,illustration3 ,frontispiece4 ,,practical ,,organ-,,building ,,by ,w4 ,e4 ,,dickson1 ,m4,a4 ,,precentor ,,of ,,ely ,,cathedral ,,second ,,edition1 ,,revised1 ,,with ,,additions ,illustration3 ,capio ,lumen ,,london ,,crosby ,,lockwood ,,and ,,co4 #g1 ,,stationers' ,,hall ,,court1 ,,ludgate ,,hill #ahhb ,all rights reserved ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,virtue ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited1 ,,city ,,road4 ,,preface4 ,,this little work is undertaken because it is believed that no treatise on the construction of organs1 at once short1 practical1 and accessible by all classes of readers1 is extant4 ,the bulky volume of ,hopkins and ,rimbault1 worthy as it is of all commendation1 and abounding with matter interesting to the musician1 does not profess to enter into details essential to the workman4 ,the same remark may be applied to sundry treatises in the form of articles contributed to ,encyclopdias1 or to periodicals of a popular kind4 ,the writers of these articles1 probably fully masters of the subject1 cannot1 from the very nature of the case1 command the time1 space1 and amplitude of illustration absolutely necessary for the full elucidation of the mechanical processes involved in the construction of the most elaborate and ingenious of all musical instruments4 ,readers of the ,french language1 indeed1 may find all that they require in a most admirable and exhaustive work1 the ,facteur d',orgues1 by ,m4 ,hamel1 forming one of the series of the ,manuels-,roret1 published in #ahdi by ,roret of ,paris1 in three volumes1 with an atlas of plates4 ,the author of this complete exposition of the organ-builder's art has taken for the foundation of his book the great work of ,dom ,bedos1 a ,benedictine monk1 who printed in #agff-gh1 at ,paris1 two sumptuous folio volumes1 with plates1 which leave unnoticed nothing which was known or practised by the workmen of his period4 ,the modern editor1 however1 who displays a most intimate knowledge of his subject1 together with an enviable power of explaining it in all its minutest details1 aided1 as he is1 by the most accurate of all ,european languages1 has produced in his third volume a manual of the art of organ-building in recent times1 which covers the whole field of investigation1 and of which it is not too much to say that it can never be surpassed4 ,a somewhat indifferent translation of a ,german treatise on the ,organ and its ,construction1 by ,herr ,seidel1 of ,breslau1 appeared some years ago4 ,but this work1 like the ,english publication first noticed1 is not for the dwellers in workshops1 but for organists1 choir-masters1 clergymen1 and others entrusted with the care of existing organs1 or likely to be concerned in the erection of new ones4 ,the writer has lately perused1 with much pleasure and advantage1 a tract of about forty pages on ,organ ,voicing and ,tuning1 published for the author 7evidently a practical operator74 ,he can warmly recommend this unpretending introduction to the highest branch of the art1 so seldom mastered save by those who have had the advantage of early and assiduous practice under skilled guidance4 ,but it deals1 of course1 with that highest branch only1 and assumes previous knowledge of mechanical construction4 ,he himself1 several years ago1 contributed a short series of articles on the construction of small organs to a periodical publication now extinct4 ,the letters which he received from working men1 urging him to treat the subject in greater detail1 furnished a striking proof of the extent to which the leisure hours of many artisans are devoted to the production of an organ in some one of its innumerable forms1 from the toy with two or three stops to the complete instrument with as many rows of keys4 ,such inquirers will not be satisfied1 he fears1 by the narratives of ,how we made our ,first ,organ1 and the like1 in well-meant and otherwise well-written books for boys4 ,the real difficulties of organ-building 7and they are numerous7 are simply evaded in some recent books of this kind1 which convey the irresistible impression that their authors are not themselves handlers of the plane and chisel4 ,the true workman knows full well that the very simplest of organs cannot be put together in a few weeks1 out of school-hours1 and side by side with other undertakings4 ,if the present work1 in which the writer describes the results of his own experience1 and lays down no rules which he has not reduced to practice in his own workshop1 should have the effect of deterring ingenious boys from attempting their ,first ,organ until the possession of a large stock of patience1 as well as the command of leisure1 and of means moderately adequate for the purchase of good materials1 are abundantly and unmistakably assured to them1 the author1 once a plodding and untiring boy-workman himself1 will have reason to be satisfied that his efforts to explain a complicated and intricate structure have not been entirely fruitless4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,edition4 ,,since the publication of this work1 the author has had reason to believe that some hints as to the design and erection of small organs in country churches may be acceptable to readers who occupy the position1 not of constructors1 but of purchasers4 ,he trusts that the chapter now added1 ,on ,village ,church ,organs1 will be found to contain the desired information4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,plant ,,and ,,materials4 ,,page ,the ,workshop--,tools--,lathe--,materials #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,stopped ,,diapason4 ,tablature1 or ,names of ,notes--,lengths of ,pipes--,parts of ,stopped ,pipe--,the ,scale--,two ,methods of making ,wooden ,pipes--,some ,varieties of ,pipes--,old ,english ,organs #aj ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sound-,,board4 ,dimensions of ,organs--,construction of ,sound-board--,channels --,sliders--,plantations of ,pipes--,bars--,bearers--,upper ,boards --,rack-boards #bg ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sound-,,board4--7,continued47 ,grooving--,boring ,holes--,conducting-boards--,conveyances #dd ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,wind-,,chest4 ,running of ,wind--,blacklead used--,pallets--,leather for ,pallets--,springs--,how to make them--,pull-downs--,drilling-- ,brass ,plate--,front-board #ee ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,bellows1 ,,trunks1 ,,and ,,frame4 ,shape of ,bellows--,valves or ,clacks--,cummins's ,improvements --,counter-balances--,the ,cuckoo-feeder--,hydraulic-power ,engines--,trunks--,the ,frame--,its general ,dimensions--,hollow ,frame-work--,blowing ,pedal--,blowing ,lever #gb ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,plantation ,,of ,,pipes4 ,pipe-feet--,rack-pins--,symmetry #ij ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,action4 ,definitions--,back-fall--,bridge--,squa re--,sticker--,tracker-- ,tapped ,wires--,cloths--,buttons--,rollers--,ro ller-boards-- ,principle of ,organ-action--,fan-frame--,keys--,rolle r-frame-- ,double ,sound-board ,action--,thumping-board #id ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,voicing ,,and ,,tuning4 ,metal ,pipes--,their ,construction--,nicking--,voicing--,the ,wind-gauge--,defects in ,pipes--,temperament--,regulation #aae ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,draw-,,stops4 ,four ,methods of drawing the ,stops described--,levers-- ,bell-cranks--,trundles--,iron ,trundles #abg ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,pedals4 ,their ,compass--,dimensions--,springs--,dip--, connection with ,key-board--,removable ,pedal-board #ace ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,two-,,manual ,,organs4 ,remarks on the ,swell-organ--,organs with ,great and ,choir-- ,borrowing in ,two-manual ,organs--,chamber ,organ by ,schmidt-- ,the ,swell-box--,its ,construction--,the ,swell-action--,reed-stops --,manual ,couplers--,rising and ,falling ,bridges--,pedal ,couplers --,old ,method of ,coupling--,a ,combination ,manual--,the ,pedal ,sub-bass of #af-;feet ,tone--,scale--,wind-valve for ,pedal ,chest-- ,violoncello ,stop--,terzo ,mano #ada ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,village ,,church ,,organs4 ,principles of ,construction--,suggestions for ,designs--,objections noticed--,care of ,old ,organs #afe ,,organ-,,building4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,plant ,,and ,,materials4 ,,we shall assume at once1 and at the very outset1 that our reader has the fixed purpose of producing an organ which shall be creditable to its builder1 a source of pleasure to its players and their hearers1 and an ornament to the room or building in which it is erected3 in short1 that he remembers the excellent maxim1 whatever is worth doing at all1 is worth doing well1 and will not be content with rough workmanship1 inferior materials1 and inharmonious results4 ,assuming this as the basis and principle of all our suggestions1 we shall nevertheless bear in mind the necessity of adapting our rules to the conditions imposed by slender purses1 and the imperfect appliances of humble workshops4 ,without attempting to quote the actual market prices of the wood1 leather1 and metal required1 or of those important parts of the instrument which in most cases will be purchased ready-made1 we shall endeavour to show how economy may be consulted by obtaining all these gradually1 as our work advances with that inevitably slow progress which attends all proceedings in which most haste is found to be worse speed4 ,we shall buy nothing which we can make for ourselves4 ,the common sense of our readers may be trusted not to press the application of this rule to a reductio ad absurdum4 ,as we shall certainly buy1 and not make1 our screws and nails1 so in the course of the following pages we may possibly recommend the buying of certain parts of the work1 in full remembrance of our rule4 ,but even in these occasional instances we shall probably point out how expenditure may be saved by patient industry4 ,we need not anticipate4 ,our readers will see for themselves what we mean as we go on4 ,our task will be somewhat simplified if we suppose that an organ is desired for a room of moderate size4 ,such an instrument will commonly have one manual1 or row of keys1 with four or five stops1 or sets of pipes4 ,pedals1 with or without pipes of their own of deep bass quality1 must be considered essential in every organ making any pretension to completeness1 or intended to afford useful practice for learners4 ,taking this as a rough outline or sketch of probable plans1 it will be easy to see hereafter how they may be indefinitely extended4 ,our organ factory1 then 7with some such plan in our head71 must be a roomy1 well-lighted1 perfectly dry workshop1 furnished with a fire-place or stove for the glue-pot1 with drawers or cupboards for storing away skins of leather and other materials not in constant requirement1 and with shelves on which pipes may be stowed without danger of rolling off4 ,it must not be a mere shed or hovel in which we might mend the cart or the wheel-barrow1 and it should not be far from our dwelling-house1 if we are likely to work at our serious undertaking in the winter evenings4 ,the shop must be fitted with a full-sized bench in good condition1 that is to say1 with its top dressed truly1 and not hacked by rough usage2 and good workmanship will be much promoted if the usual appliances of such a bench are of the best kind and in complete order4 ,true planing1 so vitally essential in organ-building1 cannot be done upon a crazy or worn-out bench4 ,the bench should stand near a window1 and it should be so placed that boards much longer than itself may be occasionally dressed upon it by temporary arrangements4 ,the tools required are chiefly those which are common to every joiner's shop2 notably and of first importance the three planes1 the jack1 the jointer or trying plane1 and the little smoothing plane4 ,this last may now be bought in a very handy form1 entirely of iron1 and fitted with a clever adjustment by which the cutter can be set to any degree of fineness4 ,this little plane 7an ,american invention7 is invaluable for many purposes involving extreme neatness and accuracy4 ,the planes must at all times be kept in first-rate order1 and any defect which makes its appearance must be instantly rectified by a careful use of the oil stone4 ,the latter1 let us mention by the way1 as we may have youthful and inexperienced readers1 should be levelled occasionally by being rubbed on a flat slab with sand and water4 ,the plane is emphatically the tool of the organ-builder1 and no pains should be considered too great to be bestowed on the care of these beautiful tools1 or on the attainment of dexterity in the use of them4 ,the usual saws1 the ripping saw1 the panel saw1 the dovetail1 the key-hole or pad saw1 will be required2 and we may take this opportunity of remarking that as the organ-builder must have a strong dash of the smith as well as of the joiner in his composition1 his shop must have a stout vice fixed in a convenient part of it1 and a few good files always available for brass or for iron4 7,the reader is doubtless aware that the same file must not be used for both these metals47 ,drills for metal1 some of them of small clockmaker's sizes with a bow and breast-plate for working them1 will belong to this department1 which will also include a screw-plate for tapping wires of various sizes from one-eighth of an inch downwards1 and cutting pliers or nippers for dividing the wire4 ,the tool-chest must contain a thoroughly good brace and bits2 and among the last should be some one of the various forms of adjustable centre-bits for cutting large circular holes of graduated dimensions up to #c inches diameter4 ,in connection with this it may here be mentioned that most of the holes bored with the brace and bits 7though not the huge holes just referred to71 will be scorched or charred with a red-hot iron1 in order to clear them of splinters1 and allow a perfectly free passage for the air which will pass through them4 ,a few pieces of iron rod1 of sizes suitable for this purpose1 will therefore be required4 ,many of these holes will be also countersunk1 that is1 rendered conical at their extremity1 in order to receive the conical feet of the pipes which receive from these conduits their supply of wind4 ,this countersunk portion is also scorched or charred1 and two or three conical irons will be wanted for this purpose4 ,but we have not yet come to this4 ,when we are ready for these irons1 we can have them made by any blacksmith1 or we may have put aside some stout morsels of old iron from which we ourselves may contrive to fashion them4 ,an important question must next be asked4 ,is a turning-lathe absolutely necessary as part of the plant of our factory8 ,we must answer this4 ,we should be sorry to deny that a small organ certainly can be and may be built without the aid of a lathe4 ,we know that it has been done4 ,but it is equally undeniable that the absence of a lathe1 or of access to a lathe1 will necessitate the purchase of certain parts 7wooden pipe-feet for instance1 and rack-pins71 at an outlay which will bear an appreciable proportion to the first cost of a simple and inexpensive machine4 ,pressed1 then1 to say if our workshop must include a lathe1 we are bound to reply in the affirmative1 explaining1 in the same breath1 that all the purposes of the young organ-builder will be answered by a lathe of humble character and trifling cost4 ,we ourselves1 during several years of early beginnings1 used a small clockmaker's lathe by ,fenn1 of ,newgate ,street1 just capable of admitting between its centres the little billet of wood ready for shaping as a pipe-foot1 that is to say1 about #g inches in length1 and from #b inches down to half an inch in diameter4 ,we still possess this little lathe1 and still sometimes use it for small work4 ,some such simple lathe1 or some lathe still simpler1 being voted as necessary1 the usual turning-chisels and gouges will of course accompany it1 and we shall assume that our readers possess a sufficient acquaintance with the wood-turner's art to require no hints from us on the subject other than those which we shall give in regular course as we proceed4 ,if they are fortunate enough to possess a superior lathe1 with slide-rest and slow motion for turning iron and brass1 they will find the machine most conducive to good and durable workmanship1 and we shall not hesitate to point out1 as we go on1 how materially it will assist us in giving strength1 firmness1 and finish1 to various parts of our work4 ,we have furnished1 then1 our workshop1 or rather1 let us say1 we see it in our mind's eye furnished as we should wish it to be4 ,and now we may lay in our stock of wood4 ,several boards of half-inch pine1 perfectly dry and sound1 without knots2 these are of first necessity4 ,such boards are generally about #ab feet in length and from #ab to #ae or even #bj or more inches in breadth4 ,if a little stock can be laid in of such boards when an opportunity occurs of obtaining exceptionally clean stuff1 it will be well to have them by us4 ,a board or two of three-quarters stuff1 and a board of inch stuff1 all sound and clean pine1 must be provided4 ,and here we may pause for a moment4 ,we intend to begin our organ by making a set of wooden pipes4 ,hence we need not provide ourselves with more timber for the present than we shall need for this first operation4 ,but as in our imaginary furnishing of the workshop1 we included several or many things which belong rather to future than to immediate use1 so we may here place the reader in a position to form some idea of the further expense to which he will be put for the purchase of timber for his proposed small organ of four or five stops4 ,the pine boards just enumerated will give us our first set of pipes2 but when these are ready1 we shall require some rather costly wood for the sound-board4 ,this should be ,honduras mahogany1 often called ,bay wood1 and of three thicknesses1 say1 three-quarters stuff for the table of the sound-board2#a a full inch1 or1 still better1 five-quarters1 for the upper boards2 and some very thin stuff1 three-eighths or less1 known as coach-panel1 for the sliders4 ,the quantities1 or number of square feet1 of these mahogany boards will be determined by considerations discussed in a subsequent chapter4 ,the wood must be carefully selected1 for the grain of it is often tortuous and unkindly for the plane2 it must be1 like the pine1 free from large knots1 flaws1 and cracks2 and the completeness of its seasoning should be quite unquestionable and beyond the reach of suspicion4 #a ,all these expressions will1 of course1 be explained hereafter4 ,it is not unreasonable to assume that the reader1 who has contemplated for some time the building of an organ1 has already by him some materials which he knows will be necessary2 for instance1 some boards of sound white deal for the framework1 and perhaps for the bellows2 and some scantlings of red deal1 or pitch pine1 or oak1 or mahogany1 or red cedar1 for the blocks and stoppers of pipes4 ,he will not need the aid of this book to be aware that old materials may sometimes be turned to excellent account in such a business as that upon which he is embarking4 ,we have known the purchase 7for a pound or two7 of an old square pianoforte turn out a profitable investment4 ,its mahogany top was solid1 not veneered2 and the thin boards found in its interior dry as touch-wood1 and perhaps one hundred years old1 were made into pipes of charming sweetness4 ,the old organs before the days of mahogany were made chiefly of oak1 often called wainscot4 ,we ourselves have made much use of this durable and trustworthy material1 which may be obtained in the convenient form known as coopers' staves1 being planks about #f feet in length1 as many inches in width1 and #b or #c inches thick4 ,they may be divided1 at any saw-pit or saw-mill1 into boards of the desired thinness1 and they work pleasantly under thoroughly sharp tools4 ,and now we may set to work upon our set of wood pipes4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,stopped ,,diapason4 ,,why do we begin by making a set of wooden pipes8 ,for two reasons4 ,first1 because they will afford a trial of patience1 and involve a great deal of good joinery4 ,second1 because until they are made1 or1 at any rate1 until we know their precise dimensions1 we cannot plot out with accuracy the very important sound-board1 which is to carry them and the other pipes which are to follow4 ,either of these reasons is1 to our mind1 sufficient1 apart from the other2 and we strongly recommend the young beginner to set himself resolutely to the manufacture of the complete set of wooden pipes belonging to the commonest of all organ-stops1 the ,stopped ,diapason1 before taking any step in the direction of the machinery or apparatus which is to waken them into harmonious vibrations4 ,our explanations will be much assisted here if we introduce a few definitions of terms in constant use4 ,the pipes which we are about to make will give notes1 when tuned1 which are familiarly designated by certain names4 ,thus1 the lowest note on the manual or key-board of modern organs is called ,double ,c 7printed ,,cc74 ,the note one octave above this is ,tenor ,c2 the octave of ,tenor ,c is ,middle ,c2 and above this1 again1 we have ,treble ,c 7often called ,foot ,c7 and ,c in ,alto4 ,some of the other notes of the scale1 in a similar way1 have convenient names4 ,thus1 the first ,f in the bass is ,double ,f1 or ,,ff2 the next ,f1 the ,f of the ,tenor octave1 is often called ,clef ,f1 as the ,bass1 or ,f ,clef1 stands upon this line in music2 its sharp is ,,ff sharp2 but then we come at once to a single ,g1 and this note is often called ,gamut ,g4 ,the octave above this note is called ,fiddle ,g1 as it sounds the same note as the fourth string of the violin4 ,the note ,b1 we may add1 throughout the organ1 is understood to mean ,b flat2 the semitone above this is indicated by the musical symbol the ,natural 7symbol74 ,we have not quite done with this4 ,there is another way of referring to pipes1 and to complete sets of pipes1 which is in familiar use1 and is part of the mother-tongue of the organ-builder4 ,we have said that ,treble ,c is often called ,foot ,c4 ,this is because the ordinary open pipe of that note 7speaking now quite inexactly1 and without precision71 is #a foot in length4 ,in a similar way1 ,,cc is #h-;foot ,c1 or the #h-;foot note1 because the open pipe is #h feet in length1 speaking roundly or roughly4 ,tenor ,c is #d-;foot ,c2 ,middle ,c1 #b-;foot ,c4 ,it will be easily understood that these convenient designations are retained1 even though the construction of the pipes may render them strictly inapplicable4 ,thus1 the lowest note of our first stop will still be #h-;foot ,c1 though1 as we shall soon see1 the stopping of the wooden tube enables us to reduce the actual length by one-half4 ,our ,,cc will still be of #h-;feet pitch1 or tone1 and by no means becomes a #d-;foot ,c1 because its actual measurement1 when completed1 will not exceed #d feet in total length4 ,one step further4 ,the theoretical length of the lowest note is not only used to designate that note and the pipes which belong to that note1 but is extended to the designation of the whole set of pipes of which it is the lowest or longest4 ,this whole set of pipes is called familiarly a ,stop2 thus we have at once the ready terms1 #h-;feet stops1 #af-;feet stops1 #d-;feet stops1 #b-;feet stops1 c42 and it will be understood that by an #h-;feet stop1 we mean a set of pipes yielding the common or ordinary pitch of the pianoforte1 or of the human voice2 while a #d-;feet stop1 when the very same keys are pressed down1 will yield notes one octave higher than this ordinary or standard pitch2 the #b-;feet stop1 notes two octaves higher2 the #af-;feet stop1 notes one octave lower1 or deeper4 ,and if all these four stops are played at the same time1 7tuning and other manipulations being now assumed71 an effect will be produced highly agreeable to the ear1 and vastly superior to that which would result from the mere multiplication of #h-;feet stops only4 ,our little organ of five stops1 when completed1 will probably be described with correctness if it is said to contain two #h-;feet stops1 two #d-;feet stops1 and one #b-;foot stop3 a ready and conventional way of speaking1 we repeat yet once more1 since the instrument will contain no open pipe #h feet in length1 and since1 of the #d-;feet stops1 one will be only of #d-;feet tone1 or pitch1 while even the #b-;feet stop1 for reasons which will be abundantly made clear1 may possibly have no #b-;feet pipe4 ,some pains have been taken to explain all this1 because we have met with young workmen whose comprehension of such rudimentary matters was far from complete1 and who were misled by the fanciful and wholly unimportant names engraved upon the knobs which govern the stops1 e4g4 ,flute1 ,dulciana1 c4 ,if we have any such young beginners among our present readers1 they will see that the names are quite of secondary concern1 and that the essential thing is to have a clear understanding of the pitch of each stop1 as represented by the length of the pipe1 actual or virtual1 corresponding to the lowest note of the manual4 ,and now we proceed to our work4 ,what we have to do is to make fifty-four pipes1 extending from ,,cc to ,f in alto1 and of the form or sort known in ,england as ,stopped ,diapason4 ,one of these pipes1 let us suppose ,tenor ,c1 is shown in ,fig4 #a4 a is a block of mahogany or oak1 or of some other wood faced with mahogany or oak1 and about #c inches in length4 ,it has a throat or deep depression across it1 formed by taking out the wood between two saw-cuts1 or by boring adjacent holes with a centre-bit4 b is a stopper1 made of any wood1 the exact size of the block1 or a trifle less1 to allow for a leather covering1 and fashioned at top into a knob1 or turned in the lathe1 for convenient handling by the tuner4 c is the pipe when put together by gluing three boards1 namely1 the back and the two sides1 to the block1 and one1 namely the front board1 to the edges of the sides4 ,this fourth board is about #c inches shorter than the others1 and has a lip formed on its lower edge by bevelling the wood with a sharp chisel4 d is a cap1 #c inches long1 and as wide as the block with the side boards attached2 it is hollowed in a wedge-shaped form as shown in the figure4 e is a foot1 turned in the lathe1 bored from end to end1 and #e or #f inches in length4 f is the completed pipe1 with the stopper inserted1 the cap put on1 and the foot in its place4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,we have to make fifty-four such pipes1 each of the dimensions proper for the production of its own note1 deep in the bass or shrill in the treble4 ,it is quite clear that we must not work by rule of thumb1 but understand well what we are about from the very first1 if we do not wish to cut our wood to waste and cover ourselves with mortification4 ,begin thus4 ,take a sheet of stout paper1 and on it1 with rule and compasses1 draw a scale showing all the requisite measurements4 ,here we must be a little arbitrary1 and lay down the law without giving lengthy reasons for our ruling4 ,stopped pipes are half the length of open pipes yielding the same notes4 ,our ,,cc pipe will therefore be #d feet long4 ,the four ,c's of the ascending scale are the halves of each other4 ,therefore ,tenor ,c will be #b feet1 ,middle ,c #a foot1 ,treble ,c #f inches1 and ,c in alto #c inches1 in length4 ,the word nearly1 or about1 must be understood as prefixed in every case to our measurements4 ,accordingly1 the lengths of all the pipes in the stop will be easily obtained by drawing a vertical line #a foot in length on the paper1 and dividing it into twelve equal parts4 ,at the bottom1 write ,tenor ,c1 #b feet2 at the top1 ,middle ,c1 #a foot4 ,then the length of each of the eleven pipes intervening between these extremes will be at once obtained by easy measurement4 ,by doubling these lengths we shall obtain those of the bass1 or #h-;feet octave4 ,by halving them1 those of the middle octave4 ,by dividing them by four1 we get those of the treble octave4 ,note well that these rough and approximate lengths are speaking lengths of the wooden tubes1 or1 in other words1 of the column of air within them1 measured from the top of the block to the under side of the stopper4 ,hence1 in cutting out the boards1 the length of the block--about #c inches1 or less in small pipes--must be added to three of them1 and an inch or more allowed to all four of them to give good room for the stopper4 ,but we are not yet in a position to cut out the boards4 ,it might be thought that as we get the lengths by the easy arithmetical process described above1 so with equal ease shall we get the widths and depths of the blocks4 ,the pipes are not square1 but are deeper than they are wide1 in the proportion of about #e to #d4 ,it might be thought that if the block of ,tenor ,c be #b inches wide and #b-a_/b inches deep1 then the block of ,middle ,c will be #a inch by #a-a_/d inches2 the block of ,foot ,c #a_/b inch by #e_/h1 and so on4 ,this is not so4 ,these treble pipes would be quite unreasonably small1 and would give weak and thin sounds1 while the bass octave1 commencing with a block #d inches by #e inches1 would be needlessly large for a chamber organ4 ,without wasting words upon a matter which is really very simple1 let us say at once that we shall adopt for our ,stopped ,diapason a scale commencing with a ,,cc block #c-a_/d inches wide and #d inches deep1 and that the block of ,tenor ,c will be #b-a_/h inches wide and #b-e_/h deep4 ,thus the half of the width and depth of the ,,cc block will not be reached until the eighteenth note above it1 instead of the thirteenth1 and in the higher parts of the scale the diminution in the sizes of the blocks may be yet more gradual4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a glance at ,fig4 #b will enable our readers to draw scales for themselves for the ,stopped ,diapason1 and for other wooden stops which may follow it1 from a few given data1 and to suit circumstances4 ,a minute or ,chinese accuracy is not requisite4 ,the vertical line of any convenient length being drawn upon the paper1 the width and depth of the ,,cc block are measured off