,,lectures ,,on ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,political ,,obligation ,,by ,,?omas ,,hill ,,gre5 ,,late ,,fell[ ,,( ,,balliol ,,college ,,& ,,:yte',s ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,moral ,,philosophy ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,ox=d ,,repr9t$ ,,f ,,gre5',s ,,philosophical ,,works1 ,,vol ,,ii4 ,,) ,,preface ,,by ,,b]n>d ,,bosanquet ,,new ,,impression ,,longmans1 ,,gre5 ,,& ,,co ,,ltd #ci ,,pat]no/] ,,r[1 ,,london ,,new ,,york1 ,,bombay1 ,,& ,,calcutta #aiaa ,all rights res]v$ ,,preface4 ,! pres5t volume consi/s ( ! late ,pr(essor ,gre5's lectures on ! ',pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation1' toge!r ) a *apt] on ! diff]5t s5ses ( ! t]m ',fre$om1' tak5 f a c\rse directly connect$ ) ! =m]4 ,! "w ?us re-issu$ is a repr9t ( pp4 #cjg-eec ( ,vol4 ,,ii4 ( ,pr(essor ,gre5's ,philosophical ,works1 ) ! addition ( a brief supplem5t 7p4 #bdh7 furni%$ by ! pres5t writ]1 consi/+ ( ,engli% r5d]+s = "s quotations :i* appe> 9 ! text 7pp4 #di-ei74 ,! reason = ?is re-issue is z foll[s4 ,! c\rse ( lectures 9 "q has long be5 kn[n to tea*]s z a mo/ valuable text-book = /ud5ts ( political !ory4 ,b z a portion ( a l>ge & exp5sive volume1 :i* is itself "p ( a set ( collect$ works1 x naturally 0 n accessible to memb]s ( popul> audi5ces4 ,9 discuss+ ! selection ( a text-book = a project$ c\rse ( in/ruction on political !ory1 to be giv5 9 ,london1 x 0 sugge/$ t a sep>ate volume1 conta9+ ! ',pr9ciples ( ,political ,obligation' w\ld be ! be/ conceivable book = ! purpose4 ,no o!r rec5t writ]1 x 0 felt1 has ! classical /r5g? & sanity ( ,pr(essor ,gre51 :o 0 nev] m ?or\gh & m at home !n :5 deal+ ) ^? que/ions affect+ citiz5%ip 9 & = :i*1 x may be said1 he liv$4 ,_m ( ! tr\bles ( today reflect ! di/raction ( m9ds to :i* a sane & balanc$ view ( society has nev] be5 adequately pres5t$2 & ! importance ( ! s]vice :i* might be r5d]$ to g5]al education by ! re-issue ( ^! lectures 9 a conv5i5t =m appe>$ to ju/ify an application to ^? :o _h ! p[] ( c>ry+ out ! sugge/ion :i* _h be5 made4 ,! fri5ds ( g5u9e political philosophy w h good cause1 x is hop$1 to be grateful to ,mrs ,t4,h4 ,gre5 = h] cordial ass5t to ! propos$ republication1 z also to ,messrs4 ,longman = _! promptitude 9 agree+ to und]take x4 ,! elaborate table ( cont5ts1 repr9t$ f ! ,philosophical ,works1 0 compil$ by _! editor1 ! late ,mr4 ,lewis ,nettle%ip4 ,x adds v greatly to ! value ( ! book4 ,,b]n>d ,,bosanquet ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ea* ( ,gre5's footnotes has be5 plac$ aft] ! p>agraph to :i* x ref]s1 & r5umb]$ accord+ly4 ,! footnotes add$ by ,r4,l4 ,nettle%ip are treat$ ! same way1 rema9 9 ! squ>e brackets ) :i* he di/+ui%$ !m1 & are m>k$ ',,rln'4 ,! transcrib] has add$ a few footnotes1 ma9ly expla9+ ,greek words 9 ! text4 ,^! are also 9 squ>e brackets1 m>k$ ',tr'4 ,,cont5ts ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,s5ses ,,( ',,fre$om' ,,z ,,appli$ ,,to ,,w ,,& ,,to ,,! ,,moral ,,progress ,,( ,,man4 #a4 ,9 "o s5se 7z be+ se>* = self-satisfaction7 all w is free2 9 ano!r 7z ! satisfaction s\ght is or is n real7 x may or may n be free #b4 ,z appli$ to ! inn] life 'fre$om' always implies a metaphor4 ,s5ses ( ?is metaphor 9 ,plato1 ! ,/oics1 ,/4 ,paul #c4 ,/4 ,paul & ,kant4 ,x w\ld seem t ) ,kant 'fre$om' means m]ely consci\sness ( ! possibility ( x1 7'k ( s9'7 #d4 ,hegel's conception ( fre$om z objectively realis$ 9 ! /ate #e4 ,x is true 9 s f> z society does supply to ! individual concrete int]e/s :i* t5d to satisfy ! desire = p]fection #f4 ,?\gh 7l ! correspond+ conception 9 ,/4 ,paul7 x is n & c\ld n be realis$ 9 any actual human society #g4 ,9 all ^! uses 'fre$om' means1 n m]e self-det]m9ation or act+ on pref]5ce1 b a p>ticul> k9d ( ?is #h4 ,! ext5sion ( ! t]m f ! out] to ! inn] relations ( life1 ?\gh a natural result ( reflection1 is apt to be mislead+ #i4 ,?us ! "q1 ,is a man free8 :i* may be prop]ly ask$ 9 reg>d to 8 actions1 _c be ask$ 9 ! same s5se 9 reg>d to 8 w #aj4 ,! failure to see ?is has l$ to ! errors 7#a7 ( reg>d+ motive z some?+ ap>t f & act+ on w1 7#b7 ( reg>d+ w z indep5d5t ( motive #aa4 ,?us ! fact t a man1 be+ :at he is1 mu/ act 9 a c]ta9 way1 is con/ru$ into ! negation ( fre$om #ab4 ,& to escape ?is negation rec\rse is _h to ! notion ( an unmotiv$ w1 :i* is really no w at all #ac4 ,! tru? is t ! w is ! man1 & t ! w _c be rightly spok5 ( z 'act+ on' its objects or vice v]sa1 because !y are nei!r any?+ )\t ! o!r #ad4 ,if h[ev] ! "q be p]si/$ 91 ,has a man p[] ov] 8 w8 ! answ] mu/ be bo? 'yes' & 'no' #ae4 ',fre$om' has be5 tak5 above 7z by ,engli% psy*ologi/s g5]ally7 z apply+ to w1 :atev] ! "* ( ! object will$ #af4 ,if tak5 7z by ! ,/oics1 ,/4 ,paul1 ,kant 7g5]ally71 & ,hegel7 z apply+ only to good w1 x mu/ /ill be recognis$ t ?is p>ticul> s5se implies ! g5]ic #ag4 ,:atev] ! propriety ( ! t]m 9 ! p>ticul> s5se1 bo? 'juri/ic' & 'spiritual' fre$om spr+ f ! same self-ass]t+ pr9ciple 9 man #ah4 ,& ?\gh ! =m] is only ! beg9n+ ( full fre$om1 ?is id5tity ( s\rce w always ju/ify ! use ( ! ^w 9 ! latt] s5se #ai4 ,b does n ! conception ( 'fre$om' z ! moral ideal imply an unt5able di/9ction l t ( ,kant betwe5 ! 'pure' & 'empirical' ego8 #bj4 ,! 'pure' & 'empirical' ego are "o ego1 reg>d$ 7#a7 9 its possibility1 7#b7 z at any giv5 "t x actually is #ba4 ,9 man ! self-realis+ pr9ciple is nev] realis$2 i4e4 ! objects ( reason & w only t5d to co9cide #bb4 ,s f> z !y d co9cide1 man may be said to be 'free' & 8 w to be 'autonom\s' #bc4 ,! gr[+ organisation ( human life provides a m$ium = ! embodim5t1 & discipl9es ! natural impulses = ! reception1 ( ! idea ( p]fection #bd4 ,! reconciliation ( reason & w takes place z ! individual m & m f9ds 8 own self-satisfaction 9 meet+ ! requirem5ts ( e/abli%$ morality #be4 ,until ^! come to be entirely sup]s$$ by ! desire ( p]fection = its own sake1 & 8 w becomes really free4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,political ,,obligation ,a4 ,! gr\nds ( political obligation4 #a4 ,subject ( ! inquiry #b4 ,its connection ) ! g5]al !ory ( morals4 ,ideal goodness is to d good = its own sake3 b !re mu/ be acts consid]$ good on o!r gr\nds be=e !y c be done = ! sake ( _! goodness #c4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! ideal comes to be recognis$ z ! ideal1 ! l[] int]e/s & rules mu/ be criticis$ & revis$ by x #d4 ,! criticism ( int]e/s w yield a '!ory ( moral s5tim5ts'2 t ( rules w relate 7#a7 to positive law1 7#b7 to ! law ( op9ion #e4 ,z moral int]e/s greatly dep5d on recognis$ rules ( conduct1 & ^? aga9 on positive law1 x is be/ to beg9 by consid]+ ! moral value ( exi/+ civil in/itutions #f4 ,! condition ( morality is ! possession ( w & reason1 & x is realis$ 9 a p]sonal "* 9 :i* !y are h>monis$ #g4 ,civil in/itutions are valuable s f> z !y enable w & reason to be ex]cis$1 & s f> !y answ] to 'jus naturae' #h4 ,! ess5tial que/ions z to ! 'law ( nature' are1 7#a7 ,are !re rights & obligations o!r ?an ^? actually en=c$8 7#b7 ,if s1 :at is ! crit]ion ( !m8 #i4 ,:ile reject+ ! !ory ( a '/ate ( nature1' we may /ill use 'natural' ( ^? rights :i* ought to be1 ?\gh !y actually are n #aj4 ,su* 'natural law' is 7z admitt+ en=cem5t7 di/9ct f1 b 7z imply+ a duty to obey x7 relative to1 ! moral law #aa4 ,h5ce two pr9ciples = ! criticism ( law1 7#a7 only ext]nal acts c be matt] ( obligation prop]1 7#b7 ! ideal ( law mu/ be det]m9$ by ref]5ce to ! moral end :i* x s]ves #ab4 ,obs]ve 7a7 t 9 conf9+ law to 'ext]nal actions1' we mean by 'actions' int5tions1 )\t :i* !re is prop]ly no 'action' #ac4 7b7 ,t by 'ext]nal' we mean t law1 ?\gh x does supply motives to action1 looks m]ely to :e!r ! action is done1 n to :e!r x is done f a p>ticul> motive #ad4 ,law !n c only enjo9 or =bid c]ta9 acts2 x _c enjo9 or =bid motives #ae4 ,& ! only acts :i* x ought to enjo9 or =bid are ^? ( :i* ! do+ or n do+1 f :atev] motive1 is necess>y to ! moral end ( society #af4 ,! pr9ciple ( 'natural law1' !n1 %\ld be to enjo9 all acts :i* fur!r action f ! highe/ motive1 & no acts :i* int]f]e ) su* action #ag4 ,?is pr9ciple w\ld condemn mu* legislation :i* has t5d$1 e4g41 to weak5 religion1 self-respect1 or family feel+ #ah4 ,?is1 & n ! pr9ciple ( 'laissez-faire1' is ! true gr\nd ( objection to 'pat]nal gov]nm5t' #ai4 ,! !ory ( political obligation 7i4e4 ( :at law ought to be1 & :y x ought to be obey$7 is n a !ory 7a7 z to h[ exi/+ law has come to be :at x is #bj4 ,nor 7b7 z to h[ f> x expresses or is d]iv$ f c]ta9 orig9al 'natural' rights #ba4 ',natural' rights 7l law itself7 are relative to moral ends1 i4e4 !y are ^? :i* are necess>y to ! fulfilm5t ( man's moral vocation z man #bb4 ,?is h[ev] is n ! s5se 9 :i* political obligation 0 bas$ on 'natural rights' 9 ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 previ\sly to utilit>ianism #bc4 ,! utilit>ian !ory s f> agrees ) t "h advocat$ t x gr\nds exi/+ law1 n on a 'natural' law prior to x1 b on an end :i* x s]ves #bd4 ,! d]ivation ( actual rights f natural 7i4e4 m primitive7 rights does n t\* ! real "q1 viz4 h[ !re came to be rights at all #be4 ,! conception ( a moral ideal 7h[ev] dim7 is ! condition ( ! exi/5ce ( rights1 & conv]sely anyone :o is capable ( su* a conception is capable ( rights #bf4 ,?us ! consci\sness ( hav+ rights is co-ord9ate ) ! recognition ( o!rs z hav+ !m1 ! gr\nd ( bo? be+ ! conception ( a common good :i* ought to be atta9$ #bg4 ,rights !n c only subsi/ among 'p]sons1' 9 ! moral s5se ( 'p]sons1' i4e4 be+ possess$ ( rational w #bh4 ,?\gh ! moral idea ( p]sonality is lat] 9 =mulation ?an ! legal1 & ?is aga9 ?an ! actual exi/5ce ( rights #bi4 ,rights :i* are directly necess>y to a man's act+ z a moral p]son at all may be call$ 9 a special s5se 'p]sonal' #cj4 ,nor is !re any objection to call+ !m 'innate' or 'natural1' if ?is means 'necess>y to ! moral developm5t ( man' 9 :i* s5se 'duties' are equally 'natural' #ca4 ,)\t a society consci\s ( a common int]e/ !re c be only 'p[]s1' no 'rights'4 ,b4 ,sp9oza4 #cb4 ,sp9oza1 see+ t 'jus naturae' 'pot5tia1' & n see+ t x is n really 'jus' at all1 id5tifies all 'jus' ) 'pot5tia1' bo? 9 ! /ate & 9 ! individual #cc4 ,f :i* x foll[s t ! '"r' ( ! /ate aga9/ its individual memb]s is only limit$ by its 'p[]' #cd4 ,& ! same pr9ciple applies to ! relations ( "o /ate to o!r /ates #ce4 ,b1 accord+ to ,sp9oza1 ?\gh ev]y?+ is 'lawful' = ! /ate1 ev]y?+ is n 'be/1' & ! 'be/' /ate is t :i* secures a life ( 'peace1' i4e4 rational virtue or p]fection #cf4 ,?is conclusion does n seem consi/5t ) 8 />t+-po9t1 accord+ to :i* m5 are 'naturally enemies' #cg4 ,f su* a '/atus naturalis' !re is no possible transition to ! '/atus civilis1' & ! phrase 'jus naturae' rema9s unmean+ #ch4 ,sp9oza's error ( reg>d+ 'rights' z possible ap>t f society 0 confirm$ by 8 d5ial ( f9al causes #ci4 ,x 0 j because ,plato & ,ari/otle reg>d$ man z f9d+ 8 end 9 ! end ( ! /ate1 t !y f\nd$ a true !ory ( rights #dj4 ,sp9oza1 h[ev]1 :ile insi/+ t man is '"p ( nature1' yet places 8 'good' 9 und]/&+ nature & s acquir+ a new "* #da4 ,9 ?us recognis+ ! idea ( p]fection z a det]m9ant ( life1 he really recognises an op]ative f9al cause1 ?\gh )\t see+ its be>+ on ! !ory ( "r4 ,c4 ,hobbes4 #db4 ,hobbes diff]s f ,sp9oza 9 reg>d+ ! "r ( ! sov]eign1 n z limit$ by 8 p[]1 b z absolute #dc4 ,/atem5t ( 8 doctr9e #dd4 ,he uses 'p]son1' z 9 ,roman law1 = ei!r 7#a7 a complex ( rights1 or 7#b7 ! subject ( ^? rights #de4 ,?\gh by 8 !ory ! sov]eign may be "o or _m1 & sov]eignty is transf]able by ! act ( a majority1 he tacitly v9dicates ! absolute "r ( a de facto mon>*y #df4 ,! radical fiction 9 8 !ory is t !re c be any '"r' aft] ! in/itution ( sov]eignty1 if 7z he holds7 !re is none be=e x #dg4 ,to ju/ify 8 doctr9e ( absolute submission he has to assume a 'law ( nature' :i* b9ds m5 to keep cov5ant1 :ile yet he holds ! 'law ( nature' to be m]e 'p[]' & cov5ants to be only valid "u an imp]ium1 #dh4 ,8 'contract' c conf] none b natural "r1 & t is ei!r n a "r at all1 or 7if x is7 x belongs to all m51 subject & sov]eign alike #di4 ,! real flaw 9 ! !ory ( contract is n t x is unhi/orical1 b t x implies ! possibility ( rights & obligations indep5d5tly ( society #ej4 ,?\gh x has n be5 popul>ly accept$ z reg>ds ! rights ( sov]eigns ov] subjects1 ! behavi\r ( individuals to society is to a groat ext5t practically det]m9$ by x4 ,d4 ,locke4 #ea4 ,! developm5t ( ?is latt] side ( x is peculi>ly due to ,r\sseau1 b ,locke1 ,hook]1 & ,grotius h ess5tially ! same conception3 ,sp9oza alone diff]s #eb4 ,ambiguity ( _! phrase '/ate ( nature4' ,!y agree 9 treat+ x z ! negation ( ! 'political /ate4' ,b if s1 contract w\ld be impossible 9 x #ec4 ,nor c\ld x be a /ate ( 'fre$om & equality1' z mo/ ( !m assume x to be #ed4 ,& if ?is /ate ( nature implies consci\sness ( obligation1 x mu/ imply recognition ( social claims1 & mu/ !re=e be virtually a political /ate #ee4 ,9 fact ! !ory ( a /ate ( nature gov]n$ by a law ( nature1 z prec$+ civil society1 mu/ be untrue ei!r to ! conception ( law or to t ( nature #ef4 ,locke diff]s f ,hobbes 7#a7 9 di/+ui%+ ! '/ate ( nature' f ! '/ate ( w>' #eg4 ,he implies 7m consi/5tly ?an ,hobbes7 t ! '/ate ( nature' is "o 9 :i* ! 'law ( nature' is obs]v$ #eh4 7#b7 ,he limits ! supreme p[] 9 ! /ate by ! legislature1 :i* holds its functions 9 tru/ f ! community #ei4 ,& ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! supreme community & ! supreme executive enables him to di/+ui% betwe5 dissolution ( ! political society & dissolution ( ! gov]nm5t1 :i* ,hobbes _h confus$ #fj4 ,he inve/s ! community ) ! "r ( resum+ ! p[]s :i* !y h delegat$1 & ?us ju/ifies revolution :5 x is ! act ( ! :ole community #fa4 ,! difficulty is to det]m9e :5 x is ! act ( ! :ole community1 & on ?is ,locke's !ory gives no help #fb4 ,! difficulty inde$ is n s great z t ( conceiv+ ! act ( orig9al devolution ( p[]1 & is inh]5t 9 ! !ory ( contract #fc4 ,9 ! p>ticul> case ( ! re=m ( ! ,engli% repres5tative sy/em1 ,locke does n contemplate ! c>ry+ out ( 8 own !ory4 ,e4 ,r\sseau4 #fd4 ,r\sseau conceives ! community to be 9 cont9ual ex]cise ( ! p[] :i* ,locke conceives x to h ex]cis$ once & to hold 9 res]ve #fe4 ,9 8 view ( ! motive = pass+ f ! /ate ( nature into ! civil /ate he is m l ,sp9oza ?an ,locke #ff4 ,8 /atem5t ( ! orig9 & nature ( ! 'social contract' #fg4 ,its effects ^u ! individual #fh4 ,8 idea ( ! sov]eign is really t ( a supreme dis9t]e/$ reason1 b he fuses ?is ) ! ord9>y idea ( a supreme co]cive p[] #fi4 ,! practical result ( 8 !ory has be5 a vague exaltation ( ! w ( ! p1 reg>dless ( :at '! p' ought to mean #gj4 ,fur!r consequ5ces ( 8 ideal conception ( sov]eignty4 ,x _c be ali5at$1 repres5t$1 or divid$ #ga4 ,?us ! 'gov]nm5t' is nev] ! same z ! 'sov]eign1' & con/itutions diff] accord+ to :]e ! gov]nm5t1 n ! sov]eignty1 resides #gb4 ,! in/itution ( gov]nm5t is n by contract1 b by ! act ( ! sov]eign1 & ?is act mu/ be confirm$ or repeal$ p]iodically #gc4 ,8 di/9ction betwe5 ! 'w ( all' & ! 'g5]al w'3 ! latt] always wills ! common good1 ?\gh x may be mi/ak5 z to means #gd4 ,he admits h[ev] t x may be ov]p[]$ by p>ticul> int]e/s1 & s f9d no expression ev5 9 ! vote ( a g5]al assembly #ge4 ,:at !n is ! te/ ( ! 'g5]al' w8 ,absolute unanimity is :at ,r\sseau requires ( ! p>ties to ! orig9al contract #gf4 ,b :at is to decide :e!r _! successors are p>ties to x8 ,n 'resid5ce1' unless !re is also fre$om to migrate #gg4 ,! elem5t ( p]man5t value 9 ,r\sseau is 8 conception ( ! /ate z repres5t+ ! 'g5]al w' #gh4 ,difficulties 9 ?is conception4 ,x seems t ei!r no actual /ate realises x1 or t !re may be a /ate )\t a true sov]eign #gi4 ,we may di/+ui% betwe5 de facto & de jure sov]eignty1 & say t ,r\sseau meant ! latt]2 b ?is is only an inf]5ce f :at he says4 ,f4 ,sov]eignty & ! g5]al w4 #hj4 ,h5ce x may be ask$1 7#a7 ,is any actual sov]eignty f\nd$ on ! 'g5]al w'8 7#b7 ,c sov]eignty de jure be truly said to be f\nd$ on x8 7#c7 ,if s1 mu/ x be express$ ?r\gh ! vote ( a sov]eign p8 #ha4 7#a7 ,accord+ to 7e4g47 ,au/9's def9ition ( sov]eignty1 we %\ld answ] ?is "q 9 ! negative #hb4 7,obs]ve t f ,au/9's def9ition x w\ld foll[ t1 :ile e 'law' implies a 'sov]eign1' a 'sov]eign's' comm&s ne$ n be 'laws'7 #hc4 ,t def9ition directly contradicts t ( ,r\sseau1 9 7a7 plac+ sov]eignty 9 det]m9ate p]sons1 7b7 mak+ its ess5ce lie 9 p[] to compel ob$i5ce #hd4 ,actual sov]eignty comb9es bo? def9itions2 ! habitual ob$i5ce ( subjects to ! sov]eign is due to ! s5se t by obey+ !y secure c]ta9 ends #he4 ,s f> z ,au/9 means t a fully develop$ /ate implies a det]m9ate supreme s\rce ( law1 he is "r z aga9/ ,r\sseau #hf4 ,b if sov]eign p[] ! aggregate influ5ces :i* really make ! p ob$i5t1 x mu/ be s\ght 9 ! 'g5]al w' #hg4 ,su* p[] ne$ n be 'sov]eign' 9 ! n>r[] s5se1 & may coexi/ ) a sep>ate co]cive p[] :i* is 'sov]eign' #hh4 ,?is has be5 ! case 9 anci5t despotisms1 & 9 ! mod]n empires ( ! ,ea/ #hi4 ,s 9 /ates "u =eign dom9ion1 :i* reta9 a national life1 ! te*nical sov]eign is n ! law-mak+ & law-ma9ta9+ p[] #ij4 ,"u ! ,roman ,empire1 9 ,briti% ,india1 9 ,russia1 :]e ! te*nical is also ! real sov]eign1 its /r5g? re/s 9 diff]5t degrees on ! g5]al w #ia4 ,?us ! answ] to "q 7#a7 dep5ds on ! s5se ( 'sov]eign4' ,if x a p[] :i* gu>antees equal rights1 x is impli$ 9 e 'political' society #ib4 ,b 7a7 x ne$ n be ! supreme co]cive p[]1 & 7b7 if x is s1 x is n because x is s t x comm&s habitual ob$i5ce #ic4 ,?us 7reta9+ ! te*nical use ( 'sov]eign'7 x is true t if ! sov]eign is to be s really1 x mu/ express & ma9ta9 a g5]al w #id4 ,?\gh ?is is compatible ) ! fact t "s ( ! laws ( ! sov]eign conflict ) ! g5]al w #ie4 ,?us z to "q 7#b7 7above1 sec4 #hj71 if sov]eignty is said to re/ on ! g5]al w 'de jure1' ei!r 'sov]eign' or 'jus' is n us$ 9 ! /rict s5se #if4 ,an anti!sis betwe5 sov]eign 'de jure' & 'de facto' c only arise f a confusion betwe5 'sov]eign' z ! s\rce ( law & 'sov]eign' z ! 'g5]al w' #ig4 ,?\gh !re are cases 9 :i* 79 a diff]5t s5se7 a sov]eign may be conv5i5tly describ$ z 'de facto1' n 'de jure1' or vice v]sa #ih4 ,simil>ly1 to say t ! p is 'sov]eign de jure' is to confuse ! g5]al w ) ! co]cive p[] ( ! majority #ii4 ,r\sseau's confusion is due to ! !ory ( 'natural rights' 7t ! individual is n b\nd by any?+ :i* he has n individually approv$7 #ajj4 ,! individual mu/ inde$ judge = himself :e!r a law is = ! common good2 b ?\gh he judge x n to be1 he ought z a rule to obey x #aja4 ,cases 9 :i* a d\bt may arise #ajb4 7a7 ,:]e ! legal au?ority ( ! law is d\btful1 ow+ to ! d\bt :]e ! sov]eignty 9 ! /ate resides #ajc4 ,9 su* cases ! tru? g5]ally is t ! '"r1' on ! p>ticul> issue1 has n yet =m$ itself #ajd4 ,b x does n foll[ t because ! '"r' is on bo? sides1 "o is n 'bett]' ?an ! o!r2 ?\gh ?is may be ! case #aje4 ,9 su* cases ( disput$ sov]eignty ! di/9ction ( 'de jure' & 'de facto' may be appli$1 ?\gh x is bett] to say t ! sov]eignty is 9 abeyance #ajf4 ,! individual1 hav+ no '"r' to guide him1 %\ld take ! side ^: success seems likely to be be/ = mank9d #ajg4 7b7 ,ano!r case is :]e !re is no legal way ( gett+ a bad law repeal$4 ,"h x is a "q1 n ( "r1 b ( duty1 to resi/ ! sov]eign #ajh4 ,nor is x a "q ( ! "r ( a majority1 z a majority1 to resi/3 x may be ! duty ( a helpless m9ority #aji4 ,"s g5]al que/ions :i* ! good citiz5 may put to himself 9 su* dilemmas #aaj4 ,!y c1 inde$1 seldom be appli$ by ! ag5ts at ! "t z !y c be aft] ! ev5t #aaa4 ,9 simple cases we may judge ( ! "r or wrong ( an act by ! "* :i* x expresses1 b g5]ally we c only judge !m by its results #aab4 ,all t ! hi/orian c say is t on ! :ole ! be/ "* is likely to produce ! be/ results1 not)/&+ v>i\s appe>ances to ! contr>y4 ,g4 ,w1 n =ce1 is ! basis ( ! /ate4 #aac4 ,! doctr9es :i* expla9 political obligation by contract agree 9 treat+ sov]eign & subject ap>t1 :]eas !y are correlative #aad4 ,= ! desire = fre$om 9 ! individual is no real desire unless he is "o ( a society :i* recognises x4 7,slaves are n a real exception to ?is7 #aae4 ,& )\t an au?ority embodi$ 9 civil in/itutions he w\ld n h ! elem5t>y idea ( "r :i* enables him to "q ! au?ority #aaf4 ,b ! !ory ( contract expresses1 9 a confus$ way1 ! tru? t only ?r\gh ! common recognition ( a common good1 & its embodim5t 9 in/itutions1 is morality possible #aag4 ,?us morality & political subjection h a common s\rce4 #aah4 ,& bo? imply ! tw(old conception1 7a7 ',i mu/ ?\gh ,i d n l1' 7b7 ',i mu/ because x is = ! common good :i* is also my good' #aai4 ,x is a f>!r & difficult "q1 h[ f> ! s5se ( common int]e/ c be kept alive ei!r 9 ! gov]nm5t or subjects1 unless ! p p>ticipates directly 9 legislation #abj4 ,& ?is sugge/s ! objection1 ,is x n trifl+ ) words to speak ( political subjection 9 mod]n /ates z bas$ on ! w ( ! subjects8 #aba4 ,we mu/ admit 7a7 t ! idea ( ! /ate z s]v+ a common int]e/ is only p>tially realis$1 ev5 by ! mo/ enlight5$ subject1 ?\gh s f> z realis$ x is :at makes him a loyal subject #abb4 7b7 ,t if he is to be an intellig5t patriot z well z a loyal subject1 he mu/ take a p]sonal "p 9 ! "w ( ! /ate #abc4 ,& 7c7 t ev5 !n 8 patriotism w n be a passion unless x includes a feel+ = ! /ate analog\s to t :i* he has = 8 family & home #abd4 ,b are we n aga9 assum+ :at 0 disput$1 viz4 t a s5se ( its s]v+ a common int]e/ is necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( ! /ate8 #abe4 ,obs]ve t ! idea ( an end or function1 realis$ by ag5cies unconsci\s ( x & into :i* x _c be resolv$1 is already implicit ev5 if ! /ate be treat$ z a 'natural organism' #abf4 ,su* a treatm5t1 h[ev]1 w\ld ignore ! di/9ction betwe5 ! 'natural' & ! 'human' or 'moral' ag5cies :i* h op]at$ 9 ! production ( /ates #abg4 ,x may be object$ t ^! 'human' ag5cies are n necess>ily 'moral1' b on ! contr>y are (t5 selfi% #abh4 ,b ?\gh human motives are nev] unalloy$1 !y only produce good results s f> z !y are fus$ ) & guid$ by "s unselfi% elem5t #abi4 ,if e4g4 we w\ld =m a complete e/imate ( ,napoleon1 we mu/ consid] n only 8 ambition b ! p>ticul> =m 9 :i* 8 ambition work$ #acj4 ,& fur!r reflect t ! idiosyncrasy ( su* m5 plays b a small "p 9 ! result1 :i* is ma9ly due to ag5cies ( :i* !y are only ! mo/ conspicu\s in/rum5ts #aca4 ,?us an ideal motive may co-op]ate ) ! motives ( selfi% m51 & only ?r\gh su* co-op]ation are !y in/rum5tal = good #acb4 ,! fact t ! /ate implies a supreme co]cive p[] gives col\r to ! view t x is bas$ on co]cion2 :]eas ! co]cive p[] is only supreme because x is ex]cis$ 9 a /ate1 i4e4 accord+ to "s sy/em ( law1 writt5 or cu/om>y #acc4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( any o!r "n1 '/ate' is ! be/ = a society 9 :i* !re is su* a sy/em ( law & a p[] to en=ce x #acd4 ,a /ate1 !n1 is n an aggregate ( individuals "u a sov]eign1 b a society 9 :i* ! rights ( m5 already associat$ 9 families & tribes are def9$ & h>monis$ #ace4 ,x developes z ! absorption ( fre% societies or ! ext5d$ int]c\rse betwe5 its memb]s wid5s ! range ( common int]e/s & rights #acf4 ,! po9t to be insi/$ on is t =ce has only =m$ /ates s f> z x has op]at$ 9 & ?r\gh a pre-exi/+ m$ium ( political1 tribal1 or family 'rights'4 ,h4 ,has ! citiz5 rights aga9/ ! /ate8 #acg4 ,z long z p[] ( compulsion is made ! ess5ce ( ! /ate1 political obligation _c be expla9$ ei!r by ! !ory ( 'cons5t1' or by t :i* d]ives all "r f ! sov]eign #ach4 ,! /ate presupposes rights1 rights :i* may be said to belong to ! 'individual' if ?is mean '"o ( a society ( individuals' #aci4 ,a "r may be analys$ into a claim ( ! individual ^u society & a p[] conc$$ to him by society1 b really ! claim & ! concession are sides ( "o & ! same common consci\sness #adj4 ,su* common consci\sness ( int]e/s is ! gr\nd ( ! 'natural "r' ( slaves & ( ! memb]s ( o!r /ates #ada4 ,b ?\gh 9 ?is way !re may be rights outside ! /ate1 ! memb]s ( a /ate d]ive ! rights :i* !y h z memb]s ( o!r associations f ! /ate1 & h no rights aga9/ x #adb4 i4e4 z !y d]ive _! rights f _! memb]%ip 9 ! /ate1 !y h no "r to disobey ! law unless x be = ! int]e/ ( ! /ate #adc4 ,& ev5 !n only if ! law violates "s int]e/ :i* is implicitly ackn[l$g$ by ! consci5ce ( ! community #add4 ,x is a f>!r "q :5 ! attempt to get a law repeal$ %\ld be ex*ang$ = active resi/ance to x #ade4 e4g4 %\ld a slave be befri5d$ aga9/ ! law8 ,! slave has z a man c]ta9 rights :i* ! /ate _c ext+ui%1 & by d5y+ :i* x =feits its claim ^u him #adf4 ,& x may be held t ! claim ( ! slave ^u ! citiz51 z a man1 ov]rides ! claim ( ! /ate ^u him1 z a citiz5 #adg4 ,ev5 "h1 h[ev]1 ! law ought to be obey$1 suppos+ t its violation t5d$ to br+ ab\t g5]al an>*y4 ,i4 ,private rights4 ,! "r to life & lib]ty4 #adh4 ,!re are rights :i* m5 h z memb]s ( associations1 :i* come to be compris$ 9 ! /ate1 b :i* also exi/ indep5d5tly ( x #adi4 ,^! are 'private' rights1 divid$ by ,/eph5 into 7a7 p]sonal1 7b7 rights ( prop]ty1 7c7 rights 9 private relations #aej4 ,all rights are 'p]sonal'2 b z a man's body is ! condition ( 8 ex]cis+ rights at all1 ! rights ( x may be call$ 'p]sonal' 9 a special s5se #aea4 ,! "r ( 'life & lib]ty' 7bett]1 ( 'free life'71 be+ bas$ on capacity = society1 belongs 9 pr9ciple to man z man1 ?\gh ?is is only gradually recognis$ #aeb4 ,at fir/ x belongs to man z aga9/ o!r memb]s ( 8 family or tribe1 !n z aga9/ o!r tribes1 !n z aga9/ o!r citiz5s1 :i* 9 antiquity /ill implies great limitations #aec4 ,influ5ces :i* h help$ to break d[n ^! limitations are 7a7 ,roman equity1 7b7 ,/oicism1 7c7 ! ,*ri/ian idea ( a univ]sal bro!rhood #aed4 ,?is la/ is ! logical complem5t ( ! idea t man z su* has a "r to life2 b ! "r is only negatively recognis$ 9 mod]n ,*ri/5dom #aee4 ,x is ignor$ e4g4 9 w>1 nor is mu* done to enable m5 to fulfil _! capacities z memb]s ( humanity #aef4 ,f\r que/ions z to ! relation ( ! /ate to ! "r ( man z man to free life4 ,k4 ,! "r ( ! /ate ov] ! individual 9 w>4 #aeg4 7#a7 ,has ! /ate a "r to ov]ride ?is "r 9 w>8 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t w> is n 'murd]1' ei!r on ! "p ( ^? :o fight or ( ^? :o cause ! w> #aeh4 ,yet x may be a violation ( ! "r ( life4 ,x does n prove x n to be s1 t 7a7 ^? :o kill d n int5d to kill anyone 9 p>ticul> #aei4 ,or t 7b7 ^? :o are kill$ h incurr$ ! risk volunt>ily4 ,ev5 if !y h1 x does n foll[ t !y _h a '"r' to d s #afj4 ,x may be said t ! "r to physical life may be ov]ridd5 by a "r aris+ f ! exig5cies ( moral life #afa4 ,b ?is only %ifts ! blame ( w> to ^? :o are responsible = ^? exig5cies2 x rema9s a wrong all ! same #afb4 ,b 9 tru? mo/ w>s ( ! la/ #djj ye>s h n be5 w>s = political lib]ty1 b h aris5 f dyna/ic ambition or national vanity #afc4 ,admitt+1 !n1 t virtue may be call$ out by w> & t x may be a factor 9 human progress1 ! de/ruction ( life 9 x is always a wrong #afd4 ',b if x be admitt$ t w> may d good1 may n ^? :o orig9ate x h ! cr$it ( ?is8' #afe4 ,if !y really act$ f desire to d good1 _! %>e 9 ! wrong is less2 b 9 any case ! fact t w> 0 ! only means to ! good 0 due to human ag5cy & 0 a wrong #aff4 7#b7 7,see sec4 #aeg74 ,h5ce x foll[s t ! /ate1 s f> z x is true to its pr9ciple1 _c h to infr+e ! rights ( m5 z m5 by conflicts ) o!r /ates #afg4 ,x is n because /ates exi/1 b because !y d n fulfil _! functions z /ates 9 ma9ta9+ & h>monis+ g5]al rights1 t su* conflicts are necess>y #afh4 ,?is is equally true ( conflicts aris+ f :at are call$ 'religi\s' gr\nds #afi4 ,?us no /ate1 z su*1 is absolutely ju/ifi$ 9 do+ a wrong to mank9d1 ?\gh a p>ticul> /ate may be conditionally ju/ifi$ #agj4 ,x may be object$ t su* a 'cosmopolitan' view ignores ! individuality ( /ates1 & c\ld only be realis$ if !y wore all absorb$ 9 a univ]sal empire #aga4 ,x is true t public _s1 to be real1 mu/ be national2 b ! m a nation becomes a true /ate1 ! m does x f9d outlets = its national _s o!r ?an conflicts ) o!r nations #agb4 ,9 fact ! id5tification ( patriotism ) milit>y aggressiv5ess is a survival f a "t :5 /ates 9 ! full s5se did n exi/ #agc4 ,& our great /&+ armies are due1 n to ! developm5t ( a sy/em ( /ates1 b to circum/ances :i* witness to ! %ortcom+s ( t sy/em #agd4 ,! bett] ! organisation ( ea* /ate1 ! great] is ! fre$om ( communication ) o!rs1 especially 9 trade1 :i*1 beg9n+ 9 self-int]e/1 may lead to ! consci\sness ( a high] bond #age4 ,z comp>$ ) individuals1 any bonds betwe5 nations mu/ be weak2 on ! o!r h&1 gov]nm5ts h less temptation ?an individuals to deal unfairly ) "o ano!r4 ,l4 ,! "r ( ! /ate to puni%4 #agf4 7#c7 7,see sec4 #aef74 ,:at "r has ! /ate to puni%8 ,! "r to live 9 a community re/s on ! capacity to act = ! common good1 & implies ! "r to protect su* action f int]f]5ce #agg4 ,a detail$ !ory ( puni%m5t implies a detail$ !ory ( rights4 ,"h we c only deal ) pr9ciples #agh4 ,is puni%m5t retributive8 ,n 9 ! s5se t x c>ries on a suppos$ '"r' ( private v5geance1 = no su* '"r' c exi/ #agi4 ,! mo/ rudim5t>y '"r' ( v5geance implies social recognition & regulation1 9 e>ly times by ! family #ahj4 ,& its developm5t up to ! /age at :i* ! /ate alone puni%es is ! developm5t ( a pr9ciple impli$ f ! fir/ #aha4 ,b if puni%m5t excludes private v5geance1 h[ c x be retributory at all8 ,& h[ c a wrong to society be requit$8 #ahb4 ,:5 a wrong is said to be 'done to society1' x does n mean t a feel+ ( v9dictiv5ess is excit$ 9 ! society #ahc4 ,! popul> indignation aga9/ a great crim9al is an expression1 n ( individual desire = v5geance1 b ( ! dem& t ! crim9al %\ld h 8 due #ahd4 ,& ?is does n mean an equival5t am\nt ( suff]+2 nor su* suff]+ z has be5 f\nd by exp]i5ce to det] m5 f ! crime #ahe4 ,puni%m5t1 to be j1 implies 7a7 t ! p]son puni%$ c und]/& :at "r means1 & 7b7 t x is "s und]/ood "r t he has violat$ #ahf4 ,he w !n recognise t ! puni%m5t is 8 own act return+ on himself2 7x is 9 a diff]5t s5se t ! physical consequ5ces ( immorality are spok5 ( z a 'puni%m5t'7 #ahg4 ,puni%m5t may be said to be prev5tive1 if x be rememb]$ 7a7 t :at x 'prev5ts' mu/ be ! violation ( a real "r1 & 7b7 t ! means by :i* x 'prev5ts' mu/ be really necess>y #ahh4 ,does our crit]ion ( ! ju/ice ( puni%m5t give any practical help 9 apportion+ x8 #ahi4 ,! ju/ice ( puni%m5t dep5ds on ! ju/ice ( ! sy/em ( rights :i* x is to ma9ta9 #aij4 ,! idea t 'j' puni%m5t is t :i* ! crime 9 am\nt confuses retribution = ! wrong to society ) comp5sation = damages to ! individual #aia4 ',b :y n hold t ! pa9 ( ! puni%m5t ought to ! moral guilt ( ! crime8' #aib4 ,because ! /ate _c gauge ei!r ! "o or ! o!r2 & if x c\ld1 x w\ld h to puni% e case diff]5tly #aic4 ,9 tru? ! /ate has reg>d 9 puni%+1 n prim>ily to ! individuals conc]n$1 b to ! future prev5tion ( ! crime by associat+ t]ror ) x 9 ! g5]al imag9ation #aid4 ,! acc\nt tak5 ( 'ext5uat+ circum/ances' may be simil>ly expla9$2 i4e4 ! act done "u !m requires little t]ror to prev5t x f becom+ g5]al #aie ',b :y avoid ! simpl] explanation1 t ext5uat+ circum/ances are held to dim9i% ! moral guilt ( ! act8' #aif4 ,because 7a7 ! /ate _c asc]ta9 ! degree ( moral guilt involv$ 9 a crime2 7b7 if x tries to puni% immorality 7prop]71 x w *eck dis9t]e/$ moral ef=t #aig4 ,puni%m5t1 h[ev]1 may be truly held to express ! 'moral disapprobation' ( society1 b x is to ! ext]nal side ( action t ! disapprobation is direct$ #aih4 ,! pr9ciple t puni%m5t %\ld be regulat$ by ! importance ( ! "r violat$ expla9s ! sev]ity ) :i* 'culpable neglig5ce is puni%$ #aii4 ,& ! puni%m5t ( crimes done 9 drunk5ness illu/rates ! same pr9ciple #bjj4 ,x also ju/ifies ! di/9ction betwe5 'crim9al' & 'civil' injuries1 7:i* is n a di/9ction betwe5 injuries to individuals & to ! community1 = no '"r' is violat$ by injury done to an individual z su*7 #bja4 ,!re w\ld be no reason 9 associat+ t]ror ) brea*es ( a "r :i* ! (f5d] ei!r did n "k t he 0 break+ or :i* he c\ld n help break+ #bjb4 ,:5 su* ignorance & inability are culpable1 x dep5ds on ! s]i\sness ( ! wrong or ! degree to :i* ! civil suit involves det]r5t effects1 :e!r !y %\ld be treat$ z crimes #bjc4 ,hi/orically1 ! /ate has int]f]$ fir/ ?r\gh ! civil process2 gradually1 z public al>m gets excit$1 m & m (f5ces come to be treat$ z crimes #bjd4 ,puni%m5t mu/ also be re=matory 7?is be+ "o way ( be+ prev5tive71 i4e4 x mu/ reg>d ! rights ( ! crim9al #bje4 ,capital puni%m5t is ju/ifiable only 7a7 if x c be %[n to be necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( society1 7b7 if !re is reason to suppose ! crim9al to be p]man5tly incapable ( rights #bjf4 ,puni%m5t1 ?\gh directly x aims at ! ma9t5ance ( rights1 has indirectly a moral end1 because rights are conditions ( moral well-be+4 ,m4 ,! "r ( ! /ate to promote morality4 #bjg4 7#d7 7,see sec4 #aef74 ,! "r ( free life is com+ to be m & m recognis$ among/ u negatively2 is x reasonable to d s little positively to make its ex]cise possible8 #bjh4 ,fir/ obs]ve t ! capacity = free life is a moral capacity1 i4e4 a capacity = be+ influ5c$ by a s5se ( common int]e/ #bji4 ,?is influ5ce w only be weak5$ by sub/itut+ = x t ( law1 b ! /ate c d m ?an x usually does )\t dead5+ spontane\s action2 e4g4 'compulsory education' ne$ n be 'compulsory' except to ^? :o h no spontaneity to be dead5$ #baj4 ,s too ) int]f]5ce ) 'fre$om ( contract'2 we mu/ consid] n only ^? :o are int]f]$ )1 b ^? ^: fre$om is increas$ by ! int]f]5ce4 ,n4 ,! "r ( ! /ate 9 reg>d to prop]ty4 #baa4 ,z to prop]ty two que/ions h to be kept di/9ct1 7a7 h[ !re has come to be prop]ty1 7b7 h[ !re has come to be a "r ( prop]ty4 ,ea* ( ^? aga9 may be treat$ ei!r hi/orically or metaphysically #bab4 ,! confusion ( ^? que/ions & me?ods has giv5 rise ei!r to truisms or to irrelevant rese>*es z to ! nature ( prop]ty #bac4 ,prop]ty implies 7a7 appropriation1 i4e4 an act ( w1 ( a p]man5t self dem&+ satisfaction & expression #bad4 7b7 ,recognition ( ! appropriation by o!rs4 ,?is recognition _c be d]iv$ f contract 7,grotius71 or f a supreme =ce 7,hobbes7 #bae4 ,locke rightly bases ! "r ( prop]ty on ! same gr\nd z ! "r to "o's own p]son2 b he does n ask :at t gr\nd is #baf4 ,! gr\nd is ! same z t ( ! "r ( life1 ( :i* prop]ty is ! in/rum5t1 viz4 ! consci\sness ( a common int]e/ to :i* ea* man recognises e o!r man z contribut+ #bag4 ,?us ! act ( appropriation & ! recognition ( x con/itute "o act ( w1 z t 9 :i* man seeks a good at once common & p]sonal #bah4 ,! condition ( ! family or clan1 9 :i* e4g4 l& is held 9 common1 is n ! negation1 b on ! contr>y ! e>lie/ expression ( ! "r ( prop]ty #bai4 ,its defect lies 7a7 9 ! limit$ scope = free moral developm5t :i* x all[s ! associates1 7b7 9 ! limit$ range ( moral relations into :i* x br+s !m #bbj4 ,b ! expansion ( ! clan into ! /ate has n br\ght ) x a correspond+ emancipation ( ! individual4 ,is !n ! exi/5ce ( a practically prop]tyless class 9 mod]n /ates a necessity1 or an abuse8 #bba4 ,9 !ory1 ev]yone :o is capable ( liv+ = a common good 7:e!r he actually does s or n7 ought to h ! means = s do+3 ^! means are prop]ty #bbb4 ,b does n ?is !ory ( prop]ty imply fre$om ( appropriation & disposition1 & yet is x n j ?is fre$om :i* leads to ! exi/5ce ( a prop]tyless prolet>iate8 #bbc4 ,prop]ty1 :e!r reg>d$ z ! appropriation ( nature by m5 ( diff]5t p[]s1 or z ! means requir$ = ! fulfilm5t ( diff]5t social functions1 mu/ be unequal #bbd4 ,fre$om ( trade1 ano!r s\rce ( inequality1 foll[s necess>ily f ! same view ( prop]ty3 fre$om ( beque/ is m op5 to d\bt #bbe4 ,x seems to foll[ f ! g5]al "r ( a man to provide = 8 future1 & 7) c]ta9 exceptions7 to be likely to secure ! be/ di/ribution2 b x does n imply ! "r ( entail #bbf4 ,return+ to ! "q rais$ 9 sec4 #bbj1 obs]ve 7a7 t accumulation by "o man does n itself naturally imply deprivation ( o!r m51 b r ! contr>y #bbg4 ,nor is ! preval5ce ( great capitals & hir$ lab\r 9 itself ! cause ( ! bad condition ( s _m ( ! work+ classes #bbh4 ,! cause is to be f\nd1 n 9 ! "r ( prop]ty & accumulation1 b 7p>tly at lea/7 9 ! fact t ! l& has be5 orig9ally appropriat$ by conque/ #bbi4 ,h5ce 7a7 ! pres5t prolet>iate inh]it ! traditions ( s]fdom1 & 7b7 "u l&[n+ gov]nm5ts l& has be5 appropriat$ unju/ifiably1 i4e4 9 v>i\s ways prejudicial to ! common int]e/ #bcj4 ,& fur!r ! masses cr[d$ ?r\gh ^! causes into l>ge t[ns h till lately _h little done to improve _! condition #bca4 ,:e!r1 if ! /ate did its duty1 x w\ld /ill be advisable to limit beque/ ( l&1 is a "q :i* mu/ be diff]5tly answ]$ accord+ to circum/ances #bcb4 ,! objection to ! appropriation by ! /ate ( 'une>n$ increm5t' is t x is s h>d to di/+ui% betwe5 'e>n$' & 'une>n$'4 ,o4 ,! "r ( ! /ate 9 reg>d to ! family4 #bcc4 ,! rights ( husb& ov] wife & fa!r ov] *ildr5 are 7a7 l t ( prop]ty 9 be+ rights aga9/ all ! _w1 7b7 unlike x 9 be+ rights ov] p]sons1 & !re=e reciprocal #bcd4 ,! latt] *>act]i/ic w\ld be express$ by ,g]man writ]s by say+ t bo? ! 'subject' & ! 'object' ( ^! rights are p]sons #bce4 ,?ree que/ions ab\t !m3 7#a7 ,:at makes man capable ( family life8 7#b7 ,h[ does x come to h rights8 7#c7 ,:at ought ! =m ( ^? rights to be8 #bcf4 7#a7 ,! family implies ! same ef=t aft] p]man5t self-satisfaction z prop]ty1 toge!r ) a p]man5t int]e/ 9 a p>ticul> woman & h] *ildr5 #bcg4 ,! capacity = ?is int]e/ is ess5tial to any?+ :i* c be rightly call$ family life1 :atev] l[] =ms ( life may hi/orically h prec$$ x #bch4 7#b7 ,! rights ( family life arise f ! mutual recognition ( ?is int]e/ by memb]s ( ! same clan 79 :i* ! hi/orical family always appe>s z an elem5t7 #bci4 ,its developm5t has be5 9 ! direction 7a7 ( giv+ all m5 & wom5 ! "r to m>ry1 7b7 ( recognis+ ! claims ( husb& & wife to be reciprocal4 ,bo? ^! imply monogamy #bdj4 ,polygamy excludes _m m5 f m>riage & makes ! wife practically n a wife1 :ile x also prev5ts real reciprocity ( rights bo? betwe5 husb& & wife & betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr5 #bda4 ,! abolition ( slav]y is ano!r ess5tial to ! developm5t ( ! true family life1 9 bo? ! above respects #bdb4 7#c7 ,?us ! "r 7z di/9ct f ! morality7 ( family life requires 7a7 monogamy1 7b7 duration ?r\gh life1 7c7 t]m9ability on ! infidelity ( husb& or wife #bdc4 ,:y !n %\ld n adult]y be treat$ z a crime8 ,because 7unlike o!r violations ( "r7 x is g5]ally 9 ! public int]e/ t x %\ld be condon$ if ! injur$ p]son is will+ to condone x #bdd4 ,nor w\ld ! high] purposes ( m>riage be s]v$ by mak+ infidelity p5al1 = !y dep5d on disposition1 n on outw>d acts or =be>ances #bde4 ,all t ! /ate c d1 !re=e1 is to make divorce = adult]y easy1 & to make m>riage z s]i\s a matt] z possible #bdf4 7b7 ,%\ld divorce be all[$ except = adult]y8 ,sometimes = lunacy or cruelty1 b n = incompatibility1 ! object ( ! /ate be+ to make m>riage a 'consortium omnis vitae'4 ,p4 ,rights & virtues4 #bdg4 ,outl9e ( rema9+ lectures1 on 7#a7 rights connect$ ) ! functions ( gov]nm5t1 7#b7 social virtues4 7,! anti!sis ( 'social' & 'self-reg>d+' is false7 #bdh4 ,virtues1 be+ dispositions to ex]cise rights1 are be/ co-ord9at$ ) rights4 ,?us to ! "r ( life correspond ^? virtues :i* ma9ta9 life aga9/ nature1 =ce1 & animal passion #bdi4 ,simil>ly !re are active virtues1 correspond+ to ! negative obligations impos$ by prop]ty & m>riage #bej4 ',moral s5tim5ts' %\ld be classifi$ ) ! virtues1 ( :i* !y are weak] =ms #bea4 ,al?\gh = cle>ness obligations mu/ be treat$ ap>t f moral duties1 !y are really ! out] & inn] side ( "o spiritual developm5t1 9 ! jo9t result ( :i* ! idea ( p]fection is fulfill$4 ,supplem5t4 ,"s ,quotations r5d]$ into ,engli%4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,s5ses ,,( ',,fre$om' ,,z ,,appli$ ,,to ,,w ,,& ,,to ,,! ,,moral ,,progress ,,( ,,man4 ,note ( ! ,editor1 ,! lectures f :i* ! foll[+ extract is tak5 7 deliv]$ 9 ! beg9n+ ( #ahgi1 9 cont9uation ( ! c\rse 9 :i* ! discussion ( ,kant's moral !ory occurr$4 ,! portions "h pr9t$ are ^? :i* 7 n embodi$1 at any rate 9 ! same =m1 9 ! ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics4 ,see ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 ,book ii4 *4 i4 sec4 #ajj1 ,editor's note4 ,,on ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,s5ses ,,( ',,fre$om' ,,z ,,appli$ ,,to ,,w ,,& ,,to ,,! ,,moral ,,progress ,,( ,,man4 #a4 ,s9ce 9 all will+ a man is 8 own object1 ! w is always free4 ,or1 m prop]ly1 a man 9 will+ is necess>ily free1 s9ce will+ con/itutes fre$om1 #a & 'free w' is ! pleonasm 'free fre$om4' ,b :ile x is important to insi/ ^u ?is1 x is also to be rememb]$ t ! nature ( ! fre$om really diff]s--! fre$om means q diff]5t ?+s--accord+ to ! nature ( ! object :i* ! man makes 8 own1 or ) :i* he id5tifies himself4 ,x is "o ?+ :5 ! object 9 :i* self-satisfaction is s\ght is su* z to prev5t t self-satisfaction be+ f\nd1 because int]f]+ ) ! realisation ( ! seek]'s possibilities or 8 progress t[>ds p]fection3 x is ano!r ?+ :5 x contributes to ?is end4 ,9 ! =m] case ! man is a free ag5t 9 ! act1 because ?r\gh 8 id5tification ( himself ) a c]ta9 desir$ object--?r\gh 8 adoption ( x z 8 good--he makes ! motive :i* det]m9es ! act1 & is accord+ly consci\s ( himself z its au?or4 ,b 9 ano!r s5se he is n free1 because ! objects to :i* 8 actions are direct$ are objects 9 :i*1 accord+ to ! law ( 8 be+1 satisfaction ( himself is n to be f\nd4 ,8 w to arrive at self-satisfaction n be+ adju/$ to ! law :i* det]m9es :]e ?is self-satisfaction is to be f\nd1 he may be consid]$ 9 ! condition ( a bondsman :o is c>ry+ out ! w ( ano!r1 n 8 own4 ,f ?is bondage he em]ges into real fre$om1 n by ov]com+ ! law ( 8 be+1 n by gett+ ! bett] ( its necessity1--e fanci$ ef=t to d s is b a new exhibition ( its necessity1--b by mak+ its fulfilm5t ! object ( 8 w2 by seek+ ! satisfaction ( himself 9 objects 9 :i* he believes x %\ld be f\nd1 & seek+ x 9 !m because he believes x %\ld be f\nd 9 !m4 ,= ! objects s s\ght1 h[ev] v>i\s o!rwise1 h ! common *>act]i/ic t1 because !y are s\ght 9 su* a _s1 9 !m self-satisfaction is to be f\nd2 n ! satisfaction ( ?is or t desire1 or ( ea* p>ticul> desire1 b t satisfaction1 o!rwise call$ peace or bless$ness1 :i* consi/s 9 ! :ole man hav+ f\nd 8 object2 :i* inde$ we nev] exp]i5ce 9 its fulness1 :i* we only approa* to fall away f x aga91 b ( :i* we "k en\gh to be sure t we only fail to atta9 x because we fail to seek x 9 ! fulfilm5t ( ! law ( our be+1 because we h n br\ght ourselves to 'gladly d & suff] :at we mu/4' ,to ! above /atem5t sev]al objections may be made4 ,!y w *iefly turn on two po9ts2 7a7 ! use made ( ! t]m 'fre$om'2 7b7 ! view t a man is subject to a law ( 8 be+1 9 virtue ( :i* he at once seeks self-satisfaction1 & is prev5t$ f f9d+ x 9 ! objects :i* he actually desires1 & 9 :i* he ord9>ily seeks x4 #a ,9 t s5se 9 :i* 'fre$om' expresses a /ate ( ! s\l1 z di/9ct f a civil relation4 #b4 ,z to ! s5se giv5 to 'fre$om1' x mu/ ( c\rse be admitt$ t e usage ( ! t]m to express any?+ b a social & political relation ( "o man to o!rs involves a metaphor4 ,ev5 9 ! orig9al application its s5se is by no means fix$4 ,x always implies inde$ "s exemption f compulsion by o!rs1 b ! ext5t & conditions ( ?is exemption1 z enjoy$ by ! 'freeman' 9 diff]5t /ates ( society1 are v v>i\s4 ,z soon z ! t]m 'fre$om' comes to be appli$ to any?+ else ?an an e/abli%$ relation betwe5 a man & o!r m51 its s5se fluctuates mu* m4 ,reflect+ on _! consci\sness1 on _! 'inn] life' 7i4e4 _! life z view$ f )971 m5 apply to x ! t]ms ) :i* !y are famili> z express+ _! relations to ea* o!r4 ,9 virtue ( t p[] ( self-di/9ction & self-objectification1 :i* he expresses :5ev] he says ',i1' a man c set ov] aga9/ himself 8 :ole nature or any ( its elem5ts1 & apply to ! relation ?us e/abli%$ 9 ?\ght a t]m borr[$ f relations ( outw>d life4 ,h5ce1 z 9 ,plato1 ! t]ms 'fre$om' & 'bondage' may be us$ to express a relation betwe5 ! man on ! "o side1 z di/+ui%+ himself f all impulses t d n t5d to 8 true good1 & ^? impulses on ! o!r4 ,he is a 'slave' :5 !y are ma/]s ( him1 'free' :5 ma/] ( !m4 ,! metaphor 9 ?is =m 0 made fur!r use ( by ! ,/oics1 & c>ri$ on into ! doctr9es ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*4 ,s9ce !re is no k9d ( impulse or int]e/ :i* a man _c s di/+ui% f himself z to pres5t x z an ali5 p[]1 ( :i* ! influ5ce on him is bondage1 ! p>ticul> application ( ! metaphor is q arbitr>y4 ,x may come to be ?\ght t ! only fre$om is to be f\nd 9 a life ( absolute deta*m5t f all int]e/s2 a life 9 :i* ! pure ego conv]ses solely ) itself or ) a ,god1 :o is ! same ab/raction "u ano!r "n4 ,?is is a view into :i* bo? sa9ts & philosoph]s h be5 apt to fall4 ,x means practically1 s f> z x means any?+1 absorption 9 "s "o int]e/ ) :i* ! man id5tifies himself 9 exclusion ( all o!r int]e/s1 :i* he sets ov] aga9/ himself z an influ5ce to be kept alo(4 ,) ,/4 ,paul ! application ( ! metaphor has a special "* ( its own4 ,) him 'fre$om' is specially fre$om f ! law1 f ord9ances1 f ! fe> :i* ^! inspire1--a fre$om :i* is atta9$ ?r\gh ! communication ( :at he calls ! '_s ( adoption' or 'son-%ip4' ,! law1 m]ely z law or z an ext]nal comm&1 is a s\rce ( bondage 9 a d\ble s5se4 ,pres5t+ to man a comm& :i* yet x does n give him p[] to obey1 x de/roys ! fre$om ( ! life 9 :i* he does :at he likes )\t recognis+ any reason :y he %\ld n 7! /ate ( :i* ,/4 ,paul says ',i 0 alive )\t ! law once'72 x ?us puts him 9 bondage to fe>1 & at ! same "t1 excit+ a wi% = ob$i5ce to itself :i* o!r desires 7 7 #a prev5t f be+ accompli%$1 x makes ! man feel ! bondage ( ! fle%4 ',:at ,i w1 t ,i d n'2 !re is a p[]1 ! fle%1 ( :i* ,i am ! slave1 & :i* prev5ts me f p]=m+ my w to obey ! law4 ,fre$om 7also call$ 'peace1' & 'reconciliation'7 comes :5 ! _s express$ 9 ! law 7= ! law is itself 'spiritual' accord+ to ,/4 ,paul2 ! 'fle%' ?r\gh :i* x is weak is m9e1 n ! law's7 becomes ! pr9ciple ( action 9 ! man4 ,to ! man ?us deliv]$1 z ,/4 ,paul conceives him1 we might almo/ apply phraseology l ,kant's4 ',he is free because consci\s ( himself z ! au?or ( ! law :i* he obeys4' ,he is no long] a s]vant1 b a son4 ,he is consci\s ( union ) ,god1 ^: w z an ext]nal law he be=e s\ght 9 va9 to obey1 b ^: 'righte\sness is fulfill$' 9 him n[ t he 'walks aft] ! _s4' ,:at 0 be=e 'a law ( s9 & dea?' is n[ a 'law ( ! _s ( life4' 7,see ,epi/le to ! ,romans1 viii47 #a ,greek 7phronima s>kos7 c>nal m9d 7,,kjv7 ,tr #c4 ,b ?\gh !re is a po9t ( connection betwe5 ,/4 ,paul's conception ( fre$om & bondage & t ( ,kant1 :i* r5d]s ! above phrase applicable 9 a c]ta9 s5se to ! 'spiritual man' ( ,/4 ,paul1 yet ! two conceptions are v diff]5t4 ,moral bondage ) ,kant1 z ) ,plato & ! ,/oics1 is bondage to ! fle%4 ,! het]onomy ( ! w is its submission to ! impulse ( pleasure-seek+1 z t ( :i* man is n 9 respect ( 8 reason ! au?or1 b :i* belongs to him z a m]ely natural be+4 ,a /ate ( bondage to law1 z su*1 he does n contemplate4 ,x might ev5 be urg$ t ,kant's 'fre$om' or 'autonomy' ( ! w1 9 ! only s5se 9 :i* he suppos$ x atta9able by man1 is v mu* l ! /ate describ$ by ,/4 ,paul z t f :i* ! communication ( ! _s br+s deliv]ance1--! /ate 9 :i* ',i delight 9 ! law ( ,god aft] ! inw>d man1 b f9d ano!r law 9 my memb]s w>r+ ) ! law ( my reason & br++ me into captivity to ! law ( s9 9 my memb]s4' ,= ,kant seems to hold t ! w is actually 'autonom\s1' i4e4 det]m9$ by pure consci\sness ( :at %\ld be1 only 9 r>e acts ( ! be/ man4 ,he argues r = our be+ consci\s ( ! possibility ( su* det]m9ation1 z evid5ce ( an ideal ( :at ! good w is1 ?an = ! fact t anyone is actually s det]m9$4 ,& e det]m9ation ( ! w t does n proce$ f pure consci\sness ( :at %\ld be he ascribes to ! pleasure-seek+ :i* belongs to man m]ely z a ',natur-wes51' or z ,/4 ,paul might say 'to ! law ( s9 9 8 memb]s4' ,:at1 x may be ask$1 is su* 'fre$om1' or r su* consci\sness ( ! possibility ( fre$om1 wor?8 ,may we n apply to x ,/4 ,paul's words1 ',by ! law is ! k ( s9'8 ,! practical result to ! individual ( t consci\sness ( ! possibility ( fre$om :i* is all t ! autonomy ( w1 z really atta9able by man1 accord+ to ,kant's view1 am\nts to1 is to make him aw>e ( ! het]onomy ( 8 w1 ( its bondage to motives ( :i* reason is n ! au?or4 #d4 ,?is is an objection :i* _m ( ,kant's /atem5ts ( 8 doctr9e1 at any rate1 fairly *all5ge4 ,x 0 *iefly because he seem$ to make fre$om #a an unrealis$ & unrealisable /ate1 t 8 moral doctr9e 0 f\nd unsatisfactory by ,hegel4 ,hegel holds t fre$om1 z ! condition 9 :i* ! w is det]m9$ by an object adequate to itself1 or by an object :i* itself z reason con/itutes1 is realis$ 9 ! /ate4 ,he ?9ks ( ! /ate 9 a way n famili> to ,engli%m51 a way n unlike t 9 :i* ,greek philosoph]s ?\ght ( ! 1 #b z a society gov]n$ by laws & in/itutions & e/abli%$ cu/oms :i* secure ! common good ( ! memb]s ( ! society--enable !m to make ! be/ ( !mselves--& are recognis$ z do+ s4 ,su* a /ate is 'objective fre$om'2 fre$om is realis$ 9 x because 9 x ! reason1 ! self-det]m9+ pr9ciple op]at+ 9 man z 8 w1 has f\nd a p]fect expression = itself 7z an arti/ may be consid]$ to express himself 9 a p]fect "w ( art72 & ! man :o is det]m9$ by ! objects :i* ! well-ord]$ /ate pres5ts to him is det]m9$ by t :i* is ! p]fect expression ( 8 reason1 & is ?us free4 #a ,9 ! s5se ( 'autonomy ( rational w1' or det]m9ation by an object :i* reason con/itutes1 z di/9ct f det]m9ation by an object :i* ! man makes 8 own2 ?is latt] det]m9ation ,kant w\ld h recognis$ z *>act]i/ic ( e human act1 prop]ly s call$4 #b ,greek 7polis7 city-/ate ,tr4 #e4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 tru? 9 ?is view4 ,i h already tri$ to %[ #a h[ ! self-di/+ui%+ & self-seek+ consci\sness ( man1 act+ 9 & ^u ^? human wants & ties & affections :i* 9 _! prop] human "* h z little reality ap>t f x z x ap>t f !m1 gives rise to a sy/em ( social relations1 ) laws1 cu/oms1 & in/itutions correspond+2 & h[ 9 ?is sy/em ! individual's consci\sness ( ! absolutely desirable1 ( some?+ t %\ld be1 ( an ideal to be realis$ 9 8 life1 f9ds a cont5t or object :i* has be5 con/itut$ or br\ght into be+ by t consci\sness itself z work+ ?r\gh g5]ations ( m52 h[ int]e/s are ?us suppli$ to ! man ( a m concrete k9d ?an ! int]e/ 9 fulfilm5t ( a univ]sally b9d+ law because univ]sally b9d+1 b :i* yet are ! product ( reason1 & 9 satisfy+ :i* he is consci\s ( atta9+ a true good1 a good contributory to ! p]fection ( himself & 8 k9d4 ,!re is ?us some?+ 9 all =ms ( society t t5ds to ! fre$om #b at lea/ ( "s fav\r$ individuals1 because x t5ds to actualise 9 !m ! possibility ( t det]m9ation by objects conceiv$ z desirable 9 di/9ction f objects mom5t>ily desir$1 :i* is det]m9ation by reason4 #c ,to put x o!rwise1 ! effect ( 8 social relations on a man ?us fav\r$ is t1 :]eas 9 all will+ ! individual seeks to satisfy himself1 ?is man seeks to satisfy himself1 n z "o :o feels ?is or t desire1 b z "o :o conceives1 ^: nature dem&s1 a p]man5t good4 ,s f> z x is ?us 9 respect ( 8 rational nature t he makes himself an object to himself1 8 w is autonom\s4 ,?is 0 ! good :i* ! ideal 1 z conceiv$ by ! ,greek philosoph]s1 secur$ = ! true 1 ! man :o1 ent]+ into ! idea ( ! 1 0 equally qualifi$ 4 #d ,no d\bt 9 ! actual ,greek !re 0 "s t5d5cy 9 ?is direction1 "s t5d5cy to rationalise & moralise ! citiz54 ,)\t ! real t5d5cy ! ideal possibility w\ld n h sugge/$ itself4 ,& 9 m primitive =ms ( society1 s f> z !y 7 bas$ on family or tribal relations1 we c see t ! same t5d5cy mu/ h be5 at "w1 j z 9 mod]n life ! consci\sness ( 8 position z memb] or head ( a family1 :]ev] x exi/s1 necess>ily does some?+ to moralise a man4 ,9 mod]n ,*ri/5dom1 ) ! ext5sion ( citiz5%ip1 ! security ( family life to all m5 7s f> z law & police c secure x71 ! e/abli%m5t 9 v>i\s =ms ( ,*ri/ian fell[%ip ( :i* ! moralis+ functions gr[ z ^? ( ! magi/rate dim9i%1 ! numb] ( individuals :om society awak5s to int]e/s 9 objects contributory to human p]fection t5ds to increase4 ,s f> ! mod]n /ate1 9 t full s5se 9 :i* ,hegel uses ! t]m 7z includ+ all ! ag5cies = common good ( a law-abid+ p71 does contribute to ! realisation ( fre$om1 if by fre$om we und]/& ! autonomy ( ! w or its det]m9ation by rational objects1 objects :i* help to satisfy ! dem& ( reason1 ! ef=t aft] self-p]fection4 #a ,9 a previ\s c\rse ( lectures4 ,see ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 ,,iii4 iii4 ,,rln #b ,9 ! s5se ( 'autonomy ( w4' #c ,?is la/ clause is qu]i$ 9 ! ,,ms4 ,,rln #d ,greek 7polis7 city-/ate1 7polites7 citiz51 7ar*e9 kai ar*e/hai7 to rule & to be rul$ ,tr #f4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld seem t we _c significantly speak ( fre$om except ) ref]5ce to individual p]sons2 t only 9 !m c fre$om be realis$2 t !re=e ! realisation ( fre$om 9 ! /ate c only mean ! atta9m5t ( fre$om by individuals ?r\gh influ5ces :i* ! /ate 79 ! wide s5se spok5 (7 supplies1--'fre$om' "h1 z be=e1 mean+ n ! m]e self-det]m9ation :i* r5d]s u responsible1 b det]m9ation by reason1 'autonomy ( ! w'2 & t "u ! be/ conditions ( any society t has ev] be5 su* realisation ( fre$om is mo/ imp]fect4 ,to an ,a!nian slave1 :o might be us$ to gratify a ma/]'s lu/1 x w\ld h be5 a mock]y to speak ( ! /ate z a realisation ( fre$om2 & p]haps x w\ld n be mu* less s to speak ( x z su* to an untaught & "u-f$ d5iz5 ( a ,london y>d ) g9-%ops on ! "r h& & on ! left4 ,:at ,hegel says ( ! /ate 9 ?is respect seems z h>d to squ>e ) facts z :at ,/4 ,paul says ( ! ,*ri/ian :om ! manife/ation ( ,*ri/ has transf]r$ f bondage into '! glori\s lib]ty ( ! sons ( ,god4' ,9 bo? cases ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ideal & ! actual seems to be ignor$1 & t5d5cies seem to be spok5 ( z if !y 7 accompli%$ facts4 ,x is noticeable t by uncritical read]s ( ,/4 ,paul ! acc\nt ( himself z "u ! law 79 ,romans vii471 ) ! 'law ( s9 9 8 memb]s w>r+ aga9/ ! law ( 8 reason1' is tak5 z applicable to ! reg5]ate ,*ri/ian1 ?\gh evid5tly ,/4 ,paul meant x z a description ( ! /ate f :i* ! ,gospel1 ! 'manife/ation ( ! ,son ( ,god 9 ! lik5ess ( s9ful fle%1' set him free4 ,!y are driv5 to ?is int]pretation because1 ?\gh !y c und]/& ,/4 ,paul's acc\nt ( 8 deliv]ance z an acc\nt ( a deliv]ance a*iev$ = !m b n 9 !m1 or z an assurance ( :at is to be1 !y _c adju/ x to ! actual exp]i5ce ( ! ,*ri/ian life4 ,9 ! same way ,hegel's acc\nt ( fre$om z realis$ 9 ! /ate does n seem to correspond to ! facts ( society z x is1 or ev5 z1 "u ! unalt]able conditions ( human nature1 x ev] c\ld be2 ?\gh und\bt$ly !re is a "w ( moral lib]ation1 :i* society1 ?r\gh its v>i\s ag5cies1 is con/antly c>ry+ on = ! individual4 #g4 ,mean:ile x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t 9 all ^! diff]5t views z to ! mann] & degree 9 :i* fre$om is to be atta9$1 'fre$om' does n mean t ! man or w is undet]m9$1 nor yet does x mean m]e self-det]m9ation1 :i* 7unless d5i$ altoge!r1 z by ^? :o take ! /rictly naturali/ic view ( human action7 mu/ be ascrib$ equally to ! man ^: w is het]onom\s or vici\s1 & to him ^: w is autonom\s2 equally to ! man :o recognises ! au?ority ( law 9 :at ,/4 ,paul w\ld c\nt ! condition ( a bondman1 & to him :o fulfils ! righte\sness ( ! law 9 ! _s ( adoption4 ,x means a p>ticul> k9d ( self-det]m9ation2 ! /ate ( ! man :o lives inde$ = himself1 b = ! fulfilm5t ( himself z a 'giv] ( law univ]sal' 7,kant72 :o lives = himself1 b only accord+ to ! true idea ( himself1 accord+ to ! law ( 8 be+1 'accord+ to nature' 7! ,/oics72 :o is s tak5 up into ,god1 to :om ,god s gives ! _s1 t !re is no con/ra9t 9 8 ob$i5ce to ! div9e w 7,/4 ,paul72 ^: int]e/s1 z a loyal citiz51 are ^? ( a well-ord]$ /ate 9 :i* practical reason expresses itself 7,hegel74 ,n[ none ( ^! modes ( self-det]m9ation is at all impli$ 9 'fre$om' accord+ to ! prim>y mean+ ( ! t]m1 z express+ t relation betwe5 "o man & o!rs 9 :i* he is secur$ f compulsion4 ,all t is s impli$ is t a man %\ld h p[] to d :at he wills or pref]s4 ,no ref]5ce is made to ! nature ( ! w or pref]5ce1 ( ! object will$ or pref]r$2 :]eas accord+ to ! usage ( 'fre$om' 9 ! doctr9es we h j be5 consid]+1 x is n con/itut$ by ! m]e fact ( act+ ^u pref]5ce1 b dep5ds :olly on ! nature ( ! pref]5ce1 ^u ! k9d ( object will$ or pref]r$4 #h4 ,if x 7 ev] reasonable to wi% t ! usage ( words _h be5 o!r ?an x has be5 7any m ?an t ! processes ( nature 7 o!r ?an !y are71 "o might be incl9$ to wi% t ! t]m 'fre$om' _h be5 conf9$ to ! juri/ic s5se ( ! p[] to 'd :at "o wills'3 = ! ext5sion ( its mean+ seems to h caus$ mu* controv]sy & confusion4 ,b1 aft] all1 ?is ext5sion does b repres5t v>i\s /ages ( reflection ^u ! self-di/+ui%+1 self-seek+1 self-ass]t+ pr9ciple1 ( :i* ! e/abli%m5t ( fre$om1 z a relation betwe5 man & man1 is ! expression4 ,! reflect+ man is n cont5t ) ! fir/ ann\ncem5t :i* analysis makes z to ! inw>d condition ( ! free man1 viz4 t he c d :at he likes1 t he has ! p[] ( act+ accord+ to 8 w or pref]5ce4 ,9 virtue ( ! same pr9ciple :i* has l$ him to ass]t himself aga9/ o!rs1 & ?us to cause !re to be su* a ?+ z 7outw>d7 fre$om1 he di/+ui%es himself f 8 pref]5ce1 & asks h[ he is relat$ to x1 :e!r he det]m9es x or h[ x is det]m9$4 ,is he free to w1 z he is free to act2 or1 z ! act is det]m9$ by ! pref]5ce1 is ! pref]5ce det]m9$ by some?+ else8 ,?us ,locke 7,essay1 ,,ii4 #ba7 beg9s ) decid+ t fre$om means p[] to d or =be> f do+ any p>ticul> act ^u pref]5ce1 & t1 s9ce ! w is m]ely ! p[] ( pref]5ce1 ! "q :e!r ! w is free is an unmean+ "o 7equival5t to ! "q :e!r "o p[] has ano!r p[]72 t ?us ! only prop] "q is :e!r a man 7n 8 w7 is free1 :i* mu/ be answ]$ affirmatively s f> z he has ! p[] to d or =be>1 z above4 ,b he recognises ! propriety ( ! "q :e!r a man is free to w z well z to act4 ,he _c refuse to c>ry back ! analysis ( :at is involv$ 9 a man's action beyond ! pref]5ce ( "o possible action to ano!r1 & to inquire :at is impli$ 9 ! pref]5ce4 ,x is :5 ?is latt] "q is rais$1 t language :i* is appropriate en\gh 9 a def9ition ( outw>d or juri/ic fre$om becomes mislead+4 ,x hav+ be5 decid$ t ! man civilly free has p[] ov] 8 actions1 to d or =be> accord+ to pref]5ce1 x is ask$ :e!r he has also p[] to pref]4 #i4 ,b :ile x is prop] to ask :e!r 9 any p>ticul> case a man has p[] ov] 8 actions1 because 8 n]ves & limbs & muscles may be act$ ^u by ano!r p]son or a =ce :i* is n he or 81 !re is no appropriat5ess 9 ask+ ! "q 9 reg>d to a pref]5ce or w1 because ?is _c be s act$ on4 ,if s act$ on1 x w\ld n be a w or pref]5ce4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a w :i* a man is n consci\s ( z belong+ to himself1 no su* ?+ z an act ( w :i* he is n consci\s ( z issu+ f himself4 ,to ask :e!r he has p[] ov] x1 or :e!r "s o!r p[] ?an he det]m9es x1 is l ask+ :e!r he is o!r ?an himself4 ,?us ! "q :e!r a man1 hav+ p[] to act accord+ to 8 w1 or be+ free to act1 has also p[] ov] 8 w1 or is free to w1 has j ! same impropriety t ,locke po9ts out 9 ! "q :e!r ! w is free4 ,! latt] "q1 on ! supposition t !re is p[] to enact ! w1--a supposition :i* is necess>ily made by ^? :o raise ! ult]ior "q :e!r !re is p[] ov] ! w1--is equival5t1 z ,locke sees1 to a "q :e!r fre$om is free4 ,= a w :i* !re is p[] ( enact+ con/itutes fre$om1 & !re=e to ask :e!r x is free is l ask+ 7to use ,locke's in/ance7 :e!r ri*es are ri* 7'ri*' be+ a d5om9ation f ! possession ( ri*es1 j z 'free' is a d5om9ation f ! possession ( fre$om1 9 ! s5se ( a w :i* !re is p[] to enact74 ,b if !re is ?is impropriety 9 ! "q :e!r ! w is free1 !re is an equal "o 9 ! "q :i* ,locke ent]ta9s1 viz4 :e!r man is free to w1 or has p[] ov] 8 w4 ,x am\nts to ask+ :e!r a c]ta9 p[] is also a p[] ov] itself3 or1 m precisely1 :e!r a man possess+ a c]ta9 p[]--t :i* we call fre$om--has also ! same p[] ov] t p[]4 #aj4 ,x may be said p]haps t we are "h press+ words too closely2 t x is ( c\rse und]/ood1 :5 x is ask$ :e!r a man has p[] ov] 8 w1 t 'p[]' is us$ 9 a diff]5t s5se f t :i* x be>s :5 x is ask$ :e!r he has p[] to enact 8 w3 t 'fre$om1' 9 l mann]1 is und]/ood to express a diff]5t k9d ( p[] or relation :5 we ask :e!r a man is free to w1 & :5 we ask :e!r he is free to act4 ,b grant+ t all ?is has be5 und]/ood1 ! mislead+ effects ( ! "q 9 ! =m "u consid]ation 7',is a man free to w z well z to act8' ',has he p[] ov] 8 w8'7 rema9 writt5 9 ! hi/ory ( ! 'free-w controv]sy4' ,x has ma9ly to answ] = two wrong ways ( ?9k+ on ! subject2 7a7 = ! way ( ?9k+ ( ! det]m9+ motive ( an act ( w1 ! object will$1 z some?+ ap>t f ! w or ! man will+1 s t 9 be+ det]m9$ by x ! man is suppos$ n to be self-det]m9$1 b to be det]m9$ z "o natural ev5t by ano!r1 or at be/ z a natural organism by ! =ces act+ on x3 7b71 = ! view t ! only way ( escap+ ?is conclusion is to reg>d ! w z indep5d5t ( motives1 z a p[] ( decid+ betwe5 motives )\t any motive to det]m9e ! decision1 :i* mu/ mean )\t ref]5ce to any object will$4 ,a man1 hav+ 79 virtue ( 8 p[] ( self-di/9ction & self-objectification7 pres5t$ 8 w to himself z some?+ to be ?\ght ab\t1 & be+ ask$ :e!r he has p[] ov] x1 :e!r he is free 9 reg>d to x z he is free aga9/ o!r p]sons & free to use 8 limbs &1 ?r\gh !m1 mat]ial ?+s1 ?is way or t1 mu/ v soon decide t he is n4 ,8 w is himself4 ,8 "* necess>ily %[s itself 9 8 w4 ,we h already1 9 a previ\s lecture1 #a notic$ ! practical fallacy involv$ 9 a man's say+ t he _c help be+ :at he is1 z if he 7 controll$ by ext]nal p[]2 b he be+ :at he is1 & ! circum/ances be+ :at !y are at any p>ticul> conjuncture1 ! det]m9ation ( ! w is already giv51 j z an effect is giv5 9 ! sum ( its conditions4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! w might be diff]5t1 b only ?r\gh ! man's be+ diff]5t1 ,b to ask :e!r a man has p[] ov] det]m9ations ( 8 w1 or is free to w z he is to act1 z ! "q is commonly und]/ood & z ,locke und]/ood x1 is to ask :e!r1 ! man be+ :at at any "t he is1 x is /ill unc]ta9 7#a7 :e!r he w *oose or =be> *oos+ betwe5 c]ta9 possible c\rses ( action1 & 7#b7 suppos+ him to *oose "o or o!r ( !m1 :i* he w *oose4 #a ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 ,sections #ajg1 ff4--,,rln #aa4 ,n[ we mu/ admit t !re is really no su* unc]ta9ty4 ,! appe>ance ( x is due to our ignorance ( ! man & ! circum/ances4 ,if1 h[ev]1 because ?is is s1 we answ] ! "q :e!r a man has p[] ov] 8 w1 or is free to w1 9 ! negative1 #a we at once sugge/ ! conclusion t some?+ else has p[] ov] x1 viz4 ! /ronge/ motive4 ,we ignore ! tru? t 9 be+ det]m9$ by a /ronge/ motive1 9 ! only s5se 9 :i* he is really s det]m9$1 ! man 7z previ\sly expla9$7 #b is det]m9$ by himself1 by an object ( 8 own mak+1 & we come to ?9k ( ! w z det]m9$ l any natural ph5om5on by causes ext]nal to x4 ,all ?is is ! consequ5ce ( ask+ que/ions ab\t ! relation betwe5 a man & 8 w 9 t]ms only appropriate to ! relation betwe5 ! man & o!r m51 or to t betwe5 ! man & 8 bodily memb]s or ! mat]ials on :i* he acts ?r\gh !m4 #a ,in/ead ( say+ 7z we %\ld7 t x is "o ( ^? inappropriate que/ions to :i* !re is no answ]2 s9ce a man's w is himself1 & 'fre$om' & 'p[]' express relations betwe5 a man & some?+ o!r ?an himself4 #b ,see ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 ,section #aje4--,,rln #ab4 ,on ! o!r side ! consci\sness ( self-det]m9ation resi/s ?is conclusion2 b s long z we />t f ! "q :e!r a man has p[] ov] 8 w1 or is free to w z well z to act1 x seems z if ! objectionable conclusion c\ld only be avoid$ by answ]+ ?is "q 9 ! affirmative4 ,b to say t a man has p[] ov] det]m9ations ( 8 w is naturally tak5 to mean t he c *ange 8 w :ile he himself rema9s ! same2 t giv5 8 "*1 motives1 & circum/ances z ^! at any "t are1 !re is /ill some?+ else requir$ = ! det]m9ation ( 8 w2 t beh9d & beyond ! w z det]m9$ by "s motive !re is a w1 itself undet]m9$ by any motive1 t det]m9es :at ! det]m9+ motive %all be1--t 'has p[] ov]' 8 pref]5ce or *oice1 z ?is has ov] ! motion ( 8 bodily memb]s4 ,b an unmotiv$ w is a w )\t an object1 :i* is no?+4 ,! p[] or possibility1 beyond any actual det]m9ation ( ! w1 ( det]m9+ :at t det]m9ation %all be is a m]e negation ( ! actual det]m9ation4 ,x is t det]m9ation z x becomes aft] an ab/raction ( ! motive or object will$1 :i* 9 fact leaves no?+ at all4 ,if ^? moral int]e/s1 :i* are und\bt$ly involv$ 9 ! recognition ( ! di/9ction betwe5 man & any natural ph5om5on1 are to be made dep5d5t on belief 9 su* a p[] or ab/ract possibility1 ! case is hopeless4 #ac4 ,! "r way out ( ! difficulty lies 9 ! disc]nm5t t ! "q :e!r a man is free to w1 or has p[] ov] ! det]m9ations ( 8 w1 is a "q to :i* !re is no answ]1 because x is ask$ 9 inappropriate t]ms2 9 t]ms t imply "s ag5cy beyond ! w :i* det]m9es :at ! w %all be 7z ! w itself is an ag5cy beyond ! motions ( ! muscles :i* det]m9es :at ^? motions %all be71 & t z to ?is ag5cy x may be ask$ :e!r x does or does n lie 9 ! man himself4 ,9 tru? !re is no su* ag5cy beyond ! w & det]m9+ h[ ! w %all be det]m9$2 n 9 ! man1 = ! w is ! self-consci\s man2 n else:]e ?an 9 ! man1 n outside him1 = ! self-consci\s man has no outside4 ,he is n a body 9 space ) o!r bodies else:]e 9 space act+ ^u x & det]m9+ its motions4 ,! self-consci\s man is det]m9$ by objects1 :i* 9 ord] to be objects mu/ already be 9 consci\sness1 & 9 ord] to be 8 objects1 ! objects :i* det]m9e him1 mu/ already h be5 made 8 own4 ,to say t !y h p[] ov] him or 8 w1 & t he or 8 w has p[] ov] !m1 is equally mislead+4 ,su* language is only applicable to ! relation betwe5 an ag5t & pati5t1 :5 ! ag5t & ! pati5t 7or at any rate ! ag5t7 c exi/ sep>ately4 ,b self-consci\sness & its object1 w & its object1 =m a s+le individual unity4 ,)\t ! con/itutive action ( man or 8 w ! objects d n exi/2 ap>t f det]m9ation by "s object nei!r he nor 8 w w\ld be m ?an an unreal ab/raction4 #ad4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! "q is p]si/$ 91 ',has a man p[] ov] ! det]m9ations ( 8 w8' we mu/ answ] bo? 'yes' & 'no4' ',no1' 9 ! s5se t he is n o!r ?an 8 w1 ) ability to direct x z ! w directs ! muscles4 ',yes1' 9 ! s5se t no?+ ext]nal to him or 8 w or self-consci\sness has p[] ov] !m4 ',no1' aga91 9 ! s5se t1 giv5 ! man & 8 object z he & x at any "t are1 !re is no possibility ( ! w be+ det]m9$ except 9 "o way1 = ! w is already det]m9$1 be+ no?+ else ?an ! man z direct$ to "s object4 ',yes1' 9 ! s5se t ! det]m9+ object is det]m9$ by ! man or w j z mu* z ! man or w by ! object4 ,! fact t ! /ate ( ! man1 on :i* ! nature ( 8 object at any "t dep5ds1 is a result ( previ\s /ates1 does n affect ! validity ( ?is la/ ass]tion1 s9ce 7z we h se5 #a7 all ^! /ates are /ates ( a self-consci\sness f :i* all ali5 det]m9ation1 all det]m9ation except ?r\gh ! m$ium ( self-consci\sness1 is exclud$4 #a ,prolegom5a to ,e?ics1 ,section #ajb4 ,,rln #ae4 ,9 ! above we h n suppos$ any acc\nt to be tak5 ( ! "* ( ! objects will$ 9 ! application to ! w itself ( ! "q 'free or n free1' :i* is prop]ly appli$ only to an action 7motion ( ! bodily memb]s7 or to a relation betwe5 "o man & o!r m54 ,^? :o unwisely cons5t to ent]ta9 ! "q :e!r a man is free to w or has p[] ov] det]m9ations ( 8 w1 & answ] x affirmatively or negatively1 consid] _! answ]1 :e!r 'yes' or 'no1' to be equally applicable :atev] ! nature ( ! objects will$4 ,if !y decide t a man is 'free to w1' !y mean t he is s 9 all cases ( will+1 :e!r ! object will$ be a satisfaction ( animal appetite or an act ( h]oic self-sacrifice2 & conv]sely1 if !y decide t he is n free to w1 !y mean t he is n s ev5 9 cases :5 ! action is done ^u cool calculation or ^u a pr9ciple ( duty1 z mu* z :5 x is done on impulse or 9 passion4 ,?r\gh\t ! controv]sy z to free w t has be5 c>ri$ on among ,engli% psy*ologi/s ?is is ! way 9 :i* ! "q has be5 commonly dealt )4 ,! fre$om1 claim$ or d5i$ = ! w1 has be5 claim$ or d5i$ = x irrespectively ( ^? objects will$1 on ! nature ( :i* ! goodness or badness ( ! w dep5ds4 #af4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ) ! ,/oics1 ,/4 ,paul1 ,kant1 & ,hegel1 z we h se51 ! atta9m5t ( fre$om 7at any rate ( ! reality ( fre$om1 z di/9ct f "s m]e possibility ( x :i* con/itutes ! di/9ctive human nature7 dep5ds on ! "* ( ! objects will$4 ,9 all ^! ways ( ?9k+1 h[ev] v>i\sly ! prop] object ( w is conceiv$1 x is only z direct$ to ?is object1 & ?us 79 ,hegelian language7 correspond+ to its idea1 t ! w is suppos$ to be free4 ,! good w is free1 n ! bad w4 ,su* a view ( c\rse implies "s elem5t ( id5tity betwe5 good w & bad w1 betwe5 w z n yet correspond+ to its idea & w z s correspond+4 ,/4 ,paul inde$1 n be+ a sy/ematic ?9k] & be+ absorb$ 9 ! idea ( div9e grace1 is apt to speak z if !re 7 no?