file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #faija-;h4htm or #faija-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#faija_/pg#faija-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#fa ija_/faija-;h4zip7 ,images of the original pages are available through ,internet ,archive4 ,see https3_/_/archive4org_/details_/,the,myt hology,of,greece,and,rome ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face 7bold74 ,greek and ,roman ,mythology ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,head of ,niobe4 ,florence4 ,,the ,,mythology ,,of ,,greece ,,and ,,rome ,with ,special ,reference to ,its ,use in ,art ,edited by ,g4 ,h4 ,,bianchi1 ,m4,a4 ,late ,scholar of ,st4 ,peter',s ,college1 ,cambridge ,brotherton ,sanskrit ,prizeman1 #ahge ,with ,sixty-four ,illustrations ,new and ,revised ,edition ,london3 ,chapman and ,hall1 ,ld4 ,made and ,printed in ,great ,britain4 ,richard ,clay ,sons1 ,limited4 ,printers1 ,bungay1 ,suffolk4 ,illustration ,,preface4 ,no apology can be needed for introducing to the public a work like the present4 ,there has long been a want of a book which should1 in a moderate compass1 give a clear and readable account of these legends2 for ,dictionaries of ,mythology do not give a view of the subject as a whole2 and the price of most other works on the ,greek and ,roman myths would prevent their being used as class-books4 ,these considerations have led the publishers to bring out this book in an ,english dress4 ,if any should be inclined to ask what ,mythology has to do with men of the present day1 the reply is plain4 ,the works of art in our galleries and museums require a certain amount of knowledge of the mythology of the ,greeks and ,romans for the full appreciation of their subjects4 ,there is hardly any literature in ,europe which has not been more or less coloured by these legends2 and in our own day their power to inspire the poet has by no means ceased4 ,nay1 they have incorporated themselves into our very language3 8,herculean strength0 is almost as common an expression now as it was two thousand years ago2 and we still talk of 8chimerical0 expectations1 describe a man as 8tantalised10 and use the ,sphinx as the symbol of the mysterious4 ,the present work1 translated from the ,german of ,o4 ,seemann1 seems well adapted to convey a knowledge of these myths4 ,it is illustrated with cuts after some of the masterpieces of ancient and modern art4 ,particular attention has been paid to this branch of the subject1 and the principal works of art in each case are mentioned4 ,the distinction between ,greek and ,roman deities and heroes has been preserved1 but the conventional spelling has been retained4 ,a full index is appended1 in which the quantities of the vowels are carefully marked4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,,page ,,introduction4 ,i4 ,,subjects ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,mythology #aa ,,ii4 ,,popular ,,ideas ,,concerning ,,the ,,gods #ac ,,part ,i4--,,cosmogony ,,and ,,theogony #ag ,,part ,,ii4--,,the ,,gods4 ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,olympus4 ,a4--,,superior ,,deities4 ,zeus 7,jupiter7 #bb ,hera 7,juno7 #ca ,pallas ,athene 7,minerva7 #cd ,apollo #dj ,artemis 7,diana7 #dh ,ares 7,mars7 #ea ,aphrodite 7,venus7 #ef ,hermes 7,mercurius7 #fb ,hephstus 7,vulcanus7 #fh ,hestia 7,vesta7 #ga ,janus #gd ,quirinus #gg ,b4--,,secondary ,,deities4 #a4 ,attendant and ,ministering ,deities-- ,eros 7,amor7 #gh ,the ,muses #hj ,the ,charites 7,grati7 #hc ,themis and the ,hor 7,seasons7 #hd ,nice 7,victoria7 #he ,iris #hf ,hebe 7,juventas7 #hg ,ganymedes #hh #b4 ,the ,phenomena of the ,heavens-- ,helios 7,sol7 #hi ,selene 7,luna7 #ia ,eos 7,aurora7 #ib ,the ,stars #ic ,the ,winds #ic #c4 ,gods of ,birth and ,healing-- ,asclepius 7sculapius7 #id ,inferior ,deities of ,birth and ,healing #if #d4 ,deities of ,fate-- ,the ,mr 7,parc7 #ih ,nemesis1 ,tyche 7,fortuna71 and ,agathodmon 7,bonus ,eventus7 #ih ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,waters4 ,poseidon 7,neptunus7 #ajj ,amphitrite #ajd ,triton and the ,tritons #aje ,pontus and his ,descendants-- ,nereus and his ,daughters #aje ,thaumas1 ,phorcys1 ,ceto #ajf ,proteus #ajg ,glaucus #ajg ,ino ,leucothea1 and ,melicertes #ajh ,the ,sirens #aji ,the ,race of ,oceanus #aji ,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,lower ,,world4 ,ga 7,tellus7 #aab ,rhea ,cybele 7,magna ,mater ,ida7 #aac ,dionysus1 or ,bacchus 7,liber7 #aad ,the ,nymphs #abc ,the ,satyrs #abe ,silenus #abf ,greek and ,roman ,wood-,spirits-- ,pan #abh ,silvanus #aca ,faunus and ,fauna #aca ,priapus #acc ,saturnus and ,ops #acc ,vertumnus and ,pomona #ace ,flora #acf ,pales #acf ,terminus #acg ,demeter 7,ceres7 #acg ,persephone 7,proserpina7 #adc ,hades 7,pluto7 #adf ,the ,lower ,world #adg ,the ,erinyes 7,furi7 #aej ,hecate #aec ,sleep and ,death #aed ,,roman ,,deities ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,and ,,family4 ,the ,penates #aef ,the ,lares #aeg ,the ,larv1 ,lemures1 and ,manes #aeh ,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,heroes4 ,,introductory #aei ,,the ,,creation ,,and ,,primitive ,,condition ,,of ,,mankind #afb ,,provincial ,,heroic ,,legends-- ,the ,lapith and the ,centaurs #afe ,theban ,legend-- ,cadmus #agj ,acton #aga ,amphion and ,zethus #agb ,corinthian ,legend-- ,sisyphus #agi ,glaucus #ahj ,bellerophon and the ,legend of the ,amazons #ahj ,argive ,legend-- ,io #ahe ,danas and the ,danads #ahf ,prtus and his ,daughters #ahg ,perseus #ahh ,the ,dioscuri #aid ,heracles 7,hercules7 #aig ,the ,birth and ,youth of ,heracles #aih ,heracles in the ,service of ,eurystheus #aii ,deeds of ,heracles after his ,service #bjf ,death and ,apotheosis #baa ,heracles as ,god #bab ,attic ,legend-- ,cecrops #bag ,erechtheus1 or ,erichthonius #bah ,theseus #bai ,cretan ,legend-- ,minos and the ,minotaur #bbg ,talos #bbi ,,combined ,,undertakings ,,of ,,the ,,later ,,heroic ,,age-- ,the ,calydonian ,hunt #bcj ,the ,argonauts #bcb ,the ,theban ,cycle #bcg ,the ,trojan ,cycle #bda ,the ,heroic ,races of the ,trojan ,war-- ,the ,dardanid1 or ,race of ,dardanus #bda ,the ,pelopid1 or ,race of ,pelops #bdb ,the acid1 or ,race of acus #bde ,nestor1 the ,locrian ,ajax1 ,diomedes1 and ,odysseus #bdg ,the ,war #bdi ,the ,return #beg ,,mythic ,,seers ,,and ,,bards #bfb ,illustration ,illustration ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,bust of ,cronus4 ,vatican ,museum1 #bj #b4 ,cameo of ,athenion #ba #c4 ,zeus of ,otricoli4 ,vatican ,museum1 #bg #d4 ,jupiter ,verospi4 ,vatican ,museum1 #bi #e4 ,coins of ,elis with ,phidias' ,zeus4 7,after ,overbeck47 #cj #f4 ,barberini ,juno4 ,vatican ,museum1 #cb #g4 ,head of ,hera1 perhaps after ,polycletus4 ,naples1 #cc #h4 ,pallas ,giustiniani4 ,vatican1 #ch #i4 ,athene ,polias4 ,villa ,albani1 #ci #aj4 ,pallas ,athene4 ,naples1 #dj #aa4 ,apollo ,belvedere4 ,vatican1 #dd #ab4 ,head of ,apollo ,belvedere1 #de #ac4 ,apollo ,cithardus4 ,munich1 #dg #ad4 ,diana of ,versailles1 #ej #ae4 ,mars ,ludovisi1 #ee #af4 ,bust of ,ares4 ,sculpture ,gallery at ,munich1 #ef #ag4 ,venus of ,milo4 ,louvre1 #fj #ah4 ,venus ,genetrix4 ,villa ,borghese1 #fa #ai4 ,resting ,hermes4 ,bronze ,statue at ,naples1 #ff #bj4 ,statue of ,hermes4 ,capitoline ,collection1 #fg #ba4 ,hephstus4 ,bronze ,figure in the ,british ,museum1 #gj #bb4 ,vesta ,giustiniani4 ,torlonia ,collection1 #gd #bc4 ,head of ,eros4 ,vatican1 #gh #bd4 ,eros trying his ,bow4 ,capitoline ,museum1 #gi #be4 ,polyhymnia4 ,berlin ,museum1 #hj #bf4 ,melpomene4 ,vatican1 #ha #bg4 ,euterpe4 ,vatican1 #hb #bh4 ,the ,hor4 ,relief from the ,villa ,albani1 #he #bi4 ,victoria4 ,united ,collections in ,munich1 #hf #cj4 ,hebe4 ,from ,antonio ,canova1 #hh #ca4 ,ganymedes and the ,eagle4 ,from ,thorwaldsen1 #hi #cb4 ,asclepius4 ,berlin1 #ie #cc4 ,head of ,asclepius4 ,british ,museum1 #if #cd4 ,night and the ,fates4 ,from ,carstens1 #ig #ce4 ,poseidon4 ,dolce ,gem1 #ajc #cf4 ,dionysus and ,lion4 ,from the ,monument of ,lysicrates1 #aaf #cg4 ,the so-called ,sardanapalus in the ,vatican1 #aai #ch4 ,youthful ,dionysus4 ,from the ,chateau ,richelieu1 now in the ,louvre1 #abj #ci4 ,marble ,head of ,youthful ,dionysus at ,leyden1 #aba #dj4 ,sleeping ,ariadne4 ,vatican1 #abb #da4 ,dannecker's ,ariadne4 ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 #abc #db4 ,head of ,satyr4 ,munich ,sculpture ,gallery1 #abf #dc4 ,pan4 ,from a ,mural ,painting at ,herculaneum1 #acj #dd4 ,demeter ,enthroned4 ,painting from ,pompeii4 ,naples1 #adb #de4 ,persephone ,enthroned4 ,painting from ,pompeii4 ,naples1 #ade #df4 ,head of ,hades4 ,palazzo ,chigi4 ,rome1 #adg #dg4 ,three-formed ,hecate4 ,capitoline ,museum1 #aed #dh4 ,metope of the ,parthenon1 #aff #di4 ,from the ,frieze of the ,temple at ,bass #afg #ej4 ,centaur teaching a boy to play upon the ,pipe4 ,relief by ,kundmann1 #afi #ea4 ,acton4 ,group4 ,british ,museum1 #agb #eb4 ,farnese ,bull4 ,naples1 #agd #ec4 ,head of ,niobe4 ,florence1 ,frontispiece4 #ed4 ,niobe4 ,florence1 #agh #ee4 ,amazon4 ,berlin1 #ahc #ef4 ,perseus and ,andromeda4 ,marble ,relief in the ,museum at ,naples1 #aib #eg4 ,rondanini ,medusa4 ,munich1 #aic #eh4 ,farnese ,hercules1 #bae #ei4 ,elgin ,theseus4 ,british ,museum1 #bbe #fj4 ,theseus ,lifting the ,rock4 ,relief in the ,villa ,albani1 #bbf #fa4 ,laocon4 ,group1 #bee #fb4 ,priam before ,achilles4 ,relief by ,thorwaldsen1 #bfj #fc4 ,rape of ,helen4 ,campana ,collection4 ,paris1 #bfa #fd4 ,orpheus and ,eurydice4 ,marble ,relief in the ,villa ,albani1 #bfc ,illustration ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,mythology4 ,,introduction4 ,i4--,,subjects ,,of ,,greek ,,and ,,roman ,,mythology4 ,myths may be described as poetic narratives of the birth1 life1 and actions of the old heathen gods and heroes or demigods4 ,both myth and legend#a are distinguished from the 8,mhrchen10 or popular tale1 by not being1 like the latter1 a mere product of the imagination1 but always being founded on some preceding reality1 whether that be an oft-recurring phase of nature1 or a distinct and real occurrence4 ,it is often most difficult to recognise with any precision the true germ of a myth1 on account of the numerous additions and alterations made by the poets4 ,and therefore the question1 whether a particular tradition be a myth or not1 is very hard to answer3 on one side we are tempted to view1 in the god or demigod1 the hero of a tribe magnified to superhuman proportions by the admiration of posterity2 and1 on the other side1 comparison of the legends of different families of nations points us to the operations of nature1 not only in the demigod or the hero1 but in the animals of fable and the traditions of the nursery4 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,german word 8sage0 7legend7 is really only a translation of the ,greek word 8mythos10 and is often used in that sense4 ,but lately the custom has tacitly sprung up of employing the term 8mythos0 when speaking of the life or actions of the gods1 and 8sage0 when speaking of those of heroes4 ,a large proportion of these myths are due to men's observations of ,nature1 and her various active and creative forces1 which appeared to their lively ,southern fancy as manifestations of single supernatural beings4 ,these were regarded1 now as friendly1 now as hostile1 to man2 and men therefore strove as eagerly to gain their favour as to appease their wrath4 ,of the appearance of the deities who thus manifested themselves in the workings of nature1 men necessarily formed at first very crude and fantastic ideas4 ,but later1 when men emerged from the simple conditions of the early patriarchal epoch1 and began to dwell in regular political communities1 they gradually ceased to regard the gods as mere personifications of natural forces4 ,they began to regard them as beings acting in accordance with unchangeable moral laws1 and endowed with forms similar to those of men 7,anthropomorphism74 ,they brought the gods into connection with each other by means of genealogies in a great measure artificial1 and built up a vast political system1 which has its centre in ,zeus1 the 8father of gods and men40 ,strange to say1 however1 it was only among the ,greeks that this system of development prevailed4 ,the nations of ,italy still continued to regard their gods as mere natural forces--that looked down on them in a cold1 strange fashion--of whose form and mode of life they had no clear idea4 ,it was only later1 when the ,romans came into intellectual contact with their ,greek neighbours1 and began to study their language and literature1 that they adopted the popular ,greek conceptions concerning the gods4 ,they now transferred existing myths1 and fathered them on those of their own gods and goddesses who bore the closest resemblance to the ,greek divinities1 and harmonised best with their natural interpretation4 ,thus it was that the ,roman ,jupiter was identified with the ,greek ,zeus1 ,juno with ,hera1 ,minerva with ,athene2 though for peculiar deities1 such as ,janus1 they could find no ,greek prototype4 ,,ii4--,,popular ,,ideas ,,concerning ,,the ,,gods4 ,we learn most concerning the conceptions the ancients formed of their gods from the numerous ,greek and ,roman poets whose works have come down to us1 and who contributed so largely to the construction of the myths4 ,first1 both in antiquity and importance1 are the poems attributed to ,homer1 in which we find the whole political system of ,olympus1 with ,zeus at its head1 already constructed4 ,henceforth the gods1 in outward appearance at least1 are endowed with forms entirely human2 more grand and beautiful and majestic1 but still not verging on the monstrous or fantastic4 ,not only in beauty and grandeur1 but also in strength and vigour1 do the gods surpass men4 ,let but ,zeus shake his ambrosial locks1 and the whole of ,olympus trembles4 ,the other deities are also endowed in proportion with great strength4 ,as corporeal1 indeed1 they are limited in regard to space1 and cannot therefore be omnipresent2 but this restriction affects them far less than mortals1 for they can compass the greatest distances at lightning speed4 ,in a moment ,athene drops from the heights of ,olympus down to ,ithaca2 and ,poseidon1 the ocean-god1 passes in three or four steps from ,samothrace to g in ,euba4 ,moreover1 the gods can see and hear at a much greater distance than men4 ,in regard to hearing1 indeed1 they seem to have unlimited powers4 ,prayers ascend to them from every place1 irrespective of their personal presence4 ,in the same manner ,zeus1 from his high throne in ,olympus1 sees all that passes among men1 and1 sitting on the highest summit of ,mount ,ida1 he can follow all the events of the battle that rages before ,troy4 ,on the other hand1 the gods are subject to the same bodily wants as men4 ,they refresh themselves in the same way with sleep1 and have to support themselves with food and drink4 ,here again1 however1 they are far less fettered than mortals1 for they can hold out much longer without satisfying these wants4 ,nor is their food so coarse as that of men2 they live on ambrosia and nectar4 ,another natural necessity is clothing1 on the tasteful ordering of which the goddesses even bestow extraordinary care1 and in this1 as in many other respects1 greatly resemble the daughters of ,eve4 ,although later art delights in representing some of the deities either slightly clothed or quite naked1 yet we cannot justly conclude from this that the popular belief of the ancients conceived thus of those gods4 ,gods endowed with frames like those of mortals must necessarily be born in the same way1 and develope gradually both in mind and body4 ,but here1 again1 everything proceeds with the utmost rapidity4 ,for instance1 the new-born ,hermes rises from his cradle to steal the cattle of ,apollo1 and1 coming into the world in the morning1 he is found in the afternoon playing on the lyre1 which he has himself invented4 ,the most important point1 however1 in which they surpass mortals is that1 when once in full possession of bodily and intellectual powers1 they never grow old1 but remain ever young and beautiful1 ever free from disease and death4 ,compared with the race of men1 who are subject to need and pain1 they are the 8happy10 8blessed0 gods1 the gods 8who live at ease10 who can readily gratify every desire4 ,but this does not by any means prevent their suffering occasionally from the pangs of sorrow and grief2 they are vulnerable alike in body and soul1 and exposed to every kind of painful sensation4 ,so completely did the ,greeks subject their gods to human passions4 ,as regards mental qualifications they are naturally far superior to men4 ,in the first place1 they stand higher morally2 they shun all that is evil1 impure1 and unjust1 and visit with punishment the impiety and injustice of man4 ,this1 again1 does not prevent their giving way to every description of vice and folly1 such as deceit1 lying1 hatred1 cruelty1 jealousy1 c4 ,they are far from holy1 therefore1 in the sense in which we speak of the ,supreme ,being4 ,still less are they conceived as omniscient or omnipotent4 ,their powers indeed are great1 and so is their knowledge4 ,they are able to interrupt the course of nature--to send sudden storms1 pestilences1 and other evils--to endow themselves or others with any forms they like1 and to do many other things1 of which we read in fairy tales4 ,but even ,zeus1 to whom a far greater measure of power is accorded than to other gods1 and on whose will the government of the universe depends1 is himself subjected to the immutable decrees of fate2 whilst the possibility of deceiving and duping him is by no means excluded4 ,where then are we to seek for the explanation of these apparent inconsistencies8 ,we have already said that the active and creative forces of ,nature were personified by the imagination of men4 ,let us take one of the first conceptions likely to spring up--that of the love of the heaven for the earth1 from which all nature is born4 ,different names will be used in different localities2 men will at last forget that they all once meant the same1 and out of the simple personification will spring a series of divine marriages2 or if one be recognised by the whole nation as the wife1 the other brides will sink into mistresses4 ,so with the everlasting war of the sun with the clouds2 we shall not only find several gods of the light in ,greece1 but almost every tribe had a particular hero1 whose great deeds we shall generally find to be those of the sun4 ,yet in the midst of all this confusion1 men had a feeling that there was something above them better and holier than they1 to which that which is good and holy alone was pleasing4 ,this idea was more and more attached to ,zeus himself1 as the notion grew that ,zeus was the supreme god1 the king of heaven4 ,illustration ,illustration ,,part ,i4--,,cosmogony ,,and ,,theogony4 ,by ,cosmogony1 we understand the legends relating to the creation of the world2 by ,theogony1 those relating to the origin of the gods4 ,on both points we have to deal with the ,greeks alone1 since the ,romans never indulged in any researches of this kind4 ,all that their poets have to say on the subject is1 without exception1 borrowed from the ,greeks4 ,according to the common account the world was formed out of ,chaos4 ,by this1 however1 we must not understand a huge and shapeless mass1 but merely dark1 unbounded space4 ,the accounts of the poets vary very materially as to how the world proceeded from ,chaos4 ,the most popular view is that according to which ,ga or ,ge 7the earth7 first issued from ,chaos2 whereupon ,tartarus 7the abyss beneath the earth7 immediately severed itself1 and ,eros 7the love that forms and binds all things7 sprang into existence4 ,ga then begot of herself ,uranus 7heaven71 the mountains1 and ,pontus 7the sea74 ,the first gods who peopled this new world were begotten of the earth partly by ,uranus and partly by ,pontus4 ,from her union with ,uranus sprang the ,titans1 the ,cyclopes1 and the ,centimanes2 from her union with ,pontus various sea-deities4 #a4 ,the race of ,uranus4 ,according to ,hesiod there were twelve ,titans3 six males--,oceanus1 ,cus1 ,crius1 ,hyperion1 ,iapetus1 and ,cronus2 and six females--,thia1 ,rhea1 ,themis1 ,mnemosyne1 ,phbe1 and ,tethys4 ,the interpretation of these divinities is somewhat difficult1 but they doubtless represented the elementary forces of nature4 ,the ,cyclopes were three in number--,brontes 7thunder71 ,steropes 7lightning71 and ,arges 7sheet-lightning73 these1 we can clearly see1 refer to the phenomena of the storm4 ,the ,centimanes 7hundred-handed71 again1 are three in number--,cottus1 ,briareus1 and ,gyes4 ,these1 too1 represent destructive forces of nature--perhaps the earthquake1 the tempestuous sea1 and the storm-wind4 #b4 ,the race of ,pontus4 ,by ,pontus ,ga became the mother of the fabulous sea-deities--,nereus1 ,thaumas1 ,phorcys1 ,ceto1 and ,eurybia4 ,these1 again1 had numerous descendants4 ,nereus represents the sea in its quiet state3 we shall have to speak of him and his daughters later on4 ,thaumas represents to us the majesty of the sea4 ,he is the father of ,iris 7the rainbow71 and of the ,harpies 7storm-winds74 ,lastly1 ,phorcys and ,ceto1 from whose union the frightful ,gorgons and ,gr proceeded1 typify all the dangers and terrors of the sea4 ,many marriages also took place among the ,titans themselves4 ,the numerous sea-nymphs are descended from ,oceanus and ,tethys2 from ,hyperion and ,thia come the deities of the light--,helios 7sun71 ,selene 7moon71 and ,eos 7dawn72 from ,cus and ,phbe the deities of the night--,leto 7dark night7 and ,asteria 7starry night74 ,the most important of all the ,titans1 however1 are ,cronus and ,rhea1 who pave the way for the universal dominion of their son ,zeus4 ,uranus1 fearing lest his last-born sons1 the powerful ,cyclopes and ,centimanes1 might one day seize his power1 buried them directly after birth in the deep abyss beneath the earth4 ,this displeased ,ga1 their mother1 who thereupon prompted the ,titans to conspire against their father1 and induced ,cronus1 the youngest and bravest of them1 to lay violent hands on ,uranus4 ,uranus was mutilated1 cast into chains1 and compelled by his sons to abdicate his sovereignty1 which now passed to ,cronus4 ,but ,cronus was not long destined to enjoy the fruits of his crime4 ,the curse of ,uranus1 who prophesied that he would suffer a like fate at the hands of his own son1 was fulfilled4 ,so anxious was he to avert such a catastrophe1 that he swallowed his children immediately after their birth4 ,five had already suffered this fate--,hestia1 ,demeter1 ,hera1 ,hades1 and ,poseidon4 ,but their mother ,rhea1 grieved at their lot1 determined to rescue her next son1 ,zeus1 by a stratagem4 ,in the place of her child1 she gave to her suspicious and cruel husband a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes1 which he swallowed without further examination4 ,zeus1 who was thus rescued1 was reared by the nymphs in a grotto on ,mount ,dicte1 in ,crete4 ,the she-goat ,amalthea served as his nurse1 whilst the bees brought him honey to eat4 ,in order that the cries of the child might not betray his presence to his suspicious father1 the ,curetes1 or attendant priests of ,rhea1 drowned his voice in the clashing of their weapons4 ,zeus remained thus hidden until he had become a mighty though youthful god4 ,he then attacked and overthrew his father ,cronus1 whom he also compelled1 by means of a device of ,ga1 to bring forth the children that he had devoured4 ,one part of the ,titans--,oceanus1 ,themis1 ,mnemosyne1 and ,hyperion--submitted without hesitation to the dominion of the new ruler of the world4 ,the others1 however1 refused allegiance2 but ,zeus1 after a contest of ten years1 overthrew them1 with the help of the ,cyclopes and ,centimanes4 ,as a punishment1 they were cast into ,tartarus1 which was then closed by ,poseidon with brazen gates4 ,thessaly1 the land which bears the clearest traces of natural convulsions1 was supposed to have been the scene of this mighty war4 ,zeus and his adherents fought from ,olympus2 the ,titans from the opposite mountain of ,othrys4 ,comparison of the legends of other nations does not show us any such elaborate genealogy4 ,zeus has his counterparts almost everywhere1 and ,uranus himself appears in ,india2 but ,cronus1 in the sense of the father of ,zeus1 is probably traceable to the common epithet of ,zeus1 ,cronion1 which was assumed in later times to be a patronymic4 ,it was natural to deduce from the idea that one power of nature sprang from another1 the expression that the god of the first power was the child of the god of the second2 it would perhaps be more correct to say that it was the same thing to the early races of men4 ,as to the wars1 which were so great a stumbling-block to the ,greek philosophers1 we may notice that the supreme god must1 of course1 have been the son of a supreme god2 and yet1 if his predecessor were supreme1 must have dispossessed him4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,bust of ,cronus4 ,vatican ,museum4 ,the ,titans1 not being actually objects of worship1 were not frequently represented in ancient art4 ,cronus is the only exception1 which may be explained by the fact that the ,romans identified him with their own ,saturn1 or harvest-god4 ,he is generally depicted with a severe and gloomy expression of countenance1 the back of his head being veiled1 as a symbol of his reserved character4 ,in the ,vatican ,museum at ,rome there is a bust of this kind in good preservation1 an engraving of which we give 7,fig4 #a74 ,after his victory over the ,titans1 ,zeus shared the empire of the world with his two brothers1 ,poseidon and ,hades4 ,the former he made ruler of the ocean and waters2 the latter he set over the infernal regions2 everything else he retained for himself4 ,this new order of things1 however1 was by no means securely established4 ,the resentment of ,ga led her to produce with ,tartarus1 her youngest and most powerful son1 the giant ,typhoeus1 a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons' heads1 whom she sent to overthrow the dominion of ,zeus4 ,a great battle took place1 which shook heaven and earth4 ,zeus1 by means of his never-ceasing thunderbolts1 at length overcame ,typhoeus1 and cast him into ,tartarus1 or1 according to later writers 7,pindar and ,virgil71 buried him beneath ,mount tna in ,sicily1 whence at times he still breathes out fire and flames toward heaven4 ,some poets tell of another rebellion1 that of the ,giants1 against the dominion of ,zeus4 ,these are said to have sprung from the drops of blood which fell on the earth from the mutilated body of ,uranus4 ,from the plains of ,phlegra1 in ,thessaly1 they sought to storm ,olympus by piling ,pelion on ,ossa4 ,but after a bloody battle1 in which all the gods took part1 the two were conquered1 and sent to share the fate of the vanquished ,titans4 ,the dominion of ,zeus was now securely established1 and no hostile attack ever after disturbed the peaceful ease of the inhabitants of ,olympus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,cameo of ,athenion4 ,the early history of ,zeus1 as well as his contests for the empire of the universe1 commonly called the ,giganto-machia1 was a favourite subject with ,greek art4 ,in the more ancient of these works the ,giants do not differ1 either in form or appearance1 from the ,gods and ,heroes4 ,in later works they are represented with the bodies of dragons1 only the upper portion of the body being human4 ,they appear thus on the celebrated cameo of the ,naples ,museum1 where ,zeus1 in his chariot drawn by four fiery horses1 is in the act of charging them 7,fig4 #b74 ,illustration ,,part ,,ii4--,,the ,,gods4 ,i4--,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,olympus4 ,a4--,,superior ,,deities4 #a4 ,zeus 7,jupiter74--,chief of the celestial deities is ,zeus1 called by the ,romans ,jupiter1 the controller and ruler of the universe4 ,as being the god of heaven par excellence1 the 8,skyfather10 he is to both nations the source of all life in nature1 and from his gracious hand are shed blessing and abundance4 ,all the phenomena of the air were supposed to proceed from him4 ,he gathers and disperses the clouds1 casts forth his lightning1 stirs up his thunder1 sends down rain1 hail1 snow1 and fertilising dew on the earth4 ,with his gis--an impenetrable shield hung with a hundred golden tassels1 in the midst of which the fearful head of the ,gorgon is fastened--he produces storm and tempest4 ,the gis1 though often meaning shield1 is properly a goat-skin fastened to and supporting the true shield2 later it appears as a short cloak1 and even as a breastplate1 covered with scales1 and fringed with serpents4 ,it is not often found in representations of ,zeus2 though a statue of him at ,leyden shows it1 and in a cameo he is seen with it wrapped around his left arm3 similarly it was common to wrap the chlamys or scarf round the left arm1 for purposes of defence4 ,the gis usually belongs to ,athene1 who borrows it from her father in the ,iliad4 ,she is seen wearing it in ,fig4 #i4 ,in this word we probably see a confusion of two ideas1 different1 though of similar origin2 from the same root that gives us the 8springing0 goat we have the storm-cloud 8tossed0 over the sky4 ,the ancients1 however1 were not content to regard ,zeus merely as a personification of ,nature2 they regarded him also from an ethical standpoint1 from which side he appears far more important and awful4 ,they saw in him a personification1 so to speak1 of that principle of undeviating order and harmony which pervades both the physical and moral world4 ,the strict unalterable laws by which he rules the community of the gods form a strong contrast to the capricious commands of his father ,cronus4 ,hence ,zeus is regarded as the protector and defender of all political order4 ,from him the kings of the earth receive their sovereignty and rights2 to him they are responsible for a conscientious fulfilment of their duties4 ,those among them who unjustly exceed their powers and pervert justice he never fails to punish4 ,zeus1 moreover1 also presides over councils and assemblies1 keeps watch over their orderly course1 and suggests to them wise counsels4 ,one of the most important props of political society is the oath2 and accordingly1 as ,zeus ,horkios 71 deus fidius of the ,romans71 he watches over oaths1 and punishes perjury4 ,he also watches over boundaries1 and accompanies the youths of the land as they march to the defence of their country's borders1 giving them the victory over the invaders4 ,all civil and political communities enjoy his protection2 but he particularly watches over that association which is the basis of the political fabric--the family4 ,the head of every household was therefore1 in a certain sense1 the priest of ,zeus4 ,it was he who presented the offerings to the god in the name of the family4 ,at his altar1 which generally stood in the middle of the court 7in small households this was represented by the hearth71 all strangers1 fugitives1 and suppliants found shelter4 ,as ,zeus ,xenius 7hospitalis7 he protects the wanderer1 and punishes those who violate the ancient laws of hospitality by mercilessly turning the helpless stranger from their door4 ,the superstition of early times saw in all the phenomena of the heavens manifestations of the divine will4 ,thus the chief deity of heaven was naturally regarded as the highest source of inspiration1 and was believed to reveal his will to men in the thunder1 the lightning1 the flight of birds1 or dreams4 ,as the supreme oracular deity1 ,zeus not only had an oracle of his own at ,dodona in ,epirus1 which was the most ancient in ,greece1 but also revealed the future by the mouth of his favourite son ,apollo4 ,though he possessed no proper oracle among the ,romans1 yet the latter looked with all the more care and anxiety on the phenomena of the air and sky1 the right interpretation of which formed a special and difficult branch of knowledge4 ,zeus was the earliest national god of the ,greeks4 ,his worship extended throughout the whole of ,greece1 though some of his shrines had a special importance4 ,the most ancient of them was that at ,dodona1 where the ,pelasgian ,zeus was worshipped at a time prior to the existence of any temples in ,greece4 ,he was here represented in the celebrated form of the sacred oak1 in the rustling of whose branches the deity revealed himself to the faithful4 ,he was also worshipped on the summit of ,mount ,tomarus1 at the foot of which lay ,dodona--mountain-tops being naturally the earliest seats of his worship4 ,but all the earlier shrines were overshadowed by the great national seat of the worship of ,hellenic ,zeus at ,olympia1 on the northern banks of the river ,alpheus1 in ,elis1 where the renowned ,olympian games were celebrated4 ,the magnificent statue of ,zeus1 by ,phidias1 was an additional inducement to devotees1 who flocked thither from every quarter4 ,neither was the worship of ,jupiter any less extensive in ,italy4 ,the most renowned of all his shrines was undoubtedly the temple erected by ,tarquin on the ,capitol at ,rome4 ,this1 after being nearly destroyed by fire in the time of ,sulla1 was restored to more than its pristine splendour4 ,the original earthen image was replaced by a statue of gold and ivory1 the work of the ,greek artist ,apollonius1 after the model of the ,olympian ,zeus4 ,before proceeding to discuss the god as he appears in art1 we must take a glance at his numerous family4 ,the mythology of the ,greeks stands in notorious contrast to that of the ,romans1 in attributing to ,zeus a great number of mortal as well as immortal spouses1 and an unusually numerous posterity4 ,here we must remark that1 in spite of the occasional jokes of the comic poets on the numerous amours of the god1 and the consequent jealousy of ,hera1 there was nothing farther from the intention of the ,greeks than to represent the supreme deity of heaven as a sensual and lascivious being4 ,the explanation lies partly in the great number of contemporaneous local forms of worship that existed independently of each other1 and partly in the fact that the lively fancy of the ,greek pictured every new production under the guise of procreation4 ,in that part of mythology which teaches the genealogy of the gods1 the earliest wife of ,zeus was ,metis 7prudence71 the daughter of ,oceanus4 ,zeus devoured her1 fearing lest she should bear a son1 who would deprive him of the empire it had cost him so much to attain4 ,it was soon after this that he produced ,pallas ,athene from his own head4 ,his second goddess-wife was ,themis1 one of the ,titans1 by whom he became the father of the ,hor and the ,mr 7,fates74 ,dione appears as the wife of ,zeus of ,dodona1 and the mother of ,aphrodite2 whilst ,arcadian ,zeus was wedded to ,maia1 by whom he had ,hermes4 ,by ,demeter 7,ceres7 he became the father of ,persephone 7,proserpine1 goddess of vegetation72 by ,eurynome1 a daughter of ,oceanus1 of the ,charites 7,graces72 by ,mnemosyne1 of the ,muses2 by ,leto 7,latona71 of ,apollo and ,artemis4 ,the youngest of all his divine wives1 who was recognised by later mythology as his only legitimate queen1 was his sister ,hera4 ,by her he became the father of ,ares 7,mars71 ,hephstus 7,vulcan71 and ,hebe4 ,among his mortal mistresses the most celebrated is ,semele1 the daughter of ,cadmus1 king of ,thebes1 and mother of ,dionysus4 ,the others--,leda1 ,dana1 ,alcmene1 ,europa1 and ,io--will be mentioned hereafter4 ,the mythology of the ,romans1 as we have already remarked1 first depicted ,jupiter as devoid of all family ties4 ,it was only after their religion had been ,hellenised that men termed him the son of ,saturn and ,ops1 made ,juno his wife and ,minerva his daughter4 ,statues of ,zeus were necessarily very numerous1 both from the great extent of his worship and the great number of his temples that existed in ,greece4 ,of all these the most renowned was the magnificent statue of ,zeus at ,olympia1 the work of the ,athenian sculptor ,phidias 7#ejj-dcb ,b4,c474 ,the figure was seated on a lofty throne1 and was more than #dj feet high4 ,it was made of gold and ivory1 or more probably a statue of wood was overlaid with plates of ivory and gold4 ,the uncovered parts--the face1 throat1 breast1 and hands--were of ivory4 ,in his right hand was a figure of ,victory1 also of gold and ivory2 in his left was a royal sceptre1 on the top of which perched an eagle4 ,the numerous lengthy descriptions that exist can give us but a faint idea of the lofty majesty that the sculptor diffused over the countenance of the god4 ,the object of ,phidias was to represent him to mankind1 not only as the omnipotent ruler of ,olympus1 far superior to all gods and men1 both in power and wisdom2 but also as the gracious father of all1 and the kindly dispenser of all good gifts4 ,the hair1 which rose straight from the brow1 and then fell in equal divisions on either side1 imparted to the face a lion-like expression of conscious power4 ,this was rendered still more effective by the high forehead and strongly-formed nose4 ,at the same time1 the expression of the slightly-opened lips lent an idea of kindly benevolence4 ,the story goes that ,phidias1 after completing the statue1 prayed of the god a sign that he was well pleased with his work4 ,zeus thereupon caused a flash of lightning to descend through the open roof of the temple1 and thus acknowledged his own image4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,zeus of ,otricoli4 ,vatican ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,jupiter ,verospi4 ,vatican ,museum4 ,this sublime masterpiece of ,phidias1 which was reckoned among the seven wonders of the world1 continued in existence1 though not without injury1 for upwards of #hjj years4 ,it appears to have been destroyed by fire in the time of ,theodosius ,,iii4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,coins of ,elis with ,phidias' ,zeus4 7,after ,overbeck47 ,the following are the most important of the existing statues of ,zeus by ,greek and ,roman sculptors4 ,the first in point of artistic worth is a bust of ,zeus1 in ,carrara marble--now in the ,vatican ,museum at ,rome--which was discovered in the last century at ,otricoli 7,fig4 #c74 ,the union of serene majesty and benevolence is the chief feature in the sublime countenance4 ,next comes a colossal statue in marble1 known as the ,jupiter of ,verospi1 also in the ,vatican ,museum 7,fig4 #d74 ,lastly1 there is a bust of ,zeus1 discovered at ,pompeii1 and now in the ,museum at ,naples1 besides an equally beautiful bronze statue in the ,british ,museum1 found at ,paramythia in ,epirus4 ,on comparing all the extant art monuments of ,zeus1 we may gather that the object of ancient art was to present him especially as the benign ruler of the universe1 sitting enthroned in conscious majesty and blissful ease on the heights of ,olympus4 ,his characteristic features are the clustering hair1 falling like a mane on either side of his fine arched brow1 and the rich wavy beard4 ,his attributes consist of the sceptre1 as a symbol of his sovereignty2 the thunderbolt2 the eagle2 the votive bowl1 as a symbol of his worship2 the ball beneath or near his seat1 as a symbol of the universe he rules2 and1 lastly1 a figure of ,victory4 ,his head is sometimes adorned with a garland of oak-leaves1 the oak being sacred to him2 and sometimes with an olive-branch or plain band1 the latter being a mark of sovereignty4 ,in ,fig4 #e we give an engraving of two coins of ,elis1 one of which is in the ,florentine and the other in the ,paris ,museum4 #b4 ,hera 7,juno74--,hera1 according to ,homer1 was the eldest of the daughters of ,cronus and ,rhea4 ,she is the feminine counterpart of ,zeus1 her brother and husband4 ,she represents the air or atmosphere2 for which reason she1 like ,zeus1 was supposed to control the phenomena of the air and sky1 and1 as queen of heaven1 shared with him all the honours of his position4 ,her conjugal relations to ,zeus1 which form the substance of all the myths that refer to her1 afforded the poets a rich and productive material for serious and sportive poetry4 ,they sang of the solemn marriage of ,zeus and ,hera1 the remembrance of which was celebrated at springtide with festive offerings and marriage rites before the shrine of the goddess4 ,neither did they fail to tell of the conjugal strife of the royal pair1 and of the cruel fate which overtook the mortal women who enjoyed the favours of ,zeus4 ,it was thus that jealousy and contention became the leading features in the character of the goddess2 whereas1 both in her worship and in the representations of artists1 she appears as a gracious and kindly deity1 the especial protectress of her own sex4 ,the natural signification of ,hera appears to have quickly disappeared among the ,greeks1 and she seems to have been chiefly honoured as the guardian of the marriage tie4 ,the nobleness of the woman who preserves inviolate the sanctity of this bond finds in her its most sublime expression4 ,as the special patroness of marriage1 she was supposed to watch over its sanctity1 to vouchsafe the blessing of children1 and to protect women in childbirth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,barberini ,juno4 ,vatican ,museum4 ,the worship of ,hera was originally not very extensive4 ,the cradle of her worship was ,argos1 on which account she is often termed ,argive4 ,argos1 ,mycen1 and ,sparta are pointed out in the time of ,homer as her favourite towns4 ,her worship naturally extended as her new character of goddess of marriage became more prominent4 ,in ,botia and ,euba her worship was very ancient1 but her chief shrine was the ,herum1 between ,argos and ,mycen4 ,here was a most magnificent statue of the goddess1 made of ivory and gold1 the work of the ,sicyonian artist1 ,polycletus4#b ,footnote #b3 ,polycletus1 a native of ,sicyon1 was a sculptor1 architect1 and caster in bronze4 ,he was a contemporary of ,phidias1 and1 next to him1 the most celebrated artist of antiquity4 ,juno 7properly ,jovino7 takes the same place as goddess of childbirth and patroness of marriage among the ,romans as ,hera did among the ,greeks4 ,in addition to this she was venerated1 under the name of ,juno ,regina1 as the tutelary deity of the city and empire of ,rome4 ,her chief shrine was on the ,capitol1 where she had a separate chapel in the temple of ,jupiter4 ,the ,matronalia1 the chief festival of the goddess1 was celebrated on the first day of ,march1 when all the matrons of the city marched in procession to her temple on the ,esquiline1 and there offered her flowers and libations4 ,the victims usually sacrificed to ,juno were young heifers3 her sacred birds were the goose and the crow1 to which the peacock of the ,greek ,hera was afterwards added4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--;,head of ,hera1 perhaps after ,polycletus4 ,naples4 ,the most celebrated of the art monuments that relate to ,juno is the ,juno ,ludovisi1 a colossal marble bust of remarkable beauty1 which1 thanks to casts and photographs1 is tolerably well known4 ,her lofty and commanding countenance is the ideal of perfect womanly beauty1 combining in a rare degree woman's chief ornaments--dignity and grace4 ,after this comes the ,juno ,barberini of the ,vatican ,museum1 an entire and upright figure of great size 7,fig4 #f71 distinguished by the admirable draping of the garments4 ,the ,farnese ,juno1 now in the ,naples ,museum1 also deserves mention4 ,in the same museum there is a singularly beautiful head of ,hera 7,fig4 #g71 which perhaps lays claim to reflect the conception of ,polycletus4 ,the characteristic features of ,juno are a somewhat prominent chin1 expressing unbending determination of will2 somewhat curling lips1 well-defined nostrils1 large full eyes1 and a high and noble forehead4 ,the attributes of the goddess consist of the sceptre and diadem1 significant of her power2 the veil 7often omitted in the statues of later artists71 as a symbol of the married woman2 the votive bowl in the hand1 the pomegranate as a symbol of love1 and the peacock or goose at her feet1 also at times the cuckoo1 as herald of spring4 #c4 ,pallas ,athene 7,minerva74--,the accounts which the ,greeks gave of the birth of ,pallas vary considerably4 ,the most common is that which has been already mentioned4 ,according to this1 ,zeus produced her from his head1 which he had ordered ,hephstus to cleave open4 ,the great goddess of war1 in full armour1 with poised spear1 then sprang forth from her father's head1 chanting a war-song1 whilst a mighty commotion both on sea and land announced the great event to the world4 ,in her physical character ,pallas appears as the goddess of the dawn4 ,the birth of the dawn from the forehead of the sky is not only a natural idea1 but one which can be traced in the legends of other nations4 ,several of the other stories of her birth are connected with the name ,tritogenia1 the daughter of ,tritos1 a god1 whose name1 though not actually found in ,greek mythology1 may be traced in ,amphitrite1 ,triton1 and the ,lake ,tritonis4 ,this name1 which originally expressed the birth of the dawn from the water1 was afterwards explained in various ways1 and the first part was even derived from a provincial ,greek word meaning head4 ,looked at from her ethical side1 she appears as the goddess of wisdom1 a reflection and personification of that profound wisdom and sagacity with which ,father ,zeus controls the destinies of the world4 ,hence we may easily gather the other features of her character4 ,she is1 in the first place1 the protectress of states2 and all that their welfare requires in peace or war proceeds from her4 ,thus she appears as goddess of peace as well as war4 ,in the latter capacity she accompanies the army on its march1 inspires the soldiers with ardour for the fray1 and rewards them with victory and rich spoils2 she also affords her mighty protection to towns and cities at home4 ,in ,homer she figures1 besides1 as the kindly guide and protectress of individual heroes1 such as ,odysseus1 ,achilles1 ,diomedes4 ,it was she who first taught mankind to manage the horse1 and to build ships and chariots2 she also invented the war-trumpet and flute4 ,as goddess of war she usually wears1 besides helmet1 shield1 and spear1 the dreadful gis4 ,the latter1 in art monuments1 is represented as a breastplate covered with dragon's scales1 and surrounded with serpents1 in the midst of which is the dreadful head of ,medusa1 which has the effect of turning every one that looks on it into stone4 ,as goddess of peace1 ,athene is equally lavish in blessing4 ,everything necessary either to the physical or intellectual welfare of mankind was believed to proceed from her1 and to be subject to her influence4 ,accordingly1 useful inventions of all kinds are ascribed to her4 ,it was she who first gave men the rake and the plough2 it was she who invented the distaff and loom1 as well as the art of dyeing woven stuffs1 and many other feminine accomplishments4 ,by later writers this skill in art is extended to other things1 and she is represented as the patroness of every branch of science1 art1 and manufacture4 ,she is also called ,athene ,hygiea1 because she was believed to send pure atmosphere1 to ward off pestilence1 and to promote the growth and health of the youth of the land4 ,we cannot wonder1 therefore1 that the worship of a goddess so benevolent1 and exercising such an important influence on human life1 was very extensive in ,greece4 ,nowhere did she receive a higher degree of veneration than at ,athens1 of which city she was really the tutelary deity4 ,her most important shrine was the ,parthenon 7temple of the virgin goddess71 which was erected by ,pericles on the ,acropolis1 and the remains of which1 even in the present day1 excite the wonder and admiration of the world4 ,the whole land of ,attica was1 indeed1 in a certain measure1 the peculiar property of the goddess1 which she won after her well-known contest with ,poseidon4 ,zeus had decreed the sovereignty over ,attica to that deity who should bestow on the land the most useful present4 ,poseidon thereupon created the horse2 but ,athene caused the olive-tree to grow1 and was thus held to have won the victory4 ,the sacred olive-tree1 which was thus called into existence1 was shown in the ,temple of ,erechtheus on the ,acropolis1 and possessed such a wonderful vitality that1 when the ,persians burnt it after capturing the town1 it immediately put forth a fresh shoot4 ,argos and ,corinth were also renowned seats of the worship of ,pallas ,athene2 and she also enjoyed the highest veneration in ,sparta1 ,botia1 ,thessaly1 ,arcadia1 and ,rhodes4 ,the ,roman ,minerva1 whose name was derived from a root meaning 8to think10 was ,hellenised at a very early period1 and identified with the ,greek ,pallas4 ,in ,rome1 however1 the warlike character of the goddess was completely merged in that of the peaceful inventress and patroness of the art and sciences1 and of all handiwork of women4 ,she was here worshipped1 in company with ,jupiter and ,juno1 as the tutelary deity of the city and empire1 and had1 in consequence1 her own shrine in the temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus4 ,she also had temples on the ,aventine and ,clian hills1 to which a third was added by ,pompey1 in #fa ,b4,c41 in the ,campus ,martius4 ,festivals of the goddess4--,the ,panathena1 the chief festival of the ,greek ,pallas1 were celebrated with great pomp every four years4 ,a solemn procession passed through the streets of ,athens up to the ,acropolis2 and an offering was made to the goddess in the shape of a costly garment 7peplus71 artistically embroidered by the ,athenian maidens4 ,horse races1 athletic and musical contests1 took place at the same time4 ,another festival of less importance1 called the ,lesser ,panathena1 was celebrated every year at ,athens in honour of the goddess4 ,at ,rome the chief festival of ,minerva1 the ,quinquatrus ,majores1 was held on the #aith of ,march1 and was1 in later times1 extended to five days4 ,it was especially observed by all engaged in intellectual pursuits1 and by artists and artisans4 ,as ,minerva was also patroness of schools1 the schoolboys also took part in the celebration1 and enjoyed a welcome holiday4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,pallas ,giustiniani4 ,vatican4 ,the virgin goddess was at all times a favourite subject with ancient art4 ,even in the earliest times1 before casting in bronze or marble sculpture was known1 while the images of the gods were as yet rudely carved in wood1 ,pallas was a frequent subject of delineation4 ,these wooden images usually represented the goddess as standing upright with poised spear in front of the battle1 and were then called ,palladia4 ,men delighted to believe them to have fallen from heaven1 and to be a sure means of protection against hostile attack4 ,when ,greek art was in its prime1 the first masters vied with each other in the representation of the goddess4 ,phidias outdid them all in his renowned statue of ,athene ,parthenos1 which stood in the temple on the ,acropolis4 ,the figure was #ci feet high1 and was constructed of ivory and gold4 ,its majestic beauty naturally formed one of the chief attractions of the magnificent temple4 ,it disappeared1 without leaving any clue behind it1 during the stormy period of the invasion of the nomadic tribes4 ,in proceeding to give an account of the most important existing statues of the goddess1 we must first mention a magnificent marble bust which ,king ,ludwig ,i4 of ,bavaria procured for the ,munich collection1 and which was formerly in the ,villa ,albani1 at ,rome4 ,the goddess here wears a tight-fitting helmet1 the top of which is decorated with a serpent1 the emblem of wisdom4 ,her breastplate1 which is bordered with serpents1 falls like a cape over her shoulders1 and is fastened in the middle by the ,gorgon's head1 a terrible but striking contrast to the pure and noble countenance of the goddess4 ,a fine bust1 with a delicate and youthful expression of countenance1 is preserved in the ,vatican ,museum at ,rome4 ,another1 not less beautiful1 but with grave and almost masculine features1 was discovered in the excavations of ,pompeii1 and is now in the ,naples ,museum4 ,among existing 7full-length7 statues1 the ,pallas ,giustiniani1 of the ,vatican ,museum at ,rome1 is held to be the finest 7,fig4 #h74 ,this probably once stood in a ,roman temple1 having been found in a place where there was formerly a temple of ,minerva4 ,this statue1 in accordance with the ,roman conception1 bears a more peaceable character1 although neither the spear nor helmet are wanting4 ,next come two statues found near ,velletri1 one of which is in the ,capitoline ,museum at ,rome1 whilst the other forms a chief ornament of the ,louvre collection in ,paris4 ,both represent the goddess in the character of a benign deity fostering all peaceful works1 with a gentle but earnest expression of countenance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,athene ,polias4 ,villa ,albani4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,pallas ,athene4 ,naples4 ,the ,farnese ,minerva of the ,naples ,museum and the 8,hope0 copy in ,london betray similar characteristics4 ,on the other hand1 in a statue discovered at ,herculaneum 7now at ,naples71 ,minerva appears as a warlike goddess1 in an evidently hostile attitude 7,fig4 #aj74 ,this is also the case with the celebrated statue at the ,louvre1 which1 on account of the necklace worn by the goddess1 is generally called ,minerve au ,collier2 and again in a statue of the ,villa ,albani1 in which a lion's skin thrown over the head takes the place of the helmet 7,fig4 #i74 ,on combining the characteristic features of ,minerva1 we may gather that her most prominent trait is a lofty seriousness1 well befitting the chaste1 grave character of the virgin goddess4 ,the closed lips and the prominent chin betray a determined and resolute disposition1 whilst her mien and bearing give token of strength and dignity4 ,among the favourite animals of ,minerva we may mention the serpent1 the owl1 and the cock4 ,the first is a symbol of wisdom1 the second of profound meditation1 and the last of eager desire for the fray4 ,the attributes of ,minerva consist of the gis1 which serves as a shield1 the spear1 and the helmet4 ,the helmet is sometimes adorned with the figures of griffins1 significant of the overpowering might of the wearer4 ,the statues are all fully clothed1 in accordance with the chaste character of the goddess4 #d4 ,apollo4--,as ,athene is the favourite daughter of ,zeus1 so ,apollo ranks as the most glorious and beautiful of his sons4 ,like other sons of ,zeus1 he is a god of light1 and1 indeed1 the purest and highest representative of this mighty power in nature4 ,his mother1 ,leto 7,latona71 is a representative of the darkness of the night4 ,according to the sacred legend1 she was compelled when pregnant to wander about1 because mankind1 dreading the appearance of the mighty god1 refused to receive her4 ,this myth was afterwards altered by later writers1 who assign the jealousy of ,hera as the cause of her wanderings4 ,leto at length found a refuge on ,delos1 which was once a floating island1 and had to be fastened to the bottom of the sea by means of lofty columns4 ,as the bright god of heaven1 to whom everything impure and unholy is hateful1 we find ,apollo1 soon after his birth1 preparing to do battle with the evil powers of darkness4 ,with his arrows he slew both the giant ,tityus and the serpent ,python1 the latter a monster that inhabited the valley of the ,plistus1 near ,delphi1 and destroyed both men and cattle4 ,these and similar myths are merely a panegyric on the conquering power exercised by the genial warmth of ,spring over the dark gloom of ,winter4 ,but though ,apollo thus appears as the foe of all that is evil and impure1 ancient myths1 nevertheless1 represent him also as a terrible god of death1 sending virulent pestilences and dealing out destruction to men and animals by means of his unerring arrows4 ,this may be easily explained1 however1 by glancing at the natural signification of the god4 ,the rays of the sun do indeed put to flight the cold of winter1 but as their heat increases they themselves ultimately become the cause of disease and death4 ,this is beautifully portrayed in the fable of the death of ,hyacinthus4 ,to proceed further in the analysis of his character as god of light1 ,apollo next appears as the protector of streets and houses4 ,a conical pillar was usually erected at the side of the doors of houses as a symbol of him1 and a defence against all sorceries4 ,connected with this is his repute as a god of health2 one who is indeed able to send disease and death1 but who1 on the other hand1 is all-powerful to protect against physical maladies4 ,this feature in his character1 however1 is more extensively developed in the person of his son1 ,asclepius 7sculapius74 ,but it is not only outward ills that this wonder-working deity can cure3 as the true redeemer from sin and crime1 he alone can afford consolation to guilty souls4 ,even those pursued by the ,furies he sometimes receives in tenderness and pity1 a fine instance of which is found in the story of ,orestes4 ,it is here that we must seek the explanation of his character as god of music2 in the fact that it exercises so soothing and tranquillising an influence on the soul of man4 ,his favourite instrument was the lyre1 which he was wont to play with masterly skill at the banquets of the gods1 whilst the ,muses accompanied him with their wondrous strains4 ,apollo was therefore regarded as the leader of the ,muses 7,musagetes72 and all the great singers of antiquity1 such as ,orpheus and ,linus1 are mythically represented as his sons4 ,but ,apollo attained his greatest importance among the ,greeks as god of prophecy4 ,his oracles continued to exercise an important influence on social and political life1 even down to the latest times4 ,the inspiration of ,apollo was distinguished by the fact that the god revealed the future less by means of outward signs than by inducing an ecstatic condition of mind bordering on madness in those persons through whom he wished to proclaim his oracles4 ,these were generally women and maidens1 who1 either at oracular shrines proper1 or dwelling alone as ,sibyls1 gave forth the responses of the god4 ,in early times they were somewhat numerous4 ,there was an oracle at ,clarus1 near ,colophon2 an oracle at ,didyma1 near ,miletus2 and an oracle on the ,ismenus1 near ,thebes4 ,these were eventually all thrown into the shade by that of ,delphi4 ,the responses of this oracle exercised1 during a long period of ,grecian history1 an all-powerful influence1 especially on the ,dorian tribes4 ,the convulsions of the ,pythia1 or priestess of ,apollo1 were brought about partly by the chewing of laurel leaves1 and partly