,transcriber's ,notes3 ,equal signs 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate bold in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,,state ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,state ,,water ,,supply ,,commission ,,henry ,h4 ,,persons1 ,president4 ,,milo ,m4 ,,acker1 ,,charles ,,davis1 ,,john ,a4 ,,sleicher1 ,,robert ,h4 ,,fuller1 ,,commissioners ,,david ,r4 ,,cooper1 ,engineer-,secretary4 ,,walter ,,mcculloh1 ,consulting ,engineer4 ,,lyon ,,block1 ,,albany1 ,n4 ,y4 ,water ,power ,,for ,,the ,farm and ,country ,home ,,by ,,david ,r4 ,,cooper ,engineer-,secretary ,new ,york ,state ,water ,supply ,commission ,second ,edition ,,printed ,,for ,,the ,,state ,,water ,,supply ,,commission ,,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,lyon ,,company1 ,,state ,,printers ,,albany ,illustration ,,water ,,power ,,for ,,the ,,farm ,,and ,,country ,,home ,,by ,,david ,r4 ,,cooper ,in the course of its general investigations of the water powers of the ,state1 the ,water ,supply ,commission has heretofore confined its attention to the possibilities for large developments1 and the regulation of the flow of rivers and large creeks4 ,no previous or general investigation of small creeks and brooks and their power possibilities has been made1 not because they were considered unimportant1 but because the ,commission believes that if the ,state decides to take an active part in the regulation of the flow of streams and the development and conservation of water powers1 it should confine its first activities to the larger units1 leaving the smaller opportunities for later examination and for private and individual development4 ,however1 no comprehensive system of conservation can meet with universal favor unless it contemplates the prevention of waste1 great or small1 and wherever found4 ,accordingly1 the ,commission desires to call attention to the valuable power which is now running to waste in thousands of small creeks and brooks in all sections of the ,state4 ,many of these minor streams present possibilities for small individual developments of power sufficient to supply all the requirements of the owner at a comparatively small cost4 ,numerous farms in the ,state have on them brooks or creeks capable of supplying power sufficient to furnish electric light for all the buildings4 ,others would also furnish power enough to drive a feed grinder1 a churn or cream separator1 or to run a wood saw1 sewing machine or other machines and implements requiring a small amount of power for their operation4 ,in short1 there are numerous small streams now tumbling over ledges in barnyards or pastures whose wasted energy might readily be transformed and applied to useful work by the installation of small and inexpensive water-power plants4 ,if the power of more of these were developed and substituted for manual labor1 a great saving of time and energy would be accomplished1 and financial profit would result4 ,illustration3 ,modern ,application of ,hydro-electric ,power ,vacuum ,milking ,machines ,after the initial expense of installing the plant is paid1 the cost of a small water power is inconsiderable1 the plant requiring little personal attention and small expense for supplies and repairs4 ,however1 while the power of some streams may be developed at an amazingly small cost1 in other instances the cost may be prohibitive4 ,in this connection1 one fact that is perhaps not fully appreciated is that the power of a waterfall is comparatively permanent1 only its rate of availability being limited4 ,while the stream may shrink in the dry summer and fall1 it is quite certain to swell again in the spring and to continue the process1 year after year1 as the source of supply is continually renewed4 ,but the power which might have been1 but was not developed in the year #aiaj1 cannot be reclaimed in #aiaa or ever after4 ,much of the power that is wasted by inequality of the flow of the stream may be saved by conservation through water storage2 but this sometimes involves a large outlay and therefore1 generally speaking1 the fullest use of the power of a small stream can best be obtained by using the stream as it runs1 or at best after temporary storage behind inexpensive dams4 ,illustration3 8,luminous0 ,electric ,radiator ,the ,water ,supply ,commission believes that the possibilities for small water powers should be pointed out to the people of the ,state in order that there may be a better realization of the usefulness and value of this remarkable natural resource and that the farmers and residents of rural districts may take advantage of the opportunities to conserve and utilize them4 ,it is believed that some facts relating to the utility of power in general and small water powers in particular1 together with descriptions of some typical small water-power developments that are now in actual operation1 and brief notes as to how such a power may be developed and applied1 will suffice to bring the subject forcibly to the attention of those most interested1 and furnish at least a beginning for observations in this comparatively new field1 and stimulate a tendency to a more general utilization of this source of power1 and a consequent saving of much energy now secured from coal1 wood and other exhaustible producers of power4 ,accordingly1 the following discussion of the many and varied uses for power on the modern farm1 together with descriptions of developments now in use1 and notes on developing a small water power1 are submitted in the hope that they may be of interest and service to those who have chosen farming for their livelihood or pleasure1 especially by assisting them in the consideration as to whether or not it may be worth while to develop the power of any particular stream4 ,these discussions and descriptions are not intended to suffice as a practical handbook for laying out a power plant1 but merely to point the way to an intelligent consideration of the possibilities1 by showing what others have done and laying down a few fundamental principles1 which should properly be taken into consideration in determining upon the development of a small water power4 ,,uses ,,for ,,power ,,on ,,the ,,farm ,the impossibility of securing a sufficient number of capable and satisfactory farm hands in these days1 when the majority of young men are turning to the populous centers for their livelihood1 is perhaps the most compelling reason why machines which can be substituted for manual labor are a decided advantage to the up-to-date farmer4 ,their adoption as a part of the permanent equipment for the farm should render their owner comparatively independent of some of the problems of supply and demand for farm labor1 the solution of which problems is an important factor in determining the success or failure of the farmer who disposes of his produce in open market4 ,this condition is supplemented by a commendable tendency for farmers to live better1 to place the home life of the farm on a higher plane1 and to make farming a means of pleasurable livelihood rather than the mere eking out of a bare subsistence from the products of the soil4 ,these conditions1 together with the greatly improved quality of illumination and convenience which electricity affords1 are creating a growing demand for a reliable and reasonably economical source of energy with which to supply both light and power on the larger estates and farms4 ,illustration3 ,motor ,lifting a ,ton of ,hay1 ,hydro-electric ,power ,illustration3 ,electric ,toaster ,that electric light is much cleaner and more convenient than kerosene lamps must1 of course1 be admitted by all4 ,it must also be admitted that a kerosene lamp of any considerable illuminating power has also certain heating propensities which render it an unpleasant companion on a warm summer evening4 ,however1 when it comes to a consideration of mere dollars and cents1 there seems to be a widespread belief that kerosene as a source of illumination is cheaper than electricity4 ,statements to this effect are too often allowed to go uncontradicted1 and too many people accept this view without taking the trouble to investigate4 ,it is a comparatively simple matter to compare the cost of the two kinds of light1 knowing as we do exactly how much current an electric lamp of a certain filament and candle-power will consume4 ,such a comparison will frequently result in a choice of electricity as the cheaper light4 ,in many cases the selection of electricity to supplant kerosene lamps would result in no considerable saving of money1 but would do away with considerable inconvenience and furnish much better illumination4 ,if cost is the controlling consideration1 the comparison cannot always be so much in favor of electricity4 ,an important consideration1 often overlooked1 is that with electric lights the interiors of living rooms do not require such frequent repapering or refinishing as they would require with kerosene illumination4 ,illustration3 ,motor-driven ,sewing ,machine ,however1 the convenience and cleanliness of electricity are fairly well known and appreciated1 but the means by which electric currents may be generated economically1 and by which this form of energy may be applied to bring about sufficient returns1 financial and otherwise1 to warrant the installation of an isolated plant for a farm or country home1 are not so generally understood4 ,electric current may be generated by means of a dynamo1 or generator1 with any kind of a power-producing plant4 ,all that the dynamo requires to enable it to produce electric current is power of some kind that may be applied in such manner and quantity as will cause the armature1 or 8interior core10 of the machine to rotate at a sufficiently high and uniform rate of speed4 ,there are various kinds of power generators which will perform this work satisfactorily for isolated plants4 ,within the last few years the small internal combustion engine1 supplemented by the electric storage battery1 for stationary service1 have been so much improved and simplified as to cause them to compare very favorably with the better-known types of power-producing apparatus in first cost