,a ,,first ,,book ,,in ,,writing ,,english ,illustration3 ,the ,,mm ,co4 ,a ,,first ,,book ,,in ,,writing ,,english ,,by ,,edwin ,,herbert ,,lewis1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,associate ,,professor ,,of ,,english ,,in ,,lewis ,,institute ,,and ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,chicago ,new ,york ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,london3 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,ltd4 #ahig ,all rights reserved ,,copyright1 #ahig1 ,,by ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company4 ,norwood ,press ,j4 ,s4 ,cushing ,co4--,berwick ,smith ,norwood ,mass4 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,it sometimes happens that the study of the principles of composition is left until the overcrowded last year of the high school1 under the plea that facts ought to precede generalizations4 ,is it not better to have the pupil begin two or three years earlier than this to frame simple generalizations for his own future guidance8 ,the first year student daily awakes to new experiences and problems4 ,he demands rules and reasons3 8,how shall he choose theme topics8 ,how much shall he put into a sentence8 ,why is electrocution in bad usage80 ,if the principle is asked for1 should it not be given--as much of it as can be digested8 ,when such a course is followed1 time enough is left in the high school for composition to become a habit4 ,the complex process wherein invention1 as it proceeds1 is rectified by criticism1 involves many delicate reflexes4 ,the formulated principle1 invaluable to the student in revising1 in turn grows to be an unconscious factor in every succeeding act of composition4 ,the more essential rules ought not to be mere phantoms to the boy just completing his first year in the secondary school4 ,in regard to other matters of living1 great principles are taught him from infancy1 without the slightest fear of setting up too analytic a state of mind4 ,if a boy of three may be told 8always to do one thing at a time10 must a boy be eighteen before he is told 8always to write about one thing at a time08 ,at three the child is required to control some of his strongest emotions2 must he be eighteen before he is asked to check digressions in the paragraph8 ,and is it possible to implant a genuine habit of checking digressions except by leading the student from particular instances to some generalization which he may keep in mind as a norm for future self-criticism8 ,synthesis and analysis cannot safely be separated2 a good prescription for most rhetorical disorders is1 more of both4 ,indeed1 what seems to be needed to-day in teaching composition is not one thing1 but several3 on the one hand1 more utilization of literature and more appeal to social interests2 on the other hand1 more inductions and generalizations by the student himself2 on both hands1 more time for practice and self-criticism4 ,in the present book1 originally printed privately for my own classes and now rewritten and enlarged1 ,i have tried to present a large number of definite situations to be faced for constructive practice both in organization and in diction2 and to give in simple1 even colloquial language1 all the larger generalizations which a boy presenting himself at college might reasonably be expected to have been using for two or three years as touchstones of his own work4 ,except in the chapters on punctuation and grammar1 the order of reaching generalizations is meant to be essentially inductive4 ,in these review-chapters a part of the principles come before the illustrations in order to get the help of all past associations4 ,even here the induction is often gone through with a second time1 leading up to a restatement of the principle4 ,it is recommended that students should often be asked to frame generalizations of their own1 though the text-book may have led up to similar ones4 ,in ,chapters ,,vii4 and ,x41 on words1 ,i have tried to present conditions favorable to the framing of definitions by the student4 ,by various devices ,i have constantly tried to avoid separation between exercise critical and exercise constructive4 ,occasionally1 after the correct form has been studied1 bad ,english is offered for correction1 for the sake of the appeal to the student's personal pride and his sense of the ridiculous2 but in general it is assumed that the student's correction of his own bad ,english will afford plenty of contact with faulty forms4 ,the book is primarily intended to be used in close connection with the literary studies of the first two years of the secondary course4 ,it may be used later if the arrangement of subjects allows little time for literature in these earlier years4 ,the order of presentation should1#a in the author's opinion1 follow that of the book4 ,still1 ,chapter ,,viii41 on correct choice of words1 may be taken at the start if the teacher prefers4 ,where a good deal of literary study is carried on in the first year1 the first eight chapters are perhaps enough for this year4 ,but a rate of progress cannot be prescribed4 ,a text-book is a mere help1 and bad in proportion as it tries to be anything more4 ,its function seems to be to supply the supplementary appeal to the eye1 since the living teacher can engage to do this but to a limited extent4 ,it appears obvious that the book should be read slowly enough to permit two things--much parallel literary study1 and much revision of themes in the light of preceding chapters4 ,first drafts are sometimes all that are worth making2 but usually a task requiring connected discourse is not finished until there have been several revisions4 ,if the student writes each new composition with a view to one particular kind of excellence1 and then revises with reference to the kinds of excellence he has previously striven for1 he will gradually be able to hold several stylistic principles in mind as he composes4 ,many themes should be written in class4 ,a limited period should be set for the first draft2 and half as much time may well be spent in revising before this is handed in4 ,in this revision the student may profitably read his theme as many times as there are chapters to be mentally reviewed4 ,the remarkable strength of the verbal memory in students of the first two years of the secondary school is a fact by which every teacher must have been impressed4#b ,add to this fact the other1 that the pupil's social interests are now in a perfect renaissance of liveliness1 and you have exactly the conditions for enlarging the working vocabulary4 ,it is now or never4 ,the boy1 though like the man he hates a fine distinction in conversation1 is growing out of the exaggerated reticence which has of late seemed to him the manly thing4 ,he is no longer determined to employ what ,mrs4 ,meynell1 speaking of the boy of twelve1 calls his 8carefully shortened vocabulary40#c ,the girl1 even more than the boy1 is full of new ideas which would flower into speech if the words were to be had4 ,to capture these new interests and satisfy them by literature is of course the best thing4 ,study of isolated words1 whether for knowledge or for power1 is but supplementary to the study of the vital functions of words in the living organism4 ,but even the study of synonyms1 if pursued in preparation for an oral debate1--one of the very best exercises for first-year students1--or in connection with a page of spirited prose1 rapidly becomes constructive and vital4 ,although the chapters on vocabulary 7,,ix4 and ,x47 may be given before the student has begun a foreign language1 the best results with them will not be secured until he has had at least six months in ,latin4 ,the study of prefixes and suffixes 7p4 #ahf ff47 should not be made burdensome4 ,some general view of the subject seems desirable1 but the detailed study is best given in connection with an interesting context4 ,for kindly criticism or advice ,i have debts of gratitude to ,professor and ,mrs4 ,w4 ,d4 ,mc,clintock2 to ,professor ,f4 ,a4 ,march1 ,professor ,john ,dewey1 and ,professor ,robert ,herrick2 to several of my colleagues1 especially ,director ,george ,m4 ,carman1 ,miss ,jane ,noble1 and ,mr4 ,phil ,b4 ,kohlsaat2 to ,mr4 ,f4 ,a4 ,manny1 to ,mrs4 ,hufford and ,miss ,dye1 of ,indianapolis2 to ,superintendent ,a4 ,f4 ,nightingale1 ,miss ,jones1 and ,miss ,herrick1 of the ,chicago high schools4 ,i have been particularly indebted to ,carpenter's ,advanced ,exercises1 a book made familiar to me by using it with freshmen in college2 and to ,scott ,denney's ,paragraph-,writing4 ,for the index ,i have to thank ,miss ,l4 ,e4 ,w4 ,benedict1 librarian of ,lewis ,institute1 and ,mr4 ,lewis ,gustafson4 ,e4 ,h4 ,l4 ,,chicago1 ,april #ae1 #ahig4 ,,contents ,,page ,,preface v ,,introductory ,,explanations #a ,i4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,writing ,,english #e ,,ii4 ,,on ,,reading ,,aloud1 ,,and ,,on ,,spelling #ab ,,iii4 ,a ,,review ,,of ,,punctuation #ba ,,iv4 ,,grammatical ,,phases ,,of ,,writing ,,english #dc ,v4 ,,on ,,dividing ,a ,,paragraph ,,into ,,sentences #gd ,,vi4 ,,on ,,well-,,knit ,,sentences #if ,,vii4 ,,on ,,organizing ,,the ,,theme #aad ,,viii4 ,,on ,,correctness ,,in ,,choice ,,of ,,words #adg ,,ix4 ,,sources ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,vocabulary #aha ,x4 ,,the ,,mastery ,,of ,a ,,writing ,,vocabulary #aid ,,xi4 ,,right ,,number ,,and ,,skilful ,,choice ,,of ,,words #bbg ,,xii4 ,,letter-,,writing #bee ,,xiii4 ,,reproduction1 ,,abstract1 ,,summary1 ,,abridgment #bfb ,,xiv4 ,,narration ,,and ,,description #bga ,,xv4 ,,exposition ,,and ,,argument #bgi ,,index #bhc ,,introductory ,,explanations ,our plan provides for a good many short compositions4 ,these1 as well as all other exercises1 should be written on uniform theme-paper1#d say eight inches by ten1 with a broad margin at both sides4 ,there are advantages in the double margin4 ,first1 it is easier for the reader of the theme to jot down his suggestions at the right1 since he need not turn the paper to do so4 ,secondly1 it is well for the student to learn the knack of keeping a straight edge at the left hand4 ,only one side of the paper should be written on4 ,if a mistake is made1 a heavy line may be drawn through the word4 ,the manuscript ought to present the neatest possible appearance4 ,blank spaces are to be avoided at the end of lines1 except where a paragraph ends4 ,the straight edge1 referred to above1 is to be scrupulously preserved at the left of the page1 except that when a new paragraph 7that is1 division of the theme7 is to begin1 the first line of it should start about two inches farther to the right than the other lines4 ,the pages should be carefully numbered in the upper right-hand corner1 and kept in their proper order4 ,nothing is more disconcerting to any person who reads a manuscript than to open the paper and find before him the last page1 rather than the first4 ,every theme should have a definite title4 ,this should appear in the blank space at the top of the first page and in the endorsement of the folded paper1 on the back of the last page4 ,the theme should be folded once1 lengthwise4 ,in the blank space at the top should be written the endorsement1 which should follow this model3 7#a7 name2 7#b7 name of course2 7#c7 title2 7#d7 date4 ,richard ,doe4 ,first year ,english4 ,a ,dialogue on ,politics4 ,oct4 #a1 #ahi-4 ,after the themes have been read1 whether by the instructor alone or by the class and the instructor1 they will be returned with marginal comments1 and 7just under the endorsement7 a summary of these comments4 ,in many cases the student will be expected to rewrite1 and the word ,rewrite will appear with the general comment4 ,otherwise he will be expected to ,revise1 that is1 to interline corrections and improvements on the manuscript without copying it4 ,each student's papers will be filed and kept4 ,he will often be asked to consult with the instructor concerning his own progress1 as shown by his bundle of themes4 ,the following suggestive signs#e may be used in the margin of themes1 indicating the presence of errors1 the actual errors to be discovered by the pupil for himself4 ,some teachers will prefer a simpler system of symbols1 some a more elaborate system4 ,the suggested list can easily be modified or supplanted4 ,,ms4 ,bad manuscript4 4 ,some obvious fault--a mark which will be used more and more frequently as the student's knowledge increases4 ,the check-mark will frequently indicate bad spelling or punctuation1 or fault in capitalizing4 ,,sp4 ,bad spelling 7see under check-mark74 ,,hy4 ,fault in use of hyphen4 ,p4 ,fault in punctuation 7see also under check-mark74 ,,cap4 ,fault in the use of a capital letter 7see check-mark74 ,l4 ,too loose2 structure rambling4 ,s4 ,solecism4 ,c4 ,structure incoherent4 ,e4 ,lack of emphasis in sentence4 ,u4 ,lack of unity in sentence4 ,,tr4 ,transpose order of words4 ,v4 ,vague4 ,a4 ,ambiguous4 ,u4 ,lack of unity in paragraph4 4 ,proper place for a paragraph4 74 ,run two paragraphs together4 4 ,passages within brackets to be omitted4 ,deleatur symbol4 ,dele1 take out1 omit2 a mark used in correcting printer's proof4 4 ,against a passage requiring to be wholly recast4 ,,ri4 ,unnecessary repetition of idea4 84 ,questions truth of statement4 ,b4 ,barbarism4 ,i4 ,impropriety4 ,w4 ,wordy4 ,h4 ,high-flown1 inflated1 or over-ambitious4 ,d4 ,consult the dictionary4 ,,hack4 ,hackneyed4 ,,bw4 ,better word needed--a more exact or appropriate word4 ,,rw4 ,unnecessary repetition of a word4 ,m4 ,metaphors mixed1 or other fault in the use of figures of speech4 ,k4 ,awkward1 ugly1 or unpleasing4 ,,bt4 ,bad taste4 ,a strong notebook of portable size is needed for the work in spelling and vocabulary4 ,it should be used from the first for noting new words1 etc4 ,see page #aii4 ,a ,,first ,,book ,,in ,,writing ,,english ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,writing ,,english ,an ,art of ,communication4--,language may be studied in various ways4 ,it may be scientifically investigated as a historical growth1 or as a curious revelation of how the human mind works4 ,this kind of study has pure knowledge for its object2 if it learns the laws which govern language1 it is satisfied4 ,again1 language may be studied with a view to applying its principles to the art of self-expression4 ,the attempt to find words for one's ideas has enlivened many a weary hour for many a person who wrote merely for his own satisfaction4 ,but the chief object for which language should be studied is that it may be made a means of communication4 ,most that is good in life comes from men's ability to make their fellows share their thoughts and feelings4 ,but it is not always an easy thing to make others see how we feel or think4 ,the young child is called an infant1 a word which means not-speaking4 ,half his miseries arise from his inability to communicate his notions4 8,men are but children of a larger growth10 and much of their misery results from inability to tell what they think or feel4 ,in a sense the case is worse for the man than for the child4 ,the latter makes gestures and grimaces to help his meaning out2 and he depends not in vain on pitch and stress4 ,the grown man is partly shorn of these helps1 in that he has to communicate by letters and other compositions4 ,how much more work the eye does to-day than the ear6 ,before the age of printing1 things were different4 ,both in speaking and in writing there are many special laws that must be observed if there is to be real communication4 ,the special laws of spoken language are not so numerous as those of written language4 ,written language has to be much more careful than spoken2 the writer has no chance of correcting himself on the spot if not understood4 ,nevertheless a knowledge of how to communicate by written words is a very great help in communicating orally4 ,the art of communicating by means of written ,english words is called ,english composition1 or rhetoric4 ,the latter word once meant the art of speaking2 and it still keeps this sense when a composition is written to be delivered4 ,rhetoric is a useful art1 like that of curing the sick1 or that of building bridges4 ,a matter of prime importance to each man is that1 in business or in society1 he should be able to say or write exactly what he means2 rhetoric helps him to do this4 ,a business man may lose money by failing to make himself clearly understood2 misunderstandings and quarrels arise between friends because some one has failed to write just what he meant2 a man is liable to be taken for a boor if he abuses the ,english language4 ,rhetoric is an exceedingly practical art4 ,it would not1 however1 be fair to remove all emphasis from the fact that rhetoric is a fine art1 an art of beauty4 ,as soon as the student begins to master the use of words1 he has a chance to become an artist in language4 ,in producing a beautiful thing he feels the artist's pleasure4 ,most persons like to play some musical instrument1 or experiment in color1 or use a camera4 ,why should they not come to enjoy the art of setting down their ideas in words skilfully chosen1 and arranged with delicate precision8 ,the old ,greeks enjoyed it--those people who knew how to extract so much high pleasure from life4 ,along with their musical contests and athletic contests1 they had trials of skill in poetry and in public speech4 ,there is no more delightful art than that of writing1 if the writer finds words for his own fresh impressions4 ,in order to learn the mandolin1 a new player will train his wrist till it aches4 ,but thrumming music is doubtless small pleasure compared with writing music2 and writing ,english is in a way like writing music1--a fine1 high1 creative process1 which1 in the hands of a master1 results in a permanent1 not a fleeting1 product4 ,a teacher of ,english recently said that1 in a certain sense1 if a student likes any study at all he can be brought to like composition also4#f ,she was right4 ,if he cares for mathematics1 and the beautiful precision by which everything in mathematics falls exactly into its place1 he will enjoy showing the exact relations he conceives to exist between the parts of his sentence4 ,if a girl likes music she will care for the music that is in prose4 ,she will perceive that a good sentence is free from ugly sounds1 and has furthermore a music of rhythm1 a finely modulated rise and fall that a keen ear readily perceives4 ,a lad declares himself interested in inventing or in building machinery4 ,if so1 why should he not enjoy building a theme8 ,to think out a new mechanical device requires much the same kind of ingenuity1 sense of proportion1 perception of cause and effect1 that are required in thinking out the logical framework of a composition4 ,the student should work steadily toward the point where he may come to have an abiding love for that which is lucid and beautiful in expression by words4 ,he will never regret the time he spends in perfecting his instrument of expression4 ,no matter how practical the life he plans to lead1 the power of writing down his ideas in good ,english1 in a way that will leave no doubt as to what he meant and how earnestly he meant it1 will always profit him4 ,one meets everywhere men who lament that they gave so little attention to our language when they were young enough to master it4 ,the ,limitations of the ,art4--,it must never be supposed that1 because to some extent a fine art1 rhetoric should be studied as an end in itself4 ,what was said a moment ago about the primary aim of the study must be kept steadily in view4 ,we study the art of composition not for the art's sake1 but to communicate our ideas and feelings4 ,rhetoric does not profess to supply the student with ideas1 though it assumes that his mind is stimulated to new thought by trying to express that which he already has4 ,the more ideas he brings to the study1--ideas he has thought out in life or in his other studies1 like literature1 history1 civics1--the more facility he will carry away2 for ideas are the very best of material to make themes of4 ,if composition does only one thing for a given person1--if1 namely1 it brings him to a sturdy habit of finding something to say before he asks other people to listen to him1--it is eminently worth while4 ,write for an ,audience4--,writing is usually good in proportion as the writer is interested in it4 ,if he cares for it1 if he is anxious to find a worthy thought and make it clear to the eyes of others1 he will be very likely to succeed in doing so4 ,something of every student's weekly work ought to be good enough to come before the eyes of his friends and to command his friends' respect4 ,the student will find that his mates are keen critics2 they will not respect poor work4 ,but they are also fair and sympathetic critics1 ready and willing to surrender on sight to really good work4 ,a class as a whole will judge the compositions of each member disinterestedly and appreciatively4 ,whatever is most characteristic of you1 as different from other people2 whatever gift is yours1 of imagination1 or reasoning power1 or emotion1 or humor1--all will find its fit expression in your writing4 ,every human being is particularly interested in something1 is peculiarly apt at something4 ,to find out what most appeals to one's self in literature or in life1 and to voice one's ideas about it1 is to know a keen pleasure4 ,it is more4 ,it is to be of some use to one's fellows4 ,as human beings we want other human beings to tell us the best that is in them4 ,if a man has ideas we wish to share them--and wish him to learn how to express them that we may share them4 ,if he hasn't ideas1 the effort to express what he considers such will convince both him and us of the fact4 ,but then6--everybody has ideas4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,on ,,reading ,,aloud1 ,,and ,,on ,,spelling ,reading ,aloud4--,one of the quickest ways of learning to know good ,english1 is oral reading4 ,for him who would write the language it is therefore a great economy to learn to read it4 ,it is an invaluable habit to read aloud every day some piece of prose with the finest feeling the reader can lend to it4 ,in no other way can one so easily learn to notice and to remember new words4 ,in no other way can one catch the infinitely varied rhythm of prose1 and acquire a sense of how a good sentence rises gradually from the beginning and then descends in a cadence4 ,this rise and fall of the sentence is not merely a matter of voice2 it is a matter of thought as well4 ,similarly1 the law of unity in the sentence1 a law which prescribes what shall constitute a complete thought1 is curiously bound up with the laws of the human voice4 ,a clause that is too long to be pronounced in a single breath is usually clumsy in logic4 ,in the next place1 reading aloud helps one to spell correctly4 ,furthermore1 it is the best means of detecting those useless repetitions which betray poverty of vocabulary4 ,rousseau called accent the soul of language4 ,if the student reads aloud from writers whose work was natural1 unforced1 original1 he will gradually come to see his own ideas more clearly1 feel his own feelings more keenly4 ,best of all1 however1 let him read his own work aloud1 habitually4 ,this will help him to see whether or not it is correct1 natural1 effective4 ,spelling4#g--;,bad spelling should practically be a thing of the past for each student by the end of his first high school year4 ,every one can learn to spell1 though some more rapidly than others4 ,perhaps the chief reason why persons fail to spell correctly is that they do not read correctly4 ,they have not trained their eyes to see what is on the page2 they do not notice the syllables4 ,it is a good practice to read every day a page or two very slowly1 examining the words letter by letter4 ,it is equally helpful to read the page aloud after examining it4 ,in so doing give every vowel its true value2 cut no syllable short that should be sounded distinctly4 ,after writing a theme1 go through it1 challenging the spelling4 ,do not hand in your work without having consulted your own dictionary4 ,a bad speller may not be able to win in an oral spelling-match2 but there is no reason why every page of his writing should not be perfect in orthography4 ,into a little blank-book copy the correct form of every word you misspell4 ,each day read over carefully several words by syllables1 and then write them from memory4 ,the more frequently the hand writes the word in its correct form1 the better2 for the hand has a memory of its own1 and the mere act of writing a given form tends to fix it in memory4 ,make good spelling a matter of pride4 ,habitual bad spelling is a slovenly thing1 a mark of illiteracy4 ,spelling of ,compound ,words4--,it may be well to call attention here to the use of the hyphen in compound words4 #a4 ,the hyphen is needed in a compound adjective1 if there is any doubt as to the meaning when the hyphen is omitted4 8,red-hot iron0 may be a different idea from 8red hot iron40 #b4 ,numbers like the following take the hyphen3 seventy-three1 seventy-third4 #c4 ,many a word once compounded is now written solid1 that is1 as a single word3 railroad1 steamboat1 anybody1 anything1 raindrop1 forever1 schoolboy1 schoolhouse1 schoolmate1 schoolfellow 7but school days1 school teacher1 school district72 myself1 yourself 7but one's self72 childlike1 lifelike4 ,all these words but two1 it will be seen1 have a monosyllable for the first part4 ,when in doubt as to whether or not a hyphen is needed1 consult some special manual like ,bigelow's ,handbook of ,punctuation4 ,in all your writing1 join distinctly syllables that you wish to have go together4 ,notice the absurd and misleading effect of such careless writing as this3 8,he was a glass maker and worked down at the glass house2 his gal lant moust ache and his loud voice trai ned by blow ing glass mad e him wel come at the harvest home celebrations40 ,possessives4--,the possessive singular of a monosyllable ending in s is regularly made by adding 's1 pronounced as an extra syllable4 ,thus3 ,jones's2 ,briggs's4 ,for the polysyllable ending in s or the sound of s1 merely the apostrophe is usually required1 as in the plural4 ,thus3 8,moses' seat02 8conscience' sake40 ,singulars and ,plurals4--,spell aloud by syllables1 and write from dictation the plurals of the following3 ,analysis1 animalcule1 antithesis1 appendix1 bandit1 cherub1 crisis1 ellipsis1 focus1 fungus1 genus1 hypothesis1 madame1 memorandum1 monsieur1 mother-in-law1 mussulman1 nebula1 oasis1 parenthesis1 radius1 spoonful1 synopsis4 ,what are the singulars--if singulars there are--of data1 errata1 magi1 strata1 vertebr8 ,written ,exercise4--,below are given the correct form of certain words often misspelled by pupils in the first and second years of a secondary school4 ,without previous study write each word from dictation4 ,afterwards spell aloud by syllables each word that you misspelled in writing from dictation4 ,then write at least twenty times the correct form4 ,the object is to acquire a kind of automatic correctness4 ,in composing1 one should have his mind free for thought2 one should not have to think much more about spelling than about breathing4 ,accompany2 advisability2 all right2 anniversary2 appearance2 associated2 bargained2 buried2 carriage2 catarrh2 cemetery2 characteristic2 commander2 commotion2 conceive2 condescension2 confidants2 confidence2 deceive2 describe2 descriptions2 despair2 difficulty2 dilapidate2 disappointed2 disappeared2 ecstasy2 enemies2 enemy2 exaggerate2 excrescence2 existence2 fascination2 fatiguing2 finally2 further2 grammar2 handkerchief2 hating2 hemorrhage2 immature2 indispensable2 irresistible2 lightning2 literary2 living2 loathsome2 lose 7the money72 manuvre2 melancholy2 minister2 ministry2 misshapen2 necessary2 niece2 occurrence2 offered2 opportunity2 outrageous2 parallel2 paralysis2 peaceable2 persuade2 planned2 poniard2 primitive2 principal 7objection72 principle 7of action72 privilege2 promenading2 pursuit2 received2 recommend2 redoubtable2 referred2 representatives2 rhythm2 sacrilegious2 secretary2 seize2 seized2 separate2 shoeing2 siege2 simile2 stopped2 striking2 studied2 superintendent2 supposing2 tenants2 theatre2 their 7money72 transferred2 until2 veil 7on face72 vengeance2 very2 village2 wasn't2 whether2 ,roger de ,coverley2 ,george ,eliot2 ,lord ,macaulay2 ,michigan2 ,thackeray4 ,word-,breaking4--,at the end of a line do not divide 7a7 a monosyllable1 7b7 a short disyllable1 such as real1 doing4 ,divide polysyllables according to their etymological composition 7to be found in the dictionary74 ,some authors discountenance beginning a second line with -ic1 -al1 -ing1 -ly4 ,these breakings are perhaps permissible1 if the hyphen is made very distinct4 ,written and ,oral ,exercise4--,the instructor should ask each pupil in turn to recall1 spell1 and pronounce some word that doubles the letter c4 ,the class should then be given a few minutes to write from memory as many of those given as they can recall4 ,after this the pronouncing and spelling should proceed as long as possible1 alternately with the writing4 ,the lists should then be compared1 and the pupil who has reproduced the largest number of words should be asked to spell and pronounce each one on his list4 ,the other pupils should then be called upon to read from their own lists words that the first fails to give4 ,each should then be asked to add to his paper all words remembered by other members of the class1 but not by him4#h ,pronunciation4--,a person who regards good usage in pronunciation and who articulates with unaffected nicety1 is received at once as an educated man4 ,it is interesting to see how often ,lord ,chesterfield1 the best-mannered of ,englishmen1 insists that a gentleman is known by his accent4 ,chesterfield's letters to his son are full of this idea4 ,a sense of ease and security blesses him who knows how to sound every word that occurs to him as he talks2 it is such a sense as a man feels when he is sure that his clothes fit him and are cut according to the accepted conventions4 ,it is accordingly worth all the trouble involved1 to form a habit of letting no word pass unchallenged as to its orthopy4 ,look it up in the dictionary1 or in a good manual like ,phyfe's ,seven ,thousand ,words often ,mispronounced4 ,exercise4--,below is given a short list of words frequently mispronounced4 ,the instructor should pronounce the words1 and ask the class to pronounce them4 ,abdomen1 abject1 absinthe1 abstruse1 acacia1 accessory1 acclimate1 acoustics1 actor1 adagio1 adult1 advertisement1 aronaut1 again1 aged1 aggrandize1 aide-de-camp1 allopathy1 ally1 alma mater1 alternate 7noun and adjective71 amenable1 apricot1 arbutus1 aroma1 aspirant1 bade1 bellows1 biography1 bitumen1 boatswain1 bravado1 bronchitis1 canine1 cant1 can't1 cement 7noun71 cemetery1 cerebrum1 clematis1 coadjutor1 daunt1 decade1 devil1 diphtheria1 disdain1 dislike1 drama1 duke1 dynasty1 enervate1 evil1 exhale1 exhaust1 extant1 extempore1 finale1 finance1 financier1 garrulous1 gaunt1 genuine1 gibber1 gibbet1 glacier1 gratis1 grimace1 half1 hegira1 heinous1 impious1 jugular1 lamentable1 learned 7adj471 legend1 lever1 literature1 nape1 nomad1 opponent1 pageant1 patriot1 patron1 petal1 precedence1 precedent1 quay1 revolt1 rise 7noun71 sacrifice1 squalor1 subtile1 subtle1 vagary1 water1 wrath1 zology4#i ,ablard1 ,abernethy1 ,about 7,edmond71 ,abydos1 ,acheron1 ,achitophel1 ,adonis1 gean1 olus1 schylus1 ,afghanistan1 ,agincourt1 ,agnes1 ,aguilar 7,grace71 ,ada1 ,aix-la-,chapelle1 ,alaric1 ,alcantara1 ,alcuin1 ,aldebaran1 ,alighieri1 ,amphion1 ,andronicus1 ,antinous1 ,aquinas1 ,arab1 ,aral1 ,arundel1 ,athos1 ,avon1 ,aytoun1 ,bajazet1 ,balliol 7college71 ,balmoral1 ,czerny1 ,latin1 ,laocon1 ,medici1 ,mivart1 7,st4 ,george71 ,orion1 ,paderewski1 ,pepys1 ,proserpine1 ,sienkiewicz1 ,southey1 ,thalia1 ,tschaikowsky1 ,volapk1 ,wagner1 ,ygdrasil4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,a ,,review ,,of ,,punctuation ,punctuation is a system of disjunctive marks by which the eye and ear are helped to understand the sense of what is written4 ,it is desirable to regard the subject as governed to a great extent by a few principles of common sense4 ,the present chapter reviews those matters of capitalization and punctuation which seem to give most trouble to secondary school students4 ,capitals4 #a4 ,of course all proper nouns should begin with capital letters1 and so should adjectives derived from them3 examples1 ,russia1 ,russian1 ,jew1 ,jewish1 ,gentile1 ,french1 ,german4 ,but the word christian is not always capitalized1 especially if it is used vaguely as a synonym for good1 righteous1 etc4 #b4 ,we capitalize the words ,north1 ,south1 ,east1 ,west1 when1 because we mean parts of the country1 we use the article the before them4 ,thus1 8,the extreme ,west favors free silver40 ,but if we speak of direction merely1 we do not capitalize3 8,many people took ,horace ,greeley's advice and went west40 ,capitalize sections of the country1 but not points of the compass4 #c4 ,names of the seasons are not capitalized4 ,thus1 though we write ,june1 ,september1 we also write spring1 autumn4 #d4 ,in the salutation of a letter1 the word ,sir is capitalized1 but not the preceding adjective unless that begins the salutation4 ,thus3 8,my dear ,sir40 ,so in the leave-taking only the first word receives a capital4 ,thus3 8,yours very truly40 #e4 ,one valuable device is the use of the capital to introduce the semblance of a quotation1 or what might be called a rhetorical quotation4 ,note3 8,i should answer1 ,no40 ,here the quotation ,no is merely rhetorical1 or pretended1 not real4 ,or this3 8,let me give you a short rule for success3 ,trust in ,god and keep your powder dry40 ,or this1 from ,longfellow3 8,perhaps the greatest lesson which the lives of literary men teach us is told in a single word3 ,wait60 #f4 ,in titles of books1 essays1 etc41 the important words are capitalized4 ,thus3 8,my theme-title to-day was1 ,a ,description of a ,person40 #g4 ,names of ,deity begin with a capital1 and many persons prefer to capitalize adjectives referring directly to ,deity4 ,thus3 8,we crave ,thy grace40 ,but this habit should not be carried so far as the capitalization of words like divine1 omniscient1 when these are not applied to ,deity4 ,rather3 8,his goodness was divine40 ,written ,exercise4--,copy the following1 capitalizing where necessary3-- #a4 ,after going south last spring ,i understood better than before what is meant by the new south4 ,the southerners have taken to manufacturing2 the cotton is no longer all shipped away4 ,wealth has multiplied4 ,immigration has increased--the french are not the only foreigners now4 ,there are colleges and even universities1 that compare favorably with those of the north4 ,are the people wide-awake and ambitious8 ,i answer1 yes4 ,the ,reasons for ,punctuation4--,in early days manuscripts were written 8solid10 thus3-- ,,manuscriptswerewrittensolid4 ,it was found that both eye and ear demanded spaces and punctuation4 ,the reader's train of thought goes straight ahead from word to word until the punctuation mark warns it that there is danger of misunderstanding if it does not pause4 ,the mark shows that the words which precede it are to be understood mentally as a group1 and to be read orally as a group4 ,if the thought is kept in mind that a punctuation mark is a sort of danger signal1 many of the difficulties of the subject vanish4 8,henry rose1 and ,i with him laughed at the story we had heard40 ,if that comma be omitted between rose and and1 what happens8 ,the ,comma4 #a4 ,the comma1 even more than other points1 shows what the meaning of the sentence is2 it should set off the parts of the thought4 ,nothing is easier than to spoil a minor unit of thought by breaking it in two with a comma4 ,so far as may be1 the modified subject of a sentence should not be cut into by a comma2 neither should the modified predicate2 nor should a subject and its predicate be separated any oftener by commas than is necessary4 ,the following passage1 written by a lad of fifteen from dictation1 shows the minor units of thought divided by too many commas3-- ,the mean appearance of the houses1 in old ,boston1 was1 to some extent1 relieved by the rich display1 of painted1 and sculptured signs1 which adorned the front of taverns1 and stores4444 ,they served sometimes1 as advertisements of the business1 sometimes merely as designations1 of the shops which were indicated popularly1 and1 in the newspapers1 by their signs4 ,if this passage be read aloud1 a pause being made wherever a comma is placed1 it will sound unnatural1 disconnected4 ,revised1 it will read somewhat as follows3-- ,the mean appearance of the houses in old ,boston was1 to some extent1 relieved by the rich display of painted and sculptured signs which adorned the front of taverns and stores4444 ,they served sometimes as advertisements of the business1 sometimes merely as designations of the shops1 which were indicated popularly and in the newspapers by their signs4 #b4 ,commas are used to set off matter that is parenthetical1 but not sufficiently so as to need parentheses or dashes4 ,such words as therefore are not usually to be considered as parenthetical4 ,a parenthetical group of words is not to be broken into unnecessarily by a comma4 ,incorrect form3 8,the squire remarked1 as all we who live here1 in ,smithboro1 know1 that1 so far as the people who lived over there1 in ,edinburgh1 are concerned1 we are as happy as they40 ,correct form3 8,the squire remarked1 as all we who live here in ,smithboro' know1 that so far as the people who live over there in ,edinburgh are concerned1 we are as happy as they40 #c4 ,vocative words1 that is1 words used in direct address1 are set off by commas4 8,come1 men1 let's go60 8,well1 sir1 how now80 ,it is curious that in the expressions 8,yes1 sir10 8,no1 sir10 in pronouncing which we do not pause before 8sir10 we still place a comma here4 ,probably no rule of punctuation is more neglected than this of vocative words4 ,something like this usage is the placing of a comma after the expletive ,now4 ,thus3 8,now1 ,i think that the case is a little different40 #d4 7a7 ,words or phrases forming a series are separated by commas when conjunctions are omitted2 and the comma is used between the last two members of the series1 conjunction or no conjunction4 ,thus3 8,burns1 ,barnes of ,dorsetshire1 and ,riley are poets of the people40 ,if the last comma were omitted1 we should seem not to be considering each man separately4 ,exceptions3 8little old man10 8fine fat hen10 etc4 7b7 ,a rapid series of independent propositions1 very closely related in sense1 may be punctuated by commas4 ,thus3 8,i came1 ,i saw1 ,i conquered40 ,this is the only structure in which an independent statement1 not introduced by a conjunction1 is ever pointed with the comma4 ,if there is any doubt whether or not the series is rapid enough to admit commas1 semicolons should be used instead4 #e4 ,relative clauses not restrictive#aj are set off by commas4 ,this is a rather important rule4 ,if ,i say1 8,the moon1 which1 as everybody is aware1 goes round the earth1 is cold10 the which clause does not so restrict or define the word 8moon0 that it is necessary to our understanding what is meant by 8the moon02 the relative clause can be picked out bodily1 and the sentence will still be intelligible4 8,the moon is cold10 is clear enough to people who live on the earth4 ,they understand that the earth's moon is meant4 ,but suppose ,i say1 8,the moon which goes round the earth is smaller than one of ,jupiter's moons02 now the relative clause identifies1 restricts the word 8moon0--tells what moon is meant4 ,the clause forms an integral part of the subject4 ,it is no longer the moon merely1 a thing that everybody knows about2 it is one particular moon3 the-moon-which-goes-round-the-earth4 ,occasionally such a clause can be identified by that1 for many writers save this relative for restrictive clauses4 ,written ,exercise4--,copy and punctuate the following sentences1 all of which1 except the first1 are from ,robert ,louis ,stevenson4 ,defend orally your pointing3-- #a4 ,there goes ,president ,harper who is so much interested in everything that interests students4 #b4 ,marquis ,i said if you take another step ,i fire upon you4 #c4 ,in the midst of these imagine that natural clumsy unintelligent and mirthful animal ,john4 #d4 ,the terms and spirit in which he spoke of his political beliefs were in our eyes suited to religious beliefs and vice vers4 #e4 ,oh yes ,i dare say said ,john4 #f4 ,moy pronounced ,mo was a pleasant little village4 #g4 ,we were in a large bare apartment adorned with two allegorical prints of music and painting and a copy of the law against public drunkenness #h4 ,now what ,i like so much in ,france is the clear unflinching recognition by everybody of his own luck #i4 ,if it ever be a good thing to take such despondency to heart the ,miserere is the right music and a cathedral a fit scene #aj4 ,but the sun was already down the air was chill and we had scarcely a dry stitch between the pair of us #aa4 ,the inn to which we had been recommended at ,quartes was full4 #ab4 ,mme4 ,gilliard set herself to waken the boy who had come far that day and was peevish and dazzled by the light4 #ac4 ,do you remember the ,frenchman who was put down at ,waterloo ,station #ad4 ,the children who played together to-day by the ,sambre and ,oise canal each at his own father's threshold when and where might they next meet #ae4 ,i began with a remark upon their dog which had somewhat the look of a pointer #af4 ,the only buildings that had any interest for us were the hotel and the caf #ag4 ,not long after the drums had passed the caf we began to grow sleepy and set out for the hotel which was only a door or two away ,the ,semicolon4 #a4 ,the semicolon is a kind of weak full-stop1 i4e4 period4 ,nearly always it separates clauses that are grammatically able to get along without each other1 but that are closely related in sense4 ,so rare indeed are the cases in which the semicolon may be used with a dependent clause1 that a high school student may properly ignore them4 ,for the present1 avoid using the semicolon to point a dependent clause4 #b4 ,sometimes the semicolon punctuates a series of mere phrases4 ,this occurs if some particular emphasis is desired for them1 or if they are too long to be set off by commas4 ,example3-- ,an enormous smoke-stack blocks my view2 built of brick1 and massive2 blue in the cold winter mist2 glowing like a pillar of fire as soon as the sunlight reaches it2 the most changing1 the most stable1 thing is this landscape4 ,oral ,exercise4--,which statements in the following sentences are independent8 which dependent8 7,it need hardly be suggested that the necessity of understanding a subject or a predicate does not make a statement dependent47 #a4 ,if the sky falls1 we shall catch larks4 #b4 ,faults are thick1 where love is thin4 #c4 ,happy is he that is happy in his children4 #d4 ,histories make men wise2 poets1 witty2 the mathematics1 subtile2 natural philosophy1 deep2 morals1 grave2 logic and rhetoric1 able to contend4 #e4 ,o1 there be players that ,i have seen play1--and heard others praise1 and that highly--not to speak it profanely1 that neither having the accent of ,christians1 nor the gait of ,christian1 pagan1 nor man1 have so strutted and bellowed1 that ,i have thought some of nature's journeymen had made men1 and not made them well1 they imitated humanity so abominably4--,hamlet1 ,act ,,iii4 ,sc4 #b4 ,the following sentences were written by a pupil in the first year of the high school4 ,if there are mistakes in punctuation1 explain what principle is violated3-- #a4 ,when the time came to retire2 my uncle was shown to the tower-room4 #b4 ,a short time afterward when he was travelling through ,normandy2 he came to an old castle standing in the midst of a park4 #c4 ,the postilion was ordered to drive to the castle2 where my uncle received a welcome from the little ,marquis4 #d4 ,this seemed the very night for ghosts2 with the wind howling outside and whistling through the ill-fitting casement4 ,the ,colon4 #a4 ,the colon is usually a mark of specification4 ,thus1 8,the old idea of education was simple3 reading1 writing1 arithmetic40 ,a fine distinction of logic can be shown by using it3 a general statement may be followed by a colon1 after which the details that explain the statement may be given4 ,in the following sentence the colon specifies what is meant by fine character4 8,he was a fellow of fine character3 brave1 honorable1 free from false pretense40 ,usually the colon separates clauses that are logically1 if not grammatically1 in apposition with each other4 #b4 ,the colon introduces a formal or long1 the comma an informal or short1 quotation4 8,he answered1 #8,i will work while the day lasts4'0 8,the ,declaration of ,independence begins as follows3 #8,when1 in the course of human events4'0 ,the ,dash4 #a4 ,the dash shows a sudden break in the thought4 ,thus3 8,we were hurrying onward--but first let me tell what happened before that40 #b4 ,the dash sometimes precedes a summing up4 ,here it usually follows a comma1 since the members of the series are set off by commas3 8,chaucer1 ,shakespeare1 ,wordsworth1--very many of our great poets indeed1 were at home in the country40 ,sometimes the dash is used when there is no real summing up1 but an appositive phrase is added1 as a further explanation4 ,for an example1 see the last sentence of the next paragraph1--and this sentence also4 #c4 ,the dash1 like the comma1 is often used to set off a parenthetical expression4 7,see #b1 under the comma47 ,examples3 8,his father--that iron gentleman--had long ago dethroned himself40 8,he was a man--the reader must already have perceived--of easy1 not to say familiar1 manners40 ,note that in these examples no commas are used with the dashes1 because if the parenthetical words were lifted out1 the sentence would close up without punctuation4 ,but suppose the sentence were such that it could not close up without punctuation2 then the comma would be needed4 ,the comma in 8,his father being angry1 he felt afraid10 remains when the parenthesis is inserted3 8,his father being angry1--that iron gentleman1--he felt afraid40 ,note that in such a case a second comma is used1--with the second dash4 ,written ,exercise4--,copy and punctuate the following sentences from ,stevenson4 ,in the first is there not a choice of punctuation after 8difficulties08 #a4 ,all the way down we had our fill of difficulties sometimes it was a wear which could be shot sometimes one so shallow and full of stakes that we must withdraw the boats from the water and carry them round #b4 ,but this is a fashion ,i love to kiss the hand or wave a handkerchief to people ,i shall never see again to play with possibility and knock in a peg for fancy to hang upon #c4 ,you see what it is to be a gentleman ,i beg your pardon what it is to be a pedler4 #d4 ,centralization said he but the landlord was at his throat in a minute #e4 ,there should be some myth but if there is ,i know it not founded on the shivering of the reeds there are not many things in nature more striking to man's eye #f4 8,the fire should have been here at this side0 explained the husband 8then one might have a writing table in the middle books and0 comprehensively#aa 8all it would be quite coquettish a serait tout--fait coquet40 ,quotation ,marks4 #a4 ,marks of quotation1 or1 as the ,english call them1 inverted commas1 are placed around direct quotations4 ,many students neglect a part of this little duty3 they fail to mark the end of the quotation4 #b4 ,a quotation within a quotation stands between single commas4 ,thus3 8,we were gathered on shore1 watching the schooner4 ,gray spoke up3 #8,she's certainly going down1 and we must let the saving station know it4 ,maybe the patrol has already seen her2 ,i saw a sailor walking on the beach not long since1 and singing1 8,yeave ho1 my lads1 the wind blows free40'0 ,note that when there is a quotation within the second quotation1 it receives the double marks4 #c4 ,sometimes a quotation is given in substance1 with no attempt at accuracy2 to show this fact it is quoted in single commas4 ,thus3 #8,a foolish consistency frightens little minds4' ,this is the substance