,,transcriber',s ,,note ,italic text is denoted by underscores4 ,bold text is denoted by equal signs4 ,footnote anchors are denoted by number1 and the footnotes have been placed at the end of each chapter4 ,a superscript is denoted by x or xx1 for example ,,xvie or #a;ere4 ,some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,pedagogy4 ,,by ,,gabriel ,,compayr1 ,,deputy1 ,,doctor ,,of ,,letters1 ,,and ,,professor ,,in ,,the ,,normal ,,school ,,of ,,fontenay-,,aux-,,roses4 ,,translated1 ,,with ,,an ,,introduction1 ,,notes1 ,,and ,,an ,,index1 ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,payne1 ,a4,m41 ,,chancellor ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,nashville1 ,,and ,,president ,,of ,,the ,,state ,,normal ,,college2 ,,late ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,science ,,and ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,teaching ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,michigan4 ,,boston3 ,d4 ,c4 ,,heath ,,company4 #ahhi4 ,,copyright1 ,,sept4 #cj1 #ahhe1 ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,payne4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,cushing ,,co41 ,,printers1 ,,boston4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,,translator',s ,,preface v-vii ,,introduction ix-xxii ,,chapter ,i4 --,education in ,antiquity #a-af ,,chapter ,,ii4 --,education among the ,greeks #ag-db ,,chapter ,,iii4 --,education at ,rome #dc-fj ,,chapter ,,iv4 --,the ,early ,christians and the ,middle ,age #fa-hb ,,chapter ,v4 --,the ,renaissance and the ,theories of ,education in the ,sixteenth ,century4--,erasmus1 ,rabelais1 and ,montaigne #hc-aaa ,,chapter ,,vi4 --,protestantism and ,primary ,instruction4 --,luther and ,comenius #aab-acg ,,chapter ,,vii4 --,the ,teaching ,congregations4--,jesuits and ,jansenists #ach-afc ,,chapter ,,viii4 --,fnelon #afd-ahf ,,chapter ,,ix4 --,the ,philosophers of the ,seventeenth ,century4 --,descartes1 ,malebranche1 and ,locke #ahg-baa ,,chapter ,x4 --,the ,education of ,women in the ,seventeenth ,century4--,jacqueline ,pascal and ,madame de ,maintenon #bab-bca ,,chapter ,,xi4 --,rollin #bcb-beb ,,chapter ,,xii4 --,catholicism and ,primary ,instruction4--,la ,salle and the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools #bec-bgh ,,chapter ,,xiii4 --,rousseau and the mile #bgh-caj ,,chapter ,,xiv4 --,the ,philosophers of the ,eighteenth ,century4 --,condillac1 ,diderot1 ,helvetius1 and ,kant #caa-cci ,,chapter ,,xv4 --,the ,origin of ,lay and ,national ,education4 --,la ,chalotais and ,rolland #cdj-cfa ,,chapter ,,xvi4 --,the ,revolution4--,mirabeau1 ,talleyrand1 and ,condorcet #cfb-chi ,,chapter ,,xvii4 --,the ,convention4--,lepelletier ,saint-,fargeau1 ,lakanal1 and ,daunou #cij-dab ,,chapter ,,xviii4--,pestalozzi #dac-dde ,,chapter ,,xix4 --,the ,successors of ,pestalozzi4--,frbel and the ,pre ,girard #ddf-dgg ,,chapter ,,xx4 --,women as ,educators #dgh-ejg ,,chapter ,,xxi4 --,the ,theory and ,practice of ,education in the ,nineteenth ,century #ejh-ecd ,,chapter ,,xxii4 --,the ,science of ,education4--,herbert ,spencer1 ,alexander ,bain1 ,channing1 and ,horace ,mann #ece-egj ,,appendix #ega-ege ,,index #egg-eih ,,translator',s ,,preface4 ,the two considerations that have chiefly influenced me in making this translation are the following3-- #a4 ,of the three phases of educational study1 the practical1 the theoretical1 and the historical1 the last1 as proved by the number of works written on the subject1 has received but very little attention from ,english and ,american teachers2 and yet1 if we allow that a teacher should first of all be a man of culture1 and that an invaluable factor in his professional education is a knowledge of what has hitherto been done within his field of activity1 there are the best of reasons why the claims of this study should be urged upon the teaching profession4 ,for giving breadth of view1 judicial candor1 and steadiness of purpose1 nothing more helpful can be commended to the teacher than a critical survey of the manifold experiments and experiences in educational practice4 ,the acutest thinkers of all the ages have worked at the solution of the educational problem1 and the educating art has been practised under every variety of conditions1 civil1 social1 religious1 philosophic1 and ethnic4 ,is it not time for us to review these experiments1 as the very best condition for advancing surely and steadily8 #b4 ,the almost complete neglect of this study among us has been due1 in great measure1 to the fact that there have been no books on the subject at all adapted to the ends to be attained4 ,a dry1 scrappy1 and incomplete narration of facts can end only in bewilderment and in blunting the taste for this species of inquiry4 ,the desirable thing has been a book that is comprehensive without being tedious1 whose treatment is articulate and clear1 and that is pervaded by a critical insight at once catholic and accurate4 ,some years ago ,i read with the keenest admiration1 the ,histoire ,critique des ,doctrines de l'ducation en ,france depuis le ,seizime ,sicle1 by ,gabriel ,compayr 7,paris1 #ahgi72 and it seemed to me a model1 in matter and method1 for a general history of education4 ,within a recent period ,monsieur ,compayr has transformed this ,histoire ,critique into such a general history of education1 under the title ,histoire de la ,pdagogie4 ,in this book all the characteristics of the earlier work have been preserved1 and it represents to my own mind very nearly the ideal of the treatise that is needed by the teaching profession of this country4 ,the reader will observe the distinction made by ,monsieur ,compayr between ,pedagogy and ,education4 ,though our nomenclature does not sanction this distinction1 and though ,i prefer to give to the term ,pedagogy a different connotation1 ,i have felt bound on moral grounds to preserve ,monsieur ,compayr's use of these terms wherever the context would sanction it4 ,it seems mere squeamishness to object to the use of the word ,pedagogy on account of historical associations4 ,the fact that this term is in reputable use in ,german1 ,french1 and ,italian educational literature1 is a sufficient guaranty that we may use it without danger4 ,with us1 the term ,pedagogics seems to be employed as a synonym for ,pedagogy4 ,it would seem to me better to follow continental usage1 and restrict the term ,pedagogy to the art or practice of education1 and ,pedagogics to the correlative science4 ,i feel under special obligations to ,monsieur ,compayr1 and to his publisher1 ,monsieur ,paul ,delaplane1 for their courteous permission to publish this translation4 ,i am also greatly indebted to my friend1 ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,lowrey1 ,ph4,d41 for material aid in important details of my work4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,payne4 ,,university ,,of ,,michigan1 ,jan4 #d1 #ahhf4 ,the issue of a second edition has permitted a careful revision of the translation and the correction of several verbal errors4 ,in subsequent editions1 no effort will be spared by the translator and his publishers to make this volume worthy of the favor with which it has been received by the educational public4 ,w4 ,h4 ,p4 ,,aug4 #a1 #ahhf4 ,,introduction4 ,,what ,a ,,complete ,,history ,,of ,,education ,,would ,,be4--,in writing an elementary history of pedagogy1 ,i do not pretend to write a history of education4 ,pedagogy and education1 like logic and science1 or like rhetoric and eloquence1 are different though analogous things4 ,what would a complete history of education not include8 ,it would embrace1 in its vast developments1 the entire record of the intellectual and moral culture of mankind at all periods and in all countries4 ,it would be a rsum of the life of humanity in its diverse manifestations1 literary and scientific1 religious and political4 ,it would determine the causes1 so numerous and so diverse1 which act upon the characters of men1 and which1 modifying a common endowment1 produce beings as different as are a contemporary of ,pericles and a modern ,european1 a ,frenchman of the middle ages and a ,frenchman subsequent to the ,revolution4 ,in fact1 there is not only an education1 properly so called1 that which is given in schools and which proceeds from the direct action of teachers1 but there is a natural education1 which we receive without our knowledge or will1 through the influence of the social environment in which we live4 ,there are what a philosopher of the day has ingeniously called the occult coadjutors of education1--climate1 race1 manners1 social condition1 political institutions1 religious beliefs4 ,if a man of the nineteenth century is very unlike a man of the seventeenth century1 it is not merely because the first was educated in a ,lyce of the ,university and the other in a college of the ,jesuits2 it is also because in the atmosphere in which they have been enveloped they have contracted different habits of mind and heart2 it is because they have grown up under different laws1 under a different social and political rgime2 because they have been nurtured by a different philosophy and a different religion4 ,upon that delicate and variable composition known as the human soul1 how many forces which we do not suspect have left their imprint6 ,how many unobserved and latent causes are involved in our virtues and in our faults6 ,the conscious and determined influence of the teacher is not1 perhaps1 the most potent4 ,in conjunction with him are at work1 obscurely but effectively1 innumerable agents1 besides personal effort and what is produced by the original energy of the individual4 ,we see what a history of education would be3 a sort of philosophy of history1 to which nothing would be foreign1 and which would scrutinize in its most varied and most trifling causes1 as well as in its most profound sources1 the moral life of humanity4 ,,what ,,an ,,elementary ,,history ,,of ,,pedagogy ,,should ,,be4--,wholly different is the limited and modest purpose of a history of pedagogy1 which proposes merely to set forth the doctrines and the methods of educators properly so called4 ,in this more limited sense1 education is reduced to the premeditated action which the will of one man exercises over other men in order to instruct them and train them4 ,it is the reflective auxiliary of the natural development of the human soul4 ,to what can be done by nature and by the blind and fatal influences which sport with human destiny1 education adds the concurrence of art1 that is1 of the reason1 attentive and self-possessed1 which voluntarily and consciously applies to the training of the soul principles whose truth has been recognized1 and methods whose efficiency has been tested by experience4 ,even thus limited1 the history of pedagogy still presents to our inquiry a vast field to be explored4 ,there is scarcely a subject that has provoked to the same degree as education the best efforts of human thinking4 ,note the catalogue of educational works published in ,french1 which ,buisson has recently prepared4#a ,though incomplete1 this list contains not less than two thousand titles2 and probably educational activity has been more fruitful1 and has been given a still greater extension in ,germany than in ,france4 ,this activity is due to the fact1 first of all1 that educational questions1 brought into fresh notice with each generation1 exercise over the minds of men an irresistible and perennial attraction2 and also to the fact that parenthood inspires a taste for such inquiries1 and1 a thing that is not always fortunate1 leads to the assumption of some competence in such matters2 and finally to the very nature of educational problems1 which are not to be solved by abstract and independent reasoning1 after the fashion of mathematical problems1 but which1 vitally related to the nature and the destiny of man1 change and vary with the fluctuations of the psychological and the moral doctrines of which they are but the consequences4 ,to different systems of psychology correspond different systems of education4 ,an idealist1 like ,malebranche1 will not reason upon education after the manner of a sensationalist like ,locke4 ,in the same way there is in every system of morals the germ of a characteristic and original system of education4 ,a mystic1 like ,gerson1 will not assign to education the same end as a practical and positive writer like ,herbert ,spencer4 ,hence a very great diversity in systems1 or at least an infinite variety in the shades of educational opinion4 ,still farther1 educational activity may manifest itself in different ways1 either in doctrines and theories or in methods and practical applications4 ,the historian of pedagogy has not merely to make known the general conceptions which the philosophers of education have in turn submitted to the approbation of men4 ,if he wishes to make his work complete1 he must give a detailed account of what has been accomplished1 and make an actual study of the educational establishments which have been founded at different periods by those who have organized instruction4 ,pedagogy is a complex affair1 and there are many ways of writing its history4 ,one of these which has been too little considered1 and which would surely be neither the least interesting nor the least fruitful1 would consist in studying1 not the great writers on education and their doctrines1 not the great teachers and their methods1 but pupils themselves4 ,if it were possible to relate in minute detail1 supposing that history would furnish us the necessary information on this point1 the manner in which a great or a good man has been educated2 if an analysis could be made of the different influences which have been involved in the formation of talent or in the development of virtue in the case of remarkable individuals2 if it were possible1 in a word1 to reproduce through exact and personal biographies the toil1 the slow elaboration whence have issued at different periods solidity of character1 rectitude of purpose1 and minds endowed with judicial fairness2 the result would be a useful and eminently practical work1 something analogous to what a history of logic would be1 in which there should be set forth not the abstract rules and the formal laws for the search after truth1 but the successful experiments and the brilliant discoveries which have little by little constituted the patrimony of science4 ,this perhaps would be the best of logics because it is real and in action2 and also the best of treatises on pedagogy1 since there might be learned from it1 not general truths1 which are often of difficult application and of uncertain utility1 but practical means and living methods whose happy and efficient applications would be seen in actual use4 ,we have just traced the imaginary plan of a history of pedagogy rather than the exact outline of the series of lessons which this book contains4 ,however1 we have approached this ideal as nearly as we have been able1 by attempting to group about the principal philosophical and moral ideas the systems of education which they have inspired2 by endeavoring to retain whatever is essential2 by adding to the first rapid sketches studied and elaborate portraits2 by ever mingling with the expositions of doctrines and the analysis of important works the study of practical methods and the examination of actual institutions2 and1 finally1 by penetrating the thought of the great educators1 to learn from them how they became such1 and by following them1 as they have united practice with theory1 in the particular systems of education which they have directed with success4#b ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,pedagogy4--,the abundance and the variety of pedagogical questions1 the great number of thinkers who have written upon education1 in a word1 the complexity of the subject1 might inspire the historian of pedagogy with the idea of dividing his work1 and of distributing his studies into several series4 ,for example1 it would be possible to write the history of education in general by itself1 and then the history of instruction1 which is but an element of education4 ,as education itself comprises three parts1 physical education1 intellectual education1 and moral education1 there would be an opportunity for three series of distinct studies on these different subjects4 ,but these divisions would present grave inconveniences4 ,in general1 the opinions of an educator are not susceptible of division2 there is a connection between his manner of regarding the matter of instruction and the solution he gives to educational questions proper4 ,one mode of thinking pervades his theories or his practice in the matter of moral discipline1 and his ideas on intellectual education4 ,it is1 then1 necessary to consider each of the different systems of education as a whole4 ,perhaps a better order of division would be that which1 without regard to chronological order1 should distinguish all pedagogical doctrines and applications into a certain number of schools1 and connect all educators with certain general tendencies3 as the ascetic tendency1 that of the fathers of the church1 for example1 and of the middle ages2 the utilitarian tendency of ,locke1 and of a great number of moderns2 the pessimism of ,port ,royal1 the optimism of ,fnelon2 the literary school of the humanists of the ,renaissance1 and the scientific school of ,diderot and of ,condorcet4 ,such a mode of procedure would have its interest1 because in the manifestations of educational thought so apparently different it would sharply distinguish certain uniform principles which reappear at all periods of history2 but this would be rather a philosophy of the history of education than a simple history of pedagogy4 ,the best we can do1 then1 is to follow the chronological order and to study in turn the educators of antiquity1 those of the middle ages1 of the ,renaissance1 and of modern times4 ,we shall interrogate in succession those who have become eminent as teachers and educators1 and ask of each how he has solved for himself the various portions of the problems of education4 ,besides being more simple and more natural1 this order has the advantage of showing us the progress of education as it has gradually risen from instinct to reflection1 from nature to art1 and after long periods of groping and many halts1 ascending from humble beginnings to a complete and definite organization4 ,this plan also exhibits to us the beautiful spectacle of a humanity in a state of ceaseless growth4 ,at first1 instruction comprised but few subjects1 at the same time that only a select few participated in it4 ,then there was a simultaneous though gradual extension of the domain of knowledge which must be acquired1 of the moral qualities demanded by the struggle for existence1 and of the number of men who are called to be instructed and educated1--the ideal being1 as ,comenius has said1 that all may learn and that everything may be taught4 ,,utility ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,pedagogy4--,the history of pedagogy is henceforth to form a part of the course of study for the primary normal schools of ,france4 ,it has been included in the prescribed list of subjects for the third year1 under this title3 ,history of ,pedagogy1--,principal educators and their doctrines2 ,analysis of the most important works4#c ,is argument necessary to justify the place which has been assigned to this study8 ,in the first place1 the history of pedagogy possesses great interest from the fact that it is closely connected with the general history of thought and also with the philosophic explication of human actions4 ,certainly1 pedagogical doctrines are neither fortuitous opinions nor events without significance4 ,on the one hand1 they have their causes and their principles in moral1 religious1 and political beliefs1 of which they are the faithful image2 on the other1 they are instrumental in the training of mind and in the formation of manners4 ,back of the ,ratio ,studiorum of the ,jesuits1 back of the mile of ,rousseau1 there distinctly appears a complete religion1 a complete philosophy4 ,in the classical studies organized by the humanists of the ,renaissance we see the dawn of that literary brilliancy which distinguished the century of ,louis ,,xiv41 and so in the scientific studies preached a hundred years ago by ,diderot and by ,condorcet there was a preparation for the positive spirit of our time4 ,the education of the people is at once the consequence of all that it believes and the source of all that it is destined to be4 ,but there are other reasons which recommend the study of educators and the reading of their works4 ,the history of pedagogy is a necessary introduction to pedagogy itself4 ,it should be studied1 not for purposes of erudition or for mere curiosity1 but with a practical purpose for the sake of finding in it the permanent truths which are the essentials of a definite theory of education4 ,the desirable thing just now is not perhaps so much to find new ideas1 as properly to comprehend those which are already current2 to choose from among them1 and1 a choice once having been made1 to make a resolute effort to apply them to use4 ,when we consider with impartiality all that has been conceived or practised previous to the nineteenth century1 or when we see clearly what our predecessors have left us to do in the way of consequences to deduce1 of incomplete or obscure ideas to generalize or to illustrate1 and especially of opposing tendencies to reconcile1 we may well inquire what they have really left us to discover4 ,it is profitable to study even the chimeras and the educational errors of our predecessors4 ,in fact1 these are so many marked experiments which contribute to the progress of our methods by warning us of the rocks which we should shun4 ,a thorough analysis of the paradoxes of ,rousseau1 and of the absurd consequences to which the abuse of the principle of nature leads us1 is no less instructive than meditation on the wisest precepts of ,montaigne or of ,port ,royal4 ,in truth1 for him who has an exact knowledge of the educators of past centuries1 the work of constructing a system of education is more than half done4 ,it remains only to co-ordinate the scattered truths which have been collected from their works by assimilating them through personal reflection1 and by making them fruitful through psychological analysis and moral faith4 ,let it be observed that as studied by the men who first conceived and practised them1 pedagogical methods present themselves to our examination with a sharpness of outline that is surprising4 ,innovators lend to whatever they invent a personal emphasis1 something life-like and occasionally extravagant2 but it is exactly this which permits us the better to comprehend their thought1 and the more completely to discover its truth or its falsity4 ,however1 it is not alone the intellectual advantage which recommends the history of pedagogy2 it is also the moral stimulus which will be derived from the study4 ,for the sake of encouraging to noble efforts the men and women who are our teachers1 is it of no moment to present to them the names of ,comenius1 ,rollin1 and ,pestalozzi as men who have attained such high excellence in their profession8 ,will not the teacher who each day resumes his heavy burden be revived and sustained8 ,will he not enter his class-room1 where so many difficulties and toils await him1 a better and a stronger man if his imagination teems with articulate memories of those who1 in the past1 have opened for him the way1 and shown him by their example how to walk in it8 ,by the marvellous agency of electricity we are now able to transport material and mechanical power1 and to cause its transfer across space without regard to distance4 ,but by reading and by meditation we are able to do something analogous to this in the moral world2 we are able to borrow from the ancients1 across the centuries1 something of the moral energy that inspired them1 and to make live again in our own hearts some of their virtues of devotion and faith4 ,doubtless a brief history of pedagogy could not1 from this point of view1 serve as a substitute for the actual reading of the authors in question2 but it is a preparation for this work and inspires a taste for it4 ,we are warranted in saying1 then1 that the utility of the history of pedagogy blends with the utility of pedagogy itself4 ,to-day it is no longer necessary for us to offer any proof on this point4 ,pedagogy1 long neglected even in our country1 has regained its standing2 nay more1 it has become the fashion4 8,france is becoming addicted to pedagogy0 was a remark recently made by one of the men who1 of our day1 will have contributed most to excite and also to direct the taste for pedagogical studies4#d ,the words pedagogue1 pedagogy1 have encountered dangers in the history of our language4 ,littr tells us that the word pedagogue 8is most often used in a bad sense40 ,on the other hand1 we shall see1 if we consult his dictionary1 that several years ago the sense of the word pedagogy was not yet fixed1 since it is there defined as 8the moral education of children40 ,to-day1 not only in language1 but in facts and in institutions1 the fate of pedagogy is settled4 ,of course we must neither underrate it nor attribute to it a sovereign and omnipotent efficiency that it does not have4 ,we might freely say of pedagogy what ,sainte-,beuve said of logic3 ,the best is that which does not argue in its own favor2 which is not enamoured of itself1 but which modestly recognizes the limits of its power4 ,the best is that which we make for ourselves1 not that which we learn from books4 ,even with this reserve1 the teaching of pedagogy is destined to render important services to the cause of education1 and education1 let us be assured1 is in the way of acquiring a fresh importance day by day4 ,this is due to the fact1 first1 that under a liberal government1 and in a republican society1 it is more and more necessary that the citizens shall be instructed and enlightened4 ,liberty is a dangerous thing unless it has instruction for a counterpoise4 ,moreover1 we must recollect that in our day1 among those occult coadjutors of which we have spoken1 and which at all times add their action to that of education proper1 some have lost their influence1 while others1 so far from co-operating in this movement1 oppose it and compromise it4 ,on the one hand1 religion has seen her influence curtailed4 ,she is no longer1 as she once was1 the tutelary power under whose shadow the rising generations peacefully matured4 ,it is necessary that education1 through the progress of the reason and through the reflective development of morality1 should compensate for the waning influence of religion4 ,on the other hand1 social conditions1 the very progress of civil and political liberty1 the growing independence accorded the child in the family1 the multiplication of books1 good and bad1 all these collateral agents of education are not always compliant and useful aids4 ,they would prove the accomplices of a moral decadence did not our teachers make an effort as much more vigorous to affect the will and the heart1 as well as the mind1 in order to establish character1 and thus assure the recuperation of our country4 ,a ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,gabriel ,,compayr4#e ,gabriel ,compayr was born ,jan4 #b1 #ahdc1 at ,albi1 a city of ,southern ,france1 containing about fifteen thousand inhabitants1 and the capital of the province of ,tarn4 ,his early education was received from his father1 a man of sterling character1 and the author of a book entitled1 ,historical ,studies ,concerning the ,albigenses4 ,he passed from his father's care to the collge of ,castres1 then to the lyce of ,toulouse1 and finally to the lyce ,louis-le-,grand at ,paris4 ,his fellow-pupils recall with pleasure his triumphs at these institutions of learning4 ,his brilliant intellectual powers1 his vivid imagination1 his well-stored memory1 and his unwearied industry1 marked him as destined to render signal services to his race4 ,he entered the cole ,normale ,suprieure in #ahfb4 ,his tastes led him to philosophical studies2 indeed1 he had already manifested a strong tendency to moral and intellectual science4 ,yet his intensely practical nature could not long remain satisfied with metaphysical subtleties where he found no sure foot-hold4 ,he became a warm advocate of experimental methods1 and of the ,baconian philosophy4 ,he set himself to a study of man as he appears in society and in the family2 to the analysis of his emotions and his acts1 and to the deduction1 from these analyses1 of those rules which ought to preside over his conduct and his intellectual and moral development4 ,he graduated from the normal school in #ahfe1 and was immediately appointed professor of philosophy at the lyce of ,pau4 ,a lecture upon ,rousseau1 which he delivered here1 brought upon him the severe condemnation of the ultramontane party1 and involved him in a controversy which has continued to the present time4 ,in #ahfh1 having been made a fellow of the ,university1 he was sent to the lyce of ,poitiers4 ,at this place he manifested his sympathy for the common people by a course of lectures to workmen on moral subjects4 ,about this time he received honorable mention from the ,academy for an eloquent eulogy upon ,rousseau1 in which he carefully portrayed the influence of ,rousseau upon the government of his country and upon methods of school instruction1 giving him full credit for the reform in both4 ,from this time forward ,compayr's life has been filled with labors and with honors4 ,in addition to his professional duties and philosophical writings1 he has made careful study of the social and political questions of his country4 ,promoted from one post of honor to another1 on the #adth of ,july1 #ahhj1 he was appointed ,chevalier of the ,legion of ,honor4 ,in #ahgd he presented his theme for his doctor's degree upon the ,philosophy of ,david ,hume1 a work of the highest philosophical thought and language1 which received a prize from the ,academy4 ,between #ahgd and #ahhj his lectures were largely devoted to the subjects most closely connected with modern thought4 ,a ,study of ,darwinism1 ,the ,psychology of a ,child1 ,educational ,principles1 are subjects that indicate the sweep of his investigations4 ,the brilliancy of his style1 the liberality of his opinions1 and the extent of his learning have exposed him to bitter attacks from those who envy his powers and disbelieve his doctrines2 yet his popularity has continually increased1 and the young professor has become a great power in the party of the republic1 to whose cause he early devoted himself4 ,the works which he published during this period were numerous4 ,he translated with great care1 adding valuable matter of his own3 ,bain's ,inductive and ,deductive ,logic1 ,huxley's ,hume1 ,his ,life and ,philosophy1 and ,locke's ,thoughts on ,education4 ,his most considerable work is his ,history of the ,doctrine of ,education in ,france since the ,sixteenth ,century1 a work of two volumes1 published in #ahgi1 which reached its fourth edition in ,france in #ahhc1 has been translated entire into ,german1 and from which numerous extracts have been made for the educational journals of ,england and ,america4 ,if we add to these labors his work upon the ,revue ,philosophique1 and the ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie1 we shall understand why he was called to ,paris in #ahha1 by the ,minister of ,public ,instruction1 to aid in founding the cole ,normale ,suprieure des ,institutrices1 de ,fontenay-aux-,roses4 ,he successfully arranged the course of instruction for this school4 ,in the same year he assisted in the organization of a new school at ,svres1 which prepares young teachers for the course of instruction in the normal schools4 ,in #ahhj he published his ,manual of ,civil and ,moral ,instruction1 in two courses1 or parts4 ,this book has had a remarkable career4 ,in less than three years more than three hundred thousand copies of the first part1 and over five hundred thousand of the second part1 were sold4 ,in #ahhb1 in conjunction with a friend1 ,m4 ,a4 ,delplan1 an author of merit1 he published his ,civil and ,moral ,lectures4 ,in #ahhc he published a ,course of ,civil ,instruction for normal schools4 ,compayr entered political life in #ahha1 having been elected deputy from the arrondissement of ,lavaur in ,tarn4 ,he occupies a distinguished position among the men of to-day2 his character1 his talents1 his popularity1 and his devotion to the cause of civil and intellectual freedom1 give him the assurance of a place no less important among the men of the future4 ,in his personal appearance ,compayr combines the scholar and the man of the world4 ,his dark hair1 parted in the middle1 is combed back from a forehead very high and very broad4 ,his eye is bright and piercing1 and his face1 clean shaven except upon the upper lip1 bears the impress of both his ingenuousness and his indomitable perseverance4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,see the ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie1 by ,f4 ,buisson1 ,article ,bibliographie4 #b ,the book now offered to the public was taught before it was written4 ,it is the result of the lectures given for three years past1 either at the higher normal school of ,fontenay-aux-,roses1 or in the normal courses for men at ,svres and at ,saint ,cloud4 #c ,resolution of ,aug4 #c1 #ahha4 #d ,see the ,article of ,m4 ,pcaut in the ,revue ,pdagogique1 ,no4 #b1 #ahhb4 #e ,furnished by ,mr4 ,geo4 ,e4 ,gay1 ,principal of the ,malden ,high ,school4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,pedagogy4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,pedagogy4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,education ,,in ,,antiquity4 ,,preliminary ,,considerations2 ,,education ,,among ,,the ,,hindoos2 ,,political ,,caste ,,and ,,religious ,,pantheism2 ,,effects ,,on ,,education2 ,,buddhistic ,,reform2 ,,conversation ,,of ,,buddha ,,and ,,purna2 ,,educational ,,usages2 ,,education ,,among ,,the ,,israelites2 ,,primitive ,,period2 ,,religious ,,and ,,national ,,education2 ,,progress ,,of ,,popular ,,instruction2 ,,organization ,,of ,,schools2 ,,respect ,,for ,,teachers2 ,,methods ,,and ,,discipline2 ,,exclusive ,,and ,,jealous ,,spirit2 ,,education ,,among ,,the ,,chinese2 ,,formalism2 ,l,o-,,tsze ,,and ,,khung-,,tsze 7,,confucius72 ,,education ,,among ,,other ,,people ,,of ,,the ,,east2 ,,the ,,egyptians ,,and ,,the ,,persians2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #a4 ,,preliminary ,,considerations4--,a ,german historian of philosophy begins his work by asking this question3 8,was ,adam a philosopher80 ,in the same way certain historians of pedagogy begin by learned researches upon the education of savages4 ,we shall not carry our investigations so far back4 ,doubtless from the day when a human family began its existence1 from the day when a father and a mother began to love their children1 education had an existence4 ,but there is very little practical interest in studying these obscure beginnings of pedagogy4 ,it is a matter of erudition and curiosity4#f ,besides the difficulty of gathering up the faint traces of primitive education1 there would be but little profit in painfully following the slow gropings of primeval man4 ,in truth1 the history of pedagogy dates but from the period relatively recent1 when human thought1 in the matter of education1 substituted reflection for instinct1 art for blind nature4 ,so we shall hasten to begin the study of pedagogy among the classical peoples1 the ,greeks and the ,romans1 after having thrown a rapid glance over some ,eastern nations considered either in their birthplace and remote origin1 or in their more recent development4 #b4 ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,hindoos4--,it would not be worth our while to enter into details respecting a civilization so different from our own as that of the ,hindoos4 ,but we should not forget that we are in part the descendants of that people1 and that we belong to the same ethnic group1 and that the ,european languages are derived from theirs4 #c4 ,,political ,,caste ,,and ,,religious ,,pantheism4--,the spirit of caste1 from the social point of view1 and pantheism1 from the religious point of view1 are the characteristics of ,hindoo society4 ,the ,indian castes constituted hereditary classes where social rank and special vocation were determined1 not by free choice1 but by the accident of birth4 ,the consequence of this was an endless routine1 with no care either for the individuality1 or the personal talents1 or the inclination of children1 and without the possibility of rising by personal effort above one's rank in life4#g ,on the other hand1 religious ideas came to restrict1 within the limits where it was already imprisoned1 the activity of the young ,hindoo4 ,god is everywhere present2 he manifests himself in all the phenomena of heaven and earth1 in the sun and in the stars1 in the ,himalayas and in the ,ganges2 he penetrates and animates everything2 the things of sense are but the changing and ephemeral vestments of the unchangeable being4 8,with this pantheistic conception of the world and of life1 the thought and the will of the ,hindoo perished in the mystic contemplation of the soul4 ,to become master of one's inclinations2 to abandon every terrestrial thought2 after this life to lose one's identity1 and to be annihilated by absorption in the divine nature2 to prepare one's self by macerations and expiations for complete submersion in the original principle of all being1--this is the highest wisdom1 the true happiness of the ,hindoo1 the ideal of all serious education40#h #d4 ,,effects ,,on ,,education4--,it is easy to predict what education would become under the weight of these double chains1 social and religious4 ,while the ideal in our modern societies is more and more to enfranchise the individual1 and to create for him personal freedom and self-consciousness1 the effort of the ,hindoo ,brahmins consisted above all in crushing out all spontaneity1 in abolishing individual predilections1 by preaching the doctrine of absolute self-renunciation1 of voluntary abasement1 and of contempt for life4 ,man was thus born doubly a slave1--by his social condition1 which predestinated him to the routine apprenticeship of his ancestral caste1 and by his mysterious dependence on the divine being who absorbed in himself all real activity1 and left to human beings only the deceptive and frail appearance of it4 #e4 ,,buddhist ,,reform4--,the ,buddhist reform1 which so profoundly affected ,brahmanism at about the sixth century ,b4,c41 did not sensibly modify1 from the educational point of view1 the ideas of the ,hindoos4 ,buddha also taught that the cause of evil resides in the passions of men1 and that in order to attain moral peace1 there is no other means to be employed than that of self-abnegation and of the renouncement of everything selfish and personal4 #f4 ,,conversation ,,of ,,buddha ,,and ,,purna4--,one of the traditions which permit us the better to appreciate the original character1 at once affecting and ingenuous1 of ,indian thought1 is the conversation of ,buddha with his disciple ,purna about a journey the latter was going to undertake to the barbarians for the purpose of teaching them the new religion3-- 8,they are men10 said ,buddha1 8who are fiery in temper1 passionate1 cruel1 furious1 insolent4 ,if they openly address you in words which are malicious and coarse1 and become angry with you1 what will you think80 8,if they address me to my face in coarse and insolent terms1 this is what ,i shall think3 they are certainly good men who openly address me in malicious terms1 but they will neither strike me with their hands nor stone me40 8,but should they strike you with their hands and stone you1 what will you think80 8,i shall think that they are good men1 gentle men1 who strike me with their hands and stone me1 but do not beat me with a club nor with a sword40 8,but if they beat you with a club and with a sword80 8,they are good men1 gentle men1 who beat me with a club and with a sword1 but they do not completely kill me40 8,but if they were really to kill you80 8,they are good men1 gentle men1 who deliver me with so little pain from this body encumbered with defilements40 8,very good1 ,purna6 ,you may live in the country of those barbarians4 ,go1 ,purna6 ,being liberated1 liberate2 being consoled1 console2 having reached ,nirvna thus made perfect1 cause others to go there40#i ,whatever there is to admire in such a strange system of morals should not blind us to the vices which resulted from its practical consequences3 such as the abuse of passive resignation1 the complete absence of the idea of right and of justice1 and no active virtues4 #g4 ,,effects ,,on ,,education4--,little is known of the actual state of educational practice among the ,hindoos4 ,it may be said1 however1 that the ,brahmins1 the priests1 had the exclusive charge of education4 ,woman1 in absolute subjection to man1 had no share whatever in instruction4 ,as to boys1 it seems that in ,india there were always schools for their benefit2 schools which were held in the open country under the shade of trees1 or1 in case of bad weather1 under sheds4 ,mutual instruction has been practised in ,india from the remotest antiquity2 it is from here1 in fact1 that ,andrew ,bell1 at the close of the eighteenth century1 borrowed the idea of this mode of instruction4 ,exercises in writing were performed first upon the sand with a stick1 then upon palm leaves with an iron style1 and finally upon the dry leaves of the plane-tree with ink4 ,in discipline there was a resort to corporal punishment2 besides the rod the teacher employed other original means of correction2 for example1 he threw cold water on the offender4 ,the teacher1 moreover1 was treated with a religious respect2 the child must respect him as he would ,buddha himself4 ,the higher studies were reserved for the priestly class1 who1 long before the ,christian era1 successfully cultivated rhetoric and logic1 astronomy and the mathematics4 #h4 ,,education ,,among ,,the ,,israelites4--8,if ever a people has demonstrated the power of education1 it is the people of ,israel40#aj ,in fact1 what a singular spectacle is offered us by that people1 which1 dispossessed of its own country for eighteen hundred years1 has been dispersed among the nations without losing its identity1 and has maintained its existence without a country1 without a government1 and without a ruler1 preserving with perennial energy its habits1 its manners1 and its faith6 ,without losing sight of the part of that extraordinary vitality of the ,jewish people1 which is due to the natural endowments of the race1 its tenacity of temperament1 and its wonderful activity of intelligence1 it is just to attribute another part of it to the sound education1 at once religious and national1 which the ancient ,hebrews have transmitted by tradition to their descendants4 #i4 ,,education1 ,,religious ,,and ,,national1 ,,during ,,the ,,primitive ,,period4--,the chief characteristic of the education of the ,hebrews in the earliest period of their history is that it was essentially domestic4 ,during the whole ,biblical period there is no trace of public schools1 at least for young children4 ,family life is the origin of that primitive society where the notion of the state is almost unknown1 and where ,god is the real king4 ,the child was to become the faithful servant of ,jehovah4 ,to this end it was not needful that he should be learned4 ,it was only necessary that he should learn through language and the instructive example of his parents the moral precepts and the religious beliefs of the nation4 ,it has been very justly said#aa that 8among all nations the direction impressed on education depends on the idea which they form of the perfect man4 ,among the ,romans it is the brave soldier1 inured to fatigue1 and readily yielding to discipline2 among the ,athenians it is the man who unites in himself the happy harmony of moral and physical perfection2 among the ,hebrews the perfect man is the pious1 virtuous man1 who is capable of attaining the ideal traced by ,god himself in these terms3 #8,ye shall be holy1 for ,i the ,lord your ,god am holy6'0#ab ,the discipline was harsh1 as is proved by many passages in the ,bible3 8,he that spareth his rod1 hateth his son10 say the ,proverbs2 8but he that loveth him chasteneth him betimes40#ac 8,withhold not correction from the child1 for if thou beatest him with the rod1 he shall not die4 ,thou shalt beat him with the rod1 and shalt deliver his soul from hell40#ad ,and still more significant3 8,chasten thy son while there is hope1 and let not thy soul spare for his crying40#ae ,only boys1 it seems1 learned to read and write4 ,as to girls1 they were taught to spin1 to weave1 to prepare food for the table1 to superintend the work of the household1 and also to sing and to dance4 ,in a word1 intellectual culture was but an incident in the primitive education of the ,hebrews2 the great thing1 in their eyes1 was moral and religious instruction1 and education in love of country4 ,fathers taught their children the nation's history1 and the great events that had marked the destiny of the people of ,god4 ,that series of events celebrated by the great feasts which were often renewed1 and in which the children participated1 served at once to fill their hearts with gratitude to ,god and with love for their country4 #aj4 ,,progress ,,of ,,popular ,,instruction4--,it is not easy to conceive to what extent the zeal for instruction was developed among the ancient ,jews in the years that followed the advent of ,christianity4 ,from being domestic1 as it had been up to that time1 ,jewish education became public4 ,besides1 it was no longer sufficient to indoctrinate children with good principles and wholesome moral habits2 they must also be instructed4 ,from the first centuries of the ,christian era1 the ,israelites approached our modern ideal1 with respect to making education obligatory and universal4 ,like every brave nation that has been vanquished1 whose energy has survived defeat1 like the ,prussians after ,jena1 or the ,french after #ahgj1 the ,jews sought to defend themselves against the effects of conquest by a great intellectual effort1 and to regain their lost ground by the development of popular instruction4 #aa4 ,,organization ,,of ,,schools4--,in the year #fd1 the high priest1 ,joshua ,ben ,gamala1 imposed on each town1 under pain of excommunication1 the obligation to support a school4 ,if the town is cut in two by a river1 and there is no means of transit by a safe bridge1 a school must be established on each side4 ,even to-day we are far from having realized1 as regards the number of schools and of teachers1 this rule stated in the ,talmud3 ,if the number of children does not exceed twenty-five1 the school shall be conducted by a single teacher2 for more than twenty-five1 the town shall employ an assistant2 if the number exceeds forty1 there shall be two masters4 #ab4 ,,respect ,,for ,,teachers4--,in that ancient time1 what an exalted and noble conception men had of teachers1 8those true guardians of the city06 ,even then1 how exacting were the requirements made of them6 ,but1 on the other hand1 how they were esteemed and respected6 ,the ,rabbins required that the schoolmaster should be married2 they mistrusted teachers who were not at the same time heads of families4 ,is it possible to enforce the advantages of maturity and experience more delicately than in this beautiful language8 8,he who learns of a young master is like a man who eats green grapes1 and drinks wine fresh from the press2 but he who has a master of mature years is like a man who eats ripe and delicious grapes1 and drinks old wine40 ,mildness1 patience1 and unselfishness were recommended as the ruling virtues of the teacher4 8,if your teacher and your father10 says the ,talmud1 8have need of your assistance1 help your teacher before helping your father1 for the latter has given you only the life of this world1 while the former has secured for you the life of the world to come40#af #ac4 ,,method ,,and ,,discipline4--,the child entered school at the age of six4 8,if a child below the age of six is brought to your school10 says the ,talmud1 8you need not receive him02 and to indicate that after that age it is proper to regain the lost time1 the ,talmud adds1 8,after the age of six1 receive the child1 and load him like an ox40 ,on the contrary1 other authorities of the same period1 more judicious and far-seeing1 recommend moderation in tasks1 and say that it is necessary to treat 8the young according to their strength1 and the grown-up according to theirs40 ,there was taught in the ,jewish schools1 along with reading and writing1#ag a little of natural history1 and a great deal of geometry and astronomy4 ,naturally1 the ,bible was the first book put in the hands of children4 ,the master interspersed moral lessons with the teaching of reading4 ,he made a special effort to secure a correct pronunciation1 and multiplied his explanations in order to make sure of being understood1 repeating his comments even to the four-hundredth time if it were necessary4 ,it seems that the methods were suggestive and attractive1 and the discipline relatively mild4 ,there were but few marks of the proverbial severity of the ancient times4 8,children10 says the ,talmud1 8should be punished with one hand1 and caressed with two40 ,the ,christian spirit1 the spirit of him who had said 8suffer the little children to come unto me10 had affected the ,jews themselves4 ,however1 corporal punishment was tolerated to a certain extent1 but1 strange to say1 only for children above the age of eleven4 ,in case of disobedience1 a pupil above that age might be deprived of food1 and even struck with a strap of shoe-leather4 #ad4 ,,exclusive ,,and ,,jealous ,,spirit4--,some reservation must accompany the encomiums justly due ,jewish education4 ,with respect to the rest of the human race1 the ,jewish spirit was mean1 narrow1 and malevolent4 ,the ,israelites of this day have retained something of these jealous and exclusive tendencies4 ,at the beginning of the ,christian era1 the fierce and haughty patriotism of the ,jews led them to proscribe whatever was of ,gentile origin1 whatever had not the sanction of the national tradition4 ,nothing of ,greek or ,roman culture penetrated this closed world4#ah ,the ,jewish doctors covered with the same contempt him who raises hogs and him who teaches his son ,greek science4 #ae4 ,,education ,,among ,,the ,,chinese4--,we have attempted to throw into relief the educational practices of two ,eastern nations to which the civilization of the ,west is most intimately related4 ,a few words will suffice for the other primitive societies whose history is too little known1 and whose civilization is too remote from our own1 to make their plans of education anything more than an object of curiosity4 ,china has been civilized from time immemorial1 and at every period of her long history she has preserved her national characteristics4 ,for more than three thousand years an absolute uniformity has characterized this immobile people4 ,everything is regulated by tradition4 ,education is mechanical and formal4 ,the preoccupation of teachers is to cause their pupils to acquire a mechanical ability1 a regular and sure routine4 ,they care more for appearances1 for a decorous manner of conduct1 than for a searching and profound morality4 ,life is but a ceremonial1 minutely determined and punctually followed4 ,there is no liberty1 no glow of spontaneity4 ,their art is characterized by conventional refinement and by a prettiness that seems mean2 there is nothing of the grand and imposing4 ,by their formalism1 the ,chinese educators are the ,jesuits of the ,east4 #af4 ,l,o-,,tsze ,,and ,,khung-,,tsze4--,towards the sixth century ,b4,c4 two reformers appeared in ,china1 ,lo-tsze and ,khung-tsze4 ,the first represents the spirit of emancipation1 of progress1 of the pursuit of the ideal1 of protest against routine4 ,he failed4 ,the second1 on the contrary1 who became celebrated under the name of ,confucius1 and to whom tradition ascribes more than three thousand personal disciples1 secured the triumph of his ideas of practical1 utilitarian morality1 founded upon the authority of the ,state and that of the family1 as well as upon the interest of the individual4 ,a quotation from ,lo-tsze will prove that human thought1 in the sixth century ,b4,c41 had reached a high mark in ,china3-- 8,certain bad rulers would have us believe that the heart and the spirit of man should be left empty1 but that instead his stomach should be filled2 that his bones should be strengthened rather than the power of his will2 that we should always desire to have the people remain in a state of ignorance1 for then their demands would be few4 ,it is difficult1 they say1 to govern a people that are too wise4 8,these doctrines are directly opposed to what is due to humanity4 ,those in authority should come to the aid of the people by means of oral and written instruction2 so far from oppressing them and treating them as slaves1 they should do them good in every possible way40 ,in other words1 it is by enlightening the people1 and by an honest devotion to their interests1 that one becomes worthy to govern them4 ,if the ,chinese have not fully profited by these wise and exalted counsels1 it appears that at least they have attempted to make instruction general4 ,hue1 a ,chinese missionary1 boldly declares that ,china is the country of all countries where primary instruction is most widely diffused4 ,to the same effect1 a ,german writer affirms that in ,china there is not a village so miserable1 nor a hamlet so unpretending1 as not to be provided with a school of some kind4#ai ,in a country of tradition1 like ,china1 we can infer what once existed from what exists to-day4 ,but that instruction which is so widely diffused is wholly superficial and tends merely to an exterior culture4 ,as ,dittes says1 the educational method of the ,chinese consists1 not in developing1 but in communicating4#bj #ag4 ,,education ,,among ,,the ,,other ,,nations ,,of ,,the ,,east4--,of all the oriental nations1 ,egypt is the one in which intellectual culture seems to have reached the highest point1 but only among men of a privileged class4 ,here1 as in ,india1 the priestly class monopolized the learning of the day2 it jealously guarded the depository of mysterious knowledge which it communicated only to the kings4 ,the common people1 divided into working classes1 which were destined from father to son to the same social status1 learned scarcely more than was necessary in order to practise their hereditary trades and to be initiated into the religious beliefs4 ,in the more military but less theocratic nation1 the ,persian1 efforts were made in favor of a general education4 ,the religious dualism which distinguished ,ormuzd1 the principle of good1 from ,ahriman1 the principle of evil1 and which promised the victory to the former1 made it the duty of each man to contribute to this final victory by devoting himself to a life of virtue4 ,hence arose noble efforts to attain physical and moral perfection4 ,the education of the ,persians in temperance and frugality has excited the admiration of certain ,greek writers1 especially ,xenophon1 and there will be found in his ,cyropdia a thrilling picture of the brave and noble manners of the ancient ,persians4#ba ,on the whole1 the history of pedagogy among the people of the ,east offers us but few examples to follow4 ,that which1 in different degrees1 characterizes primitive education is that it is the privilege of certain classes2 that woman is most generally excluded from its benefits2 that in respect of the common people it is scarcely more than the question of an apprenticeship to a trade1 or of the art of war1 or of a preparation for the future life2 that no appeal is made to the free energy of individuals1 but that the great masses of the people in antiquity have generally lived under the harassing oppression of religious conceptions1 of fixed traditions1 and of political despotism4 #ah4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--,speaking generally1 the education of the primitive nations of the ,east had the following characteristics3-- #a4 ,it was administered by the hieratic class4 ,this was due to the fact that the priests were the only men of learning1 and consequently the only men who could teach4 #b4 ,the knowledge communicated was in the main religious1 ethical1 and prudential1 and the final purpose of instruction was good conduct4 #c4 ,as the matter of instruction was knowledge bearing the sanction of authority1 the learner was debarred from free inquiry1 and the general tendency was towards immobility4 #d4 ,as the knowledge of the day was embodied in language1 the process of learning consisted in the interpretation of speech1 and so involved a large and constant use of the memory2 and this literal memorizing of the principles and rules of conduct promoted stability of character4 #e4 ,as the purpose of instruction was guidance1 there was no appearance of the conception that one main purpose of education is discipline or culture4 #f4 ,the conception of education as a means of national regeneration had a distinct appearance among the ,jews2 and among this people we find one form of compulsion1--the obligation placed on towns to support schools4 #g4 ,in ,persia1 the ,state appears for the first time as a distinct agency in promoting education4 #h4 ,in ,china1 from time immemorial1 scholarship has been made the condition for obtaining places in the civil service1 and in consequence education has been made subordinate to examinations4 #i4 ,save to a limited extent among the ,jews1 woman was debarred from the privileges of education4 #aj4 ,in the main1 education was administered so as to perpetuate class distinctions4 ,there was no appearance of the conception that education is a universal right and a universal good4 ,,footnotes3 #f ,a knowledge of the mental and moral condition of savages serves the invaluable purpose of showing what education has accomplished for the human race4 ,there would be much less grumbling at the tax-gatherer if men could clearly conceive the condition of societies where no taxes are levied4 ,to know what education has actually done we need to know the condition of societies unaffected by systematic education4 ,such a book as ,lubbock's ,origin of ,civilization is a helpful introduction to the history of education4 ,whoever reads such a book carefully will be confronted with this problem3 ,how is it that intellectual inertness1 amounting almost to stupidity1 is frequently the concomitant of an acute and persistent sense-training8 ,besides1 savage tribes are historical illustrations of what has been produced on a large scale by 8following ,nature40 7,p47 #g ,there is an argument for caste in the modern fiction of a 8beautiful economy of ,nature10 which plants human beings in society as it does trees in the earth1 and thus makes education consist in the action of environment upon man and in the reaction of man upon his environment4 ,to support existence1 man needs certain endowments2 but the force of circumstances creates these very endowments4 ,one man is predestined to be a ,red ,indian1 another a ,bushman1 and still another an accountant2 and in each case the function of education is to adapt the man to the place where ,nature has fixed him4 ,this modern justification of caste is adroitly worked out by ,mr4 ,spencer in the first chapter of his ,education4 7,p47 #h ,dittes1 ,histoire de l'ducation et de l'instruction1 translated by ,redolfi1 #ahhj1 p4 #ch4 #i ,burnouf1 ,introduction l'histoire du ,bouddhisme1 p4 #beb4 #aj ,dittes1 p4 #di4 #aa ,l'ducation et l'instruction chez les anciens ,juifs1 by ,j4 ,simon1 ,paris1 #ahgi1 p4 #af4 #ab ,levit4 xix4 #b4 #ac ,prov4 xiii4 #bd4 #ad ,prov4 xxiii4 #ac1 #ad4 #ae ,prov4 xix4 #ah4 #af ,on similar grounds1 ,alexander declared that he owed more to ,aristotle his teacher1 than to ,philip his father4 7,p47 #ag ,what were the methods followed in teaching reading and writing8 ,we are told by ,renan in his ,vie de ,jsus that 8,jesus doubtless learned to read and write according to the method of the ,east1 which consists in putting into the hands of the child a book which he repeats in concert with his comrades till he knows it by heart40 #ah ,this statement needs qualifying4 8,in nearly all the families of high rank10 says the ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie 7#a;ere ,partie1 ,article ,,juifs71 8the daughters spoke ,greek4 ,the ,rabbins did not look with any favor upon the study of profane philosophy2 but notwithstanding their protests1 there were many devoted readers of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,it is said that among the pupils of the celebrated ,gamaliel there were five hundred who studied the philosophy and the literature of ,greece40 7,p47 #ai ,for a series of interesting documents on the actual state of education in ,china1 consult the article ,,chine1 in ,buisson's ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie4 #bj ,dittes1 op4 cit41 p4 #cb4 #ba ,on a recent occasion ,archdeacon ,farrar referred to ,persian education as follows3 8,we boast of our educational ideal4 ,is it nearly as high in some essentials as that even of some ancient and heathen nations long centuries before ,christ came8 ,the ancient ,persians were worshippers of fire and of the sun2 most of their children would have been probably unable to pass the most elementary examination in physiology1 but assuredly the ,persian ideal might be worthy of our study4 ,at the age of fourteen--the age when we turn our children adrift from school1 and do nothing more for them--the ,persians gave their young nobles the four best masters whom they could find to teach their boys wisdom1 justice1 temperance1 and courage--wisdom including worship1 justice including the duty of unswerving truthfulness through life1 temperance including mastery over sensual temptations1 courage including a free mind opposed to all things coupled with guilt40 7,p47 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,education ,,among ,,the ,,greeks4 ,,greek ,,pedagogy2 ,,athenian ,,and ,,spartan ,,education2 ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,athens2 ,,schools ,,of ,,grammar2 ,,schools ,,of ,,gymnastics2 ,,the ,,palestra2 ,,schools ,,of ,,music2 ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,rhetoric ,,and ,,of ,,philosophy2 ,,socrates ,,and ,,the ,,socratic ,,method2 ,,socratic ,,irony2 ,,maieutics1 ,,or ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,giving ,,birth ,,to ,,ideas2 ,,examples ,,of ,,irony ,,and ,,of ,,maieutics ,,borrowed ,,from ,,the ,,memorabilia ,,of ,,xenophon2 ,,plato ,,and ,,the ,,republic2 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,warriors ,,and ,,magistrates2 ,,music ,,and ,,gymnastics2 ,,religion ,,and ,,art ,,in ,,education2 ,,the ,,beautiful ,,and ,,the ,,good2 ,,high ,,intellectual ,,education2 ,,the ,,laws2 ,,definition ,,of ,,education2 ,,detailed ,,precepts2 ,,xenophon2 ,,the ,,economics ,,and ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,woman2 ,,the ,,cyrop,,dia2 ,,protests ,,of ,,xenophon ,,against ,,the ,,degenerate ,,manners ,,of ,,the ,,greeks2 ,,aristotle2 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,his ,,plan ,,of ,,education2 ,,public ,,education2 ,,progressive ,,development ,,of ,,human ,,nature2 ,,physical ,,education2 ,,intellectual ,,and ,,moral ,,education2 ,,defects ,,in ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,aristotle1 ,,and ,,in ,,greek ,,pedagogy ,,in ,,general2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #ai4 ,,greek ,,pedagogy4--,upon that privileged soil of ,greece1 in that brilliant ,athens abounding in artists1 poets1 historians1 and philosophers1 in that rude ,sparta celebrated for its discipline and manly virtues1 education was rather the spontaneous fruit of nature1 the natural product of diverse manners1 characters1 and races1 than the premeditated result of a reflective movement of the human will4 ,greece1 however1 had its pedagogy1 because it had its legislators and its philosophers1 the first directing education in its practical details1 the second making theoretical inquiries into the essential principles underlying the development of the human soul4 ,in respect of education1 as of everything else1 the higher spiritual life of modern nations has been developed under the influence of ,grecian antiquity4#bb #bj4 ,,athenian ,,and ,,spartan ,,education4--,in the spectacle presented to us by ancient ,greece1 the first fact that strikes us by its contrast with the immobility and unity of the primitive societies of the ,east1 is a freer unfolding of the human faculties1 and consequently a diversity in tendencies and manners4 ,doubtless1 in the ,greek republics1 the individual is always subordinate to the ,state4 ,even in ,athens1 little regard is paid to the essential dignity of the human person4 ,but the ,athenian ,state differs profoundly from the ,spartan1 and consequently the individual life is differently understood and differently directed in these two great cities4 ,at ,athens1 while not neglecting the body1 the chief preoccupation is the training of the mind2 intellectual culture is pushed to an extreme1 even to over-refinement2 there is such a taste for fine speaking that it develops an abuse of language and reasoning which merits the disreputable name of sophistry4 ,at ,sparta1 mind is sacrificed to body2 physical strength and military skill are the qualities most desired2 the sole care is the training of athletes and soldiers4 ,sobriety and courage are the results of this one-sided education1 but so are ignorance and brutality4 ,montaigne has thrown into relief1 not without some partiality for ,sparta1 these two contrasted plans of education4 8,men went to the other cities of ,greece10 he says1 8to find rhetoricians1 painters1 and musicians1 but to ,lacedmon for legislators1 magistrates1 and captains2 at ,athens fine speaking was taught2 but here1 brave acting2 there1 one learned to unravel a sophistical argument and to abate the imposture of insidiously twisted words2 here1 to extricate one's self from the enticements of pleasure and to overcome the menaces of fortune and death by a manly courage4 ,the ,athenians busied themselves with words1 but the ,spartans with things2 with the former1 there was a continual activity of the tongue2 with the latter1 a continual activity of the soul40#bc ,the last remark is not just4 ,the daily exercises of the young ,spartans1--jumping1 running1 wrestling1 playing with lances and at quoits1--could not be regarded as intellectual occupations4 ,on the other hand1 in learning to talk1 the young ,athenians learned also to feel and to think4 #ba4 ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,athens4--,the ,athenian legislator1 ,solon1 had placed physical and intellectual training upon the same footing4 ,children1 he said1 ought1 above everything else1 to learn 8to swim and to read40 ,it seems that the education of the body was the chief preoccupation of the ,athenian republic4 ,while the organization of schools for grammar and music was left to private enterprise1 the ,state took a part in the direction of the gymnasia4 ,the director of the gymnasium1 or the gymnasiarch1 was elected each year by the assembly of the people4 ,nevertheless1 ,athenian education became more and more a course in literary training1 especially towards the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,the ,athenian child remained in the charge of a nurse and an attendant up to his sixth or seventh year4 ,at the age of seven1 a pedagogue1 that is1 a 8conductor of children10 usually a slave1 was charged with the oversight of the child4 ,conducted by his pedagogue1 the pupil attended by turns the school for grammar1 the palestra1#bd or school for gymnastics1 and the school for music4 ,the grammarian1 who sometimes gave his lessons in the open air1 in the streets and on the public squares1 taught reading1 writing1 and mythology4 ,homer was the boy's reading-book4 ,instruction in gymnastics was given in connection with instruction in grammar4 ,it was begun in the palestra and continued in the gymnasium4 ,instruction in music succeeded the training in grammar and gymnastics4 ,the music-master1 or citharist1 first taught his pupils to sing1 and then to play upon the stringed instruments1 the lyre and the cithara4 ,we know what value the ,athenians attributed to music4 ,plato and ,aristotle agree in thinking that the rhythm and harmony of music inspire the soul with the love of order1 with harmoniousness1 regularity1 and a soothing of the passions4 ,we must recollect1 moreover1 that music held a large place in the actual life of the ,greeks4 ,the laws were promulgated in song4 ,it was necessary to sing in order to fulfil one's religious duties4 ,it was held that the education of ,themistocles had been neglected because he had not learned music4 8,we must regard the ,greeks10 says ,montesquieu1 8as a race of athletes and fighters4 ,now those exercises1 so proper to make men hardy and fierce1 had need of being tempered by others which could soften the manners4 ,music1 which affected the soul through the organs of the body1 was exactly adapted to this purpose40#be ,in the elementary schools of ,athens1 at least at the first1 the current discipline was severe4 ,aristophanes1 bewailing the degeneracy of his time1 recalls in these terms the good order that reigned in the olden school3#bf-- 8,i will relate what was the ancient education in the happy time when ,i taught 7it is ,justice who speaks7 and when modesty was the rule4 ,then the boys came out of each street with bare heads and feet1 and1 regardless of rain and snow1 went together in the most perfect order towards the school for music4 ,there they were seated quietly and modestly4 ,they were not permitted to cross their legs1 and they learned some good songs4 ,the master sang the song for them slowly and with gravity4 ,if some one took a notion to sing with soft and studied inflections1 he was severely flogged40 #bb4 ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,rhetoric ,,and ,,philosophy4--,grammar1 gymnastics1 and music proper1 represented the elementary instruction of the young ,athenian4 ,but this instruction was reserved for citizens in easy circumstances4 ,the poor1 according to the intentions of ,solon1 were to learn only reading1 swimming1 and a trade4 ,the privilege of instruction became still more exclusive in the case of the schools of rhetoric and philosophy frequented by those of adult years4 ,it would be beside our purpose to speak in this place of the courses in literature1 or to make known the methods of those teachers of rhetoric who taught eloquence to all who presented themselves for instruction1 either in the public squares or in the gymnasia4 ,the sophists1 those itinerant philosophers who went from city to city offering courses at high rates of tuition1 and teaching the art of speaking on every subject1 and of making a plea for error and injustice just as skilfully as for justice and truth1 at the same time made illustrious and disgraceful the teaching of eloquence4#bg ,the philosophers were more worthy of their task4 ,socrates1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle were illustrious professors of ethics4 ,socrates had no regular school1 but he grouped about him distinguished young men and initiated them into learning and virtue4 ,the ,academy of ,plato and the ,lyceum of ,aristotle were great schools of philosophy1 real private universities1 each directed by a single man4 ,the teaching given in these schools has traversed the ages1 and has been preserved in imperishable books4 ,moreover1 those illustrious spirits of ,greece have transmitted to us either methods or general ideas which the history of pedagogy should reverently collect1 as the first serious efforts of human reflection on the art of education4 #bc4 ,,socrates3 ,,the ,,socratic ,,method4--,socrates spent his life in teaching1 and in teaching according to an original method1 which has preserved his name4 ,he had the genius of interrogation4 ,to question all whom he met1 either at the gymnasium or in the streets2 to question the sophists in order to convince them of their errors and to confound their arrogance1 and presumptuous young men in order to teach them the truth of which they were ignorant2 to question great and small1 statesmen and masons1 now ,pericles and now a shopkeeper2 to question always and everywhere in order to compel every one to form clear ideas2 such was the constant occupation and passion of his life4 ,when he allowed himself to dream of the future life1 he said smilingly that he hoped to continue in the ,elysian ,fields the habits of the ,athenian ,agora1 and still to interrogate the shades of the mighty dead4 ,with ,socrates1 conversation became an art1 and the dialogue a method4 ,he scarcely ever employed the didactic form1 or that of direct teaching4 ,he addressed himself to his interlocutor1 urged him to set forth his ideas1 harassed him with questions often somewhat subtile1 skilfully led him to recognize the truth which he himself had in mind1 or the rather permitted him to go off on a false route in order finally to discover to him his error and to sport with his confusion2 and all this with an art of wonderful analysis1 with a subtilty of reasoning pushed almost to an extreme1 and also with a great simplicity of language1 and with examples borrowed from common life1 such as we are accustomed to call intuitive examples4 #bd4 ,,the ,,socratic ,,irony4--,to form an intelligible account of the ,socratic method1 it is necessary to distinguish its two essential phases4 ,socrates followed a double method and sought a double end4 ,in the first case1 he wished to make war against error and to refute false opinions4 ,then he resorted to what has been called the ,socratic irony4#bh ,he raised a question as one who simply desired to be instructed4 ,if there was the statement of an error in the reply of the respondent1 ,socrates made no objection to it1 but pretended to espouse the ideas and sentiments of his interlocutor4 ,then1 by questions which were adroit and sometimes insidious1 he forced him to develop his opinions1 and to display1 so to speak1 the whole extent of his folly1 and the next instant slyly brought him face to face with the consequences1 which were so absurd and contradictory that he ended in losing confidence1 in becoming involved in his conclusions1 and finally in making confession of his errors4 #be4 ,,maieutics1 ,,or ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,giving ,,birth ,,to ,,ideas4--,analogous processes constituted the other part of the ,socratic method1 that which he himself called maieutics1 or the art of giving birth to ideas4 ,socrates was convinced that the human mind in its normal condition discovers certain truths through its own energies1 provided one knows how to lead it and stimulate it2 and so he here appealed to the spontaneity of his auditor1 to his innate powers1 and thus gently led him on his way by easy transitions to the opinion which he wished to make him admit4 ,however1 he applied this method only to the search for truths which could either be suggested by the intuitions of reason and common sense1 or determined by a natural induction1 that is1 psychological1 ethical1 and religious truths4#bi #bf4 ,,examples ,,of ,,irony ,,and ,,maieutics4--,we can best give an exact idea of the ,socratic method by means of examples4 ,these examples are to be found in the writings of the disciples of ,socrates1 as in the ,dialogues of ,plato1 such as the ,gorgias1 the ,euthydemus1 etc41 and still better in the ,memorabilia of ,xenophon1 where the thought of the master and his manner of teaching are more faithfully reproduced than in the bold and original compositions of ,plato4 ,while recognizing the insufficiency of these extracts1 we shall here make two quotations1 in which is displayed either his incisive1 critical spirit1 or his suggestive and fruitful method3 8,the thirty tyrants had put many of the most distinguished citizens to death1 and had encouraged others to acts of injustice4 #8,it would surprise me1' said ,socrates one day1 #8if the keeper of a flock1 who had killed one part of it and had made the other part poor1 would not confess that he was a bad herdsman2 but it would surprise me still more if a man standing at the head of his fellow-citizens should destroy a part of them and corrupt the rest1 and were not to blush at his conduct and confess himself a bad magistrate4' ,this remark having come to the ears of the ,thirty1 ,critias and ,charicles sent for ,socrates1 showed him the law1 and forbade him to hold conversation with the young4 8,socrates inquired of them if he might be permitted to ask questions touching what might seem obscure to him in this prohibition4 ,upon their granting this permission3 #8,i am prepared1' he said1 #8to obey the laws1 but that ,i may not violate them through ignorance1 ,i would have you clearly inform me whether you interdict the art of speaking because it belongs to the number of things which are good1 or because it belongs to the number of things which are bad4 ,in the first case1 one ought henceforth to abstain from speaking what is good2 in the second1 it is clear that the effort should be to speak what is right4' 8,thereupon ,charicles became angry1 and said3 #8,since you do not understand us1 we will give you something easier to comprehend3 we forbid you absolutely to hold conversation with the young4' #8,in order that it may be clearly seen1' said ,socrates1 #8whether ,i depart from what is enjoined1 tell me at what age a youth becomes a man4' #8,at the time when he is eligible to the senate1 for he has not acquired prudence till then2 so do not speak to young men who are below the age of thirty4' 8#8,but if ,i wish to buy something of a merchant who is below the age of thirty1 may ,i ask him at what price he sells it8' 8#8,certainly you may ask such a question2 but you are accustomed to raise inquiries about multitudes of things which are perfectly well known to you2 it is this which is forbidden4' 8#8,so ,i must not reply to a young man who asks me where ,charicles lives1 or where ,critias is4' #8,you may reply to such questions1' said ,charicles4 #8,but recollect1 ,socrates1' added ,critias1 #8you must let alone the shoemakers1 and smiths1 and other artisans1 for ,i think they must already be very much worn out by being so often in your mouth4' 8#8,i must1 therefore1' said ,socrates1 #8forego the illustrations ,i draw from these occupations relative to justice1 piety1 and all the virtues4'0#cj ,in the final passage of this cutting dialogue1 observe the elevation of tone and the gravity of thought4 ,so ,socrates had marvellous skill in allying enthusiasm with irony4 ,here is an extract in which ,socrates applies the maieutic art to the establishment of a moral truth1 the belief in ,god3 8,i will mention a conversation he once had in my presence with ,aristodemus1 surnamed the ,little1 concerning the gods4 ,he knew that ,aristodemus neither sacrificed to the gods1 nor consulted the oracles1 but ridiculed those who took part in these religious observances4 #8,tell me1 ,aristodemus1' said he1 #8are there men whose talents you admire8' #8,there are1' he replied4 #8,then tell us their names1' said ,socrates4 #8,in epic poetry ,i especially admire ,homer2 in dithyrambic1 ,melanippides2 in tragedy1 ,sophocles2 in statuary1 ,polycletus2 in painting1 ,zeuxis4' #8,but what artists do you think most worthy of admiration1 those who form images destitute of sense and movement1 or those who produce animated beings1 endowed with the faculty of thinking and acting8' #8,those who form animated beings1 for these are the work of intelligence and not of chance4' #8,and which do you regard as the creation of intelligence1 and which the product of chance1 those works whose purpose cannot be recognized1 or those whose utility is manifest8' #8,it is reasonable to attribute to an intelligence the works which have some useful purpose4'0#ca ,socrates then points out to ,aristodemus how admirably the different organs of the human body are adapted to the functions of life and to the use of man4 ,and so proceeding from example to example1 from induction to induction1 always keeping the mind of his auditor alert by the questions he raises1 and the answers that he suggests1 forcing him to do his share of the work1 and giving him an equal share in the train of reasoning1 he finally brings him to the goal which is to make him recognize the existence of ,god4 #bg4 ,,the ,,republic ,,of ,,plato4--8,would you form10 said ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau1 8an idea of public education8 read the ,republic of ,plato4 ,it is the finest treatise on education ever written40 ,for truth's sake we must discount the enthusiasm of ,rousseau4 ,the ,republic doubtless contains some elements of a wise and practical scheme of education2 but1 on the whole1 it is but an ideal creation1 a compound of paradoxes and chimeras4 ,in ,plato's ideal commonwealth1 the individual and the family itself are sacrificed to the ,state4 ,woman becomes so much like man as to be subjected to the same gymnastic exercises2 she too must be a soldier as he is4 ,children know neither father nor mother4 ,from the day of their birth they are given in charge of common nurses1 veritable public functionaries4 ,in that common fold1 8care shall be taken that no mother recognize her offspring40 ,we may guess that in making this pompous eulogy of the ,republic1 the paradoxical author of the mile hoped to prepare the reader for giving a complaisant welcome to his own dreams4 #bh4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,warriors ,,and ,,magistrates4--,plato1 by some unexplained recollection of the social constitution of the ,hindoos1 established three castes in his ideal ,state1--laborers and artisans1 warriors1 and magistrates4 ,there was no education for laborers and artisans2 it was sufficient for men of this caste to learn a trade4 ,in politics1 ,plato is an aristocrat2 he feels a disdain for the people1 8that robust and indocile animal40 ,it should be observed1 however1 that the barriers which he set up between these three social orders are not insuperable4 ,if a child of the inferior class gives evidence of exceptional qualities1 he must be admitted to the superior class2 and so if the son of a warrior or of a magistrate is notably incompetent and unworthy of his rank1 he must suffer forfeiture1 and become artisan or laborer4 ,as to the education which he designs for the warriors and the magistrates1 ,plato is minutely careful in regulating it4 ,the education of the warriors comprises two parts1--music and gymnastics4 ,the education of the magistrates consists of a training in philosophy of a high grade2 they are initiated into all the sciences and into metaphysics4 ,plato's statesmen must be1 not priests1 as in the ,east1 but scholars and philosophers4 #bi4 ,,music ,,and ,,gymnastics4--,although ,plato attaches a high value to gymnastics1 he gives precedence to music4 ,before forming the body1 ,plato1 the idealist1 would form the soul1 because it is the soul1 according to him1 which1 by its own virtue1 gives to the body all the perfection of which it is capable4 ,even in physical exercises1 the purpose should be to give increased vigor to the soul3 8,in the training of the body1 our young men shall aim1 above everything else1 at augmenting moral power40 ,note this striking picture of the man who trains only his body3 8,let a man apply himself to gymnastics1 and become trained1 and eat much1 and wholly neglect music and philosophy1 and at first his body will become strengthened2 but if he does nothing else1 and holds no converse with the ,muses1 though his soul have some natural inclination to learn1 yet if it remains uncultivated by acquiring knowledge1 by inquiry1 by discourse1 in a word1 by some department of music1 that is1 by intellectual education1 it will insensibly become weak1 deaf1 and blind4 ,like a wild beast1 such a man will live in ignorance and rudeness1 with neither grace nor politeness40 ,however1 ,plato is far from despising health and physical strength4 ,on the contrary1 it is a reproach to him that he has imposed on the citizens of his ,republic the obligation of being physically sound1 and of having excluded from it all those whose infirmities and feeble constitution condemn them to 8drag out a dying life40 ,the right to live1 in ,plato's city1 as in the most of ancient societies1 belonged only to men of robust health4 ,the weak1 the ailing1 the wretched1 all who are of infirm constitution1--,plato does not go so far as ordering such to be killed1 but1 what amounts almost to the same thing1--8they shall be exposed10 that is1 left to die4 ,the good of the ,state demands that every man be sacrificed whose health renders him unfit for civil duties4 ,this cruel and implacable doctrine shocks us in the case of him whom ,montaigne calls the divine ,plato1 and shocks us even more when we discover it among contemporary philosophers1 whom the inspirations of ,christian charity or the feeling of human fraternity should have preserved from such rank heartlessness4 ,is it not ,herbert ,spencer who blames modern societies for nourishing the diseased and assisting the infirm8 #cj4 ,,religion ,,and ,,art ,,in ,,education4--,plato had formed a high ideal of the function of art in education1 but this did not prevent him from being severe against certain forms of art1 particularly comedy and tragedy1 and poetry in general4 ,he would have the poets expelled from the city and conducted to the frontier1 though paying them homage with perfumes which will continue to be shed upon their heads1 and with flowers with which they will ever be crowned4 ,he admits no other poetry than that which reproduces the manners and discourse of a good man1 and celebrates the brave deeds of the gods1 or chants their glory4 ,as a severe moralist and worshipper of the divine goodness1 he condemns the poets of his time1 either because they attribute to the divinity the vices and passions of men1 or because they invest the imagination with base fears as they speak of ,cocytus and the ,styx1 and portray a frightful hell and gods always mad with desire to persecute the human race4 ,elsewhere1 in the ,laws1 ,plato explains his conception of religion4 ,he says that the religious books placed in the hands of children should be selected with as much care as the milk of a nurse4 ,god is an infinite goodness who watches over men1 and he should be honored1 not by sacrifices and vain ceremonies1 but by lives of justice and virtue4 ,for making men moral1 ,plato counts more upon art than upon religious feeling4 ,to love letters1 to hold converse with the ,muses1 to cultivate music and dancing1 such1 in the opinion of the noble spirits of ,athens1 is the natural route towards moral perfection4 ,in their view1 moral education is above all an education in art4 ,the soul rises to the good through the beautiful4 8,beautiful and good0 7 7 are two words constantly associated in the speech of the ,greeks4 ,even to-day we have much to learn from reflections like these3 8,we ought10 says ,plato1 8to seek out artists who by the power of genius can trace out the nature of the fair and the graceful1 that our young men1 dwelling1 as it were1 in a healthful region1 may drink in good from every quarter1 whence any emanation from noble works may strike upon their eye or their ear1 like a gale wafting health from salubrious lands1 and win them imperceptibly from their earliest years into resemblance1 love1 and harmony with the true beauty of reason4 8,is it not1 then1 on these accounts that we attach such supreme importance to a musical education1 because rhythm and harmony sink most deeply into the recesses of the soul1 bringing gracefulness in their train1 and making a man graceful if he be rightly nurtured2 but if not1 the reverse8 and also because he that has been duly nurtured therein will have the keenest eye for defects1 whether in the failures of art1 or in the misgrowths of nature2 and feeling a most just disdain for them1 will commend beautiful objects1 and gladly receive them into his soul1 and feed upon them1 and grow to be noble and good2 whereas he will rightly censure and hate all repulsive objects1 even in his childhood1 before he is able to be reasoned with2 and when reason comes1 he will welcome her most cordially who can recognize her by the instinct of relationship1 and because he has been thus nurtured80#cb #ca4 ,,high ,,intellectual ,,education4--,in the ,republic of ,plato the intellectual education of the warrior class remains exclusively literary and sthetic4 ,in addition to this1 the education of the ruling class is to be scientific and philosophic4 ,the future magistrate1 after having received the ordinary instruction up to the age of twenty1 is to be initiated into the abstract sciences1 mathematics1 geometry1 and astronomy4 ,to this scientific education1 which is to continue for ten years1 there will succeed for five years the study of dialectics1#cc or philosophy1 which develops the highest faculty of man1 the reason1 and teaches him to discover1 through and beyond the fleeting appearances of the world of sense1 the eternal verities and the essence of things4 ,but ,plato prolongs the education of his magistrates still further4 ,after having given them the nurture of reason and intellectual insight1 he sends them back to the cavern#cd at the age of thirty-five1 that is1 calls them back to public life1 and makes them pass through all kinds of civil and military employments1 until finally1 at the age of fifty1 in possession of all the endowments assured by consummate experience superadded to profound knowledge1 they are fitted to be charged with the burdens of office4 ,in the ,republic of ,plato statesmen are not improvised4 ,and yet in this elaborate system of instruction ,plato omits two subjects of great importance4 ,on the one hand1 he entirely omits the physical and natural sciences1 because1 in his mystic idealism1 things of sense are delusive and unreal images1 and so did not appear to him worthy of arresting the attention of the mind2 and on the other1 though coming after ,herodotus1 and though a contemporary of ,thucydides1 he makes no mention of history1 doubtless through a contempt for tradition and the past4 #cb4 ,,the ,,laws4--,in the ,laws1 the work of his old age1 ,plato disavows in part the chimeras of the ,republic1 and qualifies the radicalism of that earlier work4 ,the philosopher descends to the earth and really condescends to the actual state of humanity4 ,he renounces the distinction of social castes1 and his very practical and very minute precepts are applied without distinction to children of all classes4#ce ,first note this excellent definition of the end of education3 8,a good education is that which gives to the body and to the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which they are capable40 ,as to methods1 it seems that ,plato hesitates between the doctrine of effort and the doctrine of attractive toil4 ,in fact1 he says on the one hand that education is a very skilful discipline which1 by way of amusement1#cf leads the mind of the child to love that which is to make it finished4 ,on the other hand1 he protests against the weakness of those parents who seek to spare their children every trouble and every pain4 8,i am persuaded10 he says1 8that the inclination to humor the likings of children is the surest of all ways to spoil them4 ,we should not make too much haste in our search after what is pleasurable1 especially as we shall never be wholly exempt from what is painful40 ,let us add this definition of a good education3 8,i call education the virtue which is shown by children when the feelings of joy or of sorrow1 of love or of hate1 which arise in their souls1 are made conformable to order40 ,with the statement of these principles1 ,plato enters into details4 ,for children up to the age of six1 he recommends the use of swaddling-clothes4 ,the habit of rocking1 the natural plays which children find out for themselves1 the separation of the sexes2 swimming1 the bow1 and the javelin1 for boys2 wrestling for giving bodily vigor1 and dancing1 for graceful movement2 reading and writing reserved till the tenth year and learned for three years4 ,it would require too much time to follow the philosopher to the end4 ,in the rules he proposes1 he makes a near approach to the practices followed by the ,athenians of his day4 ,the ,republic was a work of pure imagination4 ,the ,laws are scarcely more than a commentary on the actual state of practice4 ,but here we still find what was nearest the soul of ,plato1 the constant search for a higher morality4 #cc4 ,,xenophon4--,as an educator1 ,xenophon obeyed two different influences4 ,his master1 ,socrates1 was his good genius4 ,that graceful and charming book1 the ,economics1 was written under the benign and tempered inspiration of the great ,athenian sage4 ,but ,xenophon also had his evil genius1--the immoderate enthusiasm which he felt for ,sparta1 her institutions and her laws4 ,the first book of the ,cyropdia1 which relates the rules of ,persian education1 is an unfortunate imitation of the laws of ,lycurgus4 #cd4 ,,the ,,economics1 ,,and ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,woman4--,all should read the ,economics1 that charming sketch of the education of woman4 ,we may say of this little work what ,renan has said of the writings of ,plutarch on the same subject3 8,where shall we find a more charming ideal of family life8 ,what good nature6 ,what sweetness of manners6 ,what chaste and lovable simplicity60 ,before her marriage1 the ,athenian maiden has learned only to spin wool1 to be discreet1 and to ask no questions1--virtues purely negative4 ,xenophon assigns to her husband the duty of training her mind and of teaching her the positive duties of family life1--order1 economy1 kindness to slaves1 and tender care of children4 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,athenian woman was still held in a position of inferiority4 ,shut up in her own apartments1 it was an exception that she learned to read and write2 it was very rare that she was instructed in the arts and sciences4 ,the idea of human dignity and of the value of the human person had not yet appeared4 ,man had value only in proportion to the services which he could render the ,state1 or commonwealth1 and woman formed no part of the commonwealth4 ,xenophon has the merit of rising above the prejudices of his time1 and of approaching the ideal of the modern family1 in calling woman to participate more intimately in the affairs of the house and in the occupations of the husband4#cg #ce4 ,,the ,,cyrop,,dia4--,the ,cyropdia is not worthy of the same commendation4 ,under the pretext of describing the organization of the ,persian ,state1 ,xenophon here traces1 after his manner1 the plan of an education absolutely uniform and exclusively military4 ,there is no domestic education1 no individual liberty1 no interest in letters and arts4 ,when the period of infancy is over1 the young ,persian is made subject to military duty1 and must not leave the encampment1 even at night4 ,the state is but a camp1 and human existence a perpetual military parade4 ,montaigne praises ,xenophon for having said that the ,persians taught their children virtue 8as other nations do letters40 ,but it is difficult to form an estimate of the methods which were followed in these schools of justice and temperance1 and we may be allowed to suspect the efficiency of the means proposed by ,xenophon2 for example1 that which consisted in transforming the petty quarrels of the scholars into regular trials which were followed by sentences1 acquittals1 or convictions4 ,the author of the ,cyropdia is on surer ground when1 recollecting his own studies1 he recommends the study of history to those who would become just4 ,he teaches temperance by practice rather than by precept2 his pupils have only bread for their food1 only cresses for seasoning1 and only water for their drink4 ,whatever may be the faults and the fancies of the ,cyropdia1 we must recollect1 as a partial excuse for them1 that the purpose of the writer in tracing this picture of a simple1 frugal1 and courageous life1 was to induce a reaction against the excesses of the fashionable and formal life of the ,athenians4 ,as ,rousseau1 in the middle of the eighteenth century1 protested against the license and the artificial manners of his time by advising an imaginary return to nature1 so ,xenophon1 a contemporary of the sophists1 held forth the sturdy virtues of the ,persians in opposition to the degenerate manners of the ,greeks and the refinements of an advanced civilization4 #cf4 ,,aristotle3 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,his ,,plan ,,of ,,education4--,by his vast attainments1 by his encyclopdic knowledge1 by the experimental nature of his researches1 and by the positive and practical tendencies of his genius1 ,aristotle was enabled to excel ,plato in clearness of insight into pedagogical questions4 ,he had another advantage over ,plato in having known and enjoyed the delights of family life1 and in having loved and trained his own children1 of whom he said1 8parents love their children as a part of themselves40 ,let us add1 finally1 that he was a practical teacher1 since he was the preceptor of ,alexander from #cdc to #cdj ,b4,c4 ,such opportunities1 superadded to the force of the most mighty genius the world has ever seen1 give promise of a competent and clear-sighted educator4 ,unfortunately1 we have lost the treatise1 ,on ,education 7 71 which on the authority of ,diogenes ,lartius1 ,aristotle is said to have composed2 and to form some conception of his ideas on education1 we have at our disposal only some imperfect sketches1 some portions1 and those in an imperfect state1 of his treatises on ethics and politics4#ch ,whoever labors to give stability to the family1 and to tighten its bond of union1 labors also for the promotion of education4 ,even in this respect1 education is under great obligations to ,aristotle4 ,in him the communism of ,plato finds an able critic4 ,that feeling of affection which we of to-day would call charity or fraternity1 he declared to be the guaranty and the foundation of social life4 ,now1 communism weakens this feeling by diluting it1 just as a little honey dropped into a large quantity of water thereby loses all its sweetness4 8,there are two things which materially contribute to the rise of interest and attachment in the hearts of men1--property and the feeling of affection40 ,it was thus in the name of good sense1 and in opposition to the distempered fancies of ,plato1 that ,aristotle vindicated the rights of the family and the individual4 #cg4 ,,public ,,education4--,but ,aristotle does not go so far as his premises would seem to lead him1 and relinquish to parents the care of educating their children4 ,in accordance with the general tendencies of antiquity1 he declares himself the partisan of an education that is public and common4 ,he commends the ,spartans for having ordained that 8education should be the same for all40 8,as there is one end in view in every city10 he says1 8it is evident that education ought to be one and the same in all1 and that this should be a common care1 and not of each individual4444 ,it is the duty of the legislator to regulate this interest for all the citizens40 ,there must1 therefore1 be the intervention of the ,state1 not from the day of birth1 as ,plato would have it1 for the nursing of infants1 but only at the age of seven1 for instructing and training them in the habits of virtue4 ,what1 then1 should be the training of the child1 and upon what subjects would ,aristotle direct his studies8 #ch4 ,,the ,,progressive ,,development ,,of ,,human ,,nature4--,an essential and incontrovertible distinction is taken by the ,greek philosopher as his starting-point4 ,there are1 he says1 three moments1 three stages1 in human development3 first1 there is the physical life of the body2 then1 instinct and sensibility1 or the irrational part of the soul2 and finally1 the intelligence1 or the reason4 ,from this1 ,aristotle concludes that the course of discipline and study should be graduated according to these three degrees of life4 8,the first care should necessarily be given to the body rather than to the mind2 and then to that part of the spiritual nature which is the seat of the desires40 ,but he adds this important observation1 which is a refutation of ,rousseau in advance3 8,in the care which we give to the sensibilities1 we must not leave out of account the intelligence2 and in our care of the body1 we must not forget the soul40 #ci4 ,,physical ,,education4--,the son of a physician of the ,macedonian court1 and well versed in the natural sciences1 ,aristotle is very happy in his treatment of physical education4 ,it begins before the child is born1 even before it has been conceived4 ,consequently he enjoins a legal regulation of marriages1 interdicts unions that are too early or too late1 indicates the climatic conditions most favorable for marriage1 and gives mothers wise counsels on matters of hygiene1 recommending them to nurse their own children1 and prescribing cold baths4 ,such1 in outline1 is a plan which a modern hygienist would not disavow4 #dj4 ,,intellectual ,,and ,,moral ,,education4--,it was the opinion of ,aristotle that intellectual education should not begin before the age of five4 ,but1 in accordance with the principle stated above1 this period of waiting should not be the occasion of loss to the intelligence of the child2 even his play should be a preparation for the work to which he will apply himself at a later period4 ,on the other hand1 ,aristotle strongly insists on the necessity of shielding the child from all pernicious influences1 such as those which come from association with slaves1 or from immoral plays4 ,in accord with all his contemporaries1 ,aristotle includes grammar1 gymnastics1 and music1 among the elements of instruction4 ,to these he adds drawing4 ,but he is chiefly preoccupied with music1 by reason of the moral influence which he attributes to it4 ,he shared the prepossession which caused the ,greeks to say1 that to relax or to reform the manners of a people1 it suffices to add a string to the lyre or to take one from it4#ci ,aristotle was strongly preoccupied with moral education4 ,like ,plato1 he insists on the greatest care in forming the moral habits of early life4 ,in his different writings on ethics he has discussed different human virtues in a spirit at once wise1 practical1 and liberal4 ,no one has better sung the praises of justice1 of which he says1 8,neither the evening nor the morning star inspires as much respect as justice40 ,it would do ,aristotle injustice to seek for a complete expression of his thoughts on education in the incomplete and curtailed statements of theory which are found in his ,politics4 ,in connection with these1 we should recall the admirable instruction which he himself gave in the ,lyceum1 and which embraced almost all the sciences in its vast programme4 ,he excluded from it only the sciences and the arts which have a mechanical and utilitarian character4 ,enslaved on this point to the prejudices of antiquity1 he regarded as servile and unworthy of a free man whatever has a direct bearing on the practical and material utilities of life4 ,he recommended to his hearers only studies of the intellectual type1 those whose sole purpose is to elevate the mind and to fill it with noble thoughts4#dj #da4 ,,faults ,,in ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,aristotle1 ,,and ,,in ,,greek ,,pedagogy ,,in ,,general4--,it must be said in conclusion1 that whatever admiration we may feel for the pedagogy of ,aristotle1 it was wrong1 like that of all the ,greek writers1 in being but an aristocratic system of education4 ,the education of which ,plato and ,aristotle dreamed was restricted to a small minority1 and was even made possible only because the majority was excluded from it4 ,the slaves1 charged with the duty of providing for the sustenance of their superiors1 and of creating for them the leisure claimed by ,aristotle1 had no more participation in education than in liberty or in property4 ,in the century of ,pericles1 at the most glorious period of the ,athenian republic1 let us not forget that there were at ,athens nearly four hundred thousand slaves to do the bidding of twenty thousand free citizens4 ,to indulge in an easy admiration for ,greek pedagogy1 we must detach it from its setting1 and consider it in itself1 apart from the narrow plan on which the ,greek states were constructed1 and apart from that social rgime which assured the education of some1 only by perpetuating the oppression of the many4 #db4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,a leading conception in ,greek education is that of symmetry1 or harmony2 the ideal man1 in ,plato's phrase1 must be 8harmoniously constituted02 all opposing tendencies must be reconciled2 and while the physical1 the intellectual1 and the moral must each be made the subject of systematic training1 there must be no disproportionate development in either direction4 #b4 ,the preoccupation of the ,greek teacher was discipline or culture1 rather than the communication of useful knowledge2 and the final aim was a life of contemplation1 rather than a life of action2 ethical rather than practical2 8good conduct0 rather than mastery over what is material4 #c4 ,physical training received great emphasis1 not as an end in itself1 but as a means towards mental and spiritual health2 and knowledge was valued chiefly as the means for attaining moral excellence4 #d4 ,the staple of instruction was wisdom1 i4e41 ethical and prudential knowledge1 which was the basis of right action2 and teaching1 especially according to the ,socratic conception of it1 consisted in causing the pupil's mind to react on the materials supplied by his own mind4 ,socrates1 says ,lewes1 8believed that in each man lay the germs of wisdom4 ,he believed that no science could be taught2 only drawn out40 #e4 ,the great teaching instrument was dialectic1 i4e41 discussion1 resolution1 or analysis4 ,its use assumed that the subject-matter of instruction was already in the pupil's possession1 and that the highest office of the teacher was to liberate the thought which had been formed by the active energies of the pupil's own mind4 ,this is the maieutic art of ,socrates4 #f4 ,the mode of mental activity which was chiefly brought into requisition was the reason2 in a secondary degree the imagination and the emotions2 and in a still lower degree1 the memory4 #g4 ,the large place assigned to music by ,plato and ,aristotle shows that the culture of the emotions was an important element in ,greek education4 sthetic training was not only an end in itself1 but was regarded as the basis of moral and religious culture4 #h4 ,in the writings of ,socrates1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle1 we see the first attempt to formulate a body of educational doctrine2 we have the germs of a science of education based on psychology1 ethics1 and politics4 #i4 ,in the ,republic1 we see the theory of compulsion in both its phases3 the ,state must provide an education suitable for ,state needs2 and the young must accept this education because the ,state has ordained it4 ,for the first time in the history of thought1 the ,state appears distinctly and avowedly as an educator4 #aj4 ,practically1 education was administered on the basis of caste2 though in the construction of his ideal ,state1 ,plato made it possible for talent1 industry1 and worth1 to find their proper level4 ,,footnotes3 #bb ,upon this subject consult the excellent study of ,alexander ,martin1 entitled ,les ,doctrines ,pdagogiques des ,grecs4 ,paris1 #ahha4 #bc ,montaigne1 ,essais1 ,i4 ,i4 chap4 ,,xxiv4 #bd ,the palestra was the school of gymnastics for children2 the gymnasium was set apart for adults and grown men4 #be ,montesquieu1 ,esprit des lois1 ,i4 ,,iv4 chap4 ,,viii4 #bf ,aristophanes1 ,clouds4 #bg ,the reputation of the sophists has been considerably raised by ,mr4 ,grote 7,history of ,greece1 vol4 ,,viii474 ,for an entertaining account of a sophist of a later age1 see ,pliny's ,letters1 ,melmoth's translation1 ,book ,,ii41 ,letter ,,iii4 ,see also ,blackie's ,four ,phases of ,morals1 and ,ferrier's ,greek ,philosophy4 7,p47 #bh ,the primitive meaning of the ,greek word 1 irony1 is interrogation4 ,socrates gave a jeering1 ironical turn to his questions1 and in consequence this word lost its primary meaning1 and took the one which we give it at this time4 #bi ,the ,socratic method for the discovery of truth can be employed only in those cases where the pupil has the crude materials of the new knowledge actually in store4 ,psychology1 logic1 ethics1 mathematics1 and perhaps grammar and rhetoric1 fall within the sphere of the ,socratic method2 but to apply this method of instruction to geography1 history1 geology1 and1 in general1 to subjects where the material is inaccessible1 is palpably absurd4 ,the ,socratic dialogue1 in its negative phase1 is aimed at presumption1 arrogance1 and pretentious ignorance2 but it is sometimes misused to badger and bewilder an honest and docile pupil4 7,p47 #cj ,memorabilia1 ,i4 ,,ii4 #ca ,memorabilia1 ,i4 ,,iv4 #cb ,republic1 #dja1 #djb4 ,i have quoted from the version of ,vaughan and ,davies4 7,p47 #cc ,dialectic1 as used in the ,republic1 is neither philosophy nor logic4 ,i doubt whether it can be considered a subject of instruction at all4 ,it is rather a method or an exercise1 the purpose of which is to subject received opinions1 formulated knowledge1 current beliefs1 etc41 to a sifting or analysis for the purpose of distinguishing the real from the apparent1 the true from the false4 ,the ,socratic dialogues are examples of the dialectic method4 ,dialectic might be defined as the method of thought proper or the discursive reason in act4 7,p47 #cd ,see the allegory of the cavern1 ,republic1 ,book ,,vii4 #8,in ,plato's scheme of education1 knowing is to precede doing1' thus following ,socrates 7,memorabilia1 ,,iv4 chap4 ,,ii47 and ,bias 7 71 and anticipating ,bacon 78studies perfect nature1 and are perfected by experience074 7,p47 #ce ,see especially ,book ,,vii4 of the ,laws4 #cf ,compare also this quotation3 8,a free mind ought to learn nothing as a slave4 ,the lesson that is made to enter the mind by force1 will not remain there4 ,then use no violence towards children2 the rather1 cause them to learn while playing40 #cg ,see particularly ,chaps4 ,,vii4 and ,,viii4 #ch ,see especially the ,politics1 ,books ,,iv41 ,v4 #ci ,it seems impossible to comprehend the almost sovereign power which the ,greeks ascribed to music1 unless we conceive that the ,greek was endowed with peculiar and extreme sensitiveness4 ,perhaps there is special significance in the story of ,orpheus and his lyre4 7,p47 #dj ,i think it may be doubted whether the disfavor shown by ,plato and ,aristotle to practical studies was merely a mean prejudice4 ,preoccupied as they were with the disciplinary value of studies1 they may have seen that the culture aim and the utilitarian aim are in some sort antagonistic4 7,p47 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,education ,,at ,,rome4 ,,two ,,periods ,,in ,,roman ,,education2 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,primitive ,,romans2 ,,physical ,,and ,,military ,,education2 ,,rome ,,at ,,school ,,in ,,greece2 ,,why ,,the ,,romans ,,had ,,no ,,great ,,educators2 ,,varro2 ,,cicero2 ,,quintilian2 ,,the ,,institutes ,,of ,,oratory2 ,,general ,,plan ,,of ,,education2 ,,the ,,child',s ,,first ,,education2 ,,reading ,,and ,,writing2 ,,public ,,education2 ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,teachers2 ,,grammar ,,and ,,rhetoric2 ,,the ,,simultaneous ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,sciences2 ,,schools ,,for ,,philosophy2 ,,seneca2 ,,plutarch2 ,,the ,,lives ,,of ,,illustrious ,,men2 ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,training ,,of ,,children2 ,a ,,charming ,,picture ,,of ,,family ,,life2 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women2 ,,the ,,function ,,of ,,poetry ,,in ,,education2 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,morals2 ,,marcus ,,aurelius ,,and ,,personal ,,education2 ,,conclusion2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #dc4 ,,two ,,periods ,,in ,,roman ,,education4--,in ,greece1 as we have seen1 there were two essentially different systems of education in use3 at ,sparta1 a one-sided education1 wholly military1 with no regard for intellectual culture2 at ,athens1 a complete education1 which brought into happy harmony the training of the body and the development of the mind1 and by means of which1 as ,thucydides observed1 8men philosophized without becoming effeminate40 ,rome1 in the long course of her history1 followed these two systems in succession4 ,under the ,republic1 down to the conquest of ,greece1 preference was given to education after the ,spartan type2 while under the emperors1 ,athenian education was dominant1 with a very marked tendency to give the first place to an education in literature and oratory4 #dd4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,romans4--,the first schools were not opened at ,rome till towards the end of the third century ,b4,c4 ,till then1 the ,romans had no teachers save their parents and nature4 ,education was almost exclusively physical and moral1 or rather1 military and religious4 ,on the one hand1 there were the gymnastic exercises on the ,campus ,martius1 and on the other1 the recitation of the ,salian hymns1 a sort of catechism containing the names of the gods and goddesses4 ,besides this1 there was the study of the ,twelve ,tables1 that is1 of the ,roman ,law4 ,men the most robust1 the most courageous1 the best disciplined1 and the most patriotic that ever lived1 were the fruit of this natural education4 ,rome was the great school of the civic and military virtues4 ,the ,romans did not imitate the ,athenians in a disinterested pursuit of a perfect physical and intellectual development4 ,rome worked for practical ends2 she was guided only by considerations of utility2 she had no regard for ideals2 her purpose was simply the education of soldiers and citizens who should be obedient and devoted4 ,she did not know man in the abstract2 she knew only the ,roman citizen4 ,these high qualities of the early ,romans were marred by a sort of brutal insensibility and a contempt for the graces of intellect and heart2 and leaving out of account the circumstances of environment and race1 their practical virtues may be ascribed to three or four principal causes4 ,first among these was a firm family discipline4 ,the authority of the father was absolute1 and answering to this excessive power1 there was blind obedience4 ,another cause was the position of the mother in the family4 ,at ,rome1 woman was held in higher esteem than at ,athens4 ,she became almost the equal of man4 ,she was the guardian of the family circle and the teacher of her children4 ,the very name matron inspires respect4 ,coriolanus1 who took up arms against his country1 could not withstand the tears of his mother ,veturia4 ,the noble ,cornelia was the teacher of her sons1 the ,gracchi1 whom she was accustomed to call 8her fairest jewels40 ,besides1 the influence of religion was made to supplement the active efforts of the family4 ,the ,roman lived surrounded by deities4 ,when a child was weaned1 tradition would have it that one goddess taught him to eat1 and another to drink4 ,later on1 four goddesses guided his first steps and held his two hands4 ,all these superstitions imposed regularity and exactness on the most ordinary acts of daily life4 ,men breathed1 as it were1 a divine atmosphere4 ,finally1 the young ,roman learned to read in the laws of the ,twelve ,tables1 that is1 in the civil code of his country4 ,he was thus accustomed from infancy to consider the law as something natural1 inviolable1 and sacred4 #de4 ,,rome ,,at ,,school ,,in ,,greece4--,the primitive state of manners did not last4 ,under ,greek influence1 ,roman simplicity suffered a change1 and1 as ,horace says1 ,greece1 in being conquered1 conquered in turn her rude victor4 ,the taste for letters and arts was introduced at ,rome towards the close of the third century ,b4,c41 and transformed the austere and rude education of the primitive era4 ,the ,romans1 in their turn1 acquired a liking for fine phrases and subtile dialectics4 ,schools were opened1 and the rhetoricians and philosophers took up the business of education4 ,parents no longer charged themselves with the instruction of their children4 ,following the fashion at ,athens1 they entrusted them to slaves1 without troubling themselves about the faults or even the vices of these common pedagogues4 8,for if any of their servants10 says ,plutarch1 8be better than the rest1 they dispose some of them to follow husbandry1 some to navigation1 some to merchandise1 some to be stewards in their houses1 and some1 lastly1 to put out their money to use for them4 ,but if they find any slave that is a drunkard or a glutton1 and unfit for any other business1 to him they assign the government of their children2 whereas1 a good pedagogue ought to be such a one in his disposition as ,phnix1 tutor to ,achilles1 was40#da #df4 ,,why ,,rome ,,had ,,no ,,great ,,educators4--,in the age of ,augustus1 when ,latin literature was in all its glory1 we are astonished not to find1 as in the century of ,pericles1 some great thinker like ,plato or ,aristotle1 who presents general views on education1 and makes himself famous by a remarkable work on pedagogy4 ,this is due to the fact that the ,romans never formed a taste for disinterested science and speculative inquiry4 ,they reached distinction only in the practical sciences2 in the law1 for example1 in which they excelled4 ,now pedagogy1 while in one sense a practical science1 nevertheless reposes upon philosophical principles1 upon a knowledge of human nature1 and upon a theoretical conception of human destiny1--questions which had no living interest for the ,roman mind1 and which even ,cicero has noticed only in passing1 in the course of his translation of ,plato1 made with his usual magnificence of literary style4 ,it is to be noted1 moreover1 that the ,romans seem never to have considered education as a national undertaking1 as an affair of the ,state4 ,the ,law of the ,twelve ,tables is silent upon the education of children4 ,up to the time of ,quintilian there were at ,rome no public schools1 no professional teachers4 ,in the age of ,augustus each teacher had his own method4 8,our ancestors10 says ,cicero1 8did not wish that children should be educated by fixed rules1 determined by the laws1 publicly promulgated and made uniform for all40#db ,and he does not seem to disapprove of this neglect1 even while noting the fact that ,polybius saw in this an important defect in ,roman institutions4 #dg4 ,,cicero4--,in all ,cicero's works we find scarcely a line relative to education4 ,and yet the great orator exclaims3 8,what better1 what greater service can we of to-day render the ,republic than to instruct and train the young80#dc ,but he was content with writing fine discourses on philosophy for his country1 abounding more in eloquence than in originality4 #dh4 ,,varro4--,a less celebrated writer1 ,varro1 seems to have had some pedagogic instinct4 ,he wrote real educational works on grammar1 rhetoric1 history1 and geometry4 ,most of these have been lost2 but if we may trust his contemporaries1 they were instrumental in the education of several generations4 #di4 ,,quintilian 7#ce-ie ,a4,d474--,after the age of ,augustus1 education became more and more an affair of oratory4 ,the chief effort in the way of education was a preparation for a career in the ,forum4 ,but from these vulgar rhetoricians1 occupied with the exterior artifices of style1 these 8traffickers in words10 as ,saint ,augustine called them1 we must distinguish a rhetorician of a higher order1 who does not separate rhetoric from a general culture of the intelligence4 ,this is ,quintilian1 the author of the ,institutes of ,oratory4 ,appointed at the age of twenty-six to a chair of eloquence1 the first that was established by the ,roman state1 and called at a later period by the ,emperor ,domitian to direct the education of his grand-nephews1 ,quintilian was practically acquainted with both public and private instruction4 #ej4 ,,the ,,institutes ,,of ,,oratory4--,this work1 under the form of a treatise on rhetoric1 is in parts a real treatise on education4 ,the author1 in fact1 begins the training of the future orator from the cradle2 he gives counsel to its nurse1 and 8not blushing to descend to petty details10 he follows step by step the education of his pupil4 ,let us add1 that in the noble ideal which he conceives1 eloquence never being considered apart from wisdom1 ,quintilian was led by his very subject to treat of moral education4 #ea4 ,,his ,,general ,,plan ,,of ,,education4--,the first book entire is devoted to education in general1 and its teachings might be applied indifferently to all children1 whether destined or not to the practice of oratory4 8,has a son been born to you8 ,from the first conceive the highest hopes of him40 ,thus ,quintilian begins4 ,he thinks that we cannot have too high an opinion of human nature1 nor propose for it too high a purpose4 ,minds that rebel against all instruction are unnatural4 ,most often it is the training which is at fault2 it is not nature that is to blame4 #eb4 ,,the ,,early ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,child4--,the child's nurses should be virtuous and prudent4 ,quintilian does not demand that they shall be learned1 as the stoic ,chrysippus would have them2 but he requires that their language shall be irreproachable4 ,the first impressions of the child are very durable3 8,new vases preserve the taste of the first liquor that is put into them2 and wool1 once colored1 never regains its primitive whiteness40 ,by an illusion analogous to that of the literary men of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 who would have the little ,french boy first learn ,latin1 ,quintilian teaches his pupil ,greek before making him study his native tongue4 ,studies1 moreover1 should begin betimes3 8,turn to account the child's first years1 especially as the elements of learning demand only memory1 and the memory of children is very tenacious40 ,we seem to be listening to a modern teacher when ,quintilian recommends the avoidance of whatever might ruffle the spirits of the child4 8,let study be to him a play2 ask him questions2 commend him when he does well2 and sometimes let him enjoy the consciousness of his little gains in wisdom40 #ec4 ,,reading ,,and ,,writing4--,the passage relative to reading deserves to be quoted in full4 ,it is wrong1 says ,quintilian1 to teach children the names of the letters1 and their respective places in the alphabet1 before they know their shapes4 ,he recommends the use of letters in ivory1 which children take pleasure in handling1 seeing1 and naming4 ,as to writing1 ,quintilian recommends1 for the purpose of strengthening the child's hand1 and of preventing it from making false movements1 that he should practise on wooden tablets on which the letters have been traced by cutting4#dd ,later on1 the copies shall contain1 8not senseless maxims1 but moral truths40 ,the ,roman teacher did not counsel haste in any case4 8,we can scarcely believe10 he says1 8how progress in reading is retarded by attempting to go too fast40 #ed4 ,,public ,,education4--,quintilian has made an unsurpassed plea for public education and its advantages1 which ,rollin has reproduced almost entire4#de ,from this we shall quote only the following passage1 which proves how far the contemporaries of ,quintilian had already departed from the manly habits of the early ages2 and the truth which is herein expressed will always be applicable to parents who are inclined to be over-indulgent3 8,would that we ourselves did not corrupt the morals of our children6 ,we enervate their very infancy with luxuries4 ,that delicacy of education1 which we call fondness1 weakens all the powers1 both of body and mind4444 ,we form the palate of our children before we form their pronunciation4 ,they grow up in sedan chairs2 if they touch the ground1 they hang by the hands of attendants supporting them on each side4 ,we are delighted if they utter anything immodest4 ,expressions which would hot be tolerated even from effeminate youths1 we hear from them with a smile and a kiss4 ,need we be astonished at this behavior8 ,we ourselves have taught them40#df #ee4 ,,duties ,,of ,,teachers4--,there was at ,rome1 in the first century of the ,christian era1 a high conception of the duties of a teacher3 8,his first care should be to ascertain with all possible thoroughness the mind and the character of the child40 ,judicious reflections on the memory1 on the faculty of imitation1 and on the dangers of precocious mental development1 are proofs of the fine psychological discernment of ,quintilian4 ,his insight is no less accurate when he sketches the rules for moral discipline4 8,fear10 he says1 8restrains some and unmans others4444 ,for my part1 ,i prefer a pupil who is sensitive to praise1 whom glory animates1 and from whom defeat draws tears40 ,quintilian expresses himself decidedly against the use of the rod1 8although custom authorizes it10 he says1 8and ,chrysippus does not disapprove of it40 #ef4 ,,grammar ,,and ,,rhetoric4--,like his contemporaries1 ,quintilian distinguishes studies into two grades1--,grammar and ,rhetoric4 8,as soon as the child is able to read and write1 he must be placed in the hands of the grammarian40 ,grammar was divided into two parts1--the art of speaking correctly and the explication of the poets4 ,exercises in composition1 development lessons called ,chri1 and narratives1 accompanied the theoretical study of the rules of grammar4#dg ,it is to be observed that ,quintilian gives a high place to etymological studies1 and that he attaches great importance to reading aloud4 8,that the child may read well1 let him have a good understanding of what he reads4444 ,when he reads the poets1 let him shun affected modulations4 ,it is with reference to this manner of reading that ,csar1 still a young man1 made this excellent observation3 #8,if you are singing1 you sing poorly2 if you are reading1 why do you sing8'0 #eg4 ,,the ,,simultaneous ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,sciences4--,quintilian is very far from confining his pupil within the narrow circle of grammatical study4 ,persuaded that the child is capable of learning several things at the same time1 he would have him taught geometry1 music1 and philosophy simultaneously3-- 8,must he learn grammar alone1 and then geometry1 and in the meanwhile forget what he first learned8 ,as well advise a farmer not to cultivate1 at the same time1 his fields1 his vines1 his olive trees1 and his orchards1 and not to give his thought simultaneously to his meadows1 his cattle1 his gardens1 and his bees40#dh ,of course ,quintilian considers the different studies which he sets before his pupil only as the instruments for an education in oratory4 ,philosophy1 which comprises dialectics or logic1 physics or the science of nature1 and lastly morals1 furnish the orator with ideas1 and teach him the art of distributing them into a consecutive line of argument4 ,and so geometry1 a near relative of dialectics1 disciplines the mind1 and teaches it to distinguish the true from the false4 ,lastly1 music is an excellent preparation for eloquence2 it cultivates the sense of harmony and a taste for number and measure4 #eh4 ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,philosophy4--,by the side of the schools of rhetoric1 in which the art of speech was cultivated1 imperial ,rome saw flourish in great numbers schools of philosophy1 whose purpose was the formation of morals4 ,it was through no lack of moral sermonizing that there was a degeneration in the virtues of the ,romans4 ,all the schools of ,greece1 especially the ,stoics and the ,epicureans1 and also the schools of ,pythagoras1 of ,socrates1 of ,plato1 and of ,aristotle1 had their representatives at ,rome2 but their obscure names have scarcely survived4 #ei4 ,,seneca4--,among these philosophers and these moralists of the first century of the ,christian era1 ,seneca has the distinction of standing in the front rank4 ,it is true that he was not the founder of a school1 but by his numerous writings he succeeded in maintaining among his contemporaries at least some vestiges of the ancient virtues4 ,his ,letters to ,lucilius1 letters abounding in real intellectual and moral insight1 also contain some pedagogical precepts4 ,seneca attempts to direct school instruction to practical ends1 in following out the thought of this famous precept3 8,we should learn1 not for the sake of the school1 but for the purposes of life0 7,non schol1 sed vit discimus74 ,moreover1 he criticises confused and ill-directed reading that does not enrich the understanding1 and concludes by recommending the profound study of a single book 7timeo hominem unius libri74 ,in another letter he remarks that the best means for giving clearness to one's own ideas is to communicate them to others2 the best way of being taught is to teach 7docendo discimus74 ,let us quote this other maxim so often repeated3 8,the end is attained sooner by example than by precept0 7longum iter per prcepta1 breve per exempla74 #fj4 ,,plutarch 7#ej-ach ,a4,d474--,in the last period of ,roman civilization two names deserve to arrest the attention of the educator1--,plutarch and ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,although he was born in ,botia1 and wrote in ,greek1 ,plutarch belongs to the ,roman world4 ,he lived at ,rome at several different times1 and there opened a school in the reign of ,domitian1 where he lectured on philosophy1 literature1 and history4 ,numerous works have transmitted to us the substance of that instruction which had such an extraordinary success4 #fa4 ,,the ,,lives ,,of ,,illustrious ,,men4--,translated in the fifteenth century by ,amyot1 the ,parallel ,lives of ,plutarch were for our fathers a true code of morals founded on history4 ,how many of our great men1 or how many of our men of worth1 have drawn from this book1 at least in part1 the material which has nurtured their virtues6 ,l',hpital and d',aubign enriched their lives from this source4 ,henry ,,iv4 said of this book3 8,it has been to me as my conscience1 and has whispered in my ear many virtuous suggestions and excellent maxims for my own conduct and for the management of my affairs40#di #fb4 ,,the ,,essay ,,on ,,the ,,training ,,of ,,children4--,the celebrated essay entitled ,of the ,training of ,children1#ej is the first treatise1 especially devoted to education1 that antiquity has bequeathed to us4 ,its authenticity has been called in question by ,german critics2 but this is of little moment1 since these critics are the first to recognize the fact that the author of this essay1 whoever he might have been1 was intimately acquainted with ,plutarch1 and has given us a sufficiently exact summary of the ideas which are more fully developed in others of his works4#ea ,we shall not give an analysis of this work1 which1 however1 abounds in interesting reflections on the primary period of education4 ,we shall simply note the fundamental thought of the essay1 its salient and original characteristic1 which is its warm appreciation of the family4 ,in society1 as ,plutarch conceives it1 the ,state no longer exercises absolute sovereignty4 ,upon the ruins of the antique commonwealth ,plutarch builds the family4 ,it is to the family that he addresses himself in order to assure the education of children4#eb ,on this point he is not in accord with ,quintilian4 ,what he recommends is an education that is domestic and individual4 ,he scarcely admits the need of public schools save for the higher instruction4 ,at a certain age a young man1 already trained by the watchful care of a preceptor under the supervision of his parents1 shall go abroad to hear the lectures of the moralists and the philosophers1 and to read the poets4 #fc4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women4--,one of the consequences of the exalted function which ,plutarch ascribes to the family is that by this single act he raises the material and moral condition of woman4 ,in his essay entitled ,conjugal ,precepts1 which recalls the ,economics of ,xenophon1 he restores to the wife her place in the household4 ,he associates her with the husband in the material support of the family1 as well as in the education of the children4 ,the mother is to nurse her offspring4 8,providence10 he naively says1 8hath also wisely ordered that women should have two breasts1 that so1 if any of them should happen to bear twins1 they might have two several springs of nourishment ready for them40#ec ,the mother shall also take part in the instruction of her children1 and so she must herself be educated4 ,plutarch proposes for her the highest studies1 such as mathematics and philosophy4 ,but he counts much more upon her natural qualities1 than upon the science that she may acquire4 8,with women10 he says1 8tenderness of heart is enhanced by a pleasing countenance1 by sweetness of speech1 by an affectionate grace1 and by a high degree of sensitiveness40 #fd4 ,,the ,,function ,,of ,,poetry ,,in ,,education4--,in the essay entitled ,how a ,young ,man ,ought to ,hear ,poems1 ,plutarch has given his opinion as to the extent to which poetry should be made an element in education4 ,more just than ,plato1 he does not condemn the reading of the poets4 ,he simply demands that this reading should be done with discretion1 by choosing those who1 in their compositions1 mingle moral inspiration with poetic inspiration4 8,lycurgus10 he says1 8did not act like a man of sound reason in the course which he took to reform his people that were much inclined to drunkenness1 by traveling up and down to destroy all the vines in the country2 whereas he should have ordered that every vine should have a well of water near it1 that 7as ,plato saith7 the drunken deity might be reduced to temperance by a sober one40#ed #fe4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,morals4--,plutarch is above all else a moralist4 ,if he adds nothing in the way of theory to the lofty doctrines of the ,greek philosophers from whom he catches his inspiration1 at least he enters more profoundly into the study of practical methods which insure the efficacy of fine precepts and exalted doctrines4 8,that contemplation which is dissociated from practice10 he says1 8is of no utility40 ,he would have young men come from lectures on morals1 not only better instructed1 but more virtuous4 ,of what consequence are beautiful maxims unless they are embodied in action8 ,the young man1 then1 shall early accustom himself to self-government1 to reflection upon his own conduct1 and to taking counsel of his own reason4 ,moreover1 ,plutarch gives him a director of conscience1 a philosopher1 whom he will go to consult in his doubts1 and to whom he will entrust the keeping of his soul4 ,but that which is of most consequence in his eyes is personal effort1 reflection always on the alert1 and that inward effort