,transcriber's ,notes3 ,underscores 80 before and after a word or phrase indicate italics in the original text4 ,small capitals have been converted to ,,solid capitals4 ,illustrations have been moved so they do not break up paragraphs4 ,typographical errors have been silently corrected4 ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,small ,,house ,a ,,simple ,,and ,,useful ,,source ,,of ,,information ,,on ,,the ,,methods ,,of ,,building ,,small ,,american ,,homes1 ,,for ,,anyone ,,planning ,,to ,,build ,,by ,h4 ,,vandervoort ,,walsh ,,instructor ,,of ,,construction ,,in ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,architecture1 ,,columbia ,,university ,,with ,,illustrations ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #aibc ,,copyright1 #aibc1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,published ,february1 #aibc ,illustration ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,present-,,day ,,economic ,,troubles #a ,,ii4 ,,general ,,types ,,and ,,costs #g ,,iii4 ,,essential ,,standards ,,of ,,quality ,,in ,,building ,,materials #bj ,,iv4 ,,types ,,of ,,wooden-,,frame ,,construction #ch ,v4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,masonry ,,and ,,wood ,,dwelling #di ,,vi4 ,,safeguards ,,against ,,fire ,,in ,,dwellings #fi ,,vii4 ,,poor ,,methods ,,of ,,construction ,,employed ,,by ,,unscrupulous ,,builders #ha ,,viii4 ,,essential ,,features ,,of ,,good ,,plumbing #id ,,ix4 ,,methods ,,of ,,heating #aji ,x4 ,,lighting ,,and ,,electric ,,work #aba ,,xi4 ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,trim #acj ,,xii4 ,,lessons ,,taught ,,by ,,depreciation #ada ,,xiii4 ,,selecting ,,materials ,,from ,,advertisements #aej ,,xiv4 ,,roofing ,,materials #aeh ,,xv4 ,,painting ,,and ,,varnishing ,,the ,,house #agg ,,xvi4 ,,labor-,,saving ,,devices ,,for ,,the ,,home #ahe ,,xvii4 ,,concrete ,,work ,,around ,,the ,,house #aig ,,xviii4 ,,classification ,,and ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,architectural ,,motifs ,,used ,,in ,,small-,,house ,,designing #bjh ,,xix4 ,,traditions ,,of ,,building ,,from ,,which ,,our ,,modern ,,methods ,,are ,,derived #bai ,,xx4 ,,traditions ,,of ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,doors ,,and ,,windows #bcf ,,xxi4 ,,building ,,the ,,setting ,,for ,,the ,,house #bde ,,xxii4 ,,financing ,,the ,,construction ,,work #beh ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,small ,,house ,i ,,present-,,day ,,economic ,,troubles ,immediately after the war the housing shortage made itself very evident1 because the landlords discovered that it existed1 and realized that they had it within their power to exact extortionate rents4 ,statisticians got busy and put their heads together and informed the public that within the next five years there would have to be built some #c1cjj1jjj new homes to properly house the people4 ,the building magazines likewise were predicting great things in construction1 and all in the building industry were looking for fat years of prosperity1 for here was the need and there was the pressure of the high rents4 ,why should not the thousands of families that had waited build now1 when they saw their money going to waste in high rents8 ,all kinds of advertisements were sent out to urge the public to build1 and own-your-own-home shows sprang up in every large city1 and one could find plenty of builders who would say that one should build immediately1 before prices went higher4 ,and seeing the poor1 unprotected home-builder1 the greed of human nature seized all in the building industry as it had entangled all other business lines1 and the price of materials leaped into the air1 and the cost of labor became swollen1 and all had that bloated and enlarged look which comes over the face of him who is sure of his meal4 ,illustration3 ,before the war he planned for this ,at the end of #aiah the average cost of all building materials was up to #age per cent over that of #aiac1 but by the first quarter of #aibj they had gotten up to #cjj per cent increase over #aiac prices4 ,lumber had gone up #cgc per cent4 ,labor had also risen to #bjj per cent4 ,mr4 ,average ,citizen found that the home he had been saving his money to build had flown from his hand1 like a bird4 ,the sketches and plans he had prepared for a nice little #aj1jjj home now represented an investment of #bj1jjj or more4 ,in fact1 if he expected to build at all1 he had to be reconciled to a small house of six or seven rooms1 which would cost him not less than #aj1jjj or more1 or as much as the large house which he had planned originally to build4 ,then what happened8 ,mr4 ,average ,citizen did not build4 ,the confidently predicted building boom which the building material manufacturers had looked for did not materialize4 ,prices were too high1 and the public could not be made to believe that they would not come down1 and the public was right4 ,illustration3 ,now his plans have shrunk to this ,the light began to break as well as the prices1 and we find the cost of building materials dropping suddenly4 ,by the end of #aibj they had reached the #bjj mark4 ,by ,march1 #aibb1 they had reached the #aee level1 and are still going down with slight fluctuation4 ,but during all of this time we heard all kinds of theories as to how the problem should be met4 ,some architects went so far as to predict that people could no longer build individual houses for themselves2 that the day of the small house was over4 ,they claimed that the only solution was in the construction of group houses4 ,such groups would eliminate much of the expensive street paving as ordinarily required1 and cut to a minimum the water supply-lines and sewage systems4 ,semi-detached houses in groups were capable of saving the cost on one outside wall1 one chimney1 one set of plumbing pipes for each house in the group4 ,the heating could also be reduced to a community basis1 and the land so distributed that the best air and light could be had with the minimum waste4 ,many architects conscientiously tried to reduce the cost of construction of the small house by inventing cheaper ways and methods of building4 ,however1 the estimates came in just as high1 because the average small contractor who builds the small house was afraid of innovations1 since there was too great an element of risk1 and he was conservative4 ,to meet this difficulty some architects attached to their office organization construction departments by means of which they were able to build according to their economical plans and secure the advantage of the saving in cost4 ,this was held by many to be unprofessional4 ,other architects secured lower bids by having a written agreement with the various contractors who were competing that1 if they received the contract1 the owner would be responsible for and pay for any increase in labor or material prices which might take place during the period of erection4 ,likewise the contractor agreed to give the owner the benefit of any reduction in prices which might take place during the time of erection4 ,this simple understanding seemed to relieve the contractor of nervousness1 and his bids were often lower4 ,still other architects claimed that the cost of construction could only be reduced by standardizing all of the parts4 ,certain mills had secured high-class talent to design stock doors1 cornices1 windows1 columns1 and the like1 and the results were very satisfactory1 both artistically and economically4 ,this problem of the cost of the small house was very acute1 and1 although it has been relieved somewhat by the decreasing prices at this time1 yet it will always be an integral part of the problem of building the small house4 ,in fact1 to properly design the small house and build it economically requires the greatest care for detail4 ,many well-established architects will not bother with this architectural problem1 for the time required to consider all these small details is greater than they can afford to give in proportion to the fee they receive4 ,for this reason most of this work is done by the young architect or by the speculative builder1 who generally shows very bad taste in selecting his design1 while the young architect is apt to be somewhat inexperienced in his knowledge of construction4 ,the very first thing that must be considered in the problem of the building of the small house is the question of money1 because this determines what kind of a lot can be purchased1 how large the house can be1 and of what type of construction it can be built4 ,experts on financing say that the cost of the house should be such that it can be paid off in full within fifteen years4 ,this means that the cost of the proposed home must be arranged to come within definite limits4 ,methods of approximately determining the cost of a house in its preliminary sketch stages will be considered later1 but it is sufficient to say here1 that once this first problem is solved carefully1 other matters are much easier to take care of4 ,if one knows the cost1 the question of borrowing money is made easier1 and one is not misled into wild fancies of larger houses than possibly the pocketbook could afford4 ,the worst mistake that a young architect can make is to lead his client to believe that he can have a certain design for less money than will actually be the case4 ,it is always best to overestimate the cost in the beginning than to underestimate it4 8,but10 says the client1 8,i can buy a house and lot at #8,heavenly ,rest ,real ,estate ,park' for that price1 and on the instalment plan1 too4 ,i don't see why the cost of a house built from your plans should be so much greater than this40 ,and that is a big question to answer1 one which this volume will attempt to make clear1 one to which only a knowledge of construction can give a real and satisfactory answer4 ,it is the old story1 that a well-built article is bound to cost more than a poorly built one2 but how to know the well-built article6 ,,ii ,,general ,,types ,,and ,,costs ,types of ,house ,construction ,,type ,i ,illustration3 ,type ,i ,wooden ,frame ,all small houses may be classified into four types1 according to their construction4 ,the first type is the commonest and is the wooden frame structure4 ,this has exterior walls and interior partitions built of light wooden studs1 and the floors and ceilings framed with wooden joists4 ,the exterior walls may be covered with clapboard1 shingles1 stucco1 brick veneer1 or stone veneer4 ,the roof is generally covered with wooden shingles1 although slate1 tile1 asbestos1 and asphalt shingles are often used4 ,these houses are the most numerous1 because the cost of wood in the past has been so much less than other materials that they appealed to the average builder's financial sense4 ,however1 the cost of such dwellings to the country as a whole has been very high1 for they are extremely dangerous when attacked by fire4 ,more than twenty-two millions of dollars are wasted by fire each year in these houses4 ,they also cost us a great deal in up-keep4 ,it would be interesting to see what was the total cost per year to repaint them and keep the roofs in order4 ,it certainly would run into the millions4 ,although wood increased from about #cj4jj per thousand board feet to about #he4jj in the ,eastern markets from pre-war days1 and is now dropping below #ee4jj1 yet the wooden house is still listed as the cheapest1 for the cost of other materials has also increased1 as brick from #aj4jj per thousand to #bc4jj until very recently1 and cement from #b4jj to #c4be per barrel4 ,in any comparison of cost the wooden frame building is taken as the base or cheapest type of construction1 although it is the most expensive in up-keep and fire-hazard of all4 ,until the price of wood increases in excessive proportion to other materials1 there is no doubt that this type of house will be the commonest4 ,however1 there is much that can be done to make them more fire-resisting1 and1 although we cannot look to the speculative builders to use such methods1 since they increase the costs slightly1 yet the architect should not overlook them4 ,,type ,,ii ,illustration3 ,type ,,ii ,masonry and ,wood ,the second type of dwelling which is next in vogue has exterior walls of stone1 brick1 concrete1 or terra-cotta1 and interior floors1 partitions1 and roof of wooden frame construction4 ,these are very slightly more fireproof than the wooden frame structure1 and as a class they are more costly in the beginning1 but require less expense in up-keep4 ,they resist attack from external fires better than the wooden frame building1 but if the fire starts within1 they will burn just as readily4 ,although the fire loss per year of this class is not nearly as great as for the first type1 yet it must be appreciated that there are not so many of them4 ,the chief advantage of the masonry house of this second type lies in the lowered cost of up-keep1 longer life1 and saving of heating-fuel in the winter4 ,a great deal of literature has been circulated by brick1 cement1 and hollow terra-cotta tile manufacturers by which the public has been educated to believe that this type of structure is much more fire-resisting than it is4 ,of course this campaign of education was intended to stimulate interest in their product1 and it had no unselfish motive back of it4 ,the result of this propaganda is evident in the public belief that such houses are fireproof houses1 while as a matter of fact they are not4 ,illustration3 ,type ,,ii ,masonry walls ,interior,wood ,,type ,,iii ,the third class of dwelling is quite rare1 and very few small houses are built that could be classified under it4 ,some builders call them fireproof houses1 although this is erroneous4 ,these buildings have walls1 roofs1 floors1 and partitions built of incombustible materials1 but the finished floors1 the trim1 windows1 and doors are of wood4 ,the exterior walls are of masonry construction1 and the construction of the floors and roofs consists of steel beams with terra-cotta arches or concrete floor slabs1 spanning in between them1 and the partitions are of terra-cotta1 gypsum1 metal lath and plaster1 or other similar materials4 ,they may also be built of reinforced concrete throughout1 or any other combination of these materials4 ,there have been very few examples of this kind of construction used in the small house4 ,it is an unfortunate condition that it is more adaptable to the costly mansion than to the average house of the middle-class citizen1 for the high cost of construction of this character1 in most cases1 permits it to be used only by the wealthy man4 ,examples where such houses have been built generally show an investment of #cj1jjj or more1 or1 if they were built to-day1 #ej1jjj or more4 ,those attempts to use this form of construction in the small house have been made by large building corporations1 and have been chiefly represented by concrete houses of very ugly design4 ,illustration3 ,type ,,iii4 ,walls1 floors1 partitions fireproof1 but windows1 doors and trim of wood4 ,,type ,,iv ,the fourth and last type of dwelling is the ideal fireproof house1 but it is so costly that very few examples exist4 ,this type can be termed fireproof with accuracy1 for all structural parts1 including doors1 windows1 and trim1 are of incombustible materials4 ,metal trim is used or wood that has been treated to make it fire-resisting4 ,this latter class of construction is so out of the reach of the average home-builder1 on account of its cost1 that its value cannot be thoroughly appreciated4 ,practically the only examples in existence are large mansions1 built by wealthy clients4 ,cost ,does ,not ,indicate ,fire-,resistance4--,in this classification of buildings it would almost seem that the cost of a building indicated its fireproof qualities4 ,this is not true1 however4 ,there are many expensive dwellings which are just as great fire-traps as the less expensive ones4 ,in both cases the fire hazards are the same1 if they are built of the same type of construction4 ,in fact1 we could build a #fj1jjj dwelling according to ,type ,,ii1 and also a #aj1jjj one according to ,type ,,ii1 and make the latter more fire-resisting than the former by using certain precautions of construction in which the spread of fire is retarded4 ,except in unusual cases1 the construction of the ordinary dwelling will be either according to the first or second type1 and any fire precautions that are desirable must be applicable to them4 ,most comparisons of relative costs are made between the dwellings included under these two types1 and the difference will be mostly a difference in the kind of exterior walls used in the construction4 ,in fact1 if any comparisons are made between different kinds of buildings1 as to their relative costs1 it is essential that only one feature be made variable and that all others be kept the same4 ,the ,question of ,costs ,ever since the closing of the war the problem of knowing the cost of the construction of the small house has been a very intricate one1 and no sure estimates could be made1 until the plans were completed and let out for bids4 ,previous to the war1 when costs were somewhat stabilized1 it was possible to predict with a reasonable amount of accuracy the cost of the dwelling when the plans were still only roughed in4 ,in order to show the fluctuation in prices1 an example of a seven-room frame house of ,type ,i can be mentioned4 ,this house was practically #cj by #cd feet1 and had a cubical contents of about #bi1ajj cubic feet and an area of #b1fdj square feet4 ,in #aiad this house cost #e1ebi4jj1 but at the peak of prices in #aibj this house cost #ab1hae4jj1 which was an increase of #aca per cent4 ,in the spring of #aibb this same house cost #i1ejb4jj to build1 which was about #ga per cent over that of pre-war prices4 ,with a heavy pressure of needed construction in dwellings1 the cost of materials seems to be settling down to a very gradual decrease in cost1 so that the present rates show a more stable curve of decline than those of the latter part of #aibj and during #aiba4 ,the unfortunate factor which is noticeable is that certain building interests believe that a building boom is inevitable1 and therefore that it is the time to hold up prices again4 ,wherever this has happened a building boom has been headed off4 ,cubic-,foot ,system of ,estimating ,the average client1 in spite of the difficulties above mentioned1 insists upon securing from the architect an approximate idea of how much of a house he can have for #ab1jjj4jj1 etc41 or whatever sum he has been able to save for his small home4 ,in order to approximate this figure1 the architect must use the cubic-foot system of estimating4 ,now under changing conditions of prices this system is rather inaccurate1 so that it should be used with great care4 ,any figures which are given here are bound to be only approximations1 due to the fact that they are more or less of a local nature and must be given at this time of writing4 ,the only satisfactory way of using the cubic-foot system of estimating is to secure prices from one's own locality on work recently finished4 ,illustration3 ,front ,elevation ,type ,,ii ,if the approximate cost of a house of ,type ,i is desired1 observe some recently erected house of that same character1 secure its dimension1 and calculate its cubical contents and then its cost per cubic foot4 ,in order to be consistent1 the method of computing the cubage must be the same in all cases4 ,the following is recommended as a uniform basis3 #a4 ,determine total area of the building on the ground floor1 including all projections4 #b4 ,determine the average height of the building from the cellar floor to the average height of the roof4 #c4 ,multiply the above together for the cubical contents4 #d4 ,open porches may be added at one-quarter their cubical contents1 and closed ones at their full value4 ,illustration3 ,side ,elevation4 ,type ,,ii ,prices per ,cubic ,feet ,near ,new ,york for ,two-,story ,dwellings1 ,june1 #aibb ,type ,i #cb to #ch cents per cubic foot ,type ,,ii #ch to #db cents per cubic foot ,factors ,influencing the ,selection of ,materials ,from what has been previously stated1 it will be noticed that1 as a rule1 the architect in selecting the kind of material with which he will build his house is limited on account of expense to the first two types of construction--namely1 the frame dwelling and the masonry house with wood interior4 ,the latter two fire-resisting types are better fitted to the larger mansions1 where expense is not so important an item4 ,undoubtedly the comparative costs between the various kinds of exterior walls will have much to do with the selection2 but more often the local conditions will outweigh these considerations4 ,in some places a house built of stone will be the best and most economical2 in others1 where there is an abundance of good sand1 the cement house will be suitable1 while those located near brick centres will find this material adaptable4 ,the ideal method1 of selecting a material of construction purely from an sthetic point of view1 is not always possible4 ,but1 after all1 is not the most abundant local material the most harmonious to use for any one locality8 ,nature adapts her creations to the soil and the scenery into which she places them4 ,all her animals are marked with colors which harmonize with the woods or fields in which they live4 ,in fact this harmony is their protection1 and in the war we imitated it in our camouflage painting4 ,it is astonishingly evident1 in the ,new ,york ,museum of ,natural ,history1 how far more beautiful are animal tableaux which are set in painted scenery1 representing accurately their natural habitat1 than those which are exhibited alone in the cases1 without a suggestion of their surroundings4 ,their marks and colorings seem ridiculous when they are separated from their natural surroundings4 ,the same principle holds true in selecting the material for the small house4 ,a stone house1 built of native stone1 in a stony1 rugged region1 is the most harmonious of all4 ,a cement house in a flat1 sandy country always seems in accord with the scene4 ,a brick house in hills of clay most certainly appears the best1 and a wooden house1 near the great outskirts of the timber-land1 is a part of the inspiring picture4 ,why are so many of the old colonial houses so charming8 ,one of the reasons is the careful use of local materials4 ,some ,principles of ,economical ,design ,in the first architectural studies of the house1 since this problem of cost is ever with us1 it is well to be familiar with some of those broad and general principles of economical design4 ,the lower we keep our house to the ground1 the less will be the expense of labor1 for1 when work must be done above the reach of a man's hands1 it means the construction of scaffolds and the lifting by special hoists of the materials4 ,this is not so important a consideration with the light wooden frame building as it is with the masonry house4 ,wherever we have brick1 stone1 or concrete exterior walls1 for the sake of economy they should be built low4 ,mr4 ,ernest ,flagg has found this to be so very true that1 in houses which he is constructing at ,dongan ,hills on ,staten ,island1 he has carefully limited the height of all walls to one story1 and starts the construction of his roof from this level4 ,of course1 at the gable end of the house1 it is necessary to carry them up much higher4 ,now1 the starting of the roof from the top of the first floor makes all the second floor come within the roof1 and this heretofore has been impracticable1 on account of the great heat generated under the roof and the inability of dormer-windows to ventilate the rooms properly4 ,mr4 ,flagg has solved this problem by inventing a simple roof ventilator which is located on the ridge of the roof1 and serves the purpose of both lighting and ventilating4 ,so successful has this been1 that the space which in most houses is called the attic1 and is wasted1 has been made available and livable4 ,what he has accomplished by these ventilators is the ability to start the roof at the top of the first floor1 and thus lower the exterior walls and set the attic in the place of the second floor and make it very livable4 ,not only does this principle of design save considerable money1 but it follows one of those great laws of beauty1 so prevalent in nature4 ,it makes the house low and nestling in the landscape1 thereby harmonizing it with the surroundings4 ,the house of the uncultured speculator stares blatantly at you and is proud of its complete isolation and difference from the landscape2 but the house of those who have taste is modestly in harmony with the surroundings4 ,the ugly house thrusts into the air without close connection with the ground1 while the comely one cuddles in nature's lap4 ,is it not strange that this principle of economy is a law of beauty8 ,there are other features of economy in design which should be observed4 ,the simpler and more straightforward the design1 the cheaper it is and the more beautiful it can be made in the hands of the good artist4 ,simplicity is the highest art1 as it is also the most economical thing4 ,likewise the cost of a house can be reduced by shaping as nearly to a square as possible1 and reducing the outside walls to the minimum4 ,the semi-detached house in the group plan accomplishes this in the best manner1 and gives to the whole structure that low1 long skyline that is so very pleasing4 ,this also makes one soil-line and one chimney do for both houses1 a great point in economy4 ,some architects believe these group houses are the only economical solution of the problem of the small house4 ,,iii ,,essential ,,standards ,,of ,,quality ,,in ,,building ,,materials ,materials ,used ,it will be remembered that the commonest types of small houses are the wooden frame house and the masonry-and-wood house4 ,now it is essential that certain definite qualities be required of all materials of construction which enter into the building of these houses1 and although there are many facts covering the standard qualities and methods of manufacture1 yet one cannot expect to remember all of them4 ,it is sufficient if one knows those qualities which mean satisfactory building and durability when applied to the structure4 ,of the large number of materials which enter into the construction of a house1 the following are the most important and should be maintained at a high standard3 wood1 clay products1 cementing materials1 metals1 glass1 and paint4 ,,woods ,it is possible to enter into a long discussion of the classes1 qualities1 methods of conversion1 defects of wood and similar subjects1 but these are not pertinent to the main idea1 namely1 the essential qualities of woods which are used in the construction of the small house4 ,there is a prevalent impression abroad that the supply of wood is becoming so depleted that it will in the future be used only for special ornamental features4 ,this is wrong1 for we still have enough virgin forests left to supply the country for several generations1 and with the growth of forestry we will maintain a certain source of supply4 ,illustration3 ,waney edges ,knots ,star and ring shakes ,common timber defects ,we have two classes of woods on the market which are used in different parts of the structure1 according to their special qualities4 ,these are commercially known as hard and soft woods1 although this is not a very scientific distinction1 since some of the soft woods are harder than some of the hard woods1 and vice versa4 ,scientists have more accurate names than these1 but as the above are so well established1 there is no doubt as to what is meant4 ,in the market1 lumber is not only classified according to the above1 but according to the species of tree it comes from1 and also according to certain standard grades of the same kind4 ,these grades are determined by the presence of certain defects4 ,the recognized defects are knots1 shakes1 checks1 splits1 streaks1 pitch-pockets1 stain1 rot1 wane1 warp1 cupping1 mineral streaks1 pith on the face of the board1 and worm-holes4 ,various large lumber associations issue rules governing standard sizes and classifications for woods to be used in construction4 ,the best and the next best are the usual grades which are used for the interior and exterior trim of houses4 ,these grades have many designations1 as 8clears0 and 8selects10 or 8,a0 and 8,b10 or 8,no4 #a0 and 8,no4 #b10 or 8firsts0 and 8seconds40 ,the grades used for the rough framing1 such as studs1 joists1 rafters1 subfloors1 and sheathing1 are not so good4 ,they are designated as 8,no4 #a common0 and 8,no4 #b common40 ,a poorer grade still1 known as 8,no4 #c common10 is sometimes used for cheap temporary structures4 ,for the details of grading and standard sizes of lumber1 one should possess ,circular #fd of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture on 8,how ,lumber is ,graded40 ,next to the grading of timber1 the most important factor of quality is the relative durability of the various woods1 for upon this depends to a large extent the choice of them for special places4 ,the table on page #bc is taken from a government classification4 ,from this table it will be noticed that the soft woods as a class are relatively more durable than the hard woods4 ,this is true1 because of the fact that the structure of soft woods is simple1 while that of the hard woods is complex4 ,when the former become wet and expand and then dry out and shrink1 the structure is not stressed internally as much as is that of the hard woods1 and they are therefore much more capable of withstanding the action of the weather4 ,also certain of the soft woods have natural properties of resisting dry or wet rot4 ,certain species of woods are1 therefore1 selected for particular parts of the house according to the needs of durability1 strength1 appearance1 and local supply4 ,rough wooden framing requires a wood that is fairly abundant and strong4 ,the soft woods are generally used1 and those which are classified as durable in the table are the most used4 ,,relative ,,durability ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,woods ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the ,soft ,woods ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,,very ,,durable ,,durable ,,intermediate ,,non-,,durable ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,northern white,douglas fir4 ,eastern hemlock4 ,true firs4 cedar4 ,tamarack4 ,western hemlock4 ,spruces4 ,western red ,western larch4 ,loblolly-pine4 cedar4 ,long-leaf yellow ,norway pine4 ,cypress4 pine4 ,short-leaf yellow ,redwood4 ,eastern white pine4 pine4 ,sugar-pine4 ,western white pine4 ,western yellow pine4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,the ,hard ,woods ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,chestnut4 ,black cherry4 ,white ash4 ,basswood4 ,black walnut4 ,white oak4 ,butternut4 ,beech4 ,black locust4 ,red gum4 ,birch4 ,yellow poplar4 ,buckeye4 ,red oak4 ,cottonwood4 ,white elm4 ,hard maple4 ,soft maple4 ,sycamore4 ,cotton gum4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,for rough underflooring and sheathing the cheapest and most abundant local wood is used4 ,durability is not essential4 ,for shingles the most durable woods must be used1 such as cypress1 cedar1 and redwood4 ,lath are generally cut from waste slabs1 and should be of some soft wood like spruce or of one of the softer hard woods4 ,siding should be made from one of the soft woods1 especially those which are classed as durable in the table4 ,porch columns and the like require very durable woods4 ,they should be hollow except for very small ones4 ,built-up columns of interlocking type are usually specified1 but the lumber used should be thoroughly kiln-dried so that the joints will not open4 ,illustration3 ,edge grain ,flat grain ,difference in the cut of flooring boards4 ,the flat grain in the softer woods is not durable4 ,flooring should be capable of resisting wear and should not splinter4 ,the hard woods as a class are more adaptable than the soft woods1 although yellow pine and ,douglas fir are used a great deal on account of their cheapness4 ,these latter are divided into two grades3 8flat grain10 in which the annual rings are almost parallel to the surface1 and 8edge grain10 in which the annual rings run almost perpendicular to the surface4 ,the latter is more desirable1 since it wears better4 ,the flat grain splinters off1 due to the layers of soft spring wood and hard summer wood4 ,oak flooring comes plain and quarter sawn1 which is practically the same as the cut of yellow pine1 but since oak is strong either way1 the wearing qualities are not very different4 ,maple is also an excellent wood for flooring1 since it is hard and smooth4 ,door and window frames may be made from many kinds of wood1 although the soft and more durable woods are generally accepted as the best4 ,specially hard and durable woods should be used for the thresholds4 ,doors which are to be used on the exterior should be of a soft and durable wood4 ,the choice of wood for interior doors is limited only by the taste of the designer4 ,the doors which stand best the warping effect of steam-heat in the winter are constructed of white pine cores with a veneer on the exterior made from some hard wood4 ,sash and blinds require a soft and durable wood4 ,sash are subject to the drying of steam-heat on the interior and cold and dampness on the exterior4 ,sash built of yellow pine sapwood have rotted in a few years1 and while soft maple1 birch1 and basswood have been used1 they are not durable1 although easily worked4 ,white pine is considered to be the best for sash and blinds4 ,the selection of woods for interior trim depends only upon the designer's taste1 since neither relative durability nor strength is a requirement4 ,the harder woods in the past have been used more extensively for interior trim than the soft1 because of their supposedly better and richer appearance1 but this is not so true to-day1 for new methods of treating such woods as cypress and yellow pine have shown them to be fitted for the best artistic places4 ,of course hard woods are not dented from knocks by furniture as easily as the soft woods1 and in this way retain their appearance longer4 ,,clay ,,products ,bricks4--,in considering the essential qualities of bricks for the small house it must be appreciated that those bricks which are used on the exterior must be able to resist the effects of weather and produce the best artistic results1 while those which are in the interior of walls or chimney need not be held up to such rigid standards4 ,the determination of the resistance of bricks to frost and weather action is quite simple4 ,a brick which struck by a hammer gives a clear ring is one which has been well burned and has no soft spots1 cracks1 or weak places4 ,such a brick can be said to be satisfactory for exterior use1 provided that it has the proper form and color desired and is not so overburned as to be twisted and warped4 ,another requirement sometimes specified is that the face brick made from soft clay should not show a percentage of absorption in excess of #ae per cent1 and for the stiff-moulded or dry-pressed bricks not more than #aj per cent4 ,this1 however1 cannot be a hard-and-fast rule1 due to the variation of clays4 ,certain red bricks1 unless they are burned very hard1 show1 when built into the wall1 a very ugly white surface discoloration1 called 8whitewash0 or efflorescence4 ,this is not entirely due to the brick1 since the mortar that is used may sometimes produce it4 ,if it is due to the brick it can be discovered before the brick is used in the wall1 by placing a sample brick on edge in a pan containing one inch of either rain or distilled water4 ,as the water is absorbed by the brick1 the white discoloration will develop on the top surface after several days of standing if it contains the salts which will cause the whitewash4 ,those bricks which have been very hard-burned will not discolor under any circumstances4 ,if after passing this test the brick wall should develop whitewash1 it can be laid to the mortar4 ,in order to prevent any such occurrence it is necessary to waterproof the joints around window-sills and between the foundations and the wall1 so that the minimum amount of water will be soaked up into the wall when it rains4 ,an expensive addition of #b per cent of barium carbonate to the mortar will tend to fix the soluble salts which cause this efflorescence4 ,illustration3 ,method of testing a sample brick to see whether it will have a tendency to whitewash ,hollow ,tiles4--,hollow terra-cotta tiles covered with stucco or brick veneer are being used more extensively than ever1 due to the cheaper cost of laying them1 since they are larger units1 and also to the fact that they build a cellular wall4 ,wherever these tiles are used for bearing walls it is important that they be hard-burned1 but the softer ones may be permitted in non-bearing partitions4 ,tiles for use in outer walls should be hard-burned1 free from cracks1 straight1 and should not show a greater absorption of water than #aj per cent4 ,as these tiles are intended to support loads from floor-joists1 it is essential that they should have the correct proportion of voids to solid shells and webs4 ,the maximum width of any voids should not exceed #d inches and the thickness of any shells or webs should not be less than #ae per cent of this measurement4 ,in tests it has been shown that tiles laid with webs vertical are stronger than those with webs horizontal1 but this difference in strength is not of very great importance in the small house1 where the loads are very light4 ,the chief thing to avoid in the setting of tile1 when they are vertical webbed1 is the dripping of mortar to the bottom and the insufficient spreading of it over the ends of the webs and shells4 ,this can be overcome by laying wire lath over each course1 and then buttering the mortar on the inside and outside edges4 ,the mortar is prevented from falling out of place by the lath1 and because it is not continuous through the wall1 any penetration of moisture through it is stopped4 ,illustration3 ,showing the use of metal lath in the joints of vertically webbed hollow-tile1 to prevent the dropping of the mortar into the voids and also allow the separation of mortar joint ,cementing ,materials ,the most important cementing materials which enter into the construction of the small house are lime1 cement1 gypsum1 and their various mixtures1 as mortar1 plaster1 and concrete4 ,the various technical requirements for good lime and cement are very strict and detailed1 and for the small house it is customary to cover their qualities in the briefest manner by referring to the standard specifications of the ,american ,society for ,testing ,materials4 ,slaked lime should be made from well-burned quicklime1 free from ashes1 clinker1 and other foreign materials4 ,dry hydrated lime should be the finely divided product resulting from mechanically slaking pure quicklime at the place of manufacture4 ,the specifications of the ,american ,society for ,testing ,materials covering the quality of cement should be followed where large purchases are made4 ,where small quantities are to be used1 the reliability of the dealer must be the basis of purchase4 ,as mortars and concretes made from these materials are as important as the cements or limes1 it is essential to have definite standards for them4 ,lime mortar should be made of #a part by volume of slaked lime putty or dry hydrated lime and not more than #d parts by volume of sand4 ,the use of hydrated lime is recommended1 since the poor qualities which are apt to develop from careless slaking of quicklime are thus avoided4 ,it also comes in smaller packages1 and if the entire quantity is not used at once it may be stored without deterioration4 ,it is only necessary to mix the hydrated lime with water until it becomes a paste1 and then add the necessary sand4 ,the purpose of adding sand is to increase the bulk and to reduce the shrinkage which pure lime paste will develop as it hardens4 ,pure lime paste1 without sand1 will shrink1 crack1 and develop very little strength4 ,by introducing sand this contraction is reduced1 but the addition of too much will decrease the strength slightly4 ,however1 this decrease of strength is very little4 ,a mortar made of #a part lime to #f parts sand is nearly as strong as one made from #a part lime and #c parts sand4 ,the maximum amount of sand to be used is generally governed by the ease of working1 and not so much by the strength4 ,a lime which is too sandy will not spread easily on the trowel4 ,cement mortar is1 of course1 a stronger material and can be used in damp places where lime mortar would deteriorate4 ,the theory of mixtures of both cement mortar and concrete is to proportion the materials so that they produce the most compact substance4 ,for instance1 in the cement mortar the cement should just fill the voids between the particles of sand1 and in concrete this cement mortar should just fill the voids in between the larger aggregate1 and this larger aggregate should be so graded in size that it makes the most compact body4 ,it used to be thought that certain definite numerical proportions1 as laid down by theory1 of the various ingredients would hold true for all kinds of sands and aggregates4 ,for instance1 the proportion of #a part of cement1 #c parts of sand1 and #f parts of aggregate was thought to be the best for ordinary use under all conditions4 ,but extensive tests by the government have shown that the only real way to determine the correct proportions of mixtures is to experiment with the particular sand and gravel that will be used1 and to test them to see what ratios give the most compact mass4 ,it has also been found that round aggregates1 like pebbles1 produce the strongest concrete1 since the particles flow into place better than the sharper aggregates1 which formerly were considered necessary because of the supposed idea that they made a better mechanical bond with one another4 ,the proportion of water is also important1 a quaking mixture producing the best results4 ,it is customary in small work1 however1 where no experiments can be made on various mixtures to determine their proper proportions1 to follow the old rules of thumb for amounts4 ,cement mortar should be made of cement and sand in the proportions of #a part of cement and not more than #c parts of sand by volume4 ,illustration3 ,good4 ,very compact ,bad4 ,not compact because of poor grading of aggregate ,good and bad concrete ,if cement-lime mortar is to be used it should not have more than #ae per cent by volume of the cement replaced by an equal volume of dry hydrated lime4 ,the addition of hydrated lime to cement mortar improves its working qualities1 making it slide more readily on the trowel and also increasing its waterproofness4 ,its strength is not decreased within the limits prescribed4 ,in concrete work it is as important to have good sand and aggregate as cement4 ,sand should be sharp1 clean1 coarse quartz4 ,the sand used should not1 when it is rubbed in the hand1 leave the palm stained4 ,gravel which is used as an aggregate should be free from clay or loam1 except such as naturally adheres to the particles4 ,if there is too much clay or loam1 it should be washed with water4 ,when bank gravel is used the best results will be obtained if it is screened from the sand and remixed in the proper proportions for fine and coarse aggregate4 ,for ordinary mass concrete the size of aggregate should vary from inch to #b inches1 and in reinforced work should not exceed #a inches4 ,illustration3 ,,stucco ,,on ,,metal ,,lath ,,over ,,wood ,,studs ,the best proportion of parts to use must vary according to the requirements1 but for the small house good results will be obtained by using #a part of cement1 #b parts of sand1 and #d parts of gravel or broken stone4 ,stucco ,work4--,stucco is really a ,portland-cement plaster used on the exterior1 and its success depends a great deal upon the quality of materials employed and workmanship4 ,all stucco to a greater or less degree cracks1 but the problem is to make the cracks as small as possible4 ,the government is carrying on an extensive investigation of the problem of stucco through experiments on fifty-six exterior panels which have been under observation since #aiae4 ,each one of these panels has been spread upon a different base or made with different proportions4 ,so far only two panels have been found to be entirely free from cracks1 although many are practically uninjured by the small cracks which have developed4 ,it is therefore quite evident that as a rule it must be assumed that the stucco will crack to a certain extent1 and in order to cover such defects a rough surface is the best4 ,as to proportions of mixtures1 there is a great variation of opinion4 ,the commonest is #a part of cement1 #b parts of sand1 to which is added about _/ part of hydrated lime by weight of cement4 ,for a more detailed account on stucco1 send for the ,progress ,report issued by the ,bureau of ,standards on the ,durability of ,stucco and ,plaster ,construction4 ,plastering4--,the qualities of internal plaster depend upon the construction of the wall1 the methods of application of the plaster1 and the quality of the plastering material4 ,illustration3 ,scratch coat is for bonding2 brown coat for plasticity2 finished coat for appearance ,the walls and ceiling to which plaster is to be applied must be so constructed as to be