,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,equal signs 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate bold in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,the advertisements between pages #dh and #di in the original text have been moved to the end of the text4 ,a ,request ,should you find this book helpful in building with concrete1 we would consider it a favor to have you so inform us4 ,likewise1 we would appreciate a description 7and a photograph if possible7 of whatever you have built in concrete4 ,in this way you will assist us in aiding others in the same way we hope we have helped you4 ,if you do not fully understand any part of this book1 or if you desire further information1 write us and we shall be glad to do anything else we can4 ,,concrete ,,construction for the ,,home and the ,,farm 8,,concrete ,,for ,,permanence0 #aiaf ,,the ,,atlas ,,portland ,,cement ,,company #cj ,broad ,street1 ,new ,york #acd ,so4 ,la,salle ,street1 ,chicago ,philadelphia ,boston ,st4 ,louis ,minneapolis ,des ,moines ,,index ,special ,index to ,directions ,,page ,bank-run gravel1 #ac ,cleaning forms1 #bd ,definition of concrete1 #i ,dry mixture1 #ac ,forms1 #bb-bd ,gravel1 #aj1 #ac ,hand mixing1 #ag-ba ,materials1 #i1 #aj ,measuring boxes1 #ab ,measuring materials1 #aa-ac ,medium mixture1 #ac ,mixing1 #ae-bb ,natural mixture1 #ac-bj ,placing1 #be1 #bf ,portland cement1 #i ,proportions1 #aa-ac ,protection of concrete after placing1 #bf ,publications issued by the ,association1 #h ,quantities of materials1 #ba1 #bb ,reinforcement1 #bf1 #bg ,runs1 #ae ,sand as an aggregate1 #i ,selecting lumber for forms1 #bc ,stone as an aggregate1 #aj ,tools1 #ae ,wet mixture1 #ac ,general ,index ,,page ,acetylene gas house1 #hc-hg ,alleyways1 #da ,barns1 #fb ,barn approach1 #fj ,barn floors1 #ed-ei ,barn foundations1 #fa1 #fb ,barnyard pavements1 #dg1 #dh ,base for machinery1 #hg-hi ,bee cellars1 #ib1 #ic ,carriage house entrance1 #ci ,carriage washing floor1 #db ,cellar steps and hatchway1 #ij1 #ia ,chimney1 #ej1 #ea ,chimney caps1 #ig ,cistern covers1 #fi ,cisterns1 #fh-gj1 #gb-gc ,coal house1 #hc-hg ,cold-frame1 #ii1 #ajj ,concrete in the country1 #e-h ,corn crib floor1 #ec ,corner stones1 #aje ,cow barn floors1 #ee-eh ,culverts1 #ajh1 #aji ,cyclone cellar1 #ib-ic ,dairy1 #hc-hg ,dipping vats and tanks1 #gf-hj ,dog kennel1 #hc-hg ,drain tile outlet1 #ajf ,drinking troughs and tanks1 #gd1 #ge ,driveway of concrete1 #dj1 #da ,drop gutters1 #ed-ei ,duck pond1 #ie ,engine base foundation1 #hg1 #hh ,engine house1 #hb-hi ,entrance floor1 #ci ,farm buildings1 #hb-hi ,feed cooker1 #ej1 #ea ,feeding floors1 #dc-de ,feeding troughs1 racks and mangers1 #di1 #ej ,fence posts1 #ajd ,field rollers1 #ajb ,field spring improvement1 #gj1 #ga ,floors1 #ci1 #db1 #de1 #dg1 #dh1 #ec-ef1 #eh1 #gi1 #hb1 #hc1 #hg1 #ih ,foundation gutter1 #ce ,fruit cellars1 #ib1 #ic ,garbage receiver1 #ajc ,gasoline engine base1 #hg1 #hh ,gate posts1 #ajd1 #aje ,granary floors1 #ec ,gutters1 #ce ,hatchway for cellar steps1 #ij1 #ia ,hay cap weights1 #ajc ,hen house1 #id ,hens' nests1 #id ,hitching post1 #ajd ,hog wallows1 #eb ,horse barn floors1 #eh1 #ei ,hot-bed1 #ii1 #ajj ,housing for driven well1 #fg1 #fh ,hydraulic ram house1 #hi ,ice house1 #hc-hg ,lawn roller1 #ajb ,mangers1 #di1 #ej1 #eg1 #ei ,manure pits and cisterns1 #de ,milk house1 #hc-hg ,milk vat1 #ha1 #hb ,nests for hens1 #id ,old buildings and their repair1 #cf-ch ,porch floor1 #ih1 #ii ,posts for fences and gates1 #ajd ,posts1 hitching1 #ajd ,poultry house1 #id ,ram house1 #hi ,repairs to farm buildings1 #cf-ch ,retaining wall and steps1 #if1 #ig ,roadways1 #dj1 #da ,root cellar1 #ib1 #ic ,rollers1 #ajb ,sanitary water supply1 #fg-ge ,septic tanks1 #aaj1 #aaa ,sidewalks1 #bh-cd ,silos1 #fe1 #ff ,small farm buildings1 #hb-hi ,smoke house1 #hc-hg ,snow fences1 #fc1 #fd ,spraying tanks1 #ajg ,spring improvements1 #gj1 #ga ,steps1 #ij1 #ia1 #if1 #ig ,stones1 corner1 #aje ,survey monuments1 #aje ,swimming pool1 #aab ,tanks1 #gd1 #ge ,tarpaulin weights1 #ajc ,tool house1 #hc-hg ,trash burner1 #ajc ,tree repair1 #aja ,troughs1 #gd1 #ge ,vegetable cellar1 #ib1 #ic ,walks1 #bh-cd ,walk specifications1 #bi ,watering troughs1 #gd1 #ge ,weights for hay caps and tarpaulins1 #ajc ,well cover1 #fi ,well protection1 #fg-gj ,wind walls1 #fc1 #fd ,window hatch1 #aab ,wiring forms1 #bc ,concrete in the ,country ,how the ,american ,farmer is ,solving ,his ,conservation ,problem ,conservation is no new problem--it is as old as life itself4 ,it becomes a highly important question to the person or the nation only when the resources scarcely supply the demands4 ,such is the situation in the ,united ,states to-day4 ,in the early days the removal of the forests was necessary that much grain might be grown4 ,the young ,nation had to have money1 and as farming was the only means at hand to furnish it1 the natural fertility of the fields was reduced4 ,but the money thus supplied was merely a long-time loan on the ,bank of ,natural ,resources4 ,to-day the vanishing forests and the failing fertility of the fields bear witness that the loan is now due4 ,hence the problem of conservation4 ,strange as it may seem1 the farmer is using one material not only to replace lumber but also1 in a way1 to restore the fertility of his fields--that material is concrete4 ,the national and state governments and the railroads were the first to make extensive use of concrete4 ,not only did the beauty and mystery of this new construction naturally appeal to the farmer1 but he concluded that the railroads did not use it1 in preference to wood1 steel and stone1 merely to decorate the landscape4 ,he knew too much about railroads4 ,so strongly did the railroads' idea of economy 7the dollar argument7 appeal to him that the farmer of the ,west is now building practically everything about the farm of concrete4 ,at first1 and quite naturally1 land-owners in the rock and gravel regions began using this new form of construction2 but1 since its cheapness in first cost and value in lasting qualities have become generally known1 a wave of enthusiasm for farm structures of concrete has swept the entire country4 ,a gravel pit is now more valuable than many a gold mine4 ,with little help other than looking and listening1 the farmer grasped the idea of a concrete walk1 and being a natural inventor and jack-of-all-trades1 improved on the method by adding a small curb next to his flower bed to keep the dirt from washing on the white walk4 ,this walk was a blessing to the boy--all the time formerly given to scrubbing and weeding the old brick walk could now be devoted to fishing4 ,the yard walk was extended to the barns and outlying buildings4 ,wading through seas of mud and resulting tracked-up kitchen floors became a thing of the past4 ,by simply increasing the width of the walk1 a cellar floor was provided and the farmer had a dry cellar4 ,this was so clean and so odorless that he considered such a floor fit for that most immaculate of all places--the milk house4 ,concrete cellar hatchway and steps1 safe under the heaviest barrel of vinegar1 and water-tight1 were made in a manner similar to walks4 ,brick work had long been laid up in a mixture of ,portland cement and sand4 ,as this kept the water out1 the farmer reasoned that it would keep the water in1 and he started to build cistern floors1 walls and cover of ,portland cement concrete at one-third to one-half the cost of the old brick cistern4 ,after a little more observation1 he quit digging deep cistern-pits1 with the necessary annoyance of thawing out frozen pumps and carrying water--he built a concrete cistern on top of the ground and made the pumping and carrying of the water a mere matter of turning a faucet in the kitchen and the bath room4 ,several years ago corn was so cheap that in some sections it was burned for fuel instead of coal4 ,no consideration was then given to the bushels wasted in muddy feed lots4 ,if the mud became too deep1 the feeding was transferred to the blue grass pasture4 ,to be sure1 as the sod wore out1 the feeding-place had to be changed2 but somebody had advanced the idea that this particular method of feeding was good for the soil4 ,many farmers had tried wooden feeding floors and had found them a paying proposition as far as the saving of feed was concerned1 in the general health of the animal1 and in the shortened time of fattening4 ,but two great drawbacks were the rats that infested them and the constant need of repairs4 ,in concrete the thoughtful farmer saw the possibilities of an ideal floor--an easily cleaned1 rat-proof1 disease-proof surface upon which his hogs1 sheep1 cattle and poultry might consume the feed even to the smallest particle4 ,so satisfactory did the feeding floor prove that the same treatment suggested itself as a remedy for the fly-breeding1 muddy holes in the earthen floors and the rat-infested wooden floors of the barns4 ,but the careful horseman held up a bit3 he was afraid that stamping at the flies1 his valuable ,percherons1 ,shires and ,morgans might stiffen up their legs4 ,he experimented by placing concrete floors in his open sheds1 which were usually too muddy for the stock to lie down in stormy weather1 just when the straw stacks afforded no protection and when he needed the sheds most1 and found such floors satisfactory4 ,to-day the manure question is one of the most important considerations of the time4 ,the virgin soil of the prairies1 of the cleared woodlands and of the broken-up ranges1 for a few years produced immense crops of cotton and grain4 ,to build up the decreasing productiveness of the fields the farmer soon learned that barnyard manure was the best thing at hand4 ,the passing of the cattle ranch and the resulting higher price of meats made stock raising very profitable even to the small farmer1 especially since feeding floors made it possible for him to return to the soil1 in the form of manure1 all the fertility which had been removed in the growing of grain4 ,leaving out the matter of foods1 the strength of manure is dependent directly upon its manner of storage4 ,manure piled on the bare ground or in wooden pens loses one-third to one-half of its fertilizing properties on account of leaching1 due to heavy rains and tramping of the stock1 and later because of fermentation or 8firing0 brought about by the lack of sufficient moisture4 ,this fertilizer usually sells at from #ge cents to #a4jj per load4 ,the farmer of to-day builds a water-tight concrete cistern or pit in which he stores the manure and keeps it as moist as need be4 ,he extended the concrete floors to the dairy barns with the result that they were so clean1 so odorless and so sanitary that state inspection is now often insisting and will soon force careless dairymen to put in such floors as a means of protecting the public health from disease germs carried in unclean milk4 ,the drop gutters carry all the liquids1 the richest part of the manure1 formerly wasted1 to the manure pits4 ,consequently1 one load of manure1 thus properly preserved1 is easily worth two loads as ordinarily stored4 ,by confining the manure in pits and by paving the barn lot with concrete1 the farm has been rid of the chief breeding-place of flies1 gnats1 mosquitos and disease4 ,moreover1 such an interior court1 surrounded by buildings and concrete wind walls1 forms an excellent feed and winter exercise lot4 ,government statistics show that the human death-rate on the farm1 in spite of the fresh food and pure air1 is greater than the death-rate in the city4 ,state ,university tests of drinking-water have shown beyond a doubt that the waters of many ordinary shallow and unprotected wells contain the germs of such dangerous diseases as typhoid fever4 ,to prevent the polluted surface waters from seeping into the well1 many people are covering their wells and walling them up with water-tight concrete4 ,others are sinking 8driven0 wells and protecting them with concrete housings4 ,the principle of deep wells for pure water1 among other things1 has made gasoline engines a necessity on the farm4 ,these engines and hydraulic rams at springs1 firmly set and housed in concrete1 supply an abundance of water for the concrete reservoirs or elevated1 reinforced pressure tanks4 ,from these places of storage water is distributed to float-controlled1 rot-proof watering tanks and troughs of the same material4 ,with such a water supply animals never suffer for water4 ,even springs and mouths of drain tile are improved and the water made clean and wholesome by the use of concrete4 ,thus the conservative farmer of the present time gives careful attention to the health1 comfort and convenience of his family4 ,moreover1 the care of the animals is not neglected4 ,a concrete dipping vat holds the liquids which free horses1 cattle1 sheep and hogs of mange1 lice1 mites1 ticks and fleas4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture is stamping out the ,texas fever and sheep scab by insisting on the use of dipping tanks throughout all quarantined districts4 ,a hog wallow with concrete sides and bottoms gives the hog the pleasure afforded by running streams and at the same time protects him from the cholera often carried down from animals affected further up stream4 ,the continual rotting off of wooden fence posts1 the constantly increasing cost of new ones1 and the annual expense of fence repairs1 called for the introduction of some substitute4 ,land is entirely too valuable and life too short to attempt growing wooden posts4 ,even before the telephone and telegraph companies had thought of the possibilities of concrete in this line1 a few venturesome farmers had given reinforced concrete posts a trial and found their use not only advisable from the standpoint of cheapness in first cost1 but more profitable on account of their everlasting qualities4 ,the ,department of ,agriculture at ,washington has thoroughly investigated the use and methods of making concrete posts and is furnishing a free bulletin describing the process4 ,such posts are also valuable in the culture of grapes and hops4#a #a ,farmers' ,bulletin #djc1 ,concrete ,fence ,posts4 ,sent free on application4 ,the use of concrete in farm buildings has gradually developed from the ground upward4 ,the drip soon rots out timber near the ground and eventually crumbles away the brick foundation4 ,at first1 uselessly making the walls as heavy as those of brick1 the farmer gave concrete a trial in foundations4 ,concrete is stronger than brick4 ,as a wall it kept the basement and back barn dry4 ,the height of the foundation wall increased until it supported the joists of the hay loft4 ,finally1 after a study of methods1 of reinforcing1 the entire barn--basement1 walls1 floors1 mangers1 troughs1 gutters1 beams and even the shingles--became concrete4 ,matches or lanterns accidentally dropped on concrete floors in concrete barns do not cause the terror of former times4 ,the oil will burn until smothered out with a horse blanket1 but no further damage will be done4 ,poultry raising on many farms has become well-nigh impossible on account of rats4 ,to free the farm of these destructive animals1 as a last resort and in spite of the assertions that the grain would spoil1 the thoroughly provoked farmer put concrete floors under his cribs and granaries4 ,corn matured enough not to spoil on other floors kept perfectly on concrete4 ,the rats had to go2 they could not get through such floors4 ,and so we might continue1 describing how farmers have successfully used concrete in building every class of structure from a stepping stone to the entire group of farm buildings4 ,just as there are right and wrong methods of farming1 so1 too1 are there right and wrong ways of using concrete4 ,it is the aim of this book to give such directions and information as will enable the reader to build with concrete surely and successfully4 8,,concrete ,,in ,,the ,,country0 does not pretend to fully cover the subject--the field is too large to be exhausted in one such volume4 ,but the publishers have attempted to deal with as wide a variety of types of concrete construction as is possible in the space available4 ,fuller details are given in other pamphlets1 which will be furnished free to anyone who will write to the address given on the first page of this book4 ,publications issued by the ,association of ,american ,portland ,cement ,manufacturers1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,at the office of the above ,association there are available books dealing with concrete construction of all classes4 ,these books describe the construction of silos1 fence posts1 tanks1 troughs1 concrete roads1 and many other works4 ,upon request there will be sent a list of the publications in print4 ,the books1 with one or two exceptions1 are sent free of cost4 ,what is 8,concrete08 ,concrete--a manufactured stone--is made by mixing together ,portland cement1 sand and stone 7or gravel74 ,various proportions of each are used1 depending upon the use to which the concrete is put4 ,about half an hour after mixing these materials together1 the mass begins to stiffen1 until1 in from half-a-day to a day1 it becomes so hard that you cannot dent it with the hand4 ,by a month the mass is hard like stone--indeed1 harder than most stones4 ,materials ,before attempting to describe the actual process of mixing and placing concrete1 it will be well for us to have a pretty clear understanding as to the nature of the materials with which we are to work1 and how best these may be selected4 ,portland ,cement ,for domestic use1 ,portland ,cement is furnished in cloth sacks and paper bags4 ,when furnished in cloth sacks1 the price per barrel includes the cost of the sacks 7four sacks making a barrel74 ,when the sacks are returned in good condition1 the amount charged is rebated to the customer4 ,where cement is furnished in paper bags1 the price also includes the cost of the paper bags which1 however1 are not returnable4 ,many cement users prefer their cement furnished in paper bags1 as it does away with the bother of keeping account of the cloth sacks and sending them bade to the dealer for credit4 ,the paper bag or cloth sack of cement weighs #id pounds1 and four such make a barrel of #cgf pounds4 ,the storage of cement is very important4 ,it must be kept in a dry place4 ,once wet1 it becomes hard and lumpy1 and in such condition is useless4 ,if1 however1 the lumps are caused by pressure in the store house1 the cement may be used with safety4 ,lumps thus formed can be easily broken by a blow from the back of a shovel4 ,in storing cement1 throw wooden blocks on the floor4 ,place boards over them and pile the cement on the boards1 covering the pile with a canvas or a piece of roofing paper4 ,never1 under any circumstances1 keep cement on the bare ground1 or pile it directly against the outside walls of buildings4 ,sand ,do not use very fine sand4 ,if there is a large quantity of fine sand handy1 obtain a coarse sand and mix the two sands together in equal parts2 this mixture is as good as coarse sand alone4 ,sometimes fine sand must be used1 because no other can be obtained2 but in such an event an additional amount of cement must be used--sometimes as much as double the amount ordinarily required4 ,for example1 in such a case1 instead of using a concrete #a part cement1 #b parts sand1 and #d parts stone1 use a concrete #a part cement1 ,i part sand1 and #b parts stone4 ,besides being coarse1 the sand should be clean1 i4 e41 free from vegetable matter4 8,but10 you say1 8how shall ,i tell whether the sand is what you call clean80 ,the presence of dirt in the sand is easily ascertained by rubbing a little in the palm of the hand4 ,if a little is emptied into a pail of water1 the presence of dirt will be shown by the discoloration of the water4 ,this can be discovered also by filling a fruit jar to the depth of #d inches with sand and then adding water until it is within an inch of the top4 ,after the jar has been well shaken1 the contents should be allowed to settle for a couple of hours4 ,the sand will sink to the bottom1 but the mud1 which can be easily recognized by its color1 will form a distinct layer on top of the sand1 and above both will be a clear depth of water4 ,if the layer of mud is more than one-half inch in thickness1 the sand should not be used unless it is first washed4 ,having discovered that the sand you contemplate using is not clean1 and provided you cannot readily obtain any that is clean1 you may use what you have1 provided you wash it in the following manner3-- ,build a loose board platform from #aj to #ae feet long1 with one end a foot higher than the other4 ,on the lower end and on the sides1 nail a board #b by #f inches on edge1 to hold the sand4 ,spread the sand over this platform in a layer three or four inches thick1 and wash it with a hose4 ,the washing should be started at the high end1 and the water allowed to run through the sand and over the #b by #f-;inch piece at the bottom4 ,a small quantity of clay or loam does not injure the sand1 but any amount over #e per cent4 does4 ,stone or ,gravel ,this is known as the 8coarse aggregate0 of concrete4 ,great care should be used in its selection4 ,the pebbles should be closely inspected to see that there is no clay on their surface4 ,a layer of such clay prevents the 8binding0 of the cement4 ,if necessary stone or gravel may be washed in the same way as above described for sand4 ,indeed1 it is more easily done than sand1 as the water flows through the larger voids in the gravel more readily than through the voids in the sand4 ,dust may be left in the crushed stone without fear of its interfering with the strength of the cement1 but care should be taken to see that such dust is distributed evenly through the whole mass1 and when dust is found in stone1 slightly less sand should be used than ordinarily4 ,as to the size of stone or gravel1 this must be determined by the form of construction contemplated4 ,for foundations or any large thick structure1 use anything from to #b inches in diameter4 ,for thin walls use to #a-;inch stone4 ,the best results are obtained by the use of a mixture of sizes graded from small to large4 ,by this means the spaces or voids between the stones or pebbles are reduced and a more compact concrete is obtained4 ,moreover1 this method makes it possible to get along with less sand and less cement4 ,pure ,water ,necessary in ,mixing ,water for concrete should be clean and free from strong acids and alkalies4 ,it may be readily stored in a barrel beside the mixing board and placed on the concrete with a bucket4 ,if you are at all in doubt about the purity of the water that you contemplate using1 it would be well to make up a block of concrete as a test1 and see whether the cement 8sets0 properly4 ,proportioning the ,mixture ,that mixture in which all the spaces 7called 8voids07 between the stone or gravel are filled with sand1 and all the spaces between the sand are filled with cement1 is the ideal mixture4 ,this mixture is rarely attained1 as the voids in each load of gravel and sand vary slightly1 and in order to be absolutely safe1 it is well to use a little more cement than will just fill the voids4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,quantities of cement1 sand1 and gravel in #a3 #b3 #d concrete mixture1 which means #a part cement1 #b parts sand1 #d parts crushed stone or gravel1 and the resulting quantity of concrete1 which