by the gaseous vapours that issued from a cleft in the earth beneath the sacred tripod4 ,the ecstatic condition in which she gave the responses1 which were comprehensible only to the initiated priests1 manifested itself in a foaming at the mouth and in convulsions of the body4 ,delphi naturally became the chief seat of the worship of ,apollo4 ,the gorgeous temple was rebuilt in the time of the ,pisistratid1 after the destruction of the old one by fire4 ,its wealth from offerings became so great that their value was computed at #aj1jjj talents 7more than #b1jjj1jjj74 ,in the neighbourhood of ,delphi the ,pythian games were celebrated in the third year of every ,olympiad4 ,the shrine of the god at ,delos1 his birthplace1 was little less renowned4 ,the sanctuary itself was situated at the foot of ,mount ,cynthus2 but the whole island was sacred to the god1 for which reason no one was buried there4 ,here1 too1 games1 said to have been instituted by ,theseus1 were celebrated every four years in honour of the god4 ,apollo had1 besides1 a great number of less celebrated shrines and temples1 not only in ,greece1 but also in ,asia ,minor1 and wherever the ,greek colonies extended4 ,the ,apollo of the ,romans1 as his name indicates1 was transferred to ,rome from ,greece4 ,at a comparatively early period men began to feel the want of a prophetic deity1 as the ,roman gods1 although they vouchsafed hints as to the future1 confined their responses to a mere ,yea or ,nay4 ,moreover1 in the character of god of healing1 he was early admitted into the ,roman system1 as we gather from the fact that the first temple really dedicated to ,apollo was erected in #dbi ,b4,c41 under the pressure of a grievous pestilence4 ,the worship of ,apollo was especially exalted by the ,emperor ,augustus1 who ascribed his victory at ,actium chiefly to the assistance of the god4 ,he accordingly erected a magnificent temple to ,apollo on the ,palatine1 which was embellished with the celebrated statue of ,apollo ,cithardus1 by ,scopas4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--;,apollo ,belvedere4 ,vatican4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,head of ,apollo ,belvedere4 ,this remark leads us to contemplate the different statues of the god4 ,apollo constantly bears a very youthful appearance1 and is always beardless4 ,his figure is strong and handsome1 his head covered with fair clustering locks1 and his face expressive of majesty1 but marked withal by a cheerful serenity4 ,such is the original and fundamental type1 which was usually followed in the representation of the god4 ,it was principally developed by ,scopas and ,praxiteles1 who belonged to the later ,attic school1 which flourished from the end of the ,peloponnesian war to the reign of ,alexander the ,great4 ,the principal creation of ,scopas was a marble statue1 representing the god as a ,pythian ,cithardus with the lyre in his hand1 clothed in a long robe reaching to the feet4 ,this invaluable work was procured by ,augustus for the temple he erected to ,apollo on the ,palatine4 ,praxiteles1 a younger contemporary of ,scopas1 acquired considerable renown by his bronze figure of a youthful ,apollo pursuing a lizard 7,apollo ,sauroctonus74 ,in existing art monuments sometimes the conception of a warlike1 vengeful deity obtains1 in which case the god is represented as nude1 or nearly so1 and armed with quiver and bow4 ,at other times he wears a mild and benevolent aspect2 he is then distinguished by his lute1 and completely enveloped in a chlamys4 ,of the former kind is the most beautiful and celebrated of all his existing statues1 the ,apollo ,belvedere1 which was discovered in #aejc1 near ,nettuno1 the ancient ,antium1 and is now in the ,vatican4 ,the proud self-consciousness of a conquering deity is inimitably expressed in his whole attitude4 ,he stands with his right hand and leg against the trunk of a tree1 his left arm outstretched1 with the gis1 probably as a symbol of fear and terror1 in his hand4 ,the serpent creeping up the tree is a symbol of the powers of darkness vanquished by the god 7,fig4 #aa74 ,it may also be taken as the symbol of life and healing1 like the serpent of ,asclepius 7see p4 #if74 ,we have also given a larger engraving of the head of the ,belvedere ,apollo1 in order to afford a clearer idea of its wondrous beauty 7,fig4 #ab74 ,the so-called ,apollino1 of the ,florence gallery1 a youthful figure resting after battle1 is a work of scarcely less beauty4 ,the shape of the body1 which is entirely nude1 is wonderfully soft and delicate4 ,with his left arm the god leans upon a tree2 in his left hand he negligently holds the bow1 whilst his right hand is raised to his head in a meditative fashion4 ,the ,farnese ,apollo of the ,naples ,museum possesses an equally graceful form4 ,the god is here represented as a musician2 in his left hand he holds the lyre1 whilst his right glides over the strings4 ,the animated expression of his face1 indicating his entire devotion to his art1 is exquisitely beautiful4 ,the goose at his feet1 which was regarded even by the ancients as a music-loving bird1 appears to drink in with rapture the heavenly tones4 ,in those works which represent the god as a ,pythian lute-player in a long ,ionian garment1 we perceive an almost feminine figure and a visionary expression of face4 ,the most important works of this kind are the ,apollo ,cithardus of the ,munich collection 7,fig4 #ac71 formerly called the ,muse of ,barberini1 which is marked by a somewhat quieter attitude2 and the so-called ,apollo ,musagetes of the ,vatican collection1 which is characterised by a lively dancing movement of the figure1 and is generally regarded as an imitation of the masterpiece of ,scopas already mentioned4 ,a pure and heavenly inspiration seems to pervade the features of the laurel-crowned god2 his mighty lyre1 to the tones of which he appears to be singing1 is suspended from a band across the chest1 and is aptly adorned with the portrait of ,marsyas1 his vanquished rival4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,apollo ,cithardus4 ,munich4 ,lastly1 the graceful statue of ,apollo ,sauroctonus 7,lizard-slayer7 deserves mention4 ,many copies of it still exist1 the chief of which is a marble statue in the ,vatican collection4 ,the delicate figure of the god1 midway between youth and boyhood1 leans carelessly against the trunk of a tree1 up which a lizard is creeping4 ,the god is eagerly watching its movements1 in order to seize a favourable moment to nail it to the tree with his arrow4 ,the principle attributes of ,apollo are the bow1 arrows1 quiver1 laurel crown1 and lyre4 ,to these may be added1 as symbols of his prophetic power1 the tripod and the omphalos 7navel71 the latter being a representation of the earth's centre in the temple at ,delphi1 on which he is often depicted as sitting4 ,the god also appears standing on the omphalos2 as in the case of a marble statue lately found in the theatre of ,dionysus4 ,his sacred animals were the wolf1 the hind1 the bat1 the swan1 the goose1 and the dolphin2 the three last being music-loving creatures4 #e4 ,artemis 7,diana74--,artemis is the feminine counterpart of her twin brother ,apollo1 with whom she entirely harmonises when regarded from her physical aspect4 ,like him1 she is a beautiful and propitious deity2 but like him1 too1 she can deal out1 at times1 death and destruction among mankind4 ,like ,apollo1 she promotes the growth of the young plant1 and is equally the foe of all that is evil and impure4 ,like him1 she is skilled in the use of the bow1 of which she avails herself1 however1 not only for the destruction of monsters1 but also at times to chastise the insolence of man--witness the death of the children of ,niobe4 ,her favourite amusement is the chase2 armed with quiver and bow she ranges mountain and valley1 accompanied by a band of nymphs4 ,the chase ended1 she delights to bathe in some fresh spring1 or to lead off some favourite dance on the flowery meadows1 surrounded by her nymphs1 all of whom she overtops by a head4 ,then the heart of her mother1 ,leto1 rejoices as she gazes on the innocent sports of her lovely daughter4 ,as a virgin goddess she was especially venerated by young maidens1 whose patroness she remained till their marriage1 and to whom she afforded an example of chastity4 ,the story of ,acton1 who was changed into a stag and then torn to pieces by his own dogs1 shows that she did not suffer any injury to her virgin modesty to go unpunished4 7,for this story see the ,theban legends47 ,originally1 ,artemis appears to have been the goddess of the moon1 just as her brother ,apollo is unmistakably identical with the sun4 ,this conception1 however1 continued to grow fainter and fainter1 until1 in the later days of confusion of religions1 it was again revived4 ,artemis was frequently confounded with ,selene or ,phbe 7,luna74 ,the national ,artemis of the ,greeks was originally quite distinct from the ,artemis ,orthia1 a dark and cruel deity1 to whom human sacrifices were offered in ,laconia4 ,lycurgus abolished this barbarous custom1 but caused instead a number of boys to be cruelly whipped before the image of the goddess on the occasion of her annual festival4 ,this is the same ,artemis to whom ,agamemnon was about to offer1 in ,aulis1 his daughter ,iphigenia1 previous to the departure of the ,greeks for ,troy4 ,the ,scythians in ,tauris likewise had a goddess whom they propitiated with human sacrifices4 ,this caused her to be confounded with ,artemis ,orthia1 and the story arose that ,iphigenia was conveyed by the goddess to ,tauris1 from which place she subsequently1 assisted by her brother ,orestes1 brought the image of the goddess to ,greece4 ,the ,ephesian ,artemis1 known to us as 8,diana of the ,ephesians10 was distinct from all that have been mentioned4 ,she was1 in fact1 an ,asiatic1 not a ,hellenic deity4 ,the ,roman ,diana1 who was early identified with the ,greek ,artemis1 was likewise originally a goddess of the moon4 ,as such1 she possessed a very ancient shrine on ,mount ,algidus1 near ,tusculum4 ,like the ,greek ,artemis1 she was also regarded as the tutelary goddess of women1 and was invoked by women in childbirth4 ,this was also the case with ,artemis1 although the matrons of ,greece looked for more protection in this respect at the hands of ,hera4 ,she gained1 however1 a certain political importance in ,rome after having been made by ,servius ,tullius the tutelary deity of the ,latin ,league4 ,as such1 she possessed a sacred grove and temple on the ,aventine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,diana of ,versailles4 ,artemis is a favourite subject with the masters of the later ,attic school4 ,she is always represented as youthful1 slender and light of foot1 and without womanly fulness4 ,her devotion to the chase is clearly betokened by the quiver and bow which she generally bears1 and by the high girt robe and ,cretan shoes1 which allow her to pass unencumbered through the thickets of the forest4 ,among existing statues1 the most celebrated is the so-called ,diana of ,versailles1 which came from the ,villa of ,hadrian1 at ,tibur 7,fig4 #ad74 ,it is now a chief ornament of the ,louvre collection1 and is a worthy companion to the ,belvedere ,apollo1 although it does not quite equal this in beauty4 ,in this statue the goddess does not appear as a huntress1 but rather as the protectress of wild animals4 ,she is conceived as having just come to the rescue of a hunted deer1 and is in the act of turning with angry mien on the pursuers4 ,with her right hand she grasps an arrow from the quiver that hangs at her back1 and in her left she holds the bow4 ,a really beautiful statue of the ,vatican collection depicts the goddess in a most striking attitude4 ,she has just sent forth her deadly arrow1 and is eagerly watching its effect4 ,the hound at her side is just about to start in eager pursuit of the mark1 which was evidently therefore a wild animal4 ,in her left hand is the bow1 still strung1 from which her right hand has just directed the arrow4 ,her foot is likewise upraised in triumph1 and her whole deportment expresses the proud joy of victory4 ,the chief attributes of ,diana are bow1 quiver1 and spear1 and also a torch1 as an emblem of her power to dispense light and life4 ,the hind1 the dog1 the bear1 and the wild boar were esteemed sacred to her4 #f4 ,ares 7,mars74--,ares1 the son of ,zeus and ,hera1 represents war from its fatal and destructive side1 by which he is clearly distinguished from ,athene1 the wise disposer of battles4 ,he was1 it is probable1 originally a personification of the angry clouded sky4 ,his home1 according to ,homer1 was in ,thrace1 the land of boisterous1 wintry storms1 among whose warlike inhabitants he was held in high esteem1 although his worship was not so extensive in ,greece4 ,homer1 in the ,iliad1 paints in particularly lively colours the picture of the rude 8manslaying0 god of war4 ,he here appears as a deity who delights only in the wild din of battle1 and is never weary of strife and slaughter4 ,clad in brazen armour from head to foot1 with waving plume1 helmet1 and high-poised spear1 his bull's hide shield on his left arm1 he ranges the battlefield1 casting down all before him in his impetuous fury4 ,with strength he combines great agility1 and is1 according to ,homer1 the fleetest of the gods4 ,strong though he be1 however1 he is overmatched in battle by ,athene2 a palpable indication that prudent courage often accomplishes more than impetuous violence4 ,the usual attendants and servants of ,ares are ,fear and ,terror4 ,by some writers they are described as his sons1 yet in ,homer they fight against him4 ,there is little to be said of the principal seats of his worship in ,greece4 ,in ,thebes he was regarded as the god of pestilence2 and ,aphrodite1 who elsewhere appears as the wife of ,hephstus1 was given him to wife4 ,by her he became the father of ,harmonia1 who married ,cadmus1 and thus became the ancestress of the ,cadmean race in ,thebes4 ,according to an ,athenian local legend1 his having slain a son of ,poseidon gave rise to the institution of the ,areopagus4 ,he was here regarded as the god of vengeance4 ,a celebrated statue by ,alcamenes adorned his temple at ,athens4 ,among the warlike people of ,sparta the worship of ,ares was also extensive4 ,this deity was regarded with a far greater degree of veneration in ,rome1 under the appellation of ,mars1 or ,mavors4 ,he seems to have occupied an important position even among the earliest ,italian tribes4 ,it was not as god of war1 however--for which1 amid the peaceful pursuits of cattle-rearing and husbandry1 they cared little--but as the god of the spring triumphing over the powers of winter that he was worshipped4 ,it was from his bounty that the primitive people looked for the prosperous growth of their flocks and the fruits of their fields2 it was ,mars on whom they called for protection against bad weather and destructive pestilence4 ,in warlike ,rome1 however1 this deity soon laid aside his peaceful character1 and donned the bright armour of the god of war4 ,he was even regarded as being1 after ,jupiter1 the most important god of the state and people of ,rome4 ,numa himself gave him a flamen of his own1 and created or restored in his honour the priesthood of the ,salii4 ,the occasion1 according to the sacred legend1 was on this wise4 ,as ,king ,numa one morning1 from the ancient palace at the foot of the ,palatine1 raised his hands in prayer to ,jove1 beseeching his protection and favour for the infant state of ,rome1 the god let fall from heaven1 as a mark of his favour1 an oblong brazen shield 7ancile74 ,at the same time a voice was heard declaring that ,rome should endure as long as this shield was preserved4 ,numa then caused the sacred shield1 which was recognised as that of ,mars1 to be carefully preserved4 ,the better to prevent its abstraction1 he ordered an artist to make eleven others exactly similar1 and instituted for their protection the college of the ,salii1 twelve in number1 like the shields1 who were selected from the noblest families in ,rome4 ,every year in the month of ,march1 which was sacred to ,mars1 they bore the sacred shields in solemn procession through the streets of ,rome1 executing warlike dances and chanting ancient war-songs4 ,from the days of ,numa the worship of 8,father ,mars0 continued to acquire an ever-increasing popularity4 ,before the departure of a ,roman army on any expedition1 the imperator retired to the sanctuary of the god in the old palace1 and there touched the sacred shields and the spear of the statue of ,mars1 crying aloud at the same time1 8,mars1 watch over us60 ,according to popular belief1 the god himself went unseen before the host as it marched to battle1 whence he was called 8,gradivus40 ,in the war with the ,lucanians and ,bruttians 7#bhb ,b4,c471 when the consuls were hesitating whether to begin the attack1 an unknown youth of extraordinary stature and beauty encouraged the troops to begin the assault on the enemy's camp1 and was himself the first to scale the wall4 ,when he was afterwards sought for1 in order that he might receive his richly merited reward1 he had disappeared1 leaving no trace behind him4 ,as it could have been none other than ,father ,mars1 the consul1 ,fabricius1 decreed him a thanksgiving of three days' duration4 ,mars naturally received a due share of all booty taken in war4 ,defeat was ascribed to his wrath1 which men strove to avert by extraordinary sin-offerings4 ,popular belief made ,mars the father1 by a vestal virgin1 of ,romulus and ,remus1 the legendary founders of the city4 ,his wife appears to have been ,nerio2 but she enjoyed no honours at ,rome4 ,in attendance on ,mars we find ,metus and ,pallor1 who answer to the ,greek deities already mentioned2 and also his sister ,bellona1 corresponding to the ,enyo1 who was worshipped in ,pontus and ,cappadocia1 though not in ,greece proper4 ,bellona had a temple in the ,campus ,martius4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae--,mars ,ludovisi4 ,the ,campus ,martius 7,field of ,mars71 the celebrated place of exercise of the ,roman youth1 stretched from the ,quirinal westwards to the ,tiber1 and was dedicated to the god of war4 ,augustus1 after the overthrow of the murderers of ,csar1 his adoptive father1 erected a temple to ,mars1 which was built in ,greek style1 and far surpassed in grandeur and splendour all the other temples of the god4 ,three columns of it are still standing1 mute witnesses of vanished splendour4 ,a large number of religious festivities were celebrated in the month of ,march in honour of ,mars4 ,the procession of the ,salii formed the chief feature of the festival2 but there were also races and games4 ,on the ,ides of ,october also a chariot race took place in honour of ,mars1 at which the singular custom prevailed of offering the near horse of the victorious team to the god4 ,the inhabitants of the two oldest quarters of the city contended for the head of the slaughtered animal1 and whoever got it was supposed to reap great blessings from its possession4 ,ancient artists represented ,mars as a tall and powerful young man1 whose activity1 however1 is as apparent as his strength4 ,his characteristic features are short curly hair1 small eyes1 and broad nostrils1 significant of the violence and passionateness of his nature4 ,the most celebrated of existing statues is the ,mars ,ludovisi of the ,villa ,ludovisi1 at ,rome4 ,it has often been conjectured that this is an imitation of the renowned work of ,scopas4 ,the deity is depicted as resting after battle2 and1 in spite of the usual turbulence of his disposition1 he here appears to have surrendered himself to a more gentle frame of mind4 ,the little god of love crouching at his feet gazes into his face with a roguish1 triumphant smile1 as though rejoiced to see that even the wildest and most untameable must submit to his sway1 and thus shows us what has called forth this gentle mood4 7,fig4 #ae47 ,the ,mars ,ludovisi is an original work1 ,greek in its origin1 though belonging to a somewhat late period4 ,the ,borghese ,mars of the ,louvre1 on the other hand1 is undoubtedly of ,roman origin4 ,it is supposed to represent ,ares bound by the craft of ,hephstus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,bust of ,ares4 ,sculpture ,gallery at ,munich4 ,besides these two principal statues1 the bust of ,mars of the ,munich collection deserves mention4 ,it is distinguished by a peculiarly expressive head1 of which we give an engraving 7,fig4 #af74 ,the attributes of ,mars are the helmet 7decorated with the figures of wolf-hounds and griffins71 shield1 and spear4 ,the animals sacred to him were the wolf1 the horse1 and the woodpecker4 #g4 ,aphrodite 7,venus74--,in the ,iliad1 ,aphrodite is represented as the daughter of ,zeus and ,dione1 the goddess of moisture1 who1 as the wife of the god of heaven1 was held in high esteem among the old ,pelasgians4 ,the same notion of the goddess being produced from moisture is seen in the legend1 which relates that ,aphrodite was born of the foam of the sea1 and first touched land on the island of ,cyprus1 which was henceforth held sacred to her4 ,she was probably a personification of the creative and generative forces of nature1 and figured among the ,greeks as goddess of beauty and sexual love4 ,we must not forget that this conception does not cover the whole character of the goddess4 ,she not only appears as ,aphrodite ,pandemus 7the earthly ,aphrodite71 a goddess of the spring1 by whose wondrous power all germs in the natural and vegetable world are quickened1 but we also hear of ,aphrodite ,urania1 a celestial deity1 who was venerated as the dispenser of prosperity and fertility2 and also an ,aphrodite ,pontia 7of the sea71 the tutelary deity of ships and mariners1 who controlled the winds and the waves1 and granted to ships a fair and prosperous passage4 ,as the worship of ,aphrodite was extremely popular among the numerous islands and ports of the ,grecian seas1 we can well imagine that it was in this latter character that she received her greatest share of honour4 ,the poets paint ,aphrodite as the most beautiful of all the goddesses1 whose magic power not even the wisest could withstand4 ,even wild animals were conscious of her influence1 and pressed round her like lambs4 ,she was endowed with the celebrated love-begetting magic girdle1 which she could lay aside at will and lend to others4 ,and as she thus gave rise to passion in others1 she herself was not free from its influence4 ,this is evidenced by the numerous stories of her amours with the gods or favoured mortals1 which it is so difficult to bring into harmony with each other4 ,sometimes ,ares1 sometimes ,hephstus1 is said to be her husband4 ,the latter account1 which originated in ,lemnos1 was the more popular2 doubtless because its very strangeness in mating the sweetest and most lovely of the goddesses with the lame and ugly god of fire had a certain charm4 ,no children are mentioned as springing from the union of ,aphrodite with ,hephstus2 but ,eros and ,anteros1 as well as ,demus and ,phobus1 are said to be her children by ,ares4 ,other legends1 generally of a local character1 unite her to ,dionysus1 or to ,hermes4 ,the story of her love for the beautiful ,adonis clearly represents the decay of nature in autumn1 and its resuscitation in spring4 ,adonis1 whom ,aphrodite tenderly loved1 was killed1 when hunting1 by a wild boar4 ,inconsolable at her loss1 ,aphrodite piteously entreated ,father ,zeus to restore his life4 ,zeus at length consented that ,adonis should spend one part of the year in the world of shadows1 and the other in the upper world4 ,clearly the monster that deprived ,adonis of life is only a symbol of the frosty winter1 before whose freezing blast all life in nature decays4 ,in the story of ,troy1 ,aphrodite plays an important part4 ,she was the original cause of the war1 having assisted ,paris in his elopement with ,helen4 ,this was his reward for his celebrated judgment1 in which he awarded the prize of beauty to ,aphrodite in preference to ,hera or ,athene4 ,besides the ,trojan prince ,anchises enjoyed her favours1 and she became by him the mother of the pious hero neas4 ,the goddess appears ever ready to assist unfortunate lovers2 thus she aided the hero ,peleus to obtain the beautiful sea-nymph ,thetis4 ,on the other hand1 she punishes with the utmost severity those who from pride or disdain resist her power4 ,this appears in the legend of ,hippolytus1 son of ,theseus1 ,king of ,athens1 whom she ruined through the love of his step-mother ,phdra2 also in the story of the beautiful youth ,narcissus1 whom she punished by an ungratified self-love1 because he had despised the love of the nymph ,echo4 ,the ,seasons and the ,graces appear in attendance on ,aphrodite4 ,their office is to dress and adorn her4 ,she is also accompanied by ,eros1 ,pothus1 and ,himerus 7,love1 ,longing1 and ,desire71 besides ,hymen1 or ,hymenus1 the god of marriage4 ,the ,roman ,venus 7the ,lovely ,one7 was regarded by the earlier ,italian tribes as the goddess of spring1 for which reason ,april1 the month of buds1 was held sacred to her4 ,she early acquired a certain social importance1 by having ascribed to her a beneficent influence in promoting civil harmony and sociability among men4 ,after her identification with the ,aphrodite of the ,greeks1 she became more and more a goddess merely of sensual love and desire4 ,she had three principal shrines--those of ,venus ,murcia1 ,venus ,cloacina1 and ,libitina4 ,the first of these surnames points to ,venus as the myrtle goddess 7the myrtle being an emblem of chaste love72 her temple was situated on the brow of the ,aventine1 and was supposed to have been erected by the ,latins1 who were planted there by ,ancus ,marcius4 ,the temple of ,venus ,cloacina 7the ,purifier7 was said to have been erected in memory of the reconciliation of the ,romans and ,sabines1 after the rape of the ,sabine women4 ,the surname of ,libitina points to her as goddess of corpses4 ,all the apparatus of funerals were kept in this temple1 and her attendants were at the same time the public undertakers of the city4 ,to these ancient shrines was added another in the time of ,julius ,csar1 who erected a temple to ,venus ,genetrix1 the goddess of wedlock1 in fulfilment of a vow made at the battle of ,pharsalus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4--,venus of ,milo4 ,louvre4 ,aphrodite1 or ,venus1 is notoriously an especially common subject of representation among the artists of antiquity4 ,the task of giving expression to the most perfect female beauty1 arrayed in all the charms of love1 by means of chisel or brush1 continually spurs the artist to fresh endeavours4 ,it was especially among the masters of the later ,attic school1 who devoted themselves to the representation of the youthful and beautiful among the gods in whom the nude appeared least offensive1 that statues of ,venus were attempted4 ,the ,venus of ,cnidus1 by ,praxiteles1 was the most important work of that master2 and the people of ,cnidus were so proud of it that they engraved her image on their coins4 ,the fact that they ventured to portray the goddess as entirely nude may be regarded as a sign both of the falling away of the popular faith and of the decay of art4 ,henceforth1 except in the case of statues for the temples1 it became an established custom to represent ,venus and other kindred deities as nude4 ,venus is further distinguished by a fulness of form1 which is1 nevertheless1 combined with slenderness and grace4 ,the countenance is oval2 the eyes are not large1 and have a languishing expression2 the mouth is small1 and the cheeks and chin full and round4 ,of the numerous existing statues we can here mention only the most important4 ,first among them in artistic worth is a marble statue larger than life1 which was found in #ahbj on the island of ,melos 7,milo71 and is now in the ,louvre at ,paris 7,fig4 #ag74 ,in this statue only the upper part of the body is nude1 the lower portions1 from the hips downward1 being covered with a light garment4 ,one scarcely knows which to admire most in this splendid statue--the singularly dignified expression of the head1 or the charming fulness and magnificent proportions of the limbs4 ,the arms are quite broken off1 so that we cannot determine the conception of the artist with any certainty4 ,it is supposed that the goddess held in her hand either an apple1 which was a symbol of the ,isle of ,melos1 or the bronze shield of ,ares4 ,her looks express proud and joyous self-consciousness4 ,in the ,venus of ,capua 7so called because found among the ruins of the ,amphitheatre7 she again appears as a victorious goddess 7,venus ,victrix74 ,this statue is now in the ,museum at ,naples4 ,the shape of the nude body is not so vigorous or fresh as that of the ,venus of ,milo1 but somewhat soft and ill-defined4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,venus ,genetrix4 ,villa ,borghese4 ,the ,medicean ,venus1 formerly in the ,villa ,medici at ,rome1 is better known4 ,it is a work of the later ,attic school1 in which1 at the end of the second century ,b4,c41 ,greek art once more blooms for a while4 ,it is the work of the ,athenian artist ,cleomenes1 though probably chiselled in ,rome4 ,as ,venus ,anadyomene 7rising from the sea7 the goddess appears entirely nude4 ,this is the most youthful in appearance of all her statues1 and is distinguished by the perfect regularity and beauty of its form1 though there is no trace of the lofty dignity of the goddess4 8,what a descent10 says ,kraus in his ,christian ,art1 8is there from the ,venus of ,milo to this coquette1 whose apparently bashful posture is only meant to challenge the notice of the beholder40 ,the 8,venus crouching in the bath0 of the ,vatican collection1 and the 8,venus loosing her sandal0 of the ,munich ,gallery1 are creations similar in style4 ,in some imitations of the ,cnidian ,venus1 the most important of which are in ,rome and ,munich1 the goddess wears a more dignified demeanour2 and also in the wonderfully graceful ,venus ,genetrix of the ,villa ,borghese1 at ,rome 7,fig4 #ah74 ,the attributes of ,venus vary much according to the prevailing conception of the goddess4 ,the dove1 the sparrow1 and the dolphin1 and among plants the myrtle1 the rose1 the apple1 the poppy1 and the lime-tree1 were sacred to her4 #h4 ,hermes 7,mercurius74--,hermes was the son of ,zeus and ,maia1 a daughter of ,atlas4 ,he was born in a grotto of ,mount ,cyllene in ,arcadia1 whence he is called ,cyllenius4 ,we know the stories of his youth chiefly from the so-called ,homeric ,hymn4 ,from this we learn how ,hermes1 soon after his birth1 sprang from his mother's lap to seek the oxen of ,apollo4 ,finding outside the cave a tortoise1 he stretched strings across its shell1 and thus made a lyre1 to which he sung the loves of ,zeus and ,maia4 ,then hiding the lyre in his cradle1 he went out to seek for food4 ,coming to ,pieria in the evening1 he stole thence fifty cows from the herds of ,apollo1 and drove them to the river ,alphes4 ,here he slew two of them1 and roasted the flesh1 but could not swallow it4 ,then returning home in the early morning1 he passed through the key-hole like the morning breeze1 and lay down in his cradle4 ,apollo1 however1 soon remarked the theft1 and hurried after the impudent robber4 ,hermes now played the innocent1 and obstinately denied the charge2 but ,apollo was not to be deceived1 and forced the young thief to accompany him to the throne of ,zeus to have their quarrel decided4 ,zeus ordered ,hermes to restore the cattle1 but ,apollo gladly made them over to ,hermes on receiving the newly-invented lyre4 ,thus ,hermes became the god of shepherds and pastures1 whilst ,apollo henceforth zealously devoted himself to the art of music4 ,as a token of their thorough reconciliation1 ,apollo gave his brother god the golden ,caduceus1 or magic wand1 by means of which he could bestow happiness on whomsoever he would2 and henceforth both dwelt together in the utmost harmony and love1 the favourite sons of their father ,zeus4 ,various interpretations have been given of the nature of ,hermes4 ,some have seen in him the thunderstorm1 some the dawn1 and some the morning breeze4 ,the name ,hermes1 compared with the corresponding ,indian words1 seems to make his connection with the morning certain4 ,several points in the legend just related guide us to the breeze rather than the dawn2 the invention of music1 the kine carried off--which1 nevertheless1 he cannot eat 7the wind cannot consume as fire does what it breaks down and carries off7--and the passing through the key-hole 8like the morning breeze40 ,so also his function of guide and conductor of the soul1 which we shall speak of presently4 ,the following are the most important features in the character of ,hermes3--,not only does he promote the fruitfulness of flocks and herds1 but he also bestows prosperity and success on all undertakings1 especially those of trade and commerce4 ,as the guardian of the streets and roads1 and the friendly guide of those travelling on business1 ,hermes must have appeared especially worthy of honour among the ,greeks1 who were at all times sharp and greedy men of business4 ,accordingly1 men erected in his honour1 on the roads1 what were called ,herm--mere blocks of stone1 or posts1 with one or more heads3 these latter were at cross-roads1 and also served as finger-posts4 ,herm#c were also often to be seen in the streets of towns and in public squares4 ,not only did ,hermes protect and guide merchants whilst travelling1 but he also endowed them with shrewdness and cunning to outwit others4 ,and as a god who had himself commenced his career by a dexterous theft1 he was fain to allow thieves and rogues to invoke his protection before entering on their operations2 just as in the present day robbers and bandits in ,italy or ,greece see nothing strange in asking their patron saint to bestow on them a rich prey4 ,every chance gain--in gambling1 for instance--and every fortunate discovery were attributed to ,hermes4 ,footnote #c3 ,in this meaning1 however1 some have derived the word from a different root1 and supposed it to mean originally only 8pillars40 ,though playing such an important part in human life1 ,hermes also appears as the fleet messenger and dexterous agent of ,zeus4 ,it is in this guise that the epic poets love to depict him4 ,with his golden-winged shoes he passes more swiftly than the wind over land and sea1 executing the commissions of his father ,zeus or the other inhabitants of ,olympus4 ,thus he is sent by ,zeus to command the nymph ,calypso to release ,odysseus1 and to warn gisthus against the murder of ,agamemnon4 ,at times1 difficult tasks are allotted to him2 for instance1 the destruction of the hundred-eyed guardian of ,io1 on which account ,homer calls him the ,argus-slayer4 ,doubtless in this myth the hundred-eyed ,argus represents the starry heavens2 ,argus is slain by ,hermes1 that is1 in the morning the stars cease to be visible4 ,as messenger and herald of the gods1 he is a model for all earthly heralds1 who1 in ancient times1 were the indispensable agents of kings in every difficult business4 ,hence he bears the herald's staff1 or caduceus4 ,this is the same wand once given him by ,apollo1 consisting of three branches1 one of which forms the handle1 whilst the other two branch off like a fork1 and are joined in a knot4 ,the origin of this herald's staff appears to have been the olive branch wreathed with fillets of wool4 ,it was only at a later period that the two last were converted into serpents4 ,by means of this wand ,hermes can either induce deep sleep or rouse a slumberer1 but he uses it chiefly in guiding souls to the infernal regions4 ,this leads us to speak of the important office of ,hermes as ,psychopompus1 or conductor of the soul4 ,every soul1 after death1 commenced its journey to the region of shadows under the guidance of the god4 ,on extraordinary occasions1 where1 for instance1 the spirits were summoned in the oracles of the dead1 ,hermes had to reconduct the souls of the departed to the upper world1 thus becoming a mediator between these two regions1 in other respects so far divided4 ,as dreams come from the lower world1 ,hermes was naturally regarded as the deity from whom they proceeded2 on which account people were wont to ask him for good dreams before going to sleep4 ,the highest conception of ,hermes1 however1 is that of the god who presides over the bringing up of children2 and1 indeed1 what god was more fitted to be presented as an example to ,grecian youth than the messenger of the gods1 equally dexterous in mind and body8 ,he is the fleetest of runners and the most skilful of disc-throwers and boxers2 and though he does not1 like ,apollo1 represent any of the higher forms of intellectual life1 still he possesses in the highest degree that practical common sense which was so greatly valued among the ,greeks4 ,the wrestling school and the gymnasium were consequently regarded as his institutions1 and adorned with his statues4 ,in further development of his relation to the education of the young1 later poets even made him the inventor of speech1 of the alphabet1 and of the art of interpreting languages4 ,the custom which prevailed among the ,greeks of offering him the tongues of the slaughtered animals1 shows clearly that they also considered him as the patron of eloquence4 ,there is little to be said of the ,roman ,mercury4 ,as his name 7from mercari1 to trade7 signifies1 he was considered by the ,romans solely as god of trade4 ,his worship was introduced at the same time as that of ,ceres--some years after the expulsion of the ,tarquins1 at a season of great scarcity--but appears to have become confined to the plebeians4 ,the guild of merchants regarded him as their tutelary deity1 and offered sacrifices to him and his mother ,maia on the ,ides of ,may4 ,the plastic representation of ,hermes made equal progress with his ideal development4 ,the first statues of the god1 founded on the ancient ,herm already mentioned1 represented him as a shepherd1 sometimes as the herald and messenger of the gods1 always as a powerful1 bearded man4 ,later1 he assumed a more youthful appearance1 and was represented as a beardless youth in the very prime of strength1 with broad chest1 lithe but powerful limbs1 curly hair1 and small ears1 mouth1 and eyes2 altogether a wonderful combination of grace and vigour4 ,if we add to this the expression of kindly benevolence which plays around his finely-cut lips1 and the inquiring look of his face as he bends forward thoughtfully1 we have the principal characteristic features of the god4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,resting ,hermes4 ,bronze ,statue at ,naples4 ,among existing statues1 a full-sized 8,hermes at rest10 in bronze1 which was found at ,herculaneum1 and is now in the ,naples ,museum1 is perhaps most worthy of mention4 ,he here appears as the messenger of the gods1 and has just sat down on a rock to rest4 ,the winged sandals form his only clothing1 and these are1 strictly speaking1 not really sandals1 but simply straps covering the foot1 to which wings are fastened close to the ankles 7,fig4 #ai74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,statue of ,hermes4 ,capitoline ,collection4 ,a splendid marble statue of the ,vatican collection1 which1 was once taken for ,antinous1 portrays the god as the patron of wrestling2 the ,caduceus which he holds in his left hand is1 however1 a modern addition4 ,in the ,hermes ,ludovisi of ,rome we have a graceful representation of ,hermes ,logius1 the patron of the art of rhetoric4 ,the wings are here not placed on the feet1 or even directly on the head1 as is often the case1 but are fastened to a low round travelling-hat4 ,a pretty bronze statuette in the ,british ,museum depicts ,hermes as the god of trade and commerce1 with a well-filled purse in his hand4 ,such is also the conception of a fine statue of the ,capitoline collection at ,rome 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the principal attributes of the god have already been incidentally mentioned3 they are wings on the feet1 head1 or cap2 the herald's staff1 the votive bowl1 and the purse4 #i4 ,hephstus 7,vulcan74--,hephstus1 the god of fire and the forge1 was commonly regarded as a son of ,zeus and ,hera4 ,he was so lame and ugly that his mother in shame cast him from heaven into the sea4 ,but ,eurynome and ,thetis1 the ,oceanids1 took pity on him1 and tended him for nine years in a deep grotto of the sea1 in return for which he made them many ornaments4 ,after being reconciled to his mother1 he returned to ,olympus under the guidance of ,dionysus4 ,according to another not less popular account1 it was not his mother who treated him so cruelly1 but ,zeus4 ,hephstus1 on the occasion of a quarrel between ,zeus and ,hera1 came to the help of his mother1 whereupon the angry god of heaven seized him by the foot and hurled him from ,olympus4 ,the unfortunate ,hephstus fell for a whole day1 but alighted at sundown on the isle of ,lemnos with but little breath in his body4 ,here the ,sintians1 who inhabited the island1 tended him till his recovery4 ,later writers say that it was from this fall that he became lame4 ,the same fundamental idea lies at the root of these various legends1 viz41 that fire first came down from heaven in the form of lightning4 ,hephstus originally represented the element of fire1 and all the effects of fire are accordingly referred to him4 ,the fires of the earth break forth from the open craters of volcanoes2 it must therefore be ,hephstus who is working in the midst of the fiery mountain1 where he has his forges and his smithies4 ,so says the legend of ,mount ,mosychlus1 in ,lemnos1 the chief seat of his worship4 ,scarcely less celebrated1 from its connection with him1 was ,mount tna1 in ,sicily4 ,after it was observed that the wine was particularly good in the neighbourhood of volcanic mountains1 the story of the intimate friendship between ,hephstus and ,dionysus was concocted4 ,the most beneficial action of fire is manifested in its power to melt metals and render them useful to man in the shape of implements and tools of all kinds4 ,hence the conception of the character of ,hephstus tended ever more and more to represent him as the master of all ingenious working in metals1 and as the patron of artificers and craftsmen using fire4 ,in this character he was brought into close connection with the art-loving goddess ,athene1 and hence we see why both these divinities enjoyed so many kindred honours and had so many festivals in common at ,athens1 the chief seat of ,greek science and art4 ,it was also chiefly in the character of artificer that ,hephstus was treated of by the poets1 who delight to describe the gorgeous brazen palace which he built himself on ,olympus1 in which was a huge workshop with twenty cunningly-devised pairs of bellows4 ,he also constructed there the imperishable dwellings of the gods4 ,many also were the ingenious implements which he constructed1 such as the walking tables1 or tripods1 which moved of their own accord into the banqueting-chamber of the gods1 and then returned to their places after the meal was over4 ,he also made himself two golden statues of maidens1 to assist him in walking1 and bestowed on them speech and motion4 ,among the other works of his mentioned by the poets are the gis and sceptre of ,zeus1 the trident of ,poseidon1 the shield of ,heracles1 and the armour of ,achilles1 among which1 also1 was a shield of extraordinary beauty4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,hephstus4 ,bronze ,figure in the ,british ,museum4 ,the worship of ,hephstus was not very extensive in ,greece4 ,the most important seat of his worship was the isle of ,lemnos1 where he was supposed to dwell on ,mount ,mosychlus with his workmen1 the ,cabiri1 who answer to the ,cyclopes of tna4 ,he was held in great esteem at ,athens1 where1 at different festivals1 torch races were held in his honour4 ,young men ran with burning torches1 and whoever first reached the goal with his torch alight received the prize4 ,he was1 moreover1 highly venerated by the ,greeks in ,campania and ,sicily1 a fact which may be easily explained by the fiery mountains of these places4 ,the ,romans called this god ,vulcanus1 or1 according to its more ancient spelling1 ,volcanus4 ,they honoured in him the blessings and beneficial action of fire4 ,they also sought his protection against conflagrations4 ,under the influence of the ,greek writers1 the original and more common conception of the god gave place to the popular image of the smith-god1 or ,mulciber1 who had his forges in tna1 or on the ,lipari ,isles1 and who vied with his comrades in wielding the hammer4 ,in correspondence with the ,greek myths1 ,venus was given him to wife2 by this men doubtless sought to convey the idea that truly artistic works can only be created in harmony with beauty4 ,the chief shrine of the god in ,rome was the ,volcanal1 in the ,comitium1 which was not really a temple1 but merely a covered fire-place4 ,in the ,campus ,martius1 however1 was a real temple close to the ,flaminian ,circus1 where the festival of the ,volcanalia was celebrated with every kind of game on the #bcrd day of ,august4 ,greek and ,roman artists generally represented this god as a powerful1 bearded man of full age4 ,he is distinguished by the shortness of his left leg1 by the sharp1 shrewd glance of his cunning eye1 and his firm mouth4 ,his attributes are the smith's tools1 the pointed oval workman's cap1 and the short upper garment of the craftsman or humble citizen4 ,with the exception of some small bronzes in ,london and ,berlin1 and a newly discovered marble bust of the ,vatican collection1 we possess no antique statues of the god worth mentioning4 ,the engraving 7,fig4 #ba7 is from a bronze in the ,british ,museum4 #aj4 ,hestia 7,vesta74--,it must have been at a comparatively late period that ,hestia1 the daughter of ,cronus and ,rhea1 attained a general veneration1 as her name is not mentioned either in the ,iliad or ,odyssey4 ,hestia is the guardian angel of mankind1 who guards the security of the dwelling1 and is1 in consequence1 regarded as the goddess of the family hearth1 the centre of domestic life4 ,the hearth possessed among the ancients a far higher significance than it does in modern life4 ,it not only served for the preparation of meals1 but was also esteemed the sacred altar of the house2 there the images of the household gods were placed1 and thither1 after the old patriarchal fashion1 the father and priest of the family offered sacrifice on all the important occasions of domestic life4 ,no offering was made in which ,hestia1 the very centre of all domestic life1 had not her share4 ,and as the state is composed of families1 the goddess of the domestic circle naturally becomes the protectress of every political community4 ,on this account1 in ,greek states the ,prytaneum1 or seat of the governing body1 was dedicated to ,hestia2 there she had an altar1 on which a fire was ever kept burning4 ,from this altar colonists1 who were about to leave their native land in search of new homes1 always took some fire--a pleasing figurative indication of the moral ties between the colony and the mother country4 ,as the hearth-fire of the ,prytaneum was an outward and visible sign to the members of a state that they were one great family1 so the ,hestia of the temple at ,delphi signified to the ,greeks their national connection and the unity of their worship4 ,her altar in this temple was placed in the hall before the cave of the oracle2 on it was placed the celebrated omphalus 7navel of the earth1 likewise an emblem of the goddess71 ,delphi being regarded by the ,greeks as the centre of the whole earth4 ,here1 too1 a fire was kept ever burning in honour of ,hestia4 ,the character of the goddess was as pure and untarnished as flame itself4 ,not only did she herself remain a virgin1 though wooed by both ,poseidon and ,apollo1 but her service could be performed only by chaste virgins4 ,she does not appear to have had a separate temple of her own in ,greece1 since she had a place in every temple4 ,the service of ,vesta occupied a far more important place in the public life of the ,romans4 ,her most ancient temple1 which was supposed to have been built by ,numa ,pompilius1 was situated on the slope of the ,palatine opposite the ,forum4 ,it was built in a circle1 and was of moderate dimensions1 being1 indeed1 little more than a covered fire-place4 ,in it the eternal fire1 a symbol of the life of the state1 was kept burning4 ,here1 too1 the service was performed by virgins1 whose number was at first four1 but was afterwards increased to six4 ,their chief occupation was to maintain the sacred fire1 and to offer up daily prayers at the altar of the goddess for the welfare of the ,roman people4 ,the extinction of the sacred flame was esteemed an omen of coming misfortune1 and brought severe punishment on the negligent priestess4 ,the choice of vestals lay with the ,pontifex ,maximus4 ,they were chosen between the ages of six and ten years1 always out of the best ,roman families4 ,for thirty years they remained bound to their sacred office1 during which time they had to preserve the strictest chastity4 ,after the lapse of thirty years they returned to civil life1 and were permitted to marry if they liked4 ,another sanctuary of ,vesta existed in ,lavinium1 the metropolis of the ,latins1 where the ,roman consuls1 after entering on their office1 had to perform a solemn sacrifice4 ,the festival of ,vesta was celebrated on the #ith of ,june1 on which occasion the ,roman women were wont to make a pilgrimage barefooted to the temple of the goddess1 and place before her offerings of food4 ,in the domestic life of the ,romans the hearth and the hearth-goddess ,vesta occupied as important a position as among the ,greeks4 ,the worship of ,vesta is closely connected with that of the ,penates1 the kindly1 protecting1 household gods1 who provided for the daily wants of life1 and about whom we shall have more to say before concluding the subject of the gods4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,vesta ,giustiniani4 ,torlonia ,collection4 ,agreeably to the chaste1 pure character of the goddess1 she could only be represented in art with an expression of the strictest moral purity2 she generally appears either sitting or standing1 her countenance characterised by a thoughtful gravity of expression4 ,her principal attributes consist of the votive bowl1 the torch1 the simpulum1 or small cup1 which was used in making libations1 and the sceptre4 ,in consequence of the dignity and sanctity of her character1 she was always represented as fully clothed1 which may account for the fact that the ancients had so few statues of the goddess4 ,we may1 therefore1 consider it fortunate that such a splendid example as the ,vesta ,giustiniani1 which belongs to the private collection of ,prince ,torlonia1 at ,rome1 has come down to us4 ,it is supposed to be an original work of the best period of ,greek art4 ,the goddess is represented as standing in a calm posture1 her right hand pressed against her side1 whilst with the left she points significantly towards heaven1 as though wishing to impress on mankind where to direct their prayers and thoughts 7,fig4 #bb74 #aa4 ,janus4--,among the most important gods of the ,romans was the celebrated ,janus1 a deity quite unknown to the ,greeks4 ,in his original character he was probably a god of the light and sun--the male counterpart1 in fact1 of ,jana1 or ,diana1 and thus very similar to the ,greek ,apollo4 ,as long as he maintained this original character1 derived from nature1 he was regarded as the god of all germs and first beginnings1 and possessed1 in consequence1 an important influence both on the public and private life of the ,romans4 ,we must confine ourselves to mentioning some of the most important traits resulting from this view of his character4 ,first1 ,janus is the god of all beginnings of time4 ,he begins the new year1 whose first month was called ,january after him1 and was dedicated to him4 ,thus1 ,new ,year's ,day 7,kalend ,januari7 was the most important festival of the god2 on this occasion the houses and doors were adorned with garlands and laurel boughs1 the laurel being supposed to exercise a potent influence against all magic and diseases4 ,relatives and friends exchanged small presents 7principally sweets2 for example1 dates and figs wrapped in laurel leaves7 and good wishes for the coming year4 ,the god himself received offerings of cake1 wine1 and incense1 and his statue was adorned with fresh laurel boughs4 ,this offering was repeated on the first day of every month1 for ,janus opened up every month2 and as the ,kalends were sacred to ,juno1 he was therefore called ,junonius4 ,in the same way ,janus was supposed to begin every new day1 and called ,matutinus ,pater4 ,he also appears as the doorkeeper of heaven1 whose gates he opened in the morning and closed in the evening4 ,from being the god of all temporal beginnings1 he soon became the patron and protector of all the beginnings of human activity4 ,the ,romans had a most superstitious belief in the importance of a good commencement for everything1 concluding that this had a magical influence on the good or evil result of every undertaking4 ,thus1 neither in public nor private life did they ever undertake anything of importance without first confiding the beginning to the protection of ,janus4 ,among the most important events of political life was the departure of the youth of the country to war4 ,an offering was therefore made to the god by the departing general1 and the temple1 or covered passage sacred to the god1 was left open during the continuance of the war1 as a sign that the god had departed with the troops and had them under his protection4 ,the consul never neglected1 when he entered on his office1 to ask the blessing of ,janus1 and the assemblies never began their consultations without invoking ,janus4 ,in the same way the private citizen1 in all important occurrences and undertakings1 sought by prayers and vows to acquire the favour of ,janus4 ,the husbandman1 before he commenced either to sow or to reap1 brought to ,janus ,consivius an offering of cake and wine4 ,the merchant1 when he entered on a journey of business1 and the sailor1 when he weighed anchor and started on a long and dangerous voyage1 never omitted to invoke the blessing of the god4 ,this view of the god also explains the custom of calling on ,janus first in every prayer and at every sacrifice1 since1 as keeper of the gates of heaven1 he also appeared to give admittance to the prayers of men4 ,as the god of all first beginnings1 ,janus is also the source of all springs1 rivers1 and streams of the earth4 ,on this account the fountain nymphs were generally looked on as his wives1 and ,fontus and ,tiberinus as his sons4 ,the power of ,janus in causing springs to rise suddenly from the earth was experienced1 to their cost1 by the ,sabines4 ,the latter1 in consequence of the rape of their women1 had overrun the infant state of ,rome1 and were about to introduce themselves into the town on the ,palatine through an open gate1 when they suddenly found themselves drenched by a hot sulphur spring that gushed violently from the earth1 and were obliged to retire4 ,in the legend alluded to1 ,janus appears as the protector of the gates of the city4 ,as the god who presided over the fortunate entrance to and exit from all houses1 streets1 and towns1 ,janus was held in high honour among the people4 ,his character as guardian of gates and doors brought him into close connection with the ,penates and other household gods2 hence the custom of erecting over the doors an image of the deity with the well-known two faces1 one of which looked out and the other in4 ,janus had no temple1 in the proper sense of the word1 at ,rome4 ,his shrines consisted of gateways in common places of resort and at cross-roads1 or of arched passages1 in which the image of the god was erected4 ,the ,temple of ,janus in the ,forum at ,rome1 which has been already alluded to1 was a sanctuary of this kind closed with doors1 and was probably the most ancient in the city4 ,its doors stood open only in time of war4 ,roman art never succeeded in executing a plastic representation peculiar to ,janus1 the double head being only an imitation of the ,greek double ,herm4 ,in course of time entire figures of ,janus appeared1 but these always had a double face4 ,they were generally bearded1 but in later times one face was bearded1 the other youthful4 ,not one specimen of these works of art has been preserved1 so that we only know these forms from coins4 ,the usual attributes of ,janus were keys and staff4 #ab4 ,quirinus4--,quirinus was also a purely ,roman divinity1 but having been reckoned among the great deities of heaven1 he must therefore be mentioned here4 ,in his symbolic meaning he bore a great resemblance to ,mars2 and as ,mars was the national god of the ,latin population of ,rome1 so ,quirinus was the national god of the ,sabines who came to ,rome with ,titus ,tatius4 ,together with ,jupiter and ,mars1 he formed the tutelary ,trinity of the ,roman empire4 ,his shrine was on the ,quirinal1 which was originally inhabited by the ,sabines1 and which was named after him4 ,numa gave ,quirinus a priest of his own4 ,he had a special feast on the #agth of ,february1 but his worship appears to have assimilated itself more and more to that of ,mars4 ,he was subsequently identified with ,romulus4 ,b4--,,secondary ,,deities4 #a4 ,attendant and ,ministering ,deities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,head of ,eros4 ,vatican4 #a4 ,eros 7,amor74--,of the deities who appear in the train of ,aphrodite1 ,eros alone seems to have enjoyed divine honours2 ,longing and ,desire being no more than allegorical figures typifying some of the influences that emanate from the goddess of love4 ,eros was commonly reputed the son of ,aphrodite and ,ares1 and was generally depicted as a boy of wondrous beauty1 on the verge of youth4 ,his characteristic weapon is a golden bow1 with which he shoots forth his arrows from secret lurking-places1 with an unfailing effect that represents the sweet but consuming pangs of love4 ,zeus himself is represented as unable to withstand his influence--an intimation that love is one of the most terrible and mighty forces of nature4 ,as unrequited love is aimless1 ,anteros was conceived by the imagination of the poets as the brother and companion of ,eros1 and consequently a son of ,aphrodite4 ,as the little ,eros1 says the myth1 would neither grow nor thrive1 his mother1 by the advice of ,themis1 gave him this brother as a playfellow2 after which the boy was glad so long as his brother was with him1 but sad in his absence4 ,eros was not