upon a horizontal line drawn at its lower extremity4 ,eighteen divisions being marked upon the vertical line1 the half-width and half-depth of the ,,cc block are measured upon another horizontal line drawn at the eighteenth mark4 ,these points being joined by straight lines1 and horizontal lines being drawn at each of the marks parallel to the others1 we shall have the widths and depths of the blocks of all the pipes from ,,cc to ,clef ,f inclusive1 viz4 eighteen blocks4 ,the next eighteen blocks will be sized in a precisely similar manner1 and as three times eighteen is equal to fifty-four1 the whole stop may be divided into three sections of eighteen pipes in each section1 and it may be for our convenience to make one section at a time4 ,there are two methods of working together the block and the four boards which form the pipe4 ,we will give them both1 and decide between them4 ,first method4 ,cut out the board for the back1 and dress it carefully to the exact width of the block4 ,glue the block to the lower extremity1 and when the glue is dry dress up all perfectly flush4 ,cut out the side boards as wide as the depth of the block with the thickness of the back board added to it4 ,glue them to the sides of the block and to the edges of the backboard1 obtaining a perfectly close joint by using wooden clamps and wedges as in gluing up a violin1 or by other obvious contrivances4 ,when the glue is dry dress up the front edges flush with the block1 and glue on the front board1 which will be cut out as wide as the block together with the thicknesses of the side boards4 ,the front board must overlap the upper edge of the block by about #a_/h inch or more4 ,if all this is carefully done according to the rules of good joinery the result should be a neat and strong pipe1 truly rectangular at its upper or open extremity4 ,brads or sprigs are not to be thought of in pipe-making1 unless1 indeed1 in the very exceptional case of organs intended for tropical climates4 ,second method4 ,cut out first the two side boards the width of the depth of the block1 and glue them to it4 ,dress the edges flush with the block1 and glue on at once the back and front boards1 obtaining irreproachable joints as before1 and taking infinite care that the upper extremities of the side boards do not approach each other4 ,in making our smaller pipes 7say from ,middle ,c upwards71 we are in the habit of straining whip-cord or stout hempen string round them1 winding it first upon a loose pipe-foot or smooth tool-handle to avoid cutting the hands2 and we ensure a correct aperture at the top by placing within it a thin slice cut from the block itself1 or by introducing the stopper if it has been already prepared of the same size as the block4 ,the notches made by the string upon the edges of the soft pine-wood are easily removed when the finished pipe is dressed over with a fine plane4 ,we have no difficulty in giving our decision in favour of the second plan1 which avoids the four tedious dryings of the glue1 and which admits more readily of pressure being applied to the freshly glued joints4 ,but in making open pipes1 which have not to bear the driving-in of a stopper1 there is much to recommend the first method4 ,this point being settled1 we may cut out the side boards and prepare the blocks for one of our divisions1 let us say the middle section1 from ,clef ,f sharp to the natural below ,foot ,c4 ,blocks of this moderate size will be best made by taking a piece of wood of suitable character1 long enough for six or more1 and by dressing it down as each block is cut off1 making careful and constant use of the gauge1 the square1 and the callipers4 ,we like to form the throat with a centre-bit after the pipe is put together4 ,the thirty-six boards will be glued to the eighteen blocks1 and while the glue is drying we can prepare the backs and fronts4 ,the bevelled lip of the latter will be left uncut until all the pipes have been glued up and dressed over1 and the top edges nicely cleaned off and made true4 ,but as there will be1 doubtless1 a most pardonable anxiety to hear the sound of one pipe1 we will here explain that the height of the mouth of each pipe must be equal to one-third of its width2 thus the mouth of the pipe measuring one inch and a half across the block 7,a in our scale7 will be #a_/b inch in height4 ,in measuring the height of the mouths1 a pair of proportional compasses with sliding centre1 or common dividers set to thirds1 fourths1 and fifths1 will be useful if not necessary4 ,the slope of the bevel is not of great importance4 ,cut it with a sharp chisel1 taking care not to injure the block1 and leave the lower edge or lip rather blunt4 ,a sharp and pointed knife may be employed in cutting the lip truly1 guided by the square4 ,the use of fine glass-paper is permissible here to smooth all these parts nicely4 ,the throat having been formed in the face of the block1 about #a inch from its lower end1 bore the foot-hole in the bottom of the block clear into the throat1 beginning with a small borer1 and enlarging the hole cautiously1 as rough and hasty proceedings might split the block at this point1 especially in the case of small pipes4 ,prepare the cap from a suitable bit of mahogany1 oak1 or other close-grained wood1 and hollow out the back of it with a chisel as shown in d1 ,fig4 #a4 ,form the flue or wind-way through which the air is to pass to the lip by filing away the edge left at the top of the wedge-shaped hollow1 trying your work by placing the cap against the side of the pipe or any other flat surface4 ,the flue must not be wider than #a_/af inch at ,tenor ,c1 and must be reduced as we ascend the scale until it will hardly admit a slip of thin paper4 ,it will not be so much as #a_/h inch wide even at ,,cc4 ,perhaps the stopper has been already prepared of the same size as the block1 and has been formed into a knob at top1 or turned in the lathe1 or1 in the case of the larger pipes1 fitted with a turned handle glued into a hole bored for its reception4 ,dress off the angles of the stopper in order to allow room for the soft white leather with which it is covered to fold itself in the corners of the pipe4 ,we generally rasp our stoppers1 leaving them rough that the leather may cling to the stopper and not to the pipe4 ,the leather cannot be too thin if it is soft1 and if the stopper fits closely4 ,rub the interior of the top of the pipe with a bit of tallow-candle1 and introduce the stopper cautiously4 ,it should slide within the pipe at once easily and with accurate fit1 and if your joinery has been good there should be no fear of splitting the pipe or of opening the joints4 ,the cap when finally fitted will have its upper edge about #a_/h inch below the upper edge of the block4 ,on applying it in this position1 holding it there with your fingers1 or tying it on with string1 and blowing gently into the foot-hole1 you will have a pleasant fluty musical note4 ,probably a little chirp or whistle will be heard before the note comes on4 ,the removal of this defect belongs to the important operation called voicing1 of which we shall treat hereafter4 ,we have cut our boards from the half-inch pine1 but as we rise in the scale much thinner stuff will be used4 ,it is well to foresee this in laying in our materials4 ,red cedar1 often used by cabinetmakers for the inside of drawers and wardrobes1 makes very pretty pipes1 holds the glue well1 and has an agreeable odour in working4 ,harder woods1 notably oak1 were often used by the old builders4 ,pear-tree commends itself much in ,german workshops4 ,the four or five lowest pipes 7,,cc to ,,ee1 or higher7 should be of stouter stuff than half-inch1 say five-eighths or even three-quarters4 ,the caps of these large pipes will not be glued on but fixed with three screws1 and we may modify a previous remark by admitting that in the case of these larger pipes the use of nails is legitimate4 ,of the pipe-feet we shall speak when we come to the business of planning the rack-board with its holes for their reception4 ,we must not close this chapter without giving some further explanations on the subject of pipe-making4 ,large pipes1 both open and stopped1 may be advantageously made with languids instead of blocks4 ,fig4 #c shows the section of a pipe so made4 ,the block is replaced by two pieces of suitable wood1 a a1 let into the side boards with plenty of glue4 ,the glue should also be allowed to run freely into the angles and corners of the throat when the back board is fitted4 ,pipes made in this way are a little lighter than those with blocks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,the stoppers of the smaller pipes1 say from ,fiddle ,g or ,middle ,c to top1 are often bored with a hole passing clear through the wood and leather1 and burnt smooth with an iron4 ,after what has been said of the necessity of securing a good fit for the stopper1 it might be thought that this hole would ruin the pipe4 ,curiously enough it is not so1 but imparts a slight increase of fulness to the tone4 ,the holes must not be large1 #a_/d inch at ,middle ,c will be sufficient4 ,note well that pipes with perforated stoppers must be a trifle longer1 say #a inch in #ab1 than those completely closed4 ,thus the pipe for ,c sharp must be as long as the fully stopped ,c pipe4 ,wooden pipes are also made with inverted mouths1 that is to say1 the bevelled lip is formed on the inside instead of on the outside of the front board4 ,in this case the bevel is cut and the mouth measured and formed before the pipe is put together1 and the front board will be of the same length as the others1 and will be glued like them to the block4 ,the throat is cut through the board into the block1 and the cap will project beyond the level of the board4 ,all this is shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,we have a very charming ,stopped ,diapason made in this way1 and with perforated stoppers1 in one of our organs4 ,it is of red cedar from ,middle ,c to top2 the lower part is of pine and of the ordinary construction4 ,the mouths are in the proportion of two-sevenths of the width of each pipe4 ,inverted mouths are well suited1 also1 to the ,clarabella and ,hohl ,flte1 two kindred stops which sometimes take the place of the ,stopped ,diapason in its upper octaves4 ,the pipes are open1 and have a hollow penetrating tone2 ,middle ,c is #b feet long1 and its block may be of the same size as that of the same note in our scale1 namely1 about #a-c_/h by #a-c_/d4 ,the mouth about #b_/g of the width4 ,these open pipes are tuned by means of shades1 which are pieces of pipe metal let into a saw-cut made in the top edge of the back board4 ,the shade must be as wide as the pipe1 and #a_/b inch longer than its depth4 ,the pipe is flattened by bending the shade over the open top1 sharpened by raising it4 ,the ,german stop1 the ,doppel-flte1 which has two mouths opposite to each other1 and of course two caps for each pipe1 is seldom or never heard in this country4 ,a few pipes which we have made as experiments hardly seem to repay us for the additional trouble and labour4 ,trouble and labour were of little account1 apparently1 in the old days of ,english organ-building two centuries ago1 if we may judge from the really marvellous specimens of patient pipe-making in wood which have come down to us4 ,we ourselves have seen and played organs of exquisite sweetness and beauty by old ,bernhard ,schmidt 7#affj-agjh71 containing four or five stops in which every pipe was of oak1 even up to the top note of a ,fifteenth of #b feet4 ,such an organ1 built by ,loosemore1 #affd1 the builder of the cathedral organ1 is preserved1 we believe1 at ,exeter4 ,it has six stops1 including a ,twelfth1 all made of wood4 ,modern life is too hasty and impetuous for such efforts4 ,if any of our readers1 however1 should set themselves the task of making very small pipes in wood1 we advise them to form the block and foot from one piece1 and to follow the first method 7see p4 #ah7 in putting the minute contrivance together4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,sound-,,board4 ,,we may fairly assume that no one will embark upon the very serious business of building an organ1 and that probably no one will read this book1 who has not sufficient previous knowledge of the subject to understand what is meant by the expressions sound-board1 wind-chest1 pallets1 sliders4 ,it may be taken as certain1 moreover1 that the reader who takes up this book to assist him in the arduous work which he has undertaken1 and in the hope 7which we trust we shall not disappoint7 of finding rules laid down in it which he can readily reduce to practice1 has long ago decided upon the position which the projected organ is to occupy1 and has measured with his eye1 if not with his two-foot rule or tape1 the breadth1 depth1 and height which can be fairly allowed to the finished instrument4 ,great diversity of dimension and design is one of the peculiarities which distinguish organs from all other musical instruments4 ,our organ may be wide and shallow like a book-case1 or it may be of little greater width than its key-board1 but deep like a wardrobe2 it may be carried up nearly to the ceiling of a lofty apartment1 or may be kept down to suit the low-browed rafters of a country farmhouse or a workman's cottage4 ,the site chosen for the organ may allow of convenient access to the back of it for tuning purposes2 or it may compel us to arrange the interior so that the back may always remain in close contact with the wall4 ,the projection of the keys1 too1 from the front1 and therefore the position of the player when seated at the instrument1 possibly in a small room2 the place for the blowing-handle and for the person who works it1 so that convenient space may be left for him to fulfil his irksome duty--these are matters of detail admitting of great variety of treatment4 ,there are cases in which it may be possible1 and very advantageous1 to separate the bellows from the organ which they supply1 and to establish them in an adjoining room1 or beneath the floor or platform on which the organ is placed4 ,all these considerations must receive full attention1 and drawings or rough sketches sufficiently intelligible to the workman himself must be made in accordance with the decisions arrived at4 ,then1 and not till then1 we can launch ourselves upon the very serious business of designing and constructing the sound-board4 ,a serious business1 we say1 making a large demand upon our industry and perseverance1 and calling for adroit use of tools of several different characters4 ,to facilitate our own task in describing the process of constructing a sound-board1 we shall divide this chapter into short sections1 with intervening remarks4 #a4 ,the sound-board is a shallow box1 divided internally into as many transverse grooves or channels as there are notes on the key-board4 ,the pipes stand upon holes bored through the top of the box into these channels2 and it is plain that if air is made to fill these channels1 and to issue from these holes in a constant stream when we please1 all the pipes which stand upon the holes will give their sounds according to their pitch and character4 ,remark4--,thus if one channel1 say the channel corresponding to ,tenor ,c1 have five holes bored into it through the top of the box1 then five pipes standing upon those holes may be made to speak at once1 or in chorus1 by pressing down the one key on the manual4 #b4 ,it is plain that we must possess the power of opening and closing these holes in sets or classes at our pleasure1 so that the air may be directed into those pipes which we desire to hear1 while others are silent4 ,the top of the box is therefore made double1 or of two layers of wood2 and between the two layers long strips of thin wood are introduced1 lying lengthwise1 that is to say1 at right angles to the channels beneath or within4 ,the holes are bored down through all these three layers of wood forming the top of the box2 and we see that by sliding the thin slip an inch or so to the right or left1 we can cut off at once the current of air from the pipes standing on those holes1 since the apertures in the three layers will then no longer coincide4 ,remark4--,all this is quite independent of1 and preliminary to1 the arrangements for admitting the supply of air to the channels themselves4 #c4 ,having already made our ,stopped ,diapason pipes1 let us range them on a table or floor1 and consider well how they must be planted on a sound-board such as we are about to make for our organ1 be it broad and shallow1 or narrow and deep1 be it low or lofty4 ,remark4--,no other stop will practically take up so much room on the sound-board as the ,stopped ,diapason2 hence1 if we plot the board with reference to it1 all the other pipes will be easily worked in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 #d4 ,on the opposite page several different plantations of the ,stopped ,diapason are shown both in elevation and in plan4 ,in ,fig4 #e the pipes1 planted in a double row throughout1 are placed alternately to the right and to the left1 meeting in the middle at the smallest pipe4 ,the exact reverse of this plantation1 namely1 placing the largest pipes in the middle1 and sloping down to the smallest pipes at each end1 can be easily imagined1 and it is unnecessary to figure it4 ,it is clear that in both these plantations the large pipes occupy a space1 as regards depth1 out of proportion to the space occupied by the upper part of the stop4 ,fig4 #f shows a very common plantation of pipes1 which1 as we shall see hereafter1 allows us to simplify the internal mechanism or action4 ,fig4 #g1 in plan only1 shows a mode of economising space as regards depth by planting the pipes of the lower octave in a single row1 resuming the double row at ,tenor ,c4 ,this plantation would suit a wide and shallow organ4 ,figs4 #h and #i show different methods of planting the large pipes in order to avoid a disproportionate sacrifice of space on the board4 ,it will be seen at a glance that they can be ranged behind the pipes of the tenor and treble octaves1 or carried off to the right and left in rows standing at right angles to them4 ,fig4 #aj1 in elevation only1 shows how we may build an organ under the ceiling of a very low room1 by planting the eight feet octave on a board of its own at a lower level than that of the sound-board proper4 ,and it is easy to conceive1 without a figure1 that this accessory board may be replaced by two boards1 to right and left1 resulting in a plan resembling that in ,fig4 #i1 but giving a lower level to the tall pipes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,remark4--,we confess to a strong liking for these later plantations1 which require some little careful mechanical adaptations1 but result in a compact arrangement1 admitting of enclosure in a case of graceful outline4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4 #e4 ,we have still some considerations requiring careful attention before we can map out our sound-board4 ,the plantation of the pipes will be the chief guide to the planning of the channels1 with the divisions or spaces between them2 but it must not be forgotten that the boring of the holes for the supply of air must be done in regular lines within spaces or widths easily covered by the sliders4 ,a slider is seldom more than from #b to #c inches wide2 there are good reasons why this width cannot conveniently be much exceeded4 ,but the feet of the large pipes in the bass octave will be as much as #e inches or more apart when the pipes are planted back to back1 as in ,figs4 #e and #f4 ,hence we must decide1 before we begin to work1 not only how the pipes are to stand on the board1 but how they are to get their wind and be deprived of it by the action of a slider of the usual width4 ,perhaps we shall resolve to run two narrow sliders under the foot-holes of the whole stop1 one for each of the two rows1 controlling both sliders by a single knob or handle4 ,by this method every pipe will stand on its wind1 as the workmen say1 that is1 will be in direct and uninterrupted communication with the channel when the holes are open4 ,or possibly it may suit our plans better to run two sliders under the feet of the bass pipes1 and a third between them1 under the rest of the stop2 all three1 be it well understood1 extending from end to end of the sound-board1 but having holes only at the proper places1 and being blank elsewhere3 these three sliders being governed by one knob1 or by two1 if the stop is to draw in halves 7as it is called71 that is1 as a separate ,bass and ,treble4 ,or1 once again1 we may use a single slider for the whole stop1 but carry the wind through grooves fashioned in the solid wood from the holes bored in the usual way to the points at which the pipes are planted4 ,and1 lastly1 we may carry the wind from the holes to pipes planted in any position1 and practically at any distance by tubes made of pipe-metal or other material4 ,remark4--,it need hardly be said that an examination of the interior of a well-built organ will be of great service to the beginner who is planning his first sound-board4 #f4 ,the dimensions1 then1 and character of the sound-board having been determined after full consideration of the site for the organ1 and a drawing or sketch having been made for your own guidance1 proceed thus3--,take a board of good clean bay-wood1 #a_/b1 #e_/h1 or #c_/d inch in thickness1 and long enough and wide enough to form the table or top of your work2 and dress this carefully until one of its surfaces is quite true and level4 ,this dressed or levelled side is to be the lower or under side1 and we are about to form upon it the grooves or channels of which it will ultimately form the roof4 ,next prepare a ruler or straight edge of any thin stuff1 and on this1 with compasses1 rule1 and square1 guided by plenty of deliberate consideration1 mark the size and place of each of the grooves1 and of the bar of wood which will divide each groove from its neighbour1 from end to end4 ,you will find1 of course1 and you were previously aware1 that the widths of the grooves and the thickness of the bars will vary in proportion to their place in the scale4 ,let us say at once that #c_/d inch will be ample width for the ,,cc groove in our small organ2 and let us advise that the smallest groove in the treble be about #a_/d inch in width1 and that the bars between these narrow grooves be at least #c_/h or #a_/b inch in thickness1 in order to allow a good seat or margin for the pallets or valves which are to govern the admission of the wind4 ,in the bass the bars will be very much thicker than this1 or not1 according to the plan which you have adopted4 ,the part of your rule in which you will soon perceive that the chief danger of crowding your pipes will arise is the tenor octave4 ,refer carefully to your pipes1 and be quite sure before you mark your ruler1 that you are allowing room for ,tenor ,c and its neighbours to stand clear of each other when they are planted on the completed board4 ,having satisfied yourself on these points1 prepare your bars from sound pine-wood1 planing them with care1 and especially seeing that the edge of each bar is truly square with its sides4 ,two inches will be an ample width for each bar1 in other words1 an ample depth for each groove when completed4 ,their length will of course be equal to the width of the table1 less an inch or so1 according to the construction now to be described4 ,there are now two methods of proceeding4 ,first method3--,the table being turned over1 with the dressed side uppermost1 your ruler well in sight1 with plenty of hot and fresh glue fix your first thick bar at or near either end of the table4 ,we say1 or near either end1 because you may like to leave room for a finishing cheek of mahogany when all the bars are put in4 ,the second bar will be glued to the table in like manner1 the proper distance from the first being secured by filling-in pieces of wood of the exact thickness1 glued between the bars at their ends4 ,this alternation of bars and fillings-in will be continued until all the grooves have been formed according to your ruler2 the rough ends of the bars will then be dressed with a sharp plane1 and neat cheeks of stout bay-wood will be glued on all the four sides of the divided box which you have thus built up4 ,second method3--,prepare the bay-wood cheeks first1 and in the two long ones1 using a fine saw and small chisel1 cut grooves to receive the ends of the bars4 ,form a shallow box by gluing these bay-wood sides and ends to the table4 ,the corners need not be dovetailed1 but an equally close joint must be secured if dovetailing is omitted4 ,then introduce the bars1 using an abundance of hot glue1 and taking care that no bar fits so tightly between the cheeks as to risk bending4 ,when all the bars are glued in1 add more thin glue within each groove1 placing the sound-board in a sloping position that the glue may run into the angles1 and afterwards reversing the board to the opposite slope1 repeating the coating of thin glue4 ,remark4--,this unusual profusion of glue is to preclude the possibility of air making its way from one groove to the adjacent one bypassing between the edge of the bar and the table2 and what is here said applies equally to both methods4 ,we ourselves prefer the second method to the first4 ,m4 ,hamel1 in his wonderfully accurate and minute treatise1 describes a third1 in which the fillings-in are avoided4 ,those to whom his book is accessible cannot fail to share the present writer's admiration of his marvellous industry1 and of his great gift of clear and precise description of mechanical processes4 ,hopkins and ,rimbault may also be consulted with much advantage4 #g4 ,the work1 thus glued up1 must be left in a dry room for two or three days1 until all is perfectly set and hard4 ,meanwhile the other pieces of which the completed sound-board will consist are being cut out and prepared4 ,we shall want the upper boards1 the sliders1 and the slips of wood 7false sliders the ,french builders call them1 while in ,england they are termed bearers7 which divide these from each other4 ,we may safely suppose that if the ordinary form of sound-board has been chosen--such1 for instance1 as that which is shown in ,fig4 #f--;its size will be about #d feet1 or #f inches more1 in length4 ,its width will depend on the number of stops for which it is planned1 and therefore of sliders which are to work on the table2 if we are to have five stops1 about #ae inches may be taken as the probable width1 but this may be less1 or more1 according to the class of stops selected1 and the arrangement chosen for their bass pipes4 ,to give accurate measurements in feet and inches for all the parts of the sound-board would only mislead our readers at this stage of our labours4 ,we give general rules only3 it must rest with the reader himself1 as we have now abundantly reminded him1 to decide on the shape of his sound-board and to make the plantation of his pipes1 and the consequent arrangement of grooves and sliders conformable thereto4 ,assuming1 then1 quite arbitrarily1 and independently of all special considerations1 that the sound-board is #d feet long and #ae inches wide1 we may cut out the upper boards from sound and clean bay-wood1 #a-a_/d inch thick4 ,cut them #f inches longer than the sound-board4 ,and now as to width4 ,as there are five stops1 and five sliders for them1 are we to understand that we shall have also five upper boards8 ,to this we reply1 by no means4 ,our stops1 we assume1 will be two of #h feet1 two of #d feet1 and one of #b feet4 ,for reasons which we shall soon give1 we shall propose to have one upper board for each of these three divisions3 that for the #h-;feet stops being #g inches wide1 that for the #d feet #e inches1 and for the #b feet #c inches4 ,under the #g-;inch board there will be two sliders1 each #b inches in width2 under the #e-;inch1 two sliders1 each #a-a_/b inch in width2 and under the #c-;inch1 one slider1 #a-a_/d inch wide4 ,the bearers will be thus3--,the two outside bearers1 that is1 those which extend along the front and back margins of the sound-board1 to be #a-a_/d inch in width2 the second bearer 7reckoning from the back7 to be #a inch2 the third to be #a-a_/b inch1 because it will lie beneath the line of junction1 or rather of division1 between the two wider upper boards2 the fourth bearer may be #a_/b inch only1 being merely a separation between the next two sliders2 the fifth may be #a-a_/d inch1 falling as it does under a line of division2 the sixth is similar to the first4 ,it will thus be seen that we have-- #b sliders1 #b inches each #d inches #b #a-a_/b #c #a #a-a_/d #a-a_/d #c bearers1 #a-a_/d #c-c_/d #a #a-a_/b #a-a_/b #a #a #a #a #a_/b #a_/b ------- ,total width #ae inches4 ,remark4--,all this is so important that we have shown the measurements drawn to scale in ,fig4 #aa4 ,cut out the sliders and bearers from perfectly clean sound bay-wood or red cedar boards1 not more than #c_/h inch in thickness4 ,having turned your sound-board over1 with the table uppermost1 assemble all the pieces1 and satisfy yourself that your measurements are correct1 and that so far there is no error in your plans4 ,see that all your planes are in first-rate order1 and set yourself in earnest to bring to a perfectly level and true surface the table or top of the sound-board1 and one side of the sliders and bearers4 ,no pains must be spared to render the surface of the table absolutely true4 ,apply a straight edge rubbed with chalk1 moving it in various directions1 and use unwearied diligence in removing all inequalities detected by this means4 ,take care1 too1 that there is no winding4 ,in short1 adopt all the means which the rules of good joinery give you for producing a surface faultlessly level4 ,this done1 arrange upon the table1 with their planed sides downwards1 your sliders and bearers1 and pin them down upon it with very small brads1 piercing through near their edges4 ,in doing this have regard to the grain of the wood1 as you are about to dress the upper surfaces4 ,sink the brads well out of the way of the plane with a punch1 and bring the sliders and bearers to a true level as you did the table4 ,illustration3 ,scale1 two-thirds of an inch to a foot4 ,fig4 #aa4 ,remark4--,m4 ,hamel advises that in making the sound-board the table should be left #c inches longer at each end than the actual box beneath1 expressly to afford a bearing for the ends of the