is only slightly greater in size than the gravel1 the sand and cement filling the voids in the gravel4 ,,table ,i4 ,,showing ,,the ,,quantities ,,of ,,materials ,,and ,,the ,,resulting ,,amount ,,of ,,concrete ,,for ,,two-,,bag ,,batch4 ,legend3 ,,aa ,cement ,,bb ,sand ,,cc ,stone or ,gravel ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,proportions ,,by ,,parts4 ,,two-,,bag ,,batch4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,size of ,water ,measuring in ,,kind ,,of ,materials4 ,boxes4 ,gal- ,,concrete ,inside lons ,,mixture4 ,measurements4 for ----------------- ------------,medium ,con- ,wet ,,aa ,,bb ,,cc ,,aa ,,bb ,,cc crete4 ,,bb ,,cc ,mix- ture4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,bags4,cu4ft4,cu4ft4,cu4ft4 ,gal- lons4 #a3b3d #a #b #d #b #c #g #h #bb #bd #aj ,concrete #aa #aa #a3b3e #a #b #e #e #d #i #aj #bb #be #ab ,concrete #aa #aa ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,as above explained1 concrete is composed of a certain amount of cement1 a larger amount of sand1 and a still larger amount of stone 7or gravel74 ,to determine how much of each of these materials to use1 we must first consider the type of work we wish to undertake4 ,for ordinary work about the farm 7silos1 tanks1 cisterns1 fence posts1 well curbs1 etc41 etc47 use twice as much stone as sand1 and twice as much sand as cement4 ,this is called a #a3 #b3 #d mixture--meaning that there are in that mixture3 #a part of cement1 #b parts of sand1 #d parts of stone or gravel4 ,for sidewalks1 gutters1 etc41 a 8weaker0 mixture is sometimes used1 consisting of3 #a part of cement1 #b parts of sand1 #e parts of stone or gravel4 ,the proportions should always be measured by volume1 and the best way to do the measuring is by the use of a home-made 8measuring box10 of any kind of rough boards having straight sides1 but with no top or bottom4 ,the size of these measuring boxes is determined by the proportion desired for your mixture4 ,for such boxes you need the following sized lumber3 #d pieces #a inch by #aa inches by #b feet rough 7ends of sand and stone boxes74 #b pieces #a inch by #aa inches by #d feet rough 7sides of sand box74 #b pieces #a inch by #aa inches by #f feet rough 7sides of stone box74 ,note3 ,the two pieces #d feet long and the two pieces #f feet long have an extra foot in length at each end to be made into a handle1 as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,for a #a3 #b3 #e mixture1 you require the following sized lumber3 #d pieces #a inch by #aa inches by #b feet 7ends of sand and stone boxes74 #b pieces #a inch by #aa inches by #d feet #f inches 7sides of sand box74 #b pieces #a inch by #aa inches by #g feet 7sides of stone box74 ,note3 ,the two pieces #d feet #f inches long and the two pieces #g feet long have an extra foot in length at each end to be made into a handle1 as shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,to illustrate the use of the measuring box1 let us once more assume that a #a3 #b3 #d mixture is required1 and that the amount of finished concrete needed is #h cubic feet4 ,by referring to the table on page #aa it will be noted that two bags of cement are required1 also #c cubic feet of sand and #g cubic feet of stone or gravel4 ,under 8size of measuring box0 it is found that the sand should just fill a box #b feet by #b feet by #aa inches1 and that the stone should fill a box #b feet by #d feet by #aa inches4 ,lay the sand box1 or frame1 on the mixing platform and fill it4 ,then raise the box4 ,empty two bags of cement on the sand and mix as described under 8,mixing10 see pages #ad-bb4 ,even off the mixture thus obtained with your shovel1 place the stone measuring box on top of the mixture and fill it4 ,raise the measuring box--and you have the correct amount of stone all ready to be mixed with the cement and sand4 ,it is important to measure both the sand and stone loose in the box--never 8pack0 them4 ,for purposes of explanation1 size of mixture will be referred to as a 8batch0 of so many bags of cement4 ,thus1 a 8two-bag batch of concrete0 would mean one requiring two bags of cement1 with the sand and stone proportioned accordingly1 as shown above4 ,for a 8four-bag batch of concrete0 it would be necessary to multiply the amount of stone and gravel by #b1 also multiplying the cubic contents of the measuring box by #b1 and using four bags of cement instead of two4 ,the table previously referred to also shows the amount of water for different sized batches1 but it is to be noted that the quantity of this ingredient is only approximated4 ,use the amount indicated in the table for the first batch1 and if it proves too wet for the use desired1 reduce the amount of water2 if too dry1 increase the amount of water4 ,always use a bucket in measuring the amount of water1 as this secures uniform results4 ,natural ,mixture of ,bank ,sand and ,gravel ,naturally mixed bank sand and gravel are sometimes found in the right proportions for making concrete4 ,generally1 however1 there is far too much sand for the gravel1 and great care should be exercised in using this class of material4 ,unless the mixture runs very even throughout the bank1 and is found to be made up of one part sand to two parts gravel1 it is better to screen the sand out of the gravel and prepare the materials in the usual way4 ,herewith is a table showing the quantities for a natural mixture of bank sand and gravel4 ,the quantities can be found in the same way as in ,table ,i1 on page #aa4 ,,table ,,ii4 ,,showing ,,the ,,quantities ,,of ,,materials ,,and ,,the ,,resulting ,,amount ,,of ,,concrete ,,for ,,two-,,bag ,,batch1 ,,using ,,natural ,,mixture ,,of ,,bank ,,sand ,,and ,,gravel4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,proportions ,,two-,,bag ,,batch ,,for ,,natural ,,mixture ,,of ,,by ,,parts4 ,,bank ,,sand ,,and ,,gravel4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,size of ,materials4 ,measuring ,,kind ,,of ,boxes4 ,,concrete -------------- ----------,water in ,,mixture4 ,natural ,natural ,con- ,gallons ,cement4,mixture,cement4,mixturecrete4 ,mixture of for of ,sand of ,sand ,sand and ,medium and and ,gravel4 ,wet ,gravel4 ,gravel4 ,mixture4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,bags4 ,cu4 ft4,cu4 ft4 ,gallons #a3b3d #a #d #b #g #h #bdaa #aj ,concrete #a3b3e #a #e #b #i #aj #beaa #ab ,concrete ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,there are three kinds of mixtures1 in general1 on concrete work3-- #ast4--,very ,wet ,mixture4--,concrete wet enough to be mushy and run off the shovel when handling1 used for thin walls or for thin sections1 etc4 #b;d4--,medium ,mixture4--,concrete just wet enough to make it jelly-like1 used for foundations1 floors1 etc4 ,to better describe this mixture it may be said that a man should sink ankle deep if he were to step on top of the pile4 #c;d4--,dry ,mixture4--,concrete like damp earth1 used for foundations1 etc41 where it is important to have the concrete 8set0 up as quickly as possible4 ,the difference between the mixtures is1 that the dryer the mixture the quicker will the concrete 8set up0--but in the long run1 when carefully mixed and 8placed10 the results from any of the above mixtures will be identical4 ,it may be said1 however1 that a dry mixture is the harder to handle1 must be protected with greater care from the sun or from drying too quickly2 and lastly1 is likely--unless used by most experienced hands--to show voids or stone pockets in the face of the work when the 8,forms0 are removed4 ,the less the voids in the stone or gravel1 the greater will be the volume of the concrete4 ,in general1 the amount of concrete will be greater in each instance than is shown in the table--especially when gravel is used4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,concrete ,mixing ,plant1 showing ,concrete ,board1 ,tools1 etc41 ,necessary for ,mixing ,concrete by ,hand4 ,tools ,one great advantage of concrete1 so far as the farmer is concerned1 lies in the fact that1 generally speaking1 it necessitates no outlay for tools1 for it so happens that most of the tools needed for forms of concrete construction are the very ones every farmer uses-- ,shovels--,one for each man on the job4 ,wheelbarrows--,at least two1 preferably those with sheet iron bodies4 ,rake4 ,water ,barrel4 ,several ,water ,buckets4 ,a ,tamper or ,rammer--,this is made of wood with handles nailed to it1 as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the measurement is #d inches by #b inches by #b feet #f inches4 ,a ,garden ,spade4 ,a ,sand ,screen1 made by nailing a piece of -inch mesh wire screen1 #b feet by #e feet in size1 to a frame made of #b-;inch by #d-;inch scantling4 ,in addition to the above tools you will require a ,mixing ,board4 ,this is simply a water-tight platform4 ,it should be 7for a two batch mixture and for two men to work on7 about #aj feet square4 ,make it out of #a-;inch boards #aj feet long1 surfaced on one side1 using #e cleats to hold the boards together4 ,the cleats should measure #b inches by #d inches by #i feet4 ,if #a-;inch by #f-;inch tongued and grooved roofers can be obtained1 these will answer very nicely1 provided they are fairly free from knots4 ,the object of having surfaced boards is to make the shoveling or turning easy4 ,the boards should be so laid as to enable the shoveling to be done with and not against the cracks between the boards4 ,the boards must be drawn up close in nailing1 so that no cement 8grout0 will run through while mixing4 ,for a larger job1 a slightly larger mixing board will be needed4 ,in setting up your mixing board1 choose a place giving plenty of room near the storage piles of sand and stone4 ,block up your concrete board level1 so that the cement grout will not run off on one side1 and so that the board will not sag in the middle under the weight of the concrete4 ,wheelbarrow 8,runs0 ,you will also have to make wheelbarrow 8runs0 leading from your mixing board to the spot where the concrete is to be placed4 ,do not use1 for these runs1 any old boards that are handy4 ,make a good run--smooth1 and1 if much above the ground1 at least #bj inches wide4 ,this one feature will lighten and quicken the work to a remarkable extent4 ,how to ,mix ,concrete ,having selected the proper materials and arranged the mixing board and runs1 the next step is the actual process of mixing4 ,the proportions of materials and the nature of same for various types of work have already been described on pages #aa-ac4 ,in following the mixing instructions here given1 considerable assistance will be obtained by referring to the illustrations with which instructions are interspersed4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,lifting off the ,sand ,measuring ,box and ,getting ,cement ,ready4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,spreading the ,cement ,over the ,sand4 ,the ,hand ,mixing ,method ,there are many ways of 8hand mixing10 all having the same good results4 ,the way described here we believe to be the one best calculated to obtain good results with a minimum of labor4 ,in this description1 and the accompanying illustrations1 we have taken as a basis a 8,two-,bag ,batch0 of #a3 #b3 #d concrete4 ,first load your sand in wheelbarrows from the sand pile1 wheel on to the 8,board10 and fill the sand measuring box1 which is placed about two feet from one of the #aj-;foot sides of the board1 as shown by the diagram in ,fig4 #c4 ,when the sand box is filled1 lift it off and spread the sand over the board in a layer #c or #d inches thick1 as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,take the two bags of cement and place the contents as evenly as possible over the sand 7see ,fig4 #d74 ,with the two men at points marked 8x0 and 8xx0 on the sketch below ,fig4 #d1 start mixing the sand and cement1 each man turning over the half on his side of the line ,,aa4 ,starting at his feet and shoveling away from him1 each man takes a full shovel load1 turning the shovel over at the points marked #a and #b respectively in ,fig4 #d4 ,in turning the shovel1 do not simply dump the sand and cement at the points marked #a and #b in the diagram under the cut1 but shake the materials off the end and sides of the shovel1 so that the sand and cement are mixed as they fall4 ,this is a great assistance in mixing these materials4 ,in this way the material is shoveled from one side of the board to the other1 as shown in ,figs4 #e and #f4 ,fig4 #e shows the first turning1 and ,fig4 #f the second turning4 ,the sand and cement should now be well mixed and ready for the stone and water4 ,after the last turning1 spread the sand and cement out carefully1 place the gravel or stone measuring box beside it as shown in ,fig4 #g1 and fill from the gravel pile4 ,lift off the box and shovel the gravel on top of the sand and cement1 spreading it as evenly as possible4 ,with some experience1 equally good results can be obtained by placing the gravel measuring box on top of the carefully leveled sand and cement mixture1 and filling it1 thus placing the gravel on top without an extra shoveling4 ,this method is shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,add about three-fourths the required amount of water1 using a bucket and dashing the water over the gravel on top of the pile as evenly as possible4 7,see ,fig4 #i74 ,be careful not to let too much water get near the edges of the pile1 as it will run off1 taking some cement with it4 ,this caution1 however1 does not apply to a properly constructed mixing board1 as the cement and water cannot get away4 ,starting the same as with the sand and cement1 turn the materials over in much the same way1 except that instead of shaking the materials off the end of the shovel1 the whole shovel load is dumped as at points #a or #b in the diagram under ,fig4 #d and dragged back toward the mixer with the square point of the shovel4 ,this mixes the gravel with the sand and cement1 the wet gravel picking up the sand and cement as it rolls over when dragged back by the shovel4 7,see ,fig4 #aj74 ,add water to the dry spots as the mixing goes on until all the required water has been used4 ,turn the mass bade again1 as was done with the sand and cement4 ,with experienced laborers1 the concrete should be well mixed after three such turnings2 but if it shows streaky or dry spots1 it must be turned again4 ,after the final turning1 shovel into a compact pile4 ,the concrete is now ready for placing4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,first ,turning1 ,sand and ,cement4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,second ,turning1 ,sand and ,cement4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,filling the ,stone 7or ,gravel7 ,measuring ,box--,first ,method4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,filling the ,stone 7or ,gravel7 ,measuring ,box ,when on ,top of ,mixed ,sand and ,cement--,second ,method4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i--,placing the ,water on the ,stone 7or ,gravel7 which is on ,top of the ,mixed ,sand and ,cement4 ,mixing ,natural ,mixture of ,bank ,sand and ,gravel ,spread out the mixture of sand and gravel as much as the board will readily permit1 add enough water to wet the gravel and sand thoroughly1 spread the cement evenly in a thin layer over the sand and gravel1 and turn over1 as described previously1 at least three times1 adding the rest of the water necessary to get the required consistency while the materials are being turned4 ,it requires some experience to work up a natural mixture of bank sand and gravel1 and if at all doubtful about the concrete made from it1 first screen the sand from the gravel1 and then mix in the regular way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,mixing the ,stone 7or ,gravel7 with the ,sand and ,cement4 ,number of ,men ,for the above operation only two men are required1 although more can be used to advantage4 ,if three men are available1 let two of them mix as described above and the third man supply the water1 help mix the concrete by raking over the dry or unmixed spots as the two mixers turn the concrete1 help load the wheelbarrows with sand and stone or gravel1 etc4 ,fig4 #e shows a third man on the board4 ,in this illustration1 he is helping mix the sand and cement by raking it--a most effective practice4 ,if four men are available1 it is best to increase the size of the batch mixed to a four-bag batch1 doubling the quantities of all materials used4 ,the cement board should also be increased to #aj by #ab feet as shown under 8,tools40 ,in this case start the mixing in the middle of the board1 and each pair of men mixing exactly as if for a two-bag batch1 except that the concrete is shoveled into one big mass each time it is turned back on to the center of the board4 ,when more than four men are available1 the rest may place the concrete1 make new runs1 load wheelbarrows1 etc41 taking the concrete away from the board as fast as it is mixed4 ,in this case another small concrete board should be placed next to the big 8board10 so that in the last turning the batch can be shoveled over on to the small board for placing1 making room on the big board to mix the next batch4 ,the small platform need be only just big enough to hold the pile of mixed concrete4 ,how to ,determine ,quantities of ,materials ,needed ,first figure the number of cubic feet of concrete that will be required for the work in question4 ,then by multiplying this number by the number under the proper column and required mixture shown in ,table ,,iii1 the amounts of cement1 sand1 and stone or gravel can be found4 ,,table ,,iii4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,quantities ,,of ,,material ,,in #a ,,cu4 ,,ft4 ,,of ,,concrete ---------------------------------------- ------ ,,mixture ,cement1 ,sand1 ,stone or ,gravel1 ,barrel ,cu4 ,yard ,cu4 ,yard ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #a 3 #b 3 #d ,concrete 4#jeh 4#jafc 4#jcbf #a 3 #b 3 #e ,concrete 4#jdh 4#jagf 4#jceb ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,example ,suppose the work consists of a concrete silo requiring in all #ice cubic feet of concrete1 of which #gej cubic feet is to be #a3 #b3 #d concrete1 and #ahe cubic feet is to be #a3 #b3 #e concrete4 ,also enough sand and cement is needed to paint the silo inside and outside1 in all #djj square yards of surface1 with a #a3 #a mixture of sand and cement4 ,one cubic foot of #a3 #a mortar will paint about #ae square yards of surface and requires #j4ahef barrels of cement and #j4jbfc cubic yards of sand4 ,solution1 ,etc4 ,thus the necessary quantities of materials are3-- #eg barrels of ,portland cement4 #af cubic yards of sand4 #ca cubic yards of stone or gravel4 ,it is always wise to order two or three extra barrels of cement1 if the dealer is at considerable distance1 as this avoids any possible trouble that a shortage might cause4 ,besides1 any cement left over always comes in handy for repair work around the house or barn4 ,forms for ,concrete ,concrete is a plastic material and before hardening1 takes the shape of anything against which or in which it is placed4 ,naturally1 the building of the ,form is a most important item in the success of the work4 ,these ,forms hold the concrete in place1 support it until it has hardened and give it its shape1 as well as its original surface finish4 ,kinds of ,forms ,almost any material which will hold the concrete in place will do for a ,form4 ,concrete foundations for farm buildings require shallow trenches1 and usually the earth walls are firm enough to act as a ,form4 ,molds of wet sand are used for ornamental work4 ,frequently colored sands are used for this purpose1 providing both the finished surface and color to the concrete ornament4 ,cast1 wrought or galvanized iron is used1 where an extremely smooth finish is desired1 without further treatment upon the removal of the ,forms4 ,forms made of iron are more easily cleaned1 and can be used a greater number of times than those of wood4 ,rusty iron1 however1 should not be used4 ,by far the greatest number of ,forms are made of wood1 owing to the fact that lumber in small quantities can always be obtained4 ,requirements of a ,good ,form ,plan your ,forms so there will be no difficult measurements to understand4 ,make as few pieces of lumber do the work as you can1 and do not drive the ,forms full of nails4 ,if you do the ,forms will be difficult to take apart without splitting4 ,forms must be strong enough to hold the weight of the concrete without bulging out of shape4 ,when they bulge1 cracks open between the planks and the water in the concrete1 with some cement and sand1 will leak out4 ,this weakens the concrete1 and causes hollows in the surface which look badly after the ,forms are removed4 ,forms which lose their shape after being used once can hardly be used a second time4 ,a part of the erection cost of ,forms is saved if the ,forms are built in as large a section as is convenient to handle4 ,this saving applies to their removal1 as well as to their setting4 ,consequently1 the lightest ,forms possible1 with the largest surface area1 are the most economical4 ,how to ,plan ,forms ,illustration3 ,wiring ,forms ,prevents ,bulging4 ,the first consideration in planning ,forms is the use to which they are to be put4 ,neglect of this point means waste of money and time4 ,if they are for work afterward to be covered with a veneer coat1 the finish of the surface is of small consideration1 while the alignment of the ,form is all-important4 ,if a tank or retaining wall is to be built1 the fact that the ,forms are not in exact alignment will hardly be noticed4 ,in planning ,forms for large structures1 the oftener each section is used1 the less the cost4 ,you save money if they are rigid in alignment1 and well surfaced4 ,in other words1 if you count on using your ,forms over and over again1 the more nearly perfect they are1 the more often they can be used1 and the cheaper they become4 ,if ,forms are to be used only once1 as is generally the case on the farm1 they should not be nailed so securely as to prevent their being readily taken apart1 and the lumber used for something else4 ,if often pays to put them together with screws4 ,if nails are used1 do not drive them home4 ,care ,needed in ,selecting ,lumber for ,forms ,the selection of lumber is of importance4 ,if the ,forms are to be used over many times1 surfaced lumber1 matched1 tongued1 and grooved stuff1 free from loose knots1 is an economy4 ,if1 however1 they are to be used only once1 almost any old plank will do4 ,by nailing a board on the outside of the cracks or over the bad knot1 and filling with a little clay1 the ,form is made tight4 ,green lumber is preferable to kiln-dried or seasoned stuff4 ,seasoned stuff1 when wet 7either by throwing water on the form before placing the concrete or by absorbing the water from the concrete7 warps1 and the shape and tightness of the ,form are damaged4 ,illustration ,originally only surfaced lumber was used for ,forms1 dependence being placed on it for giving a finish to the work4 ,while to-day other than smooth surfaces for concrete are the fashion1 surfaced lumber has some advantages4 ,the ,forms fit together better and are easier to erect4 ,they are more easily cleaned4 ,they are easier to remove4 ,all these items reduce the cost of the work4 ,the saving effected will of course depend on the difference in local price between finished and rough lumber4 ,how to ,clean ,particles