which causes our soul to assimilate the moral lessons which we have received1 and which causes them to enter into the very structure and fibre of our personality4 8,as it would be with a man who1 going to his neighbor's to borrow fire1 and finding there a great and bright fire1 should sit down to warm himself and forget to go home2 so is it with the one who comes to another to learn1 if he does not think himself obliged to kindle his own fire within1 and influence his own mind1 but continues sitting by his master as if he were enchanted1 delighted by hearing40#ee ,so are those who are not striving to have a personal morality1 but who1 incapable of self-direction1 are always in need of the tutorship of another4 ,the great preoccupation of ,plutarch--and by this trait he has a legitimate place among the great educators of the world--was to awaken1 to excite1 the interior forces of the conscience1 and to stimulate the intelligence to a high state of activity4 ,when he wrote this famous maxim1 8,the soul is not a vase to be filled1 but is rather a hearth which is to be made to glow10#ef he was not thinking alone of moral education1 but also of a false intellectual education which1 instead of training the mind1 is content with accumulating in the memory a mass of indigested materials4#eg #ff4 ,,marcus ,,aurelius4--,the wisest of the ,roman emperors1 the author of the book entitled ,to ,myself1 better known as ,meditations1 ,marcus ,aurelius deserves mention in the history of pedagogy4 ,he is perhaps the most perfect representative of ,stoic morality1 which is itself the highest expression of ancient morality4 ,he is the most finished type of what can be effected in the way of soul-culture by the influence of home-training and the personal effort of the conscience4 ,his teacher of rhetoric was the celebrated ,fronto1 of whose character we may judge from this one characteristic3 8,i toiled hard yesterday10 he wrote to his pupil2 8,i composed a few figures of speech1 with which ,i am pleased40 ,on the other hand1 ,marcus ,aurelius found examples for imitation in his own family4 8,my uncle10 he says reverently1 8taught me patience4444 ,from my father ,i inherited modesty4444 ,to my mother ,i owe my feelings of piety40 ,notwithstanding the modesty that led him to attribute to others the whole of his moral worth1 it is especially to himself1 to a persistent effort of his own will1 and to a ceaseless examination of his own conscience1 that he is indebted for becoming the most virtuous of men1 and the wisest and purest1 next to ,socrates1 of the moralists of antiquity4 ,his ,meditations show us in action that self-education which in our time has suggested such beautiful reflections to ,channing4 #fg4 ,,conclusion4--,finally1 it must be admitted that ,roman literature is poor in material for educational study4 ,some passages1 scattered here and there in the classical authors1 nevertheless prove that they were not absolutely strangers to pedagogical questions4 ,thus ,horace professed independence of mind2 he declares that he is not obliged to swear by the 8words of any master40#eh ,on the other hand1 ,juvenal defined the ideal purpose of life and of education when he said that the desirable thing above all others is 8a sound mind in a sound body40#ei ,finally1 ,pliny the ,younger1 in three words1 multum1 non multa1 8much1 not many things10 fixes one essential point in educational method1 and recommends the thorough study of one single subject in preference to a superficial study which extends over too many subjects4 ,while by their taste1 their accuracy of thought1 and the perfection of their style1 the ,latin writers are worthy of being placed by the side of the ,greeks as proficients in education of the literary type1 they at the same time deserve to be regarded as reputable guides in moral education4 ,at ,rome1 as at ,athens1 that which formed the basis of instruction was the search after virtue4 ,that which preoccupied ,cicero as well as ,plato1 ,seneca as well as ,aristotle1 was not so much the extension of knowledge and the development of instruction as the progress of manners and the moral perfection of man4 #fh4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,in contrast with ,greek education1 the chief characteristic of which was intellectual discipline or culture1 ,roman education may be called practical4 ,greece and ,rome have thus furnished the world with two distinct types of education1 and their modern representatives are seen in our classical and scientific courses respectively4 #b4 ,the disinclination of the ,roman mind to speculative inquiry1 was a bar to the production of any contributions to the theory of education4 #c4 ,in the ,institutes of ,quintilian we see the first attempt to expound the art of teaching2 and in the ,morals of ,plutarch we have the first formal treatise on the education of children4 #d4 ,in the later period of ,roman education1 we see a higher appreciation of woman1 and a nobler conception of the family life4 #e4 ,in common with all the systems of education thus far studied1 ,roman education is essentially literary1 ethical1 and prudential1 as distinguished from an education in science4 ,the conception of the money value of knowledge had not yet appeared4 ,,footnotes3 #da ,plutarch1 ,morals1 vol4 ,i4 p4 #i4 #db ,cicero1 ,de ,republica1 ,,iv4 #aae4 #dc ,cicero1 ,de ,divinatione1 ,,ii4 #b4 #dd ,in principle1 this is the same as the system of writing commended by ,locke3 8,get a plate graved with the ,characters of such a ,hand as you like best 444 let several sheets of good ,writing-paper be printed off with red ,ink1 which he has nothing to do but go over with a good ,pen fill'd with black ,ink1 which will quickly bring his ,hand to the ,formation of those ,characters1 being first shewed where to begin1 and how to form every ,letter40 7,on ,education1 #afj47 7,p47 #de 8,quintilian has treated this question with great breadth and eloquence40 7,trait des tudes1 ,liv4 ,,iv4 ,art4 #b47 #df ,quintilian1 ,institutes of ,oratory1 ,watson's ,translation1 ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,ii4 #f1 #g4 #dg ,institutes1 ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,ix4 #dh ,institutes1 ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xii4 #di ,equally great has been ,plutarch's influence on ,english thought and life4 ,sir ,thomas ,north's translation of ,amyot's version appeared in #aegi1 and furnished ,shakespeare with the materials for his ,coriolanus1 ,julius ,csar1 and ,antony and ,cleopatra4 ,milton1 ,wordsworth1 and ,browning are also debtors to the ,parallel ,lives4 7,p47 #ej 8,comment il faut nourrir les enfants10 in the translation by ,amyot4 8,of the ,training of ,children10 in ,goodwin's edition of the ,morals 7,vol4 ,i474 #ea ,the references that follow are to ,plutarch's ,morals4 ,the first translation into ,english was by ,philemon ,holland1 in #afjc4 ,the ,american edition in five volumes 7,boston1 #ahga7 is worthy of all commendation4 ,the references ,i make are to this edition4 7,p47 #eb ,of course ,plutarch1 like all the writers of antiquity1 writes only in behalf of free-born children in good circumstances4 8,he abandons10 as he himself admits1 8the education of the poor and the lowly40 ,plutarch seems to aim at what appears to him to be practicable4 ,that he was liberal in his opinions must be evident1 ,i think1 from this extract3 8,it is my desire that all children whatsoever may partake of the benefits of education alike2 but if yet any persons1 by reason of the narrowness of their estates1 cannot make use of my precepts1 let them not blame me that give them1 but ,fortune1 which disableth them from making the advantage by them they otherwise might4 ,though even poor men must use their utmost endeavor to give their children the best education2 or1 if they can not1 they must bestow upon them the best that their abilities will reach40 7,morals1 vol4 ,i4 pp4 #ai1 #bj47 7,p47 #ec ,of the ,training of ,children1 #f4 #ed ,morals1 vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #dd4 #ee ,morals1 ,i4 p4 #dfc4 ,this language directly follows the quotation given in the note 7#a7 at the close of this paragraph4 7,p47 #ef ,the exact reading is as follows3 8,for the mind requires not like an earthen vessel to be filled up2 convenient fuel and aliment only will influence it with a desire of knowledge and ardent love of truth40 7,morals1 ,i4 p4 #dfc47 ,this makes the author's meaning more apparent4 7,p47 #eg ,this does not mean that ,plutarch sets a low value on memory1 for he says3 8,above all things1 we must exercise the memory of children1 for it is the treasury of knowledge40 #eh 8,nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri40 #ei 8,orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano40 7,sat4 x4 #cef47 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,early ,,christians ,,and ,,the ,,middle ,,age4 ,,the ,,new ,,spirit ,,of ,,christianity2 ,,the ,,poverty ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,christian ,,centuries ,,in ,,respect ,,of ,,education2 ,,the ,,fathers ,,of ,,the ,,church2 ,,saint ,,jerome ,,and ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls2 ,,physical ,,asceticism2 ,,intellectual ,,and ,,moral ,,asceticism2 ,,permanent ,,truths2 ,,intellectual ,,feebleness ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,age2 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,ignorance ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,age2 ,,the ,,three ,,renascences2 ,,charlemagne2 ,,alcuin2 ,,the ,,successors ,,of ,,charlemagne2 ,,scholasticism2 ,,abelard2 ,,the ,,seven ,,liberal ,,arts2 ,,methods ,,and ,,discipline2 ,,the ,,universities2 ,,gerson2 ,,vittorino ,,da ,,feltre2 ,,other ,,teachers ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,age2 ,,recapitulation2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #fi4 ,,the ,,new ,,spirit ,,of ,,christianity4--,by its dogmas1 by the conception of the equality of all human creatures1 by its spirit of charity1 ,christianity introduced new elements into the conscience1 and seemed called to give a powerful impetus to the moral education of men4 ,the doctrine of ,christ was at first a reaction of free will and of personal dignity against the despotism of the ,state4 8,a full half of man henceforth escaped the action of the ,state4 ,christianity taught that man no longer belonged to society except in part2 that he was under allegiance to it by his body and his material interests2 that being subject to a tyrant1 he must submit2 that as a citizen of a republic1 he ought to give his life for it2 but that in respect of his soul1 he was free1 and owed allegiance only to ,god40#fj ,henceforth it was not simply a question of training citizens for the service of the ,state2 but the conception of a disinterested development of the human person made its appearance in the world4 ,on the other hand1 in proclaiming that all men had the same destiny1 and that they were all equal in the sight of ,god1 ,christianity raised the poor and the disinherited from their condition of misery1 and promised them all the same instruction4 ,to the idea of liberty was added that of equality2 and equal justice for all1 and participation in the same rights1 were contained in germ in the doctrine of ,christianity4 #gj4 ,,poverty ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,christian ,,centuries ,,in ,,respect ,,of ,,education4--,nevertheless1 the germs contained in the doctrines of the new religion did not bear fruit at once4 ,it is easy to analyze the causes which led to the poverty of educational thought during the first centuries of the ,christian era4 ,in the first place1 the ,christian instruction was addressed to barbarous peoples who could not at once rise to a high intellectual and moral culture4 ,according to the celebrated comparison of ,jouffroy1 the invasion of the barbarians into the midst of ancient society was like an armful of green wood thrown upon a blazing fire2 at first there could issue from it only a mass of smoke4 ,moreover1 we must take into account the fact that the early ,christians1 in order to establish their faith1 had to struggle against difficulties which were ever being renewed4 ,the first centuries were a period of struggle1 of conquest1 and of organization1 which left but little opportunity for the disinterested study of education4 ,in their contests with the ancient world1 the early ,christians came to include in a common hatred classical literature and pagan religion4 ,could they receive with sympathy the literary and scientific inheritance of a society whose morals they repudiated1 and whose beliefs they were bent on destroying8 ,on the other hand1 the social condition of the men who first attached themselves to the new religion turned them aside from the studies which are a preparation for real life4 ,obliged to conceal themselves1 to betake themselves to the desert1 true ,pariahs of the pagan world1 they lived a life of contemplation2 they were naturally led to conceive an ascetic and monastic existence as the ideal of education4 ,moreover1 by its mystical tendencies1 ,christianity at the first could not be a good school for a practical and humane system of education4 ,the ,christian was detached from the commonwealth of man1 only to enter into the commonwealth of ,god4 ,he must break with a corrupt and perverse world4 ,by privations1 and by the renunciation of every pleasure1 he must react against the immorality of ,grco-,roman society4 ,man must aspire to imitate ,god2 and ,god is absolute holiness1 the very negation of all the conditions of earthly life1--supreme perfection4 ,the very disproportion between such an ideal and human weakness as an actual fact must have betrayed the early ,christians into leading a mystical life which was but a preparation for death4 ,and the consequence of these doctrines was to make of the ,church the exclusive mistress of education and instruction4 ,individual initiative1 if called into play1 on the one hand1 by the fundamental doctrines of ,christianity1 was stifled1 on the other1 under the domination of the ,church4 #ga4 ,,the ,,fathers ,,of ,,the ,,church4--,of the celebrated doctors who1 by their erudition and eloquence1 if not by their taste1 made illustrious the beginning of ,christianity1 some were jealous mystics and sectaries1 in whose eyes philosophical curiosity was a sin1 and the love of letters a heresy2 and others were ,christians of a conciliatory temperament1 who1 in a certain measure1 allied religious faith and literary culture4 ,tertullian rejected all pagan education4 ,he saw in classical culture only a robbery from ,god2 a road to the false and arrogant wisdom of the ancient philosophers4 ,even ,saint ,augustine1 who in his youth could not read the fourth book of the neid without shedding tears1 and who had been devotedly fond of ancient poetry and eloquence1 renounced1 after his conversion1 his literary tastes as well as the mad passions of his early manhood4 ,it was by his influence that the ,council of ,carthage forbade the bishops to read the pagan authors4 ,this was not the course of ,saint ,basil1 who demands1 on the contrary1 that the young ,christian shall be conversant with the orators1 poets1 and historians of antiquity2 who thinks that the poems of ,homer inspire a love for virtue2 and who desires1 finally1 that full use should be made of the treasures of ancient wisdom in the training of the young4#fa ,nor was this the thought of ,saint ,jerome1 who said he would be none the less a ,ciceronian in becoming a ,christian4 #gb4 ,,saint ,,jerome ,,and ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls4--,the letters of ,saint ,jerome on the education of girls form the most valuable educational document of the first centuries of ,christianity4#fb ,they have excited high admiration4 ,erasmus knew them by heart1 and ,saint ,theresa read selections from them every day4 ,it is impossible1 to-day1 while admiring certain parts of them1 not to condemn the general spirit which pervades them1--a narrow spirit1 distrustful of the world1 which pushes the religious sentiment even to mysticism1 and disdain for human affairs to asceticism4 #gc4 ,,physical ,,asceticism4--,it is no longer the question of giving power to the body1 and thus of making of it the robust instrument of a cultured spirit1 as the ,greeks would have it4 ,the body is an enemy that must be subdued by fasting1 by abstinence1 and by mortifications of the flesh4 8,do not allow ,paula to eat in public1 that is1 do not let her take part in family entertainments1 for fear that she may desire the meats that may be served there4 ,let her learn not to use wine1 for it is the source of all impurity4 ,let her food be vegetables1 and only rarely of fish2 and let her eat so as always to be hungry40 ,contempt for the body is carried so far that cleanliness is almost interdicted4 8,for myself1 ,i entirely forbid a young girl to bathe40 ,it is true that1 alarmed at the consequences of such austerity1 ,saint ,jerome1 by way of exception1 permits children the use of the bath1 of wine1 and of meat1 but only 8when necessity requires it1 and lest the feet may fail them before having walked40 #gd4 ,,intellectual ,,and ,,moral ,,asceticism4--,for the mind1 as well as for the body1 we may say of ,saint ,jerome what ,nicole wrote to a nun of his time3 8,you feed your pupils on bread and water40 ,the ,bible is the only book recommended1 and this is little2 but it is the ,bible entire1 which is too much4 ,the ,song of ,songs1 with its sensual imagery1 would be strange reading for a young girl4 ,the arts1 like letters1 find no favor with the mysticism of ,saint ,jerome4 8,never let ,paula listen to musical instruments2 let her even be ignorant of the uses served by the flute and the harp40 ,as for the flute1 which the ,greek philosophers also did not like1 let it be so2 but what shall we say of this condemnation of the harp1 the instrument of ,david and the angels1 and of religious music itself6 ,how far we are1 in common with ,saint ,jerome1 from that complete life1 from that harmonious development of all the faculties1 which modern educators1 ,herbert ,spencer1 for example1 present to us with reason as the ideal of education6 ,saint ,jerome goes so far as to proscribe walking3-- 8,do not let ,paula be found in the ways of the world 7emphatic paraphrase for streets71 in the gatherings and in the company of her kindred2 let her be found only in retirement40 ,the ideal of ,saint ,jerome is a monastic and cloistered life1 even in the world4 ,but that which is graver still1 that which is the fatal law of mysticism1 is that ,saint ,jerome1 after having proscribed letters1 arts1 and necessary and legitimate pleasures1 even brings his condemnation to bear on the most honorable sentiments of the heart4 ,the heart is human also1 and everything human is evil and full of danger3 8,do not allow ,paula to feel more affection for one of her companions than for others2 do not allow her to speak with such a one in an undertone40 ,and as he held in suspicion even the affections of the family1 the ,doctor of the ,church concludes thus3-- 8,let her be educated in a cloister1 where she will not know the world1 where she will live as an angel1 having a body but not knowing it1 and where1 in a word1 you will be spared the care of watching over her4444 ,if you will send us ,paula1 ,i will charge myself with being her master and nurse2 ,i will give her my tenderest care2 my old age will not prevent me from untying her tongue1 and ,i shall be more renowned than the philosopher ,aristotle1 since ,i shall instruct1 not a mortal and perishable king1 but an immortal spouse of the ,heavenly ,king40 #ge4 ,,permanent ,,truths4--,the pious exaggerations of ,saint ,jerome only throw into sharper relief the justice and the excellence of some of his practical suggestions1--upon the teaching of reading1 for example1 or upon the necessity of emulation3-- 8,put into the hands of ,paula letters in wood or in ivory1 and teach her the names of them4 ,she will thus learn while playing4 ,but it will not suffice to have her merely memorize the names of the letters1 and call them in succession as they stand in the alphabet4 ,you should often mix them1 putting the last first1 and the first in the middle4 8,induce her to construct words by offering her a prize1 or by giving her1 as a reward1 what ordinarily pleases children of her age4444 ,let her have companions1 so that the commendation she may receive may excite in her the feeling of emulation4 ,do not chide her for the difficulty she may have in learning4 ,on the contrary1 encourage her by commendation1 and proceed in such a way that she shall be equally sensible to the pleasure of having done well1 and to the pain of not having been successful4444 ,especially take care that she do not conceive a dislike for study that might follow her into a more advanced age40#fc #gf4 ,,intellectual ,,feebleness ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,age4--,if the early doctors of the ,church occasionally expressed some sympathy for profane letters1 it is because1 in their youth1 before having received baptism1 they had themselves attended the pagan schools4 ,but these schools once closed1 ,christianity did not open others1 and1 after the fourth century1 a profound night enveloped humanity4 ,the labor of the ,greeks and the ,romans was as though it never had been4 ,the past no longer existed4 ,humanity began anew4 ,in the fifth century1 ,apollinaris ,sidonius declares that 8the young no longer study1 that teachers no longer have pupils1 and that learning languishes and dies40 ,later1 ,lupus of ,ferrires1 the favorite of ,louis the ,pious and ,charles the ,bald1 writes that the study of letters had almost ceased4 ,in the early part of the eleventh century1 the ,bishop of ,laon1 ,adalberic1 asserts that 8there is more than one bishop who cannot count the letters of the alphabet on his fingers40 ,in #abia1 of all the monks in the convent of ,saint ,gall1 there was not one who could read and write4 ,it was so difficult to find notaries public1 that acts had to be passed verbally4 ,the barons took pride in their ignorance4 ,even after the efforts of the twelfth century1 instruction remained a luxury for the common people2 it was the privilege of the ecclesiastics1 and even they did not carry it very far4 ,the ,benedictines confess that the mathematics were studied only for the purpose of calculating the date of ,easter4 #gg4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,ignorance ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,age4--,what were the permanent causes of that situation which lasted for ten centuries8 ,the ,catholic ,church has sometimes been held responsible for this4 ,doubtless the ,christian doctors did not always profess a very warm sympathy for intellectual culture4 ,saint ,augustine had said3 8,it is the ignorant who gain possession of heaven 7indocti clum rapiunt740 ,saint ,gregory the ,great1 a pope of the sixth century1 declared that he would blush to have the holy word conform to the rules of grammar4 ,too many ,christians1 in a word1 confounded ignorance with holiness4 ,doubtless1 towards the seventh century1 the darkness still hung thick over the ,christian ,church4 ,barbarians invaded the ,episcopate1 and carried with them their rude manners4 ,doubtless1 also1 during the feudal period the priest often became soldier1 and remained ignorant4 ,it would1 however1 be unjust to bring a constructive charge against the ,church of the ,middle ,age1 and to represent it as systematically hostile to instruction4 ,directly to the contrary1 it is the clergy who1 in the midst of the general barbarism1 preserved some vestiges of the ancient culture4 ,the only schools of that period are the episcopal and claustral schools1 the first annexed to the bishops' palaces1 the second to the monasteries4 ,the religious orders voluntarily associated manual labor with mental labor4 ,as far back as #ecj1 ,saint ,benedict founded the convent of ,monte ,cassino1 and drew up statutes which made reading and intellectual labor a part of the daily life of the monks4 ,in #aagi1 the third ,lateran ,council promulgated the following decree3-- 8,the ,church of ,god1 being obliged like a good and tender mother to provide for the bodily and spiritual wants of the poor1 desirous to procure for poor children the opportunity for learning to read1 and for making advancement in study1 orders that each cathedral shall have a teacher charged with the gratuitous instruction of the clergy of that church1 and also of the indigent scholars1 and that he be assigned a benefice1 which1 sufficient for his subsistence1 may thus open the door of the school to the studious youth4 ,a tutor#fd shall be installed in the other churches and in the monasteries where formerly there were funds set apart for this purpose40 ,it is not1 then1 to the ,church that we must ascribe the general intellectual torpor of the ,middle ,age4 ,other causes explain that long slumber of the human mind4 ,the first is the social condition of the people4 ,security and leisure1 the indispensable conditions for study1 were completely lacking to people always at war1 overwhelmed in succession by the barbarians1 the ,normans1 the ,english1 and by the endless struggles of feudal times4 ,the gentlemen of the time aspired only to ride1 to hunt1 and to figure in tournaments and feats of arms4 ,physical education was above all else befitting men whose favorite vocation1 both by habit and necessity1 was war4 ,on the other hand1 the enslaved people did not suspect the utility of instruction4 ,in order to comprehend the need of study1 that great liberator1 one must already have tasted liberty4 ,in a society where the need of instruction had not yet been felt1 who could have taken the initiative in the work of instructing the people8 ,let us add that the ,middle ,age presented still other conditions unfavorable for the propagation of instruction1 in particular1 the lack of national languages1 those necessary vehicles of education4 ,the vernacular languages are the instruments of intellectual emancipation4 ,among a people where a dead language is supreme1 a language of the learned1 accessible only to the select few1 the lower classes necessarily remain buried in ignorance4 ,moreover1 ,latin books themselves were rare4 ,lupus of ,ferrires was obliged to write to ,rome1 and to address himself to the ,pope in person1 in order to procure for his use a work of ,cicero's4 ,without books1 without schools1 without any of the indispensable implements of intellectual labor1 what could be done for the mental life8 ,it took refuge in certain monasteries2 erudition flourished only in narrow circles1 with a privileged few1 and the rest of the nation remained buried in an obscure night4 #gh4 ,,the ,,three ,,renascences4--,it has been truly said that there were three ,renascences3 the first1 which owed its beginning to ,charlemagne1 and whose brilliancy did not last2 the second1 that of the twelfth century1 the issue of which was ,scholasticism2 and the third1 the great ,renaissance of the sixteenth century1 which still lasts1 and which the ,french ,revolution has completed4 #gi4 ,,charlemagne4--,charlemagne undoubtedly formed the purpose of diffusing instruction about him4 ,he ardently sought it for himself1 drilled himself in writing1 and learned ,latin and ,greek1 rhetoric and astronomy4 ,he would have communicated to all who were about him the same ardor for study4 8,ah6 that ,i had twelve clerics10 he exclaimed1 8as perfectly instructed as were ,jerome and ,augustine60 ,it was naturally upon the clergy that he counted1 to make of them the instruments of his plans2 but1 as one of his capitularies of #ghh shows1 there was need that the clergy themselves should be reminded of the need of instruction3 8,we have thought it useful that1 in the bishops' residences1 and in the monasteries1 care be taken not only to live according to the rules of our holy religion1 but1 in addition1 to teach the knowledge of letters to those who are capable of learning them by the aid of our ,lord4 ,although it avails more to practise the law than to know it1 it must be known before it can be practised4 ,several monasteries having sent us manuscripts1 we have observed that1 in the most of them1 the sentiments were good1 but the language bad4 ,we exhort you1 then1 not only not to neglect the study of letters1 but to devote yourselves to them with all your power40 ,on the other hand1 the nobles did not make any great effort to justify their social rank by the degree of their knowledge4 ,one day1 as ,charlemagne entered a school1 displeased with the indolence and the ignorance of the young barons who attended it1 he addressed them in these severe terms3 8,do you count upon your birth1 and do you feel a pride in it8 ,take notice that you shall have neither government nor bishoprics1 if you are not better instructed than others40 #hj4 ,,alcuin 7#gce-hjd74--;,charlemagne was seconded in his efforts by ,alcuin of ,england1 of whom it might be said1 that he was the first minister of public instruction in ,france4 ,it is he who founded the ,palatine school1 a sort of imperial and itinerant academy which followed the court on its travels4 ,it was a model school1 where ,alcuin had for his pupils the four sons and two daughters of ,charlemagne1 and ,charlemagne himself1 always eager to be instructed4 ,alcuin's method was not without originality1 but it is a great mistake to say that it resembles the method of ,socrates4 ,alcuin doubtless proceeds by interrogation2 but here it is the pupil who interrogates1 and the teacher who responds4 8,what is speech8 asks ,pepin1 the eldest son of ,charlemagne4 ,it is the interpreter of the soul1 replies ,alcuin4 ,what is life8 ,it is an enjoyment for some1 but for the wretched it is a sorrow1 a waiting for death4 ,what is sleep8 ,the image of death4 ,what is writing8 ,it is the guardian of history4 ,what is the body8 ,the tenement of the soul4 ,what is day8 ,a summons to labor40#fe ,all this is either commonplace or artificial4 ,the sententious replies of ,alcuin may be fine maxims1 fit for embellishing the memory2 but in this procedure of the mere scholar1 affected by the over-refinements of his time1 there is nothing which can call into activity the intelligence of the pupil4 ,nevertheless the name of ,alcuin marks an era in the history of education4 ,his was the first attempt to form an alliance between classical literature and ,christian inspiration1--to create a 8,christian ,athens10 according to the emphatic phrase of ,alcuin himself4 #ha4 ,,the ,,successors ,,of ,,charlemagne4--,it had been the ambition of ,charlemagne to reign over a civilized society1 rather than over a barbarous people4 ,convinced that the only basis of political unity is a unity of ideas and of morals1 he thought to find the basis of that moral unity in religion1 and religion itself he purposed to establish upon a more widely diffused system of instruction4 ,but these ideas were too advanced for the time1 and their execution too difficult for the circumstances then existing4 ,a new decadence followed the era of ,charlemagne4 ,the clergy did not respond to the hopes which the great emperor had placed on them4 ,as far back as #hag1 the ,council of ,aix-la-,chapelle decided that henceforth no more day-pupils should be received into the conventual schools1 for the reason that too large a number of pupils would make impossible the maintenance of the monastic discipline4 ,no one of ,charlemagne's successors seems to have taken up the thought of the great emperor2 no one of them was preoccupied with the problems of education4 ,it is upon despotic authority1 and not upon the intellectual progress of their subjects1 that those unintelligent rulers wished to found their power4 ,under ,louis the ,pious and ,charles the ,bald there were constructed more castles than schools4 ,the kings of ,france were far from imitating the ,anglo-,saxon king1 ,alfred the ,great 7#hdi-ija71 to whom tradition ascribes these two sayings3 8,the ,english ought always to be free1 as free as their own thoughts02 8,free-born sons should know how to read and write40 #hb4 ,,scholasticism4--,it was not till the twelfth century that the human mind was awakened4 ,that was the age of ,scholasticism1 the essential character of which was the study of reasoning1 and the practice of dialectics1 or syllogistic reasoning4 ,the syllogism1 which reaches necessary conclusions from given premises1 was the natural instrument of an age of faith1 when men wished simply to demonstrate immutable dogmas1 without ever making an innovation on established beliefs4 ,it has often been observed that the art of reasoning is the science of a people still in the early stage of its progress2 we might almost say of a barbarous people4 ,a subtile dialectic is in perfect keeping with manners still rude1 and with a limited state of knowledge4 ,it is only an intellectual machine4 ,it was not then a question of original thinking4 ,all that was necessary was simply to reason upon conceptions already acquired1 and the sacred depository of these was kept in charge by ,theology4 ,consequently1 there was no independent science4 ,philosophy1 according to the language of the times1 was but the humble servant of ,theology4 ,the dialectics of the doctors of the ,middle ,age was but a subtile commentary on the sacred books and on the doctrines of ,aristotle4#ff ,it seems1 says ,locke1 to see the inertness of the ,middle ,age1 that ,god was pleased to make of man a two-footed animal1 while leaving to ,aristotle the task of making him a thinking being4 ,from his point of view1 an able educator of the seventeenth century1 the ,abb ,fleury1 pronounces this severe judgment on the scholastic method3-- 8,this way of philosophizing on words and thoughts1 without examining the things themselves1 was certainly an easy way of getting along without a knowledge of facts1 which can be acquired only by reading0 7,fleury should have added and by observation72 8and it was an easy way of dazzling the ignorant laics by peculiar terms and vain subtilties40 ,but ,scholasticism had its hour of glory1 its erudite doctors1 its eloquent professors1 chief among whom was ,abelard4 #hc4 ,,abelard 7#ajgi-aadb74--;,a genuine professor of higher instruction1 ,abelard1 by the prestige of his eloquence1 gathered around him at ,paris thousands of students4 ,human speech1 the living words of the teacher1 had then an authority1 an importance1 which it has lost in part since books1 everywhere distributed1 have1 to a certain extent1 superseded oral instruction4 ,at a time when printing did not exist1 when manuscript copies were rare1 a teacher who combined knowledge with the gift of speech was a phenomenon of incomparable interest1 and students flocked from all parts of ,europe to take advantage of his lectures4 ,abelard is the most brilliant representative of the scholastic pedagogy1 with an original and personal tendency towards the emancipation of the mind4 8,it is ridiculous10 he said1 8to preach to others what we can neither make them understand1 nor understand ourselves40 ,with more boldness than ,saint ,anselm1 he applied dialectics to theology1 and attempted to reason out the grounds of his faith4 #hd4 ,,the ,,seven ,,liberal ,,arts4--,the seven liberal arts constituted what may be called the secondary instruction of the ,middle ,age1 such as was given in the claustral or conventual schools1 and later1 in the universities4 ,the liberal arts were distributed into two courses of study1 known as the trivium and the quadrivium4 ,the trivium comprised grammar 7,latin grammar1 of course71 dialectics1 or logic1 and rhetoric2 and the quadrivium1 music1 arithmetic1 geometry1 and astronomy4 ,it is important to note the fact that this programme contains only abstract and formal studies1--no real and concrete studies4 ,the sciences which teach us to know man and the world1 such as history1 ethics1 the physical and natural sciences1 were omitted and unknown1 save perhaps in a few convents of the ,benedictines4 ,nothing which can truly educate man1 and develop his faculties as a whole1 enlists the attention of the ,middle ,age4 ,from a course of study thus limited there might come skillful reasoners and men formidable in argument1 but never fully developed men4#fg #he4 ,,methods ,,and ,,discipline4--,the methods employed in the ecclesiastical schools of the ,middle ,age were in accord with the spirit of the times1 when men were not concerned about liberty and intellectual freedom2 and when they thought more about the teaching of dogmas than about the training of the intelligence4 ,the teachers recited or read their lectures1 and the pupils learned by heart4 ,the discipline was harsh4 ,corrupt human nature was distrusted4 ,in #acfc1 pupils were forbidden the use of benches and chairs1 on the pretext that such high seats were an encouragement to pride4 ,for securing obedience1 corporal chastisements were used and abused4 ,the rod is in fashion in the fifteenth as it was in the fourteenth century4 8,there is no other difference10 says an historian1 8except that the rods in the fifteenth century are twice as long as those in the fourteenth40#fh ,let us note1 however1 the protest of ,saint ,anselm1 a protest that pointed out the evil rather than cured it4 8,day and night10 said an abbot to ,saint ,anselm1 8we do not cease to chastise the children confided to our care1 and they grow worse and worse40 ,anselm replied1 8,indeed6 ,you do not cease to chastise them6 ,and when they are grown up1 what will they become8 ,idiotic and stupid4 ,a fine education that1 which makes brutes of men6 444 ,if you were to plant a tree in your garden1 and were to enclose it on all sides so that it could not extend its branches1 what would you find when1 at the end of several years1 you set it free from its bands8 ,a tree whose branches would be bent and crooked2 and would it not be your fault1 in having so unreasonably confined it80 #hf4 ,,the ,,universities4--,save claustral and cathedral schools1 to which must be added some parish schools1 the earliest example of our village schools1 the sole educational establishment of the ,middle ,age was what is called the ,university4 ,towards the thirteenth and fourteenth century we see multiplying in the great cities of ,europe those centres of study1 those collections of students which recall from afar the schools of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,of such establishments were the university which opened at ,paris for the teaching of theology and philosophy 7#abjj72 the universities of ,naples 7#abbd71 of ,prague 7#acde71 of ,vienna 7#acfe71 of ,heidelberg 7#achf71 etc4#fi ,without being completely affranchised from sacerdotal control1 these universities were a first expansion of free science4 ,as far back as the ninth century1 the ,arabs had given an example to the rest of ,europe by founding at ,salamanca1 at ,cordova1 and in other cities of ,spain1 schools where all the sciences were cultivated4 #hg4 ,,gerson 7#acfc-adbi74--,with the gentle ,gerson1 the supposed author of the ,imitation1 it seems that the dreary dialectics disappear to let the heart speak and make way for feeling4 ,the ,chancellor of the ,university of ,paris is distinguished from the men of his time by his love for the people4 ,he wrote in the common tongue little elementary treatises for the use and within the comprehension of the plain people4 ,his ,latin work1 entitled ,de parvulis ad ,christum trahendis 78,little children whom we must lead to ,christ071 gives evidence of a large spirit of sweetness and goodness4 ,it abounds in subtile and delicate observations4 ,for example1 ,gerson demands of teachers patience and tenderness3 8,little children10 he says1 8are more easily managed by caresses than by fear40 ,for these frail creatures he dreads the contagion of example4 8,no living being is more in danger than the child of allowing himself to be corrupted by another child40 ,in his eyes1 the little child is a delicate plant that must be carefully protected against every evil influence1 and1 in particular1 against pernicious literature1 such as the ,roman de la ,rose4 ,gerson condemns corporal punishment1 and requires that teachers shall have for their pupils the affection of a father3-- 8,above all else1 let the teacher make an effort to be a father to his pupils4 ,let him never be angry with them4 ,let him always be simple in his instruction1 and relate to his pupils that which is wholesome and agreeable40 ,tender-hearted and exalted spirit1 ,gerson is a precursor of ,fenelon4#gj #hh4 ,,vittorino ,,da ,,feltre 7#acgi-addf74--;,it is a pleasure to place beside ,gerson one of his ,italian contemporaries1 the celebrated ,vittorino da ,feltre1 a professor in the ,university of ,padua4 ,it was as preceptor to the sons of the ,prince of ,gonzagas1 and as founder of an educational establishment at ,venice1 that ,vittorino found occasion to show his aptitude for educational work4 ,with him1 education again became what it was in ,greece1--the harmonious development of mind and body4 ,gymnastic exercises1 such as swimming1 riding1 fencing1 restored to honor2 attention to the exterior qualities of fine bearing2 an interesting and agreeable method of instruction2 a constant effort to discover the character and aptitudes of children2 a conscientious preparation for each lesson2 assiduous watchfulness over the work of pupils2 such are the principal features of the pedagogy of ,vittorino da ,feltre1 a system of teaching evidently in advance of his time1 and one which deserves a longer study4 #hi4 ,,other ,,teachers ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,age4--,were we writing a work of erudition1 there would be other thinkers to point out in the last years of the ,middle ,age1 in that uncertain and1 so to speak1 twilight period which serves as a transition from the night of the ,middle ,age to the full day of the ,renaissance4 ,among others1 let us notice the ,chevalier de la ,tour-,landry and neas ,sylvius ,piccolomini4 ,the ,chevalier de la ,tour-,landry1 in the work which he wrote for the education of his daughters 7#acgb71 scarcely rises above the spirit of his time4 ,woman1 as he thinks1 is made to pray and to go to church4 ,the model which he sets before his daughters is a countess1 who 8each day wished to hear three masses40 ,he recommends fasting three times a week in order 8the better to subdue the flesh10 and to prevent it 8from diverting itself too much40 ,there is neither responsibility nor proper dignity for the wife1 who owes obedience to her husband1 her lord1 and 8should do his will1 whether wrong or right2 if wrong1 she is absolved from blame1 as the blame falls on her lord40 neas ,sylvius1 the future ,pope ,pius ,,ii41 in his tract on ,the ,education of ,children 7#adea71 is already a man of the ,renaissance1 since he recommends with enthusiasm the reading and study of most of the classical authors4 ,however1 he traces a programme of studies relatively liberal4 ,by the side of the humanities he places the sciences of geometry and arithmetic1 8which are necessary10 he says1 8for training the mind and assuring rapidity of conceptions02 and also history and geography4 ,he had himself composed historical narratives accompanied by maps4 ,the distrusts of an overstrained devotion were no longer felt by a teacher who wrote1 8,there is nothing in the world more precious or more beautiful than an enlightened intelligence40 #ij4 ,,recapitulation4--,it is thus that the ,middle ,age in drawing to a close came nearer and nearer1 in the way of continuous progress1 to the decisive emancipation which the ,renaissance and the ,reformation were soon to perpetuate4 ,but the ,middle ,age1 in itself1 whatever effort may be put forth at this day to rehabilitate it1 and to discover in it the golden age of modern societies1 remains an ill-starred epoch4 ,a few virtues1 negative for the most part1 virtues of obedience and consecration1 cannot atone for the real faults of those rude and barbarous centuries4 ,a higher education reserved to ecclesiastics and men of noble rank2 an instruction which consisted in verbal legerdemain1 which developed only the mechanism of reasoning1 and made of the intelligence a prisoner of the formal syllogism2 agreeably to the barbarism of primitive times1 a fantastic pedantry which lost itself in superficial discussions and in verbal distinctions2 popular education almost null1 and restricted to the teaching of the catechism in ,latin2 finally1 a ,church1 absolute and sovereign1 which determined for all1 great and small1 the limits of thought1 of belief1 and of action2 such was1 from our own point of view1 the condition of the ,middle ,age4 ,it was time for the coming of the ,renaissance to affranchise the human mind1 to excite and to reveal to itself the unconscious need of instruction1 and by the fruitful alliance of the ,christian spirit and profane letters1 to prepare for the coming of modern education4 #ia4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,the fundamental characteristic of ,middle ,age education was the domination of religious conceptions4 ,the training was for the life to come1 rather than for this life2 it was almost exclusively religious and moral2 was based on authority2 and included the whole human race4 #b4 ,this alliance of church and school1 while giving an exclusive aim to education1 also gave it a spirit of intense seriousness and earnestness4 ,the survivals of this historical alliance are church and parish schools1 and a disposition of the modern ,church to dispute the right of the ,state to educate4 #c4 ,the supreme importance attached to the ,scriptures made education literary2 made instruction dogmatic and arbitrary2 exalted words over things2 inculcated a taste for abstract and formal reasoning2 made learning a process of memorizing2 and stifled the spirit of free inquiry4 #d4 ,the inclusion of the whole world in one ,christian ,commonwealth1 led to the intellectual enfranchisement of woman and to the rise of primary education proper4 #e4 ,the general tendency was towards harshness in discipline1 coarseness in habits and manners1 and a contempt for the amenities of life4 #f4 ,scholasticism erred by exaggeration2 but its general effect was to develop the power of deductive reasoning1 to teach the use of language as the instrument of thought1 and to make apparent the need of nice discriminations in the use of words4 #g4 ,the great intellectual lesson taught is the extreme difficulty of attaining compass1 symmetry1 and moderation4 ,,footnotes3 #fj ,fustel de ,coulanges1 ,la ,cit antique1 p4 #dgf4 #fa ,see the ,homily of ,saint ,basil ,on the ,utility which the young can derive from the reading of profane authors4 #fb ,letter to ,lta on the education of her daughter ,paula 7#djc74 ,letter to ,gaudentius on the education of the little ,pacatula4 ,the letter to ,gaudentius is far inferior to the other by reason of the perpetual digressions into which the author permits himself to be drawn4 #fc ,for writing1 ,saint ,jerome1 like ,quintilian1 recommends that children first practise on tablets of wood on which letters have been engraved4 #fd coltre4 ,the history of this word1 as given by ,littr1 is instructive4 8,there was no cathedral church 7sixteenth century7 in which a sum was not appropriated for the salary of one who taught the ordinary subjects1 and another for one who had leisure for teaching ,theology4 ,the first was called escolastre 7coltre71 the second theologal40 ,pasquier4 7,p47 #fe ,for other examples1 see the ,life of ,alcuin1 by ,lorenz2 and for ,middle ,age education in general1 consult ,christian ,schools and ,scholars1 by ,augusta ,theodosia ,drane4 7,p47 #ff ,the following quotation illustrates this servile dependence on authority3 8,at the time when the discovery of spots on the sun first began to circulate1 a student called the attention of his old professor to the rumor1 and received the following reply3 #8,there can be no spots on the sun1 for ,i have read ,aristotle twice from beginning to end1 and he says the sun is incorruptible4 ,clean your lenses1 and if the spots are not in the telescope1 they must be in your eyes6'0 ,naville1 ,la ,logique de l',hypothse4 7,p47 #fg ,this is no exception to the rule that the education of an age is the exponent of its real or supposed needs4 7,p47 #fh ,monteil1 ,histoire des ,franais des divers tats4 #fi ,cambridge 7#aaji71 ,oxford 7#aadj74 #gj ,in the ,trait de la visite des diocses1 in #adjj1 he directed the bishops to inquire whether each parish had a school1 and1 in case there were none1 to establish one4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,and ,,the ,,theories ,,of ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4 ,,general ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century2 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,education2 ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century2 ,,erasmus 7#adfg-aecf72 ,,education ,,of ,,erasmus2 ,,the ,,jeromites2 ,,pedagogical ,,works ,,of ,,erasmus2 ,,juvenile ,,etiquette2 ,,early ,,education2 ,,the ,,instruction ,,of ,,women2 ,,rabelais 7#adhc-aeec72 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,education2 ,,gargantua ,,and ,,eudemon2 ,,the ,,new ,,education2 ,,physical ,,education2 ,,intellectual ,,education2 ,,the ,,physical ,,and ,,natural ,,sciences2 ,,object ,,lessons2 ,,attractive ,,methods2 ,,religious ,,education2 ,,moral ,,education2 ,,montaigne 7#aecc-aeib7 ,,and ,,rabelais2 ,,the ,,personal ,,education ,,of ,,montaigne2 ,,education ,,should ,,be ,,general2 ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,instruction2 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,judgment2 ,,educational ,,methods2 ,,studies ,,recommended2 ,,montaigne',s ,,errors2 ,,incompleteness ,,of ,,his ,,views ,,on ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #ib4 ,,general ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4--,modern education begins with the ,renaissance4 ,the educational methods that we then begin to discern will doubtless not be developed and perfected till a later period2 the new doctrines will pass into practice only gradually1 and with the general progress of the times4 ,but from the sixteenth century education is in possession of its essential principles4 ,the education of the ,middle ,age1 over-rigid and repressive1 which condemned the body to a rgime too severe1 and the mind to a discipline too narrow1 is to be succeeded1 at least in theory1 by an education broader and more liberal2 which will give due attention to hygiene and physical exercises2 which will enfranchise the intelligence1 hitherto the prisoner of the syllogism2 which will call into play the moral forces1 instead of repressing them2 which will substitute real studies for the verbal subtilties of dialectics2 which will give the preference to things over words2 which1 finally1 instead of developing but a single faculty1 the reason1 and instead of reducing man to a sort of dialectic automaton1 will seek to develop the whole man1 mind and body1 taste and knowledge1 heart and will4 #ic4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,renaissance ,,in ,,education4--,the men of the sixteenth century having renewed with classical antiquity an intercourse that had been too long interrupted1 it was natural that they should propose to the young the study of the ,greeks and the ,romans4 ,what is called secondary instruction really dates from the sixteenth century4 ,the crude works of the ,middle ,age are succeeded by the elegant compositions of ,athens and ,rome1 henceforth made accessible to all through the art of printing2 and1 with the reading of the ancient authors1 there reappear through the fruitful effect of imitation1 their qualities of correctness in thought1 of literary taste1 and of elegance in form4 ,in ,france1 as in ,italy1 the national tongues1 moulded1 and1 as it were1 consecrated by writers of genius1 become the instruments of an intellectual propaganda4 ,artistic taste1 revived by the rich products of a race of incomparable artists1 gives an extension to the horizon of life1 and creates a new class of emotions4 ,finally1 the ,protestant ,reform develops individual thought and free inquiry1 and at the same time1 by its success1 it imposes still greater efforts on the ,catholic ,church4 ,this is not saying that everything is faultless in the educational efforts of the sixteenth century4 ,first1 as is natural for innovators1 the thought of the teachers of this period is marked by enthusiasm rather than by precision4 ,they are more zealous in pointing out the end to be attained1 than exact in determining the means to be employed4 ,besides1 some of them are content to emancipate the mind1 but forget to give it proper direction4 ,finally1 others make a wrong use of the ancients2 they are too much preoccupied with the form and the purity of language2 they fall into ,ciceromania1 and it is not their fault if a new superstition1 that of rhetoric1 does not succeed the old superstition1 that of the syllogism4 #id4 ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century4--,in the history of education in the sixteenth century1 we must1 moreover1 carefully distinguish the theory from the practice4 ,the theory of education is already boldly put forward1 and is in advance of its age2 while the practice is still dragging itself painfully along on the beaten road1 notwithstanding some successful attempts at improvement4 ,the theory we must look for in the works of ,erasmus1 ,rabelais1 and ,montaigne1 of whom it may be said1 that before pretending to surpass them1 even at this day1 we should rather attempt to overtake them1 and to equal them in the most of their pedagogical precepts4 ,the practice is1 first1 the development of the study of the humanities1 particularly in the early colleges of the ,jesuits1 and1 before the ,jesuits1 in certain ,protestant colleges1 particularly in the college at ,strasburg1 so brilliantly administered by the celebrated ,sturm 7#aejg-aehi74 ,then it is the revival of higher instruction1 denoted particularly by the foundation of the ,college of ,france 7#aecj71 and by the brilliant lectures of ,ramus4 ,finally1 it is the progress1 we might almost say the birth1 of primary instruction1 through the efforts of the ,protestant reformers1 and especially of ,luther4 ,nevertheless1 the educational thought of the sixteenth century is in advance of educational practice2 theories greatly anticipate applications1 and constitute almost all that is deserving of special note4 #ie4 ,,erasmus 7#adfg-aecf74--;,by his numerous writings1 translations1 grammars1 dictionaries1 and original works1 ,erasmus diffused about him his own passionate fondness for classical literature1 and communicated this taste to his contemporaries4 ,without having a direct influence on education1 since he scarcely taught himself1 he encouraged the study of the ancients by his example1 and by his active propagandism4 ,the scholar who said1 8,when ,i have money1 ,i will first buy ,greek books and then clothes10 deserves to be placed in the first rank among the creators of secondary instruction4 #if4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,erasmus3 ,,the ,,jeromites4--,erasmus was educated by the monks1 as ,voltaire was by the ,jesuits1 a circumstance that has cost these liberal thinkers none of their independent disposition1 and none of their satirical spirit4 ,at the age of twelve1 ,erasmus entered the college of ,deventer1 in ,holland4 ,this college was conducted by the ,jeromites1 or ,brethren of the ,common ,life4 ,founded in #acdj by ,gerard ,groot1 the association of the ,jeromites undertook1 among other occupations1 the instruction of children4 ,very mystical1 and very ascetic at first1 the disciples of ,gerard ,groot restricted themselves to teaching the ,bible1 to reading1 and writing4 ,they proscribed1 as useless to piety1 letters and the sciences4 ,but in the fifteenth century1 under the influence of ,john of ,wessel and ,rudolph ,agricola1 the ,jeromites became transformed2 they were the precursors of the ,renaissance1 and the promoters of the alliance between profane letters and ,christianity4 8,we may read ,ovid once10 said ,john of ,wessel1 8but we ought to read ,virgil1 ,horace1 and ,terence1 with more attention40 ,horace and ,terence were precisely the favorite authors of ,erasmus1 who learned them by heart at ,deventer4 ,agricola1 of whom ,erasmus speaks only with enthusiasm1 was also the zealous propagator of the great works of antiquity1 and1 at the same time1 the severe critic of the state of educational practice of the time when the school was too much like a prison4 8,if there is anything which has a contradictory name10 he said1 8it is the school4 ,the ,greeks called it 1 which means leisure1 recreation2 and the ,latins1 ludus1 that is1 play4 ,but there is nothing farther removed from recreation and play4 ,aristophanes called it 1 that is1 place of care1 of torment1 and this is surely the designation which best befits it40 ,erasmus then had for his first teachers enlightened men1 who1 notwithstanding their monastic condition1 both knew and loved antiquity4 ,but1 as a matter of fact1 ,erasmus was his own teacher4 ,by personal effort he put himself at the school of the ancients4 ,he was all his life a student4 ,now he was a foundation scholar at the college of ,montaigu1 in ,paris1 and now preceptor to gentlemen of wealth4 ,he was always in pursuit of learning1 going over the whole of ,europe1 that he might find in each cultivated city new opportunities for self-instruction4 #ig4 ,,pedagogical ,,works ,,of ,,erasmus4--,most of the works written by ,erasmus relate to instruction4 ,some of them are fairly to be classed as text-books1 elementary treatises on practical education1 as1 for example1 his books ,on the ,manner of writing ,letters1 ,upon ,rules of ,etiquette for the ,young1 etc4 ,we may also notice his ,adages1 a vast repertory of proverbs and maxims borrowed from antiquity2 his ,colloquies1 a collection of dialogues for the use of the young1 though the author here treats of many things which a pupil should never hear spoken of4 ,another category should include works of a more theoretical character1 in which ,erasmus sets forth his ideas on education4 ,in the essay ,on the ,order of ,study 7de ,ratione ,studii71 he seeks out the rules for instruction in literature1 for the study of grammar1 for the cultivation of the memory1 and for the explication of the ,greek and ,latin authors4 ,another treatise1 entitled ,of the ,first ,liberal ,education of ,children 7,de pueris statim ac liberaliter instituendis71 is still more important1 and covers the whole field of education4 ,erasmus here studies the character of the child1 the question of knowing whether the first years of child-life can be turned to good account1 and the measures that are to be taken with early life4 ,he also recommends methods that are attractive1 and heartily condemns the barbarous discipline which reigned in the schools of his time4 #ih4 ,,juvenile ,,etiquette4--,erasmus is one of the first educators who comprehended the importance of politeness4 ,in an age still uncouth1 where the manners of even the cultivated classes tolerated usages that the most ignorant rustic of to-day would scorn1 it was good to call the attention to outward appearances and the duties of politeness4 ,erasmus knew perfectly well that politeness has a moral side1 that it is not a matter of pure convention1 but that it proceeds from the inner disposition of a well-ordered soul4 ,so he assigns it an important place in education3 8,the duty of instructing the young10 he says1 8includes several elements1 the first and also the chief of which is1 that the tender mind of the child should be instructed in piety2 the second1 that he love and learn the liberal arts2 the third1 that he be taught tact in the conduct of social life2 and the fourth1 that from his earliest age he accustom himself to good behavior1 based on moral principles40 ,we need not be astonished1 however1 to find that the civility of ,erasmus is still imperfect1 now too free1 now too exacting1 and always ingenuous4 8,it is a religious duty10 he says1 8to salute him who sneezes40 8,morally speaking1 it is not a proper thing to throw the head back while drinking1 after the manner of storks1 in order to drain the last drop from the glass40 8,if one let bread fall on the ground1 he should kiss it after having picked it up40 ,on the other hand1 ,erasmus seems to allow that the nose may be wiped with the fingers1 but he forbids the use of the cap or the sleeve for this purpose4 ,he requires that the face shall be bathed with pure water in the morning2 8but10 he adds1 8to repeat this afterwards is nonsense40 #ii4 ,,early ,,education4--,like ,quintilian1 by whom he is often inspired1 ,erasmus does not scorn to enter the primary school1 and to shape the first exercises for intellectual culture4 ,upon many points1 the thought of the sixteenth century scholar is but an echo of the ,institutes of ,oratory1 or of the educational essays of ,plutarch4 ,some of his maxims deserve to be reproduced3 8,we learn with great willingness from those whom we love20 8,parents themselves cannot properly bring up their children if they make themselves only to be feared20 8,there are children who would be killed sooner than made better by blows3 by mildness and kind admonitions1 one may make of them whatever he will20 8,children will learn to speak their native tongue without any weariness1 by usage and practice20 8,drill in reading and writing is a little bit tiresome1 and the teacher will ingeniously palliate the tedium by the artifice of an attractive method20 8,the ancients moulded toothsome dainties into the forms of the letters1 and thus1 as it were1 made children swallow the alphabet20 8,in the matter of grammatical rules1 instruction should at the first be limited to the most simple20 8,as the body in infant years is nourished by little portions distributed at intervals1 so should the mind of the child be nurtured by items of knowledge adapted to its weakness1 and distributed little by little40 ,from out these quotations there appears a method of instruction that is kindly1 lovable1 and full of tenderness for the young4 ,erasmus claims for them the nourishing care and caresses of the mother1 the familiarity and goodness of the father1 cleanliness1 and even elegance in the school1 and finally1 the mildness and indulgence of the teacher4 #ajj4 ,,the ,,instruction ,,of ,,women4--,the scholars of the ,renaissance did not exclude women from all participation in the literary treasures that a recovered antiquity had disclosed to themselves4 ,erasmus admits them to an equal share4 ,in the ,colloquy of the ,abb and the ,educated ,woman1 ,magdala claims for herself the right to learn ,latin1 8so that she may hold converse each day with so many authors who are so eloquent1 so instructive1 so wise1 and such good counsellors40 ,in the book called ,christian ,marriage1 ,erasmus banters young ladies who learn only to make a bow1 to hold the hands crossed1 to bite their lips when they laugh1 to eat and drink as little as possible at table1 after having taken ample portions in private4 ,more ambitious for the wife1 ,erasmus recommends her to pursue the studies which will assist her in educating her own children1 and in taking part in the intellectual life of her husband4 ,vives1 a contemporary of ,erasmus 7#adib-aedj71 a ,spanish teacher1 expressed analogous ideas in his books on the education of women1 in which he recommends young women to read ,plato and ,seneca4 ,to sum up1 the pedagogy of ,erasmus is not without value2 but with him1 education ran the risk of remaining exclusively ,greek and ,latin4 ,a humanist above everything else1 he granted but very small place to the sciences1 and to history1 which it sufficed to skim over1 as he said2 and1 what reveals his inmost nature1 he recommended the study of the physical sciences for this reason in particular1 that the writer will find in the knowledge of nature an abundant source of metaphors1 images1 and comparisons4 #aja4 ,,rabelais 7#adhc-aeec74--,wholly different is the spirit of ,rabelais1 who1 under a fanciful and original form1 has sketched a complete system of education4 ,some pages of marked gravity in the midst of the epic vagabondage of his burlesque work1 give him the right to appear in the first rank among those who have reformed the art of training and developing the human soul4#ga ,the pedagogy of ,rabelais is the first appearance of what may be called realism in instruction1 in distinction from the scholastic formalism4 ,the author of ,gargantua turns the mind of the young man towards objects truly worthy of occupying his attention4 ,he catches a glimpse of the future reserved to scientific education1 and to the study of nature4 ,he invites the mind1 not to the labored subtilties and complicated tricks which scholasticism had brought into fashion1 but to manly efforts1 and to a wide unfolding of human nature4 #ajb4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,education3 ,,gargantua ,,and ,,eudemon4--,in the manners of the sixteenth century1 the keen satire of ,rabelais found many opportunities for disporting itself2 and his book may be regarded as a collection of pamphlets4 ,but there is nothing that he has pursued with more sarcasms than the education of his day4 ,at the outset1 ,gargantua is educated according to the scholastic methods4 ,he works for twenty years with all his might1 and learns so perfectly the books that he studies that he can recite them by heart1 backwards and forwards1 8and yet his father discovered that all this profited him nothing2 and what is worse1 that it made him a madcap1 a ninny1 dreamy1 and infatuated40 ,to that unintelligent and artificial training which surcharges the memory1 which holds the pupil for long years over insipid books1 which robs the mind of all independent activity1 which dulls rather than sharpens the intelligence1--to all this ,rabelais opposes a natural education1 which appeals to experience and to facts1 which trains the young man1 not only for the discussions of the schools1 but for real life1 and for intercourse with the world1 and which1 finally1 enriches the intelligence and adorns the memory without stifling the native graces and the free activities of the spirit4 ,eudemon1 who1 in ,rabelais' romance1 represents the pupil trained by the new methods1 knows how to think with accuracy and speak with facility2 his bearing is without boldness1 but with confidence4 ,when introduced to ,gargantua1 he turns towards him1 8cap in hand1 with open countenance1 ruddy lips1 steady eyes1 and with modesty becoming a youth02 he salutes him elegantly and graciously4 ,to all the pleasant things which ,eudemon says to him1 ,gargantua finds nothing to say in reply3 8,his countenance appeared as though he had taken to crying immoderately2 he hid his face in his cap1 and not a single word could be drawn from him40 ,in these two pupils1 so different in manner1 ,rabelais has personified two contrasted methods of education3 that which1 by mechanical exercises of memory1 enfeebles and dulls the intelligence2 and that which1 with larger grants of liberty1 develops keen intelligences1 and frank and open characters4 #ajc4 ,,the ,,new ,,education4--,let us now notice with some detail how ,rabelais conceives this new education4#gb ,after having thrown into sharp relief the faults contracted by ,gargantua in the school of his first teachers1 he entrusts him to a preceptor1 ,ponocrates1 who is charged with correcting his faults1 and with re-moulding him2 he is to employ his own principles in the government of his pupil4 ,ponocrates proceeds slowly at first2 he considers that 8nature does not endure sudden changes without great violence40 ,he studies and observes his pupil2 he wishes to judge of his natural disposition4 ,then he sets himself to work2 he undertakes a general recasting of the character and spirit of ,gargantua1 while directing1 at the same time1 his physical1 intellectual1 and moral education4 #ajd4 ,,physical ,,education4--,hygiene and gymnastics1 cleanliness which protects the body1 and exercise which strengthens it1--these two essential parts of physical education receive equal attention from ,rabelais4 ,erasmus thought it was nonsense 78ne rime rien07 to wash more than once a day4 ,gargantua1 on the contrary1 after eating1 bathes his hands and his eyes in fresh water4 ,rabelais does not forget that he has been a physician2 he omits no detail relative to the care of the body1 even the most repugnant4 ,he is far from believing1 with the mystics of the ,middle ,age1 that it is permissible to lodge knowledge in a sordid body1 and that a foul or neglected exterior is not unbefitting virtuous souls4 ,the first preceptors of ,gargantua said that it sufficed to comb one's hair 8with the four fingers and the thumb2 and that whoever combed1 washed1 and cleansed himself otherwise1 was losing his time in this world40 ,with ,ponocrates1 ,gargantua reforms his habits1 and tries to resemble ,eudemon1 8whose hair was so neatly combed1 who was so well dressed1 of such fine appearance1 and was so modest in his bearing1 that he much more resembled a little angel than a man40 ,rabelais attaches equal importance to gymnastics1 to walking1 and to active life in the open air4 ,he does not allow ,gargantua to grow pale over his books1 and to protract his study into the night4 ,after the morning's lessons1 he takes him out to play4 ,tennis and ball follow the application to books3 8,he exercises his body just as vigorously as he had before exercised his mind40 ,and so1 after the study of the afternoon till the supper hour1 ,gargantua devotes his time to physical exercises4 ,riding1 wrestling1 swimming1 every species of physical recreation1 gymnastics under all its forms1--there is nothing which ,gargantua does not do to give agility to his limbs and to strengthen his muscles4 ,here1 as in other places1 ,rabelais stretches a point1 and purposely resorts to exaggeration in order to make his thought better comprehended4 ,it would require days of several times twenty-four hours1 in order that a real man could find the time to do all that the author of ,gargantua requires of his giant4 ,in contrast with the long asceticism of the ,middle ,age1 he proposes a real revelry of gymnastics for the colossal body of his hero4 ,we will not forget that here1 as in all the other parts of ,rabelais' work1 fiction is ever mingled with fact4 ,rabelais wrote for giants1 and it is natural that he should demand gigantesque efforts of them4 ,in order to comprehend the exact thought of the author1 it is necessary to reduce his fantastic exaggerations to human proportions4 #aje4 ,,intellectual ,,education4--,for the mind1 as for the body1 ,rabelais requires prodigies of activity4 ,gargantua rises at four in the morning1 and the greater part of the long day is filled with study4 ,for the indolent contemplations of the ,middle ,age1 ,rabelais substitutes an incessant effort and an intense activity of the mind4 ,gargantua first studies the ancient languages1 and the first place is given to ,greek1 which ,rabelais rescues from the long discredit into which it had fallen in the ,middle ,age1 as is proved by the vulgar adage1 8,grcum est1 non legitur40 8,now1 all disciplines are restored1 and the languages reinstated1--,greek 7without which it is a shame for a person to call himself learned71 ,hebrew1 ,chaldean1 ,latin4 ,there are very elegant and correct editions in use1 which have been invented in my age by divine inspiration1 as1 on the other hand1 artillery was invented by diabolic suggestion4 ,the whole world is full of wise men1 of learned teachers1 and of very large libraries1 and it is my opinion that neither in the time of ,plato nor in that of ,cicero1 nor in that of ,papinian1 were there such opportunities for study as we see to-day40 ,like all his contemporaries1 ,rabelais is an enthusiast in classical learning2 but he is distinguished from them by a very decided taste for the sciences1 and in particular for the natural sciences4 #ajf4 ,,the ,,physical ,,and ,,natural ,,sciences4--,the ,middle ,age had completely neglected the study of nature4 ,the art of observing was ignored by those subtile dialecticians1 who would know nothing of the physical world except through the theories of ,aristotle or the dogmas of the sacred books2 who attached no value to the study of the material universe1 the transient and despised abode of immortal souls2 and who1 moreover1 flattered themselves that they could discover at the end of their syllogisms all that was necessary to know about it4 ,rabelais is certainly the first1 in point of time1 of that grand school of educators who place the sciences in the first rank among the studies worthy of human thought4 ,the scholar of the ,middle ,age knew nothing of the world4 ,gargantua requires of his son that he shall know it under all its aspects3 8,as to the knowledge of the facts of nature10 he writes to ,pantagruel1 8,i would have you devote yourself to them with great care1 so that there shall be neither sea1 river1 nor fountain1 whose fish you do not know4 ,all the birds of the air1 all the trees1 shrubs1 and fruits of the forests1 all the grasses of the earth1 all the metals concealed in the depths of the abysses1 the precious stones of the entire ,east and ,south1--none of these should be unknown to you4 ,by frequent dissections1 acquire a knowledge of the other world1 which is man4 ,in a word1 ,i point out a new world of knowledge40 ,nothing is omitted1 it is observed1 from what constitutes the science of the universe or the knowledge of man4 ,it is further to be noticed1 that ,rabelais wishes his pupil not only to know1 but to love and experience nature4 ,he recommends his pupils to go and read the ,georgics of ,virgil in the midst of meadows and woods4 ,the precursor of ,rousseau on this point as upon some others1 he thinks there is a gain in spiritual health by refreshing the imagination and giving repose to the spirit1 through the contemplation of the beauties of nature4 ,ponocrates1 in order to afford ,gargantua distraction from his extreme attention to study1 recommended once each month some very clear and serene day1 on which they set out at an early hour from the city1 and went to ,chantilly1 or ,boulogne1 or ,montrouge1 or ,pont ,charenton1 or ,vannes1 or ,saint ,cloud4 ,and there they passed the whole day in playing1 singing1 dancing1 frolicking in some fine meadow1 hunting for sparrows1 collecting pebbles1 fishing for frogs and crabs4#gc #ajg4 ,,object ,,lessons4--,in the scheme of studies planned by ,rabelais1 the mind of the pupil is always on the alert1 even at table4 ,there1 instruction takes place while talking4 ,the conversation bears upon the food1 upon the objects which attract the attention of ,gargantua1 upon the nature and properties of water1 wine1 bread1 and salt4 ,every sensible object becomes material for questions and explanations4 ,gargantua often takes walks across fields1 and he studies botany in the open country1 8passing through meadows or other grassy places1 observing trees and plants1 comparing them with ancient books where they are described1 444 and taking handfuls of them home40 ,there are but few didactic lessons2 intuitive instruction1 given in the presence of the objects themselves1 such is the method of ,rabelais4 ,it is in the same spirit that he sends his pupil to visit the stores of the silversmiths1 the founderies1 the alchemists' laboratories1 and shops of all kinds1--real scientific excursions1 such as are in vogue to-day4 ,rabelais would form a complete man1 skilled in art and industry1 and also capable1 like the mile of ,rousseau1 of devoting himself to manual labor4 ,when the weather is rainy1 and walking impracticable1 ,gargantua employs his time in splitting and sawing wood1 and in threshing grain in the barn4 #ajh4 ,,attractive ,,methods4--,by a reaction against the irksome routine of the ,middle ,age1 ,rabelais would have his pupil study while playing1 and even learn mathematics 8through recreation and amusement40 ,it is in handling playing-cards that ,gargantua is taught thousands of 8new inventions which relate to the science of numbers40 ,the same course is followed in geometry and astronomy4 ,the accomplishments are not neglected1 especially fencing4 ,gargantua is an enormous man1 who is to be developed in all directions4 ,the fine arts1 music1 painting1 and sculpture1 are not strangers to him4 ,the hero of ,rabelais represents1 not so much an individual man1 as a collective being who personifies the whole of society1 with all the variety of its new aspirations1 and with all the intensity of its multiplied needs4 ,while the ,middle ,age1 through a narrow spirit1 left in inaction certain natural tendencies1 ,rabelais calls them all into life1 without choice1 it is true1 and without discrimination1 with the whole ardor of an emancipated imagination4 #aji4 ,,religious ,,education4--,in respect of religion as of everything else1 ,rabelais is the adversary of an education wholly exterior and of pure form4 ,he ridicules his ,gargantua1 who1 before his intellectual conversion1 when he was still at the school of 8his preceptors1 the sophists10 goes to church1 after a hearty dinner1 to hear twenty-six or thirty masses4 ,what he substitutes for this exterior devotion1 for this abuse of superficial practices1 is a real feeling of piety1 and the direct reading of the sacred texts3 8,it is while ,gargantua was being dressed that there was read to him a page of ,divine ,scripture40#gd ,still more1 it is the intimate and personal adoration 8of the great psalmodist of the universe10 excited by the study of the works of ,god4 ,gargantua and his master1 ,ponocrates1 have scarcely risen when they observe the state of the heavens1 and admire the celestial vault4 ,in the evening they devote themselves to the same contemplation4 ,after his meals1 as before going to sleep1 ,gargantua offers prayers to ,god1 to adore ,him1 to confirm his faith1 to glorify ,him for ,his boundless goodness1 to thank ,him for all the time past1 and to recommend himself to ,him for the time to come4 ,the religious feeling of ,rabelais proceeds at the same time1 both from the sentiment which provoked the ,protestant ,reformation1 of which he came near being an adherent1 and from tendencies still more modern1--those1 for example1 which animate the deistic philosophy of ,rousseau4 #aaj4 ,,moral ,,education4--,those who know ,rabelais only by reputation1 or through some of his innumerable drolleries1 will perhaps be astonished that the jovial author can be counted a teacher of morals4 ,it is impossible1 however1 to misunderstand the sincere and lofty inspiration of such passages as this3 8,because1 according to the wise ,solomon1 wisdom does not enter into a malevolent soul1 and knowledge without conscience is but the ruin of the soul2 it becomes you to serve1 to love1 and to fear ,god1 and to place on ,him all your thoughts1 all your hopes4444 ,be suspicious of the errors of the world4 ,apply not your heart to vanity1 for this life is transitory2 but the word of ,god endures forever4 ,be useful to all your neighbors1 and love them as yourself4 ,revere your teachers1 flee the company of men whom you would not resemble2 and the grace which ,god has given you receive not in vain4 ,and when you think you have all the knowledge that can be acquired by this means1 return to me1 so that ,i may see you1 and give you my benediction before ,i die40#ge #aaa4 ,,montaigne 7#aecc-aeib7 ,,and ,,rabelais4--,between ,erasmus1 the learned humanist1 exclusively devoted to belles-lettres1 and ,rabelais1 the bold innovator1 who extends as far as possible the limits of the intelligence1 and who causes the entire encyclopdia of human knowledge to enter the brain of his pupil at the risk of splitting it open1 ,montaigne occupies an intermediate place1 with his circumspect and conservative tendencies1 with his discreet and moderate pedagogy1 the enemy of all excesses4 ,it seemed that ,rabelais would develop all the faculties equally1 and place all studies1 letters1 and sciences upon the same footing4 ,montaigne demands a choice4 ,between the different faculties he attempts particularly to train the judgment2 among the different knowledges1 he recommends by preference those which form sound and sensible minds4 ,rabelais overdrives mind and body4 ,he dreams of an extravagant course of instruction where every science shall be studied exhaustively4#gf ,montaigne simply demands that 8one taste the upper crust of the sciences02 that one skim over them without going into them deeply1 8in ,french fashion40 ,in his view1 a well-made head is worth more than a head well filled4 ,it is not so much to accumulate1 to amass1 knowledge1 as to assimilate as much of it as a prudent intelligence can digest without fatigue4 ,in a word1 while ,rabelais sits down1 so to speak1 at the banquet of knowledge with an avidity which recalls the gluttony of the ,pantagruelian repasts1 ,montaigne is a delicate connoisseur1 who would only satisfy with discretion a regulated appetite4 #aab4 ,,the ,,personal ,,education ,,of ,,montaigne4--,one often becomes teacher through recollection of his personal education4 ,this is what happened to ,montaigne4 ,his pedagogy is at once an imitation of the methods which a father full of solicitude had himself applied to him1 and a protest against the defects and the vices of the college of ,guienne1 which he entered at the age of six years4 ,the home education of ,montaigne affords the interesting spectacle of a child who develops freely4 ,my spirit1 he himself says1 was trained with all gentleness and freedom1 without severity or constraint4 ,his father1 skilful in his tender care1 had him awakened each morning at the sound of musical instruments1 so as to spare him those brusque alarms that are bad preparations for toil4 ,in a word1 he applied to him that tempered discipline1 at once indulgent and firm1 equally removed from complacency and harshness1 which ,montaigne has christened with the name of severe mildness4 ,another characteristic of ,montaigne's education is1 that he learned ,latin as one learns his native tongue4 ,his father had surrounded him with domestics and teachers who conversed with him only in ,latin4 ,the result of this was1 that at the age of six he was so proficient in the language of ,cicero1 that the best ,latinists of the time feared to address him 7craignissent l'accoster74 ,on the other hand1 he knew no more of ,french than he did of ,arabic4#gg ,it is evident that ,montaigne's father had taken a false route1 but at least ,montaigne derived a just conception from this experience1 namely1 that the methods ordinarily pursued in the study of the dead languages are too slow and too mechanical2 that an abuse is made of rules1 and that sufficient attention is not given to practice3 8,no doubt but ,greek and ,latin are very great ornaments1 and of very great use1 but we buy them too dear40#gh ,at the college of ,guienne1 where he passed seven years1 ,montaigne learned to detest corporal chastisements and the hard discipline of the scholars of his day3 8 444 ,instead of tempting and alluring children to letters by apt and gentle ways1 our pedants do in truth present nothing before them but rods and ferules1 horror and cruelty4 ,away with this violence6 away with this compulsion6 than which1 ,i certainly believe1 nothing more dulls and degenerates a well-descended nature4444 ,the strict government of most of our colleges has evermore displeased me4444 ',tis the true house of correction of imprisoned youth4444 ,do but come in when they are about their lesson1 and you shall hear nothing but the outcries of boys under execution1 with the thundering noise of their ,pedagogues1 drunk with fury1 to make up the consort4 ,a pretty way this6 to tempt these tender and timorous souls to love their book1 with a furious countenance1 and a rod in hand4 ,a cursed and pernicious way of proceeding4444 ,how much more decent would it be to see their classes strewed with green leaves and fine flowers1 than with bloody stumps of birch and willows8 ,were it left to my ordering1 ,i should paint the school with the pictures of ,joy and ,gladness1 ,flora and the ,graces 444 that where their profit is1 they might have their pleasure too40#gi #aac4 ,,importance ,,of ,a ,,general ,,rather ,,than ,a ,,special ,,education4--,if ,montaigne1 in different chapters of his essays1#hj has given passing attention to pedagogical questions1 it is not only through a recollection of his own years of apprenticeship1 but also because of his judgment as a philosopher1 that 8the greatest and most important task of human understanding is in those matters which concern the nurture and instruction of children40 ,for him1 education is the art of forming men1 and not specialists4 ,this he explains in his original manner under the form of an anecdote3 8,going to ,orleans one day1 ,i met in that plain this side ,clery1 two pedants who were going towards ,bordeaux1 about fifty paces distant from one another4 ,still further back of them1 ,i saw a troop of horse1 and at their head a gentleman who was the late ,count de la ,rochefoucault4 ,one of my company inquired of the foremost of these dominies1 who that gentleman was who was following him4 ,he had not observed the train that was following after1 and thought that the question related to his companion2 and so he replied pleasantly1 #8,he is not a gentleman1 but a grammarian1 and ,i am a logician4' ,now1 as we are here concerned in the training1 not of a grammarian1 or of a logician1 but of a complete gentleman1 we will let those who will abuse their leisure2 but we have business of another nature40#ha ,it is true that ,montaigne says gentleman1 and not simply man2 but in reality his thought is the same as that of ,rousseau and of all those who require a general education of the human soul4 #aad4 ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,instruction4--,from what has now been said1 it is easy to comprehend that1 in the opinion of ,montaigne1 letters and other studies are but the means or instrument1 and not the aim and end of instruction4 ,the author of the ,essays does not yield to the literary craze1 which1 in the sixteenth century1 took certain scholars captive1 and made the ideal of education to consist of a knowledge of the ancient languages4 ,it is of little consequence to him that a pupil has learned to write in ,latin2 what he does require1 is that he become better and more prudent1 and have a sounder judgment4 8,if his soul be not put into better rhythm1 if the judgment be not better settled1 ,i would rather have him spend his time at tennis40#hb #aae4 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,judgment4--,montaigne has expressed his dominant thought on education in a hundred different ways4 ,he is preoccupied with the training of the judgment1 and on this point we might quote whole pages3 8 444 ,according to the fashion in which we are instructed1 it is not singular that neither scholars nor masters become more able1 although they become more wise4 ,in fact1 our parents devote their care and expense to furnishing our heads with knowledge2 but to judgment and virtue no additions are made4 ,say of a passer-by to people1 #8,o what a learned man6' and of another1 #8,o what a good man goes there6' and they will not fail to turn their eyes and attention towards the former4 ,there should be a third to cry1 #8,o the blockheads6' ,men are quick to inquire1 #8,does he know ,greek or ,latin8 ,does he write in verse or in prose8' ,but whether he has become better or more prudent1 which is the principal thing1 this receives not the least notice2 whereas we ought to inquire who is the better learned1 rather than who is the more learned80 8,we labor only at filling the memory1 and leave the understanding and the conscience void4 ,just as birds sometimes go in quest of grain1 and bring it in their bills without tasting it themselves1 to make of it mouthfuls for their young2 so our pedants go rummaging in books for knowledge1 only to hold it at their tongues' end1 and then distribute it to their pupils40#hc #aaf4 ,,studies ,,recommended4--,the practical and utilitarian mind of ,montaigne dictates to him his programme of studies4 ,with him it is not a question of plunging into the depths of the sciences2 disinterested studies are not his affair4 ,if ,rabelais proposed to develop the speculative faculties1 ,montaigne1 on the contrary1 is preoccupied with the practical faculties1 and he makes everything subordinate to morals4 ,for example1 he would have history learned1 not for the sake of knowing the facts1 but of appreciating them4 ,it is not so necessary to imprint in the memory of the child 8the date of the fall of ,carthage as the character of ,hannibal and ,scipio1 nor so much where ,marcellus died as why it was unworthy of his duty that he died there40#hd ,and so in philosophy1 it is not the general knowledge of man and nature that ,montaigne esteems and recommends2 but only those parts that have a direct bearing on morals and active life4 8,it is a pity that matters should be at such a pass as they are in our time1 that philosophy1 even with people of understanding1 should be looked upon as a vain and fanciful name1 a thing of no use and no value1 either for opinion or for action4 ,i think that it is the love of quibbling that has caused things to take this turn4444 ,philosophy is that which teaches us to live40#he #aag4 ,,educational ,,methods4--,an education purely bookish is not to ,montaigne's taste4 ,he counts less upon books than upon experience and mingling with men2 upon the observation of things1 and upon the natural suggestions of the mind3 8,for learning to judge well and speak well1 whatever presents itself to our eyes serves as a sufficient book4 ,the knavery of a page1 the blunder of a servant1 a table witticism1--all such things are so many new things to think about4 ,and for this purpose conversation with men is wonderfully helpful1 and so is a visit to foreign lands 444 to bring back the customs of those nations1 and their manners1 and to whet and sharpen our wits by rubbing them upon those of others40 8 444 ,the lesson will be given1 sometimes by conversation1 sometimes by book4444 ,let the child examine every man's talent1 a peasant1 a mason1 a passer-by4 ,put into his head an honest curiosity in everything4 ,let him observe whatever is curious in his surroundings1--a fine house1 a delicate fountain1 an eminent man1 the scene of an ancient battle1 the routes of ,csar1 or of ,charlemagne44440#he ,things should precede words4 ,on this point ,montaigne anticipates ,comenius1 ,rousseau1 and all modern educators4 8,let our pupil be provided with things2 words will follow only too fast40#hf 8,the world is given to babbling2 ,i hardly ever saw a man who did not rather prate too much1 than speak too little4 ,yet the half of our life goes in that way2 we are kept four or five years in learning words44440#hg 8,this is not saying that it is not a fine and good thing to speak well2 but not so good as it is made out to be4 ,i am vexed that our life is so much occupied with all this40 #aah4 ,,how ,,we ,,should ,,read4--,montaigne has keenly criticised the abuse of books3 8,i would not have this boy of ours imprisoned1 and made a slave to his book4444 ,i would not have his spirit cow'd and subdu'd by applying him to the rack1 and tormenting him1 as some do1 fourteen or fifteen hours a day1 and so make a pack-horse of him4 ,neither should ,i think it good1 when1 by a solitary and melancholic complexion1 he is discovered to be much addicted to his book1 to nourish that humor in him1 for that renders them unfit for civil conversation1 and diverts them from better employments40#hh ,but while he advises against excess in reading1 he has admirably defined the manner in which we ought to read4 ,above all1 he says1 let us assimilate and appropriate what we read4 ,let the work of the reader resemble that of bees1 that1 on this side and on that1 tap the flowers for their sweet juices1 and make them into honey1 which is no longer thyme nor marjoram4 ,in other terms1 we should read with reflection1 and with a critical spirit1 while mastering the thoughts of the author by our personal judgment1 without ever becoming slaves to them4 #aai4 ,,montaigne',s ,,errors4--,montaigne's greatest fault1 it must be confessed1 is that he is somewhat heartless4 ,somewhat of an egoist and ,epicurean1 he celebrates only the easy virtues that are attained 8by shady routes through green meadows and fragrant flowers40 ,has he himself ever performed painful duties that demand effort8 ,to love children1 he waits till they are amiable2 while they are small1 he disdains them1 and keeps them at a distance from him3 8,i cannot entertain that passion of dandling and caressing an infant1 scarcely born1 having as yet neither motion of soul nor shape of body distinguishable1 by which they can render themselves amiable2 and have not suffered them to be nursed near me44440#hi 8,never take1 and1 still less1 never give1 to the women of your household the care of the feeding of your children60 ,montaigne joined precept to example4 ,he somewhere says unfeelingly3 8,my children all died while at nurse40#ij ,he goes so far as to say that a man of letters ought to prefer his writings to his children3 8,the births of our intelligence are the children the most truly our own40#ia #abj4 ,,incompleteness ,,of ,,his ,,views ,,on ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women4--,another mental defect in ,montaigne is1 that1 by reason of his moderation and conservatism1 he remains a little narrow4 ,high conceptions of human destiny are not to be expected of him2 his manner of conceiving of it is mean and commonplace4 ,this lack of intellectual breadth is especially manifest in his reflections on the education of women4 ,montaigne is of that number1 who1 through false gallantry1 would keep woman in a state of ignorance on the pretext that instruction would mar her natural charms4 ,in their case1 he would prohibit even the study of rhetoric1 because1 he says1 that would 8conceal her charms under borrowed charms40 ,women should be content with the advantages which their sex assures to them4 ,with the knowledge which they naturally have1 8they command with the switch1 and rule both the regents and the schools40 ,however1 he afterwards thinks better of it2 but in his concessions there is more of contempt than in his prohibitions3 8,if1 however1 it displeases them to make us any concessions whatever1 and they are determined1 through curiosity1 to know something of books1 poetry is an amusement befitting their needs2 for it is a wanton1 crafty art1 disguised1 all for pleasure1 all for show1 just as they are40#ib ,the following passage may also be quoted3-- 8,when ,i see them tampering with rhetoric1 law1 logic1 and the like1 so improper and unnecessary for their business1 ,i begin to suspect that the men who inspire them with such things do it that they may govern them upon that account40#ic ,it is impossible to express a greater contempt for women4 ,montaigne goes so far as to deny her positive qualities of heart4 ,he chances to say1 with reference to ,mlle4 de ,gournay1 his adopted daughter3 8,the perfection of the most saintly affection has been attained when it does not exhibit the least trace of sex40 ,to conclude3 notwithstanding some grave defects1 the pedagogy of ,montaigne is a pedagogy of good sense1 and certain parts of it will always deserve to be admired4 ,the ,jansenists1 and ,locke1 and ,rousseau1 in different degrees1 draw their inspiration from ,montaigne4 ,in his own age1 it is true1 his ideas were accepted by scarcely any one save his disciple ,charron1 who1 in his book of ,wisdom1#id has done scarcely more than to arrange in order the thoughts that are scattered through the ,essays4 ,but if he had no influence upon his own age1 ,montaigne has at least remained1 after three centuries1 a sure guide in the matter of intellectual education4 #aba4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,the dominant characteristic of education during the ,renaissance period is the reaction which it exhibits against certain errors in ,middle ,age education4 #b4 ,a second characteristic is a disposition to conciliate or harmonize principles and methods whose fault is exaggeration4 #c4 ,against instruction based almost wholly on authority1 there is a reaction in favor of free inquiry4 #d4 ,opposed to an education of the professional or technical type1 there is proposed an education of the general or liberal type4 #e4 ,from being almost exclusively ethical and religious1 education tends to become secular4 #f4 ,didactic1 formal instruction out of books1 dealing in second-hand knowledge1 is succeeded by informal1 intuitive instruction from natural objects1 dealing in knowledge at first hand4 #g4 ,the conception that education is a process of manufacture begins to give place to the conception that it is a process of growth4 #h4 ,teaching whose purpose was information is succeeded by teaching whose purpose is formation1 discipline1 or training4 #i4 ,a discipline that was harsh and cruel is succeeded by a discipline comparatively mild and humane2 and manners that were rude and coarse1 are followed by a finer code of civility4 ,,footnotes3 #ga ,see especially the following chapters3 ,book ,i4 chaps4 ,,xiv41 ,,xv41 ,,xxi41 ,,xxii41 ,,xxiv42 ,book ,,ii4 chaps4 ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 ,,viii4 #gb ,the contrast between the general system of education that culminated with the ,reformation1 and the system that had its rise at the same period1 is so marked that there is an historical propriety in calling the first the old education1 and the second1 or later1 the new education4 ,recollecting the tendency of the human mind to pass from one extreme to an opposite extreme1 we may suspect that the final state of educational thought and practice will represent a mean between these two contrasted systems3 it is inconceivable that the old was wholly wrong1 or that the new is wholly right4 7,p47 #gc ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxiv4 #gd ,rabelais recommends the study of ,hebrew1 so that the sacred books may be known in their original form4 ,in some place he says3 8,i love much more to hear the ,gospel than to hear the life of ,saint ,margaret or some other cant40 #ge ,book ,,ii4 chap4 ,,viii4 #gf ,this pansophic scheme of ,rabelais has been revived in later times by ,bentham1 in his ,chrestomathia1 and still later by ,spencer1 in his ,education4 ,it seems to have been forgotten that the division of labor affects education in much the same way as it affects all other departments of human activity3 that there is no more need of having as a personal possession all the knowledge we need for guidance1 than for owning all the agencies we need for locomotion or communication4 7,p47 #gg 8,i was above six years of age before ,i understood either ,french or ,perigordian any more than ,arabic1 and without art1 book1 grammar1 or precept1 whipping1 or the experience of a tear1 had by that time learned to speak as pure ,latin as my master himself40 ,essays1 ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxv4 ,in this chapter ,i have several times quoted from ,cotton's translation4 7,london3 #agaa47 7,p47 #gh ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxv4 #gi ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxv4 #hj ,see particularly ,chap4 ,,xxiv4 of ,book ,i41 ,of ,pedantry2 ,chap4 ,,xxv4 ,book ,i41 ,of the ,education of ,children2 ,chap4 ,,viii4 ,book ,,ii41 ,of the ,affection of ,fathers to their ,children4 #ha ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxv4 #hb ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxiv4 #hc ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxiv4 #hd ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxv4 #he ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxv4 #hf ,has not this extravagant preference for things1 as distinguished from words1 become a new superstition in educational theory8 ,considering the misuse made of words by ,scholasticism1 it was time for ,montaigne to summon the attention outwards to sensible realities2 but it is more than doubtful whether there is any valid ground for the absolute rule of modern pedagogy1 8first the idea1 then the term40 ,in actual experience1 there is no invariable sequence4 ,the really important thing is1 that terms be made significant4 7,p47 #hg ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxv4 #hh ,book ,i4 chap4 ,,xxv4 #hi ,book ,,ii4 chap4 ,,viii4 #ij ,i am not sure that this remark does not do ,montaigne injustice1 especially when we consider the connection in which the original remark is made3 8,i am of opinion that what is not to be done by reason1 prudence1 and address1 is never to be effected by force4 ,i myself was brought up after that manner2 and they tell me that1 in all my first age1 ,i never felt the rod but twice1 and then very easily4 ,i have practised the same method with my children1 who all of them dy'd at nurse2 but ,leonora1 my only daughter1 is arrived to the age of six years and upwards without other correction for her childish faults than words only1 and those very gentle40 ,book ,,ii4 chap4 ,,viii4 7,p47 #ia ,book ,,iii4 chap4 ,,xiii4 #ib ,book ,,iii4 chap4 ,,iii4 #ic ,book ,,iii4 chap4 ,,iii4 #id ,see particularly ,chap4 ,,xiv4 of ,book ,,iii4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,protestantism ,,and ,,primary ,,instruction4 ,,luther ,,and ,,comenius4 ,,origin ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction2 ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,reform2 ,,calvin1 ,,melancthon1 ,,zwingli2 ,,luther 7#adhc-aedf72 ,,appeal ,,addressed ,,to ,,the ,,magistrates ,,and ,,legislators ,,of ,,germany2 ,,double ,,utility ,,of ,,instruction2 ,,necessity ,,of ,a ,,system ,,of ,,public ,,instruction2 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,the ,,period2 ,,organization ,,of ,,new ,,schools2 ,,programme ,,of ,,studies2 ,,progress ,,in ,,methods2 ,,the ,,states ,,general ,,of ,,orleans 7#aefj72 ,,ratich 7#aega-afce72 ,,comenius 7#aeib-afga72 ,,his ,,character2 ,,baconian ,,inspiration2 ,,life ,,of ,,comenius2 ,,his ,,principal ,,works2 ,,division ,,of ,,instruction ,,into ,,four ,,grades2 ,,elementary ,,initiation ,,into ,,all ,,the ,,studies2 ,,the ,,people',s ,,school2 ,,site ,,of ,,the ,,school2 ,,intuitions ,,of ,,sense2 ,,simplification ,,of ,,grammatical ,,studies2 ,,pedagogical ,,principles ,,of ,,comenius2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #abb4 ,,origin ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction4--,with ,la ,salle and the foundation of the ,institute of the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 the historian of education recognizes the ,catholic origin of primary instruction2 in the decrees and laws of the ,french ,revolution1 its lay and philosophical origin2 but it is to the ,protestant ,reformers1--to ,luther in the sixteenth century1 and to ,comenius in the seventeenth--that must be ascribed the honor of having first organized schools for the people4 ,in its origin1 the primary school is the child of ,protestantism1 and its cradle was the ,reformation4 #abc4 ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,protestant ,,reform4--,the development of primary instruction was the logical consequence of the fundamental principles of the ,protestant ,reform4 ,as ,michel ,bral has said3 8,in making man responsible for his own faith1 and in placing the source of that faith in the ,holy ,scriptures1 the ,reform contracted the obligation to put each one in a condition to save himself by the reading and the understanding of the ,bible4444 ,the necessity of explaining the ,catechism1 and making comments on it1 was for teachers an obligation to learn how to expound a thought1 and to decompose it into its elements4 ,the study of the mother tongue and of singing1 was associated with the reading of the ,bible 7translated into ,german by ,luther7 and with religious services40 ,the ,reform1 then1 contained1 in germ1 a complete revolution in education2 it enlisted the interests of religion in the service of instruction1 and associated knowledge with faith4 ,this is the reason that1 for three centuries1 the ,protestant nations have led humanity in the matter of primary instruction4 #abd4 ,,calvin 7#aeji-aefd71 ,,melancthon 7#adig-aefj71 ,,zwingli 7#adhd-aecb74--;,however1 all the ,protestant ,reformers were far from exhibiting the same zeal in behalf of primary instruction4 ,calvin1 absorbed in religious struggles and polemics1 was not occupied with the organization of schools till towards the close of his life1 and even the college that he founded at ,geneva1 in #aeei1 was scarcely more than a school for the study of ,latin4 ,melancthon1 who has been called 8the preceptor of ,germany10 worked more for high schools than for schools for the people4 ,he was above all else a professor of ,belles-,lettres2 and it was with chagrin that he saw his courses in the ,university of ,wittenberg deserted by students when he lectured on the ,olynthiacs of ,demosthenes4 ,before ,calvin and ,melancthon1 the ,swiss reformer ,zwingli had shown his great interest in primary teaching1 in his little book 8upon the manner of instructing and bringing up boys in a ,christian way0 7#aebd74 ,in this he recommended natural history1 arithmetic1 and also exercises in fencing1 in order to furnish the country with timely defenders4 #abe4 ,,luther 7#adhc-aedf74--,the ,german reformer ,luther is1 of all his co-religionists1 the one who has served the cause of elementary instruction with the most ardor4 ,he not only addressed a pressing appeal to the ruling classes in behalf of founding schools for the people1 but1 by his influence1 methods of instruction were improved1 and the educational spirit was renewed in accordance with the principles of ,protestantism4 8,spontaneity10 it has been said1 not without some exaggeration1 8free thought1 and free inquiry1 are the basis of ,protestantism2 where it has reigned1 there have disappeared the method of repeating and of learning by heart without reflection1 mechanism1 subjection to authority1 the paralysis of the intelligence oppressed by dogmatic instruction1 and science put in tutelage by the beliefs of the ,church40#ie #abf4 ,,appeal ,,addressed ,,to ,,the ,,magistrates ,,and ,,legislators ,,of ,,germany4--,in #aebd1 ,luther1 in a special document addressed to the public authorities of ,germany1 forcibly expressed himself against the neglect into which the interests of instruction had fallen4 ,this appeal has this characteristic1 that the great reformer1 while assuming that the ,church is the mother of the school1 seems especially to count on the secular arm1 upon the power of the people1 to serve his purposes in the cause of universal instruction4 8,each city10 he said1 8is subjected to great expense every year for the construction of roads1 for fortifying its ramparts1 and for buying arms and equipping soldiers4 ,why should it not spend an equal sum for the support of one or two school-masters8 ,the prosperity of a city does not depend solely on its natural riches1 on the solidity of its walls1 on the elegance of its mansions1 and on the abundance of arms in its arsenals2 but the safety and strength of a city reside above all in a good education1 which furnishes it with instructed1 reasonable1 honorable1 and well-trained citizens40#if #abg4 ,,double ,,utility ,,of ,,instruction4--,a remarkable fact about ,luther is1 that as a preacher of instruction1 he does not speak merely from the religious point of view4 ,after having recommended schools as institutions auxiliary to the ,church1 he makes a resolute argument from the human point of view4 8,were there neither soul1 heaven1 nor hell10 he says1 8it would still be necessary to have schools for the sake of affairs here below1 as the history of the ,greeks and the ,romans plainly teaches4 ,the world has need of educated men and women1 to the end that the men may govern the country properly1 and that the women may properly bring up their children1 care for their domestics1 and direct the affairs of their households40 #abh4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,public ,,instruction4--,the objection will perhaps be made1 says ,luther1 that for the education of children the home is sufficient1 and that the school is useless3 8,to this ,i reply3 ,we clearly see how the boys and girls are educated who remain at home40 ,he then shows that they are ignorant and 8stupid10 incapable of taking part in conversation1 of giving good advice1 and without any experience of life2 while1 if they had been educated in the schools1 by teachers who could give instruction in the languages1 in the arts1 and in history1 they might in a little time gather up within themselves1 as in a mirror1 the experience of whatever has happened since the beginning of the world2 and from this experience1 he adds1 they would derive the wisdom they need for self-direction and for giving wise counsel to others4 #abi4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,the ,,period4--,but since there must be public schools1 can we not be content with those which already exist8 ,luther replies by proving that parents neglect to send their children to them1 and by denouncing the uselessness of the results obtained by those who attend them4 8,we find people10 he says1 8who serve ,god in strange ways4 ,they fast and wear coarse clothing1 but they pass blindly by the true divine service of the home1--they do not know how to bring up their children4444 ,believe me1 it is much more necessary to give attention to your children and to provide for their education than to purchase indulgencies1 to visit foreign churches1 or to make solemn vows4444 ,all people1 especially the ,jews1 oblige their children to go to school more than ,christians do4 ,this is why the state of ,christianity is so low1 for all its force and power are in the rising generation2 and if these are neglected1 there will be ,christian churches like a garden that has been neglected in the spring-time4444 ,every day children are born and are growing up1 and1 unfortunately1 no one cares for the poor young people1 no one thinks to train them2 they are allowed to go as they will4 ,was it not lamentable to see a lad study in twenty years and more only just enough bad ,latin to enable him to become a priest1 and to go to mass8 ,and he who attained to this was counted a very happy being6 ,right happy the mother who bore such a child6 ,and he has remained all his life a poor unlettered man4 ,everywhere we have seen such teachers and masters1 who knew nothing themselves and could teach nothing that was good and useful2 they did not even know how to learn and to teach4 ,has anything else been learned up to this time in the high schools and in the convents except to become asses and blockheads8 4440 #acj4 ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,schools4--,so ,luther resolves on the organization of new schools4 ,the cost of their maintenance he makes a charge on the public treasury2 he demonstrates to parents the moral obligation to have their children instructed in them2 to the duty of conscience he adds civil obligation2 and1 finally1 he gives his thought to the means of recruiting the teaching service4 8,since the greatest evil in every place is the lack of teachers1 we must not wait till they come forward of themselves2 we must take the trouble to educate them and prepare them40 ,to this end ,luther keeps the best of the pupils1 boys and girls1 for a longer time in school2 gives them special instructors1 and opens libraries for their use4 ,in his thought he never distinguishes women teachers from men teachers2 he wants schools for girls as well as for boys4 ,only1 not to burden parents and divert children from their daily labor1 he requires but little time for school duties4 8,you ask3 ,is it possible to get along without our children1 and bring them up like gentlemen8 ,is it not necessary that they work at home8 ,i reply3 ,i by no means approve of those schools where a child was accustomed to pass twenty or thirty years in studying ,donatus or ,alexander#ig without learning anything4 ,another world has dawned1 in which things go differently4 ,my opinion is that we must send the boys to school one or two hours a day1 and have them learn a trade at home for the rest of the time4 ,it is desirable that these two occupations march side by side4 ,as it now is1 children certainly spend twice as much time in playing ball1 running the streets1 and playing truant4 ,and so the girls can equally well devote nearly the same time to school1 without neglecting their home duties2 they lose more time than this in over-sleeping and in dancing more than is meet40 #aca4 ,,programme ,,of ,,studies4--,luther gives the first place to the teaching of religion3 8,is it not reasonable that every ,christian should know the ,gospel at the age of nine or ten80 ,then come the languages1 not1 as might be hoped1 the mother tongue1 but the learned languages1 ,latin1 ,greek1 and ,hebrew4 ,luther had not yet been sufficiently rid of the old spirit to comprehend that the language of the people ought to be the basis of universal instruction4 ,he left to ,comenius the glory of making the final separation of the primary school from the ,latin school4 ,but yet1 ,luther gave excellent advice for the study of languages1 which must be learned1 he said1 less in the abstract rules of grammar than in their concrete reality4 ,luther recommends the mathematics1 and also the study of nature2 but he has a partiality for history and historians1 who are1 he says1 8the best people and the best teachers10 on the condition that they do not tamper with the truth1 and that 8they do not make obscure the work of ,god40 ,of the liberal arts of the ,middle ,age1 ,luther does not make much account4 ,he rightly says of dialectics1 that it is no equivalent for real knowledge1 and that it is simply 8an instrument by which we render to ourselves an account of what we know40 ,physical exercises are not forgotten in ,luther's pedagogical regulations4 ,but he attaches an especial importance to singing4 8,unless a schoolmaster know how to sing1 ,i think him of no account40 8,music10 he says again1 8is a half discipline which makes men more indulgent and more mild40 #acb4 ,,progress ,,in ,,methods4--,at the same time that he extends the programme of studies1 ,luther introduces a new spirit into methods4 ,he wishes more liberty and more joy in the school4 8,solomon10 he says1 8is a truly royal schoolmaster4 ,he does not1 like the monks1 forbid the young to go into the world and be happy4 ,even as ,anselm said3 #8,a young man turned aside from the world is like a young tree made to grow in a vase4' ,the monks have imprisoned young men like birds in their cage4 ,it is dangerous to isolate the young4 ,it is necessary1 on the contrary1 to allow young people to hear1 see1 and learn all sorts of things1 while all the time observing the restraints and the rules of honor4 ,enjoyment and recreation are as necessary for children as food and drink4 ,the schools till now were veritable prisons and hells1 and the schoolmaster a tyrant4444 ,a child intimidated by bad treatment is irresolute in all he does4 ,he who has trembled before his parents will tremble all his life at the sound of a leaf which rustles in the wind40 ,these quotations will suffice to make appreciated the large and liberal spirit of ,luther1 and the range of his thought as an educator4 ,no one has more extolled the office of the teacher1 of which he said1 when comparing it to preaching1 it is the work of all others the noblest1 the most useful1 and the best2 8and yet10 he added1 8,i do not know which of these two professions is the better40 ,do not let ourselves imagine1 however1 that ,luther at once exercised a decisive influence on the current education of his day4 ,a few schools were founded1 called writing schools2 but the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and other events1 interrupted the movement of which ,luther has the honor of having been the originator4 #acc4 ,,the ,,states ,,general ,,of ,,orleans 7#aefj74--,while in ,germany1 under the impulse of ,luther1 primary schools began to be established1 ,france remained in the background4 ,let us note1 however1 the desires expressed by the ,states ,general of ,orleans1 in #aefj3-- 8,may it please the king10 it was said in the memorial of the nobility1 8to levy a contribution upon the church revenues for the reasonable support of teachers and men of learning in every city and village1 for the instruction of the needy youth of the country2 and let all parents be required1 under penalty of a fine1 to send their children to school1 and let them be constrained to observe this law by the lords and the ordinary magistrates40 ,it was demanded1 in addition1 that public lectures be given on the ,sacred ,scriptures in intelligible language1 that is1 in the mother tongue4 ,but these demands1 so earnest and democratic1 of the ,protestant nobility of sixteenth century ,france1 were not regarded4 ,with the fall of ,protestantism1 the cause of primary instruction in ,france was doomed to a long eclipse4 ,the nobles of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries did not think of petitioning again for the education of the people1 and ,diderot could truthfully say of them3 8,the nobility complain of the farm laborers who know how to read4 ,perhaps the chief grievance of the nobility reduces itself to this3 that a peasant who knows how to read is more difficult to oppress than another40 #acd4 ,,ratich 7#aega-afce74--;,in the first half of the seventeenth century1 ,ratich1 a ,german1 and ,comenius1 a ,slave1 were1 with very different degrees of merit1 the heirs of the educational thought of ,luther4 ,with something of the charlatan and the demagogue1 ,ratich devoted his life to propagating a novel art of teaching1 which he called didactics1 and to which he attributed marvels4 ,he pretended1 by his method of languages1 to teach ,hebrew1 ,greek1 and ,latin1 in six months4 ,but nevertheless1 out of many strange performances and lofty promises1 there issue some thoughts of practical value4 ,the first merit of ,ratich was to give the mother tongue1 the ,german language1 the precedence over the ancient languages4 ,an ,english educational writer1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,quick1 in his ,essays on ,educational ,reformers 7#ahgd71 has thus summed up the essential principles of the pedagogy of ,ratich3 #a4 ,everything should be taught in its own time and order1 and according to the natural method1 in passing from the more easy to the more difficult4 #b4 ,only one thing should be learned at a time4 8,we do not cook at the same time in one pot1 soup1 meat1 fish1 milk1 and vegetables40 #c4 ,the same thing should be repeated several times4 #d4 ,by means of these frequent repetitions1 the pupil will have nothing to learn by heart4 #e4 ,all school-books should be written on the same plan4 #f4 ,the thing as a whole should be made known before the thing in its details1 and the sequence should be from the general to the special4 #g4 ,in every case we should proceed by induction and experiment4 ,ratich especially means by this that we must make an end of mere authority1 and of the testimony of the ancients1 and must appeal to individual reason4 #h4 ,finally1 everything should be learned without coercion4 ,coercion and the rod are contrary to nature1 and disgust the young with study4 ,the human understanding learns with pleasure all that it ought to retain4 ,it does not seem that ,ratich knew how to draw from these principles1 which1 by the way1 are not true save under certain corrections1 all the happy results that are contained in them4 ,he left to ,comenius the glory of applying the new spirit to actual practice4 #ace4 ,,comenius 7#aeib-afga74--;,for a long time unknown and unappreciated1 ,comenius has finally received from our contemporaries the admiration that is due him4 ,michelet speaks of him with enthusiasm as 8that rare genius1 that gentle1 fertile1 universal scholar02#ih and he calls him the first evangelist of modern pedagogy1 ,pestalozzi being the second4 ,it is easy to justify this appreciation4 ,the character of ,comenius equals his intelligence4 ,through a thousand obstacles he devoted his long life to the work of popular instruction4 ,with a generous ardor he consecrated himself to infancy4 ,he wrote twenty works and taught in twenty cities4 ,moreover1 he was the first to form a definite conception of what the elementary studies should be4 ,he determined1 nearly three hundred years ago1 with an exactness that leaves nothing to be desired1 the division of the different grades of instruction4 ,he exactly defined some of the essential laws of the art of teaching4 ,he applied to pedagogy1 with remarkable insight1 the principles of modern logic4 ,finally1 as ,michelet has said1 he was the ,galileo1 we would rather say1 the ,bacon1 of modern education4 #acf4 ,,baconian ,,inspiration4--,the special aims of pedagogy are essentially related to the general aims of science4 ,all progress in science has its corresponding effects on education4 ,when an innovator has modified the laws for the discovery of truth1 other innovators appear1 who modify1 in their turn1 the rules for instruction4 ,to a new logic almost necessarily corresponds a new pedagogy4 ,now ,bacon1 at the opening of the seventeenth century1 had opened unknown routes to scientific investigation4 ,for the abstract processes of thought1 for the barren comparison of propositions and words1 in which the whole art of the syllogism consisted1 the author of the ,novum ,organum had substituted the concrete study of reality1 the living and fruitful observation of nature4 ,the mechanism of deductive reasoning was replaced by the slow and patient interpretation of facts4 ,it no longer answered to analyze with docile spirit principles that were assumed1 right or wrong1 as absolute truths2 nor to become expert in handling the syllogism1 which1 like a mill running dry1 often produced but little flour4 ,it was now necessary to open the eyes to the contemplation of the universe1 and by sense intuition1 by observation1 by experiment1 and by induction1 to penetrate its secrets1 and determine its laws4 ,it was necessary to ascend1 step by step1 from the knowledge of the simplest things to the discovery of the most general laws2 and1 finally1 to demand of nature herself to reveal all that the human intelligence1 in its solitary meditations1 is powerless to discover4 ,looking at this subject more closely1 this revolution in science1 so important from the point of view of speculative inquiry1 and destined to change the aspect of the sciences1 also contained in itself a revolution in education4 ,for this purpose1 all that was needed was to apply to the development of the intelligence and to the communication of knowledge the rules proposed by ,bacon for the investigation of truth4 ,the laws of scientific induction might become the laws for the education of the soul4 ,no more setting out with abstract principles1 imposed by authority2 but facts intuitively apprehended1 gathered by observation and verified by experiment2 the order of nature faithfully followed2 a cautious progression from the simplest and most elementary ideas to the most difficult and most complex truths2 the knowledge of things instead of an analysis of words1--such was to be the character of the new system of instruction4 ,in other terms1 it was possible to make the child follow1 in order to lead him to know and to comprehend the capitalized truths that constitute the basis of elementary instruction1 the same method that ,bacon recommended to scholars for the discovery of unknown truths4#ii ,it is this conversion1 or1 as we might say1 this translation1 of the maxims of the ,baconian logic into pedagogical rules1 that ,comenius attempted1 and this is why he has been called 8the father of the intuitive method40 ,he was nourished1 intellectually1 by the reading of ,bacon1 whom he resembles1 not only in his ideas1 but also in his figurative and often allegorical language4 ,even the title of one of his books1 ,didactica ,magna1 recalls the title of ,bacon's ,instauratio ,magna4 #acg4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,comenius4--,to know ,comenius and the part he played in the seventeenth century1 to appreciate this grand educational character1 it would be necessary to begin by relating his life2 his misfortunes2 his journeys to ,england1 where ,parliament invoked his aid2 to ,sweden1 where the ,chancellor ,oxenstiern employed him to write manuals of instruction2 especially his relentless industry1 his courage through exile1 and the long persecutions he suffered as a member of the sect of dissenters1 the ,moravian ,brethren2 and the schools he founded at ,fulneck1 in ,bohemia1 at ,lissa and at ,patak1 in ,poland4 ,but it would require too much of our space to follow in its incidents and catastrophes that troubled life1 which1 in its sudden trials1 as in the firmness that supported them1 recalls the life of ,pestalozzi4#ajj #ach4 ,,his ,,principal ,,works4--,comenius wrote a large number of books in ,latin1 in ,german1 and in ,czech2 but of these only a few are worthy to engage the attention of the educator4 ,in his other works he allows himself to go off on philosophic excursions1 and to indulge in mystic reveries1 led by his ardor to find what he called pansophia1 wisdom or universal knowledge4 ,in this wilderness of publications destined to oblivion1 we shall notice only three works1 which contain the general principles of the pedagogy of ,comenius1 and the applications which he has made of his method3-- #a4 ,the ,didactica ,magna1 the ,great ,didactics 7written in ,czech at about #afcj1 and rewritten in ,latin at about #afdj74 ,in this work ,comenius sets forth his principles1 his general theories on education1 and also his peculiar views on the practical organization of schools4 ,it is to be regretted that a ,french translation has not yet popularized this important book1 that would be worthy a place beside the ,thoughts of ,locke and the mile of ,rousseau4#aja #b4 ,the ,janua linguarum reserata1 the ,gate of ,tongues ,unlocked 7#afca74 ,in the thought of the author1 this was a new method of learning the languages4 ,comenius1 led astray on this point by his religious prejudices1 wished to banish the ,latin authors from the schools1 8for the purpose10 he said1 8of reforming studies in the true spirit of ,christianity40 ,consequently1 in order to replace the classical authors1 which he repudiated for this further reason1 that the reading of them is too difficult1 and to make a child study them 8is to wish to push out into the vast ocean a tiny bark that should be allowed only to sport on a little lake10 he had formed the idea of composing a collection of phrases distributed into a hundred chapters4 ,these phrases1 to the number of a thousand1 at first very simple1 and of a single member1 then longer and more complicated1 were formed of two thousand words1 chosen from among the most common and the most useful4 ,moreover1 the hundred chapters of the ,janua taught the child1 in succession and in a methodical order1 all the things in the universe1--the elements1 the metals1 the stars1 the animals1 the organs of the body1 the arts and trades1 etc41 etc4 ,in other terms1 the ,janua linguarum is a nomenclature of ideas and words designed to fix the attention of the child upon everything he ought to know of the world4 ,divested of the ,latin text that accompanies it1 the ,janua is a first reading-book1 very defective doubtless1 but it gives proof of a determined effort to adapt to the intelligence of the child the knowledge that he ought to acquire4 #c4 ,the ,orbis sensualium pictus1 the ,illustrated ,world of ,sensible ,objects1 the most popular of the author's works 7#afeh74 ,it is the ,janua linguarum accompanied with pictures1 in lieu of real objects1 representing to the child the things that he hears spoken of1 as fast as he learns their names4 ,the ,orbis pictus1 the first practical application of the intuitive method1 had an extraordinary success1 and has served as a model for the innumerable illustrated books which for three centuries have invaded the schools4 ,illustration3 ,geometria4 ,die ,erdmesskunst4 7,facsimile of illustration in the ,orbis ,pictus of ,comenius47 ,illustration3 7,facsimile of page of text of the ,orbis ,pictus47 #aci4 ,,the ,,four ,,grades ,,of ,,instruction4--,we must not require a man of the seventeenth century to abjure ,latin studies4 ,comenius prizes them highly2 but at least he is wise enough to put them in their place1 and does not confound them1 as ,luther did1 with elementary studies4 ,nothing could be more exact1 more clearly cut1 than the scholastic organization proposed by ,comenius4 ,we shall find in it what the experience of three centuries has finally sanctioned and established1 the distribution of schools into these grades1--infant schools1 primary schools1 secondary schools1 and higher schools4 ,the first grade of instruction is the maternal school1 the school by the mother's knee1 materni gremii1 as ,comenius calls it4 ,the mother is the first teacher4 ,up to the age of six the child is taught by her2 he is initiated by her into those branches of knowledge that he will pursue in the primary school4 ,the second grade is the elementary public school4 ,all the children1 girls and boys1 enter here at six1 and leave at twelve4 ,the characteristic of this school is that the instruction there given is in the mother tongue1 and this is why ,comenius calls it the 8common0 school1 vernacula1 a term given by the ,romans to the language of the people4 ,the third grade is represented by the ,latin school or gymnasium4 ,thither are sent the children from twelve to eighteen years of age for whom has been reserved a more complete instruction1 such as we would now call secondary instruction4 ,finally1 to the fourth grade correspond the academies1 that is1 institutions of higher instruction1 opened to young men from eighteen to twenty-four years of age4 ,the child1 if he is able1 will traverse these four grades in succession2 but1 in the thought of ,comenius1 the studies should be so arranged in the elementary schools1 that in leaving them1 the pupil shall have a general education which makes it unnecessary for him to go farther1 if his condition in life does not destine him to pursue the courses of the ,latin ,school4 8,we pursue10 says ,comenius1 8a general education1 the teaching to all men of all the subjects of human concern4444 ,the purpose of the people's school shall be that all children of both sexes1 from the tenth to the twelfth or the thirteenth year1 may be instructed in that knowledge which is useful during the whole of life40 ,this was an admirable definition of the purpose of the primary school4 ,a thing not less remarkable is that ,comenius establishes an elementary school in each village3-- 8,there should be a maternal school in each family2 an elementary school in each district2 a gymnasium in each city2 an academy in each kingdom1 or even in each considerable province40 #adj4 ,,elementary ,,initiation ,,into ,,all ,,the ,,studies4--,one of the most novel and most original ideas of the great ,slavic educator is the wish that1 from the earliest years of his life1 the child may acquire some elementary notions of all the sciences that he is to study at a later period4 ,from the cradle1 the gaze of the infant1 guided by the mother1 should be directed to all the objects that surround him1 so that his growing powers of reflection will be brought into play in working on these sense intuitions4 8,thus1 from the moment he begins to speak1 the child comes to know himself1 and1 by his daily experience1 certain general and abstract expressions2 he comes to comprehend the meaning of the words something1 nothing1 thus1 otherwise1 where1 similar1 different2 and what are generalizations and the categories expressed by these words but the rudiments of metaphysics8 ,in the domain of physics1 the infant can learn to know water1 earth1 air1 fire1 rain1 snow1 etc41 as well as the names and uses of the parts of his body1 or at least of the external members and organs4 ,he will take his first lesson in optics in learning to distinguish light1 darkness1 and the different colors2 and in astronomy1 in noticing the sun1 the moon1 and the stars1 and in observing that these heavenly bodies rise and set every day4 ,in geography1 according to the place where he lives1 he will be shown a mountain1 a valley1 a plain1 a river1 a village1 a hamlet1 a city1 etc4 ,in chronology1 he will be taught what an hour is1 a day1 a week1 a year1 summer1 winter1 yesterday1 the day before yesterday1 to-morrow1 the day after to-morrow1 etc4 ,history1 such as his age will allow him to conceive1 will consist in recalling what has recently passed1 in taking account of it1 and in noting the part that this one or that has taken in such or such an affair4 ,arithmetic1 geometry1 statistics1 mechanics1 will not remain strangers to him4 ,he will acquire the elements of these sciences in distinguishing the difference between little and much1 in learning to count up to ten1 in observing that three is more than two2 that one added to three makes four2 in learning the sense of the words great and small1 long and short1 wide and narrow1 heavy and light2 in drawing lines1 curves1 circles1 etc42 in seeing goods measured with a yard-stick2 in weighing an object in a balance2 in trying to make something or to take it to pieces1 as all children love to do4 8,in this impulse to construct and destroy1 there is but the effort of the little intelligence to succeed in making or building something for himself2 so that1 instead of opposing the child in this1 he should be encouraged and guided40 8,the grammar of the first period will consist in learning to pronounce the mother tongue correctly4 ,the child may receive elementary notions even of politics1 in observing that certain persons assemble at the city hall1 and that they are called councillors2 and that among these persons there is one called mayor1 etc40#ajb #ada4 ,,the ,,people',s ,,school4--,divided into six classes1 the people's school should prepare the child either for active life or for the higher courses4 ,comenius sends here not only the sons of peasants and workmen1 but the sons of the middle class or of the nobility1 who will afterwards enter the ,latin school4 ,in other terms1 the study of ,latin is postponed till the age of twelve2 and up to that period all children must receive a thorough primary education1 which will comprise1 with the mother tongue1 arithmetic1 geometry1 singing1 the salient facts of history1 the elements of the natural sciences1 and religion4 ,the latest reforms in secondary instruction1 which1 only within a very late period1 have postponed the study of ,latin till the sixth year1#ajc and which till then keep the pupil upon the subjects of primary instruction1--what are they but the distant echo of the thought of ,comenius8 ,let it be noted1 too1 that the plan of ,comenius gave to its primary school a complete encyclopdic course of instruction1 which was sufficient for its own ends1 but which1 while remaining elementary1 was a whole1 and not a beginning4#ajd ,surely1 the programme of studies devised by ,comenius did not fail in point of insufficiency2 we may be allowed1 on the contrary1 to pronounce it too extended1 too crowded1 conformed rather to the generous dreams of an innovator than to a prudent appreciation of what is practically possible2 and we