjj feet in  
thickness1 answering  to the ,german    
8,bunter-sandstone40    ,the largest and
 most characteristic animals of the     
trias are reptiles of  the order        

,batrachia4    ,the name of this order  
is from the ,greek word batrachos1      
signifying a  frog3 and the order is    
represented in the present              
animal-population of  ,england by a few 
diminutive species of frogs1 toads1 and 
newts1 or  water-salamanders4 ,but1 at  
the period of the deposition of the new 
red  sandstone1 in the present counties 
of ,warwick and ,cheshire1 the shores   
of the ancient sea1 which were then     
formed by that sandy deposit1 were      
trodden by reptiles1 having the         
essential bony characters of the        
,batrachia1 but combining these with    
other bony characters of crocodiles  and
 lizards2 and exhibiting both under a   
bulk which is made manifest by  the     
restoration of the largest known        
species1 7,no4 #af71 occupying the      
extreme promontory of the ,island1      
illustrative of the lowest and oldest   
deposits of the secondary series of     
rocks4 ,the species in question is      
called the--                       ,no4 

#ah4--,labyrinthodon ,salamandroides4   
or the ,salamander-like ,labyrinthodon2 
the latter term being from the  ,greek1 
signifying the peculiar structure of the
 teeth1 which differ from  all other    
reptiles in the huge ,batrachia in      
question1 by reason of the  complex     
labyrinthic interblending of the        
different substances composing  the     
teeth4 ,the skull of the ,labyrinthodon 
is attached to the neck-bones  by two   
joints or condyles1 and the teeth are   
situated both on the proper  jaw-bones1 
and on the bone of the roof of the mouth
 called 8vomer30 both  these characters 
are only found at the present day in the
 frogs and  salamanders4 ,the hind-foot 
of the ,labyrinthodon was also1 as in   
the toad  and frog1 much larger than the
 fore-foot2 and the innermost digit in  
both was short and turned in1 like a    
thumb4        ,illustration3 ,no4 #ah4  
,labyrinthodon ,salamandroides4         
,consecutive impressions of the prints  
of these feet have been traced for  many

 steps in succession 7as is accurately  
represented in the new red  sandstone   
part of the ,secondary ,island7 in      
quarries of that formation in           
,warwickshire1 ,cheshire1 and also in   
,lancashire1 more especially at a       
quarry of a whitish quartzose sandstone 
at ,storton ,hill1 a few miles  from    
,liverpool4 ,the foot-marks are partly  
concave and partly in relief2  the      
former are seen upon the upper surface  
of the sandstone slabs1 but  those in   
relief are only upon the lower surfaces1
 being1 in fact1  natural casts1 formed 
on the subjacent foot-prints as in      
moulds4 ,the  impressions of the        
hind-foot are generally eight inches in 
length and  five inches in width3 near  
each large footstep1 and at a regular   
distance--about an inch and a           
half--before it1 a smaller print of the 
fore-foot1 four inches long and three   
inches wide1 occurs4 ,the footsteps     
follow each other in pairs1 each pair in
 the same line1 at intervals of  about  

fourteen inches from pair to pair4 ,the 
large as well as the small  steps show  
the thumb-like toe alternately on the   
right and left side1  each step making a
 print of five toes4    ,foot-prints of 
corresponding form but of smaller size  
have been  discovered in the quarry at  
,storton ,hill1 imprinted on five thin  
beds of  clay1 lying one upon another in
 the same quarry1 and separated by beds 
of sandstone4 ,from the lower surface of
 the sandstone layers1 the solid  casts 
of each impression project in high      
relief1 and afford models of  the feet1 
toes1 and claws of the animals which    
trod on the clay4    ,similar           
foot-prints were first observed in      
,saxony1 at the village of  ,hessberg1  
near ,hillburghausen1 in several        
quarries of a gray quartzose  sandstone1
 alternating with beds of red sandstone1
 and of the same  geological age as the 
sandstones of ,england that had been    
trodden by the  same strange animal4    
,the ,german geologist1 who first       

described them1  proposed the name of   
,cheirotherium 7,gr4 cheir1 the hand1   
therion1  beast71 for the great unknown 
animal that had left the foot-prints1 in
  consequence of the resemblance1 both  
of the fore and hind feet1 to the       
impression of a human hand1 and ,dr4    
,kaup conjectured that the animal  might
 be a large species of the opossum-kind4
 ,the discovery1 however1 of  fossil    
skulls1 jaws1 teeth1 and a few other    
bones in the sandstones  exhibiting the 
footprints in question1 has rendered it 
more probable  that both the footprints 
and the fossils are evidences of the    
same kind  of huge extinct ,batrachian  
reptiles4    ,an entire skull of the    
largest species discovered in the new   
red  sandstones of ,wurtemberg2 a lower 
jaw of the same species found in the    
same formation in ,warwickshire2 some   
vertebr1 and a few fragments of  bones  
of the limbs1 have served1 with the     
indications of size and shape  of the   
trunk of the animal yielded by the      