sliders during this business of planing them4 ,if this suggestion is not followed1 the projecting ends of the sliders will require separate attention4 ,the three upper boards may now be brought down upon the finished sliders and bearers1 and a couple of iron pins or dowels may be let into each of them and into the bearers and table beneath1 near their extremities1 for the purpose of confining them temporarily in the exact places which they are to occupy4 ,dress over now the upper sides of the three boards1 which do not1 however1 require attention to absolute truth4 #h4 ,we cannot yet bore the holes for the pipes4 ,before we can do so we must prepare yet another board or boards of clean pine1 #e_/h or #c_/d inch thick1 #d feet #f inches long1 and #ae inches wide1 for the rack boards through which the pipe-feet are to pass1 and which are to maintain the pipes in an upright position4 ,if you have two upper boards the division should occur between those of the #h-;feet and #d-;feet stops4 ,pin down your rack-board upon the upper boards with brads here and there near the edges4 ,let us now consider for a moment4 ,we have made our box of fifty-four transverse channels or grooves1 and its top consists now of four layers of wood--namely1 the table1 the sliders1 the upper boards1 and the rack-boards4 ,through these four layers of wood1 at the proper places1 are to be bored holes of various sizes clear through into the channels2 but it is plain that the holes in the rack-boards will always be much larger than those in the three other layers1 because the rack-boards are to be ultimately raised about #e inches above the upper board on legs or pins1 and will therefore receive the thick part of the conical pipe-feet1 while the holes in the upper board will only receive their tip or small extremity4 ,but the centres of the large holes in the rack-board must coincide accurately with the centres of the small holes beneath1 and we shall therefore proceed to mark the exact spots where each of the holes will commence4 ,by the aid of your marked rule1 trace a line on the front and back cheeks of the sound-board1 showing the centre of each groove4 ,from these points draw lines across the rack-boards4 ,it is evident that all holes bored through the four layers of wood at any point in any of these lines must terminate in a channel4 ,draw lines at right angles to the last1 showing the widths of the sliders and bearers2 it will then be further evident that we cannot easily get wrong in boring the holes so that they may penetrate the sliders at the exact points intended4 ,but the actual boring1 with certain consequences or contingencies belonging thereto1 must be reserved for the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,sound-,,board4--7,continued47 ,,the time has come when we must decide what our five stops are to be1 since the sizes and places of the holes must be in accordance with the quality and character of the pipes supplied by them4 ,the ,stopped ,diapason we have already made2 and in our organ it will be the chief or foundation stop of #h-;feet tone4 ,we shall assume that the second stop in the #h-;feet pitch will be a metal ,dulciana1 or small open ,diapason4 ,the #d-;feet stops will doubtless be a ,principal 7or some equivalent7 and a ,flute4 ,the #b-;feet stop we will call simply ,fifteenth for the moment4 ,for convenience of reference we will number the stops thus3-- #a4 ,dulciana or open #h feet pitch #b4 ,stopped ,diapason #c4 ,principal #d #d4 ,flute #e4 ,fifteenth #b ,the pipes of ,no4 #a1 being the tallest in the organ1 will be planted nearest to the back2 all the others1 occupying the successive sliders1 will present a gradation of heights agreeable to the eye and convenient for the tuner4 ,no4 #a1 we say1 is the tallest in the organ2 but be it carefully observed that in our small instrument it will not be carried down to its lowest note ,,cc1 which would be #h feet in speaking length2 it will not descend lower than tenor ,c1 #d feet1 and the last or lowest twelve notes or sounds will be obtained by using the corresponding pipes of the ,stopped ,diapason as a bass for both stops4 ,this will be done by grooving2 and it will now be seen why1 in cutting out the upper boards1 we were careful to have a single board for the pipes of #h-;feet pitch1 and another single board for those of #d-;feet pitch4 ,for it is plain that by boring holes through the upper board1 sliders1 and table into any groove of the sound-board1 and by connecting these holes together by means of another deep groove or score cut in the wood of the upper board1 and then covered in with an air-tight covering1 we obtain a secondary channel1 supplied with air by either or both of the sliders at pleasure2 and by boring one hole through the air-tight covering1 and planting a pipe on that hole1 that pipe will speak whenever a connection is made between the secondary channel on which it stands and the main channel or groove below1 which is receiving air at the moment from the bellows4 ,clearly1 therefore1 if we bore holes through the upper boards and sliders of ,nos4 #a and #b into the twelve grooves of the bass octave1 and then connect these twelve pairs of holes by cutting upper grooves in the surface of the boards1 covering them in by thin boards of wood well glued down1 we have then only to plant our twelve largest stopped pipes on twelve new holes bored in these thin boards last mentioned1 and we have at once a bass common to both stops1 and each of the two stops will be practically1 and for ordinary purposes1 complete down to the lowest note when its slider is drawn4 ,when both sliders are drawn1 the secondary groove will receive air from both holes in the upper board2 but this will not have the effect of over-blowing the pipe1 since the pressure or weight of the air remains the same1 and since the pipe can only receive the quantity of air which is permitted to pass through the aperture in its foot4 ,it will now be seen why we did not at once bore the holes1 or rather mark their places1 on the rack-board4 ,plainly1 we must make these twelve grooves first1 and cover them in4 ,then1 replacing the rack-board as before1 carefully mark on the latter the exact place of each bass pipe1 as it will stand on any part of its secondary groove4 ,afterwards1 with a bradawl or other sharp-pointed borer1 prick quite through the rack-board at every one of the points which you have marked throughout its whole extent4 ,at these points there will hereafter be circular holes of various sizes for the reception of the pipe-feet1 but in the upper boards1 sliders1 and tables there will be smaller holes1 adapted for conveying its stream of air to each pipe4 ,before removing the rack-board1 decide upon the places where the rack-pins1 or pillars which will hold the rack-board up above the sound-board1 are to be4 ,have plenty of these1 say six or eight if you have a single rack-board1 or five to each if you have two1 in order to insure a firm plantation of the pipes1 and bore holes for them with a centre-bit1 say #e_/h diameter1 through the rack-board and to the depth of #a inch in the upper boards4 ,the rack-board now being put aside for the present1 all the holes may be bored through the upper boards1 sliders1 and table with bits of various sizes4 ,from what has been said above it will be seen that it is not the sizes of these holes1 but of the apertures in the pipe-feet1 which regulate the volumes of wind supplied to the pipes2 but you will1 of course1 use bits proportioned to the pipes you have in view4 ,the upper1 or treble1 holes must not let the little pipes slip into them1 nor must the larger holes throttle or check the flow of the wind4 ,in the bass the holes may be as large as the grooves will allow2 and if these are narrow1 or if there is secondary grooving or conducting1 it will be well to cut the round hole at its interior aperture with a sharp chisel into a square or rectangular opening2 or to bore two round holes and connect them by taking out the intervening wood4 ,afterwards1 with iron rods of various sizes1 heated to redness1 scorch all the holes through the three thicknesses of wood1 leaving a clear and smooth charred passage for the wind4 ,we have not yet done with grooving4 ,this seems to be the proper place for pointing out how the use of this system may further assist us in the arrangement of an organ4 ,our bass pipes1 we have said above1 may be planted on holes cut in any part of the covering or roof of their respective secondary channels4 ,it follows readily from this that the secondary groove or channel may be extended or prolonged for the express purpose of locating the pipes in situations convenient for them4 ,quite apart from any necessity which may exist for supplying a common bass to two or more sliders1 we may evidently plant our larger pipes almost where and how we please by cutting grooves in the substance of the upper board1 extending from the table beneath to the point where we wish the pipe to be4 ,so long as the holes are of sufficient diameter and the grooves of ample dimensions1 the wind will reach a pipe located at a distance even of #b or #c feet from its source of supply without any appreciable interval between the impact of the finger on the key and the production of the sound2 and the grooves may be curved almost as we please1 though sharp angles should be avoided4 ,even if1 in consequence of alterations of original plans or other circumstances1 the upper boards should not be of sufficient thickness or size to admit of grooving1 we may still avail ourselves of this convenient system by using an additional or supplementary upper board1 which we will here call a conducting board1 screwed down upon the main upper board1 and containing the grooves4 ,to fix the exact places for the holes in the under side of the conducting board1 corresponding with those in the table1 spread a sheet of white paper over the upper board at the part where the conducting is to be1 making the edges or corners of the paper coincide with those of the board1 and rub the paper with the finger so as to take clear impressions of the holes2 then transfer the paper to the under side of the conducting board1 guided by the edges and corners as above1 and prick out on this under side the centres of the circular impressions made on the paper4 ,it is evident that when the conducting board is applied to the upper board1 edges and corners coinciding as before1 these punctured marks will be exactly over the wind holes in the table4 ,the holes in the upper side of the conducting board will be marked as before from the rack-board1 and grooves cut and roofed in with thin wood1 as previously described4 ,note further1 that the grooving may be1 if necessary1 on both sides of the upper boards4 ,all that is needful in such case is1 that after the grooves on the under sides1 next the sliders1 are cut1 the whole of the board1 and not merely the grooved part of it1 shall be covered or veneered with thin stuff4 ,this must be dressed perfectly true1 as in the case of the solid or ungrooved board1 and all the holes will be bored through it4 ,the upper sides will also have a neater appearance if the roofing of thin mahogany or cedar is carried over its entire surface4 ,upper boards so treated are1 in fact1 compounded of three layers of wood1 a central thick slab containing the grooves1 and two coverings or veneers4 ,the gluing on of these latter must1 of course1 be very sound and effectual in every part1 or a running of wind might ensue--a most provoking and really fatal defect1 incurable without complete reconstruction4 ,short grooves may be made by boring holes with a centre-bit in the edges of the upper boards1 and making the wind-hole beneath and the pipe-hole above communicate with this concealed tunnel4 ,on plugging up the external aperture in the edge of the board1 or on stopping a whole row of such apertures by gluing a band of leather1 parchment1 or thick paper over them1 it is clear that the wind will pass to the pipes at pleasure4 ,all such holes and channels must be scorched with hot irons4 ,to the true joiner this may seem an unworkmanlike expedient1 but it is necessary to prevent the weakening of the currents of air which would ensue from friction against rough surfaces1 and to preclude the risk of carrying tiny chips and particles of wood into the pipes4 ,if conducting boards are used1 they should be faced with soft white leather on their under surfaces before they are screwed down in their places1 unless1 indeed1 they are glued down immovably4 ,the places for the screws1 as well as for those which secure the whole upper board to the table1 must be carefully determined with reference to the grooves4 ,fig4 #ab is intended to show1 in a rough way1 how in an upper board ,,bb grooves may conduct the wind from the holes in a slider ,,aa to a row of pipe-holes near the margin of the board1 resulting in an arrangement like that shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the dotted lines are meant to indicate grooves cut in the under side of the board4 ,it is clear that these might be made to cross the others1 so that different plantations of pipes might be obtained1 as in ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,remark4--,these figures1 however1 must be understood rather as illustrations of our meaning than as representations of actual work4 ,conveyancing tubes are in constant use1 not only as substitutes for grooving1 but as ancillary to it4 ,they are made of pipe-metal1 and from about #e_/h inch in diameter to much larger sizes4 ,to manage them neatly and well you should be adroit in the use of the soldering-iron4 ,they are commonly smeared over with a composition which will not receive the melted solder2 this composition is scraped off at the points where a junction is to be made at an angle1 and with the usual copper tool1 a little resin and tallow1 the solder is applied4 ,much practice is needed to give mastery of this process1 apparently so easy2 we have known instances in which it has been avoided altogether by covering the junctions of the conductors with white leather secured by thick flour paste4 ,it is right1 also1 to add1 that we have seen successful conveyances made of cartridge paper rolled upon wooden mandrels with paste4 ,any tin-plate worker in your town or village would make them of his own material or of zinc1 and in an hour or two would solder all the junctions for you when you had planned your arrangement thoroughly4 ,assuming1 however1 the use of the usual tubes1 we may say that they are thus applied4 ,let us suppose that the large pipe shown in ,fig4 #aj is to be conducted off from the sound-board at the higher level to the plank on which it stands4 ,bore the hole in the upper board a trifle larger than the outside diameter of the tube4 ,glue a patch of white leather over the hole1 and cut out the aperture in this leather somewhat smaller than the hole1 leaving an excess of leather all round the hole of about #a_/h inch4 ,then1 making the end of the tube a little conical1 thrust it into the hole2 it will carry in with it the surplus margin of the leather1 which will form around it an air-tight joint or collar4 ,a right angle may be allowed in the tube at this first commencement at the hole itself1 but in its subsequent course sharp corners should be avoided4 ,the pipe is planted on a hole bored to a sufficient depth in a plank2 a second hole1 suited to a conducting tube1 is bored at any convenient distance from this1 and communication made between these two holes by a groove in the under side of the plank closed in with leather1 parchment1 thick paper1 or wood2 then the end of the tube is forced as before into the hole bored for it and provided with leather packing1 and all is complete4 ,it is by these means that speaking fronts are arranged according to any design4 ,remark4--,if you have all your pipes1 metal as well as wood1 ready at hand1 it might be well to pierce the rack-board and fit them in their places at this stage of the proceedings1 because chips and dust are inseparable from the operation1 and may be more troublesome and mischievous after the pallets are put in than now4 ,those readers who resolve on this course may turn1 then1 to the subsequent pages1 in which they will find all the directions which are necessary for their guidance4 ,for our own part1 we prefer to continue in the next chapter our account of the mechanism of the sound-board4 ,we may further remark1 that while the boring-tools are in use we may perhaps do wisely in piercing holes also for the screws which are to hold the upper boards down upon the sliders4 ,if the planing has been perfectly true1 about four pairs of screws should be enough for each upper board1 and no extra screws should be required to force the boards into closer contact at any intermediate part4 ,the screws should pass clear and easily through the holes in the boards1 and should bite well in the table beneath4 ,the heads of the screws should be let down below the level of the upper surface of the boards by counter-sinking1 and it is a useful practice to mark the places of these screws on the rack-board as well1 and to bore corresponding holes in this latter1 in order that if hereafter a slider should be pinched too tightly between the upper board and table1 the end of a long screw-driver may be introduced to ease it by slackening the screws without disturbing the pipes4 ,but we shall have to return to this part of our subject4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,wind-,,chest4 ,,the somewhat wearisome task of boring more than #bej holes in the sound-board being now assumed as accomplished1 we may take the upper boards and sliders apart1 and retouch the holes here and there1 as required1 with the hot iron4 ,the apertures of the holes in the interior of the channels must be thus attended to1 as the boring-bit may have occasionally torn the wood and left rough edges4 ,upon the faintest suspicion arising in your mind of any flaw or crack set up in any channel during the business of boring1 smear over the whole interior of that channel anew with thin glue1 letting it flow as before into the angles4 ,a running of the wind from one channel to the next is1 as we have said1 the most provoking of all defects1 and might compel us to pull the whole of the organ to pieces after it was set up4 ,the running of wind from one pipe-hole to an adjacent one1 either under the slider or between the slider and upper board1 though very annoying1 is a much less serious evil4 ,as a precaution against its occurrence1 it is usual to make little cuts or canals running tortuously all across the table from edge to edge between the pipe-holes1 and to make similar canals or ducts across the under side of the upper boards1 so that no vagrant wind can pass from a hole to its neighbour in any direction without encountering one of these little cuts1 and being conducted by it to the edge of the sound-board1 where it will escape harmlessly4 ,if the planing of all the surfaces is absolutely perfect1 these cuts should be unnecessary1 and we have seen highly finished sound-boards in which they were omitted2 but we must recommend their introduction by all young beginners4 ,they may be neatly and quickly formed by using the ,v-shaped tool common among sculptors in wood1 and procurable at any good tool warehouse4 ,its two edges should be exceedingly keen4 ,the cuts may be about #a_/h inch in depth4 ,after this is done1 the movement to and fro of the sliders should be regulated by cutting a little slot in each of them1 and letting a very stout pin of wood or iron into the table within the slot1 so as to stop the slider at the exact points4 ,of course all your sliders will have the same extent of play1 say #a inch1 less or more1 according to your arrangement of the pipe-holes4 ,you will probably have so far thought over your whole work as to be able also to cut the openings or slots in the projecting ends of the sliders by which the mechanism for drawing them in and out will be applied to them4 ,we shall show1 hereafter1 one or two different ways of effecting this movement to and fro4 ,after this1 take some good blacklead in powder1 and with a stiff brush rub it over every part of the table until the whole surface has a lustre like that of a well-cleaned boot4 ,treat the sliders and the under side of the upper boards in the same way4 ,this application of blacklead greatly diminishes friction between wooden surfaces brought into contact4 ,some operators mix the blacklead powder into a thick paste with spirits of turpentine1 or with water4 ,we prefer using it dry1 but we heartily endorse ,m4 ,hamel's complaint that it is difficult to procure blacklead of good quality4 ,that which is sold for household purposes is often little better than a gritty sand4 ,when the blacklead has been applied1 the bearers may be pinned down in their places with small brads4 ,the holes which you have bored for the screws will be conspicuous in them3 over each of these holes1 using thin glue or paste1 place a slip of paper1 extending #b or #c inches along the bearer on each side of the hole4 ,the use of this is to hold up the upper board1 in order that the slider may not be pinched so tightly as to be immovable4 ,the upper boards may then be laid upon the bearers1 with the sliders in place1 and the screws turned until the sliders can be made to glide to and fro with smooth and easy motion4 ,our bench1 let us assume1 has been swept and cleaned up after this blacklead rubbing1 and now we turn over our work and proceed to a new class of operations4 ,we have to attach to this lower side of our sound-board a shallow box of the same length1 and about #c inches deep1 called the wind-chest1 which is to contain the apparatus by which the admission of compressed air to the channels is governed1 and which is in direct communication with the bellows by means of a wooden tube called the wind-trunk4 ,we are mindful1 of course1 in drawing up this account of organ-building operations1 that the majority of our readers stand in no need of definitions of these common terms4 ,to such readers it is superfluous to explain that the valves by which the channels are kept closed while the keys are untouched by the fingers are called pallets1 and that these pallets are slips of wood a few inches in length1 planed to a triangular prism-like section1 faced with soft white leather1 and held up against the channels1 so as effectually to prevent the ingress of air1 by springs4 ,when the keys are pressed1 the pallets corresponding to them are drawn down or opened by wires called pull-downs1 passing in an air-tight contrivance through the bottom of the chest4 ,fig4 #ac is a transverse section of the wind-chest1 in which a is the pallet1 held up by b1 the spring1 and drawn down by c1 the wire4 ,part of the sound-board is shown above1 also in section1 as will be easily comprehended2 and ,fig4 #ad is a view of part of the interior of the wind-chest when the front board is removed1 four of the grooves being shown in section4 ,we proceed by sections1 with intervening remarks1 as in ,chapter ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 #a4 ,seven inches will be an ample length for the pallets in our organ2 and as our channels are about #ab-a_/b inches in length 7inside measurement71 there will be between #e and #f inches of the channels uncovered by the pallets1 and closed permanently in another way4 ,remark4--,we take #g inches as the length of our pallets on the assumption that the widths of the channels are proportioned to a sound-board about #d feet long4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 #b4 ,between the bars of the sound-board1 at a distance of #f-a_/b inches from that side at which you mean the movable front board to be1 glue pieces of thin wood about #b inches long and fitting nicely1 and when the glue is dry dress these over with a fine plane truly flush with the edges of the bars and of the cheeks4 ,you have now a firm wooden surface to which you will glue1 by-and-by1 the little flap of leather which forms the hinge of the pallet4 #c4 ,the width of the wind-chest will be governed by that of the space covered by the pallets to be enclosed within it1 in our case about #h or #i inches4 #c inches will be a sufficient depth4 ,make the two ends or cheeks of stout stuff1 and face them up to correspond with those of the sound-board1 with which they will be flush1 taking care that their thickness is not so great as to prevent the leaving of an ample margin to the two extreme channels for the pallet to rest upon4 ,remark4--,in one of these cheeks a trunk-hole may have to be cut for the entrance of the wind4 ,we ourselves greatly prefer making the trunk-hole in the bottom board of our chests4 ,your plans may not admit of this1 and you will act accordingly4 ,the back of the chest1 called the wind-bar1 d1 ,fig4 #ac1 should be of strong and sound stuff1 oak or mahogany1 as it greatly helps to strengthen the whole sound-board and to bear the weight of the pipes4 ,the corners should be dovetailed1 or otherwise well and firmly jointed4 ,these three pieces1 the two cheeks and the back or wind-bar1 will now be attached to the sound-board with glue and screws1 to be separated from it no more2 but the bottom1 e 7of #a-;inch pine71 will be fixed on with screws only1 strips of soft white leather being interposed between the surfaces to ensure air-tightness2 and the front board1 f1 will be similarly fitted with an eye to occasional removal4 ,remark4--,all such screws should be dipped in melted tallow1 or otherwise well greased before use1 that they may not rust in their places4 #d4 ,prepare the pallets from clean and very dry pine4 ,every pallet will be at least #a_/d inch wider than its channel1 that it may have not less than #a_/h inch of overlapping or margin on each side1 and it will have more than this space to spare at each end4 ,the pallets will be separated from each other when finally put in by stout pins of iron or brass1 driven into the bars g1 ,fig4 #ac and ,fig4 #ad4 ,two such pins may be necessary between many of the pallets if the plan of your sound-board has given unusual thickness to some of the bars1 and therefore unusual spaces between the pallets4 #e4 ,the pallets are to be faced with white sheep-skin1 and it is usual1 but not absolutely necessary1 to give two layers of it to each pallet4 ,about an inch of surplus will be left at one end to form the hinge2 and this hinge should be stiffened by gluing a slip of thinner leather upon it and upon the sloped-off end of the pallet4 ,the quality of the facing leather is of the highest importance1 and we must counsel the reader to procure it from a builder1 or from one of the shops which supply builders' materials4 ,the price of such skins is between three and four shillings4 ,if an inferior leather is used disappointment is sure to ensue2 and though leather of very promising appearance may be bought at the fellmongers' or shoemakers' in your town1 you will only be put to new expense and additional trouble in the end by using it4 ,in putting the leather on the pallets1 a common plan is to pin down a sheet of glass-paper of medium roughness on a board1 and to scatter a little whitening on it4 ,the face of each leathered pallet 7when the glue is dry7 is gently drawn across this whitened surface4 ,if1 however1 the leather is of superior quality in the first instance the glass-paper may be omitted1 and a little whitening rubbed upon the leathered face will suffice4 ,even this may not be essential4 #f4 ,in working the pallets in take great care that each channel is covered by its pallet with an equal margin or surplus on each side of it4 ,it is well to trace pencil lines on the bars as a guide4 ,as you glue down each hinge give a little tap with a light hammer to the pallet1 and satisfy yourself by inspection that the impression on the leather is equal and similar in every part4 ,allow no defect to pass4 ,rectify1 for instance1 the slightest bruise or depression in any of the bars at the points covered by the pallets4 ,see1 also1 that all the pallets play easily between their guide-pins4 ,finally1 a slip of wood about an inch wide may be bradded down upon the hinge-pieces4 ,this is not essential1 but it is a protection against possible straining and injury to the hinge by incautious treatment hereafter in cleaning the surface of the pallets4 ,remark4--,organs have been constructed in which the pallets were made to play upon a pin at the hinder end1 and not upon a leathern hinge glued to the bars4 ,such pallets could be taken out one by one at any time for repair or cleaning4 ,but repairs and cleaning1 if the original workmanship is good1 become necessary only at extremely rare intervals1 and these removable pallets may be ranked among the mere curiosities of our subject4 ,they are described and figured1 however1 by ,seidel4 #g4 ,the springs1 see ,fig4 #ac1 are now commonly of steel1 which has extensively superseded brass1 in consequence of the deterioration to which the latter metal is subject4 ,we are bound to say1 however1 that we have used springs of best brass wire1 even of late years1 without any disappointing results1 and that sets of such brass springs are1 to our knowledge1 as efficient as ever after thirty or forty years of constant use4 ,but it is undeniable that the brass wire now procurable is subject to a change under the influence of damp and 7it is said7 under that of the fumes of gas1 which renders it brittle and quite useless for purposes which require flexibility4 ,springs certainly cannot be made from wire so spoilt2 but1 as we have said1 when once made from new wire1 they may continue in use for periods practically unlimited4 ,remark4--,the store of brass wire should be kept wrapped up in brown paper4 ,this applies also to brass plate4 ,whatever the wire1 the springs may be quickly fashioned by using a board1 ,fig4 #ae1 in which you have fixed a stout wooden peg1 x1 and two pins1 y and z4 ,the wire1 if brass1 should be about ,no4 #ag or ,no4 #ah of the gauge4 ,the formation of the spring1 by twisting the wire round x1 y1 and z1 is too obvious to require further remark4 ,the arms of the spring maybe about #e inches in length1 and they are curved outwards 7see ,fig4 #af7 by drawing them between the thumb and fingers4 ,when so curved1 and left uncompressed1 the gape or distance between the extremities will be #g or #h inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,remark4--,the strength of the springs must