of concrete stick to the ,forms4 ,in order to prevent this1 give the surface next the concrete a coat of oil or soft soap4 ,linseed1 black or cylinder oil may be used4 ,never use kerosene4 ,before erecting1 paint the ,forms with the oil or soap4 ,then carefully protect them from dust or dirt until erected4 ,upon removal1 immediately clean off all the particles of concrete sticking to the surface4 ,a short-handled hoe will take off the worst1 while a wire brush is most effective for finishing4 ,be careful not to gouge the wood in cleaning1 as it will spoil the surface of your next section of concrete4 ,it will not be found necessary to repaint after each time of use4 ,watch the surface and repaint if it appears dry in spots4 ,if chips or blocks of wood fall inside the ,forms while erecting1 carefully remove them4 ,the space inside the ,forms is intended for the concrete2 and care should be taken to see that only concrete is placed there4 ,the necessity of ,forms presents a problem calling for the use of that ingenuity for which the farmer is justly famed4 ,forms can be economically placed in so many ways that only one example will be given4 ,a foundation ,form in place is shown in the photograph4 ,note the simple and easy method of bracing4 ,also note how lumber is saved from cutting by allowing the sides to project1 as well as the studding4 ,for this building1 #ah by #bd feet1 trench #ah inches wide and #b feet deep--total cost of setting forms #d4jj4 ,the lumber was all on hand and can be used again4 ,how to ,place ,concrete ,no time should elapse between the 8mixing0 and the 8placing40 ,directions for placing must of necessity be general1 and the farmer must use his own judgment as to how to handle this part of the concrete work1 in connection with whatever particular job he has on hand4 ,the important thing to remember is1 that the materials should not separate in placing4 ,you may shovel the concrete off the board directly into the work2 you may shovel it into wheelbarrows1 wheel it to position and dump1 or you may carry it to the proper place by buckets and hoisting apparatus4 ,directions for ,placing ,illustration ,ordinarily speaking1 concrete should be deposited in layers about #f inches thick4 ,after placing concrete in the ,form1 it should be 8tamped0 lightly with a wooden or iron tamper 7or rammer7 until the water shows on the top and no stones are left uncovered by mortar4 ,in order to obtain a smooth face on the concrete1 the mixture should be carefully 8spaded0 immediately after 8placing0--on the side next to the ,form where the finished concrete will be exposed to view4 ,by 8spading0 is meant the working of a spade or a beveled board between the concrete and the side of the ,form1 moving it to and fro1 and up and down4 ,this forces the large stones away from the boarding1 or ,form1 and brings a coating of mortar next thereto1 thus making the face of the work present an even1 smooth appearance4 ,the ,necessary ,tools ,on certain jobs--as1 for instance1 in the case of a #f-;inch silo wall--a spade cannot very well be used1 on account of the narrowness of the concrete section4 ,in this event1 use for surfacing1 a thin wooden paddle1 made from a board #a inch by #d inches1 and gradually sharpened to a chisel edge at the end4 ,the sharpening should be on one side only1 and in using this paddle place the flat side against the ,form1 as shown in illustration4 ,when the mixture is a dry one1 great care must be used in this 8spading0 or surfacing1 in order to obtain uniform results1 but in the case of a wet mixture1 spading is only required as an added precaution against the possibility of voids in the face of the work1 and in many cases it is not necessary at all4 ,protection of ,concrete after ,placing ,green concrete should not be exposed to the sun until after it has been allowed to set for five or six days4 ,each day during that period the concrete should be wet down by sprinkling water on it1 both in the morning and afternoon4 ,this is done so that the concrete on the outside will not dry out much faster than the concrete in the center of the mass1 and should be carried out carefully1 especially during the hot summer months4 ,old canvas1 sheeting1 burlap1 etc41 placed so as to hang an inch or so away from the face of the concrete will do very well as a protection4 ,wet this1 as well as the concrete4 ,often the concrete ,forms can be left in place a week or ten days2 this protects the concrete during the setting-up period and the above precautions are then unnecessary4 ,points to ,remember ,it may be well1 in summing up1 to emphasize the following points3-- #ast4 ,the materials must be perfectly clean4 #b;d4 ,the mixing must be in proportions carefully determined4 #c;d4 ,the mixture must be used while absolutely fresh4 ,good results cannot be obtained unless you use a good cement1 nor will the work be at its best unless care is taken in the selection of clean sand and clean stone4 ,among the uninitiated1 there is an all too prevalent idea that anything is good enough for the making of concrete4 ,some will tell you that sawdust1 shavings1 mud1 clay1 etc41 will do to complete the mixture1 but the absurdity of this notion will very soon become evident to anyone who neglects the precautions which have been above pointed out4 ,reinforcement ,principles involved ,concrete and steel render valuable assistance to each other in the support of heavy burdens4 ,on a solid foundation1 loaded from above and thus under direct pressure1 a concrete column will withstand the strain of an enormous load4 ,a much smaller load so placed as to cause stretching or bending toward one side of the same column may cause it to snap off1 for concrete is strong1 but brittle4 ,on the other hand1 steel is tough and elastic4 ,in the form of rods or wire1 steel withstands massive loads that tend to stretch it1 and thus displays a kind of strength directly opposite to that of the plain concrete column4 ,in modern construction these two valuable properties of concrete and steel are utilized by combining them in what is called reinforced concrete4 ,with steel properly buried in the concrete1 the column withstands not only the load which might otherwise snap it1 but one many times larger1 and even though it is applied at any place along its length4 ,reinforcement1 therefore1 is steel in the form of rods1 bars or wires1 buried in concrete to take up and to withstand the strains which tend to stretch or to bend the concrete4 ,a concrete fence post is merely a small concrete column4 ,reinforced1 it easily stands the strain from usage in a fence line4 ,illustration ,the value of reinforcing concrete posts properly may readily be seen in the figure4 ,if a load 7,l7 is raised so that its weight is supported on one side by a wooden post1 the post will bend4 ,the fibre in the wood on the side away from the load may be tough and elastic enough to prevent the post from breaking1 and when released the post will spring back into its former position4 ,in the third figure a ,no4 #i wire 7,w7 is fastened securely to the wooden post at the top and at the ground surface1 and is supported along its length by the struts 7,s74 ,if the same load is applied1 the post will not bend1 because the wire takes up the bending or stretching strain4 ,this is precisely the case with the reinforcement in a concrete post4 ,supported along its length by the concrete1 the wire 7,w7 or steel in other shapes takes up the bending or stretching strains4 ,since the load which causes bending or stretching may come from any direction1 concrete posts are reinforced on every side2 otherwise they might break in a manner somewhat similar to that in which the wooden post bends when the reinforcement is not on the proper side of the post4 ,in the effort to be safe it is a common fault to insert more reinforcement than is absolutely necessary4 ,this adds needlessly to the cost1 for concrete becomes stronger as it grows older4 ,kinds of ,reinforcement ,with regard to the roughness of the outside1 metallic reinforcing materials are divided into two classes1 smooth and corrugated or deformed4 ,the general result of the many tests carried on in testing laboratories seems to indicate that in strength of bond1 if the concrete is sufficiently rich and well mixed1 smooth surfaces give satisfactory results4 ,two kinds of reinforcement are much used--bars and wire4 ,bars4--,round bars three-sixteenths or one-fourth of an inch in diameter are the size and kind most used on the farm4 ,the stock on hand at blacksmith shops and hardware stores is generally from steel that stretches too easily and therefore is not the best for reinforcement4 ,companies which make a specialty of reinforcing materials can furnish both rods and bars which stretch only under very large loads4 ,wire4--,the development of the wire fence has produced a material well suited for reinforcing purposes4 ,of equal size1 such wire will produce a stronger reinforcement than the material above described4 ,in order to obtain straight wire of the necessary length1 the coils ordinarily placed on the market should not be straightened out4 ,straight wire can be obtained from dealers in the same manner as baling wire2 that is1 either single or twisted into two or three-ply cables1 and of the length desired4 ,the plain1 ungalvanized fencing wire is the proper kind1 for galvanization adds nothing to the strength1 and the metal will not rust when incased in the concrete4 ,concrete ,sidewalks and ,floors ,concrete floors are nothing more than sidewalks of large size1 and are formed by casting slabs in place4 ,the description given is an economical and practical method of laying sidewalks or floors1 easily adapted to any use where concrete is found advantageous4 ,this description will therefore apply not only to the building of sidewalks1 but to all flat surfaces of concrete resting on the ground4 ,lasting ,qualities ,concrete floors must remain hard and in position to be permanent4 ,to accomplish this1 good materials must be used1 and proper methods of mixing and placing must be followed4 ,only in this way can settlement cracks1 upheaval by frost or roots of trees1 contraction cracks1 crumbling1 and general failure be avoided4 ,settlement ,cracks ,to avoid settlement cracks1 thoroughly ram the ground after excavating for the foundation4 ,this gives a solid bearing to the concrete slab4 ,upheaval by ,frost ,to prevent upheaval by frost a foundation formed of crushed stone1 hard furnace cinders1 brick bats broken to about a #b-;inch size1 broken tile or any other hard porous material1 should be laid in such a way as to obtain perfect drainage4 ,never use ashes4 ,if freezing occurs1 room is in this way provided between the pieces of stone for the expansion of the ice4 ,illustration ,if this foundation is placed in clay soil1 side outlets or blind drains of tile should be provided at points along the walk where they are necessary1 leading into holes filled with cinders or crushed stone1 which will allow the surrounding earth to soak up the accumulated water4 ,clay soil holds the water collected in the drainage foundation1 and if it becomes entirely full of water1 the ice formed during freezing weather will upheave the walk4 ,upheaval by ,tree ,roots ,upheaval by tree roots can be easily avoided by cutting out all roots which run under the pavement at a less depth than #ah inches below the surface of the ground4 ,contraction ,cracks ,cement concrete expands and contracts by changes of temperature in the same way as steel4 ,it is1 therefore1 necessary to cut joints which will allow for this expansion and contraction4 ,the concrete must be cut entirely through to the bottom of the slab with a trowel1 cleaver or other instrument1 the joint formed being from to of an inch wide4 ,blocks formed in this way should not be greater than #f feet square 7#cf square feet74 ,scaling or ,crumbling of the ,surface ,the principal causes of scaling or crumbling surfaces are improper mixing1 drying out before the cement has thoroughly hardened and the use of bad materials4 ,cement needs water not only when mixed1 but after being placed and tamped1 and until it has entirely hardened4 ,if concrete is not kept continually wet until hard1 it is weakened1 and the surface of such a walk scales or becomes soft and chalky4 ,specifications ,,drainage ,,foundation ,stake out the lines of the walk1 or dimensions of the floor4 ,excavate to a depth of #af inches1 ram and tamp the ground thoroughly and evenly and fill in #ab inches with clean large cinders1 broken stone1 pebbles1 brick bats1 broken tile or other material selected4 ,place in position wooden forms made of #b by #d's1 these #b by #d's to be set on edge and held in position by stakes firmly driven in the ground1 the top edge to be located so as to accurately outline the established grade or slope of the walk or floor4 ,a walk should be higher in the center1 or at one edge1 to insure the water running off4 ,this slope should be of an inch to the foot4 ,,selection ,,of ,,materials ,particular attention must be paid to the selection of the materials and their mixing4 ,the concrete should be composed of gravel or crushed stone all of which will pass through a -inch mesh screen1 and be collected on a -inch mesh2 sand1 free from loam and preferably coarse1 and a grade of ,portland cement guaranteed to meet all the requirements of the ,standard ,specifications as adopted by the ,american ,society for ,testing ,materials and the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers4 ,,proportions ,the strength of the slab is not always governed by its thickness4 ,the greater strength is obtained by properly proportioning the gravel or crushed stone1 sand and ,portland cement1 so that all the spaces between the stone are filled with sand and cement4 ,illustration ,the ,portland cement1 sand and gravel or crushed stone should be mixed in proportions1 if the sand is not very coarse1 of #a3 #b3 #d--which means1 #a part ,portland cement1 #b parts sand1 #d parts gravel or crushed stone1 all passing a -inch mesh and all collected on a -inch mesh4 ,if the sand is coarse and the crushed stone or gravel well graded in size of particles1 it may be mixed in proportions of #a part ,portland cement1 #b parts sand1 #e parts gravel or broken stone4 ,all proportions are measured by volume4 ,bank run gravel is often used for sidewalk work1 particularly where a good bank can be found on the farm4 ,it is safer1 if this material be used1 to screen out the pebbles1 using them as stone1 measuring the quantities of stone and sand as described above4 ,concrete should not be laid in freezing weather4 ,illustration ,,consistency ,,of ,,concrete ,mix the concrete as described on page #ae to a consistency that when tamped1 it will not quake1 but it should be sufficiently wet so that some moisture will rise to the surface under tamping4 ,,placing ,divide the walk by setting forms at right angles to the side forms4 ,the cross forms can be made of #b by #d's4 ,these provide for expansion and contraction joints4 ,hold these forms in place by driving stakes through the foundation into the ground on the opposite side from where the concrete is to be placed4 ,spread the concrete over the drainage foundation to the thickness of the walk or floor1 and in slabs not over #f feet square4 ,the thickness of a walk should be #d inches1 a driveway #f inches1 a floor over which a wagon may be driven #f inches1 and all other floors #d inches4 ,fill in every other slab1 placing enough forms to use up all the concrete mixed in one batch4 ,no batch should stand longer than one half hour before being placed4 ,tamp the concrete thoroughly4 ,use a template1 with ends resting on the side forms1 and cut to a curve to give the walk the necessary crown4 ,the concrete should be tamped so as to conform to the curve of the template4 ,if one edge of the walk is made higher than the other1 use a straight edge resting on the side forms4 ,tamp the concrete to conform to the straight edge4 ,illustration ,mix another batch of concrete1 remove the cross forms and place the concrete between each slab1 forming a continuous walk4 ,use the template or straight edge and tamp as before4 ,immediately after placing the closing slab1 work a straight trowel or knife down through the entire depth of the concrete between each slab1 thus insuring a perfect contraction joint4 ,smooth the surface with a wooden float4 ,illustration ,illustration ,a neat appearance may be given the contraction joints by running a jointer along the top1 thus smoothing the edges4 ,do this before the concrete gets too hard4 ,the sides of the walk may be smoothed in the same way by use of an edger4 ,illustration ,when the concrete is nearly hard go over the surface with a piece of oakum or a stiff brush1 removing the marks of the float and giving a good even wearing surface which will not be slippery4 ,in using oakum or a brush be careful not to remove the larger pieces of stone4 ,if surfacing in this manner disturbs the particles of stone and roughens the walk to too great an extent1 allow the walk to harden a little more before finishing in this way4 ,at the end of each day's work see that the last slab is entirely filled and finished4 ,illustration ,all interior floors1 such as floors of cellar1 barns and stables require no contraction joints4 ,they are made by laying a solid continuous sheet of concrete4 ,all outside floors should have contraction joints forming slabs not over #f feet square4 ,these are provided the same as in sidewalks4 ,a feeding floor is formed merely by sidewalk pavements set side by side4 ,instead of using a template for crowning the surface1 use a straight edge1 each end resting on the extreme outside forms to give a slope to the feeding floor4 ,contraction joints for exterior floors are formed in the same way as for sidewalks4 ,the concrete is also placed in alternate slabs and finished in the same way as sidewalks4 ,when completed the walk or floor must be continuously protected from the rays of the sun and from the wind for at least three days1 so that it will not dry out at any time4 ,this can be easily done by covering the concrete when it is hard with hay1 straw1 or old carpet4 ,this covering should be thoroughly soaked with water1 and kept wet for three or four days or longer if economy will permit4 ,illustration ,while the walk or floor is hardening it should be so protected as to prevent persons or animals from disfiguring the surface by walking on it4 ,illustration ,a ,foundation ,gutter and ,walk ,illustration ,foundation gutters catch the water from off the rain-beaten side of the building1 quickly carry it away1 and1 by preventing 8seepage10 keep the cellar1 basement1 or ground-floor dry4 ,in sloppy1 muddy weather1 they also serve as convenient walks around the out-buildings4 ,determine the grading or sloping of the gutter bottom from observation of direction of the flow of surface water during rain storms1 or from local conditions1 such as location of outlet into underground drain4 ,excavate a trench #a foot #f inches in width1 #aj inches deep on each side1 and hollowed out to #ac inches deep in the middle4 ,use a straight edge or a grade cord1 together with a spirit level1 to give the bottom of the trench the desired slope or 8fall40 ,for each foot of length a slope of one-eighth inch will be sufficient4 ,clean the dirt off the foundation wall with a stiff broom or brush4 ,in the bottom of the trench place a #f-;inch foundation of well-8tamped0 gravel1 brickbats or crushed stone4 ,make a one-bag batch of concrete in proportions1 #a3 #b3 #e4 ,have the mixture just wet enough to tamp well4 ,illustration ,place a #d-;inch thickness of concrete to form a dish-shaped gutter #c inches deep in the middle4 ,every five feet1 make an expansion joint of an inch wide by inserting a metal strip not less than #g inches wide and #ah inches long1 or by cutting a joint entirely through the concrete with a straight spade4 ,smooth the surface with a wooden float4 ,illustration ,materials ,required ,one cubic yard crushed rock or screened gravel2 cubic yard sand2 #f bags of ,portland cement1 for a #ej-;foot section4 ,repairs to ,farm ,buildings ,since wood always fails first at the ground1 the use of concrete on the farm has developed from the ground up4 ,after a farmer has had to replace several sills or blocks of wood1 he begins to look about him for a new material which will not rot or will not have to be replaced4 ,concrete is his natural selection4 ,illustration ,illustration ,support the building by temporary struts1 alongside of the post to be removed4 ,saw off post entirely above rotten part4 ,dig a hole directly under the post #b feet deep1 and slightly larger than the post itself4 ,build a box with sides only1 with the same inside measurement as the hole already dug4 ,the box must be long enough to reach from the ground to a few inches above the bottom of post4 ,fill hole with concrete1 mixed #a3 #b3 #d4 ,then place the box in position1 and fill it with concrete until the bottom of the sawed-off post is embedded about an inch in the mixture4 ,leave the forms in place for one week and after two weeks remove the struts which have been used as temporary support for the building4 ,the concrete should be mixed fairly wet1 and churned with a stick while being placed4 ,the bottom of the foundation may be made larger than the top1 by simply sloping one side of the box form--giving the effect shown in the photograph4 ,why ,concrete ,should be ,used to ,repair ,farm ,buildings ,repairs to foundations of this kind vary greatly in size and shape4 ,concrete is the only material which can be used for any purpose1 whether large or small1 without first having to be cut to the shape and size desired4 ,consequently there is no cheaper known material for this kind of work4 ,illustration ,replacing an ,entire ,foundation with ,concrete ,the work can be done by the farmer1 with the help of his own farm labor1 at times when more important work is not claiming his attention4 ,foundations of concrete are indestructible4 ,at necessary points1 remove a few stones or bricks1 as the case may be1 inserting short pieces of heavy timber to wedge or jack up the building4 ,carefully raise the building1 by this means1 until it stands free of all foundations4 ,remove all the old stone or brick foundation to be replaced1 and set in place the forms for the concrete4 ,small buildings can usually be raised high enough to allow working room1 whereby the form may be filled right up to the top with concrete4 ,the mixture should be a wet one4 7,proportions1 #a3 #b3 #d47 ,where buildings are too cumbersome to be raised by 8jacking10 to a sufficient height to give head-room1 it will be found necessary to make the foundations #c inches wider than the sill4 ,carry the forms to the desired height and utilize this extra #c inches of width for placing the concrete in the forms4 ,the top board of the forms may also be left off until you are ready to place the last of the concrete4 ,in this case the last batch of the concrete should be very wet4 ,tamp the concrete until it comes up flush with the bottom of the sill1 to the entire width of the wall4 ,be sure to leave a space in the concrete wall1 under and on the sides of the underpinning support1 so that the building may later be lowered back onto the new foundation and the timber removed4 ,this opening must be slightly larger than