only venerated as the god who kindles love between the sexes1 but was also regarded as the author of love and friendship between youths and men4 ,on this account his statue was generally placed in the gymnasia between those of ,hermes and ,heracles2 and the ,spartans sacrificed to him before battle1 binding themselves to hold together faithfully in battle1 and to stand by one another in the hour of need4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--;,eros trying his ,bow4 ,capitoline ,museum4 ,this deity was termed by the ,romans ,amor1 or ,cupido1 but this was solely in imitation of the ,greek ,eros1 since he never enjoyed among them any public veneration4 ,the significant fable of the love of ,cupid for ,psyche1 a personification of the human soul1 is of comparatively late origin1 though it was a very favourite subject in art4 ,artists followed the poets in the delineation of ,eros1 in so far as they generally depicted him as a boy on the confines of youth4 ,an ,eros by the renowned artist ,praxiteles was esteemed one of the best works of antiquity4 ,it was brought to ,rome by ,nero1 but was destroyed by fire in the reign of ,titus4 ,in later times the god of love was represented as much younger1 because the mischievous pranks attributed to him by the poets were more adapted to the age of childhood4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,polyhymnia4 ,berlin ,museum4 ,a considerable number of statues or statuettes of ,eros have come down to us from antiquity4 ,among the most celebrated is the ,torso 7mutilated statue7 of the ,vatican1 of the glorious head of which we give an engraving 7,fig4 #bc74 ,there is also an 8,eros trying his bow0 7,fig4 #bd7 in the ,capitoline ,museum at ,rome1 and an 8,eros playing with dice0 in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,lastly1 there is the celebrated group of the ,capitoline ,museum1 which represents the embraces of ,cupid and ,psyche4 ,eros generally appears with wings in the art monuments of antiquity4 ,his insignia are bow and arrows1 in addition to a burning torch4 ,the rose was held especially sacred to him1 for which reason he often appears crowned with roses4 ,in connection with ,venus and in company with ,amor we find ,hymenus1 a personification of the joys of marriage1 who was1 however1 only recognised by later writers and by later art4 ,he is portrayed as a beautiful youth1 winged like ,eros1 but taller1 and of a more serious aspect4 ,his indispensable attribute is the marriage torch4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bf--,melpomene4 ,vatican4 #b4 ,the ,muses4--,pindar gives the following account of the origin of the ,muses4 ,after the defeat of the ,titans1 the celestials besought ,zeus to create some beings who might perpetuate in song the mighty deeds of the gods4 ,in answer to this prayer1 ,zeus begot with ,mnemosyne 7,memory7 the nine ,muses4 ,they sing of the present1 the past1 and the future1 while ,apollo's lute accompanies their sweet strains1 which gladden the hearts of the gods as they sit assembled in the lofty palace of ,father ,zeus1 in ,olympus4 ,looked at in connection with nature1 there is little doubt but that the ,muses were originally nymphs of the fountains4 ,the veneration of the ,muses first arose in ,pieria1 a district on the eastern declivity of ,mount ,olympus in ,thessaly1 from whose steep and rocky heights a number of sweet rippling brooks descend to the plains4 ,the perception of this natural music led at once to a belief in the existence of such song-loving goddesses4 ,their seat was subsequently transferred from the declivities of ,olympus to ,mount ,helicon in ,botia1 or to ,mount ,parnassus1 at the foot of which the ,castalian fountain1 which was sacred to them1 had its source4 ,originally the ,muses were only goddesses of song1 though they are sometimes represented with instruments on vases4 ,in early times1 too1 they only appear as a chorus or company1 but at a later period separate functions were assigned to each1 as presiding over this or that branch of art4 ,their names were ,clio1 ,melpomene1 ,terpsichore1 ,polyhymnia1 ,thalia1 ,urania1 ,euterpe1 ,erato1 and ,calliope4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bg4--;,euterpe4 ,vatican4 ,according to the art-distribution made1 probably1 at the time of the ,alexandrine school1 ,calliope represents epic poetry and science generally1 her attributes being a roll of parchment and a pen4 ,clio is the muse of history1 and is likewise characterised by a roll and pen1 so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish her from ,calliope4 ,euterpe represents lyric poetry1 and is distinguished by her double flute4 ,melpomene1 the muse of tragedy1 generally appears with a tragic mask1 a club or sword1 and a garland of vine leaves4 ,terpsichore is the muse of dancing1 and has a lyre and plectrum4 ,to ,erato is assigned erotic poetry1 together with geometry and the mimic art2 she generally bears a large stringed instrument4 ,thalia1 the muse of comedy1 is distinguished by a comic mask1 an ivy garland1 and a crook4 ,polyhymnia presides over the graver chant of religious service2 she may be recognised by her dress1 wrapped closely round her1 and her grave1 thoughtful countenance1 but is without attribute of any kind4 ,lastly1 ,urania1 the muse of astronomy1 holds in one hand a celestial globe1 and in the other a small wand4 ,several ,european museums possess ancient groups of the ,muses1 among which1 perhaps1 the finest is that preserved in the ,vatican4 ,from this group are copied our engravings of ,melpomene and ,euterpe 7,figs4 #bf and #bg74 ,the original of ,polyhymnia 7,fig4 #be7 is in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,the ,romans venerated a number of fountain-nymphs of song and prophecy under the name of ,camen1 among whom the ,egeria of the history of ,numa is well known4 ,the ,roman writers seem to have identified these goddesses with the ,muses at pleasure4 #c4 ,the ,charites 7,grati74--,the ,charites generally appear in the train of the goddess of love1 whom it was their duty to clothe and adorn4 ,they are often found1 however1 in attendance on other gods1 since all that is charming and graceful1 either to the senses or the intellect1 was supposed to proceed from them4 ,their names are ,aglaa1 ,euphrosyne1 and ,thalia4 ,they were commonly represented as the daughters of ,zeus and ,eurynome1 the ,oceanid4 ,later writers1 however1 make them the daughters of ,dionysus and ,aphrodite4 ,they were venerated as the source of all that makes human life more beautiful and pleasant1 without whom there could be no real enjoyment of life4 ,thus1 even the gods would not sit down to banquets without the ,charites2 and whenever men came together to feast1 they first called on them and offered them the first bowl4 ,music1 eloquence1 art1 and poetry received the higher consecration only at their hands2 whence ,pindar terms his songs a gift from them4 ,wisdom1 bravery1 kindly benevolence1 and gratitude--in fine1 all those qualities which become men most1 and make them agreeable in the eyes of their fellow-men1 were supposed to proceed from the ,charites4 ,the ,graces of the ,romans were simply transferred from the mythology of the ,greeks1 and have1 therefore1 the same meaning as the ,charites4 ,art represented the ,charites or ,graces as blooming maidens1 of slender1 comely form1 characterised by an expression of joyous innocence4 ,in their hands they often hold flowers1 either roses or myrtles4 ,they are less often distinguished by definite attributes than by a mutual intertwining of arms4 ,in earlier ,greek art they always appear fully clothed2 but gradually their clothing became less and less1 until at length1 in the age of ,scopas and ,praxiteles1 when nude figures had become common1 it entirely disappeared4 ,there are1 however1 few ancient statues of the ,charites in existence4 #d4 ,themis and the ,hor 7,seasons74--,in intimate connection with the ,charites we find the ,hor1 the daughters of ,zeus and ,themis4 ,they were generally represented as three in number--,eunomia1 ,dice1 and ,irene4 ,they represent the regular march of nature in the changes of the seasons1 and ,themis1 who personifies the eternal laws of nature1 and as the daughter of ,uranus and ,ga ranks among the most ancient deities1 is consequently their mother4 ,themis is the representative of the reign of law among gods and men2 at ,zeus' command she calls together the assemblies of the gods4 ,she also occupies a similar position on earth1 as presiding over national assemblies and the laws of hospitality4 ,her daughters1 the ,hor1 appear in a similar though in a subordinate and attendant character4 ,in ,homer they figure as the servants of ,zeus1 who watch the gates of heaven1 now closing them with thick clouds1 now clearing the clouds away4 ,they also appear as the servants and attendants of other divinities1 such as ,hera1 ,aphrodite1 ,apollo1 and the ,muses4 ,like their mother1 they preside over all law and order in human affairs2 and under their protection thrives all that is noble and beautiful and good4 ,we know but little concerning the worship of the ,hor among the ,greeks4 ,the ,athenians celebrated a special festival in their honour1 but they recognised only two--,thallo1 the season of blossom1 and ,carpo1 the season of the ripened fruit4 ,the adoption of four ,hor1 corresponding to the four seasons of the year1 appears to have arisen at a later period4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bh4--,the ,hor4 ,relief from the ,villa ,albani4 ,in plastic art ,themis is generally represented with a balance in one hand and a palm branch in the other4 ,the ,hor generally appear as lovely girls dancing with their garments tucked up1 and adorned with flowers1 fruit1 and garlands4 ,subsequently they were distinguished by various attributes1 typical of the different seasons4 ,such is the case in the engraving 7,fig4 #bh71 after a relief in the ,villa ,albani4 #e4 ,nice 7,victoria74--,nice is nothing but a personification of the irresistible and invincible power exercised by the god of heaven by means of his lightning4 ,she also appears in the company of ,pallas ,athene1 who was herself honoured by the ,athenians as the goddess of victory4 ,victory does not seem to have had many separate temples or festivals1 since she generally appears only in attendance on her superior deities4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--,victoria4 ,united ,collections in ,munich4 ,far more extensive was the veneration of ,victoria at ,rome1 a fact for which the warlike character of the people easily accounts4 ,her chief shrine was on the ,capitol1 where successful generals were wont to erect statues of the goddess in remembrance of their exploits4 ,the most magnificent statue of this kind was one erected by ,augustus in fulfilment of a vow after his victory at ,actium4 ,the proper festival of the goddess took place on the #abth of ,april4 ,in both ,greek and ,roman art ,victory was represented as a winged goddess4 ,she is distinguished by a palm branch and laurel garland1 which were the customary rewards of bravery among the ancients4 ,large statues of the goddess are seldom met with1 though she is often depicted on vases1 coins1 and small bronzes4 ,the museum of ,cassel has a small bronze statue of the goddess1 whilst a fine alto-relievo in terra-cotta exists in the ,royal ,collection at ,munich 7,fig4 #bi74 #f4 ,iris4--,iris was originally a personification of the rainbow1 but she was afterwards converted into the swift messenger of the gods1 the rainbow being1 as it were1 a bridge between earth and heaven4 ,in this character she makes her appearance in ,homer1 but1 later still1 she was again transformed into a special attendant of ,hera4 ,her swiftness was astounding2 8,like hail or snow10 says ,homer1 8that falls from the clouds10 she darts from one end of the world to the other--nay1 dives to the hidden depths of the ocean and into the recesses of the lower world1 executing the commands of the gods4 ,in art ,iris was represented with wings1 like ,nice1 to whom she1 in many respects1 bears a strong resemblance4 ,she may be distinguished from the latter1 however1 by her herald's staff 7,caduceus74 ,a very much injured specimen1 from the east pediment of the ,parthenon at ,athens1 is now preserved in the ,british ,museum4 #g4 ,hebe 7,juventas74--,hebe was the daughter of ,zeus and ,hera1 and1 according to her natural interpretation1 represented the youthful bloom of ,nature4 ,in the fully developed mythology of the ,greeks she appears as the cupbearer of the gods1 to whom1 at meals1 she presents the sweet nectar4 ,it may at first seem strange that the daughter of the greatest of the divinities of ,greece should be relegated to so inferior a position4 ,this1 however1 is easily explained by the old patriarchal custom of the ,greeks1 by which the young unmarried daughters1 even in royal palaces1 waited at table on the men of the family and the guests4 ,in post-,homeric poetry and legend ,hebe no longer appears as cupbearer of the gods1 the office having been assigned to ,ganymedes4 ,this was either in consequence of the promotion of the son of the ,king of ,troy1 or on account of ,hebe's marriage with the deified ,heracles4 ,hebe occupies no important place in the religious system of the ,greeks2 she seems to have been chiefly honoured in connection with her mother ,hera1 or now and then with ,heracles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,hebe4 ,from ,antonio ,canova4 ,juventas1 or ,juventus1 is the corresponding deity of the ,romans2 but1 as was the case with so many others1 they contrived to bring her into a more intimate connection with their political life by honouring in her the undying and unfading vigour of the state4 ,she had a separate chapel in the temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus4 ,with regard to the artistic representation of ,hebe1 statues of this goddess appear to have been very rare in ancient times2 at least1 among all the numerous statues that have been discovered1 none can be safely identified with ,hebe4 ,she is the more often met with on ornamental vases and reliefs1 on which the marriage of ,heracles and ,hebe is a favourite subject4 ,she is usually depicted as a highly-graceful1 modest maiden1 pouring out nectar from an upraised vessel4 ,she appears thus in the world-renowned masterpiece of the ,italian sculptor ,canova1 so well known from casts4 ,in default of an ancient statue1 we give an engraving of this work 7,fig4 #cj74 #h4 ,ganymedes4--,a similar office in ,olympus was filled by the son of ,tros1 the ,king of ,troy1 ,ganymedes1 who was made immortal by ,zeus1 and installed as cupbearer of the gods4 ,neither ,homer nor ,pindar1 however1 relate the episode of ,zeus sending his eagle to carry off ,ganymedes4 ,this feature of the story1 which is a favourite subject of artistic representation1 is first found in ,apollodorus4 ,the ,roman poet1 ,ovid1 then went a step farther1 and made the ruler of ,olympus transform himself into an eagle1 in order to carry off his favourite4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,ganymedes and the ,eagle4 ,from ,thorwaldsen4 ,the rape of the beautiful boy is often portrayed in ancient art4 ,the most famous monument is a bronze group of ,leochares1 an artist who flourished in the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,a copy of it still exists in the celebrated statue of ,ganymedes in the ,vatican collection4 ,in modern art the story has been treated with still greater frequency4 ,there is an extremely beautiful group of this kind by ,thorwaldsen1 in which ,ganymedes is represented as giving the eagle drink out of a bowl 7,fig4 #ca74 #b4 ,the ,phenomena of the ,heavens4 #a4 ,helios 7,sol74--,helios 7,latin ,sol71 the sun-god1 belongs to that small class of deities who have preserved their physical meaning intact4 ,his worship was confined to a few places1 the most important of which was the island of ,rhodes4 ,an annual festival1 attended with musical and athletic contests1 was here celebrated with great pomp in honour of the sun-god4 ,he is portrayed by the poets as a handsome youth with flashing eyes and shining hair covered with a golden helmet4 ,his daily office was to bring the light of day to gods and men1 which he performed by rising from ,oceanus in the east1 where the ,ethiopians live1 and completing his course along the firmament4 ,for this purpose the post-,homeric poets endow him with a sun-chariot drawn by four fiery horses2 and though ,homer and ,hesiod do not attempt to explain how he passed from the west where he sets1 to the east where he rises1 later poets obviate the difficulty by making him sail round half the world in a golden boat 7according to others a golden bed72 and thus he was supposed again to arrive at the east4 ,in the far west ,helios had a splendid palace1 and also a celebrated garden1 which was under the charge of the ,hesperides4 ,he is described as the son of the ,titans ,hyperion and ,thea1 whence he himself is called a ,titan4 ,by his wife ,perse1 a daughter of ,oceanus1 he became the father of tes1 ,king of ,colchis1 celebrated in the legend of the ,argonauts1 and of the still more celebrated sorceress ,circe4 ,another son of ,helios was ,phathon1 who1 in attempting to drive his father's horses1 came to an untimely end4 ,helios sees and hears every thing2 whence he was believed to bring hidden crimes to light1 and was invoked as a witness at all solemn declarations and oaths4 ,all the stories relating to ,helios were gradually transferred to the ,roman ,sol1 who was originally a ,sabine deity1 chiefly by means of the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid4 ,the untiring charioteer of the heavens was also honoured as the patron of the race-course2 but he never attained a prominent position in religious worship4 ,helios1 or ,sol1 is depicted as a handsome youth1 his head encircled by a crown1 which gives forth twelve bright rays corresponding to the number of the months1 his mantle flying about his shoulders as he stands in his chariot4 ,it was chiefly in ,rhodes1 however1 that ,helios was made the subject of the sculptor's art4 ,here1 in #bhj ,b4,c41 was erected in his honour the celebrated colossal statue which has acquired a world-wide celebrity under the name of the ,colossus of ,rhodes1 and which was reckoned as one of the seven 8wonders of the world40 ,it was the work of ,chares of ,lindus1 and was #aje feet in height4 #b4 ,selene 7,luna74--,as ,artemis is the twin sister of ,apollo1 so is ,selene the twin sister of ,helios2 he representing the sun1 she the moon4 ,selene1 however1 never really enjoyed divine honours in ,greece4 ,the poets depict her as a white-armed goddess1 whose beautiful tresses are crowned with a brilliant diadem4 ,in the evening she rises from the sacred river of ,oceanus1 and pursues her course along the firmament of heaven in her chariot drawn by two white horses4 ,she is gentle and timid1 and it is only in secret that she loves beautiful youths and kisses them in sleep4 ,poets delight to sing of the secret love she cherished for the beautiful ,endymion1 the son of the ,king of ,elis4 ,she caused him to fall into an eternal sleep1 and he now reposes in a rocky grotto on ,mount ,latmus1 where ,selene nightly visits him1 and gazes with rapture on his countenance4 ,in later times she was often confounded with ,artemis1 ,hecate1 and ,persephone4 ,the same remarks apply to the ,roman ,luna4 ,the latter1 however1 had a temple of her own on the ,aventine1 which was supposed to have been dedicated to her by ,servius ,tullius4 ,like her brother ,sol1 she was honoured in ,rome in connection with the circus1 and was held to preside over the public games4 ,in sculpture1 ,selene1 or ,luna1 may be recognised by the half moon on her forehead1 and by the veil over the back of her head2 she also bears in her hand a torch4 ,the sleeping ,endymion was a frequent subject of representation on sarcophagi and monuments4 #c4 ,eos 7,aurora74--,eos1 the goddess of the dawn1 was also a daughter of ,hyperion and ,thea1 and a sister of ,selene and ,helios4 ,she was first married to the ,titan ,astrus1 by whom she became the mother of the winds--,boreas1 ,zephyrus1 ,eurus1 and ,notus 7north1 west1 east1 and south winds74 ,this is a mythological mode of intimating the fact that the wind generally rises at dawn4 ,after ,astrus1 who1 like most of the ,titans1 had rebelled against the sovereignty of ,zeus1 and had been cast into ,tartarus1 ,eos chose the handsome hunter ,orion for her husband4 ,the gods1 however1 would not consent to their union1 and ,orion was slain by the arrows of ,artemis1 after which ,eos married ,tithonus1 the son of the ,king of ,troy4 ,she begged ,zeus to bestow on him immortality1 but1 having forgotten to ask for eternal youth1 the gift was of doubtful value1 since ,tithonus at last became a shrivelled-up1 decrepid old man1 in whom the goddess took no pleasure4 ,memnon1 ,king of thiopia1 celebrated in the story of the ,trojan war1 was a son of ,eos and ,tithonus4 ,he came to the assistance of ,troy1 and was slain by ,achilles4 ,since then1 ,eos has wept without ceasing for her darling son1 and her tears fall to the earth in the shape of dew4 ,eos is represented by the poets as a glorious goddess1 with beautiful hair1 rosy arms and fingers--a true picture of the invigorating freshness of the early morning4 ,cheerful and active1 she rises early from her couch1 and1 enveloped in a saffron-coloured mantle1 she harnesses her horses ,lampus and ,phathon 7,brightness and ,lustre71 in order that she may hasten on in front of the sun-god and announce the day4 ,the views and fables connected with ,eos were transferred by the ,roman writers to the person of their goddess ,aurora#d without undergoing any alteration4 ,footnote #d3 ,the ,mater ,matuta of the ,romans was a deity very similar to the ,eos of the ,greeks4 ,she was the goddess of the early dawn1 and was held in high estimation among the ,roman women as a deity who assisted them in childbirth4 ,like the ,greek ,leucothea1 she was also regarded as a goddess of the sea and harbours1 who assisted those in peril4 ,representations of this goddess are found now and then on vases and gems4 ,she either appears driving a chariot and four horses1 as harnessing the steeds of ,helios1 or as gliding through the air on wings and sprinkling the earth with her dew4 #d4 ,the ,stars4--,only a few of the stars are of any importance in mythology4 ,phosphorus and ,hesperus1 the morning star and the evening star1 which were formerly regarded as two distinct beings1 were represented in art in the guise of beautiful boys with torches in their hands4 ,there were also several legends relating to ,orion1 whom we have already alluded to as the husband of ,eos4 ,he himself was made a constellation after having been slain by the arrows of ,artemis1 while his dog was ,sirius1 whose rising announces the hottest season of the year4 ,all kinds of myths were invented about other constellations2 among others1 the ,hyades1 whose rising betokened the advent of the stormy1 rainy season1 during which the sailor avoids going to sea4 ,the story went that they were placed among the constellations by the gods out of pity1 because they were inconsolable at the death of their brother ,hyas1 who was killed by a lion whilst hunting4 ,connected with them are the ,pleiades1 i4e41 the stars of mariners1 so called because on their rising in ,may the favourable season for voyages begins4 ,they were seven in number1 and were likewise set in the heavens by the gods4 ,finally1 we must not forget to mention ,arctus1 the ,bear4 ,tradition asserted that this was none other than the ,arcadian nymph ,callisto1 who had been placed among the constellations by ,zeus when slain in the form of a she-bear by ,artemis4 ,she had broken her vows of chastity1 and borne a son1 ,arcas1 to ,zeus4 #e4 ,the ,winds4--,the four chief winds have been already alluded to as the sons of ,eos4 ,they were especially venerated by those about to make voyages1 who then solicited their favour with prayers and offerings4 ,otherwise1 they maintained their character of pure natural forces1 and were1 consequently1 of little importance in mythology4 ,the rude north wind1 ,boreas1 or ,aquilo1 was especially dreaded on account of his stormy violence1 and was hence regarded as a bold ravisher of maidens4 ,thus an ,attic legend asserts that he carried off ,orithyia1 the daughter of ,erechtheus1 as she was playing on the banks of the ,ilissus4 ,she bore him ,calas and ,zetes1 well known in the story of the ,argonauts4 ,boreas1 however1 stood in high favour among the ,athenians1 who erected an altar and chapel to him1 because1 during the ,persian war1 he had partially destroyed the fleet of ,xerxes off ,cape ,sepias4 ,as ,boreas is the god of the winter storm1 so ,zephyrus appears as the welcome messenger of ,spring2 on which account one of the ,hor was given him to wife4 ,zephyrus was called ,favonius by the ,romans1 to intimate the favourable influence he exercised on the prosperous growth of the vegetable world4 ,these1 together with the other chief winds1 ,notus 7south wind7 and ,eurus 7east wind7 were sometimes said to reside in separate places2 at other times they were said to dwell together in the ,wind-mountain1 on the fabulous island of olia1 where they were ruled over by ,king olus4 #c4 ,gods of ,birth and ,healing4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cb4--;,asclepius4 ,berlin4 #a4 ,asclepius 7sculapius74--,it was only in later times that the necessity of having special gods of birth and healing made itself felt2 at all events1 ,asclepius1 or sculapius1 as he is called by the ,romans1 does not appear as a god in ,homer4 ,the worship of this deity1 who was said to be the son of ,apollo1 appears to have originated in ,epidaurus1 the seat of his principal shrine1 and thence to have become generally diffused4 ,in ,epidaurus his priests erected a large hospital1 which enjoyed a great reputation4 ,the common method of cure consisted in allowing those who were sick to sleep in the temple1 on which occasion1 if they had been zealous in their prayers and offerings1 the god appeared to them in a dream and discovered the necessary remedy4 ,the worship of this deity was introduced into ,rome in the year #bia ,b4,c41 in consequence of a severe pestilence which for years had depopulated town and country4 ,the ,sibylline books were consulted1 and they recommended that ,asclepius of ,epidaurus should be brought to ,rome4 ,the story goes that the sacred serpent of the god followed the ,roman ambassadors of its own accord1 and chose for its abode the ,insula ,tiberina at ,rome1 where a temple was at once erected to sculapius4 ,a gilded statue was added to the temple in the year #ac ,b4,c4 ,the method already mentioned of sleeping in the temple was also adopted here4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,head of ,asclepius4 ,british ,museum4 ,in art1 ,asclepius is represented as a bearded man of ripe years1 with singularly noble features1 from which the kindly benevolence of a benefactor of mankind looks forth4 ,he is generally accompanied by a serpent1 as a symbol of self-renovating vital power1 which he is feeding and caressing1 or which is more commonly represented as creeping up his staff4 ,such is the conception in the engraving 7,fig4 #cb71 which is after a statue preserved at ,berlin4 ,as the god of healing1 he has also other attributes--a bowl containing the healing draught1 a bunch of herbs1 a pine-apple1 or a dog2 the latter being a symbol of the vigilance with which the physician watches disease4 ,there are numerous extant statues of the god1 although the great statue in gold and ivory of the temple at ,epidaurus has been entirely lost4 ,a fine head of colossal proportions was discovered on the ,isle of ,melos1 and is now an ornament of the ,british ,museum 7,fig4 #cc74 ,there is1 on the other hand1 a very fine statue without a head in existence at ,athens1 near the temple of ,zeus4 ,there are1 moreover1 celebrated statues in ,florence1 ,paris1 and ,rome 7,vatican72 in the last case1 of a beardless sculapius4 #b4 ,inferior ,deities of ,birth and ,healing4--,the ,greeks also honoured ,ilithyia as a goddess of birth4 ,this appears to have been originally a surname of ,hera1 as a deity who succoured women in childbirth4 ,hygiea was looked on as a goddess of health1 and was described as a daughter of ,asclepius4 ,the ,romans had no need of a special goddess presiding over birth1 although they honoured a deity often identified with ,hygiea1 whom they called ,strenia1 or ,salus4 ,as guardian of the chamber of birth1 they honoured ,carna1 or ,cardea1 who was supposed to drive away the evil ,striges 7screech owls7 that came at night to suck the blood of the new-born child4 ,carna was further regarded as the protectress of physical health4 ,another of these inferior deities1 of whom men sought long life and continued health1 bore the name of ,anna ,perenna 7the circling year74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cd4--,night and the ,fates4 ,from ,carstens4 #d4 ,deities of ,fate4 #a4 ,mr 7,parc74--,the ,mr1 better known by the ,latin name of ,parc1 really denote that portion of a man's life and fortune which is determined from his birth2 so that1 in this sense1 there are as many ,mr as individuals4 ,the ,greeks1 however1 who were wont to revere all such indefinite numbers under the sacred number three1 generally recognised three4 ,these they regarded as the dark and inexplicable powers of fate1 daughters of the night4 ,their names were ,clotho 7spinner71 ,lachesis 7allotter71 and ,atropos 7inevitable74 ,only two ,parc were originally known to the ,romans1 but a third was afterwards added to make their own mythology harmonise with that of the ,greeks4 ,the popular conception of the ,parc as grave hoary women was not followed in art1 where they always appear as young4 ,in the first instance1 their attributes were all alike1 separate functions not yet having been allotted to them4 ,but at a subsequent period it was ,clotho who spun1 ,lachesis who held1 and ,atropos who cut the thread of life4 ,this arrangement was first adopted by later artists1 who generally give ,clotho a spindle1 ,lachesis a roll of parchment1 and ,atropos a balance1 or let the last point to the hour of death on a dial4 ,such is the case in a talented creation of ,carstens1 in which the conception of modern times is brought into harmony with the ideal of antiquity 7,fig4 #cd74 #b4 ,nemesis1 ,tyche 7,fortuna71 and ,agathodmon 7,bonus ,eventus74--,nemesis really denotes the apportionment of that fate which is justly deserved1 and a consequent repugnance to that which is not4 ,homer does not acknowledge ,nemesis as a goddess1 and so it is probable that her claim to public veneration dates from a later period4 ,she was regarded as a goddess of equality1 who watches over the equilibrium of the moral universe1 and sees that happiness and misfortune are allotted to man according to merit4 ,hence arose1 subsequently1 the idea of an avenging deity1 who visits with condign punishment the crimes and wickedness of mankind4 ,in this character she resembles the ,furies4 ,the ,romans likewise introduced ,nemesis into their system2 at least her statue stood on the ,capitol1 though popular superstition never regarded her with a friendly eye4 ,the various conceptions of ,nemesis are again displayed in works of art4 ,the kindly1 gentle goddess1 who dispenses what is just1 is depicted as a young woman of grave and thoughtful aspect1 holding in her hand the instruments of measurement and control 7cubit1 bridle1 and rudder74 ,as the stern avenger of human crimes1 she appears with wings in a chariot drawn by griffins1 with a sword or whip in her hand4 ,tyche1 the goddess of good fortune1 was1 according to common accounts1 the daughter of ,oceanus and ,tethys4 ,she was usually honoured as the tutelary deity of towns1 and as such had temples and statues in many populous cities of ,greece and ,asia4 ,in course of time1 however1 the idea gained ground that ,tyche was the author of evil as well as of good fortune4 ,she resembled1 in this respect1 the ,fortuna of the ,romans1 who was regarded as the source of all that is unexpected in human life4 ,servius ,tullius was said to have introduced into ,rome the worship of ,fortuna1 whose favourite he had certainly every reason to regard himself4 ,he erected a temple to her under the name of ,fors ,fortuna1 and made the #bdth of ,june the common festival of the goddess4 ,later1 her worship became still more extensive4 ,under the most different surnames1 some of which referred to the state 7,fortuna populi ,romani71 and others to every description of private affairs1 she had a great number of temples and chapels erected in her honour4 ,she had also celebrated temples in ,antium and ,prneste4 ,ancient artists endowed this goddess with various attributes1 the most important of which was the rudder1 which she held in her hand in token of her power to control the fortunes of mankind4 ,she is also endowed with a sceptre for the same purpose1 and with a horn of plenty as the giver of good fortune2 sometimes she is also represented with the youthful ,plutus in her arms4 ,the later conception of an impartial goddess of fate is apparent in those art-monuments which depict her standing on a ball or wheel4 ,among the larger existing works1 we may mention a copy preserved in the ,vatican of a ,tyche by ,eutychides of ,sicyon1 which was formerly exhibited in ,antioch4 ,the goddess here wears a mural crown on her head as the tutelary deity of towns1 and has a sheaf of corn in her right hand4 ,besides ,fortuna1 the ,romans honoured a deity called ,felicitas as the goddess of positive good fortune4 ,lucullus is said to have erected a temple to her in ,rome1 which was adorned with the works of art brought by ,mummius from the spoils of ,corinth4 ,even this did not suffice for the religious needs of the people1 and we find that the belief in personal protecting deities grew rapidly among both ,greeks and ,romans4 ,these deities were termed by the ,greeks 8dmones10 and by the ,romans 8genii40 ,they were believed to be the invisible counsellors of every individual1 accompanying him from birth to death1 through all the stages of life1 with advice and comfort4 ,offerings of wine1 cake1 incense1 and garlands were made to them1 particularly on birthdays4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,waters4 #a4 ,poseidon 7,neptunus74--,poseidon1 or ,neptunus1 as he was called by the ,romans1 was the son of ,cronus and ,rhea4 ,homer calls him the younger brother of ,zeus1 in which case his subjection to the latter is only natural4 ,according to the common account1 however1 ,zeus was the youngest of the sons of ,cronus1 but acquired the sovereignty over his brothers by having overthrown their cruel father4 ,poseidon was accordingly indebted to his brother for his dominion over the sea and its deities1 and was therefore subject to him4 ,he usually dwelt1 not in ,olympus1 but at the bottom of the sea4 ,here he was supposed to inhabit1 with ,amphitrite his wife1 a magnificent golden palace in the neighbourhood of g4 ,originally1 like ,oceanus and ,pontus1 he was a mere symbol of the watery element1 but he afterwards attained an entirely independent personality4 ,even in ,homer he no longer appears as the sea itself1 but as its mighty ruler1 who with his powerful arms upholds and circumscribes the earth4 ,he is violent and impetuous1 like the element he represents4 ,when he strikes the sea with his trident1 the symbol of his sovereignty1 the waves rise with violence1 dash in pieces the ships1 and inundate the land far and wide4 ,poseidon likewise possesses the power of producing earthquakes1 cleaving rocks1 and raising islands in the midst of the sea4 ,on the other hand1 a word or look from him suffices to allay the wildest tempest4 ,virgil1 in the first book of the neid1 has given a beautiful description of the taming of the fierce elements by the god4 ,poseidon was naturally regarded as the chief god of all the seafaring classes1 such as fishermen1 boatmen1 and sailors1 who esteemed him as their patron and tutelary deity4 ,to him they addressed their prayers before entering on a voyage1 to him they brought their offerings in gratitude for their safe return from the perils of the deep4 ,poseidon1 therefore1 enjoyed the highest reputation among the seafaring ,ionians4 ,his temples1 altars1 and statues were most numerous in the harbours and seaport towns1 and on islands and promontories4 ,among the numerous shrines of this deity we may mention that of ,corinth1 in the neighbourhood of which were celebrated in his honour the ,isthmian games1 which subsequently became a national festival in ,greece1 ,pylus1 ,athens1 and the islands of ,rhodes1 ,cos1 and ,tenos4 ,it was only natural that many legends1 local and provincial1 should exist about a god who played such an important part in the lives of seafaring folk4 ,in the ,trojan epos he figures as a violent enemy of ,troy1 his indignation having been provoked by the injustice of the ,trojan king1 ,laomedon4 ,poseidon had built the walls of ,troy at the king's request with the aid of ,apollo1 but ,laomedon having cheated him in the matter of the stipulated reward1 ,poseidon thereupon sent a terrible sea-monster1 which laid waste the crops and slew the inhabitants4 ,they had recourse to the oracle1 which counselled the sacrifice of the king's daughter ,hesione4 ,the unhappy maiden was exposed to the monster1 but was rescued by ,heracles4 ,the fable of this monster1 which is manifestly a symbol of the inundation of the sea1 is repeated in many succeeding stories 7e4g41 in the story of ,perseus1 who rescued in a similar way ,andromeda1 the daughter of the king of thiopia74 ,there are numberless stories1 in which ,poseidon appears as the father of the different national heroes4 ,the most important is1 perhaps1 the legend of ,theseus1 of which we shall speak later on4 ,there was scarcely a ,grecian town or district which did not lay claim to divine origin for the person of its founder or ancestral hero4 ,again1 the conception of the wild stormy nature of the sea caused ,poseidon to be represented as the father of various giants and monsters4 ,by the nymph ,thosa he became the father of the savage ,polyphemus1 slain by ,odysseus1 who thus provoked the implacable enmity of ,poseidon4 ,the giant ,antus1 who fought with ,heracles1 was also said to be a son of ,poseidon2 besides many other monsters1 such as ,procrustes1 ,cercyon1 and the ,alod4 ,the favourite animal of ,poseidon was the horse1 which he was supposed to have created4 ,this may1 perhaps1 be due to the fact that the imagination of the ,greeks pictured to itself the horses of ,poseidon in the rolling and bounding waves4 ,in ,athens the origin of the horse was referred to the contest between ,athene and ,poseidon1 as to who should make the land the most useful present4 ,in ,corinthian legend ,poseidon appears as the father of the winged horse ,pegasus by ,medusa4 ,this story is connected with the taming of the horse1 which was ascribed to ,poseidon4 ,on account of his intimate connection with the horse1 ,poseidon was especially regarded as the patron of the games1 and had1 in consequence1 an altar of his own on all race-courses4 ,the competitors1 before the races1 solicited his favour with prayers and sacrifices4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ce4--,poseidon4 ,dolce ,gem4 ,the dolphin and the pine-tree were held sacred to ,poseidon1 the latter probably because it was so extensively used in shipbuilding4 ,black steers1 horses1 rams1 and wild boars were sacrificed to him4 ,the ,romans not being a seafaring people1 ,neptune never stood in such high estimation among them as among the ,greeks4 ,in ,rome his prominent characteristic was his connection with the horse and the race-course4 ,these were placed under his special protection1 for which reason the only temple he had in ,rome stood in the ,circus ,flaminius4 ,the representation of ,poseidon1 or ,neptune1 in art harmonises tolerably well with the descriptions of the poets4 ,he is accordingly represented as similar to his brother ,zeus in size and figure1 with broad deep chest1 dark wavy hair1 and piercing eyes4 ,artists intimated the greater violence of his nature by giving him more angularity of face1 and a more bristling and disordered head of hair than ,zeus4 ,the expression of his countenance is more grave and severe1 and the kindly smile that plays around the mouth of ,zeus is altogether wanting4 ,ancient statues of ,poseidon are comparatively rare4 ,the ,vatican ,museum possesses a fine bust1 and also a marble statue of the god4 ,he is generally distinguished by the trident in his right hand2 sometimes in its place we find a tiller4 ,a band similar to a diadem denotes his dominion over the sea4 ,our engraving of the god is after a beautiful gem of the ,dolce collection 7,fig4 #ce74 #b4 ,amphitrite4--,after ,poseidon had attained an almost exclusive veneration as god of the sea1 ,amphitrite1 one of the ,nereids1 was given him to wife4 ,according to the usual account1 he carried her away from ,naxos4 ,others say that she fled to ,atlas to avoid the rude wooing of the god1 but ,poseidon's dolphin found her and fetched her back4 ,she had three children by ,poseidon--,triton1 ,rhode1 and ,benthesicyme4 ,in plastic art1 ,amphitrite is generally depicted as a slim and beautiful young woman1 either nude or half clothed1 riding in the chariot of ,poseidon at his side1 or by herself4 ,on gems she also appears enthroned on the back of a mighty ,triton1 or riding a seahorse or dolphin4 ,her hair generally falls loosely about her shoulders4 ,she is distinguished by the royal insignia of the diadem and sceptre1 at times she also wields the trident of her husband4 ,the worship of ,amphitrite was entirely unknown to the ,romans1 who recognised the sea-goddess ,salacia as the wife of ,neptune4 #c4 ,triton and the ,tritons4--,triton was the only son of ,poseidon and ,amphitrite2 he never appears1 however1 to have enjoyed divine honours4 ,this perhaps explains how it came to pass that he was subsequently degraded to the level of a fabulous sea-monster4 ,the poet ,apollonius ,rhodius describes him as having a body1 the upper parts of which were those of a man1 while the lower parts were those of a dolphin4 ,such too is his appearance in works of art4 ,poets and artists soon revelled in the conception of a whole race of similar ,tritons1 who were regarded as a wanton1 mischievous tribe1 like the ,satyrs on land4 ,the ,tritons1 as sea-deities of fantastic form1 are of little importance in higher art1 though they were all the more frequently employed in fountains and water-works4 ,the fore-legs of a horse were sometimes added to the human body and dolphin's tail1 thus giving rise to the figure termed the ,ichthyocentaur4 #d4 ,pontus and his ,descendants4--,we have already spoken of ,pontus and his race in our account of the ,theogony4 ,here we can only mention those of his children who either enjoyed divine honours1 or are of importance in art4 ,the eldest among them was ,nereus4 #a4 ,nereus and his ,daughters4--,nereus presents to us the calm and pleasant side of the sea4 ,he appears as a kindly1 benevolent old man1 the good spirit of the gean sea1 where he dwells with his fifty lovely daughters1 the ,nereids1 ever ready to assist the storm-beaten sailor in the hour of need4 ,like all water-spirits1 ,nereus possessed the gift of prophecy1 though he did not always choose to make use of it4 ,heracles sought him on his way to the garden of the ,hesperides1 in order to learn how he might get possession of the golden apples4 ,in spite of his urgent entreaties1 ,nereus endeavoured to elude him by assuming every kind of shape1 though he was at length vanquished by the persistence of the hero1 who would not let him go until he had obtained the necessary information4 ,by his wife ,doris1 the daughter of ,oceanus1 he became the father of fifty1 or1 according to some1 of a hundred daughters1 who were all venerated as kindly1 beneficent sea-nymphs4 ,they are a charming1 lovely tribe1 who win the hearts of the sailors--now by their merry sports and dances1 now by their timely assistance in the hour of danger4 ,this joyous band generally forms the train of ,poseidon and ,amphitrite4 ,besides ,amphitrite1 the chosen bride of ,poseidon1 we find among them ,thetis1 the beautiful mother of ,achilles1 so celebrated in ancient poetry1 who usually figures as their leader4 ,her beauty and grace were so great that ,zeus himself became her lover4 ,he surrendered her1 however1 to ,peleus1 son of acus1 because an oracle had declared that the son of ,thetis should become greater than his father4 ,in art ,nereus generally appears as an old man with thin grey locks4 ,he is commonly distinguished by a sceptre1 or even a trident4 ,the ,nereids were depicted as graceful maidens1 in earlier times slightly clothed1 but later entirely nude1 riding on dolphins1 ,tritons1 or other fabulous monsters of the deep4 #b4 ,thaumas1 ,phorcys1 ,ceto4--,whilst ,nereus and his daughters represent the sea in its peaceful aspect1 ,thaumas1 the second son of ,pontus1 represents it as the world of wonders4 ,by ,electra1 a daughter of ,oceanus1 he became the father of ,iris1 the messenger of the gods1 and also of the ,harpies4 ,the latter personify the storm-winds4 ,originally fair maidens1 they were afterwards represented as winged creatures1 half man and half bird2 they had the faces of maidens1 but their bodies were covered with vultures' feathers2 they were pale and emaciated in appearance1 and were continually tormented with an insatiable hunger4 ,they are best known from the story of the ,argonauts1 where they appear as the tormentor of the blind king ,phineus1 whose table they continually robbed of its viands1 which they either devoured or spoiled4 ,they were regarded by the ancients as the ministers of sudden death1 and were said to be either two or three in number4 ,phorcys and ,ceto1 the brother and sister of ,thaumas1 present to us the sea under its terrible aspect4 ,this pair1 from whose union sprang the ,gorgons1 the ,gr1 and the dragon of the ,hesperides1 typify all the terrors and dangers of the deep4 ,we shall have more to say concerning the ,gorgons and ,gr in the story of ,perseus4 #e4 ,proteus4--,proteus is a deity of inferior rank4 ,he is represented as an old man 7the servant of ,poseidon7 endowed with the gift of prophecy4 ,he plays the same part in the story of ,troy as ,nereus does in that of ,heracles4 ,his usual abode was the island of ,pharos4 ,it was thither that ,menelaus turned after he had been driven to the coast of ,egypt1 on his return from ,troy1 to seek the advice of the 8unerring old man of the sea40 ,but ,proteus1 being in no amiable mood1 sought to elude the importunity of the hero by converting himself into a lion1 a dragon1 a panther1 a wild boar1 and many other forms4 ,at length1 however1 he was vanquished by the persistence of ,menelaus1 and vouchsafed an answer4 ,he was supposed to be the keeper of the fish who inhabit the depths of the sea1 and of the other marine animals4 ,in works of art he generally appears like a ,triton1 i4e41 with body ending in a fish's tail4 ,he is usually distinguished by a crook4 #f4 ,glaucus4--,among the inferior sea-deities1 ,glaucus deserves mention as playing a part in the story of the ,argonauts4 ,he was really only a local god of the ,anthedonians in ,botia1 and his worship was not extended to other places in ,greece4 ,but though he had no splendid temples1 he stood in very high estimation among the lower classes of sailors and fishermen2 indeed we find universally that the common people1 in all their cares1 turned rather to the inferior deities1 whom they supposed to stand closer to them1 than to the higher and more important gods4 ,according to the story1 ,glaucus was originally a fisherman of ,anthedon1 who attained in a wonderful manner the rank of a god4 ,one day1 after having caught some fish1 he laid them half dead on the turf close by4 ,he was astonished to see1 however1 that on coming in contact with a certain herb1 which was unknown to him1 they were restored to life and sprang back into the sea4 ,he himself now ate of this wonderful herb1 and immediately felt himself penetrated by so wondrous a sensation of bliss and animation that1 in his excitement1 he too sprang into the sea4 ,oceanus and ,thetis hereupon cleansed him from all his human impurities1 and gave him a place among the sea-gods4 ,he was venerated on many of the islands and coasts of ,greece as a friendly deity1 ever ready to assist the shipwrecked sailor or the castaway4 ,in art he is represented as a ,triton1 rough and shaggy in appearance1 his body covered with mussels or sea-weed4 ,his hair and beard show that luxuriance which characterises sea-gods4 #g4 ,ino ,leucothea1 and ,melicertes4--,like ,glaucus1 ,ino1 the daughter of ,cadmus1 attained at once immortality and divine rank by a leap into the sea4 ,she was a sister of ,semele1 the mother of ,dionysus1 and the wife of ,athamas1 king of ,orchomenus4 ,it was she who1 after the unhappy death of ,semele1 took charge of the infant ,dionysus4 ,hera1 however1 avenged herself by driving ,athamas mad1 whereupon he dashed ,learchus1 his eldest son by ,ino1 against a rock4 ,he was about to inflict the same fate on ,melicertes1 his second son1 when in frantic haste the unhappy mother sought to save her child by flight4 ,athamas1 however1 pursued her as far as the ,isthmus1 when ,ino1 seeing no hope of escape1 cast herself from the rock ,moluris into the sea4 ,here she was kindly received by the ,nereids1 who converted both her and her son into sea-deities4 ,she henceforth bore the name of ,leucothea1 and her son that of ,palmon4 ,they were both regarded as benevolent deities of the stormy sea1 who came to the assistance of those who were shipwrecked or in other peril4 ,they appear in this guise in the ,odyssey1 where ,odysseus1 who saw only certain death before him1 is represented as having been saved by a scarf thrown to him by ,leucothea4 #h4 ,the ,sirens4--,the ,sirens must also be reckoned among the sea-deities4 ,they are best known from the story how ,odysseus succeeded in passing them with his companions without being seduced by their song4 ,he had the prudence to stop the ears of his companions with wax1 and to have himself bound to the mast4 ,the ,sirens were regarded as the daughters either of the river-god ,achelous by one of the nymphs1 or of ,phorcys and ,ceto4 ,only two ,sirens are mentioned in ,homer1 but three or four were recognised in later times and introduced into various legends1 such as that of the ,argonauts1 or the ,sicilian story of the rape of ,persephone4 ,demeter is said to have changed their bodies into those of birds1 because they refused to go to the help of their companion1 ,persephone1 when she was carried off by the god of the lower world4 ,in art they are represented1 like the ,harpies1 as young women with the wings and feet of birds4 ,sometimes they appear altogether like birds1 only with human faces2 at other times with the arms and bodies of women1 in which case they generally hold instruments of music in their hands4 ,as their songs were death to those who were seduced by them1 they are often depicted on tombs as spirits of death4 #i4 ,the ,race of ,oceanus4--,lastly1 we must enumerate among the water-deities the numerous descendants of ,oceanus1 viz41 the ,oceanids1 and also the rivers that are spread over the earth4 ,the latter were believed to have their common source in the ocean encircling the earth1 and thence to flow beneath the ground until they reached the surface in springs4 ,oceanus himself appears in the myths which treat of the genealogy of the gods as the eldest son of ,uranus and ,ga1 and therefore1 like his wife ,tethys1 a ,titan4 ,as he did not take part in the rebellion of the other ,titans against the dominion of ,zeus1 he did not share their dreadful fate1 but was allowed to remain in undisturbed enjoyment of his ancient domain4 ,he was supposed to dwell on the most western shores of the earth1 which he never left even to attend the assemblies of the gods4 ,on account of their great importance to the fertility of the soil1 the river-gods enjoyed a great reputation among the ,greeks1 although their worship was entirely of a local nature4 ,only ,achelous1 the greatest of all the ,greek rivers1 appears to have enjoyed general veneration4 ,the river-gods were believed to dwell either in the depths of the rivers themselves1 or in rocky grottoes near their sources4 ,they were depicted either as delicate youths1 or as men in their prime1 or as old men1 according to the magnitude of the river4 ,they all possess a conformity with the nature of their element1 viz41 that power of transformation which we discover in the other sea-deities4 ,they also appear1 like other water-spirits1 to possess the gift of prophecy4 ,among the ,romans all flowing waters were held sacred4 ,fontus1 the son of ,janus1 was especially esteemed as the god of springs and fountains in general2 but1 as among the ,greeks1 each river had its special deity4 ,the most important of these was ,tiberinus4 ,the springs were popularly supposed to be inhabited by nymphs gifted with the powers of prophecy and magic1 who sometimes honoured mortals with their favours1 as ,egeria did ,king ,numa4 ,in art the river-gods were commonly represented in the guise of those animals whose forms they were most in the habit of assuming4 ,they thus appear as serpents1 bulls1 or even as men with bulls' heads4 ,they were also portrayed1 however1 in purely human guise1 with the exception of having small horns on either side of the head4 ,their attributes consist of urns and horns of plenty1 symbols of the blessings that proceed from them4 ,,iii4--,,the ,,gods ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,,lower ,,world4 ,we now come to a class of deities who stand in the most decided contrast to the gods of the heaven and the sea1 whom we have previously described4 ,it consists of those deities whose power is incessantly exerted either on the surface or in the depths of the earth1 and who are accordingly brought into the closest connection with the life of man4 ,the worship of these deities assumed among the ,greeks a passionate and excited character1 at first entirely strange to the ,romans1 though it gradually crept in here also4 ,though the ancients saw in the earth1 on the one hand1 the fruitful source of all life in nature1 they did not seek to disguise the fact that it is1 on the other hand1 also the open sepulchre into which all earthly existence sinks when its time is over4 ,the worship of these deities was therefore celebrated with festivals of joy and mirth at the season of the revival of nature1 and with mournful solemnities at the season of its decay4 ,the devotees manifested both their mirth and mourning in a loud1 noisy1 passionate manner1 usually designated orgiastic4 ,an element of mystery never failed to introduce itself into the worship of these deities1 who1 in virtue of their dwellings1 were able to inspire a greater feeling of awe than the bright forms of the gods of heaven4 ,their wrath also1 which manifested itself in the sterility of the soil1 was the subject of especial fear4 ,mysteries proper1 or secret rites1 existed only among the ,greeks1 but never found their way into the religious systems of ,italy4 ,we shall enumerate first the deities of the upper world1 who preside over the growth of flocks and the fruits of the earth1 and then those who inhabit the lower world4 #a4 ,ga 7,tellus74--,first among them is ,ga1 or ,mother ,earth herself4 ,this deity appears in the ,cosmogony 7or myths relating to the formation of the universe7 as one of the primeval creative forces1 having herself proceeded immediately from ,chaos4 ,in later times she acquired a more personal and plastic character1 although she never attained any real importance in the religious system of the ,greeks1 owing to the existence of more definite and substantial deities1 such as ,rhea1 ,hestia1 ,demeter1 and ,themis4 ,the worship of ,tellus in ,rome was more important1 although here1 too1 it was somewhat thrown into the shade by the worship of ,ceres and kindred deities4 ,the chief significance of ,ga lies in the fact that she is the source of all life and increase in nature4 ,she is hence regarded as a mother who tends with loving care all her children4 ,under this aspect her praises are sung by ,hesiod1 and also in an ancient ,dodonaic hymn4 ,like ,demeter and other deities who dispense prosperity and abundance1 she appears as tending and nourishing the young1 and is often represented thus on ancient monuments4 ,at the same time ,ga is the common grave of mankind1 and draws all things1 with inexorable severity1 down into her dark womb4 ,she thus becomes a goddess of death and the lower world1 and was on this account invoked1 together with the ,manes1 as a witness of all solemn compacts and oaths4 ,a very ancient shrine of this goddess existed at ,delphi1 and the oracle there had once1 said the ,delphians1 belonged to her4 ,in ,rome1 where she was also venerated as a goddess of marriage1 her temple stood on the site of the house of ,spurius ,cassius4 ,festive offerings were made to her before and after seed-time4 ,on the occasion of the ,paganalia1 she and ,ceres were propitiated by the sacrifice of a pregnant sow1 which was supposed to promote the prosperity of the coming year4 #b4 ,rhea ,cybele 7,magna ,mater ,ida74--,rhea is well known as the daughter of ,uranus and ,ga1 and the wife of ,cronus1 by whom she became the mother of ,zeus and the other ,cronid4 ,she seems to have enjoyed only a limited measure of divine honours1 until she was identified with the ,phrygian goddess ,cybele1 who1 like the ,egyptian ,isis1 was an ,asiatic symbol of fertility4 ,she was worshipped throughout ,lydia and ,phrygia under the appellation of the 8,mighty ,mother40 ,thence her worship1 which was of a peculiarly noisy character1 made its way through the ,greek colonies into ,greece itself1 and towards the end of the second ,punic war was1 at the instance of the ,sibylline books1 introduced into ,rome4 ,attalus1 king of ,pergamus1 was on this occasion good enough to present the ,romans with a sacred stone1 which was regarded by the inhabitants of ,pessinus as the great mother herself4 ,after its arrival at ,ostia1 this stone was carried to ,rome amid a solemn procession of ,roman matrons4 ,the day of its arrival 7#ajth ,april7 was ever afterwards kept as a festival1 at which games were celebrated under the superintendence of the prtor4 ,the worship of ,cybele1 however1 never seems to have become naturalised in ,rome1 perhaps because ,romans were not allowed to officiate as her priests4 ,the true home of the worship of ,cybele