be regulated by your plans in other respects4 ,we ourselves like strong springs1 even if the manual touch be in consequence a little heavy4 #h4 ,the two extremities of each spring are bent at a right angle or nearly4 ,one of these will be inserted1 but quite loosely1 in a small hole or punch-mark near the middle of the back of the pallet2 the other1 also quite loosely1 in a similar hole or depression in a wooden bar extending the whole length of the wind-chest1 and screwed down within two notches made for it in the inside of the cheeks4 ,as the united pressure of the #ed springs will certainly bend this bar1 it is well to introduce a long screw at about its middle point1 passing through it1 and biting well in one of the sounding-bars4 ,the spring-bar has a slip of wood1 cedar or mahogany1 about #b inches wide1 glued or bradded to it along the side which is to be nearest to the back of the chest4 ,the springs will be held parallel to their pallets by playing loosely in cuts1 about #a_/h inch wide1 made in this slip of wood 7,fig4 #ag74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,the socket1 or punch-mark1 upon which the pressure of the spring is exerted1 should be a little in advance of the middle of the pallet1 so that the latter may be held up against the bars throughout its extent4 ,the spring1 be it carefully observed1 is loosely held in place by the sockets and by the rack in which it plays1 and it can be removed at any future time by the aid of the little clever tool which we have figured in ,fig4 #ah1 and which you can make for yourself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4 ,when all this is done1 furnish every pallet1 if you have not already done so at an earlier stage1 with a little ring or crook1 by which to draw it down4 ,this ring is best made by bending one end of a bit of suitable wire1 and thrusting the other obliquely into the pallet 7see ,fig4 #ah;a74 ,this is better than driving in a little staple vertically4 ,the rings may be in a line drawn across the pallets about #a-a_/b inches from their extremities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah;a4 ,remark4--,but it will be convenient that the rings to which the pull-downs will be hooked should be quite clear of the guide-pins4 #i4 ,the bottom board being now put in its place for the moment1 draw a line upon it from end to end exactly above the line of rings on the pallets1 and draw lines at right angles to this corresponding with the centre of each channel1 and therefore of each pallet4 ,at each of these points a pull-down will pass through the board1 and it is plain that it must be made to do so without allowing the wind included in the chest to escape4 ,this was formerly effected by purses 7,french1 boursettes71 little leather bags1 tied or otherwise attached to the pull-downs4 ,we have seen this method successfully tried1 but it is now so completely superseded by a simpler and more effectual plan that we do not think it worth our while to say more of it4 ,the arrangement now invariably adopted is thus made3--,procure a strip of brass plate1 or several strips1 equal in the aggregate to the length of the chest1 and about #a-a_/b inch or #b inches wide4 ,in too many organs this plate is poor stuff1 not thicker than a visiting-card1 sometimes even of zinc only1 but in our opinion it should be at least as thick as a shilling4 ,drill holes in this plate near the edges1 and pin it down for the moment on the bottom board1 so that the lines of holes for the pull-downs may run along its middle4 ,mark on the brass the intersections of the lines as before4 ,having previously chosen the wire for your pull-downs 7of which more directly71 take a fine drill1 with your breast-plate and bow1 and on a bit of waste plate try the size of the hole made by it1 altering it on the oil-stone until the hole receives the wire with the nicest and most accurate fit4 ,remark4--,it will be well to store away the drill afterwards1 with a bit of the wire as a specimen1 and to use it for no other purpose4 ,this drilling is not a difficult operation1 and only requires care and delicate manipulation4 ,of course1 however1 any clockmaker would drill the holes for you4 ,assuming confidently that you will drill them yourself1 we recommend you to hold the bottom board1 with the plate on it1 in the screw-clamp of your bench1 or in a similar vertical position1 so that as the drill penetrates the brass it may be received by the soft wood of the board4 ,this will diminish the risk of breaking it4 ,remark4--,those who have a light handy lathe will know how to utilise it in drilling the holes in the brass plate apart from the board4 ,when all the holes are drilled1 remove the plate1 and clean off with a fine file the rough projections thrown up by the drill4 ,with a much larger drill1 twirled gently between the thumb and finger1 smooth the edges of all the holes on both sides of the plate4 ,try a bit of the wire in every hole1 and draw it to and fro1 when necessary1 until its passage is perfectly smooth and easy4 ,grease should not be used2 or1 if a little tallow is rubbed over the wire1 it should be wiped off clean4 ,the holes in the bottom board itself may be of any size we please1 since they have nothing to do with keeping in the wind1 and merely allow a perfectly clear passage for the wire pull-downs4 ,it is plain that if we now pin down the drilled plate in its place1 the arrangement will not be complete without some provision for preventing the escape of wind in large quantities1 and with an intolerable hissing noise1 at the edges of the plate4 ,the builders prevent this escape and hissing by fitting two long slips or tringles of wood 7see h1 k1 ,fig4 #ac7 along the two edges of the plate with glue and brads1 or screws4 ,these slips press the plate closely to the board throughout its entire length1 and they protect from injury at the same time the rings of the pull-downs1 which might easily be bent and distorted4 ,using thicker plate1 however1 we ourselves greatly prefer to glue a strip of white leather1 of the same width as the plate1 over the holes in the board1 piercing it with a sufficiently large awl at the centre of each hole1 and we screw down our plate upon this leather1 using numerous short screws1 placed only #d or #e inches apart1 passing through holes drilled near the edges of the plate1 and countersunk in the usual way4 ,all escape of air is thus most effectually prevented1 and the slips or tringles of wood become unnecessary1 except1 indeed1 in their secondary character as protectors of the rings4 ,the bottom board may now be put on1 and strongly secured by plenty of screws1 well lubricated with tallow4 ,prepare the pull-downs1 of uniform length1 each with its little ring neatly formed2 pass each through its hole in the plate1 and with suitable pliers form the top of the wire into a hook1 which takes hold of the ring of the pallet4 ,remark4--,or you may pass all the wires through the holes1 and form the hooks upon their ends before you fix the board in its place4 ,the builders often muffle the hook or ring with silk thread1 or a morsel of soft and thin leather1 to prevent a slight clicking noise which might be heard of wire against wire4 ,this1 however1 is really not essential4 ,it is1 or formerly was1 very common also to interpose an ,s of wire between the hook of the pull-down and the ring of the pallet4 ,these connecting links are unnecessary1 and are better omitted4 ,according to strict rule the pull-downs1 passing through holes in brass1 should themselves be of iron or steel2 but we have always used brass wire1 and we must refer our readers to what we have said of this material in treating of springs4 ,they must judge for themselves4 ,the essential thing is that the wires should play easily and smoothly through the holes1 drawing down the pallets with perfect freedom1 and allowing them to return1 when released1 with a pleasant smartness4 ,if a single pull-down fails in these respects remove it at once4 ,perhaps it is a little bent or bruised2 possibly the hole in the plate may have been inadvertently left with a sharp edge1 which has cut a notch in the wire2 possibly1 also1 the pallet-ring may not be quite in a line with its fellows1 and therefore not quite correctly above the hole in the plate1 throwing the pull-down out of a right line into an oblique one4 ,rectify all defects of this kind at any expenditure of time and patience4 ,we have left all this time several inches of each channel open or uncovered1 since the wind-chest closes in only that portion of the channels to which the pallets are applied4 ,we may now finish our work by gluing white leather1 or parchment1 or even only stout paper1 over the open part of the channels1 taking care that it adheres well in every part4 ,we may add that it is sometimes1 or often1 convenient to place the wind-chest under the back part of the sound-board1 and not under the front2 or to place it midway between the back and front1 or a few inches from either4 ,this is done with an eye to arrangements connected with the action or movement1 which will be described in detail4 ,when the wind-chest is so placed care must be taken to provide for the complete closing of the front board4 ,a ledge of wood should be glued and pinned to the bars in such case1 to afford a bearing for the front board and to receive the screws which secure it2 or the edges of the board may be leathered1 and it may be thrust in1 with a tight fit1 between the under side of the channels 7roofed with wood at that point for the purpose71 the cheeks1 and the bottom board1 cut an inch wider accordingly4 ,wedges are sometimes used1 driven in behind clasps or hooks of iron1 to keep it in its place4 ,but in truth1 when the organ is once well built and finished1 several years may elapse without a disturbance of the board4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,bellows1 ,,trunks1 ,,and ,,frame4 ,,after all our minute operations with small drills and fine wires1 calling for a light hand and patient accuracy1 we have to turn to work comparatively rough and coarse4 ,the business of bellows-making presents no serious difficulty1 and we hope we may pass rapidly over it4 ,we shall have no reader who is not already familiar with the form of organ-bellows1 which consist of three main boards1 namely1 the middle board1 the top board or table1 and the feeder1 and of thin plates of wood called ribs1 the whole united together with flexible white leather forming hinges and gussets4 ,the shape or form of the bellows will of course be determined by that of the organ2 they may be long and narrow1 or short and wide1 like the sound-board4 ,their capacity1 or area1 will depend on the number and character of the pipes which they have to supply with wind4 ,a common rule is to assign two square feet of superficial area for each stop in the organ2 but this would be in excess of the requirements of such a small organ as that which we are making4 #c feet #f inches by #b feet1 giving #g square feet of area1 will be ample dimensions in our case1 and will work in conveniently with the size which we have assumed throughout for the sound-board1 namely1 about #d feet or #d feet #f inches by #ae inches4 ,in arranging your plans in the first instance1 allow room for a drop or play of the feeder of at least #aj inches1 free of all interruption from the pedal or other contrivance for blowing1 for it is upon the capacity of the feeder that you must depend for the quantity of air supplied1 the upper part of the bellows being merely a reservoir in which the compressed air is stored away1 and from which it is distributed to the pipes as it is wanted4 ,the reservoir may have a rise or play of about #aj inches or a foot4 ,get out the three main boards of deal or any sound stuff1 leaving the middle board some inches longer than the other two1 that its ends may rest upon the frame of the organ1 or upon other supports as you may arrange4 ,cut out pieces1 also1 to form a shallow box1 say #d inches deep1 upon the middle board1 of the same size as the top board4 ,this is called a trunk-band1 and is introduced to allow of fixing the wind-trunks which are to convey the wind to the chest4 ,you will want also a light frame of three-quarters stuff1 pine recommended1 to carry and support the ribs of the reservoir2 the four boards of which it is made will be of the same width as the ribs themselves1 namely1 about #d or #d-a_/b inches4 ,the ribs are of very thin stuff1 say #a_/d inch1 but they must be quite sound and free from cracks4 ,you will want sixteen ribs 7eight pairs7 for the reservoir and six for the feeder2 of these last the long ones will be of triangular form4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4 ,cut plenty of large openings in the feeder board for the admission of the external air1 and in the middle board for the transfer of that air to the reservoir4 ,these openings may be rectangular1 say #d inches by #a-a_/b1 and there may be fully six of them in each board4 ,after cutting them1 convert them into gratings by fitting little wooden bars across them1 #a inch apart1 let in flush with the board1 and planed level4 ,each of these gratings will be covered with a valve or clack of stout white leather1 two thicknesses glued together1 and held down along one edge by a slip of wood and brads4 ,these leathern valves should play with perfect ease1 and it is well to thin down the hinge-flap1 or cut it half through with a sharp penknife1 that the valve may fly open at the slightest pressure of the wind1 and may not throttle or retard its passage4 ,it is a common plan to make these valves without a hinge1 by attaching pieces of tape to the four corners1 and pinning down the ends of the tapes to the board4 ,the whole valve then rises and falls4 ,we prefer the hinge4 ,after cutting your ribs to the proper shapes1 in which you can hardly get wrong1 sort them into pairs1 and glue a long strip of stout white sheep-skin along the edges of each pair4 ,stout calico or linen may be substituted for leather on the opposite side1 namely1 the side which will present the inner angle1 and in which the ribs will be in close contact when folded together4 ,a glance at ,fig4 #ai will show that the upper ribs of the reservoir are in a position the reverse of that of the lower ribs4 ,this inversion of the ribs represents the result of a clever invention by one ,cummins1 a clockmaker4 ,before its introduction1 the air in the reservoir had suffered a slightly unequal compression as the top board descended1 in consequence of the closing-in on all sides of the folds of the ribs1 which diminished the space occupied by the air4 ,cummins's ingenious modification at once rectified this inequality1 since the upper ribs fold outwards1 and allow more room for the air1 precisely in the same proportion as the lower ribs fold inwards and diminish the space4 ,an unpractised ear might not1 indeed1 detect the slight change in the tone of the pipes caused by bellows made in the old-fashioned way1 but let us by all means follow ,cummins's plan4 ,you will do well first to join the inner lower edges of the upper ribs to the inner sides of the middle frame2 then their other edges to the top board at the proper distance from its margin2 then attach the upper and outer edges of the lower ribs to the outer edges of the middle frame2 lastly1 the lower edges of the lower ribs to the trunk-band4 ,all this must be done quickly that the glue may not grow cold2 it will much facilitate a distasteful operation to use a small sponge with warm water1 passed over the outer or smooth side of the leathern strips as they are glued on4 ,the main hinge of the feeder will be best made by passing pieces of hempen rope through several pairs of holes bored obliquely for the purpose in the feeder board and middle board1 and wedged in with pegs and glue4 ,fig4 #bj sufficiently explains this4 ,two or three layers of the stoutest leather will be glued over the line of junction formed by this hinge4 ,there is no reason why the hinge should not be on one of the long sides of the feeder1 instead of its narrow end1 if your arrangements for the blowing-handle or pedal render this form of construction desirable4 7,you have doubtless well considered your blowing mechanism47 ,the ribs of the feeder being worked in like those of the reservoir1 and all the glue dry1 fix the bellows in a fully distended position by temporary appliances1 and fill up the open corners by gusset-pieces of your best and most flexible leather4 ,material will be economised and neatness consulted by preparing a paper pattern of the gusset-pieces in advance4 ,those of the feeder must be very strong1 and it may be well1 but it is not necessary1 to put on a second pair over the first1 but not glued to them in the folding or crumpled part4 ,all must be perfectly tight and well glued down in every part4 ,a mere pin-hole will betray itself hereafter by a disagreeable hissing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4 ,we had almost forgotten to say that a valve #d inches square1 or thereabout1 must be fitted in the middle of the top board to prevent over-blowing4 ,this is generally made of a small board of wood1 planed truly level1 and covered with two thicknesses of the pallet leather1 rubbed with whitening4 ,it opens inwards1 and is held closed by any simple application of a stout spring made of much thicker wire than the pallet springs4 ,fig4 #ba suggests one of the very simplest of arrangements4 ,a string1 fastened to the under side of this safety-valve1 and to the middle board beneath it1 may be of such length as to pull the valve open when the bellows are fully inflated2 or the valve may be pushed open from above by a wooden arm or catch attached for the purpose to some part of the frame4 ,the apertures for the trunks should be cut in the trunk-band1 according to well-digested plans1 before the bellows are put together1 that there may be no sawdust or chips afterwards to get under the clacks2 and it is well to give the whole interior of the bellows two coats of glue-size before the ribs are closed in4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4 ,the little contrivance a b c d1 ,fig4 #bb1 is to ensure the simultaneous rising of the top board and middle frame when the bellows are in action4 ,it may be conveniently made of hoop-iron1 but oak or any hard and strong wood will be equally good4 ,if some such contrivance were not introduced1 the top board and upper ribs would rise first on the working of the feeder1 and the frame and lower ribs would follow in their turn4 ,this would cause inequality of pressure1 since the top board would not at once bear up the weight of the frame and lower ribs4 ,the little jointed apparatus redresses this by causing the whole of the ribs to obey the first admission of air4 ,a simpler form of it will be found in ,fig4 #bb;a4 ,we are building a very small organ1 but1 desiring as we do to give as much completeness to this treatise as circumstances will allow1 we here explain that in larger instruments two feeders are generally or always introduced1 unless1 indeed1 a cuckoo feeder is used1 which practically amounts to the same thing1 being a long board hinged to the under side of the middle board by a stout transverse piece in its middle1 and provided with two sets of ribs1 each set filling up the space from the middle hinge to the end of the board4 ,this feeder supplies wind with the upward as well as the downward stroke of the bellows-handle1 but it would not be suitable for an organ in which the blowing is effected by the foot4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb;a4 ,we may have readers who are so fortunately circumstanced as to be able to apply water-power to their bellows4 ,in this case two feeders should be fitted in order to utilise both strokes of the ingenious little machine1 which consists essentially of a piston moving water-tight in a cylinder provided with a valve which admits water alternately above and below it4 ,this is not the place for entering on a discussion of the conditions essential to the due working of the water-pressure engine2 they may be studied in any modern treatise on hydro-dynamics2 it is enough for our present purpose to say that a cylinder not larger than a common wine-bottle will give ample power for such an organ as ours1 provided that the pressure on the piston be not less than #cj lbs4 to the square inch1 and that the supply-pipes be of ample size4 ,water1 it must be remembered1 does not expand like steam when admitted into an empty space1 or rather into a space occupied only by atmospheric air2 hence large pipes1 large valves1 and large ports1 or valve-openings1 must be provided1 that the water-pressure1 irresistible when properly applied1 may be thrown at once upon the point where it is wanted4 ,but this is by the way1 and we will only add that the water machine should be in a room or cellar below or adjoining that in which the organ is placed1 as a slight noise is inseparable from its action1 and it should act on the feeders by a wooden or iron rod brought up through the floor4 ,still better if the whole apparatus1 feeders1 reservoir1 and all1 can be down-stairs or in a neighbouring apartment1 the trunks only passing through the wall or floor4 ,in very large modern instruments the feeders1 worked by steam or water1 are commonly made to move horizontally1 in a way which will be understood if we imagine an accordion or concertina laid upon its side4 ,when the reservoir is fully inflated it acts upon a valve1 which reduces or cuts off the supply of water or steam4 ,the trunks are rectangular wooden tubes made of half-inch pine1 and well jointed4 ,in their course from the trunk-band to the wind-chest right-angled mitres are permissible1 for it is a mistake1 though a common one1 to imagine that the wind rushes in an impetuous stream along the trunks as it does 7for instance7 along a conveyancing tube when its pallet is open4 ,the trunks are simply connecting links between the reservoir and wind-chest1 but they must be large enough to ensure an equality of wind-density in both wind-chest and reservoir under all demands on the part of the player4 ,our trunk may be #e inches by #b1 inside measurement2 or it may be #i or #aj inches wide by only #a2 or we may make it #c or #d inches square1 as may suit our plans4 ,the ends of the trunk should not be glued into the openings cut in the trunk-band and wind-chest4 ,the ends1 reduced by half the thickness of the wood1 and brought to a shoulder1 should be glued into an opening in a small board1 an inch or two larger on all sides than the area of the trunk4 ,engineers would call this a flange4 ,this flange being leathered1 and the aperture of the trunk cut out1 it may be pressed with four or more screws against the margins of the openings with which it is in communication1 and will thus be removable at any time if the organ is taken down or altered4 ,the interior of wind-trunks should be well coated with thin glue1 and the exterior should be painted4 ,some builders prefer to cover the exterior of their trunks with paper1 and to line the ribs of the bellows with the same material1 applied with common paste4 ,trunks have been made1 too1 of zinc1 and oval in section4 ,the frame of the organ1 whatever its form or plan1 should be very strong and solid1 and should stand firmly in its place on the floor without any tendency to vibration or unsteadiness4 ,the pieces of which it is composed should be of good deal1 #a-a_/d inch thick1 and from #c-a_/b to #d-a_/b inches wide1 according to circumstances1 that is to say1 according to the weights which it has to carry4 ,the essential points are these1 namely1 that the keys1 or manual1 shall rest upon firm supports at the proper height above the floor2 that the sound-board shall be borne upon bearers at a sufficient height above the keys to admit the intervening mechanism2 that the bellows shall be carried on cross pieces far enough removed from the floor to admit of the free play of the feeder4 ,you will take into consideration1 in designing your frame1 the question whether you will have pedals1 and the still more important question whether you will have separate pipes for them1 and how they are to be connected with the lower keys4 ,room must be provided for all the apparatus involved in these arrangements1 and1 as in every part of our work1 so in this1 we say that the reader himself must think over carefully all contingencies1 and make a preliminary drawing to scale for his own guidance4 ,enough if we lay down here the following rules3-- #a4 ,the under side of the key-board must be #be inches from the floor1 or from the upper surface of the pedal-board4 #b4 ,the under side of the wind-chest should1 if possible1 be at least #ae inches above the key-board4 #c4 ,the middle board of the bellows should be fully #ab inches above the floor1 or above any trackers or other mechanism connected with pedals4 #d4 ,the front edge of the key-board should project about #a foot in advance of the panels closing in the lower part of the case4 #e4 ,ample space should be secured for a large book-board by allowing a still greater distance between this front edge of the keys and the front edge of the sound-board above4 ,these are not quite all the considerations involved in designing the frame4 ,the draw-stops and their connection with the sliders must be well considered1 and room left for the requisite apparatus2 and the position of the bellows-handle should be determined1 and the part of the frame on which its fulcrum or centre will rest4 ,fig4 #bc gives1 perhaps1 the simplest form of frame usually adopted for a small organ4 ,it is made of four distinct frames1 united at the angles by screws1 so that the whole can be easily taken to pieces4 ,it must be understood that the key-board is carried upon two cross-bearers1 leaving the under part of the tails of the keys accessible2 and the sound-board in like manner rests upon two bearers under its extreme ends4 ,if any longitudinal bar is introduced to assist in sustaining the weight of the sound-board1 it must be after careful consideration of all the arrangements for the action or movements of the keys4 ,similarly1 the entrance of the trunk must depend on the mechanism of the action and of the draw-stops4 ,it is unnecessary to screw down the sound-board to the bearers4 ,its own weight when loaded with the pipes will keep it down1 while a couple of dowels 7short wooden pegs71 one in each bearer1 fitting into sockets in the bottom board of the wind-chest1 will prevent it from moving laterally4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4 ,there is another form of frame well suited to small organs1 and which we ourselves greatly approve4 ,according to this plan1 which is sketched in ,fig4 #bd1 the bellows are enclosed in a stout low structure rising no higher than the level of the key-board which rests upon its top4 ,the sound-board is carried upon cheeks screwed or otherwise attached to the bottom board of the wind-chest either at its extreme ends or at points nearer to its centre1 according to your plans for the action and the draw-stops4 ,or the cheeks may be united by a stout transverse piece or girder1 the sound-board being then kept in place by dowels only4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4 ,the present writer has further modified this arrangement by substituting a wide and shallow trunk for one of the cheeks4 ,this trunk is screwed by its flange to the bottom board of the wind-chest1 where the wind enters1 and it is closed at the bottom1 where it rests upon the cross-bearers of the frame4 ,a lateral aperture is cut in it an inch or two from this lower end1 and a short mitred trunk connects it with the bellows4 ,all this may be sufficiently understood by inspection of ,fig4 #bd4 ,remark4--,the late eminent builder1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,hill1 we believe1 exhibited an organ at the ,london ,international ,exhibition in #ahea which had hollow framework1 serving as trunks4 ,it is evident that by making one end of our bellows rest upon a hollow bearer we might omit the trunk-band entirely1 since this hollow bearer might be directly connected by a mitred trunk with the hollow cheek supporting the wind-chest4 ,and by making one leg of the bellows-frame hollow1 and connecting it at top with a hollow cross-bearer1 carrying the cheek on which rests the wind-chest1 it is plain that we supersede the separate trunk altogether4 ,such plans as these may amuse some of our readers4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4 ,if the feeder is worked by the foot of the player such a pedal as that shown in ,fig4 #be will be found convenient4 ,it is made of hard wood--oak1 birch1 ash1 or walnut--with iron or brass hoops and pivots1 and is screwed to the floor of the room1 independently of the organ-frame4 ,the little roller should be covered or muffled with soft leather1 and you will see that it rolls clear of the valve-holes in the feeder4 ,by lengthening the middle piece or shaft we may work with the right foot1 a feeder having its play on the left side2 but in such a case the whole machine will be best made of iron by a smith4 ,he will coat the pedal for you with india-rubber where the foot rests upon it--a much better plan than roughening it like a rasp4 ,the pedal1 as figured1 is intended to be on the extreme right of the player1 and to be clear of a pedal-board of two octaves4 ,the reader will see that by reversing the positions of the arms of the pedal it may be made to suit any little organ with a manual only4 ,in this case the muffled roller will traverse the feeder not crosswise1 but lengthwise4 ,we pointed out in a former page that the position of a bellows-blower must be considered in your plans for the finished instrument4 ,if he stands close to the player on either side of him the lever will be easily poised upon a strong pin projecting from the frame4 ,a piece of web or a leathern strap will be a better connection with the feeder than any rigid bar of wood or of iron4 ,if the organ is not placed against a wall the position of the blower may with equal ease be precisely reversed4 ,the lever1 however1 may be arranged parallel to the back wall by constructing your bellows in the first instance with a view to this1 the hinge of the feeder being on one of its long sides1 as we have explained in a former page4 ,or1 with a feeder hinged as usual at its end1 the lever may still be parallel to the back wall by acting upon