the underpinning support4 ,after the building has been lowered fill these openings with concrete4 ,lower the building after the foundation has been in two weeks4 ,a ,concrete ,entrance ,floor ,illustration ,illustration ,at a point #c feet from the building1 dig a trench #f inches wide and #ah inches deep--the length of this trench to be #b feet greater than the width of the doorway of the building4 ,from the edge of the trench nearest to the building1 dig away the earth between trench and building to a depth of #a foot1 and place here1 to a depth of #f inches1 a fill of either coarse gravel or crushed rock4 ,do not1 however1 place any of this gravel fill in the trench4 ,mix concrete #a3 #b3 #e1 and lay same1 first in the trench1 and then on top of the gravel fill2 sloping the surface so that it just meets the floor level at the doorway4 ,before the concrete has had time to set1 provide a runway slot for the sliding doors--or better1 build little guides or humps with the concrete1 to hold the doors in position4 ,if the doors happen to be swinging ones1 place a gas pipe or iron socket in the soft concrete1 for a 8shove-fastener40 ,note the concrete curb on the right of entrance door4 ,this prevents the gravel that surrounds the building from washing down onto the approach and getting in the way of the doors4 ,to build this curb1 use #a-;inch planks placed on top of the concrete floor1 to serve as forms to hold concrete in place4 ,materials ,required ,one cubic yard of crushed stone or screened gravel2 #b cubic yards of sand2 #e bags of ,portland cement4 ,this entrance floor was constructed in half a day1 by one man4 ,illustration ,farm ,buildings ,should be ,connected by a ,concrete ,driveway ,by using concrete to connect up buildings1 this farmer has a solid1 substantial roadway that will last for all time--instead of the usual muddy1 untidy space that ordinarily separates such buildings4 ,to construct a driveway between the various buildings of a farm1 first excavate a trench #ab inches deep1 this trench being the exact width that you wish the finished driveway to be4 ,six feet is a convenient width2 but the drive should be made slightly wider than this at the corners to provide for turning of vehicles4 ,place in the trench a fill of gravel to a depth of #f inches and tamp it well4 ,on top of the gravel fill1 place your concrete mixture1 to a depth of #f inches on the sides1 and #g inches at the center4 ,illustration ,for this work1 concrete should be mixed in proportions #a3 #b3 #e1 and wet enough to pack well4 ,illustration ,to finish1 no mortar is needed4 ,leave the surface rough1 so as to afford a better footing for the horses and cattle4 ,materials ,required #e bags of ,portland cement cubic yard of sand make a section of roadway #a cubic yard of crushed stone or #f by #aj feet screened gravel ,approximate cost1 at current prices of materials1 #f cents per square foot of surface4 ,alleyways ,between ,buildings ,the farmer of to-day plans for comfort and convenience4 ,about the home1 mud is the greatest of all nuisances4 ,in the spring and winter1 the driveways from the public road and the alleyways between buildings become so muddy that they are often impassable4 ,as a result the grassy lawns and lots are driven over1 cut to pieces1 and the general appearance of the farm is ruined4 ,moreover1 in bad weather the chores cannot be done unless the 8hands0 wear rubber boots4 ,the women and children are unable to get out to gather the eggs and to see after the poultry4 ,muddy feet track up the house walks and floors4 ,alleyways between buildings are built of concrete similar to driveways with this exception--they are made dish-shaped to the same extent that the driveway is crowned4 ,this carries the roof water away from the buildings instead of letting it soak in around the foundation walls4 ,illustration ,carriage ,washing ,floors ,nothing will take the sticky mud off the wheels and body of a rig except water4 ,people have at times tried to remove this mud by scraping1 but have found that after the mud has once dried a large amount of the varnish comes off with it and the 8looks0 of the carriage is ruined4 ,convenience in washing means that the wagon is pulled just outside of the barn and quite near the pump or other source of water supply4 ,all of the carriages are washed in exactly this same spot1 and1 as this is done day after day the washing place very shortly becomes nothing more nor less than a mud hole4 ,to avoid this a concrete floor should be built4 ,this floor should be of the size to take not only the wheels of the rig but the shafts or tongue as well4 ,unlike feeding and other floors1 this floor is built with a slope toward the center1 with a catch basin under the middle1 from which a drain leads4 ,thus all of the water1 together with the mud coming off the wagon1 flows into the basin4 ,this basin should be protected with a grating1 with holes in same not less than of an inch4 ,this grating should be removable so that the mud1 which is bound to flow into the basin1 can be removed4 ,a pipe less than #f inches should not be used to connect this basin up with a sewer or ditch outlet4 ,this will prevent the stoppage of the drain for many years4 ,a slope from the edges of the floor to the drain of of an inch to the foot should be made4 ,to lay the floor proceed exactly as described in 8,sidewalks10 and1 as the floor is exposed to the weather1 contraction joints must be provided1 as in ,feeding ,floors4 ,after the floor is finished and while the concrete is yet soft1 make grooves in it1 running from the basin to the edges of the floor4 ,this can be done by taking a ,v-shaped strip of wood and driving it into the concrete at regular intervals by means of a tamper4 ,this strip of wood should be thoroughly greased so that it may be removed without having the concrete stick to its surface4 ,illustration ,feeding ,floors and ,barnyard ,pavements ,the saving principle of feeding floors has long been recognized by successful breeders and feeders of live stock4 ,the trouble1 heretofore1 has been to obtain an entirely satisfactory material for floor construction4 ,disadvantages of ,wooden ,floors ,wooden floors kept the feed out of the mud and dust and not only saved every particle of grain but also prevented wheezing coughs and otherwise temporarily improved the health of the animal4 ,however1 in a short time1 the best wooden floors rotted out and became infected with disease germs4 ,often floors had to be burned to free the farm of hog cholera4 ,advantages of ,concrete ,in concrete the farmer and ranchman have found an ideal floor material4 ,such floors not only effect a saving in feed1 a shortening in the time of fattening and a decrease in labor1 but also afford perfect protection to the health of the animal4 ,concrete floors do not soak up water and therefore cannot become infected with disease germs4 ,their surfaces can be easily cleaned and thoroughly disinfected with oils and dips4 ,rats cannot nest under them4 ,careful tests have shown that concrete floors1 through the saving of grain and manure alone1 pay for themselves in the short period of one year4 ,how to ,build ,feeding ,floors ,feeding floors are merely several sidewalks laid side by side1 and the same general rules of construction 7given under ,,sidewalks1 page #bh7 apply to them4 ,choose a site in the lot where the ground is slightly sloping1 well drained and wind protected1 and convenient to feed and water4 ,drainage ,foundation ,excavate to a depth of #ab inches for the drainage foundation1 and around the outside edges of the entire floor dig a trench #ab inches wide and #ah inches deep4 7,this trench1 filled with concrete1 prevents hog wallows from undermining the floor and keeps the rats from nesting under it47 ,fill all of this space 7except the trench7 to the natural ground level with well tamped coarse gravel1 crushed rock1 tile culls or brickbats4 ,this fill forms the drainage foundation as described for sidewalks4 ,grading the ,floor ,the floor must be graded or sloped so that water will not collect on it in the winter and so that the manure washings may be caught by the gutters and run to the water-tight concrete manure pit4 7,to shape the gutter1 make a mold or template by rounding the corners on the flat side of a #f-;foot length of a #d by #f-;inch timber47 ,a gentle slope1 toward the low corner1 of of an inch for each foot of length or width is sufficient4 ,this is secured by the use of a heavy grade stake at each corner of the floor1 a straight edge or a grade line1 and a spirit level4 ,it is an advantage to have a feeding floor its full thickness above ground4 ,make light floors #d inches and floors subject to heavy loads #f inches thick4 ,for the forms use #b-;inch lumber of a width equal to the floor thickness4 ,begin on a low side of the floor4 ,mark the grade height on each corner stake and set the forms to a grade cord stretched from stake to stake4 ,use only good materials and mix the concrete #a3 #b3 #e according to direction on page #ae4 ,placing the ,concrete ,always begin placing the concrete on the low side of the floor1 so that the rain from sudden showers will not run from the hard onto the newly placed concrete4 ,fill the trench and the slab section of the forms with concrete4 ,bring the surface to grade by drawing over it a straight edge with its ends on the opposite forms or with one end on the form and the other on the finished concrete4 ,four inches in from the edge1 on each of the low sides1 temporarily embed the rounded #d by #f-;inch gutter mold and tamp it down until its square top is even with the surface of the slab section of the floor4 ,remove the mold1 finish with a wooden float and cure the floor as described on pages #ca-cd4 ,connect the gutters with the manure pit by means of a trough1 another gutter1 or by large drain tile laid underground4 ,illustration ,on the next page is given an itemized bill of materials necessary for a #f-;inch floor #bd by #cf feet1 amply large to accommodate #ej hogs4 ,materials ,required ,crushed rock or screened gravel1 #bj cubic yards #a4aj #bb4jj ,sand1 #aj cubic yards #a4jj #aj4jj ,portland cement1 #bh barrels #b4ej #gj4jj ------- #ajb4jj ,mixing the concrete by hand1 #e men can usually finish this floor in two days4 ,depending upon the price of labor and materials and the thickness of the concrete1 the floor will cost #f to #ab cents for each square foot of surface4 ,illustration ,manure ,pits and ,cisterns ,for restoring the fertility of the fields1 there is nothing better than barnyard manure4 ,by the ordinary methods of piling it on the ground or storing it in wooden pens1 from #cj to #ej per cent4 of the manure's strength is wasted4 ,this loss is brought about in two ways3 ,first--,by 8leaching0 or washing out1 due to heavy rains4 ,second--,by heating or 8firing10 caused by lack of sufficient moisture4 ,since concrete pits are waterproof1 manure can be kept in them as moist as necessary4 ,moreover1 with concrete pits the supply of manure is increased1 as all the liquid manure1 from the gutters of the barns1 barnyard pavements and feeding floors1 is saved4 ,how to ,build ,locate the manure pit handy to the barn and so as to catch the manure from the outside floors4 ,two pits may be better than one4 ,excavate the hole to the desired size and depth4 7,manure pits are seldom over #d feet deep47 ,dig a sump hole #c feet square and #b feet deep at one corner of the pit4 ,slope the floor toward this hole1 from which a pump will draw the liquid manure4 ,frame forms of #a-;inch siding on #b by #d-;inch studding spaced #b feet1 so as to mold a wall #h inches thick4 ,if the dirt sides stand firm1 they will serve for the outside form and nothing but an inside form will be required4 ,mix the concrete #a3 #b3 #d 7see page #aa74 ,lay the floor so that it will be one solid piece #f inches thick4 ,no contraction joints will be necessary4 ,without delay1 set up the forms1 brace them firmly and fill them with concrete as directed under ,,dipping ,,vats1 pages #gf-hj4 ,if a very large pit is needed1 build it with sloping concrete ends sufficiently wide to accommodate a manure spreader4 ,let the inclines be gentle1 and1 to give the horses a firm footing1 embed iron cleats every #ah inches in the slopes1 the same as for dipping tanks4 ,cisterns for liquid manure only1 may be made like ordinary ,,cisterns1 page #fh4 ,however1 the solid manure rots more quickly and is better for the fields if both solids and liquids are kept in the same pit4 ,an ordinary pump1 with a pipe leading to the sump hole1 covered with a grating1 is a convenient means of removing the liquid4 ,liquid manure is especially good for the vegetable and flower garden1 since it contains no weed seed4 ,cover the pits or keep the manure well soaked with water1 so as to remove the principal breeding places of the house and barn fly4 ,illustration ,the manure pit shown in the photograph is located in the side of a little hill4 ,it is #ba feet long1 #ad feet wide1 #aj feet deep on the hillside and #f feet deep on the low side4 ,the bottom is #f inches and the walls #h inches thick4 ,four men built the pit in two days4 ,materials ,required ,screened gravel or crushed rock #ag cubic yards at #a4aj #ah4gj ,sand #h cubic yards at #a4jj #h4ej ,portland cement #cj barrels at #b4ej #ge4jj ------- #ajb4bj ,the ,value of ,manure ,pits ,rotten manure not only enriches the ground1 but also increases the water-holding capacity of the soil4 ,one load of well rotted manure from a concrete pit is worth two loads of manure as ordinarily stored4 ,illustration ,concrete ,barnyards ,the advantages of concrete feeding floors so appealed to the farmers who first built them that they enlarged the floors until their entire barnyards were surfaced with concrete4 ,it is no uncommon sight in the spring and winter to see an earthen barn lot so deep with mud that animals go thirsty rather than attempt a trip to the water trough4 ,the effect is bad on all kinds of livestock1 especially on fattening animals and dairy cattle4 8,feeders0 must have an abundance of water to fatten quickly4 ,insufficient water cuts down the quantity of milk given by dairy cows4 ,lack of enough exercise further decreases the yield4 ,an occasional trip through this mud to the trough1 so cakes the cows' udders with dirt that the milker wastes valuable time in washing them--and they must be washed1 if one would have clean1 wholesome milk4 ,continual tracking through the mud not only makes more currying1 but often produces that irritation on horses' legs known as 8scratches40 ,suddenly frozen1 such an earthen lot is so rough that it is impassable4 ,moreover1 the old barnyard--with its surface worked up year after year--becomes a storage place1 which carries over the disease germs from one season to another4 ,the 8droppings0 are entirely lost1 and1 mixed with the earth1 tend to make the lot muddier the following year4 ,to keep up the fertility of the soil1 all the manure produced on a farm should be saved and returned to the fields4 ,concrete ,floors ,increase ,profits ,a concrete barnyard makes a fine exercise lot in all kinds of weather and always affords a dry spot for the animal's bed4 ,every shower washes the surface clean and flushes the droppings into the manure pits4 ,concrete yards lighten the work of the housewife1 as there is no mud to be tracked on the walks and kitchen floor4 ,the use of rubber boots is unnecessary4 ,on concrete floors not a particle of grain need be wasted4 ,the way to the water trough is always dry1 smooth and passable4 ,concrete floors promote and protect the health of farm animals and increase the profits of farming1 stock raising and dairying4 ,illustration ,construction ,the construction of concrete barnyards is exactly like that of ,,feeding ,,floors1 page #dc1 except that the work is on a larger scale4 ,often the entire lot is not paved in one season1 but from year to year as the farmer has time4 ,in excavating for the drainage foundation 7see ,,sidewalks1 page #bi71 be careful to remove all manure and straw which may be tramped into the ground and which may be so solid as to resemble earth4 ,in time any kind of manure decays1 shrinks1 causes the floor to settle and forms water and ice pockets on its surface4 ,dig the trench for the foundation apron as for ,,feeding ,,floors--there is no material so rat-proof as concrete4 ,with the drainage foundation ready1 set the forms in the manner described for ,,sidewalks4 ,even if the whole lot is not to be paved at one time1 plan the grading for the entire barnyard so that the completed pavement may have perfect surface drainage4 ,build and cure the pavement and make provision for saving the manure the same as for concrete ,,feeding ,,floors4 ,do not be too particular about giving the surface a smooth finish--a rougher finish affords the animals a better footing4 ,the cost per square foot is no more than that of feeding floors--the investment yields a greater profit4 ,feeding ,troughs1 ,racks and ,mangers ,with a progressive farmer1 the health of his livestock is second in importance only to that of his family4 ,concrete is a great factor in promoting and preserving health4 ,with concrete troughs1 animals are seldom 8off their feed03 there are no slivers to stick into their gums4 ,even with wet feed1 concrete troughs are never sour4 ,concrete does not rot and become infested with disease germs4 ,such troughs and mangers can be thoroughly disinfected without injuring them4 ,troughs for ,horses1 ,cattle1 and ,sheep ,in general1 the method of constructing feeding troughs and mangers for horses and cattle is practically the same as for ,,watering ,,troughs ,,and ,,tanks1 page #gd4 ,an outdoor trough1 suitable for feeding grain or silage to cattle and horses1 is shown on page #dh4 7,however1 most farmers will prefer not to locate a feeding trough in a fence corner47 ,this trough is #aj feet long and #b feet #b inches wide1 outside measurements4 ,the bottom is #d inches thick as also are the side and end walls at the top1 but these walls slope on the inside to a thickness of #f inches at the bottom4 ,this extra thickness makes not only a stronger feeding trough1 but also one more easily cleaned out4 ,the entire trough is reinforced with heavy woven wire fencing laid within #a inch of the bottom and the same distance from the inside face of the side walls4 ,the trough is held #a foot #d inches above ground by concrete benches1 #b feet #b inches wide1 #a foot thick1 and extending #c feet below the ground or feeding floor surface4 ,in locating troughs1 follow the same principles laid down under ,,feeding ,,floors4 ,dig the trenches for the concrete supports and carry the concrete 7mixed #a3 #b3 #d7 to the necessary height by means of open box forms similar to the one shown on page #cf4 ,use a spirit level to get the tops of these supports even4 ,immediately set the outside trough form1 previously made with openings in the bottom board1 to match the concrete supports4 ,provide a #b-;inch drain hole1 corked with a greased1 tapering wooden plug long enough to extend through the concrete4 ,place #a inch of concrete over the bottom1 lay the heavy woven wire fencing so that it will extend up into the side walls4 ,tamp in the bottom the remaining #c inches of concrete4 ,finish this concrete with a steel trowel4 ,at once set in the sloping inside mold1 built as one piece and without a bottom4 ,fill the space between the inside and outside forms with wet concrete4 ,after the concrete is hard enough to bear considerable pressure of the thumb 7usually five to seven hours71 carefully remove the inside mold4 ,no painting with neat cement 7cement mixed with water7 or plastering will be needed if the inside form is smooth4 ,do not take down the outside forms for two weeks4 ,to make this same trough of suitable height for small calves or sheep1 place around it a fill of gravel of the necessary depth4 ,two men can build such a trough in less than a day4 ,materials ,required ,crushed rock or screened gravel #a cubic yard at #a4aj #a4aj ,sand cubic yard at #a4jj 4#ej ,portland cement #a barrels at #b4ej #c4ge ----- #e4ce ,feeding ,troughs for ,hogs ,illustration ,feeding troughs for hogs are usually built as a part of the feeding floor1 according to the plan shown1 and similar to ,,watering ,,troughs1 page #gd4 ,illustration ,a ,fire-protected ,feed ,cooker ,illustration ,concrete is a first aid to the farmer in preventing fires4 ,the photographs shown here are of a wooden building in which a feed cooker for hogs and poultry is installed4 ,discovery of a fire in the building a few years ago led this farmer to thoroughly protect his building by surrounding his cooker with that most fireproof material--concrete4 ,the old wooden floor was first torn out1 a fill of coarse gravel tamped in1 and a #e-;inch floor of concrete laid on top1 mixed #a3 #b3 #e4 ,immediately under and around the cooker the floor was dropped down #h inches to prevent chance sparks from blowing about4 ,at the back of the cooker1 on the #b by #d-;inch studding1 heavy woven wire was securely fastened1 and by temporarily placing a wooden wall #d inches in front1 to act as a form1 an #h-;inch concrete wall was built4 ,this wall was made #h feet wide and #e feet high4 ,the foundation for the wall extends #c feet below the floor level4 ,illustration ,on the top of this wall rests the chimney4 ,the chimney is #ab by #ad inches on the outside1 with a single flue #h inches round1 and is #aj feet high4 ,this height is sufficient to clear the roof4 ,for the inside form #h-;inch sewer pipe was used and left in place 7stovepipe or drain tile could also be used74 ,ordinary box forms were used for the outside forms1 made as described on page #cf4 ,the chimney was reinforced with a -inch rod running from top to bottom in each corner1 #a inches from the edge4 ,the lower ends of these rods are firmly embedded in the concrete wall on which the chimney rests4 ,as this improvement was made by the farm hands1 the cost of the floor was only #e cents a square foot1 while the wall and chimney cost #e4jj4 ,not only has that dread of fire which keeps many a man awake at night been overcome1 but the whole feed cooker house can be kept in a most cleanly condition at all times4 ,rats1 the greatest pest known to the farmer1 are driven away4 ,these animals cannot nest in concrete4 ,illustration ,hog ,wallows--,automatic ,dipping ,tanks ,a wallow is as necessary for a hog as a bath-tub is for a human being4 ,a clean bath benefits the health of a hog1 especially if the wallow is filled with a dipping solution4 ,this combination not only saves the lives of fat hogs on hot days1 but also aids greatly in preventing cholera4 ,see ,,dipping ,,tanks1 page #gf4 ,locate the wallow in a convenient place near the water supply4 ,a level1 well drained spot1 where the mud will not wash into it1 is best4 7,the wallow shown in the photograph is in the hog house1 and is a large dish in the concrete floor47 ,make the wallow #h by #ab-;feet4 ,dig out the hole with straight sides to the depth of #b feet #b inches4 ,lay a drainage foundation #aj inches thick--see ,,sidewalks1 page #bi4 ,set a #aj-;inch board around the outside of the hole to keep the dirt from crumbling in on the concrete4 ,mix the concrete #a3 #b3 #d and place a #f-;inch floor in the hole4 ,as the concrete is laid1 embed woven wire in it #a inch from the bottom4 ,have the concrete for