need not be astonished that1 to lighten in part the heavy burden that is imposed on the teacher1 ,comenius had the notion of dividing the school into sections which assistants1 chosen from among the best pupils1 should instruct under the supervision of the master4 #adb4 ,,site ,,of ,,the ,,school4--,one is not a complete educator save on the condition of providing for the exterior and material organization of the school1 as well as for its moral administration4 ,in this respect1 ,comenius is still deserving of our encomiums4 ,he requires a yard for recreation1 and demands that the school-house have a gay and cheerful aspect4 ,the question had been discussed before him by ,vives 7#adib-aedj74 8,there should be chosen10 says the ,spanish educator1 8a healthful situation1 so that the pupils may not one day have to take their flight1 dispersed by the fear of an epidemic4 ,firm health is necessary to those who would heartily and profitably apply themselves to the study of the sciences4 ,and the place selected should be isolated from the crowd1 and especially at a distance from occupations that are noisy1 such as those of smiths1 stone-masons1 machinists1 wheelwrights1 and weavers4 ,however1 ,i would not have the situation too cheerful and attractive1 lest it might suggest to the scholars the taking of too frequent walks40 ,but these considerations that do honor to ,vives and to ,comenius1 were scarcely in harmony with the resources then at the disposal of the friends of instruction4 ,there was scarcely occasion seriously to consider how school-houses should be constructed and situated1 at a period when the most often there were no school-houses existing4 8,in winter10 says ,platter1 8we slept in the school-room1 and in summer in the open air40#aje #adc4 ,,sense ,,intuitions4--,if ,comenius has traced with a master hand the general organization of the primary school1 he has no less merit in the matter of methods4 ,when they recommend the observation of sensible things as the first intellectual exercise1 modern educators do but repeat what ,comenius said three centuries ago4 8,in the place of dead books1 why should we not open the living book of nature8 444 ,to instruct the young is not to beat into them by repetition a mass of words1 phrases1 sentences1 and opinions gathered out of authors2 but it is to open their understanding through things4444 8,the foundation of all knowledge consists in correctly representing sensible objects to our senses1 so that they can be comprehended with facility4 ,i hold that this is the basis of all our other activities1 since we could neither act nor speak wisely unless we adequately comprehended what we were to do and say4 ,now it is certain that there is nothing in the understanding that was not first in the senses1 and1 consequently1 it is to lay the foundation of all wisdom1 of all eloquence1 and of all good and prudent conduct1 carefully to train the senses to note with accuracy the differences between natural objects2 and as this point1 important as it is1 is ordinarily neglected in the schools of to-day1 and as objects are proposed to scholars that they do not understand because they have not been properly represented to their senses or to their imagination1 it is for this reason1 on the one hand1 that the toil of teaching1 and on the other1 that the pain of learning1 have become so burdensome and so unfruitful4444 8,we must offer to the young1 not the shadows of things1 but the things themselves1 which impress the senses and the imagination4 ,instruction should commence with a real observation of things1 and not with a verbal description of them40 ,we see that ,comenius accepts the doctrine of ,bacon1 even to his absolute sensationalism4 ,in his pre-occupation with the importance of instruction through the senses1 he goes so far as to ignore that other source of knowledge and intuitions1 the inner consciousness4 #add4 ,,simplification ,,of ,,grammatical ,,study4--,the first result of the experimental method applied to instruction1 is to simplify grammar and to relieve it from the abuse of abstract rules4 8,children10 says ,comenius1 8need examples and things which they can see1 and not abstract rules40 ,and in the ,preface of the ,janua linguarum1 he dwells upon the faults of the old method employed for the study of languages4 8,it is a thing self-evident1 that the true and proper way of teaching languages has not been recognized in the schools up to the present time4 ,the most of those who devoted themselves to the study of letters grew old in the study of words1 and upwards of ten years was spent in the study of ,latin alone2 indeed1 they even spent their whole life in the study1 with a very slow and very trifling profit1 which did not pay for the trouble devoted to it40#ajf ,it is by use and by reading that ,comenius would abolish the abuse of rules4 ,rules ought to intervene only to aid use and give it surety4 ,the pupil will thus learn language1 either in speaking1 or in reading a book like the ,orbis ,pictus1 in which he will find at the same time all the words of which the language itself is composed1 and examples of all the constructions of its syntax4 #ade4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,drill ,,and ,,practice4--,another essential point in the new method1 is the importance attributed by ,comenius to practical exercises3 8,artisans10 he said1 8understand this matter perfectly well4 ,not one of them will give an apprentice a theoretical course on his trade4 ,he is allowed to notice what is done by his master1 and then the tool is put in his hands3 it is in smiting that one becomes a smith40#ajg ,it is no longer the thing to repeat mechanically a lesson learned by heart4 ,there must be a gradual habituation to action1 to productive work1 to personal effort4 #adf4 ,,general ,,bearing ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,comenius4--,how many other new and judicious ideas we shall have to gather from ,comenius6 ,the methods which we would be tempted to consider as wholly recent1 his imagination had already suggested to him4 ,for example1 preceding the ,orbis ,pictus1 we find an alphabet1 where to each letter corresponds the cry of an animal1 or else a sound familiar to the child4 ,is not this already the very essence of the phononimic processes#ajh brought into fashion in these last years8 ,but what is of more consequence with ,comenius than a few happy discoveries in practical pedagogy1 is the general inspiration of his work4 ,he gives to education a psychological basis in demanding that the faculties shall be developed in their natural order3 first1 the senses1 the memory1 the imagination1 and lastly the judgment and the reason4 ,he is mindful of physical exercises1 of technical and practical instruction1 without forgetting that in the primary schools1 which he calls the 8studios of humanity10 there must be trained1 not only strong and skilful artisans1 but virtuous and religious men1 imbued with the principles of order and justice4 ,if he has stepped from theology to pedagogy1 and if he permits himself sometimes to be borne along by his artless bursts of mysticism1 at least he does not forget the necessities of the real condition1 and of the present life of men4 8,the child10 he says1 8shall learn only what is to be useful to him in this life or in the other40 ,finally1 he does not allow himself to be absorbed in the minute details of school management4 ,he has higher views1--he is working for the regeneration of humanity4 ,like ,leibnitz1 he would freely say3 8,give me for a few years the direction of education1 and ,i agree to transform the world60 #adg4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,decisive changes in human opinion1 political1 religious1 or scientific1 involve corresponding changes in the purposes and methods of education4 #b4 ,the ,reformation was a breaking with authority in matters of religion1 as the ,baconian philosophy was a breaking with authority in matters of science2 and their joint effect on education was to subject matters of opinion1 belief1 and knowledge to the individual reason1 experience1 and observation4 #c4 ,in holding each human being responsible for his own salvation1 the ,reformation made it necessary for every one to read1 and the logical consequence of this was to make instruction universal2 and as schools were multiplied1 the number of teachers must be increased1 and their grade of competence raised4 #d4 ,the conception that ignorance is an evil1 and a constant menace to spiritual and temporal safety1 led to the idea of compulsory school-attendance4 #e4 ,in the recoil from the intuitions of the intellect sanctioned by ,socrates1 to the intuitions of the senses sanctioned by ,bacon1 education passed from an extreme dependence on reflection and reason1 to an extreme dependence on sense and observation2 so that inference has been thrown into discredit1 and the verdict of the senses has been made the test of knowledge4 #f4 ,in adapting the conception of universal education to the social conditions of his time1 ,comenius was led to a gradation of schools that underlies all modern systems of public instruction4 ,,footnotes3 #ie ,dittes1 op4 cit4 p4 #abg4 #if ,luther's argument for compulsion should not be omitted3 8,it is my opinion that the authorities are bound to force their subjects to send their children to school4444 ,if they can oblige their able-bodied subjects to carry the lance and the arquebuse1 to mount the ramparts1 and to do complete military service1 for a much better reason may they1 and ought they1 to force their subjects to send their children to school1 for here it is the question of a much more terrible war with the devil40 7,p47 #ig ,names for treatises on grammar and philosophy respectively4 ,donatus was a celebrated grammarian and rhetorician who taught at ,rome in the middle of the fourth century ,a4,d42 and ,alexander1 a celebrated ,greek commentator on the writings of ,aristotle1 who taught the ,peripatetic philosophy at ,athens in the end of the second and the beginning of the third centuries ,a4,d4 7,p47 #ih ,michelet1 ,nos fils1 p4 #age et seq4 #ii ,this is1 perhaps1 the earliest appearance of the conception that learning should be a process of discovery or of re-discovery4 ,condillac 7#agae-aghj7 has elaborated this idea in the introduction to his ,grammaire1 and ,spencer 7,education1 p4 #abb7 makes it a fundamental law of teaching4 ,if this assumed principle were to be rigorously applied1 as1 fortunately1 it cannot be1 progress in human knowledge would be impossible4 ,mr4 ,bain's comment on this doctrine 7,education as a ,science1 p4 #id7 is as follows3 8,this bold fiction is sometimes put forward as one of the regular arts of the teacher2 but ,i should prefer to consider it as an extraordinary device1 admissible only on special occasions40 7,p47 #ajj ,it may not be generally known that ,comenius was once solicited to become the ,president of ,harvard ,college4 ,the following is a quotation from ,vol4 ,,ii41 p4 #ad1 of ,cotton ,mather's ,magnalia3 8,that brave old man1 ,johannes ,amos ,commenius1 the fame of whose worth hath been trumpetted as far as more than three languages 7whereof every one is indebted unto his ,janua7 could carry it1 was indeed agreed withal1 by our ,mr4 ,winthrop in his travels through the low countries1 to come over into ,new ,england1 and illuminate this ,colledge and country1 in the quality of a ,president1 which was now become vacant4 ,but the solicitations of the ,swedish ,ambassador diverting him another way1 that incomparable ,moravian became not an ,american40 ,this was on the resignation of ,president ,dunster1 in #afed4 7,p47 #aja ,the most complete account ever written of ,comenius and his writings is1 8,john ,amos ,comenius10 by ,s4 ,s4 ,laurie 7,boston3 #ahhe74 ,it is an invaluable contribution to the philosophy and the history of education4 7,p47 #ajb ,buisson's ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie1 ,article ,,comenius4 #ajc ,in the ,french ,lyces and ,colleges the grades are named as follows1 beginning with the lowest3 8ninth1 eighth1 seventh1 sixth1 fifth1 fourth1 third1 second1 rhetoric1 philosophy1 preparatory mathematics1 elementary mathematics1 special mathematics40 ,latin was formerly begun in an earlier grade4 #ajd ,the public school of the ,european type may be represented by a series of 7#c7 pyramids1 the second higher than the first1 and the third higher than the second1 each independent and complete in itself2 while the public school of the ,american type is represented by a single pyramid in three sections4 ,while in an ,english1 ,french1 or ,german town1 public education is administered in three separate establishments1 in an ,american town there is a single graded school that fulfills the same functions4 7,p47 #aje ,platter1 a ,swiss teacher of the sixteenth century 7#adii-aehb74 #ajf ,for this quotation1 as for all those which we borrow from the preface of the ,janua linguarum1 a ,french edition of which 7in three languages3 ,latin1 ,german1 and ,french7 appeared in #afdc1 we copy from the authentic text4 #ajg ,there is a misleading fallacy in all such illustrations4 ,what analogy is there between the learning of history or geology and the learning of a trade like carpentry8 ,should a physician and a blacksmith be educated on the same plan8 ,in every case knowledge should precede practice2 and the liberal arts are best learned by first learning their correlative sciences4 7,p47 #ajh 8,a process of instruction which consists in placing beside the elements of human speech thirty-three onomatopoetic gestures1 which recall to the sight the same ideas that the sounds and the articulations of the voice recall to the ear40--,,grosselin4 7,p47 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,congregations4--,,jesuits ,,and ,,jansenists4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,congregations2 ,,jesuits ,,and ,,jansenists2 ,,foundation ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,jesus 7#aedj72 ,,different ,,judgments ,,on ,,the ,,educational ,,merits ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits2 ,,authorities ,,to ,,consult2 ,,primary ,,instruction ,,neglected2 ,,classical ,,studies2 ,,latin ,,and ,,the ,,humanities2 ,,neglect ,,of ,,history1 ,,of ,,philosophy1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,sciences ,,in ,,general2 ,,discipline2 ,,emulation ,,encouraged2 ,,official ,,disciplinarian2 ,,general ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits2 ,,the ,,oratorians2 ,,the ,,little ,,schools2 ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,language2 ,,new ,,system ,,of ,,spelling2 ,,the ,,masters ,,and ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,port ,,royal2 ,,discipline ,,in ,,personal ,,reflection2 ,,general ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,intellectual ,,education ,,at ,,port ,,royal2 ,,nicole2 ,,moral ,,pessimism2 ,,effects ,,on ,,discipline2 ,,faults ,,in ,,the ,,discipline ,,of ,,port ,,royal2 ,,general ,,judgment ,,on ,,port ,,royal2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #adh4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,congregations4#aji--,up to the ,french ,revolution1 up to the day when the conception of a public and national education was embodied in the legislative acts of our assembled rulers1 education remained almost exclusively an affair of the ,church4 ,the universities themselves were dependent in part on religious authority4 ,but especially the great congregations assumed a monopoly of the work of teaching1 the direction and control of which the ,state had not yet claimed for her right4 ,primary instruction1 it is true1 scarcely entered at first into the settled plans of the religious orders4 ,the only exception to this statement that can properly be made1 is the congregation of the ,christian ,doctrine1 which a humble priest1 ,csar de ,bus1 founded at ,avignon in #aeib1 the avowed purpose of which was the religious education of the children of the company4#aaj ,but1 on the other hand1 secondary instruction provoked the greatest educational event of the sixteenth century1 the founding of the company of ,jesus1 and this movement was continued and extended in the seventeenth century1 either in the colleges of the ,jesuits1 ever growing in number1 or in other rival congregations4 #adi4 ,,jesuits ,,and ,,jansenists4--,among the religious orders that have consecrated their efforts to the work of teaching1 the first place must be assigned to the ,jesuits and the ,jansenists4 ,different in their statutes1 their organization1 and their destinies1 these two congregations are still more different in their spirit4 ,they represent1 in fact1 two opposite1 and1 as it were1 contrary phases of human nature and of the ,christian spirit4 ,for the ,jesuits1 education is reduced to a superficial culture of the brilliant faculties of the intelligence2 while the ,jansenists1 on the contrary1 aspire to develop the solid faculties1 the judgment1 and the reason4 ,in the colleges of the ,jesuits1 rhetoric is held in honor2 while in the ,little ,schools of ,port ,royal1 it is rather logic and the exercise of thought4 ,the shrewd disciples of ,loyola adapt themselves to the times1 and are full of compassion for human weakness2 the solitaries of ,port ,royal are exacting of others and of themselves4 ,in their suppleness and cheerful optimism1 the ,jesuits are almost the ,epicureans of ,christianity2 with their austere and somewhat sombre doctrine1 the ,jansenists would rather be the ,stoics4 ,the ,jesuits and the ,jansenists1 those great rivals of the seventeenth century1 are still face to face as enemies at the present moment4 ,while the inspiration of the ,jesuits tries to maintain the old worn-out exercises1 like ,latin verse1 and the abuse of the memory1 the spirit of the ,jansenists animates and inspires the reformers1 who1 in the teaching of the classics1 break with tradition and routine1 to substitute for exercises aimed at elegance1 and for a superficial instruction1 studies of a greater solidity and an education that is more complete4 ,the merit of institutions ought not always to be measured by their apparent success4 ,the colleges of the ,jesuits1 during three centuries1 have had a countless number of pupils2 the ,little ,schools of ,port ,royal did not live twenty years1 and during their short existence they enrolled at most only some hundreds of pupils4 ,and yet the methods of the ,jansenists have survived the ruin of their colleges and the dispersion of the teachers who had applied them4 ,although the ,jesuits have not ceased to rule in appearance1 it is the ,jansenists who triumph in reality1 and who to-day control the secondary instruction of ,france4 #aej4 ,,foundation ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,jesus4--,in organizing the ,society of ,jesus1 ,ignatius ,loyola1 that compound of the mystic and the man of the world1 purposed to establish1 not an order devoted to monastic contemplation1 but a real fighting corps1 a ,catholic army1 whose double purpose was to conquer new provinces to the faith through missions1 and to preserve the old through the control of education4 ,solemnly consecrated by the ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 in #aedj1 the congregation had a rapid growth4 ,as early as the middle of the sixteenth century1 it had several colleges in ,france1 particularly those of ,billom1 ,mauriac1 ,rodez1 ,tournon1 and ,pamiers4 ,in #aefa it secured a footing in ,paris1 notwithstanding the resistance of the ,parliament1 of the university1 and of the bishops themselves4 ,a hundred years later it counted nearly fourteen thousand pupils in the province of ,paris alone4 ,the college of ,clermont1 in #afea1 enrolled more than two thousand young men4 ,the middle and higher classes assured to the colleges of the society an ever-increasing membership4 ,at the end of the seventeenth century1 the ,jesuits could inscribe on the roll of honor of their classes a hundred illustrious names1 among others1 those of ,cond and ,luxembourg1 ,flchier and ,bossuet1 ,lamoignon and ,sguier1 ,descartes1 ,corneille1 and ,molire4 ,in #agaj they controlled six hundred and twelve colleges and a large number of universities4 ,they were the real masters of education1 and they maintained this educational supremacy till the end of the eighteenth century4 #aea4 ,,different ,,judgments ,,on ,,the ,,educational ,,merits ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits4--,voltaire said of these teachers3 8,the ,fathers taught me nothing but ,latin and nonsense40 ,but from the seventeenth century1 opinions are divided1 and the encomiums of ,bacon and ,descartes must be offset by the severe judgment of ,leibnitz4 8,in the matter of education10 says this great philosopher1 8the ,jesuits have remained below mediocrity40#aaa ,directly to the contrary1 ,bacon had written3 8,as to whatever relates to the instruction of the young1 we must consult the schools of the ,jesuits1 for there can be nothing that is better done40#aab #aeb4 ,,authorities ,,to ,,consult4--,the ,jesuits have never written anything on the principles and objects of education4 ,we must not demand of them an exposition of general views1 or a confession of their educational faith4 ,but to make amends1 they have drawn up with precision1 with almost infinite attention to details1 the rules and regulations of their course of study4 ,already1 in #aeei1 the ,constitutions1 probably written by ,loyola himself1 devoted a whole book to the organization of the colleges of the society4#aac ,but in particular1 the ,ratio ,studiorum1 published in #aeii1 contains a complete scholastic programme1 which has remained for three centuries the invariable educational code of the congregation4 ,without doubt1 the ,jesuits1 always ready to make apparent concessions to the spirit of the times1 without sacrificing anything of their own spirit1 and without renouncing their inflexible purpose1 have introduced modifications into their original rules2 but the spirit of their educational practice has remained the same1 and1 in #ahed1 ,beckx1 the actual general of the order1 could still declare that the ,ratio is the immutable rule of ,jesuit education4 #aec4 ,,primary ,,instruction ,,neglected4--,a permanent and characteristic feature of the educational policy of the ,jesuits is1 that1 during the whole course of their history1 they have deliberately neglected and disdained primary instruction4 ,the earth is covered with their ,latin colleges2 and wherever they have been able1 they have put their hands on the institutions for university education2 but in no instance have they founded a primary school4 ,even in their establishments for secondary instruction1 they entrust the lower classes to teachers who do not belong to their order1 and reserve to themselves the direction of the higher classes4 ,must we believe1 as they have declared in order to explain this negligence1 that the only reason for their reserve and their indifference is to be sought for in the insufficiency of their teaching force8 ,no2 the truth is that the ,jesuits neither desire nor love the instruction of the people4 ,to desire and to love this1 there must be faith in conscience and reason2 there must be a belief in human equality4 ,now the ,jesuits distrust the human intelligence1 and administer only the aristocratic education of the ruling classes1 whom they hope to retain under their own control4 ,they wish to train amiable gentlemen1 accomplished men of the world2 they have no conception of training men4 ,intellectual culture1 in their view1 is but a convenience1 imposed on certain classes of the nation by their rank4 ,it is not a good in itself2 it may even become an evil4 ,in certain hands it is a dangerous weapon4 ,the ignorance of a people is the best safeguard of its faith1 and faith is the supreme end4 ,so we shall not be astonished to read this in the ,constitutions3-- 8,none of those who are employed in domestic service on account of the society1 ought to learn to read and write1 or1 if they already know these arts1 to learn more of them4 ,they shall not be instructed without the consent of the ,general1 for it suffices for them to serve with all simplicity and humility our ,master1 ,jesus ,christ40 #aed4 ,,classical ,,studies3 ,,latin ,,and ,,the ,,humanities4--,it is only in secondary instruction that the ,jesuits have taken position with marked success4 ,the basis of their teaching is the study of ,latin and ,greek4 ,their purpose is to monopolize classical studies in order to make them serve for the propagation of the ,catholic faith4 ,to write in ,latin is the ideal which they propose to their pupils4 ,the first consequence of this is the proscription of the mother tongue4 ,the ,ratio forbids the use of ,french even in conversation2 it permits it only on holidays4 ,hence1 also1 the importance accorded to ,latin and ,greek composition1 to the explication of authors1 and to the study of grammar1 rhetoric1 and poetry4 ,it is to be noted1 besides1 that the ,jesuits put scarcely more into the hands of their pupils than select extracts1 expurgated editions4 ,they wish1 in some sort1 to efface from the ancient books whatever marks the epoch and characterizes the time4 ,they detach fine passages of eloquence and beautiful extracts of poetry2 but they are afraid1 it seems1 of the authors themselves2 they fear lest the pupil find in them the old human spirit1--the spirit of nature4 ,moreover1 in the explication of authors1 they pay more attention to words than to things4 ,they direct the pupil's attention1 not to the thoughts1 but to the elegancies of language1 to the elocutionary effect2 in a word1 to the form1 which1 at least1 has no religious character1 and can in nowise give umbrage to ,catholic orthodoxy4 ,they fear to awaken reflection and individual judgment4 ,as ,macaulay has said1 they seem to have found the point up to which intellectual culture can be pushed without reaching intellectual emancipation4 #aee4 ,,disdain ,,of ,,history1 ,,of ,,philosophy1 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,sciences ,,in ,,general4--,preoccupied before all else with purely formal studies1 and exclusively devoted to the exercises which give a training in the use of elegant language1 the ,jesuits leave real and concrete studies in entire neglect4 ,history is almost wholly banished from their programme4 ,it is only with reference to the ,greek and ,latin texts that the teacher should make allusion to the matters of history which are necessary for the understanding of the passage under examination4 ,no account is made of modern history1 nor of the history of ,france4 8,history10 says a ,jesuit ,father1 8is the destruction of him who studies it40 ,this systematic omission of historical studies suffices to put in its true light the artificial and superficial pedagogy of the ,jesuits1 admirably defined by ,beckx1 who expresses himself thus3-- 8,the gymnasia will remain what they are by nature1 a gymnastic for the intellect1 which consists far less in the assimilation of real matter1 in the acquisition of different knowledges1 than in a culture of pure form40 ,the sciences and philosophy are involved in the same disdain as history4 ,scientific studies are entirely proscribed in the lower classes1 and the student enters his year in philosophy1#aad having studied only the ancient languages4 ,philosophy itself is reduced to a barren study of words1 to subtile discussions1 and to commentaries on ,aristotle4 ,memory and syllogistic reasoning are the only faculties called into play2 no facts1 no real inductions1 no care for the observation of nature4 ,in all things the ,jesuits are the enemies of progress4 ,intolerant of everything new1 they would arrest the progress of the human mind and make it immovable4 #aef4 ,,discipline4--,extravagant statements have been made relative to the reforms in discipline introduced by the ,jesuits into their educational establishments4 ,the fact is1 that they have caused to prevail in their colleges more of order and of system than there was in the establishments of the ,university4 ,on the other hand1 they have attempted to please their pupils1 to gild for them1 so to speak1 the bars of the prison which confined them4 ,theatrical representations1 excursions on holidays1 practice in swimming1 riding1 and fencing1--nothing was neglected that could render their residence at school endurable4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the ,jesuits have incurred the grave fault of detaching the child from the family4 ,they wish to have absolute control of him4 ,the ideal of the perfect scholar is to forget his parents4 ,here is what was said by a pupil of the ,jesuits1 who afterwards became a member of the ,order1 ,j4 ,b4 de ,schultaus3-- 8,his mother paid him a visit at the ,college of ,trent4 ,he refused to take her hand1 and would not even raise his eyes to hers4 ,the mother1 astonished and grieved1 asked her son the cause of such a cold greeting4 #8,i refuse to notice you1' said the pupil1 #8not because you are my mother1 but because you are a woman4' ,and the biographer adds3 #8,this was not excessive precaution2 woman preserves to-day the faults she had at the time of our first father2 it is always she who drives man from ,paradise4' ,when the mother of ,schultaus died1 he did not show the least emotion1 having long ago adopted the ,holy ,virgin for his true mother40 #aeg4 ,,emulation ,,encouraged4--,the ,jesuits have always considered emulation as one of the essential elements of discipline4 8,it is necessary10 says the ,ratio1 8to encourage an honorable emulation2 it is a great stimulus to study40 ,superior on this point1 perhaps on this alone1 to the ,jansenists1 who through mistrust of human nature feared to excite pride by encouraging emulation1 the ,jesuits have always counted upon the self-love of the pupil4 ,the ,ratio multiplies rewards1--solemn distributions of prizes1 crosses1 ribbons1 decorations1 titles borrowed from the ,roman ,republic1 such as decurions and prtors2 all means1 even the most puerile1 were invented to nourish in pupils an ardor for work1 and to incite them to surpass one another4 ,let us add that the pupil was rewarded1 not only for his own good conduct1 but for the bad conduct of his comrades if he informed against them4 ,the decurion or the prtor was charged with the police care of the class1 and1 in the absence of the official disciplinarian1 he himself chastised his comrades2 in the hands of his teacher1 he became a spy and an informer4 ,thus a pupil1 liable to punishment for having spoken ,french contrary to orders1 will be relieved from his punishment if he can prove by witnesses that one of his comrades has committed the same fault on the same day4 #aeh4 ,,official ,,disciplinarian4--,the rod is an element1 so to speak1 of the ancient pedagogical rgime4 ,it holds a privileged place both in the colleges and in private education4 ,louis ,,xiv4 officially transmits to the ,duke of ,montausier the right to correct his son4 ,henry ,,iv4 wrote to the governor of ,louis ,,xiii43 8,i complain because you did not inform me that you had whipped my son2 for ,i desire and order you to whip him every time that he shall be guilty of obstinacy or of anything else that is bad2 for ,i well know that there is nothing in the world that can do him more good than that4 ,this ,i know from the lessons of experience1 for when ,i was of his age1 ,i was soundly flogged40#aae ,the ,jesuits1 notwithstanding their disposition to make discipline milder1 were careful not to renounce a punishment that was in use even at court4 ,only1 while the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 according to the regulations of ,la ,salle1 chastised the guilty pupil themselves1 the ,jesuits did not think it becoming the dignity of the master to apply the correction himself4 ,they reserved to a laic the duty of handling the rods4 ,an official disciplinarian1 a domestic1 a porter1 was charged in all the colleges with the functions of chief executioner4 ,and while the ,ratio ,studiorum recommends moderation1 certain witnesses prove that the special disciplinarian did not always carry a discreet hand4 ,here1 for example1 is an account given by ,saint ,simon3-- 8,the eldest son of the ,marquis of ,boufflers was fourteen years old4 ,he was handsome1 well formed1 was wonderfully successful1 and full of promise4 ,he was a resident pupil of the ,jesuits with the two sons of d',argenson4 ,i do not know what indiscretion he and they were guilty of4 ,the ,fathers wished to show that they neither feared nor stood in awe of any one1 and they flogged the boy1 because1 in fact1 they had nothing to fear of the ,marquis of ,boufflers2 but they were careful not to treat the two others in this way1 though equally culpable1 because every day they had to count with d',argenson1 who was lieutenant of police4 ,the boy ,boufflers was thrown into such mental agony that he fell sick on the same day1 and within four days was dead4444 ,there was a universal and furious outcry against the ,jesuits1 but nothing ever came of it40#aaf #aei4 ,,general ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits4--,the general principles of the doctrine of the ,jesuits are completely opposed to our modern ideas4 ,blind obedience1 the suppression of all liberty and of all spontaneity1 such is the basis of their moral education4 8,to renounce one's own wishes is more meritorious than to raise the dead20 8,we must be so attached to the ,roman ,church as to hold for black an object which she tells us is black1 even when it is really white20 8,our confidence in ,god should be strong enough to force us1 in the lack of a boat1 to cross the ocean on a single plank20 8,if ,god should appoint for our master an animal deprived of reason1 you should not hesitate to render it obedience1 as to a master and a guide1 for this sole reason1 that ,god has ordered it thus20 8,one must allow himself to be governed by divine ,providence acting through the agency of the superiors of the ,order1 just as if he were a dead body that could be put into any position whatever1 and treated according to one's good pleasure2 or as if one were a bton in the hands of an old man who uses it as he pleases40 ,as to intellectual education1 as they understand it1 it is wholly artificial and superficial4 ,to find for the mind occupations that absorb it1 that soothe it like a dream1 without wholly awakening it2 to call attention to words1 and to niceties of expression1 so as to reduce by so much the opportunity for thinking2 to provoke a certain degree of intellectual activity1 prudently arrested at the place where the reflective reason succeeds an embellished memory2 in a word1 to excite the spirit just enough to arouse it from its inertia and its ignorance1 but not enough to endow it with a real self-activity by a manly display of all its faculties1--such is the method of the ,jesuits4 8,as to instruction10 says ,bersot1 8this is what we find with them3 history reduced to facts and tables1 without the lesson derived from them bearing on the knowledge of the world2 even the facts suppressed or altered when they say too much2 philosophy reduced to what is called empirical doctrine1 and what de ,maistre called the philosophy of the nothing1 without danger of one's acquiring a liking for it2 physical science reduced to recreations1 without the spirit of research and liberty2 literature reduced to the complaisant explication of the ancient authors1 and ending in innocent witticisms4444 ,with respect to letters1 there are two loves which have nothing in common save their name2 one of them makes men1 the other1 great boys4 ,it is the last that we find with the ,jesuits2 they amuse the soul40 #afj4 ,,the ,,oratorians4--,between the ,jesuits1 their adversaries1 and the ,jansenists1 their friends1 the ,oratorians occupy an intermediate place4 ,they break already with the over-mechanical education1 and with the wholly superficial instruction which ,ignatius ,loyola had inaugurated4 ,through some happy innovations they approach the more elevated and more profound education of ,port ,royal4 ,founded in #afad1 by ,brulle1 the ,order of the ,oratory soon counted quite a large number of colleges of secondary instruction1 and1 in particular1 in #afch1 the famous college of ,juilly4 ,while with the ,jesuits it is rare to meet the names of celebrated professors1 several renowned teachers have made illustrious the ,oratory of the seventeenth century4 ,we note the ,pre ,lamy1 author of ,entretiens sur les ,sciences 7#afhc72 the ,pre ,thomassin1 whom the ,oratorians call the 8incomparable theologian10 and who published1 from #afha to #afij1 a series of ,methods for studying the languages1 philosophy1 and letters2 ,mascaron and ,massillon1 who taught rhetoric at the ,oratory2 the ,pre ,lecointe and the ,pre ,lelong1 who taught history there4 ,all these men unite1 in general1 some love of liberty to ardor of religious sentiment2 they wish to introduce more air and more light into the cloister and the school2 they have a taste for the facts of history and the truths of science2 finally1 they attempt to found an education at once liberal and ,christian1 religious without abuse of devotion1 elegant without refinement1 solid without excess of erudition1 worthy1 finally1 to be counted as one of the first practical tentatives of modern pedagogy4 ,the limits of this study forbid our entering into details4 ,let us merely note a few essential points4 ,that which distinguishes the ,oratorians1 is1 first1 a sincere and disinterested love of truth4 8,we love the truth10 says the ,pre ,lamy2 8the days do not suffice to consult her as long as we would wish2 or1 rather1 we never grow weary of the pleasure we find in studying her4 ,there has always been that love for letters in this ,house3 those who have governed it have tried to nourish it4 ,when there is found among us some penetrating and liberally endowed spirit who has a rare genius for the sciences1 he is discharged from all other duties40#aag ,nowhere have ancient letters been more loved than at the ,oratory4 8,in his leisure hours the ,pre ,thomassin read only the authors of the humanities20 and yet ,french was not there sacrificed to ,latin4 ,the use of the ,latin language was not obligatory till after the fourth year1 and even then not for the lessons in history1 which1 till the end of the courses1 had to be given in ,french4 ,history1 so long neglected even in the colleges of the ,university1 particularly the history of ,france1 was taught to the pupils of the ,oratory4 ,geography was not separated from it2 and the class-rooms were furnished with large mural maps4 ,on the other hand1 the sciences had a place in the course of study4 ,a ,jesuit father would not have expressed himself as the ,pre ,lamy has done3-- 8,it is a pleasure to enter the laboratory of a chemist4 ,in the places where ,i have happened to be1 ,i did not miss an opportunity to attend the anatomical lectures that were given1 and to witness the dissection of the principal parts of the human body4444 ,i know of nothing of greater use than algebra and arithmetic40 ,finally1 philosophy itself1--the ,cartesian philosophy1 so mercilessly decried by the ,jesuits1--was in vogue at the ,oratory4 8,if ,cartesianism is a pest10 wrote the regents of the ,college of ,angers1 8there are more than two hundred of us who are infected with it40 444 8,they have forbidden the ,fathers of the ,oratory to teach the philosophy of ,descartes1 and1 consequently1 the blood to circulate10 wrote ,madame de ,svign1 in #afgc4 ,let us also furnish proof of the progress and amelioration of the discipline at the ,oratory3-- 8,there are many other ways besides the rod10 says the ,pre ,lamy2 8and1 to lead pupils back to their duty1 a caress1 a threat1 the hope of a reward1 or the fear of a humiliation1 has greater efficiency than whips40 ,the ferule1 it is true1 and whips also1 were not forbidden1 but made part of the legitima pnarum genera4 ,but it does not appear that use was often made of them2 either through a spirit of mildness1 or through prudence1 and through the fear of exasperating the child4 8,there is needed10 says the ,pre ,lamy again1 8a sort of politics to govern this little community1--to lead them through their inclinations2 to foresee the effect of rewards and punishments1 and to employ them according to their proper use4 ,there are times of stubbornness when a child would sooner be killed than yield40 ,what made it easier at the ,oratory to maintain the authority of the master without resorting to violent punishments1 is that the same professor accompanied the pupils through the whole series of their classes4 ,the ,pre ,thomassin1 for example1 was1 in turn1 professor of grammar1 rhetoric1 philosophy1 mathematics1 history1 ,italian1 and ,spanish1--a touching example1 it must be allowed1 of an absolute devotion to scholastic labor4 ,but this universality1 somewhat superficial1 served neither the real interests of the masters nor those of their pupils4 ,the great pedagogical law is the division of labor4 #afa4 ,,foundation ,,of ,,the ,,little ,,schools4--,from the very organization of their society1 the ,jansenists gave evidences of an ardent solicitude for the education of youth4 ,their founder1 ,saint ,cyran1 said3 8,education is1 in a sense1 the one thing necessary4444 ,i wish you might read in my heart the affection ,i feel for children4444 ,you could not deserve more of ,god than in working for the proper bringing up of children40 ,it was in this disinterested feeling of charity for the good of the young1 in this display of sincere tenderness for children1 that the ,jansenists1 in #afdc1 founded the ,little ,schools at ,port ,royal in the ,fields1 in the vicinity1 and then in ,paris4#aah ,they received into those schools only a small number of pupils1 preoccupied as they were1 not with dominating the world and extending their influence1 but with doing modestly and obscurely the good they could4 ,persecution did not long grant them the leisure to continue the work they had undertaken4 ,by #affj the enemies of ,port ,royal had triumphed2 the ,jesuits obtained an order from the king closing the schools and dispersing the teachers4 ,pursued1 imprisoned1 expatriated1 the solitaries of ,port ,royal had but the opportunity to gather up in memorable documents the results of their educational experience all too short4#aai #afb4 ,,the ,,teachers ,,and ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,port ,,royal4--,singular destiny1--that of those teachers whom a relentless fate permitted to exercise their functions for only five years1 yet who1 through their works1 have remained perhaps the best authorized exponents of ,french education6 ,the first of these is ,nicole1 the moralist and logician1 one of the authors of the ,port ,royal ,logic1 who taught philosophy and the humanities in the ,little ,schools1 and who published in #afgj1 under the title1 ,the ,education of a ,prince1 a series of reflections on education1 applicable1 as he himself says1 to children of all classes4 ,another is ,lancelot1 the grammarian1 the author of the ,methods for learning the ,latin1 ,greek1 ,italian1 and ,spanish languages4 ,then there is ,arnauld1 the great ,arnauld1 the ardent theologian1 who worked on the ,logic1 and the ,general ,grammar1 and who finally composed the ,regulation of ,studies in the ,humanities4 ,in connection with these celebrated names1 we must mention other ,jansenists not so well known1 such as ,de ,sacy and ,guyot1 both of whom were the authors of a large number of translations2 ,coustel1 who published the ,rules for the ,education of ,children 7#afhg72 ,varet1 the author of ,christian ,education 7#affh74 ,let us add to this list1 still incomplete1 the ,regimen for ,children1 by ,jacqueline ,pascal 7#afeg71 and we shall have some idea of the educational activity of ,port ,royal4 #afc4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,language4--,as a general rule1 we may have a good opinion of the teachers who recommend the study of the mother tongue4 ,in this respect1 the solitaries of ,port ,royal are in advance of their time4 8,we first teach to read in ,latin10 said the ,abb ,fleury1 8because1 compared with ,french1 we pronounce it more as it is written40#abj ,a curious reason1 which did not satisfy ,fleury himself2 for he acknowledged the propriety of putting1 as soon as possible1 into the hands of children1 the ,french books that they can understand4 ,this was what was done at ,port ,royal4 ,with their love of exactness and clearness1 with their disposition1 wholly ,cartesian1 to make children study only the things they can comprehend1 the ,jansenists saw at once the great absurdity of choosing ,latin works as the first reading-books4 8,to learn ,latin before learning the mother tongue10 said ,comenius1 wittily1 8is like wishing to mount a horse before knowing how to walk40 ,and again1 as ,sainte-,beuve says1 8,it is to compel unfortunate children to deal with the unintelligible in order to proceed towards the unknown40 ,for these unintelligible texts1 the ,jansenists substituted1 not1 it is true1 original ,french works1 but at least good translations of ,latin authors4 ,for the first time in ,france1 the ,french language was made the subject of serious study4 ,before being made to write in ,latin1 pupils were drilled in writing in ,french4 ,they were set to compose little narratives1 little letters1 the subjects of which were borrowed from their recollections1 by being asked to relate on the spot what they had retained of what they had read4 #afd4 ,,new ,,system ,,of ,,spelling4--,in their constant preoccupation to make study easier1 the ,jansenists reformed the current method of learning to read4 8,what makes reading more difficult10 says ,arnauld in ,chapter ,,vi4 of the ,general ,grammar1 8is that while each letter has its own proper name1 it is given a different name when it is found associated with other letters4 ,for example1 if the pupil is made to read the syllable fry1 he is made to say ef1 ar1 y1 which invariably confuses him4 ,it is best1 therefore1 to teach children to know the letters only by the names of their real pronunciation1 to name them only by their natural sounds40 ,port ,royal proposes1 then1 8to have children pronounce only the vowels and the diphthongs1 and not the consonants1 which they need not pronounce1 except in the different combinations which they form with the same vowels or diphthongs1 in syllables and words40 ,this method has become celebrated under the name of the ,port ,royal ,method2 and it appears1 from a letter of ,jacqueline ,pascal1 that the original notion was due to ,pascal himself4#aba #afe4 ,,discipline ,,in ,,personal ,,reflection4--,that which profoundly distinguishes the method of the ,jansenists from the method of the ,jesuits1 is that at ,port ,royal the purpose is less to make good ,latinists than to train sound intelligences4 ,the effort is to call into activity the judgment and personal reflection4 ,as soon as the child is capable of it1 he is made to think and comprehend4 ,in the lessons of the class-room1 not a word is allowed to pass till the child has understood its meaning4 ,only those tasks are proposed to the child which are adapted to his childish intelligence4 ,his attention is occupied only with the things that are within the compass of his powers4 ,the grammars of ,port ,royal are written in ,french1 8because it is ridiculous10 says ,nicole1 8to teach the principles of a language in the very language that is to be learned1 and that for the present is unknown40 ,lancelot1 in his ,methods1 abbreviates and simplifies grammatical studies3-- 8,i have found out1 at last1 how useful this maxim of ,ramus is1--,few precepts and much practice3 and1 also1 that as soon as children begin to know these rules somewhat1 it is well to make them observe them in practice40 ,it is by the reading of authors that the grammar of ,port ,royal completes the theoretical study of the rules that are rigidly reduced to their minimum4 ,the professor1 with reference to such or such a passage of an author1 will make appropriate oral remarks4 ,in this way the example1 not the dry and uninteresting one of the grammar1 but the living example1 expressive1 and1 drawn from a writer that is being read with interest1 will precede or accompany the rule1 and the particular case will explain the general law4 ,this is an excellent method1 because it accords with the real movement of the mind1 and adapts the sequence of studies to the progress of the intelligence1 and also because1 according to the advice of ,descartes1 the child in this way proceeds from the known to the unknown1 from the simple to the complex4 #aff4 ,,general ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,intellectual ,,education ,,at ,,port ,,royal4--,without doubt1 we need not expect to find among the solitaries of ,port ,royal a disinterested devotion to science4 ,in their view1 instruction is but a means of forming the judgment4 8,the sciences should be employed10 says ,nicole1 8only as an instrument for perfecting the reason40 ,historical1 literary1 and scientific knowledge has no intrinsic value4 ,the thing required is simply to employ those subjects for educating just1 equitable1 and judicious men4 ,nicole declares that it would be better absolutely to ignore the sciences than to become absorbed in the useless portions of them4 ,speaking of astronomical researches1 and of the works of those mathematicians who believe that 8it is the finest thing in the world to know whether there is a bridge and an arch suspended around the planet ,saturn10 he concludes that it is preferable to be ignorant of those things than to be ignorant that they are vain4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the ,jansenists have struck from their programme of studies everything that is merely sterile verbiage1 exercises of memory or of artificial imagination4 ,little attention is given to ,latin verse at ,port ,royal4 ,version takes precedence of the theme1#abb and the oral theme often replaces the written4 ,the pupil is to be taught1 8not to be blinded by a vain flash of words void of sense1 not to rest satisfied with mere words or obscure principles1 and never to be satisfied till he has gained a clear insight into things40 #afg4 ,,pedagogical ,,principles ,,of ,,nicole4--,in his treatise on the ,education of a ,prince1 ,nicole has summarized1 under the form of aphorisms1 some of the essential principles of his system of education4 ,let us first notice this maxim1 a true pedagogical axiom3 8,the purpose of instruction is to carry forward intelligences to the farthest point they are capable of attaining40 ,this is saying that every child1 whether of the nobility or of the people1 has the right to be instructed according to his aptitude and ability4 ,another axiom3 ,we must proportion difficulties to the growing development of the child's intelligence4 8,the greatest minds have but a limited range of intelligence4 ,in all of them there are regions of twilight and shadow2 but the intelligence of the child is almost wholly pervaded by shadows2 he catches glimpses of but few rays of light4 ,so everything depends on managing these rays1 on increasing them1 and on exposing to them whatever we wish to have the child comprehend40 ,a corollary to the preceding axiom is1 that the first appeal must be made to the senses4 8,the intelligence of children always being very dependent on the senses1 we must1 as far as possible1 address our instruction to the senses1 and cause it to reach the mind1 not only through hearing1 but also through seeing40 ,consequently1 geography is a study well adapted to early years1 provided we employ books in which the largest cities are pictured4 ,if children study the history of a country1 we must not neglect to show them the situation of places on the map4 ,nicole also recommends that they be shown pictures that represent the machines1 the arms1 and the dress of the ancients1 and also the portraits of kings and illustrious men4 #afh4 ,,moral ,,pessimism4--,man is wicked1 human nature is corrupt3 such is the cry of despair that comes to our ears from all the writings of the ,jansenists4 8,the devil10 says ,saint ,cyran1 8already possesses the soul of even the unborn child40 444 ,and again3 8,we must always pray for souls1 and always be on the watch1 standing guard as in a city menaced by an enemy4 ,on the outside the devil makes his rounds40 444 8,as soon as children begin to have reason10 says another ,jansenist1 8we observe in them only blindness and weakness4 ,their minds are closed to spiritual things1 and they cannot comprehend them4 ,but1 on the contrary1 their eyes are open to evil2 their senses are susceptible to all sorts of corruption1 and they have a natural inertia that inclines them to it40 8,you ought10 writes ,varet1 8to consider your children as wholly inclined to evil1 and carried forward towards it4 ,all their inclinations are corrupt1 and1 not being governed by reason1 they will permit them to find pleasure and diversion only in the things that carry them towards vice40 #afi4 ,,effects ,,on ,,discipline4--,the doctrine of the original perversity of man may produce contrary results1 and direct the practical conduct of those who accept it in two opposite directions4 ,they are either inspired with severity toward beings deeply tainted and vicious1 or they are excited to pity and to tenderness for those fallen creatures who suffer from an incurable evil4 ,the solitaries of ,port ,royal obeyed the second tendency4 ,they were as affectionate and good to the children confided to their care as1 in theory1 they were harsh and rigorous towards human nature4 ,in the presence of their pupils they felt touched with an infinite tenderness for those poor sick souls1 whom they would willingly cure of their ills1 and raise from their fall1 at the cost of any and every sacrifice4 ,the conception of the native wickedness of man had still another result at ,port ,royal4 ,it increased the zeal of the teachers4 ,it prompted them to multiply their assiduity and vigilance in order to keep guard over young souls1 and there destroy1 whenever possible1 the seeds of evil that sin had sown in them4 ,when one is charged with the difficult mission of moral education1 it is1 perhaps1 dangerous to have too much confidence in human nature1 and to form too favorable an opinion of its qualities and dispositions2 for then one is tempted to accord to the child too large a liberty1 and to practise the maxim1 8,let it take its own course1 let it pass0 7,laissez faire1 laissez passer74 ,it is better to err on the other side1 in excess of mistrust2 for1 in this case1 knowing the dangers that menace the child1 we watch over him with more attention1 abandon him less to the inspiration of his caprices1 and expect more of education2 we demand of effort and labor what we judge nature incapable of producing by herself4 ,vigilance1 patience1 mildness1--these are the instruments of discipline in the schools of ,port ,royal4 ,there were scarcely any punishments in the ,little ,schools4 8,to speak little1 to tolerate much1 to pray still more10--these are the three things that ,saint ,cyran recommended4 ,the threat to send children home to their parents sufficed to maintain order in a flock somewhat small4 ,in fact1 all whose example would have proved bad were sent away2 an excellent system of elimination when it is practicable4 ,the pious solitaries endured without complaint1 faults in which they saw the necessary consequences of the original fall4 ,penetrated1 however1 as they were1 with the value of human souls1 their tenderness for children was mingled with a certain respect2 for they saw in them the creatures of ,god1 beings called from eternity to a sublime destiny or to a terrible punishment4 #agj4 ,,faults ,,in ,,the ,,discipline ,,of ,,port ,,royal4--,the ,jansenists did not shun the logical though dangerous consequences that were involved1 in germ1 in their pessimistic theories of human nature4 ,they fell into an excess of prudence or of rigidity4 ,they pushed gravity and dignity to a formalism that was somewhat repulsive4 ,at ,port ,royal pupils were forbidden to thee and thou one another4 ,the solitaries did not like familiarities1 faithful in this respect to the ,imitation of ,jesus ,christ1 in which it is somewhere said that it does not become a ,christian to be on familiar terms with any one whatever4 ,the young were thus brought up in habits of mutual respect1 which may have had their good side1 but which had the grave fault of being a little ridiculous in children1 since they forced them to live among themselves as little gentlemen1 while at the same time they oppose the development of those intimate friendships1 of those lasting attachments of which all those who have lived at college know the sweetness and the charm4 ,the spirit of asceticism is the general character of all the ,jansenists4 ,varet declares that balls are places of infamy4 ,pascal denies himself every agreeable thought1 and what he called an agreeable thought was to reflect on geometry4 ,lancelot refuses to take to the theatre the princes of ,conti1 of whom he was the preceptor4 ,but perhaps a graver fault at ,port ,royal was1 that through fear of awakening self-love1 the spirit of emulation was purposely suppressed4 ,it is ,god alone1 it was said1 who is to be praised for the qualities and talents manifested by men4 8,if ,god has placed something of good in the soul of a child1 we must praise ,him for it and keep silent40 ,by this deliberate silence men put themselves on guard against pride2 but if pride is to be feared1 is indolence the less so8 ,and when we purposely avoid stimulating self-love through the hope of reward1 or through a word of praise given in due season1 we run a great risk of not overcoming the indolence that is natural to the child1 and of not obtaining from him any serious effort4 ,pascal1 the greatest of the friends of ,port ,royal1 said3 8,the children of ,port ,royal1 who do not feel that stimulus of envy and glory1 fall into a state of indifference40 #aga4 ,,general ,,judgment ,,on ,,port ,,royal4--,after all has been said1 we must admire the teachers of ,port ,royal1 who were doubtless deceived on some points1 but who were animated by a powerful feeling of their duty to educate1 and by a perfect charity4 ,ardor and sincerity of religious faith2 a great respect for the human person2 the practice of piety held in honor1 but kept subordinate to the reality of the inner feeling2 devotion advised1 but not imposed2 a marked mistrust of nature1 corrected by displays of tenderness and tempered by affection2 above all1 the profound1 unwearied devotion of ,christian souls who give themselves wholly and without reserve to other souls to raise them up and save them1--this is what was done by the discipline of ,port ,royal4 ,but it is rather in the methods of teaching1 and in the administration of classical studies1 that we must look for the incontestable superiority of the ,jansenists4 ,the teachers of the ,little ,schools were admirable humanists1 not of form1 as the ,jesuits were1 but of judgment4 ,they represent1 it seems to us1 in all its beauty and in all its force1 that intellectual education1 already divined by ,montaigne1 which prepares for life men of sound judgment and of upright conscience4 ,they founded the teaching of the humanities4 8,port ,royal10 says an historian of pedagogy1 ,burnier1 8simplifies study without1 however1 relieving it of its wholesome difficulties2 it strives to make it interesting1 while it does not convert it into child's play2 it purposes to confide to the memory only what has first been apprehended by the intelligence4444 ,it has given to the world ideas that it has not again let go1 and fruitful principles from which we have but to draw their logical consequences40 #agb4 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #a4 ,in the history of the three great teaching congregations we have an illustration of the supposed power of education over the destinies of men4 #b4 ,to resist the encroachments of ,protestantism that followed the diffusion of instruction among the people1 ,loyola organized his teaching corps of ,catholic zealots2 and this mode of competition for purposes of moral1 sectarian1 and political control has covered the earth1 in all ,christian countries1 with institutions of learning4 #c4 ,the tendency towards extremes1 and the difficulty of attaining symmetry and completeness1 are seen in the preference of the ,jesuits for form1 elegance1 and mere discipline1 in their excessive use of emulation2 and in the pessimism of the ,jansenists1 their distrust of human nature1 and their fear of human pride4 ,,footnotes3 #aji ,religious congregations1 as known in ,france1 are associations of persons who1 consecrating themselves to the service of ,god1 make a vow to live in common under the same rule4 ,many of these congregations devote themselves to the work of teaching1 and these are of two classes1 the authorized and the unauthorized4 ,for example1 the 8,brethren of the ,christian ,schools10 founded by ,la ,salle1 is an authorized1 and the 8,society of ,jesus0 an unauthorized1 congregation4 ,from statistics published in #ahgh1 it appears that there were then in ,france1 #bd congregations of men authorized to teach1 and controlling #cjif establishments2 and #ebh similar congregations of women1 controlling #af1dgh establishments4 ,at the same time there were #he unauthorized congregations of men1 and #bfj unauthorized congregations of women1 devoted to teaching4 7,p47 #aaj ,the congregation of the ,doctrinaries founded at a later period establishments of secondary instruction4 ,maine de ,biran1 ,laromiguire1 and ,lakanal were pupils of the ,doctrinaries4 #aaa ,leibnitii ,opera1 ,genev1 #agfh1 ,tome ,,vi4 p4 #fe4 #aab ,bacon de ,augmentis ,scientiarum1 ,lib4 ,,vi4 chap4 ,,iv4 #aac ,see the fourth book of the ,constitutions4 #aad ,see note to #ada4 #aae ,letter to ,madame ,montglat1 ,nov4 #ad1 #afjg4 #aaf ,saint ,simon1 ,mmoires1 ,tome ,,ix4 #hc4 #aag ,entretiens sur les ,sciences1 p4 #aig4 #aah ,for the ,little ,schools of ,port ,royal1 see a recent account by ,carr 7,revue ,pdagogique1 #ahhc1 ,nos4 #b and #h74 #aai ,no more pathetic piece of history has ever been written than that which relates the vindictive and relentless persecution of the peaceful and pious solitaries of ,port ,royal3 8,the house was razed to the ground1 and even the very foundations ploughed up4 ,the gardens and walks were demolished2 and the dead were even torn from their graves1 that not a vestige might be left to mark the spot where this celebrated institution had stood40--,lancelot's ,tour to ,la ,grande ,chartreuse1 p4 #bdc4 ,see also ,narrative of the ,demolition of ,port ,royal 7,london1 #ahaf74 7,p47 #abj ,du choix et de la mthode des tudes4 #aba ,see ,cousin1 ,jacqueline ,pascal1 p4 #bfb4 #abb ,version3 translation from ,latin or ,greek into ,french4 ,theme3 translation of ,french into ,latin or ,greek4 7,p47 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,f,,nelon4 ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century2 ,f,,nelon 7#afea-agae72 ,,how ,f,,nelon ,,became ,a ,,teacher2 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls2 ,,criticism ,,of ,,monastic ,,education2 ,,refutation ,,of ,,the ,,prejudices ,,relative ,,to ,,women2 ,,good ,,opinion ,,of ,,human ,,nature2 ,,instinctive ,,curiosity2 ,,lessons ,,on ,,objects2 ,,feebleness ,,of ,,the ,,child2 ,,indirect ,,instruction2 ,,all ,,activity ,,must ,,be ,,pleasurable2 ,,fables ,,and ,,historical ,,narratives2 ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,education2 ,,studies ,,proper ,,for ,,women2 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,duke ,,de ,,bourgogne 7#afhi-afie72 ,,happy ,,results2 ,,the ,,fables2 ,,the ,,dialogues ,,of ,,the ,,dead2 ,,variety ,,of ,,disciplinary ,,agents2 ,,diversified ,,instruction2 ,,the ,,telemachus2 ,f,,nelon ,,and ,,bossuet2 ,,sphere ,,and ,,limits ,,of ,,education2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #agc4 ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4--,outside of the teaching congregations1 the seventeenth century counts a certain number of independent educators1 isolated thinkers1 who have transmitted to us in durable records the results of their reflection or of their experience4 ,the most of these belong to the clergy1--they are royal preceptors4 ,in a monarchical government there is no grander affair than the education of princes4 ,some others are philosophers1 whom the general study of human nature has led to reflect on the principles of education4 ,without pretending to include everything within the narrow compass of this elementary history1 we would make known either the fundamental doctrines or the essential methods which have been concerned in the education of the seventeenth century1 and which1 at the same time1 have made a preparation for the educational reforms of the succeeding centuries4 #agd4 ,f,,nelon 7#afea-agae74--;,fnelon holds an important place in ,french literature2 but it seems that of all the varied aspects of his genius1 the part he played as an educator is the most important and the most considerable4 ,fnelon wrote the first classical work of ,french pedagogy1 and it may be said1 considering the great number of authors who have been inspired by his thoughts1 that he is the head of a school of educators4 #age4 ,,how ,f,,nelon ,,became ,a ,,teacher4--,it is well known that the valuable treatise1 ,on the ,education of ,girls1 was written in #afhj1 at the request of the ,duke and the ,duchess of ,beauvilliers4 ,these noble friends of ,fnelon1 besides several boys1 had eight girls to educate4 ,it was to assist1 by his advice1 in the education of this little family school1 that ,fnelon wrote his book which was not designed at first for the public1 and which did not appear till #afhg4 ,the young ,abb who1 in #afhj1 was but thirty years old1 had already had experience in educational matters in the management of the ,convent of the ,new ,catholics 7#afgh74 ,this was an institution whose purpose was to retain young ,protestant converts in the ,catholic faith1 or even to call them there by mild force4 ,it would have been better1 we confess1 for the glory of ,fnelon1 if he had gained his experience elsewhere than in that mission of fanaticism1 where he was the auxiliary of the secular arm1 the accomplice of dragoons1 and where was prepared the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes4 ,we would have preferred that the ,education of ,girls had not been planned in a house where were violently confined girls torn from their mothers1 and wives stolen from their husbands4 ,but if the first source of ,fnelon's educational inspiration was not as pure as one could wish1 at least in the book there is nothing that betrays the spirit of intolerance and violence with which the author was associated4 ,on the contrary1 ,the ,education of ,girls is a work of gentleness and goodness1 of a complaisant and amiable grace1 which is pervaded by a spirit of progress4 ,fnelon soon had occasion to apply the principles that he had set forth in his treatise4 ,august #af1 #afhi1 he was chosen preceptor of the ,duke of ,bourgogne1#abc with the ,duke of ,beauvilliers for governor1 and the ,abb ,fleury for sub-preceptor4 ,from #afhi to #afie1 he directed with marvellous success the education of a prince1 8a born terror10 as ,saint ,simon expressed it1 but who1 under the penetrating influence of his master1 became an accomplished man1 almost a saint4 ,it was for his royal pupil that he composed1 one after another1 a large number of educational works1 such as the ,collection of ,fables1 the ,dialogues of the ,dead1 the treatise on ,the ,existence of ,god1 and especially the ,telemachus1 one of the most popular works in ,french literature4 ,in furnishing occasion for the exercise of his educational activity1 events served ,fnelon according to his wish4 ,we may say that his nature predestinated him to the work of education4 ,with his tender soul1 preserving its paternal instincts even in his celibate condition1 with his admirable grace of spirit1 with his various erudition and profound knowledge of antiquity1 with his competence in the studies of grammar and history1 attested by different passages in his ,letter to the ,academy2 finally1 with his temperate disposition and his inclinations towards liberalism in a century of absolute monarchy1 he was made to become one of the guides1 one of the masters1 of ,french education4 #agf4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls4--,this charming masterpiece of ,fnelon's should be read entire4 ,a rapid analysis would not suffice1 as it is difficult to reduce to a few essential points the flowing thought of our author4 ,with a facility in expression inclining to laxness1 and with a copiousness of thought somewhat lacking in exactness1 ,fnelon easily repeats himself2 he returns to thoughts which have already been elaborated1 and does not restrict his easy flowing thought to a rigorous and methodical plan4 ,we may1 however1 distinguish three principal parts in the thirteen chapters composing the work4 ,chapters ,i4 and ,,ii4 are critical1 and in these the ordinary faults in the education of women are brought into sharp outline2 then in chapters ,,iii4 to ,,viii4 we have general observations1 and the statement of the principles and methods that should be followed and applied in the education of boys as in the education of girls2 and finally1 from chapter ,,ix4 to the end of the book1 are all the special reflections which relate exclusively to the merits and demerits1 the duties and the studies1 of women4 #agg4 ,,criticism ,,on ,,monastic ,,education4--,in the opening of the treatise1 as in another little essay#abd that is usually included in this volume1 ,fnelon expresses a preference for a liberal and humane education1 where the light of the world penetrates1 and which is not confined to the shadow of a monastery3-- 8,i conclude that it is better for your daughter to be with you than in the best convent that you could select4444 ,if a convent is not well governed1 she will see vanity honored1 which is the most subtile of all the poisons that can affect a young girl4 ,she will there hear the world spoken of as a sort of enchanted place1 and nothing makes a more pernicious impression than that deceptive picture of the world1 which is seen at a distance with admiration1 and which exaggerates all its pleasures without showing its disappointments and its sorrows4444 ,so ,i would fear a worldly convent even more than the world itself4 ,if1 on the contrary1 a convent conforms to the fervor and regularity of its constitution1 a girl of rank will grow up there in a profound ignorance of the world4444 ,she leaves the convent like one who had been confined in the shadows of a deep cavern1 and who suddenly returns to the full light of day4 ,nothing is more dazzling than this sudden transition1 than this glare to which one has never been accustomed40 #agh4 ,,refutation ,,of ,,the ,,prejudices ,,relative ,,to ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women4--,it is1 then1 for mothers that ,fnelon writes his book1 still more than for the convents that he does not love4 ,woman is destined to play a grand part in domestic life4 8,can men hope for any sweetness in life1 if their most select companionship1 which is that of marriage1 is turned into bitterness80 ,then let us cease to neglect the education of women1 and renounce the prejudices by which we pretend to justify this neglect4 ,a learned woman1 it is said1 is vain and affected6 ,but it is not proposed that women shall engage in useless studies which would make ridiculous pedants of them2 it is simply a question of teaching them what befits their position in the household4 ,woman1 it is said again1 ordinarily has a weaker intellect than man6 ,but this is the best of reasons why it is necessary to strengthen her intelligence4 ,finally1 woman should be brought up in ignorance of the world6 ,but1 replies ,fnelon1 the world is not a phantom2 8it is the aggregate of all the families02 and women have duties to fulfill in it which are scarcely less important than those of men4 8,virtue is not less for women than for men40 #agi4 ,,good ,,opinion ,,of ,,human ,,nature4--,there are two categories of ,christians3 the first dwell particularly on the original fall2 and the others attach themselves by preference to the doctrine of redemption4 ,for the first1 the child is deeply tainted with sin2 his only inclinations are those towards evil2 he is a child of wrath1 who must be severely punished4 ,for the others1 the child1 redeemed by grace1 8has not yet a fixed tendency towards any object02 his instincts have no need of being thwarted2 all they need is direction4 ,fnelon follows this last mode of thinking1 which is the correct one4 ,he does not fear self-love1 and does not interdict deserved praise4 ,he counts upon the spontaneity of nature4 ,he regrets the education of the ancients1 who left more liberty to children4 ,finally1 in his judgments on human nature1 he is influenced by a cheerful and amiable optimism1 and sometimes by an excess of complacency and approbation4 #ahj4 ,,feebleness ,,of ,,the ,,child4--,but if ,fnelon believes in the innocence of the child1 he is not the less convinced of its feebleness4 ,hence the measures he recommends to those who have in charge the bringing up of children3 8,the most important thing in the first years of infancy is the management of the child's health4 ,through the selection of food and the rgime of a simple life1 the body should be supplied with pure blood4444 ,another thing of great importance is to allow the organs to strengthen by holding instruction in abeyance44440 ,the intellectual weakness of the child comes for the most part from his inability to fix his attention4 8,the mind of the child is like a lighted taper in a place exposed to the wind1 whose flame is ever unsteady40 ,hence the urgent necessity of not pressing children beyond measure1 of training them little by little as occasion permits1 8of serving and assisting ,nature1 without urging her40 #aha4 ,,instructive ,,curiosity2 ,,object ,,lessons4--,if the inattention of the child is a great obstacle to his progress1 his natural curiosity1 by way of compensation1 is a potent auxiliary4 ,fnelon knows the aid that can be derived from this source1 and we shall quote entire the remarkable passage in which he indicates the means of calling it into exercise through familiar lessons which are already real lessons on objects3-- 8,curiosity in children is a natural tendency which comes as the precursor of instruction4 ,do not fail to take advantage of it4 ,for example1 in the country they see a mill1 and they wish to know what it is4 ,they should be shown the manner of preparing the food that is needed for human use4 ,they notice harvesters1 and what they are doing should be explained to them2 also1 how the wheat is sown1 and how it multiplies in the earth4 ,in the city1 they see shops where different arts are practised1 and where different wares are sold4 ,you should never be annoyed by their questions2 these are so many opportunities offered you by nature for facilitating the work of instruction4 ,show that you take pleasure in replying to such questions1 and by this means you will insensibly teach them how all the things are made that serve human needs1 and that give rise to commercial pursuits40 #ahb4 ,,indirect ,,instruction4--,even when the child has grown up1 and is more capable of receiving direct instruction1 ,fnelon does not depart from his system of mild management and precaution4 ,there are to be no didactic lessons1 but as far as possible the instruction shall be indirect4 ,this is the great educational method of ,fnelon1 and we shall soon see how he applied it to the education of the ,duke of ,bourgogne4 8,the less formal our lessons are1 the better40 ,however1 there is need of discretion and prudence in the choice of the first ideas1 and the first pictures that are to be impressed on the child's mind4 8,into a reservoir so little and so precious only exquisite things should be poured40 ,the absence of pedantry is one of the characteristics of ,fnelon4 8,in rhetoric10 he says1 8,i will give no rules at all2 it is sufficient to give good models40 ,as to grammar1 8,i will give it no attention1 or1 at least1 but very little40 ,instruction must be insinuated1 not imposed4 ,we must resort to unexpected lessons1--to such as do not appear to be lessons4 ,fnelon here anticipates ,rousseau1 and suggests the system of pre-arranged scenes and instructive artifices1 similar to those invented for mile4#abe #ahc4 ,,all ,,activity ,,must ,,be ,,pleasurable4--,one of the best qualities of ,fnelon as a teacher is that of wishing that study should be agreeable2 but this quality becomes a fault with him1 because he makes an abuse of attractive instruction4 ,we can but applaud him when he criticises the harsh and crabbed pedagogy of the ,middle ,age1 and depicts to us those tiresome and gloomy class-rooms1 where teachers are ever talking to children of words and things of which they understand nothing4 8,no liberty10 he says1 8no enjoyment1 but always lessons1 silence1 uncomfortable postures1 correction1 and threats40 ,and so there is nothing more just than this thought3 8,in the current education1 all the pleasure is put on one side1 and all that is disagreeable on the other2 the disagreeable is all put into study1 and all the pleasure is found in the diversions40 ,fnelon would change all this4 ,for study1 as for moral discipline1 8pleasure must do all40 ,first1 as to study1 seek the means of making agreeable to children whatever you require of them4 8,we must always place before them a definite and agreeable aim to sustain them in their work40 8,conceal their studies under the appearance of liberty and pleasure40 8,let their range of vision extend itself a little1 and their intelligence acquire more breadth40 8,mingle instruction with play40 8,i have seen10 he says again1 8certain children who have learned to read while playing40 ,for giving direction to the will1 as for giving activity to the intelligence1 never subject children to cold and absolute authority4 ,do not weary them by an indiscreet exactness4 ,let wisdom appear to them only at intervals1 and then with a laughing face4 ,lead them by reason whenever it is possible for you to do it4 ,never assume1 save in case of extreme necessity1 an austere1 imperious air that makes them tremble4 8,you would close their heart and destroy their confidence1 without which there is no profit to hope for from education4 ,make yourself loved by them4 ,let them feel at ease in your presence1 so that they do not fear to have you see their faults40 ,such1 intellectually and morally1 is the amiable discipline dreamed of by ,fnelon4 ,it is evident that the imagination of our author conducts him a little too far and leads him astray4 ,fnelon sees everything on the bright side4 ,in education1 such as this too complacent teacher dreams of it1 there is no difficulty1 nothing laborious1 no thorns4 8,all metals there are gold2 all flowers there are roses40 ,the child is almost exempted from making effort3 he shall not be made to repeat the lesson he has heard1 8for fear of annoying him40 ,it is necessary that he learn everything while playing4 ,if he has faults1 he must not be told of them1 save with precaution1 8for fear of hurting his feelings40 ,fnelon is decidedly too good-natured1 too much given to cajolery4 ,in his effort to shun whatever is repulsive1 he comes to exclude whatever is laborious4 ,he falls into an artless pleasantry when he demands that the books of his pupil shall be 8beautifully bound1 with gilt edges1 and fine pictures40 #ahd4 ,,fables ,,and ,,history4--,fnelon's very decided taste for agreeable studies1 determines him to place in the foremost rank of the child's intellectual occupations1 fables and history1 because narratives please the infant imagination above everything else4 ,it is with sacred history especially that he would have the attention occupied1 always selecting from it 8that which presents the most pleasing and the most magnificent pictures40 ,he properly demands1 moreover1 that the teacher 8animate his narrative with lively and familiar tones1 and so make all his characters speak40 ,by this means we shall hold the attention of children without forcing it2 8for1 once more10 he says1 8we must be very careful not to impose on them a law to hear and to remember these narratives40 #ahe4 ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,education4--,contrary to ,rousseau's notions1 ,fnelon requires that children should early have their attention turned to moral and religious truths4 ,he would have this instruction given in the concrete1 by means of examples drawn from experience4 ,we need not fear to speak to them of ,god as a venerable old man1 with white beard1 etc4 ,whatever of the superstitious there may be in these conceptions adapted to the infant imagination will be corrected afterwards by the reason4 ,it is to be noted1 moreover1 that a religion of extremes is not what ,fnelon desires4 ,he fears all exaggerations1 even that of piety4 ,what he demands is a tempered devotion1 a reasonable ,christianity4 ,he is suspicious of false miracles4 8,accustom girls10 he says1 8not to accept thoughtlessly certain unauthorized narrations1 and not to practise certain forms of devotion introduced by an indiscreet zeal40 ,but possibly1 without intending it1 ,fnelon himself is preparing the way for the superstition he combats1 when1 for the purpose of indoctrinating the child with the first principles of religion1 he presents to him the notion of ,god under sensible forms1 and speaks to him of a paradise where all is of gold and precious stones4 #ahf4 ,,studies ,,proper ,,for ,,women4--,so far1 we have noted in ,fnelon's work only general precepts applicable to boys and girls alike4 ,but in the last part of his work1 ,fnelon treats especially of women's own work1 of the qualities peculiarly their own1 of their duties1 and of the kind of instruction they need in order to fulfill them4 ,no one knew better than ,fnelon the faults that come to woman through ignorance1--unrest1 unemployed time1 inability to apply herself to solid and serious duties1 frivolity1 indolence1 lawless imagination1 indiscreet curiosity concerning trifles1 levity1 and talkativeness1 sentimentalism1 and1 what is remarkable with a friend of ,madame ,guyon1 a mania for theology3 8,women are too much inclined to speak decisively on religious questions40 ,what does ,fnelon propose as a corrective of these mischievous tendencies8 ,it must be confessed that the plan of instruction which he proposes is still insufficient1 and that it scarcely accords with the ideal as we conceive it to-day4 8,keep young girls10 he says1 8within the common bounds1 and teach them that there should be for their sex a modesty with respect to knowledge almost as delicate as that inspired by the horror of vice40 ,is not this the same as declaring that knowledge is not intended for women1 and that it is repugnant to their delicate nature8 ,when ,fnelon tells us that a young girl ought to learn to read and write correctly 7and observe that account is taken only of the daughters of the nobility and of the wealthy middle classes72 when he adds1 let her also learn grammar1 we can infer from these puerile prescriptions1 that ,fnelon does not exact any great things from women in the way of knowledge4 ,and yet1 such as it is1 this programme surpassed1 in the time of ,fnelon1 the received custom1 and constituted a substantial progress4 ,it was to state an excellent principle1 whose consequences should have been more fully analyzed1 to demand that women should learn all that is necessary for them to know1 in order to bring up their children4 ,fnelon should also be commended for having recommended to young women the reading of profane authors4 ,he who had been nourished on such literature1 who was1 so to speak1 but a ,greek turned ,christian1 who knew ,homer so perfectly as to write the ,telemachus1 could not1 without belying himself1 advise against the studies from which he had derived so much pleasure and profit4 ,he also recognized the utility of history1 ancient and modern4 ,he grants a place to poetry and eloquence1 provided an elimination be made of whatever would be dangerous to purity of morals4 ,what we comprehend less easily is that he condemns1 as severely as he does1 music1 which1 he says1 8furnishes diversions that are poisonous40 ,but these faults1 this mistrust of too high an intellectual culture1 ought not to prevent us from admiring the ,education of ,girls4 ,let us be grateful to ,fnelon for having resisted1 in part1 the prejudices of a period when young women were condemned by their sex to an almost absolute ignorance2 for having declared that he would follow a course contrary 8to that of alarm and of a superficial culture of the intelligence02 and finally1 for having written a book1 all the generous inspirations of which ,madame de ,maintenon herself has not caught2 and of which we may say1 finally1 that almost everything that it contains is excellent1 and that it is defective only in what it does not contain4 #ahg4 ,,madame ,,de ,,lambert 7#afdg-agcc74--;,fnelon1 as an educator of women1 was the founder of a school4 ,from ,rollin to ,madame de ,genlis1 how many teachers have been inspired by him6 ,but in the front rank of his pupils we must place ,madame de ,lambert4 ,in her ,counsels to her ,son 7#agja71 and especially in her ,counsels to her ,daughter 7#agbh71 she has taken up the tradition of ,fnelon with greater breadth and freedom of spirit4 8,as discreet as he with respect to works of the imagination1 of which she fears that the reading may inflame the mind20 more severe1 even1 than he towards ,racine1 whose name she seems to hesitate to pronounce2 disposed to exclude her daughter from 8plays1 representations that move the passions1 music1 poetry1--all belonging to the retinue of pleasure1--in other respects1 ,madame de ,lambert takes precedence and surpasses her master0 7,grard74 ,she reproaches ,molire for having abandoned women to idleness1 pastime1 and pleasure4 ,she loves history1 especially the history of ,france1 8which no one is permitted not to know40 ,finally1 without entering into the details of her protests1 she makes a powerful plea for the cause of woman's education2 she already belongs to the eighteenth century4 #ahh4 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,bourgogne4--,singularly enough1 ,fnelon did not make an application of his ideas on education till after he had set them forth in a theoretical treatise4 ,the education of the ,duke of ,bourgogne permitted him to make a practical test of the rules established in the ,education of ,girls4 ,nothing is of more interest to the historian of pedagogy than the study of that princely education into which ,fnelon put all his mind and heart1 and which1 by its results1 at once brilliant and insufficient1 exhibits the merits and the faults of his plan of education4 #ahi4 ,,happy ,,results4--,the ,duke of ,bourgogne with his active intelligence1 and also with his impetuous1 indocile character1 and his fits of passion1 was just the pupil for the teacher who relied on indirect instruction4 ,it would have been unwise to indoctrinate with heavy didactic lessons a spirit so impetuous4 ,through tact and industry1 ,fnelon succeeded in captivating the attention of the prince1 and in skillfully insinuating into his mind knowledges that he would probably have rejected1 had they been presented to it in a scientific and pedantic form4 8,i have never seen a child10 says ,fnelon1 8who so readily understood the finest things of poetry and eloquence40 ,doubtless the happy nature of the prince contributed a large part towards these results2 but the art of ,fnelon had also its share in the final account4 #aij4 ,,moral ,,lessons2 ,,the ,,fables4--,how shall morals be taught to a violent and passionate child8 ,fnelon did not think of preaching fine sermons to him2 but presented to him1 under the form of ,fables1 the moral precepts that he wished to inculcate4 ,the ,fables of ,fnelon certainly have not1 as a whole1 a large literary value2 but1 to form a just appreciation of them1 we must recollect that their merit is especially to be seen in the circumstances attending their composition4 ,composed from day to day1 they were adapted to the circumstances of the life of the young prince2 they were filled with allusions to his faults and his virtues1 and they conveyed to him1 at the favorable moment1 under the veil of a pleasing fiction1 the commendation or the censure that he deserved4 8,one might10 says the ,cardinal de ,bausset1 8follow the chronological order in which these pieces were composed1 by comparing them with the progress which age and instruction must have made in the education of the prince40 ,the apologues1 even with their very general morals1 will always have their value and place in the education of children4 ,what shall be said of the fables in which the moral1 wholly individual1 was addressed exclusively to the pupil for whom they were written1 either on account of some perversity that he let come to the surface1 or of a rising virtue that had been manifested in his conduct8 ,it is thus that the fable called ,the ,capricious presented to the young duke the picture of his fits of passion1 and taught him to correct himself2 that of the ,bee and the ,fly reminded him that the most brilliant qualities serve no good purpose without moderation4 ,one day1 in a fit of anger1 the prince so far forgot himself as to say to ,fnelon1 who was reproving him3 8,no1 no1 ,sir6 ,i know who ,i am1 and who you are60 ,the next day1 doubtless in response to this explosion of princely self-conceit1 ,fnelon had him read the fable entitled ,bacchus and the ,faun3 8,as ,bacchus could not abide a malicious jeerer always ready to make sport of his expressions that were not correct and elegant1 he said to him in a fiery and important tone3 #8,how dare you jeer the son of ,jupiter8' ,the ,faun replied without emotion3 #8,alas6 how does the son of ,jupiter dare to commit any fault8'0 ,certain fables1 of a more elevated tone than the others1 are not designed simply to correct the faults of children2 they prepare the prince for the exercise of government4 ,thus1 the fable of the ,bees disclosed to him the beauties of an industrious ,state1 and one where order reigns2 the ,nile and the ,ganges taught him love for the people1 8compassion for humanity1 harassed and suffering40 ,finally1 from each of these fables there issued a serious lesson under the pleasing exterior of a witticism2 and more than once1 in reading them1 the prince doubtless felt an emotion of pleasure or of shame1 as he recognized himself in a commendation or in a reproof addressed to the imaginary personages of the ,fables4 #aia4 ,,historical ,,lessons2 ,,the ,,dialogues ,,of ,,the ,,dead4--,it is not alone in moral education1 but in intellectual education as well1 that ,fnelon resorts to artifice4 ,the ingenious preceptor has employed fiction in all its forms the better to compass and dominate the spirit of his pupil4 ,there are the fables for moral instruction1 the dialogues for the study of history1 and finally1 the epope in the ,telemachus1 for the political education of the heir to the throne of ,france4 ,the ,dialogues of the ,dead put on the stage men of all countries and conditions1 ,charles the ,fifth and a monk of ,saint-,just1 ,aristotle and ,descartes1 ,leonardo da ,vinci and ,poussin1 ,csar and ,alexander4 ,history proper1 literature1 philosophy1 the arts1 were the subjects of conversations composed1 as in the ,fables1 at different intervals1 according to the progress and the needs of the ,duke of ,bourgogne4 ,these were attractive pictures that came from time to time to be introduced into the scheme for the didactic study of universal history4 ,they should be taken only for what they were intended to be1--the pleasing complement to a regular and consecutive course of instruction4 ,fnelon knew better than any one else that history is interesting in itself1 and that to make the study of it interesting1 it is sufficient to present it to the childish imagination with clearness1 with vivacity1 and with feeling4 #aib4 ,,variety ,,of ,,disciplinary ,,agents4--,the education of the ,duke of ,bourgogne is the practical application of ,fnelon's principles as to the necessity of employing an insinuating gentleness rather than an authority which dryly commands4 ,there are to be no sermons1 no lectures1 but indirect means of moral instruction4 ,the ,duke of ,bourgogne was irascible4 ,instead of reading to him ,seneca's treatise ,on ,anger1 this is ,fnelon's device3 ,one morning he has a cabinet-maker come to his apartments1 whom he has instructed for the purpose4 ,the prince enters1 stops1 and looks at the tools4 8,go about your business1 ,sir10 cries the workman1 who assumes a most threatening air1 8for ,i am not responsible for what ,i may do2 when ,i am in a passion1 ,i break the arms and legs of those whom ,i meet40 ,we guess the conclusion of the story1 and how1 by this experimental method1 ,fnelon contrives to teach the prince to guard against anger and its effects4 ,when indirect means did not answer1 ,fnelon employed others4 ,it is thus that he made frequent appeals to the self-love of his pupil2 he reminded him of what he owed to his name and to the hopes of ,france4 ,he had him record his word of honor that he would behave well3 8,i promise the ,abb ,fnelon1 on the word of a prince1 that ,i will obey him1 and that1 in case ,i break my word1 ,i will submit to any kind of punishment and dishonor4 ,given at ,versailles1 this #bith day of ,november1 #afhi4 ,signed3 ,louis40 ,at other times ,fnelon appealed to his feelings1 and conquered him by his tenderness and goodness4 ,it is in such moments of tender confidence that the prince said to him1 8,i leave the ,duke of ,bourgogne outside the door1 and with you ,i am but the little ,louis40 ,finally1 at other times1 ,fnelon resorted to the harshest punishments2 he sequestered him1 took away his books1 and interdicted all conversation4 #aic4 ,,diversified ,,instruction4--,by turns serious and tender1 mild and severe1 in his moral discipline1 ,fnelon was not less versatile in his methods of instruction4 ,his dominant preoccupation was to diversify studies--the term is his own4 ,if a given subject of study was distasteful to his pupil1 ,fnelon passed to another4 ,although the success of his tutorship seems to be a justification of his course1 there is ground for thinking that1 as a general rule1 ,fnelon's precept is debatable1 and that his example should not be followed by making an over-use of amusement and agreeable variety4 ,fnelon has too often made studies puerile through his attempts to make them agreeable4 #aid4 ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,bourgogne4--,it seems like a paradox to say that ,fnelon was too successful in his educational apostleship2 and yet this is the truth4 ,under his hand--8the ablest hand that ever was10 says ,saint ,simon--the prince became in all respects the image of his master4 ,he was a bigot to the extent of being unwilling to attend a royal ball because that worldly entertainment coincided with the religious celebration of the ,epiphany2 he was rather a monk than a king2 he was destitute of all spirit of initiative and liberty1 irresolute1 absorbed in his pious erudition and mystic prayers2 finally1 he was another ,telemachus1 who could not do without his ,mentor4 ,fnelon had monopolized and absorbed the will of his pupil4 ,he had forgotten that the purpose of education is to form1 not a pale copy1 an image of the master1 but a man independent and free1 capable of sufficing for himself4 #aie4 ,,the ,,telemachus4--,the ,telemachus1 composed from #afid to #afih1 was designed for the ,duke of ,bourgogne2 but he was not to read it1 and did not read it1 in fact1 till after his marriage4 ,through this epope in prose1 this romance borrowed from ,homer1 ,fnelon purposed to continue the moral education of his pupil4 ,but the book abounds in sermons4 8,i could have wished10 said ,boileau1 8that the ,abb had made his ,mentor a little less a preacher1 and that the moral of the book could have been distributed a little more imperceptibly1 and with more art40 ,at least1 they are beautiful and excellent sermons1 aimed against luxury1 the spirit of conquest1 the consequences of absolute power1 and against ambition and war4 ,louis ,,xiv4 had probably read the ,telemachus1 and had comprehended the allusions concealed in the description of the ,republic of ,salentum1 when he said of ,fnelon that he was 8the most chimerical spirit in his kingdom40 ,besides the moral lesson intended for princes1 the ,telemachus also contains bold reflections on political questions4 ,for example1 note the conception of a system of public instruction1 very new for the time3 8,children belong less to their parents than to the ,republic1 and ought to be educated by the ,state4 ,there should be established public schools in which are taught the fear of ,god1 love of country1 and respect for the laws40 #aif4 ,,bossuet ,,and ,f,,nelon4--,bossuet1 as preceptor of the ,dauphin1#abf was far from having the same success as ,fnelon4 ,nothing was overlooked1 however1 in the education of the son of ,louis ,,xiv42 and the ,letter to ,pope ,innocent ,,xi4 7#afgi71 in which ,bossuet presents his scheme of study1 gives proof of high fitness for educational work4 ,he recommends assiduous labor1 no leaves of absence1 and play mingled with study4 8,a child must play and enjoy himself10 he says4 ,emulation excited by the presence of other children1 who came to compete with the prince2 a thorough reading of the ,latin authors1 explained1 not in fragments1 as with the ,jesuits1 but in complete texts2 a certain breadth of spirit1 since the study of the comic poets--of ,terence in particular--was expressly recommended2 a familiarity with the ,greeks and the ,romans1 8especially with the divine ,homer02 the grammar learned in ,french2 history1 8the mistress of human life10 studied with ardor1 and presented1 first1 in its particular facts1 in the lessons which the ,dauphin drew up1 and then in its general laws1 the spirit of which has been transmitted to us in the ,discourse on ,universal ,history2 geography learned 8while playing and making imaginary journeys02 philosophy2 and finally the sciences1 brilliantly presented1--with such a programme1 and under such a master1 it seems that the ,dauphin ought to have been a student of the highest rank2 but he remained a mediocre pupil1 8absorbed10 to use ,saint ,simon's expression1 8in his own fat and gloom40 ,it must certainly be acknowledged that1 notwithstanding his excellent intentions1 ,bossuet was in part responsible for the fact that these results were insufficient1 or1 rather1 nil4 ,he did not know how 8to condescend10 as ,montaigne says1 8to the boyish ways of his pupil40 ,in dealing with him he proceeded on too high a plane4 8,the austere genius of ,bossuet10 says ,henry ,martin1 8did not know how to become small with the small40 ,bossuet lacked in flexibility and tact1 precisely the qualities that characterized ,fnelon4 ,bossuet1 in education1 as in everything else1 is grandeur1 noble and sublime bearing2 ,fnelon1 as preceptor1 is address1 insinuating grace4 ,that which dominates in the one is authority1 a majesty almost icy2 that which constitutes the charm of the other is versatility1 a persuasive gentleness1 a penetrating tenderness4 ,to be just1 however1 it must be added that the faults were not all on ,bossuet's side4 ,in that education1 stamped with failure1 the pupil was the great culprit1 with his ungrateful and rebellious nature4 8,my lord has much spirit10 said a courtier1 8but he has it concealed40 ,for one not a courtier1 does it not amount to the same thing to have one's spirit concealed and to have none at all8 #aig4 ,,sphere ,,and ,,limits ,,of ,,education4--,it seems that1 on one page of the ,education of ,girls1 ,fnelon has traced in advance1 and by a sort of divination1 the parallels of the two educations of the ,dauphin and of the ,duke of ,bourgogne respectively4 ,how can we fail to recognize the anticipated portrait of ,fnelon's future pupil in this passage1 written in #afhj8 8,it must be acknowledged1 that of all the difficulties in education1 none is comparable to that of bringing up children who are lacking in sensibility4 ,the naturally quick and sensitive are capable of terrible mistakes1--passion and presumption do so betray them6 ,but they have also great resources1 and when far gone often come to themselves4 ,instruction is a germ concealed within them1 which starts1 and sometimes bears fruit1 when experience comes to the aid of knowledge1 and the passions lose their power4 ,at least1 we know how to make them attentive1 and to awaken their curiosity4 ,we have the means of interesting them1 and of stimulating them through their sense of honor2 but1 on the other hand1 we can gain no hold on indolent natures40 ,on the other hand1 all that follows applies perfectly to the ,dauphin1 the indocile pupil of ,bossuet3-- 8 444 ,all the thoughts of these are distractions2 they are never where they ought to be2 they cannot be touched to the quick even by corrections2 they hear everything and feel nothing4 ,this indolence makes the pupil negligent1 and disgusts him with whatever he does4 ,under these conditions1 the best planned education runs the risk of failure4444 ,many people1 who think superficially1 conclude from this poor success that nature does all for the production of men of merit1 and that education has no part in the result2 but the only conclusion to be drawn from the case is1 that there are natures like ungrateful soils1 upon which culture has but little effect40#abg ,nothing better can be said1 and ,fnelon has admirably summed up the lesson that should be drawn from these two princely illustrations of the seventeenth century4 ,if the sorry results of ,bossuet's efforts should inspire the educator with some modesty1 and prove to him that the best grain does not grow in an ingrate soil1 is not the brilliant education of the ,duke of ,bourgogne1 which developed almost all the virtues in a soul where nature seemed to have planted the seeds of all the vices1 of a nature to increase the confidence of teachers1 and show them what can be done by the art of a shrewd and able teacher8 #aih4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,education as a plastic art has never been exhibited in a more favorable light than in this history of ,fnelon's teaching2 and perhaps the resistance that sometimes sets at defiance the teacher's art could not be better illustrated than in the case of ,bossuet's royal pupil4 #b4 ,these two historical illustrations also exhibit the play of the two factors that enter into education1--nature and art4 ,fnelon's teaching illustrates the potency of human art in controlling1 modifying1 almost re-creating a work of nature4 ,the ,duke of ,bourgogne was almost re-made to order4 #c4 ,here is also an illustrious example of the attempt to make education a pastime1 to divest it of all constraint1 to make learning run parallel with the pupil's inclinations4 ,in the natural recoil from a dry and formal teaching that had to be enforced against the pupil's will1 it is sometimes forgotten that a large part of life's duties lie outside of our inclinations4 #d4 ,the policy of leading pupils at such a distance that they seem to themselves to be following their own initiative1 is one of the highest of the teacher's arts4 #e4 ,the inculcation of moral lessons through fables1 after ,fnelon's plan1 is a practice that modern teaching might profitably adopt4 ,,footnotes3 #abc ,son of ,louis ,,xiv41 born ,aug4 #f1 #afhb2 died ,feb4 #ah1 #agab4 #abd ,see the ,advice of ,fnelon1 ,archbishop ,cambray1 to a lady of quality on the education of her daughter4 #abe ,for an example of this 8artifice0 carried to the extreme of absurdity1 see ,miss ,worthington's translation of the mile1 p4 #acc4 7,p47 #abf ,eldest son of ,louis ,,xiv41 born ,nov4 #a1 #affa2 died ,april #ad1 #agaa4 #abg ,education of ,girls1 ,chap4 ,v4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4 ,,descartes1 ,,malebranche1 ,,locke4 ,,descartes1 ,,malebranche1 ,,locke2 ,,descartes 7#aeif-afej72 ,,the ,,discourse ,,of ,,method2 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,current ,,education2 ,,great ,,principles ,,of ,,modern ,,pedagogy2 ,,objective ,,and ,,subjective ,,pedagogy2 ,,malebranche 7#afch-agae72 ,,sense ,,instruction ,,condemned2 ,,influence ,,of ,,environment2 ,,locke 7#afcb-agjd72 ,,the ,,thoughts ,,concerning ,,education2 ,,physical ,,education2 ,,the ,,hardening ,,process2 ,,hygienic ,,paradoxes2 ,,moral ,,education ,,more ,,important ,,than ,,instruction2 ,,sense ,,of ,,honor ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,moral ,,discipline2 ,,condemnation ,,of ,,corporal ,,punishment2 ,,intellectual ,,education2 ,,utilitarian ,,studies2 ,,programme ,,of ,,studies2 ,,attractive ,,studies2 ,,should ,a ,,trade ,,be ,,learned8 ,,working ,,schools2 ,,locke ,,and ,,rousseau2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #aii4 ,,descartes1 ,,malebranche1 ,,and ,,locke4--,descartes1 a spiritualist2 ,malebranche1 an idealist2 ,locke1 a sensationalist1--such are the philosophers of the seventeenth century who are related to the history of pedagogy4 ,and yet the first two have only a remote connection with it1 through their exposition of some of its general principles4 ,locke is the only one who has resolutely approached educational questions in a special treatise that has become a classic in ,english pedagogy4 #bjj4 ,,descartes 7#aeif-afej74--;,descartes1 the father of modern philosophy1 does not generally figure in the lists drawn up by the historians of education2 and yet1 in our opinion1 there is no thinker who has exercised a more decisive influence on the destinies of education4 ,the author of the ,discourse of ,method has1 properly speaking1 no system of pedagogy1 having never directly treated of educational affairs2 but through his philosophical principles he has changed the direction of human thought1 and has introduced into the study of known truths1 as well as into the search for new truths1 a method and a taste for clearness and precision1 which have profited instruction in all of its departments4 8,we now find10 says ,rollin1 8in the discourses from the pulpit and the bar1 and in the dissertations on science1 an order1 an exactness1 a propriety1 and a solidity1 which were formerly not so common4 ,many believe1 and not without reason1 that we owe this manner of thinking and writing to the extraordinary progress which has been made within a a century in the study of philosophy40#abh #bja4 ,,the ,,discourse ,,of ,,method 7#afcg74--;,every system of philosophy contains in germ a special system of education4 ,from the mere fact that philosophers define1 each in his own way1 the nature and the destiny of man1 they come to different conclusions as to the aims and methods of education4 ,only a few of them have taken pains to deduce from their principles the consequences that are involved in them2 but all of them1 whether they will or no1 are educators4 ,such is the case of ,descartes4 ,in writing1 in the first part of his ,discourse of ,method1 his ,considerations ,touching the ,sciences1 ,descartes has written a chapter on practical pedagogy1 and through the general rules of his logic1 he has1 in effect1 founded a new theory of education4 #bjb4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,the ,,current ,,education4--,descartes has given a long account of the education which he had received among the ,jesuits1 at the college of ,la ,flche1 and this account furnished him occasion1 either to criticize the methods in use1 or to indicate his personal views and his educational preferences4 8,from my infancy letters have been my intellectual nourishment4444 ,but as soon as ,i had completed the course of study required for the doctor's degree1 ,i found myself embarrassed with so many doubts and errors that it seemed to me that ,i had received no other profit from my efforts at learning than the discovery of my growing ignorance40 ,in other terms1 ,descartes ascertained that his studies1 though pursued with ardor for eight years in one of the most celebrated schools of ,europe1 had not permitted him to acquire 8a clear and sure knowledge of all that is useful for living40 ,this was to condemn the barren teaching and the formal instruction of the ,jesuits4 ,passing in review the different parts of the instruction1 ,descartes first remarks that it was wrong to make an abuse of the reading of ancient books2 for1 to hold converse with the men of other centuries 8is about the same as travelling2 and when we spend too much time in travelling1 we become strangers in our own country40 ,then he complains that he was not made to know 8the true use of mathematics10 since he had been shown their application only to the mechanic arts4 ,he nearly condemns rhetoric and poetics1 since eloquence and poetry are 8intellectual gifts rather than the fruits of study40 ,the ancient languages--and in this he gravely deceives himself--seem to him useful only for the understanding of authors4 ,he does not admit that the study of ,latin or ,greek can contribute to intellectual development4 ,from these reflections there seems to issue the notion of an instruction more solid1 more positive1 more directly useful for the purposes of life1 than that which had been brought into fashion by the ,jesuits4 ,however1 ,descartes does not eliminate the ordinary studies1 as eloquence1 8which has incomparable power and beauty02 poetry1 8which has an enchanting tenderness and melody02 the reading of the classics1 which is 8a studied conversation with the most estimable men of past centuries02 history1 8which forms the judgment02 fables1 whose 8charm arouses the spirit40 ,but he would give to all these exercises a more practical turn1 a more utilitarian character1 a more positive application4 #bjc4 ,,great ,,principles ,,of ,,modern ,,pedagogy4--,without intending it1 without any other thought than that of modifying the false direction of the mind in the search for scientific truth1 ,descartes has stated some of the great principles of modern pedagogy4 ,the first is the equal aptitude of minds to know and comprehend4 8,good sense10 says ,descartes1 8is the thing of all else in this world that is most equally distributed4#abi 444 ,the latent ability to judge well1 to distinguish the true from the false1 is naturally equal among all men40 ,what is this but saying that all men are entitled to instruction8 ,in a certain sense1 what are the innumerable primary schools scattered over the surface of the civilized globe1 but the application and the living commentary of ,descartes' ideas on the equal distribution of good sense and reason among men8 ,but1 adds ,descartes1 8it is not enough to have a sound mind2 the principal thing is to make a good use of it40 ,in other words1 nature is not sufficient in herself2 she needs to be guided and directed4 ,method is the essential thing2 it has a sovereign importance4 ,success will depend less on natural qualities1 such as imagination1 memory1 quickness of thought1 than upon the rules of intellectual direction imposed on the mind4 ,education has a far greater part than nature in the formation and development of accurate and upright intelligences4 ,another ,cartesian principle is the substitution of free inquiry and reflective conviction for blind beliefs founded upon authority4 ,descartes promulgated this famous rule of his method3 8,the first precept is1 never to receive anything for true that ,i do not know1 upon evidence1 to be such2 444 and to comprise no more within my judgments than what is presented so clearly and distinctly to my mind that ,i have no occasion to call it in question40 ,in this declaration he has not only reformed science and revolutionized philosophy1 but has banished from the school the old routine1 the mechanical processes and exercises of pure memory1 and has made a demand for rational methods that excite the intelligence1 awaken clear and distinct ideas1 and provoke judgment and reflection4 ,of course1 it is not proposed to make a little ,descartes out of every child1 despoiling him of received beliefs in order to construct personal opinions de novo2 but the rule of evidence1 applied with moderation and discretion1 is none the less an excellent pedagogical precept1 which will never be disallowed by those who wish to make of the child something more than a mere machine4 #bjd4 ,,objective ,,and ,,subjective ,,pedagogy4--,we have now reached a place where we may call into notice two different tendencies1 equally legitimate1 which we shall find1 with exaggerations that compromise their utility1 in the practice of modern teachers4 ,there are those who wish above all to develop the intelligence2 and there are others who are preoccupied with furnishing the mind with a stock of positive knowledge4 ,the first conceive instruction as taking place1 as it were1 through what is within1 through the development of the internal qualities of precision and measure2 the others are preoccupied only with the instruction that takes place through what is without1 through an extended erudition1 through an accumulation of knowledges4 ,in a word1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 some affect a subjective pedagogy1 and others an objective pedagogy4 ,bacon is of the latter number4 ,that which preoccupies the great ,english logician above everything else is the extension of observations and experiments4 8,to reason without knowing anything of that which we reason upon10 he says1 8is as if we were to weigh or measure the wind40 ,descartes1 however1 who has never neglected the study of facts1 esteems them less as material to be accumulated in the mind1 than as instruments for training the mind itself4 ,he would have repudiated those teachers of our day who seem to think the whole thing is done when there has been made to pass before the mental vision of the child an interminable series of object-lessons1 without the thought of developing that intelligence itself4 #bje4 ,,malebranche 7#afch-agae74--,we must not expect great pedagogical wisdom from a mystical dreamer and resolute idealist1 who has imagined the vision of all things in ,god4 ,besides1 ,malebranche has given only a passing attention to things relating to education4 ,the member of a teaching congregation1 the ,oratory1 he has not taught2 and the whole effort of his mind was spent in the search for metaphysical truth4 ,nevertheless1 it is interesting to stop for a moment this visionary who traverses the earth with eyes fixed on the heavens1 and inquire of him what he thinks of the very practical question1 education4 #bjf4 ,,sense ,,instruction ,,condemned4--,malebranche will reply to us1 with the prejudices of a metaphysician of the idealist type1 that the first thing to do is to nourish the child on abstract truths4 ,in his view1 souls have no age1 so to speak1 and the infant is already capable of ideal contemplation4 ,then let sense instruction be abandoned1 8for this is the reason why children leave metaphysical thoughts1 to apply themselves to sensations40 ,is it objected that the child does not seem very well adapted to meditation on abstract truths8 ,it is not so much the fault of nature1 ,malebranche will reply1 as of the bad habits he has contracted4 ,there is a means of remedying this ordinary incapacity of the child4 8,if we kept children from fear1 from desires1 and from hope1 if we did not make them suffer pain1 if we removed them as far as possible from their little pleasures1 then we might teach them1 from the moment they knew how to speak1 the most difficult and the most abstract things1 or at least the concrete mathematics1 mechanics40 ,does ,malebranche hope1 then1 to suppress1 in the life of the child1 pleasure and pain1 and triumph over the tendencies which ordinary education has developed8 8,as an ambitious man who had just lost his fortune and his credit would not be in a condition to resolve questions in metaphysics or equations in algebra1 so children1 on whose brains apples and sugar-plums make as profound impressions as are made on those of men of forty years by offices and titles1 are not in a condition to hear the abstract truths that are taught them40 ,consequently1 we must declare war against the senses1 and exclude1 for example1 all sorts of sensible rewards4 ,only1 by a singular contradiction1 ,malebranche upholds material punishments in the education of children4 ,the only thing of sense he retains is the rod4#acj #bjg4 ,,influence ,,of ,,material ,,environment4--,another contradiction more worthy of note is1 that1 notwithstanding his idealism1 ,malebranche believes in the influence of physical conditions on the development of the soul4 ,he does not go so far as to say with the materialists of our time1 that 8man is what he eats02 but he accords a certain amount of influence to nourishment4 ,he speaks cheerfully of wine and of 8those wild spirits who do not willingly submit to the orders of the will40 ,he never applied himself to work without having partaken of coffee4 ,the soul1 in his view1 is not a force absolutely independent and isolated1 which develops through an internal activity3 8we are bound10 he says1 8to everything1 and stand in relations to all that surrounds us40 #bjh4 ,,locke 7#afcb-agjd74--,locke is above all else a psychologist1 an accomplished master in the art of analyzing the origin of ideas and the elements of the mental life4 ,he is the head of that school of empirical psychology that rallies around its standard1 ,condillac in ,france1 ,herbart in ,germany1 and in ,great ,britain ,hume and other ,scotchmen1 and the most of modern philosophers4 ,but from psychology to pedagogy the transition is easy1 and ,locke had to make no great effort to become an authority in education after having been an accomplished philosopher4 #bji4 ,,some ,,thoughts ,,on ,,education 7#afic74--,the book which he published towards the close of his life1 under the modest title ,some ,thoughts concerning ,education1 was the summing up of a long experience4 ,a studious pupil at ,westminster1 he conceived from his early years1 as ,descartes did at ,la ,flche1 a keen sense of repugnance for a purely formal classical instruction1 and for language studies in general1 in which1 nevertheless1 he attained distinction4 ,a model student at the ,university of ,oxford1 he there became an accomplished humanist1 notwithstanding the practical and positive tendency of his mind that was already drawn towards the natural sciences and researches in physics and in medicine4 ,made ,bachelor of ,arts in #afef1 and ,master of ,arts in #afeh1 he passed directly from the student's bench to the professor's chair4 ,he was successively lecturer and tutor in ,greek1 but this did not prevent him later from eliminating ,hellenism almost completely from his scheme of liberal education4 ,then he became lecturer on rhetoric1 and finally on moral philosophy4 ,when1 in #afff1 he discontinued his scholastic life to mingle in political and diplomatic affairs1 he at least carried from his studious residence at ,oxford1 the germs of the most of his ideas on education4 ,he sought occasion to make an application of them in the education of private individuals1 of whom he was the inspirer and counsellor1 if not the official director4 ,in the families of friends and hosts that he frequented1 for example1 in that of ,lord ,shaftesbury1 he made a close study of children2 and it is in studying them1 and in following with a sagacious eye the successive steps of their improvement in disposition and mind1 that he succeeded in acquiring that educational experience which has left a trace on each page of the ,thoughts concerning ,education4 ,this book1 in fact1 is the issue of one of ,locke's experiences as an assistant in the education of the children of his friends4 ,towards the year #afhd-e1 he addressed to his friend ,clarke a series of letters which1 retouched and slightly modified1 have become a classical work1 simple and familiar in style1 a little disconnected1 perhaps1 and abounding in repetitions1 but the substance of which is excellent1 and the ideas as remarkable1 in general1 for their originality as for their justness4 ,translated into ,french in #afie by ,p4 ,coste1 and reprinted several times in the lifetime of their author1 the ,thoughts concerning ,education have had a universal success4 ,they have exercised an undoubted influence on the educational writings of ,rousseau and ,helvetius4 ,they have received the enthusiastic praise of ,leibnitz1 who placed this work above that on the ,human ,understanding4 8,i am persuaded10 said ,h4 ,marion recently1 in his interesting study on ,locke1 8that if an edition of the ,thoughts were to be published to-day in a separate volume1 it would have a marked success40#aca #baj4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,thoughts ,,concerning ,,education4--,without pretending to give in this place a detailed analysis of ,locke's book1 which deserves to be read entire1 and which discusses exhaustively or calls to notice1 one after another1 almost all important educational questions1 we shall attempt to make known the essential principles which are to be drawn from it4 ,these are3 #a4 in physical education1 the hardening process2 #b4 in intellectual education1 practical utility2 #c4 in moral education1 the principle of honor1 set up as a rule for the free self-government of man4 #baa4 ,,physical ,,education2 ,,the ,,hardening ,,process4--,the ideal of education1 according to ,locke1 is 8a sound mind in a sound body40 ,a physician like ,rabelais1 the author of the ,thoughts concerning ,education had special competence in questions of physical education4 ,but a love for the paradoxical1 and an excessive tendency towards the hardening of the body1 have marred1 on this point1 the reflections of the ,english philosopher4 ,he has summed up his precepts on this subject in the following lines3-- 8,the whole is reduced10 he says1 8to a small number of rules1 easy to observe2 much air1 exercise1 and sleep2 a simple diet1 no wine or strong liquors2 little or no medicine at all2 garments that are neither too tight nor too warm2 finally1 and above all1 the habit of keeping the head and feet cold1 of often bathing the feet in cold water and exposing them to dampness40#acb ,but it is necessary to enter somewhat into details1 and to examine closely some of these ideas4 ,locke is the first educator to write a consecutive and methodical dissertation on the food1 clothing1 and sleep of children4 ,it is he who has stated this principle1 afterwards taken up by ,rousseau3 8,leave to nature the care of forming the body as she thinks it ought to be done40 ,hence1 no close-fitting garments1 life in the open air and in the sun2 children brought up like peasants1 inured to heat and cold1 playing with head and feet bare4 ,in the matter of food1 ,locke forbids sugar1 wine1 spices1 and flesh1 up to the age of three or four4 ,as to fruits1 which children often crave with an inordinate appetite1 a fact that is not surprising1 he pleasantly remarks1 8since it was for an apple that our first parents lost paradise10 he makes a singular choice4 ,he authorizes strawberries1 gooseberries1 apples1 and pears2 but he interdicts peaches1 plums1 and grapes4 ,to excuse ,locke's prejudice against the grapes1 it must be recollected that he lived in ,england1 a country in which the vine grows with difficulty1 and of which an ,italian said1 8,the only ripe fruit ,i have seen in ,england is a baked apple40 ,as to meals1 ,locke does not think it important to fix them at stated hours4 ,fnelon1 on the contrary1 more judiciously requires that the hour for repasts be absolutely determined4 ,but this is not the only instance in which ,locke's wisdom is at fault4 ,what shall be said of that hygienic fancy which consists in allowing the child 8to have his shoes so thin1 that they might leak and let in water1 whenever he comes near it08 ,it is certain that ,locke treats children with an unheard-of severity1 all the more surprising in the case of one who had an infirm and delicate constitution that could be kept in repair only through precaution and management4 ,i do not know whether the consequences of the treatment which he proposes1 applied to the letter1 might not be disastrous4 ,madame de ,svign was more nearly right when she wrote3 8,if your son is very robust1 a rude education is good2 but if he is delicate1 ,i think that in your attempts to make him robust1 you would kill him40 ,the body1 says ,locke1 may be accustomed to everything4 ,we may reply to this by quoting an anecdote of ,peter the ,great1 who one day took it into his head1 it is said1 that it would be best for all the sailors to form the habit of drinking salt water4 ,immediately he promulgated an edict which ordered that all naval cadets should henceforth drink only sea-water4 ,the boys all died1 and there the experiment stopped4 ,still1 without subscribing to ,locke's paradoxes1 which have found no one to approve of them except ,rousseau1 we should recollect that in his precepts on physical education as a whole1 the author of the ,thoughts deserves our commendation for having recommended a manly course of discipline1 and a frugal diet1 for having discarded fashionable conventionalities and drawn near to nature1 and for having condemned the refinements of an indolent mode of life1 and for being inspired by the simple and manly customs of ,england4 #bab4 ,,moral ,,education4--,in the thought of ,locke1 moral education takes precedence of instruction properly so called3 8,that which a gentleman ought to desire for his son1 besides the fortune he leaves him is1 #a4 virtue2 #b4 prudence2 #c4 good manners2 #d4 instruction40 ,virtue and prudence--that is1 moral qualities and practical qualities--are of first consideration4 8,instruction10 says ,locke again1 8is but the least part of education40 ,in the book of ,thoughts1 where repetitions abound1 there is nothing more frequently repeated than the praise of virtue4 ,doubtless it may be thought that ,locke1 like ,herbert ,spencer in our own day1 cherishes prejudices with respect to instruction1 and that he does not take sufficient account of the moralizing influence exercised over the heart and will by intellectual enlightenment2 but1 even with this admission1 we must thank ,locke for having protested against the teachers who think they have done all when they have embellished the memory and developed the intelligence4 ,the grand thing in education is certainly to establish good moral habits1 to cultivate noble sentiments1 and1 finally1 to form virtuous characters4 #bac4 ,,honor1 ,,the ,,principle ,,of ,,moral ,,discipline4--,but after having placed moral education in its proper rank1 which is the first1 it remains to inquire what shall be the principles and the methods of this education4 ,shall it be the maxim of utility1 as ,rousseau requires8 ,must the child1 before acting1 inquire what is the good of this8 ,cui bono8 ,no2 utilitarian in instruction and in intellectual education1 as we have just seen1 ,locke is not so in moral education4 ,shall it be fear1 shall it be the authority of the teacher or of parents1 founded on punishments1 upon the slavish feeling of terror8 ,still less4 ,locke reproves repressive discipline1 and is not inclined to chastisements4 ,shall it be affection1 the love of parents1 the aggregate of tender sentiments8 ,locke scarcely speaks of them4 ,of too little sensibility himself1 he does not seem to think of all that can be done through the sensibility of the child4 ,locke1 who perhaps is wrong in treating the child too early1 as though he were a man1 who does not take sufficient account of all the feebleness that is in infant nature1 appeals from the first to the sentiment of honor1 and to the fear of shame1 that is1 to emotions which1 ,i fear1 by their very nobleness1 are above the powers of the child4 ,honor1 which is1 in fact1 but another name for duty1 and the ordinary synonym of virtue1--honor may assuredly be the guide of an adult and already trained conscience2 but is it not chimerical to hope that the child1 from his earliest years1 will be sensible to the esteem or the contempt of those who surround him8 ,if it were possible to inspire a child with a regard for his reputation1 ,i grant with ,locke that we might henceforth 8make of him whatever we will1 and teach him to love all the forms of virtue02 but the question is to know whether we can succeed in this1 and ,i doubt it1 notwithstanding the assurances of ,locke4 ,kant has very justly said3-- 8,it is labor lost to speak of duty to children4 ,they comprehend it only as a thing whose transgression is followed by the ferule4444 ,so one ought not to try to call into play with children the feeling of shame1 but to wait for this till the period of youth comes4 ,in fact1 it cannot be developed in them till the idea of honor has already taken root there40 ,locke is the dupe of the same illusion1 both when he expects of the child enough moral power so that the sense of honor suffices to govern him1 and when he counts enough on his intellectual forces to desire to reason with him from the moment he knows how to speak4 ,for forming good habits in the child1 and preparing him for a life of virtue1 there is full need of all the resources that nature and art put at the disposal of the educator1--sensibility under all its forms1 the calculations of self-interest1 the lights of the intelligence4 ,it is only little by little1 and with the progress of age1 that an exalted principle1 like the sentiment of honor or the sentiment of duty1 will be able to emerge from out the mobile humors of the child1 and dominate his actions like a sovereign law4 ,the moral pedagogy of ,locke is certainly faulty in that it is not sufficiently addressed to the heart1 and to the potency of loving1 which is already so great in the child4 ,i add1 that in his haste to emancipate the child1 to treat him as a reasonable creature1 and to develop in him the principles of self-government1 ,locke was wrong in proscribing almost absolutely the fear of punishment4 ,it is good to respect the liberty and the dignity of the man that is in the child1 but it is not necessary that this respect degenerate into superstition2 and it is not sure that to train firm and robust wills1 it is necessary to have them early affranchised from all fear and all constraint4 #bad4 ,,condemnation ,,of ,,corporal ,,punishment4--,it is undeniable that ,locke has not sufficiently enlarged the bases of his theory of moral discipline2 but if he has rested incomplete in the positive part of his task1 if he has not advised all that should be done1 he has been more successful in the negative part1 that which consists in eliminating all that ought not to be done4 ,the chapters devoted to punishments in general1 and in particular to corporal punishments1 count among the best in the ,thoughts4 ,rollin and ,rousseau have often copied from them4 ,it is true that ,locke himself has borrowed the suggestion of them from ,montaigne4 ,the 8severe mildness0 which is the pedagogical rule of the author of the ,essays1 is also the rule of ,locke4 ,it is in accordance with this that ,locke has brought to bear on the rod the final judgment of good sense3 8,the rod is a slavish discipline1 which makes a slavish temper40 ,he has yielded to the ideas of his time on only one point1 when he admits one exception to the absolute interdiction of the rod1 and tolerates its use in extreme cases to overcome the obstinate and rebellious resistance of the child4 ,this is going too far without any doubt2 but to do justice to the boldness of ,locke's views1 we must consider how powerful the custom then was1 and still is1 in ,england1 in a country where the heads of institutions think themselves obliged to notify the public1 in the advertisements published in the journals1 that the interdiction of corporal punishment counts among the advantages of their schools4 8,it is difficult to conceive the perseverance with which ,english teachers cling to the old and degrading customs of corrections by the rod4444 ,a more astonishing thing is that the scholars seem to hold to it as much as the teachers40 8,in #ahah10 relates one of the former pupils of ,charterhouse1 8our head master1 ,doctor ,russell1 who had ideas of his own1 resolved to abolish corporal punishment and substitute for it a fine4 ,everybody resisted the innovation4 ,the rod seemed to us perfectly consistent with the dignity of a gentleman2 but a fine1 for shame6 ,the school rose to the cry3 #8,down with the fine6 ,long live the rod6' ,the revolt triumphed1 and the rod was solemnly restored4 ,then we were glad-hearted over the affair4 ,on the next day after the fine was abolished1 we found1 on entering the class-room1 a superb forest of birches1 and the two hours of the session were conscientiously employed in making use of them40#accacd #bae4 ,,intellectual ,,education4--,in what concerns intellectual education1 ,locke manifestly belongs to the school1 small in his time1 but more and more numerous to-day1 of utilitarian teachers4 ,he would train1 not men of letters1 or of science1 but practical men1 armed for the battle of life1 provided with all the knowledge they will need in order to keep their accounts1 administer their fortune1 satisfy the requirements of their profession1 and1 finally1 to fulfill their duties as men and citizens4 ,in a word1 he wrote for a nation of tradesmen and citizens4 #baf4 ,,utilitarian ,,studies4--,an undeniable merit of ,locke is that of having reacted against a purely formal instruction1 which substitutes for the acquisition of positive and real knowledge a superfluous culture1 so to speak1 a training in a superficial rhetoric and an elegant verbiage4 ,locke disdains and condemns studies that do not contribute directly to a preparation for life4 ,doubtless he goes a little too far in his reaction against the current formalism and in his predilection for realism4 ,he is too forgetful of the fact that the old classical studies1 if not useful in the positive sense of the term1 and not satisfying the ordinary needs of existence1 have yet a higher utility1 in the sense that they may become1 in skillful and discreet hands1 an excellent instrument for intellectual discipline and the education of the judgment4 ,but ,locke spoke to fanatics and pedants1 for whom ,latin and ,greek were the whole of instruction1 and who1 turning letters from their true purpose1 wrongly made a knowledge of the dead languages the sole end1 and not1 as should be the case1 one of the means of instruction4 ,locke is by no means a blind utilitarian1 a coarse positivist1 who dreams of absolutely abolishing disinterested studies4 ,he wishes merely to put them in their place1 and to guard against investing them with a sort of exclusive privilege1 and against sacrificing to them other branches of instruction that are more essential and more immediately useful4 #bag4 ,,programme ,,of ,,studies4--,as soon as the child knows how to read and write1 he should be taught to draw4 ,very disdainful of painting and of the fine arts in general1 whose benign and profound influence on the souls of children his colder nature has not sufficiently recognized1 ,locke1 by way of compensation1 recommends drawing1 because drawing may be practically useful1 and he puts it on almost the same footing as reading and writing4 ,these elements once acquired1 the child should be drilled in the mother tongue1 first in reading1 and afterwards in exercises in