series of consecutive  foot-prints1 as  
the basis of the restoration of the     
,labyrinthodon  salamandroides1 in the  
,secondary ,island4 ,it is to be        
understood1  however1 that1 with the    
exception of the head1 the form of the  
animal is  necessarily more or less     
conjectural4                     ,nos4  
#ai  #bj4--,labyrinthodon pachygnathus4 
,this name1 signifying the ,thick-jawed 
,labyrinthodon1 was given by its        
discoverer to a species of these        
singular ,batrachia1 found in the new   
red sandstone of ,warwickshire1 and     
which bears to the largest species  the 
proportion exhibited by the head and    
fore-part of the body1 as  emerging from
 the water1 for which parts alone the   
fossils hitherto  discovered justify the
 restoration4#f        ,illustration3   
,nos4 #ai  #bj4 ,section of ,tooth of   
,labyrinthodon4      a ,pulp-cavity3 b b
 inflected folds of ossified capsule of 
tooth4                                  
,nos4 #ba  #bb4--;,dicynodon4    ,in    

#ahdd ,mr4 ,andrew ,g4 ,bain1 who had   
been employed in the construction of    
military roads in the colony of the     
,cape of ,good ,hope1 discovered1 in    
the tract of country extending          
northwards from the county of ,albany1  
about #dej miles east of ,cape ,town1   
several nodules or lumps of a kind of   
sandstone1 which1 when broken1          
displayed1 in most instances1 evidences 
of fossil bones1 and usually of a skull 
with two large projecting teeth4        
,accordingly1 these evidences of ancient
 animal life in ,south ,africa were     
first notified to ,english geologists by
 ,mr4 ,bain under the name of           
8,bidentals20 and the specimens         
transmitted by him were submitted at his
  request to ,professor ,owen for       
examination4 ,the results of the        
comparisons thereupon instituted went to
 show that there had formerly  existed  
in ,south ,africa1 and from geological  
evidence1 probably1 in a  great         
salt-water lake or inland sea1 since    

converted into dry land1 a  race of     
reptilian animals presenting in the     
construction of their skull  characters 
of the crocodile1 the tortoise1 and the 
lizard1 coupled with  the presence of a 
pair of huge sharp-pointed tusks1       
growing downwards1  one from each side  
of the upper jaw1 like the tusks of the 
mammalian  morse or walrus4 ,no other   
kind of teeth were developed in these   
singular  animals3 the lower jaw was    
armed1 as in the tortoise1 by a         
trenchant  sheath of horn4 ,some bones  
of the back1 or vertebr1 by the         
hollowness  of the co-adapted articular 
surfaces1 indicate these reptiles to    
have  been good swimmers1 and probably  
to have habitually existed in water2    
but the construction of the bony        
passages of the nostrils proves that    
they must have come to the surface to   
breathe air4    ,some extinct plants    
allied to the ,lepidodendron1 with other
 fossils1  render it probable that the  
sandstones containing the ,dicynodont   

reptiles were of the same geological age
 as those that have revealed the        
remains of the ,labyrinthodonts in      
,europe4    ,the generic name ,dicynodon
 is from the ,greek words signifying    
8two tusks  or canine teeth40 ,three    
species of this genus have been         
demonstrated  from the fossils          
transmitted by ,mr4 ,bain4    ,the      
,dicynodon lacerticeps1 or              
,lizard-headed ,dicynodon1 attained the 
bulk of a walrus2 the form of the head  
and tusks is correctly given in  the    
restoration 7,no4 #ba72 the trunk has   
been added conjecturally1 to  illustrate
 the strange combination of characters  
manifested in the head4    ,a second    
species1 with a head so formed as to    
have given the animal  somewhat of the  
physiognomy of an owl1 has been         
partially restored at  ,no4 #bb4        
,illustration3 ,no4 #h4 ,dinornis4      
,,footnotes      #a,lyell1 8,manual of  
,elementary ,geology40    #b8,the first 
specimens of the teeth were found by    

,mrs4 ,mantell in the      coarse       
conglomerate of the ,forest1 in the     
spring of #ahbb40--,mantell1            
8,geology of the ,south-,east of        
,england10 #hvo1 #ahcc1 p4 #bfh4        
#c8,report of ,british ,fossil          
,reptiles10 #ahda1 p4 #aaj4    #d,op4   
cit41 p4 #agd4    #e8,transactions of   
the ,geological ,society10 ,second      
,series1 vi4 #ejc4      #ahda4          
#f;,conybeare1 ,geol4 ,trans41 i4 #chh4 
,,bradbury ,,and ,,evans1 ,,printers1   
,,whitefriars4                          
,transcriber's ,notes      --,silently  
corrected a few typos4    --,retained   
publication information from the printed
 edition3 this e,book    is             
public-domain in the country of         
publication4    --,in the text versions 
only1 text in italics is delimited by   
underscores4