+ 9 common betwe5 ! c>nal or natural man 7! w z 9 bondage to ! fle%7 & ! spiritual man 7! w z set free72 j z ,plato commonly ignores ! unity ( pr9ciple 9 all a man's actions1 & repres5ts virtu\s actions z com+ f ! ,god 9 man1 vici\s actions f ! bea/4 ,kant & ,hegel1 h[ev]1-- ?\gh !y d n consid] ! w z x is 9 e man1 good & bad1 to be free2 ?\gh ,kant 9 8 lat] e?ical writ+s1 & ,hegel 7,i ?9k7 always1 conf9e ! t]m ',wille' to ! w z hav+ atta9$ fre$om or come to correspond to its idea1 & apply ! t]m ',willkr' to t self-det]m9+ pr9ciple ( action :i* belongs to e man & is 9 _! view ! m]e possibility1 n actuality1 ( fre$om1--yet q recognise :at has be5 above insi/$ on z ! common *>act]i/ic ( all will+1 ! fact t x is n a det]m9ation f )\t1 l ! det]m9ation ( any natural ev5t or ag5t1 b ! realisation ( an object :i* ! ag5t pres5ts to himself or makes 8 own1 ! det]m9ation by an object ( a subject :i* itself consci\sly det]m9es t object2 & !y see t x is only = a subject free 9 ?is s5se 7'an si*' b n 'fur si*1' b n 7 #a t ! reality ( fre$om c exi/4 #a ,greek 7dynamei7 pot5tial1 7en]giea7 actuality ,tr #ag4 ,n[ ! propriety or impropriety ( ! use ( 'fre$om' to express ! /ate ( ! w1 n z direct$ to any & e object1 b only to ^? to :i*1 accord+ to ! law ( nature or ! w ( ,god or its 'idea1' x %\ld be direct$1 is a matt] ( second>y importance4 ,?is usage ( ! t]m is1 at any rate1 no m a dep>ture f ! prim>y or juri/ic s5se ?an is its application to ! w z di/9ct f action 9 any s5se :atev]4 ,& c]ta9ly ! unsophi/icat$ man1 z soon z ! usage ( 'fre$om' to express exemption f control by o!r m5 & ability to d z he likes is dep>t$ f1 c mu* m readily assimilate ! notion ( /ates ( ! inn] man describ$ z bondage to evil passions1 to t]rors ( ! law1 or on ! o!r h& z fre$om f s9 & law1 fre$om 9 ! consci\sness ( union ) ,god1 or ( h>mony ) ! true law ( "o's be+1 fre$om ( true loyalty1 fre$om 9 devotion to self-impos$ duties1 ?an he c assimilate ! notion ( fre$om z fre$om to w any?+ & ev]y?+1 or z exemption f det]m9ation by motives1 or ! con/itution by himself ( ! motives :i* det]m9e 8 w4 ,& !re is s f> less to ju/ify ! ext5sion ( ! usage ( ! t]m 9 ^! latt] ways ?an 9 ! =m]4 ,x w\ld seem inde$ t !re is a real community ( mean+ betwe5 'fre$om' z express+ ! condition ( a citiz5 ( a civilis$ /ate1 & 'fre$om' z express+ ! condition ( a man :o is inw>dly 'ma/] ( himself4' ,t is to say1 ! practical conception by a man 7'practical' 9 ! s5se ( hav+ a t5d5cy to realise itself7 ( a self-satisfaction to be atta9$ 9 8 becom+ :at he %\ld be1 :at he has x 9 him to be1 9 fulfilm5t ( ! law ( 8 be+1--or1 to v>y ! words b n ! mean+1 9 atta9m5t ( ! righte\sness ( ,god1 or 9 p]fect ob$i5ce to self-impos$ law1--?is practical conception is ! outcome ( ! same self-seek+ pr9ciple :i* appe>s 9 a man's ass]tion ( himself aga9/ o!r m5 & aga9/ nature 7'aga9/ o!r m51' z claim+ _! recognition ( him z be+ :at !y are2 'aga9/ nature1' z able to use x74 ,?is ass]tion ( himself is ! dem& = fre$om1 fre$om 9 ! prim>y or juri/ic s5se ( p[] to act accord+ to *oice or pref]5ce4 ,s f> z su* fre$om is e/abli%$ = any man1 ?is ass]tion ( himself is made good2 & su* fre$om is preci\s to him because x is an a*ievem5t ( ! self-seek+ pr9ciple4 ,x is a fir/ satisfaction ( its claims1 :i* is ! condition ( all o!r satisfaction ( !m4 ,! consci\sness ( x is ! fir/ =m ( self-enjoym5t1 ( ! joy ( ! self-consci\s _s 9 itself z 9 ! "o object ( absolute value4 #ah4 ,?is =m ( self-enjoym5t1 h[ev]1 is "o :i* consi/s ess5tially 9 ! feel+ by ! subject ( a possibility r ?an a reality1 ( :at x has x 9 itself to become1 n ( :at x actually is4 ,to a captive on fir/ w9n+ 8 lib]ty1 z to a *ild 9 ! e>ly exp]i5ce ( p[] ov] 8 limbs & ?r\gh !m ov] mat]ial ?+s1 ?is feel+ ( a b\ndless possibility ( becom+ may give real joy2 b gradually ! s5se ( :at x is n1 ( ! v little t x am\nts to1 mu/ pr$om9ate ov] ! s5se ( actual good z atta9$ 9 x4 ,?us to ! gr[n man1 br$ to civil lib]ty 9 a society :i* has le>nt to make nature its in/rum5t1 !re is no self-enjoym5t 9 ! m]e consci\sness ( fre$om z exemption f ext]nal control1 no s5se ( an object 9 :i* he c satisfy himself hav+ be5 obta9$4 ,/ill1 j z ! dem& = & atta9m5t ( fre$om f ext]nal control is ! expression ( t same self-seek+ pr9ciple f :i* ! que/ = su* an object proce$s1 s 'fre$om' is ! natural t]m by :i* ! man describes su* an object to himself1--describes to himself ! /ate 9 :i* he %all h realis$ 8 ideal ( himself1 %all be at "o ) ! law :i* he recognises z t :i* he ought to obey1 %all h become all t he has x 9 him to be1 & s fulfil ! law ( 8 be+ or 'live accord+ to nature4' ,j z ! consci\sness ( an unatta9able ideal1 ( a law recognis$ z hav+ au?ority b ) :i* "o's w conflicts1 ( wants & impulses :i* int]f]e ) ! fulfilm5t ( "o's possibilities1 is a consci\sness ( imp$$ en]gy1 a consci\sness ( oneself z = ev] ?w>t$ & held back1 s ! =eca/ ( deliv]ance f ^! conditions is z naturally said to be a =eca/ ( 'fre$om' z ( peace' or 'bless$ness4' ,nor is x m]ely to a select few1 & z an expression = a deliv]ance really 7z x w\ld seem7 unatta9able "u ! conditions ( any life t we "k1 b reg>d$ by sa9ts z secur$ = !m 9 ano!r _w1 & by philosoph]s z ! completion ( a process :i* is et]nally complete 9 ,god1 t 'fre$om' comm5ds itself4 ,to any popul> audi5ce int]e/$ 9 any "w ( self-improvem5t 7e4g4 to a temp]ance-meet+ seek+ to break ! bondage to liquor71 x is z an ef=t to atta9 fre$om t su* "w c be mo/ effectively pres5t$4 ,x is easy to tell su* p t ! t]m is be+ misappli$2 t !y are q 'free' z x is1 because e "o c d z he likes s long z he does n prev5t ano!r f do+ s2 t 9 any s5se 9 :i* !re is su* a ?+ z 'free w1' to get drunk is z mu* an act ( free w z any?+ else4 ,/ill ! feel+ ( oppression1 :i* always goes along ) ! consci\sness ( unfulfill$ possibilities1 w always give mean+ to ! repres5tation ( ! ef=t aft] any k9d ( self-improvem5t z a dem& = 'fre$om4' #ai4 ,! v>iation 9 ! mean+ ( 'fre$om' hav+ be5 ?us recognis$ & acc\nt$ =1 we come back to ! m ess5tial "q z to ! tru? ( ! view :i* und]lies all !ories imply+ t fre$om is 9 "s s5se ! goal ( moral endeav\r2 ! view1 namely1 t !re is "s w 9 a man ) :i* _m or mo/ ( 8 volunt>y actions d n accord1 a high] self t is n satisfi$ by ! objects :i* yet he delib]ately pursues4 ,"s su* notion is common to ^? diff]5t !ories ab\t fre$om :i* 9 ! r\gh we h ascrib$ sev]ally to ! ,/oics1 ,/4 ,paul1 ,kant1 & ,hegel4 ,x is ! same notion :i* 0 previ\sly #a put 9 ! =m1 't a man is subject to a law ( 8 be+1 9 virtue ( :i* he at once seeks self-satisfaction1 & is prev5t$ f f9d+ x 9 ! objects :i* he actually desires1 & 9 :i* he ord9>ily seeks x4' ',:at c ?is mean8' x maybe ask$4 ',( c\rse we "k t !re are weak p :o nev] succe$ 9 gett+ :at !y want1 ei!r 9 ! s5se t !y h n ability answ]+ to _! w1 or t !y are always wi%+ = some?+ :i* yet !y d n w4 ,b x w\ld n be v appropriate to apply ! above =mula to su* p1 = ! man's w to atta9 c]ta9 objects _c be ascrib$ to ! same law ( 8 be+ z ! lack ( ability to atta9 !m1 nor 8 wi% = c]ta9 objects to ! same law ( 8 be+ z ^? /rong] desires :i* det]m9e 8 w 9 a contr>y direction4 ,at any rate1 if ! proposition is remotely applicable to ! man :o is at once selfi% & unsuccessful1 h[ c x be true 9 any s5se ei!r ( ! man :o is at once selfi% & succe$s1 :o gets :at he wants 7z is unque/ionably ! case ) _m p :o live = :at a priori morali/s c\nt unwor?y objects71 or ( ! man :o 'nev] ?9ks ab\t himself at all'8 ,s f> z ! proposition means any?+1 x w\ld seem to repres5t ,kant's notion1 long ago f\nd un?9kable & impossible1 ! notion ( !re be+ two wills or selves 9 a man1 ! 'pure' w or ego & ! 'empirical' w or ego1 ! pure w be+ indep5d5t ( a man's actual desires & direct$ to ! fulfilm5t ( a univ]sal law ( :i* x is itself ! giv]1 ! empirical w be+ det]m9$ by ! /ronge/ desire & direct$ to ?is or t pleasure4 ,9 ?is proposition ! 'objects :i* ! man actually desires & 9 :i* he ord9>ily seeks satisfaction' are presumably objects ( :at ,kant call$ ! 'empirical w1' :ile ! 'law ( 8 be+' corresponds to ,kant's 'pure ego4' ,b j z ,kant mu/ be suppos$ to h believ$ 9 "s id5tity betwe5 ! pure & empirical w1 z impli$ 9 ! "o t]m 'w1' ?\gh he does n expla9 9 :at ?is id5tity consi/s1 s ! proposition be=e u app>5tly ascribes man's que/ = self-satisfaction z direct$ to c]ta9 objects1 to ! same law ( 8 be+ :i* prev5ts x f f9d+ x !re4 ,is n ?is nons5se8' #a ,above1 section #a ,,rln #bj4 ,to su* que/ions we answ] z foll[s4 ,! proposition be=e u1 l all ! !ories ( moral fre$om :i* we h notic$1 und\bt$ly implies t ! w ( e man is a =m ( "o consci\sly self-realis+ pr9ciple1 :i* at ! same "t is n truly or fully express$ 9 any man's w4 ,z a =m ( ?is self-realis+ pr9ciple x may be call$1 if we l1 a 'pure ego' or '! pure ego' ( ! p>ticul> p]son2 z direct$ to ?is or t object 9 su* a way t x does n truly express ! self-realis+ pr9ciple ( :i* x is a =m1 x may be call$ ! 'empirical ego' ( t p]son4 ,b if we use su* language1 x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! pure & empirical egos are /ill n two egos b "o ego2 ! pure ego be+ ! self-realis+ pr9ciple consid]$ ) ref]5ce ei!r to its idea1 its possibility1 :at x has 9 itself to become1 ! law ( its be+1 or to "s ultimate actualisation ( ?is possibility2 ! empirical ego be+ ! same pr9ciple z x appe>s 9 ?is or t /ate ( "*1 :i* results f its action1 b does n repres5t t :i* x has 9 itself to become1 does n correspond to its idea or ! law ( its be+4 ,by a consci\sly self-realis+ pr9ciple is meant a pr9ciple t is det]m9$ to action by ! conception ( its own p]fection1 or by ! idea ( giv+ reality to possibilities :i* are involv$ 9 x & ( :i* x is consci\s z s involv$2 or1 m precisely1 a pr9ciple :i* at ea* /age ( its exi/5ce is consci\s ( a m p]fect =m ( exi/5ce z possible = itself1 & is mov$ to action by t consci\sness4 ,we mu/ n[ expla9 a little m fully h[ we und]/& ! relation ( ! pr9ciple 9 "q to :at we call our wills & our reason1--! w & reason ( ?is man & t1--& h[ we suppose its action to con/itute ! progress ( morality4 #ba4 ,by 'practical reason' we mean a consci\sness ( a possibility ( p]fection to be realis$ 9 & by ! subject ( ! consci\sness4 ,by 'w' we mean ! ef=t ( a self-consci\s subject to satisfy itself4 ,9 ,god1 s f> z we c ascribe reason & w to ,him1 we mu/ suppose !m to be absolutely unit$4 ,9 ,him !re c be no di/9ction betwe5 possibility & realisation1 betwe5 ! idea ( p]fection & ! activity det]m9$ by x4 ,b 9 m5 ! self-realis+ pr9ciple1 :i* is ! manife/ation ( ,god 9 ! _w ( becom+1 9 ! =m :i* x takes z w at be/ only t5ds to reconciliation ) itself 9 ! =m :i* x takes z reason4 ,self-satisfaction1 ! pursuit ( :i* is w1 is s\ght else:]e ?an 9 ! realisation ( t consci\sness ( possible p]fection1 :i* is reason4 ,9 ?is s5se ! object ( w does n co9cide ) ! object ( reason4 ,on ! o!r h&1 j because x is self-satisfaction t is s\ght 9 all will+1 & because by a self-consci\s & self-realis+ subject x is only 9 ! atta9m5t ( its own p]fection t su* satisfaction c be f\nd1 ! object ( w is intr9sically or pot5tially1 & t5ds to become actually1 ! same z t ( reason4 ,x is ?is t we express by say+ t man is subject to a law ( 8 be+ :i* prev5ts him f f9d+ satisfaction 9 ! objects 9 :i* "u ! pressure ( 8 desires x is 8 natural impulse to seek x4 ,?is 'natural impulse' 7n /rictly 'natural'7 is itself ! result ( ! op]ation ( ! self-realis+ pr9ciple ^u :at w\ld o!rwise be an animal sy/em1 & is modifi$1 no d\bt1 ) endless complexity 9 ! case ( any individual by ! result ( su* op]ation ?r\gh ! ages ( human hi/ory4 ,b ?\gh ! natural impulses ( ! w are ?us ! "w ( ! self-realis+ pr9ciple 9 u1 x is n 9 _! gratification t ?is pr9ciple c f9d ! satisfaction :i* is only to be f\nd 9 ! consci\sness ( becom+ p]fect1 ( realis+ :at x has x 9 itself to be4 ,9 ord] to any approa* to ?is satisfaction ( itself ! self-realis+ pr9ciple mu/ c>ry its "w f>!r4 ,x mu/ ov]come ! 'natural impulses1' n 9 ! s5se ( ei!r ext+ui%+ !m or d5y+ !m an object1 b 9 ! s5se ( fus+ !m ) ^? high] int]e/s1 :i* h human p]fection 9 "s ( its =ms = _! object4 ,"s approa* to ?is fusion we may notice 9 all good m52 n m]ely 9 ^? 9 :om all natural passions1 love1 ang]1 pride1 ambition1 are enli/$ 9 ! s]vice ( "s great public cause1 b 9 ^? ) :om su* passions are all gov]n$ by "s su* commonplace idea z t ( educat+ a family4 #bb4 ,s f> z ?is /ate is rea*$1 ! man may be said to be reconcil$ to '! law ( 8 be+' :i* 7z 0 said above7 prev5ts him f f9d+ satisfaction 9 ! objects 9 :i* he ord9>ily seeks x1 or any:]e b 9 ! realisation 9 himself ( an idea ( p]fection4 ,s9ce ! law is1 9 fact1 ! action ( t self-realis+ subject :i* is 8 self1 & :i* exi/s 9 ,god z et]nally self-realis$1 he may be said 9 ?is reconciliation to be at peace at once ) himself & ) ,god4 ,aga91 he is 'free1' 7#a7 9 ! s5se t he is ! au?or ( ! law :i* he obeys 7= ?is law is ! expression ( t :i* is 8 self71 & t he obeys x because consci\s ( himself z its au?or2 9 o!r words1 obeys x f t impulse aft] self-p]fection :i* is ! s\rce ( ! law or r con/itutes x4 ,he is 'free' 7#b7 9 ! s5se t he n m]ely 'delights 9 ! law aft] ! inw>d man' 7to use ,/4 ,paul's phrase71 :ile 8 natural impulses are at once ?w>t$ by x & ?w>t him 9 8 ef=t to con=m to x1 b t ^! v impulses h be5 drawn into its s]vice1 s t he is 9 bondage nei!r to x nor to ! fle%4 ,f ! same po9t ( view we may say t 8 w is 'autonom\s1' con=ms to ! law :i* ! w itself con/itutes1 because ! law 7:i* prev5ts him f f9d+ satisfaction any:]e b 9 ! realisation 9 himself ( an idea ( p]fection7 repres5ts ! action 9 him ( t self-realis+ pr9ciple ( :i* 8 w is itself a =m4 ,!re is an appe>ance ( equivocation1 h[ev]1 9 ?is way ( speak+1 because ! 'w' :i* is liable n to be autonom\s1 & :i* we suppose gradually to approa* autonomy 9 ! s5se ( con=m+ to ! law above describ$1 is n ?is self-realis+ pr9ciple 9 ! =m 9 :i* ?is pr9ciple involves or gives ! law4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is ! self-realis+ pr9ciple z con/itut+ t ef=t aft] self-satisfaction 9 ea* ( u :i* is liable to be & commonly is direct$ to objects :i* are n contributory to ! realisation ( ! idea ( p]fection1--objects :i* ! self-realis+ pr9ciple accord+ly1 9 ! fulfilm5t ( its "w1 has to set aside4 ,! equivocation is po9t$ out by say+1 t ! good w is 'autonom\s' 9 ! s5se ( con=m+ to a law :i* ! w itself1 z reason1 con/itutes2 :i* is1 9 fact1 a cond5s$ way ( say+1 t ! good w is ! w ( :i* ! object co9cides ) t ( practical reason2 t w has its s\rce 9 ! same self-realis+ pr9ciple :i* yields t consci\sness ( a possible self-p]fection :i* we call reason1 & t x c only correspond to its idea1 or become :at x has ! possibility ( becom+1 9 be+ direct$ to ! realisation ( t consci\sness4 #bc4 ,accord+ to ! view "h tak51 !n1 reason & w1 ev5 z !y exi/ 9 m51 are "o 9 ! s5se t !y are alike expressions ( "o self-realis+ pr9ciple4 ,9 ,god1 or r 9 ! ideal human p]son z he really exi/s 9 ,god1 !y are actually "o2 i4e4 self-satisfaction is = ev] s\ght & f\nd 9 ! realisation ( a completely articulat$ or ?or\ghly fill$ idea ( ! p]fection ( ! human p]son4 ,9 ! hi/orical man--9 ! m5 t h be5 & are com+ to be--!y t5d to unite4 ,9 ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d1 & aga9 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ! individual z det]m9$ by ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d1 bo? ! idea ( a possible p]fection ( man1 ! idea ( :i* reason is ! faculty1 & ! impulse aft] self-satisfaction :i* belongs to ! w1 und]go modifications :i* r5d] _! reconciliation 9 ! individual 7& x is only 9 individuals t !y c be reconcil$1 because x is only 9 !m t !y exi/7 m atta9able4 ,^! modifications may be /at$ summ>ily z 7#a7 an increas+ concret5ess 9 ! idea ( human p]fection2 its gradual developm5t f ! vague in>ticulate feel+ t !re is su* a ?+ into a conception ( a complex organisation ( life1 ) laws & in/itutions1 ) relation%ips1 c\rtesies1 & *>ities1 ) arts & graces ?r\gh :i* ! p]fection is to be atta9$2 & 7#b7 a correspond+ discipl9e1 ?r\gh inh]itance & education1 ( ^? impulses :i* may be call$ 'natural' 9 ! s5se ( be+ indep5d5t ( any consci\s direction to ! fulfilm5t ( an idea ( p]fection4 ,su* discipl9e does n am\nt to ! reconciliation ( w & reason2 x is n ev51 prop]ly speak+1 ! beg9n+ ( x2 = ! reconciliation only beg9s ) ! direction ( ! impulse aft] self-satisfaction to ! realisation ( an idea ( :at %\ld be1 z su* 7because x %\ld be72 & no discipl9e ?r\gh inh]itance or education1 j because x is only impulses t are natural 79 ! s5se def9$7 :i* x c affect1 c br+ ab\t ?is direction1 :i*1 9 !ological language1 mu/ be n ( nature1 b ( grace4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! mo/ ref9$ impulses may be selfi%ly indulg$2 i4e4 _! gratification may be made an object 9 place ( t object :i* consi/s 9 ! realisation ( ! idea ( p]fection4 ,b unless a discipl9e & ref9em5t ( ! natural impulses1 ?r\gh ! op]ation ( social in/itutions & arts1 w5t on p>i passu ) ! expression ( ! idea ( p]fection 9 su* in/itutions & arts1 ! direction ( ! impulses ( ! individual by ?is idea1 :5 9 "s =m or o!r x has be5 consci\sly awak5$ 9 him1 w\ld be practically impossible4 ,! moral progress ( mank9d has no reality except z result+ 9 ! =mation ( m p]fect individual *>act]s2 b on ! o!r h& e progress t[>ds p]fection on ! "p ( ! individual "* presupposes "s embodim5t or expression ( itself by ! self-realis+ pr9ciple 9 :at may be call$ 7to speak mo/ g5]ally7 ! organisation ( life4 ,x is 9 turn1 h[ev]1 only ?r\gh ! action ( individuals t ?is organisation ( life is a*iev$4 #bd4 ,?us ! process ( reconciliation betwe5 w & reason1--! process ?r\gh :i* ea* alike comes actually to be or to d :at x is & does 9 possibility1 or accord+ to its idea1 or accord+ to ! law ( its be+1--s f> z x comes )9 our exp]i5ce may be describ$ z foll[s4 ,a c]ta9 action ( ! self-realis+ pr9ciple1 ( :i* individuals susceptible 9 v>i\s =ms to ! desire to bett] !mselves h be5 ! m$ia1 has result$ 9 conv5tional morality2 9 a sy/em ( recognis$ rules 7:e!r 9 ! %ape ( law or cu/om7 z to :at ! good ( society requires1 :i* no p seem to be :olly )\t4 ,! moral progress ( ! individual1 born & br$ "u su* a sy/em ( conv5tional morality1 consi/s 7#a7 9 ! adju/m5t ( ! self-seek+ pr9ciple 9 him to ! requirem5ts ( conv5tional morality1 s t ! modes 9 :i* he seeks self-satisfaction are regulat$ by ! s5se ( :at is expect$ ( him4 ,?is adju/m5t 7:i* x is ! bus9ess ( education to effect7 is s f> a det]m9ation ( ! w z 9 ! individual by objects :i* ! univ]sal or national human w1 ( :i* ! w ( ! individual is a p>tial expression1 has br\ght into exi/5ce1 & is ?us a det]m9ation ( ! w by itself4 ,x consi/s 7#b7 9 a process ( reflection1 by :i* ?is feel+ 9 ! individual ( :at is expect$ ( him becomes a conception 7"u :atev] "n7 ( some?+ t univ]sally %\ld be1 ( some?+ absolutely desirable1 ( a s+le end or object ( life4 ,! cont5t ( ?is conception may be no m ?an :at 0 already involv$ 9 ! individual's feel+ ( :at is expect$ ( him2 t is to say1 if call$ ^u to /ate 9 detail :at x is t has to be done = ! atta9m5t ( ! absolute moral end or 9 ob$i5ce to ! law ( :at univ]sally %\ld be1 he might only be able to specify conduct :i*1 ap>t f any su* explicit conception1 he felt 0 expect$ ( him4 ,= all t !re is a great diff]5ce betwe5 feel+ t a c]ta9 l9e ( conduct is expect$ ( me & conceiv+ x z a =m ( a univ]sal duty4 ,s long z ! requirem5ts ( e/abli%$ morality are felt 9 ! =m] way1 !y pres5t !mselves to ! man z impos$ f )\t4 ,h5ce1 ?\gh !y are an expression ( practical reason1 z op]at+ 9 previ\s g5]ations ( m51 yet1 unless ! individual conceives !m z relative to an absolute end common to him ) all m51 !y become antagoni/ic to ! practical reason :i* op]ates 9 him1 & :i* 9 him is ! s\rce at once ( ! dem& = self-satisfaction & ( ! ef=t to f9d himself 91 to c>ry 8 own unity into1 all ?+s pres5t$ to him4 ,unless ! actions requir$ ( him by '! div9e law1 ! civil law1 & ! law ( op9ion or reputation' 7to use ,locke's classification7 t5d to realise 8 own idea ( :at %\ld be or is good on ! :ole1 !y d n =m an object :i*1 z contemplat$1 he c h>monise ) ! o!r objects :i* he seeks to und]/&1 nor1 z a practical object1 d !y =m "o 9 ! atta9m5t ( :i* he c satisfy himself4 ,h5ce be=e ! completion ( ! process ?r\gh :i* ! individual comes to conceive ! p]=mance ( ! actions expect$ ( him "u ! g5]al =m ( a duty :i* 9 ! fre$om ( 8 own reason he recognises z b9d+1 !re is apt to occur a revolt aga9/ conv5tional morality4 ,! issue ( ?is may ei!r be an app>5t susp5sion ( ! moral gr[? ( ! individual1 or a cle>] appreh5sion ( ! _s und]ly+ ! lett] ( ! obligations laid on him by society1 :i* makes 8 rational recognition ( duty1 :5 arriv$ at1 a mu* m valuable influ5ce 9 promot+ ! moral gr[? ( society4 #be4 ,process 7#b71 :i* may be call$ a reconciliation ( reason ) itself1 because x is ! appropriation by reason z a p]sonal pr9ciple 9 ! individual ( ! "w :i* reason1 act+ ?r\gh ! m$ia ( o!r p]sons1 has already a*iev$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( conv5tional morality1 is ! condition ( ! ?ird /age 9 :i* ! moral progress ( ! individual consi/s2 viz4 ! gr[? ( a p]sonal int]e/ 9 ! realisation ( an idea ( :at %\ld be1 9 do+ :at is believ$ to contribute to ! absolutely desirable1 or to human p]fection1 because x is believ$ to d s4 ,j s f> z ?is int]e/ is =m$1 ! reconciliation ( ! two modes 9 :i* ! practical reason op]ates 9 ! individual is effect$4 ,! dem& = self-satisfaction 7practical reason z ! w ( ! individual7 is direct$ to ! realisation ( an ideal object1 ! conceiv$ '%\ld be1' :i* practical reason z our reason con/itutes4 ,! 'autonomy ( ! w' is ?us atta9$ 9 a high] s5se ?an x is 9 ! 'adju/m5t' describ$ "u 7#a71 because ! objects to :i* x is direct$ are n m]ely det]m9$ by cu/oms & in/itutions :i* are due to ! op]ation ( practical reason 9 previ\s ages1 b are embodim5ts or expressions ( ! conception ( :at absolutely %\ld be z =m$ by ! man :o seeks to satisfy himself 9 _! realisation4 ,inde$1 unless 9 ! /age ( con=mity to conv5tional morality ! pr9ciple ( ob$i5ce is "s feel+ 7?\gh n a cle> conception7 ( :at %\ld be1 ( ! desirable z di/9ct f ! desir$1--if x is m]ely fe> ( pa9 or hope ( pleasure1--!re is no approa* to autonomy ( ! w or moral fre$om 9 ! con=mity4 ,we mu/ n all[ ! doctr9e t su* fre$om consi/s 9 a det]m9ation ( ! w by reason1 & ! recognition ( ! tru? t ! requirem5ts ( conv5tional morality are a product ( reason z op]at+ 9 individuals ( ! pa/1 to mislead u into suppos+ t !re is any moral fre$om1 or any?+ ( intr9sic value1 9 ! life ( conv5tional morality z gov]n$ by 'int]e/$ motives1' by ! desire1 directly or indirectly1 to obta9 pleasure4 ,!re c be no real det]m9ation ( ! w by reason unless bo? reason & w are op]at+ 9 "o & ! same p]son4 ,a w is n really any?+ except z ! w ( a p]son1 &1 z we h se51 a w is n really det]m9able by any?+ =eign to itself3 x is only det]m9able by an object :i* ! p]son will+ makes 8 own4 ,z little is reason really any?+ ap>t f a self-consci\s subject1 or z o!r ?an an idea ( p]fection to be realis$ 9 & by su* a subject4 ,! det]m9ation ( w by reason1 !n1 :i* con/itutes moral fre$om or autonomy1 mu/ mean its det]m9ation by an object :i* a p]son will+1 9 virtue ( 8 reason1 pres5ts to himself1 t object consi/+ 9 ! realisation ( an idea ( p]fection 9 & by himself4 ,kant's view t ! action :i* is m]ely 'pfli*tmssig1' n done 'aus ,pfli*t1' #a is ( no moral value 9 itself1 :atev] may be its possible value z a means to ! production ( ! w :i* does act 'aus ,pfli*t1' is once = all true1 ?\gh he may h tak5 too n>r[ a view ( ! conditions ( actions done 'aus ,pfli*t1' especially 9 suppos+ 7z he seems to d7 t x is necess>y to !m to be done pa9fully4 ,!re is no det]m9ation ( w by reason1 no moral fre$om1 9 con=mity ( action to rules ( :i* ! e/abli%m5t is due to ! op]ation ( reason or ! idea ( p]fection 9 m51 unless ! pr9ciple ( con=mity 9 ! p]sons con=m+ is t idea itself 9 "s =m or o!r4 #a ,g]man aus ,pfli*t f duty1 pfli*tmssig consi/5t ) duty--,tr4 ,,lectures ,,on ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,political ,,obligation4 ,note ( ! ,editor4 ,^! lectures1 :i* are p>tly critical & p>tly expository1 treat ( ! moral gr\nds ^u :i* ! /ate is bas$ & ^u :i* ob$i5ce to ! law ( ! /ate is ju/ifi$4 ,!y 7 deliv]$ 9 #ahgi-hj1 foll[+ ^u ! c\rse f :i* ! discussion ( ,kant's moral !ory 9 ?is volume is tak54 ,! two c\rses are directly connect$1 civil in/itutions be+ ?r\gh\t reg>d$ z ! ext]nal expression ( ! moral progress ( mank9d1 & z supply+ ! mat]ial ?r\gh :i* ! idea ( p]fection mu/ be realis$4 ,z is impli$ 9 section #e1 ! inquiry into ! nature ( political obligation =ms "p ( a wid] inquiry into ! concrete =ms ( morality 9 g5]al1 '! detail ( goodness4' ,! lectur] _h int5d$ to complete ! c\rse by a consid]ation ( 'social virtues' & 'moral s5tim5ts'2 b ?is int5tion 0 n c>ri$ out4 7,see section #bea47 ,,lectures ,,on ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,political ,,obligation4 ,a4 ,,! ,,gr\nds ,,( ,,political ,,obligation4 #a4 ,! subject ( ?is c\rse ( lectures is ! pr9ciples ( political obligation2 & t t]m is int5d$ to include ! obligation ( ! subject t[>ds ! sov]eign1 ! obligation ( ! citiz5 t[>ds ! /ate1 & ! obligation ( individuals to ea* o!r z en=c$ by a political sup]ior4 ,my purpose is to consid] ! moral function or object s]v$ by law1 or by ! sy/em1 ( rights & obligations :i* ! /ate en=ces1 & 9 s do+ to discov] ! true gr\nd or ju/ification = ob$i5ce to law4 ,my plan w be 7#a7 to /ate 9 outl9e :at ,i consid] ! true function ( law to be1 ?is be+ at ! same "t ! true gr\nd ( our moral duty to obey ! law2 & ?r\gh\t ,i di/+ui% moral duty f legal obligation2 7#b7 to exam9e ! *ief doctr9es ( political obligation t h be5 curr5t 9 mod]n ,europe1 & by criticis+ !m to br+ out m cle>ly ! ma9 po9ts ( a tru] doctr9e2 7#c7 to consid] 9 detail ! *ief rights & obligations en=c$ 9 civilis$ /ates1 inquir+ :at is _! ju/ification1 & :at is ! gr\nd = respect+ !m on ! pr9ciple /at$4 #b4 ,9 previ\s lectures ,i h expla9$ :at ,i und]/& moral goodness to be1 & h[ x is possible t !re %\ld be su* a ?+2 9 o!r words1 :at are ! conditions on ! "p ( reason & w :i* are impli$ 9 our be+ able to conceive moral goodness z an object to be aim$ at1 & to give "s p>tial reality to ! conception4 ,our results on ?is "q may be briefly /at$ z foll[s4 ,! highe/ moral goodness we f\nd 0 an attribute ( "*1 9 s f> z x issu$ 9 acts done = ! sake ( _! goodness1 n = ! sake ( any pleasure or any satisfaction ( desire :i* !y br+ to ! ag5t4 ,b x is impossible t an action %\ld be done = ! sake ( its goodness1 unless x has be5 previ\sly contemplat$ z good = "s o!r reason ?an t :i* consi/s 9 its be+ done = ! sake ( its goodness4 ,x mu/ h be5 done1 or conceiv$ z possible to be done1 & h be5 acc\nt$ good1 irrespectively ( ! be+ done f ?is :i* we ultimately come to reg>d z ! highe/ motive4 ,9 o!r words1 a prior morality1 f\nd$ ^u int]e/s :i* are o!r ?an ! pure int]e/ 9 be+ good1 & gov]n$ by rules ( conduct relative to a /&>d ( goodness o!r ?an t :i* makes x dep5d on ?is int]e/1 is ! condition ( !re com+ to be a "* gov]n$ by int]e/ 9 an ideal ( goodness4 ,o!rwise ?is ideal w\ld be an empty "o2 x w\ld be impossible to say :at ! good actions 71 t 7 to be done = ! sake ( _! goodness2 & ! int]e/ 9 ?is ideal w\ld be impossible1 s9ce x w\ld be an int]e/ )\t an object4 #c4 ,:51 h[ev]1 morality ( ! latt] k9d has come to be recognis$ z ! highe/ or ! only true morality1 ! prior morality ne$s to be criticis$ f ! po9t ( view ?us ga9$4 ,^? int]e/s1 o!r ?an ! int]e/ 9 be+ good1 :i* =m ! motives on ! "p ( ! individual on :i* x re/s1 w n inde$ be reject$ z ( no moral value2 = no "o c suppose t )\t !m1 or except z regulat+ !m1 ! pure int]e/ 9 be+ good c\ld det]m9e conduct at all4 ,b !y w be e/imat$ accord+ to _! value z lead+ up to1 or z capable ( becom+ elem5ts 91 a "* 9 :i* ?is int]e/ is ! gov]n+ pr9ciple4 ,aga91 ^? rules ( conduct1 accord+ to :i* ! t]ms "r & wrong1 good & bad1 are commonly appli$1 & :i*1 z 0 j n[ said1 are relative to a /&>d c]ta9ly n f\nd$ on ! conception ( ! good z consi/+ 9 ! "* describ$1 are n inde$ to be reject$2 = )\t !m !re w\ld be no?+ to def9e ! duties :i* ! highe/ "* is prep>$ to d = _! own sake4 ,b !y h to be revis$ accord+ to a me?od :i* inquires into _! rationale or ju/ification1 z conditions ( approximation to ! highe/ "*4 #d4 ,su* a criticism ( moral int]e/s--( ! g5]al motives :i* det]m9e moral conduct & regulate su* moral approbation or disapprobation z is n bas$ on a /rict !ory ( moral good--may be call$ by ! "n ( 'a !ory ( moral s5tim5ts4' ,! criticism ( recognis$ rules ( conduct w fall "u two heads1 accord+ z ^! rules are embodi$ 9 positive law 7law ( :i* ! obs]vance is en=c$ on ! individual by a political sup]ior71 or only =m "p ( ! 'law ( op9ion' 7"p ( :at ! individual feels to be expect$ ( him by "s p]son or p]sons to ^: expectations he ought to con=m74 #e4 ,moral int]e/s are s greatly dep5d5t on g5]ally recognis$ rules ( conduct t ! criticism ( ! latt] %\ld come fir/4 ,! law ( op9ion1 aga91 9 s _m ways presupposes a social fabric support$ by 'positive' law1 t we c only fairly take acc\nt ( x :5 we h consid]$ ! moral value & ju/ifiability ( ! fabric s support$4 ,i propose !re=e to beg9 our inquiry into ! detail ( goodness--into ! p>ticul> k9ds ( conduct :i* ! man wi%+ to d good = ! sake ( its goodness is entitl$ to c\nt good--by consid]+ :at is ( p]man5t moral value 9 ! in/itutions ( civil life1 z e/abli%$ 9 ,europe2 9 :at way !y h contribut$ & contribute to ! possibility ( morality 9 ! high] s5se ( ! t]m1 & are ju/ifi$1 or h a moral claim ^u our loyal con=mity1 9 consequ5ce4 #f4 ,! condition ( a moral life is ! possession ( w & reason4 ,w is ! capacity 9 a man ( be+ det]m9$ to action by ! idea ( a possible satisfaction ( himself4 ,an act ( w is an action s det]m9$4 ,a /ate ( w is ! capacity z det]m9$ by ! p>ticul> objects 9 :i* ! man seeks self-satisfaction2 & x becomes a "* 9 s f> z ! self-satisfaction is habitually s\ght 9 objects ( a p>ticul> k9d4 ,practical reason is ! capacity 9 a man ( conceiv+ ! p]fection ( 8 nature z an object to be atta9$ by action4 ,all moral ideas h _! orig9 9 reason1 i4e4 9 ! idea ( a possible self-p]fection to be atta9$ by ! moral ag5t4 ,?is does n mean t ! moral ag5t 9 e /age ( 8 progress c\ld /ate ?is idea to himself 9 an ab/ract =m1 any m ?an 9 e /age 9 ! acquisition ( k ab\t nature a man c /ate to himself 9 an ab/ract =m ! conception ( ! unity ( nature1 :i* yet ?r\gh\t conditions ! acquisition ( 8 k4 ,ideas d n fir/ come into exi/5ce1 or beg9 to op]ate1 ^u ! =mation ( an ab/ract expression = !m4 ,?is expression is only arriv$ at ^u analysis ( a concrete exp]i5ce1 :i* !y h r5d]$ possible4 ,?us we only le>n to express ! idea ( self-p]fection 9 t ab/ract =m ^u an analysis ( an exp]i5ce ( self-improvem5t :i* we h ourselves gone ?r\gh1 & :i* mu/ h be5 gone ?r\gh by ^? ) :om we are connect$ by ! possession ( language & an organisation ( life1 h[ev] elem5t>y3 b ! same analysis %[s t ! same idea mu/ h be5 at "w to make su* exp]i5ce possible4 ,9 ?is idea all p>ticul> moral ideas--all ideas ( p>ticul> =ms ( conduct z e/imable--orig9ate1 ?\gh an ab/ract expression = ! latt] is arriv$ at mu* soon] ?an su* an expression = ! idea 9 :i* !y orig9ate4 ,!y arise1 z ! individual's conception ( ! society on ! well-be+ ( :i* 8 own dep5ds1 & ( ! con/itu5ts ( t well-be+1 becomes wid] & full]2 & !y are embodi$ 9 ! laws1 in/itutions1 & social expectation1 :i* make conv5tional morality4 ,?is embodim5t1 aga91 con/itutes ! moral progress ( mank9d4 ,?is progress1 h[ev]1 is only a moral progress 9 s f> z x t5ds to br+ ab\t ! h>mony ( w & reason1 9 ! only =m 9 :i* x c really exi/1 viz4 9 ! *>act]s ( p]sons4 ,& ?is result is actually a*iev$1 9 s f> z ^u habits discipl9$ by con=mity to conv5tional morality !re sup]v5es an intellig5t int]e/ 9 "s ( ! objects contributory to human p]fection1 :i* t conv5tional morality subs]ves1 & 9 s f> z t int]e/ becomes ! dom9ant int]e/ ( ! "*4 #g4 ,! value !n ( ! in/itutions ( civil life lies 9 _! op]ation z giv+ reality to ^! capacities ( w & reason1 & enabl+ !m to be really ex]cis$4 ,9 _! g5]al effect1 ap>t f p>ticul> ab]rations1 !y r5d] x possible = a man to be freely det]m9$ by ! idea ( a possible satisfaction ( himself1 in/ead ( be+ driv5 ?is way & t by ext]nal =ces1 & ?us !y give reality to ! capacity call$ w3 & !y enable him to realise 8 reason1 i4e4 8 idea ( self-p]fection1 by act+ z a memb] ( a social organisation 9 :i* ea* contributes to ! bett]-be+ ( all ! re/4 ,s f> z !y d 9 fact ?us op]ate !y are morally ju/ifi$1 & may be said to correspond to ! 'law ( nature1' ! jus naturae1 accord+ to ! only s5se 9 :i* t phrase c be intelligibly us$4 #h4 ,!re has be5 mu* controv]sy z to :at ! jus naturae 7',naturre*t'7 really is1 or :e!r !re is su* a ?+ at all4 ,& ! controv]sy1 :5 x comes to be dealt ) 9 ,engli%1 is fur!r emb>rass$ by ! fact t we h no "o t]m to repres5t ! full mean+ ( 'jus' or ',re*t1' z a sy/em ( correlative rights & obligations1 actually en=c$ or t %\ld be en=c$ by law4 ,b ! ess5tial que/ions are3 7#a7 :e!r we are entitl$ to di/+ui% ! rights & obligations :i* are any:]e actually en=c$ by law f rights & obligations :i* really exi/ ?\gh n en=c$2 & 7#b71 if we are entitl$ to d s1 :at is to be our crit]ion ( rights & obligations :i* are really valid1 9 di/9ction f ^? t are actually en=c$4 #i4 ,no "o w\ld s]i\sly ma9ta9 t ! sy/em ( rights & obligations1 z x is any:]e en=c$ by law1--! 'jus' or ',re*t' ( any nation--is all t x ought to be4 ,ev5 ,hobbes holds t a law1 ?\gh x _c be unju/1 may be p]nici\s4 ,b !re has be5 mu* objection to ! admission ( natural rights & obligations4 ,at any rate ! phrase is liable to mis9t]pretation4 ,x may be tak5 to imply t rights & obligations c exi/ 9 a '/ate ( nature'--a /ate 9 :i* e individual is free to d z he likes--2 t legal rights & obligations d]ive _! au?ority f a volunt>y act by :i* individuals contract$ !mselves out ( ?is /ate2 & t ! individual reta9s f ! /ate ( nature c]ta9 rights ) :i* no legal obligations ought to conflict4 ,su* a doctr9e is g5]ally admitt$ to be unt5able2 b x does n foll[ f ?is t !re is n a true & important s5se 9 :i* natural rights & obligations exi/1--! same s5se z t 9 :i* duties may be said to exi/ ?\gh unfulfill$4 ,!re is a sy/em ( rights & obligations :i* %\ld be ma9ta9$ by law1 :e!r x is s or n1 & :i* may prop]ly be call$ 'natural'2 n 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]m 'natural' w\ld imply t su* a sy/em ev] did exi/ or c\ld exi/ indep5d5tly ( =ce ex]cis$ by society ov] individuals1 b 'natural' because necess>y to ! end :i* x is ! vocation ( human society to realise4 #aj4 ,! 'jus naturae1' ?us und]/ood1 is at once di/+ui%$ f ! sph]e ( moral duty1 & relative to x4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f x because admitt+ ( en=cem5t by law4 ,moral duties d n admit ( be+ s en=c$4 ,! "q sometimes put1 :e!r moral duties %\ld be en=c$ by law1 is really an unmean+ "o2 = !y simply _c be en=c$4 ,!y are duties to act1 x is true1 & an act c be en=c$3 b !y are duties to act f c]ta9 dispositions & ) c]ta9 motives1 & ^! _c be en=c$4 ,nay1 ! en=cem5t ( an outw>d act1 ! moral "* ( :i* dep5ds on a c]ta9 motive & disposition1 may (t5 contribute to r5d] t motive & disposition impossible3 & f ?is fact arises a limitation to ! prop] prov9ce ( law 9 en=c+ acts1 :i* w h to be fur!r consid]$ bel[4 ,:5 obligations !n are spok5 ( 9 ?is connection1 z "p ( ! 'jus naturae' correlative to rights1 !y mu/ always be und]/ood n z moral duties1 n z relative to /ates ( w1 b z relative to outw>d acts1 ( :i* ! p]=mance or omission c & %\ld be en=c$4 ,!re is a moral duty to dis*>ge su* obligations1 & to d s 9 a c]ta9 _s1 b ! obligation is su* z t ) :i* law has to d or may h to d1 is relative to an outw>d act m]ely1 & does n am\nt to a moral duty4 ,!re is a moral duty 9 reg>d to obligations1 b !re c be no obligation 9 reg>d to moral duties4 ,?us ! 'jus naturae'--! sy/em ( rights & obligations1 z x %\ld become no less ?an z x actually is ma9ta9$--is di/9ct f morality 9 ! prop] s5se4 ,b x is relative to x4 ,?is is impli$ 9 say+ t !re is a moral duty 9 reg>d to actual obligations1 z well z 9 speak+ ( ! sy/em ( rights & obligations z x %\ld become4 ,if su* language is ju/ifiable1 !re mu/ be a moral gr\nd bo? = con=m+ to1 & = seek+ to develope & improve1 e/abli%$ ',re*t'2 a moral gr\nd :i* c only lie 9 ! moral end s]v$ by t e/abli%$ sy/em4 #aa4 ,?us we beg9 ! e?ical criticism ( law ) two pr9ciples3--7#a7 t no?+ b ext]nal acts c be matt] ( 'obligation' 79 ! re/rict$ s5se72 & 7#b7 t1 9 reg>d to t :i* c be made matt] ( obligation1 ! "q :at %\ld be made matt] ( obligation--! "q h[ f> rights & obligations1 z actually e/abli%$ by law1 correspond to ! true 'jus naturae'--mu/ be consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! moral end1 z s]v+ :i* alone law & ! obligations impos$ by law h _! value4#a #a ,!re are two def9itions ( ',re*t' or 'jus naturae1' quot$ by ,ulrici 7,naturre*t1 p4 #bai71 :i* embody ! tru?s convey$ 9 ^! /atem5ts4 7#a7 ,krause def9es ',re*t' z 'das organis*e ,ganze d] uss]5 ,b$+ung5 des ,v]nunftleb5s1' '! organic :ole ( ! outw>d conditions necess>y to ! rational life4' 7#b7 ,h5rici says t ',re*t' is '0 d] ,idee d] ,unv]letzb>keit d] mat]iell5 wes5tli*5 ,b$+ung5 des moralis*5 ,m5s*5?ums1 d4 h4 d] m5s*li*5 ,p]snli*keit na* ihr] ,exi/5z und ihr] ,v]vollkommnung1 od] d] unv]uss]li*5 ,m5s*5gt] im uss]li*5 ,v]kehr entspri*t'3 i4e4 ',"r is :at' 7or1 't is prop]ly matt] ( legal obligation :i*'7 '9 ! outw>d int]c\rse ( m5 corresponds to ! idea ( ! inviolability ( ! ess5tial mat]ial conditions ( a moral humanity1 i4e4 ( ! human p]sonality 9 respect ( its exi/5ce & its p]fection2' or1 m simply1 ',"r is t :i* is really necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( ! mat]ial conditions ess5tial to ! exi/5ce & p]fection ( human p]sonality4' ,cf4 ,tr5del5burg1 ,naturre*t1 ,sect4 #df4 ',das ,re*t i/ im sittli*5 ,ganz5 d] ,inbegriff d]j5ig5 allgeme95 ,be/immung5 des ,h&elns1 dur* wel*e es ges*ieht dass das sittli*e ,ganze und se9e ,gli$]ung si* erhalt5 und weit] bild5 kann4' ,aft]w>ds he emphasises ! words 'des ,h&elns1' & adds3 ',zw> kann das ,h&eln ni*t ohne d5 ,will5 g$a*t w]d51 d] zum ,grunde liegt3 ab] die ,re*tbe/immung5 s9d ni*t ,be/immung5 des ,will5s als sol*51 0 dem inn]n ,gebiet1 d] ,e?ik d] ,ges9nung1 anheimfall5 wrde4 ,d] ,wille d] ni*t ,h&lung wird entzieht si* dem ,re*t4 ,w5n das ,re*t ,s*uld und ,v]seh51 dolus und culpa1 9 se9 ,b]ei* zieht1 s s9d sie als inn]e ab] *>akt]i/is*e ,bes*aff5beit5 des ,h&elns anzuseh54' #ab4 ,be=e proce$+1 "s rem>ks h to be made z to :at is impli$ 9 ^! pr9ciples1 7a7 ,does ! law1 or is x possible t x %\ld1 conf9e its view to ext]nal acts8 ,:at exactly is meant by an ext]nal act8 ,9 ! case ( obligations :i* ,i am legally puni%able = disreg>d+1 ! law1 9 decid+ :e!r puni%m5t is or is n due1 takes acc\nt ( mu* beside ! ext]nal act2 & ?is implies t mu* beside ext]nal action is involv$ 9 legal obligation4 ,9 ! case :]e ! p]son or prop]ty ( ano!r is damag$ by me1 ! law does n inquire m]ely :e!r ! act ( damage 0 done1 & done by means ( my bodily memb]s1 b :e!r x 0 done int5tionally3 & if n done ) ! direct int5tion ( inflict+ ! damage1 :e!r ! damage arose 9 a mann] t might h be5 =ese5 out ( some?+ :i* ,i did int5d to d3 :e!r1 aga91 if x 0 done q accid5tally ! accid5t 0 due to culpable neglig5ce4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n %[ t ! law c en=ce or prev5t any?+ b ext]nal action1 b only t x is action :i* x seeks to en=ce or prev5t1 = )\t int5tion !re is no action4 ,we talk inde$ ( a man act+ aga9/ 8 w1 b if ?is means act+ aga9/ int5tion x is :at x is impossible to d4 ,:at ,i call an act done aga9/ my w is ei!r 7#a7 an act done by someone else us+ my body1 ?r\gh sup]ior =ce1 z a means3 9 :i* case !re is an act1 b x is n m9e 7e4g4 if ano!r uses my h& to pull ! trigg] ( a gun by :i* someone is %ot72 or 7#b7 a natural ev5t 9 :i* my limbs are affect$ 9 a c]ta9 way :i* causes c]ta9 results to ano!r p]son 7e4g4 if ! roll+ ( a %ip ?r[s me aga9/ ano!r p]son :o is ?us ?r[n into ! wat]72 or 7#c7 an act :i* ,i d "u ! influ5ce ( "s /rong inducem5t 7e4g4 ! fe> ( dea?71 b :i* is contr>y to "s /rong wi%4 ,9 ?is case ! act is m9e1 b m9e because ,i int5d x2 because x is n aga9/ my w z int5tion4 ,9 say+1 !n1 t ! prop]1 because ! only possible1 function ( law is to en=ce ! p]=mance ( or ab/95ce f ext]nal actions1 x is impli$ t its function is to produce or prev5t c]ta9 int5tions1 = )\t int5tion on ! "p ( someone !re is no act4 #ac4 ,b if an act necess>ily includes int5tion1 :at is ! nature ( ! re/riction impli$ 9 call+ x ext]nal8 ,an ext]nal action is a det]m9ation ( w z exhibit$ 9 c]ta9 motions ( ! bodily memb]s :i* produce c]ta9 effects 9 ! mat]ial _w2 n a det]m9ation ( ! w z aris+ f c]ta9 motives & a c]ta9 disposition4 ,all t ! law c d is to enjo9 or =bid det]m9ations ( w z exhibit$ 9 su* motions1 c4 ,x does inde$ pres5t a motive1 = x en=ces its injunctions & prohibitions prim>ily by fe>1 by its ?reat ( c]ta9 consequ5ces if its comm&s are disobey$4 ,?is en=cem5t is n an ex]cise ( physical =ce 9 ! /rict s5se1 = 9 ?is s5se no =ce c produce an action1 s9ce x _c produce a det]m9ation ( w2 & ! only way 9 :i* ! law or its adm9i/rators employ su* =ce is n 9 ! production b 9 ! prev5tion ( action 7z :5 a crim9al is lock$ up or ! police prev5t mis*iev\s p]sons f assault+ u or break+ into our h\ses74 ,b ?\gh1 9 en=c+ its comm&s by ?reats1 ! law is pres5t+ a motive1 & ?us1 accord+ to our di/9ction1 affect+ action on its inn] side1 x does ?is solely = ! sake ( ! ext]nal act4 ,x does n reg>d ! relation ( ! act to ! motive fe> z ( any intr9sic importance4 ,if ! action is p]=m$ )\t ?is motive ev] com+ into play "u ! influ5ce ( :at ! morali/ c\nts high] motives1 ! purpose ( ! law is equally satisfi$4 ,inde$1 x is always und]/ood t its purpose is mo/ ?or\ghly s]v$ :5 ! ?reat ( pa9s & p5alties has ceas$ to be necess>y1 & ! obligations correlative to ! relations ( individuals & ( societies are fulfill$ f o!r motives4 ,its bus9ess is to ma9ta9 c]ta9 conditions ( life--to see t c]ta9 actions are done :i* are necess>y to ! ma9t5ance ( ^? conditions1 o!rs omitt$ :i* w\ld int]f]e ) !m4 ,x has no?+ to d ) ! motive ( ! actions or omissions1 on :i*1 h[ev]1 ! moral value ( !m dep5ds4 #ad4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t legal obligations--obligations :i* c possibly =m ! subject ( positive law--c only be obligations to d or ab/a9 f c]ta9 acts1 n duties ( act+ f c]ta9 motives1 or ) a c]ta9 disposition4 ,x is n a "q :e!r ! law %\ld or %\ld n oblige to any?+ b p]=mance ( outw>d acts4 ,x simply _c oblige to any?+ else1 because ! only means at its comm& = obta9+ ! fulfilm5t ( obligations are 7#a7 ?reats ( pa9 & (f]s ( rew>d1 by means ( :i* x is possible inde$ to secure ! g5]al p]=mance ( c]ta9 acts1 b n _! p]=mance f ! motive ev5 ( fe> ( ! pa9 ?reat5$ or hope ( ! rew>d (f]$1 mu* less f any high] motive2 7#b7 ! employm5t ( physical =ce1 7a7 9 re/ra9+ m5 dispos$ to violate obligations1 7b7 9 =cibly apply+ ! lab\r or ! prop]ty ( ^? :o violate obligations to make good ! brea*1 s f> z is possible3 7z1 e4g41 :5 ! magi/rate =e/alls "p ( a man's wages to provide = a wife :om he has des]t$1 or :5 ! prop]ty ( a debtor is seiz$ = ! b5efit ( 8 cr$itors47 #ae4 ,only outw>d acts1 !n1 c be matt] ( legal obligation2 b :at sort ( outw>d acts %\ld be matt] ( legal obligation8 ,! answ] to ?is "q arises out ( ! above consid]ation ( ! means :i* law employs to obta9 ! fulfilm5t ( obligations1 comb9$ ) ! view ( law z relative to a moral end1 i4e4 ! =mation ( a society ( p]sons1 act+ f a c]ta9 disposition1 f int]e/ 9 ! society z su*4 ,^? acts only %\ld be matt] ( legal injunction or prohibition ( :i* ! p]=mance or omission1 irrespectively ( ! motive f :i* x proce$s1 is s necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( a society 9 :i* ! moral end /at$ c be realis$1 t x is bett] = !m to be done or omitt$ f t unwor?y motive :i* consi/s 9 fe> or hope ( legal consequ5ces ?an n to be done at all4 #af4 ,we di/+ui%1 !n1 ! sy/em ( rights actually ma9ta9$ & obligations actually en=c$ by legal sanctions 7',re*t' or 'jus'7 f ! sy/em ( relations & obligations :i* %\ld be ma9ta9$ by su* sanctions 7',naturre*t'72 & we hold t ^? actions or omissions %\ld be made obligations :i*1 :5 made obligations1 s]ve a c]ta9 moral end2 t ?is end is ! gr\nd or ju/ification or rationale ( legal obligation2 & t ?us we obta9 a g5]al rule1 ( bo? positive & negative application1 9 reg>d to ! prop] matt] or cont5t ( legal obligation4 ,= s9ce ! end consi/s 9 action proce$+ f a c]ta9 disposition1 & s9ce action done f appreh5sion ( legal consequ5ces does n proce$ f t disposition1 no action %\ld be enjo9$ or prohibit$ by law ( :i* ! injunction or prohibition int]f]es ) actions proce$+ f t disposition1 & e action %\ld be s enjo9$ ( :i* ! p]=mance is f\nd to produce conditions fav\rable to action proce$+ f t disposition1 & ( :i* ! legal injunction does n int]f]e ) su* action4 #ag4 ,does ?is g5]al rule give any real guidance 9 ! difficulties :i* practically arise 9 reg>d to ! prov9ce ( law--z to :at %\ld be requir$ by law1 & :at left to ! incl9ation ( individuals8 ,:at cases are !re or h !re be5 ( enactm5ts :i* on ?is pr9ciple we c pron\nce wrong8 ,h attempts ev] be5 made by law to en=ce acts z virtu\s :i* lose _! virtue :5 done "u fe> ( legal p5alties8 ,x w\ld be difficult1 no d\bt1 to f9d in/ances ( attempts to en=ce by law actions ( :i* we %\ld say t ! value lies 9 ! disposition f :i* !y are done1 actions1 e4g4 ( dis9t]e/$ k9dness1 because ! cle> conception ( virtue z dep5d+ n on outw>d results1 b on disposition1 is b sl[ly arriv$ at1 & has nev] be5 reflect$ 9 law4 ,b )\t any /rictly moral object at all1 laws h be5 made :i* *eck ! developm5t ( ! moral disposition4 ,?is has be5 done 7a7 by legal requirem5ts ( religi\s obs]vance & pr(ession ( belief1 :i* h t5d$ to vitiate ! religi\s s\rce ( morality2 7b7 by prohibitions & re/ra9ts1 unnecess>y1 or :i* h ceas$ to be necess>y1 = ma9ta9+ ! social conditions ( ! moral life1 & :i* int]f]e ) ! gr[? ( self-reliance1 ) ! =mation ( a manly consci5ce & s5se ( moral dignity1--9 %ort1 ) ! moral autonomy :i* is ! condition ( ! highe/ goodness2 7c7 by legal in/itutions :i* take away ! occasion = ! ex]cise ( c]ta9 moral virtues 7e4g4 ! ,poor-law :i* takes away ! occasion = ! ex]cise ( p>5tal =e?\ght1 filial rev]5ce1 & neighb\rly k9dness74 #ah4 ,laws ( ?is k9d h (t5 be5 object$ to on ! /r5g? ( a "o-sid$ view ( ! function ( laws2 ! view1 viz41 t its only bus9ess is to prev5t int]f]5ce ) ! lib]ty ( ! individual4 ,& ?is view has ga9$ undue fav\r on acc\nt ( ! real re=ms to :i* x has l$4 ,! laws :i* x has help$ to get rid ( 7 really mis*iev\s1 b mis*iev\s = fur!r reasons ?an ^? conceiv$ ( by ! support]s ( ?is !ory4 ,hav+ done its "w1 ! !ory n[ t5ds to become ob/ructive1 because 9 fact advanc+ civilisation br+s ) x m & m int]f]5ce ) ! lib]ty ( ! individual to d z he likes1 & ?is !ory af=ds a reason = resi/+ all positive re=ms1 all re=ms :i* involve an action ( ! /ate 9 ! way ( promot+ conditions fav\rable to moral life4 ,x is "o ?+ to say t ! /ate 9 promot+ ^! conditions mu/ take c>e n to defeat its true end by n>r[+ ! region )9 :i* ! spontaneity & dis9t]e/$ness ( true morality c h play2 ano!r ?+ to say t x has no moral end to s]ve at all1 & t x goes beyond its prov9ce :5 x seeks to d m ?an secure ! individual f viol5t int]f]5ce by o!r individuals4 ,! true gr\nd ( objection to 'pat]nal gov]nm5t' is n t x violates ! 'laissez faire' pr9ciple & conceives t its (fice is to make p good1 to promote morality1 b t x re/s on a misconception ( morality4 ,! real function ( gov]nm5t be+ to ma9ta9 conditions ( life 9 :i* morality %all be possible1 & morality consi/+ 9 ! dis9t]e/$ p]=mance ( self-impos$ duties1 'pat]nal gov]nm5t' does its be/ to make x impossible by n>r[+ ! room = ! self-imposition ( duties & = ! play ( dis9t]e/$ motives4 #ai4 ,! "q be=e u1 !n1 is1 ,9 :at ways & h[ f> d ! ma9 obligations en=c$ & rights ma9ta9$ by law 9 all civilis$ societies contribute to ! moral end describ$2 viz4 to e/abli% ^? conditions ( life 9 :i* a true1 i4e4 a dis9t]e/$ or unselfi% morality %all be possible8 ,! answ] to ?is "q w be a !ory ( ! 'jus naturae'2 i4e4 x w expla9 h[ f> positive law is :at x %\ld be1 & :at is ! gr\nd ( ! duty to obey x2 9 o!r words1 ( political obligation4 ,!re are two ?+s f :i* su* a !ory mu/ be di/+ui%$4 7#a7 ,x is n an inquiry into ! process by :i* actual law came to be :at x is2 nor 7#b7 is x an inquiry h[ f> actual law corresponds to & is d]iv$ f ! ex]cise ( c]ta9 orig9al or natural rights4 7#a7 ,x is n ! =m]1 because ! process by :i* ! law ( any nation & ! law 9 :i* civilis$ nations agree has come to be :at x is1 has n be5 det]m9$ by ref]5ce to t end to :i* we hold t law ought to be direct$ & by ref]5ce to :i* we criticise x4 ,t is to say1 ! process has n be5 det]m9$ by any su* consci\s ref]5ce on ! "p ( ! ag5ts 9 ! process4 ,no d\bt a desire = social good z di/9ct f private pleasure1 = :at is good on ! :ole z di/9ct f :at is good = ! mom5t1 has be5 a necess>y condition ( x2 b 7a71 z an ag5t 9 ! developm5t ( law1 ?is has n rea*$ ! =m ( a conception ( moral good accord+ to t def9ition ( x by :i* ! value ( law is to be e/imat$2 & 7b7 9 br++ law to its pres5t /ate x has be5 indi/+ui%ably bl5d$ ) purely selfi% passions & ) ! simple /ruggle = exi/5ce4 #bj4 7#b7 ,a true !ory ( 'jus naturae1' a rationale ( law or ideal ( :at x %\ld be1 is n to be _h by inquir+ h[ f> actual law corresponds to1 & is d]iv$ f1 ! ex]cise ( c]ta9 orig9al or natural rights1 if t is tak5 to mean t we "k1 or c asc]ta91 :at rights are natural on gr\nds di/9ct f ^? on :i* we det]m9e :at laws are ju/ifiable1 & t !n we c proce$ to asc]ta9 :at laws are ju/ifiable by d$uction f su* rights4 ',natural rights1' s f> z !re are su* ?+s1 are !mselves relative to ! moral end to :i* p]fect law is relative4 ,a law is n good because x en=ces 'natural rights1' b because x contributes to ! realisation ( a c]ta9 end4 ,we only discov] :at rights are natural by consid]+ :at p[]s mu/ be secur$ to a man 9 ord] to ! atta9m5t ( ?is end4 ,^! p[]s a p]fect law w secure to _! full ext5t4 ,?us ! consid]ation ( :at rights are 'natural' 79 ! only legitimate s5se7 & ! consid]ation :at laws are ju/ifiable =m "o & ! same process1 ea* presuppos+ a conception ( ! moral vocation ( man4 #ba4 ,! doctr9e "h ass]t$1 t all rights are relative to moral ends or duties1 mu/ n be confus$ ) ! ord9>y /atem5t t e "r implies a duty1 or t rights & duties are correlative4 ,?is ( c\rse is true 9 ! s5se t possession ( a "r by any p]son bo? implies an obligation on ! "p ( someone else1 & is conditional ^u ! recognition ( c]ta9 obligations on ! "p ( ! p]son possess+ x4 ,b :at is meant is some?+ diff]5t1 viz4 t ! claim or "r ( ! individual to h c]ta9 p[]s secur$ to him by society1 & ! c\nt]-claim ( society to ex]cise c]ta9 p[]s ov] ! individual1 alike re/ on ! fact t ^! p[]s are necess>y to ! fulfilm5t ( man's vocation z a moral be+1 to an effectual self-devotion to ! "w ( develop+ ! p]fect "* 9 himself & o!rs4 #bb4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! gr\nd on :i* ! claim 9 "q has g5]ally be5 ass]t$4 ,ap>t f ! utilit>ian !ory1 :i* fir/ began to be appli$ politically by ,hume1 ! ord9>y way ( ju/ify+ ! civil rights ( individuals 7i4e4 ! p[]s secur$ to !m by law z aga9/ ea* o!r71 z well z ! rights ( ! /ate aga9/ individuals 7i4e4 ! p[]s :i*1 ) ! g5]al approval ( society1 x ex]cises aga9/ !m71 has be5 to d$uce !m f c]ta9 suppos$ prior rights1 call$ natural rights4 ,9 ! ex]cise ( ^! natural rights1 x has be5 suppos$1 m5 ) a view to _! g5]al int]e/ e/abli%$ political society4 ,f t e/abli%m5t is d]iv$ bo? ! sy/em ( rights & obligations ma9ta9$ by law z betwe5 man & man1 & ! "r ( ! /ate to ! submission ( its subjects4 ,if ! "q1 !n1 is rais$1 :y ,i ought to respect ! legal rights ( my neighb\rs1 to pay taxes1 or h my *ildr5 vacc9at$1 s]ve 9 ! army if ! /ate requires x1 & g5]ally submit to ! law1 ! answ] accord+ to ?is !ory w be t if ,i fail to d s1 ,i %all directly or indirectly be violat+ ! natural rights ( o!r m52 directly 9 ^? cases :]e ! legal rights ( my neighb\rs are also natural rights1 z !y v well may be 7e4g4 rights ( lib]ty or p]sonal safety72 indirectly :]e ?is is n ! case1 because1 al?\gh ! rights ( ! /ate itself are n natural1 & _m rights ex]cis$ by individuals w\ld n only n be secur$ b w\ld n exi/ at all b = legal enactm5t1 yet ! /ate itself results f a cov5ant :i* orig9ally1 9 ! ex]cise ( _! natural rights1 m5 made ) ea* o!r1 & to :i* all born "u ! /ate & %>+ ! advantages d]iv$ f x mu/ be consid]$ p>ties4 ,!re is a natural "r1 !re=e1 on ! "p ( ea* memb] ( a /ate to h ?is compact obs]v$1 ) a correspond+ obligation to obs]ve x2 & ?is natural "r ( all is violat$ by any individual :o refuses to obey ! law ( ! /ate or to respect ! rights1 n 9 !mselves natural1 :i* ! /ate conf]s on individuals4 #bc4 ,?is1 on ! :ole1 0 ! =m 9 :i* ! gr\nd ( political obligation1 ! ju/ification ( e/abli%$ rights1 0 pres5t$ ?r\gh\t ! sev5te5? c5tury1 & 9 ! eighte5? till ! rise ( ! 'utilit>ian' !ory ( obligation4 ,special adaptations ( x 7 made by ,hobbes & o!rs4 ,9 ,hobbes1 p]haps 7( :om m lat]71 may be f\nd an ef=t to fit an anticipation ( ! utilit>ian !ory ( political obligation into ! receiv$ !ory :i* trac$ political obligation1 by means ( ! supposition ( a primitive contract1 to an orig9 9 natural "r4 ,b 9 him z mu* z anyone ! language & framework ( ! !ory ( compact is reta9$1 ev5 if an ali5 doctr9e may be read betwe5 ! l9es4 ,( ! utilit>ian !ory ( political obligation m %all be said lat]4 ,x may be pres5t$ 9 a =m 9 :i* x w\ld sc>cely be di/+ui%able f ! doctr9e j n[ /at$1 ! doctr9e1 viz41 t ! gr\nd ( political obligation1 ! reason :y c]ta9 p[]s %\ld be recognis$ z belong+ to ! /ate & c]ta9 o!r p[]s z secur$ by ! /ate to individuals1 lies 9 ! fact t ^! p[]s are necess>y to ! fulfilm5t ( man's vocation z a moral be+1 to an effectual self-devotion to ! "w ( develop+ ! p]fect "* 9 himself & o!rs4 ,utilit>ianism prop]1 h[ev]1 recognises no vocation ( man b ! atta9m5t ( pleasure & avoidance ( pa94 ,! only reason :y civil rights %\ld be respect$--! only ju/ification ( !m--accord+ to x1 w\ld be t m pleasure is atta9$ or pa9 avoid$ by ! g5]al respect = !m2 ! gr\nd ( our consci\sness t we ought to respect !m1 9 o!r words _! ultimate sanction1 is ! fe> ( :at ! consequ5ces w\ld be if we did n4 ,?is !ory & t :i* ,i deem true h "o negative po9t 9 common4 ,!y d n seek ! gr\nd ( actual rights 9 a prior natural "r1 b 9 an end to :i* ! ma9t5ance ( ! rights contributes4 ,!y avoid ! mi/ake ( id5tify+ ! inquiry into ! ultimate ju/ifiability ( actual rights ) ! "q :e!r !re is a prior "r to ! possession ( !m4 ,! "r to ! possession ( !m1 if prop]ly s call$1 w\ld n be a m]e p[]1 b a p[] recognis$ by a society z "o :i* %\ld exi/4 ,?is recognition ( a p[]1 9 "s way or o!r1 z t :i* %\ld be1 is always necess>y to r5d] x a "r4 ,!re=e :5 we _h %[n t ! rights ex]cis$ 9 political society 7 d]iv$ f prior 'natural' rights1 a "q w\ld /ill rema9 z to ! gr\nd ( ^? natural rights4 ,we %\ld h to ask :y c]ta9 p[]s 7 recognis$ z p[]s :i* %\ld be ex]cis$1 & ?us became ^! natural rights4 #bd4 ,?us1 ?\gh x may be possible & useful to %[ h[ ! m seem+ly artificial rights are d]iv$ f rights m simple & elem5t>y1 h[ ! rights e/abli%$ by law 9 a political society are d]iv$ f rights t may be call$ natural1 n 9 ! s5se ( be+ prior to society1 b 9 ! s5se ( be+ prior to ! exi/5ce ( a society gov]n$ by writt5 law or a recognis$ sov]eign1 /ill su* d]ivation is no ju/ification ( !m4 ,x is no answ] to ! "q :y !y %\ld be respect$2 because ?is "q rema9s to be ask$ 9 reg>d to ! mo/ primitive rights !mselves4 ,political or civil rights1 !n1 are n to be expla9$ by d]ivation f natural rights1 b 9 reg>d to bo? political & natural rights1 9 any s5se 9 :i* !re c be truly said to be natural rights1 ! "q has to be ask$1 h[ x is t c]ta9 p[]s are recognis$ by m5 9 _! int]c\rse ) ea* o!r z p[]s t %\ld be ex]cis$1 or ( :i* ! possible ex]cise %\ld be secur$4 #be4 ,i h tri$ to %[ 9 lectures on morals t ! conception express$ by ! '%\ld be' is n id5tical ) ! conception ( a "r possess$ by "s man or m51 b "o f :i* ! latt] conception is d]iv$4 ,x is1 or implies on ! "p ( :oev] is capable ( x1 ! conception ( an ideal1 unatta9$ condition ( himself1 z an absolute end4 ,)\t ?is conception ! recognition ( a p[] z a "r w\ld be impossible4 ,a p[] on ! "p ( anyone is s recognis$ by o!rs1 z "o :i* %\ld be ex]cis$1 :5 ^! o!rs reg>d x z 9 "s way a means to t ideal good ( !mselves :i* !y alike conceive3 & ! possessor ( ! p[] comes to reg>d x z a "r ?r\gh consci\sness ( its be+ ?us recognis$ z contributory to a good 9 :i* he too is int]e/$4 ,no "o !re=e c h a "r except 7#a7 z a memb] ( a society1 & 7#b7 ( a society 9 :i* "s common good is recognis$ by ! memb]s ( ! society z _! own ideal good1 z t :i* %\ld be = ea* ( !m4 ,! capacity = be+ det]m9$ by a good s recognis$ is :at con/itutes p]sonality 9 ! e?ical s5se2 & = ?is reason !re is tru? 9 say+ t only among p]sons1 9 ! e?ical s5se1 c !re come to be rights2 7:i* is q compatible ) ! fact t ! logical dis5tanglem5t ( ! conception ( rights prec$es t ( ! conception ( ! legal p]son2 & t ! conception ( ! moral p]son1 9 its ab/ract & logical =m1 is n arriv$ at till aft] t ( ! legal p]son74 ,conv]sely1 ev]yone capable ( be+ det]m9$ by ! conception ( a common good z 8 own ideal good1 z t :i* unconditionally %\ld be 7( be+ 9 t s5se an end to himself71 9 o!r words1 e moral p]son1 is capable ( rights2 i4e4 ( be>+ 8 "p 9 a society 9 :i* ! free ex]cise ( 8 p[]s is secur$ to ea* memb] ?r\gh ! recognition by ea* ( ! o!rs z entitl$ to ! same fre$om ) himself4 ,to say t he is capable ( rights1 is to say t he ought to h !m1 9 t s5se ( 'ought' 9 :i* x expresses ! relation ( man to an end conceiv$ z absolutely good1 to an end :i*1 :e!r desir$ or no1 is conceiv$ z intr9sically desirable4 ,! moral capacity implies a consci\sness on ! "p ( ! subject ( ! capacity t its realisation is an end desirable 9 itself1 & rights are ! condition ( realis+ x4 ,only ?r\gh ! possession ( rights c ! p[] ( ! individual freely to make a common good 8 own h reality giv5 to x4 ,rights are :at may be call$ ! negative realisation ( ?is p[]4 ,t is1 !y realise x 9 ! s5se ( provid+ = its free ex]cise1 ( secur+ ! treatm5t ( "o man by ano!r z equally free ) himself1 b !y d n realise x positively1 because _! possession does n imply t 9 any active way ! individual makes a common good 8 own4 ,! possession ( !m1 h[ev]1 is ! condition ( ?is positive realisation ( ! moral capacity1 & !y ought to be possess$ because ?is end 79 ! s5se expla9$7 ought to be atta9$4 #bf4 ,h5ce on ! "p ( e p]son 7'p]son' 9 ! moral s5se expla9$7 ! claim1 m or less articulate & reflect$ on1 to rights on 8 own "p is co-ord9ate ) 8 recognition ( rights on ! "p ( o!rs4 ,! capacity to conceive a common good z "o's own1 & to regulate ! ex]cise ( "o's p[]s by ref]5ce to a good :i* o!rs recognise1 c>ries ) x ! consci\sness t p[]s %\ld be s ex]cis$2 :i* means t !re %\ld be rights1 t p[]s %\ld be regulat$ by mutual recognition4 ,!re ought to be rights1 because ! moral p]sonality1--! capacity on ! "p ( an individual = mak+ a common good 8 own1--ought to be develop$2 & x is develop$ ?r\gh rights2 i4e4 ?r\gh ! recognition by memb]s ( a society ( p[]s 9 ea* o!r contributory to a common good1 & ! regulation ( ^? p[]s by t recognition4 #bg4 ,9 say+ t only among 'p]sons' c !re come to be rights1 & t e 'p]son' %\ld h rights1 ,i h be5 c>eful to expla9 t ,i use 'p]son' 9 ! moral1 n m]ely 9 ! legal1 s5se4 ,9 deal+1 !n1 ) su* phrases z 'jura p]son>um' & 'p]sonal rights1' we mu/ keep 9 view ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! legal & e?ical s5se ( ! proposition t all rights are p]sonal1 or subsi/ z betwe5 p]sons4 ,9 ! legal s5se1 s f> z x is true1--& x is s only if 'p]son' is us$ 9 ! s5se ( ,roman law1--x is an id5tical proposition4 ,a p]son means a subject ( rights & no?+ m4 ,legal p]sonality is d]iv$ f ! possession ( "r1 n vice v]sa4 ,l o!r id5tical propositions1 its use is to br+ out & emphasise 9 ! pr$icate :at is includ$ 9 ! und]/ood connotation ( ! subject2 to rem9d u t :5 we speak ( rights we imply ! exi/5ce ( p>ties1 9 ,engli% phraseology1 capable ( su+ & be+ su$4 ,9 ! e?ical s5se1 x means t rights are d]iv$ f ! possession ( p]sonality z a rational w 7i4e4 ! capacity :i* man possesses ( be+ det]m9$ to action by ! conception ( su* a p]fection ( 8 be+ z involves ! p]fection ( a society 9 :i* he lives71 9 ! s5se 7a7 t only among be+s possess$ ( rational w c !re come to be rights1 7b7 t !y fulfil _! idea1 or are ju/ifiable1 or su* rights z %\ld be rights1 only z contribut+ to ! realisation ( a rational w4 ,x is important to be> ?is di/9ction 9 m9d 9 ord] t ! proposition 9 its e?ical s5se1 :i* c /& on its own m]its1 may n d]ive app>5t confirmation f a juri/ic truism4 #bh4 ,! moral idea ( p]sonality is con/antly t5d+ to affect ! legal conception ( ! relation betwe5 rights & p]sons4 ,?us ! 'jura p]son>um1' :i* prop]ly ei!r rights aris+ out ( '/atus1' or rights :i* n only 7l all rights7 reside 9 someone hav+ a legal /atus & are available aga9/ o!rs hav+ a legal /atus1 b are ex]cis$ ov]1 or 9 respect (1 someone possess$ ( su* /atus 7e4g4 a wife or a s]vant71 come to be und]/ood z rights d]iv$ f ! human p]sonality or belong+ to man z man4 ,x is ) "s su* mean+ t ,engli% writ]s on law speak ( rights to life & lib]ty z p]sonal rights4 ,! expression might seem pleona/ic1 s9ce no "r c exi/ except z belong+ to a p]son 9 ! legal s5se4 ,!y d n use ! phrase ei!r pleona/ically or 9 ! s5se ( ! ,roman lawy]s' 'jura p]son>um' above1 b 9 ! s5se t ^! rights are imm$iately d]iv$ f1 or necess>ily atta* to1 ! human p]sonality 9 :atev] t p]sonality is suppos$ to consi/4 ,!re is no d\bt1 h[ev]1 t hi/orically ! conception ( ! moral p]son1 9 any ab/ract =m1 is n arriv$ at till aft] t ( ! legal p]son has be5 ?us dis5tangl$ & =mulat$2 & fur!r t ! ab/ract conception ( ! legal p]son1 z ! su/a9] ( rights1 is n arriv$ at till long aft] rights h be5 actually recognis$ & e/abli%$4 ,b ! dis5tanglem5t or ab/ract =mulation ( ! conception ( moral p]sonality is q a diff]5t ?+ f ! action ( ! consci\sness 9 :i* p]sonality consi/s4 #bi4 ,! capacity1 !n1 on ! "p ( ! individual ( conceiv+ a good z ! same = himself & o!rs1 & ( be+ det]m9$ to action by t conception1 is ! f\ndation ( rights2 & rights are ! condition ( t capacity be+ realis$4 ,no "r is ju/ifiable or %\ld be a "r except on ! gr\nd t directly or indirectly x s]ves ?is purpose4 ,conv]sely e p[] %\ld be a "r1 i4e4 society %\ld secure to ! individual e p[]1 t is necess>y = realis+ ?is capacity4 ,claims to su* p[]s z are directly necess>y to a man's act+ z a moral p]son at all--act+ "u ! conception ( a good z ! same = self & o!rs--may be call$ 9 a special s5se p]sonal rights 7?\gh !y w include m ?an ,/eph5 includes "u t designation72 !y may also be call$1 if we avoid misconceptions connect$ ) ^! t]ms1 'innate' or 'natural' rights4 ,!y are ?us di/+ui%$ f o!rs :i* are 7#a7 only indirectly necess>y to ! end /at$1 or 7#b7 are s only "u special conditions ( society2 z well z f claims :i* re/ m]ely on legal enactm5t & might cease to be en=c$ )\t any violation ( ! 'jus naturae4' #cj4 ,! objection to call+ !m 'innate' or 'natural1' :5 once x is admitt$ on ! "o side t rights are n arbitr>y creations ( law or cu/om b t !re are c]ta9 p[]s :i* ought to be secur$ z rights1 on ! o!r h& t !re are no rights antec$5t to society1 none t m5 br\ght ) !m into a society :i* !y contract$ to =m1 is ma9ly "o ( words4 ,!y are 'innate' or 'natural' 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* accord+ to ,ari/otle ! /ate is natural3 n 9 ! s5se t !y actually exi/ :5 a man is born & t !y h actually exi/$ z long z ! human race1 b t !y arise out (1 & are necess>y = ! fulfilm5t (1 a moral capacity )\t :i* a man w\ld n be a man4 ,!re _c be innate rights 9 any o!r s5se ?an t 9 :i* !re are innate duties1 ( :i*1 h[ev]1 mu* less has be5 he>d4 ,because a gr\p ( be+s are capable ea* ( conceiv+ an absolute good ( himself & ( conceiv+ x to be good = himself z id5tical )1 & because id5tical )1 ! good ( ! re/ ( ! gr\p1 !re arises = ea* a consci\sness t ! common good %\ld be ! object ( action1 i4e4 a duty1 & a claim 9 ea* to a p[] ( action t %all be at once secur$ & regulat$ by ! consci\sness ( a common good on ! "p ( ! re/1 i4e4 a "r4 ,!re is no gr\nd = say+ t ! "r arises out ( a prim>y human capacity1 & is ?us 'innate1' :i* does n apply equally to ! duty4 #ca4 ,! dissociation ( innate rights f innate duties has gone along ) ! delusion t su* rights exi/$ ap>t f society4 ,m5 7 suppos$ to h exi/$ 9 a /ate ( nature1 :i* 0 n a /ate ( society1 b 9 :i* c]ta9 rights atta*$ to !m z individuals1 & !n to h =m$ societies by contract or cov5ant4 ,society hav+ be5 =m$1 c]ta9 o!r rights arose ?r\gh positive enactm5t2 b none ( ^!1 x 0 held1 c\ld int]f]e ) ! natural rights :i* belong$ to m5 antec$5tly to ! social contract or surviv$ x4 ,su* a !ory c only be /at$ by an application to an imag9>y /ate ( ?+s1 prior to ! =mation ( societies z regulat$ by cu/om or law1 ( t]ms t h no mean+ except 9 relation to su* societies4 ',natural "r1' z "r 9 a /ate ( nature :i* is n a /ate ( society1 is a contradiction4 ,!re c be no "r )\t a consci\sness ( common int]e/ on ! "p ( memb]s ( a society4 ,)\t ?is !re might be c]ta9 p[]s on ! "p ( individuals1 b no recognition ( ^! p[]s by o!rs z p[]s ( :i* !y all[ ! ex]cise1 nor any claim to su* recognition2 & )\t ?is recognition or claim to recognition !re c be no "r4 ,b4 ,,sp9oza4 #cb4 ,sp9oza is aw>e ( ?is4 ,9 ! ,tractatus ,politici1 ,,x4 #d1 he says1 ',p] jus itaque naturae intelligo 444 ipsam naturae pot5tiam4' #a 444 ',quicquid unusquisque homo ex legibus suae naturae agit1 id summo naturae jure agit1 tantumque 9 naturam habet juris1 quantum pot5tia valet4' ,if only1 see+ t ! 'jus naturae' 0 m]e 'pot5tia1' he _h d5i$ t x 0 'jus' at all1 he w\ld h be5 on ! "r track4 ,in/ead ( t1 h[ev]1 he treats x z prop]ly 'jus1' & consi/5tly ) ?is reg>ds all 'jus' z m]e 'pot5tia'3 nor is any 'jus humanum' accord+ to him guid$ by or ! product ( reason4 ,x arises1 9 mod]n phrase1 out ( ! '/ruggle = exi/5ce4' ,z ,sp9oza says1 'hom9es magis caeca cupiditate quam ratione ducuntur2 ac pro9de hom9um naturalis pot5tia sive jus non ratione1 s$ quocumque appetitu quo ad ag5dum det]m9antur1 quoque se cons]v>e conantur1 def9iri debet' 7,,ii4 #e74 ,! 