composition1 in brief narratives1 in familiar letters1 etc4 ,the study of a living language 7,locke recommends ,french to his countrymen7 should immediately follow2 and it is only after this has been acquired that the child shall be put to the study of ,latin4 ,save the omission of the sciences1 ,locke's plan is singularly like that which for ten years has been in use in the ,french lyces4 ,as to ,latin1 which follows the living language1 ,locke requires that it shall be learned above all through use1 through conversation if a master can be found who speaks it fluently1 but if not1 through the reading of authors4 ,as little of grammar as possible1 no memoriter exercises1 no ,latin composition1 either in prose or verse1 but1 as soon as possible1 the reading of easy ,latin texts1--these are the recommendations of ,locke that have been too little heeded4 ,the purpose is no longer to learn ,latin for the sake of writing it elegantly2 the only purpose truly desirable is to comprehend the authors who have written in that language4 ,the obstinate partisans of ,latin verse and conversation will not read without chagrin these earnest protests of ,locke against exercises that have been too much abused1 and that impose on the learner the torment of writing in a language which he handles with difficulty1 upon subjects which he but imperfectly understands4 ,as to ,greek1 ,locke proscribes it absolutely4 ,he does not disparage the beauty of a language whose masterpieces1 he says1 are the original source of our literature and science2 but he reserves the knowledge of it to the learned1 to the lettered1 to professional scholars1 and he excludes it from secondary instruction1 which ought to be but the school which trains for active life4 ,thus relieved1 classical instruction will more easily welcome the studies that are of real use and of practical application1--geography1 which ,locke places in the first rank1 because it is 8an exercise of the eyes and memory02 arithmetic1 which 8is of so general use in all parts of life and business1 that scarce anything can be done without it02 then what he somewhat ambitiously calls astronomy1 and which is in reality an elementary cosmography2 the parts of geometry which are necessary for 8a man of business02 chronology and history1 8the most agreeable and the most instructive of studies02 ethics and common law1 which do not yet have a place in ,french programmes2 finally1 natural philosophy1 that is1 the physical sciences2 and1 to crown all1 a manual trade and bookkeeping4 #bah4 ,,attractive ,,studies4--,another characteristic of ,locke's intellectual discipline is1 that1 utilitarian in its purpose1 the instruction which he organizes shall be attractive in its methods4 ,after hatred for the pedantry which uselessly spends the powers of the learner in barren studies1 the next strongest antipathy of ,locke is that which is inspired by the rigor of a too didactic system of instruction1 where the methods are repulsive1 the processes painful1 and where the teacher appears to his pupils only as a bugbear and a marplot4 ,although he may go to extremes in this1 he is partly right in wishing to bring into favor processes that are inviting and methods that are attractive4 ,without hoping1 as he does1 without desiring even1 that the pupil may come to make no distinction between study and other diversions1 we are disposed to believe that something may be done to alleviate for him the first difficulties in learning1 to entice and captivate him without constraining him1 and1 finally1 to spare him the disgust which cannot fail to be inspired by studies too severely forced upon him1 and which are made the subject of scourges and scoldings4 ,it is especially for reading and the first exercises of the child that ,locke recommends the use of instructive plays4 8,they may be taught to read1 without perceiving it to be anything but a sport1 and play themselves into that which others are whipped for40 ,children of every age are jealous of their independence and eager for pleasure4 ,no one before ,locke had so clearly recognized the need of the activity and liberty which are natural to the child1 or so strongly insisted on the necessity of respecting his independent disposition and his personal tastes4 ,here again ,english pedagogy of the seventeenth century meets its illustrious successor of the nineteenth4 ,herbert ,spencer has thoroughly demonstrated the fact that the mind really appropriates only the knowledge that affords it pleasure and agreeable exercise4 ,now1 there is pleasure and agreeable excitation wherever there is the development of a normal activity corresponding to an instinctive taste and proportioned to the natural powers of the child2 and there is no real instruction save at the expense of a real display of activity4#ace #bai4 ,,should ,,there ,,be ,,learning ,,by ,,heart8--,to this question1 ,should there be learning by heart8 ,locke gives a resolute reply in the negative4 ,the conclusion is absolute and false2 but the premises that he assumes to justify his conclusion are1 if possible1 falser still4 ,locke sets out from this psychological idea1 that the memory is not susceptible of progress4 ,he brings into the discussion his sensualistic prejudices1 his peculiar conception of the soul1 which is but a tabula rasa1 an empty and inert capacity1 and not a congeries of energies and of living forces that are strengthened by exercise4 ,he does not believe that the faculties1 whatever they may be1 can grow and develop1 and this for the good reason1 according to his thinking1 that the faculties have no existence4 ,but here let him speak for himself3-- 8,i hear it is said that children should be employed in getting things by heart1 to exercise and improve their memories4 ,i would wish this were said with as much authority and reason as it is with forwardness of assurance1 and that this practice were established upon good observation more than old custom4 ,for it is evident that strength of memory is owing to an happy constitution1 and not to any habitual improvement got by exercise4 ',tis true what the mind is intent upon1 and1 for fear of letting it slip1 often imprints afresh on itself by frequent reflection1 that it is apt to retain1 but still according to its own natural strength of retention4 ,an impression made on beeswax or lead will not last so long as on brass or steel4 ,indeed1 if it be renewed often1 it may last the longer2 but every new reflecting on it is a new impression1 and 'tis from thence one is to reckon1 if one would know how long the mind retains it4 ,but the learning pages of ,latin by heart no more fits the memory for retention of anything else1 than the graving of one sentence in lead makes it the more capable of retaining firmly any other characters40#acf ,if ,locke were right1 education would become wholly impossible2 for1 in case of all the faculties1 education supposes the existence of a natural germ which exercise fertilizes and develops4 #bbj4 ,a ,,trade ,,should ,,be ,,learned4--,locke1 like ,rousseau1 but for other reasons1 wishes his pupil to learn a trade3 8,i can not forbear to say1 ,i would have my gentleman learn a trade1 a manual trade2 nay1 two or three1 but one more particularly40#acg ,rousseau will say the same3 8,recollect that it is not talent that ,i require of you2 it is a trade1 a real trade1 a purely mechanical art1 in which the hands work more than the head40 ,but ,locke1 in having his gentleman learn carpentry or agriculture1 especially designed that this physical labor should lend the mind a diversion1 an occasion for relaxation and repose1 and secure to the body a useful exercise4 ,rousseau is influenced by totally different ideas4 ,what he wants is1 first1 that through an apprenticeship to a trade1 mile may protect himself against need in case a revolutionary crisis should deprive him of his wealth4 ,in the second place1 ,rousseau obeys his social1 we might even say his socialistic1 preoccupations4 ,work1 in his view1 is a strict duty1 from which no one can exempt himself4 8,rich or poor1 every idle citizen is a knave40 #bba4 ,,working ,,schools4--,although ,locke is almost exclusively preoccupied with classical studies and with a gentleman's education1 nevertheless he has not remained completely a stranger to questions of primary instruction4 ,in #afig he addressed to the ,english government a remarkable document on the importance of organizing 8working schools0 for the children of the poor4 ,all children over three and under fourteen years of age are to be collected in homes where they will find labor and food4 ,in this way ,locke thought to contend against immorality and pauperism4 ,he would find a remedy for the idleness and vagabondage of the child1 and lighten the care of the mother who is absorbed in her work4 ,he would also1 through habits of order and discipline1 train up steady men and industrious workmen4 ,in other terms1 he attempted a work of social regeneration1 and the tutor of gentlemen became the educator of the poor4 #bbb4 ,,locke ,,and ,,rousseau4--,in the mile we shall frequently find passages inspired by him whom ,rousseau calls 8the wise ,locke40 ,perhaps we shall admire even more the practical qualities and the good sense of the ,english educator when we shall have become acquainted with the chimeras of his ,french imitator4 ,in the case of ,locke1 we have to do1 not with an author who wishes to shine1 but with a man of sense and judgment who expresses his opinions1 and who has no other pretense than to understand himself and to be comprehended by others4 ,to appreciate the ,thoughts at their full value1 they should not be read till after having re-read the mile1 which is so much indebted to them4 ,on coming from the reading of ,rousseau1 after the brilliant glare and almost the giddiness occasioned his reader by a writer of genius whose imagination is ever on the wing1 whose passion urges him on1 and who mingles with so many exalted truths1 hasty paradoxes1 and noisy declamations1 it is like repose and a delicious unbending to the spirit to go to the study of ,locke1 and to find a train of thought always equable1 a style simple and dispassionate1 an author always master of himself1 always correct1 notwithstanding some errors1 and a book1 finally1 filled1 not with flashes and smoke1 but with a light that is agreeable and pure4 #bbc4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,this study illustrates the fact that the aims and methods of education are determined by the types of thought1 philosophical1 political1 religious1 scientific1 and social1 that happen to be in the ascendent2 and also the tendency of the human mind to adopt extreme views4 #b4 ,the subjective tendency of human thought is typified by the ,socratic philosophy1 and the objective tendency by the ,baconian philosophy2 and from these two main sources have issued two distinctive schools of educators1 the formalists and the realists1 the first holding that the main purpose of education is discipline1 training1 or formation1 and the other1 that this purpose is furnishing instruction or information4 ,this line is distinctly drawn in the seventeenth century1 and the two schools are typified by ,malebranche and ,locke4 #c4 ,the spirit of reaction is exhibited in the opposition to classical studies1 in the effort to convert study into a diversion1 in the use of milder means of discipline1 and in the importance attached to useful studies4 ,in these particulars the reaction of the sixteenth century is intensified4 ,,footnotes3 #abh ,rollin1 ,trait des tudes1 ,tome ,,iv4 p4 #cce4 #abi ,i am in doubt whether ,m4 ,compayr intends to sanction this doctrine or not4 ,this is an anticipation of one of ,jacotot's paradoxes3 8,all human beings are equally capable of learning40 ,the verdict of actual teachers is undoubtedly to the effect that there are manifold differences in the ability of pupils to know1 comprehend1 and judge4 7,p47 #acj ,is not the antagonism pointed out by ,malebranche more serious than ,m4 ,compayr seems to think8 ,if the current of mental activity sets strongly towards the feelings1 emotions1 or senses1 it is thereby diverted from the purely intellectual processes1 such as reflection and judgment4 ,the mind of the savage is an example of what comes from 8following the order of nature0 in an extreme training of the senses4 ,on the nature and extent of this antagonism1 the following authorities may be consulted3 ,hamilton1 ,metaphysics1 p4 #ccf2 ,mansel1 ,metaphysics1 pp4 #fh1 #gj1 #gg2 ,bain1 ,the ,senses and the ,intellect1 pp4 #cib-cid2 ,bain1 ,education as a ,science1 pp4 #ag1 #bi1 #cg2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,psychology1 pp4 #ih-ii4 7,p47 #aca ,john ,locke4 ,his ,life and his ,work4 ,paris1 #ahgh4 #acb ,thoughts1 translation by ,g4 ,compayr1 p4 #eg4 #acc ,demogeot et ,montucci1 de l',enseignement secondaire en ,angleterre1 p4 #da4 #acd ,on the question of corporal punishment in school1 is not ,m4 ,compayr too absolute in his assumptions8 ,on what principle does he base his absolute condemnation of the rod8 ,what is to be done in those cases of revolt against order and decency that occur from time to time in most schools8 ,there is no doubt that the very best teachers can govern without resorting to this hateful expedient2 but what shall be done in extreme cases by the multitude who are not1 and never can be1 teachers of this ideal type8 ,nor does this question stand alone4 ,below1 it is related to family discipline2 and above1 to civil administration4 ,if corporal punishment is interdicted in the school1 should it not be interdicted in the ,state8 7,p47 #ace ,it is usually said that a pupil's distaste for a study indicates one of two things1 either the mode of presenting the subject is bad1 or it is presented at an unseasonable period of mental development2 but this distaste is quite as likely to be due to the fact that a certain mode of mental activity has not yet been established2 for until fairly established1 its exercise cannot be pleasurable4 ,the assumption that intellectual appetites already exist and are waiting to be gratified1 or that they will invariably appear at certain periods of mental development1 is by no means a general law of the mental life4 ,in many cases1 these appetites must be created1 and it may often be that the studies employed for this purpose may not at first be relished4 ,and there are cases where1 under the best of skill1 this relish may never come2 and still1 the knowledge or the discipline is so necessary that the studies may be enforced contrary to the pupil's pleasure4 7,p47 #acf ,thoughts1 edited by ,r4 ,h4 ,quick 7,cambridge1 #ahhj71 pp4 #aec-d4 #acg ,thoughts1 p4 #agg4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4--,,jacqueline ,,pascal ,,and ,,madame ,,de ,,maintenon4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century2 ,,madame ,,de ,s,,vign2 ,,the ,,abb ,,fleury2 ,,education ,,in ,,convents2 ,,port ,,royal ,,and ,,the ,,regulations ,,of ,,jacqueline ,,pascal2 ,,general ,,impression2 ,,severity ,,and ,,affection2 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,saint ,,cyr2 ,,two ,,periods ,,in ,,the ,,institution ,,of ,,saint ,,cyr2 ,,dramatic ,,representations2 ,,the ,,reform ,,of #afib2 ,,the ,,part ,,played ,,by ,,madame ,,de ,,maintenon2 ,,her ,,pedagogical ,,writings2 ,,interior ,,organization ,,of ,,saint ,,cyr2 ,,distrust ,,of ,,reading2 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,history ,,neglected2 ,,instruction ,,insufficient2 ,,manual ,,labor2 ,,moral ,,education2 ,,discreet ,,devotion2 ,,simplicity ,,in ,,all ,,things2 ,f,,nelon ,,and ,,saint ,,cyr2 ,,general ,,judgment2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #bbd4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4--,the ,education of ,girls of ,fnelon has shown us how far the spirit of the seventeenth century was able to go in what concerns the education of women1 as exhibited in the most liberal theories on the subject2 but in practice1 save in brilliant exceptions1 even the modest and imperfect ideal of ,fnelon was far from being attained4 ,chrysale was not alone of this opinion1 when he said in the ,learned ,ladies3-- 8,it is not very proper1 and for several reasons1 that a woman should study and know so many things4 ,to train the minds of her children in good morals and manners1 to superintend her household1 by keeping an eye on her servants1 and to control the expenditures with economy1 ought to be her study and philosophy40#ach ,it is true that ,molire himself did not sympathize with the prejudices whose expression he put in the mouth of his comic character1 and that he concludes that a woman 8may be enlightened on every subject0 78,je consens qu'une femme ait des clarts de tout074 ,but in real fact and in practice1 it is the opinion of ,chrysale that prevailed4 ,even in the higher classes1 woman held herself aloof from instruction1 and from things intellectual4 ,madame ,racine had never seen played1 and had probably never read1 the tragedies of her husband4 #bbe4 ,,madame ,,de ,s,,vign4--,however1 the seventeenth century was not wanting in women of talent or genius1 who might have made an eloquent plea in behalf of their sex2 but they were content to give personal examples of a high order1 without any anxiety to be imitated4 ,madame de ,lafayette made beautiful translations from ,latin2 ,madame ,dacier was a humanist of the first order2 and ,madame de ,svign knew the modern languages as well as the ancient4 ,no one has better described the advantage of reading4 ,she recommends the reading of romances in the following terms3-- 8,i found that a young man became generous and brave in seeing my heroes1 and that a girl became genteel and wise in reading ,cleopatra4 ,there are occasionally some who take things somewhat amiss1 but they would perhaps do scarcely any better if they could not read40#aci ,madame de ,svign had her daughter read ,descartes1 and her granddaughter ,pauline1 the tragedies of ,corneille4 8,for my part10 she said1 8if ,i were to bring up my granddaughter1 ,i would have her read what is good1 but not too simple4 ,i would reason with her40#adj #bbf4 ,,the ,,abb ,,fleury4--,but ,madame de ,svign and ,madame de ,grignan were but brilliant exceptions4 ,if one were to doubt the ignorance of the women of this period1 it would suffice to read this striking passage from the ,abb ,fleury1 the assistant of ,fnelon in the education of the ,duke of ,bourgogne3-- 8,this1 doubtless1 will be a great paradox1 that women ought to learn anything else than their catechism1 sewing1 and different little pieces of work1 singing1 dancing1 and dressing in the fashion1 and to make a fine courtesy4 ,as things now go1 this constitutes all their education40#ada ,fleury desires something else for woman4 ,he demands that she learn to write correctly in ,french1 and that she study logic and arithmetic4 ,but we need not fear lest the liberalism of a thinker of the seventeenth century carry him too far4 ,fleury admits1 for example1 that history is absolutely useless to women4 #bbg4 ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,convents4--,it is almost exclusively in convents that young girls then received what passed for an education4 ,the religious congregations that devoted themselves to female education were numberless2 we note1 for example1 among the most celebrated1 the ,ursulines1 founded in #aecg2 the ,association of the ,angelics1 established in ,italy in #aecf2 and the ,order of ,saint ,elizabeth4 ,but1 notwithstanding the diversity of names1 all the convents for girls resemble one another4 ,in all of them woman was educated for heaven1 or for a life of devotion4 ,spiritual exercises formed the only occupation of the pupils1 and study was scarcely taken into account4 #bbh4 ,,port ,,royal ,,and ,,the ,,regulations ,,of ,,jacqueline ,,pascal4--,the best means of penetrating into the inner life of the convents of the seventeenth century is to read the ,regulations for ,children1 written towards #afeg by ,jacqueline ,pascal1 ,sister ,saint ,euphemia4 ,the education of girls interested the ,jansenists not less than the education of men2 but in this respect1 ,port ,royal is far from deserving the same encomiums in both cases4 #bbi4 ,,general ,,impression4--,there is nothing so sombre and sad as the interior of their institution for girls1 and nothing so austere as the rules of ,jacqueline ,pascal4 8,a strange emotion1 even at the distance of centuries1 is caused by the sight of those children keeping silent or speaking in a whisper from rising till retiring1 never walking except between two nuns1 one in front and the other behind1 in order to make it impossible1 by slackening their pace on the pretext of some indisposition1 for them to hold any communication2 working in such a way as never to be in companies of two or three2 passing from meditation to prayer1 and from prayer to instruction2 learning1 besides the catechism1 nothing but reading and writing2 and1 on ,sunday1 #8a little arithmetic1 the older from one to two o'clock1 and the younger from two to half past two'2 the hands always busy to prevent the mind from wandering2 but without being able to become attached to their work1 which would please ,god as much the more as it pleased themselves the less2 opposing all their natural inclinations1 and despising the attentions due the body #8destined to serve as food for worms'2 doing nothing1 in a word1 except in the spirit of mortification4 ,imagine those days of fourteen and sixteen hours1 slowly succeeding one another1 and weighing down on the heads of those poor little sisters1 for six or eight years in that dreary solitude1 where there was nothing to bring in the stir of life1 save the sound of the bell announcing a change of exercise or of penance1 and you will comprehend ,fnelon's feeling of sadness when he speaks of the shadows of that deep cavern in which was imprisoned and1 as it were1 buried the youth of girls40#adb #bcj4 ,,severity ,,and ,,love4--,the severity of the ,regulations is such that the editor1 ,m4 de ,pontchartrain1 also a ,jansenist1 allows that it will be impossible to obtain from all children 8so complete a silence and so formal a life02 and requires that the mistresses shall try to gain their affections4 ,love must be united with severity4 ,jacqueline ,pascal does not seem to be entirely of this opinion1 since she declares that only ,god must be loved4 ,however1 notwithstanding her habitual severity1 human tenderness sometimes asserts its rights in the rules which she established4 ,we feel that she loves more than she confesses1 those young girls whom she calls 8little doves40 ,on the one hand1 the ,regulations incite the pupils to eat of what is placed before them indifferently1 and to begin with what they like the least1 through a spirit of penitence2 but1 on the other hand1 ,jacqueline writes3 8,they must be exhorted to take sufficient nourishment so as not to allow themselves to become weakened1 and this is why care is taken that they have eaten enough40 ,and so there is a touching solicitude that is almost maternal in this remark3 8,as soon as they have retired1 each particular bed must be visited1 to see whether all proprieties have been observed1 and whether the children are well covered in winter40 ,the mystic sister of the ascetic ,pascal has moments of tenderness4 8,nevertheless1 we must not cease to feel pity for them1 and to accommodate ourselves to them in every way that we can1 but without letting them know that we have thus condescended40 ,however1 the dominant conception ever reappearing1 is the idea that human nature is evil2 that we have to do with rebellious spirits which must be conquered1 and that they deserve no commiseration4 ,there is a deal of anxiety to make study agreeable6 ,jacqueline directs her pupils to work at the very things that are most repulsive1 because the work that will please ,god the most is that which will please them the least4 ,the exterior manifestations of friendship are forbidden1 and possibly friendship itself4 8,our pupils shall shun every sort of familiarity one towards another40 ,instruction is reduced to the catechism1 to the application of the ,christian virtues1 to reading1 and to writing4 ,arithmetic is not taught save on holidays4 ,it seems that memory is the only faculty that ,jacqueline wishes to have developed4 8,this opens their minds1 gives them occupation1 and keeps them from evil thoughts40 ,have we not reason to say that at ,port ,royal women have less value than men6 ,what a distance between the solid instruction of ,lancelot's and ,nicole's pupils and the ignorance of ,jacqueline ,pascal's6 ,even when the men of ,port ,royal speak of the education of women1 they have more liberal ideas than those which are applied at their side4 ,nicole declares that books are necessary even in convents for girls1 because it is necessary 8to sustain prayer by reading40 #bca4 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,saint ,,cyr4--,in leaving ,port ,royal for ,saint ,cyr1 we seem1 on coming out of a profound night1 to perceive a ray of light4 ,without doubt1 ,madame de ,maintenon has not yet1 as a teacher1 all that breadth of view that could be desired4 ,her work is far from being faultless1 but the founding of ,saint ,cyr 7#afhf7 was none the less a considerable innovation4 8,saint ,cyr10 it has been said1 8is not a convent4 ,it is a great establishment devoted to the lay education of young women of noble birth2 it is a bold and intelligent secularization of the education of women40 ,there is some excess of praise in this statement1 and the lay character of ,saint ,cyr is very questionable4 ,lavalle1 an admirer1 could write3 8,the instructions of ,madame de ,maintenon are doubtless too religious1 too monastic40 ,let us grant1 however1 that ,madame de ,maintenon1 who1 after having founded ,saint ,cyr1 was the director of it1 extra muros1 and even taught there1 at stated times1 is personally the first lay teacher of ,france4 ,let us grant1 also1 that at least in the beginning1 and up to #afib1 the women entrusted with the work of instruction were not nuns in the absolute sense of the term4 ,they were not bound by solemn and absolute vows4 ,but this character relatively laic1 and this rupture with monastic traditions1 were not maintained during the whole life of the institution4 #bcb4 ,,two ,,periods ,,in ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,saint ,,cyr4--,saint ,cyr1 in fact1 passed1 within a few years1 through two very different periods1 and ,madame de ,maintenon followed in succession two almost opposite currents4 ,for the first years1 from #afhf to #afib1 the spirit of the institution is broad and liberal2 the education is brilliant1 perhaps too much so2 literary exercises and dramatic representations have an honored place4 ,saint ,cyr is an institution inclining to worldliness1 better fitted to train women of intellect than good economists and housewives4 ,madame de ,maintenon quickly saw that she had taken a false route1 and1 from #afib1 she reacted1 not without excess1 against the tendencies which she had at first obeyed4 ,she conceived an extreme distrust of literary studies1 and cut off all she could from the instruction1 in order to give her entire thought to the moral and practical qualities of her pupils4 ,saint ,cyr became a convent1 with a little more liberty1 doubtless1 than there was in the other monasteries of the time1 but it was a convent still4 #bcc4 ,,dramatic ,,representations4--,it was the notorious success of the performance of ,andromaque and ,esther that caused the overthrow of the original intentions of ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,esther1 in particular1 was the great event of the first years of ,saint ,cyr4 ,racine distributed the parts2 ,boileau conducted the training in elocution2 and the entire ,court1 the king at the head1 came to applaud and entertain the pretty actresses1 who left nothing undone to please their spectators4 ,heads were a little turned by all this2 dissipation crept into the school4 ,the pupils were no longer willing to sing in church1 for fear of spoiling their voices4 ,evidently the route was now over a dangerous declivity4 ,the institution had been turned from its purpose4 ,matters were in a way to establish1 under another form1 another ,htel de ,rambouillet4#adc #bcd4 ,,reform ,,of #afib4--;,at the first1 as we have seen1 the ladies of ,saint ,louis1 charged with the direction of ,saint ,cyr1 did not found a monastic order properly so-called2 but1 when ,madame de ,maintenon resolved to reform the general spirit of the house1 she thought it necessary to transform ,saint ,cyr into a monastery1 and she founded the ,order of ,saint ,augustine4 ,but what she changed in particular was the moral discipline1 and the programme of studies4 ,madame de ,maintenon has herself recited1 in a memorable letter1#add the reasons of that reform which modified so profoundly the character of ,saint ,cyr3-- 8,the sorrow ,i feel for the girls of ,saint ,cyr10 she said1 8can be cured only by time and by an entire change in the education that we have given them up to this hour4 ,it is very just that ,i should suffer for this1 since ,i have contributed to it more than any one else4444 ,the whole establishment has been the object of my pride1 and the ground for this feeling has been so real that it has gone to extremes that ,i never intended4 ,god knows that ,i wished to establish virtue at ,saint ,cyr1 but ,i have built upon the sand4 ,not having1 what alone can make a solid foundation1 ,i wished the girls to be witty1 high-spirited1 and trained to think2 ,i have succeeded in this purpose4 ,they have wit1 and they use it against us4 ,they are high-spirited1 and are more heady and haughty than would be becoming in a royal princess4 ,speaking after the manner of the world1 we have trained their reason1 and have made them talkative1 presumptuous1 inquisitive1 bold 444 witty1--such characters as even we who have trained them cannot abide4444 ,let us seek a remedy1 for we must not be discouraged4444 ,as many little things form pride1 many little things will destroy it4 ,our girls have been treated with too much consideration1 have been petted too much1 treated too gently4 ,we must now leave them more to themselves in their class-rooms1 make them observe the daily regulations1 and speak to them of scarcely anything else4444 ,pray to ,god1 and ask ,him to change their hearts2 and that ,he may give to all of them humility4 ,there should not be much conversation with them on the subject4 ,everything at ,saint ,cyr is made a matter of discourse4 ,we often speak of simplicity1 and try to define it correctly 444 and yet1 in practice1 the girls make merry in saying3 #8,through simplicity ,i take the best place2 through simplicity ,i am going to commend myself4' ,our girls must be cured of that jesting turn of mind which ,i have given them4444 ,we have wished to shun the pettiness of certain convents1 and ,god has punished us for this haughty spirit4 ,there is no house in the world that has more need of humility within and without than our own4 ,its situation near the ,court2 the air of favor that pervades it2 the favors of a great king2 the offices of a person of consideration1--all these snares1 so full of danger1 should lead us to take measures directly contrary to those we have really taken44440 #bce4 ,,the ,,part ,,played ,,by ,,madame ,,de ,,maintenon4--,whatever may be the opinion respecting the tone of the educational work at ,saint ,cyr1 there cannot be the least doubt as to the admirable zeal of ,madame de ,maintenon1 and her indefatigable devotion to the success of her favorite undertaking4 ,the vocation of the teacher was evidently hers4 ,for more than thirty years1 from #afhf to #agag1 she did not cease to visit ,saint ,cyr every day1 sometimes at six in the morning4 ,she wrote for the directresses and for the pupils counsels and regulations that fill several volumes4 ,nothing which concerns 8her children0 is a matter of indifference to her4 ,she devotes her attention to their meals1 their sleep1 their toilet1 as well as to their character and their instruction3-- 8,the affairs we discuss at ,court are bagatelles2 those at ,saint ,cyr are the more important44440 8,may that establishment last as long as ,france1 and ,france as long as the world4 ,nothing is dearer to me than my children of ,saint ,cyr40 ,it is not tenderness1 it is well known1 that characterizes the soul of ,madame de ,maintenon2 but1 at ,saint ,cyr1 from being formal and cold1 which is her usual state1 she becomes loving and tender3-- 8,forget nothing that may save the souls of our young girls1 that may fortify their health and preserve their form40 ,one day1 as she had come to the school1 as her custom was1 to consult with the nuns1 a company of girls passed by raising a cloud of dust4 ,the nuns1 fearing that ,madame de ,maintenon was annoyed by it1 requested them to withdraw4 8,pray1 let the dear girls be10 replied ,madame de ,maintenon2 8,i love them even to the dust they raise40 ,conversely1 as it were1 the pupils of ,pestalozzi1 consulted on the question of knowing whether they were willing always to be beaten and clawed by their old master1 replied affirmatively3 they loved him even to his claws6 #bcf4 ,,her ,,pedagogical ,,writings4--,it is only in our day that the works of ,madame de ,maintenon have been published in the integrity of their text1 thanks to the labors of ,thophile ,lavalle4 ,for the most part1 these long and interesting letters are devoted to education and to ,saint ,cyr4 ,these are1 first1 the ,letters and ,conversations on the ,education of ,girls4#ade ,these letters were written from day to day1 and are addressed1 sometimes to the ladies of ,saint ,cyr1 and sometimes to the pupils themselves4 8,we find in them10 says ,lavalle1 8for all circumstances and for all times1 the most solid teaching1 masterpieces of good sense1 of naturalness1 and of truth1 and1 finally1 instructions relative to education that approach perfection4 ,the ,conversations originated in the consultations that ,madame de ,maintenon had during the recreations or the recitations1 either with the ladies or with the young women1 who themselves collected and edited the words of their governess40 ,after the ,letters and ,conversations comes the ,counsels to ,young ,women who enter ,society1#adf which contain general advice1 conversations or dialogues1 and1 finally1 proverbs1 that is1 short dramatic compositions1 designed at once to instruct and amuse the young ladies of ,saint ,cyr4 ,these essays are not admirable in all respects2 most often they are lacking in imagination2 and ,madame de ,maintenon1 though an imitation of ,fnelon1 makes a misuse of indirect instruction1 of artifice1 and of amusement1 in order to teach some moral commonplaces by insinuation4 ,here are the titles of some of these proverbs3 ,the occasion makes the rogue2 ,women make and unmake the home2 ,there is no situation more embarrassing than that of holding the handle of the frying-pan4 ,finally1 let us note the third collection1 the ,historical and ,instructive ,letters addressed to the ,ladies of ,saint ,cyr4#adg ,it is to be regretted that1 out of these numerous volumes1 where repetitions abound1 there have not been extracted1 in a methodical manner1 a few hundred pages which should contain the substance of ,madame de ,maintenon's thinking on educational questions4 #bcg4 ,,interior ,,organization4--,the purpose of the founding of ,saint ,cyr was to assure to the two hundred and fifty daughters of the poor nobility1 and to the children of officers dead or disabled1 an educational retreat where they would be suitably educated so as to be prepared for becoming either nuns1 if this was their vocation1 or1 the more often1 good mothers4 ,as ,m4 ,grard has justly observed1 8the very conception of an establishment of this kind1 the idea of making ,france pay the debt of ,france1 educating the children of those who had given her their blood1 proceeds from a feeling up to that time unknown40#adh ,consequently1 children of the tenderest years1 from six or seven1 were received at ,saint ,cyr1 there to be cared for till the age of marriage1 till eighteen and twenty4 ,the young girls were divided into four classes1--the reds1 the greens1 the yellows1 and the blues4 ,the blues were the largest1 and they wore the royal colors4 ,each class was divided into five or six bands or families1 of eight or ten pupils each4 ,the ladies of ,saint ,cyr were ordinarily taken from the pupils of the school4 ,they were forty in number1--the superior1 the assistant who supplied the place of the superior1 the mistress of the novices1 the general mistress of the classes1 the mistresses of the classes1 etc4 ,the capital defect of ,saint ,cyr is1 that1 as in the colleges of the ,jesuits1 the residence is absolute and the sequestration complete4 ,from her fifth to her twentieth year the young girl belongs entirely to ,saint ,cyr4 ,she scarcely knows her parents4 ,it will be said1 perhaps1 that in many cases she has lost them1 and that in some cases she could expect only bad examples from them4 ,but no matter2 the general rule1 which interrupted family intercourse to the extent of almost abolishing it1 cannot obtain our approbation4 ,the girl was permitted to see her parents only three or four times a year1 and even then these interviews would last only for a half an hour each time1 and in the presence of a mistress4 ,there was permission to write family letters from time to time2 but as though she mistrusted the natural impulses of the heart1 and the free outpouring of filial affection1 ,madame de ,maintenon had taken care to compose some models of these letters4 ,with more of reason than of feeling1 ,madame de ,maintenon is not exempt from a certain coldness of heart4 ,it seems that she would impose on her pupils the extraordinary habits of her own family4 ,she recollected having been kissed only twice by her mother1 on her forehead1 and then only after a long separation4 #bch4 ,,distrust ,,of ,,reading4--,after the reforms of #afib1 the instruction at ,saint ,cyr became a matter of secondary importance4 ,reading1 writing1 and counting were taught1 but scarcely anything besides4 ,reading1 in general1 was viewed with distrust3 8,teach girls to be very sparing as to reading1 and always to prefer manual labor instead40 ,books of a secular nature were interdicted2 only works of piety were put in the hands of pupils1 such as the ,introduction to a ,devout ,life1 by ,saint ,franois de ,salles1 and the ,confessions of ,saint ,augustine4 8,renounce intellectual culture0 is the perpetual injunction of ,madame de ,maintenon4 8,we must educate citizens for citizenship4 ,it is not the question of giving them intellectual culture4 ,we must preach family duties to them1 obedience to husband1 and care for children4444 ,reading does more harm than good to young girls4444 ,books make witlings and excite an insatiable curiosity40 #bci4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,history ,,neglected4--,to judge of the spirit of ,saint ,cyr1 from the point of view of intellectual education1 it suffices to note the little importance that was there given to history4 ,this went so far as to raise the question whether it were not best to prohibit the study of ,french history entirely4 ,madame de ,maintenon consents to have it taught1 but only just enough so that 8pupils may not confuse the succession of our kings with the princes of other countries1 and not take a ,roman emperor for an emperor of ,china or ,japan1 a king of ,spain or of ,england for a king of ,persia or of ,siam40 ,as to the history of antiquity1 it must be held in mistrust for the very reason--who would believe it8--of the beautiful examples of virtue that it contains4 8,i should fear that those grand examples of generosity and heroism would give our young girls too much elevation of spirit1 and make them vain and pretentious40 ,have we not some right to feel surprised that ,madame de ,maintenon is alarmed at the thought of raising the intelligence of woman8 ,it is true that she doubtless thought of the romantic exaggerations produced by the reading of the ,cyrus the ,great and other writings of ,mlle4 de ,scudry4 ,let us add1 besides1 to excuse the shortcomings of the programme of ,saint ,cyr in the matter of history1 that even for boys in the colleges of the ,university1 the order that introduced the teaching of history into the classes dates only from #afie4 #bdj4 ,,insufficient ,,instruction4--8,our day10 says ,lavalle1 8would not accept that education in which instruction properly so-called was but a secondary matter1 and entirely sacrificed to the manner of training the heart1 the reason1 and the character2 and an education1 too1 that1 as a whole and in its details1 was wholly religious40 ,the error of ,madame de ,maintenon consists essentially in the wish to develop the moral virtues in souls scarcely instructed1 scarcely enlightened4 ,there was much moral discoursing at ,saint ,cyr4 ,if it did not always bear fruit1 it was because the seed fell into intelligences that were but little cultivated4 8,our young women are not to be made scholarly4 ,women never know except by halves1 and the little that they know usually makes them conceited1 disdainful1 chatty1 and disgusted with serious things40 #bda4 ,,manual ,,labor4--,if intellectual education was neglected at ,saint ,cyr1 by way of compensation great attention was paid to manual education4 ,the girls were there taught to sew1 to embroider1 to knit1 and to make tapestry2 and there was also made there all the linen for the house1 the infirmary1 and the chapel1 and the dresses and clothing of the ladies and the pupils3-- 8,but no exquisite productions10 says ,madame de ,maintenon1 8nor of very elaborate design2 none of those flimsy edgings in embroidery or tapestry1 which are of no use40 ,with what good grace ,madame de ,maintenon ever preaches the gospel of labor1 of which she herself gave the example6 ,in the coaches of the king1 she always had some work in hand4 ,at ,saint ,cyr1 the young women swept the dormitories1 put in order the refectory1 and dusted the class-rooms4 8,they must be put at every kind of service1 and made to work at what is burdensome1 in order to make them robust1 healthy1 and intelligent40 8,manual labor is a moral safeguard1 a protection against sin40 8,work calms the passions1 occupies the mind1 and does not leave it time to think of evil40 #bdb4 ,,moral ,,education4--8,the ,institute10 said ,madame de ,maintenon1 8is intended1 not for prayer1 but for action40 ,what she wished1 above all else1 was to prepare young women for home and family life4 ,she devoted her thought to the training of wives and mothers4 8,what ,i lack most10 she said1 8is sons-in-law60 ,hence she was incessantly preoccupied with moral qualities4 ,one might make a fine and valuable book of selections out of all the practical maxims of ,madame de ,maintenon2 as her reflections on talkativeness3 8,there is always sin in a multitude of words20 on indolence3 8,what can be done in the family of an indolent and fastidious woman80 on politeness1 8which consists1 above all else1 in giving one's thought to others20 on lack of energy1 then too common among women of the world3 8,the only concern is to eat and to take one's ease4 ,women spend the day in morning-gowns1 reclining in easy-chairs1 without any occupation1 and without conversation2 all is well1 provided one be in a state of repose40 #bdc4 ,,discreet ,,devotion4--,we must not imagine that ,saint ,cyr was a house of prayer1 a place of overdone devotion4 ,madame de ,maintenon held to a reasonable ,christianity4 ,piety1 such as was recommended at ,saint ,cyr1 is a piety that is steadfast1 judicious1 and simple2 that is1 conformed to the state in which one ought to live1 and exempt from refinements4 8,the young women are too much at church1 considering their age10 she wrote to ,madame de ,brinon1 the first director of the institution4444 8,consider1 ,i pray you1 that this is not to be a cloister40#adi ,and later1 after the reform had begun1 this is what she wrote3-- 8,let the piety with which our young girls shall be inspired be cheerful1 gentle1 and free4 ,let it consist rather in the innocence of their lives1 and in the simplicity of their occupations1 than in the austerities1 the retirements1 and the refinements of devotion4444 ,when a girl comes from a convent1 saying that nothing ought to interfere with vespers1 she is laughed at2 but when an educated woman shall say that vespers may be omitted for the sake of attending her sick husband1 everybody will commend her4444 ,when a girl shall say that a woman does better to educate her children and instruct her servants than to spend the forenoon in church1 that religion will be heartily accepted1 and will make itself loved and respected40#aej ,excellent advice1 perhaps too little followed6 ,madame de ,maintenon here speaks the language of good sense1 and we are wholly surprised to hear it from the lips of a politic woman who1 not without reason1 and for her part in the ,revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes1 has the reputation of being an intolerant fanatic4 #bdd4 ,,simplicity ,,in ,,all ,,things4--,the simplicity which she recommended in religion1 ,madame de ,maintenon demanded in everything1--in dress and in language3 8,young girls10 she says1 8must wear as few ribbons as possible40 ,a class-teacher had given a fine lecture1 in which she exhorted her pupils to make an 8eternal divorce0 with sin4 8,very well said1 doubtless10 remarked ,madame de ,maintenon2 8but1 pray1 who among our young ladies knows what divorce is80 #bde4 ,f,,nelon ,,and ,,saint ,,cyr4--,michelet1 speaking of ,saint ,cyr1 which he does not love1 said3 8,its cold governess was much more a man than ,fnelon40 ,the fact is1 that the author of the ,education of ,girls gives a larger place to sensibility and intelligence4 ,it is not ,madame de ,maintenon who said3 8,as much as possible1 tenderness of heart must be excused in young girls40 ,it is not at ,saint ,cyr that these maxims were practised4 8,pray let them have ,greek and ,roman histories4 ,they will find in them prodigies of courage and disinterestedness4 ,let them not be ignorant of the history of ,france1 which also has its beauty4444 ,all this serves to give dignity to the mind1 and to lift the soul to noble sentiments40 ,nevertheless1 ,fnelon's work was highly esteemed at ,saint ,cyr4 ,it appeared in #afhg1 and ,saint ,cyr was founded in #afhf4 ,a great number of its precepts were there observed1 such as the following3 8,frequent leaves of absence should be avoided20 8,young girls should not be accustomed to talk much40 #bdf4 ,,general ,,judgment4--,in a word1 if the ideal proposed to the young women of ,saint ,cyr by ,madame de ,maintenon cannot satisfy those who1 in our day1 conceive 8an education broader in its scheme and more liberal in its spirit10 at least we must do justice to an institution which was1 as its foundress said1 8a kind of college10 a first attempt at enfranchisement in the education of women4 ,without demanding of ,madame de ,maintenon what was not in her age to give1 let us be inspired by her in what concerns the changeless education in moral virtues1 and in the qualities of discretion1 reserve1 goodness1 and submission4 8,however severe that education may appear10 says ,lavalle1 8,i believe it will suggest better reflections to those who observe the way in which women are educated to-day1 and the results of that education in luxury and pleasure1 not only on the fireside1 but still more on society and political life1 and on the future of the men that it is preparing for ,france4 ,i believe they will prefer that manly education1 so to speak1 which purified private morals and begot public virtues2 and that they will esteem and regret that work of ,madame de ,maintenon1 which for a century prevented the corruption of the ,court from extending to the provinces1 and maintained in the old country-seats1 from which came the greater part of the nobility1 the substantial virtues and the simple manners of the olden time40 #bdg4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,the education of women in the seventeenth century reflects the sentiment of the age as to their relative position in society1 their rights1 and their destiny4 ,woman was still regarded as the inferior of man1 in the lower classes as a drudge1 in the higher as an ornament2 in her case1 intellectual culture was regarded as either useless or dangerous2 and the education that was given her was to fit her for a life of devotion or a life of seclusion from society4 #b4 ,the rules of ,jacqueline ,pascal exhibit the effects of an ascetic belief on education1--human nature is corrupt2 all its likes are to be thwarted1 and all its dislikes fostered under compulsion4 #c4 ,the education directed by ,madame de ,maintenon is the beginning of a rupture with tradition4 ,it was a movement towards the secularization of woman's education1 and towards the recognition of her equality with man1 with respect to her grade of intellectual endowments1 her intellectual culture1 and to her participation in the duties of real life4 #d4 ,the type of the higher education was still monastic1 both for men and women4 ,no one was able to conceive that both sexes might be educated together with mutual advantage4 ,,footnotes3 #ach ,les ,femmes ,savantes1 ,act ,,ii4 ,scene ,,vii41 ,van ,laun's translation4 #aci ,letter of ,nov4 #af1 #afhi4 #adj ,letter of ,june #a1 #afhj4 #ada ,trait du choix et de la mthode des tudes1 ,chap4 ,,xxxviii4 #adb ,grard1 ,mmoire sur l'enseignement secondaire des filles1 p4 #ee4 #adc 8,the name generally given to a social circle1 which for more than half a century gathered around ,catherine de ,vivonne1 marquise de ,rambouillet1 and her daughter1 ,julie d',angennes1 duchess de ,montausier1 and which exercised a very conspicuous influence on ,french language1 literature1 and civilization4444 ,her house soon became the place where all who had genius1 wit1 learning1 talent1 or taste1 assembled1 and from these reunions originated the ,french ,academy1 the highest authority of ,french literature1 and the salons1 the most prominent feature of ,french civilization40--,johnson's ,cyclopdia4 #add ,see the ,letter to ,madame de ,fontaine1 general mistress of the school1 ,sept4 #bj1 #afia4 #ade ,two volumes1 #b;d edition1 #ahfa4 #adf ,two volumes1 #aheg4 #adg ,two volumes1 #ahfj4 #adh ,m4 ,grard1 ,mmoire sur l'enseignement secondaire des filles1 #ahhb1 p4 #ei4 #adi ,lettres historiques1 ,tome ,i4 p4 #dh4 #aej ,lettres historiques1 ,tome ,i4 p4 #hi4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,rollin4 ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,paris2 ,,statutes ,,of #aeih ,,and ,,of #afjj2 ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,faculties2 ,,decadence ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,paris ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century2 ,,the ,,restoration ,,of ,,studies ,,and ,,rollin 7#affa-agda72 ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,studies2 ,,different ,,opinions2 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,studies2 ,,general ,,reflections ,,on ,,education2 ,,studies ,,for ,,the ,,first ,,years2 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls2 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,french2 ,,greek ,,and ,,latin2 ,,rollin ,,the ,,historian2 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,history2 ,,philosophy2 ,,scientific ,,instruction2 ,,educational ,,character ,,of ,,rollin',s ,,pedagogy2 ,,interior ,,discipline ,,of ,,colleges2 ,,public ,,education2 ,,the ,,rod2 ,,punishments ,,in ,,general2 ,,conclusion2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #bdh4 ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,paris4--,since the thirteenth century1 the ,university of ,paris had been a centre of light and a resort for students4 ,ramus could say3 8,this ,university is not the university of one city only1 but of the entire world40 ,but even in the time of ,ramus1 in consequence of the civil discords1 and by reason also of the progress in the colleges organized by the ,company of ,jesus1 the ,university of ,paris declined2 she saw the number of her pupils diminish4 ,she persisted1 however1 in the full light of the ,renaissance1 in following the superannuated regulations which the ,cardinal d',estouteville had imposed on her in #adeb2 she fell behind in the routine of the scholastic methods4 ,a reform was necessary1 and in #afjj it was accomplished by ,henry ,,iv4 #bdi4 ,,statutes ,,of #afjj4--,the statutes of the new university were promulgated 8by the order and the will of the most ,christian and most invincible king of ,france and ,navarre1 ,henry ,,iv40 ,this was the first time that the ,state directly intervened in the control of education1 and that secular power was set up in opposition to the absolute authority of the ,church4 ,in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries a reform had been made in the ,university1 by the ,popes ,innocent ,,iii4 and ,urban ,v4 ,the reformer of #adeb1 the ,cardinal d',estouteville1 acted as the legate of the pontifical power4 ,on the contrary1 the statutes of #afjj were the work of a commission named by the king1 and there sat at its deliberations1 by the side of a few ecclesiastics1 magistrates1 and even professors4 #bej4 ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,faculties4--,the ,university of ,paris comprised four ,faculties3 the ,faculties of ,theology1 of ,law1 and of ,medicine1 which corresponded to what we to-day call superior instruction1 and the ,faculty of ,arts1 which was almost the equivalent of our secondary instruction4#aea ,it would take too long to enumerate in this place the different innovations introduced by the statutes of #afjj4 ,let us merely say a word of the ,faculty of ,arts4 ,in the ,faculty of ,arts the door was finally opened to the classical authors4 ,in a certain degree the tendencies of the ,renaissance were obeyed4 ,nevertheless1 the methods and the general spirit were scarcely changed4 ,catholicism was obligatory1 and the ,french language remained under ban4 ,frequent exercises in repetition and declamation were maintained4 ,the liberal arts were always considered 8the foundation of all the sciences40 ,instruction in philosophy was always reduced to the interpretation of the texts of ,aristotle4 ,as to history1 and the sciences in general1 no account whatever was taken of them4 #bea4 ,,decadence ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4--,the reform1 then1 was insufficient1 and the results were bad4 ,while the colleges of the ,jesuits attracted pupils in crowds1 and while the ,oratorians and the ,jansenists reformed secondary instruction1 the colleges of the ,university#aeb remained mediocre and obscure4 ,save in rare exceptions1 there were no professors of distinction2 the education was formal1 in humble imitation of that of the ,company of ,jesus2 there was an abuse of abstract rules1 of grammatical exercises1 of written tasks1 and of ,latin composition2 there was no disposition to take an advance step2 but an obstinate resistance to the new spirit1 which was indicated either by the interdiction of the philosophy of ,descartes1 or by the refusal to teach in the ,french language2 in a word1 there was complete isolation in immovable routine1 and in consequence1 decadence1--such is a summary history of the ,university of ,paris up to the last quarter of the seventeenth century4 #beb4 ,,the ,,restoration ,,of ,,studies ,,and ,,rollin 7#affa-agda74--,we must go forward to the time when ,rollin taught1 to observe a revival in the studies of the ,university4 ,several distinguished professors1 as his master ,hersan1 ,pourchot1 and still others1 had prepared the way for him4 ,there was then1 from #afhj to #agjj1 a real rejuvenescence of studies1 which was initiated in part by ,rollin4 ,latin lost a little ground in consequence of a growing recognition of the rights of the ,french language and the national literature1 which had just been made illustrious by so many masterpieces4 ,the spirit of the ,jansenist methods penetrated the colleges of the ,university4 ,the ,cartesian philosophy was taught in them1 and a little more attention was given to the explication of authors1 and a little less to the verbal repetition of lessons4 ,new ideas began to infiltrate into the old citadel of scholasticism4 ,the question came to be asked if celibacy was indeed an indispensable condition of the teaching office4 ,men began to comprehend that at least marriage was not a reason for exclusion4 ,finally1 real progress was made in discipline as well as in methods1 and the indubitable proof of this is the ,treatise on ,studies1 by ,rollin4 #bec4 ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,studies4--,rollin has summed up his educational experience1 an experience of fifty years1 in a book which has become celebrated under the title of ,treatise on ,studies4 ,the full title of this work was3 ,de la manire d'enseigner et d'tudier les belles-lettres par rapport l'esprit et au cur4 ,the first two volumes appeared in #agbf1 and the other two in #agbh4 ,the ,treatise on ,studies is not like the mile1 which was published twenty years later1 a work of venturesome inquiry and original novelties2 but is a faithful exposition of the methods in use1 and a discreet commentary on them4 ,while this treatise belongs by its date to the eighteenth century1 it is the pedagogy of the seventeenth century1 and the traditions of the ,university under the reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 that ,rollin has collected1 and of which he has simply wished to be the reporter4 ,in the ,latin dedication1 which he addresses to the ,rector of the ,university of ,paris1 he clearly defines his intentions and his purpose3-- 8,my first design was to put in writing and define the method of teaching which has long been in use among you1 and which1 up to this time1 has been transmitted only by word of mouth1 and through a sort of tradition2 and to erect1 so far as ,i am able to do it1 a durable monument of the rules and practice which you have followed in the instruction of youth1 for the purpose of preserving1 in all its integrity1 the taste for belles-lettres1 and to preserve it1 if possible1 from the injuries and the alterations of time40 #bed4 ,,different ,,opinions4--,rollin has always had warm admirers4 ,voltaire called the ,treatise a book 8forever useful10 and whatever may be our reservations on the deficiences1 and on the short and narrow views of certain parts of the pedagogy of ,rollin1 we must subscribe to this judgment4 ,but we shall not go so far as to accept the enthusiastic declarations of ,villemain1 who complains that the study of the ,treatise is neglected in our time1 8as if new methods had been discovered for training the intelligence and the heart02 and he adds1 8,since the ,treatise on ,studies1 not a forward step has been taken40 ,this is to undervalue all the earnest efforts that have been made for two centuries by educators just as profound as was the ever timid and cautious ,rollin4 ,when we compare the precepts of the ,treatise with the reforms which the spirit of progress has already effected1 and particularly with those which it will effect1 we are astonished to hear ,nisard say3 8,in educational matters1 the ,treatise on ,studies is the unique book1 or better still1 the book40 ,to put such a burden of pompous praise on ,rollin is to compromise his real worth2 and without ceasing to do justice to his wise and judicious spirit1 we wish to employ more discretion in our admiration4 #bee4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,studies4--,before calling attention to the most interesting parts of the ,treatise on ,studies1 let us briefly state the object of the eight books of which it is composed4 ,the ,treatise opens with a ,preliminary ,discourse which recites the advantages of instruction4 ,the title of the first book is3 ,exercises which are proper for very young children2 of the education of girls4 ,rollin acknowledges that he treats only very superficially 8this double subject10 which is foreign to his original plan4 ,in fact1 the first edition of his ,treatise on ,studies contained but seven books1 and it is only in #agcd that he wrote1 8at the urgent requests and prayers of several persons10 that short essay on the education of boys and girls which first appeared under the form of a supplement1 and which became the first book of the work only in the subsequent editions4 ,the different subjects proper for training the youth in the public schools1 that is1 in the colleges1--such is the object of the six books which follow3 ,book ,,ii4 ,of the learning of the languages2 that is1 the study of ,greek and ,latin2 ,book ,,iii4 ,of poetry2 ,book ,,iv4 ,of rhetoric2 ,book ,v4 ,of the three kinds of eloquence2 ,book ,,vi4 ,of history2 ,book ,,vii4 ,of philosophy4 ,book ,,viii41 the last1 entitled ,of the interior government of schools and colleges1 has a particular character4 ,it does not treat of studies and intellectual exercises1 but of discipline and moral education4 ,it is1 on all accounts1 the most original and interesting part of ,rollin's work1 and it opens to us the treasures of his experience4 ,this eighth book has been justly called the 8,memoirs of ,rollin40 ,that which constitutes its merit and its charm is that the author here at last decides to be himself4 ,he does not quote the ancients so much2 but he speaks in his own name1 and relates what he has done1 or what he has seen done4 #bef4 ,,general ,,reflections ,,on ,,education4--,there is little to be gathered out of the ,preliminary ,discourse of ,rollin4 ,he is but slightly successful in general reflections4 ,when he ventures to philosophize1 ,rollin easily falls into platitudes4 ,he has a dissertation to prove that 8study gives the mind more breadth and elevation2 and that study gives capacity for business40 ,on the purpose of education1 ,rollin1 who copies the moderns when he does not translate from the ancients1 is content with reproducing the preamble of the regulations of ,henry ,,iv41 which assigned to studies three purposes3 learning1 morals and manners1 and religion4 8,the happiness of kingdoms and peoples1 and particularly of a ,christian ,state1 depends on the good education of the youth1 where the purpose is to cultivate and to polish1 by the study of the sciences1 the intelligence1 still rude1 of the young1 and thus to fit them for filling worthily the different vocations to which they are destined1 without which they will be useless to the ,state2 and finally1 to teach them the sincere religious practices which ,god requires of them1 the inviolable attachment they owe to their fathers and mothers and to their country1 and the respect and obedience which they are bound to render princes and magistrates40 #beg4 ,,primary ,,studies4--,rollin is original when he introduces us to the classes of the great colleges where he has lived2 but is much less so when he speaks to us of little children1 whom he has never seen near at hand4 ,he has never known family life1 and scarcely ever visited public schools2 and it is through his recollections of ,quintilian that he speaks to us of children4 ,there is1 then1 but little to note in the few pages that he has devoted to the studies of the first years1 from three to six or seven4 ,one of the most interesting things we find here1 perhaps1 is the method which he recommends for learning to read1--8the typographic cabinet of du ,mas40 8,it is a novelty10 says the wise ,rollin1 8and it is quite common and natural that we should be suspicious of this word novelty40 ,but after the examination1 he decides in favor of the system in question1 which consists in making of instruction in reading1 something analogous to the work of an apprentice who is learning to print4 ,the pupil has before him a table1 and on this table is placed a set of pigeon-holes1 8logettes10 which contain the letters of the alphabet1 printed on cards4 ,the pupil is to arrange on the table the different letters needed to construct the words required of him4 ,the reasons that ,rollin gives for recommending this method1 successful tests of which he had seen made1 prove that he had taken into account the nature of the child and his need of activity3-- 8,this method of learning to read1 besides several other advantages1 has one which seems to me very considerable1--it is that of being amusing and agreeable1 and of not having the appearance of study4 ,nothing is more wearisome or tedious in infancy than severe mental effort while the body is in a state of repose4 ,with this device1 the mind of the child is not wearied4 ,he need not make a painful effort at recollection1 because the distinction and the name of the boxes strike his senses4 ,he is not constrained to a posture that is oppressive by being always tied to the place where he is made to read4 ,there is free activity for eyes1 hands1 and feet4 ,the child looks for his letters1 takes them out1 arranges them1 overturns them1 separates them1 and finally replaces them in their boxes4 ,this movement is very much to his taste1 and is exactly adapted to the active and restless disposition of that age40 ,rollin seems really to believe that there 8is no danger in beginning with the reading of ,latin40 ,however1 8for the schools of the poor1 and for those in the country1 it is better10 he says1 8to fall in with the opinion of those who believe that it is necessary to begin with the reading of ,french40 ,it may be thought that ,rollin puts a little too much into the first years of the child's course of study4 ,before the age of six or seven he ought to have learned to read1 to write1 to be nourished on the ,historical ,catechism of ,fleury1 to know some of the fables of ,la ,fontaine by heart1 and to have studied ,french grammar1 and geography4 ,at least1 ,rollin requires that 8no thought1 no expression1 which is within the child's range10 shall be allowed to be passed by4 ,he requires that the teacher speak little1 and that he make the child speak much1 8which is one of the most essential duties and one of those that are the least practised40 ,he demands1 above all else1 clearness of statement1 and commends the use of illustrations and pictures in reading books4 8,they are very suitable10 he says1 8for striking the attention of children1 and for fixing their memory2 this is properly the writing of the ignorant40#aed #beh4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls4--,the same reasons explain the shortcomings of ,rollin's views on the education of women1 and the relative mediocrity of his ideas on the education of children4 ,living in solitude and in the celibate state1 he had no personal information on these subjects1 and so he goes back to ,fnelon for his ideas on the education of women1 and to ,quintilian in the case of children4 ,is the study of ,latin fit for girls8 ,such is the first question which he raises2 but he has the wisdom to answer it in the negative1 save for 8nuns1 and also for ,christian virgins and widows40 8,there is no difference in minds10 ,rollin emphatically says1 8that is due to sex40 ,but he does not extend the consequences of this excellent principle very far4 ,he is content to require of women the four rules of arithmetic2 orthography1 in which he is not over exacting1 for 8their ignorance of orthography should not be imputed to them as a crime1 since it is almost universal in their sex20 ancient history and the history of ,france1 8which it is disgraceful to every good ,frenchman not to know40#aee ,as to reading1 ,rollin is quite as severe as ,madame de ,maintenon3 8,the reading of comedies and tragedies may be very dangerous for young ladies40 ,he sanctions only ,esther and ,athalie4 ,music and dancing are allowed1 but without enthusiasm and with endless precautions3-- 8,an almost universal experience shows that the study of music is an extraordinary dissipation40 8,i do not know how the custom of having girls learn to sing and play on instruments at such great expense has become so common4444 ,i hear it said that as soon as they enter on life's duties1 they make no farther use of it40 #bei4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,french4--,rollin is chiefly preoccupied with the study of the ancient languages2 but he has the merit1 notwithstanding his predilection for exercises in ,latin1 of having followed the example of the ,jansenists so far as the importance accorded to the ,french language is concerned4 8,it is a disgrace10 he says1 8that we are ignorant of our own language2 and if we are willing to confess the truth1 we will almost all acknowledge that we have never studied it40 ,rollin admitted that he was 8much more proficient in the study of ,latin than in that of ,french40 ,in the opening of his ,treatise1 which he wrote in ,french only that he might place himself within the reach of his young readers and their parents1 he excuses himself for making a trial in a kind of writing which is almost new to him4 ,and in congratulating him on his work1 d',aguesseau wrote1 8,you speak ,french as if it were your native tongue40 ,such was the ,rector of the ,university in ,france at the commencement of the eighteenth century4 ,let us think well of him1 therefore1 for having so overcome his own habits of mind as to recommend the study of ,french4 ,he would have it learned1 not only through use1 but also 8through principles10 and would have 8the genius of the language understood1 and all its beauties studied40 ,rollin has a high opinion of grammar1 but would not encourage a misuse of it3-- 8,long-continued lessons on such dry matter might become very tedious to pupils4 ,short questions1 regularly proposed each day after the manner of an ordinary conversation1 in which they themselves would be consulted1 and in which the teacher would employ the art of having them tell what he wished to make them learn1 would teach them in the way of amusement1 and1 by an insensible progress1 continued for several years1 they would acquire a profound knowledge of the language40 ,it is in the ,treatise on ,studies that we find for the first time a formal list of classical ,french authors4 ,some of these are now obscure and forgotten1 as the ,remarkable ,lives written by ,marsolier1 and the ,history of the ,academy of ,inscriptions and ,belles-,lettres1 by de ,boze2 but the most of them have held their place in our programmes1 and the judgments of ,rollin have been followed for two centuries1 on the ,discourse on ,universal ,history1 by ,bossuet1 on the works of ,boileau and ,racine1 and on the ,logic of ,port ,royal4 ,like all his contemporaries1 ,rollin particularly recommends ,latin composition to his pupils4 ,however1 he has spoken a word for ,french composition1 which should bear1 first1 on fables and historical narratives1 then on exercises in epistolary style1 and finally1 on common things1 descriptions1 and short speeches4 #bfj4 ,,greek ,,and ,,latin4--,but it is in the teaching of the ancient languages that ,rollin has especially tried the resources of his pedagogic art4 ,for two centuries1 in the colleges of the ,university1 his recommendations have been followed4 ,in ,greek1 he censures the study of themes1 and reduces the study of this language to the understanding of authors4 ,more of a ,latinist than of a ,hellenist1 of all the arguments he offers to justify the study of ,greek1 the best is1 that1 since the ,renaissance1 ,greek has always been taught2 but1 without great success1 he admits3-- 8,parents10 he says1 8are but little inclined in favor of ,greek4 ,they also learned ,greek1 they claim1 in their youth1 and they have retained nothing of it2 this is the ordinary language which indicates that one has not forgotten much of it40 ,but ,latin1 which it does not suffice to learn to read1 but which must be written and spoken1 is the object of all ,rollin's care1 who1 on this point1 gives proof of consummate experience4 ,like the teachers of ,port ,royal1 he demands that there shall be no abuse of themes in the lower classes1 and recommends the use of oral themes1 but he holds firmly to version1 and to the explication of authors3-- 8,authors are like a living dictionary1 and a speaking grammar1 whereby we learn1 through experience1 the very force and the true use of words1 of phrases1 and of the rules of syntax40 ,this is not the place to analyze the parts of the ,treatise on ,studies which relate to poetics and rhetoric1 and which are the code1 now somewhat antiquated1 of ,latin verse and prose4 ,rollin brings to bear on this theme great professional sagacity1 but also a spirit of narrowness4 ,he condemns ancient mythology1 and excludes1 as dangerous1 the ,french poets1 save some rare exceptions4 ,he claims that the true use of poetry belongs to religion4 ,he has no conception of the salutary and wholesome influence which the beauties of poetry and eloquence can exercise over the spirit4 #bfa4 ,,rollin ,,the ,,historian4--,rollin has made a reputation as an historian4 ,frederick ,,ii4 compares him to ,thucydides1 and ,chateaubriand has emphatically called him the 8,fnelon of ,history40 ,montesquieu himself has pleasantly said3 8,a noble man has enchanted the public through his works on history2 it is heart which speaks to heart2 we feel a secret satisfaction in hearing virtue speak2 he is the bee of ,france40 ,modern criticism has dealt justly with these exaggerations4 ,the thirteen volumes of his ,ancient ,history1 which ,rollin published1 from #agcj to #agch1 are scarcely read to-day4 ,his great defect as an historian is his lack of erudition and of the critical spirit2 he accepts with credulity every fable and every legend4 ,we are to recollect1 however1 that as professor of history--and in truth he pretended to be only this--,rollin has greater worth than as an historian4 ,he knew how to introduce into the exposition of facts great simplicity and great facility4 ,and especially he attempted to draw from events their moral lesson4 8,we ought not to forget10 says a ,german of our time1 8that ,rollin has never made any personal claim to be considered an investigator in historical study1 but that the purpose he had chiefly in view was educational4 ,as he was the first to introduce the study of history into ,french colleges 7this is true only of the colleges of the ,university71 he sought to remedy the complete absence of historical reading adapted to the needs of the young4 ,this is a great educational feat2 for it is undeniable that his works are of a nature to give to the young of all nations a real taste for the study of history1 and at the same time a vivid conception of the different epochs1 and of the life of nations40#aef #bfb4 ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,history4--,however1 considered simply as a professor of history1 ,rollin is far from being irreproachable4 ,doubtless it is good to moralize on history1 and to make of it1 as he says1 8a school of enduring glory and real grandeur40 ,but is not historical accuracy necessarily compromised1 and is there not danger of making the subject puerile1 when the teacher is guided exclusively by the idea of moral edification8 ,another graver fault in ,rollin is that he systematically omits the history of ,france1 and with it1 all modern history4 ,in this respect1 he falls below the ,oratory1 ,port ,royal1 ,bossuet1 ,fnelon1 and ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,it is interesting to observe1 moreover1 that ,rollin recognizes the utility of the study of national history1 but his excuse for omitting it is the lack of time3-- 8,i do not speak of the history of ,france4444 ,i do not think it possible to find time1 during the regular course of instruction1 to make a place for this study2 but ,i am far from considering it as of no importance1 and ,i observe with regret that it is neglected by many persons to whom1 nevertheless1 it would be very useful1 not to say necessary4 ,when ,i say this1 it is myself that ,i criticise first1 for ,i acknowledge that ,i have not given sufficient attention to it1 and ,i am ashamed of being in some sort a stranger in my own country after having traversed so many others40 #bfc4 ,,philosophy4--,it is moral edification that ,rollin seeks in philosophical studies1 as in historical studies4 ,with but little competence in these matters1 he admits that he has applied himself only very superficially to the study of philosophy4 ,he knows1 however1 the value of ethics and logic1 which govern the morals and perfect the mind2 of physics1 which furnishes us a mass of interesting knowledge2 and finally1 of metaphysics1 which fortifies the religious sentiment4 ,the ethics of antiquity seems to him worthy of attention2 it is1 in his view1 the introduction to ,christian ethics4 #bfd4 ,,scientific ,,instruction4--,rollin has given us a compendium of astronomy1 of physics1 and of natural history4 ,without doubt his essays have but a moderate value4 ,rollin's knowledge is often inexact1 and his general ideas are narrow4 ,he is capable of believing that 8nature entire is made for man40 ,but yet he deserves some credit for having comprehended the part that the observation of the sensible world ought to play in education3-- 8,i call children's physics a study of nature which requires scarcely anything but eyes1 and which1 for this reason1 is within the reach of all sorts of persons1 and even of children4 ,it consists in making ourselves attentive to the objects which nature presents to us1 to consider them with care1 and to admire their different beauties2 but without searching into their secret causes1 which comes within the province of the physics of the scientist4 8,i say that even children are capable of this1 for they have eyes1 and are not wanting in curiosity4 ,they wish to know2 they are inquisitive4 ,it is only necessary to awaken and nourish in them the desire to learn and to know1 which is natural to all men4 ,this study1 moreover1 if it may be so called1 far from being painful and tedious1 affords only pleasure and amusement2 it may take the place of recreation1 and ordinarily ought not to take place save in playing4 ,it is inconceivable how much knowledge of things children might gain1 if we knew how to take advantage of all the occasions which they furnish for the purpose40 #bfe4 ,,the ,,educative ,,character ,,of ,,rollin',s ,,pedagogy4--,it should not be supposed that ,rollin's exclusive purpose was to make ,latinists and literary men4 ,i know very well that he himself has said that 8to form the taste was his principal aim40 ,nevertheless1 he has thought of other things1--moral qualities not less than intellectual endowments4 ,he wished to train at once 8the heart and the intellect40 ,with him1 instruction in all its phases takes an educative turn4 ,he esteems knowledge only because it leads to virtue4 ,in the explication of authors1 attention should be directed to the morality of their thoughts1 at least as much as to their literary beauty4 ,the maxims and examples which their writings contain should be skillfully put in relief1 so that these readings may become moral lessons not less than studies in rhetoric4 ,to sum up in a word1 ,rollin follows the tradition of the ,jansenists1 and not that of the ,company of ,jesus4 #bff4 ,,christianity ,,of ,,rollin4--,rollin1 though persecuted for his ,jansenist tendencies1 was a fervent ,christian4 8,a ,roman probity0 did not suffice for him2 he desired a ,christian virtue4 ,consequently1 he requires that religious instruction should form a part of every lesson4 ,a regulation which dates from his rectorship required that the scholar in each class should learn and recite each day one or more maxims drawn from the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,this custom has been maintained to this day4 ,rollin knew1 moreover1 that the best means of inspiring piety is to preach by example1 and to be pious one's self3-- 8,to make true ,christians1--this is the end and purpose of the education of children2 all the rest but fulfills the purpose of means4444 ,when a teacher has received this spirit1 there is nothing more to say to him44440 ,the religious spirit of ,rollin comes to view on each page of his book3-- 8,it remains for me10 he says1 in concluding his preface1 8to pray ,god1 in whose hands we all are1 we and our discourses1 to deign to bless my good intentions40 #bfg4 ,,interior ,,discipline ,,of ,,the ,,colleges4--,the part of the ,treatise on ,studies which has preserved the most interest1 and which will be studied with the most profit1 is certainly that which treats of the interior government of schools and colleges4 ,here1 though he does not completely divest himself of his method of borrowings1 and references to the authority of others1 and though he is especially under the influence of ,locke1 whose wise advice on rewards and punishments he reproduces almost verbatim1 ,rollin makes use of a long personal experience4 ,we have charged him with not knowing the little child4 ,on the other hand1 he knows exactly what scholars a little older are1--children from ten to sixteen years old4 ,and he not only knows them1 but he loves them tenderly4 ,he gives them this testimony1 which affection alone can explain1 that he has always found them reasonable4 #bfh4 ,,enumeration ,,of ,,the ,,questions ,,treated ,,by ,,rollin4--,to give an idea of this part of the ,treatise1 the best way is to reproduce the titles of the thirteen articles composing the chapter entitled ,general ,counsels on the ,education of the ,young3-- ,i4 ,what end should be proposed in education8 ,,ii4 ,how to study the character of children in order to become able to instruct them properly4 ,,iii4 ,how at once to gain authority over children4 ,,iv4 ,how to become loved and feared4 ,v4 ,punishments3 #a4 ,difficulties and dangers in punishments2 #b4 ,rules to be observed in punishments4 ,,vi4 ,reprimands3 #a4 ,occasion for reprimanding2 #b4 ,time for making the reprimand2 #c4 ,manner of reprimanding4 ,,vii4 ,reasoning with children4 ,stimulating them with the sense of honor4 ,making use of commendation1 rewards1 and caresses4 ,,viii4 ,how to train children to be truthful4 ,,ix4 ,how to train children to politeness1 to cleanliness1 and to exactness4 ,x4 ,how to make study attractive4 ,,xi4 ,how to give rest and recreation to children4 ,,xii4 ,how to train the young to goodness by instruction and example4 ,,xiii4 ,piety1 religion1 zeal for the salvation of children4 #bfi4 ,,public ,,education4--,rollin does not definitely express himself on the superiority of public education4 ,he does not dare give formal advice to parents2 but he brings forward the advantages of the common life of colleges with so much force1 that it is very evident that he prefers it to a private education4 ,let it be noted1 besides1 that he accepts on his own account 8the capital maxim of the ancients1 that children belong more to the ,state than to their parents40 #bgj4 ,,the ,,rod4--,in the matter of discipline1 ,rollin leans rather to the side of mildness4 ,however1 he does not dare pronounce himself absolutely against the use of the rod4 ,that which in particular causes him to hesitate1 which gives him scruples1 which prevents him from expressing a censure which is at the bottom of his heart1 but which never rises to his lips1 is that there are certain texts of the ,bible whose interpretation is favorable to the use of the rod4 ,it is interesting to notice how1 in a strait between his sentiments as a docile ,christian and his instincts towards mildness1 the good and timid ,rollin tries to find a less rigorous meaning in the sacred text1 and to convince himself that the ,bible does not say what it seems to say4 ,after many hesitations1 he finally comes to the conclusion that corporal chastisements are permitted1 but that they are not to be employed save in extreme and desperate cases2 and this is also the conclusion of ,locke4 #bga4 ,,punishments ,,in ,,general4--,but how many wise counsels on punishments1 and on the precautions that must be taken when we punish or reprimand6 ,one should refrain from punishing a child at the moment he commits his fault1 because this might then exasperate him and provoke him to new breaches of duty4 ,let the master be cool when he punishes1 and avoid the anger which discredits his authority4 ,the whole of this excellent code of scholastic discipline might be quoted with profit4 ,rollin is reason and good sense itself when he guides and instructs the teacher as to his relations with the pupil4 ,doubtless the most of these precepts are not new2 but when they come from the mouth of ,rollin1 there is something added to them which ,i cannot describe1 but which gives to the most threadbare advice the authority of personal experience4 #bgb4 ,,conclusion4--,we shall not dwell on the other precepts of ,rollin4 ,the text must be consulted for his reflections on plays1 recreations1 the means of making study attractive1 and on the necessity of appealing to the child's reason betimes1 and of explaining to him why one does this or that4 ,in this last part of the ,treatise on ,studies there is a complete infant psychology which is lacking neither in keenness nor in penetration4 ,in particular1 there is a code of moral discipline which cannot be too highly commended to educators1 and to all those who desire1 in the words of ,rollin1 8to train at once the heart and the mind0 of the young4 ,rollin has worked for virtue even more than for science4 ,his works are less literary productions than works on morals1 and the author himself is the perfect expression of what can be done for the education of the young by the ,christian spirit allied to the university spirit4 #bgc4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,the characteristic fact disclosed by this study is the very slow rate at which progress in education takes place4 ,there is also an enforcement of the lesson which has reappeared from time to time1 that education follows in the wake of new and general movements in human thought4 #b4 ,a more specific fact is the extreme conservatism of universities1 or the tenacity with which they hold to traditions4 ,the question is suggested whether1 after all1 the conservative habit of the university does not best befit its judicial functions4 #c4 ,in the elbowing of the classics by history and ,french1 we see the rise of innovations which have become embodied in the modern university4 #d4 ,a new factor in the higher education is the intervention of the ,state1 as opposed to the historical domination of the ,church4 ,in the reform of the ,university of ,paris the ,state became an educator4 #e4 ,there is evidence of some progress in the historical struggle towards the conception that woman has equal rights with man in the benefits of education4 ,,footnotes3 #aea 8,formerly secondary schools were schools in which was given a more advanced instruction then in the primary schools2 and they were distinguished into communal secondary schools1 or communal colleges1 and into private secondary schools or institutions4444 ,to-day1 secondary instruction includes the colleges and lyces in which are taught the ancient languages1 modern languages1 history1 mathematics1 physics1 chemistry1 and philosophy4 ,public instruction is divided into primary1 secondary1 and superior instruction40--,,littr4 #aeb ,this refers to the ,university of ,paris1 which must be distinguished from the ,napoleonic ,university4 8,the latter was founded by a decree of ,napoleon ,i41 ,march #ag1 #ahjh4 ,it was first called the ,imperial ,university1 and then the ,university of ,france4 ,it comprises3 #a4 ,the faculties2#aec #b4 the lyces or colleges of the ,state2 #c4 the communal colleges2 #d4 the primary schools4 ,all these are under the direction of a central administration40--,,littr4 #aec ,there are now five ,faculties or institutions for special instruction1--the ,faculties of the ,sciences1 of ,letters1 of ,medicine1 of ,law1 and of ,theology4 7,p47 #aed ,save once1 ,rollin has scarcely made an allusion to primary instruction proper4 ,we quote this passage on account of its singularity3 8,several years ago there was introduced into most of the schools for the poor in ,paris a method which is very useful to scholars1 and which spares much trouble to the teachers4 ,the school is divided into several classes4 ,i select only one of them1 that composed of children who already know how to write syllables2 the others must be judged by this one4 ,i suppose that the subject of the reading lesson is ,dixit ,dominus ,domino meo3 ,sede a dextris meis4 ,each child pronounces one syllable1 as ,di4 ,his competitor1 who stands opposite1 takes up the next1 xit1 and so on4 ,the whole class is attentive2 for the teacher1 without warning1 passes at once from the head of the line to the middle1 or to the foot1 and the recitation must continue without interruption4 ,if a pupil makes a mistake in some syllable1 the teacher1 without speaking1 raps upon the table with his stick1 and the competitor is obliged to repeat as it should be the syllable that has been wrongly pronounced4 ,if he fail also1 the next1 upon a second rap of the stick1 goes back to the same syllable1 and so on till it has been pronounced correctly4 ,more than thirty years ago1 ,i saw with unusual pleasure this method in successful operation at ,orleans1 where it originated through the care and industry of ,m4 ,garot1 who presided over the schools of that city40 #aee ,rollin does not require it1 however1 of young men4 #aef ,doctor ,wolker1 quoted by ,cadet1 in his edition of ,rollin1 ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,catholicism ,,and ,,primary ,,instruction4--,,la ,,salle ,,and ,,the ,,brethren ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,schools4 ,,state ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century2 ,d,,mia ,,and ,,the ,,infant ,,schools ,,of ,,lyons2 ,,claude ,,joly1 ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,primary ,,schools ,,of ,,paris2 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,parish ,,school2 ,,la ,,salle 7#afea-agai7 ,,and ,,the ,,christian ,,schools2 ,,life ,,and ,,character ,,of ,,la ,,salle2 ,,ascetic ,,tendencies2 ,,foundation ,,of ,,the ,,institute ,,of ,,the ,,brethren 7#afhd72 ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,normal ,,schools2 ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,gratuitous ,,and ,,compulsory ,,instruction2 ,,professional ,,instruction2 ,,conduct ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,schools2 ,,successive ,,editions2 ,,abuse ,,of ,,school ,,regulations2 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,conduct2 ,,interior ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,schools2 ,,simultaneous ,,instruction2 ,,what ,,was ,,learned ,,in ,,the ,,christian ,,schools2 ,,method ,,of ,,teaching2 ,,the ,,christian ,,civility2 ,,corporal ,,chastisements2 ,,reprimands2 ,,penances2 ,,the ,,ferule2 ,,the ,,rod2 ,,rewards2 ,,mutual ,,espionage2 ,,general ,,conclusion2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #bgd4 ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction ,,in ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century4--,it does not form a part of our plan to follow from day to day the small increments of progress and the slow development of the primary schools of ,france2 but we must confine ourselves to the essential facts and to the important dates4 ,the ,catholic ,church1 in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 did not altogether renounce her interest in popular instruction4 ,she took measures1 without doubt1 to evangelize the poor people1 and sometimes 8even to teach them how to read and write40 ,nevertheless1 up to the organization of the ,christian schools1 by ,la ,salle1 no serious effort was made4 ,some religious foundations establish gratuitous schools in many places1--charity schools1--but no comprehensive purpose directs these establishments4 ,conflicts of prerogative among certain independent colleagues1 as that between the writing-masters and the masters of the infant schools placed under the direct authority of the precentor1 or among the rectors and the tutors 7coltres71 that is1 the assistants of the bishops charged with the supervision of the schools1--such dissensions came still further to defeat the good intentions of individuals1 and to embarrass the feeble movement that was exerted in favor of popular instruction4 ,for example1 towards #afhj1 the writing-masters attempted to prevent the masters of the primary schools#aeg from giving writing lessons1 at least1 from giving their pupils any copies except monosyllables2 and a decree of ,parliament is necessary to re-establish the liberty--and then under certain restrictions--of teaching to write4 8,christian instruction was neglected1 not to say dishonored10 is the statement of contemporaries4 ,the children who attended the schools of the poor were subjected to public contempt4 ,they were obliged to wear on their caps a distinctive badge4 ,in brief1 far from progressing1 primary instruction was rather in a state of decadence4 #bge4 ,d,,mia ,,and ,,the ,,primary ,,schools ,,of ,,lyons4--,among the progressive men who struggled against this unhappy state of affairs1 and who tried to develop the ,catholic schools1 we must mention1 before ,la ,salle1 ,dmia1 a priest of ,lyons1 who1 in #afff1 founded the ,congregation of the ,brethren of ,saint ,charles1 for the instruction of poor children4 ,the ,institute of ,la ,salle was not organized till eighteen years later1 in #afhd4 ,in #affh1 having addressed to the provosts of the merchants of the city of ,lyons a warm appeal1 his ,proposals for the establishment of ,christian schools for the instruction of the poor1 ,dmia obtained an annual grant of two hundred livres4 ,in #afge he was charged by 8express command0 of the archbishop of ,lyons 8with the management and direction of the schools of that city and diocese10 and drew up a body of school regulations which was quoted as a model4#aeh ,for the method of 8teaching to read1 of learning the catechism1 of correcting children1 and similar things10 ,dmia conformed to the book known as the ,parish ,school 7cole paroissiale71 of which we shall presently say a word4 ,he took it upon himself to proceed 8to the examination of the religion1 the ability1 and the good morals1 of the persons who proposed to teach school40 ,but1 what was of greater moment1 he established1 for preparing and training them1 a sort of seminary4 ,a few quotations will give an idea of ,dmia's zeal in the establishment of ,christian schools4 8,this establishment is of such importance and of so great utility1 that there is nothing in our political organization which is more worthy of the care and the watchfulness of the magistrates1 since on it depend our peace and public tranquillity4 ,the poor1 not having the means of educating their children1 leave them in ignorance of their obligations4444 ,thus we see1 with keen displeasure1 that such an education of the children of the poor is totally neglected1 although it is the most important interest of the ,state1 of which they comprise the largest part2 and1 although it is quite as necessary1 and even more so1 to maintain public schools for them1 as to support colleges for the children of families in good circumstances44440 #bgf4 ,,claude ,,joly4--,in #afgf1 ,claude ,joly1 precentor of ,notre ,dame1 8collator1 director1 and judge of the primary schools of the city1 the suburbs1 and the outskirts of ,paris10 published his ,christian and ,moral ,counsels for the ,instruction of ,children4 ,there is but little to gather from this work1 where the author is so forgetful of elementary instruction as to speak only of secondary instruction and of the education of princes4 ,what most concerns ,claude ,joly is to put in force the regulations which forbid the association of boys and girls in the schools4 ,the separation of the sexes was for a long time an absolute principle in ,france4 ,dmia1 in article nine of his regulations1 restores the ordinance of the archbishop of ,lyons1 8which forbids school-masters to admit girls1 and school-mistresses to admit boys40 ,rollin was of the same opinion4 ,claude ,joly1 in the capacity of chief precentor1 bluntly claimed his sovereign rights in the matter of primary instruction3-- 8,we shall contest the power claimed by the rectors of ,paris to control the schools1 under the name and pretext of charity1 without the permission of the chief precentor1 to whom alone belongs this power4 ,to him1 also1 belongs the right of nomination to the schools of the religious and secular communities4 ,we shall disclose1 besides1 the attempts of writers to interfere with the teaching of orthography1 which belongs only to good grammarians1 that is1 to the masters of the little schools40 ,we see to what petty questions of prerogative was sacrificed1 in the seventeenth century1 the great cause of popular instruction4 #bgg4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,parish ,,school4--,under the title1 ,the ,parish ,school1 or the ,manner of ,properly ,instructing the ,children in the ,little ,schools1 a priest of the diocese of ,paris had written1 in #afee1 a school manual1 often reprinted1#aei which became the general standard of the schools during the years that followed1 and which gives an exact idea of what was narrow and poorly defined in the primary instruction of that period4 ,the author of the ,parish ,school does not have a high opinion of the office of the teacher1 which he regards as an employment without lustre1 without pleasure1 and without interest4 ,he does not expect great results from instruction1 of which he is pleased to say1 that it is not completely useless4 ,it is true that instruction is reduced to a very few things1--reading1 writing1 and counting4 ,to this the author adds religion and politeness4 ,let us observe in particular1 that the programme of the parish school also comprises the principles of the ,latin language4 ,the primary school of that period was still confounded with the college of secondary instruction2 the ancient languages and rhetoric were taught in it4 ,in the catalogue of the master's books1 drawn up by the author of the ,parish ,school1 we find a ,greek grammar4 ,in the classes1 the reading of ,latin precedes the reading of ,french4 ,some good advice in practical pedagogy might be extracted from the first part of the work1 especially on the duties of a school-master1 on the power of example1 and on the necessity of knowing the disposition of pupils4 ,but how many artless assertions and mischievous precepts1 in that school code of the city of ,paris1 in the near presence of the grand century6 ,the ,parish ,school complains that the scholars eat too much bread3-- 8,the children of ,paris1 as a rule1 eat a great deal of bread4 ,this food stupefies the mind1 and very often makes them1 at the age of nine or ten1 incapable of learning4 ,omnis repletio mala1 panis vero pessima40 ,a serious matter is that espionage is not only authorized1 but is encouraged and organized3-- 8,the master will select two of the most reliable and intelligent to be on the lookout for the disorders and the improprieties of the school and the church4 ,they shall write the names of the offenders1 and of those guilty of improprieties1 on pieces of paper or on tablets1 to be given to the master4 ,these officers shall be called observers40 #bgh4 ,,la ,,salle 7#afea-agai7 ,,and ,,the ,,christian ,,schools4--,the reading of the ,parish ,school prepares us the better to comprehend the work of ,la ,salle4 ,if one were in any degree tempted to depreciate the ,institute of the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 it would suffice1 to counteract this disposition1 to contrast the reforms of ,la ,salle1 however insufficient they may be1 with the real state of the schools of that period4 ,to be equitably judged1 human institutions ought to be replaced in their setting and in their environment4 ,it is easy to-day to formulate charges against the pedagogy of the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools4 ,but considered in their time1 and compared with what existed1 or rather with what did not exist1 the establishments of ,la ,salle deserve the esteem and the gratitude of the friends of instruction4 ,they represent the first systematic effort of the ,catholic ,church to organize popular instruction4 ,what the ,jesuits did in the matter of secondary instruction1 with immense resources and for pupils who paid them for their efforts1 ,la ,salle attempted in primary instruction1 through a thousand obstacles and for pupils who did not pay4 #bgi4 ,,life ,,and ,,character ,,of ,,la ,,salle4--,we shall have to criticise in the most of its principles and in many details of its practice1 the educational institute of ,la ,salle4 ,but that which merits an admiration without reserve is the professional zeal of the founder of the order1 the dauntless spirit of improvement which he displayed in the organization of his schools1 and in the recruitment of his teachers2 it is also his tenacious zeal which was discouraged neither by the jealous opposition of corporations1 the writing-masters for example1 nor by the inexplicable opposition of the clergy2 and1 finally1 it is the indefatigable devotion of a beautiful life consecrated to the cause of instruction1 which was a long series of efforts and sacrifices4 ,at an early hour1 ,la ,salle had given proofs of the energy of his character4 ,weak and sickly1 he was obliged to struggle against the infirmities of his constitution4 ,to overcome sleep1 and to prolong his studious vigils1 he sometimes kneeled on sharp stones1 and sometimes he placed in front of him1 upon his study-table1 a board fitted with iron points1 against which his head would strike as soon as fatigue made him doze and he leaned forward4 ,canon of the chapter of ,reims in #affg1 ordained priest in #afgh1 he resigned his prebendship in #afhc1 and1 voluntarily making himself poor1 in order to approach those whose souls he would save1 he renounced his whole patrimony1 to the great disgust of his friends1 who treated him as a madman4 #bhj4 ,,ascetic ,,tendencies4--,but it is not a disinterested love of the people1 it is not the thought of their moral regeneration1 and of their intellectual progress1 which animated and sustained the efforts of ,la ,salle4 ,his purpose was above all else religious4 ,he pushed devotion even to asceticism4 ,in his childhood1 while he still lived at home1 he came to have a sense of unrest in the parlors of his mother2 and one evening1 as his biographers relate1 while those about him were engaged in music1 or were talking on worldly matters1 he threw himself into the arms of one of his aunts1 and said to her1 8,madam1 relate to me the life of one of the saints40 ,he himself was a saint1 though the ,church did not think him worthy of this venerable title4 ,in his youth he passed whole nights in prayer1 and slept on boards4 ,all his life he was severe to himself and also to others1 considering abstinence and privations as the regimen of the ,christian4 ,his adversaries1 at different times1 imputed this to him as a crime4 ,he was represented as a hardened man1 pushing his ascetic requirements to the extreme of cruelty4 ,to appease their anger1 he removed penances and bodily inflictions from his institution1 but he maintained them for himself1 and continued his life of voluntary suffering4 ,heroic virtues1 it may be2 but it may be added also1 an unfortunate disposition for a teacher of children4 ,we distrust1 in advance1 a system of teaching whose beginning was so sad1 whose founder inclosed his life within so narrow an horizon1 and which1 at first1 was illuminated by no rays of gladness and good humor4 #bha4 ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,institute4--,the ,institute of the ,brethren was founded in #afhd1 but it was not sanctioned by pontifical authority and royal power till forty years later1 in #agbd4 ,we shall not recite at full length the vicissitudes of the first years of the ,institute4 ,we simply state that ,la ,salle inaugurated his work by offering hospitality in his own house to several poor teachers4 ,in #afgi he opened at ,reims a school for boys4 ,in #afhd he imposed on his disciples vows of stability and obedience1 and prescribed their costume4 ,in #afhh he went to ,paris in order to found schools there1 and it was here in particular1 as he himself says1 that 8he saw himself persecuted by the men from whom he expected help40 ,in spite of all these difficulties his enterprise prospered1 and when he died1 in #agbj1 the ,institute of the ,brethren already counted a large number of establishments for primary instruction4 #bhb4 ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,normal ,,schools4--,we know how the teaching force was then recruited4 ,in ,paris1 if we may believe ,pourchot1 the chief precentor1 ,claude ,joly1 was obliged to employ1 for the direction of schools1 old-clothes-men1 innkeepers1 cooks1 masons1 wig-makers1 puppet-players--the list might be continued4 ,in #afhb ,marie ,moreau1 a teacher1 was sent by ,bossuet to keep the school at ,fert-,gaucher4 ,the rector of the place1 in his capacity as tutor 7coltre71 wishing to ascertain her competence1 subjected her to an examination1 of which the following is an account3-- 8#a4 ,he asked her if she could read1 and she replied that she read passably well1 but not well enough to teach4 8#b4 ,he gave her a pen to mend1 and she declared that she could not do it4 8#c4 ,he handed her a ,latin book and requested her to read it1 but she was prevented from making the attempt by sister ,remy1 who had just prevented her from exhibiting her writing40#afj ,ignorance1 and often moral unfitness1 was the general character of the teachers of that period4 ,they often entered upon their duties without the least preparation4 ,la ,salle had too great an anxiety for the good condition of his schools to accept improvised teachers4 ,so in #afhe he opened at ,reims1 under the name of ,seminary for ,schoolmasters1 a real normal school1 in which teachers were to be trained for the rural districts4 ,only ,dmia had preceded him in this work4 ,later he founded an establishment of the same kind in ,paris1 and--a thing worthy of note--he annexed to this normal school a primary school1 in which the teaching was done by the students in training under the direction of an experienced teacher4 ,in the third part of his ,conduct of ,schools ,la ,salle has drawn up the rules for what he calls the training of new masters4 ,here are the faults that he notices in young teachers3-- #a4 ,an itching to talk2 #b4 too great activity1 which degenerates into petulance2 #c4 indifference2 #d4 preoccupation and embarrassment2 #e4 harshness2 #f4 spite2 #g4 partiality2 #h4 slowness and negligence2 #i4 pusillanimity and lack of force2 #aj4 despondency and fretfulness2 #aa4 familiarity and trifling2 #ab4 distractions and loss of time2 #ac4 fickleness2 #ad4 giddiness2 #ae4 exclusiveness2 #af4 lack of attention to the different characters and dispositions of children4 #bhc4 ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,gratuitous ,,and ,,obligatory ,,instruction4--,the ,institute of the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 say the statutes of the order in so many words1 is a society whose members make a profession to conduct schools gratuitously4 8,la ,salle thought only of the children of artisans and of the poor1 who1 he said1 being occupied during the whole day in earning their own livelihood and that of their families1 could not give their children the instruction they need1 and a respectable and ,christian education40 ,in #afid1 the founder of the ,institute and his first twelve disciples went and kneeled at the foot of the altar1 and pledged themselves to 8conduct collectively and through organized effort schools of gratuitous instruction1 even when1 in order to do this1 they might be obliged to ask alms and to live on bread alone40 ,but a thing still more remarkable than to have popularized gratuitous instruction1 already realized in many places through charity schools1 is to have formed the conception of obligatory instruction4 ,la ,salle1 who did not believe that this was any encroachment on the liberty of parents1 proposes1 in this ,conduct of ,schools1 a means for affecting their will3-- 8,if among the poor there are certain ones who are unwilling to take advantage of the opportunities for instruction1 they should be reported to the rectors4 ,the latter will be able to cure them of their indifference by threatening to give them no more assistance till they send their children to school40 #bhd4 ,,professional ,,instruction4--,besides primary schools proper1 ,la ,salle1 who is truly an innovator1 inaugurated the organization of a technical and professional instruction4 ,at ,saint ,yon1 near ,rouen1 he organized a sort of college where was taught 8all that a young man can learn1 with the exception of ,latin1 and whose purpose was to prepare the student for commercial1 industrial1 and administrative occupations40 #bhe4 ,,conduct ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,schools3 ,,successive ,,editions4--,la ,salle took the trouble to draw up for his ,institute a very minute code of rules1 with this title3 ,the ,conduct of ,schools4 ,the first edition bears the date of #agbj4 ,it appeared at ,avignon a year after the author's death4#afa ,two other editions have since appeared1 in #ahaa and in #ahgj1 with some important modifications4 ,the substance has not been changed1 but certain passages relative to discipline1 and to the use of the rod1 have been suppressed4 8,with the view to adapt our education to the mildness of the present state of manners10 says the preface of #ahaa1 8we have suppressed or modified whatever includes corporal correction1 and have advantageously 7sic7 replaced this1 on the one hand1 by good marks1 by promises and rewards1 and on the other by bad marks1 by deprivations and tasks40 ,on the other hand1 some additions have been made4 ,the ,institute of the ,brethren had to yield in part to the demands of the times1 and to subtract something from the inflexibility of its government4 8,the ,brethren10 it is said in the preface to the edition of #ahgj1 written by the ,frre ,philip1 8the ,brethren have little by little enlarged the original ,conduct1 in proportion as they have perfected their methods4444 ,it is plain that a book of this kind cannot receive a final form4 ,new experiments1 progress in methods1 legislative enactments1 new needs1 etc41 require that it receive divers modifications from time to time40 #bhf4 ,,abuse ,,of ,,regulations4--,a feature common to the pedagogy of the ,jesuits1 and to that of the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 is1 that everything is regulated in advance with extraordinary exactness4 ,no discretion is left to the teachers4 ,the instruction is but a rule in action4 ,all novelty is interdicted4 8,it has been necessary10 says the ,preface of ,la ,salle1 to prepare this ,conduct of the ,christian schools1 8to the end that there may be uniformity in all the schools1 and in all the places where there are ,brethren of the ,institute1 and that the methods employed may always be the same4 ,man is so subject to slackness1 and even to changeableness1 that there must be written rules for him1 in order to keep him within the bounds of his duty1 and to prevent him from introducing something new1 or from destroying that which has been wisely established40 ,need we be astonished1 after this1 that the teaching of the ,brethren often became a useless routine8 #bhg4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,conduct4--,the ,conduct of the ,christian ,schools is divided into three parts4 ,the first treats of all the exercises of the school1 and of what is done in it from the time the pupils enter till they leave4 ,the second describes the means for establishing and maintaining order2 in a word1 the discipline4 ,the third treats of the duties of the inspector of schools1 of the qualities of the teachers1 and of the rules to be followed in the education of the teachers themselves4 ,this may be called1 so to speak1 the manual of the normal schools of the ,institute4 #bhh4 ,,interior ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,schools4--,that which first strikes the attention in the ,christian ,schools1 such as ,la ,salle organized1 is the complete silence that reigns in them4 ,nothing is better than silence on the part of pupils1 when it can be obtained1 but ,la ,salle enjoins silence on teachers as well4 ,the ,frre is a professor who does not talk4 8,he will watch carefully over himself1 to speak very rarely1 and very low40 8,it would be of but little use for the teacher to try to make his pupils keep silence if he does not do this himself40 8,when necessity obliges him to speak--and he is careful that this necessity is rare--he will always speak in a moderate tone40 ,it might be said that ,la ,salle fears a strong and sonorous voice4 ,how1 then1 shall the teacher communicate with his pupils1 since he is almost debarred from the use of speech8 ,la ,salle has invented1 to supersede language1 a complete system of signs1 a sort of scholastic telegraphy1 a long account of which will be found in several chapters of the ,conduct4 ,to have prayers repeated1 the teacher will fold his hands2 to have the catechism repeated1 he will make the sign of the cross4 ,in other cases he will strike his breast1 will look at the pupil steadily1 etc4 ,besides1 he will employ an instrument of iron named a signal1 which he will raise or lower1 and handle in a hundred ways1 to indicate his wish1 or to announce the beginning or the close of such or such an exercise4 ,what is the meaning of this distrust of speech8 ,and what are we to think of these schools of mutes where teachers and pupils proceed only by signs8 ,when a scholar asks permission to speak1 he will stand erect in his place1 with hands crossed and eyes modestly lowered4 ,doubtless1 to attempt to excuse these practices1 we must consider the annoyances of a noisy school1 and the advantages of a silent school where everything is done discreetly and noiselessly4 ,is there not1 however1 in these odd regulations1 something besides the desire for order and good conduct1--the revelation of a complete system of pedagogy which is afraid of life and liberty1 and which1 under the pretext of making the school quiet1 deadens the school1 and1 in the end1 reduces teachers and pupils to mere machines8 #bhi4 ,,simultaneous ,,instruction4--,by the side of the evil we must note the good4 ,up to the time of ,la ,salle1 the individual method was almost alone in use in primary instruction2 but he substituted for this the simultaneous method1 that is1 teaching given to all the pupils at the same time4 ,for this purpose1 ,la ,salle divided each school into three divisions3 8,the division of the weakest1 that of the mediocres1 and that of the more intelligent or the more capable40 8,all the scholars of the same order will receive the same lesson together4 ,the instructor will see that all are attentive1 and that1 in reading for example1 all read in a low voice what the teacher reads in a loud voice40 ,to aid the instructor1 ,la ,salle gives him one or two of the better pupils of each division1 who become his assistants1 and whom he calls inspectors4 8,the more children have taught10 said ,la ,salle1 8the more they will learn40 ,to be just1 however1 we must recognize1 in certain recommendations of ,la ,salle1 some desire to appeal to the judgment and the reason of the child3-- 8,the teacher will not speak to the scholars during the catechism1 as in preaching1 but he will interrogate them almost continually by questions1 direct or indirect1 in order to make them comprehend that which he is teaching them40 ,the ,frre ,luccard1 in his ,life of the ,venerable ,j4 ,b4 de ,la ,salle1#afb quotes this still more expressive passage1 borrowed from his manuscript ,counsels3-- 8,let the teacher be careful not to lend his pupils too much help in resolving the questions that have been proposed to them4 ,he ought1 on the contrary1 to invite them not to be discouraged1 but to seek with ardor what he knows they will be able to find for themselves4 ,he will convince them that they will the better retain the knowledge they have acquired by a personal and persevering effort40 #bij4 ,,what ,,was ,,learned ,,in ,,the ,,christian ,,schools4--,reading1 writing1 orthography1 arithmetic1 and the catechism1--this is the programme of ,la ,salle4 ,in reading1 ,la ,salle1 agreeing in this respect with ,port ,royal1 requires that ,french books be used in the beginning4 8,the book in which the pupil will begin to learn ,latin is the ,psalter2 but this lesson will be given only to those who can readily read in ,french40 ,la ,salle requires that the pupil shall not be exercised in writing till 8he can read perfectly40 ,he attaches1 moreover1 an extreme importance to calligraphy1 and it is known that the ,brethren have remained masters in this art4 ,la ,salle does not weary in giving advice on this subject3 the pens1 the knife for mending them1 the ink1 the paper1 the tracing-papers and blotters1 round letters and italic letters 7a bastard script71--everything is passed in review4#afc ,the ,conduct also insists 8on the manner of teaching the proper posture of the body0 and 8on the manner of teaching how to hold the pen and the paper40 8,it will be useful and timely in the beginning to give the pupil a stick of the bigness of a pen1 on which there are three notches1 two on the right and one on the left1 to mark the places where his fingers should be put40 ,the exercises in writing are to be followed by exercises in orthography and in composition3-- 8,the teacher will require the pupils to compose and write for themselves notes1 receipts1 bills1 etc4 ,he will also require them to write out what they remember of the catechism1 and of the lectures that they have heard40#afd ,as to arithmetic1 reduced to the four rules1 we must commend ,la ,salle's attempt to have it learned by reason and not by routine4 ,thus1 he requires the teacher to interrogate the pupil1 in order to make him the better comprehend and retain the rule1 or to make sure that he is attentive4 ,he 8will give him a complete understanding0 of what he teaches2 and1 finally1 he will require him 8to produce a certain number of rules that he has discovered for himself40 ,prayers and religious exercises naturally hold a large place in the schools organized by ,la ,salle3-- 8,there shall always be two or three scholars kneeling1 one from each class1 who will tell their beads one after another40 8,care will everywhere be taken that the scholars hear the holy mass every day40 8,a half hour each day shall be devoted to the catechism40 #bia4 ,,method ,,of ,,teaching4--,the ,institute of the ,brethren has often been criticised for the mechanical character of its instruction4 ,the ,frre ,philip1 in the edition of the ,conduct published in #ahgj1 implicitly acknowledges the justice of this criticism when he writes3 8,elementary instruction has assumed a particular character in these last days1 of which we must take account4 ,proposing for its chief end to train the judgment of the pupil1 it gives less importance than heretofore to the culture of the memory2 it makes especial use of methods which call into activity the intelligence1 and lead the child to reflect1 to take account of facts1 to withdraw from the domain of words to enter into that of ideas40 ,do not these wise cautions unmistakably betray the existence of an evil tradition which should be corrected1 but which tends to hold its ground8 ,he who has read the ,conduct is not left in doubt that the general character of the pedagogy of the ,christian ,schools1 at the first1 was a mechanical and routine exercise of the memory1 and the absence of life4 #bib4 ,,christian ,,politeness4--,under the title of ,rules of ,decorum and ,christian ,civility1 ,la ,salle had composed a reading book1 intended for pupils already somewhat advanced1 and printed in ,gothic characters4#afe ,it was not only a manual of politeness1 but was1 the ,conduct claims1 a treatise on ethics1 8containing all the duties of children1 both towards ,god and towards their parents40 ,but we would examine the work in vain for the justification of this remark4 ,in it are discussed only the puerile details of outward behavior and of worldly bearing4 ,it would1 however1 be in bad taste to criticise at this day a book of another age1 whose artlessness makes us smile4 ,la ,salle's purpose was certainly praiseworthy1 though attempting a little too much4 ,it is said in the ,preface that 8there is not a single one of our actions which ought not to be regulated by motives purely ,christian40 ,hence an infinite number of minute prescriptions upon the simplest acts of daily life4#aff ,but here are a few specimens of this pretended elementary ethics3-- 8,it is not proper to talk when one has retired1 the bed being made for rest40 8,one should try to make no noise and not to snore while asleep2 nor should one often turn from side to side in bed as if he were restless and did not know on which side to lie40 8,it is not becoming1 when one is in company1 to take off one's shoes40 8,it is impolite to play with a stick or a cane1 and to use it to strike the ground or pebbles1 etc41 etc40 ,how many mistakes in politeness we should make every day of our lives if the rules of ,la ,salle were infallible6 #bic4 ,,corporal ,,chastisements4--,the ,brethren1 within two centuries1 have singularly ameliorated their system of correction4 8,imperative circumstances10 said the ,frre ,philip in #ahgj1 8no longer permit us to tolerate corporal punishment in our schools40 ,already1 in #ahaa1 there was talk of suppressing entirely1 or at least modifying1 the use of these punishments4 ,the instruments of torture were perfected4 8,we reduce the heavy ferule1 the inconvenience of which has been only too often felt1 to a simple piece of leather1 about a foot long and an inch wide1 and slit in two at one end2 still we hope that by divine help and by the mildness of our very dear and dearly beloved colleagues1 they will make use of it only in cases of unavoidable necessity1 and only to give a stroke with it on the hand1 without the permission ever to make any other use of it40 ,but at first1 and in the original ,conduct1#afg corporal punishment is freely permitted and regulated with exactness4 ,la ,salle distinguished five sorts of corrections1--reprimand1 penances1 the ferule1 the rod1 expulsion from school4 #bid4 ,,reprimands4--,silence1 we have seen1 is the fundamental rule of ,la ,salle's schools3 8,there must be as little speaking as possible4 ,consequently1 corrections by word of mouth are very rarely to be employed40 ,it even seems1 adds the ,conduct1 that 8it is much better not to use them at all06 ,a curious system of discipline1 verily1 where it is as good as forbidden to resort to admonitions1 to severe reprimands1 to an appeal through speech to the reason and the feelings of the child2 where1 consequently1 there is no place for the moral authority of the teacher1 but where there is at once invoked the ultima ratio of constraint and violence1 of the ferule and the rod6 #bie4 ,,penances4--,la ,salle recommends penances as well as corporal corrections4 ,by this term he means punishments like the following3 maintaining a kneeling posture in the school2 learning a few pages of the catechism by heart2 8holding his book before his eyes for the space of half an hour without looking off20 keeping motionless1 with clasped hands and downcast eyes1 etc4 #bif4 ,,the ,,ferule4--,we have not to discuss in this place the use of material means of correction4 ,the ,brethren themselves have repudiated them4 ,only it is provoking that they bow to what they call 8imperative circumstances10 and not to considerations based on principles4 ,but it is interesting1 were it only from an historical point of view1 to recall the minute prescriptions of the founder of the ,order4 ,the ,conduct first describes the ferule1 8an instrument formed of two pieces of leather sewed together2 it shall be from ten to twelve inches long1 including the handle2 the palm shall be oval1 and two inches in diameter2 the palm shall be lined on the inside so as not to be wholly flat1 but rounded to fit the hand40 ,nothing is overlooked1 we observe2 the form of the ferule is officially defined4 ,but what shocks us still more is the nature of the faults that provoke the application of the ferule3 8#a4 for not having attended to the lesson1 or for having played2 #b4 for being tardy at school2 #c4 for not having obeyed the first signal40 ,it is true that ,la ,salle1 always preoccupied with writing1 orders the ferule to be applied only to the left hand2 the right hand shall always be spared4 ,the child1 moreover1 is not to cry while he receives the ferule2 if he does1 he is to be punished and corrected anew4 #big4 ,,the ,,rod4--,in the penal code of ,la ,salle1 the categories of faults worthy of punishment are sharply defined4 ,the rod shall be employed for the following faults3 #a4 refusal to obey2 #b4 when the pupil has formed the habit of not giving heed to the lesson2 #c4 when he has made blots upon his paper instead of writing2 #d4 when he has had a fight with his comrades2 #e4 when he has neglected his prayers in church2 #f4 when he has been wanting in 8modesty0 at mass or during the catechism2 #g4 when he has been absent from school1 from mass1 or from the catechism4 ,even supposing that the principle of the rod is admissible1 we must still condemn the wrong use which ,la ,salle makes of it1 for faults manifestly out of proportion to such a chastisement4 ,i very well know that the author of the ,conduct requires that corrections shall be rare2 but could he be obeyed1 when he put into the hands of his teachers scarcely any other means of discipline8 ,but to comprehend to what extent ,la ,salle forgot what is due to the dignity of the child1 and considered him as a machine1 without any regard to the delicacy of his feelings1 with no respect for his person1 we must read to the end the strange prescriptions of this manual of the rod4 ,the precautions that ,la ,salle exacts make still more evident the impropriety of such punishments3-- 8,when the teacher would punish a scholar with the rod1 he will make the ordinary sign to summon the attention of the school2 next he will indicate by means of the signal the decree which the pupil has violated1 and then show him the place where correction is ordinarily administered2 and he will at once go there1 and will prepare to receive the punishment1 standing in such a way as not to be seen indecently by any one4 ,this practice of having the scholar prepare himself for receiving the correction1 without any need on the part of the teacher of putting his hand upon him1 shall be very exactly observed4 8,while the scholar is preparing himself to receive the correction1 the teacher shall be making an inward preparation to give it in a spirit of love1 and in a clear view of ,god4 ,then he will go from his desk with dignity and gravity4 8,and when he shall have reached the place where the scholar is0 7it is stated1 moreover1 that this place should be in one of the most remote and most obscure parts of the school1 where the nakedness of the victim cannot be seen71 8he will speak a few words to him to prepare him to receive the correction with humility1 submission1 and a purpose of amendment2 then he will strike three blows as is usual2 to go beyond five blows1 there would be needed a special order of the director4 8,he shall be careful not to put his hand on the scholar4 ,if the scholar is not ready1 he shall return to his desk without saying a word2 and when he returns1 he shall give him the most severe punishment allowed without special permission1 that is1 five blows4 8,when a teacher shall have thus been obliged to compel a scholar to receive correction1 he shall attempt in some way a little time afterwards to make him see and acknowledge his fault1 and shall make him come to himself1 and give him a strong and sincere resolution never to allow himself again to fall into such a revolt40 ,the moment is perhaps not well chosen to preach a sermon and to violate the rule which forbids the ,brethren the use of the reprimand4 8,after the scholar has been corrected1 he will modestly kneel in the middle of the room before the teacher1 with arms crossed1 to thank him for having corrected him1 and will then turn towards the crucifix to thank ,god for it1 and to promise ,him at the same time not again to commit the fault for which he had just been corrected4 ,this he will do without speaking aloud2 after which the teacher will give him the sign to go to his place40 ,is it possible to have a higher misconception of human nature1 to trifle more ingeniously with the pride of the child1 and with his most legitimate feelings1 and to mingle1 in the most repulsive manner1 indiscreet and infamous practices with the exhibition of religious sentiments8 8,it is absurd10 says ,kant1 8to require the children whom we punish to thank us1 to kiss our hands1 etc4 ,this is to try to make servile creatures of them40 ,to justify ,la ,salle1 some quotations from his works have been invoked4 8,for the love of ,god1 do not use blows of the hand4 ,be very careful never to give children a blow40 ,but it is necessary to know the exact thought of the author of the ,conduct1 and this explains the following passage3-- 8,no corrections should be employed save those which are in use in the schools2 and so scholars should never be struck with the hand or the foot40 ,in other words1 the teacher should never strike except with the authorized instruments1 and according to the official regulations4 #bih4 ,,mutual ,,espionage4--,we may say without exaggeration that the ,conduct recommends mutual espionage3-- 8,the inspector of schools shall be careful to appoint one of the most prudent scholars to observe those who make a noise while they assemble1 and this scholar shall then report to the teacher what has occurred1 without allowing the others to know of it40 #bii4 ,,rewards4--,while ,la ,salle devotes more than forty pages to corrections1 the chapter on rewards comprises two small pages4 ,rewards shall be given 8from time to time40 ,they shall be of three kinds3 rewards for piety1 for ability1 and for diligence4 ,they shall consist of books1 pictures1 plaster casts1 crucifix and virgin1 chaplets1 engraved texts1 etc4 #cjj4 ,,conclusion4--,we have said enough to give an exact idea of the ,institute of the ,christian ,brethren in its primitive form4 ,its faults were certainly grave1 and we cannot approve the general spirit of those establishments for education where pupils are forbidden 8to joke while they are at meals02 to give anything whatsoever to one another2 where children are to enter the school-room so deliberately and quietly that the noise of their footsteps is not heard2 where teachers are forbidden 8to be familiar0 with the pupils1 8to allow themselves to descend to anything common1 as it would be to laugh 4440 ,but whatever the distance which separates those gloomy schools from our modern ideal1--from the pleasant1 active1 animated school1 such as we conceive it to-day1--there is none the less obligation to do justice to ,la ,salle1 to pardon him for the practices which were those of his time1 and to admire him for the good qualities that were peculiarly his own4 ,the criticism that is truly fruitful1 is that which is especially directed to the good1 without caviling at the bad4#afh #cja4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,this study exhibits the zeal of the ,catholic ,church in the education of the children of the poor4 ,the motive was not the spirit of domination1 as in the case of the ,jesuits1 but a sincere desire to engage in a humane work4 #b4 ,a proof of the multiplication of schools1 and so of the diffusion of the new educational spirit1 is the wretched quality of those who were allowed to teach4 ,there must be schools even if they are poor ones4 #c4 ,the need of competent teachers led to the establishment of the ,teachers' ,seminary1 the parent of the modern normal school4 ,the two elements in this professional instruction seem to have been a knowledge of the subjects to be taught and of methods of organization and discipline4 #d4 ,the severe discipline and enforced silence of ,la ,salle's schools permit the inference that the school of the period was the scene of lawlessness and disorder4 ,the reaction went to an extreme2 but considering the times1 this excess was a virtue4 #e4 ,the scarcity of teachers and the abundance of pupils led to the expedient of mutual and simultaneous instruction4 ,while this method is absolutely bad1 it was relatively good4 #f4 ,to the benevolent and inventive spirit of ,la ,salle is due the organization of industrial schools4 ,,footnotes3 #aeg ,petites coles4 ,this is the term commonly applied to primary schools at this period4 ,by the ,jansenists this term was used in a more distinctive sense1 and for this reason ,i have translated it 8,little ,schools0 in ,chap4 ,,vii4 7,p47 #aeh ,see the ,lectures pdagogiques4 ,hachette1 #ahhc1 p4 #dbj4 #aei ,we have before us the edition of #agbb4 #afj ,histoire d'une cole gratuite1 par ,v4 ,plessier1 p4 #ae4 #afa ,we have before us a copy of this ,avignon edition3 ,j4 ,charles ,chastanier1 printer and bookseller1 near the ,college of the ,jesuits4 #afb ,two volumes1 ,paris1 #ahgf4 #afc ,the use of the round script was in fashion4 ,la ,salle introduced the bastard hand4 #afd ,see ,chap4 ,,ii4 of the ,second ,part4 #afe ,we have before us the sixth edition of this work3 ,rouen1 #agbi4 ,la ,salle had written it towards the year #agjc4 #aff ,see1 for example1 the following chapters3 upon the nose and the manner of using the handkerchief and of sneezing 7chap4 vii472 upon the back1 the shoulders1 the arms1 and the elbow 7chap4 viii472 on the manner in which one ought to behave with respect to the bones1 the sauce1 and the fruit 7chap4 vi41 of the second part72 on the manner of behaving while walking in the streets1 on journeys1 in carriages1 and on horseback 7chap4 x474 #afg ,see the edition of #agbj1 from page #adj to page #ahj4 #afh ,the influence of the teaching congregations in general1 and of this one in particular1 on public education as administered by the ,state1 is very strikingly exhibited by ,meunier in his ,lutte du ,principe ,clrical et du ,principe ,laque dans l',enseignement 7,paris3 #ahfa74 ,there is also interesting information concerning ,la ,salle4 ,see particularly the introductory ,letter and ,chaps4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 7,p47 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,rousseau ,,and ,,the ,,mile4 ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century2 ,,the ,,precursors ,,of ,,rousseau2 ,,the ,,abb ,,de ,,saint ,,pierre2 ,,other ,,inspirers ,,of ,,rousseau2 ,,publication ,,of ,,the ,,mile 7#agfb72 ,,rousseau ,,as ,a ,,teacher2 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,mile2 ,,its ,,romantic ,,and ,,utopian ,,character2 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,work2 ,,the ,,first ,,two ,,books2 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,body ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,senses2 ,,let ,,nature ,,act2 ,,the ,,mother ,,to ,,nurse ,,her ,,own ,,children2 ,,negative ,,education2 ,,the ,,child',s ,,right ,,to ,,happiness2 ,,the ,,third ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,mile2 ,,choice ,,in ,,the ,,things ,,to ,,be ,,taught2 ,,the ,,abb ,,de ,,saint ,,pierre ,,and ,,rousseau2 ,,mile ,,at ,,fifteen2 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,sensibilities2 ,,the ,,fourth ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,mile2 ,,genesis ,,of ,,the ,,affections2 ,,moral ,,education2 ,,religious ,,education2 ,,the ,,profession ,,of ,,faith ,,of ,,the ,,savoyard ,,vicar2 ,,sophie ,,and ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women2 ,,general ,,conclusion2 ,,influence ,,of ,,rousseau2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #cjb4 ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4--,the most striking of the general characteristics of ,french pedagogy in the eighteenth century1 is that in it the lay spirit comes into mortal collision with the ecclesiastical spirit4 ,what a contrast between the clerical preceptors of the seventeenth century and the philosophical educators of the eighteenth6 ,the ,jesuits1 all-powerful under ,louis ,,xiv41 are to be decried1 condemned1 and finally expelled in #agfb4 ,the first place in the theory and in the practice of education1 will belong to laymen4 ,rousseau is to write the mile4 ,d',alembert and ,diderot will be the educational advisers of the ,empress of ,russia4 ,the parliamentarians1 ,la ,chalotais and ,rolland1 will attempt to substitute for the action of the ,jesuits the action of the ,state1 or1 at least1 one of the powers of the ,state4 ,finally1 with the ,revolution1 the lay spirit will succeed in triumphing4 ,again1 the pedagogy of the eighteenth century is distinguished by its critical and reformatory tendencies4 ,the century of ,louis ,,xiv4 is1 in general1 a century of content2 the century of ,voltaire1 a century of discontent4 ,besides1 the philosophical spirit1 which associates the theory of education with the laws of the human spirit1 which is not content to modify routine by a few ameliorations of detail1 which establishes general principles and aspires to an ideal perfection1--the philosophical spirit1 with its excellencies and with its defects1--will come to the light in the mile1 and in some other writings of the same period4 ,finally1 and this last characteristic is but the consequence of the others1 education tends to become national1 and at the same time humane4 ,preparation for life replaces preparation for death4 ,during the whole of the eighteenth century1 a conception is in process of elaboration which the men of the ,revolution will exhibit in its true light1--that of an education1 public and national1 which makes citizens1 which works for country and for real life4 #cjc4 ,,precursors ,,of ,,rousseau4--,the greatest educational event of the eighteenth century1 before the expulsion of the ,jesuits and the events of the ,french ,revolution1 is the publication of the mile4 ,rousseau is undeniably the first in rank among the founders of ,french pedagogy1 and his influence will be felt abroad1 especially in ,germany4 ,but whatever may be the originality of the author of the mile1 his system is not a stroke of genius for which no preparation had been made4 ,he had his precursors1 and he profited by their works4 ,a ,benedictine1 who might have spent his strength to better advantage1 has written a book on the ,plagiarisms of ,j4 ,j4 ,rousseau4#afi ,we do not propose to treat ,rousseau as a plagiarist1 for he surely has inspiration of his own1 and his own boldness in invention2 but however much of an innovator he may be1 he was inspired by ,montaigne1 by ,locke1 and without speaking of those great masters whom he often imitated1 he had his immediate predecessors1 whose ideas on certain points are in conformity with his own4 #cjd4 ,,the ,,abb ,,de ,,saint ,,pierre 7#afeh-agdc74--;,among the precursors of ,rousseau1 a place among the first must be assigned to the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre1 a dreamy1 fantastic spirit1 fitted more to excite curiosity than to deserve admiration1 whom ,rousseau himself called 8a man of great projects and petty views40 ,his projects in fact were great1 at least in number4 ,between 8a project to make sermons more useful1 and a project to make roads more passable10 there came1 in his incoherent and varied work1 several projects for perfecting education in general1 and the education of girls in particular4 ,the dominant idea of the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre is his anxiety in behalf of moral education4 ,in proportion as we advance towards the era of liberty1 we shall notice a growing interest in the development of the moral virtues4 ,the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre requires of man four essential qualities3 justice1 benevolence1 the discernment of virtue or judgment1 and1 lastly1 instruction1 which holds but the lowest rank4 ,virtue is of more worth than the knowledge of ,latin4 8,it cannot be said that a great knowledge of ,latin is not an excellent attainment2 but in order to acquire this knowledge1 it is necessary to give to it an amount of time that would be incomparably better employed in acquiring great skill in the observation of prudence4 ,those who direct education make a very great mistake in employing tenfold too much time in making us scholarly in the ,latin tongue1 and in employing tenfold too little of it in giving us a confirmed use of prudence40#agj ,but what are the means proposed by the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre8 ,all that he has devised for organizing the teaching of the social virtues is reduced to the requirement of reading edifying narratives1 of playing moral pieces1 and of accustoming young people to do meritorious acts in the daily intercourse of the school4 ,when the lessons have been recited and the written exercises corrected1 the teacher will say to the pupil3 8,do for me an act of prudence1 or of justice1 or of benevolence40 ,this is easier to say than to do4 ,college life scarcely furnishes occasion for the application of the social virtues4 ,but the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre should be credited with his good intentions4 ,he is the first in ,france to give his thought to this matter of professional instruction4 ,the mechanic arts1 the positive sciences1 the apprenticeship to trades1--these things he places above the study of languages4 ,around his college1 and even in his college1 there are to be mills1 printing offices1 agricultural implements1 garden tools1 etc4 ,was it not also an idea at once new and wise1 to establish a continuous department of public instruction1 a sort of permanent council1 charged with the reformation of methods and with establishing1 as far as possible1 uniformity in all the colleges of the kingdom8 ,finally1 we shall commend the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre for having persistently urged the necessity of the education of women4 ,from ,fnelon to the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre1 from #afhj to #agcj1 great progress was made in this question4 ,we seem already to hear ,condorcet when we read the following passage3-- 8,the purpose should be to instruct girls in the elements of all the sciences and of all the arts which can enter into ordinary conversation1 and even in several things which relate to the different employments of men1 such as the history of their country1 geography1 police regulations1 and the principal civil laws1 to the end that they can listen with pleasure to what men shall say to them1 ask relevant questions1 and easily keep up a conversation with their husbands on the daily occurrences in their occupations40 ,for the purpose of sooner attaining his end1 the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre1 anticipating the centuries1 demanded for women national establishments1 colleges of secondary instruction4 ,he did not hesitate to cloister young girls in boarding-schools1 and in boarding-schools without vacations2 and he entreated the ,state to organize public courses for those who1 he said1 8constitute one-half of the families in society40 #cje4 ,,other ,,inspirers ,,of ,,rousseau4--,with the eighteenth century there begins for modern thought1 in education as in everything else1 an era of international relations1 of mutual imitation1 of the action and reaction of people on people4 ,the ,frenchman of the seventeenth century had almost absolutely ignored ,comenius4 ,rousseau knows ,locke1 and also the ,hollander ,crousaz1#aga whom1 by the way1 he treats rather shabbily1 speaking of him as 8the pedant ,crousaz40 ,crousaz1 however1 had some good ideas4 ,he criticised the old methods1 which make 8of the knowledge of ,latin and ,greek the principal part of education02 and he preached scientific instruction and moral education4 ,in the ,spectacle of ,nature1 which was so popular in its day1 the ,abb ,pluche also demanded that the study of the dead languages should be abridged#agb3-- 8,experience with the pitiable ,latinity which reigns in the colleges of ,germany1 ,flanders1 ,holland1 and in all places where the habit of always speaking ,latin is current1 suffices to make us renounce this custom which prevents a young man from speaking his own tongue correctly40 ,the ,abb ,pluche demanded that the time saved from ,latin be devoted to the living languages4 ,on the other hand1 he insisted on early education1 and on this point he was the complement to his master1 ,rollin1 who1 he said1 wrote rather 8for the perfection of studies than for their beginning40 ,still other writers were able to suggest to ,rousseau some of the ideas which he developed in the mile4 ,before him1 ,la ,condamine declared that the ,fables of ,la ,fontaine are above the capacity of children4#agc ,before him1 ,bonneval1 much interested in physical education1 violently criticised the use of long clothes1 and claimed for children an education of the senses4 ,he demanded1 besides1 that in early instruction1 the effort of the teacher should be limited to the keeping of evil impressions from the childish imagination1 and that instruction in the truths of religion should be held in abeyance4 ,we shall discover in the mile all these ideas in outline revived and developed with the power and with the brilliancy of genius1 sometimes transformed into boisterous paradoxes1 but sometimes1 also1 transformed into solid and lasting truths4 #cjf4 ,,publication ,,of ,,the ,,mile 7#agfb74--,rousseau has made striking statements of nearly all the problems of education1 and he has sometimes resolved them with wisdom1 and always with originality4 ,appearing in #agfb1 at the moment when the ,parliament was excluding the ,jesuits from ,france1 the mile came at the right moment in that grand overthrow of routine and tradition to disclose new hopes to humanity1 and to announce the advent of philosophic reason in the art of educating men4 ,but ,rousseau1 in writing his book1 did not think of the ,jesuits1 of whom he scarcely speaks2 he wrote1 not for the man of the present1 but for the future of humanity2 he composed a book endowed with endless vitality1 half romance1 half essay1 the grandest monument of human thought on the subject of education4 ,the mile1 in fact1 is not a work of ephemeral polemics1 nor simply a practical manual of pedagogy1 but is a general system of education1 a treatise on psychology and moral training1 a profound analysis of human nature4 #cjg4 ,,was ,,rousseau ,,prepared ,,to ,,become ,a ,,teacher8--,before entering upon the study of the mile1 it is well to inquire how the author had been prepared by his character and by his mode of life to become a teacher4 ,the history of ,french literature offers nothing more extraordinary than the life of ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau4 ,everything is strange in the destiny of that unfortunate great man4 ,rousseau committed great faults1 especially in his youth2 but at other moments of his life he is almost a sage1 a hero of private virtues and civic courage4 ,he traversed all adventures and all trades4 ,workman1 servant1 charlatan1 preceptor1 all in turn2 he lodged in garrets at a sou1 and experienced days when he complained that bread was too dear4 ,through all these miseries and these humiliations a soul was in process of formation made up1 above all else1 of sensibility and imagination4 ,rousseau's sensibility was extreme4 ,the child who1 unjustly treated1 experienced one of those violent fits of passion which he has so well described in his ,confessions1 and who writhed a whole night in his bed1 crying 8,carnifex1 carnifex60 was surely not an ordinary child4 8,i had no idea of things1 but all varieties of feeling were already known to me4 ,i had conceived nothing2 ,i had felt everything40 ,even a mediocre representation of ,alzire made him beside himself1 and he refused witnessing the play of tragedies for fear of becoming ill4 ,the sentiment of nature early inspired him with a passion which was not to be quenched4 ,his philosophic optimism and his faith in providence were never forgotten4 ,other pure and generous emotions filled his soul4 ,the study of ,plutarch had inspired him with a taste for republican virtues and with an enthusiasm for liberty4 ,falsehood caused him a veritable horror4 ,he had the feeling of equity in a high degree4 ,later1 to the hatred of injustice there was joined in his heart an implacable resentment against the oppressors of the people4 ,he had doubtless received the first germ of this hate when1 making the journey afoot from ,paris to ,lyons1 he entered the cabin of a poor peasant1 and there found1 as in a picture1 the affecting summary of the miseries of the people4 ,at the same time he was an insatiable reader4 ,he nourished himself on the poets1 historians1 and philosophers of antiquity1 and he studied the mathematics and astronomy4 ,as some one has said1 8,that life of reading and toil1 interrupted by so many romantic incidents and adventurous undertakings1 had vivified his imagination as a regular course of study in the ,college of ,plessis could not possibly have done40 ,it is in this way that his literary genius was formed1 and1 in due order1 his genius for pedagogy4 ,we need not seek in the life of ,rousseau any direct preparation for the composition of the mile4 ,it is true that for a time he had been preceptor1 in #agci1 in the family of ,mably1 but he soon resigned duties in which he was not successful4 ,a little essay which he composed in #agdjagd does not yet give proof of any great originality4 ,on the other hand1 if he loved to observe children1 he observed1 alas1 only the children of others4 ,there is nothing sadder than that page of the ,confessions in which he relates how he often placed himself at the window to observe the dismission of school1 in order to listen to the conversations of children as a furtive and unseen observer6 ,the mile is thus less the result of a patient induction and of a real experience than a work of inspiration or a brilliant improvisation of genius4 #cjh4 ,,general ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,mile4--,a certain number of general principles run through the entire work1 and give it a systematic form and a positive character4 ,the first of these is the idea of the innocence and of the perfect goodness of the child4 ,the mile opens with this solemn declaration3-- 8,everything is good as it comes from the hands of the ,author of nature2 everything degenerates in the hands of man40 ,and in another place1 8,let us assume as an incontestable maxim that the first movements of nature are always right2 there is no original perversity in the human heart40 ,without doubt ,rousseau was right in opposing the pessimism of those who see in the child a being thoroughly wicked and degraded before birth2 he is deceived in turn when he affirms that there is no germ of evil in human nature4 ,society is wicked and corrupt1 he says1 and it is from society that all the evil comes2 it is from its pernicious influence that the soul of the child must be preserved6 ,but1 we reply1 how did society itself happen to be spoiled and vitiated8 ,it is nothing but a collection of men2 and if the individuals are innocent1 how can the aggregate of individuals be wicked and perverse8 ,but let the contradictions of ,rousseau pass2 the important thing to note is that from his optimism are derived the essential characteristics of the education which he devises for mile4 ,this education will be at once natural and negative3-- 8mile10 says ,grard1 8is a child of nature1 brought up by nature1 according to the rules of nature1 for the satisfaction of the needs of nature4 ,this sophism is not merely inscribed at random on the frontispiece of the book1 but is its very soul2 and it is by reason of this sophistry that1 separated from the body of reflections and maxims that give it so powerful an interest1 ,rousseau's plan of education is but a dangerous chimera40 ,everything that society has established1 ,rousseau condemns in a lump as fictitious and artificial4 ,conventional usages he despises2 and he places mile at the school of nature1 and brings him up almost like a savage4 ,on the other hand1 the education of mile is negative1 at least till his twelfth year2 that is1 ,rousseau lets nature have her way till then4 ,for those who think nature evil1 education ought to be a work of compression and of repression4 ,but nature is good2 and so education consists simply in letting her have free course4 ,to guard the child from the shock of opinions1 to form betimes a defence about his soul1 to assure against every exterior influence the free development of his faculties--such is the end that he proposes to himself4 ,another general principle of the mile1 another truth which ,rousseau's spirit of paradox quickly transforms into error1 is the idea of the distinction of ages3-- 8,each age1 each state of life1 has its proper perfection1 and a sort of maturity which is its own4 ,we have often heard of a man grown2 but let us think of a child grown4 ,that sight will be newer to us1 and perhaps not less agreeable40 8,we do not know infancy4 ,with the false ideas we have1 the further we go1 the more we are astray4 ,the most learned give their attention to that which it is important for men to know without considering what children are in a condition to comprehend4 ,they always look for the man in the child1 without thinking of what he was before he became a man40 8,everything is right so far1 and from these observations there proceeds a progressive education1 exactly conforming in its successive requirements to the progress of the faculties4 ,but ,rousseau does not stop in his course1 and he goes beyond progressive education to recommend an education in fragments1 so to speak1 which isolates the faculties in order to develop them one after another1 which establishes an absolute line of demarkation between the different ages1 and which ends in distinguishing three stages of progress in the soul4 ,rousseau's error on this point is in forgetting that the education of the child ought to prepare for the education of the young man4 ,instead of considering the different ages as the several rings of one and the same chain1 he separates them sharply from one another4 ,he does not admit that marvellous unity of the human soul1 which seems so strong in man only because ,god has1 so to speak1 woven its bands into the child and there fastened them40 7,grard74 #cji4 ,,romantic ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,mile4--,a final observation is necessary before entering into an analysis of the mile2 it is that in this1 as in his other works1 ,rousseau is not averse to affecting singularities1 and with deliberation and effrontery to break with received opinions4 ,doubtless we should not go so far as to say with certain critics that the mile is rather the feat of a wit than the serious expression of a grave and serious thought2 but what it is impossible not to grant is that which ,rousseau himself admits in his preface3 8,one will believe that he is reading1 not so much a book on education as the reveries of a visionary40 mile1 in fact1 is an imaginary being whom ,rousseau places in strange conditions4 ,he does not give him parents1 but has him brought up by a preceptor in the country1 far from all society4 mile is a character in a romance rather than a real man4 #caj4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,work4--,without doubt1 there are in the mile long passages and digressions that make the reading of it more agreeable and its analysis more difficult4 ,but1 notwithstanding all this1 the author confines himself to a methodical plan1 at least to a chronological order4 ,the different ages of mile serve as a principle for the division of the work4 ,the first two books treat especially of the infant and of the earliest period of life up to the age of twelve4 ,the only question here discussed is the education of the body and the exercise of the senses4 ,the third book corresponds to the period of intellectual education1 from the twelfth to the fifteenth year4 ,in the fourth book1 ,rousseau studies moral education1 from the fifteenth to the twentieth year4 ,finally1 the fifth book1 in which the romantic spirit is still rampant1 is devoted to the education of woman4 #caa4 ,,the ,,first ,,two ,,books ,,of ,,the ,,mile4--,it would be useless to search this first part of the mile for precepts relative to the education of the mind and the heart4 ,rousseau has purposely eliminated from the first twelve years of the child's life everything which concerns instruction and moral discipline4 ,at the age of twelve1 mile will know how to run1 jump1 and judge of distances2 but he will be perfectly ignorant4 ,the idea would be that he has studied nothing at all1 and 8that he has not learned to distinguish his right hand from his left40 ,the exclusive characteristic of mile's education1 during this first period1 is1 then1 the preoccupation with physical development and with the training of the senses4 ,out of many errors1 we shall see displayed some admirable flashes of good sense1 and grand truths inspired by the principle of nature4 #cab4 ,,let ,,nature ,,have ,,her ,,way4--,what does nature demand8 ,she demands that the child have liberty of movement1 and that nothing interfere with the nascent activities of his limbs4 ,what do we do1 on the contrary8 ,we put him in swaddling clothes2 we imprison him4 ,he is deformed by his over-tight garments1--the first chains that are imposed on a being who is destined to have so many others to bear6 ,on this subject1 the bad humor of ,rousseau does not tire4 ,he is prodigal in outbreaks of spirit1 often witty1 and sometimes ridiculous4 8,it seems10 he says1 8as though we fear that the child may appear to be alive40 8,man is born1 lives1 and dies1 in a state of slavery2 at his birth he is stitched into swaddling-clothes2 at his death he is nailed in his coffin2 and as long as he preserves the human form he is held captive by our institutions40 ,we shall not dwell on these extravagances of language which transforms a coffin and a child's long-clothes into institutions4 ,the protests of ,rousseau have contributed towards a reformation of usages2 but1 even on this point1 with his great principle that everything must be referred to nature1 because whatever nature does she does well1 the author of mile is on the point of going astray4 ,no more for the body than for the mind is nature sufficient in herself2 she must have help and watchful assistance4 ,strong supports are needed to prevent too active movements and dangerous strains of the body2 just as1 later on1 there will be needed a vigorous moral authority to moderate and curb the passions of the soul4 #cac4 ,,the ,,mother ,,to ,,nurse ,,her ,,own ,,children4--,but there is another point where it has become trite to praise ,rousseau1 and where his teaching should be accepted without reserve4 ,this is when he strongly protests against the use of hired nurses1 and when he eloquently summons mothers to the duties of nursing their own children4 ,where there is no mother1 there is no child1 says ,rousseau1 and he adds1 where there is no mother1 there is no family6 8,would you recall each one to his first duties8 ,begin with the mothers4 ,you will be astonished at the changes you will produce60 ,it would be to fall into platitudes to set forth1 after ,rousseau1 and after so many others1 the reasons which recommend nursing by the mother4 ,we merely observe that ,rousseau insists on this1 especially on moral grounds4 ,it is not merely the health of the child2 it is the virtue and the morality of the family2 it is the dignity of the home1 that he wishes to defend and preserve4 ,and1 in fact1 how many other duties are provided for and made easier by the performance of a primal duty4 #cad4 ,,hardening ,,of ,,the ,,body4--,so far1 the lessons of nature have instructed ,rousseau4 ,he is still right when he wishes mile to grow hardy1 to become inured to privations1 to become accustomed at an early hour to pain1 and to learn how to suffer2 but from being a stoic1 ,rousseau soon becomes a cynic4 ,contempt for pain gives place to a contempt for proprieties4 mile shall be a barefoot1 like ,diogenes4 ,locke gives his pupil thin shoes2 ,rousseau1 surpassing him1 completely abolishes shoes4 ,he would also like to suppress all the inventions of civilization4 ,thus mile1 accustomed to walk in the dark1 will do without candles4 8,i would rather have mile with eyes at the ends of his fingers than in the shop of a candle-maker40 ,all this tempts us to laugh2 but here are graver errors4 ,rousseau objects to vaccination1 and proscribes medicine4 mile is forehanded4 ,he is in duty bound to be well4 ,a physician will be summoned only when he is in danger of death4 ,again1 ,rousseau forbids the washing of the new-born child in wine1 because wine is a fermented liquor1 and nature produces nothing that is fermented4 ,and so there must be no playthings made by the hand of man4 ,a twig of a tree or a poppy-head will suffice4 ,rousseau1 as we see1 by reason of his wish to make of his pupil a man of nature1 brings him into singular likeness with the wild man1 and assimilates him almost to the brute4 #cae4 ,,negative ,,education4--,it is evident that the first period of life is that in which the use of negative education is both the least dangerous and the most acceptable4 ,ordinarily1 mile's preceptor will be but the inactive witness1 the passive spectator of the work done by nature4 ,had ,rousseau gone to the full length of his system1 he ought to have abolished the preceptor himself1 in order to allow the child to make his way all alone4 ,but if the preceptor is tolerated1 it is not to act directly on mile1 it is not to perform the duties of a professor1 in teaching him what it is important for a child to know2 but it is simply to put him in the way of the discoveries which he ought to make for himself in the wide domain of nature1 and to arrange and to combine1 artificially and laboriously1 those complicated scenes which are intended to replace the lessons of ordinary education4 ,such1 for example1 is the scene of the juggler1 where mile is to acquire at the same time notions on physics and on ethics4 ,such1 again1 is the conversation with the gardener1 ,robert1 who reveals to him the idea of property4 ,the preceptor is no longer a teacher1 but a mechanic4 ,the true educator is nature1 but nature prepared and skillfully adjusted to serve the ends that we propose to attain4 ,rousseau admits only the teaching of things3-- 8,do not give your pupil any kind of verbal lesson2 he should receive none save from experience40 8,the most important1 the most useful rule in all education1 is not to gain time1 but to lose it40 ,the preceptor will interfere at most only by a few timid and guarded words1 to aid the child in interpreting the lessons of nature4 8,state questions within his comprehension1 and leave him to resolve them for himself4 ,let him not know anything because you have told it to him1 but because he has comprehended it for himself40 8,for the body as for the mind1 the child must be left to himself40 8,let him run1 and frolic1 and fall a hundred times a day4 ,so much the better2 for he will learn from this the sooner to help himself up4 ,the welfare of liberty atones for many bruises40 ,in his horror for what he calls 8the teaching and pedantic mania10 ,rousseau goes so far as to proscribe an education in habits3-- 8,the only habit that a child should be allowed to form is to contract no habit40 #caf4 ,,the ,,child',s ,,right ,,to ,,happiness4--,rousseau did not tire of demanding that we should respect the infancy that is in the child1 and take into account his tastes and his aptitudes4 ,with what eloquence he claims for him the right of being happy6 8,love childhood4 ,encourage its sports1 its pleasures1 and its instinct for happiness4 ,who of you has not sometimes regretted that period when a laugh was always on the lips1 and the soul always in peace8 ,why will you deny those little innocents the enjoyment of that brief period which is so soon to escape them1 and of that precious good which they cannot abuse8 ,why will you fill with bitterness and sorrow those first years so quickly passing which will no more return to them than they can return to you8 ,fathers1 do you know the moment when death awaits your children8 ,do not lay up for yourselves regrets by depriving them of the few moments that nature gives them4 ,as soon as they can feel the pleasure of existence1 try to have them enjoy it1 and act in such a way that at whatever hour ,god summons them they may not die without having tasted the sweetness of living40 #cag4 ,,proscription ,,of ,,intellectual ,,exercises4--,rousseau rejects from the education of mile all the intellectual exercises ordinarily employed4 ,he proscribes history on the pretext that mile cannot comprehend the relations of events4 ,he takes as an example the disgust of a child who had been told the anecdote of ,alexander and his physician3-- 8,i found that he had an unusual admiration for the courage1 so much lauded1 of ,alexander4 ,but do you know in what he saw that courage8 ,simply in the fact that he swallowed a drink that had a bad taste40 ,and from this ,rousseau concludes that the child's intelligence is not sufficiently open to comprehend history1 and that he ought not to learn it4 ,the paradox is evident4 ,because mile is sometimes exposed to the danger of falling into errors of judgment1 must he be denied the opportunity of judging8 ,similarly1 ,rousseau does not permit the study of the languages4 ,up to the age of twelve1 mile shall know but one language1 because1 till then1 incapable of judging and comprehending1 he cannot make the comparison between other languages and his own4 ,later1 from twelve to fifteen1 ,rousseau will find still other reasons for excluding the study of the ancient languages4 ,and it is not only history and the languages2 it is literature in general from which mile is excluded by ,rousseau4 ,no book shall be put into his hands1 not even the ,fables of ,la ,fontaine4 ,it is well known with what resolution ,rousseau criticises ,the ,crow and the ,fox4 #cah4 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,senses4--,the grand preoccupation of ,rousseau is the exercise and development of the senses of his pupil4 ,the whole theory of object lessons1 and even all the exaggerations of what is now called the intuitive method1 are contained in germ in the mile3-- 8,the first faculties which are formed and perfected in us are the senses4 ,these1 then1 are the first which should be cultivated2 but these are the very ones that we forget or that we neglect the most40 ,rousseau does not consider the senses as wholly formed by nature2 but he makes a special search for the means of forming them and of perfecting them through education4 8,to call into exercise the senses1 is1 so to speak1 to learn to feel2 for we can neither touch1 nor see1 nor hear1 except as we have been taught40 ,only1 ,rousseau is wrong in sacrificing everything to this education of the senses4 ,he sharply criticises this favorite maxim of ,locke1 8,we must reason with children40 ,rousseau retards the education of the judgment and the reason1 and declares that 8he would as soon require that a child be five feet high as that he reason at the age of eight40 #cai4 ,,the ,,third ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,mile4--,from the twelfth to the fifteenth year is the length of time that ,rousseau has devoted to study and to intellectual development proper4 ,it is necessary that the robust animal1 8the roe-buck10 as he calls mile1 after a negative and temporizing education of twelve years1 become in three years an enlightened intelligence4 ,as the period is short1 ,rousseau disposes of the time for instruction with a miser's hand4 ,moreover1 mile is very poorly prepared for the rapid studies which are to be imposed on him4 ,not having acquired in his earlier years the habit of thinking1 having lived a purely physical existence1 he will have great difficulty in bringing to life1 within a few months1 his intellectual faculties4 ,but without dwelling on the unfavorable conditions of mile's intellectual education1 let us see in what it will consist4 #cbj4 ,,choice ,,in ,,the ,,things ,,to ,,be ,,taught4--,the principle which guides ,rousseau in the choice of mile's studies is no other than the principle of utility3-- 8,there is a choice in the things which ought to be taught as well as in the time fit for learning them4 ,of the knowledges within our reach1 some are false1 others are useless1 and still others serve to nourish the pride of him who has them4 ,only the small number of those which really contribute to our good are worthy the care of a wise man1 and consequently of a child whom we wish to render such4 ,it is not a question of knowing what is1 but only what is useful40 #cba4 ,,rousseau ,,and ,,the ,,abb ,,de ,,saint ,,pierre4--,among educators1 some wish to teach everything1 while others demand a choice1 and would retain only what is necessary4 ,the ,abb de ,saint ,pierre follows the first tendency4 ,he would have the scholar learn everything at college2 a little medicine towards the seventh or eighth year1 and in the other classes1 arithmetic and blazonry1 jurisprudence1 ,german1 ,italian1 dancing1 declamation1 politics1 ethics1 astronomy1 anatomy1 chemistry1 without counting drawing and the violin1 and twenty other things besides4 ,rousseau is wiser4 ,he is dismayed at such an accumulation1 at such an obstruction of studies1 and so yields too much to the opposite tendency1 and restricts beyond measure the list of necessary studies4 #cbb4 ,,mile',s ,,studies4--,these1 in fact1 are the studies to which mile is limited3 first1 the physical sciences1 and1 at the head of the list1 astronomy1 then geography1 geography taught without maps and by means of travel3-- 8,you are looking for globes1 spheres1 maps4 ,what machines6 ,why all these representations8 ,why not begin by showing him the object itself80 ,here1 as in other places1 ,rousseau prefers what would be best1 but what is impossible1 to that which is worth less1 but which alone is practicable4 ,but ,rousseau does not wish that his pupil1 like the pupil of ,rabelais1 become an 8abyss of knowledge40 8,when ,i see a man1 enamored of knowledge1 allow himself to yield to its charms1 and run from one kind to another without knowing where to stop1 ,i think ,i see a child on the sea-shore collecting shells1 beginning by loading himself with them2 then1 tempted by those he still sees1 throwing them aside1 picking them up1 until1 weighed down by their number1 and no longer knowing which to choose1 he ends by rejecting everything1 and returns empty-handed40 ,no account is made of grammar and the ancient languages in the plan of mile's studies4 ,graver still1 history is proscribed4 ,this rejection of historical studies1 moreover1 is systematically done4 ,rousseau has placed mile in the country1 and has made him an orphan1 the better to isolate him2 to teach him history would be to throw him back into society that he abominates4 #cbc4 ,,no ,,books ,,save ,,robinson ,,crusoe4--,one of the consequences of an education that is natural and negative is the suppression of books4 ,always going to extremes1 ,rousseau is not content to criticise the abuse of books4 ,he determines that up to his fifth year mile shall not know what a book is3-- 8,i hate books10 he exclaims2 8they teach us merely to speak of things that we do not know40 ,besides the fact that this raving is rather ridiculous in the case of a man who is a writer by profession1 it is evident that ,rousseau is roving at random when he condemns the use of books in instruction4 ,one book1 however1 one single book1 has found favor in his sight4 ,robinson ,crusoe will constitute by itself for a long time the whole of mile's library4 ,we understand without difficulty ,rousseau's kindly feeling for a work which1 under the form of a romance1 is1 like the mile1 a treatise on natural education4 mile and ,robinson strongly resemble each other1 since they are self-sufficient and dispense with society4 #cbd4 ,,excellent ,,precepts ,,on ,,method4--,at least in the general method which he commends1 ,rousseau makes amends for the errors in his plan of study3-- 8,do not treat the child to discourses which he cannot understand4 ,no descriptions1 no eloquence1 no figures of speech4 ,be content to present to him appropriate objects4 ,let us transform our sensations into ideas4 ,but let us not jump at once from sensible objects to intellectual objects4 ,let us always proceed slowly from one sensible notion to another4 ,in general1 let us never substitute the sign for the thing1 except when it is impossible for us to show the thing40 8,i have no love whatever for explanations and talk4 ,things6 things6 ,i shall never tire of saying that we ascribe too much importance to words4 ,with our babbling education we make only babblers40 ,but the whole would bear quoting4 ,almost all of ,rousseau's recommendations1 in the way of method1 contain an element of truth1 and need only to be modified in order to become excellent4 #cbe4 ,,exclusive ,,motives ,,of ,,action4--,a great question in the education of children is to know to what motive we shall address ourselves4 ,here again1 ,rousseau is exclusive and absolute4 ,up to the age of twelve1 mile will have been guided by necessity2 he will have been made dependent on things1 not on men4 ,it is through the possible and the impossible that he will have been conducted1 by treating him1 not as a sensible and intelligent being1 but as a force of nature against which other forces are made to act4 ,not till the age of twelve must this system be changed4 mile has now acquired some judgment2 and it is upon an intellectual motive that one ought now to count in regulating his conduct4 ,this motive is utility4 ,the feeling of emulation cannot be employed in a solitary education4 ,finally1 at the age of fifteen1 it will be possible to appeal to the heart1 to feeling1 and to recommend to the young man the acts we set before him1 no longer as necessary or useful1 but as noble1 good1 and generous4 ,the error of ,rousseau is in cutting up the life of man to his twentieth year into three sharply defined parts1 into three moments1 each subordinated to a single governing principle4 ,the truth is that at every age an appeal must be made to all the motives that act on our will1 that at every age1 necessity1 interest1 sentiment1 and finally1 the idea of duty1 an idea too often overlooked by ,rousseau1 as all else that is derived from reason1--all these motives can effectively intervene1 in different degrees1 in the education of man4 #cbf4 ,,mile ,,learns ,a ,,trade4--,at the age of fifteen1 mile will know nothing of history1 nothing of humanity1 nothing of art and literature1 nothing of ,god2 but he will know a trade1 a manual trade4 ,by this means1 he will be sheltered from need in advance1 in case a revolution should strip him of his fortune4 8,we are approaching10 says ,rousseau1 with an astonishing perspicacity1 8a century of revolutions4 ,who can give you assurance of what will then become of you8 ,i hold it to be impossible for the great monarchies of ,europe to last much longer4 ,they have all had their day of glory1 and every ,state that dazzles is in its decline40 ,we have previously noticed1 in studying analogous ideas in the case of ,locke1 for what other reasons ,rousseau made of mile an apprentice to a cabinet-maker or a carpenter4 #cbg4 ,,mile ,,at ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,fifteen4--,rousseau takes comfort in the contemplation of his work1 and he pauses from time to time in his analyses and deductions1 to trace the portrait of his pupil4 ,this is how he represents him at the age of fifteen3-- 8mile has but little knowledge1 but that which he has is really his own2 he knows nothing by halves4 ,in the small number of things that he knows1 and knows well1 the most important is that there are many things which he does not know1 but which he can some day learn2 that there are many more things which other men know1 but which he will never know2 and that there is an infinity of other things which no man will ever know4 ,he has a universal mind1 not through actual knowledge1 but through the ability to acquire it4 ,he has a mind that is open1 intelligent1 prepared for everything1 and1 as ,montaigne says1 if not instructed1 at least capable of being instructed4 ,it is sufficient for me that he knows how to find the of what good is it8 with reference to all that he does1 and the why8 of all that he believes4 ,once more1 my object is not at all to give him knowledge1 but to teach him how to acquire it as he may need it1 to make him estimate it at its exact worth1 and to make him love truth above everything else4 ,with this method1 progress is slow2 but there are no false steps1 and no danger of being obliged to retrace one's course40 ,all this is well2 but it is necessary to add that even mile has faults1 great faults4 ,to mention but one of them1 but one which dominates all the others1 he sees things only from the point of view of utility1 and he would not hesitate1 for example1 8to give the ,academy of ,sciences for the smallest bit of pastry40 #cbh4 ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,sensibilities4--,it is true that ,rousseau finally decides to make of mile an affectionate and reasonable being4 8,we have formed10 he says1 8his body1 his senses1 his judgment2 it remains to give him a heart40 ,rousseau1 who proceeds like a magician1 by wave of wand and clever tricks1 flatters himself that within a day's time mile is going to become the most affectionate1 the most moral1 and the most religious of men4 #cbi4 ,,the ,,fourth ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,mile4--,the development of the affectionate sentiments1 the culture of the moral sentiment1 and that of the religious sentiment1 such is the triple subject of the fourth book1--vast and exalted questions that lend themselves to eloquence in such a way that the fourth book of the mile is perhaps the most brilliant of the whole work4 #ccj4 ,,genesis ,,of ,,the ,,affectionate ,,sentiments4--,here ,rousseau is wholly in the land of chimeras4 mile1 who lives in isolation1 who has neither family1 friends1 nor companions1 is necessarily condemned to selfishness1 and everything ,rousseau can do to warm his heart will be useless4 ,do we wish to develop the feelings of tenderness and affection8 ,let us begin by placing the child under family or social influences which alone can furnish his affections the occasion for development4 ,for fifteen years ,rousseau leaves the heart of mile unoccupied4 ,what an illusion to think he will be able to fill it all at once6 ,when we suppress the mother in the education of a child1 all the means that we can invent to excite in his soul emotions of gentleness and affection are but palliatives4 ,rousseau made the mistake of thinking that a child can be taught to love as he is taught to read and write1 and that lessons could be given to mile in feeling just as lessons are given to him in geometry4 #cca4 ,,moral ,,education4--,rousseau is more worthy of being followed when he demands that the moral notions of right and wrong have their first source in the feelings of sympathy and social benevolence1 on the supposition that according to his system he can inspire mile with such feelings4 8,we enter1 finally1 the domain of morals10 he says4 8,if this were the place for it1 ,i would show how from the first emotions of the heart arise the first utterances of the conscience1 and how1 from the first feelings of love and hate arise the first notions of good and evil4 ,i would make it appear that justice and goodness are not merely abstract terms1 conceived by the understanding1 but real affections of the soul enlightened by the reason40 ,yes2 let the child be made to make his way gradually towards a severe morality1 sanctioned by the reason1 in having him pass through the gentle emotions of the heart4 ,nothing can be better4 ,but this is to be done on one condition3 this is1 that we shall not stop on the way1 and that the vague inspirations of the sensibilities shall be succeeded by the exact prescriptions of the reason4 ,now ,rousseau1 as we know1 was never willing to admit that virtue was anything else than an affair of the heart4 ,his ethics is wholly an ethics of sentiment4 #ccb4 ,,religious ,,education4--,we know the reasons which determined ,rousseau to delay till the sixteenth or eighteenth year the revelation of religion4 ,it is that the child1 with his sensitive imagination1 is necessarily an idolater4 ,if we speak to him of ,god1 he can form but a superstitious idea of him4 8,now10 says ,rousseau1 pithily1 8when the imagination has once seen ,god1 it is very rare that the understanding conceives him40 ,in other terms1 once plunged in superstition1 the mind of the child can never extricate itself from it4 ,we must then wait1 in the interest of religion itself1 till the child have sufficient maturity of reason and sufficient power of thought to seize in its truth1 divested of every veil of sense1 the idea of ,god1 whose existence is announced to him for the first time4 ,it is difficult to justify ,rousseau4 ,first1 is it not to be feared that the child1 if he has reached his eighteenth year in ignorance of ,god1 may find it wholly natural to be ignorant of him still1 and that he reason and dispute at random with his teacher1 and that he doubt instead of believe8 ,and if he allows himself to be convinced1 is it not at least evident that the religious idea1 tardily inculcated1 will have no profound hold on his mind8 ,on the other hand1 will the child1 with his instinctive curiosity1 wait till his eighteenth year to inquire the cause of the universe8 ,will he not form the notion of a ,god in his own way8 8,one might have read1 a few years ago10 says ,villemain1 8the account1 or rather the psychological confession1 of a writer 7,sentenis71 a ,german philosopher1 whom his father had submitted to the experiment advised by the author of mile4 ,left alone by the loss of a tenderly loved wife1 this father1 a learned and thoughtful man1 had taken his infant son to a retired place in the country2 and not allowing him communication with any one1 he had cultivated the child's intelligence through the sight of the natural objects placed near him1 and by the study of the languages1 almost without books1 and in carefully concealing from him all idea of ,god4 ,the child had reached his tenth year without having either read or heard that great name4 ,but then his mind found what had been denied it4 ,the sun which he saw rise each morning seemed the all-powerful benefactor of whom he felt the need4 ,he soon formed the habit of going at dawn to the garden to pay homage to that god that he had made for himself4 ,his father surprised him one day1 and showed him his error by teaching him that all the fixed stars are so many suns distributed in space4 ,but such was then the disappointment and the grief of the child deprived of his worship1 that the father1 overcome1 acknowledged to him that there was a ,god1 the ,creator of the heavens and the earth40#age #ccc4 ,,the ,,savoyard ,,vicar',s ,,profession ,,of ,,faith4--,rousseau has at least attempted to retrieve1 by stately language and an impassioned demonstration of the existence of ,god1 the delay which he has spontaneously imposed on his pupil4 ,the ,savoyard ,vicar's ,profession of ,faith is an eloquent catechism on natural religion1 and the honest expression of a sincere and profound deism4 ,the religion of nature is evidently the only one which1 in ,rousseau's system1 can be taught1 and ought to be taught1 to the child1 since the child is exactly the pupil of nature4 ,if mile wishes to go beyond this1 if he needs a positive religion1 this shall be for himself to choose4 #ccd4 ,,sophie ,,and ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women4--,the weakest part of the mile is that which treats of the education of woman4 ,this is not merely because ,rousseau1 with his decided leaning towards the romantic1 leads mile and his companion into odd and extraordinary adventures1 but it is especially because he misconceives the proper dignity of woman4 ,sophie1 the perfect woman1 has been educated only to complete the happiness of mile4 ,her education is wholly relative to her destiny as a wife4 8,the whole education of women should be relative to men2 to please them1 to be useful to them1 to make themselves honored and loved by them1 to educate the young1 to care for the older1 to advise them1 to console them1 to make life agreeable and sweet to them1--these are the duties of women in every age40 8,sophie10 says ,grard1 8has but virtues of the second order1 virtues of conjugal education40 ,it has been said that marriage is a second birth for man1 that he rises or falls according to the choice which he makes4 ,for woman1 according to the theory of ,rousseau1 it is the true advent into life4 ,according to the expressive formula of ,michelet1 who1 in a sentence1 has given a marvellous summary of the doctrine1 but in attaching to it a sense which poetizes it1 8the husband creates the wife40 ,sophie1 up to the day of her marriage1 did not exist4 ,she had learned nothing and read nothing 8except a ,barme and a ,tlmaque which have chanced to fall into her hands40 ,she has been definitely admonished1 8that were men sensible1 every lettered girl will remain a girl40 ,it is mile alone who is to instruct her1 and he will instruct her and mould her into his own ideal1 and in conformity to his individual interest4 ,while it was only in his youth that he received the first principles of the religious feeling1 ,sophie must be penetrated with it from infancy1 in order that she may early form the habit of submission4 ,he commands and she obeys1 the first duty of the wife being meekness4 ,if1 during her youth1 she has freely attended banquets1 amusements1 balls1 the theatre1 it is not so much to be initiated into the vain pleasures of the world1 under the tutelage of a vigilant mother1 as to belong1 once married1 more fully to her home and to her husband4 ,she is nothing except as she is by his side1 or as dependent on him1 or as acting through him4 ,strange and brutal paradox1 which ,rousseau1 it is true1 corrects and repairs in detail1 at every moment by the most happy and charming inconsistencies4 ,sophie1 briefly1 is an incomplete person whom ,rousseau is not careful enough to educate for herself4 ,in her subordinate and inferior position1 the cares of the household occupy the largest place4 ,she cuts and makes her own dresses3-- 8,what ,sophie knows best1 and what was taught her with most care1 is the work of her sex4 ,there is no needle-work which she does not know how to make40 ,it is not forbidden her1 but is even recommended that she introduce a certain coquetry into her employments3-- 8,the work she loves the best is lace-making1 because there is no other that gives her a more agreeable attitude1 and in which the fingers are used with more grace and deftness40 ,she carries daintiness a little too far3-- 8,she does not love cooking2 its details have some disgust for her4 ,she would sooner let the whole dinner go into the fire than to soil her cuffs40 ,truly this is fine housewifery6 ,we feel that we have here to do with a character in a romance who has no need to dine4 ,sophie would not have been well received at ,saint ,cyr1 where ,madame de ,maintenon so severely scolded the girls who were too fastidious1 8fearing smoke1 dust1 and disagreeable odors1 even to making complaints and grimaces on their account as though all were lost40 #cce4 ,,general ,,conclusion4--,in order to form a just estimate of the mile1 it is necessary to put aside the impressions left by the reading of the last pages4 ,we must consider as a whole1 and without taking details into account1 that work1 which1 notwithstanding all1 is very admirable and profound4 ,it is injured by analysis4 ,to esteem the mile at its real worth1 it must be read entire4 ,in reading it1 in fact1 we are warmed by contact with the passion which ,rousseau puts into whatever he writes4 ,we pardon his errors and chimeras by reason of the grand sentiments and the grand truths which we meet at every step4 ,we must also take into account the time when ,rousseau lived1 and the conditions under which he wrote4 ,we have not a doubt that had it been written thirty years later1 in the dawn of the ,revolution1 for a people who were free1 or who desired to be free1 the mile would have been wholly different from what it is4 ,had he been working for a republican society1 or for a society that wished to become such1 ,rousseau would not have thrown himself1 out of hatred for the reality1 into the absurdities of an over-specialized and exceptional education4 ,we can judge of what he would have done as legislator of public instruction in the time of the ,revolution1 by what he wrote in his ,considerations on the ,government of ,poland3-- 8,national education belongs only to people who are free4444 ,it is education which is to give to men the national mould1 and so to direct their opinions and their tastes that they will become patriots by inclination1 by passion1 and by necessity0 7we would only add1 by duty74 8,a child1 in opening his eyes1 ought to see his country and nothing but his country4 ,every true republican1 along with his mother's milk1 will imbibe love of country1 that is1 of law and liberty4 ,this love constitutes his whole existence4 ,he sees but his country1 he lives but for her4 ,so soon as he is alone1 he is nothing2 so soon as there is no more of country1 he is no more4444 ,while learning to read1 ,i would have a child of ,poland read what relates to his country2 at the age of ten1 ,i would have him know all its productions2 at twelve1 all its provinces1 all its roads1 all its cities2 at fifteen1 the whole of its history2 and at sixteen1 all its laws2 and there should not be in all ,poland a notable deed or an illustrious man1 of which his memory and his heart were not full40 #ccf4 ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,mile4--,that which proves better than any commentary can the high standing of the mile1 is the success which it has obtained1 the influence which it has exerted1 both in ,france and abroad1 and the durable renown attested by so many works designed1 either to contradict it1 to correct it1 or to approve it and to disseminate its doctrines4 ,during the twenty-five years that followed the publication of the mile1 there appeared in the ,french language twice as many books on education as during the first sixty years of the century4 ,rousseau1 besides all that he said personally which was just and new1 had the merit of stimulating minds and of preparing through his impulsion the rich educational harvest of this last one hundred years4 ,to be convinced of this1 it suffices to read this judgment of ,kant3-- 8,the first impression which a reader who does not read for vanity or for killing time derives from the writings of ,rousseau1 is that this writer unites to an admirable penetration of genius a noble inspiration and a soul full of sensibility1 such as has never been met with in any other writer1 in any other time1 or in any other country4 ,the impression which immediately follows this1 is that of astonishment caused by the extraordinary and paradoxical thoughts which he develops4444 ,i ought to read and re-read ,rousseau1 till the beauty of his style no more affects me4 ,it is only then that ,i can adjust my reason to judge of him40 #ccg4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,the study of the mile exhibits1 in a very striking manner1 the contrast between the respective agencies of art and nature in the work of education1 and also the power of sentiment as a motor to ideas4 #b4 ,what ,monsieur ,compayr has happily called ,rousseau's 8misuse of the principle of nature0 marks a recoil against the artificial and fictitious state of society and opinion in ,france in the eighteenth century4 ,in politics1 in religion1 and in philosophy1 there was the domination of authority1 and but a small margin was left for the exercise of freedom1 versatility1 and individual initiative2 while education was administered rather as a process of manufacture1 than of regulated growth4 #c4 ,the conception that the child1 by his very constitution1 is predetermined1 like plants and animals1 to a progressive development quite independent of artificial aid1 easily degenerates into the hypothesis that the typical education is a process of spontaneous growth4 #d4 ,the error in this hypothesis is that of exaggeration or of disproportion4 ,education is neither a work of nature alone1 nor of art alone1 but is a natural process1 supplemented1 controlled1 and perfected by human art4 ,what education would become when abandoned wholly to 8nature0 may be seen in the state of a perfected fruit which has been allowed to revert to its primitive or natural condition4 #e4 ,man is distinguished from all other creatures by the fact that he is not the victim of his environment1 but is endowed with the power to control his environment1 almost to re-create it1 and so to rise superior to it4 ,this ability gives rise to human art1 which is a cordinate factor with nature in the work of education4 #f4 ,this convenient fiction of 8,nature10 conceived as an infallible and incomparable guide in education1 has introduced countless errors into educational theory2 and ,miss ,e4 ,r4 ,sill is amply justified in saying that 8probably nine-tenths of the popular sophistries on the subject of education1 would be cleared away by clarifying the word ,nature40#agf #g4 ,in spite of its paradoxes1 its exaggerations1 its overwrought sentiment1 and florid declamation1 the mile1 in its general spirit1 is a work of incomparable power and of perennial value4 ,,footnotes3 #afi ,dom ,joseph ,cajet1 ,les ,plagiats de ,j4 ,j4 ,r4 de ,genve sur l'ducation1 #agfh4 #agj uvres diverses1 ,tome ,i4 p4 #ab4 #aga ,de l'ducation des enfants1 ,la ,haye1 #agbb2 ,penses libres sur les instructions publiques des bas collges1 ,amsterdam1 #agbg4 #agb ,spectacle de la nature1 ,paris1 #agcb1 ,vol4 ,,vi4 ,entretien sur l'ducation4 #agc ,lettre critique sur l'ducation1 ,paris1 #agea4 #agd ,projet pour l'ducation de ,m4 de ,ste-,marie4 #age ,report of ,villemain on the work of the ,pre ,girard 7#ahdd74 #agf ,atlantic ,monthly1 ,february1 #ahhc1 p4 #agh4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4--,,condillac1 ,,diderot1 ,,helvetius1 ,,and ,,kant4 ,,the ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century2 ,,condillac 7#agae-aghj72 ,,abuse ,,of ,,the ,,philosophic ,,spirit2 ,,must ,,we ,,reason ,,with ,,children8 ,,preliminary ,,lessons2 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,thinking2 ,,other ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,study2 ,,personal ,,reflection2 ,,excesses ,,of ,,devotion ,,criticised2 ,,diderot 7#agac-aghd72 ,,his ,,pedagogical ,,works2 ,,his ,,qualities ,,as ,,an ,,educator2 ,,necessity ,,of ,,instruction2 ,,idea ,,of ,a ,,system ,,of ,,public ,,instruction2 ,,criticism ,,of ,,french ,,colleges2 ,,proposed ,,reforms2 ,,preference ,,for ,,the ,,sciences2 ,,incomplete ,,views ,,on ,,the ,,province ,,of ,,letters2 ,,opinion ,,of ,,marmontel2 ,,other ,,novelties ,,of ,,diderot',s ,,plan2 ,,helvetius 7#agae-agga72 ,,paradoxes ,,of ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,man2 ,,refutation ,,of ,,helvetius ,,by ,,diderot2 ,,instruction ,,secularized2 ,,the ,,encyclop,,dists2 ,,kant 7#agbd-ahjd72 ,,high ,,conception ,,of ,,education2 ,,psychological ,,optimism2 ,,respect ,,for ,,the ,,liberty ,,of ,,the ,,child2 ,,culture ,,of ,,the ,,faculties2 ,,stories ,,interdicted2 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,punishment2 ,,religious ,,education2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #cch4 ,,the ,,philosophers ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4--,if there has been considerable progress made in education in the eighteenth century1 it is due1 in great part1 to the efforts of the philosophers of that age4 ,it is no longer alone the men who are actually engaged in the schools that are preoccupied with education2 but nearly all the illustrious thinkers of the eighteenth century have discussed these great questions with more or less thoroughness4 ,the subject is far from being exhausted by the study of ,rousseau4 ,besides the educational current set in movement by the mile1 the other philosophers of that period1 in their isolated and independent march1 left original routes which it remains to follow4 ,from out their errors and conceptions of systems there emerge some new outlooks and some definite truths4 #cci4 ,,condillac 7#agae-aghj74--;,an acute and ingenious psychologist1 a competitor and rival of ,locke in philosophy1 ,condillac is far from having the same authority in matters pertaining to education2 but still there is profit to be derived from the reading of his ,course of ,study1 which includes not less than thirteen volumes4 ,this important work is a collection of the lessons which he had composed for the education of the infant ,ferdinand1 the grandson of ,louis ,,xv41 and heir of the dukedom of ,parma1 whose preceptor he became in #ageg4 #cdj4 ,,abuse ,,of ,,the ,,philosophic ,,spirit4--,it is certainly a matter of congratulation that the philosophical spirit is entering more and more largely into the theories of education1 and there would be only words of commendation for ,condillac had he restricted himself to this excellent declaration1 that pedagogy is nothing if it is not a deduction from psychology4 ,but he does not stop there1 but with an indiscretion that is to be regretted1 he arbitrarily transports into education certain philosophical principles which it is not proper to apply to the art of educating men1 whatever may be their theoretical truth2 thus ,condillac1 having established the natural order of the development of the sciences and the arts in the history of humanity1 presumes to impose the same law of progress upon the child4 8,the method which ,i have followed does not resemble the usual manner of teaching2 but it is the very way in which men were led to create the arts and the sciences40#agg ,in other terms1 the child must do over again1 on his own account1 8that which the race has done40 ,he must be compelled to follow1 step by step1 in its long gropings1 the slow progress made by the race4#agh ,there is1 doubtless1 an element of truth in the error of ,condillac4 ,the sciences and the arts began with the observation of particulars1 and thence slowly rose to general principles2 and to-day no one thinks of denying the necessity of proceeding in the same manner in education1 so far as this is possible4 ,it is well at the first to present facts to the child1 and to lead him step by step1 from observation to observation1 to the law which governs them and includes them2 but there is a wide distance between the discreet use of the inductive and experimental method1 and the exaggerations of ,condillac4 ,no one should seriously think of absolutely suppressing the synthetic method of exposition1 which1 taking advantage of the work accomplished through the centuries1 teaches at the outset the truths that have been already acquired4 ,it would be absurd to compel the child painfully to recommence the toil of the race4#agi ,graver still1 ,condillac1 led astray by his love for philosophizing1 presumes to initiate the child1 from the very beginning of his studies1 into psychological analysis4 8,the first thing to be done is to make the child acquainted with the faculties of his soul1 and to make him feel the need of making use of them40 ,in other terms1 the analysis of the soul shall be the first object proposed to the reflection of the child4 ,it is not proposed to make him attentive1 but to teach him what attention is4 ,how can one seriously think of making of the child a little psychologist1 and of choosing as the first element of his education the very science that is the most difficult of all1 the one which can be but the coronation of his studies8 #cda4 ,,must ,,we ,,reason ,,with ,,children8--,rousseau had sharply criticised the famous maxim of ,locke3 8,we must reason with children40 ,condillac tries to restore it to credit1 and for this purpose he invokes the pretended demonstrations of a superficial and inexact psychology4 8,it has been proved10 he says1 8that the faculty of reasoning begins as soon as the senses commence to develop2 and we have the early use of our senses only because we early began to reason40 ,strange assertions1 which are disproved by the most elementary observation of the facts in the case4 ,condillac here allows himself to be imposed upon by his sensational psychology1 the tendency of which is to efface the peculiar character of the different intellectual faculties1 to derive them all from the senses1 and1 consequently1 to suppress the distance which separates a simple sensation from the subtile1 reflective1 and abstract process which is called reasoning4 ,it cannot be admitted for a single instant that the faculties of the understanding are1 as he says1 8the same in the child as in the mature man40 ,there is1 doubtless1 in the child a beginning of reasoning1 a sort of instinctive logic2 but this infantile reasoning can be applied only to familiar objects1 such as are sensible and concrete4 ,it were absurd to employ it on general and abstract ideas4 #cdb4 ,,preliminary ,,lessons4--,we shall quote1 without comment1 the first subjects of instruction which1 under the title of ,leons prliminaires1 ,condillac proposes to his pupil3 #a4 the nature of ideas2 #b4 the operations of the soul2 #c4 the habits2 #d4 the difference between the soul and the body2 #e4 the knowledge of ,god4 ,how are we to conceive that ,condillac had the pretension to place these high philosophical speculations within the reach of a child of seven years who has not yet studied the grammar of his native language6 ,how much better some fables or historical narratives would answer his purpose6 ,but ,condillac does not stop there4 ,when his pupil has a systematic knowledge of the operations of the soul1 when he has comprehended the genesis of ideas2 in a word1 when1 towards the age of eight or ten1 he is as proficient in philosophy as his master1 and almost as capable of writing the ,treatise on ,sensations1 what do you think he is invited to study8 ,something which very much resembles the philosophy of history3-- 8,after having made him reflect on his own infancy1 ,i thought that the infancy of the world would be the most interesting subject for him1 and the easiest to study40 #cdc4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,thinking4--,it is only when he judges that the mind of his pupil is sufficiently prepared by psychological analysis and by general reflections on the progress of humanity1 that ,condillac decides to have him enter upon the ordinary course of study4 ,here the spirit of system disappears1 and gives place to more judicious and more practical ideas4 ,thus ,condillac thinks that 8the study of grammar would be more wearisome than useful if it come too early40 ,would that he had applied this principle to psychology6 ,before studying grammar1 then1 ,condillac's pupil reads the poets1--the ,french poets1 of course1--and preferably the dramatic authors1 ,racine especially1 whom he reads for the twelfth time4 ,the real knowledge of the language precedes the abstract study of the rules4 ,condillac himself composed a grammar entitled the ,art of ,speaking4 ,in this he imitates the authors of ,port ,royal1 8who10 he says1 8were the first to write elementary books on an intelligent plan40 ,after the ,art of ,speaking he calls the attention of his pupil to three other treatises in succession1--the ,art of ,writing1 or rhetoric1 the ,art of ,reasoning1 or logic1 and the ,art of ,thinking4 ,we shall not attempt an analysis of these works1 which have gone out of date1 notwithstanding the value of certain portions of them4 ,the general characteristic of these treatises on intellectual education is that the author is pre-occupied with the relations of ideas more than with the exterior elegancies of style1 with the development of thought more than with the beauties of language3-- 8,especially must the intelligence be nourished1 even as the body is nourished4 ,we must present to it knowledge1 which is the wholesome aliment of spirit1 opinions and errors being aliment that is poisonous4 ,it is also necessary that the intelligence be active1 for the thought remains imbecile as long as1 passive rather than active1 it moves at random40 #cdd4 ,,other ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,study4--,it seems that ,condillac is in pursuit of but one single purpose1--to make of his pupil a thinking being4 ,the study of ,latin is postponed till the time when the intelligence1 being completely formed1 will find in the study of that language only the difficulty of learning words4 ,condillac has but little taste for the study of the ancient languages4 ,he relegates the study of ,latin to the second place1 and omits ,greek entirely4 ,but he accords a great importance to historical studies4 8,after having learned to think1 the ,prince made the study of history his principal object for six years40 ,twelve volumes of the ,course of ,study have transmitted to us ,condillac's lessons in history4 ,in this he does not take delight1 as ,rollin does1 in long narrations2 but he analyzes1 multiplies his reflections1 and abridges facts2 he philosophizes more than he recites the facts of history4 #cde4 ,,personal ,,reflection4--,what we have said of ,condillac's ,course of ,study suffices to justify the judgment expressed of his pedagogy by one of his disciples1 ,grando1 when he wrote3 8,he who had so thoroughly studied the manner in which ideas are formed in the human mind1 had but little skill in calling them into being in the intelligence of his pupil40 ,but we would judge our author unjustly if1 after the criticisms we have made of him1 we were not to accord him the praise he deserves1 especially for having comprehended1 as he has done1 the value of personal reflection1 and the superiority of judgment over memory4 ,a few quotations will rehabilitate the pedagogy of ,condillac in the minds of our readers4 ,above all else there must be an exercise in personal reflection3-- 8,i grant that the education which cultivates only the memory may make prodigies1 and that it has done so2 but these prodigies last only during the time of infancy4444 ,he who knows only by heart1 knows nothing4444 ,he who has not learned to reflect has not been instructed1 or1 what is still worse1 has been poorly instructed40 8,true knowledge is in the reflection1 which has acquired it1 much more than in the memory1 which holds it in keeping2 and the things which we are capable of recovering are better known than those of which we have a recollection4 ,it does not suffice1 then1 to give a child knowledge4 ,it is necessary that he instruct himself by seeking knowledge on his own account1 and the essential point is to guide him properly4 ,if he is led in an orderly way1 he will acquire exact ideas1 and will seize their succession and relation4 ,then1 able to call them up for review1 he will be able to compare them with others that are more remote1 and to make a final choice of those which he wishes to study4 ,reflection can always recover the things it has known1 because it knows how it originally found them2 but the memory does not so recover the things it has learned1 because it does not know how it learns40 ,this is why ,condillac places far above the education we receive1 the education that we give ourselves3-- 8,henceforth1 ,sir1 it remains for you alone to instruct yourself4 ,perhaps you imagine you have finished2 but it is ,i who have finished4 ,you are to begin anew60 #cdf4 ,,excessive ,,devotion ,,criticised4--,what beautiful lessons ,condillac also addresses to his pupil to induce him to enfranchise himself from ecclesiastical tutelage6 ,written by an abbot1 the eloquent page we are about to read proves how the lay spirit tended to pronounce itself in the eighteenth century4 8,you cannot be too pious1 ,sir2 but if your piety is not enlightened1 you will so far forget your duties as to be engrossed in the little things of devotion4 ,because prayer is necessary1 you will think you ought always to be praying1 not considering that true devotion consists first of all in fulfilling the duties of your station in life3 it will not be your fault that you do not live in your heart as in a cloister4 ,hypocrites will swarm around you1 the monks will issue from their cells4 ,the priests will abandon the service of the altar in order to be edified with the sight of your holy works4 ,blind prince6 you will not perceive how their conduct is in contradiction with their language4 ,you will not even observe that the men who praise you for always being at the foot of the altar1 themselves forget that it is their own duty to be there4 ,you will unconsciously take their place and leave to them your own4 ,you will be continually at prayer1 and you will believe that you assure your salvation4 ,they will cease to pray1 and you will believe that they assure their salvation4 ,strange contradiction1 which turns aside ministers from the ,church to give bad ministers to the ,state40#ahj #cdg4 ,,diderot 7#agac-aghd74--,to him who knows nothing of ,diderot save his works of imagination1 often so licentious1 it will doubtless be a surprise to see the name of this fantastic writer inscribed in the catalogue of educators4 ,but this astonishment will disappear if we will take the trouble to recollect with what versatility this mighty spirit could vary the subject of his reflections1 and pass from the gay to the solemn1 and especially with what ardor1 in conjunction with ,d',alembert1 he was the principal founder of the ,encyclopdie1 and the indefatigable contributor to it4 #cdh4 ,,his ,,pedagogical ,,works4--,but there is no room for doubt4 ,diderot has written at least two treatises that belong to the history of education3 first1 about #aggc1 ,the ,systematic ,refutation of the ,book of ,helvetius on ,man1 an incisive and eloquent criticism of the paradoxes and errors of ,helvetius2 and1 in the second place1 about #aggf1 a complete scheme of education1 composed at the request of ,catherine ,,ii41 under the title1 ,plan of a ,university4#aha #cdi4 ,,his ,,merits ,,as ,,an ,,educator4--,doubtless ,diderot did not have sufficient gravity of character or sufficiently definite ideas to be a perfect educator2 but1 by way of compensation1 the natural and acquired qualities of his mind made him worthy of the confidence placed in him by ,catherine ,,ii4 in entrusting him with the organization1 at least in theory1 of the instruction of the ,russian people4 ,first of all1 he had the merit of being a universal thinker1 8sufficiently versed in all the sciences to know their value1 and not sufficiently profound in any one to give it a preference inspired by predilection40 ,engaged in the scientific movement1 of which the ,encyclopdie was the centre1 he at the same time cherished an enthusiastic passion for letters4 ,he worshipped ,shakespeare and modern poetry1 but he was not less enamored of classical antiquity1 and for several years1 he says1 8he thought it as much a religious duty to read a song of ,homer as a good priest would to recite his breviary40 #cej4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,instruction4--,diderot1 and this is to his praise1 is distinguished from the most of his contemporaries1 and especially from ,rousseau1 by his ardent faith in the moral efficacy of instruction3-- 8,far from corrupting10 he exclaims1 8instruction sweetens character1 throws light on duty1 makes vice less gross1 and either chokes it or conceals it4444 ,i dare assert that purity of morals has followed the progress of dress1 from the skin of animals to fabrics of silk40 ,hence he decides on the necessity of instruction for all3-- 8,from the prime minister to the lowest peasant1 it is good for every one to know how to read1 write1 and count40 ,and he proposes to all people the example of ,germany1 with her strongly organized system of primary instruction4 ,he demands schools open to all children1 8schools of reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 and religion10 in which will be studied both a moral and a political catechism4 ,attendance on these schools shall be obligatory1 and to make compulsion possible1 ,diderot demands gratuity4 ,he goes even farther1 and would have the child fed at school1 and with his books would have him find bread4 #cea4 ,,the ,,conception ,,of ,,public ,,instruction4--,like all who sincerely desire a strong organization of instruction1 ,diderot assigns the direction of it to the ,state4 ,his ideal of a ,russian university bears a strong resemblance to the ,french ,university of #ahjh4 ,he would have at its head a politician1 a statesman1 to whom should be submitted all the affairs of public instruction4 ,he even went so far as to entrust to this general master of the university the duty of presiding over the examinations1 of appointing the presidents of colleges1 of excluding bad pupils1 and of deposing professors and tutors4 #ceb4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,french ,,colleges4--,secondary instruction1 what was then called the ,faculty of ,arts1 is the principal object of ,diderot's reflections4 ,he criticises the traditional system with extreme severity1 and his charge1 thought sometimes unjust1 deserves to be quoted3-- 8,it is in the ,faculty of ,arts that there are still taught to-day1 under the name of belles-lettres1 two dead languages which are of use only to a small number of citizens2 it is there that they are studied for six or seven years without being learned2 under the name of rhetoric1 the art of speaking is taught before the art of thinking1 and that of speaking elegantly before having ideas2 under the name of logic1 the head is filled with the subtilties of ,aristotle1 and of his very sublime and very useless theory of the syllogism1 and there is spread over a hundred obscure pages what might have been clearly stated in four2 under the name of ethics1 ,i do not know what is said1 but ,i know that there is not a word said either of the qualities of mind or heart2 under the name of metaphysics1 there are discussed theses as trifling as they are knotty1 the first elements of scepticism and bigotry1 and the germ of the unfortunate gift of replying to everything2 under the name of physics1 there is endless dispute about the elements of matter and the system of the world2 but not a word on natural history1 not a word on real chemistry1 very little on the movement and fall of bodies2 very few experiments1 less still of anatomy1 and nothing of geography40#ahb #cec4 ,,proposed ,,reforms4--,after such a spirited criticism1 it was ,diderot's duty to propose earnest and radical reforms2 but all of those which he suggests are not equally commendable4 ,let us first note the idea revived in our day by ,auguste ,comte and the school of positivists1 of a connection and a subordination of the sciences1 classified in a certain order1 according as they presuppose the science which has preceded1 or as they facilitate the study of the science which follows1 and also according to the measure of their utility4#ahc ,it is according to this last principle in particular1 that ,diderot distributes the work of the school1 after having called attention to the fact that the order of the sciences1 as determined by the needs of the school1 is not their logical order3-- 8,the natural connection of one science with the others designates for it a place1 and the principle of utility1 more or less general1 determines for it another place40 ,but ,diderot forgets that we must take into account1 not alone the principle of utility in the distribution of studies1 but that the essential thing of all others is to adapt the order of studies to the progress of the child in age and aptitudes4 #ced4 ,,preferences ,,for ,,the ,,sciences4--,although equally enamored of letters and the sciences1 ,diderot did not know how to hold a just balance between a literary and a scientific education4 ,anticipating ,condorcet and ,auguste ,comte1 he displaces the centre of instruction1 and gives a preponderance to the sciences4 ,of the eight classes comprised in his ,faculty of ,arts1 the first five are devoted to the mathematics1 to mechanics1 to astronomy1 to physics1 and to chemistry4 ,grammar and the ancient languages are relegated to the last three years1 which nearly correspond to what are called in our colleges the 8second0 and 8rhetoric40#ahd ,the charge that must be brought against ,diderot in this place1 is not merely that he puts an unreasonable restriction on literary studies1 but also that he makes a bad distribution of scientific studies in placing the mathematics before physics4 ,it is useless for him to assert that 8it is easier to learn geometry than to learn to read40 ,he does not convince us of this4 ,it is a grave error to begin by keeping the child's attention on numerical abstractions1 by leaving his senses unemployed1 by postponing so long the study of natural history and experimental physics1 those sciences expressly adapted to children1 because1 as ,diderot himself expresses it1 8they involve a continuous exercise of sight1 smell1 taste1 and memory40 ,to excuse ,diderot's error1 it does not suffice to state that his pupil does not enter the ,faculty of ,arts till his twelfth year4 ,till that period1 he will learn only reading1 writing1 and orthography4 ,there is ground for thinking that these first years will be rather poorly employed2 but besides this1 it is evident that even at the age of twelve the mind is not sufficiently mature to be plunged into the cold deductions of mathematics4 #cee4 ,,incomplete ,,views ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,scope ,,of ,,literary ,,studies4--,diderot's attitude with respect to classical studies is a matter of surprise4 ,on the one hand1 he postpones their study till the pupil's nineteenth and twentieth year4 ,on the other1 with what enthusiasm this eloquent scholar speaks of the ancients1 particularly of ,homer6 8,homer is the master to whom ,i am indebted for whatever merit ,i have1 if indeed ,i have any at all4 ,it is difficult to attain to excellence in taste without a knowledge of the ,greek and ,latin languages4 ,i early drew my intellectual nourishment from ,homer1 ,virgil1 ,horace1 ,terence1 ,anacreon1 ,plato1 and ,euripides on the one hand1 and from ,moses and the ,prophets on the other40 ,how are we to explain this contradiction of an inconsistent and ungrateful humanist who extols the humanities to the skies1 and at the same time puts such restrictions on the teaching of them as almost to annihilate them8 ,the reason for this is1 that1 in his opinion1 the belles-lettres are useful only for the training of orators and poets1 but are not serviceable in the general development of the mind4 ,consequently1 being fancy studies1 so to speak1 they are fit only for a small minority of pupils1 and have no right to the first place in a common education1 destined for men in general4 ,diderot is not able to discern what1 in pedagogy1 is their true title to nobility1--that they are an admirable instrument of intellectual gymnastics1 and the surest and also the most convenient means of acquiring those qualities of justness1 of precision1 and of clearness1 which are needed by all conditions of men1 and are applicable to all the special employments of life4#ahe #cef4 ,,opinion ,,of ,,marmontel4--,diderot seems to reduce the office of letters to a study of words1 and to an exercise of memory4 ,he might have learned a lesson from one of his contemporaries1 ,marmontel1 whose intellect1 though less brilliant1 was sometimes more just1 an advantage which the intelligence gains from early discipline in the study of the languages3-- 8,the choice and use of words1 in translating from one language to another1 and even then some degree of elegance in the construction of sentences1 began to interest me2 and this work1 which did not proceed without the analysis of ideas1 fortified my memory4 ,i perceived that it was the idea attached to the word which made it take root1 and reflection soon made me feel that the study of the languages was also the study of the art of distinguishing shades of thought1 of decomposing it1 of forming its texture1 and of catching with precision its spirit and its relations2 and that along with words1 an equal number of new ideas were introduced and developed in the heads of the young1#ahf and that in this way the early classes were a course in elementary philosophy1 much more rich1 more extended1 and of greater real utility than we think1 when we complain that in our colleges nothing is learned but ,latin40#ahg #ceg4 ,,other ,,novelties ,,in ,,diderot',s ,,plan4--,without entering into the details of the very elaborate organization of ,diderot's ,russian ,university1 we shall call attention to some other novelties of his system3-- #a4 ,the division of the classes into several series of parallel courses3 first1 the series of scientific and literary courses2 then1 the series of lectures devoted to religion1 to ethics1 and to history2 and finally1 courses in drawing1 music1 etc4 #b4 ,the whimsical idea of teaching history in an inverted order1 so to speak1 in beginning with the most recent events1 and little by little going back to antiquity4 #c4 ,his extreme estimate of the art of reading3 8,let a teacher of reading be associated with a professor of drawing2 there are so few men1 even the most enlightened1 who know how to read well1 a gift always so agreeable1 and often so necessary40 #d4 ,a special regard for the study of art and for sthetic education1 which could not be a matter of indifference to the great art critic who wrote the ,salons4 #e4 ,a reform in the system of ushers4#ahh ,diderot would have for supervising assistants in colleges1 educated men1 capable on occasion of supplying the places of the professors themselves4 ,to attach them to their duties1 he requires that some dignity be given to their modest and useful functions1 and that the usher be a sort of supernumerary1 or 8professor in reversion10 who aspires to the chair of the professor1 whose place he supplies from time to time1 and which he may finally attain4 #ceh4 ,,helvetius 7#agae-agga74--;,in undertaking the study of the thoughts of ,helvetius on education1 and the rapid analysis of his ,treatise on ,man1 we shall not take leave of ,diderot1 for the work of ,helvetius has had the good or the bad fortune of being commented on and criticised by his illustrious contemporary4 ,thanks to the ,systematic ,refutation of the ,book of ,helvetius on ,man1 which forms a charming accompaniment of pungent or vigorous reflections to a dull and languid book1 the reading of the monotonous treatise of ,helvetius becomes easy and almost agreeable4 #cei4 ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,man4--,under this title1 a little long1 ,de l'homme1 de ses facults intellectuelles et de son ducation1 ,helvetius has composed a large work which he had in contemplation for fifteen years1 and which did not appear till after his death1 in #aggb4 ,as a matter of fact1 education does not directly occupy the author's attention except in the first and the last chapters 7sections ,i4 and ,x474 ,with this exception1 the whole book is devoted to long developments of the favorite maxims of his philosophy3 as the intellectual equality of all men1 and the reduction of all the passions to the pursuit of pleasure2 or to platitudes1 such as the influence of laws on the happiness of people1 and the evils which result from ignorance4 #cfj4 ,,potency ,,of ,,education4--,when he does not fall into platitudes1 ,helvetius goes off into paradoxes that are presumptuous and systematic4 ,his habitual characteristic is pedantry in what is false4 ,according to him1 for example1 education is all-powerful2 it is the sole cause of the difference between minds4 ,the mind of the child is but an empty capacity1 something indeterminate1 without predisposition4 ,the impressions of the senses are the only elements of the intelligence2 so that the acquisitions of the five senses are the only thing that is of moment2 8the senses are all that there is of man40 ,it is not possible to push sensationalism further than this4 ,the impressions of the senses are1 then1 the basis of human nature1 and as these impressions vary with circumstances1 ,helvetius arrives at this conclusion1 that chance is the great master in the formation of mind and character4 ,consequently1 he undertakes to produce at will men of genius1 or1 at least1 men of talent4 ,for this purpose1 it suffices to ascertain1 by repeated observations1 the means which chance employs for making great men4 ,these means once discovered1 it remains only to set them at work artificially and to combine them1 in order to produce the same effects4 8,genius is a product of chance4 ,rousseau1 like a countless number of illustrious men1 may be regarded as one of the masterpieces of chance40 #cfa4 ,,helvetius ,,refuted ,,by ,,diderot4--,it is easy to reply to extravagant statements of this sort4 ,had ,helvetius consulted teachers and parents1 had he observed himself1 had he simply reflected on his two daughters1 so unequally endowed though identically educated1 he would doubtless have felt constrained to acknowledge the limitations of education2 he would have comprehended that it cannot give imagination to minds of sluggish temperament1 nor enthusiasm and sensibility to inert souls1 and that the most marvellously helpful circumstances will not make of a ,helvetius a ,montesquieu or a ,voltaire4 ,but if it is easy to refute ,helvetius1 it is impossible to criticise him with more brilliancy and eloquence than ,diderot has done4 ,with what perfection of reason he restores to nature1 to innate and irresistible inclinations1 the influence which ,helvetius denies to them in the formation of character6 8,the accidents of ,helvetius10 he says1 8are like the spark which sets on fire a cask of wine1 and which is extinguished in a bucket of water40 8,for thousands of centuries the dew of heaven has fallen on the rocks without making them fertile4 ,the sown fields await it in order to become productive1 but it is not the dew that scatters the seed4 ,accidents themselves no more produce anything1 than the pick of the laborer who delves in the mines of ,golconda produces the diamond that it brings to the surface40 ,doubtless education has a more radical effect than that which is attributed to it by ,la ,bruyre when he said that 8it touches only the surface of the soul40 ,but if it can do much1 it cannot do all4 ,it perfects if it is good2 it deadens and it perverts if it is bad2 but it can never be a substitute for lacking aptitude1 and can never replace nature4 #cfb4 ,,secularized ,,instruction4--,in other parts of his system ,helvetius is in accord with ,diderot4 ,like him1 he believes the necessary condition of progress in education is that it be made secular and entrusted to the civil power4 ,the vices of education come from the opposition of the two powers1 spiritual and temporal1 that assume to direct it4 ,between the ,church and the ,state there is an opposition of interests and views4 ,the ,state would have the nation become brave1 industrious1 and enlightened4 ,the ,church demands a blind submission and unlimited credulity4 ,hence there is contradiction in pedagogical precepts1 diversity in the means that are employed1 and1 consequently1 an education that is hesitating1 that is pulled in opposite directions1 that does not know definitely where it is going1 that misses its way1 that gropes and wastes time4 ,but the conclusion of ,helvetius is not as we might expect1--the separation of ,church and ,state in the matter of instruction and education1 such as recent laws have established in ,france4 ,no2 ,helvetius would have the ,state absorb the ,church1 and have religious power and civil power lodged in the same hands and both belong to those who control the government1--a vexatious confusion that would end in the oppression of consciences4 ,helvetius1 whatever may be thought of him1 does not deserve to claim our attention for any length of time1 and we cannot seriously consider as an authority in pedagogy a writer who1 in intellectual as in moral education1 reduces everything to a single principle1 the development and the satisfaction of physical sensibility4#ahi #cfc4 ,,the ,,encyclop,,dists4--,the vast collection which1 under the name ,encyclopdie1 sums up the science and the philosophy of the eighteenth century1 touches educational questions only in passing4 ,properly speaking1 the ,encyclopdie contains no system of pedagogy4 ,the principal fragment is the article ducation1 written by the grammarian and ,latinist ,dumarsais4 ,but this piece of work is little worthy of its author1 and little worthy in particular of the ,encyclopdie4 ,it contains scarcely anything but vague and trite generalities1 and belongs to the category of those articles for padding which caused ,voltaire to say3 8,you accept articles worthy of the ,journal of ,trvoux40 ,we shall notice1 however1 in this article1 the importance accorded to the study of physics1 and to the practice of the arts1 even the most common1 and the marked purpose to 8subordinate0 knowledges and studies1 or to distribute them in a logical1 or rather psychological1 order2 for example1 to cause the concrete always to precede the abstract4 ,but1 after having lost himself in considerations of but little interest on the development of ideas and sentiments in the human soul1 the author1 who is decidedly far below his task1 concludes by recommending to young people 8the reading of newspapers40 ,the other pedagogical articles of the ,encyclopdie are equally deficient in striking novelties4 ,if the great work of ,d',alembert and ,diderot has contributed something to the progress of education1 it is less through the insufficient efforts which it has directly attempted in this direction1 than through the general influence which it has exercised on the ,french mind in extolling the sciences in their theoretical study as well as in their practical applications1 in diffusing technical knowledge1 in glorifying the industrial arts1 and in thus preparing for the coming of a scientific and positive education in place of an education exclusively literary and of pure form4 #cfd4 ,,kant 7#agbd-ahjd74--,we know the considerable influence which1 for a century1 ,kant has exercised on the development of philosophy4 ,since ,descartes1 no thinker had to the same degree excited an interest in the great problems of philosophy1 nor more vigorously obliged the human reason to render an account of itself4 ,it is then a piece of good fortune for the science of education that a philosopher of this order has taken up the discussion of pedagogical questions1 and has thrown upon them the light of his penetrating criticism4 ,the admiration which he felt for ,rousseau1 his attentive and impassioned reading of the mile1 his own reflections on the monastic education which he had received at the ,collegium ,fredericianum1 a sort of small seminary conducted by the ,pietists1 the experience which he had had as a preceptor in several families that entrusted him with their children1 and finally1 above all else1 his profound studies on human nature and his exalted moral philosophy1 had given him a capital preparation for treating educational questions4 ,professor at the ,university of ,knigsberg1 he several times resumes the discussion of pedagogical subjects with a marked predilection for them1 and the notes of his lectures1 collected by one of his colleagues1 formed the little ,treatise on ,pedagogy which we are about to analyze4#aij #cfe4 ,,high ,,conception ,,of ,,education4--,in the opinion of ,kant1 the art of educating men1 with that of governing them1 is the most difficult and the most important of all4 ,it is by education alone that humanity can be perfected and regenerated3-- 8,it is pleasant to think that human nature will always be better and better developed by education1 and that at last there will thus be given it the form which best befits it4 8,to know how far the omnipotence of education can go1 it would be necessary that a being of a superior order should undertake the bringing up of men40 ,but in order that it may attain this exalted end1 education must be set free from routine and traditional methods4 ,it must bring up children1 not in view of their success in the present state of human society1 but 8in view of a better state1 possible in the future1 and according to an ideal conception of humanity and of its complete destination40 #cff4 ,,psychological ,,optimism4--,kant comes near accepting the opinion of ,rousseau on the original innocence of man and the perfect goodness of his natural inclinations3-- 8,it is said in medicine that the physician is but the servant of nature4 ,this is true of the moralist4 ,ward off the bad influences from without1 and nature can be trusted to find for herself the best way40#aia ,thus ,kant does not tire of exalting the service which ,rousseau had rendered pedagogy1 in recalling educators to the confidence and respect that are due to calumniated human nature4 ,let us add1 however1 that the ,german philosopher is not content to repeat ,rousseau4 ,he corrects him in affirming that man1 at his birth1 is neither good nor evil1 because he is not naturally a moral being4 ,he does not become such till he raises his reason to the conception of duty and law4 ,in other terms1 in the infant everything is in germ4 ,the infant is a being in preparation4 ,the future alone1 the development which he will receive from his education1 will make him good or bad4 ,at the beginning1 he has but indeterminate dispositions1 and evil will come1 not from a definite inclination of nature1 but solely from the fact that we will not have known how to direct it1--from the fact1 according to ,kant's own expression1 that we will not have 8subjected nature to rules40 #cfg4 ,,respect ,,for ,,the ,,liberty ,,of ,,the ,,child4--,the psychological optimism of ,kant inspires him1 as it does ,rousseau1 with the idea of a negative education1 respectful of the liberty of the child3-- 8,in general1 it must be noted that the earliest education should be negative2 that is to say1 nothing should be added to the precautions taken by nature1 and that the effort should be limited to the preservation of her work4444 ,it is well to employ at first but few helps1 and to leave children to learn for themselves4 ,much of the weakness of man is due1 not to the fact that nothing is taught him1 but to the fact that false impressions are communicated to him40 ,without going so far as to say with ,rousseau that all dependence with respect to men is contrary to order1 ,kant took great care to respect the liberty of the pupil4 ,he complains of parents who are always talking about 8breaking the wills of their sons40 ,he maintains1 not without reason1 that it is not necessary to offer much resistance to children1 if we have not begun by yielding too readily to their caprices1 and by always responding to their cries4 ,nothing is more harmful to them than a discipline which is provoking and degrading4 ,but1 in his zeal for human liberty1 the theorist of the autonomy of wills goes a little too far4 ,he fears1 for example1 the tyranny of habits4 ,he requires that they be prevented from being formed1 and that children be accustomed to nothing4 ,he might as well demand the suppression of all education1 since education should be but the acquisition of a body of good habits4 #cfh4 ,,stories ,,interdicted4--,in the education of the intellectual faculties or talents1 which he calls the physical culture of the soul1 as distinguished from moral culture1 which is the education of the will1 ,kant also approaches ,rousseau4 ,he proscribes romances and stories4 8,children have an extremely active imagination which has no need of being developed by stories40 ,it may be said in reply1 that fables and fictions1 at the same time that they develop the imagination1 also direct it and adorn it with their own proper grace1 and may even lend it moral support4 ,rousseau1 notwithstanding the ardor of his criticisms on the ,fables of ,la ,fontaine1 himself admitted the moral value of the apologue4 #cfi4 ,,culture ,,of ,,the ,,faculties4--,that which distinguishes ,kant as an educator is that he is pre-occupied with the culture of the faculties much more than with the acquisition of knowledge4 ,he passes in review the different intellectual forces1 and his reflections on each of them might be collected as the elements of an excellent system of educational psychology4 ,he will criticise1 for example1 the abuse of memory3-- 8,men who have nothing but memory10 he says1 8are but living lexicons1 and1 as it were1 the pack-horses of ,parnassus40 ,for the culture of the understanding1 ,kant proposes 8at first to train it passively to some degree10 by requiring of the child examples which illustrate a rule1 or1 on the contrary1 the rule which applies to particular examples4 ,for the exercise of the reason1 he recommends the ,socratic method1 and1 in general1 for the development of all the faculties of the mind1 he thinks that the best way of proceeding is to cause the pupil to be active3-- 8,the best way to comprehend is to do4 ,what we learn the most thoroughly is what we learn to some extent by ourselves40 #cgj4 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,punishments4--,kant has made a subtile analysis of the different qualities with which punishment may be invested4 ,he distinguishes from physical punishment1 moral punishment1 which is the better4 ,it consists in humiliating the pupil1 in greeting him coolly1 8in encouraging the disposition of the child to be honored and loved1 that auxiliary of morality40 ,physical punishments ought to be employed with precaution1 8to the end that they may not entail servile dispositions40 ,another distinction is that of natural punishments and artificial punishments4 ,the first are preferable to the second1 because they are the very consequences of the faults which have been committed2 8indigestion1 for example1 which a child brings on himself when he eats too much40 ,another advantage of natural punishment1 ,kant justly remarks1 8is that man submits to it all his life40#aib ,finally1 ,kant divides punishments into negative and positive4 ,the first are to be used for minor faults1 and the others are to be reserved for the punishment of conduct that is absolutely bad4 ,moreover1 whatever punishment may be applied1 ,kant advises the teacher to avoid the appearance of feeling malice towards the pupil3-- 8,the punishments we inflict while exhibiting signs of anger have a wrong tendency40 #cga4 ,,religious ,,education4--,at first view1 we might be tempted to think that ,kant has adopted the conclusions of ,rousseau1 and that1 like him1 he refuses to take an early occasion to inculcate in the child's mind the notion of a ,supreme ,being3-- 8,religious ideas always suppose some system of theology4 ,now1 how are we to teach theology to the young1 who1 far from knowing the world1 do not yet know themselves8 ,how shall the young who do not yet know what duty is1 be in a condition to comprehend an immediate duty towards ,god80 ,to speak of religion to a young man1 it would then be logical to wait till he is in a condition to form a clear and fixed conception of the nature of ,god4 ,but it is impossible to do this1 says ,kant1 because the young man lives in a society where he hears the name of the ,divinity spoken at each moment1 and where he takes part in continual observances of piety4 ,it is better1 then1 to teach him at an early hour true religious notions1 for fear that he may borrow from other men notions that are superstitious and false4 ,in reality1 ,kant dissents from ,rousseau only because1 re-establishing the conditions of real life1 he restores mile to society1 no longer keeping him in a fancied state of isolation4 ,what a broad and noble way1 moreover1 of conceiving religious education6 ,the best way of making clear to the mind of children the idea of ,god1 is1 according to ,kant1 to seek an analogy in the idea of a human father4 ,it is necessary1 moreover1 that the conception of duty precede the conception of ,god2 that morality precede1 and that theology follow4 ,without morality1 religion is but superstition2 without morality1 the pretended religious man is but a courtier1 a suitor for divine favor4 #cgb4 ,,moral ,,catechism4--,those who know to what a height ,kant could raise the theory of morality1 will not be surprised at the importance which he ascribes to the teaching of morals4 8,our schools10 he says1 8are almost entirely lacking in one thing which1 however1 would be very useful for training children in probity1--,i mean a catechism on duty4 ,it should contain1 in a popular form1 cases concerning the conduct to be observed in ordinary life1 and which would always naturally raise this question3 ,is this right or not80 ,he had begun to write a book of this kind under the title ,moral ,catechism2#aic and he would have desired that an hour a day of school time be given to its study1 8in order to teach pupils to know and to learn by heart their duty to men1--that power of ,god on the earth40 ,the child1 he says again1 would there learn to substitute the fear of his own conscience for that of men and divine punishment1 inward dignity for the opinion of others1 the intrinsic value of actions for the apparent value of words1 and1 finally1 a serene and cheerful piety for a sad and gloomy devotion4 #cgc4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,this study exhibits the influence of philosophical systems on education4 ,new conceptions of human destiny1 new theories with respect to the composition of human nature1 or a new hypothesis concerning man's place in nature1 determine corresponding changes in educational theory4 #b4 ,perhaps the broadest generalization yet reached in educational theory is the assumption made by ,condillac1 that the education of each individual should be a repetition of civilization in petto4 ,with ,mr4 ,spencer this hypothesis becomes a law4 #c4 ,in theory1 the secularization of education has begun4 ,the ,church is to lose one of its historical prerogatives1 and the modern ,state is to become an educator4 #d4 ,helvetius typifies what may be called the plastic theory in education1 or the conception that the teacher1 if wise enough1 may ignore all differences in natural endowment4 ,this makes man the victim of his environment4 ,the truth evidently is that man is the only creature which can bend circumstances to his will2 and he has such an endowment of power in this direction that he can virtually recreate his environment and thus rise superior to it4 ,and farther than this1 there are innate differences in endowment that will persist in spite of all that education can do4 #e4 ,the culture value of literary studies is justly exhibited in the quotation from ,marmontel1 and in particular the disciplinary value of translation4 #f4 ,education for training1 discipline1 or culture1 as distinguished from an education whose chief aim is to impart knowledge1 receives definite recognition from ,kant4 ,,footnotes3 #agg ,discours prliminaire sur la grammaire1 in the uvres compltes of ,condillac1 ,tome ,,vi4 p4 #bfd4 #agh ,this is also the main principle in ,mr4 ,spencer's educational philosophy4 8,the education of the child must accord both in mode and arrangement with the education of mankind as considered historically2 or1 in other words1 the genesis of knowledge in the individual must follow the same course as the genesis of knowledge in the race40--,education1 p4 #abb4 7,p47 #agi ,the general law of human progress is inheritance supplemented by individual acquisition4 ,using the symbols i 7inheritance7 and a 7acquisition71 the progress of the race from its origin upwards1 through successive generations1 may be exhibited by this series3 i2 i a2 i 7#b;a7 a2 i 7#c;a7 a2 i 7#d;a7 a4 ,if the factor of inheritance could be eliminated1 as ,condillac and ,spencer recommend1 the series would take this form3 a2 a2 a2 aiv2 av3 the successive increments in acquisition being due to successive increments in power gained through heredity4 ,but1 happily1 the law of inheritance cannot be abrogated1 and so philosophers write books in order to save succeeding generations from the fate of ,sisyphus4 7,p47 #ahj ,cours d'tudes1 ,tome ,x4 ,introduction4 #aha ,see uvres compltes of ,diderot4 ,edited by ,tourneux1 #ahgf-gg4 ,tomes ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 #ahb uvres1 ,tome ,,iii4 p4 #dei4 #ahc ,for ,comte's classification of the sciences1 see ,spencer's ,illustrations of ,universal ,progress1 ,chap4 ,,iii4 7,p47 #ahd ,see note1 p4 #aca4 #ahe ,this thought will bear extension as in the following quotation3 8,the reasoning that ,i oppose starts from the low and false assumption that instruction serves only for the practical use that is made of it2 for example1 that he who1 by his social position1 does not make use of his intellectual culture1 has no need of that culture4 ,literature1 from this point of view1 is useful only to the man of letters1 science only to the scientist1 good manners and fine bearing only to men of the world4 ,the poor man should be ignorant1 for education and knowledge are useless to him4 ,blasphemy1 ,gentlemen6 ,the culture of the mind and the culture of the soul are duties for every man4 ,they are not simple ornaments2 they are things as sacred as religion0 7,renan1 ,famille et tat1 p4 #c74 ,this is a sufficient answer to ,mr4 ,spencer's assumption 7,education1 p4 #hd71 that the studies that are best for guidance are at the same time the best for discipline4 ,see also ,dugald ,stewart 7,elements1 p4 #ab74 7,p47 #ahf ,this thought throws light on a dictum of current pedagogy1 8,first1 the idea1 then the term40 ,it shows that very often1 in actual experience1 the sequence is from term to idea4 ,the relation between term and idea is the same in kind as that between sentence and thought4 ,must we then say1 8,first the thought1 then the sentence08 ,or1 8,first the thought1 then the chapter or the book08 ,the disciplinary value of translation is also well stated4 ,it may be doubted whether the schools furnish a better 8intellectual gymnastic40 ,three high intellectual attainments are involved in a real translation3 #a4 ,the separation of the thought from the original form of words2 #b4 ,the seizing or comprehension of the thought as a mental possession2 and #c4 ,the embodying of the thought in a new form4 ,a strictly analogous process1 of almost equal value in its place1 is that variety of reading in which the pupil is required to express the thought of the paragraph in his own language4 ,this exercise involves the three processes above stated1 and may be called 8the translation of thought from one form into another1 in the same language40 7,p47 #ahg ,marmontel1 ,mmoires d'un pre pour servir l'instruction de ses enfants1 ,tome ,i4 p4 #ai4 #ahh ,matre d'tude3 8,he who in a lyce1 college1 or boarding-school1 has oversight of pupils during study hours and recreations40--,,littr4 #ahi ,it is a matter of surprise that in a ,german ,pedagogical ,library the very first ,french work published is the ,trait de l',homme of ,helvetius4 ,this is giving the place of honor to what is perhaps of the most ordinary value in ,french pedagogical literature4 #aij ,see the ,french translation of this tract at the end of the volume1 published by ,monsieur ,barni1 under the title1 lments mtaphysiques de la doctrine de la vertu4 ,paris1 #ahee4 ,the work of ,kant appeared in ,german in #ahjc4 #aia ,extract from ,kant's ,fragments posthumes4 #aib ,monsieur ,compayr seems to give his sanction to the 8,discipline of ,consequences40 ,i think that ,mr4 ,fitch has correctly stated its limitations 7,lectures1 p4 #aag74 ,kant doubtless borrowed the idea from ,rousseau1 who employs it in the government of his imaginary pupil4 7,see ,miss ,worthington's translation of the mile1 p4 #ff47 ,this doctrine is the basis of ,mr4 ,spencer's chapter on ,moral ,education4 7,p47 #aic ,helvetius1 but poorly qualified for teaching moral questions1 had had the idea of a ,catchisme de probit4 ,saint ,lambert published1 in #agih1 a ,catchisme universel4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,lay ,,and ,,national ,,instruction4--,,la ,,chalotais ,,and ,,rolland4 ,,jesuits ,,and ,,parliamentarians2 ,,expulsion ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits 7#agfd72 ,,general ,,complaints ,,against ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits2 ,,efforts ,,made ,,to ,,replace ,,them2 ,,la ,,chalotais 7#agja-aghe72 ,,his ,,essay ,,on ,,national ,,education 7#agfc72 ,,secularization ,,of ,,education2 ,,practical ,,end ,,of ,,instruction2 ,,new ,,spirit ,,in ,,education2 ,,intuitive ,,and ,,natural ,,instruction2 ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,earliest ,,period2 ,,criticism ,,of ,,negative ,,education2 ,,history ,,avenged ,,of ,,the ,,disdain ,,of ,,rousseau2 ,,geography2 ,,natural ,,history2 ,,physical ,,recreations2 ,,mathematical ,,recreations2 ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,period2 ,,the ,,living ,,languages2 ,,other ,,studies2 ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,books2 ,,aristocratic ,,prejudices2 ,,instruction ,,within ,,the ,,reach ,,of ,,all2 ,,normal ,,schools2 ,,spirit ,,of ,,centralization2 ,,turgot 7#agbg-agha72 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #cgd4 ,,jesuits ,,and ,,parliamentarians4--,of the educators of the eighteenth century of whom we have been speaking up to the present time1 no one has been called to exercise an immediate and direct action on the destinies of public education2 no one of them had the power to apply the doctrines which were so dear to him to college education2 so that1 so far1 we have studied the theory and not the practice of education in the eighteenth century4 ,on the contrary1 the members of the ,french ,parliaments1 after having solicited and obtained from the king the expulsion of the ,jesuits1 made memorable efforts1 from #agfb up to the eve of the ,revolution1 to supply the places of the teachers whom they had driven away1 to correct the faults of the ancient education1 and to give effect to the idea1 cherished by the most of the great spirits of that time1 of a national education adapted to the needs of civil society4 ,they were the practical organizers of instruction2 they prepared the foundation of the ,french ,university of the nineteenth century2 they resumed1 not without lustre1 the struggle too often interrupted1 which the ,jansenists had sustained against the ,jesuits4 #cge4 ,,expulsion ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits 7#agfd74--,the causes of the expulsion of the ,jesuits were doubtless complex1 and1 above all else1 political4 ,in attacking the ,company of ,jesus1 the ,parliaments desired especially to defend the interests of the ,state1 compromised by a powerful society which tended to dominate all ,christian nations4 ,but reasons of an educational character had also some influence on the condemnation pronounced against the ,jesuits by all the ,parliaments of ,france4 ,from all quarters1 in the reports which were drawn up by the municipal or royal officers of all the cities where the ,jesuits had colleges1 complaint is made of the scholastic methods and usages of the ,company4 ,reforms were demanded which they were incapable of realizing4 ,and it is not in ,france alone that the faults in the education of the ,jesuits were vigorously announced4 ,in the edict of #agei1 by which the king of ,portugal expelled the ,jesuits from his kingdom1 it was said3 8,the study of the humanities has declined in the kingdom1 and the ,jesuits are evidently the cause of the decadence into which the ,greek and ,latin tongues have fallen40 ,some years later1 in #agfh1 the king of ,portugal congratulated himself on having banished 8the moral corruption1 the superstition1 the fanaticism1 and the ignorance1 which had been introduced by the ,society of ,jesus40 #cgf4 ,,general ,,complaints ,,against ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits4--,even in the middle of the eighteenth century the ,jesuits were still addicted to their old routine1 and even their faults were aggravated with the times4 ,at ,auxerre1 complaint is made that pupils study in their schools only a few ,latin authors1 and that they leave them without ever receiving into their hands a single ,french author4 ,at ,moulins1 a request is made that at least one hour a week be devoted to the history of ,france1 which proves that the ,society of ,jesus1 always enslaved to its immobile formalism1 did not grant even this little concession to the teaching of history4 ,at ,orleans1 the necessity of teaching children the ,french language is insisted on4 ,at ,montbrison1 the wish is expressed that pupils be taught a smattering of geography1 especially of their own country4 ,at ,auxerre1 it is proved that in the teaching of philosophy the time is employed 8in copying and learning note-books filled with vain distinctions and frivolous questions40 ,at ,montbrison1 the request is made 8that the rules of reasoning be explained in ,french1 and that there be a disuse of debates which train only disputants and not philosophers40 ,it would be interesting to pursue this study1 and to collect from these reports of #agfb1--real memorials of a scholastic revolution1--all the complaints of public opinion against the ,jesuits4 ,even in religion1 the ,company of ,jesus is charged with substituting for the sacred texts1 books of devotion composed by the ,fathers4 ,at ,poitiers1 a demand is made in favor of the ,old and the ,new ,testaments1 the study of which was wholly neglected4 ,from time to time the ,jesuits were accused of continually mixing religious questions with classical studies and of catechising at every turn4 8,the masters of the fifth and sixth forms in the ,college of ,auxerre dogmatize in the themes which they dictate to the children40 ,finally1 the ,company of ,jesus maintained in the schools the teaching of moral casuistry2 it encouraged bigotry and superstition2 it relaxed nothing from the severity of its discipline1 and provoked violent recriminations among some of its former pupils who had preserved a painful recollection of corrections received in its colleges4#aid #cgg4 ,,efforts ,,made ,,to ,,displace ,,the ,,jesuits4--,the ,parliaments1 then1 did nothing more1 so to speak1 than register the verdict of public opinion everywhere excited against the ,jesuits4 ,but while they heartily joined in the general reprobation1 they undertook to determine the laws of the new education4 8,it is of little use to destroy10 they said1 8if we do not intend to build4 ,the public good and the honor of the nation require that we should establish a civil education which shall prepare each new generation for filling with success the different employments of the ,state40 ,it is not just to say with ,michel ,bral1 that 8once delivered from the ,jesuits1 the ,university installed itself in their establishments and continued their instruction40 ,earnest attempts were made to reform programmes and methods4 ,la ,chalotais1 ,guyton de ,morveau1 ,rolland1 and still others attempted by their writings1 and1 when they could1 by their acts1 to establish a system of education which1 while inspired by ,rollin and the ,jansenists1 attempted to do still better4 #cgh4 ,,la ,,chalotais 7#agja-aghe74--,of all the parliamentarians who distinguished themselves in the campaign undertaken towards the middle of the eighteenth century against the pedagogy of the ,jesuits1 the most celebrated1 and the most worthy of being such1 is undoubtedly the solicitor-general of the ,parliament of ,bretagne1 ,ren de la ,chalotais4 ,a man of courage and character1 he was arrested and imprisoned in the citadel of ,saint ,malo for having upheld the franchise of the province of ,bretagne2 and it was in his prison1 in #agfe1 that he drew up for his defence an eloquent and impassioned memorial1 of which ,voltaire said1 8,woe to every sensitive soul that does not feel the quivering of a fever in reading it60 #cgi4 ,,his ,,essay ,,on ,,national ,,education4--,the ,essai of ,la ,chalotais appeared in #agfc1 one year after the mile4 ,coming after the ambitious theories of a philosopher who1 scorning polemics and the dissensions of his time1 had written only for humanity and the future1 this was a modest and opportune work1 the effort of a practical man who attempted to respond to the aspirations and the needs of his time4 ,translated into several languages1 the ,essai d'ducation nationale obtained the enthusiastic approval of ,diderot1 and also of ,voltaire1 who said1 8,it is a terrible book against the ,jesuits1 all the more so because it is written with moderation40 ,grimm carried his admiration so far as to write1 8,it would be difficult to present in a hundred and fifty pages more reflections that are wise1 profound1 useful1 and truly worthy of a magistrate1 of a philosopher1 of a statesman40 ,too completely forgotten to-day1 this little composition of ,la ,chalotais deserves to be republished4 ,notwithstanding some prejudices that mar it1 it is already wholly penetrated with the spirit of the ,revolution4 #chj4 ,,secularization ,,of ,,education4--,as a matter of fact1 the whole pedagogy of the eighteenth century is dominated by the idea of the necessary secularization of instruction4 ,thorough-going ,gallicans like ,la ,chalotais or ,rolland1 dauntless free-thinkers like ,diderot or ,helvetius1 all believe and assert that public instruction is a civil affair1 a 8government undertaking10 as ,voltaire expressed it4 ,all wish to substitute lay teachers for religious teachers1 and to open civil schools upon the ruins of monastic schools4 8,who will be persuaded10 says ,rolland in his report of #agjh1 8that fathers who feel an emotion that an ecclesiastic never should have known1 will be less capable than he of educating children80 ,la ,chalotais also demands these citizen teachers4 ,he objects to those instructors who1 from interest as well as from principle1 give the preference in their affections to the supernatural world over one's native land4 8,i do not presume to exclude ecclesiastics10 he said1 8but ,i protest against the exclusion of laymen4 ,i dare claim for the nation an education which depends only on the ,state1 because it belongs essentially to the ,state2 because every ,state has an inalienable and indefeasible right to instruct its members2 because1 finally1 the children of the ,state ought to be educated by the members of the ,state40 ,this does not mean that ,la ,chalotais is irreligious2 but he desires a national religion which does not subordinate the interests of the country to a foreign power4 ,what he wants especially is1 that the ,church1 reserving to herself the teaching of divine truth1 abandon to the ,state the teaching of morals1 and the control of purely human studies4 ,he is of the same opinion as his friend ,duclos1 who said3-- 8,it is certain that in the education which was given at ,sparta1 the prime purpose was to train ,spartans4 ,it is thus that in every ,state the purpose should be to enkindle the spirit of citizenship2 and1 in our case1 to train ,frenchmen1 and in order to make ,frenchmen1 to labor to make men of them40#aie #cha4 ,,practical ,,purpose ,,of ,,instruction4--,the particular charge brought by ,la ,chalotais against the education of his time1 against that of the ,university as well as against that of the ,jesuits1 is1 that it does not prepare children for real life1 for life in the ,state4 8,a stranger who should visit our colleges might conclude that in ,france we think only of peopling the seminaries1 the cloisters1 and the ,latin colonies40 ,how are we to imagine that the study of a dead language1 and a monastic discipline1 are the appointed means for training soldiers1 magistrates1 and heads of families8 8,the greatest vice of education1 and perhaps the most inevitable1 while it shall be entrusted to persons who have renounced the world1 is the absolute lack of instruction on the moral and political virtues4 ,our education does not affect our habits1 like that of the ancients4 ,after having endured all the fatigues and irksomeness of the college1 the young find themselves in the need of learning in what consist the duties common to all men4 ,they have learned no principle for judging actions1 evils1 opinions1 customs4 ,they have everything to learn on matters that are so important4 ,they are inspired with a devotion which is but an imitation of religion1 and with practices which take the place of virtue1 and are but the shadow of it40 #chb4 ,,intuitive ,,and ,,natural ,,instruction4--,a pupil of the sensational school1 a disciple of ,locke and of ,condillac1 ,la ,chalotais is too much inclined to misconceive1 in the development of the individual1 the play of natural activities and innate dispositions4 ,but1 by way of compensation1 his predilection for sensationalism leads him to excellent thoughts on the necessity of beginning with sensible objects before advancing to intellectual studies1 and first of all to secure an education of the senses4 8,i wish nothing to be taught children except facts which are attested by the eyes1 at the age of seven as at the age of thirty4 8,the principles for instructing children should be those by which nature herself instructs them4 ,nature is the best of teachers4 8,every method which begins with abstract ideas is not made for children4 8,let children see many objects2 let there be a variety of such1 and let them be shown under many aspects and on various occasions4 ,the memory and the imagination of children cannot be overcharged with useful facts and ideas of which they can make use in the course of their lives40 ,such are the principles according to which ,la ,chalotais organizes his plan of studies4 #chc4 ,,the ,,new ,,spirit ,,in ,,education4--,the purpose1 then1 is to replace that monastic and ultramontane education 7this is the term employed by ,la ,chalotais71 and also that narrow education1 and that repulsive and austere discipline1 8which seems made only to abase the spirit02 that sterile and insipid teaching1 8the most usual effect of which is to make study hated for life02 those scholastic studies where young men 8contract the habit of disputing and caviling02 and those ascetic regulations 8which set neatness and health at defiance40 ,the purpose is to initiate children into our most common and most ordinary affairs1 into what forms the conduct of life and the basis of civil society4 8,most young men know neither the world which they inhabit1 the earth which nourishes them1 the men who supply their needs1 the animals which serve them1 nor the workmen and citizens whom they employ4 ,they have not even any desire for this kind of knowledge4 ,no advantage is taken of their natural curiosity for the purpose of increasing it4 ,they know how to admire neither the wonders of nature nor the prodigies of the arts40 ,this is equivalent to saying that they should henceforth learn all that up to this time they had been permitted to be ignorant of4 #chd4 ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,period4--,education1 according to ,la ,chalotais1 should be divided into two periods3 the first from five to ten1 the second from ten to seventeen4 ,during the first period1 we have to do with children who have no experience because they have seen nothing1 who have no power of attention because they are incapable of any sustained effort1 and no judgment because they have not yet any general ideas2 but who1 by way of compensation1 have senses1 memory1 and some power of reflection4 ,it is necessary1 then1 to make a careful choice of the subjects of study which shall be proposed to these tender intelligences2 and ,la ,chalotais decides in favor of history1 geography1 natural history1 physical and mathematical recreations4 8,the exercises proposed for the first period10 he says1 8are as follows3 learning to read1 write1 and draw2 dancing and music1 which ought to enter into the education of persons above the commonalty2 historical narratives and the lives of illustrious men of every country1 of every age1 and of every profession2 geography1 mathematical and physical recreations2 the fables of ,la ,fontaine1 which1 whatever may be said of them1 ought not to be removed from the hands of children1 but all of which they should be made to learn by heart2 and besides this1 walks1 excursions1 merriment1 and recreations2 ,i do not propose even the studies except as amusements40 #che4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,negative ,,education4--,la ,chalotais is often right as against ,rousseau4 ,for example1 he has abundantly refuted the utopia of a negative education in which nature is allowed to have her way1 and which considers the toil of the centuries as of no account4 ,it is good sense itself which speaks in reflections like these3-- 8,if man is not taught what is good1 he will necessarily become preoccupied with what is bad4 ,the mind and the heart cannot remain unoccupied4444 ,on the pretext of affording children an experience which is their own1 they are deprived of the assistance of others' experience40 #chf4 ,,history ,,avenged ,,of ,,the ,,disdain ,,of ,,rousseau4--,the sophisms of ,rousseau on history are brilliantly refuted4 ,history is within the comprehension of the youngest4 ,the child who can understand ,tom ,thumb and ,blue ,beard1 can understand the history of ,romulus and of ,clovis4 ,moreover1 it is to the history of the most recent times that ,la ,chalotais attaches the greatest importance1 and in this respect he goes beyond his master ,rollin3-- 8,i would have composed for the use of the child histories of every nation1 of every century1 and particularly of the later centuries1 which should be written with greater detail1 and which should be read before those of the more remote centuries4 ,i would have written the lives of illustrious men of all classes1 conditions1 and professions1 of celebrated heroes1 scholars1 women1 and children40 #chg4 ,,geography4--,la ,chalotais does not separate the study of geography from that of history1 and he requires that1 without entering into dry and tedious details1 the pupil be made to travel pleasantly through different countries1 and that stress be put 8on what is of chief importance and interest in each country1 such as the most striking facts1 the native land of great men1 celebrated battles1 and whatever is most notable1 either as to manners and customs1 to natural productions1 or to arts and commerce40 #chh4 ,,natural ,,history4--,another study especially adapted to children1 says ,la ,chalotais with reason1 is natural history3 8,the principal thing is first to show the different objects just as they appear to the eyes4 ,a representation of them1 with a precise and exact description1 is sufficient40 8,too great detail must be avoided1 and the objects chosen must be such as are most directly related to us1 which are the most necessary and the most useful40 8,preference shall be given to domestic animals over those that are wild1 and to native animals over those of other countries4 ,in the case of plants1 preference shall be given to those that serve for food and for use in medicine40 ,as far as possible1 the object itself should be shown1 so that the idea shall be the more exact and vivid1 and the impression the more durable4 #chi4 ,,recreations ,,in ,,physics4--,la ,chalotais explains that he means by this phrase observations1 experiments1 and the simplest facts of nature4 ,children should early be made acquainted with thermometers1 barometers1 with the microscope1 etc4 #cij4 ,,recreations ,,in ,,mathematics4--,all this is excellent1 and ,la ,chalotais enters resolutely into the domain of modern methods4 ,what is more debatable is the idea of putting geometry and mathematics into the programme of children's studies1 under this erroneous pretext1 that 8geometry presents nothing but the sensible and the palpable40 ,let us grant1 however1 that it is easier to conceive 8clear ideas of bodies1 lines1 and angles that strike the eyes1 than abstract ideas of verbs1 declensions1 and conjugations1 of an accusative1 an ablative1 a subjunctive1 an infinitive1 or of the omitted that40 #cia4 ,,studies ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,period4--,la ,chalotais postpones the study of the classical languages till the second period1 the tenth year4 ,the course of study for this second period will comprise3 #a4 ,french and ,latin literature1 or the humanities2 #b4 a continuation of history1 geography1 mathematics1 and natural history2 #c4 criticism1 logic1 and metaphysics2 #d4 the art of invention2 #e4 ethics4 ,la ,chalotais complains that his contemporaries neglect ,french literature1 as though we had not admirable models in our national language4 ,out of one hundred pupils there are not five who will find it useful to write in ,latin2 while there is not one of them who will have occasion to speak or write in ,greek1 and to construct ,latin verses4 ,all1 on the contrary1 ought to know their native language4 ,consequently1 our author suggests the idea of devoting the morning session to ,french1 and that of the afternoon to ,latin1 so that the pupils who have no need of the ancient languages may pursue only the courses in ,french4 #cib4 ,,the ,,living ,,languages4--,la ,chalotais thinks the knowledge of two living languages to be necessary1 8the ,english for science1 and the ,german for war40 ,german literature had not yet produced its masterpieces1 and it is seen that at this period the utility of ,german appears especially with reference to military affairs4 ,however it may be1 let us be grateful to him for having appreciated1 as he has done1 the living languages4 8,it is wrong10 he says1 8to treat them nearly as we treat our contemporaries1 with a sort of indifference4 ,without the ,greek and ,latin languages there is no real and solid erudition2 and there is no complete erudition without the others40 #cic4 ,,other ,,studies4--,how many judicious or just reflections we have still to gather from the ,essay on ,national ,education1 as upon the teaching of the ancient languages1 which ,la ,chalotais1 however1 is wrong in restricting to too small a number of years2 upon the necessity of presenting to pupils as subjects for composition1 not puerile amplifications1 or dissertations on facts or matters of which they are ignorant1 but things which they know1 which have happened to them1 8their occupations1 their amusements1 or their troubles02 upon logic or criticism1 the study of which should not be deferred till the end of the course1 as is still done in our day2 upon philosophy1 which is1 he says1 8the characteristic of the eighteenth century1 as that of the sixteenth was erudition1 and that of the seventeenth was