and in reliability of operation4 ,the extreme simplicity of both this type of engine and of the storage battery1 together with the great economy in fuel consumption of these engines1 the low price of fuel1 and the efficiency of the battery as a device for storing the energy and delivering it in the form of electric current when needed and in the quantity required1 result in a low operating cost4 ,the advent of tax-free alcohol into the field of available fuels for use in internal combustion engines1 and the growing demand for this class of fuel1 indicate that it will become1 in time1 a strong competitor of kerosene and gasolene4 ,at present1 gasolene is the fuel most generally used for engines of this type and small-size gas engines are now manufactured by many firms4 ,steam power is probably the best understood of all classes of power4 ,in many cases1 especially where the fuel is very cheap1 this is the best power for a farmer to have4 ,steam-power plants1 as well as gasolene1 kerosene and alcohol plants1 all require personal attendance during operation and necessitate more or less frequent applications of fuel4 ,wind power is also a source of energy which may well be considered by the farmer who needs a small amount of power4 ,perhaps the most promising source of power for farmers in ,new ,york ,state is the power that may be developed from falling water4 ,this kind of a power plant requires comparatively little personal attention while in operation1 and needs no replenishing of fuel except such as ,nature herself provides in the flowing brook4 ,not only are there many of these powers that are undeveloped as yet1 but there are many others which have been developed at some previous time and have recently been allowed to fall into disuse for various reasons4 ,many old sawmills were abandoned when the surrounding hills were all lumbered off4 ,a small investment would enable many such old powers to be revived and applied to some useful purpose4 ,such a water-power plant could frequently be made to serve the owner or a group of users of electric current at very small first cost for each individual1 and at an operating cost which would be inconsiderable4 ,it should be borne in mind1 however1 that much depends on the choice of the best power for any particular purpose1 and a careful consideration of what is needed1 and the conditions under which the power must be supplied1 is essential to insure satisfaction with a power plant4 ,in any particular instance a manufacturer of small waterwheels will cheerfully submit an estimate for a water-power plant1 while the makers of steam and gasolene engines will quite as readily furnish any information to be based on data furnished by the intending purchaser4 ,illustration3 ,motor-driven ,ice ,cream ,freezer ,the extent of the applications of power to practical purposes on the farm is very broad4 ,while perhaps electric lighting is the use most frequently thought of1 it is1 however1 in the application of electric current or power to the operation of labor-saving devices that the greatest gain is to be derived on the large farm or country place4 ,feed grinders1 root cutters1 fodder cutters1 fanning mills1 grindstones1 circular saws1 corn shellers1 drill presses1 ensilage cutters and elevators1 horse clippers1 milking machines1 grain separators1 threshing machines1 cream separators1 churns1 vacuum cleaners1 ice cream freezers1 dough mixers1 feed mixers1 chicken hatchers1 and numerous other machines and implements operated by power1 are obtainable in these days of labor-saving devices4 ,the amount of power required to operate many of these is small4 ,the presence of a plant of sufficient capacity to operate one or two particular machines often makes it possible to use the power for many of the other purposes4 ,the amount of work that a small power will do may be judged from the following brief statements of what is actually being done3 ,illustration3 ,motor-driven ,cream ,separator ,note small size of motor ,six horsepower will drive a grain separator and thresh #bejj bushels of oats in ten hours4 ,three horsepower furnishes all power needed to make #fjjj pounds of milk into cheese in one day4 ,six horsepower will run a feed mill grinding twenty bushels of corn an hour4 ,five horsepower grinds twenty-five to forty bushels of feed1 or ten to twelve bushels of ear corn1 an hour4 ,seven horsepower drives an eighteen-inch separator1 burr mill and corn and cob crusher and corn sheller1 grinding from twelve to fifteen bushels of feed an hour1 and five to eight bushels of good1 fine meal4 ,six horsepower runs a heavy apple grater1 grinding and pressing #bjj to #bej bushels of apples an hour4 ,five horsepower will drive a thirty-inch circular saw1 sawing from fifty to seventy-five cords of stovewood from hard oak in ten hours4 ,illustration3 ,electric ,ironing ,six horsepower saws all the wood four men can pile in cords4 ,twelve horsepower will drive a fifty-inch circular saw1 sawing #djjj feet of oak1 or #ejjj feet of poplar1 in a day4 ,ten horsepower will run a sixteen-inch ensilage cutter and blower1 and elevate the ensilage into a silo thirty feet high at the rate of seven tons per hour4 ,one horsepower will pump water from a well of ordinary depth in sufficient quantity to supply an ordinary farmhouse and all the buildings with water for all the ordinary uses4 ,in determining the size of power plant required in any particular instance the use requiring the largest amount of power must be considered4 ,it follows that there will then be plenty of power for the smaller requirements4 ,in considering a water power it should also be borne in mind that the full theoretical amount of a water power can never be realized1 a certain portion being taken up in friction in the waterwheel and in losses in the electric generator1 transmission lines1 motors1 etc4 ,the question as to how much may be made available will be discussed hereinafter4 ,following are descriptions of some typical water-power developments in use in this ,state at the present time4 ,,farm ,,water-,,power ,,development ,,in ,,oneida ,,county ,illustration3 ,electric ,hot ,plate ,on the outskirts of the village of ,oriskany ,falls1 in ,oneida county1 ,n4 ,y41 is a farm of about #ajj acres1 belonging to ,mr4 ,e4 ,burdette ,miner4 ,this community was at one time one of the principal hop-raising districts of the ,state4 ,mr4 ,miner has been engaged in raising hops for fifty years1 and raised #aj1jjj pounds of hops on seven acres the past season4 ,in recent years he has divided his attention between mixed farming and dairying1 keeping from twenty to twenty-five cows4 ,before the installation of his water power1 not the least of the irksome tasks about the farmhouse was the daily filling and cleaning of kerosene lamps and lanterns2 and the wood was sawed1 and the cream separator and churn in the dairy room were operated1 by hand4 ,five sons contributed in no small measure to the prompt disposal of the daily tasks4 ,but the boys went forth into the world and acquired lines of activity and interest of their own4 ,only the oldest son remained to live on the farm4 ,another son studied electrical engineering1 a third chose mechanical pursuits1 a fourth became a civil engineer1 and a fifth took up commercial work4 ,illustration3 ,electric ,coffee ,percolator ,after coming in touch with the outer world and the great modern achievements of science and invention1 especially of a mechanical or engineering character1 the boys quite naturally set their wits to work to devise some way in which the daily labors of those at home might be made less burdensome4 ,through the farm flows ,oriskany creek1 which ripples over its gravelly bed in a channel from twenty to thirty feet wide4 ,the boys said to their father1 8,why not harness the creek and make it do some of the work80 ,there was no precipitous fall of the creek on the farm1 but the boys proposed to concentrate at least a portion of the fall by constructing a dam4 ,this they intended to do primarily for the purpose of developing enough power to light the homestead and farm buildings with electricity and to saw the wood and do away with some of the other tiresome farm tasks4 ,the elder ,miner was not enthusiastic at first1 but was finally persuaded by the boys1 who made surveys and plans for a water-power development1 and in ,october1 #aije1 with the assistance of three of his boys and two day laborers1 ,mr4 ,miner began the construction of a dam across the creek4 ,this was to be no ordinary structure4 ,the creek1 while peaceful enough at most times1 had a habit1 well known to ,mr4 ,miner1 of bursting its bounds every spring and rushing through the farm in a torrent4 ,so the dam was built in such a way that1 while it would raise the water to a certain height during periods of ordinary flow1 it would not cause the floods to rise perceptibly higher than before the dam was built4 ,accordingly1 it was designed so that a part of it could be lowered at flood times to allow free passage for the swollen stream4 ,illustration3 ,dam of ,e4 ,b4 ,miner1 ,oriskany ,falls1 ,n4 ,y4 ,main dam at left2 flood spillway at right ,the bed of the stream at the site selected for the dam is composed of solidly packed gravel4 ,it was not considered advisable to lay timbers on such a foundation1 so a ditch about two feet deep and one and one-half feet wide was dug across the creek bed and filled with concrete1 to which a heavy timber was securely bolted1 to form the upstream sill for the super-structure4 ,the downstream side was supported on a sill of heavy timber whose ends were embedded in the concrete walls1 or abutments1 at either end of the dam and whose middle portion was supported by posts1 spaced six feet apart1 which in turn rested on large blocks of concrete placed in the bed of the creek4 ,this downstream sill was about two and one-half feet higher than the upstream sill4 ,a horizontal floor of double plank extending twelve feet downstream from the upstream sill and supported by the concrete foundations under the downstream sill formed an apron for the water to fall on4 ,this prevents back-washing under the dam4 ,a double