'jus civile' is simply ! result ( ! conflict ( natural p[]s1 :i* natural rights1 :i* arises f ! ef=t ( e man to gratify 8 passions & 'suum esse cons]v>e4' ,man is simply a 'p>s naturae1' ! mo/ crafty ( ! animals4 ',quat5us hom9es ira1 invidia aut aliquo odii affectu conflictantur1 eat5us div]se trahuntur et invicem contr>ii sunt1 et propt]ea eo plus tim5di1 quo plus possunt1 magisque callidi et a/uti sunt1 quam reliqua animalia2 et quia hom9es ut plurimum 8 affectibus natura sunt obnoxii1 sunt ergo hom9es ex natura ho/es' 7,,ii4 #ad74 ,univ]sal ho/ility means univ]sal fe>1 & fe> means weakness4 ,x foll[s t 9 ! /ate ( nature !re is no?+ fit to be call$ 'pot5tia' or consequ5tly 'jus'2 'atque adeo concludimus jus naturae vix posse concipi nisi ubi hom9es jura hab5t communia1 qui simul t]ras1 quas habit>e et col]e possunt1 sibi v9dic>e1 seseque munire1 vimque omnem repell]e et ex communi omnium s5t5tia viv]e possunt4 ,nam 7p] art4 #ac hujus cap47 quo plures 9 unum sic conv5iunt1 eo omnes simul plus juris hab5t' 7#ae74 ,! collective body1 i4e41 has m 'jus 9 naturam1' i4e4 'pot5tiam1' ?an any individual c\ld h s+ly 7#ac74 ,9 ! advantage ( ?is increas$ 'jus 9 naturam' ! individual %>es4 ,on ! o!r h& 7#af71 ',ubi hom9es jura communia hab5t omnesque una veluti m5te ducuntur1 c]tum e/ 7p] art4 #ac hujus cap47 eorum unumquemque tanto m9us hab]e juris1 quanto reliqui simul ipso pot5tiores sunt1 hoc e/1 ilium rev]a jus nullum 9 naturam hab]e praet] id1 quod ipsi commune conc$it jus4 ,cet]um quicquid ex communi cons5su ipsi imp]atur1 t5]i exsequi vel 7p] art4 #d hujus cap47 jure ad id cogi4' ,?is 'jus' by :i* ! individual's actions are n[ to be regulat$1 is /ill simply 'pot5tia4' ',hoc jus1 quod multitud9is pot5tia def9itur1 imp]ium appell>i solet' 7#ag74 ,x is n to be consid]$ any?+ diff]5t f ! 'jus naturae4' ,x is simply ! 'naturalis pot5tia' ( a c]ta9 numb] ( m5 comb9$2 'multitud9is quae una veluti m5te ducitur' 7,,iii4 #b74 ,?us 9 ! '/atus civilis' ! 'jus naturae' ( ! individual 9 "o s5se disappe>s1 9 ano!r does n4 ,x disappe>s 9 ! s5se t ! individual memb] ( ! /ate has no m9d to act or p[] to act aga9/ ! m9d ( ! /ate4 ,anyone :o _h su* m9d or p[] w\ld n be a memb] ( ! /ate4 ,he w\ld be an enemy aga9/ ^: 'pot5tia' ! /ate mu/ measure its own4 ,on ! o!r h&1 '9 /atu civili1' j z mu* z '9 /atu naturali1' 'homo ex legibus suae naturae agit suaeque utilitati consulit' 7#c74 ,he ex]cises 8 'naturalis pot5tia' = "s natural end ( satisfy+ 8 wants & pres]v+ 8 life z he did or w\ld d outside ! '/atus civilis4' ,only 9 ! '/atus civilis' ^! motives on ! "p ( individuals s f> co9cide z to =m ! 'una veluti m5s' :i* directs ! 'multitud9is pot5tia4' ,accord+ to ?is view1 any memb] ( a /ate w h j s mu* 'jus1' i4e4 'pot5tia1' aga9/ o!r memb]s z ! /ate all[s him4 ,if he c ex]cise any 'jus' or 'pot5tia' aga9/ ano!r 'ex suo +5io1' he is s f> n a memb] ( ! /ate & ! /ate is s f> imp]fect4 ,if he c\ld ex]cise any 'jus' or 'pot5tia' aga9/ ! /ate itself1 !re w\ld be no /ate1 or1 :i* is ! same1 ! /ate w\ld n be 'sui juris4' #a ,_m ( ! ,lat9 passages quot$ 9 ?is *apt] are translat$ 9 ,bosanquet's ,supplem5t4 ,tr #cc4 ,is !re !n no limit to ! 'jus' :i* ! /ate may ex]cise8 ,) ,sp9oza ?is is equival5t to ! "q1 is !re no limit to ! 'pot5tia' :i* x c ex]cise8 ,z to ?is1 he sugge/s ?ree consid]ations4 7#a74 ,its p[] is weak5$ by any action aga9/ "r reason1 because ?is mu/ weak5 ! 'animorum unio' on :i* x is f\nd$4 ',civitatis jus pot5tia multitud9is1 quae una veluti m5te ducitur1 det]m9atur4 ,at haec animorum unio concipi nulla ratione posset1 nisi civitas id ipsum maxime int5dat1 quod sana ratio omnibus hom9ibus utile esse docet' 7,,iii4 #g74 7#b74 ,! '"r' or 'p[]' ( ! /ate dep5ds on its p[] ( affect+ ! hopes & fe>s ( individual citiz5s4444 ',subditi eat5us non sui1 s$ civitatis juris s9t1 quat5us ejus pot5tiam seu m9as metuunt1 vel quat5us /atum civilem amant 7p] art4 #aj praec$4 cap474 ,ex quo sequitur1 quod ea omnia1 ad quse ag5da nemo praemiis aut m9is induci pote/1 ad jura civitatis non p]t9eant' 7,,iii4 #h74 ,:atev] _c be a*iev$ by rew>ds & ?reats1 is beyond ! p[] & !re=e beyond ! '"r' ( ! /ate4 ,examples are giv5 9 ! same section4 7#c74 ',ad civitatis jus ea m9us p]t9]e1 quae plurimi indignantur' 7,,iii4 #i74 ,sev]ities ( a c]ta9 k9d lead to conspiracies aga9/ ! /ate1 & ?us weak5 x4 ',sicut unusquisque civis sive homo 9 /atu naturali1 sic civitas eo m9us sui juris e/1 quo majorem tim5di causam habet4' ,j s f> !n z !re are c]ta9 ?+s :i* ! /ate _c d1 or by do+ :i* x less5s its p[]1 s f> !re are ?+s :i* x has no '"r' to d4 #cd4 ,sp9oza proce$s to consid] ! relation ( /ates or sov]eign p[]s to ea* o!r4 ,"h ! pr9ciple is simple4 ,!y are to ea* o!r z individuals 9 ! /ate ( nature1 except t !y w n be subject to ! same weaknesses4 ',nam qu&oquidem 7p] art4 #b hujus cap47 jus summae pote/atis nihil e/ praet] ipsum naturae jus1 sequitur duo imp]ia ad invicem sese hab]e1 ut duo hom9es 9 /atu naturali1 excepto hoc1 quod civitas sibi cav]e pote/1 ne ab alia opprimatur1 quod homo 9 /atu naturali non pote/1 nimirum qui quotidie somno1 saepe morbo aut animi aegritud9e1 et t&em s5ectute gravatur1 et prat] haec aliis incommodis e/ obnoxius1 a quibus civitas securam se r$d]e pote/' 7,,iii4 #aa74 ,9 o!r words1 '444 duae civitates natura ho/es sunt4 ,hom9es enim 9 /atu naturali ho/es sunt4 ,qui igitur jus naturae extra civitatem ret95t1 ho/es man5t' 7,,iii4 #ac74 ,! 'jura belli' are simply ! p[]s ( any "o /ate to attack or def5d itself aga9/ ano!r4 ,! 'jura pacis1' on ! o!r h&1 d n app]ta9 to any s+le /ate1 b arise out ( ! agreem5t ( two at lea/4 ,!y la/ z long z ! agreem5t1 ! 'fo$us1' la/s2 & ?is la/s z long z ! fe> or hope1 :i* l$ to its be+ made1 cont9ues to be %>$ by ! /ates :i* made x4 ,z soon z ?is ceases to be ! case1 ! agreem5t is necess>ily at an end1 'nec dici pote/1 quod dolo vel p]fidia agat1 propt]ea quod fidem solvit1 simulatque metus vel spei causa sublata e/1 quia haec conditio unicuique contrah5tium aequalis fuit1 ut scilicet quae prima extra metum esse pote/1 sui juris esset1 eoque ex sui animi s5t5tia ut]etur1 et praet]ea quia nemo 9 futurum contrahit nisi positis prsec$5tibus circum/antiis' 7,,iii4 #ad74 #ce4 ,x w\ld seem to foll[ f ! above t a /ate c d no wrong1 9 ! s5se t !re are no rights t x c violate4 ,! same pr9ciple is applicable to x z to ! individual4 ',9 /atu naturali non d>i peccatum1 vel si quis peccat1 is sibi1 non alt]i peccat3 444 nihil absolute naturae jure prohibetur1 nisi quod nemo pote/' 7,,ii4 #ah74 ,a /ate is to any o!r /ate1 & to its subjects1 z "o individual to ano!r '9 /atu naturali4' ,a wrong1 a 'peccatum1' consi/s 9 a violation by individuals ( ! 'commune decretum4' ,!re c be no 'pecc>e' on ! "p ( ! 'commune decretum' itself4 ,b 'non id omne1 quod jure fi]i dicimus1 optime fi]i affirmamus4 ,aliud namque e/ agrum jure col]e1 aliud agrum optime col]e2 aliud1 inquam1 e/ sese jure def5d]e1 cons]v>e1 judicium f]re1 c1 aliud sese optime def5d]e1 cons]v>e1 atque optimum judicium f]re2 et consequ5t] aliud e/ jure imp]>e et reipublicae curam hab]e1 aliud optime imp]>e et rempublicam optime gub]n>e4 ,po/quam itaque de jure cujuscumque civitatis 9 g5]e egimus1 tempus e/1 ut de optimo cujuscumque imp]ii /atu agamus' 7,v4 #a74 ,h5ce a fur!r consid]ation 'de optimo cujusque imp]ii /atu4' ,?is is guid$ by ref]5ce to ! 'f9is /atus civilis1' :i* is 'pax vitaeque securitas4' ,accord+ly t is ! be/ gov]nm5t "u :i* m5 live 9 h>mony1 & ( :i* ! rights are kept inviolate4 ,:]e ?is is n ! case1 ! fault lies ) ! gov]nm5t1 n ) any 'subditorum malitia4' ',hom9es enim civiles non nascuntur1 s$ fiunt4 ,hom9um praet]ea naturales affectus ubique iidem sunt' 7,v4 #b74 ,! end is n fully atta9$ :]e m5 are m]ely kept 9 ord] by fe>4 ,su* a /ate ( ?+s is n peace b m]ely abs5ce ( w>4 ',pax enim non belli privatio1 s$ virtus e/1 quae ex animi =titud9e oritur2#a e/ namque obsequium con/ans voluntas id exsequ5di1 quod ex communi civitatis decreto fi]i debet' 7,v4 #d74 ,! 'peace1' !n1 :i* x is ! end ( ! /ate to obta91 consi/s 9 rational virtue2 9 a common m9d1 gov]n$ by desire on ! "p ( ea* individual = p]fection ( be+ 9 himself & o!rs4 ,! h>mony ( life1 too1 :i* is ano!r way ( express+ its object1 is to be und]/ood 9 an equally high s5se4 ,! life spok5 ( is "o 'quae maxime ratione1 v]a m5tis virtute et vita1 def9itur4' ,! 'imp]ium' :i* is to contribute to ?is end mu/ cle>ly be "o 'quod multitudo lib]a in/ituit1 non autem id1 quod 9 multitud9em jure belli acquiritur4' ,betwe5 ! two =ms ( 'imp]ium' !re may be no ess5tial diff]5ce 9 respect ( ! 'jus' :i* belongs to ea*1 b !re is ! greate/ 9 respect ( ! ends :i* !y s]ve z well z 9 ! means by :i* !y h to be ma9ta9$ 7,v4 #f74 #a ,= ! def9ition ( '=titudo1' see ,e?ics1 ,,iii4 #ei1 ,s*ol4 ',omnes actiones quae sequuntur ex affectibus qui ad m5tem ref]untur1 quat5us intelligit1 ad =titud9em ref]o1 quam 9 animositatem et g5]ositatem di/+uo4 ,nam p] animositatem intelligo cupiditatem1 qua unusquisque conatur suum esse ex solo rationis dictam9e cons]v>e4 ,p] g5]ositatem 444 cupiditatem qua unusquisque ex solo rationis dictam9e conatur reliquos hom9es juv>e et sibi amicitia jung]e4' #cf4 ,?is conclusion ( ,sp9oza's doctr9e ( ! /ate does n seem really consi/5t ) ! beg9n+4 ,at ! outset1 no motives are recognis$ 9 m5 b su* z r5d] !m 'natura ho/es4' ,f ! op]ation ( ^! motives ! /ate is suppos$ to result4 ,ea* individual f9ds t ! w> ( all aga9/ all is weakness = all4 ,consequ5tly ! desire on ! "p ( ea* to /r5g!n himself1 :i* is a =m ( ! univ]sal ef=t 'suum esse cons]v>e1' leads to comb9ation1 x be+ discov]$ t 'hom9i nihil hom9e utilius' 7,e?4 ,,iv4 #ah4 ,s*ol474 ,b we are expressly told t ! civil /ate does n br+ ) x o!r motives ?an ^? op]ative '9 /atu naturali4' ',homo namque tam 9 /atu naturali quam civili ex legibus suae naturae agit1 suaeque utilitati consulit4' ,b !n x appe>s t !re sup]v5es or may sup]v5e on su* motives 'con/ans voluntas id exsequ5di quod ex communi civitatis decreto fi]i debet1' & t n ( a k9d :i* seeks to c>ry out ! 'commune decretum' z a means ( escap+ pa9 or obta9+ pleasure1 = x is said to arise f ! 'animi =titudo' :i* re/s on reason 7'ad m5tem ref]tur quat5us intelligit'7 & includes 'g5]ositas' def9$ z above4 ,x is also said t ! true object ( 'imp]ium' is 'vitam concordit] transig]e' or 'vitam col]e' 9 a s5se ( 'vita' 9 :i* x 'maxime ratione 444 def9itur4' ,& z ! 'imp]ium' e/abli%$ = ?is end is "o :i* 'multitudo lib]a in/ituit1' x seems #a to be impli$ t !re is a desire = su* an end on ! "p ( ! p4 ,x is n expla9$ h[ su* desires %\ld arise out ( ! conflict ( 'naturales pot5tiae' or out ( ! impulses :i* r5d] m5 'natura ho/es4' ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! elem5ts ( !m already exi/ 9 ! impulses :i* lead to ! =mation ( ! '/atus civilis1' ! reasons = say+ t m5 are 'natura ho/es' disappe>1 & we get a diff]5t view ( 'jus1' :e!r 'naturale' or 'civile1' f t :i* id5tifies x simply ) 'pot5tia4' ,"s p[] ( conceiv+ & be+ int]e/$ 9 a good z common1 "s id5tification ( ! 'esse' ( o!rs ) ! 'suum esse' :i* e man1 z ,sp9oza says1 seeks to pres]ve & promote1 mu/ be suppos$ 9 ^? :o =m ! mo/ primitive social comb9ations1 if ^! are to issue 9 a /ate direct$ to su* ends & ma9ta9$ by su* a 'con/ans voluntas' z ,sp9oza describes4 ,& x is ! int]e/ ( m5 9 a common good1 ! desire on ! "p ( ea* :i* he ?9ks ( o!rs z %>+1 = a good :i* he conceives to be equally good = !m1 t trans=ms m]e 'pot5tia' into :at may fitly be call$ 'jus1' i4e4 a p[] claim+ recognition z ex]cis$ or capable ( be+ ex]cis$ = ! common good4 #a ,c]ta9ly ?is is s1 if we apply to ! 'lib]a multitudo' ! def9ition ( fre$om appli$ to ! 'lib] homo4' ',hom9em eat5us lib]um omn9o voco1 quat5us ratione ducitur1 quia eat5us ex causis1 quae p] solam eius naturam possunt adaequate intelligi1 ad ag5dum det]m9atur1 tametsi ex iis necess>io ad ag5dum det]m9etur4 ,nam lib]tas ag5di necessitatem non tollit1 s$ ponit'7,,ii4 #aa74 #cg4 ,if ?is qualification ( 'pot5tia' :i* alone r5d]s x 'jus' _h be5 appreh5d$ by ,sp9oza1 he w\ld h be5 entitl$ to speak ( a 'jus naturale' z prec$+ ! 'jus civile1' i4e4 ( claims to ! recognition ( p[]s & ! actual cu/om>y recognition ( su*1 z ex]cis$ = a common good1 prec$+ ! e/abli%m5t ( any regul> in/itutions or g5]al laws = secur+ _! ex]cise4 ,z x is1 ! t]m 'jus naturale' is ) him really unmean+4 ,if x means no m ?an 'pot5tia1' :y call x 'jus'8 ',jus' might h a mean+ di/9ct f t ( 'pot5tia' 9 ! s5se ( a p[] :i* a c]ta9 'imp]ium' enables "o man to ex]cise z aga9/ ano!r4 ,?is is :at ,sp9oza und]/&s by 'jus civile4' ,b !re is no ne$ to qualify x z 'civile1' unless 'jus' may be employ$ ) "s o!r qualification & ) a di/9ctive mean+4 ,b ! 'jus naturale1' z he und]/&s x1 has no mean+ o!r ?an t ( 'pot5tia1' & 8 !ory z x /&s w\ld h be5 m cle>ly express$ if in/ead ( 'jus naturale' & 'jus civile' he _h spok5 ( 'pot5tia' & 'jus1' expla9+ t ! latt] 0 a p[] on ! "p ( "o man aga9/ o!rs1 ma9ta9$ by means ( an 'imp]ium' :i* itself results f a comb9ation ( 'p[]s4' ,he himself 9 "o passage %[s a consci\sness ( ! impropriety ( speak+ ( 'jus' except ) ref]5ce to a community2 'jus naturae1 quod humani g5]is proprium e/1 vix posse concipi1 nisi ubi hom9es jura hab5t communia1 qui simul t]ras1 quas habit>e et col]e possunt1 sibi v9dic>e1 seseque munire1 vimque omnem repell]e et ex communi omnium s5t5tia viv]e possunt' 7,,ii4 #ae74 ,he takes no notice1 h[ev]1 ( any =ms ( community m primitive ?an t ( ! /ate4 ,! division into ! '/atus naturalis' & ! '/atus civilis' he seems to treat z exhau/ive1 & ! '/atus naturalis' he reg>ds1 aft] ! mann] ( 8 "t1 z "o ( pure individualism1 ( simple deta*m5t ( man f man1 or ( deta*m5t only modifi$ by conflict4 ,f su* a '/atus naturalis1' lack+ bo? ! natural & ! rational pr9ciples ( social developm5t 7! natural pr9ciple1 i4e4 ! int]e/ 9 o!rs aris+ prim>ily f family ties1 & ! rational pr9ciple1 i4e4 ! p[] ( conceiv+ a good consi/+ 9 ! m p]fect be+ ( ! individual & ( ^? 9 :om he is int]e/$71 no process c\ld be trac$ to ! '/atus civilis4' ,! two '/atus' /& ov] aga9/ ea* o!r ) an impassable gulf betwe54 ',hom9es civiles non nascuntur1 s$ fiunt4' ,!y are s made1 he seems to hold1 by ! action ( ! 'imp]ium' ^u !m4 ,b h[ is ! 'imp]ium' to be made8 ,m5 mu/ fir/ be1 if n 'civiles1' yet some?+ v diff]5t f :at !y are 9 ! '/atus naturalis1' betwe5 :i* & ! '/atus civilis' ,sp9oza recognises no middle t]m1 be=e any 'imp]ium' :i* c\ld r5d] !m 'civiles' c\ld be possible4 #ch4 ,! c>d9al error ( ,sp9oza's ',politik' is ! admission ( ! possibility ( a "r 9 ! individual ap>t f life 9 society1 ap>t f ! recognition by memb]s ( a society ( a correlative claim ^u & duty to ea* o!r1 z all int]e/$ 9 "o & ! same good4 ,! error 0 ! error ( 8 "t1 b ) ,sp9oza x 0 confirm$ by 8 rejection ( f9al causes4 ,! true conception ( '"r' dep5ds on ! conception ( ! individual z be+ :at be really is 9 virtue ( a function :i* he has to fulfil relatively to a c]ta9 end1 t end be+ ! common well-be+ ( a society4 ,a '"r' is an ideal attribute 7'ideal' 9 ! s5se ( n be+ s5sibly v]ifiable1 n r$ucible to any p]ceivable fact or facts7 :i* ! individual possesses s f> z ?is function is 9 "s measure freely fulfill$ by him--i4e4 fulfill$ ) ref]5ce to or = ! sake ( ! end--& s f> z ! ability to fulfil x is secur$ to him ?r\gh its be+ recognis$ by ! society z prop]ly belong+ to him4 ,! ess5ce ( "r lies 9 its be+ n simply a p[] produc+ s5sible effects1 b a p[] relative to an ins5sible function & belong+ to individuals only 9 s f> z ea* recognises t function 9 himself & o!rs4 ,x is n 9 s f> z ,i c d ?is or t1 t ,i h a "r to d ?is or t1 b s f> z ,i recognise myself & am recognis$ by o!rs z able to d ?is or t = ! sake ( a common good1 or s f> z 9 ! consci\sness ( myself & o!rs ,i h a function relative to ?is end4 ,sp9oza1 h[ev]1 objects to reg>d any?+ z det]m9$ by relation to a f9al cause4 ,he 0 n dispos$ !re=e to reg>d individuals z be+ :at !y are 9 virtue ( functions relative to ! life ( society1 /ill less z be+ :at !y are 9 virtue ( ! recognition by ea* ( su* functions 9 himself & o!rs4 ,he look$ ^u man1 l ev]y?+ else 9 nature1 z det]m9$ by mat]ial & effici5t causes1 & z himself a mat]ial & effici5t cause4 ,b z su* he has no 'rights' or 'duties1' b only 'p[]s4' #ci4 ,x 0 because ,plato & ,ari/otle conceiv$ ! life ( ! #a s cle>ly z ! ( ! individual1 relation to :i* makes him :at he is--! relation 9 ! case ( ! prop] be+ a consci\s or recognis$ relation--t !y laid ! f\ndation = all true !ory ( 'rights4' ,x is true t !y h n ev5 a ^w = 'rights4' ,! claims :i* 9 mod]n times h be5 advanc$ on behalf ( ! individual aga9/ ! /ate "u ! designation 'natural rights' are mo/ ali5 f _! way ( ?9k+4 ,b 9 say+ t ! 0 a 'natural' in/itution & t man 0 1 ,ari/otle1 accord+ to ! s5se :i* he atta*$ to 1 0 ass]t+ ! doctr9e ( 'natural rights' 9 ! only s5se 9 :i* x is true4 ,he reg>ds ! /ate 77 z a society ( :i* ! life is ma9ta9$ by :at its memb]s d = ! sake ( ma9ta9+ x1 by functions consci\sly fulfill$ ) ref]5ce to t end1 & :i* 9 t s5se imposes duties2 & at ! same "t z a society f :i* its memb]s d]ive ! ability1 ?r\gh education & protection1 to fulfil _! sev]al functions1 & :i* 9 t s5se conf]s rights4 ,x is ?us t ! 4 ,man1 be+ 1--be+ already 9 respect ( capacities & t5d5cies a memb] ( su* a society1 exi/+ only 9 :i* conta9 its elem5ts1--has 'naturally' ! correlative duties & rights :i* ! /ate imposes & conf]s4 ,practically x is only ! ,greek man t ,ari/otle reg>ds z 1 b ! ,greek conception ( citiz5%ip once e/abli%$ 0 applicable to all m5 capable ( a common int]e/4 ,?is way ( conceiv+ ! case1 h[ev]1 dep5ds on ! 'teleological' view ( man & ! =ms ( society 9 :i* he is f\nd to live1 i4e4 on ! view ( m5 z be+ :at !y are 9 virtue ( non-s5sible functions1 & ( c]ta9 =ms ( life det]m9$ by relation to m p]fect =ms :i* !y h ! capacity or t5d5cy to become4 #a ,greek 7polis7 city1 7telos7 end or purpose1 7polites7 citiz51 or 7physei polites or politikos7 social or a citiz5 by nature1 7polites mete*ei t\ ar*e9 kai t\ ar*e/hai7 a citiz5 by turns rules & is rul$1 7ko9oniai7 associations4 ,tr #dj4 ,sp9oza1 l ,bacon1 f\nd ! assumption ( ends :i* ?+s 7 meant to fulfil 9 ! way ( accurate inquiry into :at ?+s are 7mat]ially7 & d4 ,he held ,plato & ,ari/otle *eap z comp>$ ) ,democritus & ,epicurus 7,epi/4 ,,lx4 #ac74 ,accord+ly he consid]s ! individual ap>t f 8 vocation z a memb] ( society1 ! /ate ap>t f its (fice z enabl+ ! individual to fulfil t vocation4 ,ea*1 s consid]$1 is m]ely a vehicle ( s mu* p[] 7natural =ce74 ,on ! o!r h&1 he recognises a diff]5ce betwe5 a high] & l[]1 a bett] & worse1 /ate ( civil society1 & a possibility ( seek+ ! bett] /ate because x is und]/ood to be bett]4 ,& ?is is to admit ! possibility ( ! c\rse ( human affairs be+ affect$ by ! conception ( a f9al cause4 ,x is *>act]i/ic ( ,sp9oza t :ile he nev] dep>ts f ! pr9ciple 'homo naturae p>s1' he ascribes to him ! faculty ( und]/&+ ! ord] ( nature1 & ( con=m+ to x or obey+ x 9 a new way on acc\nt ( t und]/&+4 ,9 o!r words1 he recognis$ ! di/9ction call$ by ,kant ! di/9ction betwe5 det]m9ation accord+ to law & det]m9ation accord+ to ! consci\sness ( law2 ?\gh 9 8 desire to ass]t ! necessity ( ea* k9d ( det]m9ation he t5ds to disguise ! di/9ction & to ignore ! fact t1 if rational det]m9ation 7or ! det]m9ation by a conception ( a law7 is a "p ( nature1 x is s 9 q a diff]5t s5se f det]m9ation m]ely accord+ to laws ( nature4 ,z he puts x1 ! cle> und]/&+ t we are p>ts ( nature1 & ( our position 9 ! univ]se ( ?+s1 w yield a new "*4 ,we %all only !n desire :at is orda9$ = u & %all f9d re/ 9 ! tru?1 9 ! k ( :at is necess>y4 ,?is he reg>ds z ! highe/ /ate ( ! individual1 & ! desire to atta9 x he evid5tly consid]s ! supreme motive by :i* ! individual %\ld be gov]n$4 ,! analogue 9 political life to ?is highe/ /ate ( ! individual is ! direction ( ! 'imp]ium' by a 'lib]a multitudo' to ! atta9m5t ( 'pax vitaeque securitas' 9 ! high s5se :i* he atta*es to ^? words 9 ,tract4 ,pol4 cap4 ,v4 #a #a ,cp4 ,e?4 ,,iv4 ,app5dix1 xxxii4 ',ea quae nobis ev5iunt contra id1 quod no/rae utilitatis ratio po/ulat1 aequo animo f]emus1 si conscii simus nos functos no/ro (ficio fuisse1 et pot5tiam1 quam habemus1 non potuisse se eo usque ext5d]e1 ut eadem vit>e possemus1 nosque p>tem totius naturae esse1 cujus ord9em sequimur4 ,quod si cl>e et di/9cte intelligamus1 p>s illa no/ri1 quae intellig5tia def9itur1 hoc e/1 p>s melior no/ri1 9 eo plane acquiescet et 9 ea acquiesc5tia p]sev]>e conabitur4 ,nam quat5us intelligimus1 nihil appet]e nisi id1 quod necess>ium e/1 nec absolute nisi 9 v]is acquiesc]e possumus2 adeoque quat5us haec recte intelligimus1 eat5us conatus melioris p>tis no/ri cum ord9e totius naturae conv5it4' ,e?4 ,,iv4 ,preface 444 ',p] bonum 444 intelligam id1 quod c]to scimus m$ium esse1 ut ad exempl> humanae naturae1 quod nobis proponimus1 magis magisque acc$amus4444 ,de9de hom9es p]fectiores aut imp]fectiores dicemus1 quat5us ad hoc idem exempl> magis aut m9us acc$unt4' #da4 ,! conclusion1 !n1 is t ,sp9oza did really1 ?\gh n explicitly1 believe 9 a f9al cause det]m9+ human life4 ,t is to say1 he held t ! conception ( an end consi/+ 9 ! great] p]fection ( life on ! "p ( ! individual & ! community might1 & to "s ext5t did1 det]m9e ! life ( ! individual & ! community4 ,he w\ld h said no d\bt t ?is end1 l e good1 exi/$ only 9 our consci\sness2 t x 0 'nihil positivum 9 rebus 9 se consid]atis' 7,e?ics1 ,,iv4 ,preface72 b an exi/5ce ( ! end 9 human consci\sness1 det]m9+ human action1 is a suffici5tly real exi/5ce1 )\t be+ 'positivum 9 rebus4' ,b he made ! mi/ake ( ignor+ ! m confus$ & mix$ =ms 9 :i* ! conception ( ?is end op]ates2 ( recognis+ x only 9 ! =ms ( ! philosophic 'amor ,dei1' or 9 ! wisdom ( ! exceptional citiz51 :om alone he w\ld admit 'ratione duci4' ,& 9 p>ticul> he fail$ to notice t x is ! consci\sness ( su* an end to :i* 8 p[]s may be direct$1 t con/itutes ! individual's claim to ex]cise !m z rights1 j z x is ! recognition ( !m by a society z capable ( su* direction :i* r5d]s !m actually rights2 9 %ort t1 j z accord+ to him no?+ is good or evil b ?9k+ makes x s1 s x is only ?9k+ t makes a might a "r1--a c]ta9 conception ( ! might z relative to a social good on ! "p at once ( ! p]son or p]sons ex]cis+ x1 & ( a society :i* x affects4 ,c4 ,,hobbes4 #db4 ,all ! m fruitful elem5ts 9 ,sp9oza's political doctr9e are lack+ 9 t ( ,hobbes1 b ! pr9ciple ( ! two !ories is v mu* ! same4 ,ea* beg9s ) ! supposition ( an exi/5ce ( human individuals1 unaffect$ by society1 & ea* /ruggl+ = exi/5ce aga9/ ! re/1 s t m5 are 'natura ho/es4' ,ea* conceives 'jus naturale' z 'pot5tia naturalis4' ,b ,sp9oza c>ries out ?is conception mu* m consi/5tly4 ,he does n consid] t ! natural "r1 :i* is might1 ceases to exi/ or becomes any?+ else :5 a multitude comb9e _! natural rights or mights 9 an 'imp]ium4' ,if ! o/5sible 'imp]ium' comes into collision ) ! p[]s ( individuals1 s+le or comb9$1 among ^? :o h hi!rto be5 subject to x1 & proves ! weak]1 x ipso facto ceases to be an 'imp]ium4' ,n hav+ sup]ior p[]1 x no long] has sup]ior "r to ! 'subditi4' ,x is on ?is pr9ciple1 z we h se51 t he deals ) ! "q ( limitations to ! "r ( a sov]eign4 ,its rights are limit$ because its p[]s are s4 ,ex]cis$ 9 c]ta9 ways & directions !y defeat !mselves4 ,?us z he puts x 9 ,epi/4 ,l4 7:]e he po9ts out 8 diff]5ce f ,hobbes71 ',supremo magi/ratui 9 qualibet urbe non plus 9 subditos juris1 quam juxta m5suram pote/atis1 qua subditum sup]at1 compet]e /atuo4' ,hobbes1 on ! o!r h&1 supposes 8 sov]eign p[] to h an absolute "r to ! submission ( all its subjects1 s+ly or collectively1 irrespectively ( ! "q ( its actual p[] aga9/ !m4 ,?is "r he consid]s x to d]ive f a cov5ant by :i* individuals1 we>y ( ! /ate ( w>1 h agre$ to devolve _! 'p]sonae1' 9 ! language ( ,roman law1 ^u "s individual or collection ( individuals1 :i* is h5ce=w>d to repres5t !m1 & to be consid]$ z act+ )1 _! comb9$ p[]s4 ,?is cov5ant be+ 9 ! nature ( ! case irrevocable1 ! sov]eign d]ives f x an indefeasible "r to direct ! actions ( all memb]s ( ! society ov] :i* x is sov]eign4 #dc4 ,! doctr9e may be f\nd 9 ,levia?an1 ,"p ,,ii41 *apt] #ag4 ,9 ord] 'to erect su* a common p[] z may be able to def5d !m f ! invasion ( =eign]s & ! injuries ( "o ano!r1' m5 'conf] all _! p[] & /r5g? ^u "o man or ^u "o assembly ( m51' 444 i4e4 'appo9t "o man or assembly ( m5 to be> _! p]son4444 ,?is is m ?an cons5t & concord2 x is a real unity ( !m all 9 "o & ! same p]son1 made by cov5ant ( e man ) e man1 9 su* a mann] z if e man %\ld say to e man1 ',i au?orise1 & give up my "r ( gov]n+ myself to ?is man or ?is assembly ( m51 on condition t ?\ give up ?y "r to him & au?orise all 8 actions 9 l mann]4' ,?is done1 ! multitude s unit$ 9 "o p]son is call$ a commonweal?1 9 ,lat9 civitas 444 :i* 7to def9e x7 is "o p]son1 ( ^: acts a great multitude by mutual cov5ant "o ) ano!r h made !mselves ev]yone ! au?or1 to ! end he may use ! /r5g? & means ( !m all1 z he %all ?9k exp$i5t1 = _! peace & common def5ce4 ,& he t c>rie? ?is p]son is call$ sov]eign1 & said to h sov]eign p[]2 & ev]yone besides1 8 subject4' #dd4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! =m 9 :i* ! doctr9e is /at$1 we h to be> 9 m9d ! s5se 9 :i* 'p]sona' is us$ by ! ,roman lawy]s1 z ei!r a complex ( rights1 or ! subject 7or possessor7 ( ^? rights1 :e!r a s+le individual or a corporate body4 ,9 ?is s5se ( ! ^w1 a man's p]son is sep>able f 8 individual exi/5ce z a man4 ',unus homo su/9et plures p]sonas4' ,a magi/rate1 e4g41 w\ld be "o ?+ 9 respect ( :at he is 9 himself1 ano!r ?+ 9 respect ( 8 'p]sona' or complex ( rights belong+ to him z a magi/rate1 & s too a mon>*4 ,on ! same pr9ciple1 a man1 rema9+ a man z be=e1 might devolve 8 'p]sona1' ! complex ( 8 rights1 on ano!r4 ,a son1 :5 by ! dea? ( 8 fa!r accord+ to ,roman law he 0 deliv]$ f 'patria pote/as' & became 9 turn head ( a family1 acquir$ a 'p]sona' :i* he _h n be=e1 ! 'p]sona' :i* _h previ\sly belong$ to ! fa!r4 ,aga91 to take a mod]n in/ance1 ! fell[s ( a college1 z a corporation1 =m "o 'p]sona1' b ea* ( !m w\ld be> o!r 'p]sons1' if1 e4g41 !y happ5$ to be magi/rates1 or simply 9 respect ( _! rights z citiz5s4 ,?us '"o p]son' above "o su/a9] ( rights2 :ile 9 ! second passage1 444 'c>rie? ?is p]son1' x r ! rights su/a9$4 #de4 ,hobbes expressly /ates t ! sov]eign 'p]son' may be an assembly ( m51 b ! natural associations ( ! t]m1 :5 ! sov]eign is spok5 ( z a p]son1 fav\r ! developm5t ( a mon>*ical doctr9e ( sov]eignty4 ,sov]eign p[] is atta9$ ei!r by acquisition or in/itution4 ,by acquisition1 :5 a man makes 8 *ildr5 & _! *ildr51 or a conqu]or 8 enemies1 to submit "u fe> ( dea?4 ,by in/itution1 :5 m5 agree among !mselves to submit to "s man or assembly 'on confid5ce to be protect$ aga9/ all o!rs4' ,hobbes speaks 7,,ii4 #ag1 end7 z if !re 7 two ways by :i* a commonweal? & a sov]eign def9$ z above c\ld be br\ght into exi/5ce1 b cle>ly a sov]eign by acquisition is n a sov]eign 9 ! s5se expla9$4 ,he does n 'c>ry a p]son ( ^: acts a great multitude by mutual cov5ant "o ) ano!r1 h made !mselves ev]yone ! au?or1 to ! end he may use ! /r5g? & means ( !m all1 z he %all ?9k exp$i5t1 = _! peace & common def5ce4' ,& :at ,hobbes describes 9 ! sequel 7c4 #ah7 are1 z he expressly says1 rights ( sov]eigns by in/itution2 b he seems tacitly to assume t e sov]eign may claim ! same1 ?\gh he c\ld h>dly h suppos$ t ! exi/+ sov]eignties 7 9 _! orig9 o!r ?an sov]eignties by acquisition4 ',a commonweal? is said to be in/itut$1 :5 a multitude ( m5 cov5ant1 ev]yone ) ev]yone1 t to :atsoev] man or assembly ( m5 %all be giv5 by ! major "p ! "r to repres5t ! p]son ( !m all1 ev]yone1 z well he t vot$ = x z he t vot$ aga9/ x1 %all au?orise all ! actions & judgm5ts ( t man or assembly ( m51 9 ! same mann] z if !y 7 8 own1 to ! end to live peaceably among/ !mselves1 & to be protect$ aga9/ o!r m5' 7c4 #ah74 ,"h a di/9ction is drawn betwe5 ! cov5ant ( all ) all to be b\nd by ! act ( ! majority 9 appo9t+ a sov]eign1 & t act ( appo9tm5t itself :i* is n a cov5ant ( all ) all4 ,! natural conclusion w\ld be t x 0 no violation ( ! cov5ant if ! majority aft]w>ds transf]r$ ! sov]eign p[] to o!r h&s4 ,b 9 ! sequel ,hobbes expressly makes out su* a transf]5ce to be a violation ( ! orig9al compact4 ,?is is an in/ance ( 8 desire to v9dicate ! absolute "r ( a de facto mon>*4 #df4 ,?r\gh\t ^! /atem5ts we are mov+ 9 a region ( fiction f :i* ,sp9oza keeps cle>4 ,n only is ! supposition ( ! devolution ( wills or p[]s on a sov]eign by a cov5ant hi/orically a fiction 7ab\t t no m ne$ be said72 ! notion ( an obligation to obs]ve ?is cov5ant1 z di/9ct f a compulsion1 is inconsi/5t ) ! supposition t !re is no "r o!r ?an p[] prior to ! act by :i* ! sov]eign p[] is e/abli%$4 ,if !re is no su* "r antec$5t to ! e/abli%m5t ( ! sov]eign p[]1 nei!r c !re be any aft] its e/abli%m5t except 9 ! s5se ( a p[] on ! "p ( individuals :i* ! sov]eign p[] enables !m to ex]cise4 ,?is p[]1 or 'jus civile1' _c itself belong to ! sov]eign1 :o enables individuals to ex]cise x4 ,! only "r :i* c belong to ! sov]eign is ! 'jus naturale1' #a consi/+ 9 ! sup]iority ( 8 p[]1 & ?is "r mu/ be measur$ by ! inability ( ! subjects to resi/4 ,if !y c resi/1 ! "r has disappe>$4 ,9 a successful resi/ance1 !n1 to an o/5sibly sov]eign p[]1 !re c on ! giv5 supposition be no wrong done to t p[]4 ,to say t !re is1 w\ld be a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,is su* resi/ance1 !n1 a violation ( ! 'jus civile' z betwe5 ! sev]al subject citiz5s8 ,9 ! abs5ce ( a sov]eign p[]1 no d\bt1 ! 'jus civile' 7accord+ to ! view 9 "q1 :i* makes x dep5d on ! exi/5ce ( an 'imp]ium'7 w\ld cease to exi/4 ,b !n a successful resi/ance w\ld simply %[ t !re 0 no long] su* a sov]eign p[]4 ,x w\ld n itself be a violation ( 'jus civile1' b simply a pro( t ! conditions ( 'jus civile' 7 no long] pres5t4 ,x might at ! same "t be a /ep to re-e/abli%+ !m if1 besides be+ a pro( t ! old 'imp]ium' no long] exi/s1 x impli$ su* a comb9ation ( p[]s z suffices to e/abli% a new "o4 #a ',! 'jus naturale' is ! lib]ty ea* man ha? to use 8 own p[] z he w himself = ! pres]vation ( 8 own nature2 t is to say ( 8 own life2 & consequ5tly ( do+ any?+ :i* 9 8 own judgm5t & reason he %all conceive to be ! apte/ means !reunto4' 7,lev41 ,i4 #ad47 #dg4 ,no obligation1 !n1 z di/9ct f compulsion1 to submit to an o/5sibly sov]eign p[] c consi/5tly be f\nd$ on a !ory accord+ to :i* "r ei!r simple p[]1 or only diff]s f x1 9 ! =m ( 'jus civile1' ?r\gh be+ a p[] :i* an 'imp]ium' enables individuals to ex]cise z aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,hobbes c\ld n1 inde$1 h made out 8 doctr9e 7( ! absolute submission to ! sov]eign7 ) any plausibility1 if he _h /at$ ) ! explicitness ( ,sp9oza t 'jus naturale' 'naturalis pot5tia4' ,t x is s is impli$ 9 ! acc\nt ( ! /ate ( ?+s prec$+ ! e/abli%m5t ( sov]eignty z "o ( 'bellum omnium contra omnes'2 = :]e !re is no recognition ( a common good1 !re c be no "r 9 any o!r s5se ?an p[]4 ,b :]e !re are no rights b natural p[]1 no obligatory cov5ant c be made4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 to get a sov]eignty1 to :i* !re is a p]petual obligation ( submission1 ,hobbes has to suppose a cov5ant ( all ) all1 prec$+ ! e/abli%m5t ( sov]eignty1 & to ! obs]vance ( :i*1 !re=e1 !re _c be an obligation 9 ! s5se t ! sov]eign puni%es = ! non-obs]vance 7! obligation correspond+ to 'jus civile' 9 ,sp9oza's s5se71 b :i* no "o c ev] be entitl$ to break4 ,z ! obligator9ess ( ?is cov5ant1 !n1 _c be d]iv$ f ! sov]eignty :i* is e/abli%$ ?r\gh x1 ,hobbes has to ascribe x to a 'law ( nature' :i* enjo9s 't m5 p]=m _! cov5ants made' 7,lev41 ,i4 #ae74 ,yet 9 ! imm$iate sequel ( ?is passage he says expressly1 ',! nature ( ju/ice consi/e? 9 ! keep+ ( valid cov5ants1 b ! validity ( cov5ants beg9s n b ) ! con/itution ( a civil p[]1 suffici5t to compel m5 to keep !m2 & !n x is also t propriety beg9s4' ,on ?is pr9ciple ! cov5ant by :i* a civil p[] is = ! fir/ "t con/itut$ _c be a valid cov5ant4 ,! m5 mak+ x are n 9 a position to make a valid cov5ant at all4 ,! 'law ( nature1' to :i* alone ,hobbes c appeal accord+ to 8 pr9ciples1 z ! s\rce ( ! obligator9ess ( ! cov5ant ( all ) all1 he def9es z a 'precept or g5]al rule1 f\nd out by reason1 by :i* a man is =bidd5 to d t :i* is de/ructive ( 8 life1 or take? away ! means ( pres]v+ ! same2 & to omit t by :i* he ?9ke? x may be/ be pres]v$' 7,i4 #ad74 ,:5 a law ( nature1 h[ev]1 is said to comm& or =bid1 we mu/ n und]/& ^? t]ms 9 t s5se :i*1 accord+ to ,hobbes1 c\ld only be d]iv$ f ! e/abli%m5t ( an 'imp]ium4' ,?is 'law ( nature1' !re=e1 is m]ely an expression 9 a g5]al =m ( ! in/9ct by :i*1 z ,sp9oza says1 e liv+ creature '9 suo esse p]sev]>e conatur1' z guid$ by a calculation ( consequ5ces 7= no mean+ b ?is c be giv5 to 'reason' accord+ to ,hobbes74 ,! prohibition1 !n1 by ?is law ( nature ( a brea* ( t cov5ant ( all ) all1 by :i* a sov]eign p[] is suppos$ to be e/abli%$1 c prop]ly mean no?+ m ?an t x is ev]yone's int]e/ to adh]e to x4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 c\ld only be a conditional prohibition1 conditional1 9 p>ticul>1 on ! way 9 :i* ! sov]eign p[] is ex]cis$4 ,hobbes tries to %[ t x mu/ always be = ! advantage ( all to obey x1 because n to d s is to return to ! /ate ( univ]sal w>2 b a successful resi/ance to x mu/ be ipso facto an e/abli%m5t ( a new comb9$ p[] :i* prev5ts ! 'bellum omnium contra omnes' f return+4 ,at any rate1 an obligation to submit to ! e/abli%$ 'imp]ium1' measur$ by ! self-int]e/ ( ea* 9 do+ s1 is q a diff]5t ?+ f ! obligation :i* ,hobbes describes 9 t]ms only appropriate 7accord+ to 8 own %[+7 to contracts betwe5 individuals en=c$ by a sov]eign p[]4 #dh4 ,x w\ld seem t ,hobbes' desire to prove all resi/ance to e/abli%$ sov]eignty unju/ifiable leads him to comb9e inconsi/5t doctr9es4 ,he adopts ! notion t m5 are 'natura ho/es1' t 'jus naturale' m]e p[]1 because x illu/rates ! b5efit to man's e/ate d]iv$ f ! e/abli%m5t ( a supreme p[] & ! effects ( ! subv]sion ( su* p[] once e/abli%$1 :i* he assumes to be equival5t to a return to a /ate ( nature4 ,b ?is notion does n ju/ify ! view t a rebellion1 :i* is /rong en\gh to succe$1 is wrong4 ,= ?is purpose he has to resort to ! repres5tation ( ! sov]eign z hav+ a "r di/9ct f p[]1 f\nd$ on a contract ( all ) all1 by :i* sov]eignty is e/abli%$4 ,?is repres5tation is q ali5 to ,sp9oza1 ) :om sov]eignty arises1 x is true1 :5 'plures 9 unum conv5iunt1' b 9 ! s5se ( comb9+ _! p[]s1 n ( contract+4 ,b aft] all1 ! fiction ( ?is contract w n s]ve ! purpose :i* ,hobbes wants x to s]ve4 ,! sov]eignty e/abli%$ by ! contract c only h a natural "r to be ma9ta9$ inviolate1 = all o!r "r presupposes x1 & _c be presuppos$ by x4 ,if ?is natural "r means m]e p[]1 !n ^u a successful rebellion x disappe>s4 ,if x means any?+ else x mu/ mean t !re are natural rights ( m51 o!r ?an _! m]e p[]1 :i* are violat$ by its subv]sion4 ,b if !re are su* rights1 !re mu/ equally be a possibility ( collision betwe5 ! sov]eign p[] & ^! natural rights1 :i* w\ld ju/ify a resi/ance to x4 #di4 ,x may be ask$ :e!r x is wor? :ile to exam9e ! int]nal consi/5cy ( a !ory :i* turns ^u :at is admitt$ to be hi/orically a fiction1 ! supposition ( a contract ( all ) all4 ,!re are fictions & fictions h[ev]4 ,! supposition t "s ev5t took place :i* z a matt] ( hi/ory did n take place may be a way ( convey+ an ess5tially true conception ( "s moral relation ( man4 ,! great objection to ! repres5tation ( ! "r ( a sov]eign p[] ov] subjects1 & ! rights ( individuals :i* are en=c$ by ?is 'imp]ium1' z hav+ aris5 out ( a contract ( all ) all1 is t x conveys a false notion ( rights4 ,x is n m]ely t ! possibility ( su* a contract be+ made presupposes j t /ate ( ?+s--a rgime ( recognis$ & en=c$ obligations--:i* x is assum$ to acc\nt =4 ,s9ce ^? :o contract mu/ already h rights1 ! repres5tation ( society ) its obligations z =m$ by contract implies t individuals h c]ta9 rights1 indep5d5tly ( society & ( _! functions z memb]s ( a society1 :i* !y br+ ) !m to ! transaction4 ,b su* rights ab/ract$ f social function & recognition c\ld only be p[]s1 or 7accord+ to ,hobbes' def9ition7 lib]ties to use p[]s1 :i* comes to ! same2 i4e4 !y w\ld n be rights at all2 & f no comb9ation or devolution ( !m c\ld any "r 9 ! prop] s5se1 any?+ m ?an a comb9$ p[]1 arise4 #ej4 ,?us ! only logical developm5t ( t sep>ation ( "r f social duty :i* is impli$ 9 ! doctr9e ( 'social contract' is t ( ,sp9oza4 ,happily ! doctr9e has n be5 logically develop$ by ^? ^: way ( ?9k+ has be5 affect$ by x4 ,! r$uction ( political "r--! "r ( ! /ate ov] its subjects--to sup]ior p[]1 has n be5 popul>ly accept$1 ?\gh ! g5]al conception ( national "r seems pretty mu* to id5tify x ) p[]4 ,among ! enlight5$1 inde$1 !re has ( late appe>$ a t5d5cy to adopt a !ory v l t ( ,sp9oza1 )\t ! high] elem5ts :i* we notic$ 9 ,sp9oza2 to consid] all "r z a p[] atta9$ 9 t '/ruggle = exi/5ce' to :i* human 'progress' is r$uc$4 ,b = "o p]son1 :o1 z a matt] ( speculation1 consid]s ! "r ( society ov] him to be a disguis$ might1 !re are ?\s&s :o1 z a matt] ( practice1 reg>d _! own "r z indep5d5t ( t correlation to duty )\t :i* x is m]ely a might4 ,! popul> effect ( ! notion t ! individual br+s ) him into society c]ta9 rights :i* he does n d]ive f society1--:i* are o!r ?an claims to fulfil freely 7i4e4 = _! own sake7 c]ta9 functions t[>ds society1--is se5 9 ! invet]ate irrev]5ce ( ! individual t[>ds ! /ate1 9 ! assumption t he has rights aga9/ society irrespectively ( 8 fulfilm5t ( any duties to society1 t all 'p[]s t be' are re/ra9ts ^u 8 natural fre$om :i* he may rightly defy z f> z he safely c4 ,d4 ,,locke4 #ea4 ,x 0 *iefly ,r\sseau :o gave t ca/ to ! doctr9e ( ! orig9 ( political obligation 9 contract1 9 :i* x be/ l5ds itself to ! ass]tion ( rights ap>t f duties on ! "p ( individuals1 9 opposition to ! c\nt]-fallacy :i* claims rights = ! /ate irrespectively ( its fulfilm5t ( its function z secur+ ! rights ( individuals4 ,x is probably true t ! ,contrat ,social _h great effect on ! f\nd]s ( ,am]ican indep5d5ce1 an effect :i* appe>s 9 ! t]ms ( ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce & 9 preambles to ! con/itutions ( "s ( ! orig9al ,am]ican /ates4 ,b ! ess5tial ideas ( ,r\sseau are to be f\nd 9 ,locke's ,treatise ( ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 :i* 0 probably well kn[n 9 ,am]ica = half a c5tury be=e ,r\sseau 0 he>d (4 #a ,locke aga9 con/antly appeals to ,hook]'s fir/ book on ,ecclesia/ical ,polity1#b & ,grotius#c argues 9 exactly ! same /ra94 ,hook]1 ,grotius1 ,hobbes1 ,locke1 & ,r\sseau only diff] 9 _! application ( ! same conception2 viz4 t m5 live fir/ 9 a /ate ( nature1 subject to a law ( nature1 also call$ ! law ( reason2 t 9 ?is /ate !y are 9 "s s5se free & equal2 t 'f9d+ _m inconv5i5ces' 9 x !y cov5ant ) ea* o!r to e/abli% a gov]nm5t--a cov5ant :i* !y are b\nd by ! 'law ( nature' to obs]ve--& t out ( ?is cov5ant ! obligation ( submission to ! 'p[]s t be' arises4 ,sp9oza alone takes a diff]5t l9e3 he does n "q ! /ate ( nature or ! orig9 ( gov]nm5t 9 a comb9ation ( m5 :o f9d ! /ate ( nature 'inconv5i5t'2 b he reg>ds ?is comb9ation z "o ( p[]s direct$ to a common end1 & con/itut+ sup]ior =ce1 n z a cov5ant :i* m5 are b\nd by ! law ( nature to obs]ve4 #a ,locke1 ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 *ap4 vii4 sec4 #hg4 ',man1 be+ born ) a title to p]fect fre$om1 & an uncontroll$ enjoym5t ( all ! rights & privileges ( ! law ( nature1 equally ) any o!r man or numb] ( m5 9 ! _w1 ha? by nature a p[] n only to pres]ve 8 life1 lib]ty1 & e/ate aga9/ 444 o!r m52 b to judge ( & puni% ! brea*es ( t law 9 o!rs4444 ,!re1 & !re only1 is political society :]e e "o ( ! memb]s ha? quitt$ ?is natural p[]1 resign$ x up into ! h&s ( ! community 9 all cases t exclude him n f appeal+ = protection to ! law e/abli%$ by x4' #b ',laws human1 ( :at k9d soev]1 are available by cons5t1' ,hook]1 ,eccl4 ,pol4 ,i4 #aj 7quot$ by ,locke1 l4c4 *ap4 xi4 sec4 #acd74 ',to be comm&$ we d cons5t1 :5 t society1 :]e( we be a "p1 ha? at any "t be=e cons5t$1 )\t revok+ ! same aft] by ! l univ]sal agreem5t4' ,hook]2 ibid4 #c ,de jure belli et pacis1 ,proleg4 secs4 #ae & #af4 #eb4 ,! common doctr9e is s full ( ambiguities t x readily l5ds itself to opposite applications4 ,9 ! fir/ place '/ate ( nature' may be und]/ood 9 mo/ diff]5t s5ses4 ,! "o idea common to all ! writ]s :o suppose su* a /ate to h prec$$ t ( civil society is a negative "o4 ,x 0 a /ate :i* 0 n "o ( political society1 "o 9 :i* !re 0 no civil gov]nm5t2 i4e4 no supreme p[]1 ex]cis$ by a s+le p]son or plurality ( p]sons1 :i* c\ld compel ob$i5ce on ! "p ( all memb]s ( a society1 & 0 recognis$ z entitl$ to d s by !m all1 or by a suffici5t numb] ( !m to secure g5]al ob$i5ce4 ,b 0 x "o ( society at all8 ,0 x "o 9 :i* m5 _h no deal+s ) ea* o!r except 9 ! way ( "o /ruggl+ to make ano!r s]ve 8 w & to get = himself :at ! o!r _h1 or 0 x "o 9 :i* !re 7 ties ( p]sonal affection & common int]e/1 & recognis$ obligations1 betwe5 man & man8 ,evid5tly among ^? :o spoke ( a /ate ( nature1 !re 7 v v>i\s & wav]+ conceptions on ?is po9t4 ,!y are apt to make an absolute opposition betwe5 ! /ate ( nature & ! political /ate1 & to repres5t m5 z hav+ sudd5ly contract$ !mselves out ( "o into ! o!r4 ,yet evid5tly ! contract w\ld h be5 impossible unless society 9 a =m v l t di/9ctively call$ political _h be5 9 exi/5ce be=eh&4 ,if political society is to be suppos$ to h orig9at$ 9 a pact at all1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 x & ! prec$+ /ate ( nature _c1 ) any plausibility1 be held to h be5 mu* m ?an a diff]5ce betwe5 a society regulat$ by writt5 law & (fic]s ) def9$ p[] & "o regulat$ by cu/oms & tacitly recognis$ au?ority4 #ec4 ,aga91 x 0 held t 9 a /ate ( nature m5 7 'free & equal4' ,?is is ma9ta9$ by ,hobbes z mu* z by ! f\nd]s ( ,am]ican indep5d5ce4 ,b if fre$om is to be und]/ood 9 ! s5se 9 :i* mo/ ( ^! writ]s seem to und]/& x1 z a p[] ( execut+1 ( giv+ effect to1 "o's w1 ! am\nt ( fre$om possess$ 9 a /ate ( nature1 if t 0 a /ate ( deta*m5t & collision betwe5 individuals1 mu/ h be5 v small4 ,m5 mu/ h be5 con/antly ?w>t+ ea* o!r1 & 79 ! abs5ce ( t 'jus 9 naturam1' z ,sp9oza calls x1 :i* comb9ation gives7 ?w>t$ by p[]s ( nature4 ,9 su* a /ate ^? only c\ld be free1 9 ! s5se suppos$1 :o 7 n equal to ! re/2 :o1 9 virtue ( sup]ior p[]1 c\ld use ! re/4 ,b :e!r we suppose an ev5 balance ( weaknesses1 9 subjection to ! cru%+ =ces ( nature1 or a dom9ion ( few ov] _m by means ( sup]ior /r5g?1 9 su* a /ate ( nature no g5]al pact w\ld be possible4 ,no equality 9 fre$om is possible except = memb]s ( a society ( :om ea* recognises a good ( ! :ole :i* is also 8 own1 & to :i* ! free co-op]ation ( all is necess>y4 ,b if su* society is suppos$ 9 ! /ate ( nature--& o!rwise ! 'pact' e/abli%+ political society w\ld be impossible--x is already 9 pr9ciple ! same z political society4 #ed4 ,x is n always c]ta9 :e!r ! writ]s 9 "q consid]$ m5 to be actually free & equal 9 ! /ate ( nature1 or only s accord+ to ! 'law ( nature1' :i* might or might n be obs]v$4 7,hobbes repres5ts ! fre$om & equality 9 ! /ate ( nature z actual1 & ?is /ate z be+ = t reason 'bellum omnium contra omnes4'7 ,!y all1 h[ev]1 implicitly assume a consci\sness ( ! law ( nature 9 ! /ate ( nature4 ,x is ?us n a law ( nature 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we commonly use ! t]m4 ,x is n a law accord+ to :i* ! ag5ts subject to x act necess>ily b )\t consci\sness ( ! law4 ,x is a law ( :i* ! ag5t subject to x has a consci\sness1 b "o accord+ to :i* he may or may n act2 i4e4 "o accord+ to :i* he ought to act4 ,x is f x t ! obligation to submission to civil gov]nm5t1 accord+ to all ^! writ]s1 is d]iv$4 ,b 9 reg>d to su* a law1 two que/ions h to be ask$3 fir/ly1 h[ c ! consci\sness ( obligation arise )\t recognition by ! individual ( claims on ! "p ( o!rs--social claims 9 "s =m or o!r--:i* may be oppos$ to 8 mom5t>y incl9ations8 & secondly1 giv5 a society ( m5 capable ( su* a consci\sness ( obligation1 con/itut+ a law accord+ to :i* ! memb]s ( ! society are free & equal1 9 :at does x diff] f a political society8 ,if ^! que/ions _h be5 fairly consid]$1 x mu/ h be5 se5 t ! di/9ction betwe5 a political society & a /ate ( nature1 gov]n$ by su* a law ( nature1 0 unt5able2 t a /ate ( ?+s out ( :i* political society c\ld h aris5 by compact1 mu/ h be5 "o 9 :i* ! individual reg>d$ himself z a memb] ( a society :i* has claims on him & on :i* he has claims1 & t su* society is already 9 pr9ciple a political society4 ,b ! ambiguity att5d+ ! conception ( ! law ( nature prev5t$ !m f be+ consid]$4 ,:5 ! writ]s 9 "q spoke ( a law ( nature1 to :i* m5 9 ! /ate ( nature 7 subject1 !y did n make x cle> to !mselves t ?is law1 z und]/ood by !m1 c\ld n exi/ at all )\t !re be+ "s recognition or consci\sness ( x on ! "p ( ^? subject to x4 ,! designation ( x z 'law ( nature' or 'law ( ,god' help$ to disguise ! fact t !re 0 no impon5t ( x1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* a law is impos$ on individuals by a political sup]ior4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( su* an impon5t1 unless x is ei!r a uni=mity 9 ! relations ( natural ev5ts or an irresi/ible =ce--& x is n repres5t$ 9 ei!r ( ^! ways 9 juri/ic writ+s--x c only mean a recognition ( obligation aris+ 9 ! consci\sness ( ! individual f 8 relations to society4 ,b ?is n be+ cle>ly realis$1 x 0 possible to repres5t ! law ( nature z antec$5t to ! laws impos$ by a political sup]ior1 )\t its be+ obs]v$ t ?is impli$ ! antec$5ce ( a condition ( ?+s 9 :i* ! result suppos$ to be obta9$ ?r\gh ! =mation ( political society--! e/abli%m5t1 viz4 ( reciprocal claims to fre$om & equality on ! "p ( memb]s ( a society--already exi/$4 #ee4 ,9 fact1 ! condition ( society 9 :i* x c\ld prop]ly be said to be gov]n$ by a law ( nature1 i4e4 by an obligation ( :i* !re is no impon5t b ! consci\sness ( man1 an obligation ( :i* ! brea* is n puni%$ by a political sup]ior1 is n antec$5t to political society1 b "o :i* x gradually t5ds to produce4 ,x is ! radical fault ( ! !ory :i* f9ds ! orig9 ( political society 9 compact1 t x has to rev]se ! true process4 ,to acc\nt = ! possibility ( ! compact ( all ) all1 x has to assume a society subject to a law ( nature1 prescrib+ ! fre$om & equality ( all4 ,b a society gov]n$ by su* a law z a law ( nature1 i4e4 ) no impon5t b man's consci\sness1 w\ld h be5 "o f :i* political society w\ld h be5 a decl9e1 "o 9 :i* !re c\ld h be5 no motive to ! e/abli%m5t ( civil gov]nm5t4 ,?us ?is !ory mu/ ne$s be false to itself 9 "o ( two ways4 ,ei!r x is false to ! conception ( a law ( nature1 ) its prescription ( fre$om & equality1 z gov]n+ ! /ate ( ?+s prior to ! compact by :i* political society is e/abli%$1 only introduc+ ! law ( nature z ! gr\nd ( ! obligator9ess ( t compact1 b treat+ ! /ate ( nature z "o ( univ]sal w> 9 :i* no reciprocal claims ( any sort 7 recognis$1 7s ,hobbes72 or j s f> z x realises ! conception ( a society gov]n$ by a law ( nature1 z equival5t to t spontane\s recognition by ea* ( ! claims ( all o!rs1 )\t :i* ! cov5ant ( all ) all is 9 fact unacc\ntable1 x does away ) any appe>ance ( necessity = ! transition f ! /ate ( nature to t ( political society & t5ds to repres5t ! latt] z a decl9e f ! =m]4 ,?is result is se5 9 ,r\sseau2 b to a great ext5t ,r\sseau _h be5 anticipat$ by ,locke4 ,! broad diff]5ces betwe5 ,locke & ,hobbes 9 _! developm5t ( ! common doctr9e1 are 7#a7 t ,locke d5ies t ! /ate ( nature is a /ate ( w>1 & 7#b7 t ,locke di/+ui%es ! act by :i* political society is e/abli%$ f t by :i* ! gov]nm5t1 legislative & executive1 is e/abli%$1 & is consequ5tly able to di/+ui% ! dissolution ( ! political society f ! dissolution ( ! gov]nm5t 7,civ4 ,gov4 ,*apt] ,,xix4 ,sect4 #baa74 #ef4 ,! '/ate ( nature' & ! '/ate ( w>' 'are s f> di/ant z a /ate ( peace1 good-w1 mutual assi/ance & pres]vation1 & a /ate ( enmity1 malice1 viol5ce1 & mutual de/ruction1 are f "o ano!r4 ,m5 liv+ toge!r1 accord+ to reason1 )\t a common sup]ior on e>? ) au?ority to judge betwe5 !m1 is prop]ly ! /ate ( nature4 ,b =ce1 or a decl>$ design ( =ce1 ^u ! p]son ( ano!r1 :]e !re is no common sup]ior on e>? to appeal to = relief1 is ! /ate ( w>' 7,civ4 ,gov4 ,,iii4 ,sect4 #ai74 ,9 ! /ate ( nature1 h[ev]1 :5 ! /ate ( w> has once begun1 !re is n ! same means ( t]m9at+ x z 9 civil society4 ,! "r ( w> may belong to a man1 '?\gh he be 9 society & a fell[-subject1' :5 8 p]son or prop]ty is 9 su* imm$iate dang] t x is impossible to appeal = relief to ! common sup]ior4 ',b :5 ! actual =ce is ov]1 ! /ate ( w> ceases betwe5 ^? t are 9 society 444 because !re lies ! rem$y ( appeal = ! pa/ injury & to prev5t future h>m4' ,9 ! /ate ( nature1 :5 ! /ate ( w> has once begun1 x cont9ues until ! aggressor (f]s peace & rep>ation4 ,! /ate ( w>1 ?\gh n prop] to ! /ate ( nature1 is a frequ5t incid5t ( x1 & to avoid x is "o great reason ( m5's putt+ !mselves into society 7ib4 ,sect4 #ba74 ,! /ate ( nature is n "o t is altoge!r ov] & done )4 ',all rul]s ( indep5d5t gov]nm5ts all ?r\gh ! _w are 9 a /ate ( nature4' ,! memb]s ( "o /ate 9 deal+ ) ^? ( ano!r are 9 a /ate ( nature1 & ! law ( nature alone b9ds !m4 ',= tru? & keep+ ( fai? belongs to m5 z m51 & n z memb]s ( society' 7,civ4 ,gov4 ,,ii4 ,sect4 #ad74 ',all m5 are naturally 9 t /ate & rema9 s till by _! own cons5ts !y make !mselves memb]s ( "s politic society' 7ib4 ,sect4 #ae74 #eg4 ,! anti!sis1 z put above1 betwe5 ! /ate ( nature & ! /ate ( w>1 c only be ma9ta9$ on ! supposition t ! 'law ( nature' is obs]v$ 9 a /ate ( nature4 ,locke does n explicitly /ate t ?is is ! case4 ,if x 7 s1 x w\ld n appe> h[ ! /ate ( w> %\ld arise 9 ! /ate ( nature4 ,b he evid5tly ?\ght ( ! /ate ( nature z "o 9 :i* m5 recognis$ ! law ( nature1 ?\gh )\t fully obs]v+ x4 ,he quotes ) approval f ,hook] language :i* implies t n only is ! /ate ( nature a /ate ( equality1 b t 9 x !re is su* consci\sness ( equality ) ea* o!r on ! "p ( m5 t !y recognise ! pr9ciple 'd z y w\ld be done by' 7,civ4 ,gov4 ,,ii4 ,sect4 #e74 ,) ,hobbes1 9 ! suppos$ /ate ( nature ! 'law ( nature' is emphatically n obs]v$1 & h5ce x is a /ate ( w>4 ,z has be5 po9t$ out above1 a 'law ( nature' 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ^! writ]s use ! t]m1 z a law :i* obliges b yet has no impon5t 9 ! %ape ( a sov]eign p[]1 is1 z ,locke says 7,sect4 #acf71 'n[h]e to be f\nd b 9 ! m9ds ( m5'2 x c only h its be+ 9 ! consci\sness ( ^? subject to x4 ,if !re=e we are to suppose a /ate ( nature 9 :i* su* a law ( nature exi/s1 x is m consi/5t to conceive x 9 ,locke's way ?an 9 t ( ,hobbes2 m consi/5t to conceive x z "o 9 :i* m5 recognise duties to ea* o!r ?an z a 'bellum omnium contra omnes4' #eh4 ,z to ! second po9t1 f 8 own conception ( :at m5 are 9 ! /ate ( nature1 & ( ! ends = :i* !y f\nd political societies1 ,locke d]ives c]ta9 necess>y limitations ( :at ! supreme p[] 9 a commonweal? may rightfully d4 ,! prime bus9ess ( ! political society1 once =m$1 is to e/abli% ! legislative p[]4 ,?is is 'sacr$ & unalt]able 9 ! h&s :]e ! community h once plac$ x' 7,civ4 ,gov4 ,,xi4 ,sect4 #acd72 'unalt]able1' t is1 z we ga!r f ! sequel1 by any?+ %ort ( an act ( ! community :i* orig9ally plac$ x 9 ^! h&s4 ,b z m5 9 a /ate ( nature h 'no arbitr>y p[]' ov] ea* o!r 7:i* mu/ mean t accord+ to ! 'law ( nature' !y h no su* p[]71 s !y _c transf] any su* p[] to ! community nor x to ! legislature4 ,no legislature c h ! "r to de/roy1 enslave1 or design$ly impov]i% ! subjects4 ,& z no legislature c be entitl$ to d any?+ :i* ! individual 9 ! /ate ( nature w\ld n by ! law ( nature be entitl$ to d1 s its great bus9ess is to decl>e ! law ( nature 9 g5]al t]ms & adm9i/] x by kn[n au?oris$ judges4 ,! /ate ( nature1 ,locke seem$ to ?9k1 w\ld h done v well1 b = ! inconv5i5ce ( e man be+ judge 9 8 own case ( :at ! law ( nature requires4 ,x is to rem$y ?is inconv5i5ce by e/abli%+ 7#a7 a settl$ law1 receiv$ by common cons5t1 7#b7 a kn[n & indiff]5t judge1 7#c7 a p[] to en=ce ! decisions ( su* a judge1 t political society is =m$4 ,h5ce a legislature violates ! 'tru/ t is put 9 x' by society unless x obs]ves ! foll[+ rules3 7#a7 x is to gov]n 'by promulgat$ e/abli%$ laws1' n to be v>i$ to suit p>ticul> int]e/s2 7#b7 ^! laws are to be design$ only = ! good ( ! p2 7#c7 x mu/ n raise taxes b by cons5t ( ! p ?r\gh !mselves or _! deputies2 7#d7 x nei!r 'mu/1 nor c1 transf] ! p[] ( mak+ laws to anybody else1 or place x any:]e b :]e ! p h' 7,civ4 ,gov4 ,,xi4 ,sect4 #adb74 #ei4 ,?us '! legislative be+ only a fiduci>y p[] to act = c]ta9 ends1 !re rema9s /ill 9 ! p a supreme p[] to remove or alt] ! legislature4' ,subject to ?is ultimate 'sov]eignty' 7a t]m :i* ,locke does n use7 ( ! p1 ! legislative is necess>ily ! supreme p[]1 to :i* ! executive is subord9ate4 ,an appe>ance to ! contr>y c only arise 9 cases :]e 7z 9 ,engl&7 ! supreme executive p[] is held by a p]son :o has also a %>e 9 ! legislative4 ,su* a p]son may '9 a v tol]able s5se be call$ supreme4' ,x is n1 h[ev]1 to him z supreme legislator 7:i* he is n1 b only a p>ticipator 9 supreme legislation7 b to him z supreme executor ( ! law t oa?s ( allegiance are tak54 ,x is only z execut+ ! law t he c claim ob$i5ce1 8 executive p[] be+1 l ! p[] ( ! legislative1 'a fiduci>y tru/ plac$ 9 him' to en=ce ob$i5ce to law & t only 7,civ4 ,gov4 ,,xiii4 ,sect4 #aea74 ,?is di/9ction ( ! supreme p[] ( ! p f t ( ! supreme executive1 correspond+ to a di/9ction betwe5 ! act ( transf]r+ individual p[]s to a society & ! subsequ5t act by :i* t society e/abli%es a p>ticul> =m ( gov]nm5t1 enables ,locke to di/+ui% :at ,hobbes _h conf\nd$1 ! dissolution ( gov]nm5t & ! dissolution ( political society4 #fj4 ,he gets rid ( ,hobbes' notion1 t because ! 'cov5ant ( all ) all1' by :i* a sov]eignty is e/abli%$1 is irrevocable1 !re=e ! gov]nm5t once e/abli%$ is unalt]able4 ,he conceives ! orig9al pact m]ely z an agreem5t to =m a civil society1 :i* mu/ inde$ h a gov]nm5t1 b n necess>ily always ! same gov]nm5t4 ,! pact is a transf] by individuals ( _! natural rights to a society1 & c only be cancell$ ?r\gh ! dissolution ( ! society by =eign conque/4 ,! delegation by ! society ( legislative & executive p[]s to a p]son or p]sons is a diff]5t matt]4 ,! society always reta9s ! "r1 accord+ to ,locke1 ( resum+ ! p[]s ?us delegat$1 & mu/ ex]cise ! light 9 ! ev5t ei!r ( ! legislative be+ alt]$1 7plac$ 9 diff]5t h&s f ^? orig9ally int5d$71 ( a collision betwe5 its executive & legislative (fic]s1 or ( a brea* betwe5 diff]5t bran*es ( ! legislature 7:5 z 9 ,engl& !re are su* diff]5t bran*es71 or :5 legislative & executive or ei!r ( !m 'act contr>y to _! tru/4' ,he ?us 9 effect v9dicates ! "r ( revolution1 ascrib+ to a 'sov]eign p' ! attributes :i* ,hobbes assign$ to a 'p]son1' s+le or corporate1 on :i* ! p =m+ a society 7 suppos$ by an irrevocable act to h devolv$ _! p[]s4 ,9 o!r words1 he consid]$ ! :ole civil society 9 all cases to h ! rights :i* ,hobbes w\ld only h all[$ x to possess :]e ! gov]nm5t 0 n a mon>*y or ari/ocracy b a democracy2 i4e4 :]e ! supreme 'p]son' ^u :i* all devolve _! sev]al 'p]sonae' is an 'assembly ( all :o w come toge!r4' ,z su* a democracy did n !n exi/ 9 ,europe1 any m ?an x does n[1 except 9 "s ,swiss cantons1 ! practical diff]5ce betwe5 ! two views 0 v great4 ,bo? ,locke & ,hobbes wrote ) a pres5t political object 9 view1 ,hobbes wi%+ to condemn ! ,rebellion1 ,locke to ju/ify ! ,revolution4 ,= practical purposes1 ,locke's doctr9e is mu* ! bett]2 b if ,hobbes' translation ( ! irrevocabl5ess ( ! cov5ant ( all ) all into ! illegitimacy ( resi/ance to an e/abli%$ gov]nm5t 9 effect entitles any tyrant l to d z he likes1 on ! o!r h&1 x is impossible ^u ,locke's !ory to pron\nce :5 resi/ance to a de facto gov]nm5t is legitimate or o!rwise4 ,x w\ld be legitimate accord+ to him :5 x is an act ( ! 'sov]eign p' 7n t ,locke uses ! phrase71 sup]s$+ a gov]nm5t :i* has be5 false to its tru/4 ,b ?is admitt$1 all sorts ( que/ions arise z to ! means ( asc]ta9+ :at is & :at is n an act ( ! 'sov]eign p4' #a ,accord+ to ,hobbes1 tyranny 'mon>*y mislik$'2 olig>*y 'ari/ocracy mislik$4' #fa4 ,! rapid success ( ! revolution )\t popul> disord] prev5t$ ,locke's !ory f becom+ ( importance1 b 9 ! pres5ce ( su* sect>ian en?usiasm z exi/$ 9 ,hobbes' "t x w\ld h become dang]\s4 ,x w\ld n any m ?an t ( ,hobbes ju/ify resi/ance to '! p[]s t be' on ! "p ( any body ( m5 %ort ( ! civil society act+ z a :ole1 i4e4 by a majority4 ,! sect>ies ( ! "t ( ! ,rebellion1 9 plead+ a natural or div9e "r to resi/ ! ord]s ( ! gov]nm5t1 w\ld h be5 z mu* condemn$ by ,locke's !ory z by t ( ,hobbes4 ,b :o c say :5 any popul> action by :i* e/abli%$ p[]s1 legislative or executive1 are resi/$ or alt]$ is an act ( ! 'sov]eign p1' ( ! civil society act+ z a :ole1 or no4 ,:]e gov]nm5t is democratic1 9 ,hobbes' s5se1 i4e4 ve/$ 9 an assembly ( all :o w come toge!r1 ! act ( ! 'sov]eign p' is unmi/akeable4 ,x is ! act ( ! majority ( su* an assembly4 ,b 9 su* a case ! difficulty _c arise4 ,!re c be no )drawal by ! sov]eign p ( p[] f its legislative or executive repres5tatives1 s9ce x has no su* repres5tatives4 ,9 any o!r case x w\ld seem impossible to say :e!r any resi/ance to1 or deposition (1 an e/abli%$ legislative or executive is ! act ( ! majority ( ! society or no ,any sect>y or revolution>y may plead t he has ! 'sov]eign p' on 8 side4 ,if he fails1 x is n c]ta9 t he has !m n on 8 side2 = x may be t1 ?\gh he has ! majority ( ! society on 8 side1 yet ! society has all[$ ! gr[? )9 x ( a p[] :i* prev5ts x f giv+ effect to its w4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! revolution succe$s1 x is n c]ta9 t x _h ! majority on its side :5 x began1 ?\gh ! majority may h come to acquiesce 9 its result4 ,9 %ort1 on ,locke's pr9ciple t any p>ticul> gov]nm5t d]ives its au?ority f an act ( ! society1 & society by a l act may recall ! au?ority1 h[ c we ev] be entitl$ to say t su* an act has be5 ex]cis$8 #fb4 ,x is true t !re is no great] difficulty ab\t suppos+ x to be ex]cis$ 9 ! dissolution ?an 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( a gov]nm5t1 inde$ n s mu*2 b ! act ( fir/ e/abli%+ a gov]nm5t is ?r[n back into an indef9ite pa/4 ,x may easily be tak5 = grant$ )\t fur!r inquiry into ! conditions ( its possibility4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z ! act ( legitimately dissolv+ a gov]nm5t or sup]s$+ "o by ano!r has to be imag9$ z tak+ place 9 ! pres5t1 ! inquiry into ! conditions ( its possibility _c well be avoid$4 ,if we h once assum$ ) ,hobbes & ,locke1 t ! au?ority ( gov]nm5t is d]iv$ f a cov5ant ( all ) all1--ei!r directly or m$iately by a subsequ5t act 9 :i* ! cov5ant$ society delegates its p[]s to a repres5tative or repres5tatives1--x w foll[ t a l act is requir$ to cancel x2 & ! difficulties ( conceiv+ su* an act "u ! conditions ( ! pres5t are s great1 t ,hobbes' view ( ! irrevocabl5ess ( ! orig9al act by :i* any gov]nm5t 0 e/abli%$ has mu* to say = itself4 ,if ! au?ority ( any gov]nm5t--its claim on our ob$i5ce--is held to be d]iv$ n f an orig9al cov5ant1 or f any cov5ant1 b f ! function :i* x s]ves 9 ma9ta9+ ^? conditions ( fre$om :i* are conditions ( ! moral life1 !n no act ( ! p 9 revocation ( a prior act ne$ be reckon$ necess>y to ju/ify its dissolution4 ,if x ceases to s]ve ?is function1 x loses its claim on our ob$i5ce4 ,x is a 4 #a 7,"h aga9 ! ,greek !ory1 d]iv+ ! au?ority ( gov]nm5t n f cons5t b f ! end :i* x s]ves1 is s\nd] ?an ! mod]n47 ,:e!r or no any p>ticul> gov]nm5t has on ?is gr\nd lo/ its claim & may be rightly resi/$1 is a "q1 no d\bt1 difficult = ! individual to answ] ) c]ta9ty4 ,9 ! long run1 h[ev]1 x seems g5]ally if n always to answ] itself4 ,a gov]nm5t no long] s]v+ ! function describ$--:i*1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 is v>i\sly s]v$ accord+ to circum/ances--br+s =ces into play :i* are fatal to x4 ,b if x is difficult ^u ?is !ory = ! individual to asc]ta91 z a matt] ( speculation1 :e!r resi/ance to an e/abli%$ gov]nm5t is ju/ifi$ or no1 at any rate ^u ?is !ory su* a ju/ification ( resi/ance is possible4 ,^u ,locke's !ory1 ! condition necess>y to ju/ify x--viz4 an act ( ! :ole p gov]n$--is "o :i*1 any:]e except 9 a ,swiss canton1 x w\ld be impossible to fulfil4 ,= practical purposes1 ,locke comes to a "r result by ignor+ ?is impossibility4 ,hav+ suppos$ ! reality ( "o impossible ev5t1--! e/abli%m5t ( gov]nm5t by compact or by ! act ( a society f\nd$ on compact1--he cancels ?is error 9 ! result by suppos+ ! possibility ( ano!r transaction equally impossible1 viz1 ! collective act ( a p dissolv+ its gov]nm5t4 #a ,greek 7p>ekbasis7 a gov]nm5t )\t a prop] basis ,tr #fc4 ,x is evid5t f ! *apt] 7,,xix47 on ! 'dissolution ( gov]nm5t' t he did n s]i\sly contemplate ! conditions "u :i* su* an act c\ld be ex]cis$4 ,:at he 0 really conc]n$ ab\t 0 to dispute '! "r div9e to gov]n wrong' on ! "p ( a legislative z mu* z on ! "p ( an executive p[]2 to ma9ta9 ! pr9ciple t gov]nm5t is only ju/ifi$ by be+ = ! good ( ! p1 & to po9t out ! diff]5ce betwe5 hold+ t "s gov]nm5t is necess>ily = ! good ( ! p1 & hold+ t any p>ticul> gov]nm5t is = _! good1 a diff]5ce :i* ,hobbes _h ignor$4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 />t+ ) ! supposition ( an actual de$ on ! "p ( a community e/abli%+ a gov]nm5t1 he _h to suppose a res]v$ "r on ! "p ( ! community by a l de$ to dissolve x4 ,b 9 ! only p>ticul> case 9 :i* he contemplates a loss by ! legislature ( its repres5tative "*1 he does n sugge/ ! e/abli%m5t ( ano!r by an act ( ! :ole p4 ,he saw t ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t 9 8 "t c\ld n claim to be su* z x c\ld be suppos$ t ! cov5ant+ community orig9ally int5d$ x to be4 ',x (t5 comes to pass1' he says1 '9 gov]nm5ts :]e "p ( ! legislative consi/s ( repres5tatives *os5 by ! p1 t 9 tract ( "t ?is repres5tation becomes v unequal & disproportionate to ! reasons x 0 fir/ e/abli%$ ^u4444 ,! b>e "n ( a t[n1 ( :i* !re rema9s n s mu* z ! ru9s1 :]e sc>ce s mu* h\s+ z a %eepcote1 or m inhabitants ?an a %eph]d is to be f\nd1 s5ds z _m repres5tatives to ! gr& assembly ( law-mak]s1 z a :ole c\nty1 num]\s 9 p1 & p[]ful 9 ri*es4 ,?is /rang]s /& amaz$ at1 & ev]yone mu/ confess ne$s a rem$y2 ?\gh mo/ ?9k x h>d to f9d "o1 because ! con/itution ( ! legislative be+ ! orig9al & supreme act ( ! society antec$5t to all positive laws 9 x1 & dep5d+ :olly on ! p1 no inf]ior p[] c alt] x4 ,& !re=e ! p1 :5 ! legislative is once con/itut$1 hav+1 9 su* a gov]nm5t z we h be5 speak+ (1 no p[] to act z long z ! gov]nm5t /&s1 ?is inconv5i5ce is ?\ght incapable ( a rem$y' 7,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,sect4 #aeg74 ,! only rem$y :i* he sugge/s is n an act ( ! sov]eign p1 b an ex]cise ( pr]ogative on ! "p ( ! executive1 9 ! way ( r$i/ribut+ repres5tation1 :i* w\ld be ju/ifi$ by 'salus populi suprema lex4' ,e4 ,,r\sseau4 #fd4 ,t 'sov]eignty ( ! p1' :i* ,locke looks ^u z held 9 res]ve aft] its orig9al ex]cise 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( gov]nm5t1 only to be ass]t$ 9 ! ev5t ( a legislature prov+ false to its tru/1 ,r\sseau supposes to be 9 con/ant ex]cise4 ,previ\s writ]s _h ?\ght ( ! political society or commonweal?1 ^u its =mation by compact1 z in/itut+ a sov]eign4 ,!y diff]$ *iefly on ! po9t :e!r ! society aft]w>ds _h or _h n a "r ( displac+ an e/abli%$ sov]eign4 ,r\sseau does n ?9k ( ! society1 civitas or commonweal?1 z ?us in/itut+ a sov]eign1 b z itself 9 ! act ( its =mation becom+ a sov]eign & ev] aft] cont9u+ s4 #fe4 ,9 8 conception ( a /ate ( nature1 ,r\sseau does n diff] f ,locke4 ,he conceives ! motive = pass+ out ( x1 h[ev]1 some:at diff]5tly & m aft] ! mann] ( ,sp9oza4 ,) ,locke ! motive is *iefly a s5se ( ! desirability ( hav+ an imp>tial judge1 & effici5t en=cem5t ( ! law ( nature4 ,accord+ to ,r\sseau1 "s pact takes place :5 m5 f9d ! h9drances to _! pres]vation 9 a /ate ( nature too /rong = ! =ces :i* ea* individual c br+ to be> aga9/ !m4 ,?is recalls ,sp9oza's view ( ! 'jus 9 naturam' z acquir$ by a comb9ation ( ! =ces ( individuals 9 civil society4 #ff4 ,! 'problem ( :i* ! social contract is a solution' ,r\sseau /ates ?us3 ',to f9d a =m ( association :i* protects ) ! :ole common =ce ! p]son & prop]ty ( ea* associate1 & 9 virtue ( :i* ev]yone1 :ile unit+ himself to all1 only obeys himself & rema9s z free z be=e4' 7,contrat ,social1 ,i1 vi47 ,! t]ms ( ! contract :i* solves ?is problem ,r\sseau /ates ?us3 ',ea* ( u ?r[s into ! common /ock 8 p]son & all 8 faculties "u ! supreme direction ( ! g5]al w2 & we accept ea* memb] z an individual "p ( ! :ole4444 ,!re results f ?is act ( association1 9 place ( ! sev]al p]sons ( ! sev]al contract+ p>ties1 a collective moral body1 compos$ ( z _m memb]s z !re are voices 9 ! assembly1 :i* body receives f ?is act its unity1 its common self1 its life1 & its w4444 ,x is call$ by its memb]s a /ate :5 x is passive1 a sov]eign :5 x is active1 a p[] :5 comp>$ ) simil> bodies4 ,! associates are call$ collectively a p1 sev]ally citiz5s z %>+ 9 ! sov]eign au?ority1 subjects z submitt$ to ! laws ( ! /ate4' 7,ib47 ,ea* ( !m is "u an obligation 9 two relations1 'z a memb] ( ! sov]eign body t[>ds ! individuals1 & z a memb] ( ! /ate t[>ds ! sov]eign4' ,all ! subjects c by a public vote be plac$ "u a p>ticul> obligation t[>ds ! sov]eign1 b ! sov]eign _c ?us incur an obligation t[>ds itself4 ,x _c impose any law ^u itself :i* x _c cancel4 ,nor is !re ne$ to re/rict its p[]s 9 ! int]e/ ( ! subjects4 ,= ! sov]eign body1 be+ =m$ only ( ! individuals :i* con/itute x1 c h no int]e/ contr>y to !irs4 ',f ! m]e fact ( its exi/5ce1 x is always all t x ought to be' 7s9ce1 f ! v fact ( its in/itution1 all m]ely private int]e/s are lo/ 9 x74 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! w ( ! individual 78 p>ticul> int]e/ z f\nd$ ^u 8 p>ticul> desires7 may v well conflict ) t g5]al w :i* con/itutes ! sov]eign4 ,h5ce ! social pact necess>ily involves a tacit agreem5t1 t anyone refus+ to con=m to ! g5]al w %all be =c$ to d s by ! :ole body politic2 9 o!r words1 '%all be =c$ to be free1' s9ce ! univ]sal con=mity to ! g5]al w is ! gu>antee to ea* individual ( fre$om f dep5d5ce on any o!r p]son or p]sons4 7,i1 vii47 #fg4 ,! result to ! individual may be /at$ ?us4 ,he ex*anges ! natural lib]ty to d & get :at he c1 a lib]ty limit$ by 8 relative /r5g?1 = a lib]ty at once limit$ & secur$ by ! g5]al w2 he ex*anges ! m]e possession ( su* ?+s z he c get1 a possession :i* is ! effect ( =ce1 = a prop]ty f\nd$ on a positive title1 on ! gu>antee ( society4 ,at ! same "t he becomes a moral ag5t4 ,ju/ice in/ead ( in/9ct becomes ! guide ( 8 actions4 ,= ! moral slav]y to appetite he sub/itutes ! moral fre$om :i* consi/s 9 ob$i5ce to a self-impos$ law4 ,n[ = ! fir/ "t x c be said t !re is any?+ :i* he ought to d1 z di/+ui%$ f t :i* he is =c$ to d4 7,i1 viii47 #fh4 ,su* language makes x cle> t ! sov]eignty ( :i* ,r\sseau discusses ! orig9 & attributes1 is some?+ ess5tially diff]5t f ! supreme co]cive p[] :i* previ\s writ]s on ! 'jus civile' _h 9 view4 ,a contempor>y ( ,hobbes _h said t '!re's on e>? a yet augu/] ?+1 ,veil$ ?\gh x be1 ?an ,p>liam5t & ,k+4' ,x is to ?is 'augu/] ?+1' n to su* supreme p[] z ,engli% lawy]s held to be ve/$ 9 ',p>liam5t & ,k+1' t ,r\sseau's acc\nt ( ! sov]eign is really applicable4 ,:at he says ( x is :at ,plato or ,ari/otle might h said ( ! 