was the district of ,pessinus1 a rough and rocky mountain land4 ,it was here that she made her noisy processions1 seated in a chariot drawn by lions or panthers1 amid the boisterous music of her weird attendants1 the ,corybantes and ,curetes4 ,the myths that relate to the goddess bear a wild1 fantastic character1 similar to that of her rites4 ,the best known among them is the story of her favourite1 ,attis1 or ,atys4 ,he was a ,phrygian youth of a beauty so exceptional that the great mother of the gods chose him for her husband4 ,at first he returned her affection1 but afterwards he proved faithless1 and was about to marry a daughter of the king of ,pessinus4 ,but the vengeance of the angry goddess overtook him1 for when the wedding guests were assembled at the festive banquet the goddess appeared in their midst1 and filled those present with panic fear1 and troubled their minds4 ,atys fled to the mountains1 where he slew himself in a fit of frenzy4 ,afterwards1 the goddess instituted a great mourning in memory of him1 which took place about the time of the vernal equinox4 ,the priests of the goddess marched1 amid the loud noise of kettle-drums and fifes1 to the mountains1 in order to search for the lost youth2 and when at length he1 or an image representing him1 was found1 the priests1 in an ecstasy of joy1 danced about in wild excitement1 gashing themselves with knives4 ,representations of ,rhea ,cybele are rare4 ,a statue representing her seated on a throne is shown in the ,vatican4 ,her usual attribute is a kettle-drum4 #c4 ,dionysus1 or ,bacchus 7,liber74--,dionysus1 or ,bacchus1 was regarded by ,greeks and ,romans alike as the god of wine and vineyards4 ,in his more extended meaning he represents the blessings of the autumn4 ,it is he who causes the fruits to ripen for the use of man2 it is likewise he who dispenses to mankind all the advantages of civilisation and refinement1 and of well-ordered political affairs4 ,thebes was described as the birthplace of the god4 ,his mother was ,semele1 the daughter of ,cadmus1 whom ,zeus1 the great god of heaven1 honoured with his love4 ,this very love1 however1 proved fatal to ,semele1 for the ever-jealous ,hera came to her in the guise of her nurse1 ,bero1 and succeeded in exciting her suspicions as to the truth of her lover's divinity4 ,she insidiously persuaded ,semele to make her lover swear to do what she desired1 and then to put him to the test4 ,semele did so1 and then besought ,zeus to appear to her in the full majesty of his divine form4 ,in vain did ,zeus adjure her to take back her foolish request2 she insisted on its fulfilment1 and perished miserably1 being burnt to ashes by the flame of ,zeus1 who approached her in a flash of lightning4 ,her unborn child was preserved by ,zeus1 who ordered ,hermes to carry it to the nymphs of ,nysa to be brought up4 ,a later legend makes ,ino1 the sister of ,semele1 the foster-mother of ,dionysus4 ,the locality of this ,nysa is somewhat uncertain1 but it is generally supposed to be a district of ,mount ,pangus in ,thrace4 ,dionysus1 after growing up amid the solitude of the forest and strengthening himself by his contests with its wild beasts1 at length planted the vine4 ,both the god and his attendants soon became intoxicated with its juice2 after which1 crowned with wreaths of laurel and ivy1 and accompanied by a crowd of nymphs1 satyrs1 and fauns1 he ranged the woods1 which resounded with the loud and joyful cries of his inspired worshippers4 ,the legend says that his education was then completed by ,silenus1 the son of ,pan4 ,in company with his preceptor and the rest of his train1 he then set forth to spread his worship and the cultivation of the vine among the nations of the earth4 ,he did not confine himself to mere vine-planting1 however1 but proved a real benefactor of mankind by founding cities1 and by introducing more civilised manners and a more pleasant and sociable mode of life among men4 ,on such as refused his favours his wrath fell with dreadful effect4 ,agave1 the mother of the ,theban king ,pentheus1 who had refused to receive him1 and the rest of the ,theban women1 were driven mad by him2 and in their frenzy they mistook the king for a wild boar and tore him to pieces4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,dionysus and ,lion4 ,from the ,monument of ,lysicrates4 ,the most celebrated among the myths which testify to the wondrous power of ,dionysus is the story of the punishment of the ,tyrrhenian pirates4 ,on the occasion of his passage from ,icaria to ,naxos1 these pirates put ,dionysus in chains1 purposing to take him to ,italy1 and there sell him as a slave4 ,at a nod from the youthful god the chains fell from his limbs2 he appeared as a lion1 while a bear was seen at the other end of the ship4 ,vines and ivy tendrils wound themselves round the mast and sails of the ship1 which stood still1 whilst the strains of the nymphs burst forth4 ,the sailors1 terrified by the transformation of the god1 leaped overboard1 and were changed into dolphins4 ,a fine representation1 in relief1 of this scene still exists on the monument of ,lysicrates1 at ,athens4 ,the most beautiful feature in it is the figure of the god playing with his lion in the most joyous unconsciousness 7,fig4 #cf74 ,with the name of ,naxos1 which was a chief seat of his worship1 is connected the celebrated story of his marriage with ,ariadne1 the daughter of ,minos1 king of ,crete4 ,the ,attic hero1 ,theseus1 after escaping the dangers of the ,labyrinth by her means1 had taken her away with him from ,crete in order to marry her4 ,he deserted her1 however1 whilst asleep on the island of ,naxos1 either of his own accord or because warned of the god in a dream4 ,the indescribable anguish and consternation of ,ariadne1 on awaking to find herself alone and deserted on a foreign strand1 was only equalled by her joyous surprise when ,bacchus1 returning from his travels in ,india1 found her and made her his bride4 ,the poets1 indeed1 do not relate that ,zeus then bestowed on her that immortality which he had already given his son on account of his glorious achievements and extraordinary merit toward mankind2 but such appears to have been the popular tradition4 ,at ,athens a sort of harvest thanksgiving was celebrated in honour of both ,dionysus and his bride1 at which vines with the grapes on them were borne in solemn procession through the streets of the city4 ,the worship of ,dionysus extended not only over the whole of ,greece1 but also to ,italy1 ,asia ,minor1 ,thrace1 and ,macedonia1 and to every place where the vine was cultivated by the ,greeks4 ,the god was extolled as ,lyus1 the deliverer from care1 and great festivals were instituted in his honour1 which were of a disorderly character1 but very popular among the common people4 ,at the time of the winter solstice there was mourning1 because at this season the vine seemed to die away1 and the god was believed to be suffering persecution at the hands of the evil spirits of winter1 and obliged to flee in consequence to the sea or lower world4 ,it was1 therefore1 thought right to suffer with him1 and people manifested their grief at his disappearance by every kind of wild gesture4 ,at the winter festivals of ,dionysus1 which were celebrated every other year1 only women and girls took part4 ,the festivals of the god at the beginning of spring1 when the new wine was tasted for the first time1 were purely festivals of gladness1 like the greater ,dionysia at ,athens4 ,on these occasions the reawakening of nature was celebrated with boundless joy and boisterous mirth4 ,all kinds of jokes and mischievous pranks were indulged in1 and festive processions and theatrical performances followed each other in quick succession4 ,the following festivals were celebrated at ,athens in honour of ,dionysus3-- #a4 ,the ,lesser or ,rural ,dionysia4 ,this was the vintage festival proper1 which did not take place in ,attica till the end of ,november or beginning of ,december1 because they liked to let the grapes hang as long as possible4 ,a he-goat was first solemnly sacrificed to the god2 this was followed by a festive procession bearing the sacred things1 and the festival concluded with all kinds of country amusements1 dancing1 masquerading1 and revelling4 ,the chief amusement of the young men was dancing on the leather bag4 ,out of the skin of the slaughtered goat was made a leather bag1 which was inflated and smeared with oil3 the young men then attempted to dance on it4 #b4 ,the ,lena1 or feast of the wine-press1 was celebrated in the month of ,january at ,athens1 in the place where1 according to an old tradition1 the first wine-press had stood4 ,here stood the ,lenon1 one of the two chief temples of the god4 ,the chief feature of the festival was a magnificent procession with the sacred symbols of the god4 ,this was followed by a great banquet1 the viands for which were furnished by the city of ,athens4 ,the new wine which was drunk on these occasions did not tend to diminish the hilarity of the worshippers1 so that all kinds of mischievous jokes were perpetrated4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #cg4--,the so-called ,sardanapalus in the ,vatican4 #c4 ,the ,anthesteria were celebrated in ,february1 on the #aath1 #abth1 and #acth days of the month ,anthesterion4 ,they were supposed to commemorate the return of ,dionysus from the lower world1 or1 in other words1 the reawakening of nature from the sleep of winter4 ,the first day was called 7cask-opening71 because on this day the new wine was first broached4 ,the second and chief day of the festival was called 7cups74 ,a procession and a great banquet took place1 at which the guests were crowned with flowers4 ,many liberties were permitted to the slaves on this occasion1 as at the ,roman ,saturnalia4 ,the third day was called 7pots71 because vessels were displayed filled with all kinds of boiled vegetables4 ,these were regarded in the light of offerings for the souls of the dead1 who were popularly supposed to revisit the upper world on this occasion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--,youthful ,dionysus4 ,from the ,chateau ,richelieu1 now in the ,louvre4 #d4 ,the ,greater or ,city ,dionysia formed the chief festival of the god1 and the proper spring-feast of the ,athenians4 ,it was celebrated with extraordinary splendour in the month of ,march1 and lasted several days1 bringing together a vast concourse of strangers from all parts4 ,the city1 renowned alike for the refined artistic taste and the keen wit of its inhabitants1 then donned its holiday garb1 and innumerable merry antics were played by the crowds assembled in the streets and squares4 ,the chief feature of the festival was a solemn procession1 in which an old wooden statue of the god was borne through the streets4 ,there were likewise banquets and comic processions in masks1 and grand representations of new comedies and tragedies4 ,the proceedings concluded with the presentation of prizes to the successful competitors4 ,the ,italian nationalities likewise celebrated a festival on the #agth of ,march1 called the ,liberalia1 in honour of ,liber1 or ,liber ,pater1 the ,italian god of the vine4 ,it was distinguished throughout by the simple countrified character of the proceedings1 and resembled the ,lesser ,dionysia of the inhabitants of ,attica4 ,people amused themselves with all kinds of jokes and antics1 and with masquerades1 the masks for which were cut from the bark of trees4 ,the chief object of the festival was to pray for the fertility of the vines4 ,these innocent festivals had nothing to do with the voluptuous ,bacchanalia which were afterwards introduced into ,rome in imitation of the ,greek mysteries1 and which the most rigorous interference of the authorities was unable to suppress4 ,if we try to conceive briefly the significance of the worship of ,dionysus in the religion of the ancients1 we shall find that in his primitive character the god was a personification of the active1 productive power of nature4 ,as ,demeter was supposed to give corn and the other fruits of the field1 so ,dionysus was supposed to give the fruits of trees1 and especially of the vine4 ,he was likewise regarded as the author of the blessings of civilisation1 so that1 on this point1 he supplements the idea of the great culture-goddess ,demeter1 with whom1 both among the ,greeks and ,romans1 he had many temples and festivals in common4 ,looking at his character from another side1 we find him coming into contact with ,apollo1 since he was supposed not only to endow men with a kindly1 cheerful disposition1 but also to inspire them with a love of music1 on which account he was honoured with ,apollo as the friend and leader of the ,muses4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ci4--,marble ,head of ,youthful ,dionysus at ,leyden4 ,artistic representations of ,dionysus have come down to us on numerous monuments4 ,in earlier art he was generally depicted as majestic and grave1 and on that account represented with a beard4 ,we have given an instance of this earlier conception in the so-called ,sardanapalus of the ,vatican 7,fig4 #cg74 ,in later art he became more youthful1 and was characterised by a delicate roundness of form4 ,the statues of this period are distinguished by the almost feminine expression of face with which they endow the god1 as well as by the rounded limbs and the graceful ease of every attitude4 ,the statue of a youthful ,dionysus in the ,louvre at ,paris is an instance of this later mode of conception 7,fig4 #ch74 ,so likewise is the head of ,dionysus at ,leyden1 which is distinguished by a sweet expression of reverie4 ,his soft hair1 which falls about his shoulders in delicate ringlets1 is generally intertwined with a garland of vine leaves or ivy 7,fig4 #ci74 ,the other attributes of the god are the thyrsus1 or ,bacchic wand1 the diadem1 the skin of a wild beast falling across his chest1 which often forms his sole clothing1 and the drinking-cup in his hand4 ,he is generally accompanied by lions1 tigers1 or panthers2 and the bull and ram1 as the symbols of fertility1 were held sacred to him1 while the latter was also his usual sacrifice4 ,among plants1 besides the vine and the ivy1 the laurel was held sacred to him on account of its powers of inspiration4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dj4--,sleeping ,ariadne4 ,vatican4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,dannecker's ,ariadne4 ,frankfort-on-the-,main4 ,of all the prominent personages in the stories of ,dionysus1 ,ariadne has received most attention at the hands of the sculptor4 ,the most celebrated of such ancient monuments is a marble figure of great beauty1 larger than life1 representing the sleeping ,ariadne4 ,it is now preserved in the ,vatican ,museum at ,rome 7,fig4 #dj74 ,among the productions of modern sculptors1 the ,ariadne of ,dannecker1 at ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 which represents her as the bride of ,theseus1 riding on a panther1 justly enjoys a very high reputation 7,fig4 #da74 #d4 ,the ,nymphs4--,we now come to a class of inferior terrestrial divinities who are often found in the train of ,bacchus4 ,the most numerous and important of these are the ,nymphs4 ,they personify the restless activity and energy of nature1 over the whole of which their power extends4 ,they manifest their presence in the murmuring1 rippling streams and brooks1 as well as in the sprouting vegetation of wood and meadow4 ,they are tender1 graceful maidens1 who1 though kindly disposed towards men1 yet avoid human habitations1 and prefer the peaceful solitude of the woods and mountains1 where they lead a merry1 joyous life among the clefts and grottoes4 ,sometimes they devote themselves to useful pursuits1 and spin and weave2 sometimes they engage in graceful dances1 and sing merry songs1 or bathe their delicate limbs in the white spray of lonely brooks4 ,they gladly join the train of those superior deities supposed to preside in the realms of nature4 ,thus we see them joining in the ,bacchic revelry with ,dionysus1 or figuring in the train of ,aphrodite1 or ranging field and wood as they hunt in the company of ,artemis4 ,according to the divisions of nature1 over which the ,nymphs were supposed to preside1 we may distinguish the following classes3-- #a4 ,the ,water-,nymphs1 to whom1 in their wider signification1 the ,oceanids and ,nereids also belong4 ,here1 however1 we have only to deal with the water-nymphs of the brooks and fountains of the land1 who are distinguished by the name of ,naiads4 ,as the kindly nourishers of plants1 and as thereby ministering indirectly to the sustenance of both man and beast1 they enjoyed a large measure of veneration among the ancients1 although1 being inferior deities1 they could claim no temples of their own4 ,like the sea-nymphs1 they possessed the gift of prophecy1 and appear as the patrons of poetry and song4 #b4 ,nymphs of the ,mountains1 or ,oreads1 to whom belong the nymphs of the valleys and glens 7,nap74 ,these were very numerous1 and received special names from the particular mountains or districts they inhabited4 ,the most celebrated among them was the ,botian nymph ,echo4 ,she was consumed by love for the beautiful youth ,narcissus1 a son of the river-god ,cephisus1 and finding that he did not reciprocate her affection1 she pined away in ever-increasing grief1 until at length her emaciated frame was changed into rock1 and nothing but her voice remained4 ,but ,aphrodite avenged this injury to her sex on ,narcissus1 who had in his vain self-love thus contemned the beautiful nymph4 ,as he was hunting one day on ,mount ,helicon1 he bent down to quench his thirst from a spring clear as crystal1 and the goddess caused him to fall in love with his own shadow1 which was reflected in the water4 ,the object of his desires being unattainable1 he too pined away from grief1 and the flower named after him has ever since continued an emblem of heartless beauty4 #c4 ,the ,dryads1 or ,hamadryads 7wood-nymphs74 ,these appear to have been a conception of later times4 ,it was supposed that their existence depended on that of the trees they inhabited1 so that when the latter were destroyed the nymphs also perished4 ,not sharing immortality1 therefore1 they cannot properly be reckoned among the gods4 ,the veneration of nymphs was very ancient in ,greece1 and was thence transferred to ,rome4 ,goats1 lambs1 milk1 and oil were offered to them4 ,in art they are depicted as lovely maidens1 generally only slightly clad1 and adorned with flowers and garlands4 ,the ,naiads are also represented as drawing water1 or with attributes relating to their element4 #e4 ,the ,satyrs4--,in contrast to the ,nymphs1 or female personifications of the life of ,nature1 we find a number of inferior wood and water-deities of the male sex1 called ,satyrs1 ,sileni1 and ,panes1 between whom it is difficult to distinguish clearly4 ,generally by ,satyrs 7,fauni7 we understand the wood and mountain-spirits proper1 who are inseparably connected with ,dionysus1 whose attendant train they form4 ,coarse sensuality and a wanton spirit of mischief are the leading features of their character4 ,on account of their animal propensities they were fabled to be only half human in appearance1 with blunt noses and otherwise ignoble features1 bristling hair1 goat-like ears1 and a goat's tail4 ,like the ,muses1 they love music and dancing1 their instruments being the ,syrinx and the flute1 together with cymbals and castanets4 ,like their master1 they were passionately addicted to excessive indulgence in wine2 but whereas in the former this produced only a rapturous enthusiasm and an exalted frame of mind1 with them its effects were purely sensual1 and excited them to insane and unseemly pranks of all kinds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,head of ,satyr4 ,munich ,sculpture ,gallery4 ,the ,satyrs were not an uncommon subject of representation among ancient artists4 ,the conception was based on the original hideous half-man1 half-animal type2 and in art1 as well as in poetry1 the blunt nose1 the pointed ears1 and the goat's tail form their characteristic features4 ,the ,bacchic insignia of a band round the brow and an ivy garland also belong to them4 ,there are some particularly fine antique statues of satyrs in the art-collections of ,munich and ,rome4 ,the engraving 7,fig4 #db7 shows the highly-expressive face of a satyr in the ,munich collection4 #f4 ,silenus4--,silenus1 according to the common tradition1 was an old satyr who tended and brought up ,dionysus1 and afterwards became the faithful companion of his wanderings4 ,he is depicted by the poets as a somewhat elderly man1 with blunt nose and bald head1 hairy chest and thighs1 and a stomach so large that he can scarcely walk4 ,he generally appears riding on an ass in front of the ,bacchic company1 with a satyr on either side supporting his half-drunken form4 ,the artists of antiquity seem to have devoted themselves frequently to the subject of ,silenus4 ,they either represented him as the nurse and preceptor of the youthful ,bacchus1 holding the child in his arms and regarding him with a look of affection1 in which the comic element is entirely lacking1 or they present him to us as the insatiable but good-natured wine-bibber4 ,his standing attribute is the wine-skin1 besides which1 like other members of the ,bacchic train1 he bears a thyrsus and ivy garland4 ,besides ,silenus1 who was celebrated as the preceptor of ,dionysus1 there was a whole tribe of ,sileni4 ,whether this is due to the fact that the older satyrs were called ,sileni1 or whether they form a special class of deities presiding over the flowing1 gushing water1 cannot be determined with any certainty4 ,among the ,sileni were two personages who play a part in the story of ,dionysus4 ,these were ,marsyas and ,midas4 ,the former1 like all satyrs1 was an accomplished master of the flute1 and challenged ,apollo to a trial of skill which proved fatal to him4 ,the conditions of the contest were that he who was vanquished should put himself entirely in the power of his adversary4 ,apollo won1 and made a cruel use of his victory by hanging ,marsyas on a pine tree and flaying him alive4 ,midas was the mythic founder of the kingdom of ,phrygia1 in ,asia ,minor1 whither he had emigrated from ,macedonia4 ,tradition makes him a son of ,cybele1 and1 as her favourite1 endowed with fabulous wealth4 ,but1 like many of the sons of men in the present day1 the richer he grew the greater was his thirst for gold1 until it betrayed him at length into an act of great folly4 ,one day1 the drunken ,silenus strayed from the company of ,bacchus into the garden of ,midas4 ,the latter received him with great hospitality1 and after entertaining him sumptuously for ten days brought him to ,bacchus4 ,pleased with his kindness1 the god rewarded him with the gratification of any wish he might make4 ,midas now wished that everything he touched might turn to gold4 ,naturally the gratification of this wish well-nigh proved his ruin2 and he only escaped by washing1 at the command of the god1 in the river ,pactolus1 which has ever since washed down gold in its sands4 ,a later fable makes ,midas the judge in the rivalry of ,apollo and ,pan1 on which occasion he decided in favour of the latter1 for which the god changed his ears into those of an ass4 ,modern criticism has seen in the rich ,midas one of the many personifications of the sun1 who1 as he rises over the earth1 turns all things to gold4 #g4 ,greek and ,roman ,wood-,spirits4--#a4 ,pan4--,pan was a very ancient god of the woods and meadows4 ,he was at first honoured only by the inhabitants of the mountain-land of ,arcadia and by other pastoral tribes4 ,subsequently his divinity was more generally acknowledged and more highly esteemed4 ,common accounts make him the son of ,hermes by the nymph ,penelope1 a daughter of ,dryops4 ,his mother was not a little terrified at his birth1 since he was hairy all over1 and had horns and goat's feet4 ,his father wrapped him in a hare-skin1 and bore him to ,olympus1 where the assembled gods showed no small pleasure at the sight of the strange little wood-demon4 ,from time immemorial ,pan was regarded by the shepherds of ,greece as their most doughty protector2 for which reason the mountain caves in which they gathered their herds together at night1 or in threatening weather1 were held sacred to him4 ,there were many such caves of ,pan in the mountains of ,arcadia1 and also one at the foot of the ,acropolis at ,athens1 besides others on ,mount ,parnassus in ,botia1 and elsewhere4 ,pan was esteemed a god of great cheerfulness and activity of character1 who loved to range the woods as a huntsman1 and was on this account regarded with little less veneration by huntsmen than by shepherds4 ,he was also looked on as the patron of fishing and bee-keeping4 ,as the god of shepherds1 ,pan was also a lover of music1 and on returning in the evening from the chase1 says the ,homeric story1 he was wont to play sweet tunes on his pan-pipe 7,syrinx71 whilst the ,oreads1 or mountain-nymphs1 sang the praises of the gods and led off their spirited dances4 ,the poets have founded a story on his discovery of the ,syrinx4 ,they invented a fabulous nymph called ,syrinx1 with whom ,pan was supposed to have fallen violently in love4 ,the nymph1 however1 did not return his affection1 and fled from his embraces4 ,pan pursued her1 and in her extremity she sought the aid of ,ga1 who transformed her into a reed4 ,out of this reed ,pan1 by joining seven pieces together1 made an instrument which he called the ,syrinx1 after the nymph4 ,pan was as passionately fond of dancing as of music4 ,according to ,pindar1 he was the most accomplished dancer among the gods4 ,his favourite amusement was to dance in company with the mountain-nymphs1 on which occasions he regaled them with every kind of droll leap1 in the performance of which his goat's feet stood him in good stead4 ,as a wood-deity1 ,pan also possessed the gift of prophecy2 indeed1 according to some1 it was he who first imparted this gift to ,apollo4 ,he certainly had a very ancient oracle at ,acacesium in ,arcadia4 ,wild mountainous country and the thick untrodden forest are both alike apt to impress the lonely traveller with feelings of awe4 ,all such sensations of sudden and unaccountable fear were ascribed to ,pan 7,panic74 ,he was also said to delight in terrifying travellers with all kinds of strange noises4 ,hence1 at a later period1 arose the story that in the contest with the ,titans he rendered good service to ,zeus by blowing on a shell trumpet which he had invented1 whereupon the ,titans were seized with a sudden terror4 ,this1 however1 is only another version of ,triton's services at the battle with the giants4 ,it is well known that the ,athenians introduced the worship of ,pan1 to which they had been hitherto strangers1 into their city after the battle of ,marathon1 in consequence of the assistance which they believed they had received from the god4 ,such are the more ancient and simple features of the character of ,pan4 ,he assumed a higher significance when men began to regard him as the companion of the 8,mighty ,mother10 and assigned him a place in the ,bacchic circle4 ,men now saw in him a productive force of nature like the ,phrygian ,attis2 indeed1 in consequence of a misinterpretation of his name1 he was made the creator and god of the universe4 ,he seems to have originally signified the 8purifying0 breeze1 which at one time whistled through the reeds1 or at another moaned dismally in the forest1 frightening the belated traveller4 ,after he had once been introduced into the company of ,dionysus1 poets and artists alike set themselves to work to invent a number of ,panes and little ,pans 7,panisci71 who were easily confounded with the ,satyrs and ,sileni4 ,the chief shrine of ,pan was at ,acacesium in ,arcadia4 ,cows1 goats1 and sheep were sacrificed to him1 besides offerings of milk1 honey1 and new wine4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,pan4 ,from a ,mural ,painting at ,herculaneum4 ,in art we must distinguish the earlier and later types of the god4 ,in the former1 which dates from the best days of ,greek art1 he is conceived as entirely human in appearance1 with the exception of two sprouting horns on either side of the forehead4 ,later1 he was depicted with larger horns1 a long goat's beard1 and goat's feet4 ,we give an engraving of this later conception 7,fig4 #dc71 which is taken from a mural painting at ,naples4 ,the usual attributes of ,pan are a ,syrinx and shepherd's crook1 sometimes also a pine garland4 #b4 ,silvanus4--,among the ,roman wood-deities1 ,silvanus occupies a position most akin to that of ,pan1 although they are not exactly identical4 ,his name1 derived from silva 7wood71 points him out as the god of the forest1 where he was supposed to dwell1 a deity kindly disposed towards mankind1 and propitious to the welfare of trees1 plants1 and cattle4 ,at times1 however1 he appears1 like ,pan1 as a mischievous sprite1 who delights to trick and terrify the lonely traveller4 ,his sphere of activity was not confined to the woods1 since he was also regarded as the author of fruitfulness in gardens and orchards4 ,in this character ,silvanus bears a close resemblance to ,terminus1 the god of boundaries and landed property1 inasmuch as he preserves fields1 gardens1 and houses from harm4 ,the first of the fruits of the field were offered to him4 ,he had two shrines in ,rome1 one on the ,viminal and another on the ,aventine4 ,artists and poets agree in representing ,silvanus as an old man with a rustic head-gear1 scattering blooming lilies and other flowers4 ,he is usually distinguished by a pruning-knife4 #c4 ,faunus and ,fauna4--,closely resembling ,silvanus is another deity called ,faunus1 one of the most ancient national gods of ,italy4 ,he appears as the good spirit of the mountains1 pastures1 and plains4 ,he was regarded by the shepherds as their best protector1 since he made their cattle fruitful and drove off noxious beasts of prey4 ,in the former character he was also called ,inuus 7the fertiliser72 in the latter ,lupercus 7the warder-off of wolves74 ,like ,pan1 he appears to have his seat in the woods1 whence he sometimes terrifies and annoys travellers4 ,at night1 too1 he creeps into men's houses1 and torments them with evil dreams and horrible apparitions 7,incubus74 ,like ,pan1 too1 ,faunus possessed the gift of prophecy1 and answered both by direct revelations and by dreams4 ,in this character he was called ,fatuus1 and had a celebrated oracle in the grove at ,tibur1 on the spring ,albunea4 ,having once invented a number of ,fauns1 the poets soon began to identify them with the ,satyrs of the ,greeks4 ,in honour of this decidedly national deity1 different festivals were celebrated1 at which rams were sacrificed and libations of wine and milk made4 ,the ,faunalia were celebrated on the ,nones of ,december1 on which occasion the guests at the festive board surrendered themselves to the most unrestrained mirth1 and granted many liberties also to their slaves4 ,the ,lupercalia1 however1 formed the proper expiatory festival of ,faunus4 ,this festival was celebrated on the #aeth of ,february1 and was remarkable for the number of ancient customs which were observed4 ,the chief of these was the course of the ,luperci1 or priests of ,faunus1 who1 after making their offering1 ran from the shrine of the god 7,lupercal71 on the ,palatine1 through the streets of ,rome1 their only clothing being an apron cut from the skin of the slaughtered animal4 ,they struck all whom they met with thongs1 also cut from the same blood-stained skin4 ,barren women placed themselves in the way of the ,luperci1 believing that by means of the strokes the reproach of barrenness would be taken away from them4 ,as a day of atonement1 this day was termed dies februatus 7from februare1 to purify71 whence the name of the month4 ,the feminine counterpart of ,faunus1 though not his wife1 was ,fauna1 a propitious1 kindly goddess of the plains4 ,she is also called ,maia1 or ,bona ,dea4 ,the women made an offering to her every year at night1 on which occasion males were strictly excluded4 ,in art ,faunus bears exactly the same appearance as ,pan1 with whom1 indeed1 he was often identified4 #h4 ,priapus4--,the worship of ,priapus1 the god of fields and gardens1 appears to have been long of a purely local character1 confined principally to the districts on the ,hellespont1 since he is not even mentioned by earlier writers4 ,he was the son of ,dionysus and ,aphrodite1 and presided over the exuberant fertility of nature4 ,he was supposed to exercise influence over the fruitfulness of flocks and herds1 whilst fishing and the rearing of bees were also placed under his protection4 ,his special sphere1 however1 was the protection of gardens and vineyards4 ,asses were sacrificed to him1 a fact which gave rise to all sorts of comical stories relating to the hostility of ,priapus to this animal4 ,besides this1 he received the first fruits of the garden and field and drink-offerings of milk and honey4 ,the worship of ,priapus was introduced into ,italy at the same time as that of ,aphrodite1 and he was identified with the native ,mutunus4 ,this deity was scarcely noticed in higher art4 ,in the gardens of ,italy1 however1 rough-hewn pillars of wood1 similar to those of ,hermes1 were erected in his honour4 ,he is usually distinguished by a pruning-knife and club4 #i4 ,saturnus and ,ops4--,before passing to ,demeter1 or ,ceres1 the great goddess of civilisation1 to whom by ,greeks and ,romans alike the blessings of the harvest were ascribed1 and who forms the best link between the gods of the upper and lower worlds1 we must pause to consider some gods of agriculture and cattle-rearing peculiar to the ,romans4 ,among them are ,saturn and ,ops1 who belong to the most ancient national deities of ,italy4 ,to ,saturn was ascribed the introduction of agriculture1 together with the cultivation of the vine and other fruits4 ,he was1 therefore1 venerated as the great benefactor of mankind1 who not only promoted the physical welfare of men1 but who also introduced a higher standard of civilisation4 ,after the ,romans had become acquainted with the mythology of the ,greeks1 they identified him with ,cronus4 ,in consequence of this1 the story arose that1 after his dethronement by ,jupiter1 ,saturn fled to ,italy1 where he was hospitably received by ,janus4 ,there he is said to have brought together the inhabitants1 who had hitherto wandered about without any fixed homes1 and to have united them in regular political communities1 over which he himself ruled4 ,this was the golden age4 ,in remembrance of the happy age when men were not yet troubled by sorrow or need1 the ,saturnalia were celebrated during three days1 beginning from the #agth of ,december4 ,this festival1 which with changed meaning still continues in the ,carnival of the present day1 was celebrated in ,rome with particularly great splendour4 ,unbounded festivity reigned throughout the whole town1 and vented itself in every description of joke and prank4 ,the distinctions of class were suspended1 the courts and schools kept holiday1 and the shops were closed4 ,the chief day was the #aith of ,december1 which was especially a festive day for the slaves1 for on this day there were practically no slaves in ,rome4 ,no services were required of them1 and they were allowed to don the clothes of their masters and to eat and drink as much as they liked1 whilst their masters waited on them at table4 ,and this custom allowed a class1 otherwise subject to so many afflictions1 to forget their sorrows for at least one day in a year4 ,wealthy ,romans generally kept open house on this day1 and vied with each other in the splendour of their hospitalities2 and of course a solemn sacrifice was made to ,saturn4 ,the woollen bandages which1 during the greater part of the year1 enveloped the feet of his statue in order that he might not depart without vouchsafing a blessing1 were on this day unloosed1 and throughout the night the temple was illuminated with wax tapers4 ,this festival1 which was extremely popular among the ,romans1 was also celebrated with games in the circus4 ,the chief temple of ,saturn1 which was begun by ,tarquinius ,superbus and finished in the first years of the ,republic1 was situated on the ascent to the ,capitol from the ,forum4 ,beneath it was a vault containing the state treasury1 or rarium1 the guardianship of the state treasures being committed to this god as the dispenser of every blessing4 ,regarded as the wife of ,saturn1 and therefore identified with ,rhea1 ,ops was the goddess of the seed-time and harvest4 ,on this account her worship was closely connected with that of ,saturn1 and she had a place in his temple on the ,capitoline4 ,a festival was celebrated in honour of her on the #beth of ,august1 when the newly-gathered corn was threshed4 ,when taken together1 ,saturn and ,ops were regarded as deities who presided over marriage and the education of children1 it being an easy step from the deity of the sprouting1 ripening seed1 to that of the budding1 thriving season of human life4 ,saturn is always represented as an old man1 and is generally distinguished by a pruning-knife or sickle4 #aj4 ,vertumnus and ,pomona4--,vertumnus and ,pomona much resemble ,saturn and ,ops1 the only difference being that the former exert their influence solely on the growth and welfare of the fruits of the garden and orchard4 ,vertumnus properly signifies the self-changing one2 referring1 probably1 to the manifold changes which the fruit undergoes from the time of its first appearance in blossom to that of its maturity4 ,for the same reason the god was said to possess the faculty of assuming any shape he liked4 ,the first of the flowers and fruits were offered to him4 ,pomona1 as her name signifies1 was the goddess of the fruit harvest1 and called by the poets the wife of ,vertumnus4 ,each deity had a special priest 7flamen71 though the latter naturally held only an inferior position4 ,in art ,vertumnus generally appears as a beautiful youth1 his head crowned with a garland of ears of corn or laurel1 with a horn of plenty1 as a symbol of the blessings he bestows1 in his right hand4 ,he is sometimes distinguished by a dish filled with fruit1 or a pruning-knife4 ,pomona is generally represented as the season of ,autumn1 a beautiful maiden with boughs of fruit-trees in her hand4 #aa4 ,flora4--,among the inferior deities of the plain was ,flora1 the goddess of blossoms and flowers1 who was held in great honour by the ,sabines1 and everywhere in the interior of ,italy4 ,her worship is said to have been introduced into ,rome by ,numa1 who assigned the goddess a priest of her own4 ,she attained a higher significance by becoming a goddess of maternity1 whom women invoked before their confinement4 ,her festival was celebrated with great rejoicings from the #bhth of ,april to the #ast of ,may 7,floralia74 ,the doors of the houses were adorned with flowers1 and wreaths were worn in the hair4 ,after the first ,punic war1 the festival1 which was remarkable throughout for its merry and tumultuous character1 was also celebrated with games1 hares and deer being hunted in the circus4 ,artists appear to have represented ,flora as the season of ,spring1 in the guise of a beautiful girl crowned with flowers4 ,there is a fine marble statue of this kind1 larger than life1 in the museum at ,naples1 called the ,farnese ,flora4 #ab4 ,pales4--,pales was the ancient pastoral goddess of the ,italian tribes1 from whom the name ,palatine1 which originally meant nothing but a pastoral colony1 was derived4 ,she was especially venerated by the shepherds1 who besought her to send fruitfulness and health to their flocks4 ,a festival in her honour was celebrated on the #bast of ,april1 the anniversary of the foundation of the city 7,palilia71 at which very ancient rustic customs were observed4 ,the most remarkable of these was the kindling of a large straw fire1 through which the shepherds rushed with their flocks1 thinking thus to purify themselves from their sins4 ,milk and baked millet-cakes were offered to the goddess4 ,there is no statue of her now in existence4 #ac4 ,terminus4--,terminus1 although he had nothing to do either with the welfare of the crops or the fruitfulness of the flocks1 may yet be reckoned among the field deities1 as the god who specially presided over boundaries4 ,all landmarks were held sacred to him1 and their erection was attended with religious ceremonies4 ,in order that his people might fully appreciate the sanctity of boundaries1 ,king ,numa instituted a special festival in honour of the god1 called the ,terminalia1 and annually celebrated on the #bcrd of ,february4 ,the proprietors of lands bordering on each other were wont on this occasion to crown the boundary stone with garlands1 and to make an offering of a flat cake to the god4 ,in his wider signification ,terminus was regarded as the god under whose protection the boundaries of the state reposed1 and in this character he had a chapel in the temple of ,minerva on the ,capitol4 ,a statue of the god also stood in the midst of the temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus1 which is explained by the following story3--,after ,tarquinius had conceived the plan of building the great temple of ,jupiter on the ,capitol1 the limited space necessitated the removal of several existing shrines1 which could only occur with the consent of the deities themselves4 ,they all expressed by means of auguries their readiness to make way for the highest god of heaven1 except ,terminus1 who refused1 and whose shrine had therefore to be included in the temple of ,jupiter4 ,statues of ,terminus are exactly like the ,herm of the ,greeks1 and have no importance in art4 #ad4 ,demeter 7,ceres74--,demeter was a daughter of ,cronus and ,rhea4 ,her name signifies ,mother ,earth1 and she is1 therefore1 an expression of the ancient conception of the earth-goddess1 with a special reference to nature and human civilisation4 ,she was also named ,deo1 and by comparison of these two words1 her name has been interpreted as ,dawn-,mother1 from the same root as ,zeus1 the sky4 ,the thriving of the crops was ascribed to her influence2 she was further regarded as the patroness of all those arts which are more or less intimately connected with agriculture1 and which men first learned from her4 ,demeter thus rises to the rank of a goddess of civilisation4 ,she rescued men by means of agriculture from the lower grades of hunters and shepherds1 and brought their former rude and barbarous manners into subjection to law and morality4 ,she thus becomes that 8bountiful daughter of ,heaven10 who1 as ,schiller sings in his ,lay of the ,bell1 8of old ,called the wild man from waste and wold1 ,and1 in his hut thy presence stealing1 ,roused each familiar household feeling2 ,and1 best of all the happy ties1 ,the centre of the social band1-- ,the instinct of the ,fatherland40 ,regarded in this light1 she comes into contact with ,dionysus1 whose beneficial influence on human civilisation and manners we have already described4 ,this accounts for the intimate connection of these two deities in the ,eleusinian mysteries1 where ,dionysus-,iacchus even appears as the son of ,demeter and the husband of ,cora-,persephone4 ,owing to the important part she played in the institution of law and order among mankind1 she was venerated as the goddess of marriage1 marriage being the necessary foundation of civil society4 ,she was also regarded as the tutelary goddess of national assemblies4 ,of the numerous legends which are linked with the name of this goddess1 none perhaps is more celebrated1 or more pregnant with meaning in regard to her worship1 than the rape of her daughter ,persephone1 or ,cora4 ,the latter was once playing with the daughters of ,oceanus in a flowery meadow1 where they were picking flowers and making garlands4 ,persephone happened to quit her companions for a moment to pluck a narcissus she had perceived1 when suddenly the ground opened at her feet1 and ,pluto1 or ,hades1 the god of the infernal regions1 appeared in a chariot drawn by snorting horses4 ,swift as the wind he seized and carried off the terrified maiden in spite of her struggles1 and vanished again into the regions of darkness before her companions were aware of the catastrophe4 ,all this occurred1 however1 with the knowledge of ,zeus1 who had1 unknown to ,demeter1 promised her daughter to ,pluto4 ,when ,demeter missed her darling child1 and none could tell her where she had gone1 she kindled torches1 and during many days and nights wandered in anxiety through all the countries of the earth1 not even resting for food or sleep4 ,at length ,helios1 who sees and hears everything1 told ,demeter what had happened1 not disguising1 however1 that it had occurred with the consent of ,zeus4 ,full of wrath and grief1 the goddess now withdrew from the society of the other gods into the deepest solitude4 ,meanwhile all the fruits of the earth ceased1 and a general famine threatened to extinguish the human race4 ,in vain ,zeus sent one messenger after another1 beseeching the angry goddess to return to ,olympus4 ,demeter swore that she would neither return nor allow the fruits of the earth to grow until her daughter was restored to her4 ,at length ,zeus was fain to consent1 and despatched ,hermes to the lower world to bring ,persephone back4 ,persephone joyfully prepared to obey this command1 but as she was about to depart ,hades gave her a pomegranate-seed to eat1 whereupon she found herself bound to him and unable to return4 ,by means of ,zeus1 however1 a compact was made by which ,persephone was to spend two-thirds of the year in the upper world with her mother1 and the remaining portion with her husband4 ,and thus every year at springtide she ascends from her subterraneous kingdom to enjoy herself in her mother's company1 but returns again late in autumn to the regions of darkness and death4 ,it is not difficult to discover the meaning of this myth4 ,it is simply an allegorical representation of the spectacle that is annually renewed before our eyes--the dying away and coming to life again of the vegetable world4 ,whilst ,cora is dwelling during the winter months in the realms of ,hades1 ,nature appears to wear a garb of mourning for her lost daughter4 ,in the ,eleusinian mysteries this inevitable decease and resurrection of the vegetable world was conceived as a symbol of higher meaning1 setting forth the immortality of the soul4 ,every living being shares the fate of ,cora2 every life becomes the prey of cold1 inexorable death1 only to arise from the darkness of the grave more beautiful and glorious than before4 ,closely connected with this beautiful and expressive myth is another which refers to the institution of the ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,when ,demeter1 after the loss of her daughter1 was wandering over the earth in the guise of a poor old woman1 she came to ,eleusis4 ,the daughters of ,celes1 the king of the city1 found her sitting on a stone by the ,maidens' ,well as they came thither to draw water1 and offered the old woman service in their father's house as nurse to their youngest brother ,demophon4 ,the goddess consented1 and was kindly received in the house of ,celes1 where she was at once installed as nurse to the young prince4 ,she became so fond of the child that she resolved to make him immortal by anointing him with ambrosia1 and then laying him at night in the glow of the fire4 ,she was discovered at her work1 however1 by the mother of the child1 whose cries disturbed her1 and thus prevented her from fulfilling her benevolent intention4 ,she now revealed herself to ,celes1 and commanded him to build her a temple in ,eleusis4 ,when it had been hastily completed1 with the help of the goddess1 she initiated ,celes and some other princes of ,eleusis--,triptolemus1 ,eumolpus1 and ,diocles--in the solemn rites of her service4 ,on ,triptolemus1 who is called the son of ,celes1 she imposed the task of disseminating a knowledge of agriculture and of her own worship throughout the earth1 and for this purpose lent him her own chariot and dragons4 ,on this he travelled through the countries of the earth1 making known everywhere the blessings of agriculture1 and uniting men in regular political communities4 ,he was not well received in all places1 and the goddess had sometimes to step in and punish those who contemned her benefits4 ,such was the case with the ,scythian king ,lynceus and the ,thessalian prince ,erysichthon2 but at length her cause triumphed1 and the worship of the bountiful goddess spread itself over the whole world4 ,the chief seat of her worship was the city of ,eleusis1 which was beautifully situated on the bay of ,salamis4 ,it retained this honour even after it had lost its independence and come into the possession of the ,athenians4 ,the ,eleusinian mysteries were celebrated both here and at ,athens1 in honour of ,demeter and the deities associated with her4 ,they probably contained a symbolical history of ,cora4 ,there was a distinction between the greater and lesser mysteries4 ,the latter were celebrated at ,athens in the month of ,anthesterion 7,february71 and were a kind of preparation for the greater mysteries1 which took place in ,september1 and were celebrated during nine days1 partly at ,athens and partly at ,eleusis4 ,in these secret rites only those could take part who had been initiated4 ,the chief feature of the festival was a great and solemn procession on the sixth day from ,athens to ,eleusis1 a distance of about twelve miles4 ,all those who took part in it--often as many as #cj1jjj--were crowned with myrtle1 and bore torches in their hands1 as the procession started from ,athens at the earliest dawn4 ,the festival of the ,thesmophoria1 which was celebrated at the beginning of ,november1 in honour of ,demeter in her character of lawgiver and goddess of marriage1 was less important than the ,eleusinia4 ,it lasted for five days1 and only married women were allowed to take part in it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--;,demeter ,enthroned4 ,painting from ,pompeii4 ,naples4 ,the ,ceres of the ,romans1 though undoubtedly an ancient ,italian goddess1 was the very counterpart of the ,greek ,demeter1 with whom1 after the successful introduction of her worship during the first years of the ,republic1 she was entirely identified4 ,the chief festival of ,ceres and her associate deities1 ,liber and ,libera1 fell on the #aith of ,april1 which1 as the proper spring month1 was especially dedicated by the inhabitants of ,italy to deities presiding over agriculture4 ,the ,cerealia were opened by a grand procession1 in which every one was clothed in white4 ,it was further celebrated with solemn sacrifices and games in the circus1 the management of which lay with the plebeian diles4 ,the usual sacrifice1 both among ,greeks and ,romans1 was the sow 7the symbol of fruitfulness71 but1 besides this1 cows and the first fruits of the trees and hives were offered to her4 ,in the representations of the goddess an expression of lofty dignity is blended with condescending benevolence and gentleness4 ,her principal attributes are a torch1 a sheaf of corn1 a garland of ears of corn interwoven in her hair1 and a basket filled with flowers at her side4 ,among the few antique statues1 a large marble figure in the ,capitoline ,museum at ,rome deserves especial mention4 ,the engraving 7,fig4 #dd71 which is after a ,pompeian painting1 depicts ,demeter as the bountiful goddess of agriculture4 ,she is seated on a throne1 and holds a torch consisting of two calices in her right hand1 and a bunch of corn in her left4 #ae4 ,persephone 7,proserpina74--,in ,persephone1 the goddess of the lower world1 whom the ,athenians preferred to call by her mystic name of ,cora1 two distinct conceptions are embodied4 ,on the one hand she appears as the wife of the dark god of the lower world--like him1 a gloomy1 awe-inspiring deity1 who pitilessly drags down all that lives into the hidden depths of the earth2 whence the grave is called the chamber of ,persephone4 ,such is the view of her taken by ,homer and later epic poets4 ,these represent her as sitting enthroned at the side of her grim lord1 the joyless queen of the infernal regions1 to dwell in which were worse than to be a slave on earth4 ,on the other hand she appears as ,cora1 the lovely daughter of the all-bountiful ,mother ,earth2 a personification1 in fact1 of that never-dying force of nature which1 year by year1 causes the most luxuriant vegetation to spring up before our eyes1 only1 however1 to die away again in the autumn4 ,in a somewhat narrower sense ,persephone may be regarded as a type of the grain1 which long remains in the ground where it has been sown as though dead1 but afterwards breaks forth into new life4 ,it was only natural to associate with this last conception ideas of the immortality of the soul1 of which1 in the secret doctrines of the mysteries1 ,persephone was a symbol4 ,though we know but little concerning the details of the mysteries1 we are yet aware that their chief object was to disseminate better and purer ideas of a future life than the popular faith of the ,greeks afforded4 ,it was commonly believed that the souls of men after death led a dull1 miserable existence in the world of shadows4 ,those initiated in the mysteries1 however1 were taught that death was only a resurrection of the soul to a brighter and better life1 on the condition1 of course1 that a man had fully pleased the gods and rendered himself worthy of such a happy lot4 ,persephone1 or ,proserpina1 as she is called in ,latin1 was a deity originally entirely strange to the ,romans1 who borrowed all their ideas of the lower world from the ,greeks4 ,nevertheless1 they identified her with ,libera1 an ancient rustic goddess of fertility1 the feminine counterpart of ,liber1 under which name she signifies the same as the ,greek ,cora4 ,black1 barren cows were sacrificed to ,persephone as an infernal goddess1 but she does not appear to have had any temples of her own4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--,persephone ,enthroned4 ,painting from ,pompeii4 ,naples4 ,persephone is of no great importance in art1 and statues of her are rare4 ,she is represented either as the fair daughter of ,demeter1 or as the grave1 severe queen of the world of shadows4 ,in the latter character she may generally be recognised by her sceptre and diadem4 ,her other attributes are ears of corn1 a poppy1 and a torch1 as a symbol of her connection with the ,eleusinian mysteries1 besides the pomegranate and narcissus4 ,the engraving 7,fig4 #de71 after a painting in the ,naples ,museum1 represents her as the ,stygian queen4 #af4 ,hades 7,pluto74--,the same twofold nature which we meet with in ,persephone may be observed also in her husband1 ,hades1 or ,adoneus 7the invisible71 as he is called by the epic poets1 on account of the mysterious gloom in which his kingdom as well as his person was enveloped4 ,he first appears as the unrelenting1 inexorable foe of human life1 on whom one cannot even think without fear and trembling4 ,for this reason1 says ,homer1 8he is of all the gods the most detested among mortals40 ,this conception1 however1 was subsequently supplanted by one of a less dismal nature1 in which the other side of his character is brought into prominence4 ,from this point of view he is represented not only as sending nourishment to plants from the deep bosom of the earth1 but also as offering unbounded riches to mankind in the shape of the precious metals which lie in his subterraneous passages and chambers4 ,in this sense he was also called ,pluto1 or ,pluteus--that is1 the god of riches4 ,hades belonged to the earliest deities of ,greece1 being1 like ,poseidon1 a brother of ,zeus4 ,when the three brothers partitioned the universe among themselves1 ,hades received the dark regions of the earth as his exclusive kingdom1 the portals of which he was said to keep closed1 in order that no soul might return to the upper world without his consent4 ,he was also termed ,polydectes 7the receiver of many71 from the fact of his seizing on all men1 without distinction1 at their appointed time1 and conveying them to his dismal realms4 ,the ideas which men first entertained1 as to the mode in which ,hades exercised his power over mortals1 exactly corresponded with their grim conception of the god4 ,he was looked on as a powerful and dreaded robber1 who1 as in the case of ,persephone1 seizes on his prey and carries it off with his swift horses4 ,later1 a milder conception of the god was introduced4 ,the task of carrying the souls of the dead to the lower world was delegated to ,hermes1 who thus became a servant of ,pluto1 the ,zeus of the infernal regions1 just as he was otherwise a servant of the ,zeus of heaven4 ,but though the original dismal conception of this deity as the inexorable god of death was much diminished in course of time1 yet ,hades1 nevertheless1 always conveyed an idea of something grim and mysterious to the ,greek mind2 which is perhaps the reason why so few myths1 beyond that of the rape of ,proserpina1 were circulated concerning him4 ,he can1 in fact1 scarcely be said to have had a place in the public worship of the ,greeks4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,head of ,hades4 ,palazzo ,chigi4 ,rome4 ,the ,roman conception of this deity differed little from that of the ,greeks1 having been1 in fact1 borrowed entirely from a ,greek source4 ,by them he was called ,pluto1 or ,pater ,dis4 ,he had no temple in ,rome1 but had1 in common with ,proserpina1 a subterranean altar in the ,campus ,martius1 which was uncovered and used once a-year4 ,only black animals were sacrificed to him4 ,artists naturally hesitated to portray a being whose very name they feared to pronounce1 and consequently antique statues of ,hades are very rare4 ,his characteristic features--a grim expression of countenance1 tightly-closed lips1 and long tangled hair--are embodied in a marble head1 in the possession of ,prince ,chigi at ,rome1 of which we give an engraving 7,fig4 #df74 ,his principal attributes are a sceptre1 a votive bowl1 and sometimes a two-pronged fork1 or a key4 #ag4 ,the ,lower ,world4--,to our consideration of ,hades we must add some remarks on the ideas which the ancient ,greeks and ,romans had of the other life and of the abodes of the dead4 ,it may be well to remark1 at the outset1 that the ,romans do not originally appear to have believed in a kingdom of the dead in the interior of the earth1 and that all their ideas on this subject were borrowed from the writings of the ,greeks4 ,neither do their ideas on this subject1 nor even those of the ,greeks1 appear to have been invariably the same at all times4 ,even in the poetry of ,homer we come across two very different