layer of heavy plank was then fastened on the two sills1 forming a sloping face on the water side of the dam4 ,on the upper edge of this plank-facing1 at the crest of the dam1 are placed flashboards1 one foot high and extending the full length of the dam1 thirty-six feet1 but divided into six sections1 each six feet long4 ,each of these sections is hinged by the lower edge to the crest of the dam1 while the upper edge is held from tipping over by chains fastened to cast-iron lugs located about halfway down the planking4 ,the chain is held in these lugs by pins which are connected by rod and chain to a capstan1 or spindle1 located at one end of the dam1 and are so arranged that by turning the spindle the pins will be drawn successively1 thereby letting the flashboards down one at a time4 ,the idea of this arrangement is that1 when a flood is rising1 the capstan may be turned with a heavy lever crank1 winding up the chain and pulling down the flashboards one at a time1 to give more space for the flood to pass through so as to prevent the water upstream from the dam from rising too high4 ,this plan has prevented the washing away of ,mr4 ,miner's power house on several occasions4 ,illustration3 ,farm ,power ,house on ,oriskany ,creek ,dam in left background2 tail-race in right foreground ,the sloping face of the dam receives the direct pressure of the water and transfers it to the sills1 which in turn transfer it to the concrete foundation4 ,the reason for sloping the upstream face of the dam is that the pressure of water is always normal1 or perpendicular1 to the surface against which it presses2 therefore1 if the face of the dam is sloping1 the pressure is downward1 rather than outward1 as would be the case with a vertical face4 ,this results in greater stability for the dam1 due to the lessened tendency to tip over4 ,with a dam of this type the higher the water rises against or over it1 the more nearly vertical is the line of pressure1 and the dam is held tightly down on its foundation instead of tending to tip over4 ,it follows that the flatter the face of the dam the more stable it will be4 ,mr4 ,miner's dam raised the water about four feet4 ,but in spite of his provision for floods1 ,mr4 ,miner did not want to be under the necessity of letting down his dam for every freshet1 so he provided an additional permanent spillway4 ,this is a simple concrete barrier1 or wall1 which flanks one end of the dam4 ,in plan it was built at an angle with the dam proper1 and extends downstream along the side of the natural bank4 ,it was built with its crest a few inches higher than the main dam1 so that during periods of ordinary flow the surplus water all passes over the main dam1 but as soon as the creek rises a few inches over the main dam1 water begins to flow over this extra spillway1 which1 being about forty feet long1 will discharge a considerable volume although the water flowing over it is only a few inches in depth4 ,this spillway is strengthened on the downstream end by a concrete abutment1 which consists of a simple heavy block of concrete extending above the top of the spillway4 ,a similar abutment flanks the upstream end and also constitutes an abutment for one end of the main dam4 ,the other end of the main dam is set against the opposite bank of the creek and is protected from washing and is strengthened by a similar concrete abutment4 ,it was considered desirable to place the little power house away from the main channel of the stream1 so an earth embankment was built1 extending from the downstream end of the flood spillway1 a distance of about sixty feet4 ,this embankment1 or dyke1 is curved in such manner as to divert the water behind it across a low place to a safe distance from the main channel4 ,some excavating had to be done behind this embankment in order to secure a channel of sufficient depth to prevent the water from freezing to the bottom and to provide a smooth channel of approach to the power house4 ,this diversion of the water to one side from the main channel prevents the accumulation of debris and silt1 which is a hindrance to the proper operation of a waterwheel4 ,the pool thus formed is called a 8forebay0 and is very quiet water4 ,the velocity of the water flowing through it is so slight that it will not carry much debris4 ,at the downstream end of the forebay the diverting embankment approaches a steep bank4 ,at this point ,mr4 ,miner built a small power house4 ,under the power house is the wheel-box1 which consists of a box-like compartment having one side open to the forebay4 ,this opening is covered with a coarse screen to prevent leaves or other debris from entering the wheel1 but the water flows through it readily4 ,in the wheel-box a waterwheel1 of the type known as a turbine1 was placed4 ,this revolves on a vertical shaft1 or axle1 which is guided by bearings in a metal case surrounding the wheel and resting on the bottom of the box-like compartment4 ,the wheel-case is open at the bottom to allow the free escape of the water after it has passed through the wheel4 ,the construction of the turbines is such that the pressure of the water on the curved vanes causes the wheel to revolve1 just as the pressure of wind causes a windmill to revolve4 ,the water must have a free escape from the opening in the bottom of the wheel-case and wheel-pit and to provide for this a channel1 called a 8tail-race10 was excavated to carry the water back to the creek4 ,natural conditions were favorable here and a tail-race joining the main channel about #ajj feet below the power house was constructed with little difficulty4 ,at the point where the tail-race joins the creek the elevation is two feet lower than the power house1 so that there is little tendency for water to back up from the creek into the tail-race4 ,there is a certain amount of back-water during freshets but the increased height of the water in the forebay at such times partially offsets it4 ,illustration3 ,interior of ,e4 ,b4 ,miner's ,power ,house ,the vertical shaft of the turbine extends up through and about two feet above the floor near one end of the power house1 where it is supported on ball-bearings which enable it to be revolved with very little friction4 ,at the other end of the power house1 which is twelve feet by sixteen feet in plan and seven feet high to the eaves1 was placed an electric generator1 or dynamo1 rated at #ab kilowatts1 which is equivalent to about #ag horsepower4 ,this machine is intended to operate at about #aajj revolutions per minute4 ,the waterwheel1 under the pressure of about six feet1 would not revolve at such a high rate of speed4 ,it was1 therefore1 impracticable to connect the generator shaft directly to the waterwheel shaft and it became necessary to magnify the revolutions by connecting the two shafts by belt1 using different-sized pulleys4 ,a large wooden pulley1 seventy-six inches in diameter1 was keyed on the end of the waterwheel shaft4 ,a much smaller pulley1 about eight inches in diameter1 was placed on the driving shaft of the generator4 ,a leather belt connects the two1 and since the wheel shaft is vertical and the generator shaft is horizontal1 it is necessary to pass the belt over an intermediate pulley1 or 8idler40 ,this idler is set with its axis at an angle with both the horizontal and vertical1 so that the transition of the belt from the horizontal to vertical is made gradually4 ,since the driving pulley on the generator shaft is so much smaller than the pulley on the wheel shaft1 there are about nine revolutions of the generator shaft for every revolution of the wheel shaft4 ,the amount of power which this equipment will generate depends to a considerable extent upon the amount of water flowing4 ,oriskany creek at this point has a tributary drainage area of about fourteen square miles1 and the flow required to drive the turbine to full capacity is about #bijj cubic feet per minute4 ,this volume is probably available during most of the year1 but is not available in the driest seasons1 at which times the flow is probably reduced to about #fjj cubic feet per minute4 ,the waterwheel probably has an efficiency of about eighty per cent1 that is1 it will probably develop about eighty per cent of the theoretical energy of the falling water4 ,the remainder is lost in friction in the wheel-box at the entrance to the wheel and in the velocity still remaining in the water after it leaves the wheel4 ,five per cent of the power generated on the wheel shaft is probably lost by friction of the belting1 so that1 at rated load1 about seventy-six per cent of the theoretical power of the water is probably delivered to the shaft of the generator4 ,mr4 ,miner realized that there would be times when he would not require all or any of the power which would be produced4 ,at the same time the pond formed by the dam was not large enough to store any considerable amount of water1 and he had all the power he would require at any one time1 so it was not considered necessary to provide storage batteries to store the electricity4 ,on the other hand he did not wish to be compelled to turn the water on and off at frequent intervals1 as would be necessary unless some auxiliary regulating apparatus were provided4 ,therefore1 it was decided to provide for the plant to run continuously and to devise some means to consume the electric current when not in use4 ,a series of resistance coils were mounted on a frame in the power house1 and connected with the generator4 ,when the demand for electric current is less than the capacity of the generator1 a small electric device automatically throws one or more of these coils into the circuit1 and the surplus current is converted into heat by the resistance of the coils4 ,by means of this arrangement it was planned to run the plant continuously1 so that whenever electric current was wanted it could be had simply by turning a switch at the house or barns4 ,the power plant1 including the dam and all the features thus far described1 was completed and in operation before ,christmas of the year in which the construction was begun4 ,we have thus far seen how ,mr4 ,miner developed his water power and