1 #a :i* is ! s\rce ( ! laws & discipl9e ( ! ideal polity1 & :at a foll[] ( ,kant might say ( ! 'pure practical reason1' :i* r5d]s ! individual ob$i5t to a law ( :i* he reg>ds himself1 9 virtue ( 8 reason1 z ! au?or1 & causes him to treat humanity equally 9 ! p]son ( o!rs & 9 8 own always z an end1 nev] m]ely z a means4 ,b all ! :ile ,r\sseau himself ?9ks t he is treat+ ( ! sov]eign 9 ! ord9>y s5se2 9 ! s5se ( "s p[] ( :i* x c\ld be reasonably ask$ h[ x 0 e/abli%$ 9 ! "p :]e x resides1 :5 & by :om & 9 :at way x is ex]cis$4 ,a read] ( him :o is m or less famili> ) ! legal conception ( sov]eignty1 b n at all ) t ( practical reason or ( a 'g5]al w4' a common ego1 :i* wills no?+ b :at is = ! common good1 is pretty sure to reta9 ! idea ( supreme co]cive p[] z ! attribute ( sov]eignty1 & to ignore ! attribute ( pure dis9t]e/$ness1 :i*1 accord+ to ,r\sseau1 mu/ *>act]ise e act t c be ascrib$ to ! sov]eign4 #a ,greek 7!ios n\s7 div9e m9d or intellig5ce ,tr #fi4 ,! practical result is a vague exaltation ( ! pr]ogatives ( ! sov]eign p1 )\t any correspond+ limitation ( ! conditions "u :i* an act is to be deem$ t ( ! sov]eign p4 ,! ju/ifiability ( laws & acts ( gov]nm5t1 & ( ! rights :i* ^! conf]1 comes to be s\ght simply 9 ! fact t ! p wills !m1 n 9 ! fact t !y repres5t a true 'volont gnrale1' an imp>tial & dis9t]e/$ w = ! common good4 ,?us ! "q ( :at really ne$s to be enact$ by ! /ate 9 ord] to secure ! conditions "u :i* a good life is possible1 is lo/ sight ( 9 ! que/ = majorities2 & z ! w ( ! p 9 any o!r s5se ?an ! measure ( :at ! p w tol]ate is really unasc]ta9able 9 ! great nations ( ,europe1 ! way is prep>$ = ! sophi/ries ( mod]n political managem5t1 = manipulat+ electoral bodies1 = influ5c+ elect$ bodies1 & procur+ plbiscites4 #gj4 ,! incompatibility betwe5 ! ideal attributes :i* ,r\sseau ascribes to ! sov]eign & any p[] t c actually be ex]cis$ by any man or body ( m5 becomes cle>] z we proce$4 ,he expressly di/+ui%es 'sov]eignty' f p[]1 & on ! gr\nd ( ?is di/9ction holds t x _c be ali5at$1 repres5t$1 or divid$4 ',sov]eignty be+ simply ! ex]cise ( ! g5]al w c nev] be ali5at$1 & ! sov]eign1 :o is only a collective be+1 c only be repres5t$ by himself4 ,p[] c be transmitt$1 b n w4' 7,,ii1 i47 ,9 ord] to ! possibility ( a repres5tation ( ! g5]al w1 !re mu/ be a p]man5t accord betwe5 x & ! individual w or wills ( ! p]son or p]sons repres5t+ x4 ,b su* p]man5t accord is impossible4 7,ib47 ,aga91 a g5]al w is f ! nature ( ! case indivisible4 ,x is commonly held to be divid$1 n1 inde$1 9 respect ( its s\rce1 b 9 respect ( ! objects to :i* its acts are direct$1 e4g4 into legislative & executive p[]s2 into rights ( taxation1 ( w>1 ( ju/ice1 c4 ,b ?is suppos$ division ( sov]eign p[]s or rights implies t ':at are only emanations f ! sov]eign au?ority are tak5 to be p>ts ( x4' 7,,ii1 ii47 ,! only ex]cise ( sov]eign p[]1 prop]ly s call$1 is 9 legislation1 & !re is no prop] act ( legislation except :5 ! :ole p comes to a decision ) ref]5ce to ! :ole p4 ,!n ! matt] decid$ on is z g5]al z ! w :i* decides on x2 & ?is is :at con/itutes a law4 7,,ii1 vi47 ,by ?is consid]ation sev]al que/ions are answ]$4 ,^: (fice is x to make laws8 ,x is t ( ! g5]al w1 :i* c nei!r be ali5at$ nor repres5t$4 ,is ! pr9ce above ! law8 ,! answ] is1 ,he is a memb] ( ! /ate1 & _c be s4 ,c ! law be unju/8 ,no "o c be unju/ to himself3 !re=e n ! :ole p to ! :ole p4 ,h[ c we be free & yet subject to ! laws8 ,! laws are ! regi/] ( our own w4 7,ib47 ,laws1 9 %ort1 are prop]ly ^? g5]al 'conditions ( civil association' :i* ! associates impose on !mselves4 ,:]e ei!r ( ! specifi$ conditions is lack+1 :]e ei!r x is n ! univ]sal w f :i* an ord9ance proce$s or x is n ! :ole p to :i* x relates1 x is n a law b a decree1 n an act ( sov]eignty b ( magi/racy4 7,ib47 #ga4 ,?is leads to a consid]ation ( ! nature & in/itution ( magi/racy or gov]nm5t4 7,,iii1 i47 ,! gov]nm5t is nev] ! same z ! sov]eign4 ,! two are di/+ui%$ by _! functions1 t ( ! "o be+ legislative1 t ( ! o!r executive4 ,ev5 :]e ! p itself gov]ns1 its acts ( gov]nm5t mu/ be di/+ui%$ f its acts ( sov]eignty1 ! =m] hav+ a p>ticul>1 ! latt] a g5]al1 ref]5ce4 ,gov]nm5t is ! ex]cise accord+ to law ( ! executive p[]1 & ! 'pr9ce' or 'magi/rate' is ! man or body ( m5 *>g$ ) ?is adm9i/ration2 'a body int]m$i>y betwe5 ! subjects & ! sov]eign1 *>g$ ) ! execution ( ! laws1 & ) ! ma9t5ance ( civil & political fre$om' 7,ib47 ,:]e all or mo/ ( ! citiz5s are magi/rates1 or *>g$ ) ! supreme functions ( gov]nm5t1 we h a democracy2 :]e a few1 an ari/ocracy2 :]e "o is s *>g$1 a mon>*y4 7,,iii1 iii47 ,! diff]5ces dep5d1 n z ,hobbes & o!rs _h suppos$1 on ! qu>t] :]e ! sov]eignty resides--= x mu/ always reside 9 ! :ole body ( p--b on t 9 :i* gov]nm5t resides4 ,! idea ( gov]nm5t is t ! dom9ant w ( ! pr9ce %\ld be ! g5]al w or law1 t x %\ld be simply ! public =ce by :i* t g5]al w is br\ght to be> on individuals or aga9/ o!r /ates1 s]v+ ! same purpose 9 ! /ate z ! union ( s\l & body 9 ! individual 7,,iii1 i472 & ?is idea is mo/ likely to be satisfi$ "u a democracy4 ,!re1 ! g5]al w 7if !re is a g5]al w1 :i* ! democracy is no gu>antee = !re be+1 accord+ to ,r\sseau's di/9ction betwe5 ! 'volont gnrale' & 'volont de t\s1' ( :i* m h]eaft]7 _c fail to co9cide ) ! dom9ant w ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,! preval5ce ( p>ticul> int]e/s may prev5t !re be+ a w at all ( ! k9d :i* ,r\sseau w\ld c\nt g5]al or truly sov]eign1 b !y _c be m preval5t 9 ! magi/racy1 con/itut$ by ! :ole p1 ?an 9 ! same p act+ 9 ! way ( legislation4 ,9 a democracy1 !re=e1 ! w ( ! sov]eign1 s f> z !re is a sov]eign 9 ! prop] s5se1 necess>ily f9ds expression 9 ! w ( ! magi/racy4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh "u ei!r ( ! o!r =ms ( gov]nm5t !re is dang] ( collision betwe5 sov]eign & gov]nm5t1 yet ! =ce ( ! gov]nm5t is great] ?an 9 a democracy4 ,x is greate/ :5 ! gov]nm5t is a mon>*y1 because "u all o!r =ms !re is m or less discrepancy betwe5 ! individual wills ( ! sev]al p]sons compos+ ! gov]nm5t1 z direct$ to ! p>ticul> good ( ea*1 & ! corporate w ( ! gov]nm5t ( :i* ! object is its own effici5cy1 & "u a mon>*y ?is s\rce ( weakness is avoid$4 7,,iii1 ii47 ,z !re is m ne$ ( =ce 9 ! gov]nm5t 9 proportion to ! numb] ( subjects ^: p>ticul> wills x has to control1 x foll[s t mon>*y is be/ suit$ to ! l>ge/1 democracy to ! smalle/ /ates4 7,,iii1 iii47 #gb4 ,z to ! in/itution ( gov]nm5t1 ,r\sseau ma9ta9s /r5u\sly t x is n e/abli%$ by contract4 ',!re is only "o contract 9 ! /ate1 viz4 t ( ! orig9al association2 & ?is excludes e o!r4 ,no o!r public contract c be imag9$ :i* w\ld n be a violation ( ! fir/4' 7,,iii1 xvi47 ,ev5 :5 gov]nm5t is ve/$ 9 an h]$it>y body1 mon>*ic or ari/ocratic1 ?is is m]ely a provisional arrangem5t1 made & liable to be rev]s$ by ! sov]eign1 ^: (fic]s ! gov]nors are4 ,! act by :i* gov]nm5t is e/abli%$ is tw(old1 consi/+ fir/ly ( ! pass+ ( a law by ! sov]eign1 to ! effect t !re %all be a gov]nm5t2 secondly1 ( an act 9 execution ( ?is law1 by :i* ! gov]nors--! 'magi/rates'--are appo9t$4 ,b x may be ask$1 ,h[ c ! latt] act1 be+ "o n ( sov]eignty b ( magi/racy 7= x has a p>ticul> ref]5ce 9 ! designation ( ! gov]nors71 be p]=m$ :5 z yet !re is no gov]nm5t8 ,! answ] is t ! p resolves itself f a sov]eign body into a body ( magi/rates1 z ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t resolves itself con/antly f a legislative body into a committee4 ,9 o!r words1 by a simple act ( ! g5]al w a democracy is = ! "t e/abli%$1 :i* !n proce$s ei!r to reta9 ! gov]nm5t 9 its own h&s1 or to place x 9 ^? ( an (fic]1 accord+ to ! =m 9 :i* ! sov]eign has decid$ to e/abli% ! gov]nm5t4 7,,iii1 xvii47 ,acts simil> to t by :i* ! gov]nm5t 0 orig9ally con/itut$ ne$ to be p]iodically repeat$ 9 ord] to prev5t ! gov]nm5t f usurp+ ! functions ( ! sov]eign1 i4e4 ! function ( legislation4 7,c\ld ?is usurpation occur "u a democracy87 ,9 ord] t ! sov]eignty may n fall into abeyance1 x mu/ be ex]cis$1 & x c only be ex]cis$ 9 assemblies ( ! :ole p4 ,^! mu/ be held p]iodically1 & at _! op5+ two que/ions ought to be submitt$2 "o1 :e!r x pleases ! sov]eign to ma9ta9 ! pres5t =m ( gov]nm5t2 ! o!r1 :e!r x pleases ! p to leave ! adm9i/ration 9 ! h&s ( ^? at pres5t *>g$ ) x4 7,,iii1 xviii47 ,su* assemblies are entitl$ to revise & repeal all previ\sly enact$ laws4 ,a law n s repeal$ ! sov]eign mu/ be tak5 tacitly to confirm1 & x reta9s its au?ority4 ,b z ! true sov]eign is n any law b ! g5]al w1 no law1 ev5 ! mo/ fundam5tal1 c be exempt f liability to repeal4 ,ev5 ! social pact itself might legitimately be dissolv$1 by agreem5t ( all ! citiz5s assembl$4 7,ib47 7,:e!r unanimity is necess>y = ! purpose is n specifi$47 ,)\t su* assemblies !re c be no ex]cise ( ! g5]al w 7:i*1 z be=e /at$1 _c be repres5t$71 & consequ5tly no fre$om4 ,! ,engli% p1 e4g41 is q mi/ak5 9 ?9k+ itself free4 ,x is only free :ile ! election ( memb]s ( ,p>liam5t is go+ on4 ,z soon z !y are elect$1 x is 9 bondage1 x is no?+4 ,9 ! %ort mom5ts ( its fre$om x makes su* a bad use ( x t x well des]ves to lose x4 7,,iii1 xv47 #gc4 ,x appe>s f ! above t1 accord+ to ,r\sseau1 ! g5]al w1 :i* is ! true sov]eign1 c only be ex]cis$ 9 assemblies ( ! :ole p4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he does n hold t an act ( su* an assembly is necess>ily an act ( ! g5]al w4 ,aft] tell+ u t ! 'g5]al w is always "r1 & always t5ds to ! public good1' he adds1 'b x does n foll[ t ! delib]ations ( ! p h always ! same rectitude4444 ,!re is (t5 a great diff]5ce betwe5 ! w ( all & ! g5]al w4 ,! latt] only looks to ! common int]e/2 ! o!r looks to private int]e/s1 & is only a sum ( ! wills ( individuals4' 7,,ii1 iii47 ,aga9 7,,ii1 iv471 't :i* g5]alises ! w is n s mu* ! numb] ( voices z ! common int]e/ :i* unites !m4' ,he holds app>5tly t 9 ! assembly ( ! :ole p1 if !y _h suffici5t in=mation1 & if no m9or comb9ations ( p>ticul> int]e/s 7 =m$ )9 ! entire body1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! wills ( individuals w\ld neutralise ea* o!r1 & ! vote ( ! :ole body w\ld express ! true g5]al w4 ,b 9 fact 9 all assemblies !re is at lea/ a liability to lack ( in=mation & to ! =mation ( cliques2 & h5ce x _c be held t ! vote ( ! assembly necess>ily expresses ! g5]al w4 ,r\sseau1 h[ev]1 does n g s f> z to say t unless ! law is actually su* z contributes to ! common good1 x is n an expression ( ! g5]al w4 ,! g5]al w1 accord+ to him1 always aims at or wills ! common good1 b is liable to be mi/ak5 z to ! means ( atta9+ x4' ,x is always "r1 b ! judgm5t :i* guides x is n always enlight5$4444 ,individuals see ! good :i* !y reject2 ! public wills ! good :i* x does n see4' 7,,ii1 vi47 ,h5ce ! ne$ ( a guide 9 ! %ape ( a great lawgiv]4 ,app>5tly1 h[ev]1 ! possible lack ( enlight5m5t on ! "p ( ! g5]al w does n1 9 ,r\sseau's view1 prev5t its decisions f be+ = ! public good4 ,9 discuss+ ! 'limits ( ! sov]eign p[]' he ma9ta9s t !re c be no conflict betwe5 x & ! natural "r ( ! individual1 because1 'al?\gh x is only t "p ( 8 p[]1 8 goods1 8 fre$om1 ( :i* ! use is important to ! community1 t ! individual transf]s to ! sov]eign by ! social pact1 yet ! sov]eign alone c be judge ( ! importance'2 & ! sov]eign '_c lay on ! subjects any con/ra9t :i* is n = ! good ( ! community4' ',"u ! law ( reason' 7:i* is ?us id5tifi$ ) ! g5]al w7 'no?+ is done )\t a cause1 any m ?an "u ! law ( nature4' 7,,ii1 iv47 #gd4 ,b ?\gh ev5 an un5light5$ g5]al w is ! g5]al w /ill1 & 7z we are left to inf]7 _c 9 its decisions d o!rwise ?an promote ! public good1 ,r\sseau di/9ctly contemplates ! possibility ( ! g5]al w be+ s ov]p[]$ by p>ticul> int]e/s t x f9ds no expression 9 ! votes ( a popul> assembly1 ?\gh ! assembly be really "o ( a :ole p1 & ! vote ( ! majority is duly tak54 7,,iv1 i47 ,9 su* cases x is n t ! g5]al w is 'annihilat$ or corrupt$2 x is always con/ant1 unalt]able1 & pure4' ,ev5 9 ! individual ^: vote is gov]n$ by 8 private int]e/ ! g5]al w is n ext9ct1 nor is he unaw>e ei!r ( :at ! public good requires or ( ! fact t :at is = ! public good is also = 8 own4 ,b 8 %>e 9 ! public evil to :i* he kn[s t 8 vote w contribute1 seems no?+ by ! side ( ! special private good :i* he hopes to ga94 ,by 8 vote1 9 %ort1 he does n answ] ! "q1 ,is s & s = ! advantage ( ! /ate8 b1 ,is x = ! advantage ( ?is p>ticul> man or p>ty8 7,ib47 #ge4 ,! te/ ( ! dom9ance ( ! g5]al w 9 assemblies ( ! p is an approa* to unanimity4 ',long debates1 discussions1 tumult1 indicate ! asc5d5cy ( p>ticul> int]e/s & ! decl9e ( ! /ate4' 7,,iv1 ii47 ,r\sseau1 h[ev]1 does n v5ture to say t absolute unanimity 9 ! assembly is necess>y to an expression ( ! g5]al w1 or to give a law a claim ^u ! ob$i5ce ( ! subjects4 ,?is w\ld h be5 to r5d] effectual legislation impossible4 ,^u ! !ory1 h[ev]1 ( ! f\ndation ( legitimate sov]eignty 9 cons5t1 ! !ory t ! natural "r ( ! individual is violat$ unless he is himself a jo9t impon5t ( ! law :i* he is call$ to obey1 x is n easy to see :at rightful claim !re c be to ! submission ( a m9ority4 ,r\sseau s f> recognises ! difficulty t he requires unanimity 9 ! orig9al compact4 7,,iv1 ii47 ,if among ^? :o are p>ties to x !re are o!rs :o oppose x1 ! result is simply t ! latt] are n includ$ 9 x4 ',!y are /rang]s among ! citiz5s4' ,b ?is does n expla9 h[ !y are to be rightfully controll$1 on ! pr9ciple t ! only rightful control is f\nd$ on cons5t2 or1 if !y are n controll$1 :at is ! value ( ! 'social compact4' ,h[ c ! object ( ! pact be atta9$ :ile ^? :o are b\nd by x h ^! '/rang]s' liv+ among !m :o are n b\nd by x1 & :o1 n be+ b\nd by x1 _c be rightfully controll$8 ,! difficulty mu/ recur ) ea* g5]ation ( ! desc5dants ( ^? :o 7 p>ties to ! orig9al pact4 ,! p>ties to ! pact1 x is true1 h no "r to resi/ ! g5]al w1 because ! pact is ex hypo!si to ! effect t ea* individual1 9 all ?+s ( common conc]n1 w take ! g5]al w = 8 own4 ,! true =m1 !re=e1 ( ! "q ^u :i* ea* p>ty to ! pact %\ld consid] himself to be vot+ 9 ! assembly is1 z ,r\sseau puts x1 n ',is ! propos$ measure :at ,i wi% =1 or :at ,i approve1 or no8' b ',is x 9 con=mity ) ! g5]al w8' ,if1 hav+ vot$ ^u ?is "q1 he f9ds himself 9 a m9ority1 he is b\nd to suppose t he is mi/ak5 9 8 views ( ! g5]al w1 & to accept ! decision ( ! majority z ! g5]al w :i*1 by ! pact1 he is b\nd to obey4 ,s f> all is consi/5t2 ?\gh h[ ! individual is to be answ]$ if he pleads t ! vote ( ! assembly has be5 too mu* biass$ by p>ticul> int]e/s to be an expression ( ! g5]al w1 & t !re=e x is n b9d+ on him1 does n appe>4 #gf4 ,b aft] ! fir/ g5]ation ( ^? :o 7 p>ties to ! suppos$ orig9al compact1 :at is to settle :e!r anyone is a p>ty to x or no8 ,r\sseau faces ! "q1 b 8 only answ] is t :5 once ! /ate is in/itut$1 cons5t is impli$ 9 resid5ce2 'to dwell on ! t]ritory is to submit to ! sov]eignty4' 7,,iv1 ii47 ,?is answ]1 h[ev]1 w sc>cely /& exam9ation4 ,r\sseau himself does n consid] t resid5ce 9 ! same region ) ! orig9al p>ties to ! pact r5d]s ^? s resid5t also p>ties to x4 ,:y %\ld x d s1 :5 ! pact has desc5d$ to a lat] g5]ation8 ,x may be argu$ ( c\rse t ev]yone resid+ 9 a settl$ society1 :i* secures him 9 8 rights ( p]son & prop]ty1 has ! b5efit ( ! society f ! m]e fact ( 8 resid5ce 9 x1 & is !re=e morally b\nd to accept its laws4 ,b ?is is to ab&on ! doctr9e ( obligation be+ f\nd$ on cons5t4 ,resid5ce 9 a t]ritory gov]n$ by a c]ta9 sov]eign c only be tak5 to imply cons5t to ! rule ( t sov]eign1 if !re is any real possibility ( rel9qui%+ x1 & ?is !re c sc>cely ev] be4 #gg4 ,r\sseau c]ta9ly c>ri$ out ! attempt to reconcile submission to gov]nm5t ) ! exi/5ce ( natural rights antec$5t to ! in/itution ( gov]nm5t1 by ! hypo!sis ( a f\ndation ( gov]nm5t 9 cons5t1 m consi/5tly ?an any o!r writ]2 & 8 result %[s ! hopelessness ( ! attempt4 ,to ! consi/5cy ( 8 !ory he sacrifices e claim to "r on ! "p ( any /ate except "o 9 :i* ! :ole body ( citiz5s directly legislates1 i4e4 on ! "p ( ne>ly all /ates !n or n[ exi/+2 & f9ally he c only ju/ify ! control ( ! m9ority by ! majority 9 any /ate :atev] by a subt]fuge4 ,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1 because ! doctr9e ( natural rights & ! consequ5t conception ( gov]nm5t z f\nd$ on compact are unt5able1 t !re is no tru? 9 ! conception ( ! /ate or sov]eign z repres5t+ a g5]al w1 & z au?oris$ or entitl$ to ob$i5ce on t acc\nt4 ,x is ?is conception1 z ! p]man5tly valuable ?+ 9 ,r\sseau1 t we h n[ fur!r to consid]4 #gh4 ,! fir/ rem>k ^u x :i* sugge/s itself is t1 z ,r\sseau puts ! matt]1 !re may be an indep5d5t political society 9 :i* !re is no sov]eign p[] at all1 or 9 :i*1 at any rate1 x is n ex]cis$4 ,! sov]eign is ! g5]al w4 ,b ! g5]al w c only be ex]cis$ ?r\gh ! assembly ( a :ole p4 ,! necess>y conditions ( its ex]cise1 !n1 9 ,r\sseau's "t1 7 only fulfill$ 9 ! ,swiss cantons & 7p]haps7 9 ! ,unit$ ,prov9ces4 ,9 ,engl& !y 7 fulfill$ 9 a way dur+ ! "t ( a g5]al election4 ,b ev5 :]e ^! conditions 7 fulfill$1 x did n foll[ t ! g5]al w 0 put 9 =ce4 ,x might be ov]p[]$1 z 9 ! ,roman comitia1 by p>ticul> int]e/s4 ,is x !n to be und]/ood t1 accord+ to ,r\sseau1 ei!r !re c be indep5d5t /ates )\t any sov]eignty 9 actual ex]cise1 or t ! ,european /ates ( 8 "t1 & equally ! great /ates ( ! pres5t day 7= 9 none ( ^! is !re any m ex]cise ( ! g5]al w ?an 9 ! ,engl& ( 8 "t71 are n prop]ly /ates at all8 #gi4 ,we may try to answ] ?is "q by di/+ui%+ sov]eign de facto f sov]eign de jure1 & say+ t :at ,r\sseau meant 0 t ! g5]al w1 z def9$ by him & z ex]cis$ "u ! conditions :i* he prescribes1 0 ! only sov]eign de jure1 b t he w\ld h recognis$ 9 ! ord9>y /ates ( 8 "t a sov]eign de facto2 & t 9 ! same way1 :5 he describes ! in/itution ( gov]nm5t z aris+ out ( a tw(old act consequ5t on ! orig9al pact 7an act 9 :i* ! sov]eign p fir/ decides t !re %all be a gov]nm5t1 & !n1 n z a sov]eign p1 b z a democratic magi/racy1 decides 9 :at h&s ! gov]nm5t %all be plac$71 he does n conceive himself to be describ+ :at has actually tak5 place1 b :at is necess>y to give a gov]nm5t a moral title to ob$i5ce4 ,:e!r ,r\sseau himself _h ?is di/9ction 9 view is n always cle>4 ,at ! outset he /ates 8 object ?us3 ',man is born free1 & ev]y:]e he is 9 fett]s4 ,h[ has ?is *ange come ab\t8 ,i d n "k4 ,:at c r5d] x legitimate8 ,t is a "q :i* ,i deem myself able to answ]4' 7,i1 i47 ,! answ] is ! acc\nt ( ! e/abli%m5t ( a sov]eign by social pact4 ,x might be inf]r$ f ?is t he consid]$ himself 9 ! sequel to be del9eat+ transactions to ! actual occurr5ce ( :i* he did n commit himself1 b :i*1 if !y did occur1 w\ld con/itute a duty z di/9ct f a physical necessity ( submission on ! "p ( subjects to a sov]eign1 & to :i* "s equival5t mu/ be suppos$1 9 ! %ape ( a tacit pres5t conv5tion on ! "p ( ! memb]s ( a /ate1 if _! submission is to be matt] ( duty z di/9ct f physical necessity1 or is to be expla9$ z a matt] ( "r by ! o/5sible sov]eign4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld m]ely be an inf]5ce z to 8 mean+4 ,8 actual proc$ure is to describe transactions1 by :i* ! sov]eignty ( ! g5]al w 0 e/abli%$1 & by :i* x 9 turn e/abli%$ a gov]nm5t1 z if !y _h actually tak5 place4 ,nor is he cont5t ) suppos+ a tacit cons5t ( ! p z r5d]+ subjection legitimate4 ,! p ^: submission to law is to be 'legitimate' mu/ actually take "p 9 sov]eign legislative assemblies4 ,x is v r>ely t he uses language :i* implies ! possibility ( a sov]eign p[] o!rwise con/itut$4 ,he does inde$ speak #a ( ! possibility ( a pr9ce 79 ! special mean+ ( ! t]m1 z repres5t+ ! head ( ! executive7 usurp+ sov]eignty1 & speaks ( ! sov]eignty ?us usurp$ z exi/+ de facto1 n de jure2 b 9 no o!r connection 7s f> z ,i h obs]v$7 does he speak ( any?+ %ort ( ! 'volont gnrale' ex]cis$ ?r\gh ! vote ( an assembl$ p z sov]eign at all4 ,& ! :ole drift ( 8 doctr9e is to %[ t no sov]eign1 o!rwise con/itut$1 _h any claim on ob$i5ce4 ,!re 0 no /ate 9 ,europe at 8 "t 9 :i* 8 doctr9e w\ld n h ju/ifi$ rebellion1 & ev5 "u exi/+ repres5tative sy/ems ! conditions are n fulfill$ :i* accord+ to him are necess>y to give laws ! claim on our ob$i5ce :i* arises f _! be+ an expression ( ! g5]al w4 ,! only sy/em "u :i* ^! conditions c\ld be fulfill$ w\ld be "o ( f$]at$ self-gov]n+ communes1 small en\gh to all[ ea* memb] an active %>e 9 ! legislation ( ! commune4 ,x is probably ! influ5ce ( ,r\sseau t has made su* a sy/em ! ideal ( political en?usia/s 9 ,france4 #a ',if x happ5$ t ! pr9ce _h a private w m active ?an t ( ! sov]eign1 & t he made use ( ! public =ce plac$ 9 8 h&s z ! in/rum5t ( ?is private w1 !re w\ld result1 s to speak1 two sov]eignties1 "o de jure1 ! o!r de facto2 b f t mom5t ! social union w\ld disappe>1 & ! body politic w\ld be dissolv$4' 7,,iii1 i47 ',:5 ! pr9ce ceases to adm9i/] ! /ate accord+ to ! laws1 & usurps ! sov]eign p[] 444 !n ! /ate 9 ! l>g] s5se is dissolv$1 & !re is =m$ ano!r )9 x1 compos$ only ( ! memb]s ( ! gov]nm5t 444 ! social pact is brok5 444 & all ! ord9>y citiz5s return z a matt] ( "r to _! /ate ( natural lib]ty1 & are m]ely =c$1 b n oblig$1 to obey4' 7,,iii1 ,x47 ,f4 ,,sov]eignty ,,& ,,! ,,g5]al ,,w4 ,r\sseau & ,au/94 #hj4 ,! que/ions !n arise 7#a7 :e!r !re is any tru? 9 ,r\sseau's conception ( sov]eignty z f\nd$ ^u a 'volont gnrale' 9 its application to actual sov]eignty4 ,does any?+ l su* a sov]eignty exi/ 9 ! societies prop]ly call$ political8 7#b7 ,is !re any tru? 9 speak+ ( a sov]eignty de jure f\nd$ ^u ! 'volont gnrale8 7#c7 ,if !re is1 are we to hold ) ,r\sseau t ?is 'w' c only be ex]cis$ ?r\gh ! votes ( a sov]eign p8 #ha4 7#a7 ,! fir/ "q is "o :i*1 if we take our notions ( sov]eignty f su* writ]s z ,au/91 we %all be at fir/ dispos$ decid$ly to negative4 ,au/9 is consid]$ a ma/] ( precise def9ition4 ,we may beg91 !re=e1 by look+ to 8 def9ition ( sov]eignty & ! t]ms connect$ ) x4 ,8 g5]al def9ition ( law runs z foll[s3 ',a law1 9 ! mo/ g5]al & compreh5sive acceptation 9 :i* ! t]m1 9 its lit]al mean+1 is employ$1 may be said to be a rule laid d[n = ! guidance ( an intellig5t be+ by an intellig5t be+ hav+ p[] ov] him4' #a ,^! rules are ( two k9ds3 7#a7 laws set by ,god to m51 or ! law ( nature2 & 7#b7 laws set by m5 to m51 or human law4 ,we are only conc]n$ ) ! latt]1 ! human laws4 ,^! are aga9 di/+ui%$ into two classes1 accord+ z !y are or are n e/abli%$ by political sup]iors4 ',( ! laws or rules set by m5 to m51 "s are e/abli%$ by political sup]iors1 sov]eign & subject2 by p]sons ex]cis+ supreme & subord9ate gov]nm5t1 9 indep5d5t nations1 or indep5d5t political societies' 7pp4 #hh & #hi74 ',! aggregate ( ! rules e/abli%$ by political sup]iors is frequ5tly /yl$ positive law1 or law exi/+ by position' 7p4 #hi74 ,?is is di/+ui%$ f 'positive morality4' ,laws are fur!r expla9$ z a species ( comm&s4 ,a comm& is a signification ( desire1 di/+ui%$ by ! fact t ! p>ty to :om x is address$ is liable to evil f ! p>ty express+ ! desire 9 case he does n comply ) x 7p4 #ia74 ,?is liability to evil =ms ! sanction ( ! comm&4 ,:]e a comm& 'obliges g5]ally to acts or =be>ances ( a class1 x is a law' 7p4 #ie74 ',e positive law1 or e law simply & /rictly s call$1 is set by a sov]eign p]son or a sov]eign body ( p]sons to a memb] or memb]s ( ! indep5d5t political society :]e9 t p]son or body is sov]eign or supreme4 ,or 7*ang+ ! expression7 x is set by a mon>*1 or sov]eign memb]1 to a p]son or p]sons 9 a /ate ( subjection to its au?or4 ,ev5 ?\gh x sprung directly f ano!r f\nta9 or s\rce1 x is a positive law1 or a law /rictly s call$1 by ! in/itution ( t pres5t sov]eign 9 ! "* ( political sup]ior4 ,or 7borr[+ ! language ( ,hobbes7 ! legislator is he1 n by ^: au?ority ! law 0 fir/ made1 b by ^: au?ority x cont9ues to be a law' 7pp4 #bbe & #bbf74 ',! notions ( sov]eignty & indep5d5t political society may be express$ concisely ?us4 ,if a det]m9ate human sup]ior1 n 9 a habit ( ob$i5ce to a l sup]ior1 receive habitual ob$i5ce f ! bulk ( a giv5 society1 t det]m9ate sup]ior is sov]eign 9 t society1 & ! society 7includ+ ! sup]ior7 is a society political & indep5d5t' 7p4 #bbf74 ',9 ord] t a giv5 society may =m a society political & indep5d5t1 ! two di/+ui%+ m>ks :i* ,i h m5tion$ above mu/ unite4 ,! g5]ality ( ! giv5 society mu/ be 9 a habit ( ob$i5ce to a det]m9ate & common sup]ior2 :il/ t det]m9ate p]son1 or det]m9ate body ( p]sons1 mu/ n be habitually ob$i5t to a det]m9ate p]son or body4 ,x is ! union ( t positive ) ?is negative m>k :i* r5d]s t c]ta9 sup]ior sov]eign or supreme1 & :i* r5d]s t giv5 society 7includ+ t c]ta9 sup]ior7 a society political & indep5d5t' 7p4 #bbg74 #a ,lectures on ,jurisprud5ce1 vol4 i4 p4 #hh 7edit4 ( #ahfi1 9 two vols47 #hb4 ,x may be rem>k$ 9 pass+ t1 accord+ to ! above1 :ile e law implies a sov]eign1 f :om directly or indirectly 7?r\gh a subord9ate political sup]ior7 x proce$s1 x is n necess>y to a sov]eign t 8 comm&s %\ld take ! =m ( laws1 z oppos$ to 'p>ticul> or occasional comm&s4' ,a sup]ior might signify 8 desires only 9 ! =m ( su* p>ticul> & occasional comm&s1 & yet !re might be a habit ( ob$i5ce to him1 & he might n be habitually ob$i5t to any o!r p]son or body2 9 :i* case he w\ld be a 'sov]eign4' #hc4 ,au/9's doctr9e seems diametrically opposite to "o :i* f9ds ! sov]eign 9 a 'volont gnrale1' because 7a7 x only recognises sov]eignty 9 a det]m9ate p]son or p]sons1 & 7b7 x consid]s ! ess5ce ( sov]eignty to lie 9 ! p[]1 on ! "p ( su* det]m9ate p]sons1 to put compulsion )\t limit on subjects1 to make !m d exactly z x pleases4 #a ,! 'volont gnrale1' on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld seem1 _c be id5tifi$ ) ! w ( any det]m9ate p]son or p]sons2 x c1 inde$1 accord+ to ,r\sseau1 only be express$ by a vote ( ! :ole body ( subject citiz5s2 b :5 y h got !m toge!r1 !re is no c]ta9ty t _! vote does express x2 & x does n--at any rate necess>ily--comm& any p[] ( compulsion1 mu* less unlimit$ p[]4 ,r\sseau expressly contemplates ! possibility ( ! executive p[] conflict+ ) & ov]be>+ ! g5]al w4 ,inde$1 accord+ to 8 view1 x 0 ! ord9>y /ate ( ?+s2 & ?\gh ?is view may be exagg]at$1 no "o c\ld ma9ta9 t ! 'g5]al w1' 9 any intelligible s5se ( ! words1 _h always unlimit$ =ce at its comm&4 #a ,cf4 ,ma9e's /atem5t ( ,au/9's doctr9e 9 ,! ,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ,in/itutions1 pp4 #cdi & #cej3 ',!re is 9 e indep5d5t political community--t is1 9 e political community n 9 ! habit ( ob$i5ce to a sup]ior above itself--"s s+le p]son or "s comb9ation ( p]sons :i* has ! p[] ( compell+ ! o!r memb]s ( ! community to d exactly z x pleases4 ,?is s+le p]son or gr\p--?is individual or ?is collegiate sov]eign 7to employ ,au/9's phrase7 may be f\nd 9 e indep5d5t political community z c]ta9ly z ! c5tre ( gravity 9 a mass ( matt]4 ,if ! community be viol5tly or volunt>ily divid$ into a numb] ( sep>ate fragm5ts1 !n1 z soon z ea* fragm5t has settl$ d[n 7p]haps aft] an int]val ( an>*y7 into a /ate ( equilibrium1 ! sov]eign w exi/1 & ) prop] c>e w be discov]able 9 ea* ( ! n[ indep5d5t portions4 ,! sov]eignty ov] ! ,nor? ,am]ican colonies ( ,great ,brita9 _h its seat 9 "o place be=e !y became ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ano!r place aft]w>ds2 b 9 bo? cases !re 0 a discov]able sov]eign some:]e4 ,?is sov]eign1 ?is p]son or comb9ation ( p]sons1 univ]sally occurr+ 9 all indep5d5t political communities1 has 9 all su* communities "o *>act]i/ic1 common to all ! %apes sov]eignty may take1 ! possession ( irresi/ible =ce1 n necess>ily ex]t$1 b capable ( be+ ex]t$4 ,accord+ to ! t]m9ology pref]r$ by ,au/91 ! sov]eign1 if a s+le p]son1 is or %\ld be call$ a mon>*2 if a small gr\p1 ! "n is an olig>*y2 if a gr\p ( consid]able dim5sions1 an ari/ocracy2 if v l>ge & num]\s1 a democracy4 ,limit$ mon>*y1 a phrase p]haps m fa%ionable 9 ,au/9's day ?an x is n[1 is abhorr$ by ,au/91 & ! gov]nm5t ( ,great ,brita9 he classes ) ari/ocracies4 ,t :i* all ! =ms ( sov]eignty h 9 common is ! p[] 7! p[] b n necess>ily ! w7 to put compulsion )\t limit on subjects or fell[-subjects4' #hd4 ,! two views ?us seem mutually exclusive1 b p]haps x may be by tak+ ea* z complem5t>y to ! o!r t we %all ga9 ! true/ view ( sov]eignty z x actually exi/s4 ,9 ^? /ates ( society 9 :i* ob$i5ce is habitually r5d]$ by ! bulk ( society to "s det]m9ate sup]ior1 s+le or corporate1 :o1 9 turn1 is indep5d5t ( any o!r sup]ior1 ! ob$i5ce is s r5d]$ because ?is det]m9ate sup]ior is reg>d$ z express+ or embody+ :at may prop]ly be call$ ! g5]al w1 & is virtually conditional ^u ! fact t ! sup]ior is s reg>d$4 ,x is by no means an unlimit$ p[] ( compulsion t ! sup]ior ex]cises1 b "o dep5d5t 9 ! long run1 or dep5d5t = ! purpose ( insur+ an habitual ob$i5ce1 ^u con=mity to c]ta9 convictions on ! "p ( ! subjects z to :at is = _! g5]al int]e/4 ,z ,ma9e says 7,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ,in/itutions1 p4 #cei71 '! va/ mass ( influ5ces1 :i* we may call = %ortness moral1 p]petually %apes1 limits1 or =bids ! actual direction ( ! =ces ( society by its sov]eign4' ,?us1 q ap>t f any belief 9 ! "r ( revolution1 f ! view t ! p 9 any /ate are entitl$ to an ultimate sov]eignty1 or are sov]eign de jure1 & may )draw ei!r legislative or executive p[] f ! h&s 9 :i* x has be5 plac$ 9 ! ev5t ( its be+ misus$1 x may fairly be held t ! o/5sible sov]eign--! det]m9ate p]son or p]sons to :om we c po9t & say t ) him or !m lies ! ultimate p[] ( exact+ habitual ob$i5ce f ! p--is only able to ex]cise ?is p[] 9 virtue ( an ass5t on ! "p ( ! p1 nor is ?is ass5t r$ucible to ! fe> ( ! sov]eign felt by ea* individual4 ,x is r a common desire = c]ta9 ends--specially ! 'pax vitaeque securitas'--to :i* ! obs]vance ( law or e/abli%$ usage contributes1 & 9 mo/ cases implies no consci\s ref]5ce on ! "p ( ^? :om x influ5ces to any supreme co]cive p[] at all4 ,?us :5 x has be5 asc]ta9$ 9 reg>d to any p t !re is "s det]m9ate p]son or p]sons to :om1 9 ! la/ resort1 !y pay habitual ob$i5ce1 we may call ?is p]son or p]sons sov]eign if we please1 b we mu/ n ascribe to him or !m ! real p[] :i* gov]ns ! actions & =be>ances ( ! p1 ev5 ^? actions & =be>ances 7only a v small "p7 :i* are prescrib$ by ! sov]eign4 ,?is p[] is a mu* m complex & less det]m9ate1 or less easily det]m9able1 ?+2 b a s5se ( possess+ common int]e/s1 a desire = common objects on ! "p ( ! p1 is always ! condition ( its exi/5ce4 ,let ?is s5se or desire--:i* may prop]ly be call$ g5]al w--cease to op]ate1 or let x come into g5]al conflict ) ! sov]eign's comm&s1 & ! habitual ob$i5ce w cease also4 #he4 ,if1 !n1 ^? :o adopt ! ,au/9ian def9ition ( a sov]eign mean no m ?an t 9 a ?or\ghly develop$ /ate !re mu/ be "s det]m9ate p]son or p]sons1 ) :om1 9 ! la/ resort1 lies ! recognis$ p[] ( impos+ laws & en=c+ _! obs]vance1 ov] :om no legal control c be ex]cis$1 & t ev5 9 ! mo/ ?or\gh democracy1 :]e laws are pass$ 9 ! assembly ( ! :ole p1 x is /ill ) det]m9ate p]sons1 viz4 a majority ( ^? :o meet 9 ! assembly1 t ?is p[] resides1 !y are d\btless "r4 ,s f> !y only ne$ to be rem9d$ t ! ?or\ghly develop$ /ate1 z *>act]is$ by ! exi/5ce ( su* def9ite sov]eignty1 is ev5 among civilis$ p b imp]fectly e/abli%$4 ,x is p]fectly e/abli%$ 7#a7 :]e cu/om>y or 'common' or 'judge-made' law1 :i* does n proce$ f any det]m9ate p]son or p]sons1 is ei!r sup]s$$ by express enactm5ts t d proce$ f su* p]son or p]sons1 or 7z 9 ,engl&7 is s frequ5tly tr5*$ ^u by /atute law t x may fairly be said only to survive ^u suff]ance1 or to be itself virtually enact$ by ! sov]eign legislature2 & 7#b7 :]e no "q ( "r c be rais$ betwe5 local legislatures or au?orities & ! legislature claim+ to be supreme1 z 9 ,am]ica be=e ! w> ( secession1 & z might p]haps be f\nd to be ! case 9 ,g]many n[1 if on c]ta9 educational & ecclesia/ical matt]s ! imp]ial legislature came to be at issue ) ! local legislatures4 ,b ?\gh ! organisation ( ! /ate1 ev5 9 civilis$ & indep5d5t nations1 is n ev]y:]e complete1 x no d\bt involves ! resid5ce ) det]m9ate p]sons1 or a body or bodies1 ( supreme i4e4 legally uncontroll$ p[] to make & en=ce laws4 ,! t]m 'sov]eign' hav+ acquir$ ?is def9ite mean+1 ,r\sseau 0 mislead+ 8 read]s :5 he ascrib$ sov]eignty to ! g5]al w4 ,he c\ld only be und]/ood z mean+1 & 9 fact und]/ood himself to mean1 t !re 0 no legitimate sov]eign except 9 ! mo/ ?or\gh democracy1 z j describ$4 #hf4 ,b ! ,au/9ians1 hav+ f\nd _! sov]eign1 are apt to reg>d x z a mu* m important in/itution ?an--if x is to be id5tifi$ ) a det]m9ate p]son or p]sons--x really is2 !y are apt to suppose t ! sov]eign1 ) ! co]cive p[] 7i4e4 ! p[] ( op]at+ on ! fe>s ( ! subjects7 :i* x ex]cises1 is ! real det]m9ant ( ! habitual ob$i5ce ( ! p1 at any rate ( _! habitual ob$i5ce 9 respect ( ^? acts & =be>ances :i* are prescrib$ by law4 ,b1 z we h se51 ?is is n ! case4 ,x !n ne$s to be po9t$ out t if ! sov]eign p[] is to be und]/ood 9 ?is full]1 less ab/ract s5se1 if we mean by x ! real det]m9ant ( ! habitual ob$i5ce ( ! p1 we mu/ look = its s\rces mu* m widely & deeply ?an ! 'analytical juri/s' d2 t x c no long] be said to reside 9 a det]m9ate p]son or p]sons1 b 9 t impalpable cong]ies ( ! hopes & fe>s ( a p1 b\nd toge!r by common int]e/s & sympa?y1 :i* we call ! g5]al w4 #hg4 ,x may be object$ t ?is view ( ! g5]al w1 z t on :i* habitual ob$i5ce to ! sov]eign really dep5ds1 is at be/ only applicable to 'self-gov]n+' communities1 n to ^? "u a despotic sov]eign4 ,! answ] is t x is applicable 9 all =ms ( society :]e a sov]eign 9 ! s5se above def9$ 7z a det]m9ate p]son or p]sons ) :om 9 ! la/ resort lies ! recognis$ p[] ( impos+ laws & en=c+ _! obs]vance7 really exi/s1 b t !re are _m :]e !re _c fairly be said to be any su* sov]eign at all2 9 o!r words1 t 9 all organis$ communities ! p[] :i* practically comm&s ! habitual ob$i5ce ( ! p 9 respect ( ^? acts & =be>ances :i* are enjo9$ by law or au?oritative cu/om1 is "o dep5d5t on ! g5]al w ( ! community1 b ?is p[] is (t5 n sov]eign 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! rul] ( an indep5d5t /ate is sov]eign4 ,x may v well be t !re is at ! same "t ano!r p[] m]ely co]cive1 a p[] really op]at+ on p simply ?r\gh _! fe>s1 to :i* ob$i5ce is r5d]$1 & :i* is n 9 turn repres5tative ( a g5]al w2 b :]e ?is is ! case we %all f9d t su* p[] is only 9 contact ) ! p1 s to speak1 at "o or two po9ts2 t _! actions & =be>ances1 z det]m9$ by law & cu/om1 are 9 ! ma9 indep5d5t ( x2 t x _c 9 any prop] s5se be said to be a sov]eign p[] ov] !m2 at any rate1 n 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we speak ( ,k+1 ,lords1 & ,commons z sov]eign 9 ,engl&4 #hh4 ,ma9e has po9t$ out 7,e>ly ,hi/ory ( ,in/itutions1 ,lecture ,,xiii47 t ! great despotic empires ( anci5t times1 exclud+ ! ,roman1 ( :i* m %all be said directly1 & mod]n empires 9 ! ,ea/ 7 9 ! ma9 tax-collect+ in/itutions4 ,!y ex]cise co]cive =ce ov] _! subjects ( ! mo/ viol5t k9d = c]ta9 purposes at c]ta9 times1 b !y d n impose laws z di/9ct f 'p>ticul> & occasional comm&s' nor d !y judicially adm9i/] or en=ce a cu/om>y law4 ,9 a c]ta9 s5se ! subjects r5d] !m habitual ob$i5ce1 i4e4 !y habitually submit :5 ! ag5ts ( ! empire desc5d on !m = taxes & recruits1 b 9 ! g5]al t5or ( _! lives _! actions & =be>ances are regulat$ by au?orities ) :i* ! empire nev] int]f]es1--) :i* probably x c\ld n int]f]e )\t de/roy+ itself4 ,^! au?orities c sc>cely be said to reside 9 a det]m9ate p]son or p]sons at all1 b1 s f> z !y d s1 !y reside mix$ly 9 prie/s or expon5ts ( cu/om>y religion1 9 heads ( families act+ )9 ! family1 & 9 "s village-c\ncil act+ beyond ! limits ( ! family4 ,:e!r1 9 su* a /ate ( ?+s1 we are to consid] t !re is a sov]eign p[] at all1 &1 if s1 :]e x is to be consid]$ to reside1 are *iefly que/ions ( words4 ,if complete uncontroll$ness by a /rong] p[] is ess5tial to sov]eignty1 ! local au?orities j spok5 ( are n sov]eign4 ,! conqu]+ despot c\ld desc5d on !m & sweep !m away1 leav+ an>*y 9 _! place1 & he does compel !m to be put 9 ex]cise = a p>ticul> purpose1 t ( rais+ tribute or sometimes recruits4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^! au?orities1 :i* repres5t a g5]al w ( ! communities1 =m ! p[] :i* det]m9es su* actions & =be>ances ( ! individual z d n proce$ f natural incl9ation4 ,! milit>y rul]1 inde$1 is sov]eign 9 ! s5se ( possess+ irresi/ible co]cive p[]1 b 9 fact ?is p[] is only ex]cis$ )9 n>r[ limits1 & n at all 9 any legislative or judicial way4 ,if ex]cis$ beyond ^! limits & 9 conflict ) cu/om>y law1 ! result w\ld be a g5]al an>*y4 ,! true/ way ( express+ ! /ate ( ! case is to say t1 tak+ ! t]m 'sov]eign' 9 ! s5se :i* we naturally associate ) x1 & 9 :i* x is us$ by mod]n ,european writ]s on sov]eignty1 !re is "u su* conditions no sov]eign1 b t ! practical regulation ( life1 except dur+ int]vals ( milit>y viol5ce & an>*y1 re/s ) au?orities repres5t+ ! g5]al w1 ?\gh ^! are to a c]ta9 ext5t int]f]$ ) by an ali5 =ce4 #hi4 ,! same acc\nt is applicable to mo/ cases ( =eign dom9ion ov] a p ) any organis$ common life ( _! own4 ,! =eign p[] is n sov]eign 9 ! s5se ( be+ a mak] or ma9ta9] ( laws4 ,law-mak+1 "u su* conditions1 !re is prop]ly none4 ,! subject p inh]its laws1 writt5 or unwritt51 & ma9ta9s !m = itself1 a c]ta9 %elt] f viol5ce be+ af=d$ by ! =eign p[]4 ,su*1 9 ! ma91 0 ! condition ( ,nor? ,italy1 = in/ance1 "u ,au/rian dom9ation4 ,:]e ?is is ! case1 ! removal ( ! co]cive p[] ( ! =eign] ne$ n involve an>*y1 or any violation ( e/abli%$ rights 7su* z ,hobbes supposes to foll[ necess>ily f ! deposition ( an actual sov]eign74 ,! social ord] does n dep5d on ! =eign dom9ion1 & may survive x4 ,! "q :e!r 9 any p>ticul> case x actually c d s mu/ dep5d on ! possibility ( prev5t+ fur!r =eign aggression1 & on ! "q :e!r !re is en\gh national unity 9 ! subject p to prev5t !m f break+ up into ho/ile communities :5 ! =eign dom9ion is remov$4 #ij4 ,x is o!rwise :]e ! =eign p[] is really a law-mak+ & law-ma9ta9+ "o1 & is sov]eign 9 t prop] s5se1 z 0 ! ,roman ,empire4 ,b j s f> z ! ,roman ,empire 0 ( ?is sov]eign1 i4e4 law-mak+ & law-ma9ta9+1 "*1 x d]iv$ its p]man5ce1 its hold on ! 'habitual ob$i5ce' ( its subjects1 f ! support ( ! g5]al w4 ,z ! empire sup]s$$ cu/om>y or writt5 laws ( conqu]$ c\ntries1 x conf]r$ rights ( ,roman citiz5%ip1 a mu* m p]fect sy/em ( protection 9 action & acquisition ?an ! conqu]$ p _h g5]ally possess$ be=e4 ,h5ce1 :ile no?+ c\ld be fur!r remov$ f :at ,r\sseau w\ld h c\nt$ lib]ty ?an ! life ( ! citiz5s ( ! ,roman ,empire1 = !y _h no?+ to d ) mak+ ! laws :i* !y obey$1 yet probably !re 0 nev] anv political sy/em m firmly gr\nd$ on ! good-w ( ! subjects1 none 9 ! ma9t5ance ( :i* ! subjects felt a /rong] int]e/4 ,! ,briti% p[] 9 ,india ex]cises a middle function betwe5 t ( ! ,roman ,empire & t ( ! m]e tax-collect+ & recruit-rais+ empire ) :i* ! ,roman ,empire has j be5 contra/$4 ,x pres5ts itself to ! subject p 9 ! fir/ place z a tax-collector4 ,x leaves ! cu/om>y law ( ! p mo/ly unt\*$4 ,b if only to a v small ext5t a law-mak+ p[]1 x is emphatically a law-ma9ta9+ "o4 ,x regulates ! :ole judicial adm9i/ration ( ! c\ntry1 b applies its p[] g5]ally only to en=ce ! cu/om>y law :i* x f9ds 9 exi/5ce4 ,= ?is reason an 'habitual ob$i5ce' may fairly be said to be r5d]$ by ! ,indian p to ! ,engli% gov]nm5t1 9 a s5se 9 :i* x c\ld n be said to be r5d]$ to a m]ely tax-collect+ milit>y p[]2 b ! 'habitual ob$i5ce' is s r5d]$ only because ! ,engli% gov]nm5t pres5ts itself to ! p1 n m]ely z a tax-collector1 b z ! ma9ta9] ( a cu/om>y law1 :i*1 on ! :ole1 is ! expression ( ! g5]al w4 ,! same is true 9 pr9ciple ( ^? indep5d5t /ates :i* are despotically gov]n$1 9 :i*1 i4e41 ! ultimate legislative p[] does n reside1 :olly or 9 "p1 ) an assembly repres5t+ ! p1 or ) ! p !mselves2 e4g4 ,russia4 ,x is n ! absolute co]cive p[] ( ! ,cz> :i* det]m9es ! habitual ob$i5ce ( ! p4 ,?is co]cive p[]1 if put to ! te/ z a co]cive p[]1 w\ld probably be f\nd v f> f absolute4 ,! habitual ob$i5ce is det]m9$ by a sy/em ( law1 *iefly cu/om>y1 :i* ! adm9i/ration controll$ by ! ,cz> en=ces aga9/ individuals1 b :i* corresponds to ! g5]al s5se ( :at is equitable & necess>y4 ,if a despotic gov]nm5t comes into any?+ l habitual conflict ) ! unwritt5 law :i* repres5ts ! g5]al w1 its dissolution is beg9n+4 #ia4 ,! answ]1 !n1 to ! "q :e!r !re is any tru? 9 ,r\sseau's conception ( sov]eignty z f\nd$ ^u a 'volont gnrale1' 9 its application to actual sov]eignty1 mu/ dep5d on :at we mean by 'sov]eign4' ,! ess5tial ?+ 9 political society is a p[] :i* gu>antees m5 rights1 i4e4 a c]ta9 fre$om ( action & acquisition conditionally ^u _! all[+ a l fre$om 9 o!rs4 ,x is b /at+ ! same condition o!rwise to speak ( a p[] :i* gu>antees ! memb]s ( ! society ^! rights1 ?is fre$om ( action & acquisition1 imp>tially or accord+ to a g5]al w or law4 ,:at is ! l[e/ =m 9 :i* a society is fit to be call$ political1 is h>d to say4 ,! political society is m complete z ! fre$om gu>ante$ is m complete1 bo? 9 respect ( ! p]sons enjoy+ x & ( ! range ( possible action & acquisition ov] :i* x ext5ds4 ,a family or a nomad horde c\ld n be call$ a political society1 on acc\nt ( ! n>r[ range ( ! political fre$om :i* !y sev]ally gu>antee4 ,! nomad horde might inde$ be q z num]\s z a ,greek /ate1 or z ! sov]eign canton ( ,g5eva 9 ,r\sseau's "t2 b 9 ! horde ! range )9 :i* reciprocal fre$om ( action & acquisition is gu>ante$ to ! individual is exce$+ly small4 ,x is ! p[] ( gu>antee+ rights1 def9$ z above1 :i* ! old writ]s on sov]eignty & civil gov]nm5t suppos$ to be e/abli%$ by cov5ant ( all ) all1 translat+ ! common int]e/ :i* m5 h 9 ! ma9t5ance ( su* a p[] into an imag9>y hi/orical act by :i* !y in/itut$ x4 ,x 0 ?is p[] t !y _h *iefly 9 view :5 !y spoke ( sov]eignty4 #ib4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! p[] may v well exi/ & s]ve its purpose :]e x is n sov]eign 9 ! s5se ( be+ exempt f any liability ( be+ int]f]$ ) by a /rong] co]cive p[]1 su* z t ( a tax-collect+ milit>y rul]4 ,! occasional int]f]5ce ( ! milit>y rul] is s f> a drawback to ! effici5cy ) :i* fre$om ( action & acquisition is gu>ante$1 b does n nullify ! g5]al ma9t5ance ( rights4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! p[] by :i* rights are gu>ante$ is sov]eign 7z x is desirable t x %\ld be7 9 ! special s5se ( be+ ma9ta9$ by a p]son or p]sons1 & wield+ co]cive =ce n liable to control by any o!r human =ce1 x is n ?is co]cive =ce t is ! important ?+ ab\t x1 or t det]m9es ! habitual ob$i5ce ess5tial to ! real ma9t5ance ( rights4 ,t :i* det]m9es ?is habitual ob$i5ce is a p[] resid+ 9 ! common w & reason ( m51 i4e4 9 ! w & reason ( m5 z det]m9$ by social relations1 z int]e/$ 9 ea* o!r1 z act+ toge!r = common ends4 ,x is a p[] :i* ?is univ]sal rational w ex]cises ov] ! incl9ations ( ! individual1 & :i* only ne$s exceptionally to be back$ by co]cive =ce4 #ic4 ,?us1 ?\gh x may be mislead+ to speak ( ! g5]al w z any:]e ei!r actually or prop]ly sov]eign1 because ! t]m 'sov]eign' is be/ kept to ! ord9>y usage 9 :i* x signifies a det]m9ate p]son or p]sons *>g$ ) ! supreme co]cive function ( ! /ate1 & ! g5]al w does n admit ( be+ ve/$ 9 a p]son or p]sons1 yet x is true t ! in/itutions ( political society--^? by :i* equal rights are gu>ante$ to memb]s ( su* a society--are an expression (1 & are ma9ta9$ by1 a g5]al w4 ,! sov]eign %\ld be reg>d$1 n 9 ab/raction z ! wield] ( co]cive =ce1 b 9 connection ) ! :ole complex ( in/itutions ( political society4 ,x is z _! su/a9]1 & ?us z ! ag5t ( ! g5]al w1 t ! sov]eign p[] mu/ be pres5t$ to ! m9ds ( ! p if x is to comm& habitual loyal ob$i5ce2 & ob$i5ce w sc>cely be habitual unless x is loyal1 n =c$4 ,if once ! co]cive p[]1 :i* mu/ always be an incid5t ( sov]eignty1 becomes ! *>act]i/ic ?+ ab\t x 9 its relation to ! p gov]n$1 ?is mu/ indicate "o ( two ?+s2 ei!r t ! g5]al int]e/ 9 ! ma9t5ance ( equal rights has lo/ its hold on ! p1 or t ! sov]eign no long] adequately fulfils its function ( ma9ta9+ su* rights1 & ?us has lo/ ! support d]iv$ f ! g5]al s5se ( int]e/ 9 support+ x4 ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r ! =m] is ev] really ! case2 b :atev] explanation ( ! case may be ! true "o1 x is c]ta9 t :5 ! idea ( co]cive =ce is t pr$om9antly associat$ ) ! law-impos+ & law-en=c+ p[]1 !n ei!r a disruption ( ! /ate or a *ange 9 ! s\rces ( sov]eignty mu/ soon] or lat] take place4 ,9 judg+1 h[ev]1 :e!r ?is is ! case1 we mu/ n be misl$ by words4 ,9 ,engl&1 e4g41 f ! way 9 :i* _m p speak ( 'gov]nm5t1' we might suppose t x 0 look$ on ma9ly z ! wield] ( co]cive =ce2 b x w\ld be a mi/ake on t acc\nt to suppose t ,engli% p commonly reg>d ! laws ( ! c\ntry z s mu* co]cion1 in/ead ( z an in/itution 9 ! ma9t5ance ( :i* !y are int]e/$4 ,:5 !y speak disapprov+ly ( 'gov]nm5t1' !y are n ?9k+ ( ! g5]al sy/em ( law1 b ( a c5tral adm9i/rative ag5cy1 :i* !y ?9k int]f]es mis*iev\sly ) local & cu/om>y adm9i/ration4 #id4 ,x is m true1 !n1 to say t law1 z ! sy/em ( rules by :i* rights are ma9ta9$1 is ! expression ( a g5]al w ?an t ! g5]al w is ! sov]eign4 ,! sov]eign1 be+ a p]son or p]sons by :om 9 ! la/ resort laws are impos$ & en=c$1 9 ! long run & on ! :ole is an ag5t ( ! g5]al w1 contributes to realise t w4 ,p>ticul> laws may1 no d\bt1 be impos$ & en=c$ by ! sov]eign1 :i* conflict ) ! g5]al w2 n 9 ! s5se t if all ! subject p c\ld be got toge!r to vote ^u !m1 a majority w\ld vote aga9/ !m1--t might be or might n be1--b 9 ! s5se t !y t5d to ?w>t ^? p[]s ( action1 acquisition1 & self-developm5t on ! "p ( ! memb]s ( ! society1 :i* !re is always a g5]al desire to ext5d 7?\gh ! desire may n be enlight5$ z to ! be/ means to ! end71 & :i* x is ! bus9ess ( ! law to su/a9 & ext5d4 ,! ext5t to :i* laws ( ?is k9d may be intrud$ into ! g5]al 'corpus juris' )\t social disruption x is impossible to specify4 ,probably !re has nev] be5 a civilis$ /ate 9 :i* !y bore m ?an a v small proportion to ! am\nt ( law :i* !re 0 ! /ronge/ g5]al int]e/ 9 ma9ta9+4 ,b1 s f> z !y g1 !y always t5d to less5 ! 'habitual ob$i5ce' ( ! p1 & ?us to make ! sov]eign cease to be sov]eign4 ,! hope mu/ be t ?is w result 9 ! transf] ( sov]eignty to o!r h&s be=e a social disruption ensues2 be=e ! g5]al sy/em ( law has be5 s f> p]v]t$ z to lose its hold on ! p4 ,( ! possibility ( a *ange 9 sov]eignty )\t any detraction f ! law-abid+ habits ( ! p1 ,france has lately giv5 a conspicu\s example4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t a tempor>y =eign conque/ made ! transition easi]4 #ie4 7#b7 ,aft] :at has be5 said1 we ne$ n dwell long on ! second "q rais$ #a conc]n+ ,r\sseau's !ory3 ,is !re any tru? 9 speak+ ( a sov]eignty 'de jure' f\nd$ ^u ! 'volont gnrale'8 ,x is a di/9ction :i* c only be ma9ta9$ s long z ei!r 'sov]eign' is n us$ 9 a det]m9ate s5se1 or by 'jus' is und]/ood some?+ else ?an law or "r e/abli%$ by law4 ,if by 'sov]eign' we und]/& some?+ %ort ( a p]son or p]sons hold+ ! supreme law-mak+ & law-en=c+ p[]1 e4g4 an ,engli% k+ :o is (t5 call$ sov]eign1 we might say t sov]eignty 0 ex]cis$ 'de facto' b n 'de jure' :5 ! p[] ( su* a 'sov]eign' 0 9 conflict )1 or 0 n sanction$ by1 ! law z decl>$ & en=c$ by ! really supreme p[]4 ,?us an ,engli% k+1 s f> z he affect$ to control ! army or raise money )\t ! co-op]ation ( ,p>liam5t1 might be said to be sov]eign 'de facto' b n 'de jure'2 only1 h[ev]1 on ! supposition t ! supreme law-mak+ & law-en=c+ p[] does n belong to him1 & ?us t he is call$ 'sov]eign' 9 o!r ?an ! /rict s5se4 ,if he 7 sov]eign 9 ! full s5se 'de facto1' he c\ld n fail to be s 'de jure1' i4e4 legally4 ,9 su* a /ate ( ?+s1 if ! antagonism betwe5 k+ & p>liam5t cont9u$ = any l5g? ( "t1 x w\ld h to be admitt$ t !re 0 no sov]eign 9 ! s5se ( a supreme law-mak+ & law-en=c+ p[]2 t sov]eignty 9 ?is s5se 0 9 abeyance1 & t an>*y prevail$4 ,or ! same ?+ might be expla9$ by say+ t sov]eignty /ill resid$ 'de jure' ) ! k+ & p>liam5t1 ?\gh n 'de facto' ex]cis$ by !m2 b if we use su* language1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d t we are qualify+ 'sov]eignty' by an epi!t :i* neutralises its mean+ z an actually supreme p[]4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! k+ succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ su* a p[] on a p]man5t foot+1 he w\ld h become sov]eign 9 ! full s5se1 & !re w\ld be no gr\nd = say+1 z be=e1 t he 0 n sov]eign 'de jure'2 = ! qualifications 'de jure' & 'n de jure1' 9 t s5se 9 :i* !y might be appli$ to a p[] :i* is n supreme1 are equally inapplicable to ! p[] ( mak+ & en=c+ law :i* is supreme4 ,! mon>*'s newly e/abli%$ supremacy may be 9 conflict ) laws t 7 previ\sly 9 =ce1 b he has only to aboli% ^? laws 9 ord] to r5d] x legal4 ,if1 !n1 x is /ill to be said to be n 'de jure1' x mu/ be because 'jus' is us$ = some?+ else ?an law or "r e/abli%$ by law2 viz4 ei!r = 'natural "r' 7if we admit t !re is su* a ?+71 & 'natural "r' z n m]ely natural p[]2 or = c]ta9 claims :i* ! memb]s ( ! subject community h come to recognise z inh]5t 9 ! community & 9 !mselves z memb]s ( x1 claims reg>d$ z ! f\ndation ( law1 n z f\nd$ ^u x1 & ) :i* ! comm&s ( ! sov]eign conflict4 ,b ev5 accord+ to ?is mean+ ( 'jus1' a sov]eign 9 ! /rict ,au/9ian s5se1 t is n s 'de jure1' is 9 ! long run an impossibility4 ',habitual ob$i5ce' _c be secur$ 9 ! face ( su* claims4 #a ,above1 sec4 #hj4 ,,rln #if4 ,b :e!r or no 9 any qualifi$ s5se ( 'sov]eign' or 'jus1' a sov]eign t is n s 'de jure' is possible1 once und]/& by 'sov]eign' ! det]m9ate p]son or p]sons ) :om ! ultimate law-impos+ & law-en=c+ p[] resides1 & by 'jus' law1 x is !n obvi\sly a contradiction to speak ( a sov]eign 'de jure' z di/+ui%$ f "o 'de facto4' ,! p[] ( ! ultimate impon5t ( law _c be d]iv$ f1 or limit$ by1 law4 ,! sov]eign may no d\bt by a legislative act ( its own lay d[n rules z to ! mode 9 :i* its p[] %all be ex]cis$1 b if x is sov]eign 9 ! s5se suppos$1 x mu/ always be op5 to x to alt] ^! rules4 ,!re c be no illegality 9 its do+ s4 ,9 %ort1 9 :atev] s5se 'jus' is d]iv$ f ! sov]eign1 9 t s5se no sov]eign c hold 8 p[] 'de jure4' ,s ,sp9oza held t 'imp]ium' 0 'de jure' inde$1 b 'de jure naturali' 7'jus naturale' natural p[]71 :i* is ! same z 'de jure div9o'2 only p[]s ex]cis$ 9 subord9ation to 'imp]ium' are 'de jure civili4' ,s ,hobbes said t !re c\ld be no 'unju/ law4' ,a law 0 n a law unless enact$ by a sov]eign1 & '! j' be+ t to :i* ! sov]eign obliges1 ! sov]eign c\ld n enact ! unju/1 ?\gh x might enact ! inequitable & ! p]nici\s1 ! 'inequitable' presumably mean+ t :i* conflicts ) a law ( nature1 ! 'p]nici\s' t :i* t5ds to weak5 individuals or society4 ,r\sseau reta9s ! same notion ( ! impeccability ( ! sov]eign1 b on diff]5t gr\nds4 ,e act ( ! sov]eign is accord+ to him 'de jure1' n because all "r is d]iv$ f a supreme co]cive p[] & ! sov]eign is t p[]1 b because ! sov]eign is ! g5]al w1 :i* is necess>ily a w = ! good ( all4 ,! enactm5t ( ! sov]eign c\ld z little1 on ?is view1 be 'inequitable' or 'p]nici\s' z x c\ld be 'unju/4' ,b ?is view necessitates a di/9ction betwe5 ! sov]eign1 ?us conceiv$1 & ! actually supreme p[] ( mak+ & en=c+ law z x exi/s any:]e b 9 :at ,r\sseau consid]$ a p]fect /ate4 ,r\sseau inde$ g5]ally avoids call+ ?is actually supreme p[] 'sov]eign1' ?\gh he _c1 z we h se51 altoge!r avoid x2 & s9ce1 :atev] he lik$ to call x1 ! exi/5ce ( su* a p[] 9 =ms :i* accord+ to him prev5t$ its equival5ce to ! g5]al w 0 almo/ ev]y:]e a fact1 8 read]s w\ld naturally come to ?9k ( ! actually supreme p[] z sov]eign 'de facto1' 9 di/9ction f some?+ else :i* 0 sov]eign 'de jure4' ,& fur!r1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,r\sseau's view t ! only organ ( ! g5]al w 0 an assembly ( ! :ole p1 !y w\ld naturally reg>d su* an assembly z sov]eign 'de jure1' & any o!r p[] actually supreme z m]ely sov]eign 'de facto4' ,?is opposition1 h[ev]1 really arises out ( a confusion 9 ! usage ( ! t]m 'sov]eign'2 out ( inability on ! "o side to hold fa/ ! id5tification ( sov]eign ) g5]al w1 on ! o!r to keep x simply to ! s5se ( ! supreme law-mak+ & law-en=c+ p[]4 ,if 'sov]eign' 'g5]al w1' ! di/9ction ( 'de facto' & 'de jure' is inapplicable to x4 ,a c]ta9 desire ei!r is or is n ! g5]al w4 ,a c]ta9 int]e/ is or is n an int]e/ 9 ! common good4 ,!re is no s5se 9 say+ t su* desire or int]e/ is g5]al w 'de jure' b n 'de facto1' or vice v]sa4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if 'sov]eign' ! supreme law-mak+ & law-en=c+ p[]1 ! di/9ction is equally inapplicable to x4 ,if any p]son or p]sons h ?is p[] at all1 !y _c be said to h x m]ely 'de facto' :ile o!rs h x 'de jure4' #ig4 ,x may be urg$ ) mu* tru? t ! actual possession ( su* p[] by a det]m9ate p]son or p]sons is r a conv5i5t hypo!sis ( writ]s on jurisprud5ce ?an an actual fact2 &1 z we h se51 ! actual condition ( ?+s at c]ta9 times 9 c]ta9 /ates may conv5i5tly be express$ by say+ t !re 0 a sov]eign 'de facto' t 0 n s 'de jure1' or vice v]sa2 b only on ! supposition t 'sov]eign' is n tak5 necess>ily 9 ! full s5se ( a supreme law-mak+ & law-en=c+ p[]4 ,9 a /ate ( ?+s t c be s describ$1 h[ev]1 !re is no 'sov]eignty' at all 9 ! s5se ( an actually supreme p[] ( mak+ & en=c+ law resid5t 9 a det]m9ate p]son or p]sons4 ,sov]eignty 9 ?is s5se c only exi/ 'de facto'2 & :5 x s exi/s1 x is obvi\s t no o!r c 9 ! same s5se exi/ 'de jure4' ,x may be d5i$ inde$ 9 p>ticul> cases t an actually supreme p[] ( mak+ & en=c+ law is ex]cis$ 'de jure1' 9 a s5se ( t phrase already expla9$ 7see section #ie74 ,reasons 7 giv5 = d\bt+ :e!r a p[] c\ld really ma9ta9 its sov]eign attributes if conflict+ ) 'jus1' 9 ! s5se ?us expla9$4 ,b suppos+ t x c\ld1 ! fact t x 0 n ex]cis$ 'de jure' w\ld n entitle u to say t any o!r p]son or p]sons 7 sov]eign 'de jure1' )\t alt]+ ! mean+ ( 'sov]eign4' ,if any "o has supreme p[] 'de facto1' t :i* any "o else has _c be supreme p[]4 ,! qualification ( a p[] z held n 'de facto' b 'de jure' is "o :i* de/roys its "* z supreme1 i4e4 z sov]eign 9 ! s5se be=e u4 #ih4 ,x is only ?r\gh try+ to comb9e "u ! t]m 'sov]eign' ! notions ( ! g5]al w & ( supreme p[] t we are l$ to speak ( ! p z sov]eign 'de jure1' if n 'de facto4' ,!re w\ld be no h>m inde$ 9 speak+ ( ! g5]al w z sov]eign1 if ! natural association ( 'sov]eign' ) supreme co]cive p[] c\ld be got rid (2 b z ?is _c be1 :5 once we h pron\nc$ ! g5]al w 'sov]eign1' we are pretty sure to id5tify ! g5]al w ) a vote ( ! majority ( citiz5s4 ,a majority ( citiz5s c be conceiv$ z ex]cis+ a supreme co]cive p[]1 b a g5]al w1 9 ! s5se ( an unselfi% int]e/ 9 ! common good :i* 9 v>i\s degrees actuates m5 9 _! deal+s ) ea* o!r1 _c be s conceiv$4 ,?us = ! sov]eignty1 9 an impalpable & unnatural s5se1 ( ! g5]al w1 we get a sov]eignty1 9 ! natural & demon/rable s5se1 ( ! multitude4 ,b z ! multitude is n ev]y:]e supreme1 ! ass]tion ( its sov]eignty has to be put 9 ! =m t x is sov]eign 'de jure4' ,! tru? :i* und]lies ?is proposition is t an int]e/ 9 common good is ! gr\nd ( political society1 9 ! s5se t )\t x no body ( p w\ld recognise any au?ority z hav+ a claim on _! common ob$i5ce4 ,x is s f> z a gov]nm5t repres5ts to !m a common good t ! subjects are consci\s t !y ought to obey x1 i4e4 t ob$i5ce to x is a means to an end desirable 9 itself or absolutely4 ,?is tru? is lat5t 9 ,r\sseau's doctr9e ( ! sov]eignty ( ! g5]al w1 b he conf\nds ) x ! proposition t no gov]nm5t has a claim on ob$i5ce1 b t :i* orig9ates 9 a vote pass$ by ! p !mselves :o are call$ on to obey 7a vote :i* mu/ be unanim\s 9 ! case ( ! orig9al compact1 & c>ri$ by a majority 9 subsequ5t cases74 #ii4 ,?is latt] doctr9e arises out ( ! delusion ( natural "r4 ,! individual1 x is ?\ght1 hav+ a "r1 n d]iv$ f society1 to d z he likes1 c only =ego t "r by an act to :i* he is a p>ty4 ,!re=e he has a "r to disreg>d a law unless x is pass$ by an assembly ( :i* he has be5 a memb]1 & by ! decision ( :i* he has expressly or tacitly agre$ to be b\nd4 ,cle>ly1 h[ev]1 su* a natural "r ( ! individual w\ld be violat$ "u mo/ popul> sov]eignties no less ?an "u "o purely mon>*ical1 if he happ5$ to object to ! decision ( ! majority2 = to say1 z ,r\sseau says1 t he has virtually agre$1 by ! m]e fact ( resid5ce 9 a c]ta9 t]ritory1 to be b\nd by ! votes ( ! majority ( ^? occupy+ t t]ritory1 is a m]e trick to save appe>ances4 ,b 9 tru? !re is no su* natural "r to d z "o likes irrespectively ( society4 ,x is on ! relation to a society1 to o!r m5 recognis+ a common good1 t ! individual's rights dep5d1 z mu* z ! gravity ( a body dep5ds on relations to o!r bodies4 ,a "r is a p[] claim$ & recognis$ z contributory to a common good4 ,a "r aga9/ society1 9 di/9ction f a "r to be treat$ z a memb] ( society1 is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,no "o1 !re=e1 has a "r to resi/ a law or ord9ance ( gov]nm5t1 on ! gr\nd t x requires him to d :at he does n l1 & t he has n agre$ to submit to ! au?ority f :i* x proce$s2 & if no "o p]son has su* a "r1 no numb] ( p]sons h x4 ,if ! common int]e/ requires x1 no "r c be alleg$ aga9/ x4 ,nei!r c its enactm5t by popul> vote enhance1 nor ! abs5ce ( su* vote dim9i%1 its "r to be obey$4 ,r\sseau himself well says t ! prop] "q = ea* citiz5 to ask himself 9 reg>d to any proposal be=e ! assembly is n1 ,d ,i l or approve x8 b1 ,is x accord+ to ! g5]al w8 :i* is only ano!r way ( ask+1 ,is x accord+ to ! g5]al int]e/8 ,x is only z ! organ ( ?is g5]al int]e/ t ! popul> vote c end[ any law ) ! "r to be obey$2 & ,r\sseau himself1 if he c\ld h fre$ himself f ! presuppositions ( natural "r1 might h admitt$ t1 z ! popul> vote is by no means necess>ily an organ ( ! g5]al int]e/1 s ! decree ( a mon>* or ( an ari/ocratic assembly1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 might be su* an organ4 #ajj4 ,b x may be ask$1 ,mu/ n ! individual judge = himself :e!r a law is = ! common good8 & if he decides t x is n1 is he n entitl$ to resi/ x8 ,o!rwise1 n only w laws pass$ 9 ! int]e/ ( individuals or classes1 & aga9/ ! public good1 h a claim to our absolute & p]man5t submission1 b a gov]nm5t sy/ematically c>ri$ on = ! b5efit ( a few aga9/ ! _m c nev] be rightfully resi/$4 ,to ! fir/ "p ( ?is "q we mu/ ( c\rse answ] 'yes1' )\t qualification4 ,! degree to :i* ! individual judges = himself ( ! relation betwe5 ! common good & ! laws :i* cross ! pa? ( 8 ord9>y life1 is ! measure ( 8 intellig5t1 z di/+ui%$ f a m]ely in/9ctive1 recognition ( rights 9 o!rs & 9 ! /ate2 & on ?is recognition aga9 dep5ds 8 practical und]/&+ ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 m]e p[]s & rights z recognis$ by himself4 ,suppos+ !n ! individual to h decid$ t "s comm& ( a 'political sup]ior' is n = ! common good1 h[ ought he to act 9 reg>d to x8 ,9 a c\ntry l ours1 ) a popul> gov]nm5t & settl$ me?ods ( enact+ & repeal+ laws1 ! answ] ( common s5se is simple & suffici5t4 ,he %\ld d all he c by legal me?ods to get ! comm& cancell$1 b till x is cancell$ he %\ld con=m to x4 ,! common good mu/ suff] m f resi/ance to a law or to ! ord9ance ( a legal au?ority1 ?an f ! individual's con=mity to a p>ticul> law or ord9ance t is bad1 until its repeal c be obta9$4 ,x is ?us ! social duty ( ! individual to con=m1 & he c h no "r1 z we h se51 t is aga9/ 8 social duty2 no "r to any?+ or to d any?+ t is n involv$ 9 ! ability to d 8 duty4 #aja4 ,b difficulties arise :5 ei!r 7,i7 x is a case ( disput$ sov]eignty1 & 9 consequ5ce ! legal au?ority ( ! suppos$ comm& is d\btful2 or 7#b7 :5 ! gov]nm5t is s conduct$ t !re are no legal means ( obta9+ ! repeal ( a law2 or 7#c7 :5 ! :ole sy/em ( a law & gov]nm5t is s p]v]t$ by private int]e/s ho/ile to ! public t !re has ceas$ to be any common int]e/ 9 ma9ta9+ x2 or 7#d71--;a m frequ5t case1--:5 ! au?ority f :i* ! objectionable comm& proce$s is s easily sep>able f t on :i* ! ma9t5ance ( social ord] & ! fabric ( settl$ rights dep5ds1 t x c be resi/$ )\t s]i\s detrim5t to ?is ord] & fabric4 ,9 su* cases1 may !re n be a "r ( resi/ance bas$ on a 'high] law' ?an ! comm& ( ! o/5sible sov]eign8 #ajb4 7#a7 ,z to cases :]e ! legal au?ority ( ! suppos$ comm& is d\btful4 ,9 mod]n /ates ! def9ition ( sov]eignty1--! det]m9ation ( ! p]son or p]sons ) :om ! supreme p[] ( mak+ & en=c+ law legally resides1--has only be5 arriv$ at by a sl[ process4 ,! ,european mon>*ies h mo/ly aris5 out ( ! gradual conv]sion ( feudal sup]iority into sov]eignty 9 ! /rict s5se4 ,great /ates1 su* z ,g]many & ,italy1 h be5 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( indep5d5t or semi-dep5d5t /ates4 ,9 ,engl& ! unity ( ! /ate goes back mu* fur!r ?an any:]e else1 b 9 ,engl& x 0 b gradually t ! resid5ce ( sov]eignty jo9tly 9 k+1 lords1 & commons came to be practically e/abli%$1 & x is /ill f\nd$ m]ely on a cu/om>y law4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ) a writt5 con/itution1 x requir$ all ,au/9's subtlety to detect :]e sov]eignty lay1 & he places x :]e probably no ord9>y citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates _h ev] ?\ght ( x z resid+1 viz4 '9 ! /ates' gov]nm5ts z =m+ "o aggregate body3 mean+ by a /ate's gov]nm5t1 n its ord9>y legislature1 b ! body ( citiz5s :i* appo9ts its ord9>y legislature1 & :i*1 ! union ap>t1 is prop]ly sov]eign !re94' ,he bases ?is view on ! provision 9 ! con/itution1 accord+ to :i* am5dm5ts to x are only valid ':5 ratifi$ by ! legislature 9 ?ree-f\r?s ( ! sev]al /ates1 or by conv5tion 9 ?ree-f\r?s !re(4' 7,i1 p4 #bfh47 ,b no ord9>y citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates probably ev] ?\ght ( sov]eignty except z resid+ ei!r 9 ! gov]nm5t ( 8 /ate or 9 ! f$]al gov]nm5t consi/+ ( congress & presid5t1 or sometimes 9 "o way1 sometimes 9 ! o!r4 ,9 o!r c\ntries1 e4g4 ,france1 :]e s9ce ,l\is ,,xiv ! qu>t] 9 :i* sov]eignty resides has at any giv5 "t be5 easily assignable1 !re h s9ce ! revolution be5 su* frequ5t *anges 9 ! o/5sible sov]eign t !re might almo/ at any "t h be5 a case = d\bt+ :e!r ! o/5sible sov]eign _h su* comm& ov] ! habitual ob$i5ce ( ! p z to be a sov]eign 9 t s5se 9 :i* !re is a social duty to obey ! sov]eign1 z ! repres5tative ( ! common int]e/ 9 social ord]2 :e!r "s prior sov]eignty 0 n really /ill 9 =ce4 ,= ^! v>i\s reasons !re h be5 occasions 9 ! hi/ory ( all mod]n /ates at :i* m51 or bodies ( m51 )\t ! consci\s ass]tion ( any "r n f\nd$ ^u law1 might naturally deem !mselves entitl$ to resi/ an au?ority :i* on its "p claim$ a "r--a legally e/abli%$ p[]--to en=ce ob$i5ce1 & turn$ out actually to possess ! p[] ( do+ s4 #ajc4 ,9 su* cases ! true/ retrospective acc\nt to be giv5 ( ! matt] w (t5 be1 t at ! "t !re 0 no?+ am\nt+ to a "r on ei!r side4 ,a "r is a p[] ( :i* ! ex]cise by ! individual or by "s body ( m5 is recognis$ by a society1 ei!r z itself directly ess5tial to a common good1 or z conf]r$ by an au?ority ( :i* ! ma9t5ance is recognis$ z s ess5tial4 ,b 9 cases ( ! k9d describ$ ! au?orities1 appeal$ to on ea* side z ju/ify+ respectively compulsion & resi/ance1 (t5 d n comm& a suffici5tly g5]al recognition ( _! be+ necess>y to ! common good to enable !m to conf] rights ( compulsion or resi/ance4 ,"o or o!r ( !m may be com+ to d s1 or ceas+ to d s1 b rights1 ?\gh on ! "o h& !y are et]nal or at lea/ coeval ) human society1 on ! o!r h& take "t to =m !mselves 9 ?is or t p>ticul> subject & to transf] !mselves f "o subject to ano!r2 7j z "o may hold reason to be et]nal1 & yet hold t x takes "t = ?is or t be+ to become rational47 ,h5ce 9 p]iods ( conflict betwe5 local or cu/om>y & imp]ial or writt5 law1 betwe5 ! con/itu5t p[]s ( a sov]eignty1 su* z k+ & p>liam5t 9 ,engl&1 ( :i* ! relation to ea* o!r has n become accurately def9$1 betwe5 a fall+ & a ris+ sov]eign 9 a p]iod ( revolution1 betwe5 f$]al & /ate au?orities 9 a composite /ate1 ! facts are be/ repres5t$ by say+ t = a "t !re may be no "r on ei!r side 9 ! conflict1 & t x is impossible to det]m9e precisely ! /age at :i* !re comes to be su* a "r on ! "o side z implies a def9ite resi/ance to "r on ! o!r4 ,?is ( c\rse is n to be tak5 to mean t 9 su* p]iods rights 9 g5]al are at an end4 ,x is m]ely t "r is 9 susp5se on ! p>ticul> po9t at issue betwe5 ! conflict+ p[]s4 ,z we h se51 ! g5]al fabric ( rights 9 any society does n dep5d on ! exi/5ce ( a def9ite & asc]ta9$ sov]eignty1 9 ! re/rict$ s5se ( ! words2 on ! det]m9ation ( a p]son or p]sons 9 :om supreme p[] resides2 b on ! control ( ! conduct ( m5 accord+ to c]ta9 regul> pr9ciples by a society recognis+ common int]e/s2 & ?\gh su* control may be m or less weak5$ dur+ p]iods ( conflict ( ! k9d suppos$1 x nev] ceases4 #ajd4 ,x does n foll[1 h[ev]1 because !re may (t5 n be /rictly a "r on ei!r side 9 su* p]iods ( conflict1 t !re is n a good & an evil1 a bett] & a worse1 on "o side or ! o!r4 ,( ?is we c only judge by ref]5ce to ! end1 :atev] x be1 9 :i* we conceive ! good ( man to consi/4 ,!re may be cle> gr\nd = say+1 9 reg>d to any conflict1 t "o side r ?an ! o!r ought to h be5 tak51 n because ^? on "o side 71 ^? on ! o!r 7 n1 entitl$ to say t !y _h a "r to act z !y did1 b because ! common good ( a nation or mank9d 0 cle>ly promot$ by "o l9e ( action1 n by ! o!r4 ,e4g4 9 ! ,am]ican w> ( secession1 ?\gh x w\ld be difficult to say t a man _h n z mu* a "r to fight = 8 sec$+ /ate z = ! ,union1 yet z ! special int]e/ ( ! sec$+ /ates 0 t ( ma9ta9+ slav]y1 !re 0 reason = hold+ t ! side ( ! ,union1 n t ( ! sec$+ /ates1 0 ! "o :i* ought to be tak54 ,on ! o!r h&1 x does n foll[ t 9 a /ruggle = sov]eignty ! good ( man is m s]v$ by "o ( ! compet+ p[]s ?an by ! o!r4 ,good may come out ( ! conflict )\t "o p[] contribut+ m to x ?an ! o!r4 ,!re may ?us be z little gr\nd retrospectively = say+ t "o side or ! o!r ought to h be5 tak51 z t m5 _h a "r to take "o & n ! o!r4 ,at ! same "t1 z reg>ds ! individual1 !re is no reason = d\bt+ t ! bett] ! motive :i* det]m9es him to take ?is side or t1 ! m he is actuat$ 9 do+ s by "s unselfi% desire = human good1 ! m free he is f egotism1 & t conceit or op9ionat$ness :i* is a =m ( egotism1 ! m good he w d :i*ev] side he adopts4 #aje4 ,x is 9 su* cases z we h be5 consid]+ t ! di/9ction betwe5 sov]eign 'de facto' & sov]eign 'de jure' arises4 ,x has a natural mean+ 9 ! m\?s ( ^? :o1 9 resi/+ "s co]cive p[] t claims _! ob$i5ce1 c po9t to ano!r det]m9ate au?ority to :i* !y n only consid] ob$i5ce due1 b to :i* su* ob$i5ce 9 "s consid]able measure is actually r5d]$2 a mean+ :i* x has n :5 all t c be oppos$ to sov]eign 'de facto' is ei!r a 'g5]al w1' or ! m]e "n ( a fall5 dyna/y ex]cis+ no control ov] m5 9 _! deal+s ) ea* o!r4 ,b :]e ?is opposition c be us$ ) a natural mean+1 x is a tru] acc\nt ( ! matt] 7z we h se57 to say t sov]eignty is 9 abeyance4 ,! exi/5ce ( compet+ p[]s1 ea* affect+ to control m5 9 ! same region ( outw>d action1 & ea* hav+ p>tisans :o reg>d x alone z entitl$ to ex]cise su* control1 implies t !re is n t unity ( supreme control ov] ! outw>d actions ( m5 :i* con/itutes sov]eignty & :i* is necess>y to ! complete organisation ( a /ate4 ,! /ate has ei!r n rea*$ complete organisation1 or is = ! "t disorganis$1 ! disorganisation be+ m or less s]i\s accord+ to ! degree to :i* ! ev]yday rights ( m5 7_! ord9>y fre$om ( action & acquisition7 are int]f]$ ) by ?is want ( unity 9 ! supreme control4 #ajf4 ,9 su* a /ate ( ?+s1 ! citiz5 has no rule ( '"r' 79 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w7 to guide him4 ,he is pretty sure to ?9k t "o or o!r ( ! compet+ p[]s has a "r to 8 ob$i5ce because1 be+ himself int]e/$ 7n necess>ily selfi%ly int]e/$7 9 its support1 he does n take acc\nt ( its lack+ t g5]al recognition z a p[] necess>y to ! common good :i* is requisite 9 ord] to give x a "r4 ,b we look+ back may see t !re 0 no su* "r4 ,0 !re !n no?