of ,emerson's remark1 8,a foolish consistency is the bugbear of little minds40 ,theme4--,write a dialogue a page or two long4 ,show the change from speaker to speaker by the use of quotation marks and paragraphing4 ,each reply of each interlocutor1 with its word or two of introduction1 if such there be1 should go by itself as a paragraph4 ,choose your own topic2 or take one of these1 changing the wording3 7#a7 ,smith tries to make ,brown see the difference between relative clauses restrictive and those merely cordinate4 7#b7 ,two girls lament the difficulties of punctuation4 7#c7 ,two lads or1 men talk politics4 ,do not begin each speech as in ,shakespeare each is begun--with the speaker's name4 ,refer occasionally to the speakers1 if you please1 e4g41 8#8,not by any means1' responded ,bangs1 rather tartly02 but do not hesitate to let most of the speeches stand without comment4 ,punctuate the dialogue carefully1 as you write4 ,then revise it carefully for punctuation4 ,brackets4 ,brackets indicate that the included matter is inserted by another person than the original author2 that is1 by a person who is quoting or editing the passage4 ,thus3 8,he ,goethe tells us that character is developed in the busy world1 though intellect is developed in solitude40 ,the ,exclamation ,point4 #a4 ,there is a tendency to punctuate with the period sentences that are really exclamatory2 it is better to use the exclamation point4 ,thus3 8,i am so delighted to see you60 ,it is better still to avoid an excess of exclamatory sentences1 however correctly punctuated4 #b4 ,the word oh6 should be followed by an exclamation point or by a comma4 ,this is not the word ,o1 which is used in direct address-- 8,o thou that rollest above1 ,round as the shield of my fathers10 and to express a wish3 8,o that ,i had wings like a dove40 #c4 ,the exclamation point may stand in the midst of a sentence1 at the end of a clause4 ,the mark is then not followed by a capital letter4 ,thus3 8,is it possible6 is it credible60 exclaimed the ,bishop4 ,the ,interrogation ,point4 #a4 ,placed in parentheses the interrogation point questions the accuracy of a statement4 ,ex43 8,it is in ,new ,york 787 that the largest number of exiled ,russians is found40 #b4 ,like the exclamation mark1 the question mark may stand at the end of a clause1 before a small letter4 ,thus3 8,do you believe it8 was the way he greeted me as ,i finished reading the letter40 ,or1 8,shall we lie here inactive8 ,shall we plan nothing8 attempt nothing8 do nothing80 ,written ,exercise4--,copy and punctuate the following sentences from ,stevenson3-- #a4 ,such a dinner as we were going to eat such beds as we were to sleep in #b4 ,where were the boating men of ,belgium where the judge and his good wines and where the graces of ,origny #c4 ,come back again she cried and all the hills echoed her #d4 ,all the gold had withered out of the sky and the balloon had disappeared whither ,i ask myself2 caught up into the seventh heaven or come safely to land somewhere in that blue uneven distance into which the roadway dipped and melted before our eyes ,italics4 #a4 ,a good rule for italics is to shun them--that is1 not to use them freely to denote emphasis4 ,emphasis can be secured by some other means2 for instance1 by putting the emphatic word near the beginning of the sentence4 ,thus3 8,it was such a very fine thing to spin along over the ice0 becomes1 8,a fine thing it was1 to spin along over the ice40 #b4 ,use italics to show that a word is foreign4 ,thus3 8,sophronia likes to interlard her ,english with such fine phrases as en passant1 fin de sicle1 and al fresco40 #c4 ,it is usual to italicize single words if they are specified1--spoken of as words4 ,thus3 8,a good many words that pass muster with most people are not really in good use2 for example1 burglarize40 ,the ,apostrophe4 #a4 ,one use of the apostrophe is to mark the plural of single letters1 or figures4 ,ex43 ,distinguish between your #h's and #c's2 dot your i's and cross your t's4 #b4 ,the commoner use of the apostrophe is to mark the possessive case4 ,there is however no apostrophe in the word its1 which is considered an adjective1 not a personal1 pronoun4 ,asterisks4 ,a row of asterisks is used to show an omission4 ,thus1 if a writer were quoting1 and wished to skip a page or two1 he would insert this sign 99 99 99 99 ,but if he omitted only a few words1 he would rather use 8leaders02 thus4444 ,oral ,exercise1 in ,review4--,read this passage over carefully1 and listen to the reading of it aloud by some member of the class or by the instructor4 ,then explain how it should be punctuated4 ,mr4 ,higginbotham ,mr4 ,higginbotham tell us the particulars about old ,mr4 ,higginbotham bawled the mob what is the coroner's verdict are the murderers apprehended is ,mr4 ,higginbotham's niece come out of her fainting fits ,mr4 ,higginbotham ,mr4 ,higginbotham ,the coachman said not a word except to swear awfully at the ostler for not bringing him a fresh team of horses the lawyer inside had generally his wits about him even when asleep the first thing he did after learning the cause of the excitement was to produce a large red pocket-book meantime ,dominicus ,pike being an extremely polite young man and also suspecting that a female tongue would tell the story as glibly as a lawyer's had handed the lady out of the coach she was a fine smart girl now wide awake and bright as a button and had such a sweet pretty mouth that ,dominicus would almost as lieves have heard a love tale from it as a tale of murder ,gentleman and ladies said the lawyer to the shopkeepers the mill men and the factory girls ,i can assure you that some unaccountable mistake or more probably a wilful falsehood maliciously contrived to injure ,mr ,higginbotham's credit has excited this singular uproar we passed through ,kimballton at three o'clock this morning and most certainly should have been informed of the murder had any been perpetrated but ,i have proof nearly as strong as ,mr4 ,higginbotham's own oral testimony in the negative here is a note relating to a suit of his in the ,connecticut courts which was delivered me from that gentleman himself ,i find it dated at ten o'clock last evening ,so saying the lawyer exhibited the date and signature of the note which irrefragably proved either that this perverse ,mr4 ,higginbotham was alive when he wrote it or as some deemed the more probable case of two doubtful ones that he was so absorbed in worldly business as to continue to transact it even after his death but unexpected evidence was forthcoming the young lady after listening to the pedlers explanation merely seized a moment to smooth her gown and put her curls in order1 and then appeared at the tavern-door making a modest signal to be heard ,good people said she ,i am ,mr4 ,higginbotham's niece ,written ,exercise1 in ,review4--,copy1 punctuate1 and capitalize the following1 from ,charles ,lamb3 ,and first let us remember as first in importance in our childish eyes the young men as they almost were who under the denomination of ,grecians were waiting the expiration of the period when they should be sent at the charges of the ,hospital to one or other of our ,universities but more frequently to ,cambridge these youths from their superior acquirements their superior age and stature and the fewness of their numbers for seldom above two or three at a time were inaugurated into that high order drew the eyes of all and especially of the younger boys into a reverent observance and admiration how tall they used to seem to us how stately would they pace along the cloisters while the play of the lesser boys was absolutely suspended or its boisterousness at least allayed at their presence not that they ever beat or struck the boys that would have been to have demeaned#ab themselves the dignity of their persons alone insured them all respect the task of blows1 or corporal chastisement they left to the common monitors or heads of wards who it must be confessed in our time had rather too much license allowed them to oppress and misuse their inferiors and the interference of the ,grecian who may be considered as the spiritual power was not unfrequently called for to mitigate by its mediation the heavy unrelenting arm of this temporal power or monitor in fine the ,grecians were the solemn ,muftis of the school ras#ac were computed from their time it used to be said such or such a thing was done when ,s---- or ,t---- was ,grecian4 ,common ,abbreviations4 ,the following list of abbreviations should be learned1 ,latin words and all4 ,a4 ,b41 ,artium ,baccalaureus4 ,bachelor of ,arts4 ,in ,england1 ,b4 ,a4 ,a4 ,d41 ,anno ,domini4 ,in the ,year of our ,lord4 ,,ad4 ,,lib41 or ad4 lib41 ,ad libitum4 ,at pleasure4 ,t41 tatis4 ,of age2 aged4 ,a4 ,m41 ,ante ,meridiem4 ,before noon4 ,a4 ,m41 ,artium ,magister4 ,master of ,arts4 ,in ,england1 ,m4 ,a4 ,a4 ,u4 ,c41 ,anno ,urbis ,condit4 ,in the year from the ,building of the ,city 7,rome74 ,d4 ,c4 ,l4 ,doctor of ,civil ,law4 ,d4 ,d41 ,divinitatis ,doctor4 ,doctor of ,divinity4 ,d4 ,d4 ,s4 ,doctor of ,dental ,surgery4 ,do41 ,ditto4 ,the same4 ,e4 ,e4 ,errors excepted4 7,used in book-keeping47 ,e4 ,o4 ,e4 ,errors and omissions excepted4 ,e4 ,g41 or e4 g41 ,exempli gratia4 ,for example4 ,,etc41 or ,c41 ,et ctera4 ,and so forth2 literally1 ,and others4 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,fellow of the ,royal ,society4 ,h4 ,m4 ,his or ,her ,majesty4 ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,his or ,her ,majesty's ,ship or ,service4 ,h4 ,r4 ,h4 ,his or ,her ,royal ,highness4 ,,ibid41 ,ibidem4 ,in the same place4 ,used in quoting several selections from one book1 or making several references to one source4 ,i4 ,e41 or i4 e41 ,id est4 ,that is4 ,in reading aloud1 one gives the ,english words only4 ,i4 ,h4 ,s41 sometimes explained as ,iesus ,hominum ,salvator4 ,jesus the ,saviour of ,men4 ,more properly1 this abbreviation merely means 8,jesus40 ,it is made up of the first three letters of the ,greek word for ,jesus--4 ,the ,h1 in ,i4 ,h4 ,s41 is really the ,greek letter ta1 from which we get our capital ,e4 ,i4 ,n4 ,r4 ,i41 ,iesus ,nazarenus ,rex ,iudorum4 ,jesus of ,nazareth1 ,king of the ,jews4 ,l4 ,h4 ,d41 ,litterarum ,humanarum ,doctor4 ,doctor of ,humane ,letters4 ,,ll4 ,d41 ,legum ,doctor4 ,doctor of ,laws4 ,m41 ,meridies4 ,mid-day4 ,m4 ,a4 ,master of ,arts4 ,m4 ,d41 ,medicin ,doctor4 ,doctor of ,medicine4 ,,messrs4 ,gentlemen4 7,french1 ,messieurs47 ,,mme4 ,madame4 ,,mlle4 ,mademoiselle4 ,,ms41 or ,ms4 ,manuscript4 ,,mss4 ,manuscripts4 ,n4 ,b41 ,nota bene4 ,mark well1 or take notice4 ,n4 ,s4 ,new ,style 7after #ageb74 ,,ob41 ,obiit4 ,he or she died4 ,o4 ,s4 ,old ,style 7previous to #ageb74 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,philosophi ,doctor4 ,doctor of ,philosophy4 ,,pp4 ,pages4 ,p4 ,p4 ,c41 ,pour prendre cong4 ,to take leave4 ,this is not an abbreviation for the ,english words3 ,paid parting call4 ,,pro ,,tem41 ,pro tempore4 ,for the time being4 ,,prox41 ,proximo4 ,next1 or the next month4 ,q4 ,e4 ,d41 ,quod erat demonstrandum4 ,which was to be demonstrated4 ,r4 ,s4 ,v4 ,p41 or ,r4 s4 v4 p41 ,rpondez1 s'il vous plat4 ,answer1 if you please4 ,,viz41 or viz41 ,videlicet4 ,namely1 to wit4 ,videlicet has etymologically about the force of 8,you see10 or 8,it can be seen40 ,,vs41 ,versus4 ,against4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,grammatical ,,phases ,,of ,,writing ,,english ,the present chapter reviews only those grammatical principles that are sometimes violated by students who have had a year of formal grammar4 ,clearness4--,if composition is the art of communicating one's ideas in words1 it is certain that clearness is the first requisite of good writing4 ,clearness1 perfect intelligibility1 is secured by means innumerable4 ,one secret however of being clear is to regard grammatical usages4 ,if a man is to be understood exactly1 he must be grammatical4 ,no one is excepted4 8,grammar10 said ,molire1 8knows how to lord it even over kings40 ,ambiguity4--,when an expression is open to two interpretations1 it is said to be ambiguous4 ,in the sentence1 8,he is a fair man10 fair is an ambiguous word4 ,in the sentence1 8,he was arrested by two officers1 who were about to board a ,west ,madison street car1 in possession of a large amount of stolen property10 the phrase in possession1 etc41 holds an ambiguous position4 ,grammatical errors often produce this fault4 ,solecisms4--,infringements of grammatical rules are called solecisms4#ad ,never losing sight of the fact that writing ,english is largely the art of telling some one else just what one means1 let us note a few solecisms that hinder a writer from giving his exact meaning4 ,coherence by placing ,modifiers rightly4--,i4 ,the rhetorics are fond of quoting droll sentences in which1 from being wrongly placed1 ideas fail to cohere1 stick together4 ,a favorite sentence is that from an epitaph in an ,ulster churchyard3 8,erected to the memory of ,john ,phillips1 accidently shot1 as a mark of affection by his brother40 ,mr4 ,bardeen 78,sentence-,making07 quotes the following1 which sounds like a manufactured joke1 but is nevertheless to the point4 8,is there a gentleman with one eye named ,walker in the club80 8,i don't know2 what was the name of his other eye80 ,another much quoted and startling sentence reads thus3 8,in one evening ,i counted twenty-seven meteors sitting on my back piazza40 ,remedy the incoherence of these sentences4 ,put close together on the paper ideas that belong close together in the mind4 ,do not let adverbs and modifying clauses stray from the thought to which they belong4 ,oral ,exercise4--,the order of words in the following sentences should so be changed as to increase the logical coherence of the thoughts4 #a4 ,the tops of the ,french ships were filled with riflemen1 like those of the enemy's ships4 #b4 ,the killing by ,orlando1 of the wrestler1 was indirectly due to a plot against his brother1 which ,oliver invented4 #c4 ,i hardly ever remember to have heard such music4 #d4 ,i never remember to have seen him4 ,here it is better to recast the sentence than to change the position of never4 #e4 ,the lad managed a bronco pony1 very vicious and dangerous1 when only thirteen4 #f4 ,wanted1 a hostler to take care of a horse1 of a religious turn of mind4 #g4 ,after a brief rest ,blondin set out again with 8,tom ,sayers10 and accomplished the feat he had undertaken without a hitch4 ,this week will see the last times of 8,the ,rogue's ,comedy10 as next season ,mr4 ,willard will play the new play of ,henry ,arthur ,jones entitled 8,the ,physician0 exclusively4 ,,ii4 ,only1 and not only1 usually belong directly before the word modified4 ,oral ,exercise4--,insert only in the proper blank4 #a4 ,browning ---- wrote ---- a few poems for boys4 #b4 ,she ---- breathed ---- the name2 but we heard it4 #c4 ,we ---- received his letter1 ---- this morning4 #d4 ,he ---- gave ---- five cents ---- to the church4 ,,iii4 ,avoid the ,janus-clause2 the ,janus-phrase2 the ,janus-adverb or adjective4 ,the ,latin god ,janus had two faces1 one looking back1 the other ahead4 ,avoid putting a modifier where it becomes double-faced1--where it may be taken either with the preceding idea or with the following idea4 ,oral ,exercise4--,so change the position of the double-faced modifiers that their allegiance will be known4 #a4 ,there is no doubt that ,milton gave ,dryden permission to paraphrase ,paradise ,lost2 ,dryden did imitate ,milton as a matter of fact not very cleverly4 #b4 ,there can be no doubt that he quarrelled1--that he fought indeed vigorously4 ,he reappeared at least with a black eye4 #c4 ,she will sing in any case charmingly2 her training has been admirable4 #d4 ,as ,hazlitt says1 in his book of ,english proverbs1 where no fault is1 there needs no pardon4 ,,iv4 ,avoid putting an adverb between the parts of an infinitive1--between the to and the verb4 ,some reputable writers approve this construction2 still1 the better order is to place the modifier before or after the whole infinitive4 8,clearly to see10 or 8,to see clearly10 is better than 8,to clearly see40 ,this error is called the cleft infinitive4 ,concord of ,subject and ,predicate4 #a4 ,a collective noun takes a singular verb if the group of objects is thought of as a whole3 8,the ,united ,states is coining gold and silver40 ,the collective noun takes a plural verb if each separate member of the group is thought of3 8,the ,united ,states are firmly bound together in one union40 #b4 ,when two subject nouns are so closely related in thought that they seem to mean one thing1 the verb is in the singular3 8,his courage and bravery is well approved40 #c4 ,in writing a long sentence1 glance back at the number of the subject before you write the verb4 ,a plural near the verb often leads one to forget that the subject is singular4 ,thus3 8,the great number of the crows that settle nightly in the grove and fill the air with their cries1 makes not make the place a bedlam40 #d4 ,when a singular subject precedes a parenthetical phrase1 the former reaches over the head of the latter1 and makes the verb singular4 ,this rule holds even when the parenthesis is introduced by with4 ,thus3 8,napoleon1 with all his army1 was on the march40 #e4 ,either1 neither1 when used as distributive conjunctions1 take a singular verb4 ,mr4 ,carpenter#ae gives this instance of the error3 8,neither ,senators ,dawes nor ,hoar were in their seats to-day40 ,how shall the sentence be changed to distribute the senators properly8 #f4 ,if two subjects connected by either--or1 etc41 differ in person1 it is possible to make the verb agree with the subject nearest2 as 8,neither she nor you are to blame in this2 either ,i or he is to blame40 ,but this construction is awkward4 ,avoid the difference in person1 or else say1 8,neither she is to blame1 nor are you2 either he is to blame1 or ,i am40 #g4 ,each1 every1 either1 neither1 when used as pronouns1 always take a singular verb4 8,each of us knows2 neither of us is ignorant40 #h4 ,none takes either a singular or a plural verb4 ,it is originally no one1 and many careful writers prefer to keep the singular with it4 ,concord of ,adjective 7or ,participle7 and ,noun4 #a4 ,there is an old phrase1 these kind1 which1 though permitted a century ago1 was essentially ungrammatical1 and is not allowed to-day4 ,say1 this kind1 that kind1 etc4 #b4 7a7 ,every participle1 like every adjective1 must agree with its noun in person and number4 ,but furthermore1 every participle has an indisputable right to have something to agree with4 ,too often the poor word is left dangling in mid air4 ,shun the unrelated participle and the misrelated participle4 ,the best of us are only too prone to such slips as this3 8,coming up stairs1 it was seen that the great window fell10 instead of1 8,coming up stairs1 we saw the great window fall40 ,or this3 8,coming up stairs1 the window fell on him10 where the coming may belong to the window or to the him4 ,in the first of the two incorrect sentences the participle is unrelated2 in the second it is misrelated1 or at least ambiguously related4 7b7 ,care should be taken not to use a participle when a verbal noun in ing is needed4 8,the fact of ,poe being intemperate should not blind us to the fact of his genius10 is wrong for 8,the fact of ,poe's being intemperate10 etc4 #c4 ,particularly avoid a singular adjective with a plural noun1 in such expressions as1 8,a long way0 not ways4 ,note here that sidewise1 not sideways1 is correct4 ,concord of ,pronoun and ,antecedent4 #a4 ,it should be remembered that every singular antecedent takes a singular pronoun4 8,everybody came forward and laid his contribution on the table0--not 8their contribution40 #b4 ,before writing the verb of a relative clause1 think whether the antecedent is singular or plural4 8,her voice is one of the sweetest that have not has been heard in this town40 #c4 ,when a number of persons1 men and women1 are spoken of distributively1 the pronouns he and his are proper forms of reference--not their1 not his or her4 8,the audience rose and each person waved his applause0 would be correct1 even if there were ten ladies to each man4 ,the he or his may here be called the neutral pronoun4 ,what pronouns should fill the blanks in the following sentence8 8,let every man and woman who would like to join our picnic betake ---- to the pier at three o'clock1 and give ---- no anxiety about ---- lunch2 ---- will find plenty of sandwiches and cake and coffee on the picnic-boat40 ,such expressions as 8every man and woman0 are however undesirable whenever the neutral pronoun is to be used4 ,a neutral antecedent1 like every person1 everybody1 every one1 is preferable4 #d4 ,when the indefinite pronoun one is used1 there is often ambiguity in referring to it later by he1 his1 etc4 ,repeat the one4 ,thus1 8,one does not always know one's own mind40 ,better still1 use an expression like the indefinite you1 or1 a person1 which has its own representative among the pronouns4 ,thus1 8,a person doesn't always know his own mind40 #e4 ,use sparingly1 if at all1 the ,latin construction--which fact1 which idea1 etc4 ,say rather1 a fact which1 etc4 ,e4g4 8,he was slightly deaf1 a misfortune which he bore without whimpering40 #f4 ,avoid the ,latin construction that makes which refer to the idea of a whole clause2 it is a clumsy fashion4 ,example1 8,he said that he always doted on ,shakespeare--which ,i1 for one1 didn't believe1 because ,i know the fellow40 ,there is nothing here for which to tie to2 it is a relative without anything to which to relate4 ,rather a better way is to discard the relative clause1 substituting and with a demonstrative4 ,thus1 8,he bowed politely1 which set us all at ease10 becomes1 8,he bowed politely1 and this set us all at ease40 ,the this is allowed by our idiom to refer to the clause1 though the construction is still vague4 ,it is best to hunt up a good synonym for the idea of the preceding clause3 8,he bowed politely1 and this courtesy set us all at ease40 ,but it is not necessary to discard the relative clause4 ,a little ingenuity will enable one to find and insert just before the relative an appositive to the clause4 ,into each of the following sentences slip an appropriate appositive chosen from the following list3 a fact1 an idea1 a task1 a statement1 an assertion1 a notion1 an excuse1 a fancy1 a belief1 a hyperbole1 a prevarication1 a remedy4 7a7 ,mr4 ,ignatius ,donnelly thinks that ,bacon wrote ,shakespeare1 ---- which ought not to bother the student who likes ,romeo and ,juliet4 7b7 ,mame told father that there were a thousand cats in the back yard1 ---- which1 according to father1 meant our cat and another4 7c7 ,he has undertaken to learn two hard lessons in one hour1 ---- which will probably prove too much for the lad4 7d7 ,he proposes to cut the hand off1 ---- which seems rather cruel4 ,concord of ,cases4 ,subject and complement of an intransitive verb agree in case4 #a4 ,the complement of an intransitive verb in a finite mode is in the nominative case4 8,it's ,i0 not me4 8,i am he40 8,i thought it was he40 #b4 ,if the subject of an infinitive is in the objective case1 the complement is in the same case4 8,i thought it to be him0 not he4 ,but1 8,it was thought to be he40 ,concord of ,tenses4 #a4 ,in writing the verb of a subordinate clause1 be sure that its tense shall show just what you wish it to show--whether the same time as that of the principal verb1 or earlier time1 or later time4 ,for example3-- ,the same time4--8,he did not think himself to be much of a poet40 ,earlier time4--8,he did not think that he had been much of a poet40 8,he was sorry not to have been much of a poet40 8,yesterday1 when ,john spoke of the matter1 ,i should have liked to have had some experience that ,i might have used in advising him40 ,later time4--8,i wanted to go0 not to have gone4 8,i had intended to go40 8,i should have liked to go40 ,oral ,exercise4--,correct the errors in concord of tenses1 explaining each emendation4 #a4 ,where did you say ,st4 ,peter's was8 #b4 ,is it warm out of doors8 ,i should say it was4 #c4 ,i fully intended to have met you at the concert4 ,government4 #a4 8,he invited him and ,i10 is not an unheard-of blunder4 ,people often needlessly shrink from saying a correct sentence like this--8,he invited him and me0--and will even insert the full names of him and me rather than out with the right case of the pronoun4 #b4 ,in asking a question1 think whether who or whom is required4 8,whom did you see80 but1 8,who was it that you saw80 #c4 ,let governs the objective case1 quite as any other active verb4 8,let ,john and me go40 #d4 ,an error often occurs in the case of the relative after a verb of saying1 thinking1 telling1 and the like4 8,franklin's ,autobiography is the work of a man whom ,i should think would be known to every ,american40 ,the whom is wrong for who4 ,had the writer set off 8,i should think0 by commas1 he would have seen the mistake4 #e4 ,how should the following newspaper sentence be corrected8 8,he stated that the offering was #aja1ejj1 an amount upon which he would stake his honor would all be paid up40 ,on the ,reference of ,pronouns4 #a4 ,in the use of pronouns one cannot be too careful that each refers to the right person4 8,farmer ,jones called on his neighbor and told him that his cows were in his pasture10 leaves us in doubt whether ,farmer ,jones came to make a complaint or an apology4 ,how should the sentence be constructed to remove the ambiguity8 ,the following delicious error has been much quoted3 8,if fresh milk does not seem to agree with the child1 boil it40 ,how change the sentence to save the child's life8 #b4 ,sometimes a demonstrative can be used to better advantage than a personal pronoun4 8,they lent us their horses for the afternoon and these not they took us a long way out into the country40 #c4 ,sometimes it is better to repeat the antecedent1 varying it by simple synonyms1 than to use any pronoun4 ,not1 8,he gave him his word of honor1 that whenever he should see his brother in ,london1 he would do all for him that he ought to do for an old comrade's brother40 ,rather thus3 8,he gave his friend his word of honor1 that whenever he should see the latter's brother in ,london1 he would do for the boy all that a man ought to do for the brother of an old comrade40 #d4 ,acquire a habit of writing1 8,it is he10 or 8,it's he10 instead of 8,he is the one40 ,this latter phrase is permissible in colloquial speech1 where its clumsiness is not much felt4 ,the correct expression may sometimes seem over-precise4 ,but a person of tact ought to be able to speak correctly without seeming affected4 ,conjunctions and ,prepositions4 #a4 ,shall we say 8as large as10 8not as large as10 etc48 ,the first expression is right4 ,but after a negative1 use so for a correlative to as3 8not so large as40 #b4 ,in general be careful not to omit necessary conjunctions4 ,what should be supplied in the following sentence8 and how should the order be changed8 8,henty is better known but not so interesting to older boys as ,stevenson40 #c4 ,and which1 and who1 etc41 are wrong for which1 who1 etc41 when no relative has previously been used4 ,correct the following3 8,irving1 the historian1 and whom we honor as our first writer of prose tales1 is a prime favorite of us all40 #d4 ,like is not a conjunction4 ,it is incorrect to say1 8,do like ,i do40 ,this wrong use of like is habitual in many parts of our country1 and a native of any one of these districts has to watch himself narrowly to acquire the habit of using as for like4 ,it is1 however1 correct enough to say1 8,she talks like him40 ,here like is an adjective governing what was the dative case1 and the phrase like him has the value of an adverb4 #e4 ,different to is wrong for different from4 ,this error1 though rarely to be found in ,america1 is habitual in ,england4 ,the commoner ,american error is different than4 ,this mistake frequently occurs when the comparative degree has previously been used4 ,e4g4 8,this last kind of apple is different and sweeter than the first40 ,the better form is3 8,this last kind of apple is different from the first1 and sweeter40 ,do not split the particles1 by saying1 8,this kind of apple is different from and sweeter than the first40 ,adverb or ,adjective8 #a4 ,there is a group of words--verbs of sensation and the like1 look1 sound1 feel1 smell1 taste1 appear1 seem--which take an adjective to complete their meaning4 8,she looks sweet10 8,it tastes sweet10 8,she seems happy10 are common and correct ways of speaking4 ,notice that here something of the same idea can be given by saying1 8,she is sweet10 8,it is sweet10 8,she is happy40 ,the sweet idea or the happy idea describes the subject1 the person1 not the verb4 ,of course1 one might write a sentence in which the sweet idea would tell the way a given act was done4 8,she looked sweetly0 would imply that she was gazing sweetly at something or somebody4 ,but here must be noted an exception or two4 7a7 ,the word bad has two senses3 moral badness1 and badness that is not moral--badness of health1 for instance4 ,if ,i say 8,i feel bad10 the bad seems to mean moral badness3 i4e4 8,i am bad40 ,it is therefore permissible to break the rule and apply badly to physical feeling4 8,i feel badly0 is a common expression for 8,i feel sick02 and by the exception to the rule is correct4 ,which is better in the following sentence--bad or badly8 8,it sounds ---- to hear a young man swear40 7b7 ,there are a few cases where the adverb is retained when the verb is not felt as acting4 8,the report sounds well10 certainly does not mean that the report is in good health2 but it is certainly good ,english4 ,similarly we have3 8,she appears well in company40 ,it is to be kept in mind that ill and well are not always adverbs4 ,they are often adjectives2 and if one says 8,i feel ill10 or 8,i feel well10 one is using the adjective ill or the adjective well4 ,oral ,exercise4--,which of the italicized words is preferable in the following sentences8 7a7 8,this old stern-wheel boat rides over the waves quite as easy 7easily7 as any propeller1 if not easier 7more easily740 7b7 8,this old chaise rides as easy 7easily7 as any modern one40 7c7 8,an old shoe feels easy 7easily740 7d7 8,as ,billings read that passage it sounded different 7differently7 from the way in which the ,colonel read it40 7e7 8,do you feel good 7well7 after your night's rest80 7f7 8,i've been to church and1 for me1 really feel good 7well740 7g7 8,he voted independently 7independent740 7h7 8,home1 sweet home0 sounds well 7good7 to the ears of the ,american abroad4 ,shall or ,will4--,most ,americans1 like most ,scotchmen1 use the word will too frequently1 to the neglect of shall4 ,shall is from ,old ,english sceal 7skay-al7 and once meant owe1 be obliged4 ,it still may mean the same thing1 when not used as a mere auxiliary4 ,that is1 should often means ought1 which was once the past tense of owe4 ,it still can mean 8to be obliged40 8,you shall10 8he shall10 are expressions that imply obligation1 imposed by the speaker4 8,i shall at last die0 still has in it the idea of being compelled4 ,but this phrase illustrates happily one way by which shall with the first person has come to be felt as a mere future4 ,nearly always to-day ,i shall names a voluntary act2 but the volition is usually not emphasized2 the speaker has usually made up his mind before he says ,i shall1 and the words simply foretell the future act4 8,i shall be there0 incidentally announces the speaker's intention1 but the chief thing it announces is that the speaker will be there4 ,it is probably the future fact that is of interest to his friends4 ,ordinarily1 therefore1 shall in the first person means futurity more than it means volition4 ,will is from wilian 7wil-yan71 meaning to wish1 to will4 ,it frequently means that to-day1 though in the second and third persons it is also used for the simple future4 8,i will0 always implies volition4 ,i will implies either deliberate intention1 distinct wish1 or distinct willingness4 8,i will go0 means 8,i am determined to go10 or1 8,i wish to go10 or1 8,i am willing to go40 ,frequently such a phrase implies that there is opposition or an obstacle4 8,you will10 8they will10 usually lack the volitive idea2 they simply foretell that which you1 they1 are about to do4 ,yet you will1 he will1 they will may still mean you are determined1 etc41 if applied to a being that has the power of choice4 ,here one has but to emphasize the will1 and the old meaning is brought back4 ,thus3 8,he will persist in doing so1 though all his friends deplore it40 ,our first rule will accordingly be as follows3 ,to indicate mere futurity1 use shall in the first person1 will in the second and third4 ,examples3 8,i shall be glad to come4 ,you and the others will find me on hand at the pier40 ,so far1 so good4 ,but note that this rule also applies when the speaker is made to report his own words in indirect narrative4 8,abner says that he shall be glad to come1 and that you and the others will find him on hand at the pier40 ,just so if the indirect discourse is in the past1 and it is still the speaker who reports his own words4 8,abner said that he should be glad to come1 and that you and the others would find him at the pier40 ,all this seems sensible enough1 for the speaker is merely made to foretell his own future act4 ,the rule is too often broken4 8,abner said he was afraid he'd miss the boat40 ,here the contraction he'd stands 7as always7 for he would1 a form that is wrong in this place for he should4 ,the same rule applies when the indirect narrative is merely implied2 that is1 when instead of such a word as say we have think1 or fear1 or believe4 8,luke thinks he shall miss his boat10 is correct2 so is1 8,luke feared he should miss the boat40 ,suppose1 now1 it is no longer what ,luke said about his own future act1 but what somebody else said about it4 8,evarts remarked that ,luke was ready and would hurry to the pier2 but ,evarts feared that ,luke would miss the boat40 ,the shall gives place naturally enough to will4 ,after verbs of saying1 thinking1 telling1 and the like1 shall 7or should7 is the proper auxiliary if the future act is foretold by the actor4 ,now we are ready to ask how these words should be used in questions4 ,a very simple rule is enough for most purposes3 ,in the second and third persons1 use in the question the form you expect in the answer4 8,shall you be at the pier by three1 ,abner80 ,abner replies1 8,i certainly shall40 8,will you kindly bring my lunch with you8 the cook has it ready40 8,i will1 with great pleasure40 ,the rule holds when applied to indirect discourse4 ,thus3 8,abner's aunt asked him whether he should be at the pier by three4 ,abner replied that he should4 ,then she wanted to know if he would kindly bring her lunch along2 ,abner promised that he would40 ,if a question is put in the first person1 shall often asks for instructions4 8,shall ,i go80 ,but if mere information is asked1 shall is still the form3 8,shall ,i be required to do all this80 8,yes1 ,i fear you will40 ,briefly1 then1 for a question in the first person always use shall4 ,oral ,exercise4--,where blanks appear in the following sentences insert the right auxiliary4 ,correct any misuse of auxiliaries4 #a4 ,sometimes an ,irishman1 sometimes a ,frenchman1 is credited with this remark3 8,i will be drowned2 nobody shall help me40 #b4 ,i ---- be delighted to see you with us4 #c4 ,i ---- be obliged if you ---- lend me your pencil4 #d4 ,the director thinks he ---- be able to speak well of that student1 if the boy ---- need a good word4 #e4 ---- you be content if you get to college8 #f4 ---- ,i be permitted to say that you ---- see him before anything is done8 #g4 ,jim ,hawkins was mortally afraid that he ---- be killed by ,long ,john ,silver2 and in turn ,long ,john began to fear that ,jim ---- be the death of him4 #h4 ---- you like some bread8 ,here should is the right word2 to like is a word of volition1 and it does not need the volitive auxiliary would4 #i4 ---- you mind my asking where you bought that jersey8 #aj4 ,his father insisted that he ---- stick to the task2 and the son afterwards seemed glad of the fact1 and asked whether he ---- do some more work of the same sort4 #aa4 ,if we were better1 we ---- be happier4 #ab4 ,in which sentence can a contraction of he would be used8 7a7 ,he said ---- be glad to accept4 7b7 ,luther declared ---- go to a certain city1 though there were as many devils there as tiles on the housetops4 #ac4 ---- ,i be asked to go8 ,yes1 you will4 #ad4 ,of whom ---- ,i be afraid8 ,matters of ,etymology4 #a4 ,good usage recommends that we say 8the schools of ,chicago0 rather than 8,chicago's schools02 8the cause of the accident0 rather than 8the accident's cause40 ,in other words1 it recommends that we save the possessive in 's 7or ,saxon genitive7 for living beings4 ,for things1 for abstract ideas1 for cities--everything except beings--the possessive in of 7or ,norman genitive7 is preferred4 ,thus we say1 8,napoleon's hat10 and 8the rim of ,napoleon's hat10 instead of 8,napoleon's hat's rim40 ,the newspapers1 perhaps to save space1 have fallen into the habit of talking about 8,chicago's interests10 8,evanston's water-works10 8,america's navy10 etc42 but it is better not to imitate these expressions4#af ,such matters are matters1 not of right and wrong1 but of better and worse4 #b4 ,while got is usually better than gotten as a past participle1 the two words have1 in one case1 different meanings4 8,i have got my lesson0 is perhaps preferable to 8,i have gotten my lesson40 ,but 8,i have got to be a scholar0 means1 8,i must be a scholar02 while1 8,i have gotten to be a scholar0 is1 well1--perhaps a boast4 #c4 ,good use prescribes he drank1 but he has drunk not1 he has drank4 #d4 ,anybody else's1 or anybody's else--which is in better use8 ,for most places1 the former4 ,thus3 8,anybody else's dog would have been shot for his sheep-stealing40 ,but anybody's else is often preferable at the end of the clause or sentence4 ,thus3 8,if the dog had been anybody else's it would have been shot2 unfortunately it was nobody's else40 ,the distinction has ceased to be a matter of logic1 and become a matter of euphony4 ,of course1 else is strictly an adjective1 and might seem to be exempt from the possessive case4 ,but adjectives have always had a way of growing fast to nouns and becoming part of them3 e4g4 sweetbriar1 ,redfern1 ,goodman4 ,though else is not written as a part of the noun anybody 7which is already long enough71 it is often felt as a part of the noun4 ,what you think is not always anybody else2 it is often1 anybodyelse4 ,as a matter of fact1 the word anybody itself is really two words grown together till we do not think of them as adjective noun4 ,oral ,exercise in ,review4--,below are given a number of sentences from ,hughes's ,tom ,brown's ,school ,days1 a book which every one likes for its racy ,saxon style1 but which is not always beyond reproach in sentence-structure4 ,most1 however1 of the sentences given below were correctly written4 ,examine the passages1 and decide as to which of the bracketed words should be omitted4 ,when several words are italicized1 correct the order of them4 #a4 ,tom's nurse was one who took in her instruction very slowly--she seemed to have two left hands and no head2 and so ,mrs4 ,brown kept her on longer than usual1 that she1 the girl might expend her awkwardness and forgetfulness upon those who would not judge and punish her1 the girl too strictly for them4 #b4 ,it had been the immemorial habit of the village either to either christen children either by ,bible names or by those of the cardinal and other virtues4 #c4 ,he was a hearty1 strong boy from the first1 given to fighting with and escaping from his nurse1 with his nurse and escaping from her and fraternizing with all of the village boys1 with whom he made expeditions all around the neighborhood4 #d4 ,you shall hear at once what sort of a folk the ,browns are1 at least my branch of them at least2 and then if you don't like the sort1 why cut the concern at once1 and let you and ,i1 me cry quits before either of us can grumble at the other4 #e4 ,for a short time after a boy has taken up such a life as1 like ,arnold would have urged upon him1 he has a hard time of it4 ,he finds his judgment often at fault1 his body and intellect running away with him into all sorts of pitfalls1 and he1 himself coming down with a crash4 #f4 8,no1 ,pompey1 ,i must preach whenever ,i see a chance of being listened to1 which1 and this ,i never did before40 #g4 ,and now1 my boys1 you who1 whom ,i want to get for readers1 have you had enough8 ,will1 shall you give in at once1 and say you're convinced1 and let me begin my story1 or will you have more of it8 ,remember1 ,i've only been over only a little bit of a hillside yet--what you could ride round easily on your ponies in an hour4 #h4 ,to-day1 however1 being1 being the day of the school-house match1 none of the school-house prpostors stay1 stays by the door to watch for truants of their side2 there is carte blanche to the school-house fags to go where they like3 8,they trust to our honor10 as ,east proudly informs ,tom2 8they know very well that no school-house boy would cut the match very well4 ,if he did we'd1 we should very soon cut him1 ,i can tell you40 #i4 ,passing along the ,ridgeway to the west for about a mile1 we come to1 appears a little clump of young beech and firs1 with a growth of thorn and privet underwood4 #aj4 ,i only know only two ,english neighborhoods thoroughly1 and in each within a circle of five miles1 within each there is enough of interest and beauty to last any reasonable man his life4 ,i believe this to be the case almost throughout the country almost2 but each has a special attraction1 and neither1 none can be richer than the one ,i am speaking of and going to very particularly introduce to you very particularly4 #aa4 ,it's very odd how1 that almost all ,english boys love danger4 #ab4 ,he wore an old full-bottomed wig1 the gift of some dandy old ,brown whom he had in the middle of the last century valeted in the middle of the last century1 which habiliment1 a habiliment which ,master ,tom looked upon with considerable respect1 not to say fear4 #ac4 ,it was he1 ,he was the one who bent the first pin with which ,tom extracted his first stickleback out of 8,pebbly ,brook10 the little stream which ran through the village1 8,pebbly ,brook04 ,the first stickleback was a splendid fellow1 with fabulous red and blue gills4 ,tom kept him in a small basin till the day of his1 the fish's death1 and became a fisherman from that day4 #ad4 ,his nurse told him that those good-natured looking women were in the constant habit of enticing children into the barges and taking them1 these up to ,london and selling them1 which1 a story which ,tom wouldn't believe4 #ae4 8,i say10 said ,east1 as soon as he got1 had gotten his wind1 looking with much increased respect at ,tom1 8you ain't1 you're not1 aren't1 are not a bad scud1 not by no1 any means40 #af4 ,but who shall1 will tell the joy of the next morning1 when the church bells were ringing a merry peal1 and in the servants' hall old ,benjy appeared in the servants' hall resplendent in a long blue coat and brass buttons in the servants' hall1 and a pair of old yellow buckskins and top-boots1 which he had cleaned for and inherited from ,tom's grandfather4 #ag4 ,so1 as we are going to at any rate1 at any rate to see ,tom ,brown through his boyhood1 supposing1 if we never get any further1 which1 though 7if you show a proper sense of the value of this history1 there is no knowing but that1 what we may71 let us have a look at the life and environments of the child4 #ah4 ,he felt like1 as if he had been severely beaten all down his back1 the natural result of his performance at his first match4 #ai4 8,and now come in and see my study2 we shall1 will have just time before dinner2 and afterwards1 before calling over1 we'll1 we shall do the close40 #bj4 ,it certainly wasn't very large certainly1 being about six feet long by four broad4 ,it couldn't be called light1 as there was1 were bars and a grating to the window2 which little precautions which were necessary in the studies on the ground floor looking out into the close1 to prevent the exit of small boys after locking up1 and the entrance of contraband articles after locking up4 #ba4 ,and now1 having broken my resolution never to write a ,preface1 there are just two or three things which ,i would1 should like to say a word about having broken my resolution never to write a ,preface4 #bb4 ,my dear boys1 old and young1 you who have belonged1 or do belong1 to other schools and other houses1 don't begin throwing my poor little book about the room1 and abusing me and it it and ,i1 and vowing#ag you'll read no more when you get to this point4 ,i allow you've provocation for it4 ,but1 come now1 would1 should you1 any of you1 give a fig for a fellow who didn't believe in1 and stand up for his own house and his own school8 ,you know you wouldn't1 shouldn't4 ,then don't object to my cracking up the old school-house1 ,rugby4 ,haven't ,i a right to do it1 when ,i'm taking all the trouble of writing this true history for all your benefits8 ,if you're not1 you ain't satisfied1 go and write the history of your own houses in your own times of your own houses and say all you know for your own schools and houses1 provided it's true1 and ,i'll1 ,i shall read it without abusing you provided it's true4 #bc4 ,all the way up to ,london he had pondered what he would1 should say to ,tom by way of parting advice1 something that the boy could keep in his head ready for use1 by way of parting advice4 #bd4 8,i say1 ,green10 ,snooks began one night1 8ain't1 isn't that new boy1 ,harrison1 your fag80 8,yes2 why80 8,oh1 ,i know something of him at home1 and would1 should like to excuse him--will you swap80 8,who1 ,whom will you give me80 8,well1 let's see2 there's ,willis1 ,johnson--no1 that won't do4 ,yes1 ,i have it--there's young ,east1 ,i'll give you him40 8,don't you wish you may get it80 replied ,green4 8,i'll tell you what ,i'll do--,i'll give you if you like two for ,willis if you like40 8,whom1 ,who then80 asked ,snooks4 8,hall and ,brown40 8,shouldn't1 ,wouldn't have 'em at a gift40 #be4 ,by keeping out of bounds all day1 or at all events out of the house and quadrangle1 all day1 and carefully barring themselves carefully in at night1 ,east and ,tom managed to hold on without feeling very miserably1 miserable2 but it was as much as they could do4 #bf4 ,his friends at home1 hadn't put him into tails having regard1 ,i suppose1 to his age1 and not to his size and place in the school1 hadn't put him into tails2 and even his jackets were always too small even2 and he had a talent for destroying clothes1 and making himself look shabbily1 shabby4 ,oral ,review-,exercise4--,correct the following sentences1 after naming each fault4 #a4 ,belonging to the modern realistic school of novelists1 his address was an able defence of their tenets4 #b4 ,it is not probable that the scholars will yet give him a very lofty place1 and they will be disinclined to call his books literature1 but the division of sentiment as to their exact standing will not detract from the brilliancy of the future they promise4 #c4 8,here you are1 a great1 hulking fellow1 endowed by providence with magnificent strength1 instead of which you go about stealing nuts40 #d4 ,csar and all his legions was encamped around the city1 and the barbarians knew well enough it was them they had to fight1 them the soldiers of the ,roman god-like man4 #e4 8,it wasn't us6 it wasn't us6 ,we wasn't there1 we warnt40 #f4 ,neither of the adventurers1 ,olson and ,lefevre1 saw their native land again4 #g4 ,he sat the cage down2 and the bird cried1 between each mouthful1 8,polly wants a cracker40 #h4 ,like ,lucretius1 his pleasure was in watching the sea fight from a secure place4 #i4 ,masquerading under the stage name of ,viola ,violet1 there was a gasp of astonishment when she made her first entrance and was recognized by her many friends in the audience4 #aj4 ,lacking practice in what might be called the technique of acting1 there was now and then some restraint in pose and gesture1 and the essential element of artistic repose was lacking4 #aa4 ,passengers are