an arm with a roller precisely similar to our foot-blower4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf4 ,another mode of effecting this is shown in ,fig4 #bf4 a b is the handle turning on a strong pin at a1 fixed to the back of the frame4 c d is a shaft which should be of iron1 but might be of hard wood1 hooped at the ends1 having two arms1 e and f1 projecting from it in opposite directions4 ,this shaft turns on stout iron pivots which enter holes in stanchions securely fixed to the frame4 ,these holes will be better for being bushed with brass4 g is a short wooden link connecting the handle with the arm f2 and h is a wooden rod which connects the arm e with a forked lug screwed to the feeder4 ,all these connections are by stout turned pins of iron or brass4 ,it is plain that every downstroke of the handle a b will bring up the feeder4 ,all this is a matter of mere mechanical arrangement2 the simpler you can make it1 by diminishing as much as possible the number of pivots or turnings1 the better it will be4 ,we conclude this chapter1 and turn to the next branch of our subject1 with the assumption that the organ is thus far satisfactorily advanced4 ,when the new bellows are worked we assume that no hissing is heard1 and no escape of air perceived at any of the holes when a slider is drawn1 or at any part of the junctions of the trunk4 ,we assume also that when any pallet is opened by drawing down the ring of its wire1 a strong rush of wind will immediately follow1 and will be as instantly stopped by releasing the ring1 when the pallet will close with a ready and prompt snap4 ,the sliders1 too1 must glide to and fro with perfect smoothness and ease4 ,pass over no serious fault4 ,remedy all defects with unwearied patience1 even if it involves a reconstruction of your work4 ,it is usual to paint the frame and bellows 7leaving the ribs untouched1 however7 with some dark priming4 ,a dull red was formerly in vogue2 chocolate1 dark brown1 or a slaty black have now found favour in the eyes of builders4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,plantation ,,of ,,the ,,pipes4 ,,we explained in a former page that it is well to plant all the pipes upon the sound-board before the pallets are fitted1 because dust and chips are inseparable from the operation1 and may be troublesome and mischievous if introduced into the grooves and conveyances4 ,some of our readers1 therefore1 having their stock of pipes by them1 have perhaps already perused this chapter and acted upon its suggestions4 ,it has been reserved1 however1 for this place in our work1 in accordance with our wish to meet the case of workmen and young beginners who are under the necessity of proceeding by degrees4 ,possessing a turning-lathe1 and resolving to turn the wooden pipe-feet yourself1 you will doubtless commence by boring four or more holes in a bit of thin board with centre-bits of different sizes as a guide or gauge for the diameters of the pipe-feet4 ,if you mount this little board at a height of #d-a_/b inches above another board or stand1 by pillars or legs1 it will represent a portion of your rack-board1 and as you rapidly throw off the feet in the lathe they will be as quickly sorted by passing them into these trial holes4 ,the billet of wood1 pine1 willow1 sycamore1 or any other suitable stuff1 should be bored while still in the rough by a bit revolving in the lathe4 ,the bore cannot then fail to be central4 ,it should ultimately be scorched with a hot iron1 unless1 indeed1 your borer has been so well suited to the wood as to render unnecessary any further smoothing4 ,the feet will be slightly conical1 the smaller end tapered off to fit the countersunk hole on the board1 the larger formed into a neck with a shoulder 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,the rack-pins should be of mahogany or oak1 with a shoulder at each end1 the necks fitting tightly in the holes provided for them already4 ,these necks may be blackleaded1 to facilitate removal4 ,all the holes may now be bored in the rack-board corresponding to our two wooden stops 7,nos4 #b and #d71 at the points marked long ago1 when the grooving was finished2 the board may be placed on its rack-pins1 and the feet dropped into their places1 adjusted1 where necessary1 with a half-round file4 ,the pipes may then receive their feet one by one1 and if your calculations have been correct and your measurements accurate they should stand in orderly array4 ,use the spirit-level1 square1 and plumb-line in planting the pipes1 to ensure truly horizontal and perpendicular lines4 ,the feet should not be actually glued into the blocks until the last little adjustments have been given4 ,in planting the metal pipes1 holes #b inches or more in diameter will be required in the bass1 while those in the extreme treble will be little larger than a common quill4 ,adjustable bits may be bought1 clever contrivances producing beautifully true circular holes 7see ,chap4 ,,ii474 ,in the absence of these1 we recommend you to use discs of stiff paper or cardboard1 representing the exact size1 as ascertained by callipers1 of the conical foot of the pipe at about #e inches from its lower extremity2 from these discs the outline of the holes may be traced on the board1 and all the holes1 great and small1 may be cut out with a pad-saw1 or bored with common bits1 in every case a trifle smaller than they are ultimately to be4 ,then1 the rack-board being in place1 each pipe may be adjusted in its position by using a half-round rasp1 and similar or rat-tail files4 ,with these you will easily give a conical form to the holes in the board4 ,great care will be well bestowed in this operation4 ,if1 unfortunately1 you cut any hole too large1 line it with a morsel of soft leather4 ,but every true workman will desire to resort as seldom as possible to this expedient4 ,probably none of the metal pipes will require to be grooved off4 ,but this you have attended to long ago4 ,if any of them are grooved off1 take care that the grooves are of ample size1 that the wind may not be throttled4 ,when all the pipes are planted1 whatever the arrangement which you have adopted1 they should gratify the eye by their perfect symmetry4 ,if they do not look well they will not sound well1 was a good maxim long ago impressed upon the writer by an ingenious ,german workman1 to whom he was indebted for much valuable information4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,action4 ,,this important subject will be prefaced by a few definitions1 superfluous1 perhaps1 for some readers1 necessary for others4 ,backfall4 ,a lever of any clean wood1 #c_/h inch or less in thickness1 #a inch or #b inches in width1 and seldom more than #a or #b feet in length1 turning upon a wire as its axis or fulcrum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4 ,bridge4 ,backfalls occur in sets1 corresponding to the number of keys in a manual or of pallets in a wind-chest4 ,they are arranged side by side in notches formed by taking out the wood between saw-cuts in a balk of mahogany or oak #b1 #c1 or more inches square4 ,this balk is called a bridge4 ,fig4 #bg shows part of a set of backfalls and their bridge4 ,square4 ,squares are now usually of metal1 but may be easily made of wood1 and consist of two arms1 #b or #c inches long1 united at a right angle to each other1 or cut at once from a single piece1 and turning on a wire as an axis passing through a hole at the intersection of the arms4 ,like the backfalls1 they may be arranged side by side in a bridge1 but the modern metal squares are screwed separately in their places 7,fig4 #bh74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4 ,sticker4 ,a slender rod of light wood1 not larger than a common cedar pencil1 and from a few inches to a foot or two in length 7,fig4 #bi74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4 ,tracker4 ,a flat riband of pine1 sometimes several feet in length1 about #c_/h inch in width1 and less than #a_/h inch in thickness4 ,trackers1 however1 are now frequently slender round rods1 like the stickers 7see ,fig4 #cj74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4 ,tapped ,wires4 ,formerly of brass1 afterwards of tinned iron1 and now generally of phosphor-bronze or some other alloy4 ,these are pieces of wire about #c-a_/b inches in length1 from ,no4 #af to ,no4 #ah in gauge1 and cut with a screw-thread upon about half their length1 with a ring or hook at the untapped end4 ,buttons4 ,round nuts of old and thick leather1 or latterly of a composition into which gutta-percha enters1 pierced at their centre to receive the tapped part of the wire4 ,cloths4 ,little discs of woollen cloth1 mostly red1 used as mufflers to prevent the rattling noise of wood against wood1 or metal against metal4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4 ,roller4 ,an axis or shaft of light wood 7but in certain cases of iron71 turning easily on two wires as pivots1 which enter holes in studs fixed firmly4 ,the roller has two 7or more7 arms1 #b or #c inches long1 projecting from it1 generally near its ends4 ,it is plain that any motion given to the roller by acting on one of these arms will be transmitted to the other arm4 ,rollers are in sets1 like backfalls and squares1 and are arranged symmetrically on a board called a roller-board 7,fig4 #ca74 ,the nine articles just described are all brought together in the action of an organ1 even of a simple kind4 ,we shall endeavour in this chapter to show how they are combined in ordinary circumstances1 involving no peculiar complications4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4 ,a simple and rudimentary example of the principle underlying all systems of organ-action may be seen in ,fig4 #cb4 a b is the key-board1 in which each key 7as always in ,england7 is balanced on a pin-rail near its centre1 and has a pin1 c1 passing through a little mortice cut in it1 while another pin1 d1 out of sight1 near its fore end1 keeps it in its place1 parallel to its fellows4 ,at the tail of the key1 e is a sticker1 having a wire thrust into each of its ends1 and projecting about #a inch2 one of these wires is inserted in a small hole drilled in the key-tail1 and conical beneath1 or cut into a little mortice4 ,a cloth is slipped upon the wire to prevent the end of the sticker from rattling upon the key-tail4 ,the upper wire of the sticker slips into a similar hole 7a cloth interposed as before7 in the end of f1 a backfall working in its bridge1 g4 ,the other end of f is connected at once to the pull-down of the pallet by a tapped wire and button4 ,clearly1 if a finger is placed upon the key1 its hinder end will rise and will push up the back end of the backfall1 which will draw down the pallet2 and by simply reversing the position of the backfalls as shown in the cut1 we may pull down the pallets in the wind-chest when placed under the back of the sound-board4 ,if1 then1 we have fifty-four keys in the manual1 a repetition of this simple apparatus fifty-four times will be requisite to bring every pallet1 with the pipes controlled by it1 under the command of the player4 ,but this is taking no account of the fact that the pipes are not planted in an unbroken chromatic series from bass to treble4 ,in the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #e 7and in its reverse or opposite plan7 it is plain that our simple backfalls would fail us2 while in ,fig4 #f some of the bass pipes are planted to the right of the player1 equally out of reach4 ,here we resort1 then1 to rollers4 ,fig4 #cc shows a single roller1 in which i k is the roller1 turning on pivots in studs1 and having arms1 l1 m1 of wood or of iron1 projecting from it4 ,the sticker from the key-tail pushes up the arm l when the key is depressed2 the roller turns on its pivots1 and the arm m pushes up the tail of the backfall by another sticker1 the pallet being thus opened as before2 and it is plain that by arranging a set of rollers on a board1 as in ,fig4 #ca1 we may act with ease upon pallets to the right and left which could not be reached in any other way4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4 ,the roller-board as here described is placed above the key-board1 with action by stickers2 but it might be as easily placed immediately under the wind-chest1 with action by trackers4 ,in this latter case1 the key-tail will push up the end of the backfall1 the other end of which will draw down a roller arm by means of a tracker2 the other arm of the roller will be hooked to the pull-down of the pallet by means of another tracker4 ,if so placed1 room must of course be left for the roller-boards by fixing the wind-chest at a sufficient height above the backfalls4 ,figs4 #cd and #ce show1 sufficiently for our purpose1 but without any pretension to exactness of detail1 the two positions of the roller-board1 and it is easy to see that by reversing the backfalls1 and in ,fig4 #ce the roller-board also1 we can act upon a back wind-chest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4 ,probably the reader has already surmised that the notches in the bridge are by no means necessarily parallel to each other1 or1 in other words1 that the backfalls themselves are not parallel4 ,the left-hand pipes1 as shown in ,fig4 #f1 are reached by cutting the notches in the bridge askew1 so that while one end of the backfall is over the key-tail1 the other may be under the pull-down2 and as this applies to the whole set of backfalls1 except those connected with the rollers1 the whole of the notches will be cut at varying angles to the central line or axis1 and the complete set of backfalls1 when put in their places1 will present a fan-shaped plan4 ,hence it is sometimes called a fan-frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4 ,but parallel backfalls occur constantly as transmitters of motion from the keys to the rollers1 and in other positions which will be noticed4 ,the plantation of pipes shown in ,fig4 #e1 for instance1 and the reverse of it1 which has the larger pipes in the centre1 can only be adopted by having a roller for every pallet2 and in this case the backfalls will be parallel1 whether the action be by stickers or by trackers4 ,already1 we hope1 we have given explanations so far intelligible that ingenious reader's might have no difficulty in devising for themselves some one of the numerous distinct combinations which may be made of the nine pieces or members which we began by defining4 ,let us take1 however1 the very common arrangement of ,fig4 #f as that of our organ1 and apply to it the rules already laid down4 #a4 ,the keys will be procured1 of course1 from a maker1 unless the cost--fifty to sixty shillings--can be saved by adapting an old set4 ,we ourselves are admirers of the old-fashioned claviers with black naturals and white sharps1 or sharps of bone or ivory with an ebony line down the middle of each4 ,we possess two specimens of double manuals of this kind2 one of them1 taken from an organ by the elder ,england1 is extremely handsome1 with a mahogany frame almost black from age1 purfled like a highly finished violin4 ,it was presented to the writer many years ago by the late excellent builder1 ,mr4 ,walker4 ,the other double set1 in a plainer frame1 was bought at a sale for the sum of one shilling and sixpence6 ,the chief objection to the use of old claviers is that the keys1 from long usage or from original faulty construction1 rattle audibly against their guide-pins4 ,this1 however1 may be quite obviated by bushing the little mortices which receive the guide-pins with fine cloth1 as modern piano keys are bushed1 or with thin leather--for instance1 the kid of old gloves4 ,if the keys are handsome1 a little patience bestowed in this way may well reward the operator1 who will find the movement of his old manual when this is done as silent as he can wish it to be4 #b4 ,we shall assume that the front board of the wind-chest is above the keys1 and that the organ is to stand against the wall4 ,hence the backfalls will be turned towards the player1 as in ,figs4 #cb and #cd4 ,but all that we shall say will be applicable to backfalls acting on a back wind-chest4 ,the keys1 whether new or old1 will probably be #ah or #ai inches in length from their front edges to the rear4 ,their position in the frame should be such as to allow the front edge to project #aj inches at least beyond the front line of the wind-chest1 in order to allow room for a book-board2 hence our backfalls will be short4 ,but their shortness will not be an evil1 since the extent of their play or oscillation is extremely trifling4 ,one-third of an inch will be a sufficient descent of the pull-down2 the other end of the backfall will traverse a similar space1 and it will easily be seen how small an arc will be described by any point near the centre4 ,backfalls from #d to #f inches in length will1 therefore1 present no practical inconvenience4 ,at the same time it must be admitted that with such short backfalls the obliquity of those to the extreme left will be somewhat embarrassing1 and we shall recommend the use of rollers for the six pallets to the left as well as those to the right1 especially since1 as we shall show1 the width of the roller-board will not be materially increased thereby4 ,the backfalls should be of oak or mahogany1 and the bridge of the same1 or other hard wood4 ,if the bridge is not sufficiently strong and rigid1 a disagreeable and perceptible yielding of the whole manual will take place when the player presses down a chord4 ,the backfalls1 if parallel1 or if only at a moderate degree of obliquity1 will oscillate upon a single wire extending throughout the whole range4 ,this wire should be sunk in a score or channel made with a ,v-tool before the notches of the bridge are cut2 and it should be held firmly down by small cross slips of oak screwed with very fine screws into the wood of the bridge between every six or so of the backfalls4 ,this is much better than the common way of driving in little staples of wire1 which are apt to split the wood1 and are not easily extracted in case of repairs becoming necessary4 ,the small holes for such screws may be bored conveniently with a drill1 revolving by means of the ,archimedean drill-stock1 now sold in all tool-shops for the use of fret-cutters4 ,stickers may be quickly1 easily1 and neatly made by a bead plane4 ,take a piece of three-eighth pine board of the requisite length and dress it over4 ,then1 with a three-eighth bead plane1 strike a bead along one edge1 reversing the board when cut half through1 and using the plane as before4 ,a slender wooden rod will be the result1 which will only require a little smoothing with glass-paper4 ,to fit the wires into the ends of the stickers1 mark the centre of the rod with a punch or other suitable pointed tool1 and pierce a hole with a fine drill revolving in the lathe4 ,the wire may then be driven down without fear of splitting the sticker or of entering it obliquely and penetrating the side of it4 ,for trackers we prefer round rods1 made precisely as above1 but with a #a_/d-;inch bead4 ,if tapped wires are to be inserted in the ends of the trackers1 it is well to flatten the inserted end of the wire by hammering it1 that it may not turn round in the wood when the button is afterwards applied4 ,a fine saw-cut is made in the end of the tracker1 the flattened part of the tapped wire inserted1 and strong red thread1 well waxed1 neatly tied round4 ,the ends thus whipped are sometimes varnished with a red composition4 ,but this is superfluous4 ,if flat trackers are unavoidable1 they may be cut from a three-eighth pine board with a gauge1 armed with a cutting-point instead of the usual scoring-pin4 ,a smoothing plane should be specially prepared by fixing two slips of wood to its face4 ,these slips will prevent the plane from cutting anything thinner than themselves4 ,then1 the plane being held firmly down upon the bench1 an assistant1 walking backwards1 draws the tracker beneath the blade until it is reduced to the same thickness as the slips1 say #a_/h inch4 ,the tapped wires will be inserted and the ends whipped as before4 ,the squares shown in ,fig4 #bh are cut from thin boards of oak or mahogany4 ,perhaps it will be found less troublesome and laborious to make each square of two distinct arms1 halved together and glued at the angle1 or more effectually joined by tenon and mortice4 ,metal squares can be bought ready made1 or they may be cut with shears from brass plate4 ,but we should use wood ourselves4 ,the rollers will be of pine or deal4 ,they are cut out and dressed up as square or rectangular rods of the requisite length1 but two of their sides are afterwards rounded or curved4 ,it follows from this that when arranged side by side on their board the curved sides may be nearly in contact4 ,as our rollers are short1 three-quarters stuff will suffice for them1 but rods inch or more square should be used when rollers have a length exceeding #b feet or #cj inches4 ,iron roller-arms have some great advantages1 and they may be bought at a moderate price per gross1 neatly bushed at the holes to prevent a rattling of metal against metal4 ,but we ourselves deliberately prefer arms of wood1 involving1 as they do1 much greater labour4 ,if these are used1 they should be made of oak or other hard wood1 and let neatly into a little mortice in the flat side of the roller4 ,after they are glued in1 the holes may be pierced in each end of the roller to receive the wires or pivots on which it revolves1 and which should be stout and rounded smoothly at the external extremity4 ,one of the reasons why we prefer wooden arms is this1 viz4 that the pivot can be driven into or through the arm1 which may thus be at the extreme end of the roller2 while if iron arms are used a margin or surplus must be left at each end of the roller to allow room for the insertion of the pivot without interfering with the arm1 the screw of which passes through the axis of the roller4 ,but it is undeniable that iron arms abridge labour and save time4 ,the studs in which the pivots are supported are also among the fittings which can be obtained from the shops2 but we have always made our own of oak1 turning the peg or shank in the lathe4 ,these studs must be bushed with cloth4 ,drill the hole truly through the stud1 using a borer much larger than the pivot-wire4 ,cut a strip of red cloth about #c_/h inch in width4 ,point one end of it1 and draw it through the hole in the stud4 ,it will adapt itself to the circular hole1 and will take the form of a cloth pipe lining the hole1 and effectually preventing a rattling noise which would certainly be heard in its absence4 ,the planning of a roller-board1 so as to economise space as much as possible1 is one of those operations which call for forethought and ingenuity4 ,the forms which it may assume are numerous2 we shall indicate by one or two simple diagrams some of the combinations of the fan-frame with rollers which occur in ordinary practice4 ,fig4 #cf shows the usual way of carrying the touch to the pallets on the right and left in the common form of sound-board shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,a set of backfalls is assumed as in situ under the wind-chest1 parallel to each other as regards the six pallets at each extremity1 but fan-framewise as regards the pallets from ,tenor ,c to the top4 ,as the actual key-board 7disregarding its frame7 is about #b feet #f inches in width1 while the row of pull-downs on which it is to operate extends to a length of #d feet or more1 we see that there will be an overhanging margin or surplus of the wind-chest on each side of some #i or more inches1 and it is probable that all the pallets affected by rollers will be included in these overhanging portions of the chest4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4 ,take a piece of three-quarters or five-eighths board1 the full length of the wind-chest1 and wide enough for your twelve rollers when placed as we shall now direct4 ,dress it up1 and give it two coats of priming4 ,at its lower edge mark the exact centres of the key-tails from end to end of the key-board4 ,at its upper edge mark the precise centres of the tails of the twelve backfalls on which the rollers are to act1 fixing the board temporarily so that precision may be secured4 ,along the two side margins of the board 7which has been squared up true7 mark rows of dots at equal distances1 say #a inch or considerably less1 according to the scantling of your rollers1 which may be placed as close to each other as possible without actual contact when made to revolve through a small arc on their pivots4 ,you have now all the data which you require1 and may draw pencil lines showing the exact place of every stud on the board1 the exact length of every roller1 and the exact spots on each roller at which the arms must be inserted4 ,fig4 #cf1 in which x y is the key-board1 the rollers and stickers being represented by lines only1 shows that the longest roller1 that of ,,cc sharp1 is placed by itself at the top4 ,this is done in order to enable us to use a single stud1 common to two rollers1 throughout the board until we come to the last1 which will stand alone4 ,if the rollers of ,,cc and of its sharp were thus placed in a line1 running into a single stud1 there would be hardly room enough for the latter1 as the arms would be in immediate contiguity4 ,by giving the ,,cc sharp roller a place by itself1 we get the following pairs3 ,,cc and ,,dd sharp2 ,,dd and ,,ff2 ,,ee and ,g2 ,,ff sharp and ,a2 ,g-sharp and ,b natural2 ,a sharp will have its own two studs4 ,thus we obtain a distance of fully #a-c_/d inch between the centres of the contiguous arms of these pairs of rollers2 and if iron arms are used1 there is room to drive in the pivot without meeting with the interruption of the screw in the heart of the wood4 ,when these measurements have been made1 and lines drawn in pencil or chalk1 the holes for the shanks of the studs may be bored1 and the board cleaned over and perhaps repainted4 ,when the work is complete1 the cleanly planed rollers with their neat studs on the dark background of the board should present a pleasing appearance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4 ,sometimes the roller-board lies horizontally4 ,it is then usually called a roller-frame4 ,fig4 #cg is a slight sketch showing how a roller-frame may be united with squares in certain cases4 a b is a key-board1 acting by stickers on a set of squares1 c1 arranged in a bridge4 d is another set of squares in a longer bridge under the pull-downs of a chest1 e1 let us say that of the second manual in an instrument of considerable size1 placed at the back of the case1 and possibly some feet from the player4 f is a roller-frame1 transmitting the touch by trackers to the extreme pallets right and left4 ,if economy of height is no object1 however1 the roller-board will be placed between the squares d and the chest e in the usual vertical position1 or it may be above the keys4 ,sometimes space is saved by inserting the roller-arms on opposite sides of the rollers1 cutting apertures in the board through which one arm of each pair may protrude4 ,this plan may be regarded as a compromise between the fan-frame and roller-board1 the latter doing duty as a set of backfalls4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4 ,this arrangement is sketched in ,fig4 #ch4 ,the roller-board1 g1 is above the key-tails1 which act by stickers on arms brought through openings in the board4 ,the opposite arms1 h h1 in front as usual1 act on the pull-downs by trackers4 ,we have adopted this plan in a very small organ1 and under the necessity of economising space as much as possible1 with complete success1 although every pallet had its roller1 the fan-frame being entirely absent4 ,rollers are often made of iron1 especially in the case of pedal movements1 where space is not abundant4 ,it will easily be understood that iron tubes of small calibre1 plugged with wood at the ends to receive the pivots1 and having iron arms screwed into drilled holes1 would present no serious difficulties to the workman1 and might be arranged upon a board little more than half the size of that required by a set of rollers in wood4 ,we must not close this chapter without explaining that the plantations of pipes sketched or indicated in ,figs4 #h and #i may be contrived without grooving by an arrangement involving no serious difficulty or complication4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4 ,in ,fig4 #ci1 a b c is a sound-board shown in section1 divided internally into two unequal parts by a longitudinal bar at b4 ,the front part1 b c1 nearest to the player1 has #db channels1 and carries all the pipes from ,tenor ,c upwards4 ,the hinder part has #ab channels only1 and supplies the bass octave4 ,these two separate internal divisions will have their pallets and springs as usual1 and a single wind-chest may include both sets of pallets1 or two wind-chests may be united by a short trunk1 or separate trunks may be fitted to each1 at the discretion and convenience of the builder4 ,we have now only to adapt a set of backfalls in a fan-frame to the front pallets1 and a roller-board acting on twelve parallel backfalls to the pallets of the bass octave1 and we have a very compact and sightly arrangement of pipes without a single groove1 every pipe standing on its wind4 ,if the back pipes were these--,stopped ,diapason1 ,bass1 #d-;feet tone1 and open ,flute1 wood1 #d feet2 while the front pipes comprised a ,dulciana1 ,stopped ,diapason1 and ,principal1 or some equivalent--this little instrument might be entirely satisfactory in all respects4 ,we may add that this arrangement of a double sound-board and wind-chest has been successfully applied by the writer to an organ with two manuals4 ,the sound-board was about #e feet #c inches in length4 ,the front division had #hd channels1 viz4 #db for each of the two manuals from ,tenor ,c to top ,f2 the hinder division had #bd channels1 viz4 #ab for each manual bass octave4 ,there were practically eight stops1 two of them grooved to each other in the bass4 ,of this grooving1 when there are two manuals1 we shall have something to say in a subsequent page4 ,it is not quite so simple an affair as the grooving already described4 ,when the key-board is in its place1 the stickers adjusted1 and the keys levelled by attention to the buttons on the tapped pull-downs1 a heavy damper or thumping-board should be laid across the key-board4 ,in modern organs this is