+ to direct him ei!r way8 ,simply1 ,i %\ld answ]1 ! g5]al rule ( look+ to ! moral good ( mank9d1 to :i* a necess>y means is ! organisation ( ! /ate1 :i* aga9 requires unity ( supreme control1 9 ! common int]e/1 ov] ! outw>d actions ( m54 ,! citiz5 ought to h resi/$ or obey$ ei!r ( ! compet+ au?orities1 accord+ z by do+ s he contribut$ mo/ to ! organisation ( ! /ate 9 ! s5se expla9$4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t )\t m k & =esight ?an ! individual c be expect$ to possess1 ?is rule1 if he _h recognis$ x1 c\ld h af=d$ him no sure guidance2 b ?is is only to say t !re are times ( political difficulty 9 :i* ! l9e ( conduct adopt$ may h ! mo/ important effect1 b 9 :i* x is v h>d to "k :at is ! prop] l9e to take4 ,on ! o!r side mu/ be set ! consid]ation t ! man :o br+s ) him ! "* mo/ free f egotism to ! decision ev5 ( ^? que/ions ( conduct1 z to :i* e/abli%$ rules ( "r & wrong are ( no avail1 is mo/ sure on ! :ole to take ! l9e :i* yields ! be/ results4 #ajg4 ,we come next to ! "q ( ! possible duty ( resi/ance 9 cases :]e no law1 ackn[l$g$ or half-ackn[l$g$1 writt5 or cu/om>y1 c be appeal$ to aga9/ a comm& 7g5]al or p>ticul>7 contr>y to ! public good2 :]e no c\nt]-sov]eignty1 9 ! natural s5se ( ! words1 c be alleg$ aga9/ t ( ! impon5t ( ! law2 & :]e at ! same "t1 f ! p hav+ no %>e1 direct or indirect1 9 ! gov]nm5t1 !re is no means ( obta9+ a repeal ( ! law by legal means4 ,i say ! 'duty' ( resi/ance because1 f ! po9t ( view "h adopt$1 !re c be no '"r1' unless on ! gr\nd t x is = ! common good1 & if s1 !re is a duty4 ,9 writ+s ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 />t+ ) ! assumption ( natural rights1 ! "q 0 nev] put on its prop] foot+4 ,x 0 n ask$1 ,:51 = ! sake ( ! common good1 ! citiz5 ought to resi/ ! sov]eign8 b1 ,:at sort ( injury to p]son or prop]ty gave him a natural "r to resi/8 ,n[ !re is s5se 9 inquir+ ^u :at sort & am\nt ( provocation f gov]nm5t individuals inevitably w resi/2 h[ 79 ,sp9oza's language7 t 'indignatio' is excit$ :i* leads !m '9 unum conspir>e'2 b !re is none 9 ask+ :at gives !m a "r to resi/1 unless we suppose a wrong done to society 9 _! p]sons2 & !n x becomes a "q n ( "r m]ely1 b ( duty1 :e!r ! wrong done is su* z to dem& resi/ance4 ,n[ :5 ! "q is ?us put1 no "o presumably w\ld d5y t "u c]ta9 conditions !re might be a duty ( resi/ance to sov]eign p[]4 #ajh4 ,x is important1 h[ev]1 t in/ead ( discuss+ ! "r ( a majority to resi/1 we %\ld discuss ! duty ( resi/ance z equally possible = a m9ority & a majority4 ,!re c be no "r ( a majority ( citiz5s1 z su*1 to resi/ a sov]eign4 ,if by law1 writt5 or cu/om>y1 ! majority ( citiz5s possess or %>e 9 ! sov]eign p[]1 !n any conflict t may arise betwe5 x & any p[] _c be a conflict betwe5 x & ! sov]eign4 ,! majority may h a "r to resi/ su* a p[]1 b x w n be a "r to resi/ a sov]eign4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! majority ( citiz5s h no %>e by law or cu/om 9 ! supreme law-mak+ & law-en=c+ p[]1 !y nev] c h a "r1 simply z a majority1 to resi/ t p[]4 ,9 su* a case1 !re may arise a social duty to resi/1 & ! ex]cise ( m5's p[]s 9 fulfilm5t ( t duty may be su/a9$ by su* a g5]al recognition ( its be+ = ! public good1 z to become a "r2 b ! resi/ance may be a duty be=e a majority ( ! citiz5s approve x1 & does n necess>ily become a duty :5 a majority ( !m d approve x2 :ile t g5]al recognition ( its ex]cise z be+ = ! common good1 ?r\gh :i* ! p[] ( resi/ance becomes a "r1 mu/ be some?+ m habitual & su/a9$ & p5etrat+ ?an any vote ( a majority c convey4 ,incid5tally1 h[ev]1 ! consid]ation ( ! attitude ( ! mass ( ! p 9 reg>d to a contemplat$ resi/ance to e/abli%$ gov]nm5t mu/ always be mo/ important 9 det]m9+ ! "q :e!r ! resi/ance %\ld be made4 ,x %\ld be made1 inde$1 if at all1 n because ! majority approve x1 b because x is = ! public good2 b acc\nt mu/ be tak5 ( ! /ate ( m9d ( ! majority 9 consid]+ :e!r x is = ! public good or no4 ,! presumption mu/ g5]ally be t resi/ance to a gov]nm5t is n = ! public good :5 made on gr\nds :i* ! mass ( ! p _c appreciate2 & x mu/ be on ! pres5ce ( a /rong & intellig5t popul> s5tim5t 9 fav\r ( resi/ance t ! *ance ( avoid+ an>*y1 ( replac+ ! exi/+ gov]nm5t by ano!r effectual = its purpose1 mu/ *iefly dep5d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is "u ! wor/ gov]nm5ts t ! public _s is mo/ cru%$2 & ?us 9 extreme cases !re may be a duty ( resi/ance 9 ! public int]e/1 ?\gh !re is no hope ( ! resi/ance f9d+ effici5t popul> support4 7,an in/ance is ! ,mazz9ian outbreaks 9 ,italy47 ,its repeat$ r5ewal & repeat$ failure may af=d ! only prospect ( ultimately ar\s+ ! public _s :i* is necess>y = ! ma9t5ance ( a gov]nm5t 9 ! public int]e/4 ,& j z !re may ?us be a duty ( resi/ance on ! "p ( a hopeless m9ority1 s on ! o!r side resi/ance ev5 to a mon>*ic or olig>*ic gov]nm5t is n ju/ifi$ by ! fact t a majority1 p]haps 9 "s tempor>y fit ( irritation or impati5ce1 is ready to support x1 if1 z may v well be1 ! objects = :i* gov]nm5t subsi/s--! g5]al fre$om ( action & acquisition & self-developm5t--are likely to suff] f an ov]?r[ ( ! gov]nm5t 9 ! popul> int]e/4 #aji4 ,no precise rule1 !re=e1 c be laid d[n z to ! conditions "u :i* resi/ance to a despotic gov]nm5t becomes a duty4 ,b ! g5]al que/ions :i* ! good citiz5 %\ld ask himself 9 contemplat+ su* resi/ance w be1 7a7 ,:at prospect is !re ( resi/ance to ! sov]eign p[] lead+ to a modification ( its "* or an improvem5t 9 its ex]cise )\t its subv]sion8 7b7 ,if x is ov]?r[n1 is ! temp] ( ! p su*1 are ! influ5ces on :i* ! g5]al ma9t5ance ( social ord] & ! fabric ( recognis$ rights dep5d s f> sep>able f x1 t its ov]?r[ w n mean an>*y8 7c7 ,if its ov]?r[ does lead to an>*y1 is ! :ole sy/em ( law & gov]nm5t s p]v]t$ by private int]e/s ho/ile to ! public1 t !re has ceas$ to be any common int]e/ 9 ma9ta9+ x8 #aaj4 ,su* que/ions are s little likely to be imp>tially consid]$ at a "t :5 resi/ance to a despotic gov]nm5t is 9 contemplation1 &1 h[ev] imp>tially consid]$1 are s intr9sically difficult to answ]1 t x may seem absurd to dwell on !m4 ,no d\bt revolutioni/s d & mu/ to a great ext5t 'g x bl9d4' ,su* b5efic5t revolutions z !re h be5 c\ld n h be5 if !y did n4 ,b 9 mo/ ( ^? que/ions ( "r & wrong 9 conduct1 :i* h to be settl$ by consid]ation ( ! probable effects ( ! conduct1 ! e/imate ( effects :i* regulates our approval or disapproval ^u a retrospective survey1 & accord+ to :i* we say t an act %\ld or %\ld n h be5 done1 is n "o :i* we c\ld expect ! ag5t himself to h made4 ,! ef=t to make x w\ld h p>alys$ 8 p[] ( action4 #aaa4 ,9 ! simple cases ( moral duty1 :]e !re is no real d\bt z to ! effects ( ?is or t action1 & dang] arises f int]e/$ self-sophi/ication1 we c be/ decide = ourselves :e!r we ought to act 9 ?is way or t by ask+ :e!r x is :at is good 9 u--a dis9t]e/$ or unselfi% motive--t moves u to act 9 ?is way or t2 & 9 judg+ ( ! actions ( o!rs1 :]e ! issues & circum/ances are simple1 ! moral "q1 ! "q ( 'ought' or 'ought n1' is (t5 be/ put 9 ! =m1 ,h[ f> 0 ! action su* z c\ld repres5t a good "*8 ,t inde$ is ! =m 9 :i* ! "q %\ld always be put1 :5 ! nature ( ! case admits x2 s9ce1 z argu$ else:]e ,prol4 to ,e?ics1 ,bk ,,ii1 ,*aps ,i & ,,ii1 x is only 9 its relation to "* t action is 9 ! full s5se good or bad4 ,b :]e ! probable effects ( a c]ta9 l9e ( action are at ! "t ( tak+ x v obscure1 we _c be sure t relatively ! be/ "* w lead a man to take ! l9e :i* turns out be/ 9 ! result1 or t because a l9e ( action has turn$ out well 9 result1 ! "* ( ! man :o adopt$ x 0 good4 ,?is be+ s1 9 judg+ ( ! act retrospectively we h to e/imate x by ! result simply1 9 ab/raction f ! "* ( ! ag5t4 ,?us 9 look+ back ^u a revolution>y outbreak we c only judge :e!r x 0 v9dicat$ by ! result4 ,if 9 ! light ( ! result x appe>s t conditions 7 n pres5t "u :i* x w\ld h fur!r$ r ?an int]f]$ ) ! true objects ( gov]nm5t1 we judge t x %\ld n h be5 made2 if o!rwise1 we approve x1--judge t ! p]sons conc]n$ 9 x 7 do+ _! duty 9 act+ z !y did4 ,b :e!r !y 7 really do+ _! duty 9 ! full s5se ( ! t]m 9 act+ z !y did 9 a case :5 ! outbreak 0 successful1 or n do+ x 9 a case :]e x fail$1 is :at we simply _c tell2 = ?is dep5ds on ! /ate ( "* :i* _! action repres5t$1 & t is beyond our k54 #aab4 ,su* is ! necess>y imp]fection "u :i* all hi/orical judgm5ts lab\r1 ?\gh hi/orians are n apt to recognise x & w\ld be ?\ght mu* m dull if !y did4 ,!y w\ld h few] read]s if !y conf9$ !mselves to ! analysis ( situations1 :i* may be correctly made1 & omitt$ judgm5ts on ! morality ( individuals = :i*1 9 ! prop] s5se1 ! data c nev] be =?com+4 ,we sc>cely h !m = ourselves 7except t we "k t we are none ( u :at we %\ld be71 /ill less = our intimate acqua9tance2 n at all = m5 :om we only "k ?r\gh hi/ory1 pa/ or pres5t1 9 reg>d to !m1 we c only fall back on ! g5]alisation1 t ! be/ man--! man mo/ dis9t]e/$ly devot$ to ! p]fect+ ( humanity1 9 "s =m or o!r1 9 8 own p]son or t ( o!rs--is m likely to act 9 a way t is good z measur$ by its results1 ^? results aga9 be+ e/imat$ ) ref]5ce to an ideal ( "*1 & t ?is is s ev5 "u circum/ances ( political complication4 ,appe>ances to ! contr>y1 appe>ances ( h>m done f good motives1 may be met by ! consid]ations1 7#a7 t !re is (t5 mu* egotism 9 :at calls itself consci5ti\sness1 & t ! 'consci5ti\s' motives :i* lead to mis*iev\s acts may n be 9 ! highe/ s5se dis9t]e/$2 7#b7 t to :at we call ! consequ5ces ( an action _m influ5ces contribute besides ! action :i* we call ! cause1 & if evil seems to clog ! consequ5ces ( action pure 9 motive1 ?is may be due to o!r influ5ces connect$ ) motives less wor?y1 :ile ! consequ5ces :i* 9 ! r\gh we call bad might h be5 worse b = ! int]v5tion ( ! purely-motiv$ action2 7#c7 t ! b5efic5t results are (t5 put to ! cr$it ( ! actions ( selfi% m5 :5 !y %\ld r be cr$it$ to influ5ces m remote & complex1 )\t :i* ^? actions w\ld h be5 impossible or _h no good effect1 & :i* h aris5 out ( unselfi% activities4 ,we see ! evil 9 a c\rse ( ev5ts & lay ! blame on someone :o %\ld h act$ diff]5tly1 & :om p]haps we take z an in/ance ( h[ good m5 cause mis*ief2 b we d n see ! great] evil :i* w\ld o!rwise h ensu$4 ,9 reg>d to ! que/ions /at$ above z ^? :i* ! good citiz5 %\ld set himself 9 contemplation ( a possible rebellion1 ?\gh !y are que/ions to :i* x is impossible = a citiz5 9 ! heat ( a revolution>y crisis to give a suffici5t answ]1 & :i* 9 fact c only be answ]$ aft] ! ev5t1 yet !y repres5t objects :i* ! good citiz5 w set be=e himself at su* times2 & 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( good citiz5%ip1 z measur$ by int]e/ 9 ^? objects1 int]e/ 9 mak+ ! be/ ( exi/+ in/itutions1 9 ma9ta9+ social ord] & ! g5]al fabric ( rights1 int]e/ :i* leads to a bona fide e/imate ( ! value ( ! exi/+ gov]nm5t 9 its relation to public good1 w be ! good result ( ! political movem5t4 ,g4 ,,w1 ,,n ,,=ce1 ,,is ,,! ,,basis ,,( ,,! ,,/ate4 #aac4 ,look+ back on ! political !ories :i* we h discuss$1 we may see t !y all />t ) putt+ ! "q to be dealt ) 9 ! same way1 & t _! errors are v mu* due to ! way 9 :i* !y put x4 ,!y make no inquiry into ! developm5t ( society & ( man ?r\gh society4 ,!y take no acc\nt ( o!r =ms ( community ?an t regulat$ by a supreme co]cive p[]1 ei!r 9 ! way ( inve/igat+ _! hi/orical orig9 & connection1 or ( consid]+ ! ideas & /ates ( m9d :i* !y imply or :i* r5d] !m possible4 ,!y leave out ( sight ! process by :i* m5 h be5 clo!d ) rights & duties1 & ) s5ses ( "r & duty1 :i* are nei!r natural nor d]iv$ f a sov]eign p[]4 ,!y look only to ! supreme co]cive p[] on ! "o side & to individuals1 to :om natural rights are ascrib$1 on ! o!r1 & ask :at is ! nature & orig9 ( ! "r ( t supreme co]cive p[] z aga9/ ^! natural rights ( individuals4 ,! "q s put c only be answ]$ by "s device = repres5t+ ! individuals gov]n$ z cons5t+ p>ties to ! ex]cise ( gov]nm5t ov] !m4 ,?is !y no d\bt are s long z ! gov]nm5t is ex]cis$ 9 a way correspond+ to _! sev]al wi%es2 b1 s long z ?is is ! case1 !re is no int]f]5ce ) _! 'natural lib]ty' to d z !y l4 ,x is only :5 ?is lib]ty is int]f]$ )1 t any occasion arises = an explanation ( ! compatibility ( ! sov]eign's "r ) ! natural "r ( ! individual2 & x is j !n t ! explanation by ! supposition t ! "r ( ! sov]eign is f\nd$ on cons5t1 fails4 ,b ! ne$ ( ! fictiti\s explanation arises f a wrong way ( putt+ ! "q2 ! p[] :i* regulates our conduct 9 political society is conceiv$ 9 too ab/ract a way on ! "o side1 & on ! o!r are set ov] aga9/ x1 z ! subjects :i* x controls1 individuals inve/$ ) all ! moral attributes & rights ( humanity4 ,b 9 tru? x is only z memb]s ( a society1 z recognis+ common int]e/s & objects1 t individuals come to h ^! attributes & rights2 & ! p[]1 :i* 9 a political society !y h to obey1 is d]iv$ f ! developm5t & sy/ematisation ( ^? in/itutions = ! regulation ( a common life )\t :i* !y w\ld h no rights at all4 #aad4 ,to ask :y ,i am to submit to ! p[] ( ! /ate1 is to ask :y ,i am to all[ my life to be regulat$ by t complex ( in/itutions )\t :i* ,i lit]ally %\ld n h a life to call my own1 nor %\ld be able to ask = a ju/ification ( :at ,i am call$ on to d4 ,= t ,i may h a life :i* ,i c call my own1 ,i mu/ n only be consci\s ( myself & ( ends :i* ,i pres5t to myself z m9e2 ,i mu/ be able to reckon on a c]ta9 fre$om ( action & acquisition = ! atta9m5t ( ^? ends1 & ?is c only be secur$ ?r\gh common recognition ( ?is fre$om on ! "p ( ea* o!r by memb]s ( a society1 z be+ = a common good4 ,)\t ?is1 ! v consci\sness ( hav+ ends ( 8 own & a life :i* he c direct 9 a c]ta9 way1 a life ( :i* he c make some?+1 w\ld rema9 dormant 9 a man4 ,x is true t slaves h be5 f\nd to h ?is consci\sness 9 high developm5t2 b a slave ev5 at 8 l[e/ has be5 p>tly made :at he is by an ance/ral life :i* 0 n "o ( slav]y pure & simple1 a life 9 :i* c]ta9 elem5t>y rights 7 secur$ to ! memb]s ( a society ?r\gh _! recognition ( a common int]e/4 ,he reta9s c]ta9 spiritual aptitudes f t /ate ( family or tribal fre$om4 ,?is1 p]haps1 is all t c\ld be said ( mo/ ( ! slaves on plantations 9 mod]n times2 b ! slav]y ( ! anci5t _w1 be+ ma9ly f\nd$ on captivity 9 w>1 0 compatible ) a consid]able am\nt ( civilisation on ! "p ( ! slaves at ! "t :5 _! slav]y began4 ,a ,jewi% slave1 e4g41 w\ld c>ry ) him into slav]y a ?or\ghly develop$ conception ( "r & law4 ,slav]y1 moreov]1 implies ! e/abli%m5t ( "s regul> sy/em ( rights 9 ! slave-own+ society4 ,! slave1 especially ! dome/ic slave1 has ! signs & effects ( ?is sy/em all ab\t him4 ,h5ce su* elem5t>y consci\sness ( rights--( p[]s t are 8 own to make ! be/ (--z ! born slave may inh]it f an ance/ral life ( fre$om1 f9ds a /imulus to its inw>d developm5t1 ?\gh no opportunity = outw>d ex]cise1 9 ! habits & ideas ( civilis$ life ) :i* a common language enables ! slave to become conv]sant1 & :i*1 ?r\gh ! sympa?y impli$ 9 a common language1 he to "s ext5t makes 8 own4 ,?us ! appe>ance 9 slaves ( ! conception t !y %\ld be ma/]s ( !mselves1 does n conflict ) ! proposition t only s f> z a c]ta9 fre$om ( action & acquisition is secur$ to a body ( m5 ?r\gh _! recognition ( ! ex]cise ( t fre$om by ea* o!r z be+ = ! common good1 is !re an actualisation ( ! individual's consci\sness ( hav+ life & ends ( 8 own4 ,! ex]cise1 manife/ation1 expression ( ?is consci\sness ?r\gh a fre$om secur$ 9 ! way describ$ is necess>y to its real exi/5ce1 j z language ( "s sort is necess>y to ! real exi/5ce ( ?\ght1 & bodily movem5t to t ( ! s\l4 #aae4 ,! dem&1 aga91 = a ju/ification ( :at "o is call$ on by au?ority to d presupposes "s /&>d ( "r1 recognis$ z equally valid = & by ! p]son mak+ ! dem& & o!rs :o =m a society ) him1 & su* a recognis$ /&>d 9 turn implies in/itutions = ! regulation ( m5's deal+s ) ea* o!r1 in/itutions ( :i* ! relation to ! consci\sness ( "r may be comp>$1 z above1 to t ( language to ?\ght4 ,x _c be said t ! mo/ elem5t>y consci\sness ( "r is prior to !m1 or !y to x4 ,!y are ! expressions 9 :i* x becomes real4 ,z conflict+ ) ! mom5t>y incl9ations ( ! individual1 ^! in/itutions are a p[] :i* he obeys unwill+ly2 :i* he has to1 or is made to1 obey4 ,b x is only ?r\gh !m t ! consci\sness takes %ape & =m :i* expresses itself 9 ! "q1 ',:y %\ld ,i ?us be con/ra9$8 ,by :at "r is my natural "r to d z ,i l ov]borne8' #aaf4 ,! doctr9e t ! rights ( gov]nm5t are f\nd$ on ! cons5t ( ! gov]n$ is a confus$ way ( /at+ ! tru?1 t ! in/itutions by :i* man is moralis$1 by :i* he comes to d :at he sees t he mu/1 z di/9ct f :at he w\ld l1 express a conception ( a common good2 t ?r\gh !m t conception takes =m & reality2 & t x is 9 turn ?r\gh its pres5ce 9 ! individual t !y h a con/ra9+ p[] ov] him1 a p[] :i* is n t ( m]e fe>1 /ill less a physical compulsion1 b :i* leads him to d :at he is n incl9$ to because !re is a law t he %\ld4 ,r\sseau1 x w be rememb]$1 speaks ( ! 'social pact' n m]ely z ! f\ndation ( sov]eignty or civil gov]nm5t1 b z ! f\ndation ( morality4 ,?r\gh x man becomes a moral ag5t2 = ! slav]y to appetite he sub/itutes ! fre$om ( subjection to a self-impos$ law4 ,if he _h se5 at ! same "t t rights d n beg9 till duties beg91 & t if !re 0 no morality prior to ! pact !re c\ld n be rights1 he might h be5 sav$ f ! error :i* ! notion ( !re be+ natural rights introduces into 8 !ory4 ,b ?\gh he does n seem himself to h be5 aw>e ( ! full be>+ ( 8 own conception1 ! conception itself is ess5tially true4 ,sett+ aside ! fictiti\s repres5tation ( an orig9al cov5ant z hav+ giv5 bir? to t common 'ego' or g5]al w1 )\t :i* no su* cov5ant w\ld h be5 possible1 & ( obligations aris+ out ( x1 z out ( a b>ga9 made betwe5 "o man & ano!r1 x rema9s true t only ?r\gh a recognition by c]ta9 m5 ( a common int]e/1 & ?r\gh ! expression ( t recognition 9 c]ta9 regulations ( _! deal+s ) ea* o!r1 c\ld morality orig9ate1 or any mean+ be ga9$ = su* t]ms z 'ought' & '"r' & _! equival5ts4 #aag4 ,morality1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 is ! obs]vance ( su* regulations1 & ?\gh a high] morality1 ! morality ( ! "* gov]n$ by 'dis9t]e/$ motives1' i4e4 by int]e/ 9 "s =m ( human p]fection1 comes to diff]5tiate itself f ?is primitive morality consi/+ 9 ! obs]vance ( rules e/abli%$ = a common good1 yet ?is outw>d morality is ! presupposition ( ! high] morality4 ,morality & political subjection ?us h a common s\rce1 'political subjection' be+ di/+ui%$ f t ( a slave1 z a subjection :i* secures rights to ! subject4 ,t common s\rce is ! rational recognition by c]ta9 human be+s--x may be m]ely by *ildr5 ( ! same p>5t--( a common well-be+ :i* is _! well-be+1 & :i* !y conceive z _! well-be+ :e!r at any mom5t any "o ( !m is incl9$ to x or no1 & ! embodim5t ( t recognition 9 rules by :i* ! incl9ations ( ! individuals are re/ra9$1 & a correspond+ fre$om ( action = ! atta9m5t ( well-be+ on ! :ole is secur$4 #aah4 ,f ?is common s\rce morality & political subjection 9 all its =ms always reta9 two elem5ts 9 common1 "o consi/+ 9 antagonism to "s incl9ation1 ! o!r consi/+ 9 ! consci\sness t ! antagonism to incl9ation is f\nd$ on reason or on ! conception ( "s adequate good4 ,x is ! antagonism to incl9ation involv$ 9 ! moral life1 z alone we "k x1 t makes x prop] to speak analogically ( moral 'laws' & 'imp]atives4' ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t su* language is analogical1 & t !re is an ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 laws 9 ! /ricte/ s5se 7laws :i* are inde$ n adequately describ$ z g5]al comm&s ( a political sup]ior1 sanction$ by liability to pa9s :i* t sup]ior c inflict1 b 9 :i* a comm& s sanction$ is an ess5tial elem5t71 & ! laws ( consci5ce1 ( :i* x is ! peculi> dignity t !y h no ext]nal impon5t & no sanction consi/+ 9 fe> ( bodily evil4 ,! relation ( con/ra9t1 9 ! "o case betwe5 ! man & ! ext]nally impos$ law1 9 ! o!r betwe5 "s p>ticul> desire ( ! man & 8 consci\sness ( some?+ absolutely desirable1 we naturally repres5t 9 ,engli%1 :5 we reflect on x1 by ! common t]m 'mu/4' ',i mu/ connect ) ! ma9 dra9age1' says ! h\sehold] to himself1 reflect+ on an edict ( ! ,local ,bo>d4 ',i mu/ try to get ,a4,b4 to leave (f dr9k+1' he says to himself1 reflect+ on a tr\blesome moral duty ( b5evol5ce to 8 neighb\r4 ,& if ! 'mu/' 9 ! =m] case repres5ts 9 "p ! k t compulsion may be put on ! man :o neglects to d :at he mu/1 :i* is no "p ( its mean+ 9 ! second1 on ! o!r h& ! consci\sness t ! con/ra9t is = a common good1 :i* :olly con/itutes ! p[] ov] incl9ation 9 ! second case1 mu/ always be an elem5t 9 t ob$i5ce :i* is prop]ly call$ ob$i5ce to law1 or civil or political ob$i5ce4 ,simple fe> c nev] con/itute su* ob$i5ce4 ,to repres5t x z ! basis ( civil subjection is to conf\nd ! citiz5 ) ! slave1 & to repres5t ! motive :i* is ne$$ = ! re/ra9t ( ^? 9 :om ! civil s5se is lack+1 & = ! occasional re9=cem5ts ( ! law-abid+ pr9ciple 9 o!rs1 z if x 7 ! normal influ5ce 9 habits ( life ( :i* ! ess5tial value lies 9 _! be+ indep5d5t ( x4 ,h[ f> 9 any p>ticul> act ( con=mity to law ! fe> ( p5alties may be op]ative1 x is impossible to say4 ,:at is c]ta9 is1 t a habit ( subjection f\nd$ ^u su* fe> c\ld n be a basis ( political or free society2 = to ?is x is necess>y1 n inde$ t ev]yone subject to ! laws %\ld take "p 9 vot+ !m1 /ill less t he %\ld cons5t to _! application to himself1 b t x %\ld repres5t an idea ( common good1 :i* ea* memb] ( ! society c make 8 own s f> z he is rational1 i4e4 capable ( ! conception ( a common good1 h[ev] mu* p>ticul> passions may lead him to ignore x & ?us necessitate ! use ( =ce to prev5t him f do+ t :i*1 s f> z influ5c$ by ! conception ( a common good1 he w\ld will+ly ab/a9 f4 #aai4 ,:e!r ! legislative & adm9i/rative ag5cies ( society c be kept 9 ! ma9 free f bias by private int]e/s1 & true to ! idea ( common good1 )\t popul> control2 :e!r aga91 if !y c1 t 'civil s5se1' t appreciation ( common good on ! "p ( ! subjects1 :i* is z necess>y to a free or political society z ! direction ( law to ! ma9t5ance ( a common good1 c be kept alive )\t active p>ticipation ( ! p 9 legislative functions2 ^! are que/ions ( circum/ances :i* p]haps d n admit ( unqualifi$ answ]s4 ,! views ( ^? :o look$ ma9ly to ! highe/ developm5t ( political life 9 a s+le small society1 h to be modifi$ if ! object s\ght = is ! ext5sion ( political life to ! l>ge/ numb] ( p4 ,! size ( mod]n /ates r5d]s necess>y ! sub/itution ( a repres5tative sy/em = "o 9 :i* ! citiz5s %>$ directly 9 legislation1 & ?is s f> t5ds to weak5 ! active int]e/ ( ! citiz5s 9 ! common weal1 ?\gh ! evil may p>tly be c\nt]act$ by giv+ increas$ importance to municipal or communal adm9i/ration4 ,9 "s /ates1 f ! want ( homog5eity or facilities ( communication1 a repres5tative legislature is sc>cely possible4 ,9 o!rs1 :]e x exi/s1 a great am\nt ( p[]1 virtually exempt f popul> control1 has to be left ) :at ,r\sseau w\ld h call$ ! 'pr9ce or magi/rate4' ,9 all ?is !re is a l[]+ ( civil vitality z comp>$ ) t ( ! anci5t1 & p]haps ( "s exceptionally develop$ mod]n1 commonweal?s4 ,b p]haps ?is is a tempor>y loss t we h to be> z ! price ( hav+ recognis$ ! claim to citiz5%ip z ! claim ( all m54 ,c]ta9ly all political ideals1 :i* require active & direct p>ticipation by ! citiz5s 9 ! functions ( ! sov]eign /ate1 fail u z soon z we try to conceive _! realisation on ! wide area ev5 ( civilis$ mank9d4 ,x is easy to conceive a bett] sy/em ?an t ( ! great /ates ( mod]n ,europe1 ) _! national jeal\sies1 rival armies1 & ho/ile t>iffs2 b ! condition ( any bett] /ate ( ?+s w\ld seem to be ! recognition ( "s s+le con/ra9+ p[]1 :i* w\ld be ev5 m remote f ! active co-op]ation ( ! individual citiz5 ?an is ! sov]eign p[] ( ! great /ates at pres5t4 #abj4 ,^! consid]ations may rem9d u h[ f> remov$ f any f\ndation 9 _! own w ! requirem5ts ( ! mod]n /ate mu/ seem to be to mo/ ( ^? :o h to submit to !m4 ,x is true t ! necessity :i* ! /ate lays ^u ! individual is = ! mo/ "p "o to :i* he is s accu/om$ t he no long] kicks aga9/ x2 b :at is x1 we may ask1 b an ext]nal necessity1 :i* he no m lays on himself ?an he does ! weight ( ! atmosph]e or ! pressure ( summ] heat & w9t] fro/s1 t compels ! ord9>y citiz5 to pay rates & taxes1 to s]ve 9 ! army1 to ab/a9 f walk+ ov] ! squire's fields1 sn>+ 8 h>es1 or fi%+ 9 pres]v$ /reams1 to pay r5t1 to respect ^? artificial rights ( prop]ty :i* only ! possessors ( !m h any obvi\s int]e/ 9 ma9ta9+1 or ev5 7if he is "o ( ! 'prolet>iate'7 to keep 8 h&s (f ! sup]flu\s weal? ( 8 neighb\r1 :5 he has none ( 8 own to lose8 ,grant$ t !re are good reasons ( social exp$i5cy = ma9ta9+ in/itutions :i* ?us compel ! individual to actions & =be>ances t are none ( 8 will+1 is x n abus+ words to speak ( !m z f\nd$ on a conception ( g5]al good8 ,a conception does n float 9 ! air4 ,x mu/ be somebody's conception4 ,^: conception1 !n1 ( g5]al good is x t ^! in/itutions repres5t8 ,n t ( mo/ ( ! p :o con=m to !m1 = !y d s because !y are made to1 or h come to d s habitually f hav+ be5 long made to2 7i4e4 f be+ fright5$ at ! consequ5ces ( n con=m+1 n consequ5ces :i* foll[ f n con=m+ 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 b consequ5ces :i* ! /ate inflicts1 artificial consequ5ces47 ,b :5 a man is said to obey an au?ority f int]e/ 9 a common good1 "s o!r good is meant ?an t :i* consi/s 9 escap+ ! puni%m5t :i* ! au?ority w\ld inflict on disob$i5ce4 ,is !n ! conception ( common good :i* is alleg$ a conception ( x on ! "p ( ^? :o f\nd$ or :o ma9ta9 ! in/itutions 9 "q8 ,b is x n c]ta9 t private int]e/s h be5 ! ma9 ag5ts 9 e/abli%+1 & are /ill 9 ma9ta9+1 at any rate all ! m artificial rights ( prop]ty8 ,h n our mod]n /ates1 aga91 9 ne>ly e case be5 f\nd$ on conque/1 & are n ! actual in/itutions ( gov]nm5t 9 great measure ! direct result ( su* conque/1 or1 :]e revolutions h int]v5$1 ( viol5ce :i* has be5 z little gov]n$ by any conception ( g5]al good8 ,suppos+ t philosoph]s c f9d exquisite reasons = consid]+ ! in/itutions & requirem5ts :i* h result$ f all ?is self-seek+ & viol5ce to be contributory to ! common good ( ^? :o h to submit to !m1 is x n trifl+ to speak ( !m z f\nd$ on or repres5t+ a conception ( ?is good1 :5 no su* conception has influ5c$ ^? :o e/abli%$1 ma9ta91 or submit to !m8 ,& is x n s]i\sly mislead+1 :5 ! requirem5ts ( ! /ate h s l>gely aris5 out ( =ce direct$ by selfi% motives1 & :5 ! motive to ob$i5ce to ^? requirem5ts is det]m9$ by fe>1 to speak ( !m z hav+ a common s\rce ) ! morality ( :i* x is admitt$ t ! ess5ce is to be dis9t]e/$ & spontane\s8 #aba4 ,if we w\ld meet ^! objections fairly1 c]ta9 admissions mu/ be made4 ,! idea ( a common good :i* ! /ate fulfils has nev] be5 ! sole influ5ce actuat+ ^? :o h be5 ag5ts 9 ! hi/orical process by :i* /ates h come to be =m$2 & ev5 s f> z x has actuat$ !m1 x has be5 only z conceiv$ 9 "s v imp]fect =m t x has done s4 ,?is is equally true ( ^? :o contribute to ! =mation & ma9t5ance ( /ates r z ag5ts1 & ( ^? :o d s r z pati5ts4 ,no "o c\ld pret5d t ev5 ! mo/ ?\ghtful & dispassionate publici/ is capable ( ! idea ( ! good s]v$ by ! /ate to :i* he belongs1 9 all its fulness4 ,he appreh5ds x only 9 "s ( its be>+s2 b x is z a common good t he appreh5ds x1 i4e4 n z a good = himself or = ?is man or t m ?an ano!r1 b = all memb]s equally 9 virtue ( _! relation to ea* o!r & _! common nature4 ,! idea :i* ! ord9>y citiz5 has ( ! common good s]v$ by ! /ate is mu* m limit$ 9 cont5t4 ,v likely he does n ?9k ( x at all 9 connection ) any?+ t ! t]m '/ate' repres5ts to him4 ,b he has a cle> und]/&+ ( c]ta9 int]e/s & rights common to himself ) 8 neighb\rs1 if only su* z consi/ 9 gett+ 8 wages paid at ! end ( ! week1 9 gett+ 8 money's wor? at ! %op1 9 ! inviolability ( 8 own p]son & t ( 8 wife4 ,habitually & in/9ctively1 i4e4 )\t ask+ ! reason :y1 he reg>ds ! claim :i* 9 ^! respects he makes = himself z conditional ^u 8 recognis+ a l claim 9 o!rs1 & ?us z 9 ! prop] s5se a "r1--a claim ( :i* ! ess5ce lies 9 its be+ common to himself ) o!rs4 ,)\t ?is in/9ctive recognition he is "o ( ! 'dang]\s classes1' virtually outlaw$ by himself4 ,) x1 ?\gh he h no rev]5ce = ! '/ate' "u t "n1 no s5se ( an int]e/ %>$ ) o!rs 9 ma9ta9+ x1 he has ! ne$ful elem5t>y conception ( a common good ma9ta9$ by law4 ,x is ! fault ( ! /ate if ?is conception fails to make him a loyal subject1 if n an intellig5t patriot4 ,x is a sign t ! /ate is n a true /ate2 t x is n fulfill+ its prim>y function ( ma9ta9+ law equally 9 ! int]e/ ( all1 b is be+ adm9i/]$ 9 ! int]e/ ( classes2 :5ce x foll[s t ! ob$i5ce :i*1 if n r5d]$ will+ly1 ! /ate compels ! citiz5 to r5d]1 is n "o t he feels any spontane\s int]e/ 9 r5d]+1 because x does n pres5t itself to him z ! condition ( ! ma9t5ance ( ^? rights & int]e/s1 common to himself ) 8 neighb\rs1 :i* he und]/&s4 #abb4 ,b if ! law :i* regulates private relations & its adm9i/ration are s equally appli$ to all1 t all :o are capable ( a common int]e/ are prompt$ by t int]e/ to con=m to ! law1 ! result is /ill only ! loyal subject z di/9ct f ! intellig5t patriot1 i4e4 z di/9ct f ! man :o s appreciates ! good :i* 9 common ) o!rs he d]ives f ! /ate--f ! nation organis$ 9 ! =m ( a self-gov]n+ community to :i* he belongs--z to h a passion = s]v+ x1 :e!r 9 ! way ( def5d+ x f ext]nal attack1 or develop+ x f )94 ,! citiz5s ( ! ,roman empire 7 loyal subjects2 ! admirable ma9t5ance ( private rights made !m t2 b !y 7 n intellig5t patriots1 & *iefly because !y 7 n1 ! empire fell4 ,t active int]e/ 9 ! s]vice ( ! /ate1 :i* makes patriotism 9 ! bett] s5se1 c h>dly arise :ile ! individual's relation to ! /ate is t ( a passive recipi5t ( protection 9 ! ex]cise ( 8 rights ( p]son & prop]ty4 ,:ile ?is is ! case1 he w give ! /ate no ?anks = ! protection :i* he w come to take z a matt] ( c\rse1 & w only be consci\s ( x :5 x desc5ds ^u him ) "s unusual dem& = s]vice or paym5t1 & !n he w be consci\s ( x 9 ! way ( res5tm5t4 ,if he is to h a high] feel+ ( political duty1 he mu/ take "p 9 ! "w ( ! /ate4 ,he mu/ h a %>e1 direct or indirect1 by himself act+ z a memb] or by vot+ = ! memb]s ( supreme or prov9cial assemblies1 9 mak+ & ma9ta9+ ! laws :i* he obeys4 ,only ?us w he le>n to reg>d ! "w ( ! /ate z a :ole1 & to transf] to ! :ole ! int]e/ :i* o!rwise 8 p>ticul> exp]i5ce w\ld lead him to feel only 9 t "p ( its "w t goes to ! ma9t5ance ( 8 own & 8 neighb\r's rights4 #abc4 ,ev5 !n 8 patriotism w h>dly be ! passion :i* x ne$s to be1 unless 8 judgm5t ( :at he owes to ! /ate is quick5$ by a feel+ ( :i* ! 'patria1' ! fa!rl&1 ! seat ( "o's home1 is ! natural object2 & ( ?is feel+ ! /ate becomes ! object only s f> z x is an organisation ( a p to :om ! individual feels himself b\nd by ties analog\s to ^? :i* b9d him to 8 family1 ties d]iv$ f a common dwell+-place ) its associations1 f common memories1 traditions & cu/oms1 & f ! common ways ( feel+ & ?9k+ :i* a common language & /ill m a common lit]ature embodies4 ,su* an organisation ( an homog5e\s p ! mod]n /ate 9 mo/ cases is 7! two ,au/rian /ates be+ ! mo/ conspicu\s exceptions71 & su* ! ,roman /ate emphatically 0 n4 #abd4 ,b1 x w be said1 we are "h aga9 fall+ back on our unprov$ assumption t ! /ate is an in/itution = ! promotion ( a common good4 ,?is grant$1 x is n difficult to make out t 9 mo/ m5 at any rate !re is a suffici5t int]e/ 9 "s =m ( social well-be+1 suffici5t und]/&+ ( ! community betwe5 _! own well-be+ & t ( _! neighb\rs1 to make !m loyal to su* an in/itution4 ,b ! "q is1 :e!r ! promotion ( a common good1 at any rate 9 any s5se appreciable by ! multitude1 is any necess>y *>act]i/ic ( a /ate4 ,x is admitt$ t ! outw>d visible sign ( a /ate is ! pres5ce ( a supreme or indep5d5t co]cive p[]1 to :i*1 habitual ob$i5ce is r5d]$ by a c]ta9 multitude ( p1 & t ?is p[] may (t5 be ex]cis$ 9 a mann] app>5tly detrim5tal to ! g5]al well-be+4 ,x may be ! case1 z we h tri$ to %[ t x is1 t a p[] :i* is 9 ! ma9 s ex]cis$1 & is g5]ally felt to be s1 is n likely long to ma9ta9 its supremacy2 b ?is does n %[ t a /ate _c exi/ )\t ! promotion ( ! common good ( its subjects1 or t 79 any intelligible way7 ! promotion ( su* good belongs to ! idea ( a /ate4 ,a %ort-liv$ /ate is n !re=e n a /ate1 & if x 71 x is r ! active int]f]5ce ) ! subject's well-be+1 ?an a failure to promote x1 t is fatal to ! long life ( a /ate4 ,h[1 f9ally1 c ! /ate be said to exi/ = ! sake ( an end1 or to fulfil an idea1 ! contemplation ( :i*1 x is admitt$1 has _h little to d ) ! actions :i* h _h mo/ to d ) br++ /ates into exi/5ce8 #abe4 ,! la/ "q is a crucial "o1 :i* mu/ be met at ! outset4 ,x mu/ be notic$ t ! ord9>y conception ( organisation1 z we apply x 9 ! int]pretation ( nature1 implies t ag5ts may be in/rum5tal 9 ! atta9m5t ( an end or ! fulfilm5t ( an idea ( :i* !re is no consci\sness on ! "p ( ! organic ag5ts !mselves4 ,if x is true on ! "o h& t ! int]pretation ( nature by ! supposition ( ends ext]nal to x1 ) ref]5ce to :i* its processes are direct$1 has be5 disc>d$1 & t its rejection has be5 ! condition ( gr[? 9 an exact k ( nature1 on ! o!r h& ! recognition ( ends imman5t 9 nature1 ( ideas realis$ )9 x1 is ! basis ( a sci5tific explanation ( life4 ,! pha5om5a ( life are n ideal1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ideal is oppos$ to t :i* is s5sibly v]ifiable1 b !y are relat$ to ! processes ( mat]ial *ange :i* are _! conditions1 z ideas or ideal ends :i* ^? processes contribute to realise1 because1 :ile !y det]m9e ! processes 7:ile ! processes w\ld n be :at !y are b = relation to !m71 yet !y are n ^? processes1 n id5tical ) any "o or numb] ( !m1 or all ( !m toge!r4 ,life does n reside 9 any ( ! organs ( life1 or 9 any or all ( ! processes ( mat]ial *ange ?r\gh :i* ^! pass4 ,analyse or comb9e ^! z y w1 y d n detect x z ! result ( ! analysis or comb9ation4 ,x is a function or end :i* !y realise accord+ to a plan or idea :i* det]m9es _! exi/5ce be=e !y exi/ & survives _! disappe>ance4 ,if x 7 held1 !n1 t ! /ate 7 an organis$ community 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* a liv+ body is1 ( :i* ! memb]s at once contribute to ! function call$ life1 & are made :at !y are by t function1 accord+ to an idea ( :i* !re is no consci\sness on _! "p1 we %\ld only be foll[+ ! analogy ( ! e/abli%$ me?od ( int]pret+ nature4 #abf4 ,! objection to su* a view w\ld be t x repres5ts ! /ate z a purely natural1 n at all z a moral1 organism4 ,moral ag5cy is n m]ely an ag5cy by :i* an end is atta9$1 or an idea realis$1 or a function fulfill$1 b an ag5cy det]m9$ by an idea on ! "p ( ! ag5t1 by 8 conception ( an end or function2 & ! /ate w\ld be br\ght into be+ & su/a9$ by m]ely natural1 z oppos$ to moral1 ag5cy1 unless !re 7 a consci\sness ( ends--& ( ends ! same 9 pr9ciple ) t s]v$ by ! /ate itself--on ! "p ( ^? by :om x is br\ght into be+1 & su/a9$4 ,i say 'ends ! same 9 pr9ciple ) t s]v$ by ! /ate itself1' because1 if ! /ate arose out ( ! action ( m5 det]m9$1 inde$1 by ! consci\sness ( ends1 b ends :olly het]og5e\s to t realis$ by ! /ate1 x w\ld n be a moral in/itution1 w\ld n /& 9 any moral relation to m54 ,n[ among ! influ5ces t h op]at$ 9 ! =mation ( /ates1 a l>ge "p1 x mu/ be admitt$1 are simply natural4 ,su* are ! influ5ces ( climate1 ( di/ribution ( m\nta9 & pla91 l& & wat]1 c1 ( all physical dem>cations & means ( communication4 ,b ^!1 x is cle>1 are only organic to ! =mation ( /ates s f> z1 s to speak1 !y take a "*1 :i* does n belong to !m z m]ely natural1 f ag5cies di/9ctively human4 #abg4 ',human1 if y l1' x may be repli$1 'b n moral1 if a moral ag5cy implies any ref]5ce to a social or human good1 to a good :i* ! individual desires because x is good = o!rs1 or = mank9d1 z well z himself4 ,9 ! e>?--hung] ( conqu]+ hordes1 9 ! passions ( milit>y despots1 9 ! pride or av>ice or v9dictiv5ess :i* mov$ su* m5 z ,l\is ,,xi or ,h5ry ,,viii to ov]ride ! semi-an>*y ( feudalism ) a real sov]eignty1 :at is !re ( ref]5ce to su* good8 ,yet if we suppose ! influ5ce ( su* motives z ^!1 toge!r ) ! natural influ5ces j spok5 (1 to be eras$ f ! hi/ory ( ! =mation ( /ates1 its di/+ui%+ features are gone4' #abh4 ,! selfi% motives describ$ mu/ n1 any m ?an ! natural influ5ces1 be reg>d$ 9 ab/raction1 if we w\ld und]/& _! true place 9 ! =mation ( /ates4 ,! pure desire = social good does n inde$ op]ate 9 human affairs unalloy$ by egoti/ic motives1 b on ! o!r h& :at we call egoti/ic motives d n act )\t direction f an involunt>y ref]5ce to social good1--'involunt>y' 9 ! s5se t x is s mu* a matt] ( c\rse t ! individual does n di/+ui% x f 8 ord9>y /ate ( m9d4 ,! mo/ conspicu\s mod]n in/ance ( a man :o 0 in/rum5tal 9 work+ great & 9 "s ways b5eficial *anges 9 ! political ord] ( ,europe1 f :at we %\ld be apt to call ! mo/ purely selfi% motives1 is ,napoleon4 ,)\t pret5d+ to analyse ^! motives precisely1 we may say t a lead+ "o 0 ! passion = glory2 b if !re is to be tru? 9 ! /atem5t t ?is passion gov]n$ ,napoleon1 x mu/ be qualifi$ by ! f>!r /atem5t t ! passion 0 itself gov]n$ by social influ5ces1 op]ative on him1 f :i* x d]iv$ its p>ticul> direction4 ,) all 8 egotism1 8 individuality 0 s f> gov]n$ by ! action ( ! national _s 9 & ^u him1 t he c\ld only glorify himself 9 ! greatness ( ,france2 & ?\gh ! national _s express$ itself 9 an ef=t aft] greatness :i* 0 9 _m ways ( a mis*iev\s & delusive k9d1 yet x aga9 _h s mu* ( :at may be call$ ! _s ( humanity 9 x1 t x requir$ satisfaction 9 ! belief t x 0 s]v+ mank9d4 ,h5ce ! aggr&isem5t ( ,france1 9 :i* ,napoleon's passion = glory satisfi$ itself1 _h to take at lea/ ! semblance ( a deliv]ance ( oppress$ peoples1 & 9 tak+ ! semblance x to a great ext5t p]=m$ ! reality2 at any rate 9 we/]n ,g]many & nor!rn ,italy1 :]ev] ! ,code ,napolon 0 introduc$4 #abi4 ,x is ?us t actions ( m51 :om 9 !mselves we reckon bad1 are 'ov]rul$' = good4 ,!re is no?+ my/]i\s or un9telligible 9 su* 'ov]rul+4' ,!re is no?+ 9 ! effect :i* we ascribe to ! 'ov]rul+1' any m ?an 9 any effect belong+ to ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 :i* !re 0 n 9 ! cause z x really 0 & z we %\ld see x to be if we fully und]/ood x4 ,! appe>ance to ! contr>y arises f our tak+ too p>tial & ab/ract a view ( ! cause4 ,we look at ! action e4g4 ( ,napoleon ) ref]5ce m]ely to ! selfi%ness ( 8 motives4 ,we =get h[ f> 8 motives1 9 respect ( _! concrete reality1 9 respect ( ! actual nature ( ! ends pursu$ z di/9ct f ! p>ticul> relation 9 :i* ^? ends /ood to 8 p]sonality1 7 made = him by influ5ces ) :i* 8 selfi%ness _h no?+ to d4 ,x 0 n 8 selfi%ness t made ,france a nation1 or pres5t$ to him cont9u\sly an end consi/+ 9 ! national aggr&isem5t ( ,france1 or at p>ticul> p]iods su* ends z ! expulsion ( ! ,au/rians f ,italy1 ! e/abli%m5t ( a c5tralis$ political ord] 9 ,france on ! basis ( social equality1 ! promulgation ( ! civil code1 ! ma9t5ance ( ! ,fr5* sy/em along ! ,rh9e4 ,8 selfi%ness gave a p>ticul> "* to 8 pursuit ( ^! ends1 & 7s f> z x did s7 did s = evil4 ,f9ally x l$ him into a tra9 ( action altoge!r mis*iev\s4 ,b at ea* /age ( 8 c>e]1 if we w\ld und]/& :at 8 p>ticul> ag5cy really 01 we mu/ take acc\nt ( 8 ends 9 _! full "*1 z det]m9$ by influ5ces )1 :i*1 8 passion = glory no d\bt co-op]at$1 b :i*1 did n orig9ate ) x or ) him1 & 9 "s measure repres5t$ ! /ruggle ( mank9d t[>ds p]fection4 #acj4 ,& n only mu/ we ?us correct our too ab/ract views ( ! p>ticul> ag5cy ( su* a man z ,napoleon4 ,if we w\ld und]/& ! app>5t results ( 8 action1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d h[ mu* besides 8 p>ticul> ag5cy has really gone to produce !m1 s f> z !y 7 good2 h[ mu* ( unnotic$ ef=t on ! "p ( m5 obscure because unselfi%1 h[ mu* ( sil5t process 9 ! g5]al he>t ( man4 ,napoleon 0 call$ ! 'arm$ soldi] ( revolution1' & x 0 9 t "* t he r5d]$ :at s]vice he did to m52 b ! revolution 0 n ! mak+ ( him or 8 likes4 ,caes> aga9 we h le>nt to reg>d z a b5efactor ( mank9d1 b x 0 n ,caes> t made ! ,roman law1 ?r\gh :i* *iefly or solely ! ,roman empire became a bless+4 ,! idiosyncrasy1 !n1 ( ! m5 :o h be5 mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! production ( great *anges 9 ! condition ( mank9d1 ?\gh x has be5 an ess5tial elem5t 9 _! production1 has be5 s only s f> z x has be5 ov]borne by influ5ces & direct$ to ends1 :i* 7 inde$ n ext]nal to ! m5 9 "q--:i* on ! contr>y help$ to make !m inw>dly & spiritually :at !y really 7--b :i* =m$ no "p ( _! di/+ui%+ idiosyncrasy4 ,if t idiosyncrasy 0 conspicu\sly selfi%1 x 0 /ill n ?r\gh _! selfi%ness t su* m5 contribut$ to m\ld ! in/itutions by :i* nations h be5 civilis$ & develop$1 b ?r\gh _! fitness to act z organs ( impulses & ideas :i* _h previ\sly ga9$ a hold on "s society ( m51 & = ! realisation ( :i* ! means & conditions _h be5 prep>+ q ap>t f ! action ( ^? :o became ! mo/ noticeable in/rum5ts ( _! realisation4 #aca4 ,! ass]tion1 !n1 t an idea ( social good is repres5t$ by1 or realis$ 91 ! =mation ( /ates1 is n to be met by po9t+ to ! selfi%ness & bad passions ( m5 :o h be5 in/rum5tal 9 =m+ !m1 if !re is reason to ?9k t ! influ5ces1 "u ! direction ( :i* ^! passions became ?us in/rum5tal1 are due to ! action ( su* an idea4 ,& :5 we speak ?us we d n ref] to any action ( ! idea o!rwise ?an 9 ! consci\sness ( m54 ,x may be legitimate1 z we h se51 to consid] ideas z exi/+ & act+ o!rwise1 & p]haps1 on ?9k+ ! matt] out1 we %\ld f9d ourselves compell$ to reg>d ! idea ( social good z a communication to ! human consci\sness1 a consci\sness develop+ itself 9 "t1 f an et]nally complete consci\sness4 ,b "h we are consid]+ x z a s\rce ( ! moral action ( m51 & !re=e necess>ily z hav+ its seat 9 _! consci\sness1 & ! proposition advanc$ is t su* an idea is a det]m9+ elem5t 9 ! consci\sness ( ! mo/ selfi% m5 :o h be5 in/rum5tal 9 ! =mation or ma9t5ance ( /ates2 t only ?r\gh its influ5ce 9 direct+ & controll+ _! actions c\ld !y be s in/rum5tal2 & t1 ?\gh its active pres5ce 9 _! consci\sness is due to ! in/itutions1 ! organisation ( life1 "u :i* !y are born & br$1 ! exi/5ce ( ^! in/itutions is 9 turn due to ! action1 "u o!r conditions1 ( ! same idea 9 ! m9ds ( m54 #acb4 ,x is ! necessity ( a supreme co]cive p[] to ! exi/5ce ( a /ate t gives plausibility to ! view t ! action ( m]ely selfi% passions may lead to ! =mation ( /ates4 ,!y h be5 motive causes1 x w\ld seem1 9 ! processes by :i* ?is 'imp]ium' has be5 e/abli%$2 z1 e4g41 ! acquisition ( milit>y p[] by a tribal *iefta91 ! conque/ ( "o tribe by ano!r1 ! sup]session ( ! indep5d5t pr]ogatives ( families by a tyrant :i* 0 ! antec$5t condition ( ! =mation ( /ates 9 ! anci5t _w1 ! sup]session ( feudal pr]ogatives by ! royal au?ority :i* s]v$ ! same purpose 9 mod]n ,europe4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 supreme co]cive p[]1 simply z su*1 b supreme co]cive p[] ex]cis$ 9 a c]ta9 way & = c]ta9 ends1 t makes a /ate2 viz4 ex]cis$ accord+ to law1 writt5 or cu/om>y1 & = ! ma9t5ance ( rights4 ,! ab/ract consid]ation ( sov]eignty has l$ to ^! qualifications be+ ov]look$4 ,sov]eignty supreme co]cive p[]1 inde$1 b su* p[] z ex]cis$ 9 & ov] a /ate1 :i* means ) ! qualifications specifi$2 b ! mis*ief ( beg9n+ ) an inquiry into sov]eignty be=e ! idea ( a /ate has be5 inve/igat$1 is t x leads u to adopt ?is ab/ract notion ( sov]eignty1 z m]ely supreme co]cive p[]1 & !n1 :5 we come to ?9k ( ! /ate z di/+ui%$ by sov]eignty1 makes u suppose t supreme co]cive p[] is all t is ess5tial to a /ate1 =gett+ t x is r ! /ate t makes ! sov]eign1 ?an ! sov]eign t makes ! /ate4 ,suppos+ "o man _h be5 ma/] ( all ! slaves 9 "o ( ! /ates ( ! ,am]ican ,union1 !re w\ld h be5 a multitude ( m5 "u "o supreme co]cive p[]1 b ! slaves & ! ma/] w\ld h =m$ no /ate1 because !re w\ld h be5 no recognis$ rights ( slave aga9/ slave en=c$ by ! ma/]1 nor w\ld deal+s betwe5 ma/] & slaves h be5 regulat$ by any law4 ,! fact t sov]eign p[]1 z impli$ 9 ! fact ( its supremacy1 c alt] any laws1 is apt to make u ov]look ! necessity ( con=mity to law on ! "p ( ! sov]eign1 if he is to be ! sov]eign ( a /ate4 ,a p[] t alt]$ laws o!rwise ?an accord+ to law1 accord+ to a con/itution1 writt5 or unwritt51 w\ld be incompatible ) ! exi/5ce ( a /ate1 :i* is a body ( p]sons1 recognis$ by ea* o!r z hav+ rights1 & possess+ c]ta9 in/itutions = ! ma9t5ance ( ^? rights4 ,! (fice ( ! sov]eign1 z an in/itution ( su* a society1 is to protect ^? rights f invasion1 ei!r f )\t1 f =eign nations1 or f )91 f memb]s ( ! society :o cease to behave z su*4 ,its supremacy is ! society's indep5d5ce ( su* attacks f )\t or )94 ,x is an ag5cy ( ! society1 or ! society itself act+ = ?is end4 ,if ! p[]1 exi/+ = ?is end1 is us$ on ! :ole o!rwise ?an 9 con=mity ei!r ) a =mal con/itution or ) cu/oms :i* virtually s]ve ! purpose ( a con/itution1 x is no long] an in/itution = ! ma9t5ance ( rights & ceases to be ! ag5t ( a /ate4 ,we only c\nt ,russia a /ate by a sort ( c\rtesy on ! supposition t ! p[] ( ! ,cz>1 ?\gh subject to no con/itutional control1 is s f> ex]cis$ 9 accordance ) a recognis$ tradition ( :at ! public good requires z to be on ! :ole a su/a9] ( rights4 ,x is true t1 j z 9 a /ate1 all law be+ d]iv$ f ! sov]eign1 !re is a s5se 9 :i* ! sov]eign is n b\nd by any law1 s !re is a s5se 9 :i* all rights are d]iv$ f ! sov]eign1 & no p[] :i* ! sov]eign refuses to all[ c be a "r2 b x is only 9 ! s5se t1 ! sov]eign be+ ! /ate act+ 9 a c]ta9 capacity1 & ! /ate be+ an in/itution = ! m complete & h>moni\s ma9t5ance ( ! rights ( its memb]s1 a p[]1 claim$ z a "r1 b :i* ! /ate or sov]eign refuses to all[1 _c be really compatible ) ! g5]al sy/em ( rights4 ,9 o!r words1 x is true only on ! supposition t a /ate is made a /ate by ! functions :i* x fulfils ( ma9ta9+ ! rights ( its memb]s z a :ole or a sy/em1 9 su* a way t none ga9s at ! exp5se ( ano!r 7no "o has any p[] gu>ante$ to him ?r\gh ano!r's be+ depriv$ ( t p[]74 ,?us ! /ate1 or ! sov]eign z a *>act]i/ic in/itution ( ! /ate1 does n create rights1 b gives full] reality to rights already exi/+4 ,x secures & ext5ds ! ex]cise ( p[]s1 :i* m51 influ5c$ 9 deal+ ) ea* o!r by an idea ( common good1 _h recognis$ 9 ea* o!r z be+ capable ( direction to t common good1 & _h already 9 a c]ta9 measure secur$ to ea* o!r 9 consequ5ce ( *at recognition4 ,x is n a /ate unless x does s4 #acc4 ,x may be said t ?is is an arbitr>y re/riction ( ! t]m '/ate4' ,if any o!r ^w1 inde$1 c be f\nd to express ! same ?+1 by all means let x be us$ in/ead4 ,b "s ^w is want$ = ! purpose1 because z a matt] ( fact societies ( m51 already possess+ rights1 & ^: deal+s ) ea* o!r h be5 regulat$ by cu/oms con=mable to ^? rights1 b n exi/+ 9 ! =m to :i* ! t]m '/ate' has j be5 appli$ 7i4e4 n hav+ a sy/ematic law 9 :i* ! rights recognis$ are h>monis$1 & :i* is en=c$ by a p[] /rong en\gh at once to protect a society aga9/ di/urbance )9 & aggression f )\t71 h come to take on t =m4 ,a ^w is ne$$ to express t =m ( society1 bo? accord+ to ! idea ( x :i* has be5 op]ative 9 ! m9ds ( ! memb]s ( ! societies :i* h und]gone ! *ange describ$ 7an idea only gradually tak+ %ape z ! *ange proce$$71 & accord+ to ! m explicit & di/9ct idea ( x :i* we =m 9 reflect+ on ! process4 ,! ^w '/ate' is ! "o naturally us$ = ! purpose4 ,! exact degree to :i* ! process mu/ h be5 c>ri$ be=e ! t]m '/ate' c be appli$ to ! p 9 :i* x has gone on1 _c be precisely det]m9$1 b z a matt] ( fact we nev] apply x except 9 cases :]e x has gone "s way1 & we are ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( ! /ate accord+ to its idea z ! society 9 :i* x is complet$4 #acd4 ,x is a mi/ake !n to ?9k ( ! /ate z an aggregation ( individuals "u a sov]eign2 equally s :e!r we suppose ! individuals z su*1 or ap>t f :at !y d]ive f society1 to possess natural rights1 or suppose !m to dep5d on ! sov]eign = ! possession ( rights4 ,a /ate presupposes o!r =ms ( community1 ) ! rights t arise out ( !m1 & only exi/s z su/a9+1 secur+1 & complet+ !m4 ,9 ord] to make a /ate !re mu/ h be5 families ( :i* ! memb]s recognis$ rights 9 ea* o!r 7recognis$ 9 ea* o!r p[]s capable ( direction by ref]5ce to a common good72 !re mu/ fur!r h be5 int]c\rse betwe5 families1 or betwe5 tribes t h gr[n out ( families1 ( :i* ea* 9 ! same s5se recognis$ rights 9 ! o!r4 ,! recognition ( a "r be+ v %ort ( its def9ition1 ! admission ( a "r 9 ea* o!r by two p>ties1 :e!r individuals1 families1 or tribes1 be+ v diff]5t f agreem5t z to :at ! "r consi/s 91 :at x is a "r to d or acquire1 ! rights recognis$ ne$ def9ition & reconciliation 9 a g5]al law4 ,:5 su* a g5]al law has be5 arriv$ at1 regulat+ ! position ( memb]s ( a family t[>ds ea* o!r & ! deal+s ( families or tribes ) ea* o!r2 :5 x is volunt>ily recognis$ by a community ( families or tribes1 & ma9ta9$ by a p[] /rong en\gh at once to en=ce x )9 ! community & to def5d ! integrity ( ! community aga9/ attacks f )\t1 !n ! elem5t>y /ate has be5 =m$4 #ace4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is ! beg9n+1 n ! end1 ( ! /ate4 ,:5 once x has come into be+1 new rights arise 9 x 7#a7 ?r\gh ! claim = recognition on ! "p ( families & tribes liv+ on ! same t]ritory ) ^? :i* 9 community =m ! /ate1 b liv+ at fir/ 9 "s relation ( subjection to !m4 ,a common humanity1 ( :i* language is ! expression1 necess>ily leads to ! recognition ( "s good z common to ^! families ) ^? :i* =m ! /ate4 ,?is is 9 pr9ciple ! recognition ( rights on _! "p2 & ! consequ5t embodim5t ( ?is recognition 9 ! laws ( ! /ate is _! admission z memb]s ( x4 7,in/ances ( ?is process are f\nd 9 ! /ates ( ,greece & ! e>ly hi/ory ( ,rome47 7#b7 ,! same ?+ may happ5 9 reg>d to ext]nal communities 7'ext]nal' t]ritorially71 :e!r ^! h be5 already =m$ into /ates or no4 ,x may happ5 ?r\gh ! conque/ ( "o by ano!r1 ?r\gh _! submission to a common conqu]or1 z "u ! ,roman empire1 or ?r\gh volunt>y comb9ation1 z ) ! ,swiss cantons & ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,h[ev] ! comb9ation may arise1 x results 9 new rights z betwe5 ! comb9$ communities )9 ! sy/em ( a s+le /ate4 7#c7 ,! ext5d$ int]c\rse betwe5 individuals1 :i* ! =mation ( ! /ate r5d]s possible1 leads to new complications 9 _! deal+s ) ea* o!r1 & ) x to new =ms ( "r1 especially 9 reg>d to prop]ty2 rights z f> remov$ f any obvi\s f\ndation on ! suum cuique pr9ciple z ! "r ( a college to ! great ti!s ( a p>i% = :i* x does no?+4 7#d7 ,! adm9i/ration ( ! /ate gives rise to rights1 to ! e/abli%m5t ( p[]s necess>y = its adm9i/ration4 7#e7 ,new situations ( life may arise out ( ! ext5d$ deal+s ( man ) man :i* ! /ate r5d]s possible 7e4g4 ?r\gh ! cr[d+ ( population 9 c]ta9 localities7 :i* make new modes ( protect+ ! p a matt] virtually ( "r4 ,&1 z new rights arise 9 ! /ate once =m$1 s fur!r purposes are s]v$4 ,x leads to a developm5t & moralisation ( man beyond ! /age :i* !y mu/ h rea*$ be=e x c\ld be possible4 #acf4 ,on ?is ,i %all dwell m 9 my next c\rse ( lectures4 ,:at ,i am n[ conc]n$ to po9t out is t1 h[ev] necess>y a factor =ce may h be5 9 ! process by :i* /ates h be5 =m$ & trans=m$1 x has only be5 su* a factor z co-op]at+ ) ^? ideas )\t :i* rights c\ld n exi/4 ,i say 'c\ld n exi/1' n 'c\ld n be recognis$1' because rights are made by recognition4 ,!re is no "r 'b ?9k+ makes x s'2 none t is n d]iv$ f "s idea t m5 h ab\t ea* o!r4 ,no?+ is m real ?an a "r1 yet its exi/5ce is purely ideal1 if by 'ideal' is meant t :i* is n dep5d5t on any?+ mat]ial b has its be+ solely 9 consci\sness4 ,x is to ^! ideal realities t =ce is subord9ate 9 ! creation & developm5t ( /ates4 ,! =ce ( conque/ f )\t1 ! =ce ex]cis$ )9 communities by su* ag5ts z ! e>ly ,greek tyrants or ! royal suppressors ( feudalism 9 mod]n ,europe1 has only contribut$ to ! =mation ( /ates 9 s f> z its effects h tak5 a "* :i* did n belong to !m z effects ( =ce2 a "* due to _! op]ation 9 a moral _w1 9 :i* rights already exi/$1 re/+ on ! recognition by m5 ( ea* o!r z det]m9$1 or capable ( be+ det]m9$1 by ! conception ( a common good4 ,x is n inde$ true t only a /ate c produce a /ate1 ?\gh mod]n hi/ory might seem to fav\r t notion4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! =mation ( mod]n /ates ?r\gh feudalism out ( an e>li] tribal sy/em has be5 dep5d5t on ideas d]iv$ f ! ,roman /ate1 if n on in/itutions actually h&$ d[n f x2 & ! improvem5t & developm5t ( ! /ate-sy/em :i* has tak5 place s9ce ! ,fr5* ,revolution has be5 ?r\gh ag5cies :i* all presuppose & are det]m9$ by ! previ\s exi/5ce ( /ates4 ,b ! ,greek /ates1 s f> z we "k1 7 a fir/ in/itution ( ! k9d1 n a result ( propagation f previ\sly exi/+ /ates4 ,b ! action :i* br\ght !m into be+ 0 only effectual = its purpose1 because ! idea ( "r1 ?\gh only 9 ! =m ( family or tribal "r1 0 already 9 op]ation4 ,h4 ,,has ,,! ,,citiz5 ,,rights ,,aga9/ ,,! ,,/ate8 #acg4 ,i propose to pursue ! inquiry1 begun 9 my la/ c\rse1 into ! nature & functions ( ! /ate4 ,9 ! la/ c\rse we 7 *iefly occupi$ ) criticism4 ,we h se5 t no true conception ( ! rights ( individuals aga9/ ea* o!r or aga9/ ! /ate1 or ( ! rights ( ! /ate ov] individuals1 c be arriv$ at1 :ile we look ^u ! /ate m]ely z an aggregation ( individuals "u a sov]eign p[] t is able to compel _! ob$i5ce1 & consid] ?is p[] ( compell+ a g5]al ob$i5ce to be ! *>act]i/ic ?+ 9 a /ate4 ,s long z ?is view is reta9$1 no satisfactory answ] c be giv5 to ! "q1 by :at "r ! sov]eign compels ! ob$i5ce ( individuals4 ,x c only be met ei!r by "s device = repres5t+ ! individuals z s cons5t+ to ! ex]cise ( sov]eign p[] ov] !m t x is no violation ( _! individual rights1 or by repres5t+ ! rights ( individuals z d]iv$ f ! sov]eign & ?us z hav+ no exi/5ce aga9/ x4 ,b x is obvi\sly v (t5 aga9/ ! w ( individuals t ! sov]eign p[] is ex]cis$ ov] !m2 inde$ if x 7 n s1 its *>act]i/ic z a p[] ( compulsion w\ld be lo/2 x w\ld n be a sov]eign p[]2 & ! fact t ! majority ( a giv5 multitude may cons5t to its ex]cise ov] an uncons5t+ m9ority1 is no ju/ification = its ex]cise ov] t m9ority1 if its ju/ification is f\nd$ on cons5t2 ! repres5tation t ! m9ority virtually cons5t to be b\nd by ! w ( ! majority be+ an obvi\s fiction4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! !ory t all "r is d]iv$ f a sov]eign1 t x is a p[] ( :i* ! sov]eign secures ! ex]cise to ! individual1 & t !re=e !re c be no "r aga9/ ! sov]eign1 conflicts ) ! prim>y dem&s ( human consci\sness4 ,x implies ! id5tification ( ',i ought' ) ',i am =c$ to4' ,r$uc+ ! '"r' ( ! sov]eign simply to a p[]1 x makes x un9telligible t ?is p[] %\ld yet repres5t itself z a "r1 & claim ob$i5ce to itself z su*4 ,no su* !ory inde$ admits ( consi/5t /atem5t4 ,to say 7) ,hobbes7 t a law may be inequitable or p]nici\s1 ?\gh x _c be unju/1 is to admit a criticism ( laws1 a di/9ction betwe5 ^? enactm5ts ( ! sov]eign :i* are :at !y %\ld be & ^? :i* are n4 ,& ?is is to recognise ! individual's dem& = a ju/ification ( ! laws :i* he obeys2 to admit 9 effect t !re is "s rule ( "r1 ( :i* ! individual is consci\s1 & to :i* law ought to con=m4 #ach4 ,x is equally impossible1 !n1 to hold t ! "r ( ! sov]eign p[] 9 a /ate ov] its memb]s is dep5d5t on _! cons5t1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 t ^! memb]s h no rights except su* z are con/itut$ & conf]r$ ^u !m by ! sov]eign4 ,! sov]eign1 & ! /ate itself z di/+ui%$ by ! exi/5ce ( a sov]eign p[]1 presupposes rights & is an in/itution = _! ma9t5ance4 ,b ^! rights d n belong to individuals z !y might be 9 a /ate ( nature1 or z !y might be if ea* act$ irrespectively ( ! o!rs4 ,!y belong to !m z memb]s ( a society 9 :i* ea* recognises ! o!r z an orig9ator ( action 9 ! same s5se 9 :i* he is consci\s ( be+ s himself 7z an 'ego1' z himself ! object :i* det]m9es ! action71 & ?us reg>ds ! free ex]cise ( 8 own p[]s z dep5d5t ^u 8 all[+ an equally free ex]cise ( 8 p[]s to e o!r memb] ( ! society4 ,!re is no h>m 9 say+ t !y belong to individuals z su*1 if we und]/& :at we mean by 'individual1' & if we mean by x a self-det]m9+ subject1 consci\s ( itself z "o among o!r su* subjects1 & ( its relation to !m z mak+ x :at x is2 = !n !re is no opposition betwe5 ! atta*m5t ( rights to ! individuals z su* & _! d]ivation f society4 ,!y atta* to ! individual1 b only z a memb] ( a society ( free ag5ts1 z recognis+ himself & recognis$ by o!rs to be su* a memb]1 z do+ & done by accord+ly4 ,a "r1 !n1 to act unsocially1--to act o!rwise ?an z belong+ to a society ( :i* ea* memb] keeps ! ex]cise ( 8 p[]s )9 ! limits necess>y to ! l ex]cise by all ! o!r memb]s1--is a contradiction4 ,no "o c say t1 unless he has cons5t$ to su* a limitation ( 8 p[]s1 he has a "r to resi/ x4 ,! fact ( 8 n cons5t+ w\ld be an ext9ction ( all "r on 8 "p4 #aci4 ,! /ate !n presupposes rights1 & rights ( individuals4 ,x is a =m :i* society takes 9 ord] to ma9ta9 !m4 ,b rights h no be+ except 9 a society ( m5 recognis+ ea* o!r z 4 #a ,!y are con/itut$ by t mutual recognition4 ,9 analys+ ! nature ( any "r1 we may conv5i5tly look at x on two sides1 & consid] x z on ! "o h& a claim ( ! individual1 aris+ out ( 8 rational nature1 to ! free ex]cise ( "s faculty2 on ! o!r1 z a concession ( t claim by society1 a p[] giv5 by x to ! individual ( putt+ ! claim 9 =ce4 ,b we mu/ be on our gu>d aga9/ suppos+ t ^! di/+ui%able sides h any really sep>ate exi/5ce4 ,x is only a man's consci\sness ( hav+ an object 9 common ) o!rs1 a well-be+ :i* is consci\sly 8 9 be+ !irs & !irs 9 be+ 81--only ! fact t !y are recognis$ by him & he by !m z hav+ ?is object1--t gives him ! claim describ$4 ,!re c be no reciprocal claim on ! "p ( a man & an animal ea* to ex]cise 8 p[]s unimp$$ by ! o!r1 because !re is no consci\sness common to !m4 ,b a claim f\nd$ on su* a common consci\sness is already a claim conc$$2 already a claim to :i* reality is giv5 by social recognition1 & ?us implicitly a "r4 #a ,greek 7isoi kai homoioi7 equals & alike1 plural ,tr #adj4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se t a slave has 'natural rights' ,!y are 'natural' 9 ! s5se ( be+ indep5d5t (1 & 9 conflict )1 ! laws ( ! /ate 9 :i* he lives1 b !y are n indep5d5t ( social relations4 ,!y arise out ( ! fact t !re is a consci\sness ( objects common to ! slave ) ^? among :om he lives1--:e!r o!r slaves or ! family ( 8 own]1--& t ?is consci\sness con/itutes at once a claim on ! "p ( ea* ( ^? :o %>e x to ex]cise a free activity conditionally ^u 8 all[+ a l activity 9 ! o!rs1 & a recognition ( ?is claim by ! o!rs ?r\gh :i* x is realis$4 ,! slave ?us d]ives f 8 social relations a real "r :i* ! law ( ! /ate refuses to admit4 ,! law _c prev5t him f act+ & be+ treat$1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 z a memb] ( a society ( p]sons freely seek+ a common good4 ,n[ t capability ( liv+ 9 a c]ta9 limit$ community ) a c]ta9 limit$ numb] ( human be+s1 :i* ! slave _c be prev5t$ f exhibit+1 is 9 pr9ciple a capability ( liv+ 9 community ) any o!r human be+s1 suppos+ ! necess>y tra9+ to be all[$2 & z e su* capability con/itutes a "r1 we are entitl$ to say t ! slave has a "r to citiz5%ip1 to a recognis$ equality ( fre$om ) any & e "o ) :om he has to d1 & t 9 refus+ him n only citiz5%ip b ! means ( tra9+ 8 capability ( citiz5%ip1 ! /ate is violat+ a "r f\nd$ on t common human consci\sness :i* is ev9c$ bo? by ! language :i* ! slave speaks1 & by actual social relations subsi/+ betwe5 him & o!rs4 ,& on ! same pr9ciple ^u :i* a /ate is violat+ natural rights 9 ma9ta9+ slav]y1 x does ! same 9 us+ =ce1 except "u ! necessity ( self-def5ce1 aga9/ memb]s ( ano!r community4 ,memb]%ip ( any community is s f>1 9 pr9ciple1 memb]%ip ( all communities z to con/itute a "r to be treat$ z a freeman by all o!r m51 to be exempt f subjection to =ce except = prev5tion ( =ce4 #ada4 ,a man may ?us h rights z a memb] ( a family or ( human society 9 any o!r =m1 )\t be+ a memb] ( a /ate at all1--rights :i* rema9 rights ?\gh any p>ticul> /ate or all /ates refuse to recognise !m2 & a memb] ( a /ate1 on ! gr\nd ( t capability ( liv+ z a freeman among freem5 :i* is impli$ 9 8 be+ a memb] ( a /ate1 has rights z aga9/ all o!r /ates & _! memb]s4 ,^! latt] rights are 9 fact dur+ peace recognis$ by all civilis$ /ates4 ,x is ! object ( 'private int]national law' to r$uce !m to a sy/em4 ,b ?\gh x foll[s f ?is t ! /ate does n create rights1 x may be /ill true to say t ! memb]s ( a /ate d]ive _! rights f ! /ate & h no rights aga9/ x4 ,we h already se5 t a "r aga9/ society1 z su*1 is an impossibility2 t e "r is d]iv$ f "s social relation3 t a "r aga9/ any gr\p ( associat$ m5 dep5ds on association1 z #a1 ) !m & ) "s o!r m54 ,n[ = ! memb] ( a /ate to say t 8 rights are d]iv$ f 8 social relations1 & to say t !y are d]iv$ f 8 position z memb] ( a /ate1 are ! same ?+4 ,! /ate is = him ! complex ( ^? social relations out ( :i* rights arise1 s f> z ^? rights h come to be regulat$ & h>monis$ accord+ to a g5]al law1 :i* is recognis$ by a c]ta9 multitude ( p]sons1 & :i* !re is suffici5t p[] to secure aga9/ violation f )\t & f )94 ,! o!r =ms ( community :i* prec$e & are indep5d5t ( ! =mation ( ! /ate1 d n cont9ue to exi/ outside x1 nor yet are !y sup]s$$ by x4 ,!y are c>ri$ on into x4 ,!y become its organic memb]s1 support+ its life & 9 turn ma9ta9$ by x 9 a new h>mony ) ea* o!r4 ,?us ! citiz5's rights1 e4g4 z a husb& or head ( a family or a hold] ( prop]ty1 ?\gh su* rights1 aris+ out ( o!r social relations ?an t ( citiz5 to citiz51 exi/$ :5 z yet !re 0 no /ate1 are yet to ! citiz5 d]iv$ f ! /ate1 f t m highly develop$ =m ( society 9 :i* ! association ( ! family & t ( possessors :o respect ea* o!r's possessions are includ$ z 9 a full] :ole2 :i* secures to ! citiz5 8 family rights & 8 rights z a hold] ( prop]ty1 b "u conditions & limitations :i* ! memb]%ip ( ! full] :ole--! reconciliation ( rights aris+ out ( "o sort ( social capability ) ^? aris+ out ( ano!r--r5d]s necess>y4 ,nor c ! citiz5 h any "r aga9/ ! /ate1 9 ! s5se ( a "r to act o!rwise ?an z a memb] ( "s society1 ! /ate be+ = its memb]s ! society ( societies1 ! society 9 :i* all _! claims ^u ea* o!r are mutually adju/$4 #a ,greek 7isos kai homoios7 equal & alike1 s+ul> ,tr4 #adb4 ,b :at exactly is meant by ! citiz5's act+ 'z a memb] ( 8 /ate'8 ,:at does ! ass]tion t he c h no "r to act o!rwise ?an z a memb] ( 8 /ate am\nt to8 ,does x mean t he has no "r to disobey ! law ( ! /ate to :i* he belongs1 :atev] t law may be8 t he is n entitl$ to ex]cise 8 p[] 9 any way t ! law =bids & to refuse to ex]cise !m 9 any way t x comm&s8 ,?is "q 0 virtually dealt ) be=e #a 9 consid]+ ! ju/ifiability ( resi/ance to an o/5sible sov]eign4 ,! only unqualifi$ answ] t c be giv5 to x is "o t may seem too g5]al to be ( mu* practical use1 viz4 t s f> z ! laws any:]e or at any "t 9 =ce fulfil ! idea ( a /ate1 !re c be no "r to disobey !m2 or1 t !re c be no "r to disobey ! law ( ! /ate except 9 ! int]e/ ( ! /ate2 i4e4 = ! purpose ( mak+ ! /ate 9 respect ( its actual laws m completely correspond to :at x is 9 t5d5cy or idea1 viz4 ! reconcil] & su/a9] ( ! rights t arise out ( ! social relations ( m54 ,on ?is pr9ciple !re c be no "r to disobey or evade any p>ticul> law on ! gr\nd t x int]f]es ) any fre$om ( action1 any "r ( manag+ 8 *ildr5 or 'do+ :at he w ) 8 own1' :i* b = t law ! individual w\ld possess4 ,any p[] :i* has be5 all[$ to ! individual up to a c]ta9 "t1 he is apt to reg>d z p]man5tly 8 "r4 ,x has1 inde$1 be5 s f> 8 "r1 if ! ex]cise ( t p[] has be5 all[$ ) any ref]5ce to social good1 b x does n1 z he is apt to ?9k1 rema9 8 "r :5 a law has be5 enact$ t int]f]es ) x4 ,a man e4g4 has be5 all[$ to drive at any pace he likes ?r\gh ! /reets1 to build h\ses )\t any ref]5ce to sanit>y conditions1 to keep 8 *ildr5 at home or s5d !m to "w 'analphabetic1' to buy or sell alcoholic dr9ks at 8 pleasure4 ,if laws are pass$ int]f]+ ) any or all ( ^! p[]s1 he says t 8 rights are be+ violat$4 ,b he only possess$ ^! p[]s z rights ?r\gh memb]%ip ( a society :i* secur$ !m to him1 & ( :i* ! only p]man5t bond consi/s 9 ! ref]5ce to ! well-be+ ( its memb]s z a :ole4 ,x has be5 ! social recognition gr\nd$ on t ref]5ce t has r5d]$ c]ta9 ( 8 p[]s rights4 ,if ^u new conditions aris+1 or ^u elem5ts ( social good be+ tak5 acc\nt ( :i* _h be5 ov]look$ be=e1 or ^u p]sons be+ tak5 into ! reckon+ z capable ( p>ticipation 9 ! social well-be+ :o _h previ\sly be5 treat$ m]ely z means to its atta9m5t1--if 9 any ( ^! ways or o!rwise ! ref]5ce to social well-be+ sugge/ ! necessity ( "s fur!r regulation ( ! individual's lib]ty to d z he pleases1 he c plead no "r aga9/ ?is regulation1 = e "r t he has possess$ has be5 dep5d5t on t social judgm5t ( its compatibility ) g5]al well-be+ :i* 9 respect to ! lib]ties 9 "q is n[ rev]s$4 #a ,above1 sections #ajj1 #aja4 ,,rln #adc4 ',is !n1' x may be ask$1 '! g5]al judgm5t z to ! requirem5ts ( social well-be+ s absolutely au?oritative t no individual "r c exi/ aga9/ x8 ,:at if accord+ to ?is judgm5t ! in/itution ( slav]y is s necess>y t citiz5s are prohibit$ by law f tea*+ slaves to read & f h>b\r+ runaways8 or if accord+ to x ! ma9t5ance ( a c]ta9 =m ( wor%ip is s necess>y t no o!r wor%ip c be all[$ & no op9ion express$ antagoni/ic to x8 ,has ! individual no rights aga9/ enactm5ts f\nd$ on su* accept$ views ( social well-be+8' ,we may answ]3 ,a "r aga9/ society z su*1 a "r to act )\t ref]5ce to ! ne$s or good ( society1 is an impossibility1 s9ce e "r dep5ds on "s social relation1 & a "r aga9/ any gr\p ( associat$ m5 dep5ds ^u association on "s foot+ ( equality ) !m or ) "s o!r m54 ,we saw h[ ! "r ( ! slave really re/$ on ?is basis1 on a social capacity %[n 9 ! foot+ on :i* he actually lives ) o!r m54 ,on ?is pr9ciple x w\ld foll[1 if we reg>d ! /ate z ! su/a9] & h>monis] ( social relations1 t ! individual c h no "r aga9/ ! /ate2 t its law mu/ be to him ( absolute au?ority4 ,b 9 fact1 z actual /ates at be/ fulfil b p>tially _! ideal function1 we _c apply ?is rule to practice4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple t ! citiz5 mu/ nev] act o!rwise ?an z a citiz51 does n c>ry ) x an obligation "u all conditions to con=m to ! law ( 8 /ate1 s9ce ^? laws may be inconsi/5t ) ! true end ( ! /ate z ! su/a9] & h>monis] ( social relations4 ,! ass]tion1 h[ev]1 by ! citiz5 ( any "r :i* ! /ate does n recognise mu/ be f\nd$ on a ref]5ce to an ackn[l$g$ social good4 ,! fact t ! individual w\ld l to ex]cise ! p[] claim$ z a "r does n r5d] ! ex]cise ( x a "r1 nor does ! fact t he has be5 hi!rto all[$ to ex]cise x r5d] x a "r1 if social requirem5ts h aris5 "u *ang$ conditions1 or h newly come to be recognis$1 ) :i* its ex]cise is incompatible4 ,! reason t ! ass]tion ( an illegal "r mu/ be f\nd$ on ref]5ce to ackn[l$g$ social good is t1 z we h se51 no ex]cise ( a p[]1 h[ev] ab/ract$ly desirable = ! promotion ( human good x might be1 c be claim$ z a "r unless !re is "s common consci\sness ( utility %>$ by ! p]son mak+ ! claim & ^? on :om x is made4 ,x is n a "q :e!r or no x ought to be claim$ z a "r2 x simply _c be claim$ except on ?is condition4 ,x w\ld h be5 impossible1 e4g41 9 an anci5t /ate1 :]e ! symbol ( social union 0 "s local wor%ip1 = a mono!i/ic re=m] to claim a "r to attempt ! subv]sion ( t wor%ip4 ,if a duty to d s _h sugge/$ itself1 consci\sness ( ! duty c\ld nev] h express$ itself 9 ! =m ( a claim ( "r1 9 ! abs5ce ( any possible s5se ( a public int]e/ 9 ! religi\s revolution to :i* ! claim c\ld be address$4 ,?us1 j z x is n ! ex]cise ( e p[]1 prop]ly claimable z a "r1 t is a "r 9 ! full or explicit s5se ( be+ legally e/abli%$1 s x is n e p[]1 ( :i* ! ex]cise w\ld be desirable 9 an ideal /ate ( ?