warned not to get off the train while in motion4 #ab4 ,without stopping to fully describe the construction of this aural instrument1 suffice it to say1 that it is small and compact1 and can be carried in the pocket1 weighing about two ounces1 constructed mostly of aluminum4 #ac4 ,when ,i go back to ,cuba again ,i should like to go with #aj1jjj interpreters instead of one1 all in ,united ,states uniforms1 and who would talk fast and to the point and would not expect or wait for an answer4 #ad4 ,passing a field where brother ,david was sowing rye1 several merry voices called out1 8,how are you1 ,mr4 ,newton80 #ae4 ,mr4 ,adams positively declines to hang cards over the edges of the boxes at the grand opera with the names of those present in large type4 #af4 ,eva picked up the letter from the hall table1 looked quickly round at the closed hall door1 at the closed dining-room door1 and at the baize door that led to the kitchen stairs--and kissed it4 #ag4 ,talking the other day with a friend 7the late ,mr4 ,keats7 about ,dante1 he observed that whenever so great a poet told us anything in addition or continuation of an ancient story1 he had a right to be regarded as classical authority4 #ah4 ,alcibiades told the ,spartan envoys that if they would say to the ,athenians that their power was limited and that they could only listen and then tell the ,spartans what they heard that he would see that the ,athenians did not join the alliance3 so when the ambassadors went there they did as ,alcibiades said and ,alcibiades got up and said1 that they could not tell two things alike and the ,athenians would not have anything more to do with them and they joined the alliance4 #ai4 ,having given this department-store question much careful thought ,i have decided a more dangerous monopoly could not be found1 for reasons as follows3 ,first1 they tend to centralize business1 which is dangerous1 and should not exist if we wish our city to grow and thereby equalize taxation4 ,second1 the continuous advertising of the entire stock of an unfortunate merchant on sale in these stores at #cc cents on the dollar is not encouraging to strangers who visit us4 ,,chapter ,v ,,on ,,dividing ,a ,,paragraph ,,into ,,sentences ,the ,sentence not its own ,master4--,everybody learns at an early age some such definition as this3 ,a sentence is the expression of a complete thought in words4 ,but many students who have just left the grammar school are not very clear in their own minds as to what the definition means4 ,when they come to write sentences they find it hard to decide what constitutes a complete thought4 ,they know what the test of grammatical completeness is--the sentence must have a subject and a predicate2 but they are hazy as to when the sentence is logically complete4 ,frankly1 the most accomplished writers are sometimes troubled to decide this question4 ,having two ideas1 they are not sure whether these ought to stand in separate sentences1 or in semicolon clauses4 ,there is no magic rule2 but by the right kind of practice one may become perfectly sure1 in nine cases out of ten1 of the best course to take4 ,perhaps the easiest way to approach the matter is to remember that the sentence is only a part of a larger unit1--the paragraph4 ,a paragraph is either a miniature composition1 or a main part of a short composition4 ,in long works1 the chapter is the short composition of which the paragraphs are the divisions4 ,the sentence1 in turn1 is a main part of the paragraph4 ,whether a sentence should be long or short depends on the part it plays in the paragraph4 ,to make this statement plain1 we need consider only the paragraph that stands alone1 a miniature composition4 ,whatever be the number of its sentences1 each forms a main part or step in the development of the paragraph-thought4 ,all are concerned with explaining the same thing2 each contributes something to the idea4 ,if there is a topic sentence and this be likened to a root1 the other sentences are like the stalks and leaves which grow from the root4 ,note how each of the following miniature compositions#ah has a root1 from which the rest of the paragraph springs necessarily4 #a4 ,flowers have an expression of countenance as much as men or animals4 ,some seem to smile2 some have a sad expression2 some are pensive and diffident2 others again are plain1 honest1 and upright1 like the broad-faced sunflower and the hollyhock4--,h4 ,w4 ,,beecher4 #b4 ,there are three wicks 444 to the lamp of a man's life2 brain1 blood1 and breath4 ,press the brain a little1 its light goes out1 followed by both the others4 ,stop the heart a minute1 and out go all three of the wicks4 ,choke the air out of the lungs1 and presently the fluid ceases to supply the other centres of flame1 and all is soon stagnation1 cold1 and darkness4--,,dr4 ,,holmes4 ,consider the parts of the paragraphs just given4 ,mr4 ,beecher has two sentences1 the second grouping together the details which explain the first4 ,but the first sentence is made much shorter than the second1 because1 word for word1 it is to be more emphatic4 ,the second is the longer1 because no one of the separate clauses seemed to the writer important enough to stand alone4 ,the clauses of detail taken together form one main division of the paragraph4 ,the short sentence that states the gist of the paragraph is another main division4 ,in ,dr4 ,holmes's brief parable1 there are four sentences4 ,three of them develop the general idea stated in the first4 ,dr4 ,holmes cannot condense these three into one explanatory sentence1 as ,beecher does2 he has too much to say4 ,by giving a sentence to each of the three 8wicks10 he shows that he considers them all approximately equal in importance4 ,study now another paragraph3-- ,it is saying less than the truth to affirm that an excellent book 7and the remark holds almost equally good of a ,raphael as of a ,milton7 is like a well-chosen and well-tended fruit tree4 ,its fruits are not of one season only4 ,with the due and natural intervals1 we may recur to it year after year1 and it will supply the same nourishment and the same gratification1 if only we ourselves return to it with the same healthful appetite4--,,coleridge4 ,in this passage from ,coleridge the first sentence is the root of the paragraph2 #8a book is like a fruit tree4' ,but the second sentence is made shorter than the first1 because it is to state the pith of the paragraph more clearly and emphatically than did the first4 ,the meaning of the first sentence is a little vague2 how a book is like a fruit tree1 it does not say4 ,the second sentence does say how4 ,note1 then1 that a short sentence is always emphatic1 and that accordingly it should be used to state something that is important in the paragraph4 ,study also the following paragraph3-- ,our chief want in life1 is somebody who shall make us do what we can4 ,this is the service of a friend4 ,with him we are easily great4 ,there is a sublime attraction in him to whatever virtue is in us4 ,how he flings wide the doors of existence6 ,what questions we ask of him6 what an understanding we have6 how few words are needed6 ,it is the only real society4--,,emerson4 ,in this paragraph of ,emerson's1 the main ideas are stated in brief sentences1 and the summary of the paragraph comes in a sentence of six short words4 ,but note that in the last sentence except one1 the writer groups three clauses1 because the three constitute parts of one main idea of the paragraph4 ,read the following rather abstruse paragraphs1 and decide as to which shows the chief divisions of the whole thought4 ,there is1 first1 the literature of knowledge2 and1 secondly1 the literature of power4 ,the function of the first is1 to teach2 the function of the second is1 to move2 the first is a rudder1 the second an oar or a sail4 ,the first speaks to the mere discursive understanding2 the second speaks ultimately1 it may happen1 to the higher understanding or reason1 but always through affections of pleasure and sympathy4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,there is1 first1 the literature of knowledge4 ,and1 secondly1 the literature of power4 ,the function of the first is1 to teach4 ,the function of the second is1 to move4 ,the first is a rudder4 ,the second1 an oar or a sail4 ,the first speaks to the mere discursive understanding4 ,the second speaks ultimately1 it may happen1 to the higher understanding or reason1 but always through affections of pleasure and sympathy4 ,from a study of the foregoing selections1 it becomes clear that the sentence is not its own master4 ,it is the servant of the paragraph4 ,the paragraph1 having an idea to give1 uses sentences to develop this idea4 ,a skilful writer is not in haste to crowd into a sentence all of one large1 complex thought4 ,the full expression of that thought is the task of the paragraph4 ,the sentences are the means by which its parts may be made clear4 ,the long sentences are for explanatory details2 the short ones are for emphatic summaries or generalizations1 and for rapid narrative4 ,sentence ,unity4--,i4 ,a sentence that possesses ,unity of ,substance constitutes one main step in the development of the paragraph-idea4 ,a main step1 as thus employed1 usually means a sentence giving one of the following3 7#a7 the general subject of the paragraph2 7#b7 the general thought or assertion of the paragraph2 7#c7 the repetition of a preceding idea in new words2 7#d7 an illustration2 7#e7 a group of particulars or details2 7#f7 one proof1 or term1 in a chain of reasoning2 7#g7 a brief contrast2 7#h7 a cause and an effect2 7#i7 an assertion and a very brief illustration4 ,it would be absurd to hold these principles of unity anxiously in mind when one is writing4 ,having thought them over a little1 and taken to heart the general doctrine that the sentence should be one main step1 the scholar should trust his own sense of unity4 ,the chief value of any such analysis is that it may help the scholar to give thought to his own sentences4 ,,ii4 ,a sentence that possesses ,unity of ,form keeps one coherent structure throughout1 and subordinates unimportant clauses to the important4 ,unity of form does not concern the division of the paragraph into sentences4 ,it will be considered in ,chapter ,,vi41 under ,well-knit ,sentences4 ,i4 ,unity of ,substance by ,excluding ,irrelevant ,ideas4--,perhaps the first thing that is noticed in reading hasty composition1 is that some sentences are too long4 ,here is one1 written by a lad of fourteen4 ,it will seem to most readers to be a sentence of infantine simplicity1 such as no high school student is in the slightest danger of perpetrating4 ,my apology for giving it is that it renders every heterogeneous sentence ridiculous4 ,oliver ,orlando's brother did not like him and when he heard that ,orlando whipped ,charles he was very angry and was going to burn ,orlando's house up with him in it1 but ,adam1 ,orlando's faithful servant1 ran out and told him1 so they got all the money they had and started for the forest of ,arden1 when they got pretty near there ,adam being so old fainted from hunger4 ,the student who wrote this was not thinking of the parts of his paragraph2 he was thinking merely of the story of ,as ,you ,like ,it4 ,he plunged ahead after the story1 never looking behind him4 ,the result is a long1 rambling sentence1 with several chief thoughts in it4 ,these chief thoughts are four3 7#a7 ,oliver hatefully plots to kill ,orlando4 7#b7 ,adam foils ,oliver4 7#c7 ,adam and ,orlando flee4 7#d7 ,adam at last faints4 ,the paragraph therefore divides into four decent1 though childish1 sentences3-- ,oliver1 ,orlando's brother1 did not like him2 and when he heard that ,orlando whipped ,charles he was very angry1 and was going to burn ,orlando's house up with him in it4 ,but ,adam1 ,orlando's faithful servant1 ran out and told him4 ,so they got together all the money they had1 and started for the forest of ,arden4 ,when they got pretty near there1 ,adam1 being so old1 fainted from hunger4 ,periods are now substituted for several of the student's commas4 ,that writer had confused these two marks1 the comma and the full stop4 ,such an error may be called1 for mere convenience1 the comma fault4 ,it is readily seen that of all possible mistakes in punctuation1 the comma fault is the most serious and elementary4 ,to begin a new sentence after a comma is an infallible sign of illiteracy4 ,oral ,exercise4--,in the following passages1 correct the comma fault wherever it appears4 ,change the sentences in other ways to give a more mature tone to them4 #a4 ,i don't know what to do in such a case1 it is too hard to decide4 ,change comma to semicolon4 #b4 ,romeo fell in love at once1 he couldn't help himself1 he had never seen any person so lovable4 #c4 ,so they also started for the forest of ,arden disguised as a countryman and woman1 when they got there they bought a house that was to be sold at auction1 once while wandering around they met ,orlando and ,rosalind asked him if it was he that was spoiling the trees by carving love sentences on them1 and he said it was1 so she said he could pretend that she was ,rosalind1 so he came there every day until one day he was detained by seeing a lioness just going to spring on ,oliver4 ,theme4--,write a paragraph of six to ten short sentences4 ,let the first state the whole event in brief4 ,let the others give the steps of the action tersely1 rapidly1 emphatically4 ,revise for spelling and punctuation4 ,suggested topics3-- #a4 ,shooting the rapids4 #b4 ,how the water comes down at the falls4 #c4 ,how the accident happened4 #d4 ,how a log-jam is broken4 #e4 ,the way to shoot a glass ball4 #f4 ,down a hill on a wheel4 #g4 ,sights from a car window4 #h4 ,a fall on the ice4 #i4 ,shooting the 8,chutes40 #aj4 ,a runaway4 #aa4 ,a flash-light photograph4 #ab4 ,how the bird 7or game7 escaped4 #ac4 ,paul ,revere's ride4 #ad4 ,an exciting moment4 ,,ii4 ,unity of ,substance by ,including all the ,parts of an ,idea4--,it has already been said that a paragraph may be composed of several very short sentences1 each one a main step of the paragraph1 each one a unit4 ,for example3-- ,a great silence made itself felt4 ,then1 on a sudden1 a dry sound cracked in the air4 ,the viscount had slapped his adversary's face4 ,every one rose to interfere4 ,cards were exchanged between the two4 ,here1 indeed1 it may be that the second and third sentences are halves of one idea1 divided to make its parts more emphatic4 ,at all events1 while a sentence may be very short and still constitute a principal factor of the paragraph1 sentences should not be so brief that each is1 so to speak1 only half a main thought4 ,a main thought may be composite4 ,thus1 it is often effective 7a7 to state and to explain an idea very briefly1 within the one sentence2 7b7 to show an extremely close relation of cause and effect1 by stating both within the one sentence2 7c7 to contrast two things very briefly within the one sentence4 ,now1 a child gives his ideas in mere bits2 he cannot express the relations of the bits to each other4 ,for example3-- ,my aunt was a very large woman4 ,my uncle was a very thin man4 ,he was very delicate4 ,he dwindled4 ,i mean1 he got thinner and punier every day4 ,and my aunt thought a great deal of him4 ,she wished him to get well4 ,she gave him a great deal of medicine4 ,she gave him so much that he began to get worse4 ,he finally died4 ,this paragraph tells the story of how a woman doctored her husband to death4 ,the writer has made eight steps in the story1 which perhaps has not really more than four main parts3 7#a7 ,the contrast between my aunt and uncle4 7#b7 ,my uncle 8dwindled0--explained by saying he got punier daily4 7#c7 ,my aunt's love1 and its consequence--her wish for my uncle's recovery4 7#d7 ,the form the wish took1--giving of medicine4 7#e7 ,the twofold result1--aggravation of the disease1 then death4 ,the original sentences may be combined into four4 ,in combining them1 what pointing shall be used instead of so many full stops8 ,we may use commas1 but only if we make one clause dependent or join two clauses or propositions by a conjunction4 ,we may say1 for example1 8,my aunt was a very large woman1 and my uncle a very thin1 delicate man40 ,we have inserted an and2 this permits the use of a comma4 ,the result is a pretty good sentence1 having one complex idea1--the contrast between the ample lady and her slight husband4 ,but another invaluable means of showing the real factors of the sentence is the semicolon4 ,the semicolon1 as was said in ,chapter ,,iii41 is a kind of weak full stop4 ,nearly always it connects statements that are unrelated and independent grammatically1 but intimately related in sense4 ,in a way1#ai the semicolon connects sentences1 a period separates sentences4 ,the former sign is priceless to the writer who1 when he comes to expand each idea of his paragraph1 finds the structure growing too complicated4 ,he has merely to place a semicolon and go ahead with a miniature new sentence1 which every reader will understand to be a part of the logical unit in hand4 ,if we combine the eight sentences by the help of the semicolon1 we get four1 somewhat like the following3-- ,my aunt was a very large woman2 my uncle1 on the contrary1 was a very thin delicate man4 ,he dwindled2 that is1 he got thinner and punier every day4 ,my aunt thought a good deal of him1 and naturally she wished him to get well4 ,she gave him1 accordingly1 a great deal of medicine4 ,she gave him so much indeed that he began to get worse2 and1 finally1 he died4 ,most students do not use the semicolon enough4 ,two or three semicolon clauses1 however1 are sufficient for a very long sentence4 ,if more are written there is usually danger of encroaching upon the next main thought of the paragraph4 ,it is better to write too many short sentences than too many long ones4 ,oral ,exercise4--,consider the following paragraph1 and decide whether the main thoughts of it are nine1 as here indicated1 or four4 ,if four1 the thoughts are3 7#a7 ,contrast between light above and dark below4 7#b7 ,the growing dark4 7#c7 ,the faint1 weird sights and sounds that come to the narrator4 7#d7 ,his retreat from the abbey4 ,if1 having given the matter careful thought1 you think there should be but four sentences1 or if you think there is any other fault in the punctuation1 explain how you would repoint4 ,the last beams of day were now faintly streaming through the painted windows in the high vaults above me4 ,the lower parts of the abbey were already wrapped in the obscurity of twilight4 ,the chapels and aisles grew darker and darker4 ,the effigies of the kings faded into shadows4 ,the marble figures of the monuments assumed strange shapes in the uncertain light4 ,the evening breeze crept through the aisles like the cold breath of the grave4 ,and even the distant footfall of a verger1 traversing the ,poet's ,corner1 had something strange and dreary in its sound4 ,i slowly retraced my morning's walk4 ,and as ,i passed out at the portal of the cloisters1 the door1 closing with a jarring noise behind me1 filled the whole building with echoes4 ,punctuation for ,emphasis4--,below are given three ways of punctuating the same words4 ,we may suppose the same words to be used by three different generals4 #a4 ,general ,a4 twirled his moustache1 and spoke softly1 in his calm1 unruffled way1 as if he were explaining a mathematical problem to a cadet2 he said to the soldier1 8,you are a coward3 you shrink1 you dodge1 you hide1 you run away when the danger comes40 ,he spoke meditatively1 and with a little drawl1 letting his voice rise at each pause4 #b4 ,general ,b4 looked at the soldier steadily1 and said in a sharp1 decided tone3 8,you are a coward3 you shrink2 you dodge2 you hide2 you run away when the danger comes40 #c4 ,general ,c4 sprang up from his camp-stool1 angry and indignant4 ,he spoke explosively and incoherently4 8,you are a coward6 ,you shrink4 ,you dodge4 ,you hide4 ,you run away when the danger comes40 ,evidently the punctuation here is largely dependent on the different states of mind4 ,a calm1 logical attitude is reflected in the nice distinctions conveyed by the colon and comma4 ,an excited mood over-emphasizes each detail1 and makes it a sentence4 ,there is sometimes need of indignant emphasis on each detail4 ,perhaps therefore the strict unity of the sentence may sometimes be sacrificed for the sake of emphasis4 ,such a sacrifice however should very rarely be made4 ,oral ,exercise4--,consider the following paragraph as a whole1 and decide whether the sentences represent the main factors of the paragraph-thought4 ,if you agree that 8the song of a young girl's voice0 is as important in the paragraph as several of the other songs put together1 how can this importance be indicated by punctuation8 ,the first thing which ,tom saw was the black cedars1 high and sharp against the rosy dawn4 ,and ,st4 ,brandan's ,isle reflected double in the still broad silver sea4 ,the wind sung softly in the cedars1 and the water sung among the caves4 ,the sea-birds sung as they streamed out into the ocean1 and the land-birds as they built among the boughs4 ,and the air was so full of song that it stirred ,st4 ,brandan and his hermits1 as they slumbered in the shade4 ,and they moved their good old lips1 and sung their good old hymn amid their dreams4 ,but among all the songs one came across the water more sweet and clear than all1 for it was the song of a young girl's voice4 ,theme4--,write a paragraph of four sentences on one of the following subjects4 ,let the first sentence be a general statement4 ,then let each of three compound sentences group together details1 and so explain the first4 #a4 ,the three parts of a tree1 and their characteristics4 #b4 ,the three parts of my town4 #c4 ,a picture ,i like3 its background1 its figures1 its coloring4 #d4 ,the lunch-room4 #e4 ,a sleeping-car3 the car itself1 the travellers1 the porter4 #f4 ,uses of a jack-knife3 legitimate1 illegitimate1 doubtful4 #g4 ,three men representing three kinds of true ,americanism4 #h4 ,three great men1 typically ,english4 #i4 ,three great men1 typically ,roman4 #aj4 ,three types of philanthropist4 #aa4 ,three kinds of coward4 #ab4 ,three kinds of hero4 #ac4 ,three noble ,american women4 #ad4 ,three women who write stories4 ,written ,exercise4--,in the seventeenth century there were many authors whose minds were full of ,latin models4 ,these writers tried to build up in ,english1 an uninflected language1 sentences as complex as those of ,cicero4 ,they tried to make the sentence do the work of the paragraph4 ,how utterly they failed may be seen in the following passages from ,defoe and ,lord ,clarendon4 ,considering each selection as a paragraph1 rewrite with reference to unity of substance in the sentence4 #a4 ,there is one thing more remarkable in this parish1 and it is this3 twenty-six sheets of lead1 hanging all together1 were blown off from the middle isle of our church1 and were carried over the north isle1 which is a very large one1 without touching it2 and into the churchyard ten yards' distance from the church2 and they were took up all joined together as they were on the roof2 the plumber told me that the sheets weighed each three hundred and a half1 one with another4 ,this is what is most observable in our parish3 but ,i shall give you an account of one thing 7which perhaps you may have from other hands7 that happened in another1 called ,kingscote1 a little village about three miles from ,tedbury1 and seven from us3 where ,william ,kingscote1 ,esq41 has many woods2 among which was one grove of very tall trees1 being each near eighty foot high2 the which he greatly valued for the tallness and prospect of them1 and therefore resolved never to cut them down3 but it so happened1 that six hundred of them1 within the compass of five acres were wholly blown down2 7and supposed to be much at the same time7 each tree tearing up the ground with its root2 so that the roots of most of the trees1 with the turf and earth about them1 stood up at least fifteen or sixteen foot high2 the lying down of which trees is an amazing sight to all beholders4--,defoe4 #b4 ,it is true1 that as he#bj was of a most incomparable gentleness1 application1 and even submission to good and worthy and entire men1 so he was naturally 7which could not be more evident in his place1 which objected him to another conversation and intermixture than his own election would have done7 adversus malos injucundus2 and was so ill a dissembler of his dislike and disinclination to ill men1 that it was not possible for such not to discern it4 ,there was once1 in the ,house of ,commons1 such a declared acceptation of the good service an eminent member had done to them1 and1 as they said1 to the whole kingdom1 that it was moved1 he being present1 8,that the speaker might1 in the name of the whole house1 give him thanks1 and then that every member might1 as a testimony of his particular acknowledgment1 stir or move his hat towards him20 the which 7though not ordered7 when very many did1 the lord ,falkland 7who believed the service itself not to be of that moment1 and that an honourable and generous person could not have stooped to it for any recompence7 instead of moving his hat1 stretched both his arms out1 and clasped his hands together upon the crown of his hat1 and held it close down to his head2 that all men might see1 how odious that flattery was to him1 and that very approbation of the person1 though at the same time most popular4--,clarendon4 ,oral ,exercise4--,examine the paragraphs by ,hawthorne 7p4 #ajf71 ,macaulay1 ,webster1 ,huxley 7pp4 #ajg-h7 to see whether the sentences are units in substance4 ,note also the different effects produced by long and short sentences4 ,,iii4 ,a4 ,unity of ,substance by ,keeping to the ,point4--,in a hastily written manuscript will often be found unlike ideas joined together in one sentence4 ,some persons are worse than others in this matter1 but everybody1 in composing rapidly1 is liable to the fault4 ,it is amusingly easy to fly off at a tangent1 if the parts of the paragraph have not been properly thought out4 ,the mind often works erratically2 it is pursuing a given idea when some word used suggests a different line of thinking and the train is switched off its track4 ,cardinal ,newman once wrote a burlesque of this scatter-brained kind of writing4 ,he pretends that the lad is writing a theme on the topic1 8,fortune favors the brave40 ,in the midst of it the boy says3-- ,napoleon1 too1 shows us how little we can rely on fortune2 but his faults1 great as they were1 are being redeemed by his nephew1 ,louis ,napoleon1 who has shown himself very different from what was expected1 though he has never explained how he came to swear to the constitution1 and then mounted the imperial throne4 ,here the writer has not committed the comma fault2 he has not begun an independent sentence after a comma4 ,but he has set down ideas irrelevant to the sentence1 and1 in this case1 irrelevant even to the theme4 ,this lack of unity often arises from putting down1 as the sentence proceeds1 the details that occur parenthetically to the writer2 he empties his mind upon the paper4 ,thus3-- ,my aunt happened to notice1 as she stood looking into the glass and thinking how pretty she was1 for she was really pretty for one so old1 that the eyes of a portrait or one of the eyes was moving1 for my aunt had a large picture of my uncle in her room in her country-house1 which was in ,derbyshire4 ,b4 ,many a sentence which ends in an irrelevant clause can be made to show unity by the insertion of some intermediate link that occurred in the mind but was overlooked in the writing4 8,johnson wrote political articles1 and took care that the ,whigs did not get the best of it10 becomes a unit if we supply a few words3 8,johnson wrote political articles1 and in those which referred to parliamentary debates took care that the ,whigs did not get the best of it40 ,in other words1 a sentence must not merely include the expressed parts of a main thought1 as in the second kind of unity of substance2 it must express every part of the main thought4 ,oral ,exercise4--,trim the following sentences into shape1 so that each shall be a unit4 ,if necessary1 divide the sentence4 #a4 ,he was young2 but his foolishness stood him in good stead4 #b4 ,the cholera in ,egypt is assuming a more loathsome form1 among the dead being ,major ,roddy ,owen1 the famous ,uganda explorer4 #c4 ,the delegates1 wearied by the excitement of the past week1 have hurried to their homes1 a few remaining for all the business men have been making unusual displays in spite of the hard times4 #d4 ,the new light is placed upon a gas-jet1 which supplies the gas to a curious film1 which is made of some chemically prepared substance that becomes incandescent1 not having to be changed oftener than twice a year1 if you are careful with it4 #e4 ,the electric lights1 which are of the ,edison pattern1 are not burned later than six o'clock4 ,they are more convenient than gas1 and they come packed in straw4 ,oral ,exercise1 in ,review4--,decide whether the following sentences are units or not4 ,indicate which form of sentence unity each has or lacks4 ,suggest improvements4 #a4 ,in the midst of life we are in death1 and it has been said that the tariff is a tax4 #b4 ,jesu6 ,jesu6 ,dead6--he drew a good bow2--and dead6--he shot a fine shoot3--,john of ,gaunt loved him well1 and betted much money on his head4--#b ,henry ,,iv41 ,act ,,iii41 ,sc4 #b1 l4 #dh4 #c4 ,he had one claw knobbed and the other jagged2 and ,tom delighted in watching him hold on to the sea-weed with his knobbed claw1 while he cut up salads with his jagged one1 and then put them into his mouth1 after smelling at them1 like a monkey1 and always the little barnacles threw out their casting nets and swept the water1 and came in for their share of whatever there was for dinner4 #d4 ,we were now thoroughly broken down1 but the intense excitement of the time denied us repose1 and after a unique slumber of some three or four hours' duration1 we arose1 as if by preconcert1 to make examination of our treasure4 #e4 ,thou didst swear to me upon a parcel-gilt partly-gilt goblet1 sitting in my ,dolphin-chamber1 at the round table1 by a sea-coal fire1 upon ,wednesday in ,whitsun week1 when the prince broke thy head for likening his father to a singing man of ,windsor2 thou didst swear to me then1 as ,i was washing thy wound1 to marry me1 and make me my lady thy wife4--#b ,henry ,,iv41 ,act ,,ii41 ,sc4 #a1 l4 #id4 #f4 ,there was something in the tone of this note which gave me great uneasiness4 ,its whole style differed materially from that of ,legrand2 what could he be dreaming of8 what new crotchet possessed his excitable brain8 what 8business of the highest importance0 could he possibly have to transact8 ,jupiter's account of him boded no good2 ,i dreaded lest the continued pressure of misfortune had1 at length1 fairly unsettled the reason of my friend2 without a moment's hesitation1 therefore1 ,i prepared to accompany the negro4 #g4 ,and in that country is an old castle1 that stands upon a rock1 the which is cleped the ,castle of the sparrowhawk1 that is beyond the city of ,layas1 beside the town of ,parsipee1 that belongeth to the lordship of ,cruk2 that#ba is a rich lord and a good ,christian man2 where men find a sparrowhawk upon a perch right fair1 and right well made2 and a fair ,lady of ,fayryre1 that keepeth it4--,mandeville4 #h4 ,and thus will the city have more lights on the subject1 and what will be a gain in lighting to the city will be a greater loss in cash1 and the city's loss will be the ,water ,works company's gain1 and we are glad of it so far as the company is concerned1 for the company was put off and were refused a renewal of its contract with the city at terms that were most reasonable1 and the company will also make up for lost time now in good shape4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,on ,,well-,,knit ,,sentences ,a sentence may be said to be well-knit if it stands the following tests4 ,it must have unity of form2 freedom from excessive looseness2 a due amount of emphasis2 and climax1 if climax is required4 ,all these technical terms need explanation4 ,unity of ,form4--,to be a unit of form1 a sentence must place subordinate thoughts in subordinate clauses1 and must keep one coherent structure throughout4 ,subordination of ,clauses4--,in the early years of a language1 before it has been used to express philosophy and science1 the structure of the sentences is loose and simple2 it sounds like the speech of a child4 ,here is a passage from a book which appeared about #acgj1 as the ,voyage and ,travels of ,sir ,john ,mandeville4 ,there is some doubt whether or not there was really a ,sir ,john2 but these ,travels are very interesting and curious reading4 ,and some men say that in the ,isle of ,lango is yet the daughter of ,hippocrates1 in form and likeness of a great dragon1 that is a hundred fathom of length1 as men say3 for ,i have not seen her4 ,and they of the ,isles call her1 ,lady of the ,land4 ,and she lieth in an old castle1 in a cave1 and sheweth twice or thrice in the year4 ,and she doth no harm to no man1 but if men do her harm4 ,and she was thus changed and transformed1 from a fair damsel1 into likeness of a dragon1 by a goddess1 that was cleped ,diana4 ,and men say1 that she shall so endure in that form of a dragon1 unto the time that a knight come1 that is so hardy1 that dare come to her and kiss her on the mouth3 and then shall she turn again to her own kind1 and be a woman again4 ,but after that she shall not live long4 ,though much of the nave1 childlike quality of this passage is due to the archaic phraseology1 much also is due to the use of and and but instead of other conjunctions4 ,in certain kinds of writing it is natural enough that ideas should be strung together with and's4 ,thus3 8,it rained1 and hailed1 and blew1 and snowed1 and froze1 and they became weary of winter40 ,but suppose that they did not weary of winter4 ,the sentence then would run1 8,though it rained1 and hailed1 and snowed1 and froze1 they did not become weary of winter40 ,here we have ceased the mere enumeration of things that happened1 one after the other1 and have stated a process of reasoning4 ,the result is a complex sentence4 ,the ability to construct good complex sentences means ability to do careful thinking4 ,in every complex sentence there is some one proposition that ought to stand out1 with the high light upon it4 ,this is the thing we most wish to say2 to change the comparison1 it is the heart of the sentence4 ,if the other parts can be made subordinate to it1 the strongest kind of sentence unity is secured4 ,in the sentence1 8,it rained2 it snowed2 it hailed2 they did not weary of winter10 all the assertions are stated as equally important4 ,but1 clearly enough1 the last one is the kernel of the sentence4 ,therefore the preceding clauses ought to be reduced to their proper rank by being made dependent4 ,oral ,exercise4--,examine the following compound sentences1 to decide whether or not there is in each some important thought to which the others ought to have been subordinated4 ,then improve the unity by reducing the subordinate ideas to dependent clauses having a participle1 or a relative adverb like when4 #a4 ,love is blind2 it is not for want of eyes4 #b4 ,the soldiers were perhaps somewhat sleepy with the sultriness of the afternoon2 they had now laid by much of their vigilance4 #c4 ,i spied an honest fellow coming along a lane1 and asked him if he had ever heard of a house called the house of ,shaws4 #d4 ,the next person ,i came across was a dapper little man in a beautiful white wig2 ,i knew well that barbers were great gossips1 and ,i asked him plainly what kind of a man was ,mr4 ,balfour of the ,shaws4 #e4 ,in these days folk still believed in witches and trembled at a curse2 and this curse fell pat1 like a wayside omen1 to arrest me2 it took the pith out of my legs4 #f4 ,i was called in at last2 my uncle counted out into my hand seven and thirty golden guinea pieces4 #g4 ,i had come close to one of the turns in the stair2 ,i felt my way as usual2 my hand slipped upon an edge and found nothing but emptiness beyond it4 #h4 ,i returned to the kitchen2 ,i made up such a blaze as had not shone there for many a long year2 ,i wrapped myself in my plaid2 ,i lay down upon the chests and fell asleep4 ,the ,so ,construction4--,the conjunction so is a useful word1 and the learner prefers it to its synonyms1 therefore and consequently1 because it is simpler1 less formal than either4 ,but in a narrative which is liberally besprinkled with so's the reader feels that the simplicity is overdone4 ,here is an extreme example4 ,a short time afterward my uncle died2 so my aunt went to her country-house in ,derbyshire4 ,she did not wish to be alone in the country2 so she took her servants4 ,when they got there they found the house very lonely2 so the maids did not want to stay1 but they did4 ,examine the sentences just quoted1 and show the relations between the clauses by other devices than the use of so4 ,so1 as a conjunction1 should be employed very sparingly4 ,when it is employed1 it should usually be preceded by a semicolon rather than a comma4 ,oral ,exercise4--,a careful writer is known by his use of conjunctions3 he does not use and unless the clauses joined are co-ordinate2 nor but unless there is a real opposition2 nor a given subordinate conjunction unless it is actually required by logic4 ,in the subjoined selections from ,ruskin the original conjunctions have been changed to those in italics4 ,find better expressions for those italicized4 #a4 ,in employing all the muscular power at our disposal we are to make the employments we choose as educational as possible4 ,consequently a wholesome human employment is the first and best method of education1 mental as well as bodily4 ,a man taught to plough1 row1 or steer well1 moreover a woman taught to cook properly1 and make a dress neatly1 are already educated in many essential moral habits4 ,labour considered as a discipline has hitherto been thought of only for criminals1 therefore the real and noblest function of labour is to prevent crime1 but not to be ,reformatory1 but ,formatory4--,,ruskin4 #b4 ,we must spend our money in some way1 at some time1 accordingly it cannot at any time be spent without employing somebody4 ,while we gamble it away1 the person who wins it must spend it2 while we lose it in a railroad speculation1 it has gone into some one else's pockets1 or merely gone to pay navvies for making a useless embankment1 but not to pay riband or button makers for making useless ribands or buttons2 we cannot lose it 7unless by actually destroying it7 and not give employment of some kind2 nevertheless whatever quantity of money exists1 the relative quantity of employment must some day come out of it2 and the distress of the nation signifies that the employments given have produced nothing that will support its existence4 ,men cannot live on ribands1 or buttons1 or velvet1 or by going quickly from place to place2 but every coin spent in useless ornament1 or useless motion1 is so much withdrawn from the national means of life4--,,ruskin4 ,one ,coherent ,structure4--,we have seen that to be well-knit a sentence must have that unity of form which gives every thought its proper clause-rank4 ,it must also be uniform in structure4 ,there should be no sudden1 unnecessary change in subject1 or in the form of the verb4 ,sometimes a sentence is pulled about by the mind as a child by a cross nurse4 ,it begins in the active voice1 it is twitched aside into the passive4 ,it begins as the act of one person1 it ends as that of another4 ,even so admirable a writer as ,john ,fiske has this sentence3 8,but ,howe could not bear to acknowledge the defeat of his attempts to storm1 and accordingly1 at five o'clock1 with genuine ,british persistency1 a third attack was ordered40 ,this 8,british persistency0 is evidently ,howe's4 ,why not give him full credit for it1 thus8--8,but ,howe could not bear to acknowledge the defeat of his attempts to storm1 and accordingly1 at five o'clock1 with genuine ,british persistency he ordered a third attack40 ,oral ,exercise4--,change the following sentences so that each shall have unity of form4 #a4 ,a blue pencil8 there is nothing so easy for an editor to manage1 so unmistakable in reading1 so wholly impressive to a contributor when he sees it4 #b4 ,tom and ,east became good friends1 and the tyranny of a certain insolent fellow was sturdily resisted by them together4 #c4 ,you will see no sudden jerks of the ,st4 ,ambrose rudder1 nor will any clumsy rounding of a point be seen4 #d4 ,miller1 motionless till now1 lifts his right hand and the tassel is whirled round his head4 #e4 ,thorold had just read the account of ,john ,inglesant's vision of the dead ,king ,charles4 ,he disliked the idea of spending the night in the old country house1 and still more to go through the tapestried chamber2 but it was immediately determined by him that such an invitation must not be refused4 ,the ,loose ,sentence4--,the passage given at the beginning of the chapter1 from ,mandeville1 is written in what are called loose sentences4 ,loose as applied to a sentence1 does not necessarily mean that the sentence is bad1--that it is rambling or disjointed4 ,a loose sentence is one in which an independent statement comes first1 followed by others1 dependent or independent4 ,example3 8,and some men say that in the ,isle of ,lango is yet the daughter of ,hippocrates1 in form and likeness of a great dragon1 that is a hundred fathom of length1 as men say3 for ,i have not seen her40 ,in this sentence comes first a proposition1--8,and some men say10 followed by several subordinate clauses1 and by one independent clause1--8for ,i have not seen her40 ,the test of a loose sentence is a grammatical one3 the sentence can be closed at some point before the end1 without hurting the grammatical structure4 ,at what places in the sentence just quoted is the grammatical structure complete8 ,the loose sentence is used freely in conversation4 ,the speaker gives his main idea first1 and qualifies it afterward4 ,therefore the legitimate effect of the loose sentence is to lend an air of simplicity1 a colloquial air1 to the style4 ,the danger is that it may become a mere sequence of clauses1 that dangle insecurely1 each from the preceding1 like needles hanging from a magnet4 ,avoid long loose sentences4 ,examine the sentence by ,defoe1 p4 #hi4 ,it is a fine example of what a loose sentence should not be4 ,the ,periodic ,sentence4--,in the sentence1 8,a short time afterward my uncle died2 so my aunt went to her country-house in ,derbyshire10 the grammatical structure is complete at 8died40 ,but if the two clauses be welded together by because1 they will no longer be grammatically free4 ,thus3 8,because my uncle died shortly afterward1 my aunt went to her country-house in ,derbyshire40 ,this sentence is periodic in form4 ,a periodic sentence is a complex sentence in which the modifiers of the verb precede the verb4 ,the effect of this structure is to delay the main idea of the sentence until the last4#bb ,obviously1 if too many subordinate ideas occur before the main one1 the mind of the reader will weary with the tension of expectation4 ,short periodic sentences however are extremely effective in arousing the reader's attention and holding it till the important idea is stated4 ,it is plain that good periodic structure is highly conducive to unity in the sentence3 each subordinate idea is held in its proper place of subordination till the main idea is stated1 and on the reader is flashed a pleasant sense that the structure has grown naturally into one complete whole4 ,oral ,exercise4--,examine the oral exercise on pages #ih1 #ii1 and say which sentences were made periodic in the effort to improve their unity4 ,oral ,exercise4--,below are given some good periodic sentences4#bc ,give equivalent loose sentences4 ,decide whether or not the loose are better than the periodic4 #a4 ,at this moment a large1 comfortable white house1 that had been heretofore hidden by green trees1 came into view4 ,changed1 this might read3 8,a large1 comfortable white house had been heretofore hidden by green trees2 it came into view at this moment40 #b4 ,off went ,timothy's hat4 #c4 ,and it was to this household that ,timothy had brought his child for adoption4 #d4 ,gay1 not being used to a regular morning toilet1 had fought against it valiantly at first4 #e4 ,if you care to feel a warm glow in the region of your heart1 imagine little ,timothy ,jessup sent to play in that garden4 #f4 ,yet of an evening1 or on ,sunday1 she was no village gossip4 ,oral ,exercise4--,the following passage1 from ,hawthorne1 is written in excellent loose sentences4 ,change to periodic all of them that can be so changed without hurting the ease of structure4 ,whatever else it be1 a periodic sentence should never be strained or unnatural4 ,then ,theseus bent himself in good earnest to the task1 and strained every sinew with manly strength and resolution4 ,he put his whole brave heart into the effort4 ,he wrestled with the big and sluggish stone as if it had been a living enemy4 ,he heaved1 he lifted1 he resolved now to succeed1 or else to perish there1 and let the rock be his monument forever6 thra stood gazing at him1 and clasped her hands1 partly with a mother's pride1 and partly with a mother's sorrow4 ,the great rock stirred6 ,yes1 it was raised slowly from the bedded moss and earth1 uprooting the shrubs and flowers along with it1 and was turned upon its side4 ,theseus had conquered6 ,inappropriate ,periodicity4--,it is foolish to use an elaborate suspended structure when a very simple thought or a very rapid narrative is to be given4 ,note the pomposity of the following sentences4 ,remove it by changing the structure4 8,three summers ago1 to rejoin my family in northern ,michigan1 ,i left the city4 ,on a little peninsula which juts out into ,lake ,michigan1 a group of houses1 dignified by the name of ,edgewood1 stands4 ,undistracted by the bustle of hotel life1 a few sensible people live here4 ,to get away from town for a few days and lounge in the pine woods about ,edgewood1 to me is always very pleasant40 ,oral ,exercise4--,examine the following sentences one by one1 and say whether each is 7a7 wholly periodic1 7b7 wholly loose1 or 7c7 partly loose and partly periodic4 ,when the last is the case1 show at what point the change of structure occurs4 #a4 ,he who walks in the way these following ballads point will be manful in necessary fight1 fair in trade1 loyal in love1 generous to the poor1 tender in the household1 prudent in living1 plain in speech1 merry upon occasion1 simple in behavior1 and honest in all things4--,,lanier4 #b4 ,while ,johnson was busied with his ,idlers1 his mother1 who had accomplished her ninetieth year1 died at ,lichfield4 ,it was long since he had seen her2 but he had not failed to contribute largely1 out of his small means1 to her comfort4 ,in order to defray the charges of her funeral1 and to pay some debts which she had left1 he wrote a little book in a single week1 and sent off the sheets to the press without reading them over4 ,a hundred pounds were paid him for the copyright2 and the purchasers had great cause to be pleased with their bargain1 for the book was 8,rasselas40--,,macaulay3 ,life of ,johnson4 #c4 ,finally1 brethren1 whatsoever things are true1 whatsoever things are honest1 whatsoever things are just1 whatsoever things are pure1 whatsoever things are lovely1 whatsoever things are of good report2 if there be any virtue1 and if there be any praise1 think on these things4--,philippians4 #d4 8,sir1 you may destroy this little institution2 it is weak2 it is in your hands6 ,i know it is one of the lesser lights in the literary horizon of our country4 ,you may put it out4 ,but1 if you do so1 you must carry through your work6 ,you must extinguish1 one after another1 all those greater lights of science which1 for more than a century1 have thrown their radiance over our land6 ,it is1 ,sir1 as ,i have said1 a small college4 ,and yet there are those who love it40--,,webster4 #e4 ,sir1 let me recur to pleasing recollections2 let me indulge in refreshing remembrance of the past2 