transformed it into electricity4 ,it remains to see how he gets it to his house and farm buildings1 and how he uses it after he gets it there4 ,the power house is situated about #agjj feet from the house1 where the electric current was most wanted4 ,this necessitated the construction of a transmission line4 ,for this purpose a double line of bare aluminum wire was stretched on a row of poles about twenty feet high and about one hundred feet apart4 ,the poles are provided with ordinary crossarms at the top on which are mounted the insulators carrying the wires4 ,as the transmission line leaves the power house it crosses a highway and runs in a perfectly straight line to the house4 ,over the highway insulated wires were used as a safety precaution1 but bare aluminum wire was used for the remainder because it was cheaper4 ,the buildings are all in a cluster and a branch from the transmission line runs into each one where the current is used4 ,all the wires which are inside of any of the buildings1 or are close to the woodwork1 are covered with insulation1 and1 where concealed1 are further protected by being placed in twisted metal tubes4 ,the first actual use of this hydro-electric power was for lighting4 ,the house was illuminated with electric lights1 as were also the barn and other buildings1 there being ultimately about seventy #af-;candle-power lamps in use4 ,even the pig sty has its electric light1 and there is no more groping in the dark anywhere about the ,miner farm buildings4 ,illustration3 ,lathe in ,e4 ,b4 ,miner's ,machine ,shop ,but there was more power in the creek than was necessary to run the electric lights4 ,a circular saw was brought into use1 belted to a motor1 and the supply of firewood was cut in a fraction of the time previously required4 ,the same motor is used to drive a lathe and a drill in a machine shop which the ,miner boys built and equipped4 ,this motor is belted to a countershaft from which additional machine tools can be driven4 ,one of the ,miner boys has developed this machine shop as a combined means of pleasure and profit4 ,in addition to a considerable amount of experimental machine work1 he does all the farm repairs and a considerable amount of machine work for neighboring knitting mills1 as well as general and automobile repair work1 all of which has been made possible by the harnessing of the creek4 ,another motor1 two-horsepower1 driven by the electric current1 is belted to a vacuum pump1 which is connected with a one-inch pipe running to the house and the barn4 ,in the house there are two taps1 one on each floor1 to which the hose of a vacuum cleaner may be attached1 and ,oriskany creek does the rest2 the floors are cleaned in the most modern1 sanitary and thorough manner4 ,in the barn the pipe from the vacuum pump runs above the cow stanchions with a tap at alternate stanchions4 ,the tubes of the milking machines are attached and the creek milks twenty or twenty-five cows twice each day4 ,illustration3 ,drill in ,e4 ,b4 ,miner's ,machine ,shop ,note the electric motor in background belted to countershaft near the ceiling ,in the dairy room is a one-half-horsepower motor1 which may be belted to the cream separator or churn1 and on the hot summer days it is frequently belted to the ice cream freezer4 ,an ingenious float device in the separator turns off the power when the cream is all separated from the milk and trips a can of clear water into the heavy1 revolving bowl of the separator1 which still retains enough momentum to rinse itself thoroughly before coming to rest4 ,in a similar manner other applications of the power have followed from time to time1 and one at a time most of the hand cranks on the ,miner farm have been relegated to the scrap heap2 even the grindstone is operated by a long1 narrow belt running from the little motor in the dairy out through the door to an adjoining compartment4 ,in the ,miner residence are five electrical heaters1 which ,mr4 ,miner states will raise the temperature to #ge degrees when it is zero outside4 ,since these heaters were installed there has not been much use for the wood saw4 ,there are also in the house some electric fans which stir up a breeze on the hot days4 ,an electric ventilator fan in the attic insures good ventilation at all times4 ,in the kitchen the ,miners cook for a family of from five to ten with an electric range1 and iron with an electric iron attached by a cord to an ordinary electric lamp socket4 ,a smaller motor operates the egg beater and cream whipper2 another small motor drives the sewing machine4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,b4 ,miner's ,dairy ,room ,vacuum milking machines in background2 also small motor which drives the cream separator and churn in the foreground ,the little motor in the dairy room also drives a single-acting plunger pump1 which forces water up to a galvanized iron tank in the attic of the house1 whence water is piped and furnished by gravity to the bathroom and kitchen4 ,an electric heater in the kitchen heats the water for the bath and kitchen4 ,illustration3 ,electric ,cooking ,outfit1 ,e4 ,b4 ,miner's ,home ,other miscellaneous uses are made of the never-failing power of the creek1 such as filling the silo1 and the power plant requires practically no attention4 ,self-oiling devices on the waterwheel and generator1 and the use of the resistance coils to consume the superfluous electricity1 obviate the necessity for attention1 except to fill the oil cups every few weeks4 ,practically no trouble has been experienced in the operation1 the only interruption so far being due to the formation of anchor ice in the forebay1 which causes a little trouble on extremely cold days4 ,the waterwheel is run continuously1 night and day1 summer and winter1 and electric light or current is always available at the touch of a button or by throwing a switch4 ,as to the cost of his plant ,mr4 ,miner would give no figures4 ,his motto seems to be1 8,not how cheap1 but how good10 and he states that it would require several times the cost to induce him to give up his water-power plant4 ,engineers estimate the cost of reproducing his plant1 including the dam1 power house1 waterwheel1 generator and transmission line1 at about #ahjj4 ,,summer ,,home ,,power ,,plant1 ,,northwest ,,bay1 ,,lake ,,george ,among the attractive summer homes on the shores of ,lake ,george is that of ,mr4 ,stephen ,loines of ,brooklyn1 located at the upper end of ,northwest bay1 about four miles above ,bolton ,landing4 ,on his property there was a small lake known as ,wing pond1 having an area of about seven acres and situated at an elevation of about #ahj feet above ,lake ,george4 ,the outlet was a small brook1 which runs through ,mr4 ,loines' property and flows into ,northwest bay4 ,in the summer of #aijb1 ,mr4 ,loines built a dam across the outlet of ,wing pond1 raising its surface about two feet4 ,he ran a galvanized iron pipe line from the dam1 down the side of the hill and along the brook4 ,it was four inches in diameter for a short distance1 then reduced to three inches and finally to two inches1 and was about #abjj feet long in all1 with a fall of about #aaj feet4 ,a twenty-four-inch waterwheel of the impulse type was installed in a small power house to which the pipe line was run4 ,the waterwheel developed about three horsepower and was belted to an electric generator4 ,illustration3 ,dam at ,outlet of ,wing ,pond ,the power was found to be insufficient to supply ,mr4 ,loines' needs at that time4 ,he desired to burn thirty-five #af-;candle-power carbon filament lamps and to charge a #dj-;cell battery for an electric launch4 ,accordingly1 in the fall of #aijh1 ,mr4 ,loines raised his dam two feet higher and installed a six-inch spiral riveted steel pipe line1 running from the dam down a gulley on the surface of the ground1 for about #afjj feet1 to a point a short distance from the place where the creek flows into ,lake ,george4 ,at this point he built a small power house and installed a twenty-four-inch waterwheel of the impulse type4 ,this wheel operates under a head of #afe feet and is directly connected by a shaft to a six and one-half kilowatt generator1 which operates at #ejj revolutions per minute4 ,this generator supplies a #fj-;cell house battery 7#de lamps71 an #hd-;cell battery for a #ce-;foot cabin launch1 a #dh-;cell battery for a #bj-;foot open launch and a #dj-;cell battery for an electric roadster1 all of which are in pretty continuous use from about the first of ,june to the first of ,november of each year4 ,illustration3 ,power ,transmission ,line1 ,northwest ,bay1 ,lake ,george ,as this new development superseded the older one and proved entirely adequate for the needs of ,mr4 ,loines' country place1 the old development was made over so that it could be utilized for sawing firewood to supply the superintendent's cottage and the other buildings during the winter4 ,a countershaft was erected on the wall of the old power house1 which is a building #g feet by #aj feet in plan and about #h feet high4 ,this countershaft has three counterpulleys1 by means of which the speed of the waterwheel may be doubled or trebled4 ,for the purpose of sawing firewood a leather belt is placed on one of the pulleys of the countershaft and run through a small aperture in the side of the power house to the driving pulley of a circular saw1 which stands on a small porch at one end of the power house building4 ,mr4 ,loines' superintendent stated that by operating the saw continuously for eight hours it would be possible to saw twelve cords of wood1 which he estimated to be sufficient to supply his cottage1 and such other of the buildings as need wood1 for the entire winter4 ,this illustrates very aptly the large amount of work that a small power is capable of doing in a short time4 ,in addition to lighting his house and buildings by means of the power developed at his new power house1 ,mr4 ,loines also has a rather unusual application of power on his summer place4 ,he is an enthusiastic student of astronomy and has built a small but elaborately equipped observatory on the hillside above the cottage4 ,the observatory is so