the side walls fairly dry and tamp it to the shape and dimensions--#d inches thick at the top and #aj inches at the floor line4 ,the sloping sides make cleaning easy4 ,keep all animals away from the wallow for two weeks4 ,three men built this wallow easily in one day4 ,materials ,required ,screened gravel or crushed rock #b cubic yards #a4aj #b4ge ,sand #a cubic yards #a4jj #a4be ,portland cement #d barrels #b4ej #aa4be ------ #ae4be ,illustration ,a ,corn ,crib ,floor of ,concrete ,rats love grain2 and therefore the corn crib is usually the rat headquarters of the farm4 ,by building corn cribs and granary floors of concrete the farmer takes a long step toward rat extermination4 ,lay out the building3 for the foundation wall1 dig a trench #ab inches wide and from #b to #c feet below ground level4 ,set box forms1 so as to bring the surface of the finished foundation and floor #a to #b feet above ground level1 according to the height of the 8drag0 conveyor used by local corn-shellers4 ,as the floor will only be #f inches thick1 fill in between the foundation walls with gravel to within a distance of #f inches of top of forms4 ,soak this fill thoroughly1 and tamp and roll it well1 before placing concrete on top4 ,mix concrete 7#a3 #b3 #d7 and fill the foundation forms4 ,beginning at one end of the building1 lay the concrete floor in sections #d feet wide1 and continue until the entire floor is placed4 ,in order to fasten the wooden sill for the granary uprights to the concrete floor1 insert -inch bolts heads down or strap irons bent like capital ,z's at the necessary points in the green concrete of foundation4 ,the bolts are long enough to pass through holes in the sill and to receive nuts and washers4 ,the straps are long enough to be spiked to the uprights4 ,illustration ,finish the surface of the floor with a steel trowel1 so as to render scooping of the grain an easy matter4 ,approximate cost per square foot of floor surface1 #ab cents4 ,illustration ,concrete ,barn ,floors ,investigations of the ,department of ,agriculture have disclosed the fact that many cases of typhoid fever and malaria1 often considered unaccountable in their origin1 are the result of the germs being carried by the house-fly4 ,screens1 flypaper1 and poisons are all very well1 in a small way1 but to free the place of flies means getting rid of the conditions which produce them4 ,leaving out the manure pile 7see ,,manure ,,pits1 page #de71 the favorite breeding-place of flies is the foul floors of the cow and horse barns4 ,the barn can be almost entirely rid of flies by building floors and manure pits of concrete4 ,the ,advantages of ,concrete ,floors ,there are no flies to make the horses stamp4 ,rats have no hiding-place about concrete floors4 ,no other floor is as slick as a manure-soaked wooden floor4 ,concrete floors may be finished as rough or corrugated1 as may be desired4 ,concrete floors do not soak up water4 ,the liquids run into the gutters and thence to the manure pits4 ,the floor may be flushed with water and kept as clean and odorless as a kitchen floor4 ,all kinds of barn floors must be bedded down4 ,concrete floors are warmer and cleaner than any other kind1 for they are always dry4 ,besides1 heat and cold do not easily pass through concrete4 ,concrete floors afford good fire protection4 ,no fire can be started on concrete floors by a shiftless farm 8hand0 dropping cigarette stubs or matches on their surface4 ,good farm 8hands0 prefer to work where there are concrete floors3 they lighten the labor4 ,concrete floors have no uneven edges to catch the scoop and to ruffle the temper4 ,illustration ,concrete in the ,cow ,barn ,with cleanly milk and butter producers1 it is no longer a matter of floor or no floor2 it is merely a question of which is the best floor for the cow barn4 ,the best dairymen long ago decided in favor of concrete4 ,on account of many epidemics of 8catching0 diseases1 directly traceable to milk1 city authorities are forcing the careless dairyman to decide--concrete floors are one of the requirements for certified milk4 ,the stalls of dairy barns are arranged with the cows in the opposite rows of stalls standing with their heads or their heels toward each other4 ,the stall plan depends entirely upon the arrangements for bringing in feed and removing manure4 ,the plan below is for a barn with the cows' heads toward each other4 ,if the dairyman prefers the other arrangement1 the same plan can easily be adapted to it4 ,a width of #h feet #f inches provides sufficient room for a manure spreader4 ,illustration ,illustration ,how to ,build ,dairy ,barn ,floors ,consider a barn planned to have the two rows of cows facing each other4 ,remove all manure and other foreign matter together with such humps of earth as may be necessary to give the floor a slight slope in the direction in which the manure will be taken out4 ,begin the construction of the floors at the two sides of the barn so that the middle and ends may be used as working space4 ,on the earthen floor1 at a distance of #d;feet from the side walls of the barn1 set on edge a line of #b by #f-;inch boards1 extending the entire length of the building4 ,support these boards by stakes driven firmly in the ground on the side of the board away from the barn wall4 ,by means of a carpenter's spirit level and a grade line1 see that the tops of these boards have an even slope 7say -inch per foot7 toward the manure pit4 ,allowing a clear intervening space of #aj inches1 set up in a similar way a line of #b by #h-;inch boards with the supporting stakes inside of the #aj-;inch space and with the top of this board #b inches higher than the #f-;inch board4 ,in this space the drop gutter will later be constructed4 ,the ,alleyway ,between the wall and the #f-;inch board tamp in sufficient gravel to even off all irregularities in the ground surface and to allow the building of a #e-;inch thickness of floor1 sloping inch from the wall toward the gutter4 ,mix the concrete #a3 #b3 #e1 tamp into place1 and finish the surface with a wooden float and a wire brush4 ,the roughened surface thus produced gives the cows a good footing4 ,the ,stall ,floor ,with the alley finished1 begin the construction of the floor of the stalls proper4 ,for the average sized cow1 the usual length of stall is #d feet #h inches from stanchion to drop gutter and the width is #c feet #f inches4 ,the stall floor should slope not less than inch toward the drop gutter to provide for drainage4 ,if an adjustable stanchion fastener is to be used1 set it in the center of the #f-;inch manger wall4 ,the length of the stall is regulated by this device4 ,for a stall #d feet #h inches long1 set the outside board 7#b by #ab inches7 of the manger wall #e feet #b inches from the drop gutter4 ,the top of this board will be #g inches above the finished floor4 ,this extra height provides a form for the manger wall4 ,in this space1 place the #e-;inch floor in the same manner as the alleyway was laid4 ,if gas pipe stall divisions are to be used later1 make mortises in the floor at the proper points by tamping the concrete around a core of the right size1 removing the core when the concrete has stiffened4 ,illustration ,the ,manger ,illustration ,as soon as the floor of three stalls has been concreted and while the concrete is yet green1 build the concrete manger wall upon the new stall floor4 ,the projecting #g inches of the #b by #ab-;inch board already in place serves as the outer wall form4 8,toe nail0 two #a by #f-;inch boards together at their edges1 thus providing a #g-;inch height for the other manger wall form and a bearing plate to rest on the green stall floor4 ,set this wall form so as to leave a #f-;inch space for the manger wall4 ,cross-brace these wall forms upon each other and if necessary drive an occasional nail through the bearing plate into the new concrete4 ,fill the space between the forms with concrete1 setting the stanchion fasteners at the same time4 ,continue in the same manner until the stall floors are finished4 ,if desired1 the back wall of the manger may be given a dish shape for a swinging stanchion4 ,illustration ,then commence the work on the other side of the barn1 constructing the floor of the alleyway and stall in exactly the same manner4 ,the ,feedway ,with the alleys and stalls finished1 begin work on the feedway4 ,if possible1 this should be at least #h feet wide4 ,as the bottom of the manger should be on a level with the stall floor and since the top of the feedway floor must be at least #h inches above the bottom of the manger1 place sufficient gravel fill 7well tamped7 to bring about this result4 ,to hold in place the #e-;inch concrete of the feedway alley floor and to provide for sloping front walls of the mangers1 set a #b by #aj-;inch board1 spaced 7from the other wall of the manger7 #a foot #f inches at the bottom and #a foot #aj inches at the top4 ,these sloping walls allow all feed to be swept back into the mangers and all trash to be easily removed from them4 ,build the #e-;inch floor of the feedway1 crowning it to #f inches thick in the middle4 ,see ,,sidewalks1 page #ca4 ,horse ,barn ,floors ,concrete floors are equally as valuable for the horse barn as for the cow stable4 ,the same principles govern the floor construction4 ,naturally there must be a few changes in the dimensions4 ,single stalls are usually #e feet wide and #i feet from the front wall of the manger to the drop gutter4 ,as the gutter is generally covered with a rough cast-iron plate sunk flush with the concrete1 carrying liquids alone1 it need not be so wide and deep as for the dairy barn4 ,a clear width of #aj and a depth of #c inches are sufficient4 ,concrete ,mangers ,many farmers are to-day building their mangers or racks of concrete4 8,stump suckers0 lose the habit when fed in concrete mangers4 ,illustration ,the manger is constructed along the general lines laid down for ,,outdoor ,,feeding ,,troughs1 page #dh4 ,a form satisfactory for building horse barn mangers is shown in the photograph4 ,the feed trough can be molded as a part of the manger by using a box form like an ordinary wooden feeding trough1 but #f inches wider and without end pieces4 ,saw out the manger forms so that the box will fit the opening4 ,when the manger forms have been filled with concrete to the feed trough level1 place #a inch of concrete over the bottom of the trough form1 lay in a strip of heavy woven wire fencing1 and then place the remaining #b inches of the #c-;inch bottom4 ,immediately set upon this concrete a bottomless box with end pieces1 of a size to allow for the #d-;inch manger wall and the #c-;inch side walls of the trough4 ,fill both manger and trough forms and embed a -inch rod in the side walls of the trough #a inch from the top4 ,make holes in the manger wall for the hitching strap by inserting a #b-;inch greased peg in the concrete4 ,imbed a #a-;foot length of -inch rod in the concrete above this hole4 ,scientists have found that rats distribute more disease than any other animal4 ,recognizing the danger1 state and city authorities1 the world over1 are spending vast sums of money in exterminating this pest4 ,if rats have no nesting place1 they cannot stay on the farm4 ,rats and mice cannot find a home about concrete floors1 nor can they climb concrete barn walls4 ,in a stable floored with concrete1 the horses can rest at noontime instead of stamping at flies4 ,illustration ,farmers ,build ,barn ,approaches of ,concrete ,illustration ,for purposes of drainage1 concrete barns are often built on the side of a hill1 the lower story being used for the livestock1 while the second floor is used as a wagon house and for feed and storage4 ,this arrangement necessitates a 8barn approach40 ,originally these approaches were simply of earth1 piled up in front of the door2 and quite often the earth extended beyond the ends of the barn4 ,by not allowing the approach fill to come right up to the barn1 the lower story of the barn receives the full benefit of light and ventilation on all four sides4 ,the concrete bridge gives a shelter for wagons and tools2 while a root cellar may be conveniently built under the barn approach4 ,such an approach adds greatly to the appearance of the barn and its surroundings4 ,economy of space made it desirable to provide a retaining wall to hold the earth in position--and concrete naturally came into use for the purpose4 ,the earth fill already in place in front of the barn door should be cut out to the desired width and a trench dug along both sides below the ground level to a depth of #b or #c feet1 and #a foot wide4 ,only outside forms are needed1 as the earth fill in the barn approach acts as an inside form4 ,these outside forms may be made up in sections as large as desired1 of #a-;inch planks1 with the necessary upright studding4 ,illustration ,mix concrete #a3 #b3 #d4 ,place the concrete in the foundation1 erect the forms1 holding these in position by nailing to stakes driven back of the forms in the ground4 ,the concrete can be placed with greatest convenience from the top of the earth fill that forms the approach4 ,in shoveling into the form1 be careful that the concrete strikes the wood form instead of the earthen side1 as concrete mixed with earth does not give the fullest possible strength4 ,a ,concrete ,barn ,foundation ,illustration ,on account of convenient arrangement1 economy of space1 and protection to the stock1 second story barns have become very popular4 ,at first the use of concrete for the walls of the first story was looked upon with doubt4 ,it might be damp4 ,it might make a cold stable4 ,yet the character of the material so well fitted the use that it was tried1 found entirely satisfactory1 and to-day is being used for the lower story of thousands of barns every year4 ,as this arrangement does not give a perfect fire protection to the stock1 a ceiling of concrete is provided1 furnishing a floor for the carriage house1 hay loft and granary1 through which rats cannot gnaw4 ,with this floor of concrete1 the top of a barn can burn off and the stock be perfectly safe4 ,illustration ,excavate a foundation trench to a depth below the frost line1 twenty inches wide4 ,fill with concrete mixed #a3 #b3 #e4 ,on this foundation erect the forms for the side walls1 spaced in such a way as to make the wall #ab inches thick4 ,these forms are made of #a-;inch siding1 with #b by #d-;inch studs1 spaced #ah inches apart4 ,fasten the forms securely at top and bottom as described in forms for 8,small ,farm ,buildings10 page #hb4 ,while erecting the forms1 place in position frames for the window and door openings4 ,these frames are removed after the concrete has become hard and the windows and doors placed4 ,if the concrete extends above the windows1 place three -inch iron rods #c inches above each opening1 and extending #ah inches beyond its sides4 ,insert bent iron rods in the concrete around the corners1 at intervals of every #b feet of height4 ,having carried the wall to the desired height1 provide for attaching the wooden superstructure to it by placing iron bolts every #e feet in the concrete while it is yet soft4 ,these should be placed with the head down1 allowing the nut end to extend above the wall a sufficient distance to pass through the sill and to afford length for a nut and washer4 ,if a concrete ceiling is to be placed over the stable1 erect forms in the same way as for a cistern cover described on page #fi4 ,this ceiling will have to be carefully reinforced1 and if there is any doubt about the quantity and position of this reinforcing1 a competent engineer should be consulted4 ,entire barns of concrete are being built in ever increasing numbers4 ,if so built1 the fire danger for that barn is forever removed4 ,a barn of concrete1 however1 with a wooden roof is not perfectly fireproof4 ,if the hay catches fire in such a barn1 the roof is burned up4 ,any one who has the ingenuity to build an entire barn of concrete can build a concrete roof as well4 ,illustration ,wind ,walls and ,their ,importance ,illustration ,to be healthy1 stock need exercise--in winter as well as summer4 ,but few farms are provided with an exercise lot sufficiently well protected against winter blasts to provide a safe exercising place4 ,the exercise lot should be located on the warm side of the buildings4 ,erect the wind wall on the side from which the winter storms most often come4 ,probably the most convenient way to build the wall will be in sections of #aj feet in length4 ,the wall will be #c inches thick at top1 #ab inches thick at the base1 #g feet above and #c below ground1 with the slope side toward exercise lot4 ,to securely brace the sections of this wall1 large posts 7called buttresses7 are needed4 ,these posts are the full height of the wall and are #ab by #ah inches square4 ,the narrow side is set with the line of fence1 and the buttresses are placed #aa feet apart from center to center4 ,the forms for these buttresses are the same as for gate posts1 with the exception that a beveled #b by #d-;inch timber is nailed vertically to the inside of each side wall of the form1 #c inches from the back board4 ,this leaves a slot in the finished buttress1 into which the slab sections of the wall are later 8keyed40 ,through these #b by #d's1 at points #c and #ae inches below the tops1 bore -inch holes through which -inch reinforcement rods will be placed and allowed to project into the wall proper about #ah inches4 ,illustration ,locate the points for the centers of the buttresses1 the first buttress at the beginning of the wall4 ,dig a hole for each buttress #ab by #ah inches and #d feet deep and erect the buttress forms4 ,fill the forms with wet concrete1 mixed #a3 #b3 #d4 ,do not forget to insert at the proper time the #c-;foot lengths of -inch rods in the -inch holes above mentioned4 ,brace the forms securely1 to keep them in position4 ,after the first two buttresses are in place1 dig out the #a by #d-;foot foundation trench and1 over it and between the buttresses1 erect the box forms for the slab sections1 with the sloping side next to the lot4 ,these forms are made of #a-;inch siding nailed to #b by #d-;inch studding securely braced at bottom and tied together by cross-pieces at the top4 ,on the working side1 add the siding as needed1 so as to facilitate the placing of the concrete4 ,remove the side forms for buttress just before placing the forms for wall proper4 ,in the center of wall1 within #f inches of the top1 embed a #aj-;foot length of -inch iron rod4 ,after the wall is one week old1 take down the wall forms1 erect them between the next two buttresses1 and proceed with the construction in the same manner4 ,wind walls are often made with straight sides4 ,while this takes more concrete1 the saving in erection of forms probably offsets this additional cost4 ,the materials required for each #aj-;foot section of wall and #a buttress are two cubic yards crushed stone or screened gravel1 #a cubic yard sand1 #ab bags of ,portland cement4 ,approximate cost1 #ae4jj4 ,illustration ,concrete and the ,silo ,a silo is a tank for the preservation of fodder in its green state1 for feeding stock at times when there is no natural pasture--that is in winter and in the hot1 dry months of summer4 ,by the use of silos fodder is canned very much as a housewife cans fruit or vegetables4 ,concrete fulfils every requirement for a first-class silo1 providing the added advantages of being absolutely fireproof and everlasting1 possessed by silos built of no other material4 ,for instruction in building silos1 see ,bulletin ,no4 #ba of the ,association of ,american ,portland ,cement ,manufacturers1 sent free on application4 ,space does not permit us to go fully into the construction of a concrete silo and we can only give the requirements for a good silo1 and show how concrete fills them all4 ,silos must be air-tight4 ,the admission of air causes the fodder to mould1 and the stock will not eat it4 ,air cannot leak through a concrete silo4 ,silos must be water-tight4 ,if they are not1 the juices1 so necessary to keep the fodder green1 will leak out1 and the fodder spoils4 ,illustration ,concrete1 properly mixed1 is water-tight4 ,silos must be smooth on the inside4 ,a silo with a rough inside surface1 catches the cornstalks1 and prevents proper packing4 ,concrete can be made so smooth that many firms building silos of other materials finish the inside with a coat of cement and sand4 ,the fodder lasts better if kept at an even temperature4 ,concrete does not conduct heat or cold4 ,it keeps the heat in the fodder in winter1 and keeps the heat out of the fodder in summer4 ,nature provides the fodder with the proper amount of heat to preserve it perfectly4 ,rats nesting in the silage ruin it4 ,concrete is the greatest rat-proof material known4 ,in addition to these reasons1 concrete silos are not attacked by the juices coming from the fodder4 ,they do not rot by alternate wetting and drying4 ,fire1 that greatest of farm scourges1 cannot destroy the crop if stored in a concrete silo4 ,a farmer may rebuild a barn1 but the crops lost through the burning of the building are lost forever4 ,illustration ,sanitary ,water ,supply ,as the laws of health become better understood1 greater precautions are taken to prevent sickness4 ,for years all evidence has been pointing to drinking water as a common source of most diseases and the principal means of spreading sickness4 ,every well1 spring and cistern1 open to surface water or walled and covered with materials through which surface water can seep1 is liable to contain disease germs4 ,concrete walls and covers are water-tight3 they afford perfect protection for both man and beast4 ,how to ,protect ,wells ,many bored and dug wells1 sunk years ago1 afford such excellent water that their owners prefer to keep them4 ,this is often made possible by the use of concrete4 ,remove the brick of the wall down to dense clay through which water will not run1 usually not more than #f feet4 ,if the earthen wall stands firm1 only one form1 fitting inside the brick wall1 is needed4 ,make this form of narrow flooring securely fastened on the inside to wagon tires or to curved wooden templates1 and long enough to extend #b feet below the point to which the brick are to be removed and #d inches above the ground level4 ,if the earthen wall shows signs of crumbling1 before taking out the brick1 dig back the ground to the necessary depth and use an outside form4 ,lower the forms into place and fill them with #a3 #b3 #d concrete4 ,in placing the concrete follow the directions given under ,,underground ,,cisterns1 page #fh4 ,the steel casing for driven well must end below the frost line so as to keep the underground connecting pipes from freezing4 ,this construction exposes the house supply to the dangers of surface water4 ,concrete walls or housings are the only means of protection4 ,make the forms and build the housing according to the rules laid down for ,,underground ,,cisterns1 pages #fh-gj4 ,the housing shown in the photograph is #e by #f feet by #d feet deep1 sufficiently roomy for inspecting1 adjusting and repairing pipe connections4 ,the walls and floor are of #a3 #b3 #d concrete #f inches thick4 ,one-half inch bolts project #b inches above the walls for fastening the wooden cover4 ,a #d-;inch removable cover of concrete1 molded in two pieces1 makes a more sanitary covering4 ,the service pipes were laid in #d-;inch drain tile slightly above the