let me remind you that1 in early times1 no ,states cherished greater harmony1 both of principle and feeling1 than ,massachusetts and ,south ,carolina4 ,would to ,god that harmony might again return6 ,shoulder to shoulder they went through the ,revolution2 hand in hand they stood round the administration of ,washington1 and felt his own great arm lean on them for support4 ,unkind feeling1 if it exist1 alienation and distrust1 are the growth1 unnatural to such soils1 of false principles since sown4 ,they are weeds1 the seeds of which that same great arm never scattered4--,,webster4 #f4 ,that man1 ,i think1 has had a liberal education1 who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will1 and does with ease and pleasure all the work that1 as a mechanism1 it is capable of2 whose intellect is a clear1 cold1 logic engine1 with all its parts of equal strength1 and in smooth working order2 ready1 like a steam engine1 to be turned to any kind of work1 and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind2 whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of ,nature and of the laws of her operations2 one who1 no stunted ascetic1 is full of life and fire1 but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will1 the servant of a tender conscience2 who has learned to love all beauty1 whether of ,nature or of art1 to hate all vileness1 and to respect others as himself4--,,huxley4 #g4 ,if then the power of speech is a gift as great as any that can be named1--if the origin of language is by many philosophers even considered to be nothing short of divine1--if by means of words the secrets of the heart are brought to light1 pain of soul is relieved1 hidden grief is carried off1 sympathy conveyed1 counsel imparted1 experience recorded1 and wisdom perpetuated1--if by great authors the many are drawn up into unity1 national character is fixed1 a people speaks1 the past and the future1 the ,east and the ,west are brought into communication with each other1--if such men are1 in a word1 the spokesmen and prophets of the human family1--it will not answer to make light of ,literature or to neglect its study2 rather we may be sure that1 in proportion as we master it in whatever language1 and imbibe its spirit1 we shall ourselves become in our own measure the ministers of like benefits to others1 be they many or few1 be they in the obscurer or the more distinguished walks of life1--who are united to us by social ties1 and are within the sphere of our personal influence4--,,cardinal ,,newman4#bd ,oral ,exercise4--,each of the passages given above should be read aloud as a whole1 to get the effects produced by the different types of sentence4 ,in the first passage note that the first clause arouses interest by the periodic structure4 ,so do the first and third sentences in the second passage2 but the third and fourth--loose--have a fine simplicity that adds to the weight of their subject matter4 ,the third passage moves up steadily to an impressive point1--the word think4 ,the fourth passage is extremely direct and earnest4 ,webster is pleading for his ,alma ,mater1 ,dartmouth2 is making an appeal1 straight from his heart4 ,almost choked with emotion1 he has no desire to frame periodic sentences and nicely subordinated clauses4 ,in the fifth passage he is perhaps equally direct2 but he is master of himself1 and his sentences are somewhat more elaborate4 ,in the sixth passage1 ,huxley gets a steadily increasing strength of thought1 but not of structure4 ,cardinal ,newman1 on the other hand1 builds up his period with superb suspense both of form and thought4 ,written ,exercise4--,change the sentence by ,huxley into the periodic form4 ,this can be done by changing the order of clauses1 and beginning each subordinate clause with if1 or with suppose1 or with a relative4 ,emphasis in the ,sentence4--,a sentence cannot be called well-knit if it does not succeed in calling most attention to the most important idea4 ,we have seen already how important it is to put the unimportant parts of the sentence into subordinate clauses4 ,how may further emphasis be had8 ,the beginning and the end of the sentence are the most prominent places4 ,important words should usually stand in these places4 ,rarely should these points be covered up with trivial expressions4 ,compare two sentences4 8,as a matter of fact1 it is bread1 rather than advice1 that people actually need1 in this city40 8,bread it is1 rather than advice1 that1 in this city1 people actually need40 ,attention can always be called to a word by placing it out of the ordinary1 commonplace order4 ,the inverted order1 where verb precedes the noun1 or predicate adjective precedes the verb1 frequently permits emphasis to be put just where it is wanted4 ,the oft-quoted example is as good a one as can be found3 8,great is ,diana of the ,ephesians60 ,how much better it is1 how much greater the cry is than1 8,diana of the ,ephesians is great60 ,oral ,exercise4--,which of the following sentences from ,ruskin begin and end with words that deserve distinction8#be 8,for all books are divisible into two classes1--the books of the hour1 and the books of all time4 ,mark this distinction2 it is not one of quality only4 ,it is not merely the bad book that does not last1 and the good one that does2 it is a distinction of species4 ,there are good books for the hour1 and good ones for all time2 bad books for the hour1 and bad ones for all time4 ,i must define the two kinds before ,i go farther40 ,oral ,exercise4--,change the order of words in the following sentences so as to throw more emphasis on the italicized words4 ,avoid infringement of ,english idiom in making the changes4 #a4 ,it is courage that wins4 #b4 ,never say die1 under any circumstances4 #c4 ,yet he stood beautiful and bright1 as born to rule the storm4 #d4 ,a rascal1 nothing more or less1 he was4 #e4 ,gilpin went away1 and the post boy went away4 #f4 ,the ,english child is white as an angel4 #g4 ,when wild northwesters rave on stormy nights ,with wind and wave how proud a thing to fight4 #h4 ,what a piece of work man is6 #i4 ,trafalgar lay1 full in face1 bluish mid the burning water4 #aj4 ,he repeatedly pronounced these words1 and they were the last which he uttered4 #aa4 ,the king said1 8,alas1 help me from hence40 #ab4 ,man is the paragon of animals1 the beauty of the world4 #ac4 ,what a place an old library is to be in4 ,it seems as though all the souls of all the writers that have bequeathed their labors to these ,bodleians1 as in some middle state or dormitory1 were reposing here4 ,i do not want to handle1 to profane their winding sheet1 the leaves4 ,i could a shade as soon dislodge4 ,climax4--,the principle of climax demands that in a series of related terms the weaker degree should precede the stronger4 ,southey says of ,lord ,nelson's being permitted to live to hear the news of his great victory3 8,that consolation1 that joy1 that triumph1 was afforded him40 ,by these three nouns the reader ascends1 as if by a ladder--climax is merely ,greek for ladder4 ,endeavor to discover the original order in which the following sentences were written to secure climax4 ,changing them by slight omissions1 weave them together into two sentences4 8,the most triumphant death is that of the martyr4 ,the most splendid death is that of the hero in the hour of victory4 ,if the chariot and the horses of fire had been vouchsafed for ,nelson's translation1 he could scarcely have departed in a brighter blaze of glory4 ,the most awful death is that of the martyred patriot4 ,he has left us1 not indeed his mantle of inspiration1 but an example which will continue to be our shield and our strength1 and a name which is our pride--an example and a name which are at this hour inspiring hundreds of the youth of ,england40 ,which of the sentences quoted on pages #ajg1 #ajh1 have climax of thought8 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,on ,,organizing ,,the ,,theme ,different ,ways of ,planning4--,there are various kinds of composition1--description1 narration1 argument1 and others4 ,these will be treated one by one in later chapters4 ,each kind has laws of its own4 ,each has its own vocabulary1 which may well be studied apart from other vocabularies4 ,so1 too1 each type calls for special methods of organization4 ,for the present1 only a few principles of planning1 applicable to all types alike1 need be considered4 ,the ,growth of a ,thought4--,when a thought is first conceived1 it is always misty1 dim1 nebulous4#bf ,when we speak of having a 8general notion10 a 8vague notion10 we usually mean that a thought is just beginning4 ,if it receives attention1 it emerges from the nebulous condition and forms into several definite thoughts4 ,or1 to change the figure1 it grows and branches4 ,suppose that the mind awakes to the vague notion that the room is getting cold4 ,cold is the undeveloped root from which may presently branch off such thoughts as these3 8,yes1 it is really cold4 ,in fact1 ,i feel cold all over4 ,my hands are blue1 and ,i am shivering4 ,besides1 ,horace over there is standing with his back to the radiator1 and so he too must be cold40 ,the thought has grown into several sentences4 ,cold branched into ,i am cold all over1 and this also sent off two shoots--,my hands are blue1 and ,i am shivering4 ,then the mind stopped this line of branching1 and out from the stock sprang a new branch3 ,horace is standing with his back to the radiator2 and then this sends off the branch and so he too must be cold4 ,try to draw a picture to represent the process that has gone on4 ,now1 the whole growth of a thought--stock and branches--can sometimes be expressed within the limits of one grammatical sentence4 ,if there are too many thoughts for this1 they are put into separate sentences1 and the whole is called a miniature composition1 or isolated paragraph4 ,exactly as a paragraph grows1 so a long composition may grow out of one vague idea4 ,some ideas have in them only enough matter to be developed into a paragraph4 ,others are germs from which whole books might grow4 8,that apple looks good0 would probably develop into a short paragraph2 but1 8it is strange that that apple should fall to the earth instead of away from it0 might blossom into a great system of natural philosophy4 ,if a nebulous idea has in it the making of a long theme1 it will develop into main parts if the attention be fixed keenly upon it4 ,these are paragraph nebul1 which will subdivide into sentences4 ,or1 to vary the figure1 the main thought will send out main branches 7paragraphs7 which will send off lesser ones 7sentences74 ,unity4--,although thought grows1 one must keep in mind that it does not always grow to fruit unless it is trained and pruned4 ,thought loves to branch1 and unless restrained by a stern sense of logic1 it will often end in a mere tangle of superfluous twigs and leaves4 ,to speak less figuratively1 every writer is in danger of setting down matters suggested by the subject in hand but not logically related to it4 ,this is as true of a large piece of work as of a sentence 7compare page #ij74 ,every theme1 like every sentence1 should have unity4 ,it should be the development of one idea--a large1 complex idea1 if you please1 but1 nevertheless1 one4 ,no matter how long or how short the whole1 it must all concern the different phases of one thing or one thought4 ,it should grow naturally from one germ4 ,every part in it should bear on the central idea of the whole--so that1 after reading any given sentence1 the reader can see a real connection between title and sentence4 ,a well-organized composition cannot spare any part2 each is essential to its life4 ,milton said1 8,almost as well kill a man as kill a good book02 and we may adapt this idea to the structure of the theme4 ,a good composition is so well organized that if you cut it anywhere it will bleed4 ,planning a ,paragraph4--,before writing a paragraph1 try to think out the whole of it4 ,let the thought grow in the mind before you let it grow on paper4 ,this method will afford a chance to review the whole mentally and to determine whether the thoughts follow each other logically4 ,the ,topic ,sentence4--,when an after-dinner speaker rises to respond to a toast1 he generally announces his topic at once1 or after a sentence or two of introduction4 ,he is very likely also to announce at once his chief thought about the subject2 for he knows that people like to hear him come to the point4 ,if however he has reason to think that his hearers may not agree with him immediately1 he is likely to state his subject first1 and then lead up gradually to his own conclusion about it4 ,we naturally follow some such course in writing4 ,with each paragraph we begin a new speech1 as it were4 ,it is a matter both of courtesy and of economy if in each we state definitely what we are talking about4 ,the topic sentence of a paragraph ordinarily states the general subject1 or else declares the general thought1 i4e4 conclusion1 of the whole4 ,it is generally short1 because emphatic4 ,the following paragraph shows its general subject in the opening sentence4 ,a ,tree-,planting ,association has been organized in ,new ,york ,city4 ,the ,association will be organized with twelve or more members on a block1 who will form a local club under the ,association4 ,a tree-planting association may1 in this city1 fail to plant trees1 but it certainly will encourage the planting of window boxes1 the fencing of unused lots1 the painting of fences to the exclusion of posters1 and the general care of the public street4 ,back yards will assume some relation to the general good of the community1 and trees1 vines1 and flowers will find place in them4 ,the children will be taught to care for the appearance of the block1 and chalk-marks and other defacements will soon disappear1 because of new-born civic pride4--,the ,outlook4 ,in the following paragraph1 ,macaulay does not state his topic till the second sentence4 ,the first is a general remark by way of introduction4 ,one of the first objects of an inquirer1 who wishes to form a correct notion of the state of a community at a given time1 must be to ascertain of how many persons that community then consisted4 ,unfortunately the population of ,england in #afhe1 cannot be ascertained with perfect accuracy4 ,for no great state had then adopted the wise course of periodically numbering the people4 ,all men were left to conjecture for themselves2 and1 as they generally conjectured without examining facts1 and under the influence of strong passions and prejudices1 their guesses were often ludicrously absurd4 ,even intelligent ,londoners ordinarily talked of ,london as containing several millions of souls4 ,it was confidently asserted by many that1 during the thirty-five years which had elapsed between the accession of ,charles the ,first and the ,restoration1 the population of the ,city had increased by two millions4 ,even while the ravages of the plague and fire were recent1 it was the fashion to say that the capital still had a million and a half of inhabitants4 ,some persons1 disgusted by these exaggerations1 ran violently into the opposite extreme4 ,thus ,isaac ,vossius1 a man of undoubted parts and learning1 strenuously maintained that there were only two millions of human beings in ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland taken together4--,,macaulay3 ,history of ,england1 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,in the following paragraph1 the topic sentence states the general thought of the whole4 ,the appetite of this fish is almost insatiable4 ,mr4 ,jesse threw to one pike of five pounds' weight1 four roach1 each about four inches in length1 which it devoured instantly1 and swallowed#bg a fifth within a quarter of an hour4 ,moor-hens1 ducks1 and even swans have been known to fall a prey to this voracious fish1 its long teeth effectually keeping them prisoners under water until drowned4--,,dr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood4 ,the following paragraph states in the topic sentence the general subject1 in the last sentence the general thought1 which has grown out of the subject4 ,two years ago the ,boston ,school ,board encouraged the establishment of cheap luncheons in the schools4 ,up to the present time this has been considered an experiment4 ,it is now conceded that the experimental stage is passed1 and that cheap1 nutritious school luncheons can successfully be provided1 and are in demand4 ,the following shows how the first sentence of a paragraph may be made to include the general topic4 ,i cite as an instance of the absence of vandalism in ,japan the experience of a ,japanese friend of mine who lived on a street near and parallel to the busiest street in ,tokio4 ,he had placed in his front gate1 bordering immediately upon the sidewalk1 an exquisite panel carved in delicate tracery and nearly two hundred years old4 ,such a specimen would be placed in our ,museums of ,art under lock and key4 ,on my expressing surprise that he would expose so precious a relic without fear that some heedless boy might break off a twig1 or otherwise deface it1 he assured me it was quite as safe there as in his library4 ,three years afterwards ,i chanced to be in ,japan again1 and though my friend was dead1 and a stranger occupied the premises1 ,i was led to seek the place to ascertain the condition of the delicate wood-carving4 ,it was absolutely uninjured1 though slightly bleached by the weather1 and this in the great commercial city of ,tokio1 with a population of over one million4--,,edward ,s4 ,,morse4#bh ,kinds of ,paragraphs4--,what can be said within the limits of a paragraph8 ,the same things that can be said in a sentence1 but more fully4 ,we need to consider here only a few of these4 ,the sentences may repeat the substance of the topic sentence1 adding something new4 ,or1 if the paragraph states the general conclusion first1 the succeeding sentences may give the needed particulars1 or illustrations1 or examples1 or proofs4 ,once more1 the paragraph may open with the statement of a cause1 this being followed by the statement of a necessary effect4 ,or1 the paragraph as a whole may develop a contrast4 ,or1 it may consist of a group of sentences that narrate the particulars of some event1 or describe some scene4 ,the following paragraph exhibits a single thought by repetition4 ,a true critic must love the subject-matter of literature4 ,he must care for its message4 ,the theme of the story1 the thing the author was trying to say1 must not escape him4 ,the form of the thing is much1 but the soul is more4 ,the following gives a general thought first1 then the particulars4 ,that farm bore every manner of fruit known to the climate4 ,there were apples1 a score of varieties1 from the snow apple that burned among the leaves1 and when bitten revealed a flesh so white that you kept biting it lest the juice should discolor it1 to the great cold autumn fruits that were resonant beneath the snap of your finger4 ,there were opulent pears1 distilling the golden sun into their bottles4 ,there were plums1 the kind that succeed4 ,grapes there were1 and quinces1 and peaches1--the last not so prolific as the apples1 but a very worthy fruit4 ,the following gives a general thought1 repeats it1 explains it1 illustrates it1 and so defends it4 ,if it were only for a vocabulary1 the scholar would be covetous of action4 ,life is our dictionary4 ,years are well spent in country labors2 in town2 in the insight into trades and manufactures2 in frank intercourse with many men and women2 in science2 in art2 to the one end of mastering in all their facts a language by which to illustrate and embody our perceptions4 ,i learn immediately from any speaker how much he has already lived1 through the poverty or the splendor of his speech4 ,life lies behind us as the quarry from whence we get tiles and copestones for the masonry of to-day4 ,this is the way to learn grammar4 ,colleges and books only copy the language which the field and the work-yard made4--,,emerson4 ,the following gives cause and effect3-- ,the ,king could not see that there were two ,englands--that of himself and ,north1 and that of ,burke and ,chatham4 ,the result was inevitable4 ,a third ,england sprang up across the sea4 ,the following sets up a quaint contrast4 ,the passage is from ,dr4 ,johnson's allegory on ,wit and ,learning3-- ,their conduct was1 whenever they desired to recommend themselves to distinction1 entirely opposite4 ,,wit was daring and adventurous2 ,,learning cautious and deliberate4 ,,wit thought nothing reproachful but dullness2 ,,learning was afraid of no imputation but that of error4 ,,wit answered before he understood1 lest his quickness of apprehension should be questioned2 ,,learning paused1 where there was no difficulty1 lest any insidious sophism should lie undiscovered4 ,,wit perplexed every debate by rapidity and confusion2 ,,learning tired the hearers with endless distinctions1 and prolonged the dispute without advantage1 by proving that which never was denied4 ,,wit1 in hopes of shining1 would venture to produce what he had not considered1 and often succeeded beyond his own expectation1 by following the train of a lucky thought2 ,,learning would reject every new notion1 for fear of being entangled in consequences which she could not foresee1 and was often hindered1 by her caution1 from pressing her advantages1 and subduing her opponent4 ,oral ,exercise4#bi--;,each of the following paragraphs had a topic sentence stating a cause1 which was then followed by a statement of the effect4 ,frame a topic sentence for each1 stating the cause4 #a4 -- -- -- -- -- -- ,consequently it is a good thing to apply pretty sharp tests to whatever offers itself as the genuine thing4 ,often the great schemes that men hatch for growing rich are nothing but pyrites4 ,the acid of sharp common sense corrodes and discolors them4 #b4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,nothing worse could have befallen the man4 ,being unused to the possession of wealth he ran through his millions in a year4 ,in #ahgf his old friend ,everard met him in the street and passed him by as a beggar4 ,oral ,exercise4--,examine the following paragraphs of explanation1 and form a topic sentence for each4 #a4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,in other words1 hold to the good you have4 ,let well enough alone4 ,people lay great plans2 they see the future through rosy lenses2 they build castles in ,spain4 ,but great plans that can't be carried out are of less value than small1 practicable plans2 the future is never just what it promises to be2 and as for castles in ,spain1 of what value are they to owners who can neither rent nor inhabit them8 #b4 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ,it is not1 observe1 a mere coating of snow of given depth throughout1 but it is snow loaded on until the rocks can hold no more4 ,the surplus does not fall in the winter1 because1 fastened by continual frost1 the quantity of snow which an ,alp can carry is greater than each single winter can bestow2 it falls in the first mild days of spring in enormous avalanches4 ,afterward the melting continues1 gradually removing from all the steep rocks the small quantity of snow which was all they could hold1 and leaving them black and bare among the accumulated fields of unknown depth1 which occupy the capacious valleys and less inclined superficies of the mountain4 ,oral ,exercise4--,analyze the following narrative paragraphs from ,irving's ,sketch-,book1 endeavoring to discover what office each sentence performs in the paragraph4 8,we had not been long home when the sound of music was heard from a distance4 ,a band of country lads1 without coats1 their shirt-sleeves fancifully tied with ribbons1 their hats decorated with greens1 and clubs in their hands1 were seen advancing up the avenue1 followed by a large number of villagers and peasantry4 ,they stopped before the hall door1 where the music struck up a peculiar air1 and the lads performed a curious and intricate dance1 advancing1 retreating1 and striking their clubs together1 keeping exact time to the music2 while one1 whimsically crowned with a fox's skin1 the tail of which flaunted down his back1 kept capering round the skirts of the dance1 and rattling a ,christmas-box with many antic gesticulations40 8,after the dance was concluded1 the whole party was entertained with brawn and beef and stout home-brewed4 ,the ',squire himself mingled among the rustics1 and was received with awkward demonstrations of deference and regard4 ,it is true1 ,i perceived two or three of the younger peasants1 as they were raising their tankards to their mouths1 when the ',squire's back was turned1 making something of a grimace1 and giving each other the wink2 but the moment they caught my eye they pulled grave faces1 and were exceedingly demure4 ,with ,master ,simon1 however1 they all seemed more at their ease4 ,his varied occupations and amusements had made him well known throughout the neighborhood4 ,he was a visitor at every farm-house and cottage2 gossiped with the farmers and their wives2 romped with their daughters2 and1 like that type of a vagrant bachelor1 the humble-bee1 tolled the sweets from all the rosy lips of the country round40 ,theme4--,choose one of the following topic sentences1 and develop the idea coherently1 by a succession of illustrations1 of details1 or of particulars1 into a paragraph of #aej words4 #a4 ,the ghosts one hears of are not all alike4 #b4 ,in some respects1 athletics are dangerous4 #c4 ,it was a dreary day4 #d4 ,it was one of those mornings that stir the blood4 #e4 ,there are battles with fate that can never be won4 #f4 8,a dog hath his day10 runs the old proverb4 #g4 ,it is easy to enumerate the ways of getting a lesson4 #h4 ,the race is not always to the swift4 #i4 ,there are many instances of bravery in everyday life4 #aj4 ,many phases of ,american life are illustrated in ,american short stories4 ,theme4--,choose one of the following topic sentences1 and defend it by giving reasons1 proofs1 to the extent of #aej or #bjj words4 #a4 ,on the whole1 school athletics are a good thing4 #b4 ,vivisection is necessary to science4 #c4 ,vivisection is cruel and unnecessary4 #d4 ,none but scientists are competent to decide whether or not vivisection is necessary to science4 #e4 ,if necessary to science1 vivisection should be practised only when necessary4 #f4 ,a debating society is a help in education4 #g4 ,the ,american ,revolution is an uninteresting theme topic4 #h4 ,the ,american ,revolution is not an uninteresting theme topic4 ,other sentences can easily be suggested by students or teacher4 ,theme4--,develop one of the following topic sentences into a paragraph of contrast1--#bjj words4 #a4 ,there is a difference between knowing a thing1 and being able to tell it4 #b4 ,outside the wild winds were rioting2 within all was cheer4 #c4 ,i saw an old man holding his granddaughter in his arms4 #d4 ,i know two persons3 one is a dreamer1 the other a doer4 #e4 ,hawthorne or some other writer has two characters that are strong foils to each other4 #f4 ,i imagined what was going on in those two houses4 #g4 ,some men are always hopeful1 some always in despair4 #h4 ,i knew two men of very unlike abilities4 #i4 ,i knew two persons of very unlike dispositions4 #aj4 ,the great choir presented fine contrasts in color of garments4 ,expansion of ,one ,paragraph into ,several4--,let it be supposed that having composed a theme of one paragraph1 a student has been asked to develop the subject at greater length2 the paragraph has #he words1 and the audience wants #bjj1 or #bbe4 ,what will be the right course8 ,it is possible to expand one paragraph of #he words into one paragraph of #bbe words4 ,but if the paragraph of #he words has two or three distinct parts1 it is better to expand each into a new paragraph4 ,let it be imagined that ,dr4 ,wood1 the ,english naturalist1 had written a very short paragraph on the ,crustacea2 that it ran somewhat like this4 ,,the ,,crustacea ,the aquatic animals known as the ,crustacea have no internal skeleton1 but are defended by a strong crust1 made of a series of rings4 ,this unyielding armor1 together with the coverings of the eyes1 the tendons of the claws1 and the lining membrane of the stomach1 with its teeth1 is cast off annually to permit the growth of the body4 ,the ,crustacea possess the power of reproducing a lost or original limb2 and1 indeed1 if injured the animal itself shakes off the injured joint4 ,suppose1 now1 that ,dr4 ,wood found himself dissatisfied with these somewhat cramped and overloaded sentences1 and determined to rewrite1 making three paragraphs where he had formerly but one4 ,in the new theme1 the main topics would be1 as before3 ,definition of ,crustacea2 ,annual shedding2 ,reproduction of ,limbs4 ,each would have a paragraph to itself1 where before it had but a sentence4 ,all the sentences to be made about the ,definition would be set off by themselves as one main part of the theme2 all those about the ,shedding would form a second2 all those about the ,new ,limbs1 a third4 8,set off02--that is1 by indentation1 or indention4 ,this word means1 8a biting in10 or1 more properly1 8a biting out40 ,where a new division of the theme begins1 the first line does not come up plumb to the straight edge at the left2 it is bitten into2 it begins farther to the right than do the other lines4 ,in the printed book1 the indentation is small--usually the width of a letter m4 ,but in a manuscript it is important for the indentation to be absolutely unmistakable4 ,some persons keep so ragged an edge at the left hand that it is impossible to know whether or not they should be credited with understanding what a paragraph is4 ,indent each new paragraph one or two inches4 ,bring every line of the paragraph1 except the last1 up even with the right-hand margin2 the last line may be stopped anywhere1 if the paragraph is complete in sense2 often this line has but a word or two4 ,if at any time you inadvertently omit the indentation1 and have not time to copy1 place a paragraph mark where the new paragraph should begin2 thus1 4 ,a rough outline for ,dr4 ,wood's new paragraphs could now be made4 ,the topics being known1 the number of sentences under each could be guessed at4 ,there is nothing in the original paragraph to show that ,dr4 ,wood ascribed especial importance to some one of the three topics4 ,the third is perhaps the least important4 ,it may be estimated that in the completed theme he would give about #hj words to each of the first two1 and about #ej to the third4 ,the outline would be something like this1 the full stops representing those of the future theme4 ,,the ,,crustacea ,crustacea are aquatic4 ,no skeleton1 but crust1 which protects and strengthens4 ,framework of rings2 part develops into limbs4 ,articulated animals4 ,curious way of growth4 ,other animals not inconvenienced as they grow4 ,not so ,crustacea4 ,mail unyielding4 ,is cast off annually and larger coat grows4 ,eye-covering1 tendons1 stomach-membrane are also shed4 ,curious reproduction of lost or injured limb4 ,new one grows if old lost2 animal shakes off injured joint4 ,lobsters do1 when alarmed4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,dr4 ,wood did write a short chapter on the ,crustacea1 and here it is4 ,,the ,,crustacea ,the ,crustacea are almost all aquatic animals4 ,they have no internal skeleton1 but their body is covered with a strong crust1 which serves for protection as well as for strength4 ,their whole framework consists of a series of rings fitted to1 and working in each other2 some forming limbs1 and others developing into the framework supporting the different organs4 ,from this reason1 they and the remaining animals1 as far as the star-fishes1 who have no limbs at all1 are called 8articulated0 animals4 ,their method of growth is very curious4 ,other animals1 as they increase in size1 experience no particular inconvenience4 ,not so the ,crustacea4 ,their bodies are closely enveloped in a strong1 unyielding mail1 which cannot grow with them4 ,their armor is therefore cast off every year1 and a fresh coat formed to suit their increased dimensions4 ,not only is the armor cast off1 but even the covering of the eyes1 the tendons of the claws1 and the lining membrane of the stomach1 with its teeth4 ,they all also possess the curious power of reproducing a lost or injured limb4 ,in the former case1 a fresh limb supplies the place of that lost2 and in the latter case1 the animal itself shakes off the injured joint1 and a new one soon takes its place4 ,lobsters1 when alarmed1 frequently throw off their claws4 ,theme4--,choose one of the following paragraphs and expand it into a theme4 ,each sentence should grow into a paragraph4 ,the proportions to be observed are suggested by the number of amplifying sentences prescribed for the different paragraphs4 ,write a title above the theme4 #a4 7a7 ,i like winter for its outdoor sports4 ,four or five sentences4 7b7 ,i like it no less for its indoor sports4 ,four or five sentences4 #b4 7a7 ,wearing birds is foolish1 for it is a remnant of savagery1 like tattooing4 ,two or three sentences4 7b7 ,it is less artistic than is often supposed4 ,two or three sentences4 7c7 ,it is unwise1 because it threatens the extinction of certain species of flycatchers and warblers4 ,two or three sentences4 7d7 ,it is cruel1 necessitating slaughter of innocent life1 and producing callousness to suffering4 ,five or six sentences4 #c4 7a7 ,a contrast between faces4 ,two sentences4 7b7 ,the face of ,napoleon is intellectual1 firm1 and cruel4 ,three sentences1 giving details of the face4 7c7 ,the face of ,lincoln is intellectual1 firm1 and kind4 ,three sentences1 giving details4 #d4 7a7 ,there are two kinds of people1--those who know what they want life to do for them1 and those who do not4 ,this introductory sentence may be made a part of the first paragraph4 ,the people who know what they want are few4 ,three or four sentences4 7b7 ,the people who do not know what they want are partly young people1 who have not had training enough to know2 partly older people4 ,three or four sentences4 #e4 7a7 ,some dinners ,i like1 some ,i do not4 ,part of first paragraph4 ,the kinds ,i like2 food2 company4 ,three or four sentences4 ,the kinds ,i do not like2 food2 company4 ,three or four sentences4 ,oral ,exercise4--,discuss with the instructor and the class the best way of paragraphing each of the following topics4 ,form first an idea as to how many paragraphs each should have and what should be the paragraph subjects4 #a4 ,this recitation room4 #b4 ,how ,lincoln looked4 #c4 ,a painting ,i like4 #d4 ,what ,i do in a day4 #e4 ,my plans4 #f4 ,the walk to school4 #g4 ,my past education4 #h4 ,the elm4 #i4 ,the construction of the steam engine4 #aj4 ,an ocean steamer4 #aa4 ,evening in the country4 ,oral ,exercise4--,read carefully the following speech and state the paragraph subjects4 ,estimate the number of words in each paragraph1 and say whether you think the proportion of parts is bad or good4 ,the speech will be recognized as that delivered by ,lincoln at the dedication of the ,gettysburg ,national ,cemetery4 ,it was written first as one paragraph2 but a year later1 in making a copy1 the ,president divided it as you see4 8,fourscore and seven years ago1 our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation1 conceived in liberty1 and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal4 8,now we are engaged in a great civil war1 testing whether that nation1 or any nation so conceived and so dedicated1 can long endure4 ,we are met on a great battlefield of that war4 ,we have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live4 ,it is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this4 8,but1 in a larger sense1 we cannot dedicate--we cannot consecrate--we cannot hallow this ground4 ,the brave men1 living and dead1 who struggled here1 have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract4 ,the world will little note1 nor long remember1 what we say here1 but it can never forget what they did here4 ,it is for us1 the living1 rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced4 ,it is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us--that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion1--that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain1--that this nation1 under ,god1 shall have a new birth of freedom1--and that government of the people1 by the people1 for the people1 shall not perish from the earth40 ,oral ,exercise4--,the importance of modelling all work on the right scale is illustrated in the task of the editor of an encyclopdia4 ,his problem is to give each subject space and prominence according to its importance4 ,opening ,johnson's ,encyclopdia1 ,i find seven columns devoted to ,shakespeare4 ,of these1 two and a half are given to the poet's life1 four and a half to his works4 ,is the proportion about right8 ,if you were editing an encyclopdia of geography1 how much space should you give to ,africa as compared with ,europe8 ,how much1 if the encyclopdia dealt with civilization8 ,oral ,exercise in ,proportioning4--,in treating each of the following subjects1 7a7 what paragraph topics might be chosen8 7b7 which paragraph ought to be the longest1 dealing with the most important phase of the subject8 #a4 ,living statesmen4 #b4 ,advantages of country life4 #c4 ,the life of ,lincoln4 #d4 ,the uses of gold4 #e4 ,a railway accident4 #f4 ,a cyclone4 #g4 ,a visit to an art-gallery4 #h4 ,a week of camping4 ,exercise in ,varying the ,scale4--,read one of the following poems4 ,then write two papers1 the first retelling 7not closely paraphrasing7 the story of the poem in one paragraph of about #ajj words1 the second retelling the same story in a theme of #cjj words1 properly paragraphed4 ,in each theme give space to every part according to its relative importance4 ,browning3 ,tray--about vivisection2 ,clive--story of courage2 ,incident of the ,french camp--story of heroism2 ,how we brought the good news from ,ghent to ,aix--story of endurance2 ,the ,pied ,piper of ,hamelin--story of pathos2 ,muleykeh--owner's pride in a horse2 ,the ,bean ,feast--a ,pope's humility4 ,longfellow3 ,the ,fell of ,atri2 ,paul ,revere's ,ride2 ,evangeline2 ,the ,legend ,beautiful2 ,robert of ,sicily4 ,lowell3 ,the ,vision of ,sir ,launfal4 ,drayton3 ,the ,ballad of ,agincourt 7,heart of ,oak ,books1 ,vol4 ,v474 ,thackeray3 ,chronicle of the ,drum 7,ibid474 ,tennyson3 ,the ,revenge 7,ibid474 ,coleridge3 ,the ,rime of the ,ancient ,mariner 7,ibid474 ,whittier3 ,skipper ,ireson's ,ride 7,ibid474 ,choice of ,topic2 ,method of ,work4--,it is easier to choose among definite theme subjects1 printed in the book1 than to choose from an unlimited number of topics4 ,left free1 a person may be attracted to a subject that is either too large1 or else mechanically limited4 ,the latter kind is the easier to manage4 8,the parts of a certain city10 is a topic easily paragraphed4 ,to choose no subjects but such as this would lead a person into making his theme in water-tight compartments4 ,on the other hand1 what can any one write in half an hour that will interest a reasonable being in such a subject as ,water1 or ,clouds1 or ,steam1 or ,electricity1 or the ,rise and ,fall of ,nations8 ,if the student is given free choice of a subject1 he should select something that he really cares about1 and that he wishes some definite audience to care about4 ,different modes of treatment are necessary to interest different audiences4 ,very often the attractive subject will not be capable of easy analysis4 ,in such a case1 choose only a few paragraph topics1 thus narrowing the treatment2 pick out the most attractive phases of the subject4 ,this done1 invent a theme title that will give an adequate hint of what is coming4 ,the actor1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,jefferson1 once made a charming talk to some college men about the 8starring system10 concluding with remarks about the fancy of some people that ,bacon wrote ,shakespeare and put a cryptogram into the plays4 ,a college periodical1 wanting to give some hint of both topics1 reported the speech under the heading 8,stars and ,cryptograms40 ,it was not a very good title1 for it was meaningless4 ,but it was designed to rouse curiosity1 and1 taken in connection with ,jefferson's name1 it did as well1 ,i dare say1 as a less vague and fanciful title4 ,let it be supposed that a person is to choose a subject for a simple theme1--any subject he pleases4 ,he is to select one that will interest high school students as well as himself4 ,his window looks out on a lake4 ,how will ,lakes do1 for a topic8 ,it is too large2 one would never have done4 ,nobody enjoys reading a small theme on a large matter4 ,the window affords a glimpse of the lake2 perhaps this ,glimpse of the ,lake would serve for a theme4 ,there would be no difficulty in paragraphing2 one section would go to the water1 one to the boats1 one to the sky4 ,but the water would have to be described exactly as it now looks1 though looking its worst4 ,the boats are all absent except one1 and perhaps there are other kinds that he would like to tell about4 ,besides1 the lad in the boat is fishing1 and the writer may be glad to tell about the fishing on this lake4 ,if however memories of the past few days must be dragged in to make the theme interesting to us all1 why1 the name must be changed4 ,the writer may call it1 ,a ,glimpse of the ,lake and ,some ,memories2 the title can then be interpreted with some elasticity4 ,what1 now1 are the chief things to say8 ,a brief paragraph of introduction1 perhaps1 though that is by no means necessary4 ,then something about the look of the lake4 ,then a word about the boats4 ,then something about the fishing4 ,here is enough3 water1 boats1 fishing4 ,now for the outline4 ,sprained ankle1 armchair4 ,must study landscape4 ,window shows lake4 ,lake has moods4 ,dull now4 ,glare this morning1 colors last night4 ,sometimes calm2 crystal depths4 ,ripples4 ,wind makes it blossom2 raises undercurrents4 ,rain quiets it4 ,freckled look4 ,queer way water fits land4 ,steamer seen4 ,variety of boats4 ,red-stack boats4 ,swarms of passengers4 ,boats gay at night4 ,launches4 ,pulse of engines4 ,sailboat4 ,it upset1 the other day4 ,rowboats4 ,fisherman4 ,casting for bass4 ,amateur4 ,wish him luck6 ,i tried for pike4 ,tried for bass4 ,no luck4 ,tried for perch4 ,caught a bass4 ,six or eight sentences4 ,in the last paragraph it perhaps occurs to the writer that the bullheads bite when the water is muddy2 and this muddiness suggests the first paragraph2 the muddiness should be described back there with the changing look of the water4 ,next1 the composition4 ,it is not offered as a model of style1 but to suggest a possible way of organizing any simple theme4 ,a ,,glimpse ,,of ,,the ,,lake1 ,,and ,,some ,,memories ,here ,i am1 planted in an armchair before the window1 my sprained ankle reposing1 or trying to repose1 on a smaller chair4 ,in such a position one must be thankful for his mercies2 he must take the exceptional chance to study the landscape4 ,fortunately1 the window cuts off a goodly section of the lake which lies down there below4 ,an exquisite thing is the lake1 with as many moods as a baby4 ,just now it is dull in color1 for the sky is overcast and there is mist in the air4 ,but early this morning it blazed with light1 and last night at sunset it was awake with every fashion of color4 ,sometimes1 when the heavens are bare and windless1 the water takes on an indescribable calm2 and then if you look down from this height there seems to be no surface at all--only depths of blue1 such as the poets are always likening to crystal or to sapphire4 ,at other times clouds and a breeze move over it1 and the surface ruffles till one's mind is tired with fancying the million lines of ripples4 ,if the wind stiffens and stays by1 there soon are waves2 the water breaks white and springs up in blossoms over the whole dark field2 then the under streams are roused out of their quiet and the whole mass thunders in upon the shore1 muddy but grand4 ,now it begins to rain2 and rain is the witch that charms the savage waters into rest4 ,presently the surface is dull again1 but for the freckled look made by the plunging drops4 ,one notes through the gathering mist an odd thing--the way the water seems to settle into place1 fitting into the curves and nooks of the shore2 the edge of the lake seems to grow white and distinct1 and to cling to the land in a sharp outline4 ,breaking through that white streak of water near the shore comes a dark something1 which soon takes form and is seen to be a steamer4 ,what a variety of craft haunt the lake6 ,the largest are these tall steamers1 taller still for their red stacks4 ,at night1 with their colored lights1 they look like jewelled slippers4 ,by day they carry crowds1 which seem to rim each deck with a black band4 ,then there are the launches1 slipping here and there straight across the bow of the bigger craft4 ,they have a curiously trim and self-satisfied look2 and their naphtha engines1 beating no louder than some great1 fast pulse1 seem to make fun of the slow-puffing monsters that stain the air with smoke4 ,a sailboat--a little sloop--slips across the picture4 ,it is the one that upset the other day and gave my friend the ,doctor a thorough soaking4 ,two rowboats are standing to the south4 ,in the bow of one there's a lone fisherman4 ,that lad is casting for bass4 ,he is an amateur--from his dress4 ,better luck to him than has thus far befallen the amateur who sits watching him from this window6 ,i trolled in the lake for silver pike1 but with never a rise to break the monotony4 ,then ,i tried thrice in the early morning for yellow bass1 using first minnows for bait1 afterward grasshoppers1 and lastly frogs4 ,no luck6 ,disgusted1 ,i stole out one afternoon to catch perch1 hoping to be seen by no one4 ,the perch bit languidly1 and the few that were taken seemed to have a supercilious look4 8,here's my last worm60 ,i cried2 8then for the hotel and farewell to these fishing grounds where no fish are40 ,a bite6 a competent1 masterly1 vicious bite6 ,it's a bass1 strayed away from home1 and too hungry to ask for delicate diet6 ,pull him in--seize the line1 for the pole is light and the hook is small4 ,safely landed1 and not less in weight than two pounds6 ,let them brag of six-pounders2 this gleaming1 muscular fellow1 smelling of fresh water and mint1 is good enough game for me4 ,as ,i gaze and remember1 the amateur in his boat moves out of the picture frame and the lake is a blank again4 ,oral ,exercise4--,why are the following subjects unfit for short themes8 ,suggest two or three theme topics that might be derived from each4 #a4 ,george ,washington4 #b4 ,snow4 #c4 ,war4 #d4 ,evening4 #e4 ,light4 #f4 ,politeness4 ,oral ,exercise4--,name several limited subjects that would be available if you were trying to interest legitimately 7a7 an audience of college men1 7b7 an audience of high school boys1 7c7 an audience of high school girls1 7d7 an audience of business men4 ,theme4--,choose one of the following subjects1 and think how to secure for it the interest of persons three or four years younger than yourself4 ,think of some intelligent boy or girl1 one who1 though considerably your junior1 distinctly commands your respect1 and explain to him high school ways of studying either 7a7 physiography1 or 7b7 history1 or 7c7 ,latin1 or 7d7 manual training1 or 7e7 ,english1 or some other subject4 ,the theme should consist of one paragraph1 of about #bjj words4 ,oral and ,written ,exercise4--,choose three of the following subjects1 and think what illustrations you would use to make them clear to different audiences4 ,draw upon your knowledge of the things that are most familiar to the experience of each audience4 ,jot down memoranda of the illustrations that you suggest1 and afterward compare notes in the oral discussion4 ,for example1 ,explain1 by illustration3-- ,a gentleman1 to a gamin4 ,ice1 to a native of the tropics4 ,the charm of foot-ball1 to a girl4 ,the pleasure of work1 to a shirk4 ,wagner's music1 to a deaf painter4 ,the charm of foot-ball1 to a soldier4 ,the solar system1 to a child of eight4 ,oranges1 to a native of the polar regions4 ,the charm of a true