+s1 t is prop]ly claimable z a "r4 ,! condition ( its be+ s claimable is t its ex]cise %\ld be contributory to "s social good :i* ! public consci5ce is capable ( appreciat+1 n necess>ily "o :i* 9 ! exi/+ preval5ce ( private int]e/s c obta9 due ackn[l$gm5t1 b /ill "o ( :i* m5 9 _! actions & language %[ !mselves to be aw>e4 #add4 ,?us to ! "q1 ,has ! individual no rights aga9/ enactm5ts f\nd$ on imp]fect views ( social well-be+8 we may answ]1 ,he has no rights aga9/ !m f\nd$ on any "r to d z he likes4 ,:atev] c\nt]-rights he has mu/ be f\nd$ on a relation to ! social well-be+1 & t a relation ( :i* 8 fell[ -citiz5s are aw>e4 ,he mu/ be able to po9t to "s public int]e/1 g5]ally recognis$ z su*1 :i* is involv$ 9 ! ex]cise ( ! p[] claim$ by him z a "r2 to %[ t x is n ! g5]al well-be+1 ev5 z conceiv$ by 8 fell[-citiz5s1 b "s special int]e/ ( a class t is conc]n$ 9 prev5t+ ! ex]cise ( ! p[] claim$4 ,9 reg>d to ! "r ( tea*+ or h>b\r+ ! slave1 he mu/ appeal to ! actual capacity ( ! slave = community ) o!r m5 z ev9c$ 9 ! mann] describ$ above1 to ! recognition ( ?is capacity z %[n by ! actual behavi\r ( ! citiz5s 9 _m respects t[>ds ! slave1 to ! addition to social well-be+ t results f ! realisation ( ?is capacity 9 all :o possess x ?r\gh rights be+ legally gu>ante$ to !m4 ,9 ?is way he mu/ %[ t ! ref]5ce to social well-be+1 on :i* is f\nd$ ! recognition ( p[]s z rights1 if fairly & ?or\ghly c>ri$ out1 leads to ! ex]cise ( p[]s 9 fav\r ( ! slave1 9 ! mann] describ$1 n to ! prohibition ( t ex]cise z ! suppos$ law prohibits x4 ,! response :i* 9 do+ s he elicits f ! consci5ce ( fell[-citiz5s %[s t 9 talk+ ( ! slave z 'a man & a bro!r1' he is ex]cis+ :at is implicitly 8 "r1 ?\gh x is a "r :i* has n become explicit ?r\gh legal enactm5ts4 ,?is response supplies ! factor ( social recognition :i*1 z we h se51 is necess>y 9 ord] to r5d] ! ex]cise ( any p[] a "r4 ,to h an implicit "r1 h[ev]1 to ex]cise a p[] :i* ! law disall[s is n ! same ?+ z hav+ a "r to ex]cise t "r4 ,! "r may be claim$ )\t ! p[] be+ actually ex]cis$ s long z ! law prohibits its ex]cise4 ,! "q1 !re=e1 w\ld arise :e!r ! citiz5 0 do+ 8 duty z su*--act+ z a memb] ( ! /ate--if he n m]ely did :at he c\ld = ! repeal ( ! law prohibit+ ! in/ruction ( a slave or ! assi/ance ( runaways1 b himself 9 defiance ( ! law in/ruct$ & assi/$ !m4 ,z a g5]al rule1 no d\bt1 ev5 bad laws1 laws repres5t+ ! int]e/s ( classes or individuals z oppos$ to ^? ( ! community1 %\ld be obey$4 ,!re c be no "r to disobey !m1 ev5 :ile _! repeal is urg$ on ! gr\nd t !y violate rights1 because ! public int]e/1 on :i* all rights are f\nd$1 is m conc]n$ 9 ! g5]al ob$i5ce to law ?an 9 ! ex]cise ( ^? p[]s by individuals or classes :i* ! objectionable laws unfairly )hold4 ,! ma9t5ance ( a duty prohibit+ ! import ( c]ta9 articles 9 ! int]e/ ( c]ta9 manufactur]s w\ld be no ju/ification = smuggl+ ^! articles4 ,! smuggl] acts = 8 private ga91 z does ! man :o buys ( him2 & no violation ( ! law = ! private ga9 ( ! violator1 h[ev] unfair ! law violat$1 c ju/ify itself by ref]5ce to a recognis$ public good1 or consequ5tly be v9dicat$ z a "r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re may be cases 9 :i* ! public int]e/--n m]ely accord+ to "s remote philosoph]'s view ( x1 b accord+ to conceptions :i* ! p are able to assimilate--is be/ s]v$ by a violation ( "s actual law4 ,x is s 9 reg>d to slav]y :5 ! public consci5ce has come to recognise a capacity = "r 7= ex]cis+ p[]s "u ! control ( a ref]5ce to g5]al well-be+7 9 a body ( m5 to :om legal rights h hi!rto be5 refus$1 b :5 "s p[]ful class 9 its own int]e/ resi/s ! alt]ation ( ! law4 ,9 su* a case ! violation ( ! law on behalf ( ! slave is n only n a violation 9 ! int]e/ ( ! violator2 ! g5]al s5se ( "r on :i* ! g5]al obs]vance ( law dep5ds be+ repres5t$ by x1 !re is no dang] ( its mak+ a brea* 9 ! law-abid+ habits ( ! p4 #ade4 ',b ?is1' x w be said1 'is to assume a condition ( ?+s 9 :i* ! real difficulty ( ! "q disappe>s4 ,:at is to be done :5 no recognition ( ! implicit rights ( ! slave c be elicit$ f ! public consci5ce2 :5 ! legal prohibitions describ$ are support$ by ! only conceptions ( g5]al good ( :i* ! body ( citiz5s is capable8 ,has ! citiz5 /ill a "r to disreg>d ^! legal prohibitions8 ,is ! ass]tion ( su* a "r compatible ) ! doctr9e t social recognition ( any mode ( action z contributory to ! common good is necess>y to con/itute a "r s to act1 & t no memb] ( a /ate c h a "r to act o!rwise ?an accord+ to t position8' ,! "q1 be x obs]v$1 is n z to ! "r ( ! slave1 b z to ! "r ( ! citiz5 to treat ! slave z hav+ rights 9 a /ate ( :i* ! law =bids 8 be+ s treat$4 ,! claim ( ! slave to be free1 8 "r implicit to h rights explicit1 i4e4 to memb]%ip ( a society ( :i* ea* memb] is treat$ by ! re/ z entitl$ to seek 8 own good 9 8 own way1 on ! supposition t he s seeks x z n to int]f]e ) ! l fre$om ( que/ on ! "p ( o!rs1 re/s1 z we h se51 on ! fact t ! slave is det]m9$ by conceptions ( a good common to himself ) o!rs1 z %[n by ! actual social relations 9 :i* he lives4 ,no /ate-law c neutralise ?is "r4 ,! /ate may refuse him family rights & rights ( prop]ty1 b x _c help 8 liv+ z a memb] ( a family1 act+ & be+ treat$ z a fa!r1 husb&1 son1 or bro!r1 & !re=e _c ext+ui% ! rights :i* are necess>ily involv$ 9 8 s act+ & be+ s treat$4 ,nor c x prev5t him f appropriat+ ?+s & f associat+ ) o!rs on ! und]/&+ t !y respect ea* o!r's appropriations1 & ?us possess+ & ex]cis+ rights ( prop]ty4 ,he has ?us rights :i* ! /ate nei!r gives nor c take away1 & !y am\nt to or con/itute a "r to fre$om 9 ! s5se expla9$4 ,! /ate1 "u :i* ! slave is a slave1 refus+ to recognise ?is "r1 he is n limit$ 9 its ex]cise by memb]%ip ( ! /ate4 ,he has a "r to ass]t 8 "r to su* memb]%ip 9 any way compatible ) t susceptibility to ! claims ( human fell[%ip on :i* ! "r re/s4 ,o!r m5 h claims ^u him1 condition+ 8 rights1 b ! /ate1 z su*1 :i* refuses to recognise 8 rights1 has no claim on him4 ,! obligation to obs]ve ! law1 because x is ! law1 does n exi/ = him4 #adf4 ,x is o!rwise ) ! citiz54 ,! slave has a claim ^u him to be treat$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 ! claim :i* is prop]ly describ$ z t ( a common humanity4 ,b ! /ate :i* =bids him s to treat ! slave has also a claim ^u him1 a claim :i* embodies _m ( ! claims t arise out ( a common humanity 9 a =m t reconciles !m ) ea* o!r4 ,n[ x may be argu$ t ! claim ( ! /ate is only absolutely p>am\nt on ! supposition t 9 its comm&s & prohibitions x takes acc\nt ( all ! claims t arise out ( human fell[%ip2 t its au?ority ov] ! individual is 9 pr9ciple ! au?ority ( ^? claims1 tak5 z a :ole2 t if1 z 9 ! case suppos$1 its ord9ances conflict ) ^? claims z possess$ by a c]ta9 class ( p]sons1 _! au?ority1 :i* is ess5tially a conditional or d]iv$ au?ority1 disappe>s2 t a disreg>d ( !m 9 ! int]e/ ( ! claims :i* !y disreg>d is really con=mity to ! requirem5ts ( ! /ate accord+ to its true end or idea1 s9ce x int]f]es ) none ( ! claims or int]e/s :i* ! /ate has its value 9 ma9ta9+ or protect+1 b1 on ! contr>y1 =ces on ! att5tion ( memb]s ( ! /ate claims :i* !y hi!rto disreg>d$2 & t if ! consci5ce ( ! citiz5s is s f> ma/]$ by ! special private int]e/s :i* ! in/itution ( slav]y bre$s t x _c be br\ght to recognise action on ! slave's behalf z contributory to a common good1 yet !re is no gr\nd "u su* conditions = consid]+ a man's fell[-citiz5s to be ! sole organs ( ! recognition :i* is ne$$ to r5d] 8 p[] ( action a "r2 t ! ne$ful recognition is at any rate =?com+ f ! slave1 & f all ^? acqua9t$ ) ! action 9 :om ! idea ( a good common to ea* man ) o!rs op]ates freely4 #adg4 ,?is may be truly urg$1 b x does n !re=e foll[ t ! duty ( befri5d+ ! slave is necess>ily p>am\nt to ! duty ( obey+ ! law :i* =bids 8 be+ befri5d$3 & if x is possible = ! latt] duty to be p>am\nt1 x w foll[1 on ! pr9ciple t !re is no "r to violate a duty1 t "u c]ta9 conditions ! "r ( help+ ! slave may be cancell$ by ! duty ( obey+ ! prohibitory law4 ,x w\ld be s if ! violation ( law 9 ! int]e/ ( ! slave 7 liable to result 9 g5]al an>*y1 n m]ely 9 ! s5se ( ! dissolution ( ?is or t =m ( civil comb9ation1 b ( ! disappe>ance ( ! conditions "u :i* any civil comb9ation is possible2 = su* a de/ruction ( ! /ate w\ld mean a g5]al loss ( fre$om1 a g5]al sub/itution ( =ce = mutual good-w 9 m5's deal+s ) ea* o!r1 t w\ld outweigh ! evil ( any slav]y "u su* limitations & regulations z an organis$ /ate imposes on x4 ,i4 ,,private ,,rights4 ,,! ,,"r ,,to ,,life ,,& ,,lib]ty4 #adh4 ,return+ f ?is digression1 we resume our consid]ation ( ! nature & functions ( ! /ate4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ?is nature1 we mu/ und]/& ! nature ( ^? rights :i* d n come into be+ ) ! /ate1 b arise out ( social relations t may exi/ :]e a /ate is n2 x be+ ! fir/ ?\gh n ! only (fice ( ! /ate to ma9ta9 ^? rights4 ,!y dep5d = _! exi/5ce1 inde$1 on society1 a society ( m5 :o recognise ea* o!r z 1 z capable ( a common well-be+1 b n on society's hav+ assum$ ! =m ( a /ate4 ,!y may !re=e be treat$ z claims ( ! individual )\t ref]5ce to ! =m ( ! society :i* conc$es or recognises !m1 & on ^: recognition1 z we h se51 _! nature z rights dep5ds4 ,only x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! =m 9 :i* ^! claims are admitt$ & act$ on by m5 9 _! deal+s ) ea* o!r v>ies ) ! =m ( society2 t ! actual =m1 e4g41 9 :i* ! individual's "r ( prop]ty is admitt$ "u a patri>*al rgime is v diff]5t f t 9 :i* x is admitt$ 9 a /ate2 & t ?\gh ! pr9ciple ( ea* "r is ?r\gh\t ! same1 x is a pr9ciple :i* only comes to be fully recognis$ & act$ on :5 ! /ate has n only be5 =m$1 b fully develop$ accord+ to its idea4 #adi4 ,! rights :i* may be treat$ z indep5d5t ( ! /ate 9 ! s5se expla9$ are ( c\rse ^? :i* are commonly di/+ui%$ z private1 9 opposition to public rights4 ',if rights be analys$1 !y w be f\nd to consi/ ( sev]al k9ds4 ,=1 fir/1 !y are su* z reg>d a man's own p]son2 secondly1 su* z reg>d 8 dom9ion ov] ! ext]nal & s5sible ?+s by :i* he is surr\nd$2 ?irdly1 su* z reg>d 8 private relations z a memb] ( a family2 f\r?ly1 su* z reg>d 8 social /ate or condition z a memb] ( ! community3 ! fir/ ( :i* classes may be designat$ z p]sonal rights2 ! second1 z rights ( prop]ty2 ! ?ird1 z rights 9 private relations2 & ! f\r?1 z public rights4' 7,/eph51 ,comm41 ,i1 p4 #acf47 #aej4 ,an objection might fairly be made to di/+ui%+ "o class ( rights z 'p]sonal1' on ! gr\nd t all rights are s2 n m]ely 9 ! legal s5se ( 'p]son' accord+ to :i* ! proposition is a truism1 s9ce e "r implies a p]son z its subject1 b 9 ! moral s5se1 s9ce all rights dep5d on t capacity 9 ! individual = be+ det]m9$ by a conception ( well-be+1 z an object at once = himself & = o!rs1 :i* con/itutes p]sonality 9 ! moral s5se4 ,by p]sonal rights 9 ! above classification are meant rights ( life & lib]ty1 i4e4 ( pres]v+ "o's body f ! viol5ce ( o!r m51 & ( us+ x z an in/rum5t only ( "o's own w2 if ( ano!r's1 /ill only ?r\gh "o's own4 ,! reason :y ^! come to be spok5 ( z 'p]sonal' is probably ! same ) ! reason :y we talk ( a man's 'p]son' 9 ! s5se simply ( 8 body4 ,!y may1 h[ev]1 be reckon$ 9 a special s5se p]sonal ev5 by ^? :o consid] all rights p]sonal1 because ! p]son's possession ( a body & its exclusive det]m9ation by 8 own w is ! condition ( 8 ex]cis+ any o!r rights1--inde$1 ( all manife/ation ( p]sonality4 ,prev5t a man f possess+ prop]ty 79 ! ord9>y s5se71 & 8 p]sonality may /ill rema94 ,prev5t him 7if x 7 possible7 f us+ 8 body to express a w1 & ! w itself c\ld n become a reality2 he w\ld n be really a p]son4 #aea4 ,if !re are su* ?+s z rights at all1 !n1 !re mu/ be a "r to life & lib]ty1 or1 to put x m prop]ly1 to free life4 ,no di/9ction c be made betwe5 ! "r to life & ! "r to lib]ty1 = !re c be no "r to m]e life1 no "r to life on ! "p ( a be+ t has n also ! "r to use ! life accord+ to ! motions ( its own w4 ,:at is ! f\ndation ( ?is "r8 ,! answ] is1 capacity on ! "p ( ! subject = memb]%ip ( a society1 = det]m9ation ( ! w1 & ?r\gh x ( ! bodily organisation1 by ! conception ( a well-be+ z common to self ) o!rs4 ,?is capacity is ! f\ndation ( ! "r1 or ! "r pot5tially1 :i* becomes actual ?r\gh ! recognition ( ! capacity by a society1 & ?r\gh ! p[] :i* ! society 9 consequ5ce secures to ! individual ( act+ accord+ to ! capacity4 ,9 pr9ciple1 or intr9sically1 or 9 respect ( t :i* x has x 9 itself to become1 ! "r is "o t belongs to e man 9 virtue ( 8 human nature 7( ! qualities t r5d] him capable ( any fell[%ip ) any o!r m571 & is a "r z betwe5 him & any o!r m52 because1 z we h se51 ! qualities :i* enable him to act z a memb] ( any "o society hav+ ! g5]al well-be+ ( its memb]s = its object 7z di/9ct f any special object requir+ special tal5t = its accompli%m5t7 =m a capacity = memb]%ip ( any o!r su* society2 b actually1 or z recognis$1 x only gradually becomes a "r ( a man1 z man1 & aga9/ all m54 #aeb4 ,at fir/ x is only a "r ( ! man z a memb] ( "s "o p>ticul> society1 & a "r z betwe5 him & ! o!r memb]s ( t society1 ! society be+ naturally a family or tribe4 ,!n1 z sev]al su* societies come to recognise1 9 "s limit$ way1 a common well-be+1 & ?us to associate on settl$ t]ms1 x comes to be a "r n m]ely betwe5 ! memb]s ( any "o ( ! societies1 b betwe5 memb]s ( ! sev]al families or tribes 9 _! deal+s ) ea* o!r1 n1 h[ev]1 z m51 b only z belong+ to ?is or t p>ticul> family4 ,?is is ! /ate ( ?+s 9 :i*1 if "o man is damag$ or kill$1 comp5sation is made accord+ to ! t]ms ( "s cu/om>y law by ! family or tribe ( ! (f5d] to t ( ! man damag$ or kill$1 ! comp5sation v>y+ accord+ to ! rank ( ! family4 ,^u ?is sy/em1 g5]ally ?r\gh "s fusion ( family dem>cations & privileges1 :e!r ?r\gh pressure upw>d ( a population hi!rto inf]ior1 or ?r\gh a levell+ effect$ by "s ext]nal p[]1 !re sup]v5es "o 9 :i* ! relation betwe5 citiz5 & citiz51 z su*1 is sub/itut$ = t betwe5 family & family z su*4 ,?is sub/itution is "o ( ! ess5tial processes 9 ! =mation ( ! /ate4 ,x is compatible1 h[ev]1 ) ! close/ limitation ( ! privileges ( citiz5%ip1 & implies no ackn[l$gm5t 9 man z man ( ! "r to free life ascrib$ to ! citiz5 z citiz54 ,9 ! anci5t _w ! companion ( citiz5%ip is ev]y:]e slav]y1 & x 0 only actual citiz5%ip1 n any su* capacity = becom+ a citiz5 z might naturally be held to be impli$ 9 civil bir?1 t 0 consid]$ to give a "r to live2 = ! exposure ( *ildr5 0 ev]y:]e practis$ #a 7& ) ! approval ( ! philosoph]s71 a practice 9 /rong contra/ ) ! pr9ciple ( mod]n law t ev5 a *ild 9 ! womb has a "r to live4 #a ,tacitus speaks ( x z a peculi>ity ( ! ,jews & ,g]mans t !y did n all[ ! kill+ ( y\ng] *ildr5 7,hi/41 ,v1 #e2 ,g]m4 #ai74 ,ari/otle 7,pol4 #acce1 b1 #ai7 enjo9s t %all be br\ght up1 b seems to condemn exposure1 pref]r+ t ! requir$ limit ( population %\ld be pres]v$ by de/ruction ( ! embryo1 on ! pr9ciple t ,plato's rule is ! same z reg>ds ! defective *ildr5 & ! procur+ abortion1 b he leaves x 9 ! d>k :e!r he meant any heal?y *ildr51 actually born1 to be put out ( ! way 7,rep4 #dfj ,c4 & #dfa ,c474 ,greek 7m$5 pep]om5on7 no de=m$ *ild1 7to hosion kai to me diorism5on te ai/hesei kai to z5 e/ai7 :at may lawfully be done 9 su* cases ( *ildr5 n de=m$ dep5ds on ! "q ( s5sation & life ,tr #aec4 ,! influ5ces commonly po9t$ out z in/rum5tal 9 br++ ab\t ! recognition ( rights 9 ! man1 z indep5d5t ( p>ticul> citiz5%ip1 are ^!3 7#a7 ,! adjudication by ,roman praetors ( que/ions at issue betwe5 citiz5s & ^? :o 7 n s1 :i* l$ to ! =mation ( ! sy/em ( 'equity1' indep5d5t ( ! old civil law & t5d+ gradually to be sub/itut$ = x4 ,! exi/5ce ( su* a sy/em1 h[ev]1 presupposes ! recognition ( rights s f> indep5d5t ( citiz5%ip 9 a p>ticul> /ate z to obta9 betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t /ates4 7#b7 ,! doctr9e ( a 'law ( nature' applicable to deal+s ( all m51 popul>is$ by ! ,/oics4 7#c7 ,! ,*ri/ian conception ( ! univ]sal r$emption ( a bro!rhood1 ( :i* all c\ld become memb]s ?r\gh a m5tal act )9 ! p[] ( all4 #aed4 ,! admission ( a "r to free life on ! "p ( e man1 z man1 does 9 fact logically imply ! conception ( all m5 z =m+ "o society 9 :i* ea* individual has "s s]vice to r5d]1 "o organism 9 :i* ea* has a function to fulfil4 ,!re c be no claim on society su* z con/itutes a "r1 except 9 respect ( a capacity freely 7i4e4 "u det]m9ation by conception ( ! good7 to contribute to its good4 ,if ! claim is made on behalf ( any & e human be+1 x mu/ be a claim on human society z a :ole1 & !re mu/ be a possible common good ( human society z a :ole1 conceivable z indep5d5t ( ! special conditions ( p>ticul> societies1 to r5d] su* a claim possible4 ,we (t5 f9d1 h[ev]1 t m5 assimilate a practical idea 9 respect ( "o ( its implications )\t do+ s 9 respect ( ! re/4 ,?us ! idea ( ! individual's "r to free life has be5 /rongly laid hold ( 9 ,*ri/5dom 9 :at may be call$ an ab/ract or negative way1 b little notice has be5 tak5 ( :at x involves4 ,slav]y is ev]y:]e condemn$4 ,x is e/abli%$ t no "o has a "r to prev5t ! individual f det]m9+ ! conditions ( 8 own life4 ,we treat life z sacr$ ev5 9 ! human embryo1 & ev5 9 hopeless idiots & lunatics recognise a "r to live1 a recognition :i* c only be rationally expla9$ on ei!r or bo? ( two gr\nds3 7#a7 t we d n consid] ei!r _! lives1 or ! society :i* a man may freely s]ve1 to be limit$ to ?is e>?1 & ?us ascribe to !m a "r to live on ! /r5g? ( a social capacity :i* "u o!r conditions may become :at x is n "h2 or 7#b7 t ! di/9ction betwe5 curable & incurable1 betwe5 complete & incomplete1 social incapacity is s indef9ite t we _c 9 any case safely assume x to be su* z to ext+ui% ! "r to live4 ,or p]haps x may be argu$ t ev5 9 cases :]e ! incapacity is asc]ta9ably incurable1 ! pati5t has /ill a social function 7z und\bt$ly ^? :o are incurably ill 9 o!r ways h71 a passive function z ! object ( affectionate m9i/rations aris+ out ( family in/9cts & memories2 & t ! "r to h life protect$ corresponds to ?is passive social function4 ,! fact1 h[ev]1 t we h almo/ to ca/ ab\t 9 c]ta9 cases = an explanation ( ! e/abli%$ belief 9 ! sacr$ness ( human life1 %[s h[ deeply root$ t belief is unless :]e "s c\nt]-belief int]f]es ) x4 #aee4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is equally noticeable t !re are c\nt]-beliefs :i*1 "u conditions1 d neutralise x1 & t c]ta9 o!r beliefs1 :i* =m its prop] complem5t1 h v slight hold on ! m9d ( mod]n ,*ri/5dom4 ,x is tak5 = grant$ t ! exig5cies ( ! /ate 9 w>1 :e!r ! w> be necess>y or n = sav+ ! /ate f dissolution1 absolutely neutralise ! "r to live4 ,we are little influ5c$ by ! idea ( ! univ]sal bro!rhood ( m51 ( mank9d z =m+ "o society ) a common good1 ( :i* ! conception may det]m9e ! action ( its memb]s4 ,9 int]national deal+s we are apt to suppose t x c h no place at all4 ,yet1 z has be5 po9t$ out1 x is ! prop] correlative ( ! admission ( a "r to free life z belong+ to man 9 virtue simply ( 8 human nature4 ,& ?\gh ?is "r c only be gr\nd$ on ! capacity1 :i* belongs to ! human nature1 = freely fulfill+ "s function 9 ! social organism1 we d v little to give reality to ! capacity or to enable x to realise itself4 ,we cont5t ourselves ) enact+ t no man %all be us$ by o!r m5 z a means aga9/ 8 w1 b we leave x to be pretty mu* a matt] ( *ance :e!r or no he %all be qualifi$ to fulfil any social function1 to contribute any?+ to ! common good1 & to d s freely 7i4e4 "u ! conception ( a common good74 ,! only reason :y a man %\ld n be us$ by o!r m5 simply z a means to _! ends1 is t he %\ld use himself z a means to an end :i* is really 8 & !irs at once4 ,b :ile we say t he %all n be us$ z a means1 we (t5 leave him )\t ! *ance ( us+ himself = any social end at all4 #aef4 ,f\r que/ions !n arise3 7#a7 ,) :at "r d ! necessities ( w> ov]ride ! individual's "r ( life8 7#b7 ,9 :at relation d ! rights ( /ates to act = _! own int]e/ /& to t "r ( human society1 z su*1 ( :i* ! exi/5ce is impli$ 9 ! possession ( "r by ! individual z a memb] ( t society1 irrespectively ( ! laws ( p>ticul> /ates8 7#c7 ,on :at pr9ciple is x to be assum$ t ! individual by a c]ta9 conduct ( 8 own =feits ! "r ( free life1 s t ! /ate 7at any rate = a "t7 is entitl$ to subject him to =ce2 to treat him z an animal or a ?+8 ,is ?is =feiture ev] s absolute & f9al t ! /ate is ju/ifi$ 9 tak+ away 8 life8 7#d7 ,:at is ! nature & ext5t ( ! individual's claim to be enabl$ to realise t capacity = contribut+ to a social good1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( 8 "r to free life8 ,k4 ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,! ,,/ate ,,ov] ,,! ,,individual ,,9 ,,w>4 #aeg4 7#a7 ,x may be admitt$ t to describe w> z 'multitud9\s murd]' is a figure ( spee*4 ,! ess5ce ( murd] does n lie 9 ! fact t "o man takes away ! life ( ano!r1 b t he does ?is to 'ga9 8 private ends' & ) 'malice' aga9/ ! p]son kill$4 ,i am n "h speak+ ( ! legal def9ition ( murd]1 b ( murd] z a t]m ( moral reprobation1 9 :i* s5se x mu/ be us$ by ^? :o speak ( w> z 'multitud9\s murd]4' ,!y _c mean murd] 9 ! legal s5se1 because 9 t s5se only 'unlawful kill+1' :i* kill+ 9 w> is n1 is murd]4 ,:5 ,i speak ( 'malice1' !re=e1 ,i am n us+ 'malice' 9 ! legal s5se4 ,9 t s5se 'malice' is und]/ood to be ! attribute ( e 'wrongful act done int5tionally )\t j or lawful excuse1' #a & is ascrib$ to acts 7su* z kill+ an (fic] ( ju/ice1 kn[+ him to be su*1 :ile resi/+ him 9 a riot7 9 :i* !re is no ill-w ( ! k9d :i* we suppose 9 murd]1 :5 we apply ! t]m 9 its natural s5se z "o ( moral disapprobation4 ,( murd] 9 ! moral s5se ! *>act]i/ics are ^? /at$1 & ^! are n pres5t 9 ! case ( a soldi] :o kills "o on ! o!r side 9 battle4 ,he has no ill-w to t p>ticul> p]son or to any p>ticul> p]son4 ,he incurs an equal risk ) ! p]son :om he kills1 & incurs t risk n = ! sake ( kill+ him4 ,8 object 9 und]go+ x is n private to himself1 b a s]vice 7or :at he supposes to be a s]vice7 to 8 c\ntry1 a good :i* is 8 own no d\bt 7t is impli$ 9 8 desir+ x71 b :i* he pres5ts to himself z common to him ) o!rs4 ,inde$1 ^? :o might speak ( w> z 'multitud9\s murd]' w\ld n look ^u ! soldi] z a murd]]4 ,if rem9d$ t !re _c be a murd] )\t a murd]]1 & press$ to say :o1 :5 a bloody battle takes place1 ! murd]] or murd]]s are1 !y w\ld probably po9t to ! au?ors ( ! w>4 ,x may be que/ion$1 by ! way1 :e!r !re has ev] be5 a w> ( :i* ! orig9ation c\ld be truly said to re/ ) a def9ite p]son or p]sons1 9 ! same way 9 :i* ! orig9ation ( an act :i* w\ld be call$ murd] 9 ! ord9>y s5se re/s ) a p>ticul> p]son4 ,no d\bt !re h be5 w>s = :i* c]ta9 assignable individuals 7 specially blameable1 w>s :i* !y specially help$ to br+ ab\t or _h special means ( prev5t+ 7& ! m ! wick$ness ( su* p]sons is kept 9 m9d ! bett]72 b ev5 9 ^! cases ! cause ( ! w> c sc>cely be held to be ga!r$ up )9 ! w ( any individual1 or ! comb9$ w ( c]ta9 individuals1 9 ! same way z is ! cause ( murd] or o!r puni%able acts4 ,:5 ,a4,b4 is murd]$1 ! sole cause lies 9 "s def9ite volition ( ,,cd4 or o!rs1 h[ev] t volition may h be5 caus$4 ,b :5 a w> 'breaks out1' ?\gh x is n to be consid]$1 z we are too apt to consid] x1 a natural calamity :i* c\ld n be prev5t$1 x w\ld be h>d to ma9ta9 t ! sole cause lies 9 "s def9ite volition on ! "p ( "s assignable p]son or p]sons1 ev5 ( ^? :o are mo/ to blame4 ,pass+ ov] ?is po9t1 h[ev]1 if ! acts ( kill+ 9 w> are n murd]s 79 ! moral s5se1 ! legal be+ out ( ! "q7 because !y lack ^? *>act]i/ics on ! "p ( ! ag5t's /ate ( m9d :i* are necess>y to con/itute a murd]1 ! p]sons :o cause ^? acts to be committ$1 if su* p]sons c be po9t$ out1 are n ! au?ors ( murd]1 multitud9\s or o!r4 ,!y w\ld only be s if ! *>act]i/ic ( 'malice1' :i* is abs5t on ! "p ( ! imm$iate ag5t ( ! act1 7 pres5t on _! "p z its ultimate ag5ts4 ,b ?is is n ! case4 ,h[ev] selfi% _! motives1 !y _c fairly be con/ru$ into ill-w t[>ds ! p]sons :o happ5$ to be kill$ 9 ! w>2 & !re=e1 :atev] wick$ness ! p]sons responsible = ! w> are guilty (1 !y are n guilty ( 'murd]' 9 any natural s5se ( ! t]m1 nor is !re any murd] 9 ! case at all4 #a ,m>kby1 ,elem5ts ( ,law1 sec4 #bbf4 #aeh4 ,x does n foll[ f ?is1 h[ev]1 t w> is ev] o!r ?an a great wrong1 z a violation on a multitud9\s scale ( ! individual's "r to life4 ,:e!r x is s or n mu/ be discuss$ on o!r gr\nds4 ,if !re is su* a ?+ z a "r to life on ! "p ( ! individual man z su*1 is !re any reason to d\bt t ?is "r is violat$ 9 ! case ( e man kill$ 9 w>8 ,x is n to ! purpose to allege t 9 ord] to a violation ( "r !re mu/ be n only a suff]+ ( "s k9d on ! "p ( ! subject ( a "r1 b an int5tional act caus+ x on ! "p ( a human ag5t4 ,!re is ( c\rse no violation ( "r :5 a man is kill$ by a wild bea/ or a /roke ( lightn+1 because !re is no "r z betwe5 a man & a bea/ or betwe5 a man & a natural =ce4 ,b ! dea?s 9 a battle are caus$ di/9ctly by human ag5cy & int5tional ag5cy4 ,! individual soldi] may n h any v di/9ct int5tion :5 he fires 8 rifle except to obey ord]s1 b ! comm&]s ( ! army & ! /atesm5 :o s5d x into ! field int5d ! dea? ( z _m m5 z may be necess>y = _! purpose4 ,x is true !y d n int5d ! dea? ( ?is or t p>ticul> p]son1 b no m did ! ,iri%man :o fir$ into a body ( police gu>d+ ! ,f5ian prison]s4 ,x might fairly be held t ?is circum/ance exempt$ ! ,iri%man f ! special moral guilt ( murd]1 ?\gh accord+ to our law x did n exempt him f ! legal guilt express$ by t t]m2 b no "o w\ld argue t x made ! act o!r ?an a violation ( ! "r to life on ! "p ( ! policeman kill$4 ,no m c ! abs5ce ( an int5tion to kill ?is or t specific p]son on ! "p ( ^? :o cause m5 to be kill$ 9 battle save _! act f be+ a violation ( ! "r to life4 #aei4 ,is !re !n any condition on ! "p ( ! p]sons kill$ t saves ! act f hav+ ?is "*8 ,x may be urg$ t :5 ! w> is conduct$ accord+ to usages t obta9 betwe5 civilis$ nations1 7n :5 x is a village-burn+ w> l t betwe5 ! ,engli% & ,afghans71 ! p]sons kill$ are volunt>y combatants1 & #a4 ,soldi]s1 x may be said1 are 9 ! position ( m5 :o volunt>ily und]take a dang]\s employm5t4 ,if "s ( !m are kill$1 ?is is n m a violation ( ! human "r to life ?an is ! dea? ( m5 :o h engag$ to "w 9 a dang]\s coal-pit4 ,to ?is x mu/ be answ]$ t if soldi]s did 9 fact volunt>ily incur ! special risk ( dea? incid5tal to _! call+1 x w\ld n foll[ t ! "r to life 0 n violat$ 9 _! be+--kill$4 ,x is n a "r :i* x re/s ) a man to reta9 or give up at 8 pleasure4 ,x is n ! less a wrong t a man %\ld be a slave because he has sold himself into slav]y4 ,! individual's "r to live is b ! o!r side ( ! "r :i* society has 9 8 liv+4 ,! individual c no m volunt>ily rid himself ( x ?an he c ( ! social capacity1 ! human nature1 on :i* x is f\nd$4 ,?us1 h[ev] ready m5 may be = high wages to "w 9 a dang]\s pit1 a wrong is held to be done if !y are kill$ 9 x4 ,if provisions :i* might h made x safe h be5 neglect$1 someone is held responsible4 ,if no?+ c\ld make x safe1 ! work+ ( ! pit w\ld n be all[$4 ,! reason = n m g5]ally apply+ ! p[] ( ! /ate to prev5t volunt>y noxi\s employm5ts1 is n t !re is no wrong 9 ! dea? ( ! individual ?r\gh ! incid5ts ( an employm5t :i* he has volunt>ily und]tak51 b t ! wrong is m effectually prev5t$ by tra9+ & tru/+ individuals to protect !mselves ?an by ! /ate protect+ !m4 ,?us ! wa/e ( life 9 w> w\ld n be ! less a wrong1--n ! less a violation ( ! "r1 :i* subsi/s betwe5 all memb]s ( society1 & :i* none c ali5ate1 t ea* %\ld h 8 life respect$ by society1--if x 7 ! fact t ^? ^: lives are wa/$ volunt>ily incurr$ ! risk ( los+ !m4 ,b x c sc>cely be held to be ! fact4 ,n only is x impossible1 ev5 :5 w> is conduct$ on ! mo/ civilis$ me?ods1 to prev5t great incid5tal loss ( life 7to say no?+ ( o!r injury7 among non-combatants2 ! wa/e ( ! life ( ! combatants is "o :i* ! p[] ( ! /ate compels4 ,?is is equally true :e!r ! army is rais$ by volunt>y enli/m5t or by conscription4 ,x is obvi\sly s 9 ! case ( conscription2 b "u a sy/em ( volunt>y enli/m5t1 ?\gh ! individual soldi] _c say t he 9 p>ticul> has be5 compell$ by ! gov]nm5t to risk 8 life1 x is /ill ! case t ! /ate compels ! risk ( a c]ta9 numb] ( lives4 ,x decrees t an army ( su* a size %all be rais$1 ?\gh if x c get ! m5 by volunt>y hir+ x does n ex]cise compulsion on ! m5 ( a p>ticul> age1 & x s5ds ! army into ! field4 ,its compulsive ag5cy causes ! dea? ( ! soldi]s kill$1 n any volunt>y action on ! "p ( ! soldi]s !mselves4 ,! action ( ! soldi]s no d\bt contributes to ! result1 = if !y all refus$ to fight !re w\ld be no kill+1 b x is an action put 9 motion & direct$ by ! p[] ( ! /ate1 :i* is compulsive 9 ! s5se t x op]ates on ! individual 9 ! la/ resort ?r\gh fe> ( dea?4 #a ,greek 7oudeis adikeitai hekon7 !re c be no inju/ice to a p]son :o has agre$ to :at is done to him ,tr4 #afj4 ,we h !n 9 w> a de/ruction ( human life inflict$ on ! suff]]s int5tionally by volunt>y human ag5cy4 ,x is true1 z we saw1 t x is n easy to say 9 any case by ^: ag5cy 9 p>ticul>4 ,we may say inde$ t x is by ! ag5cy ( ! /ate1 b :at exactly does t mean8 ,! /ate "h mu/ ! sov]eign p[] 9 ! /ate2 b x is always difficult to say by :om t p[] is wield$1 & if we c\ld 9 any case specify its pres5t hold]s1 ! fur!r "q w arise :e!r _! c\rse ( action has n be5 %ap$ = !m by previ\s hold]s ( p[]4 ,b h[ev] widely di/ribut$ ! ag5cy may be :i* causes ! de/ruction ( life 9 w>1 x is /ill int5tional human ag5cy4 ,! de/ruction is n ! "w ( accid5t or ( nature4 ,if !n x is to be o!r ?an a wrong1 because a violation ( ! "r to mutual protection ( life involv$ 9 ! memb]%ip ( human society1 x c only be because !re is ex]cis$ 9 w> "s "r t is p>am\nt to ?is4 ,x may be argu$ t ?is is ! case2 t !re is no "r to ! pres]vation ( life at ! co/ ( los+ ! necess>y conditions ( 'liv+ well'2 t w> is 9 "s cases ! only means ( ma9ta9+ ^! conditions1 & t :]e ?is is s1 ! wrong ( caus+ ! de/ruction ( physical life disappe>s 9 ! p>am\nt "r ( pres]v+ ! conditions "u :i* alone moral life is possible4 #afa4 ,?is argum5t1 h[ev]1 seems to be only available = %ift+ ! qu>t] 9 :i* we might be at fir/ dispos$ to lay ! blame ( ! wrong involv$ 9 w>1 n = *ang+ ! "* ( t wrong4 ,x goes to %[ t ! wrong involv$ 9 ! dea? ( c]ta9 soldi]s does n necess>ily lie ) ! gov]nm5t :i* s5ds ^? soldi]s into ! field1 because ?is may be ! only means by :i* ! gov]nm5t c prev5t m s]i\s wrong2 x does n %[ t !re is no wrong 9 _! dea?4 ,if ! integrity ( any /ate c only be ma9ta9$ at ! co/ ( w>1 & if t /ate is m ?an :at _m s-call$ /ates h be51--m ?an an aggregation ( individuals or communities "u "o rul+ p[]1--if x s f> fulfils ! idea ( a /ate1 t its ma9t5ance is necess>y to ! free developm5t ( ! p belong+ to x2 !n by ! au?orities or p ( t /ate no wrong is done by ! de/ruction ( life :i* w> involves1 except s f> z !y are responsible = ! /ate ( ?+s :i* r5d]s ! ma9t5ance ( ! integrity ( ! /ate impossible by o!r means4 ,b h[ does1 x come ab\t t ! integrity ( su* a /ate is endang]$8 ,n by accid5t or by ! =ces ( nature1 b by int5tional human ag5cy 9 "s =m or o!r1 h[ev] complicat$2 & ) t ag5cy lies ! wrong-do+4 ,to det]m9e x 7z we might be able to d if a horde ( b>b>ians broke 9 on a civilis$ /ate1 compell+ x to resort to w> = its def5ce7 is a matt] ( small importance3 :at is important to be> 9 m9d 7be+ "o ( ^? obvi\s tru?s out ( :i* we may all[ ourselves to be sophi/icat$71 is t ! de/ruction ( life 9 w> is always wrong-do+1 :oev] be ! wrong-do]1 & t 9 ! w>s mo/ /rictly def5sive ( political fre$om ! wrong-do+ is only remov$ f ! def5d]s ( political fre$om to be transf]r$ else:]e4 ,if x is difficult 9 any case to say precisely :]e1 t is only a reason = m g5]al self-reproa*1 = a m humbl+ s5se 7z ! prea*]s w\ld say7 ( complicity 9 t radical 7b conqu]able1 because moral7 evil ( mank9d :i* r5d]s su* a means ( ma9ta9+ political fre$om necess>y4 ,! language1 inde$1 :i* we he> f ! pulpit ab\t w> be+ a puni%m5t = ! s9s ( mank9d1 is p]fectly true1 b x ne$s to be accompani$ by ! rem9d] t ?is puni%m5t ( s9 is simply a consequ5ce ( ! s9 & itself a fur!r s91 br\ght ab\t by ! action ( ! s9n]1 n an ext]nal infliction br\ght ab\t by ag5cies to :i* man is n a p>ty4 #afb4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 if mo/ w>s _h be5 w>s = ! ma9t5ance or acquisition ( political fre$om1 ! difficulty ( fix+ ! blame ( !m1 or at any rate ( free+ "o ( ! p>ties 9 ea* case f blame1 w\ld be mu* less ?an x really is4 ,( ! ,european w>s ( ! la/ f\r hundr$ ye>s1 h[ _m c\ld be fairly said to h be5 w>s 9 :i* ei!r or any ( ! p>ties 7 fight+ = ?is end8 ,p]haps ! w>s 9 :i* ! ,dut* ,republics def5d$ !mselves aga9/ ,spa9 & aga9/ ,l\is ,,xiv1 & t 9 :i* ,g]many %ook (f ! dom9ion ( ,napoleon4 ,p]haps ! m rec5t /ruggles ( ,italy & ,hung>y aga9/ ! ,au/rian ,gov]nm5t4 ,p]haps 9 ! fir/ outset ( ! w> ( #agib ! ,fr5* may be fairly held to h be5 def5d+ in/itutions necess>y = ! developm5t ( social fre$om & equality4 ,9 ?is w>1 h[ev]1 ! issue v soon ceas$ to be "o betwe5 ! def5d]s ( su* in/itutions on ! "o side1 & _! assailants on ! o!r1 & 9 mo/ mod]n w>s ! issue has n be5 ( ?is k9d at all4 ,! w>s h aris5 prim>ily out ( ! rival ambition ( k+s & dyna/ies = t]ritorial aggr&isem5t1 ) national antipa?ies & ecclesia/ical ambitions1 & ! passions aris+ out ( religi\s p>tisan%ip1 z complicat+ influ5ces4 ,z nations h come m & m to di/+ui% & solidify !mselves1 & a national consci\sness has come def9itely to be =m$ 9 ea*1 ! rival ambitions ( nations h t5d$ m & m fir/ to support1 !n p]haps to sup]s$e1 ! ambitions ( dyna/ies z causes ( w>4 ,! delusion has be5 practically dom9ant t ! ga9 ( "o nation mu/ mean ! loss ( ano!r4 ,h5ce national jeal\sies 9 reg>d to colonial ext5sion1 ho/ile t>iffs & ! ef=t ( ea* nation to exclude o!rs f its m>kets4 ,! explosion ( ?is idea 9 ! region ( political economy has _h little effect 9 weak5+ its hold on m5's m9ds4 ,! p ( "o nation /ill he> ) jeal\sy ( ano!r nation's advance 9 comm]ce1 z if x meant "s decay ( _! own4 ,& if ! comm]cial jeal\sy ( nations is v sl[ 9 disappe>+1 _! vanity1 _! desire ap>t f trade ea* to become or to seem /rong] ?an ! o!r1 has v mu* increas$4 ,a hundr$ & fifty ye>s ago national vanity c\ld sc>cely be said to be an influ5ce 9 politics4 ,! p "u "o rul] 7 n homog5e\s en\gh1 _h n en\gh ( a corporate consci\sness1 to develope a national vanity4 ,n[ 7"u ! "n ( patriotism7 x has become a m s]i\s di/urb] ( peace ?an dyna/ic ambition4 ,:]e ! latt] is dang]\s1 x is because x has national vanity to "w ^u4 #afc4 ,our conclusion !n is t ! de/ruction ( life 9 w> 7to say no?+ ( o!r evils incid5tal to x ) :i* we are n "h conc]n$7 is always wrong do+1 ) :omsoev] ! guilt ( ! wrong-do+ may lie2 t only ^? p>ties to a w> are exempt f a %>e 9 ! guilt :o c truly plead t to !m w> is ! only means ( ma9ta9+ ! social conditions ( ! moral developm5t ( man1 & t !re h be5 v few cases 9 :i* ?is plea c\ld be truly made4 ,9 say+ ?is x is n =gott51 ei!r t _m virtues are call$ into ex]cise by w>1 or t w>s h be5 a means by :i* ! movem5t ( mank9d1 :i* !re is reason = consid]+ a progress to high] good1 has be5 c>ri$ on4 ,^! facts d n make ! wrong-do+ involv$ 9 w> any less s4 ,if no?+ is to be acc\nt$ wrong-do+ ?r\gh :i* f9al good is wr\ght1 we mu/ give up ei!r ! idea ( !re be+ su* a ?+ z wrong-do+1 or ! idea ( !re be+ su* a ?+ z f9al good4 ,if f9al good results f ! _w ( our exp]i5ce1 x results f processes 9 :i* wrong-do+ is an insep>able elem5t4 ,wrong-do+ is volunt>y action1 ei!r 79 ! deep] moral s5se7 proce$+ f a w un9flu5c$ by ! desire to be good on ! "p ( ! ag5t 7:i* may be tak5 to include action t5d+ to produce su* action71 or 79 ! s5se contemplat$ by ! 'jus naturae'7 x is action t int]f]es ) ! conditions necess>y to ! free-play & developm5t ( a good-w on ! "p ( o!rs4 ,x may be t1 accord+ to ! div9e s*eme ( ! _w1 su* wrong-do+ is an elem5t 9 a process by :i* m5 gradually approximate m ne>ly to good 79 ! s5se ( a good w74 ,we _c ?9k ( ,god z a moral be+ )\t suppos+ ?is to be ! case4 ,b ?is makes no diff]5ce to wrong-do+ 9 ^? relations 9 :i* x is wrong-do+1 & ) :i* alone we are conc]n$1 viz4 9 relation to ! w ( human ag5ts & to ! results :i* ^? ag5ts c =esee & int5d to produce4 ,if an action1 s f> z any results g :i* ! ag5t c h 9 view or ov] :i* he has control1 int]f]es ) conditions necess>y to ! free-play & developm5t ( a good-w on ! "p ( o!rs1 x is n ! less wrong-do+ because1 ?r\gh "s ag5cy :i* is n 81 ! effects :i* he int5d$1 & :i* r5d]$ x wrong-do+1 come to contribute to an ult]ior good4 ,nor1 if x issues f bad w 79 ! s5se expla9$71 is x less wrong 79 ! moral s5se7 because ?is w is itself1 9 ! view ( "s high] be+1 contributory to a moral good :i* is n1 9 :ole or "p1 )9 ! view ( ! ag5t4 ,if !n w> is wrong-do+ 9 bo? ! above s5ses 7z x is always1 at any rate on ! "p ( ^? ) :om ! ultimate responsibility = x lies71 x does n cease to be s on acc\nt ( any good result+ f x 9 a s*eme ( provid5ce4 #afd4 ',b1' x may be ask$1 'are we ju/ifi$ 9 say+ t x is always wrong-do+ on ! "p ( ^? ) :om ! ultimate responsibility lies8 ,x is admitt$ t c]ta9 virtues may be evok$ by w>2 t x may h results contributory to ! moral progress ( mank9d2 may n ! elicit+ ( ^! virtues1 ! production ( ^! results1 be contemplat$ by ! orig9ators ( w>1 & does n ! orig9ation ( w>1 s f> z influ5c$ by su* motives1 cease to be wrong-do+8 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ,caes>'s w>s 9 ,gaul 7 unprovok$ w>s ( conque/1 b _! effect 0 ! e/abli%m5t ( ,roman civilisation ) its equal law ov] a great "p ( we/]n ,europe1 9 su* a way t x 0 nev] :olly swept away1 & t a p]man5t influ5ce 9 ! progress ( ! ,european polity c be trac$ to x4 ,may he n be cr$it$ ) hav+ _h1 h[ev] indef9itely1 su* an effect z ?is 9 view8 ,ev5 if 8 wi% to ext5d ,roman civilisation 0 second>y to a plan = rais+ an army by :i* he might ma/] ! ,republic1 is he to h no cr$it = ! b5efic5t results :i* are admitt$ to h ensu$ f ! success ( t plan8 ,may n a simil> ju/ification be urg$ = ,engli% w>s 9 ,india8 ,if1 aga91 ! e/abli%m5t ( ! civil unity ( ,g]many & ! lib]ation ( ,*ri/ian populations 9 ,turkey are admitt$ to h be5 ga9s to mank9d1 is n t a ju/ification ( ! p]sons conc]n$ 9 ! orig9ation ( ! w>s t br\ght ab\t ^? results1 s f> z !y c be suppos$ to h be5 influ5c$ by a desire = !m8' #afe4 ,^! objections might be to ! purpose if we 7 attempt+ ! task 7g5]ally1 if n always1 an impossible "o7 ( det]m9+ ! moral des]t1 good or ill1 ( ^? :o h be5 conc]n$ 9 br++ ?is or t w> ab\t4 ,_! t5d5cy m]ely is to di/ribute ! blame ( ! wrong-do+ involv$ 9 w>1 to %[ h[ widely ramifi$ is ! ag5cy 9 t wrong-do+1 n to affect its "* z wrong-do+4 ,if ! only way ( civilis+ ,gaul 0 to kill all ! p :om ,caes>'s w>s caus$ to be kill$1 & if ! desire = civilis+ x 0 a prevail+ motive 9 ,caes>'s m9d1 s mu* ! bett] = ,caes>1 b s mu* ! worse = ! o!r unassignable & innum]able human ag5ts :o br\ght x ab\t t su* an object c\ld only be atta9$ 9 su* a way4 ,we are n1 inde$1 entitl$ to say t x c\ld h be5 br\ght ab\t 9 any o!r way4 ,x is true to say 7if we "k :at we are ab\t 9 say+ x7 t no?+ :i* happ5s 9 ! _w c\ld h happ5$ o!rwise ?an x has4 ,! "q = u is1 :e!r t condition ( ?+s :i* r5d]$ e4g4 ,caes>'s ,gallic w>s1 ) ! violation ( human rights :i* !y involv$1 ! int]f]5ce 9 ! case ( innum]able p]sons ) ! conditions "u :i* man c be helpful to man 7physical life be+ ! fir/ ( ^!71 ! s9e qua non 9 ! promotion ( ult]ior human welf>e1 0 or 0 n ! "w ( human ag5cy4 ,if x 0 7& !re is no d\bt t x 01 = to :at m]ely natural ag5cy c\ld ! necessity be ascrib$871 !n 9 t ord9>y s5se ( ! ^w 'c\ld' 9 :i* x expresses our responsibility = our actions1 m5 c\ld h br\ght ab\t ! good result )\t ! evil means4 ,!y c\ld h done s if !y _h be5 bett]4 ,x 0 ow+ to human wick$ness--if less on ,caes>'s "p1 !n s mu* ! m on ! "p ( innum]able o!rs--t ! wrong-do+ ( ^? w>s 0 ! appropriate means to ?is ult]ior good4 ,s 9 reg>d to ! o!r cases in/anc$4 ,x is idle to speculate on o!r means by :i* ! p]man5t pacification ( ,india1 or ! unification ( ,g]many1 or ! lib]ation ( ,*ri/ians 9 ,european ,turkey might h be5 br\ght ab\t2 b x is important to be> 9 m9d t ! innum]able wrong acts involv$ 9 a*iev+ !m--acts wrong1 because violations ( ! rights ( ^? directly affect$ by !m--did n cease to be wrong acts because "u ! giv5 condition ( ?+s ! results specifi$ w\ld n h be5 obta9$ )\t !m4 ,?is giv5 condition ( ?+s 0 n l t 7e4g47 :i* compels ! ca/aways f a %ipwreck1 s _m days f %ore1 & ) only s mu* provision 9 _! boat1 to draw lots :i* %all be ?r[n ov]bo>d4 ,x 0 a condition ( ?+s :i* human wick$ness1 ?r\gh traceable & untraceable *annels1 br\ght ab\t4 ,if ! individual promot]s ( w>s1 :i* ?r\gh ! m$ium ( multitud9\s wrong-do+ h yield$ good to mank9d1 h be5 really influ5c$ by a desire = any su* good1--& mu* scepticism is ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d to su* a supposition1--!n s mu* less ( ! guilt ( ! wrong-do+ has be5 !irs4 ,no nation1 at any rate1 t has tak5 "p 9 su* w>s c fairly take cr$it = hav+ be5 gov]n$ by su* a motive4 ,x has be5 ei!r a passive in/rum5t 9 ! h&s ( its rul]s1 or has be5 animat$ by less wor?y motives1 v mix$1 b ( :i* p]haps a diffus$ desire = excitem5t has be5 ! mo/ innoc5t4 ,on :at reasonable gr\nd c ,engli%m5 or ,g]mans or ,russians claim t _! sev]al nations took "p 9 ! w>s by :i* ,india 0 pacifi$1 ,g]many unifi$1 ,bulg>ia lib]at$1 "u ! dom9ant influ5ce ( a desire = human good8 ,r1 if ! action ( a national consci5ce 9 su* matt]s is possible at all1 !y %\ld take %ame = _! %>e 9 t g5]al human selfi%ness :i* r5d]$ c]ta9 conditions ( human developm5t only atta9able by su* means4 #aff4 7#b7 ,rev]t+ !n to ! que/ions :i* arose #a out ( ! ass]tion ( a "r to free life on ! "p ( ! individual man z su*1 x appe>s t ! fir/ mu/ be answ]$ 9 ! negative4 ,no /ate ( w> c make ! de/ruction ( man's life by man o!r ?an a wrong1 ?\gh ! wrong is n always *>geable ^u all ! p>ties to a w>4 ,! second "q is virtually answ]$ by :at has be5 said ab\t ! fir/4 ,9 reg>d to ! /ate accord+ to its idea ! "q c\ld n arise1 = accord+ to its idea ! /ate is an in/itution 9 :i* all rights are h>moni\sly ma9ta9$1 9 :i* all ! capacities t give rise to rights h free-play giv5 to !m4 ,no action 9 its own int]e/ ( a /ate t fulfill$ ?is idea c\ld conflict ) any true int]e/ or "r ( g5]al society1 ( ! m5 n subject to its law tak5 z a :ole4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z an inevitable conflict betwe5 /ates4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! nature ( ! /ate t1 giv5 a multiplicity ( /ates1 %\ld make ! ga9 ( ! "o ! loss ( ! o!r4 ,! m p]fectly ea* "o ( !m atta9s its prop] object ( giv+ free scope to ! capacities ( all p]sons liv+ on a c]ta9 range ( t]ritory1 ! easi] x is = o!rs to d s2 & 9 proportion z !y all d s ! dang] ( conflict disappe>s4 #a ,above1 sec4 #aef4 ,,rln #afg4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! imp]fect realisation ( civil equality 9 ! full s5se ( ! t]m 9 c]ta9 /ates1 is 9 great] or less degree a s\rce ( dang] to all4 ,! pres5ce 9 /ates ei!r ( a pr]ogativ$ class or ( a body ( p :o1 :e!r by op5 d5ial ( civil rights or by re/rictive laws1 are ?w>t$ 9 ! free developm5t ( _! capacities1 or ( an ecclesia/ical organisation :i* disputes ! au?ority ( ! /ate on matt]s ( "r & ?us prev5ts ! p]fect civil fusion ( its memb]s ) o!r citiz5s1 always bre$s an imag9ation ( !re be+ "s competition ( int]e/s betwe5 /ates4 ,! privileg$ class involunt>ily believes & spreads ! belief t ! int]e/ ( ! /ate lies 9 "s ext5sion )\t1 n 9 an improvem5t ( organisation )94 ,a suff]+ class attracts sympa?y f )\t & invites int]f]5ce ) ! /ate :i* conta9s x2 & t /ate responds1 n by heal+ ! sore1 b by def5d+ aga9/ aggression :at x conceives to be its special int]e/s1 b :i* are only special on acc\nt ( its bad organisation4 ,or p]haps ! suff]+ population ov]fl[s into ano!r /ate1 z ! ,iri% into ,am]ica1 & !re becomes a s\rce n only ( int]nal difficulty b ( ho/ile feel+ betwe5 x & ! /ate :]e ! suff]+ population /ill survives4 ,p1 aga91 :o1 9 matt]s :i* ! /ate treats z belong+ to itself1 take _! direction f an ecclesia/ical p[] ext]nal to ! /ate "u :i* !y live1 are necess>ily 9 c]ta9 relations ali5 to t /ate1 & may at any "t prove a s\rce ( app>5tly conflict+ int]e/s betwe5 x & "s o!r /ate1 :i* "u ! influ5ce ( ! ho/ile ecclesia/ical p[] esp\ses _! cause4 ,remove f ,european /ates1 z !y are & h be5 dur+ ! la/ hundr$ ye>s1 ! occasions ( conflict1 ! s\rces ( app>5tly compet+ int]e/s1 :i* arise 9 "o or o!r ( ! ways m5tion$1--ei!r f ! mi/ak5 view ( /ate-int]e/s :i* a privileg$ class inevitably takes1 or f ! pres5ce 9 !m ( oppress$ populations1 or f :at we improp]ly call ! antagonism ( religi\s confessions1--& !re w\ld n be or h be5 any?+ to di/urb ! peace betwe5 !m4 ,& ?is is to say t ! s\rce ( w> betwe5 /ates lies 9 _! incomplete fulfilm5t ( _! function2 9 ! fact t !re is "s defect 9 ! ma9t5ance or reconciliation ( rights among _! subjects4 #afh4 ,?is is equally true 9 reg>d to ^? causes ( conflict :i* are loosely call$ 'religi\s4' ,^! d n arise out ( any diff]5ces betwe5 ! convictions ( diff]5t p 9 reg>d to ! nature ( ,god or _! relations to ,him1 or ! "r way ( wor%ipp+ ,him4 ,!y arise ei!r out ( "s aggression ^u ! religi\s fre$om ( c]ta9 p1 made or all[$ by ! p[]s ( ! /ate1 :i* ?us puts ^! p 9 ! position ( an ali5 or un5fran*is$ class1 or else out ( an aggression on ! rights ( ! /ate by "s corporation call+ itself spiritual b really claim+ sov]eignty ov] m5's actions 9 ! same relations 9 :i* ! /ate claims to det]m9e !m4 ,!re w\ld be no?+ t5d+ to int]national di/urbance 9 ! fact t bodies ( p :o wor%ip ,god 9 ! ,ca?olic mann] live 9 a /ate :]e ! majority wor%ip 9 ! ,greek or ,prote/ant mann]1 & alongside ( ano!r /ate :]e ! majority is ,ca?olic1 b = "o or o!r or bo? ( ^! circum/ances1 viz4 t ! ,ca?olic wor%ip & tea*+ is int]f]$ ) by ! ,prote/ant or ,greek /ate1 & t ,ca?olics are liable to a direction by a p[] :i* claims to regulate m5's transactions ) ea* o!r by a law ( its own1 & :i* may see fit 7e4g47 to prohibit ! ,ca?olic subjects 9 ! ,greek or ,prote/ant /ate f be+ m>ri$1 or hav+ _! p>5ts buri$1 or _! *ildr5 taught ! necess>y arts1 9 ! mann] :i* ! /ate directs4 ,?is reciprocal invasion ( "r1 ! invasion ( ! rights ( ! /ate by ! *ur* on ! "o side1 & on ! o!r ! re/riction plac$ by ! sov]eign ^u ! subject's fre$om1 n ( consci5ce1 7= t is impossible71 b ( express+ 8 consci5ce 9 ^w & act1 has sometimes caus$ a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* c]ta9 ( ! subjects ( a /ate h be5 bett] affect$ to ano!r /ate ?an to _! own1 & 9 su* a case !re is an elem5t ( natural ho/ility betwe5 ! /ates4 ,an obvi\s in/ance to give ( ?is relation betwe5 /ates w\ld h be5 t betwe5 ,russia & ,turkey1 if ,turkey c\ld be consid]$ to h be5 con/itut$ z a /ate at all4 ,p]haps a bett] in/ance w\ld be ! position ( ,irel& 9 ! pa/2 its disaffection to ,engl& & gravitation1 fir/ to ,france1 !n to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 caus$ *iefly by ,prote/ant p5al laws :i* 9 turn 7 at lea/ provok$ by ! aggressive attitude ( ! *ur* t[>ds ! ,engli% /ate4 ,:5ev] a l invasion ( rights /ill takes place1 e4g4 9 ! treatm5t ( ! ,ca?olic subjects ( ,russia 9 ,pol&1 9 ! ultramontane movem5t ( resi/ance to c]ta9 requirem5ts ( ! /ate among ! ,ca?olic subjects ( ,g]many1 x t5ds to int]national conflict4 ,& :at is n[ a some:at remote t5d5cy has 9 ! pa/ be5 a =midable /imulant to w>4 #afi4 ,x is no?+ !n 9 ! necess>y organisation ( ! /ate1 b r "s defect ( t organisation 9 relation to its prop] function ( ma9ta9+ & reconcil+ rights1 ( giv+ scope to capacities1 t leads to a conflict ( app>5t int]e/s betwe5 "o /ate & ano!r4 ,! wrong1 !re=e1 :i* results to human society f conflicts betwe5 /ates _c be condon$ on ! gr\nd t x is a necess>y incid5t ( ! exi/5ce ( /ates4 ,! wrong _c be held to be lo/ 9 a high] "r1 :i* atta*es to ! ma9t5ance ( ! /ate z ! in/itution ?r\gh :i* alone ! fre$om ( man is realis$4 ,x is n ! /ate1 z su*1 b ?is or t p>ticul> /ate1 :i* by no means fulfils its purpose1 & might p]haps be swept away & sup]s$$ by ano!r ) advantage to ! ends = :i* ! true /ate exi/s1 t ne$s to def5d its int]e/s by action injuri\s to ^? outside x4 ,h5ce !re is no gr\nd = hold+ t a /ate is ju/ifi$ 9 do+ :atev] its int]e/s seem to require1 irrespectively ( effects on o!r m54 ,if ^? effects are bad1 z involv+ ei!r a direct violation ( p]sonal rights or ob/ruction to ! moral developm5t ( society any:]e 9 ! _w1 !n !re is no ultimate ju/ification = ! political action t gives rise to !m4 ,! "q c only be 7z we h se5 g5]ally 9 reg>d to ! wrong-do+ ( w>71 :]e 9 p>ticul> ! blame lies4 ,:e!r !re is any ju/ification = a p>ticul> /ate1 :i* 9 def5ce ( its int]e/s inflicts an injury on "s portion ( mank9d2 :e!r1 e4g41 ! ,g]mans are ju/ifi$ 9 hold+ ,metz1 on ! supposition t _! t5ure ( su* a ?or\ghly ,fr5* t[n necess>ily ?w>ts 9 _m ways ! heal?y activity ( ! inhabitants1 or ! ,engli% 9 c>ry+ fire & sword into ,afghani/an = ! sake ( acquir+ a sci5tific fronti]2 ?is mu/ dep5d 7#a7 on ! nature ( ! int]e/s ?us def5d$1 7#b7 on ! impossibility ( o!rwise def5d+ !m1 7#c7 on ! "q h[ !y came to be endang]$4 ,if !y are int]e/s ( :i* ! ma9t5ance is ess5tial to ^? ends z a means to :i* ! /ate has its value1 if ! /ate :i* def5ds !m has n itself be5 a jo9t-cause ( _! be+ endang]$1 & if !y _c be def5d$ except at ! co/ ( injury to "s portion ( mank9d1 !n ! /ate :i* def5ds !m is cle> ( ! guilt ( t injury4 ,b ! guilt is remov$ f x only to be some:]e else1 h[ev] wide its di/ribution may be4 ,x may be d\bt$1 h[ev]1 :e!r ! second "q c\ld ev] be answ]$ altoge!r 9 fav\r ( a /ate :i* f9ds x necess>y to protect its int]e/s at ! co/ ( inflict+ an injury on mank9d4 #agj4 ,x w be said1 p]haps1 t ^! =mal argum5ts 9 pro( ( ! wrong-do+ involv$ 9 w>1 & ( ! unju/ifiability ( ! policy :i* nations con/antly adopt 9 def5ce ( _! app>5t int]e/s1 c>ry v little conviction2 t a /ate is n an ab/ract complex ( in/itutions = ! ma9t5ance ( rights1 b a nation1 a p1 possess+ su* in/itutions2 t ! nation has its passions :i* inevitably lead x to judge all que/ions ( int]national "r f its own po9t ( view1 & to consid] its app>5t national int]e/s z ju/ify+ any?+2 t if x 7 o!rwise1 if ! cosmopolitan po9t ( view c\ld be adopt$ by nations1 patriotism w\ld be at an end2 t :e!r ?is be desirable or no1 su* an ext9ction ( national passions is impossible2 t :ile !y cont9ue1 w>s are z inevitable betwe5 nations z !y w\ld be betwe5 individuals1 if individuals 7 liv+ 9 :at philosoph]s h imag9$ to be ! /ate ( nature1 )\t recognition ( a common sup]ior2 t nations 9 %ort are 9 ! position ( m5 judg+ _! own causes1 :i* x is admitt$ t no "o c d imp>tially2 & t ?is /ate ( ?+s _c be alt]$ )\t ! e/abli%m5t ( a common con/ra9+ p[]1 :i* w\ld mean ! ext9ction ( ! life ( indep5d5t /ates1--a result z undesirable z x is unatta9able4 ,projects ( p]petual peace1 to be logical1 mu/ be projects ( all-embrac+ empire4 #aga4 ,!re is "s cog5cy 9 language ( ?is k9d4 ,x is true t :5 we speak ( a /ate z a liv+ ag5cy1 we mean1 n an in/itution or complex ( in/itutions1 b a nation organis$ 9 a c]ta9 way2 & t memb]s ( ! nation 9 _! corporate or associat$ action are animat$ by c]ta9 passions1 aris+ out ( _! association1 :i*1 ?\gh n egoi/ic relatively to ! individual subjects ( !m 7= !y are motives to self-sacrifice71 may1 9 _! influ5ce on ! deal+s ( "o nation ) ano!r1 h an effect analog\s to t :i* egoi/ic passions1 prop]ly s call$1 h ^u ! deal+s ( individuals ) ea* o!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! national passion1 :i* 9 any good s5se is simply ! public _s ( ! good citiz51 may take1 & e day is tak+1 directions :i* lead to no collision betwe5 "o nation & ano!r2 7or1 to say ! same ?+ negatively1 t x is utt]ly false to speak z if ! desire = "o's own nation to %[ m milit>y /r5g? ?an o!rs 7 ! only or ! "r =m ( patriotism72 & t ?\gh a nation1 ) national feel+ ( its own1 mu/ ev]y:]e und]lie a /ate1 prop]ly s call$1 yet /ill1 j s f> z ! p]fect organisation ( rights )9 ea* nation1 :i* entitles x to be call$ a /ate1 is atta9$1 ! occasions ( conflict betwe5 nations disappe>2 & aga91 t by ! same process1 j s f> z x is satisfactorily c>ri$ out1 an organ ( expression & action is e/abli%$ = ea* nation 9 deal+ ) o!r nations1 :i* is n really liable to be influ5c$ by ! same egoi/ic passions 9 deal+ ) ! gov]nm5t ( ano!r nation z embroil individuals ) ea* o!r4 ,! love ( mank9d1 no d\bt1 ne$s to be p>ticul>is$ 9 ord] to h any p[] ov] life & action4 ,j z !re c be no true fri5d%ip except t[>ds ?is or t individual1 s !re c be no true public _s :i* is n localis$ 9 "s way4 ,! man ^: desire to s]ve 8 k9d is n c5tr$ prim>ily 9 "s home1 radiat+ f x to a commune1 a municipality1 & a nation1 presumably has no effectual desire to s]ve 8 k9d at all4 ,b !re is no reason :y ?is localis$ or nationalis$ philan?ropy %\ld take ! =m ( a jeal\sy ( o!r nations or a desire to fight !m1 p]sonally or by proxy4 ,^? 9 :om x is /ronge/ are e day express+ x 9 good works :i* b5efit _! fell[-citiz5s )\t int]f]+ ) ! m5 ( o!r nations4 ,^? :o f "t to "t talk ( ! ne$ ( a great w> to br+ unselfi% impulses into play1 give u reason to suspect t !y are too selfi% !mselves to recognise ! unselfi% activity t is go+ on all r\nd !m4 ,till all ! me?ods h be5 exhau/$ by :i* nature c be br\ght into ! s]vice ( man1 till society is s organis$ t ev]yone's capacities h free scope = _! developm5t1 !re is no ne$ to resort to w> = a field 9 :i* patriotism may display itself4 #agb4 ,9 fact1 j s f> z /ates are ?or\ghly =m$1 ! div]sion ( patriotism into ! milit>y *annel t5ds to come to an end4 ,x is a survival f a condition ( ?+s 9 :i*1 z yet1 ! /ate1 9 ! full s5se1 0 n2 9 ! s5se1 namely1 t 9 ea* t]ritory controll$ by a s+le indep5d5t gov]nm5t1 ! rights ( all p]sons1 z f\nd$ on _! capacities = contribut+ to a common good1 are equally e/abli%$ by "o sy/em ( law4 ,if ea* sep>ately gov]n$ t]ritory 7 inhabit$ by a p s organis$ )9 itself1 !re w\ld be no?+ to lead to ! association ( ! public _s ( ! good citiz5 ) milit>y aggressiv5ess1--an association :i* belongs prop]ly n to ! #a1 b to ! 4 ,! ,greek /ates1 h[ev] complete might be ! equality ( _! citiz5s among !mselves1 7 all 9 relation to "s subject populations1 &1 z su*1 jeal\s ( ea* o!r4 ,! ,peloponnesian w> 0 em95tly a w> ( rival 4 ,& ^? habits & in/itutions & modes ( feel+ 9 ,europe ( ! pres5t day1 :i* t5d to int]national conflict1 are ei!r survivals f ! ( ! pa/1 or arise out ( ! v incomplete mann] 9 :i*1 z yet1 ov] mo/ ( ,europe ! has sup]s$$ ! 4 ,patriotism1 9 t special milit>y s5se 9 :i* x is di/+ui%$ f public _s1 is n ! temp] ( ! citiz5 deal+ ) fell[-citiz5s1 or ) m5 :o are !mselves citiz5s ( _! sev]al /ates1 b t ( ! foll[] ( ! feudal *ief1 or ( ! memb] ( a privileg$ class consci\s ( a p[]1 re/+ ultimately on =ce1 ov] an inf]ior population1 or ( a nation hold+ empire ov] o!r nations4 #a ,greek 7politeia7 con/itutional gov]nm5t1 p>ticul>ly a city-/ate1 _/ 7duna/eia_/i7 n>r[ olig>*y_/ies ,tr #agc4 ,/&+ armies1 aga91 ?\gh exi/+ on a l>g] scale n[ ?an ev] be=e1 are n products ( ! civilisation ( ,europe1 b ( ! pr$om9ance ov] t civilisation ( ! old 4 ,! influ5ces :i* h giv5 rise to & keep up ^? armies ess5tially belong to a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* mank9d--ev5 ,european mank9d--is n yet ?or\ghly organis$ into political life4 ,r\ghly summ>is$1 !y are ^!3 7#a74 ,! tempor>y confiscation by ,napoleon to 8 own acc\nt ( ! products ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 :i* ?us1 ?\gh f\nd$ on a true idea ( a citiz5%ip 9 :i* n ! few only1 b all m51 %\ld p>take1 = ! "t issu$ 9 a ov] ! c\ntries :i* mo/ directly felt ! effects ( ! revolution4 7#b74 ,! consequ5t revival 9 dyna/ic =ms1 "u ! influ5ce ( antagonism to ,france1 ( national life 9 ,g]many4 7#c71 ,! aspiration aft] national unity else:]e 9 ,europe1--a movem5t :i* mu/ prec$e ! organisation ( /ates on a s\nd basis1 & = ! "t readily yields itself to direction by a 4 7#d74 ,! exi/5ce1 ov] all ! ,slavonic side ( ,europe1 ( populations :i* are only j beg9n+ to make any approa* to political life--! life ( ! 1 or 'civitas '--& /ill (f] a tempt+ field to ! ambition ( rival 1 ,au/rian1 ,russian1 & ,turki% 7:i*1 inde$1 are by no means to be put on a level1 b are alike z n re/+ on a basis ( citiz5%ip74 7#e74 ,! t5ure ( a great ,indian empire by ,engl&1 :i* n only gives x a milit>y "* :i* w\ld n belong to x simply z a /ate1 b br+s x into outw>d relations ) ! j spok5 (4 ,?is is no d\bt a v incomplete acc\nt ( ! influ5ces :i* h comb9$ to 'turn ,europe into a great camp' 7a v exagg]at$ expression72 b x may s]ve to %[ :at a full] acc\nt w\ld %[ m cle>ly1 t ! milit>y sy/em ( ,europe is no necess>y incid5t ( ! relations betwe5 indep5d5t /ates1 b arises f ! fact t ! organisation ( /ate-life1 ev5 ) ^? peoples t h be5 br\ght "u its influ5ce at all1 is /ill s incomplete4 #agd4 ,! m complete t organisation becomes1 ! m ! motives & occasions ( int]national conflict t5d to disappe>1 :ile ! bonds ( unity become /rong]4 ,! latt] is ! case1 if = no o!r reason1 yet = ?is2 t ! bett] organisation ( ! /ate means fre] scope to ! individual 7n necess>ily to d z he likes1 e4g4 91 ! buy+ & sell+ ( alcohol1 b 9 su* developm5t ( activity z is good on ! :ole74 ,?is aga9 means free int]c\rse betwe5 memb]s ( "o /ate & ^? ( ano!r1 & 9 p>ticul> m fre$om ( trade4 ,all re/rictions on fre$om ( :olesome trade are really bas$ on special class-int]e/s1 & mu/ disappe> ) ! realisation ( t idea ( individual "r1 f\nd$ on ! capacity ( e man = free contribution to social good1 :i* is ! true idea ( ! /ate4 ,& z trade betwe5 memb]s ( diff]5t /ates becomes fre] & m full1 ! s5se ( common int]e/s betwe5 !m1 :i* w> w\ld infr+e1 becomes /rong]4 ,! bond ( peace ?us e/abli%$ is sometimes depreciat$ z a selfi% "o1 b x ne$ be no m selfi% ?an t :i* keeps ! peace betwe5 memb]s ( ! same /ate1 :o h no acqua9tance ) ea* o!r4 ,9 "o case z 9 ! o!r x may be said t ! individual tries to prev5t a brea* ( ! peace because he kn[s t he has m to ga9 ?an to lose by x4 ,9 ! latt] case1 h[ev]1 ?is acc\nt ( ! matt] w\ld be1 to say ! lea/1 insuffici5t4 ,! good citiz5 obs]ves ! law 9 lett] & 9 _s1 n f any fe> ( consequ5ces to himself if he did n1 b f an idea ( ! mutual respect by m5 = ea* o!r's rights z t :i* %\ld be an idea :i* has become habitual ) him1 & regulates 8 conduct )\t 8 ask+ airy que/ions ab\t x4 ,!re 0 a "t1 h[ev]1 :5 ?is idea only ?us act$ spontane\sly 9 regulat+ a man's action t[>ds 8 family or imm$iate neighb\rs or fri5ds4 ,consid]ations ( int]e/ 7 ! m$ium ?r\gh :i* a wid] range ( p]sons came to be br\ght )9 its range4 ,& ?us1 al?\gh consid]ations ( an id5tity ( int]e/s1 aris+ out ( trade1 may be ! occasion ( m5's recognis+ 9 m5 ( o!r nations ^? rights :i* w> violates1 !re is no reason :y1 ^u t occasion & ?r\gh ! famili>ity :i* trade br+s ab\t1 an idea ( ju/ice1 z a relation :i* %\ld subsi/ betwe5 all mank9d z well z betwe5 memb]s ( ! same /ate1 may n come to act on m5's m9ds z indep5d5tly ( all calculation ( _! sev]al int]e/s z does ! idea :i* regulates ! conduct ( ! good citiz54 #age4 ,if ! necess>y or impell+ p[] ( ! idea ( :at is due f memb]s ( diff]5t nations to ea* o!r is weak1 x mu/ be obs]v$ on ! o!r h& t ! individual memb]s ( a nation h no su* app>5t int]e/ 9 _! gov]nm5t's deal+ unfairly ) ano!r nation z "o individual may h 9 gett+ ! advantage ( ano!r4 ,?us1 s f> z ?is idea comes to =m "p ( ! habit ( m5's m9ds1 !re ceases to be any?+ 9 ! passions ( ! p :i* a gov]nm5t repres5ts to /imulate ! gov]nm5t to t unfairness 9 deal+ ) ano!r gov]nm5t1 to :i* an individual might be mov$ by self-seek+ passions 9 deal+ ) ano!r individual1 9 ! abs5ce ( an imp>tial au?ority hav+ p[] ov] bo?4 ,if at ! same "t ! sev]al gov]nm5ts are purely repres5tative ( ! sev]al peoples1 z !y %\ld become ) ! due organisation ( ! /ate1 & ?us h no dyna/ic int]e/s ( _! own 9 embroil+ "o nation ) ano!r1 !re seems to be no reason :y !y %\ld n arrive at a passionless imp>tiality 9 deal+ ) ea* o!r1 :i* w\ld be beyond ! rea* ( ! individual 9 def5d+ 8 own cause aga9/ ano!r4 ,at any rate1 if no gov]nm5t c ev] get rid ( "s bias 9 its own fav\r1 !re rema9s ! possibility ( m$iation 9 cases ( dispute by dis9t]e/$ gov]nm5ts4 ,) ! abatem5t ( national jeal\sies & ! removal ( ^? deeply-seat$ causes ( w> :i*1 z we h se51 are connect$ ) ! defici5t organisation ( /ates1 ! dream ( an int]national c\rt ) au?ority re/+ on ! cons5t ( indep5d5t /ates may come to be realis$4 ,su* a result may be v remote1 b x is important to be> 9 m9d t !re is no?+ 9 ! intr9sic nature ( a sy/em ( indep5d5t /ates incompatible ) x1 b t on ! contr>y e advance 9 ! organisation ( man k9d into /ates 9 ! s5se expla9$ is a /ep t[>ds x4 ,l4 ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,! ,,/ate ,,to ,,puni%4 #agf4 7#c7 ,we come n[ to ! ?ird ( ! que/ions rais$ l 9 reg>d to ! individual's "r to free life1 ! "q "u :at conditions t "r may be =feit$2 ! "q1 9 o!r words1 ( ! /ate's "r ( puni%m5t4 ,! "r 7i4e4 ! p[] secur$ by social recognition7 ( free life 9 e man re/s on ! assum$ capacity 9 e man ( free action contributory to social good 7'free' 9 ! s5se ( det]m9$ by ! idea ( a common good4 ,animals may & d contribute to ! good ( man1 b n ?us 'freely'74 ,?is "r on ! "p ( associat$ m5 implies ! "r on _! "p to prev5t su* actions z int]f]e ) ! possibility ( free action contributory to social good4 ,?is con/itutes ! "r ( puni%m5t1 ! "r s f> to use =ce ^u a p]son 7to treat him z an animal or a ?+7 z may be necess>y to save o!rs f ?is int]f]5ce4 #a ,above1 sec4 #aef4 ,,rln #agg4 ,"u :at conditions a p]son ne$s to be ?us dealt )1 :at p>ticul> actions on 8 "p con/itute su* an int]f]5ce1 is a "q :i* c only be answ]$ :5 we h consid]$ :at p[]s 9 p>ticul> ne$ to be secur$ to individuals or to (ficials 9 ord] to ! possibility ( free action ( ! k9d describ$4 ,e su* p[] is a "r ( :i* ! violation1 if int5d$ z a violation ( a "r1 requires a puni%m5t1 ( :i* ! k9d & am\nt mu/ dep5d on ! relative importance ( ! "r & ( ! ext5t to :i* its g5]al ex]cise is ?reat5$4 ,?us e !ory ( rights 9 detail mu/ be foll[$ by1 or inde$ implies1 a correspond+ !ory ( puni%m5t 9 detail1 a !ory :i* consid]s :at p>ticul> acts are puni%able1 & h[ !y %\ld be puni%$4 ,! latt] _c prec$e ! =m]3 all t c be done "h is fur!r to consid] :at g5]al rules ( puni%m5t are impli$ 9 ! pr9ciple on :i* we hold all "r ( puni%m5t to re/1 & h[ f> 9 ! actual practice ( puni%m5t t pr9ciple has be5 realis$4 #agh4 ,x is commonly ask$ :e!r puni%m5t accord+ to its prop] nature is retributive or prev5tive or re=matory4 ,! true answ] is t x is & %\ld be all ?ree4 ,! /atem5t1 h[ev]1 t ! puni%m5t ( ! crim9al by ! /ate is retributive1 ?\gh true 9 a s5se t w be expla9$ directly1 yet s readily l5ds itself to a misund]/&+1 t x is p]haps be/ avoid$4 ,x is n true 9 ! s5se t 9 legal puni%m5t z x %\ld be !re survives any elem5t ( private v5geance1 ( ! desire on ! "p ( ! individual :o has receiv$ a hurt f ano!r to inflict an equival5t hurt 9 return4 ,x is true t ! beg9n+ ( puni%m5t by ! /ate fir/ appe>s 9 ! =m ( a regulation ( private v5geance1 b x is n !re=e to be suppos$ t puni%m5t by ! /ate is 9 any way a cont9uation ( private v5geance4 ,x is ! ess5ce ( ! =m] to suppress & sup]s$e ! latt]1 b x only does s gradually1 j z rights 9 actuality are only =m$ gradually4 ,private v5geance belongs to ! /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* rights are n z yet actualis$2 9 ! s5se t ! p[]s :i* x is = ! social good t a man %\ld be all[$ to ex]cise1 are n yet secur$ to him by society4 ,9 proportion z !y are actualis$1 ! ex]cise ( private v5geance mu/ cease4 ,a "r ( private v5geance is an impossibility2 =1 j s f> z ! v5geance is private1 ! individual 9 execut+ x is ex]cis+ a p[] n d]iv$ f society nor regulat$ by ref]5ce to social good1 & su* a p[] is n a "r4 ,h5ce ! view commonly tak5 by writ]s ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies implies an entire misconception ( ! nature ( a "r2 ! view1 viz41 t !re fir/ exi/$ rights ( self-def5ce & self-v9dication on ! "p ( individuals 9 a /ate ( nature1 & t ^! came to be devolv$ on a p[] repres5t+ all individuals1 s t ! /ate's "r ( us+ =ce aga9/ ^? m5 :o use or ?reat5 =ce aga9/ o!r m51 is m]ely ! sum or equival5t ( ! private rights :i* individuals w\ld sev]ally possess if !re 7 no public equival5t = !m4 ,?is is to suppose t to h be5 a "r :i* 9 tru?1 "u ! suppos$ conditions1 w\ld m]ely h be5 animal impulse & p[]1 & public "r 7:i* is a pleonasm1 = all "r is public7 to h result$ f ! comb9ation ( ^! animal impulses & p[]s3 x is to suppose t f a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* 'homo hom9i lupus' by m]e comb9ation ( wolfi% impulses1 !re c\ld result ! /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* 'homo hom9i deus4' #agi4 ,9 a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* private v5geance = hurt inflict$ 0 ! univ]sal practice1 !re c\ld be no rights at all4 ,9 ! mo/ primitive society 9 :i* rights c exi/1 x mu/ at lea/ )9 ! limits ( ! family be suppress$ by t au?ority ( ! family or its head :i* fir/ con/itutes rights4 ,9 su* a society x is only on ! memb]s ( ano!r family t a man may retaliate at pleasure a wrong done to him1 & !n ! v5geance is n1 /rictly speak+1 tak5 by individual ^u individual1 ?\gh individuals may be sev]ally ! ag5t & pati5t ( x1 b by family ^u family4 ,j because !re is z yet no idea ( a /ate indep5d5t ( ties ( bir?1 mu* less ( a univ]sal society f relation to :i* a man d]ives rights1 !re is no idea ( rights atta*+ to him z a citiz5 or z a man1 b only z a memb] ( a family4 ,t social "r1 :i* is at once a "r ( society ov] ! individual1 & a "r :i* society communicates & secures to ! individual1 appe>s1 s f>1 only z a control ex]cis$ by ! family ov] its memb]s 9 _! deal+s ) ea* o!r1 z an au?orisation :i* x gives !m 9 prosecut+ _! qu>rels ) memb]s ( ano!r family1 & at ! same "t to a c]ta9 ext5t z a limitation on ! mann] 9 :i* feuds betwe5 families may be c>ri$ on1 a limitation g5]ally dep5d5t on "s religi\s au?ority equally recognis$ by ! families at feud4 #ahj4 ,f ?is /ate ( ?+s x is a long /ep to ! rgime ( law 9 a duly con/itut$ /ate4 ,"u x ! arm ( ! /ate alone is ! organ ?r\gh :i* =ce may be ex]cis$ on ! individual2 ! individual is prohibit$ f av]t+ viol5ce by viol5ce1 except s f> z is necess>y = ! imm$iate protection ( life1 & altoge!r f av5g+ wrong done to him1 on ! und]/&+ t ! society1 ( :i* he is an organ & f :i* he d]ives 8 rights1 be+ injur$ 9 e injury to him1 duly protects him aga9/ injury1 & :5 x fails to prev5t su* injury f be+ done1 inflicts su* puni%m5t on ! (f5d] z is necess>y = future protection4 ,b ! process f ! "o /ate ( ?+s to ! o!r1 ?\gh a long "o1 consi/s 9 ! fur!r developm5t ( t social "r #a :i* prop]ly speak+ 0 ! only "r ! individual ev] _h1 & f ! fir/1 or ev] s9ce a p]man5t family tie exi/$1 0 pres5t z a qualify+ & re/ra9+ elem5t 9 ! ex]cise ( private v5geance s f> z t ex]cise p>took at all 9 ! nature ( a "r4 ,! process is n a cont9uance ( private v5geance "u alt]$ =ms1 b a gradual suppression ( x by ! full] realisation ( ! high] pr9ciple :i* all along controll$ x4 #a ',social "r1' i4e4 "r belong+ to a society ( p]sons recognis+ a common good1 & belong+ ?r\gh memb]%ip ( ! society to ! sev]al p]sons con/itut+ x4 ,! society to :i* ! "r belongs1 is 9 pr9ciple or possibility a society ( all m5 z r5d]$ capable ( free int]c\rse ) ea* o!r by ! organisation ( ! /ate4 ,actually at fir/ x is only ?is or t family2 !n "s association ( families2 f9ally ! /ate1 z includ+ all o!r =ms ( association1 reconcil+ ! rights :i* arise out ( !m1 & ?us ! mo/ p]fect m$ium ?r\gh :i* ! individual c contribute to ! good ( mank9d & mank9d to 84 #aha4 ,b x w be ask$1 h[ ^u ?is view ( ! nature ( puni%m5t z inflict$ by ! /ate x c be consid]$ retributory4 ,if no private v5geance1 no v5geance ( ! injur$ individual1 is involv$ 9 puni%m5t1 !re c be no v5geance 9 x at all4 ,! conception ( v5geance is q inappropriate to ! action ( society or ! /ate on ! crim9al4 ,! /ate _c be suppos$ capable ( v9dictive passion4 ,nor1 if ! ess5ce ( crime is a wrong done to society1 does x admit ( retaliation ^u ! p]son committ+ x4 ,a hurt done to an individual c be requit$ by ! infliction ( a l hurt ^u ! p]son :o has done x2 b no equival5t ( wrong done to society c be paid back to ! do] ( x4 #ahb4 ,x is true t !re is su* a ?