talent60 ,la ,chalotais reserves the place of honor to ethics1 8which is the most important of all the sciences1 and which is1 as much as any other1 susceptible of demonstration40 #cid4 ,,the ,,question ,,of ,,books4--,in tracing his programme of studies1 so new in many particulars1 ,la ,chalotais took into account the difficulties that would be encountered in assuring1 and1 so to speak1 in improvising1 the execution of it1 at a time when there existed neither competent teachers nor properly constructed books4 ,teachers especially1 he said1 are difficult to train4 ,but1 while waiting for the recruiting of the teaching force1 ,la ,chalotais puts great dependence on elementary books1 which might1 he thought1 be composed within two years1 if the king would encourage the publication of them1 and if the ,academies would put them up for competition4 8,these books would be the best instruction which the masters could give1 and would take the place of every other method4 ,whatever course we may take1 we cannot dispense with new books4 ,these books1 once made1 would make trained teachers unnecessary1 and there would then be no longer any occasion for discussion as to their qualities1 whether they should be priests1 or married1 or single4 ,all would be good1 provided they were religious1 moral1 and knew how to read2 they would soon train themselves while training their pupils40 ,there is much exaggeration in these words4 ,the book1 as we know1 cannot supply the place of teachers4 ,but the language of ,la ,chalotais was adapted to circumstances as they existed4 ,he spoke in this way1 because1 in his impatience to reach his end1 he would try to remedy the educational poverty of his time1 and supply the lack of good teachers by provisional expedients1 by means which he found within his reach4 #cie4 ,,aristocratic ,,prejudices4--,that which we would expunge from the book of ,la ,chalotais is his opinion on primary instruction4 ,blinded by some unexplained distrust of the people1 and dominated by aristocratic tendencies1 he complains of the extension of instruction4 ,he demands that the knowledge of the poor do not extend beyond their pursuits4 ,he bitterly criticises the thirst for knowledge which is beginning to pervade the lower classes of the nation4 8,even the people can study4 ,laborers and artisans send their children to the colleges of the smaller cities4444 ,when these children have accomplished a summary course of study which has taught them only to disdain the occupation of their father1 they rush into the cloisters and become ecclesiastics2 or they exercise judicial functions1 and often become subjects harmful to society4 ,the ,brethren of the ,christian ,doctrine 7sic71 who are called ignorantins1 have just appeared to complete the general ruin2 they teach people to read and write who ought to learn only to draw1 and to handle the plane and the file1 but have no disposition to do it4 ,they are the rivals or the successors of the ,jesuits40 ,a singular force of prejudice was necessary to conceive that the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools were instructing the people too highly4 ,let it be said1 however1 towards exonerating ,la ,chalotais1 that he perhaps does not so much attack the instruction in itself1 as the bad way in which it is given4 ,what he censures is instruction that is badly conceived1 that which takes people from their own class4 ,in some other passages of his book we see that he would be disposed to disseminate the new education among the ranks of the people4 8,it is the ,state1 it is the larger part of the nation1 that must be kept principally in view in education2 for twenty millions of men ought to be held in greater consideration than one million1 and the peasantry1 who are not yet a class in ,france1 as they are in ,sweden1 ought not to be neglected in a system of instruction4 ,education is equally solicitous that letters should be cultivated1 and that the fields should be plowed2 that all the sciences and the useful arts should be perfected2 that justice should be administered and that religion should be taught2 that there should be instructed and competent generals1 magistrates1 and ecclesiastics1 and skillful artists and citizens1 all in fit proportion4 ,it is for the government to make each citizen so pleased with his condition that he may not be forced to withdraw from it40 ,let us quote one sentence more1 which is almost the formula that to-day is so dear to the friends of instruction3-- 8,we do not fear to assert1 in general1 that in the condition in which ,europe now is1 the people that are the most enlightened will always have the advantage over those who are the less so40 #cif4 ,,general ,,conclusion4--,notwithstanding the faults which mar it1 the work of ,la ,chalotais is none the less one of the most remarkable essays of the earlier ,french pedagogy4 8,la ,chalotais10 says ,grard1 8belongs to the school of ,rousseau2 but on more than one point he departs from the plan traced by the master4 ,he escapes from the allurements of the paradox4 ,relatively he has the spirit of moderation4 ,he is a classic without prejudices1 an innovator without temerity40 ,his book is pre-eminently a book of polemics1 written with the ardor of one who is engaged in a fight1 and overflowing with a generous passion4 ,what noble words are the following3-- 8,let the young man learn what bread a ploughman1 a day laborer1 or an artisan eats4 ,he will see in the sequel how they are deprived of the bread which they earn with so much difficulty1 and how one portion of men live at the expense of the other40 ,in these lines1 which breathe a sentiment of profound pity for the disinherited of this world1 we already hear1 as it were1 the signal cry announcing the social reclamations of the ,french ,revolution4 #cgi4 ,,rolland 7#agcd-agid74--,la ,chalotais1 after having criticised the old methods1 proposed new ones2 ,rolland attempted to put them in practice4 ,la ,chalotais is a polemic and a theorist2 ,rolland is an administrator4 ,president of the ,parliament of ,paris1 he presented to his colleagues1 in #agfh1 a ,report which is a real system of education4#aif ,but above all1 he gave his personal attention to the administration of the ,college ,louis-le-,grand4 ,an ardent and impassioned adversary of the ,jesuits1 he used every means to put public instruction in a condition to do without them4 8,noble and wise spirit1 patient and courageous reason1 who1 for twenty years1 even during exile and after the dissolution of his society1 did not abandon for a single moment the work he had undertaken1 but brought it1 almost perfected1 to the very confines of the ,revolution2 a heart divested of every ambition1 who1 chosen by popular wish1 and by the cabinet of the king1 as director of public instruction1 obstinately entrenched himself in the peace of his studious retreat40 ,this is the judgment of a member of the ,university1 in the nineteenth century1 ,dubois1 director of the ,normal ,school4 ,no doubt ,rolland is not an original educator4 8,it is in ,rollin's ,trait des tudes10 he says1 8that every teacher will find the true rules for education40 ,besides1 he borrowed ideas from ,la ,chalotais1 and also from the ,mmoires which the ,university of ,paris drew up in #agfc and #agfd at the request of ,parliament2 so that the interest in his work is less1 perhaps1 in its personal views than in the indications it furnishes relative to the situation of the ,university and its tendency towards self-reformation4 #cih4 ,,instruction ,,within ,,the ,,reach ,,of ,,all4--,at least on one point ,rolland is superior to ,la ,chalotais2 he takes a bold stand for the necessity of primary instruction1 and for the progress and diffusion of human knowledge4 8,education cannot be too widely diffused1 to the end that there may be no class of citizens who may not be brought to participate in its benefits4 ,it is expedient that each citizen receive the education which is adapted to his needs40#aig ,it is true that ,rolland joins in the wish expressed by the ,university1 which demanded a reduction in the number of colleges4 ,but only colleges for the higher studies were in question1 and ,rolland thought less of restricting instruction than of proportioning and adapting it to the needs of the different classes of society4 8,each one ought to have the opportunity to receive the education which is adapted to his needs4444 ,now each soil10 adds ,rolland1 8is not susceptible of the same culture and the same product4 ,each mind does not demand the same degree of culture4 ,all men have neither the same needs nor the same talents2 and it is in proportion to these talents and these needs that public education ought to be regulated40 ,rolland shared the prejudices of ,la ,chalotais against 8the new ,order founded by ,la ,salle02 but none the less on this account did he demand instruction for all4 8,the knowledge of reading and writing1 which is the key to all the other sciences1 ought to be universally diffused4 ,without this the teachings of the clergy are useless1 for the memory is rarely faithful enough2 and reading alone can impress in a durable manner what it is important never to forget40 ,would it be granted by every one to-day1 affected by prejudices that are ever re-appearing1 that 8the laborer who has received some sort of instruction is but the more diligent and the more skillful by reason of it08 #cii4 ,,the ,,normal ,,school4--,we shall not dwell upon the methods and schemes of study proposed by ,rolland4 ,save very urgent recommendations relative to the study of the national history and of the ,french language1 we shall find nothing very new in them4 ,what deserve to be pointed out1 by way of compensation1 are the important innovations which he wished to introduce into the general organization of public instruction4 ,first there was the idea of a higher normal school1 of a seminary for professors4 ,the ,university had already expressed the wish that such an establishment should be founded4 ,to be convinced how much this pedagogical seminary1 conceived as far back as #agfc1 resembled our actual ,normal ,school1 it suffices to note the following details4 ,the establishment was to be governed by professors drawn from the different faculties1 according to the different subjects of instruction4 ,the young men received on competitive examination were to be divided into three classes1 corresponding to the three grades of admission4 ,within the establishment they were to take part in a series of discussions1 after a given time to submit to the tests for graduation1 and finally to be placed in the colleges4 ,is it not true that there was no important addition to be made to this scheme8 ,rolland also required that pedagogics have a place among the studies of these future professors1 and that definite and systematic instruction be given in this art1 so important to the teachers of youth4 ,rolland does not stop even there4 ,he provides for inspectors1 or visitors1 who are to examine all the colleges each year4 ,finally1 he subjects all scholastic establishments to one single authority1 to a council of the government1 to which he applies the rather odd title1 the 8,bureau of ,correspondence40 #djj4 ,,spirit ,,of ,,centralization4--,whatever opinion may be formed of absolute centralization1 which1 in our century1 has become the law of public instruction1 and has caused the disappearance of provincial franchises1 it is certain that the parliamentarians of the eighteenth century were the first to conceive it and desire it1 if not to realize it4 ,paris1 in ,rolland's plan1 becomes the centre of public instruction4 ,the universities distributed through the provinces are co-ordinated and made dependent on that of ,paris4 8,is it not desirable10 said ,rolland1 8that the good taste which everything concurs to produce in the capital1 be diffused to the very extremities of the kingdom2 that every ,frenchman participate in the treasures of knowledge which are there accumulating from day to day2 that the young men who have the same country1 who are destined to serve the same prince and to fulfill the same functions1 receive the same lessons and be imbued with the same maxims2 that one part of ,france be not under the clouds of ignorance while letters shed the purest light in another2 in a word1 that the time come when a young man educated in a province cannot be distinguished from one who has been trained in the capital80 ,and he adds that 8the only means for attaining an end so desirable is to make ,paris the centre of public instruction40 ,besides the gain that will thus accrue to instruction1 ,rolland sees this other advantage1 that1 through uniformity in instruction1 there will be secured a uniformity in manners and in laws4 ,by means of a uniform education1 8the young men of all the provinces will divest themselves of all their prejudices of birth2 they will form the same ideas of virtue and justice2 they will demand uniform laws1 which would have offended their fathers40 ,by this means1 finally1 there will be developed a national spirit1 a national character1 and a national jurisprudence1 8the only means of recreating love of country40 ,is it not true that the great magistrates of the close of the eighteenth century deserve also to be counted among the founders of ,french unity8 #dja4 ,,turgot 7#agbg-agha74--;,in his ,mmoires to the king 7#agge71 ,turgot set forth analogous ideas1 and also demanded the formation of a council of public instruction4 ,he made an eloquent plea for the establishment of a civil and national education which should be extended to the country at large4 8,your kingdom1 ,sir1 is of this world4 ,without opposing any obstacle to the instructions whose object is higher1 and which already have their rules and their expounders1 ,i think ,i can propose to you nothing of more advantage to your people than to cause to be given to all your subjects an instruction which shows them the obligations they owe to society and to your power which protects them1 the duties which those obligations impose on them1 and the interest which they have in fulfilling those duties for the public good and their own4 ,this moral and social instruction requires books expressly prepared1 by competition1 and with great care1 and a schoolmaster in each parish to teach them to children1 along with the art of writing1 reading1 counting1 measuring1 and the principles of mechanics40 8,the study of the duty of citizenship ought to be the foundation of all the other studies40 8,there are methods and establishments for training geometricians1 physicists1 and painters1 but there are none for training citizens40 ,in a word1 ,la ,chalotais1 ,rolland1 ,turgot1 and some of their contemporaries1 were real precursors of the ,french ,revolution in the matter of education4 ,at the date of #agfb the scholastic revolution began1 at least so far as secondary instruction is concerned4 ,the ,parliaments of that period conceived the plan of the ,university of the nineteenth century1 and prepared for the work of ,napoleon ,i4 ,but they left to the men of the ,revolution the honor of being the first to organize primary instruction4 #djb4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,this study exhibits the evils brought upon a country by an education controlled and administered by a dominant ,church for the attainment of its own ends2 and also the efforts of a nation to save itself from imminent disaster by making the ,state the great public educator4 #b4 ,the right of the ,state to self-preservation is the vindication of its right to control and direct public education4 ,the ,state thus becomes the patron of the public school2 the product it requires is good citizenship2 and for the sake of securing this product the ,state endows the school1 wholly or in part4 #c4 ,the situation in ,france1 as described in this study1 is an aggravated case of what may occur whenever education is administered by a class having special interests and ambitions2 and under some form there must be the intervention of the ,state as a means of protecting its own interests4 #d4 ,when education is administered in the main by the literary class1 there is some danger that the instruction may not be that which is best adapted to the needs of other classes4 ,,footnotes3 #aid ,see the pamphlet published in #agfd entitled3 ,mmoires historiques sur l'orbilianisme et les correcteurs des ,jsuites4 #aie ,duclos1 ,considrations sur les murs de ce sicle4 ,ch4 ,,ii4 ,sur l'ducation et les prjugs4 #aif ,see the ,recueil of the works of ,president ,rolland1 printed in #aghc1 by order of the executive committee of the ,college ,louis-le-,grand4 #aig ,recueil1 etc41 p4 #be4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,french ,,revolution4--,,mirabeau1 ,,talleyrand1 ,,condorcet4 ,,contradictory ,,judgments ,,on ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,revolution2 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,that ,,work2 ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction2 ,,what ,,was ,,taught ,,in ,,the ,,schools2 ,,discipline2 ,,the ,,situation ,,of ,,teachers2 ,,the ,,recruitment ,,of ,,teachers2 ,,what ,,the ,,school ,,itself ,,was2 ,,the ,,peculiar ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,revolution2 ,,the ,,cahiers ,,of #aghi2 ,,mirabeau 7#agdi-agia7 ,,and ,,his ,,travail ,,sur ,l',,instruction ,,publique2 ,,dangers ,,of ,,ignorance2 ,,liberty ,,of ,,teaching2 ,,the ,,constituent ,,assembly ,,and ,,the ,,rapport ,,of ,,talleyrand2 ,,talleyrand 7#ageh-ahch72 ,,political ,,principles ,,of ,,universal ,,instruction2 ,,four ,,grades ,,of ,,instruction2 ,,political ,,catechism2 ,,independent ,,morality2 ,,the ,,legislative ,,assembly ,,and ,,the ,,rapport ,,of ,,condorcet2 ,,condorcet 7#agdc-agid72 ,,general ,,considerations ,,on ,,education2 ,,instruction ,,and ,,morality2 ,,instruction ,,and ,,progress2 ,,liberality ,,of ,,condorcet2 ,,five ,,grades ,,of ,,instruction2 ,,purpose ,,and ,,programme ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction2 ,,idea ,,of ,,courses ,,for ,,adults2 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women2 ,,prejudices2 ,,final ,,judgment2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #djd4 ,,contradictory ,,judgments ,,on ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4--,an historian of education in ,france1 ,thry1 opens his chapter on the ,revolution with these contemptuous words1 8,one does not study a void1 one does not analyze a negation40#aih ,a more recent historian of public instruction during the ,revolution1 ,albert ,duruy1 arriving at the work of ,condorcet1 certainly the most important undertaking of the pedagogy of the ,revolution1 does not hesitate to record this absolute and summary judgment3 8,we are now no longer in the real and in the possible2 we are travelling in the land of chimeras2 we are soaring in space at heights which admit of only ideal attainment40#aii ,how easy it is to say this6 ,to believe these facile judges1 one who would estimate the efforts of the ,revolution in the matter of public instruction would have to choose between a nothing and a chimera4 ,the men of the ,revolution have done nothing1 say some2 they are dreamers and idealists1 say others4 ,these assertions do not bear examination4 ,for every impartial observer it is certain that the ,revolution opened a new era in education1 and the proof of this is to be found in the very documents that our opponents so triflingly condemn1 and the practical spirit of which they misconceive4 #dje4 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,that ,,work4--,it is not that the men of the ,revolution were educators in the strict sense of the term4 ,the science of education is not indebted to them for new methods4 ,they have not completed the work of ,locke1 of ,rousseau1 and of ,la ,chalotais2 but they were the first to attempt a legislative organization of a vast system of public instruction4 ,it is just to place them in the front rank of the men who might be called 8the politicians of education40 ,doubtless they lacked time for applying their ideas1 but they had at least the merit of having conceived these ideas1 and of having embodied them in legislative acts4 ,the principles which we proclaim to-day1 they formulated4 ,the solutions which we attempt to put in practice after a century of waiting1 were decreed by them4 ,the reader who will follow the long series of reports and decrees which constitutes the pedagogical work of the ,revolution will have witnessed the genesis of popular instruction in ,france4 #djf4 ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction4--,in order to form a proper appreciation of the merits of the men of the ,revolution1 it is first necessary to consider in what a deplorable state they found primary instruction4 ,what a contrast between that which they hoped to do and the actual situation in #aghi6 ,i very well know that fancy sketches have been drawn of the old rgime4 ,a very showy enumeration has been made of the number of colleges2 but we have not been told how many of these colleges had no professors1 and how many had no pupils4 ,and so of the schools2 they are found everywhere1 but it remains to be shown what was taught in them1 and whether anything was taught in them4#bjj ,party writers who are bound to gainsay the work of the ,french ,revolution in the matter of education1 generally put under contribution1 to serve their political prejudices1 the old communal archives4 ,they cite imaginary statistics which prove1 for example1 that in the diocese of ,rouen1 in #agah1 there were #hee schools for boys1 and #cjf schools for girls1 for a territory of #aaei parishes4 ,it is first necessary to verify these statistics1 whose accuracy has not been demonstrated1 and whose figures were evidently obtained only by counting a school wherever the rector of the parish gave lessons in reading and in the catechism to three or four children4 ,but there are other replies to make to the traducers of the ,revolution who tax their ingenuity to prove that instruction was flourishing under the old rgime1 and that the ,revolution destroyed more than it created4 ,with this assumed efflorescence of schools of which we hear1 it is necessary to contrast the results as shown by authentic statistics of the number of illiterates4 ,in #agij there was #ec per cent of men and #gc per cent of women who could not sign their names to their marriage contracts4 ,besides1 we must inquire what was taught in these pretended schools1 how many children attended them1 and what was the material and moral condition of the teachers who directed them4 #djg4 ,,what ,,was ,,taught ,,in ,,the ,,schools4--,instruction was reduced to the catechism1 to reading and writing4 ,on this point there can be no dispute4 ,the official programme of the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools did not go beyond this4 ,the ordinance of ,louis ,,xiv41 dated in #afih1 has been pompously quoted4 8,we would have appointed10 it is there said1 8as far as it shall be possible1 masters and mistresses in all the parishes where there are none1 to instruct all children1 and in particular those whose parents have made profession of the pretended reformed religion1 in the catechism and the prayers which are necessary2 to take them to mass on every work day2 and also to teach reading and writing to those who will need this knowledge40 ,but does not this very text support those who maintain that the ,monarchy and the ,church have never encouraged primary instruction except as required by the necessities of the struggle against heresy1 and that primary instruction under the old rgime was scarcely more than an instrument of religious domination8 ,most often the school was simply a place to which parents sent their children for temporary care4 ,writing was not always taught in it4 ,a school-mistress of ,haute-,marne was forbidden to teach writing 8for fear her pupils might employ their knowledge in writing love-letters40 #djh4 ,,discipline4--,corporal punishments were more than ever the order of the day4 ,the bishop of ,montpellier1 at the end of the seventeenth century1 forbids1 it is true1 beating with sticks1 kicks1 and raps on the head2 but he authorizes the ferule and the rod1 on the condition that the patient be not completely exposed4 #dji4 ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,teachers4--,that which is graver still is that the teachers themselves 7,i speak of lay teachers1 who1 it is true1 were not numerous7 lived in a wretched condition1 without material independence and without moral dignity4 ,in general1 there were no fixed salaries4 ,wages varied from #dj to #bjj francs1 arbitrarily fixed by the vestry-board or by the community1 in return for a great number of services the most various and the least exalted4 ,the school-masters were far less teachers than sextons1 choristers1 beadles1 bell-ringers1 clock-makers1 and even grave-diggers4 8,attendance at marriages and at burials was counted at the rate of #ae sols and dinner for marriages1 and #bj sols for burials40 ,and ,albert ,duruy concludes that in this there were substantial advantages to the school-masters2#bja--;advantages dearly bought in every case1 and repudiated by those who were interested in them4 8,the more services we render the community10 said the teachers of ,bourgogne in their complaints in #aghi1 8the more we are degraded40#bjb ,the school-masters were scarcely more than the domestics of the cur4 ,in order to live1 they were not only obliged to accept these church services1 but they also became shoemakers1 tailors1 innkeepers1 millers1 etc4 ,the teacher of the commune of ,angles1 in the ,high ,alps1 was a 8barbers' surgeon40 ,thus there was no assured salary1 and consequently no moral consideration4 8,in the communes1 teachers were regarded as strangers and not as citizens2 like tramps and vagrants1 they were not admitted to the assemblies of the commune40 #daj4 ,,the ,,recruitment ,,of ,,teachers4--,nowhere were there normal schools for the training of teachers4 ,the schools were entrusted to the first comer4 ,the bishop granted his approbation1 or permission to teach1 after an examination of the most summary kind4 ,the duties of teaching were the means of subsistence which were accepted without call and without serious preparation4 ,in ,provence1 school-masters attended kinds of 8teachers' fairs0 for the purpose of being hired4 ,in the ,alps1 teachers were numerous1 but only in winter4 ,they tarried in the plain and in the valleys only during the inclement season4 ,they returned home for the labors of the summer4 ,consequently1 most of the schools existed only in name4 8,the schools10 we are told1#bjc 8were in vacation for four or five months40 ,for a half of the year1 the school-masters were free to follow another trade1 or1 rather1 to devote themselves more completely to their ordinary trade1 which their school duties did not always interrupt4 #daa4 ,,what ,,the ,,school ,,itself ,,was4--,school-houses were most frequently merely wretched huts1 wooden cots1 and narrow ground-floors1 badly lighted1 which served at the same time as a domicile for the school-master and his family1 and as a class-room for pupils4 ,benches and tables were things rarely seen1 and pupils wrote while standing4 ,in a word1 the state of primary instruction1 when the ,states-,general opened in #aghi1 was as follows3 schools few in number and poorly attended2 few lay teachers1 trained no one knows how1 without thorough instruction1 and1 as they themselves said1 8degraded0 by their inferior position2 few or no elementary books2 gratuity only partial2 finally1 a general indifference for elementary instruction1 which philosophers like ,voltaire1 and ,rousseau1 and ,parliamentarians like ,la ,chalotais1 themselves lightly esteemed4 #dab4 ,,the ,,proper ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4--,i do not say that the ,revolution accomplished all that there was to be attempted in order to bring instruction up to the needs of the new society2 but it purposed to do this4 ,every time a liberal ministry has decided to work for the promotion of instruction1 it has revived its plans2 and it is these same plans that by a vigorous effort public authority has attempted to realize in recent times4 #dac4 ,,the ,,reports ,,of #aghi4--;,already1 in the reports of #aghi1 public opinion vigorously pronounced itself in favor of educational reforms4 8,the cahiers of #aghi1 even those of the clergy and the nobility1 demand the reorganization of public instruction on a comprehensive plan4 ,the cahiers of the clergy of ,rodez and of ,saumur demand #8that there may be formed a plan of national education for the young'2 those of ,lyons1 that education be restricted #8to a teaching body whose members may not be removable except for negligence1 misconduct1 or incapacity2 that it may no longer be conducted according to arbitrary principles1 and that all public instructors be obliged to conform to a uniform plan adopted by the ,states-,general4' ,the cahiers of the nobility of ,lyons insist that #8a national character' be impressed on the education of both sexes4 ,those of ,paris demand #8that public education be perfected1 and extended to all classes of citizens4' ,those of ,blois1 #8that there be established a council composed of the most enlightened scholars of the capital and of the provinces and of the citizens of the different orders1 to form a plan of national education1 for the use of all the classes of society1 and to edit elementary treatises4'0#bjd #dad4 ,,mirabeau 7#agdi-agia74--;,from the first days of the ,revolution1 pedagogical literature abounds1 and gives evidence of the ever-growing interest which public opinion attaches to educational questions4 ,the ,oratorians1 of whom ,la ,chalotais said1 8that they were free from the prejudices of the school and of the cloister1 and that they were citizens10 present to the ,national ,assembly a series of scholastic plans4 ,on its part1 the ,assembly sets itself at work2 ,talleyrand prepares his great report1 and ,mirabeau embodies his own reflections in four eloquent discourses4 ,mirabeau's discourses1 published after his death through the good offices of his friend ,cabanis1 had the following titles3 #a4 ,draft of a ,law for the ,organization of the ,teaching ,body2 #b4 ,public and ,military ,festivals2 #c4 ,organization of a ,national ,lyce2 #d4 ,the ,education of the ,heir ,presumptive of the ,crown4 #dae4 ,,the ,,dangers ,,of ,,ignorance4--,with what brilliancy the illustrious orator made appear the advantages and the necessity of instruction6 8,those who desire that the peasant may not know how to read or write1 have doubtless made a patrimony of his ignorance1 and their motives are not difficult to appreciate2 but they do not know that when they have made a wild beast of a man1 they expose themselves to the momentary danger of seeing him transformed into a savage beast4 ,without intelligence there is no morality4 ,but on whom1 then1 is it important to bestow intelligence1 if it is not upon the rich8 ,is not the safeguard of their enjoyments the morality of the people8 ,through the influence of the laws1 through that of a wise administration1 through the efforts to which each one should be inspired by the hope of ameliorating the condition of his fellows1 exert yourselves1 public and private citizens1 to diffuse in all quarters the noble fruits of knowledge4 ,believe that in dissipating one single error1 in propagating one single wholesome truth1 you will do something for the happiness of the human race2 and whoever you are1 do not have the least doubt that it is only by this means that you can assure your own happiness40 ,but through some inexplicable spirit of timidity1 ,mirabeau did not draw from these principles the consequences that they permit4 ,he does not admit that the ,state can impose the obligation to attend school4 8,society10 he says1 8has not the right to prescribe instruction as a duty4444 ,public authority has not the right1 with respect to the members of the social body1 to go beyond the limits of watchfulness against injustice and of protection against violence44440 8,society10 he adds1 8can exact of each one only the sacrifices necessary for the maintenance of the liberty and the safety of all40 ,mirabeau forgets that the obligation to send children to school is exactly one of those necessary sacrifices which the ,state has the right to impose on parents4 ,hostile to obligation1 ,mirabeau feels no greater partisanship for gratuity3-- 8,gratuitous education10 he said1 8is paid for by everybody1 while its fruits are immediately gathered by only a small number of individuals40 #daf4 ,,liberty ,,of ,,teaching4--,like so many other generous spirits1 ,mirabeau cherished the dream of the most complete liberty of teaching4#bje 8,your single purpose10 he said to the members1 8is to give to man the use of all his faculties1 to make him enjoy all his rights1 to develop the corporate life out of all the individual lives freely developed1 and the will of the whole out of all personal wills40 #dag4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,studies4--,in ,mirabeau's plan1 public and national instruction depends1 not on the executive power1 but on 8the magistrates who truly represent the people1 that is to say1 who are elected and often renewed by the people10--in other terms1 the officers of departments or districts4 ,establishments for instruction ought not to form a consolidated body4 ,let us observe1 finally1 that by the side of the primary schools ,mirabeau established a college of literature for each department1 and at ,paris1 a single ,national ,lyce1 8designed to secure to a select number of ,french youth the means of finishing their education40 ,in this he established a chair of method1 which1 he said1 ought to be the basis of instruction4 ,in conclusion1 the work of ,mirabeau is but a very imperfect sketch1 and a sort of graduated transition between the old and the new rgime4 ,we do not yet find in it the grand ideas which are to impassion men1 and it is the ,rapport of ,talleyrand which constitutes the real introduction to the educational work of the ,revolution4 #dah4 ,,the ,,constituent ,,assembly ,,and ,,talleyrand4--,the constitution of ,sept4 #d1 #agia1 announced the following provision3-- 8,there shall be created and organized a system of public instruction1 common to all citizens1 and gratuitous with respect to those branches of instruction which are indispensable for all men40 ,it was to put in force the decree of the ,constitution that ,talleyrand drew up his ,rapport and presented it to the ,assembly at the sessions of ,september #aj and #aa4 ,the entire bill contained not less than #bjh articles4 ,having reached the term of its troubled existence1 the ,assembly did not find the time to discuss it1 and1 while regretting 8not having established the bases of the regeneration of education10 it referred the examination of ,talleyrand's work to the ,legislative ,assembly4 ,the ,legislative ,assembly showed but little anxiety to accept the legacy of its predecessor4 ,another report1 that of ,condorcet1 was prepared1 so that the bill of ,talleyrand never had the honor of a parliamentary discussion4 #dai4 ,,talleyrand 7#ageh-ahch74--,the ex-bishop of ,autun1 having become a revolutionist of #aghi1 before being the chamberlain of ,napoleon ,i4 and the minister of ,louis ,,xviii41 scarcely deserves by his character the esteem of history2 he too often gave a striking example of political versatility4 ,but at least1 by his supple and acute intelligence1 and by the abundance of his ideas1 he has always risen to the height of the various tasks that he has undertaken1 and his ,rapport is a remarkable work4 #dbj4 ,,general ,,principles4--,as ,montesquieu has said1 8the laws of education ought to be relative to the principles of government40 ,it is by this truth that ,talleyrand is inspired in the long considerations that serve as a preamble to his bill4 ,what was to be done in the presence of a constitution which1 limiting the powers of the king1 called the entire people to participate in political life8 ,that constitution would have remained sterile1 would have been but a dead letter1 if a suitable education had not come to vivify it by causing it to pass1 so to speak1 into the blood of the nation4 ,in what did the new rgime consist8 ,you have separated1 said ,talleyrand to the members1 you have separated the will of the whole1 or the power of making the laws1 from the executive power1 which you have reserved to the king4 ,but that general will must be upright1 and1 in order to be upright1 it must be enlightened and instructed4 ,after having given power to the people1 you ought to teach them wisdom4 ,of what use would it be to enfranchise brutal and unconscious forces1 to turn them over to their own keeping8 ,instruction is the necessary counterpoise of liberty4 ,the law1 which is henceforth the work of the people1 ought not to be at the mercy of the tumultuous opinions of an ignorant multitude4 #dba4 ,,education ,,as ,,related ,,to ,,liberty ,,and ,,equality4--,talleyrand is pleased with his thought1 and1 considering in turn the two fundamental ideas of the ,revolution1 the idea of equality and the idea of liberty1 he shows1 not without some length of analysis1 that instruction is necessary1 on the one hand1 to create free individuals1 by giving to them a conscience and a reason1 and on the other1 to draw men together by diminishing the inequality of intelligences4 #dbb4 ,,rules ,,for ,,public ,,instruction4--,instruction is due to all4 ,there must be schools in the villages as in the cities4 ,instruction ought to be given by all2 there ought to be no privilege in instruction4 ,finally1 instruction ought to extend to all subjects2 everything shall be taught which can be taught3-- 8,in a well organized society1 though no one can attain to universal knowledge1 it should nevertheless be possible to learn everything40 #dbc4 ,,political ,,education4--,at the basis of every educational system there is always a dominant and essential thought4 ,in the ,middle ,age--and the ,middle ,age is continued in the schools of the ,jesuits--it is the idea of salvation1 it is the preparation of the soul for the future life4 ,in the seventeenth century it is the conception of a perfect justness of spirit joined to uprightness of heart2 such was the ideal of the solitaries of ,port ,royal4 ,in #agib politics became the almost exclusive preoccupation of the educators of youth4 ,everything else--religion1 accuracy of judgment1 nobility of heart--is relegated to the second place3 man is nothing more than a political animal1 brought into the world to know1 to love1 and to obey the constitution4 ,the ,declaration of the ,rights of ,man became1 in the system of ,talleyrand1 the catechism of childhood4 ,it is necessary that the future citizen learn to know1 to love1 to obey1 and finally to perfect the constitution4 ,we cannot help thinking that ,talleyrand himself showed a marvellous aptitude for loving and obeying the constitution4 ,unfortunately this has not always been the case6 #dbd4 ,,universal ,,morality4--,one of the most beautiful pages of ,talleyrand's work is certainly that in which he recommends the teaching of universal morality1 and claims the autonomy of natural laws1 distinct from all positive religion4 8,we must learn to infuse ourselves with morality1 which is the first need of all constitutions4444 ,morality must be taught as a real science1 whose principles will be demonstrated to the reason of all men1 and to that of all ages4 ,it is only in this way that it will resist all trials4 ,it has long been a matter of lamentation to see men of all nations and of all religions make it depend exclusively on that multitude of opinions which divide them4 ,from this have resulted great evils2 for abandoning morality to uncertainty1 and often to absurdity1 it has necessarily been compromised2 it has been made versatile and unsettled4 ,it is time to establish it upon its own bases1 and to show men that if baneful divisions separate them1 they at least have in morality a common meeting place where they all ought to take refuge and unite for protection4 ,it is necessary1 then1 to detach it in some sort from everything else1 in order to reunite it at once to that which merits our approval and our homage4444 ,this change is simple and injures nothing2 above all1 it is possible4 ,how is it possible not to see1 in fact1 that abstraction being made of every system and of every opinion1 and by considering in men only their relations with other men1 they can be taught what is good and just1 made to love it1 and made to find happiness in virtuous actions and wretchedness in those which are not so80 #dbe4 ,,four ,,grades ,,of ,,instruction4--,the organization of instruction1 in ,talleyrand's bill1 was 8to be combined with that of the government10 and to be modeled after the division of administrative functions4 ,the ,rapport established four grades of instruction4 ,there was a school for each canton1 corresponding to each primary assembly4 ,then came intermediate or secondary instruction1 intended1 if not for all1 at least for the greater number1 and given in the principal town of the district1 or arrondissement4 ,in the third place1 special schools1 scattered over the territory of the kingdom1 in the principal towns of the departments1 prepare young men for the different professions4 ,finally1 the select intelligences find at ,paris1 in the ,national ,institute1 all that constitutes the higher instruction4 ,the great novelty of this system was the creation of cantonal schools1 open to peasants and to workmen1 to those whom1 up to this time1 improvidence or the purpose of the great sent off to their plows or to their planes4 #dbf4 ,,gratuity ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction4--,talleyrand did not desire compulsory education any more than ,mirabeau2 but1 in accordance with the constitution of #agia1 he demands the gratuity of primary instruction4 ,society is under obligations to give elementary instruction1 but not intermediate and secondary instruction1 and still less1 special and higher instruction4 ,gratuitous for the lowest grade1 and in case of that elementary knowledge which constitutes for every civilized man a real moral necessity1 instruction ought not to be free to young men who aspire to a liberal profession1 because they have leisure1 and who have leisure because they have wealth4 ,however1 ,talleyrand admits exceptions in the case of talent4 ,by the creation of national scholarships1 the doors of all the schools will be opened to select intelligences whom the lowness of their condition would condemn to remain obscure and unappreciated1 did not society lend to them a helping hand4 #dbg4 ,,programme ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction4--,primary instruction should comprise the principles of the national language1 the elementary rules of calculation and mensuration2 the elements of religion1 the principles of morals1 the principles of the constitution2 finally1 the development of the physical1 intellectual1 and moral powers4 #dbh4 ,,means ,,of ,,instruction4--,we shall not insist on the details of the organization of the different parts of that which ,talleyrand himself called his 8immense machine40 ,let us notice only the last part of his work1 where he discusses a certain number of general questions under this arbitrary and unjustifiable title3 ,des moyens d'instruction4 ,the professors1 carefully chosen1 shall be elected by the king4 ,talleyrand does not determine that they shall be irremovable1 but he requires that their situation shall be surrounded by all possible guarantees4 ,prizes1 and rewards of every kind1 shall encourage the teachers of youth to redouble their zeal and to find new methods4 ,talleyrand counts on dramatic representations and on national holidays to hasten the progress of instruction4 ,finally1 let it be added that he entrusts the supreme direction of public instruction to six commissioners1 chosen by the king and obliged to make an annual report4 #dbi4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women4--,talleyrand1 in his proposal1 has not wholly forgotten women1 and what he has said of them is just and sensible4 ,he discusses the question of their political rights1 and1 in accord with tradition and good sense1 he concludes that the happiness of women1 their own interests1 their nature and their proper destination1 ought to forbid them from entering the political arena4 ,what is particularly fit for them is a domestic education1 which1 received in the family1 prepares them for living there4 ,like ,mirabeau1 he wishes woman to remain a woman4 ,her function1 said the great orator1 is to perpetuate the species1 to watch with solicitude over the perilous periods of early youth1 and 8to enchain to her feet all the energies of the husband by the irresistible power of her weakness40 ,without being as gallant in his expressions1 ,talleyrand's thought is the same4 ,he thought it necessary1 however1 in order to respond to certain proprieties1 that the ,state should establish institutions of public education destined to replace the convents4 ,this desire sets right whatever was unreasonable in this passage of his proposed law3-- 8,girls shall not be admitted to the primary schools after the age of eight4 ,after that age the ,national ,assembly advises parents to entrust the education of their daughters only to themselves1 and reminds them that this is their first duty40 #dcj4 ,,the ,,legislative ,,assembly ,,and ,,condorcet4--,of all the educational undertakings of the ,revolution1 the most remarkable is that of ,condorcet4 ,his ,rapport presented to the ,legislative ,assembly1 in behalf of the committee on public instruction1 ,april #bj and #ba1 #agib1 reprinted in #agic by order of the ,convention1 did not directly have the honor of a public discussion2 but it contained principles and solutions which are found in the deliberations and legislative acts of his successors4 ,it remained1 during the whole duration of the ,convention1 the widely accessible source whence the legislators of that time1 like ,romme1 ,bouquier1 and ,lakanal1 drew their inspiration4 #dca4 ,,condorcet 7#agdc-agid74--;,condorcet was admirably qualified for the task which the ,legislative ,assembly imposed on him1 in charging him with the organization of public instruction4 ,during the first years of the ,revolution he had employed his leisure 7he was not a member of the ,constituent ,assembly7 in writing five ,mmoires on instruction1 which appeared in a periodical called the ,bibliothque de l'homme public4 ,the ,rapport which he submitted to the ,assembly was a sort of rsum of his long reflections4 ,condorcet brought to this work1 not the indiscreet imagination of an improvised educator1 but the authority of a competent thinker1 who1 if he had no personal experience in teaching1 had at least reflected much on these topics and was conscious of all their difficulties4 ,besides1 he devoted himself to his work with the ardor of an enthusiastic nature1 and with the serious convictions of a mind that had carried farther than any one else the religion of progress and zeal for the public good4 #dcb4 ,,general ,,considerations ,,upon ,,instruction4--,all the ,revolutionists have sung the praises of instruction1 of which they were the passionate admirers4 ,condorcet is its reflective partisan4 ,he did not love it more than the others1 but he comprehended it better1 and better stated why it should be loved4 ,he first takes up the ideas of ,talleyrand1 and shows that without instruction1 liberty and equality would be chimeras3-- 8,a free constitution which should not be correspondent to the universal instruction of citizens1 would come to destruction after a few conflicts1 and would degenerate into one of those forms of government which cannot preserve the peace among an ignorant and corrupt people40 ,anarchy or despotism1 such is the future of peoples who have become free before having been enlightened4 ,as to equality1 without falling into the chimeras of an instruction which should be the same for all1 and which should reduce all men to the same level1 ,condorcet desires to realize it so far as it is possible4 ,he desires that the poorest and the humblest shall be sufficiently instructed to belong to himself1 and not to be at the mercy of the first charlatan who comes along1 and also to be able to fulfill his civil duties1 to be an elector1 a juror1 etc4 #dcc4 ,,instruction ,,and ,,morality4--,the instrument of liberty and equality1 instruction1 in the opinion of ,condorcet1 is1 in addition1 the real source of public morality and of human progress4 ,if it were not correspondent to the advances in knowledge1 a free and impartial constitution would be hostile rather than favorable to good morals4 8,instruction alone can give the assurance that the principle of justice which the equality of rights ordains1 shall not be in contradiction with this other principle1 which prescribes that only those rights shall be accorded to men which they can exercise without danger to society40 ,but it is moral reasons still more than political motives that make instruction the condition of virtue4 ,condorcet has shrewdly seen that the vices of the people come chiefly from their intellectual impotency4 8,these vices come10 he says1 8from the need of escaping from ennui in moments of leisure1 and in escaping from it through sensations and not through ideas40 ,these are notable words which should never be lost sight of by the teachers and moralists of the people4 ,to cause gross natures to pass from the life of the senses to the intellectual life2 to make study agreeable to the end that the higher pleasures of the spirit may struggle successfully against the appetites for material pleasures2 to put the book in the place of the wine bottle2 to substitute the library for the saloon2 in a word1 to replace sensation by idea1--such is the fundamental problem of popular education4 #dcd4 ,,instruction ,,and ,,progress4--,condorcet was a fanatic on the subject of progress4 ,up to the last moment of his life he dreamed of progress1 its conditions1 and its laws4 ,now the most potent means of hastening progress is to instruct men2 and here is the final reason why instruction is so dear to him4 ,these are grand words3-- 8,if the indefinite improvement of our species is1 as ,i believe1 a general law of nature1 man ought no longer to regard himself as a being limited to a transitory and isolated existence1 destined to vanish after an alternative of happiness or of misery for himself1 and of good and evil for those whom chance has placed near him2 but he becomes an active part of the grand whole1 and a fellow-laborer in a work that is eternal4 ,in an existence of a moment1 and upon a point in space1 he can1 by his works1 compass all places1 relate himself to all the centuries1 and continue to act long centuries after his memory has disappeared from the earth40 ,and further on3 8,for a long time ,i have considered these views as dreams which were to be realized only in an indefinite future1 and for a world where ,i should not exist4 ,a happy event has suddenly opened an immense career to the hopes of the human race2 a single instant has put a century of distance between the man of to-day and him of to-morrow40 #dce4 ,,the ,,liberality ,,of ,,condorcet4--,wrongly credited with a despotic and absolute habit of mind1 ,condorcet is1 on the contrary1 full of scruples and penetrated with respect as regards the liberty of individual opinions4 ,in fact1 he carefully distinguishes instruction from education4 ,instruction has to do with positive and certain knowledge1 the truths of fact and of calculation2 education1 with political and religious beliefs4 ,now1 if the ,state is the natural dispenser of instruction1 it ought1 on the contrary1 in the matter of education1 to forbear1 and to declare itself incompetent4 ,in other words1 the ,state ought not to abuse its power by imposing by force on its citizens such or such a religious ,credo1 such or such a political dogma4 8,public authority cannot establish a body of doctrine which is to be exclusively taught4 ,no public power ought to have the authority1 or even the permission1 to prevent the development of new truths1 or the teaching of theories contrary to its particular policy or to its momentary interests40 #dcf4 ,,five ,,grades ,,of ,,instruction4--,condorcet distinguishes five grades of instruction3 #a4 ,primary schools proper2 #b4 ,secondary schools1 that is1 such as we now call higher primary schools2 #c4 ,institutes1 or colleges of secondary instruction2 #d4 ,lyces1 or institutions of higher instruction2 #e4 ,the ,national ,society of ,sciences and ,arts1 which corresponds to our ,institute4 ,two things are especially to be noted3 first1 ,condorcet establishes for the first time higher primary schools1 and demands one for each district1 and in addition one for each town of four thousand inhabitants2 then1 for primary schools proper1 he takes the population as a basis for their establishment1 and requires one for each four hundred inhabitants4#bjf #dcg4 ,,purpose ,,and ,,plan ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction4--,condorcet has admirably defined the purpose of primary instruction3-- 8,in the primary schools there is taught that which is necessary for each individual in order to direct his own conduct and to enjoy the plenitude of his own rights40 ,the programme comprised reading1 writing1 some notions on grammar1 the rules of arithmetic1 simple methods of measuring a field and a building with exactness2 a simple description of the productions of the country1 of the processes in agriculture and the arts2 the development of the first moral ideas and the rules for conduct derived from them2 finally1 such of the principles of social order as can be put within the comprehension of children4 #dch4 ,,the ,,idea ,,of ,,courses ,,for ,,adults4--,condorcet was strongly impressed with the necessity of continuing the instruction of the workman and of the peasant after withdrawal from school3-- 8,we have observed that instruction ought not to abandon individuals the moment they leave the schools2 that it ought to embrace all ages2 that there is no period of life when it is not useful and possible to learn1 and that this supplementary instruction is so much the more necessary as that of infancy has been contracted to the narrowest limits4 ,here is one of the principal causes of the ignorance in which the poor classes of society are to-day plunged2 they lacked not nearly so much the possibility of receiving an elementary instruction as that of preserving its advantages40 ,consequently1 ,condorcet proposed1 if not courses of instruction for adults1 at least something very like them1--weekly lectures1 given each ,sunday by the village teachers1 a kind of lay sermons4 8,each ,sunday the teacher shall give a public lecture which citizens of all ages will attend4 ,in this arrangement we have seen a means of giving to young people those necessary parts of knowledge1 which1 however1 did not form a part of their primary education40 #dci4 ,,professional ,,and ,,technical ,,education4--,but ,condorcet does not think his duty to the people done when he has given them intellectual emancipation4 ,he is very anxious to give in addition to the sons of peasants or workmen the means of struggling against misery1 by diffusing more and more among the masses of the people a technical knowledge of the arts and trades4 ,he deserves to be counted among the adepts in professional instruction and in industrial education4 ,he asks that there be placed in the schools 8models of machines or of trades02 and in all grades of instruction1 he recommends with a special solicitude the teaching of the practical arts4 ,we fancy we are doing something new to-day when we establish school museums4 8,each school10 says ,condorcet1 8shall have a small library1 and a small cabinet in which shall be placed some meteorological instruments or some specimens of natural history40 #ddj4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women4--,condorcet may be regarded as one of the most ardent apostles of the education of women4 ,he wishes education to be common and equal4 ,he is evidently wrong when he dreams of a perfect identity of instruction for the two sexes1 when he forgets the particular destination of women1 and the special character of their education4 ,but we have found so many educators disposed to depreciate the abilities of woman1 that we are happy to find at last one voice that exalts them1 even beyond measure4 ,let us recall1 however1 the excellent reasons which he gives in support of his thesis on the equality of education4 ,it is necessary that women should be instructed3 #a4 in order that they may be able to bring up their children1 of whom they are the natural instructors2 #b4 in order that they may be the worthy companions1 the equals of their husbands1 that they may feel an interest in their pursuits1 share in their preoccupations1 and1 finally1 participate in their life1 such being the condition of conjugal happiness2 #c4 in order1 further1 by an analogous reason1 that they may not quench1 by their ignorance1 that inspiration of heart and mind which previous studies have developed in their husbands1 but that they may nourish this flame by conversation and reading in common2 #d4 finally1 because this is just1--because the two sexes have an equal right to instruction4 #dda4 ,,reservations ,,to ,,be ,,made4--,all is not equally worthy of commendation in the work of ,condorcet4 ,some faults and some omissions mar this fine piece of political pedagogy4 ,the faults are1 first1 the exaggerated idea of liberty and of equality4 ,from ,condorcet's ardors for liberty there issues1 in his plan for education1 a grave error1--the idea of making of the teaching body a sort of ,state within the ,state1 an independent authority1 a fourth power1 released from all exterior authority1 governing itself and administering its own affairs1 the ,state intervening only as treasurer to pay for the services which it neither regulates nor supervises4 ,the liberal ,daunou1 while explaining the system of our author1 has criticised it on this point4#bjg 8,condorcet10 he said1 8the enemy of corporations1 has sanctioned one in his scheme of national instruction2 he established1 as it were1 an academic church4 ,this is because ,condorcet1 the enemy of kings1 would add in the balance of public powers one counterbalance more to that royal power whose monstrous existence1 in a free constitution1 is sufficiently attested by the alarms and fears of all the friends of liberty40 ,the passion for equality led ,condorcet into another chimera1--that of the absolute gratuity of instruction of all grades4 ,finally1 in his dreams of infinite perfectibility1 ,condorcet allows himself to be carried so far away as to imagine for man1 and to expect from instruction1 results that are utterly unattainable4 ,instruction1 according to him1 ought to be so complete 8as to cause the disappearance of every inequality which induces dependence40 #ddb4 ,,prejudices ,,of ,,the ,,mathematician4--,from another point of view1 ,condorcet was led astray by his predilection for the sciences4 ,he so far forgot that he was a member of the ,french ,academy as to obey only his tendencies1 a little too exclusive1 as a mathematician and a member of the ,academy of ,sciences4 ,by a reaction1 natural enough1 against those long centuries in which an abuse was made of literary culture1 ,condorcet is too prompt to underrate the influence of letters in education1 and to invest the sciences with the place of honor4 ,the reasons which he invokes to justify his preference are not all conclusive4 #ddc4 ,,omissions4--,the idea of obligatory instruction is still wanting in the scheme we are examining4 ,we shall be surprised1 perhaps1 that ,condorcet1 who has so clearly proclaimed the necessity of universal instruction1 did not think to impose obligatory attendance1 which is the only means of establishing it4 ,this is because the early revolutionists1 in the ardor of their enthusiasm1 did not suspect the opposition to the accomplishment of their plans that was to come from the indifference of the greater number1 and from the prejudices of those who1 as ,condorcet has eloquently said1 8thought they were obeying ,god while betraying their country40 ,it seemed to them that when centres of light had been made to glow over the whole surface of the country1 citizens would hasten after them1 impelled by a natural appetite1 spontaneously thirsting for enlightenment4 ,they were deceived4 ,these hopes1 a little artless1 were destined to be disproved by facts2 and it was to triumph over the neglect of some1 and the resistance of others1 that the ,convention1 supplying one of the rare defects in ,condorcet's plan1 decreed1 on several occasions1 instruction 8imperative and forced10 as was then said4 ,on still another point1 ,condorcet remained inferior to his successors2 in his report there was no mention made of the organization of normal schools4 ,in this grave and fundamental question of the education of the teaching body1 ,condorcet contented himself with a provisional expedient1 which consisted in entrusting to the professors of the grade immediately higher the care of preparing teachers for the grade lower4 #ddd4 ,,final ,,conclusion4--,but even with these reservations1 the work of ,condorcet deserves scarcely anything but praise4 ,we have commended its new and exalted conceptions4 ,its beautiful and exact arrangement and its masterly style also deserve praise4 ,condorcet's periods are symmetrical in their fullness1 and the expression is precise and vigorous4 ,doubtless there is some monotony and some frigidity in that style so concise and strong4 ,but at intervals there are outbursts of passion4 ,the man whom his contemporaries compared to 8an enraged lamb10 or to a 8volcano covered with snow10 is painted to the life in his writings4 ,his ,rapport is like a beautiful and finished statue of marble1 cold to the touch1 but upon which the hand might feel beating in places a vein warm with life4 #dde4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,the more important lessons to be derived from this study are the following3 the necessity of making instruction universal and of having it administered by the ,state2 the need of making instruction obligatory1 and1 in certain grades1 gratuitous2 the value of intellectual culture as a moral safeguard4 #b4 ,the right of the ,state to self-preservation carries with it the right to ordain the establishment of schools for giving a certain kind and degree of instruction4 ,this constitutes the first form of compulsion4 #c4 ,when there is not a voluntary and general attendance on the schools ordained by the ,state1 it may avail itself of the supplementary right to make attendance obligatory4 ,this constitutes the second form of compulsion4 #d4 ,gratuity is the logical sequence to compulsion4 ,if the ,state may require all children to partake of a certain degree of instruction1 it must make such instruction free4 #e4 ,should instruction that is above the compulsory grade be free8 ,this depends on the question whether the ,state needs a certain amount of the higher culture1 and whether this required amount will be secured at the pupils' own expense4 ,monsieur ,compayr decides1 as against ,condorcet 7paragraph #dda71 that the higher grades of instruction should not be gratuitous4 ,in this country the prevailing theory is that the higher education should be endowed by the ,state4 #f4 ,the relation of instruction to morality has never been more justly and pointedly stated than in paragraph #dcc4 ,this is not only good sense but sound philosophy4 ,,footnotes3 #aih ,thry1 ,histoire de l'ducation en ,france1 ,paris1 #ahfa1 ,tome ,,ii4 p4 #ahh4 #aii ,albert ,duruy1 ,l'instruction publique et la ,rvolution1 p4 #hj4 #bjj ,j4 ,simon1 ,dieu1 patrie1 et libert1 p4 #aa4 #bja ,albert ,duruy1 op4 cit41 p4 #af4 #bjb ,dolances presented to the ,states-,general by the teachers of the smaller cities1 hamlets1 and villages of ,bourgogne4 #bjc ,a4 ,duruy1 op4 cit41 p4 #aj4 #bjd ,see the ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie1 ,article ,,france4 #bje ,what is meant by 8liberty of teaching0 will be better understood from the following quotations from the ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie1 ,premire ,partie1 p4 #aege et seq43-- 8,liberty of teaching1 in a country which has proclaimed obligatory instruction1 is the equal right of all to give that instruction1 or the prohibition of every monopoly which would put that instruction into the hands either of privileged individuals1 or of corporations1 or even of the ,state1 to the exclusion of every other teaching body40 8,under the old rgime1 the education of the masses was committed to the hands of the ,church2 the colleges1 directed by a body of men who were all ecclesiastics1 gave #8a vain pretence of an education1 where the memory alone was exercised1 and where the reason was insulted in the forms of reasoning4'0 8,the purpose of the men of the ,revolution was1 then1 above all else1 to emancipate science1 and to guarantee the right of free inquiry2 and while rescuing instruction from the tyranny of the ,church1 to assure to citizens in general the opportunity to acquire the knowledge that is essential to man4 ,on the one hand1 they would take precautions against the abuse of power by a government which had always shown itself hostile to free thought 4442 on the other1 in opposition to the old doctrine which condemned the people to ignorance1 they proclaimed the duty of the ,state to create a system of public instruction1 common to all citizens40 8,it is at this point of view that we must place ourselves in order to gain a correct notion of the plans that were submitted to the ,constituent ,convention and the ,legislative ,assembly4 ,what ,talleyrand and ,condorcet desired was1 first1 to organize1 under the form of a public service1 a system of national education in which all might participate2 and in the second place1 to take precautions against the ,church and the royal authority1 and so prevent despotic power from attempting to prevent the development of new truths and the teaching of theories which it judged contrary to its policy and interests4 ,for them1 liberty of teaching is the demand of philosophic liberty against ecclesiastical and secular authority40 7,p47 #bjf ,public instruction as now organized in ,france is of three grades1 as follows3-- 8,primary instruction1 which gives the elements of knowledge1 reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,secondary instruction1 embracing the study of the ancient languages1 of rhetoric1 and the first elements of the mathematical and physical sciences1 and of philosophy4 ,this is given in the lyces and colleges1 as well as in the smaller seminaries4 ,superior instruction1 designed to teach in all their completeness letters1 the languages1 the sciences1 and philosophy4 ,this is given in the ,faculties1 in the ,college of ,france1 and in the larger seminaries40--,,littr4 7,p47 #bjg ,see the ,rapport of ,daunou presented to the ,national ,convention1 #bg ,vendmiaire1 year ,,iv4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,convention4--,,lepelletier ,,saint-,,fargeau1 ,,lakanal1 ,,daunou4 ,,the ,,convention2 ,,successive ,,measures2 ,,the ,,bill ,,of ,,lanthenas2 ,,the ,,bill ,,of ,,romme2 ,,the ,,national ,,holidays2 ,,elementary ,,books2 ,,decree ,,of ,,may #cj1 #agic2 ,,lakanal 7#agfb-ahde72 ,,daunou 7#agfa-ahdj72 ,,the ,,bill ,,of ,,lakanal1 ,,siey,s1 ,,and ,,daunou2 ,,lepelletier ,,saint-,,fargeau 7#agfj-agic72 ,,his ,,scheme ,,of ,,education 7,,july #ac1 #agic72 ,,lepelletier ,,and ,,condorcet2 ,,compulsory ,,education ,,in ,,boarding-,,schools2 ,,the ,,child ,,belongs ,,to ,,the ,,republic2 ,,school ,,occupations2 ,,absolute ,,gratuity2 ,,the ,,rights ,,of ,,the ,,family2 ,,saint-,,just2 ,,the ,,romme ,,law2 ,,the ,,bouquier ,,law2 ,,the ,,lakanal ,,law2 ,,educational ,,methods2 ,,elementary ,,books2 ,,geography2 ,,letters ,,and ,,sciences2 ,,the ,,foundation ,,of ,,normal ,,schools2 ,,the ,,normal ,,school ,,of ,,paris2 ,,central ,,schools2 ,,their ,,defects2 ,,positive ,,and ,,practical ,,spirit2 ,,great ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,convention2 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,october #bg1 #agie2 ,,insufficiency ,,of ,,daunou',s ,,scheme2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #ddf4 ,,the ,,convention4--,the ,constituent ,assembly and the ,legislative ,assembly had done nothing more than to prepare reports and projected decrees1 without either discussing them or bringing them to a vote4 ,the ,convention went so far as to vote1 but it did not have the time to execute the resolutions1 contradictory and incoherent1 which it was forced to adopt1 one after another1 by the fluctuation of political currents4 #ddg4 ,,successive ,,measures4--,nothing definite in the way of execution issued from the enthusiastic passion which the ,convention exhibited for the organization of primary instruction4 ,first there was a triumph of modern ideas in the bill of ,lanthenas1 the first article of which was adopted ,december #ab1 #agib2 and they appeared again in the bill of ,sieys1 ,daunou1 and ,lakanal1 presented ,june #bf1 #agic1 and defeated after an exciting discussion4 ,but the influence of the ,girondists was succeeded by the domination of the ,montagnards#bjh whose dictatorial and violent spirit is indicated3 #a4 in the bill of ,lepelletier1 adopted through the support of ,robespierre1 ,august #ac1 #agic2 #b4 in the bill projected and presented by ,romme in behalf of the commission of public instruction1 ,october #bj1 #agic1 and passed on the following day2 #c4 and lastly in the bill of ,bouquier1 which1 presented ,december #ai1 #agic1 became the decree of ,december #bf4 ,the reaction which followed resulted in the legislative acts by which the ,convention finished its educational work4 ,the bill of ,sieys1 ,daunou1 and ,lakanal was reconsidered1 and ,november #ag1 #agic1 it was substituted for the bill of ,bouquier4 ,finally1 when the constitution of #agid was substituted for the constitution of #agic1 a new law of public instruction was passed on the report of ,daunou1 ,october #bg1 #agie1 and it is this law which presided over the organization of schools under the ,directory4 ,in this confusion1 this chaos of bills and counter-bills1 it is difficult to establish any clew that is wholly trustworthy4 ,we shall restrict ourselves to noting the points that seem essential4#bji ,impatient to finish its business1 the committee on public instruction1 which the ,convention had appointed ,october #b1 #agib1 decided to put aside1 for the present1 the other branches of public instruction1 and proposed for immediate action only the organization of primary schools1 by taking1 as a point of departure1 the bill which ,condorcet had presented to the ,legislative ,assembly4 ,the report of ,lanthenas and a proposed decree were within a few weeks the results of these deliberations2 but in all its parts this result is scarcely more than the reproduction of ,condorcet's work1 and presents nothing original4 ,let us note1 however1 the idea of associating the pupil with his teacher in the work of instruction3-- 8,teachers will call to their aid the pupils whose intelligence shall have made the most rapid progress2 and they will thus be able1 very easily1 to give to four classes of pupils1 in the same session1 all the attention needed for their progress4 ,at the same time1 the efforts made by the most competent to teach what they know to their schoolmates1 will be much more instructive to themselves than the lessons they receive from their masters40 ,further1 let us notice title ,,iii4 of the proposed decree relative to the measures to be taken in order to make obligatory the use of the ,french language1 and to abolish the patois1 or particular idioms4 ,the minimum salary of men teachers was fixed at six hundred francs4 ,the appointment of teachers was entrusted to the heads of families1 who were to elect one from a list prepared by a 8commission of educated persons0 appointed by the ,councils-,general of the communes and the ,directories of departments4 #ddh4 ,,the ,,bill ,,of ,,lanthenas4--,the discussion of the bill of ,lanthenas began on ,december #ab1 #agib1 but only article first was carried1 and the bill itself did not become a law4 ,on ,december #bj1 another member of the ,convention1 ,romme1 mathematician1 deputy from ,puy-de-,dme1 read a new report on public instruction4 #ddi4 ,,the ,,bill ,,of ,,romme4--,the bill of ,lanthenas aimed at only the first grade of instruction1 but the report of ,romme embraced the four grades of instruction1 and was but little more than a reproduction of ,condorcet's work4 ,but no legislative measure followed the reading of his bill1 and up to the #cjth of ,may1 #agic1 there is scarcely anything to be noted1 as the educational work of the ,convention1 save the bill of ,rabaud ,saint-tienne on public festivals1 and the report of ,arbogast on elementary books4 #dej4 ,,national ,,holidays4--,it is difficult to form an idea of the importance which the men of this period attributed to the educational influence of national holidays4 ,at variance on so many points1 they all agree in thinking that the ,french people could be instructed and regenerated simply by establishing popular solemnities4 8,it is a kind of institution10 said ,robespierre1 8which ought to be considered as an essential part of public education1--,i mean national holidays40 ,daunou also persisted in considering national holidays as the most certain and the most comprehensive means of public instruction4 ,the decree passed at his request established seven national holidays3 that of the foundation of the ,republic1 of young men1 of husbands1 of thanksgiving1 of agriculture1 of liberty1 of old men4 #dea4 ,,elementary ,,books4--,an important point in the pedagogy of the ,revolution was the attention given to the composition of elementary books4 ,on several occasions the ,convention put up for competition these modest works intended to aid parents or teachers in their task4 ,it was one of the happiest thoughts of that period to desire that there should be placed in the hands of parents simple methods and well-arranged books which might teach them how to bring up their children4 ,the difficulty of this kind of composition was understood1 and so application was made to the most distinguished writers4 ,bernardin de ,saint ,pierre was employed to edit the ,elements of ,morality4 ,december #bd1 #agib1 ,arbogast had submitted to the ,convention a proposed decree in which it was said3-- 8,it is only the superior men in a science1 or in an art1 those who have sounded all its depths1 and have carried it to its farthest limits1 who are capable of composing such elementary treatises as are desirable40 #deb4 ,,decree ,,of ,,may #cj1 #agic4--,the first decree of the ,convention relative to primary schools was passed ,may #cj1 #agic4 ,but this laconic law contained nothing very new4 ,besides1 it was forgotten in the storm which on the next day1 ,may #ca1 swept away the ,girondists1 and gave to the ,montagnards the political supremacy4 #dec4 ,,lakanal 7#agfb-ahde74--;,after the revolution of ,may #ca1 among the men who1 in the committee on public instruction and in the assembly itself1 were occupied with the educational organization of ,france1 we must assign the first place to ,lakanal and ,daunou4 ,on ,june #bf1 #agic1 three days after the adoption of the new constitution1 ,lakanal brought to the tribune the bill which he had drawn up in conjunction with ,daunou and ,sieys4 ,lakanal is one of the purest and most remarkable characters of the ,french ,revolution4#baj 8,lakanal10 said ,marat1 to whom some one had denounced him1 8works too much to have the time to conspire40 ,industrious and thoughtful1 after having taught philosophy with the 8,doctrinaires10 of whom he was the pupil1 he became the first1 after ,condorcet1 of the educators of the ,revolution4 8,his appearance10 says ,paul ,bert1 8has always particularly attracted me4 ,it unites gentleness with force1 energy with serenity4 ,we feel that this austere citizen has never known any other passion than that of well-doing1 and has neither desired nor obtained any other reward than that of having done his duty4 ,he despises violence of language1 and hates that of acts2 and so we do not find him1 under the ,empire1 a baron like ,jean-,bon ,saint ,andr1 a minister like ,fouch1 or a senator like a whole herd40 #ded4 ,,daunou 7#agfa-ahdj74--;,at an early period in his life1 ,daunou had taught philosophy in the colleges of the ,oratorians1 of whom he was a member4 ,in #aghi he published in the ,journal ,encyclopdique1 a plan of national education which was approved by the ,oratory1 and which he presented to the ,constituent ,assembly in #agij4 ,in the ,convention he took an active part in the work of the committee on public instruction1 and assisted in the preparation of ,lakanal's first bill4 ,in the same year he published an ,essay on ,public ,instruction4 ,in the ,council of the ,five ,hundred he was appointed to make a report on the organization of special schools4 ,under the ,empire he accepted the management of the national archives4 ,under the ,restoration he was appointed professor of history in the ,college of ,france4 ,finally1 after #ahcj1 we find him once more in the ,chamber of ,deputies1 giving proof of unusual energy and vitality1 and presenting in opposition to the minister of public instruction1 de ,montalivet1 a counter-bill1 the principal aim of which was to lodge with the municipal authorities the administration of schools1 a power which the government wished to leave in the hands of the inspectors4 #dee4 ,,the ,,bill ,,of ,,lakanal1 ,,siey,s1 ,,and ,,daunou4--,these are the principal provisions of this bill3 a school for each thousand inhabitants2 separate schools for girls and boys2 the election of teachers entrusted to a board of inspectors composed of three members1 and located at the government centre of each district2 the general organization of methods1 regulations1 and school rgime placed in the hands of a central commission sitting with the ,corps ,lgislatif1 and placed under its authority2 an education which embraces the whole man1 at once intellectual1 physical1 moral1 and industrial2 the first lessons in reading given to boys as to girls by a woman teacher2 arithmetic1 geometry1 physics1 and morals included in the programme of instruction2 visits to hospitals1 prisons1 and workshops2 finally1 liberty granted to private initiative to found schools4 8,the law can put no veto on the right which all citizens have to open private courses and schools1 free in all grades of instruction1 and to direct them as shall seem to them best40 7,art4 #fa47 ,this was pushing liberality rather far4 ,another distinctive feature of this bill1 which is not without value1 is the respect shown the character and functions of the teacher4 ,on public occasions the schoolmaster shall wear a medal with this inscription3 ,he who instructs is a second father4 ,the form is rather pretentious1 but the sentiment is good4 ,other articles do not merit the same commendation1 particularly the one which established theatres in each canton1 in which men and women would take part in music and dancing4 ,the bill of ,lakanal1 vigorously opposed by a part of the ,assembly1 was not adopted4 ,under the leadership of ,robespierre1 the ,convention gave preference to the dictatorial and violent measure of ,lepelletier ,saint-,fargeau4 #def4 ,,lepelletier ,,saint-,,fargeau 7#agfj-agic74--;,assassinated in #agic1 ,lepelletier ,saint-,fargeau left among his papers an educational bill which ,robespierre took up1 and which he presented to the ,assembly ,july #ac1 #agic1 on the occasion of the debate opened on the motion of ,barrre4 ,a month later the bill was passed by the ,convention1 but before being carried into operation1 the decree was revoked4 ,the ,assembly receded from the accomplishment of a reform in which some good intentions could not atone for measures that1 on the whole1 were mischievous and tyrannical4 #deg4 ,,his ,,scheme ,,of ,,education4--,the plan of ,lepelletier scarcely deserves the admiration which ,michelet gives it1 who salutes in this work the 8revolution of childhood10 and who declares that it is 8admirable in spirit1 and in no respect chimerical40 ,an imitation with but little originality of the institutions of ,lycurgus and the reveries of ,plato1 the plan of ,lepelletier is scarcely more than an historical curiosity4 #deh4 ,,lepelletier ,,and ,,condorcet4--,lepelletier accepted ,condorcet's plan in all that relates to secondary schools1 institutes1 and lyces1 that is to say1 higher primary instruction1 secondary instruction1 and superior instruction4 8,i find10 he said1 8in these three courses a plan which seems to me wisely conceived40 ,but ,lepelletier follows only his own fancy in the conception of those curious boarding-schools1 little barracks for childhood1 in which he confined all children by force1 wresting them from their parents1 and placing at the expense of the ,state their moral training1 as well as their material support4 #dei4 ,,obligatory ,,attendance ,,in ,,boarding-,,schools4--,in education1 ,lepelletier represents the doctrine of the ,jacobins4 ,in order to make ,france republican1 he would employ radical and absolute measures4 8,let us ordain10 he says1 8that all children1 girls as well as boys1 girls from five to eleven1 and boys from five to twelve1 shall be educated in common1 at the expense of the ,state1 and shall receive1 for six or seven years1 the same education40 ,in order that there may be complete equality1 their food1 like their instruction1 shall be the same2 even more1 their dress shall be identical4 ,does ,lepelletier then desire1 in his craze for equality1 that girls shall be dressed like boys8 #dfj4 ,,the ,,child ,,belongs ,,to ,,the ,,republic4--,the idea of ,lepelletier is that the child is the property of the ,state1 a chattel of the ,republic4 ,the ,state must make the child in its own image4 8,in our system10 he says1 8the entire being of the child belongs to us2 the material never leaves the mould40 ,and he adds1 8,whatever is to compose the ,republic ought to be cast in the republican mould40 ,lepelletier imposes on all children1 girls and boys1 the same studies1--reading1 writing1 numbers1 natural morality1 domestic economy4 ,this is almost the programme of ,condorcet4 ,but he adds to it manual labor4 ,all children shall be employed in working the soil4 ,if the college has not at its disposal enough land to cultivate1 the children shall be taken out on the roads1 there to pick up stones or to scatter them4 ,can we imagine1 without smiling1 a system of education1 in which our future advocates and writers are to spend six years in transporting material upon the highways8 #dfa4 ,,absolute ,,gratuity4--,the colleges in which ,lepelletier sequesters and quarters all the children are to be absolutely free4 ,three measures were proposed for covering the expense3 #a4 tuition paid by parents in easy circumstances2 #b4 the labor of the children2 #c4 the balance needed furnished by the ,state4 ,but is there not just a little of the chimerical in counting much on the work of children of that age8 #dfb4 ,,the ,,rights ,,of ,,the ,,family4--,lepelletier takes but little account of the rights of the family4 ,however1 notice must be taken of that idea which ,robespierre thought 8sublime10--the creation1 at each college1 of a council of heads of families1 entrusted with the oversight of teachers and their children4 #dfc4 ,,saint-,,just4--,saint-,just1 in his ,institutions rpublicaines1 maintains opinions analogous to those of ,lepelletier4 ,he admits that the child belongs to his mother till the age of five2 but from the age of five till death he belongs to the ,republic4 ,till the age of sixteen boys are fed at the expense of the ,state4 ,it is true that their food is not expensive4 ,it is composed of grapes1 fruit1 vegetables1 milk-diet1 bread1 and water4 ,their dress is of cotton in all seasons4 ,however1 ,saint-,just did not subject girls to the same rgime4 ,more liberal on this point than ,lepelletier1 he would have them brought up at home4 #dfd4 ,,the ,,romme ,,law 7,oct4 #cj1 #agic74--,romme was one of the most active members of the committee on public instruction4 ,he was the principal author of the bill which the ,convention passed in ,october1 #agic1 the principal articles of which were conceived as follows3-- 8,art4 #a4 ,there are primary schools distributed throughout the ,republic in proportion to the population4 8,art4 #b4 ,in these schools children receive their earliest physical1 moral1 and intellectual education1 the best adapted to develop in them republican manners1 love of country1 and taste for labor4 8,art4 #c4 ,they learn to speak1 read1 and write the ,french language4 8,they are taught the acts of virtue which most honor free men1 and particularly the acts of the ,french ,revolution most fit to give them elevation of soul1 and to make them worthy of liberty and equality4 8,they acquire some notions of the geography of ,france4 8,the knowledge of the rights and duties of the man and the citizen is brought within their comprehension through examples and their own experience4 8,they are given the first notions of the natural objects that surround them1 and of the natural action of the elements4 8,they have practice in the use of numbers1 of the compass1 the level1 weights and measures1 the lever1 the pulley1 and in the measurement of time4 8,they are often allowed to witness what is done in the fields and in workshops2 and they take part in these employments as far as their age permits40 ,but the bill of ,romme was not put in operation4 ,the ,convention presently decided on a revision of the decree it had passed1 and the bill of ,bouquier was substituted for the bill of ,romme4 #dfe4 ,,the ,,bouquier ,,law 7,dec4 #ai1 #agic74--;,bouquier was a man of letters1 deputy from ,dordogne1 and belonged to the ,jacobinic party4 ,he spoke of his bill as follows3-- 8,it is a simple and natural scheme1 and one easy to execute2 a plan which forever proscribes all idea of an academic body1 of a scientific society1 of an educational hierarchy2 a plan1 finally1 whose bases are the same as those of the constitution1 liberty1 equality1 and simplicity40 ,the ,bouquier bill was adopted ,december #ai1 and remained in force till it was superseded by the ,lakanal law4 ,these are its principal provisions3-- 8,the right to teach is open to all40 8,citizens1 men and women1 who would use the liberty to teach1 shall be required to produce a certificate of citizenship and good morals1 and to fulfill certain formalities40 8,they shall be designated as instituteurs and institutrices40 ,they shall be placed 8under the immediate supervision of the municipality1 of parents1 and of all the citizens40 8,they are forbidden to teach anything contrary to the laws and to republican morality40 ,on the other hand1 parents are required to send their children to the primary schools4 ,parents who do not obey this order are sentenced1 for the first offence1 to pay a fine equal to a fourth of their school tax4 ,in case of a second offence1 the fine is to be doubled and the children to be suspended for ten years from their rights as citizens4 ,finally1 young people who1 on leaving the primary schools1 8do not busy themselves with the cultivation of the soil1 shall be required to learn a trade useful to society40 ,enforced school attendance1 and what is an entirely different thing1 the obligation of citizens to work1 were thus established by the ,bouquier law4 ,let us add that the author of this bill1 which1 like so many others1 was not executed1 had strange notions on the sciences and on instruction4 8,the speculative sciences10 he says1 8detach from society the individuals who cultivate them4444 ,free nations have no need of speculative scholars1 whose minds are constantly travelling over desert paths40 ,hence1 no scientific instruction4 ,the real schools1 8the noblest1 the most useful1 the most simple1 are the meetings of committees4 ,the ,revolution1 in establishing national holidays1 in creating popular associations and clubs1 has placed in all quarters inexhaustible sources of instruction4 ,then let us not go and substitute for this organization1 as simple and sublime as the people that creates it1 an artificial organization1 based on academic statutes which should no longer infect a regenerated nation40 #dff4 ,,the ,,lakanal ,,law 7,nov4 #ag1 #agid74--,there still remained something of the spirit of ,lepelletier in the ,bouquier law1 though the idea of an education in common had been abandoned2 but the ,lakanal law openly breaks with the tendencies of ,robespierre and his friends4 ,the law which was passed ,november #ag1 #agid1 upon the report of ,lakanal1 reproduced in its spirit and in its principal provisions the original bill which the influence of ,robespierre had defeated4 ,the following was the programme of instruction contained in this law4 ,the instructor shall teach3-- 8#a4 ,reading and writing2 #b4 the declaration of the rights of man and the constitution2 #c4 elementary lessons on republican morals2 #d4 the elements of the ,french language both spoken and written2 #e4 the rules of simple calculation and of surveying2 #f4 lessons on the principal phenomena and the most common productions of nature2 there shall be taught a collection of heroic actions and songs of triumph40 ,at the same time the bill required that the schools be divided into two sections1 one for the girls and the other for the boys1 and distributed in the proportion of one to each thousand inhabitants4 ,the teachers1 nominated by the people and confirmed by a jury of instruction1 are to receive salaries as follows3 men1 twelve hundred francs2 women1 one thousand francs4 #dfg4 ,,pedagogical ,,methods4--,lakanal had given much thought to pedagogical methods4 ,it is the interior of the school1 not less than its exterior organization1 that preoccupied his generous spirit4 ,like the most of his contemporaries1 a partisan of ,condillac's doctrine1 he believed that the idea could not reach the understanding except through the mediation of the senses4 ,consequently1 he recommended the method which consists 8in first appealing to the eyes of pupils1 444 in creating the understanding through the senses1 444 in developing morals out of the sensibility1 just as understanding out of sensation40 ,this is an excellent method if we add to it a corrective1 if we do not forget to excite the intelligence itself1 and to make an appeal to the interior forces of the soul4 #dfh4 ,,elementary ,,books4--,a few other quotations will suffice to prove with what acuteness of pedagogic sense ,lakanal was endowed4#baa ,very much interested in the composition of works for popular instruction1 he sharply distinguished the elementary book1 which brings knowledge within the reach of children1 from the abridgment1 which does no more than condense a long work4 8,the abridged10 he said1 8is exactly opposed to the elementary40 ,no one has better comprehended than he the difficulty of writing a treatise on morals for the use of children3-- 8,it requires special genius4 ,simplicity in form and artless grace should there be mingled with accuracy of ideas2 the art of reasoning ought never to be separated from that of interesting the imagination2 such a work should be conceived by a profound logician and executed by a man of feeling4 ,there should be found in it1 so to speak1 the analytical mind of ,condillac and the soul of ,fnelon40 #dfi4 ,,geography4--,lakanal has defined with the same exactness the method to be followed in the teaching of geography4 8,first let there be shown10 he says1 8in every school1 the plan of the commune in which it is situated1 and then let the children see a map of the canton of which the commune forms a part2 then a map of the department1 and then a map of ,france2 after which will come the map of ,europe and of other parts of the world1 and lastly a map of the world40#bab #dgj4 ,,letters ,,and ,,sciences4--,more just than ,condorcet1 ,lakanal did not wish scientific culture to do prejudice to literary culture3-- 8,for a long time we have neglected the belles-lettres1 and some men who wish to be considered profound regard this study as useless4 ,it is letters1 however1 which open the intelligence to the light of reason1 and the heart to impressions of sentiment4 ,they substitute morality for interest1 give pupils polish1 exercise their judgment1 make them more sensitive and at the same time more obedient to the laws1 more capable of grand virtues40 #dga4 ,,necessity ,,of ,,normal ,,schools4--,lakanal's highest title to glory is that he has associated his name with the foundation of normal schools4 ,the idea of establishing pedagogical seminaries was not absolutely new4 ,a number of the friends of instruction1 both in the seventeenth and in the eighteenth century1#bac had seen that it would be useless to open schools1 if good teachers had not been previously trained2 but the ,convention has the honor of having for the first time given practical effect to this vague aspiration4 ,decreed ,june #b1 #agic1 the foundation of normal schools was the object of a report by ,lakanal on ,october #bf1 #agid4 ,in a style which was inferior to his ideas1 and which would have been more effective had it been simpler1 ,lakanal sets forth the necessity of teaching the teachers themselves before sending them to teach their pupils3-- 8,are there in ,france1 are there in ,europe1 are there in the whole world1 two or three hundred men 7and we need more than this number7 competent to teach the useful arts and the necessary branches of knowledge1 according to methods which make minds more acute1 and truths more clear1--methods which1 while teaching you to know one thing1 teach you to reason upon all things8 ,no1 that number of men1 however small it may appear1 exists nowhere on the earth4 ,it is necessary1 then1 that they be trained4 ,in being the first to decree normal schools1 you have resolved to create in advance a very large number of teachers1 capable of being the executors of a plan whose purpose is the regeneration of the human understanding1 in a republic of twenty-five millions of men1 all of whom democracy renders equal40 ,the term normal schools 7from the ,latin word norma1 a rule7 was not less new than the thing4 ,lakanal explains that it was designed by this expression to characterize with exactness the schools which were to be the type and the standard of all the others4 #dgb4 ,,the ,,normal ,,school ,,of ,,paris4--,to accomplish his purpose1 ,lakanal proposed to assemble at ,paris1 under the direction of eminent masters1 such as ,lagrange1 ,berthollet1 and ,daubenton1 a considerable number of young men1 called from all quarters of the ,republic1 and designated 8by their talents as by their state of citizenship40 ,the masters of this great normal school were to give their pupils 8lessons on the art of teaching morals1 444 and teach them to apply to the teaching of reading and writing1 of the first elements of calculation1 of practical geometry1 of history and of ,french grammar1 the methods outlined in the elementary courses adopted by the ,national ,convention and published by its orders40 ,once instructed 8in the art of teaching human knowledge10 the pupils of the ,normal ,school of ,paris were to go and repeat in all parts of the ,republic the 8grand lectures0 they had heard1 and there form the nucleus of provincial normal schools4 ,and thus1 says ,lakanal with exaggeration1 8that fountain of enlightenment1 so pure and so abundant1 since it will proceed from the foremost men of the ,republic of every class1 poured out from reservoir to reservoir1 will diffuse itself from place to place throughout all ,france1 without losing anything of its purity in its course40 ,october #cj1 #agid1 the ,convention adopted the proposals of ,lakanal4 ,the ,normal ,school opened ,january #bj1 #agie4 ,its organization was defective and impracticable4 ,first1 there were too many pupils1--four hundred young men admitted without competitive tests1 and abandoned to themselves in ,paris2 professors who were doubtless illustrious1 but whose literary talent or scientific genius did not perhaps adapt itself sufficiently to the needs of a normal course of instruction and of a practical pedagogy2 lectures insufficient in number1 which lasted for only four months1 and which1 on the testimony of ,daunou1 8were directed rather towards the heights of science than towards the art of teaching40 ,thus the experiment1 which terminated ,may #f1 #agie1 did not fulfill the hopes that had been formed of it3 the idea of establishing provincial normal schools was not carried out4 ,but no matter2 a memorable example had been given1 and the fruitful principle of the establishment of normal schools had made a start in actual practice4 #dgc4 ,,central ,,schools4--,the central schools1 designed to replace the colleges of secondary instruction1 were established by decree of ,february #be1 #agie1 on the report of ,lakanal4 ,daunou modified them in the law of ,october #be1 #agie4 ,they continued1 without great success1 till the law of ,may #a1 #ahjb1 which suppressed them4 #dgd4 ,,defects ,,of ,,the ,,central ,,schools4--,the ,central ,schools of ,lakanal resembled1 trait for trait1 the ,institutes of ,condorcet4 ,and it must be confessed that here the imitation is not happy4 ,lakanal made the mistake of borrowing from ,condorcet the plan of these poorly defined establishments1 in which the instruction was on too vast a scale1 and the programmes too crowded1 where the pupil1 it seems1 was to learn to discuss de omni re scibili4 ,condorcet went so far as to introduce into his ,institutes a course of lectures on midwifery6 ,the ,central ,schools1 in which the instruction was a medley of studies indiscreetly presented to an overdriven auditory1 do honor neither to the ,convention that organized them1 nor to ,condorcet who had traced the first sketch of them4 #dge4 ,,positive ,,and ,,practical ,,spirit4--,however1 there was something correct in the idea which presided over the foundation of the ,central ,schools4 ,we find this expressed in the ,essays on ,instruction1 by the mathematician1 ,lacroix4#bad ,lacroix calls attention to the fact that the progress of the sciences and the necessity of learning a great number of new things1 impose on the educator the obligation to take some account of space2 and1 if ,i may so speak1 of clipping the wings of studies which1 like ,latin1 had thus far been the unique and exclusive object of instruction4 ,in the ,central ,schools1 in fact1 the classical languages held only the second place4 ,not only were the mathematical sciences1 and those branches of knowledge from which the pupil can derive the most immediate profit1 associated with the classics1 but the preference was given to them4 ,in the minds of those who organized these schools1 the positive and practical idea of success in life was substituted for the speculative and disinterested idea of mental development for its own sake4 ,in reality1 these two ideas ought to complete each other1 and not to exclude each other4 ,the ideal of education consists in finding a system which welcomes both4 ,but in the ,central ,schools the first point of view absorbed the second4 ,these establishments resembled the industrial schools of our day1 but with this particular defect1 that there was a determination to include everything in them1 and to give a place to new studies without wholly sacrificing the old4 ,let there be created colleges of practical and special instruction2 nothing can be better1 for provision would thus be made for the needs of modern society4 ,but let no one force literary studies and the industrial arts to live together under the same roof4 #dgf4 ,,great ,,foundations ,,of ,,the ,,convention4--,in the first years of its existence1 the ,convention had given its attention only to primary schools4 ,it seemed as though teaching the illiterate to read was the one need of society4 ,in the end the ,convention rose above these narrow and exclusive views1 and turned its attention towards secondary instruction and towards superior instruction4 ,it is particularly by the establishment of several special schools for superior instruction that the ,convention gave proof of its versatility and intelligence4 ,in quick succession it decreed and founded the ,polytechnic ,school1 under the name of the ,central ,school of ,public ,works 7,march #aa1 #agid72 the ,normal ,school 7,october #cj1 #agid72 the ,school of ,mars 7,june #a1 #agid72 the ,conservatory of ,arts and ,trades 7,september #bi1 #agid74 ,the next year it organized the ,bureau of ,longitudes1 and finally the ,national ,institute4 ,what a magnificent effort to repair the ruins which anarchy had made1 or to supply the omissions which the old rgime had patiently suffered6 ,of these multiplied creations the greater number remain and still flourish4 #dgg4 ,,law ,,of ,,october #bg1 #agie4--,those who ask us to see in the decree of ,october #bg1 #agie1 8the capital work of the ,convention in the matter of instruction1 the synthesis of all its previous labors and proposals1 the most serious effort of the ,revolution10#bae evidently put forward a paradox4 ,lakanal and his friends would certainly have disavowed a law which cancels with a few strokes of the pen the grand revolutionary principles in the matter of education1--the gratuity1 the obligation1 and the universality of instruction4 ,the destinies of public instruction are allied to the fate of constitutions4 ,to changes of policy there correspond1 by an inevitable recoil1 analogous changes in the organization of instruction4 ,out of the slightly retrograde constitution of #agic there issued the educational legislation of #agid1 of which it could be said that 8the spirit of reaction made itself painfully felt in it40 ,daunou1 who was the principal author of it1 doubtless had high competence in questions of public instruction2 but with a secret connivance of his own temperament he yielded to the tendencies of the times4 ,he voluntarily condescended to the timidities of a senile and worn-out ,assembly1 which1 having become impoverished by a series of suicides1 had scarcely any superior minds left within it4 #dgh4 ,,insufficiency ,,of ,,daunou',s ,,scheme4--,nothing could be more defective than ,daunou's plan4 ,the number of primary schools was reduced4 ,it is no longer proposed to proportion them to the population4 ,daunou goes back to the cantonal schools of ,talleyrand3 8,there shall be established in each canton of the ,republic one or more primary schools40 ,we are far from ,condorcet1 who required a school for each group of four hundred souls1 and from ,lakanal1 who demanded one for each thousand inhabitants4 ,on the other hand1 teachers no longer receive a salary from the ,state4 ,the ,state merely assures to them a place for a class-room and lodging1 and also a garden6 8,there shall likewise be furnished the teacher the garden which happens to lie near these premises40 ,there is no other remuneration save the annual tuition paid by each pupil to the teacher4 ,at the same stroke the teacher was made the hireling of his pupils1 and gratuity of instruction was abolished4 ,only the indigent pupils1 a fourth of the whole number1 could be exempted by the municipal administration from the payment of school fees4 ,finally1 the programme of studies was reduced to the humblest proportions3 reading1 writing1 number1 and the elements of republican morality4 ,after so many noble and generous ambitions1 after so many enthusiastic declarations in favor of the absolute gratuity of primary instruction1 after so many praiseworthy efforts to raise the material and moral condition of teachers1 and to cause instruction to circulate to the minutest fibres of the social tissue1 the ,convention terminated its work in a mean conception which thinned out the schools1 which impoverished the programmes1 which plunged the teacher anew into a precarious state of existence1 which put him anew at the mercy of his pupils1 without1 however1 taking care to assure him of patronage1 and which1 for his sole compensation in case he had no pupils to instruct1 guaranteed him the right to cultivate a garden1 if1 indeed1 there should be one in the neighborhood of the school6 ,had the law of #agie been in fact the educational will of the ,convention1 is it not true1 at least1 that it is after the manner of those wills extorted by undue means1 where a man by his final bequests recalls his former acts1 and proves himself faithless to all the aspirations of his life8 ,no1 it is not from ,daunou1 but from ,talleyrand1 from ,condorcet1 and from ,lakanal that we must seek the real educational thought of the ,revolution4 ,doubtless the measure of ,daunou had over all previous measures the advantages of being applied1 and of not remaining a dead letter2 but the glory of the early ,revolutionists should not be belittled by the fact that circumstances arrested the execution of their plans1 and that a century was necessary in order that society might attain the ideal which they had conceived4 ,they were the first to proclaim the right and the duty of each citizen to be instructed and enlightened4 ,we are ceaselessly urged to admire the past and to respect the work of our fathers4 ,we do not in the least object to this1 but the ,revolution itself also forms a part of that past1 and we regret that the men who so eloquently preach the worship of traditions and respect for ancestors1 are precisely those who the most harshly disparage the efforts of the ,revolution4 #dgi4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,the educational legislation of the ,french ,revolution1 apparently so inconsiderate1 so vacillating1 and so fruitless1 betrays the instinctive feeling of a nation in peril1 that the only constitutional means of regeneration is universal instruction1 intellectual and moral4 #b4 ,out of the same instinct grew the conception that the starting-point in educational reform is the instruction and inspiration of the teaching body4 ,the normal school lies at the very basis of national safety and prosperity4 #c4 ,the immediate fruitlessness of the educational legislation of the ,revolution1 is another illustration of the general fact that no reform is operative1 which in any considerable degree antedates the existing state of public opinion4 ,could there be a revelation of the ideal education1 human society could grow into it only by slow and almost insensible degrees4 ,while there can be rational growth only through some degree of anticipation1 it is perhaps best that educators have only that prevision which is provisional4 ,,footnotes3 #bjh ,a term applied to the most pronounced revolutionists of the ,convention and of the ,national ,assembly4 #bji ,it is impossible1 within the limits prescribed by the character and plan of this work1 to enter into detail and enumerate all the decrees and counter-decrees of the ,convention on the subject of public instruction4 ,to see clearly into this chaos and this confusion1 it is necessary to read the excellent article of ,monsieur ,guillaume in the ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie1 article ,,convention4 #baj ,see a recent sketch1 ,lakanal1 by ,paul ,legendre 7,paris1 #ahhb71 with a ,preface by ,paul ,bert4 #baa ,see in the ,revue politique et littraire1 for ,oct4 #g1 #ahhb1 an excellent article on ,lakanal1 by ,monsieur ,janet4 #bab ,if the consensus of philosophic opinion is trustworthy1 there is no basis whatever in psychology for this sequence4 ,on the almost uniform testimony of psychologists1 the organic mental sequence is from aggregates to parts2 so that if the method of presentation is to be in harmony with the organic mode of the mind's activities1 the sequence should be as follows3 the globe2 the eastern continent2 ,europe2 ,france2 the department2 the canton2 the commune4 ,on the mental sequence1 see ,hamilton's ,lectures1 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #fi1 #gj1 #cfh1 #cga1 #dfi1 #dih1 #ejj1 #ejb1 #ejc4 7,p47 #bac ,dumonstier1 rector of the ,university of ,paris in #afde1 ,la ,salle1 and in the eighteenth century1 the ,abb ,courtalon4 #bad ,essais sur l'enseignement4 ,paris1 #ahje4 #bae ,albert ,duruy1 op4 cit4 p4 #acg4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,pestalozzi4 ,,german ,,pedagogy2 ,,the ,,pietists ,,and ,,francke 7#affc-agbg72 ,,the ,,philanthropists ,,and ,,basedow 7#agbc-agij72 ,,the ,,people',s ,,schools2 ,,pestalozzi 7#agdf-ahbg72 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,pestalozzi2 ,,pestalozzi ,,as ,,an ,,agriculturist2 ,,how ,,pestalozzi ,,became ,a ,,teacher2 ,,education ,,of ,,his ,,son2 ,,the ,,school ,,at ,,neuhof 7#agge-aghj72 ,,pestalozzi ,,as ,a ,,writer 7#aghj-aghg72 ,,leonard ,,and ,,gertrude 7#agha72 ,,new ,,experiments ,,in ,,agriculture2 ,,other ,,works2 ,,the ,,orphan ,,asylum ,,at ,,stanz 7#agih-agii72 ,,methods ,,followed ,,at ,,stanz2 ,,the ,,schools ,,at ,,burgdorf 7#agii-ahja72 ,,how ,,gertrude ,,teaches ,,her ,,children 7#ahja72 ,,pestalozzi',s ,,style2 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,gertrude2 ,,the ,,institute ,,at ,,burgdorf 7#ahja-ahjd72 ,,the ,,institute ,,at ,,yverdun 7#ahje-ahbe72 ,,tentatives ,,of ,,pestalozzi2 ,,essential ,,principles2 ,,educational ,,processes2 ,,simplification ,,of ,,methods2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #dhj4 ,,german ,,pedagogy4--,for two centuries ,germany has been the classical land of pedagogy2 and to render an account of all the efforts put forth in that country in the domain of education it would be necessary to write several volumes4 ,from the opening of the eighteenth century1 says ,dittes1 8a change for the better takes place4 ,ideas become facts4 ,the importance of education is more and more recognized2 pedagogy shakes off the ancient dust of the school and interests itself in actual life2 it is no longer willing to be a collateral function of the ,church1 but begins to become an independent art and science4 ,a few theologians will still render it important service1 but in general they will do this outside the ,church1 and often in opposition to it40 ,while awaiting the grand and fruitful impulsion of ,pestalozzi1 the history of pedagogy ought to mention at least the ,pietists1 8whose educational establishments contributed to prepare the way for the new methods10 and after them1 the ,philanthropists1 of whom ,basedow is the most celebrated representative4 #dha4 ,,the ,,pietists ,,and ,,francke 7#affc-agbg74--;,francke played nearly the same part in ,germany that ,la ,salle did in ,france4 ,he founded two establishments at ,halle1 the ,pdagogium and the ,orphan ,asylum1 which1 in #agbg1 contained more than two thousand pupils4 ,he belonged to the sect of ,pietists1 ,lutherans who professed an austere morality1 and1 in conformity with the principles of his denomination1 he made piety the supreme end of education4 ,that which distinguishes and commends ,francke1 is his talent for organization4 ,he was right in giving marked attention to the material condition of schools and to needed supplies of apparatus4 ,the ,pdagogium was installed in #agae in comfortable quarters1 and there were annexed to it a botanical garden1 a museum of natural history1 physical apparatus1 a chemical and an anatomical laboratory1 and a shop for the cutting and polishing of glass4 ,after him his disciples1 ,niemeyer1 ,semler1 and ,hecker1 continued his work1 and1 in certain respects1 reformed it4 ,they founded the first real schools of ,germany4 ,they kept up the practical spirit1 the professional pedagogy of their master1 and assured the development of those educational establishments which still exist to-day under the name of the ,institutions of ,francke4 #dhb4 ,,the ,,philanthropists ,,and ,,basedow 7#agbc-agij74--,with ,basedow1 a more liberal spirit1 borrowed in part from ,rousseau1 gained entrance into ,german pedagogy4 ,basedow founded at ,dessau a school which received the praise of the philosopher ,kant1 and of the clergyman ,oberlin4 ,he designated it by a name which reflects his humanitarian intentions1 the ,philanthropinum4 ,in the methods which he employed in it he seems always to have had before his eyes the exclamation of ,rousseau3 8,things1 things6 ,too many words60 ,the intuitive method1 or that of teaching by sight1 was practised in the school of ,dessau4 ,the principal work of ,basedow1 his ,elementary ,book1 is scarcely more than the ,orbis ,pictus of ,comenius reconstructed according to the principles of ,rousseau4 ,at ,dessau1 the pretence was made of teaching a language in six months4 8,our methods10 says ,basedow1 8make studies only one-third as long and thrice as agreeable40 ,an abuse was made of mechanical exercises4 ,the children1 at the command of the master3 ,imitamini sartorem1--,imitamini sutorem1--all began to imitate the motions of a tailor who is sewing1 or of a shoemaker who is using his awl4 ,graver still1 ,basedow made such an abuse of object lessons as to represent to children certain scenes within the sick-chamber1 for the purpose of teaching them their duties and obligations to their mothers4#baf #dhc4 ,,schools ,,for ,,the ,,people4--,great efforts were made in the eighteenth century1 in the ,catholic1 as well as in the ,protestant countries of ,germany1 towards the development of popular instruction4 ,maria ,theresa and ,frederick ,,ii4 considered public instruction as an affair of the ,state4 ,private enterprise was added to the efforts of the government4 ,in ,prussia1 a nobleman1 ,rochow 7#agcd-ahje71 founded village schools2 and in ,austria1 two ecclesiastics1 ,felbiger 7#agbd-aghh7 and ,kindermann 7#agdj-ahja71 contributed by their activity in education to the reform of schools4 ,nevertheless1 the results were still very poor1 and the public school1 especially the village school1 remained in a sorry condition4 8,almost everywhere10 says ,dittes1 8there were employed as teachers1 domestics1 corrupt artisans1 discharged soldiers1 degraded students1 and1 in general1 persons of questionable morality and education4 ,their pay was mean1 and their authority slight4 ,attendance at school1 generally very irregular1 was almost everywhere entirely suspended in summer4 ,many villages had no school1 and scarcely anywhere was the school attended by all the children4 ,in many countries1 most of the children1 especially the girls1 were wholly without instruction4 ,the people1 especially the peasantry1 regarded the school as a burden4 ,the clergy1 it is true1 always regarded themselves as the proprietors of the school1 but on the whole they did but very little for it1 and even arrested its progress4 ,the nobility was but little favorable1 in general1 to intellectual culture for the people4444 ,instruction remained mechanical and the discipline rude4 ,it is reported that a ,suabian schoolmaster1 who died in #aghb1 had inflicted during his experience in teaching #iaa1ebg canings1 #abd1jaj whippings1 #aj1bce boxes on the ear1 and #a1aae1hjj thumps on the head4 ,moreover1 he had made boys kneel #ggg times on triangular sticks1 had caused the fool's cap to be worn #ejjabag times1 and the stick to be held in air #agjg times4 ,he had used something like #cjjj words of abuse44440 #dhd4 ,,pestalozzi 7#agdf-ahbg74--;,in ,switzerland1 the situation of primary instruction was scarcely better4 ,the teachers were gathered up at hazard2 their pay was wretched2 in general they had no lodgings of their own1 and they were obliged to hire themselves out for domestic service among the well-off inhabitants of the villages1 in order to find food and lodging among them4 ,a mean spirit of caste still dominated instruction1 and the poor remained sunk in ignorance4 ,it was in the very midst of this wretched and unpropitious state of affairs that there appeared1 towards the end of the eighteenth century1 the most celebrated of modern educators1 a man who1 we may be sure1 was not exempt from faults1 whose mind had deficiencies and weaknesses1 and whom we have no intention of shielding from criticism1 by covering him with the praises of a superstitious admiration2 but who is pre-eminently great by reason of his unquenchable love for the people1 his ardent self-sacrifice1 and his pedagogic instinct4 ,during the eighty years of his troubled life1 ,pestalozzi never ceased to work for children1 and to devote himself to their instruction4 ,war or the ill-will of his countrymen destroyed his schools to no purpose4 ,without ever despairing1 he straightway rebuilt them farther away1 sometimes succeeding1 through the gift of ardent speech1 which never deserted him1 in communicating the inspiration to those about him2 gathering up in all places orphans and vagabonds1 like a kidnapper of a new species2 forgetting that he was poor1 when he saw an occasion to be charitable1 and that he was ill1 when it was necessary to teach2 and1 finally1 pursuing with an unconquerable energy1 through hindrances and obstacles of every description1 his educational apostleship4 8,it is death or success60 he wrote4 8,my zeal to accomplish the dream of my life would have carried me through air or through fire1 no matter how1 to the highest peak of the ,alps60 #dhe4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,pestalozzi4--,the life of ,pestalozzi is intimately related to his educational work4 ,to comprehend the educator1 it is first necessary to have become acquainted with the man4 ,born at ,zurich in #agdf1 ,pestalozzi died at ,brugg in ,argovia in #ahbg4 ,this unfortunate great man always felt the effects of the sentimental and unpractical education given him by his mother1 who was left a widow with three children in #agea4 ,he early formed the habit of feeling and of being touched with emotion1 rather than of reasoning and of reflecting4 ,the laughing-stock of his companions1 who made sport of his awkwardness1 the little scholar of ,zurich accustomed himself to live alone and to become a dreamer4 ,later1 towards #agfj1 the student of the academy distinguished himself by his political enthusiasm and his revolutionary daring4 ,at that early period he had conceived a profound feeling for the miseries and the needs of the people1 and he already proposed as the purpose of his life the healing of the diseases of society4 ,at the same time there was developed in him an irresistible taste for a simple1 frugal1 and almost ascetic life4 ,to restrain his desires had become the essential rule of his conduct1 and1 to put it in practice1 he forced himself to sleep on a plank1 and to subsist on bread and vegetables4 ,life in the open air had an especial attraction for him4 ,each year he spent his vacations in the country at his grandfather's1 who was a minister at ,hngg4 ,omne malum ex urbe was his favorite thought4 #dhf4 ,,pestalozzi ,,an ,,agriculturist 7#agfe-agge74--,pestalozzi's call to be a teacher manifested itself at first only by some vague aspirations1 of which it would be easy to find the trace in the short essays of his youth1 and in the articles which he contributed in his twentieth year to a students' journal published at ,zurich4 ,after having tried his hand unsuccessfully at theology and law1 he became an agriculturist4 ,when he established at ,neuhof an agricultural enterprise1 he thought less of enriching himself than of raising the material condition of the ,swiss peasantry by organizing new industries4 ,but notwithstanding his good intent1 and the assistance of the devoted woman whom he had married in #agfi1 ,anna ,schultess1 ,pestalozzi1 more enterprising than skillful1 failed in his industrial establishments4 ,in #agge he had exhausted his resources4 ,it is then that he formed an heroic resolution which typifies his indiscreet generosity4 ,poor1 and scarcely more than able to support himself1 he opened on his farm an asylum for poor children4 #dhg4 ,,how ,,pestalozzi ,,became ,,an ,,educator4--,the asylum for poor children at ,neuhof 7#agge-aghj7 is1 so to speak1 the first step in the pedagogical career of ,pestalozzi4 ,the others will be the orphan asylum at ,stanz 7#agih-agii71 the primary schools at ,burgdorf 7#agii71 the institute at ,burgdorf 7#ahja-ahjd71 and1 finally1 the institute at ,yverdun 7#ahje-ahbe74 ,the first question that is raised when we study systems of education1 is1 how the authors of those systems became teachers4 ,the best1 perhaps1 are those who became such because of their great love for humanity1 or because of their tender love for their children4 ,pestalozzi is of this class4 ,it is because he has ardently dreamed from his youth of the moral amelioration of the people2 and it is also because he has followed with a tender solicitude the first steps of his little son ,jacob on life's journey1 that he became a great teacher4 #dhh4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,his ,,son4--,the ,father's ,journal1#bah where ,pestalozzi noted from day to day the progress of his child1 shows him intent on applying the principles of ,rousseau4 ,at the age of eleven1 ,jacob1 like mile1 did not yet know how to read or to write4 ,things before words1 the intuition of sensible objects1 few exercises in judgment1 respect for the powers of the child1 an equal anxiety to husband his liberty and to secure his obedience1 the constant endeavor to diffuse joy and good humor over education1--such were the principal traits of the education which ,pestalozzi gave his son1 an education which was a real experiment in pedagogy1 from which the pupil perhaps suffered somewhat1 but from which humanity was to derive profit4 ,from this period ,pestalozzi conceived some of the ideas which became the principles of his method4 ,the father had made the educator4 ,one of the superiorities of ,pestalozzi over ,rousseau is1 that he loved and educated his own child4 #dhi4 ,,the ,,asylum ,,at ,,neuhof4--,madame de ,stal was right in saying that 8we must consider ,pestalozzi's school as limited to childhood4 ,the education which it gives is designed only for the common people40 ,and1 in fact1 the first and the last establishments of ,pestalozzi were schools for small children4 ,in the last years of his life1 when he was obliged to leave the institute of ,yverdun1 he returned to ,neuhof1 and there had constructed a school for poor children4 ,the school at ,neuhof was to be above all else1 in ,pestalozzi's thought1 an experiment in moral and material regeneration through labor1 through order1 and through instruction4 ,many exercises in language1 singing1 reading of the ,bible1--such were the intellectual occupations4 ,but the greater part of the time was devoted to agricultural labor1 to the cultivation of madder4 ,notwithstanding his admirable devotion1 ,pestalozzi did not long succeed in his philanthropic plans4 ,he had to contend against the prejudices of parents1 and the ingratitude of the children4 ,very often the little beggars whom he had gathered up waited only till they had received from him new clothing1 and then ran away and resumed their vagabond life4 ,besides1 he lacked resources4 ,he became poor1 and fell more and more into debt4 ,his friends1 who had aided him on the start1 warned him that he would die in a hospital or in a mad-house4 8,for thirty years10 he says himself1 8my life was a desperate struggle against the most frightful poverty4444 ,more than a thousand times ,i was obliged to go without dinner1 and at noon1 when even the poorest were seated around a table1 ,i devoured a morsel of bread upon the highway 4442 and all this that ,i might minister to the needs of the poor1 by the realization of my principles40 #dij4 ,,pestalozzi ,a ,,writer4--,after the check to his undertaking at ,neuhof1 ,pestalozzi renounced for some time all practical activity1 and it was by his writings that he manifested1 from #aghj to #aghg1 his zeal in education4 ,in #aghj appeared the ,evening ,hours of a ,recluse1 a series of aphorisms on the rise of a people through education4 ,in this1 ,pestalozzi sharply criticised the artificial method of the school1 and insisted on the necessity of developing the soul through what is within1--through interior culture3-- 8,the school everywhere puts the order of words before the order of free nature40 8,the home is the basis of the education of humanity40 8,man1 it is within yourself1 it is in the inner sense of your power1 that resides nature's instrument for your development40 #dia4 ,,leonard ,,and ,,gertrude4--,in #agha ,pestalozzi published the first volume of ,leonard and ,gertrude4 ,he had written it within the blank spaces of an old account book4 ,this book1 the most celebrated perhaps of all ,pestalozzi's writings1 is a sort of popular romance in which the author brings upon the stage a family of working-people4 ,gertrude here represents the ideas of ,pestalozzi on the education of children4 ,the three other volumes 7#aghc1 #aghe1 #aghg7 relate the regeneration of a village through the concerted action of legislation1 administration1 religion1 and the school1 and especially the school1 8which is the centre whence everything should proceed40 ,leonard and ,gertrude is the only one of ,pestalozzi's works which ,diesterweg#bai recommends to practical teachers4 8,it was my first word10 says ,pestalozzi1 8to the heart of the poor and of the abandoned of the land40 ,in making ,gertrude the principal character of his romance1 ,pestalozzi wished to emphasize one of his fundamental ideas1 which was to place the instruction and the education of the people in the hands of mothers4 #dib4 ,,new ,,experiments ,,in ,,agriculture4--,from #aghg to #agig ,pestalozzi returned to farming4 ,it is from this period that date his relations with ,fellenberg1 the celebrated founder of ,agricultural ,institutes1 and with the philosopher ,fichte1 who showed him the agreement of his ideas with the doctrine of ,kant4 ,his name began to become celebrated1 and1 in #agib1 the ,legislative ,assembly proclaimed him a ,french citizen1 in company with ,washington and ,klopstock4 ,during these years of farm labor1 ,pestalozzi had meditated different works which appeared in #agig4 #dic4 ,,other ,,works ,,of ,,pestalozzi4--,educational thought pervades all the literary works of ,pestalozzi4 ,thus his ,fables1 short compositions in prose1 all have a moral and educational tendency4 ,also1 in his ,researches on the ,course of ,nature in the ,development of the ,human ,race1 he sought to justify the preponderant office which he accorded to nature in the education of man4 ,but ,pestalozzi was not successful in philosophical dissertations4 8,this book10 he says himself1 8is to me only another proof of my lack of ability2 it is simply a diversion of my imaginative faculty1 a work relatively weak4444 ,no one10 he adds1 8understands me1 and it has been hinted that the whole work has been taken for nonsense40 ,this judgment is severe1 but it is only just4 ,pestalozzi had an intuition of truth1 but he was incapable of giving a theoretical demonstration of it4 ,his thought all aglow1 and his language all imagery1 did not submit to the concise and methodical exposition of abstract truths4 #did4 ,,the ,,orphan ,,asylum ,,at ,,stanz 7#agih-agii74--,up to #agih ,pestalozzi had scarcely found the occasion to put in practice his principles and his dreams4 ,the ,helvetic ,revolution1 which he hailed with enthusiasm as the signal of a social regeneration for his country1 finally gave him the means of making a trial of his theories1 which1 by a strange destiny1 had been applied by other hands before having been applied by his own4 ,the ,helvetic government1 whose sentiments were in harmony with the democratic sentiments of ,pestalozzi1 offered him the direction of a normal school4 ,but he declined1 in order that he might remain a teacher4 ,he was about to take charge of a school1 the plan of which he had organized1 when events called him to direct an orphan asylum at ,stanz4 #die4 ,,methods ,,followed ,,at ,,stanz4--,from six to eight o'clock in the morning1 and from four to eight in the afternoon1 ,pestalozzi heard the lessons of his pupils4 ,the rest of the time was devoted to manual labor4 ,even during the lesson1 the child at ,stanz 8drew1 wrote1 and worked40 ,to establish order in a school which contained eighty pupils1 ,pestalozzi had the idea of resorting to rhythm2 8and it was found10 he says1 8that the rhythmical pronunciation increased the impression produced by the lesson40 ,having to do with pupils absolutely ignorant1 he kept them for a long time on the elements2 he practised them on the first elements till they had mastered them4 ,he simplified the methods1 and sought in each branch of instruction a point of departure adapted to the nascent faculties of the child4 ,the mode of teaching was simultaneous4 ,all the pupils repeated in a high tone of voice the words of the teacher2 but the instruction was also mutual3-- 8,children instructed children2 they themselves tried the experiment2 all ,i did was to suggest it4 ,here again ,i obeyed necessity4 ,not having a single assistant1 ,i had the idea of putting one of the most advanced pupils between two others who were less advanced40 ,reading was combined with writing4 ,natural history and geography were taught to children under the form of conversational lessons4 ,but what engrossed ,pestalozzi above all else was to develop the moral sentiments and the interior forces of the conscience4 ,he wished to make himself loved by his pupils1 to awaken among them1 in their daily association1 sentiments of fraternal affection1 to excite the conception of each virtue before formulating its precept1 and to give the children moral lessons through the influence of nature which surrounded them and through the activity which was imposed on them4 ,pestalozzi's chimera1 in the organization at ,stanz1 was to transport into the school the conditions of domestic life--the desire to be a father to a hundred children4 8,i was convinced that my heart would change the condition of my children just as promptly as the sun of spring would reanimate the earth benumbed by the winter40 8,it was necessary that my children should observe1 from dawn to evening1 at every moment of the day1 upon my brow and on my lips1 that my affections were fixed on them1 that their happiness was my happiness1 and that their pleasures were my pleasures40 8,i was everything to my children4 ,i was alone with them from morning till night4444 ,their hands were in my hands4 ,their eyes were fixed on my eyes40 #dif4 ,,results ,,accomplished4--,without plan1 without apparent order2 merely by the action and incessant communication of his ardent soul with children ignorant and perverted by misery2 reduced to his own resources in a house where he was himself 8steward1 accountant1 footman1 and almost servant all in one10 ,pestalozzi obtained surprising results4 8,i saw at ,stanz10 he says1 8the power of the human faculties4444 ,my pupils developed rapidly2 it was another race4444 ,the children very soon felt that there existed in them forces which they did not know1 and in particular they acquired a general sentiment of order and beauty4 ,they were self-conscious1 and the impression of weariness which habitually reigns in schools vanished like a shadow from my class-room4 ,they willed1 they had power1 they persevered1 they succeeded1 and they were happy4 ,they were not scholars who were learning1 but children who felt unknown forces awakening within them1 and who understood where these forces could and would lead them1 and this feeling gave elevation to their mind and heart40 8,it is out of the folly of ,stanz10 says ,roger de ,guimps1 8that has come the primary school of the nineteenth century40 ,while the pupils prospered1 the master fell sick of overwork4 ,when the events of the war closed the orphan asylum1 it was quite time for the health of ,pestalozzi4 ,he raised blood and was at the limit of his strength4 #dig4 ,,the ,,schools ,,of ,,burgdorf 7#agii-ahjb74--;,as soon as he had recovered his health1 ,pestalozzi resumed the course of his experiments4 ,not without difficulty he succeeded in having entrusted to him a small class in a primary school of ,burgdorf4 ,he passed for an ignoramus4 8,it was whispered that ,i could neither write1 nor compute1 nor even read decently40 ,pestalozzi does not defend himself against the charge1 but acknowledges his incapacity1 and even asserts that it is to his advantage4 8,my incapacity in these respects was certainly an indispensable condition for my discovery of the simplest method of teaching40 ,what troubled him most in the school at ,burgdorf 8was that it was subjected to rules40 8,never in my life had ,i borne such a burden4 ,i was discouraged4 ,i cringed under the routine yoke of the school40 ,nevertheless1 ,pestalozzi succeeded admirably in his little school4 ,then more advanced pupils were given him1 but here his success was less4 ,he always proceeded without a plan1 and he gave himself great trouble in obtaining results that he might have attained much more easily with a little more system4 ,blunders1 irregularities1 and whimsicalities were ever compromising the action of his good will4 ,to be convinced of this1 it suffices to read the books which he published at this period1 and in particular the most celebrated1 of which we shall proceed to give a brief analysis4 #dih4 ,,how ,,gertrude ,,teaches ,,her ,,children4--,it is under this title that in #ahja ,pestalozzi published an exposition of his doctrine4#bbj 8,it is the most important and the most profound of all his pedagogical writings10 says one of his biographers4 ,we shall not dispute this2 but this book also proves how the mind of ,pestalozzi was inferior to his heart1 how the writer was of less worth than the teacher4 ,composed under the form of letters addressed to ,gessner1 the work of ,pestalozzi is too often a tissue of declamations1 of rambling thoughts1 and of personal grievances4 ,it is the work of a brain that is in a state of ferment1 and of a heart that is overflowing4 ,the thought is painfully disentangled from out a thousand repetitions4 ,why need we be astonished at this literary incompetence of ,pestalozzi when he himself makes the following confession3 8,for thirty years ,i had not read a single book2 ,i could not longer read them40 #dii4 ,,pestalozzi',s ,,style4--,the style of ,pestalozzi is the very man himself3 desultory1 obscure1 confused1 but with sudden flashes and brilliant illuminations in which the warmth of his heart is exhibited4 ,there are also too many comparisons2 the imagery overwhelms the idea4 ,within a few pages he will compare himself1 in succession1 8to a sailor1 who1 having lost his harpoon1 would try to catch a whale with a hook10 to depict the disproportion between his resources and his purpose2 then to a straw1 which even a cat would not lay hold of1 to tell how he was despised2 to an owl1 to express his isolation2 to a reed1 to indicate his feebleness2 to a mouse which fears a cat1 to characterize his timidity4 #ejj4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,gertrude4--,it is not easy to analyze one of ,pestalozzi's books4 ,to begin with1 ,how ,gertrude teaches her ,children is a very bad title1 for ,gertrude is not once mentioned in it4 ,this proper name became for ,pestalozzi an allegorical term by which he personifies himself4 ,the first three letters are rather autobiographical memoirs than an exposition of doctrine4 ,pestalozzi here relates his first experiments1 and makes us acquainted with his assistants at ,burgdorf1--,krsi1 ,tobler1 and ,buss4 ,in the letters which follow1 the author attempts to set forth the general principles of his method4 ,the