lady1 to an awkward lad4 ,the ,jungle ,book1 to a ,north ,american ,indian4 ,a newsboy's life1 to an earl's son or a millionnaire's son4 ,a sleepless night1 to a person who sleeps like a top4 ,a headache1 to a person who never had a headache4 ,the charm of ,stevenson1 to a reader of dime novels4 ,taking gas at the dentist's1 to a person who never lost a tooth4 ,an encyclopdia1 to a man who never heard of such a book4 ,paragraph construction1 to a youth who cares only for the shop4 ,the danger of open windows1 to a child who never heard of death4 ,some good monthly1 to a bright boy or girl who had never seen a magazine4 ,transitions between ,paragraphs4--,suppose that a given theme is a unit1 no idea being admitted that does not bear on the topic2 suppose1 further1 that the paragraphs are units1 each treating a distinct part of the theme idea2 it remains to be sure that the reader gets easily from paragraph to paragraph4 ,sometimes the writer is so anxious to make each paragraph a unit in itself that the reader does not feel at once that the new section has anything to do with the preceding4 ,look back to the theme on the ,glimpse of the ,lake4 ,there were three things to talk about3 water1 boats1 fishing4 ,at the end of the paragraph on the water the attention must be led over without any jar to the subject of boats4 ,the last idea of the water paragraph was that the edge of the lake grew white and distinct4 ,in beginning the new paragraph1 we may refer to that idea4 8,breaking through that white streak of water near the shore comes a dark something10 etc4 ,now look at the paragraph on fishing4 ,how does the writer try to get over to the fishing from the boats8 ,explain in recitation4 ,the joints of the theme should be smooth and strong1 like the joints of bamboo--not a rude joint made by chisel and hammer4 ,written ,exercise4--,the instructor will hand you in class your themes thus far written4 ,go over them carefully1 trying by revision to make the thought connection closer between the paragraphs4 ,for the future1 always read carefully the whole paragraph before beginning the next4 ,transitions between ,sentences4--,within the paragraph each sentence should grow vitally out of the preceding4 8,connection is the soul of good writing10 said the great translator1 ,jowett of ,balliol4 ,plan sentences ahead2 and read each sentence before you write the next4 ,make it impossible for people to say of you as they used to say of ,emerson1 8,his sentences read equally well in any order40 ,make it impossible to pick a sentence out and set it down elsewhere1 without tearing the theme as neas rent young ,polydore4 ,frequently the sentences can be bound tighter together by beginning the next with a reference to some idea contained in the preceding4 ,burke1 pleading in ,parliament for ,america1 said3 8,but with regard to her own internal establishment1 she may1 ,i doubt not she will1 contribute in moderation4 ,i say in moderation1 for she ought not to be permitted to exhaust herself4 ,she ought to be reserved to a war1 the weight of which1 with the enemies that we are most likely to have1 must be considerable in her quarter of the globe4 ,there she may serve you1 and serve you essentially40 ,here the last words of each sentence suggest the first words of the next4 ,of course this way of getting coherence is easily overdone2 but it is very valuable1 nevertheless4 ,it is easy to discover the order in which ,ruskin wrote the following sentences1 here printed in wrong order4 ,find the true arrangement1 and tell how it was found4 ,well1 whatever bit of a wise man's work is honestly and benevolently done1 that bit is his book1 or his piece of art4 ,but1 again1 ,i ask you1 do you at all believe in honesty or at all in kindness1 or do you think there is never any honesty or benevolence in wise people8 ,if you read rightly1 you will easily discover the true bits1 and those are the book4 ,oral ,exercise4--,change either the grammatical construction or the order of words wherever you think such change will increase the coherence of the following paragraph4 8,we were coasting down chapel hill4 ,in western ,new ,york1 this is one of many similar long hills4 ,this state is indeed a coaster's paradise in many parts4 ,the particular paradise ,i speak of1 saw1 however1 a disastrous fall of a brave young ,adam and a gentle young ,eve4 ,williams1 ,i mean by this1 who was coming like a meteor down the hill1 with ,miss ---- in front of him on the 8bob-sled10 as he reached the bridge1 was thrown out of the track4 ,luckless bridge6 it ought to have been guarded by stout rails4 ,there were no rails1 however1 and across the narrow canyon1 ,williams1 with his precious charge1 took a flying leap4 ,on the other side of it1 five feet below1 was a wooden abutment4 ,the lives of the young people were saved by this2 for the sled shot across the gulf and landed on the projection4 ,we picked the adventurers up from this perilous perch4 ,they were more surprised than hurt4 ,but after he had time to think1 ,williams confessed that he was never more frightened in his life2 for he thought of the thirty feet of space below that wooden ledge40 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,on ,,correctness ,,in ,,choice ,,of ,,words ,authority4--,if the art of writing is the art of saying what we mean1 we must use words that the reader will understand4 ,of course the word reader is rather general3 there are readers and readers4 ,an article written for adults would show different words from one written for children4 ,for the purposes of this chapter1 our typical reader is the ,american or the ,englishman who has a good public school training4 ,this 8average man0 may in theory happen to live in ,london1 or in ,maine1 or1 again1 in ,texas4 ,now1 there are certain words used in ,texas that are not used in ,london or in ,maine4 ,in parts of ,new ,jersey and ,pennsylvania a small pail is called a 8blickey40 ,most natives of ,chicago never heard the word4 ,such words as 8blickey0 are called provincialisms or localisms1 and are ruled out4 ,our words must be national4 ,this need not mean international2 many words are used in ,england that need not be used in ,america1 and vice vers4 ,the ,american speaks of switching a train2 the ,englishman speaks of shunting it4 ,with the former the train goes up a steep grade2 with the latter it goes up a gradient4 ,the ,englishman calls baggage1 luggage1 a word that ,americans are more likely to use of those pieces only that can be carried in the hand4 ,it is to be presumed that national differences of this sort are known to ,american and ,englishman alike2 therefore there is no reason why either should change from the usage of his country4 ,good ,english is essentially the same in all ,english-speaking countries4 ,one other matter is suggested by the words national usage4 ,a nation is composed of all sorts and conditions of men4 ,each class1 each trade and profession1 has its own pet expressions and contractions4 ,good usage does not recognize these4 ,the dialect of the college1 or the ball-ground1 or the counting-room1 or the law-courts1 is racy enough and proper enough in its place2 but it has no place in standard ,english4 ,a student may flunk1 but only in school4 ,a book of accounts can be posted1 but not a man4 ,again1 our words must not be so old-fashioned or obsolete that they are unintelligible4 ,they must be present4 ,let once meant 8to hinder40 ,naturally no one would use it in this sense to-day4 ,many words that are both national and present are not permitted1 since they are not reputable4 ,they are used1 but wrongly so2 used by the careless and the uneducated4 ,a great number of such expressions are perfectly well understood wherever ,english is spoken1 but if one employs them one will be set down as careless or ignorant2 for example1 ain't is intelligible to all1 but its use is known to be a mark of vulgarity2 such a word is called a vulgarism4 ,most slang consists of vulgarisms1 though some slang finally becomes reputable ,english4 ,reputable words are those employed by the best writers4 ,by best is meant writers who have literary distinction1 and who know and regard the structure and history of ,english literary words4 ,in this day1 when everybody scribbles and prints1 there are countless writers whose usage is not really reputable4 ,the newspapers1 though they have done much to free modern ,english from pedantry1 are not usually reputable in usage4 ,the ,english of very many novelists is in bad repute4 ,even certain writers of eminence1 such as ,dickens and ,thomas ,hughes1 are guilty of using unreputable words and senses of words4 ,such essayists as ,matthew ,arnold and ,john ,fiske2 such writers of fiction as ,thackeray1 ,hawthorne1 ,stevenson1 and ,henry ,james2 such historians as ,green and ,parkman--these men are in general safe models in matters of usage4 ,to sum up1 then2 if we would be understood1 and would be reckoned as educated persons1 we must use words that are reputable1 national1 and present4 ,good usage is the employment of such words and1 senses of words as the body of reputable writers sanction by their own practice to-day4 ,notice that the body of reputable writers is specified4 ,no one author makes good use1 any more than one swallow makes a summer4 ,when a critic wishes to prove by authority that a given expression is ,english1 he must be able to quote it from many authors4 ,the ,dictionary4--,a dictionary is a codification of good usage4 ,indeed1 a large dictionary codifies also much bad usage1 explaining in the case of the latter the particular form of badness1 whether local usage1 or colloquial usage1 or vulgar usage4 ,such a dictionary also outlines the history of each word1 so far as this is known2 it can here be learned what was standard ,english yesterday1 what three centuries ago4 ,a dictionary habit is indispensable to every one4 ,when in doubt about the present meaning or pronunciation of a word1 or curious as to its history1 look it up4 ,have an abridged dictionary of your own1--the less abridged the better1--but consult also the unabridged books frequently4 ,every author rediscovers the charm that lies in the dictionary4 ,to find that charm1 every word of the given explanations should be read1 and the system of diacritical marks1 which show syllabification1 accent1 vowel1 and consonant sounds1 should be studied4 ,barbarisms4--,lord ,chesterfield writes to his son3 8,the first thing you should attend to is1 to speak whatever language you do speak1 in its greatest purity1 and according to the rules of grammar2 for we must never offend against grammar1 nor make use of words which are not really words40 ,a word that is not in a good dictionary1 or is there branded as provincial or as vulgar1 is not really a word1 and should not be used4 ,an expression that has not been recognized by good use is called a barbarism4 ,often such terms are incorrectly formed1 as when they are coined by ignorant persons2 often they are corruptions of words4 ,motorneer is wrongly coined2 slick is corrupted from sleek4 ,motorneer is made up of motor plus the ending er4 ,the ne is left over from the discarded steam engine1 for motorneer is made by false analogy from engineer4 ,the proper word is motorman4 ,if there is need for a new word in the language1--and the need often arises in these days of invention1--its component parts should be from the same tongue1 and it should be formed by strict analogy1 on the model of some correct1 accepted word4 ,examine such a word as shadowgraph1 which the more careless newspapers began to use as soon as the 8,roentgen rays0 were discovered4 ,shadow is ,english2 graph is ,greek1--a termination that should be added only to a ,greek word4 ,various correct formations have been proposed for the ray-picture--scotograph1 radiograph1 skiagraph1 etc4 ,it remains to be seen which one of these words will become established4 ,examine the word electrocution4 ,it is formed on the false analogy of execution4 ,execution is from the ,latin ex sequor1 meaning 8to follow up10 or1 so to speak1 8to chase down40 ,the man who invented electrocution could not have known that sequor was a part of execution4 ,he merely tied together electro and cution1 thinking perhaps that cution meant cutting or killing4 ,electro is from the ,greek 7meaning 8amber10 the substance by rubbing which some one discovered electricity71 and in strictness should not be joined to a ,latin termination1 even if that be correct4 ,we might easily have had a good ,english word for death in the electrical chair2 but as matters stand1 there is no one recognized word for this idea4 ,other barbarisms are3 burglarize1 to enthuse 7a bad coinage from enthusiasm71 an invite1 double entendre and nom de plume 7two expressions which are neither accepted ,french nor accepted ,english71 walkist1 a combine1 preventative 7for preventive71 reportorial1 managerial1 to suicide1 gent1 pants 7the trade name1 but not the literary71 photo1 prof41 spoonsful4 ,words brought into the ,english from other languages1 and not yet recognized by good use1 are also barbarisms4 ,such words are said to be not yet ,anglicized4 ,they are referred to as alienisms1 and most may be classified as ,latinisms1 ,hellenisms 7or ,greek words71 ,teutonisms 7chiefly ,german words71 ,gallicisms 7,french words74 ,a word peculiar to ,america is an ,americanism2 one peculiar to ,england is a ,briticism4 ,some ,americanisms and ,briticisms are not really barbarisms1 but are warranted by the canon of national use4 ,the following words are as yet alienisms3 artiste1 sobriquet1 beau monde1 faux pas1 entre nous1 etc4 ,certain other words are ,anglicized3 amateur1 omelette1 etiquette1 litterateur1 etc4 ,the temptation to sprinkle foreign words unnecessarily into one's ,english reaches most persons sooner or later4 ,it should be withstood4 ,the ,english language is rich enough to furnish forth any man's vocabulary4 ,many words that may finally become good ,english are not yet accepted4 ,to be on the safe side one should say3 point of view1 not standpoint2 upon1 not onto2 written permission1 not a permit2 he doesn't1 not he don't4#cj ,in the list given above it is remarked of pants that it is a trade name 7for what are ordinarily known as trousers or pantaloons74 ,commercial ,english and literary ,english are two different things2 and while a careful novelist would hardly write about wheatena1 or flexibone1 or autoharp1 he might talk about them in the shops4 ,yet these words are not correctly formed2 and the same thing is unhappily true of other trade names4 ,improprieties4--,suppose1 now1 that a writer uses a good ,english word1 but uses it in a sense not found in the best authors4 ,in this case he uses the word improperly2 he commits an impropriety4 ,sometimes two words sound so much alike that they are mistaken one for the other2 for instance1 accept and except4 ,sometimes the two words mean nearly the same thing1 and so come to be confused2 for example1 continual and continuous4 ,the following list gives the words that are most frequently mistaken for each other4 ,in the illustrative sentences each such word is correctly used1 and in all cases the other word would be incorrect or at least less desirable if substituted for it4 ,,nouns ,ability1 capacity4 #a4 ,the capacity of man's memory is great4 #b4 ,capacity for learning and ability for doing are secrets of success4 ,what idea do these words share8 ,acceptance1 acceptation4 #a4 ,his acceptance was graceful4 #b4 ,you use the word in its usual acceptation4 ,each of these words contains the idea to take4 ,in what sense may this be said8 ,access1 accession4 #a4 ,access to the director is easy4 #b4 ,the library has received an accession of books4 #c4 ,she was seized with an access of grief4 #d4 ,the ,tsar celebrated his accession to the throne4 ,each of these words contains the idea of entrance4 ,access means the entrance of a person into a room or into the presence of another2 also the entrance of a flood of emotion into the mind4 ,accession means the entrance of a person into the rights of a position2 also the entrance of books or other objects to a collection1--an addition to the collection4 ,act1 action4 #a4 ,character is developed by action4 #b4 ,our own acts for good or ill speak for us4 ,explain how both these words hold the idea of do4 ,advance1 advancement4 #a4 ,the swallow comes with the advance of the season4 #b4 ,he has received advancement4 #c4 ,each advance of ,napoleon was swift4 ,what idea have these two words in common8 ,explain how they differ4 ,alternative1 choice4 #a4 ,there is no alternative2 he must go4 #b4 ,there are only three choices4 ,alternative is a choice between ---- things4 ,avocation1 vocation4 #a4 ,my regular calling1 or vocation1 is teaching2 but for an avocation ,i spend my holidays in photography4 #b4 ,dr4 ,weir ,mitchell is a physician2 but his regular vocation of medicine doesn't prevent him from following the delightful avocation of letters4 ,both these words have the idea of calling4 ,explain how they differ4 7,what does ab mean in ,latin87 ,balance1 remainder4 #a4 ,the balance of the sum is due4 #b4 ,the remainder of the day is spent4 ,what relation exists between balancing 7a book7 and remainder8 ,character1 reputation4 #a4 ,his reputation for integrity is good4 #b4 ,his character is beyond reproach4 #c4 ,a man cannot always control his reputation1 but he can control his character4 ,character is what a man ----2 reputation is what people ---- of him4 ,compliment1 complement4 #a4 ,woman's mind is by many considered the complement of man's1 supplying certain things that the masculine mind has not4 #b4 ,his compliments are really flatteries4 #c4 ,the secretary supplied the army with its complement of stores4 ,council1 counsel4 #a4 ,his counsel defended him in the trial4 #b4 ,let good counsel prevail4 #c4 ,the council of ten gave good counsel4 ,define these two words4 ,what idea have they in common8 ,falseness1 falsity4 ,arnold was a traitor2 and the falseness of his character was proved by the falsity of his statements4 ,what idea do these words share8 ,frame definitions4 ,invention1 discovery4 ,edison discovered certain laws of sound and by them invented the phonograph4 ,this invention is not as yet very useful2 but the discovery of the laws was important4 ,what idea do these words share8 ,frame definitions4 ,limit1 limitation4 #a4 ,there should be no limitation of the commander's authority4 #b4 ,there were no limits to his delight4 ,what common idea have these words8 ,define each4 ,majority1 plurality4 ,a majority is more than half the whole number4 ,a plurality is the excess of votes received by one candidate above another4 ,when there are several candidates1 the one who receives more votes than any other has a plurality4 ,in what respect are these words alike in meaning8 in what unlike8 ,observation1 observance4 #a4 ,his observation of the habits of birds was keen4 #b4 ,his observance of the ,sabbath was strict4 ,is watch the best word for the idea shared by these words8 ,discuss4 ,observation1 remark4 #a4 ,johnson's observations of men were keen4 #b4 ,johnson's observations were made with his eyes2 his remarks1 with his tongue2 and ,boswell1 by recording the remarks1 recorded the observations4 ,what relation has a remark to an observation8 ,party1 person4 #a4 ,a party in a silk hat must be a party of ,liliputians4 #b4 ,the party of the first part was two persons4 #c4 ,a seedy person joined the party4 #d4 ,i refuse to be a party to the deed4 ,is the idea of a part always contained in the word party8 ,discuss4 ,part1 portion4 #a4 ,esau sold his portion1 the part allotted him4 #b4 ,the human body has many parts4 #c4 ,waiter1 one portion of roast beef will do6 ,what is a portion8 ,prominent1 predominant4 ,there were many prominent men in ,lincoln's cabinet1 but the ,president was always predominant among them4 ,consult the unabridged as to the origin of these words4 ,recipe1 receipt4 ,if receipt comes from the ,latin meaning 8taken10 it is easy to see why when money is taken a receipt is given4 ,recipe is a ,latin imperative1 meaning 8take02 naturally it is the right word for a formula in cooking2 8take0 so much salt1 so much meal1 so much water--and lo6 a johnny cake4 ,relative1 relation4 ,one may have many relatives with whom he does not keep up close relations4 ,is relation preferably an abstract noun1 or a concrete8 ,residence1 house4 #a4 ,do not say residence when you mean house2 the simpler word is the better4 #b4 ,he has his residence in his house4 #c4 ,his residence1 or place of residence1 is ,montreal4 ,sewage1 sewerage4 ,the sewage flows through the system of sewerage4 ,site1 situation4 #a4 ,lovely is ,zion for situation4 #b4 ,the site of ,troy was repeatedly built upon1 each new ,troy being in turn destroyed by fire or by some enemy4 #c4 ,the situation of ,chicago by the lake gives the city fresh breezes4 ,what kind of place is a site8 ,what is a situation8 ,,verbs ,accept1 except4 #a4 ,all ,cretans are liars1 runs the proverb3 the proverb excepts none4 #b4 ,he accepted the invitation4 ,both words have the idea of take4 ,how is this true of except8 ,affect1 effect4 #a4 ,even the rumor affected his belief1 changing it slightly4 #b4 ,he effected a junction with the other army4 ,which of these words could properly govern reconciliation8 mind8 health8 release8 conduct after release8 destruction8 conscience8 peace of mind8 ,which one of the two words requires for an object a noun expressing an action8 ,aggravate1 irritate1 tantalize4 #a4 ,tantalus was tantalized by the sight of inaccessible fruit4 #b4 ,he aggravates the difficulty by trying to excuse his act4 #c4 ,he is aggravating his cold by going out4 #d4 ,he irritates me by his teasing4 #e4 ,the gravity of our case is but aggravated by delay4 ,allude1 mention4 #a4 ,nobody would allude to an experience so unpleasant to all that party4 #b4 ,he alluded to ,washington as the ,father of his ,country4 #c4 ,he mentioned several ways of accomplishing the work2 then he went back to his duties1 not alluding to the subject again4 ,can a person allude to a thing without assuming knowledge of it on the part of an audience8 ,can a thing be alluded to for the first time8 if so1 would it be the first time it was spoken of8 ,make allusions to several great men without mentioning their names4 ,antagonize1 alienate4 #a4 ,by antagonizing the views of his friends1 he alienated their sympathies from him4 #b4 ,he alienated his friends by antagonizing them4 ,begin1 commence4 ,these words are often interchangeable1 but commence is the more formal4 ,begin is the better word ordinarily4 ,bring1 fetch4 #a4 ,come here and bring the book4 #b4 ,go and fetch the book4 ,define these two words4 ,what is their common idea8 ,claim1 assert1 etc4 #a4 ,claim means to assert a right to a thing as one's own4 ,it means neither to say1 to assert1 to declare1 to maintain1 to hold1 to allege1 nor to contend4 #b4 ,he claims the right to be heard4 #c4 ,he maintains that he ought to be heard4 #d4 ,he asserts that such is the fact4 ,,note4--,it is better not to use claim with the conjunction that4 ,degrade1 demean1 debase4 #a4 ,being in disgrace1 the captain was degraded from his rank4 #b4 ,he demeans himself sometimes well1 sometimes ill4 #c4 ,he debases or degrades himself by his profanity4 ,give a synonym for demean4 ,drive1 ride4 ,in ,england one rides only when one is on horseback2 one is said to drive if in a carriage4 ,in ,america one drives when one holds the reins2 but we go driving even when the coachman drives4 ,there is also excellent authority for take a ride1 and go riding1 when conveyance in a carriage is meant4 ,endorse1 approve1 second4 #a4 ,he seconded all his friend's propositions4 #b4 ,he endorsed the check across the top4 #c4 ,he approved his colleague's act4 ,what is a dorsal fin8 ,what does endorse mean1 by etymology8 ,got1 gotten1 have4 #a4 ,got is perhaps preferable to gotten4 #b4 ,don't say you've got a thing when you merely have it1 without having secured it4 ,what idea is common to get and have8 ,guess1 think1 reckon4 #a4 ,i think ,i shall go4 #b4 ,he reckoned the cost before he started4 #c4 ,i guess there are a hundred4 ,the habitual misuse of guess is an ,american fault4 ,intend1 calculate4 #a4 ,she received his apologies with a resentment they were likely1 but were not intended1 to inspire4#ca #b4 ,he aimed at the animal a blow calculated to kill it4 #c4 ,i fully intend to go1 but cannot calculate how soon4 ,let1 leave4 #a4 ,let me be6 ,don't bother me when ,i want to study4 #b4 ,let me alone6 #c4 ,leave me alone here4 #d4 ,let go6 ,unhand me4 ,let once meant 8to hinder40 ,now it means the opposite--8permit40 ,lie1 lay4 ,the chief trouble with the first of these two words seems to concern the past tense3 8,he laid down on the sofa40 ,locate1 settle4 #a4 ,he located his house there 7not located there74 #b4 ,he settled in ,chicago4 ,loan1 lend4 ,it is not incorrect to use loan in the sense of lend1 but lend is the less formal and the preferable word4 ,may1 can4 ,may it not be said that any person who has not learned the difference between these two words1 can hardly be permitted to call himself a user of good ,english8 ,it is not hard to see why people confuse these two words4 ,often the questioner feels that1 for all practicable purposes1 the refusal of his request will make a barrier over which he cannot go4 ,when he says 8,can ,i go10 he is feeling1 8,will you make it possible for me to go8 for unless you consent ,i cannot go--,i cannot afford to1 or ,i cannot conscientiously1 or ,i cannot and remain on right terms with you40 ,nevertheless1 may is the only right word to use in asking permission4 ,proved1 proven4 #a4 ,the point was not proved4 #b4 ,verdict3 8,not proven40 ,proven is a ,scotch legal term1 wrongly supposed by some persons to be preferable to proved out of the court-room4 ,purpose1 propose4 #a4 ,one can't propose unless he proposes something to somebody4 #b4 ,one can purpose to do a thing1 without proposing it to any one4 ,how do both these words contain the idea of placing8 ,sit1 set4 ,the chief errors in the use of sit and set are two4 ,some people insist on saying 8setting hen0 for 8sitting hen10 and 8the coat sets well0 for 8sits well40 ,a few say1 8,sit yourself down10 for the somewhat old-fashioned 8sit you down0 7where the you is nominative7 or for 8set yourself down40 ,similarly this error has been known to occur--8he sat the basket of eggs down40 ,stay1 stop4 #a4 ,he stopped at ,albany2 he went no farther4 #b4 ,at what hotel are you staying1 these days8 ,transpire1 happen4 ,a good many things happened that dark night when the boys were out for a lark2 but it never transpired what really did happen2 nothing leaked out or got to the light4 ,spiro means 8to breathe40 ,trans 7across7 when in composition means through1 out4 ,is it not clear how the present use of the word comes about8 ,explain4 ,compare the words expire1 conspire1 inspire4 ,how does each get its present meaning8 ,wish1 want1 desire4 #a4 ,it is sometimes correct enough to say want in the place of wish4 #b4 ,you shall want nothing2 all shall be supplied4 #c4 ,you shall not want anything you may desire4 ,which idea springs out of the other--want from wish1 or wish from want8 ,,adjectives ,,and ,,adverbs ,apt1 likely1 liable4 #a4 ,he is apt at languages4 #b4 ,he is likely to fail if he does not properly prepare himself4 ,here apt was possible1 but not so good as likely4 ,apt means 8fitted10 8fit40 ,how could such an idea as 8,it is apt to rain this month0 spring from the idea of fit8 #c4 ,he is likely to succeed if only he tries4 #d4 ,he is liable to arrest and quarantine1--though not likely to be arrested1--merely because he is liable to come down with a contagious disease4 ,with what kind of feeling does a person look forward to a thing to which he is liable8 ,continual1 continuous4 #a4 ,a continual dropping is a ,biblical phrase4 #b4 ,a continuous dropping would not be a dropping at all4 ,it would be a stream4 ,what idea have these words in common8 ,funny1 odd4 #a4 ,it is odd that ,i haven't heard of this before4 #b4 ,it is a funny sight to see ,fido trying desperately to catch his own tail4 ,can you explain something of the mental process by which a child comes to say funny so frequently1 and strange so rarely8 ,is it all a matter of imitation1 or is there some other reason8 ,are there not more of strange things in a child's experience than of funny things8 ,healthy1 healthful4 ,healthful food makes a healthy man4 ,give a synonym for healthful as applied to food4 ,imminent1 eminent1 immanent4 #a4 ,the eminent ,latin writer1 ,livy1 speaks of ,hannibal's elephants as looming up--eminentes--through the mist4 #b4 ,that ,god is immanent in all the world was a doctrine of the ,greek fathers2 they meant that he pervades and is diffused throughout it4 #c4 ,the sword of ,damocles hung imminent1 suspended by a hair4 #d4 ,he is in imminent danger of disgrace4 ,with which two of these words is the idea of threaten connected8 ,which has the idea of remain1 or stay1 in it8 ,in1 into4 #a4 ,bruno looked up into his master's face4 #b4 ,he got into the chariot4 #c4 ,he sprang into the lake1 while ,i stayed in the boat4 #d4 ,once in the lake1 he swam round4 ,what difference in the use of these words8 ,last1 latest4 #a4 ,the last page of the book is done4 #b4 ,the latest news from the patient is bad4 ,does latest imply anything as to the future8 ,last1 preceding4 #a4 ,let each paragraph be joined smoothly with the preceding4 #b4 ,the last paragraph ends the theme4 ,mad1 angry4 #a4 ,there is no reason for being angry4 #b4 ,much learning hath made thee mad4 #c4 ,he was mad with rage--fairly insane4 ,most1 almost4 #a4 ,most men are optimists4 #b4 ,almost every man loves praise4 ,parse the words italicized above4 ,mutual1 common4 #a4 ,our common friend is the better expression1 though ,dickens has made famous the corresponding worse usage4 #b4 ,friendship may be mutual2 a friend cannot4 #c4 ,separated by mountains and by mutual fear4 ,what is meant by reciprocal8 ,which word is a synonym of reciprocal8 ,oral1 verbal4 #a4 ,miles ,standish's act of sending the ,indians a snake-skin filled with powder and ball1 was a message1 but not a verbal message4 #b4 ,if you are to see ,john1 let me send him this oral message3 ,never say die4 #c4 ,the corrections did not affect the truth of the statements1 but only the manner3 they were verbal corrections4 #d4 ,the telegraph operator translates into verbal form the message that he hears in the ticking of his receiver4 ,the ,latin word os means mouth2 the ,latin word verbum means a word4 ,do oral and verbal keep the sense of the ,latin words8 ,can a verbal message be oral8 ,can an oral message be verbal8 ,is an oral message ordinarily verbal8 ,can you imagine an oral message that is not verbal8 ,posted1 informed4 #a4 ,the ledger is well posted4 #b4 ,the editor is well informed4 ,can you see the slightest reasonable advantage in speaking of a person as well posted8 ,in other words1 does this commercial slang lend any real force8 ,practicable1 practical4 ,his scheme won't work2 it isn't practicable4 ,i'm afraid he isn't so practical a schemer as we thought4 ,quite1 somewhat1 very1 rather1 entirely1 wholly4 #a4 ,quite never means 8very10 8rather10 or 8somewhat40 ,it means 8wholly40 #b4 ,harry is quite well2 he is never sick4 #c4 ,yes1 ,i like him rather well4 #d4 ,thank you2 ,i'm quite myself again4 ,curtail quite1 and you get another good ,english adjective from the same root4 ,how is this shorter word related in sense to the longer8 ,with which of the following expressions can quite be used8 ,well 7adj471 sick1 recovered1 pretty1 finished1 settled1 nice1 good1 assured1 patient1 used up1 satisfied1 a good deal1 fine1 a hero1 a way1 a mile1 a noise1 a failure1 a lot1 a hundred1 a few1 a good many1 a million1 a dozen1 some1 well 7adv471 a while1 an hour1 your debtor1 every one1 all1 around1 through1 under1 o'erthrown1 down1 elated1 in a rage1 underestimate1 vanquished1 quarrelsome1 lovely1 everywhere1 crestfallen4 ,real1 really1 extremely4 #a4 ,i think he's a real ,count4 #b4 ,i think he's extremely mean4 #c4 ,he's really a very fine fellow4 ,parse the words italicized above4 ,some1 somewhat4 #a4 ,the sick man is somewhat better this morning4 #b4 ,some men have greatness thrust upon them4 ,parse the words italicized above4 ,without1 unless4 #a4 ,i can't go unless there is a holiday4 #b4 ,i can't go without getting permission4 ,parse the words italicized above4 ,oral ,exercise4--,the following sentences are from ,john ,ruskin4 ,no improprieties occur in the originals4 ,within each pair of brackets a word is given1 sometimes the right word1 sometimes the wrong word4 ,study the meaning of each sentence1 and satisfy yourself as to what is the best expression for each place in question4 #a4 ,the ennobling difference between one man and another--between one animal and another--is precisely in this1 that one feels more than another4 ,if we were sponges1 perhaps sensation might not be easily gotten for us2 if we were earth-worms1 apt at every instant to be cut in two by the spade1 perhaps too much sensation might not be good for us4 #b4 ,but chiefly of all1 she is taught to extend the limitations of her sympathy4 #c4 ,very ready we are to say of a book1 8,how good this is--that's exactly what ,i think60 ,but the right feeling is1 8,how odd that is6 ,i never thought of that before1 and yet ,i see it is true2 or if ,i do not now1 ,i hope ,i shall some day40 #d4 ,i believe1 then1 with this exception1 that a girl's education should be nearly1 in its course and material of study1 the same as a boy's2 but entirely differently directed4 ,a woman in any rank of life ought to know whatever her husband is liable to know1 but to know it in a different way4 #e4 ,i do not blame them for this1 but only for their narrow motive in this4 ,i would have them want and assert the title of 8lady0 provided they allege not merely the title1 but the office and duty signified by it4 #f4 ,and not less wrong--perhaps even more foolishly wrong 7for ,i will expect thus far what ,i hope to prove7--is the idea that woman is only the shadow and attendant image of her lord4 #g4 ,but now1 having no true avocation1 we pour our whole masculine energy into the false business of money-making4 #h4 ,having then faithfully listened to the great teachers1 that you may enter into their thoughts1 you have yet this higher advancement to make1--you have to enter into their hearts4 #i4 ,and1 lastly1 a great nation does not mock ,heaven and its ,powers by pretending belief in a revelation which asserts the love of money to be the root of all evil1 and claiming1 at the same time that it is actuated1 and proposes to be actuated1 in all chief national deeds and measures1 by no other love4 #aj4 ,but an education 8which shall keep a good coat on my son's back2 which shall capacitate him to ring with confidence the visitors' bell at double-belled doors2 which shall result ultimately in the establishment of a double-belled door to his own residence--in a word1 which shall lead to advance in life--this we pray for on bent knees2 and this is all we pray for40 ,it never seems to occur to the parents that there may be an education which in itself is advance in ,life2 that any other than that may perhaps be advancement in ,death2 and that this essential education might be more easily gotten or given1 than they guess1 if they set about it in the right way1 while it is for no price and by no favor to be got1 if they set about it in the wrong4 #aa4 ,the chance and scattered evil that may here and there haunt1 or hide itself in1 a powerful book1 never does any harm to a noble girl2 but the emptiness of an author oppresses her1 and his amiable folly degrades her4 ,and if she can have access to a good library of old and classical books1 there need be no choosing at all4 ,keep the modern magazine and novel out of your girl's way2 turn her loose into the old library every day1 and let her alone4 ,oral ,exercise4--,examine the italicized words in the following sentences1 taken from a newspaper4 ,according to a good dictionary1 which are barbarisms8 ,what ones are here incorrectly used8 ,which ones are colloquial--permitted in talking familiarly1 but not in writing8 ,suggest better expressions4 #a4 ,her prospects for a long career on this earth are quite favorable4 #b4 ,the galvanic battery was applied every hour without producing any more satisfactory results1 but hope did not abandon the resurrectionists4 #c4 ,when the police arrived they discovered that ,burdick was wearing a bogus police star and he was arrested4 #d4 8,if you'll throw that gun away and put up your dukes like a gentleman1 ,i'll come down there and sew a button onto you60 #e4 ,mr4 ,hanna was decidedly late in showing up at headquarters4 #f4 ,it buttons down the front with the finest white pearl buttons of quite large size4 #g4 ,makers of sporting goods say there are a lot of bicyclists who are ready and waiting to take up every new thing4 #h4 ,i spotted two of my countrywomen at once4 #i4 ,it has been thus far an exceptionably busy campaign4 ,oral ,exercise4--,the following sentences are from ,stevenson's volume1 ,virginibus ,puerisque4 ,as in the preceding exercise1 decide on the best word for each place in question4 #a4 ,think of the heroism of ,johnson1 think of that superb indifference to mortal limit that set him upon his dictionary1 and carried him through triumphantly to the end6 #b4 ,most everybody in our land 444 can understand and sympathize with an admiral or a prize-fighter4 #c4 ,when he comes to ride with the king's pardon1 he must bestride a chair1 which he will so hurry and belabor and on which he will so furiously demean himself1 that the messenger will arrive1 if not bloody with spurring1 at least fiery red with haste4 ,if his romance involves an accident upon a cliff1 he must clamber in person about the chest of drawers and fall bodily onto the carpet1 before his imagination is satisfied4 #d4 ,surely all these are practicable questions to a neophyte entering upon life with a view to play4 #e4 ,a sedentary population 444 can noways1 in no wise explain to itself the gaiety of these passers-by4 #f4 ,to borrow and demean an image1 all the evening street-lamps burst into song4 #g4 ,but the conservative1 while lauding progress1 is ever timid of innovation2 his is the hand upheld to council pause2 his is the signal advising slow advance4 ,oral ,exercise4--,the following sentences are from ,mrs4 ,gaskell's ,cranford4 ,as before1 decide on the best word for each place in question4 #a4 ,there were rules and regulations for visiting and calls2 and they were announced to any young people1 who might be stopping in the town4 #b4 ,he must have been upwards of sixty at the time of the first visit ,i paid to ,cranford after ,i had left it as a residence4 #c4 ,she was evidently nervous from having expected my call4 #d4 ,my request evidently pleased the old gentleman1 who took me all round1 around#cb the place1 and showed me his six and twenty cows1 named after the different letters of the alphabet4 #e4 ,i can't wholly remember the date1 but ,i think it was in #ahje that ,miss ,jenkyns wrote the longest series1 succession of letters4 #f4 ,she never laughed at his jokes 4442 and that aggravated him4 #g4 ,he was very1 very mad indeed1 and before all the people he lifted up his cane and flogged ,peter6 #h4 8,shell-fish are sometimes thought not very healthy40 #i4 ,the writer of the letter 444 was dead long ago2 and ,i1 a stranger1 not born at the time when this occurrence took place1 was the one to open it4 #aj4 ,i seized the opportunity1 and wrote and despatched an acceptation in her name4 #aa4 ,he thought each shawl more beautiful than the last4 #ab4 ,i could not see that the little event in the shop below had in the least damped ,miss ,matty's curiosity as to the make of sleeves or the set1 sit of skirts4 ,if neither sit nor set is right here1 how recast the sentence8 #ac4 ,miss ,matty anticipated the sight of the glossy folds4 #ad4 ,the ,gordons 444 were now expected to return very soon2 and ,miss ,matty1 in her sisterly pride1 expected great delight in the joy of showing them ,mr4 ,peter4 #ae4 ,however1 we all sat eyes right1 square front1 gazing at the tantalizing curtain4 #af4 ,we 7at least ,i7 had doubts as to whether she really would enjoy the little adventure of having her house burglarized1 as she protested she would4 #ag4 ,miss ,jenkyns 444 never got over what she called ,captain ,brown's disparaging observations upon ,dr4 ,johnson as a writer of light and agreeable fiction4 #ah4 ,it 7,death7 was a word not to be alluded to to ears polite4 ,oral ,exercise4--,the following sentences are from ,lord ,chesterfield's letters to his son4 ,as in the preceding exercise1 choose the best word for each place in question4 #a4 ,your own remarks upon mankind1 when compared with those which you will find in books1 will help you fix the true point4 #b4 ,there is nothing which ,i more wish that you should know1 and which less people do know1 than the true use and value of time4 #c4 ,your neglect of dress1 while you were a schoolboy1 was pardonable1 but would not be so now4 #d4 ,the reputations of kings and great men are only to be learned in conversation2 for they are never fairly written during their lives4 #e4 ,what does ,chesterfield mean by 8in a good sense10 in the following8 8,another1 speaking in defence of a gentleman upon whom a censure was moved1 happily said that he thought the gentleman was more liable to be thanked and rewarded1 than censured4 ,you know1 ,i presume1 that liable can never be used in a good sense40 ,review ,exercise4--,let each word of the following list be taken up by itself4 ,each member of the class should give a sentence of his own1 using the given word correctly4 ,access1 acceptance1 alternative1 avocation1 observation1 ability1 capacity1 character1 discovery1 limitation1 party1 portion1 predominance1 residence1 except 7verb71 affect1 effect1 allude1 claim1 purpose1 transpire1 liable1 apt1 somewhat1 quite1 mad1 practicable4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,sources ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,vocabulary ,the ,english ,vocabulary4--,the enormous treasure of ,english speech contains something like #bjj1jjj words4#cc ,most of these were once foreigners to the language4 ,to tell how each came to be ,english would be like telling the personal romances of all the foreign-born citizens of these ,united ,states4 ,england was once inhabited by ,celts1 the ancestors of the ,scotch1 ,welsh1 and ,irish4 ,the ,romans under ,csar possessed the island1 and for five hundred years held the country1 but they left us1 from this period of their occupation1 only half a dozen words3 the names of the camp 7castra71 the paved road 7strata71 the settlement 7colonia71 the trench 7fossa71 the harbor 7portus71 the rampart 7vallum74 ,these words remain chiefly in the names of places4 ,a sharp eye sees them in ,lancaster1 ,leicester1 ,manchester1 etc42 ,stratford1 street1 etc42 ,lincoln1 etc42 ,fossway1 etc42 ,portsmouth1 etc42 wall1 bailey1 bailiff 7these three words being derived from vallum74 ,in the fifth century1 however1 ,teutonic tribes began to cross the sea and invade the land4 ,the ,celts were driven north and west into the mountains1 and the newcomers stayed permanently4 ,although these ,teutons--the ,anglo-,saxons--called the ,celts ,welsh1 that is1 strangers1 they took up a good many of the strangers' words4 ,they called many a river of the land ,avon1 water1 as the ,celts had done1--there are fourteen ,avons to-day1--and they kept many such words as inch1 an island 7in ,inchcape71 and kill1 a church 7in ,kildare74 ,indeed1 for centuries the ,celts kept on lending words to the ,english3 bargain1 bodkin1 brogue1 clan1 crag1 dagger1 glen1 gown1 mitten1 rogue1 whiskey1 are familiar examples of these permanent loans4 ,the ,old ,english language itself was a ,germanic dialect4 ,like ,latin and ,german1 it was inflected1--a fact that we see to-day in the presence of such forms as him1 the old dative case for he4 ,the inflectional endings nearly all disappeared before ,shakespeare's time4 ,the vocabulary of this ,old ,english has given us most of the words that we use as children4 ,for example1 household names--home1 friends1 father1 mother1 etc42 names of many emotions--gladness1 sorrow1 love1 hate1 fear1 etc42 names of most objects in the landscape--tree1 bush1 stone1 hill1 woods1 stream1 sun1 moon1 etc42 common names of animals--horse1 cow1 dog1 cat1 etc42 parts of the body--head1 eye1 etc4 ,our household proverbs are in these ,anglo-,saxon words4 8,fast bind1 fast find10 is an example of a thousand similar saws that embody the practical common sense of the people4 ,the loves and hates1 the hopes and fears1 the wit and rude wisdom of our forefathers1 have gone into ,saxon words4 ,these are not merely the words of childhood2 in hours of deep feeling1 in moments when the natural disposition demands expression1 the grown man speaks in ,saxon4 ,these strong1 forcible old words are to be prized and cherished as carefully as are those of less emotional suggestion1--the exact1 discriminative ,latin words4 ,in the ninth and tenth centuries the ,norse vikings1 who sailed everywhere1 sailed also to ,england1 and for a time got the upper hand of the ,saxons4 ,from #ajac to #ajdb there were ,scandinavian kings on the ,english throne4 ,but these ,norse were not able to impose much of their own language upon the country4 ,their settlements were named in ,norse1 and the word by1 a town1 remains in hundreds of such places1 as ,whitby1 the white town 7from the white cliffs74 ,from these great seamen our ,saxon ancestors learned some new nautical dialect--words like bow1 bowline1 crew1 harbor1 hawser1 lee1 stern4 ,in #ajff the ,normans conquered the land4 ,these were ,frenchmen whose fathers had been ,norse4 ,they brought the ,french language into their ,english court1 and for two or three hundred years there were two languages in ,england1--,french on the lips of the nobles1 ,saxon on the lips of the peasants4 ,but the ,saxon race was too strong to remain an underling4 ,gradually it mingled with the ,norman race1 picking up hundreds1 even thousands of ,french words from the latter1 but keeping its own ways of putting words together4 ,by #adjj1 when ,chaucer died1 there was a new ,english language1 almost as much ,french as ,saxon in vocabulary1 but far less ,french than ,saxon in grammar4 ,since ,french is largely derived from ,latin1 it is clear that the total ,latin element in the vocabulary was already very great4 ,after ,chaucer there came a general awakening of interest in ancient civilization2 and in the ,revival of ,learning a great many words were adopted directly from ,latin and ,greek4 ,in the sixteenth century followed the ,renaissance of literature1 art1 and the sciences4 ,this made its way to ,england from ,italy1 and naturally ,englishmen caught up many new words from ,italians4 ,for example3 alert1 bankrupt1 brigade1 bust1 cameo1 caricature1 cascade1 domino1 fresco1 granite1 influenza1 malaria1 niche1 oratorio1 pianoforte1 ruffian1 studio1 tirade1 umbrella1 vista4 ,the ,spaniards1 too1 whom ,englishmen met in those days on the sea and at courts1 have lent our language such words as barricade1 bravado1 cigar1 desperado1 flotilla1 guerilla1 merino1 mosquito1 mulatto1 renegade1 sherry1 tornado1 vanilla4 ,the bold ,english seamen of the sixteenth century sailed back even from ,america with new things and new names--like tobacco4 ,in the next century the commerce which followed hard upon the voyages of discovery was the means of bringing to the ,british island many new words4 ,here it may be said that the ,dutch1 who have rivalled the ,english in commerce1 and who have taught the ,english some tricks of seamanship1--as did the vikings before them1--are represented in ,english by words like ballast1 boom1 boor1 skipper1 sloop1 smack1 trigger1 yacht4 ,english merchantmen of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries sailed to ports ,oriental and ,occidental4 ,returning1 they brought from ,africa canaries and gorillas1 with the words canary and gorilla1 and told of oases2 from ,arabia they fetched such names as admiral1 alcohol1 alcove1 alkali1 arsenal1 azure1 chemistry1 coffee1 