+ z a national desire = rev5ge #a 7,france & ,g]many73 &1 if a /ate a nation organis$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 :y %\ld x n be 'capable ( v9dictive passion'8 ,no d\bt !re is a unity ( feel+ among ! memb]s ( a nation :i* makes !m feel any loss ( /r5g?1 real or app>5t1 su/a9$ by ! nation 9 its corporate "*1 z a hurt or disgrace to !mselves1 :i* !y in/9ctively desire to rev5ge4 ,! corporate feel+ is s /rong t individuals feel !mselves sev]ally hurt 9 ! suppos$ hurt ( ! nation4 ,b :5 x is said t a crime is an (f5ce aga9/ ! /ate1 x is n meant t ! body ( p]sons =m+ ! nation feel any hurt 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! p]son robb$ or w\nd$ does1 su* a hurt z excites a natural desire = rev5ge4 ,:at is meant is t !re is a violation ( a sy/em ( rights :i* ! nation has1 no d\bt1 an int]e/ 9 ma9ta9+1 b a purely social int]e/1 q diff]5t f ! egoi/ic int]e/ ( ! individual ( :i* ! desire = v5geance is a =m4 ,a nation is capable ( v9dictive feel+1 b n s a nation z act+ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( a settl$1 imp>tial1 g5]al law = ! ma9t5ance ( rights1 & t is :at we mean :5 we talk ( ! /ate z t aga9/ :i* crimes are committ$ & :i* puni%es !m4 #a ',happy %all he be t rew>de? !e z ?\ ha/ s]v$ u4' #ahc4 ,x is true t :5 a crime ( a c]ta9 sort1 e4g4 a cold-blood$ murd]1 has be5 committ$1 a popul> sympa?y ) ! suff]] is excit$1 :i* expresses itself 9 ! wi% to 's]ve out' ! murd]]4 ,?is has "s resemblance to ! desire = p]sonal rev5ge1 b is really q diff]5t1 because n egoi/ic4 ,indignation aga9/ wrong done to ano!r has no?+ 9 common ) a desire to rev5ge a wrong done to oneself4 ,x borr[s ! language ( private rev5ge1 j z ! love ( ,god borr[s ! language ( s5su\s affection4 ,su* indignation is insep>able f ! int]e/ 9 social well-be+1 & along ) x is ! *ief ag5t 9 ! e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance ( legal puni%m5t4 ,law inde$ is necess>ily g5]al1 :ile indignation is p>ticul> 9 its ref]5ce2 & accord+ly ! treatm5t ( any p>ticul> crime1 s f> z det]m9$ by law1 _c correspond ) ! indignation :i* ! crime excites2 b ! law m]ely det]m9es ! g5]al category "u :i* ! crime falls1 & fixes c]ta9 limits to ! puni%m5t t may be inflict$ "u t category4 ,)9 ^? limits discretion is left to ! judge z to ! s5t5ce t he passes1 & 8 s5t5ce is 9 "p influ5c$ by ! sort ( indignation :i* 9 ! giv5 /ate ( public s5tim5t ! crime is calculat$ to excite2 ?\gh g5]ally mu* m by 8 op9ion z to ! am\nt ( t]ror requir$ = ! prev5tion ( preval5t crime4 ,n[ :at is x 9 puni%m5t t ?is indignation dem&s8 ,if n ! sole f\ndation ( public puni%m5t1 x is yet insep>able f t public int]e/1 on :i* ! sy/em ( rights1 ) ! correspond+ sy/em ( puni%m5ts protective ( rights1 dep5ds4 ,9 :atev] s5se !n ?is indignation dem&s retribution 9 puni%m5t1 9 t s5se retribution w\ld seem to be a necess>y elem5t 9 puni%m5t4 ,x dem&s retribution 9 ! s5se ( dem&+ t ! crim9al %\ld h 8 due1 %\ld be dealt ) accord+ to 8 des]ts1 %\ld be puni%$ ju/ly4 #ahd4 ,?is is q a diff]5t ?+ f an equival5ce betwe5 ! am\nt ( suff]+ inflict$ by ! crim9al & t :i* he su/a9s 9 puni%m5t4 ,! am\nt ( suff]+ :i* is caus$ by any crime is really z incalculable z t :i* ! crim9al endures 9 puni%m5t1 :atev] ! puni%m5t4 ,x is only 9 ! case ( dea? = murd] t !re is any appe>ance ( equival5ce betwe5 ! two suff]+s1 & 9 ?is case ! appe>ance is q sup]ficial4 ,! suff]+ involv$ 9 dea? dep5ds almo/ entirely on ! circum/ances1 :i* are absolutely diff]5t 9 ! case ( ! murd]$ man & 9 t ( ! man execut$ = murd]4 ,:5 a man is imprison$ ) h>d lab\r = robb]y1 !re is n ev5 an appe>ance ( equival5ce ( suff]+ betwe5 ! crime & ! puni%m5t4 ,9 :at !n does ! ju/ice ( a puni%m5t1 or its correspond5ce ) ! crim9al's des]ts consi/8 ,x w n d to say t ^! t]ms m]ely repres5t ! result ( an association ( ideas betwe5 a crime & ! p5alty :i* we are accu/om$ to see inflict$ on x2 t society has come to atta* c]ta9 p5alties to c]ta9 actions z a result ( ! exp]i5ce 7#a7 ( suff]+ & loss caus$ by ^? acts1 & 7#b7 ( ! k9d ( suff]+ ( :i* ! expectation w det] m5 f do+ !m2 & t ^! p5alties hav+ become cu/om>y1 ! onlook]s & ! crim9al himself1 :5 "o ( !m is inflict$1 feel t he has got :at 0 to be expect$1 & call x 8 due or des]t or a j puni%m5t4 ,if ?is 7 ! true acc\nt ( ! matt]1 !re w\ld be no?+ to expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! emotion excit$ by ! spectacle ( a j puni%m5t inflict$1 or ! dem& t x %\ld be inflict$1 on ! "o side1 & on ! o!r t excit$ by ! sight ( physical suff]+ foll[+ accord+ to ! usual c\rse ( ?+s ^u a physical comb9ation ( circum/ances1 or ! expectation t su* suff]+ w foll[4 ,if x is said t ! diff]5ce is expla9$ by ! fact t 9 ! "o case bo? ! antec$5t 7! crim9al act7 & ! consequ5t repres5t volunt>y human ag5cy1 :ile 9 ! o!r !y d n1 we reply1 ,j s1 b = t reason ! conception ( a puni%m5t z j diff]s :olly f any conception ( x t c\ld result ei!r f its be+ cu/om>y1 or f ! infliction ( su* puni%m5t hav+ be5 commonly f\nd a means = protect+ u aga9/ hurt4 #ahe4 ,! idea ( puni%m5t implies on ! side ( ! p]son puni%$ at once a capacity = det]m9ation by ! conception ( a common or public good1 or 9 o!r words a practical und]/&+ ( ! nature ( rights z f\nd$ on relations to su* public good1 & an actual violation ( a "r or omission to fulfil an obligation1 ! "r or obligation be+ "o ( :i* ! ag5t might h be5 aw>e & ! violation or omission "o :i* he might h prev5t$4 ,on ! side ( ! au?ority puni%+1 x implies equally a conception ( "r f\nd$ on relation to public good1 & "o :i*1 unlike t on ! "p ( ! crim9al1 is realis$ 9 act2 a conception ( :i* ! punitive act1 z f\nd$ on a consid]ation ( :at is necess>y = ! ma9t5ance ( rights1 is ! logical expression4 ,a puni%m5t is unju/ if ei!r elem5t is abs5t2 if ei!r ! act puni%$ is n a violation ( kn[n rights or an omission to fulfil kn[n obligations ( a k9d :i* ! ag5t might h prev5t$1 or ! puni%m5t is "o t is n requir$ = ! ma9t5ance ( rights1 or 7:i* comes to ! same ?+71 if ! o/5sible rights = ! ma9t5ance ( :i* ! puni%m5t is requir$ are n real rights1 are n lib]ties ( action or acquisition :i* !re is any real public int]e/ 9 ma9ta9+4 #ahf4 ,:5 ! specifi$ conditions ( j puni%m5t are fulfill$1 ! p]son puni%$ himself recognises x z j1 z 8 due or des]t1 & x is s recognis$ by ! onlook] :o ?9ks himself into ! situation4 ,! crim9al1 be+ susceptible to ! idea ( public good1 & ?r\gh x to ! idea ( rights1 ?\gh ?is idea has n be5 /rong en\gh to regulate 8 actions1 sees 9 ! puni%m5t its natural expression4 ,he sees t ! puni%m5t is 8 own act return+ on himself1 9 ! s5se t x is ! necess>y outcome ( 8 act 9 a society gov]n$ by ! conception ( rights1 a conception :i* he appreciates & to :i* he does involunt>y rev]5ce4 ,x is ! outcome ( 8 act1 or 8 act return+ ^u himself1 9 a diff]5t way f t 9 :i* a man's act returns on himself :51 hav+ misus$ 8 body1 he is visit$ accord+ to physical necessity by pa9ful consequ5ces4 ,! cause ( ! suff]+ :i* ! act entails 9 ! "o case is ! relation ( ! act to a society gov]n$ by ! conception ( rights2 9 ! o!r x is n4 ,= t reason1 ! pa9ful consequ5ce ( ! act to ! do] 9 ! "o case is1 9 ! o!r is n1 prop]ly a puni%m5t4 ,we d inde$ commonly speak ( ! pa9ful consequ5ces ( imprud5t or immoral acts 7'immoral' z di/9ct f 'illegal'7 z a puni%m5t ( !m1 b ?is is ei!r metaphorically or because we ?9k ( ! c\rse ( ! _w z regulat$ by a div9e sov]eign1 :om we conceive z a ma9ta9] ( rights l ! sov]eign ( a /ate4 ,we may ?9k ( x z div9ely regulat$1 & s regulat$ ) a view to ! realisation ( moral good1 b we %all /ill n be w>rant$ 9 speak+ ( ! suff]+s :i* foll[ 9 ! c\rse ( nature ^u c]ta9 k9ds ( conduct z puni%m5ts1 accord+ to ! di/9ctive s5se 9 :i* crime is puni%$1 unless we suppose ! ma9t5ance ( rights to be ! object ( ! moral gov]nm5t ( ! _w1--:i* is to put ! c>t be=e ! horse2 =1 z we h se51 rights are relative to morality1 n morality to rights 7! gr\nd on :i* c]ta9 lib]ties ( action & acquisition %\ld be gu>ante$ z rights be+ t !y are conditions ( ! moral p]fection ( society74 ,:ile !re w\ld be reason1 !n1 z aga9/ ^? :o say t ! puni%m5t ( crime is m]ely prev5tive1 9 say+ t x is also retributive1 if ! ne$$ correction ( ! 'm]ely prev5tive' doctr9e c\ld n be m accurately /at$1 x w\ld seem t ! tru? c be m accurately /at$ by ! proposition t puni%m5t is n ju/ifi$ unless x is j1 & t x is n j unless ! act puni%$ is an int5tional violation ( real "r or neglect ( real obligation :i* ! ag5t c\ld h avoid$ 7i4e4 unless ! ag5t kn[+ly & by int5tional act int]f]es ) "s fre$om ( action or acquisition :i* !re is a public int]e/ 9 ma9ta9+71 & unless ! future ma9t5ance ( rights requires t ! crim9al be dealt ) z he is 9 ! puni%m5t4#a #a ,! conceptions ( ! j & ( ju/ice impli$ 9 ?is /atem5t ( ! conditions ( j puni%m5t may be express$ briefly z foll[s4 ',! j' t complex ( social conditions :i* = ea* individual is necess>y to enable him to realise 8 capacity ( contribut+ to social good4 ',ju/ice' is ! habit ( m9d :i* leads u to respect ^? conditions 9 deal+ ) o!rs1--n to int]f]e ) !m s f> z !y already exi/1 & to br+ !m into exi/5ce s f> z !y are n f\nd 9 exi/5ce4 #ahg4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t ?is requirem5t1 t puni%m5t ( crime %\ld be j1 may be cov]$ by ! /atem5t t 9 its prop] nature x is prev5tive1 if ! nature ( t :i* is to be prev5t$ by x is suffici5tly def9$4 ,its prop] function is1 9 ! int]e/ ( rights t are g5u9e 79 ! s5se expla9$71 to prev5t actions ( ! k9d describ$ by associat+ 9 ! m9d ( e possible do] ( !m a c]ta9 t]ror ) ! contemplation ( ! act1--su* t]ror z is necess>y on ! :ole to protect ! rights ?reat5$ by su* action4 ,! :ipp+ ( an ill-behav$ dog is prev5tive1 b n prev5tive 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! puni%m5t ( crime is s1 because 7#a7 ! dog's ill conduct is n an int5tional violation ( a "r or neglect ( a kn[n obligation1 ! dog hav+ no conception ( "r or obligation1 & 7#b7 = ! same reason ! :ipp+ does n lead to ! association ( t]ror 9 ! m9ds ( o!r dogs ) ! violation ( rights & neglect ( obligations4 ,to %oot m5 d[n :o resi/ a successful c\p d'tat may be effectually prev5tive ( fur!r resi/ance to ! gov]nm5t e/abli%$ by ! c\p d'tat1 b x does n satisfy ! true idea ( puni%m5t1 because ! t]ror produc$ by ! massacre is n necess>y = ! protection ( g5u9e rights1 rights f\nd$ on public int]e/4 ,to hang m5 = %eep-/eal+1 aga91 does n satisfy ! idea2 because1 ?\gh x is a g5u9e "r t %eep-/eal+ violates1 9 a society :]e !re 0 any dec5t reconciliation ( rights no su* t]ror z is caus$ by ! puni%m5t ( dea? w\ld be requir$ = ! protection ( ! "r4 ,x is because ! !ory t puni%m5t is 'm]ely prev5tive' fav\rs ! notion t ! repetition ( any action :i* any suffici5t body ( m5 f9d inconv5i5t may ju/ifiably be prev5t$ by any sort ( t]ror t may be conv5i5t = ! purpose1 t x requires to be gu>d$ by sub/itut+ = ! qualify+ 'm]ely' a /atem5t ( :at x is :i* ! ju/ifiable puni%m5t prev5ts & :y x prev5ts x4 #ahh4 ,b does our !ory1 aft] all has be5 said ab\t ! wrongness ( puni%m5t t is n j1 af=d any /&>d = ! apportionm5t ( j puni%m5t1 any crit]ion ( ! am\nt ( int]f]5ce ) a crim9al's p]sonal rights t is appropriate to 8 crime1 except su* z is af=d$ by a preval5t impression among m5 z to :at is necess>y = _! security8 ,c we con/rue x s z to af=d su* a crit]ion1 )\t at ! same "t condemn+ a great deal ( puni%m5t :i* yet society c\ld be nev] br\ght to disp5se )8 ,does x really admit ( be+ appli$ at all 9 ! pres5ce ( ! admitt$ impossibility ( asc]ta9+ ! degree ( moral guilt ( crim9als1 z dep5d+ on _! /ate ( "* or habitual motives8 ,h[1 accord+ to x1 c we ju/ify puni%m5ts inflict$ 9 ! case ( 'culpable neglig5ce1' e4g4 :5 an eng9e-driv]1 by c>eless driv+1 = :i* we ?9k v little ! worse ( him1 is ! occasion ( a bad accid5t1 & is heavily puni%$ 9 consequ5ce8 #ahi4 ,x is true t !re c be no a priori crit]ion ( j puni%m5t1 except ( an ab/ract & negative k9d4 ,we may say t no puni%m5t is j1 unless ! rights :i* x s]ves to protect are p[]s on ! "p ( individuals or corporations ( :i* ! g5]al ma9t5ance is necess>y to ! well-be+ ( society on ! :ole1 & unless ! t]ror :i* ! puni%m5t is calculat$ to inspire is necess>y = _! ma9t5ance4 ,= a positive & detail$ crit]ion ( j puni%m5t1 we mu/ wait till a sy/em ( rights has be5 e/abli%$ 9 :i* ! claims ( all m51 z f\nd$ on _! capacities = contribut+ to social well-be+1 are p]fectly h>monis$1 & till exp]i5ce has %[n ! degree & k9d ( t]ror ) :i* m5 mu/ be affect$ 9 ord] to ! suppression ( ! anti-social t5d5cies :i* might lead to ! violation ( su* a sy/em ( rights4 ,& ?is is p]haps equival5t to say+ t no complete crit]ion ( j puni%m5t c be arriv$ at till puni%m5t is no long] necess>y2 = ! /ate ( ?+s suppos$ c\ld sc>cely be realis$ )\t br++ ) x an ext9ction ( ! t5d5cies :i* /ate-puni%m5t is ne$$ to suppress4 ,mean:ile !re is no me?od ( approximation to ju/ice 9 puni%m5t b t :i* consi/s 9 gradually mak+ ! sy/em ( e/abli%$ rights j1 i4e4 9 h>monis+ ! true claims ( all m51 & 9 discov]+ by exp]i5ce ! really effici5t means ( re/ra9+ t5d5cies to violation ( rights4 ,an int5tional violation ( a "r mu/ be puni%$1 :e!r ! "r violat$ is "o t %\ld be a "r or no1 on ! pr9ciple t social well-be+ suff]s m f violation ( any e/abli%$ "r1 :atev] ! nature ( ! "r1 ?an f ! e/abli%m5t z a "r ( a p[] :i* %\ld n be s e/abli%$2 & x c only be puni%$ 9 ! way :i* = ! "t is ?\ght mo/ effici5t by ! ma9ta9]s ( law = protect+ ! "r 9 "q by associat+ t]ror ) its violation4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n alt] ! moral duty1 on ! "p ( ! society au?oris+ ! puni%m5t1 to make its puni%m5ts j by mak+ ! sy/em ( rights :i* x ma9ta9s j4 ,! ju/ice ( ! puni%m5t dep5ds on ! ju/ice ( ! g5]al sy/em ( rights2 n m]ely on ! propriety ) ref]5ce to social well-be+ ( ma9ta9+ ?is or t p>ticul> "r :i* ! crime puni%$ violates1 b on ! "q :e!r ! social organisation 9 :i* a crim9al has liv$ & act$ is "o t has giv5 him a fair *ance ( n be+ a crim9al4 #aij4 ,we are apt to ?9k t ! ju/ice ( a puni%m5t dep5ds on "s sort ( equality betwe5 its magnitude & t ( ! crime puni%$1 b ?is notion arises f a confusion ( puni%m5t z inflict$ by ! /ate = a wrong done to society ) comp5sation to ! individual = damage done him4 ,nei!r a crime nor its puni%m5t admits ( /rictly quantitative measurem5t4 ,x may be said1 inde$1 t ! great] ! crime ! heavi] %\ld be its puni%m5t1 b ?is is only true if by ! 'heavi] puni%m5t' is und]/ood t ) :i* mo/ t]ror is associat$ 9 ! popul> imag9ation1 & if ! conception ( ! 'great] crime' is tak5 on ! "o h& to exclude any e/imation ( ! degree ( moral guilt1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 to be det]m9$ by an e/imate n only ( ! importance 9 ! social sy/em ( ! "r violat$ by ! crime1 b ( ! am\nt ( t]ror t ne$s to be associat$ ) ! crime 9 ! g5]al appreh5sion 9 ord] to its prev5tion4 ,b :5 its t]ms are ?us und]/ood1 ! /atem5t t ! great] ! crime ! heavi] %\ld be its puni%m5t1 becomes an id5tical proposition4 ,x am\nts to ?is1 t ! crime :i* requires mo/ t]ror to be associat$ ) x 9 ord] to its prev5tion %\ld h mo/ t]ror ?us associat$ ) x4 #aia4 ,b :y d ! t]ms 'heavi] puni%m5t' & 'great] crime' ne$ to be ?us und]/ood8 ,:y %\ld n ! 'great] crime' be und]/ood to mean ! crime imply+ mo/ moral wick$ness1 or p>tly ?is1 p>tly ! crime :i* violates ! m important k9d ( "r8 ,:y %\ld a consid]ation ( ! am\nt ( t]ror t ne$s to be associat$ ) x 9 ord] to its prev5tion ent] into ! det]m9ation ( ! 'great] crime' at all8 ,:y aga9 %\ld n ! 'heavi] puni%m5t' mean simply t 9 :i* ! p]son puni%$ actually suff]s mo/ pa98 ,:y %\ld x be tak5 to mean t ) :i* mo/ t]ror is associat$ ^u ! contemplation8 ,9 %ort1 is n ! proposition 9 "q at once true & significant 9 ! s5se t ! crime :i* implies ! mo/ moral depravity1 or violates ! mo/ important "r 7su* z ! "r to life71 or :i* does bo?1 %\ld be visit$ ) ! puni%m5t t involves mo/ pa9 to ! suff]]8 #aib4 ,! answ] is3 ,z reg>ds heav9ess ( puni%m5t1 x is n 9 ! p[] ( ! /ate to regulate ! am\nt ( pa9 :i* x causes to ! p]son :om x puni%es4 ,if x c\ld only puni% ju/ly by mak+ ?is pa9 proportionate 9 ea* case to ! depravity impli$ 9 ! crime1 x c\ld n puni% ju/ly at all4 ,! am\nt ( pa9 :i* any k9d ( puni%m5t causes to ! p>ticul> p]son dep5ds on 8 temp]am5t & circum/ances1 :i* nei!r ! /ate nor its ag5t1 ! judge1 c asc]ta94 ,b if x c\ld be asc]ta9$1 & if 7:i* is equally impossible7 ! am\nt ( depravity impli$ 9 ea* p>ticul> crime c\ld be asc]ta9$ likewise 9 ord] to make ! pa9 ( ! puni%m5t proportionate to ! depravity1 a diff]5t puni%m5t w\ld h to be inflict$ 9 ea* case accord+ to ! temp]am5t & circum/ances ( ! crim9al4 ,!re w\ld be an end to all g5]al rules ( puni%m5t4 #aic4 ,9 tru?1 h[ev]1 ! /ate 9 its capacity z ! su/a9] ( rights 7& x is 9 ?is capacity t x puni%es7 has no?+ to d ) ! am\nt ( moral depravity 9 ! crim9al1 & ! prim>y ref]5ce 9 puni%m5t1 z inflict$ by ! /ate1 is n to ! effect ( ! puni%m5t on ! p]son puni%$ b to its effect on o!rs4 ,! consid]ations det]m9+ its am\nt %\ld be prospective r ?an retrospective4 ,9 ! crime a "r has be5 violat$4 ,no puni%m5t c undo :at has be5 done1 or make good ! wrong to ! p]son :o has suff]$4 ,:at x c d is to make less likely ! do+ ( a simil> wrong 9 o!r cases4 ,its object1 !re=e1 is n to cause pa9 to ! crim9al = ! sake ( caus+ x1 nor *iefly = ! sake ( prev5t+ him1 individually1 f committ+ ! crime aga91 b to associate t]ror ) ! contemplation ( ! crime 9 ! m9d ( o!rs :o might be tempt$ to commit x4 ,& ?is object1 unlike t ( mak+ ! pa9 ( ! puni%m5t comm5surate ) ! guilt ( ! crim9al1 is 9 ! ma9 atta9able4 ,! effect ( ! spectacle ( puni%m5t on ! onlook] is indep5d5t ( any m9ute inquiry into ! degree to :i* x affects ! p>ticul> crim9al4 ,! atta*m5t ( equal p5alties to (f5ces t are alike 9 respect ( ! importance ( ! rights :i* !y violate1 & 9 respect ( ! ord9>y temptations to !m1 w1 on ! :ole1 lead to ! association ( an equal am\nt ( t]ror ) ! prospect ( committ+ l (f5ces 9 ! public m9d4 ,:5 ! circum/ances1 inde$1 ( two crim9als guilty ( (f5ces alike 9 bo? ! above respects are v greatly & obvi\sly diff]5t1 s diff]5t z to make ! op]ation ( ! same p5alty ^u !m v conspicu\sly diff]5t1 !n ! p5alty may be v>i$ )\t int]f]+ ) its t]rify+ effect on ! public m9d4 ,we w suppose e4g4 t a fraud on ! "p ( a respectable bank] is equival5t1 bo? 9 respect ( ! rights :i* x violates & ( ! t]ror ne$$ to prev5t ! recurr5ce ( l (f5ces1 to a burgl>y4 ,x w n foll[ because ! burgl>y is puni%$ by imprisonm5t ) h>d lab\r t h>d lab\r %\ld be inflict$ on ! fraudul5t bank] likewise4 ,! infliction ( h>d lab\r is 9 ev]yone's appreh5sion s diff]5t to ! bank] f :at x is to ! burgl>1 t its infliction is n ne$$ 9 ord] to equalise ! t]ror :i* ! popul> imag9ation associates ) ! puni%m5t 9 ! two cases4 #aid4 ,on ! same pr9ciple may be ju/ifi$ ! consid]ation ( ext5uat+ circum/ances 9 ! infliction ( puni%m5t4 ,9 fact1 :e!r "u t "n or ano!r1 !y are tak5 acc\nt ( 9 ! adm9i/ration ( crim9al law among all civilis$ nations4 ',ext5uat+ circum/ances' is n a phrase 9 use among our lawy]s1 b 9 fact ! consid]ation ( !m does con/antly1 ) ! approval ( ! judge1 conv]t :at w\ld o!rwise h be5 conviction = murd] into conviction = manslaught]1 & :5 !re has be5 conviction = murd]1 leads to ! commutation ( ! s5t5ce4 ,?is fact is (t5 tak5 to %[ t ! degree ( moral depravity on ! "p ( ! crim9al1 ! "q ( 8 "* & motive1 is & mu/ be consid]$ 9 det]m9+ ! puni%m5t due to him4 ,9 tru?1 h[ev]1 'ext5uat+ circum/ances' may v well make a diff]5ce 9 ! k9d ( t]ror :i* ne$s to be associat$ ) a crime 9 ord] to ! future protection ( rights1 & "u c]ta9 conditions ! consid]ation ( !m may be suffici5tly ju/ifi$ on ?is gr\nd4 ,suppose a !ft by a />v+ man1 or a h>e %ot by an angry f>m] ^: corn x is dev\r+4 ,^! are crimes1 b crimes "u su* ext5uat+ circum/ances t !re is no ne$ to associate v s]i\s t]ror ) !m 9 ord] to ! protection ( ! ess5tial rights ( prop]ty4 ,9 ! latt] case ! "r :i* ! f>m] violates is "o :i* p]haps might be disall[$ altoge!r )\t int]f]5ce ) any "r :i* society is int]e/$ 9 ma9ta9+4 ,9 ! =m] case ! "r violat$ is a prim>y & ess5tial "o2 "o :i*1 :]e !re are _m />v+ p1 is 9 fact pretty sure to be protect$ by ! mo/ /r+5t p5alties4 ,& x might be argu$ t on ! pr9ciple /at$ ?is is z x %\ld be2 t1 s f> f ! hung] ( ! ?ief be+ a reason = light5+ 8 puni%m5t1 x is a reason = increas+ x1 9 ord] t ! special temptation to /eal :5 f> gone 9 hung] may1 if possible1 be neutralis$ by a special t]ror associat$ ) ! commission ( ! crime "u ^? conditions4 ,b ?is w\ld be a "o-sid$ application ( ! pr9ciple4 ,x is n ! bus9ess ( ! /ate to protect "o ord] ( rights specially1 b all rights equally4 ,x ought n !re=e to protect a c]ta9 ord] ( rights by associat+ special t]ror ) ! violation ( !m1 :5 ! special temptation to _! violation itself implies a violation ( "r 9 ! p]sons ( ^? :o are s tempt$1 z is ! case :5 a g5]al dang] to prop]ty arises f ! fact t _m p are on ! edge ( />vation4 ,! attempt to d s is at once ineffectual & div]ts att5tion f ! true way ( protect+ ! endang]$ "r1 :i* is to prev5t p f fall+ into a /ate ( />vation4 ,9 any tol]ably organis$ society ! condition ( a man1 ord9>ily hone/ & indu/ri\s1 :o is driv5 to !ft by hung]1 w be s abnormal t v little t]ror ne$s to be associat$ ) ! crime z s committ$ 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! sanctity ( prop]ty 9 ! g5]al imag9ation4 ,suppose aga9 a man to be kill$ 9 a qu>rel aris+ out ( 8 hav+ tamp]$ ) ! fidelity ( 8 neighb\r's wife4 ,9 su* a case 'ext5uat+ circum/ances' may fairly be plead$ aga9/ ! infliction ( ! extreme/ p5alty1 because ! extreme/ t]ror does n ne$ to be associat$ ) homicide1 z committ$ "u su* conditions1 9 ord] to ! g5]al protection ( human life1 & because ! attempt s to associate x w\ld t5d1 s f> z successful1 to weak5 ! g5]al s5se ( ! wrong--! brea* ( family "r--involv$ 9 ! act :i*1 9 ! case suppos$1 provokes ! homicide4 #aie4 ',aft] all1' x may be said1 '?is is a f>-fet*$ way ( expla9+ ! admission ( ext5uat+ circum/ances z modify+ ! puni%m5t ( crime4 ,:y s /r5u\sly avoid ! simpl] explanation1 t ext5uat+ circum/ances are tak5 into acc\nt because !y are held to modify ! moral guilt ( ! crime8 ,is n _! recognition a practical pro( t ! puni%m5t ( a crime by ! /ate repres5ts ! moral disapproval ( ! community8 ,does x n %[ t1 h[ev] imp]fectly ! am\nt ( puni%m5t inflict$ on a crime may 9 fact correspond to its moral wick$ness1 x is g5]ally felt t x ought to d s8' #aif4 ,! answ] is t !re are two reasons = hold+ t ! /ate nei!r c nor %\ld attempt to adju/ ! am\nt ( puni%m5t :i* x inflicts on a crime to ! degree ( moral depravity :i* ! crime implies4 7#a7 ,t ! degree ( moral depravity impli$ 9 any crime is unasc]ta9able4 ,x dep5ds on ! motive ( ! crime1 & on ?is z "p ( ! g5]al "* ( ! ag5t2 on ! relation 9 :i* ! habitual set ( 8 "* /&s to ! "* habitually set on ! pursuit ( goodness4 ,no "o c asc]ta9 ?is 9 reg>d to himself4 ,he may "k t he is always f> f be+ :at he ought to be2 t "o p>ticul> action ( 8 repres5ts on ! :ole1 ) mu* admixture ( inf]ior motives2 ! bett] t5d5cy2 ano!r1 ) "s admixture ( bett] motives1 ! worse4 ,b any "q 9 reg>d to ! degree ( moral goodness or badness 9 any action ( 8 own or ( 8 mo/ intimate fri5d is q unansw]able4 ,mu* less c a judge or jury answ] su* a "q 9 reg>d to an unkn[n crim9al4 ,we may be sure inde$ t any ord9>y crime--nay1 p]haps ev5 t ( ! 'dis9t]e/$ rebel'--implies ! op]ation ( "s motive :i* is morally bad1 = ?\gh x is n necess>ily ! wor/ m5 :o come into conflict ) e/abli%$ rights1 x probably nev] c be ! be/2 b ! degree ( badness impli$ 9 su* a conflict 9 any p>ticul> case is q beyond our k51 & x is ?is degree t mu/ be asc]ta9$ if ! am\nt ( puni%m5t :i* ! /ate inflicts is to be proportionate to ! moral badness impli$ 9 ! crime4 7#b7 ,! notion t ! /ate %\ld1 if x c\ld1 adju/ ! am\nt ( puni%m5t :i* x inflicts on a crime to ! moral wick$ness ( ! crime1 re/s on a false view ( ! relation ( ! /ate to morality4 ,x implies t x is ! bus9ess ( ! /ate to puni% wick$ness1 z su*4 ,b x has no su* bus9ess4 ,x _c und]take to puni% wick$ness1 z su*1 )\t vitiat+ ! dis9t]e/$ness ( ! ef=t to escape wick$ness1 & ?us *eck+ ! gr[? ( a true goodness ( ! he>t 9 ! attempt to promote a goodness :i* is m]ely on ! surface4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n to be und]/ood z mean+ t ! puni%m5t ( crime s]ves no moral purpose4 ,x does s]ve su* a purpose1 & has its value 9 do+ s1 b only 9 ! s5se t ! protection ( rights1 & ! association ( t]ror ) _! violation1 is ! condition antec$5t ( any g5]al advance 9 moral well-be+4 #aig4 ,! puni%m5t ( crime1 !n1 nei!r is1 nor c1 nor %\ld be adju/$ to ! degree ( moral depravity1 prop]ly s call$1 :i* is impli$ 9 ! crime4 ,b x does n !re=e foll[ t x does n repres5t ! disapproval :i* ! community feels = ! crime4 ,on ! :ole1 mak+ all[ance = ! fact t law & judicial cu/om v>y m sl[ly ?an popul> feel+1 x does repres5t su* disapproval4 ,& ! disapproval may fitly be call$ moral1 s f> z t m]ely means t x is a disapproval relat+ to volunt>y action4 ,b x is a disapproval f\nd$ on a s5se ( :at is necess>y = ! protection ( rights1 n on a judgm5t ( good & evil ( t k9d :i* we call consci5ce :5 x is appli$ to our own actions1 & :i* is f\nd$ on an ideal ( moral goodness ) :i* we comp>e our inw>d conduct 7'inw>d1' z repres5t+ motives & "*74 ,x is f\nd$ ess5tially on ! outw>d aspect ( a man's conduct1 on ! view ( x z relat$ to ! security & fre$om 9 action & acquisition ( o!r memb]s ( society4 ,x is true t ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! outw>d & inw>d aspects ( conduct is n pres5t to ! popul> m9d4 ,x has n be5 recognis$ by ^? :o h be5 ! ag5ts 9 e/abli%+ ! exi/+ law ( crimes 9 civilis$ nations4 ,z ! /ate came to control ! individual or family 9 rev5g+ hurts1 & to sub/itute its p5alties = private v5geance1 rules ( puni%m5t came to be enact$ expressive ( g5]al disapproval1 )\t any cle> consci\sness ( :at 0 ! gr\nd ( ! disapproval4 ,b 9 fact x 0 by :at h be5 j describ$ z ! outw>d consequ5ces ( conduct t a g5]al disapproval ( x 0 ord9>ily excit$4 ,its morality 9 ! /rict] or inw>d s5se 0 n matt] ( g5]al social consid]ation4 ,?us 9 ! ma9 x has be5 on ! gr\nd ( its int]f]5ce ) ! g5]al security & fre$om 9 action & acquisition1 & 9 proportion to ! appreh5sion excit$ by x 9 ?is respect1 t conduct has be5 puni%$ by ! /ate4 ,?us ! actual practice ( crim9al law has on ! :ole correspond$ to its true pr9ciple4 ,s f> z ?is pr9ciple has be5 dep>t$ f1 x has n be5 because ! moral badness ( conduct1 9 ! true or inw>d s5se1 has be5 tak5 acc\nt ( 9 its treatm5t z a crime1 = ?is has n be5 g5]ally contemplat$ at all1 b because 'religi\s' consid]ations h int]f]$4 ,conduct :i* did n call = puni%m5t by ! /ate z int]f]+ ) any true rights 7rights t %\ld be rights7 has be5 puni%$ z 'irreligi\s4' ,?is1 h[ev]1 did n mean t x 0 puni%$ on ! gr\nd ( moral badness1 prop]ly s call$4 ,x meant t its consequ5ces 7 fe>$ ei!r z likely to weak5 ! belief 9 "s div9e au?ority on :i* ! e/abli%$ sy/em ( rights 0 suppos$ to re/1 or z likely to br+ evil on ! community ?r\gh provok+ ! wra? ( "s unse5 p[]4 #aih4 ,?is acc\nt ( ! consid]ations :i* h regulat$ ! puni%m5t ( crimes expla9s ! sev]ity ) :i* 'crim9al neglig5ce' is 9 "s cases puni%$1 & t sev]ity is ju/ifi$ by ! acc\nt giv5 ( ! true pr9ciple ( crim9al law1 ! pr9ciple1 viz41 t crime %\ld be puni%$ accord+ to ! importance ( ! "r :i* x violates1 & to ! degree ( t]ror :i* 9 a well-organis$ society ne$s to be associat$ ) ! crime 9 ord] to ! protection ( ! "r4 ,x _c be held t ! c>elessness ( an eng9e-driv] :o ov]looks a signal & causes a fatal accid5t1 implies m moral depravity ?an is impli$ 9 su* neglig5ce z all ( u are con/antly guilty (4 ,consid]$ ) ref]5ce to ! /ate ( m9d ( ! ag5t1 x is on a level ) multitudes ( actions & omissions :i* are n puni%$ at all4 ,yet ! eng9e-driv] w\ld be f\nd guilty ( manslaught] & s5t5c$ to p5al s]vitude4 ,! ju/ification is n to be f\nd 9 di/9ctions betwe5 diff]5t k9ds ( neglig5ce on ! "p ( diff]5t ag5ts1 b 9 ! effect ( ! neglig5ce 9 diff]5t cases ^u ! rights ( o!rs4 ,9 ! case suppos$1 ! mo/ important ( all rights1 ! "r to life1 on ! "p ( railway pass5g]s dep5ds = its ma9t5ance on ! vigilance ( ! driv]s4 ,any prev5tible failure 9 su* vigilance requires to h suffici5t t]ror associat$ ) x 9 ! m9d ( o!r eng9e-driv]s to prev5t ! recurr5ce ( a l failure 9 vigilance4 ,su* puni%m5t is j1 h[ev] g5]ally virtu\s ! victim ( x is1 because x is necess>y to ! protection ( rights ( :i* ! protection is necess>y to social well-be+2 & ! victim ( x1 9 proportion to 8 s5se ( ju/ice1 :i* means 8 habit ( practically recognis+ true rights1 w recognise x z j4 #aii4 ,on ?is pr9ciple crimes committ$ 9 drunk5ness mu/ be dealt )4 ,n only is all depravity ( motive specially inapplicable to !m1 s9ce ! motives actuat+ a drunk5 man (t5 seem to h little connection ) 8 habitual "*2 x is n always ! case t a crime committ$ 9 drunk5ness is ev5 int5tional4 ,:5 a man 9 a drunk5 rage kills ano!r1 he no d\bt int5ds to kill him1 or at any rate to d him 'griev\s bodily h>m1' & p]haps ! association ( great p5al t]ror ) su* an (f5ce may t5d to re/ra9 m5 f committ+ x ev5 :5 drunk2 b :5 a drunk5 "m lies on h] *ild & smo!rs x1 ! hurt is n int5tional b accid5tal4 ,! drunk5ness1 h[ev]1 is n accid5tal1 b prev5tible by ! influ5ce ( adequate motives4 ,x is !re=e prop] to treat su* a violation ( "r1 ?\gh committ$ unkn[+ly1 z a crime1 & to associate t]ror ) x 9 ! popul> imag9ation1 9 ord] to ! protection ( rights by mak+ p m c>eful ab\t gett+ drunk1 ab\t all[+ or promot+ drunk5ness1 & ab\t look+ aft] drunk5 p4 ,x is unreasonable1 h[ev]1 to d ?is & at ! same "t to associate s little t]ror1 z 9 practice we d1 ) ! promotion ( dang]\s drunk5ness4 ,! case ( a crime committ$ by a drunk>d is pla9ly di/+ui%able f t ( a crime committ$ by a lunatic1 = ! association ( p5al t]ror ) ! latt] w\ld t5d nei!r to prev5t a lunatic f committ+ a crime nor p f becom+ lunatics4 #bjj4 ,! pr9ciple above /at$1 z t accord+ to :i* puni%m5t by ! /ate %\ld be inflict$ & regulat$1 also ju/ifies a di/9ction betwe5 crimes & civil injuries1 i4e4 betwe5 brea*es ( "r = :i* ! /ate inflicts puni%m5t )\t r$ress to ! p]son injur$1 & ^? = :i* x procures or seeks to procure r$ress to ! p]son injur$ )\t puni%m5t ( ! p]son caus+ ! injury4 ,we are n "h conc]n$ ) ! hi/ory ( ?is di/9ction 7= :i* see ,ma9e1 ,anci5t ,law1 *ap4 x1 & ,w4,e4 ,he>n1 ,! ,aryan ,h\sehold1 *ap4 xix71 nor ) ! "q :e!r _m brea*es ( "r n[ among u treat$ z civil injuries ought n to be treat$ z crimes1 b ) ! ju/ification t exi/s = treat+ c]ta9 k9ds ( brea* ( "r z cases 9 :i* ! /ate %\ld int]f]e to procure r$ress = ! p]son injur$1 b n 9 ! way ( inflict+ puni%m5t on ! injur] until he wilfully resi/s ! ord] to make r$ress4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! di/9ction z ord9>ily laid d[n1 viz4 t civil injuries 'are violations ( rights :5 consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to ! injury su/a9$ by ! individual1' :ile crimes are 'violations ( rights :5 consid]$ 9 ref]5ce to _! evil t5d5cy z reg>ds ! community at l>ge' 7,/eph51 ,book ,v1 *ap1 i71 is mislead+2 = if ! well-be+ ( ! community did n suff] 9 ! hurt done to ! individual1 t hurt w\ld n be a violation ( a "r 9 ! true s5se at all1 nor w\ld ! community h any gr\nd = insi/+ t ! hurt %all be r$ress$1 & = det]m9+ ! mode 9 :i* x %all be r$ress$4 ,a violation ( "r _c 9 tru? be consid]$ m]ely 9 relation to injury su/a9$ by an individual1 =1 ?us consid]$1 x w\ld n be a violation ( "r4 ,x may be said t ! /ate is only conc]n$ 9 procur+ r$ress = civil injuries1 because1 if x left an individual to procure r$ress 9 8 own way1 !re w\ld be no public peace4 ,b !re are o!r & easi] ways ( prev5t+ fight+ ?an by procur+ r$ress ( wrong4 ,we prev5t our dogs f fight+1 n by r$ress+ wrongs :i* !y su/a9 f ea* o!r 7( wrongs z ( rights !y are 9 ! prop] s5se incapable71 b by beat+ !m or ty+ !m up4 ,! community w\ld n keep ! peace by procur+ r$ress = hurt or damage su/a9$ by individuals1 unless x conceiv$ itself z hav+ int]e/ 9 ! security ( individuals f hurt & damage1 unless x consid]$ ! hurt done to individuals z done to itself4 ,! true ju/ification = treat+ "s brea*es ( "r z cases m]ely = r$ress1 o!rs z cases = puni%m5t1 is t1 9 ord] to ! g5]al protection ( rights1 ) "s x is necess>y to associate a c]ta9 t]ror1 ) o!rs x is n4 #bja4 ,:at !n is ! g5]al gr\nd ( di/9ction betwe5 ^? ) :i* t]ror does1 & ^? ) :i* x does n1 ne$ to be associat$8 ,cle>ly x is purposeless to associate t]ror ) brea*es ( "r 9 ! case :]e ! break] does n "k t he is violat+ a "r1 & is n responsible = n kn[+ x4 ,no association ( t]ror ) su* a brea* ( "r c prev5t m5 f simil> brea*es "u l conditions4 ,9 any case1 !re=e1 9 :i* x is1 to beg9 )1 op5 to dispute :e!r a brea* ( "r has be5 committ$ at all1 e4g4 :5 x is a "q :e!r a contract has be5 really brok51 ow+ to "s d\bt z to ! int]pretation ( ! contract or its application to a p>ticul> set ( circum/ances1 or :e!r a commodity ( :i* someone is 9 possession prop]ly belongs to ano!r1--9 su* a case1 ?\gh ! judge f9ally decides t !re has be5 a brea* ( "r1 !re is no gr\nd = treat+ x z a crime or puni%+ x4 ,if1 9 ! c\rse ( judicial inquiry1 x turns out t !re has be5 fraud by "o or o!r ( ! p>ties to ! litigation1 a crim9al prosecution1 hav+ puni%m5t1 n r$ress1 = its object1 %\ld prop]ly sup]v5e ^u ! civil suit1 unless ! consequ5ces ( ! civil suit are incid5tally su* z to am\nt to a suffici5t puni%m5t ( ! fraudul5t p>ty4 ,aga91 x is purposeless to associate t]ror ) a brea* ( obligation :i* ! p]son committ+ x kn[s to be a brea*1 b ( an obligation :i* he has no means ( fulfill+1 e4g4 non-paym5t ( an ackn[l$g$ debt by a man :o1 ?r\gh no fault ( 8 own1 is )\t means ( pay+ x4 ,x is only 9 cases ( "o or o!r ( ! above k9ds1--cases 9 :i* ! brea* ( "r1 suppos+ x to h be5 committ$1 has presumably aris5 ei!r f inability to prev5t x or f ignorance ( ! exi/5ce ( ! "r1--t x c be held z an absolute rule to be no bus9ess ( ! /ate to int]f]e p5ally b only 9 ! way ( re/or+1 s f> z possible1 ! brok5 "r4 #bjb4 ,b !re are _m cases ( brea* ( "r :i* c nei!r be def9itely r$uc$ to "o ( ! above k9ds1 nor di/+ui%$ f !m by any broad dem>cation2 cases 9 :i* ! break] ( a "r has be5 ignorant ( x1 because he has n c>$ to "k1 or 9 :i* 8 inability to fulfil x is ! result ( neglig5ce or extravagance4 ,:e!r ^! %\ld be treat$ p5ally or no1 w dep5d p>tly on ! s]i\sness ( ! wrong done ?r\gh avoidable ignorance or neglig5ce1 p>tly on ! suffici5cy ( ! det]r5t effect incid5tally involv$ 9 ! civil rem$y4 ,9 ! case e4g4 ( inability to pay a debt ?r\gh extravagance or recklessness1 x may be unnecess>y & inadvisable to treat ! brea* ( "r p5ally1 9 consid]ation t x is indirectly puni%$ by pov]ty & ! loss ( reputation incid5tal to bankruptcy1 & ! cr$itors %\ld n look to ! /ate to protect !m f ! consequ5ces ( l5d+ on bad security4 ,! neglig5ce ( a tru/ee1 aga91 may be indirectly puni%$ by 8 be+ oblig$ to make good ! prop]ty lo/ ?r\gh 8 neglect to ! utmo/ ( 8 means4 ,?is may s]ve z a suffici5tly det]r5t example )\t ! neglig5ce be+ proce$$ aga9/ crim9ally4 ,aga91 damage done to prop]ty by neglig5ce is 9 ,engl& dealt ) civilly1 n crim9ally2 & x may be held t 9 ?is case ! liability to civil action is a suffici5t det]r5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 neglig5ce :i*1 z neglig5ce1 is n really di/+ui%able f ! above1 is rightly treat$ crim9ally :5 its consequ5ces are m s]i\s2 e4g4 t ( ! railway-s]vant ^: neglig5ce results 9 a fatal accid5t1 t ( ! bank-director :o all[s a mislead+ /atem5t ( acc\nts to be publi%$1 fraudul5tly p]haps 9 ! eye ( ! law1 b 9 fact neglig5tly4 ,z a matt] ( pr9ciple1 no d\bt1 if int5tional violation ( ! "r ( prop]ty is treat$ z p5al equally ) ! violation ( ! "r ( life1 ! neglig5t violation %\ld be treat$ z p5al 9 ! "o case z mu* z 9 ! o!r4 ,b z ! consequ5ces ( an action = damages may be virtually ?\gh n o/5sibly p5al to ! p]son proce$$ aga9/1 x may be conv5i5t to leave ^? neglig5ces :i* d n1 l ! neglig5ce ( a railway-s]vant1 affect ! mo/ important rights1 or d n affect rights on a v l>ge scale z does t ( a bank-director1 to be dealt ) by ! civil process4 #bjc4 ,! actual di/9ction betwe5 crimes & civil injuries 9 ,engli% law is no d\bt l>gely accid5tal4 ,z ! hi/orians ( law po9t out1 ! civil process1 hav+ comp5sation1 n puni%m5t1 = its object1 is ! =m :i* ! int]f]5ce ( ! community = ! ma9t5ance ( rights orig9ally takes4 ,! community1 re/ra9+ private v5geance1 helps ! injur$ p]son to r$ress1 & regulates ! way 9 :i* r$ress %all be obta9$4 ,?is proc$ure no d\bt implies ! conviction t ! community is conc]n$ 9 ! injury done to an individual1 b x is only by degrees t ?is conviction becomes explicit1 & t ! community comes to treat all prev5tible brea*es ( "r z (f5ces aga9/ itself or its sov]eign repres5tative1 i4e4 z crimes or p5al2 9 ! language ( ,engli% law1 z 'brea*es ( ! k+'s peace4' ,^? (f5ces are fir/ s treat$ :i* happ5 to excite mo/ public al>m1 mo/ fe> = g5]al safety 7h5ce1 among o!rs1 any?+ ?\ght sacrilegi\s74 ,9 a c\ntry l ,engl&1 :]e no code has be5 drawn up on g5]al pr9ciples1 ! class ( injuries t are treat$ p5ally is gradually enl>g$ z public al>m happ5s to be excit$ 9 p>ticul> directions1 b x is l>gely a matt] ( accid5t h[ ! classification ( crimes on "o side & civil injuries on ! o!r happ5s to /& at any p>ticul> "t4 #a #a ,see ,m>kby1 ,elem5ts ( ,law1 *ap4 xi1 especially note #a1 p4 #bdc2 & ,au/91 ,lecture ,,xxvii4 ,betwe5 crimes & civil injuries ! di/9ction1 z x actually exi/s1 is m]ely "o ( proc$ure 7z /at$ by ,au/91 p4 #eah74 ,! violation ( "r 9 "o case is proce$$ aga9/ by ! me?od ( indictm5t1 9 ! o!r by an 'action4' ,! di/9ction t 9 "o case puni%m5t is ! object ( ! process1 9 ! o!r r$ress1 is introduc$ 9 ord] to expla9 ! diff]5ce ( proc$ure2 & to ju/ify ?is di/9ction resort is _h to ! fur!r di/9ction1 t civil injury is consid]$ to affect ! individual m]ely1 crime to affect ! /ate4 ,b 9 fact ! action = civil injury may incid5tally h a p5al result 7,au/91 p #eba71 & if x _h n1 _m violations ( "r n[ treat$ z civil injuries w\ld h to be treat$ z crimes4 ,z an explanation !re=e ( ! di/9ction betwe5 crimes & injuries z x /&s1 x is n correct to say t = ! =m] puni%m5t is s\ght1 = ! latt] m]ely r$ress4 ,nor = reasons already giv5 is x true ( any civil injury to say t x affects1 or %\ld be consid]$ z affect+1 injur$ individuals m]ely4 ,! only di/9ction ( pr9ciple is t betwe5 violations ( "r :i* call = puni%m5t & ^? :i* d n2 & ^? only d n call = puni%m5t 9 "s =m or o!r :i* arise ei!r f unc]ta9ty z to ! "r violat$1 or f inability to prev5t ! violation4 #bjd4 ,accord+ to ! view "h tak51 !n1 !re is no direct ref]5ce 9 puni%m5t by ! /ate1 ei!r retrospective or prospective1 to moral good or evil4 ,! /ate 9 its judicial action does n look to ! moral guilt ( ! crim9al :om x puni%es1 or to ! promotion ( moral good by means ( 8 puni%m5t 9 him or o!rs4 ,x looks n to virtue & vice b to rights & wrongs4 ,x looks back to ! wrong done 9 ! crime :i* x puni%es2 n1 h[ev]1 9 ord] to av5ge x1 b 9 ord] to ! consid]ation ( ! sort ( t]ror :i* ne$s to be associat$ ) su* wrong-do+ 9 ord] to ! future ma9t5ance ( rights4 ,if ! "* ( ! crim9al comes into acc\nt at all1 x c only be prop]ly z an incid5t ( ?is consid]ation4 ,?us puni%m5t ( crime is prev5tive 9 its object2 n1 h[ev]1 prev5tive ( any or e evil & by any & e means1 b 7accord+ to its idea or z x %\ld be7 ju/ly prev5tive ( inju/ice2 prev5tive ( int]f]5ce ) ^? p[]s ( action & acquisition :i* x is = ! g5]al well-be+ t individuals %\ld possess1 & accord+ to laws :i* all[ ^? p[]s equally to all m54 ,b 9 ord] effectually to atta9 its prev5tive object & to atta9 x ju/ly1 x %\ld be re=matory4 ,:5 ! re=matory (fice ( puni%m5t is insi/$ on1 ! ref]5ce may be1 & f ! judicial po9t ( view mu/ be1 n to ! moral good ( ! crim9al z an ultimate end1 b to 8 recov]y f crim9al habits z a means to t :i* is ! prop] & direct object ( /ate-puni%m5t1 viz4 ! g5]al protection ( rights4 ,! re=matory function ( puni%m5t is f ?is po9t ( view an incid5t ( its prev5tive function1 z regulat$ by ! consid]ation ( :at is j to ! crim9al z well z to o!rs4 ,= ! fulfilm5t ( ?is latt] function1 ! great ?+1 z we h se51 is by ! puni%m5t ( an actual crim9al to det] o!r possible crim9als2 b = ! same purpose1 unless ! actual crim9al is to be put out ( ! way or lock$ up = life1 x mu/ be desirable to re=m him s t he may n be dang]\s 9 future4 ,n[ :5 x is ask$ :y he %\ld n be put out ( ! way1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t among ! rights :i* ! /ate has to ma9ta9 are includ$ rights ( ! crim9al himself4 ,^! inde$ are = ! "t susp5d$ by 8 action 9 violation ( rights1 b f\nd$ z !y are on ! capacity = contribut+ to social good1 !y c\ld only be held to be f9ally =feit$ on ! gr\nd t ?is capacity 0 absolutely ext9ct4 #bje4 ,?is consid]ation limits ! k9d ( puni%m5t :i* ! /ate may ju/ly inflict4 ,x ought n 9 puni%+ to sacrifice unnecess>ily to ! ma9t5ance ( rights 9 g5]al :at might be call$ ! rev]sion>y rights ( ! crim9al1 rights :i*1 if prop]ly treat$1 he might ultimately become capable ( ex]cis+ = ! g5]al good4 ,puni%m5t !re=e ei!r by dea? or by p]petual imprisonm5t is ju/ifiable only on "o ( two gr\nds2 ei!r t association ( ! extreme/ t]ror ) c]ta9 actions is "u c]ta9 conditions necess>y to pres]ve ! possibility ( a social life bas$ on ! obs]vance ( rights1 or t ! crime puni%$ af=ds a presumption ( a p]man5t incapacity = rights on ! "p ( ! crim9al4 ,! fir/ ju/ification may be plead$ = ! executions ( m5 conc]n$ 9 treasonable outbreaks1 or guilty ( c]ta9 brea*es ( discipl9e 9 w> 7on ! supposition t ! w> is necess>y = ! safety ( ! /ate & t su* puni%m5ts are a necess>y incid5t ( w>74 ,:e!r ! capital puni%m5t is really j 9 su* cases mu/ dep5d1 n only on its necessity z an incid5t 9 ! def5ce ( a c]ta9 /ate1 b on ! "q :e!r t /ate itself is fulfill+ its function z a su/a9] ( true rights4 ,= ! p5alty ( dea? = murd] bo? ju/ifications may be urg$4 ,x _c be def5d$ on any o!r gr\nd1 b x may be d\bt$ :e!r ! presumption ( p]man5t incapacity = rights is "o :i* 9 our ignorance we c ev] be entitl$ to make4 ,z to ! o!r plea1 ! "q is :e!r1 ) a prop] police sy/em & suffici5t c]ta9ty ( detection & conviction1 ! association ( ?is extreme/ t]ror ) ! murd]] is necess>y to ! security ( life4 ,:]e ! dea?-p5alty1 h[ev]1 is unju/ifiable1 s mu/ be t ( really p]man5t imprisonm5t2 "o z mu* z ! o!r is an absolute deprivation ( free social life1 & ( ! possibilities ( moral developm5t :i* t life af=ds4 ,! only ju/ification = a s5t5ce ( p]man5t imprisonm5t 9 a case :]e !re w\ld be none = capital puni%m5t w\ld be t1 ?\gh inflict$ z p]man5t1 ! imprisonm5t might be br\ght to an end 9 ! ev5t ( any suffici5t pro( appe>+ ( ! crim9al's am5dm5t4 ,b su* pro( c\ld only be af=d$ if ! imprisonm5t 7 s modifi$ z to all[ ! prison] a c]ta9 am\nt ( lib]ty4 #bjf4 ,if puni%m5t !n is to be j1 9 ! s5se t 9 its infliction due acc\nt is tak5 ( all rights1 includ+ ! susp5d$ rights ( ! crim9al himself1 x mu/ be1 s f> z public safety all[s1 re=matory4 ,x mu/ t5d to qualify ! crim9al = ! resumption ( rights4 ,z re=matory1 h[ev]1 puni%m5t has = its direct object ! qualification = ! ex]cise ( rights1 & is only conc]n$ ) ! moralisation ( ! crim9al indirectly s f> z x may result f ! ex]cise ( rights4 ,b ev5 :]e x _c be re=matory 9 ?is s5se1 & ov] & above its re=matory function 9 cases :]e x has "o1 x has a moral end4 ,j because puni%m5t by ! /ate has = its direct object ! ma9t5ance ( rights1 x has1 l e o!r function ( ! /ate1 indirectly a moral object1 because true rights1 accord+ to our def9ition1 are p[]s :i* x is = ! g5]al well-be+ t ! individual 7or association7 %\ld possess1 & t well-be+ is ess5tially a moral well-be+4 ,ultimately1 !re=e1 ! j puni%m5t ( crime is = ! moral good ( ! community4 ,x is also = ! moral good ( ! crim9al himself1 unless--& ?is is a supposition :i* we ought n to make--he is beyond ! rea* ( moral influ5ces4 ,?\gh n inflict$ = t purpose1 & ?\gh x w\ld n ! less h to be inflict$ if no moral effect on ! crim9al c\ld be disc]n$1 x is morally ! be/ ?+ t c happ5 to him4 ,x is s1 ev5 if a true social necessity requires t he be puni%$ ) dea?4 ,! fact t society is oblig$ s to deal ) him af=ds ! be/ *ance ( br++ home to him ! anti-social nature ( 8 act4 ,x is true t ! la/ utt]ances ( murd]]s g5]ally convey ! impression t !y consid] !mselves int]e/+ p]sons1 q sure ( go+ to heav52 b ^! are probably conv5tional4 ,at any rate if ! solemn infliction ( puni%m5t on behalf ( human society1 & )\t any sign ( v9dictiv5ess1 w n bre$ ! %ame :i* is ! moral new bir?1 presumably no?+ else )9 human rea* w4 ,m4 ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,! ,,/ate ,,to ,,promote ,,morality4 #bjg4 ,! "r ( ! individual man z su* to free life is con/antly ga9+ on its negative side m g5]al recognition4 ,x is ! basis ( ! gr[+ scrupulosity 9 reg>d to puni%m5ts :i* are n re=matory1 :i* put rights f9ally out ( ! rea* ( a crim9al in/ead ( qualify+ him = _! r5ew$ ex]cise4 ,b ! only rational f\ndation = ! ascription ( ?is "r is ! ascription ( capacity = free contribution to social good4 ,we treat ?is capacity 9 ! man ^: crime has giv5 pro( ( its hav+ be5 ov]come by anti-social t5d5cies1 z yet giv+ him a title to a fur!r *ance ( its developm5t2 on ! o!r h&1 we act z if x conf]r$ no title on its possessors1 be=e a crime has be5 committ$1 to be plac$ "u conditions 9 :i* its realisation w\ld be possible4 ,is ?is reasonable8 ,yet are n all mod]n /ates s act+8 ,are !y n all[+ _! o/5sible memb]s to gr[ up "u conditions :i* r5d] ! developm5t ( social capacity practically impossible8 ,0 x n m reasonable1 z 9 ! anci5t /ates1 to d5y ! "r to life 9 ! human subject z su*1 ?an to admit x "u conditions :i* prev5t ! realisation ( ! capacity t =ms ! gr\nd ( its admission8 ,?is br+s u to ! f\r? ( ! que/ions t arose #a out ( ! ass]tion ( ! individual's "r to free life4 ,:at is ! nature & ext5t ( ! individual's claim to be enabl$ positively to realise t capacity = freely contribut+ to social good :i* is ! f\ndation ( 8 "r to free life8 #a ,above1 sec4 #aef4 ,,rln #bjh4 ,9 deal+ ) ?is "q1 x is important to be> 9 m9d t ! capacity we are consid]+ is ess5tially a free or 7:at is ! same7 a moral capacity4 ,x is a capacity1 n = action det]m9$ by relation to a c]ta9 end1 b = action det]m9$ by a conception ( ! end to :i* x is relative4 ,only ?us is x a f\ndation ( rights4 ,! action ( an animal or plant may be made contributory to social good1 b x is n !re=e a f\ndation ( rights on ! "p ( an animal or plant1 because !y are n affect$ by ! conception ( ! good to :i* !y contribute4 ,a "r is a p[] ( act+ = 8 own ends1--= :at he conceives to be 8 good1--secur$ to an individual by ! community1 on ! supposition t its ex]cise contributes to ! good ( ! community4 ,b ! ex]cise ( su* a p[] _c be s contributory1 unless ! individual1 9 act+ = 8 own ends1 is at lea/ affect$ by ! conception ( a good z common to himself ) o!rs4 ,! condition ( mak+ ! animal contributory to human good is t we d n leave him free to det]m9e ! ex]cise ( 8 p[]s2 t we det]m9e !m = him2 t we use him m]ely z an in/rum5t2 & ?is means t we d n1 because we _c1 end[ him ) rights4 ,we _c end[ him ) rights because !re is no conception ( a good common to him ) u :i* we c treat z a motive to him to d to u z he w\ld h u d to him4 ,x is n inde$ necess>y to a capacity = rights1 z x is to true moral goodness1 t int]e/ 9 a good conceiv$ z common to himself ) o!rs %\ld be a man's dom9ant motive4 ,x is en\gh if t :i* he pres5ts to himself f "t to "t z 8 good1 & :i* accord+ly det]m9es 8 action1 is s f> affect$ by consid]ation ( ! position 9 :i* he /&s to o!rs1--( ! way 9 :i* ?is or t possible action ( 8 w\ld affect !m1 & ( :at he w\ld h to expect f !m 9 return1--z to result habitually1 )\t =ce or fe> ( =ce1 9 action n incompatible ) conditions necess>y to ! pursuit ( a common good on ! "p ( o!rs4 ,9 o!r words1 x is ! presumption t a man 9 8 g5]al c\rse ( conduct w ( 8 own motion h respect to ! common good1 :i* entitles him to rights at ! h&s ( ! community4 ,! "q ( ! moral value ( ! motive :i* may induce ?is respect--:e!r an unselfi% int]e/ 9 common good or ! wi% = p]sonal pleasure & fe> ( p]sonal pa9--does n come into ! acc\nt at all4 ,an ag5t1 inde$1 :o c\ld only be induc$ by fe> ( dea? or bodily h>m to behave con=mably to ! requirem5ts ( ! community1 w\ld n be a subject ( rights1 because ?is influ5ce c\ld nev] be br\ght to be> on him s con/antly1 if he 7 free to regulate 8 own life1 z to secure ! public safety4 ,b a man's desire = pleasure to himself & av]sion f pa9 to himself1 ?\gh dissociat$ f any desire = a high] object1 = any object t is desir$ because good = o!rs1 may con/itute a capacity = rights1 if 8 imag9ation ( pleasure & pa9 is s f> affect$ by sympa?y ) ! feel+ ( o!rs ab\t him z to make him1 indep5d5tly ( =ce or fe> ( puni%m5t1 obs]vant ( e/abli%$ rights4 ,9 su* a case ! fe> ( puni%m5t may be ne$$ to neutralise anti-social impulses "u circum/ances ( special temptation1 b by itself x c\ld nev] be a suffici5tly uni=m motive to qualify a man1 9 ! abs5ce ( m spontane\sly social feel+s1 = ! life ( a free citiz54 ,! qualification = su* a life is a spontane\s habit ( act+ ) ref]5ce to a common good1 :e!r t habit be f\nd$ on an imag9ation ( pleasures & pa9s or on a conception ( :at ought to be4 ,9 ei!r case ! habit implies at lea/ an und]/&+ t !re is su* a ?+ z a common good1 & a regulation ( egoi/ic hopes & fe>s1 if n an induc+ ( m 'dis9t]e/$' motives1 9 consequ5ce ( t und]/&+4 #bji4 ,! capacity = rights1 !n1 be+ a capacity = spontane\s action regulat$ by a conception ( a common good1 ei!r s regulat$ ?r\gh an int]e/ :i* fl[s directly f t conception1 or ?r\gh hopes & fe>s :i* are affect$ by x ?r\gh m complex *annels ( habit & association1 is a capacity :i* _c be g5]at$--:i* on ! contr>y is neutralis$--by any influ5ces t int]f]e ) ! spontane\s action ( social int]e/s4 ,n[ any direct en=cem5t ( ! outw>d conduct1 :i* ought to fl[ f social int]e/s1 by means ( ?reat5$ p5alties--& a law requir+ su* conduct necess>ily implies p5alties = disob$i5ce to x--does int]f]e ) ! spontane\s action ( ^? int]e/s1 & consequ5tly *ecks ! gr[? ( ! capacity :i* is ! condition ( ! b5eficial ex]cise ( rights4 ,= ?is reason ! effectual action ( ! /ate1 i4e4 ! community z act+ ?r\gh law1 = ! promotion ( habits ( true citiz5%ip1 seems necess>ily to be conf9$ to ! removal ( ob/acles4 ,"u ?is head1 h[ev]1 !re may & %\ld be includ$ mu* t mo/ /ates h hi!rto neglect$1 & mu* t at fir/ sight may h ! appe>ance ( an en=cem5t ( moral duties1 e4g4 ! requirem5t t p>5ts h _! *ildr5 taught ! elem5t>y arts4 ,to educate "o's *ildr5 is no d\bt a moral duty1 & x is n "o ( ^? duties1 l t ( pay+ debts1 ( :i* ! neglect directly int]f]es ) ! rights ( someone else4 ,x might seem1 !re=e1 to be a duty ) :i* positive law %\ld h no?+ to d1 any m ?an ) ! duty ( /riv+ aft] a noble life4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! neglect ( x does t5d to prev5t ! gr[? ( ! capacity = b5eficially ex]cis+ rights on ! "p ( ^? ^: education is neglect$1 & x is on ?is acc\nt1 n z a purely moral duty on ! "p ( a p>5t1 b z ! prev5tion ( a h9drance to ! capacity = rights on ! "p ( *ildr51 t education %\ld be en=c$ by ! /ate4 ,x may be object$1 inde$1 t 9 en=c+ x we are dep>t+ 9 reg>d to ! p>5ts f ! pr9ciple above laid d[n2 t we are int]f]+ ) ! spontane\s action ( social int]e/s1 ?\gh we are do+ s ) a view to promot+ ?is spontane\s action 9 ano!r g5]ation4 ,b ! answ] to ?is objection is1 t a law ( compulsory education1 if ! pref]5ces1 ecclesia/ical or o!rwise1 ( ^? p>5ts :o %[ any practical s5se ( _! responsibility are duly respect$1 is f ! beg9n+ only felt z compulsion by ^? 9 :om1 s f> z ?is social function is conc]n$1 !re is no spontaneity to be int]f]$ )2 & t 9 ! second g5]ation1 ?\gh ! law ) its p5al sanctions /ill cont9ues1 x is n felt z a law1 z an en=cem5t ( action by p5alties1 at all4 #baj4 ,on ! same pr9ciple ! fre$om ( contract ought probably to be m re/rict$ 9 c]ta9 directions ?an is at pres5t ! case4 ,! fre$om to d z !y l on ! "p ( "o set ( m5 may involve ! ultimate disqualification ( _m o!rs1 or ( a succe$+ g5]ation1 = ! ex]cise ( rights4 ,?is applies mo/ obvi\sly to su* k9ds ( contract or traffic z affect ! heal? & h\s+ ( ! p1 ! gr[? ( population relatively to ! means ( subsi/5ce1 & ! accumulation or di/ribution ( l&$ prop]ty4 ,9 ! hurry ( remov+ ^! re/ra9ts on free deal+ betwe5 man & man1 :i* h aris5 p>tly p]haps f "s confus$ idea ( ma9ta9+ morality1 b mu* m f ! p[] ( class-int]e/s1 we h be5 apt to take too n>r[ a view ( ! range ( p]sons--n "o g5]ation m]ely1 b succe$+ g5]ations--^: fre$om ought to be tak5 into acc\nt1 & ( ! conditions necess>y to _! fre$om 7'fre$om' "h mean+ _! qualification = ! ex]cise ( rights74 ,h5ce ! mass+ ( population )\t reg>d to conditions ( heal?2 unre/ra9$ traffic 9 delet]i\s commodities2 unlimit$ upgr[? ( ! class ( hir$ lab\r]s 9 p>ticul> indu/ries :i* circum/ances h sudd5ly /imulat$1 )\t any provision aga9/ ! dang] ( an impov]i%$ prolet>iate 9 foll[+ g5]ations4 ,mean:ile1 "u pret5ce ( all[+ fre$om ( beque/ & settlem5t1 a sy/em has gr[n up :i* prev5ts ! l&lords ( ea* g5]ation f be+ free ei!r 9 ! gov]nm5t ( _! families or 9 ! disposal ( _! l&1 & aggravates ! t5d5cy to cr[d into t[ns1 z well z ! difficulties ( provid+ heal?y h\se-room1 by keep+ l& 9 a few h&s4 ,x w\ld be out ( place "h to consid] 9 detail ! rem$ies = ^! evils1 or to discuss ! "q h[ f> x is well to tru/ to ! initiative ( ! /ate or ( individuals 9 deal+ ) !m4 ,x is en\gh to po9t out ! directions 9 :i* ! /ate may remove ob/acles to ! realisation ( ! capacity = b5eficial ex]cise ( rights1 )\t defeat+ its own object by vitiat+ ! spontane\s "* ( t capacity4 ,n4 ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,! ,,/ate ,,9 ,,reg>d ,,to ,,prop]ty4 #baa4 ,we h n[ consid]$ ! gr\nd ( ! "r to free life1 & :at is ! ju/ification1 if any1 = ! app>5t disreg>d ( t "r1 7a7 9 w>1 7b7 9 ! infliction ( puni%m5t4 ,we h also dealt ) ! "q ( ! g5]al (fice ( ! /ate 9 reg>d to ! developm5t ( t capacity 9 individuals :i* is ! f\ndation ( ! "r1 po9t+ out on ! "o h& ! necess>y limitation ( its (fice 9 ?is respect1 on ! o!r h& ! directions 9 :i* x may remove ob/acles to t developm5t4 ,we h next to consid] ! rationale ( ! rights ( prop]ty4 ,9 discussions on ! 'orig9 ( prop]ty' two que/ions are apt to be mix$ up :i*1 ?\gh connect$1 ought to be kept di/9ct4 ,"o is ! "q h[ m5 h come to appropriate2 ! o!r ! "q h[ ! idea ( "r has come to be associat$ ) _! appropriations4 ,z ! t]m 'prop]ty' n only implies a p]man5t possession ( some?+1 or a possession :i* c only be giv5 up ) ! good w ( ! possessor1 b also a possession recognis$ z a "r1 an inquiry into ! orig9 ( prop]ty mu/ involve bo? ^! que/ions1 b x is n ! less important t ! di/9ction betwe5 !m %\ld be obs]v$4 ,ea* ( !m aga9 has bo? its analytical & its hi/orical side4 ,9 reg>d to ! fir/ "q x is important to le>n all t c be le>nt z to ! k9d ( ?+s t 7 fir/1 & aft]w>ds at successive p]iods1 appropriat$2 z to ! mode 9 :i*1 & ! sort ( p]sons or societies by :om1 !y 7 appropriat$4 ,?is is an hi/orical inquiry4 ,b x _c take ! place ( a metaphysical or psy*ological analysis ( ! conditions on ! "p ( ! appropriat+ subject impli$ 9 ! fact t he does su* a ?+ z appropriate4 ,s1 too1 9 reg>d to ! second "q1 x is important to inve/igate hi/orically ! =ms 9 :i* ! "r ( m5 9 _! appropriations has be5 recognis$2 ! p>ties1 :e!r individuals or societies1 to :om ! "r has be5 all[$2 & ! sort ( objects1 capable ( appropriation1 to :i* x has be5 consid]$ to ext5d4 ,b nei!r c ^! inquiries help u to und]/&1 9 ! abs5ce ( a metaphysical or moral analysis1 ei!r :at is impli$ 9 ! ascription ( a "r to c]ta9 appropriations1 or :y !re %\ld be a "r to !m4 #bab4 ,we h !n two que/ions1 z above /at$1 ea* requir+ two diff]5t me?ods ( treatm5t4 ,b nei!r h ! que/ions !mselves1 nor ! diff]5t me?ods ( deal+ ) !m1 be5 duly di/+ui%$4 ,x is ow+ to confusion betwe5 !m t ! "r ( prop]ty 9 ?+s has be5 suppos$ to orig9ate 9 ! fir/ occupancy ( !m4 ,?is supposition1 9 tru?1 m]ely disguises ! id5tical proposition t 9 ord] to prop]ty !re mu/ to beg9 ) h be5 "s appropriation4 ,! truism t !re c\ld be no prop]ty 9 any?+ :i* _h n be5 at "s "t & 9 "s mann] appropriat$1 tells u no?+ z to h[ or :y ! prop]ty 9 x1 z a "r1 came to be recognis$1 or :y t "r %\ld be recognis$4 ,b ow+ to ! confusion betwe5 ! orig9 ( appropriation & ! orig9 ( prop]ty z a "r1 an id5tical proposition z to ! beg9n+ ( appropriation seem$ to be an in/ructive /atem5t z to ! basis ( ! rights ( prop]ty4 ,( late1 9 a revulsion f !ories f\nd$ on id5tical propositions1 'hi/orical' inquiries into ! 'orig9 ( prop]ty' h come into vogue4 ,! "r me?od ( deal+ ) ! "q has be5 tak5 to lie 9 an inve/igation ( ! e>lie/ =ms 9 :i* prop]ty has exi/$4 ,b su* inve/igation1 h[ev] valuable 9 itself1 leaves unt\*$ ! que/ions1 7#a7 :at x is 9 ! nature ( m5 t makes x possible = !m1 & moves !m1 to appropriate2 7#b7 :y x is t !y conceive ( !mselves & ea* o!r z hav+ a "r 9 _! appropriations2 7#c7 on :at gr\nd ?is conception is treat$ z a moral au?ority1--z "o t %\ld be act$ on4 #bac4 7#a7 ,appropriation is an expression ( w2 ( ! individual's ef=t to give reality to a conception ( 8 own good2 ( 8 consci\sness ( a possible self-satisfaction z an object to be atta9$4 ,x is diff]5t f m]e provision to supply a future want4 ,su* provision appe>s to be made by c]ta9 animals1 e4g4 ants4 ,x c sc>cely be made "u ! influ5ce ( ! imag9ation ( pa9 incid5tal to future want d]iv$ f previ\s exp]i5ce1 = ! ant lays up = ! w9t] ?\gh x has n previ\sly liv$ ?r\gh ! w9t]4 ,x may be sugge/$ t x does s f inh]it$ habit1 b t ?is habit has orig9ally aris5 f an exp]i5ce ( pa9 on ! "p ( ants 9 ! pa/4 ,:e!r ?is is ! true acc\nt ( ! matt] we h n1 ,i ?9k1--p]haps f ! nature ( ! case we _c h--! means ( decid+4 ,we conceal our ignorance by say+ t ! ant acts in/9ctively1 :i* is 9 effect a m]ely negative /atem5t1 t ! ant is n mov$ to make provision = w9t] ei!r by imag9ation ( ! pa9 :i* w be felt 9 w9t] if x does n1 or by k 7conception ( ! fact7 t su* pa9 w be felt4 ,9 fact1 we "k no?+ ( ! action ( ! ant f ! inside1 or z an expression ( consci\sness4 ,if we are n entitl$ to d5y dogmatically t x expresses consci\sness at all1 nei!r are we entitl$ to say t x does express consci\sness1 /ill less :at consci\sness x expresses4 ,on ! o!r h& we are able to int]pret ! acts ( ourselves1 & ( ^? ) :om we c communicate by means ( signs to :i* we & !y atta* ! same mean+1 z expressions ( consci\sness ( a c]ta9 k9d1 & ?us by reflective analysis to assure ourselves t acts ( appropriation 9 p>ticul> express a w ( ! k9d /at$2 t !y are n m]ely a pass+ employm5t ( su* mat]ials z c be laid h&s on to satisfy ?is or t want1 pres5t or future1 felt or imag9$1 b reflect ! consci\sness ( a subject :i* di/+ui%es itself f its wants2 :i* pres5ts itself to itself z /ill !re & dem&+ satisfaction :5 ?is or t want1 or any numb] ( wants1 h be5 satisfi$2 :i* ?us n m]ely uses a ?+ to fill a want1 & 9 s do+ at once de/roys ! ?+ & = ! "t removes ! want1 b says to itself1 ',?is %all be m9e to d z ,i l )1 to satisfy my wants & express my emotions z !y arise4' #bad4 ,"o condition ( ! exi/5ce ( prop]ty1 !n1 is appropriation1 & t implies ! conception ( himself on ! "p ( ! appropriator z a p]man5t subject = ^: use1 z in/rum5ts ( satisfaction & expression1 he takes & fa%ions c]ta9 ext]nal ?+s1 c]ta9 ?+s ext]nal to 8 bodily memb]s4 ,^! ?+s1 s tak5 & fa%ion$1 cease to be ext]nal z !y 7 be=e4 ,!y become a sort ( ext5sion ( ! man's organs1 ! con/ant app>atus ?r\gh :i* he gives reality to 8 ideas & wi%es4 ,b ano!r condition mu/ be fulfill$ 9 ord] to con/itute prop]ty1 ev5 ( ! mo/ simple & primitive sort4 ,?is is ! recognition by o!rs ( a man's appropriations z some?+ :i* !y w treat z 81 n !irs1 & ! gu>antee to him ( 8 appropriations by means ( t recognition4 ,:at !n is ! gr\nd ( ! recognition8 ,! writ]s ( ! sev5te5? & eighte5? c5turies1 :o discuss$ ! basis ( ! rights ( prop]ty1 took x = grant$1 & 9 s do+ begg$ ! "q4 ,grotius makes ! "r ( prop]ty re/ on contract1 b cle>ly until !re is a recognis$ 'meum' & 'tuum' !re c be no contract4 ,contract presupposes prop]ty4 ,! prop]ty 9 a p>ticul> ?+ may be d]iv$ f a contract ?r\gh :i* x has be5 obta9$ 9 ex*ange = ano!r ?+ or = "s s]vice r5d]$1 b t implies t x 0 previ\sly ! prop]ty ( ano!r1 & t ! p]son obta9+ x _h a prop]ty 9 some?+ else1 if only 9 ! lab\r ( 8 h&s1 :i* he c\ld ex*ange = x4 #a ,hobbes is s f> m logical t he does n d]ive prop]ty f contract1 b treats prop]ty & '! validity ( cov5ants' z co-ord9ately dep5d5t on ! exi/5ce ( a sov]eign p[] ( compulsion4 #b ,b 8 acc\nt ( ?is1 z ( all o!r =ms ( "r1 is op5 to ! objection 7be=e dwelt on7 t if ! sov]eign p[] is m]ely a /ronge/ =ce x _c be a s\rce ( rights2 & t if x is o!r ?an ?is1 if x is a repres5tative & ma9ta9] ( rights1 its exi/5ce presupposes rights1 :i* rema9 to be acc\nt$ =4 ,z previ\sly %[n1 ,hobbes1 :ile pr(ess+ to make all rights dep5d5t on ! sov]eign p[]1 presupposes rights 9 8 acc\nt ( ! in/itution ( ?is p[]4 ,! validity ( contracts 'beg9s n b ) its in/itution1' yet its own "r is d]iv$ f an irrevocable contract ( all ) all 9 :i* ea* devolves 8 'p]sona1' ! body ( 8 rights1 ^u x4 ,)\t press+ 8 p>ticul> =ms ( expression unfairly aga9/ him1 x is cle> t he c\ld n really succe$ 9 ?9k+ ( rights z d]iv$ simply f supreme =ce2 t he c\ld n associate ! idea ( absolute "r ) ! sov]eign )\t suppos+ prior rights :i* x 0 made ! bus9ess ( ! sov]eign to en=ce1 & 9 p>ticul> su* a recognis$ di/9ction betwe5 'meum' & 'tuum' z is necess>y to a cov5ant4 ,nor :5 we h dropp$ ,hobbes' notion ( gov]nm5t or law-mak+ p[]1 z hav+ orig9at$ 9 a cov5ant ( all ) all1 %all we succe$ any bett] 9 d]iv+ rights ( prop]ty1 any m ?an o!r rights1 f law or a sov]eign :i* makes law1 unless we reg>d ! law or sov]eign z ! organ or su/a9] ( a g5]al social recognition ( c]ta9 p[]s1 z p[]s :i* %\ld be ex]cis$4 #a ,grotius1 ,de ,jure1 etc4 ,book ,,ii1 *ap4 ii4 ,sect4 #e4 ',simul discimus quomodo res 9 proprietatem iv]9t 444 pacto quodam aut expresso1 ut p] divisionem1 aut tacito1 ut p] occupationem3 simul atque enim communio displicuit1 nec in/ituta e/ divisio1 c5s]i debet int] omnes conv5isse ut1 quod quisque occupasset1 id proprium hab]et4' ,b he supposes a previ\s process by :i* ?+s _h be5 appropriat$ 7,sect4 #d71 ow+ to ! necessity ( sp5d+ lab\r on !m 9 ord] to satisfy desire = a m ref9$ k9d ( liv+ ?an c\ld be suppli$ by spontane\s products ( ! e>?4 ',h9c discimus quae fu]it causa1 ob quam a primaeva communione r]um primo mobilium1 de9de et immobilium discessum e/3 nimirum quod non cont5ti hom9es vesci sponte natis1 antra habit>e 444 vitae g5us exquisitius delegiss5t1 indu/ria opus fuit1 quam s+uli rebus s+ulis adhib]5t4' 444 ,! 'communio r]um1' ?us dep>t$ f :5 lab\r came to be exp5d$ on ?+s1 ,grotius _h previ\sly describ$ 7,sect4 #a7 z a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ev]yone _h a "r to :atev] he c\ld lay h&s on4 ',erant omnia communia et indivisa omnibus1 veluti unum cunctis patrimonium esset4 ,h9c factum ut /atim quisque hom9um ad suos usus arrip]e posset quod vellet1 et quae consumi pot]ant consum]e1 ac talis usus univ]salis juris erat tum vice proprietatis4 ,nam quod quisque sic arripu]at1 id ei erip]e alt] nisi p] injuriam non pot]at4' ,"h !n a virtual "r ( prop]ty1 ?\gh n s call$1 seems to be suppos$ 9 two =ms previ\s to ! e/abli%m5t ( :at ,grotius calls ! "r ( prop]ty by contract4 ,!re is 7#a7 a "r ( prop]ty 9 :at ea* c 'take to 8 use & consume' out ( ! raw mat]ial suppli$ by nature2 7#b7 a fur!r "r ( ea* man 9 t on :i* he has exp5d$ lab\r4 ,grotius does n inde$ expressly call ?is a "r1 b if !re is a "r1 z he says !re is1 on ! "p ( ea* man to t :i* he is able 'ad suos arrip]e usus1' mu* m mu/ !re be a "r to t :i* he has n only tak5 b fa%ion$ by 8 lab\r4 ,on ! nature & rationale ( ?is "r ,grotius ?r[s no light1 b x is cle>ly presuppos$ by t "r ( prop]ty :i* he supposes to be d]iv$ f contract1 & mu/ be recognis$ be=e any su* contract c\ld be possible4 #b ',!re is annex$ to ! sov]eignty ! :ole p[] ( prescrib+ ! rules :]eby e man may "k :at goods he may enjoy & :at actions he may d )\t be+ mole/$ by any ( 8 fell[-subjects3 & ?is is x m5 call propriety4 ,= be=e con/itution ( sov]eign p[] all m5 _h "r to all ?+s1 :i* necess>ily cause? w>2 & !re=e ?is propriety1 be+ necess>y to peace1 & dep5d+ on sov]eign p[]1 is ! act ( t p[] 9 ord] to ! public peace4' 7,levia?an1 pt4 ,,ii1 *ap4 xviii47 ',! nature ( ju/ice consi/e? 9 keep+ ( valid cov5ants1 b ! validity ( cov5ants beg9s n b ) ! con/itution ( a civil p[]1 suffici5t to compel m5 to keep !m2 & !n x is also t propriety beg9s4' 7,ibid4 *ap1 xv47 #bae4 ,locke #a treats prop]ty--fairly en\gh s long z only its simple/ =ms are 9 "q--z d]iv$ f lab\r4 ,by ! same law ( nature & reason by :i* a man has 'a prop]ty 9 8 own p]son1' '! lab\r ( 8 body & ! "w ( 8 h& are prop]ly 8' too4 ,n[ t ! "r to free life1 :i* we h already dwelt on1 c>ries ) x a c]ta9 "r to prop]ty1 to a c]ta9 p]man5t app>atus beyond ! bodily organs1 = ! ma9t5ance & expression ( t life1 is q true4 ,b ap>t f ! difficulty ( trac+ "s k9ds ( prop]ty1 9 :i* m5 are 9 fact held to h a "r1 to ! lab\r ( anyone1 ev5 ( someone f :om x has be5 d]iv$ by inh]itance or beque/ 7a difficulty to be consid]$ pres5tly71 to say t x is a 'law ( nature & reason' t a man %\ld h a prop]ty 9 ! "w ( 8 h&s is no m ?an say+ t t on :i* a man has impress$ 8 lab\r is recognis$ by o!rs z some?+ :i* %\ld be 81 j z he himself is recognis$ by !m z "o t %\ld be 8 own ma/]4 ,! gr\nd ( ! recognition is ! same 9 bo? cases1 & x is ,locke's m]it to h po9t$ ?is out2 b :at ! gr\nd is he does n consid]1 %elv+ ! "q by appeal+ to a law ( nature & reason4 #a ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 *ap4 v4 ,! mo/ important passages are quot$ 9 ,fox ,b\rne's ,life ( ,locke1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #aga & #agb4 #baf4 ,! gr\nd ( ! "r to free life1 ! reason :y a man is secur$ 9 ! free ex]cise ( 8 p[]s ?r\gh recognition ( t ex]cise by o!rs z some?+ t %\ld be1 lay1 z we saw1 9 ! conception on ! "p ( ev]yone :o conc$es ! "r to o!rs & to :om x is conc$$1 ( an id5tity ( good = himself & o!rs4 ,x is only z )9 a society1 z a relation betwe5 its memb]s1 ?\gh ! society be t ( all m51 t !re c be su* a ?