constructed that the roof can be removed entirely from the building to a support at the back of the observatory4 ,the roof is mounted on wheels and ,mr4 ,loines uses his electric power to do the work of moving the roof when he wishes to make astronomical observations with his telescope4 ,this is accomplished by means of a small #a-;horsepower motor which operates at #abge revolutions per minute and is connected by belt to a countershaft1 which in turn is connected by a worm gear and a chain drive to the carriage on which the roof is supported4 ,in this manner the roof may be moved the required distance in two or three minutes by simply throwing the switch which is inside the observatory building4 ,illustration3 ,stephen ,loines' ,power ,house1 ,northwest ,bay1 ,lake ,george ,at left1 #d-;in4 water pipe2 at right1 transmission line connection ,mr4 ,loines' new power house is a stone masonry building1 the masonry being uncoursed rubble1 constructed in a very artistic and attractive manner4 ,the building is #i feet by #ae feet in plan and is about #i feet high to the eaves4 ,it has a concrete foundation and the floor is of first-class concrete4 ,a concrete foundation1 about #c feet by #e feet1 provides a permanent support for the water motor and the generator4 ,this foundation projects #f inches above the level of the concrete floor4 ,on one end of the foundation stands the waterwheel1 there being an opening about #h inches by #ah inches through the concrete base under the water motor to carry off the water after it has passed through the wheel4 ,the supply pipe for the waterwheel enters the side of the building on a level about one foot above the floor4 ,just inside1 the pipe reduces to a diameter of about #b inches and is fitted with a gate valve by means of which the water may be turned on or off4 ,the nozzle of the waterwheel is also equipped with an adjusting device by means of which the size of the jet issuing from the nozzle may be varied in order to secure various speeds or the maximum efficiency of the waterwheel4 ,the setting required to give the desired speed is determined by experiment by the operator4 ,,farm ,,power ,,development ,,in ,,schoharie ,,county ,at the entrance to the driveway approach to the farmhouse of ,jared ,van ,wagenen1 ,jr41 at ,lawyersville1 ,schoharie county1 ,n4 ,y41 stand two large1 stone gateway posts4 ,on the capstone of one of these posts is engraved1 8,agriculture the ,oldest ,occupation10 and on the other1 8,agriculture the ,greatest ,science40 ,in keeping with the latter sentiment1 ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen has conducted his agricultural operations in such a manner that he is looked upon as one of the most scientific and progressive agriculturists in the ,state4 ,he takes an active interest in such affairs as farmers' institutes and is considered an authority on the science of agriculture4 ,his farm and buildings are equipped with the most modern conveniences and labor-saving devices4 ,there is a small stream which runs through the farm and flows into the ,cobleskill4 ,this stream is so small that one may easily step across it in the summer-time4 ,about half a mile from the farmhouse is an old mill dam which forms a pond with an area of more than an acre4 ,the dam was built long ago when small sawmills dotted that section of the ,state4 ,the timber having been practically all cut off1 this mill1 along with hundreds of others1 was long since abandoned4 ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen conceived the idea of harnessing its wasting energy and making it do some of his farm work for him4 ,the story of how he accomplished this is best given in his own words1 as follows3 8,about eight years ago ,i began to figure on how to get this power to the house where it could do a little work4 ,my first thought was to carry it there by belt cables1 but figures proved that the friction would eat up the five horsepower available4 ,electric power1 easily transmitted with little loss1 was the only solution4 ,i talked with many who understood electricity and its engineering features and most of them laughed at the idea of such a small installation4 ,had ,i wanted to construct a million-dollar plant there would have been whole libraries of advice2 but a small plant to run entirely alone and be controlled by a seven-hundred-foot-wire was evidently a novelty4 ,after a good deal of studying and feeling my way the plans were made and the work begun4 8,the stream being so small1 the most rigid economy of water had to be observed1 so ,i installed a nine-inch upright turbine in an upright wooden case1 building the case myself1 where it would get the most benefit of the fifteen-foot head4 ,this turbine1 furnishing about five horsepower1 ,i belted to a three-kilowatt1 or four-horsepower1 one hundred and twenty-five volt direct current generator1 which would easily take care of seventy-five metal filament incandescent lamps4 ,i next installed a waterwheel governor to insure a steady flow of electricity4 ,it took about seventy-four hundred feet of weatherproof copper wire1 strung on wooden poles1 which were cut on the farm1 to carry the electricity to my home and the farm buildings and to the house of a neighbor4 ,as it is more than half a mile from the house to the plant it is out of the question to go there every night and morning to stop and start the machinery4 ,of course it is possible to let this plant run night and day during the wet season1 but in dry times it is best to save the water when the power is not needed4 ,a neighbor living about seven hundred feet from the power station kindly starts and stops the machinery with a wire stationed at his bedroom window4 ,this wire controls a valve and counterweight4 ,at five o'clock in the morning he pulls the wire and the lights come on and at a certain hour of the night he releases the wire and they go out4 ,in payment for this service ,i light his house and barns free of charge4 8,our maintenance charges are very small2 almost negligible4 ,i think our waterwheel behaves better every year4 ,carbon brushes for the generator last a long while and oil is a very small item4 ,each year ,i am improving the plant1 and very soon ,i expect to install a motor-driven washing machine and wringer to prepare the clothes for the electric iron and to put a vacuum cleaning outfit in the house4 8,although ,i consider the cost of our plant about #ejj1 it was installed under the most rigid economy in every respect and mainly by my own hands4 ,the dam was already built and needed only some trifling repairs4 ,the gate control is my own get-up1 and1 while the cost is trifling1 it took considerable study to get it to work right4 ,i did most of the house wiring1 using concealed knob and tube for the living rooms of the house2 moulding and open wiring for the other rooms and for the barns4 ,this material cost me about #dj4 ,of course1 ,i do not in any instance figure in my own labor1 as the work was all done at odd times40 ,this small power development1 using the dam already built1 cost ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen about #ejj as follows3 ,dynamo1 #c k4w4 7second-hand7 #ej ,waterwheel1 #d h4p4 7naked wheel7 #ee ,governor 7new7 #ge ,wire 7#gdjj feet7 #baj ,labor 7installing waterwheel7 #dj ,fixtures 7lamps and the like7 #ch ,one small motor1 #b h4p4 7new7 #ej ---- ,total #eah ,the plant furnishes power sufficient to light the farmhouse and all of the buildings with electricity1 as well as those of the neighbor who turns the water on and off4 ,in the dairy a small electric motor of about #c horsepower1 actuated by the electric current1 drives the cream separator and also furnishes power for running the grindstone1 feed cutters1 hay fork and fanning mill1 in addition to which the power is also used to milk the cows and cut the ensilage and to do numerous other bits of work about the place4 ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen states that his water power does work equivalent to that of a hired man the year round and does away with numerous chores and laborious duties about the place4 ,the arrangement which ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen devised to turn on the water at his plant and to shut it off again is unique and interesting4 ,it consists of a triangular frame lever about two feet wide and seven feet high1 hinged at one of the bottom corners4 ,the other bottom corner is connected to a sliding gate which fits over the feed pipe for the waterwheel4 ,at the top are fastened two wires1 one of which runs to the house of ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen's accommodating neighbor1 and the other runs over a pulley and has a counterweight attached to it4 ,when the water is to be turned on1 the neighbor pulls the wire and the gate is raised by the leverage of the frame2 when the water is to be shut off1 he releases the wire and the counterweight pulls the lever back1 allowing the gate to fall in place again4 ,illustration3 ,washing ,machine1 ,driven by ,electric ,motor ,,other ,,small ,,power ,,developments ,mr4 ,john ,t4 ,mc,donald1 who has a farm about five miles from ,delhi1 ,delaware county1 ,n4 ,y41 some ten years ago began making good use of a power development from a small stream on his farm4 ,he lights his house and buildings1 runs saws1 grinders and various machines in a little shop on rainy days and in the winter4 ,his dam was made from stone and earth from the nearby fields and cost very little4 ,it forms a pond1 covering1 when full1 about four and one-half acres of land4 ,the pond is well stocked with trout and other fish1 and each winter ,mr4 ,mc,donald cuts about #ejj tons of ice from it4 ,mr4 ,mc,donald turns on the water at his dam by means of an electric switch at the house and regulates the voltage also in a similar manner4 ,from the pond the water is led through a hydraulic race1 or canal1 about #ijj feet long1 to one of the farm buildings where the waterwheels are installed4 ,the head1 or fall1 at this point is about #ae feet and there are three waterwheels of the turbine type3 one that develops #be horsepower1 another that develops #f horsepower