seventh treats of language2 the eighth1 of the intuition of forms1 of writing1 and of drawing2 the ninth1 of the intuition of numbers and of computation2 the tenth and twelfth1 of intuition in general4 ,for ,pestalozzi1 intuition was1 as we know1 direct and experimental perception1 either in the domain of sense1 or in the interior regions of the consciousness4 ,finally1 the last letters are devoted to moral and religious development4 ,without designing to follow1 in all its ramblings and in all its digressions1 the mobile thought of ,pestalozzi1 we shall gather up some of the general ideas which abound in this overcharged and badly composed work4 #eja4 ,,methods ,,simplified4--,the purpose of ,pestalozzi was indeed1 in one sense1 as he was told by one of his friends1 to mechanize instruction4 ,he wished1 in fact1 to simplify and determine methods to such a degree that they might be employed by the most ordinary teacher1 and by the most ignorant father and mother4 ,in a word1 he hoped to organize a pedagogical machine so well set up that it could in a manner run alone4 8,i believe10 he says1 8that we must not dream of making progress in the instruction of the people as long as we have not found the forms of instruction which make of the teacher1 at least so far as the completion of the elementary studies is concerned1 the simple mechanical instrument of a method which owes its results to the nature of its processes1 and not to the ability of the one who uses it4 ,i assert that a school-book has no value1 save as it can be employed by a master without instruction as well as by one who has been taught40 ,this was sheer exaggeration1 and was putting too little value on the personal effort and merit of teachers4 ,on this score1 it would be useless to found normal schools4 ,pestalozzi1 moreover1 has given in his own person a striking contradiction to this singular theory2 for he owed his success in teaching much more to the influence of his living speech1 and to the ardent communication of the passion by which his heart was animated1 than to the methodical processes which he never succeeded in combining in an efficient manner4 #ejb4 ,,the ,,socratic ,,method4--,pestalozzi recommends the ,socratic method1 and he indicates with exactness some of the conditions necessary for the employment of that method4 ,he first observes that it requires on the part of the teacher uncommon ability4 8,a superficial and uncultivated intelligence10 he says1 8does not sound the depths whence a ,socrates made spring up intelligence and truth40 ,besides1 the ,socratic method can be employed only with pupils who already have some instruction4 ,it is absolutely impracticable with children who lack both the point of departure1 that is1 preliminary notions1 and the means of expressing these notions1 that is1 a knowledge of language4 ,and as it is always necessary that ,pestalozzi's thought should wind up with a figure of speech1 he adds3-- 8,in order that the goshawk and the eagle may plunder eggs from other birds1 it is first necessary that the latter should deposit eggs in their nests40 #ejc4 ,,word1 ,,form1 ,,and ,,number4--,a favorite idea of ,pestalozzi1 which remained at ,yverdun1 as at ,burgdorf1 the principle of his exercises in teaching1 is that all elementary knowledge can and should be related to three principles1--word1 form1 and number4 ,to the word he attached language1 to form1 writing and drawing1 and to number1 computation4 8,this was10 he says1 8like a ray of light in my researches1 like a ,deus ex machina60 ,nothing justifies such enthusiasm4 ,it would be very easy to show that ,pestalozzi's classification1 besides that it offers no practical interest1 is not justifiable from the theoretical point of view1 first because one of the elements of his trilogy1 the word1 or language1 comprises the other two2 and then because a large part of knowledge1 for example1 all physical qualities1 does not permit the distinction of which he was superstitiously fond4 #ejd4 ,,intuitive ,,exercises4--,what is of more value is the importance which ,pestalozzi ascribes to intuition4 ,an incident worthy of note is that it is not ,pestalozzi himself1 but one of the children of his school1 who first had the idea of the direct observation of the objects which serve as the text for the lesson4 ,one day as1 according to his custom1 he was giving his pupils a long description of what they observed in a drawing where a window was represented1 he noticed that one of his little auditors1 instead of looking at the picture1 was attentively studying the real window of the school-room4 ,from that moment ,pestalozzi put aside all his drawings1 and took the objects themselves for subjects of observation4 8,the child10 he said1 8wishes nothing to intervene between nature and himself40 ,ramsauer1 a pupil at ,burgdorf1 has described1 not without some inaccuracy perhaps1 the intuitive exercises which ,pestalozzi offered to his pupils3-- 8,the exercises in language were the best we had1 especially those which had reference to the wainscoting of the school-room4 ,he spent whole hours before that wainscoting1 very old and torn1 busy in examining the holes and rents1 with respect to number1 form1 position1 and color1 and in formulating our observations in sentences more or less developed4 ,then ,pestalozzi would ask us1 ,boys1 what do you see8 7,he never mentioned the girls47 ,pupil3 ,i see a hole in the wainscoting4 ,pestalozzi3 ,very well2 repeat after me3-- ,i see a hole in the wainscoting4 ,i see a large hole in the wainscoting4 ,through the hole ,i see the wall1 etc41 etc40 #eje4 ,,the ,,book ,,for ,,mothers4--,in #ahjc ,pestalozzi published a work on elementary instruction1 which remained unfinished1 entitled ,the ,book for ,mothers4 ,this was another ,orbis ,pictus without pictures4 ,pestalozzi's intention was to introduce the child to a knowledge of the objects of nature or of art which fall under his observation4 ,in this he tarried too long over the description of the organs of the body and of their functions4 ,a ,french critic1 ,dussault1 said1 with reference to this3-- 8,pestalozzi gives himself much trouble to teach children that their nose is in the middle of their face40 ,in his anxiety to be simple and elementary1 ,pestalozzi often succeeds in reality in making instruction puerile4 ,on the other hand1 the ,pre ,girard complains that the exercises in language which compose ,the ,book for ,mothers1 8really very well arranged1 are also very dry and monotonous40 #ejf4 ,a ,,swiss ,,teacher ,,in #agic4--,to form a just estimate of the efforts of ,pestalozzi and his assistants1 we must take into account the wretched state of instruction at the period when they attempted to reform the methods of teaching4 ,krsi1 ,pestalozzi's first assistant1 one of those who were perhaps the nearest his heart1 has himself related how he became a teacher4 ,he was eighteen1 and till then his only employment had been that of a peddler for his father4 ,one day1 as he was going about his business with a heavy load of merchandise on his shoulders1 he meets on the road a revenue officer of the ,state1 and they enter into conversation4 8,do you know10 said the officer1 8that the teacher of ,gais is about to leave his school8 ,would you not like to succeed him8--,it is not a question of what ,i would like2 a school-master should have knowledge1 in which ,i am absolutely lacking4--,what a school-master can and should know with us1 you might easily learn at your age40--,krsi reflected1 went to work1 and copied more than a hundred times a specimen of writing which he had procured2 and he declares that this was his only preparation4 ,he registered for examination4 ,the day for the trial arrived4 8,there were but two competitors of us10 he says4 8,the principal test consisted in writing the ,lord's ,prayer1 and to this ,i gave my closest attention4 ,i had observed that in ,german1 use was made of capital letters2 but ,i did not know the rule for their use1 and took them for ornaments4 ,so ,i distributed mine in a symmetrical manner1 so that some were found even in the middle of words4 ,in fact1 neither of us knew anything4 8,when the examination had been estimated1 ,i was summoned1 and ,captain ,schpfer informed me that the examiners had found us both deficient2 that my competitor read the better1 but that ,i excelled him in writing2 444 that1 besides1 my apartment1 being larger than that of the other candidate1 was better fitted for holding a school1 and1 finally1 that ,i was elected to the vacant place40 ,is it not well to be indulgent to teachers whom we meet on the highway1 who scarcely know how to write1 and whom a captain commissions8 #ejg4 ,,the ,,institute ,,at ,,burgdorf 7#ahjb74--,when ,pestalozzi published the ,gertrude and ,the ,book for ,mothers1 he was not simply a school-master at ,burgdorf2 he had taken charge of an institute1 that is1 of a boarding-school of higher primary instruction4 ,there also he applied the natural method1 8which makes the child proceed from his own intuitions1 and leads him by degrees1 and through his own efforts1 to abstract ideas40 ,the institute succeeded4 ,the pupils of ,burgdorf were distinguished especially by their skill in drawing and in mental arithmetic4 ,visitors were struck with their air of cheerfulness4 ,singing and gymnastics were held in honor1 and also exercises on natural history1 learned in the open field1 and during walks4 ,mildness and liberty characterized the internal management4 8,it is not a school that you have here10 said a visitor1 8but a family60 #ejh4 ,,journey ,,to ,,paris4--,it was at this period that ,pestalozzi made a journey to ,paris1 as a member of the consulta called by ,bonaparte to decide the fate of ,switzerland4 ,he hoped to take advantage of his stay in ,france to disseminate his pedagogical ideas4 ,but ,bonaparte refused to see him1 saying that he had something else to do besides discussing questions of a b c4 ,monge1 the founder of the ,polytechnic ,school1 was more cordial1 and kindly listened to the explanations of the ,swiss pedagogue4 ,but he concluded by saying1 8,it is too much for us60 ,more disdainful still1 ,talleyrand had said1 8,it is too much for the people60 ,on the other hand1 at the same period1 the philosopher ,maine de ,biran1 then sub-prefect at ,bergerac1 called a disciple of ,pestalozzi1 ,barraud1 to found schools in the department of ,dordogne1 and he encouraged with all his influence the application of the ,pestalozzian method4 #eji4 ,,the ,,institute ,,at ,,yverdun 7#ahje-ahbe74--;,in #ahjc ,pestalozzi was obliged to leave the castle of ,burgdorf4 ,the ,swiss government gave him in exchange the convent of ,mnchen-,buchsee4 ,pestalozzi transferred his institute to this place1 but only for a little time4 ,in #ahje he established himself at ,yverdun1 at the foot of ,lake ,neufchtel1 in ,french ,switzerland2 and here1 with the aid of several of his colleagues1 he developed his methods anew1 with brilliant success at first1 but afterwards through all sorts of vicissitudes1 difficulties1 and miseries4 ,the institute at ,yverdun was rather a school of secondary instruction1 devoted to the middle classes1 than a primary school proper4 ,pupils poured in from all sides4 ,the character of the studies1 however1 was poorly defined1 and ,pestalozzi found himself somewhat out of his element in his new institution1 since he excelled only in elementary methods and in the education of little children4 #eaj4 ,,success ,,of ,,the ,,institute4--,numerous visitors betook themselves to ,yverdun1 some through simple love of strolling4 ,the institute of ,yverdun made a part1 so to speak1 of the curiosities of ,switzerland4 ,people visited ,pestalozzi as they went to see a lake or a glacier4 ,as soon as notice was given of the arrival of a distinguished personage1 ,pestalozzi summoned one of his best masters1 ,ramsauer or ,schmid4 8,take your best pupils10 he said1 8and show the ,prince what we are doing4 ,he has numerous serfs1 and when he is convinced1 he will have them instructed40 ,these frequent exhibitions entailed a great loss of time4 ,disorder reigned in the instruction4 ,the young masters whom ,pestalozzi had attached to his fortunes were overwhelmed with work1 and could not give sufficient attention to the preparation of their lessons4 ,pestalozzi was growing old1 and did not succeed in completing his methods4 #eaa4 ,,the ,,tentatives ,,of ,,pestalozzi4--,the teaching of ,pestalozzi was in reality but a long groping1 an experiment ceaselessly renewed4 ,do not require of him articulate ideas1 and methods definitely established4 ,always on the alert1 and always in quest of something better1 his admirable pedagogic instinct never came to full satisfaction4 ,his merit was that he was always on the search for truth4 ,his theories almost always followed1 rather than preceded1 his experiments4 ,a man of intuition rather than of reasoning1 he acknowledges that he went forward without considering what he was doing4 ,he had the merit of making many innovations1 but he was wrong in taking counsel of no one but himself1 and of his personal feelings4 8,we ought to read nothing10 he said2 8we ought to discover everything40 ,pestalozzi never knew how to profit by the experience of others4 ,he never arrived at complete precision in the establishment of his methods4 ,he complained of not being understood1 and he was not in fact4 ,one of his pupils at ,yverdun1 ,vulliemin1 thus expresses himself3-- 8,that which was called1 not without pretense1 the method of ,pestalozzi was an enigma for us4 ,it was for our teachers themselves4 ,each of them interpreted the doctrine of the master in his own way2 but we were still far from the time when these divergencies engendered discord2 when our principal teachers1 after each had given out that he alone had comprehended ,pestalozzi1 ended by asserting that ,pestalozzi himself was not understood2 that he had not been understood except by ,schmid1 said ,schmid1 and by ,niederer1 said ,niederer40 #eab4 ,,methods ,,at ,,yverdun4--,the writer whom we have just quoted gives us valuable information on the methods which were in use at ,yverdun3-- 8,instruction was addressed to the intelligence rather than to the memory4 ,attempt1 said ,pestalozzi to his colleagues1 to develop the child1 and not to train him as one trains a dog40 8,language was taught us by the aid of intuition2 we learned to see correctly1 and through this very process to form for ourselves a correct idea of the relations of things4 ,what we had conceived clearly we had no difficulty in expressing clearly40 8,the first elements of geography were taught us on the spot4444 ,then we reproduced in relief with clay the valley of which we had just made a study40 8,we were made to invent geometry by having marked out for us the end to reach1 and by being put on the route4 ,the same course was followed in arithmetic2 our computations were made in the head and viva voce1 without the aid of paper40 #eac4 ,,decadence ,,of ,,the ,,institute4--,yverdun enjoyed an extraordinary notoriety for some years4 ,but little by little the faults of the method became apparent4 ,internal discords and the misunderstanding of ,pestalozzi's colleagues1 of ,niederer1 8the philosopher of the method10 and of ,schmid1 the mathematician1 hastened the decadence of an establishment in which order and discipline had never reigned4 ,pestalozzi was content with being the spur of the institute4 ,he became more and more unfit for practical affairs4 ,he allowed all liberty to his assistants1 and also to his pupils4 ,at ,yverdun the pupils addressed their teachers in familiar style4 ,the touching fiction of paternity transported into the school1 which was successful with ,pestalozzi in his first experience in teaching1 and with a small number of pupils1 was no longer practicable at ,yverdun1 with a mass of pupils of every age and of every disposition4 #ead4 ,,judgment ,,of ,p,,re ,,girard4--,in #ahji the ,pre ,girard#bba was commissioned by the ,swiss government to inspect the institute4 ,the result was not favorable1 though ,girard acknowledges that he conceived the idea of his own method from studying at first hand that of ,pestalozzi4 ,the principal criticism of ,girard bears on the abuse of mathematics1 which1 under the influence of ,schmid1 became in fact more and more the principal occupation of teachers and pupils4 8,i made the remark10 he says1 8to my old friend ,pestalozzi1 that the mathematics exercised an unjustifiable sway in his establishment1 and that ,i feared the results of this on the education that was given4 ,whereupon he replied to me with spirit1 as was his manner3 #8,this is because ,i wish my children to believe nothing which cannot be demonstrated as clearly to them as that two and two make four4' ,my reply was in the same strain3 #8,in that case1 if ,i had thirty sons1 ,i would not entrust one of them to you1 for it would be impossible for you to demonstrate to him1 as you can that two and two make four1 that ,i am his father1 and that ,i have a right to his obedience4'0 ,it is evident that ,pestalozzi was deviating from his own inclinations4 ,the general character of his pedagogy is in fact to avoid abstraction1 and in all things to aim at concrete and living intuition4 ,even in religion1 he deliberately excluded dogmatic teaching1 precise and literal form1 and sought only to awaken in the soul a religious sentiment1 sincere and profound4 ,the ,pre ,girard had remarked to him that the religious instruction of his pupils was vague and indeterminate1 and that their aspirations lacked the doctrinal form4 8,the form10 replied ,pestalozzi1 8,i am still looking for it60 #eae4 ,,the ,,last ,,years ,,of ,,pestalozzi4--,disheartened by the decadence of his institute1 ,pestalozzi left ,yverdun in #ahbd1 and sought a retreat at ,neuhof1 on the farm where he had tried his first experiments in popular education4 ,it is here that he wrote his last two works1--,the ,swan's ,song and ,my ,destinies4 ,january #be1 #ahbg1 he was taken to ,brugg to consult a physician4 ,he died there ,february #ag2 and two days after he was buried at ,birr4 ,it is there that the ,canton of ,argovia erected a monument to him in #ahdf1 with the following inscription3-- 8,here lies ,henry ,pestalozzi1 born at ,zurich1 ,january #ab1 #agdf1 died at ,brugg1 ,february #ag1 #ahbg1 savior of the poor at ,neuhof1 preacher of the people in ,leonard and ,gertrude1 father of orphans at ,stanz1 founder of the new people's school at ,burgdorf and at ,mnchen-,buchsee1 educator of humanity at ,yverdun1 man1 ,christian1 citizen3 everything for others1 nothing for himself4 ,blessed be his name40 #eaf4 ,,essential ,,principles4--,pestalozzi never took the trouble to formulate the essential principles of his pedagogy4 ,incapable of all labor in abstract reflection1 he borrowed from his friends1 on every possible occasion1 the logical exposition of his own methods4 ,in his first letter to ,gessner1 he is only too happy to reproduce the observations of the philanthropist ,fischer1 who distinguished five essential principles in his system3-- #a4 ,to give the mind an intensive culture1 and not simply extensive3 to form the mind1 and not to content one's self with furnishing it2 #b4 ,to connect all instruction with the study of language2 #c4 ,to furnish the mind for all its operations with fundamental data1 mother ideas2 #d4 ,to simplify the mechanism of instruction and study2 #e4 ,to popularize science4 ,on several points1 indeed1 ,pestalozzi calls in question the translation which ,fischer has given of his thought2 but1 notwithstanding these reservations1 powerless to find a more exact formula1 he accepts as a finality this interpretation of his doctrine4 ,later1 another witness of the life of ,pestalozzi1 ,morf1 also condensed into a few maxims the pedagogy of the great teacher3-- #a4 ,intuition is the basis of instruction2 #b4 ,language ought to be associated with intuition2 #c4 ,the time to learn is not that of judging and of criticising2 #d4 ,in each branch1 instruction ought to begin with the simplest elements1 and to progress by degrees while following the development of the child1 that is to say1 through a series of steps psychologically connected2 #e4 ,we should dwell long enough on each part of the instruction for the pupil to gain a complete mastery of it2 #f4 ,instruction ought to follow the order of natural development1 and not that of synthetic exposition2 #g4 ,the individuality of the child is sacred2 #h4 ,the principal end of elementary instruction is not to cause the child to acquire knowledge and talents1 but to develop and increase the forces of his intelligence2 #i4 ,to wisdom there must be joined power2 to theoretical knowledge1 practical skill2 #aj4 ,the relations between master and pupil ought to be based on love2 #aa4 ,instruction proper ought to be made subordinate to the higher purpose of education4 ,each one of these aphorisms would need a long commentary4 ,it is sufficient1 however1 to study them in the aggregate1 in order to form an almost exact idea of that truly humane pedagogy which reposes on psychological principles4 ,krsi could say of his master3 8,with respect to the ordinary knowledge and practices of the school1 ,pestalozzi was far below a good village magister2 but he possessed something infinitely superior to that which can be given by a course of instruction1 whatever it may be4 ,he knew that which remains concealed from a great number of teachers1--the human spirit and the laws of its development and culture1 the human heart and the means of vivifying it and ennobling it40 #eag4 ,,pedagogical ,,processes4--,the pedagogy of ,pestalozzi is no less valid in its processes than in its principles4 ,without presuming to enumerate everything1 we will indicate succinctly some of the scholastic practices which he employed and recommended3-- ,the child should know how to speak before learning to read4 ,for reading1 use should be made of movable letters glued on pasteboard4 ,before writing1 the pupil should draw4 ,the first exercises in writing should be upon slates4 ,in the study of language1 the evolution of nature should be followed1 first studying nouns1 then qualificatives1 and finally propositions4 ,the elements of computation shall be taught by the aid of material objects taken as units1 or at least by means of strokes drawn on a board4 ,oral computation shall be the most employed4 ,the pupil ought1 in order to form an accurate and exact idea of numbers1 to conceive them always as a collection of strokes or of concrete things1 and not as abstract figures4 ,a small table divided into squares in which points are represented1 serves to teach addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 and division4 ,there was neither book nor copy-book in the schools of ,burgdorf4 ,the children had nothing to learn by heart4 ,they had to repeat all at once and in accord the instructions of the master4 ,each lesson lasted but an hour1 and was followed by a short interval devoted to recreation4 ,manual labor1 making paper boxes1 working in the garden1 gymnastics1 were associated with mental labor4 ,the last hour of each day was devoted to optional labor4 ,the pupils said1 8,we are working for ourselves40 ,a few hours a week were devoted to military exercises4 ,surely everything is not to be commended in the processes which we have just indicated4 ,it is not necessary1 for example1 that the child conceive1 when he computes1 the content of numbers1 and ,pestalozzi sometimes makes an abuse of sense intuition4 ,he introduces analysis1 and an analysis too subtile and too minute1 into studies where nature alone does her work4 8,my method10 he said1 8is but a refinement of the processes of nature40 ,he refines too much4 #eah4 ,,pestalozzi ,,and ,,rousseau4--,pestalozzi has often acknowledged what he owed to ,rousseau4 8,my chimerical and unpractical spirit was taken10 he said1 8with that chimerical and impracticable book4444 ,the system of liberty ideally established by ,rousseau1 excited in me an infinite longing for a wider and more bounteous sphere of activity40 ,the great superiority of ,pestalozzi over ,rousseau1 is that he worked for the people1--that he applied to a great number of children the principles which ,rousseau embodied only in an individual and privileged education4 mile1 after all1 is an aristocrat4 ,he is rich1 and of good ancestry2 and is endowed with all the gifts of nature and fortune4 ,real pupils do not offer1 in general1 to the action of teachers1 material as docile and complaisant4 ,pestalozzi had to do only with children of the common people1 who have everything to learn at school1 because they have found at home1 with busy or careless parents1 neither encouragement nor example1--because their early years have been only a long intellectual slumber4 ,for these benumbed natures1 many exercises are necessary which would properly be regarded as useless if it were a question of instructing children of another condition4 ,before condemning1 before ridiculing1 the trifling practices of ,pestalozzi1 and of teachers of the same school1 we should consider the use to which these processes were applied4 ,the real organizer of the education of childhood and of the people1 ,pestalozzi has a right to the plaudits of all those who are interested in the future of the masses of the people4 #eai4 ,,conclusion4--,we should not flatter ourselves that merely by means of an analysis of ,pestalozzi's methods1 we can comprehend the service of a man who excelled in the warmth of his charity1 in his ardor of devotion and of propagandism1 and in ,i know not what that makes a grand personality1 more than by the clearness and the exactness of his theories4 ,it is somewhat with ,pestalozzi as with those great actors who carry with them to their tomb a part of the secret of their art4 ,he was especially great in heart and in love4 ,to read some of his writings1 we would sometimes be tempted to say that his intellect was far inferior to the expectation excited by his name2 but what a splendid revenge he takes in the domain of sentiment6 ,he passionately loved the people4 ,he knew their sufferings1 and nothing turned him from his anxiety to cure them4 ,in the presence of a beautiful landscape1 he thought less of the charming scene that was displayed before his eyes than of the poor people who1 under those splendors of nature1 led a life of misery4 ,that which assures him an immortal glory is the high purpose that he set before himself1--his ardor to regenerate humanity through instruction4 ,of what consequence is it that the results obtained were so disproportionate to his efforts1 and that he could say1 8,the contrast between what ,i would and what ,i could is so great that it cannot be expressed08 ,even the ,french ,revolution did not succeed in the matter of instruction1 in making its works commensurate with its aspirations4 ,the love and the admiration of all the friends of instruction are forever secured to ,pestalozzi4 ,he was the most suggestive1 the most stimulating1 of modern educators4 ,if it was not given him to act sufficiently on ,french pedagogy1 he was in ,germany the great inspirer of reform in popular education4 ,while he was despised by ,bonaparte1 he obtained1 in #ahjb1 from the philosopher ,fichte1 this fine compliment1 8,it is from the institute of ,pestalozzi that ,i expect the regeneration of the ,german nation40 #ebj4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,inveniam viam aut faciam4 ,to know the end is to find the way2 and to be possessed of an impulse to reach an end is to make a way4 ,there are thus two categories of educational reformers4 ,some see a goal by the light of reason and reflection1 and then lay out a logical route to it which they may or may not traverse1 but which some one will ultimately traverse4 ,others are dominated by an intense feeling1 and grope their uncertain way towards a goal whose outline and position are only dimly discerned through the mists of emotion4 ,with some1 the motive is intellectual1 with others1 it is emotional2 and in their higher manifestations these endowments are mutually exclusive4 #b4 ,pestalozzi belongs pre-eminently to the emotional reformers4 ,he felt intensely1 but he saw vaguely4 ,his impulses were the highest and the noblest that can animate the human soul1 but at every stage in his career his success was compromised by his inability to see things in their normal relations and proportions4 ,conscious of his inability to frame a rational defence of his system1 he was glad to borrow philosophic insight from abroad2 but he could not live with colleagues who would test the logic of his methods4 #c4 ,tested by the simplest rules of order1 symmetry1 and economy1 the schools organized by ,pestalozzi were failures2 but tested by the exalted humanity1 the heroic devotion1 and self-sacrifice of their founder1 and by the new life which1 through his example1 was henceforth to animate the teaching profession1 his schools were successful beyond all precedent4 ,judged by modern standards1 ,pestalozzi was a poor teacher1 but an unsurpassed educator4 #d4 ,the conception which the humanitarian warmth of ,pestalozzi's nature converted into a motive1 was that true education is a growth1 the outward evolution of an inward life4 ,the conception itself was as old as ,david and ,socrates1 but it had ceased to have the power of a living truth4 #e4 ,the history of human thought shows that there has ever been a tendency to separate form from content1 or letter from spirit1 and as constant a predilection for form or letter1 as distinguished from content or spirit2 and the essential work of reform has consisted in reanimation4 ,this illustrates and defines ,pestalozzi's mission as an educator4 ,the story of his devotion and suffering is the most pathetic in the history of education1 and it should be unnecessary to repeat the lesson that was taught at such cost4 ,,footnotes3 #baf ,besides ,basedow1 there should be mentioned among the educators who have become noted in ,germany under the name of ,philanthropists1 ,salzman 7#agdd-ahaa7 and ,campe 7#agdf-ahah74 #bag ,what a painstaking soul to be so exact in his accounts6 ,doubtless he had an eye to the future publication of his record as a matre de fouet6 ,this account is rather too exact to be trustworthy4 7,p47 #bah ,see interesting quotations from the 8,journal d'un pre10 in the excellent biography of ,pestalozzi1 by ,roger de ,guimps4 #bai ,see ,chap4 ,,xix4 #bbj ,a second edition appeared in the lifetime of the author1 in #ahbj1 with some important modifications4 ,the ,french translation published in #ahhb by ,dr4 ,darin was made from the first edition4 #bba ,see the following chapter4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,successors ,,of ,,pestalozzi4--,,fr,,bel ,,and ,,the ,p,,re ,,girard4 ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century2 ,,fr,,bel 7#aghb-aheb72 ,,youth ,,of ,,fr,,bel2 ,,different ,,employments2 ,,call ,,to ,,teach2 ,,fr,,bel ,,and ,,pestalozzi2 ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,spherical2 ,,new ,,studies2 ,,institute ,,of ,,keilhau2 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,man2 ,,analysis ,,of ,,that ,,work2 ,,love ,,for ,,children2 ,,unity ,,of ,,education2 ,,different ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,man2 ,,naturalism ,,of ,,fr,,bel2 ,,new ,,experiments ,,in ,,teaching2 ,,kindergartens2 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,kindergartens2 ,,the ,,gifts ,,of ,,fr,,bel2 ,,appeal ,,to ,,the ,,instincts ,,of ,,the ,,child2 ,,importance ,,of ,,sports2 ,,principal ,,needs ,,of ,,the ,,child2 ,,faults ,,in ,,fr,,bel',s ,,method2 ,,the ,,last ,,establishments ,,of ,,fr,,bel2 ,,fr,,bel ,,and ,,diesterweg2 ,,popularity ,,of ,,fr,,bel2 ,,the ,p,,re ,,girard 7#agfe-ahej72 ,,life ,,of ,,the ,p,,re ,,girard2 ,,plan ,,of ,,education ,,for ,,helvetia2 ,,last ,,years ,,of ,,the ,p,,re ,,girard2 ,,teaching ,,of ,,the ,,mother ,,tongue2 ,,grammar ,,of ,,ideas2 ,,discreet ,,use ,,of ,,rules2 ,,educative ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,mother ,,tongue2 ,,analysis ,,of ,,that ,,work2 ,,moral ,,arithmetic2 ,,moral ,,geography2 ,,influence ,,of ,,girard2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #eba4 ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4--,pestalozzi really belongs to our century by the close of his career1 and especially by the posthumous glory of his name4 ,with ,frbel and the ,pre ,girard1 we enter completely upon the nineteenth century2 both1 in different degrees and with characteristics of their own1 continue the work of ,pestalozzi4 #ebb4 ,,fr,,bel 7#aghb-aheb74--;,it may be said of ,frbel as of ,pestalozzi1 that in ,france at least1 he is more praised than known1 more celebrated than studied4 ,we have been tardy in speaking of him1--it is scarcely twenty years since2 but it seems that our admiration has sought to atone for the slowness of its manifestation by its vivacity and its ardor4 ,the name of the founder of ,kindergartens has become almost popular1 while his writings have remained almost unknown4 ,an impartial and thorough study of ,frbel's work will abate rather than encourage this excessive infatuation and this somewhat artificial enthusiasm4 ,assuredly1 ,frbel had grand qualities as a teacher2 but he lacked a profound classical culture and also the sense of proportion4 ,like most of the ,germans of this century1 he has ventured on the conceptions of a nebulous philosophy1 and following the steps of ,hegel1 he has too often deserted the route of observation and experiment1 to strike out into metaphysical divagations4 ,frbel's imagination magnifies and distorts everything4 ,he cannot see objects as they are1 but lends them a symbolical meaning1 and wanders off into transcendental and obscure considerations4 ,but his practical work is worth more than his writings1 and he cannot be denied the glory of having been a bold and happy innovator in the field of early education4 #ebc4 ,,the ,,youth ,,of ,,fr,,bel4--,frbel was born in ,thuringia in #aghb4 ,he lost his mother almost at birth1 and was educated by his father and his uncle1 both village pastors4 ,we recollect that by a contrary destiny1 ,pestalozzi was brought up by his mother4 ,from his earliest years he manifested remarkable traits of character1 and also mental tendencies which were a little singular4 ,he was dreamy and wholly penetrated with a profound religious sentiment4 ,thus1 the day when he believed that he was assured by peremptory reasoning that he was not doomed to eternal flames1 was an event in his life4 ,ardently enamored of nature1 he considers her as the true inspirer of humanity4 ,this had also been the conception of ,rousseau and of ,pestalozzi1 but it exhibits itself with much more power in the case of ,frbel4 ,it is difficult to comprehend the exaggeration of his thought when he says that nature1 attentively observed1 appears to us as the symbol of the highest aspirations of human life4 8,entire nature1 even the world of crystals and stones1 teaches us to recognize good and evil1 but nowhere in a more living1 tranquil1 clear1 and evident way than in the world of plants and flowers40 ,morality1 thus understood1 is a little vague4 ,we do not deny that the calm life of the fields contributes to surround us with a pure atmosphere1 and to beget within us wholesome and elevated aspirations2 but one must have a singularly sentimental temperament to believe that nature can give us 8the clearest and the most obvious0 lessons in morals4 #ebd4 ,,different ,,occupations4--,the first part of ,frbel's life gives evidence of a certain unsteadiness of mind4 ,inconstant in his tastes1 he cannot settle on a fixed mode of life4 ,improvident and poor1 like ,pestalozzi1 he is in turn forester1 intendant1 architect1 preceptor2 he feels his way up to the day when his vocation as a teacher is suddenly revealed to him4 ,moreover1 he studies everything1--law1 mineralogy1 agriculture1 mathematics4 #ebe4 ,,vocation ,,to ,,teach4--,it was in #ahje1 at ,frankfort1 that ,frbel began to teach4 ,he was then twenty-three4 ,the teacher ,gruner offered him a position as instructor in the model school which he directed2 ,frbel accepted1 but he was of that number who do nothing artlessly4 8,an accidental circumstance determined my decision4 ,i received news that my certificates were lost certificates that he had sent to an architect to secure a position with him4 ,i then concluded that ,providence had intended1 by this incident1 to take from me the possibility of a return backward40 ,at the end of a few days he wrote to his brother ,christopher3-- 8,it is astonishing how my duties please me4 ,from the first lesson it seemed to me that ,i had never done anything else1 and that ,i was born for that very thing4 ,i could no longer make it seem to me that ,i had previously thought of following any occupation but this1 and yet ,i confess that the idea of becoming a teacher had never occurred to me40 #ebf4 ,,fr,,bel ,,and ,,pestalozzi4--,at the school in ,frankfort1 ,frbel1 still a novice in the art of teaching1 attempted scarcely more than scrupulously to apply the ,pestalozzian methods4 ,and upon many points ,frbel remained to the end a faithful disciple of ,pestalozzi4 ,intuition is the fundamental principle of his method1 and we might say that his effort in pedagogy consists chiefly in organizing into a system the sense intuitions which ,pestalozzi proposed to the child somewhat at random and without plan4 ,frbel had had direct relations with ,pestalozzi4 ,in #ahjh he went to ,yverdun with three of his pupils1 and there spent two years1 taking part in the work of the institute1 and becoming acquainted with the methods of the master4 ,he declares that it was a 8decisive0 epoch in his life4 ,but let us note1 in passing1 the difference in character between ,pestalozzi and ,frbel4 ,while ,pestalozzi is ever ready to accuse himself with a touching humility1 ,frbel regards himself as almost infallible4 ,he never attributes failure to his own insufficiency1 but lays the blame on destiny or on the ill-will of others4 ,pestalozzi is ever forgetting himself1 and he is so neglectful as to be uncouth in his attire4 8,he never knew how to dress10 say his biographers2 8his distraction made him forget sometimes his cravat1 and at others his garters40 ,frbel1 on the contrary1 affected an elegant and theatrical bearing4 ,he studied effect4 ,at certain periods1 as we are told1 he wore ,hessian boots and a ,tyrolese cap with high plumes4 #ebg4 ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,sphericity 7#ahaa74--;,it was about #ahaa that the peculiar originality of ,frbel manifested itself1 and this was done1 it must be confessed1 in an unfortunate way1 by the publication of his ,treatise on ,sphericity4 ,pestalozzi somewhere wrote3 8,if my life is entitled to any credit1 it is that of having placed the square at the basis of an intuitive instruction which has never yet been given to a people40#bbb ,this language coming from ,pestalozzi is certainly calculated to surprise us2 but at least ,pestalozzi meant square in the proper sense of the term1 as a geometrical figure1 or as a form for drawing4 ,when ,frbel speaks to us of the sphere1 and makes of it the basis of education1 it is a wholly different thing4 ,in reading the ,treatise on ,sphericity1 we are sometimes tempted to inquire whether we have to do with a well-balanced mind1 or whether an exuberant imagination has not caused the author to lose the consciousness of reality4 ,according to ,frbel1 the sphere is the ideal form3-- 8,the sphere seems like the prototype or the unity of all bodies and of all forms4 ,not an angle1 not a line1 not a plane1 not a surface1 is shown in it1 and yet it has all points and all surfaces40 ,let this pass2 but besides this1 the sphere has mysterious relations with spiritual things2 it teaches the perfection of the moral life4 8,to labor conscientiously at the development of the spherical nature of a being1 is to effect the education of a being40 ,an incident borrowed from the life of ,frbel will complete the picture4 ,he enlisted as a volunteer in #ahab1 and made the campaigns of #ahab-ahac1 with ,langethal and ,middendorf1 who were afterward to be his colleagues4 ,after the war1 he returned to ,berlin1 passing through the whole of ,germany4 ,during the whole journey1 he says1 8,i was seeking something1 but without reaching a definite idea of what ,i was in quest of1 and nothing could satisfy me4 ,wholly engrossed in this thought1 ,i entered one day into a very beautiful garden1 ornamented with plants the most various4 ,i admired them1 and yet none of them brought relief to my inmost feeling4 8,passing them in review1 at a glance1 in my soul1 ,i suddenly discovered that among them there was no lily4444 ,then ,i knew what was lacking in that garden1 and what ,i was looking for4 ,how could my inmost feeling have manifested itself to me in a more beautiful way8 ,you seek1 ,i said to myself1 tranquil peace of heart1 harmony of life1 and purity of soul1 in the image of the lily1 that peaceful flower1 simple and pure4 ,the garden1 with all its varied flowers1 but without the blossoms of the lily1 was for me like life agitated and variegated1 but without harmony and without unity40 #ebh4 ,,new ,,studies4--,frbel returned to ,berlin in #ahad1 and there obtained an assistant's place in the mineralogical museum4 ,he there studied at leisure the geometrical forms of crystals1 and reflected anew on their symbolical meaning4 ,perhaps he derived from these studies the idea of the first gifts which he afterwards introduced into his ,kindergartens4 ,it was not till two years afterwards that he formed the definite resolution to devote himself to the education of youth 7#ahaf74 ,he first established himself at ,griesheim1 and then at ,keilhau 7a league's distance from ,rudolstadt71 where1 with five pupils1 all his nephews1 he opened a school which he called by a pompous title1 and one hardly justifiable at the beginning1 the ,general ,german ,institute of ,education4 ,he succeeded in associating with himself ,langethal and ,middendorf4 ,the establishment was administered at first on a very modest scale1 as the resources were slender2 but it prospered little by little1 and in #ahbf it numbered more than fifty pupils4 #ebi4 ,,institute ,,at ,,keilhau4--,the principles of ,pestalozzi were applied at ,keilhau4 ,langethal and ,middendorf passed their apprenticeship in the ,pestalozzian method under the direction of ,frbel4 ,the three professors met in the common hall1 and there were frequently heard as echoes from their discussion the words3 intuition1 personal initiative1 proceeding from the known to the unknown4 8,they are learning the system10 said the children who heard them4 ,at ,keilhau1 physical1 intellectual1 and moral education marched abreast4 ,the master was to attempt to penetrate the individuality of each child1 to the end that he might thence provoke the free development of that individuality4 ,the government was austere and the fare frugal4 ,the system of physical hardening was carried to an extreme4 ,the pupils1 winter and summer1 wore a blouse and cotton trousers4 ,a considerable time was devoted to religious exercises4 ,frbel always remained attached to the ,lutheran ,church1 though his orthodoxy might have seemed open to suspicion1 and he always thought that education ought to be essentially religious4 8,all education that is not founded on religion is sterile40 ,and he adds1 8,all education that is not founded on the ,christian religion is defective and incomplete40#bbc #ecj4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,man4--,it was at ,keilhau in #ahbf1 that ,frbel published his principal work1 ,the ,education of ,man4#bbd ,at that date1 the idea of ,kindergartens had not yet taken form in his mind2 and ,the ,education of ,man was not so much the exposition of the practical applications of ,frbel's method1 as a nebulous and tumid development of his metaphysical principles4 ,it is a book little read1 and1 let it be confessed1 partly illegible6 ,we have ventured to speak of the nonsense written by ,pestalozzi4 ,what shall be said of the mystical dreams of ,frbel8 ,the pedagogy of the ,germans1 like their philosophy1 has for a century often lost its way in strange theories which absolutely surpass the comprehension of the ,french mind4 ,from a mass of vague and pretentious speculations on universal nature1 there are culled with difficulty some ideas which are well founded4 ,however1 let us try to gather up the obscure idea of ,frbel1 made still more obscure by the exterior form of the work4 ,in the first edition ,frbel had omitted to introduce into the text any division into chapters and paragraphs4 ,the reading of this uninterrupted text could not fail to be laborious2 even with the somewhat artificial divisions which were subsequently introduced1 ,the ,education of ,man remains difficult to read and to analyze4 #eca4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,work4--,the introduction is the most interesting part of the work4 ,we might reduce the somewhat confused ideas which it contains to three essential points1 to three general ideas1 of philosophy1 of psychology1 and of pedagogy4 ,the idea of general philosophy is this3 8,everything comes solely from ,god4 ,in ,god is the unique principle of all things40 ,it is a vague pantheism which consists in believing that all the objects of nature are the direct manifestations of the divine activity4 8,the end1 the destiny of each thing1 is to publish abroad its being1 the activity of ,god which operates in it1 and the manner in which this activity is combined with the thing40 ,from these premises ,frbel is logically brought to this psychological statement1 that everything is good in man1 for it is ,god who acts in him4 ,he pushes his optimism so far as to say3-- 8,from his earliest age the child yields himself to justice and right with a surprising tact1 for we rarely see him avoiding them voluntarily40 ,the pedagogical conclusion is easy to guess3 ,education shall be essentially a work of liberty and of spontaneity4 ,it ought to be indulgent1 flexible1 supple1 and restricted to protecting and overseeing4 8,the vocation of man1 considered as a reasonable intelligence1 is to let his nature act in manifesting the action of ,god1 who operates in him2 to publish ,god outwardly1 to acquire the knowledge of his real destiny1 and to accomplish it in all liberty and spontaneity40 ,these last two words are repeated ad nauseam4 ,frbel goes so far as to say that there can be no general form of education to impose or even to recommend1 because account must be taken of the nature of each child1 and the free development of his individuality provoked by inviting him to action and to personal exertion4 ,the choice in the manifestation of the exterior form of education ought to be left to the intelligence of the educator1 and there ought to be almost as many ways of educating men as there are individuals1 with their own natures aspiring to a personal development4 #ecb4 ,,love ,,for ,,children4--,frbel1 and this is perhaps his best quality1 loves children tenderly4 ,he speaks of them with touching accents1 but he does not fail to mingle with his affection for them his habitual symbolism4 ,the child is not for him simply the little real being that he has under his eyes4 ,he sees him through mystic veils1 so to speak1 and1 as it were1 crowned with an aureole3-- 8,let the child always appear to us as a living pledge of the presence1 of the goodness1 and of the love of ,god40 #ecc4 ,,unity ,,of ,,education4--,frbel is always bitterly complaining of the fragmentary and scrappy character of the ordinary education4 ,his dream was to introduce unity into it4 ,in this respect he separates himself squarely from ,rousseau4 ,the different stages of life form an uninterrupted chain4 8,let life be considered as being but one in all its phases1 as forming one complete whole40 #ecd4 ,,different ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,man4--,frbel1 in ,the ,education of ,man1 considers in succession the different periods of life4 ,the first three chapters treat of the first stages of development in man1--the nurseling1 the child1 the young boy4 ,we here find pages full of charm1 upon the education of the child by the mother1 and upon the progress of the faculties2 but pretentious considerations and whimsical interpretations too often come to spoil the psychology of ,frbel4 8,the child10 he says1 8scarcely knows whether he loves the flowers for themselves1 for the delight which they give him1 444 or for the vague intuition which they give him of the ,creator40 ,farther on he speaks of introducing the child to colors1 and from this exercise he at once draws moral conclusions3 the child loves colors because he comes by means of them 8to the knowledge of an interior unity40 #ece4 ,,the ,,naturalism ,,of ,,fr,,bel4--,the elements of education according to ,frbel are1 with religion2 the artistic studies1 mathematics1 language1 and1 above all1 nature4 8,teachers should scarcely let a week pass without taking to the country a part of their pupils4 ,they shall not drive them before them like a flock of sheep4444 ,they shall walk with them as a father among his children1 or a brother among his brothers1 in making them observe and admire the varied richness which nature displays to their eyes at each season of the year40 #ecf4 ,,new ,,experiments ,,in ,,teaching4--,the institute of ,keilhau did not long prosper4 ,in #ahbi it was necessary to close it for lack of pupils4 ,frbel lacked the practical qualities of an administrator4 ,in #ahca he tried in vain to open a new school at ,wartensee in ,switzerland4 ,the attacks of the clerical party obliged him to abandon his project4 ,after several other attempts he was elected director of an orphan asylum at ,burgdorf2 and it was there that he resolved to devote his pedagogical efforts to the education of early childhood4 ,the little village of ,burgdorf had the honor1 within a period of thirty-five years1 of offering an asylum to ,pestalozzi and to ,frbel1 and of being the scene of their experiments in pedagogy4 #ecg4 ,,the ,,kindergartens4--,the master conception of ,frbel1 the creation of the ,kindergarten1 was only slowly developed in his mind4 ,it was only in #ahdj that he invented the term4 ,of course1 given the imagination of ,frbel1 and his tendency to symbolism1 children's garden ought to be taken in its allegorical sense4 ,the child is a plant1 the school a garden1 and ,frbel calls teachers 8gardeners of children40#bbe ,but before giving a name to his school for early childhood1 ,frbel had long cherished the idea of it4 ,in #ahce1 at ,burgdorf1 he attempted to realize it2 in #ahcg1 at ,blankenburg1 near ,rudolstadt1 he founded his first infant school4 #ech4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,kindergarten4--,without wishing to belittle the originality of ,frbel's creation1 it is right to say that it was suggested to him in part by ,comenius4 ,the philosopher ,krause had pointed out to him the importance of the writings of the ,slavic educator4 ,he studied them1 and the ,kindergarten certainly has some relations of parenthood with the schola materni gremii4 ,there is1 however1 one essential difference between the idea of ,comenius and that of ,frbel1--the first confided to the mother the cares which the second relegates to the teachers of the children's gardens4 ,it is said that it was from seeing a child playing at ball that ,frbel conceived the first idea of his system4 ,we know what importance he attached to the spherical form and to play4 ,the first principle of his ,kindergarten was then that the child ought to play1 and to play at ball4 ,but ,frbel enveloped the simplest ideas in prolix and whimsical theories4 ,if he recommends the ball1 it is not for positive reasons1 nor because it is an inoffensive play1 very appropriate to the need of movement which characterizes the child4 ,it is because the ball is the symbol of unity4 ,the cube1 which was to succeed the ball1 represents diversity in unity4 ,it is also because the word ball is a symbolic word1 formed from letters borrowed from the ,german words ,bild von all1 picture of the whole4 ,frbel came to attribute an occult meaning to the different letters of words4 ,he thought he found in the figures of the year #ahcf1 the date of his first conception of the ,kindergarten1 the proof that that year was to open to humanity a new era1 and he expressed his views in an essay entitled3 ,the ,year #ahcf requires a ,renovation of ,life4 ,in this we read such things as these3 8,the word marriage 7,german ,ehe7 represents by its two vowels e-e1 life2 these two vowels are united by the consonant h1 thus symbolizing a double life which the spirit unites2 again1 the two halves thus united are similar and equal each to each3 e-h-e40 ,and farther on3 8,what does the word ,german 7,deutsch7 signify8 ,it is derived from the word deuten 7signifying to manifest71 which designates the act by which self-conscious thought is clearly manifested outwardly4444 ,to be a ,german is then to raise one's self as an individual and as a whole1 by a clear manifestation of one's self1 to a clear consciousness of self40 #eci4 ,,the ,,gifts ,,of ,,fr,,bel4--,under the graceful name of gifts1 ,frbel presents to the child a certain number of objects which are to serve as material for his exercises4 ,the five gifts are contained in a box from which they are taken in succession1 as the children are in a condition to receive them4 ,in the original plan of ,frbel1 these gifts were3 #a4 the ball2 #b4 the sphere and the cube2 #c4 the cube divided into eight equal parts2 #d4 the cube divided into eight rectangular parallelopipeds1 in the form of building-bricks1 which the child will use as material for little constructions2 #e4 the cube divided in each of its dimensions1 that is1 cut into twenty-seven equal cubes2 three of them are subdivided into two prisms1 and three others into four prisms1 by means of an oblique section1 single or double4#bbf ,and to these gifts ,frbel added other objects1 such as thin strips of wood and little sticks for constructing figures2 and bits of paper for braiding1 folding1 dotting1 etc4 ,the conception of ,frbel does not rest1 as one might think1 on the adaptation of the objects which he chooses in succession1 to the faculties of the child4 ,it is not this at all which interests him4 ,the order which he has adopted is derived from another principle4 ,according to him1 the form of bodies has an intimate relation with the general laws of the universe4 ,there is1 consequently1 a methodical gradation to be observed1 according to the intrinsic character of the objects themselves1 for the purpose of initiating the child into the laws of the divine thought symbolized in the sphere1 in the cube1 in the cylinder1 etc4 ,frbel was greatly irritated at those of his scholars who misunderstood the philosophical import of his 8gifts10 and who saw in them only plays4 8,if my material for instruction possesses some utility10 he said1 8it does not owe it to its exterior appearance1 which has nothing striking and offers no novelty4 ,it owes it simply to the way in which ,i use it1 that is1 to my method and to the philosophical law on which it is founded4 ,the justification of my system of education is entirely in this law2 according as this law is rejected or admitted1 the system falls or continues with it4 ,all the rest is but material without any value of its own40 ,it is this 8material10 however1 which for ,frbel had no value1 that his admirers have above all preserved of his method1 without longer caring for the allegorical sense which he attached to it4 #edj4 ,,appeal ,,to ,,the ,,instincts ,,of ,,the ,,child4--,that which makes1 notwithstanding so much that is whimsical1 the lasting merit of ,frbel's work1 that which justifies in part the admiration which it has excited1 is that he organized the salle d'asile1 the infant school1 and that he realized for it that which ,pestalozzi had attempted for the elementary school4 ,he knew how to make an appeal to the instincts of the youngest child1 to combine a system of exercises for the training of the hand1 for the education of the senses1 to satisfy the need of movement and activity which develops itself from the first day of life1 and1 finally1 to make of the child a creator1 a little artist always at work4 ,for the old education1 which he calls 8a hot-house education10 and in which the instruction1 premature through language1 smothers in their germs the native powers of the child1 in order to excite his memory and his judgment by artificial means1--for this education he substitutes a free and cheerful education which cultivates the faculties of the child by love1 and which makes a just estimate of his instincts4 ,books are suppressed1 and lessons also4 ,the child freely expands in play4 #eda4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,play4--,with ,frbel1 play became an essential element of education4 ,this ingenious teacher knew how to make of it an art1 an instrument for the development of the infant faculties4 8,the plays of the child10 he said1 8are1 as it were1 the germ of the whole life which is to follow1 for the whole man develops and manifests itself in it2 in it he reveals his noblest aptitudes and the deepest elements of his being4 ,the whole life of man has its source in that epoch of existence1 and whether that life is serene or sad1 tranquil or agitated1 fruitful or sterile1 whether it brings peace or war1 that depends on the care1 more or less judicious1 given to the beginnings of existence40 #edb4 ,,principal ,,needs ,,of ,,the ,,child4--,grard1 in a remarkable study on the method of ,frbel1 reduces the aspirations of the child to three essential instincts3-- #a4 ,the taste for observation3-- 8,all the senses of the child are on the alert2 all the objects which his sight or his hand encounters attract him1 interest him1 delight him40 #b4 ,the need of activity1 the taste for construction3-- 8,it is not enough that we show him objects2 it is necessary that he touch them1 that he handle them1 that he appropriate them to himself4444 ,he takes delight in constructing2 he is naturally geometrician and artist40 #c4 ,finally1 the sentiment of personality3-- 8,he wishes to have his own place1 his own occupation1 his own teacher40 ,now ,frbel's method has precisely for its object the satisfaction of these different instincts4 8,to place the child before a common table10 says ,grard1 8but with his own chair and a place that belongs to him1 so that he feels that he is the owner of his little domain2 to excite at the very beginning his good will by the promise of an interesting game2 to develop in succession under his very eyes the marvels of the five gifts3 to teach him in the first place1 from concrete objects exposed to his sight1 balls of colored worsted and geometrical solids1 to distinguish color1 form1 material1 the different parts of a body1 so as to accustom him to see1 that is1 to seize the aspects1 the figures1 the resemblances1 the differences1 the relations of things2 then to place the objects in his hands1 and to teach him to make with the balls of colored worsted combinations of colors agreeable to the eye1 to arrange1 with matches united by balls of cork1 squares1 angles1 triangles of all sorts1 to set up little cubes in the form of crosses1 pyramids1 etc42--then1 either by means of strips of colored paper placed in different directions1 interlaced into one another1 braided as a weaver would make a fabric1 or with the crayon1 to drill him in reproducing1 in creating1 designs representing all the geometrical forms1 so that to the habit of observation is gradually joined that of invention2 finally1 while his hand is busy in concert with his intelligence1 and while his need of activity is satisfied1 to take advantage of this awakened and satisfied attention to fix in his mind by appropriate questions some notions of the properties and uses of forms1 by relating them to some great principle of general order1 simple and fruitful1 to mingle the practical lesson with moral observations1 drawn in particular from the incidents of the school--this1 in its natural progress and its normal development1 is the method of ,frbel40 #edc4 ,,defects ,,in ,,fr,,bel',s ,,method4--,there is ground for thinking1 notwithstanding all1 that ,frbel's method is a little complicated1 a little artificial1 and that it sometimes proceeds in opposition to the natural disposition of children4 ,their soul1 he said1 cannot in the first period of its development1 recognize itself1 apprehend itself1 save in the perception of the simplest forms of the exterior world1 presented in a concrete manner4 ,now nature of herself does not offer these elementary forms2 it is necessary to know how to extract them from the infinite diversity of things4 ,and ,frbel found these simple forms in the sphere1 the cube1 and the cylinder4 ,but these forms1 we reply1 are but abstractions2 it does not suffice to say that the cube and the sphere are material and palpable1--they are none the less the product of abstract thought on this account2 nature does not present these simple geometrical forms2 everything in them is complex4 ,now the nascent thought is employed at first on real things1 on the living and irregular forms of animals and vegetables2 then in this case1 the mind proceeds naturally from the complex to the simple1 from the concrete to the abstract4 ,it seems1 on the contrary1 that ,frbel begins with the abstract in order to arrive at the concrete4 ,in the school of ,frbel other defects have been developed4 ,an abuse has been made of the exercises in imitation and invention4 ,the child has been made to produce marvels of construction which take too much of his time and demand of him too much effort4 ,it has been forgotten that these employments should be preparatory exercises1--means1 and not the end of education4 #edd4 ,,the ,,last ,,establishments ,,of ,,fr,,bel4--,towards #ahdj1 the ideas of ,frbel began to become popular4 ,his methods attracted attention4 ,then he wished to transform his school at ,blankenburg into a model establishment4 ,he addressed an appeal to the ,german nation in favor of his work1 but it was only slightly successful4 ,obliged in #ahdd to close his institute1 through lack of resources1 he then travelled through ,germany in order to make known his methods4 ,he did not derive from his journey the profit that he expected from it1 and1 discouraged1 he returned once more to ,keilhau1 where he opened a course in method1 or a normal course1 for the use of young women who were preparing themselves for the education of infants4 ,this association with women1 in which ,frbel lived till his death1 exercised a profound influence on the development of his system4 ,a much greater share of attention was given to the practical exercises1 and the mathematics was put in the background4 ,in #ahej he obtained through the intervention of the ,baroness von ,marenholtz1 one of his most ardent admirers1 the lease of the ,castle of ,marienthal1 and to this he transferred his establishment4 ,a long period of activity seemed opening before him4 ,he personally directed the games of the children1 and trained the teachers2 but he died suddenly in #aheb4 #ede4 ,,fr,,bel ,,and ,,diesterweg4--,however1 before his death1 ,frbel was able to witness the growing success of his work4 ,each day he received eminent adhesions2 for example1 that of ,diesterweg4#bbg ,it was through the mediation of the ,baroness von ,marenholtz that ,frbel and ,diesterweg1 the celebrated director of the normal school of ,berlin1 became acquainted4 ,diesterweg was a strong and practical spirit1 who contributed much to the development of instruction in ,prussia4 ,at first he had a contempt for ,frbel1 whom he treated as a charlatan2 but on his first conversation with him he changed his opinion4 ,he was taken to the school-room in which ,frbel was teaching2 but wholly intent on his work1 ,frbel did not observe the presence of the visitor4 ,diesterweg was impressed by seeing this old man devoting himself entirely to his little pupils1 and his prejudices disappeared4 ,to a certain extent he became the propagator of ,frbel's ideas4 ,he agreed with him on his general conception of the needs of the child1 and of the province of woman as the earliest educator4 #edf4 ,,success ,,of ,,fr,,bel',s ,,work4--,frbel had other imitators4 ,like ,pestalozzi1 he inspired a large number of minds by his writings1 and through the zeal of ,madame von ,marenholtz1 and of some other disciples1 his practical work prospered4 ,the ,kindergartens have been multiplied in many places1 and particularly in ,austria4 #edg4 ,,the ,p,,re ,,girard 7#agfe-ahej74--,the ,pre ,girard is the most eminent educator of modern ,switzerland4 ,less celebrated than ,pestalozzi and ,frbel1 he yet has this advantage over them1 of having been better prepared for his profession as an educator4 ,after having finished a thorough and complete course of classical study1 he for a long time taught the same subjects in the same school4 ,he acquired experience and wrote his treatises only in an advanced age1 at a time when he was in complete possession of his ideas4 ,he was in fact seventy-nine years old when he published his book ,on the ,systematic ,teaching of the ,mother ,tongue4 ,it is a work of mature thought1 and sums up a whole lifetime of labor4 ,less addicted to system than ,frbel and ,pestalozzi1 the ,pre ,girard still carries mere system too far1 and makes a misuse of the principle which consisted in making of all the parts of instruction the elements of moral education4 #edh4 ,,life ,,of ,,the ,p,,re ,,girard4--,girard was born in ,friburg in #agfe4 ,his pedagogic instinct manifested itself at an early hour4 ,while still very young he aided his mother in instructing his fourteen brothers and sisters4 ,like ,frbel1 he was passionately fond of religious questions4 ,one day as he had heard his preceptor say that there was no salvation outside of the ,roman ,church1 he sought his mother in tears1 and asked her if the ,protestant tradesman who brought her fruit each day would be damned4 ,his mother reassured him1 and he always remained faithful to what he called 8the theology of his mother10--a tolerant and broad theology which brought on him the hatred of the ,jesuits4 ,at the age of sixteen he entered the order of the ,gray ,friars1 and completed his novitiate at ,lucerne4 ,he then taught in several convents1 in particular at ,wurtzburg1 where he remained four years 7#aghe-aghh74 ,he returned to ,friburg in #aghi1 and for ten years he devoted himself almost exclusively to his ecclesiastical functions4 ,but his vocation as an educator was even then indicated by some things that he had written4 ,in #agih1 under the influence of the ideas of ,kant1 whose philosophical doctrine he had ardently studied1 he published a ,scheme of ,education for all ,helvetia1 addressed to the ,swiss minister ,stapfer1 who was also the patron of ,pestalozzi4 ,it was only in #ahjd1 that ,girard devoted himself entirely to teaching1 the very year in which ,frbel began his work4 ,he was appointed to direct the primary school at ,friburg1 which had just been entrusted to the ,gray ,friars4 ,girard received the title of 8prefect of studies10 and for nineteen years1 from #ahje to #ahbc1 he exercised his functions as a teacher in that school4 ,very small in the beginning1 the school had a remarkable growth4 ,there was added to it even a school for girls4 ,at first ,girard had ,gray ,friars for colleagues2 but he soon replaced them with lay teachers1 who obeyed him better and devoted themselves more entirely to their task4 ,the teacher of drawing was a ,protestant4 #edi4 ,,success ,,of ,,the ,,school ,,at ,,friburg4--,a disciple and an admirer of ,girard1 the pastor ,naville1 has related in his work on ,public ,education#bbh the brilliant results obtained by ,girard in his school at ,friburg4 8,he had trained a body of youth the like of which perhaps no city in the world could furnish4 ,it was not without a profound emotion that the friends of humanity contemplated a spectacle so new and so touching4 ,that ignorant and boorish class1 full of prejudices1 which everywhere abounds1 was no longer met with at ,friburg4444 ,the young there developed graces of an amiable deportment which were never marred by anything disagreeable in tone1 speech1 or manner4 ,if1 seeing children approaching you covered with rags1 you approached them thinking that you were about to encounter little ruffians1 you were wholly surprised to have them reply to you with politeness1 with judgment1 and with that accent which bespeaks genteel manners and a careful education4444 ,you will find the explanation in the school1 when you observe the groups where these same children exercise by turns1 as in playing1 their judgment and their conscience4 ,three or four hours a day employed in this work gave the young that intelligence1 those sentiments1 and those manners which delighted you40 #eej4 ,,the ,,last ,,years ,,of ,,the ,p,,re ,,girard4--,notwithstanding the success of his instruction1 the ,pre ,girard was obliged to abandon the charge of his school in #ahbc4 ,his loss of position was the result of the intrigues of the ,jesuits1 whose college had been re-established in #ahah4 ,he left ,friburg amid universal regrets1 and retired to ,lucerne1 where he taught philosophy till #ahcd4 ,at that date he returned to his native city and lived a life of seclusion4 ,it was then that he wrote his pedagogical works4 ,but through his disciples1 and particularly through the pastor ,naville1 the methods of the ,pre ,girard were known before he had published anything4 #eea4 ,,teaching ,,of ,,the ,,mother ,,tongue4--,let us now examine the general spirit of the pedagogy of ,girard4 ,it is in the theoretical work which he published in #ahdd1 and which was crowned by the ,french ,academy in the same year1 that we must look for the principles of his method4 ,it consisted in 8choosing a study which may be considered as one essential part of the instruction common to all the classes of society1 and which nevertheless is fit for calling into exercise all the intellectual powers40 ,this study was the mother tongue1 which ,girard employed for the moral and religious development of children4 ,villemain1 in his report on the books of ,girard1 has clearly defined the purpose of the common school as conceived by the educator of ,friburg3-- 8,where the period of instruction is necessarily short and its object limited1 a wise choice of method is the thing of first importance1 for upon this choice will depend the education itself4 ,if that method is purely technical1 if its exclusive object is reading1 writing1 and the rules of grammar and computation1 the child of the common people will be poorly instructed and will not be educated at all4 ,a difficult task burdens his memory without developing his soul4 ,a new process is placed at his disposal1 one workshop more is open to him1 so to speak2 but the trace left by that instruction will not be deep1 will sometimes even be lost through lack of application and exercise1 and will not have acted on the moral nature1 too often absorbed eventually by a monotonous devotion to duty or the excessive fatigue of bodily labor4 ,the only1 the real people's school1 is then that in which all the elements of study serve for the culture of the soul1 and in which the child grows better by the things which he learns and by the manner in which he learns them40 #eeb4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,this ,,work4--,the book of ,girard is divided into four parts4 ,the first contains general considerations on the manner in which the mother teaches her children to speak1 upon the purpose of a course of instruction on the mother tongue1 and on the elements which should compose it4 ,the second part is entitled3 ,the ,systematic ,teaching of the ,mother ,tongue considered solely as the ,expression of ,thought4 ,it is language considered in itself2 but ,girard desires that the word should always be united to the thought4 ,it is not necessary that the teaching of grammar should be reduced to verbal instruction2 it should also serve to develop the thought of pupils4 ,in the third part1 the ,systematic ,teaching of the ,mother ,tongue considered as the ,means of ,intellectual ,culture1 ,girard considers everything which can contribute to the development of the faculties4 ,in the fourth part1 the ,systematic ,teaching of ,language employed for the ,culture of the ,heart1 ,girard shows how the teaching of language may assist in moral education4 ,a fifth part1 ,use of the ,course in the ,mother ,tongue1 is1 so to speak1 the material part of the book1 and1 as it were1 the outline of the great practical work of ,girard1 the ,educative#bbi ,course in the ,mother ,tongue4 #eec4 ,,the ,,grammarian1 ,,the ,,logician1 ,,the ,,educator4--,in other terms1 ,girard places himself in succession at four different points of view in the teaching of language3-- 8,four persons10 he says1 8ought to concur in constructing the course in the mother tongue3 the grammarian1 the logician1 the educator1 and1 finally1 the man of letters40 ,the task of the grammarian is to furnish the material of the language and its proper forms4 ,the logician will teach us what must be done in order to cultivate the intelligence of the young4 ,the educator will ever be inspired by this grand truth3 8,man acts as he loves1 and he loves as he thinks40 ,he will try to grave in the souls of children all the beautiful and grand truths which can awaken and nourish pure and noble affections4 ,finally1 the man of letters has also his part in the course in language1 in the sense that pupils1 besides being required from the beginning of their studies to invent propositions and sentences1 will have a little later to compose narratives1 letters1 dialogues1 etc4 #eed4 ,,the ,,grammar ,,of ,,ideas4--,elementary instruction should have for its purpose the development of the mind and the judgment4 ,it is no longer a question of cultivating the memory alone and of causing words to be learned4 ,the ,pre ,girard would have grammar made an exercise in thinking4 8,the grammars in use10 he says1 8are intended simply to teach correctness in speaking and writing4 ,by their aid we are able finally to avoid a certain number of faults in style and orthography4444 ,this instruction becomes a pure affair of memory1 and the child becomes accustomed to pronounce sounds to which he attaches no meaning4 ,the child needs a grammar of ideas4444 ,our grammars of words are the plague of education40 ,in other terms1 grammar should be made above all else an exercise in thinking1 and1 as it were1 8the logic of childhood40 #eee4 ,,discreet ,,use ,,of ,,rules4--,the ,pre ,girard does not proscribe rules4 ,the teaching of language cannot do without them2 8but there is10 he says1 8a proper manner of presenting them to children1 and a just medium to hold40 ,in the teaching of grammar we must follow the course which the grammarians themselves have followed in order to construct their science3 8,the rules were established on facts4 ,it is then to facts that they must be referred in instruction1 in order that by this means children may be taught to do intelligently what they have hitherto done through blind imitation4444 ,few rules1 many exercises4 ,rules are always abstract1 dry1 and for this very reason poorly adapted to please children1 even when they can comprehend them4 ,we ought1 then1 in general1 to make a very sparing use of them40 ,so the ,pre ,girard particularly recommends practical exercises1 oral instruction1 the continual use of the blackboard1 the active and animated co-operation of all the members of the class1 rapid interrogation1 the ,socratic method1 the abuse of which1 however1 he criticises4#bcj #eef4 ,,moral ,,arithmetic4#bca--,the ,pre ,girard1 like almost all the men who have conceived an original idea1 has fallen into the love of systematizing4 ,he believed that not only language1 but all the branches of study might contribute to moral education4 8,he conceived10 says ,naville1 8that by means of a selection of problems adapted to the development of the social affections in the family1 the commune1 and the ,state1 one might give to arithmetic such a wholesome direction that it might be made to contribute1 not only to making the child prudent and economical1 but even more to extend his views beyond the narrow circle of selfishness1 and to cultivate in him beneficent dispositions40#bcb #eeg4 ,,moral ,,geography4--,it is in the same spirit that he claimed to find in the study of geography a means of contributing to the development of the moral nature4 8,according to my honest conviction1 every elementary work for children ought to be a means of education4 ,if it is limited to giving knowledge1 if it is limited to developing the faculties of the pupil1 ,i can approve the order and the life which the author has known how to put into his work2 but ,i am not satisfied with it4 ,i am even offended to find only a teacher of language1 of natural history1 of geography1 etc41 when ,i expected something much greater1--an instructor of the young1 training the mind in order to train the heart4444 ,geography lends itself as marvellously to this sublime purpose1 although in a sphere a little narrower40#bcc #eeh4 ,,educative ,,course ,,in ,,the ,,mother ,,tongue4--,girard is not content to state his doctrine in his book ,on the ,systematic ,teaching of the ,mother ,tongue2 but in the four volumes of his ,educative ,course 7#ahdd-ahdf7 he has applied his method4 ,full of new and radical views1 original in the arrangement of material as in its system of exposition1 revolutionary even in its grammatical terminology1 this book is a mine from which we may borrow without stint1 only we shall not advise wholesale adoption3 there is matter to take and to leave4#bcd #eei4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,this ,,work4--,the title indicates the general character of the work4 ,in his ,cours ducatif1 ,girard does not separate education from instruction4 ,the purpose is to develop the moral and religious sentiments of the child1 no less than to teach him his native language4 ,the first lessons in grammar ought to be lessons in things4 ,the child is made to name the objects which he knows1--persons1 animals1 things1--and through these he is made to acquire notions of nouns1 common and proper1 of gender and number4 ,he is then induced to find for himself the physical1 intellectual1 and moral qualities of objects1 and by this means is made familiar with qualifying adjectives4 ,care is taken1 moreover1 while causing each quality to be named1 as farther on while causing each judgment to be expressed1 to ask the child1 8,is this right8 ,is this wrong80 ,the agreement of adjective with noun is learned by practice4 ,the child is drilled in applying adjectives to the nouns which he has found1 and vice versa4 ,once in possession of the essential elements of the proposition1 the child begins the study of the proposition itself1 and finally the study of the verb4 ,girard makes it a principle always to have the conjugations made by means of propositions4 ,at first1 however1 he employs in simple propositions only the indicative1 the infinitive1 the imperative1 and the participle2 he postpones till later the study of the conditional and the subjunctive4 ,it is to be noted1 in addition1 that he brings forward simultaneously the simple tenses of all the conjugations4 ,the order followed by ,girard is wholly different from that of the ordinary grammars4 ,this is how he explains it3-- 8,in their first part1 the grammars set out in a row the nine sorts of words1 and thus give in rapid succession their definitions1 distinctions1 and variable forms1 which introduces a legion of terms wholly unknown to the child4 ,the second part of these grammars takes up these words again in the same order1 so as1 in an uninteresting way1 to regulate their use in construction1--a tedious and arid system1 which affords the child no interest40 ,elsewhere1 speaking of his own work1 he writes3-- 8,my work differs essentially from the grammars which are put in the hands of children4 ,when we write on language for adults1 we may adhere to definitions1 distinctions1 rules1 and exceptions1 and formulate statements regarding their proper use2 but he who writes for children ought to have the education of the mind and heart in view1 and regulate on that basis the course and form of instruction4 ,the course ought to be rigorously progressive1 and the pupils ought1 from beginning to end1 to assist themselves in constructing a grammar of their own40 8,so1 instead of making generalizations on the noun1 adjective1 verb1 etc41 and of connecting with these parts of speech all that relates to them1 we must apply ourselves to the substance of language1 passing step by step from the simple to the complex1 and teaching children to think1 in order to teach them to comprehend and to speak the language of man4 ,the little details cannot appear till later1 and as occasion requires4 ,from this there necessarily results a displacement of grammatical material which has been industriously collected and arranged4 ,hence1 also1 a great parsimony in definitions and abstract distinctions which repel children40 #efj4 ,,educational ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,p,,re ,,girard4--,the influence of the ,pre ,girard was not extended simply to ,switzerland4 ,it has radiated abroad4 ,his ideas have been disseminated in ,italy1 propagated by the ,abb ,lambruschini and by ,enrico ,mayer4 ,a journal even has been founded to serve as the organ of the 8,girardists0 of the ,peninsula4 ,in ,france1 ,michel1 in the ,journal de l'ducation pratique1 and ,rapet in different works1#bce have commended to public attention the methods of the ,swiss educator4 ,finally1 it may be remarked that the principles very recently set forth by the ,conseil suprieur de l'instruction publique 7#ahhj71 on the teaching of ,french in the elementary classes of the lyces1 are in great part the echo of the pedagogical doctrine of the ,pre ,girard4 #efa4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,in this study we have the third exposition1 in historical order1--,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 ,frbel1--of the doctrine of nature as applied to education4 ,this doctrine may be summarized as follows3-- ,the existing order of things is conceived as an animated organism1 and is personified under the term ,nature4 ,all living things1 such as plants1 animals1 and men1 are products of the creative power that is immanent in nature1 and each is predetermined to an upward development in the line of growth4 ,this growth is an unfolding from within outward1 and each individual thing1 as a child1 has reached the term of its development when it has grown into the type of its kind4 ,in the case of the human species1 this growth is best when it is natural1 and it is natural to the degree in which it takes place without the deliberate intervention of art4 ,this process of development is ,nature's work1 and its synonym is education4 ,education is best when it is most natural1 that is1 when it suffers least from human interference4 ,the question of the relative parts to be played by ,nature and by ,art in education has given rise to two schools of educators4 #b4 ,in ,frbel's application of this doctrine1 the original conception is obscured by three circumstances3 #a4 his deism2 #b4 his mysticism or symbolism2 #c4 his dependence on artificial agents1 his 8gifts10 and his belief in the potency of abstractions4 #c4 ,the ,kindergarten has introduced many ameliorations into primary instruction1 and its tendency is to make child-life happy through self-activity4 ,its shortcomings are that it undervalues the acquisition of second-hand knowledge1 obscures the distinction between work and play1 and indisposes1 and perhaps unfits1 the pupil to contend with real difficulties4#bcf #d4 ,the effect of this new movement in primary instruction upon educational science has been wholesome4 ,it has induced a closer study of child nature1 has enlisted the sympathies and affections in support of elementary instruction1 and has profoundly modified the conception of the primary school4 #e4 ,whether the ,kindergarten is to be maintained apart1 as an institution sui generis1 or whether it is to lose its identity by the absorption of its spirit into the primary school1 is a question for the future4 ,probably the latter result will follow4 #f4 ,the misuse of a good thought is seen in the attempt of the ,pre ,girard to give a distinct moral value to every school exercise4 ,it is the verdict of experience that the moral value of science is greatest when it is taught simply as science1 and that the direct teaching of ethics should be conducted on an independent basis4 ,,footnotes3 #bbb ,comment ,gertrude instruit ses enfants1 translated by ,darin1 p4 #bjd4 #bbc ,see the ,aphorisms published by ,frbel in #ahba4 #bbd ,see the ,french translation by ,madame de ,crombrugghe1 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,also1 the ,english translation by ,josephine ,jarvis1 ,new ,york1 #ahhe4 #bbe ,consequently it is wrong to take ,frbel's expression in the sense that he wished to establish by the side of each school a garden1 a lawn planted with trees and adorned with flower-beds4 ,see ,grard1 ,l'instruction primaire ,paris1 #ahgg1 p4 #gc4 #bbf ,the disciples of ,frbel have modified in different manners his system of gifts4 ,see1 for example1 the ,jardin d'enfants1 by ,goldammer1 ,french translation by ,louis ,fournier1 #ahgg4 #bbg ,see on ,diesterweg the article by ,pcaut1 in the ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie4 #bbh ,de l'ducation publique4 ,paris1 #ahcc1 p4 #aeh4 ,naville 7#aghd-ahdf7 founded in #ahag1 at ,vernier1 near ,geneva1 an institute where he applied with success the educative method of the ,pre ,girard4 #bbi ,i am aware that this term is not found in the latest ,webster1 but ,i see no other way of expressing the force of the word ducatif1 which seems to signify the disciplinary1 or rather the culture1 value of a study4 7,p47 #bcj ,see ,chap4 ,,iii4 of ,book ,,iii4 paragraph #ast4 ,just medium between two extremes4 #bca ,here is an example from ,pre ,girard's arithmetic3-- 8,a father had the habit of going every evening to the dram-shop1 and often left his family at home without bread4 ,during the five years that he led this life1 he spent1 the first year1 #aig francs1 the second1 #bjd francs1 the third1 #bab francs1 and the fourth1 #abi francs4 ,how many francs would this unfortunate father have saved if he had not had a taste for drink80 7,p47 #bcb ,naville1 ,de l'ducation publique1 p4 #daa4 #bcc ,explication du plan de ,fribourg en ,suisse1 #ahag4 #bcd ,see the interesting articles of ,lafargue in the ,bulletin pdagogique de l'enseignement secondaire1 #ahhb4 #bce ,messieurs ,rapet and ,michel were associated in the publication of the ,cours ducatif de la langue maternelle4 #bcf 8,man owes his growth1 his energy1 chiefly to that striving of the will1 that conflict with difficulty1 which we call effort4 ,easy1 pleasant work does not make robust minds1 does not give men a consciousness of their powers1 does not train them to endurance1 to perseverance1 to steady force of will1 that force without which all other acquisitions avail nothing40 ,dr4 ,channing4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,women ,,as ,,educators4 ,,women ,,as ,,educators2 ,,madame ,,de ,,genlis 7#agdf-ahcj72 ,,pedagogical ,,works2 ,,encyclop,,dic ,,education2 ,,imitation ,,of ,,rousseau2 ,,miss ,,edgeworth 7#agfg-ahdi72 ,,miss ,,hamilton 7#ageh-ahaf72 ,,madame ,,campan 7#ageb-ahbb72 ,,commendation ,,of ,,home ,,education2 ,,progress ,,in ,,instruction2 ,,interest ,,in ,,popular ,,education2 ,,madame ,,de ,r,,musat 7#aghj-ahba72 ,,outline ,,of ,,feminine ,,psychology2 ,,the ,,serious ,,in ,,education2 ,,philosophical ,,spirit2 ,,madame ,,guizot 7#aggc-ahbg72 ,,letters ,,on ,,education2 ,,psychological ,,optimism2 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,child2 ,,philosophical ,,rationalism2 ,,madame ,,necker ,,de ,,saussure 7#agfe-ahda72 ,,madame ,,necker ,,de ,,saussure ,,and ,,madame ,,de ,,sta,l2 ,,progressive ,,education ,,and ,,rousseau2 ,,originality ,,of ,,madame ,,necker ,,de ,,saussure2 ,,division ,,of ,,progressive ,,education2 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,faculties2 ,,culture ,,of ,,the ,,imagination2 ,,education ,,of ,,women2 ,,madame ,,pape-,,carpentier 7#ahae-ahgh72 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,her ,,works2 ,,principal ,,works ,,of ,,madame ,,pape-,,carpentier2 ,,object ,,lessons2 ,,other ,,women ,,who ,,were ,,educators2 ,,dupanloup ,,and ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #efb4 ,,women ,,as ,,educators4--,one of the characteristic features of the pedagogy of the nineteenth century is the constant progress in the education of women4 ,woman will be better instructed1 and at the same time she will play a more important part in instruction4 ,primary schools for girls did not exist1 so to speak1 in ,france1 at the commencement of this century4 ,fourcroy1 who reported the bill of ,may #a1 #ahjb1 declared that 8the law makes no mention of girls40 ,but through the efforts of the monarchy of ,july1 and still more of the liberal laws of the second and of the third ,republic1 the primary instruction of girls will become more and more general4 ,secondary public instruction will be created for women by the law of ,december #bj1 #ahhj1 and the equality of the two sexes1 in respect of education1 will tend more and more to become a reality1 through the influence of governmental action as well as that of private initiative4 ,but not less remarkable is the important part which women1 by their abstract reflections or by their practical efforts1 have taken in the progress of pedagogy4 ,in the history of education1 the nineteenth century will be noted for the great number of its women who were educators1 some who were real philosophers and distinguished writers1 and others1 zealous and enthusiastic teachers4 #efc4 ,,madame ,,de ,,genlis 7#agdf-ahcj74--,while she does not belong to the nineteenth century by her pedagogical writings1 ,madame de ,genlis has certain rights to a foremost place in the list of the educational women of our time4 ,she had in the highest degree the pedagogic vocation2 only1 that vocation became a mania and was squandered on everything4 ,madame de ,genlis wished to know everything in order that she might teach everything4 8,she was more than a woman author10 says ,sainte-,beuve1 wittily2 8she was a woman teacher2 she was born with the sign on her forehead40 ,young girls of their own accord play mamma with their dolls4 ,from the age of seven1 ,madame de ,genlis played teacher4 8,i had a taste for teaching children1 and ,i became school-mistress in a curious way4444 ,little boys from the village came under the window of my parents' country-seat to play4 ,i amused myself in watching them1 and ,i soon took it into my head to give them lessons40 ,twenty years later1 the village teacher became the governess of the daughters of the ,duchesse de ,chartres1 and the governor of the sons of the ,duke de ,chartres 7,philippe-galit74 #efd4 ,,pedagogical ,,works4--,the principal work of ,madame de ,genlis1 ,letters on ,education 7#aghb71 treats of the education of princes and also of 8that of young persons and of men40 ,in giving it that other title1 ,adle and ,thodore1 the author indicated her intention of rivaling ,rousseau1 and of educating a man and a woman more perfect than mile and ,sophie4 ,although she had a profoundly aristocratic nature1 ,madame de ,genlis1 after the revolution of #aghi1 seemed for an instant to follow the liberal current which was sweeping minds along4 ,it was then that she published the ,counsels on the ,education of the ,dauphin1 and some parts of her educational journal1 entitled ,lessons of a ,governess4 ,she never ceased to preach love of the people to sovereigns1 and in justice this must be said to her credit1 that she did not write merely for courtly people4 ,she protests1 and with spirit1 8that she is the first author who has concerned herself with the education of the people4 ,this glory10 she adds1 8is dear to my heart40 ,in support of these assertions1 ,madame de ,genlis cites the fourth volume of her ,thtre d'ducation1 which is1 she says1 8solely intended for the children of tradesmen and artisans2 domestics and peasants will there see a detailed account of their obligations and their duties40 #efe4 ,,encyclop,,dic ,,education4--,it has been said with reason that ,madame de ,genlis was the personification of encyclopdic instruction4#bcg 8,her programme of instruction had no limits4 ,she favors ,latin1 without1 however1 thinking the knowledge of it indispensable4 ,she gives a large place to the living languages4 ,at ,saint ,leu1 her pupils garden in ,german1 dine in ,english1 and sup in ,italian4 ,at the same time she invents gymnastic apparatus1--pulleys1 baskets1 wooden beds1 lead shoes4 ,nothing takes her at unawares1 her over-facile pen stops at nothing2 she is universal4 ,a plan for a rural school for children in the country is wanted1 and she furnishes it40 #eff4 ,,imitation ,,of ,,rousseau4--,madame de ,genlis never ceased to criticise ,rousseau1 and yet1 in her educational romances1 the inspiration of ,rousseau is everywhere present4 ,how can we fail to recognize a pupil of ,rousseau in the father of ,adle and ,thodore1 who leaves ,paris in order to devote himself entirely to the education of his children1 to make himself 8their governor and their friend1 and finally1 to screen the infancy of his son and daughter from the examples of vice08 ,and the methods manufactured by ,rousseau1 the unforeseen lessons1 the indirect means employed to instruct without having the appearance of doing so1--,madame de ,genlis desires no others4 ,nothing is more amusing than the description of the country-seat of the ,baron d',almane1 the father of ,adle and ,thodore4 ,it is no longer a country-seat2 it is a school-house4 ,the walls are no longer walls2 they are charts of history and maps of geography4 8,when we would have our children study history according to a chronological order1 we start from my bed-chamber1 which represents sacred history2 from there we enter my gallery1 where we find ancient history2 we reach the parlor1 which contains ,roman history1 and we end with the gallery of ,monsieur d',almane 7it is the ,baroness who speaks71 where is found the history of ,france40 ,in her pedagogic fairyland1 ,madame de ,genlis does not wish the child to meet a single object which may not be transformed into an instrument of instruction4 ,adle and ,thodore cannot take a hand-screen without finding a geography lesson represented on it1 and drawn out at full length4 ,here are pictures worked in tapestry2 they are historical scenes2 on the back of them care has been taken to write an explanation of what they represent4 ,at least1 those five or six movable partitions which are displayed in the apartment on cold days have no instructive purposes8 ,you are mistaken4 ,there is painted and written on them the history of ,england1 of ,spain1 of ,germany1 and that of the ,moors and the ,turks4 ,even in the dining-room1 mythology encumbers the panels of the room1 and 8it usually forms the subject of conversation during the dinner40 ,in that castle1 bewitched1 so to speak1 by the elf of history1 there is not a glance that is lost1 not a minute without its lesson1 not a corner where one may waste his time in dreaming4 ,history pursues you like a ghost1 like a nightmare1 along the corridors1 on the stairs1 even on the carpet on which you tread1 and on the chairs upon which you sit4 ,the true way to disgust a child forever with historical studies is to condemn him to live for eight days in this house-school of ,madame de ,genlis4 #efg4 ,,miss ,,edgeworth 7#agfg-ahdi74--;,it is with the ,scotch philosophy and the psychological theories of ,reid and ,dugald ,stewart1 that were inspired in different degrees two distinguished women1 who honored ,english pedagogy at the beginning of this century1--,miss ,edgeworth and ,miss ,hamilton4 ,in her book on ,practical ,education1 published in #agih1bch ,miss ,edgeworth does not lose herself in theoretical dissertations4 ,her book is a collection of facts1 observations1 and precepts4 ,the first chapter treats of toys1 and the author justifies this beginning by saying that in education there is nothing trivial and minute4 ,it is first by conversations1 and then by the use of the inventive1 analytical1 and intuitive method1 that ,miss ,edgeworth proposes to train her pupils2 and her reflections on intellectual education deserve to be considered4 ,in moral education she agrees with ,locke1 and seems to place great reliance on the sentiment of honor1 and on the love of reputation4 ,in every case she absolutely ignores the religious feeling4 ,the characteristic of her system is that it makes 8a total abstraction of religious ideas40 #efh4 ,,miss ,,hamilton 7#ageh-ahaf74--,miss ,hamilton is at once more philosophical and more ,christian than ,miss ,edgeworth4 ,it is from the psychologist ,hartley that she borrows her essential principle1 which consists in making of the association of ideas the basis of education4 ,hartley saw in this the sovereign law of intellectual development4 ,but1 on the other hand1 she declares 8that she follows no other guide than the precepts of the ,gospel40 ,the principal work of ,miss ,hamilton1 her ,letters on the ,elementary ,principles of ,education 7#ahja71bci has a more theoretical character than the book of ,miss ,edgeworth4 ,with her it is above all else a question of principles1 which1 she says1 are more necessary than rules4 ,we find but few reflections on teaching proper4 ,she borrows the very words of ,dugald ,stewart to define the object of education3-- 8,the most essential objects of education are the following3 first1 to cultivate all the various principles of our nature1 both speculative and active1 in such a manner as to bring them to the greatest perfection of which they are susceptible2 and secondly1 by watching over the impressions and associations which the mind receives in early life1 to secure it against the influence of prevailing errors2 and1 as far as possible1 to engage its prepossessions on the side of truth40#bdj ,to cultivate the intellectual and moral faculties1 ,miss ,hamilton places her chief dependence1 as we have said1 on the principle of the association of ideas4 ,we must break up1 or1 rather1 prevent from being formed1 all false associations1 that is1 all inaccurate judgments4 ,order once re-established among ideas1 the will will be upright1 and the conduct well regulated4 ,in other terms1 this was to subordinate1 perhaps too completely1 the development of the moral faculties to the culture of the intellectual faculties4 8,it is evident10 says ,miss ,hamilton1 8that all our desires are in accord with ideas of pleasure1 and all our aversions with ideas of pain40 ,the educator will then try to associate the idea of pleasure with what is good and useful for the child and for the man4 ,let us also note1 in passing1 the solicitude of ,miss ,hamilton for the education of the people3-- 8,from most of the writers on education it would appear that it is only to people of rank and fortune that education is a matter of any importance4444 ,my plan has for its object the cultivation of the faculties that are common to the whole human race40#bda ,on this point her thought was the same as that of ,miss ,edgeworth1 whose father1 in #agii1 in the ,irish ,parliament1 had caused the adoption of the first law on primary instruction4 #efi4 ,,madame ,,campan 7#ageb-ahbb74--,twenty-five years' experience1 either at the court of ,louis ,,xv41 or in the school at ,saint-,germain1 which she founded under the ,revolution1 or finally in the institution at couen1 the direction of which was entrusted to her by ,napoleon ,i41 in #ahjg1--such are the claims which at once assure to ,madame ,campan some authority on pedagogical questions4#bdb ,let us add that good sense1 a methodical and prudent mind1--in a word1 qualities which were reasonable rather than brilliant1--directed that long personal experience4 8,first ,i saw10 she said1 8then ,i reflected1 and finally ,i wrote40 #egj4 ,,eulogy ,,on ,,home ,,education4--,from a teacher1 from the directress of a school1 we would expect prejudices in favor of public education in boarding-schools4 ,that which secures our ready confidence1 is that ,madame ,campan1 on the contrary1 appreciates better than any one else the advantages of maternal education3-- 8,to create mothers10 she said1 8this is the whole education of women40 ,nothing seems to her superior to a mother governess 8who does not keep late hours1 who rises betimes10 who1 finally1 devotes herself resolutely to the important duty with which she is charged4 8,there is no boarding-school1 however well it may be conducted1 there is no convent1 however pious its government may be1 which can give an education comparable to that which a young girl receives from a mother who is educated1 and who finds her sweetest occupation and her true glory in the education of her daughter40 ,madame ,campan1 moreover1 reminds mothers who would be the teachers of their own daughters1 of all the obligations which are involved in such a charge4 ,too often the mother who jealously keeps her daughter near her1 is not capable of educating her4 ,in this case there is only the appearance of home education1 and as ,madame ,campan wittily says1 8this is no longer maternal education2 it is but education at home40 #ega4 ,,progress ,,in ,,instruction4--,fnelon was ,madame ,campan's favorite author4 ,on the other hand1 there was some resemblance between the rules of the school at couen and those of ,saint ,cyr4 ,the spirit of the seventeenth century lives again in the educational institutions of the nineteenth1 and ,madame ,campan continues the work of ,madame de ,maintenon4 ,however1 there is progress in more than one respect1 and the instruction is more solid and more complete4 8,the purpose of education10 wrote ,madame ,campan to the ,emperor1 8ought to be directed3 #a4 towards the domestic virtues2 #b4 towards instruction1 to such a degree of perfection in the knowledge of language1 computation1 history1 writing1 and geography1 that all pupils shall be assured of the happiness of being able to instruct their own daughters40 ,madame ,campan desired1 moreover1 to extend her work4 ,she demanded of the ,emperor the creation of several public establishments 8for educating the daughters of certain classes of the servants of the ,state40 ,she desired that the government should take under its supervision private institutions1 and contemplated for women as for men a sort of university 8which might replace the convents and the colleges40 ,but ,napoleon was not the man to enter into these schemes4 ,the schools of 8women-logicians0 were scarcely to his taste1 and the teaching congregations1 which he restored to their privileges1 the better served his purpose4 #egb4 ,,interest ,,in ,,popular ,,education4--,one might believe that ,madame ,campan1 who had begun by being the teacher of the three daughters of ,louis ,,xv41 and who associated with scarcely any save the wealthy or the titled1 had never had the taste or the leisure to think of popular instruction4 ,it is nothing of the sort1 as is proved by her ,counsels to ,young ,girls1 a work intended for ,elementary ,schools4 8,there is no ground for fearing that the daughters of the rich will ever be in want of books to instruct them or of governesses to direct them4 ,it is not at all so with the children who belong to the less fortunate classes4444 ,i have seen with my own eyes how incomplete and neglected is the education of the daughters of country people4444 ,it is for them that ,i have penned this little work40 ,the work itself has not perhaps the tone that could be desired1 nor all the simplicity that the author would have wished to give it2 but we must thank ,madame ,campan for her intentions1 and we count among her highest claims to the esteem of posterity the effort which she made in her old age to become1 at least in her writings1 a simple school-mistress and a village teacher4 #egc4 ,,madame ,,de ,r,,musat 7#aghj-ahba74--,madame de ,rmusat has written only for women of the world4 ,herself a woman of the world1 lady of the palace of the ,empress ,josephine1 she had no personal experience in the way of teaching4 ,she had nothing to do with the practice of education save in supervising the studies of her two sons1 one of whom became a philosopher and an illustrious statesman1 ,charles de ,rmusat4 ,the noble book of ,madame de ,rmusat1 her ,essay on the ,education of ,women1 does not commend itself by reason of its detailed precepts and scholastic methods1 but by its lofty reflections and general principles4#bdc #egd4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,feminine ,,psychology4--,let us first notice different passages in which the author sketches by a few touches the psychology of woman1 and determines her sphere in life3-- 8,woman is the companion of man upon the earth1 but yet she exists on her own account2 she is inferior1 but not subordinate40 ,the expression here betrays ,madame de ,rmusat1 and it would be more accurate to say that woman is not inferior to man1 that she is his equal1 but that in existing civil and social conditions she necessarily remains subordinate to him4 ,but with what perfect justness the amiable writer characterizes the peculiar qualities of woman6 8,we lack continuity and depth when we would apply ourselves to general questions4 ,endowed with a quick intelligence1 we hear promptly1 we even divine and see just as well as men2 but too easily moved to remain impartial1 too mobile to be profound1 perceiving is easier for us than observing4 ,prolonged attention wearies us2 we are1 in short1 more mild than patient4 ,more sensitive and more devoted than men1 women are ignorant of that sort of selfishness which an independent being exhibits outwardly as a consciousness of his own power4 ,to obtain from them any activity whatever1 it is almost always necessary to interest them in the happiness of another4 ,their very faults are the outgrowths of their condition4 ,the same cause will excite in man emotions of pride1 and in woman only those of vanity40 #ege4 ,,the ,,serious ,,in ,,education4--,madame de ,rmusat1 still more than ,madame ,campan1 belongs to the modern school4 ,she desires for woman an education serious and grave4 8,i see no reason for treating women less seriously than men1 for misrepresenting truth to them under the form of a prejudice1 duty under the appearance of a superstition1 in order that they may accept both the duty and the truth40 ,she does not in the least incline to the opinion of the over-courteous moralist ,joubert1 who1 with more gallantry than real respect for women1 said3 8,nothing too earthly or too material ought to employ young ladies2 only delicate material should busy their hands4444 ,they resemble the imagination1 and like it they should touch only the surface of things40#bdd ,madame de ,rmusat enters into the spirit of her time1 and her admiration for the age of ,louis ,,xiv4 does not make her forget what she owes to the new society1 transformed by great political reforms4 8,we are drawing near the time when every ,frenchman shall be a citizen4 ,in her turn1 the destiny of woman is comprised in these two terms3 wife and mother of a citizen4 ,there is much morality1 and a very severe and touching morality1 in the idea which ought to be attached to that word citizen4 ,after religion1 ,i do not know a more powerful motive than the patriotic spirit for directing the young towards the good40 ,it is no longer a question1 then1 of training the woman and the man for themselves1 for their individual destiny4 ,they must be educated for the public good1 for their duties in society4 ,madame de ,rmusat is not one of those timid and frightened women who feel a homesickness for the past1 whom the present terrifies4 ,liberal and courageous1 she manfully accepts the new rgime2 she proclaims its advantages1 and1 if she writes like a woman of the seventeenth century1 almost with the perfection of ,madame de ,svign1 her chosen model1 she at least thinks like a daughter of the ,revolution4 #egf4 ,,philosophical ,,spirit4--,that which is not less remarkable is the philosophical character of her reflections4 ,she believes in liberty and in conscience4 ,it is conscience which she purposes to substitute1 as a moral rule1 8for despotic and superficial caprices40 ,it is no longer by the imperative term1 you must1 but by the obligatory term1 you ought1 that the mother should lead and govern her daughter4 8,on every occasion let these words1 ,i ought1 re-appear in the conversation of the mother40 ,this is saying that the child ought to be treated as a free being4 ,the end1 and at the same time the most efficient means1 of education1 is the wise employment of liberty4 ,while keeping the oversight of the child1 he must be left to take care of himself1 and on many occasions to follow the course that he will4 ,by this means his will will be developed1 and his character strengthened2 and this is an essential point according to ,madame de ,rmusat4 8,if under ,louis ,,xiv410 she says1 8the education of woman's mind was grave and often substantial1 that of her character remained imperfect40 #egg4 ,,madame ,,guizot 7#aggc-ahbg74--,madame ,guizot first became known under her maiden name1 ,pauline de ,meulan4 ,in the closing years of the eighteenth century she had written several romances1 and had contributed to the review of ,suard1 the ,publiciste4 ,in #ahab she married ,guizot1 the future author of the law of #ahcc1 who had just founded the ,annals of ,education4#bde ,from this period1 all her ideas and all her writings were directed almost exclusively towards ethics and education4 ,she published in succession1 ,children 7#ahab71 ,raoul and ,victor 7#ahba71 and1 finally1 her masterpiece1 the ,family ,letters on ,education 7#ahbf74 #egh4 ,,the ,,letters ,,on ,,education4--,to give at once an idea of the merit of this book1#bdf we shall quote the opinion of ,sainte-,beuve3-- 8,the work of ,madame ,guizot will survive the mile1 marking in this line the progress of the sound1 temperate1 and refined reason of our times1 over the venturesome genius of ,rousseau1 just as in politics the ,dmocratie of ,de ,tocqueville is an advance over the ,contrat ,social4 ,essential to meditate upon1 as advice1 in all education which would prepare strong men for the difficulties of our modern society1 this book also contains1 in the way of exposition1 the noblest moral pages1 the most sincere and the most convincing1 which1 with a few pages from ,jouffroy1 have been suggested to the philosophy of our age by the doctrines of a spiritualistic rationalism40 #egi4 ,,psychological ,,optimism4--,the philosophical spirit is not lacking in the ,letters on ,education4 ,the whole of ,letter ,,xii4 is a plea in behalf of the relative innocence of the child4 ,that which is bad in the disorderly inclination1 says the author1 is not the inclination1 but the disorder3-- 8,the inclinations of a sentient being are in themselves what they ought to be4 ,it has been said that a man could not be virtuous if he did not conquer his inclinations2 hence1 his inclinations are evil4 ,this is an error4 ,no more could the tree produce good fruit1 if1 in pruning it1 the disorderly flow of the sap were not arrested4 ,does this prove that the sap is harmful to the tree80 ,it follows from these principles that discipline ought not to be severe4 8,do you not think it strange10 exclaims ,madame ,guizot1 8that for centuries education has been1 so to speak1 a systematic hostility against human nature2 that to correct and to punish have been synonymous2 and that we have heard only of dispositions to break1 and natures to overcome1 just as though it were a question of taking away from children the nature which ,god has given them in order to give them another such as teachers would have it80 #ehj4 ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,child4--,that which gives a great value to the work of ,madame ,guizot is1 that besides the general considerations and the philosophical reflections1 we there find a great number of circumstantial experiences and detailed observations which are admissible in a sound treatise on pedagogy4 ,like the psychology of the child1 pedagogy itself1 at least in its first chapters1 ought to be conceived and written near a cradle4 ,madame ,guizot forcibly indicates the importance of the first years1 where the future destiny of the child is determined3 8,in those imperfect organs1 in that incomplete intelligence1 are contained1 from the first moment of existence1 the germs of that which is ever more to proceed from them either for better or for worse4 ,the man will never have1 in the whole course of his life1 an impulse which does not belong to that nature1 all the features of which are already foreshadowed in the infant4 ,the infant will never receive a keen and durable impression1 however slight1 an impress of whatever kind1 whose effects are not to influence the life of the man40 ,at the same time that she sees in the infant the rough draft of the man1 ,madame ,guizot recognizes with a remarkable delicacy of psychologic sense1 that which distinguishes1 that which characterizes1 the irreflective and inconsiderate nature of the child4 ,what is more just than this observation8 8,we often deceive ourselves in attributing to the conduct of children1 because it is analogous to our own1 motives similar to those which guide ourselves40 ,what better observation than the example which ,madame ,guizot cites in support of this statement6 8,louise1 by a sudden impulse1 drops her toys1 throws herself upon my neck1 and cannot cease kissing me4 ,it seems that all my mother's heart could not sufficiently respond to the warmth of her caresses2 but by the same playful impulse she leaves me to kiss her doll or the arm of the chair which she meets on her way40 #eha4 ,,philosophic ,,rationalism4--,madame ,guizot pushes rationalism much farther than ,madame de ,rmusat1 and still farther than ,madame ,necker de ,saussure4 ,she is first a philosopher1 then a ,christian4 ,she more nearly approaches ,rousseau4 ,she would first form in the minds of children the universal idea of ,god before initiating them into the particular dogmas of positive religions4 ,she bases morals on the idea of duty1 which is 8the only basis of a complete education40 8,i would place10 she says1 8each act of the child under the protection of an idea or of a moral sentiment40 ,recalling the distinction made by ,dupont de ,nemours between paternal commands and military commands1 the first addressing themselves to the reason1 the others to be observed without protest and with a passive obedience1 she does not conceal her preference for the use of the first1 because she would form in the woman1 as in the man1 a spirit of reason and of liberty4 ,she absolutely proscribes personal interest1 and hence declares that 8rewards have always seemed to her contrary to the true principle of education40 ,let us say1 lastly1 without being able to enter into detail1 that the book of ,madame ,guizot deserves to be read with care4 ,there will be found in it a great number of excellent reflections on instruction which ought to be substantial rather than extensive2 upon the reading of romances1 and upon the theatre1 which she does not forbid2 upon easy methods1 which she condemns2 and1 finally1 on almost all pedagogical questions4#bdg #ehb4 ,,madame ,,necker ,,de ,,saussure 7#agfe-ahda74--,there are in the history of education privileged moments1 periods that are particularly and happily fruitful4 ,it is thus that within the space of a few years there appeared in succession the books of ,madame de ,rmusat1 of ,madame ,guizot1 and1 the most important of all1 the ,progressive ,education of ,madame ,necker de ,saussure4#bdh ,a native of ,geneva1 like ,rousseau1 ,madame ,necker de ,saussure has endowed ,french literature with an educational masterpiece1 which for elevation of view and nobleness of inspiration1 can take rank by the side of the mile4 ,though she may sometimes be too logical and too austere1 and while in general she is lacking in good humor1 and while she looks upon life only through a veil of sadness1 ,madame ,necker is an incomparable guide in educational affairs4 ,she brings to the subject remarkable qualities of perspicacity and penetration1 and a spirit of marked gravity4 ,she takes a serious view of life1 and applies herself to training the noblest qualities of the human soul4 ,profoundly religious1 she unites a 8philosophical boldness to the submission of faith40 ,she is1 in some measure1 a ,christian ,rousseau4 #ehc4 ,,madame ,,necker ,,de ,,saussure ,,and ,,madame ,,de ,,sta,l4--,the first work of ,madame ,necker1 ,notice of the ,character and the ,writings of ,madame de ,stal1 already gives proof of her interest in education4 ,the author of the ,progressive ,education here studies with care the ideas of her heroine on education and instruction4 ,it is plain that she has profited by some of the solid reflections in the noble book on ,germany1 and particularly by this opinion on the gradual and progressive method of ,rousseau and of ,pestalozzi3-- 8,rousseau calls children into activity by degrees4 ,he would have them do for themselves all that their little powers permit them to do4 ,he does not in the least force their intelligence2 he does not make them reach the result without passing over the route4 ,he wishes the faculties to be developed before the sciences are taught40 8,what wearies children is to make them jump over intermediate parts1 to make them advance without their really knowing what they think they have learned4 ,with ,pestalozzi there is no trace of these difficulties4 ,with him1 children take delight in their studies1 because even in infancy1 they taste the pleasure of grown men1 namely1 comprehending and completing that on which they have been engaged40 ,moreover1 ,madame ,necker must have recognized her own spirit1 her preference for a severe and painstaking education1 in this passage where ,madame de ,stal vigorously protested against amusing and easy methods of instruction3-- 8,the education that takes place through amusement dissipates thought2 labor of some sort is one of the great aids of nature2 the mind of the child ought to accustom itself to the labor of study1 just as our soul to suffering4444 ,you will teach a multitude of things to your child by means of pictures and cards1 but you will not teach him how to learn40 #ehd4 ,,progressive ,,education ,,and ,,rousseau4--,it is undeniable that ,madame ,necker owes much to ,rousseau2 but she is far from always agreeing with him4 ,for ,rousseau1 man is good2 for her1 man is bad4 ,the first duty of the teacher should be to reform him1 to raise him from his fall2 the purpose of life is not happiness1 as an immoral doctrine maintains1 but it is improvement2 the basis of education ought to be religion4 ,even when she is inspired by ,rousseau1 ,madame ,necker is not long in separating from him4 ,thus we may believe that she borrows from him the fundamental idea of her book1 the idea of a successive development of the faculties1 to which should correspond a parallel movement in educational methods4 ,like the author of the mile1 she follows the awakening of the senses in the infant4 ,she considers the infant as a being sui generis 8who lives only on sensations and desires40 ,she sees in the infant a distinct period of life1 an age whose education has its own special rules4 ,but at that point the resemblances stop2 for ,madame ,necker de ,saussure hastens to add that1 from the fifth year1 the child is in possession of all his intellectual faculties4 ,he is no longer simply a sentient being1 a robust animal like mile2 but he is a complete being1 soul and body4 ,consequently1 education should take account of his double nature4 ,moral education ought not to be separated from physical education1 and cannot begin too soon4 8,it is a great error to believe that nature proceeds in the systematic order imagined by ,rousseau4 ,with her1 we nowhere discern a commencement2 we do not surprise her at creating1 and it always seems that she is developing40 ,so1 in education1 we must know how to appeal1 at the same time and as soon as possible1 to the different motives1 instinctive or reflective1 selfish or affectionate1 which sway the will4 ,often1 in practice1 the two thinkers approach each other1 and1 even in her protestations against her countryman1 ,madame ,necker de ,saussure preserves something of ,rousseau's spirit4 ,thus1 she does not desire the negative education which leaves everything to nature4 ,the teacher ought not to allow the child to do 7laisser faire71 but cause him to do 7faire faire74 ,but1 at the same time1 she demands that the will be strengthened1 so that education may find in it a point of support2 that the character be hardened2 that some degree of independence be accorded to the child2 8that in permissible cases he be allowed to come to his own decision2 and that half-orders1 half-obligations1 tacit entreaties1 and insinuations1 be avoided40 ,is not this retaining all that is just and practical in ,rousseau's theory1 namely1 the necessity of associating the special and spontaneous powers of the child with the work of education8 ,madame de ,saussure adopts a just medium between the active education which makes a misuse of the master's instruction1 and the passive education which makes a misuse of the pupil's liberty4 ,she would willingly have accepted this precept of ,frbel1 8,let teachers not lose sight of this truth3 it is necessary that always and at the same time they give and take1 that they precede and follow1 that they act and let act40 #ehe4 ,,originality ,,of ,,madame ,,necker4--,though she had reflected much on the writings of her predecessors1 it is nevertheless to her personal experience and to her original investigations that ,madame ,necker owes the best of her thought4 ,she had herself followed the advice which she gives to mothers1 of 8observing their children1 and of keeping a journal1 in which a record should be made of each step of progress1 and in which all the vicissitudes of physical and moral health should be noted40 ,it is a rich psychological fund1 and at the same time a perpetual aspiration after the ideal1 which makes the strength and the beauty of the ,progressive ,education4 ,with what penetrating insight ,madame ,necker has pointed out the difficulty and also the charm of the study of children6 8,it were so delightful to fix the fugitive image of childhood1 to prolong indefinitely the happiness of contemplating their features1 and to be sure of ever finding again those dear creatures whom1 alas1 we are always losing as children1 even when we still have the happiness of keeping them60 8,we must love children in order to know them1 and we divine them less by the intelligence than by the heart40 ,thanks to the pronounced taste for the study of child nature1 the most just psychological observations are ever mingled1 in the ,progressive ,education1 with the precepts of education1 and it has been truly said that 8this book is almost a journal of domestic education which takes the proportions of a theory40 #ehf4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,progressive ,,education4--,the ,progressive ,education appeared in #ahcf and #ahch in three volumes4 ,the first three books treat of the history of the soul in infancy2 the fourth examines the general principles of teaching1 independently of the age of the pupil2 the fifth studies the child of from five to seven years of age2 the sixth takes us to the tenth year2 the seventh shows 8the distinctive marks of the character and the intellectual development of boys1 during the years which immediately precede adolescence40 ,finally1 the last four books form a complete whole1 and treat of the education of women during the whole course of life4 #ehg4 ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,faculties4--,we cannot attempt in this place to analyze a work so rich in ideas as the work of ,madame ,necker4 ,let us limit ourselves to indicating the essential points in her system of education4 ,first1 it is the preoccupation of training the will1 a faculty which is too much neglected by teachers1 but which1 nevertheless1 is the endowment which dominates life4 ,madame ,necker treats this subject in a masterly way in a chapter to which she prefixes these words as a superscription3-- 8,obedience to law constrains the will without enfeebling it1 while obedience to man injures it or enervates it4 8,it is1 above all1 to place the interior education of the soul above superficial and formal instruction4 8,to instruct a child is to construct him within2 it is to make him become a man40 #ehh4 ,,culture ,,of ,,the ,,imagination4--,whatever importance she attaches to the active powers1 ,madame ,necker does not neglect the contemplative faculties4 ,the imagination1 next to the will1 is the faculty of the soul which has most often engrossed her attention4 8,she has made it appear10 says a distinguished writer1 8that this irresistible power1 when we believe it to have been conquered1 takes the most diverse forms2 that it disguises its power and arouses with a secret fire the most miserable passions4 ,if you refuse it space and liberty1 it slinks away in the depths of selfishness1 and under vulgar features it becomes avarice1 cowardice1 and vanity40 8,so it is necessary to see with what tender anxiety ,madame ,necker watches its first movements in the soul of the child2 with what intelligent care she seeks to make of it from entrance upon life1 the companion of truth2 how she surrounds it with everything which can establish it within the circle of the good4 ,the studies which extend our intellectual horizon1 the spectacle of nature in her marvelous diversities1 the emotions of the arts1--nothing seems to her superfluous or dangerous for directing the imagination in the way that is good4 ,she fears to see it escape1 through the lack of pleasures that are intense enough1 in the direction of other routes40#bdi ,in other terms1 it is not proposed to repress the imagination1 still less to destroy it2 but merely to guide it gently1 to associate it with reason and virtue1 to awaken it to a taste for the good1 and to an admiration for nature4 8,show him a beautiful sunset1 in order that nothing which can enchant him may pass unnoticed40 #ehi4 ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women4--,in her special studies on the education of women1 ,madame ,necker1 who in other parts of her work sometimes makes an improper use of vague declarations of principles1 without entering sufficiently into the details of practical processes1 has had the double merit of assigning to the destiny of women an elevated ideal1 and of determining with precision the means of attaining it4 ,she complains that we too often adhere to ,rousseau's programme1 that of an education which relates exclusively to the conjugal duties of the woman4 ,she recommends that the marriage of young girls be delayed1 so that they may have time to become 8enlightened spirits and intelligent creatures02 so that they may acquire1 not 8an assortment of all petty knowledges10 but a solid instruction1 which prepares them for the duties of society and of maternity1 which make of them the first teachers of their children1 which1 in a word1 starts them on the way towards that personal perfection which they will never completely attain except by the efforts of their whole life4#bej #eij4 ,,madame ,,pape-,,carpentier 7#ahae-ahgh74--,with ,madame ,pape-,carpentier1 we leave the region of theories to enter the domain of facts2 we have to do with a practical teacher4 ,in #ahdf1 after several trials at teaching at ,la ,flche1 her native city1 and at ,mans1 she published her ,counsels on the ,management of ,infant ,schools4 ,in #ahdg she founded at ,paris a ,mothers' ,normal ,school1 which the next year1 under the ministry of ,carnot1 became a public establishment1 and which1 in #aheb1 under the ministry of ,fortoul1 took the distinctive title ,practical ,courses on ,infant ,schools4 ,it is there that during twenty-seven years ,madame ,pape-,carpentier applied her methods and trained a large number of pupils1 more than fifteen hundred1 who have propagated in ,france and abroad her teaching and her ideas4 ,in #ahdg she was removed from the management of her normal school through intrigues2 but her loss of position was not of long duration4 ,a little later she was appointed inspector-general of infant schools4 #eia4 ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,her ,,works4--,madame ,pape-,carpentier may be considered as a pupil of ,pestalozzi and of ,frbel4 ,she was specially occupied with elementary education1 and carried into her work a spirit of great simplicity4 ,we must not demand of her ambitious generalities nor views on abstract metaphysics2 but she excels in practical wisdom1 and speaks the language of childhood to perfection4 #eib4 ,,principal ,,works ,,of ,,madame ,,pape-,,carpentier4--,among the important works of ,madame ,pape-,carpentier we shall recommend the following in particular3-- #a4 ,advice on the ,management of ,infant ,schools 7#ahde74 ,in her preface the author excuses herself for undertaking 8a subject of such gravity40 ,but she goes on to say that 8no instruction has yet been given the teacher on the education of the poor child10 and she asks the privilege of speaking in the name of her personal experience4 ,this book1 often reprinted1 has become ,enseignement pratique dans les salles d'asile4#bea #b4 ,narratives and ,lessons on ,objects 7#aheh74 ,this is a collection of little stories1 8simple as childhood10 which were tested before children before being written1 and in which ,madame ,pape-,carpentier attempts to teach them things which are good3 8,i mean10 she says1 8things really1 seriously good40 #c4 ,pedagogical ,discussions held at the ,sorbonne 7#ahfg74 ,during the ,universal ,exposition of #ahfg1 ,monsieur ,duruy had assembled at ,paris a certain number of teachers before whom pedagogical discussions were held4 ,madame ,pape-,carpentier took upon herself the special task of explaining to them how the methods of the infant school might be introduced into the primary school4 #d4 ,reading and ,work for ,children and ,mothers 7#ahgc74 ,here ,madame ,pape-,carpentier is especially intent on popularizing the methods of ,frbel2 she suggests ingenious exercises which can be applied to children to give them skill in the use of their fingers1 and to inspire them with a taste for order and symmetry4 #e4 ,complete ,course of ,education 7#ahgd74 ,this book1 which would have been the general statement of the pedagogical principles of the author1 was left incomplete4 ,only three volumes have appeared4 ,a few quotations will make known their spirit4 8,to co-operate with nature in her work1 to extend it1 to correct her when she goes wrong1--such is the task of the educator4 ,in all grades of education1 nature must be respected4 8,the child should live in the midst of fresh and soothing impressions2 the objects which surround him in the school should be graceful and cheerful4 8,socrates has admirably said1 #8,the duty of education is to give the idea birth rather than to communicate it4'0 #f4 ,note on the ,education of the ,senses1 and some ,pedagogical ,appliances 7#ahgh74 ,madame ,pape-,carpentier is very much interested in the education of the senses1 because1 she says1 8every child born into the world is a workman in prospect1 a future apprentice to an occupation still unknown40 ,it is then necessary to perfect at an early hour the natural tools he will need in order to fulfill his task4 ,the education of the senses will have its place some day or other in the official programmes1 and1 for this sense-training1 instruments are just as necessary as books are for the culture of the intellect4 #eic4 ,,lessons ,,on ,,objects4--8,the object-lesson is the new continent on which ,madame ,pape-,carpentier has planted her standard40 ,she herself wrote a number of works which contain models of object-lessons2 she has stated the theory of them1 notably in her discussions of #ahfg4 ,it is even permissible to think that she has made a wrong use of them4 ,with her1 the object-lesson becomes a universal process which she applies to all subjects1 to chemistry1 to physics1 to grammar1 to geography1 and to ethics4 ,however it may be1 this is the course to follow according to her3 it is necessary to conform to the order in which the perceptions of the intelligence succeed each other4 ,the child's attention is first struck by color4 ,then he will distinguish the form of the object1 and would know its use1 its material1 and mode of production4 ,it is according to this natural development of the child's curiosity that the object-lesson should proceed4 ,moreover1 it can be given with reference to everything4 ,madame ,pape-,carpentier admits what she calls 8occasional lessons02 but she also thinks that object-lessons can be given according to a plan1 a fixed programme4 ,madame ,pape-,carpentier deserves1 then1 to be heard as an experienced adviser in whatever relates to elementary instruction2 but that which we must admire in her still more than her professional skill and her pedagogical knowledge1 is an elevated conception of the teacher's work1 and a lofty inspiration coming from her devotion to children and her love for them4 8,to educate children properly10 she said1 8ought to be for the teacher only the second part of his undertaking2 the first1 and the most difficult1 is to perfect himself40 8,what we are able to do for children is measured by the love we bear them40 #eid4 ,,other ,,women ,,who ,,were ,,educators4--,if the education of women has received an important development in our day1 it is due1 then1 in great part to the women who have shown what they were worth and what they could do1 either as teachers or as educators4 ,and yet the history whose principal features we have just traced remains very incomplete4 ,by the side of the celebrated women whose works we have studied1 we should mention ,mademoiselle ,sauvan1 who1 in #ahaa1 founded at ,chaillot an educational establishment which she did not leave till about #ahcj1 to take the intellectual and moral direction of the girls' schools of ,paris2#beb ,madame de ,maisonneuve1 author of an ,essay on the ,instruction of ,women1#bec in which she sums up the results of a long experience acquired in the management of a private boarding-school4 ,but men have also contributed by their theoretical objections1 or by their practical efforts1 to the progress of the education of women4 ,it would be of interest1 for example1 to study the courses in secondary instruction of ,lourmand 7#ahcd71 and the ,courses in ,maternal ,education1 of ,lvi ,alvars 7#ahbj74 8,monsieur ,lvi10 says ,grard1 8makes the mother tongue and history the basis of instruction4 ,he himself sums up his methods in this formula of progressive education3 ,facts1 comparison of facts1 moral or philosophical consequence of facts2 that is1 seeing1 comparing1 judging4 ,this is the very order of nature40 ,let us mention also the work of ,aim ,martin1 ,the ,education of ,mothers1#bed which for several years enjoyed an extraordinary reputation that it would be rather difficult to justify4 #eie4 ,,dupanloup ,,and ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,women4--,a bishop of the nineteenth century1 ,dupanloup1 has