cotton1 lute1 magazine1 nabob1 naphtha1 sherbet1 sofa1 syrup1 zenith2 indeed1 some of these words had got into ,english through earlier ,english travellers--chiefly crusaders4 ,english sailors and travellers have brought from ,china silk1 tea1 etc42 from ,india1 banyan1 calico1 mullagatawny1 musk1 punch1 sugar1 thug1 etc42 from ,malayan ports1 bantam1 cockatoo1 gong1 rattan1 sago1 etc42 from ,persia1 awning1 caravan1 chess1 hazard1 horde1 lemon1 orange1 paradise1 sash1 shawl1 etc4 ,few are the languages from which a ,british ear has not caught and kept a new term4 ,in ,america we have many ,indian names of places and things4 ,we have hominy1 moose1 opossum1 raccoon1 toboggan1 and other words from ,north ,american tribes4 ,mexico gave us chocolate1 tomato1 etc42 the ,west ,indies1 potato1 canoe1 hurricane2 ,south ,america1 alpaca1 quinine1 tapioca1 etc4 ,in the present century1 science1 both practical and pure1 has discovered thousands of facts and invented thousands of contrivances4 ,consequently thousands of words have been coined1 mostly from ,greek1 to name modern inventions and the facts of science4 ,a recent dictionary found it necessary to codify #djjj technical terms that had sprung up within the last few years4 ,anglo-,saxon ,prefixes and ,suffixes4--,the following prefixes are ,anglo-,saxon4 ,think of words made with each4 #a4 ,a- in1 on4 #b4 ,be-4 ,what grammatical effect has this prefix on moan1 daub1 friend8 #c4 ,for-4 ,what effect has this on bid1 lorn8 ,compare ,latin per1 in perfect4 #d4 ,fore-4 #e4 ,gain- against4 #f4 ,mis- 7,a4-,s4 mis wrong74 ,what effect on deed1 lead8 ,a ,french prefix from ,latin minus occurs in mischief1 etc4 #g4 ,th-4 #h4 ,un-4 #i4 ,with- 7,a4-,s4 wither back74 ,similarly think of words made with each of the following noun suffixes and explain the force of each suffix4 #a4 -ard habitual4 #b4 -craft4 #c4 -dom4 #d4 -en4 #e4 -er4 #f4 -hood4 #g4 -ing son of1 part4 ,meaning of ,browning8 lording8 tithing8 ,there is an older suffix which appears in the gerund--taking1 hunting4 #h4 -kin4 #i4 -ling4 #aj4 -ness4 #aa4 -ock4 #ab4 -ric power4 #ac4 -ship4 #ad4 -stead place4 #ae4 -ster4 #af4 -wright4 #ag4 -ward4 ,think of words made with the following adjective suffixes4 #a4 -ed4 #b4 -en4 #c4 -ern4 #d4 -fast4 #e4 -fold4 #f4 -ful4 #g4 -ish4 #h4 -less4 #i4 -like 7lic body1 form74 #aj4 -right4 #aa4 -some same4 #ab4 -y4 ,think of words made with the following adverb suffixes4 #a4 -es 7the old genitive ending74 #b4 -ly 7lic body1 form74 #c4 -ling1 -long4 #d4 -meal4 #e4 -om 7old dative plural74 #f4 -ward4 #g4 -wise manner4 ,the ,latin ,element4--,the ,latin element is numerically the larger part of the language4 ,it is therefore impossible to know well the ,english vocabulary except by knowing a considerable part of the ,latin language4 ,whether our ,latin words come directly through the ancient classics1 or through the ,romance tongues1 such as ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish1 to know their full force one must know the original meaning of them1 as used by the ancient race of world-conquerors4 ,every instructor in ,english watches with keen interest the progress made by his students in their ,latin studies4 ,of course1 the mere knowledge that a given word is derived from a given ,latin word does not necessarily give the student practical command of it in his writing2 but usually such knowledge does help to a better understanding of the meaning the word has to-day1 and so tends both to fix it in memory and to insure exact use of it4 ,latin ,words transferred to ,english4--,some ,latin words have been transferred bodily into ,english4 ,discuss with the instructor the derivation of the present meanings of the following3-- ,alias otherwise2 album white2 amanuensis hand-writer2 animus mind2 arena sand2 boa great serpent2 camera chamber2 cornucopia horn of plenty2 extra beyond2 focus hearth2 gratis for nothing2 item also2 memento remember 7imperative72 nostrum our own2 omnibus for all2 posse to be able2 quorum of whom2 rebus by things2 rostrum beak2 torpedo numbness2 vagary to wander2 videlicet it can be seen2 virago a mannish woman4 ,latin ,prefixes and ,suffixes4--,recall ,english words having the following prefixes1 and explain the effect of the prefix on each4 ,a-1 ab-1 abs- from2 ad- to2 amb- about2 ante- before2 bis-1 bi- twice2 circum- around2 cum- 7found in ,french col-1 com-1 cor-1 coun-7 with2 contra- against2 de- down1 from2 dis- 7,fr4 des-1 de-7 asunder2 ex- 7,fr4 es-1 e-7 from2 extra- beyond2 in- 7,fr4 en-1 em-7 in1 into2 in- 7il-1 im-1 ir-1 ig-7 not2 inter- between1 among2 non- not2 ob- against2 pene- almost2 per- through2 post- after2 pr-1 pre- before2 prter- beyond2 pro- 7,fr4 pour pol-1 por-1 pur-7 for2 re- back2 retro- backwards2 se- apart2 sub- 7suc-1 suf-1 sum-1 sup-1 sur-1 sus-7 under2 super- above2 trans- across2 vice- in place of4 ,recall words having the following ,latin or ,latin-,french suffixes1 and explain each in terms of the meaning of the suffix4 -,aceous 7,lat4 -aceus7 made of2 -al 7,latin -alis7 pertaining to2 -able 7-ible71 ,lat4 7h7abilis capable of being2 -ple1 -ble 7,latin -plex7 fold2 -plex fold2 -lent 7,lat4 -lentus7 full of2 -ose 7,lat4 -osus7 full of2 -und 7,lat4 -undus7 full of2 -ulous 7,lat4 -ulus7 full of4 ,latin ,roots in ,english4--,below are listed a few of the many ,latin words that have given us ,english words4 ,recall as many as possible of their derivatives1 and define each in terms of the original meaning4 ,thus acer1 sharp1 gives us acrimony1 sharpness1 acrid1 sour4 ,some member of the class may know that through the ,french it gives us vinegar1 sharp wine4 ,make notes in your note-book of any derivatives that are new to you4 des1 a building2 quus1 equal2 ager1 a field2 agere1 to do2 alere1 to nourish--perfect participle altus1 nourished1 therefore high2 amare1 to love2 anima1 life2 animus1 mind2 annus1 a year2 aqua1 water2 arcus1 a bow2 ardere 7pf4 ptc4 arsus71 to burn2 audire1 to hear2 augere 7pf4 ptc4 auctus71 to increase2 brevis1 brief2 cadere 7pf4 ptc4 casus71 to fall2 candere1 to shine2 capere1 to take2 caput1 a head2 cavus1 hollow2 cernere 7pf4 ptc4 cretus71 to distinguish2 clarus1 clear2 cor1 heart2 corona1 crown2 credere1 to believe2 crescere 7pf4 ptc4 cretus71 to grow2 crudus1 raw2 cura1 care2 deus1 god2 dicere1 to say2 docere1 to teach2 dominus1 lord 7,fr4 damsel1 dame1 madame72 domus1 a house2 ducere1 to lead2 errare1 to wander2 facere1 to make2 filum1 a thread2 finis1 the end2 flos1 a flower2 frangere 7stems1 frag1 fract71 to break2 fortis1 strong2 fundere1 to pour2 gradus1 a step2 gravis1 heavy2 homo1 a man2 imperare1 to command2 jus1 right2 legere 7lect71 to read2 ligo1 to bind2 litera1 a letter2 loqui1 to speak2 lumen1 light2 luna1 the moon2 magnus1 great2 manus1 a hand2 maturus1 ripe2 mittere 7missere71 to send2 mors1 death2 novus1 new2 nox1 night2 omnis1 all2 ordo1 order2 pascere 7pf4 ptc4 pastus71 to feed2 pati 7pf4 ptc4 passus71 to suffer2 petere1 to seek2 portare1 to carry2 radix1 a root2 regere 7pf4 ptc4 rectus71 to rule2 scire1 to know2 sequi 7pf4 ptc4 secutus71 to follow2 socius1 a companion2 spirare1 to breathe2 tangere1 to touch2 texere1 to weave2 vanus1 empty2 videre1 to see2 vincere 7pf4 ptc4 victus71 to conquer2 vulgus1 the crowd4 ,greek ,roots in ,english4--,recall ,english words made from the following ,greek roots1 and explain each4 ,make notes in your note-book of those derivatives that are new to you4 ,anthropos1 a man2 aster1 astron1 a star2 autos1 self2 biblos1 a book2 bios1 life2 deka1 ten2 dokein1 to think2 dunamis1 power2 eu1 well2 ge1 the earth2 graphein1 to write2 hemi1 half2 hippos1 a horse2 homos1 the same2 kuklos1 a circle2 monos1 alone2 orthos1 right2 pan1 all2 petra1 a rock2 philein1 to love2 phone1 a sound2 poiein1 to make2#cd skopein1 to see2 sophia1 wisdom2 tele1 distant2 theos1 a god4 ,curious ,words4--,look up and copy into your note-book the origin of the following words4 ,assassin1 august1 dahlia1 dunce1 epicure1 galvanic1 guillotine1 hermetically1 ,january1 jovial1 ,july1 lynch1 ,march1 mentor1 panic1 phaeton1 quixotic1 stentorian1 tantalize1 tawdry4 ,bayonet1 bedlam1 copper1 damask1 dollar1 gasconade1 gipsy1 laconic1 lumber1 meander1 milliner1 palace1 utopian4 ,abominate1 adieu1 amethyst1 apothecary1 beldam1 capricious1 cemetery1 cheap1 checkmate1 cobalt1 curmudgeon1 dainty1 daisy1 dismal1 emolument1 salary1 fanatic1 gentleman1 heretic1 inculcate1 infant1 intoxicated1 maidenhair 7fern71 maxim1 nausea1 onyx1 parlor1 ,porte 7the ,sublime ,porte71 pupil1 silly1 sincere1 tariff1 trump 7card74 ,atonement1 belfry1 brimstone1 carouse1 counterpane1 coward1 crayfish1 dandelion1 dirge1 drawing-room1 easel1 gospel-grove1 harbinger1 ,jerusalem artichoke1 line 7garments71 licorice1 nostril1 porpoise1 quinsy1 squirrel1 summerset1 surgeon1 thorough1 treacle1 trifle1 wassail1 whole4 ,written ,exercise4--,examine the following passages separately4 ,classify all the words in two columns1 one giving those of ,saxon derivation1 the other those of ,latin derivation4 ,consult the dictionary in case of doubt4 ,then compare the ,english of ,dr4 ,johnson with that of ,dr4 ,blackmore4 ,the former is writing in his own person as an eighteenth century scholar2 the latter in the person of the stout ,john ,ridd1 a seventeenth century youth4 ,no degree of knowledge attainable by man is able to set him above the want of hourly assistance1 or to extinguish the desire of fond endearments1 and tender officiousness2 and therefore1 no one should think it unnecessary to learn those arts by which friendship may be gained4 ,kindness is preserved by a constant reciprocation of benefits or interchange of pleasures2 but such benefits only can be bestowed1 as others are capable to receive1 and such pleasures only imparted1 as others are qualified to enjoy4--,,dr4 ,,johnson1 ,rambler for ,july #i1 #agea4 ,when ,i had travelled two miles or so1 conquered now and then with cold1 and coming out to rub my legs into a lively friction1 and only fishing here and there because of the tumbling water1 suddenly1 in an open space1 where meadows spread about it1 ,i found a good stream flowing softly into the body of our brook4 ,and it brought1 so far as ,i could guess by the sweep of it under my knee-caps1 a larger power of clear water than the ,lynn itself had2 only it came more quietly down1 not being troubled with stairs and steps1 as the fortune of the ,lynn is1 but gliding smoothly and forcibly1 as if upon some set purpose4--,r4 ,d4 ,,blackmore1 ,lorna ,doone4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,mastery ,,of ,a ,,writing ,,vocabulary ,ideas without ,words4--,it is possible to have ideas without having words in which to express them4 ,miss ,helen ,keller#ce had plenty of ideas before any one taught her the words for them4 ,the painter trains himself to express ideas in paint2 the sculptor1 in stone4 ,the inventor expresses ideas in machinery4 ,because words however are the commonest means of expression1 it is desirable that one should know as many as possible4 ,a person who has ideas will indeed be able to communicate them in some rough-and-ready form of speech2 will use a poor word1 if he cannot think of a good one1 and by hook or crook will manage to be understood4 ,but an unread1 untrained man trying to communicate some fine shade of thought is commonly a sorry sight1 no matter how bright his mind may be4 ,words without ,ideas4--,on the other hand1 it is possible to know words without knowing what they stand for4 ,some persons of quick verbal memory pick up phrases readily1 and utter them glibly1 with little sense of their meaning4 ,gratiano1 of ,shakespeare's drama1 8spoke an infinite deal of nothing1 more than any man in ,venice40 ,such persons as he have given ground for the sarcastic remark that language is the art of concealing thought4 ,the use of meaningless phrases1 and the use of words without a care to their exact meaning1 is one danger that besets the student of composition4 ,the boy who fluently remarks that he recently lost his little saturnine 7meaning canine1 i4e4 dog72 the lady1 ,mrs4 ,malaprop1 who walks through ,sheridan's play1 saying1 8,you go first1 and we'll precede you02 the man1 ,launcelot ,gobbo1 who enlivens ,the ,merchant of ,venice with such remarks as that 8his suit is impertinent to himself10--these people need a book of synonyms4 ,unless a writer is sure that he knows definitely the meaning of the word that his pen is about to trace1 he would much better stay his hand4 ,ideas and ,words4--,though one mind may have ideas but lack their names1 and though another may have the names but lack the notions for which they stand1 yet both ideas and words are indispensable to the writer4 ,a general recipe for getting ideas is hardly easier to give than a recipe for being great1 or for having blue eyes1 or for being liked by every one4 ,ideas are had through new experiences1 new acquaintanceships1 new sights2 through hard thinking1 through hard reading1--in short1 through living4 ,mr4 ,henry ,james1 the eminent novelist1 gives a direction for being a good novelist3 ,try to be one of those people on whom nothing is lost4 ,the student who is eager to know as much as possible of what is worth knowing in life1 and is devoured with curiosity to learn the name of everything1 is sure to acquire both new ideas and new words4#cf ,it is nevertheless not to be denied that to some extent ideas can be bred by the study of the mere words4 ,how true this is appears when it is remembered that words are the embalmed ideas of men4 ,a study of such a list as the ,curious ,words given in the preceding chapter cannot but add to the student's mental stores4 ,thackeray1 it is said1 used to read the dictionary before he composed4 ,it may be presumed that the habit used not merely to acquaint him with new words1 but to arouse his mind and set it to fashioning new thoughts4 ,the attempt to discriminate between words that mean nearly1 not quite1 the same thing1 results in a distinct gain in thought1 and in power of thought4 ,it is probable that no two words have exactly the same sense2 to discover the difference enriches the discoverer's store of knowledge1 and develops one of the highest mental powers4 ,a command of words not merely affords relief from the pain of dumbness1 not merely loosens the tongue2 it aids reasoning4 ,thinking proceeds more securely the moment a hazy notion is given definite shape in the right word4 ,indeed1 the mere search for the right word is always a means of clearing up the thought4 ,to be tortured in mind by inability to find the unique phrase1 sometimes means a mere fault in verbal memory2 as often1 or oftener1 it is due to a vagueness of thinking4 ,by way of summary1 then1 acquisition of ideas furthers acquisition of words1 and vice vers4 ,to be poor in ideas1 or to be poor in language1--either means failure for a writer4 ,the ,two ,vocabularies4--,of all the #bjj1jjj words in our language1 probably no one man would understand one-half if he saw them1 undefined1 in a dictionary4 ,just how large a man's reading vocabulary can be is not known4 ,professor ,holden1 the astronomer1 found that his own was about #cc1jjj words4 ,it is therefore likely that #be1jjj is not an unusual number for an educated person to understand4 ,but the reading or passive vocabulary is very different in size from the writing or active vocabulary4 ,to remember the sense of a word when it is seen is far less difficult than to recall the word whenever its meaning rises dimly in the mind4 ,a little child has but one set of words--an active vocabulary2 it makes oral use of all the expressions it knows4 ,but the older person reads so much that he comes to recognize myriads of words that rarely rise to his lips or find their way to his pen4 ,there is inevitably therefore a widening gap between the expressions he can recognize and those he can employ4 ,that this should be so is in part desirable4 ,a person of fourteen or sixteen or eighteen must1 if he reads carefully1 learn to understand many expressions that are too bookish for his own uses4 ,the word temerarious1 for instance1 is needed once where its unpretentious cousin1 rash1 is needed a score of times4 ,with some words the young writer needs only a speaking acquaintance2 others are good friends that1 in ,hamlet's phrase1 he should buckle to his soul with hoops of steel4 ,but it is safe to say that if a person can transfer some part of his reading vocabulary into his writing vocabulary1 he will be much benefited by so doing4 ,there is probably no reason why a freshman should not enter college master of a writing vocabulary of #ejjj words1 and a reading vocabulary of #ae1jjj4 ,shakespeare's works contain about #ae1jjj different words1 the ,king ,james version of the ,bible fewer than #fjjj4 ,again1 each person uses the same words with many different meanings4 ,every great writer employs the same words in many figurative senses2 the fact is perhaps the most striking proof of his literary power4 ,if ,shakespeare's vocabulary were reckoned as including these figurative meanings1 it would shoot up to a wonderful figure4 8,it would be absurd10 says ,professor ,a4 ,s4 ,hill1 with characteristic good sense1 8for a boy to have the desirableness of enlarging his vocabulary constantly on his mind2 but if he avails himself of his opportunities1 in the school-room or out of it1 he will be surprised to find how rapidly his vocabulary grows40 ,doubtless however the matter must receive some definite attention1 if the best results are to be secured4 ,in the rest of this chapter particular methods of acquiring new words and senses of words will be considered4 ,a ,vocabulary ,book4--,it will be found helpful to buy a strong blank-book of convenient size1 and to copy into this every new word that seems to the student available for his writing2 not every new word he meets1 for some will impress him as too bookish or pedantic1 but those which appear to express happily some idea that has lain unnamed in his mind4 ,figurative ,uses of ,common ,words4--,a writer owes it to himself and to the reader to get all the service he legitimately can out of common words1 because in the end so doing spares both persons a vast deal of unnecessary labor4 ,examine a handful of the well-worn counters of speech1--such words as poor1 heavy1 thin1 best1 full1 manner1 sense1 deep1 sweet4 ,they are like dull pebbles brought home from the beach4 ,but dip them back into the brine of a good book1 and they become gems4 ,the words specified above appear in a paragraph of ,mr4 ,w4 ,d4 ,howells3 8,i followed ,irving1 too1 in my later reading1 but at haphazard1 and with other authors at the same time4 ,i did my poor best to be amused by his ,knickerbocker ,history of ,new ,york1 because my father liked it so much1 but secretly ,i found it heavy2 and a few years ago when ,i went carefully through it again1 ,i could not laugh4 ,even as a boy ,i found some other things of his up-hill work4 ,there was the beautiful manner1 but the thought seemed thin2 and ,i do not remember having been much amused by ,bracebridge ,hall1 though ,i read it devoutly1 and with a full sense that it would be very comme il faut to like it4 ,but ,i did like the life of ,goldsmith2 ,i liked it a great deal better than the more authoritative life by ,forster1 and ,i think there is a deeper and sweeter sense of ,goldsmith in it40#cg ,observe the various duties that the plainest words were persuaded into doing for ,shakespeare4 ,with him the word old applies to widely different things3 ,old arms1 old beard1 old limbs1 old eyes1 old bones1 old feet1 old heart1 old wrinkles1 old wit1 old care1 old woe1 old hate1 old custom1 old days4 ,what does each of these phrases mean8 ,he is fond of contrasting simple words2 thus1 8,he'll take his old course in a country new40 ,note how many abstract ideas in ,shakespeare are contented with the word heavy1 which ordinary people apply merely to coal1 lead1 and such uninspiring commodities4 ,heavy accent1 heavy news1 heavy sin1 heavy act1 heavy task1 heavy day1 heavy hour1 heavy gait1 heavy leave1 heavy message1 heavy summons4 ,explain what each means4#ch ,similarly there are light gifts1 light behavior1 light heart1 light loss1 light of foot1 light wings1 light foam4 ,another drudge of a word1 thick1 learns new and pleasanter tasks of the great poet4 ,thick sight1 thick perils1 thick in their thoughts1 thick sighs1 thick slumber4 ,explain each of these phrases4 ,opposed to thick is thin3 thin air1 thin drink1 thin and slender pittance4 ,these are the things that ,shakespeare calls high3 high deeds1 high descent1 high desert1 high designs1 high disgrace1 high exploits1 high feats1 high good trim1 high heaven1 high hope1 high perfection1 high resolve1 high reward4 ,one more word1 golden4 ,lesser poets would apply it to physical objects4 ,shakespeare1 too1 speaks of the sun 8,kissing with golden face the meadows green10 and of 8,this majestical roof fretted with golden fire40 ,but elsewhere he manages to apply the adjective to things that cannot so directly be called golden4 ,thus3 8,a golden mind stoops not to shows of dross40 8444 wear a golden sorrow40 8,golden lads and girls all must1 ,as chimney sweepers1 come to dust40 8,nestor's golden words40 ,explain each of these uses4 ,of course many of these figurative expressions are too poetical by far for the prose of high school students4 ,nevertheless1 many others would be appropriate in the manuscript of any person1--for instance1 high designs1 high deeds1 high exploits1 high resolve4 ,such uses as these can be cultivated to the enrichment of the vocabulary4 ,written ,exercise4#ci--;,each of the following adjectives applies primarily to physical objects1 that can be seen1 or heard1 or touched1 or tasted4 ,but each is often raised to a higher use1 being made to name some quality of character1 or some other abstract idea4 ,take the adjectives one by one1 and under each write in class as many abstract words as you think can properly be modified by the given adjective4 ,thus the adjective fine1 which is used of such physical objects as sand1 cloth1 particles1 may also apply to courage1 sense of honor1 presence1 phrases1 words1 deeds4 #a4 ,sweet4 #b4 ,sour4 #c4 ,bitter4 #d4 ,soft4 #e4 ,hard4 #f4 ,smooth4 #g4 ,rough4 #h4 ,delicious4 #i4 ,insipid4 #aj4 ,cold4 #aa4 ,freezing4 #ab4 ,icy4 #ac4 ,burning4 #ad4 ,chilly4 #ae4 ,blue4 #af4 ,white4 #ag4 ,black4 #ah4 ,gray4 #ai4 ,brown4 #bj4 ,green4 #ba4 ,dark4 #bb4 ,shadowy4 #bc4 ,misty4 #bd4 ,cloudy4 #be4 ,windy4 #bf4 ,stormy4 #bg4 ,transparent4 #bh4 ,blunt4 #bi4 ,sharp4 #cj4 ,keen4 #ca4 ,dull4 #cb4 ,fragrant4 #cc4 ,malodorous4 #cd4 ,shining4 #ce4 ,beaming4 #cf4 ,glowing4 #cg4 ,glittering4 #ch4 ,blazing4 #ci4 ,hazy4 #dj4 ,brilliant4 #da4 ,muddy4 #db4 ,rippling4 ,the ,value of ,careful ,reading4--,a writer must perhaps be as dependent on books for his vocabulary as on any other one source4 ,yet it is possible to read a great deal without absorbing many new expressions4 ,to gain new words and new ideas1 the student must compel himself to read slowly4 ,impatient to hurry on and learn how the tale or poem ends1 many a youth is accustomed to read so rapidly as to miss the best part of what the author is trying to say4 ,thoughts cannot be read so rapidly as words4 ,to get at the thoughts and really to retain the valuable expressions1 the student must scrutinize and ponder as he reads4 ,each word must be thoroughly understood2 its exact value in the given sentence must be grasped4 ,it will not do to draft off a long list of new expressions into the note-book1 and then investigate the meaning of each after the connection in which each was used has been forgotten4 ,usually the best way is to look up the meaning when the word is come upon4 ,this is always the best way when a passage is being read with a view to increasing one's vocabulary4 ,when a tale or poem or essay is being read for its general theme1 or for its literary construction1 it is often desirable to underline each new word1 leaving the meaning to be investigated a little later4 ,in finding the value of the word in its sentence1 the student is often little aided by the dictionary4 ,imagination and reasoning must sometimes be called into play before the definition can be made to apply4 ,the dictionary--particularly the abridged dictionary--is not a magic book1 ready to explain every delicate shading that a great author gives a word in a particular connection4 ,in reading silently it is due the author to read with as much expression as if one were pronouncing the words aloud4 ,one should mentally give every word and phrase its proper accent1 should feel the value of every punctuation mark4 ,the force of such a passage as the following1 from ,carlyle1 will be lost unless the reader puts the emphasis in exactly the right places4 ,manhood begins when we have in any way made truce with ,necessity2 begins1 at all events1 when we have surrendered to ,necessity1 as the most part only do2 but begins joyfully and hopefully only when we have reconciled ourselves to ,necessity2 and thus1 in reality1 triumphed over it1 and felt that in ,necessity we are free4 ,literature is full of words descriptive of things that all have seen or heard4 ,we render a service to the memory if in reading we linger long enough to call up the colors1 shapes1 motions1 sounds1 that are suggested by the text4 ,some persons recall sights more easily than sounds1 some recall sounds more easily than sights2 some can remember motions more easily than either colors1 shapes1 or sounds4 ,it is therefore good training for the word-memory if we endeavor to recall all kinds of sense impressions4 ,read the following passage slowly1 imagining the sights1 motions1 and sensations of touch1 that are suggested4 ,a long way down that limpid water1 chill and bright as an iceberg1 went my little self that day on man's choice errand--destruction4 ,all the young fish seemed to know that ,i was one who had taken out ,god's certificate1 and meant to have the value of it2 every one of them was aware that we desolate more than replenish the earth4 ,for a cow might come and look into the water1 and put her yellow lips down2 a kingfisher1 like a blue arrow1 might shoot through the dark alleys over the channel1 or sit on a dipping withy-bough with his beak sunk into his breast-feathers2 even an otter might float down stream1 likening himself to a log of wood1 with his flat head flush with the water-top1 and his oily eyes peering quietly2 and yet no panic would seize other life1 as it does when a sample of man comes4--,r4 ,d4 ,,blackmore1 ,lorna ,doone4 ,imagine as vividly as possible each sound and other physical sensation suggested by the following selection1 from the book just quoted3-- ,the volumes of the mist came rolling at me 7like great logs of wood1 pillowed out with sleepiness71 and between them there was nothing more than waiting for the next one4 ,then everything went out of sight1 and glad was ,i of the stone behind me1 and view of mine own shoes4 ,then a distant noise went by me1 as of many horses galloping1 and in my fright ,i set my gun and said1 8,god send something to shoot at40 ,yet nothing came1 and my gun fell back1 without my will to lower it4 ,but presently1 while ,i was thinking 8,what a fool ,i am60 arose as if from below my feet1 so that the great stone trembled1 that long lamenting1 lonesome sound1 as of an evil spirit not knowing what to do with it4 ,for the moment ,i stood like a root1 without either hand or foot to help me1 and the hair of my head began to crawl1 lifting my hat1 as a snail lifts his house1 and my heart like a shuttle went to and fro4 ,but finding no harm to come of it1 neither visible form approaching1 ,i wiped my forehead and hoped for the best1 and resolved to run every step of the way till ,i drew our own latch behind me4 ,yet here again ,i was disappointed1 for no sooner was ,i come to the cross-ways by the black pool in the hole1 but ,i heard through the patter of my own feet a rough low sound very close in the fog1 as of a hobbled sheep a-coughing4 ,i listened1 and feared1 and yet listened again1 though ,i wanted not to hear it4 ,for being in haste of the homeward road1 and all my heart having heels to it1 loath ,i was to stop in the dusk for the sake of an aged wether4 ,yet partly my love of all animals1 and partly my fear of the farmer's disgrace1 compelled me to go to the succor1 and the noise was coming nearer4 ,a dry1 short1 wheezing sound it was1 barred with coughs and want of breath2 but thus ,i made the meaning of it3-- ,what do you see mentally1 when you read the following8 ,sweet are the uses of adversity1 ,which1 like the toad1 ugly and venomous1 ,wears yet a precious jewel in its head4 ,the value of minute and thoughtful reading has been set forth by ,john ,ruskin1 in his ,sesame and ,lilies1 a book well worth reading1 if one is willing to take in good part the earnest1 somewhat dogmatic tone which ,ruskin so often uses4 ,the oft-quoted passage in which he illustrates his idea of how a poem should be read1 is given below4 ,the student who every day reads a few pages as conscientiously as ,ruskin would have him1 will find his command of words rapidly increasing1 and his power of thought increasing likewise4 ,and now1 merely for example's sake1 ,i will1 with your permission1 read a few lines of a true book with you carefully1 and see what will come out of them4 ,i will take a book perfectly known to you all4 ,no ,english words are more familiar to us1 yet few perhaps have been read with less sincerity4 ,i will take these few following lines of ,lycidas3-- 8,last came1 and last did go1 ,the pilot of the ,galilean lake4 ,two massy keys he bore of metals twain 7,the golden opes1 the iron shuts amain73 ,he shook his mitred locks1 and stern bespake3 #8,how well could ,i have spared for thee1 young swain1 ,enow of such as for their bellies' sake ,creep and intrude and climb into the fold6 ,of other care they little reckoning make ,than how to scramble at the shearers' feast1 ,and shove away the worthy bidden guest2 ,blind mouths6 that scarce themselves know how to hold ,a sheep-hook1 or have learned aught else1 the least ,that to the faithful herdsman's art belongs6 ,what recks it them8 ,what need they8 ,they are sped2 ,and when they list1 their lean and flashy songs ,grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw4 ,the hungry sheep look up1 and are not fed1 ,but swoln with wind1 and the rank mist they draw1 ,rot inwardly1 and foul contagion spread1 ,besides what the grim wolf with privy paw ,daily devours apace1 and nothing said4'0 ,let us think over this passage1 and examine its words4 ,first1 is it not singular to find ,milton assigning to ,st4 ,peter1 not only his full episcopal function1 but the very types of it which ,protestants usually refuse most passionately8 ,his 8mitred0 locks6 ,milton was no ,bishop-lover2 how comes ,st4 ,peter to be 8mitred08 8,two massy keys he bore40 ,is this1 then1 the power of the keys claimed by the bishops of ,rome1 and is it acknowledged here by ,milton only in a poetical license1 for the sake of its picturesqueness1 that he may get the gleam of the golden keys to help his effect8 ,do not think it4 ,great men do not play stage tricks with doctrines of life and death3 only little men do that4 ,milton means what he says2 and means it with his might too--is going to put the whole strength of his spirit presently into the saying of it4 ,for though not a lover of false bishops1 he was a lover of true ones2 and the ,lake-pilot is here1 in his thoughts1 the type and head of true episcopal power4 ,for ,milton reads that text1 8,i will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of ,heaven0 quite honestly4 ,puritan though he be1 he would not blot it out of the book because there have been bad bishops2 nay1 in order to understand him1 we must understand that verse first2 it will not do to eye it askance1 or whisper it under our breath1 as if it were a weapon of an adverse sect4 ,it is a solemn1 universal assertion1 deeply to be kept in mind by all sects4 ,but perhaps we shall be better able to reason on it if we go on a little farther1 and come back to it4 ,for clearly1 this marked insistence on the power of the true episcopate is to make us feel more weightily what is to be charged against the false claimants of episcopate2 or generally1 against false claimants of power and rank in the body of the clergy2 they who1 8for their bellies' sake1 creep1 and intrude1 and climb into the fold40 ,do not think ,milton uses those three words to fill up his verse1 as a loose writer would4 ,he needs all the three2 specially those three1 and no more than those--8creep10 and 8intrude10 and 8climb02 no other words would or could serve the turn1 and no more could be added4 ,for they exhaustively comprehend the three classes1 correspondent to the three characters1 of men who dishonestly seek ecclesiastical power4 ,first1 those who 8creep0 into the fold1 who do not care for office1 nor name1 but for secret influence1 and do all things occultly and cunningly1 consenting to any servility of office or conduct1 so only that they may intimately discern1 and unawares direct1 the minds of men4 ,then those who 8intrude0 7thrust1 that is7 themselves into the fold1 who by natural insolence of heart and stout eloquence of tongue and fearlessly perseverant self-assertion obtain hearing and authority with the common crowd4 ,lastly1 those who 8climb10 who1 by labor and learning both stout and sound1 but selfishly exerted in the cause of their own ambition1 gain high dignities and authorities1 and become 8lords over the heritage10 though not 8ensamples to the flock40 ,now go on3-- 8,of other care they little reckoning make ,than how to scramble at the shearers' feast4 ,blind mouths--0 ,i pause again1 for this is a strange expression1--a broken metaphor1 one might think1 careless and unscholarly4 ,not so2 its very audacity and pithiness are intended to make us look close at the phrase and remember it4 ,those two monosyllables express the precisely accurate contraries of right character1 in the two great offices of the ,church--those of bishop and pastor4 ,a ,bishop means a person who sees4 ,a ,pastor means one who feeds4 ,the most unbishoply character a man can have is therefore to be ,blind4 ,the most unpastoral is1 instead of feeding1 to want to be fed1--to be a ,mouth4 ,take the two reverses together1 and you have 8blind mouths40 ,we may advisably follow out this idea a little4 ,nearly all the evils in the ,church have arisen from bishops desiring power more than light4 ,they want authority1 not outlook4 ,whereas their real office is not to rule2 though it may be vigorously to exhort and rebuke2 it is the king's office to rule2 the bishop's office is to oversee the flock2 to number it1 sheep by sheep2 to be ready always to give full account of it4 ,now it is clear he cannot give account of the souls1 if he has not so much as numbered the bodies of his flock4 ,the first thing1 therefore1 that a bishop has to do is at least to put himself in a position in which1 at any moment1 he can obtain the history from childhood of every living soul in his diocese1 and of its present state4 ,down in that back street1 ,bill1 and ,nancy1 knocking each other's teeth out6--,does the bishop know all about it8 ,has he his eye upon them8 ,has he had his eye upon them8 ,can he circumstantially explain to us how ,bill got into the habit of beating ,nancy about the head8 ,if he cannot1 he is no bishop1 though he had a mitre as high as ,salisbury steeple4 ,he is no bishop1--he has sought to be at the helm instead of the masthead2 he has no sight of things4 8,nay10 you say1 8it is not his duty to look after ,bill in the back street40 ,what6 the fat sheep that have full fleeces1--you think it is only those he should look after1 while 7go back to your ,milton7 8the hungry sheep look up1 and are not fed1 besides what the grim wolf1 with privy paw0 7bishops knowing nothing about it7 8daily devours apace1 and nothing said08 8,but that's not our idea of a bishop40 ,perhaps not2 but it was ,st4 ,paul's1 and it was ,milton's4 ,they may be right1 or we may be2 but we must not think we are reading either one or the other by putting our meaning into their words4 ,ruskin goes on to discuss other expressions with the same minuteness4 ,contributions from ,other ,studies4--,in acquiring any new science or art one learns many new terms1 some of which are not too technical for use in themes4 ,for that matter1 every exercise written in any subject cannot help being to some extent an exercise in ,english4 ,the vocabulary book should receive contributions from every line of the student's work4 ,translation4--,there is no better means of making the memory yield up the words which it has formerly caught1 than translation4 ,professor ,a4 ,s4 ,hill quotes the reported words of ,rufus ,choate3 8,translation should be pursued to bring to mind and to employ all the words you already own1 and to tax and torment invention and discovery and the very deepest memory for additional1 rich1 and admirably expressive words40#dj ,every lesson in translating is a lesson in self-expression4 ,professor ,carpenter testifies#da that the ,latin-trained boys entering scientific schools are remarkably superior in power of expression to those not so trained2 and his testimony is confirmed by the experience of many other teachers4 ,memorizing of ,literature4--,to the habit of memorizing1 many a person is indebted not merely for high thoughts that cheer hours of solitude and that stimulate his own thinking1 but for command of words4 ,the degree to which the language of modern writers is derived from a few great authors is startling4 ,shakespeare's phrases are a part of the tissue of every man's speech to-day4 ,such writers as ,charles ,lamb bear ,shakespeare's mark on every page4 ,the language of the ,king ,james version of the ,bible is echoed in modern ,english prose and poetry4 ,it formed styles so unlike as those of ,bunyan1 ,ruskin1 and ,abraham ,lincoln4 ,most teachers would declare that a habit of learning ,scripture by heart is of incalculable value to a student's ,english4 ,in the ,authorized ,version1 and to almost as great an extent in the ,revised ,version1 the ,anglo-,saxon element and the ,latin are both present in marvellous effectiveness4#db ,it is clear that whatever help one's writing is to receive from memorizing will come naturally through one's study of literature4 ,but so many of the strongest words in the language1 particularly the ,saxon words1 have been treasured up in the homely sayings of the people1 that ,i have ventured to suggest a list of proverbs for memorizing4 ,just how many of these it may be advisable for a given pupil to retain in mind is a matter to be decided by the instructor4 ,certainly each student will do well to learn a score of those that seem to him best worth remembering4 ,each saying preserves some fine word in some natural context1 a fact that will make the word far easier to recall than it would be if learned as an isolated term4 ,not more than ten or fifteen minutes a day ought to be given to the memorizing4 ,,english ,,proverbs#dc ,a brave retreat is a brave exploit4 ,a carper can cavil at anything4 ,a carrion kite will never make a good hawk4 ,a child is better unborn than untaught4 ,a custom more honored in the breach than in the observance4 ,a dogmatical tone1 a pragmatical pate4 ,a diligent scholar1 and the master's paid4 ,a dog's life1 hunger and ease4 ,a dwarf on a giant's shoulders sees farther of the two4 ,a fair field and no favor4 ,a fault confessed is half redressed4 ,a fine new nothing4 ,a fool always comes short of his reckoning4 ,a fool will not be foiled4 ,a forced kindness deserves no thanks4 ,a good cause makes a stout heart and a strong arm4 ,a good name keeps its lustre in the dark4 ,a grain of prudence is worth a pound of craft4 ,a great city1 a great solitude4 ,a honey tongue1 a heart of gall4 ,a man may buy gold too dear4 ,a man must sell his ware at the rates of the market4 ,a man never surfeits of too much honesty4 ,a nod for a wise man1 and a rod for a fool4 ,a penny saved is a penny got4 ,a wicked book is the wickeder because it cannot repent4 ,a wager is a fool's argument4 ,all complain of want of memory1 but none of want of judgment4 ,all the craft is in the catching4 ,an unpeaceable man hath no neighbor4 ,antiquity is not always a mark of verity4 ,as wily as a fox4 ,better lose a jest than a friend4 ,better to go away longing than loathing4 ,by ignorance we mistake1 and by mistakes we learn4 ,children are certain cares1 but uncertain comforts4 ,clowns are best in their own company1 but gentlemen are best everywhere4 ,conscience cannot be compelled4 ,cutting out well is better than sewing up well4 ,danger and delight grow on one stock4 ,decency and decorum are not pride4 ,different sores must have different salves4 ,dexterity comes by experience4 ,do not spur a free horse4 ,even reckoning makes long friends4 ,every age confutes old errors and begets new4 ,every man hath a fool in his sleeve4 ,faint praise is disparagement4 ,force without forecast is of little avail4 ,from fame to infamy is a beaten road4 ,great businesses turn on a little pin4 ,great spenders are bad lenders4 ,he is lifeless that is faultless4 ,heaven will make amends for all4 ,let your purse be your master4 ,idleness is the greatest prodigality in the world4 ,ignorance is a voluntary misfortune4 ,it is a wicked thing to make a dearth one's garner4 ,lean liberty is better than fat slavery4 ,self-love is a mote in every man's eye4 ,sloth is the key to poverty4 ,some sport is sauce to pains4 ,subtility set a trap and caught itself4 ,temporizing is sometimes great wisdom4 ,the goat must browse where he is tied4 ,the poet1 of all sorts of artificers1 is the fondest of his works4 ,the prick of a pin is enough to make an empire insipid4 ,the purest gold is the most ductile4 ,there's a craft in daubing4 ,thrift is good revenue4 ,too much consulting confounds4 ,truth needs not many words1 but a false tale a large preamble4 ,truths too fine-spun are subtle fooleries4 ,upbraiding turns a benefit into an injury4 ,use your wit as a buckler1 not as a sword4 ,what ,god made1 he never mars4 ,when honor grew mercenary1 money grew honorable4 ,where vice is1 vengeance follows4 ,synonyms4--,a synonym is a word that means the same or nearly the same thing as some other word4 ,our language1 from its composite nature1 is peculiarly rich in synonyms4 ,in hundreds of cases ,english has absorbed both the ,saxon and the ,french or ,latin word for a given idea4 ,nearly always1 in such cases1 one of the words has acquired a distinctly different shade of meaning from the other4 ,indeed1 one of the words is sure to acquire a slightly different value1 whether from its associations or its sound4 ,while it may roughly be said that there are words which mean the same thing1 yet for the really careful writer there are no synonyms4 ,synonyms for ,adjectives of ,praise4--,in another sense there are many people who seem to have no synonyms4 ,you have doubtless known persons who lacked all means of differentiating praise1--persons who applied the same adjective to everything1 from a pin to the solar system4 ,there are the people who find everything either nice or not nice2 the people who eat elegant soups and sigh at elegant sunsets2 the people who have jolly times1 jolly canes1 jolly excuses4 ,to the nice group1 the elegant group1 and the jolly group1 may be added the lovely group1 and many others4 ,oral ,exercise4--,apply several proper adjectives of praise to each of the following3 soup1 sunset1 poodle1 lady1 moon1 time 7e4g4 meaning an excursion71 silk1 opera1 book-binding1 gown1 face1 mountain1 box of sweets1 ice-cream1 disposition1 story1 manner1 soul1 fan1 perfume1 roses1 piano-playing1 sermon1 editorial or leader1 critique4 ,a ,danger4--,the study of synonyms cultivates discrimination4 ,but as a study for the purpose of widening the active vocabulary it must be judiciously limited4 ,if one turns to a book of synonyms1 one finds on many a page some score of words meaning nearly the same thing4 ,many of these words are unusual1 out-of-the-way expressions1 to use which would make a man sound like a prig4 ,simplicity is a cardinal virtue in writing4 ,if this fact is kept in mind1 and the student does not affect too elaborate and bookish words1 the study of synonyms will be of the utmost service to him4 ,a ,method of ,study4--,below are listed a good many groups of synonyms4 ,they are to be studied now and to be used hereafter for reference in the work of writing4 ,each group contains only a few of the words that might demand a place if the question were merely one of meaning4 ,the words here chosen are such as may properly appear in the work of any high school student1 if there is need of them to express the student's meaning4 ,even in these groups some words are simpler1 and therefore in general more desirable4 ,the class should first examine the entire list1 underlining carefully the simpler words in each group4 ,these1 simpler words are regularly to be preferred when their meaning is exact enough for the idea in mind4 ,the others are to be mastered for the sake of the distinctions they express1 and for their occasional usefulness as a means of avoiding repetitions4 ,the underlining finished1 the groups may further be studied with a view to discriminating the various terms4 ,fifteen minutes a day is enough to devote to this work1 and in some cases it may be best to examine minutely only a part of the list1 leaving the rest to be used for reference4 ,written ,exercise4--,it will be found useful to spend five minutes a day in copying off several times each unfamiliar word4 ,unless the hand is accustomed to tracing the word1 the mind will not be likely to demand this act of the hand in the moment of composition4 ,oral ,exercise4--,each student may be asked to pronounce every word that he has not been in the habit of using orally4 ,since the same term is likely to have been neglected by many of the class1 a considerable amount of ear-training will be received by all4 ,oral ,exercise4--,one of the best1 because most natural1 ways of studying synonyms1 is to examine a page of good prose with a view to seeing whether synonyms could have been used as effectively as the actual words in the text4 ,choose such a page1 underline the important words1 and examine the list to find the group to which each belongs4 ,then substitute for the word in the text the other words of the group1 and see whether the author's choice was wise4 ,oral ,exercise4--,each group should be taken up in turn and discussed by the class after the meanings of unfamiliar words have been looked up in the dictionary4 ,the force of each word as a synonym of the others in its group should be brought out by illustrative sentences4 ,the differences in meaning should be talked about until they are thoroughly understood4 ,fernald's ,synonyms1 ,antonyms1 and ,prepositions1 and ,smith's ,synonyms ,discriminated1 are good books of reference if any doubtful question arises4 ,written ,exercise4--,study an assigned number of groups1 and pick out the word which seems to have the most general meaning1 the word which1 more than any other1 includes the remaining members of the group4 ,thus1 in the series ,actual1 authentic1 genuine1 real1 the last is the most general term4 ,real applies to a larger number of things than any of its synonyms4 ,written ,exercise4--,study an assigned number of groups1 and say what idea the members of each have in common1 and1 if possible1 what additional idea each member has4 ,thus1 ,adept1 adroit1 deft1 dexterous1 handy1 skilful1 each have the idea skilful4 ,adept means skilful in some art or occupation4 ,adroit means skilful with the hand1 or with the mind1--i4e4 tactful4 ,deft1 dexterous usually mean skilful with the hand2 deft refers to movements of the fingers1 dexterous to quick motions1 as of the hand4 ,handy means skilful at manual exercises4 ,oral ,exercise4--,one member of each group should be pronounced1 and the student asked to give from memory the other members4 ,oral or ,written ,exercise4--,only one part of speech is represented in each group4 ,the student should be asked to give corresponding parts of speech4 ,thus1 the adjective series ,actual1 authentic1 genuine1 real1 yields the adverbs actually1 