and a third that develops about #c horsepower4 ,the large wheel is used to run a sawmill and feed mill4 ,the #f-;horsepower wheel drives an electric generator1 or dynamo1 which furnishes the electric lights1 and also electricity for driving the small motors about the place4 ,the #c-;horsepower wheel runs the small saws1 machine tools1 etc41 in ,mr4 ,mc,donald's shop4 ,a few miles east from ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen's farm in ,schoharie county is another small power development owned by ,mr4 ,frank ,caspar4 ,he has installed two waterwheels on a small creek and uses the power from them to drive the machinery in a table and furniture factory4 ,he has another small waterwheel of the turbine type driving a little dynamo which generates electricity for electric light4 ,mr4 ,caspar lights his factory buildings1 his home1 a neighboring church and the main street in the village with electricity from this little dynamo4 ,an ingenious device of his own invention makes it possible to start and stop the power from the house by simply pulling a wire which operates a valve in a small water pipe1 from which water under pressure is let into a hydraulic cylinder4 ,this causes the piston of the cylinder to rise1 and the piston being directly connected to a gate in the water pipe inlet1 allows the water to flow into the waterwheel4 ,when it is desired to stop the plant1 a pull on the companion wire causes the reverse operation to take place and the power is shut off4 ,illustration3 ,farm ,power ,development of ,john ,t4 ,mc,donald1 ,delaware ,co41 ,n4 ,y4 ,near the village of ,berlin1 in eastern ,rensselaer county1 ,n4 ,y41 there is a small power development owned by ,mr4 ,arthur ,cowee4 ,his source of power is a small trout brook which flows through the farm4 ,mr4 ,cowee is a producer of fancy gladiolus bulbs1 on a large scale4 ,his principal power development1 consisting of a #cf-;inch impulse waterwheel1 under a pressure due to a fall of about #baj feet1 is used mostly for the purpose of operating a circular saw and other machinery connected with a sawmill4 ,the water is diverted from the natural channel of the brook at a considerable distance from the place where the waterwheel is installed and is carried in an artificial channel1 about four feet wide and three feet deep1 around the side of the hill1 where it runs into a shallow basin which has been excavated by ,mr4 ,cowee at a suitable location4 ,by means of this basin1 or artificial pond1 practically all of the flow of the brook may be stored during the night and used to operate the waterwheel during the day4 ,in this manner the full power value of the brook is realized4 ,there is a ten-inch1 cast-iron pipe line1 about #afhj feet long1 which runs from the pond down the side of the hill to the waterwheel4 ,this pipe line was placed under ground from three to four feet in order to avoid freezing in the winter4 ,mr4 ,cowee estimates that the development1 including the diverting dam and canal1 pond1 pipe line1 waterwheel1 circular saw and accessories1 cost him a total of about #gjjj4 ,he states that he can saw about #djjj feet of lumber in a day with this power4 ,in addition to this development1 ,mr4 ,cowee also has a small impulse waterwheel in his bulb house4 ,this wheel is operated by water furnished from the system of the local water company4 ,it is directly connected to a small electric generator which furnishes electricity sufficient for #aeg sixteen-candle-power carbon-filament lamps which are installed throughout the bulb house4 ,the generator does not produce enough electric current to run all of these lights at the same time1 but it will operate as many as forty-five or fifty lights at one time1 which is all that is necessary to meet the requirements4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,f4 ,paine of ,wadhams1 ,essex county1 ,n4 ,y41 has a dam at the outlet of ,lincoln pond4 ,the water surface1 when the pond is full1 is about twelve feet above the normal and spreads over an extensive tract of low1 marshy land4 ,the pond thus formed is about three miles long and from one-quarter to three-quarters of a mile wide4 ,the water is conducted from the dam to the penstock1 a distance of about a mile and a half1 securing a fall of #cbj feet4 ,at this point ,mr4 ,paine has constructed a power house1 where he generates electricity which he transmits to ,mineville for use in the mines4 ,this power is transmitted a distance of about eight miles4 ,at ,chazy1 ,n4 ,y41 near the western shore of ,lake ,champlain and at a point about fifteen miles north of the city of ,plattsburg1 there is located a modern stock and dairy farm which1 in its operation1 exemplifies the manifold advantages to be derived from the use of hydro-electric power for electric lighting and for the various power requirements of the farm4 ,this farm1 which is owned by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,miner and is called 8,heart's ,delight10 covers an area of #eafj acres4 ,about #abjj acres are cultivated1 #abjj acres are in pasture and the remainder in woodland4 ,the output consists of live stock and dairy products1 all crops grown on the farm being fed to the stock and only finished products being shipped out4 ,the live stock includes registered ,percheron and ,belgian horses1 pure-bred1 short-horn ,durham and ,guernsey cattle1 ,dorset sheep and high-grade hogs for the production of sausage1 hams and bacon4 ,there are also poultry and squabs1 and a fish hatchery for the propagation of trout4 ,the entire output goes directly to high-grade hotels in ,new ,york1 ,washington and ,chicago4 ,illustration3 ,power ,house1 8,heart's ,delight0 ,farm ,two streams pass through the southern portion of the farm1 the smaller one being known as ,tracy brook and the larger one as ,chazy river4 ,it was decided to provide the farm with electricity for light and power4 ,enough water power was found in these streams to furnish a cheap and reliable source of energy4 ,accordingly1 a hydro-electric plant was installed several years ago and has given such satisfaction that the equipment has been increased from time to time1 and some novel applications have resulted4 ,three small concrete dams were built across ,tracy brook to form storage reservoirs4 ,a concrete penstock1 or pipe1 #dd inches in diameter and #fgj feet long1 carries the water from the downstream reservoir to a concrete power house1 where a fall of #ai feet is secured4 ,illustration3 ,alternating ,current ,transmission ,line1 8,heart's ,delight0 ,farm ,the power house equipment consists of two water turbines automatically governed and directly connected respectively to one #cj-kilowatt and one #ab-kilowatt1 #bbj-volt1 direct current generators4 ,the current is transmitted over a pole line1 a mile and a quarter long1 to a central station in the main group of farm buildings4 ,illustration3 ,electric ,cooking ,outfit ,another dam was built across the ,chazy river4 ,this is of concrete1 and1 after passing through screens at the intake gate house1 built into the dam1 the water flows through a concrete penstock1 #dh inches wide by #fj inches high and #fcj feet long1 to the power house where a fall of #cj feet is obtained4 ,there are two turbines here1 belt connected to alternating current generators1 and the current is transmitted over a pole line1 nearly three miles long1 to the central station4 ,an auxiliary to the water-power development consists of two hydraulic rams1 pumping water from one of the ,tracy brook reservoirs to a #fj1jjj-;gallon tank1 #ajj feet above the ground1 for fire protection for the buildings4 ,there are in all about twenty-five motors installed in the various buildings4 ,the electric current actuates these motors1 which are used to drive or operate numerous machines and labor-saving devices4 ,illustration3 ,motor-driven ,vacuum ,pump ,for milking machines and vacuum cleaners ,an entire load of hay is lifted from the wagon and stored in the mow by a ten-horsepower motor4 ,a root-cutting machine is operated by a two-horsepower motor mounted on the ceiling4 ,a one and one-half horsepower motor drives a vacuum pump1 which operates the milking machines2 five machines are used1 each of which will milk two cows simultaneously4 ,a one and one-half horsepower motor runs the cream separator1 and a three-horsepower motor drives the big churn2 and motors are used for driving the water pumps1 as well as the brine-circulating pumps in the ice-making plant4 ,a grist mill1 driven by electric motor1 is part of the farm equipment1 and the sausage-chopping and mixing machines are driven by a four-horsepower motor4 ,roots for the sheep are cut by a machine driven by motors of one and one-half and two horsepower1 and food for the fish is prepared by a grinding machine driven by a two-horsepower motor4 ,wood-working machines and machine tools are driven by motors in the carpenter and machine shops4 ,in addition to the uses already mentioned1 the electric power is also used to pump water1 shear the sheep1 clip the horses1 wash1 dry and iron the clothes1 heat the house1 cook the food1 freeze the ice cream1 cool the house in the summer1 curl the ladies' hair and play the piano4 ,the 8,heart's ,delight0 farm power equipment is much more extensive than would be warranted on a farm of ordinary size1 but the installation serves to illustrate the extent to which the application of power may be carried1 on an unusually large produce farm4 ,in many instances a community of farmers could develop such a water power and distribute the power among themselves to mutual advantage and profit4 ,,developing ,a ,,small ,,water ,,power ,the prime requisite to the creation of a water power is the existence of falling or flowing water4 ,the amount of power which may be available varies2 first1 with the amount of water flowing1 and second1 with the amount of fall4 ,it requires about one cubic foot of water per second1 falling through a height of ten feet1 to make available one theoretical horsepower4 ,the fall may be either naturally concentrated at one point in a cascade or it may be artificially concentrated1 for the purpose of development1 by