,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores1 bold face text between equal signs4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,texts between tildes have been transcribed from illustrations1 and have been included here for the sake of consistency with the illustrated versions4 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,stonehenge ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,by ,,sir ,,norman ,,lockyer4 ,,primer ,,of ,,astronomy4 ,,elementary ,,lessons ,,in ,,astronomy4 ,,movements ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,contributions ,,to ,,solar ,,physics4 ,,chemistry ,,of ,,the ,,sun4 ,,the ,,meteoritic ,,hypothesis4 ,,the ,,sun',s ,,place ,,in ,,nature4 ,,inorganic ,,evolution4 ,,recent ,,and ,,coming ,,eclipses4 ,,stargazing1 ,,past ,,and ,,present4 7,in conjunction with ,g4 ,m4 ,seabroke47 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,astronomy4 ,,stonehenge ,,and ,,other ,,british ,,stone ,,monuments4 ,,studies ,,in ,,spectrum ,,analysis4 ,,the ,,spectroscope ,,and ,,its ,,applications4 ,,the ,,rules ,,of ,,golf4 7,in conjunction with ,w4 ,rutherford47 ,in the ,press4 ,,education ,,and ,,national ,,progress4 ,,stonehenge ,,and ,,other ,,british ,,stone ,,monuments ,astronomically ,considered ,,by ,,sir ,,norman ,,lockyer1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,solar ,,physics ,,observatory ,,hon4 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,,glasgow2 ,,hon4 ,,sc4,d41 ,,cambridge2 ,,correspondent ,,of ,,the ,,institute ,,of ,,france2 ,,corresponding ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,imperial ,,academy ,,of ,,sciences ,,of ,,st4 ,,petersburg2 ,,the ,,society ,,for ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,national ,,industry ,,of ,,france2 ,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,,of ,,science1 ,g,,ttingen2 ,,the ,,franklin ,,institute1 ,,philadelphia2 ,,the ,,royal ,,medical ,,society ,,of ,,brussels2 ,,society ,,of ,,italian ,,spectroscopists2 ,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,,of ,,palermo2 ,,the ,,natural ,,history ,,society ,,of ,,geneva2 ,,of ,,the ,,astronomical ,,society ,,of ,,mexico2 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,academy ,,of ,,lyncei1 ,,rome2 ,,and ,,the ,,american ,,philosophical ,,society1 ,,philadelphia2 ,,honorary ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,academy ,,of ,,natural ,,science ,,of ,,catania2 ,,philosophical ,,society ,,of ,,york2 ,,literary ,,and ,,philosophical ,,society ,,of ,,manchester2 ,,royal ,,cornwall ,,polytechnic ,,institution2 ,,and ,,lehigh ,,university ,london ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited #aijf ,all rights reserved ,,richard ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1 ,,limited ,,bread ,,street ,,hill1 ,e4,c41 ,,and ,,bungay1 ,,suffolk4 ,,preface ,in continuation of my work on the astronomical uses of the ,egyptian ,temples1 ,i have from time to time1 when leisure has permitted1 given attention to some of the stone circles and other stone monuments erected1 as ,i believed1 for similar uses in this country4 ,one reason for doing so was that in consequence of the supineness of successive ,governments1 and the neglect and wanton destruction by individuals1 the ,british monuments are rapidly disappearing4 ,although1 and indeed because1 these inquiries are still incomplete1 ,i now bring together some of the notes ,i have collected1 as they may induce other inquirers to go on with the work4 ,some of the results already obtained have been communicated to the ,royal ,society1 and others have appeared in articles published in ,nature1 but only a small percentage of the monuments available has so far been examined4 ,further observations are required in order that the hypothesis set forth in this book may be rejected or confirmed4 ,in the observations made at ,stonehenge referred to in ,chapter ,,vii4 ,i had the inestimable advantage of the collaboration of the late ,mr4 ,penrose4 ,our work there would not have been possible without the sympathetic assistance of ,sir ,edmund ,antrobus1 ,bart42 ,colonel ,duncan ,a4 ,johnston1 ,r4,e41 ,director-,general of the ,ordnance ,survey1 also was good enough on several occasions to furnish us with much valuable information which is referred to in its place4 ,messrs4 ,howard ,payn and ,fowler skilfully and zealously helped in the observations and computations4 ,to all these ,i am glad to take this opportunity of expressing my obligations4 ,with regard to the other monuments besides ,stonehenge1 ,i have to tender my thanks to the following gentlemen for most valuable local assistance3-- ,brittany--,lieut4 de ,vaisseau ,devoir4 ,stenness--,mr4 ,spence4 ,stanton ,drew--,professor ,lloyd ,morgan1 ,mr4 ,morrow1 and ,mr4 ,dymond4 ,the ,hurlers1 and the ,merry ,maidens--the ,right ,hon4 ,viscount ,falmouth1 ,capt4 ,henderson1 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho and ,mr4 ,wallis4 ,tregaseal--,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho and ,mr4 ,thomas4 ,the ,dartmoor ,avenues--,mr4 ,worth4 ,the following have helped me in many ways1 among them with advice and criticism3--,principal ,rhys1 ,dr4 ,wallis ,budge1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer1 and ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,lewis4 ,the assistance so generously afforded in the case of ,stonehenge by ,colonel ,johnston1 ,r4,e41 in furnishing me with accurate azimuths was continued for the monuments subsequently investigated till his retirement4 ,to his successor1 ,colonel ,r4 ,c4 ,hellard1 ,r4,e41 ,i am already under deep obligations4 ,for the use of some of the ,illustrations my thanks are due to the ,royal ,society1 the ,society of ,antiquaries1 the ,royal ,institute of ,british ,architects1 ,messrs4 ,macmillan1 and ,mr4 ,john ,murray4 ,i have to thank ,mr4 ,rolston1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 one of my staff1 for assistance in the computations involved4 ,,norman ,,lockyer4 ,,solar ,,physics ,,observatory1 #agth ,may1 #aijf4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,astronomical ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,year #ab ,,iii4 ,,the ,,agricultural ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,year #ag ,,iv4 ,,the ,,various ,,new-,,year ,,days #be ,v4 ,,conditions ,,and ,,traditions ,,at ,,stonehenge #cd ,,vi4 ,,general ,,architecture ,,of ,,stonehenge #ee ,,vii4 ,,astronomical ,,observations ,,at ,,stonehenge ,,in #aija #fb ,,viii4 ,,arch,,ological ,,observations ,,at ,,stonehenge1 #aija #fi ,,ix4 ,,was ,,there ,,an ,,earlier ,,circle8 #hh ,x4 ,,the ,,may ,,and ,,june ,,worships ,,in ,,brittany #if ,,xi4 ,,astronomical ,,hints ,,for ,,arch,,ologists #ajg ,,xii4 ,,astronomical ,,hints ,,for ,,arch,,ologists 7,continued7 #aah ,,xiii4 ,,stenness 7,lat4 #ei ,n47 #abc ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,hurlers 7,lat4 #ej #ca ,n47 #acc ,,xv4 ,,the ,,dartmoor ,,avenues #ade ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,dartmoor ,,avenues 7,continued7 #aeg ,,xvii4 ,,stanton ,,drew 7,lat4 #ea #aj ,n47 #aff ,,xviii4 ,,folklore ,,and ,,tradition #agh ,,xix4 ,,sacred ,,fires #ahi ,,xx4 ,,sacred ,,trees #bjj ,,xxi4 ,,holy ,,wells ,,and ,,streams #bac ,,xxii4 ,,where ,,did ,,the ,,british ,,worship ,,originate8 #bcb ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,similarity ,,of ,,the ,,semitic ,,and ,,british ,,worships #beb ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,may ,,year ,,in ,,south-,,west ,,cornwall #bfa ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,merry ,,maidens ,,circle 7,lat4 #ej #d ,n47 #bfe ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,tregaseal ,,circles #bgg ,,xxvii4 ,,some ,,other ,,cornish ,,monuments #bhg ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,clock-,,stars ,,in ,,egypt ,,and ,,britain #bid ,,xxix4 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,sun-,,temples #cjd ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,astronomer-,,priests #caf ,,appendices4 ,i4 ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,theodolite ,,observations ,,at ,,stonehenge #cbe ,,ii4 ,,suggestions ,,on ,,field ,,observations #cbi ,,index #ccc ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,present ,sun ,worship in ,japan #d #b4 ,the ,celestial ,sphere1 ,conditions at the ,north ,pole #e #c4 ,the ,celestial ,sphere1 ,conditions at the ,equator #f #d4 ,the ,celestial ,sphere1 ,conditions in a ,middle ,latitude #f #e4 ,the ,four ,astronomical ,divisions of the ,year #ad #f4 ,the ,various ,bearings of the ,sun ,risings and ,settings in ,n4 latitude #ea #ad #g4 ,the ,astronomical and ,vegetation ,divisions of the ,year #bc #h4 ,original ,tooling of the ,stones at ,stonehenge #dd #i4 ,view of ,stonehenge from the ,west #de #aj4 ,copy of ,hoare's ,plan of ,stonehenge1 #ahaj #df #aa4 ,the ,leaning ,stone in #aija #dh #ab4 ,the ,axis of the ,temple of ,karnak #ef #ac4 ,plan of the ,temple of ,ramses ,,ii4 in the ,memnonia at ,thebes #eg #ad4 ,one of the remaining ,trilithons at ,stonehenge #ei #ae4 ,general ,plan of ,stonehenge #fj #af4 ,the ,arrangements for raising the ,stone #gj #ag4 ,the ,cradle and ,supports #ga #ah4 ,the ,frame used to locate the ,finds #gc #ai4 ,some of the ,flint ,implements #gg #bj4 ,showing the careful ,tooling of the ,sarsens #hb #ba4 ,face of ,rock against which a ,stone was made to rest #hc #bb4 ,the ,leaning ,stone ,upright #he #bc4 ,stonehenge1 #aije #hf #bd4 ,map of the ,stones made by the ,ordnance ,survey #hi #be4 ,rod placed in the ,common ,axis of the ,circle and ,avenue #id #bf4 ,alignments at ,le ,mnec #ii #bg4 ,menhir on ,melon ,island #ajj #bh4 ,melon ,island1 showing ,menhir and ,cromlech #aja #bi4 ,menhirs of ,st4 ,dourzal #ajb #cj4 ,alignment at ,lagatjar 7photograph7 #ajc #ca4 ,alignments at ,lagatjar 7plan7 #ajd #cb4 ,menhirs on ,solstitial and ,may ,alignments #aje #cc4 ,diagram for finding ,declination from given ,amplitudes or ,azimuths in ,british ,latitudes #aac #cd4 ,declinations of ,northern ,stars from #bej ,a4,d4 to #baej ,b4,c4 #aae #ce4 ,declinations of ,southern ,stars from #bej ,a4,d4 to #baej ,b4,c4 #aaf #cf4 ,the ,conditions of ,sunrise at the ,summer ,solstice in ,lat4 #ei ,n4 #aai #cg4 ,the ,azimuths of the ,sunrise 7upper limb7 at the ,summer ,solstice4 ,lats4 ,n4 #ei-dg #aba #ch4 ,maeshowe and the ,stones of ,stenness #abd #ci4 ,chief ,sight-,lines from the ,stones of ,stenness #abf #dj4 ,variation of the ,obliquity of the ,ecliptic #ajj ,a4,d4-#djjj ,b4,c4 #acj #da4 ,the ,sight-,lines at the ,hurlers #acf #db4 ,the ,southern ,avenue at ,merrivale1 looking ,east #adg #dc4 ,avenues1 ,circle and ,stones at ,merrivale1 with their ,azimuths #aed #dd4 ,cursus at ,stonehenge1 nearly parallel to the ,merrivale ,avenue #aee #de4 ,the remains of the ,challacombe ,avenue #aei #df4 ,the ,sight-,lines at ,trowlesworthy #afb #dg4 ,the ,circles and ,avenues at ,stanton ,drew #afi #dh4 ,the ,carro1 ,florence #aid #di4 ,cresset-,stone1 ,lewannick #beg #ej4 ,first ,appearance of ,may ,sun in ,british ,latitudes #bfc #ea4 ,azimuths of the ,may ,sunrise #bfd #eb4 ,the ,merry ,maidens #bfi #ec4 #be-;inch ,ordnance ,map of ,merry ,maidens showing ,alignments #bge #ed4 ,the ,eastern ,circle at ,tregaseal #bgi #ee4 ,photograph of ,ordnance ,map showing ,sight-lines #bha #ef4 ,plan of the ,mn-an-,tol #bhc #eg4 ,photograph of the ,mn-an-,tol #bhd #eh4 ,the ,mn-an-,tol4 ,front ,view and ,section #bhe #ei4 ,photograph of the ,ordnance ,map of ,boscawen-un #bhh #fj4 ,diagram showing ,azimuths of ,sunrise #afhj ,b4,c4 and #aije ,a4,d4 #bij #fa4 ,arcturus and ,capella as ,clock-,stars in ,britain #cjj #fb4 ,a ,night-,dial #cjc #fc4 ,layard's ,plan of the ,palace of ,sennacherib #cje #fd4 ,layard's ,plan of the ,mound at ,nimrood #cjf #fe4 ,the ,temples at ,chichen ,itza #cjg ,,stonehenge ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,in the book ,i published ten years ago1 entitled 8,the ,dawn of ,astronomy10 ,i gave a pretty full account of the principles and the methods of observation which enable us to trace the ideas which were in the minds of the ancient ,egyptians when they set out the line of a temple they proposed to build4 ,numerous references to the ceremonial of laying the foundation-stones of temples exist1 and we learn from the works of ,chabas1 ,brugsch1 ,dmichen#a and others1 that the foundation of an ,egyptian temple was associated with a series of ceremonies which are repeatedly described with great minuteness4 ,amongst these ceremonies1 one especially refers to the fixing of the temple-axis2 it is called1 technically1 8the stretching of the cord10 and is not only illustrated by inscriptions on the walls of the temples of ,karnak1 ,denderah and ,edfu--to mention the best-known cases--but is referred to elsewhere4 ,during the ceremony the king proceeded to the site where the temple was to be built1 accompanied mythically by the goddess ,sesheta1 who is styled 8the mistress of the laying of the foundation-stone40 ,each was armed with a stake4 ,the two stakes were connected by a cord4 ,next the cord was aligned towards the sun on some day of the year1 or a star1 as the case might be2 when the alignment was perfect the two stakes were driven into the ground by means of a wooden mallet4 ,one boundary wall parallel to the main axis of the temple was built along the line marked out by this stretched cord4 ,if the moment of the rising or setting of the sun or star were chosen1 as we have every reason to believe was the case1 seeing that all the early observations were made on the horizon1 it is obvious that the light from the body towards which the temple was thus aligned would penetrate the axis of the temple from one end to the other in the original direction of the cord4 ,we learn from ,chabas that the ,egyptian word which expresses the idea of founding or laying the foundation-stone of a temple is ,senti--a word which still exists in ,coptic4 ,but in the old language another word ,pet-ser1 which no longer remains in ,coptic1 has been traced4 ,it has been established that pet means to stretch1 and ser means cord1 so that that part of the ceremonial which consisted in stretching a cord in the direction of a star was considered of so great an importance that it gave its name to the whole ceremonial4 ,dealing with the existing remains of ,egyptian temples1 it may be said that the most majestic among them was that of ,amen-,r at ,karnak1 dedicated to the ,sun-,god1 and oriented to catch the light of the sun setting at the summer solstice1 the time of the year at which the all-important rise of the ,nile began4 ,although the sun is no longer worshipped in ,egypt or ,britain1 sun-worship has not yet disappeared from the world4 ,professor ,gowland has recently#b brought to notice a surviving form of sun-worship in ,japan4 ,i quote his statement3-- 8,there on the seashore at ,fta-mi-ga-ura 7as will be seen in a copy of a print which ,i obtained at that ancient place7 the orientation of the shrine of adoration is given by two gigantic rocks which rise from the sea as natural pillars4 ,the sun as it rises over the mountains of the distant shore is observed between them1 and the customary prayers and offerings made in that direction 7,fig4 #a74 8,it is1 too1 specially worthy of note that the point from which the sun is revered is marked by a structure of the form of a trilithon1 but made of wood1 placed immediately behind the altar4 ,this representative of the trilithon is of very remote date in ,japan1 and has been in use there from the earliest times in connection with the observances of the ancient ,shint cult in which the ,sun-,goddess is the chief deity4 ,one of its important uses1 which still survives1 was to indicate the direction of the position of some sacred place or object of veneration1 in order that worshippers might make their prayers and oblations towards the proper quarter40 ,the table of offerings must also be noted4 ,in the book to which ,i have referred1 ,i also endeavoured to show that a knowledge of even elementary astronomy may be of very great assistance to students of archology1 history1 folk-lore and all that learning which deals with man's first attempts to grasp the meaning and phenomena of the universe in which he found himself before any scientific methods were available to him2 before he had any idea of the origins or the conditionings of the things around him4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,present sun worship in ,japan4 ,it may be well1 however1 in the present book to restate the underlying astronomical principles in the briefest possible manner2 and this is the more easily done because1 in the absence of measuring instruments1 the horizon was the only circle which the ancient peoples could employ effectively1 and we need only therefore consider it4 ,indeed1 whether we regard the ,rig-,veda or the ,egyptian monuments from an astronomical point of view1 we are struck by the fact that the early worship and all the early observations related to the horizon4 ,this was true not only for the sun1 but for all the stars which studded the general expanse of sky4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the celestial sphere1 conditions at the ,north ,pole4 ,a parallel sphere4 ,n4,p41 ,north celestial ,pole2 ,n1 position of observer4 ,we have therefore chiefly to consider the relation of the horizon of any place to the apparent movements of celestial bodies at that place4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,the celestial sphere1 conditions at the ,equator4 ,a right sphere4 ,q1 standpoint of observer2 ,,pp1 the celestial poles2 ,,ew1 east and west points4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,the celestial sphere1 conditions in a middle latitude4 ,an oblique sphere4 ,in this woodcut ,,dd shows the apparent path of a circumpolar star2 ,,bb,b the path and rising and setting points of an equatorial star2 ,,cc,c and ,,aa,a1 those of stars of mid declination1 one north and the other south2 ,o1 standpoint of observer4 ,we now know that the earth rotates on its axis1 but this idea was of course quite unknown to these early peoples4 ,since the earth rotates1 with stars infinitely removed surrounding it on all sides1 the apparent movements of the stars will depend very much upon the position we happen to occupy on the earth4 ,an observer at the ,north ,pole of the earth1 for instance1 would see the stars moving round in circles parallel to the horizon 7,fig4 #b74 ,no star could therefore either rise or set--one half of the heavens would be always visible above his horizon1 and the other half invisible4 ,an observer at the ,south ,pole would of course see that half of the stars invisible to the observer at the northern one4 ,if the observer be on the equator1 the movements of the stars will appear to be as indicated in this diagram 7,fig4 #c7--that is1 all the stars will rise and set1 and each star will be1 in turn1 twelve hours above the horizon1 and the same time below it4 ,but if we consider the position of an observer in a middle latitude1 say at ,stonehenge1 we find that some stars will always be above the horizon1 some always below--that is1 they will neither rise nor set4 ,all other stars will both rise and set1 but some of them will be above the horizon for a long time and below for a short time1 whereas others will be a very short time above the horizon and a long time below it1 each star completing a circle in a day 7,fig4 #d74 ,wherever we are upon the earth we always imagine that we are on the top of it4 ,the idea held by all the early peoples was that the surface of the earth near them was an extended plain3 they imagined that the land that they knew and just the surrounding lands were really in the centre of the extended plain4 ,plato1 for instance1 was content to think the ,mediterranean and ,greece upon the top of a cube1 and ,anaximander placed the same region at the top of a cylinder4 ,by the use of a terrestrial globe we can best study the conditions of observation at the poles of the earth1 the equator and some place in middle latitude4 ,the wooden horizon of the globe is parallel to the horizon of a place at the top of the globe1 which horizon we can represent by a wafer4 ,by inclining the axis of the globe and watching the movement of the wafer as the globe is turned round1 we can get a very concrete idea of the different relations of the observer's horizon to the apparent paths of the stars in different latitudes4 ,we have next to deal with the astronomical relations of the horizon of any place1 in connection with the observation of the sun and stars at the times of rising or setting1 when of course they are on or near the horizon2 and in order to bring this matter nearer to the ancient monuments1 we will study this question for both ,thebes and ,stonehenge4 ,we may take the latitude of ,thebes as #be1 ,stonehenge as #ea1 and we will begin with ,thebes4 ,to consider an observer on the ,nile at ,thebes and to adjust things properly we must rectify a celestial globe to the latitude of #be ,n41 or1 in other words1 incline the axis of the globe at that angle to the wooden horizon4 ,since all the stars which pass between the ,north ,pole and the horizon cannot set1 all their apparent movements will take place above the horizon4 ,all the stars between the horizon and the ,south ,pole will never rise4 ,hence1 stars within the distance of #be from the ,north ,pole will never set at ,thebes1 and those stars within #be of the ,south ,pole will never be visible there4 ,at any place the latitude and the elevation of the pole are the same4 ,it so happens that many of those places with which archologists have to do in studying the history of early peoples--,chalda1 ,egypt1 ,babylonia1 c4--are in low middle latitudes1 therefore we have to deal with bodies in the skies which do set and bodies which do not1 and the elevation of the pole is neither very great nor very small4 ,but although in each different latitude the inclination of the equator to the horizon as well as the elevation of the pole will vary1 there will be a strict relationship between the inclination of the equator at each place and the elevation of the pole4 ,except at the poles themselves the equator will cut the horizon due east and due west2 therefore every celestial body to the north of the celestial equator which rises and sets will cut the horizon between the east and west point and the north point2 those bodies which do not rise will of course not cut the horizon at all4 ,the stars near the equator1 and the sun1 in such a latitude as that of ,thebes1 will appear to rise or set at no very considerable angle from the vertical2 but when we deal with stars very near to the north or south points of the horizon they will seem to skim along the horizon instead of rising directly4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we now pass on to ,stonehenge4 ,to represent the new condition the axis of the globe will now require to be inclined #ea to the horizon4 ,the number of northern stars which do not set and of southern stars which do not rise will be much greater than at ,thebes4 ,the most northern and southern stars visible will in their movement hug the horizon more closely than was observed under the ,thebes condition4 ,the sun1 both at ,thebes and ,stonehenge1 since it moves among the stars from #bc ,n4 to #bc ,s4 each year1 will change its place of rising and setting at different times of the year4 ,now it will at once be obvious that there must be a strict law connecting the position of a star with its place of rising or setting4 ,stars at the same distance from the celestial pole or equator will rise or set at the same point of the horizon1 and if a star does not change its place in the heavens it will always rise or set in the same place4 ,the sun as it changes its position each day1 in its swing ,n4 and ,s4 of the equator1 will rise and set on any day in the same place as a star which permanently has the same distance from the equator as that temporarily occupied by the sun4 ,here it will be convenient to introduce one or two technical terms3 we generally define a star's place by giving1 as one ordinate1 its distance in degrees from the equator3 this distance is called its declination4 ,further1 we generally define points on the horizon by dividing its whole circumference into #cfj1 so that we can have azimuths up to #ij from the north and south points to the east and west points4 ,we also have amplitudes from the east and west points towards the north and south points4 ,we can say1 then1 that a star of a certain declination1 or the sun when it occupies that declination1 will rise or set at such an azimuth1 or at such an amplitude4 ,this will apply to both north and south declinations4 ,then supposing the azimuth to be #ci in the ,n4,e4 quadrant1 it is written ,n4 #ci ,e4 ,for the other quadrants we have ,n4 #ci ,w41 ,s4 #ci ,e41 and ,s4 #ci ,w41 respectively4 ,the following table gives the amplitudes of rising or setting 7north or south7 of celestial bodies having declinations from #j to #fd1 at ,thebes and ,stonehenge respectively4 ,,amplitudes ,,at ,,thebes ,,and ,,stonehenge4 -------------------------------- ,amplitude4 ,declination4------------------ ,thebes4,stonehenge4 ------------------------------ #j #j #j #j #j #a #a #g #a #cf #b #b #ac #c #aa #c #c #bj #d #df #d #d #bf #f #bb #e #e #cc #g #eh #f #f #dj #i #cd #g #g #dg #aa #aj #h #h #ec #ab #dg #i #i #ei #ad #bc #aj #aa #f #af #a #aa #ab #ac #ag #ci #ab #ac #bj #ai #ah #ac #ad #bg #bj #eg #ad #ae #cd #bb #cf #ae #af #da #bd #ag #af #ag #di #be #eh #ag #ah #ef #bg #de #ah #bj #c #bi #bd #ai #ba #aj #ca #aj #bj #bb #ag #cb #ee #ba #bc #be #cd #dc #bb #bd #cc #cf #cb #bc #be #da #ch #bc #bd #bf #di #dj #af #be #bg #eh #db #aa #bf #bi #f #dd #aj #bg #cj #ae #df #aj #bh #ca #bc #dh #ae #bi #cb #cb #ej #bb #cj #cc #da #eb #cf #ca #cd #ea #ed #ee #cb #cf #a #eg #ba #cc #cg #aa #ei #ef #cd #ch #ba #fb #db #ce #ci #ca #fe #dd #cf #dj #db #fi #d #cg #da #ec #gc #j #ch #dc #e #gh #d #ci #dd #ag #ij #j #dj #de #cj #da #df #dc #db #dg #ef #dc #di #aj #dd #ej #be #de #ea #da #df #eb #eg #dg #ed #ad #dh #ee #cb #di #ef #ea #ej #eh #ab #ea #ei #cd #eb #fj #eh #ec #fb #bc #ed #fc #ea #ee #fe #ba #ef #ff #ed #eg #fh #ca #eh #gj #ab #ei #ga #ei #fj #gc #ee #fa #gf #a #fb #gh #be #fc #ha #ai #fd #he #db ------------------------------- ,the amplitude is always the complement of the azimuth1 so that amplitude azimuth #ij4 ,later on ,i shall give amplitudes for latitudes higher than that of ,stonehenge1 so that still more northerly monuments can be considered4 #a 8,baugeschichte des ,dendera-,tempels40 #ahgg4 #b 8,archologia10 vol4 lviii4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,astronomical ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,year ,it is next important to deal with the yearly path of the sun1 with a view of studying the relation of the various points of the horizon occupied by the sun at different times in the year4 ,in the very early observations that were made in ,egypt1 ,chalda and elsewhere1 when the sun was considered to be a god who every morning got into his boat and floated across space1 there was no particular reason for considering the amplitude at which the boat left1 or came to1 shore4 ,but a few centuries showed that this rising or setting of the sun in widely varying amplitudes at different times of the year at the same place obeyed a very definite law4 ,in its northward passage it reaches the highest point at our summer solstice1 and then goes down again till it reaches its greatest southern declination1 as it does in our winter4 ,at both these points the sun appears to stand still in its north or south movement1 and the ,latin word solstice exactly expresses that idea4 ,the change of declination brought about by these movements will affect the place of the sun's rising and setting2 this is why the sun sets most to the north in summer and most to the south in winter4 ,at the equinoxes the sun has always #j ,decl41 so it rises and sets due east and west all over the world4 ,but at the solstices it has its greatest declination of #bc ,n4 or ,s42 it will rise and set therefore furthest from the east and west points2 how far1 will depend upon the latitude of the place1 as will have been gathered from the preceding table 7p4 #aa74 ,these solstices and their accompaniments are among the striking things in the natural world4 ,in the winter solstice we have the depth of winter1 in the summer solstice we have the height of summer1 while at the equinoxes we have but transitional changes2 in other words1 while the solstices point out for us the conditions of greatest heat and greatest cold1 the equinoxes point out for us those two times of the year at which the temperature conditions are very nearly equal1 although of course in the one case we are saying good-bye to summer and in the other to winter4 ,did the ancients know anything about these solstices and these equinoxes8 ,dealing with the monumental evidence in ,egypt alone1 the answer is absolutely overwhelming4 ,many thousand years ago the ,egyptians were perfectly familiar with the solstices1 and therefore with the yearly path of the sun4 ,this fundamental division of the sun's apparent revolution and course which define our year into four nearly equal parts may be indicated as in ,fig4 #e1 the highest point reached by the sun in our northern hemisphere being represented at the top4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,the four ,astronomical ,divisions of the year4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,the various bearings of the sun risings and settings in a place with a ,n4 latitude of #ea4 ,in order better to consider the problem as it was presented to the early astronomers who built observatories 7temples7 to mark these points1 we may deal with the bearings of the points occupied by the sun on the horizon 7either at rising or setting7 at the times indicated4 ,these points are defined1 as we have seen1 by their 8amplitude0 or their distance in degrees from the ,e4 or ,w4 points of the horizon4 ,in the diagram 7,fig4 #f7 ,i represent the conditions of our chief ,british sun-temple1 ,stonehenge1 in latitude #ea ,n4 approximately4 ,taking the astronomical facts regarding the solstices and equinoxes for the first year 7#aija7 of the present century1 we find-- ,sun enters ,aries1 ,spring equinox1 ,march #ba4 ,gemini1 ,summer solstice1 ,june #ba4 ,libra1 ,autumn equinox1 ,september #bc4 ,sagittarius1 ,winter solstice1 ,december #bc4 ,these points1 then1 are approximately ninety-one days apart 7#ia #d #cfd74 ,in ,fig4 #f ,i deal with the 8amplitudes0 at ,stonehenge1 that is1 the angular distance along the horizon from the ,e4 and ,w4 points1 at which the sunrise and sunset are seen at the solstices2 at the equinoxes they are seen at the ,e4 and ,w4 points4 ,but as these amplitudes vary with the latitude and therefore depend upon the place of observation1 a more general treatment is possible if we deal with the declination of the sun itself1 that is1 its angular distance from the equator4 ,the maximum declination depends upon the obliquity of the ecliptic1 that is1 the angle between the plane of the ecliptic and that of the equator at the time of observation4 ,when the ,stonehenge ,sarsen ,stones were erected this angle was1 as ,i shall show later on1 #bc #ed #cj4 ,its mean value for the present year 7#aijf7 is #bc #bg #e2 it is decreasing very slowly4 ,it will be obvious from ,fig4 #f that in temples built to observe the solstices or equinoxes1 if they were open from end to end1 looking in one direction we should see the sun rising at a solstice or equinox1 and looking in the other we should see the sun setting at the opposite one4 ,i shall show later on that this statement requires a slight modification4 ,but temples so built interfered with the ceremonial1 which required that the light should illuminate a naos--that is1 the ,sanctuary or ,holy of ,holies1 only entered by the ,high ,priest1 and generally kept dark4 ,usually1 therefore1 two temples were built back to back1 with a common axis1 as at ,karnak4 ,and here a very important point comes in2 which time of the year and day of the year are most easy to fix by astronomical observation8 ,as a matter of fact the summer solstice1 the position of the sun on the longest day1 is a point easily fixed4 ,all we have to do is to observe the sun rising more and more to the north as the summer approaches1 until at the very height of the summer we have the extreme north-easterly point of the horizon reached1 and the sun stands still4 ,we have the solstice4 ,we can then put a row of stakes up1 and so fix the solstitial line4 ,of course we find1 as mankind has found generally1 that the sun comes back next year to that same solstitial place of rising or setting4 ,so that when we have once got such an alignment for the rising of the sun at midsummer1 we can determine the length of the year in days1 and therefore the beginning of each year as it comes round4 ,so much1 then1 for the chief points in what we may term the astronomical year1 those at which the sun's declination is greatest and least4 ,we see that they are approximately ninety-one days apart--say three months4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,agricultural ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,year ,the early peoples have been very much misrepresented1 and held to have been uninstructed1 by several writers who have not considered what they were really driving at4 ,it was absolutely essential for early man1 including the inhabitants of ,britain as it was then--townless1 uncivilised--that the people should know something about the proper time for performing their agricultural operations4 ,we now go into a shop and for a penny buy an almanack which gives us everything we want to know about the year1 the month and the day1 and that is the reason why so few of us care about astronomy3 we can get all we want from astronomy for a penny or twopence4 ,but these poor people1 unless they found out the time of the year and the month and the day for themselves1 or got some one to tell them--and their priests were the men who knew1 and they were priests because they knew--had absolutely no means of determining when their various agricultural operations should take place4 ,so that we find all over the world temples erected in the very first flush of civilisation4 ,on this a point comes in of very considerable interest4 ,if we study the civilisations in ,egypt1 we find that1 so far as we know1 one of the first peoples who used this principle of orientation for agricultural purposes was some tribe that came down the ,nile about #fdjj years ,b4,c4 ,they used the star ,canopus1 and their determination was that of the autumnal equinox1 which practically was the time when the ,nile began to go down1 and when their sowing might begin4 ,there was another race who1 instead of being interested in the sun1 and therefore in agriculture1 at the time of the autumnal equinox1 were interested in the year about the time of ,easter as well4 ,this race built the ,pyramids about four thousand years ,b4,c4 ,there was an interval of about two or three thousand years between these races4 ,as we shall see there were others1 who at ,thebes started the solstitial worship--that is to say1 the worship of the sun at midsummer--and at ,memphis in ,may1 so as to enable them to go on with their agricultural operations with greater certainty4 ,we must not forget that first of all the farmers tried to plough and sow by the moon4 ,we can see how hopeless agriculture must have been under such conditions4 ,the month1 indeed1 was the only unit of time employed1 even of human life4 ,we hear of people who lived #abjj years2 that means #abjj months--there is no question whatever about that now4 ,when we study the history of our own country--when we come back from ,egypt to ,britain1 leaving alone ,greece and ,rome--we find that in various times in our country we have had a year1 a farmer's year1 beginning in the month of ,may2 we have had another farmer's year beginning in the month of ,august2 we have had another farmer's year beginning at the longest day2 and it appears that the year beginning at the longest day was really the last year to be introduced4 ,so that while we have in ,stonehenge a solstitial temple--that is to say1 a temple to make observations of the length of the year by observing the rise of the sun on the longest day of the year--in other parts of ,england there were other temples observing the sun1 not on the #bast of ,june1 but early in ,may and early in ,august4 ,now1 as ,i have indicated1 the priest-astronomers in these temples could only have won and kept the respect of the agricultural population with whom alone they were surrounded in early times1 and by whom they were supported1 by being useful to them in some way or another4 ,this could only have been in connection with what we may term generally the farming operations necessary at different times of the year1 whether in the shape of preparing the ground or gathering the produce4 ,for this they must have watched the stars4 ,a very large part of mythology has sprung out of the temple cults1 prayer1 sacrifices and thanksgiving connected with these farming operations in different lands and ages4 ,i wish to show next that by studying the orientation of temples erected to watch the stars and sunrise and sunset at times other than the solstices or equinoxes1 an immense amount of information may be gained if we endeavour to find the way in which the problem must have been attacked before the year was thoroughly established1 and when it was still a question of grass- or corn-kings or gods who had to be propitiated2 and we may even be enabled to understand why the particular divisions of the year were chosen4 ,in a solstitial temple the sun makes its appearance only once a year1 when it reaches its greatest north or south declination2 but in the temples dealing with lower declinations the sun appears twice1 once on its journey from the summer to the winter solstice1 and again on its return4 ,the first difficulty of the inquiry in the direction ,i have indicated arises from the fact that the products of different countries vary1 and that identical farming operations have to be carried on at different times in these countries4 ,we must1 then1 begin with some one country1 and as the record is fullest for ,greece ,i will begin with it4 ,the first thing we find is that the chief points in the farmer's year in ,greece are about as far from the fixed points in the astronomical year as they well can be4 ,in the ,greek information so admirably collated by ,m4 ,ruelle in the article on the calendar in ,daremberg and ,saglio's monumental 8,dictionnaire des ,antiquits ,grecques et ,romaines10 the earlier ,gregorian dates on which the seasons were reckoned to commence in ancient ,greece were as follows3-- ,summer ,may #f4 ,autumn 77 ,august #aa4 ,winter ,november #aj4 ,spring ,february #g4 ,i may also add from the same source that in the calendars of the ,latins the dates become3-- ,summer ,may #i4 ,autumn ,august #h4 ,winter ,november #i4 ,spring ,february #g4 ,now we see at once that these dates are1 roughly1 half-way between the solstices and equinoxes4 ,this1 then1 at once brings us back to the orientation problem1 which was to fix by means of a temple in the ordinary way dates nearer to these turning-points in the local farmer's years than those fixed by the solstitial and equinoctial temples4 ,it must be borne in mind that it is not merely a question of stately piles such as ,karnak and the ,parthenon in populous centres1 but of the humblest dolmen or stone circle1 in scattered agricultural communities1 which was as certainly used for orientation purposes1 that is1 for recording the lapse of time at night or return of some season important to the tiller of the soil4 ,the advent of the season thus determined could be announced to outlying districts by fire signals at night4 ,i have already pointed out that any temple1 dolmen or cromlech oriented to a sunrise or sunset at any dates between the solstices will receive the sunlight twice a year4 ,if the temple is pointed nearly solstitially the two dates at which the sun appears in it will be near the solstice2 similarly1 for a temple pointed nearly equinoctially the dates will be near the equinox2 but if the ancients wished to divide the ninety-one days' interval between the solstice and equinox1 a convenient method of doing this would be to observe the sun at the half-time interval1 such that the same temple would serve on both occasions4 ,this could be done by orienting the temple to the sun's place on the horizon when it had the declination #af #bj on its upward and downward journey1 or1 in other words1 was1 in days1 half-way between the equinox and solstice4 ,thus1 for the #de days 7 #ia days 7 7 ------- 7 7 #b 7 from ,march #bb1 we have in-- ,march #i ,april #cj ,may #f --- #de ,what1 then1 are the non-equinoctial1 non-solstitial days of the year when the sun has this declination8 ,they are1 in the sun's journey from the vernal equinox to the summer solstice and back again1 ,may #f and ,august #h ,sun's decl4 ,n4 #af #bj4 ,similarly1 for the journey to the winter solstice and return we have ,november #h and ,february #d ,sun's decl4 ,s4 #af #bj4 ,we get1 then1 a year symmetrical with the astronomical year1 which can be indicated with it as in ,fig4 #g2 a year roughly halving the intervals between the chief dates of the astronomical year4 ,with regard to the dates shown ,i have already pointed out that farming operations would not occur at the same time in different lands2 that ploughing and seed time and harvest would vary with crops and latitudes2 and ,i must now add that when we wish to determine the exact days of the month we have to struggle with all the difficulties introduced by the various systems adopted by different ancient nations to bring together the reckoning of months by the moon and of years by the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,the astronomical and vegetation divisions of the year4 ,in more recent times there is an additional difficulty owing to the incomplete reconstruction of the calendar by ,julius ,csar1 who gave us the ,julian year4 ,thus1 while the spring equinox occurred on ,march #ba at the time of the ,council of ,nice1 in #cbe ,a4,d41 by the year #agea the dating of the year on which it took place had slipped back to the #ajth4 ,hence the ,act #bd ,george ,,ii4 c4 #bc1 by which ,september #b1 #ageb1 was followed by ,september #ad instead of by the #crd1 thus regaining the eleven days lost4 ,this change from the so-called 8old style0 to the 8new style0 is responsible for a great deal of confusion4 ,another cause of trouble was the forsaking by the ,jews of the solar year1 with which they commenced1 in favour of the ,babylonian lunar year1 which has been continued for the purposes of worship by ,christians1 giving us 8movable feasts0 to such an extent that ,easter ,day1 which once invariably marked the spring equinox1 may vary from ,march #bb to ,april #be1 and ,whit ,sunday from ,may #aj to ,june #ac4 ,it is at once obvious that no fixed operations of ,nature can be indicated by such variable dates as these4 ,hence in what follows ,i shall only deal with the months involved2 these amply suffice for a general statement1 but a discussion as to exact dates may come later4 ,to sum up1 then1 the astronomer-priests had 7#a7 to watch the time at night by observing a star rising near the north point of the horizon4 ,this star would act as a warner of sunrise at some time of the year4 7#b7 ,to watch for the rising or setting of other stars in various azimuths warning sunrise at the other critical times of the ,may or ,solstitial years4 7#c7 ,to watch the sunrise and sunset4 7#d7 ,to mark all rising or setting places of the warning stars and sun by sight-lines from the circle4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,various ,,new-,,year ,,days ,with regard to the astronomical year it may be stated that each solstice and equinox has in turn in some country or another1 and even in the same country at different times1 been taken as the beginning of the year4 ,we have1 then1 to begin with1 the following which may be called astronomical years3-- ,solstitial ,june ,december ,june4 year4 ,december ,june ,december4 ,equinoctial ,march ,september ,march4 year4 ,september ,march ,september4 ,next1 if we treat the intermediate points we have found in the same way1 we have the following vegetation years3-- ,flower ,may ,november ,may4 year4 ,november ,may ,november4 ,harvest ,august ,february ,august4 year4 ,february ,august ,february4 ,it will have been gathered from ,fig4 #g that the temples or cromlechs erected to watch the first sunrise of the ,may-,november-,may year could also perform the same office for the ,august-,february-,august year2 and in a stone circle the priests1 by looking along the axis almost in an opposite direction1 could note the sunsets marking the completion of the half of the sun's yearly round in ,november and ,february4 ,now to those who know anything of the important contributions of ,grimm1 ,rhs1 ,frazer1 and many others we might name1 to our knowledge of the mythology1 worships1 and customs in the ,mediterranean basin and western ,europe1 an inspection of the first columns in the above tables will show that here we have a common meeting-ground for temple orientation1 vegetation and customs depending on it1 religious festivals1 and mythology4 ,from the ,egyptian times at least to our own a generic sun-god has been specifically commemorated in each of the named months4 ,generic customs with specific differences are as easily traced in the same months2 while generic vegetation with specific representatives proper to the season of the year has been so carefully regarded that even ,december1 though without ,may flowers or ,august harvests1 not to be outdone1 brings forward its offering in the shape of the berries of the mistletoe and holly4 ,about the mistletoe there is this difficulty4 ,innumerable traditions associate it with worship and the oak tree4 ,undoubtedly the year in question was the solstitial year1 so that so far as this goes the association is justified4 ,but as a rule the mistletoe does not grow on oaks4 ,this point has been frequently inquired into1 especially by ,dr4 ,henry ,ball 7,journal of ,botany1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfa1 #ahfd7 in relation to the growth of the plant in ,herefordshire1 and by a writer in the ,quarterly ,review 7vol4 cxiv471 who spoke of the mistletoe 8deserting the oak0 in modern times and stated1 8it is now so rarely found on that tree as to have led to the suggestion that we must look for the mistletoe of the ,druids1 not in the ,viscum album of our own trees and orchards1 but in the ,loranthus ,europaeus which is frequently found on oaks in the south of ,europe40 ,on this point ,i consulted two eminent botanical friends1 ,mr4 ,murray1 of the ,british ,museum1 and ,prof4 ,farmer1 from whom ,i have learned that the distribution of ,v4 album is in ,europe universal except north of ,norway and north of ,russia2 in ,india in the temperate ,himalayas from ,kashmir to ,nepaul1 altitude #cjjj to #gjjj feet4 ,the ,viscum aureum1 otherwise called ,loranthus ,europaeus1 is a near relation of the familiar mistletoe1 and in ,italy grows on the oak almost exclusively4 ,there are fifty species of ,loranthus in the ,indian flora1 but ,l4 ,europaeus does not occur4 ,in the ,viscum aureum we have the 8golden bough10 the oak-borne ,aurum frondens and ,ramus aureus of ,virgil2 and it can easily be imagined that when the ,druids reached our shores from a country which had supplied them with the ,viscum aureum1 this would be replaced by the ,v4 album growing chiefly on apple trees and not on oaks2 indeed1 ,mr4 ,davies1 in his 8,celtic ,researches10 tells us that the apple was the next sacred tree to the oak1 and that apple orchards were planted in the vicinity of the sacred groves4 ,the transplanting of the mistletoe from the apple to the oak tree before the mystic ceremonies began was not beyond the resources of priestcraft4 ,it must not be forgotten that these ceremonies took place at both solstices--once in ,june1 when the oak was in full leaf1 and again in ,december1 when the parasitic plant was better visible in the light of the young moon4 ,mr4 ,frazer1 in his 8,golden ,bough0 7iii4 p4 #cbh71 points out that at the summer solstice not only was mistletoe gathered1 but many other 8magic plants1 whose evanescent virtue can be secured at this mystic season alone40 ,it is the ripening of the berries at the winter solstice which secured for the mistletoe the paramount importance the ceremonials connected with it possessed at that time1 when the rest of the vegetable world was dormant4 ,with regard especially to the particular time of the year chosen for sun-worship and the worship of the gods and solar heroes connected with the years to which ,i have referred1 ,i may add that the vague year in ,egyptian chronology makes it a very difficult matter to determine the exact ,gregorian dates for the ancient ,egyptian festivals1 but1 fortunately1 there is another way of getting at them4 ,mr4 ,roland ,mitchell1 when compiling his valuable 8,egyptian ,calendar0 7,luzac and ,co41 #aijj71 found that the ,koptic calendar really presents to us the old ,egyptian year1 8which has been in use for thousands of years1 and has survived all the revolutions40 ,of the many festivals included in the calendar1 the great ,tanta fair1 which is also a ,mohammedan feast4 8is the most important of all held in ,egypt4 ,religion1 commerce1 and pleasure offer combined attractions40 ,as many as #fjj1jjj or #gjj1jjj often attend this great fair1 8no doubt the survival of one of the ancient ,egyptian national festivals40 ,it is held so as to end on a ,friday1 and in #aija the ,friday was ,august #i6 ,this naturally suggests that we should look for a feast in the early part of ,may4 ,we find the ,festival of ,al-,khidr1 or ,elias in the middle of the wheat harvest in ,lower ,egypt2 of this we read3-- 8,al-,khidr is a mysterious personage1 who1 according to learned opinion1 was a just man1 or saint1 the ,visr of ,dhu'l-,karnn 7who was a great conqueror1 contemporary with ,ibrahm--,abraham--and identified in other legends with ,alexander the ,great1 ,st4 ,george1 c474 ,al-,khidr1 it is believed1 still lives1 and will live until the ,day of ,judgment4 ,he is clad in green garments1 whence probably the name4 ,he is commonly identified with ,elias 7,elijah71 and this confusion seems due to a confusion or similarity of some of the attributes that tradition assigns to both40 8,the #8,festival of ,el-,khidr and of ,elias1' falling generally on ,may #f1 marks the two-fold division of the year1 in the ,turkish and ,armenian calendars1 into the ,rz ,ksim and the ,rz ,khidr 7of #agi-hj and #ahe-f days respectively740 ,this last paragraph is important1 as it points to ancient sun-worship1 ,helios being read for ,elias2 and #agi days from ,may #f bring us to ,november #a4 ,so we find that the modern ,turks and ,armenians have the old ,may-,november year as well as the ancient ,egyptians who celebrated it in the ,temple of ,menu at ,thebes4 ,the traces of the ,ptah worship are not so obvious4 ,finally1 it may be stated that the second ,tanta fair occurs at the spring equinox1 so that the pyramid worship can still be traced in the modern ,egyptian calendar4 ,the proof that this was an exotic#c is established1 ,i think1 by the fact that no important agricultural operations occur at this period in ,egypt1 while in ,may we have the harvest1 in ,august and ,november sowing1 going on4 ,a cursory examination of ,prof4 ,rhs' book containing the ,hibbert ,lectures of #ahhf1 in the light of these years1 used as clues1 suggests that in ,ireland the sequence was ,may-,november 7,fomori and ,fir ,bolg71 ,august-,february 7,lug and the ,tuatha ,d ,danann71 and1 lastly1 ,june-,december 7,cchulainn74 ,should this be confirmed we see that the farmers' years were the first to be established1 and it is interesting to note that the agricultural rent year in many parts of ,ireland still runs from ,may to ,november4 ,it is well also to bear in mind1 if it be established that the solstitial year did really arrive last1 that the facts recorded by ,mr4 ,frazer in his 8,golden ,bough0 indicate that the custom of lighting fires on hills has been in historic times most prevalent at the summer solstice2 evidently maps showing the geographical distribution of the ,may1 ,june1 and ,august fires would be of great value4 ,some customs of the ,may and ,august years are common to the solstitial and equinoctial years4 ,each was ushered in by fires on hills and the like2 flowers in ,may and the fruits of the earth in ,august are associated with them2 there are also special customs in the case of ,november4 ,in western ,europe1 however1 it does not seem that such traditions exist over such a large area as that over which the remnants of the solstitial practices have been traced4 ,i have pointed out that both the ,may and ,august years began when the sun had the same declination 7#af ,n4 or thereabouts72 once1 on its ascent from ,march to the summer solstice in ,june1 again in its decline from the solstice to ,september4 ,hence it may be more difficult in this case to disentangle and follow the mythology1 but the two years stand out here and there4 ,with regard to ,august1 ,mr4 ,penrose's orientation data for the ,panathena fix the #aith day 7,gregorian7 for the festival in the ,hecatompedon2 similar celebrations were not peculiar to western ,europe and ,greece1 as a comparison of dates of worship will show4 ,hecatompedon ,april #bh and ,august #af4 ,older ,erechtheum ,april #bi ,august #ac4 ,temple of ,diana1 ,ephesus ,april #bi ,august #ac4 ,min1 ,thebes ,may #a ,august #ab4 ,ptah1 ,memphis ,april #ah ,august #bd4 ,annu ,april #ah ,august #bd4 ,solar ,disc1 ,tell el-,amarna ,april #ah ,august #bd4 ,in the above table ,i have given both the dates on which the sunlight 7at rising or setting7 entered the temple1 but we do not know for certain1 except in the case of the ,hecatompedon1 on which of the two days the temples were used2 it is likely they were all used on both days1 and that the variation from the dates proper to the sun's declination of ,n4 #af indicates that they were very accurately oriented to fit the local vegetation conditions in the most important and extensive temple fields in the world4 ,this is the more probable because the ,jews also1 after they had left ,egypt1 established their feast of ,pentecost fifty days after ,easter ,may #aj1 on which day loaves made of newly harvested corn formed the chief offering4 ,with regard to the equinoctial year1 the most complete account of the temple arrangements is to be found in ,josephus touching that at ,jerusalem4 ,the temple had to be so erected that at the spring equinox the sunrise light should fall on1 and be reflected to1 the worshippers by the sardonyx stones on the high priest's garment4 ,at this festival the first barley was laid upon the altar4 ,but this worship was in full swing in ,egypt for thousands of years before we hear of it in connection with the ,jews4 ,it has left its temples at ,ephesus1 ,athens1 and other places1 and with the opening of this year as well as of the solstitial one the custom of lighting fires is associated1 not only on hills1 but also in churches4 ,here the sequence of cult cannot be mistaken4 ,we begin with ,isis and the young ,sun-god ,horus at the ,pyramids1 and we end with 8,lady ,day10 a ,british legal date2 while ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome is as truly oriented to the equinox as the ,pyramids themselves1 so that we have a distinct change of cult with no change of orientation4 ,if such considerations as these help us to connect ,egyptian with ,british worships we may hope that they will be no less useful when we go further afield4 ,i gather from a study of ,mr4 ,maudslay's admirable plans of ,palenque and ,chichn-,itz that the solstitial and farmers' years' worships were provided for there4 ,how did these worships and associated temples with naos and sphinxes#d get from ,egypt to ,yucatan8 ,the more we know of ancient travel the more we are convinced that it was coastwise1 that is1 from one point of visible land to the next4 ,are the cults as old as differences in the coast-lines which would most easily explain their wide distribution8 #c ,in ,babylonia the spring equinox was the critical time of the year because the ,tigris and ,euphrates then began to rise4 #d ,see ,dawn of ,astronomy1 ,plate facing p4 #ahb1 for the lines of sphinxes at ,karnak4 ,,chapter ,v ,,conditions ,,and ,,traditions ,,at ,,stonehenge ,after ,mr4 ,penrose1 by his admirable observations in ,greece1 had shown that the orientation theory accounted as satisfactorily for the directions in which the chief temples in ,greece had been built as ,i had shown it did for some in ,egypt1 it seemed important to apply the same methods of inquiry with all available accuracy to some example1 at all events1 of the various stone circles in ,britain which have so far escaped destruction4 ,many attempts had been previously made to secure data1 but the instruments and methods employed did not seem to be sufficient4 ,much time has1 indeed1 been lost in the investigation of a great many of these circles1 