views as to the situation of the realms of the dead4 ,according to that which we find in the ,iliad1 it was situated beneath the disc-shaped earth1 only a thin layer separating it from the upper world4 ,this is made evident on the occasion of the great battle of the gods in the #bjth book1 where we read-- 8,pluto1 the infernal monarch1 heard alarmed1 ,and1 springing from his throne1 cried out in fear1 ,lest ,neptune1 breaking through the solid earth1 ,to mortals and immortals should lay bare ,his dark and drear abode of gods abhorred40 ,according to another view which prevails in the ,odyssey1 the world of shadows was not situated beneath the earth1 but lay far to the westward1 on the other side of ,oceanus1 or on an island in the same2 so indefinite and vague were men's ideas as to the locality of the kingdom of death in the time of ,homer1 and so undeveloped were their conceptions as to the lives of departed souls4 ,the lower world appears as a desolate1 dismal region1 where departed spirits lead a shadowy1 dreamy existence1 to reach which is no happiness4 ,there is no difference in their lots2 for we as yet hear nothing of the judgment of the dead4 ,the ,elysian fields1 to which the special favourites of the gods were transferred1 form no part of the lower world in ,homer1 but were supposed to lie in an entirely distinct region in the far ,west 7the isles of the blest74 ,later on1 the outlines of the lower world become more clearly defined4 ,it was now supposed to be a region in the centre of the earth1 with several passages to and from the upper world4 ,through it flowed several rivers--,cocytus1 ,pyriphlegethon1 ,acheron1 and ,styx4 ,the last of these encompassed the lower world several times1 and could only be crossed by the aid of ,charon1 the ferryman1 who was depicted as a sullen old man with a bristling beard4 ,the ,greeks therefore used to place an obolus 7small copper coin7 in the mouths of their dead1 in order that the soul might not be turned back by ,charon for lack of money4 ,on the farther side of the river the portals were watched by the dreadful hell-hound ,cerberus1 a three-headed monster1 who refused no one entrance1 but allowed none to leave the house of ,pluto4 ,all souls1 on reaching the lower world1 had to appear before the tribunal of ,minos1 ,rhadamanthus1 and acus4 ,those whose lives had been upright were then permitted to enter ,elysium1 where they led a life of uninterrupted bliss2 whilst those who on earth had been criminal and wicked were consigned to ,tartarus1 where they were tormented by the ,furies and other evil spirits4 ,those whose lives had not been distinctly good or bad remained in the asphodel meadow1 where as dim shadows they passed a dull1 joyless existence4 ,the punishments of great criminals in the infernal regions were a fruitful theme for the imagination of the poets4 ,the most celebrated criminals were ,tityus1 ,tantalus1 ,sisyphus1 ,ixion1 and the ,danaids4 ,we have said that the idea of the judgment of the dead is not found in the earliest legends4 ,hence we must expect to find1 in some cases1 that the crimes supposed to have drawn down the wrath of the gods were either later inventions1 or had very little connection with the punishment inflicted4 ,thus to take the case of ,tantalus1 the original idea appears to have been the burning sun looking upon sweet fruits and streams of water1 and drying them up instead of being able to enjoy them4 ,it is possible that another part of the legend1 the offering of his children for the gods of heaven to eat1 may have a similar origin4 ,so the story of ,sisyphus seems to point to the sun daily toiling up the steep hill of heaven1 yet ever obliged to recommence his weary task4 ,so the name ,ixion seems to be derived from a word meaning wheel1 and to be yet another allusion to the orb of day4 ,as men began to forget the reality underlying these words1 and to think that some real person suffered these woes1 it was only natural that they should try to find a reason4 ,generally1 perhaps always1 some point in the story could be twisted into a crime deserving of punishment 7compare the legend of dipus74 ,the punishment of ,tityus1 who had offered violence to ,leto1 consisted in being chained to the earth1 whilst two vultures continually gnawed at his ever-growing liver4 ,tantalus1 the ancestor of the ,atrid1 ,agamemnon and ,menelaus1 had been deemed worthy to hold intercourse with the gods1 until he thought fit to put their omniscience to the test by setting before them the flesh of his son ,pelops4 ,this crime he was condemned to expiate by the torments of continual hunger and thirst4 ,above his head were suspended the most beautiful fruits2 but when he attempted to snatch them1 a gust of wind blew them beyond his reach4 ,at his feet flowed a stream of the purest water2 but when he tried to quench his thirst1 it suddenly vanished into the ground4 ,sisyphus1 formerly king of ,corinth1 had provoked the wrath of the gods by his numerous crimes1 and was condemned1 in consequence1 to roll a block of stone up a high mountain1 which1 on reaching the top1 always rolled down again to the plain4 ,ixion1 a not less insolent offender1 was bound hand and foot to an ever-revolving wheel4 ,lastly1 the ,danaids1 or daughters of ,danaus1 who1 at their father's command1 had slain their husbands on the wedding night1 were condemned to pour water continually into a cask full of holes1 which could never be filled4 #ah4 ,the ,erinyes 7,furi74--,the ,erinyes1 or ,furies1 were denizens of the lower world1 who executed the commands of ,hades and ,persephone4 ,they were ultimately three in number1 and their names were ,tisiphone1 ,alecto1 and ,megra2 and this number1 like that of the ,graces1 the ,fates1 and others1 is due to the fact that the ,greeks expressed any undefined number by the sacred numeral three4 ,in their original signification they appear as the avengers of every violation1 either on the part of gods or men1 of the moral laws of the universe4 ,when1 at a later period1 the idea of an avenging ,nemesis had become more and more developed1 the significance of the ,erinyes diminished1 and their avenging duties were confined to the family4 ,as the inexorable pursuers of every injury done to the sacred ties of blood--especially the murder of kindred--they received a much greater degree of attention at the hands of the ,greek tragic poets1 by whom they were frequently brought on the stage4 ,the pictures thus drawn of the relentless activity of the ,erinyes are both powerful and striking4 ,nothing can equal the keen scent with which they trace the crime1 or the untiring speed with which they pursue the criminal4 ,as a symbol of this latter quality1 the poets have endowed them with brazen feet4 ,their appearance is wan and ,gorgon-like2 wild lust for blood is written in their features1 and the serpents which twine round their heads in the place of hair deal out destruction and death on their unhappy victims4 ,flight avails them nought1 for there is no region whither the avenging ,furies cannot follow1 no distance that they cannot compass4 ,with torch swung on high they dog the steps of the unhappy wretch1 like swift huntresses following in the track of their hard-pressed game1 and never rest until they have driven him to madness and death4 ,what1 then1 was the origin of the belief in these dreadful beings8 ,two explanations have been given1 and in each case we shall see in them the powers of nature4 ,whether we are to look upon them as the storm-clouds darting lightnings upon the criminal1 or as the bright dawn rising over the earth and pointing out his hiding-place1 we must recognise the idea of the punishment of sin1 inflicted by the powers of heaven4 ,if1 as seems most probable 7cf4 the genealogy given them by schylus and ,sophocles71 we are to take the latter explanation1 we shall have some reason for the names of 8kindly0 and 8venerable10 applied to them by the ,greeks1 partly1 no doubt1 owing to the ancient custom of avoiding words of ill-omen4 ,yet poetical mythology treated this as a transformation of their nature1 and associated it with a special event1 namely1 the institution of the ,areopagus at ,athens1 and the purification of the matricide ,orestes effected by this venerable court4 ,the story relates that ,orestes1 after having slain his mother ,clytmnestra and her infamous paramour gisthus1 in revenge for the murder of his father ,agamemnon1 wandered for a long time about the earth in a state bordering on madness1 owing to the persecution of the ,erinyes4 ,at length1 however1 he was befriended by ,apollo and ,athene1 the kindly deities of the luminous ther4 ,apollo first purified him before his own altar at ,delphi1 and then defended him before the court of the ,areopagus1 which had been founded by ,athene4 ,orestes was here acquitted1 for ,athene1 when the votes for and against him were equal1 declared that then and in all future time the criminal should have the benefit of the doubt4 ,the ,furies1 indeed1 were at first very wroth1 and threatened the land with barrenness both of women and soil2 but ,athene succeeded in pacifying them1 by promising that a shrine should be erected to them on the hill of the ,areopagus4 ,after they had taken possession of this sanctuary1 they were thenceforth venerated by the ,athenians1 under the names of ,semn 7venerable71 or ,eumenides 7benevolent71 as propitious deities who1 though they still continued to punish crimes1 were ever ready to grant mercy to the repentant sinner1 and to give succour to all good men4 ,there were different traditions concerning the origin of the ,erinyes4 ,according to ,hesiod1 they owed their existence to the first execrable crime committed since the beginning of the world1 for they were the daughters of ,earth1 and sprang from the drops of blood that fell from the mangled body of ,uranus4 ,they here appear1 therefore1 as an embodiment of the curses which the angry father invoked on the head of his unnatural son4 ,sophocles1 on the other hand1 calls them the daughters of ,ga and ,scotos 7darkness of night74 schylus simply terms them the daughters of the ,night4 ,besides the shrine in ,athens already mentioned1 they had another near the city1 a sacred grove in ,colonus1 which was celebrated as the last refuge of the unfortunate dipus4 ,in ,athens they had an annual festival1 at which libations of milk and honey were made to them4 ,in art the ,erinyes are represented as swift huntresses1 armed with spear1 bow1 and quiver4 ,torches1 scourges1 or snakes were also put in their hands4 ,they were1 moreover1 provided with wings on their shoulders or head as a token of their swiftness4 #ai4 ,hecate4--,among the mystic deities of the lower world we must not omit to mention ,hecate4 ,by the ,romans1 indeed1 she was never publicly venerated1 though she was not exactly unknown to them4 ,common tradition made her a daughter of the ,titan ,perseus and ,asteria4 ,she ruled principally over the secret forces of ,nature1 which perhaps explains the spectral and awe-inspiring form which this goddess assumed4 ,she was supposed to preside over all nocturnal horrors1 and not only to haunt the tombs and cross-roads herself in company with the spirits of the dead1 but also to send nightly phantoms from the lower world1 such as the man-eating spectre ,empusa1 and other fabulous goblins4 ,as her name seems to signify1 ,hecate 7far-striking7 was originally a moon-goddess1 not like either ,artemis or ,selene1 but representing the new moon in its invisible phase4 ,the ancients not being able to account for the different phases of the moon1 naturally came to the conclusion that1 when invisible1 it was tarrying in the lower world4 ,the public worship of the goddess was not very extensive1 but her importance in connection with the mysteries was all the greater4 ,men were wont to affix small pictures of her to houses and city gates1 which were supposed to prevent any bad spells from affecting the town or house4 ,on the last day of every month her image on the house doors was crowned with garlands1 and viands were set before it in her honour1 which were afterwards eaten by the poor1 and termed the meals of ,hecate4 ,wooden images of the goddess with three faces were generally set up where three roads met1 and here dogs were sacrificed to her as sin-offerings for the dead4 ,this usually took place on the thirtieth day after death4 ,as in the case of other infernal deities1 black lambs were sacrificed to her1 besides libations of milk and honey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,three-formed ,hecate4 ,capitoline ,museum4 ,hecate was generally represented as three-formed 7triformis71 which probably has some connection with the appearance of the full1 half1 and new moon4 ,in order to explain more clearly the nature of such a representation1 we give an engraving 7,fig4 #dg7 after a bronze statuette in the ,capitoline ,museum at ,rome4 ,the figure facing us holds in her hands a key and a rope1 which point her out as the portress of the lower world2 over her brow is a disc1 representing1 probably1 the dark surface of the new moon4 ,the figure on the right holds in either hand a torch1 in virtue of her character as a mystic goddess1 whilst on her brow is a half-moon and a lotus-flower4 ,lastly1 the third figure bears1 as a symbol of the full moon1 a ,phrygian cap with a radiant diadem fastened on it1 which gives forth seven rays2 in her right hand is a knife1 in her left the tail of a serpent1 of which no satisfactory interpretation has hitherto been discovered4 #bj4 ,sleep and ,death4--,sleep and ,death were conceived by the ancients as twin brothers4 ,according to ,hesiod1 they were children of ,night alone4 ,they dwelt in the lower world1 whence they visited the earth to steal over mortals2 the former a kindly benevolent spirit1 the latter grim and cruel4 ,apart from this conception1 which was especially developed by later poets and artists1 ,death was sometimes depicted as quite distinct from ,sleep1 and in a still less amiable guise4 ,the different forms of violent death were personified as female deities of formidable aspect1 called the ,ceres2 or ,apollo and ,artemis among the inhabitants of heaven1 and ,pluto and ,persephone among those of the lower world1 were represented1 as the deities of death4 ,the ,romans had a personal god of death1 whom they called ,orcus2 he was represented as an armed warrior dealing out mortal wounds among mankind4 ,but none of these special gods of death had any great importance1 either in religion or art4 ,artists1 indeed1 laboured sedulously to diminish the dreadful appearance of ,thanatus 7death71 and to render him more and more like his brother ,hypnus 7sleep74 ,thanatus and ,hypnus often appear in company1 either sleeping or standing2 the former usually bears a reversed torch1 the latter a poppy-stalk or a horn1 out of which he is pouring some liquid4 ,they are both generally represented in the bloom of youth4 ,in ,fig4 #cd1 which is after a drawing of ,asmus ,carstens1 they appear as the children of ,night1 and are here brought into immediate connection with the other powers1 ,nemesis and the ,parc1 who control the destinies of man4 ,besides ,sleep and ,death1 ,hesiod also mentions ,dreams as the children of ,night4 ,other writers1 however1 call them the sons of ,sleep1 who dwell in the far ,west1 close to the realms of ,hades4 ,this house of dreams has1 in ,homer's well-known description1 two gates--one of ivory1 through which pass flattering1 deceptive dreams1 and one of horn1 whence the true dreams proceed4 ,morpheus was made the special god of dreams by the poets1 and termed the son of ,hypnus4 ,,iv4--,,roman ,,deities ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,and ,,family4 ,before passing to the heroic legends1 some remarks are necessary concerning the inferior deities1 who played such an important part in the domestic worship of the ,romans4 ,we have already incidentally remarked that the people of ,italy generally passed by the greater gods of the heaven and earth in anxious awe4 ,their invocation and adoration was left to public worship1 whilst1 in their less important domestic concerns1 men had recourse to certain inferior deities1 whom they thought nearer to them2 just as in the present day1 in ,italy1 the common people prefer to communicate their prayers and wishes to their patron saints rather than to the ,almighty himself4 #a4 ,the ,penates4--,the ,penates were the kindly domestic deities of the ,romans--the guardians of the household1 who especially provided for its daily wants4 ,of their name1 number1 and sex nothing is known--not because the facts have been lost to us1 but because the ,romans themselves were content with this indefinite conception4 ,similar good spirits1 exerting an active influence in the household1 were recognised by popular ,german superstition1 without experiencing any necessity of having distinct names for them4 ,the shrine of the ,penates consisted of the hearth1 the central point of the house1 which not only served for the preparation of meals1 but was also especially dedicated to religious purposes4 ,it stood in the 8atrium10 the only large room in the ,roman house1 where the family met for meals and received visitors4 ,on the hearth1 a fire was continually kept burning in honour of ,vesta and the ,penates4 ,around it1 after the introduction of images of the gods1 were placed the statues of the ,penates4 ,these were generally small and puppet-like1 and1 among the poorer classes1 were only roughly cut out of wood4 ,there was no domestic occurrence1 either of joy or mourning1 in which the ,penates did not take part4 ,like the ,lares1 of whom we shall speak presently1 they participated in the daily meal1 portions being set on certain plates for that purpose before the images4 ,there were also ,state ,penates1 the ancients regarding the state as nothing but an extended family4 ,the temple of ,vesta was to the state what the hearth was to the household4 ,here was the seat of their worship1 and here it was that the ,roman ,pontifex ,maximus brought those offerings which1 in private households1 were the part of the head of the family4 ,in the innermost sanctuary of the temple of ,vesta there were statues of these ,penates1 of great sanctity1 since neas was reported to have brought them with him from ,troy4 ,we have no trustworthy information as to their number or appearance1 for1 with the exception of the ,pontifex and the ,vestal ,virgins1 none ever entered the holy place4 ,it is scarcely necessary to add that they were believed to exercise an especial influence on the welfare and prosperity of the state and people of ,rome4 #b4 ,the ,lares4--,the ,lares1 like the ,penates1 were the tutelary deities of the house and family1 and on that account often confounded with them4 ,they were commonly supposed to be the glorified spirits of ancestors1 who1 as guardian deities1 strove to promote the welfare of the family4 ,the seat of their worship was also the family hearth in the atrium1 where their images of wood or wax were generally preserved in a separate shrine of their own 7,lararium74 ,the ,lares received an especial degree of veneration on the first day of every month2 but1 like the ,penates1 they took part in all the domestic occurrences1 whether of joy or sorrow4 ,like the ,penates1 they also received their share at every meal on particular dishes1 and were crowned with garlands on the occasion of every family rejoicing4 ,when a son assumed the toga virilis 7came of age71 he dedicated his bulla#e to the ,lares1 amid prayers and libations and burning of incense4 ,when the father of the house started on a journey or returned in safety1 the ,lares were again addressed1 and their statues crowned with wreaths1 flowers and garlands being their favourite offerings4 ,footnote #e3 ,a gold or silver ornament1 like a medal1 which was worn round the neck during childhood4 ,the same conception which pervades the domestic ,lares may be perceived in a more extensive form in the ,lares of the ,gens1 the city1 and the state itself4 ,the ,lares do not appear1 in fact1 to have differed in many respects from the heroes worshipped by the ,greeks4 ,at all events1 ,romulus and ,remus1 the mythical founders of the city1 were regarded as its ,lares1 and1 in the time of ,augustus1 the genius of the emperor was associated with them4 #c4 ,larv1 ,lemures1 and ,manes4--,just as the ,lares were regarded as the good and happy spirits of ancestors1 the souls of others were supposed to wander about in the guise of evil demons and spectres1 giving rise to weird terrors1 and casting bad spells on the senses of those whom they met4 ,such was especially believed to be the fate of those who had not received burial1 or in whose case the prescribed ceremonies had been neglected1 and who being1 in consequence1 unable to find rest1 were doomed to flit about the earth4 ,such spirits were called ,larv1 or ,lemures4 ,the propitiatory festival of the ,lemuria1 or ,lemuralia1 which was said to have been instituted in memory of the murdered ,remus1 was celebrated annually in their honour on the #ith1 #aath1 and #acth of ,may4 ,every paterfamilias was supposed during these days to perform certain midnight ceremonies1 and to repeat certain forms1 which had the effect of banishing any evil spirits4 ,in contrast to the ,lares and ,larv1 the souls of the dead were also commonly venerated as ,manes1 or good spirits4 ,these were believed after burial to have been converted into beings of a higher order1 who dwelt1 indeed1 in the interior of the earth1 but exercised1 notwithstanding1 a considerable influence on the affairs of the upper world4 ,it was possible to summon them from the lower world by means of sacrifices4 ,a general festival of the dead took place in ,february1 when the ,manes were propitiated with offerings and libations4 ,these offerings were placed on the tombs of the deceased1 and1 of course1 varied extremely1 according to the means of the donors4 ,illustration ,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,heroes4 ,i4--,,introductory4 ,on passing to heroic mythology1 a world still more rich in marvels than that with which we have already become acquainted presents itself to our view4 ,the greater extent of this department of mythic lore is easily comprehensible1 if we take into consideration the multitude of separate existences into which ,greek life was split up1 even from the earliest times4 ,each of the numberless countries1 islands1 cities1 and towns endeavoured to trace back its peculiar institutions to mythical founders and ancestors2 and as these were always described either as the sons or as the favourites of the gods1 there accordingly sprang up1 in course of time1 a vast number of local heroic legends4 ,these fabulous founders of states1 however1 were not the only heroes of ,greek mythology4 ,the attempt to pierce the clouds of obscurity which enveloped the early history of mankind1 and the desire of a more enlightened age to bridge over the intervening gulf1 and fill it with beings who should form a connecting link between the sublime forms of the great inhabitants of ,olympus and the puny race of mortals1 naturally gave rise to a whole series of heroic legends4 ,these were partly the property of entire nationalities1 or even of the whole ,hellenic race1 and partly of a local or provincial character4 ,moreover1 as the gods collectively were divided into gods proper and dmones--that is to say1 spirits resembling the gods1 but inferior to them in wisdom and power1 whose workings men saw in air and earth and sea--even so the race of mortals was divided into heroes and men1 between whom a similar difference subsisted4 ,the latter are1 in their nature1 not different from the former--both are alike mortal1 and must at length fall a prey to inexorable death4 ,but the heroes are endowed with a degree of physical strength and dexterity1 courage and endurance under difficulties1 such as never fall to the lot of ordinary men4 ,it was not1 however1 by any means all who lived in this early mythical period who were accounted heroes2 but1 just as in ,genesis vi4 #b a distinction is made between the 8sons of ,god0 and the 8daughters of men10 so in the present instance the heroes were the mighty ones--the ruling spirits of the age--those whose marvellous exploits contributed to remove the obstacles to civilisation and culture1 who delivered countries from cruel robbers and savage beasts1 who drained marshes1 made roads through untrodden forests1 and regulated the course of rivers4 ,by their actions they proved themselves men of no ordinary powers1 endowed with divine strength1 and1 therefore1 apparently of divine origin4 ,it appeared1 at least1 that such beings must have had an origin different from that of ordinary men1 who were made out of clay1 or sprang from trees or stones4 ,some of these heroes may perhaps have had a real existence1 having probably been the ancestors of the later dominant races1 to whom a dim tradition reached4 ,others were undoubtedly a product of the imagination4 ,to these may be added a third class1 and this is by far the most numerous1 including those who were originally personifications of various natural phenomena1 and1 as such1 deified and venerated in local forms of worship1 but who were later1 in consequence of the birth of new political communities1 expelled from their place in public worship1 and only continued to exist in the popular faith in the inferior character of heroes4 ,many such heroes were afterwards again promoted to the rank of gods1 though with an altered meaning 7e4g41 ,heracles74 ,any real veneration of heroes by prayers and sacrifices can scarcely be said to have existed before the migration of the ,heraclid--at least there is no mention of it in ,homer4 ,even later1 except in the case of those heroes who were raised to the rank of gods for their great deeds1 and who were1 therefore1 worshipped in temples of their own1 the worship of heroes is scarcely to be distinguished from that of the dead4 ,homer makes no distinction between the fate of heroes after death and that of ordinary mortals1 all being doomed alike to the gloomy realms of ,hades4 ,as we have already observed1 it was only certain special favourites1 or sons of ,zeus1 who were excepted from this gloomy lot1 and were transported in their bodily shape to the ,isles of the ,blest4 ,hesiod1 on the other hand1 says that all heroes--whom he1 in the first instance1 terms demigods--were transported to the ,isles of the ,blest1 where ,cronus ruled over them4 ,here1 for the first time1 the idea of a just retribution in the other world takes a definite shape2 for ,hesiod obviously conceives a residence in ,elysium to be the reward of meritorious actions performed in the upper world4 ,this idea was subsequently more fully developed1 especially in the mysteries1 and men were gradually elevated to a belief in the immortality of the soul4 ,the spirits of the dead were believed1 even after they were in their graves1 to exert continually a mysterious influence2 on which account men strove to gain their favour by means of offerings1 thereby removing every real distinction between the worship of heroes and that of the dead4 ,amid the multitude of legends of this kind1 we shall only dwell upon those which occupy a prominent position either in poetry or in art4 ,we shall begin with those which relate to the creation and early civilisation of mankind1 after which we shall pass to the most celebrated provincial legends1 and conclude with those that refer to the more important of the common undertakings of the later heroic age4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,creation ,,and ,,primitive ,,condition ,,of ,,mankind4 ,the legends concerning the origin of the human race differ very widely4 ,the most ancient are undoubtedly those which describe men as springing from the trees or rocks4 ,another tradition asserts that the human race was of later growth1 having been first called into existence by ,zeus and the gods of ,olympus4 ,a third account makes the ,titan ,prometheus1 the son of ,iapetus1 the creator of mankind1 but leaves it uncertain whether this took place before or after the flood of ,deucalion4 ,prometheus1 according to this account1 made men of clay and water1 after which ,athene breathed a soul into them4 ,there were likewise various accounts concerning the primeval condition of mankind4 ,according to one1 the human race raised itself1 with the assistance of the gods1 from a state of helpless barbarism3 this progress was the subject of numerous legends4 ,another account represents men as living originally in a holy and happy communion with the gods 7the golden age71 and asserts that they first became savage after having lost this good fortune by their presumption4 ,of the myths that relate to the introduction of the first elements of civilisation among mankind by divine aid1 there is none1 except those already mentioned concerning ,dionysus and ,demeter1 more celebrated than the story of ,prometheus4 ,the ,titan ,iapetus had1 by ,clymene1 the daughter of ,oceanus1 four sons--the stout-hearted ,atlas1 the presumptuous ,mentius1 the crafty ,prometheus1 and the foolish ,epimetheus4 ,with the name of ,prometheus is linked the idea of the first commencement of civilisation among mankind by the introduction of fire4 ,prometheus is said to have stolen fire from heaven1 and to have taught its use to man4 ,by being employed for all the common purposes of daily life1 however1 this pure celestial element became polluted2 whereupon ,zeus visited the author of this sacrilege with a fearful punishment4 ,he ordered ,prometheus to be chained to a rock1 where1 during the day-time1 an eagle devoured his liver 7the seat of all evil desires71 which always grew again during the night4 ,it is very difficult to see the origin of this series of legends1 but the foundation seems to be the discovery of fire by man4 ,at any rate1 one word1 closely resembling the name ,prometheus1 appears in ,india as the name of the stick used to produce fire by friction4 ,if this be the case1 we shall see in parts of the ,greek legend instances of the ever-recurring principle1 that when the real derivation of a word is lost1 men try to give it an explanation by attaching it to the nearest word in the existing language 7cf4 the derivation of ,pan mentioned p4 #acj74 ,when the notion of 8forethought0 had once been attached to his name1 it would be natural to invent a complementary legend about his brother ,epimetheus 7afterthought74 ,the legend of ,prometheus appears in its grandest form in schylus' play1 8,prometheus ,bound40 ,the idea that1 together with the introduction of civilisation1 many evils which were before unknown to man came into existence1 is expressed in the myth of ,pandora4 ,zeus determined to leave mankind in possession of ,prometheus' gift2 but he ordered ,hephstus to make an image of a beautiful woman1 which the gods then endowed with life and adorned with all kinds of gifts1 whence she was called ,pandora4 ,aphrodite bestowed on her the seductive charms that kindle love1 ,athene instructed her in every art1 ,hermes endued her with a smooth tongue and a crafty disposition1 whilst the ,seasons and ,graces adorned her with flowers and fine dresses4 ,zeus then sent her1 under the guidance of ,hermes1 to the foolish ,epimetheus1 who1 in spite of the warning of his brother not to accept any present from ,zeus1 received ,pandora and made her his wife4 ,there was in the house of ,epimetheus a closed jar1 which he had been forbidden to open1 and which contained all kinds of diseases and ills4 ,pandora removed the cover and these escaped1 and men who had before been free from disease and care have ever since been tormented4 ,pandora closed the jar in time to keep in ,hope4 ,thus both ,greek legend and ,biblical tradition alike represent woman as the first cause of evil and death4 ,the legend of the five ages of mankind transports us to quite another region of tradition4 ,according to this1 the gods first created a golden race of men1 who lived free from care and sorrow1 while the earth1 of its own accord1 furnished them with all that was necessary to support life4 ,subject neither to the infirmities of age nor to the pangs of sickness and disease1 men at last sank peacefully1 as into a sweet sleep1 to death4 ,in what manner the golden age disappeared is not related2 we are only told that this race1 notwithstanding its disappearance1 still continues to exist in the upper world1 in the shape of good spirits1 who guard and protect mortals4 ,after this1 the gods created a second 7silver7 race of men1 who were1 however1 far inferior to their predecessors1 both in mind and body4 ,they passed their time in idle and effeminate pursuits1 and refused to pay the gods due honours4 ,zeus1 in his wrath1 thereupon blotted them out from the face of the earth1 and created the third 7brazen7 race of mankind out of ash wood4 ,this race proved headstrong and violent4 ,they were of giant stature and great strength1 and took pleasure in nothing but battle and strife4 ,their weapons1 houses1 and utensils were of bronze1 iron not yet being known4 ,zeus was not compelled to destroy this evil race1 since they destroyed themselves in their bloodthirsty strife4 ,according to another account1 they were destroyed by the flood of ,deucalion4 ,deucalion appears to have been a son of ,prometheus1 while his wife ,pyrrha was the daughter of ,epimetheus and ,pandora4 ,zeus having determined to destroy the corrupt race of the third or bronze age by a flood1 ,prometheus warned his son1 who built himself an ark1 into which he retired with his wife when the waters began to rise4 ,nine days and nights he was tossed on the waters2 at length his vessel rested on ,mount ,parnassus in ,botia4 ,he disembarked1 and immediately offered a sacrifice of thanksgiving to ,zeus the preserver4 ,pleased at his gratitude1 ,zeus granted his prayer for the restoration of the human race2 and ,deucalion and ,pyrrha were commanded by ,hermes to cast stones behind them1 from which sprang a new race of men4 ,such is the legend in its most ancient form2 later writers engrafted on it still farther incidents of ,biblical tradition1 until at last the ,greek ,noah was represented as having taken living animals with him into the ark1 and as having let loose a dove after his landing on ,parnassus4 ,,iii4--,,provincial ,,heroic ,,legends4 #a4 ,the ,lapith and the ,centaurs4--,we shall commence with the ,thessalian legend of the ,lapith and ,centaurs1 on account of its great antiquity and its importance in sculpture4 ,we read in the ,homeric poems how the hoary ,nestor on one occasion boasts of having1 in his younger days1 taken part with his friends ,pirithos and ,cneus1 and the other princes of the ,lapith1 in their contest with the savage ,centaurs4 ,in ,homer's account the ,centaurs are merely depicted as an old ,thessalian mountain tribe of giant strength and savage ferocity1 utterly unable to control their rude1 sensual nature4 ,nor do we find here any mention of their being half horses and half men2 they are merely said to have inhabited the mountain districts of ta and ,pelion1 in ,thessaly1 and to have been driven thence by the ,lapith into the higher mountain-lands of ,pindus4 ,their contest with the ,lapith is sometimes conceived as a symbol of the struggle of ,greek civilisation with the still existing barbarism of the early ,pelasgian period4 ,this may be the reason why ,greek art1 when in its bloom1 devoted itself so especially to this subject4 ,the origin of this contest is referred to the marriage feast of ,pirithos and ,hippodamia1 to which the principal ,centaurs had been invited4 ,on this occasion the ,centaur ,eurytion1 heated with wine1 attempted to carry off the bride2 this gave rise to a contest which1 after dreadful losses on both sides1 ended in the complete defeat of the ,centaurs4 ,the ,centaurs1 however1 since they were thus able to sit with the ,lapith at meat1 must have been endowed with purely human forms4 ,theseus and ,nestor1 the friends of ,pirithos1 both took part in the battle4 ,another prominent warrior was the gigantic ,cneus 7,slayer71 who had been rendered invulnerable by ,poseidon1 but whom the ,centaurs slew on this occasion by burying him beneath a mass of trees and rocks4 ,there is1 however1 also a natural explanation of the tales of these strange beings4 ,the father of the ,centaurs is ,ixion1 who1 as we have already seen1 may be interpreted to be the sun4 ,the crime said to have been the cause of his punishment was his love for ,hera 7the goddess of the atmosphere74 ,if we take these points1 together with the legend that ,ixion begat the ,centaurs of ,nephele1 the cloud1 we may be prepared to see in the horse-formed ,centaurs a parallel to the cows of the sun1 the bright clouds which pass over the sky4 ,there is the more ground for this1 as similar beings appear in ,indian mythology1 and their name has1 with much probability1 been identified with that of the ,centaurs4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,metope of the ,parthenon4 ,as we have already mentioned1 the ,centaurs play an important part in art4 ,the custom of depicting them half horse and half man came into vogue after the time of ,pindar1 and was quickly adopted in sculpture4 ,in the representations of earlier art the face of a man is joined to the body and hind legs of a horse4 ,but in its higher stage of development1 after the time of ,phidias1 this was replaced by a more elegant conception1 and the body of a man from the navel upwards was joined to the complete body of a horse1 so that the ,centaurs of this period have the four feet of a horse and the hands and arms of a man4 ,such is their appearance on numerous extant art monuments1 of which we shall mention the most important4 ,in the first place1 there are the reliefs from the frieze of the ,theseum at ,athens4 ,this temple1 which is still in a good state of preservation1 was converted during the middle ages into a chapel of ,st4 ,george4 ,it is supposed to have been built at the instance of ,cimon1 after he had brought back the bones of the ,attic hero from ,scyros4 ,besides other important pieces1 which we shall mention hereafter1 the temple has1 on its western or hinder frieze1 a representation of the contests of the ,centaurs and ,lapith at the wedding of ,pirithos1 done in ,parian marble4 ,it is executed in such a manner that it is impossible to discover which party will get the upper hand2 and this has enabled the artist1 whose name has not come down to us1 to introduce a lively variety into the different scenes of the combat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #di4--;,from the ,frieze of the ,temple at ,bass4 ,we have another series of most splendid representations from the battle of the ,centaurs1 full of life and spirit1 on some dilapidated metopes#f of the ,parthenon at ,athens4 ,this splendid specimen of ,doric architecture is #bbg feet in length and #aja feet in breadth4 ,it was ruined in #afhg1 during the war between the ,venetians and ,turks1 by a shell which broke through the midst of the marble roof4 ,a large part of the ninety-two metopes of the outer frieze contain a number of the most beautiful and life-like scenes from the battle of the ,giants and that of the ,centaurs4 ,of these metopes1 thirty-nine still remain on the temple1 though they are all in a terribly mutilated condition2 seventeen are in the ,british ,museum1 and one in the ,louvre at ,paris4 ,those from the south side are comparatively in the best state of preservation2 these are seventeen in number1 the whole number on the south side having been thirty-two4 ,they represent1 exclusively1 scenes from the battle of the ,centaurs4 ,here a bearded ,centaur is carrying off a woman1 whom he holds in his powerful grasp2 there1 another is galloping away over the body of his fallen enemy2 another is engaged in a fierce contest with a human foe2 whilst a fourth lies slain on the field4 ,the engraving we append may give a faint idea of the beauty and bold design of this splendid creation 7,fig4 #dh74 ,to these grand monuments of ,greek art we must add the frieze of the temple of ,apollo ,epicurius at ,bass1 near ,phigalia in ,arcadia1 which was discovered in #ahab1 and is now in the ,british ,museum4 ,it represents1 likewise1 a series of the most vivid scenes from the battle of the ,lapith and ,centaurs4 ,in the individual groups and scenes of the battle1 which is here completed before our eyes1 there is the same variety and animation1 so that we must ascribe it to some great artist 7,fig4 #di74 ,footnote #f3 ,the squares between the triglyphs of the frieze which are intended to support the gable1 every one of which is generally adorned with a separate sculpture in relief4 ,besides these sculptures in relief1 some splendid single statues of ,centaurs have come down to us from antiquity4 ,among these1 the first place must be assigned to the two ,centaurs in the ,capitoline ,museum4 ,they are executed in black marble1 and were found in the villa of ,hadrian at ,tivoli1 where so many ancient art treasures have been brought to light4 ,among the ,centaurs1 ,chiron1 who was famous alike for his wisdom and his knowledge of medicine1 deserves mention as the preceptor of many of the heroes of antiquity4 ,so far superior was he to his savage kindred1 both in education and manners1 that he was commonly reported to have had a different origin1 and was therefore described as a son of ,cronus and ,philyra1 or ,phyllira1 one of the ,oceanids4 ,homer1 who knew nothing of the equine shape of the ,centaurs1 represents him as the most upright of the ,centaurs1 and makes him the friend of ,peleus and the preceptor of the youthful ,achilles1 whom he instructed in the art of healing and gymnastic exercises4 ,he was1 moreover1 related to both these heroes1 his daughter ,endes having been the mother of ,peleus4 ,subsequently1 other mythical heroes were added to the number of his pupils1 such as ,castor and ,polydeuces1 ,theseus1 ,nestor1 ,meleager1 and ,diomedes4 ,music1 too1 was now represented as a subject of his instruction1 though this is perhaps due to a misinterpretation of the name of his mother4 ,he inhabited a cave on ,mount ,pelion2 later mythology1 however1 transferred his residence1 after the ,centaurs had been driven from ,pelion by the ,lapith1 to the promontory of ,malea4 ,here1 by an unlucky accident1 he was wounded with a poisoned arrow by his friend ,heracles1 and1 the wound being incurable1 he voluntarily chose to die in the place of ,prometheus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,centaur teaching a ,boy to play upon the ,pipe4 ,relief by ,kundmann4 ,the idea of the connection of the ,centaurs with the arts and sciences originated in the story of ,chiron and ,achilles1 and has since furnished modern art with the subjects for some of its most valuable works4 ,fig4 #ej represents a ,centaur teaching a boy to play on the flute1 and is after an alto-relievo of the ,viennese sculptor ,kundmann4 #b4 ,theban ,legend4--#a4 ,cadmus4--,among ,theban legends1 none is more celebrated than the founding of ,thebes by ,cadmus4 ,cadmus was a son of the ,phnician king ,agenor4 ,after ,zeus carried off his sister ,europa to ,crete 7vide the ,cretan ,legends71 he was despatched by his father in search of her4 ,accompanied by his mother ,telephassa1 he came to ,thrace and thence to ,delphi1 where he was commanded by the oracle to relinquish his quest4 ,it further ordered him to follow a young heifer with the mark of a crescent on either side1 and to build a town on the place where the heifer should lie down4 ,cadmus obeyed1 and1 finding the heifer in ,phocis1 he followed her4 ,she led him into ,botia1 and at length lay down on a rising ground4 ,on this spot ,cadmus founded a town1 which he called ,cadmea1 after himself1 though he had first to experience a perilous adventure4 ,before sacrificing the heifer1 he sent some of his companions to fetch water from a neighbouring spring1 where they were slain by a dragon belonging to ,ares which guarded the spring4 ,cadmus then went himself1 and slew the dragon1 the teeth of which he sowed in the ground by the advice of ,pallas4 ,hereupon armed men sprang from the ground2 they immediately turned their arms against each other1 and were all slain except five4 ,cadmus built his new town with the assistance of these men1 who thus became the ancestors of the noble families of ,thebes4 ,in expiation of the dragon's death1 ,cadmus was obliged to do service to ,ares for eight years4 ,at the end of this period ,ares pardoned ,cadmus and gave him ,harmonia--his daughter by ,aphrodite--to wife4 ,harmonia became the mother of four daughters--,autono1 ,ino1 ,semele1 and ,agave4 ,after reigning for a long time at ,thebes1 ,cadmus was compelled in his old age to retire to the ,enchelians in ,illyria2 but whether he was driven out by ,amphion and ,zethus 7who appear in ,homer as the founders of ,thebes7 or withdrew from some other cause is not manifest4 ,he and his wife were afterwards changed into serpents1 and transferred1 by the command of ,zeus1 to the ,elysian fields4 ,in this story we see another form of the combat of the hero with the monster1 and can probably give it the same explanation4 ,the dragon guards the waters1 and the hero1 by killing it1 frees them4 ,do we not see in this the combat of the sun with the cloud2 and in the armed men who turn their weapons against one another1 the clouds that seem to fight with one another in the thunderstorm8 ,yet even admitting this interpretation1 it may be that we have in the name of ,cadmus an allusion to the civilisation and the arts received by the ,greeks from the ,east4 ,so1 too1 with the alphabet1 the invention of which ,hellenic tradition ascribed to him4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ea4--;,acton ,group4 ,british ,museum4 #b4 ,acton4--,we have already incidentally mentioned the fortunes of three of the daughters of ,cadmus--,ino1 ,semele1 and ,agave4 ,the eldest1 ,autono1 married ,aristus1 the son of ,apollo1 and became by him the mother of ,acton4 ,acton was handed over to ,chiron to be reared as a stout hunter and warrior2 but he had scarcely reached the prime of youth when he was overtaken by a lamentable fate4 ,whilst hunting one day on ,mount ,cithron1 he was changed by ,artemis into a stag1 and was torn in pieces by his own dogs4 ,the cause of her anger was either that ,acton had boasted that he was a more skilful hunter than ,artemis1 or that he had surprised the virgin goddess bathing4 ,the latter tradition ultimately prevailed1 and1 in later times1 even the rock whence he beheld ,artemis was pointed out on the road between ,megara and ,plata4 ,he received heroic honours in ,botia1 and his protection was invoked against the deadly power of the sun in the dog-days4 ,the story of ,acton is probably nothing but a representation of the decay of verdant nature beneath an oppressive summer heat4 ,the story of ,acton's transformation and death was a favourite subject for sculpture4 ,a small marble group1 representing ,acton beating off two dogs which are attacking him1 was found in #aggd1 and is now preserved in the ,british ,museum 7,fig4 #ea74 #c4 ,amphion and ,zethus4--,besides the royal family of ,cadmus1 which was continued in ,thebes after his departure by his son ,polydorus1 we come across the scions of another ruling family of ,thebes which came from ,hyria1 or ,hysia1 in ,botia1 in the persons of ,amphion and ,zethus4 ,nycteus1 king of ,thebes1 had a wonderfully beautiful daughter called ,antiope1 whose favours ,zeus enjoyed on approaching her in the form of a ,satyr4 ,on becoming pregnant1 she fled from the resentment of her father to ,sicyon1 where the king1 ,epopeus1 received her and made her his wife4 ,this enraged ,nycteus1 who made war on ,epopeus in order to compel him to deliver up his daughter ,antiope4 ,he was obliged to retire without accomplishing his purpose1 but1 on his death1 he entrusted the execution of his vengeance to his brother ,lycus1 who succeeded him4 ,lycus defeated and slew ,epopeus1 destroyed ,sicyon1 and took ,antiope back with him as prisoner4 ,on the way1 at ,eleuther on ,cithron1 she gave birth to the twins ,amphion and ,zethus4 ,these were immediately exposed1 but were subsequently discovered and brought up by a compassionate shepherd4 ,antiope was not only kept prisoner in the house of ,lycus1 but had also to submit to the most harsh and humiliating treatment at the hands of his wife ,dirce4 ,at length she managed to escape1 and by a wonderful chance discovered her two sons1 who had grown1 on lonely ,cithron1 into sturdy youths4 ,the story of her wrongs so enraged them that they resolved to wreak a cruel vengeance on ,dirce4 ,after having taken ,thebes and slain ,lycus1 they bound ,dirce to the horns of a wild bull1 which dragged her about till she perished4 ,according to another story1 ,dirce came to ,cithron to celebrate the festival of ,bacchus4 ,here she found her runaway slave1 whom she was about to punish by having her bound to the horns of a bull4 ,happily1 however1 ,amphion and ,zethus recognised their mother1 and inflicted on the cruel ,dirce the punishment she had destined for another4 ,her mangled remains they cast into the spring near ,thebes which bears her name4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--;,farnese ,bull4 ,naples4 ,the punishment of ,dirce forms the subject of numerous pieces of sculpture4 ,the most important among them is the ,farnese ,bull 7,toro ,farnese7 in the museum at ,naples 7,fig4 #eb74 ,this world-renowned marble group is supposed1 with the exception of certain parts which have been restored in modern times1 to have been the work of the brothers ,apollonius and ,tauriscus1 of ,tralles in ,caria1 ,apollonius and ,tauriscus belonged to the ,rhodian school1 which flourished in the third century ,b4,c4 ,this colossal group--undoubtedly the largest which has descended to us from antiquity--was first erected in ,rhodes1 but came1 during the reign of ,augustus1 into the possession of ,asinius ,pollio1 the great art-patron4 ,it was discovered in #aedg in the ,therm of ,caracalla at ,rome1 and was set up in the ,palazzo ,farnese4 ,it was thence transferred to ,naples in #aghf1 as a portion of the ,farnese inheritance4 ,the following is a brief explanation of the group1 though1 of course1 the most complete account could give but an imperfect idea of its beauty4 ,the scene is laid on the rocky heights of ,cithron4 ,the position of the handsome youths on a rocky crag is as picturesque as it is dangerous1 and serves not only to lend the group a pyramidal aspect pleasing to the eye1 but also to set before us their marvellous strength4 ,there are several tokens that the occurrence took place during a ,bacchic festival3 the wicker cista mystica in use at the festivals of ,dionysus--the fawn skin which ,dirce wears--the ivy garland that has fallen at her feet--the broken thyrsus1 and1 lastly1 the ,bacchic insignia which distinguish the shepherd boy1 who is sitting on the right watching the proceedings with painful interest--all point to this fact4 ,the lyre which rests against the tree behind ,amphion is a token of his well-known love of music4 ,the female figure in the background is ,antiope4 ,the story goes on to relate that the two brothers1 after the expulsion and death of ,lyons1 acquired the sovereignty of ,thebes1 though ,amphion always figures as the real king4 ,the two brothers were widely different in disposition and character4 ,zethus appears to have been rude and harsh1 and passionately fond of the chase4 ,amphion1 on the other hand1 is represented as a friend of the ,muses1 and devoted to music and poetry4 ,he soon had an opportunity of proving his wondrous skill when they began to enclose ,thebes1 which had been before unprotected1 with walls and towers2 for whilst ,zethus removed great blocks and piled them one on another by means of his vast strength1 ,amphion had but to touch the strings of his lyre and break forth into some sweet melody1 and the mighty stones moved of their own accord and obediently fitted themselves together4 ,this is why ,amphion is always represented in sculpture with a lyre and ,zethus with a club4 ,we can scarcely doubt that these ,theban ,dioscuri1 like the ,castor and ,polydeuces of ,sparta1 who are well known to be only symbols of the morning and evening star1 were originally personifications of some natural phenomenon2 though we are no longer in a position to say what it was4 ,amphion is further celebrated on account of the melancholy fate of his sons and daughters4 ,he married ,niobe1 the daughter of the ,phrygian king ,tantalus1 and sister of ,pelops4 ,great was the happiness of this marriage2 the gods seemed to shower down their blessings on the royal pair4 ,many blooming and lovely children grew up in their palace1 the pride and delight of their happy parents4 ,from this paradise of purest joy and happiness they were soon to pass into a night of the deepest mourning and most cruel affliction through the presumption of ,niobe--the same presumption which had led her father ,tantalus to trifle with the gods and consummate his own ruin4 ,the heart of ,niobe was lifted up with pride at the number of her children1#g and she ventured to prefer herself to ,latona1 who had only two2 nay1 she even went so far as to forbid the ,thebans to offer sacrifice to ,latona and her children1 and to claim these honours herself4 ,the vengeance of the offended deities1 however1 now overtook her1 and all her children were laid low in one day before the unerring arrows of ,apollo and his sister4 ,the parents did not survive this deep affliction4 ,amphion slew himself1 and ,niobe1 already paralysed with grief1 was turned into stone by the pity of the gods1 and transferred to her old ,phrygian home on ,mount ,sipylus1 though even the stone has not ceased to weep4 ,footnote #g3 ,the number of ,niobe's children varies materially4 ,homer 7,il4 xxiv41 #fjb7 gives her six sons and as many daughters4 ,according to ,hesiod and ,pindar1 she had ten sons and ten daughters2 but the most common account1 and that followed by the tragic poets1 allows her fourteen children4 ,everywhere the number of sons and daughters appears to be equal4 ,the story of ,niobe was frequently treated of by the tragic poets1 both schylus and ,sophocles having written tragedies bearing her name4 ,such is the substance of this beautiful legend1 though its details vary considerably in the accounts of the poets and mythologists4 ,the most circumstantial and richly-coloured account of it is contained in the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid4 ,the poets have continually striven to impose a purely ethical interpretation on the story1 by representing the destruction of the children of ,niobe as the consequence of the great sin of their mother2 but it is more probably a physical meaning which lies at the root of the legend4 ,it is1 in fact1 a picture of the melting of the snow before the hot scorching rays of the sun4 ,this incident the fertile imagination of the ,greeks portrayed in the most beautiful metaphors4 ,but just as a subject so purely tragic as the history of ,niobe found its first true development in tragic poetry1 so likewise it only attained its proper place in sculpture after art had laid aside its earlier and more simple epic character1 and set itself to depict1 in their full force1 the inward passions of the soul4 ,this tendency towards pathos and effect is characteristic of the age of ,praxiteles and ,scopas1 and the later ,attic school4 ,to this age 7#dth century ,b4,c47 belonged the group of ,niobe1 which was so highly celebrated even among the ancients1 and which was seen by ,pliny in the temple of ,apollo ,sosianus at ,rome1 although people even then hesitated whether to ascribe it to ,praxiteles or ,scopas4 ,none but one of these great masters could have been the author of this tragedy hewn in stone4 ,although the original figures of this magnificent group have disappeared1 yet copies of most of them are still in existence4 ,with regard to the celebrated ,florentine ,niobe group1 the dissimilarity of its treatment and the various kinds of marble employed serve to show that it is not a ,greek original1 but a ,roman imitation4 ,it was found at ,rome in #aehc1 near the ,lateran ,church1 and was purchased by ,cardinal ,medici to adorn his villa on the ,monte ,pincio4 ,in #agge it was brought to ,florence1 where it has remained since #agid in the gallery of the ,uffizi4 ,there has never been but one opinion as to the beauty of this group4 ,first among the figures--not only in size1 but also in artistic perfection--is that of ,niobe herself4 ,the unhappy queen displays in her whole hearing so majestic and noble a demeanour1 that1 even if none of the other splendid results of ,greek sculpture had come down to us1 this alone would bear ample testimony to the high perfection and creative power of ,greek art4 ,the following description of the arrangement of the group is taken from ,lbke's ,history of ,plastic ,art3-- ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ed4--,niobe4 ,florence4 8,apollo and ,artemis are to be supposed outside the group2 they have accomplished their work of vengeance and destruction from an invisible position in the heavens4 ,this is denoted by each movement of the flying figures1 who either gaze upwards in affright towards the heavens1 or seek to cover themselves with their garments4 ,one of the sons is already stretched dead on the earth2 another leans in mortal agony against a rock1 fixing his eyes1 already glazed in death1 on the spot whence destruction has overtaken him4 ,a third brother is striving in vain to protect with his robe his sister1 who has fallen wounded at his feet1 and to catch her in his arms2 another has sunk on his knees1 and clutches in agony at the wound in his back2 whilst his preceptor is endeavouring to shield the youngest boy4 ,all the others are fleeing instinctively to their mother1 thinking1 doubtless1 that she who had so often afforded protection could save them also from the avenging arrows of the gods4 ,thus from either side the waves of this dreadful flight rush towards the centre1 to break on the sublime figure of ,niobe as upon a rock4 ,she alone stands unshaken in all her sorrow1 mother and queen to the last4 ,clasping her youngest daughter1 whose tender years have not preserved her1 in her arms1 and bending over as though to shield the child1 she turns her own proud head upwards1 and1 before her left hand can cover her sorrow-stricken face with her robe1 she casts towards the avenging goddess a look in which bitter grief is blended with sublime dignity of soul 7,fig4 #ed74 ,in this look there is neither defiance nor prayer for mercy1 but a sorrowful and yet withal lofty expression of heroic resignation to inexorable fate that is worthy of a ,niobe4 ,this admirable figure1 then1 is pre-eminently the central point of the