combining the fall of several cascades or a series of rapids4 ,this may be accomplished by either of two methods2 first1 by building a dam at the downstream end of the rapids to impound the water so that the entire fall is concentrated at the dam1 or second1 by building a dam at the upstream end of the rapids and conducting the water through a closed pipe to the lower end of the rapids1 where the resulting water pressure will be exactly the same as in the first instance4 ,a variation of the latter method consists of diverting the water from the natural channel at the head of the rapids and carrying it in a canal1 on a slight down grade1 along the side of a hill to a suitable point at which the water is turned into penstocks which run directly down the slope to the stream1 where the power development may be made4 ,the latter method1 involving the construction of a canal1 is open to the objection that considerable trouble is usually experienced from the accumulation of ice in the winter time4 ,the first two methods described are the most common4 ,illustration3 ,cascade on ,indian ,creek1 ,warren ,co41 ,n4 ,y4 ,typical ,example of ,undeveloped ,water ,power ,the amount of water which flows in a stream1 in ,new ,york ,state1 whether large or small1 is subject to remarkable variation4 ,only one who has observed very carefully and continuously1 by actual measurement1 the extremes of fluctuation to which a flowing stream is subject1 is in a position fully to appreciate this4 ,some of the larger rivers of ,new ,york ,state are subject to such fluctuations of flow that the amount of water discharged during flood periods is several hundred times as much as the amount that flows in the extreme dry period4 ,also in many instances from one-half to three-fourths of the total runoff of the stream during the year occurs during a period of a few weeks in the spring months1 when the accumulated snow and ice is melted and runs off in conjunction with the warm spring rains4 ,unfortunately1 reliable data relating to the fluctuations of small streams in this ,state are very meager4 ,it is1 however1 a matter of record that the smaller streams for which records are available are subject to greater fluctuations per unit of tributary watershed area than are the larger streams4 ,it seems logical1 therefore1 to assume that the very small creeks and brooks are subject to fluctuations relatively greater than those recorded for streams of only relatively small size4 ,this fact must be borne in mind by any one who proposes to develop the power on a stream1 for if it is overlooked the project is not so assured of success4 ,for most purposes power is required in about the same amount for all seasons of the year1 while1 as previously stated1 the streams run off most of their waters in the spring4 ,therefore1 in developing the power of any particular stream1 if the power is required to be fairly constant at all seasons of the year as is usually the case1 there are two considerations which must not be overlooked3 ,first--,will the minimum flow of the stream--that is1 the flow which occurs in the driest season of a dry year--be sufficient to furnish the amount of power required8 ,second--,if the minimum flow is not sufficient1 what means are available for storing the surplus water from the wet season until the dry season8 ,the subject of equalizing stream flow throughout the year by means of storage reservoirs has been so thoroughly discussed in the reports of the ,commission that further discussion in this connection does not seem warranted4 ,taking a general average throughout the ,state of ,new ,york1 large streams may be depended upon to produce from one-twentieth to one-quarter of a cubic foot of water per second per square mile of tributary drainage area1 during the driest period4 ,streams having only one or two square miles of drainage frequently dry up entirely in the dry seasons4 ,if a power development is proposed of such a character that some considerable sacrifice of power might be made in the dry seasons with no serious loss1 most small streams may be developed to provide for as much as one-quarter to one-half of a cubic foot per second per square mile4 ,on the other hand it is often found practicable to provide a small auxiliary power plant1 such as gasolene or kerosene1 to fall back upon in dry weather1 or to supply extra power occasionally1 in which case the water-power development need not be limited to the minimum flow of the stream4 ,the power of falling water may be applied to practical purposes in several ways4 ,one of the simplest ways1 should it be desired to use the power of the stream to pump water1 is by means of what is known as a hydraulic ram4 ,this is a device which operates on the principle of the impact due to the sudden stoppage of flow of a column of water4 ,by means of this device1 or engine1 water falling through a very small height may be used to raise a portion of the same1 or a comparatively small amount of other water1 to an elevation considerably higher than the supply4 ,the mechanical efficiency of the hydraulic ram is comparatively high under certain conditions but generally is very low1 useful work which manufacturers claim may be realized varying from #ch per cent to #hj per cent4 ,the minimum fall under which a ram will effectively elevate water is about two feet4 ,this fall will elevate about one-thirteenth of the supply to a height of twenty feet4 ,under the most favorable conditions and a fair amount of fall1 a ram may elevate water as high as #abj feet4 ,the proportion of water which may be elevated varies from one-twentieth to two-sevenths of the total supplied2 and1 accordingly1 the proportion of water which must be wasted at the impetus valve of the ram varies from five-sevenths to nineteen-twentieths4 ,these proportions both depend upon the ratio of the amount of supply to the amount to be elevated1 that is1 a small proportion may be elevated to a considerable height and vice versa4 ,in cases where a small brook of suitable quality is available for domestic water supply1 it is often entirely practicable to install a hydraulic ram which will pump a sufficient proportion of the amount of supply to furnish a household with all the water necessary for ordinary domestic purposes1 in spite of the fact that the brook may be on a lower level than the house4 ,owing to the fact that a hydraulic ram may be applied only to the purposes of elevating water1 it is not generally considered as a means of developing water power1 although in the broadest sense it does constitute such a development4 ,on the other hand1 the purposes for which power is usually required are not only for the elevation of water for a water supply1 but for many other and varied requirements4 ,in such cases the power must be developed in such manner that it may be utilized to operate machinery near the site of the development1 or transmitted for some distance1 and there used to operate machinery or for lighting or heating4 ,to develop water power in this manner requires some kind of a waterwheel4 ,there are several types of waterwheels1 the principal ones being known as 8undershot10 8overshot10 8breastwheel10 8turbine0 and 8impulse40 ,the overshot wheel is a type very familiar to most readers1 being usually of home manufacture4 ,it consists1 usually1 of a wooden wheel with water compartments arranged at regular intervals around the periphery4 ,the water is fed into the wheel at the top1 just off the center4 ,it flows into the compartment at the top and the weight being exerted on one side of the supporting axle causes the wheel to revolve1 the water spilling out when the compartment1 or water pocket1 reaches the bottom4 ,this type of wheel depends entirely for its power upon the weight of the water which causes the wheel to revolve4 ,the undershot wheel is very similar in construction to the overshot type but depends more for its power on the velocity of the flowing water which strikes the blades1 or buckets1 on the under side of the wheel4 ,illustration3 ,turbine ,type of ,waterwheel ,phantom view of wheel-case ,the breastwheel is also similar in construction but is in reality an improvement upon the overshot and undershot types4 ,it depends for its power on a combination of the action of gravity and the impulse of the water striking the blades1 or buckets4 ,the water is fed into the wheel a little below the height of the axle and usually enters with considerable velocity1 a part of which is transformed into useful work by the wheel4 ,the turbine is a type of wheel which is very extensively used4 ,it is usually constructed of metal and consists primarily of a series of curved vanes1 or runners1 whose arrangement is similar to a screw4 ,the action of the water flowing through these curved vanes causes the vanes and shaft to revolve1 the vanes being solidly connected to the shaft1 which may be either horizontal or vertical4 ,the fundamental working principle of an impulse waterwheel is the turning into useful work of the impulse due to the velocity of a jet of water issuing from a contracted orifice4 ,this is accomplished usually by conveying the water from the dam or other source of supply to the waterwheel in a pipe of comparatively large size and then gradually reducing the size of the pipe immediately in front of the wheel to a comparatively small size by means of a reducer section1 which is fitted with a nozzle the opening of which may or may not be regulated in size4 ,this contraction of the stream of flowing water causes a spouting of the water under pressure and the water issues in a jet with very high velocity4 ,the jet thus issuing from the nozzle strikes the cups of the impulse wheel which are arranged at regular intervals around the circumference of a metallic disc which is centered on an axle4 ,the cups transfer the velocity of the jet to the wheel1 and the water drops from them with very little velocity left in it4 ,illustration3 ,impulse ,type of ,waterwheel ,showing jet of water striking cups4 ,wheel illustrated is very powerful1 but principle of small wheels is the same ,in general1 the turbine type of wheel is best adapted to low