authentically1 genuinely1 really1 and the nouns actuality1 authenticity1 genuineness1 reality4 ,,groups ,,of ,,synonyms#dd ,abandon1 cast off1 desert1 forswear1 quit1 renounce1 withdraw from4 ,abate1 decrease1 diminish1 mitigate1 moderate4 ,abhor1 abominate1 detest1 dislike1 loathe4 ,abiding1 enduring1 lasting1 permanent1 perpetual4 ,ability1 capability1 capacity1 competency1 efficacy1 power4 ,abolish1 annul1 eradicate1 exterminate1 obliterate1 root out1 wipe out4 ,abomination1 curse1 evil1 iniquity1 nuisance1 shame4 ,absent1 absent-minded1 absorbed1 abstracted1 oblivious1 preoccupied4 ,absolve1 acquit1 clear4 ,abstemiousness1 abstinence1 frugality1 moderation1 sobriety1 temperance4 ,absurd1 ill-advised1 ill-considered1 ludicrous1 monstrous1 paradoxical1 preposterous1 unreasonable1 wild4 ,abundant1 adequate1 ample1 enough1 generous1 lavish1 plentiful4 ,accomplice1 ally1 colleague1 helper1 partner4 ,active1 agile1 alert1 brisk1 bustling1 energetic1 lively1 supple4 ,actual1 authentic1 genuine1 real4 ,adept1 adroit1 deft1 dexterous1 handy1 skilful4 ,address1 adroitness1 courtesy1 readiness1 tact4 ,adequate1 competent1 equal1 fitted1 suitable4 ,adjacent1 adjoining1 bordering1 near1 neighboring4 ,admire1 adore1 respect1 revere1 venerate4 ,admit1 allow1 concede1 grant1 suffer1 tolerate4 ,admixture1 alloy4 ,adverse1 disinclined1 indisposed1 loath1 reluctant1 slow1 unwilling4 ,aerial1 airy1 animated1 ethereal1 frolicsome4 ,affectation1 cant1 hypocrisy1 pretence1 sham4 ,affirm1 assert1 avow1 declare1 maintain1 state4 ,aged1 ancient1 antiquated1 antique1 immemorial1 old1 venerable4 ,air1 bearing1 carriage1 demeanor4 ,akin1 alike1 identical4 ,alert1 on the alert1 sleepless1 wary1 watchful4 ,allay1 appease1 calm1 pacify4 ,alliance1 coalition1 compact1 federation1 union1 fusion4 ,allude1 hint1 imply1 insinuate1 intimate1 suggest4 ,allure1 attract1 cajole1 coax1 inveigle1 lure4 ,amateur1 connoisseur1 novice1 tyro4 ,amend1 better1 mend1 reform1 repair4 ,amplify1 develop1 expand1 extend1 unfold1 widen4 ,amusement1 diversion1 entertainment1 pastime4 ,anger1 exasperation1 petulance1 rage1 resentment4 ,animal1 beast1 brute1 living creature1 living organism4 ,answer1 rejoinder1 repartee1 reply1 response1 retort4 ,anticipate1 forestall1 preclude1 prevent4 ,apiece1 individually1 severally1 separately4 ,apparent1 clear1 evident1 obvious1 tangible1 unmistakable4 ,apprehend1 comprehend1 conceive1 perceive1 understand4 ,arraign1 charge1 cite1 impeach1 indict1 prosecute1 summon4 ,arrogance1 haughtiness1 presumption1 pride1 self-complacency1 superciliousness1 vanity4 ,artist1 artificer1 artisan1 mechanic1 operative1 workman4 ,artless1 boorish1 clownish1 hoidenish1 rude1 uncouth1 unsophisticated4 ,assent1 agree1 comply4 ,assurance1 effrontery1 hardihood1 impertinence1 impudence1 incivility1 insolence1 officiousness1 rudeness4 ,atom1 grain1 scrap1 particle1 shred1 whit4 ,atrocious1 barbaric1 barbarous1 brutal1 merciless4 ,attack1 assault1 infringement1 intrusion1 onslaught4 ,attain1 accomplish1 achieve1 arrive at1 compass1 reach1 secure4 ,attempt1 endeavor1 essay1 strive1 try1 undertake4 ,attitude1 pose1 position1 posture4 ,attribute1 ascribe1 assign1 charge1 impute4 ,axiom1 truism4 ,baffle1 balk1 bar1 check1 embarrass1 foil1 frustrate1 hamper1 hinder1 impede1 retard1 thwart4 ,banter1 burlesque1 drollery1 humor1 jest1 raillery1 wit1 witticism4 ,beg1 plead1 press1 urge4 ,beguile1 divert1 enliven1 entertain1 occupy4 ,bewilderment1 confusion1 distraction1 embarrassment1 perplexity4 ,bind1 fetter1 oblige1 restrain1 restrict4 ,blaze1 flame1 flare1 flash1 flicker1 glare1 gleam1 gleaming1 glimmer1 glitter1 light1 lustre1 shimmer1 sparkle4 ,blessed1 hallowed1 holy1 sacred1 saintly4 ,boasting1 display1 ostentation1 pomp1 pompousness1 show4 ,brave1 adventurous1 bold1 courageous1 daring1 dauntless1 fearless1 gallant1 heroic1 undismayed4 ,bravery1 coolness1 courage1 gallantry1 heroism4 ,brief1 concise1 pithy1 sententious1 terse4 ,bring over1 convince1 induce1 influence1 persuade1 prevail upon1 win over4 ,calamity1 disaster1 misadventure1 mischance1 misfortune1 mishap4 ,candid1 impartial1 open1 straightforward1 transparent1 unbiassed1 unprejudiced1 unreserved4 ,caprice1 humor1 vagary1 whim4 ,candor1 frankness1 truth1 veracity4 ,caricature1 burlesque1 parody1 travesty4 ,catch1 capture1 clasp1 clutch1 grip1 secure4 ,cause1 consideration1 design1 end1 ground1 motive1 object1 reason1 purpose4 ,caution1 discretion1 prudence4 ,censure1 criticism1 rebuke1 reproof1 reprimand1 reproach4 ,character1 constitution1 disposition1 reputation1 temper1 temperament4 ,characteristic1 peculiarity1 property1 singularity1 trait4 ,chattering1 garrulous1 loquacious1 talkative4 ,cheer1 comfort1 delight1 ecstasy1 gaiety1 gladness1 gratification1 happiness1 jollity1 satisfaction4 ,churlish1 crusty1 gloomy1 gruff1 ill-natured1 morose1 sour1 sullen1 surly4 ,class1 circle1 clique1 coterie4 ,cloak1 cover1 gloss over1 mitigate1 palliate1 screen4 ,cloy1 sate1 satiate1 satisfy1 surfeit4 ,commit1 confide1 consign1 entrust1 relegate4 ,compassion1 forbearance1 lenience1 mercy4 ,compassionate1 gracious1 humane4 ,complete1 consummate1 faultless1 flawless1 perfect4 ,confirm1 corroborate4 ,conflicting1 discordant1 discrepant1 incongruous1 mismated4 ,confused1 discordant1 miscellaneous1 various4 ,conjecture1 guess1 suppose1 surmise4 ,conscious1 aware1 certain4 ,consequence1 issue1 outcome1 outgrowth1 result1 sequel1 upshot4 ,continual1 continuous1 incessant1 unbroken1 uninterrupted4 ,credible1 conceivable1 likely1 presumable1 probable1 reasonable4 ,customary1 habitual1 normal1 prevailing1 usual1 wonted4 ,damage1 detriment1 disadvantage1 harm1 hurt1 injury1 prejudice4 ,dangerous1 formidable1 terrible4 ,defame1 deprecate1 disparage1 slander1 vilify4 ,defile1 infect1 soil1 stain1 sully1 taint1 tarnish4 ,deleterious1 detrimental1 hurtful1 harmful1 mischievous1 pernicious1 ruinous4 ,delicate1 fine1 minute1 refined1 slender4 ,delightful1 grateful1 gratifying1 refreshing1 satisfying4 ,difficult1 laborious1 toilsome1 trying4 ,digress1 diverge1 stray1 swerve1 wander4 ,disavow1 disclaim1 disown1 recall1 renounce1 repudiate1 retract4 ,dispose1 draw1 incline1 induce1 influence1 move1 prompt1 stir4 ,earlier1 foregoing1 previous1 preliminary4 ,effeminate1 feminine1 womanish1 womanly4 ,emergency1 extremity1 necessity4 ,empty1 fruitless1 futile1 idle1 trifling1 unavailing1 useless1 vain1 visionary4 ,erudition1 knowledge1 profundity1 sagacity1 sense1 wisdom4 ,eternal1 imperishable1 interminable1 perennial1 perpetual1 unfailing4 ,excuse1 pretence1 pretext1 subterfuge4 ,exemption1 immunity1 liberty1 license1 privilege4 ,explicit1 express4 ,faint1 faint-hearted1 faltering1 half-hearted1 irresolute1 languid1 listless1 purposeless4 ,faithful1 loyal1 stanch1 trustworthy1 trusty4 ,fanciful1 fantastic1 grotesque1 imaginative1 visionary4 ,folly1 imbecility1 senselessness1 stupidity4 ,fling1 gibe1 jeer1 mock1 scoff1 sneer1 taunt4 ,flock1 bevy1 brood1 covey1 drove1 herd1 litter1 pack4 ,fluctuate1 hesitate1 oscillate1 vacillate1 waver4 ,grief1 melancholy1 regret1 sadness1 sorrow4 ,hale1 healthful1 healthy1 salutary1 sound1 vigorous4 ,ignorant1 illiterate1 uninformed1 uninstructed1 unlettered1 untaught4 ,impulsive1 involuntary1 spontaneous1 unbidden1 voluntary1 willing4 ,indispensable1 inevitable1 necessary1 requisite1 unavoidable4 ,inquisitive1 inquiring1 intrusive1 meddlesome1 peeping1 prying4 ,intractable1 perverse1 petulant1 ungovernable1 wayward1 wilful4 ,irritation1 offence1 pique1 resentment4 ,probably1 presumably4 ,reliable1 trustworthy1 trusty4 ,remnant1 trace1 token1 vestige4 ,requite1 repay1 retaliate1 satisfy4 ,oral or ,written ,exercise4--,in the following1 vary the overworked words as much as possible4 ,permit repetition only when it is necessary for clearness4 #a4 ,i think the committee selected to select theme topics for the class to write upon1 should be careful not to select too many topics on one subject1 since the nature of one student differs from that of another4 ,i think that the few who are not satisfied with the topics the committee have selected1 should be required to select and hand in a list of topics on which they would like to write4 #b4 ,there are two distinct stories running through the ,merchant of ,venice3 the story of the pound of flesh and the story of the caskets4 ,these stories run parallel to each other through the play1 as far as the third act1 where the story of the caskets is ended by the lucky choice of ,bassanio4 ,but from here a new story1 the story of the rings1 commences1 and continues through the rest of the play1 crossing the story of the pound of flesh and finally taking the place of this story4 ,future ,revision4--,henceforth one distinct object for which every theme should be revised is variety of words4 ,it soon becomes a keen satisfaction to read one's own work aloud to detect overworked expressions4 ,in the pursuit of variety1 the scholar not merely grows sensitive to the ugly recurrence of the same sound2 he grows bold to repeat words if the repetition is demanded for clearness or force4 ,some things seem to have but one name in ,english2 more's the pity2 but we must make the best of the case4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,right ,,number ,,and ,,skilful ,,choice ,,of ,,words ,let it be supposed that a person has learned to plan a composition logically and to write with grammatical correctness2 that further he has acquired a noble unrest which keeps him searching for new words and fine distinctions2 what should be his next care8 ,after the power of thinking coherently1 the ability most important to a writer is that of picking out from the wide world of words the one expression that mates his unworded idea4 ,his choice of words--i4e4 his diction--must meet three requirements4 ,if it is to be clear1 it must mean the same to the reader's intellect that it does to the writer's4 ,if it is to forcible1 it must move the reader's feelings as it moved the writer's4 ,furthermore1 if it is to be beautiful1 it must please a reader who has good taste4 ,clearness4--,clearness1 the intellectual quality of style1 has already been referred to 7p4 #dc71 for it is the quality aimed at in making sentences coherent4 ,that the idea should be made unmistakably clear is the first requisite of good writing4 ,the thinking must be clear2 the division of the theme into paragraphs1 and of paragraphs into sentences must be clear2 and the words must be clear4 ,we have presently to ask what effect number and choice of words have upon clearness4 ,force4--,force is the emotional quality of style4 ,it may occur in a very moderate degree1 just enough to interest the reader slightly1 or it may be present to such an extent as to move the deepest springs of feeling4 ,it is hard to give suggestions for securing force1 because language is better adapted to communicating ideas than emotions4 ,we find that language furnishes very few names for feelings4 ,furthermore1 these names1 even such as love1 fear1 anger1 do not in themselves move us4 ,what a marvellous variety of emotion each of us feels in a day6 how many delicate tints of pleasure6 how many shades of regret or fear1 of painful memory or suggestion6 ,the psychologists tell us that we do no act which does not bring with it some touch of pleasure or of pain4 ,and yet most of these shades and tints and touches of feeling neither have names nor can be communicated by words4 ,nevertheless1 though language cannot directly convey feeling1 it can sometimes suggest feeling4 ,if your reader has experienced a given emotion1 some word of yours may recall that to his mind4 ,one secret of being forcible lies in choosing theme subjects that interest the reader2 subjects that set up a train of feeling and memory in his mind4 ,other secrets are1 to choose suggestive words and figures of speech1 and to refrain from wearing out interest by too many words4 ,we shall presently inquire1 what words and figures are most suggestive4 ,something may be done to secure force by so arranging words as to attract the reader's attention4 ,it will be noted that emphasis 7p4 #aaj7 and climax 7p4 #aab7 are means of force4 ,beauty4--,beauty is the quality of style which satisfies what is called1 for lack of a better word1 the sthetic sense2 this is little else but saying1 beauty of style satisfies the sense for beauty4 ,one element of beauty is simplicity1 a quality closely allied to clearness1 yet not the same4 ,euphony1 or absence of ugly sounds1 is another element of beauty4 ,variety is another element of beauty4 ,it is clear that the last exercise in ,chapter ,x is as much an exercise in beauty as in vocabulary4 ,in the present chapter we shall have space to consider only one element of beauty1--that of simplicity4 ,prolixity4--,if a writer descends into tedious details1 or if he repeats the same idea over and over in slightly different words1 without developing or adding to the thought1 he is said to be prolix4 ,prolixity offends chiefly against force1 for it kills interest4 ,this fault may affect merely a single sentence or paragraph1 or it may infest a whole composition4 ,it does not much beset the writer who plans his work ahead4 ,it can be corrected only by rewriting4 ,written ,exercise4--,the following prolix passage should be rewritten1 only the essential thoughts being kept4 ,any mistakes and crudities of style should be corrected4 8,my friend the doctor was a collector of ancient coins and was always roaming about the ruins of old cities in search of coins4 ,he would wander around and pick up valuable relics like the ,venus he wore in his seal ring4 ,he was always finding something worth keeping4 ,he would pick up a precious bit of antiquity and put it in his pocket1 and so he always carried with him a regular collection of relics4 ,one afternoon he was out among the mountains picking up relics and not looking up to see whether any one was near4 ,when he looked around he saw five or perhaps six rough fellows who were standing there behind him4 ,he fell to quivering with fright and stood trembling and shaking1 but managed to greet them4 ,after he had greeted the five or six men they all walked along down the road until they came to an inn that was there on the mountain-side4 ,it was an inn and not a cave there in the mountains1 as was incorrectly said by one member of the class40 ,surplusage4--,surplusage consists of words that can be excised without hurting the sense of the passage4 ,in tyros it is perhaps less of a fault than the opposite one of deficiency1--the absence of needed words2 for fulness of expression is essential to clearness1 and surplusage often results from the desire to be clear4 ,verbosity1 however1 dulls the edge of the keenest thought4 ,like prolixity1 it weakens4 ,just as many a prolix speaker could make a brilliant oration if he knew when to stop1 so many a wordy writer could make an effective sentence if he knew what to prune away4 ,as ,mr4 ,lowell would say3#de ,thoughts are never draped in long skirts like babies1 if they are strong enough to go alone4 ,the redundant use of the following common words should be avoided3-- #a4 ,from1 in the phrases from thence1 from whence4 #b4 ,of1 especially in the expressions off of1 remember of1 treat of4 8,keep off not off of the grass40 8,this book treats better than treats of chemistry40 #c4 ,on1 with the words the next morning4 8,he was rebellious on the seventh of ,july1 but the next morning not on the next morning he reappeared in a more submissive frame of mind40 ,oral ,exercise4--,prune away every word that can be spared2 note the increase in force4 ,slight changes may be made in the wording4 #a4 ,all of the ships were lost2 no kind of a one was saved4 #b4 ,i know from my own personal knowledge that a man who stands upright in his own manhood1 honest and conscious of the rectitude of his purposes1 is safe against calumny and slander4 #c4 ,i don't think it a good precedent to set in this house for any man to vote for a bill in which he has a personal interest1 and ,i don't remember of ever having done so of myself4 ,i shall1 therefore1 for this reason1 refrain from voting1 but ,i want to say a word on this bill1 and ,i want to talk to the democrats4 #d4 ,real-estate dealer is knocked down by an accident and is run over by a cab4 #e4 ,commencing on ,monday1 ,march #bi1 supported by the ,new ,york ,garrick ,theatre ,stock ,company1 ,mr4 ,mansfield will commence an engagement of two weeks at the ,grand ,opera ,house4 ,written or ,oral ,exercise4--,in the following sentences some of the underscored expressions should be expressed more briefly by changing clauses to phrases or phrases to single words4 ,thus3 men who deserved and won renown may shorten to men of deserved renown4 #a4 ,men who deserved and won renown1 and women who were peerless1 have lived upon what we should now call the coarsest fare1 and paced the rushes which were strewn in their rooms with as high1 or as contented thoughts1 as their descendants1 persons who are fed better and clothed better than they1 can boast of4 #b4 ,if children are able to make us wiser1 it is sure that they can also make us better4 ,there is no one who is more to be envied than a good-natured man when he is watching how children's minds perform their workings1 or when he is overlooking the play they engage in4 ,deficiency of ,words4--,it was said in a former paragraph that in young writers surplusage is perhaps less of a fault than is the lack of needed words4 ,verbosity robs a theme of force2 deficiency robs it of force and clearness4 ,it is human nature to try to say a thing more briefly than is possible4 ,forgetting that pitch1 stress1 and gesture do much to make spoken words intelligible1 the easy-going writer does not tax himself to attain full and lucid expression4 ,he forgets that a piece of writing may be so condensed as to be dense4 ,ambiguity often springs from the omission of merely a word or two4 ,reading such a phrase as 8the secretary and treasurer10 we are vexed with doubt whether one person is meant1 or two2 the omission of the article seems to imply that the two offices are vested in a single officer4 ,the lack of a few words may turn force into weakness4 ,a ,german newspaper thus burlesques the compression to which editors sometimes feel impelled3 8,ottokar took a small brandy1 then his hat1 his departure1 besides no notice of his pursuers1 meantime a revolver out of his pocket1 and lastly his own life40 ,the following common words should not be omitted3-- #a4 ,the main part of an infinitive at the end of a sentence4 ,wrong3 8,he did what he wished to40 ,right3 8,he did what he wished to do40 #b4 ,the adverb much before certain adjectives4 ,wrong3 8,he was very pleased to comply40 ,right3 8,he was very much pleased to comply40 #c4 7a7 ,the preposition at with home4 ,wrong3 8,i stayed home and slept home40 ,right3 8,i stayed at home and slept at home40 7b7 ,the preposition on with days of the month4 ,wrong3 8,the seventh of ,july he rebelled40 ,right3 8,on the seventh of ,july he rebelled40 ,compare page #bca4 #c4 #d4 ,a demonstrative used for clearness4 ,wrong3 8,he chose between the lot of the rich and of the poor40 ,right3 8,he chose between the lot of the rich and that of the poor40 #e4 ,the conjunction that when needed for clearness4 ,wrong3 8,i wish such a beefsteak as that one over there may never be served on this table40 ,what is the ambiguity here1 at the beginning8 ,oral ,exercise4--,indicate how by the addition of words each sentence may be corrected3-- #a4 ,altogether it was a day like unto which the memory of the oldest inhabitant could not recall4 #b4 ,he received his early education at ,brownsville and ,whitesville academy1 remaining about a year at each place4 #c4 ,there was a minister who1 being informed by the church officials that they had raised his salary #ajj1 declined to accept it4 #d4 ,the following great reductions indicate the heavy losses we are taking closing out the balance of our stock4 #e4 ,this mutual esteem was shown by their cordial welcome of the guests as well as the uniform courtesy shown by the latter4 #f4 ,poor ,evelina was obliged to choose between a blue and green dress4 #g4 ,streaks of lightning and claps of thunder rattled through the narrow streets of ,paris4 #h4 ,i am an historical painter by profession1 and living for some time at a villa near ,rome4 ,specific ,words4--,suppose it were desired to make clear to a friend how the sunset looked--a difficult task4 ,one would hardly succeed if one had no better words to offer than the general terms clouds1 beautiful1 lovely1 bright4 ,the friend1 if he cared to know1 would insist on specific words3 ,what kind of beauty8 was it quiet beauty1 or awful beauty1 or picturesque beauty8 ,what kind of brightness8 was it redness8 ,if so1 was the sky blood-red1 or merely pink8 ,what kind of clouds8--great masses of storm cloud1 or high frozen clouds1 or mottled 8mackerel0 clouds8 ,to be clear1 then1 words must be specific enough to give the idea intended4 ,just how specific they should be depends on the audience4 ,they must be familiar to the hearer or reader1 if they are to be understood without explanation4 ,all audiences would understand the general term tool2 all would understand the genus name saw1 which specifies a kind of tool4 ,but many would not understand the species name rip-saw2 for to most people rip-saw is unfortunately a technical term4 ,in choosing specific words the line should therefore be drawn between common terms and technical terms1 the latter not to be employed without explanation1 except in addressing special audiences4 ,specific words are usually as forcible as they are clear4 ,most people's feelings are roused by the thought of a particular object1 not of a class name4 ,flower is a class name2 it does not move one4 ,clover is a specific name2 it calls back the old farm1 the old friends1 the old joys and sorrows4 ,no word will really interest the reader unless he has previously used it or heard it in association with his feelings4 ,take the word contusion2 it means something forcible to a doctor1 but not to a boy1 for the latter never used it4 ,but say bruise--which means exactly the same thing4 ,that's forcible4 ,it feelingly reminds us of the hour in which that dead branch broke and delivered us over to the law of gravitation4 ,pick out from these words those that are in themselves forcible to most people3 paternal solicitude1 fatherly care2 home1 domicile2 altruism1 unselfishness4 ,you see at once that certain of these words get their force from the long associations of childhood4 ,in childhood we use the simpler words of the language1 those that are derived from the ,anglo-,saxon mother-tongue4 ,anglo-,saxon words1 therefore1 are usually forcible4 ,compare page #ahc4 ,oral ,exercise4--,reduce the following names step by step to a particular genus and a particular species4 ,thus3 animal1 mammal1 quadruped1 graminivorous animal1 cow1 ,alderney4 #a4 ,reduce machine step by step till you reach stop-watch4 #b4 ,reduce machine to revolver4 #c4 ,reduce living organism to moss-rose4 #d4 ,reduce living organism to oyster4 ,similarly1 extend the following species names step by step to family names4 #a4 ,extend pen-knife to instrument4 #b4 ,extend ,longfellow to man of letters4 ,general ,words4--,we found that most specific words are of ,anglo-,saxon origin4 ,most general words are of ,latin origin4 ,both these statements are only roughly true1 of course2 but the distinction is worth making4 ,the language of science is mostly of ,latin origin1 because it consists so largely of class names4 ,our ,anglo-,saxon forefathers had fewer class names1 for they had not progressed far enough to care to classify everything4 ,when1 later1 the ,english came to study history1 and philosophy1 and science1 they had either to invent new ,anglo-,saxon words for class names1 or else use ,latin words4 ,they chose the latter course4 ,consequently we have such ,latin class names as animal1 and such individual names as cat1 dog1 horse1 pig4 ,we speak of white1 blue1 green1 red2 but when we want a class name for these1 we say color1 a ,latin word4 ,from all this it may be seen that any great number of general words gives a scientific1 abstract tone to writing4 ,general words are absolutely necessary for the exact purposes of science and philosophy4 ,they are adapted1 as ,professor ,carpenter puts it1 to 8precise and elaborate distinctions of thought40 ,they do not give a clear mental image2 that is1 you cannot see beauty1 or smallness1 or animal1 or color--you can see only a beautiful object1 a small object1 a particular animal1 a particular color4 ,but1 still1 general words mean exactly what they say4 ,animal means exactly this3 a summing up of all the qualities that are common to all individual animals4 ,all the things called animal have in common powers of sensation and voluntary movement4 ,when such a distinction is wanted1 it is wanted badly1 as we say4 ,there is no better mark of literary mastery than knowing just when to use a general word1 just when a specific one4 ,examine a few pages from ,robert ,louis ,stevenson1 to see with what exquisite fitness words of ,latin origin may be used in the midst of ,anglo-,saxon words when the appeal turns from the feelings to the intellect4 ,there are many reasons why a writer may not wish to be too specific4 ,in the sentence1 8,i picked up my traps and left10 the colloquialism traps answers every essential purpose4 ,the reader does not care to have tooth-brush and books and papers all specified4 ,people are not to be blamed for referring vaguely to death as a passing away1 for the specific word is harsh at best4 ,such expressions as pass away are called euphemisms4 ,many euphemisms are legitimate2 but whether a given one should be employed is a question of taste1 a question of beauty4 ,it seems a beautiful expression when ,keats says1 8to cease upon the midnight with no pain10 instead of1 8to die painlessly at twelve o'clock20 but it is a mark of false modesty and bad taste to insist on saying rose for got up1 retire for go to bed1 lower limbs for legs4 ,again1 one should not always hesitate to set down an idea because one has not the sharpest1 clearest possible notion of it4 ,vague ideas are sometimes valuable ones4 ,they should receive earnest thought that they may take definite shape4 ,but if they seem to defy definite form1 they certainly should not be thrown away merely for that4 ,catching one's exact idea is often as difficult as catching a trout4 ,but a glimpse of the fine fish that gets away is worth something1--there are few of us who can resist the temptation to tell about it when we get home4 ,speaking of the mind1 ,emerson says1 8,it is wholesome to angle in those profound pools1 though one be rewarded with nothing more than the leap of a fish that flashes his freckled side in the sun and as suddenly absconds in the dark and dreamy waters again40#df ,in ,wordsworth's poem1 ,the ,solitary ,reaper1 we hear of a song about old1 unhappy1 far-off things4 ,that was exactly ,wordsworth's own vague notion1 and down he set it--in words that make it clear 7so to speak7 that his idea was sweet and vague4 ,ruskin1 describing the faade of ,st4 ,mark's in ,venice1 tries to give a sense of the bewildering multiplicity of beautiful things on that wonderful front by saying1 a confusion of delight4 ,if he had used more definite words we should have missed the effect4 ,oral ,exercise4--,examine the passages from ,johnson and ,blackmore 7pp4 #aib-c74 ,which passage contains more of general words than of specific8 ,which is more forcible in subject-matter8 ,which in diction4 ,oral ,exercise4--,in the following passage1 choose the better expression from each pair of brackets4 ,each pair contains one general and one specific term2 choose the term which gives greater force or greater clearness than the other4 #a4 ,and therefore1 first of all1 ,i tell you earnestly and authoritatively 7,i know ,i am right in this7 you must get into the way1 habit of looking rightly1 intensely at words1 and telling1 assuring yourself of their meaning1 syllable by syllable--nay1 letter by letter4 ,for 444 you might read all the books in a great library1 the ,british ,museum 7if you could live long enough7 and remain an utterly 8illiterate10 uneducated person2 but if you read some part1 ten pages of a good1 an instructive book1 letter by letter--that is to say1 with real care1 accuracy--you are forevermore in some way1 measure an educated man1 person4 ,the entire difference between education and non-education 7as regards the merely mental1 intellectual part of it7 consists in this exactitude1 accuracy4 ,a well-educated gentleman may not read1 know many languages1 may not be able to speak any but his own1 may have read very few books4 ,but whatever language he knows1 he knows well1 precisely2 whatever word he says1 pronounces he says1 pronounces rightly4 ,above all1 he is learned in the peerage of words1 knows the words of true1 veritable descent1 and old1 ancient blood1 at a glance1 from the words of new1 modern canaille1 remembers all their ancestry1 their intermarriages1 distant relationships1 and the extent to which they were admitted1 and offices they held1 among the national noblesse of words at any time and in any place1 country4 ,but an uneducated person may know1 by heart1 memory1 many languages1 and use1 talk them all1 and yet truly know1 apprehend not a word of any--not a word even of his own4 ,an ordinarily clever1 good and sensible seaman will be able to make his way ashore at most ports1 places1 yet he has only to speak a little1 a sentence of ,spanish or ,french1 any language to be known1 recognized for an illiterate person2 so also the accent1 or turn of expression of a single sentence1 will at once mark a scholar4 ,and this is so well1 strongly felt1 so conclusively1 well admitted1 by educated persons1 that a false accent or a bad1 mistaken syllable is enough in the parliament of any civilized nation1 to assign1 send man to a certain degree of lower1 inferior standing forever4 ,oral ,exercise4--,which words in the following are general1 which specific8 ,does each seem appropriate in its place1 or ought some words to have been more specific1 others more general8 #a4 ,her dress was dark and rich2 she had pearls round her neck1 and an old rococo fan in her hand4--,,henry ,,james4 #b4 ,when gratitude has become a matter of reasoning1 there are many ways of escaping from its bonds4--,,george ,,eliot4 #c4 ,friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled up4--,,george ,,eliot4 #d4 ,what scene was ever commonplace in the descending sunlight1 when color has awakened from its noonday sleep1 and the long shadows awe us like a disclosed presence8 ,above all1 what scene is commonplace to the eye that is filled with serene gladness1 and brightens all things with its own joy8--,,george ,,eliot4 ,oral ,exercise4--,is there danger of misconception from the use of the following words8 ,if so1 how can the danger be avoided8 ,discuss in class4 ,fair1 fine1 certain1 charity1 democratic1 republican1 nature4 ,simple ,words4--,several years ago a gentleman#dg secured from a large number of successful authors brief pieces of advice to young writers4 ,in one particular there was an extraordinary unanimity among these authors4 ,nearly all agreed that a young writer should try to express himself simply4 ,they agreed on other matters too1--for example1 on the need of clear thinking and an inclination to take much pains in expression4 ,but it was noticeable that even writers whose own work is not characterized by simplicity seemed to admire this quality4 ,the greatest men are simple4 ,affectation1 straining for effect1 is a mark of a little mind4 ,the greatest art is simple1--governed by a noble restraint4 ,over-decoration1 whether in a picture1 a piece of music1 in dress1 in the furnishing of a room1 or in a theme1 is always a mark of bad taste4 ,what is called fine writing--the use of over-ambitious words to express simple thoughts--grows up in various ways4 ,sometimes it springs from a desire to be funny4 ,exaggeration has always been a favorite device of the humorist--especially of the ,american humorist4 ,there are students who learn to use this kind of humor so well that an unconscious habit of bombast pursues them into their more serious work4 ,most of us can force a smile at such writing as the passage given below1 or even laugh at it when there are enough people present to help us3-- 8,it was in the sixth that ,captain ,anson1 aided and abetted by sundry young men generally called #8,colts1' waded in to snatch laurel1 trailing arbutus1 and other vegetables from the coy hand of fame4 ,he did it1 too1 and he now has laurels to throw to the birds4 ,ryan went first to the bat1 and pasted a warm one through short that turned the grass black along its path40 ,but when a young fellow has read so much of this sort that he drags similar diction into his themes1 the fun becomes vulgarity4 ,in general1 use always the simplest word that will express your meaning exactly4 ,compare pages #baf1 #bag4 ,written ,exercise4--,write in simple ,english the equivalents of the following passages4 ,some are from students' themes2 others from newspapers4 #a4 ,the svelte#dh young debutante received a perfect ovation4 #b4 ,in my estimation it is far more to be desired that a tyro in the art of composition should select those subjects with which his acquaintance is the most extensive4 #c4 ,in all my experience ,i have never enjoyed the acquaintance of two youths of more superior ability4 #d4 ,it is impossible for me to disassociate from my mind the conception that such a course would be disastrous to the ambitions of the team4 #e4 ,public sentiment would not permit an individual or an infinitesimally small minority to clog the wheels of progress in order to prevent the escape of a few dollars from the individuals composing the obstructive element4 #f4 ,let us indeed refrain from any course of action which will militate against the onward march of the civilizing power of the public schools of this great and growing nation4 #g4 ,while the birds were carolling their sweetest strains and the grass hung heavy with water-pearls1 ,peter ,brant was taking his life4 ,a more seductive place to die in than the little garden back of #gjjj ,congress street is inconceivable4 ,literal and ,figurative ,words4--,before it can be decided how far the young writer should use figures of speech1 it is necessary to find out the real difference between a literal word or statement and a figurative word or statement4 ,if figures are always mere embellishments of language1 the journeyman had better shun them anxiously2 for his true object is to express his thought1 not to decorate it4 ,if1 however1 some figures are not embellishments but ordinary building-material1 the case is different4 ,when1 on seeing biscuits for the first time1 a child refers to them as moons1 he is not making an effort to adorn his language4 ,he is unconsciously using a figure of speech because he does not know the literal1 proper1 conventional name1 biscuit4 ,if the child had formerly lived in a country where apples grew but potatoes did not1 the first time he saw a potato he would probably call it a ground-apple4 ,as a matter of fact there are people that have gone through some such experience with potatoes4 ,the ,french word pomme de terre indicates this4 ,most words were once figures of speech1 that is1 tropes4 ,a trope1 from the ,greek word 1 to turn1 is merely the turning away of a word from its ordinary meaning to give a name to some new idea4 ,the root of many a word shows the figure that was used to express a given new idea4 ,the root spir- means to breathe4 ,since the inability to breathe is one part of the process of death1 the expression to breathe out became a figurative expression for the whole idea of 8to die40 ,in expire1 applied to death1 the idea of breathe is usually not felt4 ,the figure is forgotten1 and we therefore call it a root-figure1 or radical figure4 ,as may be seen from the roots of the ,curious ,words on page #aia1 language is figurative through and through4 ,this is true not only of language already made1 but of that which is daily making4 ,in every mind shades of thought are constantly occurring for which there are either no names1 or none which the mind can learn in the interval before expression is necessary4 ,if the exact word is not at hand1 a comparison must be made4 ,the shade of thought must be named by telling what thing in the reader's experience it is like4 ,does the attempt at comparison result in a vague1 inexact phrase1 or in an exact one8 ,the youth who declares that his lesson is as 8hard as thunder10 has expressed himself but vaguely4 ,the same is true of the young lady who declares that it rained 8like anything40 ,let us examine briefly the chief kinds of tropes1 and note whether they are necessarily less clear and exact than literal statements4 ,a person sees an accident1 and reports that 8a score of hands0 picked up the injured boy4 ,here is synecdoche4 ,the 8hands0 stand for the persons--a part for the whole2 a 8score0 probably stands for a dozen1--the whole number of hands in the group of people1 for the smaller number that actually touched the boy4 ,or1 the 8score0 may be called hyperbole1 that is1 exaggeration4 ,a critic might say that either figure is inexact here4 ,true1 in a way4 ,but if the writer had reported that he seemed to see a score of hands1 the phrase would be faithful to his thought4 ,we may take the seemed for granted1 and reply to the critic that for exact purposes in a law court1 8seemed to see a score of hands0 might be nearer the truth than an attempt at greater precision4 ,suppose1 now1 that the writer who reported the accident said that the boy was in great pain1 so that his face was 8as white as ivory40 ,here is a simile1--an explicit statement of likeness in two things which are different in most respects4 ,this particular simile is certainly more exact than the literal word white would be4 ,if now the writer had said1 8,i caught a glimpse of compressed lips and ivory face10 the comparison would have been not explicit1 but implied4 ,an implied comparison is called metaphor4 ,metaphor is from the ,greek for carrying over1 because it carries over bodily the name of one thing to another4 ,to speak of a man as 8bold as a lion10 is simile2 to call him a 8lion0 outright1 is metaphor4 ,it is less clear to call a man a lion than to say in what respect he is like a lion2 it is less clear to say1 8ivory face0 than to say 8face white as ivory40 ,the case of the boy who was injured may have got into the newspapers4 ,to speak more figuratively1 the press may have taken up the matter4 ,press stands here for the editors of the various journals4 ,this last figure is metonymy4 ,in metonymy one thing is put for another that is often associated with it4 ,in the sentence given1 metonymy does not seem to detract from clearness2 at all events it saves a roundabout expression4 ,metaphor and metonymy1 by ascribing life to inanimate things1 often become personification4 ,so above1 where the press takes up a matter4 ,it is evident that personification need not make a sentence less intelligible4 ,once more1 let us suppose that the reporter who first learned of the boy's accident remarked1 on handing in his account of it1 8,the early bird catches the worm40 ,the remark is pure allegory--describing some act or thing indirectly by describing something else4 ,if the hearer knows enough of the situation to understand the allegory1 he undoubtedly receives a forcible impression1 and may be helped to a clearer view4 ,allegory is a kind of expanded metaphor4 ,it is more liable to misinterpretation than most figures2 but the allegorical proverbs of our language1 and the popularity of such books as the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 show that it is a favorite form of expression4 ,like general words1 allegory can be used to say things which policy may forbid being said more directly4 ,from the discussion it appears that tropes can often be made to yield a clear and sufficiently exact phrase4 ,often however a trope lends force or beauty rather than clearness4 ,it is forcible rather than clear to call a man a lion4 ,it is beautiful rather than clear to speak of the ,pleiades as 8a swarm of fireflies tangled in a silver braid40 ,such a phrase as this is legitimate enough in poetry2 it would be legitimate in highly imaginative prose4 ,but the fact cannot be dodged that it would be out of place in the midst of plain prose description4 ,the practical conclusion is obvious4 ,use tropes without hesitation when they are really needed to give clearness and force4 ,never use a trope for decorative purposes only4 ,the ability to write plain1 bare ,english is absolutely indispensable4 ,the ability to write figuratively is an enviable1 but not a necessary1 possession4 ,when the need of a figure is actually felt1 the choice should be made with scrupulous care4 ,if tropes occur to you in numbers1 8like flocks of pigeons10 choose only the pigeon that can carry a message4 ,to secure lucidity1 employ a figure which makes use of something already clear to the reader4 ,every-day life and common things are the best sources for both similes and metaphors4 ,to secure force1 select such figures as appeal to the emotional experiences of everybody4 ,if you wish to hold attention and move your reader1 appeal to such primal feelings as love1 hate1 fear1 courage1 joy1 sorrow1 aspiration1 hope4 ,note how ,shakespeare appeals to the human animal's dread of deep water3 he makes ,cardinal ,wolsey say1 8,i have ventured1 like wanton boys that swim on bladders1 this many summers in a sea of glory40 ,in ,macbeth he appeals to the joy of release from pain3 he calls sleep the balm of each day's hurt4 ,a good figure of speech must be consistent4 ,although a lively imagination changes its metaphors from minute to minute1 it must not change them so fast as to suggest ridiculous things4 ,if the metaphor gets mixed1 clearness and force go to the winds4 ,the other day the writer heard a young man earnestly exclaim3 8,now ,i shall have to toe the bee-line60 ,the thought of that youth1 lifted to a perilous position where his toes sought vainly in the trackless air for a 8bee-line10 was quite too much for the gravity of his hearers4 ,this trope that failed to be a trope was about as effective as the famous lightning-change series of metaphors uttered by ,sir ,boyle ,roche3 8,mr4 ,speaker1 ,i smell a rat4 ,i see him floating in the air4 ,but ,i will nip him in the bud40 ,mixed metaphors may arise from mere liveliness of imagination1--a good fault sometimes4 ,more frequently it arises from vague thinking or from grandiloquence4 ,the examples on page #bdf show how liable fine writing is to this fault4 ,a figure that is not in good taste is incomparably worse than no figure at all4 ,oral ,exercise4--,name each trope1 and explain how each gets its force2 what emotion each touches4 7a7 8,thy soul was like a star and dwelt apart40--,,wordsworth4 7b7 8,what is hope8--a smiling rainbow children follow through the wet40--,,carlyle4 7c7 8,she speaks poniards1 and every word stabs40--,,shakespeare4 7d7 8,bliss was it in that dawn to be alive2 but to be young was very heaven40--,,wordsworth4 7e7 8,prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night40--,,beecher4 ,oral ,exercise4--,examine the phrases that you made by finding adjectives to fit abstract qualities 7p4 #bjb71 and decide in each case whether clearness or force is the chief resulting characteristic4 ,oral ,exercise4--,restore force to the following figures by changing whatever is incongruous in them4 ,reject any that are irretrievably bad in taste1 or hackneyed4 #a4 ,the singing was led by the organ assisted by four violins4 #b4 ,in graceful and figurative language he pointed the finger of scorn at the defendant4 #c4 ,it was #h o'clock when the guests attacked the following menu4 #d4 ,the trailer struck the car amidships4 #e4 ,the colonies were not yet ripe to bid adieu to ,british connection4 #f4 ,let us cast off the shackles of doubt and bind ourselves with the bonds of faith4 #g4 ,no human happiness is so serene as not to contain some alloy4 #h4 ,boyle was the father of chemistry1 and brother of the ,earl of ,cork4 #i4 ,the marble-hearted marauder might seize the throne of civil authority1 and hurl into thraldom the votaries of rational liberty4 #aj4 ,it is to be hoped1 now that lovely woman discountenances the flowing bowl1 that the rising generation will abjure it1 and follow the weaker sex in taking nothing stronger than the cup which cheers but not inebriates4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,letter-,,writing ,why ,important4--,there are two general classes of letters3 informal or personal1 and formal or impersonal4 ,each kind is governed by the general principles of clearness and courtesy4 ,mischief is sure to follow if either of these principles is disregarded4 ,a writer may indulge in extravagance of statement when he writes for the public1 and 8there is no harm done1 for the speaker is one and the listener is another40#di ,but it is quite a different matter when one is making business promises1 or trying to pacify a distant friend with whom there is a misunderstanding4 ,a shrewd politician knows enough not to write too many letters1 and not to write anything that he cannot stand by4 ,a woman of tact knows that the success of her social plans may turn upon the choice of a single word in the leave-taking of a note4 ,business ,letters4--,these are formal1 impersonal4 ,a good business letter is 7#a7 clear1 7#b7 courteous1 7#c7 brief4 ,it shows unmistakably 7a7 who is writing1 7b7 to whom1 7c7 where1 7d7 when4 ,it is definite in its language1 so that there need be no return letter of inquiry as to any part of its meaning4 ,it observes the best conventions of address and signature4 ,it refrains from brusque remarks1 even in reply to a rude letter4 ,it is appreciative4 ,a good business man always takes into account that a handful of trade is a handful of gold2 if he is favored with orders1 he goes to the trouble of thanking his customers4 ,it does not curtly abbreviate sentences and signatures4 ,life is not so short but that we may avoid writing such insults as this3 8,y'rs rec'd and contents noted4 ,have ordered ,jones to push the deal through4 ,shall see you soon4 ,y'rs respy40 ,headings and ,signatures in ,business ,letters4--,a business letter should show where it was written1 and where the answer should be sent4 ,if these places are the same1 the one address may be indicated either at the beginning or at the end1 preferably the former4 ,street and number should always be given in the case of city addresses4 ,the date of writing should be placed at the beginning1 the month being written or abbreviated1 not indicated by a figure4 ,the heading ought also to indicate to whom the letter is sent4 ,since in theory or in fact there may be other persons of the same name1 the correspondent's address should usually be placed beneath his name4 ,the most common signatures in business letters are ,yours truly1 ,yours very truly1 and ,yours respectfully4 ,in writing a business letter1 a girl signs her full name4 ,then at the left she writes her name1 preceded by ,miss1 and followed by her address4 ,titles in ,business ,letters4--,firm names need not be preceded by ,messrs41 although this form certainly adds to the courtesy of the communication4 ,names of individuals should regularly be preceded by ,mr4 ,whether a person should be addressed by his professional title depends somewhat upon the character of the business4 ,in the ,united ,states a commercial letter is sufficiently courteous if ,mr4 precedes the name of the person addressed4 ,this title is in better taste1 as applied to business men1 than ,esq4 ,but there is no objection to the use of certain titles1 and they are desirable if the business be one which pertains to the profession of the person addressed4 ,initials should always be given4 8,rev4 ,brown10 8,hon4 ,jones10 are inexcusable forms4 ,the ,envelope4--,the address on the envelope should be as legible as possible4 ,names of states should not be contracted4 ,as ,professor ,j4 ,m4 ,hart remarks1 8,the only current abbreviations that seem to be safe are ,penna41 ,conn41 and ,d4 ,c40#ej ,new ,york ,city may be written for ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,the same rules for titles apply to the envelope as to the heading4 ,if the comma is placed after one line of the address1 it must be placed after the others4 ,it is needed after none4 ,written ,exercise4--,write a business letter1 replying clearly and courteously to the following imaginary communication4 #ad ,grasmere ,street1 ,boston1 ,mass41 ,dec4 #d1 #ahig4 ,miss ,helen ,roe1 ,graysville1 ,penna4 ,dear ,madam3-- ,we beg to acknowledge the receipt of your order of ,dec4 #b4 ,since you mention the fact that the goods are intended as a ,christmas surprise1 we have taken the liberty of holding them1 and writing for orders as to desired date of shipment to the address you specify4 ,we remain1 ,very respectfully yours1 ,weaver and ,weaver4 ,written ,exercise4--,write a petition to some person or persons in authority1 following in general the form given below3-- ,the ,faculty of ,lewis ,institute4 ,gentlemen3 ,we1 the undersigned1 respectfully ask the privilege of organizing a new literary society1 to be called the ,parnassian4 ,we enclose a copy of the proposed constitution1 which we are ready to sign4 ,if further information is desired1 we shall be glad to appoint a committee to wait upon you at any time you may designate4 ,l4 ,gustafson1 ,h4 ,bulkley1 etc4 ,formal ,social ,letters4--,formal correspondence indicates by its style the mere acquaintance of the correspondents1 or1 in the words of ,miss ,morton1#ea 8the bounds of distance which for any reason it is desirable to maintain40 ,a formal letter should actually be formal4 ,if one attempts to do an elaborate thing1 one ought to do it thoroughly and properly4 ,a letter that begins with formal brevity and runs off into colloquial prolixity is a burlesque4 ,a letter that begins in the third person and ends in the first is a farce4 ,written ,exercise4--,following in general the models given below1 write 7#a7 a formal invitation to dinner2 7#b7 an acceptance of this invitation2 7#c7 regrets at inability to accept4 #a4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,estoff1 ,jr41 requests the pleasure of ,mr4 ,edward ,edwards' company at dinner on ,tuesday1 ,june fourth1 at seven o'clock1 to meet ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,frederick ,estoff4 #ab ,pear ,street1 ,june twenty-eighth4 #b4 ,mr4 ,edward ,edwards accepts with much pleasure the kind invitation of ,mr4 ,frederick ,estoff1 ,jr41 to dinner for ,june fourth1 to meet ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,frederick ,estoff4 #ad ,sycamore ,street1 ,june twenty-eighth4 #c4 ,mr4 ,edward ,edwards regrets extremely that a previous engagement prevents his acceptance of ,mr4 ,frederick ,estoff1 ,jr4's kind invitation to dinner for ,june fourth1 to meet ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,frederick ,estoff4 #ad ,sycamore ,street1 ,june twenty-eighth4 ,personal or ,informal ,letters4--,the letter one writes informally to an acquaintance1 a friend1 or a relative1 should be in tone pretty nearly what one's conversation with the given person would be4 ,to give such a letter the tone which represents exactly the relation between the two people is a hard task4 ,the nicest sense of tact is required in order not to be too stiff and not too familiar4 ,personal letters demand the art of colloquial composition4 ,those unperceptive persons who have but one style of composition1--that of a book1 or that of a clerk1--make sorry work of personal letters4 ,suppose that you have always known one of these persons4 ,you have played with him1 read with him1 perhaps fought with him4 ,when you meet1 he calls you by your first name4 ,when he writes to ask you to visit him1 he addresses you as ,dear ,sir1 and signs himself ,respectfully6 ,his letter gives you a chill4 ,there is too little of the personal letter-writing of the better sort1 the leisurely1 careful1 courteous1 old-fashioned kind of written talk1--writing that1 like ,thomas ,cholmondeley's1 could be signed1 8,ever yours and not in haste40 ,written ,exercise4--,write a note inviting a friend of your own age to dinner1 to an informal party1 or to an excursion4 ,such a note usually begins on this wise1--,my ,dear ,tom1 or ,dear ,tom1 rather than on this1--,dear ,friend4 ,a similar note to an acquaintance would begin3 ,my dear ,mr4 ----1 ,my dear ,miss ----1 etc4 ,written ,exercise4--,write a personal letter to the instructor1 concerning some matter in which you would like to interest him4 ,this letter will not be read to the class4 ,written ,exercise4--,write to some friend a long letter1 observing the ordinary rules for paragraphing4 ,suggested subjects3 an account of your life since last meeting your friend2 a comparison of the town you now live in with that in which you and the friend formerly lived2 an explanation of some scheme in which you wish the friend's co-operation4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,reproduction1 ,,abstract1 ,,summary1 ,,abridgment ,literal ,reproduction4--,the word reproduction is often used in ,rhetoric in a somewhat general sense1 to mean any version of another composition4 ,as we shall use it1 the term means literal reproduction2 in other words1 a version that follows the phrasing of the original as nearly as the time given for study will permit4 ,writing of reproductions trains the memory and adds immensely to one's command of words4 ,below are given lists of brief selections1 most of them requiring not more than ten minutes to reproduce4 ,it is suggested that a given paragraph or page be slowly read aloud to the class1 two or three times1 and that the class afterward write the piece as nearly as possible in the author's words4 ,each student should then insert in his vocabulary book any new words or phrases that seem to him particularly serviceable4 ,these memoranda will prove invaluable later on1 when similar topics 7not the same ones7 are to be written about by the student himself4 ,to illustrate3 a student after reading two or three personal descriptions might jot down for future use such phrases as the following3 ,eyes4--,laughing1 startled1 heavy-lidded1 hazel1 vacant1 protruding1 lustrous1 expressive1 liquid1 dreamy1 speaking1 glad4 ,nose4--,aquiline1 ,roman1 beak-like1 shapely1 snub1 sharp1 insignificant4 ,hair4--,grizzled1 frowsy1 shaggy1 glossy1 dishevelled1 unkempt1 tumbled4 ,manner4--,alert1 jaunty1 affable1 sprightly1 haughty1 pretentious1 modest1 diffident1 reserved1 ostentatious1 demure1 animated4 ,figure4--,gaunt1 emaciated1 lank1 vigorous1 robust1 grotesque1 massive1 insignificant1 thick-set1 portly1 sturdy1 stalwart1 erect1 decrepit1 fragile4 ,expression4--,rueful1 crafty1 frank1 wistful1 stolid4 ,,material ,,for ,,literal ,,reproduction ,narration ,miles1 ,one ,thousand and ,one ,anecdotes3 p4 #cj1 ,garcia2 #cc1 ,handel2 #cf1 ,mozart2 #dc1 ,paganini2 #gd1 ,a dull witness2 #if1 ,mrs4 ,siddons2 #aje1 #aaj1 ,wellington2 #ajf1 ,coolness2 #acb1 ,bad handwriting2 #adb1 ,dickens and ,thackeray2 #bah1 ,hill2 #bca1 ,newton2 #bca1 ,sidney ,smith2 #bea1 ,scott2 #bec1 ,lessing2 #bed1 ,geological2 #bee1 ,blackie2 #bfh1 ,branger2 #bgc1 ,a toast2 #cjd1 ,a careful reader2 #cab1 ,webster2 #caf1 ,johnson2 #cah1 ,poetry and ,pattypans2 #cbb1 ,marryat2 #cbc1 ,turner2 #cbd1 ,dannecker2 #cbh1 ,hugo and ,coppe2 #cfh1 ,heroism of a workman2 #cgj1 ,rochejaquelin2 #cga1 ,washington2 #cgd1 ,lefevre2 #cgh1 ,virchow2 #cgh1 ,cham and ,gille4 ,description ,persons4--,hawthorne3 ,american ,note ,books4 ,see ,index1 p4 #ddh1 for paragraphs on characters1 mostly men4 ,scenery4--#a4 ,sunrise4 ,hawthorne3 ,american ,note ,books1 #ge1 #aba1 #cae4 ,thoreau3 ,spring1 #ii4 #b4 ,morning4 ,hawthorne3 ,american ,note ,books1 #ge1 #agg4 ,thoreau3 ,winter1 #abh1 #acg1 #beh4 #c4 ,afternoon4 ,hawthorne3 ,american ,note ,books1 #if4 ,thoreau3 ,autumn1 #ba1 #bh1 #ahb4 #d4 ,sunset4 ,hawthorne3 ,american ,note ,books1 #aab4 ,thoreau3 ,autumn1 #c1 #ag1 #ij1 #aab1 #aeb1 #bad1 #bei1 #caa1 #cbg1 #ccj1 #cde1 #chh1 #dbi1 #dcc4 ,winter1 #bc1 #ch1 #dj1 #abg1 #aee4 ,summer1 #dg1 #bdf1 #cac1 #ccb1 #cfb4 #e4 ,sunlight4 ,burroughs3 ,winter ,sunshine1 #ajb4 ,thoreau3 ,autumn1 #bhi4 ,winter1 #aad1 #bdi4 #f4 ,moonlight4 ,hawthorne3 ,the ,scarlet ,letter 7,custom ,house74 ,ruskin3 ,prterita1 vol4 ii41 #aff4 ,thoreau3 ,spring1 #gh4 ,summer1 #ie1 #ig1 #aag1 #abj1 #agf1 #bcc1 #bci1 #ccc4 ,winter1 #bae1 #cbj1 #cbb4 ,burroughs3 ,winter ,sunshine1 #dc4 #g4 ,water4 ,blackmore3 ,lorna ,doone1 vii4 ,thoreau3 ,spring1 #hg1 #if1 #aja1 #aji1 #aed4 ,summer1 #cj1 #aag1 #bdj1 #bdc4 ,autumn1 #aaa1 #afj1 #ahb1 #cgj1 #djj1 #dcd4 ,ruskin3 ,prterita1 vol4 ii41 #aei 7,the ,rhone74 #h4 ,mountains4 ,ruskin3 ,prterita1 vol4 i41 #bhh4 ,bolles3 ,at the ,north of ,bearcamp ,water4 ,see ,index1 p4 #bif1 for many views of more than a score of mountains4 #i4 ,landscapes4 ,ruskin3 ,prterita1 vol4 ii41 #gh 7,rome74 ,hawthorne3 ,american ,note ,books1 #dda 7,gosport74 ,blackmore3 ,lorna ,doone1 iv4 7,doone ,gate74 ,hugo3 ,les ,misrables 7,field of ,waterloo74 ,birds1 ,animals1 and ,insects4--,see indexes of the following3 ,thoreau3 ,spring2 ,summer2 ,autumn2 ,winter2 ,walden4 ,burroughs3 ,wake ,robin2 ,winter ,sunshine2 ,birds and ,bees4 ,miller3 ,bird-,ways2 ,a ,bird-,lover in the ,west4 ,torrey3 ,a ,rambler's ,lease2 ,birds in the ,bush4 ,merriam3 ,a-,birding on a ,broncho4 ,bolles3 ,from ,blomidon to ,smoky2 ,the ,land of the ,lingering ,snow2 ,at the ,north of ,bearcamp ,water4 ,gibson3 ,sharp ,eyes4 ,buildings and ,rooms4--,ruskin3 ,prterita1 vol4 i41 #bcb 7chapel72 vol4 iii41 #e 7monastery74 ,scott3 ,ivanhoe1 iii4 7,saxon hall74 ,stevenson3 ,an ,inland ,voyage 7,noyon ,cathedral72 ,the ,amateur ,emigrant 7the second cabin74 ,hawthorne3 ,house of the ,seven ,gables1 i42 ,howe's ,masquerade 7the ,province ,house74 ,irving3 ,the ,alhambra4 7,palace of the ,alhambra72 ,sketch ,book 7,westminster ,abbey74 ,lamb3 ,the ,east ,india ,office4 ,exposition ,helps3 ,thoughts in the ,cloister and the ,crowd1 #ad1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc1 #dj1 #db1 #ed1 #fa1 #gb4 ,brevia1 #e1 #ad1 #ae1 #bb1 #cg1 #ia1 #ib1 #id1 #aje1 #aac1 #aae1 #afa1 #afc4 ,blake3 ,thoreau's ,thoughts1 #d1 #i1 #ba1 #df1 #hi1 #ih1 #ajj1 #ajc1 #ajh1 #aah1 #abc4 ,summary1 ,abstract1 ,abridgment4--,the ability to arrive at the substance of an article or book and write it down1 is demanded constantly in almost every business and in every profession4 ,an extremely brief statement of the substance is called a summary4 ,a longer statement1 couched in language independent of that used by the author1 is an abstract4 ,if the article or book is shortened by the omission of the less important parts1 the language of the original being in general retained1 the result is an abridgment4 ,almost any well-constructed composition lends itself to summary1 abstract1 or abridgment4 ,a story of ,irving or ,hawthorne1 a chapter of ,parkman or ,john ,fiske1 an article in the ,forum or the ,nation1 furnishes excellent material4 ,below are given typical pieces that may be used1 the shorter ones for summary1 the longer for abstract or abridgment4 ,stories can better be abstracted than abridged4 ,it is well to plan the proportions of your version4 ,the scale of #a3f 7one paragraph to six7 will be found a good proportion on which to reduce the longer pieces4 ,burke's ,speech ,on ,conciliation would thus reduce to an abstract or an abridgment of about twenty paragraphs4 ,but this speech can be reduced on a scale of #a3aj or even #a3bj4 ,,material ,,for ,,summary1 ,,abstract1 ,,abridgment ,narration #a4 ,personal ,contests3--,spartacus and ,hermann1 ,a4 ,j4 ,church3 ,two ,thousand ,years ,ago1 p4 #ca ff4 ,christian and ,apollyon1 ,bunyan3 ,pilgrim's ,progress1 ,fourth ,stage4 ,archery1 ,scott3 ,ivanhoe1 xiii4 ,david and ,goliath1 ,i ,samuel xvii4 ,nickleby and ,squeers1 ,dickens3 ,nicholas ,nickleby1 xiii4 ,the ,boat ,race1 ,hughes3 ,tom ,brown at ,oxford4 ,siege of the ,round ,house1 ,stevenson3 ,kidnapped1 x4 ,the ,three-,handed ,duel1 ,marryat3 ,midshipman ,easy4 ,the ,tournament1 ,scott3 ,ivanhoe1 xii4 #b4 ,narrative chapters from3 ,aldrich3 ,story of a ,bad ,boy4 ,burnett3 ,the ,one ,i ,knew the ,best of ,all4 ,hale3 ,a ,new ,england ,boyhood4 ,larcom3 ,a ,new ,england ,girlhood4 ,howells3 ,my ,year in a ,log ,cabin4 ,warner3 ,being a ,boy4 #c4 ,stories4--,hawthorne3 ,the ,snow ,image2 ,the ,great ,stone ,face2 ,ethan ,brand2 ,legends of the ,province ,house2 ,the ,great ,carbuncle2 ,david ,swan2 ,the ,vision of the ,fountain2 ,dr4 ,heidegger's ,experiment2 ,the ,artist of the ,beautiful4 ,wilkins3 ,a ,humble ,romance2 ,the ,bar ,lighthouse2 ,a ,lover of ,flowers2 ,gentian2 ,a ,conflict ,ended2 ,a ,village ,singer2 ,sister ,liddy2 ,a ,gala ,dress2 ,a ,village ,lear2 ,the ,revolt of ,mother4 ,sir ,roger de ,coverley ,papers3 ,spectators ,no4 #aaj1 #aab1 #aac1 #aaf1 #aah1 #abb1 #abc1 #acb1 #bfi1 #cbi1 #cce1 #cei1 #chc1 #eag4 #d4 ,history4--,green3 ,history of the ,english ,people4 ,bda1 vol4 i41 ch4 #b1 pp4 #fd-fg4 ,hastings1 vol4 i41 ch4 #d1 pp4 #aac-aad4 ,rising of baronage1 ,b4 iii41 ch4 #a1 pp4 #bdj-bdd4 ,calais1 ,b4 iv41 ch4 #b1 pp4 #dbb-dbe4 ,armada1 ,b4 vi41 ch4 #f1 pp4 #ddd-ddf4 ,return of ,napoleon2 ,waterloo1 ,b4 ix41 ch4 #e1 pp4 #che-chi4 ,mc,masters3 ,history of the ,people of the ,united ,states4 ,marietta1 vol4 i41 #eac-eae4 ,death of ,hamilton1 vol4 iii41 #eb-ec4 ,leopard and ,chesapeake1 vol4 iii41 #beh-bei4 ,monroe's journey1 vol4 iv41 #cgg-chj4 ,fiske3 ,critical ,period of ,american ,history4 ,the ,continental ,congress1 vol4 i41 ch4 #c4 ,valley ,forge1 vol4 ii41 ch4 #i4 ,rolfe1 ,w4 ,j43 ,tales from ,english ,history in ,prose and ,verse4 ,yonge3 ,book of ,golden ,deeds4 ,description #a4 ,schools4--,see ,the ,schoolmaster in ,literature4 7,american ,book ,co47 #b4 ,towns4--,hale3 ,seven ,spanish ,cities4 ,howells3 ,three ,villages2 ,a ,boy's ,town4 ,stedman3 ,new ,york ,city 7,st4 ,nicholas1 #bj3djc1 '#ic74 ,stockton3 ,st4 ,augustine 7,ibid41 #ba3bjf1 '#id74 ,exposition4--#a4 ,nordhoff3 ,politics for ,young ,americans4 #b4 ,van ,dyke3 ,how to judge a picture4 #c4 ,krehbiel3 ,how to understand music4 #d4 ,wagner3 ,courage4 #e4 ,camp3 ,american ,football4 #f4 ,stagg and ,williams3 ,american ,football4 #g4 ,bassett3 ,machinist's trade 7,harper's ,young ,people1 #fd3fhb1 '#ia74 ,the ,printing ,trade 7,ibid41 #fd3fbd1 '#ia74 ,the following articles from ,the ,youth's ,companion3 #h4 ,journalism for girls 7#fd3feg1 '#ia74 #i4 ,civil ,service 7#fd3bde1 '#ia74 #aj4 ,why men must die 7#fg3dbf1 '#id74 #aa4 ,medicine as a profession 7#fd3beh1 '#ia74 #ab4 ,success in railway life 7#fe3eje1 '#ib74 #ac4 ,wholesome lunches 7#fg3hc1 '#id74 #ad-ah4 ,advice to young musicians 7#fd3caj1 #dah1 #cba1 #cfb74 #ai4 ,separate functions of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives 7#fc3fcc1 '#ij74 #bj4 ,self-,education 7#fe3did1 '#ib74 #ba-bc4 ,the girl who thinks she can write 7#fd3ddg2 #fe3deh1 #gcd74 #bd4 ,trusts 7#fg3ech1'id74 #be4 ,uses of the census 7#fc3hi1 '#ij74 #bf4 ,monroe ,doctrine 7#fg3chh1 '#id74 #bg4 ,arbitration 7#fg3dh1 '#id74 #bh4 ,good government clubs 7#fg3ddh1 '#id74 ,argument#eb #a4 ,a property qualification for municipal suffrage is desirable4 ,affirmative4 ,white3 ,forum1 x4 #ceg 7,dec4 #ahij74 ,eliot3 ,forum1 xii4 #aec 7,oct4 #ahia74 ,negative4 ,bryce3 ,american ,commonwealth1 i41 chaps1 i41 iii4 #b4 ,an eight-hour working day should be adopted by law4 ,affirmative4 ,webb and ,cox3 ,the ,eight ,hours ,day4 ,negative4 ,walker3 ,atlantic ,monthly1 lxv4 #hjj 7,june1 #ahij74 #c4 ,municipalities should sometimes give work to the unemployed4 ,affirmative4 ,forum1 xvi4 #fee 7,feb4 #ahid74 ,coit ,forum1 xvii4 #bgf 7,may1 #ahid74 ,negative4 ,nation1 lvii4 #dha 7,dec4 #bh1 #ahic74 #d4 ,the housing of the poor should be improved by municipalities4 ,affirmative4 ,riis3 ,how the ,other ,half ,lives4 ,negative4 ,white3 ,improved ,dwellings for the ,laboring ,classes4 #e4 ,burke3 ,on ,conciliation with the ,american ,colonies4 #f4 ,chatham3 ,on ,removing ,troops from ,boston4#ec #g4 ,beecher3 ,liverpool ,speech4#ec ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,narration ,,and ,,description ,narration1 or narrative1 relates a series of events4 ,description gives an account of the look of persons or things4 ,character description gives both physical and mental traits4 ,recall to memory various stories you have read1 and say whether narratives of considerable length do or do not have to give description as they proceed4 ,,narration ,two ,kinds4--,if a series of events actually happened1 they are historical1 and the story of them may be called historical narrative4 ,if they did not happen1 but owe their existence to the imagination1 they are fictional1 and the narrative is fiction4 ,if we are writing a story1 let the fact be understood2 if a sober rehearsal of facts1 let it be made an exercise in the rare and difficult art of truth-telling4 ,exercises in ,choice of ,subject4--7#a7 ,examine a daily paper and pick out several narratives which seem to you to have a general human interest1 and several that have not4 7#b7 ,write a list of twenty subjects for narrative and submit them to the class for a vote as to which are the most interesting4 ,choose events which you have witnessed or taken part in4 7#c7 ,write a list of what are to you the most interesting events of ancient1 medival1 and modern history4 ,choice of ,details4--,in writing an account of a simple incident it is possible to tell every detail of what happened4 ,but evidently no such thing is practicable in narrating the events of a day1 a week1 a lifetime4 ,what to omit will depend much upon the length of the composition4 ,a clear-headed writer will not put pen to paper before he has decided just what points he is going to bring out4 ,written ,exercise4--7#a7 ,jot down on paper memoranda of the important things1 the turning events1 in your own past life4 7#b7 ,make memoranda to show what events ought to stand out most distinctly in a history of the ,united ,states4 ,plot4--,read the following3-- ,ichabod ,crane was ridiculously frightened one dark night by a boy who played ghost4 ,the lad took the part of a traditional spectre that rode a black horse4 ,the joker had a cloak over his head1 and before him on the saddle a pumpkin1 to represent the head which the headless horseman was fabled to carry4 ,read now the following3-- ,one dark night ,ichabod ,crane started homeward on horseback4 ,he approached the oak on which ,andr1 the spy1 was hanged4 ,ichabod's heart quaked4 ,he passed the haunted tree in safety1 but his heart almost stood still when1 a little farther on1 he saw a strange rider on a gigantic horse4 ,horse and rider kept pace with him4 ,ichabod however saw that the latter was headless1 nay1 carried his head before him on the saddle4 ,the figure raised itself and hurled its head at ,ichabod4 ,when the schoolmaster found himself on the ground1 did he realize that the grewsome missile was only a pumpkin8 ,which of these accounts begets suspense as to the outcome8 ,in other words1 in which is there plot8 ,recall some novel you have read1 and explain how the reader's interest is held through to the end4 ,oral ,exercise4--,recall some anecdote1 and present it orally with plot interest4 ,theme4--,write a simple historical narrative of about two hundred words1 giving without plot all the details of some brief incident in your own experience4 ,the following may suggest a topic3 #a4 ,my first day at the lathe4 #b4 ,examination memories4 #c4 ,how ,i earned some money and how ,i spent it4 #d4 ,spearing fish by night4 #e4 ,a personal adventure with a window4 #f4 ,how ,i spent this morning4 ,theme4--,write one or more imaginary newspaper items1 without plot1 each detailing some simple incident4 ,choose a subject of local interest if possible4 ,for example3 #a4 ,a runaway4 #b4 ,fire on ,seventh ,street4 #c4 ,trolley-car accident4 #d4 ,curious act of a bird4 #e4 ,april #bc at the ,brown ,school4 #f4 ,brave deed of a child4 #g4 ,he returned #ejj4 #h4 ,an old building demolished4 #i4 ,the new library is opened4 #aj4 ,arrested for 8scorching40 ,themes4--,select several topics for five hundred word themes1 and write outlines showing what details you would emphasize in composing4 ,then write historical narratives from the outlines1 making them as interesting as you can without deviating from facts4 ,sample subjects3 #a4 ,my struggles with cooking4 #b4 ,a day in the berry patch4 #c4 ,the first time ,i saw a play4 #d4 ,an adventure of my father4 #e4 ,a few days with a doctor4 #f4 ,how a certain town was named4 #g4 ,misfortunes of our circus4 #h4 ,the tribulations of a truant4 #i4 ,my first ocean voyage4 #aj4 ,an uncomfortable call4 #aa4 ,my career as an actor4 #ab4 ,a visit to the ,world's ,fair4 #ac4 ,in a graveyard after dark4 #ad4 ,how ,smith looked me up4 #ae4 ,a week in the woods4 #af4 ,the fall ,i had4 #ag4 ,my experience as a clerk4 #ah4 ,a glimpse of college life4 #ai4 ,what ,i saw some bees do4 #bj4 ,an unwilling swim4 #ba4 ,that ,fourth of ,july4 #bb4 ,experiences with a pony4 #bc4 ,haying4 #bd4 ,how the vacation passed4 #be4 ,when ,i was a book-agent4 #bf4 ,crossing a swollen stream4 ,complex ,incident4--,many a narrative must be composed of several threads1 telling different events that were going on at the same time4 ,if you were giving an account of how two hunters after being separated in the woods finally reached home again1 you would relate first how one got home1 then how the other got home2 or1 having narrated the wanderings of the first1 you would let the second tell his own story on rejoining his companion4 ,theme4--,relate a complex incident1 either historical or fictional1 in a theme about five hundred words long4 ,two or three threads are enough4 ,the following may suggest a subject3 #a4 ,two roads to town4 #b4 ,how our party reached the top of the mountain4 #c4 ,adventures of a lost child and its parents4 #d4 ,the rescue of an amateur sailor from a wreck4 #e4 ,what happened at our club meeting4 #f4 ,three boys and a boat4 #g4 ,an overheard discussion4 ,,description ,language is better adapted to narrate than to describe1 for words follow each other1 just as events do2 they cannot flash the whole picture1 with all the details1 upon the reader4 ,consequently writers often combine narrative and description in order to dwell on details4 ,homer#ed describes the shield of ,achilles by telling the story of its forging--how ,vulcan wrought each part in turn4 ,what is called the traveller's view is description from successive points of view4 ,there is a good example of this kind of description in ,hawthorne's ,american ,note ,books1 p4 #aha4 ,in some descriptions the writer is willing to sacrifice the general look of the object1 in order to secure accuracy of detail4 ,giving each detail is called description by inventory4 ,this is often useful1 particularly in business or in science4 ,turn to any book of natural history and read the inventory description of some bird or animal4 ,but ordinarily a description should give a general impression whether it afterward gives details or not4 ,the most common way of doing this is to tell what in general the object to be described makes you think of4 ,if the object is a river1 it may remind you of a snake or a letter ,s2 if a village1 it may recall to your mind a flat-iron2 if a little old lady1 it may appear to you1 as to ,dickens1 in ,hard ,times1 8a bundle of shawls40 ,the main impression thus received is called the fundamental image4 ,not every object will furnish a fundamental image1 but every object is sure to be remembered for a few chief details4 ,if of a given landscape there lingers in the memory only a dim sense of green woods1 with here and there a patch of white1 it is as much description to record this dim image as it would be to detail kinds of trees1 distances1 etc4 ,indeed1 it is a mistake often made to report in a description things that could not possibly have been seen from the given point of view4 ,to keep the point of view is vital4 ,it is a good practice to describe a photograph--such as those published by the ,soule ,company1 of ,boston--in order to learn the art of proportion in these matters of living details4 ,it must not1 however1 be thought that details have no place in description4 ,in studying an object with a view to writing about it1 one should have the eye of a hawk for every visible detail1 in order that what he writes may be truthful4 ,there is no better training for the powers of observation than description4 ,send a careless person to the lake to describe it4 ,he reports 8myriads of ripples dancing in glee10 things that every wretched poetaster has seen before him4 ,send a careful observer1 and he will report wonderful shades of color1 and curious surface effects1 like corrugation and damascene4 ,suggested ,topics for ,description ,by ,inventory4--#a4 ,the bluebird4 #b4 ,a jellyfish4 #c4 ,a luna moth4 #d4 ,kinds of clouds4 #e4 ,in a museum4 #f4 ,flags of different nations4 #g4 ,a bottle of ink4 #h4 ,a small boy's pocket4 #i4 ,what my room contains4 #aj4 ,a shop window4 #aa4 ,the old swimming-hole4 #ab4 ,a bit of old silver4 ,by ,narrative4--#a4 ,a day in ,boston4 #b4 ,an oil well4 #c4 ,a crowd4 #d4 ,a quaint tea party4 #e4 ,a country fair4 #f4 ,a fire4 #g4 ,a dream4 #h4 ,the matine4 #i4 ,a masquerade4 #aj4 ,how the farm looked when ,i went back4 #aa4 ,the dynamo ,i made4 #ab4 ,my tent-making4 #ac4 ,our hut4 #ad4 ,decorating a church for ,christmas4 #ae4 ,my baking4 #af4 ,up ,pike's ,peak4 ,by ,fundamental ,image and ,details4--#a4 ,kinds of noses4 #b4 ,a bit of old architecture4 #c4 ,a church altar4 #d4 ,famous deltas4 #e4 ,the shop4 #f4 ,the lunch-room4 #g4 ,a little old man4 #h4 ,this town in ,a4,d4 #bjjj4 #i4 ,an old fireplace4 #aj4 ,a wreck4 #aa4 ,profile ,mountain4 #ab4 ,the football field4 #ac4 ,the baseball ground described for an ,englishman4 #ad4 ,the capitol4 #ae4 ,an old horse4 ,by ,chief ,details4--#a4 ,uncle ,billy4 #b4 ,a hermit4 #c4 ,our postmaster4 #d4 ,our mail-carrier4 #e4 ,an ,indian4 #f4 ,a southern girl4 #g4 ,my chum4 #h4 ,the procession of the pines4 #i4 ,a moonlight scene4 #aj4 ,a wood interior4 #aa4 ,an ,american boy of #aibe4 #ab4 ,houses ,i have lived in4 #ac4 ,two generals4 #ad4 ,the boy who grins4 #ae4 ,queer street characters4 #af4 ,a cat4 #ag4 ,the fortune-teller4 #ah4 ,curious advertisements4 #ai4 ,betty in her best dress4 #bj4 ,a sunset4 #ba4 ,a wave4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,exposition ,,and ,,argument ,,exposition ,exposition is explanation4 ,it may either explain a general principle by illustrations and examples1 as the preacher's sermon expounds a statement of scripture1 or it may explain a group of facts by getting at their underlying principle1 as a scientific treatise does4 ,exposition1 it is clear1 deals with ideas rather than with particular objects4 ,we describe a department store2 we expound the principles by which it is conducted4 ,we describe an electric motor2 we expound the laws of electricity4 ,we describe a beautiful statue2 we expound beauty4 ,below are given various subjects for exposition4 ,in writing about them1 do not drift into argument4 ,if you write on 8dangers of exercise10 do not argue against over-exercise2 calmly explain the matter4 ,subjects for ,exposition #a4 ,golf4 #b4 ,cannibalism4 #c4 ,the bear family4 #d4 ,principles of diet4 #e4 ,credulity4 #f4 ,nostalgia4 #g4 ,how to sail a boat4 #h4 ,drowned rivers4 #i4 ,on eating candy4 #aj4 ,the formation of ravines4 #aa4 ,dangers of over-exercise4 #ab4 ,dangers of too little exercise4 #ac4 ,why the earth quakes4 #ad4 ,how men become criminals4 #ae4 ,how the will may be trained in the classroom4 #af4 ,an ideal classroom4 #ag4 ,what makes up an ideal camping ground4 #ah4 ,advantages and disadvantages of classroom study4 #ai4 ,effects of climate on man4 #bj4 ,the conduct of a great business4 #ba4 ,what are home missions8 #bb4 ,how to become famous4 #bc4 ,how to plan a dinner4 #bd4 ,how to furnish a sitting-room4 #be4 ,advantages of small classes4 #bf4 ,possibilities of electricity4 #bg4 ,what constitutes a great man8 #bh4 ,the art of fly-casting4 #bi4 ,the construction of a roof4 #cj4 ,what good does an examination do the student8 #ca4 ,spiritualism4 #cb4 ,ghosts4 #cc4 ,my choice of a profession4 #cd4 ,the banking system4 #ce4 ,practical values of good manners4 #cf4 ,the interpretation of any of the proverbs given on pages #bac-bae4 ,,argument ,there are various ways of bringing people to our way of thinking4 ,one way1 by appealing to their reason1 is called argument4 ,can you suggest other ways8 ,every argument must have a proposition1 which is laid down to be proved4 ,if this proposition is not stated in the title of the argument1 it should be stated early in the discussion4 ,it cannot be too definitely formulated4 ,every word of it should be made clear2 there should be full exposition of terms4 ,half the quarrels in the world disappear after a thorough definition of terms4 ,the question of whether ,aaron ,burr was guilty of treason depends on how treason is defined4 ,in law a man1 however traitorous1 is not guilty of treason unless his treason had been witnessed by two persons4 ,burr's treason was not witnessed2 he escaped conviction4#ee ,in argument 7a7 depend upon a few weighty arguments rather than upon many weak ones2 7b7 remember that examples are but weak arguments2 7c7 if in debate1 be perfectly fair to your opponent1 admitting all that is true on his side2 7d7 know your case thoroughly in every detail4 ,subjects for ,argument or ,debate #a4 ,examinations are usually a fair test of scholarship4 #b4 ,labor-saving machinery is a permanent advantage to mankind4 #c4 ,the world owes every man a living4 #d4 ,a truthful person will be a better writer than a liar4 #e4 ,the ,gulf of ,mexico will one day have a greater port than ,new ,york now has4 #f4 ,high school students should read the newspapers4 #g4 ,observation helps us more than reading4 #h4 ,examinations should be abolished4 #i4 ,sunday observance should be compulsory4 #aj4 ,a high school is guilty of injustice to its students if it does not train them in public speaking4 #aa4 ,people possessing no property should not be allowed to vote4 #ab4 ,is it right to break a friendship8 #ac4 ,ought department stores to be permitted8 #ad4 ,are there good excuses for being a tramp8 #ae4 ,is it wrong to bet8 #af4 ,how far is it right in politics that to the victors should belong the spoils8 #ag4 ,should a parent forbid his son to take part in football8 #ah4 ,should a man ever shoot a robber8 #ai4 ,is suicide ever justifiable8 #bj4 ,is it right to evade custom house duties8 #ba4 ,is it wrong to go to the theatre often8 #bb4 ,is it ever best to give money on the street8 #bc4 ,is it right for women to wear birds on their hats8 #bd4 ,how far is it right for students to study together8 #be4 ,is a curfew law desirable8 #bf4 ,is it right to discard old friends for new8 #bg4 ,should one bear witness against a friend8 #bh4 ,does paying a fare entitle one to a seat8 #bi4 ,is it right to let people deceive themselves8 #cj4 ,are there any customary lies which are right8 #ca4 ,is capital punishment defensible as punishment8 #cb4 ,is capital punishment defensible as a protection to society8 #cc4 ,should ,latin be a compulsory study8 #cd4 ,which is rougher1 football or pugilism8 ,,footnotes #a ,from the first1 brief supplementary themes1 especially reproductions1 should be required4 ,for bibliography of material1 see ,chapter ,,xiii4 #b ,cf4 ,president ,stanley ,hall's ,pedagogical ,seminary1 iv4 i4 #gf4 #c ,the ,children1 p4 #ajc4 7,the ,bodley ,head4 ,john ,lane47 #d ,some teachers will prefer to use composition-books4 #e ,a part of these signs are from ,g4 ,r4 ,carpenter's admirable ,exercises in ,rhetoric and ,english ,composition4 #f ,elizabeth ,h4 ,spalding3 ,the ,problem of ,elementary ,composition4 ,boston1 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,co4 #g ,do not discard your old text-book in grammar or in 8language40 ,bring it to school and keep it at hand for ready reference4 ,in it are rules for spelling2 these1 as well as other rules1 you will be glad to review occasionally4 #h ,the author is indebted for the idea of this exercise to ,miss ,catherine ,aiken's ,methods of ,mind-,training 7,harper ,bros474 ,if it proves helpful it should be extended to the consonants d1 f1 g1 l1 m1 n1 p1 r1 s1 t4 #i ,the mark over the second syllable is called the diresis4 ,it indicates that each vowel is to be pronounced separately4 #aj ,such may be called logically co-ordinate1 though grammatically dependent4 ,the restrictive relative clause may be called the necessary relative clause2 the non-restrictive may be called the unnecessary or additional relative clause4 #aa ,comprehensively is ,mr4 ,stevenson's word--not the husband's2 it is inserted to show the way in which1 probably with a vague gesture1 the husband said all4 #ab ,demean behave4 ,what word would be better here8 #ac ,a quaint way of spelling eras4 #ad ,solecism is ,greek in origin4 ,the ,athenian colonists of ,soli in ,asia ,minor spoke ,greek so badly that the ,attic ,greeks came to refer to an error in grammar 7or in pronunciation7 as soloikisms1 whence our word4 #ae ,advanced ,exercises1 p4 #he4 #af ,there are few exceptions3 day's work1 week's pay1 etc4 #ag ,is there incoherence between the clauses of this sentence after vowing8 ,if so1 how remedy it8 #ah ,each of these paragraphs was written as a part of a larger whole4 ,but each is complete in itself1 and may be considered as an independent whole4 #ai ,in another and larger sense1 every mark of punctuation is disjunctive1 as was said on page #ba4 #bj ,that is1 ,lord ,falkland4 #ba ,this 8that0 is demonstrative4 #bb ,sometimes a simple sentence is called periodic4 ,this is when the natural order of subject and predicate is inverted4 ,thus3 8,great is ,diana of the ,ephesians40 ,indeed1 the attributive position of the adjective is sometimes called periodic1 because it delays the noun-idea4 ,a long sentence is sometimes periodic up to a certain point1 then loose2 sometimes the opposite is true4 #bc ,sentences that are in the main periodic may ordinarily be given this name4 #bd ,the longer passages to which the last two selections belong may be found in ,genung's ,rhetorical ,analysis4 #be ,the phrase1 8words that deserve distinction10 is ,professor ,barrett ,wendell's4 ,see his ,english ,composition1 p4 #ajc 7,scribner's74 #bf ,see also ,scott and ,denney1 ,composition-,rhetoric1 p4 #gb ff4 ,teachers will be interested to compare an article by ,miss ,gertrude ,buck1 ,educational ,review1 ,march1 #ahhg4 ,the matter is touched upon in the ,history of the ,english ,paragraph1 by the author of this book1 p4 #dc et al4 7,univ4 of ,chicago ,press74 #bg ,is there not some ambiguity as to the grammatical structure here8 ,swallowed is logically the act performed by it1 the fish1 but grammatically it may be taken with ----8 ,remedy the fault4 #bh ,good ,manners1 a pamphlet4 7,h4 ,l4 ,hastings1 ,boston7 #bi ,for the idea of this exercise the author is indebted to ,professors ,scott and ,denney1 ,composition-,rhetoric 7,allyn and ,bacon74 #cj ,see however do1 does1 in the ,oxford ,english ,dictionary4 #ca ,a4 ,s4 ,hill3 ,foundations of ,rhetoric1 p4 #aaj 7,harper's74 #cb ,round is more frequently used than around with verbs of motion4 #cc ,probably three-fourths of these words are not in literary use to-day4 ,many are obsolete1 many are colloquial1 many are scientific or technical4 ,thousands of other scientific terms 7names of genera and species7 are not included in the #bjj1jjj estimate4 #cd ,a maker of noble verse is called what8 #ce ,see ,the ,century ,magazine for ,november1 #ahif1 for an ,english theme by ,miss ,helen4 #cf ,emerson's words1 quoted on page #aba1 will occur to every reader4 #cg ,my ,literary ,passions1 p4 #cb 7,harper ,bros474 #ch ,in case of doubt1 consult ,bartlett's ,shakspere ,concordance 7,macmillan ,co474 #ci ,it may be found desirable to assign only a part of the words to each student1 the results to be read before the class and discussed4 #dj ,foundations of ,rhetoric1 p4 #aga4 #da ,advanced ,exercises1 p4 #da4 #db ,for particular passages1 etc41 see ,professor ,a4 ,s4 ,cook's ,the ,bible and ,english ,prose ,style 7,ginn ,co474 #dc ,hundreds of others will be found in ,hazlitt's ,english ,proverbs4 #dd ,for reference3 ,fallows1 #ajj1jjj ,synonyms and ,antonyms 7,fleming ,h4 ,revell ,co472 ,roget1 ,thesaurus2 ,fernald1 ,synonyms1 ,antonyms1 and ,prepositions 7,funk and ,wagnalls74 #de ,among ,my ,books1 ,,ii4 #bei4 #df ,quoted in a different connection by ,e4 ,e4 ,hale1 ,jr41 ,constructive ,rhetoric1 p4 #bhh 7,henry ,holt ,co474 #dg ,mr4 ,george ,bainton1 ,the ,art of ,authorship 7,d4 ,appleton ,co474 #dh ,consult a ,french dictionary4 #di ,the ,turkish ,cadi to the ,english ,traveller4 ,see ,james1 ,psychology1 ,,ii4 #fdj4 #ej ,handbook of ,english ,composition1 p4 #cdh 7,eldredge ,bro474 #ea ,letter-,writing1 p4 #aba 7,penn4 ,pub4 ,co474 #eb ,the first four subjects are taken from ,brookings and ,ringwalt3 ,briefs for ,debate 7,longmans71 which see for further articles on the same topics4 #ec ,see ,baker3 ,specimens of ,modern ,argumentation 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,words1 correctness in choice of1 #adg-ahj3 authority1 #adg-aej2 provincialisms or localisms1 #adg2 national usage1 #adg-adh2 present usage1 #adh2 reputable usage1 #adh-adi2 vulgarisms1 #adi2 good usage1 #aej2 dictionary1 #aej2 barbarisms1 #aea-aec2 alienisms1 #aeb-aec2 improprieties1 #aed2 choice of nouns1 #aed-afj2 verbs1 #afj-afg2 adjectives and adverbs1 #afg-agb2 exercises1 oral1 #agb-agd1 #age-agg1 #agh-ahj4 ,words1 figurative use of common4 ,see ,vocabulary4 ,words1 lists of3 incorrectly spelled1 #af-ag2 compound1 #ad-ae2 mispronounced1 #ah-ai2 ,latin1 #aha-ahb1 #ahh-ahi1 #aij-aia2 ,celtic1 #ahb2 ,anglo-,saxon1 #ahb-ahc2 ,norse1 #ahc2 ,italian1 #ahd2 ,spanish1 #ahe2 ,dutch1 #ahe2 ,african1 #ahe2 ,arabian1 #ahe2 ,chinese1 #ahe2 ,india1 words from1 #ahe-ahf2 ,malayan1 #ahf2 ,persian1 #ahf2 ,north ,american ,indian1 #ahf2 ,mexican1 #ahf2 ,west ,indian1 #ahf2 ,south ,american1 #ahf2 ,greek1 #aia2 curious1 #aia-aib2 adjectives1 #bjc2 synonyms1 #bbj-bbe4 ,words1 omission of1 #ee1 #ib1 #bcd-bce4 ,words1 right number and skilful choice of1 #bbg-bec3 as affecting clearness1 #bbg-bbh2 force1 #bbh-bbi2 beauty1 #bbi2 prolixity1 #bbi-bca2 surplus of1 #bca-bcb2 deficiency of1 #bcc-bce2 specific words1 #bce-bch2 general words1 #bch-bde2 ambiguous words1 #bdc-bdd2 simple words1 #bdd-bdf2 literal and figurative words1 #bdf-bec2 exercises1 #bcb-bcc1 #bce1 #bcg-bch1 #bda-bdc1 #bdc-bdd1 #bde-bdf1 #bec-bed4 ,words without ideas1 #aid-aie4 ,writing vocabulary4 ,see ,vocabulary4 ,,index ,,of ,,authors ,,quoted ,aiken1 ,c41 #ah4 ,bainton1 ,g41 #bdd1 foot-note4 ,baker1 ,g4 ,p41 #bgj1 foot-note4 ,bardeen1 ,c4 ,w41 #dd4 ,bartlett1 ,j41 #bja1 foot-note4 ,beecher1 ,h4 ,w41 #ge1 #bec4 ,bible1 #ajg4 ,bigelow1 ,n4 ,t41 #ae4 ,blackmore1 ,r4 ,d41 #aic1 #bje1 #bjf4 ,brookings1 ,w4 ,d41 and ,ringwalt1 ,r4 ,c41 #bfi1 foot-note4 ,browning1 ,r41 #ace4 ,bryant1 ,w4 ,c41 #bge1 foot-note4 ,buck1 ,g41 #aad1 foot-note4 ,burke1 ,e41 #ade1 #bfg4 ,carlyle1 ,t41 #bja-bje1 #bec4 ,carpenter1 ,g4 ,r41 #c1 foot-note2 #dh1 #baa1 foot-note2 #bch-bci2 and ,fletcher1 ,j4 ,b41 #bha1 foot-note4 ,chesterfield1 ,p4 ,d4 ,s4 7#dth earl71 #aea1 #agi4 ,choate1 ,r41 #baa4 ,cholmondeley1 ,t41 #bfa4 ,clarendon1 ,e4 ,h4 7#ast lord71 #hi-ij4 ,coleridge1 ,s4 ,t41 #gf-gg1 #acf4 ,cook1 ,a4 ,s41 #bab1 foot-note4 ,defoe1 ,d41 #hi4 ,de ,quincey1 ,t41 #gh4 ,dickens1 ,c41 #bgf4 ,drayton1 ,m41 #acf4 ,eliot1 ,george1 #bdc4 ,emerson1 ,r4 ,w41 #cd1 #gg1 #aba-abb1 #bdj4 ,fallows1 ,s41 #bbj1 foot-note4 ,fernald1 ,j4 ,c41 #bai1 #bbj1 foot-note4 ,fiske1 ,j41 #aja4 ,gaskell1 ,mrs41 #agg-agi4 ,genung1 ,j4 ,f41 #aji1 foot-note4 ,goethe1 #ce4 ,hale1 ,e4 ,e41 ,jr41 #bdj1 foot-note4 ,hall1 ,s41 ix41 foot-note4 ,hart1 ,j4 ,m41 #beg1 foot-note4 ,hawthorne1 ,n41 #aje-ajf1 #bgf4 ,hazlitt1 ,w41 #bac1 foot-note4 ,hill1 ,a4 ,s41 #afd1 foot-note2 #aii1 #baa4 ,holmes1 ,o4 ,w41 #ge-gf4 ,homer1 #bge1 foot-note4 ,howells1 ,w4 ,d41 #bjj4 ,hughes1 ,t41 #fd-ga4 ,huxley1 ,t4 ,h41 #ajh4 ,irving1 ,w41 #abd-abf4 ,james1 ,h41 #aif1 #bdc4 ,james1 ,w41 #bee1 foot-note4 ,johnson1 ,s41 #abb-abc1 #aib-aic4 ,jowett1 ,b41 #add4 ,keats1 ,j41 #bdj4 ,keller1 #aid1 foot-note4 ,lamb1 ,c41 #ci-da4 ,lanier1 ,s41 #ajg4 ,lewis1 ,e4 ,h41 #aad1 foot-note4 ,lincoln1 ,a41 #acc-acd4 ,longfellow1 ,h4 ,w41 #bb1 #acf4 ,lowell1 ,j4 ,r41 #acf1 #bca4 ,macaulay1 ,t4 ,b41 #ajg1 #aah-aai4 ,mandeville1 ,sir ,j41 #id-ie1 #if-ig4 ,meynell1 ,a41 ix4 ,miles1 ,a4 ,h41 #bfc1 #bfd4 ,milton1 ,j41 #aag1 #bjg-bjh4 ,molire1 #dc4 ,morse1 ,e4 ,s41 #abj4 ,newman1 ,j4 ,h41 #ia1 #ajh-aji4 ,outlook1 ,the1 #aah4 ,oxford ,english ,dictionary1 #aec1 foot-note4 ,phyfe1 ,w4 ,h4 ,p41 #ah4 ,roche1 ,sir ,b41 #beb4 ,roget1 ,p4 ,m41 #bbj1 foot-note4 ,rousseau1 ,j4 ,j41 #ac4 ,ruskin1 ,j41 #ajj-aja1 #aaa1 #ade1 #agb-agd1 #bjg-baa4 ,scott1 ,f4 ,n41 and ,denney1 ,j4 ,v41 #aad1 foot-note2 #abc1 foot-note4 ,shakespeare1 #cj1 #ic1 #id1 #bja1 #beb1 #bec4 ,sheridan1 ,p4 ,b41 #aie4 ,smith1 ,c4 ,j41 #bai4 ,southey1 ,r41 #aab-aac4 ,spalding1 ,e4 ,h41 #h1 foot-note4 ,stevenson1 ,r4 ,l41 #bg-bh1 #cb-cc1 #cf1 #agf-agg4 ,tennyson1 ,a41 #acf4 ,thackeray1 ,w4 ,m41 #acf4 ,webster1 ,d41 #ajg-ajh4 ,wendell1 ,b41 #aaa1 foot-note4 ,whittier1 ,j4 ,g41 #acf4 ,wood1 ,j4 ,g41 #aai1 #abh1 #aca4 ,wordsworth1 ,w41 #bdj1 #bec4 ,see also bibliography1 #bfc-bgj4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,rhetoric ,,and ,,english ,,composition4 ,,by ,,george ,r4 ,,carpenter1 ,professor of ,rhetoric and ,english ,composition1 ,columbia ,college4 ,,high-,,school ,,course4 ,,seventh ,,edition4 #afmo4 ,cloth4 ,price #ge cents1 net4 ,,advanced ,,course4 ,,fourth ,,edition4 #abmo4 ,cloth4 ,price #a4jj1 net4 8,this work gives the student the very gist and germ of the art of composition40--,public ,opinion4 8,g4 ,r4 ,carpenter1 ,professor of ,rhetoric and ,english ,composition in ,columbia ,college1 has prepared a work under the title of #8,exercises in ,rhetoric and ,english ,composition1' in which not so much the science of ,rhetoric is mapped out and defined as the practical workings of the art are furnished to the student with just enough of the principles to guide him aright4 ,the author gives an abundance of exercises for the student to study and analyze1 and this is the very best kind of help4 ,the scheme of the subject-matter is somewhat unique and novel1 but it is comprehensive and lucid4444 ,a very serviceable and suggestive book to read and consult40--,education4 8,the text represents the substance of teaching which a freshman may fairly be expected to compass1 and it is set forth with a clearness and directness and brevity so admirable as to make the volume seem almost the realization of that impossible short method of learning to write which has often been sought for1 but never with a nearer approach to being found4444 ,we do not hesitate to give unreserved commendation to this little book40--,the ,nation4 8,seldom has so much good common sense been put within so brief a space40--,the ,boston ,herald4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company1 #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,the ,,english ,,poets4 ,,with ,,critical ,,introductions ,,by ,,various ,,writers ,,and ,a ,,general ,,introduction ,,by ,,matthew ,,arnold4 ,,edited ,,by ,,thomas ,,humphry ,,ward1 ,m4,a4 ,in ,four ,volumes4 #abmo4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,chaucer to ,donne4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,ben ,jonson to ,dryden4 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,addison to ,blake4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,wordsworth to ,tennyson4 ,cabinet ,edition4 ,four ,volumes in ,box1 #e4jj4 ,student's ,edition4 ,each ,volume sold separately4 #a4jj per vol4 8,all lovers of poetry1 all students of literature1 all readers1 will welcome the volumes of #8,the ,english ,poets4' 444 ,mr4 ,matthew ,arnold has written a most delightful introduction1 full of wise thought and poetic sensibility4 ,very few books can be named in which so much that is precious can be had in so little space and for so little money40--,philadelphia ,times4 8,altogether it would be difficult to select four volumes of any kind better worth owning and studying than these40--,nation4 8,these four volumes ought to be placed in every library1 and1 if possible1 in the hands of every student of ,english40--,churchman4 8,ward's #8,english ,poets' has been acknowledged to be one of the most serviceable and discriminating contributions to the history of ,english poetry40--,quips4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company1 #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,english ,,prose ,,selections ,,with ,,critical ,,introductions ,,by ,,various ,,writers1 ,,and ,,general ,,introductions ,,to ,,each ,,period4 ,,edited ,,by ,,henry ,,craik1 ,,ll4,d4 ,in ,five ,volumes4 #abmo4 ,volume ,i4 ,from the ,fourteenth to the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,volume ,,ii4 ,the ,sixteenth ,century to the ,restoration4 ,volume ,,iii4 ,the ,seventeenth ,century4 ,volume ,,iv4 ,the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,volume ,v4 ,nineteenth ,century from ,sir ,walter ,scott to ,robert ,louis ,stevenson4 ,cabinet ,edition4 ,five ,volumes in ,box1 #g4ej4 ,student's ,edition4 ,each ,volume sold separately4 #a4aj per vol4 ,,comments4 8,if prose literature can ever be successfully studied by means of short extracts1 it will be possible to conduct such a study with the aid of this book4 ,as a companion book of ,ward's #8,english ,poets' it is very interesting and satisfactory4 ,in the ,department of ,rhetoric1 this book will certainly be of greater value than any other work of the kind yet published40--,,prof4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,neill1 ,amherst ,college4 8,mr4 ,craik and his coadjutors do their work admirably4 ,their remarks are appropriate1 their selection of extracts is felicitous4 ,we thank them for not a few happy hours40--,literary ,world4 8,the extracts are carefully chosen and edited1 and a brief sketch of each writer is given4 ,these sketches are written by men who edit the different sections1 and as these men are selected from the foremost of ,english critics1 the result is that the books contain a valuable set of brief essays from able and distinguished pens4 ,george ,saintsbury1 ,alfred ,ainger1 ,edmund ,gosse1 ,norman ,moore1 and others besides the editor himself have contributed1 and the book would have been valuable did it contain nothing but these introductory notices4 ,the conclusions of the editors of the different authors who have summed up the characteristics of the separate men represented in the previous volume1 have done their work so well1 that the student is likely in the end to have a rather better idea of the writers than he would gather from his unaided study of the original and complete works of these old writers40--,boston ,courier4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company1 #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language ,,by ,,oliver ,,farrar ,,emerson1 ,a4,m41 ,ph4,d41 ,assistant ,professor of ,rhetoric and ,english ,philology in ,cornell ,university4 ,second ,edition1 ,revised4 #abmo4 pp4 #dae4 ,cloth4 ,price #a4be1 net4 8,a work that1 as a treatise for the instruction of the individual student as well as for class-room use1 is to be warmly commended4444 ,on every page of this admirably arranged volume is shown the fruit of original thought1 profound erudition1 and philosophical grasp of a subject which has been too often obscured by injudicious counsel40--,the ,beacon4 8,an admirable work2 the best results of recent research are embodied in it40--,providence ,journal4 8,the work is a valuable contribution to linguistic science1 and it will be a welcome text-book in colleges and schools and to all students of philology40--,home ,journal4 8,in respect both of scholarship and of exposition1 this volume is entitled to high praise4444 ,there is no part of this book that cannot be read with pleasure as well as profit1 and one is therefore embarrassed by the wealth of material worthy of illustration40--,new ,york ,sun4 ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company1 #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york4