practically rigid under the loads that they will carry4 ,since plaster is not elastic1 any slight change in shape of the surface will cause it to crack4 ,the common backings which are satisfactory for plastering are wood lath1 metal lath1 and masonry1 such as concrete1 terra-cotta tile1 brick1 plaster board1 etc4 ,wood lath makes the least rigid back of all1 and for this reason is not considered the best1 although it is the cheapest4 ,unless the wood laths are wet before the plaster is applied1 they will absorb the moisture from the plaster and swell1 thus cracking the wall4 ,metal lath for this reason is superior4 ,masonry walls should be made rough to give the necessary key for the plaster to cling to4 ,in brick walls the joints are raked out1 in concrete walls the surface is picked1 and the outside of terra-cotta tile is marked with grooves for this purpose4 ,the best results in plaster are secured with three coats4 ,the first coat is called the scratch coat1 and is intended to form a bond between the wall itself and the plaster4 ,it should be pressed into the apertures between the lath to secure a good bonding key1 and its surface should be scratched with a tool to give the required bond between it and the next coat1 or brown coat4 ,the brown coat forms the main body of the plaster and averages about inch to inch thick4 ,the finished coat is then added on top of this and is intended to develop a plane surface with the desired color4 ,each coat should be allowed to dry out and then be wet before the next one is added4 ,if wood lath is used1 this drying and wetting will cause the lath to shrink and swell1 so that cracks will be developed in the scratch and brown coats4 ,these should be filled in before the finished coat is added4 ,the materials which should be used in the various coats depend upon the requirements which are necessary for each one4 ,as the most important characteristic of the scratch coat is strength1 and that of the brown plasticity1 and the final coat appearance1 the materials must be proportioned accordingly4 ,,scratch-,,coat ,,proportions ,hydrated lime #acc parts by weight ,sand #djj 8 8 ,hair #a part 8 ,,brown ,,coat ,hydrated lime #ajj parts 8 ,sand #djj 8 8 ,hair part 8 ,,finished ,,coat ,smooth ,finish #a part by volume of calcined gypsum4 #c parts 8 lime paste4 ,metals ,the most used metal in the small house is the so-called tin-plate or roofing tin4 ,it is not a true tin-plate1 for it contains #ge per cent lead and #be per cent tin1 applied to a base of soft steel or wrought iron4 ,it comes in two grades1 ,,ix and ,,ic1 the former being ,no4 #bh gauge and the latter ,no4 #cj gauge4 ,the lighter is used for roofing and the heavier for valleys and gutters4 ,the tin does not entirely protect the base metal1 so that it is necessary to paint both sides before it is applied4 ,galvanized iron is another form of sheet metal which is extensively used for work on the small house4 ,it consists of sheet iron or steel1 covered with zinc4 ,this coating should be free from pinholes or bare spots1 and of a thickness to prevent cracking or peeling4 ,if the coating is sufficient and well done1 it is superior in lasting quality to the ordinary tin-plate4 ,copper1 since the war1 has come back into use again as a sheet metal for the small house1 for its cost has dropped within reason4 ,in order to meet a certain popular demand a light grade of copper sheet roofing has been placed on the market1 although it has generally been considered that sheets weighing less than #af ounces per square foot were not suitable for roofs4 ,glass ,there are two kinds of window-glass used1 double thick and single thick4 ,the former is inch thick or less1 and the latter is _/ inch thick4 ,it is customary to use double thick in all window-panes over #bd inches in size4 ,the grading is ,,aa1 ,a1 and ,b1 according to the presence of defects1 such as blisters1 sulphur stains1 smoke stains1 and stringy marks4 ,plate glass is used only where the expense will permit4 ,it is different from window-glass in that the latter is made from blown glass1 while plate glass is made from grinding and polishing down sheets of rolled glass4 ,there are quite a number of other minor materials which enter into the construction of the small house1 but they are more or less identified with the mechanical equipment and the finishing1 and will be considered under these headings4 ,sheet lead weighing #e to #f pounds per square foot is often used for counter-flashing4 ,leaders and leader heads of cast lead have been made practical by one company1 which has developed a method of hardening the lead4 ,zinc1 like copper1 is again being urged upon the public by the manufacturers since the war demand is over4 ,zinc spouts are usually made from ,no4 #aa zinc gauge1 which is equal in thickness to ,no4 #bd steel gauge4 ,there is hardly any need to mention the durable qualities of copper1 zinc1 or lead4 ,wherever the cost permits1 one cannot deny that materials of such durable nature are the proper ones to use4 ,,iv ,,types ,,of ,,wooden-,,frame ,,construction ,types ,explained ,illustration3 ,,braced-,,frame ,there are no sharp distinctions between the various types of wooden frame construction4 ,but in order to classify certain tendencies1 we will arbitrarily define four types4 ,to these we will give the names of braced-frame1 balloon-frame1 combination-frame1 and platform-frame4 ,the braced-frame is the oldest type1 and originated in ,colonial days in ,new ,england4 ,it was developed under the influence of a tradition of heavy1 ,european half-timber construction1 and also nourished by the abundance of wood directly at hand4 ,the fact that nails were not made1 except by hand1 urged the carpenters to use methods of fastening which required as few as possible4 ,because of these factors1 then1 certain definite characteristics of this type of wooden frame construction manifest themselves in the use of timbers1 far larger than necessary for safety1 and joints consisting of mortises and tenons4 ,as the sawmill became mechanically more rapid1 and as nails were being turned out by machines more plentifully1 the ,yankee who went ,west on adventuresome trips1 and cared little for a permanent dwelling1 devised a system of light-frame construction which became known as the balloon-frame4 ,this was put together with the greatest speed1 and required only nails for fastening all joints4 ,the timbers which were used were standardized to one size1 namely1 #b inches by #d inches4 ,illustration3 ,,corner ,,construction ,,of ,,braced-,,frame ,,mortice ,,tenon ,,joints ,now1 both of these types had advantages and disadvantages which were bound to influence later builders4 ,those who had been accustomed to build according to the braced-frame system found that lumber was becoming scarcer1 and that nails were cheaper than they formerly were4 ,certain features of the balloon-frame appealed to them1 such as its greater speed of construction1 its smaller timbers1 and lightness4 ,on the other hand1 those people who had lived in houses constructed according to the balloon system of framing found that they were very flimsy1 that fires quickly consumed them1 that rats and vermin could travel freely through the walls1 and that1 after all1 they were only the most temporary sort of shelter4 ,these folks looked back at the old methods of building1 and saw the good features of solidity and permanence4 ,we had1 therefore1 the growing together of the two systems of construction into a type which we call the combination-frame dwelling4 ,illustration3 ,,balloon-,,frame ,,combination-,,frame ,however1 progress did not stop at this point4 ,the houses built according to this newly devised system were found to settle unevenly1 which cracked plaster ceilings and walls and made doors and windows into leaning parallelograms4 ,the cause of this was found to be due to the natural shrinkage of wood as it dried out4 ,now1 all wood shrinks mostly across the grain1 and not with it1 so that the amount of settlement of any wooden wall depends upon the amount of cross-section of wood which it contains4 ,if there is more in the interior partitions than in the exterior1 it is certain that the floor-joists will settle down on the inside ends more than the outside4 ,this is exactly what happened4 ,it occurred not only in the combination-frame but in the braced and balloon frame4 ,various devices were introduced to avoid this defect1 but all were more or less incomplete4 ,nevertheless1 it all led gradually to the development of the fourth type of construction1 which is called the platform-frame1 for lack of a better name4 ,this frame solves the problem of uneven settlement in the wooden structure4 ,it also makes the location of the windows of the second floor independent of those of the first floor1 which is not the case with the balloon-frame1 for in this type the studs extend in one piece from the sill to the plate1 requiring the centring of the windows of the second floor over those on the first4 ,the methods which are used in constructing the small house of to-day are not as simply classified as the previous description would lead one to believe4 ,the old ,new ,england braced-frame has practically gone out of existence1 yet many of its features remain4 ,the balloon-frame is used only in the cheapest sort of structures1 yet many of its details are found in the modern dwelling2 ,the combination-frame in all its many varied forms can be called the advanced type4 ,study of ,detail in the ,combination-,frame ,the illustrations show the four types in their entirety4 ,but in order to fully understand the combination-frame1 it is necessary to know what features of the braced-frame and balloon-frame are used to-day4 ,,the ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,braced-,,frame ,,which ,,have ,,survived #a4 ,the use of the girt1 because it permits the location of the second-floor windows at any point irrespective of the first floor windows4 ,this cannot be done when a ribbon-board is used1 for this requires studs which extend continuously from sill to plate1 and if any windows are to be located on the second floor1 they must be placed directly over those on the first floor4 ,the ribbon-board does not act as a stop for either vermin or fire1 as does the girt4 ,however1 fire-stops can be introduced in connection with the ribbon-board1 if the extra expense is no hindrance4 #b4 ,the use of the sill1 because it serves as a firm foundation for the outside studs and first tier of floor-joists4 ,the balloon-frame has no sill1 for the floor-joists are set directly upon the top of the foundation-wall1 and the exterior studs are built on top of them4 #c4 ,the use of the corner braces1 because they stiffen the frame4 ,illustration3 ,,typical ,,framing ,,of 8,,war ,,houses40 ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,balloon-,,frame ,,which ,,have ,,persisted #a4 ,the use of small timbers1 or the standardization of the #b by #d for all parts except the sill1 because of economy4 ,the corner-posts are made of three #b by #d's1 and the plate is made of two #b by #d's4 #b4 ,the use of the nailed joint1 because of its cheapness and its greater strength4 ,it will not rattle loose when the timber seasons1 as does the mortise and tenon joint in the braced-frame4 #c4 ,the use of the ribbon-board1 in place of the girt1 for those houses which are to be stuccoed1 and a rigid1 outside wall-frame is desired from sill to plate4 #d4 ,the use of diagonal sheathing-boards1 to brace the frame instead of the corner-pieces4 ,the reasons for this are not very certain1 since diagonal bracing with sheathing is not always effective1 while it is extremely wasteful4 ,the combination-frame includes all of the present-day methods which make use of selected features of both the braced-frame and balloon-frame1 such as were noted above4 ,there are no rules to follow4 ,in certain sections of the country one type is favored more than the other4 ,where a house is to be covered with stucco1 the balloon-frame is a better type to use than the braced-frame1 since it gives a stiffer outside wall as a backing for the stucco4 ,platform-,frame ,illustration3 ,,platform ,,frame ,it will be noticed in the illustration how different is the amount of cross-section of wood in exterior and interior walls of the combination-frame1 a thing which causes the unequal settlement previously alluded to4 ,in order to reduce this to a minimum1 it is often specified that the studs of all interior partitions be carried down to the top of the cap of the partition below or to the top of the supporting girder1 thus reducing the amount of cross-section timber4 ,this is not a complete cure1 however1 although it is a big improvement4 ,the real solution of the difficulty lies in the use of the platform system of construction4 ,in this system the first floor is built on top of the foundation-walls1 as though it were a platform4 ,a sill1 called the box-sill1 is constructed for the exterior support of the ends of the floor-joists by laying down a timber the same size as the joists and setting another one on the extreme edge in a vertical position4 ,the angle thus formed makes a resting-box into which the floor-joist can be framed4 ,the interior ends of the floor-joists should be supported upon a steel ,i-beam upon which has been placed a #b-;inch-thick timber4 ,the ,i-beam should be supported upon steel-tube columns which have been filled with concrete4 ,on top of the floor-joists should be nailed the underflooring1 laid diagonally4 ,the first floor then appears as a perfectly smooth platform4 ,now wherever there is to be erected an interior or exterior partition1 a #b by #d1 called the sole piece1 is nailed directly on top of the rough flooring4 ,this serves as a sill for the studs of the partition1 which are now erected vertically upon them and capped with double #b by #d's on the top4 ,now the second floor is built on top of the partitions in the same manner as the first1 and a new platform is constructed1 so to speak4 ,upon this is then erected the partitions of the second floor1 and on this the floor of the attic4 ,in fact1 this construction proceeds floor by floor1 and each floor is an independent platform4 ,if the drawings are examined it will be noticed that the amount of cross-section of wood in any one bearing partition is identically the same as in any other4 ,the dwelling built in this way1 then1 cannot settle unevenly1 and the cracked plaster and twisted doors will be eliminated4 ,illustration3 ,,clapboards ,,over ,,wooden ,,studs ,features ,common to ,all ,there are certain features which are common to all types of frames4 ,for instance1 the framing around all doors and windows requires the use of double #b by #d's or the use of one #d by #d4 ,these framing studs around the window are set #e inches higher and #h inches wider than the dimensions of the finished window4 ,those about the door-openings are set #b inches higher and #d inches wider4 ,illustration3 ,,brick ,,veneer ,,over ,,wooden ,,studs4 ,all use sheathing-boards of -inch stock to cover the outside of the studs1 and these are usually #f inches to #h inches wide4 ,the usual spacing of studs is #af inches on centres1 and they are generally of #b by #d's1 although where any pipes or flues are run through the partition they should be #b by #f's4 ,interior stud partitions should be bridged or braced once in their height1 and partitions which run parallel to the floor-joists should have a capping-board1 so that the proper nailing for lath can be secured4 ,in fact1 at all intersections of partitions care should be exercised that the required nailing for lath is provided4 ,in the construction of roofs the average spacing of rafters is #bj inches on centres4 ,they should be doubled around all openings4 ,the ridge is usually of a #a-;inch by #aj-;inch piece4 ,the size of the rafters varies with the length of span and load4 ,they are usually #b inches by #f inches for short spans and light loads1 and #b inches by #h inches or #b inches by #aj inches for long spans and comparatively heavy loads4 ,valley rafters must always be deeper and heavier than the rafters and should be designed as a girder4 ,the hip rafters do not carry any great load1 but are often made deeper to fit the incline cut of the jack rafters4 ,all floor-joists are spaced #af inches on centres1 and should be bridged4 ,the following is the table commonly followed for good house construction1 although lighter work is most often specified3 ,,span ,,timber #ab' and under #b #aj cross-bridged once4 #ab' to #ae' #b #aj doubled every other one1 if good stiffness is desired1 and bridged twice4 #ae' to #bj' #c #ab and of long-leaf yellow pine1 crowned at centre 1 and bridged three times4 #bj' to #be' #c #ad of long-leaf yellow pine1 crowned at the centre #a for the #be' spans1 and bridged four times4 ,floor-joists should be doubled around all openings larger than #c feet1 and joists should be hung from the header beam by metal straps4 ,there are many precautions which should be taken to prevent the spread of fire in the wooden frame house1 but those will be considered as a special subject4 ,likewise the discussion of certain defects of construction which are commonly found in the speculative house will be dealt with later4 ,v ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,masonry ,,and ,,wood ,,dwelling ,in one of the previous chapters it was pointed out that the type of construction next in general use to that of the wooden frame house was the dwelling of masonry and wood4 ,this was designated as ,type ,,ii1 and defined as a building with exterior walls of stone1 brick1 concrete1 or terra-cotta1 and interior floors and partitions of wooden frame construction4 ,the difference in construction between the wooden frame structure and the masonry-and-wood building is mostly in the material used for the exterior walls4 ,the interiors of both types are constructed in practically the same way1 the floors being of light wooden joists and the partitions of wooden studs4 ,the oldest varieties of the masonry houses in ,america are represented by the stone and brick dwellings of ,colonial days4 ,these are so substantially built1 and often so artistic in conception1 that they have become common models from which to draw inspiration4 ,the concrete house of the monolithic or block type1 and that of hollow terra-cotta tile1 is a modern development4 ,the ,stone ,house ,the stone house is very adaptable to all those regions where this material can be secured from the excavation of the cellar or from some neighboring road improvement4 ,sometimes an old stone wall serves as a source of supply4 ,because of the native character of this material it will always be in harmony with the landscape4 ,in building the wall of stone there are a number of things to be observed1 where success is desired4 ,the wall should be well bonded together1 the lintels over the windows should be strong1 the foundations should be adequate to prevent cracks1 the method of laying should be artistic1 and the form of jointing in harmony with it4 ,all native stones used for rubble wall construction have certain characteristics of color and formation4 ,certain stones will split easily into long1 flat shapes1 others seem to have very little lamination and break into jagged1 irregular patterns1 while others are so soft that they lend themselves to easy shaping in squared blocks of regular size4 ,sometimes1 even1 the neighborhood may be filled with round field stones1 which can be used to imbed into the face of the wall and produce a surface of round bumps4 ,whatever is the character of the native stone1 it should be used in its simplest form and not forced into imitation of some other type4 ,the soft brown sandstones which are seen in some ,colonial houses are easily cut and squared2 but to cut up a hard stone into such carefully shaped blocks1 in imitation of this ,colonial work1 would not only be a waste of money but a waste of artistic effect4 ,,method ,,of ,,laying ,according to the way in which the stone naturally lends itself1 we have various types of rubble walls4 ,the commonest is the rough rubble wall in which the stones have neither regular shapes nor regular sizes1 or even courses4 ,the wall is composed of large stones and small stones 7the latter are called spalls1 and fill in the interstices between the larger stones74 ,the joints of mortar between the stones may be plastered roughly over the surface1 covering much of the face of the stones themselves1 or they may be roughly but neatly pointed with white mortar1 or the joints may be raked out4 ,where the stone has a natural tendency to cleave into long1 flat shapes1 the rough rubble may become more regularly coursed in appearance4 ,all of these types are respectively illustrated in ,figures #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,rough ,rubble--,plastered ,joints ,fig4 #b4 ,rough ,rubble--large white1 roughly pointed joints ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,rough ,rubble--trowled joints ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4 ,rough ,rubble1 or ledged work ,raked ,joints4 ,fig4 #e4 ,cobweb ,rubble--tooled joints--no spalls ,a softer stone1 which can be dressed with the hammer1 may be treated in two different ways3 ,it may be shaped to fit closely1 without using any spalls to fill up the interstices1 and1 thus1 appear as a cut-out puzzle2 this is called 8cobweb rubble40 ,however1 the more dignified treatment is the squared1 uncoursed rubble1 in which the blocks are cut to rectangular shape and the joints pointed with a tool4 ,figures #e and #f illustrate these4 ,a wall built entirely of field stone depends upon the mortar for its strength4 ,it appears the best when the joints of the surface are raked out1 permitting a large part of the stones to project outward4 ,figure #g illustrates this kind of rubble wall4 ,when the rubble wall is built with very carefully squared stones1 and in regular courses1 it partakes more of the monumental character of ashlar work and draws away from the rustic value of rubble4 ,in determining the amount of cutting which is to be done1 the character of the building should be considered1 remembering that the smoother and more finished the wall1 the more monumental is its appearance4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,square uncoursed ,rubble tooled joints ,fig4 #g4 ,field stone ,rubble raked joints ,illustration3 ,bond stone every #b' in ht4 and #c' in length ,,mortar1 ,,bond1 ,,and ,,thickness ,illustration3 ,thickness of rubble-stone wall ,the kind of mortar which should be used for the rubble wall depends upon its location and desired appearance4 ,all foundation-walls1 and all walls which are subject to dampness1 should be built with ,portland-cement mortar4 ,lime mortar may be used in walls above grade1 although cement mortar1 or cement-lime mortar is superior4 ,as the strength of a rubble wall depends more upon the mortar than the bond1 it is well to use the best4 ,however1 care should be taken that the wall is well bonded4 ,a wall which consists of two faces1 not bonded together1 should not be built4 ,a bond stone which carries through from one face to the other should be set into the wall every #b feet in height1 and every #c feet in length4 ,this bond stone should be flat and about #ab inches in width and #h inches thick4 ,the usual thickness of walls for dwellings not over three stories in height is #af inches1 and the foundation-walls are made #h inches thicker than the wall above or #b feet4 ,the footings under a stone wall should be of concrete1 not less than #ab inches thick1 and should rest upon solid ground at a depth equal to1 or greater than1 the frost-line below the surface1 unless solid rock occurs above this point4 ,the width of the footings should be such that it projects outward on both sides of the wall at least #d inches4 ,,furring ,the interior of all stone walls1 and in fact all masonry walls1 will show condensation of moisture over the interior surface1 and if they are plastered directly on the interior the decorations will be ruined by the collection of so much water4 ,the cause of this condensation is the same as that which forms sweat on the exterior surface of a glass of cold water4 ,in order to eliminate this disagreeable feature1 all masonry walls are furred on the interior before the lath and plaster is applied4 ,the furring makes an air space between the wall and the plaster1 and all dampness is prevented from penetrating to the interior surface of the plaster4 ,to further increase the damp-proof qualities of a masonry wall they are sometimes built hollow1 as1 for example1 the hollow brick wall1 or the hollow terra-cotta tile wall4 ,this air space also serves as an insulator for heat1 preventing the escape of heat from the interior of the building in winter and the penetration of it into the structure in the summer4 ,illustration3 #aj4 ,furring ,strip ,the commonest type of furring is the #a-;inch by #b-;inch wooden strip1 nailed to the joints of the masonry or to wall plugs inserted in the joints4 ,metal furring strips are also extensively used1 and occasionally hollow terra-cotta furring blocks4 ,brick ,house ,like the stone house1 the brick dwelling is one of the oldest types in this country4 ,examples of early brick houses show a taste for good brick1 which later died out on account of the introduction of the first ,american machine-made bricks4 ,these early machine-made bricks were extremely ugly1 due to their perfection of geometric shape1 smoothness of surface1 and monotony of red color4 ,later improvements in the manufacture of brick have released this material for extensive artistic use4 ,the surface was given a varied color and texture1 and the form was not made so machine-like4 ,to-day we have a variety of bricks which range in colors through reds1 yellows1 buffs1 greens1 blues1 and even dark violets4 ,textures of wire-cut bricks are rich and varied1 and1 if properly handled1 can produce the very finest architecture4 ,illustration3 #aa4 ,running ,bond and method of ,bonding #ad4 ,flemish ,bond ,illustration3 #ab4 ,english ,bond ,illustration3 #ac4 ,dutch ,bond or ,english ,cross ,bond ,,bonding ,,and ,,construction ,the thickness of brick walls for dwellings not higher than three stories ought to be #ab inches1 although #h inches is considered by many experts to be quite thick enough for small houses4 ,if the foundation walls are of rubble-stone they should be #h inches thicker1 and if of brick or concrete they should be #d inches thicker4 ,usually the walls will be faced with some variety of face brick1 in which case they should be bonded into the wall4 ,if a running bond is used1 the face brick should be bonded into the backing at every sixth course by cutting the corners of each brick in that course of face brick and putting in a row of diagonal headers behind them1 and also using suitable metal anchors in bonding courses at intervals not exceeding #c feet4 ,where ,flemish bond is used1 the headers of every third course should be a full brick and bonded into the backing4 ,if the face brick is of different thickness to that of the common brick backing1 the courses of the exterior and interior should be brought to a level bed at intervals of about eight courses in height of face brick1 and the face tied into the backing by a full header course or other suitable method4 ,illustration3 ,,fisklock ,,brick ,,fundamental ,,bonds ,,in ,,brickwork ,it is very easy to understand the bonds in brickwork if the fundamental forms are known4 ,there are1 in reality1 but two real bonds3 namely1 the ,english and the ,flemish bond4 ,the so-called running bond is no bond at all2 while the common bond is found only in common brick walls1 and uses a bonding course of headers every sixth course4 ,the ,dutch bond is only a slightly altered arrangement of the ,english bond1 and is produced by merely shifting the centring of vertical joints of the stretcher course4 ,by arranging these fundamental bonds in varying manners a decorative pattern can be produced on the wall of brick4 ,illustration3 #ae4 ,brick ,joints ,,types ,,of ,,joints ,here1 again1 as in the stone wall1 the mortar joint plays a great part in the final effect of the design4 ,it can be safely set forth as a rule that the rougher the texture of the brick used1 the rougher and wider should be the joint4 ,for the smooth-faced brick the joint should be small and finished with a tool4 ,for a rough-faced brick the joint should be large and rough in texture4 ,the various forms of brick joints in common use are shown in the illustrations4 ,illustration3 #af4 ,lintel ,construction ,,lintel ,,construction ,in the construction of lintels in either the wall of brick or stone1 the introduction of either wood or steel is necessary for strength4 ,where the openings are less than #d feet in width1 timber lintels are used at the back of the lintel or arch1 which are cut to serve as a centre for a rowlock or keyed arch4 ,any face brick may be supported by using a small steel angle4 ,where lintels are wider than #d feet1 steel ,i-beams1 channels1 or angles must be used4 ,where the span is more than #f feet1 it is necessary to build in bearing plates for the support of the ends of lintels4 ,the ,ideal ,brick ,wall ,it would be well to mention here the new type of brick wall which is being advertised widely by the ,common ,brick ,manufacturers ,association4 ,this wall is claimed to be very suited to the small house1 and no doubt it would be1 if it were possible to secure the co-operation of the local mason4 ,this type of brick wall is built hollow1 and arranged as shown in the drawings4 ,there are no continuous mortar joints from the exterior to the interior through which moisture can penetrate4 ,there are many features of advantage which the following table shows1 but1 unfortunately1 not all mason contractors will give the owner the advantage of the reduction in cost which this wall permits4 ,illustration3 #h ,,ideal ,,wall #ab ,,ideal ,,wall ,,common ,,brick ,for #ajj square feet of wall1 #h inches thick1 the following materials are required3 ,,for ,,solid ,,brick ,,wall #a1bcc bricks4 #b4f sacks of cement4 #b4i bags of hydrated lime4 4#g cubic yards of sand4 #i hours of a bricklayer's time4 #aj hours of a mason's helper's time4 ,,for ,,ideal ,,all ,,rolok ,,wall #ijd bricks4 #a sack of cement4 #a4b sacks of hydrated lime4 4#c cubic yards of sand4 #h hours of bricklayer's time4 #f hours of a mason's helper's time4 ,hollow-,tile ,house ,the past decade has seen an increasing use of hollow terra-cotta tile as a building material for the walls of the small house4 ,it has many advantages which have made its popularity increase1 such as its larger and lighter construction unit1 reducing the labor of setting1 its cellular wall features1 and its availability4 ,there is much information published by the manufacturers describing the correct construction1 but always1 of course1 with an eye to advertising the material4 ,however1 there has been much conflicting testimony made concerning the practicability of hollow-tile construction1 and some of the disadvantages should be noted4 ,as a rule1 they have proved to be strong enough to support the weight of the structure imposed upon them1 but in the ,southwest1 where tornado winds are prevalent1 these walls have been criticised because of their lack of stability and their porosity4 ,hollow-tile walls have been thrown down while those constructed of brick have stood1 and driving rain-storms frequently make the inside of the walls wet4 ,the stability can be increased by filling them with concrete1 but the allowable strength cannot be considered to have been raised4 ,tests have shown that this filling does not increase the strength1 because of the difference in the elasticity of the two materials4 ,,types ,,and ,,construction ,there are two types of hollow terra-cotta blocks1 one which builds with cells vertically and the other which builds with cells horizontally4 ,this latter is generally an interlocking tile4 ,the strongest wall for vertical-load resistance is built with vertical-cell tiles4 ,illustration3 #bj4 ,support of floor-joists #ah4 #ab ,hollow-tile wall ,cells ,horizontal ,all hollow-tile should be laid in ,portland-cement mortar1 and the webs should be arranged so that they build over one another4 ,the bearing of floor beams and girders on walls1 built with blocks of vertical cells1 should be made by covering the tile with templates of terra-cotta slabs1 filling them with concrete or protecting them with plates of steel4 ,where chases are required for pipes they should not be cut into the wall1 but special blocks should be used to build around them4 ,all lintels under #e feet should be constructed with tile arches1 reinforced with concrete and steel rods inside of their webs4 ,illustration3 #ag4 ,vertical cell ,hollow-tile wall ,,precautions ,,against ,,dampness ,illustration3 #ba4 ,construction of lintel ,illustration3 ,brick ,veneered ,hollow-tile wall ,in order to prevent the penetration of moisture the mason should butter all joints on the inside and outside edges1 leaving an empty space between1 in order to insulate against the transmission of moisture through the joint4 ,to prevent the collection of mortar in the cells of the tile1 due to droppings during construction1 the spreading of metal lath over the top of each course of tile will accomplish this and also make the strength of the wall greater4 ,although it is often recommended that hollow-tile be plastered directly upon the interior1 yet this is not safe in those sections of the country where there are driving rain-storms4 ,for this reason it is advisable to fur them on the interior4 ,it is also recommended that a waterproofing compound be added to the stucco applied to the exterior4 ,another fact should be observed3 namely1 that all door and window frames1 since they are of wood1 will tend to shrink and thus open up the joints and permit the leakage of rain-water4 ,oakum should be stuffed behind all brick moulds to prevent this4 ,care should also be taken to make drips under all sills1 so that no water will leak into the interior of the wall4 ,all belt courses should also have steep washes4 ,stucco should not be carried down to the grade level1 but a course of solid material1 like brick1 concrete1 or stone1 should be built at this point4 ,,veneering ,it is sometimes customary to veneer walls of hollow-tile with brick1 especially those tiles which are of the interlocking type1 since a better bond can be secured4 ,in any case1 any brick veneer should be bonded to the backing with a row of headers every #af inches1 or be attached with metal ties4 ,this veneering should not be considered as part of the required thickness of wall4 ,,wall ,,thickness ,the thickness of hollow-tile walls should be the same as for walls of brick4 ,the construction of light #aj-;inch and #h-;inch walls1 while strong enough as a substitute for a frame dwelling1 is not strong against weather or fire4 ,the only justification for thin walls is the slightly reduced cost of materials4 ,hollow blocks1 as a rule1 are not used for foundations1 although they are satisfactory under buildings not higher than #dj feet4 ,it is better to fill such walls with concrete and waterproof them on the exterior4 ,concrete ,house ,the development of the concrete house has been stimulated by large corporations erecting towns of them in one locality4 ,the erection of concrete houses by individual builders cannot1 as a rule1 follow those systems which are adapted to group construction4 ,the use of large precast units may be satisfactory for a development of a hundred or more houses1 but it is not economical for a single operation4 ,the use of heavy steel forms for casting monolithic houses of concrete1 while under certain favorable labor conditions may be satisfactory for a small job1 yet as a rule is better adapted to large enterprises4 ,such steel forms are represented by the ,lambie forms and the ,hydraulic forms4 ,even wood forms of heavy construction1 like those used in the ,ingersoll system in work at ,union and ,phillipsburg1 are not adapted to an operation involving less than fifty identical houses4 ,another system1 combining both the precast and the cast-in-place work1 called the ,simpsoncraft system1 is not economical for small operations4 ,this uses thin precast slabs for walls and floors1 and precast concrete beams4 ,the precast parts are tied together by casting in place reinforced studs of concrete4 ,practically the only available systems which are useful for the small operation are 7#a7 monolithic houses1 built with light1 portable steel forms or wooden forms1 and 7#b7 the concrete block house4 ,,block ,,house ,illustration3 #be4 ,typical ,concrete block wall ,the concrete house1 especially that built of blocks1 often has the defect of being damp on the interior1 unless precautions have been taken to avoid this4 ,it is always best to fur the interior of walls1 although there have been cases where the blocks have been waterproofed and the interiors remained dry4 ,usually those blocks which are cast in a very dry state are porous1 while those which are poured show considerable compactness4 ,the great difficulty in using concrete blocks lies in the inexperienced and inartistic work of the large number of 8would-be manufacturers10 whose only claim to the product consists of having purchased a machine which will turn out so many blocks a day and reap them an advertised fortune in a short period4 ,a thoroughly reliable concrete block can be made1 if there is used plenty of good cement1 clean aggregate with proper proportions of fine and coarse to secure density1 sufficient water to make a wet mixture1 and then the product kept damp while curing4 ,the surface should also be finished in some artistic manner4 ,a good method consists in applying about an inch of white cement and showy aggregate to the outer facing of the block1 and then1 when the block has been set into the wall1 finish it off with a stone-tooling machine1 such as a pointer1 operated by a pneumatic hammer4 ,blocks1 also1 should be of the hollow-wall type1 so that an air space between can be secured for ventilation and insulation4 ,,monolithic ,,house ,the commonest method of building monolithic walls of concrete is to use wooden forms4 ,these are built in sets of panels1 one for the exterior and the other for the interior face of each course4 ,these are successively raised1 one above the other1 in pouring the walls4 ,mr4 ,ernest ,flagg1 architect1 has developed a remarkably simple system of concrete-wall construction with the wooden form4 ,roughly broken stone are set against the inside of the forms1 used for the exterior face of the wall1 and the rest of the wall is filled up with concrete4 ,by raising the boards which are used for the forms1 as each layer hardens1 the wall can be erected without skilled labor and yet have the appearance1 on the exterior1 of a stone wall4 ,of course it is necessary to point the joints of the stone work after the forms have been removed4 ,illustration3 #bb4 ,typical monolithic wall construction #bd4 ,stone faced concrete wall developed by ,ernest ,flagg ,of the light steel forms1 the most important on the market are the ,metaforms and the ,morrill forms4 ,the ,metaforms1 originally the ,reichert forms1 are composed of individual form units4 ,all units are standardized and interchangeable1 and equipped with the necessary clamps and locking devices4 ,these units are built of sheet steel1 strongly reinforced1 and measure #b feet square4 ,a single course of ,metaforms is composed of an inner and outer shell of plates4 ,as the work progresses the bottom course is taken off and placed above for the next1 there being usually three courses of forms in operation4 ,the ,morrill form is also a sheet-steel form1 only it uses a hinged 8swing-up0 construction1 by which the lower courses of the form can be swung up into position for the new course as the work progresses4 ,the ,van ,guilder double-wall machines have been gradually increasing in use throughout the country4 ,they are not for sale1 but the company establishes a contracting organization in different centres4 ,the machine is a steel mould which is moved along and upward as the concrete wall is tamped in it4 ,it builds a double wall in tiers4 ,each tier is #i inches high and #e feet long4 ,a complete circuit of one tier is made around the wall1 and then the next tier is begun on top4 ,illustration3 #bc4 ,a double monolithic wall built by the ,van ,guilder machine4 ,,vi ,,safeguards ,,against ,,fire ,,in ,,dwellings ,the ,necessity for ,safeguards ,the majority of small houses will be built of either wood-frame construction or of wood-and-masonry construction for many years to come1 in spite of the propaganda favoring fireproof dwellings1 for the cost of materials and labor are so adjusted that houses of this better type cannot be built by the average citizen4 ,in fact1 #ij per cent of the houses erected to-day use wooden studs and floor beams4 ,this method of building costs the fire insurance companies about #fj1jjj1jjj a year4 ,the actual loss must be even greater than this1 for not all houses are insured4 ,we might as well face these facts frankly and accept the next best means of preventing this enormous annual loss of dwellings by establishing safeguards against this fire dragon at the most vulnerable parts of the building4 ,we must place the armor of protection where it is needed most1 and set up the safeguards against fire where the dangerous enemy attacks4 ,on examination of the insurance reports upon this question1 we find that #if per cent of all the fires originate inside of the houses4 ,the most important cause of these fires is defective chimney construction4 ,bad fireplace design1 careless flue construction1 and poor masonry work in the chimney are responsible for many a tragic fire and a total loss of furniture1 clothes1 and household goods of well-meaning citizens4 ,it is true that this is a cause of fire which may be prevented by building good chimneys and fireplaces1 but there are other causes that are not so easily regulated1 such as explosions from kerosene1 short circuits in the electric iron or vacuum cleaner1 careless throwing around of burned matches and cigarettes1 and many other accidents which are bound to occur in spite of all precautions4 ,when such fires start1 there is only one thing to do3 extinguish them in the quickest possible manner4 ,but this cannot be done easily if the walls and the floors of the house are so built that they act as hidden passages and flues for the flames to creep insidiously throughout the building1 breaking out in the most unexpected places and entrapping the unwary in dangerous positions4 ,the way that many dwellings are constructed makes it possible for a fire to start in the cellar over the smoke-pipe from the furnace1 in the dead of night1 creep silently through the floors and up the interior partitions to the attic and second floor1 until suddenly1 bursting forth in all its fury1 it has the sleeping inhabitants ensnared in a box of fire that has cut off their escape4 ,the terrible heat has eaten away the strength of the bearing partitions1 the floors collapse1 the stairs are encircled with a writhing flame1 and smoke and fire issue from everywhere as suddenly as though they had been spontaneously produced4 ,there is no time to fight such a fire as this2 about all that can be done is to escape in safety1 and then the history of such conflagrations tells of the tragic death of many children left behind in the excitement4 ,it is this fearful danger of the secret entrapping of fire that it is possible to eliminate from the wooden house4 ,at least we can make this demon element come out into the open1 where we can see to fight him4 ,we can set safeguards against his passage through floors and walls1 up stairs1 and behind wainscots4 ,in most cases where houses are so protected a fire can be quickly extinguished by the fire department or by a chemical fire-extinguisher kept in the house4 ,this business of setting up fire-stops when the house is being constructed should be known4 ,the closing of the passage between the plaster1 furring strips1 and masonry wall1 the blocking of continuous ways through exterior stud walls and interior bearing partitions1 the filling in of the hollow spaces behind wainscots1 the protecting of the under side of stairs1 and many other precautions can be provided for in the plans and specifications without adding much to the expense4 ,placing of the ,fire-,stops ,there are two general places where these fire-stops should be constructed3 in the vertical walls to cut off concealed drafts and in the horizontal floors to act as barriers between one floor and the next4 ,a fire which starts in the cellar can be confined for some time from spreading upward if the ceiling is covered with metal lath and plaster and all the possible vertical openings in the walls are stopped with concrete1 mineral wool1 or other effective material4 ,on the other hand1 a fire which starts in the attic may spread to the lower stories by sparks dropping down inside of the partitions1 unless they are properly fire-stopped4 ,it is very important1 however1 to have fire-stops carefully built1 for when gas is heated to the temperature of combustion it will pass through very small crevices1 setting fire to the materials on the other side4 ,it only requires a temperature of #ajjj ,f4 to ignite wood1 and if the air is this hot1 although it may appear harmless1 it will