heads1 or falls1 and the use of comparatively large volumes of water1 and the impulse wheel is best adapted to the use of a comparatively high head1 or fall1 and a comparatively small amount of water4 ,there are certain intermediate conditions for which the manufacturers of each type claim their wheel is best suited and in such instance a study of local conditions is always necessary to determine which type of wheel is best adapted4 ,the development of a water power by means of any kind of a waterwheel results in the conversion of the energy of the falling water into mechanical power which is exerted in a more or less rapidly revolving shaft4 ,in order to apply this power of the revolving shaft to some useful purpose1 there are several methods which may be used4 ,the shaft may be directly connected to the shaft of an electric generator1 or dynamo1 to generate electric current1 or it may be directly connected to a machine which it is desired to operate1 provided the machine1 or dynamo1 is required to operate at the same speed as that of the wheel shaft4 ,this is frequently not the case1 so that under ordinary conditions the shaft of the wheel is fitted with a pulley1 which in turn is connected by belt to another pulley on the machine which is to be driven4 ,illustration3 ,motor-driven ,mangle ,by using pulleys of different diameters on the shaft of the waterwheel and the shaft of the machinery to be driven1 the speed of the machine may be several times more or less than the speed of the waterwheel4 ,for instance1 if the waterwheel revolves #bjj revolutions per minute and it is desired to operate a machine1 connected by belt1 at a speed of #ajjj revolutions per minute1 a pulley of comparatively small size1 say four inches in diameter1 is placed on the shaft to be driven1 and a pulley of five times the diameter1 or twenty inches1 is placed on the shaft of the waterwheel4 ,this causes the shaft of the machine to revolve at a speed five times as great as the waterwheel4 ,if the speed of the waterwheel is greater than that required for the machinery to be operated1 then the reverse operation is followed out1 placing a small pulley on the shaft of the waterwheel and a larger one on the shaft of the machinery to be driven4 ,if the speed of the waterwheel is to be magnified more than about six times1 it usually requires the installation of a countershaft and another series of pulleys in order to avoid the use of very large and very small pulleys4 ,a pulley which has a very small diameter does not operate satisfactorily without considerable loss of power1 and a very large pulley is objectionable on account of the space which it requires4 ,when a water power is once developed it may be applied to practical use either near the place of development or at a considerable distance4 ,if it is to be used for power only1 and not for lighting1 and can be used where it is developed1 there is no need of converting it into electricity4 ,but if it is to be used for lighting1 or for power to be applied at a considerable distance from the water-power site1 then it becomes necessary to convert the power into electricity1 in which form it may be most conveniently transmitted from one place to another4 ,this requires an electric generator1 or dynamo1 to be driven by the waterwheel1 and a transmission line1 preferably of copper or aluminum wire1 to carry the current where it is to be used4 ,in order to reconvert the current into power at the end of the transmission line1 where the power is to be used1 it is necessary to run the current into an electric motor1 the shaft of which is made to revolve by the action of the electric current4 ,this motor may then be connected directly1 or by belt1 gears or chain drive1 to the machine to be driven4 ,it should be borne in mind that in each of these steps of changing from water power to electric current1 in transmitting the current over the wires1 in reconverting it into power1 and in transferring this power from a motor to a power-operated machine1 there are losses of energy4 ,these losses vary considerably in different instances4 ,assuming1 for illustration1 that a water power1 whose theoretical power is ten horsepower1 is required to drive a power machine at a distance1 the efficiencies and losses will be somewhat as follows3 ,waterwheel1 efficiency #hj1 ,loss #bj1 generates #h4j horsepower4 ,connections1 8 #ie1 8 #e1 transfers #g4f 8 ,dynamo1 8 #ij1 8 #aj1 generates #f4h 8 ,transmission1 8 #ij1 8 #aj1 transmits #f4b 8 ,motor1 8 #ij1 8 #aj1 develops #e4e 8 ,connections1 8 #ie1 8 #e1 delivers #e4j 8 ,therefore1 only five horsepower would be actually delivered to the machine to be driven4 ,this amounts to only half of the theoretical power of the falling water which is actually realized in useful work of the machine being driven4 ,if the power from the waterwheel is to be applied directly without generating electricity a much higher efficiency will be realized4 ,,acknowledgment ,on behalf of the ,state ,water ,supply ,commission and the writer1 grateful acknowledgment is made to the following named persons who have extended courtesies to me by furnishing information or illustrations for use in connection with the preparation of this pamphlet3 ,mr4 ,e4 ,burdette ,miner1 ,oriskany ,falls1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,k4 ,miner1 ,little ,falls1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,jared ,van ,wagenen1 ,jr41 ,lawyersville1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,john ,t4 ,mc,donald1 ,delhi1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,edward ,r4 ,taylor1 ,penn ,yan1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,john ,liston1 ,general ,electric ,company1 ,schenectady1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,e4 ,strickland1 ,general ,electric ,company1 ,schenectady1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,stephen ,loines1 ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,george ,e4 ,dunham1 ,utica1 ,n4 ,y4 ,pelton ,water ,wheel ,company1 ,new ,york and ,san ,francisco4 ,james ,leffel ,company1 ,springfield1 ,ohio4 ,d4 ,r4 ,,cooper4 ,,albany1 ,,january #be1 #aiaa4 ,,publications ,,of ,,state ,,water ,,supply ,,commission ,,state ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,reports ,first ,annual ,report ,published ,february #a1 #aijf4 ,includes ,commission's annual report on applications for approval of plans for public water supplies2 also summarized statistics of public water supplies and sewage disposal in ,new ,york ,state4 ,edition exhausted4 ,second ,annual ,report ,published ,february #a1 #aijg4 ,includes ,commission's annual report and decisions on applications for approval of plans for public water supplies2 also summarized statistics of public water supplies and sewage disposal in ,new ,york ,state1 supplementary to statistics published in ,first ,annual ,report2 also report on ,river ,improvements for the benefit of public health and safety4 ,edition exhausted4 ,third ,annual ,report ,published ,february #a1 #aijh4 ,includes ,commission's annual report and decisions on applications for approval of plans for public water supplies2 also report on ,river ,improvements for the benefit of public health and safety2 also contains ,commission's first ,progress ,report on ,water ,power and ,water ,storage ,investigations made under chapter #efi of ,laws of #aijg1 including details of ,sacandaga and ,genesee river studies4 ,edition exhausted4 ,progress ,report on ,water ,power ,development ,published ,march #a1 #aijh4 ,this is a revised reprint of the part of the ,commission's regular ,third ,annual ,report relating to ,water ,power and ,water ,storage ,investigations1 showing results of engineering studies up to date of publication4 ,fourth ,annual ,report ,published ,february #a1 #aiji4 ,includes ,commission's annual report and decisions on applications for approval of plans for public water supplies2 also report on ,river ,improvements for the benefit of public health and safety2 also contains ,commission's second ,progress ,report on ,water ,power and ,water ,storage ,investigations1 with special details of ,raquette and ,delaware river studies and supplementary studies on ,upper ,hudson and ,genesee1 also a census of water power developments in the ,state4 ,fifth ,annual ,report ,published ,february #a1 #aiaj4 ,includes ,commission's annual report and decisions on applications for approval of plans for public water supplies2 also summarized statistics relating to public water supplies approved by the ,commission in ,new ,york ,state2 also report on ,river ,improvements for the benefit of public health and safety2 also contains ,commission's third ,progress ,report on ,water ,power and ,water ,storage ,investigations1 with details of reconnaissance studies of ,ausable1 ,saranac1 ,black1 ,oswegatchie and other rivers1 and a draft of a proposed ,water ,storage ,law4 ,sixth ,annual ,report ,published ,february #a1 #aiaa4 ,includes ,commission's annual report and decisions on applications for approval of plans for public water supplies2 also report on ,river ,improvements for the benefit of public health and safety2 also contains ,commission's ,fourth ,progress ,report on ,water ,power and ,water ,storage ,investigations1 with details of investigations of ,black and ,oswego river watersheds1 and a revised draft of a proposed ,water ,storage ,law4 ,,miscellaneous ,published ,september1 #aiji4 ,pamphlet--8,new ,york ,state ,water ,supply ,commission0 ,issued for distribution at ,state ,fair at ,syracuse1 #aiji4 ,published ,september1 #aiaj4 ,pamphlet--8,new ,york's ,water ,supply and ,its ,conservation1 ,distribution and ,uses0 ,issued for distribution at ,state ,fair at ,syracuse1 #aiaj4 ,published ,september1 #aiaj4 ,pamphlet--8,water ,resources of the ,state of ,new ,york0 ,by ,henry ,h4 ,persons1 ,president of the ,state ,water ,supply ,commission4 ,issued for distribution at ,national ,conservation ,congress at ,st4 ,paul1 ,minnesota1 #aiaj4 ,published ,january1 #aiaa4 ,pamphlet--8,water ,power for the ,farm and ,country ,home0 ,by ,david ,r4 ,cooper1 ,engineer-,secretary to ,state ,water ,supply ,commission4