generally a solid bar of lead1 about #a_/b inch thick1 and about #a-a_/b inch in width2 it is covered with baize on its under side1 and a guide-pin1 moving loosely in a little vertical groove cut in the key-frame at each end1 keeps it in position4 ,our damper may be of oak or mahogany1 very straight and true1 and loaded with lead1 run when fluid into cavities made with a large centre-bit4 ,the damper1 lying upon the keys1 and supported by them1 helps to keep them level1 and by receiving the blow or shock of each key1 as the finger leaves it1 it prevents a tapping noise which might be heard if the rising keys were stopped only by the board of the key-frame4 ,the descent or fall of the keys when pressed by the fingers should not exceed #a_/c inch4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,voicing ,,and ,,tuning4 ,,the time has now come when we may bring our little organ into musical order1 and reap some of the fruits of our toil4 ,if the processes described in previous chapters have been steadily carried out1 the instrument is now complete 7so far as the manual only is concerned7 with the exception of the draw-stop action1 which we intentionally reserve1 and the external case4 ,we shall insert here1 therefore1 a few pages on voicing1 the important and delicate operation by which the correct speech and distinctive tone of organ-pipes is imparted to them4 ,let us warn the reader at once1 and with emphasis1 that the process of voicing metal pipes is so complex that a complete mastery of its practical details is by no means uniformly attained1 even after years of steady practice under skilled guidance4 ,a very sensitive and educated ear1 a delicate sense of touch in the handling of fine tools1 and a thorough familiarity with the tonal quality1 or timbre1 of the best examples of the many varieties of pipes--these gifts are essential to the successful voicer4 ,hence we cannot counsel beginners to attempt the voicing of metal pipes1 unless they are fortunate enough to find themselves in a position to obtain lessons from some clever operator willing to give them1 or unless they can gain permission to attend at some first-class factory1 for the express purpose of watching the pipe-makers and voicers at work4 ,we shall not be deterred1 however1 by these considerations from describing1 to the best of our ability1 the business of voicing and regulating an ordinary metal pipe1 pointing out specially1 as we go on1 all that may be necessary for the removal of defects and faults in pipes already voiced by other hands4 ,but we must acknowledge our own obligations to the little treatise on voicing and tuning mentioned in the preface to this work4 ,those who obtain and peruse this thoroughly practical little tract will find all the information which they can require4 ,figs4 #dj1 #da show the well-known forms of metal organ-pipes as seen in the ,open ,diapason1 ,principal1 c4 ,figs4 #db1 #dc give details4 ,the languid1 ,fig4 #db1 is a little enlarged4 ,it will be seen that the essential features of wooden pipes have their counterpart in those of metal--the language1 or languid1 answering to the wooden block1 the conical termination to the wooden pipe-foot1 the cylindrical body to the rectangular wooden tube4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4 ,we have never made any metal pipes ourselves1 and we doubt if our readers will do well to embark upon an undertaking requiring special plant and appliances in a separate workshop1 and calling for great dexterity and neatness in a class of operations familiar only to trained artisans4 ,for the information1 however1 of those who choose to make the experiment1 we may explain that the metal sheets from which the pipes are made are thus produced3-- ,the ingredients 7viz4 tin and lead in various proportions7 are melted together in a copper and then cast into sheets1 a process effected by pouring it in a molten state into a wooden trough1 and running the trough rapidly along a bench faced with tick4 ,the metal escapes from the trough through a narrow horizontal opening at the back1 leaving a layer of metal behind it as it proceeds2 and the wider the cutting is1 of course the thicker will be the sheet of metal produced4 ,after being cast to an approximate thickness1 the metal is planed down to the precise thickness required4 ,it is then cut into portions of the shape necessary to give to the pipes the required size and form1 and is thus finally worked up4#b #b ,hopkins and ,rimbault1 p4 #gf4 ,the three parts which compose the pipe are first separately prepared4 ,the sheet of metal is rolled round a wooden cylinder or cone1 called a mandrel1 and the edges are soldered together4 ,the extreme neatness of this soldered joint is secured by smearing the metal with composition1 which is scraped off at that part only which is to retain the solder2 but a steady hand1 and long familiarity with the manipulation of the heated copper tool and with the properties of soft solder1 are absolutely essential to success4 ,at the lower part of the body thus soldered1 the mouth is formed by flattening a portion of the cylinder and by cutting away a horizontal slip of the metal4 ,the width of the mouth is to be in all cases a quarter of the circumference of the pipe4 ,in the case of large pipes the mouth is formed by cutting away a piece of metal of considerable size1 and replacing it by a sheet called the leaf1 having the mouth cut on its lower edge4 ,the foot is formed in a similar manner1 and has a flattened portion corresponding to that of the body4 ,the language1 or languid1 is a circular disc of much thicker stuff1 bevelled off round its periphery1 which is altered into a straight line at that portion which will lie beneath the mouth when the pipe is complete4 ,the three component parts are thus worked together4 ,the languid is placed on the wide opening of the foot1 and the windway formed by leaving a narrow slit between the straight edge of the languid and the flattened lip of the foot4 ,the two are then neatly soldered together4 ,the body is then soldered to the foot1 care being taken to adjust the mouth exactly opposite to the windway4 ,the larger pipes have ears1 namely1 rectangular pieces of metal soldered on each side of the mouth4 ,thus completed and cleaned over1 the pipes are handed to the voicer4 ,it will be remembered that we left a wooden pipe1 similarly put together but unvoiced1 in an earlier portion of this book4 ,we have now to explain that both classes of pipes pass through a similar or analogous course of treatment at the hands of the voicer4 ,with small metal tools1 called notchers1 of which he has four or five1 he cuts a row of nicks in the straight edge of the languid1 causing it to resemble somewhat the edge of a saw4 ,these nicks or notches1 coarse or fine1 close together or at rarer intervals1 as the case may be1 conduct the sheet of wind from the foot-hole against the upper lip of the mouth1 and influence to a most important extent the character of the tone4 ,in a similar way1 and using a file ground to a saw-like edge1 the operator on a wooden pipe cuts nicks in the slightly bevelled upper edge of the block1 and continues or prolongs these notches obliquely across the front of the block1 letting them die away or come to nothing at their extremity4 ,fig4 #dd shows the front of a block thus treated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4 ,the art of the voicer1 however1 is by no means expended upon this notching of the languids and blocks4 ,it extends to the accurate and nice adjustment of the height of the mouth1 the aperture of the foot-hole1 and the width of the windway4 ,all these will bear strict proportion to the scale or size of the body of the pipe1 and to the weight or pressure of the wind4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the tone1 quality1 or timbre of an organ-pipe1 and therefore of a stop or set of organ-pipes1 depends upon skilled attention to at least six distinct considerations1 viz43-- a4 ,scale of pipe4 b4 ,height of mouth4 c4 ,diameter of foot-hole4 d4 ,width of windway4 e4 ,character of notching4 f4 ,weight of wind4 ,it is the thorough mastery of the art of manipulating pipes1 with all these essential points kept in view1 which enables the voicer to produce the exquisite contrasts of tone heard in good organs between the tranquil ,dulciana and the delicate ,salcional2 between the ,violin ,diapason and the ,gamba2 between the ,keraulophon and the ,viola1 as variously constructed2 between the fluty-toned stops1 of wood or of metal1 to which various names have been given3 and the full chorus or combined power of a large instrument will be majestic1 imposing1 and dignified1 or1 on the other hand1 shrill1 harsh1 and unpleasing 7quality of materials being assumed to be similar71 in proportion to the skill1 taste1 and judgment with which it is finally voiced and regulated4 ,we have said enough1 perhaps1 to justify our advice that metal pipes be procured in a finished condition from competent makers4 ,our little organ contains two metal stops1 viz4 a ,dulciana 7or a small ,open ,diapason7 from ,tenor ,c to f in alt1 and a ,principal of #d feet throughout4 ,each of these1 made of good metal1 should cost #f or #g4 ,cheap pipes mean inferior metal1 and this we cannot recommend in any organ1 great or small4 ,the nearer the approach made to pure tin the better 7other essential points being assumed7 will be the quality of the tone4 ,in ordering the pipes1 the weight or pressure of wind on which they are to speak must be carefully specified4 ,this may be easily ascertained by using a wind-gauge1 a little instrument which we sketch in its simplest form in ,fig4 #de4 ,it consists of a glass tube1 bent as shown in the figure 7this can be done at any glass-blower's or optician's71 and having its lower end inserted in a wooden pipe-foot4 ,planting the gauge on any hole of full size in any part of the sound-board1 we pour a little water into the bent part or dip of the gauge4 ,on blowing the bellows steadily1 and depressing the key on the manual corresponding to the groove on which the gauge is placed1 the water will be depressed in the inner column1 and will rise in the outer4 ,by adjusting the weights on the bellows we may make this difference in the levels of the two columns greater or less as we please4 ,in our organ we shall have a #b-;inch wind2 that is to say1 we shall load the bellows so that the gauge may indicate a difference of #b inches between the two columns4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4 ,we may note here that about #g lbs4 per square foot of surface of top-board will be required to give this pressure4 ,pieces of old cast iron about an inch thick may be procured at any foundry1 and form the most suitable material for weights4 ,the voicer having worked to a #b-;inch wind1 it is probable that when the new metal pipes are planted in their places they will speak with charming evenness and truth4 ,if some or any of them1 however1 betray some defects1 it will be well not to meddle with them until we have satisfied ourselves that the fault does not belong to our own mechanism4 ,if1 for instance1 one pipe should be softer or less prompt and clear than the others1 let us be sure that the flow of wind to that pipe is not interrupted or throttled by a chip in the wind-hole or 7if there is conveyancing7 in the channel4 ,this will be ascertained by planting the pipe for the moment on some other groove than its own4 ,if the holes and channels are all clear1 and the pallet is opened freely by the key1 the fault must be in the pipe4 ,this may have suffered some little injury in the packing case1 e4g4 the lower lip may have been nipped too close to the edge of the languid1 thus reducing the width of the windway4 ,this may be carefully rectified with the flat blade of a common table-knife1 or similar object4 ,or the languid itself may have been bent or depressed by the weight of another pipe1 packed within it to save room in the case4 ,if this is so1 the languid must be carefully pushed back to the level by a stout wire or rod inserted through the foot-hole4 ,if the upper lip has been pressed inwards1 we must counsel the utmost care in bringing it back to its position4 ,the pipe should be sent back to the maker if the distortion is serious or considerable4 ,if it is slight we may rectify it by passing a slip of iron bent into the shape of the letter ,l through the mouth1 and thus pulling forward the whole of the lower par of the leaf1 preserving its regular slope as before4 ,if the mouth1 lips1 and languid are all right1 it is possible that by some accident the size of the foot-hole has been reduced4 ,it may be cautiously enlarged with a penknife or with a broach2 and if under other circumstances the foot-hole requires reduction1 this maybe done by gently rapping or hammering the metal round the aperture with the flat side of a chisel4 ,the builders have a heavy brass cone for effecting this reduction called a knocking-up cup4 ,similar brass cones1 we may here add1 are used in tuning4 ,they are expensive1 however4 ,all that we have said of possible defects in metal pipes applies1 mutatis mutandis1 to wooden pipes2 and as we make these ourselves we may deal more boldly with them4 ,an unvoiced wooden pipe will generally emit a chirp or whistle before its note4 ,the nicking of the block will remove this1 but if we overdo this nicking we shall hear a huskiness or buzzing equally or more disagreeable4 ,this husky quality may also be due to a too wide windway2 in this case1 remove the cap and rub the inside face of it on a sheet of glass-paper pinned down upon a board1 or plane off the inside face and file the windway anew4 ,if the mouth has been cut too high1 there may be nothing for it but to take off the front board and remake the pipe4 ,if the pipe1 in other respects good1 is too loud1 plug the foot-hole with neat flat plugs4 ,if it is too soft1 the pipe-foot may have been imperfectly bored1 or may be defective in some way1 or chips may have been left in the throat of the pipe4 ,ill-fitting stoppers are a fruitful source of defects in wooden stopped pipes4 ,refit them in every case of doubt1 and leave no room for misgivings as to the soundness of the joints of the pipe near the top4 ,we must point out to our readers that strength1 sonority1 or power must on no account be expected from wooden pipes4 ,a tone utterly harsh and intolerable will be the result of over-blowing the ,stopped ,diapason or ,flute1 stops of which the characteristic quality should only be tranquil sweetness and softness4 ,the flute of #d-;feet tone1 especially1 cannot be too delicate1 and in its upper octave great patience will be requisite in the adjustment of the tiny mouths and windways to prevent shrillness4 ,these remarks apply also to our fifth stop1 which we have been content hitherto to call simply ,fifteenth #b-;feet4 ,the ,fifteenth proper is a metal stop of strong shrill quality1 having its value in large instruments1 where it is balanced by other stops in affinity with it4 ,such a stop would be quite unsuitable to our little organ4 ,if we are to have a #b-;feet stop at all1 it should be a ,flageolet or ,flautina1 an echo1 in fact1 of the #d-;feet ,flute4 ,this may be successfully made by diligent operators in wood1 the lower part stopped1 the upper part open4 ,the professional voicers produce the fluty quality from ordinary metal ,fifteenths by peculiar treatment of the mouth4 ,in foreign organs such stops are generally or often of conical form1 the narrow aperture at the top4 ,these stops 7which may also be of #d-;feet or #h-;feet pitch7 usually bear the names ,gems-horn or ,spitz-flute4 ,we may dismiss the subject of ,tuning with a very few remarks4 ,the general principles of ,temperament--that is to say1 of the compromise or adaptation requisite in the modern scale of an octave containing twelve semitones--are not peculiar to organs1 and may be studied in any treatise4 ,mr4 ,hopkins exhausts the subject in a very interesting chapter of his great work4 ,our useful little tract on voicing gives all needful information4 ,a sensible and practical pamphlet on the same subject has been published by ,mr4 ,hemstock1 organist of ,diss4 ,you will begin with ,regulation1 that is1 with equalising the power or strength of the pipes composing each stop4 ,bestow every care on this1 especially in the upper ranges of the small wooden pipes4 ,the pleasing effect of the organ will greatly depend upon success in this operation4 ,when satisfied on this point1 tune your wooden pipes to the metal ,principal1 which has been sent from the maker's ready tuned and voiced4 ,after this rough approximation to absolute correctness1 go over the whole organ with great deliberation and care1 following the rules given in the works which we have cited1 or in any one of them4 ,a second or third tuning may be requisite before a sensitive ear is quite satisfied4 ,cones and cups of boxwood1 or made of sheet copper with brazed seams1 may be used in the absence of the expensive cast-brass articles4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,draw-,,stops4 ,,we have provided no means as yet for bringing the sliders under the control of the player4 ,the mechanism by which this will be effected must depend upon our plans for the case and book-board4 ,method #a4--;,as we have only five stops we may have resolved to arrange the knobs in a horizontal row above the key-board1 and below the edge of the book4 ,we shall soon see that this arrangement will result in much convenience and simplicity4 ,the ends of the sliders project at each end #b or #c inches beyond the margin of the sound-board4 ,to the cheek of the wind-chest1 below these projecting ends1 will be screwed a stout balk of oak or mahogany 7say #b-a_/b inches square71 constituting a bridge1 and having stout levers1 after the manner of backfalls1 working in notches4 ,these levers should be of oak1 birch1 or other hard wood1 at least #a_/b or #e_/h inch in thickness1 and not less than #b inches wide2 and the pins on which they work should be very stout1 say #a_/d inch in diameter1 and should be held down in their places by slips of hard wood firmly screwed down to the bridge4 ,all this is sufficiently shown in ,fig4 #df1 and it will be quite plain to the comprehension of every reader that these levers 7like backfalls7 may be askew to the straight line of the bridge1 so that while their upper ends spread out to reach the sliders1 their lower extremities may be brought into any position convenient of access4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4 ,the arms of these levers will of course be of unequal lengths4 ,about #b inches1 or a trifle more1 will be found a sufficient and agreeable play for the draw-stops4 ,if the sliders have a play of #a inch only1 it is clear that the lower arm of the levers must be twice the length of the upper arm4 ,at any rate the adjustment of the play of the draw-stops to that of the sliders should be made in fitting these levers1 and not in any other part of the mechanism4 ,the upper end of the lever1 shaped into a tenon or tongue1 will enter a square aperture in the end of the slider1 and the edges of this aperture should be bevelled1 in order that the lever may bear equally upon it in all positions4 ,rub the end of the lever with blacklead1 and use this wherever there is friction of wood against wood4 ,the levers being fitted1 three at one end and two at the other1 or all the five at the same end1 as may best suit the position of the wind-trunk1 the form of the frame1 and other considerations1 it will be easy to connect them with the draw-stops by means of squares or bell-cranks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4 ,fig4 #dg shows these squares or bell-cranks arranged upon a board which is screwed upon the key-frame4 ,they may be cut out of sheet iron or may be made of oak1 the arms halved together or joined by tenon and mortice4 ,they should work upon a strong pin of iron or brass1 and a small block underneath each square lifts it above the level of the board4 ,a trace1 or light rod of pine1 #a inch or #g_/h square1 notched at one end to receive the arm of the crank1 and at the other to catch the end of the lever1 is connected with each by a pin of iron or brass1 and blacklead is used as before4 ,the draw-stops are generally turned and polished for a few inches at the end which appears in sight1 and which carries the knob1 and it is usual to line the holes through which this turned and polished part protrudes with scarlet or other cloth4 ,the tails of these draw-bars1 left square1 should work in guides cut in a vertical piece at the back1 or otherwise arranged to ensure parallel movement4 ,a short slip of hard wood or of metal connects each draw-bar with its bell-crank4 ,the action of this mechanism must not be considered satisfactory unless each stop operates with ease and exactness1 and without any sense of elasticity or unequal resistance4 ,the knobs will be easily fashioned1 from a good pattern1 by any turner possessing a light lathe2 nor is it difficult to engrave the names on the ivory faces4 ,a convenient tool for this latter purpose may be made by grinding down the end of a small triangular file4 ,but the engraver's burin may be bought at the tool-shops4 ,the knobs will not be glued into the ends of the draw-bars until all is complete1 that the engraved titles may be rightly adjusted at a true level4 ,method #b4--;,if it is preferred to place the draw-stops to the right and left of the player1 as in large organs1 we shall have the bridges and levers as before4 ,the draw-bars will run through guides at the back1 fixed to some part of the frame1 and their polished ends will be brought through lined holes in the cheeks of the case1 fitted according to taste4 ,the connection of these horizontal draw-bars with the vertical levers will be effected by squares or bell-cranks of a form known as trundles4 ,we give a representation of one of these in ,fig4 #dh1 where a is the slider1 b the lever acting upon it1 c the trace connecting it with d1 an arm of the trundle e f4 ,this trundle should be of oak1 birch1 or other hard wood2 it has pins at each end1 which are received into holes bored in bearers arranged accordingly1 and not shown in the figure1 or in the frame itself of the organ4 7,it is well to char these holes47 ,the trundles are of course placed parallel to each other in a row1 and the second arm of each trundle will be inserted at the level answering to the position of the draw-bar4 ,in the cut g h is this second arm and draw-bar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4 ,the trundles are easily made of iron1 and with manifest increase of strength and neatness4 ,we have used gas-pipe for this purpose1 #a_/b inch in external diameter4 ,the arms made from iron slips1 #a_/b inch wide and #a_/d thick1 were brought to a round pin at one end in the lathe4 ,this round pin passes through a hole drilled through the trundle 7whether tubular or solid71 fitting it tightly1 and the projecting end is spread out with a riveting hammer4 ,all this may be done cold1 but still more effectually with the aid of a forge4 ,the ends of the trundle will be received in charred holes in bearers as before1 using tallow as a lubricator2 or if tube is adopted1 brass or iron pins may be jammed into the ends of the tube1 and trued up in the lathe4 ,all such iron-work1 introduced here or elsewhere in the organ1 may be painted over with the composition known as ,brunswick black varnish1 which will prevent rust4 ,the holes in the arms1 to receive the pins of the traces and draw-bars1 will be drilled with ease in the ever-handy lathe1 or with a bow and breast-plate1 or by any blacksmith4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4 ,method #c4--;,in small organs1 with short sound-boards1 the iron trundles may be made to act at once upon the sliders1 without the intervention of the levers and bridge4 ,when this is done the upper arm of the trundle will be quite at its top1 and will be sloped or bent upwards as shown in ,fig4 #di4 ,near its end will be a short and strong pin1 which will enter a little slot or oblong hole in the slider4 ,the trundle will revolve in a wooden collar screwed to the cheek of the wind-chest1 and at its base in a hole in a bearer or in the organ-frame as before4 ,the draw-bar will act directly upon the lower arm of the trundle1 and the lengths of the two arms must be proportioned to each other1 so as to compensate for the difference between the play of the slider and that of the draw-stop4 ,cases of peculiar construction may be easily imagined1 in which two sets of trundles may become necessary1 communicating with each other by long traces4 ,in some other cases the trundles may be horizontally placed1 like a roller-frame1 and common squares may act upon the sliders2 with upright traces connecting them with the arms of the horizontal trundles2 while combinations of these various plans will suggest themselves to the inventive reader to meet possible exigencies of position or arrangement4 ,method #d4--,we may still further explain that trundles may be discarded by fixing common squares or bell-cranks upon steps or stages cut on the edge of a piece of thick plank1 screwed to the organ-frame1 the steps or stages corresponding to the levels of the draw-stops as arranged in the cheeks or jambs of the organ4 ,the draw-bars will act directly on these squares1 which will transmit the movement to the levers by traces2 but in this case it is plain that the levers will be of varying lengths1 and must be provided with separate bridges1 in order that the proper relation may be maintained between the play of the several parts4 ,this plan has much to recommend it4 ,we have entered at some length into the subject of the draw-stop action1 because much of the comfort of the player depends upon its efficiency4 ,the arrangement to be adopted should be well considered1 and the plans for it matured at an early stage of the work4 ,all the pins used should fit accurately1 and it is well that means should be taken to prevent the dropping or working out of these pins4 ,a very neat way of guarding against this common accident is to reduce a small portion of the end of the pin with a file or in the lathe1 and to cut a screw-thread upon this reduced portion2 a leather button will then render failure impossible4 ,the other end of the pin is usually bent down at a right angle4 ,composition pedals1 for drawing and shutting off the stops in groups by the foot1 are not wanted in so small an organ as ours1 and we need not describe them4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,pedals4 ,,we have hitherto said nothing of pedals4 ,what we shall now say will not occupy much of our remaining space4 ,we have to fit our little organ with a set of pedals pulling down the bass keys of the manual1 but commanding no separate pipes of their own4 ,what is to be their compass8 ,on this we have to remark that when an organ is intended for the practising of a student or professional musician1 or for the performance by any player whatever of genuine organ music1 the full compass of thirty notes1 ,c to f1 is quite essential4 ,on this point no room must be left for misconception4 ,but small organs1 designed for humble and unambitious players1 or for the accompaniment of voices in a room or in a village church1 may be fitted with pedal-boards shorter by a whole octave than this complete or full compass4 ,a range of seventeen notes1 ,c to e1 will certainly suffice for the ordinary practice of the great majority of persons who are at all likely to sit down to our little organ4 ,observe1 however1 that this curtailed pedal-board must be placed in the same position relatively to the key-board which would be occupied by one of full range4 ,in other words1 it must not be located1 for appearance sake1 in the middle of the case1 but must be pushed away to the left of the player1 leaving a blank space on the floor to the right4 ,if this were overlooked1 it is plain that a player accustomed to the imperfect pedals would be utterly at fault when introduced to an instrument of higher character4 ,an excellent rule on this subject has been laid down by ,mr4 ,hopkins1 whose opinion in such matters is judicial4 ,it is this3--,to place the central ,c of the pedals--the thirteenth note1 commencing from the left--directly underneath the middle ,c of the manual4 ,if this rule be observed1 the foot will easily find all the notes of the lower octave1 whether the compass be complete or curtailed2 and we must leave to our readers to decide upon the range of their pedal-board after a due consideration of circumstances4 ,seventeen notes 7an octave and a third7 must be taken as a minimum2 twenty notes 7octave and a half7 and twenty-five notes 7two octaves7 are alternatives still falling short of the full compass of thirty notes necessary for the practice of the preludes and fugues of ,bach and other great masters4 ,the pedals should be made of oak1 and should be from #ah to #bj inches in length1 #a inch wide or thick1 and at least #a-a_/b or #b inches in depth4 ,the sharps1 or short keys1 should be about #e inches in length1 but they are glued or otherwise fastened upon strips of oak as long as the other pedals4 ,the front or near end of the sharps should stand up about #a inch above the level of the naturals2 from this point they may slope up to #a-c_/h inch4 ,the long tails or bearers of the sharps must be sunk about #a inch below the level of the naturals1 in order that they may not be touched by the foot4 ,the fore-end of the sharps will be well rounded off1 and the upper edge of all the pedal keys will be made slightly convex4 ,lastly1 the distance between the centres of any two adjoining naturals may be #b-a_/b inches precisely4 ,of course an empty space or gap will appear between ,e and ,f and between ,b and ,c in each octave1 as those intervals have no intervening short key4 ,we have found the following arrangements convenient and satisfactory4 ,make the pedal-frame of stout oak2 the back bar1 behind the heels of the player1 a balk #c inches or more by #b inches4 ,the fore end of the frame under the organ-panel is formed by an upper and a lower bar1 between which strong round pins of oak are placed1 making a rack through which the ends of the pedals protrude an inch or two4 ,these protruding ends1 where they pass through the rack1 are muffled with cloth to prevent rattling1 and each pedal descends upon a small pad of