set fire to whatever combustible material it touches4 ,for this reason1 fire-stops carelessly installed are as good as none4 ,as an example of this1 blocks of wood are sometimes used between the studs as a fire-stopping material1 but1 as it requires time to fit this material in place1 small cracks are often left between the blocks and the studs1 which permit the heated gases easily to pass through them to the other side4 ,this is also true when bricks are used for fire-stops4 ,as the average stud is only about #c inch wide1 and the average brick is #d inches1 it is impossible to fill the space between the studs with bricks1 laid flatwise1 but they must be set on edge1 leaving a wide crevice which must be filled in with mortar4 ,this is often poorly done or omitted entirely1 making the brick fire-stop inadequate4 ,in enumerating the places where fire-stops should be built1 the most important ones are the blocking of the space between the plaster and furred brick wall at each floor level and the closing of the air-space in exterior stud walls at each floor 7,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c74 ,the filling in of the hollow space at the base of every interior stud partition is likewise necessary 7,fig4 #d74 ,a wooden cornice banks up the heat from any neighboring fire1 and it is advisable to fire-stop the space around the ends of the rafters where they join with the ceiling-joists over the plate 7,fig4 #e74 ,where the second floor of the house projects out over the porch1 it should be filled with fire-stopping material1 not only for safety against fire but also to keep out the cold in the winter 7,fig4 #f74 ,the pockets into which sliding-doors roll should be lined with gypsum board1 not only as a fire retardant but also to prevent cold drafts from coming out of these pockets 7,fig4 #g74 ,the plaster should be carried down behind all wooden wainscots as a fire-stop 7,fig4 #h74 ,the space between the stair carriage should also be closed at each story 7,fig4 #i71 and all chases and ducts should be filled at each floor level4 ,wherever exposed pipes pass through horizontal parts of the house they should be run through sleeves4 ,wherever hot-air flues go from one floor to the next they should be packed around with incombustible material 7,fig4 #aj71 and all registers in floors should be insulated in the same way4 ,the space between floor-joists and chimneys must also be filled in with fire-stopping materials4 ,illustration3 ,fire-stopping of furred off space in brick wall ,fig #a ,fire-stopping of furred off space in brick wall ,fig #b ,illustration3 ,fire stop at base of exterior stud wall ,fig #c ,fire stop for interior bearing partition of studs ,fig #d ,illustration3 ,fire stop at end of rafters ,fig #e ,fire stop in ceiling of porch roof where #bnd floor projects over ,fig #f ,illustration3 ,fire-stop of sliding door ,fig #g ,fire-stop of ,wainscot ,fig #h ,illustration3 ,fig #i ,fig #aj ,materials to be ,used ,it is not necessary to use expensive materials for fire-stops1 but they should be carefully placed4 ,materials like mineral wool are the best1 since they expand as the wood shrinks and fill up the space4 ,concrete which is held in position by strips of metal lath is also excellent4 ,the concrete or mortar used can be made from refuse material1 and need not have any great strength4 ,old bricks are satisfactory if they are slushed into position with mortar which fills all the crevices4 ,gypsum blocks are good except for damp location1 where they absorb moisture easily and1 holding it1 induce dry rot in the surrounding timbers4 ,asbestos board1 gypsum board1 and metal lath and plaster are suitable for covering large areas1 such as cellar ceilings1 over the boiler4 ,in fact1 fire-stopping can be cheaply done with odd-and-end bits of material which usually go to waste around the building4 ,the details of constructing these fire-stops are best shown in the illustrations1 and no further descriptions will be necessary4 ,chimney ,construction ,in view of what was said in the first part of this chapter1 the construction of a chimney by approved methods is also a safeguard against fire4 ,it can be considered a rule that every chimney should be lined with a terra-cotta flue1 that every chimney should be an independent structure of its own1 with walls thick enough for stability1 capable of standing upon their own foundations and not hung from any part of the structure1 that all woodwork of the building should be framed far enough from the chimney to make no contact with it1 and1 finally1 that all the smoke-pipes which enter into the flues should be proof against leakage of flames and heat of such intensity as to cause combustion4 ,in the past this need of lining the flues of a chimney with terra-cotta flue tiles was not considered important1 but to-day it is a well recognized fact that no chimney is safe without this protective lining4 ,there are many instances where chimneys are built without this lining and show no fire dangers1 but the action of flue gases is slow and sure1 and the mortar is attacked gradually1 with the resulting disintegration of the brickwork1 through which the flames eventually find their way to the surrounding wood timbers4 ,it is found that even where terra-cotta flue linings are used the hot gases from the burning of natural gas as a fuel break down their resistance and they crumble1 so that in such cases the flue linings should be made of fire-clays4 ,from practical experience the minimum thickness allowable for any of these flue linings should be #a inch1 and the joints should not be made with collars4 ,when setting these linings they should be laid in cement mortar1 not in lime mortar1 for this disintegrates under the action of gases from burning wood4 ,the joints should be struck smooth on the inside1 and the space between the lining and the brickwork filled in solid with mortar4 ,wherever two flue linings are run within the same chimney space1 the joints should be staggered or offset at least #f inches4 ,two linings1 however1 in one chimney space should be the maximum number permitted4 ,where more are required1 each group of two should be separated by brick walls of at least #d inches1 which are well bonded into the outside walls of the chimney4 ,this is in order to give stability to the chimney and also prevent any fires in one flue spreading to others4 ,the thickness of outside walls of the chimney around the flues should not be less than #d inches if built of brick or reinforced concrete1 but if built of stone they should be #h inches4 ,wherever there is no flue lining of terra-cotta1 such as in the smoke-chamber1 the thickness of the masonry from the interior to the exterior should never be less than #h inches4 ,if chimneys are built of reinforced concrete1 the reinforcements should be run in both directions to prevent cracks during the setting of the cement or from temperature stresses4 ,where concrete blocks are used1 reinforcements should run continuously around the blocks1 and the shell of the blocks should not be less than #d inches thick4 ,wherever the walls of dwellings are of brick and #ab or more inches thick1 they may be used to contain chimney flues4 ,if it is necessary to corbel out the flues from the wall1 they should not extend farther than #d inches from the face of the wall1 and the corbelling should not be done with less than five courses of bricks4 ,next in importance to the correct lining of flues is the proper construction of the foundation under chimneys4 ,there are often cases where it is necessary to cut off the chimneys below in part or in whole to supply room on the first floor4 ,this should be avoided as much as possible1 but if it cannot be done it should be supported by steelwork from the ground up4 ,illustration3 ,fire place ,fig #ab ,another mistake that is continually made is to cut off the chimney at too low a level and cap it with only a plastering of mortar4 ,all chimneys should be carried at least #c feet above flat roofs and #b feet above the ridge of a peak roof and properly capped with stone1 terra-cotta1 or concrete4 ,if they are not capped1 and the bricks improperly tied1 the mortar joints will be loosened by the action of the weather and the heat issuing from the chimney1 and eventually the bricks will be moved from their position1 leaving the top in a dilapidated condition4 ,this extension of the chimney through the roof leaves a joint which must be covered with flashing to prevent leaking4 ,the usual method of building a tin-covered cricket behind the chimney1 and protecting the other sides with tin flashing counter-flashed is very satisfactory2 but the practice of corbelling the brickwork out over the roof1 in order to cover over the joint1 is extremely bad4 ,when a chimney built in this way settles1 the corbelled-out parts catch on the roof1 and the whole top of the chimney is lifted off1 leaving a crack through which the hot gases pass to the wooden rafters4 ,see illustrations on pages #ade and #agj4 ,if there are any fireplaces to be built in the chimney the walls should never be less than #h inches thick around them4 ,it is best to line them with fire-brick of at least #b inches in thickness4 ,hearths should extend in front of the fireplace at least #bj inches to prevent sparks from falling on the wooden floors4 ,these hearths should be supported upon trimmer arches or be constructed of reinforced concrete4 ,it is important to keep the woodwork of any mantel away from the opening at the top at least #ab inches and at the sides at least #h inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig #aa ,in fact1 no woodwork should be permitted to come in contact with any part of the chimney4 ,wooden beams and joists should be kept at least #b inches from the chimney and at least #d inches from the back of any fireplace4 ,this space1 as was previously stated1 should be filled in with fire-stopping material4 ,where a chimney is on the line with a wooden stud partition1 it is better to plaster directly over the brickwork of the chimney than to carry studs over it on which lath and plaster is constructed4 ,by using metal lath over the brickwork the danger of cracks can be eliminated4 ,where a base-board must be carried along this wall in which such a chimney occurs1 the plaster should be carried down behind it and then asbestos board should be placed behind the base-board to prevent too much heat coming in contact with it4 ,if these precautions are taken in the construction of the chimney and the correct methods of fire-stopping employed1 the house of wood can be made less of a fire-trap than it is to-day4 ,none of these devices require much additional expense1 and should1 on this basis1 have a broad appeal4 ,,vii ,,poor ,,methods ,,of ,,construction ,,employed ,,by ,,unscrupulous ,,builders ,it would be an endless task to list and describe all of the possible faults of construction which an unscrupulous builder might use in the erection of a small house1 and1 indeed1 it would result largely in rehearsing all of the details of good construction1 and then reversing them1 showing that instead of doing the correct thing it was done quite the opposite way4 ,but there are certain obvious and glaring faults of construction which are employed by speculative builders with one purpose in mind1 namely1 to reduce the cost but maintain a good appearance4 ,an intentional and clever disguise of poor construction is1 at heart1 the dishonest thing against which this is written4 ,the defects of construction which are either the result of ignorance or unskilled labor1 while they are bad enough1 are not malicious1 but those defects which are intentionally planned are simply systems of stealing1 and they are usually found in the so-called speculative house1 which the unwary public buys in preference to securing an honest house1 designed by an architect4 ,and it is this system of dishonest construction that makes the speculative house seem1 on the face1 cheaper than the honest house4 ,indeed1 it is the whole intention of such dishonest methods of building to make the house seem1 on the face of it1 substantial1 good-looking1 and honest1 but to hide1 beneath the glamour of its exterior1 weaknesses of structure which will cause all kinds of failures after a few years of standing4 ,so long as the house stands together until the builder has sold it to some unsuspecting buyer1 that is all that interests him4 ,in observing some of these dishonest methods of construction it is well to keep in mind that they will appear on the exterior well done1 but that their faults are hidden1 and intentionally planned to reduce the cost for the builder4 ,in order to systematize our observations along these lines let us imagine a house which we will inspect in an orderly fashion4 ,we will begin with the cellar and proceed upward to the roof4 ,this house is an ordinary frame dwelling upon a stone foundation4 ,illustration3 ,the ,fake ,leader ,the ,poorly ,made ,floor ,entering the cellar-door1 the first thing we notice is that at the base of the stairs leading to this door is a puddle of water left from the last rain-storm4 ,upon inquiring concerning it we learn that in every rain-storm1 and especially during the winter when the ground is frozen1 the surface water flows down the steps1 collects in the areaway in front of the cellar-door1 and overflows the sill into the cellar itself--all because the builder had omitted a drain-pipe in the centre of this area to save money4 ,becoming interested in this matter of drainage1 we look around at the areas under each of the cellar-windows and find that the drains have been omitted from these1 and that a few broken pebbles were thrown into the bottom to give the impression that the water could drain off into the soil1 and all this to save money and deceive the buyer4 ,inspecting the ground around the foundation-wall we notice that about each leader the earth has been worn down by dripping water1 as though the leader had backed up and the gutter had overflowed4 ,inquiry shows that such is the case in every rain-storm4 ,apparently the outlet for the leader has been stopped up1 so1 in order to find out whether this is true1 we need to remove the lower section of the leader from the terra-cotta pipe to look into it1 for often it becomes clogged at this point with leaves and dirt4 ,breaking away the cement joint and pulling gently upon the sheet-metal leader1 we suddenly find that it crumbles in our hands1 and that the leader consists of a coat of paint holding a few particles of rust together4 ,yes1 cheap1 thin1 so-called galvanized-iron leaders to save money and deceive the buyer6 ,but continuing our search for the stoppage we poke our cane into the section of terra-cotta pipe projecting above the ground which received the leader1 and find that it stops short4 ,twisting it around to remove the material which seems to block the pipe we find1 much to our surprise1 that the entire section of terra-cotta pipe breaks off1 and then1 looking closer1 we find that this pipe does not connect with a cast-iron drainage-pipe leading to the plumbing system or to a dry well1 but had merely been stuck into the ground to give this appearance and to save money and deceive the buyer4 ,no wonder the leader backed up and the gutters overflowed in a rain-storm6 ,by this time we have become very suspicious of the house1 so that when we finally go down into the cellar our attention is attracted to a section of the cement floor near the furnace where the large ash-cans are standing4 ,the top surface has cracked under the weight of the cans1 and it appears to be in thin slivers of cement4 ,leaning down and prying under one of these cracked pieces with a knife1 a thin slab of concrete1 about a quarter of an inch thick1 is lifted up from the floor1 and beneath this slab we find about #b or #c inches of tamped ashes1 and then dirt4 ,we marvel that this floor has lasted even as long as it has with so much water running into the cellar in damp weather4 ,think of it1 #b inches of ashes and a quarter of an inch of cement mortar on the top1 when the correct method of building is to lay about #f inches of cinders for a foundation1 then #c inches of concrete on top of this1 and finally a top coat1 #a inch thick1 of cement mortar over all4 ,looking up from the floor we are rather impressed by the clean1 whitewashed effect of the walls of the cellar1 and one would hardly believe that it was a damp one1 but around the windows and at certain points in the wall the whitewash is streaked with black1 as though water had leaked in4 ,going over to these places in the wall it is quite evident that during the winter and damp season water has soaked through these crevices4 ,poking around with a penknife we are amazed at the ease with which the knife penetrates the mortar between the joints of the stones4 ,working at it a little harder with the knife soon shows that if the cellar were a prison it would not be very hard to scratch one's way out through that wall4 ,suddenly1 without warning1 one of the stones in the wall drops out onto the floor1 and we get a view of the construction within4 ,for certain it is one of those stone walls built up with two faces1 not bonded together1 except by mortar which seems to be made up of mud and a small trace of lime1 which lime has disintegrated with the constant dampness to which it has been subjected4 ,a piece of the mortar we find can be crumbled easily in the hand4 ,this is evidence of the employment of the cheapest kind of labor for the masonry work and the cutting down of expense in using poor materials4 ,we only have to look closely to see that there is developing a long diagonal crack in the wall1 and we can imagine that if the contractor built so poor a wall above the ground1 the chances are that there is no footing beneath it4 ,near at hand a large bulge is noticeable1 and when we hit it with a hammer the whole thing has a rotten sound1 for the inside face is bulging inward from the load upon it and the uneven settling of the foundations4 ,looking up now at the neatly whitewashed ceiling we cannot help but be suspicious of the plaster beneath the surface1 so going over to that part of the ceiling above the smoke-pipe leading from the furnace to the chimney we jab our cane against it1 and1 as we expected1 a big slab breaks off and crashes to the floor1 revealing partly charred wooden lath beneath1 which have been baking in the heat rising from the smoke-pipe1 and which would eventually catch fire4 ,examining the plaster very closely we observe that in addition to being a very thin coat it has no hair in it to act as a reinforcement for the plaster key which held it to the lath base4 ,but being rather inquisitive about the construction hidden behind the plaster1 and having broken some of it down1 the removal of the few lath is worth the look behind them4 ,and there we see the girder which supports the floor-joists resting upon the chimney instead of on a special pier or column4 ,this saved the contractor the cost of the pier or the column1 but the owner would probably lose his house some day by fire creeping through the joints of the brickwork of the chimney to the ends of this wooden girder1 for it was quite evident that the mortar used in the chimney was not much better than that used in the wall1 and it is well known that lime mortar disintegrates under the action of hot gases from burning wood4 ,turning our attention now to other parts of the cellar1 we notice that in the floor of the laundry a place had been broken into1 and upon inquiry we find that this hole was dug by the plumber in repairing a stoppage of the system of drainage-pipes under the floor4 ,it seems that the contractor had omitted placing any clean-outs in the pipes which he had laid under the cellar floor1 and the owner's wife1 by accident1 in pouring a pail of wash water down the water-closet in the cellar had allowed a rag to go down with it1 which clogged up the system1 so that the waste from the kitchen-sink began to back up into the laundry-tubs4 ,as there was no way to get at the pipes1 the plumber1 in cleaning out the system1 was obliged to break through the floor and cut out a hole in the pipe to run a wire through to the clean-out on the house-trap4 ,the contractor who built the house had saved about fifteen dollars in omitting this clean-out1 but the owner lost fifty dollars in plumbers' bills before he repaired this defect4 ,illustration3 ,fresh ,air ,inlet ,under ,window ,another defect was also found by the owner in the system of water-supply4 ,there had been installed only one shut-off cock for the entire building1 so that whenever a new washer had to be placed upon a faucet on any fixture the entire system had to be turned off4 ,as most of the faucets throughout the house were of very cheap design1 this had to be done very often1 until one day the owner had turned the main shut-off cock once too often for its strength1 and the handle broke off4 ,he was obliged to call in the plumber to turn the water on again1 as well as install a new shut-off cock4 ,questioning the owner further1 we learn that a disagreeable odor of sewage enters the dining-room windows during the summer months when all the sash are open1 but as he admits he knows little about plumbing1 he isn't sure of its cause1 but he thinks it comes from a pipe which opens directly beneath one of these windows4 ,when we investigate we find that it is the fresh-air inlet of the plumbing system of the house4 ,the contractor had saved money on piping by carrying this to the nearest outdoor point1 which happened to be directly under the window of the dining-room1 so that whenever any water-closet was flushed in the house a puff of foul air was blown out of this pipe in the most convenient place for it to enter the house if the windows were open4 ,instead of spending the extra money for piping to carry this fresh-air inlet well away from any windows1 the contractor had put in the shortest length possible4 ,after looking at this pipe we glance at the porch near by and notice that it is beginning to sag4 ,so1 crawling under the porch1 we find that instead of masonry piers under the porch columns1 there are wooden posts driven into the ground1 and that not only have these begun to settle under the weight but also have rotted away considerably near the ground1 where they are subject to dampness4 ,while we are under here we notice that the floor-joists are small1 #b by #d inch timbers1 and have sagged a great deal because of their extreme scantiness for the span over which they are placed4 ,in fact1 as we walk up on the porch it vibrates under our weight1 and when we enter the house we notice the same weakness1 only to a slightly less degree4 ,the owner says that in the beginning the floors were stiff enough1 but that this weakness had been getting worse each year4 ,it is evident that there is faulty bridging and too small timbers4 ,probably in the beginning the nails of the upper flooring helped to stiffen the beams1 but as these became worn in their sockets the joists lost this additional strength4 ,this lack of proper-size framing timbers saved the builder money but would cost the buyer a pretty penny some day4 ,but we are astonished at the excellent appearance of the floors1 for by this time the things that are good are more surprising than the things that are bad4 ,then it occurs to us that of course the floor would be good1 for this is part of the house which is visible and helps to catch the buyer's eye4 ,but later1 when we go up-stairs1 we notice that the floors are not so fine1 but are the common flat-grained boards which sliver off and catch in your shoe if you scuffle4 ,the owner also points out the kitchen as one of the biggest fakes he has seen4 ,it has an oak floor1 and when he had bought the house he had been deeply impressed with the luxury of having an oak floor not only in the dining-room but also in the kitchen4 ,but he is not so keen now1 for with constant scrubbing the cheap varnish and filler had come off and the pores of the oak have been exposed1 so that now the floor is the greatest catch-dirt ever invented1 and to make matters still worse the oak had been poorly seasoned1 the boards had shrunk1 the cracks opened1 and there is no underflooring below to prevent the dust and dirt from sifting through these cracks from the hollow space between the floor-joists4 ,the owner says he is about to install a new floor4 ,he also admits that the varnish which gave such a fine surface to the dining-room and living-room floors when he first saw the house was so poor1 and scratched so badly1 that he had to have the floors completely done over4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,defective ,,plaster ,glancing around at the walls of the living-room and the dining-room we notice that the wall-paper has cracked in a number of places1 pulled up1 and curled away4 ,it is extremely ugly and unkempt1 and we remark about it to the owner4 ,he says that he is completely discouraged about it1 that he has tried everything to make the wall-paper stay down1 but that as soon as the winter comes on1 the steam-heated air on the inside and the cold air on the outside seem to draw the paper up and away1 pulling the surface of the plaster with it4 ,he has glued large pieces of paper which have curled up in this manner back into position again1 but the plaster was so weak that as soon as the paper began to peel off1 the top layer of plaster pulled away with the paper4 ,in fact1 examining one example of this1 we observe that the paper which had sprung loose from the wall has underneath it a thin coat of plaster about a sixteenth of an inch thick1 showing that the glue had fastened the paper to the plaster1 but the plaster itself had given way4 ,this type of plastered wall is the result of using cheap materials1 and it is another evidence of the extremes to which contractors will go to save money and deceive the buyer4 ,as we pass by one of the pockets into which the sliding-doors roll we feel a draft coming out of it1 and we question the owner whether the house is cold in winter1 and he admits it is worse than we suspect4 ,he informs us that it is especially cold on the second floor in those rooms where the floors project over the porch4 ,we ask him whether he has noticed any drafts coming in through the cracks around the base-boards and trim1 and he points to these cracks1 showing us bits of cotton which he has plugged into them4 ,we suspect that what is the trouble is the omission of sheathing-boards over the studs between the roof of the porch and the ceiling-joists where this roof intersects with the house wall1 and also the failure to fill with cinders the space between the floor-joists of the projecting part of the room which extends over the porch4 ,that this is true the owner admits1 for he had noticed it while repairing a few shingles on the roof of the porch4 ,the contractor had saved a little money by this trick1 and no one could tell that he had done it by merely looking at the exterior4 ,illustration3 ,where ,the ,cold ,air ,gets ,in ,this same line of inquiry leads us to ask the owner about the heating-plant1 and we find that the house cannot be properly heated4 ,we therefore suspect that the radiation is too small1 so we calculate the required size of a radiator for one room1 and find that the one actually installed is too small4 ,yet1 as the owner says3 8,when he bought the house1 how was he to know that there was not a large enough heating-plant80 ,we inquire then whether he has any trouble with the fireplace1 which we presume he must use to help out on cold days4 ,he admits he cannot keep it from smoking badly4 ,so we go over to it and run our hand up into the throat to feel around1 and find that there is no smoke-chamber1 and1 what is more1 the flue is only about #d inches by #h inches1 and is not even lined with terra-cotta flue tile4 ,we inform him that he will never have a good fireplace draft until that chimney is rebuilt1 and that the size of the flue looks more like the vent for a gas-log than anything else4 ,we then went through the house noting as many defects as we could1 which were beginning to make their appearance4 ,for example1 we find that all the doors are badly sagging1 showing that the blocking has been omitted from the back of the jambs where the butts are screwed on4 ,the putty in the windows is crumbling out1 as though it were clay4 ,all the thresholds are of soft wood and are wearing badly4 ,the trim in many places was springing and twisting1 due to the use of cheap and poorly seasoned wood and the omission of enough nails4 ,some of the door-stiles are made of two pieces which have opened up at the joints and left ugly cracks4 ,all the stairs squeak badly1 indicating that they had been poorly built4 ,some of the balusters have worked loose and rattle in their mortises1 and the hand-rail shakes when it is grasped4 ,we notice a number of stained ceilings1 and inquire about the roof4 ,we are informed that it has leaked badly in the valleys1 where the tin is not wide enough to prevent the water which runs down one slope from washing up under the shingles of the adjoining slope and over the edge of the flashing tin of the valley into the house4 ,we learn also that the shingle roof of the porch1 which has a very slight incline1 continually leaks1 and looking out upon it we notice that the shingles are set nearly #g inches to the weather instead of less than #d inches1 as they should be for so small a pitch4 ,we notice that it has leaked around the windows1 and1 observing the top of the trim on the exterior1 note that there is no flashing over it to throw off the water flowing down from the clapboards4 ,while we are examining the windows the owner volunteers to tell us about his experience with the windows on the second floor4 ,after he had bought the house he found that only one window in each bedroom had any weights and sash-cords in it1 and that he had to buy these for all the other windows when he discovered it4 ,he says he never thought of trying each window before he purchased the place4 ,just then we happen to be looking at the lock on one of the doors1 and we spy one of those back-handed locks which never holds the door closed and which always catches and keeps one from closing the door unless the knob is turned4 ,it is a right-hand lock placed upon a left-hand door4 ,we recognize in this the contractor's efforts to use up all the second-hand odd bits of hardware which he possessed4 ,by this time we find ourselves so disgusted with the sharp tricks of dishonest building that we call a halt at looking farther1 but we feel quite convinced that there is a real difference in quality between such a speculative house and the honest house of an architect's designing1 and1 what is more1 we feel convinced that there is a real reason for the architect's house costing more in the beginning than such a house1 but that in the end the cheap speculative house is the most costly proposition which a buyer can invest his money in4 ,,viii ,,essential ,,features ,,of ,,good ,,plumbing ,the ,problem ,there are three things which will affect the plumbing system of the small house2 namely1 the existence or non-existence of municipal plumbing codes under which the structure is erected1 the existence or non-existence of a public sewer1 and1 finally1 the type of water-supply1 whether it is public or private4 ,illustration ,if there are no plumbing codes to follow1 it is sometimes possible to save money on the plumbing2 but unless the specifications are very rigid1 there is danger of poor work being installed4 ,by saving money is not meant installing cheap material1 but eliminating certain features which most plumbing codes require and which are not essential in producing the best possible type of plumbing system4 ,for example1 in most cities the ordinary traps which are required under each fixture to prevent the sewer-gas from returning into the air of the house1 after the waste water has drained out1 must be equipped with back-vent pipes in order to eliminate dangers of siphonage4 ,the cheap ,s trap 7shaped like an ,s turned on its side7 without this back-venting will siphon out1 that is1 lose its water-seal by atmospheric pressure pushing the water out of the trap in its attempt to fill a vacuum created by the discharge from a water-closet on the floor above4 ,by back-venting these traps1 as shown on page #id1 this danger of siphonage is reduced1 and1 therefore1 most codes have adopted this regulation requiring back-venting4 ,but to-day the market offers certain traps which are claimed to be anti-siphonable and which do not require this back-venting1 with the consequent result of reducing the cost of the equipment4 ,most plumbing codes have not changed their old regulations1 for many authorities do not yet believe in the possibility of an anti-siphon trap1 and so require the use of the back-venting system4 ,consequently1 wherever the small house is constructed within jurisdiction of these laws1 the plumbing will cost more than where the anti-siphon trap can be used without the elaborate system of back-venting4 ,likewise1 wherever there is a public sewer1 the problem of sewage disposal is simple and cheap2 but if the house is not located near any such public convenience1 special methods must be employed for the destruction of the waste matter4 ,the best is the septic tank 7see illustration7 with the small subsurface irrigation tile1 through which the partially purified material from the septic tank is distributed under the ground for complete purification by air and bacteria4 ,the other method of disposal--pouring the sewage into a cesspool--is to be deplored1 unless there is possibility of an early construction of a public sewer1 and no drinking-water is secured from the premises4 ,illustration3--,,small ,,sewage ,,disposal ,,plant-- ,the third consideration which affects the plumbing system of the small house is whether it can draw upon a public water-supply1 or whether it must secure its private supply from a well or a near-by stream or lake4 ,a private source of supply generally means the erection of a storage tank4 ,the best type of tank for this purpose is the pneumatic tank1 which is installed in the cellar1 and not in the attic1 as was the old-fashioned tank4 ,the water is pumped into this tank1 and the air which is in it is trapped1 so that the more water that is pumped into the tank1 the more compressed becomes the air4 ,this springlike cushion of air gives enough pressure to force the water to any fixture in the house4 ,illustration3--,,plumbing ,,system ,,using ,,anti-,,syphon ,,traps-- ,simplest ,type of ,drainage ,system ,on page #ig is represented the simplest type of drainage system that can be installed in the small house1 but since it uses anti-siphon traps and no back-venting1 it will not be possible to make use of it in all cities or towns which have plumbing rules prohibiting it4 ,the average small house does not have room for more than one bath1 a kitchen-sink1 a set of laundry-tubs1 and a toilet for the servant1 generally placed in the cellar4 ,for purposes of economy it is essential to place all of these fixtures on the same soil-line1 the main pipe which extends vertically from the horizontal house-drain in the cellar up through the roof4 ,if the bathroom is so located that the vertical line which serves its fixtures cannot serve the kitchen-sink or the laundry-tubs1 then a special waste-line or small vertical pipe draining fixtures other than water-closets1 must be carried up and through the roof1 which is extravagant of material4 ,as this waste-line will be only #b inches in diameter1 it is necessary to increase its diameter to #d inches before projecting it from the roof1 since it may become clogged in the winter with frost4 ,but the main soil-line is #d inches in diameter and needs no increaser on it4 ,the main house-drain is also made #d inches in diameter1 and is generally laid under the cellar floor with a pitch of inch to the foot4 ,at the junction of the vertical soil-line with it1 and also at any other point where there is a marked change in direction1 the house-drain should be equipped with clean-out holes1 covered with brass screw-caps4 ,just where the house-drain leaves the house1 a house-trap is installed 7see illustration71 and back of this an inlet for fresh air to permit the circulation of air in the system4 ,the foundations should be arched over the house-drain where it passes through them1 so that any settlement of the masonry will not come upon the pipe and cause it to be broken4 ,the material of which the house-drain1 soil-line1 and waste-line are made is usually cast-iron1 and of a grade known as extra heavy4 ,the joints are the bell-and-spigot type1 which are stuffed with oakum and then closed tight with #ab ounces of fine1 soft pig lead for each inch in diameter of the pipe4 ,branches are usually of galvanized wrought iron or lead1 but lead should be limited in use in modern plumbing1 although the term plumbing originated from the ,latin word for lead4 ,the common limitations upon the length of branches of lead pipe are3 #h feet for #a-;inch pipe1 #e feet for #b-;inch pipe1 #b feet for #c-;inch pipe1 #b feet for #d-;inch pipe4 ,the parts of the branch pipes which are visible are generally made of brass nickel-plated4 ,the joints between lead pipe and lead pipe1 and between lead pipe and brass pipe1 are made by the common wiped joint4 ,joints between lead pipe and cast-iron pipe are made by first wiping the lead pipe to a brass ferrule1 a piece of pipe in shape like a bell with the top cut off1 and then inserting and caulking this into the cast-iron pipe4 ,the joints between wrought-iron pipes are made with the screw joint1 and between wrought-iron and cast iron with the screw joint1 by using connections of malleable cast-iron which have been threaded4 ,the usual sizes for branch wastes from the fixtures are as follows3 for water-closets #d inches1 for bathroom-tubs #a inches1 for lavatories #a inches1 for kitchen-sinks #b inches1 for laundry-tubs #a inches1 and when in sets of three #b inches4 ,the size of the waste from the bathroom-tub can be increased to #b inches with great advantage1 if the additional slight expense is not objectionable4 ,the vertical soil-lines should be supported at each floor by metal straps placed under the hub and fastened to the floor-joists4 ,it is very important to properly flash the base of the projecting portion of the soil-line above the roof4 ,wherever the branch soil-line to the water-closet is connected1 a short ,,ty connection may be employed in order to avoid the projection of the parts of the pipe beyond the plane of the ceiling in the floor below4 ,however1 no short ,,ty connections should be made in any horizontal pipes4 ,a very important economical consideration should be noted in laying out the arrangement of the bathroom fixtures in this connection4 ,the horizontal branch soil-lines and waste-lines must be carried through the floor construction1 and they should be so arranged that they can run parallel with the floor-joists2 otherwise deep cuts will have to be made in them4 ,in the case of the branch soil-line it is essential to place the water-closet as near to the main soil-stack as possible1 for with a #d-;inch pipe the joists must be framed around it rather than be cut1 since so deep a gouge would weaken too much the strength of them4 ,a similar consideration must be given to the framing in stud partitions which are bearing the loads of the floors above1 for too deep cuts in them1 to allow for the passage of pipes1 will weaken them greatly4 ,in this connection it ought to be noted that an ordinary #d-;inch soil-pipe cannot be carried in a stud partition made with #b by #d studs1 since the outer edges of the joints of the pipe will project beyond the face of the plaster1 and for this reason some convenient place should be planned for them in closets1 or #b by #f studs should be used in the partition through which they are run4 ,the ,more ,complicated ,back-,vent ,system ,the essential parts of the plumbing system remain the same as described above1 but each trap is considered to be siphonable1 and must be prevented from losing its water-seal by the use of back-venting pipes4 ,whenever1 then1 there is an unusual amount of semi-vacuum created in the pipes by the discharge of some fixture above1 the outside air-pressure can relieve it by passing through the back vents rather than by forcing out the water-seal in the traps4 ,the usual type of trap employed is the modified ,s trap with the small ,,ty connection to give what is known as continuous venting4 ,formerly the vent was taken off from the crown of the three-quarter-,s trap1 which was too near the surface of the water-seal1 causing excessive evaporation and danger of clogging1 but with the continuous system of venting1 the waste-pipe is a continuation of the vent-line1 and the trap enters into its side through a ,,ty fitting1 overcoming the disadvantage of the older system4 ,the size of traps should conform to the size of waste-pipes1 and usually the size of the branch vents is about the same size as the waste-lines4 ,however1 there are special conditions where this varies4 ,for venting the water-closet trap1 it should be noted that the vent is not taken from the trap which is contained within the fixture itself1 but is taken from the upper side of the bend 7usually of lead7 where the fixture is joined with the piping system1 and is #b inches in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,plumbing ,,system ,,using ,,back-,,venting ,where there are two fixtures1 such as the lavatory and the bathtub1 with #a-;inch branch vents coming from the traps1 these may be joined into one main branch vent1 which need not be more than #a inches in diameter4 ,the pitch of the branch vents entering into the main vent should be at an angle of about #de degrees1 so that all rust scale will drop down into the fixture outlet and be washed away4 ,the main vent1 which runs parallel with the main soil-line1 needs to be only #b inches in diameter1 and should be branched in at the bottom and the top to the main soil-line1 as shown in the drawings4 ,the material of which both main vent and branch vent is made should be galvanized-iron piping4 ,the fresh-air inlet1 the house-trap1 the clean-outs1 and all other parts of the system are the same as was shown for the simpler method of plumbing4 ,rain-,water ,drainage ,the small house need not drain off its roof-water into the plumbing system1 if the plumbing code does not require it4 ,the simplest and easiest method to dispose of it is to collect the water in gutters1 lead it down the waterspouts into pipes which terminate in a dry well in the ground4 ,small roofs over porches and back doors need not even have the leaders1 but spill the roof-water out onto the ground1 where a stone has been placed to prevent the undermining of the surface of the lawn by the wearing action of the water stream4 ,in outlying city districts where the sewers have not yet been installed it is customary to carry the roof-water in pipes below the level of the sidewalk to the gutters of the street or to a leaching cesspool which is independent of the cesspool used for sewage disposal1 and which is practically the same thing as a dry well1 for the bottom is made with gravel through which the rain-water seeps off into the surrounding soil4 ,wherever the rain-leaders must be connected to the drainage system of the house1 the sheet-metal leaders are inserted into cast-iron pipes called shoes at the base1 which in turn are trapped on the inside of the cellar wall and connected with the house-drain4 ,it is always best to try to trap a group of leaders to one trap rather than use a separate trap for each leader4 ,tests and ,precautions ,there is nothing very complicated in the plumbing system of the small house4 ,certain sanitary precautions should be observed in arranging lines1 however4 ,for example1 the termination of the main soil-line should not occur near a dormer or other window1 nor should the termination of the fresh-air inlet be located in the cellar wall under a door or window4 ,the system when completed in the roughed-in form should be tested for leakage by filling it with water1 and when all the fixtures are connected and every part of the system is supposed to be in working order1 either the peppermint or the smoke test should be used to detect any further possible leakage4 ,the peppermint test consists in pouring hot water and #b ounces of oil of peppermint into the top of the system from the roof1 after all the fixture traps have been filled with water1 and then detecting with the nose where the leaks are4 ,if the smoke test is employed1 a smoke machine is best4 ,old oily rags and tar paper are burned in the machine1 which has its flue connected with the fresh-air inlet1 and the smoke is pumped through the system until it appears escaping from the soil-line extension on the roof4 ,if there are any leaks1 the odor and the smoke stain will attract attention to them1 and if the water-closet traps in the bowls are defective1 the yellow stain of the smoke will make it very evident4 ,refrigerator ,connections ,the drainage from the refrigerator should never be directly connected with the drainage system of the house4 ,if the plumbing code requires any connection at all1 the usual arrangement is to drip the ice-box water into a lead-lined tray which has a pipe at least #a inches in diameter that carries the water down to the laundry-tubs in the cellar