assumed to rival ,fnelon in the delicate question of the education of women4 ,different works1 and in particular the one which he esteemed most1 his ,letters on the ,education of ,girls1 published after his death in #ahgi1 give proof of the interest which he took in these questions4 ,these letters are for the most part real letters which were addressed to women of the time4 ,notwithstanding the variety and the freedom of the epistolary form1 the work may be divided into three parts3 #a4 the principles of education2 #b4 the education of young women2 #c4 free and personal study in the world4 ,dupanloup should be thanked for having summoned woman to a true intellectual culture1 and for not consenting to have her faculties remain 8smothered and useless40 ,through the revelations of the confessional and the spiritual direction of a great number of women1 ,dupanloup knew exactly what a void an incomplete education of the mind and heart leaves in the soul4 ,he is indeed willing to acknowledge that piety is not enough1 and with a certain breadth of spirit which drew upon him the censure of the ultramontane press1 he recommends the serious studies to women4 ,his counsels1 however1 are addressed only to women of the middle classes1 to those who1 he says1 8occupy the third story of houses in ,paris40 ,his book is rather a reminiscence of the seventeenth century1 of its manners and its habits of thinking1 than a living work of to-day1 adapted to the needs of modern society4 #eif4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,the formal discussion of woman's education by women marks an important epoch in the history of education4 ,had the education of men been wholly1 or even chiefly1 discussed by women1 it cannot be doubted that it would have been more or less partial and imperfect4 #b4 ,the formal discussion of infant education by women is scarcely less important2 for nothing less than maternal instinct and affection can divine the nature and the needs of the child4 #c4 ,this study calls attention to the need of making the education of women serious instead of ornamental4 ,plato based his recommendation of the equal education of men and women on equality of civil functions4 ,in modern thought it is the conception of equal rights and of equal abilities that tends to prescribe the same course of intellectual training for both sexes4 #d4 ,the educational work of the two ,englishwomen1 ,miss ,edgeworth and ,miss ,hamilton1 can be studied with great profit4 ,the first excels in practical wisdom1 and the second in philosophic insight4 #e4 ,the ,progressive ,education of ,madame ,necker is a classic which fairly ranks with the mile of ,rousseau1 and the ,education of ,herbert ,spencer4 ,,footnotes3 #bcg ,grard1 ,mmoire sur l'enseignement secondaire des filles1 p4 #gh4 #bch ,french translation by ,pictet1 #ahja4 #bci ,french translation by ,chron1 #b vols41 ,paris1 #ahjd4 #bdj ,stewart1 ,elements1 p4 #aa4 #bda ,letters1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #aa4 #bdb ,see the two volumes published in #ahbd by ,barrire1 on the ducation1 par ,madame ,campan1 followed by the ,conseils aux jeunes filles4 #bdc ,the work of ,madame de ,rmusat was published in #ahbd1 after the author's death1 under the direction of ,charles de ,rmusat4 #bdd ,joubert1 ,penses4 #bde ,the ,annales de l'ducation appeared from #ahaa to #ahad4 ,it is an interesting collection to consult4 ,in it ,guizot published among other pedagogical works1 his studies on the ideas of ,rabelais and ,montaigne1 afterwards reprinted in the volume1 tudes ,morales4 #bdf ducation domestique ou ,lettres de famille sur l'ducation4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahbf4 #bdg ,see in the ,revue pdagogique1 #ahhc1 ,no4 #f1 an interesting study on ,madame ,guizot1 by ,bernard ,perez4 #bdh ,l'ducation progressive ou tude du cours de la nature humaine4 #c vols4 #ahcf-ahch4 #bdi ,preface to the fifth edition of the ,progressive ,education4 ,paris4 ,garnier4 #bej ,we must include in the educational school of ,madame ,necker de ,saussure one of her countrymen1 the celebrated ,vinet 7#agii-ahdg71 who1 in his excellent book1 ,l'ducation1 la famille et la socit 7,paris1 #ahee71 has vigorously discussed certain educational questions4 #bea ,see the sixth edition1 ,paris1 ,hachette1 #ahgg4 #beb ,see the work entitled ,mademoiselle ,sauvan1 premire inspectrice des coles de ,paris1 sa vie1 son uvre1 par ,e4 ,gossot4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 #bec ,essai sur l'instruction des femmes4 ,tours1 #ahda4 #bed ,the first edition is dated #ahcd4 ,the ninth was published in #ahgc4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practice ,,of ,,education ,,in ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century2 ,,votes ,,of ,,the ,,councils-,,general 7#ahja72 ,,fourcroy ,,and ,,the ,,law ,,of #ahjb2 ,,foundation ,,of ,,the ,,university 7#ahjf72 ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,university2 ,,intentions ,,of ,,the ,,dynasty2 ,,primary ,,instruction ,,neglected2 ,,origin ,,of ,,mutual ,,instruction2 ,,bell ,,and ,,lancaster2 ,,success ,,of ,,mutual ,,instruction ,,in ,,france2 ,,moral ,,advantages2 ,,economical ,,advantages2 ,,organization ,,of ,,schools ,,on ,,the ,,mutual ,,system2 ,,vices ,,of ,,this ,,system2 ,,state ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction2 ,,guizot ,,and ,,the ,,law ,,of #ahcc2 ,,higher ,,primary ,,schools2 ,,circular ,,of ,,guizot2 ,,progress ,,in ,,popular ,,instruction2 ,,programmes ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction2 ,,the ,,theorists ,,of ,,education2 ,,jacotot 7#aggj-ahdj72 ,,the ,,paradoxes ,,of ,,jacotot2 ,,all ,,is ,,in ,,all2 ,,the ,,saint-,,simonians ,,and ,,the ,,phalansterians2 ,,fourier 7#aggb-ahcg72 ,,auguste ,,comte 7#agih-aheg7 ,,and ,,the ,,positivists2 ,,dupanloup 7#ahjb-ahgh72 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,education2 ,,errors ,,and ,,prejudices2 ,,the ,,spiritualistic ,,school ,,and ,,the ,,university ,,men2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #eig4 ,,the ,,pedagogy ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4--,an effort more and more marked to organize education in accordance with the data of psychology and on a scientific basis1 and to co-ordinate pedagogical methods in accordance with a rational plan2 a manifest tendency to take the control of education from the hands of the ,church in order to restore it to the ,state and to lay society2 a larger part accorded the family in the management of children2 a faith more and more sanguine in the efficacy of instruction1 and an ever-growing purpose to have every member of the human family participate in its benefits1--such are some of the characteristics of the pedagogy of the nineteenth century4 ,education tends more and more to become a social problem2 it is to be an affair of universal interest4 ,it is no longer to be merely a question of regulating select studies for the use of a few who are the favorites of birth and fortune2 but science must be placed within the reach of all1 and through the simplification of methods and the universal distribution of knowledge1 it must be adapted to the democratic spirit of the new society4 ,we have no intention to follow in this place1 in all its details1 and in the diversity of its currents1 this educational movement of a century which has not yet said its last word2 but we must limit ourselves to calling attention to the points which seem to us essential4 #eih4 ,,laws ,,of ,,the ,,councils-,,general ,,of #ahja4--,notwithstanding the efforts of the ,revolution1 public instruction in ,france1 during the first part of the nineteenth century1 was far from being flourishing4 ,there was urgent need of introducing reforms4 ,the ,councils-,general were summoned in #ahja to give their advice on the organization of studies4 ,that which is very noticeable in the ,state papers of the ,councils-,general of #ahja1 is that the departmental assemblies agree in demanding the establishment of a ,national ,university4 ,the ,councils-,general complain that the professors1 being no longer united by the ties of solidarity1 as were the members of the religious teaching congregations of the old rgime1 march at random1 without unity1 without concerted direction4 ,they solicit1 then1 a uniform organization of instruction4 ,they even conceive the idea of an official instruction administered exclusively by the ,state4 #eii4 ,,fourcroy#bee ,,and ,,the ,,law ,,of #ahjb4--,we have not the space to dwell long on the bill of ,fourcroy1 which became the law of #ahjb1 although this measure1 it has been said1 was amended twenty-three times before being submitted to the ,corps ,lgislatif and to the ,tribunate4 ,fourcroy did not sufficiently recognize the rights of the ,state4 ,doubtless he did not go so far as to assert1 with ,adam ,smith1 that education should be abandoned entirely to private enterprise2 but he thinks that the task of organizing the primary schools must be left to the communes4 ,in his opinion1 that which prevented the success of these schools was the attempt to impose too great a uniformity on them4 ,he demands that the teachers be chosen by the mayors1 or by the municipal councillors1 who alone are cognizant of the local interests4 ,the primary school is the need of all4 ,then let it be the affair of all4 ,fourcroy was mistaken4 ,primary instruction became a reality in ,france only on the day when the ,state vigorously put its hand on it4 ,on certain points1 however1 the law of #ahjb prepared the way for the approaching creation of ,napoleon2 for example1 in giving to the ,first ,consul the appointment of the professors of the colleges1 and in placing the primary schools under the supervision of the prefects4 #fjj4 ,,foundation ,,of ,,the ,,university 7#ahjf74--,the law of ,may #aa1 #ahjf1 completed by the decrees of ,march #ag1 #ahjh1 and of #ahaa1 established the ,university1 that is1 a teaching corporation1 unique and entirely dependent on the ,state3-- 8,there shall be constituted a body charged exclusively with instruction and public education throughout the whole extent of the ,empire40 ,instruction thus became a function of the ,state1 on the same basis as the administration of justice or the organization of the army4 ,at the same time that it lost all autonomy1 all independence1 the ,university gained the formidable privilege of being alone charged with the national instruction4 8,no one can open a school or teach publicly1 without being a member of the ,imperial ,university and without having been graduated from one of its ,faculties40 8,no school can be established outside of the ,university1 and without the authorization of its head40 ,we know what protestations were excited1 even on the start1 by the establishment of this ,university monopoly4 8,it was not enough to enchain parents2 it was still necessary to dispose of the children4 ,mothers have been seen hastening from the extremities of the ,empire1 coming to reclaim1 in an agony of tears1 the sons whom the government had carried off from them40 ,thus spoke ,chateaubriand1 before lavishing his adulations on the restorer of altars1 and he added1 with an extravagance of imagination which recoils on itself1 8,children were placed in schools where they were taught at the sound of the drum1 irreligion1 debauchery1 and contempt for the domestic virtues60 ,joseph de ,maistre was more just3 8,fontanes10#bef he said1 8has large views and excellent intentions4 ,the plan of his ,university is grand and comprehensive4 ,it is a noble body4 ,the soul will come to it when it can4 ,celibacy1 subordination1 devotion of the whole life without religious motive1 are required4 ,will they be obtained80#beg #fja4 ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,university4--,the ,imperial ,university comprised1 like the present ,university1 ,colleges1 ,lyces1 and ,faculties4 ,the ,colleges furnished secondary instruction1 like the ,lyces1 but less complete4 ,there were a ,faculty of ,letters and a ,faculty of ,sciences for each academic centre2 but these ,faculties were very poorly equipped1 with their endowment of from five to ten thousand francs at most1 and with their few professors4 ,the professors of the neighboring ,lyce 7professors of rhetoric and mathematics7 formed a part of the establishment1 and each ,faculty included at most but two or three other chairs4 ,latin and mathematics formed the basis of the instruction in the ,lyces4 ,the ,revolution had not come in vain1 since that which it had vigorously demanded was now realized2 the sciences and the classical languages were put on a footing of equality4 #fjb4 ,,dynastic ,,prepossessions4--,that which absorbed the attention of the founder of the ,imperial ,university was less the schemes of study than the general principles on which the rising generations were to be nourished4 ,in this respect the thought of the ,emperor is not obscure4 ,he does not dissemble it4 ,god and the ,emperor are the two words which must be graven into the depths of the soul4 8,all the schools of the ,imperial ,university will make as the basis of their instruction3 #a4 the precepts of the ,catholic religion2 #b4 fidelity to the ,emperor1 to the imperial monarchy1 the depository of the happiness of the people1 and to the ,napoleonic dynasty1 the conservator of the unity of ,france1 and of all the ideas proclaimed by the ,constitution40 8,napoleon10 as ,guizot says1 8attempted to convert into an instrument of despotism an institution which tended to be only a centre of light40 #fjc4 ,,primary ,,instruction ,,neglected4--,primary instruction never occupied the attention of ,napoleon ,i4 ,the decree of #ahje contented itself with promising measures intended to assure the recruitment of teachers1 especially the creation of one or more normal classes within the colleges and lyces4 ,moreover1 the ,grand ,master was to encourage and to license the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 while supervising their establishments4 ,finally1 the right to establish schools was left to families or to religious corporations1 the budget of the ,empire containing no item of appropriation for the cause of popular instruction4 ,the ,restoration was scarcely more generous towards the instruction of the people4 ,by the ordinance of ,february #bi1 #ahae1 it granted fifty thousand francs as encouragement to the primary schools4 ,was this derisive liberality any better than complete silence and neglect8 ,a more important measure was the establishment of cantonal committees charged with the supervision of primary schools4 ,these committees were placed1 sometimes under the direction of the rector1 and at others under the authority of the bishop1 at the pleasure of the vicissitudes of politics4 ,certificates of qualification were delivered to the members of the authorized congregations1 on the simple presentation of their letters of permission4 ,we can imagine what a body of teachers could be assured by such a mode of recruitment4 ,in anticipation of the monarchy of ,july1 which in its liberal dispositions was to appear more regardful of popular education1 private initiative signalized itself under the ,restoration by the foundation of the ,society for ,elementary ,instruction1 and also by the encouragement it gave to the first attempts at mutual instruction4 #fjd4 ,,origin ,,of ,,mutual ,,instruction4--,two ,englishmen1 ,bell and ,lancaster1 have claimed the honor of having invented mutual instruction4 ,the fact is1 neither of them invented it2 they simply gave it currency4 ,it is in ,france1 if not in ,india1 that we must look for the real origin of mutual instruction4 ,we have seen that ,madame de ,maintenon1 ,rollin1 ,la ,salle1 and ,pestalozzi1 practised it1 and to a certain extent gave it currency4 ,in the eighteenth century ,herbault had employed it in the hospital of ,la ,piti 7#agdg71 the ,chevalier ,paulet at ,vincennes 7#aggd71 and1 finally1 the ,abb ,gaultier1#beh also a ,frenchman1 had introduced the use of it into ,london1 in #agib1 some years before ,bell brought it from ,india4 #fje4 ,,bell 7#agec-ahcb7 ,,and ,,lancaster 7#aggh-ahch74--;,bell and ,lancaster are none the less the first authorized propagators of the mutual method1 or1 as the ,english say1 of the monitorial system4 ,bell had used it at ,madras1 in imitation of the ,hindoo teachers1 and in #agih he introduced it into ,england4 ,but at the same period1 a young ,english teacher1 ,lancaster1 applied the same methods with success1 and1 so far as it appears1 through a suggestion absolutely personal and original4 ,lancaster was a ,quaker1 and ,bell a ,churchman1 so that public opinion in ,england was divided between the two rivals4 ,the truth is that they had applied at the same time a system which was known before their day1 and which must naturally have been suggested to all teachers who have too large a number of children to instruct1 as a result of the inadequacy of their resources and the lack of a teaching force sufficiently large4 #fjf4 ,,success ,,of ,,mutual ,,instruction ,,in ,,france4--,mutual instruction1 which was maintained in certain schools of ,paris till #ahfg1 for a long time enjoyed an extraordinary credit in ,france4 ,under the ,restoration1 its success was so great that it became the fashion1 and even a craze4 ,patronized by the most eminent men of that day1 by ,royer-,collard1 by ,laisn1 by the ,duke ,decazes1 by the ,duke ,pasquier1 mutual instruction became the flag of the liberal party in the matter of instruction4 ,political passions became involved in it4 ,the new system came into competition with the traditional instruction of the ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 and was fought and denounced as immoral by all the partisans of routine4 8,mutual instruction was charged with destroying the foundation of social order by delegating to children a power which ought to belong only to men4444 ,men held for or against simultaneous instruction1 its rival1 as if it were a question of an article of the ,charter40#bei #fjg4 ,,moral ,,advantages4--,the friends of mutual instruction1 in order to justify their enthusiasm1 made the most of moral reasons4 ,what can be more touching1 they said1 than to see children communicating to one another the little that they know8 ,what an excellent lesson of charity and of mutual aid6 ,the ,gospel has said1 ,love one another4 ,was it not giving to the divine precept a happy translation to add1 ,instruct one another6 ,an attempt was made1 moreover1 to introduce mutuality into discipline and into the repression of school faults4 ,the school1 on certain solemn occasions1 was converted into a court for trying criminals4 8,all this was done very seriously1 and it was also very seriously felt that these practices1 passing from a class of children to a class of adults1 would contribute to introduce into society the habits of a true and useful fraternity40 #fjh4 ,,economical ,,advantages4--,to tell the truth1 mutual instruction was above all else 8a useful expedient10 according to ,rollin's expression4 ,at a period when teachers were scarce1 when the budget of public instruction did not exist1 it was natural that an economic system which dispensed with teachers1 and which reduced to almost nothing the cost of instruction1 should be hailed with enthusiasm4 ,let us add that there was also an economy in books1 since 8there was need of only one book1 which pupils never used1 and which would thus last for several years40 ,jomard calculated that there were #c1jjj1jjj children to instruct1 and that1 according to the ordinary system1 this would require the expenditure of more than #de1jjj1jjj francs4#bfj ,now1 according to the calculations of the ,comte de ,laborde1#bfa #ajjj pupils being able to be educated by one single teacher1 by the system of mutual instruction1 more easily than #cj could have been by the old system1 a sum of #aj1jjj francs granted annually by the ,state would suffice to educate in twelve years the entire generation of poor children4#bfb #fji4 ,,organization ,,of ,,schools ,,on ,,the ,,mutual ,,plan4--,bell defined mutual instruction as 8the method by means of which a whole school may instruct itself1 under the supervision of one single master40 ,here is the picture of a mutual school1 as described by ,grard3-- 8,that was a striking spectacle at the first glance1--those long and vast structures which contained a whole school1 such as the older generations of our teachers recollect still to have seen at the ,halle aux ,draps4 ,in the middle of the room1 throughout its entire length1 were rows of tables having from five to twenty places each1 having at one end1 at the right1 the desk of the monitor1 and the board having models of writing1 itself surmounted by a standard or telegraph which served to secure1 by means of directions easy to read1 regularity of movements2 at the side of the room1 and all along the walls1 there were rows of semi-circles1 about which were arranged groups of children2 on the walls1 on a line with the eye1 there was a blackboard on which were performed the exercises in computation1 and from which were suspended the charts for reading and grammar2 right at his side1 within reach of his hand1 was the stick with which the teacher was provided for conducting the lesson2 finally1 at the lower part of the room1 on a wide and high platform1 accessible by steps and surrounded by a balustrade1 was the chair of the master1 who1 employing in succession1 according to fixed rules1 voice1 bton1 or whistle1 surveyed the tables and groups1 distributing commendation or reproof1 and directing1 in a word1 like a captain on the deck of his vessel1 the whole machinery of instruction40 ,in respect of systematic movements and exterior order1 nothing is more charming than the appearance of a school conducted on the mutual plan4 ,it remains to inquire what were the educational results of the system1 and whether the fashion which brought it into favor was justified by real advantages4 #faj4 ,,vices ,,of ,,mutual ,,instruction4--,the monitor was the mainspring of the mutual method4 ,but what was the monitor8 ,a child1 more intelligent1 doubtless1 than his comrades1 but too little instructed to be equal to his task4 ,the mutual school did not open till ten o'clock4 ,from eight to ten there was a class for the monitors4 ,there they learned in haste what they were1 for the rest of the day1 to teach to the other children4 ,the purpose of the master being to form good instruments as quickly as possible1 they were fitted up for their trade by the most expeditious methods4 8,what sort of teachers could such a preparation produce8 ,to teach is to learn twice1 it has been truly said2 but on the condition of having reflected on that which has been learned and upon that which is to be taught4 ,to convey light into the intelligence of another1 it is first necessary to have produced the light within one's self1 a thing which supposes the enlightened1 penetrating1 and persevering action of a mind relatively mature and trained4 ,from the class where they have just been sitting as pupils1 the monitors--masters improvised as by the wave of a wand1--passed to the classes of children whom they were to indoctrinate0 7,grard74 ,the instruction1 consequently1 became purely mechanical4 ,the monitor faithfully repeated what he had been taught4 ,everything was reduced to mechanical processes4 ,let us observe1 besides1 that from the moral point of view1 the mutual system left much to be desired4 ,the monitors1 we are told1 did not escape the intoxications of pride4 ,even in the family they became petty tyrants4 ,parents complained of their dictatorial habits and their tone of authority4 ,however it may be1 mutual instruction has rendered undeniable services1 thanks to the zeal of such teachers as ,mademoiselle ,sauvan and ,monsieur ,sarazin2 but its reputation went on diminishing in proportion as the ,state became more and more disposed to make sacrifices1 and as it was possible to multiply the services of teachers4#bfc #faa4 ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction4--,under the title1 ,exhibit of ,primary ,instruction in ,france1 a member of the ,university1 ,p4 ,lorain1 published in #ahcg a rsum of the inquiry1 which1 by the orders of ,guizot1 had been made in #ahcc throughout the whole extent of ,france1 by the labors of more than #djj inspectors4 ,here are some of the sad results of this inquiry3 all the teachers did not know how to write2 a large number employed the mechanism of the three fundamental rules without being able to give any theoretical reason for these operations4 8,the ignorance was general40 ,as under the old rgime1 the teacher practiced all the trades2 he was day-laborer1 shoemaker1 innkeeper4 8,he had his wife supply his place while he went hunting in the fields40 ,the functions of the teacher1 poorly rewarded1 exposed to the risk of a very slender tuition1 enjoyed no consideration4 8,the teacher was often regarded in the community on the same footing as a mendicant1 and between the herdsman and himself1 the preference was for the herdsman40 ,consequently1 the situation of school-master was the most often sought after by men who were infirm1 crippled1 unfit for any other kind of work4 8,from the teacher without arms1 to the epileptic1 how many infirmities to pass through60 #fab4 ,,guizot ,,and ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,june #bh1 #ahcc4--,primary instruction1 so often decreed by the ,revolution1 was not really organized in ,france till by the law of ,june #bh1 #ahcc1 the honor of which is due in particular to ,guizot1 then minister of public instruction4#bfd ,primary instruction was divided into two grades1--elementary and higher4 ,henceforth there was to be a school for each commune1 or at least for each group of two or three communes4 ,the ,state reserved the right of appointing teachers1 and of determining their salary1 which1 it is true1 in certain places1 did not exceed two hundred francs4 ,poor children were to be received without pay4 #fac4 ,,higher ,,primary ,,schools4--,one of the most praiseworthy purposes of the legislator of #ahcc was the establishment of higher primary instruction4 8,higher primary instruction10 he said1 8necessarily includes1 in addition to all the branches of elementary primary instruction1 the elements of geometry1 and its common applications1 especially linear drawing and surveying1 information on the physical sciences and natural history1 applicable to the uses of life1 singing1 the elements of history and geography1 and particularly of the history and geography of ,france4 ,according to the needs and the resources of localities1 the instruction shall receive such developments as shall be deemed proper40 ,a higher primary school was to be established in the chief towns of the department and in all the communes which had a population of more than six thousand souls4 ,the law was executed in part4 ,in #ahda1 one hundred and sixty-one schools were founded4 ,but little by little1 the indifference of the government1 and1 above all1 the vanity of parents who preferred for their children worthless ,latin studies to a good and thorough primary instruction1 discouraged these first efforts4 ,the legislator of #ahcc had good reason for thinking that a good vest was worth more than a poor coat4 ,his mistake was in thinking that people would be persuaded to abandon the coat in order to take the vest4#bfe ,the higher schools were almost everywhere annexed to the colleges of secondary instruction4 ,to suppress their independence and their own distinctive features was to destroy them4 ,the final blow was given them by the law of #ahej1 which abstained from pronouncing their name1 and which condemned them by its silence4 #fad4 ,,circular ,,of ,,guizot4--,in transmitting to teachers the law of ,june #bh1 #ahcc1 ,guizot had it followed by a celebrated circular1 which eloquently stated the proper office of the teacher1 his duties and his rights4 ,here are some passages from it3 8,do not make a mistake here1 ,sir4 ,while the career of primary instruction may be without renown1 its duties interest the whole of society1 and it is an occupation which shares the importance attached to public functions4444 ,universal primary instruction is henceforth to be one of the guarantees of order and social stability40 ,the circular next examines the material advantages which the new law assured to teachers1 and it continues thus3-- 8,however1 ,sir1 as ,i well know1 the foresight of the law and the resources at the disposal of public authority1 will never succeed in rendering the humble profession of a communal teacher as attractive as it is useful4 ,society could not reward him who devotes himself to this service for all that he does for it4 ,there is no fortune to gain2 there is scarcely any reputation to acquire in the difficult duties which he performs4 ,destined to see his life spent in a monotonous occupation1 sometimes even to encounter about him the injustice and the ingratitude of ignorance1 he would often grow disheartened1 and would perhaps succumb did he not draw his strength and his courage from other sources than from the prospect of an interest immediate and purely personal4 ,it is necessary that a profound sense of the moral importance of his work sustain and animate him1 and that the austere pleasure of having served men and secretly contributed to the public good1 become the noble reward which his conscience alone can give4 ,it is his glory to aim at nothing beyond his obscure and laborious condition1 to spend himself in sacrifices scarcely counted by those who profit by them1 and1 in a word1 to work for men and to look for his reward only from ,god40 #fae4 ,,progress ,,of ,,popular ,,instruction4--,it would be an interesting history to relate in detail the progress of popular education in ,france from the law of #ahcc to our day4 ,the public bills of the ,republic of #ahdh1 the liberal propositions of ,carnot and of ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire1 the recoil of the law of ,march #ae1 #ahej1 the statu quo of the first years of the ,second ,empire1 then towards the end the praiseworthy efforts and tentatives of ,duruy1 and1 finally1 under the ,third ,republic1 the definite and triumphant organization1--all this is sufficiently known and too recent to justify us in dwelling on it here4 ,for successfully introducing anew into the laws the principles of gratuity1 obligation1 and secularization1 as proclaimed by the ,french ,revolution1 not less than a century was necessary4 ,and in particular1 the better spirits allowed themselves to be convinced of the need of obligatory instruction only by slow degrees4 ,however1 in #ahcc1 ,cousin1 who reported the law of ,guizot to the ,chamber of ,peers1 expressed himself as follows3-- 8,a law which should make of primary instruction a legal obligation seems to me to be no more above the powers of the legislator than the law on the national guard1 and that which you have just made on a forced appropriation for the public good4 ,if reasons of public utility justify the legislator in appropriating private property1 why do not reasons of a much higher utility justify him in doing less1--in requiring that children receive the instruction indispensable to every human creature1 to the end that he may not become dangerous to himself or to society as a whole80 ,cousin added that the commission of which he was the chairman would not have receded from measures wisely combined to make instruction obligatory1 had it not been afraid of provoking difficulties1 and1 in this way1 of postponing a law that was awaited with impatience4 ,the evident necessity of instructing the people1 the interests of society1 the interests of families and individuals1--all these considerations have insensibly overcome the scruples or the illusions of a false liberality1 and it is no longer necessary1 to-day1 to repeat the eloquent pleas of ,carnot in his bill of #ahdh1 of ,duruy1 and of ,jules ,simon4 ,in #ahgc ,guizot expressed himself as follows3-- 8,the liberty of conscience and that of families are facts and rights which1 in this question1 ought to be scrupulously respected and guaranteed2 but1 under the condition of this respect and of these guarantees1 it may happen that the state of society and the state of minds may render legal obligation1 in respect of primary instruction1 legitimate1 salutary1 and necessary4 ,this is the condition of things to-day4 ,the movement in favor of obligatory instruction is sincere1 serious1 national4 ,powerful examples authorize and encourage it4 ,in ,germany1 in ,switzerland1 in ,denmark1 in most of the ,american ,states1 primary instruction has this character1 and civilization has reaped excellent fruits from it4 ,france and its government have reason to welcome this principle40 #faf4 ,,programmes ,,of ,,primary ,,instruction4--,at the same time that primary instruction made progress by its ever-growing extension1 and by the participation in it of a greater number of individuals1 its programmes were also extended1 and it is interesting to compare in this respect the different laws which have regulated the matter of instruction in our century4 ,the law of #ahcc said3 8,elementary primary instruction necessarily comprises moral and religious instruction1 reading1 writing1 the elements of the ,french language and of computation1 the legal system of weights and measures40 ,the bill presented1 ,june #cj1 #ahdh1 by ,carnot1 minister of public instruction1 expresses itself thus3-- 8,primary instruction comprises3 #a4 reading1 writing1 the elements of the ,french language1 the elements of computation1 the metric system1 the measure of distances1 elementary notions of the phenomena of nature1 and the principal facts of agriculture and of industry1 linear drawing1 singing1 elementary notions on the history and geography of ,france2 #b4 a knowledge of the duties and the rights of man and citizen1 the development of the sentiments of liberty1 equality1 and fraternity2 #c4 the elementary rules of hygiene1 and useful exercises in physical development40 8,the religious instruction is given by the ministers of the different communions40 ,according to the bill of ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire 7,april #aj1 #ahdi71 elementary instruction for boys1 necessarily comprised 8moral1 religious1 and civic instruction1 reading1 writing1 the elements of the ,french language1 the elements of computation1 the legal system of weights and measures1 linear drawing1 elementary notions of agriculture and of hygiene1 singing and gymnastic exercises4 8,according to the needs and resources of localities1 elementary primary instruction shall receive the developments which shall be thought proper1 and shall comprise1 in particular1 notions on the history and geography of ,france40 ,finally1 the law of ,march #ae1 #ahej1 is worded thus3-- 8,art4 #bc4 ,primary instruction comprises moral and religious instruction1 reading1 writing1 the elements of the ,french language1 computation1 and the legal system of weights and measures4 ,it may comprise in addition1 arithmetic applied to practical operations1 the elements of history and geography1 notions of the physical sciences and of natural history applicable to the ordinary purposes of life1 elementary instruction on agriculture1 trade1 and hygiene1 surveying1 leveling1 linear drawing1 singing and gymnastics40 ,progress has especially consisted1 since #ahej1 in rendering obligatory that which was simply optional4 ,history1 for example1 did not become a subject of instruction till #ahfg4 #fag4 ,,the ,,theorists ,,of ,,education4--,along with the progress of primary instruction1 the historian of the pedagogy of the nineteenth century would have also to follow the development of secondary instruction and of superior instruction4 ,he would have to write the history of the ,university1 reforming the methods of its lyces and its colleges1 and ever enlarging in a noble spirit of liberty the studies of its faculties4 ,but we should depart from the limits of our plan1 were we to undertake this order of inquiries1 and were we to enter into details which pertain to contemporary history4 ,that which should engage our attention is the theoretical reflections of the different thinkers who1 in our century1 have discussed the principles and the laws of education1 of those at least who have become celebrated for their novel views4 #fah4 ,,jacotot 7#aggj-ahdj74--;,jacotot1 who has maintained scarcely any celebrity in ,france except for the singularity of his paradoxes1 is perhaps of all ,french educators of the nineteenth century the one who has received most attention abroad1 particularly in ,germany4 8,jacotot10 says ,doctor ,dittes1 8has incited a lasting improvement in the public instruction of ,germany4 ,the reform which he introduced into the teaching of reading is important4 ,he started with an entire sentence1 which was pronounced1 explained1 and learned by heart by the children1 and afterward analyzed into its constituent parts40#bff ,on the other hand1 a ,french critic1 ,bernard ,perez1 has drawn the following portrait of ,jacotot3-- 8,he was the best and the most lovable of men4 ,he had the firmness1 patience1 honesty1 and candor of superior minds1 an inexhaustible goodness and a universal charity which make him close all his letters with this formula1 #8,i especially commend to you the poor4' ,this ardent philanthropy1 as well as his enthusiasm and his zeal for instruction1 pervades even his writings1 though full of inequalities and verbal eccentricities40#bfg #fai4 ,,paradoxes ,,of ,,jacotot4--,in his principal work1 ,universal ,instruction1#bfh ,jacotot has set forth his principles1 which are so many paradoxes1 8,all intelligences are equal02 8,every man can teach1 and even teach that which he himself does not know02 8,one can instruct himself all alone02 8,all is in all40 ,doubtless at the basis of ,jacotot's paradoxes there is an element of truth2 for example1 the very just idea that the best teaching is that which encourages young minds to think for themselves4 ,doubtless also he qualified the exaggeration of his statement when he said that the inequality of wills at once destroys the equality of intelligences4 ,but the violent and unreasonable form which he gave to his ideas has compromised them in public opinion4 ,that which is true and fruitful in his system has been forgotten1 and we recall only the whimsical formulas in which he delighted4 #fbj4 ,,all ,,is ,,in ,,all4--,the most famous of ,jacotot's paradoxes is the formula1 8,all is in all40 ,the whole of ,latin is in a page of ,latin2 the whole of music is in a piece of music2 the whole of arithmetic1 in a rule of computation4 ,in practice1 ,jacotot made his pupils learn the first six books of the ,telemachus4 ,upon this text1 once learned1 and recited twice a week1 there were constructed all sorts of exercises1 and these sufficed for the complete knowledge of the ,french language4 ,in the same way the ,epitome ,histori ,sacr1 put in the hands of pupils1 and learned in two months1 was almost the sole instrument for the study of ,latin4 ,in fact1 and aside from evident exaggerations1 ,jacotot rightly thought that it is necessary1 as he said1 8to learn something well1 and to connect with this all the rest40 #fba4 ,,the ,,followers ,,of ,,saint ,,simon ,,and ,,of ,,fourier4--,there is little of practical value to be gathered from the writings of the celebrated utopists1 who1 at the opening of this century1 became known by their plans of social organization4 ,it is the chimerical which characterizes their systems4 ,cabet demanded among other absurdities that all ancient books be burned1 and that no new books be written except by command of the ,state4 ,besides1 he would have the school-code established by the children themselves4#bfi ,victor ,considerant suppressed1 not books1 but discipline and authority4 8,the child10 he said1 8shall no longer be disobedient1 because he shall no longer be commanded40#bgj ,saint ,simon1 in #ahaf1 communicated to the ,society for ,elementary ,instruction1 a brief essay which gave proof of his interest in education4 ,for him and his disciples1 education is 8the aggregate of efforts to be employed in order to adapt each new generation to the social order to which it is called by the march of humanity40 ,this was to mark the contrast between modern tendencies which aspire above all else to an earthly and a social end1 with ancient tendencies which were subservient to supernatural ideas4 sthetic sentiments1 scientific methods1 industrial activity1--such is the triple development which special and professional education should consider4 ,but above this the ,saint-,simonians place moral education1 too much neglected1 as they think1 which should consist particularly in developing in the young the sympathetic and affectionate faculties4 ,the ,saint-,simonians placed but little dependence on science and abstract principles for assuring among men the reign of morality4 ,sentiment1 in their view1 is the true moral principle1 and education1 consequently1 ought to be essentially the education of the heart4 #fbb4 ,,fourier 7#aggb-ahcg74--;,fourier1 like ,saint ,simon1 had educational pretensions4 ,there is nothing more curious than his treatise on ,natural ,education4 ,in it there is only here and there a flash of good sense mingled with a multitude of grotesque fancies4 ,fourier renews the utopias of ,plato1 and confides infants to public nurses4 ,he is more reasonable when1 in spite of his declamations on the excellence of nature1 he is really willing to recognize in children a diversity of characters1 and divides 8the nurslings and the babies0 into three classes1--8the benign1 the malign1 and the devilkins40 ,we must also commend ,fourier for his efforts to encourage industrial activity4 ,there is perhaps a valuable hint in those walks which he recommends children to take through manufactories and shops1 so that at the sight of such or such a tool1 their particular vocation may be suggested to them6 ,the instincts of the child are sacred in the eyes of ,fourier1 even the worst1 their inclination to destroy1 for example1 or their contempt for the rights of property4 ,far from opposing them1 he turns them to account and utilizes them1 by employing destructive and slovenly children in occupations in accord with their tastes2 for example1 in the pursuit of reptiles1 and in the cleansing of sewers4 ,but it is useless to enter into longer details4 ,the education of the ,fourierites is neither a discipline nor a rule of life2 it is simply a system of complaisant adherence1 and even of ardent provocation1 to the instincts which the child inherits from nature4 ,it is no longer a question either of directing or of training2 it is simply necessary to emancipate and to excite4 #fbc4 ,,auguste ,,comte 7#agih-aheg7 ,,and ,,the ,,positivists4--,the positivist school1 and its illustrious founder1 ,auguste ,comte1 could not omit1 in their encyclopdic works1 a question so important as that of education4 ,the author of the ,course in ,positive ,philosophy had even announced a special treatise on pedagogy1 8a great subject10 he said1 8which has not yet been undertaken in a manner sufficiently systematic40#bga ,the promise was not kept1 but from different passages in the writings of ,auguste ,comte it is possible to reconstruct1 in its principal features1 the education which would be derived from his system4 ,comte took for his guide the natural and specific evolution of humanity4 8,individual education can be adequately estimated only according to its necessary conformity with collective evolution40 ,as positivism represents1 in the view of ,comte1 the supreme degree of the evolution of humanity1 the new education ought to be positive4 8,right-minded men universally recognize the necessity of replacing our ,european education1 a system essentially theological1 metaphysical1 and literary1 by a positive education1 conformed to the spirit of our epoch1 and adapted to the needs of modern civilization40 ,the teaching of science1 then1 shall be the basis of education2 but this teaching will bear its fruits only on one condition1 and this is1 that at last we renounce 8the exclusive specialty1 the too pronounced isolation1 which still characterizes our manner of conceiving and cultivating the sciences40 ,the precise purpose of the ,course in ,positive ,philosophy was to remedy the deleterious influence of a too great specialization of research1 by establishing the relations and the hierarchy of the sciences4 ,comte made of mathematics the point of departure in scientific instruction4 ,this was the very reverse of the modern tendency1 which consists in beginning with the concrete and physical studies4 ,auguste ,comte1 in his project for social reform1 demanded universal instruction1 and he bitterly complains of the indifference of the ruling classes for the instruction of the poor4 8,nothing is more profoundly characteristic of the existing anarchy than the shameful indifference with which the higher classes of to-day habitually regard the total absence of popular education1 the exaggerated prolongation of which1 however1 threatens to exert on their approaching destiny a frightful reaction40 ,comte does not go so far1 however1 as to dream of an identical education for all men1 an integral education1 as it has been called4 ,he admits degrees in instruction1 8which10 he says1 8will allow varieties of extension in a system constantly similar and identical40 #fbd4 ,,dupanloup 7#ahjc-ahgh74--,of all the ecclesiastical writers of our century1 he who has the most ardently studied the problems of education is certainly ,bishop ,dupanloup4 ,important works give proof of the educational zeal of the eloquent prelate4 ,but they were composed with more spirit than wisdom1 and they betray the zeal of the ,christian apologist more than the inspiration of an impartial love for the truth4 ,extravagances of language and exaggerations of thought too often prevent the reader from feeling1 as he ought1 the moral and religious inspiration out of which proceeded those books of ardent and profound faith1 but of faith more than of charity4 ,notwithstanding their length and their vast proportions1 these books are pamphlets1 works of combat4 ,one should be on his guard against taking them for scientific treatises4 ,serenity is lacking in them1 and from the very first1 we feel ourselves enveloped in an atmosphere of trouble and storm4 #fbe4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,treatise ,,on ,,education4--,however1 the three volumes of the ,education will be read with profit4 ,the first volume treats of education in general1 and contains three books4 ,in the first book the author determines the character of education1 which has for its purpose to cultivate the faculties1 to exercise them1 to develop them1 to strengthen them1 and1 finally1 to polish them4 ,in the following books the author studies the nature of the child1 of whom he sometimes speaks with a touching tenderness2 and examines the means of education1 which are 8religion1 instruction1 discipline1 and physical culture40 ,discipline consists in supporting1 preventing1 and repressing4 ,discipline is to education 8that which the bark is to the tree which it surrounds4 ,it is the bark which holds the sap1 and forces it to ascend to the heart of the tree40 ,the general title of the second volume is1 ,on ,authority and ,respect in ,education4 ,authority and respect1 in the eyes of the author1 are the two fundamental things4 ,from this point of view1 he studies what he calls the personnel of education2 that is1 ,god1 the parents1 the teacher1 the child1 and the schoolmate4 ,the third volume1 entitled ,educational ,men1 treats of the qualities befitting the head master of an educational establishment1 and of his different colleagues4#bgb #fbf4 ,,errors ,,and ,,prejudices4--,although he wrote a beautiful chapter entitled1 ,of the ,respect due the ,dignity of the ,child and the ,liberty of his ,nature1 ,dupanloup is still more struck with the faults than with the virtues of childhood4 ,he shudders in thinking of his thoughtlessness1 of his curiosity1 of his sensuality1 and especially of his pride4 ,so he distrusts commendation and rewards4 8,in praising your pupils10 he says to the teacher1 8do you not fear to excite their pride8 ,the pride of scholars is a terrible evil2 it begins in the #8third1' develops in the #8second1' blossoms in #8rhetoric1' and becomes established in #8philosophy4'0#bgc ,to this mistrust of human nature is joined a singular pessimism with respect to the functions of the teacher4 8,there is found10 he says1 8in this service1 grave troubles4 ,sometimes1 if we are worthy of this service1 if we sacrifice ourselves to it1 we can find consolations in it1 but pleasure1 never60 ,the verdict is severe and absolute1 but it recoils in part on him who pronounces it4 ,how not mistrust an educator who declares that there is no sweetness mingled with the fatigues of teaching1 and who condemns the teachers of youth to a life of complete sacrifice and bitterness8 ,the greatest fault in the educational spirit of ,dupanloup is that he does not cross the narrow limits of an education in small seminaries4 ,dupanloup wrote only for the middle classes4 ,he had no interest in popular education2 he does not love the lay teacher2 he detests the ,university4 ,finally1 he is the man who inspired the law of ,may #ae1 #ahej4 #fbg4 ,,the ,,spiritualistic ,,school ,,and ,,university ,,men4--,the philosophers of the ,french spiritualistic school have not in general paid great attention to the theory of education4 ,the most illustrious of them1 ,cousin 7#agib-ahfh71 at the same time that he aided in organizing ,university instruction1 carefully studied educational institutions abroad1 especially in his two works1 ,public ,instruction in ,holland 7#ahcg71 and ,public ,instruction in ,germany 7#ahdj74 ,the works of ,jules ,simon have the same practical character1 but with a marked tendency to treat by preference the questions of primary instruction4 ,the ,school 7#ahfd7 is a manifesto in favor of gratuity and obligation4 ,the ,university men1 on their part1 have1 in this century1 acted rather than speculated4 ,they have been intent rather on making good pupils than on composing theories4 ,there would1 however1 be valuable truths to cull from the works of ,cournot1#bgd of ,bersot1#bge and especially of ,michel ,bral4#bgf #fbh4 ,,analytical ,,summary4--#a4 ,one of the main characteristics of the educational thought of this century is doubtless the effort to deduce the rules of practice from certain first principles4 ,the principles of instruction are to be found1 for the most part1 in the science of psychology1 and the principles of education1 in part1 in social science and even in jurisprudence4 #b4 ,the purpose of ,napoleon to secure the perpetuity of his dynasty through the influence of his ,imperial ,university1 is a striking proof of the belief in the potency of ideas1 and of the belief in the potency of popular instruction as a means of national strength4 #c4 ,the history of mutual instruction exhibits three important facts3 #a4 the effect of agitation in arousing public interest in educational questions2 #b4 the manner in which peculiar circumstances suggest an expedient which can be justified on no absolute grounds2 #c4 the danger of converting such an expedient into a 8system0 for universal adoption4 #d4 ,comenius1 ,pestalozzi1 and ,jacotot1 attempted to make instruction universal by simplifying its processes to such a degree that every mother might be a teacher and every household a school4 #e4 ,in ,comte we see the re-appearance of ,condillac's doctrine1 that the historic education of the race is the type of individual education4 ,the same hypothesis will re-appear in ,mr4 ,spencer's ,education4 ,,footnotes3 #bee ,fourcroy 7#agee-ahji71 a celebrated chemist1 was director-general of public instruction in #ahja4 ,he prepared1 in the following years1 the decrees relative to the establishment of the ,university4 #bef ,fontanes 7#ageg-ahba71 first ,grand ,master of the ,university4 #beg ,mmoire politique of ,joseph de ,maistre1 ,paris1 #aheh1 p4 #cj4 #beh ,the ,abb ,gaultier 7#agdf-ahah71 author of a large number of works on elementary instruction1 and almost a reformer in his way4 ,he employed teaching by sight1 and recommended varied exercises1 such as games where he introduced counters1 tickets1 interrogations in the form of lotteries4 #bei ,see ,grard1 ,l'enseignement primaire ,paris de #ahfg #ahgg4 ,a memoir published in #ahgg1 pp4 #ge-ij4 ,see also an interesting study full of personal recollections of ,e4 ,deschamps1 ,l'enseignement mutual4 ,toulouse1 #ahhc4 #bfj ,jomard 7#aggg-ahfb71 member of the ,society for ,elementary ,instruction1 author of ,tableaux des coles lmentaires4 #bfa ,the ,comte de ,laborde 7#agga-ahdb71 author of a plan d'ducation pour les enfants4 #bfb ,among the other propagators of mutual instruction1 mention should be made of the ,abb ,gaultier1 ,larochefoucauld-,liancourt1 ,de ,lasteyrie1 etc4 #bfc ,two noted attempts to extend and popularize the monitorial system are exhibited in the following works3 ,pillans1 ,the ,rationale of ,discipline 7,edinburgh1 #aheb72 ,bentham1 ,chrestomathia 7,london1 #ahaf74 #bfd ,it is at the same period1 in #ahcb1 that ,grando published his ,cours normal des instituteurs4 #bfe ,cournot1 ,des institutions d'instruction publique1 p4 #cae4 #bff ,dittes1 op4 cit4 p4 #bgb4 #bfg ,see ,jacotot et sa mthode d'mancipation intellectuelle1 by ,bernard ,perez4 ,paris1 #ahhc4 #bfh ,enseignement universel4 ,paris1 #ahbc4 #bfi ,cabet1 ,voyage en ,icarie4 ,paris1 #ahdb4 #bgj ,considerant1 ,thorie d'ducation rationnelle et attrayante du dix-neuvime sicle4 ,paris1 #ahdd4 #bga ,cours de philosophie positive1 second edition1 #ahfd4 ,vol4 ,,vi4 p4 #gga4 #bgb ,the principal educational works of ,dupanloup are ducation1 #ahea1 three volumes2 ,de la haute ducation intellectuelle1 #ahee1 three volumes2 ,lettres sur l'ducation des filles1 #ahgi1 one volume4 #bgc ,see note to page #aca4 #bgd ,cournot published in #ahfd a remarkable book under this title3 ,des institutions d'instruction publique4 #bge ,see the ,essais de philosophie et de morale1 by ,e4 ,bersot1 and also tudes et discours 7#ahgi74 #bgf ,see especially the well-known book of ,bral1 ,quelques mots sur l'instruction publique en ,france4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education4--,,herbert ,,spencer ,,and ,,alexander ,,bain4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education2 ,,the ,,german ,,philosophers2 ,,the ,,english ,,philosophers2 ,,herbert ,,spencer',s ,,education2 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,work2 ,,definition ,,of ,,education2 ,,human ,,destiny2 ,,utilitarian ,,tendencies2 ,,different ,,categories ,,of ,,activities2 ,,criticism ,,of ,,mr4 ,,spencer',s ,,classification2 ,,effects ,,on ,,education2 ,,science ,,is ,,the ,,basis ,,of ,,education2 ,,science ,,for ,,health ,,and ,,industrial ,,activity2 ,,science ,,for ,,family ,,life2 ,,science ,,for ,,sthetic ,,activity2 ,,exaggerations ,,and ,,prejudices2 ,,intellectual ,,education2 ,,laws ,,of ,,mental ,,evolution2 ,,personal ,,education2 ,,moral ,,education2 ,,system ,,of ,,natural ,,punishments2 ,,difficulties ,,in ,,application2 ,,return ,,to ,,nature2 ,,physical ,,education2 ,,general ,,judgment2 ,,mr4 ,,bain ,,and ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education2 ,,general ,,impressions2 ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,book2 ,,psychological ,,order ,,and ,,logical ,,order2 ,,modern ,,education2 ,,errors ,,in ,,theory2 ,,utilitarian ,,tendencies2 ,,final ,,judgment2 ,,american ,,educators2 ,,channing2 ,,horace ,,mann2 ,,conclusion2 ,,analytical ,,summary4 #fbi4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,education4--,to-day1 thanks to important works1 the science of education is no longer an empty term1 an object of vague aspirations for philosophers1 of easy ridicule for wits4 ,doubtless it is far from being definitely established2 but it no longer conceals its name and its pretensions2 it defines its purpose and its methods2 and manifests its youthful vitality in all directions4 ,up to the present period1 philosophers had scarcely thought of organizing pedagogy1 of constructing it on a rational basis4 ,on the other hand1 the practice of education is still less advanced than the conceptions of philosophers4 ,here we the more often follow a thoughtless routine1 or the vague inspirations of instinct4 ,the methods in use are not co-ordinated4 ,they present a curious mixture of old traditions and modern surcharges4 ,it is this lack of definiteness1 of co-ordination of ideas1 and the spectacle of these contradictions1 which caused ,richter#bgg to say3 8,the education of the day resembles the ,harlequin of the ,italian comedy who comes on the stage with a bundle of papers under each arm4 #8,what do you carry under your right arm8' he is asked4 #8,orders1' he replies4 #8,and under your left arm8' #8,counter-orders6'0 ,quite a number of the philosophers of the nineteenth century have attempted to remedy this incoherence1 and1 by appealing to the scientific spirit1 to regulate educational processes that have fallen into excesses of empiricism or of routine4 ,it is these attempts which we are summarily to recite4 #fcj4 ,,the ,,german ,,philosophers4--,since ,kant1 and by his example1 the most of ,german philosophers have associated the theory of education with their speculations on human nature4 ,fichte 7#agfb-ahad71 in his ,discourse to the ,german ,nation1 proclaimed the necessity of a national education to secure the regeneration of his country and its restoration to its former standing4 ,the advocate of a public and common education1 because he would fight against the selfishness which family life encourages1 he contributed by his eloquent appeals to restore the intellectual and moral grandeur1 and consequently1 the material grandeur1 of ,germany4 ,schleiermacher 7#agfh-ahcd7 wrote a ,doctrine of ,education1 which was not published till #ahdi4 ,in this he develops1 among other ideas1 this proposition1 that religious education does not belong to the school1 but that it is the affair of the family and the ,church4 ,herbart 7#aggf-ahda7 has composed a series of pedagogical writings which assign him a special place in the list of educational philosophers4 ,let us call attention1 in particular1 to his ,general ,pedagogy 7#ahjf71 and the ,outline of my ,lessons on ,pedagogy 7#ahdj74 ,that which distinguishes ,herbart is his attempt to reduce to a system all the rules of pedagogy by giving them for a basis his own psychological theory4 ,he inaugurated a new method in psychology1 which does not seem1 however1 to have given the results that were expected from it1--the mathematical method4 ,for him1 psychology is only the mechanism of the mind1 and by means of mathematical formula calculation may be applied to measure the force of ideas4 ,the soul does not possess innate faculties2 it is developed progressively4 ,but it would require long efforts to enter into the secrets of ,herbart's original thought4 ,let it suffice to say1 that nurtured from an early period on the ideas of ,pestalozzi1 whose friend he was1 he has founded a real school of pedagogy4 ,beneke 7#agih-ahed7 is the author of a ,doctrine of ,education and ,instruction1 which is1 in the opinion of ,doctor ,dittes1 a masterpiece of psychological pedagogy4 ,beneke agrees with ,herbart on a great number of points4 ,his pedagogical methods have been popularized by ,j4 ,g4 ,dressler1 director of the normal school at ,bauzen1 who died in #ahfj4bgh ,charles ,schmidt1 who died in #ahfd1 wrote a large number of works on pedagogy1 in which he is inspired by the phrenology of ,gall and his fantastical hypotheses4 ,doubtless this inspiration is not happy1 and the works of ,schmidt are more valuable for their details1 for their special reflections1 than for their general doctrine4 ,but from his undertaking there issues at least this truth1 that the science of education should have for its basis1 not only psychology1 but physiology also1 the science of the whole man1 body and mind4 ,there is no country where pedagogy has received a more philosophical and a higher development than in ,germany4 ,even the great poets1 ,lessing1 ,herder1 ,gthe1 and ,schiller1 have contributed through certain grand ideas to the construction of a science of education4 #fca4 ,,the ,,english ,,philosophers4--,english philosophy1 with its experimental and practical character1 and with its positive and utilitarian tendencies1 was naturally called to exercise a great influence on pedagogy4 ,there are more truths to gather from the thinkers who1 in different degrees1 have followed ,locke and ,bain1 and who have preserved a taste for prudent observation and careful experiments1 than from the ,german idealists1 enamored of hypothesis and systematic constructions4 ,without doubt this explains the considerable success which the recent books of ,herbert ,spencer and ,alexander ,bain have obtained even in ,france4 #fcb4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,herbert ,,spencer4--,if it were sufficient to define with exactness the end to be attained1 and to discover the true method for constructing the science1 ,herbert ,spencer's book on ,education1 ,intellectual1 ,moral1 and ,physical1#bgi would be a satisfactory treatise2 but it is one thing to comprehend that psychology is the only solid basis of a complete and exact pedagogy1 and another thing to determine the real laws of psychology4 8,education will not be definitely systematized10 says ,mr4 ,spencer1 8till the day when science shall be in possession of a rational psychology40 ,this day has not yet come1 and ,herbert ,spencer1 who is the first to recognize the fact1 modestly presents his work only as an essay4 ,but if it does not yet contain a perfect and fully worked out theory of education1 the essay of the ,english philosopher is at least a vigorous effort1 and a notable step towards a rational pedagogy1 towards the science of education1 which1 as ,virchow expresses it1 8ought forever to proscribe the gropings of an ignorant education whose experiments are ever to be gone over anew40 #fcc4 ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,work4--,every system of education supposes at the same time an ethics1--,i mean a certain conception of life and of human destiny1 and a psychology1--that is1 a knowledge more or less exact of our faculties and of the laws which preside over their development4 ,there are1 in fact1 in education1 two essential questions3 #a4 ,what are the subjects of study and instruction1 proper to create the qualities1 the aggregate of which constitutes the type of the well-educated man8 #b4 ,by what methods shall we teach the child rapidly and well that which it is proper for him to learn8 ,there are1 in other terms1 the question of end and the question of means4 ,ethics is necessary to resolve the first1 and psychology1 to illustrate the second4 ,it is in accordance with this plan that ,mr4 ,spencer has arranged the different parts of his work4 ,the first chapter1 entitled ,what ,knowledge is of ,most ,worth8 is in substance but a series of reflections on the final purpose1 on the different forms1 of human activity1 and1 consequently1 on the relative importance1 on the rank1 which should be assigned to the studies which go to compose a complete education4 ,in the three other chapters1 ,intellectual1 ,moral1 and ,physical ,education1 the author examines the methods which are deemed the best for instructing the intelligence1 perfecting the moral character1 and fortifying the body4 #fcd4 ,,definition ,,of ,,education4--,herbert ,spencer begins with a definition of education3-- 8,education10 he says1 8is all that we do for ourselves1 and all that others do for us1 for the purpose of bringing us nearer the perfection of our nature4444 ,the ideal of education would be to furnish man with a complete preparation for life as a whole4444 ,do not attempt to give an exclusive development of one order of knowledge at the expense of the rest1 however important it may be4 ,let us distribute our attention over the whole1 and justly proportion our efforts to their relative value4444 ,in general1 the object of education ought to be to acquire as completely as possible the knowledge that is best adapted to develop individual and social life under all its aspects1 and to do no more than glance at the subjects which contribute the least to this development40#bhj ,this definition is wrong in being a little pretentious and in not adapting itself to all the forms of education4 ,it is true1 perhaps1 if it is a question of the ideal to be attained in a complete instruction1 accessible to a few privileged men1 but it could not be applied to popular education4 ,it soars too high above human conditions and social realities4 #fce4 ,,human ,,destiny4--,the conception of human destiny1 as ,mr4 ,spencer outlines it in the opening of his book1 has very marked utilitarian tendencies4 ,his first complaint against the current education is that it sacrifices the useful to the agreeable2 that as matters now go1 everything which pertains to mental adornment and display has precedence over the knowledge which might increase our well-being and assure our happiness4 ,as in the history of dress1 with savages for example1 it is proved that the ornamental in dress precedes the useful2 so in instruction1 ornamental studies are preferred to useful studies4 ,this is especially the case with women1 who have a decided preference for the qualities of pure decoration4#bha ,in his rather vigorous reaction against the luxuries which in classical instruction would wrongly substitute themselves for more necessary studies1 ,mr4 ,spencer goes so far as to say3-- 8,just as the ,orinoco ,indian paints and tattooes himself1 so the child in this country learns ,latin because it forms a part of the education of a gentleman40 ,however1 we do not construe this literally4 ,mr4 ,spencer does not go so far as to suppress the disinterested studies which are as much the more necessary as they seem to be the more superfluous4 ,he merely demands that instruction be not reduced to a training in the trivial elegancies of a dead language1 or to a study of trifles in history1 such as the dates of battles1 and the birth and death of princes4 #fcf4 ,,utilitarian ,,tendencies4--,utility1 that is1 the influence on happiness1--such is the true criterion by which are to be estimated1 admitted or excluded1 and finally classified1 the subjects proposed for the study of man as the elements of his education4 ,it is understood1 however1 that happiness is to be considered in its widest and highest sense4 ,happiness does not consist in the satisfaction of such or such a privileged inclination4 ,it consists in being all that it is possible to be1--in complete living4 ,to prepare us for a complete life1--such is the function of education4 #fcg4 ,,different ,,categories ,,of ,,activity4--,complete life supposes different kinds of activity1 which ought to be subordinated one to another according to their importance and dignity4 ,the following statement shows how ,mr4 ,spencer proposes to classify these different categories of activities according to an ascending scale of progress3-- #a4 ,in the first rank is placed the activity which ministers simply to self-preservation4 ,it would be of no consequence to be an eminent scholar1 or a citizen and a patriot1 or a devoted father2 or rather1 all this would be impossible1 if one did not first know how to assure his safety and his life4 #b4 ,then comes the series of activities which tend indirectly to the same end of physical well-being1 by the acquisition and production of the material goods necessary for existence1 that is1 industry and the different occupations4 #c4 ,in the third place1 man employs his activities in the service of his family1--he has children to support and to bring up4 #d4 ,social and political life is the fourth object of his efforts4 ,this supposes1 as a previous condition1 the accomplishment of family duties1 just as family life itself supposes the normal development of the individual life4 #e4 ,finally1 human existence is consummated and crowned1 so to speak1 in the exercise of the activities which1 in a single word1 we might call sthetic1 and which1 taking advantage of the leisure left from care and business1 will find satisfaction in the culture of letters and the arts4 #fch4 ,,criticism ,,of ,,this ,,classification4--,what exceptions can be taken to this exact and methodical table of the different elements of an existence complete1 normal1 and consequently human8 ,is it necessary to remark that the happiness thus understood does not differ from what we call virtue8 ,none of the five elements distinguished by ,mr4 ,spencer can be safely omitted4 ,the first could not be neglected without endangering the material reality of life2 nor the last1 without impairing its moral dignity4 ,in some degree they are mutually necessary1 in this sense1 that the lower1 or selfish activities1 are the conditions which make possible the other parts of human duty2 and that the higher1 or disinterested activities1 become1 as it were1 the justification of the toil we endure in order to exist and to satisfy material necessities4 ,we have1 however1 one grave reserve to make4 ,mr4 ,spencer is wrong in putting into the last category of activities that which is the crown of the others1 all that which concerns the moral development of the individual4 ,between the second and the third class of activities we ask to interpolate another form of activity1--that which constitutes the individual moral life1 that which1 in every man1 even the humblest and the poorest1 calls into exercise the conscience1 the reason1 and the will4 ,mr4 ,spencer's system is decidedly too aristocratic4 ,it seems to reserve the moral life for men of leisure4 ,in a democratic society1 which believes in equality and which would not have this an empty term1 there are efforts which must be made for the moral development of the human being in all conditions1 and it would be wrong to reduce personal activity to the care of health and material well-being4 #fci4 ,,effects ,,on ,,education4--,it is now easy to comprehend the duties of education4 ,conforming its efforts to nature1 distributing its lessons according to the exact division of human functions1 it will seek the branches of knowledge the most fit for making of the pupil1 first1 a sound and healthy man1 then a toiler1 a workman1--a man1 in a word1 capable of earning his livelihood2 then it will train him for the family and the ,state1 by endowing him with all the domestic and civic virtues2 finally1 it will open to him the brilliant domain of art under all its forms4 #fdj4 ,,science ,,is ,,the ,,basis ,,of ,,education4--,when we have once divided human life into a certain number of superimposed stages which education should teach us to ascend one after another1 it becomes necessary to know what are the facts and the branches of knowledge which correspond to each one of these different steps4 ,to this question ,mr4 ,spencer replies that in all the grades of human development that which is pre-eminently necessary1 that which is the basis of education1 is science4 #fda4 ,,science ,,for ,,health ,,and ,,industrial ,,activity4--,it is in the first part of education1 that which has for its object self-preservation1 that science is the least useful4 ,so far1 education may be in great part negative1 because nature has taken it upon herself to lead us to our destination4 ,the child cries at the sight of a stranger1 and throws himself into the arms of his mother when he feels the slightest sorrow4 ,however1 in proportion to his growth1 man has more and more need of science1 and he could not do without physiology and hygiene4 ,by this means will he shun all those little acts of imprudence1 all those physical faults1 which shorten life1 or pave the way for infirmities in old age4 ,by this means he will diminish the interval1 which is so considerable1 between the length of life as it might be and the brevity of life as it is4 ,evident truths1 but too often unheeded6 8,how many scholars10 exclaims ,mr4 ,spencer1 8who would blush if caught saying ,iphignia instead of ,iphigena1 show not the slightest shame in confessing that they do not know where the ,eustachian tubes are1 and what are the actions of the spinal cord60 ,with respect to the activities which might be called lucrative1 and to the kind of instruction which they require1 ,mr4 ,spencer still shows the utility of science4 ,he knows how great a disposition there is in modern society to promote professional or industrial instruction2 but he thinks1 not without reason1 that we do not proceed as we should in order to be completely successful in this direction4 ,all the sciences1 mathematics through its applications to the arts1 mechanics through its connection with industries where machines play so great a part1 physics and chemistry through the knowledge they furnish on matter and its properties1 even the social sciences by reason of the relations of commerce with politics1--all the sciences1 in a word1 contribute to develop the skill and the prudence of the man who is employed in any trade or occupation whatever4 #fdb4 ,,science ,,for ,,family ,,life4--,a point in which the originality of ,mr4 ,spencer's thought is distinctly marked1 and which he develops with an eloquent earnestness1 is the necessity of enlightening parents1 and particularly mothers1 upon their obligations and duties1 and of putting them in a condition to direct the education of their children by teaching them the natural laws of body and mind3 8,is it not monstrous10 he says1 8that the fate of a new generation should be left to the chances of unreasoning custom1 impulse1 fancy1--joined with the suggestions of ignorant nurses and the prejudiced counsel of grandmothers4444 ,in the actual state of things the best instruction1 even among the favored by fortune1 is scarcely more than an instruction of celibates40 ,we are ever saying that the vocation of woman is to bring up her children1 and yet we teach her nothing of that which she ought to know in order to fulfill worthily this great task4 ,ignorant as she is of the laws of life and of the phenomena of the soul1 knowing nothing of the nature of the moral emotions or of physical disorders1 her intervention in the education of the child is often more disastrous than her absolute inaction would be4 #fdc4 ,,science ,,in ,,sthetic ,,education4--,mr4 ,spencer next shows that social and political activity also has need of being enlightened by science4 ,one is a citizen only on the condition of knowing the history of his country4 ,that which it is more difficult to grant ,mr4 ,spencer1 is that sthetic education1 in its turn1 is based on science4 ,is there not some exaggeration1 for example1 in asserting that poor musical compositions are poor because they are lacking in truth8 and that they are lacking in truth 8because they are lacking in science08 ,does one become a man of letters and an artist as one becomes a geometrician8 ,to cultivate with success those arts which are as the flower of civilization1 is there not required1 besides talent and natural gifts1 a long practice1 a slow initiation1 something1 in a word1 more delicate than the attention which suffices for being instructed in science8 #fdd4 ,,exaggerations ,,and ,,prejudices4--,we believe as thoroughly as any one can in the efficiency and in the educational virtues of science1 and we would willingly make it1 as ,mr4 ,spencer does1 the basis of education4 ,we must be on our guard1 however1 against cultivating this religion of science until it becomes a superstition4 ,our author is not completely exempt from this danger4 ,that science develops the intellectual qualities1 such as judgment1 memory1 reasoning1 we admit2 that it develops them better than the study of the languages1 let even this be granted6 ,but it is impossible for us not to protest when ,mr4 ,spencer represents science as endowed with the same efficacy for inspiring moral qualities1 such as perseverance1 sincerity1 activity1 resignation to the will of nature1 piety even1 and religion4 ,science appears to us an infallible means of animating and exciting the different energies of the soul2 but will it also have the quality of disciplining them8 ,thanks to science1 man will know that which it is proper to do1 if he wishes to be a workman1 a parent1 or a citizen1 but on this express condition1 that he wills2 and this education of the will1 is it still science which shall be charged with it8 ,we may be allowed to doubt it4 ,mr4 ,spencer himself now seems to share this doubt1 if we may trust one of his recent works4#bhb 8,faith in books and in nature10 it is there said1 8is one of the superstitions of our times40 ,we deceive ourselves1 says the author1 when we establish a connection between the intelligence and the will1 for conduct is determined not by knowledge but by emotion4 8,he who would hope to teach geometry by giving lessons in ,latin1 would scarcely be more unreasonable than those who count on producing better sentiments by means of a discipline of the intellectual faculties40 ,to tell the truth1 ,mr4 ,spencer has here fallen into another extreme1 and he seems to us at one time to have granted too much1 and at another too little1 to the influence of instruction on morality4 #fde4 ,,intellectual ,,education4--,so far we have examined along with ,mr4 ,spencer only the nature of the objects and of the knowledge which befit the education of man4 ,it remains to inquire how the mind can assimilate this knowledge4 ,pedagogy has not only to draw up in theory a brilliant programme of necessary studies1 but it also searches out the means and the methods to be employed1 in order that these studies may be presented to the mind1 and may have the greater chance of being thus presented with profit4 ,in this somewhat more practical part of his work1 ,mr4 ,spencer thinks that pedagogy should be guided by the idea of evolution2 that is1 of the progressive course of a being who makes himself1 who creates himself little by little1 and who develops in succession1 according to fixed laws1 powers originally enveloped in the germs that he has received from nature1 or that have been transmitted to him by heredity4 #fdf4 ,,laws ,,of ,,intellectual ,,evolution4--,in other terms1 ,mr4 ,spencer shows that the precepts of pedagogy cannot be definitely deduced until the laws of mental evolution have been accurately established1 and he attempts to determine some of these laws4 ,he proves that the mind passes naturally from the simple to the complex1 from the indefinite to the definite1 from the concrete to the abstract1 from the empirical to the rational2 that the genesis of the individual is the same as the genesis of the race2 that the intelligence assimilates by preference that which it discovers for itself2 finally1 that all culture which profits the pupil is1 at the same time1 an exercise which stimulates him and delights him4 ,from this there result these practical consequences3 that it is necessary first to present to the child simple subjects of study1 individual things1 sensible objects1 for the purpose of starting him gradually on his way towards complex truths1 abstract generalities1 conceptions of the reason2 that nothing can be exacted of the child's intelligence but vague and incomplete notions which the travail of the mind will gradually clarify and elaborate2 that education ought to be in petto1 for each individual1 a repetition and a copy of the general march of civilization and of the progress of humanity2 that it is necessary to count more on the personal effort of the pupil than upon the action of the teacher2 that1 finally1 it is necessary to find the methods which interest1 and even those which amuse4 ,hence the educator1 instead of opposing nature1 instead of disconcerting her in her course and in the insensible steps of her real development1 will restrict himself to following her step by step1 and education will be no longer a force which obstructs1 which represses1 which smothers2 but1 on the contrary1 a force which sustains and stimulates by associating with itself the work of the spontaneous powers of the soul4 #fdg4 ,,self-,,education4--,mr4 ,spencer attaches great importance to that maxim which recommends us to encourage above all else self-education3-- 8,in education the process of self-development should be encouraged to the fullest extent4 ,children should be led to make their own investigations1 and to draw their own inferences4 ,they should be told as little as possible1 and induced to discover as much as possible4 ,humanity has progressed solely by self-instruction2 and that to achieve the best results1 each mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion1 is continually proved by the marked success of self-made men4 ,those who have been brought up under the ordinary school-drill1 and have carried away with them the idea that education is practicable only in that style1 will think it hopeless to make children their own teachers4 ,if1 however1 they will call to mind that the all-important knowledge of surrounding objects which a child gets in its early years is not without help1--if they will remember that the child is self-taught in the use of its mother tongue1--if they will estimate the amount of that experience of life1 that out-of-school wisdom which every boy gathers for himself1--if they will mark the unusual intelligence of the uncared-for ,london gamin1 as shown in all the directions in which his faculties have been tasked1--if further1 they will think how many minds have struggled up unaided1 not only through the mysteries of our irrationally-planned curriculum1 but through hosts of other obstacles besides2 they will find it a not unreasonable conclusion1 that if the subjects be put before him in right order and right form1 any pupil of ordinary capacity will surmount his successive difficulties with but little assistance40 #fdh4 ,,moral ,,education4--,moral education1 without furnishing occasion for as complete a theory as intellectual education1 has1 nevertheless1 suggested to ,mr4 ,spencer some important reflections4 ,mr4 ,spencer expressly declares that he does not accept the dogma of ,lord ,palmerston1 or what would be called in ,france the dogma of ,rousseau1 namely1 that all children are born good4 ,he would incline the rather toward the contrary opinion1 which1 8though untenable10 he says1 8seems to us less wide of the truth06 ,doubtless1 we must not expect too much moral goodness of children2 but it may be found that ,mr4 ,spencer exaggerates a little1 and draws too dark a portrait of the child when he says1 8,the child resembles the savage2 his physical features1 like his moral instincts1 recall the savage40 ,taken literally1 such pessimism would lead logically to an over-severe moral discipline1 wholly repressive and restraining4 ,such1 however1 is not the conclusion of ,mr4 ,spencer1 who recommends a course of tolerance and mildness1 a system of relative letting alone which we might almost think dictated by the optimism of ,rousseau4 ,he censures the brutal discipline of the ,english schools4 ,finally1 he would have the child treated1 not as an incorrigible rebel who is obedient only to force1 but as a reasonable being capable of readily comprehending the reasons and the advantages of obedience1 from the simple fact that he takes into account the connection of cause and effect4 #fdi4 ,,system ,,of ,,natural ,,punishments4--,the true moral discipline1 according to ,mr4 ,spencer1 is that which puts the child in a state of dependence on nature1 who teaches him to detest his faults by reason of the natural consequences which they involve4 ,it is necessary to renounce artificial punishments1 which are almost always irritating and taken amiss1 and to have recourse1 as a rule1 only to the privations and the inconveniencies which are the necessary consequences1 and1 as it were1 the inevitable reactions1 of the acts which have been committed4 ,a boy1 for example1 puts his room in disorder4 ,in this case1 the method of natural punishment requires that he himself shall repair the mischief2 and in this way he will soon correct himself of a turbulence from which he will be the first to suffer4 ,a little girl1 through indolence1 or through tarrying too long over her toilet1 has made herself late for a walk4 ,let her be punished by not waiting for her1 by leaving her at home4 ,this is the best means of curing her in the future of her indolence and coquetry4 ,the system which tends thus to substitute the lessons of nature for artificial penalties1 certainly offers great advantages4 ,it subjects the child1 not to the authority of a passing teacher1 or of parents who will one day die1 but to a law whose action neither ceases nor ever relents4 ,artificial punishments often provoke the resistance of the child because he does not comprehend their meaning1 and because1 proceeding from the human will1 they can be taxed with injustice and caprice4 ,could one as easily refuse to bow before the impersonal force of nature1--a force which exactly adjusts the punishment to the fault1#bhc which accepts no excuse1 against which there is no appeal1 and which1 without threats1 without anger1 rigorously and silently executes the law8 #fej4 ,,difficulties ,,in ,,application4--,mr4 ,spencer's principle is excellent1 but the opportunities for applying it are far less frequent than our philosopher believes4 ,the child1 in most cases1 is too little reflective1 too little reasonable1 to comprehend1 and especially to heed1 the suggestions of personal interest4 ,let us add that this principle is wholly negative1 that it furnishes at most only the means of shunning evil2 that even in according to it an efficacy it does not have1 it would still be necessary to reproach it with narrowing moral culture by reducing it to the rather mean solicitude for simple utility2 finally1 that it exercises no influence on the development of the positive virtues1 on the disinterested education of morality in what is noble and exalted4 ,finally1 the system of natural punishments would incur the danger of often being cruel1 and of causing the child an irreparable injury4 ,let pass the pin-cushion1 the boiling water1 and the candle-flame1--examples which ,mr4 ,spencer proposes2 but what shall we say of the bar of red-hot iron which he lets the child pick up8 ,what shall be said1 above all1 of the grave consequences entailed by the faults of a young man left to himself8 8,would it not be10 says ,grard justly1 8to condemn the child to a rgime so severe as to be an injustice1 to count solely on the effects of natural reactions and inevitable consequences1 for the purpose of disciplining his will8 ,the penalty which they provoke is the most often enormous as compared with the fault which has produced them1 and man himself demands for his conduct other sanctions than those of a harsh reality4 ,he desires that we judge the intention as well as the fact2 that he be commended for his efforts2 that in the first instance extreme measures be not taken against him2 that the blow fall on him if needs be1 but without crushing him1 and while extending to him a hand to help him up40#bhd #fea4 ,,return ,,to ,,nature4--,however it may be1 ,mr4 ,spencer is to be commended for having shown that for moral education as for intellectual education1 the method which approaches nature the nearest is also the best4 ,the return to nature which was the characteristic of ,rousseau's theories and of ,pestalozzi's practice1 is also the dominant trait of ,mr4 ,spencer's pedagogy4 ,if we look closely into the matter1 this decided purpose to follow nature implicates something besides the superficial condemnation of methods introduced by art and human device4 ,it supposes a fundamental belief1--the belief in the beneficent purpose of natural instincts4 ,to have confidence in nature1 to fall back on the spontaneous forces of the soul1 because we discern behind them or in them a higher providence or an internal foresight1 is a belief generally useful and suggestive for conducting human affairs1 but particularly necessary for directing the education of man4 ,it is not without some surprise that we discover this belief at the basis of ,mr4 ,spencer's pedagogy1 as though1 by a contradiction which is not new1 the evolutionist philosophy1 which seems to exclude final causes from the conception of the universe1 had been practically constrained to bow before them1 and to proclaim1 at least in the matter of education1 the salutary efficacy of the theory which admits them4 ,thus1 in speaking of physical education1 ,mr4 ,spencer remarks that the sensations are the natural guides1 which it would be dangerous not to follow4 8,happily1 that all-important part of education which goes to secure direct self-preservation1 is in great part already provided for4 ,too momentous to be left to our own blundering1 ,nature takes it into her own hands40 ,speaking in another place of the instincts which induce the child to move himself and to seek in physical exercise the basis of physical well-being1 he declares that to oppose these instincts would be to go counter to the means 8divinely arranged0 for assuring the development of the body4 #feb4 ,,physical ,,education4--,the chapter devoted by ,mr4 ,spencer to physical education1 is such as might be expected from a thinker who is wholly exempt from idealistic prejudices and who does not hesitate to write3-- 8,the history of the world shows that the well-fed races have been the energetic and dominant races40 ,it is necessary first and above all to establish physical force in man1 and to create within him 8a robust animal40 8,the actual education of children is defective in several particulars3 in an insufficiency of food1 in an insufficiency of clothing1 in an insufficiency of exercise1 and in an excess of mental application40 ,mr4 ,spencer complains that modern education has become wholly intellectual1 and that it neglects the body4 ,he reminds us that 8the preservation of health is one of our duties10 and that there exists a thing which might be called 8physical morality40 ,here1 as everywhere1 ,mr4 ,spencer demands that we follow the indications of nature4 ,he explains on physiological grounds the apparently inordinate appetite which children show for certain foods1--sugar1 for example4 ,he urgently entreats that preference shall be given to play and to free and spontaneous exercise1 over gymnastics4 #fec4 ,,general ,,judgment4--,that which1 in our opinion1 attests the truth of the pedagogical laws which we have just discussed1 is that they are in agreement with the general opinions of the great modern reformers in education4 ,it is thus that ,spencer's ideas are in close harmony with those which ,pestalozzi had employed at ,stanz4 ,the success which he obtained there1 as ,mr4 ,spencer has remarked1 depended on two things3 first1 on the attention which he used in determining what kind of instruction the children had need of1 and next1 on the pains he took to associate the new knowledge with that which they already possessed4 ,mr4 ,spencer's essay1 then1 deserves the attention of educators4 ,there is scarcely a book in which a keen scent for details comes more agreeably to animate a fund of solid arguments1 and from which it is more useful to extract the substance4 ,however1 it must not be read save with precaution4 ,the brilliant ,english thinker sometimes fails in justness and measure1 and his bold generalizations need to be tested with care4 #fed4 ,,alexander ,,bain ,,and ,,education ,,as ,a ,,science4--,less brilliant than the work of ,mr4 ,spencer1 the book of ,mr4 ,bain1 ,education as a ,science1 recommends itself by merits of studied analysis and scholarly minuteness4 ,others surpass ,mr4 ,bain in brilliancy of imagination1 in originality and in enthusiasm2 but no one equals him in richness of details1 in acuteness and abundance of observations4 ,after the more venturesome have taken the lead and have published the original sketch1 ,mr4 ,bain appears and writes the methodical and complete manual4 ,his own work resembles that of a conscientious guard who marches in the rear of a victorious army1 and by a wise organization makes sure the positions conquered by the march of an impetuous commander-in-chief4 ,his book1 in other terms1 is but the studious and thorough development of ,mr4 ,spencer's principles4 #fee4 ,,general ,,impression4--,it is impossible in an analysis to bring out the merit of a book which is especially valuable for the multiplicity of the questions which the author discusses in it1 and for the infinite variety of the solutions which he proposes4 ,there are landscapes which discourage the painter1 because1 notwithstanding their beauty1 they are too vast1 too full of details1 to admit of being crowded into a frame4 ,we may say the same of ,mr4 ,bain's book4 ,one must have studied it himself in order to form an estimate of its value4 ,professors of all classes will here find pages of well-considered counsels1 and judicious reflections upon educational methods4 ,the nature of studies1 the sequence of subjects1 the gradation of difficulties1 the choice of exercises1 the comparison of oral instruction with text-book instruction1 modes of discipline1--nothing escapes a thinker who is not a mere theorist or an amateur educator1 but a professional man1 a competent teacher1 an experienced professor4 ,indeed1 no one should allow himself to be deceived by this fine phrase1 ,education as a ,science1 which might disconcert and turn aside whole classes of readers1 such as those who1 in works on education1 especially desire a guide for practice4 ,on the contrary1 they will have every reason to commend a book which passes very quickly from generalities to applications1 and which is above all else a manual of practical and technical pedagogy4 ,the study of it will be profitable not merely to professors who are teaching the higher branches of literature and science1 but even to the humblest instructors1 and even--for ,mr4 ,bain overlooks no detail--to teachers of reading and writing4 #fef4 ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,work4--,education as a ,science comprises three parts3 #a4 psychological data2 #b4 methods2 #c4 modern education4 ,the author first inquires in what order the faculties are developed1 and what effect this order should have on the distribution of studies4 ,this is the psychological part4 ,then follows a discussion of what ,mr4 ,bain calls the logical order1 that is1 of the relations which exist between the studies themselves and their different parts4 ,this is the 8analytical problem0 of education4#bhe ,these preliminaries being established1 ,mr4 ,bain enters upon the principal theme1--the methods of instruction4 ,he discusses one after another the first elements of reading1 object-lessons1 8which1 more than any other means of instruction1 require to be practised with care1 for without this1 an admirable process might1 in unskillful hands1 be nothing more than a thing of seductive appearance1 but without value02 then methods relating to history1 geography1 the sciences1 and the languages4 ,finally1 in his third book1 ,mr4 ,bain exhibits a new plan of study1 with particular reference to secondary instruction4 #feg4 ,,psychological ,,order ,,and ,,logical ,,order4--,in his reflections on the development of the mind and upon the distribution of studies1 ,mr4 ,bain is inspired by the principles which have guided ,mr4 ,spencer4 8,observation precedes reflection4 ,the concrete comes before the abstract40 ,in education1 then1 the sequence should be from the simple to the complex1 from the particular to the general1 from the indefinite to the definite1 from the empirical to the rational1 from analysis to synthesis1 from the outline to details2 finally1 from the material to the immaterial4 ,such would be the ideal order in education2 but ,mr4 ,bain remarks that in practice all sorts of obstacles come to disturb this rigorous sequence4 #feh4 ,,modern ,,education4--,the plan of secondary studies which ,mr4 ,bain recommends to the reformers of teaching is the result and the rsum of all these observations4 ,intellectual education1 common to all young people who receive a liberal instruction1 would henceforth comprise three essential parts3 #a4 the sciences2 #b4 the humanities2 #c4 rhetoric and the national literature4 ,we see at once what is to be understood by this last item2 but the two others have need of some explanations4 ,the sciences are divided into two groups3 those which are to be mastered1--arithmetic1 geometry1 algebra1 physics1 chemistry1 biology1 psychology2 and the natural sciences1 which should be studied only superficially because they would overwhelm the memory under the weight of too large a number of facts4 ,geography1 which1 one does not know why1 is included in the sciences1 while history is attached to the humanities1 will complete the programme of scientific studies4 ,as to the humanities1 ,mr4 ,bain preserves scarcely more than the name while suppressing the thing2 for in the curtailed and disfigured domain which he persists in calling by this name1 he cuts off precisely that which has always been considered as constituting its essence1--the study of the dead languages4 ,he excludes from it even the living languages1 and that which he still decorates with the fine title of humanities1 is still science1--moral science1 it is true1--8history and sociology with political economy and jurisprudence40 ,a course in universal literature1 but1 be it understood1 without original texts1 might afterwards be added to this pretended teaching of the humanities4 ,two or three hours a week would be devoted parallelly1 during the whole course of study1 which would last six years1 to each of the three departments of instruction which ,mr4 ,bain thinks equally important4 ,as to the real humanities1 dead or living languages1 they should no longer be included in education save as optional and extra studies1 on the same basis as the accomplishments4 ,and1 appealing to the future1 ,mr4 ,bain even predicts that 8a day will come when it will be found that this is still granting them too large a place in education40 ,mr4 ,bain1 then1 gives all his preferences to scientific studies1 and his book might properly be entitled1 not only ,education as a ,science1 but also ,science in ,education4 #fei4 ,,theoretical ,,errors4--,mr4 ,bain reproaches letters with giving the mind the habit of servility4 ,by what singular revulsion of thought can the liberal studies par excellence be represented as a school of intellectual servitude8 ,it is rather to scientific instruction that we may properly return the accusation of enslaving the spirit4 ,by their inexorable evidence and by their very exactness1 do not the sciences sometimes smother the originality and the free flight of the imagination8 ,this defect1 however1 does not cut them off from a right to a place1 and to a large place1 in the programme of intellectual education4 ,let us accept with favor their alliance1 let us admit them to a certain degree of fellowship1 but do not let us tolerate their encroachments4 ,in a word1 the object of the sciences is either pure abstractions or material realities4 ,he who studies mathematics and physics first acquires real knowledge of high value2 and1 on the other hand1 he strengthens his mind through the habits engendered by the rigorous methods which the sciences employ4 ,we cheerfully grant to ,mr4 ,bain that the sciences are at the same time admirable sources of useful truths and valuable instruments of mental discipline4 ,by cultivating them we gain not only the positive knowledge which they teach respecting the world1 but also the power1 rigor1 and exactness which they impose on their adepts4 #ffj4 ,,insufficiency ,,of ,,the ,,sciences4--,but the question is to know whether the sciences1 so useful and so necessary for enriching and disciplining the mind1 are also the best agents for training it4 ,the educator is not in the situation of the farmer who has only two things to do1--to plow and sow the field which he cultivates4 ,the work of education is vast in another direction4 ,it has to do with developing the aptitudes or latent energies1 that which the philosophy of the day hardly allows us longer to call faculties1 but that which they re-establish under another name1 that of the unconscious forces of the soul2 it has to do1 not with laboring on a soil almost entirely prepared by nature1 but in great part with creating the soil itself4 ,now1 the sciences are indeed the seed which it will be proper by and by to sow on the field1 but they are not the substance which nourishes and fertilizes it4 #ffa4 ,,sensualistic ,,tendencies4--,if we go to the bottom of ,mr4 ,bain's thought and doctrine on the mind1 we shall find the secret of his ardent preference for the teaching of the sciences4 ,his errors in practical pedagogy proceed from theoretical errors on human nature4 ,for him1 as for ,locke1 there are not1 properly speaking1 intellectual forces independent of the facts which succeed one another in the consciousness4 ,consequently1 there is not an education of the faculties4 ,memory or imagination1 considered as a distinct power1 as an aptitude more or less happy1 is but a word4 ,it is nothing apart from the recollections or the images which are successively graven in the mind4 ,for ,mr4 ,bain1 as for ,locke1 the best education is that which places items of knowledge side by side in the mind1 which accumulates facts there1 but not that which seeks to enkindle in the soul a flame of intelligence4 ,that which also warps the theoretical views of ,mr4 ,bain is that he accords no independence1 no individual life1 to the mind2 and that for him1 back of the facts of consciousness1 there come to view1 without any intermedium1 the cerebral organs4 ,now the brain is developed of itself2 it acquires fatally1 with the progress of years1 more weight and more volume2 it passes from the age of concrete things to the age of abstractions4 ,hence a reduction1 an inevitable contraction1 of the sphere of education4 ,there is nothing more to do than to let nature have her way1 and to fill the vase which she charges herself with constructing4 #ffb4 ,,utilitarian ,,tendencies4--,finally1 to conclude this indication of the general ideas which dominate and which mar the pedagogy of ,mr4 ,bain1 let us observe that a positive and practical utility1 a vulgar utility1 mingles too many of its inspirations with it4 ,the criterion of utility is sometimes applied to it with an artless extravagance4 ,thus1 in the languages1 only those words should be learned which occur the most often1 and in the sciences1 only the parts which are of the most frequent use4 ,even in moral education1 as it is conceived by the ,english philosopher1 are to be found1 as we might expect1 these utilitarian and narrow views4 ,would one believe1 for example1 that ,mr4 ,bain makes the fear of the penal code the mainspring of the teaching of virtue8#bhf ,here1 at least1 we must acknowledge that science is insufficient4 8,to pretend1 for example1 that physiology can teach us moderation in the sexual appetite is to attribute to it a result which no science has yet been able to give40 ,but must we count any more1 as ,mr4 ,bain would have us1 for example1 on social influences and on personal experience8 ,in this truly experimental education in virtue1 ethics would be learned just as the mother tongue is learned1 by use1 by the imitation of others2 and moral instruction1 properly so called1 would be a sort of grammar which is to rectify vicious practices4 #ffc4 ,,final ,,judgment4--,but our criticisms on the general tendencies of ,mr4 ,bain's pedagogy subtract nothing from our admiration of the sterling qualities of his ,education as a ,science4 ,doubtless there would also be errors of detail to notice1 or some particular methods to discuss2 for example1 that of never doing more than one thing at a time1 or the propriety of first teaching to children the history of their country4 ,mr4 ,bain forgets that mythological history and sacred history1 by their legendary and fabulous character1 offer a particular attraction to the childish imagination1 and are better adapted than history proper to infant minds4 ,but1 aside from the portions which are debatable1 how many wise observations to gather on the different processes of instruction1 on the transition from the concrete to the abstract1 on the discretion which must be employed in object-lessons1 the use of which so easily degenerates into abuse6 ,even through its absolute theories1 ,education as a ,science will render great services2 for1 to illustrate the march of thought1 nothing is so valuable as opinions which are exclusive and sincere4 ,it were even desirable1 if one did not fear to experiment on human souls1 in anima sublimi1 that according to ,mr4 ,bain's plan1 the experiment should be tried of an education exclusively scientific4 #ffd4 ,,american ,,educators4 ,,channing 7#aghj-ahdb74--,the general fault of ,english pedagogy is its aristocratic character4 ,for ,mr4 ,spencer and ,mr4 ,bain1 as for ,locke1 it is simply a question of the education of a gentleman4 ,it is in ,america1 in the writings of ,channing and ,horace ,mann1 that we must seek the elements of a theory of democratic education1 and of popular instruction4#bhg ,channing1 a ,unitarian minister1 associated religious sentiment and philosophic reason1 and desired that in theology itself everything should issue in the supremacy of the human judgment4 ,the most interesting of his writings are the public lectures which he gave in ,boston in #ahch1 and the object of which is the education one gives himself1 and the elevation of the working classes4 ,we lack the space to give an analysis of these lectures1 but a few quotations will make known the general spirit of the ,american reformer3-- 8,i am not discouraged by the objection that the laborer1 if encouraged to give time and strength to the elevation of his mind1 will starve himself and impoverish the country1 when ,i consider the energy1 and the efficiency of ,mind40 8,the highest force in the universe is ,mind4 ,this created the heavens and earth4 ,this has changed the wilderness into fruitfulness1 and linked distant countries in a beneficent ministry to one another's wants4 ,it is not to brute force1 to physical strength1 so much as to art1 to skill1 to intellectual and moral energy1 that men owe their mastery over the world4 ,it is mind which has conquered matter4 ,to fear1 then1 that by calling forth a people's mind1 we shall impoverish and starve them1 is to be frightened at a shadow40 8,it is chiefly through books that we enjoy intercourse with superior minds1 and these invaluable means of communication are in the reach of all4 ,in the best books1 great men talk to us1 give us their most precious thoughts1 and pour their souls into ours4 ,god be thanked for books4 ,they are the voices of the distant and the dead1 and make us heirs of the spiritual life of past ages4 ,books are the true levellers4 ,they give to all1 who will faithfully use them1 the society1 the spiritual presence1 of the best and greatest of our race4 ,no matter how poor ,i am2 no matter though the prosperous of my own time will not enter my obscure dwelling2 if the sacred writers will enter and take up their abode under my roof1 if ,milton will cross my threshold to sing to me of ,paradise1 and ,shakespeare to open to me the worlds of imagination and the workings of the human heart1 and ,franklin to enrich me with his practical wisdom1 ,i shall not pine for want of intellectual companionship1 and ,i may become a cultivated man though excluded from what is called the best society in the place where ,i live40 #ffe4 ,,horace ,,mann 7#agif-ahei74--;,horace ,mann is not a philosopher who discusses education1 but a politician who reformed and developed the education of his country4 ,secretary of the ,massachusetts ,board of ,education1 he opened schools1 founded libraries1 and pronounced a great number of discourses1 the best known of which is ,the ,necessity of ,education in a ,republican ,government4 8,when1 then10 he often said1 8will men give their thought to infancy8 ,we watch the seed which we confide to the earth1 but we do not concern ourselves with the human soul till the sun of youth has set4 ,were it in my power1 ,i would scatter books over all the earth as men sow wheat on the plowed fields40 ,speaking to ,americans1 to working people1 and to tradesmen1 he made apparent the positive advantages of instruction3-- 8,if to-morrow some one were to tell you that a coal mine had been discovered which would pay ten per cent1 you would all rush to it2 and yet there are men whom you let grovel in ignorance when you might realize from forty to fifty per cent on them4 ,you are ever giving your thought to capital and to machines2 but the first machine is man1 and the first capital1 man1 and you neglect him40 ,but he also interested himself in the moral effects of education1 especially in a democratic society1 where each citizen is a sovereign3-- 8,the education which has already been given a people makes it necessary to give them more4 ,by instructing them1 new powers have been awakened in them1 and this intellectual and moral energy must be regulated4 ,in this case we have not to do with mechanical forces1 which1 once put in action1 accomplish their purpose and then stop4 ,no2 these are spiritual forces endowed with a principle of life and of progress which nothing can quench40 #fff4 ,,conclusion4--,the labors of ,mr4 ,spencer and ,mr4 ,bain1 the works of ,channing and ,mann1 and others still1 will contribute1 we hope1 to prepare the definite solutions demanded by our times in the matter of education4 ,these solutions are important for the security and the greatness of our country4 ,more than ever it is necessary that education become something else than an affair of inspiration1 abandoned to caprice and hazard1 but that it be a work of reflection4 ,it is said that the future is uncertain1 that events are leading ,french society no one knows where1 and that our destinies are at the mercy of the most unforeseen storms4 ,we do not believe this1 since it is within our power that it shall be otherwise4 ,there is a means1 in fact1 of assuring the future of peoples1 and this is to give them an intellectual and moral education which purifies the soul and strengthens character4 ,do not let us look for regeneration and progress from a sudden and miraculous transformation2 do not let us demand them even of the immediate efficiency of such or such a political institution4 ,everything here below is accomplished according to the laws of a slow progression1 by trifling and successive modifications4 ,just as for the child there is no abridgment which allows us to suppress the slow steps of the insensible growth which each year brings forward1 so for nations there is no other process than the action1 slow but sure1 of a wise and vigorous education1 for causing them to pass from vice to virtue1 from abasement to grandeur4 ,the partisans of evolution sometimes seem to announce to us the near apparition of a race superior to our own1 called to supplant us1 as we shall have supplanted the inferior races4 ,one day or another we shall be liable1 it seems1 to meet 8at the angle of a rock0 the successor of the human race4 ,we count but little on such promises1 and the coming of this hypothetical race of men1 suddenly evoked by a wave of the magic wand of natural selection1 leaves us very incredulous4 ,happily1 we know another means1 a much surer process1 for causing to appear1 not a strange race1 until now unknown1 but generations of more worth than our own1 which are superior to it in physical force1 as in qualities of mind or virtues of character4 ,this means is to establish1 through reflection and reason1 an education better adapted to our destination2 an education broader and more complete1 at once more severe and more liberal1 since it will at the same time exact more toil and permit more scope2 in which the child will learn to count more on himself2 in which his indolence will no longer be encouraged by accustoming him inopportunely to invoke supernatural aid2 in which instruction will no longer be a formulary recited as lip-service1 but an inner and profound acquisition of the soul1 in which the fear of the conscience will be substituted for the other rules of conduct1 and in which thought and free reflection will no longer be distrusted2 finally1 an education more scientific and more rational1 because it will neglect nothing which can develop a human soul and bring it into likeness with its ideal4 ,now that education to which the future belongs1 notwithstanding the obstacles which the spirit of the past will still stir up against it1--that education is not possible1 its laws cannot be established1 its methods cannot be practised1 except on one condition2 this is1 that the psychology of the child be written1 and well written1 and that reflection draw from this psychology all the consequences which it permits4 #ffg4 ,,comment ,,on ,,mr4 ,,spencer',s ,,education4--,monsieur ,compayr might have emphasized his cautions4 ,read with caution1 and with a purpose to weigh the truth1 ,mr4 ,spencer's ,education is inspiring and wholesome2 but it may be doubted whether there has been written1 since the mile1 a book on education which is so well fitted to deceive an unwary reader by its rhetoric and philosophic plausibility4 ,the air of breadth and candor with which the writer sets out is eminently prepossessing1 and the reader is almost obliged to assume that he is being led to foregone conclusions4 ,the first chapter1 in particular1 is a piece of literary art1 in which there is such a deft handling of sentiment and pathos as to unfit the susceptible reader for exercising his own critical judgment4 ,in this place ,i can only indicate in the briefest manner what seem to be the fundamental errors contained in the book3-- #a4 ,mr4 ,spencer does not distinguish between the immediate and the mediate practical value of knowledges4 ,we may admit with him that science is of inestimable value to the human race2 but it does not follow by any means that every person must be versed in science4 ,as we need not own everything that is essential to our comfort1 so we need not have as a personal possession all the knowledge that we need for guidance4 #b4 ,it is a very low conception of education that would limit its function to adapting a man merely to that state in life into which he chances to be born4 ,the ,bushman1 the ,red ,indian1 and the accountant1 are unfortunate illustrations of the province of education4 ,often the highest function of education is to lift a man out of his ancestral state4 #c4 ,that the value of a subject for guidance is the same as its value for discipline1 is true under only one assumption1--that the ,bushman is always to remain a ,bushman1 and the ,red ,indian always a ,red ,indian1 as by the new philosophy of course they should4 ,practical teachers very well know that1 as a rule1 the studies that are the most valuable for practical use are the least valuable for discipline4 ,mr4 ,spencer quotes no better proof of his assumption than 8the beautiful economy of ,nature40 #d4 ,mr4 ,spencer's proposed education is sordid in its utilitarianism4 ,he is preoccupied with man as an instrument rather than with a human being aspiring towards the highest type of his kind4 ,a liberal education should be preoccupied first with the training of the man1 then with the training of the instrument4 #e4 ,mr4 ,spencer's restatement of ,condillac's and ,comte's doctrine1 that individual education should be a repetition of civilization in petto1 is at best but a specious generalization4 ,the doctrine cannot be applied to practice1 in any considerable degree1 if we would1 and should not be1 if we could1 for it ignores one essential factor in progress1--inheritance4 #f4 ,the part assigned to 8,nature0 in the work of education is so overstrained as to be unnatural and absurd4 ,physical science has long since discarded this myth of ,nature personified4 ,it is only in educational science that this fiction is still employed to eke out an argument4 #g4 ,the doctrine of consequences which underlies ,mr4 ,spencer's system of moral education is applicable to but a limited number of cases1 or1 if applied with thoroughness1 is inhuman4 ,not even all the fit would survive if they were not shielded from the consequences of their acts by human sympathy and oversight4 ,,footnotes3 #bgg ,j4 ,p4 ,richter1 better known under the name ,jean ,paul 7#agfc-ahbe71 the author of a spirited and scholarly book1 ,levana1 or the ,doctrine of ,education1 #ahjc4 #bgh ,see ,the ,elements of ,psychology1 on the ,principles of ,beneke 7,london1 #ahga74 #bgi ,the first ,french translation appeared in #ahgh4 #bhj ,in this1 as in several other instances1 ,monsieur ,compayr gives a summary of the author's thought rather than an exact quotation4 7,p47 #bha ,as1 historically1 ornament precedes dress1 on ,mr4 ,spencer's main principle1 it need not be till late in life that women dress sensibly4 ,or ought not the genesis of dress in the individual to follow the same order as the genesis of dress in the race8 7,p47 #bhb ,introduction to ,social ,science1 p4 #cij4 #bhc ,so far as experience can testify1 this is a pure assumption4 ,the most trifling injuries are often the most painful1 and the most serious the most painless4 7,p47 #bhd ,see the ,esprit de discipline dans l'ducation1 a memoir of ,grard1 published in the ,revue ,pdagogique1 #ahhc1 ,no4 #aa4 #bhe ,by the 8analytical problem0 of education1 ,mr4 ,bain means the determining of the education value of subjects4 ,see ,education as a ,science1 ,chapter ,v4 7,p47 #bhf ,we might dwell on ,mr4 ,bain's observations relative to punishments4 ,here is what ,grard says of them3 8,mr4 ,bain1 with infinite good sense and disciplinary tact1 is much less concerned with applying the rule than with the conditions according to which it should be applied4 ,on this point he enters into details full of scruples4 ,he does not hesitate to call to his aid the knowledge of the masters of penal jurisprudence1 and his recommendations1 added to those of ,bentham1 comprise not less than thirty articles40 #bhg ,there should be added to these the works of ,swiss1 ,italian1 and ,french educators1 particularly of ,siciliani1 and the original and eminently suggestive studies of ,bernard ,perez4 ,,appendix4 ,a4 ,,suggestions ,,to ,,teachers ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,pedagogy4 ,the two aims to be kept in view in the teaching of this subject are culture and guidance4 ,the purpose should be to extend the intellectual horizon of the teacher1 or1 to use ,plato's phrase1 to make him 8the spectator of all time and all existence02 and1 in the second place1 to furnish the teacher with a clew which will safely conduct him through the mazes of systems1 methods1 and doctrines4 ,there is no other profession that has derived so little profit from capitalized experiences2 and there is no profession in which culture and breadth are more necessary4 ,for securing the ends here proposed1 it is recommended that a plan somewhat like the following be pursued in the use of this volume3-- #a4 ,if there are three recitations a week1 assign one chapter for each of the first two recitations1 to be carefully and thoughtfully read1 and require each pupil to select one special topic to present and discuss when he is called upon in the recitation2 and for the third recitation in each week1 require each pupil to select a topic from any part of the book which has thus far been studied4 ,the purpose of this plan is to bring before the class1 in sharp outline1 the salient points of the subject2 and1 at the same time1 to create a sense of the organic unity of the theme as a comprehensive whole4 ,when there are more than three recitations a week1 only a part of a chapter need be assigned for an advance lesson4 #b4 ,when the first survey of the subject has been made in the way just suggested1 a review may be conducted as follows3-- 7#a47 ,biographical4 ,following a chronological order1 divide the whole treatise into as many sections as there are recitations to be devoted to this purpose1 and require each pupil to make a careful study of some educator1 as ,socrates1 ,montaigne1 or ,pestalozzi1 and to present this theme when called upon in recitation4 ,when there is opportunity1 encourage pupils to amplify their themes with information derived from other sources4 7#b47 ,topical4 ,require each pupil to select some doctrine1 system1 or method1 and to show1 in a systematic way1 its origin1 progress1 and termination4 ,in this review1 encourage the critical spirit1 and make the recitation to consist1 in part1 of a free discussion of principles and doctrines4 ,the value of this subject for guidance will appear in this part of the study4 7#c47 ,by ,chapters4 ,require each pupil to prepare a summary of some chapter in the book1 emphasizing the more important truths that are taught in it1 and showing the tendency or drift of educational thought4 ,the culture value of the subject will appear in this part of the study4 ,by this mode of treatment1 the subject can be compassed1 with good results1 in twenty weeks4 #c4 ,where no more than twelve or fourteen weeks can be given to this subject1 it is recommended that the following chapters be selected3 ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 ,,iv41 ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 ,x41 ,,xii41 ,,xiii41 ,,xviii41 ,,xix41 ,,xx41 ,,xxi41 ,,xxii4 ,for use in ,teachers' ,meetings held by superintendents1 the following chapters are suggested3 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 ,x41 ,,xiii41 ,,xviii41 ,,xx41 ,,xxii4 ,for use in ,teachers' ,reading ,circles1 either of the above selections will serve a good purpose4 ,b4 ,a ,,select ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,supplementary ,,to 8,,compayr',s ,,history ,,of ,,pedagogy40 #a4 ,the ,cyclopdia of ,education4 ,new ,york4 #b4 ,buisson4 ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie4 ,parts #a-aef4 ,paris4 #c4 ,lindner4 ,handbuch der ,erziehungskunde4 ,wien and ,leipzig4 #d4 ,k4 ,schmidt4 ,die ,geschichte der ,pdagogik4 ,cthen4 #e4 ,g4 ,compayr4 ,histoire ,critique des ,doctrines de l'ducation en ,france4 ,paris4 #f4 ,barnard4 ,german ,teachers and ,educational ,reformers4 #g4 ,barnard4 ,french ,teachers1 ,schools1 and ,pedagogy4 #h4 ,barnard4 ,english ,teachers1 ,educators1 and ,promoters of ,education4 #i4 ,barnard4 ,american ,teachers1 ,educators1 and ,benefactors of ,education4 #aj4 ,barnard4 ,pestalozzi and ,swiss ,pedagogy4 #aa4 ,biber4 ,pestalozzi and his ,plan of ,education4 ,london4 #ab4 ,donaldson4 ,lectures on the ,history of ,education4 ,edinburgh4 #ac4 ,krsi4 ,pestalozzi3 his ,life1 ,work1 and ,influence4 ,cincinnati4 #ad4 ,lorenz4 ,life of ,alcuin4 ,london4 #ae4 ,mrs4 ,mann4 ,life of ,horace ,mann4 ,boston4 #af4 ,meiklejohn4 ,dr4 ,andrew ,bell4 ,london4 #ag4 ,morley1 ,j4 ,rousseau4 ,london4 #ah4 ,mullinger4 ,the ,schools of ,charles the ,great4 ,london4 #ai4 ,quick4 ,essays on ,educational ,reformers4 ,cincinnati4 #bj4 ,shuttleworth4 ,four ,periods of ,public ,education4 ,london4 #ba4 ,arnold4 ,higher ,schools and ,universities of ,germany4 ,london4 #bb4 ,hart4 ,german ,universities4 ,new ,york4 #bc4 ,de ,guimps4 ,histoire de ,pestalozzi4 ,lausanne4 #bd4 ,de ,guimps4 ,la ,philosophie et la ,pratique de l'ducation4 ,paris4 #be4 ,meunier4 ,lutte du ,principe ,clrical et du ,principe ,laque dans l',enseignement4 ,paris4 #bf4 ,gaufrs4 ,claude ,baduel et la ,rforme des tudes au ,,xvie ,sicle4 ,paris4 #bg4 ,bentham4 ,chrestomathia4 ,london4 #bh4 ,drane4 ,christian ,schools and ,scholars4 ,london4 #bi4 ,ascham4 ,the ,scholemaster4 ,notes by ,mayor4 ,london4 #cj4 ,locke4 ,thoughts concerning ,education4 ,notes by ,quick4 ,cambridge4 #ca4 ,laurie4 ,john ,amos ,comenius4 ,boston4 #cb4 ,lancelot4 ,narrative of a ,tour to ,la ,grande ,chartreuse4 ,london4 #cc4 ,schimmelpenninck4 ,narrative of the ,demolition of ,port ,royal4 ,london4 #cd4 ,hamilton1 ,elizabeth4 ,letters on the ,elementary ,principles of ,education4 ,london4 #ce4 ,spencer4 ,education3 ,intellectual1 ,moral1 and ,physical4 ,n4 ,y4 #cf4 ,rousseau1 mile4 ,extracts4 ,boston4 #cg4 ,blackie4 ,four ,phases of ,morals4 ,n4 ,y4 #ch4 ,aristotle4 ,the ,politics and ,economics4 ,london4 #ci4 ,craik4 ,the ,state in its ,relation to ,education4 ,london4 #dj4 ,cousin4 ,report on the ,state of ,public ,instruction in ,prussia4 #da4 ,gill4 ,systems of ,education4 ,boston4 #db4 ,souquet4 ,les ,ecrivains ,pdagogues du ,,xvie ,sicle4 ,paris4 #dc4 ,mann4 ,lectures on ,education4 ,boston4 #dd4 ,quintilian4 ,institutes of ,oratory4 ,london4 #de4 ,plato4 ,the ,republic and the ,laws4 ,london4 #df4 ,xenophon4 ,the ,memorabilia of ,socrates4 ,n4 ,y4 #dg4 ,plutarch4 ,morals4 ,boston4 #dh4 ,mac,alister4 ,montaigne on ,education4 ,boston4 #di4 ,pestalozzi4 ,leonard and ,gertrude4 ,boston4 #ej4 ,necker de ,saussure4 ducation ,progressive4 ,paris4 #ea4 ,cochin4 ,pestalozzi3 sa ,vie1 ses uvres1 ses ,mthodes4 ,paris4 #eb4 ,compayr4 ,cours de ,pdagogie4 ,paris4 #ec4 ,milton4 ,tractate on ,education4 ,cambridge4 #ed4 ,fnelon4 ,fables4 ,paris4 #ee4 ,fnelon4 ,the ,education of a ,daughter4 ,dublin4 #ef4 ,martin4 ,les ,doctrines ,pdagogiques des ,grecs4 ,paris4 #eg4 ,jacotot4 ,enseignement ,universel4 ,paris4 #eh4 ,adams4 ,the ,free ,school ,system of the ,united ,states4 ,london4 #ei4 ,conrad4 ,the ,german ,universities for the last ,fifty ,years4 ,glasgow4 #fj4 ,capes4 ,university ,life in ,ancient ,athens4 ,n4 ,y4 #fa4 ,mahaffy4 ,old ,greek ,education4 #fb4 ,chassiotis4 ,l',instruction ,publique chez les ,grecs4 ,paris4 #fc4 ,spiers4 ,school ,system of the ,talmud4 ,london4 #fd4 ,simon4 ,l'ducation et l',instruction des ,enfants chez les ,anciens ,juifs4 ,paris4 #fe4 ,edgeworth4 ,practical ,education4 ,n4 ,y4 ,,note4--,for other supplementary works1 and for a more complete description of the books in the above list1 consult the ,bibliography of ,g4 ,stanley ,hall 7,boston3 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,co474 ,,index4 ,abelard1 #ge4 ,academy1 #bb2 ,french1 #bai1 #cja1 #chf4 ,achilles1 #df4 ,activity1 #eg1 #gb1 #ib1 #ic1 #aga1 #aia1 #bjg1 #dfa1 #dgf2 categories of1 #edb2 the divine1 #ded2 industrial1 #edd4 ,adalberic1 #fh4 ,adaptation1 #bg1 #ca1 #gi1 #ij1 #ib1 #aeh1 #bjj1 #bid1 #cbc1 #cbi1 #ced1 #dfa1 #ecj1 #eec4 ,adle and ,thodore1 of ,madame de ,genlis1 #dhj4 ,age1 for public instruction1 #aa1 #ad1 #ae1 #ai1 #ca1 #cb1 #cd1 #ch1 #di1 #ej1 #ee1 #bhg1 #cbc1 #cdg1 #cdh4 ,agricola1 ,rudolph1 #hg4 ,agriculture1 #dbj4 ,ahriman1 #ad4 ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,council of1 #gc4 ,alcuin1 #gb4 ,alexander1 #aa1 #cf1 #bid4 ,alexander1 #aah4 ,alfred the ,great1 #gc4 ,all is in ,all1 #ebg4 ,amusements1 #cc1 #id1 #if1 #ih1 #aah1 #aai1 #adf1 #afa1 #bdh1 #bid1 #cjf1 #cdh1 #deh1 #dfj4 ,amyot1 #ec1 #ed4 ,analysis1 #bb1 #bc1 #cb1 #db1 #if1 #ahh1 #bhd1 #cad1 #eeh4 ,anselm1 ,saint1 #gf1 #gg1 #aai4 ,antiquity1 education in1 #a-af1 #ah1 #cg1 #cbj4 ,arabic1 #ajb4 ,arabs1 #gg4 ,arbogast1 #cic1 #cid4 ,argovia1 #dah1 #dch4 ,argument1 #ai1 #eb1 #gd1 #hj1 #ade4 ,aristophanes1 #bj1 #hg4 ,aristotle1 #aj1 #aa1 #bb1 #db1 #df1 #eb1 #ei1 #ff1 #gd1 #cba2 plan of education1 #cf-da2 of music1 #bj1 #ci4 ,arithmetic1 #gf1 #hj1 #ih1 #aad1 #abi1 #bje1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #dda2 moral1 #dga4 ,arnauld1 #aed2 ,general ,grammar1 #aee4 ,art1 #cj1 #ca1 #fj1 #aaf1 #agi1 #cji1 #caj1 #cbg1 #edf2 of education1 #bb1 #ci1 #fj1 #he1 #ia1 #abb1 #caj1 #dgf2 industrial1 #cca1 #cea1 #chd1 #ebh1 #ede2 of creating thought1 #bc1 #ia1 #aef1 #aeg1 #cae1 #caf1 #dga4 ,artisans1 #ae1 #bh1 #dj1 #ih1 #aah1 #acd1 #ace1 #bji1 #cjj1 #efe4 ,arts1 ,faculty of1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #cba1 #cda1 #eab2 the ,seven ,liberal1 #ge1 #aai4 ,asceticism1 #d1 #fc1 #fe1 #ff1 #afj1 #afa1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,assembly1 ,constituent1 #cga1 #cgb1 #cij1 #cie2 ,legislative1 #cga1 #cgc1 #cij2 ,national1 #cfi1 #cia4 ,assistant1 #aj1 #aca1 #bfg1 #cbg1 #dbd4 ,astronomy1 #f1 #aa1 #cb1 #ga1 #gd1 #gf1 #ih1 #abi1 #aeg1 #bje4 ,athens1 education at1 #ag1 #dj1 #dc4 ,atlantic ,monthly1 #caj4 d',aubign1 #ec4 ,augustine1 ,saint1 #dg1 #fd1 #fh1 #ga1 #bai1 #bbe4 ,augustus1 #df1 #dg4 ,aurelius1 ,marcus1 #ec1 #eh4 ,austria1 #dfe4 ,authority1 #ae1 #gd1 #ha1 #aaj1 #abb1 #acf1 #agb1 #aia1 #bfd1 #cji1 #eah1 #ebh1 #ecb2 basis of1 #ac1 #cb1 #gd1 #adi1 #afa4 ,auxerre1 #cdb4 ,avignon1 #aci1 #bfc4 ,bacon1 #cb1 #abc1 #abd1 #acc1 #acf1 #aib1 #baa4 ,bain1 #abd1 #aid1 #ech1 #eef-efc2 errors of1 #eei-efc4 ,barraud1 #dcd4 ,barrre1 #cig4 ,barrire1 #dhe4 ,basedow1 #dad4 ,basil1 ,saint1 #fd4 ,bausset1 ,cardinal de1 #agh4 ,bauzen1 #ecg4 ,beauty1 #cj1 #ca1 #hd1 #ih1 #edf4 ,beauvilliers1 #afe1 #aff4 ,beckx1 #adb1 #ade4 ,belief1 #gd1 #adc1 #aia1 #cjd1 #cha4 ,bell1 ,andrew1 #f1 #eac-eag4 ,belles-lettres1 #aac1 #aej1 #aeb1 #bcf1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbd1 #djd4 ,benedict1 ,saint1 #fi4 ,benedictines1 #fh1 #gf1 #bgi4 ,bentham1 ,chrestomathia1 #ajj1 #eai1 #efb4 ,berlin1 #dea1 #dfd4 ,bernardin de ,saint ,pierre1 #cid4 ,bersot1 #adi1 #ecd4 ,bert1 ,paul1 #cie4 ,berthollet1 #dje4 ,burgdorf1 #dai1 #dbf1 #dcc1 #def1 #deg4 ,brulle1 #aej4 ,bias1 #cb4 ,bible1 #g1 #fe1 #ha1 #hf1 #ii1 #aac1 #abj1 #bdh1 #cjd1 #cbd1 #cdb1 #dbj4 ,billom1 ,college of1 #ada4 ,bills1 ,educational1 #cij-daa1 #eji-eab1 #eai-ebe4 ,birr1 #dch4 ,blackie1 ,four ,phases of ,morals1 #ba4 ,blankenburg1 #deg1 #dfc4 ,boarding-schools1 #bhb1 #cbg1 #cig1 #dcc1 #dhe4 ,body1 #bh1 #bi1 #cc1 #ch1 #fe1 #id1 #aif-aii1 #bib-cae2 exercises for1 #ah1 #ai1 #bh1 #id1 #ace1 #bhi-bib4 ,botia1 #ec4 ,bohemia1 #abe4 ,boileau1 #ahb1 #bai1 #bdc4 ,bonneval1 #bhc4 ,book for ,mothers1 ,pestalozzi's1 #dca4 ,books1 #gj1 #hf1 #aje1 #acb1 #bdj1 #bih1 #cfi1 #cic1 #ebh2 use of1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #bah1 #bih1 #ceb1 #dbi1 #dda1 #eaf1 #efd4 ,bossuet1 #ada1 #ahb-ahe1 #bdc4 ,boufflers1 ,marquis de1 #adh4 ,bouquier1 #cgi1 #cia1 #djj2 ,law of1 #djj1 #dja4 ,bourgogne1 #cff2 ,duke of1 #aff1 #agg-ahb4 ,boys1 education of1 #f1 #h1 #cd1 #dh1 #ed1 #id1 #aad1 #bhd-cjb1 #cih4 ,boze1 de1 #bdc4 ,brahmins1 #d1 #e4 ,bral1 ,michel1 #aac1 #cdc1 #ecd4 ,bretagne1 #cdd4 ,brethren of ,saint ,charles1 #bee4 ,brethren of the ,christian ,schools1 #aab1 #ach1 #adg1 #bec-bgg1 #cec1 #cfe1 #eac1 #eae4 ,brinon1 ,madame de1 #bbh4 ,browning1 #ed4 ,brugg1 #dah1 #dch4 ,buddha1 #d4 ,buisson1 ,dictionnaire de ,pdagogie1 #ac1 #acj1 #cfi4 8,bureau of ,correspondence10 #ceh4 ,burnier1 #afc4 ,burnouf1 ,histoire du ,bouddhisme1 #e4 ,buss1 #dbh4 ,cabanis1 #cfi4 ,cabet1 #ebg4 ,cabinet1 school1 #che4 ,cabinet of du ,mas1 #bci4 ,cadet1 #bdf4 ,csar1 #ea1 #ajf4 ,csar de ,bus1 #aci4 ,cajet1 ,dom ,joseph1 #bhj4 ,calvin1 #aac4 ,cambridge1 ,university of1 #gg4 ,campan1 ,madame1 #dhe-dhg4 ,campe1 #dae4 ,campus ,martius1 #dd4 ,carnot1 #eja1 #eba1 #ebd4 ,carr1 #aec4 ,carthage1 #aje4 ,caste1 #b1 #ad1 #ae1 #af1 #bh1 #cc1 #db1 #adc1 #bef1 #efd4 ,casuistry1 #fe1 #fg1 #cdc4 ,catechism1 #dd1 #ha1 #aac1 #bgb1 #cba1 #cch1 #cfd4 ,catherine ,,ii41 of ,russia1 #cbj4 ,catholicism1 #aci1 #bec-bgg4 ,cavern1 ,plato's1 #cb4 ,centralization1 #ceh1 #cfa1 #chf1 #cie1 #cif1 #eab2 opposed1 #cgb4 ,central ,schools1 #djg4 ,ceremonies1 #ab1 #cj1 #cf1 #adf1 #aii1 #bhg1 #cic4 ,chaillot1 #ejd4 ,chaldee1 #ie4 ,chance1 #cbh1 #cbi4 ,channing1 #ei1 #dgf1 #efc-efe4 ,character1 #dij1 #dig4 ,charicles1 #be4 ,charity1 #cg1 #fa1 #bha2 condemned1 #bi1 #aec4 ,charlemagne1 #ga-gc1 #ajf4 ,charles the ,bold1 #fh1 #gc4 ,charron1 ,wisdom1 #aaj4 ,chastanier1 #bfc4 ,chateaubriand1 #bde1 #eaa4 ,chevalier de la ,tour-,landry1 #gi4 ,child1 #ch1 #ci1 #df1 #gi1 #afi1 #aie1 #aif2 age for study1 #aa1 #ci1 #di1 #bhg2 development of1 #ca1 #ch1 #ej1 #aie1 #dee1 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#chd1 #djj1 #dja1 #eai4 ,tradition1 #ac1 #adc1 #ccc4 ,tragedy1 #cj1 #bhe4 ,training1 #da1 #aaa2 of children1 #ed1 #abi2 mental1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj1 #bd1 #eh1 #ie1 #aeg1 #bjc1 #cbd-cbf1 #cha1 #dfh-dge1 #dif1 #edh2 physical1 #ah1 #ai1 #ci1 #da1 #gi1 #hj1 #id1 #aig1 #bhc1 #dif1 #eed1 #eee2 of the senses1 #ch1 #if1 #ig1 #acc1 #aic1 #bjh1 #bhc1 #bhi-cjh1 #ejc2 of will1 #dii1 #edg4 ,translation1 value of1 #cbg1 #ccj4 ,treatise on ,pedagogy1 ,kant's1 #ccb-cch4 ,treatise on ,studies1 ,rollin's1 #bce4 ,trivium1 #ge1 #gf4 ,truth1 #bd1 #aea1 #aic1 #cja4 ,turgot1 #cei4 ,tutor1 #fi1 #cbg1 #eah4 ,twelve ,tables1 #dd4 ,uniformity1 #bfd1 #bha4 ,unity1 #ah1 #dej2 of education1 #dee2 in teaching1 #abi1 #aeb1 #bhh1 #cei1 #eji4 ,universal ,instruction1 ,jacotot's1 #ebf1 #ebg4 ,universals1 #cb1 #dec1 #ebg4 ,university1 #bb1 #ge1 #gg1 #abh1 #beb2 ,diderot's1 #cbf1 #cbg2 for women1 #dhf4 ,university of ,france1 #bcc1 #bdc1 #cba1 #cda1 #cdc1 #cef1 #cfj1 #eji-eab1 #ecc4 ,unselfishness1 #aj1 #gh1 #acf1 #ebb4 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,john of1 #hg4 ,wittenberg1 ,university of1 #aac4 ,whipping1 #f1 #g1 #ea1 #gf1 #ajb1 #adg1 #adh4 ,will1 #ac1 #fa1 #aid1 #bja1 #ccd1 #cgb1 #dgf1 #dhd1 #edc1 #edg1 #eeb1 #eec4 ,wine1 #aid1 #bib1 #cha4 ,wisdom1 #ae1 #da1 #dh1 #eg2 the highest1 #c1 #eg1 #ajd1 #ajf1 #ace1 #bie1 #cha4 ,wolker1 ,doctor1 #bdf4 ,women1 #e1 #af1 #cd1 #dd1 #dh1 #fj1 #ij1 #dhh1 #ejf2 education of1 #e1 #ae1 #af1 #bg1 #cd1 #ce1 #dh1 #ee1 #ef1 #gi1 #hj1 #ij1 #ia1 #aji1 #aaj1 #aae1 #aag1 #abh1 #afh1 #agd-agf1 #bab-bca1 #beb1 #bhb1 #cje-cjg1 #cbh1 #chd1 #dfd2 unsexed1 #bg1 #ejf4 ,words1 #he1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #acb1 #acd1 #add1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #dae1 #dcj4 ,wordsworth1 #ed4 ,works1 of ,comenius1 #abe-abg2 of ,diderot1 #cai2 of ,erasmus1 #hg-ij2 of ,fnelon1 #aff2 of ,madame de ,genlis1 #dhj2 of ,madame de ,maintenon1 #bbb2 of ,madame ,pape-,carpentier1 #eja-ejc2 of ,pestalozzi1 #dba1 #dbb1 #dca1 #dch2 of ,plutarch1 #ec-eh4 ,worthington1 ,miss1 #aga1 #ccf4 ,writing1 #f1 #aa1 #di1 #fg1 #hf1 #hh1 #ij1 #bjd1 #bfh2 schools1 #abj1 #bed4 ,wurtzburg1 #dff4 ,xenophon1 #ad1 #cd1 #ce1 #cf1 #ee4 ,yverdun1 #dai1 #dbj1 #dcd1 #ddi4 ,zurich1 #dah4 ,zwingli1 #aac1 #aad4 ,,transcriber',s ,,note ,footnote#he is referenced twice1 from #aaf and #aag4 ,footnote#aec has no anchor in the text1 but is referenced from the previous ,footnote#aeb4 ,obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources4 ,except for those changes noted below1 all misspellings in the text1 and inconsistent or archaic usage1 have been retained4 ,pg xi3 #8of history of pedagogy' replaced by #8of a history of pedagogy'4 #dj ,footnote#dj3 #8,i thiuk it may' replaced by #8,i think it may'4 #db3 #8teaching intrument was' replaced by #8teaching instrument was'4 #abe3 ,missing -- inserted before #8,the ,german reformer'4 #bcc ,footnote#adc3 the citation #8--,johnson's ,cyclopdia4' has been joined to the quotation1 for consistency with other citations4 #ebj3 #8that true edution' replaced by #8that true education'4 #efj ,footnote #bce3 #8,monsieurs ,rapet and' replaced by #8,messieurs ,rapet and'4 #efj3 #8,conseil suprieure' replaced by #8,conseil suprieur'4 #eid ,footnote #beb3 #8,madamoiselle ,sauvan' replaced by #8,mademoiselle ,sauvan'4 #fba3 #8,victor ,consedrant' replaced by #8,victor ,considerant'4 #fba ,footnote #bgj3 #8,consedrant' replaced by #8,considerant'4 ,appendix ,b4 #e3 #8,historie ,critique' replaced by #8,histoire ,critique'4 #be3 #8et de ,principe' replaced by #8et du ,principe'4 ,index4 ,entry #8,encyclopedists' replaced by #8,encyclopdists'4 ,entry #8,knigberg' replaced by #8,knigsberg'4 ,entry #8,sazarin' replaced by #8,sarazin'4 ,entry #8,studies'3 #8,bacon of' replaced by #8,baconian'4 ,entry #8,symmetry'3 #8#hif' replaced by #8#cif'4