vulcanised india-rubber1 and is met by a similar pad under the upper bar when it recovers its position4 ,if this is properly managed the movement will be quite noiseless4 ,the builders commonly use a spring1 screwed at one end to the under part of each pedal1 and pressing at the other extremity upon a board or bar2 or1 on the other hand1 the springs are screwed to this board or bar and press against the under sides of the pedals4 ,in this case the tail of the pedal key1 out of sight under the back bar of the frame1 works upon a pin passing into a mortice4 ,we ourselves1 however1 have long used a spring which serves both for spring and for hinge4 ,it is a simple slip of steel1 #e-a_/b inches long1 #e_/h inch wide1 and #a_/af inch thick1 having two holes near the one end1 and one hole near the other4 ,this latter is screwed firmly down to the back bar of the frame1 which1 as we have already explained1 is a balk #c inches by #b4 ,the fore end of the spring is screwed by its two holes to the under side of the tails of the natural keys 7cut away to receive it71 and to the upper side of the tails of the sharp keys4 ,or1 the spring may be quite concealed from view by being let into a saw-cut in the tails of all the pedals4 ,we have found this plan perfectly effectual1 and we strongly recommend it to our readers4 ,the springs can be made by any smith for twopence or threepence each4 ,their strength or resistance can be easily regulated by screwing them1 not to the plane surface of the back balk1 but within grooves cut in it1 #a_/b inch deep at the back1 diminishing to nothing in front4 ,a few turns of the screw 7which should be well greased with tallow71 by lowering the tail of the spring1 will bring on it a strain or tension which enables us to adjust with accuracy the resistance of each pedal to the pressure of the foot4 ,the pedal-board should be laid upon the floor so that the distance between the upper surface of the pedal natural keys and the upper surface of the manual natural keys may be #bh inches4 ,the manual should overhang the pedal-board so that the front of its sharps may be just over the front of the pedal-sharps4 ,the seat of the player1 to correspond with these arrangements1 should be #bb inches above the pedals4 ,the dip1 or fall1 of the pedals1 under the foot of the player1 need not exceed #e_/h inch1 or at most #c_/d inch1 where they pass through the rack4 ,the connection between the pedals and keys will be by backfalls1 working in a strong bridge secured to the frame below the key-board4 ,these may be parallel1 in which case a roller-board will be requisite1 or disposed as a fan-frame4 ,the hinder end of each backfall has a tapped wire passing through a hole in it1 and carrying a button on its top1 muffled with a disc of cloth or baize4 ,the lower end of the wire underneath the backfall is bent into a ring1 so as to be easily turned round by the finger and thumb4 ,these adjustable buttons push up the tails of the keys when the fore ends of the backfalls are drawn down by trackers connecting them with the pedals4 ,the eyes or rings on the pedals1 to which these trackers are hooked1 should be bushed1 and great care should be taken to secure noiseless action in every part4 ,the pedal-board is usually secured to the floor by a couple of screws passing through the side cheeks4 ,but it is sometimes convenient1 especially in small rooms1 to make it removable at pleasure4 ,this can be easily done by fitting a set of false or dwarf pedals1 about #f inches in length1 in a bridge spaced to correspond with the keys of the pedal-board1 and screwed to the floor under the organ4 ,these false pedals are practically short backfalls1 turning on a wire near their hinder end1 and having the trackers hooked to them an inch or two from their fore end2 and some simple form of spring should be placed under each4 ,then we have only to adjust matters so that the protruding ends of the organ-pedals may rest upon the fore ends of these false pedals1 either or both of them being leathered or otherwise muffled at the point of contact1 and it is plain that the pressure of the foot on any pedal will pull down the manual key as before4 ,two iron pins should be fitted to the pedal frame1 going into holes in brass or iron plates screwed to the floor4 ,these guide-pins will insure instantaneous fitting of the pedal-board at any time4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,two-,,manual ,,organs4 ,,this treatise must not close without some reference to organ work of a more advanced kind than that which we have taken as the groundwork or medium of our hints on this subject4 ,some of our readers may very naturally wish to understand the construction of an organ with two or more manuals and a pedal with separate pipes2 and this implies a description of coupling movements and of the swell-box and its appliances4 ,in the first place1 let us remark that as the swell-organ is a modern invention1 innumerable examples of organs with more than one manual and with numerous stops1 but entirely without the swell1 were in existence in ,england up to a recent period1 and are still to be found in every part of the continent of ,europe4 ,a great number of the most renowned organs of ,germany and of ,holland1 organs furnished with four manuals and an immense aggregate of pipes1 are without the swell to this day4 ,this is not the place to discuss the question whether the introduction of the swell1 as the second division of an organ with only two manuals1 has been an unmixed advantage1 and whether it has or has not tended to raise the standard of organ music and organ-playing in ,england4 ,but some few musicians may agree with the present writer that it is quite possible to sacrifice sound principles of organ-building to the prevailing worship of the pretty and fanciful effects of the swell1 and may even go so far as to regret1 with him1 the supersession of the old choir organ1 with its sweet tranquil tone and quiet cheerful brightness4 ,we ourselves make no secret of our wish that in the design and erection of organs with only two manuals1 the second manual should act upon a choir organ1 while the swell should be reserved for those instruments in which a third manual is introduced4 ,but we are quite aware that these views will be received with derision by a great majority of persons1 who have become accustomed to the constant use of the swell and of the pedal ,bourdons which characterizes the playing of many ,english organists on modern ,english organs4 ,quite apart1 however1 from these views1 which must be taken for what they are worth1 there are reasons why any reader1 resolving from the first to construct a small organ with two manuals for chamber use1 will do well to resist the temptation to introduce the swell4 ,these reasons will become apparent if we sketch out one or two plans for such chamber organs1 and we should only occupy space needlessly by stating them in advance4 ,resolving1 then1 to indulge ourselves with two manuals1 but compelled to be economical of space and of pecuniary outlay1 we decide at once to plant all the pipes1 belonging to both manuals alike1 upon a single sound-board1 and by the system of borrowing to avoid the reduplication of large pipes in the bass octave4 ,to our original design of five stops on a single manual1 let us suppose that we have added three1 played by a second key-board4 ,we must assume that the five stops belonging to the first manual 7the lower71 will be all throughout1 and may be something like this1 viz43 an open ,diapason with wood bass octave2 a ,clarabella1 with stopped bass octave2 a ,principal1 ,flute1 and #b-;feet stop as before4 ,then the second or upper manual should have some such stops as these3 ,stopped ,diapason1 the bass octave borrowed from that of the ,clarabella2 ,dulciana to ,tenor ,c2 ,gems-horn1 or some other light #d-;feet stop1 the bass octave borrowed from that of the ,flute or ,principal4 ,as the sound-board will have two grooves for each note throughout its whole extent1 namely #ajh grooves if the manuals are of the usual compass1 its length might be unwieldy and inconvenient1 ill adapted to the size of ordinary rooms4 ,we must strongly recommend1 therefore1 that the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #ci 7see p4 #aab7 be adopted4 ,on the front portion1 b c1 containing eighty-four grooves1 and carrying eight sliders1 all the stops from ,tenor ,c to top ,f may be planted4 ,on the back portion1 a b1 which will have twenty-four grooves only1 all the bass pipes will be placed1 unless1 indeed1 we assume that the large open #h-;feet pipes are conveyanced off4 ,this back portion will carry one slider for this open bass1 one for each of the #d-;feet and #b-;feet stops1 and two pairs of twin sliders1 placed close together1 for the borrowed stopped bass and borrowed #d-;feet bass4 ,our readers may feel confidence in the directions now given if we say that we are describing an organ built by ourselves and now in our possession4#c ,the sound-board1 admitting of eighty-four grooves in its front division1 is #e feet #c inches long1 and its seven sliders 7we have no stopped ,flute71 with the bearers1 occupy a width of #af inches2 but the #d-;feet octave of the ,open ,diapason1 and six pipes of the ,dulciana1 are brought into sight as a speaking front1 and therefore fill no space on the board itself4 ,the back part of the board1 with four sliders 7two of them twin71 has also a width of about #af inches1 our large open wood bass being on a board at a lower level1 as in ,fig4 #aj4 ,thus the whole board1 carrying practically eight stops 7one of our stops is of two ranks1 viz4 a ,twelfth and ,fifteenth7 throughout1 is #e feet #c inches long and #cb inches wide4 #c ,this organ is sketched in the frontispiece4 ,we hope we have said quite enough in former pages of roller boards and backfalls to enable any intelligent reader to devise for himself the double action of such an organ4 ,an inspection of ,figs4 #cg1 #ch1 and #ci may suggest ideas to him4 ,an essential point is that everything should be within reach if defects should require attention2 and access to the back as well as to the front of such an organ is indispensable4 ,a word about the borrowing4 ,it is plainly not enough to groove the two channels of each note together in the bass1 as in the case of a single manual4 ,if this were done the wind would fill the whole of the two channels upon lowering a key in the bass octave of either manual1 and all the stops of which the sliders happened to be drawn at the time would speak together4 ,thus our purpose of borrowing one particular stop would be defeated4 ,we must effect it thus3 the twin sliders will be closely contiguous1 and will only be separated by short pins of brass or iron let into the table1 to prevent the friction of actual contact4 ,thus the two holes which are to be brought into connection are near to each other1 and the communicating groove will be short4 ,if this is cut in the upper board itself it must be neatly executed1 and the bottom of the groove must be level and smooth4 ,over each of the two holes within the groove so cut must be placed a valve1 consisting of a small piece of pallet leather covering the hole completely1 and rising with complete freedom by a hinge along its edge1 like the clacks of the bellows4 ,each pair of holes being furnished with these valves the grooves are roofed in and the pipes planted1 as described in earlier pages of this book4 ,on lowering one of the keys the wind will affect the borrowed pipe only1 since the little valve will stop the twin hole and prevent the flow of air through it into the channel4 ,if the key corresponding to the same note be pressed down on both manuals1 then both the little valves will be blown open by the wind2 but if all the channels1 grooves1 and holes be of ample size1 so that there is no throttling of the wind1 the speech of the pipe will be entirely unaltered1 since it will only receive a given quantity of wind through the perforation in its foot1 and this wind will be of the same weight or pressure as before4 ,the borrowing grooves may be cut in the under surface of a separate board1 which will then form a roof or cover to the several pairs of valves arranged over the holes on the upper surface of the sound-board itself4 ,or this borrowing-board may be put together with bars1 cheeks1 and an upper table like a light sound-board4 ,the essential point is that all the openings be of ample size1 and that the valves fly open widely at the slightest breath of wind1 and close the holes as promptly when the wind is withdrawn4 ,if due attention is given to all this no failure need be anticipated with the borrowed basses4 ,we have proposed the lower key-board as ,manual ,i41 in accordance with the ,german usage1 and because that arrangement will facilitate some of our mechanism1 for instance1 the pulling down by the pedals of the bass notes4 ,but lovers of old ,english organs1 among whom we must reckon ourselves1 may prefer to make ,manual ,i4 the upper manual of the two4 ,a beautiful instrument of this class1 built by the late ,j4 ,c4 ,bishop1 stands in the chapel of ,jesus ,college1 ,cambridge1 and was the gift of an accomplished amateur1 whose performances on it are still remembered4#d ,the same gentleman was the possessor of a chamber organ of exquisite tone by ,bernhard ,schmidt1 of such remarkable composition that it merits description here4 ,the lower manual1 or ,choir1 had three stops1 an ,open ,diapason1 a ,stopped ,diapason1 and a ,principal1 all made of oak1 and of extreme delicacy and beauty4 ,the upper manual1 or ,great1 had likewise three stops1 all metal1 namely1 ,stopped ,flute1 ,fifteenth1 and ,mixture of two ranks 7#aith and #bbnd in the bass1 #abth and #agth in the treble74 ,the ,stopped ,diapason could also be played upon this manual by borrowing4 ,a coupler united the lower to the upper at pleasure1 and then the ,full ,organ was produced upon the upper manual with an astonishing effect of sprightliness and brightness4 ,such an organ as this1 with some changes 7its key-boards were very antiquated1 and so high from the ground that the player was perforce erect71 might afford an admirable model for imitation4 #d ,the late ,sir ,john ,sutton1 ,bart41 author of ,a ,short ,account of ,organs built in ,england from the ,reign of ,king ,charles ,,ii4 to the ,present ,time4 ,masters1 #ahdg4 ,let us add that if pedal notes of #af-;feet tone are added to an organ of this class1 namely of two manuals1 ,great and ,choir1 only twelve large pipes will be necessary1 even though the compass of the pedal-board be of thirty notes complete4 ,this great economy of space and outlay will be secured thus3 #ast1 by making the pedals pull down on the chief manual throughout their whole extent as before2 #bnd1 by adapting the twelve deep pipes to the lower octave of the pedals1 and by making their upper octave and a half pull down upon the lowest keys of the second manual4 ,a moment's reflection will show that the #af-;feet tone is thus obtained throughout the whole compass1 and no inconvenience whatever will ensue to the player4 ,the mode of introducing the large bass pipes1 and of pulling down as above1 will be described before we conclude this work4 ,still desiring to erect a chamber organ1 and1 therefore1 to be chary of space and cost1 we must now show how the swell-box may be included in our design4 ,we shall suppose that the organ has been completed so far as the lower manual is concerned1 with all that pertains to it1 according to the rules which have now been given at length and in detail4 ,in laying it out we must assume that care has been taken to give increased size to the bellows1 and to arrange the frame for the reception of a second sound-board4 ,we feel it due as well to our readers as to ourselves to explain that we confine ourselves in all that follows to a description of work done by ourselves in our own workshop4 ,we shall place only three stops in our swell1 which will have a compass of forty-two notes1 from ,tenor ,c to top f4 ,the stops will be a ,diapason in wood1 partly stopped1 and the rest open2 a ,flute of #d-;feet tone in wood1 open throughout2 and a ,gamba of reedy quality1 in metal1 of #h-;feet pitch1 but only descending to ,fid4 ,g41 #c feet1 the remaining notes being grooved to ,no4 #a4 ,this curtailment is greatly to be regretted1 but such imperfections are among the objections to the swell-box1 which would assume dimensions inconsistent with a chamber organ if an attempt were made to give full compass to its #h-;feet stops4 ,the sound-board for these three stops will be only #b feet #i inches in length1 and #a foot in width2 but the upper boards must have an ample margin or surplus in both directions to afford support for the box which will rest upon them4 ,this box must be made of thick stuff1 say #a-a_/b inch deal2 it will therefore be very heavy1 and care must be taken to provide for its weight in planning the frame4 ,it should be put together with screws1 so that it can easily be taken to pieces for transit1 and it is usual to line the whole of its interior with sheets of thick brown paper1 applied with glue4 ,it will be very convenient1 if access can be had to the back of the organ1 to fit the back of the box with hinged doors1 or to make the back removable like a shutter2 in this case the pipes should be planted so as to present themselves readily to the tuner4 ,if access to the back cannot be had1 then a space is inevitable in the middle of the organ for a passage-board1 on which the tuner may stand1 or at least place his foot1 while he removes the front shades in order to reach the pipes planted accordingly4 ,in the swell-boxes of church organs the sides of the box are generally fitted as doors2 then1 the pipes being planted with the tallest in the centre1 diminishing in height to each end1 half of them can be tuned at one operation4 ,when the pipes are thus planted1 the top of the box will slope towards each side from a central ridge1 like the roof of a house4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4 ,we cannot doubt that many of our readers have had1 or may have1 opportunities of examining the construction of the shutters or shades of a swell-box4 ,we have sketched it1 however1 in ,fig4 #ej4 ,the shades are #f inches in breadth1 and of the same thickness as the rest of the box1 and each shade turns on pins let into the ends of it at a distance of #b inches from its upper edge4 ,these pins work in notches cut in the cheeks of the box1 so formed that any shade may be easily lifted out and replaced4 ,the edges of the shades are bevelled to half a right angle so that they overlap when closed1 and the bevelled surfaces are faced with leather or cloth to shut in the sound more effectually4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4 ,the mode of opening the shades1 and so producing a crescendo1 is shown in ,fig4 #ea4 a1 b1 c are arms of oak1 morticed into the shades at the level of the pins1 viz4 #b inches from the upper line2 d e is a long rod or tringle of wood1 connecting all these arms by pins passing through them and itself4 ,it is evident that by drawing up this rod at its top1 or by pushing it up from below1 we shall open all the shades at once1 and as they are hung on axes placed at one-third of their breadth1 they will close by their own weight when released4 ,the leverage by which this movement is brought under the control of the player may be safely left to the inventive powers of the reader4 ,it is usual to give promptness to the return of the swell-pedal1 and therefore to the closing of the shades1 by attaching a strong spiral spring to the pedal1 and to some firm point in the frame4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4 ,as the swell-box is at the back of the instrument1 its key-action will have to pass or cross that of the ,great organ4 ,the way in which this will be effected must depend a little upon circumstances--for instance1 upon the length of the key-tails in the two manuals4 ,if the swell manual acts by squares and trackers1 while the ,great has backfalls and stickers1 the small trackers1 being thin ribands of wood1 can be easily made to pass between the ,great stickers4 ,or if the swell-keys act on backfalls1 these backfalls may be thinned down behind the line of key-tails1 so as to allow the stickers of the lower manual to pass between them4 ,this may be understood from ,fig4 #eb1 though that figure refers to another subject4 ,the worst plan of all is to make the lower stickers pass through holes or mortices in the upper key-tails1 since this prevents the removal of the upper key-board without a disturbance of the whole action4 ,we believe that these constructive details contain in themselves the grounds on which we based our advice to hesitate before including a swell-box in the design for a small chamber organ4 ,it has been made apparent that it brings with it a considerable increase of bulk1 weight1 and complication1 and that it cannot possess the full compass4 ,we must add that if the bellows are worked by the foot1 the use of the swell-pedal at the same time is of course impossible4 ,the large swells of church organs owe their grandeur of effect to their reed-stops2 the trumpet1 of which the oboe is a soft echo and our little gamba a faint and humble imitation1 the horn or cornopean1 and the double trumpet or bassoon1 a stop of #af-;feet pitch4 ,all reed-stops are quite beyond the range of amateur construction1 and each of the above will cost about #be if purchased from a good maker and made of first-class material4 ,beautiful as such stops are when made and voiced by highly-skilled workmen1 they may easily be unpleasing and even offensive4 ,let us add that the twelve notes of the swell manual1 below ,tenor ,c1 may be made to act on the lower manual by a choir coupler 7see next section1 and ,fig4 #eb72 or1 if there is a complete pedal ,sub-bass or ,bourdon of twenty-five or more notes1 the silent keys of the swell manual may borrow the pedal notes from ,,cc1 #h-;feet tone upwards4 ,an easy mechanical movement of squares and trackers will effect this4 ,two manuals imply couplers1 though we greatly regret the incessant use of these contrivances by modern organists4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4 ,we shall treat1 very briefly1 of couplers under three heads1 viz4 the coupling of-- 7a7 ,upper ,manual to ,lower ,manual4 7b7 ,lower ,manual to ,upper ,manual4 7c7 ,manuals to ,pedals4 7a7 ,the common ,tumbler coupler is represented in ,fig4 #ec4 a is a slender bridge1 having as many notches as keys in the manual1 and fitted with short stickers called tumblers4 ,these tumblers1 or stickers1 are generally rectangular in section1 and they must fit the notches neatly but with freedom of motion2 the notches are closed in by a tringle of wood glued over them1 thus forming a series of mortices2 and each sticker has a little pin1 or a pair of pins1 to prevent it from falling out of its notch or mortice4 ,or1 the tumblers may be made from round rods1 and may pass through round holes in the bridge4 ,they are well blackleaded in either case4 ,now if this bridge1 with its tumblers1 is placed between the manuals near their hinder extremities1 if the length of the tumblers is equal to the interval between the upper and lower key-tails1 it is evident that on pressing down a key of the lower manual the tumbler will push up the tail of the corresponding key on the upper manual1 and so on throughout the full compass of both4 ,to reverse this1 and to leave the manuals separate and independent as before1 the bridge is made to take a quarter of a revolution in sockets fitted to carry its ends1 which are rounded or turned in the lathe2 the tumblers1 by this partial revolution1 are then no longer perpendicular1 but parallel to the key-tails1 as shown by the dotted lines in the figure1 and cease to be touched by them4 ,on the whole1 this is the simplest form of swell-coupler4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4 ,the tumblers may also be placed on or off by causing the bridge to slide between guides for a distance of #a inch or #b inches4 ,when the bridge is pushed back by drawing a stop-handle 7which acts upon a horizontal trundle with arms and traces to give the sliding motion71 the tumblers act on the key-tails2 when it is drawn forward by thrusting in the stop1 they fall into a hollow cut in the key-tails1 and are too short to be of use4 ,the hollow in the key-tails is bevelled1 and the inclined plane so formed is leathered and blackleaded 7see ,fig4 #ed74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4 ,the ram coupler1 ,fig4 #ee1 acts in a way closely resembling the last4 ,instead of tumblers1 the bridge carries a set of short backfalls1 turning on a wire as usual1 and cut at the free end into a circular form4 ,the sliding of the bridge brings these circular ends into contact with the key-tails of both manuals1 or places them in a hollow cut in the keys1 bevelled1 leathered1 and blackleaded as before4 ,the ram-coupler can be used between manuals arranged too closely to admit of tumblers4 7b7 ,it will facilitate our description of the choir-coupler and pedal-couplers if we here point out that if a bridge with backfalls 7or squares7 be made to rise or fall #a_/b inch or more at pleasure1 the action connected with it will be thrown into or out of gear at the will of the player4 ,if1 in ,fig4 #cb1 for instance1 the bridge g be made to rise #a_/b inch by drawing a stop-handle1 the stickers e will then be too short by #a_/b inch1 or the pull-downs h will be too long in an equal degree1 and the manual will be silenced4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4 ,an easy way of making such a bridge rise and fall is shown in ,fig4 #ef4 ,the bridge a1 which cannot be too solid and heavy1 is held between guides1 c d1 which are blackleaded and accurately adjusted4 ,at each end of the bridge is fitted a little roller or wheel of box-wood1 turning freely on a pin4 ,to the frame below is fitted another such roller1 or two1 as in the figure4 ,between these two or three rollers1 at each end of the bridge1 an inclined plane of wood1 e1 is made to traverse by means of a horizontal trundle and arms4 ,it will be seen at a glance that when the inclined plane is pushed between the rollers by drawing or thrusting in a stop-handle1 it lifts the bridge between the guides and dislocates the action2 when it is withdrawn1 the bridge resumes its place by its own weight1 and the action is again in order4 ,it is now easy to understand the construction of the remaining couplers4 ,the choir-coupler 7,fig4 #eb1 p4 #aeb71 has two bridges1 x1 y1 with two sets of short backfalls and communicating stickers4 ,if the bridges are fixed1 then on depressing any key on the upper manual its tail raises the backfall1 which presses down the lower backfall1 which in its turn pushes up the tail of the lower key and causes the note to be heard4 ,if the upper bridge be made to rise or the lower to fall #a_/b inch1 then the keys are at once disconnected4 7c7 ,the coupling of manuals to pedals is generally effected by rising and falling bridges1 carrying backfalls which push up the tails of the keys4 ,these bridges are arranged one above the other beneath the keyboards in large organs with three or four manuals1 each bridge bringing its own manual into connection with the pedals by the movement already described4 ,one roller-board 7the rollers are often of iron for the sake of compactness7 suffices for all the sets of backfalls1 and the stickers 7in this case generally flat strips of wood7 pass through mortices cut in the tails of the lower keys to act upon the tails of the keys to which they belong4 ,the reader will easily perceive from these hints how the pedals may be made to act through their whole extent upon one of our manuals1 and through only a part of their extent upon the other manual1 as we have hinted at page #adh4 ,there will be two bridges1 one over the other1 and a very little ingenuity will be required to plan the roller-board so that the central ,c of the pedals shall pull down the lowest ,c of the second manual 7be it upper or lower71 and thus give the octave below 7or #af-;feet pitch7 without additional pipes from that note upwards4 ,but this1 perhaps1 belongs to the subject of the pedal organ1 which we reserve for the conclusion of this book4 ,it is right to add here that in old-fashioned organs1 both in ,england and on the ,continent 7where many such instruments remain unaltered71 the manuals were made to couple by being drawn out or pushed in about #a_/b inch4 ,a spur or protuberance of wood was glued to the upper part of the tail of each key1 and a similar spur to the under part of the tail of the key in the manual above4 ,these spurs had rounded ends covered with leather4 ,on shifting one of the key-boards backwards or forwards the spurs met each other1 and the coupling was effected4 ,or the spurs were glued under the front of each key1 immediately behind the beading of the key-frame1 and upon the upper surface of each key in the manual beneath it1 and a similar shifting brought about a like result4 ,we see no objection to this very simple old-fashioned arrangement strong enough to induce us to discard it from consideration4 ,the common type of small church organ with ,great and ,swell 7throughout7 would be vastly improved by the introduction of a manual between the other two1 having no stops of its own1 but coupled to both by such spurs4 ,instead of two qualities of sound1 namely ,swell alone and ,great and ,swell combined 7the incessant use of the coupler being the inveterate habit of most players71 we should have three3 ,great alone1 ,swell alone1 and combination of ,great and ,swell4 ,this obvious improvement could be introduced into new organs or added to existing instruments at a very small cost4 ,there should be a coupler to connect this ,combination ,manual with the pedals4 ,it is undeniable that the addition of a pedal organ with a ,sub-bass or ,bourdon of #af-;feet tone is a very important and valuable improvement to any organ1 large or small4 ,it gives a dignified cathedral-like solemnity and grandeur which every ear can appreciate4 ,we shall bring our treatise to a close by a few remarks upon it4 #a4 ,the pipes will be made precisely like those of the ,stopped ,diapason1 of which they may be regarded as a continuation1 and they should be of stout material1 the last four or five of inch stuff1 then three-quarters to