composition1 since it expresses an atonement which1 in a scene of horror and annihilation1 stirs the heart to the deepest sympathy40 ,zethus was not more fortunate than ,amphion in his domestic affairs4 ,he married ,adon 7nightingale71 the daughter of ,pandareos4 ,pandareos was the friend and companion of ,tantalus1 for whom he stole a living dog made of brass from the temple of ,zeus in ,crete1 and was on that account turned into stone4 ,adon was jealous of the good-fortune of ,niobe in having so many beautiful children2 she herself having only one son1 ,itylus4 ,she resolved1 one night1 to slay the eldest son of ,niobe1 but she killed1 in mistake1 her own child instead4 ,zeus took compassion on her1 and changed her into a nightingale4 ,in this guise she still continues to bewail her loss in long-drawn mournful notes4 ,tradition says nothing as to the death of ,zethus1 although the common grave of the ,theban ,dioscuri was pointed out in ,thebes4 ,after his death1 ,laius1 the son of ,labdacus and grandson of ,polydorus1 restored in his person the race of ,cadmus to the throne of ,thebes4 7,see the legend of the ,labdacid later on47 #c4 ,corinthian ,legend4--#a4 ,sisyphus4--,corinth1 or ,ephyra1 as it was formerly called1 was said to have been founded by ,sisyphus1 the son of olus4 ,its inhabitants1 on account of the position of their city between two seas1 were naturally inclined to deify that element1 and it is not improbable that ,sisyphus was merely an ancient symbol of the restless1 ever-rolling waves of the sea4 ,this interpretation1 however1 is by no means certain2 and the idea of ,sisyphus in the lower world ever rolling a huge stone to the top of a mountain might equally well refer to the sun1 which1 after attaining its highest point in the heavens at the time of the summer solstice1 glides back again1 only to begin its career anew on the shortest day4 ,in any case1 the rolling of the stone does not appear to have been originally a punishment4 ,it was only later--after people had become familiar with the idea of retribution in the lower world--that it assumed this character4 ,in order to account for it1 a special crime had to be found for ,sisyphus4 ,according to some1 he was punished at the instance of ,zeus1 because he had revealed to the river-god ,asopus the hiding-place of his daughter gina1 whom ,zeus had secretly carried off from ,phlius4 ,according to another tradition1 he used to attack travellers1 and put them to death by crushing them with great stones4 ,the ,corinthians being crafty men of business1 it was natural that they should accredit their mythical founder with a refined cunning4 ,of the numerous legends which existed concerning him1 none was more celebrated than that of the cunning mode in which he succeeded in binding ,death1 whom ,ares had to be despatched to release4 #b4 ,glaucus4--,tradition describes ,glaucus as a son of ,sisyphus by ,merope4 ,he also appears to have had a symbolic meaning1 and was once identical with ,poseidon1 though he was afterwards degraded from the rank of a god to that of a hero4 ,he is remarkable for his unfortunate end4 ,on the occasion of some funeral games1 celebrated in ,iolcus in honour of ,pelias1 he took part in the chariot race1 and was torn in pieces by his own horses1 which had taken fright4 #c4 ,bellerophon and the ,legend of the ,amazons4--,the third national hero of ,corinth was ,bellerophon1 or ,bellerophontes4 ,here the reference to the sun is so obvious1 that the signification of the myth is unmistakeable4 ,he was termed the son of ,poseidon or ,glaucus1 and none could appreciate this genealogy better than the ,corinthians1 who daily saw the sun rise from the sea4 ,we must first1 however1 narrate the substance of the story4 ,bellerophon was born and brought up at ,corinth1 but was obliged from some cause or other to leave his country4 ,that he killed ,bellerus1 a noble of ,corinth1 is nothing but a fable arising from an unfortunate misinterpretation of his name4 ,he was hospitably received by ,prtus1 king of ,tiryns1 whose wife at once fell in love with the handsome1 stately youth4 ,finding1 however1 that ,bellerophon slighted her passion1 she slandered him to her husband1 and ,prtus forthwith sent him to his father-in-law1 ,iobates1 king of ,lycia1 with a tablet1 mysterious signs on which bade ,iobates put the bearer to death4 ,at this juncture the heroic career of ,bellerophon begins4 ,iobates sought to fulfil the command of ,prtus by involving his guest in all kinds of desperate adventures4 ,he first sent him to destroy the ,chimra1 a dangerous monster that devastated the land4 ,the fore part of its body was that of a lion1 the centre that of a goat1 and the hinder part that of a dragon4 ,according to ,hesiod1 it had three heads--that of a lion1 a goat1 and a dragon4 ,according to the same poet1 the ,chimra was a fire-breathing monster of great swiftness and strength1 the daughter of ,typhon and ,echidna4 ,bellerophon destroyed the monster by raising himself in the air on his winged horse ,pegasus1 and shooting it with his arrows4 ,pegasus was the offspring of ,poseidon and ,medusa1 from whose trunk it sprung after ,perseus had struck off her head4 ,bellerophon captured this wonderful animal as it descended at the ,acro-,corinthus to drink of the spring of ,pirene4 ,in this he was assisted by the goddess ,athene1 who also taught him how to tame and use it4 ,here1 then1 he appears to have already possessed the horse at ,corinth2 though another tradition relates that ,pegasus was first sent to him when he set out to conquer the ,chimra4 ,the origin of the story is ascribed to a fiery mountain in ,lycia2 but1 as all dragons and suchlike monsters of antiquity are represented as breathing forth fire and flames1 we are perhaps scarcely justified in having recourse to a volcano4 ,this characteristic is1 in fact1 merely a common symbol of the furious and dangerous character of these monsters4 ,the contest of ,bellerophon is far more likely to be a picture of the drying up1 by means of the sun's rays1 of the furious mountain torrents which flood the corn-fields4 ,others1 again1 have thought that the ,chimra represents the storms of winter conquered by the sun4 ,the next adventure in which ,iobates engaged ,bellerophon was an expedition against the ,solymi1 a neighbouring but hostile mountain tribe4 ,after he had been successful in subduing them1 ,iobates sent him against the warlike ,amazons1 hoping that among them he would be certain to meet his death4 ,we here1 for the first time1 come across this remarkable nation of women1 with whom other ,greek heroes1 such as ,heracles and ,theseus1 are said to have fought2 and it will not1 therefore1 be foreign to our object to dwell here on their most important features4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee--;,amazon4 ,berlin4 ,the ,amazons appear in legend as early as ,homer1 though he only mentions them incidentally4 ,they were said to be a nation of women1 who suffered no men among them1 except so far as it was necessary to keep up the race4 ,the women1 on the other hand1 were trained from their earliest years in all warlike exercises2 so that they were not only sufficiently powerful to defend their own land against foreign invaders1 but also to make plundering incursions into other countries4 ,their dominions1 the situation of which was at first indefinitely described as in the far north or far west1 were afterwards reduced to more distinct limits1 and placed in ,cappadocia1 on the river ,thermodon1 their capital being ,themiscyra in ,scythia1 on the borders of ,lake ,motis1 where their intercourse with the ,scythians is said to have given rise to the ,sarmatian tribes4 ,later writers also speak of the ,amazons in ,western ,libya4 ,of the numerous stories rife concerning them1 none is more tasteless than that of their cutting off or burning out the right breast1 in order not to incommode themselves in the use of the bow4 ,from the ,thermodon they are said to have made great expeditions as far as the gean sea2 they are even reported to have invaded ,attica1 and made war on ,theseus4 ,they also play a prominent part in the story of ,heracles1 by whom they were defeated2 and in the ,trojan war1 when1 under their queen ,penthesilea1 they came to the assistance of ,priam against the ,greeks4 ,the ,amazons were frequently represented in ,greek art4 ,they are here depicted as fine1 powerful women1 resembling ,artemis and her nymphs1 though with stouter legs and arms4 ,they generally appear armed1 their weapons being a long double-edged battle-axe 7bipennis7 and a semicircular shield4 ,an anecdote related by ,pliny proves what a favourite subject the ,amazons were with ,greek artists4 ,he says that the celebrated sculptors1 ,phidias1 ,polycletus1 ,phradmon1 and ,cresilas1 made a wager as to who should create the most beautiful ,amazon4 ,polycletus received the prize1 so that we may conclude that he brought this statue--the ideal ,amazon of the ,greeks--to its highest perfection4 ,unfortunately1 we know nothing of it1 except that it was of bronze1 and stood with the statues of the other artists in the temple of the ,ephesian ,artemis4 ,the ,amazon of ,phidias1 we are told1 was represented as leaning on a spear2 ,cresilas1 on the other hand1 endeavoured to portray a wounded ,amazon4 ,besides these statues1 we hear a great deal of the ,amazon of ,strongylion1 celebrated for the beauty of her legs1 which was in the possession of ,nero4 ,we still possess a considerable number of ,amazon statues1 some of which are supposed to be imitations in marble of the renowned statue at ,ephesus4 ,there are1 moreover1 several statues of wounded ,amazons1 some of which are believed to be copies of the work of ,cresilas4 ,there is also another marble statue1 considerably larger than life1 which takes a still higher rank4 ,it was originally set up in the ,villa ,mattei1 but since the time of ,clement ,,xiv4 it has been in the ,vatican collection4 ,it is apparently a representation of an ,amazon resting after battle2 she is in the act of laying aside her bow1 as she has already done her shield1 battle-axe1 and helmet4 ,in doing so she raises herself slightly on her left foot1 an attitude which is as charming as it is natural4 ,lastly1 we must not omit to mention a statue that has newly come into the possession of the ,berlin ,museum1 which is supposed to be after a work of ,polycletus 7,fig4 #ee74 ,we must now return to the history of ,bellerophon4 ,after returning in triumph from his expedition against the ,amazons1 the life of the young hero was once more attempted by ,iobates1 who caused him to be surprised by an ambuscade4 ,bellerophon1 however1 again escaped1 slaying all his assailants4 ,iobates now ceased from further persecution1 and gave him his daughter in marriage1 and a share in the kingdom of ,lycia4 ,bellerophon1 in full possession of power and riches1 and surrounded by blooming children1 seemed to have reached the summit of earthly prosperity1 when he was overtaken by a grievous change of fortune4 ,he was seized with madness1 and wandered about alone1 fleeing the society of men1 until he at length perished miserably4 ,pindar says that he incurred the enmity of the gods by attempting to fly to heaven on his winged horse ,pegasus2 whereupon ,zeus sent a gadfly to sting the horse4 ,pegasus cast off ,bellerophon1 and flew of his own accord to the stables of ,zeus1 whose thunder-chariot he has ever since drawn4 ,the sad fate of ,bellerophon was the subject of a touching tragedy of ,euripides1 some parts of which are still in existence4 ,heroic honours were paid to ,bellerophon in ,corinth1 and he also had a shrine in the celebrated cypress-grove of ,poseidon4 #d4 ,argive ,legend4--#a4 ,io4--,the first personage who meets us on the very threshold of the mythic age of ,argos is ,inachus1 the god of the ,argive river of that name4 ,inachus was venerated by the inhabitants as the first founder of ,argive civilisation after the flood of ,deucalion4 ,by his union with ,melia1 the daughter of ,oceanus1 he became the father of ,io1 famed for her beauty1 whose history1 which is of great antiquity1 has been so greatly embellished by the poets and legendary writers4 ,the following is the substance of the story3-- ,io was the priestess of ,hera4 ,her great beauty attracted the notice of ,zeus4 ,on remarking this1 ,hera1 in her jealousy1 changed ,io into a white heifer1 and set the hundred-eyed ,argus ,panoptes 7the all-seeing7 to watch her4 ,zeus1 however1 sent ,hermes to take away the heifer4 ,hermes first lulled the guardian to sleep with his wand and then slew him1 whence he is called ,argiphontes 7slayer of ,argus74 ,hera avenged herself by sending a gadfly to torment ,io1 who1 in her madness1 wandered through ,europe and ,asia1 until she at length found rest in ,egypt1 where1 touched by the hand of ,zeus1 she recovered her original form1 and gave birth to a son4 ,this son1 who was called ,epaphus1 afterwards became king of ,egypt1 and built ,memphis4 ,the myth1 as we have already remarked1 has received many embellishments1 for the wanderings of ,io grew more and more extensive with the growth of geographical knowledge4 ,the true interpretation of the myth is due to ,f4 ,w4 ,welcker1 whose meritorious researches in ,greek mythology have proved of such great value4 ,io 7the wanderer7 is the moon1 whose apparently irregular course and temporary disappearance was considered a most curious phenomenon by the ancients4 ,the moon-goddess of antiquity was very frequently represented under the figure of a heifer2 and ,isis herself1 the ,egyptian goddess of the moon1 was always depicted with horns4 ,the guardian of the heifer1 the hundred-eyed ,argus1 is a symbol of the starry heaven4 ,whether we see in ,hermes the dawn or the morning breeze1 in either case the slaying of ,argus will simply mean that the stars become invisible at sunrise4 ,there is nothing extraordinary in representing the apparent irregularity of the moon's course1 inexplicable as it was to the ancients1 under the guise of mental disorder4 ,similar representations occur in the stories of the solar heroes1 ,bellerophon and ,heracles4 ,in the south-east--the direction in which ,egypt lay from ,greece--,io again appears as full moon1 in her original shape4 #b4 ,danas and the ,danads4--,according to the legend1 ,danas was a descendant of ,io4 ,epaphus1 the son of ,io1 had a daughter ,libya1 who bore to ,poseidon two sons1 ,agenor and ,belus4 ,the former reigned over ,phnicia1 the latter over ,egypt4 ,belus1 by his union with ,anchino1 or ,achiro1 the daughter of the ,nile1 became the father of gyptus and ,danas4 ,between these two brothers--the former of whom had fifty sons and the latter fifty daughters--a deadly enmity arose2 this induced ,danas to migrate from ,egypt and seek the old home of his ancestress ,io4 ,he embarked with his fifty daughters in a ship--the first that was ever built--and thus came to ,argos1 where ,gelanor1 the reigning descendant of ,inachus1 resigned the crown in his favour4 ,as king of ,argos1 ,danas is said to have brought the land1 which suffered from want of water1 to a higher state of cultivation by watering it with wells and canals4 ,he is also said to have introduced the worship of ,apollo and ,demeter4 ,the story proceeds to relate that the fifty sons of gyptus followed their uncle to ,argos1 and compelled him to give them his fifty daughters in marriage4 ,danas1 in revenge1 gave each of his daughters on the wedding day a dagger1 and commanded them to slay their husbands in the night4 ,all obeyed his command except ,hypermnestra1 who spared her husband ,lynceus1 and afterwards even succeeded1 with the assistance of ,aphrodite1 in effecting his reconciliation with her father4 ,lynceus succeeded ,danas in the kingdom1 and became1 by his son ,abas1 the ancestor of both the great ,argive heroes1 ,perseus and ,heracles4 ,at a later period1 the fable sprang up that the ,danads were punished for their crimes in the lower world by having continually to pour water into a cask full of holes4 ,it has been frequently remarked that this punishment has no conceivable connection with the crime4 ,neither must we forget that the idea of retribution in the lower world was of a comparatively late date4 ,originally1 too1 the idea prevailed that the pursuits of the upper world were continued after death in the realms of ,hades4 ,and herein lies the key to the interpretation of the myth1 which is evidently connected with the irrigation of ,argos ascribed to ,danas4 #c4 ,prtus and his ,daughters4--,acrisius and ,prtus were twin sons of ,abas1 the son of ,lynceus and ,hypermnestra4 ,between these two brothers an implacable hostility existed1 which was said by the poets to have commenced even in their mother's womb4 ,prtus received1 as his share of the patrimony1 the kingdom of ,tiryns2 but he was subsequently expelled by his brother1 and took refuge at the court of ,iobates1 king of ,lycia4 ,iobates gave him his daughter ,antea1 or ,stheneba1 in marriage1 and afterwards restored him to his kingdom of ,tiryns4 ,prtus1 with the aid of the ,lycian workmen whom he had brought with him 7,cyclopes71 built a strong fortress1 which enabled him not only to maintain peaceable possession of ,tiryns1 but also to extend his dominion as far as ,corinth4 ,the legend then passes to the history of his three daughters1 the ,prtides1 whose pride was so excited by their father's greatness and their own beauty that they began to think themselves superior to the gods4 ,their arrogance1 however1 was soon punished1 for they were visited with a foul disease and driven mad4 ,they now fled the society of mankind1 and wandered about among the mountains and woods of ,argos and ,arcadia4 ,at length ,prtus succeeded in procuring the services of the celebrated soothsayer and purifier ,melampus1 who undertook the purification and cure of his daughters4 ,it was reported of ,melampus that serpents had licked his ears whilst asleep1 and that he acquired1 in consequence1 a knowledge of the language of birds4 ,he successfully accomplished the cure of the ,prtides1 and received1 as a reward1 the hand of the princess ,iphianassa1 in addition to which both he and his brother ,bias received a share in the sovereignty of ,tiryns4 ,thus it was that the race of the ,amythaonid1 who all inherited the gift of seeing into futurity1 and from whom the celebrated soothsayer ,amphiaras himself was descended1 came to ,argos4 #d4 ,perseus4--,acrisius1 the brother of ,prtus1 had a daughter called ,dana1 whose fortune it was to gain the love of the great ruler of ,olympus4 ,her father1 ,acrisius1 was induced by an oracle1 which foretold that he should be killed by his own grandson1 to immure ,dana in a subterraneous chamber4 ,zeus1 however1 in his love for her1 changed himself into a shower of golden rain1 and thus introduced himself through the roof of her prison4 ,thus was the god-like hero ,perseus born4 ,there can be no doubt that this myth1 too1 is founded on the idea of the bridal union of heaven and earth2 this is one of the pictures of nature which the mind most readily forms4 ,dana represents the country of ,argos2 her prison is the heaven1 enveloped1 during the gloomy months of winter1 with thick clouds4 ,her offspring by ,zeus represents the light of the sun1 which returns in the spring-time and begins1 like a veritable hero1 its contest with the powers of death and darkness4 ,the ,gorgon ,medusa has the same significance in the history of ,perseus that the hideous ,python has in that of ,apollo4 ,the legend then proceeds to relate that ,acrisius1 having heard of the birth of his grandson1 to avert the fate threatened by the oracle1 ordered mother and child to be confined in a chest and cast into the sea4 ,but human wisdom avails nought against the inevitable decrees of heaven4 ,the chest was cast by the waves on the rocky island of ,seriphus1 where it was found by the fisherman ,dictys2 and ,dana and her child were hospitably received and cared for by ,dictys and his brother ,polydectes1 the ruler of the island4 ,the latter1 however1 subsequently wished to marry ,dana1 and on her rejecting his advances made her a slave4 ,fearing the vengeance of ,perseus1 he despatched him1 as soon as he was grown up1 on a most perilous adventure4 ,this was no other than to bring him the head of the ,gorgon ,medusa--a terrible winged woman1 who dwelt with her two sisters1 the daughters of ,phorcys and ,ceto1 on the farthest western shore of the earth1 on the border of ,oceanus4 ,perseus set out1 though he was in the greatest perplexity how to accomplish so perilous a task4 ,hermes1 however1 at this juncture came to his aid2 and ,athene1 the special patroness of heroes1 inspired him with courage4 ,these deities first showed him how to procure the necessary means for accomplishing his undertaking1 which consisted of an invisible helmet1 a magic wallet1 and a pair of winged sandals4 ,all these were in the hands of the ,nymphs1 by whom probably the water-nymphs are meant4 ,the way to their abode he could only learn from the ,gr4 ,these creatures1 who were likewise the daughters of ,phorcys and ,ceto1 were reported to have come into the world as old women2 their very appearance was appalling1 and they had but one eye and one tooth between them1 of which they made use in turn4 ,they1 too1 dwelt on the outskirts of the gloomy region inhabited by the ,gorgons1 whence they are called by schylus their sentinels4 ,under the guidance of ,apollo and ,athene1 ,perseus came to the ,gr4 ,he then robbed them of their one eye and one tooth1 and thus forced them to tell him the way to the habitations of the ,nymphs4 ,from the latter he at once obtained the objects he sought2 and having donned his winged sandals1 he hastened to the abode of the ,gorgons1 whom he fortunately discovered asleep4 ,athene then pointed out to him ,medusa--the other two sisters1 ,stheno and ,euryale1 being immortal--and enjoined him to approach them carefully backwards1 as the sight of their faces would infallibly turn any mortal into stone4 ,with the help of her mirror-like shield and the sickle of ,hermes1 ,perseus succeeded in cutting off the head of ,medusa without looking round2 and having placed the head in his wallet1 he hastened away4 ,his helmet1 which rendered him invisible1 enabled him to escape the pursuit of the other ,gorgons1 who had meanwhile awaked4 ,from the trunk of ,medusa sprang the winged horse ,pegasus1 and ,chrysaor1 the father of ,geryones4 ,on his return to ,seriphus1 ,perseus turned the unrighteous ,polydectes into stone by means of the ,gorgon's head1 which he then presented to ,athene2 and after making his benefactor1 ,dictys1 king of the island1 he turned his steps towards his native place1 ,argos4 ,such are the essential features of the myth--concerning which1 in spite of its antiquity1 we have no earlier sources of information--such is the original framework on which was afterwards built up the history of the further adventures of the hero4 ,the most celebrated of these was the rescue of ,andromeda1 which formed the subject of a drama of ,euripides1 and was also highly popular among artists and poets4 ,the following is a brief account of this exploit3--,cassiopea1 the wife of ,cepheus1 king of thiopia1 ventured to extol her own beauty above that of the ,nereids1 who thereupon besought ,poseidon to avenge them4 ,he granted their request1 and not only overwhelmed the land with disastrous floods1 but sent also a terrible sea-monster1 which devoured both man and beast4 ,the oracle of ,ammon declared that the land could only be saved by the sacrifice of the king's daughter1 ,andromeda1 to the monster4 ,cepheus1 after some time1 yielded to the entreaties of his people1 and ,andromeda was chained to a rock close to the sea4 ,in this situation she was found by ,perseus1 on his return from his adventure with the ,gorgons4 ,he forthwith attacked and slew the sea-monster1 and released the trembling maiden1 who soon after married her preserver4 ,later writers1 not satisfied with this adventure1 added that ,perseus was also obliged to vanquish a rival in ,phineus1 the king's brother1 to whom ,andromeda had been already promised4 ,phineus1 together with his warriors1 was changed into stone by means of the ,gorgon's head4 ,the legend concludes with the return of the hero to ,argos1 where he was reconciled to his grandfather ,acrisius1 who had at first fled in terror to ,larissa4 ,on the occasion1 however1 of some games which the people of ,larissa had instituted in his honour1 ,perseus was unfortunate enough to kill ,acrisius with his discus1 thus involuntarily fulfilling the prophecy of the oracle4 ,in this feature of the story we recognise an unmistakeable reference to the symbolic meaning of ,perseus2 for the discus here represents1 as in the story of the death of ,hyacinthus1 the face of the sun4 ,perseus1 unwilling to enter on the inheritance of the grandfather he had slain1 exchanged the kingdom of ,argos for that of ,tiryns1 which was handed over to him by its king1 ,megapenthes1 the son of ,prtus4 ,he here founded the cities of ,midea and ,mycen1 and became1 through his children by ,andromeda1 the ancestor of many heroes1 and1 among others1 of ,heracles4 ,his son ,electryon became the father of ,alcmene1 whilst ,amphitryon was descended from another of his sons4 ,according to ,pausanias1 heroic honours were paid to ,perseus1 not only throughout ,argos1 but also in ,athens and the island of ,seriphus4 ,perseus occupies a prominent position in ,greek art4 ,his common attributes are the winged sandals1 the sickle which he made use of to slay ,medusa1 and the helmet of ,hades4 ,in bodily form1 as well as in costume1 he appears very like ,hermes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ef4--,perseus and ,andromeda4 ,marble ,relief in the ,museum at ,naples4 ,among the art monuments which relate to his adventures is a marble relief from the ,villa ,pamfili1 now in the ,capitoline ,museum at ,rome1 depicting the rescue of ,andromeda4 ,the sea-monster lies dead at the feet of ,perseus1 who is assisting the joyful ,andromeda to descend from the rock4 ,the attitude and expression of both figures are very striking3 on the one side1 maidenly modesty2 on the other1 proud self-reliance4 ,it is worth remarking that ,perseus1 in addition to his winged shoes1 has also wings on his head4 ,the same conception is perceptible1 with a few minor points of difference1 in several ,pompeian paintings1 and on a marble relief of the ,naples ,museum 7,fig4 #ef74 ,representations of ,medusa are mostly confined to masks1 which are often found on coats of mail1 shields1 leaves of folding doors1 and instruments of all kinds4 ,there are two types1 representing an earlier and a later conception of ,medusa4 ,earlier art set itself to depict the horrible only in the head of ,medusa2 and artists1 therefore1 strove to impart to the face as strong an expression of rage and ferocity as was possible1 representing her with tongue lolling forth1 and boar-like tusks4 ,it is worthy of remark that1 in the earlier examples of these masks--which are frequently met with on coins1 gems1 and pottery--the hair generally falls stiff and straight over the forehead1 serving to render the horrible breadth of the face still more striking1 while the snakes appear to be fastened round the neck like a necklace4 ,very different is the conception adopted by the later and more sensuous school4 ,this laboured principally to give expression to the gradual ebbing away of life in the countenance of the dying ,gorgon1 an effect which was rendered still more striking by transforming the hideous ,gorgon face of earlier times into an ideal of the most perfect beauty4 ,the most splendid example of this later conception1 which had been creeping in since the age of ,praxiteles1 is to be found in the ,medusa ,rondanini of the ,munich collection--a marble mask of most beautiful workmanship1 which was brought from the ,rondanini ,palace at ,rome 7,fig4 #eg74 ,this ,medusa1 like many others of the later type1 has wings on the head4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,rondanini ,medusa4 ,munich4 #e4 ,the ,dioscuri4--,on passing to ,laconia and ,messenia1 the southern districts of the ,peloponnesus1 we come in contact with the legend of the ,dioscuri4 ,tyndares and his brother ,icarius were said to have founded the most ancient sovereignty in ,lacedmon4 ,they were driven thence1 however1 by their half-brother ,hippocon1 and were kindly received by ,thestius1 the ruler of the ancient city of ,pleuron in tolia1 who gave ,tyndares his daughter ,leda in marriage4 ,icarius received the hand of ,polycaste1 who bore him ,penelope--afterwards the wife of ,odysseus2 while ,leda was the mother of the ,dioscuri1 ,castor and ,polydeuces 7,pollux74 ,tyndares was afterwards reinstated in his ,lacedmonian kingdom at ,amycl by ,heracles4 ,besides these two sons1 ,leda had also two daughters1 ,clytmnestra and ,helene 7,helen71 who are celebrated in connection with the ,trojan war4 ,an ancient legend also existed to the effect that ,leda had been beloved by ,zeus1 who had approached her under the guise of a swan4 ,the greatest incongruity prevails as to which of the children could claim a divine origin4 ,in ,homer1 ,helen alone is represented as the daughter of ,zeus2 while ,clytmnestra1 together with ,castor and ,polydeuces1 appear as the children of ,tyndares4 ,at a subsequent period1 the name of 8,dioscuri0 7sons of ,zeus7 and a belief in their divine origin arose simultaneously4 ,later still1 ,castor was represented as a mortal1 and the son of ,tyndares2 and ,polydeuces as immortal1 and the son of ,zeus4 ,after ,castor1 however1 had fallen in the contest with the sons of ,aphareus1 his brother ,polydeuces1 unwilling to part from him1 prevailed on ,zeus to allow them to remain together1 on condition of their spending one day in ,olympus and the next in ,hades4 ,they thus led a life divided between mortality and immortality4 ,the following is an account of their heroic deeds3--,on attaining manhood1 ,castor distinguished himself by his skill in the management of horses2 whilst ,polydeuces became renowned as a skilful boxer1 though he too had skill in riding4 ,they first made war on ,theseus1 who had carried off their sister ,helen1 then ten years old1 and set her free by the conquest of ,aphidn4 ,they next took part in the expedition of the ,argonauts1 in which ,polydeuces gained still further renown by his victory with the cestus over the celebrated boxer ,amycus4 ,they were also present at the ,calydonian boar hunt4 ,their last undertaking was the rape of the daughters of ,leucippus1 king of ,messenia4 ,this was the cause of their combat with their cousins ,idas and ,lynceus1 the sons of ,aphareus1 to whom the damsels had been betrothed4 ,according to others1 however1 it sprang from a quarrel as to the division of some booty that they had carried off together4 ,castor was slain by ,idas1 whereupon ,polydeuces in his wrath slew ,lynceus1 while ,idas himself was overwhelmed by a thunderbolt from ,zeus4 ,the interpretation of this myth is by no means void of difficulty4 ,it is commonly supposed that they were ancient ,peloponnesian divinities of light1 who1 after the ,dorian invasion1 were degraded to the rank of heroes4 ,they are often interpreted as personifications of the morning and evening star1 or of the twilight 7dawn and dusk74 ,this view died out after the second deification that they underwent4 ,they were venerated1 not only in their native ,sparta1 but throughout the whole of ,greece1 as kindly1 beneficent deities1 whose aid might be invoked either in battle or in the dangers of shipwreck4 ,in this latter character they are lauded by an ,homeric hymn1 in which they are represented as darting through the air on their golden wings1 in order to calm the storm at the prayer of the terror-stricken mariner4 ,it has often been remarked1 and with a great appearance of truth1 that these ,dioscuri flitting about on their golden wings are probably nothing more than what is commonly called ,st4 ,elmo's fire--an electric flame which1 is often seen playing round the tops of the masts during a storm1 and which is regarded by the sailors as a sign of its speedy abatement2 indeed the name ,elmo has been supposed a corruption of ,helene4 ,in ,sparta1 the ,dioscuri were regarded as the tutelary deities of the state1 as well as an example of warlike valour for the youth of the country4 ,their shrines here were very numerous4 ,their ancient symbol1 which the ,spartans always took with them on a campaign1 consisted of two parallel beams joined by cross-bars4 ,they had other festivals and temples besides those of ,sparta2 in ,mantinea1 for instance1 where an eternal fire was kept burning in their honour2 also in ,athens1 where they were venerated under the appellation of ,anaces4 ,their festival was here celebrated with horse-racing4 ,the ,olympic games also stood under their special protection1 and their images were set up in all the palstra4 ,they were1 in fact1 everywhere regarded as extremely benevolent and sociable deities1 who foster all that is noble and beautiful among men4 ,the ,dioscuri were believed to have assisted the ,romans against the ,latins at the ,lake ,regillus2 and the dictator1 ,a4 ,postumius1 vowed a temple to them1 which was erected in the ,forum1 opposite the temple of ,vesta4 ,in commemoration of this aid1 the ,equites made a solemn procession from the temple of ,honos1 past the temple of the ,dioscuri1 to the ,capitol every year on the ,ides of ,july4 ,in art the ,dioscuri are represented as heroic youths of noble mien and slim but powerful forms4 ,their characteristic marks are conical caps1 the points of which are adorned with a star4 ,they generally appear nude1 or clothed only with a light chlamys1 and nearly always in connection with their horses1 either riding1 standing by and holding them1 or leading them by the bridle4 ,the most celebrated representation of the ,dioscuri that has come down to us from antiquity consists of the marble statues called the ,colossi of ,monte ,cavallo1 in ,rome4 ,these are eighteen feet in height1 and the proportions of the figures1 together with those of the horses1 are exquisite4 ,they are set up on the ,quirinal1 which has received from them the name of ,monte ,cavallo4 ,they are not1 indeed1 original works1 but are probably imitations of bronzes of the most flourishing period of ,greek art1 executed in the time of ,augustus4 #f4 ,heracles 7,hercules74--,of all the myths of the countries originally inhabited by the olians the myth of ,heracles is the most glorious4 ,this hero1 though his fame was chiefly disseminated by means of the ,dorians1 was yet by birth the common property of the olian race--their national hero1 in fact1 just as he afterwards became the national hero of the whole of ,greece4 ,no other ,greek myth has received so many subsequent additions--not only from native1 but also from foreign sources--as this2 which is1 in consequence1 the most extensive and complicated of all ,greek myths4 ,we shall1 therefore1 have to confine ourselves to the consideration of its most characteristic features1 and those which are the most important in the history of art4 ,in ,homer1 who is here again our most ancient authority1 the leading features of the myth are traced--the enmity of ,hera towards the hero2 his period of subjection to ,eurystheus1 and the labours by which he emancipated himself 7though special mention is made only of his seizure of ,cerberus72 his expeditions against ,pylus1 ,ephyra1 chalia1 and ,troy4 ,the verses in the ,odyssey 7xi4 #fjb-d71 which refer to his deification and subsequent marriage with ,hebe1 are probably a later insertion4 ,in the ,iliad1 ,heracles is spoken of as a great hero of olden time1 8whom the ,fates and the grievous wrath of ,hera subdued40 ,in ,homer1 too1 he appears as a purely ,grecian hero1 his warlike undertakings having never yet led him beyond ,troy1 and his armour differing in no respect from that of other heroes4 ,the description of him in ,hesiod's ,theogony and in the ,shield of ,heracles is somewhat more minute1 but is otherwise essentially the same4 ,from what source the deification of ,heracles sprang--whether it was due to ,phnician influences or not--has hitherto remained an undetermined question2 we only know that it appears as an accomplished fact about #gjj ,b4,c4 ,i4 ,,the ,,birth ,,and ,,youth ,,of ,,heracles4--,this portion of the legend found its chief development in ,botia4 ,amphitryon1 a son of ,alcus and grandson of ,perseus1 was compelled to flee from ,tiryns with his betrothed ,alcmene--likewise a descendant of ,perseus by her father ,electryon--on account of a murder1 and found an asylum at the court of ,creon1 king of ,thebes4 ,from this place he undertook an expedition against the robber tribes of the ,telebo 7,taphians71 in consequence of a promise made to ,alcmene1 whose brother they had slain4 ,after the successful termination of this expedition1 the marriage was to have been celebrated at ,thebes4 ,but1 in the meanwhile1 the great ruler of ,olympus himself had been smitten with the charms of ,alcmene1 and1 taking the form of the absent ,amphitryon1 had left her pregnant with ,heracles1 to whom she afterwards gave birth at the same time with ,iphicles1 the son of ,amphitryon4 ,the sovereignty over all the descendants of ,perseus1 which ,zeus had destined for ,heracles1 was snatched from him by the crafty jealousy of ,hera1 who prolonged the pains of ,alcmene and hastened the delivery of the wife of ,sthenelus1 the uncle of ,amphitryon1 by two months4 ,not content with having subjected the hero to the will of the weak and cowardly ,eurystheus1 ,hera1 according to a subsequent account of the poets1 sent two serpents to kill the child when he was about eight months old4 ,heracles1 however1 gave the first proof of his divine origin by strangling the serpents with his hands4 ,an account of this scene has descended to us in a beautiful poem of ,pindar4 ,in ,thebes1 the boy grew up and was put under the care of the best preceptors4 ,but1 though he excelled in every feat of strength and valour1 he made no progress in musical arts1 and even slew his master ,linus on account of a somewhat harsh reproof which his inaptitude entailed on him4 ,as a punishment1 ,amphitryon sent him to ,mount ,cithron to mind the flocks1 a mode of life which ,heracles continued until he had completed his eighteenth year4 ,it was to this period that the sophist ,prodicus1 a contemporary of ,socrates1 referred his beautiful allegory of the ,choice of ,heracles4 ,after attaining his full growth 7according to ,apollodorus he was four cubits in height7 and strength1 the young hero performed his first great feat by killing the lion of ,cithron4 ,whether it was this skin or that of the ,nemean lion which he afterwards used as a garment is not certain4 ,his next act was to free the ,thebans from the ignominious tribute which they were compelled to pay to ,erginus1 king of ,orchomenus1 by a successful expedition1 in which ,amphitryon1 however1 lost his life4 ,creon1 the king of ,thebes1 in gratitude gave the hero his daughter ,megara in marriage1 while ,iphicles married her sister4 ,,ii4 ,,heracles ,,in ,,the ,,service ,,of ,,eurystheus--,,the ,,twelve ,,labours4--,we now come to the second epoch in the life of the hero1 in which he performed various labours at the bidding of ,eurystheus1 king of ,mycen or ,tiryns4 ,the number of these was first fixed at twelve in the ,alexandrian age1 when ,heracles was identified with the ,phnician sun-god1 ,baal2 probably from the analogy afforded in the course of the sun through the twelve signs of the ,zodiac4 ,the subjection of ,heracles to his unmanly cousin ,eurystheus is generally represented as a consequence of the stratagem by which ,hera obtained for the latter the sovereignty over all the descendants of ,perseus4 ,at a later period ,heracles was said to have become insane1 in consequence of the summons of ,eurystheus to do his bidding4 ,the following is an account of the labours of ,heracles3-- #a4 ,the ,fight with the ,nemean ,lion4--,the district of ,nemea and ,cleon was inhabited by a monstrous lion1 the offspring of ,typhon and ,echidna1 whose skin bade defiance to every weapon4 ,heracles1 after using his arrows and club against the animal in vain1 at last drove it into a cave1 and there strangled it with his hands4 ,he afterwards used the head of the lion as a helmet1 and the impenetrable skin as a defence4 #b4 ,the ,lernan ,hydra4--,this was a great water-serpent1 likewise the offspring of ,typhon and ,echidna4 ,the number of its heads varies in the accounts of poets1 though ancient gems usually represent it with seven4 ,it ravaged the country of ,lerna in ,argolis1 destroying both men and beasts4 ,in this adventure ,heracles was accompanied by ,iolas1 the son of his brother ,iphicles1 who1 on this as on other occasions1 appears as his faithful companion4 ,after driving the monster from its lair by means of his arrows1 he advanced fearlessly1 and1 seizing it in his hands1 began to strike off its heads with his sword4 ,to his amazement1 in the place of each head he struck off two sprang up4 ,he then ordered ,iolas to set on fire a neighbouring wood1 and with the firebrands seared the throats of the serpent1 until he at length succeeded in slaying it4 ,he then dipped his arrows in its gall1 thus rendering the wounds inflicted by them incurable4 #c4 ,the ,erymanthian ,boar4--,this animal inhabited the mountain district of ,erymanthus in ,arcadia1 from which place it wasted the corn-fields of ,psophis4 ,heracles drove the boar up to the snow-covered summit of the mountain1 and then caught it alive1 as ,eurystheus had commanded him4 ,when he arrived at ,mycen with the terrible beast on his back1 ,eurystheus was so terrified that he hid himself in a vessel4 ,this comic scene is frequently depicted on vases4 ,it was on this occasion that ,heracles destroyed the ,centaurs4 ,on the road the hero1 hungry and thirsty1 was hospitably received by the friendly ,centaur ,pholus1 who holds the same place among the ,arcadian ,centaurs as ,chiron does among those of ,thessaly4 ,pholus broached1 in honour of his guest1 a cask of wine lying in his cave1 which was the common property of all the ,centaurs4 ,the fragrance of the wine attracted the other ,centaurs living on ,mount ,pholo1 and they immediately attacked the tippling hero with pieces of rock and trunks of trees4 ,heracles1 however1 drove them back with arrows and firebrands1 and completely vanquished them after a terrible fight4 ,on returning to the cave of ,pholus1 he found his friend dead4 ,he had drawn an arrow out of a dead body to examine it1 but accidentally let it fall on his foot1 from the wound of which he died4 #d4 ,the ,hind of ,cerynea4--,this animal1 which was sacred to the ,arcadian ,artemis1 had golden horns and brazen hoofs1 the latter being a symbol of its untiring fleetness4 ,heracles was commanded to bring it alive to ,mycen1 and for a whole year he continued to pursue it over hill and dale with untiring energy4 ,at length it returned to ,arcadia1 where he succeeded in capturing it on the banks of the ,ladon1 and bore it in triumph to ,mycen4 #e4 ,the ,stymphalian ,birds4--,these voracious birds1 which fed on human flesh1 had brazen claws1 wings1 and beaks1 and were able to shoot out their feathers like arrows4 ,they inhabited the district round ,lake ,stymphalis in ,arcadia4 ,heracles slew some1 and so terrified the rest by means of his brazen rattle that they never returned4 ,this latter circumstance is apparently an addition of later times1 to explain their reappearance in the history of the ,argonauts4 #f4 ,cleansing of the ,stables of ,augeas4--,the sixth task of ,heracles was to cleanse in one day the stables of ,augeas1 king of ,elis1 whose wealth in cattle had become proverbial4 ,heracles repaired to ,elis1 where he offered to cleanse the stables1 in which were three thousand oxen1 if the king would consent to give him a tenth part of the cattle4 ,augeas agreed to do so2 ,heracles then turned the course of the ,peneus or the ,alpheus1 or1 according to some1 of both rivers1 through the stalls1 and thus carried off the filth4 ,augeas1 however1 on learning that ,heracles had undertaken the labour at the command of ,eurystheus1 refused to give him the stipulated reward1 a breach of faith for which ,heracles1 later1 took terrible vengeance on the king4 #g4 ,the ,cretan ,bull4--,in the history of ,minos1 king of ,crete1 we find that ,poseidon once sent up a bull out of the sea for ,minos to sacrifice1 but that ,minos was induced by the beauty of the animal to place it among his own herds1 and sacrificed another in its stead2 whereupon ,poseidon drove the bull mad4 ,the seventh labour of ,heracles consisted in capturing this bull and bringing it to ,mycen4 ,it was afterwards set free by ,eurystheus1 and appears later1 in the story of ,theseus1 as the bull of ,marathon4 #h4 ,the ,mares of ,diomedes4--,diomedes was king of the ,bistones1 a warlike tribe of ,thrace4 ,he inhumanly caused all strangers cast upon his coasts to be given to his wild mares1 who fed on human flesh4 ,to bind these horses and bring them alive to ,mycen was the next task of ,heracles4 ,this1 too1 he successfully accomplished1 after inflicting on ,diomedes the same fate to which he had condemned so many others4 #i4 ,the ,girdle of ,hippolyte4--,admete1 the daughter of ,eurystheus1 was anxious to obtain the girdle which the queen of the ,amazons had received from ,ares2 and ,heracles was accordingly despatched to fetch it4 ,after various adventures he landed in ,themiscyra1 and was at first kindly received by ,hippolyte1 who was willing to give him the girdle4 ,but ,hera1 in the guise of an ,amazon1 spread a report that ,heracles was about to carry off the queen1 upon which the ,amazons attacked ,heracles and his followers4 ,in the battle which ensued ,hippolyte was killed1 and the hero1 after securing the girdle1 departed4 ,on his journey homewards occurred his celebrated adventure with ,hesione1 the daughter of ,laomedon1 king of ,troy4 ,this king had refused ,poseidon and ,apollo the rewards he had promised them for their assistance in building the walls of ,troy4 ,in consequence of his perfidy1 ,apollo visited the country with a pestilence1 and ,poseidon sent a sea-monster1 which devastated the land far and wide4 ,by the advice of the oracle1 ,hesione1 the king's daughter1 was exposed to be devoured by the animal4 ,heracles offered to destroy the monster1 if ,laomedon would give him the horses which his father ,tros had received as a compensation for the loss of ,ganymedes4 ,laomedon agreed1 and ,heracles then slew the monster4 ,laomedon1 however1 again proved false to his word1 and ,heracles1 with a threat of future vengeance1 departed4 #aj4 ,the ,oxen of ,geryones4--,the next task of ,heracles was to fetch the cattle of the three-headed winged giant ,geryones1 or ,geryoneus 7,geryon74 ,this monster was the offspring of ,chrysaor 7red slayer7 and ,callirrho 7fair-flowing71 an ,oceanid1 and inhabited the island of ,erythia1 in the far ,west1 in the region of the setting sun1 where he had a herd of the finest and fattest cattle4 ,it was only natural that ,heracles1 in the course of his long journey to ,erythia and back1 should meet with numerous adventures2 and this expedition has1 accordingly1 been more richly embellished than any other by the imagination of the poets4 ,he is generally supposed to have passed through ,libya1 and to have sailed thence to ,erythia in a golden boat1 which he forced ,helios 7the sun7 to lend him by shooting at him with his arrows4 ,having arrived in ,erythia1 he first slew the herdsman who was minding the oxen1 together with his dog4 ,he was then proceeding to drive off the cattle1 when he was overtaken by ,geryon4 ,a violent contest ensued1 in which the three-headed monster was at length vanquished by the arrows of the mighty hero4 ,heracles is then supposed to have recrossed the ocean in the boat of the sun1 and1 starting from ,tartessus1 to have journeyed on foot through ,iberia1 ,gaul1 and ,italy4 ,we pass over his contests with the ,celts and ,ligurians1 and only notice briefly his victory over the giant ,cacus1 mentioned by ,livy1 which took place in the district where ,rome was afterwards built1 because ,roman legend connected with this the introduction of the worship of ,hercules into ,italy4 ,at length1 after many adventures1 he arrived at ,mycen1 where ,eurystheus sacrificed the oxen to the ,argive goddess ,hera4 ,heracles has now completed ten of his labours1 but ,eurystheus1 as ,apollodorus relates1 refused to admit the destruction of the ,lernan ,hydra1 because on that occasion ,heracles had availed himself of the help of ,iolas1 or the cleansing of the stables of ,augeas1 because of the reward for which he had stipulated2 so that the hero was compelled to undertake two more4 ,this account does not1 however1 harmonise with the tradition of the response of the oracle1 in deference to which ,heracles surrendered himself to servitude1 and which offered the prospect of twelve labours from the first4 #aa4 ,the ,apples of the ,hesperides4--,this adventure has been even more embellished with later and foreign additions than the last4 ,the golden apples1 which were under the guardianship of the ,hesperides1 or nymphs of the west1 constituted the marriage present which ,hera had received from ,ga on the occasion of her marriage with ,zeus4 ,they were closely guarded by the terrible dragon ,ladon1 who1 like all monsters1 was the offspring of ,typhon and ,echidna4 ,this1 however1 was far less embarrassing to the hero than his total ignorance of the site of the garden of the ,hesperides1 which led him to make several fruitless efforts before he succeeded in reaching the desired spot4 ,his first object was to gain information as to the situation of the garden1 and for this purpose he journeyed through ,illyria to the ,eridanus 7,po71 in order to inquire the way of the nymphs who dwelt on this river4 ,by them he was referred to the treacherous sage ,nereus1 whom he managed to seize whilst asleep1 and refused to release until he had obtained the desired information4 ,heracles then proceeded by way of ,tartessus to ,libya1 where he was challenged to a wrestling match by the giant ,antus1 a powerful son of ,earth1 who was1 according to ,libyan tradition1 of a monstrous height 7some say sixty cubits74 ,he was attacked by ,heracles1 but1 as he received new strength from his mother ,earth as often as he touched the ground1 the hero lifted him up in the air and squeezed him to death in his arms4 ,from ,libya ,heracles passed into ,egypt1 where the cruel king ,busiris was in the habit of seizing all strangers who entered the country and sacrificing them to ,zeus4 ,heracles would have suffered a similar fate1 had he not broken the chains laid upon him1 and slain the king and his son4 ,his indulgence at the richly-furnished table of the king was a feature in the story which afforded no small amusement to the comic writers1 who were especially fond of jesting on the subject of the healthy and heroic appetite of ,heracles4 ,from ,egypt the hero made his way into thiopia1 where he slew ,emathion1 the son of ,tithonus and ,eos1 for his cruelty to strangers4 ,he next crossed the sea to ,india1 and thence came to the ,caucasus1 where he set ,prometheus free and destroyed the vulture that preyed on his liver4 ,after ,prometheus had described to him the long road to the ,hesperides1 he passed through ,scythia1 and came at length to the land of the ,hyperboreans1 where ,atlas bore the pillars of heaven on his shoulders4 ,this was the end of his journey1 for ,atlas1 at his request1 fetched the apples1 whilst ,heracles supported the heavens4 ,here again the comic poets introduced an amusing scene4 ,atlas1 having once tasted the delights of freedom1 betrayed no anxiety to relieve his substitute1 but offered1 instead1 to bear the apples himself to ,eurystheus4 ,heracles1 however1 proved even more cunning than he1 for1 apparently agreeing to the proposition1 he asked ,atlas just to relieve him until he had arranged more comfortably a cushion for his back4 ,when ,atlas good-humouredly consented1 ,heracles of course left him in his former position1 and made off with the apples4 ,another account states that he descended himself into the garden and slew the hundred-headed dragon who kept guard over the trees4 #ab4 ,cerberus4--,the most daring of all the feats of ,heracles1 and that which bears the palm from all the others1 and is in consequence1 always put at the end of his labours1 was the bringing of ,cerberus from the lower world4 ,in this undertaking1 which is mentioned even by ,homer1 he was accompanied by ,hermes and ,athene1 though he had hitherto been able to dispense with divine aid4 ,he is commonly reported to have made his descent into the lower world at ,cape ,tnarum in ,laconia4 ,close to the gates of ,hades he found the adventurous heroes ,theseus and ,pirithos1 who had gone down to carry off ,persephone1 fastened to a rock4 ,he succeeded in setting ,theseus free1 but ,pirithos he was obliged to leave behind him1 because of the violent earthquake which occurred when he attempted to touch him4 ,after several further adventures1 he entered the presence of the lord of the lower world4 ,hades consented to his taking ,cerberus1 on condition that he should master him without using any weapons4 ,heracles seized the furious beast1 and1 having chained him1 he brought him to ,eurystheus1 and afterwards carried him back to his place in the lower world4 ,the completion of this task released ,heracles from his servitude to ,eurystheus4 ,,iii4 ,,deeds ,,of ,,heracles ,,after ,,his ,,service4--#a4 ,the ,murder of ,iphitus and ,contest with ,apollo4--,the hero1 after his release from servitude1 returned to ,thebes1 where he gave his wife ,megara in marriage to ,iolas4 ,he then proceeded to the court of ,eurytus1 king of chalia1 who had promised his beautiful daughter ,iole in marriage to the man who should vanquish himself and his sons in shooting with the bow4 ,the situation of chalia is variously given2 sometimes it is placed in ,thessaly1 sometimes in the ,peloponnesus1 on the borders of ,arcadia and ,messenia1 and sometimes in the island of ,euba1 close to ,eretria4 ,heracles gained a most complete victory2 but ,eurytus1 nevertheless1 refused to give him his daughter1 reproaching him with the murder of his children by ,megara1 and with his ignominious bondage to ,eurystheus4 ,heracles1 with many threats of future vengeance1 withdrew1 and when1 not long afterwards1 ,iphitus1 the son of ,eurytus1 fell into his hands1 he cast him from the highest tower of his citadel in ,tiryns4 ,this somewhat treacherous action being at variance with the general character of the hero1 the story subsequently arose that ,iphitus was a friend of ,heracles1 and had advocated his cause with ,eurytus1 and that ,heracles only treated him thus in a fit of insanity4 ,the bloody deed was fraught with the gravest consequences4 ,after seeking purification and absolution in vain among men1 ,heracles came to ,delphi1 in order to seek the aid and consolation of the oracle4 ,but ,apollo1 with whom the royal family of chalia stood in high favour1 rejected him2 whereupon ,heracles forced his way into the temple1 and was already in the act of bearing away the holy tripod1 in order to erect an oracle of his own1 when he was confronted by the angry deity4 ,a fearful combat would doubtless have ensued1 if the father of gods and men himself had not interfered to prevent this unnatural strife between his favourite sons by separating the combatants with his lightning4 ,heracles was now commanded by the ,pythian priestess to allow himself to be sold by ,hermes into slavery for three years1 to expiate the murder of ,iphitus4 #b4 ,heracles in the ,service of ,omphale4--,this portion of the story is of ,lydian origin1 but was cleverly interwoven with the ,greek legend4 ,the ,lydians1 in fact1 honoured a sun-hero called ,sandon1 who resembled ,heracles in many respects1 as the ancestor of their kings4 ,the oriental character of the ,lydian ,heracles at once manifests itself in the fact that he here appears as entirely devoted to sensual pleasures1 becoming effeminate in the society of women1 and allowing himself to be clothed in female attire1 whilst his mistress ,omphale donned his lion-skin and club1 and flaunted up and down before him4 ,he did not always linger in such inactivity1 however2 sometimes the old desire for action urged him forth to gallant deeds4 ,thus he vanquished and chastised the ,cercopes1 a race of goblins who used to trick and waylay travellers4 ,he also slew ,syleus1 who compelled all passing travellers to dig in his vineyard2 which formed the subject of a satyric drama of ,euripides4 #c4 ,his ,expedition against ,troy4--,after performing several other feats in the service of ,omphale1 ,heracles again became free4 ,he now appears to have undertaken an expedition against the faithless ,laomedon1 king of ,troy1 in company with other ,greek heroes1 such as ,peleus1 ,telamon1 and ,ocles1 whose number increased as time went on4 ,the city was taken by storm3 ,ocles1 indeed1 was slain1 but1 on the other hand1 ,laomedon and all his sons except ,podarces fell before the arrows of ,heracles4 ,hesione1 the daughter of the king1 was given by ,heracles to his friend ,telamon1 and became by him the mother of ,teucer4 ,she received permission from ,heracles to release one of the prisoners1 and chose her brother ,podarces1 who afterwards bore the name of ,priamus 7the redeemed71 and continued the race of ,dardanus in ,ilium4 #d4 ,the ,peloponnesian ,expeditions of ,heracles4--,the legend relates that the hero now undertook his long-deferred expedition against ,augeas1 which was the means of kindling a ,messenian and ,lacedmonian war4 ,after assembling an army in ,arcadia1 which was joined by many gallant ,greek heroes1 he advanced against ,elis4 ,heracles1 however1 fell sick2 and in his absence his army was attacked and driven back with great loss by the brave ,actorid or ,molionid1 the nephews of ,augeas4 ,it was only after ,heracles had slain these heroes in an ambuscade at ,cleon1 as they were on their way to the ,isthmian games1 that he succeeded in penetrating into ,elis4 ,he then slew ,augeas1 and gave the kingdom to his son ,phyleus1 with whom he was on friendly terms4 ,it was on this occasion that he instituted the ,olympic games4 ,he then marched against ,pylus1 either because its king1 ,neleus1 had given assistance to the ,molionid1 or else because ,neleus had refused to purify him from the murder of ,iphitus4 ,this expedition against ,pylus was subsequently greatly embellished by the poets1 who made it into a great battle of the gods1 one part of whom fought for ,neleus1 and the other part for ,heracles4 ,the chief feature was the combat between ,heracles