+ z a "r2 & ! "r to free life re/s on ! common w ( ! society1 9 ! s5se t ea* memb] ( ! society )9 :i* ! "r subsi/s contributes to satisfy ! o!rs 9 seek+ to satisfy himself1 & t ea* is aw>e t ! o!r does s2 :5ce !re results a common int]e/ 9 ! free play ( ! p[]s ( all4 ,& j z ! recognis$ int]e/ ( a society con/itutes = ea* memb] ( x ! "r to free life1 j z x makes ea* conceive ( su* life on ! "p ( himself & 8 neighb\r z :at %\ld be1 & ?us =ms ! basis ( a re/ra9+ cu/om :i* secures x = ea*1 s x con/itutes ! "r to ! in/rum5ts ( su* life1 mak+ ea* reg>d ! possession ( !m by ! o!r z = ! common good1 & ?us ?r\gh ! m$ium fir/ ( cu/om1 !n ( law1 secur+ !m to ea*4 #bag4 ,?us ! doctr9e t ! f\ndation ( ! "r ( prop]ty lies 9 ! w1 t prop]ty is 'realis$ w1' is true en\gh if we atta* a c]ta9 mean+ to 'w'2 if we und]/& by x1 n ! mom5t>y spr+ ( any & e spontane\s action1 b a con/ant pr9ciple1 op]ative 9 all m5 qualifi$ = any =m ( society1 h[ev] frequ5tly ov]borne by pass+ impulses1 9 virtue ( :i* ea* seeks to give reality to ! conception ( a well-be+ :i* he necess>ily reg>ds z common to himself ) o!rs4 ,a w ( ?is k9d expla9s at once ! ef=t to appropriate1 & ! re/ra9t plac$ on ea* 9 8 appropriations by a cu/om>y recognition ( ! int]e/ :i* ea* has 9 ! success ( ! l ef=t on ! "p ( ! o!r memb]s ( a society ) :i* he %>es a common well-be+4 ,?is cu/om>y recognition1 f\nd$ on a moral or rational w1 requires inde$ to be repres5t$ by "s adequate =ce be=e x c result 9 a real ma9t5ance ( ! rights ( prop]ty4 ,! wild bea/ 9 man w n o!rwise yield ob$i5ce to ! rational w4 ,& f ! op]ation ( ?is compulsive =ce1 v imp]fectly controll$ by ! moral t5d5cies :i* ne$ its co-op]ation1--9 o!r words f ! hi/orical incid5ts ( conque/ & gov]nm5t1 --!re result _m *>act]i/ics ( ! in/itution ( prop]ty1 z x actually exi/s1 :i* _c be d]iv$ f ! spiritual pr9ciple :i* we h assign$ z its f\ndation4 ,/ill1 )\t t pr9ciple x c\ld n h come into exi/5ce1 nor w\ld x h any moral ju/ification at all4 #bah4 ,x accords ) ! acc\nt giv5 ( ?is pr9ciple t ! "r ( prop]ty1 l e o!r =m ( "r1 %\ld fir/ appe> )9 societies f\nd$ on k9%ip1 ^! be+ naturally ! societies )9 :i* ! re/ra9+ conception ( a common well-be+ is fir/ op]ative4 ,we are apt inde$ to ?9k ( ! /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ! memb]s ( a family or clan hold l& & /ock 9 common1 z ! anti!sis ( "o 9 :i* rights ( prop]ty exi/4 ,9 tru? x is ! e>lie/ /age ( _! exi/5ce1 because ! mo/ primitive =m ( society 9 :i* ! fruit ( 8 lab\r is secur$ to ! individual by ! society1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! conception ( a common well-be+4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( primitive communities is n ! abs5ce ( di/9ction betwe5 'meum' & 'tuum1' )\t :i* no society ( intellig5t z oppos$ to in/9ctive ag5ts w\ld be possible at all1 b ! common possession ( c]ta9 mat]ials1 9 p>ticul> l&1 on :i* lab\r may be exp5d$4 ,x is ! same common int]e/ :i* prev5ts ! sep>ate appropriation ( ^! mat]ials1 & :i* secures ! individual 9 ! enjoym5t & use ( t :i* 8 lab\r c extract f !m4 #bai4 ,f ! moral jo9t ( view1 h[ev]1 ! clan-sy/em is defective1 because "u x ! re/ra9t impos$ ^u ! individual by 8 memb]%ip ( a society is n1 & has n ! opportunity ( becom+1 a self-impos$ re/ra9t1 a free ob$i5ce1 to :i*1 ?\gh ! alt]native c\rse is left op5 to him1 ! individual submits1 because he conceives x z 8 true good4 ,! area )9 :i* he c %ape 8 own circum/ances is n suffici5t to all[ ( ! opposite possibilities ( "r & wrong be+ pres5t$ to him1 & ?us ( 8 le>n+ to love "r = its own sake4 ,& ! o!r side ( ?is moral tutelage ( ! individual1 ?is )hold+ f him ( ! opportunity ( be+ freely det]m9$ by recognition ( 8 moral relations1 is ! conf9em5t ( ^? relations !mselves1 :i* "u ! clan-sy/em h no actual exi/5ce except z betwe5 memb]s ( ! same clan4 ,a necess>y condition at once ( ! gr[? ( a free morality1 i4e4 a c]ta9 behavi\r ( m5 det]m9$ by an und]/&+ ( moral relations & by ! value :i* !y set on !m z und]/ood1 & ( ! conception ( ^? relations z relations betwe5 all m51 is t free play %\ld be giv5 to e man's p[]s ( appropriation4 ,moral fre$om is n ! same ?+ z a control ov] ! outw>d circum/ances & appliances ( life4 ,x is ! end to :i* su* control is a g5]ally necess>y means1 & :i* gives x its value4 ,9 ord] to obta9 ?is control1 m5 mu/ cease to be limit$ 9 _! activities by ! cu/oms ( ! clan4 ,! range ( _! appropriations mu/ be ext5d$2 !y mu/ include m ( ! p]man5t mat]ial on :i* lab\r may be exp5d$1 & n m]ely ! pass+ products ( lab\r sp5t on unappropriat$ mat]ial2 & !y mu/ be at once secur$ & controll$ 9 x by ! good-w1 by ! s5se ( common int]e/1 ( a wid] society1 ( a society to :i* any & e "o may belong :o w obs]ve its conditions1 & n m]ely ^? ( a p>ticul> p>5tage2 9 o!r words by ! law1 writt5 or unwritt51 ( a free /ate4 #bbj4 ,x is too long a bus9ess "h to attempt an acc\nt ( ! process by :i* ! organisation ( rights 9 ! /ate has sup]s$$ t ( ! clan1 & at ! same "t ! re/riction ( ! p[]s ( appropriation impli$ 9 ! latt] has be5 remov$4 ,x is important to obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t ?is process has by no means contribut$ unmix$ly to ! end to :i*1 f ! moral po9t ( view1 x %\ld h contribut$4 ,t end is at once ! emancipation ( ! individual f all re/rictions ^u ! free moral life1 & 8 provision ) means = x4 ,b ! actual result ( ! developm5t ( rights ( prop]ty 9 ,europe1 z "p ( its g5]al political developm5t1 has s f> be5 a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* all inde$ may h prop]ty1 b great numb]s 9 fact _c h x 9 t s5se 9 :i* alone x is ( value1 viz4 z a p]man5t app>atus = c>ry+ out a plan ( life1 = express+ ideas ( :at is beautiful1 or giv+ effect to b5evol5t wi%es4 ,9 ! eye ( ! law !y h rights ( appropriation1 b 9 fact !y h n ! *ance ( provid+ means = a free moral life1 ( develop+ & giv+ reality or expression to a good w1 an int]e/ 9 social well-be+4 ,a man :o possesses no?+ b 8 p[]s ( lab\r & :o has to sell ^! to a capitali/ = b>e daily ma9t5ance1 might z well1 9 respect ( ! e?ical purposes :i* ! possession ( prop]ty %\ld s]ve1 be d5i$ rights ( prop]ty altoge!r4 ,is ! exi/5ce ( s _m m5 9 ?is position1 & ! app>5t liability ( _m m to be br\ght to x by a g5]al fall ( wages1 if increase ( population goes along ) decrease 9 ! productiv5ess ( ! e>?1 a necess>y result ( ! emancipation ( ! individual & ! free play giv5 to p[]s ( appropriation8 or is x an evil incid5t1 :i* may yet be rem$i$1 ( t hi/orical process by :i* ! developm5t ( ! rights ( prop]ty has be5 br\ght ab\t1 b 9 :i* ! ag5ts h = ! mo/ "p _h no moral objects 9 view at all8 #bba4 ,let u fir/ be cle> ab\t ! po9ts 9 :i* ! conditions ( prop]ty1 z x actually exi/s1 are at v>iance ) prop]ty accord+ to its idea or z x %\ld be4 ,! rationale ( prop]ty1 z we h se51 is t ev]yone %\ld be secur$ by society 9 ! p[] ( gett+ & keep+ ! means ( realis+ a w1 :i* 9 possibility is a w direct$ to social good4 ,:e!r anyone's w is actually & positively s direct$1 does n affect 8 claim to ! p[]4 ,?is p[] %\ld be secur$ to ! individual irrespectively ( ! use :i* he actually makes ( x1 s long z he does n use x 9 a way t int]f]es ) ! ex]cise ( l p[] by ano!r1 on ! gr\nd t its uncontroll$ ex]cise is ! condition ( atta9m5t by man ( t free morality :i* is 8 highe/ good4 ,x is n !n a valid objection to ! mann] 9 :i* prop]ty is possess$ among u1 t its hold]s con/antly use x 9 a way demoralis+ to !mselves & o!rs1 any m ?an su* misuse ( any o!r lib]ties is an objection to secur+ m5 9 _! possession4 ,only !n is prop]ty held 9 a way inconsi/5t ) its idea1 & :i* %\ld1 if possible1 be got rid (1 :5 ! possession ( prop]ty by "o man int]f]es ) ! possession ( prop]ty by ano!r2 :5 "o set ( m5 are secur$ 9 ! p[] ( gett+ & keep+ ! means ( realis+ _! w1 9 su* a way t o!rs are practically d5i$ ! p[]4 ,9 t case x may truly be said t 'prop]ty is !ft4' ,! rationale ( prop]ty1 9 %ort1 requires t ev]yone :o w con=m to ! positive condition ( possess+ x1 viz4 lab\r1 & ! negative condition1 viz4 respect = x z possess$ by o!rs1 %\ld1 s f> z social arrangem5ts c make him s1 be a possessor ( prop]ty himself1 & ( su* prop]ty z w at lea/ enable him to develope a s5se ( responsibility1 z di/9ct f m]e prop]ty 9 ! imm$iate necess>ies ( life4 #bbb4 ,b !n ! "q arises1 :e!r ! rationale ( prop]ty1 z ?us /at$1 is n inconsi/5t ) ! un*eck$ fre$om ( appropriation1 or fre$om ( appropriation *eck$ only by ! requirem5t t ! ?+ appropriat$ %all n h previ\sly be5 appropriat$ by ano!r4 ,is ! requirem5t t e hone/ man %\ld be a proprietor to ! ext5t /at$1 compatible ) any great inequalities ( possession8 ,9 ord] to give effect to x1 mu/ we n remove ^? two great s\rces ( ! inequality ( =tunes1 7#a7 fre$om ( beque/1 & ! o!r arrangem5ts by :i* ! pr(its ( ! lab\r ( sev]al g5]ations are accumulat$ on p]sons :o d n lab\r at all2 7#b7 fre$om ( trade1 ( buy+ 9 ! *eape/ m>ket & sell+ 9 ! de>e/1 by :i* accumulat$ pr(its ( lab\r become sudd5ly multipli$ 9 ! h&s ( a p>ticul> proprietor8 ,n[ cle>ly1 if an inequality ( =tunes1 ( ! k9d :i* naturally arises f ! admission ( ^! two =ms ( fre$om1 necess>ily results 9 ! exi/5ce ( a prolet>iate1 practically exclud$ f su* own]%ip z is ne$$ to moralise a man1 !re w\ld be a contradiction betwe5 our !ory ( ! "r ( prop]ty & ! actual consequ5ce ( admitt+ ! "r accord+ to ! !ory2 = ! !ory logically necessitates fre$om bo? 9 trad+ & 9 ! disposition ( 8 prop]ty by ! own]1 s long z he does n int]f]e ) ! l fre$om on ! "p ( o!rs2 & 9 o!r ways z well its realisation implies inequality4 #bbc4 ,once admit z ! idea ( prop]ty t nature %\ld be progressively adapt$ to ! s]vice ( man by a process 9 :i* ea*1 :ile work+ freely or = himself1 i4e4 z det]m9$ by a conception ( 8 own good1 at ! same "t contributes to ! social good1 & x w foll[ t prop]ty mu/ be unequal4 ,if we leave a man free to realise ! conception ( a possible well-be+1 x is impossible to limit ! effect ^u him ( 8 desire to provide = 8 future well-be+1 z includ+ t ( ! p]sons 9 :om he is int]e/$1 or ! success ) :i* at ! prompt+ ( t desire he turns res\rces ( nature to acc\nt4 ,consid]$ z repres5t+ ! conque/ ( nature by ! ef=t ( free & v>i\sly gift$ individuals1 prop]ty mu/ be unequal2 & no less mu/ x be s if consid]$ z a means by :i* individuals fulfil social functions4 ,z we may le>n f ,ari/otle1 ^? functions are v>i\s & ! means requir$ = _! fulfilm5t are v>i\s4 ,! arti/ & man ( lett]s require diff]5t equipm5t & app>atus f ! till] ( l& & ! smi?4 ,ei!r !n ! v>i\s app>atus ne$$ = v>i\s functions mu/ be provid$ = individuals by society1 :i* w\ld imply a complete regulation ( life incompatible ) t highe/ object ( human atta9m5t1 a free morality2 or we mu/ tru/ = its provision to individual ef=t1 :i* w imply inequality betwe5 ! prop]ty ( diff]5t p]sons4 #bbd4 ,! admission ( fre$om ( trade foll[s f ! same pr9ciple4 ,x is a condition ( ! m complete adaptation ( nature to ! s]vice ( man by ! free ef=t ( individuals4 ',to buy 9 ! *eape/ & sell 9 ! de>e/ m>ket' is a phrase :i* may no d\bt be us$ to cov] objectionable transactions1 9 :i* advantage is tak5 ( ! position ( sell]s :o f circum/ances are n prop]ly free to make a b>ga94 ,x is s employ$ :5 ! *eapness ( buy+ arises f ! pres5ce ( lab\r]s :o h no alt]native b to "w = '/>vation wages4' ,b 9 itself x m]ely describes transactions 9 :i* commodities are b\ght :]e !y are ( lea/ use & sold :]e !y are ( mo/ use4 ,! trad] :o pr(its by ! transaction is pr(it+ by :at is at ! same "t a contribution to social well-be+4 ,9 reg>d to ! fre$om :i* a man %\ld be all[$ 9 dispos+ ( 8 prop]ty by w or gift1 ! "q is n s simple4 ,! same pr9ciple :i* =bids u to limit ! degree to :i* a man may provide = 8 future1 =bids u to limit ! degree to :i* he may provide = 8 *ildr51 ^! be+ includ$ 9 8 =eca/ ( 8 future4 ,x foll[s t ! am\nt :i* *ildr5 may inh]it may n rightly be limit$2 & 9 ?is way inequalities ( prop]ty1 & accumulations ( x to :i* possessors h contribut$ no?+ by _! own lab\r1 mu/ arise4 ,( c\rse ! possessor ( an e/ate1 :o has contribut$ no?+ by 8 own lab\r to its acquisition1 may yet by 8 lab\r contribute l>gely to ! social good1 & a well-organis$ /ate w 9 v>i\s ways elicit su* lab\r f possessors ( inh]it$ weal?4 ,nor w x tru/ m]ely to enc\rag+ ! volunt>y fulfilm5t ( social functions1 b w by taxation make sure ( "s positive return = ! security :i* x gives to inh]it$ weal?4 ,b :ile ! m]e p]mission ( inh]itance1 :i* seems impli$ 9 ! p]mission to a man to provide unlimit$ly = 8 future1 w lead to accumulations ( weal?1 on ! o!r h&1 if ! inh]itance is to be equal among all *ildr51 &1 fail+ *ildr51 is to pass to ! next ( k91 ! accumulation w be *eck$4 ,x is n !re=e ! "r ( inh]itance1 b ! "r ( beque/1 t is mo/ likely to lead to accumulation ( weal?1 & t has mo/ s]i\sly be5 que/ion$ by ^? :o hold t univ]sal own]%ip is a condition ( moral well-be+4 ,is a proprietor to be all[$ to dispose ( 8 prop]ty z he likes among 8 *ildr5 7or1 if he has none1 among o!rs71 mak+ "o v ri* z comp>$ ) ! o!rs1 or is he to be *eck$ by a law requir+ approximately equal inh]itance8 #bbe4 ,z to ?is1 consid] t on ! same pr9ciple on :i* we hold t a man %\ld be all[$ to accumulate z he be/ c = 8 *ildr51 he %\ld h discretion 9 di/ribut+ among 8 *ildr54 ,he %\ld be all[$ to accumulate1 because 9 s do+ he at once expresses & developes ! s5se ( family responsibility1 :i* naturally bre$s a recognition ( duties 9 _m o!r directions4 ,b if ! s5se ( family responsibility is to h free play1 ! man mu/ h due control ov] 8 family1 & ?is he c sc>cely h if all 8 *ildr5 z a matt] ( necessity inh]it equally1 h[ev] undutiful or idle or extravagant !y may be4 ,= ?is reason ! true !ory ( prop]ty w\ld seem to fav\r fre$om ( beque/1 at any rate 9 reg>d to weal? g5]ally4 ,!re may be special reasons1 to be consid]$ pres5tly1 = limit+ x 9 reg>d to l&4 ,b z a g5]al rule1 ! fa!r ( a family1 if left to himself & n biass$ by any special in/itutions ( 8 c\ntry1 is mo/ likely to make t di/ribution among 8 *ildr5 :i* is mo/ = ! public good4 ,if family pride moves him to end[ "o son m l>gely ?an ! re/1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 ! hon\r ( 8 "n1 family affection w keep ?is t5d5cy )9 limits 9 ! int]e/ ( ! o!r *ildr51 unless ! in/itutions ( 8 c\ntry fav\r ! "o t5d5cy z aga9/ ! o!r4 ,& ?is !y w d if !y ma9ta9 great dignities1 e4g4 pe]ages1 ( :i* ! possession ( l>ge h]$it>y weal? is virtually ! condition1 & if !y make x easy1 :5 ! o!r sons h be5 impov]i%$ = ! sake ( end[+ ! elde/1 to ma9ta9 ! =m] at ! public exp5se by means ( appo9tm5ts 9 ! *ur* or /ate4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d1 fur!r1 t ! fre$om ( beque/ :i* is to be ju/ifi$ on ! above pr9ciples mu/ n be "o :i* limits t fre$om 9 a subsequ5t g5]ation1 ,x mu/ !re=e be di/+ui%$ f ! p[] ( settlem5t all[$ by ,engli% law & con/antly ex]cis$ 9 deal+ ) l&$ e/ate2 = ?is p[]1 z ex]cis$ by ! l&[n+ head ( a family 9 "o g5]ation1 prev5ts ! succe$+ head ( ! family f be+ free to make :at disposition he ?9ks be/ among 8 *ildr5 & ties up ! succession to ! e/ate to 8 elde/ son4 ,! practice ( settlem5t 9 ,engl&1 9 %ort1 z appli$ to l&$ e/ate1 cancels ! fre$om ( beque/ 9 ! case ( mo/ l&[n]s & neutralises all ! disp]sive t5d5cy ( family affection1 :ile x ma9ta9s 9 full =ce all ! accumulative t5d5cy ( family pride4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is no ess5tial incid5t ( a sy/em 9 :i* ! rights ( individual own]%ip are fully develop$1 b j ! contr>y4 #bbf4 ,! "q !n rema9s1 :e!r ! full developm5t ( ^? rights1 z includ+ t ( unlimit$ accumulation ( weal? by ! individual & ( complete fre$om ( beque/ on 8 "p1 necess>ily c>ries ) x ! exi/5ce ( a prolet>iate1 nom9al own]s ( _! p[]s ( lab\r1 b 9 fact oblig$ to sell ^! on su* t]ms t !y are own]s ( no?+ beyond :at is necess>y f day to day = ! support ( life1 & may at any "t lose ev5 t1 s t1 z reg>ds ! moral functions ( prop]ty1 !y may be held to be n proprietors at all2 or :e!r ! exi/5ce ( su* a class is due to causes only accid5tally connect$ ) ! developm5t ( rights ( individual prop]ty4 ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d 7#a7 t ! increas$ weal? ( "o man does n naturally mean ! dim9i%$ weal? ( ano!r4 ,we mu/ n ?9k ( weal? z a giv5 /ock ( commodities ( :i* a l>g] %>e _c fall to "o )\t tak+ f ! %>e t falls to ano!r4 ,! weal? ( ! _w is con/antly increas+ 9 proportion z ! con/ant production ( new weal? by lab\r exce$s ! con/ant consumption ( :at is already produc$1 ,!re is no natural limit to its increase except su* z arises f ! fact t ! supply ( ! food necess>y to su/a9 lab\r becomes m difficult z m comes to be requir$ ow+ to ! increase 9 ! numb] ( lab\r]s1 & f ! possible ultimate exhau/ion ( ! raw mat]ials ( lab\r 9 ! _w4 ,!re=e 9 ! accumulation ( weal?1 s f> z x arises f ! sav+ by anyone ( ! products ( 8 lab\r1 f 8 beque/ ( ?is capital to ano!r :o f>!r adds to x by sav+ "s ( ! pr(it :i* ! capital yields1 z employ$ 9 ! paym5t = lab\r or 9 trade ei!r by ! capitali/ himself or someone to :om he l5ds x1 & f ! cont9uation ( ?is process ?r\gh g5]ations1 !re is no?+ :i* t5ds to less5 = anyone else ! possibilities ( own]%ip4 ,on ! contr>y1 suppos+ trade & lab\r to be free1 weal? mu/ be con/antly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! process 9 ! %ape ( wages to lab\r]s & ( pr(its to ^? :o m$iate 9 ! bus9ess ( ex*ange4 #bbg4 ,x is true t ! accumulation ( capital naturally leads to ! employm5t ( l>ge masses ( hir$ lab\r]s4 ,b !re is no?+ 9 ! nature ( ! case to keep ^! lab\r]s 9 ! condition ( liv+ f h& to m\?1 to exclude !m f t education ( ! s5se ( responsibility :i* dep5ds on ! possibility ( p]man5t own]%ip4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! fact t _! lab\r is hir$ 9 great masses by great capitali/s to prev5t !m f be+ on a small scale capitali/s !mselves4 ,9 _! position !y h n inde$ ! same /imulus to sav+1 or ! same con/ant op5+ = ! inve/m5t ( sav+s1 z a man :o is 2 #a b _! comb9ation 9 "w gives !m e opportunity1 if !y h ! ne$ful education & self-discipl9e1 = =m+ societies = ! inve/m5t ( sav+s4 ,9 fact1 z we "k1 9 ! well-paid indu/ries ( ,engl& ! bett] sort ( lab\r]s d become capitali/s1 to ! ext5t (t5 ( own+ _! h\ses & a good deal ( furniture1 ( hav+ an int]e/ 9 /ores1 & ( belong+ to b5efit-societies ?r\gh :i* !y make provision = ! future4 ,x is n !n to ! accumulation ( capital1 b to ! condition1 due to antec$5t circum/ances unconnect$ ) t accumulation1 ( ! m5 ) :om ! capitali/ deals & ^: lab\r he buys on ! *eape/ t]ms1 t we mu/ ascribe ! multiplication 9 rec5t times ( an impov]i%$ & reckless prolet>iate4 #a ,greek 7aut\rgos7 yeoman f>m]1 lit]ally "o :o works = himself ,tr4 #bbh4 ,x is difficult to summ>ise ! influ5ces to :i* is due ! fact t 9 all ! *ief seats ( population 9 ,europe ! lab\r-m>ket is con/antly ?rong$ ) m5 :o are too badly re>$ & f$ to be effici5t lab\r]s2 :o = ?is reason1 & f ! competition = employm5t ) ea* o!r1 h to sell _! lab\r v *eap2 :o h ?us seldom ! means to save1 & ^: /&>d ( liv+ & social expectation is s l[ t1 if !y h ! opportunity ( sav+1 !y d n use x1 & keep br++ *ildr5 into ! _w at a rate :i* p]petuates ! evil4 ,x is c]ta91 h[ev]1 t ^! influ5ces h no necess>y connection ) ! ma9t5ance ( ! "r ( individual prop]ty & consequ5t unlimit$ accumulation ( capital1 ?\gh !y no d\bt are connect$ ) t rgime ( =ce & conque/ by :i* exi/+ gov]nm5ts h be5 e/abli%$1--gov]nm5ts :i* d n inde$ create ! rights ( individual prop]ty1 any m ?an o!r rights1 b :i* s]ve to ma9ta9 !m4 ,x mu/ always be borne 9 m9d t ! appropriation ( l& by individuals has 9 mo/ c\ntries--probably 9 all :]e x approa*es complet5ess--be5 orig9ally effect$1 n by ! exp5diture ( lab\r or ! results ( lab\r on ! l&1 b by =ce4 ,! orig9al l&lords h be5 conqu]ors4 #bbi4 ,?is has affect$ ! condition ( ! indu/rial classes 9 at lea/ two ways3 7#a7 ,:5 ! application ( accumulat$ capital to any "w 9 ! way ( m9+ or manufacture has creat$ a dem& = lab\r1 ! supply has be5 =?com+ f m5 ^: ance/ors1 if n !mselves1 7 tra9$ 9 habits ( s]fdom2 m5 ^: life has be5 "o ( virtually =c$ lab\r1 reliev$ by *ur*--*>ities or ! poor law 7:i* 9 "p took ! place ( ^! *>ities72 :o 7 ?us 9 no condition to contract freely = ! sale ( _! lab\r1 & _h no?+ ( t s5se ( family--responsibility :i* might h made !m insi/ on hav+ ! *ance ( sav+4 ,l&less c\ntrym51 ^: ance/ors 7 s]fs1 are ! p>5ts ( ! prolet>iate ( great t[ns4 7#b7 ,rights h be5 all[$ to l&lords1 incompatible ) ! true pr9ciple on :i* rights ( prop]ty re/1 & t5d+ to int]f]e ) ! developm5t ( ! proprietorial capacity 9 o!rs4 ,! "r to fre$om 9 unlimit$ acquisition ( weal?1 by means ( lab\r & by means ( ! sav+ & successful application ( ! results ( lab\r1 does n imply ! "r ( anyone to d z he likes ) ^? gifts ( nature1 )\t :i* !re w\ld be no?+ to sp5d lab\r ^u4 ,! e>? is j z mu* an orig9al natural mat]ial necess>y to productive indu/ry1 z are air1 light1 & wat]1 b :ile ! latt] f ! nature ( ! case _c be appropriat$1 ! e>? c be & has be54 ,! only ju/ification = ?is appropriation1 z = any o!r1 is t x contributes on ! :ole to social well-be+2 t ! e>? z appropriat$ by individuals "u c]ta9 conditions becomes m s]viceable to society z a :ole1 includ+ ^? :o are n proprietors ( ! soil1 ?an if x 7 held 9 common4 ,! ju/ification disappe>s if ^! conditions are n obs]v$2 & f gov]nm5t hav+ be5 *iefly 9 ! h&s ( appropriators ( ! soil1 !y h n be5 duly obs]v$4 ,l&lords h be5 all[$ to 'd :at !y w\ld ) _! own1' z if l& 7 m]ely l s mu* capital1 admitt+ ( indef9ite ext5sion4 ,! capital ga9$ by "o is n tak5 f ano!r1 b "o man _c acquire m l& )\t o!rs hav+ less2 & ?\gh a gr[+ r$uction 9 ! numb] ( l&lords is n necess>ily a social evil1 if x is comp5sat$ by ! acquisition ( o!r weal? on ! "p ( ^? extrud$ f ! soil1 x is only n an evil if ! l&lord is prev5t$ f s us+ 8 l& z to make x uns]viceable to ! wants ( m5 7e4g4 by turn+ f]tile l& into a =e/71 & f tak+ lib]ties ) x incompatible ) ! conditions ( g5]al fre$om & heal?2 e4g4 by cle>+ out a village & leav+ ! p to pick up h\se-room z !y c else:]e 7a practice common "u ! old poor-law1 :5 ! di/9ction betwe5 close & op5 villages grew up71 or1 on ! o!r h&1 by build+ h\ses 9 unheal?y places or ( unheal?y /ructure1 by /opp+ up means ( communication1 or =bidd+ ! erection ( diss5t+ *apels4 ,9 fact ! re/ra9ts :i* ! public int]e/ requires to be plac$ on ! use ( l& if individual prop]ty 9 x is to be all[$ at all1 h be5 pretty mu* ignor$1 :ile on ! o!r h&1 t full developm5t ( its res\rces1 :i* individual own]%ip w\ld naturally fav\r1 has be5 int]f]$ ) by laws or cu/oms :i*1 9 secur+ e/ates to c]ta9 families1 h tak5 away ! int]e/1 & ti$ ! h&s1 ( ! nom9al own]--! t5ant = life--9 mak+ ! mo/ ( 8 prop]ty4 #bcj4 ,?us ! :ole hi/ory ( ! own]%ip ( l& 9 ,europe has be5 ( a k9d to lead to ! agglom]ation ( a prolet>iate1 nei!r hold+ nor seek+ prop]ty1 :]ev] a sudd5 dem& has aris5 = lab\r 9 m9es or manufactures4 ,?is at any rate 0 ! case d[n to ! epo* ( ! ,fr5* ,revolution2 & ?is1 :i* br\ght to o!r c\ntries deliv]ance f feudalism1 left ,engl&1 :]e feudalism _h previ\sly pass$ into unre/ra9$ l&lordism1 almo/ unt\*$4 ,& :ile ^? influ5ces ( feudalism & l&lordism :i* t5d to ?r[ a %iftless population ^u ! c5tres ( indu/ry h be5 left un*eck$1 no?+ till q lately 0 done to give su* a population a *ance ( bett]+ itself1 :5 x _h be5 br\ght toge!r4 ,_! heal?1 h\s+1 & s*ool+ 7 unprovid$ =4 ,!y 7 left to be freely victimis$ by delet]i\s employm5ts1 f\l air1 & consequ5t crav+ = delet]i\s dr9ks4 ,:5 we consid] all ?is1 we %all see ! unfairness ( lay+ on capitalism or ! free developm5t ( individual weal? ! blame :i* is really due to ! arbitr>y & viol5t mann] 9 :i* rights ov] l& h be5 acquir$ & ex]cis$1 & to ! failure ( ! /ate to fulfil ^? functions :i* "u a sy/em ( unlimit$ private own]%ip are necess>y to ma9ta9 ! conditions ( a free life4 #bca4 ,:e!r1 :5 ^? functions h be5 m fully recognis$ & execut$1 & :5 ! ne$ful control has be5 e/abli%$ 9 ! public int]e/ ov] ! lib]ties :i* l&lords may take 9 ! use ( _! l&1 x w\ld /ill be advisable to limit ! "r ( beque/ 9 reg>d to l&1 & e/abli% a sy/em ( some?+ l equal inh]itance1 is a "q :i* _c be answ]$ on any absolute pr9ciple4 ,x dep5ds on circum/ances4 ,probably ! "q %\ld be answ]$ diff]5tly 9 a c\ntry l ,france or ,irel&1 :]e ! mo/ important indu/ries are connect$ directly ) ! soil1 & 9 "o l ,engl& :]e !y are n s4 ,! reasons mu/ be cog5t :i* c\ld ju/ify t int]f]5ce ) ! control ( ! p>5t ov] 8 family1 :i* seems to be impli$ 9 ! limitation ( ! p[] ( bequea?+ l& :5 ! p>5t's weal? lies solely 9 l&1 & :i* arises1 be x rememb]$1 9 a /ill m mis*iev\s way f ! pres5t ,engli% practice ( settl+ e/ates4 ,b x is important to be> 9 m9d t ! "q 9 reg>d to l& /&s on a diff]5t foot+ f t 9 reg>d to weal? g5]ally1 ow+ to ! fact t l& is a p>ticul> commodity limit$ 9 ext5t1 f :i* alone c be d]iv$ ! mat]ials necess>y to any indu/ry :atev]1 on :i* m5 mu/ f9d h\se-room if !y are to f9d x at all1 & ov] :i* !y mu/ pass 9 communicat+ ) ea* o!r1 h[ev] mu* wat] or ev5 air may be us$ = t purpose4 ,^! are inde$ n reasons = prev5t+ private prop]ty 9 l& or ev5 free beque/ ( l&1 b !y necessitate a special control ov] ! ex]cise ( rights ( prop]ty 9 l&1 & x rema9s to be se5 :e!r t control c be suffici5tly e/abli%$ 9 a c\ntry :]e ! p[] ( great e/ates has n fir/ be5 brok51 z 9 ,france1 by a law ( equal inh]itance4 #bcb4 ,to ! proposal t 'une>n$ increm5t' 9 ! value ( ! soil1 z di/9ct f value produc$ by exp5diture ( lab\r & capital1 %\ld be appropriat$ by ! /ate1 ?\gh fair en\gh 9 itself1 ! great objection is t ! relation betwe5 e>n$ & une>n$ increm5t is s complicat$1 t a sy/em ( appropriat+ ! latt] to ! /ate c\ld sc>cely be e/abli%$ )\t less5+ ! /imulus to ! individual to make ! mo/ ( ! l&1 & ?us ultimately less5+ its s]viceabl5ess to society4 ,o4 ,,! ,,"r ,,( ,,! ,,/ate ,,9 ,,reg>d ,,to ,,! ,,family4 #bcc4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( ^? rights :i* d n arise out ( ! exi/5ce ( ! /ate1 b :i* are antec$5t to x 7?\gh ( c\rse imply+ society 9 "s =m71 & :i* x is its (fice to en=ce1 we n[ come to family or h\sehold rights--also call$1 ?\gh n v di/9ctively1 rights 9 private relations--( :i* ! mo/ important are ! reciprocal rights ( husb& & wife1 p>5t & *ild4 ,! di/9ctive ?+ ab\t ^! is t !y are n m]ely rights ( "o p]son z aga9/ all or "s o!r p]sons ov] "s ?+1 or to ! p]=mance ( or ab/5tion f "s action2 !y are rights ( "o p]son z aga9/ all o!r p]sons to require or prev5t a c]ta9 behavi\r on ! "p ( ano!r4 ,"r to free life is a "r on ! "p ( any & e p]son to claim f all o!r p]sons t c\rse ( action or =be>ance :i* is necess>y to 8 free life4 ,x is a "r aga9/ all ! _w1 b n a "r ov] any p>ticul> ?+ or p]son4 ,a "r ( prop]ty1 on ! o!r h&1 is a "r aga9/ all ! _w1 & also ov] a p>ticul> ?+2 a "r to claim f any & e "o c]ta9 actions & =be>ances 9 respect ( a p>ticul> ?+ 7h5ce call$ 'jus 9 rem'74 ,a "r aris+ f contract1 unlike ! "r ( prop]ty or ! "r ( free life1 is n a "r z aga9/ all ! _w1 b a "r z aga9/ a p>ticul> p]son or p]sons contract$ ) to claim a c]ta9 p]=mance or =be>ance4 ,x may or may n be a "r ov] a p>ticul> ?+1 b z x is n necess>ily s1 :ile x is a "r aga9/ a p>ticul> p]son or p]sons 9 di/9ction f all ! _w1 x is call$ 'jus 9 p]sonam' z di/9ct f '9 rem4' ,! "r ( husb& ov] wife & t ( p>5t ov] *ildr5 7or vice v]sa7 diff]s f ! "r aris+ out ( contract1 inasmu* z x is n m]ely a "r aga9/ ! p>ticul> p]son contract$ )1 b a "r aga9/ all ! _w4 ,9 ?is respect x corresponds to ! "r ( prop]ty2 b diff]s aga9 f ?is1 s9ce x is n a "r ov] a ?+ b ov] a p]son4 ,x is a "r to claim c]ta9 acts or =be>ances f all o!r p]sons 9 respect ( a p>ticul> p]son3 or 7m precisely7 to claim a c]ta9 behavi\r f a c]ta9 p]son1 & at ! same "t to exclude all o!rs f claim+ x4 ,j because ?is k9d ( "r is a "r ov] a p]son1 x is always reciprocal z betwe5 ! p]son ex]cis+ x & ! p]son ov] :om x is ex]cis$4 ,all rights are reciprocal z betwe5 ! p]son ex]cis+ !m & ! p]son aga9/ :om !y are ex]cis$4 ,my claim to ! "r ( free life implies a l claim ^u me on ! "p ( ^? f :om ,i claim acts & =be>ances necess>y to my free life4 ,my claim ^u o!rs 9 respect ( ! "r ( prop]ty1 or ^u a p>ticul> p]son 9 respect ( an action :i* he has contract$ to p]=m1 implies ! recognition ( a correspond+ claim ^u me on ! "p ( all p]sons or ! p>ticul> p>ty to ! contract4 ,b ! "r ( a husb& 9 reg>d to 8 wife n m]ely implies t all ^? z aga9/ :om he claims ! "r h a l claim aga9/ him1 b t ! wife ov] :om he ass]ts ! "r has a "r1 ?\gh n a precisely l "r1 ov] him4 ,! same applies to ! "r ( a fa!r ov] a son1 & ( a ma/] ov] a s]vant4 #bcd4 ,a ,g]man w\ld express ! peculi>ity ( ! rights n[ "u consid]ation by say+ t1 n only are p]sons ! subjects ( !m1 b p]sons are ! objects ( !m4 ,by ! 'subject' ( rights he w\ld mean ! p]son ex]cis+ !m or to :om !y belong2 by 'object' t 9 respect ( :i* ! rights are ex]cis$4 ,! piece ( l& or goods :i* ,i own is ! 'object' ( ! "r ( prop]ty1 ! p>ticul> action :i* "o p]son contracts to p]=m = ano!r is ! 'object' ( a "r ( contract2 & 9 l mann] ! p]son f :om ,i h a "r to claim c]ta9 behavi\r1 :i* excludes any "r on ! "p ( anyone else to claim su* behavi\r f him or h]1 is ! 'object' ( ! "r4 ,b ,engli% writ]s commonly call t ! subject ( a "r :i* ! ,g]mans w\ld call ! object4 ,by ! subject ( a "r ( prop]ty !y w\ld n mean ! p]son to :om ! "r belongs1 b ! ?+ ov] :i*1 or 9 respect ( :i*1 ! "r exi/s4 ,& 9 l mann]1 :5 a "r is ex]cis$ ov]1 or 9 respect ( a p]son1 su* z a wife or a *ild1 !y w\ld call t p]son1 & n ! p]son ex]cis+ ! "r1 ! subject ( x4 ,by ! object ( a "r1 on ! o!r h&1 !y mean ! action or =be>ance :i* someone has a "r to claim4 ,! object ( a "r aris+ out ( contract w\ld be ! action :i* ! p]son contract+ agrees to p]=m4 ,! object ( a connubial "r w\ld n be1 z accord+ to ,g]man usage1 ! p]son 9 reg>d to1 or ov]1 :om ! "r is ex]cis$--t p]son w\ld be ! subject ( ! "r--b ei!r ! behavi\r :i* ! p]son possess+ ! "r is entitl$ to claim f t p]son1 or ! =be>ances 9 respect to t p]son1 :i* he is entitl$ to claim f o!rs4 7,au/91 ,i4 #cgh & ,,ii4 #gcf47 ,ei!r usage is ju/ifiable 9 itself4 ,! only matt] ( importance is n to confuse !m4 ,!re is a conv5i5ce 9 express+ ! peculi>ity ( family rights by say+1 accord+ to ! s5se ( ! t]ms adopt$ by ,g]man writ]s1 t n only are p]sons subjects ( !m b p]sons are objects ( !m4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se t ,i %all use ^! t]ms1 if at all4 #bce4 ,s mu* = ! peculi>ity ( family rights1 z di/9ct f o!r rights4 ,! di/9ction is n m]ely a =mal "o4 ,f ! fact t ^! rights h p]sons = _! objects1 !re foll[ important results1 z w appe>1 9 reg>d to ! true nature ( ! "r1 to ! mann] 9 :i* x %\ld be ex]cis$4 ,! analytical1 z di/9ct f ! hi/orical1 que/ions :i* h to be rais$ ) ref]5ce to family rights correspond to ^? rais$ ) ref]5ce to rights ( prop]ty4 ,z we ask$ :at 9 ! nature ( man made appropriation possible = him1 s n[ we ask 7#a7 :at x is 9 ! nature ( man t makes him capable ( family life4 ,z we ask$ next h[ appropriations came to be s sanction$ by social recognition z to give rise to rights ( prop]ty1 s n[ we h to ask 7#b7 h[ c]ta9 p[]s ex]cis$ by a man1 c]ta9 exemptions :i* he enjoys f ! int]f]5ce ( o!rs1 9 8 family life1 come to be recognis$ z rights4 ,& z we inquir$ fur!r h[ f> ! actual in/itutions ( prop]ty correspond ) ! idea ( prop]ty z a "r :i* = social good %\ld be ex]cis$1 s n[ we h to inquire 7#c7 into ! prop] adju/m5t ( family rights1 z det]m9$ by _! idea2 9 :at =m ^! rights %\ld be ma9ta9$2 be>+ 9 m9d 7a7 t1 l all rights1 _! value dep5ds on _! be+ conditions ( :i* ! g5]al obs]vance is necess>y to a free morality1 & 7b7 _! di/9ctive "* z rights ( :i*1 9 ! s5se expla9$1 p]sons are ! objects4 #bcf4 7#a7 ,we saw t appropriation ( t k9d :i*1 :5 secur$ by a social p[]1 becomes prop]ty1 supposes an ef=t on ! "p ( ! individual to give reality to a conception ( 8 own good1 z a :ole or z some?+ p]man5t1 9 di/9ction f ! m]e ef=t to satisfy a want z x arises4 ,! =mation ( family life supposes a l ef=t1 b x also supposes t 9 ! conception ( 8 own good to :i* a man seeks to give reality !re is includ$ a conception ( ! well-be+ ( o!rs1 connect$ ) him by sexual relations or by relations :i* arise out ( ^!4 ,he mu/ conceive ( ! well-be+ ( ^! o!rs z a p]man5t object b\nd up ) 8 own1 & ! int]e/ 9 x z ?us conceiv$ mu/ be a motive to him ov] & above any succession ( pass+ desires to obta9 pleasure f1 or give pleasure to1 ! o!rs2 o!rwise !re w\ld be no?+ to lead to ! e/abli%m5t ( a h\sehold1 9 :i* ! wants ( ! wife or wives are p]man5tly provid$ =1 9 ! managem5t ( :i* a m or less def9ite %>e is giv5 to !m 7m def9ite1 inde$1 z approa* is made to a monogami/ic sy/em1 b n :olly abs5t any:]e :]e ! wife is di/+ui%$ f ! female71 & ^u :i* ! *ildr5 h a recognis$ claim = %elt] & su/5ance4 #bcg4 ,no d\bt family life z we "k x is an in/itution ( gradual gr[?4 ,x may be f\nd 9 =ms :]e x is easy to ignore ! di/9ction betwe5 x & ! life ( bea/s4 ,x is possible t ! human be+s ) :om x fir/ began--be+s 'human' because capable ( x--may h be5 'desc5d$' f animals n capable ( x1 i4e4 !y may h be5 connect$ ) su* animals by c]ta9 processes ( g5]ation4 ,b ?is makes no diff]5ce 9 ! nature ( ! capacity itself1 :i* is det]m9$ n by a pa/ hi/ory b by its results1 its functions1 t ( :i* x is a capacity4 ,z ! f\ndation ( any family life1 9 ! =m 9 :i* we "k x1 implies t ^u ! m]e sexual impulse !re has sup]v5$ on ! "p ( ! man a p]man5t int]e/ 9 a woman z a p]son ) :om 8 own well-be+ is unit$1 & a consequ5t int]e/ 9 ! *ildr5 born ( h]1 s 9 reg>d to e less p]fect =m out ( :i* we c be entitl$ to say t ! family life1 z we "k x1 has develop$1 we mu/ be also entitl$ to say t x expresses "s int]e/ :i* is 9 pr9ciple id5tical ) t describ$1 h[ev] incompletely x has em]g$ f l[] influ5ces4 #bch4 7#b7 ,su* an int]e/ be+ ! basis ( family relations1 x is q intelligible t ev]yone actuat$ by ! int]e/ %\ld recognise1 & be recognis$ by1 ev]yone else to :om he ascribes an int]e/ l 8 own1 z entitl$ to behave t[>ds ! objects ( ! int]e/--t[>ds 8 wife & *ildr5--9 a mann] f :i* ev]yone else is exclud$2 t !re %\ld ?us come to be rights 9 family relations to a c]ta9 privacy 9 deal+ ) !m2 rights to deal ) !m z 8 alone & n ano!r's2 claims1 ratifi$ by ! g5]al s5se ( _! admission be+ = ! common good1 to ex]cise c]ta9 p[]s & dem& c]ta9 =be>ances f o!rs1 9 reg>d to wife & *ildr54 ,x is only inde$ at an advanc$ /age ( reflection t m5 le>n to ascribe to o!r m51 simply z m51 ! int]e/s :i* !y exp]i5ce !mselves2 & h5ce x is at fir/ only )9 n>r[ societies t m5 secure to ea* o!r ! due privileges & privacies ( family life4 ,9 o!rs ( ! same k9 or tribe !y c habitually imag9e an int]e/ l t ( :i* ea* feels 8 own family life to be ! expression1 & h5ce 9 !m !y spontane\sly respect family rights2 b !y _c ?us practically ?9k !mselves into ! position ( a /rang]1 & h5ce t[>ds him !y d n obs]ve ! same re/ra9ts4 ,!y d n reg>d ! wom5 ( ano!r nation z sacr$ to ! husb&s & families ( t nation4 ,b t p[] ( mak+ ano!r's good "o's own1 :i* 9 ! m int5se & individualis$ =m is ! basis ( family relations1 mu/ always at ! same "t exi/ 9 t m diffus$ =m 9 :i* x s]ves z ! basis ( a society held toge!r by ! recognition ( a common good4 ,:]ev]1 !re=e1 ! family relations exi/1 !re is sure to exi/ also a wid] society :i* by its au?ority gives to ! p[]s ex]cis$ 9 ^? relations ! "* ( rights4 ,by :at process ! relations ( husb& & wife & ! in/itution ( ! h\sehold may h come to be =m$ among desc5dants ( a s+le pair1 x is impossible to conceive or to discov]1 b 9 fact we f9d no trace 9 primitive hi/ory ( h\seholds except z con/itu5ts ( a clan recognis+ a common orig92 & x is by ! cu/oms ( ! clan1 f\nd$ on ! conception ( a common good1 t ^? =be>ances on ! "p ( memb]s ( "o h\sehold 9 deal+ ) ano!r1 :i* are necess>y to ! privacy ( ! sev]al h\seholds1 are secur$4 #bci4 ,! hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( family life is ! hi/ory ( ! process 7a7 by :i* family rights h come to be reg>d$ z indep5d5t ( ! special cu/om ( a clan & ! special laws ( a /ate1 z rights :i* all m5 & wom51 z su*1 are entitl$ to4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 *>act]ises ! hi/ory ( all rights alike4 ,x is a hi/ory f>!r 7b7 ( ! process by :i* ! true nature ( ^! rights has come to be recognis$1 z rights ov] p]sons2 rights ( :i* p]sons are ! objects1 & :i* !re=e imply reciprocal claims on ! "p ( ^? ov] :om !y are ex]cis$ & ( ^? :o ex]cise !m4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( monogamy1 ! abolition ( 'patria pote/as' 9 its v>i\s =ms1 ! 'emancipation ( wom5' 79 ! prop] s5se ( ! phrase71 are involv$ 9 ^! two processes4 ,! pr9ciples 7#a7 t all m5 & all wom5 are entitl$ to m>ry & =m h\seholds1 7#b7 t )9 ! h\sehold ! claims ( ! husb& & wife are ?r\gh\t reciprocal1 _c be realis$ )\t c>ry+ ) !m n m]ely monogamy1 b ! removal ( ^? faulty relations betwe5 m5 & wom5 :i* survive 9 c\ntries :]e monogamy is e/abli%$ by law4 #bdj4 ,"u a sy/em ( polygamy1 j s f> z x is c>ri$ out1 !re mu/ be m5 :o are deb>r$ f m>ry+4 ,x c only exi/1 inde$1 alongside ( a slav]y1 :i* excludes masses ( m5 f ! "r ( =m+ a family4 ,nor does ! wife1 "u a polygam\s sy/em1 ?\gh %e o/5sibly m>ries1 =m a h\sehold1 or become ! co-ord9ate head ( a family1 at all4 ,! husb& alone is head ( ! family & has au?ority ov] ! *ildr54 ,! wife1 inde$1 :o = ! "t is ! fav\rite1 may practically %>e ! au?ority1 b ev5 %e has no equal & assur$ position4 ,! 'consortium omnis vitae1' ! 'individua vitae consuetudo1' :i* accord+ to ! def9ition 9 ! ,dige/ is an ess5tial elem5t 9 m>riage1 is n h]s4 #a #b ,& fur!r z ! polygam\s husb& requires a self-re/ra9t f 8 wife :i* he does n put on himself1 he is treat+ h] unequally4 ,he dem&s a cont95ce f h] :i*1 unless %e is kept 9 ! conf9em5t ( slav]y1 c only re/ on ! atta*m5t ( a p]son to a p]son & on a p]sonal s5se ( duty1 & at ! same "t is practically ignor+ ! dem&1 :i* ?is p]sonal atta*m5t on h] "p necess>ily c>ries ) x1 t he %\ld keep himself = h] z %e keeps h]self = him4 ,! recognition ( *ildr5 z hav+ claims ^u _! p>5ts reciprocal to ^? ( ! p>5ts ov] !m1 equally involves ! condemnation ( polygamy4 ,= ^! claims c only be duly satisfi$1 ! responsibilities ( fa!r & "m t[>ds ! *ildr5 7pot5tially p]sons7 :om !y h br\ght into ! _w c only be fulfill$1 if fa!r & "m jo9tly take "p 9 ! education ( ! *ildr52 if ! *ildr5 le>n to love & obey fa!r & "m z "o au?ority4 ,b if !re is no p]man5t 'consortium vitae' ( "o husb& ) "o wife1 ?is jo9t au?ority ov] ! *ildr5 becomes impossible4 ,! *ild1 :5 its physical dep5d5ce on ! "m is ov]1 ceases to /& 9 any special relation to h]4 ,%e has no recognis$ duties to him1 or he to h]4 ,^! lie betwe5 him & 8 fa!r only1 & j because ! fa!r's int]e/s are divid$ betwe5 ! *ildr5 ( _m wives1 & because ^! r5d] _! filial (fices to ! fa!r sep>ately1 n to fa!r & "m jo9tly1 ! true dome/ic tra9+ is lo/4 #a ',nuptiae sunt conjunctio m>is et fem9ae1 consortium omnis vitae1 div9i et humani juris communicatio' ,dige/1 xxiii4 #b1 #a4 ',matrimonium e/ viri et muli]is conjunctio individuam vita consuetud9em cont95s4' ,in/41 i4#i4b4 7,quot$ by ,tr5del5burg1 ,naturre*t1 p4 #bhb47 #b ,lat9 consortium omnis vitae p>tn]%ip = life individua vitae consuetudo unbrok5 companion%ip ( life ,tr #bda4 ,monogamy1 h[ev]1 may be e/abli%$1 & an advance s f> made t[>ds ! e/abli%m5t ( a due reciprocity betwe5 husb& & wife1 z well z t[>ds a fulfilm5t ( ! responsibilities incurr$ 9 br++ *ildr5 into ! _w1 :ile yet ! true claims ( m5 9 respect ( wom51 & ( wom5 9 respect ( m51 & ( *ildr5 ^u _! p>5ts1 are f> f be+ g5]ally realis$4 ,:]ev] slav]y exi/s alongside ( monogamy1 on ! "o side p ( ! slave class are prev5t$ f =m+ family ties1 & on ! o!r ^? p :o are privileg$ to m>ry1 ?\gh !y are conf9$ to "o wife1 are con/antly tempt$ to be false to ! true monogami/ic idea by ! opportunity ( us+ wom5 z *attels to m9i/] to _! pleasures4 ,! wife is ?us no m ?an an in/itution1 inve/$ ) c]ta9 dignities & privileges1 = ! cont9uation ( ! family2 a cont9uation1 :i* "u pagan religions is consid]$ necess>y = ! ma9t5ance ( c]ta9 c]emonies1 & to :i* among ourselves an importance is atta*$ :olly unconnect$ ) ! p]sonal affection ( ! man = ! wife4 #a ,:5 slav]y is aboli%$1 & ! title ( all m5 & wom5 equally to =m families is e/abli%$ by law1 ! conception ( ! position ( ! wife necess>ily rises4 ,! & #b cease at any rate to be recognis$ accompanim5ts ( m>ri$ life1 & ! claim ( ! wife ^u ! husb&'s fidelity1 z reciprocal to 8 claim ^u h]s1 becomes e/abli%$ by law4 #a ,h] position among ! ,greeks is well illu/rat$ by a passage f ! spee* ( ,demo/h5es 787 aga9/ ,nea]a1 ,sect4 #abb 7quot$ by ,w4 ,e4 ,he>n1 ,! ,aryan ,h\sehold1 p4 #ga74 1 1 7tas m5 g> hetairas h$ones h5ek e*om51 tas de pallakas tes ka?' hem]an !rapeias t\ somatos1 tas de gynaikas t\ paidopoiei/hai gnesios kai ton endon phylaka pi/5 e*e974 ,! qu]y z to ,demo/h5es' au?or%ip is 9 ,gre5's text4 ,he>n translates ?is passage3 ,mi/resses we keep = pleasure1 concub9es = daily att5dance on our p]sons1 wives to be> u legitimate *ildr5 & to be our fai?ful h\sekeep]s4 ,tr #b ,greek 7hetaira7 c\rtesan1 7pallake7 concub9e4 ,tr #bdb4 ,?us t m>riage %\ld only be lawful ) "o wife1 t x %\ld be = life1 t x %\ld be t]m9able by ! infidelity ( ei!r husb& or wife1 are rules ( "r2 n ( morality1 z su*1 b ( "r4 ,)\t su* rules ! rights ( ! m>ri$ p]sons are n ma9ta9$4 ,^? outw>d conditions ( family life w\ld n be secur$ to !m1 :i* are necess>y on ! :ole = ! developm5t ( a free morality4 ,polygamy is a violation ( ! rights1 7#a7 ( ^? :o ?r\gh x are indirectly exclud$ f regul> m>riage1 & ?us f ! moral education :i* results f ?is2 7#b7 ( ! wife1 :o is morally l[]$ by exclusion f h] prop] position 9 ! h\sehold & by be+ us$1 m or less1 z ! m]e in/rum5t ( ! husb&'s pleasure2 7#c7 ( ! *ildr51 :o lose ! *ance ( t full moral tra9+ :i* dep5ds on ! connect$ action ( fa!r & "m4 ,! t]m9ability ( m>riage at ! pleasure ( "o ( ! p>ties to x 7( its t]m9ability at ! desire ( bo? we w speak pres5tly7 is a violation ( ! rights at any rate ( ! uncons5t+ p>ty1 on ! gr\nds 7a7 t liability to x t5ds to prev5t m>riage f becom+ t 'individua vitae consuetudo' :i* gives x its moral value1 & 7b7 t1 :5 ! m>riage is dissolv$1 ! woman1 j 9 proportion to h] capacity = self-devotion & ! degree to :i* %e has devot$ h]self to h] orig9al husb&1 is deb>r$ f =m+ t 'individua vitae consuetudo' aga91 & ?us crippl$ 9 h] moral possibilities4 ,x is a violation ( ! rights ( *ildr5 = ! same reason = :i* polygamy is s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 t ! wife %\ld be b\nd indissolubly by ! m>riage-tie to an unfai?ful husb& 7or vice v]sa71 is a violation ( ! "r ( wife 7or husb&1 z ! case may be71 because on ! "o h& ! re/ra9t :i* makes h] liable to be us$ physically z ! in/rum5t ( ! husb&'s pleasures1 :5 !re is no long] reciprocal devotion betwe5 !m1 is a re/ra9t :i* 7except 9 peculi> cases7 r5d]s moral elevation impossible2 & on ! o!r1 %e is prev5t$ f =m+ su* a true m>riage z w\ld be1 accord+ to ord9>y rules1 ! condition ( ! realisation ( h] moral capacities4 ,?\gh ! husb&'s "r to divorce f an unfai?ful wife has be5 mu* m ?or\ghly recognis$ ?an ! wife's to divorce f an unfai?ful husb&1 he w\ld be 9 fact less s]i\sly wrong$ by ! inability to obta9 a divorce1 = x is only ! second ( ! gr\nds j /at$ t fully applies to him4 ,! rights ( ! *ildr5 d n seem s pla9ly conc]n$ 9 ! dissolution ( a m>riage to :i* husb& or wife has be5 unfai?ful4 ,9 "s cases ! be/ *ance = !m might seem to lie 9 ! infidelities be+ condon$ & an outw>d family peace re-e/abli%$4 ,b t _! rights are violat$ by ! infidelity itself is pla94 ,9 ! mo/ def9ite way x detracts f _! possibilities ( goodness4 ,)\t any cons5t on _! "p1 q indep5d5tly ( any action ( _! own w1 !y are plac$ by x 9 a position :i* t5ds--?\gh special grace may c\nt]act x--to put ! high] k9ds ( goodness beyond _! rea*4 #bdc4 ,^! consid]ations sugge/ "s fur!r que/ions :i* may be discuss$ "u ! foll[+ heads4 7#a7 ,if infidelity 9 m>riage is a violation ( rights 9 ! mann] /at$1 & if 7z x mu/ be7 x is a wilful & kn[+ violation1 :y is x n treat$ z a crime1 &1 l o!r su* violations ( rights1 puni%$ by ! /ate 9 ord] to ! bett] ma9t5ance ( rights8 7#b7 ,%\ld any o!r reason b ! infidelity ( husb& or wife be all[$ = ! legal dissolution ( ! m>riage-tie8 7#c7 ,h[ are ! rights connect$ ) m>riage relat$ to ! morality ( m>riage8 7#a7 ,!re is good reason :y ! /ate %\ld n take ^u itself to in/itute *>ges ( adult]y1 b leave !m to be in/itut$ by ! individuals ^: rights ! adult]y violates4 ,! reasons ord9>ily alleg$ w\ld be1 7a7 ! analogy ( ord9>y brea*es ( contract1 aga9/ :i* ! /ate leaves x to ! individual injur$ to set ! law 9 motion2 7b7 ! practical impossibility ( prev5t+ adult]y ?r\gh ! action ( ! function>ies ( ! /ate4 ,! analogy1 h[ev]1 f ord9>y brea*es ( contract does n really hold4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?\gh m>riage involves contract1 ?\gh )\t contract !re c be no m>riage1 yet m>riage at once gives rise to rights & obligations ( a k9d :i* _c arise out ( contract1 9 p>ticul> to obligations t[>ds ! *ildr5 born ( ! m>riage4 ,^! *ildr51 at any rate1 are 9 no condition to seek r$ress--ev5 if f ! nature ( ! case r$ress c\ld be _h--= ! injuries inflict$ on !m by a p>5t's adult]y1 z a p]son injur$ by a brea* ( contract c seek r$ress = x4 ,aga91 ?\gh ! /ate leaves x to ! individual injur$ by a brea* ( contract to in/itute proce$+s = r$ress1 if ! brea* involves fraud1 x1 at any rate 9 c]ta9 cases1 treats ! fraud z a crime & puni%es4 ,n[ 9 e brea* ( ! m>riage-contract by adult]y !re is t :i* answ]s to fraud 9 ! case ( ord9>y brea* ( contract4 ,! m>riage-contract is brok5 kn[+ly & int5tionally4 ,if !re 7 no reason to ! contr>y1 !n1 x w\ld seem t ! /ate1 ?\gh x might leave to ! injur$ individuals ! in/itution ( proce$+s aga9/ adult]y1 %\ld yet treat adult]y z a crime & seek to prev5t x by puni%m5t 9 ! int]e/ ( ^? ^: virtual rights are violat$ by x1 ?\gh n 9 ! way ( brea* ( contract4 ,b !re are reasons to ! contr>y--reasons t arise out ( ! moral purposes s]v$ by ! m>riage-tie--:i* make x desirable bo? t x %\ld be at ! discretion ( ! directly injur$ p>ty :e!r a case ( adult]y %\ld be judicially dealt ) at all1 & t 9 no case %\ld p5al t]ror be associat$ ) su* a violation ( ! m>riage-bond ,"u ord9>y conditions1 x is a public injury t a violation ( 8 rights %\ld be condon$ by ! p]son suff]+ x4 ,if ! injur$ individual 7 likely to fail 9 ! in/itution ( proce$+s = 8 own r$ress or def5ce1 ! public int]e/ w\ld require t ! matt] %\ld be tak5 out ( 8 h&s4 ,b if an injur$ wife or husb& is will+ to condone a brea* ( 8 or h] rights ?r\gh adult]y1 x is g5]ally be/ t x %\ld be condon$4 ,t m>ri$ life %\ld be cont9u$ 9 spite ( any?+ l dissolut5ess on ! "p ( husb& or wife1 is no d\bt undesirable4 ,! moral purposes :i* m>ri$ life %\ld s]ve _c be s]v$1 ei!r = ! m>ri$ p]sons !mselves or = ! *ildr51 "u su* conditions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! condonation ( a s+le (f5ce w\ld g5]ally be bett] = all conc]n$ ?an an application = divorce4 ,! l9e _c be drawn at :i*1 ) a view to ! high] ends :i* m>riage %\ld s]ve1 divorce becomes desirable4 ,x is !re=e be/ t ! /ate1 :ile uni=mly all[+ ! "r ( divorce :]e ! m>riage-bond has be5 brok5 by adult]y 7s9ce o!rwise ! "r ( ev]yone to =m a true m>riage1 a m>riage :i* %all be ! basis ( family life1 is neutralis$17 & tak+ c>e t proc$ure = divorce be *eap & easy1 %\ld leave ! en=cem5t ( ! "r to ! discretion ( individuals4 #bdd4 ,on simil> gr\nds1 x is undesirable t adult]y z su* %\ld be treat$ z a crime1 t p5al t]ror %\ld be associat$ ) x4 ,?\gh rights1 9 ! /rict s5se1 und\bt$ly arise out ( m>riage1 ?\gh m>riage has ?us its /rictly legal aspect1 x is undesirable t ?is legal aspect %\ld become prom95t4 ,x may suff] 9 respect ( its high] moral purposes1 if ! elem5t ( =ce appe>s too /rongly 9 ! ma9t5ance ( ! rights to :i* x gives rise4 ,if a husb& :o w\ld o!rwise be false to ! m>riage-bond is kept outw>dly fai?ful to x by fe> ( ! puni%m5t :i* might att5d its brea*1 ! "r ( ! wife & *ildr5 is inde$ s f> protect$1 b is any?+ ga9$ = ^? moral ends1 = ! sake ( :i* ! ma9t5ance ( ^! rights is alone ( value8 ,! man 9 :om disloyal passion is neutralis$ by fe> ( puni%m5t w contribute little 9 8 family life to ! moral developm5t ( himself1 8 wife1 or 8 *ildr54 ,if he _c be kept true by family affection & sympa?y ) ! social disapprobation atta*+ to matrimonial infidelity 7& unless x is a matt] ( social disapprobation no p5alties w be effectually en=c$ aga9/ x71 he w n be kept true 9 a way t is ( any value to ^? conc]n$ by fe> ( p5alties4 ,9 o!r words1 ! rights t arise out ( m>riage are n ( a k9d :i* c 9 _! ess5ce be protect$ by associat+ p5al t]ror ) _! violation1 z ! rights ( life & prop]ty c be4 ,!y are n rights to claim m]e =be>ances or to claim ! p]=mance ( c]ta9 outw>d actions1 by :i* a "r is satisfi$ irrespectively ( ! disposition ) :i* ! act is done4 ,!y are claims :i* _c be met )\t a c]ta9 disposition on ! "p ( ! p]son ^u :om ! claim re/s1 & t disposition _c be en=c$4 ,! attempt to en=ce ! outw>d behavi\r 9 ord] to satisfy ! claim1 :i* is a claim n to ! outw>d behavi\r m]ely b to ?is 9 connection ) a c]ta9 disposition1 defeats its own end4 #bde4 ,= ! protection1 !re=e1 ( ! rights ( m>ri$ p]sons & _! *ildr5 aga9/ infidelity1 x does n appe> t ! law c d m ?an secure facilities ( divorce 9 ! case ( adult]y4 ,?is inde$ is n 9 itself a protection aga9/ ! wrong involv$ 9 adult]y1 b r a deliv]ance f ! fur!r wrong to ! injur$ husb& or wife & to ! *ildr5 t w\ld be involv$ 9 ! cont9uance ( any legal claim ov] !m on ! "p ( ! injur]4 ,b indirectly x helps to prev5t ! wrong be+ done by br++ social disapprobation to be> on cases ( infidelity1 & ?us help+ to keep m>ri$ p]sons fai?ful ?r\gh sympa?y ) ! disapprobation ( :i* !y feel t !y w\ld be ! objects :5 !y imag9e !mselves unfai?ful4 ,! only o!r effectual way 9 :i* ! /ate c gu>d aga9/ ! injuries 9 "q is by requir+ great precaution & solemnity 9 ! contraction ( m>riages4 ,?is x c d by insi/+ on ! cons5t ( p>5ts to ! m>riage ( all m9ors1 exact+ a long notice 7p]haps ev5 a prelim9>y notice ( betro?al71 &1 :ile n prev5t+ civil m>riage1 by enc\rag+ ! celebration ( m>riage 9 ! pres5ce ( religi\s congregations & ) religi\s rites4 #bdf4 ,"q 7#b7 is "o t does n admit ( be+ answ]$ on any absolute pr9ciple ,we mu/ be> 9 m9d t all rights--9 idea or z !y %\ld be--are relative to moral ends4 ,! gr\nd = secur+ to individuals 9 respect ( ! m>riage-tie c]ta9 p[]s z rights1 is t 9 a g5]al way !y are necess>y to ! possibility ( a morally good life1 ei!r directly to ! p]sons ex]cis+ !m or to _! *ildr54 ,! m completely m>riage is a 'consortium omnis vitae' 9 ! s5se ( a unity 9 all int]e/s & = ! :ole ( a lifetime1 ! m likely are ! ext]nal conditions ( a moral life to be fulfill$ 9 reg>d bo? to m>ri$ p]sons & _! *ildr54 ,!re=e ! g5]al rule ( ! /ate 9 deal+ ) m>riage %\ld be to secure su* p[]s z are fav\rable & )hold su* z are n fav\rable to ! 'consortium omnis vitae4' ,b 9 ! application ( ! pr9ciple great difficulties arise4 ,lunacy may cle>ly r5d] ! 'consortium omnis vitae' f9ally impossible2 b :at k9d & degree ( lunacy8 ,if ! lunatic may possibly recov]1 ?\gh !re is und\bt$ly reason = ! sep>ation f husb& or wife dur+ lunacy1 %\ld p]man5t divorce be all[$8 ,if x is all[$1 & ! lunatic recov]s1 a wrong w h be5 done bo? to him & to ! *ildr5 previ\sly born ( ! m>riage4 ,on ! o!r h&1 to res]ve ! connubial rights ( a lunatic ( ^: recov]y !re is hope1 & to re/ore !m :5 he recov]s1 may involve ! wrong ( br++ fur!r *ildr5 into ! _w ) ! ta9t ( lunacy ^u !m4 ,is cruelty to be a gr\nd ( divorce1 & if s1 :at am\nt8 ,!re is a degree ( p]si/5t cruelty :i* r5d]s 'consortium omnis vitae' impossible1 b unless x is c]ta9 t cruelty has rea*$ ! po9t at :i* a re/oration ( any sort ( family life becomes impossible1 a great] wrong bo? to wife & *ildr5 may be involv$ 9 all[+ divorce ?an 9 refus+ x4 ,a husb& impati5t = ! "t ( ! re/ra9t ( m>riage may be tempt$ to pass+ cruelty z a means ( ridd+ himself ( x1 :ile if no su* escape 7 op5 to him he might get ! bett] ( ! tempor>y di/urb+ passion & settle d[n into a dec5t husb&4 ,! same consid]ation applies /ill m /rongly to all[+ incompatibility ( temp] z a gr\nd ( divorce4 ,x w\ld be h>d to d5y t x might be ( a degree & k9d 9 :i* x s de/roy$ ! possibility ( 'consortium omnis vitae1' t1 ) a view to ! int]e/s ( ! *ildr51 :o ought 9 su* a case to be *iefly consid]$1 divorce impli$ less wrong ?an ! ma9t5ance ( ! m>riage-tie4 ,b on ! o!r h&1 to hold out ! possibility ( divorce on ! gr\nd ( incompatibility is j ! way to g5]ate t incompatibility4 ,on ! :ole1 ! only conclusion seems to be t ?is la/ gr\nd %\ld n be all[$1 & t 9 decid+ on o!r gr\nds l>ge discretion %\ld be all[$ to a well-con/itut$ c\rt4 ,p4 ,,rights ,,& ,,virtues #bdg4 ,we h n[ consid]$ 9 a p]functory way ^? rights :i* are antec$5t to ! /ate1 :i* are n d]iv$ f x b may exi/ :]e a /ate is n1 & :i* x is ! (fice ( ! /ate to ma9ta94 ,we h inquir$ :at x is 9 ! nature ( man t r5d]s him capable ( ^! rights1 :at are ! moral ends to :i* ! rights are relative1 & 9 :at =m ! rights %\ld be realis$ 9 ord] to ! atta9m5t ( ^! ends4 ,9 ord] to make ! inquiry into rights complete1 we ought to g on to exam9e 9 ! same way ! rights :i* arise out ( ! e/abli%m5t ( a /ate1 ! rights connect$ ) ! sev]al functions ( gov]nm5t2 h[ ^! functions come to be necess>y1 & h[ !y may be/ be fulfill$ ) a view to ^? moral ends to :i* ! functions ( ! /ate are ultimately relative4 ,accord+ to my project1 ,i %\ld !n h proce$$ to consid] ! social virtues1 & ! 'moral s5tim5ts' :i* und]lie our p>ticul> judgm5ts z to :at is good & evil 9 conduct4 ,all virtues are really social2 or1 m prop]ly1 ! di/9ction betwe5 social & self-reg>d+ virtues is a false "o4 ,e virtue is self-reg>d+ 9 ! s5se t x is a disposition1 or habit ( w1 direct$ to an end :i* ! man pres5ts to himself z 8 good2 e virtue is social 9 ! s5se t unless ! good to :i* ! w is direct$ is "o 9 :i* ! well-be+ ( society 9 "s =m or o!r is involv$1 ! w is n virtu\s at all4 #bdh4 ,! virtues are dispositions to ex]cise positively1 9 "s way contributory to social good1 ^? p[]s :i*1 because admitt+ ( be+ s ex]cis$1 society %\ld secure to him2 ! p[]s :i* a man has a "r to possess1 :i* con/itute 8 rights4 ,x is !re=e conv5i5t to arrange ! virtues accord+ to ! division ( rights4 ,e4g4 9 reg>d to ! "r ( all m5 to free life1 ! obligations1 /rictly s call$1 correlative to t "r hav+ be5 consid]$ 7obligations :i* are all ( a negative nature1 obligations to =be> f m$dl+ ) "o's neighb\r71 we %\ld proce$ to consid] ! activities by :i* a society ( m5 really free is e/abli%$1 or by :i* "s approa* is made to its e/abli%m5t 7'really free1' 9 ! s5se ( be+ enabl$ to make ! mo/ ( _! capabilities74 ,^! activities w take diff]5t =ms "u diff]5t social conditions1 b 9 r\gh outl9e !y are ^? by :i* m5 9 mutual helpfulness conqu] & adapt nature1 & ov]come ! influ5ces :i* w\ld make !m victims ( *ance & accid5t1 ( brute =ce & animal passion4 ,! virtu\s disposition display$ 9 ^! activities may h v>i\s names appli$ to x accord+ to ! p>ticul> direction 9 :i* x is ex]t$2 'indu/ry1' 'c\rage1' 'public _s4' ,a p>ticul> aspect ( x 0 br\ght into relief among ! ,greeks "u ! "n ( 4 #a ,! ,greek philosoph]s already gave an ext5sion to ! mean+ ( ?is t]m beyond t :i* belong$ to x 9 popul> usage1 & we might be tempt$ fur!r to ext5d x s z to cov] all ! =ms 9 :i* ! habit ( w necess>y to ! ma9t5ance & fur!rance ( free society %[s itself4 ,! "n1 h[ev]1 does n mu* matt]4 ,x is en\gh t !re are specific modes ( human activity :i* contribute directly to ma9ta9 a %elt] = man's wor?i] en]gies aga9/ di/urbance by natural =ces & by ! consequ5ces ( human fe> & lu/4 ,! /ate ( m9d :i* appe>s 9 !m may prop]ly be treat$ z a special k9d ( virtue4 ,x is true t ! pr9ciple & ! end ( all virtues is ! same4 ,!y are all det]m9$ by relation to social well-be+ z _! f9al cause1 & !y all re/ on a dom9ant int]e/ 9 "s =m or o!r ( t well-be+2 b z t int]e/ may take diff]5t directions 9 diff]5t p]sons1 z x _c be equally develop$ at once 9 ev]yone1 x may be said r\ghly t a man has "o k9d ( virtue & n o!rs4 #a ,greek 7&reia7 manl9ess ,tr4 #bdi4 ,z ! k9d ( moral duties 79 di/9ction f ^? obligations :i* are correlative to rights7 :i* relate to ! ma9t5ance ( free society & ! disposition to fulfil ^? duties %\ld =m a special object ( inquiry1 s ano!r special k9d w\ld be ^? :i* h to d ) ! managem5t ( prop]ty1 ) ! acquisition & exp5diture ( weal?4 ,to respect ! rights ( prop]ty 9 o!rs1 to fulfil ! obligations correlative to ^? rights1 is "o ?+2 to make a good use ( prop]ty1 to be ju/ly g5]\s & g5]\sly j 9 giv+ & receiv+1 is ano!r1 & t may prop]ly be treat$ z a special k9d ( virtue :i* appe>s 9 ! duly bl5d$ prud5ce1 equity1 & g5]osity ( ! ideal man ( bus9ess4 ,ano!r special k9d w be t :i* appe>s 9 family relations2 :]e inde$ t m]ely negative obs]vance ( "r1 :i* 9 o!r relations c be di/+ui%$ f ! positive fulfilm5t ( moral duties1 becomes unmean+4 ,z we h se51 !re are c]ta9 aggravations & p]petuations ( wrong f :i* husb& or wife or *ildr5 c be protect$ by law1 b ! fulfilm5t ( ! claims :i* arise out ( ! m>riage-tie requires a virtu\s w 9 ! active & positive s5se--a w gov]n$ by unselfi% int]e/s--on ! "p ( ^? conc]n$4 #bej4 ,:at is call$ 'moral s5tim5t' is m]ely a weak] =m ( t int]e/ 9 social well-be+ :i*1 :5 wr\ght into a man's habits & /rong en\gh to det]m9e action1 we call virtue4 ,s f> z ?is int]e/ is br\ght into play on ! m]e survey ( action1 & s]ves m]ely to det]m9e an approbation or disapprobation1 x is call$ moral s5tim5t4 ,! =ms ( moral s5tim5t accord+ly %\ld be classifi$ on "s pr9ciple z =ms ( virtue1 i4e4 ) relation to ! social functions to :i* !y correspond4 #bea4 ,= ! conv5i5ce ( analysis1 we may treat ! obligations correlative to rights1 obligations :i* x is ! prop] (fice ( law to en=ce1 ap>t f moral duties & f ! virtues :i* are t5d5cies to fulfil ^? duties4 ,i am prop]ly oblig$ to ^? actions & =be>ances :i* are necess>y to ! g5]al fre$om1 necess>y if ea* is n to int]f]e ) ! realisation ( ano!r's w4 ,my duty is to be int]e/$ positively 9 my neighb\r's well-be+4 ,& x is important to und]/& t1 :ile ! en=cem5t ( obligations is possible1 t ( moral duties is impossible4 ,b ! e/abli%m5t ( obligations by law or au?oritative cu/om1 & ! gradual recognition ( moral duties1 h n be5 sep>ate processes ,!y h gone on toge!r 9 ! hi/ory ( man4 ,! gr[? ( ! in/itutions by :i* m complete equality ( rights is gradually secur$ to a wid] range ( p]sons1 & ( ^? int]e/s 9 v>i\s =ms ( social well-be+ by :i* ! w is moralis$1 h be5 relat$ to ea* o!r z ! out] & inn] side ( ! same spiritual developm5t1 ?\gh at a c]ta9 /age ( reflection x comes to be discov]$ t ! ag5cy ( =ce1 by :i* ! rights are ma9ta9$1 is ineffectual = elicit+ ! moral int]e/s4 ,! result ( ! tw(old process has be5 ! creation ( ! actual cont5t ( morality2 ! articulation ( ! indef9ite consci\sness t !re is some?+ t %\ld be--a true well-be+ to be aim$ at o!r ?an any pleasure or succession ( pleasures--into ! s5tim5ts & int]e/s :i* =m an 'enlight5$ consci5ce4' ,x is ?us t :5 ! highe/ /age ( reflective morality is rea*$1 & ^u int]e/s 9 ?is or t mode ( social good !re sup]v5es an int]e/ 9 an ideal ( goodness1 t ideal has already a def9ite fill+2 & ! man :o pursues duty = duty's sake1 :o does good = ! sake ( be+ good or 9 ord] to realise an idea ( p]fection1 is at no loss to say :at 9 p>ticul> 8 duty is1 or by :at p>ticul> me?ods ! p]fection ( "* is to be approa*$4 ,,supplem5t4 ,"s ,quotations r5d]$ into ,engli%4 ,f ,sect4 #cb4 ,tractatus ,politici1 ,,ii4 #d 7',p] jus itaque'74 ',by "r ( nature 7natural "r7 ,i und]/& 444 ! actual p[] ( nature4' ',:atev] an individual man does by ! laws ( 8 nature1 t he does ) ! highe/ natural "r1 & 8 "r t[>ds nature goes j z f> z 8 p[] holds out4' ',jus naturae' 'natural "r4' ',pot5tia' 'p[]4' ',jus' '"r4' ',jus humanum' '"r ( man1' or '"r qua human4' ,ib4 ,,ii4 #e 7',hom9es magis'74 ',human be+s are l$ m by bl9d desire ?an by reason2 & h5ce _! natural p[] or "r %\ld be m>k$ out n by reason b by any incl9ation by :i* !y are det]m9$ to act1 & by :i* !y endeav\r aft] _! own pres]vation4' ',jus civile' 'civic "r or law4' ,ib4 ,,ii4 #ad 7',quat5us hom9es'74 ',9 z f> z human be+s are tr\bl$ by ang]1 jeal\sy1 or any emotion ( hate1 s f> !y are drawn 9 diff]5t directions & are antagoni/ic to "o ano!r1 & !re=e !y are m to be fe>$ 9 s f> z !y are m p[]ful1 & m %rewd & a/ute1 ?an ! o!r animals2 & because human be+s are 9 ! highe/ degree liable by nature to ^! emotions1 !re=e !y are natural enemies 7to "o ano!r74' ,ib4 #ae 7',atque adeo'74 ',& s we conclude t natural "r c h>dly be conceiv$ unless :]e human be+s h laws 9 common1 7human be+s7 :o h p[] at once to ass]t possession ( ! l&s :i* !y are able to inhabit & to till1 & to def5d !mselves1 & to repel all viol5ce1 & to live 9 accordance ) ! common s5tim5t ( all4 ,= 7by art4 #ac ( ?is *apt]7 ! m t ?us come toge!r into "o1 ! m "r !y all toge!r possess4' ,ib4 #af 7',ubi hom9es'74 ',:]e human be+s h laws 9 common & all toge!r are guid$ z by "o m9d1 x is c]ta9 7by art4 #ac ( ?is *apt]7 t ea* ( !m has s mu* ! less "r z ! re/ are toge!r m p[]ful ?an he2 t is1 t he 9 fact has no "r ov] nature beyond t :i* ! common 7social7 law conc$es him4 ,b :atev] is enjo9$ ^u him by common cons5t1 he is b\nd to p]=m1 or 7by art4 #d ( ?is *apt]7 he is compell$ to x by law4' ,ib4 #ag 7',hoc jus'74 ',?is law 7or "r71 :i* is coext5sive ) ! p[] ( ! plurality1 is usually call$ 'imp]ium' 7'au?ority1' 'gov]nm5t'74 ,ib4 ,,iii4 #b 7',multitud9is quae'74 ',( a numb] or plurality1 :i* is guid$ z if by a s+le m9d4' ',/atus civilis' 'civic1 or social1 condition4' ,ib4 ,,iii4 #c 7',homo ex legibus'74 ,9 ! civic condition z well z 9 ! /ate ( nature 'man acts f ! laws ( 8 own nature & consults 8 own int]e/4' ',sui juris' '9 its own "r1' 'autonom\s4' ,sect4 #cc 7#a74 ,ib4 ,,iii4 #g 7',civitatis jus'74 ',! "r ( ! /ate is coext5sive ) ! p[] ( ! plurality :i* is guid$ z if by "o m9d4 ,b ?is on5ess ( m9ds is inconceivable1 unless ! /ate has = its ma9 int5tion :at s\nd reason %[s to be = ! int]e/ ( all m54' 7#b74 ,ib4 ,,iii4 #h 7',subditi eat5us'74 ',subjects are n 9 _! own "r1 b "u ! "r 7or law7 ( ! /ate1 s f> z !y fe> its p[] or ?reats1 or s f> z !y love ! social condition 7by art4 #aj ( prec$+ *apt]74 ,f :i* x foll[s1 t all ^? acts to :i* no "o c be impell$ by rew>ds or ?reats lie outside ! "r 7or law7 ( ! /ate4' 7#c74 ,ib4 ,,iii4 #i 7',ad civitatis jus'74 ',t belongs to ! "r ( ! /ate 9 a less degree1 :i* causes indignation 9 a great] numb]4' 7',sicut'74 ',l ! individual citiz51 or ! man 9 a /ate ( nature1 ! /ate is less 9 its own "r 9 proportion z x has great] cause = fe>4' ,sect4 #cd4 ,ib4 ,,iii4 #aa 7',nam qu&oquidem'74 ',= see+ t 7by art4 #b ( ?is *apt]7 ! "r ( ! supreme p[] is no?+ b ! actual "r ( nature1 x foll[s t two gov]nm5ts are to "o ano!r z two m5 9 ! /ate ( nature1 except t ! /ate c def5d itself aga9/ ext]nal aggression 9 a way impossible = man 9 a /ate ( nature1 inasmu* z he is ov]come daily by sleep1 (t5 by disease or di/ress1 & 9 ! end by old age1 & besides ?is is expos$ to o!r inconv5i5ces1 aga9/ :i* ! /ate c protect itself4' ,ib4 ,,iii4 #ac 7',duae civitates'74 ',two /ates are natural enemies4 ,= m5 9 ! /ate ( nature are enemies4 ,^?1 !re=e1 :o reta9 ! "r ( nature1 z n be+ 9 ! same /ate1 are enemies4' ,ib4 ,,iii4 #ad 7',nec dici pote/'74 ',nor c x be said to act ) craft or p]fidy 9 t x dissolves its promise z soon z ! cause ( fe> or hope is remov$2 because ?is condition 0 ! same = bo? contract+ p>ties1 t :i*soev] is fir/ enabl$ to be free f fe> %\ld be 9 its own "r1 & %\ld use its "r accord+ to ! s5tim5t ( its m9d2 &1 moreov]1 because no "o contracts = ! future except on supposition ( ! circum/ances "u :i* he contracts4' ,sect4 #ce4 ,ib4 ,,ii4 #ah 7',9 /atu'74 ',9 a /ate ( nature !re c be no transgression1 or if "o transgresses1 he does s aga9/ himself1 n aga9/ ano!r2 444 no?+ is absolutely =bidd5 by ! law ( nature1 except :at no "o has p[] to d4' ',commune decretum' '! common 7or social7 behe/4' ,ib4 ,v4 #a 7',non id omne'74 ',n ev]y?+ :i* we say is done rightfully1 d we affirm to be ! be/ to be done4 ,x is "o ?+ to till a field )9 y\r "r1 & ano!r ?+ to till x 9 ! be/ way2 x is "o ?+1 ,i say1 to def5d y\rself1 pres]ve y\rself1 give judgm5t c4 )9 y\r "r1 & ano!r ?+ to d all ^! acts 9 ! be/ way2 & accord+ly x is "o ?+ to gov]n & manage a /ate )9 its rights1 & ano!r ?+ to d ?is 9 ! be/ way4 ,?us1 n[ t we h treat$ 9 g5]al ( ! "r ( e /ate1 x is "t to treat ( ! be/ condition ( e /ate4' ',f9is /atus civilis' '! end or aim ( ! civic or social condition4' ,ib4 ,v4 #b 7',hom9es enim'74 ',m5 are n born ( civic temp]1 b become s4 ,moreov]1 ! natural dispositions ( m5 are ev]y:]e ! same4' ,ib4 ,v4 #d 7',pax enim'74 ',peace is n abs5ce ( w>1 b a virtue :i* arises f =titude ( m9d2 = ob$i5ce is a con/ant w to p]=m t :i* ! common behe/ ( ! /ate requires to be done4' ,e?ics1 ,,iii4 #ei1 ,s*ol4 79 footnote on prec$+ passage7 7',omnes actiones'74 ',all ! actions :i* foll[ f ! affects :i* are relat$ to ! m9d1 9 s f> z x ?9ks1 ,i ascribe to =titude1 :i* ,i divide into /r5g? ( m9d & g5]osity4 ,by /r5g? ( m9d ,i mean ! desire by :i* ea* p]son endeav\rs1 f ! dictates ( reason alone1 to pres]ve 8 own be+4 ,by g5]osity ,i mean ! desire by :i*1 f ! dictates ( reason alone1 ea* p]son endeav\rs to help o!r p & to jo9 !m to him 9 fri5d%ip4' 7',quae maxime'74 ',:i* is ma9ly coext5sive ) reason1 ! true virtue & life ( ! m9d4' 7',quod multitudo lib]a'74 ,an au?ority :i* 'a free plurality in/itutes1 n "o :i* is acquir$ aga9/ ! plurality by ! "r ( w>4' ,sect4 #cf4 ',suum esse cons]v>e' 'to pres]ve 8 own be+4' ',hom9i nihil' 'no?+ is m useful to man1 ?an man4' ',homo namque4' ,see on sect4 #cb4 ',con/ans voluntas4' ,see on sect4 #ce4 ',vitam concordit] transig]e' 'to live 9 h>mony4' ,footnote on ',lib]a multitudo1' ,,ii4 #aa 7',hom9em eat5us'74 ',! s5se 9 :i* at all ,i call a man free is 9 s f> z he is guid$ by reason2 because ?us f> he is det]m9$ to action by causes :i* c be adequately und]/ood out ( 8 nature alone1 al?\gh by !m he be necess>ily det]m9$ to action4 ,= fre$om ( action does n d5y b affirms necessity4' ,on ,sect4 #cg4 ,,ii4 #ae 7',jus naturae'74 ,see on sect4 #cb4 ,on ,sect4 #ci4 7polis7 /ate1 includ+ mu* t we mean by 'society4' 7telos7 end1 aim1 f9al cause4 7polites7 citiz54 7phusei politikos7 social1 or civic1 by nature4 7polites mete*ei7 ',! citiz5 takes 8 %>e bo? 9 gov]n+ & 9 be+ gov]n$4' ,on ,sect4 #dj4 ,footnote1 ,e?4 ,,iv4 ,app5dix1 xxxii 7',ea quae'74 ',we %all be> ) equanimity ^? ?+s :i* happ5 to u contr>y to :at a consid]ation ( our own pr(it dem&s1 if we are consci\s t we h p]=m$ our duty1 t ! p[] we h c\ld n rea* s f> z to enable u to avoid ^? ?+s1 & t we are a "p ( ! :ole ( nature1 ^: ord] we foll[4 ,if we cle>ly & di/9ctly und]/& ?is1 ! "p ( u :i* is det]m9$ by intellig5ce--t is to say1 ! bett] "p ( u--w be entirely satisfi$ !re)1 & 9 t satisfaction w endeav\r to p]sev]e2 =1 9 s f> z we und]/&1 we _c desire any?+ except+ :at is necess>y1 nor absolutely c we be satisfi$ ) any?+ b ! tru?4 ,!re=e1 9 s f> z we und]/& ^! ?+s prop]ly w ! ef=ts ( ! bett] "p ( u agree ) ! :ole ord] ( nature4' ,e?4 ,,iv4 ,preface 7',p] bonum'74 ',by good1 !re=e1 ,i und]/& 9 ! foll[+ pages ev]y?+ :i* we are c]ta9 is a means by :i* we may approa* ne>] & ne>] to ! model ( human nature we set be=e u4444 ,aga91 ,i %all call m5 m or less p]fect or imp]fect 9 s f> z !y approa* ne>] & ne>] to ! model ( human nature we set be=e u4' ,on ,sect4 #da4 ',nihil positivum 9 rebus 9 se consid]atis' 'no?+ positive 9 ?+s consid]$ 9 !mselves4' ,9 all ! quotations f ,sp9oza's ,e?ics ,mr4 ,hales ,:ite's translation has be5 foll[$4