the twelfth or thirteenth note above4 ,on the question of scale the most diverse opinions have found favour of late years4 ,a writer whose dicta are entitled to respect#e urges that the lowest pipe 7,,ccc1 #af-;feet tone7 should have the enormous if not preposterous scale of #aa-a_/b by #ac inches inside measurement1 and that the next six pipes above it should be in proportion4 ,after that1 he says1 a smaller scale may suffice4 ,it is clear that if this ruling be correct we may dismiss the idea of introducing a ,sub-bass into our chamber organ4 ,mr4 ,hopkins1 on the other hand1 prints two scales for #af-;feet toned ,bourdons1 the larger of which gives #f-a_/h inches by #d-e_/h as the inside measurement of the ,,ccc pipe2 while the smaller gives #e inches by #c-c_/h for the same pipe4 ,we may safely adopt this larger scale of ,mr4 ,hopkins2 and we will only say further that with our light #b-;inch wind the mouths should be cut up one-third of the width1 or rather less1 and the foot-holes should be of ample size4 #e ,rev4 ,f4 ,g4 ,hayne1 ,mus4 ,doc41 ,hints on the ,purchase of an ,organ4 ,novello1 #ahfg4 #b4 ,their location in the organ must depend very much on special circumstances4 ,when they can be placed in a row at the back of the instrument1 their connection with the pedals becomes very simple1 two sets of squares with trackers running under the bellows being all that will be necessary4 ,if the room has abundance of height1 the back set of squares may act on a roller-board1 and then the pipes can be disposed symmetrically1 the largest at each end4 #c4 ,the board on which they stand will not require a slider4 ,it will be1 in fact1 a wind-chest only1 a long box of stout pine or deal1 having holes in its top countersunk to receive the pipe-feet4 ,under each hole is placed a pallet or valve1 held up by a strong spring1 and having a pull-down wire passed through a brass plate in the usual way4 ,the aperture of the wind-trunk is in the lower board of this chest1 and over it1 before the board is in place1 is fitted a valve1 faced with leather1 and made to slide to and fro between guides4 ,an iron spindle1 turned to fit accurately in a brass collar1 carries an arm jointed to the valve by a connecting rod or trace2 and outside the chest it carries another arm1 at right angles to this1 jointed to the draw-stop handle or its trace4 ,we have1 in fact1 a trundle passing air-tight through a collar1 and by this simple contrivance we can shut off the wind at pleasure from the chest4 ,other methods of effecting this are in use1 and may easily be devised4 ,the pipes are very frequently placed on both sides of the organ1 to the right and left4 ,in this case the two chests will be at right angles to the manual chest or chests1 and the action will be less direct4 ,but it will be readily arranged as follows3--,the pedal roller board will be long enough to act upon sets of squares1 carried on the organ-frame to the right and left of the player1 and at any convenient height4 ,the other arms of these squares act by trackers on roller-frames placed under the chests4 ,there are cases in which this roller-board will be better placed at the back of the organ1 the connection between it and the pedals being by squares and trackers2 and there are also cases in which a large roller-frame lying upon the ground under the bellows may be made to answer every purpose4 ,bell-cranks1 or horizontal squares1 may also transmit the pressure of the foot on the pedal by other squares and trackers to the pedal pallets in a manner analogous to that of the draw-stop action1 ,fig4 #di4 ,there is abundant room for ingenuity and contrivance in all these details2 the essential points are strength1 quietness1 and accessibility for repair or adjustment4 ,some of our readers may be able to indulge in the luxury of a second pedal stop4 ,this should be a ,violoncello in metal1 of #h-;feet tone and length4 ,in this case the pedal chest or chests will be regular sound-boards1 with sliders2 or the ,sub-bass may be on a chest as already described1 while the ,violoncello may be on another1 with two actions4 ,we have only to add1 that the power and effectiveness of small organs may be increased by the contrivance called a ,terzo ,mano 7,third ,hand71 or octave coupler4 ,let us suppose that an ordinary action has been fitted with backfalls in the usual positions4 ,then a second bridge1 rising and falling by a draw-stop1 is introduced1 carrying skew backfalls which act on the pull-downs an octave higher than the first set4 ,thus the key ,,cc will take down the ,tenor ,c note1 and so on throughout the scale4 ,it is evident that the effect on the ear will be nearly1 though not quite1 the same as if each #h-;feet stop had its corresponding #d-;feet stop drawn with it4 ,an ,open ,diapason will sound like an ,open ,diapason and ,principal2 a ,stopped ,diapason1 like a ,stopped ,diapason and ,stopped ,flute1 c4 ,to render the illusion complete1 the pipes should be carried up twelve notes higher than the apparent compass of the key-board1 that is to say1 if the key-board has fifty-four notes the sound-board should have sixty-six grooves4 ,in a similar way the pedal ,sub-bass may be made to play in octaves1 producing the effect of a ,sub-bass1 #af-;feet tone1 with a ,flute-bass of #h-;feet tone added to it4 ,of all such mechanical devices it must be said1 finally1 that neatness1 accuracy1 and noiseless precision of action are the conditions necessary to complete success4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,village ,,church ,,organs4 ,,our labours have hitherto been exclusively directed towards the production1 in private workshops and by young workmen1 of small organs adapted for domestic use4 ,that such organs should be of varied character1 and that they should represent the differing musical tastes and unequal mechanical ingenuity and adroitness of their unprofessional or self-taught constructors1 is the legitimate outcome of the circumstances assumed4 ,the case of organs for churches must be regarded from a different stand-point4 ,designed for public use1 and consecrated to lofty purposes1 they should reflect no private fancies or peculiar tastes2 should admit of no experiments or eccentricities2 should be distinguished by excellence of material1 finished perfection of workmanship1 and solid stability of structure4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 recommend the construction of any church-organ in a private workshop4 ,the aim and object of this volume would be entirely misconceived by any reader who should imagine that we encourage such an ambitious attempt4 ,however humble as to style of architecture the church may be1 however unpretending the scheme for the organ may be1 we must strenuously advocate the placing the order for its erection in the hands of a well-established firm of professional builders4 ,guarding ourselves thus1 we trust1 against all possibility of misconception1 we shall endeavour in the following pages to offer some suggestions on the subject of village organs1 which may tend to smooth away perplexities from the path of those who1 without any previous acquaintance with such matters1 find themselves called upon to exercise discretion1 and pronounce decisive judgment on estimates and specifications submitted to them by builders and by musicians4 ,in using the term ,village1 we refer less to locality than to condition4 ,we desire to be of service to the promoters of the erection of an organ in those very numerous cases in which no skilled player is resident in the place1 and in which the new instrument will inevitably be left to the modest efforts of a schoolmistress or of a young beginner1 on whose ability1 moreover1 no greater demand will be made than that which is involved in the accompaniment of simple chanting and psalmody4 ,it is to the dwellers in such quiet corners of the country that we would offer a few rules or maxims1 based1 we hope1 on principles1 the soundness of which will commend itself to their good sense4 ,let us bring together1 in a compressed form1 a few of these maxims1 afterwards examining them in detail4 ,a village organ should be of simple construction1 containing no mechanism liable to sudden derangement4 ,it should stand well in tune1 without attention1 even though placed in a building exposed to alternations of temperature and perhaps not free from dampness4 ,its musical effects should be readily and obviously producible by any person sitting down to it for the first time1 and guided only by experience gained at the harmonium or pianoforte4 ,it should present no facilities for ambitious attempts at executive display by thoughtless aspirants4 ,its power1 or volume1 should be sufficient to assert itself unmistakably in a full congregational chorus2 and its tone1 or quality1 should be that which long experience has shown to be impressive and pleasing to the vast majority of listeners4 ,hence1 it will be capable of emitting no sounds which might be described by any uneducated hearer as odd or curious4 ,lastly1 let us add that its case should be shapely1 even if destitute of ornamentation4 ,whole pages of disquisition may be saved if we proceed at once to apply these maxims to the specification of the smallest and least costly organ which we shall recommend for a village church3 an organ1 namely1 with four stops only4 #a4 ,organ ,no4 #a4 ,the manual will be from ,,cc to ,e in alt1 #ec notes4 ,remark4--,the key-board is more sightly when its two extremities are rendered similar by this omission of the top ,f4 ,but the further omission of the four upper notes would still leave a compass of #di notes1 amply sufficient for the accompaniment of voices4 #b4 ,its stops will be these3-- 7a7 ,open ,diapason1 metal throughout1 or of metal from ,gamut ,g1 with seven pipes of open wood below4 ,remark4--,these open wood pipes1 when properly scaled and voiced1 have some advantages over metal for our present purpose1 and may be placed so as to close in the back of the case instead of panelling4 7b7 ,principal of metal throughout1 being the octave of the ,open ,diapason1 to which it will therefore be made to conform as regards scale and voicing4 ,remark4--,the two stops1 7a7 and 7b71 when played together1 will furnish the element of power1 or loudness1 to the organ4 7c7 ,stopped ,diapason of wood throughout1 or of metal with chimneys from middle ,c to top2 but not with a ,clarabella of open wood as its upper part4 ,remark4--,the metal ,stopped ,diapasons which have come down to us from the days of ,harris1 and other old builders1 are often of exquisite beauty of tone4 ,modern builders are apt to neglect the stop1 and to treat it as a mere ,coppel1 or vehicle for exhibiting the qualities of imitative stops4 ,we should be glad to persuade them to make the upper octaves of oak1 after the example of ,schmidt4 7d7 ,stopped ,flute of wood throughout1 or of metal with chimneys as to its three upper octaves4 ,this stop pretends to no imitation whatever of the well-known musical instrument1 the ,flute1 but is simply the octave of the ,stopped ,diapason1 of which it should follow the scale and voicing4 ,remark4--,the two stops1 7c7 and 7d71 when played together1 supply to the organ the important element of softness and tranquil clearness2 and when added to 7a7 and 7b71 they enhance the fullness and volume of those stops1 while correcting a certain crudeness or tendency towards harshness4 ,the ,stopped ,flute fulfils a further most important office4 ,when added to the two ,diapasons 7without the ,principal71 it imparts not only a most pleasing silvery sweetness to the tone1 but gives a definiteness of pitch which will correct the tendency of school-children to sing out of tune4 ,this stop should1 therefore1 on no account be omitted1 or cancelled in favour of more showy or conspicuous qualities of tone4 #c4 ,be it carefully observed that the stops 7a7 and 7b7 can be made to produce sounds of several gradations of loudness according to the scale of the pipes1 the pressure or weight of the wind1 and the character of the voicing4 ,their tone will be further affected by the substance and quality of the pipe-metal4 ,let us confidently assume that the order for the new organ will be given to no builder who does not hold his art in such esteem as to be incapable of using inferior and perishable materials4 ,the metal should be tin and lead only1 in at least equal proportions2 still better if the tin be three-fourths1 four-fifths1 or seven-eighths of the whole alloy4 ,the wind-pressure should be light1 as we desire that the feeder should be easily worked by the foot of the player4 ,the scaling and voicing must be left to the judgment of a trustworthy builder1 as they will vary with the capacity of the church and the requirements of the singing4 ,enough if we advise that1 even in the case of the smallest church1 the two metal stops be of bold1 out-speaking character1 asserting themselves distinctly1 and having no tinge of the muffled or subdued quality proper to chamber-organs4 #d4 ,the case of the organ1 even if carving be entirely absent1 may be of graceful and pleasing outline by making the upper part1 above the level of the keys1 overhang the lower part1 or base1 which encloses the bellows4#f ,this lower part need not be much wider than the key-board itself1 and about three feet in depth1 from front to back4 ,if the upper part be five feet in width1 it will overhang the base one foot or a little less on each side1 obtaining apparent support from a pair of brackets4 ,the total height1 if the open bass pipes be set down at the back1 will not exceed nine feet2 but the speaking front may be well thrown up by the usual expedients if the church be lofty4 ,we strongly advise that these speaking front pipes be left of their natural silver colour1 which they will not lose if tin predominates largely over lead in the alloy4 ,for our own part1 we are no admirers of the chocolates1 dark blues1 and sage greens smeared upon front pipes by way of decorating them4 ,too often1 we fear1 such diapers are a cloak for very inferior metal1 which would soon betray the presence of antimony and other deleterious ingredients by turning black if left unpainted4 #f ,see the frontispiece of this book4 ,some charming but elaborate designs will be found in the ,rev4 ,f4 ,h4 ,sutton's ,church ,organs1 published by ,rivingtons4 ,folio4 #ahgb4 ,the draw-stops will be most conveniently handled if arranged above the keys1 under the ledge of the book-board1 as in the harmonium4 ,it will be well to place the ,stopped ,diapason and ,flute on the left1 and the ,open ,diapason and ,principal 7which will be more frequently drawn and shut off7 on the right1 leaving an interval of a foot or so between the two pairs4 ,the cost of this four-stop organ1 made of first-class materials1 in a case of stained deal or pitch-pine1 should not exceed #hj4 ,a provincial builder1 who works with his own hands1 might undertake it for a smaller sum1 but we cannot counsel a diminution of cost by a lowering of the standard of the pipe-metal or by a resort to inferior woods4 ,a hasty rsum of our design will show a close correspondence with our initial maxims4 ,the organ is3-- #a4 ,of simple construction1 containing no mechanism liable to sudden derangement4 #b4 ,it will stand well in tune1 without attention1 even for years1 especially if the smaller stopped pipes be of metal with chimneys4 #c4 ,a new player will be met by no special difficulty whatever4 #d4 ,as there is no swell1 there can be no exhibition1 on the part of the player1 of the peculiar forms of bad taste to which that invention lends fatal facility2 and as there are no pedals1 there will be no lumbering and blundering attempts to play grand compositions never meant for village churches4 #e4 ,its power1 or volume1 will be ample for the accompaniment of the ordinary congregational singing of two or three hundred persons1 and more than abundantly sufficient for the support of a rustic choir2 and it emits no sounds which can provoke criticism by singularity of intonation1 and which have not been found1 by long years of experience1 to be invariably agreeable to all musical ears4 ,organ ,no4 #b4 ,to the four-stop instrument just described1 a ,dulciana might be added1 at a further cost of about #aj1 less or more1 according to quality of pipe-metal1 c4 ,its compass will be from ,tenor ,c to top1 or1 still better1 from ,b flat or a lower note1 the remaining sounds being obtained by grooving to the ,stopped ,diapason4 ,the ,dulciana is of beautifully delicate tone1 slightly nasal2 when played with the ,stopped ,diapason it gives a charming clearness and sonority to that soft stop4 ,when the ,flute is added1 we have a true choir-organ quality1 most useful in the accompaniment of low and solemn music4 ,remark4--,some builders or organists may recommend a ,salicional1 or ,viola di ,gamba1 or ,keraulophon1 in place of the ,dulciana4 ,all these stops1 when properly made1 are of beautiful tone1 but their beauty is of a kind which soon satisfies1 and then is apt to weary the listener4 ,they are therefore excluded from our village organ by one of our maxims4 ,the same sentence of exclusion must be passed upon the class of stops known as ,lieblich ,gedact1 and rightly introduced in large organs as alternatives for the ,stopped ,diapason and ,stopped ,flute4 ,their tone in the treble1 says ,mr4 ,hayne1#g is so peculiar as to become wearisome1 and a little of them goes a very long way4 ,the imitative ,flutes1 which have many different names1 as ,flauto ,traverso1 ,concert ,flute1 ,oboe ,flute1 and the like1 find their place in organs of much larger dimensions than our village organ2 and ,harmonic stops1 of every pitch and quality1 are shut out by their costliness1 if not by the character of their tone1 which is unacceptable to some ears4 #g ,hints1 c41 p4 #ad4 ,organ ,no4 #c4 ,perhaps greater loudness may be reasonably desired when the village church is large and the singers numerous4 ,this accession of power will be gained by adding two more complete ranks of pipes1 namely1 a ,twelfth of three feet 7nominal7 and a ,fifteenth of two feet1 both in metal4 ,we cannot enter into controversy with modern purists who object to the ,twelfth4 ,enough that its effect1 when duly balanced1 has been accepted as dignified and elevating for centuries past4 ,as it is never used without the ,fifteenth1 the pipes of both may be governed by one slider1 and in this case the stop may be called ,mixture1 ii4 ranks4 ,the additional cost of the ,twelfth and ,fifteenth1 with the necessary enlargement of the sound-board and bellows1 may be #bj or #be4 ,organ ,no4 #d4 ,the stops which have been enumerated1 with one or two additions1 might be distributed between two manuals1 with great advantage to the player1 and without a violation of any of our self-imposed conditions4 ,instead of suggesting the list of stops ourselves1 we give the names and distribution of those in the beautiful little organ in the choir of ,jesus ,college ,chapel1 ,cambridge1 designed by the late ,sir ,j4 ,sutton1 ,bart41 and built by the late ,j4 ,c4 ,bishop1 some old wooden pipes by ,schmidt being worked in4 ,upper ,manual1 or ,great ,organ4 #a4 ,open ,diapason #h feet4 #b4 ,stopped ,diapason #h tone #c4 ,principal #d #d4 ,twelfth #c #e4 ,fifteenth #b #f4 ,tierce #a-c_/e #g4 ,mixture iii4 ranks4 ,lower ,manual1 or ,choir ,organ4 #a4 ,open ,diapason1 wood #h feet4 #b4 ,stopped ,diapason #h tone4 #c4 ,open ,flute #d #d4 ,stopped ,flute #d tone4 ,such an organ could not be costly1 as there is no swell-box1 and as large ,bourdons or #af-;feet ,open ,diapasons are absent1 together with couplers and all other complications4 ,but perhaps it is luxuriously large for a village church of average size4 ,it might be somewhat lessened thus3-- ,organ ,no4 #e4 ,great ,organ 7,upper or ,lower1 as preferred74 #a4 ,open ,diapason #h feet4 #b4 ,hohl-flte1 wood #h #c4 ,principal #d #d4 ,stopped ,flute #d #e4 ,mixture iii4 ranks4 ,choir ,organ 7,lower or ,upper74 #a4 ,stopped ,diapason #h feet tone #b4 ,dulciana #h #c4 ,gemshorn1 a light ,principal #d ,remark4--,the ,mixture1 ,no4 #e1 will be #aeth1 #aith and #bbnd from ,,cc to middle ,b1 and #hth1 #abth and #aeth onwards to the top4 99 99 99 99 99 ,perhaps we should not conclude without noticing one or two objections to our plans4 ,first4 ,organs cannot be properly played without pedals4 ,most unquestionably true classical organ music cannot be played on instruments with manuals only4 ,but it was on such instruments that the illustrious ,,handel1 with his contemporaries and predecessors1 ,croft1 ,boyce1 ,worgan1 the blind ,stanley1 and a host of others1 delighted their audiences by their masterly performance4 ,pedals were not added to ,english organs until the latest years of the eighteenth century4 ,the nineteenth was far advanced before the pedal-board1 of full compass1 had come to be considered an essential part of every organ4 ,why should the effective management of organs without pedals be among the lost arts8 ,why should not the clever manipulation of such organs be practised by ladies1 and by the modest players in villages1 to whom the preludes and fugues which echo through the aisles of the cathedral must ever be a dead language8 ,why should the cathedral player himself1 fresh from his pedal fugues1 deem it beneath his dignity to draw sweet music1 in a totally different style1 from an instrument on which ,handel would have willingly displayed his powers8 ,we were present on a certain occasion1 many years ago1 when the late ,professor ,walmisley1 of ,cambridge1 was asked to play on a small and old-fashioned organ without pedals4 ,the distinguished pedallist and renowned interpreter of ,bach's compositions did not turn away with contempt4 ,he seated himself1 and charmed all who were present by his ingenious extemporisation4 ,the skill1 and learning1 and resource of the true musician were never more conspicuously displayed4 ,we see no reason whatever why such a bright example should not be followed2 and1 while we yield to no one in appreciation of the pedal-organ1 and of the music proper for it1 we hold that the typical organ of the village church has no concern with these1 and that no greater demand should be made upon the executive powers of its player than that which is made in the acquirement of a pure legato style at the pianoforte or harmonium4 ,second4 ,why omit the ,swell1 the greatest improvement of modern organs8 ,the ,swell-organ proper owes its effectiveness to its reed stops1 and these are one and all excluded from our village organ by the fact that they require the frequent attention of a tuner4 ,we grant1 however1 that reedy stops of the ,gamba class might take their place in small organs2 and we admit that our organs1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #c1 might be very easily enclosed in swell boxes1 while a ,swell might take the place of a ,choir in ,no4 #e4 ,such alterations would have many advocates1 both professional and amateur4 ,in adhering resolutely to our plans1 we must express the opinion that the judicious management of the ,swell is a gift rather than an art4 ,it is but occasionally1 we think1 that refined taste is made evident by a sparing use of the tempting contrivance4 ,too frequently1 even in churches of high class and pretension1 the tone of the swell-organ1 with its mechanical rise and fall1 prevails from the beginning to the end of the performance1 until the ear longs for relief4 ,if the abuse of the ,swell be thus common even in town churches1 is it well to trust an apparatus which may be so easily misunderstood to the discretion of players in village churches8 ,moreover1 our village organ is for the accompaniment of singers4 ,we believe that many musicians will endorse our opinion that as an accompaniment for singers the ,swell-organ is misleading and unsatisfactory4 ,an accurate ear will often detect a slight difference of pitch in the pipes of a small ,swell-organ when the shades are closed or suddenly opened4 ,we have repeatedly heard the voices of the men and boys1 even in very good choirs1 thrown out of tune by injudicious persistence in the use of the ,swell as an accompaniment4 ,the sense of discomfort and uncertainty was removed at once when the player transferred his hands to the ,choir-manual1 with its quiet and cheerful brightness4 ,it is for these reasons1 and not from any want of appreciation of the effect of the ,swell in the hands of an educated and gifted performer1 that we counsel our village friends to turn a deaf ear to the praises of the ,swell which will doubtless reach them from many quarters1 and to rest content with genuine organ-tone produced by means which do not lend themselves to abuse4 ,a few words may be added for the guidance of those who find themselves entrusted with the care of old instruments4 ,the eighteenth century witnessed the erection1 in the churches of many country towns1 of noble organs1 honestly constructed by true artists1 men who disdained the use of inferior timber or of base metal4 ,a great number of these costly and beautiful instruments remained unaltered1 or at least uninjured1 within the recollection of the present writer1 but demolition rather than restoration has been at work during the last thirty or more years1 and the plea which we would put forward for the reverent preservation of the works of old masters may now be opportune in but few and isolated cases4 ,nevertheless1 if it should happen to any of our readers to discover in a village church1 or in that of some quiet market-town1 an organ by ,,snetzler 7#agdi71 by his predecessors1 or by his immediate successors1 ending with the ,,englands1 father and son1 we would earnestly counsel a respectful treatment of the valuable contents4 ,an old picture may have long lain hidden in a lumber-room1 with its face to the wall2 when brought into the light1 and its merits recognised by an expert1 its possessor replaces the worm-eaten stretcher and decayed frame by new wood1 but he would indeed act strangely if he permitted the house-painter to touch the precious canvas with his brush4 ,yet we have known many organs by the builders and of the period indicated above1 taken down and carted away2 their pipes 7in ,snetzler's case of nearly pure tin7 sold for a trifling sum or thrown into the melting-pot2 and this wanton destruction has been justified on the ground that the time is come for a better instrument1 that the old organ is screamy2 above all1 that the belauded ,swell is wanting4 ,accordingly the modern builder meets the wishes of his customers by providing an organ of the common-place type1 and the reign of ,swell-coupler and ,pedal ,bourdon is duly inaugurated4 ,surely a wiser course would have been this3--,carefully preserve every pipe1 and round out those which may be bruised by rolling them on mandrils2 insist on the inclusion of all these pipes without any omission whatever in the new structure which the ravages of the worm may have rendered inevitable2 add to these original contents 7if funds permit7 some modern ranks of pipes carefully voiced by an accomplished artist to the same pressure of wind1 and calculated to support and balance the shrill high tones which the old organ doubtless contains2 repair the old case1 and even retain the old key-board if possible4 ,no doubt1 in towns1 where a succession of skilled players may be found1 the addition of a ,swell-organ and of a pedal-organ1 both most carefully designed1 scaled1 and voiced1 cannot justly be disapproved4 ,the instrument1 thus reinstated1 will be a most interesting link with the past2 will supply in itself a history of the progress of the organ-builder's art1 and will possess an individuality of tone which educated listeners will appreciate1 and which they fail to perceive in many or most of the organs erected in the present day4 ,,index4 ,action4 7,see ,,keyboard1 ,,pedal47 ,backfalls1 #id ,bars of sound-board1 #cf ,bearers of ditto1 #ch ,bell-cranks1 #abi ,bellows1 construction of1 #gc ,blacklead1 #eg ,blowing pedal and lever1 #hf ,boards1 upper1 #ci ,borrowing in bass octave1 #de1 #ade ,bourdon1 #afj ,brass1 its employment1 #fc1 #fg ,bridge1 #id1 #aeg ,building-frame1 #ha ,buttons1 leather1 #if ,channels1 #bi ,choir-organ1 #adb ,clarabella1 #be ,cloths1 #if ,compass1 of pedals1 #ace ,combination-manual1 #aei ,conducting-boards1 #dh ,conveyances1 #ea ,counter-balances for bellows1 #gh ,couplers1 various kinds of1 #aeb-aeg ,cuckoo-feeder1 #gi ,cummins1 his invention1 #ge ,diapason1 open1 #dd1 #aba ,diapason1 stopped1 #aj ,dip of keys and of pedals1 #ajc1 #aci ,drilling1 #fg ,double sound-boards1 #aab ,draw-stops1 #abg ,dulciana1 #aba ,engines1 hydraulic1 #gi ,fan-frame1 #aja ,feeders1 #gi ,fifteenth1 ,flageolet1 ,flautina1 #abe ,flute1 #abe ,frame1 building1 #ha ,gamba1 #adi ,gems-horn1 #abe ,great-organ1 #adg ,grooving1 #de1 #ade ,key-boards1 #ajb ,key movements1 #ig ,lathe1 #e ,leather for pallets1 #fa ,manuals1 #adf ,manual and ,pedal1 their relation1 #acf1 #aci ,manual for combination1 #aei ,materials for sound-board1 #g ,names of notes in scale1 #aj ,nicking4 7,see ,,voicing47 ,organ1 ,old ,english1 #be1 #adg ,pallets1 #fa ,pedal-organ1 #acf1 #afj ,pipes1 wooden1 #ad1 #bc metal1 #aag lengths of1 #aa1 #ae plantation of1 #cj1 #ii ,principal1 #dd1 #aba ,pull-downs1 #fi ,rack-boards1 pins1 #db ,reed-stops1 #aec ,regulation1 #abf ,ribs1 inverted1 #ge ,roller-board1 #if ,running of wind1 #ej1 #ee ,scales for pipes1 #af ,sliders1 #bi ,sound-board1 construction of1 #ci ,spitz-flute1 #abe ,springs for pallets1 #fc ,squares1 #ie ,stickers1 #ie ,stops1 methods of drawing1 #abg ,sub-bass1 #afj ,swell-organ1 box1 #ada1 #aej ,tablature1 or nomenclature of notes1 #aj ,temperament1 #abe ,terzo ,mano1 #afc ,trackers1 #ie ,trundles1 wooden1 iron1 #aca ,tuning1 #abf ,valves of bellows1 #gd1 #gg ,voicing pipes1 metal and wooden1 #abj ,village ,church ,organs1 #afe ,wind-chest1 #ee ,wind-gauge1 #abb ,wind-trunks1 #hj ,wind-valve1 or ventil1 #afb ,workshop1 #b ,,the ,,end4 ,,printed ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,virtue ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited1 ,,city ,,road1 ,,london4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,bold type is shown as strong4 ,italics are shown thus3 sloping4 ,small capitals have been capitalised4 ,illustrations have been moved out of mid-paragraph4 ,variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained4 ,punctuation has been retained as published4 ',fig #bi4' has been added to the illustration on page #ie4