and spills it into them4 ,on the other hand1 if there are no plumbing regulations1 it is best to drain this water off into a small hole in the ground into which has been thrown gravel1 and this will permit the water to soak into the surrounding soil4 ,water-,supply ,pipes ,if there is a city supply of water1 the small house should have a main supply-line from the water-main in the street of at least -inch diameter1 but this does not give the service that a larger pipe1 say a #a-;inch pipe1 does1 for often with the smaller pipe1 if the water is being drawn in the kitchen1 none will be secured from the faucets in the second-floor bathroom4 ,the kitchen-sink should have a service pipe of at least inch1 the tubs the same1 and the lavatory inch4 ,all service-lines should be compact and as direct as possible1 and long horizontal runs under floors should be avoided4 ,hot-water supply-lines should be kept at least #f inches from cold-water lines4 ,there should be a shut-off at the entrance of the supply-line to the house1 at the base of all vertical risers1 and under each fixture4 ,to avoid water hammer1 it is best to take all faucets off the sides of the termination of pipes1 rather than from the ends1 for in this way an air-cushion can form1 relieving the pounding action of the water in the pipes4 ,supply-lines should never be run in the corners of buildings where they are in danger of freezing1 and they should be kept out of the exterior walls of houses as much as possible for the same reasons4 ,the packing of pipes where they pass through the floors will often prevent freezing caused by cold drafts around them4 ,hot-,water ,supply ,illustration ,it is generally accepted to-day that the most convenient method of securing hot water in the small house is with the instantaneous type of gas-heater1 connected with a boiler for storage purposes1 but capable of delivering water directly into the pipes without passage through the boiler1 when a sudden demand is made upon it4 ,these gas-heaters have a system of ,bunsen-burners which heat the water as it passes through a series of copper coils1 and generally the water is warmed to a temperature of #ajj degrees in one passage4 ,they are automatically controlled1 so that when the temperature of the water goes below a certain fixed standard the gas-burner is lighted by a small pilot-light until the proper temperature is reached1 when it is shut off again4 ,although these heaters are arranged to deliver hot water directly from the coils1 yet if they had no boiler to store up the water1 much larger heaters would be required than necessary4 ,for storage purposes1 then1 a #dj-;gallon boiler is satisfactory for a residence with one bath and one kitchen1 and if there are two baths a #ej-;gallon boiler is needed4 ,the usual location of the boiler and heater is in the cellar4 ,however1 where there is no gas to be used1 the coal-heater must be employed--either the tank-heater or the water-back in the kitchen-range4 ,the latter was the usual old-fashioned method of heating the water1 and the boiler was located alongside of the kitchen-range4 ,the size of the water-back was proportioned on the basis of #b square inches of heating surface to each gallon storage capacity in the boiler4 ,the tank-heater is a special coal-burning stove1 designed to serve as an iron-warmer and a water-heater1 being usually placed in the laundry in the cellar4 ,another method of securing hot water1 which is not recommended1 is to place heating coils in the furnace2 it obstructs the fire-pot1 chills the fire1 overheats the water in cold weather and underheats it in warm weather1 and does not operate at all during the summer4 ,fixtures ,the modern bathroom fixture may be made of one of three materials3 true porcelain1 earthenware1 or enamelled-iron4 ,the true porcelain fixtures are the heaviest1 the most durable1 and the most expensive4 ,the material is non-absorbent and white in color1 and the surface presents a gloss which is in reality a form of glass4 ,when it is chipped the fracture shows the material below as white1 and a drop of ink will not be absorbed by it4 ,in imitation of the porcelain fixtures are made earthenware ones1 but which are in no way to be compared to the true porcelain1 although a casual glance at them would lead one to think that they were porcelain fixtures4 ,however1 a chip from the surface will reveal the yellow and porous texture of the earthenware below the glazed surface4 ,the glossy white surface in time stains and becomes covered with small hair-cracks1 unlike the porcelain fixtures1 and for this reason they are not as sanitary nor as durable4 ,they are cheaper than the true porcelain fixtures1 but this material should be avoided in water-closet bowls1 but is admissible for use in tubs and lavatories4 ,the enamelled-iron fixtures are considered by most to be superior to the earthenware fixtures1 since they do not craze1 are lighter1 and generally more durable4 ,the quality of this ware can be judged by the absence of roughness1 blisters1 bubbles1 and spots1 and freedom from hair-cracks and peeling4 ,bathtubs of the modern type made of enamelled iron have the rich appearance of porcelain fixtures1 since the sides are rolled over and covered with enamel1 unlike the old-fashioned types1 which had the interiors lined with the enamel and the exteriors painted with white paint4 ,the mechanical operation of the various fixtures is so well standardized that not much choice is given between the catalogue of one firm and another4 ,the best type of water-closets are the siphon1 the siphon-jet1 and the converging jets1 the latter being a more modern development1 which has eliminated the noise of the siphon action and yet which accomplishes a quick and rapid flushing action4 ,the lavatories which are most commonly specified are of the pedestal type1 although the modern tendency in sanitary bathroom design is to eliminate as far as possible all junction of fixtures with the floor1 for it is here that dirt and stains develop4 ,such arrangements carried to the extreme would require a sunk bathtub1 a lavatory without legs1 and special compartment for the water-closet1 but this would be absurd for the small house4 ,however1 the built-in bathtub is far superior to the old-fashioned tub which stood upon legs1 and under which all manner of dirt could collect4 ,we often hear the remark that no wonder the cost of living to-day is so much higher than it was with our ancestors1 who knew nothing about the clean1 tile-lined bathrooms with porcelain tubs1 white and glistening lavatories with all the cold and hot water needed1 while in the old days the wooden tub1 set up in the kitchen near the range1 was good enough for the ,saturday-night bath1 and the tin pan1 filled under the hand-pump outside on the back porch1 was good enough to wash the hands in each morning4 ,but although the modern bathroom and the modern plumbing system is an economic burden to the small house1 it is doubtful if we shall ever see the day when it is abolished in order to cut down on the cost4 ,,ix ,,methods ,,of ,,heating ,system ,adapted to the ,small ,house ,the heating problem for the small house was for our ancestors a very simple mechanical device1 consisting1 as we all know1 of either the fireplace or the stove4 ,the former method still has a charm which we are not willing to dispense with1 although we do not depend upon its efficiency to do the actual work of warming1 but install some more complicated system1 such as a steam heating-plant1 to perform the practical work4 ,a fireplace has a sentimental and intellectual warmth that no radiator can supply4 ,even the stove has a certain fascination for many1 recalling cold wintry nights when the family sat about the red-hot casting1 the women knitting and the men burning their shoe-leather and smoking4 ,some advocates of the stove are so energetic in their arguments concerning the efficiency of this method of heating that one almost doubts the defects which lead inventors to manufacture other devices4 ,but the housewife knows the labor of shovelling coal into three or four stoves1 knows the great clouds of hot1 fine ashes which rise into the atmosphere and settle upon the shelves1 the tops of picture-frames1 and the polished surface of the piano4 ,illustration3 ,warm-,air ,furnace with ,pipes ,steam ,heat--,one-pipe ,illustration3 ,steam ,heat--,two-pipes ,hot ,water ,heating ,and the inventor saw the tired1 worn look of the housewife1 removed the stove to the cellar and installed tin pipes from this central heater to the various rooms1 and then waited for applause and purchasers4 ,it seemed so simple1 but it did not solve the problem entirely1 for when the wind blew from the north into the windows1 it pressed out the warm air from the exposed rooms1 forced it down the pipes up through which it was supposed to come1 and then rushed it up the flues on the south or warm side of the house1 overheating this part and leaving the cold rooms of the house unheated4 ,the drum of the furnace over which the air passed to receive its warmth from the burning coal would leak every time fresh fuel was added1 for the odor of coal-gas became very evident throughout the house4 ,moreover1 the heat was very dry and unpleasant1 so that water-jars had to be set about to moisten the air4 ,then came the inventor again with a new device1 a steam-boiler1 pipes to distribute the steam1 and radiators to give off the heat in the steam to the room4 ,here at last was a method of heating which would supply warmth in the cold parts of the house1 even under the windows1 through which the chilliest air penetrated4 ,but the sizes of the radiators were calculated to heat the house to #gj degrees when it was zero outside1 although the average winter day was much warmer than this4 ,in this way the occupants of the house were cooked with an excess of heat during moderate weather1 for there was no way to regulate the amount of heat given off from the radiator2 it either was filled with steam1 giving off its maximum quantity of heat1 or else it was empty and cold4 ,to meet this difficulty presented by the steam-heated radiator1 the hot-water system was developed4 ,instead of distributing heat with the medium of steam which under low pressure was fixed at one temperature1 heat was circulated by hot water from the central boiler4 ,the temperature of this water could be regulated for mild weather by lowering the fire4 ,however1 since the hottest water was cooler than steam1 it required larger radiators and more piping1 so that the initial cost of a hot-water plant was more than that of a steam system4 ,illustration3 ,simplified diagram of ,vapor-vacuum system ,in order to overcome the disadvantages of the inflexible steam-radiator1 inventors finally developed the so-called 8vapor-vacuum0 system of steam-heating4 ,in this equipment the air was driven from the entire length of pipes and from the radiators by the pressure of the rising steam from the boiler1 and forced through a special ejector which closed when the steam came in contact with it1 preventing the return of air into the interior4 ,thus when the pipes and radiators were filled with steam 7there being no air left71 no pressure was set up to resist the circulation of the water vapor1 and when the hot steam condensed in a radiator to a thimbleful of water1 more steam was drawn in to take its place1 for no air could enter the pipes4 ,in this way the quantity of steam delivered to the radiators could be regulated by a special valve with a varying number of ports1 and by turning the valve to a certain position enough steam would be permitted to enter the radiator to keep it half full1 or by shifting the valve to another point enough steam would enter to fill the radiator to three-quarters of its capacity4 ,in fact1 the requisite amount of steam could be admitted to the radiator to balance the speed of condensation and retain whatever level of steam in it was desirable4 ,thus the steam system became at once a flexible system of heating1 and could meet the changing requirements of the weather4 ,illustration3 ,hot water radiator heated by steam ,a further development of the hot-water system then came about4 ,in this device the radiators were made to contain water1 but the heat was circulated through the pipes by means of steam4 ,this steam was poured over the surface of the water in the radiator and transferred its heat to it4 ,according to the quantity of steam poured over the water1 the latter could be heated to various temperatures4 ,of course the water in the radiator was the medium for distributing the heat outward from the radiator itself4 ,still another improvement was made upon the hot-water system by introducing the principle of the closed expansion tank4 ,in the ordinary system the water is allowed to expand at the top through an expansion tank1 so that the actual pressure on the water of the system is atmospheric4 ,under this pressure the temperature of the water cannot be raised to more than #bab degrees ,fahrenheit1 for beyond this it boils and changes to steam4 ,however1 in the closed-tank system a so-called heat-generator is added on the line leading to the expansion tank1 which1 by means of a column of mercury1 is capable of adding #aj pounds more pressure than the atmosphere to the water in the system1 and thus raising the boiling-point to about #bdj degrees4 ,this generator is so designed1 however1 that1 although it adds this greater pressure to the water1 yet the natural expansion of the water in the system is permitted through it in case of emergency4 ,by permitting the raising of the temperature of the water1 the size of radiators can be cut down #ej per cent1 which1 of course1 reduces the quantity of water needed and permits a quicker heating of the system when the fire is started4 ,thus a saving of fuel is accomplished and the disadvantage of the ordinary hot-water system is eliminated2 namely1 the long time required to get hot water in the radiators after the fire is started in the morning from its banked condition of the previous night4 ,illustration3 ,pipeless ,furnace ,however1 the genius of the inventor was not at rest on the problem of warm-air heating1 for he discovered that he could abolish the flues1 which he once thought were essential1 and use but one register and one flue4 ,this is called the pipeless furnace4 ,a register is employed which has an outer and inner section4 ,the outer section permits the cold air from the house to pass down through it and over the drum of the furnace4 ,the inner section of the register permits this hot air to escape upward and through the house by natural distribution4 ,thus the hot air rises from1 and the cool air settles back into1 the furnace without utilizing flues4 ,the circulation of this system was found to be superior to the older method as ordinarily installed1 and very much cheaper to install4 ,in fact1 it is the cheapest of all systems of heating4 ,it is especially adapted to the small1 low-cost house4 ,illustration3 ,hot ,water ,heating--,boiler in ,dining-,room ,to reduce the cost of hot-water heating and make it also available for this class of small house1 the manufacturers produced another type of water heating-plant4 ,in this device the water-heater was installed in one of the rooms of the house1 like a stove1 but the exterior was designed to serve as a hot-water radiator for the room in which it was placed4 ,from this heater pipes were taken off to distribute heat to other radiators1 located in adjoining rooms4 ,the principle remains the same as the former system2 the only difference lies in the reduction of cost by eliminating the boiler from the cellar and utilizing it to heat the room in which it was placed4 ,other attempts to improve the mechanics of heating have been more along the line of perfecting the operation of valves or the utilization of other fuels than coal4 ,gas-radiators have been tried1 but they are so expensive to operate in most parts of the country that they are not always suited to the needs of the small house4 ,electric heaters1 too1 are not within the pocketbook of the average person owning the small house4 ,fuel oil-burners also have been devised to take the place of the coal-grate4 ,wherever oil is cheap enough to permit their use they are great labor-savers1 since they eliminate all the shovelling of coal and handling of ashes4 ,these will be discussed later4 ,briefly1 then1 the available systems for the heating of the small house are3 ,hot-air4--a4 ,furnace with flues4 b4 ,furnace without flues4 ,steam4--a4 ,ordinary gravity system4 ,one-pipe4 ,two-pipe4 b4 ,vapor-vacuum system4 ,hot-water4--a4 ,ordinary open-tank system4 ,one-pipe4 ,two-pipe4 b4 ,closed-tank system4 c4 ,special open-tank system with boiler used as radiator4 d4 ,patent system using water in radiators but steam for circulation4 ,methods ,employed in ,calculating the ,required ,size of ,heater ,the basis of calculating the required size of any one of the systems previously mentioned is to assume that a certain temperature of heat is to be maintained when the weather is zero1 and then by means of the laws of heat transmission estimate the quantity of heat lost per hour from the house4 ,the amount of heat lost per hour is1 of course1 the quantity which the heating system must supply4 ,knowing this1 a system is installed which is capable of supplying this heat loss4 ,in such devices as the warm-air furnace the required size can be computed directly to meet the heat loss1 but where radiators are used the required sizes of these must first be determined to offset the losses from the rooms in which they are installed1 and then the size of the heater must be estimated to supply sufficient heat to the radiators and to make up for the losses of heat through the distributing-pipes4 ,the usual temperature to which the small house is heated when it is zero outside is #gj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,it is then assumed that a certain quantity of heat is lost through the walls of the house by radiation and convection and conduction1 and another quantity lost by the leakage of warm air out through the window-cracks4 7,the quantity of heat is measured in ,british thermal units1 called ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's47 ,to understand the manner by which heat is lost through the exterior walls1 it is necessary to know the meaning of radiation1 convection1 and conduction4 ,by standing before an open fire the heat given off by radiation can be observed by shutting it off with a piece of paper held between the face and the fire4 ,this is the transmission of the heat through the ether1 and is similar to the transmission of light1 since this heat will pass through glass1 like light4 ,convection of heat is illustrated by heating air in one place and transferring that air to another place1 where it will give up its heat to surrounding bodies4 ,conduction of heat is illustrated by heating the end of an iron rod and noticing that the heat will eventually be transmitted along the length of it to the other end4 ,the heat within a house escapes from the interior to the colder atmosphere of the exterior through the walls1 by radiation through the glass windows and the substance of the walls1 by the convection action of the warm air of the interior giving up its heat to the interior face of the wall and the cold air of the exterior extracting this heat from the exterior face and carrying it off1 and also by the action of conduction of the materials of which the wall is composed4 ,the quantity of heat lost is measured by the number of ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's lost through one square foot of the wall each hour4 ,as the window-glass loses heat through it more quickly than the wall1 it is necessary to calculate this separately4 ,the process1 then1 for estimating the heat loss from a room is as follows3 #a4 ,estimate the number of square feet of exposed wall surface in the room1 including windows4 #b4 ,subtract from the above the area of the windows to find the net wall area4 #c4 ,multiply this net wall area by the number of ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's which the wall loses per square foot of surface for each hour4 ,these factors are given in the following table3 ,zero outside and #gj degrees inside--,number of ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's ,,type ,,of ,,wall lost for each square foot of wall surface each hour ,brick wall1 furred and plastered3 #h thick #ba4j #ab thick #ag4e ,frame wall1 sheathed1 clapboarded1 and plastered #ba4g 7with building-paper use #bj4c7 ,hollow-tile wall and concrete and stone have factors about the same as for the furred brick wall4 ,illustration3 ,,side ,,elevation #d4 ,add to this the number of ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's lost per hour through the windows4 ,this is determined by multiplying the area of the windows by the heat loss in ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's per hour for each square foot of window1 which is #gh4h for single windows1 and where storm-windows are added it is #ca4e ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's4 #e4 ,this total sum is the number of ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's lost through walls and windows for each hour4 #f4 ,to this must be added the heat lost by leakage through the window-cracks4 ,this is secured by measuring the length of window-cracks on the side which has the greatest length of crack and multiplying this by #afh1 or the number of ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's lost each hour for each linear foot of window-crack4 ,for very tight windows reduce above to #hd4 #g4 ,the total of all the above gives the number of ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's lost each hour from the room when the outside temperature is zero and the inside is #gj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,knowing the quantity of heat lost per hour1 a radiator must be installed which will supply this amount per hour4 ,as the average steam-radiator supplies about #bej ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's per hour from each square foot of its surface1 the number of square feet required for a radiator to be installed in the room can be found by dividing #bej into the number of ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's which were found to be lost from the room each hour4 ,a hot-water radiator gives off about #aej ,b4 ,t4 ,u4's per hour for each square foot of surface1 so that the radiator is generally about one-third larger than the steam-radiator4 ,knowing the required number of feet of radiation for the radiator1 the proper size can be selected from the manufacturer's catalogue4 ,by lumping the total number of square feet of radiation for all the radiators throughout the house together and adding #ce per cent to this to make up for loss through pipes and under-rating of boilers1 the size of the boiler can be selected from the catalogue to fit this need4 ,to estimate the size of a warm-air furnace1 the total quantity of heat lost from all the rooms of the house should be calculated in the same way1 and then #be per cent added to allow for cold attics and exposure4 ,this quantity should then be multiplied by #b4d and divided by #h1jjj to find the number of pounds of coal which will be required to be burned per hour4 ,by dividing this amount by #e1 the grate area of the required furnace can be found1 and the correct size selected from the manufacturer's catalogue4 ,x ,,lighting ,,and ,,electric ,,work ,modern ,developments ,when we talk of lighting the modern home1 there is generally but one idea that enters our minds--electric lighting4 ,even those dwellings remote from any power-house are installing small generators in preference to the oil or gas lighting systems4 ,illustration3 ,the modern #ej-watt bulb ,then1 too1 when we refer to good lighting we no longer think of glaring bulbs of light1 exposing all the harsh glow of the white1 hot filaments1 causing one's eyes to squint and strain to find things in the corners of the room2 but we picture a room flooded with mellow illumination emitted from fixtures which shield the direct rays of light from our vision4 ,another change that has come about in our conception of good illumination is the quantity and intensity of the light we expect from the incandescent bulb4 ,it was only a few years ago that we marvelled at the yellow light given off by the #af-;candle-power carbon-filament bulb4 ,but to-day if a bulb gave off as feeble an attempt at lighting as did these old ones we would think it on its way to the graveyard of lightning-bugs4 ,we cannot talk of #af-;candle-power lamps when the glow of a modern ,mazda light is around4 ,we used to specify on the plans so many #af-;candle-power lights for the dining-room or living-room fixtures1 and it is hard to change our habits to refer to the modern #dj or #ej watt lamps which have taken their place in the home4 ,thus within a period of not more than ten years our whole conception of illumination has been jolted out of a rut4 ,indirect ,lighting ,now we have reacted so far in the matter of protecting our eyes from a direct view of the source of light that some enthusiasts advocate a system of indirect illumination1 concealing the lights so completely from the eyes that their location is difficult to know4 ,this is carrying the problem too far beyond its rational limits4 ,such a system of indirect illumination reduces shadow to a minimum2 consequently the forms and the beauty of objects in the room are flattened4 ,moreover1 the eye unconsciously is confused at not being able to locate the source from which the illumination comes1 and1 being puzzled1 the mind naturally resents it4 ,for the small house1 at least1 the system of indirect illumination carried to this extreme is not at all suitable4 ,illustration3 ,fig #a ,a type of fixture which develops a partial indirect illumination1 and yet which allows a certain quantity of light to come through direct to the eyes1 so that the source of light is easily discernible is the most satisfying and most suggestive of home comfort4 ,such a fixture is shown on page #abb4 ,common-,sense ,solution ,needed ,moreover1 the lighting of a small house must be studied with common sense1 and no rule of the thumb can be laid down4 ,certain enthusiastic illuminating engineers offer typical plans and suggestions for the wiring of houses1 which plans are crowded so full of outlets that they look like a map of the starry heavens4 ,we have in front of us now such a plan in which a small living-room is marked to contain four wall outlets containing two lights each1 two more outlets on each side of the fireplace1 a wall plug for attaching a portable lamp or two lights1 and a central ceiling outlet for four lights4 ,in addition to these is another base plug and floor plug4 ,the room is about #ad by #ag feet1 and if all lights were turned on at once and all base plugs attached to lamps there would be a possible grand total of twenty #ej-watt lamps in this medium-sized room4 ,such brilliant illumination might please the jaded nerves of the tired business man1 but his wife would never consent to such a garish display of wealth-eating current4 ,the problem of illumination for the small house can be sanely considered from five different angles3 7#a7 ,general illumination2 7#b7 local illumination2 7#c7 ornamental illumination2 7#d7 movable lamps2 and 7#e7 light control4 ,by general illumination is meant the lighting required to flood the room as a whole1 and not locally in any one corner4 ,the easiest and commonest method of doing this is to provide a central fixture1 containing from two to four #ej-watt lamps1 or their equivalent1 which are hidden in some commercial type of semi-indirect lighting fixture4 ,the type of fixture shown on page #abb is one of the finest1 and with a silk shade around it the warm1 cheerful effect of a home is greatly enhanced by this method of lighting4 ,when this fixture is hung in the dining-room or living-room a single #bjj-watt ,mazda lamp is employed1 while in the other rooms a single #ajj-watt lamp is used4 ,in the kitchen no shade is necessary4 ,usually in laying out the electric outlets upon a plan the central dining-room and living-room lights are shown to carry four #ej-watt lamps1 and those in the other rooms1 in the hall1 and on the porch are marked to have two #ej-watt lamps or their equivalent4 ,but it is not absolutely essential to have a central light for general illumination4 ,some architects prefer to have a certain number of wall lights controlled by one switch1 and obtain a general glow with these lamps4 ,by securing the right type of fixture which shields the raw filament of light from the eyes1 this method of general illumination often produces a feeling of comfort and homelikeness unsurpassed by the other system4 ,in those rooms where work is done under the central light1 such as the kitchen and pantry1 and where opaque1 indirect reflectors have been used throughout the rest of the house1 it is essential to provide direct lighting-fixtures1 so that the light can be thrown down upon the working plane4 ,translucent reflectors or prismatic reflectors are used1 and a frosted bulb or a porcelain-tipped bulb is most suitable with this reflector4 ,local illumination is intended to give greater intensity of light over certain portions of the room where work is carried on4 ,either a wall light or a special drop light1 protected by a reflector1 is used4 ,such lights are placed conveniently over the kitchen-sink and side table1 over the laundry-tubs and ironing-board1 over the coal-bin1 near the boiler and over the work-bench in the cellar1 by the side of the lavatory in the bathroom1 over at the side of the dresser in the bedrooms1 inside of closets and alongside of the serving-table in the dining-room4 ,these local outlets are generally planned to carry two #ej-watt lamps or their equivalent4 ,illustration3 ,types of ,direct ,lighting ,reflectors ,other wall lights than these are usually introduced for ornamental purposes4 ,the side lights for the fireplace in the living-room1 or the panel lights on the wall1 or the bracket lights for the bookcase cannot be considered more than ornamental features4 ,not more than one #ej-watt lamp is planned for these outlets4 ,in addition to the general1 local1 and ornamental illumination are those portable lamps which have become more and more a serviceable and decorative feature of the home4 ,the reading-lamp in the living-room1 the light for the music on the piano1 the table-lamp in the bedroom1 and the candle-lamps on the dining-room table are the most used of this portable type4 ,to properly attach these bulbs1 a base-board outlet must be installed at a convenient place in the room1 so that the electric cord to the light will not have to be too long nor pass across any part of the floor where it may trip up the feet of some absent-minded member of the family4 ,when the lighting of the small house has been considered from these angles1 the control is then the essential problem4 ,the incoming feeder1 the meter1 the house switch and service switch1 and the distributing panel must be located conveniently in the cellar4 ,often the distributing panel with its fuses is placed on the first floor for convenience of replacing a burned out fuse when some line has been overcharged4 ,the next matter of control is the location of switches4 ,all central outlets and general illumination should be controlled by a switch at the entrance-door to the room4 ,the usual type of switch used is the so-called three-way switch4 ,illustration3 ,the #c-way ,switch to control light at two places ,the hall light should be controlled from up-stairs and from down-stairs4 ,the porch lights and the front and rear door lights should be switched on and off either from the inside or outside of the house4 ,one light in the cellar should be governed by a switch at the top of the cellar stairs4 ,and this is about all the complication of control necessary4 ,now1 in addition to the lighting of a house1 certain floor and base-board outlets must be provided for attaching various electrical devices that have become rather common4 ,in every cellar there should be at least one special power-current outlet for any household machinery that might be installed4 ,in the laundry there should be at least two special outlets to which a washing-machine1 a mangle1 electric drier1 or an electric iron can be connected4 ,there should be at least one special outlet in the kitchen to which may be attached a motor for operating the coffee-grinder1 egg-beater1 ice-cream freezer1 dish-washer1 etc4 ,sometimes an electric refrigerator may be installed1 in which case an outlet must be provided for this motor4 ,sometimes a special outlet is installed in pantry for a dish-warmer or water-heater4 ,in the dining-room a floor outlet should be provided for operating on the table such things as a toaster1 chafing-dish1 coffee-percolator1 egg-boiler1 etc4 ,in the living-room a floor outlet will be found useful for such electric apparatus as would be carried on a tea-table or for running a home stereopticon4 ,in the bathroom and in the master's bedroom a special outlet is useful to connect up such devices as vibrators1 hair-driers1 curling-irons1 shaving-mugs1 electric heaters1 etc4 ,base-board outlets of the ordinary type should be distributed throughout the house to provide convenient connections for vacuum cleaners and fans4 ,most of these electric devices require not more than #fjj watts4 ,electric irons1 toasters1 chafing-dishes1 coffee-percolators1 and other heating mechanisms use up to this maximum of watts1 but motor-operated machines1 like fans and ice-cream freezers1 require about #ajj watts4 ,as to the kind of wiring which the architect should specify1 he has a limited choice4 ,the knob-and-tube system is the cheapest1 but not the safest4 ,the flexible cable 7,,bx7 is better1 although slightly more expensive4 ,rigid conduits or flexible steel conduits are not suited to the economic needs of the small house and are not used1 except in special places4 ,for example1 an overhead feed wire may be brought in from the street at the level of the cornice1 and then carried down to the cellar in a rigid conduit on the outside of the house4 ,illustration3 ,cleat ,illustration3 ,knob ,tube ,illustration3 ,flexible ,conduit 7,,bx7 ,rigid ,conduit ,in addition to the wiring for lighting there must be an independent system for bell service4 ,the current for such a system must be supplied by dry batteries when the local power company gives a service of direct current1 but when it supplies an alternating current a transformer can be used and the bells operated upon this energy4 ,in the kitchen there should be a magnet-operated annunciator1 connected with the front and rear doors and the dining-room push-button4 ,in laying out the lighting plans for a small house the standard symbols shown here are used1 but a key should always be given to their meaning upon some part of the sheet1 for it must be appreciated that the contractor can easily forget4 ,as an aid to laying out the lighting system on the plans1 the following checking list is suggested1 since it is simple4 ,illustration3 ,,small ,,house ,,electrical ,,equipment ,,list ,unless specified to the contrary1 it is usual to assume that wall outlets in the living-room are to be placed #e feet #f inches above the floor1 in bedrooms #e feet #d inches1 and in halls #f feet #c inches4 ,the usual height at which switches are placed is #d feet4 ,thus1 by using common sense and the phrase in the specifications1 8,all work shall meet the requirements of the ,national ,electric ,code10 and requiring the contractor to furnish a certificate of approval for the entire installation as issued by the ,board of ,fire ,underwriters having jurisdiction in the community1 the architect has a reasonable surety of securing a good and safe system of wiring and lighting4 ,,xi ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,trim ,the wood trim1 the doors and windows1 and the built-in furniture of the small house can make or mar its appearance more than any other one factor4 ,indeed1 in no other form of architecture is the study of these details more important1 and yet in no other type of building is the limitation of cost more exactingly imposed upon the architectural treatment of the trim4 ,illustration3 ,the kind of stock trim which some mills continue to keep on hand ,illustration3 ,a good ,stock ,trim ,from 8,curtis ,co40 ,by the very economy demanded in the small house1 the architect must make the mouldings of his casing in the simplest possible forms4 ,the trim around doors and windows on the exterior and interior can boast of no special mouldings4 ,in fact the selection must be made from stock material or else the cost will be too great4 ,most planing mills have standard types of trim1 but generally they are very badly designed4 ,however1 one cannot go wrong in using a plain board casing inch by #c inches1 which has slightly rounded corners4 ,the tops of doors and windows which have this simple casing should be capped with a fillet _/ inch1 a head casing inch by #e inches1 and a cap mould #a inches by #b inches4 ,this eliminates the mitred corner1 which is of such doubtful value in cheap work1 since most wood trim is not properly seasoned and will quickly open all mitred joints4 ,to match this simple trim the window apron should be a plain board inch by #c inches1 and the stool #a inches by #c inches4 ,a plinth block at the base of the door trim in size #a inches by #c inches by #g inches will match up with a plain base-board1 inch by #g inches1 or one of similar size1 with a cyma recta moulding on top4 ,if the local mill from which the trim is purchased has stock mouldings of pleasing design1 the architect may safely specify them1 but he should not make the economic mistake of demanding specially designed casing from full-size details of his own4 ,the small house cannot stand this additional cost4 ,illustration3 ,any ,mill will have the above in stock ,in selecting the trim1 it is always important to bear in mind that it must harmonize with the walls and have no obtrusive appearance1 since it acts with the walls as a background for the furniture4 ,in ,colonial work the painting of the trim white1 pearl-gray1 or cream is always the most pleasing1 and so the architect should select a wood which will best take the paint4 ,white wood and white pine are ideal for this purpose4 ,gum wood is good1 but there is always the chance that it will not hold its place and twist4 ,yellow pine is difficult to paint well1 since the hard summer wood has a tendency to stand out beyond the softer spring wood1 making the surface irregular2 but this difficulty can be overcome if a number of priming coats are used to fill in the grain before the enamel is applied4 ,it is a mistake to finish the painted trim with a glossy enamel1 for this will destroy its quietness and background effect4 ,a matte surface of paint or an egg-shell enamel finish is better4 ,this same principle should be followed in selecting and treating the hardwood casing which is not to be painted4 ,the trim should never be finished with a bright1 glossy varnish and stain1 for nothing is more ugly in its final effect4 ,treat the hardwood trim1 such as oak1 chestnut1 ash1 and the like1 with an oil stain2 rub in a filler1 stained slightly darker1 and then shellac4 ,over this apply a wax finish1 and rub this down with a shoe brush4 ,varnish manufacturers make grades of varnish which give the dull effect of wax1 and these can be used1 if desired2 but why8 ,many prefer to even omit the shellac and depend entirely upon the wax for the gloss4 ,when trim is delivered to the job1 it should not be stored in a damp place nor fitted in place before the plaster is entirely dry4 ,in fact1 in order to protect the trim from losing its shape1 as soon as it comes on the job a priming coat1 or filler1 should be applied to it1 and the ends and back painted with white-lead and oil4 ,it will be noticed that all well-designed trim has a gouged-out space at the back to permit circulation of air around it1 and also to make it easier to fit against a flat surface of plaster4 ,illustration3 ,stock ,bed ,mouldings ,stock ,crown ,mouldings ,mouldings for the trim of exterior cornices1 string-courses1 and the like are often specially designed by architects for the small house1 but it is a much better plan to use stock mouldings1 selecting them to approximate the design that is desired4 ,through the efforts of many concerns the market affords many well-designed stock patterns of mouldings for exterior purposes4 ,the idea is sound1 and makes possible a great variety of designs through the standardization of parts1 but at the same time cutting down the cost4 ,likewise the standardization of doors and windows is another economic aid for the small house4 ,as a rule1 all exterior doors should be at least #a inches thick1 and of white pine1 painted4 ,the veneered door is not a very satisfactory type for outside use1 unless1 perhaps1 it is protected by the porch1 for even with the best waterproof glue there is a considerable tendency on the part of the veneer to break away from the soft pine core4 ,some consider that the #a-;inch-thick door is satisfactory for exterior doors in the small house1 but1 generally speaking1 it is best to use this thickness only for interior doors4 ,softwood doors1 #a inches thick1 have panels1 if they are raised1 only #a inches thick2 while doors #a inches thick have raised panels only _/ inch thick1 and flat panels _/ inch thick4 ,the latter is quite evidently too thin for exterior doors4 ,interior doors of veneered woods usually have flat panels1 _/ inch thick1 except the one-panel door1 which is as thick as _/ inch4 ,such panels consist of three layers1 the two outside veneers and the interior softwood core with the grain running at right angles to the veneer4 ,the stiles and rails of well-built veneered doors are made of built-up pine blocks1 glued and locked together1 with a tongue-and-groove joint1 and fastened at the corners with hardwood dowels4 ,strips of hardwood to match the veneered face should be placed on each edge of the stiles and rails4 ,illustration3 ,stock ,exterior ,doors ,stock ,interior ,doors ,the common-stock sizes of doors are as follows3 #b feet by #f feet4 #b feet by #f feet #f inches4 #b feet by #f feet #h inches4 #b feet #d inches by #f feet #f inches4 #b feet #d inches by #f feet #h inches4 #b feet #f inches by #f feet #f inches4 #b feet #f inches by #f feet #h inches4 #b feet #f inches by #g feet4 #c feet by #f feet #h inches4 #b feet #h inches by #g feet4 #c feet by #f feet #h inches4 #c feet by #g feet4 ,the commonest type of window for the small house is equipped with the double-hung sash4 ,this sash should be made of #a-;inch white pine1 mortised and tenoned at the corners4 ,the meeting rail ought to be rabbeted so that water is prevented from seeping through1 and the bottom rail ought also to be rabbeted to fit over a similar rabbet in the sill4 ,the size of the lower rail is usually #c inches wide1 the sides and top rails #b inches wide1 and the meeting rail #a inches wide4 ,it is generally admitted that a window has little architectural charm without muntins1 and these are made inch wide1 as a rule4 ,the glass of the window is inserted into the sash frame at least inch1 and its plane is about one-third in from the outside face of the rails4 ,the over-all dimensions of a window sash are determined by the size glass used1 and as glass is cut in inches1 the over-all dimensions of a sash will be in fraction of inches4 ,for example1 a double-hung sash of twelve lights1 each #h inches by #aj inches1 will give a sash opening of #b feet #d inches by #c feet4 ,if the lights measure #i inches by #ab inches1 then the sash size will be #b feet #g inches by #d feet #f inches4 ,illustration ,the best type of double-hung window-frame is constructed so that the blind stop is rabbeted to receive the pulley stile1 preventing any wind from blowing through4 ,the pulley stiles are usually made of yellow pine1 but the outside casing and sills should be of white pine4 ,it is also a good precaution to have the sill rabbeted to receive the ground strip1 so that air cannot come underneath the sill4 ,the use of #a_/ inch-thick material is common for all parts of the frame except the sill1 which ought to be #a inches thick4 ,a #b-;inch depth should be allowed for the weights in the box1 and a space of inch left between the stud and the top of the frame4 ,parting strips are made inch wide4 ,where the frame is to be built into a masonry wall1 the back of the weight-box is closed in1 and a moulding1 called the brick mould1 should be provided for covering the outside joint between frame and masonry4 ,in order to make this joint tight in hollow-tile construction1 it is essential to stuff the back of the brick mould with elastic roofing cement4 ,illustration3 ,,casement ,,windows ,there is not much reason to rehearse here the pros and cons of the casement window4 ,when such windows open in1 the screens and blinds are easier to handle1 but the weather is apt to leak in more4 ,when the sash opens out1 screening is difficult1 unless some patent operating hardware is used1 but the window is more weatherproof4 ,in either case1 the difficulty of weathering can be overcome to a large extent by not attempting to keep out the rain1 but lead it down and