floor of the housing4 ,a tile of the same size1 laid on a grade1 carries away all the leakage of the fittings4 ,two men built the housing in one day4 ,illustration ,materials ,required ,screened gravel or crushed rock #c cubic yards at #a4aj #c4cj ,sand #a cubic yards at #a4jj #a4ej ,portland cement #e barrels at #b4ej #ac4ge ------ #ah4ee ,well platforms are made like cistern covers 7see page #fi7 except that they are not molded fixed in place1 but loose and removable1 so that the well can be cleaned at any time4 ,concrete well covers keep mice and frogs out of the well4 ,even scrub water cannot seep in4 ,underground ,cisterns and ,cistern ,platforms ,illustration ,underground cisterns are useless if they leak4 ,in dry weather they are empty1 and at other times the ground water seeps in and makes the 8soft0 water as 8hard0 as that from the well4 ,concrete cisterns have no joints to leak3 they are built in one solid piece4 ,in placing the cistern1 select a site convenient to the principal down-spout and the kitchen4 ,do not forget to make allowance for #h-;inch walls in laying out the plan4 ,if the ground in which the pit is dug is sufficiently firm to stand alone1 no outside form will be needed4 ,otherwise the hole must be dug large enough to receive an outside form built similar to the inside one4 ,make the inside form of #a-;inch boards on #b by #d-;inch studding so that the siding will be toward the earth walls4 ,mix the concrete #a3 #b3 #d and lay a #f-;inch floor on the earth bottom4 ,immediately set the wall forms on all sides4 ,in filling the wall space1 be careful not to shovel the concrete against the earthen wall3 dirt in concrete is liable to make a leaky wall4 ,illustration ,after the concrete side walls have been brought to ground level1 set a #e-;inch board on edge around the outside of the cistern1 so as to hold the concrete for the platform4 ,saw off the uprights of the inside form #f inches below the finished top of the concrete cover1 and nail #b by #d-;inch floor joists even with their tops4 ,floor the joists with #a-;inch boards4 ,braces1 to keep the wooden platform from sagging1 may be placed down the middle of the cistern as shown in the drawing4 ,to provide for a manhole opening1 build a bottomless box #e inches deep1 #b feet square at the top and #ah inches square at the bottom--outside measurements1--or have the tinsmith make a round bottomless tin form #e inches deep1 #b feet in diameter at the top and #ah inches at the bottom1 just like a large dishpan without a bottom4 ,begin at one side of the platform1 tamp in #a inches of concrete1 and upon it lay heavy woven wire fencing4 ,allow the edges of the wire to extend within #a inch of the outside lines of the platform4 ,bring the platform to its full thickness by immediately placing the remaining #c inches of concrete4 ,work rapidly and do not stop for any reason until the cistern cover is completed4 ,as the work progresses1 finish the surface with a wooden float4 ,grease the manhole frame and place it where the opening is desired4 ,strengthen the floor around the manhole opening by laying four short -inch iron rods1 placed criss-cross1 #b inches from the bottom of the slab and the same distance back from the edges of the hole4 ,if the tin form is used1 the manhole cover may be cast at the same time as the remainder of the floor4 ,reinforce the cover with woven wire and also with four short lengths of -inch rods laid in the form of a square4 ,have on hand an old bridle bit or hitching post ring1 which will serve as a lifting-ring for the concrete cover4 ,in placing the ring in position1 provide it with a knob of twisted wire1 or with a nut and large washer1 to fix it firmly in the concrete4 ,if the wooden manhole form is used1 carefully remove it after #e hours4 ,after #c days build the manhole cover the same as for the tin form1 with this important exception--place heavy paper1 cardboard or leather around the edge of the opening to prevent the fresh concrete of the cover from sticking to it4 ,set bolts for a pump base according to directions given for ,,gasoline ,,engine ,,bases1 pp4 #hg1 #hh4 ,the necessary openings for down spouts and for removing water may be made by embedding tile1 of the proper diameter and length1 in the concrete platform or side walls4 ,when the platform is two weeks old1 remove the manhole cover1 bore a hole in the wooden floor1 saw an opening1 descend and loosen the roof form1 passing it out through the manhole4 ,illustration ,if the cistern water is to be used for cooking and drinking1 provide a filter on the outside of the cistern wall4 ,construct the filter similar to the cistern1 of dimensions #d by #c feet and #d feet deep4 ,while building the cistern wall1 lay an #h-;inch tile through it1 at the proper height to connect with an opening of the same size in the filter wall at its floor1 and place a removable screen of -inch mesh over the opening4 ,fill in #b feet of coarse charcoal4 ,cover the charcoal with #a foot of sand and gravel4 ,lead the water from the roof into the top of the filter4 ,cover the filter with a loose concrete slab4 ,four men built a cistern #h feet square and #h feet deep1 with a #f-;inch floor and a #e-;inch platform1 in two days4 ,the cistern holds #abb barrels of #ca gallons4 ,materials ,required ,screened gravel or crushed rock #h cubic yards at #a4aj #h4hj ,sand #d cubic yards at #a4jj #d4jj ,portland cement #ac barrels at #b4ej #cb4ej ------ #de4cj 8,soft0 water is not only better for the bath1 but also makes the washing easier and the clothes whiter4 ,mischievous children cannot remove concrete manhole covers4 ,making ,spring ,water ,sanitary ,to the planter and stockman1 a flowing spring is worth a great deal of money4 ,properly cared for1 it will afford cold1 sweet water for the house1 the dairy1 and the watering tanks4 ,improperly protected1 it is not merely a mud hole1 a nuisance to the milker of dairy cows1 but is too frequently the cause of disease4 ,illustration ,to improve a spring1 first open up the channel and drain out all the water possible4 ,clean out the spring so as to increase its flow4 ,lay the necessary feed pipes to the house and barn4 ,wall up the well of the spring with concrete blocks1 laid without mortar to a point just above the in-flow streams of the spring4 ,complete the walls with blocks laid in #a3 #b cement-sand mortar1 or1 using wooden forms1 with a #f-;inch solid wall of #a3 #b3 #d concrete4 ,carry these walls high enough to keep surface water out of the spring well4 ,if the spring is to be used as a drinking tank for stock1 make the walls equal to the usual depth of such tanks4 7,see ,,watering ,,troughs ,,and ,,tanks1 page #gd47 ,lay a #d-;inch floor of #a3 #b3 #e concrete 7on a drainage foundation7 #aj feet around the field spring on all sides4 ,at the edges of the floor1 turn down a concrete 8apron0 or foundation1 #b feet into the ground1 the same as for ,,feeding ,,floors1 page #dc4 ,this prevents the frost from getting under the floor and cracking it4 ,make provision for the over-flow at a point where it can be carried to the stream by a gutter in the floor1 or by a drain tile under it4 ,with such improvement1 since there is no mud1 the stock cannot mire and the udders of the dairy cows are always clean4 ,to keep rats and rabbits out of springs from which the water is drawn for house use1 provide a concrete cover like that described for ,,underground ,,cisterns1 page #fi4 ,for small springs this cover is often made removable as shown in the photograph on page #gc4 ,illustration ,illustration ,new ,style ,cistern ,built on ,top of ,ground ,the photograph shows a cistern1 #f by #f by #ab feet1 inside dimensions1 with #h-;inch walls1 #f-;inch floor1 and #d-;inch roof4 ,dig a pit #ab inches deep1 and of the size of cistern desired4 ,cover the bottom with a well tamped fill of gravel to a depth of #f inches4 ,mix concrete #a3 #b3 #d and place it to a depth of #b inches over the surface of the fill4 ,on top of this lay sections of heavy woven wire fencing4 ,this wire should be laid in such a way as to extend #f inches beyond the outside edge of foundation--the ends being bent up1 so as to stand upright1 #c inches back from the edge of the concrete flooring already placed4 ,immediately lay the remaining #d inches of concrete floor4 ,give the surface a finish with a wooden float to within #f inches of edges4 ,without delay1 set the forms1 made up in the required sections1 resting the inside form on the concrete floor and the outside form on the ground4 ,place the inside form first4 ,after setting the inside form1 place woven fence wire1 supporting it against the inside form by means of staples driven lightly into the form and holding the wire #d inches away from it4 ,care should be taken in placing the concrete that the wire is kept near the outside of the concrete wall4 ,this reinforcement is carried #a foot beyond top of wall4 ,the projecting wire mesh will later be used to tie the concrete roof to the side walls4 ,the timber required for the forms will be #a-;inch siding and #b by #d uprights1 spaced every #ah inches4 ,in placing the concrete in the forms1 it will be easier to leave off the two top feet of planking of outside form until the concrete reaches its level4 ,then add this planking and fill the two top feet4 ,the concrete will probably have to be passed up to a man on top by means of buckets4 ,the luxury of soft water for the bath1 and its advantages for laundry purposes1 are understood better by farmers than by their city cousins4 ,cisterns were originally built in the ground1 but a thinking farmer used concrete to build a cistern on top of the ground1 no doubt taking the idea from the old-fashioned rain barrel4 ,while it requires more forms and more reinforcement than a cistern built in the ground1 yet the large cost of digging a deep hole is saved4 ,as the water is piped to the house1 direct water pressure is provided1 thereby giving the farm-house all the advantages of a city water system4 ,illustration ,build a wooden platform inside the cistern1 in the same manner as directed in ,,underground ,,cisterns1 page #fi4 ,the materials required for the concrete are #aj yards of crushed rock or screened gravel1 #e yards of sand1 and #ag barrels of ,portland cement4 ,illustration ,illustration ,watering ,troughs and ,tanks ,all thrifty farmers are building their tanks and troughs of concrete4 ,such troughs never rot1 rust1 or leak4 ,by using concrete1 tanks of any size and shape can be made4 ,watering ,tank for ,horses and ,cattle ,most stockmen prefer to build their watering tanks oblong in shape4 ,having decided upon the size1 locate the tank in a handy1 well drained1 wind-sheltered place4 ,to build a tank like the one shown in the picture1 lay out the trough #e by #af feet4 ,make an excavation for a drainage foundation as directed under ,,sidewalks1 page #bi4 ,around the outside dig a #aj-;inch trench #b feet #f inches deep4 ,lay all in-flow and over-flow pipes 7not less than #a inches in diameter7 so that the ends1 fitted for connections1 will be even with the finished bottom of the tank4 ,build the forms and have the necessary reinforcing on hand before mixing any concrete4 ,the tank is #e by #af feet by #b feet deep with an #h-;inch bottom4 ,the walls are #e inches thick at the top and #aj inches at the bottom4 7,the sloping face allows the ice to slip up the sides instead of pushing directly against them47 ,consequently the inside forms at the bottom are #e inches shorter at each end than at the top4 ,the forms are nothing more than shell boxes made from odd lengths of #a-;inch siding nailed to #b by #d-;inch studding spaced not more than #b feet apart4 ,the sides of the forms may be made separate and put together in place2 or1 if there is sufficient help1 each form may be entirely completed and set up as one piece4 ,the forms are held in position by #b by #d-;inch liners at top and bottom1 and if necessary by sloping braces nailed to stakes driven in the ground4 ,cut strips of heavy woven wire fencing sufficiently long to cover the bottom and to project up into the walls4 ,illustration ,with the forms ready1 mix a batch of #a3 #b3 #d concrete4 ,beginning at one end1 fill the trench1 and upon the gravel foundation place a #b-;inch layer of concrete in width slightly greater than a width of wire4 ,upon this concrete lay a section of wire4 ,tamp in the remaining #f inches of concrete and bring up the extra length of the wire so that the ends will project up into the future side walls4 ,continue laying the concrete in sections until the bottom is completed4 ,finish the surface with a wooden float4 ,immediately set the wall forms in place1 and set them level by using a carpenter's level4 ,fill the wall space with concrete4 ,half way up the side and #a inch from the outside1 lay a -inch iron rod entirely around the tank4 ,again #b inches from the top1 and #a inch from both inner and outer edges1 lay two rods of the same size4 ,if a tank cover is desired1 set bolts in the concrete as directed under ,,corn ,,crib ,,floors1 page #ec4 ,to prevent mud holes1 surround the tank with a concrete floor4 7,see ,,feeding ,,floors1 page #dc47 ,protect the green tank from drying out according to instructions under ,,sidewalks1 pages #bh-cd4 ,materials ,required ,crushed rock or screened gravel #g cubic yards at #a4aj #g4gj ,sand #c cubic yards at #a4jj #c4ej ,portland cement #aa barrels at #b4ej #bh4ge ------ #ci4ie ,watering ,troughs for ,hogs ,troughs for hogs are built in two styles--wedge-shaped1 like the feed trough shown on page #di1 or like troughs for cattle except smaller4 ,use short lengths of #a-;inch pipe crosswise to keep the hogs out of the trough4 ,set bolts1 properly spaced1 in the soft concrete sides1 so that the pipes will fit between them and can be held firm by a strap iron over the bolts4 ,illustration ,dipping ,vats and ,tanks ,the younger generation have no remembrance of the epidemic of ,texas or southern fever which swept over the country about forty years ago1 killed thousands of cattle1 and left hundreds of bankrupt farmers and ranchmen in its wake4 ,government experts found that this deadly disease is caused by ticks1 which infest cattle in certain localities4 ,they also discovered that the fever can be prevented by dipping the animals in chemical solutions4#b #b ,for free bulletins on dipping write the ,agricultural ,department1 ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,dipping cures not only ,texas 7known as 8splenetic07 fever1 but also the lip and leg disease1 mange1 and scab or scabies of both sheep and cattle4 ,certain solutions free horses1 cattle1 sheep1 and hogs of lice1 mites1 fleas1 and flies4 ,the only method of applying these chemicals1 surely and thoroughly to all parts of the animal1 is by giving him a plunge in a tank containing the healing liquid4 ,since the dip is the most costly part of the process1 and since it must be applied once or twice every year1 some permanent form of tank is needed--one that will not rot or rust out1 leak or heave in during winter4 ,concrete vats1 built ten years ago1 without one cent's worth of repair1 are still as good as new and are still giving entire satisfaction4 ,illustration ,there are four important points to be considered in the building of a dipping tank3 ,first--,an entering slide1 steep enough to shoot the animal in1 without a direct drop4 ,a direct drop1 the entire depth of the tank1 is likely to injure the animal4 ,second--,the tank must be narrow enough to prevent the animal turning around when once in1 long enough to keep him in from one to two minutes1 and deep enough not only to make him swim1 but also that he may disappear entirely when he takes the plunge4 ,third--,the slope at the leaving end must be gentle and the footing roughened or cleated so that the animal may easily scramble to the dripping pens4 ,fourth--,as the liquid dip is the most expensive part of dipping1 there must be provided two dripping pens draining back into the tank4 ,select a well drained site convenient for a chute leading from a small1 well-fenced lot or corral4 ,at the narrow end of the chute and in line with it lay out the dipping tank with the entering slide next to the chute4 ,illustration ,often the chute is built on a curve1 so that the animals cannot see where they are going4 ,they are generally constructed with a hump in the floor4 ,this prevents the animal from jumping into the dip1 and gives the necessary length to the slide1 without increasing the depth of the tank4 ,choose the proper dimensions from the diagrams and table according to whether the tank is to be used for horses1 cattle1 sheep1 or hogs4 ,the lengths given will keep the animal in the tank one minute1 usually a sufficient time to cure mild forms of disease4 ,where a longer treatment is desired1 most ranchmen1 instead of building tanks of greater length1 provide a drop gate working in a groove1 as shown in the photograph1 by means of which the animal is kept in the tank as long as necessary4 ,likewise1 rather than build a separate tank for sheep and hogs1 stockmen insert a temporary division fence1 running the full length and depth of the cattle and horse tank4 ,this fence should be solid and so spaced as to prevent hogs and sheep from turning around in the tank4 ,in this way a single dipping tank may be used for horses1 cattle1 sheep1 and hogs4 ,dig the deep part of the hole first1 and then slope the earth for the slide and climb4 ,lay the outlet drain pipe so that the top of the elbow bend will be even with the surface of the finished concrete bottom4 ,tamp back the dirt thoroughly about the drain tile before placing concrete4 ,illustration ,the side walls only will require forms4 ,if the banks stand firm1 inside forms alone will be needed4 ,make these of #a-;inch boards on #b by #d-;inch uprights4 ,steel reinforcing1 preferably wire cloth or hog wire1 is placed in the forms so that it will be embedded in the center of the concrete wall4 ,floor1 sides1 and ends should all be thus reinforced to prevent settlement cracks due to any settlement of earth foundations4 ,mix the concrete #a3 #b3 #d and lay the floor and slopes directly on the solid earth4 ,no fill is necessary4 ,the concrete for the sloping ends should be mixed fairly dry so that it will tamp well and stay in position without the use of forms4 ,with the bottom and slopes built1 lower the side wall forms into the pit4 ,take care to jar no dirt upon the concrete already placed4 ,space the forms properly and cross-brace them firmly upon each other4 ,fill the wall space with concrete4 ,in placing this concrete1 be sure that it strikes the wood form instead of the earthen side1 as concrete mixed with earth makes a weak1 leaky wall4 ,carry the walls #f inches above the surrounding ground to prevent flood water from running into the tank4 ,the entrance slope should be smooth to slide the animals into the tank without skinning them up4 ,finish this surface with a wooden float and steel trowel4 ,some ranchmen prefer to cover the entire slide with a polished steel plate1 the edges of which are sunk into the concrete when the slide is built4 ,to aid the animals in climbing out1 embed in the concrete the turned-up ends of iron cleats bent at right angles similar to a capital 8,u40 ,old wagon tires1 cut in lengths not greater than #bj inches and turned up #d inches at each end1 will do4 ,leave #a inch clearance between the flat surface of the cleats and the concrete4 ,space the cleats #ah inches for horses and cattle and #aj inches for sheep and hogs4 ,at the leaving end of the tank1 lay out the two dripping pens with their division fence on a line with the center line of the tank1 so that a gate hung to this fence may close either pen1 when it is full1 and allow the animals from the tank to pass to the empty pen4 ,use concrete posts for the fences1 as they will require no replacing4 ,excavate for the drainage foundation1 set the posts1 and build a #f-;inch concrete floor according to the directions given under ,,sidewalks1 page #bh1 and ,,feeding ,,floors1 page #dc4 ,slope the floors1 inch to each foot in length or width1 so that the dip running off the animals will be saved and returned to the tank4 ,corrugate or groove the floor to the depth of inch1 every #h inches1 in one direction4 ,during the construction of the floor1 mold around the outside a concrete curb1 commonly called a splashboard1 #f inches above the floor and #d inches wide4 ,where the dip from the floor empties into the tank1 place a removable wire screen or strainer to keep the droppings and wool tags out of the vat4 ,cure the floors and slopes according to directions under ,,feeding ,,floors1 page #dc4 ,the wall forms may be removed after one week1 but the tank should not be used until it is three weeks old4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,dimensions ,,of ,,ground ,,pit ,,for ,,dipping ,,tanks ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,kind ,w ,n ,d ,l ,e ,b ,a ,i ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,horses #e #ajc #dh #hee #jg #fca #jaf #fh #h ,cattle #e #dc #dg #hea #jf #hca #jac #dg #h ,sheep #c #db #de #hdf #je #jca #jaj #je #h ,hogs #c #db #de #hcf #je #jba #jaj #je #h ---------------------------------------- ----------- ---------------------------------------- ------- ,kind ,o ,t ,cement ,sand ,rock ---------------------------------------- ------- ,barrels ,cu4 yds4 ,cu4 yds4 ,horses #ah #gj #h #ch #aa #bb ,cattle #ae #dj #h #cf #aj #ba ,sheep #aa #fj #h #bb #f #ac ,hogs #aa #fj #h #ai #e #aa ---------------------------------------- ------- ,illustration ,illustration ,at first state and federal authorities had to force ranchmen to dip1 but so beneficial has it proved that compulsion is now seldom necessary4 ,experienced cattle-men have found by actual tests that dipping increases the market value of their steers #e per head4 ,the cost of dipping on the farm is only #a to #c cents per head--in the stock yards the charge is #ae to #bj cents4 ,one large ranchman1 who lost #bh per cent4 of his herd 7several thousand7 in one winter with the mange1 found his first trial of dipping so effective in curing this disease that the following winter he did not lose a single steer4 ,the use of dips has become so general in the ,south and ,west that the ,government has raised the quarantine in most sections4 ,illustration ,the ,construction of a ,concrete ,milk ,vat ,dig a pit to a depth of #a foot #f inches and place wooden forms in such a way as to provide for tank walls #f inches thick and #a foot #h inches in height4 ,this will bring the walls only #h inches above ground level--which makes it easy to lift the milk cans in and out4 ,illustration ,use a wet mixture of concrete1 of proportions #a3 #b3 #d4 ,place as described on page #gd2 and be sure to build walls and floor at the same time4 ,the floor should be #f inches thick4 ,the vat described has a partition #f inches thick1 dividing the tank into two chambers1 each chamber being #f feet #i inches long4 ,an iron grating is placed in the bottom of the tank to allow free circulation of cooling water around and under the milk cans4 ,arrangements must be made for inlets and outlets4 ,the inlet pipe can be simply placed above one end of tank4 ,the pipe rail at back of tank provides a convenient purchase when lifting heavy cans from the tank4 ,a hole must be provided at the other end of tank1 in the bottom1 and connecting1 by an