for the reason that in many cases the relations of the monuments to the chief points of the horizon have not been considered2 and when they were1 the observations were made only with reference to the magnetic north1 which is different at different places1 and besides is always varying2 few indeed have tried to get at the astronomical conditions of the problem4 ,the first1 ,i think1 was ,mr4 ,jonathan ,otley1 who in #ahdi showed the 8,orientation0 of the ,keswick ,circle 8according to the solar meridian10 giving true solar bearings throughout the year4 ,i wrote a good deal in ,nature#e on sun and star temples in #ahia1 and ,mr4 ,lewis the next year expressed the opinion that the ,british ,stone ,monuments1 or some of them1 were sun and star temples4 ,mr4 ,magnus ,spence of ,deerness in ,orkney published a pamphlet1 8,standing ,stones and ,maeshowe of ,stenness1#f0 in #ahid2 it is a reprint of an article in the ,scottish ,review1 ,oct4 #ahic4 ,mr4 ,cursiter1 ,f4,s4,a41 of ,kirkwall1 in a letter to me dated #ae ,march #ahid1 a letter suggested by my ,dawn of ,astronomy which appeared in that year and in which the articles which had appeared in ,nature in #ahia had been expanded1 drew my attention to the pamphlet2 the observations had no pretension to scientific accuracy1 and although some of the sight-lines were incorrectly shown in an accompanying map1 ,may year and solstitial alignments were indicated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so far as ,i know1 there has never been a complete inquiry into the stone circles in ,britain1 but ,mr4 ,lewis1 who has paid great attention to these matters1 has dealt in a general manner with them 7,archaeological ,journal1 vol4 xlix4 p4 #acf71 and has further described 7,journal ,anthropological ,institute1 n4s41 iii41 #aijj7 the observations made by him of stone circles in various parts of ,scotland4 ,from an examination of the latter he concludes that they may be divided into different types1 each of which has its centre in a different locality4 ,the types are--7#a7 the ,western ,scottish type1 consisting of a rather irregular single ring or sometimes of two concentric rings2 7#b7 the ,inverness type1 consisting of a more regular ring of better-shaped stones1 surrounding a tumulus with a retaining wall1 containing a built-up chamber and passage leading to it1 or a kist without a passage2 7#c7 the ,aberdeen type1 consisting of a similar ring with the addition of a so-called 8altar-stone0 and usually having traces of a tumulus and kist in the middle4 ,in addition to these three types of circles1 there are in ,britain generally what ,mr4 ,lewis calls sun and star circles1 with their alignments of stones1 and apparently proportioned measurements4 ,he has shown that there is a great preponderance of outlying stones and hill-tops lying between the circles and the ,n4,e4 quarter of the horizon4 ,from what has been stated in ,chapter ,,iii with regard to the nightly observations of stars it will be gathered that these may have been used for this purpose4 ,the following list gives some of the bearings of outlying stones and other circles from the centres of the named circles3-- ,roll-rich1 ,oxon4--,kingstone ,n4 #bg ,e4 ,stripple ,stones1 ,cornwall--,bastion on bank ,n4 #bf ,e4 ,long ,meg1 ,cumberland--,small circle ,n4 #bg ,e4 ,the ,hurlers1 ,cornwall--,two outlying circles ,n4 #ac-af ,e4 ,trippet ,stones--,leaze circle ,n4 #aa ,e4 ,if these alignments mean anything they must of course refer to the rising of stars1 as the position on the horizon is outside the sun's path4 ,the many circles in ,cornwall have been dealt with by ,mr4 ,lukis in a volume published by the ,society of ,antiquaries in #ahie4g ,a carefully prepared list of circles will be found in ,mr4 ,windle's recently published work entitled 8,remains of the ,prehistoric ,age in ,england40 ,it may be useful here to state1 with regard to megalithic remains generally1 that they may be classed as follows2 some details will be discussed later on4 7a7 ,circles4 ,these may be single1 double1 or multiple1 and either concentric or not4 7b7 ,menhirs1 large single stones1 used to mark sight-lines from circles4 7c7 ,alignments1 i4e41 lines of stones in single1 double1 or in many parallel lines4 ,if these alignments are short they are termed avenues4 7d7 ,holed-stones1 doubtless used for observing sight-lines1 sometimes over a circle4 7e7 ,coves4 ,a term applied by ,dr4 ,stukeley and others to what they considered shrines formed by three upright stones1 thus leaving one side open4 ,i take them to be partially protected observing places4 ,there are well-marked examples at ,avebury1 ,stanton ,drew and ,kit's ,coity ,house4 7f7 ,cromlechs4 ,this term generally means a grouping of upright stones2 it is applied to irregular circles in ,brittany4 ,it also applies to a stone or stones raised on the summits of three or more pillar stones forming the end and sides of an irregular vault generally open at one end 78,dolmens of ,ireland10 ,borlase1 p4 #dbi74 ,the top stone is called in ,s4,w4 ,england a 8quoit40 ,cromlechs in most cases have been covered by barrows or cairns4 7g7 ,dolmens1 from ,dol ,men1 a table stone4 ,these consist of stones1 resting on two or more upright stones forming a more or less complete chamber1 some of which are of great length4 ,i note the following subdivisions3 8,dolmen galerie0 having an entrance way of sufficient height1 and 8,galgal10 similar but smaller4 ,in the 8,dolmen l'alle couverte0 there is a covered passage way to the centre4 ,it is a more elaborate cove4 ,for the relation between cromlechs and dolmens1 see ,borlase 7loc4 cit4 and p4 #dbd et seq474 ,with regard to dolmens1 ,i give the following quotation from ,mr4 ,penrose 7,nature1 vol4 lxiv41 ,september #ab1 #aija73-- 8,near ,locmariaquer in the estuary named ,rivire d',auray1 there is an island named ,gavr' ,inis1 or ,goat ,island1 which contains a good specimen of the kind of dolmen which has been named #8,galgal4' 8,at the entrance our attention is at once arrested by the profusion of tracery which covers the walls4 ,from the entrance to the wall facing us the distance is between #ej and #fj feet4 ,the square chamber to which the gallery leads is composed of two huge slabs1 the sides of the room and gallery being composed of upright stones1 about a dozen on each side4 ,the mystic lines and hieroglyphics similar to those above mentioned appear to have a decorative character4 8,an interesting feature of ,gavr' ,inis is its remarkable resemblance to the ,new ,grange tumulus at ,meath4 ,in construction there is again a strong resemblance to ,ms-,howe1 in the island of ,orkney4 ,there is also some resemblance in smaller details40 ,while we generally have circles in ,britain without1 or with small1 alignments2 in ,brittany we have alignments without circles1 some of them being on an enormous scale2#h thus at ,menec 7the place of stones7 we have eleven lines of menhirs1 terminating towards the west in a cromlech1 and1 notwithstanding that great numbers have been converted to other uses1 #aafi menhirs still remain1 some reaching as much as #ah feet in height4 ,the alignments of ,kermario 7the place of the dead7 contain #ihi menhirs in ten lines4 ,those of ,kerlescant 7the place of burning71 which beginning with eleven rows are afterwards increased to thirteen1 contain altogether #egi stones and thirty-nine in the cromlech1 with some additional stones4 ,the adoration paid these stones yielded very slowly to ,christianity4 ,in the church history of ,brittany the ,cultus ,lapidum was denounced in #feh ,a4,d4 ,many of the fallen menhirs in these alignments have been restored to their upright position by the ,french ,government4 ,some of them may have been overturned in compliance with the decree of #feh ,a4,d4 above referred to4 ,several of the loftier menhirs are surmounted by crosses of stone or iron4 ,both circles and alignments are associated with holidays and the lighting of fires on certain days of the year4 ,this custom has remained more general in ,brittany than in ,britain4 ,at ,mount ,st4 ,michael1 near ,carnac1 the custom still prevails of lighting a large bonfire on its summit at the time of the summer solstice2 others1 kindled on prominent eminences for a distance of twenty or thirty miles round1 reply to it4 ,these fires are locally called 8,tan ,heol10 and also by a later use1 ,tan ,st4 ,jean4 ,in ,scotland there was a similar custom in the first week in ,may under the name of ,bel ,tan1 or ,baal's ,fire2 the synonym for summer used by ,sir ,walter ,scott in the 8,lady of the ,lake03-- ,ours is no sapling chance-sown by the fountain1 ,blooming at ,beltane in winter to fade4 ,at ,kerlescant the winter solstice is celebrated by a holiday1 whilst ,menec greets the summer solstice1 and ,kermario the equinoxes1 with festivals4 ,concerning these fires and the associated customs ,mr4 ,frazer's 8,golden ,bough0 is a perfect mine of information and should be consulted4 ,it may simply be said here that the ,may and ,november1 and ,june and ,december fires seem to be the most ancient4 ,it is stated that the ,balder bale fires on ,mayday ,eve were recognised by the primitive race1 and ,i shall prove this in the sequel when ,british customs are referred to4 ,on the introduction of ,christianity the various customs were either transferred to or reorganised in association with church festivals2 but as some of these1 such as ,easter1 are movable feasts1 it is difficult to follow the dates4 ,regarding both circles and alignments in the light of the orientation theory1 we may consider simple circles with a central stone as a collection of sight-lines from the central stone to one or more of the outer ones1 or the interval between any two2 indicating the place of the rise or setting of either the sun or a star on some particular day of the year1 which day1 in the case of the sun1 will be a new year's day4 ,alignments1 on the other hand1 will play the same part as the sight-lines in the circles4 ,sometimes the sight-line may be indicated by a menhir outside1 and even at a considerable distance from1 the circle2 later on tumuli replaced menhirs4 ,the dolmens have1 ,i am convinced1 been in many cases not graves originally1 but darkened observing places whence to observe along a sight-line2 this would be best done by means of an alle couverte1 the predecessor of the darkened naos at ,stonehenge1 shielded by its covered trilithons4 ,in order to obtain some measurements to test the orientation theory in ,britain1 ,i found that ,stonehenge is the ancient monument in this country which lends itself to accurate theodolite work better than any other4 ,mr4 ,spence's excellent work on astronomical lines at ,stenness1 where the stones1 till some years ago at all events1 have been more respected than further south1 suggested a beginning there1 but the distance from ,london made it impossible4 ,avebury and ,stanton ,drew are well known to a great many archologists2 there are also other very wonderful stone circles near ,keswick and in other parts of ,england2 but unfortunately it is very much more difficult to get astronomical data from these ancient monuments than it is in the case of ,stonehenge1 one reason being that ,stonehenge itself lies high1 and the horizon round it in all directions is pretty nearly the same height1 so that the important question of the heights of the hills along the sight-line--a matter which is fundamental from an astronomical point of view1 although it has been neglected1 so far as ,i can make out1 by most who have made observations on these ancient monuments--is quite a simple one at ,stonehenge4 ,hence it was much easier to determine a date there than by working at any of the other ancient remains to which ,i have referred4 ,in orientation generally--such orientation as has been dealt with by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself in ,egypt and in ,greece--the question frequently was a change in direction in the axis of a temple1 or the laying down of the axis of a temple1 by means of observations of stars4 ,unfortunately for us as archologists1 not as astronomers1 the changes of position of the stars1 owing to certain causes1 chiefly the precessional movement1 are very considerable2 so that if a temple pointed to a star in one year1 in two or three hundred years it would no longer point to the same star1 but to another4 ,these star observations were requisite in order to warn the priests about an hour before sunrise so that they might prepare for the morning sacrifice which always took place at the first appearance of the sun4 ,hence the morning star to be visible in the dawn must be a bright one1 and the further north or south of the sun's rising place it rose1 the more easily it would be seen4 ,some stars so chosen rose not far from the north point of the horizon4 ,the alignments with small azimuths referred to in the ,british circles 7p4 #cf7 ,i believe to be connected with the ,egyptian and ,greek practice4 ,acting on a very old tradition1 some people from ,salisbury and other surrounding places go to observe the sunrise on the longest day of the year at ,stonehenge4 ,we therefore are perfectly justified in assuming that it was a solar temple used for observation in the height of midsummer4 ,but at dawn in midsummer in these latitudes the sky is so bright that it is not easy to see stars even if we get up in the morning to look for them2 stars1 therefore1 were not in question1 so that some other principle had to be adopted1 and that was to point the temple directly to the position on the horizon at which the sun rose on that particular day of the year1 and no other4 ,now1 if there were no change in the position of the sun1 that1 of course1 would go on for ever and ever2 but1 fortunately for archologists1 there is a slight change in the position of the sun1 as there is in the case of a star1 but for a different reason2 the planes of the ecliptic and of the equator undergo a slight change in the angle included between them4 ,so far as we know1 that angle has been gradually getting less for many thousands of years1 so that1 in the case of ,stonehenge1 if we wish to determine the date1 having no stars to help us1 the only thing that we can hope to get any information from is the very slow change of this angle2 that1 therefore1 was the special point which ,mr4 ,penrose and ,i were anxious to study at ,stonehenge1 for the reason that we seemed in a position to do it there more conveniently than anywhere else in ,britain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,the original tooling of the stone protected from the action of the weather4 ,but while the astronomical conditions are better at ,stonehenge than elsewhere1 the ruined state of the monument makes accurate measurements very difficult4 ,great age and the action of weather are responsible for much havoc1 so that very many of the stones are now recumbent1 as will be gathered from an article by ,mr4 ,lewis1 who described the condition of the monument in #aija1 in ,man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,view of ,stonehenge from the west4 ,a1 stone which fell in #aijj2 ,,bb1 stones which fell in #agig4 7,reproduced from an article on the fallen stones by ,mr4 ,lewis in ,man47 ,professor ,gowland in his excavations at ,stonehenge1 to which ,i shall refer in the sequel1 found the original tooled surface near the bottom of one of the large sarsens which had been protected from the action of the weather by having been buried in the ground4 ,it enables us to imagine the appearance of the monument as it left the hands of the builders 7,fig4 #h74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,copy of ,hoare's plan of #ahaj1 showing the unbroken ,vallum and its relation with the ,avenue4 ,but the real destructive agent has been man himself2 savages could not have played more havoc with the monument than the ,english who have visited it at different times for different purposes4 ,it is said the fall of one great stone was caused in #afbj by some excavations1 but this has been doubted2 the fall of another in #agig was caused by gipsies digging a hole in which to shelter1 and boil their kettle2 many of the stones have been used for building walls and bridges2 masses weighing from #ef lb4 downwards have been broken off by hammers or cracked off as a result of fires lighted by excursionists4 ,it appears that the temenos wall or vallum1 which is shown complete in ,hoare's plan of #ahaj1 is now broken down in many places by vehicles indiscriminately driven over it4 ,indeed1 its original importance has now become so obliterated that many do not notice it as part of the structure--that1 in fact1 it bears the same relation to the interior stone circle as the nave of ,st4 ,paul's does to the ,lady ,chapel 7,fig4 #aj74 ,it is within the knowledge of all interested in archology that not long ago ,sir ,edmund ,antrobus1 the owner of ,stonehenge1 advised by the famous ,wiltshire local society1 the ,society for the ,protection of ,ancient ,buildings1 and the ,society of ,antiquaries1 enclosed the monument in order to preserve it from further wanton destruction1 and--a first step in the way of restoration--with the skilled assistance of ,prof4 ,gowland and ,messrs4 ,carruthers1 ,detmar ,blow and ,stallybrass1 set upright the most important menhir1 which threatened to fall or else break off at one of the cracks4 ,this menhir1 the so-called 8leaning stone10 once formed one of the uprights of the trilithon the fall of the other member of which is stated by ,mr4 ,lewis to have occurred before #aegd4 ,the latter1 broken in two pieces1 and the supported impost1 now lie prostrate across the altar stone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the ,leaning ,stone in #aija4 ,this piece of work was carried out with consummate skill and care1 and most important conclusions1 as we shall see in a subsequent chapter1 were derived from the minute inquiry into the conditions revealed in the excavations which were necessary for the proper conduct of the work4 ,let us hope that we have heard the last of the work of devastators1 and even that1 before long1 some of the other larger stones1 now inclined or prostrate1 may be set upright4 ,since ,sir ,edmund ,antrobus1 the present owner1 has acted on the advice of the societies ,i have named to enclose the monument1 with a view to guard it from destruction and desecration1 he has been assailed on all sides4 ,it is not a little surprising that the 8unclimbable wire fence0 recommended by the societies in question 7the ,bishop of ,bristol being the president of the ,wiltshire society at the time7 is by some regarded as a suggestion that the property is not national1 the fact being that the nation has not bought the property1 and that it has been private property for centuries1 and treated in the way we have seen4 ,let us hope also that before long the gaps in the vallum may be filled up4 ,these1 as ,i have already stated1 take away from the meaning of an important part of one of the most imposing monuments of the world4 ,in the meantime1 it is comforting to know that1 thanks to what ,sir ,edmund ,antrobus has done1 no more stones will be stolen1 or broken by sledge-hammers2 that fires2 that excavations such as were apparently the prime cause of the disastrous fall of one of the majestic trilithons in #agig2 that litter1 broken bottles and the like1 with which too many ,british sightseers mark their progress1 besides much indecent desecration1 are things of the past4 ,if ,stonehenge had been built in ,italy1 or ,france1 or ,germany1 it would have been in charge of the ,state long ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i now pass from the monument itself to a reference to some of the traditions and historical statements concerning it4 ,those who are interested in these matters should thank the ,wiltshire ,archological and ,natural ,history ,society1 which is to be warmly congratulated on its persistent and admirable efforts to do all in its power to enable the whole nation to learn about the venerable monuments of antiquity which it has practically taken under its scientific charge4 ,it has published two most important volumes#i dealing specially with ,stonehenge1 including both its traditions and history4 ,with regard to ,mr4 ,long's memoir1 it may be stated that it includes important extracts from notices of ,stonehenge from the time of ,henry of ,huntingdon 7twelfth century7 to ,hoare 7#ahab71 and that all extant information is given touching on the questions by whom the stones were erected1 whence they came1 and what was the object of the structure4 ,from ,mr4 ,harrison's more recently published bibliography1 no reference to ,stonehenge by any ancient author1 no letter to the ,times for the last twenty years dealing with any question touching the monuments1 seems to be omitted4 ,it is very sad to read1 both in ,mr4 ,long's volume and the bibliography1 of the devastation which has been allowed to go on for so many years and of the various forms it has taken4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as almost the whole of the notes which follow deal with the assumption of ,stonehenge having been a solar temple1 a short reference to the earliest statements concerning this view is desirable2 and1 again1 as the approximate date arrived at by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself in #aija is an early one1 a few words may be added indicating the presence in ,britain at that time of a race of men capable of designing and executing such work4 ,i quote from the paper communicated by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself to the ,royal ,society3-- 8,as to the first point1 ,diodorus ,siculus 7ii41 #dg1 ed4 ,didot1 p4 #aaf7 has preserved a statement of ,hecatus in which ,stonehenge alone can by any probability be referred to4 8#8,we think that no one will consider it foreign to our subject to say a word respecting the ,hyperboreans4 8#8,amongst the writers who have occupied themselves with the mythology of the ancients1 ,hecatus and some others tell us that opposite the land of the ,celts there exists in the ,ocean an island not smaller than ,sicily1 and which1 situated under the constellation of ,the ,bear1 is inhabited by the ,hyperboreans2 so called because they live beyond the point from which the ,north wind blows4444 ,if one may believe the same mythology1 ,latona was born in this island1 and for that reason the inhabitants honour ,apollo more than any other deity4 ,a sacred enclosure is dedicated to him in the island1 as well as a magnificent circular temple adorned with many rich offerings4444 ,the ,hyperboreans are in general very friendly to the ,greeks4'0 8,the ,hecatus above referred to was probably ,hecatus of ,abdera1 in ,thrace1 fourth century ,b4,c42 a friend of ,alexander the ,great4 ,this ,hecatus is said to have written a history of the ,hyperboreans3 that it was ,hecatus of ,miletus1 an historian of the sixth century ,b4,c41 is less likely4 8,as to the second point1 although we cannot go so far back in evidence of the power and civilisation of the ,britons1 there is an argument of some value to be drawn from the fine character of the coinage issued by ,british kings early in the second century ,b4,c41 and from the statement of ,julius ,csar 7#8,de ,bello ,gallico1' vi41 c4 #ad7 that in the schools of the ,druids the subjects taught included the movements of the stars1 the size of the earth1 and the nature of things 7multa prterea de sideribus et eorum motu1 de mundi magnitudine1 de rerum natura1 de deorum immortalium vi ac potestate disputant et juventuti tradunt74 8,studies of such a character seem quite consistent with1 and to demand1 a long antecedent period of civilisation40 ,henry of ,huntingdon is the first ,english writer to refer to ,stonehenge1 which he calls ,stanenges4 ,geoffrey of ,monmouth 7#aach7 and ,giraldus ,cambrensis come next4 ,in #agga1 ,dr4 ,john ,smith1 in a work entitled 8,choir ,gawr1 the ,grand ,orrery of the ,ancient ,druids1 called ,stonehenge1 ,astronomically ,explained1 and proved to be a ,temple for ,observing the ,motions of the ,heavenly ,bodies10 wrote as follows3-- 8,from many and repeated visits1 ,i conceived it to be an astronomical temple2 and from what ,i could recollect to have read of it1 no author had as yet investigated its uses4 ,without an instrument or any assistance whatever1 but ,white's #8,ephemeris1' ,i began my survey4 ,i suspected the stone called ,the ,friar's ,heel to be the index that would disclose the uses of this structure2 nor was ,i deceived4 ,this stone stands in a right line with the centre of the temple1 pointing to the north-east4 ,i first drew a circle round the vallum of the ditch and divided it into #cfj equal parts2 and then a right line through the body of the temple to the ,friar's ,heel2 at the intersection of these lines ,i reckoned the sun's greatest amplitude at the summer solstice1 in this latitude1 to be about #fj degrees1 and fixed the eastern points accordingly4 ,pursuing this plan1 ,i soon discovered the uses of all the detached stones1 as well as those that formed the body of the temple40 ,with regard to this 8,choir ,gawr10 translated ,chorea ,gigantum1 ,leland's opinion is quoted 7,long1 p4 #ea7 that we should read ,choir vawr1 the equivalent of which is ,chorea nobilis or magna4#aj ,in spite of ,inigo ,jones's 7#afjj7 dictum that ,stonehenge was of ,roman origin1 ,stukeley came to the conclusion in #agbc that the ,druids were responsible for its building2 and ,halley1 who visited it in #agbj--probably with ,stukeley--concluded from the weathering of the stones that it was at least #cjjj years old2 if he only had taken his theodolite with him1 how much his interest in the monument would have been increased6 #e ,see especially ,nature1 ,july #b1 #ahia p4 #bja4 #f ,gardner1 ,paisley and ,london4 #g 8,the ,prehistoric ,stone ,monuments of the ,british ,isles--,cornwall40 #h 8,the ,french ,stonehenge3 ,an ,account of the ,principal ,megalithic ,remains in the ,morbihan ,archipelago40 ,by ,t4 ,cato ,worsfold1 ,f4 ,r4 ,hist4 ,s41 ,f4,r4,s4,i4 7,london3 ,bemrose and ,sons1 ,ltd47 #i ,the ,wiltshire ,archaeological and ,natural ,history ,magazine3 8,stonehenge and its ,barrows40 ,by ,william ,long1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,s4,a4 #ahgf4 ,the ,wiltshire ,archaeological and ,natural ,history ,magazine3 8,stonehenge ,bibliography ,number40 ,by ,w4 ,jerome ,harrison4 #aijb4 #aj ,mr4 ,morien ,morgan informs me that ,cor y ,gawres is correct1 and means ,choir of the ,giantess ,cariadwen1 the ,welsh ,neith1 ,nyth 7,nydd74 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,general ,,architecture ,,of ,,stonehenge ,although ,i have before hinted that the astronomical use of the ,egyptian temples and ,british circles was the same1 there is at first sight a vast difference in the general plan of structure4 ,this has chiefly depended upon the fact that the riches and population of ancient ,egypt were so great that that people could afford to build a temple to a particular star1 or to the sun's position on any particular day of the year4 ,the temple axis along the line pointing to the celestial body involved1 then became the chief feature1 and tens of years were spent in lengthening1 constricting and embellishing it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,the axis of the ,temple of ,karnak1 looking south-east1 from outside the north-west pylon 7from a photograph by the author74 ,from one end of an ,egyptian temple to the other we find the axis marked out by narrow apertures in the various pylons1 and many walls with doors crossing the axis4 ,there are seventeen or eighteen of these apertures in the solar temple of ,amen-,r at ,karnak1 limiting the light which falls into the ,holy of ,holies or ,sanctuary4 ,this construction gives one a very definite impression that every part of the temple was built to subserve a special object1 viz41 to limit the sunlight which fell on its front into a narrow beam1 and to carry it to the other extremity of the temple--into the sanctuary1 where the high priest performed his functions4 ,the sanctuary was always blocked4 ,there is no case in which the beam of light can pass absolutely through a temple 7,figs4 #ab and #ac74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,plan of the ,temple of ,ramses ,,ii4 in the ,memnonia at ,thebes 7from ,lepsius71 showing the pylon at the open end1 the various doors along the axis1 the sanctuary at the closed end1 and the temple at right angles4 ,in ,britain the case was different1 there was neither skill nor workers sufficient to erect such stately piles1 and as a consequence one structure had to do the work of several and it had to be done in the most economical way4 ,hence the circle with the observer at the centre and practically a temple axis in every direction among which could be chosen the chief directions required1 each alignment being defined by stones1 more or less distant1 or openings in the circle itself4 ,now for some particulars with regard to those parts of ,stonehenge which lend themselves to the inquiry4 ,the main architecture of ,stonehenge consisted of an external circle of about #ajj feet in diameter1 composed of thirty large upright stones1 named sarsens1 connected by continuous lintels4 ,the upright stones formerly stood #ad feet above the surface of the ground4 ,they have nobs or tenons on the top which fit into mortice holes in the lintels4 ,within this peristyle there was originally an inner structure of ten still larger upright stones1 arranged in the shape of a horseshoe1 formed by five isolated trilithons which rose progressively from ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w41 the loftiest stones being #be feet above the ground4 ,about one-half of these uprights have fallen1 and a still greater number of the imposts which they originally carried4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,one of the remaining ,trilithons4 ,there is also another circle of smaller upright stones1 respecting which the only point requiring notice now is that none of them would have interrupted the line of the axis of the avenue4 ,the circular temple was also surrounded by the earthen bank1 shown in ,fig4 #ae1 of about #cjj feet in diameter1 interrupted towards the north-east by receiving into itself the banks forming the avenue before mentioned1 which is about #ej feet across4 ,within this avenue1 no doubt an old via sacra1 and looking north-east from the centre of the temple1 at about #bej feet distance and considerably to the right hand of the axis1 stands an isolated stone1 which from a medival legend has been named the ,friar's ,heel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,general plan2 the outer circle1 naos and avenue of ,stonehenge4 ,f4,h4 ,friar's ,heel4 ,the axis passes very nearly centrally through an intercolumniation 7so to call it7 between two uprights of the external circle and between the uprights of the westernmost trilithon as it originally stood4 ,of this trilithon the southernmost upright with the lintel stone fell in #afbj1 but the companion survived as the leaning stone which formed a conspicuous and picturesque object for many years1 but happily now restored to its original more dignified and safer condition of vertically4 ,the inclination of this stone1 however1 took place in the direction of the axis of the avenue1 and as the distance between it and its original companion is known both by the analogy of the two perfect trilithons and by the measure of the mortice holes on the lintel they formerly supported1 we obtain by bisection the distance1 #aa inches1 from its edge1 of a point in the continuation of the central axis of the avenue and temple4 ,the banks which form the avenue have suffered much degradation4 ,it appears from ,sir ,richard ,colt ,hoare's account that at the beginning of the last century they were distinguishable for a much greater distance than at present1 but they are still discernible1 especially on the northern side1 for more than #acjj feet from the centre of the temple1 and particularly the line of the bottom of the ditch from which the earth was taken to form the bank1 and which runs parallel to it4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,astronomical ,,observations ,,at ,,stonehenge ,,in #aijaaa ,an investigation was undertaken by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself in the spring of #aija1 as a sequel to analogous work in ,egypt and ,greece1 with a view to determine whether the orientation theory could throw any light upon the date of the foundation of ,stonehenge1 concerning which authorities vary in their estimates by some thousands of years4 ,ours was not the first attempt to obtain the date of ,stonehenge by means of astronomical considerations4 ,in ,mr4 ,godfrey ,higgins' work#ab he refers to a method of attack connected with precession4 ,this furnished him with the date #djjj ,b4,c4 ,more recently1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1#ac whose plan of the stones is a valuable contribution to the study of ,stonehenge1 was led by his measures of the orientation to a date very greatly in the opposite direction1 but1 owing to an error in his application of the change of obliquity1 clearly a mistaken one4 ,the chief astronomical evidence in favour of the solar temple theory lies in the fact that the 8avenue10 as it is called1 formed by two ancient earthen banks1 extends for a considerable distance from the structure1 in the general direction of the sunrise at the summer solstice1 precisely in the same way as in ,egypt a long avenue of sphinxes indicates the principal outlook of a temple4 ,these earthen banks defining the avenue do not exist alone4 ,as will be seen from the sketch plan 7,fig4 #ae71 there is a general common line of direction for the avenue and the principal axis of the structure2 and the general design of the building1 together with the position and shape of the naos1 indicates a close connection of the whole temple structure with the direction of the avenue4 ,there may have been other pylon and screen equivalents as in other ancient temples1 which have disappeared1 the object being to confine the illumination to a small part of the naos4 ,there can be little doubt1 also1 that the temple was originally roofed in1 and that the sun's first ray1 suddenly shining into the darkness1 formed a fundamental part of the cultus4 ,with regard to the question of the roof1 however1 the above suggestion1 ,i now find1 is not new1 the view having been held by no less an authority than ,dr4 ,thurnham1 who apparently was led to it by the representations of the ,scandinavian temples as covered and enclosed structures4 ,since the actual observation of sunrise was doubtless made within the sanctuary itself1 we seem justified in taking the orientation of the axis to be the same as that of the avenue1 and since in the present state of the ,s4,w4 trilithon the direction of the avenue can probably be determined with greater accuracy than that of the temple axis itself1 the estimate of date must be based upon the orientation of the avenue4 ,further evidence will be given1 however1 to show that the direction of the axis of the temple1 so far as it can now be determined1 is sufficiently accordant with the direction of the avenue4 ,the orientation of this avenue may be examined upon the same principles that have been found successful in the case of ,greek and ,egyptian temples--that is1 on the assumption that ,stonehenge was a solar temple1 and that the greatest function took place at sunrise on the longest day of the year4 ,this not only had a religious motive2 it had also the economic value of marking officially and distinctly that time of the year and the beginning of an annual period4 ,it is1 indeed1 possible that the present structure may have had other capabilities1 such as being connected with the ,may year1 the equinoxes or the winter solstice2 but it is with its uses at the summer solstice alone that we now deal4 ,there is a difference in treatment between the observations required for ,stonehenge and those which are available for ,greek or ,egyptian solar temples4 ,in the case of the latter1 the effect of the precession of the equinoxes upon the stars1 which as warning clock stars were almost invariably connected with those temples1 offers the best measure of the dates of foundation2 but in ,britain1 owing to the brightness of the dawn at the summer solstice1 such a star could not have been employed1 so that we can rely only on the secular change of the obliquity as affecting the azimuth of the point of sunrise4 ,this requires the measurements to be taken with very great precision1 and as the azimuth of the place of sunrise varies with the latitude1 and as a datum point on the horizon in a known position was also required1 ,colonel ,johnston1 ,r4,e41 the ,director-,general of the ,ordnance ,survey1 was asked for and obligingly supplied the following particulars3 ,lat4 #ea #aj #db ,centre of stone circle1 ,stonehenge ,long4 ,w4 #a #di #ii ,lat4 #ea #c #eb ,centre of spire1 ,salisbury ,cathedral ,long4 #a #dg #de ,the real point was to determine the direction of the so-called avenue4 ,measurements taken from the line of the bottom of the ditch assisted materially those taken from the crown of the bank itself4 ,with this help and by using the southern bank and ditch whenever it admitted of recognition1 a fair estimate of the central line could be arrived at4 ,to verify this1 two pegs were placed at points #adj feet apart along the line near the commencement of the avenue1 and four others at distances averaging #ajj feet apart nearer the further recognisable extremity1 and their directions were measured with the theodolite1 independently by two observers1 the reference point being ,salisbury ,spire1 of which the exact bearing had been communicated by ,colonel ,johnston4 ,this bearing was also measured locally by observations of the ,sun and of ,polaris1 the mean of which differed by less than #bj from the ,ordnance value4 ,the resulting observations gave for the axis of the avenue nearest the commencement an azimuth of #di #ch #dh1 and for that of the more distant part #di #cb #ed4 ,the mean of these two lines drawn from the central interval of the great trilithon1 already referred to1 passes between two of the sarsens of the exterior circle1 which have an opening of about #d feet1 within a few inches of their middle point1 the deviation being northwards4 ,this may be considered to prove the close coincidence of the original axis of the temple with the direction of the avenue4 ,this value of the azimuth1 the mean of which is #di #ce #ea1 is confirmed by the information1 also supplied from the ,ordnance ,survey1 that from the centre of the temple1 the bearing to the ,n4,e4 of the principal bench mark on a hill1 about #h miles distant1 the bench mark being very near a well-known ancient fortified ,british encampment named ,silbury or ,sidbury1 is #di #cd #ah2 and that the same line continued through ,stonehenge1 to the south-west1 strikes another ancient fortification1 namely1 ,grovely ,castle1 about #f miles distant1 and at practically the same azimuth1 viz41 #di #ce #ea4 ,for the above reasons #di #cd #ah has been adopted for the azimuth of the avenue4 ,the summer solstice sunrise in #aija was also watched for by ,mr4 ,howard ,payn on five successive mornings1 viz41 ,june #ba to #be1 and was successfully observed on the last occasion4 ,as soon as the ,sun's limb was sufficiently above the horizon for its bisection to be well measured1 it was found to be #h #dj northwards of the peak of the ,friar's ,heel1 which was used as the reference point2 the altitude of the horizon being #ce #dh4 ,the azimuth of this peak from the point of observation had been previously ascertained to be #ej #ci #e1 giving for that of the ,sun when measured1 #ej #cj #be2 by calculation that of the ,sun1 with the limb #b above the horizon1 should be #ej #cj #ed4 ,this observation was therefore completely in accordance with the results which had been obtained otherwise4 ,the time which would elapse between geometrical sunrise1 that is1 with the upper limb tangential with the horizon1 and that which is here supposed1 would be about #ag seconds1 and the difference of azimuth would be #c #ae4 ,the remaining point was to find what value should be given to the ,sun's declination when it appeared showing itself #b above the horizon1 the azimuth being #di #cd #ah4 ,the data obtained for the determination of the required epoch were as follows3-- 7#a47 ,the elevation of the local horizon at the sunrise point seen by a man standing between the uprights of the great trilithon 7a distance of about #hjjj feet7 is about #ce #cj1 and #b additional for ,sun's upper limb makes #cg #cj4 7#b47 -,refraction parallax1 #bg #bj4 7#c47 ,sun's semi-diameter1 allowance being made for greater eccentricity than at present1 #ae #de4 7#d47 ,sun's azimuth1 #di #cd #ah1 and ,n4 latitude1 #ea #aj #db4 ,from the above data the ,sun's declination works out #bc #ed #cj ,n41 and by ,stockwell's tables of the obliquity1 which are based upon modern determinations of the elements of the solar system1#ad the date is found to be #afhj ,b4,c4 ,it is to be understood that on account of the slight uncertainty as to the original line of observation and the very slow rate of change in the obliquity of the ecliptic1 the date thus derived may possibly be in error by #bjj years more or less2 this gives us a date of construction lying between say #aijj and #aejj ,b4,c4 ,in this investigation the so-called ,friar's ,heel was used only as a convenient point for reference and verification in measurement1 and no theory was formed as to its purpose4 ,it is placed at some distance1 as before mentioned1 to the south of the axis of the avenue1 so that at the date arrived at for the erection of the temple the ,sun must have completely risen before it was vertically over the summit of the stone4 ,it may be remarked1 further1 that more than #ejj years must yet elapse before such a coincidence can take place at the beginning of sunrise4 ,in an ,appendix certain details of the observations are given4 ,in the next chapter ,i propose to show that an independent archological inquiry carried out1 in a most complete and admirable way1 just after ,mr4 ,penrose and myself had obtained our conclusion1 entirely corroborates the date at which we had arrived4 #aa ,this chapter and the end of the previous one are mainly based on the paper communicated by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself to the ,royal ,society 7see ,proceedings1 ,royal ,society1 vol4 #fi1 p4 #acg et seq474 #ab ,the ,celtic ,druids4 #dto4 ,london4 #ahbg4 #ac ,stonehenge1 c4 #ahhj4 #ad ,smithsonian ,contributions to ,knowledge1 vol4 xviii4 ,no4 #bcb1 table #i4 ,washington4 #ahgc4 ,for curve1 see page #acj4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,arch,,ological ,,observations ,,at ,,stonehenge1 #aija ,soon after ,mr4 ,penrose and myself had made our astronomical survey of ,stonehenge in #aija1 some archological results of the highest importance were obtained by ,professor ,gowland4 ,the operations which secured them were designed and carried out in order to re-erect the leaning stone which threatened to fall1 a piece of work recommended to ,sir ,edmund ,antrobus by the ,society of ,antiquaries of ,london and other learned bodies1 and conducted at his desire and expense4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,the arrangements for raising the stone1 looking north-east4 ,they were necessarily on a large scale1 for the great monolith1 8the leaning stone10 is the largest in ,england1 the ,rudston monolith excepted4 ,it stood behind the altar stone1 over which it leant at an angle of #fe degrees1 resting at one point against a small stone of syenite4 ,half-way up it had a fracture one-third across it2 the weight of stone above this fracture was a dangerous strain on it1 so that both powerful machinery and great care and precautions had to be used4 ,professor ,gowland was charged by the ,society of ,antiquaries with the conduct of the excavations necessary in the work4 ,the engineering operations were planned by ,mr4 ,carruthers1 and ,mr4 ,detmar ,blow was responsible for the local superintendence4 ,mr4 ,blow thus describes the arrangements 7,journal ,institute of ,british ,architects1 #crd series1 ix41 ,january1 #aijb73-- 8,a strong cradle of #ab-;inch square baulks of timber was bolted round the stone1 with packing and felt1 to prevent any marking of the stone4 ,to the cradle were fixed two #a-;inch steel eyebolts to receive the blocks for two six-folds of #f-;inch ropes4 ,these were secured and wound on to two strong winches fifty feet away1 with four men at each winch4 ,when the ropes were thoroughly tight1 the first excavation was made as the stone was raised on its west side40 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,the cradle and supports1 looking west4 ,the method employed by ,professor ,gowland in the excavation should be a model for all future work of the kind4 ,above each space to be excavated was placed a frame of wood1 bearing on its long sides the letters ,a to ,h1 and on its short sides the letters ,r ,m ,l1 each letter being on a line one foot distant from the next4 ,by this means the area to be excavated was divided into squares each having the dimension of a square foot4 ,a long rod divided into #f-;inch spaces1 numbered from #a to #af1 was also provided for indicating the depth from the datum line of anything found4 ,in this way a letter on the long sides of the frame1 together with one on the short sides1 and a number on the vertical rod1 indicated the position of any object found in any part of the excavation4 ,excavations were necessary because to secure the stone for the future the whole of the adjacent soil had to be removed down to the rock level1 so that it could be replaced by concrete4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,the frame used to locate the finds4 ,all results were registered by ,professor ,gowland in relation to a datum line #ccgd feet above sea level4 ,the material was removed in buckets1 and carefully sifted through a series of sieves #a-;inch1 -inch1 -inch1 and -inch mesh1 in order that the smallest object might not be overlooked4 ,from the exhaustive account of his work given by ,professor ,gowland to the ,society of ,antiquaries 7,archaeologia1 lviii471 ,i gather three results of the highest importance from the point of view ,i am considering4 ,these were1 first1 the finding of an enormous number of implements2 secondly1 the disposition and relative quantities of the chippings of the sarsen and blue stones2 and thirdly1 the discovery of the method by which the stones were originally erected4 ,i will take the implements first4 ,this1 in a condensed form1 is what ,professor ,gowland says about them3-- ,more than a hundred flint implements were found1 and the greater number occurred in the stratum of chalk rubble which either directly overlaid or was on a level with the bed rock4 ,they may all be arranged generally in the following classes3-- ,class ,i4--,axes roughly chipped and of rude forms1 but having well-defined1 more or less sharp cutting edges4 ,class ,,ii4--,hammerstones1 with more or less well-chipped1 sharp curved edges4 ,most may be correctly termed hammer-axes4 ,they are chipped to an edge at one end1 but at the other are broad and thick1 and in many examples terminated there by a more or less flat surface4 ,in some the natural coating of the flint is left untouched at the thick end4 ,class ,,iii4--,hammerstones1 more or less rounded4 ,some specimens appear to have once had distinct working edges1 but they are now much blunted and battered by use4 ,in addition to the above flint implements were found about thirty hammerstones1 consisting of large pebbles or small boulders of the hard quartzite variety of sarsen4 ,some have been roughly broken into convenient forms for holding in the hand1 whilst a few have been rudely trimmed into more regular shapes4 ,they vary in weight from about a pound up to six and a half pounds4 ,to these we have to add mauls1 a more remarkable kind of hammerstone than those just enumerated4 ,they are ponderous boulders of the quartzite variety of sarsen with their broadest sides more or less flat4 ,their weights range from about #dj lb4 to #fd lb4 ,how came these flints and stones where they were found8 ,prof4 ,gowland gives an answer which everybody will accept4 ,the implements must be regarded as the discarded tools of the builders of ,stonehenge1 dumped down into the holes as they became unfit for use1 and1 in fact1 used to pack the monoliths as they were erected4 ,we read3--8,dealing with the cavity occupied by ,no4 #ee before its fall1 the mauls were found wedged in below the front of its base to act together with the large blocks of sarsen as supports0 7p4 #ed74 ,nearly all bear evidence of extremely rough usage1 their edges being jagged and broken1 just as we should expect to find after such rough employment4 ,we evidently have to deal with builders doing their work in the ,stone and not in the ,bronze age4 ,but was the age ,palolithic or ,neolithic8 ,prof4 ,gowland writes3-- 8,perhaps the most striking features of the flint implements is their extreme rudeness1 and that there is not a single ground or polished specimen among them4 ,this1 at first sight and without due consideration1 might be taken to indicate an extremely remote age4 ,but in this connection it must be borne in mind that in the building of such a stupendous structure as ,stonehenge1 the tools required must have been numbered by thousands4 ,the work1 too1 was of the roughest character1 and for such only rude tools were required4 ,the highly finished and polished implements which we are accustomed to consider1 and rightly so1 as characteristic of ,neolithic man1 would find no place in such work4 ,they required too much labour and time for their manufacture1 and1 when made1 could not have been more effective than the hammer-axes and hammerstones found in the excavations1 which could be so easily fashioned by merely rudely shaping the natural flints1 with which the district abounds1 by a few well directed blows of a sarsen pebble40 ,on this ground ,prof4 ,gowland is of opinion that1 notwithstanding their rudeness1 they may be legitimately ascribed to the ,neolithic age1 and1 it may be1 near its termination1 that is1 before the ,bronze age1 the commencement of which has been placed at #adjj ,b4,c4 by ,sir ,john ,evans for ,britain1 though he is inclined to think that estimate too low1 and #bjjj ,b4,c4 by ,montelius for ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,some of the ,flint ,implements4 ,prof4 ,gowland guardedly writes3-- 8,the occurrence of stone tools does not alone prove with absolute certainty that ,stonehenge belongs to the ,neolithic age1 although it affords a strong presumption in favour of that view4 ,but1 and this is important1 had bronze been in general or even moderately extensive use when the stones were set up1 it is in the highest degree probable that some implement of that metal would have been lost within the area of the excavations1 and if so lost1 it would certainly have been found together with the stone tools4 ,further1 the employment of deer's horn picks for the extensive excavations made in the chalk around the base of the monoliths also tends to support the view that bronze implements cannot have been in common use4 ,if they had it would seem not unreasonable to assume that they would have been employed1 as they would have been so much more effective for such work than the picks of deer's horn4 8,again1 the chippings of the stones of ,stonehenge in two of the ,bronze age barrows#ae in its neighbourhood show that it is of earlier date than they40 ,and finally3-- 8,in my opinion1 the date when copper or bronze was first known in ,britain is a very remote one1 as no country in the world presented greater facilities for their discovery4 ,the beginning of their application to practical uses should1 ,i think1 be placed at least as far back as #ahjj ,b4,c41 and that date ,i am inclined to give1 until further evidence is forthcoming1 as the approximate date of the erection of ,stonehenge40 ,now the date arrived at by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself on astronomical grounds was about #agjj ,b4,c4 ,it is not a little remarkable that independent astronomical and archological inquiries conducted in the same year should have come so nearly to the same conclusion4 ,if a general agreement be arrived at regarding it1 we have a firm basis for the study of other similar ancient monuments in this country4 ,i have previously in this book referred to the fact that the trilithons of the naos and the stones of the outer circle are all built up of so-called 8sarsen0 stones4 ,to describe their geological character1 ,i cannot do better than quote1 from ,mr4 ,cunnington's 8,geology of ,stonehenge10#af their origin according to ,prestwich4 8,among the ,lower ,tertiaries 7the ,eocene of ,sir ,charles ,lyell7 are certain sands and mottled clays1 named by ,mr4 ,prestwich the ,woolwich and ,reading beds1 from their being largely developed at these places1 and from these he proves the sarsens to have been derived2 although they are seldom found in situ1 owing to the destruction of the stratum to which they belonged4 ,they are large masses of sand concreted together by a siliceous cement1 and when the looser portions of the stratum were washed away1 the blocks of sandy rocks were left scattered over the surface of the ground4 8,at ,standen1 near ,hungerford1 large masses of sarsen are found1 consisting almost entirely of flints1 formed into conglomerate with the sand4 ,flints are also common in some of the large stones forming the ancient temple of ,avebury4 8,the abundance of these remains1 especially in some of the valleys of ,north ,wilts1 is very remarkable4 ,few persons who have not seen them can form an adequate idea of the extraordinary scene presented to the eye of the spectator1 who standing on the brow of one of the hills near ,clatford1 sees stretching for miles before him1 countless numbers of these enormous stones1 occupying the middle of the valley1 and winding like a mighty stream towards the south40 ,these stones1 then1 may be regarded as closely associated with the local geology4 ,the exact nature of the stones1 called 8blue stones10 can best be gathered from a valuable 8,note0 by ,prof4 ,judd which accompanies ,prof4 ,gowland's paper4 ,these blue stones are entirely unconnected with the local geology2 they must1 therefore1 represent boulders of the ,glacial drift1 or they must have been brought by man1 from distant localities4 ,prof4 ,judd inclines to the first opinion4 ,the distinction between these two kinds of stone are well shown by ,prof4 ,gowland3-- 8,the large monoliths of the outer circle1 and the trilithons of the horse-shoe are all sarsens4 ,see general plan1 ,fig4 #ae4 ,these sarsens in their composition are sandstones1 consisting of quartz-sand1 either fine or coarse1 occasionally mixed with pebbles and angular bits of flint1 all more or less firmly cemented together with silica4 ,they are the relics of the concretionary masses which had become consolidated in the sandstone beds that once overlaid the chalk of the district1 and had resisted the destructive agencies by which the softer parts of the beds were removed in geological times4 ,they range in structure from a granular rock resembling loaf sugar in internal appearance to one of great compactness similar to and sometimes passing into quartzite4 8,the monoliths and trilithons all consist of the granular rock4 ,the examples of the compact quartzite variety1 of which many were found in the excavations1 were almost without exception either hammerstones that had been used in shaping and dressing the monoliths1 or fragments which had been broken from off them in these operations4 8,the small monoliths1 the so-called #8blue stones1' which form the inner circle and the inner horse-shoe1 are1 with the undermentioned exceptions1 all of diabase more or less porphyritic4 ,two are porphyrite 7formerly known as felstone or hornstone74 ,two are argillaceous sandstone4 8,mr4 ,william ,cunnington1 in his valuable paper1 #8,stonehenge ,notes1' records the discovery of two stumps of #8blue stones' now covered by the turf4 ,one of these lies in the inner horseshoe between ,nos4 #fa and #fb1 and #i feet distant from the latter4 ,it is diabase4 ,the other is in the inner circle between ,nos4 #cb and #cc1 #aj feet from the former1 and consists of a soft calcareous altered tuff1 afterwards designated for the sake of brevity fissile rock4 8,the altar stone is of micaceous sandstone40 ,i now come to the second point1 to which ,i shall return in the next chapter4 ,in studying the material obtained from the excavations1 it was found in almost every case that the number of chippings and fragments of blue stone largely exceeded that of the sarsens2 more than this1 diabase 7blue stone7 and sarsen were found together in the layer overlying the solid chalk 7p4 #ae74 ,chippings of diabase were the most abundant1 but there were few large pieces of it4 ,sarsen1 on the other hand1 occurred most abundantly in lumps 7p4 #bj72 very few small chips of sarsen were found 7p4 #db74 ,hence ,prof4 ,gowland is of opinion that the sarsen blocks were roughly hewn where they were found 