around the sides1 draining it off at the sill4 ,this is accomplished by cutting a -inch half-round groove around the sides and in the sill to act as a canal for collecting the water which has seeped in4 ,a few -inch round weep-holes from the groove in this sill outward will drain this collection of water off4 ,casement frames are made of heavier material than those used for double-hung sash1 #a inches being common4 ,as the sash is hung from the sides like a door1 its weight must not be so great that it will cause it to sag1 and for this reason it is customary to limit the width of sash to #b feet maximum4 ,some designers believe that the sash should also be at least #a inches thick4 ,illustration ,although blinds add to the cost of the small house without apparently adding practical value1 yet they are one of the most useful mediums of securing variation of color on the elevations4 ,in ,colonial days shutters served to protect the house1 and were made solid with only a small hole in them1 generally of some ornate cut-out design1 like a half-moon1 flower-pot1 etc4 ,to-day we want slats for ventilation4 ,a good compromise1 then1 is to make the lower part of slats and the upper part solid1 with a cut-out design4 ,the stiles and rails of the shutter are made of #a-;inch material1 the bottom rail being #c inches wide1 the stiles and top rails #b inches wide4 ,intermediate rails are often made #b inches wide4 ,it is best to project the stile #a inch below the bottom of the lower rail1 so that water collecting on the sill can drain off underneath the blind4 ,in addition to the blinds1 the window should be equipped with screens4 ,these should be of copper1 for only this material is economical in the long run4 ,they are usually made of -inch material1 and the lower rail1 stiles1 and top rail made #a inches wide4 ,other mill work of the exterior1 such as porch columns1 rails1 etc41 ought to be built up from stock mouldings and patterns4 ,there are numerous concerns selling well-designed wooden columns4 ,the great danger of using stock columns1 however1 is in the fitting4 ,certain stock lengths are made with well-planned entasis1 but if the design calls for an intermediate length the column is cut short1 which destroys its proportions4 ,on this basis many select square columns1 or thin wooden columns without much entasis4 ,the illustrations show some common-stock sizes for other outside trim1 such as lattice1 top rails1 bottom rails1 balusters1 etc4 ,illustration ,of the interior mill work the stairs are the most important4 ,for the small house they should be very simple1 not only for economy but for appearance4 ,plain round and square balusters1 #a_/ inch1 and two to a tread1 simple hand-rail and simple newel post1 #c inches1 are more effective than elaborately turned members4 ,the height of the hand-rail from the top of the tread to the hand-rail on a line with the face of the riser should be #b feet #f inches4 ,the slope of the stairs should preferably be confined between #cj degrees and #ce degrees1 and the common proportion between tread and riser should be maintained 7tread and riser #ag inches74 ,illustration ,the treads should be of #a-;inch hardwood1 and the risers of #a_/-;inch softwood1 rabbeted into the riser4 ,outside strings ought to be inch thick where finishing on a -inch base4 ,inside strings should be #a_/ inches thick4 ,enclosed stairs between walls should have strings fitted down on treads and risers1 but elsewhere inside strings should be rabbeted for treads and risers4 ,newels should be housed out over supports4 ,illustration3 ,this is what the speculative builder spends money on ,a feature of the small house which is neglected too much is the installation of built-in furniture4 ,there is a substantial quality about such furniture which no mobile furniture can possess4 ,the bookcase built into the wall1 the window-seat permanently a part of the room1 a charming mantel-piece1 good panelling1 built-in china-closets1 tables1 and benches in the breakfast alcove1 a modern kitchen dresser with the equipment of a portable cabinet1 dressing-tables1 and closet shelves and drawers1 medicine-cases and radiator enclosures are features which add so much to the small house that it seems strange that they are so often omitted4 ,many a speculative builder has realized the value of such furniture and sold his house upon the attractiveness of it4 ,he knows that the young couple who purchases the small house usually comes from the small apartment1 and has little furniture to spare4 ,here then is a place to spend money and not to economize4 ,,xii ,,lessons ,,taught ,,by ,,depreciation ,what happens to the small house after it has been built8 ,this is a question which should interest both the architect and builder1 because from the answer can be had some very important lessons in construction4 ,to know where the weather1 mechanical wear and tear1 fire and water1 begin the decay of the house is to know where to specify materials which will give the greatest durability to the whole4 ,this decay is called the natural depreciation of the house1 but it is the architect's duty to make this as insignificant as possible4 ,it is essential to study the local conditions under which the house will have to stand4 ,at the edge of the seashore1 where the damp and salty winds are prevalent1 one would be foolish to specify metal for screens1 gutters1 valleys1 and leaders1 which tended to go to pieces by corrosion4 ,but in a dry locality the specifying of1 say1 galvanized iron for these parts would save money on the initial cost1 and might not cause too great depreciation4 ,likewise1 the choice of the general materials of which the house is built should be influenced by the experience of the neighborhood4 ,a wooden house in a seashore resort requires painting very often1 and perhaps a brick house would in the end be more economical4 ,a wood-shingle roof on a house1 tucked away under the dense trees of a lake shore1 would have a very short life1 and the use of some more permanent material would justify the additional expense4 ,indeed1 on all hands1 in every locality1 we have lessons to learn concerning what happens to a house after it has been built1 and how it might have been avoided4 ,to stimulate the reader to observe more in this direction we will call attention to some of the most obvious ways in which a house depreciates4 ,examine most houses which have stood for ten to twenty years1 and it will be found that the foundations in nearly every case have settled unevenly1 to a greater or less extent4 ,this may be due to unforeseen causes1 such as the action of underground water1 frost1 and disintegration of mortar1 but generally it is the result of foundations built by the rule of the thumb4 ,a wooden house seems so light that the average builder never bothers to consider the footings nor the loadings on them4 ,many walls are built without any footings at all1 even though part of them rest on stone and other parts on earth4 ,now1 of course1 nothing serious as a rule comes of this slightly uneven settlement1 but1 add it to other things1 and the depreciation of the property goes on rapidly4 ,illustration3 ,uneven ,settlement ,as an example of this1 one house might be mentioned which was greatly marred by the settling of the footings under the porch columns4 ,these columns supported the second floor1 which projected over the porch4 ,the amount of settlement was only about two inches1 but this caused the windows to lose their rectangular shape1 making the operation of the sash impossible1 destroyed the drainage direction of the gutters1 necessitating the relocation of the leaders and the repitching of the gutters1 opened up the crack between the floor and the base-board1 and made a large crack in the plaster wall and ceiling4 ,the cause of it all was the building of the porch column footings upon filled-in earth1 while the foundations of the rest of the house were upon rock4 ,uneven settlement was sure to take place under such conditions4 ,this same damaging effect of settlement is often noticeable in wooden frame houses1 which have not been properly constructed to avoid uneven distribution of cross-section wood in the walls and partitions4 ,wherever there is a difference of cross-section of wood in two walls which support the same beams1 there is sure to be uneven settling4 ,the wall which has the greatest number of linear inches vertically of horizontally laid timbers will settle the most4 ,this will cause sagging floors1 sprung door frames1 and open joints4 ,many cracked stucco walls on the exterior have been caused by too much cross-section wood in their framing4 ,a balloon-framed wall makes the best backing for an outside wall of stucco1 because the studs extend from sill to plate without any horizontal timbers intervening4 ,but it can always be predicted that the masonry walls and parts of the house will settle before the wooden walls and partitions4 ,the chimney will settle more rapidly than the surrounding partitions of wood1 and should1 for this reason alone1 be built entirely independent of any other part of the structure4 ,where the wooden framed wall butts into a chimney and the plaster is continuous over the brick of the chimney and the studs of the wall1 there is sure to develop a crack at the joint because of the unequal settlement1 unless the plaster is reinforced at this point with metal lath4 ,likewise1 it is bad to support any part of the wooden floor upon a girder which bears upon the chimney1 not only on account of the excessive sinking of the chimney1 but the subsequent danger of fire which it creates4 ,illustration ,illustration ,a very bad method of constructing a chimney was imported from ,europe1 years ago1 which develops serious fire dangers from its manner of settling4 ,instead of flashing and counter-flashing the joint of the chimney with the roof1 this method employed the use of a projecting course of brick begun at the level of the roof4 ,thus the part of the chimney above the shingle roof was made larger than that underneath1 and the outward step was used as a weather lap over the roofing material1 and no flashing was needed to make the joint tight4 ,now1 when the chimney settled faster than the roof1 as it would1 the upper part could not drop1 but was caught upon the roof1 and lifted from the lower part4 ,this made a crack through which the hot gases could escape to the attic timbers and start a fire4 ,on the other hand1 wooden framed walls will settle badly1 too1 when dry rot sets into the sills4 ,this is a very common defect in old houses1 and generally1 when any remodelling must be done1 the sills have to be cut out and new ones set into place4 ,dry rot in the sills is caused by excessive dampness with no circulation of air4 ,very often a builder may take great pains to fire-stop his walls around the sill1 but forget to leave ventilation space1 and the sill is soon attacked by the fungus of rot4 ,unless timbers which come in contact with masonry are treated with creosote1 or painted1 they will be subject to dry rot in the average damp1 warm climate4 ,illustration3 ,solid ,column ,many porch columns rot at their base and permit the settling of the roof4 ,solid columns are the least durable in this respect1 for in a short time their core will go bad and the lower part will crumble4 ,wood base blocks for columns should be perforated with holes to permit the seepage of water under them4 ,cast-iron bases are preferred to the wooden one1 when the column is to set upon a masonry porch floor4 ,settling causes many other defects besides those mentioned4 ,the house-drain may be broken and the cellar flooded with sewage1 if the wall around the pipe has been cemented up and it settles4 ,the pitch of drain-pipes may be altered so much that back-up action of waste water may occur2 steps may be caused to sag so that they become unsafe2 lintels may be broken4 ,the movement of the footings by frost is another evil that is noticeable in many old houses4 ,sidewalks are cracked1 porch stairs loosened1 drains in areas closed4 ,in most cases like this the footings are not extended far enough below the frost-line1 or insufficient cinder foundations are laid4 ,illustration3 ,weathered ,chimney ,but the action of freezing water leaves its marks on other parts of the house4 ,unless some corrugations in leaders are made1 the ice in the winter may burst them4 ,the mortar on copings is loosened by this action1 and on chimney tops1 where heat and gases also help1 the brickwork soon breaks down4 ,many failures of stucco work are directly caused by frost1 and sometimes water leaks into the cells of hollow terra-cotta blocks1 freezes1 and bursts out the shell-like sides4 ,the putty around the window is loosened by the drying action of the wind1 and the prying action of the frost4 ,water-supply pipes in wall near the outside are broken when the cold winds freeze them1 and the exposed gas-pipes in the chilly parts of the cellar are often entirely clogged in a severe winter4 ,leaks around windows in masonry walls are started by frost1 and it is common to see tile on the porch floor1 or brick borders and bases loosened by the same powerful agent that breaks boulders from the mountainsides4 ,the heat of the sun is another destroyer of the house4 ,it is death on paint1 for it is forever baking it in the steam of the dew of the previous night1 and when the body of linseed-oil is gone1 the paint is no good4 ,and it dries out the wood too much some days and spoils the jointing4 ,it warps boards up and opens the mitred joints4 ,it causes the wood shingles to crack and shrivel1 so that when the next heavy rain comes the ceilings are stained by leaks4 ,tar for the roof and soft cements are caused to run out of place4 ,then1 too1 there is the deteriorating influence of the artificial heat inside of the house4 ,the fireplace tiles are baked loose from their mortar beds1 cast-iron dampers are cracked1 chimneys are clogged with soot and catch fire1 and thimbles which receive the smoke-pipe of the furnace are broken4 ,but the heat from the radiator does much damage4 ,it blackens the ceiling above it by hurling little particles of dust up against it2 it warps and twists the wall-paper2 it misshapes the doors and windows1 and breaks loose the strips of veneer1 and it often spills water over the floor to ruin the ceilings below4 ,added to all of the above depreciation is the natural wear and tear caused by the tenants4 ,floors are worn to splinters where they were of flat-grain wood2 thresholds are thinned down1 stair tread scooped out4 ,plaster is broken by moving furniture1 and decorations stained by accidents of all varieties4 ,locks1 hinges1 and bolts are broken4 ,particularly is the mechanical equipment of the house subject to such deteriorating influences4 ,plumbing fixtures are broken1 pipes are clogged1 and joints made to leak through the corroding action of strong acids poured down the pipes4 ,radiator valves are turned out of adjustment1 boilers are burned out1 and hundreds of other things happen to this part of the house because of careless hands4 ,thus we may say that the important factors of depreciation which an architect should keep in mind are unequal settlement1 action of frost1 washing-out effects of rain-water1 corrosion1 the heat of the sun1 the artificial heat of the furnace1 and the foolishness of tenants4 ,unequal settlement can be prevented by carefully examining the construction1 and the action of frost1 heat1 and sun can be minimized by the use of proper materials1 and the foolishness of tenants can be partly offset by selecting those mechanical devices which are as near fool-proof as human hands can make them4 ,,xiii ,,selecting ,,materials ,,from ,,advertisements ,in the planning of the construction of the small house1 the architect has many problems of selection1 such as the choosing of this brand of roofing material from among many makes or the specifying of this type of furnace from among many patterns1 and1 in fact1 the selection of the best type and the best materials which the market affords in all branches of structural and mechanical devices4 ,if he does not specify any one brand1 but merely states that the contractor shall use an approved make of paint or an acceptable brand of hydrated lime1 he has merely deferred his ultimate choice in the matter to a later date1 for in the end he must decide whether the particular make or brand is acceptable1 and in order to do this he must know enough about the various makes and brands on the market to judge wisely and in a fair spirit1 for the chief motive in back of the contractor's choice will be rather one of money than quality4 ,illustration ,the problem1 therefore1 which confronts the architect in acting as judge of materials and brands as to their quality is very serious and extremely full of pitfalls1 and outside of his personal experience and that of his friends1 the choice must be made upon the claims of the manufacturers as presented in advertisements4 ,now1 of course1 the difficulties which advertising literature presents are the overstatements which are found in them and the suppression of facts which appear to the makers as derogatory of their product4 ,but if the circulars of information and advertising statements are collected for any one type of mechanism or any one type of material or system of construction1 it will be found that the truth of the matter will be implanted in the accumulated statements of the various concerns manufacturing these mechanisms or materials4 ,what one manufacturer does not say another will1 and very often a rival firm will reveal the defects of its competitor's products by its advertisements4 ,in fact1 if you want to find out what is the 8nigger in the wood-pile10 read the advertisements of a rival manufacturer4 ,of course it is not good taste in advertising to knock the other fellow's products1 but general statements are made which are enough to enlighten the alert reader as to what should be the good points to look for4 ,for example1 suppose the architect knew little or nothing about what should be the good qualities of a hot-air furnace of the pipeless type1 but had before him the advertisements of various makers which we will designate as ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e1 although the quotations which are given are accurately taken from real advertisements of well-known firms1 the identity of which we have purposely concealed under the assumed titles of the letters of the alphabet4 ,let us pick up advertisement of 7,a7 manufacturer1 and select what appear to be the important statements which occur in it4 ,we read3 8,the grate is slightly cone-shaped1 which breaks up all clinkers and makes the fuel roll toward the wall of the fire-pot1 where air is mixed with the gas4 ,this generates a much greater degree of heat than it is possible to obtain with the old duplex and flat grates1 and clinkers that would form and be wasted in other furnaces are thereby consumed40 ,from this the architect has learned to consider the question of the grate1 and certainly he has definitely found out what is the disadvantage of the furnaces which use the old duplex or flat grates4 ,it ought to be his aim to ask the manufacturer of furnaces using these types of grates what they have to say in defense of this indictment4 ,but let us continue to read3 8,the ash-pit is large and roomy on the inside1 and is provided with a very large door1 which makes it convenient for the removal of ashes40 ,it is evident from this that there are furnaces on the market which have this defect of too small an ash-pit and door4 ,the architect can then mentally pigeonhole this as a point to be considered in examining a furnace4 ,continuing our reading we come across this statement3 8,the 7,a7 radiator is cast in one piece1 with no joints to be cemented or bolted together40 ,this is evidently a reflection upon the weaknesses of other makes which have radiators that are bolted and cemented together1 and on investigation we soon learn that furnaces often have leaky radiators which permit the coal-gas to escape into the warm air delivered through the house4 ,here is a definite defect to be remembered4 ,suppose we turn now to advertisement 7,b71 and here we read the following3 8,insulating air-chamber acts as a positive division between the bodies of warm and return air40 ,this is certainly a hint of a possible defect in a furnace4 ,perhaps not all of the furnaces are adequately insulated at this division between the bodies of returning cold air and the outgoing warm air1 with the resulting loss of efficiency and sluggishness of circulation4 ,reading on in the same advertisement we find the following3 8,the 7,b7 smoke-plate is an added precaution against the leakage of smoke and gas40 ,evidently there is some possibility of smoke leaking into the warm air1 or else this device would not have been suggested1 and probably there are some furnaces where this is a very serious objection4 ,turning to the next advertisement1 7,c71 we read3 8,only the best grade of iron goes into the casting40 ,this is another consideration2 for evidently1 from the following1 certain types of furnaces do not use the best castings1 and give trouble4 8,breakdowns and imperfections are reduced to a minimum4 ,the endless series of treatments and repairs is never required40 ,a further reading tells us that 8the humidifier is ample capacity10 which statement suggests the possibility that not all humidifiers are large enough4 ,but look what advertisement 7,d7 informs us3 8,no heat lost by being radiated through casing into cellar40 ,this is certainly an interesting point to consider4 ,and reading on we learn3 8,long fire-travel in radiator insures a cool smoke-pipe and there is no fuel wasted40 ,this is surely a matter of design that ought to be observed in good furnaces4 ,still another fact is brought to light by 8,fire-pot--one piece1 heavy-ribbed for purposes of increasing its radiating surface and to give it greater power of resistance against expansive force of the fire40 ,but here is something none of the other advertisements have told us3 8,steel radiators are preferable for the use of hard coal2 cast-iron radiators for soft or hard coal or wood40 ,also3 8,radiators can be turned in either direction1 thereby permitting smoke-pipe to be connected with chimney from the most advantageous point40 ,finally1 when we read in advertisement 7,e7 the following1 8,grate-bars are quickly removed and replaced4 ,no bolts used10 we wonder whether other furnaces use bolts1 and whether there is a real objection to them4 ,taking the information given in these advertisements1 we can now make the following list of points to be considered in selecting any one make3 #a4 ,is the grate so designed that clinkers will not form8 #b4 ,are the grate-bars easily removable8 #c4 ,is the ash-pit large and roomy and is the door amply large8 #d4 ,is the radiator in one piece or so well fastened that it is gas-tight8 #e4 ,is the radiator steel or a high grade of cast-iron8 #f4 ,is the inner casing so well insulated that it prevents premature heating of the descending air-currents8 #g4 ,what protection is there to prevent the chance passage of smoke into the warm air-chamber8 #h4 ,is the outer casing properly insulated to prevent the waste of heat into the cellar8 #i4 ,is the humidifier of ample capacity8 #aj4 ,how is the fire-pot designed to increase the efficiency of its radiating surface and how is it strengthened against the expansive force of the fire8 #aa4 ,is there a long enough passage for fire-travel1 so that no waste of heat is lost up the chimney8 #ab4 ,is the radiator flexible enough to permit of the connection of the smoke-pipe from the most advantageous point8 ,most certainly this is an array of matters to be considered in the selection of a furnace which no one1 except an expert1 would think of1 but they are all drawn from the advertisements1 and this process of study is open to any one who is interested in learning the technical difficulties involved in the selection of this particular mechanical device4 ,perhaps not all of the knowledge gained is scientific1 but at least there are stimulating bits of information that should be investigated4 ,let us take one more example of this amusing game of comparing advertisements as applied to roofing materials4 ,here we will find many conflicting statements1 but out of the whole battle of words we can glean some interesting truths4 ,turn to advertisement 7,a7 and we read the following3 8,nearly every objection to wood shingles as a roof-covering is applicable to slates1 which have still other adverse features4 ,slates are not fireproof4 ,ask the underwriter how the insurance companies regard them1 and especially how1 in comparison with clay tiles1 they are not permanent1 though more so than wood shingles4444 ,slates attract lightning1 and while the sun warps shingles and the wind rips them off1 slates are easily broken1 and if there is even a slight settlement or vibration1 repairs are necessary4 ,moisture gets under them1 and during the winter months especially causes them to lift up and break off4 ,when the ice thaws1 the broken pieces slide out1 leaving a defective place in the roof4 ,this will happen every winter with a slate roof1 and to keep such a roof in perfect condition it must be gone over each spring and the broken slates replaced with new ones40 ,turning to advertisement 7,b7 for asbestos shingles we read a different point of view3 8,unfortunately1 however1 slate1 particularly that which is obtainable on the market at present1 does not last much longer than clay tile or tin shingles40 ,but reading from advertisement 7,c7 we are amused at the following3 8,slate being solid rock1 they simply cannot wear out4 ,they cannot rust1 decay1 crack1 tear1 warp1 shrink1 disintegrate1 melt1 burn1 or smoulder4 ,they will not contract or expand under the influence of heat or cold4 ,they never need painting4 ,they will not attract lightning--nor will they permit the growth of moss or decaying vegetable matter4444 ,one of the most important advantages is from the insurance standpoint4 ,many roofs 7not alone wooden shingles7 are highly inflammable2 but a slate roof will not ignite from sparks from fire in an adjacent building1 from passing locomotives1 or from any other cause4 ,this fact is so well recognized that insurance companies allow a very substantial reduction in rates on slate-roofed buildings40 ,the contradictory statements here are very amusing1 but the truth can be seen between the lines1 that the makers of clay tile really believe that slate is their real rival1 and have searched very hard to pick flaws in it as a material for roofing4 ,and when the advertisement of the asbestos shingle manufacturer is read1 we learn that slate does not last much longer than clay tile4 ,but both are insistent upon the opinion of the fire underwriters1 and for this reason we naturally turn to see what they have to say1 and we find that both slate and tile are under ,class ,a roofing materials1 with little difference made between them4 ,as for the point of attracting lightning1 why is slate used for switchboards if it is as good a conductor of electricity as a statement of the above type would imply8 ,it is quite evident that one's opinion of slate after all this controversy will be about on a par with one's opinion of clay tile1 and that one will realize that poor grades of either slate or tile1 or poor workmanship1 are rather more the causes of failure than the material itself4 ,many more examples might be given of this interesting method of learning the truth from advertisements1 but the principle in all cases remains the same1 so that further quotations would only amuse rather than instruct4 ,,xiv ,,roofing ,,materials ,a roofing material should not be judged by its first appearance1 but rather by its condition after four or five winters have passed over it4 ,and in choosing the roof for the small house1 this is a statement which applies with even greater emphasis1 since the temptation is magnified to select that material which is low in cost and bright upon its first appearance4 ,as an illustration1 there are certain types of wood-shingle roofs which have a charm in the beginning that is apt to disappear with age4 ,these are constructed of shingles1 dipped in many varieties of colored creosote stains1 browns1 reds1 greens1 blues1 yellows1 and the like1 and when newly laid have a warm1 mottled1 and colorful texture which suggests the multiplicity of tone that nature often produces with age4 ,in fact1 the designer who originated this roof was trying to imitate the aging effect of nature1 much as ,tiffany glass is an imitation of the effect of time upon certain ancient glasses2 only in the latter case the operation is the same but the time element reduced1 while in the case of the roof it is a theatrical imitation of nature at work4 ,and there are many other fads in roofing1 all of which have as their basis the imitation of the weathering effect of nature4 ,ridge-poles are constructed with a sag to resemble the settlement which is often observed in picturesque old houses4 ,shingles are laid1 like the scales of an armadillo1 and ridges1 hips1 and eaves are rounded to present the appearance of old thatched roofs4 ,asbestos shingles are broken with rough edges1 and defective tiles are used--all for the purpose of giving that ragged appearance which nature develops with age4 ,now1 to a certain extent there is an element of architectural truth in such devices1 but they should be used with the greatest discretion1 for1 as has been previously asked3 8,if a roof looks old when it is new1 how old does it look when it really is old80 ,before discussing the various methods of laying roofing materials1 let us observe some of them after they have been on the house for a few years4 ,of course1 we are all familiar with the short life of the wooden shingle1 which is only about fifteen years4 ,but the life can be extended by dipping them into creosote stains1 either just before laying or by the more convenient processes of factory dipping4 ,cedar has been found to be the best wood for these shingles1 since it has a natural resistance to decay4 ,the old hand-split shingles were more durable than the modern shingles1 for the surface that they exposed to the weather was the natural cleavage plane of the wood fibres4 ,the sawed shingle delights in curling and twisting out of a flat plane1 and always seems to split so that the crack lines up with the space between the shingles on the course above1 thus permitting the rain to leak through4 ,and then the nails either rust away or the wood rots around them1 until individual shingles drop away from the others1 leaving small or large holes in the roof4 ,it is well recognized that the sparks from a neighboring fire find a ready meal in the punk and rotten butts of the shingles1 and many a house has been burned to the ground because of this4 ,the nearest competitor to the wooden shingle in cost is the asphalt shingle1 which is made from roofing felt1 saturated with asphalt compounds1 and surfaced1 under pressure1 with crushed slate of greenish or red hue4 ,the life of these shingles depends a great deal upon the thickness of the body4 ,some roofs1 laid with very thin asphalt shingles1 develop an appearance of chicken-pox after a year or two1 for the heating effect of the sun1 the lifting force of the wind and ice cause certain individual shingles to bend up from the plane of the roof and1 in extreme cases1 even flap in a heavy gale1 like so many small pin-feathers4 ,but this is not so true of the thicker grades of these shingles4 ,often1 too1 these asphalt shingles bulge under the hot sun1 but this is due to careless laying1 for each shingle should be separated from the other by a small space to allow for this expansion4 ,it takes a good many years for the crushed slate on the surface to wear off1 but gradually this happens1 as also the elasticity of the body degenerates4 ,finally1 as the surface begins to moult1 the shingle itself becomes stiff and brittle and begins to break off4 ,of course1 these shingles are superior to wood in resisting sparks from a near-by fire1 and their life is longer1 if they have a thick enough body4 ,that same material used for asphalt shingles is made into roll roofings4 ,so-called shingle strips are made1 which consist of long1 narrow rolls of asphalted felt with the crushed slate surface1 the lower edge of which is cut out to form the lower third of the shingles1 and1 when applied to the roof1 the appearance is identical to a roof laid with individual units4 ,another type of roll roofing is made to imitate wood shingles1 by having a shingle pattern stamped with black asphalt upon the surface of crushed slate4 ,it is laid on the roof from the ridge down to the eaves1 lapping joints with the next roll about two inches4 ,at a distance the black pattern gives the camouflaged appearance of a shingle roof4 ,the chief objection to any of these roofs is that the long and large areas are nailed down along the edges so that the sag and expansion of the material raises little bumps and hills over the entire roof1 which1 to say the least1 is very unsightly4 ,then1 again1 the nails are exposed1 and unless they are copper1 the chances are that they will rust away before the roof is worn out1 permitting the edges to become loose and the wind to get under the material and rip it away from the roof4 ,moreover1 the roll roofing has only one thickness at any point1 while the shingle roofing has either two or three layers over the entire area of the roof4 ,the cheaper grades of slate roof1 such as one would be tempted to use on the small house1 show weaknesses in aging that should not be used as arguments against slate roofs in general4 ,these cheap roofs are built up of poorer grades of slate1 and very thin sheets at that1 and a poor grade of nail is used4 ,the effect of weathering on such roofs is to chip off pieces of slate and to rust the nails1 so that whole units drop off4 ,generally1 too1 in these cheap slate roofs1 the tar paper is omitted from underneath1 and the wind suction through the roof draws the snow through the cracks onto the floor of the attic1 where it melts and stains the ceilings below4 ,however1 properly selected and well-laid slate roofs have none of these disadvantages1 but then the cost of them is generally a barrier to using them on the small house4 ,as with the slate roof1 so with the tile roof1 the cost is generally the reason for not selecting it1 and yet1 from an economical point of view1 in the end they are not as expensive1 since with the less durable roofs one is never sure of how much damage to the interior a leak will cause4 ,tile roofs of poor quality have as bad reputations as slate roofs4 ,small1 thin tile are very brittle1 and falling limbs and other objects often break individual tiles1 and it is very hard to replace them4 ,unless the tile are laid upon a building-paper the wind suction is even worse than with slate roofs4 ,probably the greatest defects in tile or slate roofs is not in the material itself1 but in the flashings and valley construction4 ,instead of using copper the flashings are usually of tin1 which is permitted to rust out because of neglect in painting4 ,leaks develop in the valleys and around chimneys in spite of the roofing material4 ,while asbestos shingles can show great practical durability1 even superior to slate and tile in some cases1 yet there are many instances of ugly weathering4 ,tile and slate roofs develop warm1 lovely tones with age4 ,asbestos shingles1 since they are chiefly made from cement under pressure1 must necessarily depend for their color upon inert pigments introduced into their composition at the time of manufacture1 and for this reason their color is apt rather to fade than become richer with age4 ,their tendency is to return to the natural color of the cement4 ,for this reason we see on every hand red asbestos shingle roofs which have bleached out to sickly and thirsty pinks1 and brown roofs that have blanched to whitish-brown1 much like the color which chocolate candy develops when it is very stale4 ,then1 too1 certain makes of asbestos shingles show1 as time goes on1 salt-like deposits on the surface1 like the whitewash which appears upon brick walls4 ,this gives a motley appearance to the roof1 for some shingles will develop this white stain more than others4 ,the reader should not draw from these statements the general conclusion that the asbestos shingles should not be used1 and that there have been none made that overcome the above difficulties1 but it would be well for him to observe these defects before deciding upon any one brand4 ,the manufacturers of tin advise that the tin be painted on both sides when laid1 and thereafter kept painted at four to five-year intervals4 ,in other words1 the tin roof is as good-looking as the paint which covers it1 for it has no color or texture of its own4 ,can there be much charm in a roof of this kind8 ,can one picture a cosey and homelike small house with either a flat or standing seam tin roof8 ,perhaps the flat decks which do not show are satisfactory1 when covered with tin1 but those upon which any walking is to be done should be covered with wood lattice or else the nails of the shoes may punch through the tin and cause a leak4 ,tin roofs have their place and their duty to perform1 but they are hardly suited to flat roofs over which is to be done much walking4 ,heavy deck canvas1 laid in paint and covered with paint1 is the best for this purpose4 ,the ferry-boats give evidence of the practical wear of this kind of roof4 ,tin or galvanized-iron shingles or imitation tiles are often seen applied to the roofs of small houses4 ,the owner probably admired a real tile roof1 and the nearest approach his pocketbook would permit him to come to it was the use of imitation tile of tin1 copper1 or galvanized iron4 ,most architects ridicule this peculiar weakness in human nature which chooses imitation diamonds1 glass pearls1 oil-paper stained-glass windows1 and pressed-metal tiles1 instead of real ones1 but they should look to themselves before they throw stones1 and ask who invented the imitation thatched roof of wooden shingles4 ,shingle ,roof ,the wooden-shingle roof is of such old and traditional origin in this country that it seems useless to describe the essential features of its construction1 yet for the sake of completeness we shall call attention to the important points to be observed4 ,cypress1 cedar1 and redwood are considered to be the best woods from which to saw shingles4 ,the grain of the wood should be vertical and show the edge4 ,it is generally conceded that creosote-dipped shingles which are treated at the factory are easier to apply than those dipped on the job1 and1 as all wood shingles should be treated with some preservative1 it is well to consider them4 ,however1 much criticism has been aimed at factory-dipped shingles1 in that they are generally too brittle from overdrying in the kilns1 but this is not true of all makes4 ,the sizes and the weathering of some of the standard creosoted shingles are as follows3 #af inches lengths1 random widths1 laid #d inches to the weather1 and either #e or #f shingles at the butt ends to #b inches4 #ah inches lengths1 random widths1 laid #e inches to the weather1 and #e butt ends to #b inches4 #bd inches lengths1 random widths1 laid #g inches to the weather1 and inch thick at the butt ends4 ,there are about thirty varieties of colored stains to select from1 and special shapes are cut for constructing the so-called thatched roof1 the shingles being bent to a curve of about #bj inches radius4 ,the pitch of wooden-shingle roofs should not be less than #h inches rise per foot for the ordinary weathering shown in the above statements4 ,the tops of rafters are covered with shingle lath1 with a spacing suitable to the weathering arrangement of the shingles4 ,there are some who advocate the use of sheathing to cover the rafters in a tight manner and also the use of building-paper underneath the shingles1 but1 although this gives a tighter and warmer roof1 dry rot attacks the shingle much quicker because of the accumulation of dampness on the under side of the shingle courses4 ,the first course of shingles at the eaves should be a double course with the upper layer breaking joints with the lower1 and the shingles should project about #b inches beyond the mouldings of the eaves and about #a inches beyond the edge of the gable ends of the roof4 ,hips may be finished either with the saddle-board or with a row of shingles running parallel to the line of the ridge4 ,hips are best finished with a row of shingles running parallel with their edges1 which treatment is called the ,boston hip4 ,if the courses are carried to the hip line and mitred1 then the joint must be waterproofed by using tin shingles underneath the wooden ones1 these tin shingles being folded over the hip4 ,the method of flashing around chimneys1 at the base of dormers1 and in open valleys will be more fully discussed in connection with slate roofs1 and1 since the principles are the same1 what is said for slate roofs in this connection is true for wooden-shingle roofs4 ,method of ,laying ,roofs ,,slate ,there has been much made of the so-called ,european method of laying slate roofs in recent years1 but this type of roof costs more than the ordinary slate roof1 since special heavy slate is used at the eaves1 and the weathering is reduced as the courses approach the ridge1 and special care is taken in blending colored slates4 ,while this type of roof is very beautiful1 it is really1 from a point of view of cost1 rather out of the race when applied to the small house1 for it will be hard enough to stretch the estimates of the small house to include even the ordinary slate roof4 ,in the preparation of the ordinary slate roof1 the rafters should be covered with -inch thick1 tongued-and-grooved roofing-boards4 ,in order to prevent buckling1 if they should swell with dampness1 it is essential not to drive the joints between boards up too tight4 ,as these boards are surfaced only on one side1 this side is laid against the rafters and the tongues are placed upward so that a better shedding of water is secured4 ,good nailing with tenpenny nails is important1 and all joints at ends of boards should be made over rafters4 ,a cheaper but not so good a bed for the slate can be made with common1 unsurfaced sheathing-boards4 ,in the cheapest kind of work sheathing-boards are not used1 but only shingles lath4 ,over the top of this rough boarding should be tacked #aa pounds per #ajj square feet slater's roofing felt1 laid horizontally and lapping joints #c inches4 ,the usual commercial sizes of slates are _/ inch thick1 and of the following standard sizes3 #f by #ab inches1 #g by #ab inches1 #h by #ab inches1 #g by #ad inches1 #h by #ad inches1 #aj by #ad inches1 #h by #af inches1 #i by #af inches1 #aj by #af inches1 #ab by #af inches1 #i by #ah inches1 #aj by #ah inches1 #ab by #ah inches1 #aj by #bj inches1 #ab by #bj inches1 #aa by #bb inches1 #ab by #bb inches1 and #ab by #bd inches4 ,they have two holes in each piece for nails1 which nails should be #a-;inch copper slater's nails1 or #c;d galvanized slater's nails for cheaper work4 ,the first course should be started #b inches below the line of the sheathing-boards at the eaves1 and the necessary tilt is given with a _/ by #a inch cant strip4 ,a double thickness of slate is used for the first course1 the upper layer breaking joints with the lower4 ,at the gable ends the slate should not overhang more than #a inches4 ,the exposure to the weather for courses of slate is determined by taking one-half of the length of the slate minus #c inches4 ,the ridges of the roof may be finished in two ways1 either with the combed ridge or the saddle ridge4 ,the combed ridge is formed by projecting a finishing course and a combing course of slate on the north or east side of the roof #a inches beyond the top and combing course on the opposite side of the roof4 ,both courses are laid with slate set lengthwise1 the length being twice the width of the slate used on the roof4 ,this last course is laid in elastic roofing cement1 and the nails are also covered with it4 ,the saddle ridge is formed by alternately butting the ends of the top course on one side with the top course on the other1 and then doing the same with the combing course4 ,this makes a zigzag joint which is closed by the elastic cement used in setting4 ,the ,boston hip is the best4 ,each course is brought at its upper or nailing edge to within #b inches of the hip line4 ,a small strip of slate then finishes this off by fitting to a mitre cut made on a slate set parallel with the line of the hip4 ,these hip slates have the lower corner of their butt ends on a line with the next lower course1 and they are lapped with the opposite hip slate and made tight with roofing cement4 ,illustration3 ,,slate ,,roof ,hips may also be finished by bringing each course up to the hip line1 and mitring them with the opposite courses on the other side of the hip4 ,valleys should be lined with #af ounces copper1 #d pounds lead1 ,,ix tin1 or a prepared roofing roll weighing #cg pounds per #ajh square feet4 ,measuring from the centre of the valley to the edge of the slate along the valley1 this distance should be #b inches at the top and increase inch in every #h feet length of valley1 to widen it out toward the bottom4 ,the flashing should extend up under the slate on either side