iron pipe1 with the drain tile4 ,into this hole a removable upright iron pipe is fitted1 the length of pipe depending on the depth of water desired for the cans4 ,this allows the water to come only to the top of the pipe and provides an over-flow outlet at the proper height4 ,the pipe must fit tightly into the hole4 ,time required to build3--one day with three men on the job4 ,approximate cost1 at current prices of materials and including labor1 #af4jj4 ,the materials required are #b cubic yards of crushed rock or screened gravel1 #a cubic yard of sand1 and #e barrels of ,portland cement4 ,illustration ,small ,farm ,buildings ,numerous small structures are required on the farm4 ,dog kennels1 tool houses1 coal houses1 ice houses1 hydraulic ram houses1 smoke houses1 acetylene gas plant houses1 gasoline storage houses1 milk houses and many similar buildings are a necessity on every well improved farm4 ,such structures are all of simple design and can be easily built of concrete4 ,when once constructed of this material durability and freedom from fire are assured4 ,for such buildings as milk houses built of concrete instead of wood1 there is the added advantage of cleanliness4 ,modern dairying demands absolute cleanliness4 ,concrete meets this demand4 ,illustration ,illustration ,milk ,houses ,milk splashed on wooden walls soaks in1 causing a very disagreeable odor likely to taint milk stored in the vat4 ,concrete does not absorb milk splashed on it4 ,such walls can be kept free from tainting odors by simply washing them down4 ,in concrete dairy houses1 with concrete vats1 the milk will keep sweet longer than in houses built of any other material4 ,dairy experts all admit that no other material can take the place of concrete for such purposes4 ,the illustration shows a simple form of milk house with walls1 floor and vat1 all of concrete4 ,this house is #af feet long1 #aj feet wide and #h feet high with a rise to the roof peak of #e feet4 ,,location ,the milk house should be located near the barn and convenient to a clean water supply4 ,care must be taken to provide for the outflow of the water from the vat4 ,this can be done by leading a line of pipe from the vat to a discharge point at a lower level or to the drinking troughs for the stock4 ,often the water from a flowing spring can be piped several hundred feet to the house1 providing an excellent means of keeping the milk cool and sweet4 ,,foundation ,to build such a milk house as shown1 dig a trench for the foundation #c feet deep and #ab inches wide4 ,fill the trench to the ground level with #a3 #b3 #e concrete4 ,the foundation should be laid out in such a way as to extend #c inches beyond the inside and #c inches beyond the outside of the walls of the house4 ,,walls ,as soon as the concrete foundation has become hard enough to support them1 erect the wall forms4 ,these forms consist of #a-;inch siding nailed to #b by #d-;inch studding4 ,the studs should be spaced #b feet apart and the #a-;inch sheathing is nailed to the sides of the studding toward the concrete4 ,for small buildings it is often easier to build an entire wall form flat on the ground and then raise it into position4 ,the bottoms of the studs rest on the concrete foundation and are held in position by strips nailed to them and extending to stakes driven firmly into the ground4 ,the distance the inside and outside forms are spaced apart depends upon the thickness of wall desired4 ,sloping braces leading from the studs to the ground keep the side forms from bulging and cross-cleats nailed at the top keep the inside and outside forms the correct distance apart4 ,bulging of forms can also be prevented by wiring them together as shown on page #bc4 ,on page #bb is a description of the general method of building forms4 ,especial care must be taken to hold the forms in position while placing the concrete4 ,the studs in the side wall forms for this house should be cut off at the height of the walls4 ,with the wall forms secured in position fill them with concrete4 ,,doors ,,and ,,windows ,a space must be left in the walls for the doors and windows4 ,this is done by placing between the wall forms1 frames or boxes without top or bottom made of #a-;inch boards4 ,when the wall form has been filled to the level of the bottom of the opening a frame1 the size and shape of the opening desired is secured firmly in place and the concrete poured around it4 ,after the wall reaches a level #b inches above the frame lay in the fresh concrete two -inch iron bars4 ,these pieces should be long enough to extend #h inches beyond each side of the frame4 ,a piece of old wagon tire can be used instead4 ,the sill shown in the sketch can be molded by building a small box extending out from the side form4 ,the concrete should be placed for the sill at the same time that the wall is being built4 ,for buildings such as we have mentioned a sill is unnecessary4 ,,finishing ,,top ,,of ,,wall ,when the side walls have been built to the top and before the concrete has set1 shove -inch bolts #ah inches long down into it4 ,space these bolts #bd inches apart1 #i inches of the length being in the concrete4 ,the end wall forms extend above the plates to the peak of the roof1 and are filled to the top4 ,while placing the concrete in the walls it should be continually spaded as described on page #be4 ,illustration3 ,,details ,,of ,,doors ,,and ,,windows ,,building ,,the ,,roof ,the roof is built by nailing #b by #d rafters to the inside studs of the side wall forms1 on a line #a inch lower than the bottom of the roof4 ,the rafters are given the pitch desired for the roof1 and are securely fastened where they meet at the ridge4 ,to stiffen the roof form until the concrete has become hard tie the opposite rafters together at the bottom 7with a #a-;inch strip7 in the form of a capital 8,a40 ,one-inch boards are nailed on the rafters4 ,the cornice shown in the sketch extending beyond the wall can be easily built by nailing a board the width of the cornice to the tops of the outside studs of both side and end walls4 ,to hold the concrete in place as the roof is being built nail a #e-;inch upright strip along the outside edge of this board4 ,bend the bolts projecting above the walls down to within #a inch of the roof boards4 ,spread a layer of heavy woven wire fencing over the entire roof1 allowing it to extend to the outside of the cornice4 ,wire the fencing securely to the bent bolts4 ,place two -inch steel rods near the outside of the cornice all the way around the roof1 and fasten these securely to the woven wire fencing4 ,the roof should be made #c inches thick and the stone used for the concrete should not be larger than inch4 ,illustration ,mix the concrete fairly stiff and start placing it at the cornice1 working toward the ridge4 ,spread the concrete out in a thin layer and then lift the woven wire fencing and the two rods in the cornice so that the concrete is #a inch thick below the wire4 ,cover the rods and wire with more concrete to a depth of #b inches4 ,when finished the roof will then be #c inches thick1 #a inch below the wire and #b inches over it4 ,always work from the low edge of the roof and finish to the complete depth of #c inches at once4 ,imbed a width of woven wire fencing lengthwise over the ridge of the roof #a inch beneath the surface4 ,the work must be carried on without interruption4 ,the concrete must not be allowed to dry along an unfinished edge1 as there is danger of a leak where fresh concrete is joined to that already hard4 ,tamp the concrete until moisture comes to the surface and smooth off the top of the roof with a wooden float and steel trowel4 ,the forms must be left in place for at least a week and the concrete in the roof must be protected from the sun and wind while it is hardening4 ,a method for doing this is described on page #bf under ,,sidewalks4 ,,floor ,illustration ,when the forms have been removed from the walls and roof the floor can be laid4 ,excavate the ground to a depth of #d inches below the finished floor level4 ,mix and lay the concrete as described on page #ca4 ,the concrete milk vat should be built at the same time and as a part of the floor4 ,see description on page #hb4 ,,engine ,,base ,engines1 cream separators1 pumps and other pieces of machinery require solid bases4 ,these bases must be permanent1 and free from any vibration4 ,a base constructed of concrete possesses these advantages4 ,illustration ,to form a base for the support of a small engine1 first excavate a pit #b feet #d inches deep1 and #a foot larger both in length and width than the dimensions of the engine base4 ,fill the pit with a mixture of concrete1 7#a3 #b3 #e71 and then construct a form which will carry the concrete to a height #d inches above the floor level or to the height desired4 ,bolts should be set in the concrete before it dries1 these being sufficiently long to bend #d inches at right angles1 and to extend #a foot deep into the concrete1 with bent end down4 ,they should be placed with the upright part surrounded by gas pipe of twice the diameter of the bolt1 and of a length sufficient to come flush with the surface of the concrete4 ,the open space formed around the bolt by the pipe will allow for slight errors in locating bolts1 so as to meet the holes in the engine base4 ,keep the concrete wet for #bd hours after placing1 by sprinkling4 ,after six days1 set the engine1 adjust the bolts1 and fill the spaces around the bolts with cement mortar1 mixed #a part cement1 #a part sand4 ,do not use the engine until the concrete base is at least two weeks old4 ,illustration3 ,concrete ,ice ,house ,a concrete base adds years of service to the life of a gasoline engine or cream separator4 ,illustration3 ,grain ,elevator ,approach and ,engine ,house ,,method ,,applies ,,to ,,all ,,buildings ,the method just described for building a milk house applies equally well to any of the small houses mentioned above4 ,it is not always necessary to build a peaked roof2 sometimes a flat roof will answer the purpose2 but the general method in all cases is the same4 ,the drawings show in detail the way a door can be built and framed and also how the windows can be made to slide up and down4 ,illustration3 ,hydraulic ,ram ,house ,,advantages ,,of ,,concrete ,concrete alone possesses the necessary fireproof qualities for such buildings as smoke houses1 where there is always great danger from fire4 ,oil lamps are becoming a thing of the past on modern farms4 ,acetylene and gasoline plants furnish a better and safer light4 ,these plants are built either above or below ground4 ,in either case concrete is the ideal material1 since it is both fire and waterproof4 ,the durability of concrete is particularly valuable for such buildings as hydraulic ram houses1 which must always be located near streams1 and ice houses1 where there is always moisture4 ,wood quickly rots1 but moisture has no effect on concrete4 ,for tool houses1 coal houses1 and buildings subjected to rough usage1 nothing equals concrete4 ,concrete1 for small buildings1 meets the three great demands of the farmer--cleanliness1 freedom from fire1 and durability4 ,illustration ,concrete ,cellar ,steps and ,hatchway ,cellarways are particularly liable to leak and cause a damp cellar4 ,this cannot happen if they are made of concrete4 ,there are no cracks through which the water can come4 ,wooden steps last no time1 particularly where heavy barrels and similar weighty loads are taken up and down4 ,as wooden or brick areaways are always damp1 the steps rot quickly1 thus requiring constant renewal4 ,few things are more dangerous to limb1 and even to life1 than a step giving way under the weight of a heavy barrel which is being carried into the cellar4 ,illustration ,concrete steps are safe under any load4 ,owing to the fact that concrete can be molded into any desired shape1 it is particularly desirable for this purpose4 ,some people like steps with a low rise and a particularly wide tread1 while others prefer a high rise and narrow tread4 ,concrete can easily be fitted to either4 ,the determining feature is usually the space to be occupied4 ,the door into the cellar limits the depth to which the steps are taken1 and therefore the height of the risers2 while the room the cellarway is to take outside the line of the wall determines the width of the tread4 ,if possible1 the rise of each step should be from #f to #h inches1 while the width of the tread should be from #i to #ab inches4 ,note3 ,see page #aab for ,window ,hatchway4 ,illustration ,in erecting1 first excavate the hole to the width of steps desired1 plus one foot4 ,this allows for a #f-;inch wall on either side4 ,slope the ground from #a foot back of where the top step is to come to #a foot back of where the bottom step will be4 ,to form the steps1 saw out a board just as you would a 8horse0 for steps1 and nail planks where the risers come1 holding the two 8horses0 the proper distance apart4 ,this is placed upside down1 resting on the top and bottom1 with the edge of the top and bottom rise where the bottom and top steps are to come4 ,fill this form and the space back of it with #a3 #b3 #d concrete1 starting with the bottom step1 and continuing upward to the top1 bringing the concrete in each step to the top of rise4 ,side forms for the #f-;inch walls may now be placed1 braced apart in the center properly1 and resting on the back of the horses4 ,these can be carried to any height desired to give the hatchway doors a proper slope for shedding rain and snow4 ,forms will have to be built on the outside of these walls above the ground line to hold the concrete in place4 ,before the concrete sets in the side walls1 bolts should be placed1 with heads in the concrete1 by means of which wooden sills are fixed to the walls for fastening the cellar doors by strap hinges4 ,if the bottom step does not come to the wall line1 the flat landing in the bottom should be covered with a #e-;inch thickness of concrete4 ,here is a convenient place to locate a drain1 to carry off the water used in sluicing down the steps1 and any which may leak through the cellar doors4 ,the cellar hatchway shown in the photograph and in the drawing is #e feet wide1 built according to directions above4 ,the side walls at the cellar are #g feet high and #aj feet long4 ,the slope for the cellar doors is #b feet #d inches4 ,there are #g steps of #h-;inch rise and #aj-;inch tread and a landing #c feet #b inches wide4 ,two men built this hatchway in #a days4 ,materials ,required ,crushed rock or screened gravel #b cubic yards at #a4aj #b4dh ,sand #a cubic yards at #a4jj #a4ac ,portland cement #c barrels at #b4ej #i4cg ------ #ab4ih ,illustration ,root ,cellars of ,concrete ,the increasing use of roots1 as winter feed for animals1 has brought about the construction of root cellars as a means of preserving this valuable food4 ,a root cellar must be sufficiently warm and dry to keep roots from freezing or rotting4 ,by building the cellar below ground the warmth is greatly increased4 ,to do this1 however1 a material must be employed which is moisture-proof and which will not rot4 ,for these reasons use concrete4 ,the cellar shown in the illustration on page #ia extends #e feet below1 and #b feet above ground level4 ,the walls are #e inches thick1 and are made of concrete proportioned #a3 #b3 #d4 ,illustration ,choose a well drained site1 and dig a pit in the earth to the desired depth and with an entrance-way so sloped as to make provision for concrete steps1 which will have a rise of #g inches and a tread of #aj inches4 ,build a floor of the same thickness as the walls4 ,set inside box form and fill the space between this form and the earthen side walls with the wet concrete1 the same as for ,,underground ,,cisterns1 page #fh4 ,above the ground level an outside form must be used4 ,the roof is built in the way described on page #hf except the thickness is increased to #e inches4 ,ventilators are provided in the roof1 by imbedding lengths of sewer pipe in the concrete4 ,add galvanized tin hoods to keep out the rain4 ,by referring to page #ij1 there will be found a description of how to build a hatchway and steps4 ,immediately after the side wall forms have been erected1 the door frame should be set in its required position1 before placing concrete4 ,similar structures are also used as bee1 vegetable1 fruit and cyclone cellars4 ,concrete cellars are great favorites with growers of apples1 potatoes and cabbage4 ,by adjusting the ventilator openings1 the temperature can always be kept at just the right point4 ,moreover1 since rats and mice cannot gain an entrance to a concrete root cellar1 there is no waste causing decay1 and the vegetables keep better4 ,in cold climates bees must be warmly housed in winter1 lest they freeze to death4 ,by no other means than underground cellars can they be safely brought through the winter4 ,the bee cellar must be dry1 in order that the bees stay in good health4 ,in no way1 can there be provided so even a temperature or so dry an atmosphere1 as by the use of concrete4 ,bees kept in concrete cellars come through the winter in perfect condition4 ,materials ,required ,crushed rock or screened gravel #aa cubic yards at #a4aj #ab4aj ,sand #e cubic yards at #a4jj #e4ej ,portland cement #ae barrels at #b4ej #cg4ej ------ #ee4aj ,illustration ,illustration ,poultry ,houses ,the high price of all foods has made poultry raising profitable4 ,but to have laying hens they must be carefully tended4 ,their houses must be clean1 and free from draughts4 ,young chickens must be protected from rats1 skunks and foxes4 ,illustration ,concrete houses fill every requirement of an ideal poultry house4 ,to clean a house of concrete1 spray it with oil and burn it out4 ,concrete is fireproof4 ,rats cannot gnaw through a concrete floor or sidewalk4 ,in a concrete house there are no cracks through which the snow can sift1 or in which lice and bedbugs can hide4 ,illustration ,locate the poultry house where there is plenty of sunlight and where the concrete poultry yard 7see ,,feeding ,,floors1 page #dc7 may be wind protected4 ,build the house as directed under ,,small ,,buildings1 page #hb4 ,as the walls are being placed1 insert short pieces of gas pipe at convenient heights to support the shelves for the nests 7one style of nest shown on page #id7 and the rails for the roosts4 ,if desired1 a one-way-slope concrete roof may be made4 ,make the floor on an #h-;inch fill of gravel1 or of slabs built on a smooth floor and later set in place4 ,lay heavy wire fencing in the concrete slab #a inch from the under side4 ,poultry ,watering ,troughs ,to rid the farm of cholera and roup1 nothing aids more than concrete drinking troughs4 ,occasionally scrub the troughs1 spray them with oil and burn them out4 ,duck ,ponds ,ducks and geese need water1 yet if they are allowed to go to a nearby stream1 many are lost4 ,poultrymen are building ponds of concrete1 attached to the water supply in such a way as to provide fresh water at all times4 ,for building1 see instructions under ,,hog ,,wallows1 page #eb4 ,illustration ,illustration ,retaining ,wall and ,steps ,terraces1 if too steep1 will not stay sodded1 and if too flat1 take up room which would otherwise be a part of the lawn4 ,the neatest way is to place a retaining wall along the terrace edge4 ,this wall is built in the same way as the wall to hold the earth in a barn approach described on page #fj4 ,illustration ,if the wall is over one foot high steps are necessary4 ,a most convenient arrangement is to have the bottom step come flush with the face of the wall1 making it impossible to fall over one or two projecting steps in the dark4 ,in building1 insert a stop plank between the front and back forms to prevent the concrete from going to the full height of the wall4 ,the bottom of this plank should be kept at a height above the bottom of the wall sufficient to form the first step4 ,after the concrete for the wall is placed1 remove the section of the form where the steps are to come1 and dig out the earth to a depth sufficient to hold them4 ,the remaining steps are built in the manner described on page #ij4 ,after the concrete is placed1 the steps should be closed to traffic for at least one week4 ,in the background of the photograph on page #gb may be seen a double terrace wall of concrete1 each wall #e feet high4 ,illustration ,concrete ,chimney ,caps ,as a large proportion of fires in residences originate in the chimney1 it is well to have this part of the house as nearly fireproof as possible4 ,it can be made entirely so by building it of concrete4 ,if this is not convenient1 at least let the chimney cap be of concrete4 ,illustration ,these caps are cast in one piece1 on the ground1 and in any shape desired4 ,the outside form is a wooden box1 with inside dimensions corresponding with the outside dimensions of the desired cap4 ,usually the cap is #f inches thick1 and has an 8over-hang0 or 8drip0 extending on all sides beyond the outside of the chimney4#c ,thus1 if top of chimney1 over all1 is #ah inches square1 make outer form #bb inches square1 an extra allowance of #b inches on all sides1 thus obtaining a cap that will have an 8over-hang0 of #b inches all the way around4 #c ,a simple method for building a chimney entirely of concrete is described on page #ej4 ,the inside form may consist of a piece of terra-cotta tile4 ,if more than one opening is desired in the cap1 use two pieces of tile or as many as there are to be openings4 ,mix concrete #a3 #b3 #d1 the mixture to be a thoroughly wet one4 ,place in the form1 after greasing outside of terra-cotta so that same may be easily removed4 ,leave undisturbed for two days4 ,remove forms and place cap in position1 attaching it to the brick chimney with a cement mortar1 one part cement to one part sand4 ,illustration ,concrete ,makes an ,excellent ,porch ,floor ,when even a part of a building is subjected to unusual wear1 either from use or exposure to the elements1 build it of concrete4 ,illustration ,porch floors of wood rot quickly when laid near the ground2 and1 even if they do not rot1 through constant use they become splintered and faulty4 ,as concrete is a stone which can be made into any shape without cutting1 it is particularly well adapted for porch floors of any size and shape4 ,its lasting qualities under all conditions of wear and exposure have been so often mentioned1 it seems useless to refer to them again4 ,illustration ,remove the old wooden floor1 first placing props to support the porch roof1 with their lower ends resting outside the line of the porch floor4 ,the pillars themselves must also be supported if they are not to be replaced by concrete4 ,the floor is laid in exactly the same way as a feeding floor described on page #dc4 ,as the size is usually small1 however1 the floor can be laid in a single slab without joints4 ,if a smooth surface is wished for1 finish first with a wooden float and then with a steel trowel4 ,do not put too much elbow grease into the finishing4 ,if you do1 small cracks are likely to come on the surface and spoil the looks of the floor4 ,no material could be more useful than concrete for the porch of a school house where hundreds of little feet scuff and stamp daily4 ,a porch of concrete is free from vermin1 fireproof1 easily scrubbed1 and needs no repairs4 ,hot-,beds and ,cold-,frames ,fresh vegetables may be had during the winter at small expense by every suburbanite1 if he