7p4 #dj72 the local tooling1 executed with the small quartzite hammers and mauls1 would produce not chips but dust4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,showing the careful tooling of the ,sarsens4 ,finally1 ,i reach the third point of importance from the present standpoint2 the excavations produced clear evidence touching the mode of erection4 ,prof4 ,gowland's memoir deals only with the leaning stone1 but ,i take it for granted that the same method was employed throughout3 the method was this4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,face of rock against which a stone was made to rest4 7#a7 ,the ground in the site a stone was to occupy was removed1 the chalk rock being cut into in such a manner as to leave a ledge1 on which the base of the stone was to rest1 and a perpendicular face rising from it1 against which as a buttress one side would bear when set up4 ,from the bottom of this hole an inclined plane was cut to the surface down which the monolith which had already been dressed was slid until its base rested on the ledge4 7#b7 ,it was then gradually raised into a vertical position by means first of levers and afterwards of ropes4 ,the levers would be long trunks of trees1 to one end of which a number of ropes was attached 7this method is still employed in ,japan72 so that the weights and pulling force of many men might be exerted on them4 ,the stronger ropes were probably of hide or hair1 but others of straw1 or of withes of hazel or willow1 may have been in use for minor purposes4 7#c7 ,as the stone was raised1 it was packed up with logs of timber and probably also with blocks of stone placed beneath it4 7#d7 ,after its upper end had reached a certain elevation1 ropes were attached to it1 and it was then hauled by numerous men into a vertical position1 so that its back rested against the perpendicular face of the chalk which had been prepared for it4 ,during this part of the operation1 struts of timber would probably be placed against its sides to guard against slip1 a precaution taken when the leaning stone was raised and until the foundation was properly set4 ,as regards the raising of the lintels1 and imposts1 and the placing of them on the tops of the uprights1 there would be even less difficulty than in the erection of the uprights themselves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,the leaning stone upright before the struts were removed4 ,it could be easily effected by the simple method practised in ,japan for placing heavy blocks of stone in position4 ,the stone1 when lying on the ground1 would be raised a little at one end by means of long wooden levers4 ,a packing of logs would then be placed under the end so raised1 the other extremity of the stone would be similarly raised and packed1 and the raising and packing at alternate ends would be continued until the block had gradually reached the height of the uprights4 ,it would then be simply pushed forward by levers until it rested upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,stonehenge1 #aije4 ,it is not often that an engineering operation has been made so subservient to the interests of science as the one we have dealt with in this chapter4 ,it is satisfactory to know not only that much new knowledge has been acquired by ,professor ,gowland and his coadjutors1 but that the famous leaning stone has now been set upright in such fashion that it will remain upright for hundreds of years4 ,may the other leaning stones soon receive the same treatment4 #ae ,sir ,richard ,colt ,hoare1 ,ancient ,history of ,south ,wiltshire1 p4 #abg4 7,london1 #ahab72 ,w4 ,stukeley1 ,stonehenge1 p4 #df4 7,london1 #agdj74 #af ,wilts ,archaeological and ,natural ,history ,magazine1 xxi4 pp4 #ada-adi4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,was ,,there ,,an ,,earlier ,,circle8 ,when we come to examine ,stonehenge carefully in relation to the orientation theory1 it soon becomes clear that its outer circle of upright stones with lintels1 and the inner naos1 built of trilithons1 oriented in the line of the 8avenue0 and the summer solstice sunrise1 are not the only things to be considered4 ,these stones1 all composed of sarsen1 which1 be it remarked1 have been trimmed and tooled1 are not alone in question4 ,we have3-- 7#a7 ,an interior circle broken in many places1 and other stones near the naos1 composed of stones1 8blue stones10 which1 as we have seen1 are of an entirely different origin and composition4 7#b7 ,two smaller untrimmed sarsen stones lying near the vallum1 not at the same distance from it1 the line joining them passing nearly1 but not quite1 through the centre of the sarsen circle4 ,the amplitude of the line joining them is approximately #bf ,s4 of ,e4 and #bf ,n4 of ,w4 ,of these stones1 the stump of the ,n4,w4 one is situated #bb feet from the top of the vallum according to the ,ordnance plan4 ,the ,s4,e4 stone has fallen1 but according to careful observations and measurements by ,mr4 ,penrose1 when erect its centre was #ad feet from the top of the vallum4 ,the centre of the line joining the stones is therefore about #d feet to the ,s4,e4 of the axis of the present circles1 which1 it may be stated1 passes #c feet to the ,n4,w4 of the ,n4,w4 edge of the ,friar's ,heel 7see ,fig4 #bd74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,map of the ,stones made by the ,ordnance ,survey4#ag ,a1 ,n4,w4 stone2 ,b1 ,s4,e4 stone2 ,c1 ,friar's ,heel2 ,d1 ,slaughter stone4 ,there are besides these two large untrimmed sarsen stones1 one standing some distance outside the vallum1 one recumbent lying on the vallum2 both nearly1 but not quite1 in the sunrise line as viewed from the centre of the sarsen circle4 ,these are termed the 8,friar's ,heel0 and 8,slaughter ,stone0 respectively4 ,i will deal with 7#a7 first1 and begin by another quotation from ,mr4 ,cunnington1 who displayed great acumen in dealing with the smaller stones not sarsens4 8,the most important consideration connected with the smaller stones1 and one which in its archological bearing has been too much overlooked1 is the fact of their having been brought from a great distance4 ,i expressed an opinion on this subject in a lecture delivered at ,devizes more than eighteen years ago1 and ,i have been increasingly impressed with it since4 ,i believe that these stones would not have been brought from such a distance to a spot where an abundance of building stones equally suitable in every respect already existed1 unless some special or religious value had been attached to them4 ,this goes far to prove that ,stonehenge was originally a temple1 and neither a monument raised to the memory of the dead1 nor an astronomical calendar or almanac4 8,it has been suggested that they were ,danams1 or the offerings of successive votaries4 ,would there in such case have been such uniformity of design1 or would they have been all alike of foreign materials8 ,i would make one remark about the small impost of a trilithon of syenite1 now lying prostrate within the circle4 ,one writer has followed another in taking it for granted that there must have been a second1 corresponding with it1 on the opposite side4 ,of this there is neither proof nor record1 not a trace of one having been seen by any person who has written on the subject4 ,this small impost1 not being of sarsen1 but syenite1 must have belonged to the original old circle2 it may even have suggested to the builders of the present ,stonehenge the idea of the large imposts1 and trilithons with their tenons and mortices40 ,in ,prof4 ,gowland's examination of the contents of the holes necessarily dug in his operations1 it was found over and over again1 indeed almost universally1 that the quantity of blue stone chippings was much greater than that from the sarsen stones4 ,while the sarsen stones had only been worked or tooled on their surface1 the blue stones had been hewed and trimmed in extraordinary fashion2 indeed it is stated by ,prof4 ,judd that they had been reduced to half their original dimensions in this process1 the chippings almost equalling the volume of the stones themselves4 ,it seems1 then1 that when the sarsen stones were set up1 the sarsen and blue stones were treated very differently4 ,this being so1 the following quotation from ,prof4 ,judd's 8,note0 is interesting 7,archaeologia1 lviii41 p4 #ha73-- 8,i may repeat my conviction that if the prevalent beliefs and traditions concerning ,stonehenge were true1 and the 8bluestone0 circles were transported from some distant locality1 either as trophies of war or as the sacred treasures of a wandering tribe1 it is quite inconceivable that they should have been hewed and chipped1 as we now know them to have been1 and reduced in some cases to half their dimensions1 after having been carried with enormous difficulty over land and water1 and over hills and valleys4 ,on the other hand1 in the glacial drift1 which once probably thinly covered the district1 the glacial deposits dying out very gradually as we proceed southwards1 we have a source from which such stones might probably have been derived4 ,it is quite a well-known peculiarity of the glacial drift to exhibit considerable assemblages of stones of a particular character at certain spots1 each of these assemblages having probably been derived from the same source4 8,i would therefore suggest as probable that when the early inhabitants of this island commenced the erection of ,stonehenge1 ,salisbury ,plain was sprinkled over thickly with the great white masses of the sarsen-stones 7#8grey wethers'71 and much more sparingly with darker coloured boulders 7the so-called #8blue-stones'71 the last relics of the glacial drift1 which have been nearly denuded away4 ,from these two kinds of materials the stones suitable for the contemplated temple were selected4 ,it is even possible that the abundance and association of these two kinds of materials so strikingly contrasted in colour and appearance1 at a particular spot1 may not only have decided the site1 but to some extent have suggested the architectural features of the noble structure of ,stonehenge40 ,if we grant everything that ,prof4 ,judd states1 the question remains--why did the same men in the same place at the same time treat the sarsen and blue stones so differently8 ,i shall show subsequently that there is a definite answer to the question on one assumption4 ,i next come to 7#b74 ,the important point about these stones is that with the amplitude #bf1 at ,stonehenge1 a line from the centre of the circle over the ,n4,w4 stone would mark the sunset place in the first week in ,may1 and a line over the ,s4,e4 stone would similarly deal with the ,november sunrise4 ,we are thus brought in presence of the ,may-,november year4 ,another point about these stones is that they are not at the same distance from the centre of the sarsen stone circle1 which itself is concentric with the temenos mound2 this is why they lie at different distances from the mound4 ,further1 a line drawn from the point of the ,friar's ,heel over the now recumbent ,slaughter ,stone with the amplitude determined by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself for the summer solstice sunrise in #afhj ,b4,c4 cuts the line joining the stones at the middle point1 suggesting that the four untrimmed sarsen stones provided alignments both for the ,may and ,june years at about that date4 ,nor is this all2 the so-called tumuli within the vallum 7,fig4 #aj7 may have been observation mounds1 for the lines passing from the northern tumulus over the ,n4,w4 stone and from the southern tumulus over the ,s4,e4 one are parallel to the avenue1 and therefore represent the solstitial orientation4 ,so much1 then1 for the stones4 ,we see that1 dealing only with the untrimmed sarsens that remain1 the places of the ,may sunset and ,june and ,november sunrises were marked from the same central point4 ,statements have been made that there was the stump of another stone near the vallum to the ,s4,w41 in the line of the ,friar's ,heel and ,slaughter ,stone1 produced backwards1 at the same distance from the old centre as the ,n4,w4 and ,s4,e4 stones4 ,this stone was not found in an exploration by ,sir ,edmund ,antrobus1 ,mr4 ,penrose and ,mr4 ,howard ,payn by means of a sword and an auger4 ,but the question will not be settled until surface digging is permitted1 as a 8road0 about which there is a present contention passes near the spot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,the rod on the recumbent stone is placed in and along the common axis of the present circle and avenue4 ,it is seen that the ,friar's ,heel1 the top of which is shown in the distance1 would hide the sunrise place if the axis were a little further to the ,s4,e4 ,but even this is not the only evidence we have for the ,may worship in early times4 ,there is an old tradition of the slaughter of ,britons by the ,saxons at ,stonehenge1 known as 8,the ,treachery of the ,long ,knives02 according to some accounts1 #dfj ,british chieftains were killed while attending a banquet and conference4 ,now at what time of the year did this take place8 ,was it at the summer solstice on ,june #ba8 ,i have gathered from ,guest's 8,mabinogion10 vol4 ii4 p4 #dcc1 and ,davies's 8,mythology of the ,british ,druids10 p4 #ccc1 that the banquet took place on ,may eve 8,meinvethydd40 ,is it likely that this date would have been chosen in a solar temple dedicated exclusively to the solstice8 ,now the theory to which my work and thought have led me is that the megalithic structures at ,stonehenge--the worked sarsens with their mortices and lintels1 and above all the trilithons of the magnificent naos--represent a re-dedication and a reconstruction1 on a more imposing plan and scale1 of a much older temple1 which was originally used for worship in connection with the ,may year4 #ag ,plans and photographs of ,stonehenge1 c41 by ,colonel ,sir ,henry ,james1 ,r4,e41 ,f4,r4,s41 ,director-,general of the ,ordnance ,survey1 #ahfg4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,may ,,and ,,june ,,worships ,,in ,,brittany ,i purpose next to inquire whether in the wonderful series of ,megalithic remains in ,brittany1 remains more extensive than any in ,britain1 any light is thrown on the suggestion ,i have made that the ,may ,worship preceded the ,solstitial ,worship at ,stonehenge4 ,it has long been known that the stones which compose the prehistoric remains in ,brittany are generally similar in size and shape to those at ,stonehenge1 but1 as ,i have already stated1 in one respect there is a vast difference4 ,instead of a few1 arranged in circles as at ,stonehenge1 we have an enormous multitude of the so-called menhirs arranged in many parallel lines for great distances4 ,some of these are unhewn like the ,friar's ,heel1 some have as certainly been trimmed4 ,the literature which has been devoted to them is very considerable1 but the authors of it1 for the most part1 have taken little or no pains to master the few elementary astronomical principles which are necessary to regard the monuments from the point of view of orientation4 ,it is consoling to know that this cannot be said of the last published contribution to our knowledge of this region1 which we owe to ,monsieur ,f4 ,gaillard1 a member of the ,paris ,anthropological ,society and of the ,polymathic ,society of ,morbihan at ,plouharnel4#ah ,m4 ,gaillard is a firm believer in the orientation theory1 and accepts the view that a very considerable number of the alignments are solstitial4 ,but although he gives the correct azimuths for the solstitial points and also figures showing the values of the obliquity of the ecliptic as far as #bbjj ,b4,c41 his observations are not sufficiently precise to enable a final conclusion to be drawn1 and his method of fixing the alignments and the selection of the index menhir are difficult to gather from his memoir and the small plans which accompany it1 which1 alas6 deal with compass bearings only4 ,all the same1 those interested in such researches owe a debt of gratitude to ,m4 ,gaillard for his laborious efforts to increase our knowledge1 and will sympathise with him at the manner in which his conclusions were treated by the ,paris anthropologists4 ,one of them1 apparently thinking that the place of sun rising is affected by the precession of the equinoxes1 used this convincing argument3--8,si1 l'origine les alignements taient orients1 comme le pense ,m4 ,gaillard1 ils ne le pourraient plus tre aujourd'hui2 au contraire1 s'ils le sont actuellement1 on peut affirmer qu'ils ne l'taient pas alors60 ,m4 ,gaillard is not only convinced of the solstitial orientation of the avenues1 but finds the same result in the case of the dolmens4 ,i cannot find any reference in the text to any orientations dealing with the farmers' years1 that is with amplitudes of about #be ,n4 and ,s4 of the ,e4 and ,w4 points2 but in the diagrams on pp4 #gh and #abg ,i find both avenue and dolmen alignments1 which within the limits of accuracy apparently employed may perhaps with justice be referred to them2 but observations of greater accuracy must be made1 and details of the heights of the horizon at the various points given1 before anything certain can be said about them4 ,i append a reproduction of one of ,m4 ,gaillard's plans1 which will give an idea of his use of the index menhir4 ,it shows the alignments at ,le ,mnec1 lat4 #dg 7,fig4 #bf74 ,the line ,a--,soleil runs across the stone alignments and is fixed from ,a by the menhir ,b1 but there does not seem any good reason for selecting ,b except that it appears to fall in the line of the solstitial azimuth according to ,m4 ,gaillard4 ,but if we take this azimuth as ,n4 #ed ,e41 then we find the alignments to have an azimuth roughly of ,n4 #ff ,e41 which gives us the amplitude of #bd ,n4 marking the place of sunrise at the beginning of the ,may and ,november years1 and the alignments may have dealt principally with those times of the year4 ,i esteem it a most fortunate thing that while ,i have been casting about as to the best way of getting more accurate data1 ,lieutenant ,devoir1 of the ,french ,navy and therefore fully equipped with all the astronomical knowledge necessary2 who resides at ,brest and has been studying the prehistoric monuments in his neighbourhood for many years1 has been good enough to give me the results of his work in that region1 in which the problems seem to be simpler than further south2 for while in the vicinity of ,carnac the menhirs were erected in groups numbering five or six thousand1 near ,brest1 lat4 #dh1 they are much more restricted in number4 ,i am much indebted to him for permission to use and publish his results4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,alignments at ,le ,mnec4 ,lieutenant ,devoir1 by his many well-planned and approximately accurate observations1 has put the solstitial orientation beyond question1 and1 further1 has made important observations which prove that the ,may and ,august sunrises were also provided for in the systems of alignments4 ,i give the following extracts from his letter3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,menhir 7,a7 on ,melon ,island4 8,it is about twelve years ago that ,i remarked in the west part of the ,department of ,morbihan 7near ,lorient7 the parallelism of the lines marked out by monuments of all sorts1 and frequently oriented to the ,n4,e41 or rather between ,n4 #ej ,e4 and ,n4 #ee ,e4 ,i had ascertained1 moreover1 the existence of lines perpendicular to the first named1 the right angle being very well measured4 8,the plans1 which refer to the cantons of ,ploudalmzeau and of ,st4 ,renan 7district of ,brest7 and of ,crozon 7district of ,chateaulin71 have been made on a plane-table2 the orientations are exact to one or two degrees4 8,in the cantons of ,ploudalmzeau and of ,st4 ,renan1 the monuments are generally simple2 seven menhirs are visible of enormous dimensions1 remarkable by the polish of their surface and the regularity of their section4 ,the roughnesses hardly ever reach a centimetre2 the sections are more often ovals1 sometimes rectangles with the angles rounded or terminated by semicircles4 ,in the canton of ,crozon the monuments are1 on the contrary1 complex2 we find a cromlech with an avenue leading to it of a length of #hjj metres1 another of #cjj metres4 ,unfortunately1 the rocks employed 7sandstone and schist from ,plungastel and ,crozon7 have resisted less well than the granulite from the north part of the ,department4 ,the monuments are for the most part in a very bad condition2 the whole must1 nevertheless1 formerly have been comparable with that of ,carnac-,leomariaquer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,melon ,island1 showing ,menhir 7,a7 and ,cromlech 7,b and ,c74 8,for the two regions1 granitic and schistose1 the results of the observations are identical4 8,the monuments lie along lines oriented ,s4 #ed ,w4 ,n4 #ed ,e4 7#ed azimuth at the solstices for ,l #dh #cj and i #bc #cj7 and ,n4 #ed ,w4 ,s4 #ed ,e4 ,some of them determine lines perpendicular to the meridian4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,menhirs of ,st4 ,dourzal1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f4 8,one menhir 7,a71 #fm4 #ij in height and #im4 #bj in circumference1 erected in the small island of ,melon 7canton of ,ploudalmzeau1 latitude #dh #bi #je7 a few metres from a tumulus surrounded by the ruins of a cromlech 7,b and ,c71 has the section such that the faces1 parallel and remarkably plane1 are oriented ,n4 #ed ,e4 7,figs4 #bg and #bh74 8,at #acjj metres in the same azimuth there is a line of three large menhirs 7,d1 ,e1 ,f71 of which one 7,e7 is overthrown4 ,the direction of the line passes exactly by the menhir ,a4 ,prolonged towards the ,n4,e4 it meets at #ck4 #gjjm4 an overturned block of #bm4 #ej in height1 which is without doubt a menhir2 towards the ,s4,w4 it passes a little to the south some lines of the island of ,molne4444 7,fig4 #bi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,alignment at ,lagatjar1 ,g ,g4 8,there exists in the neighbourhood other groups1 forming also lines of the same orientation and that of the winter solstice4 ,it is advisable to remark that orientations well determined for the solstices are much less so for the equinoxes1 which is natural1 the rising amplitude varying very rapidly at this time of year4 8,the same general dispositions are to be found in the complex monuments of the peninsula of ,crozon4 ,i take for example the alignments of ,lagatjar4 ,two parallel lines of menhirs1 ,g ,g ,h ,h1 are oriented to ,s4 #ed ,e4 and cut perpendicularly by a third line1 ,i ,i4 ,there existed less than fifty years ago a menhir at ,k1 #f metres high1 which is to-day broken and overturned4 ,this megalith1 known in the country by the name of #8pierre du ,conseil' 7a bronze axe was found underneath it7 gives with a dolmen situated near ,camaret the direction of the sunrise on ,june #ba 7,fig4 #ca74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--;,alignments at ,lagatjar1 showing the pierre du ,conseil and the direction of the dolmen4 ,from the pierre du ,conseil the dolmen marks the sunrise place at the summer solstice1 and the avenue ,g ,g ,h ,h the sunset place on the same day4 8,i have just spoken of the lines perpendicular to the solstitial one2 there exists more especially in the complex monuments another particularity which merits attention4 ,between two monuments1 ,m and ,n1 on a solstitial line1 sometimes other menhirs are noticed1 the line joining them being inclined #ab to the solstitial line1 always towards the east0 7,fig4 #cb74 ,i must call particular attention to this important observation of ,lieutenant ,devoir1 for it gives us the amplitude #bd ,n41 the direction of sunrise at the beginning of the ,may and ,august years4 ,it shows1 moreover1 that1 as at ,le ,mnec according to ,m4 ,gaillard1 the solstitial and ,may-,august directions were both provided for at the monuments in the neighbourhood of ,brest so carefully studied by ,lieutenant ,devoir4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,menhirs1 ,m ,n on ,n4,e4-,s4,w4 solstitial alignment4 ,menhirs #a1 #b1 on ,may-,august years alignment1 sunrise ,may-,august1 sunset ,november-,february4 ,lieutenant ,devoir points out the wonderful regularity of form and the fine polish of many of the menhirs4 ,it will have been gathered from his account that those most carefully trimmed and tooled belong to the solstitial alignments4 ,the one at ,kerloas 7#aa metres high7 heads the list in point of size2 others in the island of ,melon 7#g metres71 at ,kergadion 7#h metres and #aj metres71 ,kerenneur1 ,kervaon and ,kermabion follow suit4 ,he considers them to have been erected at the time of the highest civilisation of the ,megalithic peoples4 ,he also states that these regularly formed menhirs do not exist at ,carnac1 or in the region of ,pont l',abb1 so rich in other remains which certainly refer chiefly to the ,may-,november year4 ,it seems1 then1 that in these localities the ,may-,august worship first chiefly predominated1 and that the index menhirs of ,m4 ,gaillard which indicate the solstice and which do not form part of the alignments were erected subsequently4 ,finally1 then1 the appeal to ,brittany is entirely in favour of the ,may-,november year worship having preceded the solstitial one4 ,i have already stated the evidence at ,stonehenge that the sunrise at the beginning of the ,may and ,august years was observed in an earlier temple which existed before the present structure existed4 ,were this so we have another point common to the ,british and ,breton monuments4 ,i therefore think that ,i may justly claim the ,brittany evidence as entirely in favour of the suggestion put forward in ,chap4 ,,ix with regard to ,stonehenge4 #ah 8,l',astronomie ,prhistorique40 ,published in 8,les ,sciences ,populaires1 revue mensuelle internationale10 and issued separately by the administration des 8,sciences populaires10 #ae ,rue ,lebrun1 ,paris4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,astronomical ,,hints ,,for ,,arch,,ologists ,the foregoing chapters will have shown that in dealing with the ancient monuments from an astronomical point of view1 we have to consider chiefly the direction of the sight-lines1 whether they are marked as in ,brittany by long rows of stones--alignments2 as at ,stonehenge by an avenue2 as in some of our ,british circles1 by two or more circles the direction being indicated from the central stone of one to the central stone of the other1 or finally by a single standing stone or barrow4 ,it is important then that before we proceed further in our inquiries we should consider how a meaning is got out of these directions1 and ,i propose to devote this chapter to this question1 so that the full use of the 8azimuths0 already referred to and others which are to follow may be fully understood4 ,there is another matter1 at which ,i hinted on pp4 #cf and #db4 ,we have to inquire whether there are any stones or barrows marking the direction of the rising or setting of stars1 as well as those which deal with the rising and setting of the sun at different times of the year1 which we have already found at ,stonehenge and in ,brittany4 ,to face this question we have to consider the stellar as well as solar conditions of observations1 and as the former are the simpler ,i will begin with them1 especially as now there is no question whatever that the rising and setting of stars were provided for4 ,in continuation of my work in ,egypt in #ahia1 and ,mr4 ,penrose's in ,greece in #ahib1 ,i have recently endeavoured to see whether there are any traces in ,britain of star observations1 including those connected with the worship of the sun at certain times of the year4 ,we both discovered that stars1 far out of the sun's course1 especially in ,egypt1 were observed in the dawn as heralds of sunrise--8warning-stars0--so that the priests might have time to prepare the sunrise sacrifice4 ,to do this properly the star should rise while the sun is still about #aj below the horizon4 ,there is also reason to believe that stars rising not far from the north point were also used as clock-stars to enable the time to be estimated during the night in the same way as the time during the day could be estimated by the position of the sun4 ,i stated 7,dawn of ,astronomy1 p4 #cai7 that ,spica was the star the heliacal rising of which heralded the sun on ,may-day #cbjj ,b4,c4 in the temple of ,menu at ,thebes4 ,sirius was associated with the summer solstice at about the same time4 ,mr4 ,penrose found this ,may-day worship continued at ,athens on foundations built in #adie ,b4,c4 and #bjbj ,b4,c41 on which the ,hecatompedon and older ,erechtheum respectively were subsequently built1 the warning star being now no longer ,spica1 but the cluster of the ,pleiades rising1 or ,antares setting1 in the dawn4 ,it is generally known that ,stonehenge is associated with the solstitial year1 and ,i have suggested that it was originally connected with the ,may year2 but the probable date of its re-dedication1 #afhj ,b4,c41 was determined by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself by the change of obliquity4 ,now if ,stonehenge or any other ,british stone circle could be proved to have used observations of warning stars1 the determination of the date when such observations were made would be enormously facilitated4 ,mr4 ,penrose and myself were content to think that our date might be within #bjj years of the truth1 whereas if we could use the rapid movement of stars in declination brought about by the precession of the equinoxes1 instead of the slow change of the sun's declination brought about by the change of the value of the obliquity1 a possible error of #bjj years would be reduced to one of #aj years4 ,in spite of this enormous advantage1 no one so far as ,i know has yet made any inquiry to connect star observations with any of the ,british circles4 ,i have recently obtained clear evidence that some circles in different parts of ,britain were used for night work and also in relation to the ,may year1 which we know was general over the whole of ,europe in early times1 and which still determines the quarter-days in ,scotland4 ,if the ,egyptian and ,greek practice were continued here1 we should expect then to find some indications of the star observations utilised at the temple of ,min and at the ,hecatompedon for the beginning1 or the other chief months1 of the ,may year4 ,i have found them1 and ,i will now show the method employed4 ,to begin with1 if we assume that the astronomer-priests here did attempt such observations1 what is the most likely way in which they would have gone to work8 ,the easiest way for the astronomer-priests to conduct such observations in a stone circle would be to erect a stone or barrow indicating the direction of the place on the horizon at which the star would rise as seen from the centre of the circle4 ,if the dawn the star was to herald occurred in the summer1 the stone or barrow itself might be visible if not too far away1 but there was a reason why they should not be too close2 in a solemn ceremonial the less seen of the machinery the better4 ,doubtless such stones and barrows would be rendered obvious in the dark by a light placed on or near them4 ,cups which could hold oil or grease are known in connection with such stones1 and a light thus fed would suffice in the open if there were no wind2 but in windy weather a cromlech or some similar shelter must have been provided for it4 ,now if these standing stones or barrows were ever erected and still remain1 accurate plans--not the slovenly plans with which ,ferguson and too many others have provided us1 giving us either no indication of the north or any other point1 or else a rough compass bearing without taking the trouble to state the variation at the time and place--will help us4 ,i have already pointed out that much time has been lost in the investigation of our stone circles1 for the reason that in many cases the exact relations of the monuments to the chief points of the horizon1 and therefore to the place of sunrise at different times of the year1 have not been considered2 and when they were1 the observations were made only with reference to the magnetic north1 which is different at different places1 and besides is always varying2 few indeed have tried to get at the real astronomical conditions of the problem4 ,the first1 ,i think1 was ,mr4 ,jonathan ,otley1 who in #ahdi showed the 8orientation0 of the ,keswick circle 8according to the solar meridian10 giving true solar bearings throughout the year4 ,in my opinion the most accurate plans conceivable1 in the absence of a long and minute local inquiry1 are the #be-;inch maps of the ,ordnance ,survey1 on which1 ,i have it on the authority of ,colonel ,johnston the distinguished ,director1 each stone may be taken to be shown with a limit of error of #f feet4 ,with a large circular protractor azimuths can be read to one minute of arc1 and in critical cases the true azimuth of the side lines1 which are not necessarily meridians as latitudes are not marked1 can be found on inquiry at the ,ordnance ,office1 ,southampton4 ,having then true azimuths1 the next question concerns the declinations of the stars which may have been observed4 ,the work of ,stockwell in ,america1 ,danckworth in ,germany1#ai and ,dr4 ,w4 ,j4 ,s4 ,lockyer in ,england1 has provided us with tables of the changing declinations of stars throughout past time1 or enough of it for our purpose4 ,an accurate determination on the #be-;inch map of either the azimuth 7angular distance from the ,n4 or ,s4 points7 or amplitude 7angular distance from the ,e4 or ,w4 points7 of the stone or barrow as seen from the centre of the stone circle will enable us to determine the declination of the star at the time when it was observed4 ,i give a diagram which enables this determination to be made with the greatest ease for any monuments between ,land's ,end and ,john o' ,groats1 whether the direction is recorded by amplitude or azimuth2 the declination is read at the side from the value of either indicated1 say1 by a dot1 at the proper latitude4 ,this1 of course1 only gives us a first approximation4 ,the angular height of the point on the horizon to which the alignment or sight-line is directed by the stone or barrow from the centre of the circle must be most accurately determined1 otherwise the declinations may be one or two degrees out4 ,in the absence of measurements it is convenient to assume1 in the first instance1 that the horizon is half a degree high1 as with this elevation refraction is compensated1 as the following table will show3 ,elevation of actual ,bessel's horizon4 refraction4 ,combined effect4 #jjj #cded -#cded #jaj #cbdi -#bbdi #bj #cjeb -#ajeb #cj #bice #jefe #dj #bgbbg #abcgc #ej #bedih #bdajb #aj #bdbdf #ceced ,in the absence of theodolite observations the actual elevation of the horizon can be roughly found by a study of the contour lines on the #a-;inch map4 ,the following heights will agree with the previous assumption of hills high3 ,distance #a mile ,height #df feet #b miles #ib #d #ahd #h #cfh #aj #dfj ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--;,diagram for finding declination from given amplitudes or azimuths in ,british latitudes4 ,curves represent 7from top7 ,lat4 #di1 #ea1 #ec1 #ee1 #eg and #ei4 ,i also give other diagrams showing the changing declinations of the brightest stars1 those which would naturally be observed1 between the years #aej ,a4,d4 and #baej ,b4,c4 ,these have been plotted from the calculations of the authorities ,i have named4 ,fig4 #cd deals with the ,northern stars4 ,the stars are numbered as follows3-- ,number4 ,name of star4 #a ,ursae ,minoris4 #b ,ursae ,minoris 7,polaris74 #c ,draconis4 #d ,ursae ,majoris 7,dubhe74 #e ,ursae ,majoris4 #f ,ursae ,majoris 7,benetnasch74 #g ,draconis4 #h ,cassiopeiae4 #i ,cassiopeiae4 #aj ,persei4 #aa ,aurigae 7,capella74 #ab ,cygni4 #ac ,lyrae 7,vega74 #ad ,coronae4 #ae ,geminorum 7,castor74 #af ,geminorum 7,pollux74 #ag ,botes 7,arcturus74 #ah ,leonis4 #ai ,leonis 7,regulus74 #bj ,andromedae4 #ba ,tauri 7,alcyone74 #bb ,tauri 7,aldebaran74 #bc ,canis ,minoris 7,procyon74 #bd ,aquilae4 #be ,orionis 7,betelgeuse74 #bf ,virginis 7,spica74 ,on ,fig4 #ce1 dealing with the ,southern stars1 the names are given along the curves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now supposing that we have our plans2 that we have determined the azimuth of the sight lines2 and have found the declination of the star observed2 we may find more than one star occupying that declination at various dates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,declinations of ,northern ,stars from #bej ,a4,d4 to #baej ,b4,c4 ,which of these stars1 then1 must we consider8 ,obviously those most conveniently situated for enabling the time to be estimated during the night1 or those which could have been used as warning stars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,declinations of ,southern ,stars from #bej ,a4,d4 to #baej ,b4,c4 ,ceti1 ,aquarii1 ,orionis1 ,capricorni1 ,canis ,majoris1 ,scorpii1 ,columb1 ,pisces ,austr41 ,args1 ,centauri1 ,args1 ,crucis1 ,gruis1 and ,eridani4 ,the warning stars can be conveniently picked up by using a precessional globe4 ,from it we gather that about #aijj1 #adjj and #hjj ,b4,c4 they were as follows for the critical times of the ,may year1 i4e4 ,may1 ,august1 ,november1 ,february3-- #aijj ,b4,c4 #adjj ,b4,c4 #hjj ,b4,c4 ,may ,castor rising ,pleiades rising ,pleiades rising ,n4 #da ,e4 ,n4 #gg ,e4 ,n4 #ga ,e4 ,antares setting ,antares setting ,s4 #ge ,w4 ,s4 #gb ,w4 ,august ,arcturus ,arcturus rising ,sirius rising circumpolar4 ,n4 #ag ,e4 ,s4 #fc ,e4 ,with hill #c high3-- ,rising4 ,date #bagj ,b4,c4 ,n4 #aaae ,e4 #bjij ,b4,c4 ,n4 #adah ,e4 #aijj ,b4,c4 ,n4 #ahdd ,e4 ,november ,betelgeuse setting ,n4 #hg ,w4 ,february ,capella rising ,capella rising ,capella rising ,n4 #cf ,e4 ,n4 #bh ,e4 ,n4 #ba ,e4 ,for the solstices1 that is1 ,june and ,december1 the following stars might be used as warners3-- #aijj ,b4,c4 #adjj ,b4,c4 #hjj ,b4,c4 ,summer ,solstice ,betelgeuse rising ,betelgeuse ,geminorum ,n4 #hg ,e4 rising ,n4 #ij ,e4 rising ,arcturus setting ,arcturus setting ,n4 #fh ,e4 with hill #c high 7late7 ,n4 #af ,w4 78,alhena0 ,n4 #ah ,w4 ,serpentis mag4 #ai47 setting ,n4 #ec ,w4 ,winter ,solstice ,sheat rising 7early7 ,castor ,capricorni ,n4 #gb ,e4 setting ,n4 #cg ,w4 rising ,markab rising 7late7 ,pollux ,s4 #ff ,e4 ,s4 #hi ,e4 setting ,n4 #db ,w4 ,it is obvious that a star used all the year round for night work will warn the sunrise at some one of the yearly festivals4 ,when the stars having the same declinations are considered from this point of view1 the star actually used1 and therefore the date of its use1 may generally be gathered4 ,i shall show subsequently that some of the stars in the above lists were actually observed in ,british as well as in ,grecian temples4 #ai ,dr4 ,o4 ,danckworth1 ,vierteljahrschrift der ,astronomischen ,gesellschaft1 #af4 ,jahrgang #ahha1 p4 #i4 ,dr4 ,stockwell's results have been communicated to me by letter4 ,some1 but not all1 of ,dr4 ,lockyer's calculations appeared in ,the ,dawn of ,astronomy4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,astronomical ,,hints ,,for ,,arch,,ologists--,continued4 ,i next come to the sun observations4 ,first we must consider the astronomical differences between the rising of a star and of the sun1 by which we generally mean that small part of the sun's limb first visible4 ,it is frequently imagined that for determining the exact place of sunrise or sunset in connection with these ancient monuments we have to deal with the sun's centre1 as we should do with the sun half risen4 ,as a matter of fact1 we must consider that part of the sun's limb which first makes its appearance above the horizon2 the first glimpse of the upper limb of the sun is in question1 say1 when the visible limb is #b high2 and we must carefully take the height of the hills over which it rises into account4 ,the accompanying diagram will at once show the difference between the rising conditions we have now to consider4 ,it deals with the summer solstice1 as being the most precise case1 in ,lat4 #ei ,n4 ,at this time the position of the sun1 that is of the sun's centre1 as given in the 8,nautical ,almanac10 is represented by the double circle on the sea horizon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,the ,conditions of 8,sunrise0 at the ,summer ,solstice in ,lat4 #ei ,n4 ,vertical axis from bottom3 ,altitudes ,,sea ,,horizon1 ,,hill ,,high1 ,,hill #a ,,high1 ,,hill #a ,,high4 ,horizontal axis from left3 ,azimuths ,n #cg-db ,e4 ,the azimuth of this position is ,n4 #ci #af ,e4 ,this is the equivalent of the declination of a star1 but it will be seen that the real azimuths we want are very different4 ,the dotted circles represent the actual position of the sun with regard to the horizon1 the continuous circles the apparent positions caused by the lifting-up effect of refraction4 ,we have the positions in azimuth of the apparent sun as it appears on a sea horizon1 and when the horizon is formed by hills up to #a in vertical height4 ,to make this quite clear ,i give a table which has been computed by ,mr4 ,rolston1 of the ,solar ,physics ,observatory1 showing azimuths with hills up to #a high for lat4 #ei ,n41 and #ea ,n4 nearly the latitude of ,stonehenge1 of the sun's upper limb for the summer solstice3-- ,lat4 #ei ,lat4 #ea ,,summer ,rising ,n-,e or ,rising ,n-,e or ,,solstice4 ,setting ,n-,w4 ,setting ,n-,w4 ,sun's centre2 uncorrected #ci #af #ej #dj sea horizon #cg #a #di #bj ,sun's upper limb2 correctedhill high #ch #cd #ej #af for semi-diameter and #a #dj #h #ea #ab refraction #a #da #cj #eb #d ,,winter ,rising ,s-,e or ,rising ,s-,e or ,,solstice4 ,setting ,s-,w4 ,setting ,s-,w4 ,sun's centre2 uncorrected #ci #af #ej #dj sea horizon #da #bd #eb #j ,sun's upper limb2 correctedhill high #ci #ed #ea #d for semi-diameter and #a #ch #bc #ej #h refraction #a #cf #ed #di #ad ,the first important thing we learn from the table is that although at both solstices the azimuths of the rising and setting of the sun's centre are the same1 these azimuths of the upper limb at the summer and winter solstices differ in a high northern latitude by some #e4 ,the difference arises1 of course1 from the fact that the limb is some #af from the sun's centre1 so that considering the sun's centre as a star with fixed declination1 at rising the limb appears before the centre1 and at setting it lags behind it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,the ,azimuths of the ,sunrise 7upper limb7 at the ,summer ,solstice4 ,the values given in the table have been plotted1 and the effect of the height of hills on the azimuth is shown4 ,the range of latitude given enables the diagram to be used in connection with the solstitial alignments at ,carnak1 ,le ,mnac1 and other monuments in ,brittany4 ,vertical axis from bottom3 ,,lat4 #dg-ei4 ,horizontal axis from left3 ,,azimuths #cg-ef4 ,curves from left3 ,,sea ,,horizon1 ,,hills 1 #a1 #a ,it will also be seen that at sunrise hills increase the azimuth from ,n41 and refraction reduces it2 while at setting1 hills reduce the azimuth from ,s4 and refraction increases it4 ,this diagram and table should fully explain the variation of azimuth at sunrise caused by the fact that from our present point of view we do not deal with the sun as a star4 ,to make the foregoing applicable for monuments in all latitudes between ,brittany and the ,orkneys1 ,i give still another diagram1 ,fig4 #cg1 also prepared for me by ,mr4 ,rolston which will enable any archologist to determine approximately1 for the present time1 the azimuth of sunrise at the summer solstice1 without waiting for the #bast of ,june in any year actually to observe it4 ,as before stated1 ,i have dealt with the solstice in this chapter because it affords us the most precise case4 ,i hope to be able to deal with the ,may year sun in the same way later on4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,stenness 7,lat4 #ei ,n474 ,i wrote a good deal in ,nature#bj on sun and star temples in #ahia1 and ,mr4 ,lewis the next year expressed the opinion that the ,british stone monuments1 or some of them1 were sun and star temples4 ,mr4 ,magnus ,spence1 of ,deerness1 in ,orkney1 published a pamphlet1 8,standing ,stones and ,maeshowe of ,stenness10#ba in #ahid2 it is a reprint of an article in the ,scottish ,review1 ,october1 #ahic1 showing that the stones were set up for solar worship4 ,mr4 ,cursiter1 ,f4,s4,a41 of ,kirkwall1 in a letter to me dated ,march #ae1 #ahid1 a letter suggested by my 8,dawn of ,astronomy10 which appeared in that year1 and in which the articles which had been published in ,nature in #ahia had been expanded1 directed my attention to the pamphlet4 ,i began the consideration of the ,stenness circles and alignments in #aija1 but other pressing calls on my time then caused me to break off the inquiry4 ,quite recently it occurred to me that a complete study of the ,stenness circles might throw light on the question of an earlier ,stonehenge1 so ,i have gone over the old papers1 plotting the results on the ,ordnance map4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,maeshowe1 in the foreground1 and the ,stones of ,stenness4 ,from 8,notice of ,runic ,inscriptions10 by ,james ,farrer1 ,m4,p4 7#ahfb74 ,now that the inquiry is as complete as ,i can make it without spending some time in ,orkney with a theodolite1 ,i will begin my reference to other circles besides ,stonehenge by stating the conclusions at which ,i have arrived with regard to the stones of ,stenness4 ,in the first place ,i may state that although many of the alignments to which ,mr4 ,spence refers in his pamphlet on ,maeshowe prove to be very different from those he supposed and drew on the map which accompanies his paper1 the main point of his contention is amply confirmed4 ,i give a copy of the ,ordnance map showing the true orientation of these and of other sight-lines ,i have made out4 ,the alignments on which ,mr4 ,spence chiefly depended were two1 one running from the stone circle past the entrance of ,maeshowe to the place of sunrise at ,hallowe'en 7,november #a71 another from the same circle by the ,barnhouse standing stone to the mid-winter sunrise at the solstice4 ,although the map gives these sight-lines1 ,i shall show that they had not the use ,mr4 ,spence attributes to them2 but still observations of the sun were provided for on the days in question1 and the circles and outstanding stones were undoubtedly set up to guide astronomical observations relating to the different times of the year4 ,of course1 as ,i have shown elsewhere1 such astronomical observations were always associated with religious celebrations of one kind or another1 as the astronomer and the priest were one4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,copy of ,ordnance ,map showing chief sight-lines from the stones of ,stenness4 ,i shall not refer to all the sight-lines indicated1 but deal only with those which ,i have without local knowledge been able to test and justify by means of the #be-;inch ,ordnance map4 ,not only does calculation prove the worship of the ,may and ,june years1 but ,i think the facts now before us really go to show that in ,orkney the ,may year was the first established1 and that the solstitial 7,june7 year came afterwards1 and this was one of the chief questions ,i had in view4 ,i will begin with the ,may year4 ,i have already shown1 p4 #bb1 that the half-way time between an equinox and a solstice is when the sun's centre has a declination approximately #af #bj ,n4 or ,s4 ,in ,orkney1 with the latitude of #ei1 assuming a sea horizon1 the approximate amplitude of sunrise or sunset is #cc #f1 the corresponding azimuth being #ef #ed4 ,now the most interesting and best defined line near this azimuth on the ,ordnance map is the one stretching ,s4,e4 from the centre of the ,stenness circle to the ,barnstone1 with an azimuth of #eg #ae4 ,the line contains between the two points ,i have named another stone1 the ,watchstone1 #ah feet high1 in the precise alignment2 and from the statements made and measures given it is to be inferred that a still more famous and perforated stone1 the 8,stone of ,odin10 demolished seventy years since1 was also in the same line within the extremities named4 ,if we may accept this we learn something about perforated stones1 and can understand most of the folk lore associated with them1 and few have more connected with them than the one at ,stenness4 ,i suggest that the perforation1 which was in this case #e feet from the ground1 was used by the astronomer-priest to view the sunrise in ,november over the ,barnhouse stone in one direction1 and the sunset in ,may over the circle in the other4 ,i hope to be able to return to this question subsequently4 ,there is another echo of this fundamental line2 that joining the ,ring of ,bookan and the ,stones of ,via has the same azimuth and doubtless served the same purpose for the ,may year4 ,but this line1 giving us the ,may sunset and ,november sunrise1 not the ,december solstitial sunrise as ,mr4 ,spence shows it1 is not the only orientation connected with the ,may year at the stones of ,stenness4 ,the ,november sunset is provided for by a sight-line from the circle to a stone across the ,loch of ,stenness with an azimuth of ,s4 #ec #cj ,w4 ,to apply the table1 given on p4 #abj1 to the solstitial risings and settings at ,stenness1 and the sight-lines which ,i have plotted on the map1 it will be seen that the table shows us that the lines marked ,s4 #da #j ,e4 ,n4 #da #af ,e4 ,s4 #cf #cj ,w4 are solstitial lines2 to get exact agreement with the table the heights of the hills must be found and allowed for4 ,i have roughly determined this height from the #a-;inch map in the case of the ,barnstone-,maeshowe alignment4 ,on the ,n4,e4 horizon are the ,burrien ,hills1 four miles away1 #fjj feet high at the sunrise place1 gradually ascending to the ,e41 vertical angle #a #cf #cj4 ,the near alignment is on and over the centre of ,maeshowe4 ,colonel ,johnston1 the ,director-,general of the ,ordnance ,survey1 has informed me that the true azimuth of this bearing is ,n4 #da #af ,e41 and in all probability it represents the place of sunrise as seen from the ,barnstone when ,maeshowe was erected4 ,what is most required in ,orkney now is that some one with a good #f-;inch theodolite should observe the sun's place of rising and the angular height of the hills at the next summer solstice in order to determine the date of the erection of ,maeshowe4 ,mr4 ,spence and others made an attempt to determine this value with a sextant in #ahii1 but not from the ,barnstone4 ,in the absence of this observation we may use the diagram given on p4 #aba4 ,with the height of hill previously given the sun should rise according to calculation at about the azimuth ,n4 #da #ej ,e4 ,the difference between the new and old azimuth then1 on the assumption that az4 ,n4 #da #af ,e4 really represents an observation over ,maeshowe1 gives us the difference of date4 ,treating these figures then as we have done in the case of ,stonehenge in ,chapter ,,vii1 the result is as follows4 ,the ,barnhouse-,maeshowe line was established about #gjj ,b4,c41 when the obliquity had a value of #bc #dh according to ,stockwell's tables4 7,fig4 #dj47 ,i confess the late date does not surprise me4 ,the masonry of ,maeshowe differs widely from that of other similar structures in that the sides of the gallery and chamber1 instead of being composed of upright stones1 are built in regular courses4 ,i do not believe that the ,maeshowe structure was built to observe a winter sunrise twenty days from the solstice1 nor can ,i think it was set up at midsummer by someone who had only dealt with a high sun and a sea horizon1 and imagined that the sunrise and sunset points were exactly opposite to each other4 ,it was a priest's house1 and the alignment of the passage to the ,barnstone was for the exchange of signals1 probably by lights in ,maeshowe itself4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,variation of the ,obliquity of the ,ecliptic1 #ajj ,a4,d4-#djjj ,b4,c4 7,stockwell's ,values47 ,horizontal axis3 ,years4 ,from left3 ,,ad #j-;,,bc #djjj4 ,vertical axis3 ,obliquity4 ,from bottom3 #bc4dj-bd4aj4 ,the ,ordnance maps give no indication of stones1 c41 by which the direction of the midsummer setting or the midwinter rising and setting might have been indicated from either the ,maeshowe or the ,barnstone4 ,to sum up the solar alignments from the circle4 ,we have the ,may sunrise marked by the top of ,burrien ,hill1 from #fjj to #gjj feet high1 ,az4 #ei #cj4 ,we have the ,november sunset marked by a standing stone on the other side of the ,loch of ,stenness1 ,az4 #ec #cj4 ,june rising1 ,line from ,barnstone over ,maeshowe tumulus4 ,december rising1 tumulus 7,az4 #da7 on ,ward ,hill4 ,december setting1 tumulus ,onston #cf #cj4 ,it is not a little remarkable that the summer solstice rising and the winter solstice rising and setting seem to have been provided for at the ,stenness circle by alignment on the centres of tumuli1 two of them1 across the ,loch1 one the ,onston tumulus to the ,s4,w4 7,az4 #cf #cj71 the other tumulus being on ,ward ,hill to the ,s4,e41 ,az4 #da 7rough measurement74 ,if the ,maeshowe tumulus was a structure erected at the time ,i have suggested to use the ,barnstone for the summer solstice rising2 then these two other tumuli1 to deal with the winter solstice at ,stenness circle1 may have been built at the same time4 ,all these provided for a new cult4 ,there are also tumuli near the line 7which cannot be exactly determined because the heights of the hills are unknown7 of the summer solstice setting2 none was required for the sunrise at this date1 as the line passes over the highest point of ,hindera fiold1 a natural tumulus more than #ejj feet high1 and on that account a triangulation station4 ,another argument in favour of the tumuli being additions to the original design is that the place of the ,november setting from the ,stenness circle is marked1 not by a tumulus1 but by a standing stone4 ,as this stone1 near ,deepdale1 and the tumulus at ,onston are only about #abjj yards apart1 the suggestion may be made that under certain unknown conditions and possibly in later times tumuli in some cases replaced stones as collimation marks4 ,with regard to the clock-star1 it is to be feared that the stones in the ,n4,e4 quadrant as viewed from the circle which might have given us a clue have been removed4 ,as the latitude of ,stenness is ,n4 #ei1 some star with a less declination than ,n4 #ca would have been chosen1 assuming that the sky-line towards the ,n4 point is not very high4 #bj ,see especially ,nature1 ,july #b1 #ahia1 p4 #bja4 #ba ,gardner3 ,paisley and ,london4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,hurlers 7,lat4 #ej #ca ,n47 ,the sight-lines to which ,i have drawn attention in relation to the stones of ,stenness had to do with the places of sunrise and sunset in the ,may and ,solstitial years4 ,i now pass to another group of circles in which we deal chiefly with the places of star-rise and star-set1 some of the stars being used as warners for sunrise at the critical times of the two years in question4 ,following the clue given me in the case of the ,egyptian temples1 such as ,luxor1 by successive small changes of the axis necessitated by the change in a star's place due to precession1 ,i began this stellar branch of the inquiry by looking out for this peculiarity in an examination of many maps and plans of circles4 ,i very soon came across two examples in which the sight-line had been changed in the ,egyptian manner4 ,the first is the three circles of the ,hurlers1 some #e miles to the north of ,liskeard1 a plan of which is given in 8,prehistoric ,stone ,monuments of the ,british ,isles3 ,cornwall10 by ,w4 ,c4 ,lukis1 ,rector of ,wath1 ,yorkshire1 published by the ,society of ,antiquaries1 who were so good as to furnish me with a copy1 and also some unfolded plans on which sight-lines could be accurately drawn and their azimuths determined4 ,i am anxious to express my obligations to the council and officers of the society for the help thus afforded me4 ,the three circles are thus referred to by ,lukis in the valuable monograph which ,i have already mentioned4 8,on the moor1 about a mile to the south of the singular pile of granite slabs1 which rest upon and overlap each other1 and is vulgarly called the ,cheesewring1 there are three large circles of granite stones placed in a nearly straight line in a north-north-east1 and south-south-west direction1 of which the middle one is the largest1 being #ace feet in diameter1 the north #aaj feet1 and the south #aje feet4 8,the north ,circle is #ih feet1 and the south #hb feet from the central one4 ,if a line be drawn uniting the centres of the extreme ,circles1 the centre of the middle ring is found to be #ab feet #f inches to the west of it4 8,these ,circles have been greatly injured4 ,the largest consists of #i erect and #e prostrate stones2 the north ,circle has #f erect and #f prostrate1 and a fragment of a seventh2 and the south has #c erect and #h prostrate4 ,in ,dr4 ,borlase's time they were in a slightly better condition4 ,a pen-and-ink sketch made by him1 which is extant in one of ,dr4 ,stukeley's volumes of original drawings1 represents the middle ,circle as consisting of #g erect and #aj prostrate stones2 the north of #aj erect and #f prostrate2 and the south of #c erect and #i prostrate4 ,the stone to the east of that marked ,c in the plan of the middle ,circle is the highest1 and is #e feet #h inches out of the ground1 and appears to have been wantonly mutilated recently4 ,two of the prostrate stones of the north ,circle are #f feet #f inches in length4 8,about #ag feet south from the centre of the middle ,circle there is a prostrate stone #d feet long and #ae inches wide at one end4 ,it may possibly have been of larger dimensions formerly1 and been erected on the spot where it now lies1 but as ,dr4 ,borlase has omitted it in his sketch it is probably a displaced stone of the ring4 8,if we allow1 as before1 an average interval of #ab feet between the stones1 there will have been about #bh pillars in the north1 #bf in the south1 and #cc in the middle ,circle4 8,at a distance of #dji feet westwards from ,k in the middle ,circle there are #b stones1 #g feet apart1 both inclined northwards4 ,one is #d feet #aa inches in height out of the ground1 and overhangs its base #b feet #g inches2 the other is #e feet #d inches high1 and overhangs #ah inches40 ,i now pass from a general description of the circles to the azimuths of the sight-lines already referred to1 so far as they can be determined from the published ,ordnance maps4 ,to investigate them as completely as possible without local observations in the first instance1 ,i begged ,colonel ,johnston1 ,r4,e41 ,c4,b41 the ,director-,general of the ,ordnance ,survey1 to send me the #be-;inch maps of the site giving the exact azimuth of the side lines4 ,this he obligingly did1 and ,i have to express my great indebtedness to him4 ,in ,fig4 #da ,i show the sight-lines from the south and north ,circles as determined by the stones and barrows marked on the map4 ,the sight-lines on ,arcturus are from the centres of the three circles in succession4 ,i shall point out later the significance of the fact that the ,november alignments are from the south1 the solstitial ones from the north ,circle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,the ,sight-lines at the ,hurlers4 ,of the various sight-lines found1 those to which ,i wish to direct attention in the first instance1 and which led me to the others1 are approximately1 reading the azimuths to the nearest degree1 ,lat4 #ej #ca ,n4 ,az4 ,s4 circle to central circle ,n4 #ab ,e4 ,central to ,n4 circle ,n4 #ae ,e4 ,n4 circle to tumulus ,n4 #ai ,e4 ,in a preliminary inquiry in anticipation of the necessary local observations with a theodolite1 ,i assumed hills half a degree high1 for the reason given on p4 #aab4 ,we have the following declinations approximately3-- ,dec4 ,n4 #ch #ch #cg ,here1 then1 we have declinations to work on1 but declinations of what star8 ,to endeavour to answer this question ,i studied the declinations of the three brightest stars in the northern heavens1 having approximately the declinations in question some time or other during the period #j to #bejj ,b4,c4 ,vega is ruled out as its declination was too high4 ,the remaining stars ,capella and ,arcturus may have been observed so far as the declinations go4 ,for time limits we have3-- ,dec4 ,n4 ,capella4 ,arcturus4 #ch #ejj ,b4,c4 #afjj ,b4,c4 #cf #ajej #aaej ,now there is no question as to which of these two stars we have to deal with1 for the northern circle is evidently less ancient than the others1 for some of the stones are squared and the others are less irregular than those in the ,s4 circle4 ,this being so1 the approximate dates of the use of the three circles at the ,hurlers can be derived4 ,they are1 with the above assumption3-- ,b4,c4 ,southern circle aligning ,arcturus over centre of central circle #afjj ,central ,n4 circle #aejj ,northern tumulus #acjj ,the next step was to obtain1 by means of a large circular protractor1 more accurate readings of the ,ordnance ,map4 ,this ,i could do1 but the all important question of the angular height of the horizon remained4 ,as it was impossible for me to leave ,london when the significance of the alignments was made out1 ,i appealed to the authorities of the ,royal ,cornwall ,polytechnic ,society for aid in obtaining the necessary angles1 and as a result1 ,captain ,j4 ,s4 ,henderson1 of ,falmouth1 an accomplished surveyor1 volunteered his aid and shortly sent me the angular heights along some of the alignments1 the means of eight readings obtained with a #f-;inch theodolite1 both verniers and reversed telescopes being employed4 ,other students of science besides myself will1 ,i am sure1 feel their indebtedness for such opportune help4 ,the combination of the large protractor and theodolite work gives the following final values4 ,the difference between them and the provisional ones given above speaks volumes as to the necessity of a local study of the height of the horizon1 a point ,i believe invariably neglected by archologists4 ,,final ,,values4 ,arcturus from ,s4 circle to central circle4 ,az4 ,n4 #aa #ae ,e4 ,hills1 #c #bc #eb high4 ,dec4 #da #ch ,,date1 #bagj ,b4,c4 ,arcturus from central circle to ,n4 circle4 ,az4 ,n4 #ad #ah ,e4 ,same hills4 ,dec4 #da #i ,,date1 #bjij ,b4,c4 ,arcturus from ,n4 circle to ,barrow4 ,az4 ,n4 #ah #ad ,e4 ,same hills4 ,dec4 #dj #f ,,date1 #aijj ,b4,c4 ,now before this evidence of star worship1 so important if it can be depended on1 could be accepted1 it was necessary to make a special inquiry as to the existence of similar star observations in other places4 ,many have been found of which more in the sequel4 ,the next point which arose was that ,arcturus used as a clock-star 7p4 #ajh7 would serve as a warner for ,august4 ,this necessitated another inquiry into the chief festivals in ,cornwall3 among these the ,august 7,harvest7 festival is one4 ,another point to consider was whether there was any evidence of a local ,august festival4 ,it happens that the ,hurlers are in the parish of ,st4 ,cleer1 and some of the other ,arcturus sight-lines are in that of ,st4 ,just4 ,now1 a local festival in old days was often associated with the local ,saint4 ,as most of the ,cornish ,saints are common to ,cornwall and ,brittany1 ,i looked up the ,calendar of the ,annuaire of the ,institut de ,france1 and found that the days dedicated to ,,ss4 ,justin and ,claire are the #ith and #abth of ,august4 ,it seems1 then1 that at the ,hurlers it was really a question of a clock-star also used as a warning star for the ,august festival4 ,i think we have at last1 then1 run to earth the origin of some of the northerly alignments referred to on pages #cf and #dc4 ,it will have been noted that the last sight-line on ,arcturus was marked by a barrow4 ,captain ,henderson inspected it and found it much ruined by explorers1 remains of a chamber inside being visible4 ,in a subsequent visit1 in which ,captain ,henderson was accompanied by ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho1 my wife and myself1 we not only visited this barrow1 but found that the whole hill had been honeycombed to such an extent by mining operations that it was very difficult to discriminate between 8investigated0 barrows and other heaps and holes1 unless the barrow showed the remains of a chamber4 ,our examination was not limited to barrows4 ,captain ,henderson had spent a long bleak day in examining and measuring the stones marked on the ,ordnance ,map1 to which ,i had called his special attention4 ,we went over part of the ground with him1 and came to the conclusion that the whole question of the ,cornish treatment of 8ancient stones0 would have to be gone into--an inquiry which ,mr4 ,bolitho is now carrying on4 ,it must be remembered that any stone or barrow used in the sight-lines we are now considering must have been put up nearly #d1jjj years ago1 so long ago1 in fact1 that many of the chief barrows have been reduced to the skeletons of their former selves1 the enclosed stone chamber1 built of mighty stones1 alone remaining4 ,cromlechs and standing stones then formed important points in the landscape long before ecclesiastical divisions were thought of1 or any attempt was made to indicate the boundaries of private property4 ,we should expect then to find these ancient monuments freely made use of to mark what we now term 8parish boundaries40 ,this is so4 ,four parishes have thus used one of the larger cromlechs1 and it is more than probable that something beside the denunciation of the cultus lapidum1 which we have seen at work in ,brittany 7p4 #ci71 has been responsible for the many stone crosses in ,cornwall4 ,of some of them near circles ,i have gathered the astronomical use1 while now they 8mark the bounds10 as do some of the stone rows in ,dartmoor4 ,i believe that in later times this practice of the ,church was followed by those among whom the land was distributed1 and this has gone on till at last there are many ancient stones trimmed on one side and bearing initials and so having a modern appearance4 ,the astronomer1 and even the archologist1 may regret this practice1 but as the habit in ,cornwall appears to be for anybody to use the nearest uncrossed and uninitialled stone for a wall or a pigsty1 ,mr4 ,bolitho's inquiry may show that in some cases1 at all events1 it has been a blessing in disguise1 for the stones are still there4 ,in the case of a long chambered barrow1 the top of which nearly touches the horizon1 as seen from a circle near it1 there is less danger of being misled4 ,in my notes on the stones of ,stenness 7,chapter ,,xiii7 ,i pointed out that the chambered ,cairns at ,onston and ,maeshowe suggested that such structures were later variants of the more ancient standing stones4 ,some barrows at the ,hurlers lend further confirmation of this view4 ,i will deal with them first4 ,of one the data are ,az4 from ,n4 ,circle ,s4 #gb #di ,w41 height of horizon #ab 7,capt4 ,henderson74 ,the resulting declination is ,s4 #aa #e1 the declination of ,antares #agbj ,b4,c4 ,but why should ,antares be thus singled out8 ,the table on page #aag shows the reason4 ,at the date involved the setting of ,antares in the dawn was the warner of the sunrise on ,may morning1 the greatest day in all the year4 ,is there any precedent for this use of ,antares8 ,i have already pointed out 7p4 #ajh7 that ,mr4 ,penrose found the warning stars for ,may morning at the dates of foundation of the ,hecatompedon1 and the older ,erechtheum1 to be the group of the ,pleiades rising and ,antares setting4 ,as the foundations of the ,hecatompedon were built only some few years after the stones of the central circle of the ,hurlers were used1 we ought to find traces of the observations of the same ,may-morning stars4 ,we have1 then1 now a third term in the astronomical use of stars to herald the sunrise on ,may morning4 ,temple of ,min ,thebes #cbjj ,b4,c4 ,spica4 ,temple at the ,hurlers ,liskeard #agbj ,antares4 ,older ,erechtheum ,athens #ajgj ,the next barrow to be referred to--it is shown to be a long one on the ,ordnance ,map--is situated near the top of ,caradon ,hill1 and is visible on the sky-line from the circles4 ,data3 ,az4 from ,n4 ,circle ,s4 #fe ,e41 height of horizon #a #ch 7,henderson74 ,this corresponds almost exactly with the azimuth of the rise of the sun's upper limb with declination ,s4 #af #bj on the two critical dates in ,november and ,february of the ,may-year 7,halloween and ,candlemas1 see p4 #bc71 so ,i am inclined to consider it more than a mere coincidence that the azimuths coincide so closely4 ,it1 however1 may be urged that there are other barrows on ,caradon ,hill1 but judging from the ,ordnance ,map they seem to be of the round variety used for burials1 perhaps a thousand years after the circles were in use1 and in my opinion by a different race of men2 but this matter must not detain us now1 ,i hope to return to it later4 ,still one more barrow and a stone1 uncrossed and uninitialled1 in the same sight-line1 data3 ,az4 from ,n4 circle ,s4 #ei #ce ,e4 ,height of horizon #a #ch #bc 7,henderson71 resulting declination ,s4 #ai #ej4 ,this was the declination of ,sirius #afij ,b4,c4 ,why ,sirius8 ,the table on p4 #aag gives us the answer4 ,sirius replaced ,arcturus as a warning star for the ,august festival1 and we have seen that the last use of ,arcturus was connected with the sight-line to the barrow about #aijj ,b4,c4 ,i pass now from barrows to stones4 ,there is one about which there can be no question4 ,it is a famous ,cross1 a 8,longstone0 at which all travellers stop on their way from ,st4 ,cleer to the ,hurlers4 ,it occupies nearly the same position on the ,s4,w4 horizon as does the long tumulus on ,caradon ,hill in the ,s4,e4 quadrant4 ,from the ,south ,circle1 and this is important1 its ,azimuth1 ,s4 #fd ,w41 is nearly the same2 it marked1 and still marks1 the sunset point on the critical days of the ,may year in ,november and ,february4 ,there is another stone marked on the ,ordnance ,map ,az4 ,n4 #hh ,e4 from the ,n4 circle4 ,it has been removed1 so ,i may fairly assume that it was really an ancient stone4 ,captain ,henderson's value for the height of the horizon is #aa #ca4 ,the table on p4 #aag will show that in this direction we have to deal with ,betelgeuse as a warner for the summer solstice4 ,the resulting date is #agcj ,b4,c4 ,it would appear that possibly this is not the only stone dealing with 7later7 solstitial alignments4 ,lukis gives two stones on the west side of the circles which on the ,ordnance ,map are classed as boundary stones3 they lie on a boundary beyond all question1 but also beyond all question they are as ancient as the stones of the circles themselves4 ,from the ,n4 circle they are almost but not quite in a line1 and the azimuth of the south stone is ,s4 #di ,w4 ,this is a solstitial azimuth4 ,i think1 therefore1 that we may accept this as another evidence of the worship of the setting sun at the winter solstice1 from the ,n4 circle1 and in this we have still further evidence that to the worship of the ,may year in the south circle was added later one dealing with the solstitial year which was chiefly carried on in the ,n4 circle4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,dartmoor ,,avenues ,in ,chapter ,,xi4 ,i referred to the very numerous alignments of stones in ,brittany1 and ,i was allowed by ,lieutenant ,devoir1 of the ,french ,navy1 to give some of his theodolite observations of the directions along which the stones had been set up4 ,the conclusion was that we were really dealing with monuments connected with the worship of the sun of the ,may year1 a year which the recent evidence has shown to have been the first used after the length of the year had been determined2 thus replacing the lunar unit of time which was in vogue previously1 and the use of which is brought home to us by the reputed ages of ,methuselah and other biblical personages1 who knew no other measurer of time than the moon4 ,there was also evidence to the effect that in later times solstitial alignments had been added1 so that the idea that we were dealing with astronomically oriented rows of stones was greatly strengthened1 not to say established4 ,so long as the ,brittany alignments were things of mystery1 their origin1 as well as that of the more or less similar monuments in ,britain1 was variously explained2 they were models in stone of armies in battle array1 or they represented funeral processions1 to mention only two suggestions4 ,i should add that ,mr4 ,h4 ,worth1 who has devoted much time to their study1 considers that some sepulchral interest attaches to them1 though he thinks it may be argued that that was secondary1 even as are interments in cathedrals and churches4 ,about burials associated with them1 of course1 there is no question1 for the kistvaens and cairns are there2 but my observations suggest that they were added long after the avenues were built1 because some cairns block avenues4 ,perhaps a careful study of the modes of burial adopted may throw light on this point4 ,the equivalents of the ,brittany alignments are not common in ,britain2 they exist in the greatest number on ,dartmoor1 whither ,i went recently to study them4 ,the conditions on high ,dartmoor are peculiar2 dense blinding mists are common1 and1 moreover1 sometimes come on almost without warning4 ,from its conformation the land is full of streams4 ,there are stones everywhere4 ,what ,i found1 therefore1 as had others before me1 was that as a consequence of the conditions to which ,i have referred1 directions had been indicated by rows of stones for quite other than ceremonial purposes4 ,here1 then1 was another possible origin4 ,it was a matter of great importance to discriminate most carefully between these alignments1 and to endeavour to sort them out4 ,my special inquiry1 of course1 was to see if they1 like their apparent equivalents in ,brittany1 could have had an astronomical origin4 ,the first thing to do1 then1 was to see which might have been erected for worship or which for practical purposes4 ,in doing this there is no difficulty in dealing with extremes4 ,thus one notable line of large flat stones has been claimed by ,messrs4 ,r4 ,n4 ,worth and ,r4 ,burnard as a portion of the ,great ,fosseway 7,rowe's ,perambulation1 third edition1 p4 #fc72 it has been traced for eighteen miles from beyond ,hameldon nearly to ,tavistock1 the stones being about #b feet thick and the road #aj feet wide4 ,illustration3 ,photo4 by ,lady ,lockyer4 ,,fig4 #db4--,the ,southern ,avenue at ,merrivale1 looking ,east4 ,there are two notable avenues of upright stones at ,merrivale2 they are in close connection with a circle1 and could have had no practical use4 ,these stones1 then1 we may claim as representing the opposite extreme of the ,fosseway and as suggesting an astronomical1 as opposed to a practical1 use2 the adjacent circle1 of course greatly strengthens this view4 ,it is between these extremes that difficulties may arise1 but the verdict can1 in a great many cases at all events1 be settled without any very great hesitation1 especially where practical or astronomical uselessness can be established4 ,but even here care is necessary1 as ,i shall show4 ,the stones now in question1 originally upright1 are variously called avenues1 rows1 alignments or parallelithons4 ,their study dates from #ahbg1 when ,rowe and ,colonel ,hamilton ,smith examined those at ,merrivale 7,rowe1 op4 cit41 p4 #ca74 ,their number has increased with every careful study of any part of the moor1 and doubtless many are still unmapped4#bb ,the late ,mr4 ,r4 ,n4 ,worth1 of ,plymouth1 and his son1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,worth1 have given great attention to these monuments1 and the former communicated a paper on them to the ,devonshire ,association for the ,advancement of ,science in #ahib 7,trans41 xxv4 pp4 #chg-dag74 ,a word of caution must be said before ,i proceed4 ,we must not take for granted that the stone-rows are now as they left the hands of the builders4 ,the disastrous carelessness of the ,government in the matter of our national antiquities is1 ,i am locally informed1 admirably imitated by the ,devonshire ,county and other lesser councils1 and1 indeed1 by anybody who has a road to mend or a wall to build4 ,on this account1 any of the rows may once have been much longer and with an obvious practical use2 and those which now appear to be far removed from circles may once have been used for sacred processions at shrines which have disappeared4 ,again1 the rows of stones we are now considering must not be confounded with the 8track lines0 or 8boundary banks0 which are so numerous on ,dartmoor1 and are represented in ,wiltshire according to ,sir ,r4 ,c4 ,hoare2 these serve for bounds and pathways1 and for connecting and enclosing fields or houses4 ,dealing1 then1 with stone rows or avenues1 which may be single1 double1 or multiple2 any which are very long and crooked1 following several directions1 are certainly not astronomical2 and it is easy to see in some cases that they might have been useful guides at night or in mist in difficult country with streams to cross4 ,this possible utility must not be judged wholly by the present conformation of the ground or the present beds of streams4 ,for multiple avenues it is hard to find practical uses such as the above1 and we know how such avenues were used in ,brittany for sun worship4 ,mr4 ,baring ,gould considers there were eight rows in an avenue on ,challacombe ,down #ebh feet long2 of these only three rows remain1 the others being represented by single stones here and there 7,rowe1 p4 #cc74 ,i shall have something to say about this avenue further on4 ,although1 as ,i have said1 long rows bending in various directions are not likely to have had an astronomical origin1 it must not be assumed that all astronomical avenues must be exactly straight4 ,this1 of course1 would be true for level ground1 but if the avenue has to pass over ridges and furrows1 the varying height of the horizon must be reckoned with1 and therefore the azimuth of the avenue at any point along it4 ,i think it possible that in the ,stalldon ,moor row we have the mixture of religious and practical intention at which ,i have before hinted4 ,both ,mr4 ,lukis and ,mr4 ,hansford ,worth have studied this monument1 which is two miles and a quarter long4 ,there is a circle at the south end about #fj feet in diameter1 while at its northern end there is a cairn4 ,where the line starts from the circle the direction of the row is parallel to many sight-lines in ,cornwall1 and ,arcturus would rise in the azimuth indicated4 ,but this direction is afterwards given up for one which leads towards an important collection of hut circles1 and it crosses the ,erme1 no doubt at the most convenient spot4 ,more to the north it crosses another stream and the bog of ,red ,lake4 ,all this is surely practical enough1 although the way indicated might have been followed by the priests of the hut circles to the stone circle to prepare the morning sacrifice and go through the ritual4 ,but there is still another method of discrimination4 ,if any of these avenues were used at all for purposes of worship1 their azimuths should agree with those already found in connection with circles in other parts of ,britain1 for we need not postulate a special race with a special cult limited to ,dartmoor2 and in my inquiries what ,i have to do is to consider the general question of orientation wherever traces of it can be found4 ,the more the evidences coincide the better it is for the argument1 while variations afford valuable tests4 ,now1 speaking very generally 7,i have not yet compared all my numerous notes71 in ,cornwall the chief alignments from the circles there are with azimuths ,n4 #aj-bj ,e4 watching the rise of the clock-star1 ,n4 #fd-fh ,e4 watching the rise of the ,may sun1 ,n4 #ge-hb ,e4 watching the rise of the ,pleiades4 ,the variation in the azimuths is largely due to the different heights of the horizon towards which the sight-lines are directed4 ,the conclusion ,i have come to is that these alignments1 depending upon circles and menhirs in ,cornwall1 are all well represented on ,dartmoor associated with the avenues2 and further1 so far as ,i have learned at present1 in the case of the avenues connected with circles1 there are not many alignments ,i have not met with in connection with circles in ,cornwall and elsewhere4 ,this is not only a prima facie argument in favour of the astronomical use underlying the structures1 but it is against the burial theory1 for certainly there must have been burials in ,cornwall4 ,in order1 therefore1 to proceed with the utmost caution1 ,i limit myself in the first instance to the above azimuths1 and will begin by applying a test which should be a rigid one4 ,if the avenues on ,dartmoor had to deal with the same practices and cults as did the circles in ,cornwall1 they ought to prove themselves to have been in use at about the same time1 and from this point of view the investigation of the avenues becomes of very great importance1 because of the destruction of circles and menhirs which has been going on1 and is still going on1 on ,dartmoor4 ,we have circles without menhirs and menhirs without circles1 so that the azimuths of the avenues alone remain to give us any chance of dating the monuments if they were used in connection with star worship4 ,the case is far different in ,cornwall1 where both circles and menhirs have in many cases been spared4 ,on ,dartmoor1 where in some cases the menhirs still remain1 they have been annexed as crosses and perhaps as boundary stones1 and squared and initialed2 hence the ,ordnance surveyors have been misled1 and they are not shown as ancient stones on the map4 ,in some cases the azimuth of the stones suggests that this has been the sequence of events4 ,it will be seen from the above that ,i have not tackled a question full of pitfalls without due caution1 and this care was all the more necessary as the avenues have for long been the meeting ground of the friends and foes of what ,rowe calls 8,druidical speculations02 even yet the war rages1 and my writing and ,lieut4 ,devoir's observing touching the similar but grander avenues of ,brittany have so far been all in vain2 chiefly1 ,i think1 because no discrimination has been considered possible between different uses of avenues1 and because the statements made by archologists as to their direction have been quite useless to anybody in consequence of their vagueness1 and last of all because the recent work on the ,brittany remains is little known4 ,i began my acquaintance with the ,dartmoor monuments by visiting ,merrivale1 and the result of my inquiries there left absolutely no doubt whatever on my mind4 ,i was armed1 thanks to the kindness of ,colonel ,johnston1 the ,director of the ,ordnance ,survey1 with the #be-;inch map1 while ,mr4 ,hansford ,worth had been so good as to send me one showing his special survey4 ,the ,merrivale avenues 7lat4 #ej #cc #ae7 are composed of two double rows1 roughly with the azimuth ,n4 #hb ,e42 the northern row is shorter than the other4 ,rowe1 in his original description 7#ahcj71 makes the northern #aadc feet long2 they are not quite parallel1 and the southern row has a distinct 8kink0 or change of direction in it at about the centre4 ,the stones are mostly #b or #c feet high1 and in each row they are about #c feet apart2 the distance between the rows is about #hj feet4 ,i have before pointed out 7p4 #adi7 that an avenue directed to the rising place of a star1 if it is erected over undulating ground1 cannot be straight4 ,i may now mention another apparent paradox4 ,if two avenues are directed to the rising place of the same star at different times1 they cannot be parallel4 ,it is not a little curious that absence of parallelism has been used against avenues having had an astronomical use6 ,both the ,ordnance surveyors and ,mr4 ,worth have shown the want of parallelism of the two avenues1 and ,mr4 ,worth has noted the kink in the southern one4 ,the height of the horizon1 as determined from my measures1 is #c #ah4 ,the results of these inquiries1 assuming the ,pleiades to have been observed warning ,may morning1 are as follows3-- ,azimuth4 ,authority4 ,n4 ,declination4 ,date ,b4,c4 ,n4 #hcae ,e4 ,worth #f #dg #dg #agaj #hbcj ,worth #g #af #bj #afcj #hbaj ,ordnance #g #cb #j #aehj #hjdj ,worth #h #bf #j #adbj #hjcj ,ordnance #h #cj #j #adjj ,to simplify matters we may deal with the ,ordnance values and neglect the small change of direction in the southern avenue4 ,we have1 then1 the two dates #aehj ,b4,c4 and #adbj ,b4,c4 for the two avenues4 ,the argument for the ,pleiades is strengthened by the fact that at ,athens the ,hecatompedon was oriented to these stars in #adie ,b4,c4 according to ,mr4 ,penrose's determination of the azimuth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,plan1 from the ,ordnance ,map1 showing the avenues1 circle and stones at ,merrivale1 with their azimuths4 ,now this is not the first time ,i have referred to avenues in these notes4 ,the azimuth of one at ,stonehenge was used to fix the date at which sun worship went on there4 ,that avenue1 unlike the ,dartmoor ones1 was built of earth1 and it is not alone4 ,there is another nearly two miles long called the ,cursus4 ,so far1 ,i have found no solstitial worship on ,dartmoor1 so there are no avenues parallel to the one at ,stonehenge leading ,n4,e4 from the temple4 ,but how about the other8 ,it is roughly parallel to the avenues at ,merrivale1 and ,i think1 therefore1 was1 like them1 used as a processional road1 a via sacra1 to watch the rising of the ,pleiades4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,reprint of ,ordnance ,map showing that the ,cursus at ,stonehenge is nearly parallel to the ,merrivale ,avenue4 ,the azimuth is #hb and not #hd as shown in the figure4 ,i said roughly parallel2 its azimuth is about the same 7,n4 #hb ,e4 roughly72 but the horizon is only about #a high2 it was therefore in use before those at ,merrivale2 the exact date of use must wait for theodolite values of the height of the horizon1 but in the meantime we can see from the above estimates that the declination of the ,pleiades was about ,n4 #e #bh #cj and the date of use #aiej ,b4,c41 that is some #cjj years before the solstitial restoration4 ,mr4 ,worth's survey gives another line of stones4 ,it is undoubtedly1 ,i think1 an ancient line1 although it is not shown in the ,ordnance map1 a clear indication of the difficulty of discriminating these avenues on land cumbered with stones in all directions4 ,its azimuth is ,n4 #bd #be ,e41 and the height of the horizon #e #aj4 ,this gives us ,arcturus at the date #ahfj ,b4,c41 showing that1 as at the ,hurlers1 ,arcturus was used as a clock-star4 ,hence a possible astronomical use is evident1 while this row1 like the others1 could have been of no practical use to anybody4 ,it is interesting to note that this single row of stones is older than the double ones2 this seems natural4 ,it is worth while to say a word as to the different treatment of the ends of the south avenue now that it seems probable that it was used to watch the rising of the ,pleiades4 ,at the east end there is what archologists term a 8blocking stone02 these observations suggest that it was really a sighting stone4 ,at the west end such a stone is absent1 but the final stones in the avenue are longer than the rest4 ,this may help us in the true direction of the sight-lines in other avenues2 and1 indeed1 ,i shall show in the sequel that this consideration affords a criterion which1 in the cases ,i have come across1 is entirely in harmony with others4 #bb ,on ,june #ae1 #aije1 that excellent guide of the ,chagford part of the moor1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,perrott1 showed me an avenue 7,azimuth ,n4 #bj ,e4 true7 near ,hurston ,ridge which is not given in the #a-;inch map4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,dartmoor ,,avenues 7continued7 ,my inquiries began at ,merrivale because there is a circle associated with the avenues a little to the south of the west end of the longest2 and again nearly1 or quite1 south of this there is a fine menhir1 possibly used to give a north-south line4 ,there is another menhir given on the ,ordnance map1 azimuth ,n4 #gj #cj ,e41 which1 with hills #c high1 points out roughly the place of sunrise from the circle in ,may 7,april #bi74 ,although this stone has been squared and initialed1 ,i think ,i am justified in claiming it as an ancient monument4 ,there is still another1 azimuth ,n4 #hc ,e41 giving a line from the circle almost parallel to the avenue4 ,i hope some local archologist will examine it1 for if ancient it will tell us whether the ,n4 avenue or the circle was built first1 a point of which it is difficult to overrate the importance1 as it will show the strict relationship between the astronomy of the avenues and that of the circle1 and we can now1 ,i think1 deal with the astronomical use of circles after the results obtained at ,stonehenge1 ,stenness and the ,hurlers as an accepted fact4 ,with the above approximate values the date comes out #agej ,b4,c41 the declination of the ,pleiades being ,n4 #f #ce4 ,i now pass on from ,merrivale as an example of those avenues the direction of which lies somewhere in the ,e4-,w4 direction4 ,others which ,i have not seen1 given by ,rowe1 are at ,assacombe1 ,drizzlecombe and ,trowlesworthy2 to these ,mr4 ,worth adds ,harter or ,har ,tor 7or ,black ,tor74 ,the avenues which lie nearly ,n4 and ,s4 are more numerous4 ,rowe gives the following3--,fernworthy1 ,challacombe1 ,trowlesworthy1 ,stalldon ,moor1 ,battendon1 ,hook ,lake1 and ,tristis ,rock4 ,of these ,i have visited the first two1 as well as one on ,shovel ,down not named by ,rowe1 and the next two ,i have studied on the #f-;inch ,ordnance map4 ,fernworthy 7lat4 #ej #ch74--;,here are two avenues1 one with azimuth ,n4 #ae #de ,e41 hills #a #ae4 ,there is a sighting stone at the ,n4 end4 ,we appear to be dealing with ,arcturus as clock-star #afaj ,b4,c4 ,this is about the date of the erection of the ,n4 avenue at ,merrivale4 ,the second avenue has its sighting stone built into a wall at the south end4 ,looking south along the avenue1 the conditions are azimuth ,s4 #h #db ,w41 hills #c #cj4 ,both these avenues are aligned on points within1 but not at the centre of1 the circle4 ,challacombe 7lat4 #ej #cf74--,this is a case of a triple avenue1 probably the remains of eight rows1 in a depression between two hills1 ,challacombe ,down and ,warrington4 ,there is no circle4 ,the azimuth is #bc #cg ,n4,w4 or ,s4,e41 according to direction4 ,the northern end has been destroyed by an old stream work2 there is no blocking stone to the south on either of the remaining avenues1 but one large menhir terminates one row of stones4 ,the others may have been removed4 ,so it is probable that the alignment was to the north4 ,if so1 we are dealing with the setting of ,arcturus1 warning the summer solstice sunrise in #ahfj ,b4,c4 ,to the ,s4 the hills are #d #dh1 to the ,n4 #d #ej4 ,to this result some importance must be attached1 first1 because it brings us into presence of the cult of the solstitial year1 secondly1 because it shows us that the system most in vogue in ,brittany was introduced in relation to that year4 ,in ,brittany1 as ,i have before shown1 the complicated alignments1 there are #aa parallel rows at ,le ,mnac 7p4 #ii7 7there were #h parallel rows at ,challacombe71 were set up to watch the ,may and ,august sunrises1 and the solstitial alignments came afterwards4 ,the ,brittany ,may alignments1 therefore1 were probably used long before #ahfj ,b4,c41 the date we have found for ,challacombe1 where not the sunrise but the setting star which gave warning of it was observed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,the remains of the eight rows of the ,challacombe ,avenue4 ,looking ,north of ,east4 ,terminal ,menhir on the extreme right4 ,it is worth while to point out that at ,challacombe1 as elsewhere1 the priest-astronomers so located their monuments that the nearly circumpolar stars which were so useful to them should rise over an horizon of some angular height4 ,in this way the direction-lines would be available for a longer period of time1 for near the north point the change of azimuth with change in the declination of the star observed is very rapid4 ,shovel ,down1 near ,batworthy 7lat4 #ej #ci #bj74--;,a group of five rows of stones1 four double1 one single1 with two sets of azimuths4 ,one set gives az4 #bb #be1 and #bh4 ,they seem to be associated4 ,i will call them ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,a is directed to the circle on ,godleigh ,common4 ,its ends are free4 ,b is a single line of stones to the ,e4 of the triple circle1 about which more presently4 ,it is not marked on the ,ordnance map2 its ends are also free4 ,c has its south end blocked1 ,i think in later times1 by a kistvaen4 ,the astronomical direction may be1 therefore1 either ,n4,w4 or ,s4,e4 ,we find a probable use in the ,n4,w4 quadrant1 as at ,challacombe1 ,arcturus setting at daybreak as a warner of the summer solstice4 ,the height of hills is #df2 we have then3-- ,az4 ,n4 ,dec4 ,star4 ,date4 ,n4 #bb ,w4 #cf #ai #dj ,arcturus #abaj ,b4,c4 ,n4 #be ,w4 #ce #bc #bj #ajdj ,n4 #bh ,w4 #cd #ai #cj #hej ,adjacent to ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 is another avenue1 which ,i will call ,d4 ,unlike the others1 its northern end points #b ,e4 of ,n4 ,its southern end is blocked by a remarkable triple circle1 the end of the avenue close to it being defined by two tall terminal stones4 ,we are justified1 then1 in thinking that its orientation was towards the north2 the height of the horizon ,i measured as #de4 ,it may have been an attempt to mark the ,n4 point of the horizon4 ,the triple circle to which ,i have referred is not an ordinary circle4 ,i believe it to be a later added1 much embellished1 cairn4 ,according to ,ormerod1 the diameters are #bf1 #bj1 and #c feet1 and there are three small stones at the centre4 ,all the above avenues are on the slope of the hill to the north4 ,on the south slope we find the longest of all1 as shown on the ,ordnance map survey of #ahhe4 ,there is a 8long stone0 in its centre1 and at the southern end was formerly a cromlech1 the 8three boys40 ,part of this avenue1 and two of the three 8boys10 have been taken to build a wall4 ,the long stone remains1 because it is a boundary stone6 ,the azimuth is #b #cj ,w4 of north or ,e4 of south4 ,looking ,n4 from the long stone1 the height of the horizon is #b #cj4 ,i think this avenue was an attempt to mark the ,s4 point4 ,trowlesworthy 7lat4 #ej #bg #cj74--,the remains here are most interesting4 ,this is the only monument on ,dartmoor in which ,i have so far traced any attempt to locate the sun's place at rising either for the ,may or solstitial year4 ,but ,i will deal with the ,n4-,s4 avenue first1 as it is this feature which associates it with ,fernworthy and ,challacombe4 ,as at ,merrivale1 the avenue has a decided 8kink0 or change of direction4 ,the facts as gathered from the #f-;inch map are as follows3-- ,az4 ,hills4 ,dec4 ,n4 ,star4 ,date4 ,s4 part of ,avenue ,n4 #g ,e4 #b #eb #da #bi #aj ,arcturus #bacj ,b4,c4 ,n4 ,n4 #ab ,e4 #b #eb #da #f #bj #bjhj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--,the sight-lines at ,trowlesworthy1 showing high northern azimuths4 ,from the ,ordnance map4 ,this date is very nearly that of the use of the ,s4 circle at the ,hurlers1 and it is early for ,dartmoor2 but it is quite possible that local observations on an associated avenue a little to the west of the circle which terminates the ,n4-,s4 avenue will justify it4 ,this is not far from parallel to that at ,merrivale1 but its northern azimuth is greater1 so that if it turns out to have been aligned on the ,pleiades its date will be some time before that of ,merrivale1 that is1 before #aehj ,b4,c4 ,i can say nothing more about it till ,i have visited it4 ,the new features to which ,i have referred are two tumuli which in all probability represent more recent additions to the original scheme of observation1 as we have found at ,stenness1 and show that ,trowlesworthy was for long one of the chief centres of worship on ,dartmoor4 ,their azimuths are ,s4 #fd ,e4 and ,s4 #di ,w41 dealing1 therefore1 with the ,may year sunrises in ,november and ,february and the solstitial sunset in ,december4 ,it is probable that1 as at the ,hurlers1 tumuli were used instead of stones not earlier than #aijj ,b4,c4 ,stalldon ,moor 7lat4 #ej #bg #de7 ,i have already incidentally referred to4 ,the azimuth of the stone row as it leaves the circle1 not from its centre as ,i read the #f-;inch map1 is ,n4 #c ,e42 as the azimuth gradually increases for a time1 we may be dealing with ,arcturus1 but local observation is necessary4 ,the differences between the ,cornish and ,dartmoor monuments give much food for thought1 and it is to be hoped that they will be carefully studied by future students of orientation1 as so many questions are suggested4 ,i will refer to some of them4 7#a7 ,are the avenues1 chiefly consisting of two rows of stones1 a reflection of the sphinx avenues of ,egypt8 and1 if so1 how can the intensification of them on ,dartmoor be explained8 7#b7 ,was there a double worship going on in the avenues and the circles at the same time8 ,if not1 why were the former not aligned on the circles8 ,on a dead level1 of course1 if the avenues were aligned on the centre of the circle towards the rising or setting of the sun or a star1 the procession in the via sacra would block the view of those in the circle4 ,we have the avenue at ,stonehenge undoubtedly aligned on the centre of the circle1 but there the naos was on an eminence1 so that the procession in the avenue was always below the level of the horizon1 and so did not block the view4 7#c7 ,do all the cairns and cists in the avenues represent later additions1 so late1 indeed1 that they may have been added after the avenues had ceased to be used for ceremonial purposes8 ,the cairn at nearly the central point of the ,s4 avenue at ,merrivale was certainly not there as a part of the structure when the avenue was first used as a via sacra for observing the rising of the ,pleiades4 ,i have always held that these ancient temples1 and even their attendant long and chambered barrows1 were for the living and not for the dead1 and this view has been strengthened by what ,i have observed on ,dartmoor4 ,there was good reason for burials after the sacred nature of the spot had been established1 and they may have taken place at any time since2 the most probable time being after #ajjj ,b4,c4 up to a date as recent as archologists may consider probable4 ,mr4 ,worth1 whose long labours on the ,dartmoor avenues give such importance to his opinions1 objects to the astronomical use of those avenues because there are so many of them2 he informs me that he knows of #ej2 ,i think this objection may be considered less valid if the avenues show that they were dedicated to different uses1 some practical and others sacred1 at different times of the year4 ,for instance1 ,challacombe is not a duplicate of ,merrivale2 one is solstitial1 the other deals with the ,may year2 and a complete examination of them--,i have only worked on the fringe--may show other differences having the same bearing4 ,in favour of the astronomical view it must be borne in mind that the results obtained in ,devon and ,cornwall are remarkably similar1 and the dates are roughly the same4 ,among the whole host of heaven from which objectors urge it is free for me to select any star ,i choose1 at present only six stars have been considered1 two of which were certainly used1 as in ,egypt1 as clock-stars as they just dipped below the northern horizon1 and other two afterwards at ,athens2 and these six stars are shown by nothing more recondite than an inspection of a precessional globe to have been precisely the stars1 the 8morning stars10 wanted by the priest-astronomers who wished to be prepared for the instant of sunrise at the critical points of the ,may or solstitial year4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,stanton ,,drew 7,lat4 #ea #aj ,n47 ,other circles to which ,i have given some attention are at ,stanton ,drew in ,somerset4 ,i regret to say that ,i have not as yet had an opportunity of visiting them4 ,but a cursory inspection on the ,ordnance map of the possible sight-lines from circle to circle1 for there are three1 suggested at once that we were dealing with the same problem as that worked out1 if somewhat differently1 at the ,hurlers4 ,the three circles1 two avenues leading from two of the circles towards the river1 and some outstanding stones were most carefully surveyed by ,mr4 ,c4 ,e4 ,dymond some years ago4 ,he was good enough to send me copies of his plans and levelling sections4 ,i have not had the advantage of perusing his memoir1 but ,i have studied the monuments as well as ,i could by means of the #be-;inch ,ordnance map4 ,this1 combined with an azimuth which ,colonel ,johnston1 the ,director-,general of the ,ordnance ,survey1 was kind enough to send me1 should give me bearings within a degree4 ,i will begin by giving a short account of the stones which remain1 abridged from the convenient pamphlet prepared for the ,british ,association meeting at ,bristol in #ahih by ,prof4 ,lloyd ,morgan4 ,the circles at ,stanton ,drew1 though far less imposing than those of ,avebury and ,stonehenge1 are thought to be more ancient than are the latter1 for the rough-hewn uprights and plinths of ,stonehenge bear the marks of a higher and presumably later stage of mechanical development4 ,taken as a group1 the ,somersetshire circles are in some respects more complex than their better known rivals in ,wiltshire4 ,there are three circles1 from two of which 8avenues0 proceed for a short distance in a more or less easterly direction2 there is a shattered but large dolmen--if we may so regard the set of stones called 8the cove02 and there are outlying stones--the 8quoit10 and those in ,middle ,ham--which bear such relations to the circles as to suggest that they too formed parts of some general scheme of construction4 ,from the photograph of the ,ordnance map 7,fig4 #dg7 it will be seen1 as pointed out by ,prof4 ,lloyd ,morgan1 7#a7 ,that the centre of the great circle1 that of the ,s4,w4 circle1 and that of the quoit1 are nearly in the same straight line4 7#b7 ,that the cove1 the centre of the great circle1 and that of the ,n4,e4 circle1 are nearly in the same straight line4 ,the quoit1 which generally means the covering stone of a cromlech--8,hautville's ,quoit10 as it is named on the ,ordnance map--looms large in ,stanton ,drew tradition2 it is locally as much respected as the circles themselves4 ,it is pointed to most unmistakably by the fact that a line from it to the ,s4,w4 circle passes nearly through the centre of the great circle4 ,if the observation line1 then1 meant anything astronomically1 it can only have had to do with the rising of a star far to the north1 in a position far more northerly than the sun ever reaches4 ,the 8quoit10 lying in an orchard by the roadside1 has nothing very impressive about its appearance--a recumbent mass of greyish sandstone2 but it seems to be a brick in the ,stanton ,drew building4 ,by some regarded as a sarsen block from ,wiltshire1 it is1 in ,prof4 ,lloyd ,morgan's opinion1 more probably derived from the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,mendip4 ,in any case it is not1 geologically speaking1 in situ2 nor has it reached its present position by natural agency4 ,with regard to two of the megalithic circles1 at first sight the constituent stones seem irregularly dotted about the field2 but as we approach them the unevenly spaced stones group themselves4 ,the material of which the greater number of the rude blocks is composed is peculiar and worthy of careful examination4 ,it is a much altered rock consisting1 in most of the stones1 of an extremely hard siliceous breccia with angular fragments embedded in a red or deep brown matrix1 and with numerous cavities which give it a rough slaggy appearance4 ,many of these hollows are coated internally with a jasper-like material1 the central cavity being lined with gleaming quartz-crystals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,the ,circles and ,avenues at ,stanton ,drew4 ,photograph of #be-;inch ,ordnance map1 shewing approximate azimuths of sight-lines4 ,the majority of the stones were probably brought from ,harptree ,ridge on ,mendip1 distant some six miles4 ,weathered blocks of ,triassic breccia1 showing various stages of silicification1 there lie on the surface2 and there probably lay the weathered monoliths which have been transported to ,stanton ,drew4 ,it is important to note that they were erected unhewn and untouched by the tool4 ,a few stones are of other material--sandstone1 like the 8quoit10 or oolite from ,dundry4 ,in the great circle1 of the visible stones some retain their erect position1 others are recumbent1 several are partially covered by accumulation of grass-grown soil4 ,others are completely buried1 their position being revealed in dry seasons by the withering of the grass above them4 ,to the east of this circle a short avenue leads out1 there being three visible stones and one buried block on the one hand1 and two visible stones on the other4 ,but one's attention is apt to be diverted from these to the very large and massive megaliths of the small ,n4,e4 circle4 ,this is composed of eight weathered masses1 one of which 7if indeed it do not represent more than one71 ,prof4 ,lloyd ,morgan tells us1 is recumbent and shattered4 ,from this circle1 all the stones of which are of the siliceous breccia1 a short avenue of small stones also opens out eastwards4 ,the third or ,s4,w4 circle lies at some little distance from the others4 ,the average size of the stones is smaller than in either of the other circles1 and not all are composed of the same material4 8,the ,cove10 which has been variously regarded as a dolmen1 a druidical chair of state1 and a shelter for sacrificial fire1 is close to the church4 ,the dimensions and numbers of the stones are as follow3 ,great circle1 diameter #cfh feet1 #cj stones4 ,n4,e4 #ig #h ,s4,w4 #ade #ab ,as ,i was not able to visit ,stanton ,drew when the significance of the northerly alignments struck me1 ,i made an appeal to ,prof4 ,lloyd ,morgan1 of whose pamphlet ,i have so largely made use1 to obtain some theodolite observations4 ,as a result such observations have been made by himself and ,mr4 ,morrow1 from whom ,i have recently received a report with full permission to make use of it in this place4 ,the monuments are not easy to measure1 as the centres of the circles are not readily determined1 as so many of the stones are either absent1 recumbent or buried4 ,in my rough reading of the ,ordnance map given in ,fig4 #dg1 ,i thought ,i might be guided by taking centres1 such that the avenues would be aligned on them as at ,stonehenge4 ,i had not then seen the ,dartmoor avenues1 which in some cases are not aligned on the centres4 ,in this it is possible that ,i was wrong1 as both ,mr4 ,dymond's and ,mr4 ,morrow's observations suggest that the avenues are really of the ,dartmoor pattern4 ,mr4 ,morrow writes3 8,the centres of the circles are 7to a certain small extent7 a matter of choice1 a difference of a few minutes may easily occur4 ,in dealing with the avenues a larger discrepancy may occur4 ,i have taken what1 in my opinion1 was the best centre line of each avenue and thus determined its azimuth4 ,but ,i believe that originally the southern line of stones forming each avenue was directed towards the centre of the corresponding circle1 and that the avenue was then completed by the erection of a parallel line of stones4 ,a difference of a few degrees may thus be accounted for in the azimuth supposed to have been originally marked out40 ,about ,mr4 ,morrow's azimuths there can be no question4 ,he writes3 8,the instruments used were1 first1 a #f theodolite1 and second1 a #f transit theodolite4 ,the final results were obtained with the latter4 ,it cannot be reversed when measuring elevations4 ,i tested it very carefully for the adjustments of 7a7 line of collimation at right angles to the horizontal axis1 7b7 horizontal axis perpendicular to vertical axis1 and 7c7 line of collimation and spirit level parallel to each other4 ,the instrument was in first-rate order1 the error in elevation1 for example1 being within that corresponding to a slope of #a in #dj1jjj2 that is well within the limit of #bj to which vertical angles can be read4 8,the meridian was obtained by two different methods applied several times1 the results agreeing very closely4 ,readings of azimuths and altitude of sun were taken between three and four hours after noon1 corrected for semi-diameter1 c41 and the true bearing obtained with the aid of the latitude and the declination given in ,nautical ,almanac 7corrected for time74 8,with regard to the elevations of the horizon1 the existence of trees on or just below the sky-line renders readings to the nearest minute uncertain4 ,in all cases ,i have tried to give the most probable value1 supposing the trees to be absent4 ,in some places the heights will have altered slightly during recent years owing to the construction of railways4 8,the values given are the means of observations4 ,they are not corrected for height of instrument above ground1 which might increase the angles by about #e mins4 ,trees on the sky-line appear to make a difference of some #ce mins40 ,the azimuths as found by ,mr4 ,morrow and myself are as under3 ,height of horizon 7excluding trees74 ,morrow4 ,lockyer4 ,morrow4 #bc;,from centre of great circle to ,hauteville's quoit ,n4 #ag #ei ,e4 #ag #b #bc ,from centre of great circle to ,n4,e4 circle #ec #j #ea #a #e ,from centre of great circle along great circle avenue #fh #dc #fe #j #ch ,from centre of ,n4,e4 circle along ,n4,e4 circle avenue ,s4 #hc #eb ,e4 #gi #a #dj ,from centre of ,s4,w4 circle to centre of great circle ,n4 #ai #ea ,e4 #bj #a #dd ,the azimuths to which ,i first direct attention are these3 ,az4 ,great circle to quoit ,n4 #ag ,e4 ,s4,w4 circle to great circle ,n4 #bj ,e4 ,these azimuths indicate that at ,stanton ,drew as at the ,hurlers and elsewhere we are dealing with ,arcturus as a clock-star4 ,the facts are3 ,az4 ,n4 ,decln4 ,height ,star4 ,date4 of hills4 ,n4 #ag ,e4 #ch #ei #j #b #bc ,arcturus #afij #bj #cg #bf #ej #a #dd #adaj ,one of the greatest differences between ,mr4 ,morrow's local observation and my reading of the #be-;inch ,ordnance map occurs in the case of the direction of the avenue from the great circle4 ,it may be suggested that the use of this avenue was to observe the ,may and ,august sunrises of the ,may year4 ,if we take the sun's declination at #af #bj ,n41 see p4 #bb1 the azimuth should be about ,n4 #fd ,e42 this is #a from my value and #e from that given by ,mr4 ,morrow1 but it must not be forgotten that the choice of a day in ,may and ,august slightly differing from the normal date might easily produce such a variation4 ,it seems probable that the great circle was one of the first erected1 and the fact that1 like ,stonehenge1 it had an avenue1 but that1 unlike ,stonehenge1 the avenue was directed towards the ,may and not the ,june 7solstitial7 sunrise further1 ,i think1 suggests that the ,may worship was considered the most important and was the first provided for4 ,there is reason for supposing that the great circle was at all events built before the ,s4,w4 one4 ,the great circle is situated at a lower level than the ,s4,w4 one4 ,the angular elevation of the hills over which ,arcturus rose would appear1 therefore1 to be higher from the great than from the ,s4,w4 circle4 ,arcturus has been reducing its declination for centuries in consequence of the precessional movement4 ,it would therefore rise gradually in a greater azimuth1 that is1 nearer the east4 ,an observer in the centre of the great circle1 to follow this more easterly rising over the quoit1 would have to change his position gradually to the westward4 ,but there was another way4 ,the original direction could be nearly maintained if the observation were made at a higher level near the original line1 as then the relative elevation of the rising-place would be reduced4 ,this is what possibly was done1 and this indeed may be the vera causa of the building of the ,s4,w4 circle4 ,this view of the possible function of the 8quoit0 is1 of course1 strengthened by the fact that we find traces of high northerly alignment in other stone circles4 ,i have already shown that there are such alignments in ,cornwall4 ,the 8quoit0 is nearly on a level with the great circle1 while the hills rise behind it4 ,it has been suggested that it would have been more useful on the top of the hill1 but this suggestion cannot be accepted for a moment if it were used in the way ,i have indicated4 ,on a dark night it would have been invisible1 and it also would have prevented the observation of star-rise if it were truly aligned4 ,being comparatively near the circle it could easily have been illuminated at the critical time1 and thus have anticipated the bright line micrometer of more modern times4 ,so far ,i have found no obvious use for the avenue attached to the ,n4,e4 circle4 ,the conditions are3 ,az4 ,height of ,dec4 ,hills4 ,morrow4 ,lockyer4 ,morrow4 ,morrow4 ,lockyer4 ,s4 #hc #eb ,e4 ,s4 #gi ,e4 #a #dj #c #eb #cj ,s4 #e #di #cj ,s4 ,with regard to this ,n4,e4 circle1 in relation to the large circle1 the data are as follows3 ,az4 ,height of ,dec4 ,n4 ,hills4 ,morrow4 ,lockyer4 ,morrow4 ,morrow4 ,lockyer4 ,n4 #ec ,e4 ,n4 #ea ,e4 #a #e #bb #dc #ej #bc #dh #df ,as ,mr4 ,morrow states1 the choice of centre of the circle may alter the azimuth obtained by as much as 8a few degrees10 but the value obtained from the ,ordnance map is1 definitely1 ,n4 #ea ,e41 and with the height of hills determined by ,mr4 ,morrow this would suggest that the ,n4,e4 circle was really erected to provide the alignment1 from the centre of the great circle1 or from the ,cove1 to the summer solstitial sun1 about the year #hgj ,b4,c41 ,stockwell's values for the obliquity being taken4 ,this result is the more striking as it gives a date for the substitution of the ,june for the ,may worship at ,stanton ,drew1 which is in full accordance with that obtained for the similar change at ,stenness4 ,there is other evidence1 to which ,i attach importance1 as it deals with a method and policy found in