about two-thirds the width of the slate used4 ,if #h-;inch by #af-;inch slates are used1 this means that the distance should be about #e inches4 ,if the slopes of the two intersecting roofs are different1 and there is a chance that the volume of water sweeping down the larger and steeper incline may be forced up under the slate at the valleys1 the metal lining should be crimped up 7inverted ,v-shape7 at the centre1 #a inch1 to form a little dam against the rush of the flood4 ,illustration3 ,,slate ,,details ,flashing used against chimneys1 dormers1 or other vertical walls should be bent up #d inches and extend into the slate courses #d inches4 ,all vertical flashings against masonry should be cap-flashed and made tight with elastic cement4 ,the cap-flashing should extend down over the flashing #c inches1 and be inserted into the masonry at least #b inches4 ,illustration ,sometimes the closed valley is designed for slate roofs1 in which case the valleys must be rounded out with the roofing-boards1 blocked to position4 ,the slate courses should be carried around this curved valley1 but each course in the valley should be covered with flashing just under the lap of the course above and extend up toward the nails4 ,,tile ,,roofing ,preparations of the roof for the laying of tile should follow similar lines described for slate roofs4 ,over the roofing-boards should be tacked asphalt roofing felt1 weighing not less than #cj pounds per #ajj square feet and lapping #b inches4 ,the valleys should be lined with this felt1 running the entire length1 and then the flashing metal placed on top1 secured with clips at intervals4 ,the width of the valley metal should not be less than #bd inches1 and both edges should be turned up inch the entire length of the strip4 ,the felt covering the main surface of the roof should lap over the valley metal #d inches4 ,cant strips must be nailed along the eaves to start the first course of tile1 unless special tiles are provided4 ,copper nails should be used to fasten these tiles1 and each unit should be locked with the next1 as the pattern demands4 ,illustration3 ,tile ,roof ,illustration3 ,tile ,roof ,tiles which border the hips should be cut close against the hip board1 and elastic cement used to make the joint tight4 ,all hips and ridges are finished with specially designed ridge and hip roll tiles1 and the interior spaces should be left empty and not be filled with pointing mortar as is sometimes done4 ,,asbestos ,,shingles ,asbestos shingles are applied in practically the same way as slate4 ,over the roofing-boards should be laid slater's felt as for a slate roof1 and a cant strip by #a inches should be nailed along the eaves line to start the first course of asbestos shingles1 which should be a double course and overhang the eaves #a inches4 ,the average size of asbestos shingles is #i by #ah inches by inch for the lower layer of the first course1 and #h by #af inches by inch for the upper layer of the first course and the other courses4 ,they are laid about #g inches to the weather1 and the ridges and hips may be finished with the ,boston hip1 or by a specially designed ridge and hip roll4 ,where the hip roll is used the ridge-pole should project above the roof1 or a false one be added so that a substantial nailing can be had for this tile4 ,the most widely advertised asbestos shingle roofs employ shingles which have rough edges1 and which have various shades of coloring1 some gray1 some red1 others reddish brown1 and others grayish brown4 ,the causes which led to the development of this type of roof were the artistic failures of the first asbestos shingle roofs4 ,these early roofs were made with shingles which had edges as smooth and sharp as steel plates1 surface texture as slick as a trowelled cement floor1 and colors of either gray or pale red that were so perfectly matched that at a distance the individual shingles blended into one dead-level plane1 so that the roof of the house looked more like the armored plate of a battleship than anything else--it was so perfectly made4 ,,asphalt ,,shingles ,before laying asphalt shingles the rafters should be covered with tongued and grooved roofing-boards1 and these covered with black waterproof building-paper1 lapped #b inches4 ,illustration3 ,,asphalt ,,shingles ,there are two types of asphalt shingle units4 ,one consists of a unit of twin shingles1 so arranged that the butt ends which show to the weather appear as two individual shingles1 and the other consists of one shingle unit4 ,both types are usually laid #d inches to the weather and nailed with #a-;inch galvanized nails ,no4 #aj wire with -inch heads4 ,at the eaves should be nailed a galvanized-metal drip edge1 and over this a double course of shingles for the first course4 ,hips and ridges are finished with what appears to be a ,boston hip1 but the shingles are bent over the hip line4 ,the valleys and gutters are best when they are lined with strips of ready roofing similar to the shingles themselves4 ,asphalt shingles which come in long rolls or units of four or five are laid in a similar manner1 except that1 due to their continuous length1 they are unable to expand without bulging up on the roof4 ,,tin ,,roofs ,flat roofs1 with an incline of about inch to the foot1 should be covered with the flat-seam roof4 ,the standing seam may be used on roofs with a pitch not less than #b inches to the foot4 ,the tin is laid upon the sheathing-boards without an intermediate layer of building-paper2 in fact1 tar paper should never be used4 ,in cities building codes often require that tin roofs should be laid upon roofing felt _/ inch thick1 placed over the sheathing-boards1 but this is a fire precaution against burning brands which may drop upon the roof1 for this felt cushion gives an air insulation1 preventing the quick ignition of the decking below the tin4 ,illustration3 ,tin ,roofs ,in laying the flat-seam roof a number of sheets are fastened together to form a long strip of tin4 ,the edges are bent over inch1 so that they can be interlocked with the next strip4 ,the tin is fastened to the roof with tin cleats that lock into the seams of the sheets and are fastened at the other end with two #a-;inch barbed-wire nails4 ,these cleats are spaced about #h inches apart4 ,all the seams are flattened down1 and solder well sweated into them1 rosin being the only flux used4 ,tin1 approximately in thickness #cj-;gauge1 ,u4 ,s4 ,standard1 is called ,,ic1 and recommended for the roof proper1 while valleys and gutters should be lined with ,,ix tin1 approximately #bg-;gauge4 ,it should be painted on both sides1 before laying1 with pure linseed-oil and red lead1 or red oxide1 ,venetian red1 or metallic brown4 ,two coats should be given to the exposed side and a third coat about a year later4 ,before the second coat is applied the first should have dried for at least two weeks4 ,the construction of the standing seam roof is shown in the drawings to consist of long strips of tin1 made of standard sheets fastened together with the flat and soldered seam1 but the edges of the strips fastened to the next strip with the so-called standing seam1 which must run parallel to the pitch of the roof4 ,cleats1 spaced a foot apart1 are used to fasten the tin to the sheathing-boards4 ,one edge of the next strip is turned up #a inches1 and then over the top of the edge of the other strip4 ,the cleat is locked in between the two4 ,the upstanding seam is then turned down again upon itself1 tightly locking the strips together4 ,copper and ,zinc ,roofs ,for a while1 during the high prices created by the war1 the thought of building a copper roof or a zinc roof on the small house would have been received with a doubtful shake of the head4 ,this is no longer the case1 however1 for the prices of these materials have come down to within reason1 and there is no doubt as to their durability4 ,no one has questioned the weathering qualities of copper or zinc4 ,the copper roofs which have shown such practical durability on large buildings have usually been laid about the same as that described for standing seam tin roofs4 ,cold-rolled or soft copper sheets1 usually #bj inches wide1 are used for this roof covering1 weighing not less than #af ounces to the square foot4 ,this type of roof is rather expensive for the small house1 even with the reduced cost of copper1 and for this reason a lighter grade has been made1 and offered for use in the form of pressed-metal shingles of very flat design4 ,these copper shingles have been treated so that other colors than the copper shades can be secured4 ,the zinc manufacturers have also placed on the market zinc shingles of special interlocking flat design for use on small houses4 ,it has always been a debated question as to whether pressed-metal shingles were architecturally permissible4 ,certainly there are some forms which imitate the clay tile shingle that are decidedly inartistic1 but the more natural flat patterns are less subject to this criticism4 ,,xv ,,painting ,,and ,,varnishing ,,the ,,house ,actually the process of varnishing or painting the woodwork and metalwork on the house is the spreading of a thin protective coat1 one thousandth part of an inch thick or less1 over the surface1 in order to protect it from the wear and tear of use and weather and decay4 ,and a marvel it is that any material could be found which spread in so thin a film could withstand the chemical action of the sun's rays1 the expansion and contraction of the surface over which it is laid1 the abrasive action of blown sand1 hail1 and rain1 the natural wear of walking feet and rubbing clothes and bumping furniture1 and a dozen other accidents which conspire to mar the surface of woodwork in the home4 ,is it a wonder that for this protective coat of varnish all experts demand that the best materials be used8 ,but out of ignorance it is not always so1 for the lower cost of varnish and paint is more evident than the quality of the substance of which they are made4 ,the varnishes which are most used in good houses are made of resins1 melted in a kettle and mixed with linseed-oil1 and thinned with turpentine as they cool4 ,they have the peculiar property1 when spread with a brush over a surface1 of hardening by a chemical change brought about by absorbing oxygen from the air1 and making a strong1 transparent1 protective coat over the substance upon which they have been applied4 ,the kind of resins,a have much to do with the quality of the varnish1 since the linseed-oil and turpentine are apt to be about the same grade in all varnishes4 ,dark or light varnishes can be made2 hard or soft and elastic surfaces can be produced2 varnishes capable of resisting the wettest kind of weather and those which turn white under the least dampness are manufactured for various purposes1 and practically in all cases those varnishes which are the best are the highest in cost4 ,a ,varnish resins or gums are imported from countries that the average man knows little about4 ,the island of ,zanzibar furnishes one of the costliest and finest of gums4 ,it is called ,zanzibar copal and is the gum of a fossil tree4 ,new ,zealand furnishes the most widely used gum1 kauri4 ,it is dug out of the ground by the natives4 ,the west coast of ,africa furnishes the gum known as ,sierra ,leone copal1 which is used much in automobile work4 ,the cheap varnishes which are the most abundant upon the market1 and which are used for cheap furniture and houses1 are made of rosin and not resin1 or are resin varnishes adulterated with rosin4 ,most houses erected by speculative builders are finished with cheap rosin varnishes1 but no architect should be guilty of specifying them1 for he should know better than to attempt to save money by purchasing the poorer grades of varnishes1 since the real cost of varnished work is in the labor rather than in the cost of the materials used4 ,these cheap rosin varnishes cannot stand up under the sponge test1 which is merely the application of a wet sponge to the surface overnight4 ,the next morning the rosin varnish will be found to be white and dissolved down to the wood1 and will never recover its appearance4 ,better grades of varnish may turn white under this sponge test1 but upon drying return to their original color1 but the finest grades of varnish will not be affected at all4 ,the difference between these varnishes can also be observed by rubbing the thumb over the surface of such a fine varnish as is on a piano and noticing that no effect other than a higher polish is produced1 while if the same rubbing is done on a cheap varnish1 it will be crumbled off from the wood4 ,every one has seen the ugly surface cracks which develop with age in old doors or upon old church pews in musty churches of the dark ages of ,american architecture4 ,in nearly all cases these cracks are due to cheap rosin varnishes4 ,before varnishing or painting any interior woodwork1 it is important to observe all the preliminary precautions1 or else failure may result1 even though the work is conscientiously performed in the latter stages4 ,one of these early precautions is to paint the back of all trim for doors and windows with some good linseed-oil paint1 and apply a first coat of filler to the outside surface1 and all this as soon as it arrives on the job4 ,this is to prevent the wood from absorbing the dampness which is prevalent in all new buildings1 and as most trim has been kiln-dried beyond ordinary requirements for construction work1 it is very thirsty for water1 and will soak it up quickly from the atmosphere4 ,this trim should not be permitted to stand in the building overnight without the priming coat4 ,as the first coat of filler is linseed-oil1 there is not much excuse for not doing this1 for it can be applied very rapidly4 ,of course where the wood is to be stained with an oil stain1 the application of the linseed-oil before the stain is applied will prevent the proper penetration of the stain into the wood1 and1 as the architect generally insists upon seeing samples of the staining work before it is applied1 the above precautions of protecting the wood as soon as it comes are often thrown to the winds4 ,and in connection with this matter of stains1 a word may not be amiss4 ,most manufacturers make among their many stains certain brilliant-red mahogany colors1 bright ,irish-green colors1 and horrible yellows4 ,these are made to meet certain gaudy tastes shown by the public1 but of their use by architects no word could condemn them enough4 ,and on a par with these stains is the varnishing with no stain at all of yellow pine trim1 an architectural atrocity which is committed on every hand in small houses4 ,the quiet browns1 grays1 grayish greens1 and the like are the only safe ranges of color for staining interior trim1 for1 after all1 the casing of doors and windows must blend in with the walls and serve as a background for the furniture and not screech at it4 ,and directly in line with this statement should be emphasized the rule that highly polished surfaces in varnishes for trim are as much out of place as brilliant colors4 ,many architects prefer wax in place of the polish of varnish1 and with good reason4 ,the manufacturers of varnishes make certain grades which dry with a dull finish1 and also show samples of beautiful dull finishes which can be secured by the laborious method of rubbing the final coat of varnish with powdered pumice-stone1 water1 and felt4 ,but before any varnishing can be done1 and for that matter any painting1 it is essential that the pores of the wood are filled1 so that the surface to be varnished has no soft and absorbent places1 but presents a hard and glossy body4 ,woods like oak1 ash1 and chestnut have such large pores that paste fillers are required to fill them in4 ,these paste fillers consist of a solid part like pulverized quartz and a liquid part of a quick-drying varnish4 ,it is rubbed over the surface of the wood and into the pores and permitted to set1 when the excess is then wiped off with excelsior and1 finally1 felt4 ,when the wood is stained with an oil stain1 this filler may be colored to match4 ,architects are often shown samples of the beautiful finishes which are possible with the use of this or that manufacturer's stains and varnishes1 and supplied with specifications by which they are told they can secure these finishes1 but much to their sorrow the results are not like the samples1 and probably never will be4 ,all of these samples are made under ideal conditions by the most careful experts4 ,laboratory conditions and regularity and first-class skill can produce finishes on a small sample board which could not possibly be reproduced in a building except at enormous costs4 ,in the first place1 there is always more or less dust blowing around in a newly constructed building1 and not the greatest care is taken in it to provide the exact control of humidity and temperature required for drying varnishes4 ,and1 as every one knows1 the men who do the painting are generally far from being the most skilful artisans of their trade4 ,it1 too1 is a big temptation to put on one or two heavy coats of varnish instead of three or four thin coats1 and there is not an expert living who can tell how many coats of varnish are on a piece of wood after the work is done4 ,unless the architect has observed each step of the application1 he cannot deny1 when the painter shows him the finished woodwork1 that there are not as many coats of varnish on it as he required in his specifications4 ,yet time will tell the tale1 but then it is too late4 ,however1 the treatment of floors and stair treads is the worry of many an architect1 although he ought to remember that in factories sheet steel is laid on the floors at the doorways1 and even this wears through4 ,why should he be disheartened if after a year the stair treads and the patches of floors near the door-sills are scratched down to the wood through coats of varnish one-thousandth of an inch thick8 ,even the best varnish will break down under this abrasion1 but only the best should be used4 ,cheap floor varnishes are not worth the labor of laying1 and yet how many spend money on them4 ,some architects1 and with good reasons1 prefer finishing the floors with wax instead of varnish4 ,as a base for this wax1 a thin coat of varnish is excellent4 ,various manufacturers have different formulas for floor waxes1 and they are more or less complex1 but generally turpentine is the softening and drying material4 ,the wax paste is rubbed into the floor and polished with weighted brushes--a tedious job4 ,however1 it is a job which any servant or housewife of ordinary intelligence can perform1 so that whenever the floors become worn around the doors or the stair treads become shabby1 the housekeeper is able to repair them easily1 and there is no doubt that a waxed floor is more beautiful than a varnished one4 ,but remember the slipping and sliding rugs on a wax floor and be sure to fasten them down4 ,when examined critically1 paint is not much more than a varnish with a finely ground opaque powder1 called the pigment1 suspended in it4 ,this pigment takes away the transparent qualities of the varnish and gives a definite color to the surface4 ,enamels actually do use varnishes as their vehicle or base1 but ordinary paint uses linseed-oil1 which acts much like a varnish1 in that it has the property of becoming hard and elastic under the oxidizing effect of the air4 ,the exteriors of most houses are painted with white-lead or zinc-white pigments mixed with linseed-oil4 ,zinc makes a harder paint than white-lead1 but it is best to mix the two pigments together in the proportion of one-third of zinc to two-thirds of white-lead4 ,in extensive investigations the ,u4 ,s4 ,bureau of ,standards suggests that much saving of money in paint would be made if white paint were abandoned altogether in favor of dark-colored pigments for exterior use4 ,horrible suggestions1 but these are the facts in the case6 ,white and light-tint paints invariably fail on the south side of a house1 before the paint on the other side shows signs of deterioration4 ,this is because the light of the sun breaks down the strength of the linseed-oil1 which is the body of the paint film4 ,for this reason dark pigments1 which are more opaque1 cut off the light and protect the oil film more than the lighter-colored pigments4 ,another common cause of failure in exterior painting is the application of it to the wood during unseasonable weather1 when the surface of the wood is wet4 ,paint will only properly adhere to a wood surface when it is free of any moisture4 ,another one of the causes of failure of lead and zinc paints for exterior work suggested by some authorities is the use of volatile thinners like turpentine and benzine4 ,they say that such thinners should not be permitted on the job1 for they are a temptation to the painter4 ,if raw linseed-oil is used1 and it is necessary to shorten the time required for drying1 some good drier should be added1 say #e per cent4 ,this drier should be pale in color and free from rosin4 ,driers are usually made of oil combined with a good proportion of lead and a little of manganese4 ,white pine1 ,douglas fir1 yellow pine1 cypress1 or any of these woods1 usually contain some knots1 which are sure to damage exterior white paint unless properly treated4 ,these knots have a certain amount of pitch in them1 which will penetrate through any oil paint and leave an ugly mark4 ,they should be covered with shellac1 which is not affected by the pitch4 ,shellac is a spirit varnish made from shellac resins dissolved in alcohol4 ,the yellow shellac is the strongest1 but the white is used where a light-colored paint is to be applied on top of it4 ,the pitch which is so bad in knots is often distributed throughout the wood1 as in ,southern yellow pine1 and this will often cause the paint to peel off4 ,to prevent this to a certain extent1 some specifications advise using benzol in the priming coat1 in order to make the paint penetrate more deeply into the wood and get a better grip on the surface4 ,the priming coat of any painting job should either be pure linseed-oil or linseed-oil with very little pigment in it4 ,its purpose is to fill the pores of the wood before the other coats are applied1 for if an ordinary thick coat of paint were applied to raw wood1 the surface would draw so much oil out of the film of paint that most of the pigment would be left dry and unfastened upon the outside4 ,only after the wood has been given the priming coat is it then time to putty up the nail holes and other defects1 and not before1 because the dry wood1 as in the case of paint1 will suck out the oil from the putty and leave it without anything to bind it together4 ,the best putty for this work is made of linseed-oil with enough white-lead in it to make a thick paste4 ,the putty which is commonly used1 however1 is made of whiting or ground chalk mixed with linseed-oil4 ,this is durable if real linseed-oil is used1 but often some inferior adulterant is substituted4 ,after the holes are all puttied1 the other coats of paint may be added4 ,at least two good coats should be applied1 and three coats give superior results4 ,plenty of time should be allowed between coats to permit thorough drying of the previous one4 ,,xvi ,,labor-,,saving ,,devices ,,for ,,the ,,home ,the ,demand ,the need for labor-saving devices to help in housekeeping is more evident in the small house than in the larger house1 although the cost of such machinery often prevents its installation in the former1 whereas in the latter it is more to be found1 since the person who builds a large house is apt to have more funds to draw upon4 ,yet labor-saving devices really belong to the small house1 for the large house is still run by the servant1 but the small one is kept by the lady of the house4 ,she rightly objects to working in the old-style kitchen1 which was very large and ugly1 and the useless up-keep of many rooms that are really not needed is not to her liking1 so that in practice the small house is in a way a labor-saving device in itself1 since it reduces the amount of house to be kept1 and makes the kitchen small and attractive4 ,then1 frankly1 labor-saving machinery is more becoming to this house1 which is in itself designed to save labor1 and money wisely spent upon such devices is by no means out of proportion to the cost of construction1 even if in direct comparison it shows a larger percentage ratio to the building cost in the small house than in the large house4 ,the fundamental needs which demand mechanical power in place of brawn can be classified into the following3 7a7 ,machines for cleaning4 7b7 ,machines for preparation of food4 7c7 ,machines for moving objects about the house4 7d7 ,machines designed to watch over various household cares4 7e7 ,machines to simplify and make pleasant the toilet4 ,but before such machines could be developed to a point of usefulness1 some source of power had to be found which could be used by the average family4 ,this to-day is electricity4 ,if the house cannot tap in on some public generating plant1 then it is not at all too costly a proposition to install a private generating plant run by a gasolene-engine4 ,the rapid spread of public-service wires throughout the country and the increasing demand for private generating plants is evidence that1 where money permits1 the people are ready to take advantage of the power of electricity to reduce the labor of keeping house4 ,this electric energy which is being more widely distributed has called forth invention after invention of labor-saving machinery4 ,it would not be hard to compile a list of some five hundred or more such machines1 good1 bad1 and indifferent4 ,pick up any magazine and glance through the advertisements1 and a fairly comprehensive list of housekeeping machines can be made1 or look through some one of the popular scientific magazines and page after page will be found devoted to new inventions along this line4 ,for example1 in the latter1 this is a small list made from a page of one of these magazines3 ,a combined electric toaster and heater1 a special brush on a long wire handle for cleaning the drain-pipe of the refrigerator1 an electric clothes-wringer which has rollers soft enough not to break the buttons1 a combined crib and wardrobe1 the latter being under the mattress1 a dust-pan which is held in position by the foot1 a counterbalanced electric light that can be hung over the back of a chair and an electric water-heater to fasten to the faucet4 ,machines for ,cleaning ,under this classification ought to be included machines which reduce the need of cleaning1 for they accomplish the same results1 but in a negative way4 ,one of the dirtiest and meanest jobs about the house is the sifting and shovelling of ashes from the furnace4 ,the light ashes are bound to be tracked through the house on the feet1 or float in the rising warm air to the rooms above1 while the sifting process is going on4 ,the continued need of removing ashes and putting more coal in the furnace to make more ashes often disgusts the housekeeper so much that the apartment-house looks very attractive1 for here this dirty work is done by the janitor4 ,now the modern oil-burner1 suitable to heat the furnace of a small house1 represents a real labor-saving device1 because it eliminates this problem of the ashes1 but it requires electric power to make it practical1 since a mechanical movement is necessary to properly atomize the oil for burning4 ,looking impartially at the latest inventions along this line that are now on the market1 one cannot help but admit that they are highly desirable from the labor-saving point of view1 if not always from an economical one4 ,the easy control of the fire of one of these oil-burners is admirable4 ,in mild weather the flame can be turned down quite low1 burning perhaps only twelve gallons of oil in twenty-four hours1 but if the weather suddenly becomes cold the flame is easily advanced to meet the conditions4 ,no extra shovelling of coal is required in cold weather1 and the worry of banking the fire in the evening is eliminated4 ,but one must not forget the various improvements which have been made in coal-burning furnaces to eliminate the ash-and-coal-shovelling labor as much as possible4 ,there is the self-feeding boiler1 which has a large magazine of coal which can be filled once a day and which automatically supplies the fire with fuel as it burns up4 ,then1 too1 there is the large ash-pit in which the ashes may accumulate for some time before removal is necessary1 or the revolving ash-collector sunk into the floor below the furnace into which the ashes may be dropped and taken out in cans4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,portable ,,vacuum ,,cleaner ,for cleaning purposes1 one must recognize the enormous grip that the vacuum cleaner has had on the popular mind1 and nearly every housekeeper would own one if money permitted it4 ,perhaps the installation of pipes throughout the house for a central cleaning-machine in the cellar is a little too expensive for the small home1 but certainly electric base plugs should be located in the rooms to which the portable type of cleaner can be attached4 ,such outlets should be placed in central positions in order to permit the moving of the machine to all parts of the various rooms4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,up-,,to-,,date ,,laundry ,the laundry should be equipped with electric outlets to which an electric washer can be plugged4 ,these machines usually require about #cjj watts4 ,electric irons require about #fjj watts4 ,if laundry labor-saving devices are to be bought as a complete equipment1 a small fortune can be spent upon them1 for there are electric wringers1 electrically driven mangles for ironing flat work1 a special ironing-board with electric iron attachment1 and electrically heated clothes-driers4 ,a plan of a well-equipped laundry is shown in the cut4 ,illustration3 ,,dish ,,washer ,,and ,,table ,illustration3 ,,kitchen ,,dresser ,,of ,,white ,,enameled ,,steel ,if we consider the machines used in the kitchen for cleaning purposes1 a considerable list can be made1 but the gas and oil stove and fireless cooker should not be forgotten1 since they accomplish cleaning in a negative way1 for they eliminate the dirt and ashes of the old-fashioned coal-range4 ,then1 too1 the automatic gas water-heater1 and also the oil water-heater1 give the best material for cleaning that is known to mankind--hot water4 ,but as electricity becomes more available we have the electric stove and the electric water-heater1 which is superior to the gas and oil heater1 as far as labor-saving is considered4 ,then there is the electric dish-washer1 which performs all the washing1 rinsing1 and drying operations4 ,the dishes and other tableware are securely held in removable racks while being washed1 thus preventing breakage4 ,when not in operation this dish-washer can be used as a white-enamel-topped kitchen-table4 ,one must not forget the electric silver-polisher and knife-grinder and other smaller instruments for cleaning that can be operated by a small motor4 ,machines for the ,preparation of ,foods ,machines of this kind include a great variety of small inventions intended to safely store the food1 prepare it for cooking1 and cook it4 ,there is the small electric refrigerator1 the thermonor which keeps foods chilled by evaporation of water1 the ordinary ice-box1 with its special door to put ice in from the outside1 the special receiving-box in the wall into which the milkman can place his milk-bottles in the morning or the butcher his meat4 ,then for the small house is the very important kitchen-cabinet1 with its special place for the keeping of flour1 sugar1 dish-pans1 and a hundred other things that are needed to be handy at the time of preparing the food4 ,electrically operated coffee-grinders1 meat-choppers1 bread-mixers1 egg-beaters1 toasters1 coffee-percolators1 chafing-dishes1 samovars1 frying-pans1 teakettles1 radiant grilles1 and other similar devices are but a few suggestions of the multitude of inventions actually on the market and found practical as labor-saving machines4 ,why should one sweat at the brow on a hot summer day freezing the ice-cream when an electrically driven motor can do the same work at the cost of a few cents8 ,why should one swelter in the hot kitchen during the jam and jelly making season when an electric fan can give the necessary cooling breeze1 and the electric stove apply the heat more to what it is cooking than to the surrounding atmosphere8 ,of course the answer is that the cost of such equipment is too high1 but we are gradually learning how to make these articles cheaper1 and also learning how much energy they save us4 ,old traditions are breaking down in the kitchen1 and the new machines are accepted more readily than they used to be4 ,no longer does the younger generation think that what was good enough for father or mother is good enough for it4 ,grandmother used to wear her fingers down peeling potatoes and carrots1 and stain them black1 but daughter prefers to use a simple scraping device of hard stones set in a waterproof substance1 which acts like rough sandpaper upon the skins of the vegetables1 and then grandmother used to chop meat in a bowl1 but now it is put in at one end of an electric grinder and comes out hash at the other4 ,the older generation of cooks were not attracted by labor-saving devices1 but the point of view to-day is different4 ,that is the reason that the small house is attracting more buyers to-day than formerly1 for its small up-keep and its small and cheerful kitchen are means of escape from too heavy household duties4 ,machines for ,moving ,objects about the ,house ,illustration3 ,a ,,table-,,service ,,wagon ,the electric dumb-waiter belongs to this class1 but it is not installed in small houses very often4 ,however1 every one can afford the clothes-chute1 which guides the dirty clothes down to the laundry4 ,the table-service wagon is a very convenient help in serving a meal and removing the dishes when there is no maid to wait upon the diners4 ,then there is the china-closet which opens through to the kitchen from the dining-room4 ,the dishes are washed in the kitchen and placed in the closet1 and at the next meal they are taken out from the dining-room side without waste of steps4 ,the old ash-can need not be lugged out of the cellar if a small telescope hoist is installed1 and the coal can be put into the cellar through a metal coal-chute1 instead of through the window4 ,wet clothes from the laundry can be hung out of the window on a revolving drier without going out into the yard1 or placed in an electric drier in the laundry on rainy days4 ,the transportation of small objects about the house can be very much reduced if machinery for this purpose is installed in the beginning4 ,most people think it is worth the price1 and as soon as they see a way to paying for it they are certain purchasers4 ,machines ,that ,automatically ,keep ,watch ,there is no need of getting up at five o'clock in the morning to turn the draft on in the furnace so that the house will be warm by breakfast4 ,an electric thermostatic control can be made to do this1 and in fact it can be regulated to keep the house in good temperature all the day4 ,it is not necessary to light a fire to have hot water if an automatic gas-heater is next to the boiler1 which lights the gas with a pilot-light when the faucet is turned on or when the temperature gets below a predetermined number of degrees4 ,one does not need to worry about burning the roast in the oven if an automatic clock-timer is on it1 which turns off the gas after the meat has cooked the correct number of hours4 ,food in a fireless cooker never worries the housekeeper1 for it will not burn1 and she knows it will be ready to serve when taken out4 ,she does not have to stay home to let the delivery boy in with the vegetables1 for he can put them into a small metal box built into the wall1 which has a door that permits him to put his goods in1 but does not permit any one getting an arm into the house1 and the ice-man can deliver ice without calling her to the door4 ,and so it goes2 each new invention along this line removes the need of thinking of the small things about the house and of being continually on hand and a slave to them4 ,machines to ,simplify the ,toilet ,we often forget the elegance of the modern bathtub1 but think of the labor of our forefathers when the bath night came around4 ,the water had to be heated on the stove1 the tub gotten out and filled with cold water from the pump1 and then warmed up with the water in the teakettle1 and after all was finished the water and tub had to be removed4 ,it was quite an event1 and there is no wonder that a bath was taken only once a week4 ,but what is it to have a bath to-day1 with plenty of hot water1 a thermostatic control of its temperature1 a fine shower1 and a warm bathroom4 ,but such things as a bathroom with its modern lavatory1 water-closet1 and bathtub and tiled floor and wainscot are commonplace things1 and are always expected to be installed in a house4 ,one does not question the advisability of spending money on this equipment1 and so it will be in the future with much of the machinery which we hesitate to buy to-day on account of the additional cost in the construction of the house4 ,illustration ,if one is willing to spend the money1 electrically operated shampooing-machines can be installed1 curling-irons1 vibrators1 ozonators1 hair-driers1 shaving-mugs1 heat-baths1 etc41 but these seem luxuries to us yet4 ,but will the next generation look upon them this way8 ,a very elegant bathroom may also be equipped with built-in receptacles in the tile wainscot for holding soap1 sponges1 toilet-paper1 tumblers1 tooth-brushes1 etc4 ,fine white-enamelled medicine-cabinets are not uncommon to see built into the walls4 ,glass rods for towels and glass shelves for miscellaneous objects add much to the practical up-keep of the bathroom4 ,faucets over the bathtubs and lavatories are now covered with white enamel and have porcelain handles1 so that the work of polishing nickel ones is done away with4 ,water-closet bowls are designed with such deep water-seals and with such powerful flushing-jets that they do not need the cleaning that the older types required4 ,tubs are built into the walls and down on the floors1 so that dirt cannot collect under them1 as it did under the old leg-supported tubs4 ,thus each year brings forth more improvements that are helping to reduce the labor of keeping house4 ,,xvii ,,concrete ,,work ,,around ,,the ,,house ,concrete has become such an excellent servant to the needs of various objects built around the house that no apology will be offered for devoting a chapter to its use4 ,of course1 one is familiar with the artistic flagstone walk with open joints through which the grass is allowed to grow1 and one cannot deny the beauty of brick pavements2 but in spite of these the concrete walk is found about more houses wherever one goes than any other type1 and1 although in most cases very ugly1 yet it cannot be relegated to the past even by the most fastidious1 for its existence depends upon very fundamental qualities of practical serviceability4 ,and likewise1 although we may not have seen concrete walks that had the charm of rubble-stone or brick1 yet they are coming to be used more and more1 for they can be made to appear very beautiful if properly made4 ,concrete garden furniture1 concrete pools1 fountains1 garden ornaments1 tennis-courts1 and other familiar adjuncts to the lawn about the house1 are making themselves evident on all sides4 ,there is something about the material that lends itself to such uses1 for even the owner of the house can get out and work in it1 and need not call in a contractor4 ,illustration3 ,rough ,cast ,finish or ,splatter ,dash ,pebble ,dash ,however1 much of the prejudice that exists against concrete is due to its usual ugly appearance1 which is no fault of the material but of the one who built with it4 ,we see too much concrete that is dull1 pasty1 and gray1 and marred on the surface with cobweb lines of cracks2 but this need not be4 ,concrete surfaces can be made as brilliant as any other material by properly treating it4 ,all that is needed to do this is to carefully study the methods of producing textures1 and texture is nothing more than breaking up the surface into small patches of light and dark1 so intermingled that they give interest4 ,for example1 after the forms have been removed1 the outside of the concrete can be covered with cement mortar1 thrown onto it with a whisk-broom1 which will make the mortar stick to the surface in little lumps and hills4 ,the light playing over such a surface will cast shadows in the hollows between the lumps and light up the tops of the lumps4 ,this will give a texture of interest that is pleasing to the eye4 ,on the other hand1 the cement mortar may be plastered over the surface of the concrete and used as a sticking bed to hold small pebbles of different colors and shades thrown against it4 ,these pebbles will be colorful1 some dark and dull and some light or sparkling like glass4 ,thus a play of broken light will be thrown back from the surface to the eye1 and the observer will be pleased4 ,then1 too1 the outer layer of the cement1 which was next to the forms1 may be composed of white cement and some aggregate like small chips of marble4 ,when the forms are removed it will be found that this beautiful aggregate will not show1 but the entire surface will partake of the monotonous white or gray of the cement4 ,however1 if this thin coating of cement is removed1 then the variety and sparkle of the aggregate below will be revealed4 ,this might be done by striking the surface all over with a stone-cutting tool which is used to surface stones1 or it might be done by a scrubbing or rubbing with carborundum blocks4 ,there are innumerable ways by which texture can be developed on anything made of concrete1 and experimenting in this line is a most fascinating employment4 ,for this reason1 if properly handled1 concrete is particularly adapted to the making of all kinds of house accessories1 since it is also easily shaped in moulds4 ,illustration3 ,finish made by the ,pointer ,finish made by the ,bush ,hammer ,the materials used for this concrete work have much to do with its success4 ,ordinarily there is no need of inspecting the cement1 for most of the well-known brands of cement on the market are about as reliable as human effort can make them4 ,the materials which do need consideration1 however1 are sand and gravel4 ,the one essential of sand is that it be free from loam1 mica1 clay1 and organic matter4 ,no sand should contain more than #c per cent by weight of loam or clay or #a per cent of mica4 ,the quantity of loam or other fine impurities can be determined by shaking the sand up with water in a bottle1 and allowing it to settle4 ,the fine impurities will settle on the top and its proportional relation to the sand estimated4 ,to determine whether the sand has much organic matter in it1 a #ab-ounce prescription bottle can be filled with sand to #d inches and then added to this should be added a #c-per-cent solution of caustic soda until this solution and the sand fill seven ounces4 ,the contents should be shaken well and allowed to stand for twenty-four hours4 ,if the liquid which settles on top shows a dark color1 then the sand has too much organic matter in it1 but if it is clear or slightly yellow it may be used without washing4 ,the size of sand particles should be such that they will pass through a quarter-inch screen4 ,the usual size of aggregates should range from one-quarter inch to an inch and a half in diameter1 and the various sizes should be so graded that they will make the most compact mass4 ,the common run of bank gravel must be screened and washed4 ,to make really good concrete that is water-tight1 the grading of the aggregate is most important4 ,in fact1 to determine the various quantities that should be used of the materials on hand1 some method must be adopted to give the quantity of cement necessary to fill the voids in the sand and the quantity of cement and sand necessary to fill the voids in the aggregate4 ,a rather crude way of doing this is to employ water as the measure of the voids4 ,fill a pail with sand1 and then pour water into it until the water1 which is absorbed by the sand1 comes to the same level as the sand4 ,note the quantity of water used up4 ,if it represented #de per cent of the volume of the sand1 then it is known roughly that about #ej per cent of the volume of the sand ought to be the quantity of cement needed to fill in the voids of the sand4 ,thus1 one part of cement to two parts of sand4 ,if now the gravel is measured in the same way and it is found that the voids show about #dj per cent of the volume of the aggregate1 then1 assuming a little more than the water shows1 about #ej per cent of sand and cement will be required to fill up these voids4 ,that is1 there should be just twice as much stone as there is cement and sand4 ,we finally1 then1 arrive at the proportion for the concrete as follows3 #a part of cement to #b parts of sand to #d parts of gravel4 ,the amount of water which is added to make the mixture of concrete should not be too much4 ,it should be of such a quantity that the mix is mushy but not watery1 even when it is to be poured into forms4 ,sidewalks and ,porch ,floors ,illustration3 ,concrete ,sidewalk ,it is generally recognized that one-course concrete sidewalks are the most successful when built by the average workman1 for the slab is of one uniform body and not two layers1 which might not have knitted together properly4 ,for porch floors and walks these slabs should be #e inches thick and laid on a good foundation4 ,it is best to excavate #d inches for the depth of the walk1 tamp the ground1 and pour water over it1 to note whether it is absorbed or stays on top4 ,if it is not readily drained off1 it ought not to be used as the foundation of the walk1 but should be excavated to a depth of #aj inches to #ab inches4 ,in this excavation should then be tamped gravel or cinders1 and some provision should be made by which any water that would seep through this gravel may be drained off4 ,the timbers used for the forms along the edges of the walk may be #b by #f's1 held in position with pegs4 ,slabs should then be determined for length4 ,usually they should not be in excess of #f feet in any one direction and -inch expansion joints should be placed in the walks every #be feet4 ,if alternate slabs are laid1 the forms can be removed1 so that the intermediate slabs can be poured between them4 ,of course1 a partial bond will be developed between slabs in this way1 but these joints will be the weakest point in the walk1 and if settlement takes place unequally and one slab breaks from the other1 the crack will develop at this joint and not appear on the face4 ,the expansion joints should1 however1 be real separations1 made with strips of asphaltic felt set between slabs4 ,the usual mixture for concrete walks should be #a part cement to #b parts sand to #c parts of gravel4 ,the mixture should not have too much water in it1 and when poured into the forms the top should be levelled off with a straight stick stretched across from one side of the form to the other4 ,too much trowelling should be avoided1 since this is apt to draw excess water to the surface and also cement1 which will show hair cracks when hardened4 ,it is best not to use a metal trowel but a wooden one1 so that a partial sandy surface is made4 ,after the walk has been laid it should be protected from drying out too quickly by laying over it #d inches of earth or two or three layers of burlap1 which should be wet down about twice a day for a week4 ,all walks and porch floors should have graded tops1 so that water will run off of them4 ,this is usually inch to the foot4 ,sometimes porch floors give trouble from 8dusting0 and wearing away of the surface to a gritty and rough condition4 ,this may have been caused by allowing the floor to dry too quickly or by having trowelled it too much and drawn cement to the surface4 ,it may be remedied by using some one of the commercial floor hardeners or by painting the floor with water-glass solution or boiled linseed-oil4 ,water-glass solution should be diluted with #d to #f parts of water and applied with a brush in as many coats as the concrete will absorb4 ,when boiled linseed-oil is used1 it should be allowed to dry between coats1 and as many coats should be added as the concrete will absorb4 ,both of these treatments will darken the floor1 but the latter will darken it the most1 and appears to be more effective4 ,tennis-,court ,in laying out any other platform construction of concrete1 such as a tennis-court1 the same principles of construction should be observed which were given above for sidewalks4 ,however1 more care should be taken with the drainage and foundation of the tennis-court4 ,not only should the #f-;inch cinder or gravel bed be laid1 but all around the outer edge of the court should be dug a trench about #ah inches wide and #c feet deep4 ,there should be laid at the bottom of this a drain-pipe1 with open joints1 sloping from the centre of one end of the court around both sides and joining together again at the middle of the other end and connected with another pipe to carry off the water of that drain-pipe to some lower level4 ,the diameter of the drain-pipe should be about #e inches and the slope #f inches from its highest level to its lowest level4 ,the upper surface of the court itself should slope across from one long side to the other with a pitch of #b inches4 ,the division lines of the slabs should follow as closely as possible the division lines of the tennis-court4 ,the length of the concrete platform should be #ba feet greater at each end than the length of the court and the width #ab feet wider each side4 ,this makes the entire concrete court #fj feet by #abj feet4 ,illustration3 ,concrete ,tennis-,court ,concrete ,driveway ,illustration3 ,concrete ,runways to ,garage ,such driveways may lead to the garage or up to the porch of the house4 ,one of the cheapest types to the garage is a double runway for the wheels of the automobile4 ,these runways should be about #d feet #h inches on centres and made #ah inches wide4 ,they should be constructed in the same way that walks are built4 ,where a full-width concrete driveway is built1 it should be made about #f inches thick at the centre and #e inches at the edges1 sloping from the centre out4 ,at intervals of every #be feet expansion joints should be built as was specified for walks4 ,concrete ,steps ,the only difficult problem in the construction of concrete steps is the making of forms4 ,these should be well braced to prevent bulging when the concrete is tamped into them4 ,the aggregate ought not to be over inch diameter1 so that as the material is tamped into the forms and the sides spaded1 a good surface will be left when the forms are removed4 ,if the aggregate is too large1 some pieces may catch along the forms1 and when they are removed large holes will be found in the risers of the steps4 ,the treads should be finished with a wood trowel4 ,illustration3 ,concrete ,garden ,retaining ,wall ,small ,retaining ,walls ,wherever terraces or lawns need the support of a small retaining wall1 concrete is excellent for this purpose4 ,the foundations of such walls should be carried down below the frost-line4 ,the usual mixture is #a 3 #b 3 #d4 ,drains should be built at intervals along the lower part of the wall1 to allow the seeping ground water to come out4 ,at intervals of about every #be feet expansion joints should be made1 somewhat the shape of the tongue and groove in flooring4 ,the base of such a retaining wall should be at least as wide as _/ the height of wall4 ,pools and ,fountain-,basins ,illustration3 ,concrete ,pool ,such ornaments to the garden are not entirely outside of the possibilities of the small house owner's pocketbook4 ,they should have the exterior walls carried down below frost-level1 and the bottom and sides reinforced with steel4 ,for the bottom woven-wire reinforcement will answer the purpose and for the sides -inch reinforcing rods should be used4 ,these pools ought not to be more than about #b feet deep1 in which case the bottoms may be made #f inches thick and the sides #ab inches at the top and #ad inches at the bottom4 ,ornamental ,garden ,furniture of ,concrete ,illustration3 ,simple ,types of ,concrete ,garden ,seats ,there is no great difficulty or secret in making simple garden furniture of concrete4 ,generally where the furniture is of simple lines1 the mould can be made of wood4 ,if1 say1 a bench is to be made1 the top might be moulded as a slab of concrete1 and the legs at the ends as slabs1 and all fitted together4 ,if flower-boxes are desired1 the mould would necessarily have to be a little more complicated1 but not greatly so4 ,the one thing to remember in making any of these moulded bits of concrete is that they should always have embedded inside of them reinforcing wire lath4 ,illustration3 ,concrete ,vase for ,garden ,of course the making of ornamental pots and vases is rather difficult and takes some skill4 ,here the original shape must be modelled in clay1 and a plaster mould made of it1 which is shellacked inside and greased4 ,special cores must also be designed1 and where fine surfaces are desired various processes of mixing ingredients must be resorted to4 ,this is a special field of itself1 and men who do this kind of work generally have studied out methods of their own4 ,some examples of this kind of work are illustrated4 ,,xviii ,,classification ,,and ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,architectural ,,motifs ,,used ,,in ,,small-,,house ,,designing ,there are not many architectural motifs that can be used in designing the small house1 and the ones which are employed over and over again are fundamentally a part of the construction4 ,the plan must build up into block forms1 because of the requirements of construction1 and the designer has only a handful of shapes that make good roofs1 for the same reason4 ,the varieties of dormer-windows that he can put on the roof are limited to a few that are capable of being reasonably constructed4 ,he cannot be original in the forms he selects1 for they have all been thought out before4 ,he should know them as he does the alphabet and build with them as he builds words with letters4 ,for example1 take the plan of the small house4 ,can there be much room for originality here8 ,usually there are at the most four rooms which must be arranged on the ground floor of the small house3 the living-room1 dining-room1 kitchen1 and pantry4 ,on the second floor are generally placed the bedrooms4 ,does it not seem reasonable to assume that all of the best combinations of so few rooms must be quite limited in number1 and that the chances are that they have already been thought out8 ,many a young designer has labored enthusiastically upon what he believes is his original layout for a small house1 only to find later that his solution has been already worked out and perhaps a trifle better4 ,when an inventor tackles any particular problem1 his first step1 if he is wise1 is to consult the patents which have previously been issued along this line1 and then he will know what has been done4 ,illustration3 ,square ,plan ,rectangular ,plan 8,l0-,plan ,illustration3 ,rectangular ,plan with ,small ,extension ,t-,plan ,illustration3 ,combination of 8,t0-plan with ,l-plan ,u-,plan ,try as hard as he will1 no designer can get away from the fact that the cheapest arrangement of rooms in his small-house plan makes a square unit and builds a square block house1 but that such a plan is one of the most difficult forms to make pleasing to the eye4 ,for this reason the room arrangement1 which gives a rectangular-shaped house1 is more often adopted4 ,but we often tire of too much repetition of the rectangular house1 and designers try to vary it a little4 ,there is not much leeway here1 however4 ,by adding a wing at right angles to the main rectangle of the house1 we can have an ,l-shaped plan which is easier to give architectural variety to1 but very uneconomical1 for the number of linear feet of exterior wall for a house of this shape is just as great as that for a house which is a rectangle in plan1 as long as the ,l and as wide4 ,this also holds true of the ,u-shaped plan and the ,t-shaped plan and the combination of the ,t and the ,l shaped plans4 ,in fact1 as soon as the designer tries to get away from the simplest rectangular shapes in the small house1 the economic reins pull him back1 and he must go slow in selecting too picturesque plans4 ,limited1 therefore1 in his possible scope1 the real work of the designer should be one of perfecting the acceptable solutions which have been already worked out4 ,only once in a generation are absolutely new arrangements stumbled on4 ,illustration3 ,,gambrel ,,gable ,illustration3 ,,wall ,,gable ,,hip ,,roof ,,flat ,,roof ,on top of these various-shaped blocks1 which these plans will form1 a roof must be erected4 ,here again one would think that the architectural motifs would be quite varied1 and yet when the matter is studied it is not the case4 ,there are only five fundamental shapes of roofs which can be placed upon these blocks1 and two of these types are really the same1 and another ought not to be employed1 so that1 after all1 there are actually only three fundamental roof motifs to use4 ,these are the gable roof1 the gambrel roof1 and the hip roof4 ,the wall-gable roof is merely a type of end treatment for the gable roof1 and the flat roof is not suited to the average small house in the country or suburbs1 because of traditions4 ,illustration3 ,a ,b ,these two houses are ugly as sin1 yet are considered very practical4 ,all rooms on #bnd floor are square and cellars are high and dry4 ,illustration3 ,c ,this house is considered impractical1 because rooms on #b floor are not square and are lighted with dormers1 and the cellar is low and partly omitted4 ,but architecturally something can be said of it4 ,in the small house the designer has the choice of either placing these roofs above the second floor or placing the second floor within the roof4 ,where the former is selected he sets for himself a very difficult architectural problem--that of trying to make the proportions of a house limited in ground area fit under a roof placed too high4 ,this has rarely been solved with any satisfaction1 for in nearly all cases the house looks too high and stilted4 ,the comparative drawings show how true this is4 ,notice how house ,a and ,b look stilted1 while house ,c has a charm which no manner of designing would ever add to the former4 ,is it not a fact to be reckoned with that the small house is best solved architecturally if the second floor is placed within the roof8 ,economy of material is certainly secured in this way1 and the construction is greatly simplified4 ,the chief difficulties are to properly ventilate these rooms under the roof1 and to give them good lighting without making too many and too large dormers4 ,this is a hard problem1 but it has been solved successfully4 ,the ,dutch gambrel roof was developed for this purpose1 and there has been no doubt as to its beauty1 except when wrongly used by placing it above the second story or poking the second floor through it in one long1 single dormer4 ,illustration3 ,,variations ,,of ,,design ,,developed ,,from ,,the ,,few ,,fundamental ,,structural ,,motifs ,it is quite evident from the above how important the roof designing is in the small house4 ,it goes without saying that the simplest arrangement of roofs is the cheapest to build and the easiest to maintain4 ,every valley means a leak at some later date1 for as careful as may be the builder1 the history of roof valleys shows that they leak sooner or later4 ,the designer cannot freely mix his roofs either4 ,gambrel roofs1 hip roofs1 and gabled roofs do not go together harmoniously1 without considerable study1 and as a general rule they should not be required to do so4 ,the usual methods of construction of these types of roofs are indicated well enough in the drawings and need no explanation4 ,the ridge-poles in all cases are not of any structural importance1 but act as alignments for rafters4 ,for this reason they are made only an inch thick4 ,hip rafters have much the same function in hip roofs4 ,whenever valley rafters are needed1 these must be designed like floor girders4 ,if dormers are built into the roof1 it is customary to double the rafters around the openings4 ,where gable dormers are constructed1 one of the valley rafters must be extended to the ridge-pole1 or else the rafters will collapse4 ,illustration3 ,,gambrel ,,roof ,,construction ,illustration3 ,,construction ,,of ,,gable ,,roof ,illustration3 ,,hip ,,roof ,,construction ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,construction ,,of ,a ,,dormer ,even when it comes to the design of dormer-windows1 the limits of originality are quite restricted4 ,the drawings show all of the possible types that have been used with any success4 ,variations in the proportions and the details of these motifs is about all that the designer can hope for1 and yet this is one of the hardest problems to solve4 ,the correct designing of dormer-windows is a very rare thing to be seen4 ,how many houses of modern ,colonial style have ugly dormers6 ,they are usually made too large and too wide and fat4 ,the dormer-windows used in the old ,colonial houses were narrow and high1 and in those proportions were their charming appeals4 ,to-day a double-hung window with weight-boxes is used in these dormers1 and the whole width made too wide because of these additions to the sides4 ,this is a warning that the designer should be careful in adapting old motifs to modern requirements4 ,this particular problem has been correctly solved with the use of the weight-box1 but how many times it has not been solved is evident on all sides4 ,another unfortunate use of the dormer-window motif is the extension of the second floor up through the lower slope of the gambrel roof4 ,this cuts away any legitimate lower section of the gambrel roof1 and in order to preserve it1 the designer projects it outward from the ends of the house1 and has it skirt by the side of the second floor like an added toboggan-slide with no earthly reason for its existence4 ,then1 too1 the prairie-schooner dormer1 the semicircle one1 and the eyebrow dormer are certainly types to be used with great care1 for they can become eyesores without effort1 and they cost a good deal to construct4 ,where the dormer is to be made inconspicuous the flat-roof type has been successfully employed1 but the roofing material on it should be tin or copper4 ,in some of the trap-door types of dormers where the pitch is very slight1 the roofing material ought to be of sheet metal4 ,the sides of dormers are made less conspicuous by covering them with the same material as used on the roof1 but this is not always desirable4 ,however1 all vertical joints of dormers with the roof should be carefully flashed to prevent leaks4 ,illustration3 ,,flat ,,treatment ,,of ,,gable ,,end ,the treatment of the gable ends of dormers is practically the same as that required for the treatment of the gable ends of the main roof4 ,here again1 although on the face of it there seem to be innumerable ways of treating the gable ends of roofs1 yet there are comparatively few methods4 ,the drawings show about all the possible ways1 and any types which appear to differ from these can be shown to be merely variations4 ,the simplest method of treatment is to place a small moulding under the ends of the shingles4 ,a variation of this can be made by adding a wide board below the moulding or a course of shingles running parallel with the edge4 ,the classic cornice can be used1 but great taste is needed in handling this motif1 for any pitch which is not of the traditional classic pediment form is apt to look badly4 ,the verge-board motif comes from half-timber traditions1 and is generally used in a very careless fashion4 ,in general1 it usually looks best when some visible means of support is made a part of the design4 ,illustration3 ,,flat ,,treatment ,,of ,,gable ,,end ,illustration3 ,,adaptation ,,of ,,classic ,,pediment ,illustration3 ,,verge-,,board ,,treatment ,,of ,,gable ,,end ,the shingle imitation of the thatched-roof gable is one of those amusing architectural fads which do not have very deep roots1 and sooner or later are forgotten4 ,the wall-gable treatment is very dignified1 but is usually associated with larger houses1 but when simplified it has a charm which none of the other motifs can offer4 ,illustration3 ,,shingle ,,imitating ,,gable ,,end ,,of ,,thatched-,,roof ,,wall ,,gable ,other than these few1 there are no common motifs to use in adorning the gable end of a roof4 ,this and the previous statements only go to prove that the originality of design in the small house is limited within a narrow scope1 and that the real beauty is not obtained in trying to find different forms1 but in trying to use the traditional structural forms in the best proportions and giving careful attention to the details4 ,in fact1 it has been said that house designing is largely an assembling1 into pleasing general proportions1 of carefully designed traditional details4 ,,xix ,,traditions ,,of ,,building ,,from ,,which ,,our ,,modern ,,methods ,,are ,,derived ,importance of ,tradition ,the art of building has grown by evolution1 like other things in this world4 ,the carpenter who builds in wood to-day builds according to certain customs which come down to him from centuries of carpenters4 ,modern methods of constructing the small house have all human history for their background4 ,when we speak of modern methods1 we merely refer to those which are used at this time1 as they have evolved from past experience and been considered satisfactory4 ,to hear some architects and builders talk1 one would think that modern ,america had the monopoly on good construction1 and that our system of building was newly invented4 ,how often have we heard remarks like the following from the self-styled practical man3 8,the genius of the present age is eminently practical and constructive4 ,improvements of every kind and ingenious contrivances for easily effecting results1 which in past ages were only accomplished by slow1 laborious effort1 444 etc40 ,but they were saying this kind of thing in #aheh1 for the above is quoted from a book of this date1 so that even the practical man is traditional in his remarks about building4 ,there are also too many young men to-day wasting their time discovering what they think are new ways of building1 but which have been known for centuries and discarded as unsatisfactory4 ,if they would only study what had already been done1 they would save themselves a lot of trouble4 ,styles of ,design ,change1 but ,construction the ,same ,the styles in designing houses may change from year to year1 or more likely from generation to generation1 but the methods of building and the traditions in back of them continue on1 with only slight changes which mark the evolution of the art4 ,in as brief a period as we have had in this country to produce domestic architecture1 we can notice very distinct styles of design1 but running through them all are similar ways of building4 ,our earliest ,colonial houses were built according to traditions brought over from ,england4 ,these traditions in turn had deep roots in ,europe1 back to primitive days1 when houses were not much more than temporary1 movable shacks4 ,there is1 however1 one general trend through which building methods seem to pass4 ,first1 we have rather heavy1 clumsy ways of building2 this is followed by a long period of experimental cutting down of the materials of construction and standardization of parts2 following this comes the stage of extreme lightness of construction1 when the builders go as near the limit of safety as possible1 and then accidents occur which tend to discredit the system4 ,the early ,english houses were built of heavy oak-trees4 ,later half-timber houses used smaller structural members and more standard sizes4 ,these traditions were brought to this country1 but it was soon found that heavy oak was not necessary for their stability1 but that some of the native soft woods would answer the purpose4 ,the thinning-down process continued1 until we developed the frame dwelling of balloon construction which is practically built of #b by #d pieces throughout4 ,we are now having a building code formulated by the ,united ,states ,department of ,commerce1 which is intended to establish the minimum requirements for small-house construction1 so that greatest economy of material can be secured1 but also a precedent set for the minimum cutting down of material in building4 ,in the compilation of this code this tendency to reduce the quantity of material used was very evident in the discussions which centred around the problem of whether the brick walls for small houses should be #ab or #h inches thick4 ,in ,colonial days they thought nothing of building them #b feet thick4 ,to-day we hesitate at building them as thick as #ab inches4 ,in fact1 our building codes show no uniformity of opinion on the matter1 and our experts disagree4 ,the preliminary form of the above-mentioned code has settled upon an #h-;inch thickness for walls not exceeding #cj feet1 and made additional allowance for an extra #e feet in height on the gable end of the building4 ,the process of thinning down is still going on1 as this indicates4 ,the illustrations representing briefly the historical progress of styles in domestic architecture in the ,united ,states are given to show how these styles have varied1 and impress the reader with the rather constant undercurrent of construction methods throughout these changes4 ,in the early ,colonial houses the wooden frames were built of heavy oak timbers which were hewn into shape and dressed down with the adze4 ,sometimes rafters and joists were sawn1 and the further along we progress in time the more we find the saw being used4 ,illustration3 ,,american ,,domestic ,illustration3 ,,american ,,domestic ,illustration3 ,,american ,,domestic ,if we now jump to the period between #ahfe and #ahhi1 we find that the awful atrocities of architecture were being built in the ,east with similar heavy frames1 although slightly less massive4 ,where tradition was less strong in the ,west1 the balloon frame had grown up1 but during the same period houses of equally bad design were built with one or the other systems1 showing that the system of construction had very little to do with the style of architecture4 ,even consider the variety of styles used in modern domestic work1 and then one can realize that all of these different types of buildings are built much in the same way4 ,good design has apparently little relation to good construction1 although good design is improved when it expresses the construction4 ,we often see very beautiful houses set up for moving-picture plays1 but these are built of flimsy stage scenery4 ,we have also seen very ugly houses which make us curse the builder for having built them so well4 ,fundamental ,building ,traditions ,inherited from ,england ,it is from ,england that we have inherited most of our building traditions of domestic work4 ,the earliest methods of constructing a home were much the same for all ,european countries4 ,woven brushwood of the crudest sort was undoubtedly the first beginnings of domestic construction4 ,the next step in advance was1 according to a ,german theory1 invented by a woman4 ,it consisted of erecting leaning poles and stakes and filling the space between with inwoven wattlework4 ,the shapes were conical1 like the ,indian tents1 but later the gable roof shape was adopted because of the greater interior space allowed4 ,in building the gable-shaped houses the early builders used very heavy and massive construction for the ridge-pole and its support1 for they believed that this upheld the rafters4 ,this tradition was kept alive until quite recent times1 but now we know that when rafters are supported at their base1 the ridge-pole practically takes none of the weight and need only be used for ease of erection4 ,illustration3 ,,primitive ,,type ,,old ,,english ,,cruck ,,construction ,but to our ancestors the important problem in first erecting the house was to secure the substantial support of the ridge-pole4 ,obviously the erection of two forked trees at either end of the ridge-pole made an excellent solution1 but when the room was long this meant that the interior had to be cluttered up with interior posts4 ,we find then that one of the primitive methods in ,england of eliminating the interior posts was the adoption of the cruck system of construction which is shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,by selecting two bent trees and placing them together in a shape like a wish-bone1 the ridge-pole could be well supported without interior columns4 ,by placing cross-tie beams on these bent trees and extending them outward1 the plates for supporting the lower ends of the rafters could be held in position4 ,this permitted the carpenters to erect the exterior walls independently of the roof1 a thing which they seem to have desired4 ,there is another variation of the above method of supporting the ridge-pole1 and that is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,instead of selecting a bent tree1 one was secured which was upright for a certain height1 and then which bent to one side with a branch4 ,by placing two of these trees together1 a perfect end was formed for the house4 ,however1 this was not a very good type1 since it meant the selecting of very unusual-shaped trees4 ,illustration3 ,,english ,,post ,,truss ,,construction ,for this reason the system of post-and-truss construction1 which is shown in ,fig4 #d1 was the natural outcome of the above4 ,diagonal bracing at the corners evidently was found to be useful in resisting high wind-storms1 and it was usually employed4 ,there apparently remained a distrust of masonry walls among the carpenters1 for they continued to support the roofs entirely upon heavy timber framing1 and records show that the exterior walls were built up after the roof-framing had been completed4 ,there are evidences that the early types of walls1 after the primitive woven brushwood walls proved insecure1 were made like a barricade of trees2 that is1 they were merely a continuous line of vertically placed tree-trunks4 ,this1 of course1 was a ruinously expensive type of wall when timber became scarce1 and it is no wonder that it grew to a system of construction like that shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,even this required a good deal of wood1 so that the filling of the space between the timbers rather logically became masonry or plaster on lath4 ,however1 the method of building shown in ,fig4 #e has all of the elements of the system of construction used in framing modern exterior walls4 ,the most important difference is in the size of the timbers used4 ,illustration3,,type ,,of ,,ancient ,,wooden ,,wall ,,english ,,half ,,timber ,,construction ,the half-timber construction of the ,middle ,ages was only the artistic treatment of this crude system of building4 ,in drawing number #f is a very simple half-timber house which shows practically no attempt at all to decorate4 ,the construction is perfectly evident1 and there are no curves and carving used to ornament the building1 as can be seen on some of the more elaborate houses of the cities4 ,this simple building system was the traditional background of the ,english carpenter1 and it is not at all extraordinary that he brought his methods of building over to this country4 ,illustration3 ,,type ,,of ,,framing ,,for ,,colonial ,,of ,,first ,,period ,,braced ,,frame ,,as ,,developed ,,from ,,new ,,england ,,colonial ,even the custom of calling in the neighbors and feasting them when a house-raising was celebrated came directly from ,english traditions4 ,the old post-and-truss construction of the early ,english houses required framing on the ground and then lifting into position afterward4 ,records show that the people from the surrounding countryside were called in to help1 and their wages of hire were paid by the house owner with a huge feast4 ,in early ,colonial days the nearest neighbors were likewise called in to help raise the frame1 and the host was supposed to feed the gathering1 after the work was finished1 and make a jolly party of eating and drinking--a sort of social debt1 but not looked upon as wages1 as in older days4 ,the hard climate which the earliest ,american colonists had to face and also the abundant supply of wood which lay at their very doors were factors which slightly altered the traditions of building4 ,after the house had been framed and the spaces between the timbers filled with plaster or masonry1 the exterior was covered over with clapboards or shingles as an extra covering against the weather4 ,the use of clapboards or shingles as an exterior covering of course was not new1 for many ,english farmhouses show that it was used in that country4 ,but with this difference in exterior appearance1 the framing underneath was the same as shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,revolt against ,new ,england ,traditions ,it was only a matter of time when the thinning-down process began to make itself evident in the traditions of ,colonial carpentry1 and from its clumsy beginnings it evolved into the more or less standard form of construction which we call the brace-frame4 ,the difficulty of securing good labor in the ,west1 and also the increasing use of the power sawmill1 made it possible and necessary to standardize a quick and easy method of building which would meet the great demand for houses in rapidly growing communities4 ,quoting from the ,new ,york ,tribune of ,january #ah1 #ahee1 we have a very interesting account of the conditions which were then prevalent that brought about this later variation of the wooden frame structure4 ,the conditions there described seem almost like our modern difficulties with labor and materials4 8,mr4 ,robinson said3 444 ,i would saw all my timbers for a frame house1 or ordinary frame outbuilding1 of the following dimensions3 #b #h inches2 #b #d2 #b #a4 ,i have1 however1 built them1 when ,i lived on the ,grand ,prairie of ,indiana1 many miles from sawmills1 nearly all of split and hewed stuff1 making use of rails or round poles1 reduced to straight lines and even thickness on two sides1 for studs and rafters4 ,but sawed stuff is much the easiest1 though in a timber country the other is far the cheapest4 ,first1 level your foundation1 and lay down two of the #b #h pieces1 flatwise1 for side-walls4 ,upon these set the floor-sleepers1 on edge1 #cb inches apart4 ,fasten one at each end1 and perhaps one or two in the middle1 if the building is large1 with a wooden pin4 ,these end-sleepers are the end-sills4 ,now lay the floor1 unless you design to have one that would be likely to be injured by the weather before you get on the roof4 ,it is a great saving1 though1 of labor to begin at the bottom of a house and build up4 ,in laying the floor first1 you have no studs to cut and fit around1 and can let your boards run out over the ends1 just as it happens1 and afterward saw them off smooth by the sill4 ,now set up a corner-post1 which is nothing but one of the #b #d studs1 fastening the bottom by four nails2 make it plumb1 and stay it each way4 ,set another at the other corner1 and then mark off your door and window places and set up the side-studs and put in the frames4 ,fill up with studs between1 #af inches apart1 supporting the top by a line or strip of board from corner to corner1 or stayed studs between4 ,now cover that side with rough sheeting boards1 unless you intend to side-up with clapboards on the studs1 which ,i never would do1 except for a small1 common building4 ,make no calculation about the top of your studs2 wait till you get up that high4 ,you may use them of any length1 with broken or stub-shot ends1 no matter4 ,when you have got this side boarded as high as you can reach1 proceed to set up another4 ,in the meantime other workmen can be lathing the first side4 ,when you have got the sides all up1 fix upon the height of your upper floor1 and strike a line upon the studs for the under side of the joist4 ,cut out a joist #d inches wide1 half inch deep1 and nail on firmly one of the inch strips4 ,upon these strips rest the chamber floor-joist4 ,cut out a joist #a inch deep1 in the lower edge1 and lock it on the strip1 and nail each joist to each stud4 ,now lay this floor1 and go on to build the upper story1 as you did the lower one2 splicing on and lengthening out studs wherever needed1 until you get high enough for the plate4 ,splice studs or joists by simply butting the ends together1 and nailing strips on each side4 ,strike a line and saw off the top of the studs even upon each side--not the ends--and nail on one of the inch strips4 ,that is the plate4 ,cut the ends of the upper joist the bevel of the pitch of the roof1 and nail them fast to the plate1 placing the end ones inside the studs1 which you will let run up promiscuously1 to be cut off by the rafter4 ,now lay the garret floor by all means before you put on the roof1 and you will find that you have saved #ej per cent of hard labor4 ,the rafters1 if supported so as not to be over #aj feet long1 will be strong enough of the #b #d stuff4 ,bevel the ends and nail fast to the joist4 ,then there is no strain upon the sides by the weight of the roof1 which may be covered with shingles or other materials--the cheapest being composition or cement roofs4 ,to make one of this kind1 take soft1 spongy1 thick paper1 and tack it upon the boards in courses like shingles4 ,commence at the top with hot tar and saturate the paper1 upon which sift evenly fine gravel1 pressing it in while hot--that is1 while tar and gravel are both hot4 ,one coat will make a tight roof2 two coats will make it more durable4 ,put up your partitions of stuff #a #d1 unless where you want to support the upper joist--then use stuff #b #d1 with strips nailed on top1 for the joist to rest upon1 fastening all together by nails1 wherever timbers touch4 ,thus you will have a frame without a tenon or mortise1 or brace1 and yet it is far cheaper1 and incalculably stronger when finished1 than though it were composed of timbers #aj inches square1 with a thousand auger holes and a hundred days' work with the chisel and adze1 making holes and pins to fill them4 8,to lay out and frame a building so that all its parts will come together requires the skill of a master mechanic1 and a host of men and a deal of hard work to lift the great sticks of timber into position4 ,to erect a balloon building requires about as much mechanical skill as it does to build a board fence4 ,any farmer who is handy with the saw1 iron square1 and hammer1 with one of his boys or a common laborer to assist him1 can go to work and put up a frame for an outbuilding1 and finish it off with his own labor1 just as well as to hire a carpenter to score and hew great oak sticks and fill them full of mortises1 all by the science of the #8square rule4' ,it is a waste of labor that we should all lend our aid to put a stop to4 ,besides1 it will enable many a farmer to improve his place with new buildings1 who1 though he has long needed them1 has shuddered at the thought of cutting down half of the best trees in his wood-lot1 and then giving half a year's work to hauling it home and paying for what ,i do know is the wholly useless labor of framing4 ,if it had not been for the knowledge of balloon frames1 ,chicago and ,san ,francisco could never have arisen1 as they did1 from little villages to great cities in a single year4 ,it is not alone city buildings1 which are supported by one another1 that may be thus erected1 but those upon the open prairie1 where the wind has a sweep from ,mackinaw to the ,mississippi1 for there they are built1 and stand as firm as any of the old frames of ,new ,england1 with posts and beams #af inches square40 ,the above address1 which was delivered before the ,american ,institute ,farmers' ,club1 has been quoted in detail because of the interesting point of view of the days of #ahee which it reveals4 ,when ,mr4 ,robinson had finished there were other comments1 especially one by ,mr4 ,youmans1 in which he described early conditions of building in ,san ,francisco4 ,he also said that he had adopted this plan of building on his farm in ,saratoga ,county1 where he found great difficulty in getting carpenters that would do as he wished4 ,they could not give up tenons and mortises1 and braces and big timbers1 for the light ribs1 #b by #d inches1 of a balloon frame4 ,does this not remind the modern reader of comments he has heard upon all sides these days concerning labor which will not do what is wanted but insists on doing things in the old way8 ,some pertinent remarks were also made by a ,mr4 ,stillman1 who testified that he had seen whole blocks of houses built in two weeks at ,san ,francisco1 and better frames he never saw4 ,he said they were put up a story at a time1 the first two floors often being framed and sided in and lived in before the upper part of the house was up4 ,have we any such housing crisis as this1 in these days1 or did we do any quicker building of war villages than that described above8 ,and now we read from the ,preliminary ,report on the ,building ,code ,committee of the ,united ,states ,department of ,commerce the crystallized tradition of this system of wooden frame construction which was evolved so many years ago that we sometimes forget the conditions of its making3 8,exterior ,walls4--#a4 ,wood studding shall be #b #d inches nominal size or larger1 and spaced not to exceed #af inches on centres4 ,all walls shall be securely braced at corners4 ,the minimum sizes specified in these requirements shall in all cases be understood as referring to nominal sizes of such timbers4 #b4 ,exterior walls1 except those of dwellings or parts thereof not more than one story high1 shall be sheathed with boards not less than inch thick4 ,sheathing-boards shall be laid tight and properly nailed to each stud with not less than #b tenpenny nails4 ,where the sheathing is omitted all corners shall be diagonally braced and such other measures taken to secure rigidity as may be necessary4 #c4 ,wood sheathing may be omitted when other types of construction are used that are proven of adequate strength and stability by tests conducted by recognized authorities4 #d4 ,when joists are supported on ledger or ribbon boards1 such boards shall not be less than #a #d inches1 shall be laid into the studs and securely nailed with not less than #b nails to each stud4 ,the floor-joists shall be well spiked to the sides of the studs40 ,,xx ,,traditions ,,of ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,doors ,,and ,,windows ,windows ,illustration3 ,primitive window ,what are the elements of design in the elevations of the small house8 ,surely they are not the five classical orders1 as commonly used in monumental architecture1 but rather they are the doors and windows4 ,the successful placing and careful detailing of the doors and windows of a small house will have more to do with the architectural attractiveness of the structure than anything else1 for1 after all1 the most important part of any elevation is the treatment of the holes in it4 ,the walls would be plain and uninteresting but for the holes where the doors and windows are placed4 ,the fenestration cannot be too large or too small1 and here is the problem4 ,we desire plenty of light and air1 but we must also recognize that windows which are too large leave little wall space in the rooms1 are cold in winter1 and appear less homelike than smaller and snugger appearing ones4 ,then1 too1 windows which are of plain1 clear glass in very large sheets make these holes appear open and black1 and this is quite contrary to our traditions of the windows of a home1 which should be safe and cosey4 ,the omission of muntins from the windows of small houses is a great mistake in design1 even though these small panes require a little more work to wash4 ,illustration3 ,lattice ,window ,our traditions of door and window construction come1 as do other structural traditions1 from ,england4 ,undoubtedly the earliest structures had no windows at all1 but were lighted by the openings through the defective construction of the walls and also through the door4 ,our ancestors of those days were more interested in protecting themselves from outside intruders than they were in fresh air and sunshine in their rooms4 ,when it was safe to build windows they were only holes in the walls4 ,some of the old huts1 built on crucks1 a construction previously described1 had holes in the roofs for windows1 which served the double purpose of letting in light and letting out the smoke of the fire4 ,we get an inkling of what a window was from the very derivation of the word itself1 which comes from the old ,norse word 8wind-auga0 or wind-eye4 ,this does not sound like a glazed sash1 nor does the other ,anglo-,saxon term for window1 8wind-dur10 meaning wind-door1 suggest a closed aperture4 ,of course these windows were undoubtedly closed in some way or other in stormy weather or when danger was outside4 ,probably a wooden board or shutter was used1 which had a small peep-hole cut in it4 ,these were hung from the top1 and when opened were held in position with a prop on the outside4 ,there is no certainty of when the smaller domestic houses of ,england began to use glazed windows4 ,in #aeai ,william ,horman wrote3 8,i wyll haue a latesse before the glasse for brekynge40 ,this would suggest that windows of latticework were preferred because of the cost of glass1 and this might have been filled instead with canvas1 horn1 or tile to let in some light4 ,but another writer in #aefb says3 8,lattice keepeth out the light and letteth in the winde40 ,when glass windows were used1 however1 the small bits of glass were held in position by lead in diamond-shaped patterns1 which probably were adopted from the form of the old lattice windows1 although later it was found that rectangular panes were cheaper4 ,but the use of glass in small houses is comparatively modern1 for1 before the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 glass windows were rare except in churches and gentlemen's houses4 ,illustration3 ,an old unglazed window1 the early beginnings of sash ,traditions of stone mullioned windows were very strong1 and these brought about a system of building wooden1 unglazed sash which had mullions made of oak1 set in a heavy oak frame4 ,one of these is shown in the drawings4 ,the word 8sash0 is