builds a hot-bed or cold-frame4 ,by their use early spring plants can also be given a good start4 ,since the bed must be placed partly in the damp ground1 the only material to be considered for this purpose is concrete1 which does not rot out and which1 being free from cracks and joints1 makes the warmest bed in cold weather4 ,locate the bed on the sunny side of a building1 if possible1 on the south side4 ,dig the pit the width and length of the hot-bed1 not less than #c feet deep4 ,the one shown is #ci feet long and divided into #c equal compartments4 ,make box forms of #a-;inch lumber to carry the south 7front7 wall #f inches and the north 7back7 wall #ae inches above ground4 ,the end walls slope to the others4 ,if the bed is not near a building1 extend the back wall #b feet higher to serve as a wind-break4 ,before filling the forms with concrete1 test their width by laying on a sash4 ,see that it laps full #b inches at each end4 ,illustration ,mix the concrete mushy wet in proportions #a3 #b3 #e4 ,fill the forms without stopping for anything4 ,tie the walls together at the corners by laying old iron rods in them bent at right angles4 ,during the placing of the concrete set -inch bolts about #b feet apart to hold the wooden framing to the concrete2 or make grooves in the tops of the walls for sinking the frames level with the top of the concrete1 allowing one-quarter inch at each end for clearance4 ,this can be done by temporarily embedding in the soft concrete a wooden strip of the necessary width and thickness4 ,remove the forms after six days4 ,divisions may be built along with the walls or later as convenient4 ,one and one-half days were required for two men to build a hot-bed #e by #ab feet in the clear4 ,materials ,required ,screened gravel or broken stone #b cubic yards at #a4aj #b4ge ,sand #a cubic yards at #a4jj #a4be ,portland cement #c barrels at #b4ej #h4ge ------ #ab4ge ,illustration ,illustration ,tree ,repair ,illustration ,nothing adds so much to the home-like appearance of a place as good shade trees4 ,but trees are like teeth--they need attention4 ,boring insects often cause decay4 ,the hollow becomes larger4 ,the wind blows the weakened tree down4 ,the 8looks0 of the place is ruined4 ,it takes at least a lifetime to produce another such tree4 ,by means of concrete1 many famous old trees1 seemingly about gone1 are now saved4 ,open up the cavity with a hand-axe4 ,with a mallet and chisel cut out every bit of the rotten wood1 and stop the flow of sap by painting the cavity with liquid asphalt4 ,reinforce small cavities with nails as shown in the photograph1 larger cavities with rods1 wire and spikes4 ,carefully fill every crevice with a #a3 #c cement-sand mortar4 ,by slightly trimming the edges of the bark around the filling1 once or twice a season1 the bark will grow entirely over the concrete4 ,illustration ,rollers of ,concrete ,frost coming out of the ground in the spring raises the lawn into humps4 ,if these are not rolled down at once1 the lawn is rough all summer4 ,rollers were originally made by the farmer from logs of wood4 ,these were abandoned for the more expensive iron rollers1 purchased in the nearest town4 ,to-day farmers are again making rollers1 but are using concrete4 ,an iron roller with a cylinder from #b to #c feet in length will cost from #ae to #bj1 whereas one of the same size constructed of concrete will cost practically nothing4 ,obtain a length of sewer pipe1 of the size of roller wished for4 ,a tile from #ab to #bd inches in diameter will usually suit the purpose4 ,set this tile on end1 small end down1 on a wooden platform4 ,through a hole bored in the platform insert a #a-;inch round iron bar1 long enough to project beyond the ends of the roller a sufficient distance to provide bearings and attachment for the handles4 ,care should be taken to get the bar exactly in the center of the tile before placing concrete1 and to keep it there while the concrete is being placed4 ,make a wet mixture of concrete 7#a3 #b3 #d71 and fill the tile with this mixture1 up to the 8bell0 of the tile4 ,allow the concrete to set for ten days1 when the roller may be placed on side1 and the bell of pipe chipped off with a cold chisel and hammer4 ,attach a forked handle1 as shown in the illustration4 ,as the axle is a firmly-fixed part of the roller1 the fork ends of the handle must be provided with holes1 within which the axle can turn4 ,a roller #ah inches in diameter and #b feet long will weigh about #fjj pounds4 ,if a lighter roller is desired1 use a smaller sized sewer pipe2 or place several small pipes inside the large one1 depositing the concrete around them on the outside4 ,they will form hollow spaces inside the roller and lessen its weight4 ,by increasing the size pipe1 or by using a steel mold and attaching a pair of shafts or a tongue instead of a handle1 horse rollers for crushing the clods in the ploughed fields may be made4 ,illustration ,hay ,caps and ,tarpaulin ,weights ,with the usual shortage of labor in the harvest season and the frequent occurrence of showers1 to secure sweet1 unmolded hay it has become necessary to cover the hay cocks with a canvas or muslin cover4 ,the best weights to hold down the covers are made of concrete4 ,mix the concrete #a part ,portland cement to #b parts sand1 mold them like doughnuts or as cakes with a galvanized wire loop1 and set them aside in a damp place for #g days before using4 ,trash ,burner or ,garbage ,receiver ,illustration ,trash and leaves must be burned without danger to the surrounding property4 ,a concrete burner affords the only safe and inexpensive means4 ,dig out the dirt to the depth of #f inches4 ,for forms choose two barrels1 one of which will set within the other with a clearance on all sides of #f inches4 ,adjust the height by cutting off their butts4 ,make an opening through which a metal ash box can be inserted or over which an iron door can be hung4 ,fill the foundation hole and the forms with #a3 #b3 #d concrete4 ,remove the outside form after two weeks4 ,the fire will later take care of the inner form4 ,after three weeks the burner may be used4 ,illustration ,concrete ,posts ,when a man buys a farm1 he examines first the condition of its general improvements4 ,if the fences are 8all run down10 he must take into consideration the cost of repairing or replacing them--a matter of no small importance and expense in these days of high priced labor and lumber4 ,the cheapest fence is not always the one lowest in first cost4 ,intelligent purchase of fencing materials means buying those which last longest with least repairs4 ,a railroad probably has more fencing along its right of way than any single property owner1 and to avoid damage suits1 the fences must at all times be in perfect repair4 ,as fast as their wooden fences rot out and burn down1 they are replacing them with concrete4 ,not only has the lasting quality of concrete recommended itself1 but the ever increasing shortage of the lumber supply has made the purchase of good wooden posts impossible1 and the cost of poor posts high4 ,concrete posts in first cost are seldom more expensive than wooden posts4 ,the life of a wooden post is from #c to #e years1 while concrete posts last forever4 ,weather and fire do not injure them4 ,even forest fires cannot harm a line of concrete posts4 ,the ,united ,states ,government1 recognizing the importance of this subject1 has issued ,farm ,bulletin ,no4 #djc1 entitled ,concrete ,fence ,posts4 ,this bulletin can be obtained free upon application to the ,agricultural ,department1 or to your ,congressman4 ,hitching posts1 made in a slightly larger box form1 with a bolt and ring inserted in the concrete before it has hardened1 add neatness to the house surroundings4 ,gate posts of concrete1 nothing more than heavy fence posts made long enough to take the highest fence1 prevent sagging gates1 so hard to open4 ,a concrete clothes post is ready for the clothes line and the wash every ,monday morning4 ,the weight of the wet clothes does not break them down or cause them to sag4 ,clothes never have to be rewashed due to dragging in the dirt4 ,illustration ,corner ,stones and ,survey ,monuments ,illustration ,to property owners1 as well as engineers1 survey monuments which last forever and can be easily distinguished from surrounding rocks1 are of the utmost importance4 ,expensive re-surveys and legal fights can be avoided by making such monuments easily distinguishable1 permanent1 and in such a way as to avoid confusion with other marks4 ,the use of concrete for this purpose fills all the requirements better than any other material4 ,get from the proper public official 7usually the county engineer or surveyor7 the exact location of corner stones4 ,drive four stakes in the ground so that strings stretched between every other stake will cross each other directly over the original monument4 ,remove the old monument1 and1 with a post auger1 bore a hole deep enough to reach below the frost line 7at least #c feet deep71 where the old monument stood4 ,fill the hole with concrete mixed #a3 #b3 #d1 rounding the top with the hands so it will extend #c or #d inches above the level of the surrounding ground4 ,while placing the last foot of concrete1 imbed a harrow tooth1 iron bolt1 or gas pipe1 with its top just showing above the finished concrete at a point directly under where the strings cross4 ,protect the monument from damage by stock for one week1 by placing a box over it4 ,drain ,tile ,outlet ,walls ,in developing the lowlands for farm purposes--and such lands are now most valuable--immense sums are being invested in concrete drain tile4 ,where drain tile empty into an open ditch1 the banks of the ditch around the drain tile gradually wash away1 and often two and three lengths of tile become disjointed1 allowing the water from them to further cut away the field land4 ,these exposed tile are often crushed by livestock4 ,moreover1 clay and shale tile freeze1 crumble1 and mixed with the earth from the bank frequently close the outlet4 ,muskrats1 skunks and mink use the tile as a nesting place1 and the drain becomes stopped up and drowns out the crops4 ,illustration ,all of this trouble is prevented by a small outlay of time and money in building a concrete retaining wall to keep the end of the drain tile from washing out and to protect it4 ,choose the dry season of the year1 immediately after the laying or cleaning of the string of tile1 when little water is in the ditch4 ,dig a trench #ab inches wide along the edge of the open ditch #b feet below its bottom and under the end of the line of tile4 ,this trench should extend along the bank for from #d to #f feet1 with wings turned into the bank at its ends1 sufficiently long to prevent water from getting in behind the wall and washing the dirt out4 ,mix concrete #a3 #b3 #e--wet enough to tamp well4 ,fill the trench with concrete up to the ground level4 ,should the trench be full of water1 place this part of the concrete dry4 ,set box forms1 made of #a-;inch siding and #b by #d-;inch studding4 ,these forms must be high enough to bring the wall up to the level of the top of the ditch banks4 ,at the proper height to meet the string of tile1 place a first-class drain tile 7at least one size larger than the regular string7 through the forms so that the front end will be flush with the outside wall after concrete is placed4 ,bore two small holes in the forms above this tile1 and place in them well greased pegs of wood4 ,after the forms are filled with concrete1 these pegs are removed1 the holes receiving the bolts holding a flap gate to keep animals out of the line of tile4 ,fill the forms with concrete1 and smooth off the top of wall with a steel trowel4 ,remove the forms after one week1 and fill in earth behind the wall to its top4 ,illustration ,spraying ,tanks ,san ,jos scale and insects are everywhere making fruit growers spray their orchards4 ,to get rid of the continual nuisance of leaks and the handling of warm solutions1 orchardmen are building elevated concrete tanks and are heating the spraying solution with steam pipes on the tank bottoms4 ,with such a plant1 there is no delay--and time counts in the spraying season4 ,the tank shown stands on #aj by #ab-;inch columns1 #f feet clear of the ground4 ,it has two compartments1 each #e by #e feet by #d feet deep holding #gej gallons4 ,the side walls are #d inches thick4 ,beneath the #d-;inch bottom1 on all sides1 are #h by #ab-;inch concrete beams4 ,locate the tank convenient to the water supply4 ,dig the column holes #ab inches square1 #c feet deep1 #aa feet out to out on the longer side and #e feet on the shorter4 ,have all forms ready before placing any concrete4 ,fill the holes with concrete and imbed in each hole four -inch iron rods #aj feet long so that they will come right for the columns and extend through them4 ,set up the #aj by #ab-;inch by #f-;foot column forms with their tops level with each other4 ,join them together with the solidly framed #h by #ab-;inch beam forms4 ,keeping the rods #a inch from the corners1 fill concrete in the column forms up to the floor beams4 ,spread #a inch of concrete over the bottom of the beam forms and lay in two -inch rods #a inches from each side wall4 ,bend these rods around those in the columns4 ,without delay fill the beam forms4 ,erect the forms for the tank proper as for ,,watering ,,tanks1 page #gd4 ,in the bottom of each tank set a #a-;inch flange pipe coupling4 ,place #a inch of concrete1 then strips of heavy woven wire1 and the remaining #c inches of concrete4 ,fill the side walls and1 #a inch from the outside1 imbed similar wire fencing4 ,protect the green concrete according to directions under watering tanks4 ,the materials required are3 screened gravel or crushed rock1 #d cubic yards2 sand1 #b cubic yards2 and ,portland cement1 #g barrels4 ,illustration ,culverts are ,permanent ,when ,made of ,concrete ,the secret of good roads is good drainage4 ,standing water soaks into the road bed1 softens the road surface and causes ruts4 ,to keep well made roads in first-class condition1 get the water to the highway drain tile as fast as it falls4 ,this can be accomplished only by means of culverts4 ,the perfect culvert is one which does not rot or rust out1 which does not crush down and clog up the opening1 which lasts forever4 ,concrete is the only material which fills the bill4 ,the best time to build a culvert is in the dry months of summer4 ,they can be shaped either round or square and of a size depending on the amount of water which must be removed quickly4 ,usually openings #ab to #ah inches are large enough4 ,set the culvert as deep in the road bed as possible1 but do not place the outlet end lower than the bottom of the ditch into which the culvert drains4 ,to keep the culvert well beneath the road bed1 if necessary1 make the side ditch deeper at the inlet end4 ,determine the grade line of the finished culvert bottom4 ,only a little slope is needed4 ,dig the trench #f inches deeper than the grade line and as wide and long as necessary4 ,the width of the trench depends upon the size of the culvert to be built1 and its length upon the width of roadway under which the water is to be carried4 ,the concrete walls are each #f inches thick1 so the width of the trench will be #a foot greater than the clear width of the culvert4 ,fill this trench with concrete mixed #a3 #b3 #e1 and1 while it is still wet place in the center of it a ,u-shaped box1 turned upside down1 of #a-;inch boards1 the outside of which is the size of the culvert desired4 ,fill concrete into the space between the sides of the box and the sides of the trench and tamp concrete over the top to a depth of #h inches4 ,road culverts should not be less than #ah inches below the surface of the roadway4 ,to prevent the material of which the road is made from washing down into the culvert1 small wing or retaining walls must be built at each end4 ,to do this dig an #h-;inch trench #c feet deep1 at each end of the culvert along the end of the culvert barrel4 ,frame a form1 the width and height necessary1 against the end of the box or pipe4 ,make another form1 of the same size1 but ,u-shaped1 with the opening just large enough to fit over the outside of the concrete culvert barrel4 ,set this form #h inches inside the first4 ,plumb both forms and brace them securely4 ,nail boards across the ends of these two forms and fill them with concrete4 ,for one week shut off the traffic from passing over the culvert4 ,allow the forms to remain in place for two weeks4 ,replace the road material over the culvert and keep the ruts carefully filled until the fill has become solid4 ,since there are usually many culverts to be built1 it is cheaper to use a collapsible form1 adjustable to several sized culverts4 ,illustration ,the box culvert shown in the illustration on page #ajh has an opening #ah inches wide and #af inches deep4 ,the length is #bj feet4 ,the retaining walls are #h inches thick1 #b feet high 7from the barrel opening71 and do not extend beyond the culvert walls4 ,the bottom and the side walls are #f inches thick2 the top1 #h inches4 ,three men1 with a highway commissioner as superintendent1 built this culvert in two days4 ,materials ,required ,crushed rock or screened gravel #c cubic yards at #a4aj #c4cj ,sand #a cubic yards at #a4jj #a4ej ,portland cement #d barrels at #b4ej #aj4jj ------ #ad4hj ,concrete bridges last forever4 ,with all the bridges and culverts of concrete1 tax officials will no longer need to levy bridge taxes4 ,illustration ,septic ,tanks ,the proper method for the disposal of house sewage is an important question on the farm4 ,cess-pools1 simply pits dug in the ground1 are great disease spreaders4 ,the liquids from them seep through the ground1 carry germs from the pool to the well1 render 8the best drinking-water in the country0 unfit for use1 and often cause the spread of disease4 ,the modern farmer no longer puts up with such barbaric practice4 ,cess-pools have long been prohibited in cities1 where immense sums of money are spent for the proper disposal of sewage4 ,it is not possible to provide farms with these expensive plants1 nor is it necessary4 ,through the use of an inexpensive septic tank all of the conveniences of the toilet and bath may be installed in the house and the danger from sewage removed4 ,illustration ,illustration ,septic tanks are nothing but long underground1 water-tight cisterns through which the sewage passes very slowly and evenly4 ,located underground1 they are warm and dark--ideal conditions for the development of the bacteria1 little germs which eat up the sewage and render it harmless in much the same way as another kind causes cider to ferment4 ,to prevent the bacteria 7which live in the frothy sludge7 from being disturbed cross-walls1 called baffle boards1 are placed to break up the current of the inflowing sewage4 ,the purified sewage1 merely clear water1 may be discharged into the farm drain tile4 ,locate the septic tank where it can be placed entirely with the side walls underground and out of danger of flood waters4 ,for a family of #h to #aj1 plan a tank with #h-;inch walls1 #e feet wide1 #e feet deep and #aj feet long--all dimensions in the clear4 ,lay out the tank and construct it in exactly the same manner as ,,underground ,,cisterns1 page #fh4 ,before filling the forms1 set in the #f-;inch inlet and outlet drains at the same height1 #b feet #f inches below the ground level4 ,to aid further in breaking up the currents and keeping out too much air1 use elbow bends1 so that the sewage in the tank will cover the mouths of the tile4 ,in the side forms1 at a distance of #b and #d feet from the inlet wall1 set -inch bolts to which the baffle boards will later be attached4 ,these boards reach entirely across the tank1 project above the sewage1 and extend to within #a foot of the bottom4 ,while building the manhole covers1 for the needed ventilation1 insert in them four short lengths of #a-;inch gas pipe4 ,remove the forms the same as for underground cisterns4 ,illustration3 ,concrete ,hydrant ,sink ,illustration ,window ,hatches ,window hatches should be protected by a flap cover1 to close in times of heavy rain or snow4 ,illustration ,an ,outdoor ,swimming ,pool ,these are built exactly as an underground cistern4 ,a pool near home affords a safe 8swimming hole0 for the children4 ,how will you know8 ,you are going to build--now or some time--and you want to build well and economically4 ,you will choose between temporary and permanent construction4 ,why you should build in concrete4 ,first1 because of permanence4 ,it is fireproof1 strong1 and lasting--proof against wear-and-tear and depreciation4 ,it lasts and lasts--against wind1 water1 and fire4 ,second1 because of cleanliness and sanitation4 ,this means healthy stock and better products1 which sell at higher prices4 ,third1 because of economy4 ,concrete is lower in ultimate cost because1 once built1 it requires no painting or up-keep1 no repairs1 no attention4 ,being proof against fire1 concrete secures the lowest insurance rates4 ,illustration 8,the ,standard by which all other makes are measured40 ,why you should use ,,atlas4 ,first1 because ,atlas ,portland ,cement is the most-used cement--high in quality and always uniform and reliable4 ,second1 because ,atlas ,portland ,cement has demonstrated its worth4 ,our own government selected it for the ,panama ,canal1 after careful investigation and tests4 ,nearly seven million barrels have been used so far for this project4 ,severe government tests have been made of every hundred barrels1 but not a single barrel has been rejected4 ,illustration 8,the ,standard by which all other makes are measured40 ,free help for you4 ,this book will give much valuable information about concrete4 ,but naturally1 your particular needs may require further information4 ,let us furnish this information you need4 ,tell us what you want to build and what you would like to know4 ,we will gladly give you all the necessary help4 ,so far1 we have sent information to over two million farmers4 ,why shouldn't you avail yourself of this help1 which is offered to you without any obligation8 ,whenever you buy cement1 look for the ,atlas trade mark as your guide--the black trade mark with yellow letters4 ,the ,atlas ,portland ,cement ,company ,new ,york ,chicago ,philadelphia ,boston ,st4 ,louis ,minneapolis ,des ,moines ,illustration 8,the ,standard by which all other makes are measured40 ,warning ,there are many brands of ,portland cement1 and some people are confused1 and as a result accept any cement bearing the word 8,portland40 ,the word 8,portland0 signifies only the kind of cement1 but does not designate the brand and quality4 ,specify 8,,atlas0 ,portland ,cement when you buy1 and you will get the best4 ,atlas ,portland ,cement is always uniform in strength1 color and quality4 ,it is the cement that has done most to make concrete and its uses so satisfactory and well known4 ,that is why ,atlas is 8,the ,standard by which all other makes are measured40 ,illustration 8,the ,standard by which all other makes are measured40 ,ask ,your ,dealer for ,,atlas ,illustration 8,the ,standard by which all other makes are measured0 8,the ,standard ,by ,which ,all ,other ,makes ,are ,measured40 ,illustration ,,atlas used exclusively by the ,united ,states ,government on the ,panama ,canal ,,atlas used exclusively on the great ,keokuk ,dam across the ,mississippi ,river