many temple fields in ,egypt1 that of blocking the alignment of an older star- or sun-cult1 which the astronomer-priests replaced by their own4 ,the stones of the avenue of the solstitial ,n4,e4 circle ,i expect once blocked the ,may sunrise line from the great circle2 judging from the ,ordnance map1 and remembering the number of stones that have disappeared1 this is probable if not certain4 ,if this were so1 then the ,n4,e4 circle was the last to be erected1 and this suggestion is strengthened by ,mr4 ,lewis's statement that it is the most perfect of the three4 ,prof4 ,lloyd ,morgan concludes his interesting account of which ,i have made so much use with the following remarks3 8,in what order the circles were constructed we do not know4 ,whether the small ,n4,e4 circle with its more massive megaliths preceded or succeeded the great circle with its more numerous but1 on the average1 less massive stones1 is a matter of mere conjecture4 ,they may have been contemporaneous3 but it is more likely that so large a work took a long time in execution2 nor does the unity of plan of the final product preclude a gradual process of development4 ,finally as to the purpose of the erection1 and its hidden astronomical1 mythological1 or social meaning 7if it have one71 we are once more at the mercy of more or less plausible conjecture4 ,there stand the circles in a quiet ,somersetshire valley1 silent memorials of a race concerning whose modes of life1 of labour1 and of thought we can but speculate40 ,it is to be hoped that before the monument has disappeared like so many of its fellows1 some student with more knowledge and time to devote to the inquiry than myself will endeavour to answer more of the questions raised by it4 #bc ,with regard to these values ,mr4 ,morrow writes3 8,at present ,hauteville's quoit is not visible from the centre of great circle4 ,if the stone were erect1 however1 and any intervening trees and walls removed1 the top of the stone would no doubt be within view4 ,the ,hauteville quoit line is thus rather a difficult one to obtain with accuracy1 but the azimuth given should be correct to the nearest minute40 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,folklore ,,and ,,tradition ,we have so far considered the circles at ,stonehenge1 ,stenness1 the ,hurlers and ,stanton ,drew1 and the avenues in ,brittany and on ,dartmoor4 ,before ,i refer to my later work in the south-west of ,england or attempt to present a summary of the results of the inquiry1 ,i think it will be convenient to turn for a time to another branch of it1 for that there is another closely connected series of facts to be considered in relation to the monuments folklore and tradition abundantly prove4 ,so far in this book ,i have dealt chiefly with stones--as ,i hold1 associated with1 or themselves composing1 sanctuaries4 ,we have become acquainted with circles1 menhirs1 dolmens1 altars1 vi sacr1 various structures built up of stones4 ,barrows and earthern banks represented them later4 ,the view which ,i have been led to bring forward so far is that these structures had in one way or another to do with the worship of the sun and stars2 that they had for the most part an astronomical use in connection with religious ceremonials4 ,the next question which concerns us in an attempt to get at the bottom of the matter is to see whether there are any concomitant phenomena1 and1 if there be any1 to classify them and study the combined results4 ,tradition and folklore1 which give dim references to the ancient uses of the stones1 show in most unmistakable fashion that the stones were not alone2 associated with them almost universally were many practices referred to on p4 #bf1 such as the lighting of fires1 passing through them1 and dancing round them2 in the neighbourhood of the stones and associated with the fire practices were also sacred trees and sacred wells or streams4 ,folklore and tradition not only thus may help us1 but ,i think they will be helped by such a general survey1 brief though it must be4 ,so far as my reading has gone each special tradition has been considered by itself2 there has been no general inquiry having for its object the study of the possible origin and connection of many of the ancient practices and ideas which have so dimly come down to us in many cases and which we can only completely reconstruct by piecing together the information derived from various sources4 ,i now propose to refer to all these matters with the view of seeing whether there be any relation between practices apparently disconnected in so many cases if we follow the literature in which they are chronicled4 ,we must not blame the literature1 since the facts which remain to be recorded now here1 now there1 are but a small fraction of those that have been forgotten4 ,fortunately1 the practices forgotten in one locality have been remembered in another1 so that it is possible the picture can be restored more completely than one might have thought at first4 ,it will be seen at once that from the point of view with which we are at present concerned1 one of the chief relations we must look for is that of time1 seeing that my chief affirmation with regard to the stone monuments is that they were used for ceremonial purposes at certain seasons1 those seasons being based first upon the agricultural1 and later upon the astronomical divisions of the year1 to which ,i drew attention in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,in ,chapter ,,iv41 when referring to the agricultural and astronomical new years' days1 ,i indicated a possible relation between the temple worship and the floral celebrations of that time1 and later on 7p4 #dj71 in connection with the monuments in ,brittany1 ,i pointed out the coincidence of fire customs at the same time of the year4 ,but in a matter of this kind it will not do to depend upon isolated cases2 the general trend of all the facts available along several lines of inquiry must be found and studied1 first separately and then inter se1 if any final conclusion is to be reached4 ,this is what ,i now propose to do in a very summary manner4 ,it is not my task to arrange the facts of folklore and tradition1 but simply to cull from the available sources precise statements which bear upon the questions before us4 ,these statements1 ,i think1 may be accepted as trustworthy1 and all the more so as many of the various recorders have had no idea either of the existence of a ,may year at all or of the connection between the different classes of the phenomena which ought to exist if my theory of their common origin in connection with ancient worship and the monuments is anywhere near the truth4 ,this question of time relations is surrounded by difficulties4 ,i gave in ,fig4 #g the ,gregorian dates of the beginning of the quarters of the ,may year1 if nothing but the sun's declination of #af #bj ,n4 or ,s41 four times in its yearly path1 be considered4 ,these were3-- ,may ,greek ,roman ,year4 ,calendar4 ,calendar4 ,end of ,winter ,feb4 #d ,feb4 #g ,feb4 #g ,beginning of ,spring ,summer ,may #f ,may #f ,may #i ,end of ,summer ,aug4 #h ,aug4 #aa ,aug4 #h ,beginning of ,autumn ,winter ,nov4 #h ,nov4 #aj ,nov4 #i ,in the table ,i also give1 for comparison1 the dates in the ,greek and ,roman calendars 7p4 #bj74 ,there is no question that on or about the above days festivals were anciently celebrated in these islands2 possibly not all at all holy places1 but some at one and some at another2 this1 perhaps1 may help to explain the variation in the local traditions and even some of the groupings of orientations4 ,the earliest information on this point comes from ,ireland4 ,cormac1 ,archbishop of ,cashel in the tenth century1 states1 according to ,vallancey1 that 8in his time four great fires were lighted up on the four great festivals of the ,druids1 viz41 in ,february1 ,may1 ,august and ,november40#bd ,i am not aware of any such general statement as early as this in relation to the four festivals of the ,may year in ,great ,britain1 but in spite of its absence the fact is undoubted that festivals were held1 and many various forms of celebration used1 during those months4 ,from the introduction of ,christianity attempts of different kinds were made to destroy this ancient time system and to abolish the so-called 8pagan0 worships and practices connected with it4 ,efforts were made to change the date and so obliterate gradually the old traditions2 another way1 and this turned out to be the more efficacious1 was to change the venue of the festival1 so to speak1 in favour of some ,christian celebration or saint's day4 ,the old festivals took no account of week-days1 so it was ruled that the festivals were to take place on the first day of the week2 later on some of them were ruled to begin on the first day of the month4 ,when ,easter became a movable feast1 the efforts of the priests were greatly facilitated1 and indeed it would seem as if this result of such a change was not absent from the minds of those who favoured it4 ,the change of style was1 as ,i have before stated1 a fruitful source of confusion1 and this was still further complicated by another difficulty4 ,piers#be tells us that consequent upon the change 8the ,roman ,catholics light their fires by the new style1 as the correction originated from a pope2 and for that very same reason the ,protestants adhere to the old40 ,i will refer to each of the festivals and their changes of date4 ,february #d4 ,before the movable ,easter the ,february festival had been transformed into ,ash ,wednesday 7,february #d74 ,the eve of the festival was ,shrove ,tuesday1 and it is quite possible that the ashes used by the priests on ,wednesday were connected with the bonfires of the previous night4 ,it would seem that initially the festival1 with its accompanying bonfire1 was transferred to the first ,sunday in ,lent1 ,february #h4 ,i quote the following from ,hazlitt#bf3-- 8,durandus1 in his #8,rationale1' tells us1 ,lent was counted to begin on that which is now the first ,sunday in ,lent1 and to end on ,easter ,eve2 which time1 saith he1 containing forty-two days1 if you take out of them the six ,sundays 7on which it was counted not lawful at any time of the year to fast71 then there will remain only thirty-six days3 and1 therefore1 that the number of days which ,christ fasted might be perfected1 ,pope ,gregory added to ,lent four days of the week before-going1 viz41 that which we now call ,ash ,wednesday1 and the three days following it4 ,so that we see the first observation of ,lent began from a superstitious1 unwarrantable1 and indeed profane1 conceit of imitating ,our ,saviour's miraculous abstinence4 ,lent is so called from the time of the year wherein it is observed3 ,lent in the ,saxon language signifying ,spring40 ,whether this be the origin of the lenten fast or not it is certain that the connection thus established between an old pagan feast and a new ,christian one is very ingenious3 #bd days in ,february plus #bb days in ,march 7,march #bb being originally the fixed date for ,easter7 gives us #df days 7#f #g7 #d1 and from the point of view of priestcraft the result was eminently satisfactory1 for thousands of people still light fires on ,shrove ,tuesday or on the first ,sunday of ,lent1 whether those days occur in ,february or ,march4 ,they are under the impression that they are doing homage to a church festival1 and the pagan origin is entirely forgotten not only by them but even by those who chronicle the practices as 8,lent customs40#bg ,finally1 after the introduction of the movable ,easter1 the priests at ,rome1 instead of using the 8pagan0 ashes produced on the eve of the first ,sunday in ,lent or ,ash ,wednesday in each year1 utilised those derived from the burning of the palms used on ,palm ,sunday of the year before4 ,further steps were taken to conceal from future generations the origin of the 8pagan0 custom due on ,february #d4 ,february #c was dedicated to ,st4 8,blaze40 ,how well this answered is shown by the following quotation from ,percy4#bh 8,the anniversary of ,st4 ,blazeus is the #crd ,february1 when it is still the custom in many parts of ,england to light up fires on the hills on ,st4 ,blayse night3 a custom antiently taken up perhaps for no better reason than the jingling resemblance of his name to the word ,blaze40 ,this even did not suffice4 ,a great candle church festival was established on ,february #b4 ,this was called 8,candlemas10 and ,candlemas is still the common name of the beginning of the ,scotch legal year4 ,in the ,cathedral of ,durham when ,cosens was bishop he 8busied himself from two of the clocke in the afternoone till foure1 in climbing long ladders to stick up wax candles in the said ,cathedral ,church2 the number of all the candles burnt that evening was #bbj1 besides #af torches2 #fj of those burning tapers and torches standing upon and near the high altar40#bi ,there is evidence that the pagan fires at other times of the year were also gradually replaced by candles in the churches4 ,may #f4 ,the ,may festival has been treated by the ,church in the same way as the ,february one4 ,with a fixed ,easter ,sunday on ,march #bb1 #df days after brought us to a ,thursday 7,may #g71 hence ,holy ,thursday#cj and ,ascension ,day4 ,with ,easter movable there of course was more confusion4 ,whit ,sunday1 the ,feast of ,pentecost1 was only nine days after ,holy ,thursday1 and it occurred1 in some years1 on the same day of the month as ,ascension ,day in others4 ,in ,scotland the festival now is ascribed to ,whit ,sunday4 ,it is possibly in consequence of this that the festival before even the change of style was held on the #ast of the month4 ,in ,cornwall1 where the celebrations still survive1 the day chosen is ,may #h4 ,august #h4 ,for the migrations of the dates of the 8pagan0 festival in the beginning of ,august from the #ast to the #abth1 migrations complicated by the old and new style1 ,i refer to ,prof4 ,rhys' ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #dah1 in which work a full account of the former practices in ,ireland and ,wales is given4 ,the old festival in ,ireland was associated with ,lug1 a form of the ,sun-,god2 the most celebrated one was held at ,tailetin4 ,this feast--,lugnassad--was changed into the church celebration ,lammas1 from ,a4,s4 hl'fmaesse--that is loaf-mass or bread-mass1 so named as a mass or feast of thanksgiving for the first fruits of the corn harvest4 ,the old customs in ,wales and the ,isle of ,alan included the ascent of hills in the early morning1 but so far ,i have found no record of fires in connection with this date4#ca ,november #h4 ,the facts that ,november #aa is quarter day in ,scotland1 that mayors are elected on or about that date1 show1 ,i think1 pretty clearly that we are here dealing with the old 8pagan0 date4 ,the fact that the ,church anticipated it by the feast of ,all ,souls' on ,november #a reminds us of what happened in the case of the ,february celebration2 later ,i give a reference to the change of date2 and perhaps this date was also determined by the natural gravitation to the first of the month1 as in the case of ,may1 and because it marked at one time the beginning of the ,celtic year4 ,but what seems quite certain is that the feast which should have been held on ,november #h on astronomical grounds was first converted by the ,church into the feast of ,st4 ,martin on ,november #aa4 ,the ,encyclopdia ,britannica tells us3 8,the feast of ,st4 ,martin 7,martinmas7 took the place of an old pagan festival1 and inherited some of its usages1 such as the ,martinsmnnchen1 ,martinsfeuer1 ,martinshorn1 and the like1 in various parts of ,germany40 ,st4 ,martin lived about ,a4,d4 #cjj4 ,as the number of saints increased1 it became impossible to dedicate a feast-day to each4 ,hence it was found expedient to have an annual aggregate commemoration of such as had not special days for themselves4 ,so a church festival 8,all ,hallows10 or 8,hallowmass10 was instituted about ,a4,d4 #faj in memory of the martyrs1 and it was to take place on ,may #a4 ,for some reason or another this was changed in ,a4,d4 #hcd2 ,may was given up1 and the date fixed as ,november #a4 ,this was a commemoration of all the saints1 so we get the new name 8,all ,saints' ,day40 ,there can be little doubt that the intention of the ,church was to anticipate1 and therefore gradually to obliterate the pagan festival still held at ,martinmas1 and it has been successful in many places4 ,in ,ireland1 for instance2 at ,samhain1#cb ,november #a1 8the proper time for prophecy and the unveiling of mysteries40444 ,it was then that fire was lighted at a place called after ,mog ,ruith's daughter ,tlachtga4 ,from ,tlachtga all the hearths in ,ireland are said to have been annually supplied1 just as the ,lemnians had once a year to put their fires out and light them anew from that brought in the sacred ship from ,delos4 ,the habit of celebrating ,nos ,galan-galaf in ,wales by lighting bonfires on the hills is possibly not yet extinct4 ,here1 then1 we find the pagan fires transferred from the #hth to the #ast of ,november in ,ireland1 but in the ,isle of ,man this is not so4 ,i will anticipate another reference to ,rhys by stating that ,martinmas had progressed from the #aath to the #bdth before the change of style brought it back1 8old ,martinmas10 ,november #bd1 being one of the best recognised 8old ,english holidays10 8old ,candlemas0 being another1 at the other end of the ,may year2 this last had slipped from ,february #b to ,february #ae before it was put back again4 ,with regard to the ,isle of ,man ,rhys writes#cc that the feast is there called ,hollantide1 and is kept on ,november #ab1 a reckoning which he states 8is according to the old style40 ,the question is1 are we not dealing here with the ,martinmas festival not antedated to ,november #a8 ,he adds1 8that is the day when the tenure of land terminates1 and when serving men go to their places4 ,in other words it is the beginning of a new year40 ,this is exactly what happens in ,scotland1 and the day is still called ,martinmas4 ,there is a custom in mid-,england which strikingly reminds us of the importance of ,martinmas in relation to old tenures1 if even the custom does not carry us still further back4 ,this is the curious and interesting ceremony of collecting the wroth silver1 due and payable to his ,grace the ,duke of ,buccleuch and ,queensbury on 8,martinmas ,eve40 ,the payment is made on an ancient mound on the summit of ,knightlow ,hill1 about five miles out of ,coventry1 and in the parish of ,ryton-on-,dunsmore4 ,one feature about this singular ceremonial is that it must take place before sun-rising4 #bd ,hazlitt1 ,dictionary of ,faiths and ,folklore1 under ,gule of ,august4 #be ,survey of the ,south of ,ireland1 p4 #bcb4 #bf ,under ,ash ,wednesday4 #bg ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 iii41 #bch et seq4 #bh ,notes to ,northumberland ,household ,book1 #aggj1 p4 #ccc4 #bi ,quoted by ,hazlitt4 #cj ,much confusion has arisen with regard to the ,holy ,thursday in ,rogation week because there is another ,holy or ,maundy ,thursday in ,easter week4 ,archologists have also been often misled by the practice of many writers of describing the ,may festivals as midsummer festivals4 ,the first of ,may1 of course1 marked the beginning of summer4 #ca ,mr4 ,frazer informs me that the #acth ,august was ,diana's day at ,nemi and there was a fire festival4 #cb ,rhys' ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ead4 #cc ,celtic ,folklore1 p4 #cae4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,sacred ,,fires ,the magnificent collection of facts bearing on this subject which has been brought together by ,mr4 ,frazer in ,the ,golden ,bough renders it unnecessary for me to deal with the details of this part of my subject at any great length4 ,we have these records of fires3-- 7#a7 ,in ,february1 ,may1 ,august and ,november of the original ,may year4 7#b7 ,in ,june and ,december on the longest and shortest days of the solstitial year1 concerning which there could not be1 and has not been1 any such change of date as has occurred in relation to the ,may year festivals4 7#c7 ,a fire at ,easter1 in all probability added not long before or at the introduction of ,christianity4 ,i find no traces of a fire festival at the corresponding equinox in ,september4 ,we learn from ,cormac that the fires were generally double and that cattle were driven between them4 ,concerning this question of fire1 both ,mr4 ,frazer and the ,rev4 ,s4 ,baring-,gould#cd suggest that we are justified in considering the ,christian treatment of the sacred fire as a survival of pagan times4 ,mr4 ,baring-,gould writes as follows3--8,when ,christianity became dominant1 it was necessary to dissociate the ideas of the people from the central fire as mixed up with the old gods2 at the same time the central fire was an absolute need4 ,accordingly the ,church was converted into the sacred depository of the perpetual fire40 ,he further points out that there still remain in some of our churches 7in ,cornwall1 ,york1 and ,dorset7 the contrivances--now called cresset-stones--used4 ,they are blocks of stone with cups hollowed out4 ,some are placed in lamp-niches furnished with flues4 ,on these he remarks 7p4 #abb73-- 8,now although these lamps and cressets had their religious signification1 yet this religious signification was an afterthought4 ,the origin of them lay in the necessity of there being in every place a central light1 from which light could at any time be borrowed2 and the reason why this central light was put in the church was to dissociate it from the heathen ideas attached formerly to it4 ,as it was1 the good people of the ,middle ,ages were not quite satisfied with the central church fire1 and they had recourse in times of emergency to other1 and as the ,church deemed them unholy1 fires4 ,when a plague and murrain appeared among cattle1 then they lighted need-fires from two pieces of dry wood1 and drove the cattle between the flames1 believing that this new flame was wholesome to the purging away of the disease4 ,for kindling the need-fires the employment of flint and steel was forbidden4 ,the fire was only efficacious when extracted in prehistoric fashion1 out of wood4 ,the lighting of these need-fires was forbidden by the ,church in the eighth century4 ,what shows that this need-fire was distinctly heathen is that in the ,church new fire was obtained at ,easter annually by striking flint and steel together4 ,it was supposed that the old fire in a twelvemonth had got exhausted1 or perhaps that all light expired with ,christ1 and that new fire must be obtained4 ,accordingly the priest solemnly struck new fire out of flint and steel4 ,but fire from flint and steel was a novelty2 and the people1 ,pagan at heart1 had no confidence in it1 and in time of adversity went back to the need-fire kindled in the time-honoured way from wood by friction1 before this new-fangled way of drawing it out of stone and iron was invented40 ,the same authority informs us that before ,christianity was introduced into ,ireland by ,st4 ,patrick there was a temple at ,tara 8where fire burned ever1 and was on no account suffered to go out40 ,mr4 ,frazer1#ce quoting ,cerbied1 shows that in the ancient religion of ,armenia the new fire was kindled at the ,february festival of the ,may year1 in honour of the fire-god ,mihr4 8,a bonfire was made in a public place1 and lamps kindled at it were kept burning throughout the year in each of the fire-god's temples40 ,this festival now takes place at ,candlemas1 ,february #b4 ,we must assume1 then1 that the pagan fires were produced by the friction of dry wood1 and possibly in connection with an ever-burning fire4 ,in either case the priests officiating at the various circles must have had a place handy where the wood was kept dry or the fire kept burning1 and on this ground alone we may again inquire whether such structures as ,maeshowe at the ,stenness circle1 the ,fougou at that of the ,merry ,maidens1 and indeed chambered barrows and cairns generally1 were not used for these purposes amongst others2 whether indeed they were not primarily built for the living and not for the dead1 and whether this will explain the finding of traces of fires and of hollowed stones in them1 as well as some points in their structure4 ,mr4 ,mac,ritchie#cf has brought together several of these points1 among them fireplaces and flues for carrying away smoke4 ,at both solstices it would appear that a special fire-rite was practised4 ,this consisted of tying straw on a wheel and rolling it when lighted down a hill4 ,there is much evidence for the wheel at the summer1 but less at the winter1 solstice2 still1 we learn from the old ,runic fasti that a wheel was used to denote the festival of ,christmas4 ,with regard to the summer solstice ,i quote the following from ,hazlitt 7under ,john1 ,st473-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,the ,carro1 ,florence4 ,from ,baring-,gould's ,strange ,survivals4 8,durandus1 speaking of the rites of the ,feast of ,st4 ,john ,baptist1 informs us of this curious circumstance1 that in some places they roll a wheel about to signify that the sun1 then occupying the highest place in the ,zodiac1 is beginning to descend4 #8,rotam quoque hoc die in quibusdam locis volvunt1 ad significandum quod ,sol altissimum tunc locum in ,clo occupet1 et descendere incipiat in ,zodiaco4' ,harl4 ,,mss4 #bcde 7on vellum71 ,art4 #ajj1 is an account of the rites of ,st4 ,john ,baptist's ,eve1 in which the wheel is also mentioned4 ,in the amplified account of these ceremonies given by ,naogeorgus1 we read that this wheel was taken up to the top of a mountain and rolled down thence2 and that1 as it had previously been covered with straw1 twisted about it and set on fire1 it appeared at a distance as if the sun had been falling from the sky4 ,and he further observes1 that the people imagine that all their ill-luck rolls away from them together with this wheel4 ,at ,norwich1 says a writer in ,current ,notes for ,march1 #ahed1 the rites of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist were anciently observed1 #8when it was the custom to turn or roll a wheel about1 in signification of the sun's annual course1 or the sun1 then occupying the highest place in the ,zodiac1 was about descending4'0 ,at ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 the ,may and ,june years are clearly differentiated4 ,there is a vocal service at sunrise on ,may morning1 followed by boys blowing horns4 ,at the summer solstice there is a sermon preached during the day in the quadrangle4 ,one of the most picturesque survivals of this ancient custom takes place at ,florence each year at ,easter4 ,this is fully described by ,baring-,gould4 ,the moment the sacred fire is produced at the high altar a dove 7in plaster7 carries it along a rope about #bjj yards long to a car in the square outside the west door of the cathedral and sets fire to a fuse1 thus causing the explosion of fireworks4 ,the car with its explosives is the survival of the ancient bonfire4 ,it would appear that the lighting of these fires on a large scale lingered longest in ,ireland and ,brittany4 ,a correspondent of the ,gentleman's ,magazine 7,february1 #agie7 thus describes the ,irish ,beltane fires in #aghb1 8the most singular sight in ,ireland03-- 8,exactly at midnight1 the fires began to appear1 and taking the advantage of going up to the leads of the house1 which had a widely extended view1 ,i saw on a radius of thirty miles1 all around1 the fires burning on every eminence which the country afforded4 ,i had a farther satisfaction in learning1 from undoubted authority1 that the people danced round the fires1 and at the close went through these fires1 and made their sons and daughters1 together with their cattle1 pass through the fire2 and the whole was conducted with religious solemnity40 ,it will have been observed with reference to these fire festivals that although there were undoubtedly four1 in ,may1 ,august1 ,november and ,february1 those in ,may and ,november were more important than the others4 ,this no doubt arose from the fact that at different times the ,may and ,november celebrations were ,new ,year festivals4 ,with regard to the ,new ,year in ,november in ,celtic and later times4 ,rhys writes as follows 7,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ead73-- 8,the ,celts were in the habit formerly of counting winters1 and of giving precedence in their reckoning to night and winter over day and summer 7p4 #cfj72 ,i should argue that the last day of the year in the ,irish story of ,diarmait's death meant the eve of ,november or ,all-halloween1 the night before the ,irish ,samhain1 and known in ,welsh as ,nos ,galan-gaeaf1 or the ,night of the ,winter ,calends4 ,but there is no occasion to rest on this alone1 as we have the evidence of ,cormac's ,glossary that the month before the beginning of winter was the last month2 so that the first day of the first month of winter was also the first day of the year40 ,that the ,november bonfire was recognised as heralding the dominion of the gods and spirits of darkness1#cg that the old ideas surrounding ,horus and ,set in ,egypt were not forgotten1 is evidenced by the fact that when it was extinct the whole company round it would suddenly take to their heels1 shouting at the top of their voices3-- ,yr hwch u gwta ,the cropped black sow ,a gipio 'r ola'6 ,seize the hindmost6 ,a piecing together of the folklore and traditions of different districts suggests that sacrifices were made in connection with the fire festivals1 in fact that the fire at one of the critical times of the ,may year at least was a sacrificial one4 ,i will quote two cases given by ,gomme#ch for ,may ,day and ,all ,souls' ,day respectively3-- 8,at the village of ,holne1 situated on one of the spurs of ,dartmoor1 is a field of about two acres1 the property of the parish1 and called the ,ploy ,field4 ,in the centre of this field stands a granite pillar 7,menhir7 six or seven feet high4 ,on ,may-morning1 before daybreak1 the young men of the village used to assemble there1 and then proceed to the moor1 where they selected a ram lamb1 and after running it down1 brought it in triumph to the ,ploy ,field1 fastened it to the pillar1 cut its throat and then roasted it whole1 skin1 wool1 c4 ,at midday a struggle took place1 at the risk of cut hands1 for a slice1 it being supposed to confer luck for the ensuing year on the fortunate devourer4 ,as an act of gallantry the young men sometimes fought their way through the crowd to get a slice for the chosen amongst the young women1 all of whom1 in their best dresses1 attended the ,ram ,feast1 as it was called4 ,dancing1 wrestling1 and other games1 assisted by copious libations of cider during the afternoon1 prolonged the festivity till midnight40 ,in the parish of ,king's ,teignton1 ,devonshire1 8a lamb is drawn about the parish on ,whitsun ,monday in a cart covered with garlands of lilac1 laburnum and other flowers1 when persons are requested to give something towards the animal and attendant expenses2 on ,tuesday it is then killed and roasted whole in the middle of the village4 ,the lamb is then sold in slices to the poor at a cheap rate40 ,the popular legend concerning the origin of this custom introduces two important elements--a reference to 8heathen days0 and the title of 8sacrifice0 ascribed to the killing of the lamb 7p4 #ca74 8,at ,st4 ,peter's1 ,athlone1 every family of a village on ,st4 ,martin's ,day kills an animal of some kind or other2 those who are rich kill a cow or sheep1 others a goose or turkey1 while those who are poor kill a hen or cock2 with the blood of the animal they sprinkle the threshold and also the four corners of the house1 and #8this performance is done to exclude every kind of evil spirit from the dwelling where the sacrifice is made till the return of the same day the following year'0 7p4 #afc74 ,other traditions indicate that human sacrifices were in question1 and that lots were drawn1 or some other method of the choice of a victim was adopted4 ,i quote from ,hazlitt 7i41 #dd7 the following report of the ,minister of ,callender in #agid3-- 8,the people of this district have two customs1 which are fast wearing out1 not only here1 but all over the ,highlands1 and therefore ought to be taken notice of1 while they remain4 ,upon the first day of ,may1 which is called ,beltan1 or ,bl-tein-day1 all the boys in a township or hamlet meet in the moors4 ,they cut a table in the green sod1 of a round figure1 by casting a trench in the ground of such a circumference as to hold the whole company4 ,they kindle a fire1 and dress a repast of eggs and milk in the consistence of a custard4 ,they knead a cake of oatmeal1 which is toasted at the embers against a stone4 ,after the custard is eaten up1 they divide the cake into so many portions1 as similar as possible to one another in size and shape1 as there are persons in the company4 ,they daub one of these portions all over with charcoal1 until it be perfectly black4 ,they put all the bits of the cake into a bonnet4 ,everyone1 blindfold1 draws out a portion4 ,he who holds the bonnet is entitled to the last bit4 ,whoever draws the black bit is the devoted person1 who is to be sacrificed to ,baal1 whose favour they mean to implore in rendering the year productive of the sustenance of man and beast4 ,there is little doubt of these inhuman sacrifices having been once offered in this country as well as in the ,east1 although they now pass from the act of sacrificing1 and only compel the devoted person to leap three times through the flames2 with which the ceremonies of the festival are closed40 ,i may conclude this chapter by referring to similar practices in ,brittany1 where ,baring-,gould#ci has so successfully studied them4 ,the present remnants of the old cult in the different parishes are now called 8pardons02#dj they are still numerous4 ,i give those for the ,may and ,august festivals 7p4 #hc74 ,may4 ,ascension ,day4 ,bodilis1 ,penhars1 ,spezet 7at the well of ,s4 ,gouzenou71 ,landevennec1 ,plougonnec4 ,sunday after ,ascension ,day4 ,trgoat1 ,s4 ,divy4 ,whit ,sunday4 ,kernilis2 ,plouider2 ,edern2 ,coray2 ,spezet 7,chapel of ,cran74 ,whit ,monday4 ,quimperl 7,pardon des ,oiseaux72 ,pont l',abb 7,pardon des ,enfants72 ,ergu-,armel1 ,la ,fort1 ,landudal1 ,ploneis1 ,landeleau1 ,carantec4 ,whit ,thursday4 ,gouezec 7,les ,fontaines74 ,august4 #ast ,sunday in ,august4 ,pleyben 7horse races72 ,plbannalec2 ,pouldreuzic2 ,plougomelin2 ,huelgot2 ,s4 ,nicodme in ,plumeliau 7,m47 7,cattle blessed2 second day horse fair1 and girls sell their tresses to hair merchants74 ,judging by the 8pardons10 the solstitial celebrations are not so numerous as those connected with the ,may year2 the bonfire is built up by the head of a family in which the right is hereditary4 ,the fire has to be lighted only by a pure virgin1 and the sick and feeble are carried to the spot1 as the bonfire flames are held to be gifted with miraculous healing powers4 ,when the flames are abated1 stones are placed for the souls of the dead to sit there through the remainder of the night and enjoy the heat4 8,every member of the community carries away a handful of ashes as a sovereign cure for sundry maladies4 ,the whole proceeding is instinct with paganism0 7p4 #ge74 ,with regard to the accompanying sacrifices we read3 8,in ancient times sacrifices were made of cocks and oxen at certain shrines--now they are still presented1 but it is to the chapels of saints4 ,s4 ,herbot receives cow's tails1 and these may be seen heaped upon his altar in ,loqeffret4 ,at ,coadret as many as seven hundred are offered on the day of the 8pardon40 ,at ,s4 ,nicolas-des-,eaux1 it is ,s4 ,nicodemus who in his chapel receives gifts of whole oxen1 and much the same takes place at ,carnac40 #cd ,strange ,survivals1 p4 #abj et seq4 #ce ,golden ,bough1 iii4 #bdh4 #cf ,the ,testimony of ,tradition4 #cg ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #eaf2 ,dawn of ,astronomy1 p4 #bae4 #ch ,ethnology in ,folklore1 pp4 #cb and #afc4 #ci ,a ,book of ,brittany4 #dj ,these 8pardons0 run strangely parallel with the 8,feast ,days0 in ,e4 and ,w4 ,penrith1 in ,cornwall1 where of #bf feasts1 #ac occur around the chief days of the ,may year4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,sacred ,,trees ,the subject of tree-worship is a vast one1 as anyone may gather who will read the ,golden ,bough4 ,fortunately for my readers it is not necessary to discuss the whole or even any great part of it in connection with the inquiry which now concerns us4 ,i may say that only rarely is the old tree-worship considered with its concomitant of temple-worship1 so that ,i now have to bring together information widely separated because the connection which ,i have to show was intimate has not been enlarged upon2 indeed1 in many cases it has not been suspected4 ,there is another limitation of the inquiry4 ,we have only to deal chiefly with those plants and trees recorded as worshipped at the chief festival times of the year1 which have already been marked out for us by the fire ceremonials4 ,these fires were like the chronofer installed in modern days at the ,general ,post ,office1 their practical function being to give the time2 they announced the beginning of a new season4 ,in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,i referred to the association of ,mistletoe with the ,solstitial worship4 ,when we deal with the ,may year we meet constantly with references to the ,rowan and the ,hawthorn in the folklore connected with it4 ,we seem in presence1 then1 not only of tree cult generally1 but of sacred trees special to each of the two worships we have been considering4 ,i propose now1 therefore1 to bring together some of the information to be gathered from a very cursory reference to the vast literature which exists on the subject4 ,in the first instance ,i begged my friend1 ,professor ,bayley ,balfour1 ,keeper of the ,king's ,garden at ,edinburgh1 to give me some particulars of the ,rowan ,tree1 which ,i imagined 7#a7 to have been chosen on account of its flowers being prominent about ,may ,day 7,beltane7 and its berries in early ,november 7,hallowe'en71 and 7#b7 to have a different habitat from the ,mistletoe4 ,i have to thank my friend for much valuable information4 ,the ,rowan ,tree1 called also the ,mountain ,ash 7,pyrus ,aucuparia71 seems to grow pretty freely all over the ,northern parts of ,europe4 ,professor ,balfour tells me3 8,rowan is essentially a ,northern plant--an immigrant to ,europe from ,n4,w4 ,asia--and now is spread all over ,north and ,central ,europe in abundance1 with only some #8feelers' passing south into the ,mediterranean ,basin4 ,it does not go south of ,cappadocia in ,asia ,minor4 ,it does not reach ,greece4 ,in ,italy it occurs on the ,eastern ,apennines1 and also in ,n4,e4 ,sicily4 ,in ,spain it runs over the higher regions in the ,n4 and into the centre1 passing just into ,portugal4 ,its occurrence in ,madeira is not certainly established as a natural phenomenon2 perhaps it is only introduced there4 ,in all these ,southern outruns the tree cannot be said to have any dominance1 and its area and abundance are infinitely less than in the ,north4 ,scandinavia is one of its best homes4 ,everywhere it is found right north to #ga1 there becoming a bush only1 but yet ripening seed4 ,it reaches ,iceland1 where trees of some size occur4 ,all over ,great ,britain and ,ireland it is generally spread4 ,you may certainly say there is much in ,norway1 and there is equally certainly less1 even little1 in ,italy40 ,in ,pratt's ,flowering ,plants of ,great ,britain 7vol4 #b1 p4 #bfj7 it is stated1 8,the flowers1 which grow in dense clusters1 and are greenish-white1 appear in ,may4444 ,in autumn1 however1 the tree is more beautiful than in summer1 for at that season the rich cluster of red fruits gleams among the foliage1 each berry having the form of a tiny apple1 and containing a little core and seeds within40 ,at ,christiania the mean of ten years' flowering is given by ,professor ,schbeler#da as--first flowers1 ,june #ai2 general flowering1 ,june #cj4 ,this1 then1 is later than in ,britain4 ,on high grounds the fruit is conspicuous here on ,november #a2 on lower levels the birds attack it and reduce its striking appearance before that date4 ,associated with the ,rowan in the folklore connected with temple worship is the ,hawthorn1 ,whitethorn or 8,may0 7,crategus oxyocantha71 which also flowers at the beginning of ,may1 while its berries or 8haws10 like those of the ,rowan1 are conspicuous in ,november4 ,we see1 then1 that there is a most obvious reason in this for the association of the two trees4 ,according to ,rhys1#db the ,english name appears to be of ,scandinavian origin1 the ,old ,norse being reynir1 ,danish rnne1 ,swedish rnn2 and the old ,norsemen treated the tree as holy and sacred to ,thor4 ,these two trees interest us from three points of view4 ,we find them connected with3-- #a4 ,may and ,november celebrations4 #b4 ,superstitions concerning witchcraft1 c4 #c4 ,holy wells4 ,in this chapter ,i shall deal with the two former4 ,i4 ,the ,may ,celebrations4 ,seeing that the year beginning in ,may was established because that month really opened the vegetation year1 it is little to be wondered at that among the chief features of ,new ,year's ,day was what we may term a flower worship2 it is probable that we are here dealing with the sacred-tree side of the general festival at all the monuments erected in connection with the ,may year worship4 ,the old traditions have lingered longest around the things we have still with us1 the trees and flowers2 and it is in connection with this side of the worship that most information is available4 ,from the facts ,i have already stated1 for ,britain the ,rowan and ,hawthorn were most naturally selected as the typical forms4#dc ,many poets have written of this festival#dd3 ,chaucer1 ,shakspere1 ,milton1 ,bourne1 ,herrick and others4 ,chaucer writes3 8,fourth goeth al the ,court both most and lest1 ,to fetch the flouris fresh and branche and blome10 when not the courtiers only1 but lowliest of men and maidens sallied forth 8,to do observaunce to a morn of ,may40 ,there is a vast literature connected with ,may ,day celebrations1 among it references to ,celtic customs1 and ,i may add that1 besides ,may ,day1 ,august1 ,november and ,february had their flower festivals also4 ,i shall1 however1 deal chiefly with ,may in this book to keep it within bounds4 ,may ,day in ,manx was termed ,shenn ,laa ,boaldyn2 it is the belltaine of ,cormac's ,glossary1 the ,scotch ,gaelic equivalent of which is bealtuinn4 ,the traditions and customs connected with ,may ,day in ,great ,britain have survived longest in the ,west of ,england2 even now1 as will be seen by the account of recent celebrations at ,helston in ,cornwall1 given below1 they are still continued4 ,altogether the customs1 ancient and modern1 of which the flower worship formed a part1 may be summed up as follows3-- #a4 ,lighting of bonfires1#de and1 in the evening1 houses illuminated with candles1 torches carried about1 and fireballs played with4 #b4 ,man and beast passed through the fire or between two fires4 #c4 ,going out at daybreak to gather ,whitethorn or ,may 7,sycamore in ,cornwall71 and making whistles of the branches for the ,may-music and merry-making4 ,blowing of tin horns at daybreak by boys1 and from money received getting breakfast at a farmhouse4 #d4 ,flower-bedecked girls dance round a ,maypole1 and one chosen as 8,queen of the ,may40 #e4 ,in ,cornwall the custom prevailed till lately of going out with buckets or any available vessels full of water and thoroughly wetting anyone who was not wearing a piece of ,may4 #f4 ,the 8,furry ,dance0 7in ,cornwall71 which consists in dancing through the town and also through as many houses as desired4 ,if resistance is offered it is permitted to break open the door1 and no penalty can be imposed4 #g4 ,sacrifices made 7,isle of ,man7 at a very ancient date1 and probably human ones still earlier 7,scotland74 #h4 ,special worship at holy wells4 ,flowers are public property on ,flora ,day1 and this custom of dancing through the houses is supposed to have originated probably for the purpose of picking the flowers in the gardens behind4 ,the following is a short abstract of a very interesting account given in ,the ,western ,weekly ,news1 ,may #acth1 #aije1 of the 8,flora ,day0 at ,helston1 ,cornwall1 which took place this year4 ,it gives us an idea of former festivals which are so quickly dying out3-- ,the ,furry ,dance is always the feature of the day4 ,the first part took place at seven o'clock in the morning1 at which hour two couples started out and danced through the streets and through some houses of residents4 ,the great dance was at noon1 and those taking part in it assembled in the ,corn ,exchange4 ,when all was ready the whole company1 headed by a band playing the old ,furry ,dance1 started out and danced through the town and through many houses4 ,the rest of the day was given over to a ,horse ,show and to much merry-making4 ,excursions had been run from all parts4 ,,ii4 ,the ,rowan ,tree and ,witchcraft4 ,there is little doubt that in the constant association of the ,rowan with the ,may worship and the holy wells which were adjacent to the stone circles where the worship was conducted1 we find the reason of the selection of the wood of the ,rowan ,tree as an antidote to all the ills which witchcraft was supposed to bring about4 ,rhys tells us that 8,the tree has also the old names of ,quicken-tree1 ,roddon1 and ,witchen-tree40 ,to quote again from ,pratt 7op4 cit4 vol4 #b1 p4 #bfa73 8,the old notion that the ,mountain ,ash1 or ,rowan ,tree1 as it is called in the ,north1 was efficacious against witchcraft and the evil eye1 still prevails in the ,north of ,england and the ,scottish ,highlands4 ,pennant remarks1 in his ,tour of ,scotland1 that the farmers carefully preserve their cattle against witchcraft by placing branches of ,honeysuckle and ,mountain ,ash in their cowhouses on the #bnd of ,may4 ,the milkmaid in ,westmorland may often be seen1 even now1 with a branch of this tree either in her hand or tied to her milking-pail1 from a similar superstition2 and in earlier days crosses cut out of its wood were worn about the person4 ,in an old song called 8,laidley ,wood10 in the ,northumberland ,garland1 we find a reference to this3 8,the spells were vain1 the hag return'd ,to the ,queen in sorrowful mood1 ,crying1 that witches have no power ,where there is ,rown-tree wood40 ,rhys1 referring to ,may ,day customs in the ,isle of ,man1 writes#df3 8,this was a day when systematic efforts were made to protect man and beast against elves and witches2 for it was then that people carried crosses of rowan in their hats and placed may-flowers over the tops of their doors and elsewhere as preservatives against all malignant influences4 ,with the same object in view1 crosses of rowan were likewise fastened to the tails of the cattle1 small crosses which had to be made without the help of a knife40 ,in connection with this last reference1 ,rhys quotes a passage showing that a similar thing is done in ,wales on ,may ,eve4#dg 8,another bad papistic habit which prevails among some ,welsh people is that of placing some of the wood of the rowan-tree 7coed cerdin or criafol7 in their corn lands 7ttafyrieu7 and their fields on ,may-eve 7,nos ,glamau7 with the idea that such a custom brings a blessing on their fields1 a proceeding which would better become atheists and pagans than ,christians40 ,rhys also tells us that in ,lincolnshire1#dh 8a twig of the rowan-tree1 or wicken1 as it is called1 was effective against all evil things1 including witches4 ,it is useful in many ways to guard the welfare of the household1 and to preserve both the live stock and the crops2 while placed on the churn it prevents any malign influence from retarding the coming of the butter40 ,we also read 7p4 #ceh73 8,not only the ,celts1 but some also of the ,teutons1 have been in the habit of attaching great importance to the rowan or roan tree1 and regarding it as a preservative against the malignant influence of witches and all things uncanny4444 ,moreover1 the ,swede of modern times believes the rowan a safeguard against witchcraft1 and likes to have on board his ship something or other made of its wood1 to protect him against tempests and the demons of the water world40 ,in the ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhf1 we have another interesting reference to this tree4 ,rhys first relates an old ,irish fairy story1 the scene of which is supposed to have been 8on the plain near the ,lake of ,lein of the ,crooked ,teeth1 that is to say1 the ,lake of ,killarney40 ,in it we are told that the scarlet quicken-berries were first brought from the 8,land of ,promise10 that one was accidentally dropped and took root1 and 8from the berry there grew up a tree which had the virtues of the quicken-tree growing in fairy-land1 for all the berries on it had many virtues40 ,then we learn 7page #ceh7 that these berries 8formed part of the sustenance of the gods1 according to ,goidelic notions2 and the description which has been quoted of the berries makes them a sort of ,celtic counterpart to the soma-plant of ,hindu mythology40 ,this suggests that at the ,november ,celebration a decoction or brew of ,rowan berries was used for curative or superstitious purposes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i have thought it desirable to enter at some length into the use of the ,rowan as a protection against witchcraft and as the basis of a brew used for different purposes1 because the ,mistletoe has been dealt with in exactly the same manner2 indeed1 it was to the later ,solstitial worship what the ,rowan and ,maythorn were to the earlier ,may worship4 ,mr4 ,frazer has collected in his ,golden ,bough#di much information bearing on these points4 ,in ,sweden1 on ,midsummer ,eve1 ,mistletoe is sought after1 the people 8believing it to be1 in a high degree1 possessed of mystic qualities2 and that if a sprig of it be attached to the ceiling of the dwelling-house1 the horse's stall1 or the cow's crib1 the #8,troll' will then be powerless to injure either man or beast40 ,the ,oak ,mistletoe1 we are told1 is 8held in the highest repute in ,sweden1 and is commonly seen in farmhouses hanging from the ceiling to protect the dwelling from all harm1 but especially from fire2 and persons afflicted with the falling sickness think they can ward off attacks of the malady by carrying about with them a knife which has a handle of ,oak ,mistletoe4 8,a ,swedish remedy for other complaints is to hang a sprig of ,mistletoe round the sufferer's neck1 or to make him wear on his finger a ring made from the plant40 ,it would appear from ,mr4 ,frazer's inquiries that the ,mistletoe was en vidence at both the summer and winter solstice--precisely as the ,rowan and ,hawthorn were associated with the ,may and ,november festivals4 ,he writes3-- 8,the sacred mistletoe may have acquired1 in the eyes of the ,druids1 a double portion of its mystic qualities at the solstice in ,june1 and accordingly they may have regularly cut it with solemn ceremony on ,midsummer ,eve4 ,the conjecture is confirmed when we find it to be still a rule of folklore that the mistletoe should be cut on this day4 ,further1 the peasants of ,piedmont and ,lombardy still go out on ,midsummer-morning to search the oak-leaves for the #8oil of ,st4 ,john1' which is supposed to heal all wounds made with cutting instruments4 ,originally1 perhaps1 the #8oil of ,st4 ,john' was simply the mistletoe1 or a decoction made from it4 ,for in ,holstein the mistletoe1 especially oak-mistletoe1 is still regarded as a panacea for green wounds2 and if1 as is alleged1 #8all-healer' is the name of the plant in the modern ,celtic speech of ,brittany1 ,wales1 ,ireland and ,scotland1 this can be nothing but a survival of the name by which1 as we have seen1 the ,druids addressed the oak1 or rather1 perhaps1 the mistletoe4 ,at ,lacaune1 in ,france1 the old ,druidical belief in the mistletoe as an antidote to all poisons still survives among the people2 they apply the plant to the stomach of the sufferer1 or give him a decoction of it to drink40 ,if we attempt to collate the different festivals with the vegetation most striking or abundant at each1 in different countries naturally possessing different floras1 a great variety of plants and trees has to be considered4 ,it is probable that the ,rowan-tree was chiefly taken here as the representative of the ash in more southern and eastern lands1 and the ash indeed did not always take second rank1 especially in the worship connected with wells1 as we shall see4 ,grimm#ej calls the ash 8a world tree which links heaven1 earth and hell together2 of all trees the greatest and holiest40 ,in the same way at the later established ,vernal ,equinox festival1 the palm which grows in lower latitudes was replaced here by the willow4 ,coles1 in his ,adam in ,eden1#ea writes3 8,the willow blossoms come forth before any leaves appear1 and are in their most flourishing state usually before ,easter1 divers gathering them to deck up their houses on ,palm ,sunday1 and therefore the said flowers are called palme40 ,willows are still used to deck churches at this time4 ,as in the case of the ,rowan1 the willow 7or palm7 was a protection against witchcraft2 small crosses and palm were carried about in the purses and placed upon doors4 ,these crosses had to be made on ,palm ,sunday out of the wood used in the church4 ,sometimes box replaced the willow4 ,we are driven to the conclusion that practices connected with magic1 the precursor of the later 8witchcraft10 were associated with the festivals now in question1 and that the products of the vegetable world at the different seasons were utilized for these purposes4 ,the putting on of a special garb by the vegetable world at each season in turn would be one of the first things to be manifested1 and the close association of it with the stars and the sun in their yearly course would cause the representatives of it to be worshipped together with them1 and it would appear from the records that the astronomer priests did not neglect those magical arts which were practised by man in the early stages of civilisation4 ,indeed1 these magical practices seem to have taken such firm root that it was difficult to get rid of them even in much later times4 ,newton#eb writes3 8,i once knew a foolish cock-brained priest which ministered to a certaine young man the ashes of boxe1 being 7forsooth7 hallowed on ,palme ,sunday1 according to the superstitious order and doctrine of the ,romish ,church1 which ashes he mingled with their unholie holie water using to the same a kind of444 exorcisme2 which444 medicine 7as he persuaded the standers by7 had vertue to drive away any ague40 ,among the virtues attributed to the ,may thorn was that of preserving the beauty of those maidens who at daybreak on ,may morning each year would wash themselves in hawthorn dew4 ,as late as #aeae it was recorded that ,catherine of ,aragon1 accompanied by twenty-five of her ladies1 sallied out on ,may morning for this purpose4 #da ,schbeler1 ,die ,pflanzenwelt ,norwegens1 ,christiania1 #ahgc-ge1 p4 #dci4 #db ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #ceh4 #dc ,the ,rowan had to be cut on ,ascension ,day1 ,golden ,bough1 ,,iii1 p4 #ddh4 #dd ,pratt's ,british ,flowering ,plants1 vol4 #b1 p4 #bff4 #de ,the word bonfire1 according to the ,century ,dictionary1 comes from the 8early modern ,english1 boonfire1 bondfire1 bounfire1 later burnfire2 ,scotch1 banefire2 the earliest known instance is banefyre4 #8ignis ossium1' in the ,catholicon ,anglicum1 ,a4,d4 #adhc2 from bone 7,scotch1 bane1 ,middle ,english1 bone1 bon1 bane1 c47 fire40 ,hence the word seems formerly to have meant a fire of bones2 a funeral pile1 a pyre4 ,and it has gradually developed into a fire out in the open1 whatever its object4 #df ,celtic ,folklore1 vol4 i4 p4 #cjh4 #dg ,vol4 ii4 p4 #fia4 #dh ,celtic ,folklore1 vol4 i4 p4 #cbe4 #di ,second ,edition1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #cdc et seq4 #ej ,teutonic ,mythology1 ,stallybrass's translation1 ii4 #gif4 #ea ,quoted by ,hazlitt under ,palm ,sunday4 #eb ,herbal for the ,bible1 p4 #bjg4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,holy ,,wells ,,and ,,streams ,i have thought it most important to look up this subject with a view of seeing whether any clues were available which could help us to associate the introduction of the well ceremonials with the worshippers of the ,may or of the ,solstitial year4 ,for shortness ,i will call the ceremonial 8baptism10 not necessarily baptism in the modern sense1 but as implying the use of water for purifying or other religious purpose4 ,that baptism was pre-,christian is shown by ,john the ,baptist using the ,jordan for this purpose before ,christ's ministration began4 7,matt4 #c4 #f47 ,there is a tremendous literature#ec dealing with the folklore of holy wells and streams4 ,the number of holy wells and streams in ,britain is legion2 there are #c1jjj in ,ireland alone1 and the first thing which strikes us in a casual study of the folklore is the close association of the wells with sacred trees4 ,almost equally distinctly we gather that both were situated near holy stones1 and that the worship included ceremonials connected