and ,periclymenus1 the bravest of the sons of ,neleus1 who had received from ,poseidon1 the tutelary deity of the ,pylians1 the power of transforming himself into any kind of animal4 ,the result of the combat was of course a complete victory for ,heracles4 ,neleus1 with his eleven gallant sons1 was slain1 and only the youngest1 ,nestor1 remained to perpetuate the celebrated race4 ,the ,lacedmonian expedition of ,heracles1 which follows close on that against ,pylus1 was undertaken against ,hippocon1 the half-brother of ,tyndares1 whom he had expelled4 ,hippocon was defeated and slain by ,heracles1 who gave his kingdom to ,tyndares4 ,on this occasion ,heracles was assisted by ,cepheus1 king of ,tegea1 with his twenty sons1 a circumstance which is only mentioned on account of a remarkable legend connected with his stay in ,tegea4 ,heracles is here said to have left ,auge1 the beautiful sister of ,cepheus1 and priestess of ,athene1 pregnant with ,telephus1 whose wondrous adventures have occupied artists and poets alike4 ,auge concealed her child in the grove of ,athene1 whereupon the angry goddess visited the land with a famine4 ,ales1 the father of ,auge1 on discovering the fact1 caused the child to be exposed1 and sold the mother beyond the sea4 ,auge thus came into ,mysia1 where the king ,teuthras made her his wife4 ,telephus was suckled by a hind4 ,he grew up1 and ultimately1 after some wonderful adventures1 succeeded in finding his mother4 ,he succeeded ,teuthras1 and1 later1 became embroiled with the ,greeks when they landed on their expedition against ,troy1 on which occasion he was wounded by ,achilles4 ,telephus1 among all the sons of ,heracles1 is said to have borne the greatest resemblance to his father4 #e4 ,achelos1 ,nessus1 ,cycnus4--,the next episode in the history of the hero is his wooing of ,deanira1 the daughter of neus1 king of tolia4 neus is celebrated as the first cultivator of the vine in that country1 and as the father of the tolian heroes1 ,meleager and ,tydeus4 ,the river-god ,achelos was also a suitor for the hand of ,deanira1 and as neither he nor ,heracles would relinquish their claim1 it was decided by the combat between the rivals#h so often described by the poets4 ,the power of assuming various forms was of little use to ,achelos1 for1 having finally transformed himself into a bull1 he was deprived of a horn by ,heracles1 and compelled to declare himself vanquished4 ,heracles restored him his horn1 and received in exchange that of the goat ,amalthea4 ,after his marriage with ,deanira1 ,heracles lived for some time happily at the court of his father-in-law1 where his son ,hyllus was born4 ,in consequence of an accidental murder1 he was obliged to leave tolia and retire to the court of his friend ,cex1 king of ,trachis1 at the foot of ,mount ta4 ,on the road occurred his celebrated adventure with the ,centaur ,nessus4 ,on coming to the river ,evenus1 ,heracles entrusted ,deanira to ,nessus to carry across1 whilst he himself waded through the swollen stream4 ,the ,centaur1 induced by the beauty of his burden1 attempted to carry off ,deanira1 but was pierced by an arrow of ,heracles1 and expiated his attempt with his life4 ,he avenged himself by giving ,deanira some of his blood to make a magic salve1 with which he assured her she could always secure the love of her husband4 ,footnote #h3 ,the most beautiful description exists in a chorus in the ,trachini of ,sophocles1 and in ,ovid's ,metamorphoses4 ,on reaching ,trachis they were hospitably received by ,cex4 ,heracles first defeated the ,dryopes1 and assisted the ,dorian king gimius in his contest with the ,lapith4 ,he next engaged in his celebrated combat with ,cycnus1 the son of ,ares1 which took place at ,iton1 in the neighbourhood of the ,gulf of ,pagas4 ,heracles not only slew his opponent1 but even wounded the god of war himself1 who had come to the assistance of his son4 ,this contest is the subject of the celebrated poem called the ,shield of ,hercules1 which goes under the name of ,hesiod4 ,,iv4 ,,death ,,and ,,apotheosis4--,the death of ,heracles1 of which we learn most from the masterly description of ,sophocles in the ,trachini1 is generally supposed to have been connected with his expedition against ,eurytus4 ,the hero1 who could not forget the ignominious treatment he had received at the hands of ,eurytus1 now marched with an army from ,trachis against chalia4 ,the town and citadel were taken by storm1 and ,eurytus and his sons slain2 whilst the beautiful ,iole1 who was still unmarried1 fell into the hands of the conqueror4 ,heracles now withdrew with great booty1 but halted on the promontory of ,cenum1 opposite the ,locrian coast1 to raise an altar and offer a solemn sacrifice of thanksgiving to his father ,zeus4 ,deanira1 who was tormented with jealous misgivings concerning ,iole1 thought it was now high time to make use of the charm of ,nessus4 ,she accordingly sent her husband a white sacrificial garment1 which she anointed with the ointment prepared from the blood of the ,centaur4 ,heracles donned the garment without suspicion1 but scarcely had the flames from the altar heated the poison than it penetrated the body of the unhappy hero4 ,in the most fearful agony he strove to tear off the garment1 but in vain1 for it stuck like a plaster to his skin2 and where he succeeded in rending it away by force1 it tore out great pieces of his flesh at the same time4 ,in his frenzy he seized the herald ,lichas1 the bearer of the unfortunate present1 and violently dashed him in pieces against a rock of the sea4 ,in this state ,heracles was brought to ,trachis1 where he found that ,deanira1 full of sorrow and despair on learning the consequences of her act1 had put an end to her own life4 ,convinced that cure was hopeless1 the dying hero proceeded from ,trachis to ta1 and there erected a funeral pile on which to end his torments4 ,none of those around him1 however1 would consent to set the pile on fire1 until ,pas1 the father of ,philoctetes1 happened to pass by1 and rendered him the service1 in return for which ,heracles presented him with his bow and arrows4 ,as the flames rose high1 a cloud descended from heaven1 and1 amid furious peals of thunder1 a chariot with four horses1 driven by ,athene1 appeared and bore the illustrious hero to ,olympus1 where he was joyfully received by the gods4 ,he here became reconciled to ,hera1 who gave him the hand of her beauteous daughter ,hebe in marriage4 ,v4 ,,heracles ,,as ,,god4--,we have already laid before our readers the most characteristic features of the myth4 ,to interpret it and trace it back in all its details to the original sources would be1 amid the mass of provincial and foreign legends with which it is amalgamated1 almost impossible4 ,thus much is certain1 however1 that1 apart from the conceptions which were engrafted on the story from ,tyrian and ,egyptian sources1 even in the case of the ,greek ,heracles1 myths based on natural phenomena are mixed up with historical and allegorical myths4 ,the historic element1 for instance1 is apparent in the wars of ,heracles against the ,dryopes--against ,augeas1 ,neleus1 and ,hippocon4 ,here the exploits of the whole ,dorian race are personified in the actions of the hero4 ,on the other hand1 in most of his single combats a symbolic meaning1 derived from natural phenomena1 is unmistakeable4 ,heracles1 in fact1 appears to have been1 originally1 a symbol of the power of the sun triumphing over the dark powers in nature4 ,driven from ,argos by the worship of the ,argive ,hera1 he first sank to the level of a hero1 but was1 subsequently1 again raised to the dignity of a god4 ,this occurred at a time when the gods of ,greece had altogether cast aside their physical meaning2 so that he was now regarded principally from an ethical point of view4 ,he appears as a symbol of that lofty force of character which triumphs over all difficulties and obstacles4 ,poets and philosophers alike vied with each other in presenting him to the youth of their country in this character1 pointing to his career as a brilliant example of what a man might accomplish1 in spite of a thousand obstacles1 by mere determination and force of will4 ,the well-known allegory of the sophist ,prodicus1#i called 8,the ,choice of ,hercules10 is an instance of the mode in which the history of the hero was used to inculcate moral precepts4 ,footnote #i3 ,prodicus1 a native of the island of ,ceos1 was an elder contemporary of ,socrates4 ,like the latter1 he taught in ,athens1 and met with a similar fate1 having been condemned to death as an enemy of the popular religion and a corruptor of the ,athenian youth4 ,in the religious system of the ,greeks1 ,heracles was specially honoured as the patron of the gymnasia2 the gymnasium of ,cynosarges in ,athens being solely dedicated to him4 ,after his deification1 ,heracles was also regarded in the character of a saviour and benefactor of his nation2 as one who had not only merited the lasting gratitude of mankind by his deeds throughout an active and laborious life--in having rid the world of giants and noxious beasts1 in having extinguished destructive forces of nature1 and abolished human sacrifices and other barbarous institutions of antiquity--but also as a kindly and beneficent deity1 ever ready to afford help and protection to mankind in the hour of need4 ,in this character he was known by the names of ,soter 7,saviour7 and ,alexicacus 7averter of evil74 ,he had temples and festivals in various parts of ,greece4 ,in ,marathon1 which boasted of being the first seat of his worship1 games were celebrated in his honour every four years1 at which silver cups were given as prizes4 ,the fourth day of every month was held sacred to him1 this day being regarded as his birthday4 ,we have already mentioned the legendary introduction of his worship into ,rome4#aj ,hercules1 as he was called in ,italy1 was identified with the ,italian hero ,recaranus4 ,he had an altar in the ,forum ,boarium1 established1 according to tradition1 by ,evander4 ,the ,roman poets1 of course1 devoted especial attention to the stories of his journey through ,italy1 and his fight with ,cacus4 ,footnote #aj3 ,there seems ground for thinking that the ,italian ,hercules was properly a rural deity confounded with ,heracles on account of the similarity of their names2 while ,recaranus properly corresponded with the great ,heracles in meaning4 ,in ,heracles ancient art sought to portray the conception of gigantic bodily strength4 ,he is1 therefore1 generally represented as a full-grown man--rarely as a child or youth4 ,we may observe the manner in which the prominent idea of physical force is expressed by regarding the formation of the neck and throat in the statue of ,heracles4 ,nothing can express better a bull-like strength than the short neck and the prominent muscles1 especially if associated with a broad1 deep chest4 ,we shall be able to appreciate this distinctive character still more clearly if we compare the form of ,heracles with that of the ideal god ,apollo1 whose neck is especially long and slender4 ,the figure of ,heracles is1 moreover1 characterised by a head small in comparison with the giant body2 by curly hair1 bushy eyebrows1 and muscular arms and legs4 ,this conception was principally developed by ,myron and ,lysippus4 ,a statue of ,heracles by the former artist played a part in connection with the art robberies of ,verres in ,sicily4 ,lysippus erected several celebrated statues of ,heracles1 the most remarkable of which was the bronze colossus in ,tarentum1 which the ,romans1 after the capture of that town1 transferred to the ,capitol4 ,thence it was brought1 by order of ,constantine1 to his new capital of ,constantinople1 where it remained until the ,latin crusade of #abjb1 when it was melted down4 ,lysippus portrayed in this statue a mourning ,heracles1 which no one had ever attempted before him4 ,the hero appeared in a sitting posture1 without his weapons1 his left elbow resting on his left leg1 while his head1 full of thought and sorrow1 rests on the open hand4 ,the same artist1 in a still greater work1 depicted the twelve labours of ,heracles4 ,these formed a group which was originally executed for ,alyzia1 a seaport town of ,acarnania1 but which was1 subsequently1 likewise transferred to ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,farnese ,hercules4 ,first among existing statues is the ,farnese ,hercules 7,fig4 #eh74 ,this celebrated colossal statue1 now in the ,naples ,museum1 was discovered in #aedj1 on the site of the ,therm of ,caracalla4 ,the hero is standing upright1 resting his left shoulder on his club1 from which hangs his lion's skin4 ,this attitude1 as well as the head drooping towards the breast1 and the gloomy gravity of his countenance1 clearly show that the hero feels bowed down by the burden of his laborious life4 ,even the thought that he is soon to be released from his ignominious servitude 7he holds behind him1 in his right hand1 the three apples of the ,hesperides1 the fruit of his last labour7 is unable to cheer him1 and his thoughts seem to revert only to the past4 ,on account of the conception of the piece1 and the existence of another copy bearing the name of ,lysippus1 the ,farnese ,hercules is supposed to be a copy of a work of ,lysippus1 of which nothing further is known4 ,still more important as a work of art1 though it has reached us in a terribly mutilated condition--minus head1 arms1 and legs--is the celebrated ,torso of ,hercules1 in the ,vatican4 ,this was found in ,rome during the reign of ,pope ,julius ,,ii41 on a spot where the theatre of ,pompey1 of which it was probably an ornament1 once stood4 ,groups4--,heracles in action was a still more favourite subject with artists1 who delighted to portray the different scenes of his versatile life4 ,numberless representations of such scenes occur1 not only in the form of statues and works in relief1 but more especially on ancient vases4 ,we mention here1 in the chronological order of the events1 some of the most important4 #a4 ,heracles and the ,serpents4--,this scene was early depicted by the celebrated painter ,zeuxis1 who represented ,heracles as strangling the serpents1 whilst ,alcmene and ,amphitryon stood by in amazement4 ,there are also several statues representing this feat1 among which that at ,florence takes the first rank4 ,there is also a painting from ,herculaneum in the ,naples ,museum4 #b4 ,the ,twelve ,labours4--,these have naturally been treated of times out of number4 ,we have already mentioned the groups of ,lysippus1 which he executed for the town of ,alyzia4 ,a still existing bronze statue in the ,capitoline ,museum1 representing ,heracles battling with the ,hydra1 appears to belong to this series4 ,among interesting remains are the metope reliefs on the ,theseum at ,athens4 ,ten on the east side of the temple represent scenes from the life of ,heracles4 ,nine of them belong to the twelve labours1 viz41 the ,nemean lion1 the ,hydra1 the ,arcadian hind1 the ,erymanthian boar1 the horses of ,diomedes1 ,cerberus1 the girdle of ,hippolyte1 ,geryon1 and the ,hesperides2 whilst the tenth tablet represents his contest with ,cycnus4 ,the remains of the splendid temple of ,zeus at ,olympia1 which was completed about #dce ,b4,c41 are less important4 ,the metopes of the front and back of the temple contained six of the labours of ,heracles4 ,those representing the contest with the ,cretan bull1 the dying lion1 a portion from the fight with ,geryon1 and some other fragments1 were found in #ahbi1 and conveyed to the museum of the ,louvre at ,paris4 ,the only one which is perfect1 however1 is the spirited and life-like representation of the struggle with the ,cretan bull4 #c4 ,parerga 7,subordinate ,deeds74--,first among these come the scenes from his contest with the ,centaurs1 which were frequently treated of in art4 ,groups of these exist in the museum at ,florence2 there are also various representations to be found on vases4 ,his adventure with ,nessus is represented separately on a ,pompeian painting in the ,naples ,museum2 ,nessus crouches in a humble posture before ,heracles1 who has the little ,hyllus in his arms1 and he appears to be asking permission to carry ,deanira across the stream4 ,there is also an interesting representation of the release of ,prometheus on the ,sarcophagus of the ,capitol1 from the ,villa ,pamfili1 which is1 in other respects1 also worthy of mention4 ,the seizure of the tripod at ,delphi is also frequently portrayed in art4 #d4 ,heracles and ,omphale4--,of the monuments referring to ,heracles' connection with ,omphale1 the most important is the beautiful ,farnese group in marble in the ,naples ,museum4 ,omphale has thrown the lion's skin round her beautiful limbs1 and holds in her right hand the hero's club4 ,thus equipped1 she smiles triumphantly at ,heracles1 who is clothed in female attire1 with a distaff in his hand4 #e4 ,heracles and ,telephus4--,the romantic history of ,telephus was also frequently treated of in art4 ,the ,naples ,museum possesses a fine painting1 representing the discovery of the child after it has been suckled by the hind1 on which occasion1 strange to say1 ,heracles himself is present4 ,in the ,vatican ,museum there is a fine marble group1 representing ,heracles with the child ,telephus in his arms4 #g4 ,attic ,legend4--#a4 ,cecrops4--,cecrops1 the first founder of civilisation in ,attica1 plays a similar part here to that which ,cadmus does in ,thebes4 ,like ,cadmus1 he was afterwards called an immigrant2 indeed he was said to have come from ,sais in ,lower ,egypt4 ,in his case1 however1 we are able to trace the rise of the erroneous tradition with far greater distinctness4 ,pure ,attic tradition recognises him only as an autochthon--that is1 an original inhabitant born of the earth2 and further adds1 that1 like the giants1 he was half man and half serpent4 ,as the mythical founder of the state1 he was also regarded as the builder of the citadel 7,cecropia72 and marriage1 as well as other political and social institutions1 were ascribed to him4 ,perhaps he is only a local personification of ,hermes4 ,the probability of this view is greatly enhanced by the fact that his three daughters1 ,herse1 ,aglaurus1 and ,pandrosus1 received divine honours4 ,it was under ,cecrops that the celebrated contest occurred between ,poseidon and ,athene for the possession of ,attica1 and was by his means decided in favour of the goddess4 ,we have already given an account of it1 and need only here remark that the story is purely the result of the observation of natural phenomena4 ,in ,attica1 in fact1 there are only two seasons--a cold1 wet1 and rainy winter 7,poseidon71 and a warm1 dry1 genial summer 7,pallas74 ,these seem to be continually striving for the supremacy of the land4 ,cecrops was succeeded in the government by ,cranas1 who is represented by some as his son4 ,the common mythological account places the flood of ,deucalion in his reign4 ,after the expulsion of ,cranas1 ,amphictyon1 one of the sons of ,deucalion1 succeeded to the sovereignty of ,attica1 of whom nothing more is known than that he was deprived of the government by ,erechtheus4 #b4 ,erechtheus1 or ,erichthonius4--,erechtheus1 or ,erichthonius1 is really only a second ,cecrops--the mythical founder of the state after the flood1 as ,cecrops was before it4 ,being also earthborn1 he is1 like ,cecrops1 endowed with a serpent's form4 ,there was another very sacred legend concerning him1 which stated that ,ga 7,ge71 immediately after his birth1 gave him to the goddess ,pallas to nurse4 ,the latter first entrusted him to the daughters of ,cecrops1 her attendants and priestesses1 enclosed in a chest4 ,the latter1 however1 prompted by curiosity1 opened the chest1 contrary to the commands of the goddess1 and were punished in consequence with madness4 ,erichthonius was now reared by the goddess herself in her sanctuary on the citadel1 and was subsequently made king of ,athens4 ,the same stories are then related of him as of ,cecrops--that he regulated the state1 introduced the worship of the gods1 and settled the dispute between ,poseidon and ,athene4 ,the tomb of ,erechtheus was shown in the ,erechtheum1 the ancient temple dedicated to ,athene ,polias1 where the never-dying olive tree created by the goddess was also preserved4 ,two among the daughters of ,erechtheus are celebrated in legend4 ,the first is ,orithyia1 who was carried off by ,boreas1 and became the mother of ,calas and ,zetes1 whom we come across again in the story of the ,argonauts2 the other is ,procris1 the wife of the handsome hunter ,cephalus1 who was said to be a son of ,hermes by ,herse1 the daughter of ,cecrops4 ,cephalus was carried off by ,eos1 who was unable to shake his fidelity to his wife4 ,it served1 however1 to excite the jealousy of the latter1 which ultimately proved fatal to her4 ,procris had hidden herself among the bushes1 in order to watch her husband1 when ,cephalus1 taking her for a wild animal1 unwittingly killed her4 ,after the death of ,erechtheus1 the tragic poets relate that ,ion1 the mythical ancestor of the ,ionians1 ruled in ,athens4 ,this means nothing more than that the primitive ,pelasgian age in ,attica had now come to an end1 and the dominion of the ,ionians commenced4 #c4 ,theseus4--,theseus is the national hero of the ,ionians1 just as ,heracles is of the olians4 ,he has not unjustly been called the second ,heracles2 and he has1 indeed1 many features in common with the olian hero1 since the national jealousy of the ,ionians led them to adopt every possible means of making their own hero rival that of their neighbours4 ,they therefore strove to represent him1 likewise1 as a hero tried in numberless contests--generous1 unselfish1 and devoted to the interests of mankind--and of course ascribed to him a multitude of adventurous exploits4 ,there is no great undertaking of antiquity in which ,theseus is not supposed to have taken part1 and he was even sent on an expedition to hell1 in imitation of ,heracles4 ,he was the son of the ,athenian king geus1 whom mythological tradition made a great-grandson of ,erechtheus4 ,after his father ,pandion had been driven out by his relations1 the sons of ,metion1 geus betook himself to ,megara1 where he was hospitably received by the ruler1 ,pylas4 ,from ,megara1 geus1 ,pallas1 ,nisus1 and ,lycus1 the sons of ,pandion1 undertook an expedition against ,athens1 which ended in the expulsion of the ,metionid1 and the restoration of the former royal family in the person of geus4 ,such1 at least1 is the tradition2 although it is more probable that ,athens never had a king of this name1 and that geus 7wave-man7 is only a surname of ,poseidon1 the chief deity of the seafaring ,ionians4 geus1 though twice married1 had no heir1 and now undertook a journey to ,delphi to seek the advice of the oracle4 ,on his way back he stopped at the court of ,pittheus1 king of ,trzen1 and became1 by his daughter thra1 the father of ,theseus4 ,before his departure1 he placed his sword and sandals beneath a heavy stone1 and commanded thra to send his son to ,athens as soon as he was able to move the stone and take his father's sword4 ,theseus was carefully trained in music and gymnastics by the sagacious ,pittheus1 and soon developed into a stately youth4 ,he is also supposed to have been educated by the ,centaur ,chiron1 whose instruction had now become a necessary item in the education of a real hero4 ,when ,theseus was sixteen1 his mother took him to the stone beneath which lay his father's sword and sandals4 ,with a slight effort he raised the stone1 and thus entered on his heroic career4 ,his earlier adventures consisted in overcoming a series of obstacles that beset him in his journey from ,trzen to ,athens4 ,they are generally supposed to have been six in number4 #a4 ,between ,trzen and ,epidaurus he slew ,periphetes1 the son of ,hephstus--who was lame1 like his father--because he was in the habit of murdering travellers with his iron club2 whence he is called ,corynetes1 or club-bearer4 #b4 ,he next delivered the ,isthmus from another powerful robber called ,sinis4 ,he used to fasten travellers who fell into his hands to the top of a pine tree1 which he bent to the earth1 and then allowed to recoil2 after which1 on their reaching the ground1 he would kill them outright2 whence he is called ,pityocamptes1 or pine-bender4 ,theseus inflicted the same fate on him4 #c4 ,in the woody district of ,crommyon he destroyed a dangerous wild sow that laid waste the country4 #d4 ,not far from this1 on the rock of ,sciron1 on the borders of ,megara1 dwelt another monster1 called ,sciron1 who compelled travellers to wash his feet1 and then kicked them into the sea4 ,theseus served him in a similar fashion4 #e4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,eleusis he vanquished the giant ,cercyon1 who compelled all who fell into his hands to wrestle with him4 #f4 ,his last combat awaited him on the confines of ,eleusis1 where dwelt the inhuman ,damastes4 ,this monster used to lay his victims in a bed3 if this was too short1 he would hack off their projecting limbs2 if too long1 he would beat out and pull asunder their limbs1 whence he is called ,procrustes4 ,he was also slain by ,theseus4 ,on reaching ,athens1 he found his father geus in the toils of the dangerous sorceress ,medea1 who had fled from ,corinth to ,athens4 ,she was on the point of making away with the newcomer by poison1 when geus1 fortunately1 recognised him by the sword he bore1 and preserved him from his impending fate4 ,medea was compelled to flee2 but a new danger awaited the hero from the fifty sons of ,pallas1 who had reckoned on succeeding their childless uncle geus4 ,theseus1 however1 slew some in battle and expelled the rest4 ,he now undertook his greatest and most adventurous feat1 in order to free his country from its shameful tribute to ,minos1 king of ,crete1 whose son1 the youthful hero ,androgeos1 had been treacherously murdered by the ,athenians and ,megareans4 ,another account says that he was sent by geus against the bull of ,marathon1 and thus slain4 ,at any rate1 ,minos undertook a war of revenge4 ,he first marched against ,megara1 of which ,nisus1 the brother of geus1 was king4 ,minos conquered him by means of his own daughter ,scylla1 who became enamoured of ,minos1 and cut off from her father's head the purple lock on which his life depended4 ,after having taken ,megara and slain ,nisus1 ,minos marched against ,athens4 ,here he was equally successful1 and compelled the vanquished ,athenians to expiate the blood of his son by sending1 every eight or 7according to the ,greek method of reckoning7 every nine years1 seven youths and seven maidens to be devoured by the ,minotaur4 ,this was a monster1 half man and half bull4 ,twice already had the bloody tribute been sent1 and the third fell just after ,theseus' arrival in ,athens2 he at once bravely offered to go among the allotted victims4 ,he was resolved to do battle with the ,minotaur1 and to stake his life on the liberation of his country from the shameful tribute4 ,under the guidance of ,aphrodite he passed over to ,crete1 and soon discovered the efficacy of her protection4 ,the goddess kindled a passionate love for the hero in the breast of ,ariadne1 the daughter of ,minos4 ,ariadne rendered him every possible assistance in his undertaking1 and especially presented him with a clew of thread1 by means of which ,theseus1 after having slain the ,minotaur1 was enabled to find his way out of the ,labyrinth4 ,we have already narrated how ,ariadne was deserted by ,theseus on the isle of ,naxos1 only to become the bride of ,dionysus1 the divine son of ,semele4 ,theseus also landed at ,delos1 where he instituted the festival of the ,delia in honour of the divine children of ,leto4 ,on reaching ,athens1 he showed his gratitude to his divine protectress by the institution of the worship of ,aphrodite ,pandemus4 ,in honour of ,dionysus and ,ariadne1 he instituted the ,oschophoria1 in which festival ,athene also had a share4 ,lastly1 in honour of ,apollo1 he instituted the ,pyanepsia1 a festival which was celebrated on the seventh day of the month ,pyanepsion 7end of ,october74 ,the happy return of ,theseus from his ,cretan expedition1 however1 proved the death of his aged father4 geus1 as he stood on the coast looking for his son's return1 perceived that the ships had black sails instead of white1 which were to have been hoisted in the event of his son's success2 and believing that all was lost1 he cast himself headlong into the sea4 ,this story was perhaps only invented to account for the name of the gean ,sea4 ,with regard to the other exploits of ,theseus1 there exists the greatest variety of accounts as to the order in which they took place4 ,as king1 he is said to have been the first to unite the separate districts of ,attica into one political community1 with one state ,prytaneum1 and to have instituted the festival of the ,panathena in commemoration of this event4 ,the following1 among his later exploits1 are worthy of mention3-- #a4 ,he captured the bull of ,marathon 7said to have been the same which ,heracles brought alive from ,crete71 and sacrificed it in ,athens to ,apollo ,delphinius4 #b4 ,he assisted his friend ,pirithos1 the prince of the ,lapith1 in his contest with the ,centaurs4 #c4 ,he undertook with ,pirithos an expedition to ,lacedmon1 in which they carried off ,helen1 the sister of the ,dioscuri4 #d4 ,at the request of ,pirithos1 he accompanied him to the lower world to carry off ,persephone2 but ,hades1 enraged at their audacity1 caused them both to be bound in chains and fastened to a rock4 ,theseus was rescued from this plight by ,heracles1 but during his absence the ,dioscuri had released their sister from ,aphidn1 where she was confined4 #e4 ,he next joined ,heracles in his expedition against the ,amazons1 and received1 as the reward of victory1 their queen ,antiope1 or ,hippolyte4 ,another tradition asserts that ,antiope followed him of her own free will to ,athens1 where she was married to him1 and became the mother of ,hippolytus1 famed for his unhappy fate4 ,his great beauty caused his step-mother ,phdra1 a later wife of ,theseus1 and a sister of ,ariadne1 to fall in love with him4 ,as he withdrew himself from her dishonourable proposals by flight1 she accused him to his father of attempts on her virtue4 ,theseus1 in his wrath1 besought ,poseidon to punish his faithless son2 and the god1 who had sworn to grant any request of ,theseus1 sent a wild bull 7i4e41 a breaker7 out of the sea as ,hippolytus was driving in his chariot along the sea-shore4 ,this so terrified his horses that ,hippolytus was thrown from his chariot1 and dragged along the ground till he was dead4 ,this story--the scene of which was afterwards transferred to ,trzen1 whither ,theseus was supposed to have fled on account of a murder--was dealt with in a touching manner by the tragic poets4 ,the ,hippolytus of ,euripides is still extant4 #f4 ,as a result of the carrying off of ,antiope1 a second contest with the ,amazons was subsequently invented1 in which ,theseus was engaged alone1 and which took place in the immediate neighbourhood of ,athens4 ,the ,amazons are supposed to have invaded ,attica1 in order to release their queen4 ,antiope1 however1 was so enamoured of ,theseus that she refused to return1 and fought at her husband's side1 against her kindred1 until she was slain4 ,lastly1 ,theseus is said to have taken part in the ,calydonian boar hunt1 and also in the expedition of the ,argonauts1 of which we shall have more to say hereafter4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;,elgin ,theseus4 ,british ,museum4 ,the death of ,theseus is commonly agreed to have taken place in the following manner3--,he had been deprived of the sovereignty of ,athens by ,menestheus1 who was aided by the ,dioscuri2 and then withdrew to the island of ,scyros4 ,here he was at first hospitably received1 but subsequently murdered in a treacherous manner by ,lycomedes1 the ruler of the island4 ,demophon1 the son of ,theseus1 is said to have afterwards recovered his father's kingdom4 ,at a still later period the bones of the hero were brought to ,athens by ,cimon1 at the command of the ,delphic oracle4 ,cimon is also supposed to have caused the erection of the temple of ,theseus1 which still exists in ,athens1 and serves as an art museum4 ,the eighth day of every month was held sacred to ,theseus1 besides which he had a special festival1 called the ,thesea1 on the eighth of ,pyanepsion4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,theseus ,lifting the ,rock4 ,relief in the ,villa ,albani4 ,art has followed the example of the poets and mythologists in depicting ,theseus as a second ,heracles4 ,here1 however1 the characteristic differences that existed between the ,doric and ,ionic races become apparent4 ,just as the latter race surpassed the former in elasticity1 both of mind and body1 so their national hero gives token not only of a higher intellectual being1 but also of a body more lithe1 and capable of greater swiftness and dexterity1 than that of the ,doric hero4 ,the slighter and more elegant form of ,theseus lacks1 perhaps1 the sheer brute strength of ,heracles1 but is compensated by the possession of a far greater degree of activity and adroitness4 ,the expression of face is more amiable and the hair less bristling than that of ,heracles1 while there is generally no beard4 ,such is ,theseus as depicted by ,greek art at the epoch of its full development2 later art strove to render the form of the body still more lithe and graceful4 ,the costume of ,theseus consists1 like that of his prototype ,heracles1 of a lion's skin and club2 sometimes also of the chlamys and petasus of the ,attic youth4 ,existing art monuments are far less numerous in his case than in that of ,heracles4 ,if the explanation is correct1 the ,british ,museum possesses a ,theseus of priceless value4 ,among the statues of the ,parthenon which have been preserved1 there is one of a figure negligently reclining on a lion's skin1 which1 with the exception of the nose1 hands1 and feet1 is in a tolerably good state of preservation 7,fig4 #ei74 ,it belonged to the great group of the east gable1 which represented the first appearance of the new-born ,athene to the astonished gods4 ,it is the figure of a youth in his prime1 somewhat larger than life1 and altogether a perfect ideal of manly beauty4 ,a representation of the conflict of ,theseus with the invading army of the ,amazons still exists on a large piece of frieze-work1 which1 together with the representations of the battle of the ,lapith and ,centaurs 7which have been already mentioned71 formerly decorated the walls of the shrine of ,apollo's temple in ,phigalia1 and is now the property of the ,british ,museum4 ,among the ,greek warriors ,theseus may be easily recognised by his lion's skin and the club1 which he is in the act of swinging against a mounted ,amazon1 probably the leader of the hostile army4 ,we give an engraving of the scene where ,theseus obtained the sword and sandals of his father from beneath the rock1 after a relief in the ,villa ,albani 7,fig4 #fj74 #h4 ,cretan ,legend4--#a4 ,minos and the ,minotaur4--,cretan myths are both obscure and difficult of interpretation1 because ,phnician and ,phrygian influences made themselves felt at a very early period1 and native sources fail us4 ,minos is commonly supposed to have been the first king of the country4 ,he was the son of ,zeus and ,europa1 who is called in ,homer a daughter of ,phnix4 ,this ,phnix was subsequently made into ,agenor1 a ,phnician1 king of ,sidon2 and the story then arose that ,zeus1 in the form of a white bull1 had carried off ,europa1 and arrived with his lovely prey in ,crete4 ,europa is there said to have given birth to ,minos1 ,rhadamanthys 7,rhadamanthus71 and some say ,sarpedon4 ,she afterwards married ,asterion1 who brought up the sons of ,zeus as his own children1 and1 at his death1 left the kingdom to ,minos4 ,he1 after expelling his brothers ,sarpedon and ,rhadamanthus1 became sole king of ,crete4 ,of his brothers1 ,sarpedon went to ,lycia1 whilst the pious ,rhadamanthus found a refuge in ,botia4 ,minos next married ,pasipha1 a daughter of ,helios and ,perses1 by whom he became the father of ,catreus1 who succeeded him1 ,deucalion1 ,glaucus1 and ,androgeos1 besides several daughters1 of whom the most celebrated are ,ariadne and ,phdra4 ,minos gave wise laws to his people1 and became supreme at sea among the isles of the gean ,sea1 and even as far as ,attica4 ,in his name we find the same root 7meaning 8to think07 which we have seen in ,minerva1 and which appears in the name of the ,indian lawgiver ,manu4 ,in order to vindicate his right to the crown1 ,minos besought ,poseidon to send him a bull out of the sea1 which he was then to sacrifice to the god4 ,poseidon granted his prayer1 but ,minos was induced by the beauty of the animal to place it among his own herds4 ,as a punishment of his perfidy1 ,poseidon kindled in the breast of ,pasipha an unnatural love for the bull1 and the fruit of their connection was the ,minotaur4 ,this was a monster1 half man and half bull1 which ,minos shut up in the labyrinth that had been made by the skill of ,ddalus4 ,the food of the monster consisted of human beings1 who were partly criminals and partly youths and maidens1 sent as tribute from the subjugated countries4 ,this lasted until ,theseus came to ,crete1 and1 with the aid of ,ariadne and ,ddalus1 destroyed the ,minotaur4 ,such is the substance of this perplexing mythical tradition1 of which the simplest interpretation is that the ,minotaur was originally an ancient idol of the ,phnician sun-god ,baal1 which had the form of a bull1 and to which human sacrifices were offered4 ,the destruction of the ,minotaur by ,theseus is a symbol of the triumph of the higher ,greek civilisation over ,phnician barbarism1 and the consequent abolition of human sacrifices4 ,closely connected with the royal family of ,crete we find ,ddalus1 the most celebrated artist of the legendary period4 ,he is said to have been a son of ,metion1 and a descendant of ,erechtheus1 and to have fled from ,athens to ,crete after murdering his nephew ,talus in a fit of professional jealousy4 ,during his residence in ,crete he constructed the ,labyrinth1 an underground building with an endless maze of passages1 as a dwelling-place for the ,minotaur2 besides many other wonderful works of art4 ,for having aided ,theseus in his combat with the ,minotaur1 ,ddalus and his son ,icarus were both imprisoned in the ,labyrinth of ,minos4 ,the story of his flight1 which he accomplished by means of the artificial wings that he made for himself and his son1 is well known from the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid4 ,icarus fell into the sea that is named after him1 and was drowned1 but ,ddalus reached ,cum in safety4 ,from this place he passed over to ,sicily1 where he was hospitably received by ,cocalus4 ,when ,minos1 however1 pursued the fugitive and demanded his surrender1 not only was his request refused1 but he was even put to death by the contrivance of the king's daughters4 ,of the other sons of ,minos1 ,deucalion is celebrated as having taken part in the ,calydonian boar hunt1 and also as the father of the hero ,idomeneus1 who fought against ,troy4 ,glaucus was killed1 while yet a boy1 by falling into a cask of honey as he was pursuing a mouse4 ,he is reported1 however1 to have been restored to life by the ,corinthian augur ,polyidus1 or1 according to others1 by ,asclepius himself4 #b4 ,talos4--,the legend of ,talos1 the brazen man1 betrays likewise a ,phnician origin1 and refers to the cruel practice of offering human sacrifices4 ,this ,talos was made of brass1 and was invulnerable4 ,hephstus1 or1 as others say1 ,zeus gave him to ,minos as guardian of the island of ,crete1 round which he travelled thrice a-day4 ,if he perceived any strangers approach he would spring into the fire1 and1 after becoming red-hot1 he would clasp them to his breast1 until they expired beneath the sardonic chuckle of the demon4 ,he attempted to drive off the ,argonauts with stones1 but was destroyed by the skill of ,medea4 ,talos had a single vein1 which ran from his head to his feet1 and was closed at the top with a nail4 ,this nail ,medea cleverly succeeded in extracting1 in consequence of which ,talos bled to death4 ,,iv4--,,combined ,,undertakings ,,of ,,the ,,later ,,heroic ,,age4 #a4 ,the ,calydonian ,hunt4--,the story of ,meleager and the ,calydonian boar hunt was undoubtedly1 in its origin1 nothing more than a provincial myth based on natural phenomena1 like other myths that we have already explained4 ,in this case the physical significance involved in the myth soon disappeared1 owing to the treatment it received at the hands of the epic and dramatic poets4 ,the poets1 in fact1 succeeded in introducing some striking ethical conceptions1 which absorbed all higher interest4 neus1 king of ,calydon in tolia1 on the occasion of a great festival which was celebrated after a successful vintage1 had accidentally or purposely omitted to sacrifice to ,artemis4 ,to punish this neglect she sent a huge wild boar1 which devastated the fields of ,calydon1 and seemed invincible by any ordinary means on account of its vast size4 ,meleager1 the brave and heroic son of neus1 therefore assembled men and hounds in great number to slay it4 ,the boar was slain2 but ,artemis stirred up strife over the head and hide between the tolians and the ,curetes of ,pleuron4 ,at first the former were victorious2 but when ,meleager withdrew in wrath from the battle because his mother had cursed him for the death of her brother1 they were no longer able to keep the field1 and soon saw their city closely invested by their enemies4 ,in vain did the elders and priests of ,calydon beseech ,meleager2 in vain did his father1 sisters1 and even mother beseech him to aid his hard-pressed countrymen4 ,like ,achilles in the ,trojan war1 when he was wroth with ,agamemnon on account of the loss of ,briseis1 ,meleager long refused to stir4 ,at last his wife--the beautiful ,cleopatra--succeeded in moving him4 ,he donned his armour1 and put himself at the head of his countrymen for a sally against the besiegers4 ,brilliant1 indeed1 was the victory of the men of ,calydon2 but the hero ,meleager did not return from the battle1 for the cruel ,erinyes1 who had heard his mother's curse1 destroyed him with the arrows of ,apollo4 ,such is the earliest form of the legend1 as it exists in the ,iliad4 ,in time1 however1 ,meleager was said to have called together against the boar all the renowned heroes of ,greece4 ,among others there came the ,dioscuri1 ,castor and ,pollux2 ,theseus and his friend ,pirithos2 ,idas and ,lynceus1 the sons of ,aphareus2 ,admetus of ,pher2 ,jason1 from ,iolcus2 ,iphicles and ,iolas1 from ,thebes2 ,peleus1 the father of ,achilles2 ,telamon1 from ,salamis2 ,ancus and the beautiful huntress ,atalante 7,atalanta71 from ,arcadia2 besides the soothsayer ,amphiaras1 from ,argos4 ,after neus had entertained his guests royally for nine days1 the hunt began1 and the huge beast1 which was as large as an ox1 was surrounded and driven from its lair4 ,atalante1 the swift huntress1 was the first to inflict a wound4 ,ancus then advanced with his battle-axe1 but the enraged beast1 with one stroke of his dreadful tusks1 tore open his body and killed him on the spot4 ,at length the monster received a mortal wound from a spear hurled by the powerful arm of ,meleager1 and was soon despatched by the rest4 ,meleager received as his due the head and hide of the slaughtered animal1 but resigned the prize to ,atalante1 of whom he was enamoured1 on the ground that she was the first to wound the boar4 ,this act excited the bitter jealousy of ,plexippus and ,toxeus1 the sons of ,thestius1 king of ,pleuron1 and brothers of ,altha1 the mother of ,meleager4 ,they accordingly lay in wait for ,atalante1 and robbed her of the present4 ,enraged at this1 ,meleager slew them both4 ,but ,meleager's death1 though caused by the wrath of his mother1 was worked out differently in the time of the tragic poets4 ,the ,fates had appeared to ,altha1 soon after the birth of ,meleager1 and informed her that her son would only live until a certain brand1 which was then burning on the fire1 was consumed4 ,altha immediately snatched the brand from the flames and carefully treasured it up4 ,after ,meleager had slain her brothers1 in the first outburst of grief and indignation against her son1 she placed the brand again in the fire1 and thus cut off the noble hero in the prime of his youth and beauty4 ,altha1 on learning the unhappy fate of her son1 full of sorrow for her hasty deed1 put an end to her own life4 #b4 ,the ,argonauts4--,the story of the ,argonauts experienced a similar fate to that of the ,calydonian hunt4 ,it was originally nothing but a myth based on natural phenomena2 but in the hands of the poets it swelled to a mass of legends common to all the tribes of ,greece1 the nucleus of which was the history of the golden fleece4 ,athamas1 the son of olus1 was king of the ,miny4 ,he put away his first wife1 ,nephele 7cloud71 in order to marry ,ino1 the daughter of ,cadmus2 though he still kept ,phrixus 7rain-shower7 and ,helle 7ray of light71 his children by ,nephele1 with him4 ,by ,ino he had two other children1 ,learchus and ,melicertes1 whom their mother naturally preferred to her stepchildren1 and for whose sake she endeavoured to drive the latter from their father's house4 ,soon afterwards1 either at the command of ,nephele1 whom some represent as a goddess1 or in consequence of her prayers for the punishment of ,athamas1 the land was visited with a long drought1 and ,ino persuaded her husband to sacrifice ,phrixus as a sin-offering to ,zeus1 in order to put an end to the calamity4 ,whether ,helle was to have shared her brother's fate we cannot tell1 for1 before ,ino could accomplish her purpose1 ,nephele came to the assistance of her children1 and gave them a winged ram with a golden fleece1 which ,hermes had presented to her for that purpose4 ,seated on this ram they fled over the sea to ,colchis4 ,on the way ,helle fell into that part of the sea which bears her name1 and was drowned1 but ,phrixus arrived safely in ,colchis 7a71 where he sacrificed the ram to ,zeus1 who had preserved him in his flight4 ,the fleece he hung up in the grove of ,ares as a sacred treasure1 setting over it a terrible1 ever-watchful dragon as its guardian4 ,to fetch this treasure from a foreign land1 and thereby to release the country and people of the ,miny from the calamity with which they were oppressed1 was the task of the heroes of the race of olus4 ,athamas was so grieved at the evil he had brought on his country that he became insane1 and sought to slay ,ino and her children4 ,he did1 indeed1 kill ,learchus by dashing him against a rock1 but ,ino succeeded in saving herself and her younger child ,melicertes by leaping into the sea 7cf4 ,ino ,leucothea74 ,athamas then fled to ,epirus1 and the kingdom devolved on his brother ,cretheus4 ,cretheus married ,tyro1 the daughter of his younger brother ,salmoneus1 king of ,elis4 ,tyro bore him three sons1 the eldest of whom1 son1 succeeded his father in the kingdom1 but was soon after expelled by his step-brother ,pelias1 who is described as a son of ,tyro and ,poseidon4 son with difficulty managed to rescue his little son ,jason from the hands of ,pelias1 and brought him to the ,centaur ,chiron to be educated4 ,in ,chiron's cave the young hero grew up1 a favourite with gods and men4 ,after completing his twentieth year1 he betook himself to ,iolcus to demand of his uncle his rightful inheritance4 ,pelias1 not daring to use violence to the sturdy youth1 endeavoured to get rid of his unwelcome guest by involving him in a most dangerous adventure4 ,he declared that he would gladly resign the crown if ,jason would recover the golden fleece from ,colchis4 ,jason1 like a true hero1 at once accepted the perilous adventure4 ,in the harbour of ,iolcus he caused a large ship with fifty oars to be constructed1 which he called the 8,argo10 after its builder1 ,argus4 ,he then called together the heroes1 who had consented at his invitation to take part in the expedition4 ,in the original version of the story1 the expedition was stated to have been undertaken only by the heroes of the race of the ,miny--such as ,acastus1 ,admetus1 and ,periclymenus4 ,at a later period1 however--when the date of the expedition had been fixed at one generation before the ,trojan war--no hero of any note was allowed to be absent from the undertaking4 ,in this manner were added the ,dioscuri1 the sons of ,boreas1 ,calas and ,zetes1 ,telamon1 ,peleus1 ,meleager1 ,tydeus1 ,iphitus1 ,theseus1 ,orpheus1 ,amphiaras1 and even ,heracles4 ,in the last case1 the incongruity of allowing the hero to play only a subordinate part was soon felt1 and his name was withdrawn4 ,he was said to have been left behind in ,mysia1 where he had landed in order to search for his favourite ,hylas1 who had been carried off by the ,naiads4 ,the number of the ,argonauts was finally computed at fifty1 tallying with the number of oars4 ,the expedition proceeded from ,iolcus to ,lemnos1 and thence through the ,hellespont to ,cyzicus1 where they were kindly received by the ,doliones4 ,from ,cyzicus they proceeded to ,bithynia1 where they were opposed by the ,bebryces1 whose king1 ,amycus1 was slain by ,pollux in a boxing match4 ,their greatest difficulty lay in the passage of the ,bosporus1 there being at the entrance of the ,pontus 7,black ,sea7 two terrible rocks1 which were in constant motion--now retreating to the shore on either side1 now hastily dashing together again2 whence they were called the ,symplegades4 ,this occurred so rapidly that even the swiftest vessel had not time enough to get through4 ,the ,argonauts were in great perplexity4 ,at length the blind seer ,phineus1 who dwelt in ,thracian ,salmydessus1 and whose gratitude they won by delivering him from the ,harpies who had tormented him1 assisted them with his advice4 ,by means of a stratagem he recommended they were enabled to bring the ,argo through without any considerable damage1 after which the ,symplegades remained stationary4 ,after this they stood along the south coast towards their destination1 which1 in the original legend1 appears to have been the utterly fabulous a1 subsequently converted into ,colchis4 ,this was the residence of the mighty king etes1 a son of the sun-god4 ,to rob him1 either by craft or by violence1 of the golden fleece was the task of ,jason1 the leader of the ,argonauts4 ,the second prominent character in the story1 ,medea1 the daughter of etes1 now makes her appearance4 ,it was1 in fact1 only through her love that ,jason was enabled to surmount the vast obstacles which stood between him and the possession of the golden fleece4 ,when the hero demanded the fleece of etes1 the latter declared that he would deliver it up to him after he had accomplished two tasks4 ,the first was to harness two brazen-footed1 fire-breathing bulls1 which etes had received from ,hephstus1 to a plough1 and with them to till an uncultivated field4 ,the second was to sow in the furrows the dragon's teeth that etes would give him1 and to destroy the armed men which would then spring up4 ,jason's heart failed him on hearing these conditions1 but ,medea1 who was an enchantress and priestess of ,hecate1 was equal to the occasion4 ,she gave the hero a magic salve to protect him against the fiery breath of the bulls and to endow him with invincible strength1 which enabled him to accomplish his first task successfully4 ,in the case of the armed men who sprang from the dragon's teeth1 by the advice of ,medea he followed the example of ,cadmus1 and cast among them a heavy stone1 whereupon in blind fury they turned their arms against each other1 and were all destroyed4 ,the conditions imposed upon him by etes were thus accomplished2 but the king1 who perceived that ,jason had only succeeded through the aid of his daughter1 made this a pretext for refusing to surrender the fleece4 ,jason then removed it by night from the grove of ,ares1 after ,medea had1 by means of her enchantments1 lulled the watchful dragon to sleep4 ,that same night the ,argonauts embarked on board their ship and put to sea1 ,medea accompanying them as the future wife of ,jason4 ,the wrathful etes attempted to overtake the fugitives1 but ,medea succeeded in staying the pursuit by slaying her younger brother ,apsyrtus1 whom she had brought with her1 and scattering his limbs in the sea4 ,the most diverse accounts exist as to the road taken by the ,argonauts on their homeward journey4 ,some say that they sailed up the ,phasis to the ,eastern ,sea1 and then1 passing through the ,red ,sea and ,libyan desert1 over which they had to carry the ,argo twelve days' journey1 came to ,lake ,tritonis1 and thence to the ,mediterranean4 ,according to another account1 they sought to pass through the ,ister 7,danube7 and ,eridanus 7,po7 to the ,western ,ocean2 but the object of this account was manifestly to subject them to the same vicissitudes and adventures as ,odysseus and his companions4 ,at length ,jason landed happily in ,iolcus1 and delivered the golden fleece into the hands of his uncle4 ,pelias1 however1 still refused to surrender the kingdom to ,jason1 and ,medea therefore determined to make away with him by craft4 ,having persuaded the daughters of ,pelias that she possessed a means of making the old man young again1 she directed them to slay their father1 cut him in pieces1 and boil the limbs in a cauldron filled with all manner of herbs2 this they did in the vain expectation of seeing him restored to youth4 ,jason now took possession of his father's kingdom1 but was soon afterwards expelled by ,acastus1 the son of ,pelias1 and took refuge in ,corinth4 ,his subsequent misfortunes are well known4 ,thinking to better his condition1 he was about to marry ,cresa1 the daughter of the king of ,corinth1 when he was arrested by the fearful vengeance of his first wife4 ,medea sent the bride a poisoned garment1 which caused her to die an agonising death1 and then slew her own children by ,jason2 after which she fled in her chariot drawn by winged dragons to ,athens1 where she long found protection at the court of geus4 ,jason either put an end to his own life1 or was killed by the fall of a rotten beam of the ,argo4 ,in the history of the golden fleece we have one of the most widely spread myths of all1 namely1 that of the loss and recovery of a treasure4 ,in ,teutonic tradition we have the treasure of the ,nibelungs1 in which the very name is almost identical2 and if we include the stories of women carried off and rescued1 the list becomes endless4 ,and the treasure of all those stories has been interpreted to be the golden clouds4 ,the ,dragon which guards the treasure again appears in the story of the apples of the ,hesperides1 and is closely allied to the ,sphinx4 #c4 ,the ,theban ,cycle4--,the highly tragic history of the ,theban house of the ,labdacid1 teeming as it does with important characters and events1 has at all times furnished subjects for ,greek art and poetry1 and has given birth to a whole series of epic and dramatic works4 ,the former1 which would have conduced far more to an exact acquaintance with the legend1 have1 unfortunately1 perished1 with the exception of a few unimportant fragments2 although many important works of the great tragic poets1 schylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides1 relating to the subject1 still remain4 ,the common account runs thus3--,laius1 a great-grandson of ,cadmus1 was warned by the oracle to beget no children1 as he was doomed to perish by the hands of his son1 who would then marry his mother4 ,when his wife ,iocaste gave birth to a son1 ,laius accordingly exposed the child1 with its feet pierced1 on ,mount ,cithron4 ,the child1 called dipus from the swelling of its feet1 did not die1 but was found by some ,corinthian shepherds1 who brought it to ,polybus1 king of ,corinth4 ,polybus1 having no children of his own1 adopted dipus1 who grew up in the belief that ,polybus and ,merope were his real parents1 until one day a taunt of his companions as to his mysterious origin raised doubts in his mind4 ,in order to solve his misgivings1 he went to consult the oracle of ,delphi1 but he here received only the obscure direction not to return to his country1 since1 if he did1 he would kill his father and marry his mother4 ,fearing on this account to return to ,corinth1 he took the road to ,thebes1 and thus1 by his presumptuous prudence1 brought about the very consequences he was so anxious to avoid4 ,on the road he was met by ,laius1 who was on his way to the oracle to ask its advice concerning the ,sphinx4 ,a quarrel arose1 in a narrow defile1 between ,laius and dipus2 and dipus slew his father without knowing who he was4 ,on arriving at ,thebes he succeeded in delivering the country from the ,sphinx4 ,this monster1 which had the combined form of a woman and a lion1 had been sent by ,hera1 whom ,laius had in some way offended1 from ,ethiopia to devastate the land of ,thebes4 ,seated on a rock close to the town1 she put to every one that passed by a riddle1 and whoever was unable to solve it1 she cast from the rock into a deep abyss4 ,this calamity induced ,creon1 on the death of his brother-in-law ,laius1 to proclaim that whoever solved the riddle should obtain the crown and the hand of ,iocaste4 dipus succeeded in solving it1 and thus delivered the country from the monster1 who cast herself into the abyss4 ,the ,sphinx belongs to the same family as many of the monsters we have spoken of already2 she is called by ,hesiod the child of ,orthros and ,chimra1 whom we have seen to be the daughter of ,typhon and ,echidna4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 probable that the contest between her and her opponent may be interpreted in the same way as that of ,bellerophon and the ,chimra1 or of ,zeus and ,typhon4 ,in support of this1 the following considerations may be adduced4 ,since we know that thunder was supposed to be a warning or encouragement to men1 it is easy to see in it the mysterious voice of the cloud1 only intelligible to the wisest of men4 ,hence the conqueror of the cloud was called the man who understood her language4 7,it would not a little help this idea1 that dipus might seem derived from a word meaning 8to know407 ,then the death of the ,sphinx will be the cloud falling upon the earth in the shape of rain4 dipus1 on the other hand1 will be the same antagonist as we have before seen victorious over the cloud dragons2 the sun1 born helpless1 rising to take the kingdom after the slaughter of his enemies1 yet at last sinking blinded into an unknown grave4 ,this1 however1 does not cover the crimes laid to his charge4 ,but they have been explained in this way3 that when people lost