derived from the ,french 8chassis10 and its earliest spelling was 8shas0 or 8shash40 ,in a book1 8,mechanick ,exercises10 written by ,moxon in #agjj1 he mentions 8shas frames and shas lights40 ,it was these old1 unglazed wooden sash which gave birth to the modern double-hung and casement window4 ,illustration3 ,crude beginning of the sliding ,sash ,as first made1 they opened by sliding in their frames1 either horizontally or vertically4 ,if they were built to slide vertically they were not counterbalanced with weights1 as in our modern windows1 but were held in position with a hook which caught in notches cut in the side of the frame4 ,it is interesting to quote here what ,william ,horman wrote in #aeai3 8,i haue many prety wyndowes shette with louys goynge up and downe40 ,it is supposed that the idea of counterbalancing these sash by means of weights1 attached by a cord running up over a pulley1 came to ,england from ,holland4 ,this type began to be used about the latter half of the seventeenth century1 and although the early examples were clumsy and heavy and the groove in which the sash were made to run was worked out in the solid1 yet by the process of years of refinement the modern double-hung window was evolved4 ,the traditions of these sliding windows were brought to ,america in ,colonial days1 and they proved to be the most suitable types for our rigorous climate1 whereas the windows1 which swung like doors from their sides1 called casement windows1 did not prove so weather-resisting4 ,illustration3 ,modern ,double-hung ,window ,casement ,window ,sash swings inward ,to hear some individuals talk1 one would almost think that the double-hung window was a modern1 ,american invention of artistic atrociousness1 and that the casement window was peculiarly ,english1 having the sole right to artistic merit4 ,as a matter of fact1 the fashion in ,england for casement windows was an imported one from the ,continent1 which never reached certain farm sections of ,england4 ,in fact1 some years ago certain agricultural laborers refused to live in cottages fitted with casement windows which had been built by a district council4 ,the ,georgian revival1 which had so much influence upon our early ,colonial work1 and which is also very much alive to-day in this country1 brought into fashion again the traditional double-hung window4 ,of course there is much to be said against the artistic appearance of the double-hung window as compared with the casement window1 but when all is said and done we still go on using more double-hung windows than casement windows1 for in the majority of cases they prove to be more substantial in resisting the heavy winds and storms of our climate4 ,every now and again we hear some prominent architect urging the use of casement windows1 and we can find plenty of manufacturers of casement window hardware telling us to use them1 and the makers of steel casement sash drum in our ears the practical qualities of steel sash1 and one is led to wonder why they are not used more4 ,but traditions are stronger than advertisements4 ,doors ,there is an ancient ,english expression1 8put t' duur i' t' hoile0 7put the door in the hole71 which comes down from the times when the door was not fastened by hinges and did not swing into place1 but had to be lifted up and placed over the door opening4 ,when the door was opened it leaned against two stakes driven into the ground1 or some similar support4 ,these old doors were very small1 as compared with our modern doors1 and were probably made of light wattle1 for we read in some old rhymes of throwing doors and windows on the attacking enemy4 ,even when solid-wood doors were used they were made of one piece of wood4 ,doors made of a number of planks of wood fastened together by battens or ledges were a later type4 ,it was noticed that these sagged when hung in position and cross bracing was found necessary4 ,these old batten or ledged doors were swung on pivots of wood which rested in sockets bored into the lintel and the sill4 ,these pivots were called harrs1 and later were made of iron4 ,the evolution of the hinge idea from the harr is shown in a series of drawings4 ,for many years these great hinges became a very decorative part of the door1 and great care was taken with their designing4 ,our modern butt is quite the opposite in its characteristics1 for instead of being a feature upon the face of the door it is completely hidden1 except the socket and pin4 ,illustration3 ,primitive ,door ,old door of solid wood plank ,batten or ,ledged ,door ,illustration3 ,an old ,english ,ledged ,door ,in building the old ledged doors1 the planks were set vertically and held together with battens through which were driven wooden pegs4 ,the ends of these pegs were chamfered1 and a curious mark of tradition can be noted in the later doors1 which were fastened with iron pins that were also chamfered on the ends1 like the wooden pins4 ,later construction of doors shows the use of weather-stripping over the vertical joints and also the use of various layers of planks1 with their grains running at right angles in each alternate layer4 ,the end timber upon which the harr was placed was thicker than the planking1 and later the timber upon the opposite side was made heavier in order to strengthen the crude locks4 ,with this change and the moving of the battens to the upper and lower edges of the door1 and the introduction of weather-stripping over the cracks between planks1 there was created the prototype for the modern panelled door4 ,it was only a slight step from this to frame the styles1 top and bottom rails1 and lock rails around the panels between them4 ,illustration3 ,wooden ,harr ,iron ,harr ,iron ,harr ,iron ,hinge ,hoolie ,development of the ,door ,hinge ,illustration3 ,modern ,loose-joint ,butt ,loose-pin ,butt 7#i7 ,another type of door that was of traditional construction1 and from the name of which we derive our word hatch1 was the so-called 8heck-door40 ,this door corresponds to the common 8dutch-door10 which is familiar to us in ,dutch ,colonial houses4 ,it was capable of being opened in two halves2 the upper half could be swung in without the lower half4 ,this type of door was invented from the necessity of protection against the sudden intrusion of strangers and also small animals1 like pigs and hens4 ,illustration3 ,simple ,batten ,door ,illustration3 ,development of the panel door from the batten door4 ,the oldest method of fastening doors was to draw a long bar across them on the inside1 very much like the bars which were used in ,colonial houses in this country4 ,a hole was cut into the jamb into which this bar could be run when locked1 and in the opposite jamb was another hole into which it could be slid out of the way4 ,the disadvantage of this type of door fastening was that it could only be fastened and unfastened from the inside4 ,this led to other devices1 such as a bolt that could be operated from the outside and a latch that could be lifted by a string1 or a hole was cut in the door through which a small bit of metal could be passed that could be used as a lift for the latch4 ,to-day we think of locks and bolts and latches as distinct1 but this was not so at the time they were being evolved4 ,our word lock was used in the sense of securing the door in any manner4 ,but gradually1 as1 step by step1 the various mechanisms for locking a door were developed1 the word became limited in its meaning1 although we sometimes use it to-day in the sense of closing the door4 ,,xxi ,,building ,,the ,,setting ,,for ,,the ,,house ,theoretical ,features of ,ground ,arrangement ,there are five fundamentals which should be considered in finishing the grounds about the small house1 for it must not be forgotten that the finest gem of domestic design will be lost unless it is placed in the right setting4 ,these five principles are the production of an intimate relation between house and grounds1 the formation of a natural frame about the house1 the building of interesting approaches1 the planting for seasonal effects1 and the growing of interesting and beautiful vistas as viewed from the house4 #a4--;,,intimate ,,relation ,,between ,,house ,,and ,,grounds ,in considering this part of the problem1 the designer must begin at the very outset to solve it4 ,if the plot is level or capable of easy conversion into terraces1 then the character of the house itself may be somewhat formal1 symmetrical1 and dignified2 but it would be wrong to build a house of this kind upon a rolling and rollicking site4 ,this latter kind of ground demands the picturesque type of house1 and the roof lines should be planned to carry up some of the curves of the hillocks4 ,illustration3 ,,studied ,,planting ,in all cases1 however1 it is generally recognized that the small house can best be tied into the surroundings by making it low1 say a story and a half or one story1 for one of two stories or even two and a half offers an ungainly elevation for an architectural composition4 ,in rare instances have houses of this proportion been artistically finished4 ,at any rate1 the house should be kept as low as possible in the front1 and the ugly1 stilted foundations should not protrude above the level of the lawn4 ,nothing is so effective in producing a feeling of intimacy between house and grounds as to keep the level of the first floor only about six inches above the grade4 ,this1 of course1 makes it difficult to light and ventilate the cellar1 since any windows in the foundation-walls would have to open into areas4 ,a compromise can be made by grading the lawn down at the back of the house1 so that enough of the foundation can extend above the ground to permit of well-lighted cellar windows4 ,illustration3 ,,thoughtless ,,planting ,another method by which an intimate connection between ground and house can be produced is in the blending of wall materials and foundation-stones4 ,if the walls of the house are of stucco1 and the lower part of them built of rubble-stone1 then a gradual transition can be made from the stone to the stucco by carrying the stucco down over certain parts of the stone work1 so that it flows into the mortar joints--like the waters of a lake flow into the little indentations of a rocky shore4 ,this will eliminate any sharp horizontal line where the foundation-wall of stone ends and upper wall of stucco begins4 ,as the stone has a natural intimacy with the soil1 it easily makes the transition with the ground1 and its effectiveness is very marked where the site is hilly and parts of the foundation are built upon little rocky juttings4 ,this same easy transition can be made from stone foundation to brick wall4 ,it is not possible to do it with the wooden wall1 however4 ,but perhaps the most widely used method of producing an intimate connection between ground and walls of the house is with foundation planting4 ,there is much abuse of this method4 ,to surround the base of the house with billowy clumps of shrubbery1 so that it appears almost as if it were springing from a bed of clouds1 is not at all satisfying4 ,nor should the owner have to be everlastingly kept at the job of trimming down these plants or removing dead ones which refuse to grow in the poor soil and bad drainage next to the cellar4 ,and the house should not be made to mourn behind a bed of evergreens1 protected at intervals with sentinel-like cedars1 dark and foreboding1 against the wall and sighing and whining in the wind4 ,rather should a delicate use be made of foundation planting by using vines1 and now and then a small shrub or little evergreen4 ,the object should be to make a shading and transition from the green lawn to the walls of the house by carrying upward upon the walls or against them some of the climbing plants1 that the green of the ground may fade gradually into the white of the stucco or the red of the brick wall4 ,public buildings need massive and impressive foundations1 but the small house should be nestled in ,nature's lap4 #b4--,,natural ,,framing ,,for ,,house ,when viewed by the passer-by in the street the planting around the house should be so arranged that it makes a natural frame for it and creates a composition for a picture4 ,regarded from this angle there should be background trees1 trees and shrubbery flanking the sides along the edge of the plot1 a green open lawn stretching forward to the street1 some columnar-shaped trees or lacelike trees wisely placed to suggest the middle ground1 and then a wall or low hedge with low plantings to make a foreground4 ,the background trees should be tall and mixed in character1 so that their skyline is not stiff and wall-like4 ,the trees which run along the edge of the lot ought also to be varied in type4 ,low shrubs should fill in the spaces between their trunks1 but as they come forward on the property they should be more scattered1 lower and thinner1 so that the neighboring property can be seen1 and finally they should end1 allowing a blended connection between the lawns on either side4 ,there are some who advocate that the site should be completely walled in with shrubs or fences and separated entirely from the neighboring plots1 but this is not quite in harmony with our traditions1 and ought not to be carried to this individual exclusiveness1 although the rear of the lot may be so screened in4 ,the green lawn should not be broken with flower-beds1 for1 taken at its largest1 it is bound to be little1 and nothing should be introduced to break it up4 ,the windings of the front path may be such that clumps of low shrubbery and a few columnar trees1 like cedars or ,lombardy poplars1 can be placed along its edge and produce a motif for the middle ground1 like a moving silhouette against the elevation of the house as one passes by4 ,the building up of the foreground should be with some low planting over which one can look4 ,the use of fence or wall is legitimate if it does not cut off the view4 ,gates are a little out of harmony with our ,american traditions1 for they mean that they should be attended by a gatekeeper1 a human tool that is quite extinct in the average home1 and especially in the small one4 #c4--;,,interesting ,,approaches ,generally speaking1 due to the smallness of the average plot upon which the little house is erected1 the building of a prominent pathway to the front door directly in a straight line from the street1 cutting the lawn and the property in two equal halves1 is not pleasing4 ,the lawn will be small enough as it is without chopping it into two pieces4 ,if a straight approach is desirable1 it should be made of materials that will not visibly produce this effect of division4 ,stone slabs of greenish color or neutral tones set with open joints1 or even stepping stones1 solve the problem4 ,but the straight approach has not the mystery and picturesque quality of one which curves around the outside of the lawn1 and is framed in with planting1 so that the view of the house is constantly changing as one proceeds4 ,the roadway to the garage might also be the way to the house4 ,nothing looks uglier than the straight cut from street to garage4 ,planning the location of this service building so that it cannot be seen from the street is an excellent step in the right direction4 ,the material of which these paths and roads should be constructed ought to be in harmony with the house4 ,brick paths look well with brick houses1 stone paths and gravel paths look well with stone houses1 concrete paths and roads go well with concrete and stucco houses1 for one naturally associates these materials as being left over from the building4 ,it is the most natural thing in the world to use up a few of the bricks for the paths after one gets through building the brick house1 or laying some of the stones to walk upon1 after finishing the house of stone1 or using up a few odd barrels of cement for the walks when the job on the concrete house is over4 ,and being so natural a thing1 there is a likable gesture in doing it4 #d4--,,planting ,,for ,,the ,,seasons ,the composition of the picture which is the aim in all of this work about the house1 should not be spoiled by careless selection of plants for the various seasons of the year4 ,it is very unwise to place in the front of the house tender shrubs and flowers which wither and die in the winter months or which have to be wrapped in swaddling-clothes4 ,is there anything more forlorn than to see a lot of burlap-wrapped or hay-packed mummy trees or shrubs1 standing out on the cold wintry lawn in front of the house8 ,a few evergreen trees and a few broad-leaf trees which show delicate limbs when bare1 and a few shrubs that hold the snows that settle upon them are the things to plant in the front of the house4 ,leave the tender plants to the garden in the rear4 ,illustration3 ,,type ,,of ,,small ,,garden ,,type ,,of ,,small ,,garden ,and this garden at the back of the house should be treated in a most private way4 ,it should be surrounded with a wall or high hedge4 ,there should be walks1 border plantings1 a little touch of water1 and a seat in the smallest garden4 ,it should be located so that it can be viewed from the house and enjoyed4 ,here all of the fine1 delicate1 and colorful flowers and plants can be placed4 ,in the winter months the protected plants with their ugly clothes will not seem so out of place in this secreted patch of ground4 #e4--;,,improving ,,the ,,view ,,from ,,the ,,house ,next in importance to planning the setting of the house and its appearance from the street should be the planning of the views from windows of the house itself4 ,the development of the private garden at the back is one help which was previously alluded to1 but there are generally ugly things which can be seen from the windows of the house that need screening out4 ,these ugly objects may be on the neighboring property1 or they may be the drying-yard for the clothes1 or the garage4 ,whatever they are1 a screen of trees can be used to shut them from the view4 ,but the most important part of this problem is to make the best of any view that may be possible from the house4 ,a far-away river1 a hill1 or a meadow might be brought to sight by trimming some trees or brush4 ,distant landscapes are most satisfying to the eyes1 for they rest them4 ,construction of the ,lawn ,from what has been said1 the importance of the lawn in front of the house can be appreciated4 ,it is the rug spread out before the jewel-box4 ,over it one can view the beauty of the home1 and so it needs the best attention4 ,the very first thing to consider in building the lawn is to arrange for good drainage and a deep top layer of good soil1 say #ah to #bd4 ,pockets where water may collect and settle must be drained with tiles placed in the ground4 ,the surface water should be carefully distributed away from the house4 ,an ordinary site will have stones and weeds scattered over it4 ,in the beginning these stones should be carted away and the weeds cut down with a scythe1 and a plough run over the surface to a foot in depth1 unless the subsoil is not sandy and holds water1 in which case a deeper ploughing is better4 ,then stones and weeds should be taken out of this earth1 not once1 but as many times as the earth delivers up stones and weeds4 ,when this is done1 the grading may be started1 and this should be with long1 easy grades4 ,where trees and shrubs edge the lawn1 a slight hollow in the grade will improve it4 ,this graded soil is not ready for grass until it has been covered with #be to #ej loads per acre of thoroughly decayed1 composted stable manure1 or1 if not this1 bone-dust1 wood-ashes1 superphosphates of lime1 nitrate of ammonia1 etc4 ,this dressing should be raked into the top-soil with the harrow and hand rake1 and whatever weeds and stones come up with this operation should be removed4 ,grass seed should then be selected which will give the most rugged growth for the particular conditions of the site4 ,often this can best be accomplished by using a mixture of seed4 ,the different kinds of grass have qualities suited to certain types of soil4 ,for example1 ,kentucky blue-grass1 while coarse and not so attractive as some others1 grows vigorously and holds its own in sandy soil4 ,rhode ,island bent-grass makes good sod in moist climates1 and redtop is apt to die off in a drought4 ,this seed must be sown liberally to make allowances for loss in germination1 and evenly to prevent patchy growth4 ,about six bushels per acre is considered enough4 ,all of this must be raked under with a fine-toothed iron rake and pressed down with a heavy roller4 ,as soon as the blades are tall enough to be caught in the mower1 this new grass should be cut1 for this helps to make it grow thicker and keep down the weeds4 ,but work on the lawn does not end here4 ,constant care is the price of a good one4 ,construction of ,roads and ,paths ,attention has already been called to the use of materials for paths and roads which harmonize with the materials of the house4 ,in a previous chapter1 details were given on the construction of concrete paths and roads4 ,therefore other types will be considered here1 such as brick1 gravel1 and stone4 ,the driveway to the garage ought to be about #aj feet wide and flare out to a #ae-;foot width at the house1 where the car is driven up to the entrance1 so that an incoming car can pass by any which is standing in front of the door4 ,this roadway should widen out into a ,y shape in front of the garage1 as shown in the drawings1 to permit of backing out and turning around4 ,a round turning area in front of the garage may be substituted for this ,y-shaped arrangement4 ,any curves made in the driveway should have a radius from centre of the curve to outside edge of the road of #cj feet #f inches1 although a ,ford car can run on a road having a radius of only #ad feet4 ,if the driveway is to be of gravel and the subsoil is wet or clayey1 drainage must be arranged for along the edges4 ,trenches #c feet to #d feet deep should be dug on either side and #c-;inch diameter agricultural tile laid at the bottom with open joints covered with collars1 then a layer of sod1 and then #f inches of field stone or gravel1 and finally top-soil4 ,wherever there are pockets that would collect surface water1 outlets should be constructed and covered with iron grating4 ,all the subsoil tile should connect with one main tile and drain off at some low point4 ,for ordinary light traffic the road itself may be built with a foundation of stones to a depth of #b feet4 ,this should be covered with a layer of coarse gravel #b inches thick1 a top layer of finer gravel #d inches thick1 and rolled with a heavy roller after water or some bituminous binder has been sprinkled over it4 ,a crown of inch to the foot should be made1 and any grades ought to be kept about #e feet in #ajj feet1 and at the most #aj feet in #ajj feet4 ,in the construction of gravel walks the grade should be kept to within #ab feet in #ajj feet and be crowned inch per foot4 ,the success of the brick walk depends upon the foundation used4 ,a poor one will permit the bricks to settle unevenly1 crack1 and break away at the edges4 ,the bricks themselves may be laid in any number of different and interesting patterns1 such as the basket weave or the herring-bone4 ,a row of bricks on edge along the outside of the walk makes an excellent finish4 ,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,stone ,,paths ,illustration3 ,,types ,,of ,,brick ,,walks ,the foundations of the brick walk may be built of sand1 cinders1 or concrete4 ,the first two give a walk somewhat irregular1 and grass can be made to grow in the joints4 ,to begin the laying of a brick walk1 the earth should be excavated to a depth of #d inches1 and either a bed of sand #b inches thick1 or a concrete of one part cement to eight parts sand #c inches thick should be spread4 ,when the bricks have been arranged on this bed1 sand should be worked into the joints between them by leaving a layer on the walk for a few days and brushing it into the crevices4 ,where concrete is used for the base1 a more rigid walk will result1 and in such types it is customary to use mortar to fill the joints4 ,a thin #a3c grout can be brushed into these joints and the little that is smeared over the surface can be washed off with scrubbing-brush1 water1 and #e-per-cent muriatic acid4 ,a better method is to pour grout into the joints1 wiping the brick clean before the mortar sets4 ,there are a number of different types of stone walks that can be used1 depending upon the character of the stone in the neighborhood4 ,flat flagstone walks are usually rather uninteresting1 and many prefer the picturesque effect which is produced by stepping stones4 ,these ought to be placed about #bb inches apart to make walking easy on them4 ,a very interesting and much-used walk is made by setting flat stones of different shapes together1 like the pieces of a cut-out puzzle1 but leaving a small space between each stone in which grass or moss can be grown4 ,,xxii ,,financing ,,the ,,construction ,,work ,the problem of financing the small house is a part of the problem of building1 and to some extent is a very personal affair1 and every prospective owner has his own difficulties and personal solutions4 ,those who have saved for a number of years enough money to invest in this adventure of home-building are quite simply fixed1 and all that they need consider is how large a house they can have for the money saved4 ,a method was shown in an early chapter by which the approximate cost of a house could be determined when the plans were in the rough4 ,this consisted of studying the houses built in the neighborhood where the new home was to be erected1 calculating their cubical contents and dividing this into their total cost1 so that their cost per cubic foot could be known4 ,by comparing this result with the figures which the local builders had offered1 a fair idea could be obtained of how much per cubic foot the new house would run4 ,a few figures were given for the different types of construction1 but nothing certain can be predicted from them1 for1 as was pointed out1 the cost is definitely related to the locality and the time4 ,once1 however1 having arrived at a reasonably correct cost figure for the cubic foot1 the question of how big a house is to be had for the money is quickly determined4 ,divide this cost per cubic foot into the total sum of money which is to be used for building the house1 and the allowable number of cubic feet in the new house will be found4 ,if now the average height of the new house1 from the cellar to the average height of the roof1 is divided into this allowable cubic contents1 the allowable ground area for the plan will be known4 ,for example1 suppose the sum that can be invested in the house itself is #aj1jjj1 and it is found that the houses in the locality1 of similar construction1 cost per cubic foot about #ce cents4 ,dividing #ce cents into #aj1jjj1 it is found that a house having approximately #bh1egj cubic feet can be constructed4 ,if #h feet is allowed from cellar floor to level of first floor1 #i feet from first to second floor1 and #ac feet from second floor to the average height of the roof1 then a total average height for the house will be found to be #cj feet4 ,dividing this #cj feet into #bh1egj cubic feet1 it will be found that a floor area of approximately #iej square feet can be had4 ,now1 as the floor area of the plan of any two-story house is determined by the area required for the second floor and not the first1 the desired sizes of the various bedrooms should be approximated1 and the results added together to see whether they come within the allowable floor area4 ,continuing this example1 suppose that the master bedroom is to be approximately #ad feet by #ae feet1 the other three bedrooms approximately #ab feet by #ab feet1 the toilet about #g feet by #aj feet1 the hall about #h feet by #ab feet1 then by adding the area of these rooms together it will be quickly found out whether the allowable area has been exceeded4 ,master bedroom1 #ad feet by #ae feet #baj square feet ,three other bedrooms1 #ab feet by #ab feet #dcb 8 8 ,toilet1 #g feet by #aj feet #gj 8 8 ,hall1 #h feet by #ab feet #if 8 8 ------------------------------ ,total #hjh square feet ,this number of square feet is within the amount allowed1 which is #iej1 but additional area must be added to this for closets1 say #c feet by #d feet for the closet of the master bedroom1 and #c feet by #c feet for the closets of the other rooms1 and other closets for linen and space for chimneys and the like1 making about #fj square feet1 which should be left for this part of the plan4 ,this makes the area about #hfh square feet1 and no allowance has been made for porches or passageways4 ,it is quite evident from this that the number of bedrooms desired1 their approximate size1 and the size of the toilet and closets is nearly up to the maximum which the limitations of cost will permit4 ,working with these approximate figures1 the plans of the house can be roughly prepared1 the area required for the second-floor rooms being used as a basis for the allowable area of the first floor1 since it is more than enough1 for the second-floor area of a house1 as has been said1 is always greater than the minimum area for the first floor4 ,when roughly prepared plans and elevations have been arranged on this basis1 the cubage can again be checked1 and if it is over the allowed amount1 the size should be cut down2 if under1 increased4 ,the cubical contents of porches may be computed at one-quarter of the cubage of the main portion of the house1 but if enclosed with glass they should be estimated at their full cubic contents4 ,having thus roughly arrived at the plans and elevations of the house which is within the allowed cubage1 a rough outline specification should be prepared in which the essential materials1 workmanship1 and mechanical equipment are defined4 ,enough information will then be had from which a rough estimate can be secured from a local contractor1 or even the architect may make an estimate1 based upon previous examples of other houses4 ,if this rough estimate comes within the allowable figure which is to be spent for construction1 then the contract drawings can be safely started1 and a reasonable assurance can be had that the cost of the house will not go beyond the amount of money available4 ,as most contractors will give an outside price on any preliminary estimates of this kind1 unless radical changes are made in the plans1 it can almost surely be the case that the final estimate on the contract documents will be less4 ,however1 there are often times when the final figures exceed these preliminary estimates1 and one should always be prepared to shrink parts of the building or withdraw some of the finest requirements of the specifications4 ,but one of the prime essentials in financing any building operation is to be sure that the contract drawings contain everything which is desired in the finished building1 and that none or very few changes are made in the building after the contract is let and the building is in process of construction4 ,alterations from the original plans1 after construction work has begun1 come under the bugbear title for all architects1 8,extras40 ,they always mean waste of money4 ,likewise1 things which were omitted from the plans and specifications1 which are later found to be necessary1 run up extraordinary bills1 and the general impression which most people have that a building operation always costs more in the end than was originally counted upon is due largely to the neglect of these factors4 ,competent architects make such complete plans and specifications that extras of the 8omission type0 are avoided1 but most small houses are built from plans that are not complete1 or prepared by architects who sell their services at such low rates that they cannot afford to take the time to check up the plans carefully4 ,it is right here that the architect has a real business point to give the client1 namely1 that if he does not pay for carefully prepared plans and specifications in the beginning1 he will pay out much more in the end for extras4 ,up to this point the financing of the small house1 for the one who has the money1 is not complicated1 but this is the unusual condition1 because the average person who builds the small house has not the ready cash to put into it1 for that is the reason he builds a small house4 ,the average individual who builds the small house generally has a certain amount which can be invested and the rest must be borrowed1 and there are many who advise that even if one did have the whole amount to invest1 it would be better to borrow some for the building operation1 and keep out as much as possible for investments in other lines where the money might bring in greater returns4 ,the problem naturally turns upon where and how much can be borrowed for the building operation4 ,here again a very personal matter is involved4 ,some will have very close friends from whom they can secure a large first and second mortgage at a fairly reasonable rate1 others may be able to secure a first mortgage from some financing institution which will be an amount equal to one-half the total cost of land and house1 and then they may be able to secure a second mortgage from some friend1 for most business houses are not prone to take second mortgages4 ,often a greater sum can be raised on the contract system1 for by this method the person lending the money is more certainly assured of securing quick control of it in case of the necessity of action when payments on the interest fail4 ,by the contract method1 the individual lending the money holds the deed of the property1 and can secure control of the property more quickly than if he had a mortgage and the owner held the deed4 ,in many cases where foreclosure of mortgages are found necessary1 there may be a delay of a year or more before the money-lender can secure control of the property1 but if he holds the deed the delay is shortened1 and because of this fact he is apt to lend more money than #ej per cent of the total value4 ,of course1 in the contract method the owner secures the deed to the property when his last payment is made upon the principle and he has wiped out all of his interest indebtedness4 ,but probably one of the most satisfactory systems yet devised for financing the small house is through the various building and loan associations which have grown to great strength in this country4 ,these associations not only offer investment opportunities for small investors1 but they make excellent and easy terms for those to whom they lend money for home-building4 ,the arrangements with these institutions make the payments on mortgages almost like the payments in monthly rents1 and yet at the same time the principle is continually being reduced1 so that in about twelve years it is completely paid off4 ,then1 too1 one is assured of not being in the hands of some unscrupulous money-lender1 as sometimes one discovers a friend to be1 however trustworthy he may have seemed before this business relation developed4 ,these building-loan associations will lend as high as #hj per cent on the value of house and grounds1 provided the character of the individual in the community warrants it4 ,their average-size loans have been computed to be about #d1jjj4 ,if the minimum payment is adhered to1 the loan is usually paid up in twelve years1 although arrangements can be made by which this can be shortened4 ,the interest charged is from #f per cent to #h per cent4 ,if the money is not secured through the above source1 then it is customary to pay a commission to the agent who secures a loan from some financing institution or private investor4 ,this commission differs1 according to the locality1 ranging from #a to #d per cent on first mortgages1 and from #e per cent upward on second mortgages4 ,if a contract is desired on a second mortgage1 the agent will be obliged to secure it from some private individual1 for first-mortgage companies will not purchase them4 ,this often leads to discounts of from #ae to #cj per cent on second mortgages and contracts4 ,it is well for every prospective owner1 before he considers financing the construction of a small house1 to sit down and figure out all of the incidental expenditures which are connected with it1 for often some of the minor items are not taken into account1 and they may spoil the whole scheme4 ,taking a typical example1 the items of expense are as follows3 #a4 ,cost of the lot4 #b4 ,fee for title search4 #c4 ,tax search and recording fee4 #d4 ,possibly cost of surveying lot1 but not always4 #e4 ,broker's fee for securing mortgage4 #f4 ,interest on each advance of the loan during erection4 #g4 ,cost of the building less the amount borrowed4 #h4 ,architect's fee4 #i4 ,owner's liability insurance4 #aj4 ,fee for filing plans in ,building ,department4 ,cost to be ,met during ,year of ,ownership #a4 ,interest on building loan4 #b4 ,payment on reduction of loan4 #c4 ,interest lost on owner's money which he invested in the lot and building4 #d4 ,fire insurance4 #e4 ,up-keep1 usually about #a per cent4 #f4 ,taxes on property and water-supply4 #g4 ,possible assessments4 #h4 ,maintenance cost1 such as coal1 gas1 and electricity4 ,the above list of expenses should be frankly faced in the beginning1 tabulated1 and duly considered by every prospective owner of the small house4 ,there are some architects who for fear of discouraging their clients from building will not sit down with them and show them a plain statement of the money they will have to invest1 and when all of these minor items begin to pop up during the progress of the operations1 the client begins to lose confidence1 wonders where the next unexpected bill will come from1 and blames the architect for having misrepresented conditions to him4 ,any prospective owner who has to be blind-folded to the costs which he must meet in order to muster up courage to build ought to be left alone1 for he will do the architect no good1 but considerable harm4 ,individuals who have their castles in the air so high that they cannot reduce their dreams to dollars and cents before they begin1 ought never to build4 ,these are the kind that start the cry that it always costs more to build than one ever figured on in the beginning4 ,but coming back to the question of securing the building loan1 it will be found that nearly all lenders will insist that the owner put his money in first4 ,that is1 he must meet the first payments to the builder himself1 until he has put in all of his share4 ,the rest will then be taken up by the financing institution1 but always enough will be held back to assure sufficient funds for the completion of the house and the payment of all bills4 ,the lender generally states at what periods of the construction money will be passed over1 and this schedule is generally adopted as the one for the periodic payments to the builder4 ,of course the contractor must be consulted on the matter and his approval secured1 but there will be little difficulty on this score1 for he will recognize the power of the financing institution to dictate the dates of payment4 ,as to the matter of contracting for the construction of the small house1 there is little doubt that for so small a building the method of securing one general contractor to assume the responsibility of the whole work is the best4 ,there are many who believe in employing day labor1 and hiring the services of a supervising builder4 ,the cost is itemized and the contractor adds a percentage as his share4 ,this insures better-class work1 but in practically all cases it is more expensive1 and no assurance can be had of the final cost4 ,when the plans are let out to various contractors for bids1 there should be no obligation attached to them that the lowest bidder will secure the job4 ,this is a protection1 for the human element often enters into relations of this kind1 and the lowest bidder may not be the most trustworthy personage1 nor have the best reputation4 ,when the contract is finally let1 there are a number of things which it should cover that are intended to protect the finances of the owner4 ,for instance1 the contractor should be required to maintain insurance that will protect him from the claims under workmen's compensation acts1 and from any other claims for damages for personal injury1 including death1 which might arise from the operations of building4 ,the owner should also maintain a similar liability insurance to protect himself4 ,the owner should carry a fire insurance on the entire building and materials to at least #hj per cent of the total value4 ,when there is doubt as to the financial strength of a contractor1 he should be required to furnish a bond covering the faithful performance of the contract and the payment of all obligations4 ,then1 too1 it is customary to set forth cash allowances in the specifications to cover certain items1 like plumbing fixtures1 hardware1 and electric light fixtures4 ,the contractor should be made to declare that the contract sum includes these cash allowances4 ,careful understanding with the contractor should be arranged as to the method by which he will be paid4 ,generally1 as was previously stated1 the financing institution has control over the schedule of payments1 and1 once this is agreeable to the contractor1 he should be required to submit to the architect an application for each payment1 with receipts and other vouchers1 showing his payments for materials and labor1 including payments to subcontractors1 at least ten days before each payment falls due4 ,it is the duty of the architect to determine the accuracy of each one of these applications for payment before he issues the certificate of payment for such amount as he decides is properly due4 ,there are some architects who make it a practice to hold back a certain percentage of the first payment1 and continue this with every later payment1 until the last1 in order to have a club over the head of the contractor and also a factor of safety1 lest the builder has rendered an application for payment in excess of the amount of labor and material delivered4 ,this1 of course1 will cause hard feelings sometimes1 and create friction between architect and contractor1 a thing studiously to be avoided1 and for this cause such procedure should be dropped when the architect knows the character of the contractor4 ,the architect should always reserve the right to withhold part or all of the certificate of payment when defective work is not remedied1 or when any claims are filed1 or there is reasonable evidence that claims will be filed1 or when the contractor fails to make payments to subcontractors1 or to dealers for materials1 or when there is a reasonable doubt that the contract can be completed for the balance unpaid1 or when any damage involving liabilities has been done by one contractor to another4 ,the architect should also hold back the final payment1 if there are any liens existing against the building1 until they are removed4 ,in order to avoid many of the trivial and annoying expenses which occur in a building operation1 the contractor should be required to pay for all permits and licenses 7but not permanent easements7 which are necessary according to local laws4 ,the contractor should also be made to pay all royalties on patents1 if there are any1 and all license fees4 ,but1 probably1 the most difficult part of the building operation to finance are the extras4 ,when something is found to have been omitted from the plans and specifications1 and the contractor did not cover it in his bid1 or when the owner changes his mind and requires an alteration1 then this extra work must be paid for at a high rate1 for nearly all contractors look upon such extras as good pickings4 ,in fact1 there are some contractors who deliberately go over the plans and specifications to note what extras may be needed1 and then counting upon their profits from these extras1 they put in a low bid1 so that they can beat their competitors1 secure the job1 and then proceed to make up their losses with bills which they put in for the extras4 ,likewise1 a contractor who is honest1 if he finds himself losing money on any building operation1 will try to ease his losses and gain profit with the extras4 ,there must1 therefore1 be some basis upon which estimates for these extras will be determined4 ,the values for these extras or changes in the work may be determined by a submitted estimate and acceptance in a lump sum1 by a unit price named in the contract or subsequently agreed upon1 or by the cost and percentage1 or by the fixed-fee method4 ,if the contractor claims that any instructions1 by drawings or otherwise1 involve extra cost under his contract1 he should be required to give the architect written notice of it before proceeding to do the work1 within two weeks after receiving such instructions4 ,a final problem of financing should be considered1 and that is the emergency which might arise should the contractor neglect to prosecute the work properly or fail to perform any provision of his contract4 ,if such is the case1 the owner should reserve the right in the contract1 that after three days' written notice to the contractor he may make good such deficiencies and deduct the cost from the payment due the contractor at that time4 ,of course every contract should provide for the owner's right to terminate the contract should the contractor fail to do his work1 or prove bankrupt1 or persistently disregard laws1 or continually violate the provisions of the contract4