with all three4 ,the folklore dealing with holy wells and well-worship is so various that it will be useful for our present purpose to classify the portions we need under the following headings4 #a4 ,well-worship outcome of pre-,christian days and customs4 #b4 ,wells generally situated near circles1 dolmens1 cromlechs or cairns1 or churches which have replaced them4 #c4 ,association with sacred trees4 #d4 ,well-worship and offerings4 #e4 ,time of the chief festivals4 #a4 ,pagan origin4--,it seems to be accepted now that well-worship in ,britain originated long before the ,christian era2 that it was not introduced by the ,christian missionaries1 but rather they found it in vogue on their arrival1 and tolerated it at first and utilized it afterwards1 as they did a great many other ,pagan customs4 ,with regard to this point ,wood-,martin writes3#ed 8,in many ,irish ,,mss4 there are allusions to this pre-,christian worship4 ,for example1 ,tirehan relates that ,st4 ,patrick1 in his progress through ,ireland1 came to a fountain called ,slaun1 to which the ,druids offered sacrifices1 and which they worshipped as a ,god2 and in ,adamnan's ,life of ,st4 ,columkille it is recounted that this saint1 when in the country of the ,picts1 heard of a notable fountain to which the ,pagans paid divine honour40 ,he adds 7p4 #ej73 8,it evidently did not originate in the blessing of wells by early saints and thus spread downwards1 until it became almost1 if not quite1 universal2 on the contrary1 it began from the people1 who were being ,christianized1 and thence permeated the entire system of ,irish ,christianity40 ,baring-,gould tells us much concerning the transitional state 7pp4 #bh et seq474 ,wood-,martin divides holy wells into three classes3 7#a7 those which 8derive their reputed virtues from ,pagan superstition02 7#b7 those which were 8transferred from ,pagan to so-called ,christian uses10 and 7#c7 8a few which may lay claim to a merely ,christian origin40#ee ,it is very easy to understand how the purely devout custom developed in course of time1 in the case of some wells at any rate1 into a more superstitious one1 how some wells came to be called 8wishing-wells0 and others were regarded as prophetic4 ,rhys gives us several instances of these two classes in ,wales4#ef ,wishing-wells are known all over the ,united ,kingdom2 many authors give accounts of them4#eg ,there can be no doubt that in the most ancient times magical practices were carried on at wells or at the religious centre of which the well formed a constituent part4 ,local practices of witchcraft would be a natural survival of these4 ,gomme 7p4 #hg7 thus refers to the well of ,st4 ,aelian1 not far from ,bettws ,abergeley1 in ,denbighshire4 8,near the well resided a woman who officiated as a kind of priestess4 ,anyone who wished to inflict a curse upon an enemy resorted to this priestess1 and for a trifling sum she registered1 in a book kept for the purpose1 the name of the person on whom the curse was wished to fall4 ,a pin was then dropped into the well in the name of the victim1 and the curse was complete40 ,the magical associations with wells appear in the following extract 7given by ,quiller-,couch1 p4 #acd7 of a letter from ,dr4 ,o',connor1 the author of the letters of ,columbanus1 to his brother4 8,i have often inquired of your tenants what they themselves thought of their pilgrimages to the wells of ,kill-,aracht1 ,tobbar ,brighde1 ,tobbar ,muir1 near ,elphin1 ,moor1 near ,castlereagh1 where multitudes annually assembled to celebrate what they1 in broken ,english1 termed ,patterns 7,patron's days72 and when ,i pressed a very old man1 ,owen ,hester1 to state what possible advantage he expected to derive from the singular custom of frequenting in particular such wells as were contiguous to an old blasted oak1 or an upright hewn stone1 and what the meaning was of the yet more singular custom of sticking rags on the branches of such trees and spitting on them1 his answer1 and the answer of the oldest men1 was that their ancestors always did it1 and that it was a preservation against ,geasa ,draoidecht1 i4e41 the sorceries of the ,druids1 and that their cattle were preserved by it from infectious disorders2 that the daoini maithe1 i4e41 the fairies1 were kept in good humour by it2 and so thoroughly persuaded were they of the sanctity of these ,pagan practices that they would travel bareheaded and barefooted from ten to twenty miles for the purpose of crawling on their knees round these wells1 upright stones1 and oak trees1 westward1 as the sun travels1 some three times1 some six1 some nine1 and so on in uneven numbers until their voluntary penances were completely fulfilled40 #b4 ,wells generally situated near stone monuments or churches which have replaced them4--,we find many instances of wells near stone circles and dolmens4 ,it may even be that the existence of the spring determined the position of the circle1 for the officiating astronomer-priest must like other mortals have had a water supply available4 8,where a spring or a river flows10 says ,seneca1 8there should we build altars and offer sacrifices0 7,hope1 p4 #dg74 ,the following shows how closely connected they were4#eh 8,closely associated with the circles1 and occupying an equally important position in the religious rites and ceremonies of the ancient inhabitants1 were sacred wells4 ,these were more numerous than circles1 no doubt owing to the fact that their acquisition was more easily accomplished3 but amongst sacred wells we find some1 as we find certain circles1 occupying a position of pre-eminence in the religious cult of their votaries1 and these1 as a rule1 in close proximity to sun and moon temples4 ,at ,tillie ,beltane1 in ,aberdeenshire1 in close proximity to the remains of a larger and smaller circle1 is a well which was held sacred by the people4 ,according to ,col4 ,leslie1 on ,beltane and ,midsummer days1 those on whom the dire hand of disease had fallen1 or those desirous of averting that calamity1 went seven times round the sacred wells sunwise 7deasil7#ei and then proceeded to the circles1 where a like ceremony was performed40 8,in ,stenness we find the same association of the well and the circles4 ,but in harmony with the unrivalled completeness of these monuments444 we find the sacred well here in a closer and deeper connection with the circles than elsewhere40 8,in the parish of ,stenness there is a district called ,bigswell1 in the centre of which is a sacred well1 and from which the district takes its name1 ,big7s7well4444 ,be that as it may1 we know from tradition that down to the time when the ,stone of ,odin was demolished1 parents came to the well with children1 on ,beltane and ,midsummer1 passed round it sunwise1 and having bathed their little ones 7a healthy ordeal71 carried them thence to the ,stone of ,odin1 and passed them through the hole as a divine protection against the malignant influences of the evil one40 ,borlase records an instance of a well near a stone-circle in ,ireland in the ,townland of ,ballyferriter1 in ,county ,kerry4#fj ,the same author also gives examples in ,ireland of wells near dolmens1 and of wells covered by dolmens4#fa ,it may be remarked that in ,cornwall ,chapel ,euny well is associated with the circles at ,bartinn and ,carn ,euny2 ,st4 ,cleer with the three circles at the ,hurlers1 and ,alsia well is near the ,bolleit circle4 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho is my authority for these statements4 ,a well is often found near a cell1 cairn or keeill4 ,rhys gives us two examples in the ,isle of ,man4#fb ,at ,ardmore ,bay the holy well is within the ruined chapel of the saint4#fc ,a vast pile of stones surrounds the holy well in ,glencolumbkille in ,donegal4#fd ,it might be useful to add here that it is a very common thing to find a well by a so-called tomb of a saint4 ,let us turn now to wells situated near churches4 ,it is very generally known that many churches have been built on the sites of stone-circles1 menhirs1 c4 ,this leads us to think that some form of worship must have taken place at the 8ancient-stones0 originally4 ,the following extract from ,wilson's ,archology 7page #aaj7 is given in ,stonehenge by ,sir ,henry ,james 7page #ag73 8,the common ,gaelic phrase--,am bheil thu dol don chlachan--,are you going to the stones8--by which the ,scottish ,highlander still enquires at a neighbour if he is bound for church1 seems in itself no doubtful tradition of ancient worship within the monolithic ring40 ,rhys#fe gives us many instances of wells near churches1 and here it may be useful to add that the ,welsh for well is ,ffynnon4 ,ffynnon ,faglan is described as being near a church1 also ,ffynnon ,fair1 a wishing-well4 ,criccieth ,church is supposed to have had a well near it at one time4 ,again1 ,ffynnon ,beris is near the parish church of ,llanberis 7p4 #cff71 and ,ffynnon ,elian near to the church of ,llanelian1 ,denbighshire4 ,then there are ,st4 ,teilo's ,church and ,well at ,llandeilo ,llwydarth1 near ,maen ,clochog1 ,north ,pembrokeshire4 ,wood-,martin#ff refers to the rites at the well of ,tubberpatrick1 part of the ceremony taking place in the church near by4 #c4 ,association of sacred wells with sacred trees4--,rhys1 and many other authors1 give us several instances of a tree by the side of a well4#fg ,when we come to deal with well offerings we shall find1 in fact1 that in almost every case a tree has been a necessary companion of the well1 as the well offerings were hung on them4 ,in many cases1 of course1 the kind of tree is not specified4 ,when it is1 it is almost invariably the rowan or hawthorn4 ,rhys tells us3 8,the tree to expect by a sacred well is doubtless some kind of thorn40#fh ,then again1 with reference to ,ireland1 ,rhys1 p4 #cce1 quotes a passage from a letter by the late ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,borlase1 on ,rag ,offerings and ,primitive ,pilgrimages in ,ireland1 to the effect that a hawthorn almost invariably stands by the brink of the typical ,irish 8holy well40 ,there are also many references to thorn trees in the same position in ,wales4 ,there are thorn trees at ,st4 ,madron's well in ,cornwall1 and at ,chapel well ,st4 ,breward in the same county near ,bodmin1 there is a thorn tree over the well4 ,not only are wells often recorded as near sacred trees1 but in the case of some we learn that at the chief annual festival they were decked with flowers and garlands1 and 8encircled with a jovial band of young people celebrating the day with song and dance40 ,this is recorded of the 8blessing of the ,brine0 at ,nantwich 7,hope1 p4 #g74 #d4 ,well worship and offerings4--,although the traditions and superstitions connected with wells are fast becoming things of the past1 in certain parts they are still believed and practised4 ,gomme#fi informs us that well-worship prevails in every county of the three kingdoms4 ,he finds it 8most vital in the ,gaelic countries1 somewhat less so in the ,british1 and almost entirely wanting in the ,teutonic south-east4 ,in some cases wells were resorted to for the cure of diseases2 in others to obtain change of weather or good luck4 ,offerings were made to them to propitiate their guardian gods and nymphs4 ,pennant tells us that in olden times the rich would sacrifice one of their horses at a well near ,abergelen to secure a blessing upon the rest4#gj ,fowls were offered at ,st4 ,tegla's ,well1 near ,wrexham1 by epileptic patients1#ga but of late years the well spirits have had to be content with much smaller tributes--such trifles as pins1 rags1 coloured pebbles and small coins40 ,in consequence of this dwindling down of the offering we have chiefly to do with rags1 but ,i think we may learn from the traditions that originally it was an offering of a garment1 and to the officiating priest1 at the well1 or temple with which the well was connected4 ,it is also a question whether the almost universal association of pins with the garment or part of it might not have originated at a time when such an offering--it was probably originally a skin--to a priest without a pin 7of bone7 to fasten it on would not have been complete4 ,in ,kent's cavern pins of bone have been found associated with bones of palolithic mammals4 ,mr4 ,gomme tells us1#gb 8,in the case of some wells1 especially in ,scotland1 at one time the whole garment was put down as an offering4 ,gradually these offerings of clothes became less and less till they came down to rags40 ,he also points out1 as we have already seen1 that 8the geographical distribution of rag-offerings coincides with the existence of monoliths and dolmens40 ,as has been noted1 almost invariably by the side of every well there grows the 8sacred tree10 a rowan or thorn for the most part2 on this tree the rags are hung1 then the bent pin is dropped in4 ,if there happens to be no tree1 or if it is so old that only the stump is left1 then the rags may sometimes be seen wedged in between the stones of the well4 ,quiller-,couch 7p4 #ace7 tells us that at ,ahagour in ,mayo is a well much frequented by pilgrims1 for penance chiefly1 where among other offerings they cut up their clothes1 be they ever so new1 and tie them to the two old trees growing near1 8lest1 on the day of judgment10 thinks the superstitious peasant1 8the ,almighty should forget that he came there1 and in order that the tokens should be known1 when ,st4 ,patrick should lay them before the tribunal40 ,when the original well-worship in relation with the temples became disestablished1 if the well-worship were kept up at all1 reasons other than the old one would soon be invented1 and many of these would naturally be connected with magic and sorcery4 ,in the oldest days the priest would be a physician as well as an astronomer and a magician1 and his advice might be good for various disorders1 but after he had disappeared there was only magic to depend upon2 and this atmosphere is reflected in the traditions4 ,i will now give a few extracts to show what goes on at present in certain localities with regard to the offerings1 and the frame of mind of the devotees4 ,with reference to the reasons for the offerings made in the present day1 ,wood-,martin writes3#gc 8,wells were the haunts of spirits that proved to be propitious if remembered1 but were vindictive if neglected1 and hence no devotee approached the sacred precincts empty-handed1 the principle being no gift no cure2 therefore the modern devotee1 when tying up a fragment from the clothing1 or dropping a cake1 a small coin1 or a crooked pin into the well1 is unconsciously worshipping the old presiding spirit of the place40 ,rhys#gd gives us a great deal of information on this4 ,the ritual varies at some of them4 ,people came from far and near2 it is the custom to make some sort of offering1 rags and pins being the most modern1 and about these we have most information as a matter of course4 ,rhys quotes statements he has received about three wells in the county of ,glamorgan 7,vol4 #a1 p4 #cef74 ,at the first it was the custom 8that the person who wishes his health to be benefited should wash in the water of the well1 and throw a pin into it afterwards40 ,at another 8the custom prevails of tying rags to the branches of a tree growing close at hand02 and at the third1 8it is the custom for those who are healed in it to tie a shred of linen or cotton to the branches of a tree that stands close by2 and there the shreds are almost as numerous as the leaves40 ,further 7p4 #cfc7 we read of another ,ffynnon ,faglan1 and of this ,rhys says1 8,one told me his mother used to take him to it when he was a child for sore eyes1 bathe them with the water1 and then drop in a pin4 ,the other man1 when he was young1 bathed in it for rheumatism40 ,of this well it is recorded that when it was cleaned out about fifty years ago 8two basinfuls of pins were taken out10 which were all bent1 but no coins were found in it4 ,wood-,martin#ge also gives an interesting account of the rite performed at a certain well in ,ireland2 it is a little more elaborate than at some1 but affords an idea of what was probably at one time a very usual ceremony in connection with stones in other places4 8,in a statistical account of the parish of ,dungiven1 written in #ahac1 it is stated that at the well of ,tubberpatrick1 after performing the usual rounds1 devotees wash their hands and feet with the water and tear off a small rag from their clothes1 which they tie on a bush overhanging the well2 from whence they all proceed to a large stone in the ,river ,roe1 immediately below the old church1 and having performed an oblation they walk round the stone1 bowing to it1 and repeating prayers as at the well4 ,their next movement is to the old church1 within which a similar ceremony goes on1 and they finish this rite by a procession and prayers round the upright stone40 #e4 ,time of the chief festival4--,on this point there is not a great quantity of precise information1 but what we have points to ,may #a as being about the time when the holy wells are most frequented and considered most efficacious4 ,this lack of information arises from the fact that the existence of the ,may year in prehistoric times has not been even dreamt of by those who have compiled the various accounts of the fast fading traditions1 and in very many instances a reference to an unknown saint's day is the only information given as to the time of the annual celebration4 ,wide generalisation1 therefore1 from the material at hand is risky4 ,i will refer in the first instance to the ,may worship1 and begin with the famous ,madron well in ,cornwall1 the walls of which ,i found to be oriented to the ,may sunrise1 so that the priest officiating at the altar would face the sunrise4 ,quiller-,couch 7p4 #acg7 thus refers to what happened there4 8,children used to be taken to this well on the first three ,sunday mornings in ,may to be dipped in the water1 that they might be cured of the rickets1 or any other disorder with which they were troubled4 ,three times they were plunged into the water1 after having been stripped naked2 the parent1 or person dipping them1 standing facing the sun2 after the dipping they were passed nine times round the well from east to west2 then they were dressed and laid on ,st4 ,madern's bed2 should they sleep1 and the water in the well bubble1 it was considered a good omen4 ,strict silence had to be kept during the entire performance1 or the spell was broken4 ,at the present time the people go to the well in crowds on the first ,sunday in ,may1 when the ,wesleyans hold a service there1 and a sermon is preached2 after which the people throw in two pins or pebbles to consult the spirit1 or try for sweethearts2 if the two articles sink together1 they will soon be married4 8,here divination is performed on ,may morning by rustic maidens anxious to know when they are to be married4 ,two pieces of straw about an inch long are crossed and transfixed with a pin4 ,this1 floated on the waters1 elicits bubbles1 the number of which1 carefully counted1 denotes the years before the happy day40 ,chapel ,euny in ,cornwall1 near the ,bartinn circle1 has a wishing 7lucky7 well near it4 ,it was used on one of the three first ,wednesdays in ,may4 ,children suffering from mesenteric disease are dipped three times 8widderschynnes10 that is contrary to the sun's motion1 and dragged round the well three times in the same direction4#gf ,edmunds#gg thus refers to this well3-- 8,some years since ,i had the curiosity to go with a friend to ,chapel ,euny on one of these ,wednesdays1 and1 whilst watching at a distance1 we saw two women come to the well at the appointed hour1 and perform this ceremony on an infant40 ,alsia ,well1 in the parish of ,buryan1 same parish as ,bolleit circle1 has its well ceremonials on the first three ,wednesdays in ,may4 ,in ,cornwall the ,may bathing ceremonial is even carried out in salt water4#gh ,the time chosen is the same as that at ,madron and ,chapel ,euny1 the first three ,sundays in ,may4 ,this ,sunday in ,may celebration is not confined to ,cornwall4 ,at ,eden ,hall1 ,giant's ,cave1 water with sugar is drunk on the third ,sunday in ,may4 ,a vast concourse of both sexes is present4#gi ,at ,rorrington1 a township in the parish of ,chirbury1 was a holy well at which a wake was celebrated on ,ascension ,day4 ,in the account of this well given by ,gomme 7p4 #hb7 we get a glimpse of many associated usages4 8,the well was adorned with a bower of green boughs1 rushes1 and flowers1 and a may-pole was set up4 ,the people walked round the well1 dancing and frolicking as they went4 ,they threw pins into the well to bring good luck and to preserve them from being bewitched1 and they also drank some of the water4 ,cakes were also eaten2 they were round flat buns from three to four inches across1 sweetened1 spiced1 and marked with a cross1 and they were supposed to bring good luck if kept40 ,the legend given by ,quiller-,couch 7p4 #ee7 respecting ,st4 ,cuthbert's well in ,north ,cornwall is that 8in olden times mothers on ,ascension ,day brought their deformed or sickly children here1 and dipped them in1 at the same time passing them through the aperture connecting the two cisterns2 and thus1 it is said1 they became healed of their disease or deformity4 ,it would seem that other classes also believed virtue to reside in its water2 for it is said that the cripples were accustomed to leave their crutches in the hole at the head of the well40 ,at the village of ,tissington1 near ,ashbourne1 in ,derbyshire1 the custom of well-flowering is still observed on every anniversary of the ,ascension 7,hope1 p4 #dh74 ,we may gather from these associated observances at different places that the wells themselves were situated near circles1 for the worshippers would not be distributed at such a time4 ,this argument is strengthened by the custom of 8waking the well0 which took place on the patron saint's day4 ,with regard to the time of the day or night at which well-worship took place1 there seems little doubt that for the most part it was carried on at night4 ,the practices connected with the 8waking of the well0 indicate this clearly1 and when it is remembered that these ancient worships were carried on at a time when marriage had not been instituted1 we can understand that many #8pagan' rituals savoured of sensualism as we should now think and call it4 ,the particular times when it was considered most propitious for the sick to visit the wells appear anciently to have been at daybreak or sunrise4 ,at the well at ,farr1 in ,sutherlandshire1 it is held that the patient1 after undergoing his plunge1 drinking of the water1 and making his offering1 8must be away from the banks so as to be fairly out of sight of the water before the sun rises1 else no cure is effected40 ,at ,roche ,holywell1 in ,cornwall1 before sunrise on holy ,thursday was the appointed time4 ,sometimes the moment of sunrise is chosen4 ,to bathe in the well of ,st4 ,medan1 at ,kirkmaiden in ,wigtonshire1 as the sun rose on the first ,sunday in ,may was considered an infallible cure for almost any disease4 ,on the other hand1 in some cases1 as at ,st4 ,madron's well1 noon is chosen on the first three ,sundays in ,may1 8not believing that these waters have any virtue if resorted to on any other days of the year1 or at any other hour of the day40 ,with regard to the ,august festival1 there is a holy well at ,st4 ,cleer1 near the ,hurlers2 the festival is held on ,august #ith4#hj ,i have no special references to ,august wells in ,ireland1 but there is evidence given by ,piers#ha that at that time cattle were bathed4 8,on the first ,sunday in harvest1 viz41 in ,august1 they will be sure to drive their cattle into some pool or river and therein swim them2 this they observe as inviolable as if it were a point of religion1 for they think no beast will live the whole year thro' unless they be thus drenched4 ,i deny not but that swimming cattle1 and chiefly in this season of the year1 is healthful unto them1 as the poet hath observed3-- 8,balantemque gregem fluvio mersare salubri40--,virg4 ,in th' healthful flood to plunge the bleating flock4 but precisely to do this on the first ,sunday in harvest1 ,i look on as not only superstitious but profane40 ,i next come to the solstice in ,june4 ,there is evidence concerning wells quite akin to that furnished by the astronomical use of the circles1 that the ,may year festivals were subsequently changed to solstitial dates4 ,the well worship does not appear to have been carried on in the cold weather--hence the absence of references to ,february and ,november2 for the same reason we have only now to do with the summer solstice4 ,hazlitt quotes the following from the ,irish ,hudibras 7#afhi7 concerning ,june worship at a well in the ,north of ,ireland3-- 8,have you beheld1 when people pray ,at ,st4 ,john's well on ,patron-,day1 ,by charm of priest and miracle1 ,to cure diseases at this well2 ,the valleys filled with blind and lame1 ,and go as limping as they came40 ,at ,barnwell 7,beirna-well youths' well71 near ,cambridge1 the festival took place on ,st4 ,john's ,day4#hb ,brand1 in his history of ,newcastle 7ii4 #ed71 refers to a well still called ,bede's ,well1 near ,jarrow4 8,as late as #agdj it was a prevailing custom to bring children troubled with any disease or infirmity2 a crooked pin was put in1 and the well laved dry between each dipping4 ,my informant has seen twenty children brought together on a ,sunday1 to be dipped in this well1 at which also1 on ,midsummer ,eve1 there was a great resort of neighbouring people1 with bonfires1 music1 etc40 ,hope gives references to seven wells dedicated to 8,st4 ,john10 one to 8,st4 ,john the ,baptist10 and four to ,st4 ,peter4 ,these may have been solstitial wells1 but the information given is very slight and not to the present point4 ,he states 7xxii7 that the most important celebrations were first held in ,may and at the summer solstice4 ,he then adds1 8later ,easter and ,ascensiontide were the favoured seasons40 ,may1 ,summer ,solstice and ,easter was1 ,i think1 the true order4 ,finally1 ,i may refer to the earliest holy well known to history4 ,this is the famous well at ,heliopolis where ,r used to wash himself1 and ,piankhi1 ,b4,c4 #gdj1 went and washed his face in it4 ,at this same well the ,virgin sat and washed her ,son's swaddling bands in it4 ,its water made the balsam trees to grow4 ,it is now called by the ,arabs 8,the ,fountain of the ,sun0 #8yn ash-,shems4 #ec ,the literature that ,i have chiefly consulted is as follows3-- ,r4 ,c4 ,hope ,holy ,wells2 their ,legends and ,traditions4 ,r4 ,l4 ,quiller-,couch ,ancient and ,holy ,wells of ,cornwall4 ,w4 ,g4 ,wood-,martin ,traces of the ,elder ,faiths of ,ireland4 ,g4 ,l4 ,gomme ,ethnology in ,folklore4 ,prof4 ,rhys ,celtic ,folklore1 ,manx and ,welsh4 ,w4 ,c4 ,borlase ,dolmens of ,ireland4 ,s4 ,baring-,gould ,a ,book of the ,west4 #ed ,traces of the ,elder ,faiths of ,ireland1 ,a ,folklore ,sketch1 ii41 p4 #dg4 #ee ,pp4 #aa1 #dg4 #ef ,celtic ,folklore1 ,manx and ,welsh1 ii41 p4 #cff4 #eg ,wood-,martin1 loc4 cit41 ii41 p4 #hj4 #eh ,standing ,stones and ,maeshowe of ,stenness1 by ,magnus ,spence1 p4 #ac4 #ei ,that is from ,w4 to ,e4 through ,n41 or ,e4 to ,w4 through ,s42 in the same direction as the hands of a clock4 #fj ,the ,dolmens of ,ireland1 i41 p4 #c4 #fa ,ibid41 pp4 #ie1 #gfe4 #fb ,celtic ,folklore1 ,manx and ,welsh1 i41 p4 #ccb4 #fc ,borlase1 loc4 cit41 p4 #gfj4 #fd ,ibid41 p4 #dbf4 #fe ,rhys1 ,celtic ,folklore1 ,manx and ,welsh1 p4 #cfc4 #ff ,pagan ,ireland1 p4 #afj4 #fg ,rhys1 ,celtic ,folklore1 ,manx and ,welsh1 i41 pp4 #ced1 #cef1 #ceg1 c4 #fh ,rhys1 ibid41 p4 #ccb4 #fi ,ethnology in ,folklore1 p4 #gh4 #gj ,sikes3 ,british ,goblins1 p4 #cea4 #ga ,sikes1 idem41 p4 #cbi4 #gb ,folklore1 #ahib1 p4 #hi4 #gc ,pagan ,ireland1 p4 #ade4 #gd ,celtic ,folklore1 ,manx and ,welsh4 #ge ,pagan ,ireland1 p4 #afj4 #gf ,hope1 p4 #ad4 #gg ,the ,land's ,end ,district1 p4 #gb4 #gh ,edmunds1 p4 #gb4 #gi ,hope1 p4 #dj4 #hj ,st4 ,cleer ,st4 ,cledod1 ,a4,d4 #dhb4 ,the arms of ,st4 ,cleer are the ,sun in its glory4 #ha ,description of ,westmeath1 #afhb1 quoted by ,vallencey1 i41 #aba4 #hb ,hazlitt1 ii41 #faf4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,where ,,did ,,the ,,british ,,worship ,,originate8 ,the recent chapters have1 ,i think1 established1 by the evidence derived from folklore and tradition1 that there was in the long past a combined worship of trees1 wells and streams in the neighbourhood of sacred places1 the sacred place being a stone circle or some other monument built up of stones4 ,we have gathered also that the chief times of worship were on or near the most important dates defined for us by the ,may year1 the original year marked out by the various agricultural and other operations proper to the various seasons4 ,it is again imperative that ,i should point out that if the basis of this worship was not utility it must have been started by men sufficiently skilled to indicate by their astronomical knowledge the proper times for the various operations to which ,i have referred4 ,in this we see the reason for the local combination of the worship in the neighbourhood of the stones1 for the stones were really the instruments which enabled the astronomer-priest to be useful to the community2 that he in process of time became powerful and sacred because he was wise1 and added medicine and magic to his other qualifications1 was only what was to be expected4 ,i am not the first to have been driven by the facts to note the close association to which ,i have referred1 that the cults were not separate but were parts of one whole4 ,wood-,martin speaks with the most certain sound on this point4 8,it will be seen that1 from a review of the whole subject1 stone1 water1 tree1 and animal-worship are intimately connected40#hc ,what the analysis in the recent chapters1 taken in connection with the astronomical results previously stated1 has done is perhaps to give a clear reason for the connection4 ,not only were the cults started together1 but they remained together for a long time2 it is only in quite late years that the traditions have become so dim that practices once closely connected are now dealt with apart from the rest4 ,hope points out 7p4 xxii7 that the #afth of the canons of the reign of ,edgar1 ,a4,d4 #ifc1 which enjoins the clergy to be diligent1 advance ,christianity1 and extinguish heathenism1 mentions especially the worship of stones1 trees1 and fountains4 ,the laws of ,knut 7,a4,d4 #ajah7 specify the worship 8of heathen gods1 the sun1 moon1 fire1 rivers1 fountains1 rocks1 or trees40 ,now1 although the folklore evidence ,i have brought together has been gathered for the most part from the ,british ,isles1 my inquiries have not been limited to that area4 ,it was natural that when the study of folklore had suggested that there was a close connection between the worship carried on in ,britain at stone monuments1 sacred trees1 and sacred wells an attempt should have been made to see whether these three cults had been associated out of ,britain with the ceremonials of any of the early peoples for which complete and trustworthy information is available4 ,on this point the traditions of widely sundered countries is amazingly strong4 ,the folklore of the ,pyrenees1 ,france1 ,spain and ,portugal regarding sacred wells is very similar to that of ,ireland4 ,borlase writes3#hd 8,it is interesting to notice that the pre-,christian custom called dessil1 or circuit around a venerated spot1 which is practised in ,ireland in the case of one dolmen at least1 as well as at wells and ,churches innumerable1 is found also in ,portugal40 ,in the ,pyrenees1 too1 fairies and spirits are thought much of in this connection4 ,borlase tells us3#he 8,they are the presiding genii of certain wells40 ,he adds3 8,it is not in ,ireland alone that dolmens are associated with the notion of wells and water springs4 ,the ,portuguese names1 ,anta do ,fontao1 ,fonte ,coberta1 ,anta do ,fonte-de ,mouratao1 and the ,french names1 ,fonte de ,rourre1 and ,fonte nay le ,marmion1 show this to be the case40#hf ,in ,persia ,sir ,wm4 ,ouseley saw a tree covered with rags1 and similar trees in the ,himalayas are associated with large heaps of stones 7,gomme1 p4 #aje74 ,the late ,general ,pitt-,rivers affirms that the customs of well-offerings ,i referred to in the last chapter are invariably associated with cairns1 megalithic monuments or some such early ,pagan institutions1 and he adds that the area in which traces of well-offerings are found is conterminous with the area of the megalithic monuments4#hg ,the idea that the waters of certain wells have marvellous healing powers is also not confined to the ,british ,isles1 for in a great many parts of ,europe1 perhaps more especially in ,france1 ,spain and ,portugal1 we find instances4 ,the practice of worshipping in connection with wells and the sacred stones and sacred trees which were associated with them1 as we have seen1 was indeed in ancient days almost1 if not quite1 universal wherever man existed4 ,the traditions of the past1 therefore1 are to be gathered over a very wide area4 ,i quote a summary of the universality of this practice given by the late ,general ,pitt-,rivers in the paper already noticed3 8,burton says it extends throughout northern ,africa from west to east2 ,mungo ,park mentions it in western ,africa2 ,sir ,samuel ,baker speaks of it on the confines of ,abyssinia1 and says that the people who practised it were unable to assign a reason for doing so2 ,burton also found the same custom in ,arabia during his pilgrimage to ,mecca2 in ,persia ,sir ,william ,ouseley saw a tree close to a large monolith covered with these rags1 and he describes it as a practice appertaining to a religion long since proscribed in that country2 in the ,dekkan and ,ceylon ,colonel ,leslie says that the trees in the neighbourhood of wells may be seen covered with similar scraps of cotton3 ,dr4 ,a4 ,campbell speaks of it as being practised by the ,limboos near ,darjeeling in the ,himalaya1 where it is associated1 as in ,ireland1 with large heaps of stones2 and ,huc in his travels mentions it among the ,tartars40 ,the astronomical facts given in this book1 gathered from a study of the monuments in these islands1 can only give us information touching the introduction of the combined worship here4 ,my investigations have strongly suggested1 to say the least1 that there were men here with knowledge enough to utilise the movements of the sun and stars for temple1 and no doubt practical purposes before #bjjj ,b4,c41 that is1 a thousand years before ,solomon was born1 and at about the time that the ,hecatompedon was founded at ,athens4 ,if this is anywhere near the truth1 these men must have been representatives of a very old civilisation4 ,now the civilisation principally considered by archologists in connection with the building of the monuments which ,i have studied is the ,aryan1 of which the ,celts formed a branch4 ,this view1 however1 is not universally held2 the late ,general ,pitt-,rivers1 and ,i know of no higher authority1 stated his opinion that 8,the megalithic monuments444 take us back to pre-,aryan people1 and suggest the spread of this people over the area covered by their remains40#hh ,mr4 ,gomme is of the same opinion 7p4 #bg73 8,ceremonies which are demonstrably non-,aryan in ,india1 even in the presence of ,aryan people1 must in origin have been non-,aryan in ,europe1 though the race from whom they have descended is not at present identified by ethnologists40 ,sergi also points out3-- 8,indo-,germanism led to almost entire forgetfulness of the most ancient civilisations of the earth1 those born in the valleys of the ,euphrates and the ,tigris1 and in the valley of the ,nile2 no influence was granted to them over ,greco-,roman classic civilisation1 almost none anywhere in the ,mediterranean40#hi ,it is not necessary for me to deal at length with the great ,aryan controversy in this book1 even if the subject were within my competence1 which it is not2 but now that we have a large number of monuments dated1 say1 within twenty years of their use1 it is important to bring forward some dates arrived at by archologists and philologists to compare with those which the astronomical method of inquiry has revealed4 ,hall#ij gives evidence to show that the ,aryans did not reach ,greece till after the earlier period of the ,mycenan age1 which he dates at about #agjj ,b4,c4 ,with regard to the date of the ,aryan invasion of ,britain1 ,mr4 ,read1 of the ,department of ,ethnography1 ,british ,museum1 informs me that it may be taken as about #ajjj ,b4,c42 it was associated with cremation4 ,it is highly probable that these ,aryans were the ,goidels or the ,gael4 ,these were followed some #gjj years later by another ,aryan sept--the ,brythons4 ,mr4 ,read is also of opinion that the ,goidels reached ,britain from the country round the ,south ,baltic1 and the ,brythons from or through north-east ,france4 ,archologists1 however1 recognise a pre-,aryan invasion1 about #ahjj ,b4,c4 7a date determined by the introduction of bronze71 of a brachycephalic folk who built covered barrows1 different in these respects from the neolithic folk1 who were long-skulled and built long barrows4 ,now1 in relation to the stone structures to which this book especially refers1 the question arises1 are we then dealing with this swarm or the people whom they found on the soil8 ,there are some indications in the traditions which imply that we are really dealing with an early stone age1 when flints were the only weapons1 and there were no clothes to speak of4 ,i will give one or two examples of these traditions4 ,gomme 7p4 #ec7 refers to a singular fact preserved among the ceremonies of witchcraft in ,scotland3 8,in order to injure the waxen image of the intended victim1 the implements used in some cases by the witches were stone arrowheads1 or elf-shots1 as they were called1 and their use was accompanied by an incantation4 ,here we have1 in the undoubted form of a prehistoric implement1 the oldest untouched detail of early life which has been preserved by witchcraft40 ,gomme 7p4 #ci7 also tells us that one of the ,may practices at ,stirling is for boys of ten and twelve years old to divest themselves of their clothing1 and in a state of nudity to run round certain natural or artificial circles4 8,formerly the rounded summit of ,demyat1 an eminence in the ,ochil range1 was a favourite scene of this strange pastime1 but for many years it has been performed at the ,king's ,knot1 in ,stirling1 an octagonal mound in the ,royal ,gardens4 ,the performances are not infrequently repeated at ,midsummer and ,lammas40 ,he adds1 8,the fact that in this instance the practice is continued only by #8boys of ten and twelve years old1' shows that we have here one of the last stages of an old rite before its final abolition40 ,baring-,gould 7p4 #ba7 provides us with a practice in ,brittany which would seem to be a remnant of a pre-clothing age4 ,near ,carnac is a menhir1 at which a singular 8ceremony took place till comparatively recently1 and may perhaps still be practised in secret4 ,a married couple that have no family repair to this stone when the moon is full1 strip themselves stark naked and course one another round it a prescribed number of times1 whilst their relations keep guard against intrusion at a respectful distance40 ,now it is in connection with this question that ,i am in hopes that some help may be got from the astronomical results recorded in the present volume4 ,the dates revealed by the orientation of the circles and outstanding stones already dealt with 7and there is a large number to follow7 indicate that it is among the records of some people of whom the civilisation is very ancient that we must look in the first instance with a view of tracing the origin of our ,british monuments4 ,further1 now that we have been able to follow their astronomical methods1 to note how sound they were1 and to gather the purposes of utility they were intended to serve1 it is simply common sense to inquire1 in the first instance1 if they may have been connected with these ancient peoples whose astronomical skill is universally recognised1 and whose records and even observations have come down to us4 ,now1 while we know nothing of the astronomy of the ,aryans generally1 or that of the ,celts in particular1 the astronomical knowledge of the ,babylonians and ,egyptians is one of the wonders of the ancient world4 ,hence ,babylonia and ,egypt are at once suggested1 and the suggestion is not rendered a less probable one when we remember that both these peoples studied and utilised astronomy at least some #h1jjj years ago4 ,but here we are dealing with two peoples4 ,it is more than probable that they both were associated more or less near the origin with one race1 the ideas of which permeated both civilisations4 ,i have it on the highest authority1 that of ,dr4 ,budge1 that in ,babylonia there were originally the ,sumerians and the ,semites4 ,the primitive race which conquered the ,egyptians seems to have been connected with the former as regards civilisation1 and with the latter as regards some aspects of the ,egyptian language4 ,this race was ,semitic1 and as the pyramids1 built some #f1jjj years ago1 are a proof of the interaction of the two civilisations at that time1 for the ,easter festival celebrated on the banks of the ,nile came from the valleys of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 we may omit the pre-,semites from our consideration4 ,there is other evidence that the connection between the ,semites and ,egyptians was close astronomically1 so that any ,semitic influence in later times or in other lands would be sure to show traces of this connection1 and in temple worship it would be traceable4 ,while the carefully oriented ,egyptian temples built of stone remain and have been carefully studied1 those erected in the centres of ,semitic power1 built of unbaked brick1 have for the most part disappeared1 but for the most part only2 some stone structures remain1 but in regard to them there has been no ,lepsius2 of their orientation1 too1 little is known4 ,this is all the more to be regretted since ,layard1 in addition to many ,e4 and ,n4 buildings found at ,nimrood1 noted at the mound of ,kouyunjik1 the site of ,nineveh1 lat4 #cf #bj ,n41 that ,sennacherib's palace1 which appears to have been built round a central temple1 was oriented to the ,may year4#ia 7,az4 ,n4 #fh #cj ,e4 ,dec4 ,n4 #af47 ,now1 calling in the ,babylonians as the originators of what went on in ,britain #d1jjj years ago may seem to some to be far-fetched in more ways than one2 but the ,babylonians were a remarkable people2 according to some they originated all the voyaging of the early world1 though other authorities point out that the first ships in the eastern seas must have been ,indian4 ,ihering#ib adduces a series of facts which indicate clearly that the ,babylonians carried on maritime navigation at least as early as about #cejj ,b4,c4 ,but1 whatever this time was1 the ,semites and ,egyptians had already a rich culture behind them at a time when the ,aryans1 whatever or wherever their origin1 had not made themselves a place in the world's history4 ,an ancient sea connection between ,babylonia and ,india may explain the similarity of the ,british and ,indian folklore4 ,some facts with regard to long distance ancient travel are the following4 ,our start-point may be that ,gudea1 a ,babylonian king who reigned about #bejj ,b4,c41 brought stones from ,melukhkha and ,makan1 that is1 ,egypt and ,sinai 7,budge1 ,history of ,egypt1 ii41 #acj74 ,now these stones were taken coastwise ,sinai to ,eridu1 at the head of the ,persian ,gulf1 a distance of #d1jjj miles1 and it is also said that then1 or even before then1 there was a coast-wise traffic to and from ,malabar1 where teak was got to be used in house- and boat-building4 ,the distance from ,eridu coastwise to ,malabar1 say the present ,cannanore1 is #b1djj miles4 ,the distance1 coastwise1 from ,alexandria to ,sandwich1 where we learn that ,phnicians and others shipped the tin extracted from the mines in ,cornwall1 is only #e1cjj miles1 so that a voyage of this length was quite within the powers of the compassless navigators of #bejj ,b4,c4 ,the old idea that the ancient merchants could make a course from ,ushant to1 say1 ,falmouth or ,penzance need no longer be entertained2 the crossing from ,africa to ,gibraltar and from ,cape ,grisnez to ,sandwich were both to visible land1 i4e4 coastwise4 ,the cliffs on the opposite land are easily seen on a clear day4 ,hence it would have been easier before the days of astronomical knowledge and compasses to have reached ,england1 and therefore ,ireland and the ,orkneys1 than to get to some of the islands in the ,mediterranean itself4#ic ,it is seen then that it is possible that ,semites might have built our stone monuments between #bjjj and #abjj ,b4,c41 while it is quite certain that the ,aryans did not build them1 if the archologists are not widely wrong in their dates4 ,let us1 then1 begin our inquiries by considering the information available with regard to the ,semites4 ,let us see in the first instance whether they had stone monuments1 and sacred trees and sacred wells2 a system of worship2 and whether this worship was connected with the sun and stars4 ,it is fortunate for us in this matter that one of the most fully equipped scholars which the last century produced1 ,robertson ,smith1 devoted his studies for many years to ,the ,religion of the ,semites1 and information on the points raised is to our hand2 all ,i need do is to give as shortly as possible a statement of the various conclusions he had reached on the points to which our attention may in the first instance be confined4 ,i quote from his book ,the ,religion of the ,semites4 ,the ,semites include the ,babylonians1 who spoke a ,semitic dialect1 for there were ,sumerian speaking peoples among them1 ,assyrians1 ,phnicians1 ,hebrews1 ,arabs and ,aramans1 who in ancient times occupied the fertile lands of ,syria1 ,mesopotamia and ,irak from the ,mediterranean coast to the base of the mountains of ,iran and ,armenia4 ,they also embrace the inhabitants of the great ,arabian peninsula1 which is believed to have been the centre of dispersion4 ,the ordinary artificial mark of a ,semitic sanctuary was the sacrificial pillar1 cairn1 or rude altar 7p4 #ahc73 it was a fixed point where1 according to primitive rule1 the blood of the offering was applied to the sacred stones2 or where a sacred tree1 as we shall see presently1 was hung with gifts2 the stones and tree being symbols of the ,god 7p4 #aea74 ,further1 it is certain that the original altar among the northern ,semites was a great unhewn#id stone1 or a cairn1 at which the blood of the victim was shed 7p4 #ahe74 ,monolithic pillars or cairns of stones are frequently mentioned in the more ancient parts of the ,old ,testament as marking sanctuaries2 ,shechem1 ,bethel1 ,gilead1 ,gilgal1 ,mizpah1 ,gibeon1 and ,en-,rogel are referred to 7p4 #ahf74 ,there is evidence that in very early times the sanctuary was a cave 7p4 #ahc74 ,the obvious successors of a natural cave are1 7#a7 an artificial cave made in the earth like the natural one1 and 7#b7 a model or representation of a cave built of stone1 with a small entrance which would be barred1 and covered over with earth1 thus protecting the priests from wild animals and the weather4 ,the dolmens and cromlechs which are found in the ,semitic area where there are stones doubtless had this origin4 ,the use of a cave was probably borrowed both by the ,egyptians and ,greeks 7there is a cave1 for instance1 at ,eleusis7 from the ,semites4 ,in later times1 when caves or their equivalents were no longer in vogue and temples were erected1 they enclosed a ,bit-ili or ,beth-el1 an upright stone1 consecrated by oil4#ie ,we next learn 7pp4 #agj and #ahc7 that no ,canaanite high place was complete without its sacred tree standing beside the altar4 ,in tree-worship pure and simple as in ,arabia1 the tree is adored at an annual feast 78 ,may71 when it is hung with clothes and women's ornaments 7p4 #afi74 ,the tree at ,mecca to which offerings are made is spoken of as a 8tree to hang things on40 ,the references to 8groves0 given in the ,bible as associated with temple worship are misleading1 8groves0 being a wrong translation of the word ,asherah1 which was a pole made of wood which the ,jews adopted from the ,canaanites4 ,it was ornamented and perhaps draped1 and was most probably originally a tree4 ,it may have been used in the 8high places0 because single trees would not grow there in the ,east any more than on the moors in ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,the antiquity of this emblem is proved by ,smith's statement 7p4 #aga7 that in an ,assyrian monument from ,khorsbd an ornamental pole is shown beside a portable altar4 8,priests stand before it engaged in an act of worship and touch the pole with their hands or perhaps anoint it with some liquid substance40 ,the draping of the tree seems to be proved by the passage which suggested the mistranslation to me before ,i wrote to some ,hebrew scholars among my friends who allowed me to consult them4 ,the passage is as follows 7,,ii4 ,kings1 xxiii41 #f1 #g73-- 8,and he brought out the grove from the house of the ,lord1 without ,jerusalem1 unto the brook ,kidron1 and burned it at the brook ,kidron1 and stamped it small to powder1 and cast the powder thereof upon the graves of the children of the people4 8,and he brake down the houses of the ,sodomites1 that were by the house of the ,lord1 where the women wove hangings for the grove40 ,to show how little variation there was in the ,semitic practices to those recorded in ,british folklore ,i may state that one of my friends--one of the revision committee--informed me that his impression was that the ,asherah was furnished with pegs or hooks1 so that the garments1 c41 might be easily hung on it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i next come to the sacred waters4 ,a sacred fountain1 as well as the sacred tree1 was a common symbol at ,semitic sanctuaries 7p4 #ahc74 ,nevertheless1 they were sometimes absent1 the main place being given to altar worship4 ,further1 ,robertson ,smith was of opinion that this altar worship did not originate with tree 8 or water worship 7p4 #agj72 but still1 sacred wells are among the oldest and most ineradicable objects of reverence among all the ,semites1 and were credited with oracular powers 7pp4 #abh1 #aed74 ,the fountain or stream was not a mere adjunct to the temple1 but was itself one of the principal sacra of the spot 7p4 #aee74 ,undoubtedly there were ordeals among other things at these wells 7p4 #afc74 ,one case is given in ,numbers1 v41 #ag1 where the words 8holy water0 occur1 and other water 8that causeth the curse0 is referred to4 ,ordeal by water is not unknown among ,british customs4 ,it is interesting to note that special sanctity was attached to groups of seven wells 7p4 #afg71 and that one such group was called ,thorayga,pleiades 7p4 #aec74if ,we may gather from this that one of the most sacred times for ,semitic worship was at the ,may festival1 marked by the rising of the ,pleiades4 ,although ,i do not find many references in ,robertson ,smith's book as to great festival days1 there is other evidence which shows that the ,may festival was the greatest1 and represented ,new ,year's ,day4 ,i have already shown that the ,may-,november year is the one recognised in the present ,turkish1 ,armenian and ,i believe ,persian calendars 7p4 #bi74 ,as this was the year used at ,thebes #cbjj ,b4,c41 we may take it that at that time it was universal in ,w4 ,asia and the adjacent lands4 ,the ,jews afterwards adopted the equinoctial year4 ,it seems highly probable that we may learn from many passages in the ,old ,testament what the ,semitic temple practices were generally4 ,there were sacrifices of men and beasts1 burnt offerings1 and lighting of fires1 through which the children were made to pass4 ,i give some references to these fire practices4 8,and thou shalt not let any of thy seed pass through the fire to ,molech40--,leviticus1 xviii41 #ba4 8,there shall not be found among you any one that maketh his son or his daughter to pass through the fire1 or that useth divination1 or an observer of times1 or an enchanter1 or a witch1 8,or a charmer1 or a consulter with familiar spirits1 or a wizard1 or a necromancer40--,deuteronomy1 xviii41 #aj1 #aa4 8,he walked in the way of the kings of ,israel1 yea1 and made his son to pass through the fire40--,,ii4 ,kings1 xvi41 #c4 8,and they caused their sons and their daughters to pass through the fire1 and used divination and enchantments40--,,ii4 ,kings1 xvii41 #ag4 8,and he defiled ,topheth1 which is in the valley of the children of ,hinnom1 that no man might make his son or his daughter to pass through the fire to ,molech40--,,ii4 ,kings1 xxiii41 #aj4 7,see also #d and #e47 ,fire sacrifices which were interpreted as offerings of fragrant smoke were prevalent among the settled ,semites 7p4 #bah74 ,sacrificial fat was burned on the altar4 ,smith remarks3 8,this could be done without any fundamental modification of the old type of sacred stone or altar pillar1 simply by making a hollow on the top to receive the grease1 and there is some reason to think that fire-altars of this simple kind1 which in certain ,phnician types are developed into altar candlesticks1 are older than the broad platform altar proper for receiving a burnt offering0 7p4 #cfd74 99 99 99 99 99 ,with regard to the worship of the sun and stars by the ,semites1 we read that the ,semite addressed his ,god as ,baal or ,bal4 ,the simple form of ,baal was the sun4#ig ,by the ,semites the stars were1 on account of their movements1 held to be alive2 they were therefore gods1 and it was in consequence of this widespread belief that the stars were worshipped 7p4 #abg74 ,the worshippers 8burned incense unto ,baal1 to the sun1 to the moon and to the planets1 and to all the hosts of heaven0 7,,ii4 ,kings1 xxiii41 #e74 ,job congratulated himself that 8his heart had not been enticed1 nor his mouth kissed his hand1 if he beheld the sun when it shined1 or the moon walking in her brightness0 7,job1 xxxi41 #bf-bg74 ,the worship of the morning star as a god is the old ,semitic conception 7,isa41 xiv41 #ab71 8,lucifer son of the ,dawn40 ,we gather from the later practices of the ,saracens that the sacrifices to the morning star could not be made after the star had disappeared in the dawn4#ih ,the ,god had to be in the presence of the worshippers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,semitic worship was generally carried on in 8high places02 in the ,babylonian temples built in a river valley the 8high places0 were secured by building towers with the sanctuary on the top4 ,these high places were necessary because exact observations of the risings of the heavenly bodies formed part of the ceremonial1 and a clear horizon was absolutely imperative4 ,that this was generally understood and acted on is well evidenced by the fact that in the ,old ,testament the mention of high places is nearly always associated with the references to the religion of the ,canaanites and other ,semitic nations as if the high places were among the most important points in it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,other arguments may be founded upon linguistic considerations4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,morris ,jones#ii finds that the syntax of ,welsh and ,irish differs from that of other ,aryan languages in many important respects1 e4g4 the verb is put first in every simple sentence4 ,prof4 ,rhys had suggested that these differences represented the persistence in ,welsh and ,irish of the syntax of a pre-,aryan dialect1 and as the anthropologists hold that the pre-,aryan population of these islands came from ,north ,africa1 it seemed to ,prof4 ,jones that that was the obvious place to look for the origin of these syntactical peculiarities4 ,he finds the similarities between ,old ,egyptian and neo-,celtic syntax to be astonishing2 he shows that practically all the peculiarities of ,welsh and ,irish syntax are found in the ,hamitic languages4 ,this conclusion practically implies that the bulk of the population of these islands1 before the arrival of the ,celts1 spoke dialects allied to those of ,north ,africa4 ,the syntactical peculiarities must have represented the habits of thought of the people1 which survived in the ,celtic vocabulary imposed upon them4 ,these conclusions were not known to me when ,i began to see the necessity of separating the cult of the ,june from that of the ,may year1 and the identity of the conclusions drawn from astronomical and linguistic data is to me very striking and also suggests further special inquiries4 ,it is also worth while to state that the ,semites1 including the ,hebrews and ,phnicians1 did not burn their dead4 ,finally1 ,i may quote a remark made by ,general ,pitt-,rivers in the paper already referred to3--8,if we do not accept one old civilization as the origin of the various practices1 then we must assume accidental origins in each country40 #hc ,wood-,martin1 p4 #bfe4 #hd ,dolmens of ,ireland1 ii41 p4 #fif4 #he ,ibid41 ii41 p4 #ehj4 #hf ,ibid41 p4 #ggb4 #hg ,journal ,eth4 ,soc41 ,n4,s41 i41 #fd4 #hh ,journ4 ,eth4 ,soc41 ,n4,s4 i41 #fd4 #hi ,the ,mediterranean ,races1 p4 #d4 #ij ,the ,oldest ,civilisation of ,greece1 p4 #aje4 #ia ,this ,i gather from the plan prepared by ,lieut4 ,glascott1 ,r4,n41 who apparently accompanied ,mr4 ,layard4 ,he indicates the true north point with a sailor's precision in such matters4 7,see p4 #cje74 #ib ,evolution of the ,aryan1 ,translation by ,drucker1 #cb4 #ic ,the prevalence of solstitial customs in ,sardinia and ,corsica1 with apparently no trace of the ,may year1 tends to support this view1 which is also strengthened by the fact that the solstitial customs in ,morocco are very similar to those we read of in ,britain3 the ,may year is unnoticed1 and there is a second feast at ,easter 7,march #afth74 ,see ,westermarck in ,folk-lore1 vol4 xxi41 p4 #bg4 #id ,and if thou wilt make me an altar of stone1 thou shalt not build it of hewn stone3 for if thou lift up thy tool upon it1 thou hast polluted it4--,exodus1 xx41 #be4 #ie ,and ,jacob rose up early in the morning1 and took the stone that he had put for his pillows1 and set it up for a pillar1 and poured oil upon the top of it4 ,and this stone1 which ,i have set for a pillar1 shall be ,god's house2 and of all that thou shalt give me ,i will surely give the tenth unto thee4--,genesis1 xxviii41 #ah1 #bb4 #if ,herodotus1 iii41 #h1 refers to an ,arabian rite in which seven stones are smeared with blood among peoples whose only gods were ,dionysos and ,urania1 whom they called ,orotalt and ,alilat4 #ig ,sayce1 ,babylonians and ,assyrians1 p4 #bcd4 #ih ,nili op4 quaedam 7,paris1 #afci71 pp4 #bh1 #aag1 quoted by ,robertson ,smith1 p4 #aea4 #ii 8,pre-,aryan ,syntax in ,insular ,celtic10 in the ,welsh ,people1 by ,rhys and ,brynmor-,jones1 pp4 #fag-fda4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,the ,,similarity ,,of ,,the ,,semitic ,,and ,,british ,,worships ,i propose in this chapter to bring into juxtaposition the various ,british and ,semitic-,egyptian practices which we have so far considered4 ,i confess ,i am amazed at the similarities we have come across in the first cast of the net2 we have found so much that is common to both worships in connection with all the points we considered separately4 ,i will1 for convenience1 deal with the various points seriatim4 #a4 ,the cult of sacred stones or cairns4 ,the only objection which1 so far as ,i can see1 may be raised to these practices being absolutely common is the idea among many ,british archologists that the cairns1 in which term ,i include chambered barrows or dolmens and their skeletons1 the cromlechs and stone passages1 were set up for burial and not for worship4 ,this idea has arisen because some of them have been used for burials4 ,but ,i cannot accept this argument1 because since the burials might have taken place at any time subsequent to their erection they prove nothing as to the reason of the erection2 and further1 if these chambered cairns were meant for burials1 there should be burials in all of them1 and yet there are none in the most majestic of them all1 ,maeshowe4 ,let us consider a few facts in relation to the ,semitic use of cairns referred to on p4 #bdd4 ,that the cromlechs found both in ,britain and ,syria--there are #ghj in ,ireland and #gjj in ,moab--are the remains of chambered cairns is pretty clear from the evidence brought forward by ,borlase4#ajj ,mr4 ,john ,bell1 of ,dundalk1 disinterred over sixty cromlechs from cairns in ,ulster4 ,all dolmens were covered by tumuli according to ,mr4 ,bell and ,mr4 ,lukis4 ,monuments called cairns in the earliest ,ordnance ,survey have been marked dolmens in subsequent surveys 7e4g4 ,townland of ,leana in ,clare7 because the earth covering the stones had disappeared in the meantime4 ,among the evidences of natural and artificial caves preceding cairns which replaced them are the twenty-four caves which have been explored in ,france 7op4 cit41 p4 #efh74aja ,borlase points out with regard to the ,irish dolmens that large tumuli were not essential2 all that was necessary was that the walls of the cell or crypt should be impervious to the elements and to wild animals4 ,a creep or passage communicating with the edge of the mound is common to ,ireland1 ,wales1 ,portugal and ,brittany 7op4 cit41 p4 #dbh74 ,the facts that the cairns so often had their open ends facing the ,n4,e4 or ,s4,e41 and that the west end was generally higher1 like the naos trilithons at ,stonehenge1 must be borne in mind4 ,most of what we know of earliest man has been obtained from their lives in caves2 what they ate1 the contemporary fauna and their art are thus known to us1 but caves have not been considered as tombs1 though men have died and left their remains in them4 ,in the case of a dolmen1 however1 an artificial cave1 as we shall see1 the possibility of people living in them appears never to have been considered seriously1 and the tomb theory has led to bad reasoning and forced argument4 ,when burials are absent it has been suggested that 8owing to some peculiarity of the soil1 the entire of the human remains have become decomposed1 only the imperishable stone implements entombed with the body remaining40#ajb ,mr4 ,spence has pointed out the extreme improbability of ,maeshowe being anything but a temple1 and ,i may now add on the ,semitic model4 ,there were a large central hall and side rooms for sleeping1 a stone door which could have been opened or shut from the inside1 and a niche for a guard1 janitor or hall porter6 ,so high an authority as ,colonel ,leslie has pointed out that neither ,maeshowe1 ,new ,grange and ,dowth on the ,boyne1 nor ,gavr ,innis in ,brittany bear any internal proof of being specially prepared as tombs4#ajc ,there is another point connected with these dolmens and cromlechs4 ,an origin in the ,semitic area easily explains why in ,asia and ,britain the dolmens are so alike1 down to small details1 such as the perforation of one of the side stones4 ,borlase has remarked also upon the similarity of ,indian and ,irish dolmens 7op4 cit41 p4 #gee71 similar holes also being common to them4 ,the curious concentric circles1 c41 found on some dolmen stones are common to ,assyrian vessels4#ajd ,the most philosophical study of this question ,i have seen#aje certainly suggests that much light may be expected from this source4 ,part of the cult of the sacred stones was the ceremony of anointing them4 ,robertson ,smith 7p4 #bad7 gives us the meaning and history of anointing among the ,semites1 and notes its continuation from ,jacob's pouring oil on sacred stones at ,bethel1 through the time of ,pausanias to that of the ,pilgrims of the fourth century ,a4,d4 ,the anointing of stones was certainly carried on in ancient times in ,britain and ,brittany4 ,baring-,gould tells us3#ajf 8,formerly the menhir was beplastered with oil and honey and wax1 and this anointing of the stones was condemned by the bishops4 ,in certain places the local clergy succeeded in diverting the practice to the ,churches4 ,there are still some in ,lower ,brittany whose exterior walls are strung with wax lines arranged in festoons and patterns4 8,in some places childless women still rub themselves against menhirs1 expecting thereby to be cured of barrenness1 but in others1 instead1 they rub themselves against stone images of saints40 ,when ,i visited the ,cave of ,elephanta in #ahga ,i was told that the barren women of ,bombay visit the cave once a year and anoint the standing stone in the chief chamber4 ,in ,egypt they still rub their bodies on the ,colossi4 #b4 ,sacred fires4 ,among the ,semites the sacrificial fat was burned on the altar4 ,and we have seen that 8this could be done without any fundamental modification of the old type of sacred stone or altar pillar1 simply by making a hollow on the top to receive the grease40#ajg ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,cresset-stone1 ,lewannick4 ,from ,baring-,gould's ,strange ,survivals4 ,baring-,gould#ajh has written on the question of sacrificial and sacred fires in ancient times in ,britain1 and points out that there still remain in some of our churches 7in ,cornwall1 ,york and ,dorset7 the contrivances--now called cresset-stones--used4 ,they are blocks of stone with cups hollowed out precisely as described by ,robertson ,smith4 ,some are placed in lamp-niches furnished with flues4 ,on these he remarks 7p4 #abb73-- 8,now although these lamps and cressets had their religious signification1 yet this religious signification was an afterthought4 ,the origin of them lay in the necessity of there being in every place a central light1 from which light could at any time be borrowed40 #c4 ,the cult of the sacred tree4 ,i have shown that the sacred trees in ,britain1 whether rowan1 thorn or mistletoe1 were at their best at the times of the festivals at which they were chiefly worshipped4 ,mrs4 ,j4 ,h4 ,philpot1 in her valuable book on 8the sacred tree10 gives us the names of some used in different countries2 it would be interesting to inquire whether the same consideration applies to them in the ,semitic and other areas4 ,there seems to be no doubt that the ,semitic ,asherah was the precursor of the ,british ,maypole1 even to its dressing of many coloured ribands1 and from the ,maypole customs we may infer something of the ,semitic practices which have not come down to us4 ,even 8,jack o' the ,green0 may eventually be traced to ,al-,khidr 7p4 #bi7 of the old ,may festivals4 #d4 ,the cult of the sacred well4 ,here we find only trifling differences4 ,the chief one is the use of pins in ,britain4 ,if we knew more about the ,asherah with its hooks this difference might disappear4 ,it has been pointed out by several authors that the worship of wells and water would be most likely to arise in a dry and thirsty land4 #e4 ,the time of the chief festivals4 ,here we find beyond all question that the festival times were the same to begin with4 ,may is the chief month both in ,west ,asia and ,west ,europe4 ,it was not till a subsequent time that ,june and ,december were added in ,egypt and ,britain1 and ,april and ,september among the ,jews4 #f4 ,the characteristics of the festivals4 ,here again is precise agreement4 ,the list ,i gave on p4 #bje of what can be gathered from ,british folklore is identical with the statements as to ,semitic practices which ,i quoted from ,robertson ,smith in the last chapter4 #g4 ,the worship in high places4 ,absolute identity2 and from this we can gather that the ancient condition of the high places wherever selected for temple worship was as treeless as it is now2 otherwise the observations of sun- and star-rise and -set would be greatly interfered with4 ,of course1 there may have been 8groves0 associated with1 but away from1 sanctuaries in both ,semitic and ,british areas3 but it is not impossible that much which has been written on this subject with regard to ,britain and the 8,druids0 may have been suggested in part by the erroneous translation of ,asherah to which ,i have referred4 ,it has also been stated that an early transcriber who1 in error1 substituted lucus for locus may also be held partly responsible1 even if lucus does not mean a clearing in a grove1 as some maintain4 #h4 ,the god or gods worshipped4 ,the year-gods in ,babylonia and ,egypt respectively were ,baal and ,thoth4 ,it is worth while to inquire whether either name has made its appearance as a loan-word in the traditions of ,western ,europe4 ,about ,baal there can be no question as to the coincidence1 whether accidental1 as some philologists affirm1 or not4 ,we find ,bel or ,baal common to the two areas4 ,mr4 ,borlase informs us 7op4 cit41 p4 #aafd7 that in ,western ,europe ,bel1 ,beal1 ,balor1 ,balder1 and ,phol1 ,fal1 ,fil are the equivalents of the ,semitic ,baal4 ,balus1 indeed1 is named as the first king of ,orkney4 ,a ,may worship is connected with all the above4 ,beltaine and many variants describe the fires lighted at the festival1 and it is worthy of note that although this fire worship has been extended to the solstitial ceremonials in ,june1 the name ,baltaine has never been applied to it at that time except by writers who think that the term 8midsummer0 may be applied indiscriminately to the beginning of ,may and the end of ,june4 ,i next deal with the ,egyptian year-god ,thoth4 ,in ,greece he became ,hermes1 among the ,romans ,mercury4 ,in this connection ,i can most usefully refer to ,rhys's ,hibbert ,lectures and his chapter on the ,gaulish ,pantheon4 ,he tells us 7p4 #e7 that 8,mercury is the god with whom the monuments lead one to begin40 ,there is also mention of a god ,toutates or ,teutates1 and a ,toutius1 who might have been a public official 78 priest of ,toutates74 ,only ,celtic or other later origins of the words are suggested2 it is not said whether the possible ,egyptian root has been considered4 ,we may even1 ,i think1 go further and ask whether some of the constellations were not figured as in ,egypt1 otherwise it is difficult to account for the horror of the black pig 7p4 #aie7 at ,hallowe'en4 ,the whole ,egyptian story is told in my ,dawn of ,astronomy#aji in connection with the worship of ,set1 that is the stars visible at night1 blotted out at dawn by the rising sun1 or becoming predominant after sunset4 #i4 ,the worship of the sun and stars4 ,here also1 as ,i have shown1 is complete agreement4 ,the same astronomical methods have been employed for the same purpose4 ,the chief difference lies in the fact that by lapse of time the precessional movement caused different stars to be observed as clock stars or to herald the sunrise on the chief ceremonial days4 #ajj ,dolmens of ,ireland1 p4 #dbf4 #aja 8,france1 indeed1 furnishes us with a stepping-stone1 as it were1 between the natural cave and the dolmen in certain artificial caves which offer comparison both with the former and the latter444 the natural cave was scooped out into a large chamber or chambers either by the swirling of water pent up in the limestone or other yielding rock and finding its way out through some narrow crevice4 ,the ground plan and section1 therefore1 is that of an alle couverte with a vestibule444 the artificial cave is modelled on the natural one1 and yet bears1 as ,m4 ,mortillet points out1 a close resemblance to the dolmen40 #ajb ,wandle1 ,remains of ,prehistoric ,age in ,england1 p4 #adg4 #ajc ,it is interesting to point out in relation to the fact that different swarms successively introduced the ,may and solstitial years that the 8sleeping rooms0 of the ,may year cairns at ,new ,grange are about #c feet square1 while at the solstitial ,maeshowe1 built very much later1 the dimensions are #f feet #d feet4 ,there were differences of sleeping posture in the old days among different peoples as well as different methods of burial4 #ajd ,borlase1 p4 #fag4 #aje 8,the ,builders and the ,antiquity of our ,cornish ,dolmens10 by ,rev4 ,d4 ,gath ,whitley 7,journal ,r4,i4 ,cornwall1 ,no4 #d74 #ajf ,book of ,brittany1 p4 #ba4 #ajg ,history of the ,semites1 p4 #cfd4 #ajh ,strange ,survivals1 p4 #abb4 #aji ,pp4 #adf1 #bae1 and elsewhere4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,may-,,year ,,in ,,south-,,west ,,cornwall ,the previous pages of this volume have apparently dealt with two distinct subjects2 the use of the ,british monuments on the orientation theory1 and the folklore and tradition which enable us to get some glimpses into the lives1 actions1 habits and beliefs of the early inhabitants of these islands1 and the region whence these early inhabitants had migrated4 ,but although these subjects are apparently distinct1 ,i think my readers will agree that the study of each has led to an identical result1 namely1 that in early times it was a question of the ,may year1 and that the solstitial year was introduced afterwards4 ,this was the chief revelation of the monuments when they were studied from the astronomical point of view4 ,without confirmation from some other sources this result might have been considered as doubtful1 and the orientation theory might have been thought valueless4 ,it has1 however1 been seen that folklore and tradition confirm it up to the hilt4 ,i think it may be said1 therefore1 that the theory ,i put forward in this book touching the astronomical use of our ancient temples is so far justified4 ,the ,british monuments ,i had considered before this appeal to tradition was made were the circles at ,stonehenge1 ,stenness1 ,the ,hurlers and ,stanton ,drew1 and the avenues on ,dartmoor4 ,these were studied generally1 the main special result being that to which ,i have referred2 we not only found alignments to sunrise and sunset on the critical quarter-days of the ,may years1 but we found alignments to the stars which should have been observed either at rising or setting to control the morning sacrifices4 ,but this inquiry had left out of account several circles in south-west ,cornwall1 of which ,i had vaguely heard but never seen4 ,when ,i had written the previous chapters showing how fully ,may-year practices are referred to in the folklore of that part of the country1 ,i determined to visit the circles1 dealing with them as test objects in regard to this special branch of orientation4 ,i had not time to make a complete survey2 this ,i must leave to others2 but with the help so readily afforded me1 which ,i shall acknowledge in its proper place1 ,i thought it possible in a brief visit to see whether or not there were any ,may-year alignments4 ,in the following chapters ,i will give an account of the observations made1 but before doing so1 in order to prove how solid the evidence afforded by the ,cornish monuments is1 ,i will state the details of the local astronomical conditions depending upon the latitude of the ,land's ,end region1 ,n4 #ej4 ,in the chapter containing some astronomical hints to archologists ,i referred 7p4 #abb7 to the solstice conditions for ,stenness beyond ,john o' ,groat's1 because those conditions afforded a special case1 the solstice being determined by the arrival of the sun at its highest or lowest declination1 which happens on particular dates which recur each year4 ,but with regard to the ,may year1 during the first week of ,may the sun's declination is changing by over a quarter of a degree daily1 so that we must not expect to find the declination of #af #bj 7see p4 #bb7 rigidly adhered to4 ,as ,i have shown 7p4 #bc71 the sun's passage through this declination four times on its annual path on the dates stated accurately divides the year into four equal parts4 ,but this accuracy might have been neglected by the early observers1 so that1 for instance1 the sun's position on the #dth or #hth of ,may instead of that on the #fth might have been chosen as being in greater harmony with the agricultural conditions at the place4 ,the conditions of the sunrise from ,john o' ,groat's to ,land's ,end1 #b of the sun being visible above the sky-line1 can be gathered from the following diagram3-- ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,place of first appearance of the ,may sun1 in ,british latitudes4 ,vertical axis3 ,n4 ,,lat4 ,from bottom3 #dh-ei4 ,horizontal axis3 ,,azimuths4 ,from left3 #ee-fg4 ,curves1 from left3 ,,horizon1 #j ,,hill1 #b;,,hill4 ,the exact azimuths for this sunrise in the ,land's ,end region 7,lat4 #ej7 in relation to the place of the sunrise when half the sun has risen1 with a sea horizon1 are shown in ,fig4 #ea4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,showing the influence of the height of the sky-line on the apparent place of sunrise in ,may and ,august4 ,the double circle shows the tabular place of sun's centre4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,the ,,merry ,,maidens ,,circle 7,,lat4 #ej #d ,n47 ,one of the best preserved circles that ,i know of is near ,penzance4 ,it is called the ,merry ,maidens#aaj 7,dawns-,maen71 and is thus described by ,lukis#aaa 7p4 #a73-- 8,this very perfect ,circle1 which is #ge feet #h inches in diameter1 stands in a cultivated field which slopes gently to the south4 8,it consists of #ai granite stones placed at tolerably regular distances from each other1 but there is a gap on the east side1 where another stone was most probably once erected4 8,many of the stones are rectangular in plan at the ground level1 vary from #c feet #c inches to #d feet in height1 and are separated by a space of from #aj to #ab feet4 ,there is a somewhat shorter interval between four of the stones on the south side4 8,in the vicinity of this monument are two monoliths called the ,pipers2 another called ,goon-,rith2 a holed stone 7not long ago there were two others72 and several #e ,cairns40 ,lukis thus describes the 8,pipers03-- 8,two rude stone pillars of granite stand erect1 #cag feet apart1 and about #djj yards to the north-east of the ,circle of ,dawns-,maen4 ,no4 #a is #ae feet high1 #d feet #f inches in breadth1 and has an average thickness of #bb inches1 and is #b feet #i inches out of the perpendicular4 ,the stone is of a laminated nature1 and a thin fragment has flaked off from the upper part4 ,no4 #b is #ac feet #f inches high1 and is much split perpendicularly4 ,at the ground level its plan in section is nearly a square of about #c feet40 ,goon-,rith is next described3--8,no4 #c is naturally of a rectangular form in plan1 and is #aj feet #f inches in height4 ,the land on which it stands is called ,goon-,rith1 or ,red ,downs4 ,the upper part of the stone is of irregular shape40 ,borlase1 in his ,history of ,cornwall 7#agfi71 only mentions the circle1 but ,w4 ,c4 ,borlase1 in his ,nnia ,cornubi 7#ahgb71 gives a very rough plan including the stones before mentioned and several barrows1 some of which have been ploughed up4 ,at varying distances from the circle and in widely different azimuths are other standing stones1 ancient crosses and holed stones1 while some of the barrows can still be traced4 ,the descriptions of the locality given by ,borlase and ,lukis1 however1 do not exhaust the points of interest4 ,edmonds#aab writes as follows3-- 8,a cave still perfect444 is on an eminence in the tenement of ,boleit 7,boleigh7 in ,st4 ,buryan1 and about a furlong south-west of the village of ,trewoofe 7,trove74 ,it is called the #8,fowgow1' and consists of a trench #f feet deep and #cf long1 faced on each side with unhewn and uncemented stones1 across which1 to serve as a roof1 long stone posts or slabs are laid covered with thick turf1 planted with furze4 ,the breadth of the cave is about #e feet4 ,on its north-west side1 near the south-west end1 a narrow passage leads into a branch cave of considerable extent1 constructed in the same manner4 ,at the south-west end is an entrance by a descending path2 but this1 as well as the cave itself1 is so well concealed by the furze that the whole looks like an ordinary furze break without any way into it4 ,the direction of the line of this cave is about north-east and south-west1 which line1 if continued towards the south-west1 would pass close to the two ancient pillars called the ,pipers1 and the ,druidical temple of ,dawns ,myin1 all within half of a mile40 ,this fougou is situated on a hill on the other side of the ,lamorna ,valley1 near the village of ,castallack1 and the site of the ,roundago shown in the #a-;inch ,ordnance map4 ,borlase#aac says that many similar caves were to be seen 8in these parts0 in his time1 and others had been destroyed by converting the stones to other uses4 ,there is evidence that the circle conditions at the ,merry ,maidens were once similar to those at ,stenness1 ,stanton ,drew1 the ,hurlers1 ,tregaseal and ,botallack1 that is that there was more than one1 the numbers running from #b to #g4 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho1 without whose aid in local investigations this chapter in all probability would never have been written1 in one of his visits came across 8the oldest inhabitant10 who remembered a second circle4 ,he said1 8,it was covered with furze and never shown to antiquarians02 ultimately the field in which it stood was ploughed up and the stones removed4 ,it is to prevent a similar fate happening to the 8,merry ,maidens0 themselves that ,lord ,falmouth will not allow the field in which they stand to be ploughed1 and all antiquarians certainly owe him a debt of gratitude for this and other proofs of his interest in antiquities4 ,mr4 ,bolitho carefully marked the site thus indicated on a copy of the #be-;inch map4 ,i shall subsequently show that the circle which formerly existed here1 like the others named1 was located on an important sight-line4 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho was good enough to make a careful examination of the barrows ,a and ,b of ,borlase4#aad ,in ,a 7,s4 #fi ,w47 he found a long stone still lying in the barrow1 suggesting that the barrow had been built round it1 and that the apex of the barrow formed a new alignment4 ,in ,b there is either another recumbent long stone or the capstone of a dolmen4 ,this suggests work for the local antiquarians4 ,i should state that there may be some doubt about barrow ,a1 for there are two not far from each other with approximate azimuths ,s4 #fi ,w4 and ,s4 #fd ,w4 ,the destruction of these and other barrows was probably the accompaniment of the reclamation of waste lands and the consequent interference with antiquities which in ,cornwall has mostly taken place since #ahjj4 ,illustration3 ,photo4 by ,lady ,lockier4 ,,fig4 #eb4--,the ,merry ,maidens 7looking ,east74 ,but it did not begin then1 nor has it been confined to barrows4 ,dr4 ,borlase1 in his parochial memoranda under date ,september #bi1 #ageb1 describes a monolith #bj feet above ground1 and planted #d feet in it1 the 8,men ,peru0 7stone of sorrow7 in the parish of ,constantine4 ,a farmer acknowledged that he had cut it up1 and had made twenty gate-posts out of it4 ,my wife and ,i visited the ,merry ,maidens at ,easter1 #aije1 for the purpose of making a reconnaissance4 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho and ,mr4 ,cornish were good enough to accompany us4 ,on my return to ,london ,i began work on the #be-;inch ,ordnance map1 and subsequently ,colonel ,r4 ,c4 ,hellard1 ,r4,e41 director of the ,ordnance ,survey1 was kind enough to send me the true azimuths of the ,pipers4 ,in ,october1 #aije1 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho and ,captain ,henderson1 whose help at the ,hurlers ,i have already had an opportunity of acknowledging1 made a much more complete survey of the adjacent standing stones and barrows4 ,in this survey they not only made use of the #be-;inch map1 but of the old plan given by ,w4 ,c4 ,borlase dating from about #ahgj4 ,although the outstanding stones shown by ,borlase remain1 some of the barrows indicated by him have disappeared4 ,in ,january1 #aijf1 my wife and ,i paid other visits to the monuments1 and ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho was again good enough to accompany us4 ,thanks to him permission had been obtained to break an opening in the high wall-boundary which prevented any view along the 8,pipers0 sight-line4 ,i may here add that unfortunately in ,cornwall the field boundaries often consist of high stone walls topped by furze1 so that the outstanding stones once visible from the circles can now no longer be seen from them2 another trouble is that from this cause the angular height of the sky-line along the alignment cannot be measured in many cases4 ,i will now proceed to refer to the chief sight-lines seriatim4 ,the first is that connecting the circle which still exists with the site of the ancient one4 ,on this line exactly ,i found four points1 a barrow 7,l7 which ,borlase had missed 7further from the circle than his barrow ,a71 the site1 the present circle1 and the fougou2 azimuth from centre of circle ,n4 #fd ,e4 and ,s4 #fd ,w4 ,this is the ,may-year line found at ,stonehenge1 ,stenness1 the ,hurlers and ,stanton ,drew4 ,in connection with this there is another sight-line which must not be passed over2 from the circle the bearing of the church of ,st4 ,burian is about ,n4 #fd ,w42 like the fougou it is situated on a hill1 and near it are ancient crosses which ,i suspect were menhirs first and crosses afterwards4#aae ,however this may be1 we see in this azimuth of #fd three times repeated that the ,may and ,august sunrises and sunsets and the ,february and ,november sunsets were provided for4 ,with regard to the other sight-lines ,i will begin with that of the ,pipers1 as it is quite obviously connected with the eastern circle only2 the stones could not have been seen from the other on account of rising ground4 ,the barrow shown in this direction by ,borlase has now entirely disappeared1 and the earth has evidently been spread over the surrounding field2 its surface is therefore higher than formerly1 so that when the opening was made in the wall the top of the nearest piper could not be seen from the centre of the circle2 an elevation of about #b feet from the ground level was necessary4 ,walking straight from the circle to the first piper1 the second piper was exactly in a line1 though at a much lower level4 ,this showed that the ,ordnance values were not quite accurate1 which was not to be wondered at as no direct observation had been possible4 ,i therefore adopted the mean of the ,ordnance values as the true azimuth3-- ,piper #a4--,n4 #cg #eh #cf ,e4 ,piper #b4-- #ch #eb #cf ---------- ,mean #ch #be #cf ,the sky-line from the centre of the circle was defined by the site of the vanished barrow1 angular elevation #bj1 and it is highly probable that the function of the barrow when built was to provide a new sight-line when the star-rise place was no longer exactly pointed out by the piper line4 ,with these data the star in question was ,capella1 dec4 #bi #eh ,n41 heralding the ,february sunrise1 #bafj ,b4,c4 ,i next come to the famous menhir ,goon-,rith4 ,the conditions are as follows3--from the circle ,az4 ,s4 #ha #ce ,w4 ,altitude of sky-line #cd4 ,concerning this alignment from the circle1 it may be stated that it cuts across many ancient stones1 including one resembling a rock basin or laver1 and another either a holed stone or the socket of a stone cross4 ,i suspect also the presence in old days of a holy well attached to the circle1 for there is a pool of water in a depression which is shown in the #be-;inch map4 ,i regard it as quite possible that we are here in presence of the remains of a cursus1 an old via sacra1 for processions between the circle and the monolith4 ,i have not been able to find any astronomical use for this stone from the circle or from the site of the old one1 but if we suppose it to have been used like the ,barnstone at ,stenness for observations over the circle its object at once becomes obvious4 ,from the azimuth given1 the declination of the star was #e #bd ,n4 ,now this was the position of the ,pleiades ,b4,c4 #aifj1 when they would have warned the rising of the ,may sun4 ,so that it is possible that the erection of the ,pipers and of ,goon-,rith took place at about the same time1 and represent the first operations4 ,the next alignment has an azimuth of ,s4 #fi ,w4 from the circle2 it would be the same within a degree from the site of the one which has disappeared2 altitude of sky-line #cb2 this line is to a stone cross on rising ground1#aaf doubtless a re-dressing of an old menhir1 and on the line nearer the circle are the remains of a barrow4 ,with these data the star in question was ,antares1 dec4 ,s4 #ac #ah1 heralding the ,may sunrise #acaj ,b4,c4 ,there is another stone cross defining a line az4 ,n4 #aa #de ,e4 from the circle1 altitude of sky-line about the same as along the ,piper azimuth2 an intervening house prevents measurement4 ,these values give us ,n4 dec4 #ch #df1 referring to ,arcturus warning the ,august sunrise in #afdj ,b4,c4 ,the three alignments already referred to1 then1 give us the warning stars for three out of the four quarter-days of the ,may year4 ,there is still another stone cross1 ,az4 ,n4 #hb #e ,w41 hills about #cd4 ,this has no connection with the ,may year1 but may refer to the equinoctial one4 ,w4 ,c4 ,borlase refers to several holed stones4 ,the data for two of these1 supplied by ,capt4 ,henderson1 are as follows3-- ,az4 ,alt4 of sky-line ,stone in hedge ,n4 of road ,s4 #ejcc ,e4 #de ,stone1 half still standing ,s4 #gi #be ,w4 #di ,azimuths near these have been noted before at other circles1 and it must not be forgotten that as the holed stones on my view were used for observation1 these azimuths must be reversed1 since it is probable that the observations were made over the circle4 ,if this were so1 then ,s4,e4 would be changed into ,n4,w41 and we should get ,n4 #ej #cc ,w4 indicating the solstitial sunset4 ,similarly1 ,s4,w4 would become ,n4,e41 and we should have ,n4 #gi #be ,e41 possibly a ,pleiades alignment4 ,i have brought together in the following table all the sight-lines so far referred to4 ,where the altitude of the sky-line has been measured it is marked with a 994 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--be-;inch ,ordnance ,map of ,merry ,maidens1 showing alignments4 ,in the map the probable site of the second circle and the barrows have special marks attached to them4 ,the numbers of the alignments in the table are also shown in the map4 ,,table ,,of ,,alignments4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,align- ,azimuth4 ,hill4 ,decl4 ,sun or ,star4 ,date4 ,mark4 ment4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,b4,c4 #a ,n4 #aa #de ,e4 #bj #ch #df ,n4,arcturus #afej ,stone in 7warning road4 ,august7 #b ,n4 #ch #be ,e4 #bj99bi #eh ,n4,capella #bafj ,the ,pipers 7warning and barrow4 ,february7 #c ,n4 #fd ,e4 #af #ba ,n4,may year -- ,fougou4 #d ,s4 #ch #bb ,n4 #bj #cj #bg ,s4,pipers line -- ,barrrow ,b4 #e ,s4 #fd ,w4 #bj #af #bf ,s4,may year -- ,barrow ,l4 7,february- ,november setting7 #f ,s4 #fi ,w4 #cb99ac #ah ,s4,antares #acaj ,stone cross 7warning on hill and ,may7 ,barrow ,a4 #g ,s4 #ha #ce ,w4 #cb99 #e #bd ,n4,reversed #aifj ,goon-,rith4 line4 ,pleiades elev4 7warning ,may7 #h ,n4 #fd ,w4 #db #af ,n4,may year -- ,st4 ,burian 7,may eve ,church4 setting7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ #aaj ,i may here remark that 8#i maidens0 is very common as a name for a circle in ,cornwall4 ,it is a short title for #ai maidens4 ,lukis implies that ,dawns-,maen once consisted of #bj stones4 ,if all the circles followed suit it would be interesting to note if the present number of #ai is always associated with a gap on the eastern side4 ,the 8pipers0 are1 of course1 the musicians who keep the maidens merry1 as does the 8blind fiddler0 at ,boscowen-un ,circle4 #aaa ,prehistoric ,stone ,monuments1 ,cornwall4 #aab ,the ,land's ,end ,district1 p4 #df4 #aac ,antiquities1 p4 #bgd4 #aad ,nnia1 p4 #bad4 #aae ,in ,a4,d4 #feh a council assembled at ,nantes decreed3--8,as in remote places and in woodlands there stand certain stones which the people often worship1 and at which vows are made1 and to which oblations are presented--we decree that they be all cast down and concealed in such a place that their worshippers may not be able to find them40 8,now the carrying out of their order was left to the country parsons1 and partly because they had themselves been brought up to respect these stones1 and partly because the execution of the decree would have brought down a storm upon their heads1 they contented themselves with putting a cross on top of the stones40--,book of ,brittany1 by ,baring-,gould1 p4 #bj4 #aaf ,with regard to this ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho has sent me the following note3--8,the rising ground here is called locally #8,lanine ,hill' 7spelt ,lanyon and pronounced ,lanine72 this is worth noticing1 as it is the same name as the dolmen six or seven miles away from ,boleit1 and in the same district as the ,men an ,tl and ,boskednan ,circle1 to say nothing of ,lannion in ,brittany4 ,lan signifies something sacred1 the place of the saint1 or belonging to the saint40 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,the ,,tregaseal ,,circles 7,,lat4 #ej #h #be ,n41 ,,long4 #e #ci #be ,w47 ,there are two circles situated on ,truthwall ,common near to ,tregaseal and not far from ,st4 ,just2 the one is nearly to the east of the other1 and there are outstanding stones1 including four holed stones1 and several barrows4 ,the eastern temple has a diameter of #fi feet1 and includes1 at the present time1 nine erect and four prostrate stones2 the original structure seems to have contained twenty-eight stones according to ,lukis4 ,my wife and ,i visited the region in ,january1 #aijf1 but previously to our going ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho1 accompanied by ,mr4 ,thomas1 whose knowledge of the local antiquities is very great1 had explored the region and taught us what to observe4 ,the chief interest appears to lie on the ,n4,e4 quadrant1 where1 in addition to a famous longstone on a hill about a mile away1 the nest of holed stones and several of the barrows are located4 ,carn ,kenidjack1 a famous landmark1 lies to the north4 ,of the two circles1 ,i confined my attention almost exclusively to the eastern one1 as the other is in a fragmentary condition1 though it is still traceable4 ,it is hidden almost entirely from the eastern circle by a modern hedge4 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho1 who accompanied us in ,january1 has again visited the spot1 with ,mr4 ,thomas1 for the purpose of further exploration1 and determining the angular height of the sky-line along the different alignments1 which ,i have plotted from the #f-;inch and #be-;inch maps4 ,my readers will therefore see that my part of the work has been a small one1 and that they are chiefly indebted to those ,i have named4 ,no theodolite survey has as yet been made for determining the azimuths and the height of the hills4 ,the following approximate azimuths have been determined by myself from a #be-;inch map1 and the elevations by ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho by means of a miner's dial4 ,alignments4 ,azimuth4 ,elevation4 #a4 ,apex of ,carn ,n4 #ab #h;,e4 #d #j #b4 ,barrow #hjj distant ,n4 #bj #h ,e4 #c #ej #c4 ,two barrows #ijj distant ,n4 #ej #h ,e4 #a #ej #d4 ,holed stones ,n4 #ec #bj ,e4 #a #ae #e4 ,longstone ,n4 #ff #ch ,e4 #b #aj #f4 ,stone ,n4 #gf #ac ,e4 ,the carn referred to in the above table is ,carn ,kenidjack1 called 8the hooting cairn40 ,the rocks on the summit1 in which there is a remarkable depression1 are still by local superstition supposed to emit evil sounds by night4 ,illustration3 ,photo4 by ,lady ,lockyer4 ,,fig4 #ed4--,the ,eastern ,circle at ,tregaseal4 ,of the sight-lines studied so far1 those to and from the ,longstone and the holed stones seem the most important4 ,the ,longstone1#aag #a miles to the ,n4,e41 is a monolith #aj feet high on the western side of a hill2 it is visible from the circle though furze has grown round and partly hidden it4 ,the meanings of the various alignments seem to be as follows3-- ,decl4 ,n4 ,star4 ,date4 #a4 ,apex of ,carn #db #cc #j ,arcturus #bccj ,b4,c4 #b4 ,barrow #hjj distant #dj #bi #j #aigj #c4 ,two barrows #ijj distant #be #bj #ba 8 ,solstitial #d4 ,holed stones #bc #b #bj 8 #e4 ,longstone #af #b #j ,may sun #f4 ,stone #i #ae #j ,pleiades #abgj ,b4,c4 ,regarding the possible solstitial alignments1 the declinations obtained may be neglected until the azimuths and angular heights of the hills have been determined with a good theodolite4 ,a change of -#aj in the angular elevation1 and hence about that in the resulting declination1 would bring the date given by the barrows to about #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,the position of the ,longstone is well worthy of attention4 ,several very fine monuments which mark the surrounding horizon are visible from it in azimuths with which other monuments have made us familiar4 ,they are as follows3-- ,alignment4 ,az4 ,hills4 ,longstone to ,mn-an-tol ,n4 #ej #cj ,e4 #j #cd ,nine ,maidens 7,boskednan7 ,n4 #ed #j ,e4 #a #j ,w4 ,lanyon ,quoit ,n4 #fg #j ,e4 #j #j ,lanyon ,quoit ,n4 #gb #de ,e4 #j #j ,these values1 of which the angular heights of the hills were determined approximately from the contours on the #a-;inch ,ordnance map1 lead us to the following declinations3-- ,alignment4 ,decl4 ,star4 ,date4 ,longstone to ,mn-an-tol #bd #g ,n4 ,solstitial sun4 ,nine ,maidens #bb #cg ,n4 7,boskednan7 ,w4 ,lanyon ,quoit #ad #c ,n4 ,may sun4 ,lanyon ,quoit #aj #cj ,n4 ,pleiades #ajcj ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,photograph of ,ordnance ,map1 showing sight-lines4 ,the ,may-sun alignment1 it may be noted1 differs from that from the circle4 ,the heights of hills when determined may give us the same solar declination2 that now used gives the declination for ,april #bh and ,august #ae in our present calendar4 ,regarding the alignment on ,lanyon ,quoit1 it need only be pointed out that the ,pleiades date obtained is some #bjj years after the date obtained for the analagous alignment from the circle1 showing that if these two monuments--the ,tregaseal circle and the ,longstone--have any relationship1 the removal to the high plain1 now known as ,woon ,gumpus and ,boswen ,commons1 was an afterthought improvement4 ,i next come to the holed stones1 not only the nest of them not far from the circle1 but the famous ,mn-an-tol itself4 ,i had heard before going to ,tregaseal that the four holed stones shown on the ,ordnance map had been knocked down and set up again 7not necessarily in their old places7 two or three times4 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho and ,mr4 ,thomas1 however1 in their examination were convinced that the largest of them has never been moved4 ,they also express the belief that the others are not more than a foot or so from their original positions1 and that this change is only due to their re-erection by ,mr4 ,cornish after they had fallen down4 ,so far ,i have heard nothing of the direction of the hole in the stone which retains its original position4 ,another interesting matter is that the explorers in question were able to trace an ancient stone alignment from the circle to the holed stones4 ,i have long held that these holed stones were arrangements for determining an alignment4 ,the famous ,odin stone at ,stenness1 long since disappeared1 was1 if we may trust the very definite statements made about its position1 used to observe the ,barnstone in one direction and the chief circle in the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,plan of the ,mn-an-tol from ,lukis1 showing that it was an apparatus for observing the sunrise in ,may and ,august in one direction and the sunset in ,february and ,november in the other4 ,sun's declination1 #af ,n4 or ,s4 ,the azimuths suggest that theodolite measures may show that the ,tregaseal stones might have been used in the same way2 they1 the ,longstone and ,lanyon ,quoit1 are in nearly the same straight line1 the alignment1 holed stones to ,longstone and ,lanyon ,quoit1 being ,n4 #fg ,e41 so that the ,may sunrise may have been noted in this way4 ,illustration3 ,photo4 by ,lady ,lockyer4 ,,fig4 #eg4--,the ,mn-an-tol4 ,several other monuments1 e4g41 ,chn ,castle and ,cromlech1 are to be found in the immediate neighbourhood of the ,tregaseal circle and the ,longstone1 but these will have to await further investigation as to their character and antiquity before any conclusions concerning their astronomical use can be deduced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,the ,mn-an-tol4 ,front view and section1 from ,lukis4 ,front view3 ,d4 ,,looking ,s4,w41 ,,scale #a ,,inch ,,to #a ,,foot4 ,section3 ,,section ,,of ,d4 ,not only do we find in this neighbourhood the nest of holed stones to which ,i have referred1 but the ,mn-an-tol1 the most famous of them all1 in ,england at all events4 ,this1 then1 is the place to say a few words about them4 ,i have before stated my opinion that these stones1 instead of being used as slaughter stones or posts at which to tie up the victim before sacrifice1 or in any other similar employment1 were really sighting stones to enable an alignment to be easily picked up4 ,as such these were1 of course1 treated as sacred1 and hence the folk-lore connected with them4 ,this folk-lore seems to be most complete in the case of the famous stone of ,odin at ,stenness1 so ,i condense ,mr4 ,spence's account of it4 ,children brought to the stone at ,beltaine and ,midsummer1 after being carried sunwise round the holy well were passed through the hole as a protection against the powers of the evil one4 ,marriage ceremony consisted of joining hands through the hole1 a vow held as sacred as the legal marriage of to-day4 ,pains in the head cured by inserting the head in the cavity1 cure of palsy in children4 ,children and adults travelled many miles to secure relief in this way4 ,at the ,mn-an-tol the curative effects could only be obtained by crawling through the aperture1 which is of considerable size4 ,as a rule1 however1 the aperture is much more restricted4 ,the general size of the holed stone and the position of the aperture in it may be well gathered from the fact that almost all of them have been used for gateposts1 and are now to be seen fulfilling that function4 ,in some cases the old special use can be inferred1 but in others this is more difficult1 as the stones have been shifted or slewed round1 or the ancient monument to which the sighting stone was directed has disappeared4 ,the astronomical origin of the ,mn-an-tol1 which obviously has never been disturbed1 is quite obvious4 ,fig4 #ef 7from ,lukis7 shews that it was arranged along the ,may year alignment1 the advent of ,may and ,august1 ,february and ,november being indicated by the shadows cast by the stones through the aperture on to the opposite ones4 ,to the south-west the alignment for the ,february and ,november sunsets passes exactly over ,chn ,castle4 ,the 8,tolmen0 near ,gweek1 ,constantine1 another famous holed stone #g feet #i inches high and with an aperture of #ag inches1 is according to a magnetic bearing ,i took last ,easter parallel to the ,mn-an-tol1 and doubtless was used for the same purpose4 #aag ,in ,cornwall this is the name generally given to a monolith4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,some ,,other ,,cornish ,,monuments ,boscawen-un1 ,n4 ,lat4 #ej #e #bj ,my wife and ,i visited ,boscawen-un on a pouring day1 when it was impossible to make any observations4 ,mr4 ,horton ,bolitho1 who was with us1 introduced us to the tenant of ,boscawen-noon--,mr4 ,hannibal ,rowe--who very kindly1 in spite of the bad weather1 took us to the circle and the stone cross to the ,n4,e4 of it4 ,lukis thus described this monument3#aah-- 8,the enclosed ground on which this circle stands is uncultivated and heathy1 and slopes gently to the south4 ,twenty years ago a hedge ran across it and bisected the circle4 8,this monument is composed of nineteen standing stones1 and is of an oval form1 the longer diameter being #hj feet and the shorter #ga feet #f inches4 ,one of the stones is a block of quartz #d feet high1 and the rest1 which are of granite1 vary from #b feet #i inches to #d feet #g inches in height4 ,on the west side there is a gap1 whence it is probable that a stone has been removed4 ,within the area1 #i feet to the south-west from the centre1 is a tall monolith1 #h feet out of the ground1 which inclines to the north-east1 and is #c feet #c inches out of the perpendicular4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,photograph of the ,ordnance ,map4 8,in #aeid ,camden describes this monument as consisting of nineteen stones1 #ab feet from each other1 with one much larger than the rest in the centre4 ,it must have been much in the same condition then as now4 ,as he does not say that the monolith enclosed within it was inclined1 it is possible that it was upright at that time4 8,dr4 ,stukeley's supposition was that it originally stood upright1 and that #8somebody digging by it to find treasure disturbed it4' 8,on the north-east side there are two fallen stones which ,dr4 ,borlase1 in #agdi1 imagined to have formed part of a ,cromlech4 ,it is more probable that they are the fragments of a second pillar which was placed to the north-east of the centre1 and as far from it as the existing one is4 ,there are instances1 ,i believe1 of two pillars occupying similar positions within a circle4 ,one of the stones1 that marked ,c in my plan1 on the eastern side of the ring1 was prostrate in the ,doctor's time4 8,at a short distance to the south-east and south-west there are cairns1 which have been explored40 ,for this monument ,i have used the #f-;inch map1 as the circle lies nearly at the centre1 and all the outstanding stones are within its limits4 ,the heights of the sky-line were measured by ,mr4 ,h4 ,bolitho at a subsequent visit with a miner's dial2 the resulting declinations have been calculated by ,mr4 ,rolston4 ,a theodolite survey will doubtless revise some of them3-- ,marks4 ,az4 ,hills4 ,dec4 ,star4 ,date4 #a4 ,f4 ,stone cross ,n4 #dc #ae ,e4 #b #g #bi #bf ,capella #bbej #b4 ,p4 ,fine menhir ,n4 #ec #cj ,e4 #a #ae #bb #eh ,solstitial -- sun #c4 ,b4 ,blind ,n4 #ed #cj ,e4 #a #ae #bb #bd ,solstitial -- ,fiddler sun #d4 ,two large ,n4 #ff #ej ,e4 #a #j #ad #ee ,may sun -- menhirs #e4 ,stone cross ,n4 #gh #j ,e4 #a #j787 #h #h ,pleiades #adhj 7,may7 #f4 ,stone ,s4 #ff #cj ,e4 #a #j787 -#ad #cb ,november -- sun #g4 ,stone ,n4 #hc #cj ,w4 #a #j787 #d #cf ,pleiades #babj 7,september7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,showing azimuths in ,lat4 ,n4 #ej for the summer solstice sunrise1 with different heights of hills for #aije ,a4,d4 and #afhj ,b4,c4 ,vertical axis from bottom3 ,,sea ,,level1 1 #a1 #a1 #b4 ,horizontal axis1 top1 from left3 #aije ,a4,d41 #di #bj-ed #bj4 ,horizontal axis1 bottom1 from left3 #afhj ,b4,c4 7,,date ,,of ,,stonehenge71 #dh #dj-ec #dj4 ,i gather from a report which ,mr4 ,h4 ,bolitho has been good enough to send me that modern hedges and farming operations have changed the conditions of the sight-lines1 so that #a and #c are just invisible from the circle4 ,this is by no means the only case in which the sighting stone has just been hidden over the brow of a hill and in which signals from an observer on the brow itself have been suggested1 or a via sacra to the brow from the circle2 there are many monoliths in this direction which certainly never belonged to the circle4 ,from the menhir ,p 7,no4 #b7 a fine view is obtained from ,n4 to ,s4 through ,e41 so that the ,blind ,fiddler and the two large menhirs1 and almost the circle1 are visible4 ,the curious shapes of #a and #b are noted1 the east face vertical and the west boundary curved1 like several sighting stones on ,dartmoor4 ,the circle itself has several peculiarities4 ,in the first place1 as shown by ,lukis1 it is not circular1 the diameters being about #he and #fe feet2 the minor axis runs through the pillar stone in the centre and the 8fallen stones0 of ,dr4 ,borlase towards the 8stone cross0 7which is no cross but a fine menhir7 in ,az4 ,n4 #dc #ae ,e4 ,this would suggest that this was the original alignment in #bbej ,b4,c41 but against this is the fact that the two stones of the circle between which the 8fallen stones0 lie are more carefully squared than the rest4 ,it is true1 however1 that this might have been done afterwards1 and this seems probable1 for they are closer together than the other circle stones4 ,the one quartz stone occupies an azimuth ,s4 #ff ,w4 ,it was obviously placed in a post of honour4 ,as a matter of fact1 from it the ,may sun was seen to rise over the centre of the circle4 ,as there are both at ,tregaseal and ,boscawen-un alignments suggesting the observation of the summer solstice sunrise1 it is desirable here to refer to the azimuths as calculated4 ,for this purpose ,fig4 #fj has been prepared1 which shows these for lat4 #ej both at the present day and at the date of the restoration at ,stonehenge4 ,my readers should compare this with ,fig4 #cf1 which gives the solstice sunrise conditions of ,stenness in ,lat4 ,n4 #ei4 ,such a comparison will show how useless it is to pursue these inquiries without taking the latitude and the height of the sky-line into account4 8,stripple ,stones0 7lat4 #ej #cb #ej ,n41 long4 #d #cg ,w47 ,this is a very remarkable circle consisting of #e erect and #aa prostrate stones situated on a circular level platform #age feet in diameter on the boggy south slope of ,hawk's ,tor on the ,hawkstor ,downs in the parish of ,blisland4 ,the circle itself is about #adh feet in diameter1 and the whole monument is1 in ,lukis's opinion1 the most interesting and remarkable in the country4 ,surrounding the platform is a ditch #aa feet wide1 and beyond that a penannular vallum about #aj feet in width4 ,the peculiarity of the vallum is that it has three bastions situate on the north-east1 north-west1 and east sides4 ,it is to the north-east bastion that ,i wish to refer4 ,sighting from the huge monolith1 which is now prostrate but originally marked the centre of the circle1 along a line bisecting the arc of this bastion we find that the azimuth of the sight-line is ,n4 #be ,e42 the angular elevation of the horizon from the #a-;inch ,ordnance map appears to be about #j #bb4 ,from these values1 proceeding as in the former cases1 we find ,alignment4 ,decl4 ,star4 ,date4 ,centre of circle to centre of bastion #ce #a ,n4 ,capella #abej ,b4,c4 indicating that this alignment was formed for the same purpose as that which dominated the erection of the 8,pipers40 8,nine ,maidens0 7lat4 #ej #bh #bj ,n41 long4 #d #ed #ce ,w47 ,in this monument we find a very different type from those considered previously4 ,the ,nine ,maidens are simply #i stones in a straight line #bfb feet in length at the present day2 possibly1 as suggested by ,lukis1 it may have extended originally to the monolith known as 8,the ,fiddler10 situated some #hjj yards away in a north-easterly direction4 ,measuring the azimuth of the alignment on ,lukis's plan1 and finding the horizon elevations from the #a-;inch ,ordnance map1 we have the following3-- ,az4 ,hills4 ,decl4 ,star4 ,date4 ,n4 #bh ,e4 #j #j #cg #dg ,n4 ,capella #adhj ,b4,c4 ,it may be remarked that here we have a date for the use of ,capella intermediate between those obtained for the 8,pipers0 and the 8,strippie ,stones0 respectively4 #aah ,prehistoric ,stone ,monuments of the ,british ,isles3 ,cornwall4 ,w4 ,c4 ,lukis4 ,p4 #a4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,the ,,clock-,,stars ,,in ,,egypt ,,and ,,britain4 ,i have now finished my astronomical reconnaissance of the ,british monuments4 ,i trust ,i have shown how important it is that my holiday task should be followed by a serious inquiry by other workers so that the approximate values with which ,i have had to content myself for want of time may be replaced by others to which the highest weight can be attached4 ,this means at each circle reversed observations with a six-inch theodolite and determination of azimuths by means of observations of the sun if necessary4 ,i propose in the present chapter to bring together the general results already obtained in cases where the inquiry has been complete enough to warrant definite conclusions to be drawn4 ,the first result to be gathered from the observations1 and one to which ,i attach the highest importance1 is that the practice1 so long employed in ,egypt1 of determining time at night by the revolution of a star round the pole1 was almost universally followed in the ,british circles4 ,this practice was to watch a first-magnitude star1 which ,i named a 8clock-star10#aai of such a declination that it just dipped below the northern horizon so that it was visible for almost the whole of its path4 ,doubtless this same method of determining the flow of time during the night watches was also employed in ,babylonia1#abj but there1 alas6 the temples1 or1 in other words1 the astronomical observatories1 have disappeared1 so that only the ,egyptian practice remains for us to study4 ,egypt4 ,let us1 before we proceed1 consider some results which have been gathered from the study of the ,egyptian observations4 ,one of the earliest temples in ,egypt concerning which we have historical references to check the orientation results was built to carry on these night observations at ,denderah1 lat4 ,n4 #bf #aj4 ,the star observed was ,ursae ,majoris1 decl4 ,n4 #eh #eb1 passing #e below the northern horizon2 date 7assuming horizon #a high7 about #diej ,b4,c41 i4e41 in the times of the ,shemsu ,heru1 before ,mena1 as is distinctly stated in the inscriptions4 ,after ,ursae ,majoris had become circumpolar in the latitude of ,denderah1 ,draconis1 which had ceased to be circumpolar1 and so fulfilled the conditions to which ,i have referred1 replaced it4 ,its declination was #eh #eb ,n4 about #cajj ,b4,c41 and it1 therefore1 could have been watched rising in the axis prolonged of the old temple in the time of ,pepi1 who restored it then1 no doubt on account of the advent of the new star1 and is stated to have deposited a copy of the old plan in a cavity in the new walls4 ,here1 then1 we have two dates given by orientation of a clock-star temple entirely agreeing with the most recent views of ,egyptian chronology4 ,in ,dr4 ,budge's ,history of ,egypt 7iii4 #ad7 the story of the rebuilding of the temple at ,annu by ,usertsen 7#bdcc ,b4,c41 ,brugsch7 is given from an ancient roll4 ,supposing this temple built parallel with the faces of the remaining obelisk1 ,draconis would rise in its axis prolonged #bejj ,b4,c41 proving that ,usertsen did at ,annu what ,pepi previously did at ,denderah1 and that the same reason