consciousness of the real meaning of the misfortunes of dipus1 they cast about for some adequate cause1 and found one in the two great crimes of incest and parricide4 ,we have seen something similar to this in the case of ,ixion4 ,further1 the names of the wives assigned by various writers to dipus are connected with the light1 and the name ,laius has been interpreted as 8enemy0 of the light4 ,sphinx itself signifies 8throttler40 ,in art1 the ,sphinx had the form of a lion1 generally in a recumbent position1 with the breast and upper part of a beautiful woman4 ,when the ,greeks saw similar figures in ,egypt1 they naturally gave them the name of ,sphinx4 ,but name1 family1 and meaning of the ,sphinx are alike ,greek1 although the ,egyptian statues have taken too firm possession of the name ever to lose it4 ,ancient ,egyptian art revelled in the creation of colossal ,sphinxes1 which were carved out of granite4 ,a notable example of this kind exists in the giant ,sphinx near the ,pyramids of ,gizeh1 which is eighty-nine feet long4 ,from such monstrous figures as these1 ,greek art held aloof4 dipus was rewarded with the sovereignty of ,thebes and the hand of ,iocaste2 and for several years he enjoyed uninterrupted happiness1 surrounded by four blooming children1 the fruit of his incestuous marriage4 ,by the secret agency of the goddess1 the dreadful truth was at length discovered4 ,iocaste hanged herself1 and dipus1 in despair1 put out his own eyes4 ,not content with this voluntary penance1 the hard-hearted ,thebans compelled him besides to leave their city and country1 while his sons ,eteocles and ,polynices1 who were now grown up1 refused to stir a foot in their father's behalf4 dipus1 after invoking bitter curses on their heads1 withdrew1 and1 guided by his faithful daughter ,antigone1 at last found an asylum in the grove of the ,eumenides at ,colonus1 near ,athens4 ,his grave there was regarded1 in consequence of an ancient response of the oracle1 as a national treasure4 ,the curse of their father took effect on his unnatural sons4 ,the elder1 ,eteocles1 drove out his brother ,polynices1 who then sought the assistance of ,adrastus1 king of ,argos4 ,adrastus was a grandson of ,bias1 of the race of the ,amythaonid1 and by his marriage with the daughter of the wealthy ,polybus acquired the sovereignty of ,sicyon4 ,he not only hospitably received the fugitive ,polynices1 but gave him his daughter in marriage1 and promised to assist him in recovering the crown of ,thebes4 ,in this expedition ,adrastus sought to gain the aid of the other ,argive heroes4 ,they all declared their readiness to accompany him1 with the exception of ,amphiaras1 his brother-in-law1 who was equally renowned for his wisdom and courage4 ,amphiaras was a great-grandson of the celebrated seer ,melampus1 and inherited from him the gift of prophecy4 ,he was thus enabled to perceive the disastrous termination of the war1 and strove to hinder it4 ,but ,polynices and the fiery ,tydeus--likewise a son-in-law of ,adrastus--were so unceasing in their entreaties1 that he at length sought to escape their importunity by flight4 ,polynices1 however1 bribed his wife ,eriphyle1 by the present of a magnificent necklace1 which had formerly been given to ,harmonia on the occasion of her marriage with ,cadmus1 to betray his place of concealment4 ,hereupon ,amphiaras was obliged unwillingly to join the expedition1 which ended as he had prophesied4 ,the attack on ,thebes was not only repulsed1 but all the ,argive leaders1 with the exception of ,adrastus1 who was saved by the fleetness of his horse1 were slain4 ,polynices and ,eteocles fell in single combat with each other4 ,the flight of ,adrastus to ,attica1 where he procured the assistance of ,theseus in compelling the ,thebans to grant the fallen heroes a solemn burial1 is a feature unknown to the original legend1 and may be ascribed to the patriotic impulses of the ,athenian dramatists4 ,the celebrated tragedy of ,sophocles1 called ,antigone1 is based on the assumption that ,creon1 the new king of ,thebes1 allowed the burial of the other heroes1 but left ,polynices to lie unburied on the field like a dog1 and condemned ,antigone to death because she ventured to bury her brother in despite of his command4 ,creon was destined to meet with a dreadful retribution1 for his own son1 who was betrothed to ,antigone1 killed himself in grief at her fate4 ,ten years later1 the sons of the fallen heroes are said to have combined with gialeus1 the son of ,adrastus1 to avenge their fathers' defeat4 ,this expedition has therefore been called the war of the ,epigoni 7descendants71 and not being undertaken1 like that of their fathers1 in manifest opposition to the will of the gods1 proved successful4 ,laodamas1 the savage son of ,eteocles1 who was now king of ,thebes1 was defeated in a decisive battle near ,thebes1 and1 after gialeus had fallen by his hands1 was himself slain by ,alcmon1 the son of ,amphiaras4 ,the ,thebans were unable any longer to hold their city1 and1 following the advice of the blind seer ,tiresias1 they withdrew under the cover of darkness and mist4 ,the aged ,tiresias expired on the road1 at the fountain of ,tilphusa2 of the rest1 some took refuge in ,thessalia1 and some sought other lands4 ,the victorious ,argives1 after plundering and partly destroying the city1 dedicated a great portion of the booty--among which was ,manto1 the daughter of ,tiresias--to the oracle of ,delphi4 ,they then made ,thersander1 the son of ,polynices1 king of ,thebes2 upon which many of the fugitive inhabitants returned4 ,thersander subsequently took part in the ,trojan war1 and there perished4 #d4 ,the ,trojan ,cycle4--,we now come to the ,trojan war1 the fourth and most celebrated of the common undertakings of the later heroic age4 ,here the sources of our information are far more plentiful than in any former period of mythic history1 because both the grand national epics1 the ,iliad and the ,odyssey1 which are commonly ascribed to ,homer1 relate to the ,trojan war4 ,as the contents of these immortal poems are probably well known to our readers1 we shall only dwell on the most essential features of the story4 ,i4 ,,the ,,heroic ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,trojan ,,war4--#a4 ,the ,dardanid1 or race of ,dardanus4--,the royal family of ,troy were descended from ,dardanus1 a son of ,zeus by ,electra1 a daughter of ,atlas4 ,dardanus is said to have emigrated from ,samothrace1 or1 according to others1 from ,italy to ,arcadia1 to the north-west portion of ,asia ,minor1 between the range of ,ida and the ,hellespont1 where he received from king ,teucer some land to form a settlement4 ,by a daughter of the river-god ,simos1 or1 as others say1 of ,scamander1 ,dardanus had a son called ,tros1 from whom the ,trojans derived their name4 ,tros had three sons--,assaracus1 ,ilus1 and ,ganymedes4 ,the last1 who1 like all the scions of the race of ,dardanus1 was possessed of wonderful beauty1 was raised by ,zeus to the dignity of cupbearer to the gods1 and thus became immortal4 ,ilus and ,assaracus became the founders of two different branches of the ,dardanian race4 ,the latter remained in his native settlement of ,dardania1 where he became the father of ,capys and the grandfather of ,anchises1 the father of neas4 ,ilus1 on the other hand1 emigrated to the plains of the ,scamander1 where he founded the city of ,ilium1 or ,troy4 ,after completing the town1 he begged ,zeus to bestow on him a sign of his favour4 ,the next morning he found in front of his tent the celebrated ,palladium--an image of ,pallas ,athene1 carved in wood4 ,on the possession of this depended the fortune and welfare of the city4 ,after the death of ,ilus1 his son ,laomedon became king of ,troy4 ,at his request1 ,poseidon and ,apollo built the citadel of ,pergamum4 ,we have already related how this king1 by his faithless conduct provoked the wrath of ,heracles1 and the first capture of the city4 ,of his sons only ,priam remained2 in him the race of ,dardanus flourished afresh1 for by his wife ,hecuba and by his concubines he had a great number of sons and daughters4 #b4 ,the ,pelopid1 or race of ,pelops4--,the ,pelopid1 who were chiefly instrumental in the destruction of ,troy1 were descended from the ,phrygian king ,tantalus1 who was renowned alike for his unexampled good fortune and his subsequent unhappy fate4 ,he was the son of ,zeus and ,pluto 7rich plenty71 and inhabited a citadel on ,mount ,sipylus1 whence his rich pasture-lands and fruitful corn-fields extended twelve days' journey1 as far as ,ida and the ,propontis4 ,the very gods honoured him with their friendship1 and lived on such intimate terms that they invited him to eat at their table4 ,this unheard-of good fortune1 however1 begot in the puny mortal such presumption1 that he began to indulge in the grossest outrages on gods and men4 ,at length he went so far as to cut his son ,pelops in pieces to boil them1 and set them before the gods in order to test their omniscience4 ,the cup of his iniquity now seemed full1 and the gods brought down a heavy retribution on the head of the criminal by his well-known punishment in the lower world1 where1 though surrounded by the most delicious fruits1 and standing up to his neck in water1 he was nevertheless condemned to suffer the pangs of continual hunger and thirst4 ,another tradition relates that he was kept in constant anxiety by a huge rock which was suspended over his head4 7,see pp4 #adi1 #aej47 ,the children of ,tantalus were ,pelops and ,niobe4 ,the unhappy fate of the latter has already been described in the mythic history of ,thebes4 ,pelops was restored to life by the art of ,hermes2 and a portion of his shoulder1 which had been consumed by ,demeter1 was replaced by the gods with a piece of ivory4 ,pelops is said to have grown up in ,olympus1 amongst the blessed gods4 ,on being restored to earth1 he proceeded to ,elis1 where he became a suitor for the hand of ,hippodamia1 the beautiful daughter of the king nomas4 ,the latter had promised his daughter to the man who should vanquish him in a chariot race3 whoever failed was obliged to expiate his temerity with his life1 as nomas transfixed him with his unerring lance as he passed4 ,thirteen noble youths had already suffered this fate1 when ,pelops appeared to undergo the dangerous ordeal4 ,by means of the untiring winged horses which had been given him by ,poseidon1 and also by bribing ,myrtilus1 the ,king's charioteer--who1 before starting1 withdrew the linch-pins from his master's chariot or replaced them with wax--he came off victorious4 nomas either was killed by the breaking down of his chariot1 or put an end to his own life on seeing himself vanquished4 ,pelops now obtained both ,hippodamia and the kingdom of ,elis2 but he ill rewarded ,myrtilus1 who had rendered him such valuable service1 by casting him into the sea1 in order to release himself from his obligations4 ,hermes1 whose son he is reputed to have been1 set him amongst the stars as charioteer4 ,the sons of ,pelops by ,hippodamia were ,atreus and ,thyestes1 whose history1 which is full of the most revolting crimes1 formed a favourite subject with the tragic poets4 ,first1 ,atreus and ,thyestes murdered their step-brother ,chrysippus1 and were compelled to leave their country in company with their mother4 ,they were hospitably received at ,mycen by their brother-in-law ,sthenelus1 the son of ,perseus1 or by his son ,eurystheus4 ,on ,eurystheus' death1 they inherited the sovereignty of the ,persid in ,argos1 and ,atreus now took up his residence in the proud capital of ,mycen1 whence1 strange to say1 the most ancient specimen of ,greek sculpture has come down to us in the so-called ,gate of ,lions4 ,soon an implacable enmity arose between the two brothers1 and ,thyestes1 in consequence1 was banished from ,argos4 ,he took with him1 in revenge1 ,pleisthenes1 the young son of ,atreus1 brought him up as his own son1 and despatched him1 later1 to ,mycen to kill ,atreus4 ,his design was discovered1 and he expiated his intended crime with his life4 ,when ,atreus learned that it was his own son whom he had condemned to death1 he determined on a dreadful revenge4 ,pretending to be reconciled1 he recalled ,thyestes and his children to ,mycen2 and ,thyestes1 trusting to his brother's word1 returned4 ,atreus then privately seized the two young sons of ,thyestes1 slew them1 and set this horrible food before their father4 ,horror-struck at this inhuman cruelty1 the sun turned his chariot and went back in his course4 ,thyestes1 uttering fearful curses against his brother and the whole race of the ,pelopid1 again escaped1 and took refuge with ,thesprotus1 king of ,epirus4 ,later1 he succeeded1 with the help of his only remaining son gisthus1 in avenging himself on his brother4 ,atreus was slain by gisthus whilst offering up a sacrifice on the sea-shore1 and ,thyestes now acquired the sovereignty of ,mycen4 ,the sons of ,atreus1 ,agamemnon and ,menelas1 fled from their barbarous uncle to ,sparta1 where ,tyndares1 the king1 received them kindly1 and gave them his daughters1 ,clytmnestra and ,helen1 in marriage4 ,with his aid ,agamemnon recovered his father's kingdom1 slew ,thyestes1 and drove out gisthus4 ,menelas remained in ,sparta--where he succeeded ,tyndares--until the carrying off of his wife ,helen by ,paris gave rise to the ,trojan war4 #c4 ,the acid1 or race of acus4--,after the sons of ,atreus1 the acid play the most important part in the ,trojan war2 in fact1 we are almost justified in saying that the war was an exploit of these two races of heroes and their peoples1 the ,achans of ,argos and the ,hellenes of ,phthia4 ,the ancestor of the acid was acus1 who was renowned alike for his wisdom and justice1 and on this account subsequently made a judge in the lower world4 acus was a son of ,zeus by gina1 a daughter of the river-god ,asopus4 ,he ruled over the island of gina1 and married ,endes1 the daughter of the wise ,centaur ,chiron4 ,she bore him two sons1 ,peleus and ,telamon4 ,on reaching manhood they were compelled to leave their country1 because1 like the sons of ,pelops1 they had murdered1 in a fit of jealousy1 a step-brother who was a favourite with their father4 ,peleus betook himself to ,phthia1 where he was kindly received by ,eurytion1 who bestowed on him the hand of his daughter and a third part of his kingdom4 ,peleus afterwards took part in the boar hunt of ,calydon1 on which occasion he had the misfortune to kill his father-in-law4 ,in consequence of this1 he left ,phthia and proceeded to ,iolcus1 where he took part in the funeral games which ,acastus was celebrating in honour of his father ,pelias1 who had perished by the treachery of ,medea4 ,here he experienced a similar fate to that of ,bellerophon at the court of ,prtus4 ,astydameia1 the wife of ,acastus1 finding herself unable to seduce him1 slandered him to her husband1 who thereupon sought to take his life4 ,after hunting on ,pelion one day1 ,peleus fell asleep1 and was left thus unprotected by ,acastus1 who hoped by this means to get rid of him4 ,he would1 indeed1 have been murdered by the ,centaurs1 if the gods had not taken pity on him1 and sent him by ,hermes a sword of wonderful power1 with which he was enabled to repel the assaults of the wild inhabitants of the forest4 ,peleus1 with the help of the ,dioscuri1 subsequently took ,iolcus1 and put the treacherous ,acastus and his wife to death4 ,as a reward for his chastity1 the gods gave him the goddess ,thetis--a beautiful daughter of ,nereus--to wife4 ,she bore him one son1 ,achilleus 7,achilles71 the greatest and bravest hero of the ,trojan war4 ,a later tradition asserts that ,thetis left her husband soon after the birth of ,achilles1 because he had disturbed her when she was about to render her child immortal in the fire1 just as ,demeter intended to do to the child of ,celes2 but this story is unknown to ,homer4 ,according to a still later legend1 she plunged her son into the ,styx1 and thereby rendered him invulnerable in every part except the heel by which she held him4 ,like all noble heroes1 ,achilles was instructed by ,chiron1 under whom he acquired such wonderful skill in all feats of strength and agility that he soon surpassed all his contemporaries4 ,in addition to ,chiron1 ,homer names ,phnix1 the son of ,amyntor1 as the instructor of the youthful hero4 ,achilles proceeded to the ,trojan war with cheerful determination1 although he knew beforehand that he was not fated to return alive4 ,the story that his mother ,thetis1 in order to avert his fate1 sent him1 disguised in women's clothes1 to the court of ,lycomedes1 king of ,scyros1 where he was discovered by the craft of ,odysseus1 is a post-,homeric invention4 ,from ,telamon1 the second son of acus1 was descended ,aias or ,ajax1 a hero of but little less importance4 ,telamon1 after his flight from gina1 found a new home in ,salamis1 where he married the daughter of the king ,cychreus4 ,on the decease of ,cychreus1 he succeeded to the crown4 ,after the death of his first wife1 he married ,periba1 a daughter of ,alcathos1 king of ,megara1 who bore him ,ajax4 ,tradition tells us much of the intimate friendship of ,heracles and ,telamon1 who took part in the ,trojan expedition of his mighty friend4 ,heracles1 in return1 gave him ,hesione1 the daughter of ,laomedon1 by whom he became the father of a second son1 ,teucer4 ,like every celebrated hero of antiquity1 he is said to have taken part in the ,calydonian hunt and the expedition of the ,argonauts4 ,nothing inferior to this brave and doughty father was his son ,ajax1 on whom the mighty hero ,heracles had invoked the blessing of his father ,zeus1 when as a child he held him in his arms4 ,he was of greater size and strength than any of the other heroes2 though he appears somewhat uncouth and clumsy when contrasted with the swift and agile form of ,achilles4 ,his mighty shield was as characteristic of him as the ponderous deadly spear was of ,achilles4 ,beside him1 his brother ,teucer ranks as the best archer among the ,greeks4 #d4 ,nestor1 the ,locrian ,ajax1 ,diomedes1 and ,odysseus4--,associated with the heroes of the race of ,pelops and acus were some other renowned chieftains4 ,first among them was the aged ,nestor1 of ,pylus1 whose wise counsels were as indispensable to the ,greeks before ,troy as the dauntless courage of an ,achilles or an ,ajax4 ,nestor was the youngest of the twelve sons of ,neleus1 who was himself a son of ,poseidon and ,tyro1 and twin-brother of ,pelias4 ,neleus1 having been driven out by ,pelias1 took refuge in ,messenia1 where he became the founder of a new kingdom4 ,later1 however1 both his sovereignty and the glory of his house were well-nigh extinguished by the hostility of ,heracles1 who slew all the sons of ,neleus except ,nestor4 ,when quite young1 ,nestor defeated the neighbouring tribes of the ,epei and ,arcadians1 and restored the dominions of his father to their former extent4 ,he likewise took part in the contest between the ,lapith and the ,centaurs1 in the ,calydonian boar hunt1 and in the expedition of the ,argonauts4 ,though so far advanced in years--having ruled over three generations of men--he could not withstand the desire to take part in the ,trojan war4 ,the ,locrian ,ajax--also called the ,lesser ,ajax1 to distinguish him from his mighty namesake--was a son of the ,locrian king ,oleus1 of whom nothing more is known than that he took part in the expedition of the ,argonauts4 ,ajax was renowned among the ,greeks for his skill in hurling the spear and for his great fleetness1 in which he was surpassed only by ,achilles4 ,he always appears in a linen corslet1 and his followers1 the ,opuntian ,locrians1 are also light-armed troops4 ,diomedes was a member of the oft-mentioned race of the olian ,amythaonid4 ,his father was the hot-headed ,tydeus1 who was killed in the war of the ,seven against ,thebes4 ,diomedes1 who inherited no small portion of his father's wild1 untameable disposition1 of course took part in the war of the ,epigoni1 and subsequently succeeded his grandfather ,adrastus in his ,argive sovereignty at ,sicyon4 ,he also restored his paternal grandfather1 the aged tolian king neus1 who had been dethroned by the sons of his brother ,agrius1 to his kingdom4 ,in the ,iliad he appears as a special favourite of ,pallas ,athene1 and ,homer makes him play an important part in the contests of the ,greeks before the walls of ,troy4 ,in post-,homeric story he is represented as having carried off the ,trojan ,palladium4 ,finally1 ,odysseus 7,ulysses71 the most popular of the ,greek heroes of the ,trojan war1 was a son of ,lartes1 king of ,ithaca1 by ,anticlea1 the daughter of ,autolycus4 ,autolycus inhabited a district on ,mount ,parnassus1 and was renowned for his cunning4 ,his grandson seems to have inherited no small part of his grandfather's disposition4 ,through his noble and virtuous wife ,penelope1 ,odysseus was closely related to the ,atrid2 ,penelope being the daughter of ,icarius1 who was a brother of the ,spartan king ,tyndares4 ,he was therefore obliged--though much against his will--to comply with the request of ,menelas1 and join the expedition against ,troy4 ,on account of his wisdom and eloquence1 his dexterity in all feats of strength1 and his dauntless valour in the midst of danger1 he also was a special favourite of ,pallas4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,war4--,the ,iliad of ,homer1 the most important source of our information with regard to the ,trojan war1 does not deal with the events of the first nine years2 and of those of the tenth and last year it only gives such episodes as relate to the quarrel of ,achilles and ,agamemnon4 ,of the origin of the war1 and the events of the first nine years1 it speaks only incidentally1 for the sake of explanation4 ,the gap has to be filled up from the works of those writers who had access to other epic poems of the ,trojan cycle1 which are now no longer extant4 ,eris1 the goddess of discord1 not having been invited to the marriage festivities of ,peleus and ,thetis1 avenged herself by casting into the assembly a golden apple1 with the inscription--8,to the fairest40 ,the three rival goddesses--,hera1 ,athene1 and ,aphrodite--each claimed the apple for herself1 but were referred by ,zeus to the decision of ,paris4 ,paris was a son of ,priam1 the ,trojan king4 ,immediately after birth1 he was exposed on ,mount ,ida1 in consequence of an ill-omened dream which his mother ,hecuba had during her pregnancy4 ,he was found1 however1 and brought up by some shepherds4 ,he decided in favour of ,aphrodite1 who had promised him the most beautiful woman on earth as his wife4 ,soon afterwards1 at some games given by the king1 the youth1 who was equally distinguished for his handsome person and his bodily dexterity1 after having wrested the prize from all his brethren1 was recognised by the prophetess ,cassandra1 and received into his father's favour4 ,he next undertook a journey across the sea to ,greece1 and1 among other places1 visited the court of ,menelas1 king of ,sparta1 by whom he was hospitably received and entertained4 ,aphrodite kindled in the breast of the young wife of ,menelas a fatal love for their handsome guest1 who dazzled her as much by the beauty of his person as by the oriental splendour of his appearance4 ,while ,menelas was absent in ,crete1 and her brothers1 the ,dioscuri1 were engaged in their strife with the sons of ,aphareus1 ,helen fled with her seducer to ,troy4 ,on the refusal of the king of ,troy to surrender ,helen1 ,menelas succeeded in rousing the whole of ,greece to a war of revenge4 ,this task was the more easy1 as most of the ,grecian chieftains had been suitors of ,helen1 and had bound themselves by an oath to ,tyndares to unite in support of the husband whom ,helen should choose1 in the event of his ever being injured or attacked4 ,the well-manned ships of the ,greeks assembled in the ,botian port of ,aulis4 ,their number amounted to eleven hundred and eighty-six1 according to ,homer2 of which ,agamemnon1 who had been chosen leader of the expedition1 alone furnished over one hundred4 ,agamemnon1 however1 having offended ,artemis by killing a hind sacred to the goddess1 the departure of the expedition was delayed by continuous calms1 until at length1 at the command of the priest ,calchas1 ,agamemnon determined to appease the wrath of the goddess by sacrificing his daughter ,iphigenia on her altar4 ,at the fatal moment ,artemis rescued the victim1 and1 after substituting a hind in her stead1 conveyed ,iphigenia to ,tauris1 where she became a priestess in the temple of the goddess4 ,the fleet now sailed with a fair wind4 ,the expedition first stopped at ,tenedos1 opposite the coast of ,troy4 ,here1 on the occasion of a banquet1 ,philoctetes1 who possessed the bow and arrows of ,heracles on which the conquest of ,troy depended1 was bitten in the foot by a serpent1 and on account of his cries and the offensive smell of the wound was carried to ,lemnos1 and there left to his fate4 ,the ,greeks next effected a landing on the coast of ,troy1 in spite of the opposition of ,hector and neas2 for ,protesilas devoted himself to death for the ,greeks1 and sprang first on the ,trojan shore4 ,even ,cycnus1 the mighty son of ,poseidon1 who was king of ,colon in ,troas1 and came to the assistance of the ,trojans1 was unable to stem the advance of the ,greeks2 and his body being invulnerable1 he was strangled by ,achilles by means of a thong twisted round his neck4 ,after the ,greeks had made a station for their ships1 the war began in earnest4 ,several of their attacks on the town having been successfully repelled by the ,trojans1 the ,greeks now confined themselves to making inroads and plundering excursions into the surrounding country1 in which ,achilles was always the most prominent actor4 ,the first nine years of the war were by no means fruitful in important events1 and the wearisome monotony of the siege was broken only by the single combat between ,achilles and ,trolus1 the youngest son of ,priam1 in which ,trolus was slain1 and by the fall of ,palamedes of ,euba1 the head of the ,greek peace-party1 which was brought about by the treachery of ,odysseus4 ,at length1 in the tenth year of the war1 a quarrel broke out between ,achilles and ,agamemnon respecting a female slave who had been taken captive1 and gave for the time quite another aspect to affairs4 ,it is at this point that the ,iliad commences4 ,achilles1 in his wrath1 retired to his tent1 and refused to take any further part in the war2 whilst the ,trojans1 who feared him more than all the other ,greeks1 became bolder1 and no longer kept to the protection of their walls4 ,zeus1 at the request of ,thetis1 gave them the victory in their first engagement with the ,greeks4 ,hector drove the latter back to their ships1 and was already about to set them on fire1 when ,achilles consented to allow his friend ,patroclus to don his armour and lead his ,myrmidons to the assistance of the ,greeks4 ,the ,trojans were now driven back1 but ,patroclus1 in the ardour of pursuit1 was slain by ,hector1 and deprived of his armour1 and ,menelas1 with the help of the greater ,ajax and other heroes1 only succeeded in rescuing his corpse after a bloody and obstinate struggle4 ,the wrath of ,achilles was now entirely diverted by the desire of avenging on ,hector the death of his much-loved friend ,patroclus4 ,he was scarcely willing even to wait for the new armour which his goddess-mother procured him from the workshop of ,hephstus4 ,no sooner was he in possession of it than he again appeared on the field1 and ,hector--the bulwark of ,troy--soon succumbed to his furious onslaught4 ,achilles1 however1 was generous enough to surrender his corpse to the entreaties of ,priam4 ,the ,iliad concludes with the solemn funeral of ,hector4 ,the succeeding events1 up to the death of ,achilles and the contest for his arms1 were narrated in the thiopis of ,arctinus of ,miletus1 with the contents of which we have some slight acquaintance1 although the work itself is lost4 ,all kinds of brilliant exploits are reported to have been performed by ,achilles before the walls of ,troy1 which were manifestly unknown to the earlier story4 ,in the first place1 immediately after ,hector's death1 ,penthesilea1 the queen of the ,amazons1 came to the assistance of the ,trojans1 and fought so bravely at the head of her army that the ,greeks were hard pressed4 ,achilles at length overcame the heroic daughter of ,ares4 ,after her fall1 a new ally of the ,trojans appeared in ,memnon1 king of thiopia1 who is called a son of ,eos1 because the thiopians were supposed to dwell in the far ,east4 ,among those who fell by the hand of this handsome and courageous hero was ,antilochus1 the valiant son of ,nestor4 ,when ,memnon1 however1 ventured to meet the invincible ,achilles1 he also was vanquished1 after a brave struggle4 ,the fresh morning dew1 which springs from the tears of ,eos1 proves that she has never ceased to lament her heroic son4 ,but death was soon to overtake him before whom so many heroes had bitten the dust4 ,in an assault on the ,scan gate1 ,achilles was killed1 at the head of his ,myrmidons1 by an arrow of ,paris1 which was directed by ,apollo4 ,according to later writers1 whose accounts were followed by the tragic poets1 he was treacherously murdered here on the occasion of his betrothal to ,polyxena1 the beautiful daughter of ,priam4 ,a furious contest1 lasting the whole day1 took place for the possession of his corpse and armour3 at length ,odysseus and ,ajax succeeded in conveying it to a place of safety4 ,mourning and confusion reigned among the ,greeks at his death4 ,during seventeen days and nights ,thetis1 with the whole band of ,nereids1 bewailed his untimely fate in mourning melodies1 so sad and touching that neither gods nor men could refrain from tears4 8,see1 tears are shed by every god and goddess1 to survey ,how soon the ,beautiful is past1 the ,perfect dies away60 ,the death of the bravest of the ,greeks was followed by an unhappy quarrel between ,ajax and ,odysseus respecting his arms4 ,ajax1 on account of his near relationship to the deceased hero1 and the great services he had rendered to the cause of the ,greeks1 seemed to have the best claim2 but ,agamemnon1 by the advice of ,athene1 adjudged them to ,odysseus4 ,ajax was so mortified at this decision that he became insane1 and put an end to his own life4 ,an entire tragedy of ,sophocles1 treating of the mournful fate of the son of ,telamon1 has come down to us4 ,after ,ajax had quitted the scene1 ,odysseus became decidedly the chief personage among the ,greeks4 ,it was he who captured the ,trojan seer ,helenus1 and extorted from him the secret that ,ilium could not be taken without the arrows of ,heracles4 ,hereupon ,philoctetes1 who was still lying sick at ,lemnos1 was fetched1 and his wound healed by ,machaon4 ,paris soon afterwards fell by his hand4 ,it was ,odysseus1 moreover1 who1 in company with ,diomedes1 undertook the perilous task of entering ,troy in disguise and stealing the ,palladium1 on which the safety of the city depended4 ,it was he who fetched ,neoptolemus1 the young son of ,achilles1 from ,scyros to the ,trojan camp1 it having been decreed that his presence was necessary to the success of the ,greeks4 ,lastly--and this was his greatest service--it was ,odysseus who devised the celebrated wooden horse1 and the stratagem which led to the final capture of the city4 ,in the belly of the horse1 which was built by ,epes1 one hundred chosen warriors of the ,greeks concealed themselves4 ,the rest of the ,greeks set fire to their camp1 and sailed away to ,tenedos2 whereupon the ,trojans1 deceived by the assurances of ,sinon1 dragged the fatal horse1 amid cries of joy1 into the city4 ,in vain did the ,trojan priest of ,apollo1 ,laocon1 seek to divert them from their folly4 ,none would give heed to his warnings2 and when1 soon afterwards1 both he and his sons1 whilst sacrificing to ,poseidon on the sea-shore1 were strangled by two serpents that came up out of the sea1 the ,trojans regarded this as a punishment sent by the gods for his evil counsel1 and were the more confirmed in their purpose4 ,the death of ,laocon and his sons forms the subject of one of the most splendid of the creations of ,greek art that have come down to us from antiquity4 ,the group was found1 in the year #aejf1 by a ,roman citizen in his vineyard1 close to the former ,therm of ,titus1 and was made over by him1 for a considerable annuity1 to ,pope ,julius ,,ii41 who then placed it in the ,vatican collection4 ,the right arm of ,laocon1 which was wanting1 has1 unfortunately1 been incorrectly restored4 ,this is attested by a copy of the group which was subsequently discovered in ,naples4 ,we give an engraving of the group in its original form 7,fig4 #fa74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,laocon4 ,group4 ,it treats really of three distinct incidents1 which have been skilfully incorporated1 by the artists to whom we owe the work 7the ,rhodians ,agesander1 ,athenodorus1 and ,polydorus71 into one harmonious group4 ,the eldest son is as yet unhurt1 and appears to be so loosely held by the coils of the serpent that he might easily escape his impending fate1 if he were not more effectually restrained by his loving sympathy with his noble father1 on whom he gazes with piteous looks4 ,laocon himself1 who naturally forms the centre of the group1 is depicted at the moment in which1 mortally wounded by the serpent1 he sinks on the altar1 to rise from which he vainly exerts his last remaining strength4 ,with his left arm he still mechanically seeks to repel the serpents4 ,his hitherto energetic resistance has begun to fail1 and his noble head is raised in mournful resignation to heaven1 as though to ask the gods why they had condemned him to so terrible a fate4 ,the dignified and resolute aspect of his countenance forms a beautiful contrast to that of his body1 which is manifestly quivering in the keenest agony4 ,the younger son on his right is already in the last agonies of death1 and though his left hand grasps instinctively the head of the snake1 he is evidently incapable of further resistance4 ,he is drooping like a plucked flower1 and in one more moment will have breathed his last4 ,on the night succeeding ,laocon's horrible end1 and the rejoicings of the ,trojans at the apparent departure of the ,greeks1 the ,greek fleet returned in silence at a signal given by ,sinon4 ,the heroes who were hidden in the wooden horse then descended and opened the gates to the ,greek host1 who rushed into the doomed city4 ,a terrible scene of plunder and carnage ensued1 the ,trojans1 in their dismay and confusion1 offering no resistance4 ,the fate of the sacred city was fulfilled2 ,priam perished before the altar of ,zeus by the hand of ,neoptolemus1 and with him the glory of ,troy was laid in the dust4 ,the men were put to death1 the women and children1 together with the rich booty1 were carried off1 the former being destined to the hard lot of slavery4 ,among them was the aged queen ,hecuba1 with all her daughters and daughters-in-law4 ,helen--the cause of all this misfortune--was found in the house of ,dephobus1 whom she had married after the death of his brother ,paris4 ,the city was burnt to the ground1 and1 long after1 other cities rose on its site4 ,still the tradition of the siege remained among the inhabitants1 though1 even in ,roman times1 learned men had begun to declare that ,old ,troy must have had another site4 ,and now when the last ,ilium had been no more for many centuries1 and the very existence of ,homer's ,troy had been declared a fable1 the palace and the traces of the conflagration have been found4 ,dr4 ,schliemann has excavated the legendary site1 and we know now that ,athene was worshipped in the city1 and that it perished by fire4 ,we can hardly tell at present the full importance of these discoveries1 nor of those at ,mycen1 where the traditional tombs of the ,grecian leaders have been examined1 and their long-buried wealth brought to light4 ,yet this1 too1 the greatest of all the ,grecian legend series1 dissolves into the phenomena of nature4 ,that there was a ,trojan war1 and that we have some historical facts about it1 we can hardly doubt2 but so many myths have crystallised round it1 that to us it must be merely legend4 ,the very names of ,achilles1 and ,paris1 and ,helen1 upon whom the whole story turns1 have been recognised in ,indian legend4 ,point after point in their history is found in the legend history of every nation of the ,aryan family4 ,the only conclusion that we can draw is1 that such stories must have come into being before the separation of the ,aryan family1 and cannot therefore contain the later history of any one branch4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,return4--,the ,greeks1 after sacrificing ,polyxena on the grave of ,achilles at ,sigeum1 prepared to return to their country4 ,few1 however1 were destined to reach their homes without some misfortune1 or1 even when arrived there1 to experience a kindly welcome4 ,of the two sons of ,atreus1 ,agamemnon1 after escaping a storm on the coast of ,euba1 landed safely on his native shores1 but was soon after murdered by his wife and gisthus1 who had1 during his absence1 returned to ,argos and married ,clytmnestra4 ,cassandra1 the ,trojan prophetess1 who1 in the division of the spoils1 had fallen to ,agamemnon1 shared his fate4 ,she had continually predicted the unfortunate end of the war and the ultimate fate of the city1 but had always been laughed to scorn by her incredulous countrymen4 ,the fate of the commander of the ,greeks1 with its eventful consequences1 was a favourite subject with the tragic poets4 ,his murder did not go unavenged4 ,orestes1 the only son of ,agamemnon and ,clytmnestra1 had been hastily removed from the scene by his sister ,electra1 and sent to his uncle1 ,strophius1 king of ,phocis4 ,strophius had him carefully educated with his own son ,pylades1 who was about the same age4 ,a most intimate friendship soon sprang up between the two youths1 which1 from its faithfulness and constancy1 has become proverbial4 ,on reaching manhood1 the sole thought of ,orestes was to avenge his noble father's treacherous death at the hands of the crafty gisthus and his mother ,clytmnestra4 ,accompanied by his friend ,pylades1 he returned1 in the eighth year of his exile1 to ,mycen1 and there slew both gisthus and ,clytmnestra4 ,although in so doing he had only fulfilled a duty1 he yet incurred the deepest guilt by the murder of her who gave him birth1 and at once found himself pursued by the avenging ,furies4 ,they dogged his steps1 and ceased not to pursue him through all the countries of the earth1 until he was at length directed by the oracle at ,delphi to convey the statue of ,artemis from ,tauris to ,attica4 ,after he had1 with the help of his newly-found sister1 successfully achieved this task1 he was purified by ,apollo 7see page #aeb74 ,of the numerous dramas that were written on the subject of the fortunes of the ,pelopid1 which we have here briefly touched on1 the ,agamemnon1 ,chophor1 and ,eumenides of schylus1 the ,electra of ,sophocles1 and the ,electra and ,iphigenia in ,tauris of ,euripides1 are still extant4 ,we must now turn to the fortunes of the other ,greek leaders4 ,agamemnon's brother ,menelaus was overtaken1 off ,cape ,malea1 by a fearful storm1 which carried him to ,crete and ,egypt1 whence1 after seven years of wandering1 he returned to ,sparta with ,helen and his share of the spoils of ,troy4 ,the ,locrian ,ajax experienced a still more unhappy fate4 ,on the night of the destruction of ,troy he had penetrated into the temple of ,pallas1 and had not only torn away the priestess ,cassandra1 who was clinging for safety to the altar and statue of the goddess1 but had also overturned the statue of ,pallas herself4 ,as a punishment for this offence1 his ship was wrecked on ,cape ,caphareus1 ,he would still have been able to escape with his life--having succeeded in getting hold of a rock--if he had not given such offence to ,poseidon by his impious boast that he needed not the help of the gods1 that the god split the rock with his trident1 whereupon ,ajax fell into the sea and was drowned4 ,diomedes1 ,philoctetes1 and ,idomeneus reached their homes in safety1 but were all soon afterwards driven out1 after which they all three emigrated to ,italy4 ,here ,diomedes founded many towns1 and was long worshipped with heroic honours4 ,teucer also succeeded in reaching ,salamis in safety1 but his father ,telamon was so wroth because he had not better protected his brother ,ajax1 or at least avenged his death1 that he refused to receive him4 ,he was1 therefore1 likewise obliged to leave his country1 and subsequently settled on the island of ,cyprus4 ,but of all the ,greek heroes ,odysseus experienced the most reverses1 while at home his faithful wife ,penelope and his son ,telemachus were hard pressed by the suitors4 ,it was only in the tenth year after the fall of ,troy1 and after numerous wanderings and vicissitudes1 that he was permitted to return to his native ,ithaca and punish the shameless suitors who had wasted his substance and goods4 ,the story of his adventures is so well known that we need not dwell on it here1 further than to mention that1 according to post-,homeric accounts1 ,odysseus was killed by the hand of ,telegonus1 his own son by ,circe4 ,the events of the ,trojan cycle have supplied not only the poet1 but also the artist and the sculptor1 with a large number of their most acceptable subjects4 ,single scenes1 such as the judgment of ,paris1 have been continually selected1 ever since the time of ,raphael1 as favourite subjects of representation4 ,of modern masters1 ,carstens1 ,thorwaldsen the great ,danish sculptor1 ,cornelius1 ,genelli1 and ,preller 7,landscapes of the ,odyssey7 have illustrated the story of ,troy in a series of splendid compositions4 ,we give an engraving of a relief by ,thorwaldsen1 representing ,priam before ,achilles 7,fig4 #fb74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fb4--,priam before ,achilles4 ,relief by ,thorwaldsen4 ,of the more important extant works of antiquity1 we may mention the wedding of ,peleus and ,thetis1 depicted on the ,franais vase in the ,naples ,museum2 the abduction of ,helen1 depicted on a marble relief in the former ,campana collection1 now in the ,louvre 7,fig4 #fc72 the marble group in ,rome1 known by the name of 8,pasquino10 which represents ,menelas raising the corpse of ,patroclus2 and1 lastly1 the celebrated gina marbles in ,munich4 ,these last are the remains of a marble group from the gable of a temple of ,pallas at gina1 representing a battle between the ,greeks and ,trojans4 ,they were discovered at gina in the year #ahaa2 ,king ,ludwig ,i4 of ,bavaria1 who was a great patron of art1 bought the gina marbles1 and1 after having them restored by ,thorwaldsen1 placed them in the ,munich collection4 ,the ,laocon1 the most important of all the works relating to the ,trojan cycle1 has already been discussed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,rape of ,helen4 ,campana ,collection4 ,paris4 ,v4--,,mythic ,,seers ,,and ,,bards4 ,we have already incidentally mentioned most of the seers of antiquity--,melampus1 the son of ,amythaon1 who figures in ,argive legend2 likewise ,amphiaras1 ,tiresias1 and ,calchas4 ,concerning ,tiresias1 we may remark that the ancients ascribed to him a fabulous age1 extending over seven or even nine generations2 so that he was thus a witness of all that happened to ,thebes1 from the foundation of the city to its destruction by the ,epigoni4 ,like all celebrated soothsayers1 he was acquainted with the language of birds1 and could penetrate the most hidden secrets of nature2 on which account he enjoyed up to his death an ever-increasing reputation among the ,thebans4 ,we have already related how1 in extreme old age1 when his native city could no longer withstand the assaults of the ,epigoni1 he experienced the bitter lot of having to take refuge in flight1 and at length succumbed beneath the hardships of the journey4 ,in the second century ,a4,d4 his grave was still shown in the neighbourhood of ,haliartus4 ,among the fugitive ,thebans who fell into the hands of the ,argives is said to have been ,manto1 the daughter of ,tiresias1 who was likewise renowned as a prophetess4 ,she was dedicated1 together with a large portion of the spoils1 to the oracle at ,delphi4 ,by the command of the god she was sent into ,asia ,minor1 where she founded the oracle of ,claros1 near ,colophon4 ,she here married the ,cretan ,rhacius1 and became by him the mother of ,mopsus1 who afterwards founded the oracle of ,mallos in ,cilicia4 ,among the names of the mythic bards that have been handed down to us are undoubtedly to be found some recollections of those who first cultivated the art of poetry2 partly1 however1 they are nothing more than personifications of certain tendencies and modes of poetry4 ,such is probably the case with the mythic bard ,linus1 who was celebrated in ,argos1 ,thebes1 and ,euba4 ,nothing is more common than for an unsophisticated people to burst forth in lamentation over the decay and final extinction of the blooming life of nature4 ,this1 as we see in the myth of ,hyacinthus1 was often portrayed under the metaphor of a beautiful boy slain by a quoit or by savage dogs--both symbols of the scorching heat of the sun4 ,the dirges which from time immemorial were sung over the beautiful boy ,linus1 at the season of vintage1 probably gave rise to the myth which makes ,linus himself the singer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,orpheus and ,eurydice4 ,marble ,relief ,in the ,villa ,albani4 ,similar doleful memories are linked with the name of ,orpheus1 who is often termed a brother of ,linus1 though he was really not an olian1 but a ,thracian of ,pieria4 ,that which is best known of him is the story of his love for the beautiful nymph ,eurydice4 ,she was bitten in the foot by a snake1 and thus snatched away from him by death4 ,orpheus then filled mountain and valley with songs of lamentation so piteous1 that the wild beasts of the forest were enchanted at the sound1 and followed him like lambs2 and the very rocks and trees moved from their places4 ,his yearning towards his beloved ,eurydice induced him to descend to the lower world1 to beg her release from the grim king of shadows4 ,here his piteous lay caused even the ,erinyes to shed tears of compassion1 and moved the hard heart of the ,stygian king4 ,he released ,eurydice on condition that ,orpheus should not look back on her till he reached the upper world4 ,orpheus1 however1 violated this condition1 and ,eurydice was once more lost to him4 ,he himself1 not long afterwards1 whilst wandering in his despair over the ,thracian mountains1 was torn in pieces by some women in the mad excitement of their nightly ,bacchanalian orgies4 ,a splendid representation of the second parting of the lovers by ,hermes1 the guide of souls1 has come down to us on a marble relief1 which is preserved in the ,villa ,albani 7,fig4 #fd74 ,illustration ,illustration ,,index4 bas1 #ahg4 castus1 #bcd1 #bcg1 #bdf4 chlus1 #aaj1 #baj4 chrn1 #adi4 chilles 7chilleus71 #ce1 #afh1 #bdf1 #bea1 #bec4 chr1 #ahf4 crsus1 #ahg1 #aia4 ,acton1 #di1 #aga4 ,actrd1 #bji4 ,admt1 #bjb4 ,admtus1 #bca1 #bcd dnis1 #eg4 ,adrastus1 #bdj1 #bda1 #bdh4 cus1 #adi1 #bde1 #bdg4 dn1 #agi4 ts1 #ij1 #bce4 geus1 #bbj1 #bbc1 #bcg4 gleus1 #bda4 gmus1 #baa4 gna1 #ahj1 #bde4 gis1 #bb1 #ce1 #dj4 gisthus1 #fd1 #aeb1 #bde1 #beg4 gyptus1 #ahf4 nas1 #eh1 #aeg1 #bea4 lus1 #id1 #agi1 #bcb4 sclpus 7vide ,asclepius74 sn1 #bcc4 thra1 #bbj4 tna1 #ba1 #fi4 gmemnn1 #di1 #fd1 #aeb1 #bde1 #beg4 gthdmn1 #ih4 gv1 #aae1 #aga4 gnr1 #agj1 #ahf1 #bbg4 ,agla1 #hc4 ,aglaurus1 #bah4 ,agrus1 #bdh4 dneus1 #adf 7vide ,hades74 jax1 ,telamonian1 #bdg1 #bec4 jax1 ,locrian1 #bdg1 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,crsa1 #bcg4 ,crus1 #ag4 ,crnus1 #ah1 #ga1 #aac1 #acd1 #afh4 ,cpdo1 #gi4 ,crtes1 #ai1 #aac1 #bca4 ,cybl1 #aac1 #abg4 ,cychreus1 #bdg4 ,cyclpes1 #ag1 #gj1 #ahg4 ,cycnus1 #baj1 #bea4 ,cylln1 #fb4 ,ddlus1 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,dmons1 #ajj4 ,dmasts1 #bba4 ,dn1 #bf1 #ahh4 ,danaids1 #adi1 #ahf4 ,dnus1 #ahf4 ,dardnus1 #bdb4 ,death1 #aed4 ,dnra1 #baj4 ,dphbus1 #bef4 ,delphian ,oracle1 #db1 #gb1 #aab1 #agj4 ,dmtr1 #ai1 #be1 #aji1 #acg1 #aci1 #ahf1 #bdc4 ,dmphn1 #adj1 #bbe4 ,dmus1 #eb1 #eg4 ,d1 #acg4 ,deucln1 #afb1 #afd1 #bah4 ,dna1 #di 7vide ,artemis74 ,dc1 #hd4 ,dictys1 #ahi4 ,didyman ,oracle1 #db4 ,docls1 #adj4 ,dmds1 ,argive1 #afh1 #bdg1 #bei4 ,dmds1 ,thracian1 #bjb4 ,dn1 #be1 #ef4 ,dnsa1 ,greater1 #aai4 ,dnsa1 ,lesser1 #aah4 ,dnsus1 #bf1 #eg1 #fh1 #hc1 #aad1 #acj1 #bbc4 ,doscri1 #aid1 #bbd1 #bca1 #bcd1 #bdf1 #bej4 ,dirc1 #agc4 ,dis1 #adg4 ,ddna1 ,oracle of1 #bd4 ,dris1 #ajf4 ,dryads1 #abe4 ,drypes1 #baa1 #bab4 ,dryops1 #abh4 chidna1 #aha1 #bjj1 #bjd4 ch1 #eh1 #abd4 gra1 #hc4 lectra 7daughter of ,agamemnon71 #beh4 lectra 7daughter of ,atlas71 #bdb4 lectra 7daughter of ,oceanus71 #ajf4 lectryn1 #aia1 #aih4 leusna1 #ada4 leusis1 #adj4 lysum1 #adi1 #afa4 mthn1 #bje4 ,ends1 #afh1 #bde4 ,endymn1 #ia4 n1 #ed4 s1 #ah1 #ib1 #bai1 #bec4 pphus1 #ahe1 #ahf4 pus1 #bed4 pgni1 #bda1 #bdh1 #bfb4 pmtheus1 #afc4 ppeus1 #agc4 rt1 #hb4 rechtheus1 #id1 #bah1 #bbi4 ,ergnus1 #aii4 richthnus 7vide ,erechtheus74 rnes1 #ii1 #aej1 #aea1 #bca1 #beh1 #bfd4 riphl1 #bdj4 ris1 #bdi4 ros1 #ag1 #eg1 #eh1 #gh4 rysichthn1 #ada4 tocls1 #bdj1 #bda4 ,eumndes1 #aeb1 #bci4 ,eumolpus1 #adj4 ,eunma1 #hd4 ,euphrsyn1 #hc4 ,eurp 7,europa71 #bf1 #bbg4 ,eurus1 #ib4 ,euryl1 #aij4 ,euryba1 #ah4 ,eurydc1 #bfd4 ,eurynm1 #be1 #fh1 #hc4 ,eurystheus1 #aih1 #bjb1 #bdd4 ,eurytn1 #afe1 #bdf4 ,eurytus1 #bjf1 #baa4 ,euterp1 #hb4 ,fates 7vide ,mr74 ,fauna1 #acb4 ,faunla1 #acb4 ,faunus1 #aca4 ,fvnus1 #id4 ,flctas1 #ajj4 ,flra1 #acf4 ,fontus1 #gf1 #aaj4 ,fortna1 #ih4 ,fr 7,furies7 7vide ,erinyes74 ,ga1 #ag1 #ai1 #aab1 #abi1 #aec1 #bjd1 #bah4 ,gnymds1 #hg1 #bjc4 ,g1 #ag 7vide ,ga74 ,glnr1 #ahf4 ,gni1 #ajj4 ,gryns 7,geryon71 #aij1 #bjc4 ,ggantes 7,giants71 #ba4 ,glaucus ,pontius1 #ajg4 ,glaucus 7son of ,minos71 #bbh4 ,glaucus 7son of ,sisyphus71 #ahj4 ,gorgnum 7vide gis74 ,gorgons1 #ah1 #ajg1 #ahi4 ,graces1 #hc1 #afc4 ,grdvus1 #ec4 ,gr1 #ah1 #ajg1 #ahi4 ,grt 7vide ,graces74 ,gys1 #ah4 ,hds1 #ai1 #aci1 #adf1 #ahg1 #bbd4 ,hamadryads1 #abe4 ,harmna1 #eb1 #aga1 #bdj4 ,harpies1 #ah1 #ajf1 #bce4 ,hb1 #bf1 #hg1 #aig1 #bab4 ,hcb 7vide ,hecuba74 ,hct1 #ia1 #aec4 ,hector1 #bea4 ,hcba1 #bdc1 #bdi1 #bef4 ,hln 7,helen71 #eh1 #aid1 #bbd1 #bde1 #bef1 #bei4 ,hlnus1 #bed4 ,hlos1 #ah1 #hi1 #aci1 #bjc1 #bbh4 ,hell1 #bcb4 ,hphstus1 #bf1 #eb1 #eg1 #fh1 #afc1 #bba1 #bbi1 #bce1 #beb4 ,hra1 #ac1 #ai1 #bf1 #ca1 #fh1 #hg1 #if1 #aig1 #bjb1 #bjd1 #bch1 #bdi4 ,hracls1 #gi1 #hg1 #ajf1 #afa1 #ahc1 #ahg1 #aig1 #bcd4 ,hrum1 #cb4 ,hercles1 #bjd1 #bad 7vide ,heracles74 ,herms1 #ad1 #be1 #eg1 #fb1 #afc1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #bjf1 #bdc4 ,heroes1 #aei4 ,hers1 #bah1 #bai4 ,hsne1 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bdg4 ,hesprdes1 #ij1 #ajg1 #bjd4 ,hesprus1 #ic4 ,hesta1 #ai1 #ga4 ,hmrus1 #eh4 ,hippcn1 #bji1 #bab4 ,hippdma1 #bdc4 ,hipplyt1 #bbd4 ,hipplytus1 #eh1 #bbd4 ,homer1 #ac1 #ce1 #eb1 #hf1 #add1 #bjf1 #bdi4 ,hnos1 #aif4 ,hr1 #be1 #hd4 ,hycinthus1 #da1 #bfc4 ,hydes1 #ic4 ,hydra1 #bjj4 ,hyga1 #cf1 #if4 ,hylas1 #bcd4 ,hyllus1 #baj4 ,hymn1 #eh4 ,hymnus1 #eh4 ,hyprn1 #ah1 #ij1 #ib4 ,hypermnestra1 #ahg4 ,hypnus1 #aee4 ptus1 #ag1 #afb4 crus1 #aid1 #bdi4 crs1 #bbi4 ,ichthyocentaurs1 #aje4 das1 #aie1 #bca4 dmneus1 #bbi1 #bei4 ,iliad1 #bca1 #bdb1 #bdh4 lthyia1 #if4 lus1 #bdb4 nchus1 #ahe4 n1 #ajh1 #aae1 #aga1 #bcb4 nus1 #aca4 1 #bf1 #fd1 #ahe4 bts1 #aha1 #ahg4 cast1 #bch4 lus1 #bjj1 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bca4 l1 #bjf1 #baa4 n1 #bai4 phnassa1 #ahh4 phicls1 #aih1 #bca4 phgna1 #di1 #bea4 phtus1 #bjf1 #bcd4 rn1 #hd4 rs1 #ah1 #hf1 #ajf4 sis1 #ahf4 ,ismenian ,oracle1 #db4 ,isthmian ,games1 #aja4 tylus1 #agi4 ,ixn1 #adi1 #aff4 ,jnus1 #ac1 #gd4 ,jsn1 #bca1 #bcc4 ,jno1 #ac1 #bf1 #cb4 ,jpter1 #ac1 #bb1 #bd1 #cf1 #gg4 ,jventas1 #hg4 ,labdcd1 #bcg4 ,labdcus1 #agi4 ,lchsis1 #ih4 ,ldn1 #bjd4 ,lrts1 #bdi4 ,lus1 #agi1 #bcg4 ,lampus1 #ib4 ,lcn1 #bed4 ,ldmas1 #bda4 ,lmdn1 #ajb1 #bjc1 #bjh1 #bdb4 ,lpth1 #afe1 #baa1 #bbc4 ,lrs1 #aeg4 ,larv1 #aeh4 ,ltna 7vide ,leto74 ,larchus1 #ajh1 #bcb4 ,lda1 #bf1 #aid4 ,lmrla1 #aeh4 ,lmrs1 #aeh4 ,lna1 #aah4 ,lt1 #ah1 #be1 #da1 #dh1 #aej4 ,leucippus1 #aie4 ,leuctha 7vide ,ino74 ,lber1 #abj1 #adc4 ,lbrla1 #abj4 ,lbtna1 #ei4 ,lbya1 #ahf4 ,lchas1 #bab4 ,lnus1 #db1 #aii1 #bfc4 ,lower ,world1 #adg4 ,lna1 #di1 #ia4 ,lpercla1 #acb4 ,lpercus1 #aca4 ,lyus1 #aag4 ,lycmds1 #bbe1 #bdg4 ,lycus 7,thebes71 #agc4 ,lycus 7,megara71 #bbj4 ,lynceus 7,scythian71 #ada4 ,lynceus 7son of ,aphareus71 #aie1 #bca4 ,lynceus 7son of ,danaus71 #ahg4 ,mchn1 #bed4 ,maia1 #be1 #fb1 #acb4 ,mns1 #aeh4 ,mant1 #bda1 #bfb4 ,mars1 or ,mvors1 #bf1 #eb1 #gg4 ,marsyas1 #abg4 ,mter ,magna da1 #aac1 #acj4 ,mter ,mtta1 #ib 7note74 ,matrnlia1 #cc4 ,mda1 #bba1 #bcj1 #bce1 #bdf4 ,mdsa1 #ce1 #ajc1 #aha1 #ahi4 ,mgpenths1 #aia4 ,mgra1 #aej4 ,mgra1 #aii1 #bjf4 ,mlamps1 #ahh1 #bdj4 ,mlger1 #afh1 #baj1 #bcj1 #bcd4 ,mla1 #ahe4 ,mlcerts1 #ajh1 #bcb4 ,melpmn1 #hb4 ,memnn1 #ib1 #bec4 ,mnlus1 #bde1 #bej1 #beh4 ,mnestheus1 #bbe4 ,mntus1 #afb4 ,mercrus1 #fe4 ,mrp1 #ahj1 #bch4 ,mtn1 #bbj1 #bbi4 ,mtnd1 #bbj4 ,mtis1 #be4 ,mtus1 #ed4 ,mdas1 #abg4 ,mnerva1 #ac1 #bf1 #cf1 #acg1 #bbh4 ,mns1 #aaf1 #adi1 #bjb1 #bbb1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,minotaur1 #bbb1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,mnmsyn1 #ag1 #ai1 #be1 #ha4 ,mr1 #be1 #ih1 #bcb4 ,mlnd1 #bji4 ,mopsus1 #bfb4 ,morpheus1 #aee4 ,msychlus1 #gj4 ,mulcber1 #ga4 ,murca1 #ei4 ,muses1 #be1 #db1 #hj1 #ha1 #aba4 ,mtnus1 #acc4 ,myrtlus1 #bdd4 ,naiads1 #abd4 ,np1 #abd4 ,narcissus1 #eh1 #abd4 ,nleus1 #bji1 #bab1 #bdh4 ,nmsis1 #ih4 ,noptlmus1 #bed1 #bef4 ,nphl1 #bcb4 ,neptune 7,neptnus71 #ajd4 ,nereids1 #aje1 #aij1 #bec4 ,nreus1 #ah1 #aje1 #bje4 ,nerio1 #ed4 ,nessus1 #baj4 ,nestor1 #afe1 #afh1 #bji1 #bdg4 ,nc1 #he4 ,night1 #aed4 ,nlus1 #ahf4 ,nb1 #dh1 #agf1 #bdc4 ,nsus1 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,ntus1 #ib4 ,nycteus1 #agb4 ,nymphs1 #abc1 #ahi1 #bjd4 ,oceanids1 #fh1 #hc1 #aaj1 #afh4 cnus1 #ah1 #be1 #ia1 #aji1 #afb4 dysseus1 #fd1 #ajb1 #aji1 #bdi1 #bec1 #bei4 dps1 #aec1 #bch4 neus1 #baj1 #bcj1 #bdh4 nmus1 #bdc4 cls1 #bjh4 leus1 #bdh4 ,olympian ,games1 #bd1 #dc1 #aif4 ,omphl1 #bjh4 ,ops1 #acc4 ,orcus1 #aee4 ,oreads1 #abd1 #abi4 rests1 #di1 #aeb1 #beh4 rn1 #ib1 #ic4 rthyia1 #id1 #bai4 ,orpheus1 #db1 #bcd1 #bfd4 ,oschphra1 #bbc4 ,pgnala1 #aac4 ,plmn1 #aji4 ,plmds1 #bea4 ,ples1 #acf4 ,palldum1 #bdb1 #bdi1 #bed4 ,pallas1 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,pallas ,athn 7vide ,athene74 ,pallor1 #ed4 ,pn1 #aae1 #abh4 ,pnthna1 #cg1 #bbc4 ,pandrs1 #agi4 ,pandn1 #bbj4 ,pandra1 #afc4 ,pandrsus1 #bah4 ,pnes1 #abe1 #acj1 #ace4 ,parc1 #ih1 #aee4 ,pris1 #bdi1 #bec1 #bed4 ,parthnn1 #cf4 ,psph1 #bbh4 ,patroclus1 #beb4 ,pgsus1 #ajc1 #aha1 #aij4 ,pleus1 #eh1 #ajf1 #afh1 #bjh1 #bca1 #bcd1 #bde1 #bdi4 ,plas1 #ahj1 #bcc1 #bdf1 #bdh4 ,plpd1 #bdc1 #beh4 ,plops1 #aej1 #agf1 #bdc4 ,pnts1 #gc1 #aef4 ,pnlp1 #aia1 #bdi1 #bei4 ,pnlp 7,nymph71 #abh4 ,penthsla1 #ahc1 #beb4 ,pentheus1 #aae4 ,prba1 #bdg4 ,priclymnus1 #bji1 #bcd4 ,prphts1 #bba4 ,pers1 #ij4 ,perss1 #bbh4 ,persphn1 #be1 #ia1 #aji1 #ach1 #adc1 #aee1 #bbd4 ,perseus1 #ajb1 #ahh1 #aih1 #bdd4 ,phdra1 #eh1 #bbd1 #bbh4 ,phthn 7son of ,helios71 #ij4 ,phthn 7horse of ,eos71 #ib4 ,phloctts1 #bab1 #bea1 #bed1 #bei4 ,phlyra1 #afh4 ,phneus1 #ajg1 #aia1 #bce4 ,phbus1 #eg4 ,phb1 #ah1 #di4 ,phnix1 #bdf4 ,phlus1 #bjj4 ,phorcys1 #ah1 #ajf1 #aji1 #ahi4 ,phosphrus1 #ic4 ,phrixus1 #bcb4 ,phleus1 #bji4 ,prthus1 #afe1 #bjf1 #bca4 ,pittheus1 #bbj4 ,ptycampts1 #bba4 ,pleides1 #ic4 ,plexippus1 #bcb4 ,plteus1 #adf4 ,plt1 #adf1 #aee4 ,plt 7fem471 #bdc4 ,pdarcs1 #bjh4 ,pas1 #bab4 ,plybus1 #bch4 ,plycast1 #aid4 ,plycltus1 #cb4 ,plydects1 #ahi1 #aij4 ,plydeucs 7,pollux71 #afh1 #age1 #aid1 #bca4 ,plydrus1 #agb1 #agi4 ,plyhymna1 #hc4 ,plydus1 #bbi4 ,plyncs1 #bdj4 ,plyphmus1 #ajb4 ,plyxna1 #bec1 #bef4 ,pmna1 #ace4 ,pontus1 #ag1 #ah1 #aje4 ,pseidn1 #ac1 #ai1 #bj1 #gb1 #ajj1 #ahj1 #bji4 ,pthus1 #eh4 ,prmus 7,priam71 #ahc1 #bjh1 #bdc1 #bdi1 #bef4 ,prpus1 #acc4 ,procris1 #bai4 ,procrusts1 #ajb1 #bba4 ,prtdes1 #ahh4 ,prtus1 #aha1 #ahg1 #aia4 ,prmtheus1 #afb1 #bje4 ,prserpna 7vide ,persephone74 ,prtslus1 #bea4 ,prteus1 #ajg4 ,psch1 #gi4 ,pynepsa1 #bbc1 #bbf4 ,pylds1 #beh4 ,pyrrha1 #afd4 ,ptha 7vide ,delphian ,oracle74 ,pthn1 #da1 #ahi4 ,quinquatrs ,mjrs1 #cg4 ,qurnus1 #gg4 ,recarnus1 #bad4 ,rhdmanthys 7,rhadamanthus71 #adi1 #bbg4 ,rha1 #ah1 #ga4 ,rha ,cybl1 #aac4 ,rhd1 #ajd4 ,slca1 #aje4 ,salmneus1 #bcc4 ,slus1 #ig4 ,sandn1 #bjg4 ,sarpdn1 #bbg4 ,sturnlia1 #acd4 ,sturnus1 #bf1 #acc4 ,satyrs1 #abe4 ,scrn1 #bba4 ,scts1 #aec4 ,scylla1 #bbb4 ,sln1 #ah1 #di1 #ia1 #aec4 ,sml1 #bf1 #ajh1 #aad1 #aga4 ,semn1 #aeb4 ,sibyls1 #db4 ,slni1 #abe1 #abg4 ,slnus1 #aae1 #abf4 ,silvnus1 #aca4 ,sms1 #bdb4 ,snis1 #bba4 ,snn1 #bed4 ,sirens1 #aji4 ,srus1 #ic4 ,ssyphus1 #adi1 #agi4 ,sleep1 #aed4 ,sol1 #hi1 #ij4 ,slymi1 #ahb4 ,sphinx1 #bch4 ,stars1 the1 #ic4 ,strps1 #ah4 ,sthnba1 #ahg4 ,sthnlus1 #aih1 #bdd4 ,sthn1 #aij4 ,strna1 #ig4 ,strges1 #ig4 ,strphus1 #beh4 ,stymphldes1 #bja4 ,styx1 #adi4 ,sleus1 #bjh4 ,symplgdes1 #bce4 ,srinx1 #abf1 #abi4 ,tls1 #bbi4 ,tantlus1 #adi1 #agf1 #bdc4 ,tartrus1 #ag1 #ai1 #ba4 ,tlmn1 #bjh1 #bca1 #bcd1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bei4 ,tlb1 #aih4 ,tlgnus1 #bei4 ,tlmchus1 #bei4 ,tlphassa1 #agj4 ,tlphus1 #bji4 ,tellus1 #aab4 ,termnus1 #aca1 #acg4 ,terpschr1 #hb4 ,tthys1 #ah1 #ii4 ,teucer1 #bjh1 #bdg1 #bei4 ,teuthras1 #baj4 ,thla1 #hb1 #hc4 ,thall1 #he4 ,thntus1 #aee4 ,thaumas1 #ah1 #ajf4 ,tha 7,tha71 #ah1 #ij1 #ib4 ,thmis1 #ag1 #be1 #gh1 #hd4 ,thersander1 #bda4 ,thseus1 #dc1 #ajb1 #aaf1 #aff1 #afh1 #ahc1 #bjf1 #bai1 #bbh1 #bca1 #bcd4 ,thesmphra1 #ada4 ,thesprtus1 #bde4 ,thestus1 #aid1 #bcb4 ,thtis1 #eh1 #fh1 #ajf1 #bdf1 #bdi1 #beb1 #bec4 ,thsa1 #abj4 ,thyests1 #bdd4 ,tbrnus1 #gf1 #aaj4 ,trsas1 #bda1 #bfb4 ,tsphn1 #aea4 ,titans1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #ij4 ,tthnus1 #ib1 #bje4 ,ttyus1 #da1 #adi4 ,toxeus1 #bcb4 ,triptlmus1 #adj4 ,trtn1 #ce1 #ajd1 #aje1 #abi4 ,trlus1 #bea4 ,trs1 #hh1 #bjc1 #bdb4 ,tych1 #ii4 ,tdeus1 #baj1 #bcd1 #bdj1 #bdh4 ,tyndrus1 #aid1 #bji1 #bde1 #bdi4 ,typheus1 #ba4 ,tphn1 #bjj1 #bjd4 ,tr1 #bcc4 lysses 7vide ,odysseus74 rna1 #hb4 rnus1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #aeb4 ,vnus1 #eh4 ,vertumnus1 #ace4 ,vesta1 #gb1 #aef4 ,victra1 #he4 ,vulcan 7,volcnus71 #gj4 ,winds1 the1 #ic4 ,zphyrus1 #ib1 #id4 ,zts1 #id1 #bai1 #bcd4 ,zthus1 #aga1 #agb1 #agi4 ,zeus1 #ab1 #ac1 #af1 #ai1 #bb1 #ca1 #fb1 #hh1 #aae1 #afb1 #ahe4 ,illustration ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's note3 #a4 ,silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling4 #b4 ,archaic1 non-standard1 and uncertain spellings retained as printed4