for restoration and even the same star were in question4#aba ,when the clock-star ceased to be visible in the chief temple other subsidiary temples were subsequently built to watch it4 ,thus ,draconis was watched at ,thebes from #cejj ,b4,c4 to the times of the ,ptolemys by temples oriented successively from that of ,mut ,az4 ,n4 #gb #cj ,e4 to #fh #cj1 #fc #cj1 and #fb4abb ,it is worth while to show that what we know now of the ,egyptian methods of observation enables us to carry the matter further1 while we gather at the same time that in consequence of the difference of latitude the method employed in ,egypt could not be followed in ,britain4 ,i showed in the ,dawn of ,astronomy that several ancient shrines consisted of two temples at right angles to each other 7see ,fig4 #ac71 one axis pointing high ,n4,e4 to observe the clock-star--the worship of ,set--the other low ,n4,w4 to observe either the sun by itself1 or in association with some important star of the same declination as the sun4 ,the temples of ,mut and ,menu 7or ,min71 and of ,amen1 with the associated temple ,m4 of ,lepsius1 at ,karnak1 are the best extant examples of this principle of temple building4 ,there is evidence that both at ,annu and ,memphis the same principle was followed1 but at ,annu one obelisk alone remains1 and at ,memphis one temple2 from these1 however1 ,captain ,lyons and myself have obtained sufficient data to enable the original directions of the temple-systems to be gathered4 ,at ,denderah1 if such a ,n4,w4 temple ever existed it has disappeared1 but as the monument stands there are still two temples at right angles to each other1 but the second one faces ,s4,e4 instead of ,n4,w4 ,this premised1 ,i will now give1 in anticipation of another one dealing with the ,british monuments1 a list of the most ancient star temples in ,egypt1 with their azimuths and the first-magnitude clock-stars which could have been observed in them at different dates4 ,these dates have been approximately determined by the use of a precessional globe1 an horizon of #a elevation being assumed4 ,as ,i have shown1 the present views of ,egyptian chronology and the inscriptions carry us back to ,ursae ,majoris1 at ,denderah4 ,but there is a suggestion at ,luxor1 and perhaps also at ,abydos1 that ,vega was used before that star1 though there are1 so far as ,i know1 no temple traces of ,arcturus4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,temple4 ,n4 ,lat4 ,az4 ,n4 ,vega4 ,arc- ,ursae ,n4,e4 ,decl4 turus4,majoris4,draconis4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,annu #cj #ajad #jeg #be #fbej #eeej 99#ebjj 99#bejj ,memphis #bi #ej #ab #de #eh #bj #fdej #fjjj #ejjj #bhej ,denderah #bf #aj #ah #cj #eh #eb #feej #fbjj 99#diej 99#cajj ,thebes 7,mut7 #be #dj #ag #cj #ei #df #fgjj #fgjj #dhjj 99#cejj ,tell-el-,amarna#bg #dj #ac #j #fj #ab #fhjj #fhjj #dgej #cgjj ,nagada #bf #aj #ab #j #fa #af #gjjj #gdjj #dfjj #djjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,there is a very great difference between determining the date of a temple erected to the rising or setting of a particular star1 and of one erected to the rising or setting of the sun on a particular day of the year4 ,in the latter case no date can be given unless we have reason to believe that both the sun and a star rose or set at the same point of the horizon at the same date2 in other words1 the sun and star had the same declination1 and the rising or setting of both could be seen in the same temple4 ,i assumed1 without historical data1 that this view was acted on in ,egypt1 at the temple of ,menu2 ,mr4 ,penrose found1 with historical data1 that it was actually acted on in ,greece at the ,parthenon4 ,to show that we are at all justified in this view we must study the association of gods with temple worship1 and look for temples in different azimuths erected at different times if the god is a star2 and we can run the star home if the dates fall in with the star's precessional change4 ,thus there is reason for supposing that the god ,ptah and the star ,capella were associated4 ,there is a temple of ,ptah at ,memphis1 ,az4 ,n4 #gg #ae ,w41 hills #ej1 decl4 ,n4 #aa1 star ,capella1 date #ebjj4 ,in the rectangular system at ,memphis1 then1 ,ursae ,majoris was watched in one temple and ,capella in the other at that date4 ,there is also evidence that the god ,menu was associated with the star ,spica4 ,in the temple system of ,mut at ,thebes1 in #cbjj ,b4,c41 ,draconis was used as a clock-star in one temple1 while the setting of ,spica was watched in the other4 ,if a temple is erected to the sun with no specially named cult1 it may be a sun-temple pure and simple1 not connected with star worship because there was no star with the proper declination at the time4 ,in ,greece temple-building was carried on at a much later time1 so late that perhaps water clocks were available1 so that we should not expect to find many clock-star temples in that country4 ,as a matter of fact there is only one1 of which the data1 according to ,mr4 ,penrose1 are as follows3-- ,n4 ,decl4 ,star4 ,date4 ,thebes1 ,the ,city of the ,dragon #ed #bh ,draconis #aafj ,it will be seen that the star used in ,greece was the last clock-star traced in the ,egyptian temples4 ,britain4 ,i now come to ,britain4 ,so far as my inquiries have gone1 these clock-star observations were introduced into these islands about #bcjj ,b4,c4 ,in my statement concerning them ,i will deal with the astronomical conditions for lat4 #ej ,n41 as it is in ,cornwall that the evidence is most plentiful and conclusive4 ,in that latitude and at that time ,arcturus1 decl4 ,n4 #da1 was just circumpolar with a sea horizon1 and therefore neither rose nor set4 ,capella1 decl4 ,n4 #ca1 when northing was #i below the horizon1 so that it rose and set in azimuths ,n4 #cg ,e4 and ,n4 #cg ,w4 respectively2 it was therefore invisible for a long time and was an awkward clock-star in consequence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,arcturus and ,capella as clock-stars in ,britain4 ,,ab sea horizon4 ,a,b horizon #c high4 ,fig4 #fa represents diagrammatically the conditions named1 the circumpolar paths of ,arcturus and ,capella being shown by the smaller and larger circle respectively4 ,a ,b represents the actual sea horizon and ,a ,b a locally raised horizon #c high1 whilst the dotted portion of the larger circle represents the non-visible part of ,capella's apparent path4 ,what the ,british astronomer-priests did1 therefore1 in the majority of cases was to set up their temples in a locality where the ,n4,e4 horizon was high1 so that ,arcturus rose and set over it and was invisible for only a short time1 as shown in the diagram by the raised horizon ,a ,b4 ,the two lists following contain the names of the monuments where ,i suggest ,arcturus was used as a clock-star4 ,in the first1 the angular elevation of the sky-line as seen from the circle in each case has been actually measured1 and the date of the alignment is1 therefore1 fairly trustworthy2 but in the second list the elevations have been estimated from the differences of contour shown on the one-inch ,ordnance map1 and the dates must be accepted as open to future revision4 ,,arcturus ,,as ,a ,,clock-,,star4 ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,position4 ,monument4 ------------------ ,alignment4 ,lat4 ,n4 ,long4 ,w4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,tregaseal #ej #h #j #ecibj;,circ4 to ,carn ,kenidjack ,the ,hurlers #ej #ca #j #d #bg #bj ,s4 circ4 over cent4 circ4 ,cent4 circ4 over ,n4 circ4 ,n4 circ4 over ,n4,e4 barrow ,merrivale #ej #cc #ae #d #b #cj ,circ4 to remains of cromlech ,direction of smaller avenue ,fernworthy #ej #ch #cj #c #ed #aj ,direction of ,avenue ,stanton ,drew #ea #bb #j #b #cd #bj ,cent4 of ,gt4 ,circ4 to ,quoit ,fernworthy #ej #ch #cj #c #ed #aj ,direction of ,avenue ,merry ,maidens#ej #c #dj #e #ce #be ,circ4 to stone in the road ,stanton ,drew #ea #bb #j #b #cd #bj ,s4,w4 circ4 to centre of ,gt4 ,circ4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- -- ,monument4 ,az4 ,hills4 ,decl4 ,date ,n4 ,b4,c4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,tregaseal ,n4 #ab #h ,e4 #d #jdb #ccbccj ,the ,hurlers ,n4 #aa #ae ,e4 #c #bd #da #ch #bagj ,n4 #ad #ah ,e4 #c #bd #da #i #bjij ,n4 #ah #dd ,e4 #c #bd #dj #f #aijj ,merrivale ,n4 #ae #j ,e4 #c #a #dj #cf #aiij ,n4 #bd #be ,e4 #e #j #ci #ee #ahfj ,fernworthy ,n4 #ac #j ,e4 #a #ae #ci #g #agbj ,n4 #ad #bj ,e4 #a #ae #ch #ea #afgj ,stanton ,drew ,n4 #ag #ei ,e4 #b #cc #ch #ch #afbj ,fernworthy ,n4 #ae #de ,e4 #a #ae #ch #cd #afaj ,merry ,maidens,n4 #aa #de ,e4 #j #ab #ch #bg #aeij ,stanton ,drew ,n4 #ai #ea ,e4 #a #dd #cg #cj #adbj ---------------------------------------- -- ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,position4 ,monument4 ------------------ ,alignment4 ,lat4 ,n4 ,long4 ,w4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,trowlesworthy#ejbgcj #d #jbj;,direction of primary avenue ,direction of final avenue ,longstone #ej #h #aj #e #ch #bj ,longstone to ,chn ,cromlech 7,tregaseal7 ,lee ,moor #ej #bf #cj #c #ei #dj ,direction of avenue ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------------- -- ,monument4 ,az4 ,hills4 ,decl4 ,date ,n4 ,b4,c4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,trowlesworthy,n4 #g #j ,e4#b #ebda #bdbacj ,n4 #ab #j ,e4#b #eb #da #f #bjhj ,longstone ,n4 #i #j ,e4#a #dc #dj #ci #bjjj 7,tregaseal7 ,lee ,moor ,n4 #bb #j ,e4#b #bh #ch #ag #aejj ---------------------------------------- -- ,in some cases1 for one reason or another1 this arrangement was not carried out1 and ,capella1 in spite of the objection ,i have stated1 was used in the following circles3-- ,,capella ,,as ,a ,,clock-,,star4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,position4 ,monument4 ------------------ ,alignment4 ,lat4 ,n4 ,long4 ,w4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,i4 ,boscawen-un #ej #ebj #ecg #j;,circ4 to ,stone ,cross ,merry ,maidens#ej #c #dj #e #ce #be ,circ4 over the 8,pipers0 ,,ii4 ,the ,nine #ej #bh #bj #d #ed #cj ,direction of ,nine ,maidens row ,maidens ,stripple #ej #cb #ea #d #cg #ce ,centre to ,n4,e4 bastion ,stones ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ---------------------------------------- -- ,monument4 ,az4 ,hills4 ,decl4 ,date ,n4 ,b4,c4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,i4 ,boscawen-un ,n4 #dcae ,e4#b #gbi #cfbbej ,merry ,maidens,n4 #ch #bf ,e4#j #bj #bi #eh #bajj ,,ii4 ,the ,nine ,n4 #bh #j ,e4#j #j #cc #dg #adhj ,maidens ,stripple ,n4 #bf #j ,e4#j #bb #cd #ch #acbj ,stones ---------------------------------------- -- ,at the ,merry ,maidens1 however1 with nearly a sea horizon1 when ,arcturus ceased to be circumpolar and rose in ,azimuth ,n4 #aa #de ,e41 it replaced ,capella1 and was used as a clock-star after #afjj ,b4,c4 ,in this system of night observation we have the germ of the use in later times of an instrument called the 8night-dial10 specimens of which1 dating from the fourteenth century1 can be seen in our museums4 ,the introduction of graduated circles permitted the employment of circumpolar stars1 and the 8guards0 of the ,little ,bear or the 8pointers0 of the ,great ,bear were thus used4 ,there was a disc with a central aperture through which the pole star could be observed2 the disc could be adjusted for every night in the year2 an arm was then moved round so that the direction of the pointers 7or the guards7 with regard to the vertical could be measured2 on a second concentric circle the time of night could be read off4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,a 8night-dial40 #aai ,dawn of ,astronomy1 #ahid1 p4 #cdc4 #abj ,jensen1 ,kosmologie der ,babylonier1 p4 #adg4 #aba ,dawn of ,astronomy1 p4 #bae4 #abb ,ibid41 p4 #bad4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,sun ,,temples ,the ,original ,cult ,i have given detailed evidence showing that the first circle builders in ,britain worshipped the ,may-year sun1 whether they brought it with them or not4 ,this year was used in ,babylon1 ,egypt1 and afterwards in ,greece4 ,in the two former countries ,may was the harvest month1 and thus became the chief month in the year4 ,the dates were apt to vary with the local harvest time4 ,the earliest extant temple aligned to the sun at this festival seems to have been that of ,ptah at ,memphis1 #ebjj ,b4,c4 ,i have already referred to this temple in relation to the clock-star observations carried on in it4 ,this approximate date of the building of the temple is obtained by the evidence afforded 7#a7 by the associated clock-star 7see p4 #bih71 and 7#b7 by the fact that the god ,ptah represented the star ,capella1 since there is a ,ptah temple at ,thebes aligned on ,capella at a later time1 when by the processional movement it had been carried outside the solar limit4 ,there was also a similar temple at ,annu 7,heliopolis1 lat4 ,n4 #cj #aj71 but it has disappeared4 ,the light of the sun fell along the axis when the sun had the declination ,n4 #aa1 the ,gregorian dates being ,april #ah and ,august #bd4 ,another ,may-year temple was that of ,menu at ,thebes1 ,az4 ,n4 #gb #cj ,w4 7lat4 ,n4 #be2 sun's declination ,n4 #ae2 ,gregorian date1 ,may #a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,layard's plan of the ,palace of ,sennacherib discovered in the mound of ,kouyunjik4 ,the temple axis1 ,,xxxvi41 ,,xxxiv41 ,,xxix41 ,,xix4 7,,xxii4 is on a lower level71 faces the rising of the ,may sun4 ,as we have seen 7p4 #bii71 ,spica had this declination in #cbjj ,b4,c41 and the coincidence may have been the reason for the erection1 or1 more probably1 the restoration1 of the temple1#abc especially as ,draconis came into play as a new clock-star at the same date4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,layard's plan of the ,mound at ,nimrood showing its equinoctial orientation4 ,the researches of ,mr4 ,penrose in ,greece have provided us with temples oriented to the ,may-year sun4 ,i shall return to them afterwards1 as they are later in time than the ,british monuments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,the ,temples at ,chichen ,itza4 ,the explorations of ,sir ,h4 ,layard at ,nineveh1 lat4 #cf ,n41 have shown that the temple in ,sennacherib's palace1 which may have been a restoration of a much older temple1 was also oriented to the ,may sun4 ,it is a pity that our present-day archologists do not more strictly follow the fine example set by ,sir ,henry ,layard in his explorations of ,kouyunjik4 ,when he had unearthed ,sennacherib's palace 7#gjj ,b4,c47 he was careful to give the astronomical and magnetic bearings of the buildings and of the temple which seemed to form the core of them4 ,the bearing is ,az4 ,n4 #fh #cj ,e41 giving the sun's declination as ,n4 #af4 ,i am enabled by the kindness of ,mr4 ,john ,murray to give copies of the plans which ,sir ,h4 ,layard prepared of the excavations both at ,kouyunjik and ,nimrood1 showing the careful orientation which enables us to claim ,sennacherib's temple as one consecrated to the ,may year1 while at ,nimrood 7,babylon7 the equinoctial worship was in vogue as at the pyramids4 ,in association with these plans of ,layard's1 ,i give another by ,mr4 ,maudslay of the as carefully oriented temples at ,chichen ,itza 7,n4 lat4 #bj7 explored by him4 ,in these temples1 of unknown date and origin1 the azimuths of two show that the ,may year was worshipped4#abd ,the ,may-,year ,monuments in ,britain4 ,in the first glimpses of the ,may year in ,egypt we have dates from #ejjj ,b4,c4 ,it does not follow that it did not reach ,great ,britain before about #bjjj ,b4,c4 because monuments made their appearance about that time4 ,it is clear1 also1 that with the possibilities of coastwise traffic as we have found it1 it might as easily have reached ,ireland by then2 #bjjj ,b4,c41 therefore1 is a probable date for the ,may worship to have reached ,britain arguing on general principles2 we now come to a detailed summary of the facts showing that it really reached ,britain earlier4 ,alignments in ,british monuments designed to mark the place of the sun's rising or setting on the quarter-days of the ,may year have been found as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,position4 ,may and ,aug4 ,feb4 and ,nov4 ,monument4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,lat4 ,n4 ,long4 ,w4 ,rising4,setting4,rising4,setting4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,merry ,maidens#ej #c #dj #e #ce #be 99 99 99 ,boscawen-un #ej #e #bj #e #cg #j 99 99 ,tregaseal #ej #g #ej #e #ci #bj 99 ,longstone #ej #h #aj #e #ch #bj 99 7,tregaseal7 ,down ,tor #ej #cj #aj #c #ei #cj 99 ,merrivale #ej #cc #ae #d #b #cj 99 ,the ,hurlers #ej #ca #j #d #bg #bj 99 ,stonehenge #ea #aj #dj #a #di #cj 99 99 ,stanton ,drew #ea #bb #j #b #cd #cj 99 8 circle avenue along to avenue circle 99 ,stenness #ei #j #aj #c #ac #dj 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,i have already shown that it was the practice in ancient times for the astronomer-priests not only to watch the clock-stars during the night1 but also other stars which rose or set about an hour before sunrise1 to give warning of its approach on the days of the principal festivals4 ,each clock-star1 if it rose and set very near the north point1 might be depended on to herald the sunrise on one of the critical days of the year1 but for the others other stars would require to be observed4 ,this practice was fully employed in ,britain4 ,may ,warnings4--,the following table gives the stars ,i have so far noted which were used as warners for the ,may festival4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,date or dates ,monument4 ,star4 ,b4,c4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,stonehenge ,pleiades 7,r7 #aiej ,merry ,maidens ,pleiades 7,r7 #aicj ,antares 7,s7 #acaj ,the ,hurlers ,antares 7,s7 #agbj ,pleiades 7,r7 #afaj ,merrivale ,pleiades 7,r7 #afaj #adbj ,boscawen-un ,pleiades 7,r7 #adhj ,tregaseal ,pleiades 7,r7 #abgj ,stenness ,pleiades 7,r7 #abcj ,longstone 7,tregaseal7,pleiades 7,r7 #ajcj ---------------------------------------- ------ 7,r7 rising4 7,s7 setting4 ,it is convenient here to give a list of the ,may warning stars found by ,mr4 ,penrose in ,greece1 as it shows that the same stars were observed for the same purpose4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,decl4 ,day4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,b4,c4 ,archaic temple of ,minerva ,pleiades 7,r7 #g #ej;,april #bjbjbj ,hiero of ,epidaurus1 ,asclepieion 7,r7 #i #ae #bhabge ,hecatompedon 7,r7 #i #eh #bfaaej ,older ,erechtheum ,antares 7,s7-#ad #ca #biajgj ,temple of ,bacchus ,pleiades 7,r7#aj #ce #biajcj ,corinth ,antares 7,s7-#af #j ,may #f #ggj ,aegina 7,s7-#af #de #g #fcj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the warning stars at ,athens were the ,pleiades for temples facing the east1 and ,antares for temples using the western horizon4 ,august warnings4--,sunrise at the ,august festival was heralded by the rising of ,arcturus1 which1 as we have seen1 was also used as a clock-star4 ,the alignments and dates given in the ,arcturus table therefore hold good for ,august4 ,at the ,hurlers1 where the hill over which ,arcturus was observed fell away abruptly1 we find ,sirius supplanting ,arcturus as the warning star for ,august in #afij ,b4,c4 ,november warnings4--,so far ,i have discovered no evidence that any star was employed to herald the ,november sun4 ,there may be two reasons for this4 ,in the first place the ,november festival 8,halloween0 took place at sunset and the sun itself could be watched1 no heralding star being necessary4 ,secondly1 the atmospheric conditions which prevail in ,britain during ,november would not be conducive to the making of stellar observations at the horizon1 and only risings or settings were observed with regard to the quarter-days4 ,february ,warnings4--,in the same way that ,arcturus served the double purpose of clock-star and herald for the ,august sun1 so did ,capella serve to warn the ,february sun in addition to its use at night4 ,the alignments and dates given in the ,capella table will therefore hold good for its employment at the ,february quarter-day4 ,the ,solstitial ,year ,monuments4 ,in ,egypt generally1 the solstitial worship followed that of the ,may and equinoctial years4 ,the religion of ,thothmes ,,iii4 and the ,rameses was in greatest vogue #bbjj-aejj ,b4,c4 ,we find little trace of it in ,greece proper1 though ,mr4 ,penrose has traced it in ,calabria and ,pompeii1 and in some of the islands4 ,the solstitial cult was born in ,egypt2 it is a child of the ,nile-rise4 ,i have shown in my ,dawn of ,astronomy that the long series of temples connected with the solstice may have commenced about #cjjj ,b4,c42 but for long it was a secondary cult2 it was parochial until the twelfth dynasty1 say #bcjj ,b4,c4 ,egypt's solstitial 8golden age0 may be given as #agjj ,b4,c41 and her influence abroad was very great1 so that much travel1 8coastwise0 and other1 may be anticipated4 ,it is for some centuries after the first date that the introduction of the solstitial worship into ,britain may be anticipated4 ,it1 for instance1 is quite probable that the pioneers of this worship should have reached ,stonehenge in #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,the solstitial alignments found by ,mr4 ,penrose in ,greece are as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,temples4 ,decl4 ,day4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,b4,c4 ,,june4 ,athens1 ,dionysus,antares 7setting7-#aa #b;,june #bjagjj 7,upper ,temple7 ,pompeii 7,isis7 -,geminorum -#af #dd #ai #gej ,,december4 ,metapontum -,geminorum #bi #ch;,dec4 #ba #faj 7setting7 ,locri #bi #dj #ba #faj ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,we find plentiful evidence that the worship of the solstitial sun such as was carried on in ,egypt at ,karnak and at other places#abe was introduced into ,britain some time after the ,may-year worship was provided for in the monuments4 ,although some of the alignments already discovered are in all probability solstitial1 the variation of the sun's solstitial declination is so slow and takes place between such narrow limits that a most careful determination of the actual azimuths and of the angular heights of the various horizons must be made before any definite conclusion as to dates can be arrived at4 ,the necessity for this care is illustrated in the paper on ,stonehenge#abf communicated to the ,royal ,society by ,mr4 ,penrose and myself in #ahia1 where1 after taking the greatest precautions1 the resulting date was in doubt to the amount of #bjj years in either direction4 ,so far ,stonehenge is the only temple at which these observations have been made1 so that for the other alignments contained in the following list no dates can yet be given4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,monument4 ,alignment4 ,az4 ,decl4 ,season4 ,date 7provi- ,b4,c4 sional74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,stonehenge ,direction of ,n4#dicdah ,e4#bcedcj ,n4,summer7,r7#afhj avenue ,boscawen- ,circ4 to fine ,n4#ec #cj #j ,e4#bb #eh #ac ,summer7,r7 un menhir ,circ4 to ,blind ,n4#ed #cj #j ,e4#bb #bd #ab ,fiddler ,tregaseal ,circ4 to row of,n4#ec #bj #be ,e4#bb #ec #bf ,summer7,r7 holed stones ,circ4 to two ,n4#ej #j #j ,e4#bd #g #j barrows #ijj distant ,longstone ,mn-an-tol to ,s4#ej #cj #j ,w4#bd #cc #j ,s4,winter7,s7 7,tregaseal7,longstone ,the ,n4 circ4 to ,s4#ej #ej #j ,e4#bd #ag #bj ,s4,winter7,s7 ,hurlers ,s4,e4 stone ,stanton ,gt4 ,circle to ,n4#ea #j #j ,e4#bc #dh #df ,n4,summer7,r7 ,drew ,n4,e4 circle ,stenness ,circle to ,n4#ci #cj #j ,e4#bd #c #ae ,n4,summer7,r7 ,hindera ,fiold ,barnstone to ,n4#da #af #j ,e4 -- ,maeshowe ,circ4 to ,ward ,s4#da #j #j ,e4 -- ,winter7,r7 ,hill tumulus ,circ4 to ,onston,s4#cf #cj #j ,w4 -- 7,s7 tumulus ,circ4 to tumuli,n4#cg #j #j ,w4 -- ,summer7,s7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- 7,r7 rising4 7,s7 setting4 ,i cited an alignment at the ,hurlers which marked the rising point of ,betelgeuse4 ,this star warned the summer solstice sunrise at about the ,hurlers' date4 ,so far1 however1 ,i have not yet found any suggestion of its use elsewhere4 ,at ,shovel ,down and ,challacombe on ,dartmoor there are avenues pointing a few degrees west of north4 ,the sight-lines along these avenues would mark the setting-point of ,arcturus at the time that that star 7setting7 warned the rising of the sun at the summer solstice2 but this use cannot be considered as established1 as ,arcturus would scarcely set before its light was drowned in that of the rising sun4 ,the absence of darkness in high summer in these latitudes and the bad weather in the winter may both be responsible for so few alignments for the solstices4 ,the ,equinoctial ,year ,monuments4 ,the equinoctial pyramid and ,babylonian cult in vogue in ,egypt in the early dynasties 7#djjj ,b4,c471 with the warning stars ,aldebaran 7,march7 and ,vega 7,september71 was represented in ,greece at a much later period4 ,the facts for ,greece1 according to ,mr4 ,penrose1 are as follows3-- ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,decl4 ,day4 ,year4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,b4,c4 ,,march4 ,nike ,apteros ,spica 7setting7#faj,mar4 #agaacj ,juno ,lacinia 7near ,croton7 -,arietis #g #bg #bhajjj ,paestum 7,neptune7 ,spica 7setting7#c #e #bb #ece ,gergenti 7,hercules7 #b #cj #cj #dgj ,,september4 ,rhamnus 7,themis7 ,spica 7rising7 #f #j,sept4 #agajib ,tegea 7,minerva7 #e #ea #ahajge ,syracuse 78 ,minerva7 #d #cj #bj #hae ,athens 7dedication unknown7 #d #ag #bc #ghj ,rhamnus 7,nemesis7 #d #e #bb #gdg ,bass 7,apollo7 #c #eg #bb #gbh ,ephesus 7,diana7 #c #eg #be #gae ,syracuse 7,diana7 #b #bb #bf #dej ,ephesus 7,diana7 -- ,oct4 #f #cee 7re-orientation7 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,in ,britain equinoctial alignments are not wanting1 but so few have been traced that ,i have reserved them for future inquiry4 #abc ,see ,dawn of ,astronomy1 p4 #cah4 #abd ,the temple conditions are approximately as follows3-- ,,palenque4 ,azimuths4 ,decl4 ,n4 #ba #cj ,e4 #fj #ae ,n4 #ah #j ,e4 #fb #cf ,stellar temples4 ,clock-stars4 ,s4 #bg #j ,w4 #ef #ag ,s4 #ff #j ,e4 #bc #j ,solstice,solar temples4 ,s4 #gc #j ,e4 #af #j ,may ,,chichen ,,itza4 ,azimuths4 ,decl4 ,n4 #bf #j ,e4 #ei #j ,stellar temple4 ,clock-star4 ,s4 #gj #j ,e4 #ai #j 787 ,n4 #gj #j ,w4 #ai #j 787 ,n4 #fg #j ,w4 #bb #j ,solstitial,solar temples4 ,n4 #gb #cj #af #j ,may #abe ,dawn of ,astronomy1 p4 #gh4 #abf ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 vol4 #fi4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,astronomer-,,priests ,the facts contained in the preceding chapters have suggested1 at all events1 that whatever else went on some four thousand years ago in the ,british circles there was much astronomical observation and a great deal of preparation for it4 ,in a colony of the astronomer-priests who built and used the ancient temples we had of necessity3-- 7#a7 ,observatories1 i4e41 circles in the first place2 next something to mark the sight-lines to the clock-star for night work1 to the rising or setting of the warning stars1 and to the places of sunrise and sunset at the chief festivals4 ,this something1 we have learned1 might be another circle1 a standing stone1 a dolmen1 a cove1 or a holed stone4 ,a study of the sight-lines shows us that these collimation marks1 as we may call them1 were of set purpose1 generally placed some distance away from the circles1 so far that they would require to be illuminated in some way for the night and dawn observations4 ,when there was no wind1 one or more hollows in a stone1 whether a menhir or a quoit1 might have held grease to feed a wick or a pine-wood torch4 ,but in a wind some shelter would be necessary1 and the light might have been used in a cromlech or alle couverte4 ,stones have been found with such cups1 and dbris of fires have been found in cromlechs4 ,it must not be forgotten that here there was no oil as in the ,semitic countries whence1 as we have seen1 the immigrants came2 and it was not a question of a light on the sight-line alone4 ,if wood were used1 it must have been kept dry for use1 and whether wood or animal fat were employed the most practical and convenient way of lighting up would have been to keep a fire ever burning in some sheltered place4 7#b7 ,dwellings1 which would be cromlechs or many-chambered barrows1 according to the number of astronomer-priests at the station4 ,these dwellings would require to be protected against the invasions of the local fauna1 very different from what it is now1 and for this a small1 and on that account easily blocked1 entrance would be an essential4 ,these dwellings would naturally suggest themselves as the shelter place for the ever-burning fire or the supply of dry wood4 ,tradition points with no uncertain sound to the former existence of life and light in these 8hollow hills40 ,mr4 ,mac,ritchie's book#abg contains a mine of most valuable and interesting information on this subject4 7#c7 ,a water supply for drinking and bathing1 which might be a spring1 river or lake1 according to the locality4 ,given a supply of food we have now provided for the shelter and protection of the astronomer and the man4 ,but the man who brought this new astronomical knowledge was1 before he came1 astrologer and magician as well1 and1 further1 he was a priest2 hence on account of his knowledge of the seasons1 he could not only help the aboriginal tiller of the soil as he had never been helped before1 by his knowledge2 but he could appeal in the strongest way to his superstitious fears and feelings1 by his function as the chief sacrificer and guardian of the sacrificial altars and fires4 ,hence it was that everything relating to the three different classes of things to which ,i have referred was regarded as very holy because they were closely associated with the astronomer-priests1 on whom the early peoples depended for guidance in all things1 not only of economic1 but of religious1 medical and superstitious value4 ,the perforated stones were regarded as sacred1 so that passing through them was supposed to cure disease4 ,whether men and women1 or children only1 passed through the hole depended upon its size4 ,but a hole large enough for a head to be inserted was good for head complaints4 ,the wells1 rivers1 and lakes used by the priests were1 as holy places1 also invested with curative properties1 and offerings of garments 7skins871 and pins to fasten them on1 as well as bread and wine and cheese1 were made at these places to the priests4 ,the fact that the tree on which the garment was hung was either a rowan or a thorn shows that these offerings commenced as early as the ,may-,november worship4 ,the holed stones1 besides being curative1 were in long after years1 when marriage had been instituted1 used for the interchange of marriage vows by clasping hands through the opening4 ,the cups for the light would also be sacred objects2 and many of them have been since used for holy water4 ,the cursus at ,stonehenge and the avenues on ,dartmoor may be regarded as evidences that sacred processions formed part of the ceremonial on the holy days1 but sacrifices and sacred ceremonials were not alone in question2 many authors have told us that feasts1 games and races were not forgotten4 ,this1 so far as racing is concerned1 is proved1 ,i think1 by the facts that the cursus at ,stonehenge is #aj1jjj feet long and #cej feet broad1 that it occupies a valley between two hills1 thus permitting of the presence of thousands of spectators1 and that our horses are still decked in gaudy trappings on ,may ,day4 ,nor is this all4 ,it is hard to understand some of the folklore and tradition unless we recognise that at a time before marriage was instituted1 at some of the sacred festivals the intercourse of the sexes was permitted if not encouraged4 ,this view is strengthened by the researches of ,westermarck#abh and ,rhys4#abi ,given such a practice1 the origin of matriarchal customs and of the couvade is at once explained2 and it is clear that the charges against the ,druids of special cruelty and impurity must be withdrawn4 ,their sacrifices and customs were those common to all priesthoods in the ancient world4 ,i have shown that some circles used in the worship of the ,may year were in operation #bbjj ,b4,c41 and that there was the introduction of a new cult about #afjj ,b4,c41 or shortly afterwards1 in southern ,britain1 so definite that the changes in the chief orientation lines in the stone circles can be traced4 ,to the worship of the sun in ,may1 ,august1 ,november and ,february was added a solstitial worship in ,june and ,december4 ,the associated phenomena are that the ,may-,november ,balder and ,beltaine cult made much of the rowan and may thorn4 ,the ,june-,december cult brought the worship of the mistletoe4 ,the flowering of the rowan and thorntree in ,may1 and their berries in early ,november1 made them the most appropriate and striking floral accompaniments of the ,may and ,november worships1 and the same ideas would point to a similar use of the mistletoe in ,june and ,december4 ,the fact that the ,june-,december cult succeeded and largely replaced the ,may-,november one could hardly have been put in a cryptic and poetic statement more happily than it appears in folklore3 ,balder was killed by mistletoe4 ,this change of cult may be due to the intrusion of a new tribe1 but ,i am inclined to attribute it to a new view taken by the priests themselves due to a greater knowledge1 among it being the determination1 in ,egypt1 of the true length of the year which could be observed by the recurrence of the solstices1 and of the intervals between the festivals reckoned in days4 ,however this may have been1 all the old practices and superstitions were retained1 only the time of year at which they took place was changed4 ,as the change of cult was slow1 in any one locality the celebrations would be continued at both times of the year1 and for long both sets of holidays were retained4 ,since ,i have shewn that the solstitial worship came last1 traces of this1 as a rule1 would be most obvious in places where it eventually prevailed over the cult of the ,may year4 ,in such places the absence of traces of the ,may festival would be no valid argument against its former prevalence4 ,in other places1 like ,scotland1 where the solstitial cult was apparently introduced late and was never prevalent1 we should expect strong traces of the ,may worship1 and1 as a matter of fact1 it is very evident in the folk lore and customs of ,scotland2 even the old ,may year quarter days are still maintained4 ,between the years #bcjj ,b4,c4 and #afjj ,b4,c41 whether we are dealing with the same race of immigrants or not1 we pass from unhewn to worked stones4 ,the method of this working and its results have been admirably shown to us by ,prof4 ,gowland's explorations at ,stonehenge4 ,from the tables1 given in ,chap4 ,,xxviii1 it can be seen that1 so far as the present evidence goes1 there was a pretty definite time--about #bcjj ,b4,c4--of beginning the astronomical work at the chief monuments2 ,cornwall came first1 ,dartmoor was next4 ,almost as marked as the simultaneous beginning are the dates of ending the observations1 if we may judge of the time of ending by the fact that the precessional changes in the star places were no longer marked by the marking out of new sight lines4 ,the clock-star work was the first to go1 about #aejj ,b4,c4 ,the ,may-warning stars followed pretty quickly4 ,we may say1 then1 that we have full evidence of astronomical activity of all kinds at the circles for a period of some #gjj years4 ,what prevented its continuance on the old lines8 ,it may have been that the invention of some other method of telling time by night had rendered the old methods of observation1 and therefore the apparatus to carry them on1 no longer necessary4 ,on the other hand1 it may have been that some new race1 less astronomically inclined1 had swept over the land4 ,i am inclined to take the former view4 ,it is quite certain that for the clock-stars other observations besides those on the horizon would soon have suggested themselves for determining the lapse of time during the night4 ,the old1 high1 bleak1 treeless moorlands might then in process of time have been gradually forsaken1 and life may have gone on in valleys and even in sheltered woods1 except on the chief festivals4 ,when this was so astronomy and superstition would give way to politics and other new human interests1 and the priests would become in a wider sense the leaders and the teachers of the more highly organised community4 ,it is clear that in later days as at the commencement they were still ahead in the knowledge of the time4 8,hi terrae mundique magnitudinem et formam1 motus coeli ac siderum1 ac quod dii velunt sciere profitentur0 is ,pomponius ,mela's statement concerning them4#acj ,from #aejj ,b4,c4 to ,csar's time is a long interval1 and yet the astronomical skill of the so-called ,druids1 who beyond all question were the descendants of our astronomical-priests1 was then a matter of common repute4 ,csar's account of the ,druids in ,gaul 7,bello ,gallico1 vi4 c4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae7 is extremely interesting because it indicates1 ,i think1 that the ,druid culture had not passed through ,gaul and had therefore been waterborne to ,britain1 whither the ,gauls therefore went to study it4#aca ,simultaneously with the non-use of the ancient stones1 we may imagine that the priests--of ever-increasing importance--no longer dwelt in their cromlechs1 but1 rather1 occupied such buildings as those which remain at ,chysoister1 and from this date it is possible that burials may have taken place in some of the mounds then given up as dwelling places4 ,as sacred places they were subsequently used for burials1 as ,westminster ,abbey has been2 but burials were not the object of their erection4#acb ,this new habit may have started the practice of cist burial by later people in barrows thrown up for that special purpose4 ,i cannot close this ,chapter without expressing my admiration of the learning and acumen displayed by ,dr4 ,borlase in his treatment of the subject of the ,druids in his ,history of ,cornwall1 published in #agfi2 ,i find he has anticipated me in suggesting that the hollowed stones were used for fires4 ,it is clear1 now that the monuments have been dated1 that the astronomical knowledge referred to by ,csar and ,pomponius ,mela was no new importation2 if1 therefore1 the present view of ethnologists that the ,celtic intrusion took place about #ajjj ,b4,c4 is correct1 it is certain the ,celts brought no higher intelligence with them than was possessed by those whom they found here2 nor is this to be expected if1 as the inquiry has suggested1 the latter were the representatives of the highest civilisation of the ,east with which possibly the former had never been brought into contact4 #abg ,the ,testimony of ,tradition4 #abh ,history of ,human ,marriage1 ,chapter ,,ii4 #abi ,celtic ,folklore1 ii41 #fed4 #acj ,pomp4 ,mela1 ,lib4 ,,ii4 c4 #b4 ,i have already 7p4 #eb7 quoted ,csar's testimony to the same effect4 #aca 8,disciplina in ,britannia reperta1 atque in ,galliam translata esse existimatur40--,c4 ,bell4 ,gall4 lib4 vi4 c4 #ac4 ,this 8discipline0 also included magic according to ,pliny4 8,britannia hodie eam 7i4e4 ,magiam7 attonite celebrat tantis ceremoniis1 ut eam ,persis dedisse videri possit0 7lib4 xxx4 c4 #a47 #acb ,bertrand and ,reinach1 ,les ,celtes et les ,gaulois dans les ,valles du ,p et du ,danube1 p4 #hb4 ,tregellis1 8,stone ,circles in ,cornwall40 ,trans4 ,penzance ,natural ,history and ,antiquarian ,society1 #ahic-d4 ,,appendices ,i4 ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,theodolite ,,observations ,,at ,,stonehenge ,the instrument chiefly employed was a six-inch transit theodolite by ,cooke with verniers reading to #bj in altitude and azimuth4 ,most of the observations were made at two points very near the axis1 which may be designated by a1 b4 ,station a was at a distance of #fa feet to the south-west of the centre of the temple1 and b #cfd feet to the north-east4 ,the distance from the centre of ,stonehenge to ,salisbury ,spire being #da1iha feet1 the calculated corrections for parallax at the points of observation with reference to ,salisbury ,spire are3-- ,station a #d #ab4 b - #be #bj4 7#a7 ,relative ,azimuths4--,theodolite at station a-- ,salisbury ,spire #j #j #j ,n4 side of opening in ,n4,e4 trilithon of the external ring #bcg #bg #dj ,tree in middle of clump on ,sidbury ,hill #bcg #dj #bj ,highest point of ,friar's ,heel #bci #dg #be ,s4 side of opening in ,n4,e4 trilithon #bdj #ad #dj ,middle #bch #ea #aj 7#b7 ,absolute ,azimuths4--,all the azimuths were referred to that of ,salisbury ,spire1 the azimuth of which was determined by observations of the ,sun and ,polaris4 7a7 ,observation of ,sun1 ,june #bc1 #aija1 #c4cj-c4dj ,p4,m4 ,mean of observed altitudes of ,sun #da #bf #ce ,refraction -#a #d #j #j #eh ,parallax #f ----------- ,true altitude of ,sun's centre #da #be #cg ,latitude #ea #aj #db4 ,sun's declination #bc #bf #dc4 ,using the formula sin 7 c - z7 sin 7 z - c7 cos ,a ---------------------------------------- ---- sin c 4 sin z where ,a azimuth from south1 polar distance1 c co-latitude1 and z zenith distance1 we get ,azimuth of ,sun ,s4 #ge #cj #cj ,w4 ,mean circle reading on ,sun #hd #ch #ce ---------- ,azimuth of ,salisbury ,spire ,s4 #i #h #e ,e4 7b7 ,observations of ,polaris4--,june #bc1 #aija4 ,time of greatest easterly elongation1 calculated by formula cos h tan cot 1 is ,g4,m4,t4 #a4cd ,a4,m4 ,azimuth at greatest easterly elongation1 calculated by the formula sin ,a cos sec is #aha #eg #j from south4 ,observed maximum reading of circle #bef #cc #j ,true azimuth of star #aha #eg #j ---------- ,meridian 7,s47 reading of circle #gd #cf #j ,circle reading on ,salisbury ,spire #fe #bh #j --------- ,azimuth of ,salisbury ,spire ,s4 #i #h #j ,e4 ,the mean of the two determinations gives for the azimuth of ,salisbury ,spire ,s4 #i #h #b ,e4 ,this result agrees well with the value of the azimuth communicated by the ,ordnance ,survey ,office1 namely1 #i #d #h from the centre of the circle1 which being corrected by #d #ab for the position of station a1 is increased to #i #h #bj4 ,hence1 from the point of observation a1 #i #h #bj has been adopted as the azimuth of ,salisbury ,spire4 ,we thus get the following absolute values of the principal azimuths from the point a3 ,highest point of ,friar's ,heel #bci #dg #be -#i #h #bj -------------- #bcj #ci #e or ,n4 #ej #ci #e ,e4 ,middle of opening in ,n4,e4 trilithon #bch #ea #aj -#i #h #bj -------------- #bbi #db #ej or ,n4 #di #db #ej ,e4 ,the difference of #h between this and the assumed axis #di #cd #ah is so slight that considering the indirect method which has necessarily been employed in determining the axis of the temple from the position of the leaning stone1 and the want of verticality1 parallelism and straightness of the inner surfaces of the opening in the ,n4,e4 trilithon1 we are justified in adopting the azimuth of the avenue as that of the temple4 ,next1 with regard to the determination of the azimuth of the avenue as indicated by the line of pegs to which reference is made on p4 #fe4 ,the small angle between the nearest pegs ,a and ,b 7which are supposed to be parallel to the axis of the avenue71 observed from station a1 was measured1 and the corresponding calculated correction was applied to the ascertained true bearing of the more distant peg ,b4 ,thus ,true bearing of peg ,b #bch #ce #j ,calculated correction to peg ,a #j #ab #h ------------ ,true bearing of line ,,ab #bch #dg #h ,bearing of ,salisbury ,spire #ahi #h #bj ------------ ,true bearing of a line parallel to the axis of near part of avenue ,n4 #di #ch #dh ,e4 ,the mean of the three independent determinations by another observer was #di #ci #f4 ,the calculated bearing of the more distant part of the axis of the avenue determined in the same manner by observations from station b is #di #cb #ed4 ,the mean of the two1 namely1 #di #ce #ea1 justifies the adoption of the value #di #cd #ah as given by the ,ordnance ,survey for the straight line from ,stonehenge to ,sidbury ,hill4 7#c7 ,observation of ,sunrise4--,on the morning of ,june #be1 #aija1 sunrise was observed from station a1 and a setting made as nearly as possible on the middle of the visible segment as soon as could be done after the ,sun appeared4 ,the telescope was then set on the highest point of the ,friar's ,heel1 and the latter was found to be #h #dj south of the ,sun4 ,sun's declination at time of observation #bc #be #e ,elevation of horizon at point of sunrise #j #ce #dh ,assuming #b vertical of ,sun to have been visible at observation1 we have apparent altitude of ,sun's upper limb #j #cg #dh ,refraction - #bg #bg -#j #bg #ah ,parallax #j #i ----------- ,true altitude of upper limb #j #aj #cj ,sun's semi-diameter #j #ae #df ----------- ,true altitude of ,sun's centre -#j #e #af ,from this it results that the true azimuth of the ,sun at the time of observation ,n4 #ej #cj #ed ,e4 ,and since azimuth of ,friar's ,heel #ej #ci #e ----------- #b of sunrise should be ,n4 of ,friar's ,heel #j #h #aa ,observed difference of azimuth #j #h #dj ----------- ,observed - calculated #j #j #bi ,the observation thus agrees with calculation1 if we suppose about #b of the ,sun's limb to have been above the horizon when it was made1 and therefore substantially confirms the azimuth above given of the ,friar's ,heel and generally the data adopted4 ,,ii4 ,,hints ,,on ,,making1 ,,and ,,method ,,of ,,reducing1 ,,the ,,field ,,observations4 ,it will probably be found useful if ,i give here a few hints as to the precautions which must be taken in making the field observations and an example of their reduction to an astronomical basis4 ,for the azimuths of the sight-lines the investigator of these monuments cannot do better than use the #be-;inch1 or #f-;inch1 maps published by the ,ordnance ,survey4 ,their accuracy is of a very high order and is not likely to be exceeded1 even if approached1 by any casual observer having to make his own special arrangements for correct time before he can begin his surveying work4 ,in some cases1 however1 it may be found that the ,survey has not included every outstanding stone which may be found by an investigator on making a careful search2 many of the stones are covered by gorse1 c41 and are not1 therefore1 easily found4 ,in such cases the azimuth of some object that is marked on the map should be taken as a reference line and the difference of azimuth between that and the unmarked objects determined4 ,by this means the azimuths of all the sight-lines may be obtained4 ,when using the #be-;inch maps for determining azimuths it must be borne in mind that the side-lines are not1 necessarily1 due north and south4 ,the ,director-,general of the ,ordnance ,survey1 ,southampton1 will probably on application state the correction to be applied to the azimuths on this account1 and this should be applied1 of course1 to each of the values obtained4 ,if for any reason it is found necessary or desirable to make observations of the azimuths independently of the ,ordnance ,survey1 full instructions as to the method of procedure may be found in an inexpensive instruction book#acc issued by the ,board of ,education4 ,the instructions given on p4 #di1 #c1 are most generally applicable1 and the form on p4 #gf will be found very handy for recording and reducing the observations4 ,in making observations of the angular elevation of the horizon a good theodolite is essential4 ,both verniers should be read1 the mean taken1 and then the telescope should be reversed in its ,ys1 reset1 and both readings taken again4 ,one setting and reading are of little use4 ,the ,ordnance ,survey maps may also be employed in a preliminary reconnaissance to obtain approximate values of the horizon elevations4 ,this may be done by measuring the distances and contour-lines shown on the one-inch maps4 ,this method1 however1 is only very roughly approximate owing to the fact that sharp but very local elevations close to the monuments may not appear on these maps and yet be of sufficient magnitude to cause large errors in the results4 ,where trees1 houses1 c41 top the horizon1 they should1 of course1 be neglected and the elevation of the ground level1 at that spot1 taken4 ,should the top of the azimuth mark 7stone1 c47 show above the actual horizon1 its elevation should be recorded and not that of the horizon4 ,having measured the angular elevation of the horizon along the sight-line1 it is necessary to convert this into actual zenith distance and to apply the refraction correction before the computations of declination can be made4 ,the process of doing this and of calculating the declination will be gathered from the examples given below3-- ,data4 ,monument3--,e4 circle ,tregeseal1 lat4 #ej #h ,n4 i4e4 colat #ci #eb4 ,alignment4 ,centre of circle to ,longstone4 ,az4 7from #be ,ordnance ,map74 ,n4 #ff #ch ,e4 ,elevation of horizon 7measured7 #b #aj4 ,reference to the ,may-,sun curve1 given on p4 #bfc1 indicates that this is probably an alignment to the sunrise on ,may morning4 ,therefore1 in determining the zenith distance1 the correction for the sun's semi-diameter 7#af7 must be taken into account1 allowing that #b of the sun's disc was above the horizon when the observation was made4 ,zenith ,distance3-- ,zenith distance of true horizon #ij local #ij - #b #aj #hg #ej ,bessel's tables show that refraction1 at altitude #b #aj1 raises sun #ag4 ,if #b of sun's limb is above horizon1 sun's centre is #ad below4 ,true zenith distance of sun's centre #hg #ej #ag #ad #hh #ba4 ,declination3-- ,having obtained the zenith distance1 and the azimuth1 the latitude being known1 the ,n4,p4,d4 7,north ,polar ,distance7 of the sun may be found by the following equations3-- 7#a7 tan tan z4 cos ,a1 where is the subsidiary angle which must be determined for the purpose of computation1 z is the true zenith distance1 and ,a is the distance from the ,north point4 cos z4 cos 7c - 7#acd 7#b7 cos -------------------------1 cos where is the ,n4,p4,d4 of the celestial object1 and c is the colatitude 7#ij - lat47 of the place of observation4 ,in the example taken this gives us-- 7#a7 tan tan #hh #ba4 cos #ff #ch #he #ej #de cos #hh #ba4 cos 7#ci #eb - #he #ej #de7 7#b7 cos ---------------------------------------- cos #he #ej #de #gc #eg #ej ,declination1 1 7#ij - 7 #af #b #aj ,n4 ,reference to the ,nautical ,almanac shows that this is the sun's declination on ,may #e and ,august #i4 ,we may therefore conclude that the ,long-stone was erected to mark the ,may sunrise1 as seen from the ,tregeseal ,circle4 ,had we been dealing with a star1 instead of the sun1 the only modification necessary in the process of calculating the declination would have been to omit the semi-diameter correction of #ad4 ,having obtained a declination1 we must refer to the curves given on pp4 #aae-f in order to see if there is any star which fits it1 and to find the date4 ,take1 for example1 the case of the apex of ,carn ,kenidjack1 as seen from the ,tregeseal circle-- ,az4 ,n4 #ab #h ,e42 hill #d #j4 lat4 #ej #h4 ,this gives us a declination of #db #cc ,n41 and a reference to the stellar-declination curves 7p4 #aae-f7 shows that ,arcturus had that declination in #bccj ,b4,c4 ,from the table given on p4 #aag1 we see that at that epoch ,arcturus acted as warning-star for the ,august sun4 ,in cases where the elevation of the horizon is #cj1 or in preliminary examinations1 where it may be assumed as #cj1 the refraction exactly counterbalances the hill1 and therefore the true zenith distance at the moment of star-rise is #ij4 ,hence the ,n4,p4,d4 of the star may be found from the following simple equation-- 7#c7 cos cos ,a cos where and ,a have the same significance as before and is the latitude of the place of observation4 #acc ,demonstrations and ,practical ,work in ,astronomical ,physics at the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,south ,kensington4 ,wyman and ,sons1 #as4 #acd cos 7c - 7 cos -7c - 74 ,,index ,a4 ,abydos1 clock star at1 #big4 ,africa1 sacred stones and trees1 #bce4 ,aldebaran1 see ,tauri 4 8,alle couverte10 #da1 #cag4 8,all ,hallows10 #ahg2 ,irish and ,welsh equivalents1 #aie4 8,all ,souls10 change of date1 #ahf4 ,alsia well1 #bbg4 ,altar stone1 ,stonehenge1 #ha2 ,aberdeen type1 #cf4 ,amen-,r1 #b2 temple of1 #ee1 #big4 ,amplitude1 #aj1 #aaa4 ,animals1 sacrifices of1 #aig4 ,annu1 temples at1 #bif1 #big1 #cjd4 ,antares1 see ,scorpionis 4 ,antiquaries1 ,society of1 #fi1 #acc4 ,antrobus1 ,sir ,edward1 #di1 #fi1 #id4 ,apollo1 #eb4 ,arabia1 sacred stones and trees in1 #bce4 ,archology1 relation to astronomy1 #d4 ,arcturus1 see ,botis 4 ,aries1 #ae1 #cae4 ,armenia1 calendar in1 #bi2 fire festival in1 #aia4 ,aryans1 #dj1 #bcf4 ,ascension ,day1 #ahe1 #bca4 ,asherah1 #bde1 #beg4 ,ash ,wednesday1 #ahb4 ,assacombe1 #aeh4 ,assyria1 sacred trees1 c41 #bde4 ,astronomer-priests1 procedure of1 #aaj1 #caf4 ,athens1 ,may-day worship1 #ajh2 temples at1 #cb2 warning stars at1 #caa4 ,august-festival1 dates of1 #ahe2 in ,brittany1 #aii2 in ,ireland and ,wales1 #ahf2 warning-stars1 #caa4 ,aurigae 7,capella71 clock- and warning-star1 #aag1 #bgb1 #bij1 #bib1 #bic1 #bih1 #bii1 #cjd1 #cab2 associated with ,ptah1 #cjd4 ,avebury1 cove at1 #cg4 ,avenue1 at ,stonehenge1 #fc1 #fe4 ,avenues1 in ,brittany1 #adi2 on ,dartmoor1 #adf1 #cai2 definition of1 #cg4 ,axis 7of temple71 ,stonehenge1 #ee1 #fj2 ,karnak1 #ef2 ,kouyunjik1 #cje2 ,annu1 #cje2 change of1 #db4 ,azimuth1 defined1 #aj1 #aaa2 changes in1 #abb2 of ,may sunrise1 #bfd4 ,azimuth-marks1 illumination of1 #aaj4 ,b4 ,baal1 #aig1 #bdi1 #bei4 8,baal's ,fire0 7,beltan71 #dj4 ,babylon1 #bd1 #bdj1 #bei1 #bie1 #cjh2 ,may year in1 #cjd4 ,babylonians1 astronomical knowledge of1 #bdj2 early navigators1 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,egyptian1 #ee2 solstitial1 #cac4 ,thebes 7,egypt71 #h1 #ajh2 amplitudes at1 #aa2 stars used at1 #bii1 #cjd2 ,may-year at1 #bdg1 #cje4 ,thebes 7,greece71 #bii4 ,theodolite1 adjustments of1 #agb1 #cbi4 ,thomas1 ,mr41 #bgg1 #bhb4 ,thorn-trees1 associated with holy wells1 #bba4 ,thoth1 #bei4 ,thurnham1 ,dr41 #fc4 ,tigris1 rise of the1 #cj4 ,tirehan1 #bad4 ,tissington1 ,derbyshire1 #bbh4 ,tlachtaga1 the fire of1 #ahg4 ,tombs1 dolmens not intended for1 #bed4 ,torches1 #cag4 ,toutates1 #bfj4 ,track-lines1 #adi4 ,tradition1 #agi4 8,treachery of the ,long ,knives10 #ie4 ,trees1 sacred1 #bjj1 #bbj1 #beg2 ,arabian worship of1 #bde2 ,semitic1 #bdd1 #bdf4 ,tregaseal1 #bgg1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #cji1 #cad4 ,trilithons1 #ha2 at ,stonehenge1 #eh2 functions of1 #cg1 #da2 in ,japan1 #c4 ,trippet stones1 #cf4 ,tristis rock1 #aeh4 ,trowlesworthy1 #aeh1 #afa1 #afb4 ,truthwall ,common1 #bgg4 ,tubberpatrick1 well at1 #bbe4 ,tumuli1 #ic1 #ajb1 #bed2 at ,stenness1 #aca4 ,turkey1 calendar in1 #bi4 ,u4 ,ursae ,majoris 1 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star-1 #bfj2 well-1 #bbh4 ,worth1 ,mr4 ,hansford1 #adf1 #adh1 #aej1 #aec1 #afd4 ,worth1 ,mr41 ,r4,n41 #adg1 #adh4 8,wroth silver10 payment of1 #ahh4 ,y4 ,year1 the astronomical1 #af1 #be2 the ,celtic1 #ahf2 division of the1 #ah2 the ,julian1 #bc2 the lunar-1 in ,babylon1 #bd2 the solstitial-1 #ai1 #aci1 #bfa2 the vegetation-1 #ah1 #ai1 #be1 #ig1 #aji1 #bjc4 ,yucatan1 the temples of1 #cc4 ,,the ,,end ,r4 ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1 ,,ltd41 ,,bread ,,street ,,hill1 ,e4,c41 ,,and ,,bungay1 ,,suffolk4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,inconsistent1 archaic and unusual spelling1 hyphenation and capitalisation have been retained1 except as mentioned below4 ,this includes proper and geographical names4 ,depending on the hard- and software used1 not all elements may display as intended4 ,some tables are best viewed in a wide browser window4 ,index3 the occasional error in the order of entries has not been corrected4 ,for the illustrated versions3 ,where the quality of the illustration in the source document permits and where the visibility of details in or the legibility of the illustration requires1 larger versions of illustrations have been provided4 ,availability of these larger illustrations depends on the version used4 ,page #ajj1 ,fig4 #bg1 ,menhir 7,a73 the reference letter is missing from the illustration4 ,page #aja1 ,carnac-,leomariaquer3 probably ,carnac-,locmariaquer 7as on ,page #ch74 ,footnote #abd1 table ,chichen ,itza1 last line3 the ,e4 or ,w4 is missing in the source document4 ,changes made ,illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs2 footnotes were moved to the end of the chapter4 ,some tables have been re-arranged4 ,ditto marks have occasionally been replaced with the dittoed text4 ,some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently2 some minor formatting inconsistencies have been standardised silently4 ,some ,greek accents and diacritics have been ignored4 ,page #bi3 closing bracket inserted after #ahe-f days respectively ,page #ij1 ,fig4 #bd3 reference letters ,a1 ,b1 ,c and ,d inside the illustration have been enlarged for better visibility4 ,page #ig3 alignments changed to alignements2 aujourdhui changed to aujourd'hui ,page #agc1 first table3 #ai #ea ,e4 changed to ,n4 #ai #ea ,e4 ,page #bbj3 footnote marker #fe inserted after ,rhys where it seems to fit best 7lacking in source document74